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Zhc  mnovlb's  (Bceatest  HWat 

Volume  II 

THE  EVENTS  OF  1916 
AND  SUMMARY 

THE  EVENTS  OF  1917 
AND  SUMMARY 


WOODROW  WILSON 
President  of  the  United  States,    1913-1921 


The  Book  of  History 

Ubc  Wiovlb'z  Greatest  Mar 

FROM  THE  OUTBREAK  OF  THE  WAR 
TO  THE  TREATY  OF  VERSAILLES 

WITH  MORE  THAN  1 ,000  ILLUSTRATIONS 

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF 

'  HOLLAND  THOMPSON.  PH.D. 

"Uhe  College  of  the  City  of  New  York 
CONTRIBUTING  AUTHORS  AND  EDITORS 


Maj.-Gen.  Leonard  Wood,  U.S.A. 

COMMANDING  89TH  AND  lOTH  DIVISIONS 

G.  C.  Marshall,  Jr. 

COLONEL,  GEN'L  STAFF,  A.  D.  C,  U.  S.  ARMY 

Herbert  T.  Wade 

LATE  CAPT.  ORDNANCE  DEPT.,  U.  S.  ARMY 

John  H.  Finley,  LL.D. 

COMMISSIONER  OF  EDUCATION. 

N.  Y.  STATE 
COLONEL,  RED  CROSS  IN  PALESTINE 

Albert  Sonnichsen 

NEWSPAPER  CORRESPONDENT  IN 
BALKANS 

Basil  Clarke 

THE  LONDON  DAILY  MAIL 

Nelson  P.  Mead,  Ph.D. 

COLLEGE  OF  THE  CITY  OF  NEW  YORK 
EDUCATIONAL  DEPARTMENT  A.  E.  F. 

Muriel  Bray,  L.L.A. 

ASST.  EDITOR,  CANADIAN  BOOK  OF 
KNOWLEDGE 

Vernon  Kellogg 

DIRECTOR  IN  BRUSSELS  OF  COMMISSION 
FOR  RELIEF  IN  BELGIUM 


Rear- Admiral  William  S.  Sims 

COMMANDING  U.  S.  NAVY  IN  EUROPEAN 
WATERS 

Carlyon  Bellairs,  M.P. 

LATE  COMMANDER  OF  THE  ROYAL  NAVY 

Lt.-Cen.  Sir  Arthur  Currie^ 
G.C.M.G.,  K.C.B. 

COMMANDER  OF  THE  CANADIAN  CORPS 
IN  FRANCE 

Sir  John  Willison 

PRESIDENT  CANADIAN  RECONSTRUCTION 
ASSOCIATION 

W.  S.  Wallace 

LATE  MAJOR  CANADIAN  EXPEDITIONARY 
FORCE 

Robert  Machray 

THE  LONDON  DAILY  MAIL 

L.  Marion  Lockhart,  B.A. 

ASSISTANT  EDITOR,  BOOK  OF  HISTORY 

Michael  Williams 

NATIONAL  CATHOLIC  WAR  COUNCIL 
BULLETIN 

Viscount  Northcliffe 

PROPRIETOR,  LONDON  TIMES 


And  Other  Contributors 

Volume  XVII 

THE  EVENTS  OF  1916  AND   SUMMARY 
THE  EVENTS  OF  1917  AND   SUMMARY 


NEW  YORK      .      .      THE  GROLIER  SOCIETY 
LONDON      .     THE  EDUCATIONAL  BOOK  CO. 


Copyright,  1920,  by 
THE   GROLIER   SOCIETY 


AJl  rights  reserved,  including  that  of  translation 
into  foreign  languages. 


CONTENTS  OF  VOLUiME  II 

Chapter 

XXVII  The  United  States  and  the  World  War  . 

XXVIII  They  Shall  Not  Pass:  The  Story  of  Verdun  I 

XXIX  The  Battle  of  Verdun    II 

XXX  The  British  Navy  and  the  Jutland  Fight 

XXXI  France  in  War  Time  ..... 

XXXII  The  Battle  of  the  Somme  I        .         .         . 

XXXIII  The  Battle  of  the  Somme  II      . 

XXXIV  The  First  Operations  around  Saloniki 
XXXV  The  First  Italian  Campaigns 

XXXVI  On  the  Eastern  Front  during  1916  . 

XXXVI I  The  Sacrifice  of  Rumania 

XXXVIII  The  War  in  the  Near  East 

XXXIX  The  Course  of  the  War  during  1916 

XL  The  British  People  at  War 

XLI  M.  PoiLU,  AS  I  Knew  Him  .... 

XL  1 1  The  Russian  Revolution    .... 

XLI  1 1  Greece  and  the  War — the  Venizelist  Revolt 

XLIV  Military  Operations  during  the  Russian  Revolution 

XLV  The  United  States  Enters  the  War 

XLVI  The  Capture  of  Bagdad 

XLVII  The  Italian  Disaster  at  Caporetto 

XLVI  1 1  On  the  French  Front  in  191 7    . 

XLIX  On  the  British  Front  in  191 7    . 

L  The  Conquest  of  Palestine 

LI  Training  the  Citizen  AfeMY 

LII  The  Course  of  the  War  during  191 7 


Page 
421 

433 
455 
469 
491 
511 
535 
559 
577 
599 
613 
623 

637 
645 
669 

675 
699 

715 

729 

753 
767 
787 
805 
827 

853 
867 


2073284 


LIST  OF  MAPS 

VOLUME  II 

The  Salient  of  Verdun        ...... 

Defenses  of  Verdun  on  Eastern  Bank  of  the  Meuse 
Defenses  of  Verdun  to  the  West  of  the  Meuse 
Diagrams  of  Jutland  Battle        .... 

From  Ypres  to  the  Somme,  British  Front  in  1916 

Area  of  Great  Battle  of  the  Somme 

French  Successes  on  the  Somme,  1916 

Area  of  British  Fighting  on  the  Somme 

Allied  Operations  from  Saloniki 

Allied  Army  Operations  against  Monastir 

The  Valley  of  the  Isonzo  and  the  Carso  Plateau 

Italian  ADVAN^fcE  in  August  19 16 

The  Isonzo  Front  and  Adjoining  Austrian  Lands 

Broken  Terrain  between  Gorizia  and  Trieste   . 

Russian  North  Front  Line  from  Riga  to  Dvinsk 

Russian  Victories  on  the  Strypa 

Rumania  Showing  Area  Captured  up  to  the  End  of  19 16 

Turkish  Defenses  before  Kut     .... 

The  Last  Russian  Offensive         .... 

Operations  around  the  Gulf  of  Riga 

German  Blockade  of  Europe        .... 

From  Kut  to  Tekrit     ...... 

Mesopotamian  Operations  during  the  War 
Communications  in  Modern  Warfare  . 
Italian  Advance,  and  Retreat  to  the  Piave 
Second  Battle  of  the  Aisne         .... 

Chemin  des  Dames  and  Contiguous  Country 
Northeast  and  Southeast  of  Arras 
Advances  near  the  Somme  and  the  Ancre 


Page 

437 
452 

457 
.478-482 

515 
517 
521 
534 
561 
573 
579 
593 
595 
596 
603 
605 
618 
629 
719 

730 
756 
764 

765 
779 
791 

792 
806 
809 


ViMY  Ridge  and  the  Douai  Plain         .... 
The  Messines-Wytschaete  Ridge.         .... 
Pushing  the  Line  Back  from  Ypres,     .... 
The  Road  to  Poelcappelle  and  Passchendaele  . 
The  Turkish  Defenses  on  the  Gaza-Beersheba  Line. 
Last  Stages  in  Allenby's  Campaign  against  Jerusalem 
Advance  of  the  Egyptian  Expeditionary  Force  . 
Full  Extent  of  Allenby's  Conquests. 


Page 
8l2 

8l6 

8i8 
821 

834 
839 
847 

851 


LIST  OF  COLOR  PLATES  IN  THE  WORLD'S 
GREATEST  WAR 

Woodrow  Wilson  .........  421 

Admiral  Sir  David  Beatty   ........  469 

Right  Hon.  David  Lloyd  George  .         .         .         .         .         .  645 

M.  Georges  Clemenceau       ........  786 


President  Wilson  Addressing  the  United  States  Congress 

Chapter  XXVII 

The  United  States  and  the  World  War 

THE  PEOPLE  BEGIN  TO  REALIZE  THAT  THE  STRUGGLE 

CONCERNS  THEM 


TT  is  perhaps,  not  an  exaggeration  to 
say  that  the  two  years  following  the 
outbreak  of  the  Great  War,  brought 
about  more  fundamental  and  far- 
reaching  changes  in  the  economic  and 
social  conditions  in  the  United  States 
than  had  been  witnessed  in  the  fifty 
years  which  had  preceded  the  war.  The 
foreign  trade  was  at  first  disrupted  and 
then  completely  recast;  the  revenue 
system  was  reorgc^nized — government 
receipts  and  expenditures  were  no  longer 
expressed  in  millions  but  in  billions; 
government  control  of  private  business 
was  indulged  in  on  an  unheard  of  scale; 
semi-socialistic  measures,  which  would 
not  have  been  dreamt  of  a  decade  be- 
fore, were  accepted  without  protest; 
new  industries  grew  up  like  mushrooms 
in  the  night,  money  flowed  into  the 
country  in  unprecedented  amounts. 
The  nation  changed  from  a  debtor  to  a 
creditor  country.  Underlying  all  of 
these  tremendous  changes  there  was 
going  on  a  fundamental  recasting  of  the 
relations  between  capital  and  labor. 
Labor  found  itself  more  powerful  than 
it  had  ever  been  before  and  it  was  not 
slow  to  wield  this  power.  These  changes 
were  an  eloquent  commentary  to  the 
comfortable  illusion  of  American  isola- 
tion from  the  affairs  of  Europe. 

THE   FIRST   EFFECTS   OF   THE    WAR    UPON 
BUSINESS. 

.      The  first  reaction  of  the  war  upon 
the  business  interests  of  the  country 


was  certain  to  be  unfavorable.  The  in- 
tricate mechanism  of  international 
trade  was  for  the  moment  completely 
disrupted.  American  manufacturers 
found  many  of  their  accustomed  for- 
eign markets  suddenly  cut  off.  Shipping 
facilities  were  greatly  curtailed  by  the 
transfer  of  merchant  shipping  to  mili- 
tary uses.  The  European  stock  ex- 
changes closed  either  immediately  be- 
fore or  after  the  outbreak  of  hostilities. 
The  London  exchange  closed  on  July 
31  for  the  first  time  in  its  history,  and 
left  the  New  York  Stock  Exchange  the 
only  important  exchange  remaining 
open.  Brokers  were  deluged  with  sell- 
ing orders  from  abroad  and  a  scene  of 
confusion  approaching  panic  resulted. 
To  relieve  the  situation  the  governors 
determined  to  close  the  exchange  tem- 
porarily. The  rate  of  foreign  exchange, 
at  first,  ran  heavily  against  the  United 
States,  especially  in  England,  due  to 
the  large  amounts  owed  by  American 
business  interests.  At  one  time  the  rate 
reached  seven  dollars  to  the  pound 
sterling. 

It  was  not  long,  however,  before  the 
situation  improved  materially.  Early 
in  191 5,  the  Entente  Allies  began  plac- 
ing orders  for  large  quantities  of  muni- 
tions and  foodstuffs  in  the  United 
States.  A  feeling  of  confidence  was  re- 
stored .  Trading  on  the  Stock  Exchange 
was  gradually  resumed.  The  exchange 
rate  on  London  rapidly  declined  until 

421 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


it  once  more  touched  par  and  then  be- 
gan to  run  against  London  as  the 
amount  of  foreign  purchases  in  the 
United  States  steadily  mounted.  To 
check  this  unfavorable  balance  of  trade, 
large  quantities  of  American  securities 
held  abroad  were  sent  to  the  United 
States.  It  was  estimated  that  during 
the  years  1915  and  1916  more  than 
$2,000,000,000  of  such  securities  were 
transferred  to  American  investors. 
Even  this  proved  adequate  but  for  a 
short  time  and  the  Entente  powers 
and  many  neutral  powers  resorted  to 
loans  in  the  United  States  to  sustain 
their  credit. 

FOREIGN   BONDS   SOLD  TO    INVESTORS   IN 
THE  UNITED  STATES. 

During  1915  and  1916  more  than 
$2,000,000,000  of  such  loans  were  made 
to  Great  Britain,  France,  Switzerland, 
Sweden,  Norway,  Greece,  Russia,  Italy 
and  Argentina.  In  addition,  $10,000,- 
000  of  German  Treasury  notes  were 
sold  to  American  investors.  The 
greater  part  of  this  sum  was  used  to 
finance  German  propaganda  in  the 
United  States  and  Mexico.  These 
loans  marked  a  new  era  in  American 
finance.  Never  before  had  foreign 
bonds  appeared  in  the  American  mar- 
ket in  any  considerable  amounts.  This 
tremendous  transfer  of  capital  pro- 
foundly affected  world  trade  and 
finance.  In  two  years  the  United 
States  had  been  transformed  from  a 
debtor  to  a  creditor  nation. 

The  immense  increase  in  the  volume 
of  American  foreign  trade  created  a 
critical  situation  in  the  shipping  indus- 
try. More  than  ninety  per  cent  of  the 
export  trade  of  the  United  States  at 
the  beginning  of  the  war  was  carried  in 
merchant  ships  of  foreign  nations, 
chiefly  British  and  German.  In  the 
first  weeks  of  the  war  German  shipping 
was  driven  from  the  seas  and  British 
tonnage  available  for  American  com- 
merce was  greatly  reduced.  By  the 
fall  of  1 91 5  it  was  almost  impossible  to 
obtain  cargo  space  despite  the  fact  that 
every  type  of  sailing  and  steam  vessel 
was  pressed  into  service.  Freight  rates 
went  to  four  times  the  pre-war  level, 
or  even  higher.  In  some  cases  a  vessel 
would  earn  its  entire  cost  on  one  round 

422 


trip.  To  meet  this  critical  situation  the 
Administration  proposed  the  estab- 
lishment of  government  steamship 
lines.  Congress  did  not  finally  act  on 
this  recommendation  until  September, 
1916,  when  a  ship-purchase  law  was 
passed. 

THE  GOVERNMENT  GOES  INTO  THE  SHIP- 
PING INDUSTRY. 

This  act  provided  for  a  Shipping 
Board  of  five  members  which  was  em- 
powered (i)  to  form  one  or  more  cor- 
porations for  the  purchase,  lease,  and 
operation  of  merchant  vessels  with  a 
maximum  capital  of  fifty  million  dol- 
lars, (2)  to  acquire  vessels  suitable  for 
naval  auxiliaries,  (3)  to  regulate  com- 
merce on  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  high 
seas  including  the  fixing  of  rates,  (4)  to 
cancel  or  modify  any  agreement  among 
carriers  that  was  found  to  be  unfair  as 
between  carriers  and  exporters,  or 
which  operated  to  the  detriment  of 
United  States  commerce,  (5)  to  sanc- 
tion pooling  agreements  among,  ship- 
pers which  were  exempted  from  the 
operations  of  the  Sherman  Act.  Ves- 
sels were  to  be  operated  by  the  board, 
however,  only  if  it  was  unable  to  sell, 
lease  or  charter  such  vessels  to  citizens 
of  the  United  States  and  government 
ownership  was  limited  to  five  years 
after  the  close  of  the  war.  The  effects 
of  this  act  did  not  begin  to  be  felt  until 
after  the  entrance  of  the  United  States 
into  the  war. 

While  the  struggle  in  Europe  brought 
a  large  measure  of  prosperity  to  the 
United  States  it  also  brought  a  heavy 
financial  burden.  Measures  to  protect 
neutrality  together  with  legislation 
providing  for  a  greater  degree  of  mili- 
tary preparedness  called  for  increased 
appropriations.  In  three  years  Con- 
gressional appropriations  increased  from 
$1,089,408,777  for  1914,  to  $1,626,- 
439,209  for  191 7.  To  meet  this  increase 
the  fiscal  system,  or  lack  of  system,  was 
poorly  adapted.  Repeated  efforts  to 
have  Congress  adopt  a  budget  system 
had  met  with  no  success.  One  of  the 
chief  items  of  national  revenue,  cus- 
tom receipts,  was  materially  reduced 
on  account  of  greatly  diminished  im- 
ports. It  was  necessary  to  find  new 
sources  of  revenue. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


1>HE  WAR  REVENUE  ACT  INCREASES  TAX- 
ATION. 

To  meet  this  situation  the  President 
urged  upon  Congress  the  raising  of  ad- 
ditional revenue  by  increased  taxation, 
rather  than  by  borrowing.  In  response 
Congress  passed  the  first  War  Revenue 
Act,  which  was  to  remain  in  force  one 


urged  that  the  additional  '  revenue 
should  be  obtained  from  taxation  rather 
than  borrowing.  The  new  revenue  law 
passed  by  Congress  doubled  the  normal 
rate  of  the  income  tax  and  materially 
increased  the  surtaxes  on  incomes.  A 
progressive  inheritance  tax  was  placed 
on  estates  in  excess  of  $50,000  and  an 


FUNERAL  SERVICE  FOR  THE  LUSITANIA  VICTIMS 

In  the  churchyard  at  Queenstown  a  service  was  held  over  the  remains  of  the  victims  of  the  tragedy  that  <;hocked 
Christendom  in  May,  1915.  The  story  of  horror  and  heroism  is  familiar: — the  warning  issued  by  the  German 
Embassy,  the  torpedoing  of  the  ship  on  May  7,  the  noble  behavior  of  officers  and  men,  the  suffering  and  ezpostire 
and  death  of  innocent  victims,  the  protest  by  the  United  States,  and  the  exultation  in  Germany. 

©  International  Film  Sei^ice 

excise  tax  oi  12}4  per  cent  on  the  net 
profits  of  munition  manufacturers. 
These  new  taxes  showed  a  distinct  ten- 
dency to  place  the  added  burden  of  tax- 
ation upon  persons  of  wealth  and  upon 
those  deriving  profits  from  war  Indus-- 
tries.  This  policy  was  continued  and 
expanded  after  the  entrance  of  the 
United  States  into  the  war. 

THE   ATTITUDE  OF  THE   PEOPLE    OF    THE 
UNITED  STATES  TOWARD  WAR. 

It  was  inevitable  that  the  people  of 
the  United  States  would  be  profoundly 
affected  by  the  great  struggle  in  Europe 

423 


year  and  was  expected  to  produce  fifty- 
four  million  dollars.  The  excise  tax  on 
liquors  and  tobacco  was  increased  and 
license  taxes  were  levied  on  bankers, 
brokers  and  theatres.  Stamp  taxes  were 
placed  on  promissory  notes  and  legal 
documents,  insurance  policies,  bills  of 
lading,  telegraph  and  telephone  mes- 
sages. 

During  19 15  the  Administration  pre- 
sented a  program  calling  for  large  ex- 
penditures for  national  defense.  To 
meet  these  expenditures  fresh  revenue 
had  to  be  found.     The  President  again 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


though  this  fact  was  not  reahzed  at 
first.  Nearly  a  century  before  Presi- 
dent Monroe  had  laid  down  the  prin- 
cip'e  that  the  affairs  of  Europe  did  not 
concern  us,  and  the  statement  became 
a  part  of  the  mental  attitude  of  most 
citizens.  Though  challenged  by  the 
Spanish  War,  nevertheless  in  1914,  the 
great  majority  of  American  citizens  did 
not  dream  that  their  country  had  any 
vital  interest  in  the  struggle  beginning 
in  Europe.  A  few,  chiefly  in  the  Eastern 
States,  wished  the  United  States  to 
take  a  strong  position  from  the  be- 
ginning. 

Few  Americans,  however,  had  any 
accurate  knowledge  of  foreign  affairs, 
and  did  not  understand  the  reasons  why 
Europe  was  an  armed  camp.  The  reac- 
tion from  the  Civil  War  had  produced 
a  distaste  for  war.  The  efficient  navy 
of  that  period  had  been  allowed  to  rot 
and  only  slowly  had  the  advocates  of 
a  greater  navy  gained  followers.  For 
a  short  time  the  navy  of  the  United 
States  was  second  in  strength,  but  it 
had  lost  this  position  in  1914.  Until 
the  Spanish  War  the  tiny  regular  army 
was  hardly  large  enough  for  defense 
against  the  Indians,  and  it  was  still 
small  in  1914.  The  American  people, 
engrossed  in  internal  development,  had 
come  to  believe  that  a  real  war  on  this 
continent  was  improbable.  For  a  hun- 
dred years  not  a  gun  had  been  fired 
along  the  3,000  miles  of  frontier  with 
Canada.  Relations  with  Mexico  had 
been  less  peaceful  but  the  people  of  the 
United  States  were  not  belligerent. 
This  attitude  had  been  even  strength- 
ened by  the  trifling  contest  with  Spain. 

THE  EFFECT  OF  IMMIGRANTS  ON   PUBLIC 
SENTIMENT. 

The  United  States,  however,  is  to  a 
great  extent  an  immigrant  nation.  Of 
the  hundred  million  people  in  the  coun- 
try, about  one-third  are  of  foreign 
birth,  or  have  at  least  one  parent  for- 
eign born.  About  one-fourth  of  this 
foreign  element  was  of  German  origin. 
Ties  of  blood,  race  and  former  nation- 
ality soon  asserted  themselves.  Brit- 
ish or  French  immigrants  naturally 
took  the  side  of  the  Entente  Allies, 
though  a  part  of  the  Irish  and  the 
French  Canadians  were,  to  say  the  least, 

424 


lukewarm.  The  part  of  the  population 
classed  as  Russian  was  very  largely  of 
Jewish  birth,  who  had  fled  from  bitter 
persecution.  It  was  diflficult  for  many 
of  these  to  feel  that  any  alliance  which 
included  Russia  could  be  fighting  upon 
the  side  of  civilization.  They  were  not 
so  much  pro-German  as  anti-Russian. 
As  the  war  went  on  the  sentiments  of 
this  group  changed. 

GERMAN  EFFORTS  TO    INFLUENCE    OPIN- 
ION IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Of  all  the  belligerent  powers,  Ger- 
many made  the  most  persistent  efforts 
to  influence  opinion  in  the  United 
States.  Dr.  Bernhard  Dernburg,  for- 
merly Colonial  Secretary  of  the  German 
Empire,  was  sent  to  convince  Ameri- 
cans of  the  justice  of  the  German  cause. 
A  Press  Bureau  was  established  in  New 
York  and  newspapers  and  magazines 
were  subsidized  throughout  the  coun- 
try. This  agitation  became  so  wide- 
spread that  President  Wilson  deemed 
it  wise  to  issue  an  appeal  to  all  Ameri- 
cans to  be  "neutral  in  speech  as  well  as 
in  action."  He  pointed  out  that  the 
spirit  of  the  nation  would  depend  on 
what  was  said  at  public  meetings  and 
in  the  pulpit,  and  what  was  printed  in 
the  papers.  He  "ventured  therefore  to 
speak  a  word  of  warning  against  par- 
tisanship in  order  that  the  country 
would  be  free  to  do  what  is  honest  and 
truly  serviceable  for  the  peace  of  the 
world." 

The  open  and  avowed  pro-German 
propaganda  in  the  United  States  re- 
ceived a  serious  set-back  as  a  result  of 
the  Lusitania  outrage.  The  horror 
which  this  barbarous  act  aroused 
brought  to  an  end  the  easy-going  toler- 
ance of  German  agitators  throughout 
the  country.  Thereafter  the  German 
agents  and  their  American  sympa- 
thizers were  forced  to  adopt  different 
methods.  In  urging  an  embargo  on 
munitions  they  appealed  to  humane 
sentiments  against  the  prolongation  of 
the  war.  They  sought  to  stimulate 
and  capitalize  American  resentment 
against  the  British  restraints  on  Amer- 
ican commerce.  Every  effort  was  made 
to  take  advantage  of  Irish -American 
antipathy  to  Great  Britain.  Organi- 
zations with  appealing  names  such  as 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


the  American  Independence  Union, 
American  Truth  Society,  Friends  of 
Truth,  Friends  of  Peace,  Organization 
of  American  Women  for  Strict  Neu- 
trality, American  Peaceful  Embargo 
Society  and  Labor's  National  Peace 
Council  sprang  up  throughout  the  coun- 
try. While  all  of  these  societies  dis- 
claimed any  connection  with  German 
propaganda    there    was    a    suspicious 


national  bridge  at  Vanceboro,  Maine. 
From  the  confession  which  he  made  to 
the  authorities  of  the  Department  of 
Justice  it  was  clear  that  Captain  Franz 
von  Papen,  the  German  military 
attache,  was  involved  in  the  plot.  Fires 
in  factories  engaged  in  the  production 
of  war  materials  for  the  Allies  occurred 
with  remarkable  frequency.  Within 
twenty-four  hours  on   November   lo- 


HAVOC  BY  FIRE  AT  THE  ROEBLING  WORKS 

The  first  of  many  incendiary  fires  in  industrial  plants,  in  the  year  igis.  caused  destruction  to  the  amount  of  $1,500,- 
000  in  the  works  of  the  John  A.  Roebling's  Sons  Company  at  Trenton.  N.  J.  This  happened  in  January.  In  November, 
t\e  Roebling  plant  was  again  damaged  by  fire,  the  loss  being  estimatel  at  Si, 000, 000.  This  was  one  of  a  series  of 
disasters  which  occurred  within  twenty-four  hours  in  several  different  establishments.    ©  International  Film  Service 


unanimity  in  their  methods  and  aims. 
Later  it  was  proved  that  some  at  least 
had  received  German  funds.  Finding 
themselves  unable  to  carry  through 
the  program  for  declaring  an  embargo  on 
arms  and  ammunition,  German  and 
Austrian  agents  began  a  concerted 
move  to  cripple  the  production  of  muni- 
tions by  fomenting  strikes  in  munition 
factories,  causing  explosions  in  such 
factories,  placing  bombs  on  munition 
ships  and  by  other  similar  methods. 

GERMAN     EFFORTS     TO     DESTROY     FAC- 
TORIES AND  SHIPS. 

On  February  3,    1915,  one  Werner 
Horn  attempted  to  blow  up  the  inter 


1 1 ,  1915,  fires  broke  out  in  the  works  of 
the  John  A.  Roebhng's  Sons  Co.,  the 
Bethlehem  Steel  Co.,  the  Mid  vale 
Steel  and  Ordnance  Co.  and  the  Bald- 
win Locomotive  Works.  Bombs  were 
discovered  on  steamships  carrying  sup- 
plies to  the  Allies  and  a  suspiciously 
large  number  of  fires  broke  out  on  such 
steamships  while  at  sea.  For  some 
months  the  government  was  unable  to 
fix  responsibility  for  these  acts.  But 
on  October  24,  191 5,  the  secret  service 
agents  arrested  one  Robert  Fay  who 
claimed  to  be  a  lieutenant  in  the  Ger- 
man army.  In  a  confession  made  to 
the  police  Fay  admitted  that  he  had 

425 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


been  engaged  in  making  bombs  to  be 
placed  on  munition  ships. 

There  was  more  than  a  suspicion 
that  the  activities  of  these  German 
agents  were  being  directed  by  persons 
closely  identified  with  the  German 
diplomatic  representatives  in  the  United 
States.  Confirmation  of  this  feeling 
was  shortly  furnished.  Dr.  Heinrich 
Albert,  Financial  Adviser  of  the  Ger- 
man Embassy,  while  traveling  on  the 
Elevated  Railway  in  New  York,  lost  a 
portfolio  filled  with  documents.  These 
documents  came  into  the  possession  of 
the  New  York  World  and  were  pub- 
lished by  that  paper.  Some  of  the  let- 
ters bore  the  signatures  of  Count  von 
Bernstorff,  the  German  Ambassador, 
Captain  von  Papen,  Dr.  Albert,  and 
Hugo  Schmidt,  representative  of  the 
Deutsche  Bank  of  Berlin.  From  these 
documents  it  appeared  that  the  Ger- 
man representatives  in  the  United 
States  were  financing  efforts  to  influ- 
ence the  press  of  the  United  States,  to 
establish  news  services,  moving  pic- 
ture shows  and  to  subsidize  lecturers. 
Further  it  was  shown  that  the  German 
Government  was  negotiating  for  the 
manufacture  of  munitions  for  itself  in 
the  United  States  at  the  same  time 
that  it  was  protesting  against  the  sale 
of  such  munitions  to  the  Entente  Allies. 

THE     AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN      AMBASSADOR 
IS  DISMISSED. 

More  direct  and  more  serious  was  the 
evidence  of  Teutonic  activities  ob- 
tained as  a  result  of  the  arrest  of  an 
American  newspaper  correspondent, 
Mr.  James  J.  F.  Archibald,  by  the 
British  authorities  at  Falmouth. 
Among  the  letters  found  in  Archibald's 
possession  was  one  written  by  Dr. 
Theodor  Dumba,  the  Austro-Hungar- 
ian  Ambassador  to  the  United  States, 
to  Baron  Burian,  the  Austro-Hungar- 
ian  Foreign  Minister.  In  this  letter 
Dr.  Dumba  said  "It  is  my  impression 
that  we  can  disorganize  and  hold  up 
for  months,  if  not  entirely  prevent, 
the  manufacture  of  munitions  in 
Bethlehem  and  the  Middle  West, 
which,  in  the  opinion  of  the  German 
Military  Attache  is  of  great  import- 
ance and  amply  outweighs  the  expendi- 
ture of  money  involved. " 

426 


When  this  letter  was  brought  to  the 
attention  of  Dr.  Dumba  he  admitted 
its  authenticity  and  defended  it  on  the 
ground  that  it  was  his  duty  "to  bring 
before  our  races  employed  in  the  big 
steel  works  the  fact  that  they  are  en- 
gaged in  enterprises  which  are  un- 
friendly to  their  Fatherland  and  that 
the  Imperial  Government  would  hold 
the  workers  in  munition  plants  where 
contracts  are  being  filled  for  the  Allies, 
as  being  guilty  of  a  serious  crime 
against  their  country."  This  explana- 
tion was  not  accepted  by  the  United 
States  Government  and  the  Austrian 
Government  was  notified  that  "by 
reason  of  the  admitted  purpose  and', i 
intent  of  Dr.  Dumba  to  conspire  to .  t 
cripple  legitimate  industries  of  the  1 ' 
people  of  the  United  States  and  to  in- 
terrupt their  legitimate  trade,  and  by  1 
reason  of  the  flagrant  violation  of  dip- 
lomatic propriety  in  employing  an 
American  citizen,  protected  by  an 
American  passport  as  a  secret  bearer  of 
official  dispatches  through  the  lines  of 
the  enemy  of  Austria  Hungary"  he 
was  no  longer  acceptable  to  the  Gov- 
ernment of  the  United  States  as  the 
Ambassador  of  Austria  Hungary. 

Another  of  the  Archibald  letters  was 
one  written  by  Captain  von  Papen  to 
his  wife.  In  referring  to  the  German 
victories  on  the  Eastern  front,  he  said ; — 
"How  splendid  on  the  Eastern  front. 
I  always  tell  these  idiotic  Yankees  they 
had  better  hold  their  tongues — it's 
better  to  look  at  all  this  heroism  full  of 
admiration.  My  friends  in  the  army 
are  quite  different  in  this  way." 

The  names  of  Captain  Franz  von 
Papen  and  Captain  Karl  Boy-Ed,  the 
German  military  and  naval  attaches 
at  Washington  constantly  recurred  in 
connection  with  the  investigation  of 
various  plots  and  after  an  inquiry  made 
by  the  State  Department  the  German 
Ambassador  was  notified  that  these 
two  officers  were  no  longer  acceptable 
to  the  United  States  and  their  imme- 
diate recall  was  demanded. 

GERMAN  EFFORTS  TO  CREATE    TROUBLE 
WITH  MEXICO. 

Through  the  enterprising  activities 
of  the  Providence  Journal  the  Govern- 
ment   was    furnished    with    evidence.    .. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


which  led  to  the  arrest  of  Victoriana 
Huerta,  erstwhile  President  of  Mex- 
ico. After  his  departure  from  Mexico 
in  1914,  Huerta  went  to  Spain  but 
later  came  to  the  United  States  and 
located  on  Long  Island.  In  June,  1915, 
he  started  on  what  he  said  was  a  visit 
to  the  Panama-Pacific  Exposition  at 
San  Francisco.  When  he  left  the  train 
near  El  Paso,  Texas,  he  was  arrested 
by  the  American  authorities  and 
charged  with  conspiracy  to  foment  a 
revolution  against  a  friendly  country, 
Mexico.  Huerta's  death  shortly  after 
removed  him  from  the  scene.  The 
Journal  then  published  a  mass  of  evi- 
dence gathered  by  its  agents  which 
showed  that  Huerta  was  the  tool  of 
Germany  and  was  being  used  to  foment 
trouble  in  Mexico  in  the  hope  of  divert- 
ing public  attention  in  the  United 
States  from  the  European  war  to  more 
pressing  problems  at  home. 

Protest  was  made  by  the  British 
Ambassador  that  German  agents  had 
sent  a  number  of  vessels  laden  with 
coal  and  supplies  for  German  cruisers 
in  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans. 
As  a  result  five  men  connected  with 
the  Hamburg  American  Steamship 
Company  were  indicted  for  obtaining 
false  clearances  of  vessels  from  United 
States  ports.  The  German  Ambassa- 
dor asserted  that  it  was  not  a  violation 
of  international  law  or  of  the  statutes 
of  the  United  States  to  send  vessels 
from  neutral  ports  to  supply  war  ships 
on  the  high  seas  or  in  other  neutral 
ports.  This  contention  was  upheld  by 
the  court  but  the  men  were  convicted 
for  defrauding  the  goverment  by  ob- 
taining false  clearance  papers. 

SOME    FURTHER    DOCUMENTS    COMB    TO 
LIGHT. 

The  confessions  of  Major  von  der 
Goltz  disclosed  a  conspiracy  to  de- 
stroy the  Welland  Canal.  After  his 
activities  in  the  United  States  von  der 
Goltz  went  to  England  where  he  was 
arrested  as  a  spy.  To  escape  prosecu- 
tion he  made  a  full  confession.  His 
testimony  led  to  the  indictment  of  the 
former  German  military  attache,  Franz 
von  Papen;  of  Wolf  von  Igel,  von 
Papen's  secretary,  and  of  Captain 
Hans   Tauscher,    American    agent    of 


the  Krupp  corporation.  Von  Igel  was 
arrested  in  the  New  York  office  for- 
merly occupied  by  von  Papen  and  a 
mass  of  papers  was  seized  by  the  author- 
ities. Von  Igel  claimed  diplomatic 
immunity  and  was  supported  in  his 
conterition  by  Ambassador  von  Bern- 
stolT  who  demanded  that  the  seized 
documents  should  be  returned.  Cap- 
tain Tauscher  was  tried  but  the  jury 
failed  to  convict.  Another  German 
official  to  fall  into  the  clutches  of  the 
law  was  Franz  Bopp,  the  consul-gen- 
eral at  San  Francisco,  who,  with  sev- 
eral others,  was  charged  with  conspir- 
acy to  restrain  the  foreign  commerce 
of  the  United  States  in  munitions  of 
war  and  to  organize  an  expedition  to 
destroy  British  property  in  Canada, 
and  was  later  convicted. 

Dr.  Walter  Scheele,  head  of  a  chem- 
ical company,  and  eight  Germans  con- 
nected with  the  North  German  Lloyd 
and  the  Hamburg  American  lines  were 
indicted  for  manufacturing  bombs  to 
be  placed  on  munition  vessels.  One  of 
these  men,  Captain  Charles  von  Kleist, 
confessed  that  more  than  200  such 
bombs  had  been  made,  and  that  the 
funds  had  been  supplied  by  von  Papen, 
Boy-Ed  and  von  Rintelen,  a  German 
agent  imprisoned  in  the  Tower  of 
London. 

THE  QUESTION  OF  UNRESTRICTED  IMMI- 
GRATION ARISES. 

One  result  of  the  intrigues  of  foreign 
born  citizens  in  the  United  States  was 
to  direct  attention  to  the  policy  of  the 
country  toward  immigration.  Many 
Americans  had  been  seriously  dis- 
turbed at  the  demonstrations  of  dis- 
loyalty and  serious  doubts  were  ex- 
pressed as  to  the  effectiveness  with 
which  the  foreign  born  had  been  incor- 
porated into  the  American  body  pol- 
itic. As  a  result  demands  were  made 
in  the  public  press  for  the  modifica- 
tion of  the  traditional  policy  of  the 
United  States  towards  immigration. 
In  1913,  President  Taft  and  in  1915, 
President  Wilson  vetoed  bills  estab- 
lishing a  literacy  test  for  immigrants 
on  the  ground  that  they  were  tests 
not  of  selection  but  of  restriction  and 
that  the  bills  contemplated  a  reversal 
of     a     traditional     American     policy. 

427  . 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


Finally,  in  February,  191 7,  Congress 
passed  a  similar  restrictive  measure 
over  the  President's  veto. 

The  European  conflagration  was 
certain  to  call  forth  in  America  a  dis- 
cussion of  the  country's  policy  toward 
military  preparedness.  It  was  obvious 
that  the  American  military  establish- 
ment in  1914  was  hopelessly  inade- 
quate for  war  with  any  first  class 
power.  Indeed  the  recent  experience 
in  Mexico  had  shown  that  it  was  not 
prepared  for  even  a  minor  national 
crisis.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  European 
War  the  regular  army  of  the  United 
States  consisted  of  85,965  enlisted  men 
and  4,823  officers.  In  addition  there 
was  the  organized  militia  of  the  differ- 
ent states  amounting  to  128,000.  This 
latter  was,  however,  in  most  of  the 
states,  far  from  being  in  first  class 
condition,  either  from  the  standpoint 
of  training  or  of  military  equipment. 

THE    POLICY    OF    ISOLATION    GENERALLY 
ACCEPTED. 

There  still  existed  throughout  the 
country  a  strong  popular  feeling  that 
our  political  and  geographical  isola- 
tion would  always  preserve  the  nation 
from  foreign  attack,  and  that  we  had 
little  interest  in  foreign  quarrels.  So 
long  as  adequate  provision  was  made 
for  the  navy,  there  seemed  to  be  little 
need  of  a  large  army.  That  the  country 
would  ever  be  called  upon  to  send  a 
large  military  force  to  foreign  coun- 
tries was  an  idea  which  few  had  ever 
thought  possible  before  1914. 

In  his  message  to  Congress  on  De- 
cember 8,  1914,  President  Wilson  clear- 
ly stated  this  traditional  feeling  of  the 
country  concerning  military  prepared- 
ness as  follows: — "It  is  said  in  some 
quarters  that  we  are  not  prepared  for 
war.  What  is  meant  by  being  pre- 
pared? Is  it  meant  that  we  are  not 
ready  upon  brief  notice  to  put  a  nation 
in  the  field,  a  nation  of  men  trained  to 
arms.  Of  course  we  are  not  ready  to 
do  that,  and  we  shall  never  be  in  time 
of  peace  so  long  as  we  retain  our  pres- 
ent political  principles  and  institutions. 
And  what  is  it  that  it  is  suggested  that 
we  be  prepared  to  do?  To  defend  our- 
selves against  attack?  We  have  al- 
ways found  means  to  do  that  and  shall 

428 


find  them  whenever  it  is  necessarj^ 
without  calling  our  people  away  from 
their  necessary  tasks  to  render  com- 
pulsory military  service  in  times  of 
peace.  .  .From  the  first  we  have  had 
a  clear  and  settled  policy  with  regard 
to  military  establishments.  We  never 
have  had,  and  while  we  retain  our  pres- 
ent principles  and  ideals  we  never  shall 
have,  a  large  standing  army.  If  asked, 
are  you  ready  to  defend  yourselves? 
We  reply,  most  assuredly,  to  the  ut- 
most; and  yet  we  shall  not  turn  America 
into  a  military  camp.  We  will  not  ask 
our  young  men  to  spend  the  best  years 
of  their  lives  making  soldiers  of  them- 
selves. .  .  .We  must  depend  in 
every  time  of  national  peril,  in  the 
future  as  in  the  past,  not  upon  a  stand- 
ing army,  nor  upon  a  reserve  army, 
but  upon  a  citizenry  trained  and  accus- 
tomed to  arms. " 

ADVOCATES   OF  PREPAREDNESS  INCREASE 
L.     IN    NUMBERS. 

But  there  were  many  persons  who 
saw  a  real  national  danger  in  the  lack 
of  military  preparedness.  Ex-President 
Roosevelt  with  characteristic  energy 
urged  the  need  of  action  in  this  matter. 
The  National  Security  League  and  the 
Navy  League  were  organized  by  per- 
sons who  advocated  measures  for 
strengthening  the  army  and  navy. 
The  crisis  with  Germany  arising  out 
of  the  submarine  campaign  greatly 
strengthened  the  movement.  Advo- 
cates of  preparedness  pointed  out  that 
our  protests  against  the  violation  of 
neutral  rights  were  futile  so  long  as  we 
were  unable  to  back  up  our  protests 
with  adequate  military  force.  In  a 
speech  delivered  at  New  York,  No- 
vember 4,  191 5,  President  Wilson 
frankly  stated  that  his  views  on  the 
subject  of  preparedness  had  undergone 
a  marked  change  and  he  pledged  the 
administration  to  a  policy  of  military 
preparedness  "to  vindicate  our  right 
to  independent  and  unmolested  action 
by  making  the  force  that  is  in  us  ready 
for  assertion."  In  his  annual  message 
to  Congress  in  1915  the  President  said 
that  the  dominant  desire  of  our  people 
was  for  peace;  that  we  regard  war 
merely  as  a  means  of  asserting  our 
rights  against  aggressioh.   At  the  same 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


time  if  we  are  to  fight  effectively  we 
must  know  how  modern  fighting  is 
done  and  what  to  do  when  the  sum- 
mons comes.  He  therefore  proposed  to 
lay  before  Congress  plans  for  a  more 
adequate  national  defense.  These  plans 
contemplated  increasing  the  regular 
army  from  108.013  to  141,843  officers 
and  men  to  be  supplemented  by  "a 
force  of  400,000  disciplined  citizens 
raised  in  increments  of  133,000  a  year 
throughout  a  period  of  three  years." 
This  volunteer  force  was  to  be  trained 
for  three  years.  For  the  navy,  which 
the  President  characterized  as  "our 
first  line  of  defense,"  the  Administra- 
tion proposed  the  building  within  five 
years  of  ten  battleships,  six  battle 
cruisers,  ten  scout  cruisers,  fifty  des- 
troyers, fifteen  fleet  submarines,  eighty- 
five  coast  submarines,  four  gunboats, 
one  hospital,  two  ammunition,  two 
fuel  oil  ships,  and  one  repair  ship.  The 
personnel  of  the  navy  should  be  in- 
creased by  11,500. 

T  TARIOUS  PLANS  TO  INCREASE  THE  ARMY. 

In  Congress  various  opinions  were 
expressed  as  to  method  of  carrying  into 
effect  the  President's  proposals  for  in- 
creasing the  military  establishment. 
One  plan  supported  by  the  Secretary 
of  War,  Mr.  Lindley  M.  Garrison,  and 
General  Scott,  the  Chief  of  Staff  of  the 
army,  advocated  the  creation  of  a  con- 
tinental army  entirely  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  Federal  Government.  A 
second  plan  supported  by  Mr.  Hay, 
Chairman  of  the  House  Committee  on 
Military  Affairs,  proposed  the  utiliza- 
tion of  the  National  Guard  of  the  vari- 
ous states  as  the  basis  of  the  new  army, 
by  placing  the  Guard  under  federal 
control.  Mr.  Garrison  was  unwilling 
to  agree  to  this  suggestion  and  asked 
the  President  to  support  his  plan  for  a 
continental  army.  The  President  re- 
plied that  he  did  not  desire  to  commit 
himself  irrevocably  to  any  one  propo- 
sal but  was  prepared  to  accept  any 
plan  which  would  accomplish  the  end 
in  view.  Under  these  circumstances 
Mr.  Garrison  felt  that  he  could  not  re- 
main in  the  Cabinet  and  he  tendered 
his  resignation  to  the  President.  In 
his  place  Mr.  Newton  D.  Baker  was 


appointed  Secretary  of  War.  Congress 
finally  agreed  upon  a  military  bill 
providing  for  a  regular  army  of  186,000; 
a  federalized  National  Guard  of  425,- 
000;  an  officers'  reserve  corps  for  the 
regular  army;  an  enlisted  reserv^e  corps 
for  the  engineer,  signal  and  quarter- 
master corps,  medical  and  ordinance 
departments;  and  reserve  officers'  train- 
ing corps  at  schools,  colleges  and  uni- 
versities. 

Coincident  with  this  movement  for 
military  preparedness,  there  was  wide- 
spread feeling  that  the  United  States 
should  not  only  use  its  influence  to 
bring  to  an  end  the  terrible  struggle 
in  Europe  but  also  at  the  same  time  to 
discover  and  present  to  the  world  some 
means  of  preventing  the  recurrence  of 
such  a  catastrophe.  Many  plans  were 
suggested,  and  every  one,  no  matter 
how  chimerical,  found  supporters. 

THE   "PEACE  SHIP"  AND  ITS  VARIED  PAS- 
SENGERS. 

Of  the  various  pacifist  schemes  the 
one  to  attract  the  greatest  attention 
was  that  undertaken  by  Henry  Ford. 
In  the  fail  of  1915  he  announced  his 
intention  of  taking  a  party  of  Ameri- 
can peace  advocates  to  Europe  to  dis- 
cover some  means  of  ending  the  war, 
"to  get  the  soldiers  out  of  the  trenches 
before  Christmas."  An  Atlantic  liner 
was  chartered  to  carry  150  men  and 
women  who  constituted  the  party  to 
Europe.  They  represented  many  vari- 
eties of  opinion,  some  of  them  irrecon- 
cilable. The  expedition  had  no  ofificial 
sanction  from  the  government  and  the 
European  belligerents  showed  no  in- 
clination to  welcome  the  adventure. 
The  party  arrived  in  Norway  Decem- 
ber 18,  1915.  What  slight  possibilities 
the  movement  had  of  accomplishing 
anything  were  destroyed  by  internal 
dissensions,  and  after  a  short  stay  at 
Copenhagen  and  The  Hague,  the  pil- 
grims returned  to  the  United  States, 
and  the  war  went  on  more  vigorously 
than  ever. 

OTHER  SCHEMES  TO  BRING  ABOUT  FUTURE 
PEACE. 

Much  more  significant  were  the  or- 
ganized efforts  directed  toward  finding 
some  means  of  preventing  future  wars. 
The  movement  for  international  peace 

429 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


was,  of  course,  not  new.  During  the 
latter  part  of  the  nineteenth  century 
noteworthy  progress  had  been  made  in 
this  direction,  as  evidenced  by  the 
creation  of  the  Hague  Tribunal  and 
the  signing  of  a  large  number  of  arbi- 
tration treaties.  But  these  instrumen- 
talities had  proved  insufficient  to  pre- 
vent the  great  catastrophe  in  Europe. 
Advocates  of  peace  therefore  began  to 
search  for  more  effective  safeguards. 
Various  organizations  came  forward 
with  dififerent  programs.  Of  these  the 
one  to  attract  greatest  attention  was 
presented  by  the  League  to  Enforce 
Peace. 

The  program  of  the  League  provided, 
(l)  that  justiciable  questions  arising 
between  nations,  which  are  not  settled 
by  negotiation,  should  be  submitted  to 
a  judicial  tribunal  for  hearing  and 
judgment,  (2)  other  questions  should 
be  submitted  to  a  council  of  concilia- 
tion for  "hearing,  consideration  and 
recommendation,"  (3)  that  the  signa- 
tory powers  should  use  their  economic 
and  military  forces  against  any  one  of 
their  number  going  to  war  without  sub- 
mitting the  matter  in  dispute  to  arbi- 
tration, (4)  that  periodic  conferences 
should  be  held  to  formulate  rules  of 
international  law.  The  new  idea 
which  this  plan  proposed  was  the  crea- 
tion of  an  international  force  which 
would  command  respect  for  interna- 
tional agreements. 

PRESIDENT  WILSON  ADVOCATES  A  LEAGUE 
OF  NATIONS. 

President  Wilson  evidenced  a  lively 
interest  in  this  new  movement  and  in  a 
memorable  speech  on  May  27,  19 16,  he 
declared  that  "the  United  States  is 
willing  to  become  a  partner  in  any 
feasible  association  of  nations"  formed 
to  preserve  certain  fundamental  ob- 
jects. These  objects  were  (i)  that  every 
people  shall  have  the  right  to  choose 
the  sovereignty  under  which  they  shall 
live,  (2)  that  small  states  shall  enjoy 
the  same  rights  as  large  states,  (3) 
that  the  world  shall  be  free  from  dis- 
turbance of  its  peace  caused  by  aggres- 
sion and  disregard  of  popular  rights. 
In  conclusion  he  advocated  "a  univer- 
sal association  of  nations  to  maintain 
the  inviolate  security  of  the  high  way  of 

430 


the  seas  for  the  common  and  unhin- 
dered use  of  the  nations  of  the  world, 
and  to  prevent  any  war  begun  either 
contrary  to  treaty  covenants  or  with- 
out warning  and  full  submission  of  the 
causes  to  the  opinion  of  the  world, — 
a  virtual  guarantee  of  territorial  integ- 
rity and  political  independence." 

This  declaration  aroused  consider- 
able adverse  criticism  throughout  the 
country  by  those  who  felt  that  such  a 
program  would  entail  an  abandon- 
ment of  America's  traditional  policy 
of  isolation  from  European  affairs.  To 
his  critics  the  President  said  "I  shall 
never  myself  consent  to  an  entangling 
alliance,  but  I  would  gladly  assent  to  a 
disentangling  alliance,  an  alliance  which 
would  disentangle  the  people  of  the 
world  from  those  combinations  in  which 
they  seek  their  own  separate  and  pri- 
vate interests,  and  unite  with  the  people 
of  the  world  to  preserve  the  peace  of 
the  world  upon  a  basis  of  common  right 
and  justice." 

THE     PRESIDENTIAL    ELECTION     OF     1916 
APPROACHES. 

These  views  of  the  President  gave  a 
striking  illustration  of  the  remarkable 
change  which  had  taken  place  in  Amer- 
ican political  thought  after  two  years  of 
the  European  war.  The  expression  of 
such  opinions  on  the  eve  of  a  presiden- 
tial election,  in  which  he  was  certain  to 
be  the  nominee  of  the  Democratic 
party,  showed  the  confidence  of  the 
President  in  the  desire  of  the  American 
people  for  a  wider  participation  in  the 
affairs  of  the  world. 

The  presidential  election  of  1916  was 
anticipated  with  lively  interest,  in 
Europe  as  well  as  in  America,  for  it  gave 
the  first  real  opportunity  to  test  the 
public  opinion  of  the  country  on  the 
conduct  of  our  foreign  relations  by  the 
Democratic  party.  That  Mr.  Wilson 
would  be  renominated  was  a  foregone 
conclusion.  The  nomination  of  Mr. 
Hughes  by  the  Republicans  was  re- 
ceived with  general  approval.  The 
Republican  platform  affirmed  that  the 
Administration  had  failed  to  protect 
the  fundamental  rights  of  American 
citizens  and  by  its  "phrase-making 
and  shifty  expedients"  had  "destroyed 
our  influence  abroad  and  humiliated  us 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


in  our  own  eyes."  It  advocated  mili- 
tary preparedness  without  being  speci- 
fic. It  called  for  "a  strict  and  honest 
neutrality  in  the  European  War.  "  The 
Democratic  platform  called  for  the  pro- 
tection of  "the  sacred  rights  of  Ameri- 
can citizenship"  both  at  home  and 
abroad;  it  condemned  the  efforts  of 
every  organization  "that  has  for  its 
object  the  advancement  of  the  interest 
of  a  foreign  powei"";  it  advocated  an 
army  and  navy  "fully  adequate  to  the 
requirements  of  order,  of  safety,  and  of 
the  protection  of  the  nation's  rights"; 
it  stated  the  belief  that  "the  time  had 
come  when  it  is  the  duty  of  the  United 
States  to  join  with  the  other  nations  of 
the  world  in  any  feasible  association" 
to  preserve  the  peace  of  the  world. 

''pHE    CANDIDATES    BEFORE    THE   PEOPLE. 

In  the  campaign  which  followed  Mr. 
Hughes  devoted  much  attention  to 
criticising  the  Administration  for  its 
Mexican  policy  and  for  its  handling  of 
the  European  situation,  but  he  failed 
to  give  any  clear  statement  as  to  how 
he  would  have  acted  differently  under 
the  circumstances.  Much  interest  was 
manifested  as  to  how  the  large  German 
American  vote  would  be  cast.  It  was 
felt  that  President  Wilson  had  alien- 
ated a  large  part  of  this  vote  by  his  pol- 
icy toward  the  submarine  campaign 
and  the  shipment  of  munitions  to  the 
Allies.  Mr.  Wilson  won  approval  for  a 
sharp  rebuke  which  he  administered  to 
an  anti-British  agitator  named  Jere- 
miah O'Leary  who  wrote  an  offensive 
letter  to  the  President  predicting  his 
defeat.  In  his  reply  the  President  said: 
"I  would  feel  deeply  mortified  to  have 
you  or  anybody  like  you  vote  for  me. 
Since  you  have  access  to  many  disloyal 
Americans  and  I  have  not,  I  will  ask 
you  to  convey  this  message  to  them." 
It  was  not  until  a  week  before  the  elec- 
tion that  Mr.  Hughes  was  willing  to 
state  frankly  his  attitude  on  the  em- 
bargo question  and  on  the  right  of 
Americans  to  travel  on  belligerent 
ships.  This  hesitancy  gave  some  people 
the  impression  that  the  Republican 
candidate  was  trying  to  conciliate  the 
German  vote. 

The  results  of  the  election  gave  no 


conclusive  evidence  of  the  attitude  of 
the  country  on  the  great  problems  con- 
fronting it.  Mr.  Wilson  was  re-elected 
by  277  electoral  votes  to  254  for  Mr. 
Hughes.  It  was  the  closest  presidential 
contest  since  1876.  Broadly  speaking 
the  South  and  the  Far  West  supported 
Wilson  while  the  East  and  the  Middle 
West  supported  Hughes.  Though  un- 
authorized, the  slogan,  "He  kept  us  out 
of  the  war"  undoubtedly  won  votes 
for  Mr.  Wilson  in  the  West.  Of  the 
seven  states  containing  the  largest 
German-American  population  Mr.  Wil- 
son carried  three  and  Mr.  Hughes  four. 
It  is  apparent  that  the  issues  which 
were  decisive  in  the  election  were  do- 
mestic and  not  foreign  issues. 

THE  PROVINCIAL   ISOLATION   OF  THE 
UNITED  STATES  IS  SHOCKED, 

For  more  than  two  years  the  people 
of  the  United  States  had  watched  the 
great  European  drama  with  absorbing 
interest.  In  those  two  years  American 
public  opinion  had  undergone  a  slow 
but  fundamental  transformation.  In 
1 914  the  United  States  was  still  a  pro- 
vincial nation.  The  people  of  this 
country,  as  a  whole,  knew  little  and 
cared  less  about  the  great  problems  of 
world  politics.  To  the  majority  of 
Americans  the  European  war  was  only 
another  one  of  the  many  struggles  for 
European  leadership. 

Those  critics  who  condemn  the 
Administration  for  not  breaking  with 
Germany  in  May  1915,  after  the  sink- 
ing of  the  Lusitania,  do  not  realize 
how  deep-seated  was  this  American 
provincialism.  Slowly,  however,  Amer- 
icans began  to  see  the  great  struggle  in 
a  new  light.  People  began  to  realize 
that  American  interests  were  vitally 
bound  up  with  the  interests  of  the  rest 
of  the  world.  Submarine  ruthlessness 
and  German  crimes  in  Belgium  alien- 
ated such  sympathy  as  there  was  for 
Germany  a,mong  Americans  of  the  old 
stock.  Instinctively  the  American 
people  came  to  feel  that  the  success  of 
the  Allies  meant  the  preservation  of 
American  ideals.  It  had  taken  two 
years  of  experience  and  education  to 
prepare  America  for  the  part  she  was 
destined  to  play  in  the  world  drama. 
Nelson  P.  Mead. 

431 


OBSTACLES  TO  IMPEDE  THE  PROGRESS  OF  THE  ENEMY 
Many  years  ago  the  French  called  arrangements  like  these,  intended  to  block  up  a  road  or  an  ooening,  "chevaux- 
de-frise"  or  Friesland  horses.      In  this  war,  like  so  many  other  half-forgotten  instruments,  they  were  revived 
and  thousands  were  constructed  and  used,  though  barbed  wire  took  the  place  of  iron  spikes  set  in  a  beam. 


FRENCH  TRENCH  DEFENSES  IN  RESERVE  AT  VERDUN 
In  different  places  barbed  wire  entanglements  in  place  before  trenches  have  been  shown.    Here  is  a  French  re- 
serve station  behind  Verdun.    Stakes  have  been  cut  and  sharpened  and  lengths  of  barbed  wire  fastened  a  number 
of  them  together,  making  a  section  of  fence.    The  section  is  then  rolled  up  for  transfer  to  the' front,  where  it  will  be 
unrolled  and  the  stakes  driven  into  the  ground  before  the  trenches,  usually  at  night.  French  Official 


French  Quick-Firer  Approaching  Verdun 


Chapter  XXVIII 


They  Shall  Not  Pass;  The  Story  of  Verdun  I 

THE   STORY  OF  ONE  OF  THE  GREATEST  BATTLES  IN  THE 
HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD 


TpHE  word  Verdun  has  passed  into 
•■■  world  currency,  and  posterity  will 
rank  its  soldiers  with  those  that 
fought  at  Thermopylae,  at  Chalons  and 
at  Tours.  The  story  survives  of  a 
Russian  soldier  who  encountered 
French  troops  in  Siberia  but  was  un- 
able to  communicate  with  his  western 
allies.  He  solved  the  difficulty  in 
characteristic  fashion:  "Verdun!",  he 
said,  saluting,  and  immediately  the  gap 
was  bridged. 

VERDUN  ONE  OF  THE  GREATEST  BATTLES 
OF  THE  WORLD. 

Psychologically,  the  battle  was  a 
revelation  of  hitherto  unsuspected  en- 
durance in  the  make-up  of  the  French. 
''lis  ne  passer ont  pas!''  repeated  the 
poilu,  doggedly  confident  through  all 
the  horror  and  misery  that  prevailed 
at  Verdun,  and  only  changing  with  the 
fortunes  of  battle  into  the  quiet  but 
still  more  determined  "On  les  aura!'' 
Comparisons  are  always  invidious,  but 
it  is  indisputable  that  this  struggle 
witnessed  one  of  the  most  signal 
triumphs  of  soirit  over  material  things 
that  the  world  has  ever  known.  That 
so  much  beauty  of  courage,  of  suffer- 
ing, of  bearing,  and  of  hoping  could 
have  flowered  and  survived  amidst  the 
hideous  inferno  of  bombardment  and 
torturing  thirst,  "makes  one  to  think" 
as  the  suggestive  French  idiom  would 
say.      Militarily    also,    the    battle    is 


extraordinary  for  the  mass  of  metal 
used  on  both  sides,  the  number  of 
troops  employed,  and  the  dramatic 
change  in  fortune  on  the  Douaumont 
Plateau, — no  less  sudden  indeed,  than 
the  Battle  of  the  Marne. 

GENERAL   FALKENHAYN   STRIVES   FOR   A 
DECISION. 

In  191 5  German  arms  had  sought 
success  and  gained  it — against  the 
Russians  and  in  the  Balkans.  But 
decision  was'  lacking,  and  that  only 
could  be  attained  in  the  west,  and  in 
the  west  it  was  sought  by  the  two 
general  staffs.  General  von  Falken- 
hayn  in  his  book  "The  German  Gen- 
eral Staff  and  its  Decisions,"  pub- 
lished after  the  war,  says:  "The  strain 
on  the  French  has  almost  reached  a 
breaking  point.  If  we  succeed  in 
opening  the  eyes  of  her  people  to  the 
fact  that  in  a  military  sense  they  have 
nothing  more  to  hope  for,  that  break- 
ing point  would  be  reached  and 
England's  best  sword  knocked  out  of 
her  hand.  To  achieve  that  object,  the 
uncertain  method  of  a  mass  break — • 
though  in  any  case  beyond  our  means, 
is  unnecessary.  We  can  probably  do 
enough  for  our  purposes  with  limited 
resources.  Within  our  reach,  behind 
the  French  sector  of  the  Western  Front, 
there  are  objectives,  for  the  retention 
of  which  the  French  General  Staff 
would  be  compelld  to  throw  in  every 

433 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


man  they  have.  If  they  do  so,  the 
forces  of  France  will  bleed  to  death — 
as  there  can  be  no  question  of  a  volun- 
tary withdrawal — whether  we  reach 
our  goal  or  not.  If  they  do  not  do  so, 
and  we  reach  our  objectives,  the  moral 
effect  on  France  will  be  enormous. 
For  an  operation  limited  to  a  narrow 
front,  Germany  will  not  be  compelled 
to  spend  herself  so  freely  that  all 
other  fronts  are  practically  drained. 

"The  French  lines  at  that  point 
are  barely  20  kilometres  distant  from 
German  railway  communications.  Ver- 
dun is,  therefore,  the  most  powerful 
point  d'appiii  for  an  attempt,  with  a 
relatively  small  expenditure  of  effort,  to 
make  the  whole  French  front  in  France 
and  Belgium  intolerable.  The  re- 
moval of  the  danger  as  a  secondary 
aim  would  be  so  valuable  on  military 
grounds,  that,  compared  with  it,  the 
so-to-speak  'incidental'  political  vic- 
tory of  the  'purification'  of  Alsace  by 
an  attack  on  Belfort,  is  a  small  matter." 

THE      ATTEMPT      TO      WOUND       FRANCE 
MORTALLY. 

The  German  command,  then,  was  to 
attack  at  Verdun,  while  the  Austro- 
Hungarian  command  was  to  invade 
Italy  from  the  Tyrol.  Verdun  was 
selected  as  a  spot  in  the  Allied  line 
where  it  was  believed  possible  to 
inflict  a  mortal  wound  upon  France, 
and  furthermore  drive  Britain  into  a 
premature  offensive.  This  at  least 
was  Germany's  first  aim,  though  as  the 
attack  fell  short,  it  became  modified 
in  like  degree.  When  she  failed  in  the 
first  few  weeks  to  capture  Verdun,  and 
Joff^re  forbade  the  beginning  of  the 
offensive  on  the  Somme  until  its 
appointed  time,  German  aims  then 
were  merely  to  pin  the  French  down  on 
the  Meuse  so  that  their  assistance  in 
the  British  drive  would  be  very  slight. 
Thus  the  two  great  battles  on  the 
western  front,  during  1916,  are  closely 
interwoven — French  defense  of  Verdun 
providing  needful  time  for  the  training 
of  the  British  professional  army;  the 
British  offensive  on  the  Somme  afford- 
ing necessary  relief  for  the  French 
corps  that  had  been  so  hardly  engaged 
on  the  Meuse.  Both  of  these  objects 
were  attained. 

434 


THE      IMPORTANCE      OF      THE      VERDUN 
SALIENT. 

What  were  the  German  grounds  for 
choosing  the  fortress  of  Verdun  for 
their  point  of  assault?  Strategically, 
they  were  sound.  Ever  since  Septem- 
ber, 1914,  Verdun,  with  its  outworks, 
had  stood  as  a  salient  in  the  German 
line — as  a  salient,  moreover,  which 
had  lost  its  railway  communications — 
for  of  the  two  main  railroads,  the 
Lerouville  line  was  cut  off  at  St. 
Mihiel  and  the  second,  through  Chalons, 
was  under  ceaseless  German  fire.  Only 
the  narrow  gauge  line  connecting 
Verdun  with  Bar-le-Duc  remained,  in 
addition  to  road  communication. 
Nevertheless,  von  Ludendorff  in  his 
Memoirs  writes  that  the  fortress  was 
considered  by  the  German  Staff  as  a 
particularly  dangerous  sally-port,  which 
seriously  threatened  their  rear-com- 
munications, a  premonition  fully  justi- 
fied by  the  events  of  the  autumn  of 
1918.  If  then  the  defenses  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Meuse  could  have  been 
gained,  the  enemy's  strategic  positions 
on  the  Western  Front,  as  well  as  the 
tactical  situation  of  his  troops  in  the 
St.  Mihiel  salient  would  have  been 
materially  improved. 

There  were  other  reasons:  Verdun 
was  only  a  short  distance  from  Metz, 
the  centre  of  great  military  activity 
and  the  source  of  such  supplies.  It 
was  dangerously  near  the  valuable 
deposits  of  iron  ore  in  Lorraine,  which 
the  Germans  meant  to  hold  whenever 
peace  might  come.  The  moral  factor 
involved  in  the  capture  of  the  "  Eastern 
Gate  of  France,"  the  "Key  to  Paris" 
was  enormous.  From  a  military  point 
of  view,  the  Germans  wished  to  profit 
by  certain  failures  on  the  part  of  the 
French,  who,  relying  on  the  nature 
of  the  country,  had  neglected  to 
strengthen  the  fortified  positions  to 
the  west  of  the  Meuse,  and  were  known 
to  be  holding  the  fortress  with  second 
line  troops.  Lastly,  in  the  examples  of 
Liege  and  Namur,  the  weakness  of 
the  fortress  before  modern  artillery 
had  been  clearly  shown.  The  French 
in  their  defense  of  Verdun  would  be 
holding  a  position  that  had  grave 
dangers  in  the  event  of  a  forced  retreat ; 


VERDUN  AND  SOME  OF  ITS  DEFENSES 
This  view  looks  upon  Verdun  from  the  direction  directly  opposite  the  one  below.    In  the  foreground  are  some  of 
the  forts  and  defenses  of  the  city;   in  the  background  the  twin  towers  of  the  cathedral,  and  to  the  left  a  part  of 
the  city  destroyed  by  artillery.  Photograph,  N.  Y.  Times 


Alsace-Lorraine  was  made,  along  with  Toul  and  Epinal,  one  of  the  eastern  bulwarks  of  France 


435 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


for  the  Meuse  in  their  rear,  wide  and 
deep  and  liable  to  flood,  was  impassable 
save  by  the  Verdun  bridges  which 
could  be  shell-swept  from  the  heights 
on  the  east.  This  same  river,  too, 
divided  their  line  in  two  and  made  the 
question  of  reinforcements  at  all  times, 
a  serious  problem. 

THE      TOPOGRAPHY      OF       THE       VERDUN 
REGION. 

The  topography  of  the  country 
determined  the  character  of  the  fight- 
ing. On  both  sides  of  the  Meuse,  two 
plateaux  stand  in  relief.  That  on  the 
west  falls  "towards  the  river  in  gentle 
slopes:  from  it  rise  such  famous  hills 
as  Le  Mort  Homme  and  Hill  304.  The 
plateau  on  the  east  has  sharper  edges, 
both  to  the  Meuse,  and  to  its  eastern 
limit — the  plain  of  the  Woevre,  over 
which  the  hills  tower  some  300  metres, 
as  cliffs  above  the  sea.  Innumerable 
streams,  falling  east  and  west,  have  cut 
deep  into  the  clayey  soil  and  broken 
up  the  eastern  mass,  especially,  into  a 
tangled  mass  of  little  hills  and  sharp 
ravines.  These  "  Cdtes  de  Meuse" 
formed  the  strength  of  the  defense  of 
the  Verdun  line,  for  each  hill  dominated 
the  ravine  to  the  north  of  it,  through 
which  the  enemy  must  advance.  The 
vegetation  is  sparse  on  the  somewhat 
sterile  soil,  yet  thick  woods  clothe  the 
hill -sides  and  fringe  the  tops  of  the 
ravines.  For  the  most  part,  the  villages 
cluster  on  the  tops  of  the  cdtes  (as 
their  names  Douaumont,  Beaumont, 
Haudromont  indicate),  and  were  easily 
transformed  into  small  fortresses. 

It  was  on  this  comparatively  narrow 
line  of  the  plateau  between  Woevre 
and  Meuse,  over  the  hills,  across  the 
ridges,  and  around  the  ravines,  that 
the  Germans  planned  to  drive  down 
upon  the  Douaumont  plateau  which 
commanded  Verdun.  Their  right  wing 
was  to  assault  the  French  wing  on  the 
west  of  the  river,  and  their  left  wing 
the  forts  to  the  east  of  the  cdtes,  and 
thus  bring  about  an  encircling  move- 
ment which  would  drive  the  French 
army  with  its  back  up  against  the 
river.  Attacks  from  the  east,  from  the 
plain  of  the  Woevre,  were  important 
during  the  struggle;  but  the  nature  of 
the   terrain   forbade   decision   in    that 

436 


quarter.  The  Battle  of  Nancy,  in  1914, 
had  already  demonstrated  the  steep- 
ness of  the  plateau  scarp.  Moreover, 
at  the  time  of  year  when  the  German 
attack  began,  the  surface  of  the  plateau 
is  impassable  for  large  bodies  of  troops, 
as  its  clayey  soil  retains  the  winter 
rains.  On  the  west  ran  the  river;  and 
the  Germans  perhaps  did  not  take 
sufficient  account  of  the  defensive 
value  of  the  Meuse  to  the  French. 
Dominating  its  continuous  curves,  are 
projecting  spurs;  and  from  at  least 
three  of  these,  the  French  could  not 
only  control  the  crossings  of  the  river, 
but  also  the  German  position  on  the 
upland  beyond. 

THE  VERDUN  OPERATIONS  NOT  REALLY  A 
SIEGE. 

There  is  a  popular  misunderstanding 
of  the  nature  of  the  Verdun  operations, 
which  arises,  perhaps,  from  the  use  of 
the  term  siege,  and  the  ten  months' 
duration  of  the  fighting.  Actually, 
Verdun  was  never  beleaguered,  never 
cut  off  from  the  outside  world  (al- 
though some  of  its  forts  were,  for 
a. while),  and  the  fighting  for  its  pos- 
session was  as  much  a  battle  as  that 
which  took  place  on  the  Marne  or  on 
the  Somme.  Verdun  was  an  immense 
intrenched  camp,  surrounded  by  an 
outer  ring  of  detached  forts  and  bat- 
teries, situated  on  both  banks  of  the 
Meuse.  The  forts  were  in  commanding 
positions,  from  five  to  ten  miles  distant 
from  the  town,  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  country;  those  on  the  south  more 
distant  than  those  on  north  and  east. 
They  were  built  in  masonry  in  1880, 
rebuilt  in  concrete  in  1885,  and  again 
reconstructed  in  improved  material, 
which  the  French  call  beton  armee,  in 
191 1.  After  the  Franco- Prussian  War 
of  1870-71,  Verdun  was  raised  to  the 
rank  of  a  first-class  fortress  and  formed 
part  of  the  fortification  of  the  other- 
wise open  eastern  frontier  of  France. 
German  violation  of  the  neutrality  of 
Belgium  in  order  to  avoid  it,  is 
testimony  to  the  skill  with  which  it 
was  built.  The  French  line  in  Febru- 
ary, 1916,  completely  protected  the 
fortress,  passing  sonue  nine  miles  to 
the  north  and  east  of  it,  until  it  re- 
crossed   or   touched   the   Meuse   again 


fflSTORY  OF  THE  WOBLD  WAR 


437 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


at  St.  Mihiel,  twenty  miles  south  of 
Verdun. 

THREE       DIFFERENT      PHASES      OF      THE 
BATTLE. 

The  phases,  or  periods,  of  the  battle 
of  Verdun,  fall  into  three  separate 
divisions:  the  first,  beginning  at  the 
end  of  February  and  lasting  until 
April  9,  covers  the  German  attacks 
upon   the  centre  and  on  both  wings. 


GENERAL  VON  FALKENHAYN 
When  the  struggle  began  von  Falkenhayn  was  Minister 
for  War;  he  succeeded  the  younger  Moltke  as  Chief-or- 
Staff,    planning   the    offensive   against   Russia    (1915) 
and  France  (1916). 

which  in  the  early  days  reaped  great 
harvest,  but  later  were  brought  to  a 
standstill,  short  of  the  fort.  This 
period  of  German  attack  was  followed 
by  a  time  when  the  enemy  sought  to 
pin  the  French  down  upon  the  Meuse 
so  as  to  prevent  their  aiding  British 
preparations  upon  the  Somme,  and 
lasted  from  April  to  the  middle  of 
July.  The  third  phase  ran  to  Decem- 
ber 13,  the  period  of  French  fixation, 
when  the  French,  in  their  turn,  were 
keeping  the  Germans  from  reinforcing 
their  armies  upon  the  Somme;  and 
ends  with  the  French  successes  in 
October  and  December,  which  practical- 
438 


ly  regained  all  that  the  Germans  had 
captured  in  their  first  onslaught. 

Many  correspondents,  observers,  and 
strategists  have  attempted  to  tell  the 
story  of  Verdun.  It  is  universally 
agreed  that  none  has  succeeded  better, 
either  in  grasp  of  all  the  factors  of  the 
situation  or  in  vividness  of  narrative, 
than  Lord  Northcliffe.  We  are  per- 
mitted to  use  his  thrilling  account 
which  follows. 

1ORD       NORTHCLIFFE'S       THRILLING       AC- 
j     COUNT  OF  THE  BATTLE. 

The  enemy  began  by  massing  a 
surprising  force  on  the  Western  Front. 
It  was  usually  reckoned  that  the  Ger- 
mans maintained  on  all  fronts  a  field 
army  of  about  seventy-four  and  a  half 
army  corps,  which  at  full  strength 
number  three  million  men.  Yet,  while 
holding  the  Russians  from  Riga  to  the 
south  of  the  Pripet  Marshes,  and  main- 
taining a  show  of  force  in  the  Balkans, 
Germany  seems  to  have  succeeded  in 
bringing  up  nearly  two  millions  and  a 
half  of  men  for  her  grand  spring 
offensive  in  the  west.  Troops  and  guns 
were  withdrawn  in  increasing  num- 
bers from  Russia  and  Serbia,  in  Decem- 
ber, 1915,  until  there  were,  it  is 
estimated,  a  hundred  and  eighteen 
divisions  on  the  Franco-British-Belgian 
front.  A  large  number  of  6  in.  and  12 
in.  Austrian  howitzers  were  added  to 
the  enormous  Krupp  batteries.  Then  a 
large  proportion  of  new  recruits  of  the 
1916  class  were  removed  into  Rhine- 
land  depots  to  serve  as  drafts  for  the 
fifty-nine  army  corps,  and  it  is  thought 
that  nearly  all  the  huge  shell  output, 
that  had  accumulated  during  the 
winter,  was  transported  westward. 

THE    FIRST    GERMAN    PLAN    OF     ATTACK 
NOT  A  SURPRISE. 

All  this  gigantic  work  of  prepara- 
tion could  not  be  hidden.  But  I  do 
not  think  the  Allied  Staffs,  in  spite 
of  their  various  and  wide  sources  of 
information,  penetrated  deeply  into 
the  German  plan;  for  the  hostile 
Chief  of  Staff ,  General  von  Falkenhayn, 
made  his  dispositions  in  a  very  skillful 
manner.  Out  of  his  available  total  of 
one  hundred  and  eighteen  divisions, 
he  massed  his  principal  striking  force 
of    thirty-two    divisions    against    the 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


British  army.  Verdun  was  apparently 
only  a  secondary  objective,  .against 
which  fourteen,  and  later,  thirty,  div^i- 
sions  were  concentrated. 

One  effect  of  this  massing  of  German 
troops  against  the  new  and  longer 
British  line  was  that  the  French  com- 
mander at  Verdun,  General  Herr, 
scarcely  expected  the  overwhelming 
attack  made  upon  him  on  February  21, 


THE    GERMAN    ADVANTAGE    IN     THE    AIR 
FOR  THE  FIRST  WEEKS. 

It  is  true  that  one  Zeppelin  was 
brought  down  by  gun  fire  while  trying 
to  bombard  the  French  railway  line  of 
communication,  and  two  German 
aeroplanes  were  destroyed  out  of  a 
squadron  of  fifteen  that  bombed 
Revigny.  But  the  triumph  over  the 
Zeppelin  did  not  in  any  way  alter  the 


THE  WAR-TORTURED  HEIGHTS  ABOVE  THE  MEUSE 

In  the  distance  can  be  seen  a  shell  bursting  on  the  summit  of  Froide-Terre,  a  hill  surmounted  by  a  fort  immediately 
to  the  east  of  the  Meuse  and  opposite  to  Charny.  It  was  a  particularly  strong  defensive  position  because  the  French 
had  guns  posted  on  the  high  land  on  the  west  of  the  river,  which  swept  the  German  attack  with  enfilading  fire. 


1916.  General  yerr's  Staff  knew — 
though  he  himself  obstinately  declined 
to  believe  it — that  the  enemy  was 
preparing  a  formidable  assault  in  the 
woods  north  of  the  old  French  frontier 
fort.  But  though  the  German  airmen 
were  very  active  throughout  January 
and  February,  a  good  deal  could  be 
seen  by  the  French  aerial  observers  of 
the  vast  work  going  on  amid  the  misty 
tracks  of  woodland.  Lieutenant  Im- 
melmann,  and  other  crack  Fokker 
pilots,  joined  the  Crown  Prince's  army, 
and  for  some  weeks  our  allies  at  Verdun 
almost  lost  the  command  of  the  air 
above  their  lines. 


effective  situation.  Our  allies  were  at 
a  very  serious  disadvantage  in  regard 
to  aircraft  during  the  critical  periods 
of  the  German  preparations  and  the 
enemy's  main  attacks.  It  was  not 
until  the  middle  of  March  that  the 
French  recovered  fully,  at  Verdun,  the 
power  of  reconnoitring  the  enemy's 
positions  and  bombing  his  distant  lines 
of  communication. 

The  French  Staff  reckoned  that 
Verdun  would  be  attacked  when  the 
ground  had  dried  somewhat  in  the 
March  winds.  It  was  thought  that  the 
first  enemy  movement  would  take 
place  against  the  British  front  in  some 

439 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


of  the  sectors  in  which  there  were 
chalk  undulations,  through  which  the 
rains  of  winter  quickly  drained.  The 
Germans  skillfully  encouraged  this  idea 
by  making  an  apparent  preliminary 
attack  at  Lihons,  with  rolling  gas- 
clouds  and  successive  waves  of  in- 
fantry. During  this  feint,  the  veritable 
offensive  movement  softly  began  on 
Saturday,  February  19,  1916,  when  the 
enormous  masses  of  hostile  artillery 
west,  east,  and  north  of  the  Verdun 
salient  started  registering  on  the  French 
positions.  Only  in  small  numbers  did 
the  German  guns  fire,  in  order  not 
to  alarm  their  opponents.  But  even 
this  trial  bombardment  was  a  terrible 
display  of  power,  calling  forth  all  the 
energies  of  the  outnumbered  French 
gunners  to  maintain  the  artillery  duels 
that  continued  day  and  night  until 
Monday  morning,  February  21st. 

THE    VERDUN    REGION    SOMEWHAT    LIKE 
SCOTLAND. 

Looking  at  the  country  from  the 
observation  point  east  of  Verdun,  one 
can  see  why  it  was  chosen  by  the 
German  Staff  for  a  grand  surprise 
attack.  As  I  stood,  with  the  flooded 
Meuse  and  its  high  western  banks  be- 
hind me,  and  before  me  the  famous 
plateau  crowned  by  the  ruins  of 
Douaumont  Fort,  I  was  reminded  of 
Scotland.  Perth  on  the  Tay,  amid  its 
fir-wooded  heights,  is  rather  like  Ver- 
dun in  the  basin  of  the  Meuse.  It 
was  the  evergreen  fir-woods  that  at- 
tracted the  German  Staff,  as  splendid 
cover  for  their  vast  artillery  prepara- 
tions. As  their  aircraft  at  last  almost 
dominated  the  French  aeroplanes,  they 
completed  their  concentration  of  guns 
by  an  arrogantly  daring  return  to  old- 
fashioned  methods.  Instead  of  digging 
any. more  gun-pits,  they  placed  hun- 
dreds of  pieces  of  artillery  side  by  side 
above  ground,  .  confident  that  the 
French  artillery  would  be  over- 
whelmed before  it  could  do  any  dam- 
age. A  French  airman,  sent  to  count 
the  batteries  in  the  small  wood  of 
Gremilly,  gave  up  his  task  in  despair, 
saying  there  were  more  guns  than 
trees. 

The  method  of  handling  these  great 
parks  of  artillery  was  a  development 

440 


of  the  phalanx  tactics  used  by  von 
Mackensen  in  breaking  the  Russian 
lines  at  Gorlice;  and  according  to  a 
rumor,  von  Mackensen  was  at  Verdun, 
with  his  chief.  General  von  Falken- 
hayn,  superintending  the  disposition 
of  guns  and  men.  The  commander 
nominally  in  charge,  however,  was 
Field-Marshal  von  Haeseler,  a  tall, 
thin  man  of  eighty,  of  the  type  of  von 
der  Goltz — excellent  at  drawing  up 
schemes  on  paper,  and  accounted, 
before  the  test  of  war,  the  best  military 
leader  in  Germany.  He  had,  therefore, 
been  placed  in  command  of  the  Crown 
Prince's  army,  so  that  by  his  genius  he 
might  win  personal  glory  for  the  Ho- 
henzollern  dynasty.  In  any  case,  it  is 
clear  that  von  Haeseler  either  adopted 
and  developed  von  Mackensen's  new 
system  of  attack,  or  that  von  Macken- 
sen in  person  directed  the  movement, 
with  von  Haeseler  in  nominal  com- 
mand, in  order  to  mislead  the  French 
Staff  as  to  the  way  in  which  the  move- 
ment was  likely  to  develop.  Certainly, 
General  Herr  did  not  anticipate  the 
character  or  the  tremendous  violence 
of  the  assault  that  opened  at  dawn  on 
February  21,  1916. 

THE   TERRIFIC    FORCE   OF   THE   GERMAN 
ARTILLERY. 

For  two  days  the  German  heavy 
howitzers  had  been  battering  at  the 
twenty-five  miles  of  defensive  earth- 
works round  Verdun,  in  order  to  make 
so  large  a  gap  that  the  hostile  long 
range  guns  of  defense  behind  the  third 
line  could  not  close  the  rent  by  means 
of  curtain  fire.  General  Herr,  and  his 
Staff,  had  only  two  army  corps  to  hold 
back  the  seven  army  corps  that  the 
Germans  first  brought  forward;  but 
the  high,  broken,  difficult  ground  about 
Verdun  favored  the  defending  forces. 
Moreover,  the  French  engineers  had 
worked  in  an  astonishing  fashion  to 
perfect  the  natural  difficulties  of  the 
terrain.  In  the  low  ground,  such  as 
that  round  the  two  Ornes  heights,  held 
by  the  Germans,  the  French  had 
tunnels  running  to  a  depth  at  which  no 
shell  could  penetrate.  In  the  three  im- 
portant woodlands  between  Ornes  and 
the  Meuse — Haumont  Wood,  Caures 
Wood,    and    Herbebois    Wood — there 


fflSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


was  all  the  intensive  system  of  pro- 
tection that  had  been  developed  in  the 
Argonne  fighting. 

General  Sarrail  had  only  extended 
his  lines  to  the  woodlands  in  the  plain 
between  the  Meuse  and  Ornes  in  the 
spring  of  1915,  snatching  the  ground 
from  the  enemy  bit  by  bit,  when  the 
German  forces  at  Verdun  were 
weakened  through  sending  re- 
inforcements to  the  Cham- 
pagne and  Lille  fields  of  con- 
flict. General  Sarrail,  however, 
seems  to  have  extended  his 
lines  into  the  low-lying  north- 
ern woodlands  with  consid- 
erable reluctance.  He  liked  hill 
positions  himself,  and  there  was 
a  dispute  between  him  and  the 
High  Command  regarding  his 
manner  of  fortifying  the  newly- 
won  ground.  As  a  result  he  was 
sent  to  Saloniki,  and  the  defense 
of  Verdun  in  the  new  style  was 
given  to  a  new  man,  little 
known  to  the  public — General 
Herr. 

THE  FIRST  LINE  TRENCHES  ARE 
OBLITERATED. 

But  the  phalanx  tactics  of 
the  von  Mackensen  school  were 
calculated  to  overwhelm  any 
system  of  defensive  works, 
new  or  old,  in  forests  or  on 
hillsides.  The  German  attack 
was  irresistible,  and  it  was  only 
the  large  space  of  country 
available  for  retreat  between 
the  Meuse  and  Ornes  line  and 
the  Douaumont  Plateau  that 
saved  Verdun  from  rapid  cap- 
ture. 


each  small  sector  of  the  six-mile 
northward  bulge  of  the  Verdun  salient, 
the  work  of  destruction  was  done  with 
surprising  quickness.  After  the  line 
from  Brabant  to  Haumont  was 
smashed,  the  main  fire  power  was 
directed  against  the  other  end  of  the 
bow  at   Herbebois,   Ornes,   and  Mau- 


™,  ,  FIELD-MARSHAL  VON  HAESELER 

1  he  enemy  seems  to  nave  pield-Marshal  von  Haeseler,  the  veteran  commander  who  accom- 
panied the  Crown  Prince's  forces  against  Verdun,  had  a  brilliant 
reputation  before  the  war,  and  for  this  reason,  although  eighty  years 
of  age,  was  appointed  to  bring  glory  to  the  house  of  HohenzoUern. 


maintained  a  bombardment  all 
round  General  Herr's  lines 
on  February  21,  1916,  but 
this  general  battering  was  done  with  a 
thousand  pieces  of  field-artillery.  The 
grand  masses  of  heavy  howitzers  were 
used  in  a  different  way.  At  a  quarter 
pcLst  seven  in  the  morning  they  con- 
centrated on  the  small  sector  of 
advanced  intrenchments  near  Brabant 
and  the  Meuse;  twelve-inch  shells  fell 
,  with  terrible  precision  every  few  yards. 
The    trenches    were    obliterated.      In 


court.  Then  when  both  ends  of  the 
bow  were  severely  hammered,  the 
central  point  of  the  Verdun  salient, 
Caures  Wood,  was  smothered  in  shells 
of  all  sizes.  In  this  manner,  almost  the 
whole  enormous  force  of  heavy  artil- 
lery was  centred  upon  mile  after  mile 
of  the  French  front.  When  the  great 
guns  lifted  over  the  lines  of  craters, 
the  lighter  field-artillery,   placed   row 

441 


fflSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


after  row  in  front  of  the  wreckage, 
maintained  an  unending  fire  curtain 
over  the  communicating  saps  and 
support  intrenchments.  (See  maps  on 
pages  437  and  452.) 

THE  GERMANS  ATTEMPT  TO  ECONOMIZE 
IN  MEN. 

Then  came  the  second  surprising 
feature  in  the  new  German  system  of 
attack.  No  waves  of  storming  in- 
fantry swept  into  the  shattered  works. 
Only  strong  patrols  at  first  came  for- 
ward, to  discover  if  it  were  safe  for 
the  main  body  of  troops  to  advance 
and  reorganize  the  French  line  so  as  to 
allow  the  artillery  to  move  onward. 
The  German  commanders  thought  it 
would  be  possible  to  do  all  the  fighting 
with  long-range  artillery,  leaving  the 
infantry  to  act  as  squatters  to  the  great 
guns,  and  occupy  and  rebuild  line 
after  line  of  the  French  defenses  with- 
out any  serious  hand-to-hand  strug- 
gles. All  they  had  to  do  was  to  protect 
the  gunners  from  surprise  attack, 
while  the  guns  made  an  easy  path  for 
them,  and  also  beat  back  any  counter- 
attack in  force. 

But,  ingenious  as  was  this  scheme 
for  saving  the  man-power  of  Germany 
by  an  unparalleled  expenditure  of  shell, 
it  required  for  full  success  the  co- 
operation of  the  French  troops.  But 
the  French  did  not  co-operate.  Their 
High  Command  had  continually  im- 
proved their  system  of  trench  defense 
in  accordance  with  the  experiences  of 
their  own  hurricane  bombardments  in 
Champagne  and  the  Carency  sector. 
General  de  Castelnau,  the  acting 
Commander-in-Chief  on  the  French 
front,  was,  indeed,  the  inventor  of 
hurricane  fire  tactics,  which  he  had 
used  for  the  first  time  in  February, 
1 91 5,  in  Champagne.  When  General 
J  off  re  took  over  the  conduct  of  all 
French  operations,  leaving  to  General 
de  Castelnau  the  immediate  control 
of  the  front  in  France,  the  victor  of  the 
Battle  of  Nancy  weakened  his  advance 
lines  and  then  his  support  lines,  until 
his  troops  actually  engaged  in  fighting 
were  very  little  more  than  a  thin  cover- 
ing body,  such  as  is  thrown  out  towards 
the  frontier  while  the  main  forces 
connect  well  behind. 

442 


THE  FRENCH  WITHDRAW  THE  GREATER 
PART  OF  THEIR  MEN. 

The  tactical  effect  of  this  extra- 
ordinary measure  was  to  leave  re- 
markably few  French  troops  exposed 
to  the  appalling  tempest  of  German 
and  Austrian  shells.  The  fire-trench 
was  almost  empty,  and  in  many  cases 
the  real  defenders  of  the  French  line 
were  men  with  machine-guns,  hidden  at 
some  distance  from  the  positions  at 
which  the  German  gunners  aimed.  The 
batteries  of  light  guns,  which  the 
French  handled  with  the  flexibility 
and  continuity  of  fire  of  maxims,  were 
also  concealed  in  widely-scattered  posi- 
tions. The  main  damage  caused  by  the 
first  intense  bombardment  was  the  de- 
struction of  all  the  telephone  wires  along 
the  French  front.  Communications 
could  only  be  slowly  re-established  by 
messengers,  so  that  many  parties  of 
men  had  to  fight  on  their  own  initia- 
tive, with  little  or  no  combination  of 
effort  with  their  comrades. 

Yet,  desperate  as  were  their  cir- 
cumstances, they  broke  down  the 
German  plan  for  capturing  trenches 
without  an  infantry  attack.  They 
caught  the  patrols  and  annihilated 
them,  and  then  swept  back  the  disil- 
lusioned and  reluctant  main  bodies  of 
German  troops.  The  small  French 
garrison  of  every  centre  of  resistance, 
fought  with  cool,  deadly  courage  and 
often  to  the  death. 

THE   CAURES  WOOD   IS   SOLD   AT   A   HIGH 
PRICE. 

The  organization  of  the  French 
Machine-gun  Corps  was  a  fine  factor 
in  the  eventual  success.  One  gun 
fired  ten  thousand  rounds  daily  for 
a  week,  most  of  the  positions  selected 
being  spots  from  which  each  German 
infantry  advance  would  be  enfiladed 
and  shattered.  Then  the  French 
"75's"  which  had  been  masked  during 
the  overwhelming  fire  of  the  enemy's 
howitzers,  came  unexpectedly  into 
action  when  the  German  infantry 
attacks  increased  in  strength.  Near 
Haumont,  for  example,  eight  suc- 
cessive furious  attacks  were  repulsed  by 
three  batteries  of  "75's." 

Some  of  the  Hdumont  guns  got 
through  the  German  fire  curtain,  and^ 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


helped  in  the  defense  of  the  Caures 
Wood.  Here  there  occurred  some 
memorable  exploits.  First  of  all,  the 
wood  was  lost  by  the  smashing  effect 
of  the  German  heavy  shell  fire.  The 
position  was  almost  as  strong  as  the 
famous  German  Labyrinth  near  Arras, 
and,  knowing  this,  the  enemy  used 
his  i6.8  in.  Berthas  in  addition  to  the 
12  in.  Skoda  guns.  The  deep  roofs 
were  driven  down  upon  the  men  shelter- 
ing beneath,  and  the  wood  had  to  be 


air,    and    the   Germans   suffered   very 
badly. 

APART    OF    THE     WOOD     TEMPORARILY 
RECOVERED. 

Soon  afterwards,  Lieutenant-Colonel 
Driant,  with  two  fine  battalions  of 
Chasseurs,  recovered  by  a  counter- 
attack the  southern  part  of  Caures 
Wood.  Driant  was  a  magnificent 
soldier.  His  heroic  end  saddened  the 
French  people,  and  yet  inspired  them 
with    fresh    courage.     Tlie    day    after 


SOLDIERS  ON  THE  WAY  TO  VERDUN 
This  picture  shows  a  roadside  halt  of  a  "fleet"  of  motor  omnibuses.    German  guns  commanded  the  principal  rail- 
way communications,  but  a  special  committee  had  charge  of  the  problem  of  road  transport,  and  during  the  first 
fortnight  of  the  German  offensive  the  tra£Bc  handled  represented  the  capacity  of  fifteen  trains  a  day  in  each  direc- 
tion.    Many  of  the  omnibuses  used  were  taken  from  the  streets  of  Paris  and  other  cities  of  France. 

abandoned.    But  the  survivors  of  the 


garrison  held  the  enemy  back,  while  a 
lieutenant  of  engineers  with  his  men 
laid  a  large  number  of  mines  with 
electrical  firing  wires.  The  German 
general,  after  his  skirmishers  and  bomb- 
ing-parties had  been  beaten  off,  went 
back  to  the  old  Prussian  method  of  a 
mass  'attack,  and  launched  a  division 
against  the  wood.  By  arrangement, 
the  French  covering  troops  fled  in 
apparent  panic,  and  were  hotly  chased 
down  the  trenches  and  communication 
saps  to  the  southern  outskirts.  As 
the  last  man  left  the  wood,  the  lieu- 
tenant of  engineers  who  was  near 
Beaumont  waiting  the  signal,  pressed 
a  button.   Many  of  the  trees  rose  in  the 


his  fine  victory,  the  forces  on  either 
side  of  him  were  compelled  to  with- 
draw, and  the  Germans  closed  round 
him  on  both  sides.  Arranging  his 
two  battalions  in  five  columns,  he 
made  a  splendid  fighting  retreat  be- 
tween the  two  German  divisions  which 
almost  enveloped  his  force.  With 
only  a  hundred  men  he  rearguarded 
the  retirement,  and  was  found  dead 
by  the  Germans  on  the  battlefield. 
He  was  buried  beside  one  of  his  cap- 
tains close  to  the  wood. 

In  spite  of  the  vast  forces  em- 
ployed by  the  enemy,  the  Germans 
achieved  but  little  on  the  first  day  of 
battle,  February  2 1st.  They  won  a 
footing  in  the  first-line  trenches  and  in 

443 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


some  of  the  supporting  trenches — a 
thing,  any  army  could  have  done  with 
a  large  expenditure  of  shell.  The 
French  still  held  Brabant  and  Hau- 
mont,  with  Colonel  Driant  in  Caures 
Wood  and  the  garrisons  of  Herbebois 
Wood  and  Ornes  holding  their  own. 
But  on  the  morning  of  February  22, 
the  Germans  worked  up  a  ravine  be- 
tween Brabant  and  Haumont  by 
means  of  burning  liquids  spurted  from 
flame-projectors.  At  the  same  time  the 
German  artillery  renewed  its  smashing, 
intensive  fire,  wrecking  and  flattening 
out  Haumont  village  and  breaking 
up  the  French  works  for  a  depth  of 
three  or  four  miles.  Fortified  farms 
were  bombarded  south  of  Haumont 
Wood  and  transformed  into  volcanoes 
by  the  huge  German  shells,  and  when 
night  fell  trench  warfare  had  come  to 
an  end,  so  far  as  the  northern  part  of 
the  Verdun  garrison  was  concerned. 

THE    EFFECT    OF    THE    GERMAN     ARTIL- 
LERY. 

All  their  earthworks  had  been  swept 
out  of  existence,  and  the  troops  fought 
and  worked  in  the  open  in  a  tragic 
darkness  lighted  by  the  enemy's  won- 
derful star-shells.  They  had  been 
hammered  out  of  Brabant,  on  the 
edge  of  the  Meuse,  and  their  centre 
had  been  driven  in.  On  the  right, 
however,  the  garrison  of  Herbebois 
Wood  still  clung  on  to  part  oU  their 
original  position,  under  an  inter- 
mittent hurricane  of  heavy  shell,  the 
intervals  of  which  were  filled  by  in- 
fantry attacks.  Under  the  enemy's 
fire  the  French  troops  linked  their 
Herbebois  line  with  Hill  351,  digging 
all  night  in  a  rain  of  death  to  connect 
the  two  positions  for  a  fresh  defense 
against  an  enfilading  attack  on  Beau- 
mont. When  morning  broke,  the 
Germans  began  the  attack  on  this 
new  French  line.  After  a  desperate 
struggle  lasting  twelve  hours,  in  which 
the  enemy  commander  continually 
brought  up  fresh  regiments,  the  French 
retired  from  Herbebois  and  another 
wood  below  it,  but  still  held  on  to  the 
hill. 

All  along  this  side  of  the  salient 
hand-to-hand  fighting  went  on,  from 
Ornes  to  Bezonvaux  and  the  advanced 

444 


position  of  the  Hill,  of  Vaux.  Small 
French  garrisons  held  advanced  posi- 
tions in  the  plain  stretching  towards  the 
enemy's  base  of  Etain.  There  was 
terrible  fighting  at  Maucourt,  where 
the  French  had  some  quick-firing 
guns  posted  only  five  yards  apart,  and 
unmasked  against  German  columns 
charging  twenty  men  abreast  in  close 
ranks.  The  French  soldiers  themselves 
sickened  at  the  slaughter  they  wrought. 
From  Ornes  to  Vaux  the  ground  was 
covered  with  dead  or  maimed  men. 
The  French  gunners  suffered  more  in 
proportion  than  their  infantry,  especial- 
ly in  the  centre  and  the  left  wing, 
where  the  guns  had  to  fight  a  continual 
rearguard  action  in  the  open.  Though 
they  often  caught  German  columns 
at  short  range,  they  were  in  turn 
smitten  by  the  heavy  German  guns; 
enemy  airmen  circling  over  them  and 
directing  the  fire. 

THE  ZOUAVES  AND  THE  AFRICANS  HOLD 
FAST. 

Ornes  held  out  until  the  afternoon 
of  February  24,  when  the  garrison 
retreated  to  Bezonvaux,  from  which 
a  ravine  ran  up  to  Douaumont.  Cov- 
ering the  country  north  of  Douaumont 
was  a  superb  set  of  fighters  composed 
of  Zouaves  and  African  sharpshooters. 
They  recaptured  part  of  the  wood 
between  Herbebois  and  Hill  351,  and 
then  withstood  a  prolonged  bombard- 
ment of  terrific  intensity.  The  din 
and  concussion  of  the  heavy  shells 
were  appalling;  the  blood  at  times 
poured  from  the  men's  ears  under  the 
shock  of  the  pressure  of  air,  and  yet 
they  stuck  to  their  job.  They  were 
pushed  out  of  Beaumont  and  out  of 
the  wood  they  had  recaptured,  and 
they  lost  Fosses  Wood  a  little  way 
below  the  Douaumont  Plateau,  towards 
which  they  retired. 

Meanwhile,  the  centre  and  left 
of  the  French  salient  were  hammered 
back  with  increasing  rapidity.  The 
division  close  to  the  Meuse,  which 
had  withdrawn  from  Brabant  and 
Haumont,  tried  in  vain  to  counter- 
attack from  their  second  line  at 
Samogneux,  Hill  344,  and  a  fortified 
farm  near  by.  The  enemy  massed  his 
guns  against  them  across  the  Meuse, 


fflSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


northward,  and  north-westward.  They 
could  not  move  out  to  attack,  and 
by  the  evening  of  February  23,  their 
position  was  untenable.  In  the  night 
they  withdrew  from  Samogneux 
towards  Pepper  Hill  {Coie  du  Poivre), 
which  was  practically  their  last  dom- 
inating position.  Pepper  Hill  was, 
indeed,  the  critical  position  of  the  en- 
tire defense  of  Verdun.  Had  the 
enemy  won  it,  he  would  have  been  able 
to  advance  along  the  Meuse  and  cut 
off  a  large  part  of  the  French  forces  in 
the  salient. 


were  thus  shattered,  their  front  was 
hammered  from  the  Pepper  Hill  posi- 
tion. At  Vacherauville,  a  village  just 
below  Pepper  Hill,  the  enemy's  ad- 
vance was  definitely  checked  on  Feb- 
ruary 25.  In  one  ravine  near  the 
village,  as  day  was  breaking,  some 
French  gunners  on  Pepper  Hill  espied 
a  grey  mass  of  hostile  forces,  and 
shelled  it  furiously.  The  Germans  did 
not  move.  When  the  light  was  clear, 
it  was  seen  that  the  figures  were  dead, 
though  many  still  stood  upright.  They 
had   been   caught   the   evening   before 


THE  KAISER  AlfD  HIS  ADVISERS  AT  HEADQUARTERS 
In  the  rear,  standing,  from  left  to  right  are:    von  Biilow,  von  Mackensen,  von  Moltke,  the  Crown  Prince,  von 
Franfois,  LudendorS,  von  Falkenhayn,  von  Einem,  von  Beseler,  von  Bethmann-HoUweg,  and  von  Heeringen. 
Seated  from  right  to  left:    von  Tirpitz,  von  Hindenburg,  von  Haeseler,  von  Emmich,  von  Kluck,  the  Duke  of 
Wiirttemberg,  the  Crown  Prince  of  Bavaria,  and  in  front,  the  Kaiser. 

'T^HE  DEADLY  DEFENSE  OF  PEPPER  HILL. 

General  Herr  and  his  Staff,  however, 
devised  a  deadly  system  of  defense  for 
Pepper  Hill.  Across  the  river  at  this 
point  the  French  held  several  lines  of 
dominating  heights,  from  which  they 
poured  a  flanking  fire  into  every  hostile 
force  advancing  from  Brabant  and 
Haumont.  The  nearer  the  Germans 
came  to  Verdun,  on  the  Pepper  Hill 
sector,  the  more  terribly  they  suffered 
from  the  fire  across  the  Meuse.  They 
came  within  range  of  rifles,  machine- 
guns,  and  light  field-pieces,  as  well  as 
heavy  howitzers,  and  while  their  flanks 


by  the  guns  across  the  river  and  slain 
wholesale,  more  by  shell-blast,  ap- 
parently, than  by  shell  fragments. 

Von  Haeseler  had  made  a  costly 
mistake  in  driving  up  the  Meuse 
towards  Pepper  Hill  before  he  cleared 
the  French  from  Goose  Crest  {Cdte  de 
VOie),  Dead  Man  Hill  {Mort  Homme) 
and  Charny  Ridge  across  the  river. 
He  afterwards  tried  to  remedy  his 
error  by  bringing  his  main  artillery 
forces  against  Goose  Crest  and  Dead 
Man  Hill.  But  before  thus  widening 
the  scope  of  his  attack,  he  tried  to 
preserve  the  intensive,  narrow  method 
of  assault  in  the  von  Mackensen  style, 

445 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


by  thrusting  into  the  centre  of  the 
flattened  Verdun  salient.  That  is  to 
say,  he  shifted  the  point  of  the  phalanx 
from  Pepper  Hill  to  the  middle  of  the 
Douaumont  Plateau.  This  was  the 
right  and  plain  course,  for  it  removed 
the  attacking  masses  and  their  im- 
mediate artillery  supports  from  the 
French  flanking  fire  across  the  Meuse, 
and  brought  them  nearly  within  reach 
of  victory. 

THE  SNOWSTORMS  HINDER  THE  GERMAN 
ATTACK. 

The  great  thrust  into  the  French 
centre  also  cleared  the  French  out 
of  the  eastern  edges  of  the  Heights  of 
the  Meuse  overlooking  the  Woevre 
Plain,  for  the  Zouaves  and  Moroccans 
and  the  former  garrisons  of  Herbebois 
and  Ornes  were  farthest  from  Verdun, 
and  most  in  danger  of  being  cut  off. 
The  Zouaves  and  Moroccans  fell  back 
on  Douaumont,  while  the  troops  from 
Bezonvaux  intrenched  by  the  Douau- 
mont Ravine  and  the  Vaux  Ravine. 

Then  the  great  snowstorm  of  Febru- 
ary swept  over  the  hilly  battlefield 
and  the  lowland  marshes  of  the 
Woevre.  The  storm  was  a  disaster 
to  the  Germans.  It  robbed  them  in  the 
crisis  of  the  struggle  of  their  tremen- 
dous power  of  artillery.  Gunners  and 
aerial  observers  were  blinded,  and 
from  their  point  of  view  matters  were 
not  much  improved  by  the  mist  that 
followed  the  snow.  Snowdrifts  in  the 
valley  paths  delayed  the  forward 
movement  of  the  guns  and  the  bringing 
up  of  ammunition  and  supplies  to  the 
firing-line.  This  was  when  the  original 
German  plan  for  economy  in  men  went 
all  to  pieces.  The  High  Command 
could  not  wait  for  its  guns  to  resume 
full  action.  The  infantry  had  to 
undertake,  with  diminished  artillery 
support,  the  terrible  work  of  breaking 
the  French  front  by  hand-to-hand 
fighting.  Verdun,  after  all,  was  to  be 
purchased  with  German  blood  and  not 
with  German  shells. 

NEW    FRENCH    DEFENSES    ARE    HASTILY 
PREPARED. 

The  great  arc  of  artillery  was  still 
able  to  work  by  the  map  and  by  ob- 
servers in  the  firing-line.  It  could 
pound  villages,   farms,   and  old  forts, 

446 


in  which  P'rench  troops  might  be 
sheltering,  but  it  could  not  aim  at  the 
manoeuvring  columns  and  discern  all 
the  paths  of  communication.  On  the 
Plateau  of  Douaumont,  some  four 
hundred  feet  above  the  Meuse.  the 
garrison  of  Verdun  had  the  old  in- 
trenchments  prepared  at  the  outbreak 
of  the  war  and  impr'^ved  by  long  labor. 
Then  there  were  many  improvised  new 
defenses — masked  batteries  of  quick- 
firers,  to  be  unmasked  only  against 
mass  infantry  attacks,  hundreds  of 
machine-guns  detached  from  battalion 
service  and  acting  as  a  sort  of  secondary 
artillery  corps.  And  far  behind  the 
flaming,  smoking  plateau  there  was  a 
superhuman  outburst  of  activity  in 
France,  veiled  from  enemy  air  scouts 
by  the  falling  snow. 

General  Joffre,  General  de  Castelnau, 
and  their  Staffs  were  now  convinced 
that  Verdun  was  the  enemy's  first 
objective.  The  British  army  took 
over  all  the  line  where  the  second 
grand  German  offensive  was  expected, 
thus  liberating  important  French  rein- 
forcements for  the  battle  on  the 
Heights  of  the  Meuse.  All  lines  and 
roads  leading,  round-about  or  direct, 
towards  Verdun,  were  crowded  with 
men  and  material.  The  main  French 
force  was  driving  towards  the  enemy. 
The  only  matter  of  doubt  was  whether 
it  would  arrive  in  time  to  hold  Verdun, 
or  whether  the  supreme  contest  be- 
tween French  and  German  would  take 
place  on  the  western  side  of  the  Meuse. 

THE     ORIGINAL    GARRISON     OF     VERDUN 
HOLDS  FAST. 

This  depended  upon  the  staying 
power  of  the  small  original  garrison 
of  Verdun.  At  heroic  sacrifice  they 
had  to  cover  the  massing  of  the  great 
new  forces.  The  situation  had  become 
very  critical  on  the  afternoon  of 
February  24,  when  large  enemy 
forces  debouched  between  Louvemont 
village  and  the  hill  in  front  of  the 
Douaumont  Plateau.  General  Herr 
flung  all  his  remaining  reserves  into 
the  fight,  with  the  order  that  the  line 
between  Douaumont  and  Haudro- 
mont  was  to  be  held  .at  any  cost.  Von 
Haeseler  in  turn,  brought  all  his  avail- 
able infantry  and  employed   them  in 


raSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


mass  attacks  of  great  ferocity  and 
persistence.  His  aim  was  to  wear  down 
the  physical  power  of  endurance  of  the 
French.  On  February  25,  the  Ger- 
mans, after  a  long  hand-to-hand  wres- 
tle, took  all  the  village  of  Louvemont 
at  the  slope  of  the  plateau,  and 
climbed  up  the  ridge,  but  were  thrown 
down. 


defenses.  Meanwhile,  before  General 
Petain  could  get  to  work,  there  was  the 
immediate  task  of  checking  the  massed 
infantry  attacks  which  the  enemy  was 
employing  until  the  air  cleared  and  his 
guns  were  sited  on  the  new  Beaumont 
position.  General  de  Castelnau  could 
not  bring  up  a  large  force — time  and 
means  were  lacking.     A  picked   body 


FRENCH  FIGHTING  IN  IMPROVISED  DEFENSES 

Around  Verdun  the  German  heavy  artillery  pounded  the  strongest  forts  into  fragments,  but  in  shell-holes,  in  tunnels 
dug  into  the  sides  and  strengthened  by  sandbags,  the  French  ojtposts  took  refuge  and  held  on  grimly.  The  uncon- 
querable tenacity  exliibited  by  the  French  soldier  has  never  been  surpassad  in  the  annals  of  warfare. 


About  this  time  General  de  Castel- 
nau came  to  Verdun  to  see  how 
things  were  going  on.  He  was  not 
contented  with  what  he  saw.  The 
Germans  had  won  a  magnificent  artil- 
lery position  on  the  high  land  at 
Beaumont,  towards  which  they  were 
dragging  the  main  group  of  their 
heavy  guns.  The  command  of  the  air 
had  been  almost  lost,  and  there  were 
not  enough  pontoon  bridges,  across 
the  flooded  Meuse,  to  bring  up  quickly 
the  needed  reinforcements.  General 
Herr  was  relieved  of  his  command,  and 
a  very  fine  engineer,  who  was  also  a 
specialist  in  handling  heavy  artillery. 
General  Petain,  was  entrusted  with 
the     reorganization     of     the     Verdun 


of  fighters  was  needed,  and  the  General 
wired  for  the  Bretons  who  had  won  the 
Battle  of  Nancy  for  him — the  Bretons 
of  the  Twentieth  Army  Corps,  under 
General  Balfourier. 

THE   KAISER    ARRIVES   TO   SEE   THE   VIC- 
TORY. 

They  arrived  just  in  time  on  the 
plateau  on  February  26.  As  was 
the  case  at  Nancy,  the  Kaiser  was 
present,  watching  the  development  of 
a  "grand  German  victory."  He  stood 
on  one  of  the  hills  near  Ornes,  with 
the  Crown  Prince  by  his  side,  and  von 
Falkenhayn  and  von  Haeseler.  For 
reasons  of  domestic  politics,  a  purely 
Prussian  force — the  Brandenburgers — 
had  been  chosen  to  deal  the  decisive 

447 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


stroke.  All  the  previous  day  and  the 
previous  night  ordinary  German  divi- 
sions carried  out  the  real  work  of 
smashing  against  the  Zouaves  and 
Moroccans,  and  bringing  them  to  the 
limit  of  human  endurance. 

The  Zouaves  were  perfect.  They 
were  in  front  of  Douaumont  village, 
with  the  Moroccan  Division  and  two 
infantry  regiments;  they  fought  for 
two  days  and  two  nights  without  eating 
or  sleeping.  On  February  26,  when 
Douaumont  Fort  was  lost,  the  Zouaves 
and  their  comrades  still  held  the 
village,  and  on  February  27,  without 
help,  they  broke  the  long  prepared 
attack  by  part  of  the  German  Fifteenth 
Army  Corps.  They  let  their  foes  come 
within  two  hundred  yards  and  then 
put  a  shrapnel  curtain  behind  them  to 
prevent  retreat  or  reinforcement,  and 
smote  them  down  with  "75's",  ma- 
chine-guns, and  rifles.  The  struggle  for 
the  village  went  on  to  the  end  of  the 
month,  by  which  time  the  Germans  had 
made  eighteen  attacks  in  force,  all  of 
which  were  broken.  When  the  ap- 
proaches to  Douaumont  were  covered 
with  dead  and  wounded,  the  French 
made  a  counter-attack,  and  won  a 
footing  in  a  redoubt  north-west  of  the 
village,  from  which  the  enemy  had 
been  pouring  an  uncomfortable  ma- 
chine-gun fire. 

'-pHE  BRETON   CORPS   SAVES   THE   DAY. 

Stubborn,  however,  as  was  the  stand 
made  by  the  Zouaves,  they  would 
have  perished  on  the  critical  day  of 
the  Douaumont  fight  but  for  the 
arrival  of  Balfourier's  Bretons.  On 
the  afternoon  of  that  day  they  were  in 
extreme  peril  of  being  enveloped  on 
their  right.  The  dismantled  fort  had 
been  taken  by  three  thousand  Branden- 
burgers  during  the  heavy  fog.  Still 
working  by  the  map,  the  gunners  of 
the  long-range  German  and  Austrian 
artillery  massed  with  remarkable  pre- 
cision against  the  fortress  works,  and 
then  poured  great  shells  about  it,  in  a 
blind  profusion  which  was  expensive 
but  effective.  After  thi^s  bombardment 
had  made  the  trenches  of  the  troops 
untenable,  the  Brandenburgers,  who 
had  come  in  the  night  up  the  ravine 

448 


from  Bezonvaux  and  gathered  in  a 
wood,  charged  under  cover  of  the  fog, 
and  won  a  footing  on  the  plateau. 
Reaching  the  dismantled  fort,  that 
crowns  a  swell  of  ground  some  1,200 
feet  above  sea-level,  the  men  of  the 
Brandenburg  Mark  tried  to  break 
through  the  French  rearguard.  But 
after  withdrawing  for  a  mile  and  a 
quarter,  the  French  line  remained  un- 
broken, bent  away  from  the  fort,  but 
still  curving  round  the  village. 

Friday  night  (the  25th),  and  Satur- 
day morning,  were  a  period  of  extreme 
crisis.  Open  field  fighting  of  the  most 
desperate  nature  went  on  continuously. 
The  Germans  fought  with  great  brav- 
ery, according  to  the  best  tradition  of 
Prussian  discipline.  But  the  French, 
French  Colonial,  and  African  troops 
still  bore  up  against  the  superior  num- 
bers of  fresh  enemy  forces.  Fighting 
and  working,  our  allies  strove  -to  estab- 
lish themselves  solidly  on  their  new 
line  of  defense,  while  the  Germans, 
with  victory  apparently  well  within 
their  reach,  tried  to  break  through  by 
overwhelming  weight  and  unfaltering 
driving  power.  They  took,  without 
breaking,  heavier  punishment  than 
their  own  theorists  before  the  war 
expected  modern  national  armies  to 
stand.  But  firm  as  they  were,  the  out- 
numbered French  soldiers  were  firmer, 
and  as  twilight  was  falling,  Balfourier, 
with  the  famous  Twentieth  Army 
Corps,  came  into  action. 

THE  BRANDENBURGERS  FAIL  TO  BREAK 
THROUGH. 

The  vehemence  of  attack  of  the 
fresh  French  force  was  terrific.  The 
men  went  forward  with  such  speed  that 
the  enemy  was  surprised.  The  Bretons 
smashed  onwards  for  more  than  a  mile, 
joining  on  to  the  Zouaves  at  Douau- 
mont village,  and  enclosing  part  of  a 
Brandenburg  regiment  in  the  fort. 
The  Germans  on  the  slope  of  the  ravine, 
however,  managed  to  hold  on  to  a  sap 
running  through  a  coppice  and  con- 
necting with  the  fort.  The  enemy  thus 
retained  a  valuable  observation  station 
on  the  plateau,  from  which  he  could 
direct  his  main  batteries  at  Beaumont. 
But  for  the  rest  he  was  trapped. 

The  Kaiser,  in  person,  had  sustained 


fflSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


to  a  defeat.  Two  hundred  thousand 
German  casualties  are  alleged  to  have 
been  the  Kaiser's  estimate  of  the 
worth  of  Verdun. 

GENERAL    p£tAIN,   A  MASTER  OF  ARTIL- 
LERY. 

All    this,    however,    greatly    aggra- 
vated the  burden  on  the  mind  of  the 


a    more    disastrous    defeat    than    he 
had  received  at  Nancy,  for  at  Verdun 
he  could  not  retire.   He  had  telegraphed 
to  Berlin  news  of  his  great  victory  over 
the  "hereditary  enemy";  his  officials 
had    filled    the    German    and    neutral 
press    with    glorious    anticipations    of 
the  capture  of  Verdun,  of  which  the 
principal   fort  w^as  alleged   to 
have  fallen.    Rumania,  accord- 
ing  to  Teutonic  opinion,  was 
only    being    restrained     from 
following  the  example  oT  Italy 
by  the  tremendous  energy  with 
which   the  Germans  were  re- 
newing their  drive  in  France. 
The  Kaiser's  telegram  concern- 
ing  the  conquest    of   Douau- 
mont  had  been  sent  to  Berlin 
as  a  transmitting  station;    its 
true  destination  was  Bucharest. 

THE     KAISER    ORDERS    VERDUN 
TAKEN  AT  ANY  COST. 

I  cannot  think  of  any  par- 
allel in  history  to  this  phase 
of  the  situation  at  Verdun. 
The  War  Lord  of  Germany  was 
entangled  in  the  web  of  his 
own  prestige.  To  General  de 
Castelnau  and  General  Joffre 
the  operations  at  Verdun  as- 
sumed a  new  complexion.  If 
they  could  bring  up  and  or- 
ganize their  forces  in  time, 
they  had  the  enemy  so  fixed 
that  they  could  bleed  white 
one  of  his  largest  armies.  They 
might  also  sap  the  strength  of 
movements  he  was   preparing  GENERAL  HENRI  PHILIPPE  PETAIN 

in     nthf^r    HirfrtinnQ      hv     rnm-  Though  only  a  colonel  at  the  outbreak  of  war,  in  April  1917  he  was 

m    Otner     airections,     Oy     com  appointed  Commander-in-Chief  of  all  the  French  armies  in  France, 

pelling       him       continually      to  During  the  three  years'  interval  the  most  brilliant  page  in  his  career 

•    r  .       11  .       w      \T  was  the  defense  of  Verdun. 

reinforce  at  ail  costs  his  Ver- 
dun   army.     Only    so    long    as    they 


kept  the  Crown  Prince  out  of  Verdun 
could  they  hold  the  Kaiser  trapped  in 
his  own  boasts,  with  all  his  people 
waiting  for  the  fulfillment  of  their 
high  hopes,  in  an  intensity  of  spirit 
that  might  be  an  important  moral 
factor  if  cheated  of  success.  Verdun 
had  become  more  than  a  military 
objective.  For  Germany,  its  political 
and  moral  value  had  become  even 
greater  than  its  strategical  importance. 
It  was  worth  capturing  at  a  cost  of 
life  that  made  the  capture  equivalent 


new  defender  of  the  French  frontier 
town.  General  Petain,  who,  never- 
theless, carried  his  burden  easily. 
Tall,  fair,  blue-eyed,  of  the  northern 
stock  of  France  that  has  absorbed 
much  Flemish  blood,  Petain  was  ra- 
diant with  energy  of  both  character 
and  mind.  He  was  only  a  colonel  of  the 
engineers  in  August,  1914,  but  while 
developing  his  own  special  branch  of 
knowledge  and  showing  a  fine  gift 
of  leadership  in  the  handling  of  in- 
fantry, he  became  also  a  master-gunner 
— the    new    French    heavy    howitzers 

449 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


being  his  favorite  weapon.  It  was  as 
the  master-gunner  of  France  that  he 
was  brought  by  General  de  Castelnau 
to  Verdun  to  fight  against  the  two 
thousand  guns  of  the  German  phalanx, 
the  largest  pieces  of  which  carried 
farther  than  the  French  heavy  howit- 
zer immediately  available. 

General  P^tain,  however,  had  a 
method  of  getting  more  out  of  his 
howitzers  than  the  manufacturers  ex- 
pected. Even  with  his  medium  pieces 
he  could  often  overpower  heavy  enemy 
guns.  He  had,  besides,  worked  out  a 
method  by  which  he  could  use  these 
medium  pieces  with  the  flexibility  of 
light  field-artillery.  But  until  he  had 
constructed  his  telephone  service,  re- 
covered the  command  of  the  air,  and 
got  his  guns  into  the  special  positions 
required  by  his  system,  he  had  a 
desperately  hard  struggle  to  maintain 
his  line  and  win  time  for  completing 
his  preparations. 

f-pHE  LULL  AFTER  THE  GREAT  STORM. 

After  breaking  against  the  Douau- 
mont  Ridge  on  February  26,  the 
German  attack  seemed  to  weaken. 
Fierce  infantry  fighting  continued  at 
Douamuont  village  till  the  end  of  the 
month.  Then  came  an  ominous  period 
of  calm,  lasting  three  days.  The  enemy 
was  moving  his  enormous  parks  of 
guns  closer  to  Verdun.  But  the  time 
thus  spent  by  the  Germans  was  like  a 
gift  from  heaven  to  General  Petain. 
He  threw  bridges  over  the  Meuse;  he 
augmented  his  gun  power  on  the  west- 
ern heights  at  Dead  Man  Hill  and 
Charny  Ridge,  making  his  flanking 
fire  from  this  direction  more  deadly 
and  far-reaching;  he  strengthened  the 
Douaumont  Plateau  defenses,  and 
poured  in  guns,  ammunition,  and  fresh 
troops. 

General  Petain  did  not,  however, 
pack  his  infantry  into  the  restricted 
Verdun  area.  Under  fire  his  men  were 
scattered  but  fresh;  the  main  force 
being  well  out  of  range  of  the  German 
artillery,  and  used  in  short  shifts  at 
the  front.  On  the  other  hand,  no  Ger- 
man within  five  miles  of  the  French 
guns  was  safe.  As  the  new  French 
commander's  shell  supply  quickened, 

450 


by  his  constant  improvement  of  his 
lines  of  communication,  and  as  newly- 
rifled  guns  arrived  regularly  to  replace 
those  worn  by  firing,  he  gradually 
dominated  the  German  artillery. 

THE  GERMANS  ARE  INDUCED  TO  WASTE 
SHELLS. 

In  continual  drum-fire  bombard- 
ments it  was  not  only  shell  stores  that 
were  spent,  but  the  life  of  the  heavy 
ordnance.  The  wasting  of  shell  ac- 
cumulation and  the  wearing  out  of  the 
guns  cripple  the  immediate  offensive 
power  of  a  nation  in  a  manner  that  no 
reserve  of  man-power  could  supply. 
General  Petain,  therefore,  had  to  pro- 
voke the  hostile  artillery  into  con- 
stant action,  as  well  as  induce  the 
German  infantry  to  fling  itself  against 
the  quick-firers  and  machine-guns. 
Thus,  even  if  he  could  have  done  so  at 
once,  it  might  not  have  been  sound 
policy  to  overwhelm  the  enemy  with  a 
large  part  of  the  French  accumulation 
of  shell.  Considerable  subtlety  in 
playing  upon  the  mind  of  the  German 
commander  was  needed  in  order  to 
induce  him  to  exhaust  all  his  resources 
thoroughly,  while  not  doing  any  griev- 
ous damage  to  France. 

General  Petain  was  always  willing 
to  sell  at  a  good  price  the  pieces  of 
ground  he  did  not  want.  On  the  first 
day  of  his  command  he  withdrew  all 
French  posts  in  the  Woevre  Plain  and 
placed  them  upon  the  high  ground. 
But  afterwards  he  was  not  so  sternly 
scientific  in  his  concentrations  of  force. 
Instead  of  evacuating  his  weak  points, 
he  concealed  machine-guns  around 
them  with  observers  at  the  end  of  a 
telephone  wire,  which  ran  to  a  central 
exchange,  from  which  heavy  guns  by 
the  hundred  could  be  aimed.  This 
gave  the  Germans  something  strenuous 
to  achieve,  and,  going  on  the  principle 
that  the  struggle  was  greater  than  the 
prize,  they  had,  after  accomplishing 
their  object,  something  to  celebrate  in 
their  communiques. 

GENERAL       PfiTAIN       REARRANGES       HIS 
ARTILLERY. 

In  the  first  days  of  March  they 
resumed  their  bomljardment  and  in- 
fantry attacks  upon'  the  Douaumont 
Plateau,     losings     heavily,     but     not 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


shifting  General  Balfourier's  corps;  but 
Douaumont  had  then  become  a  place  of 
secondary  importance.  General  Petain 
had  not  waited  for  bridging  material  to 
transport  his  big  guns  across  the  Meuse. 
Instead  of  concentrating  round  the 
spot  at  which  the  enemy  was  striking, 
he  ran  his  new  heavy  ordnance  more 
quickly  up  the  Argonne  Forest  to  the 
hills   above   Verdun,    on    the   opposite 


swung  round  to  westward  to  make  a 
flanking  bombardment  on  the  French 
positions  across  the  Meuse,  and  east  of 
these  positions  another  mass  of  heavy 
German  artillery  near  Montfaucon 
opened  a  hurricane  fire.  Then  on 
March  6  infantry  assaults  began. 
Forges  was  taken  at  great  cost,  but 
the  enemy  could  not  debouch  from  the 
hamlet  on   to   the  northern   slopes  of 


FRENCH  REVICTUALING  TRANSPORT 

Not  only  did  motor  transport  have  to  bear  all  the  burden  of  reinforcements  for  the  Army  of  Verdun,  but  also  all  its 
supplies,  food  for  men,  guns,  trench  material  and  repair  outfits,  hospital  and  air-service  requirements.  In  spite 
of  the  heavy  strain  put  upon  them  the  roads  were  kept  in  excellent  repair  by  soldiers  engaged  unceasingly  upon 
the  task.  Picture,  Henry  Ruschin 


side  of  the  streaVn.  There,  with  a 
range  of  five  miles,  he  could  sweep  all 
the  reserve,  support,  and  firing  lines 
of  the  enemy's  forces  engaged  on  the 
front  of  three  and  a  half  miles  between 
Pepper  Hill  and  Douaumont. 

This  abruptly  changed  the  situa- 
tion, as  the  Germans  viewed  it.  They 
had  to  take  the  hills  across  the  Meuse — 
Dead  Man  Hill  and  Charny  Ridge 
especially — in  order  to  recover  fully 
the  power  of  making  mass  attacks 
on  the  Douaumont  Plateau.  So  the 
tide  of  battle  shifted — but  at  the 
masterly  direction  of  General  Petain. 
The     great     batteries     at     Beaumont 


the  Goose  Crest.  The  force  that  at- 
tempted to  do  so  was  shattered.  But 
the  next  day  a  fresh  German  division 
reached  part  of  the  crest,  and  worked 
down  the  railway  to  Regneville,  lying 
over  against  Samogneux,  with  the 
river  between.  Again  new  forces  were 
deployed  on  March  7,  and  by  another 
day  of  hard  and  good  fighting  the 
German  commander  made  a  brilliant 
stroke.  He  captured  Crows'  Wood 
(Bois  des  Corheaux)  and  Cumi^res 
Wood,  from  which  a  decisive  advance 
could  be  made  on  Dead  Man  Hill.  If 
Dead  Man  Hill  fell.  General  Petain's 
power  over  the  enemy's  ground  across 

451 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


scattered  by  a  bayonet  charge.     (See 
map  of  western  section  on  page  457.) 

FALSE    REPORTS    OF    SUCCESS    SENT    TO 
GERMANY. 

But,  to  the  amazement  of  General 
Petain  and  his  Staff,  the  Berlin  wire- 
less spread  the  news  that  the  Posen 
Brigade    had    stormed    not    only    the 


the  Meuse  would  be  seriously  reduced, 
and  his  more  southerly  position  on 
Charny  Wood  would  be  menaced. 

rpHE  FRENCH  NEED  TIME  TO  PREPARE. 

He  at  once  threw  reinforcements 
towards  Dead  Man  Hill,  and  by  an 
attack  quite  as  fine  as  that  of  Bal- 
fourier's  corps  at  Douaumont, 
the  division  recovered  the 
greater  part  of  the  two  woods. 
AH  the  next  day  it  withstood 
frontal  and  flank  attacks,  with 
the  enemy's  guns  pounding  it 
from  the  north,  east,  and  south ; 
the  reverse  fire  coming  from 
German  batteries  across  the 
river,  near  Pepper  Hill.  On 
March  10,  another  fresh,  large 
enemy  force  of  some  20,000 
infantry  worked  again  through 
part  of  Crows'  Wood  and 
Cumieres  Wood,  suffering 
frightful  losses  and  achieving 
no  great  result;  for  all  that 
General  Petain  had  fought  for 
was  time.  He  had  gained  more 
than  forty-eight  hours  in  which 
to  Organize  the  works  on  and 
round  Dead  Man  Hill  in  the 
way  he  wanted.  This  impor- 
tant advanced  position  had 
now  become  safe — for  the  cru- 
cial time  at  least. 

The  enemy  commander  also 
needed  time  to  bring  up  his 
guns  to  cover  the  ground   he 

had  won  in  the  woodlands  and 

by  the  river.     So  there  was  a'^"'"'"'^  DEFENSES  OF  VERDUN  ON  the  eastern  bank 


lull  round  Dead  Man.    But  on 
the    distant    eastern     side    of 


OF  THE  MEUSE 
From  the  forests  of  Spincourt  and  Gremilly  in  the  north,  German 
hordes  fell  upon  the  French  first  lines  in  the  woods  between  Hau- 
f  Vif  \/prr1iin  calif^nf-  fVio  r^oi-mon  mont  and  Ornes.  In  five  days  they  reached  the  plateau  of  Douau- 
ine  Veraun  Saiient,  tne  L^erman  „j^„t  commanding  Verdun.  in  June  Vaux  fell  but  between  Fleury 
Oliensive     was      resumed      with    and  Souville  the  advance  was  stayed. 

extreme  violence.    The  new  objective      hamlet  in  the  hollow  but  the  fort  on 


was  the  Fort  of  Vaux,  southeast  of 
Douaumont  Fort,  and  connecting  with 
it  in  the  old  system  of  defense,  before 
the  structures  of  armored  concrete 
were  emptied  of  guns.  The  fort  on  the 
plateau  was  approached  by  a  ravine 
in  which  lay  the  village  of  Vaux. 
Supported  by  their  heavy  artillery 
in  the  Woevre  Plain,  the  Germans 
attacked  round  the  mouth  of  the  ravine 
on  March  9,  and  at  night  some  6,000 
Poles  got   into   the  village,   but  were 

452 


the  plateau.  Paris  was  perturbed,  and 
General  Petain  had  to  send  one  of  his 
Staff  officers  to  Vaux.  He  found  the 
garrison  in  merry  mood,  with  the 
soldiers  off  duty  playing  cards.  They 
had  neither  won  nor  lost  any  battle; 
the  enemy  had  not  come  near  them. 
Meanwhile,  the  German  Staff  dis- 
covered it  had  made  a  ridiculous  mis- 
statement, and  tried  to  palliate  its 
blunder  by  ordering  the  fort  to  be 
taken.    But  General  Petain  now  knew 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


that  the  Vaux  sector  had  become  im- 
portant, and  that  if  he  massed  an 
unusual  number  of  guns  and  men  there, 
and  improved  his  means  of  bringing  up 
shells,  his  labor  would  not  be  wasted. 
Thus  opened  another  general  butchery 
of  Germans,  slaughtered  for  the  sake 
of  Prussian  prestige.  Vaux  Fort  had 
become  Verdun  in  little.  It  had  to  be 
captured  to  save  the  reputation  of 
a  race  of  braggarts. 


GERMAN      EXCUSES      FOR      INACCURATE 
REPORTS. 

The  Germans  began  to  show  definite 
signs  of  "grogginess."  The  chief 
among  these  signs  was  their  tendency 
to  lies  of  a  gross  and  childish  nature. 
Their  claim  to  the  capture  of  Vaux 
Fort  was  possibly  a  bad  mistake,  due 
to  some  eager  Staff  subordinate's 
misunderstanding.  But  in  the  middle 
of    March,    when    the    Vaux    attacks 


VIEW  OF  FRENCH  FIELD-KITCHENS  AROUND  VERDUN 
Situated  in  a  sheltered  spot  in  the  rear  of  the  lines,  as  the  comparatively  undamaged  trees  show,  it  was  far  easier 
to  prepare  the  meals  thai  it  was  to  get  the  food  up  to  the  men,  and  there  were  many  times  during  the  fighting 
when  hunger  and  thirst  augmented  the  horrors  of  war.  « 


But  it  was  not  captured  just  then, 
though  the  struggle  for  it  went  on  for 
weeks  with  increasing  fury.  Even  by 
the  middle  of  March  the  ground  below 
the  fort  was  heaped  with  greyish  forms, 
where  the  dead  and  dying  had  rolled 
down  the  slopes.  In  the  ravine  below, 
the  Germans,  by  the  end  of  March, 
won  the  eastern  houses  of  the  villages, 
but  could  not  for  long  advance  farther. 
Vaux  Fort  still  remained  untaken,  and 
the  neighboring  Caillette  Wood  was 
recovered  early  in  April,  thus  strength- 
ening both  the  Douaumont  and  Vaux 
positions. 


looked  like  failing,  the  German  Staff 
claimed  the  capture  of  Dead  Man  Hill. 
They  stormed  the  Dead  Man  by 
conveying  the  name  to  a  lower  ridge  of 
no  decisive  importance  which  they  had 
occupied.  Challenged  on  the  matter  by 
the  French  Staff,  they  tried  to  evade 
the  charge  of  falsehood  by  stating 
that  the  words  "  Mort  Homme''  as 
lettered  on  the  French  map  they  used, 
extended  to  the  lower  ground.  As 
though  the  best-informed  War  Staff 
in  the  world  did  not  know  every  acre 
of  ground  near  its  own  frontiers!  Most 
likely  it  was  an  attempt  to  soothe  the 

453 


fflSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


German  people,  whose  anxiety  _  in 
regard  to  Verdun  was  turning  into 
angry  despondency. 

Von  Falkenhayn  had  increased  the 
Crown  Prince's  army  to  twenty-five 
divisions.  In  April  he  added  five  more 
divisions  to  the  forces  around  Verdun 
by  weakening  the  effectives  in  other 
sectors  and  drawing  more  troops  from 
the  Russian  front.  It  was  rumored  that 
von  Hindenburg  was  growing  restive, 
and  complaining  that  the  wastage  at 
Verdun  would  tell  against  the  success 
of  the  campaign  on  the  Riga-Dvinsk 
front,  which  was  to  open  when  the 
Baltic  ice  melted. 

SHELLS    ARE    USED    FASTER    THAN    THEY 
ARE  MADE. 

Great  as  was  the  wastage  of  life, 
it  was  in  no  way  immediately  de- 
cisive. But  when  the  expenditure  of 
shells  almost  outran  the  highest  speed 
of  production  of  the  German  munition 
factories,  and  the  wear  on  the  guns  was 
more  than  Krupp  and  Skoda  could 
make  good,  there  was  danger  to  the 
enemy  in  beginning  another  great 
offensive  likely  to  overtax  his  shell- 
makers  and  gun-makers.  Von  Falken- 
hayn's  great  concentration  against  the 
British  army,  for  example,  remained 
perhaps,  only  a  silent  demonstration 
because  of  the  shell  and  gun  difficulty. 


There  was,  of  course,  ample  munition 
for  a  most  violent  and  sustained  attack, 
but  if  after  another  operation  like  that 
at  Verdun  the  British  line  was  un- 
broken and  its  artillery  power  un- 
diminished, it  would  be  difficult  for 
the  enemy  to  turn  against  re-armed 
Russia. 

The  attacks  continued  on  the  Heights 
of  the  Meuse  and  especially  around 
Dead  Man  Hill,  to  the  middle  of  April. 
Victorious  Verdun  was  still  being  blown 
up  in  flaming  ruin  like  Rheims  and 
Ypres.  Whenever  an  infantry  assault 
failed,  the  Germans  hurled  incendiary 
shells  into  the  unattainable  town. 
The  price  at  which  the  Crown  Prince 
was  to  be  allowed  to  ride  by  Vauban's 
citadel  was  much  higher  in  April  than 
it  was  in  February.  General  Retain 
was  a  hard  bargainer.  And  he  could 
not  be  left  alone.  He  had  forcibly  to 
be  kept  in  the  position  he  occupied,  for 
if  the  force  against  him  weakened  he 
might  in  turn  employ  his  enormous 
artillery  power  to  blast  a  path  right 
through  the  German  lines.  His  posi- 
tion, at  the  eastern  corner  of  the  long 
German  line  stretching  to  the  sea, 
was  very  menacing.  Far  from  the 
Battle  of  Verdun  being  ended,  there 
were  possibilities  in  it  of  a  decisive 
development.  Northcliffe. 


AN  ANTI-AIRCRAFT  GUN  ON  A  FEED  MOUNT 


454 


Camouflaged  German  Artillery  Advancing 

Chapter  XXIX 

The  Battle  of  Verdun  II 

THE  GERMANS  NOW  STRIVE  TO  REDUCE  THE  MAN  POWER 

OF  FRANCE 


«'T»HE  9th  of  April,"  said  General 
■'•  Petain  to  his  men,  "is  a  day  of 
glory  for  your  arms.  The  fierce  as- 
saults of  the  Crown  Prince's  soldiers 
have  everywhere  been  thrown  back. 
Infantry,  artillery,  sappers  and  avia- 
tors of  the  Second  Army  have  vied 
with  one  another  in  heroism.  Courage, 
men.  On  les  aura!''  So  in  a  key  of 
quiet  confidence  for  France,  the  first 
phase  of  the  great  battle  of  Verdun  had 
come  to  an  end,  and  with  it  all  hope  of 
sweeping  German  victory.  After  two 
months  of  fighting  the  attack  had 
gained  little  more  than  on  the  first 
days  in  February.  On  the  right  bank 
of  the  Meuse  it  had  reached  the  last 
line  of  the  defenses  of  Verdun,  on  the 
left  bank  it  had  destroyed  the  whole  of 
the  first  line  on  the  Forges,  but  had 
failed  to  capture  Hill  304  and  le  Mort 
Homme. 

VERDUN    BECOMES    A    SYMBOL    BOTH     TO 
FRANCE    AND    TO    GERMANY. 

Only  a  brief  resting  space  that  lasted 
until  the  end  of  the  month,  and  the 
second  phase  of  the  battle  of  Verdun — 
the  battle  of  German  "fixation" — 
began  and  lasted  until  mid-July.  The 
enemy  had  thrown  in  thirty  divisions 
where  they  meant  to  have  used  eight, 
and  Verdun  in  future  must  cost  less; 
must  serve  to  bleed  France's  strength 
.  rather  than  open  the  gateway  to  her 
capital.    Furthermore,  the  battle  had 


passed  out  of  the  realms  of  strategy 
into  politics,  where  the  High  Command 
was  spending  German  reserves  because 
its  reputation  was  at  stake,  because 
having  thrown  so  much  upon  the  ven- 
ture it  could  not  retire  without  at 
least  some  return.  So  the  press  was 
gagged  and  deceived,  and  communiques 
falsified,  and  the  Fatherland  continued 
to  glory  in  the  enterprise,  while  all  the 
time  the  Great  Headquarters  knew 
that  by  May  the  campaign  "bore  the 
stamp  of  the  first  great  battle  of 
attrition,  in  which  the  struggle  for 
victory  meant  feeding  a  stationary 
fighting  line  with  a  continuous  mass 
of  men  and  materials,"  in  the  words  of 
General  LudendorfT. 

THREE  PHASES  OF  THE  FIGHTING  IN  THIS 
SECOND  BATTLE. 

As  before  the  opening  attacks  in 
February,  so  in  April  the  Germans 
made  feints  to  deceive  French  opinion. 
Hints  of  new  activity  in  the  North  Sea, 
of  fresh  air-raids  over  Britain,  and  of 
enemy-fostered  rebellion  in  Ireland, 
seemed  to  point  to  the  fact  that  Eng- 
land and  not  France  was  about  to  re- 
ceive the  Teuton  onslaught.  But  in 
the  first  week  of  May  fighting  broke 
out  fiercely  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Meuse  and  gradually  spread  east 
across  the  river,  and  the  cdtes  to  the 
level  Woevre  once  more.  This  later 
fighting    may   be   divided    into    three 

455 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


parts.  First  of  all,  the  German  right 
wing  sought  to  capture  Hill  304  and 
Mort  Homme  and  drive  the  French 
back  upon  their  final  defenses.  Simul- 
taneously the  French  counter-attacked 
on  the  right  bank  and  regained  Douau- 
mont  Fort  for  a  brief  space.  Then  the 
Germans  in  concentrated  attack  from 
Douaumont  threw  themselves  upon 
the  last  line  of  the  right  bank  defenses 
covering  Verdun  and  won  the  Fort  of 
Vaux,  the  work  of  Thiaumont,  and  the 
village  of  Fleury  for  a  short  while,  and 
brought  their  armies  within  four  miles 
of  the  walls  of  Verdun  itself. 

The  French  first  line  on  the  left 
bank  ran  along  the  northern  edge  of 
the  plateau  sloping  south  from  Forges 
river,  somewhat  in  the  shape  of  an  S 
lying  upon  its  side.  Its  strongest  points 
were  the  Mort  Homme  and  Hill  304, 
separated  from  each  other  by  the  little 
Esnes,  a  branch  of  the  Forges.  Mort 
Homme  in  its  turn  is  made  up  of  two 
hills,  Hill  265  on  the  northwest,  and 
Hill  295  on  the  southwest.  The  capture 
of  the  lower  Hill  265  had  been  claimed 
by  the  Germans  as  Mort  Homme 
proper.  These  hills  formed  the  out- 
works of  the  main  French  position 
lying  farther  to  the  south  on  Charny 
ridge.  In  his  attempts  to  break 
through,  the  enemy  spread  the  battle 
line  ever  towards  the  west,  as  he  tried 
first  to  take  Mort  Homme  by  frontal 
assault,  then  to  turn  the  position  by 
attacking  it  from  Hill  304,  and  lastly 
failing  this  he  endeavored  to  turn 
Hill  304  by  an  attack  from  the  Avo- 
court  wood. 

THE    GERMAN    ATTACK    ON    HILL    304    IS 
BEGUN. 

On  May  3,  after  three  weeks  of 
desultory  fighting  the  artillery  began 
a  tremendous  bombardment  of  the 
French  first  trenches  on  Hill  304.  For 
three  days  and  three  nights  the  ridge 
was  swept  by  a  storm  of  steel  and  high 
explosive,  and  none  dared  show  him- 
self on  its  expanse.  Then  the  German 
infantry  attacks  began  and  because 
the  artillery  had  practically  obliterated 
the  French  front  lines,  the  enemy  got  a 
footing  on  the  ridge  and  endeavored  to 
develop  it.  His  efforts  were  fruitless 
and    he    turned    now    to    attacking 

456 


Avocourt  Wood  in  an  attempt  to  turn 
Hill  304  from  there. 

THE  FIERCE  GERMAN  ATTACK  ON  DEAD 
MAN'S  HILL. 

The  Germans  pounded  the  French 
artillery  in  the  wood.  May  17,  and  the 
battle  spread  east  and  all  along  the 
Hne  to  the  Meuse.  The  thunder  of  tVie 
guns  filled  the  air  and  the  May  days 
were  obscured  under  a  thick  pall  of 
smoke,  so  dense  that  it  often  rendered 
aerial  reconnaissance  impossible. 
Fiercest  and  most  severe  were  the 
attacks  on  Mort  Homme,  from  north- 
east and  northwest.  In  the  east  the 
attack  failed,  but  in  the  w^est  it  gained 
possession  of  some  French  trenches,  so 
that  no  longer  was  the  summit  domi- 
nated by  the  French  guns  but  swept 
by  the  gunners  of  both  sides.  Never- 
theless, the  French  defense  was  taking 
heavy  toll  of  the  enemy  whose  dead 
encumbered  the  ravines  and  raised 
the  level  of  the  ground  several  me- 
tres. "It  is  absolutely  impossible," 
wrote  a  French  officer,  "to  convey 
what  losses  the  Germans  suffer  in  these 
attacks.  Nothing  can  give  an  idea  of 
it.  Whole  ranks  are  mowed  down  and 
those  that  follow  them  suffer  the  same 
fate.  Imagine  if  you  can  what  it  would 
be  like  to  rake  water.  Those  gaps 
filled  up  again  at  once.  That  is  enough 
to  show  with  what  disdain  of  life  the 
German  attacks  are  planned  and 
carried  out."  Sometimes  the  enemy 
used  the  mounds  of  dead  as  shelter 
before  making  the  next  rush. 

THE  FRENCH  PREPARE  TO  RETAKE  FORT 
DOUAUMONT. 

By  this  time  the  French  command, 
in  order  to  relieve  the  pressure  on 
Mort  Homme,  gave  orders  for  a 
counter-attack  upon  the  right  bank. 
Fort  Douaumont,  which  had  been 
entered  by  the  Brandenburgers  in  the 
dark  days  of  February,  was  the  ob- 
jective chosen.  The  Germans  had 
strengthened  their  hold  upon  the  fort, 
and  held  east,  west  and  north  of  it  very 
strongly.  Only  on  the  south  could 
they  make  no  headway,  and  there  their 
artillery  poured  a  daily  flood  of  cur- 
tain fire.  Nivelle  ha^  now  succeeded 
Petain  in  the  defense  of  Verdun,  when 
the  latter  superseded  Langle  de  Gary 


fflSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


in  command  of  the  Central  Group  of 
the  French  armies.  Preparations  for 
the  retaking  of  Douaumont  were  pa- 
tient and  thorough.  Since  the  fort  had 
fallen,  its  place  had  been  taken  by 
Fort  Vaux  and  working  from  this  base 
during  the  months  of  April  and  May 
the  French  had  advanced  and  captured 
Caillette  Wood  and  Hardaumont. 

The  Fifth  Division  of  the  Third 
Corps  had  been  chosen,  among  picked 
troops,     to     deliver     the     attack     on 


selves  for  further  battles,  in  which  you 
will  have  the  absolute  certainty  of  your 
superiority  over  an  enemy  whom  you 
have  seen  so  often  flee  or  raise  his 
hands  before  your  bayonets  and  gren- 
ades. You  are  certain  of  that  now. 
Any  German  who  gets  into  a  trench  of 
the  Fifth  Division  is  dead  or  captured. 
Any  position  methodically  attacked  by 
the  Fifth  Division  is  a  captured  posi- 
tion. You  march  under  the  wings  of 
Victory." 


Canals 


bpyH«M.  ^jjg  DEFENSES  OF  VERDUN  TO  THE  WEST  OF  THE  MEUSE 

The  first  French  line  ran  north  of  Forges  Brook  in  a  salient  whose  arc  rested  on  Avocourt  and  Forges.  Behind  this 
lay  strong  positions  on  Hill  304,  le  Mort  Homme  and  Cumisres.  The  main  line  to  the  south,  on  Charny  ridge  be- 
tween Bois  de  Bourrus  and  Meuse,  was  never  reaclied  by  the  enemy  who  achieved  his  farthest  advance  at  Chat- 
tancourt.     The  maps  on  pages  437  and  452  snould  also  be  consulted  in  this  connection. 


Douaumont,  and  in  mid-April  had 
been  sent  to  the  rear  to  refit  and  rest. 
Before  they  went  their  commander, 
General  Mangin,  thus  addressed  them: 
"You  are  going  to  reform  your  de- 
pleted ranks.  Many  among  you  will 
return  to  your  homes  and  will  bear 
with  you  to  your  families  the  warlike 
ardor  and  thirst  for  vengeance  which 
inspires  you.  There  is  no  rest  for  any 
Frenchman  as  long  as  the  barbarous 
enemy  treads  the  hallowed  ground  of 
our  country;  there  can  be  no  peace  for 
the  world  so  long  as  the  monster  of 
Prussian  militarism  has  not  been  laid 
low.    You  will  therefore  prepare  your- 


THE    GERMAN    OBSERVATION    BALLOONS 
ARE  DESTROYED. 

Within  a  month  the  Fifth  were  back, 
burning  for  the  fray.  The  German 
flanking  and  communication  trenches 
were  strongly  held.  In  the  French  plan 
of  attack,  upon  the  129th  Regiment  in 
the  centre  devolved  the  task  of  captur- 
ing the  fort  itself,  the  36th  and  74th 
were  to  take  the  positions  respectively 
west  and  ea:st  of  the  fort.  Nor  were  the 
men  of  the  Fifth  Division  deceived  as  to 
the  kind  of  fighting  that  would  follow, 
and  air  knew  that  German  counter- 
attacks of  the  fiercest  kind  might  be 
expected.    At  8  o'clock  on  the  morning 

457 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


of  the  22nd  of  May  a  French  aeroplane 
squadron  went  up  and  flew  above  the 
German  sausage-balloons  doing  ob- 
servation work.  The  fortunes  of  war 
had  given  Mangin  the  use  of  a  new 
invention,  as  auspicious  preface  to  his 
attack  upon  the  fort.  Whilst  the 
watchers  gazed,  dark  objects  fell  from 
the  bombing  squadron  and  in  a  mo- 
ment six  of  the  enemy  balloons  Went 


they  were  strengthening  their  hold 
upon  Douaumont,  the  left  and  right 
wings  of  the  attacking  force  were  meet- 
ing with  fierce  resistance.  The  36th 
succeeded  in  dislodging  the  Germans 
from  their  positions,  but  on  the  right 
the  resistance  was  more  formidable  as 
the  artillery  preparation  had  been  less 
effective,  and  the  enemy  still  held 
communication    trenches    whence    he 


- 1        % 

'^'^BflHjjjtM^, . 

• 

WHAT  WAS  LEFT  OF  FORT  DOUAUMONT 

This  is  ground  consecrated  to  the  deathless  heroism  of  the  French  troops.  Douaumont  was  entered  by  the  Third 
Brandenburgers  February  26,  1916;  a  brilliant  counter-attack  led  by  General  Mangin  recaptured  it  for  France 
May  22.   Two  days  later  again  it  fell  to  the  Germans  but  was  finally  recaptured  by  the  French,  October  24. 


up  in  a  puff  of  smoke  and  fell  flaming 
to  the  ground.  The  new  French  bomb 
of  high  explosive  force  was  made  up 
of  a  large  body  which  as  it  fell  split  up 
into  smaller  bombs  each  composed  of 
minute  particles  of  burning  chemical. 
Soon  the  German  artillery  fire  began 
to  fall  wide  of  the  mark  and  a  French 
poilu  remarked,  "We  have  put  a 
bandage  around  the  Boches'  eyes." 

DOUAUMONT  IS  GALLANTLY  TAKEN  BUT 
NOT  HELD. 

At  ten  minutes  to  twelve  after  pre- 
liminary bombardment  the  men  of  the 
129th  Regiment  leaped  forward  in  open 
order.  At  twelve  a  Bengal  light  upon 
the  fort  showed  that  in  the  short  space 
of  time  the  Normans  had  gone  through 
three  lines  of  intrenchments  and  gained 
the  southwest  angle  of  the  fort.   While 

458 


could  serve  the  French  infantry  with 
enfilading  fire.  The  German  counter- 
attack was  not  long  delayed.  That 
night  when  darkness  fell,  and  the 
mists  were  climbing  from  the  Woevre, 
heavy  bombardment  swept  down  upon 
the  129th  Regiment  in  the  fort.  At 
dawn  in  hideous  crescendo  every  avail- 
able piece  concentrated  upon  the 
ruins,  infantry  attacks  followed,  and 
alternated  with  bombardment  all 
through  one  hectic  day.  Nevertheless, 
the  129th  held  fast,  and  were  able  to 
boast  that  they  had  not  yielded  an 
inch  of  ground  when  they  in  turn  were 
relieved.  For  two  days  the  fort  held; 
it  took  two  fresh  divisions  before  it 
was  again  wrested  fxom  the  French; 
and  the  heroic  little  episode  had  only 
heightened  the  endurance  and  stiffened 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


the  morale  of  the  defenders  of  Verdun, 
besides  losing  the  Germans  some 
trenches  east  and  west  of  the  position. 

THE  VIOLENT  GERMAN  ASSAULTS  ON  THE 
TWO  HILLS. 

As  if  in  concert  with  the  volume  of 
the  guns  across  the  Meuse,  so  now 
German  onslaughts  upon  Mort  Homme 
and  Hill  304  grew  in  fury,  and  the 
French  were  forced  from  the  summits 
but  not  from  the  slopes.  On  May  23, 
debouching  from  the  positions  they 
had  gained  upon  the  northern  slopes 
of  Mort  Homme  the  Germans  strove 
to  push  their  left  wing  between  the 
Meuse  and  the  hill  into  the  village  of 
Cumieres,  while  their  right  wing  ad- 
vancing up  the  Esnes  ravine  fell  once 
more  upon  Hill  304.  Foiled  time  and 
again  by  French  curtain  fire,  they 
nevertheless  persisted  and  amid  a 
smoky  pall  that  shut  out  the  daylight 
and  even  obscured  the  flashes  of  the 
guns,  they  entered  what  had  once  been 
the  village  and  in  fierce  fighting  pushed 
their  way  on  the  24th  to  the  railway  at 
Chattancourt.  It  was  a  desperate 
stroke  aimed  at  reaching  the  main 
left  bank  defenses  of  Verdun.  Upon 
the  right  by  using  liquid  fire  their 
infantry  had  worked  up  the  Esnes 
ravine  between  the  two  hills.  French 
counter-attacks  that  same  night  caused 
them  to  evacuate  the  slopes,  whose 
crater-pocked  surface,  strewn  with  their 
own  dead,  offered  mocking  testimony 
to  the  futility  of  the  attack.  So  in 
Esnes  ravine,  where  there  was  space 
among  the  human  debris  to  manoeuvre, 
and  over  the  ruins  of  Cumieres  the  tide 
of  battle  surged  back  and  forth. 

Upon  the  28th,  the  hundredth  day 
of  battle,  a  fierce  blow  aimed  at  the 
civilian  morale  of  bereaved  France  fell 
between  Mort  Homme  and  Cumieres. 
In  automatic  alternation  artillery  and 
infantry  worked,  until,  under  twelve 
hours'  bombardment  and  the  impetus 
of  the  assaults  of  five  fresh  divisions, 
the  French  lines  were  obliterated.  Still 
the  infantry  could  not  advance  and 
take  the  fruits  of  victory,  for  they  were 
still  far  from  the  Bourrus-Esnes  line 
and  the  road  to  Verdun  was  firmly 
held,  and  so  remained  until  the  thun- 
dering of  guns  on   the  Somme  gave 


warning  that  German  offensive  must 
cease. 

THE    BATTLE    NOW    SHIFTS    ACROSS    THE 
RIVER. 

Again  the  battle  shifted  across  the 
river.  When  Douaumont  had  fallen, 
the  French  had  fallen  back  on  Fort 
Vaux  which  stood  as  an  outward 
bastion  to  the  great  fort  of  Souville  in 
the  last  line  of  the  Verdun  defense. 
M.  Henri  Bordeaux,  the  French  his- 
torian, writes:  "In  the  great  squadron 
of  forts  which  shield  Verdun  from  a 
distance  like  a  fleet  marshalled  on  the 
open  sea  in  front  of  a  harbor.  Fort 
Vaux  might  claim  the  rank  of  a  cruiser. 
More  modern  than  Souville  and  Tav- 
annes,  which  are  caponier  forts,  not  so 
vast  or  so  fully  equipped  as  Douau- 
mont, whose  girdle  contains  a  vast 
quantity  of  turrets,  cupolas,  case- 
mates, barracks  and  strongholds,  it 
plants  its  levelled  walls  more  firmly 
in  the  soil.  Built  of  masonry  about 
1880,  it  was  reconstructed  in  concrete 
after  the  invention  of  the  torpedo- 
shaped  shell  (1885),  then  in  reinforced 
concrete,  and  was  not  finished  till 
1911." 

In  the  ravine  beneath  it  and  com- 
manded by  its  guns  runs  the  road  to 
Verdun,  and  the  railway  to  Fleury. 
This  country  with  its  "soil  so  well- 
wooded  and  so  uneven  is  eminently 
suited  to  a  war  of  surprises,  of  traps, 
of  ambuscades,  of  bold  strokes,  of  slow 
and  treacherous  penetration.  It  lends 
itself  admirably  to  the  ebb  and  flow 
of  hand-grenade  duels."  With  Douau- 
mont, Vaux  had  mounted  guard  before 
Verdun.  In  the  early  days  of  the  war 
when  the  German  armies  had  halted 
before  Verdun  the  forts  had  shared 
the  same  perils,  in  the  long  stagnation 
that  had  followed  had  signaled  each 
other  the  news  of  the  battle  line.  Now 
Vaux  stood  alone  to  bar  the  German 
way  to  Souville,  Souville  before 
Verdun ! 

THE      BAVARIAN      INFANTRY      IS      MOWN 
DOWN  BEFORE  VAUX. 

From  February  2 1  onwards  Vaux  re- 
ceived its  daily  ration  of  shells:  ten 
thousand  on  an  average  for  the  dis- 
trict and  of  all  calibres,  but  chiefly  of 
the  heaviest,  the  210  mm.,  the  305  mm., 

459 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


and  even  the  380  mm.  The  enemy  had 
laid  siege  to  it  on  March  9  and  the 
following  day  announced  its  capture. 
It  was  eighty-eight  days  before  that 
communique  was  verified :  eighty-eight 
days  of  bombardment  and  assault,  of 
thirst,  and  suffering  and  sleeplessness. 
By  the  end  of  May  all  superstructure 
had  vanished  under  a  tornado  of  fire, 
even  the  wire  entanglements  were  in 


German  fire  that  it  fought  on  inde- 
pendently, cut  off  from  all  communica- 
tion with  the  fort,  not  knowing  whether 
it  had  fallen,  or  still  stood.  Even  by 
night  there  was  no  peace,  for  star- 
shells  lighted  up  the  tortured  slopes 
where  trees  and  birds  had  once  been. 
The  men  were  tormented  by  thirst, 
and  thankful  when  it  rained  so  that 
they  might  lay  out  canvas  and  drink- 


FRENCH  SCOUTS  NEAR  FORT  VAUX 

A  scene  among  the  cotes  of  the  Meuse,  where  scarred  and  spectral  trees  replaced  once  luxuriant  forests.  In  this 
fighting  both  sides  utilized  the  broken  timber  for  parapets  and  shelters.  As  the  artillery  destroyed  the  trees,  mat- 
ters improved  for  the  airmen  who  had  at  first  found  it  impossible  to  pierce  their  thick  screen. 


fragments  or  buried  in  shell-holes. 
The  position  was  entirely  isolated.  The 
commander  of  the  fort,  Major  Raynal, 
had  a  distinguished  record:  twice 
seriously  wounded  he  had  asked  for  a 
post  where  there  would  be  plenty  of 
danger, — and  so  had  been  sent  to  Vaux. 
The  normal  regulation  number  of  the 
garrison  was  from  250-300  men,  but 
this  was  added  to  by  companies  taking 
refuge,  so  that  by  June  it  had  swelled 
to  nearly  600 — a  force  for  which  it  was 
impossible  to  provide  water  under  the 
German  hail  of  fire. 

■«T  7ATER  TO  BE  HAD  ONLY  UNDER  FIRE. 

By  June  i  the  strangle-hold  began  to 
tighten  around  the  fort.  One  of  the 
redoubts,  Ri,  was  besieged  from  that 
evening  on,   and  so   intense  was  the 

460 


ing-mugs.  Through  uninterrupted 
bombardment,  daily  onslaughts,  lack 
of  provisions,  water  and  sleep,  amid  the 
smell  of  the  corpses  and  asphyxiating 
shells,  the  redoubt  lasted  on  until  the 
night  of  June  8-9,  the  day  after  Vaux 
itself  had  fallen. 

On  June  2,  the  Germans  reached  two 
open  breaches  in  the  fort  and  tried  to 
force  their  way  through.  Soon  there 
were  two  masters  in  Fort  Vaux  a 
German  above  and  the  gallant  Raynal 
beneath.  By  means  of  carriers  and 
signals  news  was  flashed  to  the  watch- 
ers outside.  Thus  at  3  p.m.  on  the  3rd 
the  fort  issued  a  bulletin:  "The  enemy 
has  gained  possession  of  the  north- 
eastern and  northwestern  transverse 
galleries.  I  am  pursuing  the  struggle 
in  the  inner  passages.    A  large  number 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


of  wounded  and  fugitives.  Officers  and 
men  are  all  doing  their  duty.  We  shall 
fight  to  the  bitter  end." 

THE  LAST  MESSAGES  FROM  THE  GALLANT 
DEFENDERS. 

On  the  4th,  about  midday,  a  poor 
wounded  pigeon  dragged  itself  labori- 
ously up  to  its  resting  place.    Its  dis- 


inside  it.  The  garrison  step  by  step 
defended  the  passage  ways,  and  foot 
by  foot  the  stairways.  Then  the  Ger- 
mans attacked  with  jets  of  fire  and 
liquid  flame,  and  gases  whose  heavy 
fumes  filled  the  echoing  vaults.  "An 
unspeakable  horror  stalked  through 
these  dim  vaults,"  writes  the  author 


SOUVILLE 


FORE  VERDUN 


The  last  thrust  for  Verdun  was  directed  against  the  line  on  which  stood  Souville  Fort  and  Thiaumont  village  and 
work,  and  it  reached  within  half  a  mile  of  the  fort  before  it  could  be  stayed.  Souville  and  Tavannes  were  caponiere 
forts,  less  modern  and  less  powerful  than  Vaux  and  Douaumont.  If  they  had  fallen,  only  St.  Michel  and  Belle- 
ville remained  to  defend  Verdun  itself. 


patch  ran,  "We  are  still  holding  out, 
but  are  subjected  to  a  very  dangerous 
gas  and  smoke  attack.  It  is  urgent 
that  we  shou'd  be  extricated;  let  us 
have  immediate  visual  signaling  com- 
munication by  way  of  Souville  which 
does  not  answer.  Th's  is  my  last 
pigeon."  Two  messengers  escaped 
from  Vaux  the  following  day  and  re- 
stored communication  with  the  fort 
which  ever  through  the  days  that  fol- 
lowed signaled  more  and  more  urgently 
for  relief  and  water.  The  enemy  in 
Vaux  was  around  the  fort,  above  it. 


quoted  above,  "where,  in  a  thick  pesti- 
lent atmosphere,  a  sleepless,  nerve- 
racked,  thirst-maddened  garrison, 
crowded  into  a  narrow  space,  refused 
to  abandon  the  struggle." 

The  effort  to  extricate  Vaux  was  not 
relaxed  for  a  moment  but  made  no 
progress.  On  the  evening  of  June  6, 
Raynal  in  a  message  resembling  a  last 
will  musters  the  names  of  his  comrades- 
in-arms,  pays  a  tribute  to  his  men,  and 
offers  them  to  the  High  Command. 
After  that  Vaux  is  silent  to  all  signal- 
ing,  silent  until  at  daybreak  on  the 

461 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


7th  the  fort  issues  its  last  appeal.  The 
signaling  posts  make  out  these  words 
"iVe  nous  quittez  pas!''  Fort  Vaux  did 
not  speak  again.  Nevertheless  General 
Nivelle  sent  a  special  message  to  the 
contingent  entrusted  with  a  final  effort 
for  its  relief.  But  Vaux  was  lost. 
When  Major  Raynal  was  captured  he 
was  allowed  to  retain  his  sword — for 
his  gallantry  moved  even  the  Ger- 
imans  to  admiration.  From  his 
'captors  he  learned  also  that  he  had 
been  promoted  to  the  rank  of  com- 
mander in  the  Legion  of  Honor 
and  that  the  insignia  of  his  rank 
had  been  conferred  upon  his  wife 
in  a  special  review  at  the  Inval- 
ides. 

THE  GERMANS  NOW  MAKE  THE  LAST 
THRUST  FOR  VERDUN. 

The  fall  of  Vaux  registers  the 
end  of  the  battle  of  the  wings. 
While  this  had  raged  on  left  and 
right  banks  of  the  Meuse,  the  line 
in  the  centre  had  changed  very 
little,  save  when  for  a  brief  space 
the  French  had  held  Fort  Douau- 
mont.  The  last  German  thrust  for 
Verdun  now  came.  No  longer  were 
the  enemy  attacking  from  the 
north,  but  from  the  west,  en- 
deavoring to  advance  from  Douau- 
mont  Plateau  downhill  towards 
Verdun  and  the  Meuse  valley. 
De  Souville  Fort,  the  village  of 
Fleury  and  the  work  of  Thiau- 
mont  opposed  their  progress.  If 
these  were  taken,  Tavannes,  iso- 
lated, must  fall;  three  valley 
routes  were  open  to  the  Ger- 
mans leading  down  to  the  river 
meadows;  and  the  light  railway 
from  Vaux,  the  tunnel  of  the  main 
Paris-Verdun-Metz  railway,  and  the 
Metz-Verdun  highway,  all  allow  of 
bringing  up  a  tremendous  wave  of 
reinforcements  against  Fort  St.  Michel 
and  Belleville,  the  last  and  least  im- 
portant of  the  Verdun  forts. 

There  was  not  much  time,  for  air- 
men reported  that  Allied  preparations 
on  the  Somme  were  well-nigh  com- 
plete, and  on  the  first  day  of  July  the 
Franco-British  offensive  opened.  Be- 
fore it  became  dangerous,  the  enemy 
began  his  attack  July   ii,   along  the 

462 


Thiaumont-Vaux  front,  where  if  he 
could  capture  the  little  village  of 
Fleury-devant-Douaumont,  easy  ac- 
cess might  be  had  to  the  inner  de- 
fense Imes.  The  attack  succeeded 
and  the  enemy  got  within  a  kilometre 
of  Souville  fort  before  he  could  be 
stayed. 


GENERAL  CHARLES  MANGIN 

General  Mangin  was  in  command  at  Verdun  of  the  Fifth 
Division  of  the  Third  Corps.  In  May  he  recaptured  Douau- 
mont  from  the  Germans  and  later  commanded  the  offensive 
in  October  which  regained  both  Vaux  and  Douaumont. 


GENERAL  MANGIN   NOW  TAKE$  THE 
OFFENSIVE. 

In  four  days  came  the  French 
counter-attack.  General  Charles  Man- 
gin,  whose  Normans  had  retaken 
Douaumont,  began  a  series  of  hammer- 
strokes  along  the  whole  line  upon  the 
right  bank  of  the  Meuse  which  com- 
pletely altered  the  character  of  the 
fighting,  for  the  Germans  now  were 
forced  to  stand  upon  the  defensive  on 
their  new  and  hard-won  positions. 
Fleury  and  Thiaymont  position 
changed  hands  several  times  during 
August,     and     at     the    beginning    of 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


September  the  Verdun  front  lapsed 
into  a  period  of  stagnation  which 
lasted  for  over  six  weeks  and  during 
which  the  French  line  ran  from  Thiau- 
mont  to  Vaux-Chapitre.  The  second 
phase  of  the  Verdun  battle  was  over. 
In  the  third  the  French  themselves 
were  to  take  the  offensive. 

That  offensive  was  taken  in  order 
that  the  Germans  might  be  driven  back 
from  the  circle  of  forts  which  they  had 


Mangin  proposed  to  use  only  three 
divisions  in  his  operations  against  the 
German  eight  that  were  occupying  the 
line  of  the  coveted  French  objectives. 

How     THE     ATTACKING     TROOPS     WERE 
TRAINED. 

Preparations  were  exact  and  meth- 
odical. The  men  selected  were  sent 
to  the  rear  in  August  and  September 
and  practiced  in  the  detail  of  the  ter- 
rain of  the  coming  battle.     An  exact 


FORT  ST.  MICHEL,  BEFORE  VERDUN 

After  the  fall  of  Vaux  early  in  June  things  looked  very  dark  for  Verdun,  for  of  all  her  circle  of  forts  on  the  western 
bank  of  the  Meuse  only  de  Souville  and  Tavannes  still  stood  outside  St.  Michel  and  Belleville,  the  smallest  and 
least  important.  Surprisingly  firm  resistance  developed  along  the  Fleury-Thiaumont  line,  however,  and  the 
German  line  advanced  no  nearer  to  the  city. 


captured,  whose  proximity  gave  Ver- 
dun too  little  breathing  space.  In 
Douaumont,  Vaux,  and  the  heights 
about  them,  the  Germans  had  a  good 
position  for  a  final  drive  against  the 
fortress,  whenever  they  were  free  to 
make  it.  The  Somme  engagement  was 
now  draining  off  German  reserves  of 
men  and  machines,  and  before  the 
winter's  immobility  fell  upon  the  cotes, 
Nivelle  determined  to  make  his  thrust. 
General  Mangin,  who  had  led  the  Fifth 
Division  when  it  had  recaptured  Douau- 
mont in  May,  was  renowned  for  the 
vigor  of  his  attacks,  as  well  as  for  his 
knowledge  of  the  Colonial  troops  gained 
through    arduous    service    in    Africa. 


replica  of  Fort  Douaumont  itself  was 
used  in  training  the  troops,  and  served 
good  purpose  when  the  day  came,  for 
thick  fog  obliterated  all  landmarks. 
The  month  of  October  was  wet  and  the 
attack  therefore  put  off,  but  airmen 
were  aloft  observing  and  mapping  the 
maze  of  enemy  trenches  and  his  bat- 
tery sites.  Never  so  far  in  the  history 
of  the  war  had  this  been  done  with 
greater  exactitude.  Men  and  guns 
came  pouring  up  behind  the  lines,  and 
in  the  thick  mud,  preparation  troops 
dug  new  support  trenches  and  field 
stations,  and  built  light  railways  so 
that  the  new  heavy  French  artillery 
might  be  adequately  munitioned. 

463 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


The  main  objectives  were  Douau- 
mont  and  Vaux  forts  with  their  com- 
manding heights.  For  their  capture 
the  H  gh  Command  planned  a  two- 
fold operation.  Upon  the  French  left, 
General  Guyot  de  Salins  with  Zouaves, 
Tirailleurs  and  famous  Moroccan  regi- 
ments was  to  advance  and  capture 
Haudromont  quarries,  the  ridge  to  the 
north  of  the  Ravin  de  la  Dame  and 
Thiaumont  Farm  and  fort.  In  the 
centre,  General  Passaga  with  the 
Chasseurs  was  to  advance  upon  the 
Caillette  wood.  On  the  right  General 
de  Lardemelle's  division  of  fantassins 
had  before  it  the  Fumin,  Chapitre  and 
Chenois  woods  and  the  Damloup 
battery.  When  this  advance  had  been 
consolidated,  the  troops  were  to  push 
on  to  their  final  objectives,  Douau- 
mont  and  Vaux  forts  and  their  out- 
flanking eastern  and  western  positions. 
As  events  turned  out,  however,  the 
vehemence  of  the  French  attack  and 
its  speedy  success  merged  both  opera- 
tions into  one. 

THE   MOROCCANS  TAKE   DOUAUMONT   IN 
THE  FOG. 

After  three  weeks'  continuous  rains, 
Saturday,  October  21,  dawned  clear 
and  cold,  and  at  once  the  French  seized 
the  chance.  The  front  to  be  attacked 
was  only  four  miles  in  width,  and  owing 
to  French  aerial  superiority  in  the  dis- 
trict, and  to  the  enormous  number  of 
great  guns  concentrated,  the  artillery 
preparation  was  intense  and  effective. 
For  two  whole  days  the  fretted  coun- 
tryside was  pounded  and  distorted  as 
the  German  lines  went  up  in  fragments 
and  smoke.  By  Tuesday,  the  24th,  the 
guns  began  to  vary  their  range;  it 
was  time  for  the  infantry  to  make  use 
of  their  curtain.  But  a  damp  thick  fog 
was  rising  from  the  cold  Meuse  and  the 
clayey  Woevre,  and  blanketing  the 
outlines  of  the  cdtes.  If  the  men  had 
not  been  so  thoroughly  trained  in  the 
topography  of  the  enemy  defenses,  the 
attack  could  not  have  proceeded.  As 
it  was  it  was  twelve  before  it  started. 
Success  came  at  once,  and  the  left 
reached  Douaumont  fort  itself.  It 
was  well  that  the  two  Moroccan  regi- 
ments were  familiar  with  its  features 
for  its  outlines  were  swathed  in  mist, 

464 


so  that  even  the  points  of  the  compass 
were  lost.  Three  hours  after  the 
Colonial  troops  had  left  their  parapets 
they  carried  the  fort! 

Major  Nicolay's  report  thus  de- 
scribes its  capture:  "Ihe  Marsouins, 
dragging  one  foot  after  another  from 
the  mud,  pushed  forward  to  try  their 
luck.  There  was  no  gunfire  on  their 
line,  no  infantry  resistance.  It  was 
close  upon  three  o'clock.  Dorey's 
detachment  had  entered  the  fort  with- 
out firing  a  shot,  and  was  installed 
to  the  southwest  of  the  quarters  and 
turrets,  in  excellent  condition,  neither 
firing  nor  being  fired  upon.  We  could 
no  longer  think  of  methodically  adopt- 
ing the  order  of  battle  which  had  been 
originally  foreseen.  The  Boches,  with- 
out any  doubt,  were  aware  of  our 
arrival,  and  we  had  to  attack  them  as 
quickly  as  possible,  before  they  had 
recovered  from  their  panic.  The  men, 
moving  forward  under  a  low-flying 
aeroplane  showing  the  three  colors  of 
France,  advanced  to  the  ditch  and  then 
climbed  up  the  steep  slope  of  the  ram- 
part through  the  gorge.  When  they 
reached  the  top  of  this  rampart  they 
saw  before  them  the  gaping  openings 
of  the  lower  casemates,  and  in  front  of 
them  the  courtyard  in  extraordinary 
upheaval.  Before  the  chaos  which  had 
fallen  upon  the  great  fort,  a  symbol  of 
will  and  of  power,  the  fort  which  had 
been  so  marvelously  retaken,  the  lead- 
ing sections  of  the  columns  came  to  a 
halt,  and  gazed.  The  battalion  leader, 
who  had  stayed  behind  for  a  moment 
at  the  bottom  of  the  moat  in  order  to 
control  the  movement,  reached  the 
head  of  the  battalion  at  this  moment, 
and  while  acknowledging  to  the  full 
the  sanctity  of  this  unforgetable  sight 
gave  the  order  to  attack  the  machine- 
guns  which  were  beginning  to  get  into 
action  from  the  casemates.  The  resist- 
ance put  up  by  the  Germans  was 
brief,  and  the  grenadiers  soon  cleared 
out  the  last  of  the  garrison  from  the 
underground  caverns  of  the  fort."  The 
attack  in  the  centre  was  equally  suc- 
cessful, and  in  fifty-eight  minutes  won 
its  objectives  and  held  a  line  east  of 
Fort  Douaumont  to  the  slopes  north 
of  Fausse  Cote  Ravine  and  Vaux  pond. 


fflSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


M 


ORE  RESISTANCE  IS  OFFERED  AROUND 
FORT  VAUX. 

The  right  division  under  de  Larde- 
melle  had  the  fiercest  of  the  fighting, 
for  Vaux  hill  had  been  carefu'ly  de- 
fended and  the  German  Hnes  here  were 
very  strong.  When  darkness  fell  only 
the  front  line  trenches  had  been  car- 
ried, and  the  battle  raged  all  through 
the  first  night  and  the  second  day  as 


noted:  "As  fighting  on  the  French 
sector  of  the  Somme  battlefield  died 
down  the  position  before  Verdun  be- 
came again  critical.  The  French  at- 
tacked on  the  24th,  we  lost  Fort 
Douaumont  and  on  November  i  were 
obliged  tQ  evacuate  Fort  Vaux  also. 
The  loss  was  grievous  but  still  more 
grievous  was  the  totally  unexpected 
decimation  of  some  of  our  divisions." 


DISTANT  VIEW  OF  BELLEVILLE  ON  THE  MEUSE 

This  picture,  taken  within  the  sheltering  ring  of  Verdun's  forts,  shows  Belleville  in  the  distance.  The  Germans 
were  confident  that  if  they  could  advance  beyond  Souville  and  Tavannes  neither  the  garrison  in  Belleville  nor 
St.  Michel  would  offer  protracted  resistance  for  their  retreat  would  be  cut  off  by  the  river  in  the  rear. 


the  French  line  crept  around  the  fort 
that  Raynal  had  been  forced  to  sur- 
render. Throughout  the  26th,  the  men 
in  the  German  second  line  trenches, 
Gotha,  Siegen,  de  Saales  and  Damloup 
village,  defended  them  fiercely.  It  was 
thought  wisest  to  renew  the  gun  prepa- 
ration once  more  against  the  fort.  The 
bombardment  continued  at  intervals 
for  several  days  aiid  on  the  second 
Vaux  was  entered  by  the  French  who 
found  that  the  garrison  had  hurriedly 
evacuated  it,  and  left  large  military 
supplies  behind.  The  tide  had  now 
certainly  turned. 

In  Ludendorff's  story  of  the  war  the 
results  of  the  October  fighting  are  thus 


NIVELLE  PREPARES  TO  MAKE  A  FURTHER 
ADVANCE. 

Douaumont  and  Vaux  had  been 
retaken,  but  the  enemy  was  still  in 
possession  of  the  high  ground  around 
Louvemont  and  the  Cote  du  Poivre, 
and  was  able  from  these  positions  to 
bombard  the  city  and  shell  its  com- 
munications. The  French  Command 
therefore  made  preparations  through- 
out November  and  early  December  to 
seize  these  points.  Mangin,  as  before, 
was  in  charge  of  operations,  with  four 
divisions.  Results  of  the  October 
thrust  had  fully  justified  the  careful 
training  given  to  the  men  who  captured 
Douaumont,  and  it  was  repeated  for 

465 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


the  new  troops.  As  one  pushed  north 
from  Verdun  into  the  cotes,  the  more 
broken  and  tortuous  became  the  out- 
line of  the  country.  The  time  of  year, 
and  the  fact  that  so  many  tides  of 
battle  had  churned  the  hillsides  into 
caverns  and  cliffs,  and  ploughed  the 
ravines  into  the  semblance  of  a  lunar 
desert,  made  preparations  more  ardu- 
ous.    The   difficulties   of   bringing   up 


swept  out  of  Vacherauville,  his  strong 
positions  on  the  Cote  du  Poivre, 
Louvement,  Hill  378,  Bezonvaux  and 
the  Hardaumont  position  between 
Douaumont  and  the  Woevre.  Thus 
the  French  main  positions  outside  the 
circle  of  forts  were  once  more  in  their 
own  hands.  More  than  11,000  prison- 
ers, 115  guns,  44  mine  throwers,  107 
machine-guns  and  great  quantities  of 


AN  UNDERGROUND  DRESSING  STATION  ON  THE  FRENCH  FRONT 

Where  possible  the  surgeons  were  glad  to  establish  themselves  in  caverns  like  this.  Here  they  could  work  undis- 
turbed by  shells  which  sometimes  exploded  in  tents  or  buildings  which  they  were  using  as  field  hospitals,  disturbing 
or  injuring  patients  and  surgeons.  Some  parts  of  Eastern  France  are  honeycombed  with  great  caves  which  occa- 
sionally are  used  as  storage  rooms  for  wines.    Often  these  caverns  are  old  quarries. 


heavy  artillery  which  the  British  were 
experiencing  on  the  Somme  were  felt 
in  exaggerated  degree  in  the  Verdun 
area. 

On  December  15,  just  after  the 
Kaiser's  peace  proposal,  and  as  if  *in 
answer  to  it,  French  guns  echoed  once 
more  across  the  bare  hillsides  and 
through  the  dreary  Meuse  valley.  The 
French  were  striving  to  push  the  Ger- 
mans back  from  the  strong  positions  on 
which  they  themselves  had  made  their 
strongest  stand  in  February.  Infantry 
attacks  began  at  10  o'clock  In  the  morn- 
ing, and  were  successful  beyond  meas- 
ure.   By  the  i8th,  the  enemy  had  been 

466 


stores  were  captured.  France's  answer 
to  German  peace  overtures  was  given 
through  the  mouth  of  the  gun  and  at 
the  point  of  the  bayonet. 

LUDENDORFF'S      MOURNFUL      REVIEW     OF 
J     THESE     OPERATIONS. 

Of  this  fighting  Ludendorff  says: 
"On  December  14,  15,  and  16,  there 
was  again  very  hard  fighting  round 
Verdun.  The  French  attacked  so  as 
to  limit  still  further,  before  the  end  of 
the  year,  the  German  gains  of  191 6 
before  this  fortress.  They  achieved 
their  object.  The  blow  they  dealt  us 
was  particularly  heavy.  We  not  only 
suffered  heavy  casualties,  but  also  lost 


467 


fflSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


THE  RUINS  OF  VERDUN 
Verdun  had  suffered  several  alarms  of  bombardment,  but  these  had  been  at  long  intervals  and  in  fancied  immunity 
the  citizens  grew  secure.   When  heavy  bombardment  began  at  the  end  of  February,  orders  for  civilians  to  evacuate 
the  city  were  published  at  once,  and  a  weary  stream  of  fugitives  wandered  west  through  the  by-ways  of  France, 
avoiding  the  main  roads  where  the  hordes  of  soldiers  were  hastening  in  the  opposite  direction. 


important  positions.  The  strain  during 
this  year  had  been  too  great.  The 
endurance  of  the  troops  had  been 
weakened  by  long  spells  of  defense 
under  the  powerful  enemy  artillery  fire 
and  their  own  losses.  We  were  com- 
pletely exhausted  on  the  Western 
front." 

Some  measure  of  what  Verdun 
meant  to  France, — and  to  all  the 
Allies — may  be  gathered  from  the  fol- 
lowing paragraph  written  by  the  edi- 
tor of  the  Gaulois  at  the  end  of  191 6: 
"Only  a  few  hours,  and  1916  will  be 
finished,  the  year  that  we  may,  that 
we  ought,  henceforth,  to  call  'the  year 
of  Verdun.'  In  spite  of  the  griefs 
brought  by  so  many  disappointments 
succeeding  to  so  many  hopes;  in  spite 
of  the  sufferings  of  today  and  the  trials 
of  tomorrow,  Verdun  has  thrown  over 
the  year  which  is  ending  such  a  light 
that  gloom,  anxiety  and  anguish  dis- 


appear and  leave  only  in  our  imagina- 
tion the  two  towers  of  Verdun,  the 
inaccessible  and  the  inviolable.  Ver- 
dun, where  Castelnau  and  Petain  have 
done  their  splendid  work,  where  Nivelle 
was  revealed!" 

THE     REMAINDER     OF     THE     GROUND     IS 
REGAINED  IN   1917. 

The  real  battle  of  Verdun  ended  in 
December,  191 6,  yet  the  enemy  still 
held  Hill  304,  le  Mort  Homme  and 
French  positions  south  of  the  Forges 
stream  on  the  west  bank,  and  the  Cote 
de  Talon,  and  the  villages  of  Samog- 
neux  and  Champneuville  on  the  east. 
When  P6tain  came  to  the  post  of 
Commander-in-Chief  in  the  following 
summer,  he  organized  a  third  limited 
offensive  which  threw  the  Germans  off 
the  dominating  hills  and  restored  to 
the  French  the  positions  they  had  held 
in  February,  1916.  Verdun  stood  as  a 
symbol  of  French  invincibility. 


468 


Bt)  permission  of  Geo.  Pulnian  d  Sons,  Ltd.  Photo  by  F.  Russell  d  Bom. 

VICE-ADMIRAL  SIR  DAVID  BEATTY.  K.C.B.,  K.C.V.O.,  D.S.O. 
When  in  Command  of  the  Battle  Cruiser  Fleet 


The  German  Cruiser  Rostock  Lost  in  the  Jutland  Battle 


Chapter  XXX 


The  British  Navy  and  the  Jutland  Fight 

WEEKS  AND  MONTHS  OF  PATROL  DUTY  AND  ONE  GREAT 

ENGAGEMENT 


T)  EFORE  reviewing  the  story  of  naval 
warfare  1915-1916,  it  is  well  to 
compare  the  conflicting  claims  of  the 
rival  maritime  powers  as  to  their 
achievements  during  the  first  year  of 
fighting.  Count  zu  Reventlow,  pointing 
out  the  impossibility  of  preventing 
Germany's  isolation  from  the  oceans 
because  of  the  commanding  geographi- 
cal position  of  the  British  Isles  lying 
"like  a  long  mole  before  the  North 
Sea,"  continues:  "The  losses  of  the 
German  Fleet  in  the  first  year  of  the 
war  were  very  small.  It  looks  to 
the  future  with  confidence,  and  even 
though  it  has  carried  on  a  strategy  of 
reserve  and  of  waiting  it  has  on  the 
other  hand,  repeatedly  shown  that  it 
possesses  full  freedom  of  action  in  the 
North  Sea.  .  .  .  The  German  Fleet 
has  coursed  about  in  the  North  Sea  a 
great  number  of  times,  and  at  times, 
as  it  is  known,  has  even  advanced  to 
the  English  coasts  in  order  to  bombard 
English  coast  defenses  and  marine 
stations.  The  past  twelve  months  have 
demonstrated  that  the  days  of  absolute 
British  supremacy  are  at  an  end." 

WHAT  ARE  THE  DUTIES  OF  A  FLEET  IN 
TIME  OF  WAR? 

Contrast  this  claim  with  that  of 
Mr.  Balfour  for  the  same  period  of 
time.  "The  British  Navy  has,"  he 
wrote,  "performed  the  only  seven 
functions  which  a  fleet  can  perform. 


It  may  drive  the  enemy's  commerce 
off  the  sea. 

Protect  its  own  commerce. 

It  may  render  the  enemy's  fleet  im- 
potent. 

It  may  make  the  transfer  of  enemy's 
troops  across  the  seas  impossible, 
whether  for  attack  or  defense. 

It  may  transport  its  own  troops 
where  it  will. 

It  may  secure  their  supplies,  and  (in 
fitting  circumstances)  may  assist  in 
their  operations." 

Which  of  the  two  claims  do  the  fol- 
lowing facts  support? 

THE  WORK  OF  THE  BRITISH  NAVY  IN  THE 
WAR. 

The  communications  of  the  Grand 
Alliance  were  sea  communications, 
stretching  from  Archangel  to  Gibral- 
tar, Gibraltar  to  Suez  or  the  Cape,  the 
Cape  to  Colombo,  Colombo  to  Mel- 
bourne, and  Melbourne  to  Vladivo- 
stock.  These  communications  extend- 
ing round  the  globe  were  kept  open  all 
the  time,  and  the  figures  for  1916  in 
transport  of  war  material  alone  read 
eight  millions  of  men,  ten  million  tons 
of  supplies  and  explosives,  over  a  mil- 
lion sick  and  wounded,  over  a  million 
horses  and  mules,  and  fifty  million  gal- 
lons of  gasoline.  In  addition  to  these, 
the  ordinary  import  and  export  trade 
went  on.  Such  trifles  as  100,000,000 
cwts.  of  wheat,  7,000,000  tons  of  iron 

469 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


ADMIRAL  SIR  JOHN  JELLICOE 

Admiral  Sir  John  Rushworth  Jellicoe  was  in  command  of 
Fleet  until  November,  1916,  when  he  became  First  Sea 
was  succeeded  in  his  former  o£Bce  by  Sir  David  Beatty. 

ore  came  into  the  British  Isles,  and 
exports  to  the  value  of  $2,500,000,000 
were  sent  out.  The  Allies  assisted  in 
these  vast  undertakings.  France  had, 
in  addition  to  her  Navy,  360  ocean- 
going vessels,  Italy  about  the  same, 
Russia  174,  and  Belgium  67.  Yet 
these  nations  were  borrowers,  and  not 
lenders.  To  France,  Britain  lent  600 
ships,  to  Italy  400.  Sir  John  Jellicoe  in 
the  second  year  of  the  war  remarked, 
"Without  our  Merchant  Marine  the 
Navy, — and  indeed  the  Nation, — could 
not  exist."  To  add  to  the  Navy's 
reconnaissance,  over  100  merchant 
ships  were  commandeered  as  auxiliary 
cruisers. 

ONLY     ONE     GREAT     ENGAGEMENT     TO 
RECORD. 

The  character  of  this  year  of  naval 
warfare  is,  then,  one  of  watching  and 
waiting.  There  is  only  one  great  en- 
gagement, and  no  large  offensive  move- 

470 


ments  except  the  co-operation 
with  the  Allied  military  forces 
in  Belgium  and  at  the  Dar- 
danelles; and  the  Russian 
fleet's  work  in  conjunction  with 
Grand-Duke  Nicholas  in  the 
Black  Sea;  in  all  these  cases 
the  ships  were  engaged  not 
against  ships  but  against  forts 
and  land  intrenchments.  The 
warfare,  save  at  Jutland,  was 
waged  with  the  sea's  lighter 
troops.  While  the  German 
High  Sea  Fleet  lay  inactive, 
protected  by  a  barrier  of  sub- 
marines, mines,  sandbanks  and 
land  -  fortifications,  British 
armed  auxiliaries  controlled 
traffic,  mine  sweepers  labored 
ceaselessly  in  the  North  Sea 
and  adjacent  waters,  gun  and 
patrol  boats  hunted  subma- 
rines and  the  cruiser  squad- 
rons kept  tireless  watch.  Brit- 
ish battleships  in  the  northern 
mists  like  German  battleships 
in  the  Kiel  Canal  were  con- 
demned to  watchful  inaction. 
The  policy  which  gave  to 
naval  fighting  such  a  char- 
the  Grand  acter  was  conceived  by  Ad- 
Lordand  j^jj-^lg  von  Tirpitz  and  von 
Pohl.  Behind  the  fighters  they 
struck  at  the  fighters'  supplies.  If  the 
Allied  shipping  could  be  crippled, 
Britain  must  either  reduce  her  military 
operations  or  find  her  population  in 
serious  economic  distress.  For  once 
English  and  German  opinion  tallied  in 
a  striking  particular.  Sir  Percy  Scott 
early  in  19 14  had  prophesied  the  ad- 
vent of  the  submarine  in  war  and  fore- 
told that  it  would  create  a  panic  in 
merchant  shipping,  and  von  Tirpitz 
and  von  Pohl  believed  that  the  mine 
and  submarine  would  have  this  effect 
and  that  the  British  Navy  would  be 
slow  to  discover  means  of  defense  and 
reprisal.  They  were  mistaken;  von 
Tirpitz  himself  in  his  Memoirs  acknowl- 
edges the  latter  fact:  "I  am  certain 
there  was  still  a  possibility  of  attaining 
a  tolerable  peace  if  Germany  had  con- 
centrated all  her  powers  in  the  sub- 
marine war  as  England  did  in  com- 
bating   it."     Germany,   by  submarine 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


attacks  in  1916,  had  not  created  a 
panic,  but  by  the  end  of  the  year  she 
had  destroyed  1000  ships  which  could 
not  be  easily  replaced,  and  by  extensive 
mine-laying  at  the  end  of  1915  and  in 
the  early  months  of  1916,  was  preparing 
to  reduce  ships  of  war  also.  Details  of 
the  submarine  campaign  will  be  found 
in  another  chapter. 

THK     DIFFICULTIES      RAISED     BY     THE 
BRITISH    BLOCKADE. 

One  of  the  chief  weapons  used  by 
England  to  make  Germany's  attack 
costly  was  a  blockade  of  the  enemy's 
territory  by  sea.  This  blockade  raised 
difficulties  with  America,  and  was 
strongly  criticised  in  England  itself  as 
not  being  sufficiently  effective  in  pre- 
venting foodstuflfs  passing  into  Ger- 
many through  neutral  shipping.  Brit- 
ain could  not  at  first  easily  discrimi- 
nate between  neutral  imports  intended 
for  neutral  use  and  those  which  might 
be  passed  on  to  the  enemy,  until  cen- 
tral distributing  agencies  were  arranged 
in  neutral  states  which  governed  the 
destination  of  all  consignments.  A 
special  ministry  in  the  Cabinet  was 
created  to  deal  with  the  question.  Lord 
Robert  Cecil  was  the  first  to  hold  it  and 
in  his  answer  to  criticism  of  the  scheme, 
he  said:  "We  could  stop  up  the  holes 
in  the  dam  as  they  appeared,  but  it 
was  inevitable  that  a  good  deal  of 
water  should  run  through  while  the 
repairs  were  being  made."  By  this 
blockade  then,  no  ships  except  sub- 
marines or  an  occasional  commerce 
raider  could  penetrate  into  the  Atlantic. 
The  whole  of  the  North  Sea  was  de- 
clared a  military  area,  and  by  means  of 
certain  regulations  such  as  reducing 
lights,  stopping  fishing  in  certain  areas, 
and  closing  the  East  coast  ports  to 
trawlers  of  foreign  registry.  Sir  John 
Jellicoe  was  enabled  to  regulate  traffic 
and  check  suspicious  movement. 

Who  maintained  the  blockade?  The 
auxiliary  craft.  It  will  be  recalled  that 
in  May,  1915,  a  change  in  the  British 
Admiralty  had  occurred.  Lord  Fisher 
and  Mr.  Winston  Churchill  had  both 
resigned  and  their  places  had  been 
taken  by  Sir  Henry  Jackson  and  Mr. 
A.  J.  Balfour.  Lord  Fisher  had,  during 
his  tenure  of  power,  set  in  progress 


vast  schemes  of  ship  construction  of 
every  kind,  with  new  designs  and  im- 
provements on  the  old  designs,  so  that 
the  new  ministry  found  itself  "up- 
borne upon  an  ever-swelling  tide  of  de- 
liveries of  crafts  of  all  kinds  and  of  a 
kind  best  fitted  to  the  purposes  of  the 
war,'  according  to  Mr.  Winston 
Churchill's  speech  in  the  House  of 
Commons,  March,  1916.    Similar  ship- 


VICE-ADMIRAL  SIR  R.H.S.  BACON 


Vice-Admiral  Sir  Reginald  H.  S.  Bacon,  K.  C.  B., 
succeeded  Rear-Adnural  Hood  in  command  of  the 
Dover  Patrol  in  April,  1915,  and  in  the  autumn  as- 
sisted the  land  forces  in  Belgium. 

building  activities  had  been  under- 
taken also  in  France  and  Russia.  The 
vessels  as  they  had  come  in  had  been 
drafted  into  various  units  according  to 
function.  One  of  the  chief  units  was  the 
Dover  Patrol,  a  section  of  the  fleet 
stationed  in  home  waters  with  bases  at 
Dover  and  Dunkirk  and  a  sphere  of 
influence  extending  for  a  considerable 
distance  on  either  hand.  Coming  up 
Channel  or  down  the  North  Sea  all 
vessels  would  take  their  final  stages 
along  sea-roads  policed  by  fighting 
ships  of  the  Patrol  and  its  attendant 
cruisers.  Its  beat  made  it  into  the  front 
line   trench   of   the   war   by   sea,   and 

471 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


every  day  somewhere  it  came  into 
touch  with  the  Germans  or  their  hand- 
work. Fighting  of  a  similar  type  was 
going  on  at  the  same  time  in  the 
Upper  Adriatic  and  in  places  in  the 
Baltic  Sea. 

THE  GALLANT  OPERATIONS  OF  THE  DOVER 
PATROL. 

From  the  early  months  of  fighting 
the  activities  of  the  Dover  Patrol  were 
both  defensive  and  offensive.  The 
enemy  had  brought  down  and  con- 
centrated strong  flotillas  of  destroyers 
behind  their  mine-fields  at  Zeebrugge, 
but  these  were  powerless  to  prey  upon 
the  merchantmen  who  came  and  went 
between  London  and  the  world  at  large 
because  the  "keeper  of  the  gate"  was 
in  the  way.  Offensively,  the  patrol 
co-operated  with  the  Allies  against 
the  German  lines  in  Flanders.  Vice- 
Admiral  R.  H.  S.  Bacon  had  succeeded 
Rear-Admiral  Hood  in  command  of  the 
Patrol  in  April,  1915,  and  at  the  end  of 
August  he  left  England  with  a  fleet  of 
eighty  vessels,  including  several  new 
monitors  and  a  new  class  of  fleet  mes- 
sengers, fast  motor  boats.  His  ships 
were  manned  partly  by  trained  naval 
ratings,  but  more  largely  by  men  of 
the  Naval  Reserve,  and  by  men  who 


hitherto  had  been  deep-sea  fishermen. 
They  were  assisted  in  their  work  by 
the  French  Second  Light  Cruiser 
Squadron  which  operated  against  sub- 
marine attack. 

Cruising  in  company  by  day  and 
night  under  war  conditions  the  Patrol 
made  some  attacks  (some  of  them  last- 
ing for  four  days)  through  September, 
October  and  November,  upon  the 
enemy  coast.  "Out  from  Dunkirk 
with  slow  ungainly  gait  trudges  a 
batch  of  monitors  accompanied  by 
motor  launches  and  other  satellites 
making  smoke  screens.  At  a  chosen 
spot  the  smoke-makers  put  up  their 
screens  and  from  behind  this  cover  the 
monitors  train  their  big  guns  shore- 
ward." Aircraft  directed  the  fall  of  the 
shot  and  commonly  the  Germans  got 
it  three  ways,  from  the  air-craft  bomb- 
ing overhead,  the  monitor  shelling  from 
the  sea  and  the  siege-guns  bombarding 
along  the  coast.  Batteries,  military  fac- 
tories, locks,  guns,  ammunition  depots, 
wharves  and  stations  were  the  targets 
for  their  fire  so  that  (states  the  official 
account)  "the  whole  coast  during  our 
passage  was  showing  signs  of  con- 
siderable alarm  and  unrest  as  a  result  of 
our  previous  operations." 


CABLE    FOR 
HAUUNO   KITt 


vEE^'i^!C  wise 

irlACHED    TO 

-  JXRAWlCfl  S  IJ 


BRITISH  MINE  SWEEPERS.  AT  THE  DANGEROUS 


Nothing  is  more  dangerous  than  the  work  of  mine-sweeping.  The  men  engaged  incur  tremendous  risk  of  disaster 
to  their  ships  and  of  swift  destruction  for  themselves.  A  large  number  of  trawlers,  ships  of  about  150  tons,  were 
employed  in  this  task.   They  worked  in  pairs  with  a  strong  steel  hawser  stretched  between  them,  which  is  weighted 

472 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


THE    STRAITS    OF    DOVER    ARE    FINALLY 
CLOSED. 

As  winter  came  on,  the  shortness  of 
daylight  and  bad  weather  impeded  the 
Patrol's  work  but  gave  cover  to  the 
enemy  for  laying  mines  and  escaping 
its  vigilance.  In  six  months  over  :?i  ,000 
merchant  ships,  apart  from  men-of-war 
and  auxiliaries,  passed  through  the 
Patrol  with  a  loss  of  less  than  one  per 
thousand,  although  the  Patrol  itself 
showed  a  casualty  list  of  over  four  per 
cent.  Besides  this  policing  of  the 
trade  route  the  Patrol  assisted  in  the 
protection  of  the  flanks  of  all  sea  trans- 
ports to  and  from  the  armies  in  France, 
and  not  a  single  life  was  lost  in  the 
passage.  Finally,  in  a  later  year,  191 8, 
the  Patrol  succeeded  in  closing  the 
Straits  of  Dover  against  enemy  sub- 
marines by  a  gate,  and  triumphantly 
passed  from  defense  to  aggression  when 
they  attacked  and  destroyed  Zee- 
brugge  and  Ostend. 

A  second  defensive  measure  which 
German  activity  in  this  respect  ren- 
dered continuous  and  strenuous  in  all 
weathers  was  mine-sweeping.  There 
was  considerable  speculation  early  in 
19 1 6  as  to  new  German  naval  plans,  for, 
like  Great  Britain,  France  and  Russia, 


she  was  busy  in  new  construction.  The 
British  Admiralty  had  evidence  of  con- 
siderable mine-laying  at  the  end  of 
1915  and  during  the  early  months  of 
191 6,  and  heard  rumors  of  a  new  type  of 
U-boat  which  had  been  devised.  What- 
ever the  uncertainty  as  to  novelties  in 
warfare,  however,  the  mine  was  cer- 
tainly known  to  be  present  in  large 
areas  and  prompt  measures  were  need- 
ed to  deal  with  it.  Before  war  broke 
out  there  was  the  nucleus  of  a  mine- 
sweeping  fleet  and  in  four  years  of  war 
this  grew  to  enormous  proportions. 
The  fisherman,  especially  the  toiler 
from  the  deep  sea,  mainly  supplied  the 
personnel  of  this  fleet,  and  in  the  begin- 
ning of  191 7,  Admiral  Jellicoe  an- 
nounced that  2500  skippers  from  the 
fishing  fleets  were  employed  as  skippers 
with  the  R.  N.  R.,  100,000  fishermen 
were  serving  with  the  navy,  and  three- 
quarters  of  the  first-class  fishing  ves- 
sels were  in  the  Admiralty  Service. 
These  kept  the  seas  the  year  round  in 
mine-infested  regions.  Trawlers  work- 
ing in  pairs  towed  a  sweeping  wire 
which  was  kept  at  the  required  depth 
by  a  contrivance  called  a  kite.  The 
sweeping  wire  would  catch  and  hold 
the  steel  moving  wire  of  the  mine  and 


MINE   LAVCR 


^'-  MINE 


F    I    E   U  O 


WORK  OF  CLEARraO  THE  SEA  OF  GERMAN  MINES 

with  two  heavy  kites  or  sinkers  as  seen  in  the  picture.  As  the  hawser  is  dragged  along  it  comes  into  contact  with 
the  ropes  holding  the  mines  to  their  anchors  and  pulls  these  along  so  that  the  mines  explode  by  contact  with  each 
o'^er,  or  are  harmlessly  exploded  by  fire  from  light  guns  if  they  come  to  the  surface. 

473 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


bring  the  infernal  machine  to  the  sur- 
face where  it  was  exploded  by  riflle- 
fire. 

T^IFFERENT  SORTS  OF  MINES  IN  USE. 

The  mines  they  sought  were  of  all 
descriptions.  Says  the  author  of  "In 
the  Northern  Mists:"  "There  are  some 
kinds  that  have  horns — like  a  dilemma 
— some  are  arranged  to  come  up  to  the 
surface  long  after  they  are  hidden  in 
the  depths  and  at  unexpected  times 
like  regrettable  incidents  from  a  hectic 
past.  Others  are  constructed  with 
fiendish  iiigenuity  to  wait  after  touch- 
ing a  ship  until  they  have  felt  out  its 
most  vulnerable  spot  before  exploding. 
Some  are  made  to  float  about  at  ran- 
dom. .  .  .  And  others,  more  dangerous 
still,  drift  when  they  were  meant  to 
remain  anchored.  .  .  .  There  are  fre- 
quently found  near  the  surface  above 
the  big  mines  laid  deep  to  catch  large 
vessels,  smaller  ones  designed  with 
special  forethought  to  entrap  the 
mine-sweepers  engaged  in  clearing  the 
field." 

In  addition  to  this  perilous  work, 
the  fishermen  although  not  keeping  the 
seas  for  such  a  service  rendered  valu- 
able service  to  survivors  from  torpedoed 
vessels  like  the  Cressy,  Aboukir,  Hogue, 
and  Hawke  and  others  in  like  case,  and 
a  certain  percentage  of  their  total  con- 
tinued the  very  hazardous  task  of  fish- 
ing the  mine-sown  depths  for  food  for 
the  nations  they  served. 

THE    HARDSHIPS    OF    THE    MEN    OF    THE 
PATROL  FLEET. 

The  Dover  Patrol  formed  only  one 
division  of  a  general  cordon  of  defense 
kept  by  cruiser  squadrons  and  de- 
stroyer flotillas  upon  the  outlets  to  the 
North  Sea,  and  in  all  the  waters 
around  France  and  the  British  Isles 
where  enemy  activity  was  to  be  feared. 
It  meant  a  good  deal,  this  keeping  the 
seas  in  all  weathers  through  all  seasons. 
It  meant,  for  example,  says  the  writer 
quoted  above  (a  chaplain  serving  in 
these  waters),  "a  pitch-black  night, 
with  the  temperature  well  below  freez- 
ing; there  is  half  a  gale  of  wind  blowing 
and  a  heavy  sea  running;  a  blinding 
snowstorm  stings  the  faces  of  the  look- 
outs and  makes  it  impossible  to  see 

474 


more  than  a  foot  ahead.  And  through 
all  this  the  F'leet  is  steaming  at  fast 
speed,  without  lights.  The  oflficer  of 
the  watch  knows  that  there  is  a  ship 
ahead  of  him,  and  another  astern,  and 
he  must  keep  his  exact  distance  if  he 
would  avoid  a  calamity  which  might 
mean  not  alone  the  loss  of  hundreds  of 
lives  and  of  a  $10,000,000  ship  but  the 
weakening  of  Britain's  first  line  of 
defense." 

A  FEW  COMMERCE  RAIDERS  BREAK 
THROUGH  THE  LINES. 

But  the  cordon  was  kept  unbroken 
and  such  vessels  as  the  Meteor  and 
later  the  Mowe  and  Greif  which  broke 
through  the  North  Sea  guard  are  ex- 
ceptions, like  the  Emden  or  Konigs- 
berg  of  a  previous  year.  The  Meteor 
had  been  a  commerce  raider  in  the 
Baltic  in  June  and  on  the  night  of 
August  7,  1915,  she  broke  through  the 
British  lines.  Her  first  encounter  was 
with  the  Ramsey,  which  she  sank  to- 
gether with  half  her  crew  and  her  com- 
mander. The  Germans  hailed  the 
exploit  as  a  splendid  manoeuvre  but  in 
reality  the  Meteor  had  masqueraded  as 
an  ordinary  merchant  ship,  flying  the 
Russian  colors  and  carrying  masked 
guns  and  torpedo  tubes.  She  then 
burned  the  Dutch  vessel  Jason  off 
Horn's  Reef,  and  transferred  her  sur- 
vivors together  with  those  from  the 
Ramsey  to  a  Norwegian  ship.  Having 
a  little  idle  time  she  laid  new  mines, 
and  these  on  August  9  were  struck  by 
the  British  destroyer  Lynx  which  sank 
with  a  loss  of  seventy  oflficers  and  men. 
At  length  a  squadron  of  British  auxil- 
iary cruisers  got  on  her  track  but  her 
commander  took  his  ship  within  fifteen 
miles  of  the  German  coast,  ordered  the 
crew  to  take  to  the  boats,  and  blew  up 
his  vessel  by  detonating  the  remaining 
mines.  The  crew  made  good  their 
escape  and  upon  their  return  home 
received  a  great  ovation. 

The  Mowe  had  an  even  more  sensa- 
tional career.  She  left  a  German  base 
in  December,  191 5,  and  under  a  snow- 
storm eluded  the  cordon,  and  for  the 
next  six  weeks  made  many  captures 
around  the  Canary  Islands.  At  least 
fifteen  Allied  vessels  fell  to  her  "bag" 
and  her  captures  began  to  exceed  even 


fflSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


HEROIC  DEEDS  IN  ROUGH  SEAS 

An  R.  N.  V.  R.  lieutenant  swam  to  a  drifting  mine  and 
fastened  a  line  to  its  ringbolt.  It  was  then  towed  to 
smooth  water  and  destroyed. 

those  of  the  Emden.  In  the  middle  of 
January  she  intercepted  the  Elder- 
Dempster  liner,  Appam,  on  her  home- 
ward voyage  from  West  Africa.  Plac- 
ing a  prize  crew  upon  her,  the  Mowe 
sent  the  ship  to  the  United  States  where 
she  made  a  dramatic  appearance  at 
Norfolk  on  February  i,  and  presented 
a  curious  problem  for  the  government 
to  solve.  Early  in  March  the  Mowe 
under  her  commander.  Captain  Count 
von  und  zu  Dohna-Schlodien,  returned 
safely  to  Germany.  She  had  had 
many  encounters,  and  not  the  least 
that  with  the  Australian  merchant  ves- 
sel. Clan  MacTavish,  which  put  up  one 
of  the  pluckiest  fights  on  record.  By 
false  signals  the  Mowe  had  approached 
the  Clan  MacTavish,  and  when  abaft 
her  beam  threw  off  her  disguise, 
lowered  her  canvas  screen  and  dis- 
closed her  battery  of  guns  opening  fire. 
The  Clan  MacTavish  held  on  her  way, 
returning  fire  from  her  little  2-pounder 
till  further  resistance  was  hopeless. 

THE   GREIF   IS   DESTROYED   BY    A   LUCKY 
SHOT. 

At  last  came  the  day  of  reckoning. 
On  the  last  day  of  February,  1916, 
the  Alcantara  on   patrol  duty  in   the 


KEEPERS  OF  THE  SEAS 


A  mine-sweeping  officer  and  an  engine-man  boarded  a 
deserted  trawler  and,  at  imminent  risk,  cut  away  two 
mines  fouled  in  her  tackle. 

North  Sea  sighted  a  large  steamer 
flying  Norwegian  colors.  She  ran 
down  the  stranger  and  asked  name 
and  destination.  Obtaining  no  answer 
she  lowered  a  boat,  whereupon  the 
merchantman  dropped  her  false  bul- 
warks and  opened  fire.  Both  were 
large  ships  of  over  15,000  tonnage,  and 
with  a  will  the  Alcantara  returned  the 
raider's  fire,  and  badly  mauled  the 
German  cruiser  which  fled.  A  little 
later,  the  Andes,  another  armed  mer- 
chantman, came  up  and  with  very 
pretty  gun-practice  drove  the  Germans 
from  their  guns  as  she  swung  on  her 
helm  to  avoid  the  torpedoes  which  the 
escaping  Greif  was  firing.  Just  as  the 
inevitable  end  seemed  near  another 
light  cruiser  appeared  and  joined  in  the 
fray.  At  some  distance  her  gunlayers 
picked  up  the  range  and  presently  the 
German  ship  blew  up  with  a  terrific 
explosion. 

As  the  year  progressed,  the  attack 
on  Verdun  halted  on  the  Western 
Front.  It  seemed  as  though  the  issue  of 
the  struggle  might  be  forced  upon  the 
sea;  perhaps  the  steadfast  watchers  in 
the  northern  wastes  felt  their  hopes 
rise  at  the  thought  of  forcing  the  Ger- 

475 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


man  High  Sea  Fleet  to  decisive  battle. 
Certainly  some  sort  of  demonstration 
was  needed  to  reassure  the  German 
people  that  all  was  well  with  them. 
Reasons  there  were  in  plenty;  Russia 
might  be  checked  by  a  naval  offensive 
in  the  Baltic,  or  the  Allied  shipping 
losses  increased  by  the  placing  of  swift 
commerce-destroying  cruisers  upon  the 
Atlantic,  the  home  people  encouraged, 


Admirals  Scheer  and  Hipper  put  out 
from  its  bases  on  what  the  German 
Admiralty  characterized  'an  enter- 
prise directed  northward."  The  previ- 
ous day  by  arrangement — we  can  not 
call  it  chance  or  coincidence — the 
British  fleet  left  its  bases  for  the  pur- 
pose of  carrying  out  one  of  its  periodi- 
cal sweeps  in  the  North  Sea.  The  fieet 
was  divided  into  two  parts;  an  advance 


AN  ARTIFICIAL  WATERSPOUT 

This  volume  of  water  shot  high  into  the  air  is  the  result  of  the  explosion  of  a  submarine  bomb  from  a  patrol  which 
had  located  a  U-boat  at  this  spot.  Modern  mines  contain  from  200  to  1000  pounds  of  gun  cotton  or  trinitrotoluol. 
When  a  mine  is  exploded  in  contact  with  the  bottom  or  side  of  a  ship  the  result  is  destruction  of  the  adjacent  part 
of  the  hull. 


and  neutrals  impressed,  or  the  import 
of  munitions  into  Archangel  checked. 
Whether  it  was  the  British  challenge 
which  lured  the  lurker  out,  or  German 


or  shock  fleet  of  battle  cruisers  sup- 
ported by  the  Fifth  Battle  Squadron 
under  command  of  Vice-Admiral  Sir 
David  Beatty  went  ahead.    Because  of 


Naval  pageantry  which  invited  attack    its  superior  speed  its  function  was  re- 


does not  matter.  Certain  it  is  that 
after  two  long  years  of  waiting  the 
German  High  Seas  Fleet  was  brought 
to  an  engagement  off  the  Coast  of 
Denmark  on  May  31,  1916.  The  com- 
bat which  ensued  lasted  till  darkness 
fell,  and  even  spat  forth  viciously  dur- 
ing the  night. 

OW  THE  BATTLE  OF  JUTLAND  CAME 
ABOUT. 

Early  on  the  morning  of  the  fateful 


cortnaissance,  and  when  this  was 
accomplished  Beatty  was  to  repair  to 
a  rendezvous  in  the  North  Sea  where 
the  Battle  Fleet  under  Admiral  Sir 
John  Jellicoe  would  meet  him.  Beatty's 
force  was  not  all  cruisers,  nor  Jellicoe's 
all  battleships.  The  former  had  with 
him  two  battle-cruiser  squadrons,  three 
light-cruiser  squadrons,  and  units  of 
four  flotillas  of  destroyers.  In  addition 
he  was  supported  by  the  Fifth  Battle 
day  the  German  fleet  under  Vice-  Squadron  under  Rear-Admiral  Evan 
476 


H 


fflSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


Thomas  who  had  four  fast  battleships 
of  the  Queen  EHzabeth  class,  the 
VaHant,  Barham,  Warspite  and  Ma- 
laya. Jellicoe's  rear  or  main  body  of  the 
fleet  was  accompanied  by  one  battle- 
cruiser  squadron,  two  cruiser  squad- 
rons, one  light  cruiser  squadron  and 
three   destroyer   flotillas. 

This  was  the  situation  at  the  start: 
the  Germans  were  coming  out  from 
Wilhelmshaven  and  Kiel,  and  the 
British  Grand  Fleet  from  Scotch  ports, 
and  both  bodies  were  approaching  one 
another  in  mutual  ignorance.  When 
Beatty  had  completed  his  reconnais- 
sance on  the  morning  of  May  31,  he 
was  turning  north  to  his  rendezvous 
when  the  Galatea,  the  flagship  of  the 
First  Light  Cruiser  Squadron,  at  2:20 
P.M.  sighted  two  enemy  vessels  to  the 
E.  S.  E.,  apparently  stopped  and  en- 
gaged in  boarding  a  neutral  vessel. 
Recognizing  the  possibilities  of  the 
situation  the  British  admiral  turned 
his  fleet  to  the  E.  S.  E.  so  as  to  get  be- 
tween the  enemy  and  his  base.  Fifteen 
minutes  later  the  Galatea  descried  a 
large  amount  of  smoke  such  as  might 
come  from  a  fleet  steering  north. 
Beatty  sent  a  seaplane  up  to  scout  and 
as  the  clouds  were  lying  low  the  daring 
navigator  flew  beneath  their  screen  and 
clearly  made  out  five  enemy  armored 
ships  with  attendant  cruisers  and 
destroyers  who  directed  heavy  fire  at 
him. 

BEATTY'S  FLEET  PXJRSUES  THE  RETREAT- 
ING CRUISERS. 

Although  the  sea  was  calm  and  the 
wind  fair  there  was  much  haze  upon 
the  water,  a  fact  that  would  both 
destroy  the  advantage  of  powerful 
guns  in  shortening  the  range  and  also 
aid  the  hunted  in  his  flight.  Other  than 
this  the  odds  were  in  Beatty's  favor 
at  the  moment,  for  he  had  six  cruisers 
to  the  German  five,  besides  the  Battle 
Squadron  of  four  ships.  He  knew  that 
probably  the  Germans  would  try  to 
lead  him  back  on  to  their  main  Battle 
Fleet,  that  with  this  he  must  engage  at 
terrible  odds,  or  in  turn  himself  enact 
the  role  of  fugitive  and  decoy  the  High 
Seas  Fleet  back  into  touch  with  Jel- 
licoe's battleships. 

There  was  no  time  for  hesitation,  so 


prompt  decision  was  made  and  line  of 
battle  formed  at  once  though  the  two 
forces  were  thirteen  miles  apart.  When 
the  distance  fell  to  ten  and  a  half  the 
action  opened.  At  its  commencement 
the  lire  from  the  German  vessels  was 
exceptionally  rapid  and  accurate;  the 
Lion  was  hit  twice  three  minutes  after 
fire  was  opened,  and  within  twelve 
minutes  the  Lion,  Tiger  and  Princess 


ADMIRAL  SIR  CECIL  BURNEY 

Admiral  Sir  Cecil  Burney  was  Second-in-Command  of 
the  Grand  Fleet  at  the  Battle  of  Jutland  and  became 
Second  Sea  Lord,  December  1916. 

Royal  had  all  received  several  hits. 
Shortly  after  4  p.m.  the  Indefatigable 
under  the  weight  of  two  salvos  fell  out 
of  line  and  sank  by  the  stern.  Still 
Admiral  Hipper  refused  to  close,  and 
turned  his  ships  to  southwards  so  that 
both  squadrons  were  steering  a  parallel 
course  S.  S.  E.  with  a  distance  of 
14,500 — 18,000  yards  between  them. 

BEATTY  RISKS  AN  ENCOUNTER  WITH  THE 
MAIN  FLEET. 

At  4:08  P.M.  the  battleships  were 
near  enough  to  come  into  action,  and 
they  caused  the  German  fire  to  slacken. 
Well  aware  that  he  was  being  drawn 
on  towards  the  German  battle  fleet 
Beatty  nevertheless  clung  tenaciously 

477 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


to  his  foe  for  he  hoped  now  to  dispose 
of  Hipper  before  Scheer  could  help 
him,  and  he  knew  that  in  no  other  way 
could  the  main  fleets  be  brought  into 
action.  He  had  sent  wireless  messages 
to  Sir  John  Jellicoe  advising  him  of  the 
engagement  and  of  the  course  that  he 
was  pursuing,  and  so  for  an  hour  ran 
on  towards  the  heart  of  the  foe,  while 
in  his  trail  the  main  British  fleet  came 
on  in  expectancy  of  the  moment  when 
Beatty  would  double  back  on  the  track 
with  his  pursuers  hot  upon  him.  A 
naval  engagement  has  as  many  phases 


explosion  there  was  nothing  to  be  seen 
of  the  ship.  Afterwards,  a  few  sur- 
vivors were  picked  up  by  the  destroy- 
ers. The  loss  of  two  destroyers  and  two 
cruisers  reduced  the  odds  in  Beatty's 
favor. 

SIR     DAVID     BEATTY'S    REPORT    OF    NEW 
CONDITIONS. 

Let  Sir  David  Beatty  continue  the 
narrative.  "At  4:38  p.m.  Southampton 
reported  the  enemy's  Battle  Fleet 
ahead.  The  destroyers  were  recalled 
and  at  4:42  p.m.  the  enemy's  Battle 
Fleet  was  sighted  S.  E.     Course  was 


EVAN  THOMAS 

5th   Battle  Squadron 


,      lOXiOO  yards      , 


k^   German  Flotilla 
^        Light  Cruisers 


HIPPER 

3.30  P.M 


HIPPER 
3.48  P.M 


3.30  TO  3  48  P.M 


BEATTY  FORMS  LINE  OF  BATTLE 

3:30-3:48  P.  M.  Beatty  forms  line  of  tattle  at  3:30  P.  M.  and  turns  E.  S.  E.  At  3:48  P.  M.  the  battle  begins,  when 
he  ttirns  S.  S.  E.  and  closes  a  little.  Jellicoe  is  far  to  the  north.  Hipper  turned  on  seeing  Beatty,  returning  to  where 
he  knows  von  Scheer  with  the  Battle  Fleet  may  be  found. 


of  fighting  as  a  land  battle,  for  its  units 
are  as  varied  as  the  troops  on  terra 
firma.  Fierce  brushes  took  place  be- 
tween opposing  flotillas  of  destroyers, 
the  sea's  light  troops;  stern  conflicts 
raged  between  the  battle-cruisers,  the 
heavy  forces.  In  one  of  the  former, 
three  British  destroyers,  out  of  a 
flotilla  pressing  an  advantage  to  get 
within  torpedo  range  of  the  foe,  were 
isolated  and  two  of  them,  the  Nestor 
and  Nomad,  were  sunk  by  the  enemy. 
Meanwhile  in  the  battle-cruiser  en- 
gagement where  heavy  guns  thundered 
continuously  a  second  serious  casualty 
had  occurred.  The  Queen  Mary  re- 
ceived a  hit  in  her  magazine,  and  when 
the  Tiger  following  close  astern  of  the 
victim  emerged  from  the  smoke  of  the 
478 


altered  i6  points  in  succession  to 
starboard  and  I  proceeded  on  a  norther- 
ly course  to  lead  them  towards  the 
Battle  Fleet.  The  enemy  battle-cruis- 
ers altered  their  course  shortly  after- 
wards, and  the  action  continued." 
Thus,  like  the  German  ships  following 
in  Beatty's  lead,  we  enter  upon  the 
second  phase  of  the  battle  of  Jutland 
with  the  British  in  retreat  from  4:45  to 

6  P.M. 

Where  in  the  meantime  was  the  main 
British  Battle  Fleet?  The  move  of 
Beatty's  force  to  the  southward  at  a 
speed  considerably  greater  than  the 
battleships  could  manage  had  opened 
a  large  gap  between  the  two  forces,  and 
when  Beatty  turned, 'Jellicoe  was  fifty 
miles  to  the  north.    The  distance  how- 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


BEAHY 
4  Ships 


ever  was  closing  at  the  rate  of  45 
miles  an  hour,  and  Jellicoe  believed 
that  the  German  battleships  would  be 
unable  to  catch  either  Beatty's  cruisers 
or  the  Fifth  Battle  Squadron.  "No 
doubt,"  he  says,  "existed  in  my  mind 
that  both  our  battleships  and  our 
battle-cruisers  would  keep  well  out  of 
the  range  of  the  enemy's  Battle  Fleet 
if  necessary  until  I  was  able  to  rein- 
force them."  Later  the  gallant  admiral 
learned  that  he  had  been  un- 
derrating the  speed  of  the 
German  ships,  and  that  the 
Fifth  Battle  Squadron  when 
going  at  its  utmost  speed  had 
found  considerable  difficulty 
in  keeping  the  lead. 

THE   HUNTER   NOW    BECOMES 
THE    HUNTED. 

As    Beatty    ran   before    the 
Germans  he  was  indeed  their 
quarry.  Eight  ships  now  against 
nineteen.     Nevertheless,    the 
Germans  were  unable  because 
of  weather  conditions  to  use 
aerial  reconnaissance  and  were 
in  cortiplete  ignorance  of  Jelli- 
coe's     approach.       Moreover, 
when  the  surprise  came  Beatty 
reckoned     that     the    German 
ships  would   be  able   to  turn 
only  very  gradually  or  else  be 
exposed    to  enfilade  fire  from 
the    leading    British    cruisers. 
Thus  he  was  in  a  sense  master 
of  the  situation.    The  action 
between    the    battle    cruisers 
continued  but  the  British  fire 
was  only  intermittent,  for  from  shortly 
after  5:00  p.m.  the  light  was  against 
them,  as  they  stood  silhouetted  against 
a  clear  sky  in  the  west,  while  the  Ger- 
man ships  were  obscured  in  the  eastern 
haze.    So  uncertain  became  the  target 
that  for  half  an  hour  Beatty  ceased 
firing  altogether.     Now  and   again   a 
great  shape  would  loom  up  substantial 
in  the  mist,  and  when  the  light  grew 
better   the   Lion,    alone,    true   to   her 
name,  roared  some  fifteen  times.    Just 
then     one     of     the     enemy's     battle- 
cruisers,  perhaps  the  Liitzow,  quitted 
the   line   in   a   considerably   damaged 
condition  and  others  showed  signs  of 
increasing   injury. 


BEATTY  NOW  ATTEMPTS  TO  CUT  OFF  THE 
GERMAN  SHIPS. 

About  5  P.M.  Beatty,  sure  of  the 
proximity  of  the  battleships  and  using 
all  his  speed,  drew  ahead  of  the  enemy, 
pressing  in  and  curving  round  their 
T  shaped  line.  Then  he  drove  across  it 
straight  to  the  east,  bringing  down  the 
range  to  12,000  yards.  His  object  was 
twofold:  first,  he  wished  to  bring  the 
leading     German     ships     under     con- 


EVAN  THOMAS 


70,000  yards 


,  HIPPER 


Landrail 
0  Lydiard 


2nd  Light  Cruisers 


SCHEER 

GERMAN 
BATTLE  FLEET ^ 


4.42  TO  4.57. P.M. 


BEATTY  SIGHTS  VON  SCHEER 
4:42-4:57  P.   M.     Beatty   sights    Scheer   with    the   German  Battle 
Fleet  at  4:42  and  swiftly  turns.    Evan-Thomas,  with  the  Fifth  Battle 
Squadron,  does  not  turn  at  once,  but  falls  in  astern  of  Beatty.    The 
Second  Light  Cruisers  reconnoitre  before  turning. 

centrated  fire;  secondly,  he  strove  to 
clear  a  space  for  Jellicoe  to  come  down 
to  complete  their  destruction.  While 
the  battle-cruisers  were  thus  turning 
the  German  van,  the  four  battleships 
fought  the  whole  High  Seas  Fleet.  The 
gap  between  Beatty  and  the  battle- 
ships steadily  widened,  for  Beatty  was 
allowing  sufficient  space  between  him- 
self and  Evan-Thomas  for  Jellicoe  to 
deploy  his  Battle  Fleet  between  them. 
It  would  involve  a  deployment  in  the 
midst  of  battle  of  a  delicacy  and 
accuracy  only  possible  to  a  tactician  of 
high  order,  but  it  was  skillfully  accom- 
plished when  the  time  came. 

At  6  o'clock  the  leading  vessels  of 

479 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


10,000  yards 


2nd  Light  J^ 
Cruisers  J 

EVAN 
THOMAS 


GERMAN  BATTLE  FLEET 


5.0  TO  5.56  P.  M: 


BEATTY  MOVES  TO  HEAD  THE  GERMANS  OFF 
5:00-5:56  P.  M.   Just  before  the  junction  with  Jellicoe.   Beatty  is 
steaming  northward  and  begins  to  work  east,  to  join  Jellicoe  and 
head  the  Germans  oS.    The  enemy  at  this  stage  is  being  slowly 
forced  east  away  from  his  bases. 


JELLICOE 

WITH  GRAND  FLEET 
BAHLE  DIVISIONS 


10,000  yards 


EVAN  THOMAS 


;'|  ^German  Light  Craft 


HEATH 


Chester 


HIPPER 


SCHEER 


5  56  TO  6  10  P.M. 


JelHcoe's  Grand  Fleet  had  been 
sighted  five  miles  to  the  north, 
and  his  Third  Battle  Squadron 
under  Rear-Admiral  Hood  had 
been  sent  to  the  help  of  Beatty. 
The  ships  came  into  action, 
steaming  hard  to  south,  and 
took  their  places  at  the  head 
of  the  cruiser  line,  and  by  thus 
lengthening  Beatty's  line  al- 
lowed a  complete  envelopment 
of  the  German  cruisers  who 
turned  some  I2  points  to  the 
starboard  to  get  out  of  the  trap, 
and  were  in  their  turn  followed 
by  the  battleships  which  for 
over  an  hour  had  been  faith- 
fully battered  by  Evan- 
Thomas's  battleships.  Hood's 
action  had  brought  him  within 
8,ooo  yards  of  the  enemy  and 
exposed  him  to  desperate  fire. 
His  flagship,  the  Invincible, 
was  sunk  and  with  it  perished 
an  admiral  who  in  faithfulness 
and  courage  must  rank  with 
the  heroic  figures  of  British 
naval   history. 

MANCEUVRES     AND     FIGHTING 
IN    THE    TWILIGHT. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that 
after  6  p.m.  though  the  vision 
became  reduced,  it  was  un- 
doubtedly more  favorable  to 
the  British  than  to  the  enemy. 
At  intervals  the  German  ships, 
— now  to  the  westward  of  the 
British, — showed  up  clearly 
and  received  severe  punish- 
ment, battle-cruisers  and  bat- 
tleships alike. 

From  a  quarter  to  six  to  6 150 
while  the  two  British  Fleets 
were  coming  into  line  the  situa- 
tion was  delicate  and  the  fight- 
ing confused.  First  the  close 
divisions  of  the  Grand  Fleet 
spread  out  and  melted  grace- 
fully into  lines — to  all  appear- 
ance as  easily  as  if  they  were 
battalions  of  infantry — then 
they  swung  round  to  the  east, 
the  foremost  vessel  reaching 
out  to  join  up  with  Beatty's 
battle-cruisers.  As  the  Grand 
Fleet  deployed,  Evan-Thomas 


480 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


swung  in  his  four  battleships  so  that  the 
Barham  (leading  the  line)  fell  in  behind 
the  aftermost  of  Jellicoe's  battleships, 
and  the  remainder  of  the  Fifth  Battle 
Squadron  completed  the  line  which 
stretched  now  in  one  long  curve  to  the 
west  and  north  and  east  of  the  Ger- 
mans. Shortly  before  7  o'clock  the 
British  Fleets  were  united,  the  German 
line  was  headed  off  on  the  east  and 
Beatty  and  Jellicoe  were  working  their 
way  between  the  enemy  and  his  home 
ports.  But  the  fog  was  deepening  and 
already  the  light  was  failing. 

WHY    WAS    NOT    THE    GERMAN     FLEET 
DESTROYED? 

The  two  phases  of  the  Battle  of  Jut- 
land that  follow  are  the  ones  that  have 
given  rise  to  all  the  controversy,  con- 
fusion, hopelessly  irreconcilable  official 
German  and  British  dispatches  that 
exist.  Writers  will  be  explaining  these 
engagements,  old  men  theorizing  upon 
them,  for  generations  to  come.  So  far 
what  happened  is  perfectly  clear  and 
simple — a  pursuit  by  Beatty,  followed 
by  a  retreat.  Two  groups  of  shell- 
emitting  gun-platforms  that  had  now 
in  succession  chased  each  other  up  and 
down  the  North  Sea.  Given  the  Eng- 
lish favorable  position  between  the 
enemy  and  his  base,  his  superiority  in 
ships  and  guns  and  speed,  and  his 
advantage  in  whatever  daylight  was 
left,  how  is  one  to  explain  the  fact  that 
the  British  Fleet  did  not  complete  the 
destruction  of  the  German  High  Seas 
Fleet  upon  that  May  night? 

That  the  Germans  realized  their 
imminent  peril  is  clear  if  one  reads  the 
end  of  Scheer's  dispatch  in  which  the 
note  of  deliverance  rather  than  the 
paean  of  victory  sounds.  "Whoever 
had  the  fortune  to  take  part  in  the 
battle  will  joyfully  recognize  with  a 
thankful  heart  that  the  protection  of 
the  Most  High  was  with  us.  It  is  an 
old  historical  truth  that  fortune  favors 
the  brave." 

THE   GERMAN   FLEET   IS   CUT   OFF   FROM 
ITS  BASE. 

Let  US  review  the  happenings  before 
seeking  to  account  for  them.  It  was 
already  6:15  when  Jellicoe's  deploy- 
ment was  complete;  the  visibility  was 
becoming  greatly  reduced  all  the  time; 


often  the  targets  disappeared  alto- 
gether. Admiral  Scheer  was  moving 
away  south  and  west,  with  the  British 
farther  to  the  east  in  pursuit,  so  that 
in  effect  the  German  High  Sea  Fleet 
was  turning  slowly  inside  the  British 
Fleet,  which  had  formed  in  an  enormous 
line  and  was  turning  outside  the  Ger- 
mans on  a  longer  radius.  The  interior 
curve  of  the  Germans  neutralized  the 
British  advantage  in  speed,  but  if 
mist    and    darkness    had    not    settled 


10,000  yards 


EVAN 
I  THOMAS 


SCHEER 


HIPPER 


BRITISH 
BAHLE 
-{i.ooo'y^^'"    I    FLEET 


^4th  Light 
Cruisers 

HEATH 
2nd  Cruisers 


I  HEATH 


7  0  TO  7  30  P.  M, 


ENEMY  CUT  OFF  FROM  HIS  BASES 

7:00-7:30  P.  M.  The  Germans  have  been  forced  to 
stand  out  against  the  sunset  sky.  The  British  after 
effecting  a  junction  steam  south  about  7  P.  M.,  and  haul 
westwards  in  their  endeavor  to  clos?  with  the  Germans; 
the  enemy  turned  away,  allowing  the  British  to  cut  him 
off  from  his  bases.  At  7:15  the  British  Battle  Fleet 
makes  a  turn  away  from  the  Germans. 

down  Jellicoe  could  have  kept  them 
revolving  in  a  circle  and  have  pre- 
vented them  from  reaching  port.  To 
defend  his  withdrawal  and  to  delay 
Beatty  and  Jellicoe,  Scheer  seized  the 
one  chance  of  safety  left  to  him,  namely 
the  delivering  of  repeated  torpedo 
attacks  which  would  prevent  the  Battle 
Fleet  from  closing  in  and  destroying 
the  German  Fleet  by  gun  fire  while  the 
light  lasted. 

At  7:12  Admiral  Jellicoe  for  the 
second  time  began  to  move  his  battle- 
ships in  line  of  battle  nearer  to  the 
enemy,  but  the  vehemence  of  a  torpedo 
attack  from  a  number  of  destroyers 
caused  him  to  make  a  second  turn 
away  from  the  enemy,  and  thus  the 
battle  cruisers  were  left  nearer  to  the 

481 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


enemy  than  the  battle  fleet.  In  these 
conditions  the  action  between  the  fleets 
lasted  intermittently  from  6:17  to 
8 .20  P.M.  The  enemy  constantly  turned 
away  and  opened  the  range  under 
cover  of  destroyer  attacks,  and  smoke 
screens  as  the  effect  of  the  British  fire 
was  felt.  The  marks  were  usually  not 
the  hulls  of  the  enemy's  ships,  but  the 
elusive  flashes  of  his  guns.  Thus  this 
third  phase  of  the  battle,  which  from 
the  English  point  of  view  was  an  at- 
tacking phase,  could  also  in  the  sense 
of  torpedo  attack  be  so  claimed  by  the 
enemy.   If- to  the  low  visibility  and  the 


firing;    their    searchlights    were    more 
powerful    and    better    controlled    and 
they  had  more  torpedo-tubes  to  a  ship 
than     the     British.      The    seas    were 
swarming    with     torpedo    craft,    and 
accordingly  Jellicoe  felt  compelled  to 
consider  the  safety  of  his  ships  till  the 
action  could  be  renewed  at  dawn.    He 
says,  "In  view  of  the  gathering  dark- 
ness, and  the  fact  that  our  strategical 
position  was  such  as  to  make  it  appear 
certain  that  we  should  locate  the  enemy 
at  daylight  under  most  favorable  cir- 
cumstances, I  did  not  consider  it  de- 
sirable or  proper  to  close  the  enemy 
Battle   Fleet  during   the  dark 
hours.    ...    At    9     P.M.    the 
enemy    was    entirely    out    of 
sight,  and  the  threat  of  torpedo- 
boat  destroyer  attacks  during 
the  rapidly  approaching  dark- 
ness made  it  necessary  for  me 
to  dispose  the  fleet  for  the  night 
with  a  view  to  its  safety  from 
such  attacks,  while   providing 
for  a  renewal  of  action  at  day- 
light.    I    accordingly  manoeu- 
vred   to  remain    between    the 
enemy  and   his  bases,  placing 
THE  MIST  COMES  DOWN  our   flotillas    in   a  position   in 

8:20  P.  M.  Last  moments  of  the  battle  between  the  big  ships.  Beatty  which    they  WOUld    afford    pro- 

alters  course  to  support  his  light  cruisers  and  attack  the  head  of  tpz-finn     tr>     +Vio    flf^c<-    (mm    A  a 

the  German  fleet;  just  after  this  he  is  heavily  engaged  at  10,000  lculiuii     lu     Liie    lieet    irom    ue- 

yards.    Then  the  mist  comes  down,  and  at  8:28  p.  m.,  the  German  Stroycr      attack,      and      at      the 
Fleet  is  last  seen  from  the  big  ships  steaming  west. 


J0,000  yards 


SCHEER 


1st  Light 
'  Cruisers 


8.20  P.M. 


JELLICOE 


BEATTY 


sunset  be  added  the  long  range  of  the 
torpedo,  it  is  possible  to  understand 
why  Beatty  and  Jellicoe  did  not  close 
with  the  enemy  and  wipe  him  off  the 
seas. 

W  THY  ADMIRAL  JELLICOE  DID  NOT  CLOSE 
W      WITH  THE  ENEMY. 

By  9  o'clock  the  enemy  had  com- 
pletely disappeared  and  darkness  was 
falling  fast.  The  Admiral  had  now  to 
make  a  difflcult  decision.  The  British 
fleet  was  the  mainstay  of  the  Allies. 
If  its  superiority  was  lost  the  whole 
Allied  cause  was  lost.  He  was  aware 
that  in  the  event  of  a  night  engage- 
ment some  German  equipment  was 
superior  to  the  British.  Their  ships 
were  provided  with  star  shells  which 
would  light  up  the  waters  and  reveal 
the  enemy  without  disclosing  their 
own  whereabouts.  The  lighter  guns 
were  fitted  with  a  system  of  director 

482 


same   time  be  favorably  situ- 
ated for  attacking  the  enemy's  ships." 

SMALLER  CRAFT   CONTEND    DURING    THE 
NIGHT. 

This  fourth  phase,  from  about  9 
o'clock  to  dawn,  can  hardly  be  called 
an  engagement,  for  it  was  mostly  a 
series  of  scrimmages  between  the  small- 
er craft  as  the  British  destroyers 
sought  for  the  enemy  in  the  darkness. 
The  British  heavy  ships  were  not 
attacked,  but  throughout  the  night  the 
destroyer  flotillas  delivered  gallant 
and  successful  attacks  upon  the  scat- 
tered German  units,  although  with 
heavy  losses.  When  the  enemy  fleet 
ran  for  home  it  seems  to  have  scattered, 
and  the  British  destroyers  were  strung 
out  far  and  wide  in  pursuit,  each  com- 
mander acting  on  his  own  initiative. 
Rudyard  Kipling  in  his  "Destroyers 
off  Jutland"  (Fringes  of  the  Fleet)  thus 
describes  the  fight:    "In  that  flotilla 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


alone  there  was  every  variety  of  fight, 
from  the  ordered  attacks  of  squadrons 
under  control,  to  single  ship  affairs, 
every  turn  of  which  depended  on  the 
second's  decision  of  the  men  concerned ; 
endurance  to  the  hopeless  end;  bluff 
and  cunning;  reckless  advance  and 
red-hot  flight;  clear  vision  and  as  much 
of  blank  bewilderment  as  the  Senior 
Service  permits  its  children  to  indulge 
in.  That  is  not  much.  When  a  de- 
stroyer who  has  been  dodging  enemy 
torpedoes  and  gun-fire  in  the  dark 
realizes  about  midnight  that  she  is 
'  following  a  strange  British  flotilla, 
having  lost  sight  of  my  own,'  she  'de- 
cides to  remain  with  them'  and  shares 
their  fortunes  and  whatever  language 
is  going."  In  more  measured  tone  the 
High  Commander  thus  reported  their 
work:  "It  is  impossible  to  state  with 
certainty  which  of  our  destroyers  were 
entirely  successful  in  their  attack. 
The  work  of  the  flotillas  as  a  whole,  was 
characterized  by  the  splendid  dash, 
skill  and  gallantry  for  which  our  de- 
stroyers had  been  conspicuous  through- 
out the  war.  They  were  most  ably  led 
and  achieved  magnificent  work  under 
very  difficult  conditions."  Even  the 
Germans  give  due  credit  for  this  phase 
of  the  fighting.  Von  Tirpitz  in  his 
Memoirs  says:  "The  mass  of  English 
torpedo  boats  (destroyers),  supported 
by  cruisers  were  thus  presented  with 
an  incredibly  favorable  opportunity  to 
attack  our  fleet.  .  .  .  The  attack  was 
carried  out  with  courage,  but  little 
skill." 

THE  GERMAN  FLEET  DISAPPEARS  BEFORE 
THE  MORNING. 

The  morning  revealed  no  foe,  only 
the  wide,  open,  glassy  sea,  empty  save 
for  the  sorrowful  litter  of  gallant  ships 
floating  aimlessly.  Scheer  had  worked 
through  and  around  the  British  ships 
and  sped  away  homewards  in  the  dark, 
passing  behind  the  shelter  of  the  Ger- 
man minefields  in  the  early  morning 
on  his  way  to  home  ports.  Von  Tirpitz 
explains:  "Admiral  Scheer  and  our 
whole  fleet  regarded  a  renewal  of  the 
fight  on  the  following  morning  as  a 
certainty.  They  preferred,  however, 
to  face  this  fight  at  a  less  distance  from 
the  mine-fire  fairway,  and  accordingly 


decided  to  move  thither  in  the  night, 
and  take  station  close  to  Horn's  Reef." 
Only  a  Zeppelin  which  passed  over  the 
British  fleet  at  3:30  a.m.  was  seen  of  all 
the  great  enemy  host.  The  pursuit  of 
the  Germans  by  the  destroyers  in  the 
night  had  been  so  widely  scattered  that 
it  was  late  before  a  final  concentration 
was  effected.  Jellicoe  remained  on  the 
spot  cruising  about  until  i  o'clock  when 


REAR  ADMraAL  HOOD 
Rear-Admiral    Hood    commanded    the    Dover    Patrol 
until  April,  191S.    In  the  Battle  of  Jutland  in  coming  to 
the  help  of  Sir  David  Beatty,  he  vifas  lost  with  his  flag- 
ship the  Invincible. 

he  decided  to  return  to  his  northern 
station.  The  British  Fleet  arrived  at 
its  bases  June  2,  fuelled  and  was  re- 
ported ready  at  9 :45  p.m.  on  that  date. 
These  are  the  facts  of  the  engage- 
ment. What  follows  is  its  reflection  in 
public  opinion.  When  the  officers  and 
men  of  the  British  Na^^  went  joyfully 
ashore,  they  were  greeted  with  dismay 
and  commiseration  as  survivors  of  an 
awful  disaster.  The  battle  which  they 
had  just  fought,  and  in  which  they 
were  conscious  of  having  sustained  no 
mean  part  was,  because  of  the  clumsy 
statement  of  the  English  Admiralty, 
looked  upon  in  England  as  a  reverse. 

483 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


VICE-ADMIRAL  SCHEER 
Admiral  Scheer  was  chief-in-command  of  the  German 
High  Sea  Fleet.  For  his  services  in  effecting  the  escape 
of  his  ships  off  Jutland  he  received  the  order  "Pour  le 
Merite." 

The  Admiralty's  first  installment  of 
news  had  been  the  publication,  bald 
and  almost  unedited,  of  the  serious  list 
of  English  losses.  Panic  not  un- 
naturally followed,  and  the  Kaiser 
seized  the  occasion  to  congratulate 
Scheer  upon  a  victory  which  he  assert- 
ed "destroyed  forever  British  mastery 
of  the  seas."  The  German  official  dis- 
patches— as  admitted  later — were  de- 
liberately falsified  "for  strategic  pur- 
poses," and  their  published  losses  both 
in  men  and  ships  looked  small  beside 
the  English  disasters,  which  though 
grave,  were  frankly  conceded. 

THE   GERMANS   CLAIM   TO   HAVE   WON   A 
GREAT  VICTORY. 

Time  passed  and  the  so-called  "vic- 
torious fleet"  still  stayed  close  within 
its  fastnesses  behind  a  cordon  of  mys- 
tery and  silence.  Wilhelmshaven  was 
seven-sealed  and  no  citizen,  however 
loyal,  was  allowed  to  view  the  forces  of 
the  Fatherland.  Through  neutral  chan- 
nels the  tale  of  loss  and  injury  began 
to  come  in  and  as  the  fruits  of  the 

484 


engagement  fell  all  to  the  English,  pub- 
lic opin'on  swung  to  the  other  side. 

The  following  specimen  of  the  other 
side  of  the  picture  as  represented  by 
German  dispatches,  gives  some  reason 
for  Allied  and  Neutral  anxiety  as  to 
the  issue  of  Jutland:  "As  the  dawn 
colored  the  eastern  sky  on  the  his- 
toric first  of  June,  everyone  expected 
that  the  rising  sun  would  illuminate 
the  British  line  deployed  in  readiness 
to  renew  the  battle.  This  expectation 
was  not  realized.  As  far  as  the  eye 
could  reach  the  horizon  was  clear.  Not 
until  the  late  morning  did  our  airships, 
which  had  gone  up  in  the  meantime, 
announce  that  a  Battle  Squadron  con- 
sisting of  twelve  ships,  was  approach- 
ing from  the  southern  part  of  the  North 
Sea,  going  at  full  speed  on  a  northerly 
course.  To  the  great  regret  of  all  con- 
cerned, it  was  too  late  to  overtake  and 
attack  this."  As  things  really  were  at 
this  time,  the  German  High  Seas  Fleet 
was  close  to  the  Horn  Lighthouse 
steering  for  home  behind  the  mine- 
fields;   the    British    Grand   Fleet  was 


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VICE-ADMIRAL  HIPPER 

Vice-Admiral  Hipper  commanded  the  German  scouting 
squadron  which  was  sighted  and  followed  up  by  Admiral 
Beatty  in  the  Battle  ofi  Jutland. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


where  it  had  been  when  darkness  fell, 
waiting  for  the  enemy;  the  "airships 
of  late  morning"  represented  the 
"Zeppelin  of  3:30  A.M."  which  steered 
the  retiring  fleet  through  the  British 
disposition.  If  there  were  twelve  ships 
steering  for  home,  what  a  chance  for 
Germany  to  come  out  and  destroy 
them!  Why  did  she  not  take  it? 


with  his  foe  and  there  fought  to  a 
finish  at  even  odds.  Although  the 
German  fleet  emerged  from  the  "wet 
triangle"  several  times  during  suc- 
ceeding months,  yet  it  never  sought 
another  engagement,  and  continued  to 
hide  until  that  day  more  than  two 
years  later  when  it  left  its  base  and 
sailed   for  the   British  coast   there   to 


H.M.S.  IRON  DUKE 


The  Iron  Duke  was  the  flagship  of  Admiral  Jellicoe,  Commander-in-Chief  of  the  Grand  Fleet  in  the  battle  of  Jut- 
land. A  super-Dreadnought,  laid  down  in  1912,  the  Iron  Duke  has  a  displacement  of  25,000  tons  and  a  speed  of 
21  knots.    She  carries  ten  13.5-inch  guns,  twelve  6-inch  guns,  and  five  torpedo  tubes. 


BOTH     PARTICIPANTS     FAIL     TO     ACCOM- 
PLISH   THEIR    PURPOSE. 

The  true  test  of  a  fight,  whether  on 
land  or  sea,  lies  in  its  results.  The 
issues  of  Jutland — had  the  engage- 
ment been  fought  to  a  finish — would 
have  been  enormous.  It  seems  clear 
in  view  of  the  evidence,  that  it  was  a 
conflict  of  encounter  and  manoeuvre 
and  no  deliberate  forcing  of  a  Trafal- 
gar. Nevertheless,  Germany  w^hen  she 
fought  was  seeking  to  reduce  the  dis- 
parity between  the  rival  fleets,  and 
trying  to  break  the  British  blockade. 
England  on  the  other  hand  sought  to 
annihilate  the  German  High  Seas 
Fleet.  Scheer  failed  in  his  first  aim  or 
he  would  have  sought  another  conflict 


strike  its  flag  and  intern.  Neither  did 
Scheer's  victory  raise  the  blockade; 
not  a  single  raider  found  its  way 
through  in  the  Mediterranean  or  At- 
lantic Seas,  only  such  as  were  at  large 
in  the  Baltic  there  continued. 

Jellicoe  did  7iot  annihilate  the  Ger- 
man High  Sea  Fleet.  Scheer  escaped 
from  a  situation  of  desperate  danger, 
but  nevertheless  the  fleet  that  the 
Kaiser  described  as  "defeated"  was 
ready  to  resume  wonted  watch  and 
guard  after  a  very  brief  interval.  Un- 
checked and  unhindered  her  trans- 
port of  men  and  tons  of  artillery 
continued,  and  freed  from  threat  of  Ger- 
man aggression,  the  Russian  offensive 
in  the  Baltic  went  forward. 

485 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


CONFLICTING      AND      IRRECONCILABLE 
STORIES  OF  THE  LOSSES. 

The  British  losses,  pubhshed  by  the 
Admiralty,  were:  three  battle  cruisers, 
three  armored  cruisers,  and  eight  de- 
stroyers, the  total  tonnage  amounting 
to  114,100  while  the  officers  and  men 
who  perished  numbered  5,613.  The 
Germans  only  admitted  one  battle- 
ship, one  battle  cruiser,  four  armored 


The  heavy  loss  in  British  battle 
cruisers  was  seemingly  due  both  to 
good  markmanship,  on  the  part  of  the 
Germans  and  to  the  superiority  of  the 
German  armor-piercing  shells  according 
to  Admiral  Jellicoe.  Insufficient  pre- 
cautions had  also  been  taken  to  guard 
against  the  ignition  of  the  magazine 
by  flashes  from  exploding  shells  which 
entered  the  turret. 


THE  GERMAN  CRUISER  POMMERN 

The  Germans  did  not  admit  their  losses  in  full  in  the  Battle  of  Jutland,  and  their  reserve  was  deemed  necessary, 
it  was  stated,  for  "strategic  reasons."  They  could  not  conceal  the  sinking  of  their  fine  cruiser  Pommern,  which 
built  in  1905  had  a  displacement  of  13,200  tons,  and  carried  some  of  the  best  of  the  Kaiser's  gunners. 

THE    BATTLE    SHOWS    NOTHING    NEW    IN 
STRATEGY. 


cruisers,  and  five  destroyers,  with  a 
total  of  63,015  tons,  and  3,966  officers 
and  men.  Reports  from  British  Com- 
manders sent  in  after  the  fight  raise 
the  figures  to  four  battleships,  one 
battle  cruiser,  five  armored  cruisers, 
six  destroyers  and  one  submarine,  or 
a  total  of  113,435  tons.  Von  Capelle 
in  his  testimony  before  the  War  In- 
vestigation Committee  was  asked  why 
only  90  U-boats  were  built  in  1916, 
and  269  and  220  in  1917  and  1918.  He 
replied  "The  Skagerack  battle  (as 
the  Germans  call  the  battle  of  Jutland) 
caused  serious  damage  to  our  boats. 
Their  repair  held  up  the  construction 
of  other  boats." 
486 


Considered  strategically  the  battle 
offers  nothing  new  or  startling.  Con- 
ventional and  accepted  tactics  were 
used  with  usual  and  expected  results, 
and  as  the  engagement  progressed,  the 
Chief  of  Stafif  remarked  to  Jellicoe, 
"This  is  all  going  according  to  expecta- 
tion." The  principal  changes  in  the 
battle  orders  were  the  large  amount 
of  discretionary  power  invested  in 
Flag  officers  commanding  squadrons, 
since  over  that  wide  expanse,  funnel- 
smoked  and  gun-befogged,  a  central 
command  could  not 'always  see  or  be 
seen,  and  a  freedom  of  initiative  was 


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487 


ffiSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


encouraged  in  dealing  with  torpedo 
attacks.  Scheer's  torpedoes  delayed 
the  British  Fleet's  attack,  but  little 
prey  fell  to  them,  and  in  the  long  run 
this  fact  seemed  established  by  the 
"Battle  of  the  Giants":  the  big  battle- 
ship rules  the  sea.  A  submarine  or  a 
destroyer  is  a  raider  that  achieves 
striking  local  successes,  but  every 
raider  must  have  refuge  and  asylum 


toum  had  always  had.  It  had  been 
arranged  that  Lord  Kitchener  -should 
go  to  Russia  to  confer  with  the  govern- 
ment upon  the  question  of  the  Allied 
drive  that  was  impending,  and  to 
arrange  some  details  of  the  munition 
supply.  He  left  England  June  5  in- 
tending to  land  at  Archangel,  visit 
Petrograd  and  be  back  by  the  20th  of 
the  month.    The  cruiser  in  which  he 


COALING  A  WARSHIP  AT  SEA 

The  warship  in  the  picture  was  steaming  at  twelve  knots  an  hour,  towing  a  collier  astern,  from  which  sacks  of  coal 
were  hoisted  to  a  platform  at  the  masthead,  and  sent  by  cable  to  the  warship.  From  the  masthead  to  the  deck  a 
net  was  suspended  to  shield  the  collier's  men  from  falling  fragments.  In  this  manner  sixty  tons  of  coal  were  trans- 
shipped within  an  hour. 


ports  and  these  can  only  lie  secure 
behind  the  might  of  great  ships. 

Before  the  echoes  of  the  Battle  of  the 
Giants  had  died  away  the  world  re- 
ceived the  news  of  the  death  of  Lord 
Kitchener.  There  is  something  fitting 
in  this  setting  for  the  last  scene  in  the 
life  of  the  great  soldier.  The  Norse- 
men of  old  believed  that  their  heroes 
in  order  to  attain  Valhalla  must  die 
upon  the  field  of  battle  or  upon  the 
"path  of  the  whale,"  and  the  elements 
of  unreality  and  stunning  surprise  in 
the  loss  of  the  Hampshire  accorded 
well  with  the  mysterious  appeal  to  the 
imagination    that   the   hero   cf   Khar- 

488 


sailed  was  the  Hampshire,  which  had 
returned  only  three  days  before  from 
the  Jutland  fight.  Before  he  left.  Lord 
Kitchener  saw  Sir  John  Jellicoe  and  his 
stafif  upon  the  deck  of  the  Lion,  and  the 
latter  used  some  little  persuasion  to 
induce  him  to  defer  his  journey,  as  the 
weather  boded  ill.  Lord  Kitchener  was 
accompanied  by  Mr.  H.  J.  O'Beirne, 
former  counselor  of  the  British  Em- 
bassy at  Petrograd,  Mr.  O.  A.  Fitz- 
gerald, his  personal  secretary.  General 
Ellershaw  and  Sir  Frederick  Donald- 
son. Time  was  precious  and  Lord 
Kitchener  decided  that  he  could  not 
afford  to  wait  for  better  weather. 


fflSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


rj^HK  DEATH  OF  LORD  KITCHENER  AT  SEA. 

The  Hampshire  was  convoyed  by 
two  destroyers,  which,  when  the  gale 
increased,  the  captain  unfortunately 
ordered  back  to  port.  Between  7:30 
and  7:45  P.M.,  as  she  was  proceeding 
along  the  west  coast  of  the  Orkneys, 
the  vessel  struck  a  mine  and  began  at 
once  to  settle  by  the  bows,  keeling 
over  to  starboard  before  she  finally 
went  down  about  fifteen  minutes  later. 
The  seas  were  too  rough  to  admit  of 
any  of  the  boats  getting  away;  in  the 
effort  to  launch  them  one  was  broken 
and  its  occupants  thrown  into  the 
water.  It  was  evident  that  the  Hamp- 
shire was  doomed,  and  accordingly  the 
captain  ordered  the  men  to  their  posts 
for  abandoning  the  ship.  In  all  some 
three  or  four  rafts  got  safely  away 
with  some  fifty  to  seventy  men  on 
each.  Yet  such  was  the  force  of  the 
seas  as  it  beat  upon  them  that  many 
were  thus  battered  to  death,  others 
relinquished  their  hold  and  just  slipped 
into  the  depths,  or  died  of  cold  or 
exposure,  and  yet  more  were  thrown 
senseless  on  the  cruel  rocks  that 
guarded  the  coast.  Though  it  was  day- 
light until  about  11  o'clock  only  11 
men  and  one  warrant  officer  of  all  the 
company  were  saved.  Nothing  more 
was  heard  of  Lord  Kitchener  and  his 
colleagues,  though  wild  rumors  that  he 
was  in  a  German  prison  camp  arose. 


The  Admiralty  published  the  follow- 
ing statement  on  June   15: 

"From  the  report  of  the  twelve  sur- 
vivors of  the  Hampshire  the  following 
conclusions  were  reached.  As  the  men 
were  going  to  their  stations  before 
abandoning  the  ship.  Lord  Kitchener, 
accompanied  by  a  naval  officer,  ap- 
peared. The  latter  said:  'Make  way 
for  Lord  Kitchener.'  Both  ascended 
to  the  quarterdeck.  Subsequently, 
four  military  officers  were  seen  there, 
walking  aft  on  the  port  side.  The 
Captain  called  Lord  Kitchener  to  the 
fore  bridge  near  where  the  Captain's 
boat  was  hoisted.  The  Captain  also 
called  Lord  Kitchener  to  enter  the 
boat.  It  is  unknown  if  Lord  Kitchener 
entered  it  or  what  happened  to  any 
boat." 

To  perish  without  seeing  the  results 
one  has  wrought  for  is  hard.  Kitchener 
died  upon  the  eve  of  the  great  Allied 
offensive,  for  which  he  had  labored  so 
intensely  to  build  up  a  vast  British 
force.  Yet  in  a  sense  his  task  was  done, 
just  as  was  that  of  the  heroes  of  Jut- 
land who  lay  beneath  the  same  treach- 
erous waters  of  the  North  Sea.  In 
the  early  dark  days  of  the  war  he  had 
been  the  one  man  to  whom  Britain 
turned.  And  his  loss  was  only  yet 
another  call  to  the  Empire  to  strengthen 
those  that  stood,  and  establish  the 
weak-hearted  to  "carry  on"  the  work 
which  he  had  begun. 


THE  FRENCH  BATTLESHIP  GAULOIS  SERIOUSLY  DAMAGED  IN  THE  DARDANELLES 


4^9 


A  PITIFUL  EXAMPLE  OF  THE  TOLL  OF  WAR 
One  of  the  innocent  and  defenseless  victims  of  the  far-reaching  cruelty  of  war — an  old   woman  and  her  only  re- 
maining possession,  a  cow.    Bombed  out  of  her  home  by  German  shells,  she  has  no    refuge  but  the  street,  no 
protection  save  public  charity.   Yet  no  bitterness  distorts  her  features  which  are  stamped  rather  with  patience. 


AMID  THE  DEBRIS  OF  CRUEL  WAR 


There  is  no  class  in  life  upon  which  the  horrors  of  war  have  fallen  more  heavily  than  upon  the  aged.  Helpless 
before  violence  and  bereft  of  the  support  of  the  young,  or  homeless  in  the  face  of  invasion  and  bombardment,  they 
have  suffered  further  cruel  agonies  of  bewilderment  and  nostalgia  amid  the  strange  surroundings  whither  f^ 
safety  they  have  wandered.  Pictures,  Henry  Ruschin 


490. 


The  Palace  of  Louis  XV  at  Compiegne 


Chapter  XXXI 

France  in  War-Time 

THE    MARVELOUS    STORY    OF    FRENCH    DETERMINATION, 
FORTITUDE  AND  ENDURANCE. 

"T  HAVE  lived  through  unforgetable 
hours,  and  I  understand  now,  how 
much  there  is  of  beauty  and  nobiHty 
in  France  to  fight  for,"  wrote  a  lad 
of  twenty  from  the  trenches.  Joan  of 
Arc  in  the  forests  and  meadows  around 
Domremy  dreamed  through  unforget- 
able hours  and  came,  a  girl  of  seven- 
teen, to  that  same  full  knowledge. 
Roland,  in  the  gloomy  depths  of  the 
Pyrenees,  sacrificed  a  life  which  had 
flowered  freely  in  knightly  service 
and  died,  murmuring,  "Terre  de 
France  mult  estes  dulz  pays!"  Unless 
we  accept  the  young  soldier's  and  the 
peasant  girl's  and  the  paladin's  point 
of  view  and  strive  to  see  with  their 
vision,  we  cannot  really  understand 
the  spirit  which  inspired  the  heroic 
resistance  of  Frenchmen  in  this  great 
war. 

FRANCE  ON  THE   DAY   OF   MOBILIZATION, 
AUGUST   1,  1914. 

It  is  August  I,  1914,  and  the  general 
order  of  mobilization  has  been  posted  in- 
the  streets  of  Paris,  in  the  cities  of  the 
provinces,  at  the  seaside,  throughout 
the  country.  See  the  cabmen,  con- 
cierges, boulevardiers,  fishermen,  peas- 
ants, diplomats,  merchants  reading 
it.  How  quietly,  seriously,  and  yet 
gladly  each  turns  away,  intent  upon 
making  the  most  of  the  short  hours 
before  he  entrains  at  the  nearest  station 
and  reports  at  his  headquarters.    And 


the  women:  is  there  a  tear,  a  sigh,  a 
groan?  Not  for  now,  nor  for  this  cause; 
there  may  be,  hereafter,  when  none  shall 
see  and  none  be  weakened  in  fulfilling 
the  task.    Quite  naturally,  and  with  a 

smile,  Madame    L lifts    up    the 

baby    as    Sergeant    L ,  early    on 

Sunday  morning,  sets  forth  from  the 
Gare  des  Invalides. 

From  midnight  on  Saturday,  August 
2 — and  for  fifteen  successive  days — 
mobilization  proceeded.  A  hundred, 
a  thousand,  a  million,  and  more,  came 
to  their  nearest  station  and  took  the 
waiting  train,  and  reached  their  head- 
quarters on  scheduled  time,  where  each 
man  found  a  uniform,  coat,  boots  and 
field-knapsack.  Nowhere  was  there 
confusion ;  not  in  any  place  even  hesita- 
tion. All  went  according  to  plans 
made  years  before,  and  all  went 
smoothly  and  with  the  utmost  pre- 
cision and  quietness.  There  was  no 
singing,  no  shouting,  np  hysteria. 
Where  .  was  the  Frenchman  that  '  the 
Berlin  press  represented  as  fear-pressed, 
or  revenge-intoxicated?  Quiet,  dis- 
ciplined conduct  covering  tremendous 
moral  determination  was  the  keynote 
of  every  company  and  regiment,  every 
station  and  barracks  and  square. 

MEN    TO     THE    WAR,     AND    WOMEN    TO 
WORK. 

The  trains  roll  in,  mile  after  mile  of 
them,  and  the  men  are  equipped  and 

491 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


counted,  and  then  the  train  takes  them 
again  and  bears  them  this  time  north 
and  east  to  the  fronts.  "I  am  for  the 
Ardennes,  where  I  shall  see  some  serv- 
ice." "And  I  for  Nancy,  I!"  are  the 
exchanges  flung  as  the  long  silent  mon- 
sters pull  out  from  shed  and  siding, 
once  more.  The  country-side  was  bare 
and  deserted,  for  tools  and  implements 
were  flung  on  wayside  and  field  as  the 
news  came  in.  Soon — it  may  be  in  an 
hour — these  groups  of  peasant  women, 
gathered  to  watch  the  trains  go  off,  will 
break  up  and  the  wives  and  mothers 
go  silently  and  unquestioningly  back 
to  the  fields.  Through  that  hot  after- 
noon they  bend  to  the  work,  and 
through  all  the  long  silent  days  to  come ; 
their  thoughts  with  the  men  who 
have  gone,  who  with  other  weapons 
and  in  other  fields  are  reaping  the  har- 
vest of  savagery.  And  the  fisherman's 
boats  are  pulled  up  upon  the  shore  and 
his  nets  lie  idle.  In  the  city  one  reads 
over  the  little  cobbler's  shop,  "Absent 
from   the   first   day   of   mobilization." 

THE  HISTORIC   MEETING   OF    THE   CHAM- 
BER OF  DEPUTIES. 

It  is  Paris  again,  and  the  fourth  of 
August  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies. 
In  complete  silence  the  deputies  are 
seating  themselves,  and  one  notices, 
yet  hardly  with  surprise,  a  few  hand- 
shakes between  those  who  yesterday 
were  enemies.  The  president  rises 
and  pronounces  amidst  the  silence,  his 
oration  upon  Jaures,  killed  by  insen- 
sate folly  the  day  after  war  was  de- 
clared, and  the  words  of  the  national 
liturgy,  honored  in  century-old  use, 
roll  forth  "la  justice  sociale,  la  frater- 
nite   humaine,   la  conscience  humaine 

"  with  the  response,  "Du  cer- 

cueil  de  cet  homme  sort  une  pens6e 
d'union,  de  ses  l^.vres  glacees,  un  cri 
d'esp6rance!"  Silence  falls  again,  until 
the  President  of  the  Council,  M.  Vivi- 
ani,  already  deep-engrossed  in  multi- 
farious cares,  arri\'es.  He  who  was 
yesterday  a  partisan  is  now  the  govern- 
ment of  France.  Amidst  pregnant 
silence  he  reads  the  message  from  the 
President  of  the  Republic  and  ends 
"Keep  we  high  our  hearts.  Vive  la 
France!^'  The  causes  of  war  are  re- 
viewed,  France's  case  stated,   and   a 


long  series  of  laws  relative  to  defense 
passed;  and  for  a  brief  interval  the 
deputies  adjourn  to  pace  the  corridors 
while  they  wait  the  vote  of  the  Senate. 
No  long  interval  and  Viviani  is  with 
them  again,  to  announce  that  in  agree- 
ment with  the  Chamber,  the  Senate 
has  given  its  consent  to  the  war  meas- 
ures and  grants  of  moneys. 

One  more  scene:  it  is  St.  Cyr  on  the 
last  night  of  July,  and  in  place  of  the 
historic  fete  du  Triomphe  that  generally 
graces  the  occasion,  word  has  gone 
forth  for  general  mobilization.  In  the 
midst  of  a  scene  of  intense  fervor  and 
enthusiasm,  one  of  the  young  officers, 
Gaston  Vorzard,  springs  to  his  feet  and 
makes  all  the  officers  of  his  class  swear 
that  they  will  not  go  into  battle  except 
in  white  gloves  and  with  their  kepi 
adorned  with  the  casoar,  the  red  and 
white  plume.  "Ce  serment,  bien  fran- 
qais,  est  aussi  elegant  que  lemeraire,"  he 
cries.  And,  with  acclamation,  his 
comrades  take  the  oath.  They  kept  it 
and  were  some  of  the  first  French  offi- 
cers to  die  in  battle  at  the  head  of  their 
regiments.  Days  passed,  and  the  re- 
cruiting offices  were  besieged  by  long 
queues  of  men,  pleading  to  be  taken. 
"  I  have  seen  weeping  among  those  who 
may  not  go  first,"  writes  Clemenceau 
of  those  days,  but  it  was  the  only  sign 
of  weeping  that  France  gave. 

WEARY    WAITING     FOR     THE     NEWS     OF 
BATTLES. 

Then  the  soldiers  have  gone,  and  to 
eager  hours  of  preparation  and  days  of 
quick  discussion,  succeeds  a  weary 
time  of  w^aiting,  for  the  hand  of  the 
Government  is  upon  the  Press  and 
little  news  filters  through  when  every 
communique  may  be  read  by  the 
enemy.  "What  use  to  speculate  now," 
say  the  women,  "do  we  not  know 
where  they  have  gone,  have  we  not 
stated  and  restated  our  good  reasons 
for  hoping,  but  we  cannot  tell  what 
victories  they  may  have  won."  There 
is  no  depression,  only  a  sense  of  empti- 
ness and  of  tortured  waiting. 

In  the  early  days  of  August,  uncer- 
tain at  first,  but  growing  clearer, 
came  news  of  the  barbarity  with  which 
the  German  march  through  Belgium 
was  attended.    With  violent  recoil,  the 


"CARRYING  ON"  ACROSS  THE  HOME  FIELDS  OF  FRANCE 
With  the  men  filling  trenches  and  manning  guns  upon  the  far-stretching  battlefield,  and  the  horses  devoted  to  the 
necessities  of  warfare,  women  found  their  tasks  multiplied.  Mouths  must  be  filled  that  national  vigor  might  not 
fail.    In  France,  as  in  other  lands,  women  sturdily  shouldered  the  burden.  Central  News  Photo  Serv 


FRENCH  PEASANTS  LAYING  IN  A  STOCK  OF  FIREWOOD 


There  was  great  shortage  of  coal  in  war-time  in  France  because  of  the  tremendously  increased  demand  for  the 
industrial  purposes  of  war,  and  also  because  of  the  complete  stoppage  of  supplies  from  the  invaded  coalfields  of 
northern  and  eastern  France.  In  addition  to  these  causes  there  wa«  scarcity  of  labor  due  to  mobilization,  as  well 
as  diflScuIties  in  traWportation.  Picture,  H.  Ruschin 


493 


HISTORY   OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


French  mind  springs  aside  from  such 
savagery.  Von  der  Goltz's  "Nation 
in  Arms"  may  vainly  advocate  such 
measures  as  shortening  the  war  in  the 
interests  of  humanity.  "It  is  thus," 
comments  the  French  Press,  "that  so 
many  religions  have  resulted  in  bloody 
sacrifices,  glorifications  of  our  native 
cruelty,  and  that  the  Christian  doc- 
trine of  love  came  to  accommodate 
itself  to  an  eternal  hell.  .  .  .Well,  let  the 
experiment  in  bloody  philanthropy  fol- 
low its  course.  As  for  us,  we  shall  not 
dispatch  the  wounded.  On  the  con- 
trary, our  women  will  proudly  make 
all  efforts  to  save  them;  and  when  we 
are  on  enemy  territory  we  shall  aid  the 
weak  instead  of  shooting  them.  Only 
on  the  field  of  battle  do  we  accept  the 
war  of  extermination  imposed  upon 
us." 

VAGUE  RUMORS  CIRCULATE  AMONG  THE 
WAITING  THRONG. 

There  were  some  who  made  harvest 
of  rumor  amid  this  dearth  of  news.  The 
monsieur  bien-informe  of  boulevard 
cafe,  whose  brother-in-law's  sister  was 
a  cleaner  at  the  war  office,  dealt  in  cer- 
tainties as  to  the  Russian  troops  and 
the  last  attack  and  terrorized  the  men 
who  knew  nothing.  But  Paris  and 
France  stood  firm.  It  was  glorious 
weather,  yet  in  the  capital  the  great 
avenues  were  deserted,  soulless,  and 
at  night  half-lighted  and  void.  No 
interest  here,  it  all  lay  upon  the  hori- 
zon. French  life  ceased,  it  seemed,  save 
for  the  army,  for  in  imagination,  in 
mind  and  heart,  all  were  in  Dieuze,  in 
the  Vosges,  in  Belgium.  What  a  hor- 
rible simplification  of  life — this  sunshine, 
this  ennui,  this  waiting! 

Meantime,  what  was  happening  with 
the  army  at  the  frontier?  France,  re- 
specting the  neutrality  of  Belgium,  had 
placed  her  strongest  armies  upon  the 
eastern,  not  the  north-eastern  border, 
and  in  the  early  days  of  August,  the 
British  troops  had  not  yet  been  landed. 
When  they  came,  the  Belgian  sacrifices 
at  Li^ge  and  Namur  held  up  the  Ger- 
man onrush,  but  still  did  not  give  time 
to  allow  efificient  concentration  of  the 
Allies.  The  foe,  after  heading  his  way 
through  Belgium,  spread  out  in  a  great 
circle  down  the  left  bank  of  the  Meuse 

494 


and  found  the  way  clear.  He  met  only 
on  his  right,  the  British  Army  still  very 
small,  and  on  his  left,  French  terri- 
torials but  recently  recruited  from 
counting-house  and  shop.  These 
French  and  British  troops  opposed  the 
German  attack,  but  the  disasters  of 
Charleroi  and  Mons  and  Le  Gateau 
demonstrated  their  fruitless  effort,  and 
von  Kluck's  army  came  on  irresistibly 
at  30  to  35  miles  a  day,  till  it  lay  at  the 
nearest  point  a  cannon  shot  from 
Paris.  By  this  time  brief  official  com- 
muniques indicated  the  retreat,  but 
no  panic  followed.  "Although  the 
disappointment  is  great,  we  must  not 
exaggerate  it,"  wrote  M.  Clemenceau. 
"Though  the  task  that  rests  upon  us  is 
so  manifest,  so  difficult,  so  long,  so  in- 
comparably agonizing,  who  will  dare 
to  say  that  we  must  not  accept  it? 
And  it  is  not  enough  to  accept  the  in- 
fliction; we  invoke  it,  we  run  to  meet 
it,  we  offer  ourselves  to  its  blows,  we 
pray  that  they  may  be  redoubled,  in 
order  that  the  day  may  be  hastened 
when  fortune,  weary  of  scourging  us, 
will  come  to  know  that  there  is  a  soul 
in  us  that  nothing  can  force  to  yield." 
Fortune  weary  of  scourging  did  come 
to  know — and  at  no  long  day.  The 
German  advance,  on  September  5,  lay 
at  one  point  near  the  northern  forts 
of  Paris.  On  September  6,  General 
Jofifre  issued  this  order  to  the  troops, 
"Now  that  a  battle  begins  upon  which 
the  fate  of  the  country  depends,  all 
must  remember  this,  the  time  is  gone 
for  looking  behind;  every  endeavor 
must  be  aimed  at  attacking  and  throw- 
ing back  the  enemy;  troops  unable  to 
continue  advancing,  will  at  all  costs 
keep  the  ground  won,  and  must  die 
rather  than  yield.  In  this  juncture 
there  can  be  no  mercy  for  any  short- 
coming." 

THE     GERMAN     TIDE     IS     TURNED     BACK 
FROM  THE  GATES  OF  PARIS. 

The  day  before,  September  5,  von 
Kluck  had  turned  east  in  order  that  he 
might  better  encompass  Paris.  On  the 
sixth,  Joffre  ordered  the  attack;  and 
suddenly  the  German  right  found  an 
army  before  it  undei;  General  Man- 
oury,  whose  strength  it  had  never  even 
suspected.     General    vqu    Kluck    ma- 


DRILLING  THE  BORE  OF  A  CANNON  AT  THE  CREUSOT  WORKS 

When  the  enormous  mass  of  steel  has  been  cast  and  then  forged  by  heavy  hammers,  it  is  ready  to  be  transformed 
into  the  barrel  of  a  great  cannon.  Here  we  see  the  powerful  drill  slowly  eating  its  way  into  the  steel.  The  bore 
of  the  gun  must  be  exactly  true  through  the  whole  length  of  the  barrel. 


INSPECTING  SHELLS  FOR  "SEVENTY-FIVES"  AT  LE  CREUSOT 


The  steel  for  the  French  shells  came  in  large  measure  from  England  and  the  United  States.  The  completed 
shells,  stamped  from  the  steel  by  powerful  hydraulic  presses,  are  here  being  carefully  inspected  for  any  possible 
defects  or  irregularities  which  might  interfere  with  accuracy  of  fire  or  certainty  of  explosion.  No  difference  greater 
than  one  one-thousandth  of  an  inch  could  be  permitted. 


495 


HISTORY   OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


noeuvred  magnificently  and  retreated 
50  miles  to  a  good  position;  the  Crown 
Prince  on  the  German  left  was  in  diffi- 
culties and  retreated  less  magnificently. 
But  the  wave  was  rolled  back  and  Paris 
was  saved.  This  in  brief  was  the  battle 
of  the  Marne — a  supreme  and  a  great 
retrieval. 

And  Paris?  Had  she  trembled  with 
the  foe  at  her  gate?  Not  for  an  hour. 
There  had  been  no  time  for  adequate 
defenses,  earthworks,  wire-entangle- 
ments, intrenchments,  that  alone  could 
have  helped  her.  On  the  30th  of  Au- 
gust it  was  deemed  prudent  for  the 
government,  the  banks,  and  such  peo- 
ple whose  position  placed  them  upon 
Germany's  prepared  list  of  hostages,  to 
repair  to  Bordeaux  and  thither  they 
went,  in  orderly  retreat.  Under  the 
notice  of  the  government  proclama- 
tion announcing  its  departure,  was 
posted  a  small  notice  from  General 
GalUeni,  the  new  governor  of  Paris, 
"I  have  been  ordered  to  defend  Paris. 
I  shall  obey  this  command  to  the  end." 
But  Paris  that  remained,  that  heard 
the  guns,  that  knew  not  which  way  the 
tide  was  flowing,  remained  calm  until 
the  news  of  deliverance.  And  then — 
with  the  question  "Shall  we  celebrate?" 
and  General  Jofi're's  reply  "No — for 
our  losses  have  been  too  great,"  the 
new  key  of  Paris  was  safely  struck 
again;  and  this  time  with  hopes  firm- 
founded  she  waited  for  the  next  news. 

TRENCH  WARFARE  IS  THE  NEXT  TEST  OF 
BRAVERY. 

The  Germans  fell  back  upon  pre- 
pared positions  on  the  heights  of  the 
Aisne  and  the  French  and  British  fol- 
lowed and  attacked.  Paris  under  Gen- 
eral Gallieni  perfected  her  fortifica- 
tions, and  by  the  time  the  Germans 
were  ready  to  attack  again,  she  had 
become  impregnable.  Then  the  objec- 
tive of  the  Teutonic  High  Command 
shifted,  the  race  for  the  sea  began,  and 
was  finally  won  by  the  Allies;  with  the 
result  that  trench  warfare  between 
North  Sea  and  Vosges  became  the  rule. 
Now  came  the  test.  Could  French  fire 
and  gallantry  survive  a  war  of  waiting? 
Would  tenacity  be  found  side  by  side 
with  impetuous  ardor?  Might  endur- 
ance be  added  to  enthusiasm? 

4^6 


The  world  has  the  answer.  "Until 
the  end— we  cannot  be  vanquished, 
for  we  shall  never  accept  defeat."  On 
a  line  from  North  Sea  to  Vosges,  night 
and  day  the  French  troops  burrowed 
in  mud-holes,  shivering,  benumbed, 
but  with  hearts  armored  with  ardent 
bravery  that  made  them  smile  at  cold, 
or  hunger,  or  death; — at  one  moment 
heroes  and  in  the  next  but  children 
amused  among  perils  that  have  aspects 
of  romance  in  them.  Never  was  the 
spirit  of  Paris  so  gay  as  they  were. 
"What  letters  our  children  send  us 
from  the  army,"  writes  M.  Barres:  in 
"L'Aine  Frangaise;"  "A'  perpetual 
burst  of  laughter — brave  boys — they 
wish  to  prevent  us  from  becoming  lov- 
ingly anxious.  Then  they  have  too,  a 
health  of  soul,  a  quality  of  sen- 
sibility. .  .." 

From  the  beginning  of  August  to  late 
October  such  was  the  hurried  march  of 
events  that  there  was  no  time  for 
France  to  reflect  upon  her  causes  for 
fighting.  She  knew  she  must  fight,  and 
therefore  she  fought  as  she  did — fought 
in  retreat,  fought  in  attack,  fought  in 
waiting.  But  in  the  weary  winter  cam- 
paign, all  through  its  dark  short  days 
and  lurid  long  nights,  Frenchmen  could 
reflect  upon  their  cause,  and  the  more 
approve  it.  They  knew  that  they  were 
fighting,  first  because  on  the  3rd  of  Aug- 
ust at  a  quarter  to  seven  war  had  been 
declared  upon  them,  their  country  had 
been  invaded,  their  cities  destroyed, 
their  fields  laid  waste.  But  the  French- 
man hates  war  as  the  German  loves  it, 
and  he  fought  fiercely  to  destroy  it,  to 
have  "that  plague  of  mankind,  war, 
banished  off^  the  earth."  France  fought 
moreover,  for  the  cause  of  1870 — 
fought  to  vindicate  her  defeated  arms, 
to  reconquer  her  natural  frontier,  to 
make  French  again  a  region  that  Ger- 
many had  not  been  able  to  make  Ger- 
man in  forty-three  years.  She  fought 
for  her  place  in  the  world  first  of  all, 
but  she  fought  also,  for  her  place  in 
the  world's  thought.  She  fought  Ger- 
many because  she  was  attacked,  she 
fought  also  for  French  intelligence  and 
taste,  for  French  measure  and  culture, 
for  the  cause  of  liberty  peculiarly 
$acred  to  her  tradition. 


TESTING  SIEGE  MORTARS  AT  THE  SCHNEIDER  WORKS 
Though  the  name  sounds  as  if  it  were  Ger  nan  the  Schneider  works  at  Le  Creusot,  Harfleur,  and  Champagne-sur- 
Seme  are  the  chief  French  sources  of  artillery  and  munitioas.  Daring  the  war  they  had  over  25,000  workers,  and 
produced  weapons  of  maryelous  precision.    Here  is  the  final  test  of  siege  mortars  soon  to  go  to  the  front. 


GERMAN  BARBED  WIRE  MILLS 
The  interior  of  a  French  factory  in  the  iron  and  steel  region  of  Northern  France,  occupied  by  the  Germans,  who 
have  converted  the  building  into  a  barbed-wire  mill,  and  can  be  seen  in  the  picture  storing  the  finished  product  until 
Jt  IS  caUed  for.  Barbed  wire  formed  one  of  the  strongest  outworks  of  the  "war  of  positions."  The  number  of  miles 
used  IS  almost  incredible. 

497 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


THE   MORAL   BASIS   OF   THE   FRENCH   DE- 
TERMINATION. 

This  war  of  all  wars  has  demon- 
strated the  superiority  of  moral  to 
material  values.  The  costliest  mistake 
that  Germany  made — and  a  mistake 
that  was  to  cancel  forty  years  of  or- 
ganized preparation — was  to  misread 
the  French  spirit.  She  believed  France 
decadent  and  exhausted,  forgot  that 
France  of  all  countries  is  the  land  of 
new  beginnings,  of  fresh  waves  work- 
ing up  from  underneath.  Because 
France  had  submitted  to  every  insult 
and  provocation  for  forty  years,  Ger- 
many believed  that  it  was  because  she 
dared  not,  rather  than  that  she  would 
not,  resent.  Certain  surface  signs  of 
corruption,  lack  of  political  unity,  ab- 
sence of  great  undertakings  in  mili- 
tarism, were  responsible  for  Germany's 
misconception— which  to  be  sure  was 
shared  by  some  Frenchmen  even,  who, 
when  they  saw  their  country's  effort, 
believed  her  born  again.  But  this  is 
not  so;  it  is  a  mistake  to  say  that 
France  had  a  new  beginning  in  the 
war.  For  France  cannot  die;  she  is  of 
those  who  cannot  and  will  not  disap- 
pear. 

France  fought  with  unity.  Never 
at  any  period  of  French  history  had  the 
waves  of  party  strife  risen  higher  or 
beaten  more  furiously  than  in  the 
years  immediately  preceding  the  war. 
Revanchard,  Internationalist,  Dreyfus- 
ard,  Catholic,  Socialist,  Syndicalist, 
and  a  myriad  others  break  off,  and 
redivide,  and  mingle.  Cast  a  glance 
over  the  groups  that  have  made  up  the 
French  Chamber  of  recent  years,  and  en- 
deavor to  comprehend  the  kaleidoscopic 
swiftly-changing  mosaic  of  French 
political  parties.  Reduce  the  manifold 
divisions  and  subdivisions  of  these 
parties  to  the  lowest  possible  figure 
and  even  now  you  will  still  have  to  re- 
cognize at  least  seven  among  them.  In 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies  before  the 
seat  of  the  presiding  officer  rises  a  semi- 
circular amphitheatre  rising  to  the 
galleries,  and  in  this  well  the  deputies 
group  themselves  according  to  parties 
and  to  wings  of  parties — somewhat 
variously  named.  Beginning  on  the 
left   come   the   Unified   Socialists,    the 

498 


Independent  Socialists,  the  Radical 
Socialists  and  the  Radicals.  After  an 
invisible  line  which  divides  the  left  from 
the  right  come  the  Progressists,  Nation- 
alists, and  finally  ending  up  at  the 
President's  right  hand  the  Royalist- 
Imperialists.  From  the  parties  which 
temporarily  combine  to  form  a  major- 
ity in  the  Chamber,  the  ministry  is 
formed.  That  the  combinations  do  not 
endure  for  any  length  of  time  is  because 
they  are  entered  upon  with  perhaps 
only  a  single  end  or  two  in  common: 
the  parties  themselves  live  on  because 
they  rest  on  a  basis  of  general  princi- 
ples and  work  towards  many  distinct 
goals  in  all  branches  of  the  national 
life.  The  premier  attempts  to  keep  a 
majority  in  the  Chamber  by  combining 
now  with  one  and  now  with  another 
party.  Yet  the  term  ''V union  sacree" 
is  no  empty  figure  of  speech  even  when 
applied  to  French  political  life  during 
the  years  of  the  war. 

FRENCH    UNITY    OF   SPIRIT    AND    ACTION 
ESTABLISHED. 

Conflicting  opinions  as  to  the  con- 
duct of  the  war  existed,  and  ministries 
fell,  yet  though  political  divisions  cut 
deep  in  France  they  do  not  cut  deep 
enough  to  sever  the  roots  of  "La 
patrie,'"  and  Barres,  the  leader  of  the 
Nationalist  party,  writing  of  the  his- 
toric meeting  of  the  French  Chamber 
on  August  5,  1914,  exclaimed,  "We 
knew  that  there  would  be  no  wide  diver- 
gencies of  opinion  among  us,  but  this 
prodigious  union  of  hearts  and  minds 
transcends  all  our  hopes."  V  Union 
sacree  as  inaugurated  by  the  National 
Cabinet  formed  in  August,  1914,  was 
the  political  answer  to  the  trench  query, 
"If  only  the  civilians  will  stick  it!" 
It  was  a  ministry  which  aimed  at  rep- 
resenting all  the  groups  of  the  Cham- 
ber, rather  than  at  mobilizing  its  best 
talent,  and  soon  after  the  historic 
session  of  early  August  parliament  ad- 
journed and  a  practical  dictatorship 
was  vested  in  the  President  acting 
through  his  Cabinet.  Laws  were 
passed  and  money  raised  or  borrowed 
by  decree,  free  speech  and  the  liberty 
of  the  press  were  abolished,  the  liberty 
even  of  the  subject  abolished.  The 
control  of  parliament  and  public  opin- 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


ion  over  the  acts  of  the  government 
was  swept  away,  every  law  and  ev^ery 
right  made  subservient  to  public  safety. 
In  twelve  hours  the  constitution  of  the 
Third  Republic  was  transformed  into 
an  autocracy.  When  Parliament  re- 
assembled at  the  end  of  1914  nothing 
was  really  changed,  although  having  by 


military   commands    broke    the    calm. 
The  Socialists  in  particular  demanded 
secret  sessions  and  full  discussion,  and 
the  discord  came  to  a  head  in  July. 
The  government  had  good  grounds  of 
defense   on    the   first   charge.      Heavy 
cannon  and  other  weapons  could  not 
have    been     furnished     more    rapidly 
because    hitherto    fully    nine- 
tenths   of   the   total   iron  out- 
put of  France  had  been  derived 
from  sections  occupied  by  the 
enemy  since  the  first  weeks  of 
the  war,  especially  the  depart- 
ment of  Meurthe-and-Moselle. 
This  explanation,  together  with 
assurances     of     reconstruction 
and    adaptation    of    the    iron 
industry,  called    forth  a  wave 
of   enthusiasm  and    the  presi- 
dent  on    the   occasion  of   the 
transfer  of  the  body  of  Rouget 
de  Lisle  to  the  Pantheon  ex- 
pressed   the    attitude    of    the 
nation  when    he   said,   "Since 
we  have  been  forced  to  draw 
the    sword    we   have    not    the 
right  to  sheathe  it  again  until 
the  day  when  we  have  avenged 
our   dead,  when   the  common 
victory  of  the.  Allies  shall  allow 
us  to  rebuild  our  ruins,  to  make 
France  whole  again,  to  protect 
her  effectively  against  the  peri- 
odic renewal  of  provocation." 

In  October  unhappy  devel- 
opments in  the  Balkans,  where 
M.  Venizelos  was  turned  out 
THE  MEN  BEHIND  THE  GUNS  of    office    and    Greece   openly 

M.   Albert  Thomas,   French   Minister   of   Munitions,   Sir   Douglas  -rofucorl   +r»  ciir>nr>t-f  Vior  nn<=>  firrxa 

Haig,  General  Joffre  and  Mr.  Lloyd  George  in  consultation.   Minis-  •TeiUSea  tO  SUpport  ner  One  lime 

ters  and  war  leaders  met  for  the  first    time  in  Allied    Council   in  ally,  Serbia,  reflected   Upon    Al- 

Paris,   November    1915,  and  similar  conferences  became  frequent,  t    j  j*    i  j  j 

hed  diplomacy  and  caused  a  res 


this  time  become  accustomed  to  the 
war  it  made  spasmodic  attempts  to  re- 
assert itself.  Nevertheless  an  autoc- 
racy in  the  name  of  public  safety  con- 
tinued. The  rock-like  figure  of  General 
J  off  re  was  enthroned  in  the  confidence 
of  his  countrymen. 

THE  FIRST  SUGGESTIONS  OF  DISSATISFAC- 
TION. 

With  the  Opening  months  of  1915  well- 
sustained  attacks  on  the  Viviani  Min- 
istry over  alleged  inefficiency  in  han- 
dling the  munitions  problem,  and 
accusations  of  favoritism  in  awarding 


olution  to  be  passed  by  the  Finance 
Committee  that  "  the  committee  is  con- 
vinced of  the  necessity  of  a  complete  and 
immediate  explanation  on  the  part  of 
the  Government. ' '  The  Socialist  groups 
took  a  similar  resolution  and  discon- 
tent broke  out  again.  M.  Delcass6, 
Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs,  resigned, 
to  be  followed  by  his  chief,  Viviani, 
October  28.  The  next  day  a  new  Min- 
istry was  formed  with  Aristide  Briand 
as  Premier,  and  a  Coalition  Cabinet 
which  called  upon  the  talents  and  ex- 
perience of  the  nation,  and  represented 

499 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


an  effort  to  secure  the  highest  ad- 
ministrative efficiency  combined  with 
the  advisory  value  of  men  who  were 
most  experienced  in  pubHc  Hfe.  In  this 
blend  of  experts  and  elder  statesmen 
were  MM.  Jules  Cambon  as  General 
Secretary  of  the  Ministry  of  Foreign 
Affairs,  de  Freycinet  as  Secretary  of 
State,  General  Gallieni  for  War,  Viviani 
for  Justice,  Malvy  for  the  Interior, 
Ribot  for  Finance,  and  Painleve  for 
Public  Instruction  and  War  Inventions. 

THE    WAR    COUNCIL    OF    THE    ALLIES    IS 
FORMED. 

That  autumn  definite  steps  were 
taken  to  achieve  real  military  and 
strategic  co-operation  between  the 
AUies.  In  November  the  first  meeting 
of  the  Joint  War  Council  of  France 
and  Britain  attended  by  Asquith, 
Lloyd  George,  Balfour,  Grey,  Briand, 
Gallieni,  Lacaze  and  Joffre  took  place 
in  Paris,  and  on  the  7th  of  De- 
cember the  first  War  Council  of  the 
Allies  in  Paris  under  the  presidency  of 
Joffre  saw  representatives  of  France, 
Great  Britain,  Russia,  Italy,  Belgium, 
and  Serbia  meet  together.  In  the  last 
week  of  November  a  permanent  organi- 
zation for  the  conduct  of  the  munition 
business  of  the  Allies  was  announced, 
and  an  Allied  Board  of  Strategy  having 
critical  and  deliberative  functions  was 
formed. 

So  the  winter  passed  and  with  the 
spring  of  1916  the  political  situation 
grew  dark  again.  The  Radical  Social- 
ists were  suspicious  of  M.  Briand's 
tendency  to  govern  without  much  par- 
liamentary assistance  and  began  to 
assail  his  ministry.  That  the  move- 
ment was  purely  internal,  and  French 
Socialists  thoroughly  patriotic  was 
shown  by  the  vote  of  the  National 
Council  of  the  party,  April  9,  when  a 
motion  was  adopted  which  condemned 
the  resumption  of  relations  with  the 
Socialists  of  enemy  countries  by  a  two 
to  one  majority.  In  May,  General 
Gallieni  was  compelled  through  ill- 
health  to  leave  the  Ministry  of  War, 
and  died  much  regretted,  on  the  27th 
of  the  month.  At  the  end  of  the  sum- 
mer France  was  keyed  to  a  high  pitch 
by  her  achievements  at  Verdun,  and 
little  disposed  to  find  fault  with  her 

500 


leaders.  But  the  government  had 
never  an  easy  seat  and  during  the 
winter  of  1916  had  to  face  a  series  of 
petty  crises.  The  apparent  futility 
of  Allied  diplomacy  in  the  Near  East 
fanned  discontent  which,  increased  by 
the  scarcity  of  coal  and  the  heavy 
losses  in  the  Somme  campaign,  came  to 
a  head  in  late  November  and  early 
December.  A  number  of  stormy  secret 
sessions  in  which  the  parties  re-grouped 
themselves  took  place,  and  finally  the 
premier  was  ordered  to  defend  his 
policy.  He  did  so  in  full  session  but 
his  majority  continued  to  dwindle,  and 
finally  he  was  told  to  reconstruct  both 
Cabinet  and  High  Command. 

CHANGES   IN   THE   CABINET   AND   IN  THE 
FIELD. 

Under  the  new  arrangement,  an 
inner  Cabinet  was  created  which  like 
the  British  one  was  exclusively  for  war. 
In  the  High  Command  sweeping 
changes  were  made.  General  Joffre 
relinquished  the  office  of  Generalissimo 
and  became  military  adviser  to  the 
new  War  Committee.  In  his  place 
General  Nivelle  of  Verdun  renown  be- 
came Generalissimo  in  the  West.  So 
the  government  ran  for  a  few  more 
months.  In  March,  I9I7,M.  Ribot  suc- 
ceeded M.  Briand  in  office.  M.  Briand 
had  not  lost  his  majority  but  his  pres- 
tige had  suffered  from  his  handling  of 
the  Greek  question.  It  is  characteris- 
tic of  the  French  Parliamentary  situa- 
tion that  a  change  of  Ministry  does  not 
imply  great  change  of  personnel,  and 
under  the  Ribot  leadership,  Briand's 
colleagues  continued  their  work.  But 
the  government  had  never  been  popu- 
lar with  the  Socialists,  and  was  not 
greatly  trusted  by  the  army. 

At  the  beginning  of  September  came 
realization  of  the  meaning  of  much  of 
the  obscure  disquiet  that  throughout 
the  summer  had  been  afflicting  France. 
German  money  had  succeeded  in  buy- 
ing over  a  portion  of  the  French  press, 
and  such  men  as  Louis  J.  Malvy,  Min- 
ister of  the  Interior,  Joseph  Caillaux, 
the  leader  of  the  Radical  Socialist 
Party,  and  Paul  Bolo,whowas  in  finan- 
cial charge  of  Germany's  underhand 
propaganda,  were  discovered  to  be  in 
league  with   the  enemy.     The   Ribot 


A  GERMAN  SAW-MILL  IN  FRANCE 


French  timber  was  exploited  by  the  enemy  for  the  thousand  and  one  needs  of  a  great  army  in  wartime.  In  addition, 
when  the  Germans  were  forced  to  retreat,  whole  forests  were  denuded,  thousands  of  stately  trees  which  lined 
the  country  highways  laid  low,  and  orchards  of  valuable  fruit-bearing  trees  wantonly  destroyed. 


"ELEPHANTS  A  PILIN'  TEAK" 
The  German  General  Staff  was  insistent  that  every  citizen  of  the  Fatherland  should  bear  his  share  of  the  war. 
It  could  not  always  obtain  the  co-operation  of  the  government  in  making  the  Auxiliary  Service  Acts  sufficiently 
extreme,  but  in  this  case  where  "Hathi,  the  elephant"  is  seen  employed  in  drawing  heavy  timber  in  France,  the 
Staff  must  have  been  fully  satisfied  with  his  co-operation-  Pictures,  Henry  Ruschin 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


Ministry  was  severely  censured  for  not 
suppressing  "  Boloism,  "as  it  was  called, 
and  on  September  7,  191 7,  placed  its 

.resignation  in  the  President's  hands. 
On  the  1 2th  M.  Painleve,  formerly 
Minister  of  War,  became  Premier  with 
a  Cabinet  largely  formed  from  the  old. 
The  Socialists  stood  outside  but  they 
announced  they  would  support  the 
government  if  it   showed   it   deserved 

'  their  doing  so.     The  Unified  Socialists 

mnder  Albert  Thomas  distrusted  Pain- 
leve for  his  imperialistic  views  and 
were  dissatisfied  with  the  government's 
war  aims,  and  only  two  uneasy  months 
ran  through  until  in  November  the 
Ministry  fell  once  more.  This  time 
the  President  entrusted  to  M.  Clemen- 
ceau   the  formation  of  a  government 

'and  on  November  16, 191 7,  in  the  fourth 
year  of  the  war  and  the  seventy-sixth 
of  his  life,  this  remarkable  man  took 
office  and  defied  the  malcontent  Social- 
ists by  going  on  his  way  without  them. 

THE  DIFFICULTIES  AND  TRIALS  SEEM  TO 
INCREASE. 

The  times  were  gloomy;  the  collapse 
of  Russia  had  set  free  German  divi- 
sions for  service  on  the  western  front. 
American  soldiers  were  not  yet  trained. 
Caporetto  had  occurred  and  Germany, 
in  anticipation  of  the  moral  efifect  of 
long  months  of  trench  warfare  and  the 
burden  of  heavy  battles  seemingly 
without  result,  had  set  on  foot  a  very 
active  pacifist  and  "defaitist"  propa- 
ganda. A  dangerous  crop  of  treason 
seemed  to  be  springing  up  all  over 
France,  among  the  press  and  the  baser 
politicians.  German  agents  had  done 
their  worst  and  successfully  fostered 
the  pacificism  of  the  extreme  Social- 
ists. Against  all  this  M.  Clemenceau 
waged  ruthless  war.  "Boloism,"  "de- 
featism" and  other  underground  forces 
which  were  sapping  the  nation's  vitality 
were  at  once  attacked  ruthlessly  and  the 
premier  pledged  himself  to  conduct  the 
war  to  a  victorious  end. 

No  French  government  had  hitherto 
dared  to  attack  M.  Caillaux,  the  leading 
spirit  in  the  councils  of  one  of  the  larg- 
est and  most  influential  political  par- 
ties in  the  state,  but  M.  Clemenceau 
dared.  On  January  14,  1918,  M. 
Caillaux  was  brought  before  a  court- 

502 


martial  charged  with  having  endangered 
the  security  of  France.  The  case  was 
transferred  to  the  Senate  of  which  M. 
Caillaux  was  a  member,  but  because 
of  his  illness  the  trial  was  postponed 
until  1920.  He  was  found  guilty  and 
sentenced  to  imprisonment,  and  ban- 
ishment from  Paris  for  a  term  of  years, 
and  to  loss  of  political  rights.  Bolo 
Pasha's  trial  meantime  was  proceeding, 
and  on  February  14  he  and  Filippo  Ca- 
vallino  were  sentenced  to  death.  Later, 
other  Boloists  were  given  various  terms 
of  imprisonment,  and  Duval,  director 
of  the  suppressed  newspaper.  Bonnet 
Rouge,  was  condemned  to  death  as  a 
traitor  in  May,  while  M.  Malvy,  con- 
victed of  holding  communication  with 
the  enemy,  was  sentenced  to  banish- 
ment for  five  years.  Premier  Clemen- 
ceau carried  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
with  him  by  an  overwhelming  majority. 
He,  who  in  his  forty  years  of  political 
life  had  destroyed  by  pen  and  word 
more  ministries  than  any  other  man  of 
his  day,  eighteen,  it  is  said,  now  restored 
''V union  sacree"  and  carried  France 
over  her  dark  days  to  final  victory. 

THE    QUESTION    OF    SUPPLIES    FOR    THE 
ARMY. 

It  has  been  noted  that  modern  war 
conditions,  and  the  occupation  of  the 
French  iron  districts  brought  about  a 
serious  deficiency  in  cannon  and  am- 
munition during  the  early  part  of  1915 
and  exposed  the  Viviani  Ministry  to 
charges  of  incompetency  in  dealing  with 
the  situation.  A  nation  in  arms  besides 
having  in  readiness  its  millions  of  men 
to  fight  must  have  also  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  workmen  in  workshops 
and  factories  to  supply  the  wherewithal 
to  wage  war.  After  the  battle  of  the 
Marne,  things  were  serious  in  France. 
The  expenditure  in  munitions  had  been 
much  greater  than  was  anticipated, 
and  supplies  believed  adequate  were 
already  running  short.  Heavy  artillery 
was  of  paramount  importance  and 
France  had  far  too  little.  How  to  con- 
struct heavy  artillery  as  rapidly  as 
possible,  and  produce  munitions  and 
explosives  in  sufficient  quantity  to 
satisfy  the  demand  j*  Neither  state 
workshops  and  factories  nor  private 
concerns    were  equal    to   these   acute 


1  S-                                 '    mi'  '* 

FRENCH  FLOCKS  GUARDED  BY  GERMAN  SHEPHERDS 

Early  in  August  1914  there  was  established  in  Germany  a  Bureau  of  Raw  Materials  for  the  War.  This  was  made 
part  of  the  Ministry  of  War  and,  after  the  occupation  of  Belgium  and  northern  France  and  parts  of  Russia,  seized 
the  raw  material  from  the  occupied  regions  including  the  flocks  of  sheep. 


HARVESTING  IN  THE  OCCUPIED  TERRITORY 
The  German  Army  in  northern  France  and  Belgium  grew,  with  the  assistance  of  the  peasants,  the  grain  required 
for  themselves  and  their  horses,  and  even  sent  some  back  home.    Sixty  per  cent  of  all  plowable  soil  was  cultivated 
by  the  army  itself,  twenty  per  cent  by  peasants  and  army  together  and  the  remainder  by  the  peasants  themselves. 

Pictures,  Henry  Ruschin 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


needs.  Mobilization  had  left  in  the 
factories  barely  enough  men  for  the  ex- 
pected output.  These  estimates  were 
wrong,  and  the  need  three  or  four  times 
as  great.  The  problem  was  solved, 
however,  in  two  ways:  first,  by  inten- 
sive state  manufacturing;  secondly, 
by  private  enterprise.  For  the  latter 
France  was  div^ided  into  regions,  each 
having  at  its  head  a  man  who  had  pre- 
viously been  director  of  some  great 
industrial,  metallurgic  or  railway  com- 
pany. These  men  were  authorized  by 
the  state  to  estimate  the  industrial 
resources  in  their  regions,  so  that  they 
might  make  use  of  even  the  smallest 
firms  and  thus  obtain  the  greatest 
number  of  men  and  machines. 

How    THE    DEFICIENCY    WAS    MET    AND 
OVERCOME. 

At  first  there  were  eight  such  divi- 
sions, later  the  number  developed  to 
fifteen.  The  men  at  the  head  had  full- 
est powers  and  dealt  with  the  Minister 
of  War.  They  were  responsible  for 
quick  deliveries  as  for  delays.  They 
could  pass  over  some  of  their  authority 
to  superintendents  who  owned  fac- 
tories in  the  district.  Here  was  a 
scheme  then  for  intensive  production; 
it  remained  to  assure  three  things: 
the  necessary  material,  the  plant  and 
the  manual  labor.  As  regards  mate- 
rial, the  situation  was  critical;  most  of 
the  steel  mills  of  the  North  and  East 
which  in  normal  times  produced  an 
important  quantity  of  the  metal  used 
for  artillery  were  in  the  hands  of  the 
enemy — so  that  about  70%  of  the  nor- 
mal production  in  metallurgy  was  lack- 
ing when  most  needed.  Fortunately 
the  metallurgic  factories  in  the  centre 
of  France  whose  output  is  much  in- 
ferior in  quantity  to  that  of  the  East 
and  North,  have  specialized  for  the 
past  twenty  years  in  the  output  of  fine 
steel  and  other  accessories  for  army 
and  navy.  Thanks,  then,  to  these,  in 
spite  of  the  occupation  of  the  coal  and 
mining  districts  of  North  and  East  by 
the  Germans  the  production  of  Martin 
steel  (most  needed  by  artillery  fac- 
tories) was  reduced  by  only  44%  while 
that  of  Thomas  steel  was  reduced  by 
about  95%.  The  deficit,  however,  was 
serious  enough. 

504 


Metallurgic  factories  which  could 
produce  the  necessary  material  were 
reorganized,  other  factories  brought 
into  use,  all  the  Martin  furnaces  (dead 
since  the  beginning  of  the  war)  rekin- 
dled, and  large  contracts  for  raw  mate- 
rial placed  in  America,  in  England,  and 
Italy.  The  government  met  the  need 
for  machines  in  two  ways:  by  adapt- 
ing machines  that  had  been  used  for 
other  things,  and  by  importation  from 
America.  The  question  of  man-power 
was  even  more  vital.  A  large  propor- 
tion of  the  men  had  been  mobilized. 
The  directors  began  by  advising  manu- 
facturers to  recruit  all  available  civil 
labor.  The  result  of  this  fell  far  short 
of  the  need,  and  it  then  became  neces- 
sary to  recall  to  the  factories  skilled 
laborers  and  mechanics  who  were  with 
the  colors.  By  a  rigorous  and  efficient 
state-control,  supply  and  demand  were 
thus  co-ordinated.  The  creation  of  an 
under-secretary  of  state  for  artillery 
and  munitions  in  May,  191 5,  shortened 
early  hesitancy  and  delay,  and  produc- 
tion rose  enormously.  In  August,  1914, 
large  shells  were  being  made  at  the 
rate  of  100  per  day;  in  February,  1916, 
at  the  rate  of  3,040.  Production  of  the 
mitrailleuse  or  machine  gun  for  the 
same  period  of  time  rose  from  100  to 
8,800  and  other  output  correspondingly. 
Early  in  1916  France  supplied  the 
refugee  Serbians  with  rifles  and  am- 
munition, and  later  in  the  year  sent 
heavy  guns  to  Rumania.  AH  trench 
weapons  had  to  be  created,  for  only 
some  old  mortars  and  grenades  existed 
at  the  beginning  of  the  war.  In  aerial 
production  the  demand  at  first  largely 
outran  resources  but  by  degrees  all 
the  new  types  were  built  and  France 
began  to  furnish  the  Allies  with  air- 
ships and  with  artillery.  She  was  woe- 
fully ill-provided  with  automobiles, 
trucks,  tractors,  etc.,  but  in  this  respect 
also  caught  up  and  by  the  second  year 
of  the  struggle  was  even  supplying 
Russia.  But  except  for  mobilization, 
French  defense,  though  united,  was 
impromptu. 

THE      SPIRIT      OF      THE      MAN      IN      THE 
TRENCHES. 

To  politician  and  industrial  worker 
add — for  he  is  the  crown — the  soldier 


IN  THE  WAKE  OF  WAR 
A  convent  chapel  in  northern  France  which  has  been  converted  into  a  hospital,  and  is  occupied  by  the  wounded 
of  a  Saxon  regiment.     Such  tenants  were  in  the  nature  of  a  boon  to  the  place,  because  in  all  probability  their 
presence  saved  it  from  pillage  and  destruction.    In  the  quasi-ward  everything  is  orderly  and  circumspect. 


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M 

THE  SEIZURE  OF  METALS  IN  FRANCE 
The  Germans'did  not  hesitate  to  go  to  any  length  in  their  endeavors  to  get  mstal.    Here  is  some  stored  in  a  church 
they  had  stripped,  but  had  been  unable  to  remove.    Ordinances  were  issued  in  various  places  in  the  occupied 
zbnes  anno;uncing  the  seizure  of  household  fixtures  of  copper,  tin,  nic^k^i  brass,  bronze  or  tottibaic.    Articles  ma^e 
of  such  metals  in  ^a'de  a'nd  inxTu'^try  Were  also  comniahdeered.  Britisli  Official 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


of  France  to  complete  F  union  sacree. 
Foreign  correspondents,  visiting  officers, 
Allied  soldiers,  even  the  enemy  himself, 
all  testify  to  this  spirit  of  united  serv- 
ice and  camaraderie  among  the  sol- 
diers of  the  republic.  Discipline  of  the 
highest  order  existed  in  the  French 
army,  but  it  was  a  discipline  main- 
tained by  the  thought  of  the  common 
end,  and  endowed  with  esteem  and 
mutual  affection.  A  great  army  filled 
with  the  spirit  of  democracy  was  at 
one  with  itself  because  of  its  extra- 
ordinary comradeship.  This  feeling — 
due  to  the  democratic  training  re- 
ceived during  the  years  of  service — is 
well  expressed  in  the  words  of  two 
poilus  in  the  trenches  one  Christmas 
night.  "A  year  ago  I  was  supping  at 
the  Caf^  de  Paris."  "I  know — I  was 
the  runner  who  fetched  your  car,  old 
man." 

Between  officers  and  men  there  is 
no  division  like  that  created  by  Prus- 
sian military  caste.  The  French  officer 
at  his  best  is  both  leader  and  comrade. 
His  men  are  ''mes  enfants."  Barr6s 
tells  the  story  of  a  correspondent  whose 
cold  slumbers  in  an  empty  compart- 
ment were  interrupted  at  an  eastern 
station  by  the  entry  of  a  stumbling  fig- 
ure. It  was  dark  and  only  by  the 
palish  glimmer  of  the  white  dressings 
and  sling  did  his  sleep-logged  senses " 
tell  him  that  here  was  a  seriously 
wounded  man,  who,  however,  brusquely 
refused  all  offers  of  help.  Dawn  re- 
vealed a  middle-aged  officer  whose 
bruised  and  fevfered  face,  bootless  feet, 
and  many  dressings  betokened  serious 
injuries.  By  degrees  the  soldier's 
brusqueness  softened  a  little,  and  as 
the  train  worked  its  slow  way  north 
he  told  his  story.  "This"  had  hap- 
pened five  days  ago — five  charges  of 
grape-shot  as  he  was  leading  his  chil- 
dren. Unconscious,  he  had  been  put  in 
an  ambulance  and  taken  to  Rheims, 
and  from  thence  without  knowing  why 
to  Rennes.  Four  days  and  four  nights 
of  wounds  and  fever  had  not  con- 
quered him.  As  soon  as  he  could  get 
upon  his  feet,  one  thought  took  posses- 
sion of  him.  Where  were  his  children? 
All  this  while  under  fire... and  then 
there  was  a  bugler  who  had  sounded 

506 


the  charge  at  a  critical  moment .  . .  you 
should  have  seen  the  effect.  He  must 
get  back  to  them.  What  were  they 
doing  without  him?  And  so  he  had 
escaped  from  the  hospital — bootless 
and  in  his  stockinged  feet.  The  train 
slackened  and  drew  up  some  miles  from 

X ,    and    an    agonizing    delay 

set  in.  After  two  hours  of  it  the  lieuten- 
ant asked  the  correspondent  to  get  out 

and  walk  with  him  to  X ,  and 

the  latter  consented.  The  motion 
shook  the  wounded  man's  shattered 
shoulder  and  augmented  his  fever  but 

he  at  last  gained  X .     There 

was  no  train  for  Y !    Well,  he 

had  his  wounds  dressed  and  set  off  to 
find  an  automobile,  and  succeeded  in 
finding  a  seat  in  one  that  was  going 
part  way.  He  would  arrange  the 
rest 

T  NCIDENTS  OF  DEVOTION  AND  FORTITUDE. 

And  there  are  countless  stories  of 
the  other  side.  Instance  after  instance 
of  touching  devotion  from  man  to  offi- 
cer. There  is  the  story  of  the  trooper 
shot  through  both  legs  and  lying  in  an 
open  space  who  saw  his  officer  fall 
before  machine-gun  fire  but  a  few 
yards  nearer  the  enemy's  line.  When 
he  could  speak  he  called  out  to  the  offi- 
cer and  told  him  the  nature  of  his 
wound,  and  the  officer,  himself  in 
agony,  believing  him  faint-hearted, 
counseled  fortitude.  Much  distressed, 
the  wounded  poilu  explained  that  he 
only  spoke  of  his  wounds  so  that  his 
officer  might  understand  how  it  was 
that  he  left  him  lying  there! 

If  France  fought  united,  she  fought 
also  with  the  exaltation  of  one  who 
glories  in  the  moral  beauty  of  the  cause 
she  champions.  Read  the  letters  from 
the  trenches,  from  boys  of  twenty,  from 
men  of  forty-five,  they  count  all  lost 
that  is  not  France.  "Si  vous  ouvrez 
cette  lettre,  c'est  que  je  ne  serai  plus 
et  que  je  serai  mort  de  la  plus  belle 
mort.  Ne  me  pleurez  pas  trop:  ma 
fin  est  enviable  entre  toutes .  .  Pensez 
de  moi  par  moments  comme  d'un  de 
ceux  qui  ont  donne  leur  sang  que  la 
France  vive,  et  qui  sont  morts  joy- 
eusement."  And  again  "All  our  sacri- 
fice will  be  of  sweet  savor  if  it  leads  to. 


fflSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


a  really  glorious  victory  and  brings 
more  light  to  human  souls."  The 
same  spirit  is  reflected  in  the  women, 
the  wives  and  mothers  and  sisters. 
Before  a  hospital  bed  on  which  lay  her 
son's  dead  body  a  father  was  weeping, 
the  mother,  a  peasant  woman,  took 
his  hand.  "We  must  have  courage,  my 
man.  You  can  see  how  much  our  boy 
had."  And  a  mother  writing  to  an 
officer  to  thank  him  for  his  letter  says, 
"The  anniversary  of  my  boy's  death  is 
both  cruel  and  sweet;  cruel  because  it 
recalls  a  day  when  I  loved  him  without 
a  thought  of  the  trial  that  his  valor 
would  bring  me;  sweet  because  I  can- 
not think  of  the  quick  ending  of  this 
pure  young  life  without  supreme  joy. 
Thank  you  for  all  that  you  tell  me  of 
my  little  soldier;  that  his  glorious 
death  may  contribute  to  the  victory 
of  our  France  is  my  constant  prayer." 

PASSIONATE     DEVOTION     TO     THE     VERY 
SOIL    OF    FRANCE. 

France  fought  with  undying  and 
passionate  devotion  to  the  soil  of 
France:  nowhere  is  this  feeling  more 
apparent  than  in  the  glow  which  blazed 
in  the  hearts  of  the  young  intellectual 
officers  at  the  beginning  of  the  war. 
Jean  AUard-Meeus  was  only  twenty- 
one  and  a  half  when  he  was  killed  at 
Pierrepont.  He  had  shared  in  the  oath 
of  the  fete  du  Triomphe  at  St.  Cyr,  and 
war  had  transformed  a  brilliant  scholar 
into  the  sternest  of  soldiers.  His  poem 
"  Demain''  which  begins,  "Soldats  de 
notre  illustre  race,"  expresses  the  patri- 
otic passion  of  France,  and  his  "Plus 
Jmut  toujour s''  is  the  vivid  portrayal 
of  the  flight,  ecstasy,  and  death  of  a 
young  airman.  Paul  Lintier  was 
another  of  these  young  officers.  Struck 
by  a  shell  on  the  Lorraine  frontier  in 
his  twenty-third  year,  he  was  a  prose 
writer  of  the  first  class  whose  wonder- 
ful book  ''Ma  Piece''  was  written 
night  after  night  upon  his  knee  in 
seven  feverish  weeks.  On  March  26, 
191 7,  the  Societe  des  Gens  de  Lettres 
met  in  solemn  assembly  to  commem- 
orate the  authors  who  had  died  during 
the  war,  and  as  name  followed  name  the 
single  phrase  "Mort  au  champs  d'hon- 
neur"  fell  upon  the  pause. 

Let  us  recall  one  more  proof  that  the 


spirit  of  Roland  and  Joan  lives  still 
in  modern  France.  The  Germans  had 
invaded  a  trench  and  overcome  all  re- 
sistance; the  French  soldiers  all  had 
fallen.  Suddenly  from  out  the  heap 
of  wounded  and  dead  one  man  arose 
and  seized  a  sack  of  grenades  that  lay 
beside  him.  "Let  the  dead  arise,"  he 
cried.  Then  the  other  men  awoke 
from  their  death  trance  and  fought  the 
foe  and  drove  him  from  his  capture. 
Is  not  the  word  "Verdun"  honored 
currency  in  the  country  of  the  brave 
and  chivalrous? 

'T^HE    WOMEN   OF   FRANCE    IN   THE    WAR. 

"Jusqu'au  bout"  was  the  motto  of 
the  women  of  France,  as  of  the  men. 
No  nation  can  fight  a  long  and  success- 
ful war  without  the  support  of  its 
women,  and  Frenchmen  in  their  long 
record  as  a  military  race  have  had  full- 
est proof  of  this.  In  1870  as  in  1429, 
in  1793  as  in  1914  French  heroism  and 
endurance  was  as  much  the  rule  among 
the  women  as  among  the  men.  But  the 
last  great  war  has  taken  place  in  an 
age  where  woman  has  proved  by  care- 
ful training  of  body  and  of  mind  that 
all  paths  are  open  to  her.  In  1870 
French  women,  willing  as  they  were, 
could  not,  even  had  the  need  been  as 
great,  have  taken  the  places  of  the 
men  called  to  the  colors.  Their  train- 
ing did  not  admit  of  it,  public  opinion 
would  have  prevented  it.  In  the  Great 
War  the  so-called  feminist  movement 
has  won  a  fresh  and  glorious  charter  of 
liberty. 

One  can  divide  their  service  into 
four  distinct  categories,  although  in 
several  instances  a  woman  has  served 
in  double  and  triple  capacity.  There 
are  those  women,  whose  destiny  set 
them  in  the  zone  of  war  and  exposed 
them  to  an  enemy  whose  ferocity  re- 
cognized no  distinction  of  age  or  sex. 
In  some  cases  these  women  by  their 
bravery  and  quick  wit  have  cost  the 
enemy  important  delay  as  in  the  case 
of  Marcelle  Semer  who  opened  the 
draw-bridge  across  the  Somme  in  the 
face  of  the  Germans  and  flung  the  key 
of  the  bridge  into  the  canal,  thereby 
causing  them  twenty-four  hours'  delay- 
Some  have  aided  their  countrymen  to 

507 


fflSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


escape,  or  under  bombardment  have 
fearlessly  continued  their  work  as  tele- 
phone-operator, instructress  or  nurse. 
Others  in  time  of  need  have  assumed 
civic  and  intermediary  duties  and  have 
represented  a  populace  whose  maire 
or  magistrate  was  missing.  Others 
again  in  this  war-scourged  region  have 
succored  the  wounded  and  the  dying — 


bardment  and  during  occupation,  on 
the  fields  of  France,  the  cliffs  of  the 
Dardanelles,  at  Saloniki,  in  Mudros 
and  in  Corfu. 

By  the  opening  months  of  191 7  these 
three  societies  had  raised  their  number 
of  hospitals  to  over  1500,  their  beds  to 
115,000  and  their  trained  nurses  to 
43,100.     Besides  the  Red  Cross  Hos- 


CIVILIANS  OF  ST.  QUENTIN  TRANSPORTED 

In  France  and  in  Belgium  the  German  system  of  forced  labor  and  deportations  was  attended  with  callousness, 
brutality  and  horror.  At  first  only  the  male  population  was  carried  off,  then  young  women  and  girls  over  fourteen 
years  of  age  were  taken  to  Germany.    Only  the  briefest  time  was  allowed  for  preparations  for  departure. 


of  their  own  and  of  the  enemy  also — 
comforted  little  children  and  protected 
the  homeless  ones. 

'T^HE  WORK  OF  THE   VARIOUS   SOCIETIES. 

Then  there  is  the  class,  and  it  is  per- 
haps the  largest,  of  those  women  who 
have  cared  for  the  blinded,  mutilated, 
convalescent,  tubercular,  civil  refugee, 
prisoner,  orphaned  and  widowed  of  the 
war;  who  have  taken  as  their  ap- 
pointed function  in  the  struggle  the 
amelioration,  healing,  and  closing  of 
the  awful  scars  which  war  inflicts.  The 
French  Red  Cross  composed  of  three 
societies,  "/a  Societe  de  Secours  aux 
Blesses  Militaires,'"  ''V  Union  des  Fem- 
mes  de  France''  and  ''I' Association  des 
Dames  Franqaises, "  worked  at  the  front 
and  in  the  rear,  in  hospital  stations, 
canteens,  and  workshops,  under  bom- 

5oi5    . 


pitals,  many  others  of  public  and  pri- 
vate enterprise  have  been  sanctioned 
by  the  government  so  that  France  had 
perhaps  8,000  such  institutions  of  her 
own.  Nevertheless,  the  beds  in  these 
were  reserved  for  men  suffering  from 
severe  wounds  and  illnesses.  For  the 
eclope,  or  man  who  was  not  wounded 
or  seriously  ill  but  run  down  and  in 
dire  need  of  a  brief  rest,  no  suitable 
place  was  provided.  Men  whose  health 
gave  way  temporarily  were  thus  in  the 
early  months  of  the  war  miserably 
quartered  behind  the  lines  or  on  the 
outskirts  of  Paris,  in  barns,  or  disused 
factories,  thousands  indeed  without 
shelter  of  any  kind.  Here  on  the  poor- 
est beds,  and  with  scanty  and  coarse 
food  how  could  they  .regain  their  physi- 
cal fitness  and  tone?'  Some  of  them 
fell  prey  to  the  incipient  maladies  from 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


which  they  were  suffering,  many  of 
them  never  returned  to  the  trenches 
again.  In  this  miserable  state  of  af- 
fairs a  French  priest  intervened,  sent 
stores,  sent  visitors.  Within  two  years 
a  hundred  and  fifty  £clope  Depots 
grew  up  in  France,  all  of  them  well- 
built   shelters,   comfortably   furnished. 


been  so  active  in  France  and  of  which 
the  celebrated  Ecole  de  Jqffre  at  Lyons 
is  at  once  the  pioneer  and  model. 
Among  the  blessed  company  of 
women  who  have  sought  to  heal  the 
ravages  of  war,  are  those  who  have 
exerted  themselves  to  organize  work 
and  means  of  support  for  those  who  had 


THE  INVADERS  SOMETIMES  MOVED  TO  PITY 


In  strange  contrast  to  German  harshness,  as  practised  against  women  and  children  on  the  march  towards  Paris, 
is  the  incident  shown  above  where  enemy  soldiers  are  distributing  portions  of  their  rations  to  keep  French  children 
from  starving.    The  German  troops  were  generally  well-fed,  and  could  easily  spare  a  part  of  their  allowance. 

Picture,  H.  Ruschin 


sanitarily  arranged,  offering  good  food, 
some  means  of  recreation,  and  condi- 
tions for  convalescence.  This  was 
largely  the  work  of  a  young  French 
woman.  Mile.  Javal,  who  by  dint  of 
hard  work  and  perseverance  succeeded 
in  inaugurating  in  November,  1914,  the 
great  organization  of  '^ L' Assistance 
aux  Depots  d'Eclopes,  Petits  Blesses  et 
Petits  Malades,  et  aux  Cantonments  de 
Repose 

THE  REHABILITATION  OF  THE   CRIPPLED 
SOLDIERS. 

In  direct  connection  with  the  hos- 
pitals and  of  enormous  value  to  the 
future,  must  be  mentioned  the  Schools 
for  Re-education  of  Crippled  Soldiers, 
which  from  quite  early  in  1914  have 


been  left  stranded,  either  by  the  tide 
of  invasion  or  by  the  paralysis  of  in- 
dustrial conditions.  In  Paris,  as  in 
other  cities  of  the  province  in  the  early 
months  of  the  war,  thousands  of  little 
shops  were  closed  and  it  seemed  im- 
possible to  prevent  their  employees 
from  starving.  Into  this  gap  came  the 
"ouvroir"  or  workshop  organized  by 
patriotic  women  where  necessary  arti- 
cles for  the  men  in  the  trenches  were 
made,  and  which  served  the  double 
purpose  of  employing  the  needy  and 
arming  the  fighting  man.  In  a  later 
day,  as  need  arose,  these  ouvroirs  were 
much  amplified  and  women  were  taught 
all  manner  of  trades  and  professions 
from  cooking  to  market  gardening. 

509 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


Societies — of  mushroom  growth  and 
heaven-born  pity — for  caring  for  the 
fatherless  and  widowed,  the  aged  and 
the  impotent,  sprang  up  on  all  sides. 
Nor  let  us  forget  those  organizations 
whose  magnificent  effort  robbed 
trenches  and  billets  of  many  horrors  by 
the  loving  thought  and  substantial  re- 
freshment of  their  "comfort  parcels" 
or  wayside  canteens.  A  ministering 
band  of  women  trod  the  highway  of 
war,  like  the  Samaritan  of  old,  binding 
up  the  wayfarers'  wounds  and  pouring 
in  oil  and  wine. 

THE  WOMEN  WHO  TOOK  THE  PLACES    OF 
MEN.  I 

There  is  a  third  class  in  this  band  of 
heroines:  those  who  have  taken  men's 
places  in  forge  and  foundry,  factory 
and  munition  plant,  field  and  vineyard, 
ship-building  yard  and  ofifice.  Did 
Paris  starve  when  after  the  second 
week  in  August  all  men  between  the 
ages  of  17  and  48  were  called  to  the 
colors?  Had  you  been  in  the  suburbs 
the  following  morning  and  every  morn- 
ing after  mobilization,  you  could  have 
seen  the  same  big  trucks  and  horses  go 
by  carrying  in  to  the  city  the  same 
abundant  field  and  garden  produce. 
True,  the  drivers'  seats  were  occupied 
by  women  in  coifs  and  handkerchiefs, 
the  wives  and  sisters  and  sweethearts 
of  the  men  of  yesterday,  who  had  or- 
ganized as  automatically  as  their  men- 
folk. In  the  provinces,  among  the 
vineyards  in  Champagne  or  in  the 
South,  who  is  it  who  gathered  the  har- 


vest and  sowed  the  seed  for  this  and 
every  war-year?  Who  baked  the 
bread  and  fed  the  cattle  and  reaped 
the  corn  that  France  might  eat  and  not 
die?  Who  built  the  furnace  and  filled 
the  forge,  and  turned  out  artillery  and 
munitions  that  the  army  might  fight 
and  win  in  this  crusade  against  aggres- 
sion and  tyranny? 

Lastly,  there  are  those  who  served  in 
silence,  suffered  separation  and  loneli- 
ness, uncertainty  and  crushing  bereave- 
ment, exile  and  poverty  with  a  simple 
courage  that  yet  was  fine  enough  to 
have  a  smile  for  the  wounded,  a  tear 
for  another's  woe,  a  heart  uplifted  with 
ardor  for  France,  and  an  unconquer- 
able will  that  would  not  accept  defeat. 
Said  a  peasant  woman  of  Poitou  whose 
two  sons  and  son-in-law  were  in  the 
trenches,  "There  are  some  women  in 
our  village  who  are  praying  that  their 
sons  may  be  spared,  but  I  cannot  do 
that  for  it  would  seem  to  me  in  so  doing 
that  I  should  be  praying  for  others  to 
be  killed!"  Near  Verdun  gendarmes 
surprised  an  old  woman  crouching  on  a 
fresh  grave  and  questioned  her.  "I 
have  come  from  Rochelle, "  she  said — 
"five  of  my  sons  have  already  died  in 
this  war  and  I  have  come  here  where 
the  sixth  and  last  is  buried  to  weep  for 
him."  Overcome  by  the  tragic  gran- 
deur of  the  spectacle  the  gendarmes 
saluted.  The  old  woman  arose,  trem- 
bling and  sobbing,  and  uttered  a  cry 

"Vive  la  France quand  meme.  .  ." 

Muriel  Bray 


51Q 


A  Working  Party  Going  Forward 


Chapter  XXXII 

The  Battle  of  the  Somme     I 

THE  FIRST  STAGES  OF  THE  GREAT  BRITISH  AND  FRENCH 

ASSAULT 


npHROUGH  Picardy  in  northern 
France  flows  the  river  Somme 
with  its  Httle  tributary,  the  Ancre, 
coming  from  the  northeast  to  join  it 
near  Amiens.  The  furrow  of  the  Ancre, 
"which  is  a  swift,  clear  chalk  stream, 
sometimes  too  deep  and  swift  to 
ford,"  is  flanked  by  undulating  ground, 
broken  by  dry  ravines — a  kind  of  ter- 
rain which  extends  to  and  a  little  be- 
yond the  Somme.  Ridges  revealing 
chalky  soil  separate  the  valleys;  and  on 
the  narrow  plateaus  topping  the  gently- 
sloping  ridges  villages  long  have  had 
pleasant  setting  among  orchards  or 
groves  of  large  trees,  with  extensive 
patches  of  woodland  dotting  the  coun- 
tryside around."  The  Somme  meanders 
with  frequent  curves  and  loops  through 
its  broad  valley,  widening  now  and 
then  into  swamps  and  rush-grown 
stretches;  bordered  here  and  there  by 
peat-mosses;  and  accompanied,  wher- 
ever its  own  stream  is  not  navigable,  by 
a  canal.  The  country  further  south  is 
called  the  Santerre.  Beyond  Assevil- 
lers  and  Estrees,  seated  in  the  broadest 
loop  of  the  river,  it  flattens  out  into  a 
plain. 

FAIR     PICARDY     THROUGH     WHICH     THE 
SOMME    FLOWS. 

The  shining  acres  of  Picardy,  by 
nature  fertile  and  radiant,  fair  with 
grain-fields  and  beet-root-fields,  gay 
with  poppies  and  cornflowers  and  mus- 


tard blossoms,  seem  designed  for  peace 
and  quiet  rural  beauty.  "  It  is  a  sweet 
and  pleasant  country,"  wrote  Philip 
Gibbs  on  the  first  of  July,  1916,  at  the 
outbreak  of  one  of  the  most  terrible 
and  devastating  battles  of  the  world's 
history,  one  in  which  "the  flower  of 
the  manhood  of  three  nations  was 
locked  in  a  death  grapple." 

Already  in  that  pleasant,  smiling 
land,  the  tale  of  battle  was  an  old 
familiar  one,  in  whose  chapters  Prank- 
ish warriors,  Norse  rovers,  determined 
Burgundian  soldiers,  sturdy  English 
bowmen,  and  steel-clad  French  knights 
on  armored  horses,  fought  and  fell  or 
marched  under  victorious  banners 
across  those  hills  and  valleys.  Out  of 
the  heart  of  Picardy  had  arisen  broader 
conflicts,  involving  the  far  parts  of 
the  earth;  for  Amiens  had  been  the 
home  of  Peter  the  Hermit,  and  Noyon, 
the  birthplace  of  John  Calvin.  Many 
a  lad  had  grown  to  manhood  near  the 
trout-pools  of  the  Ancre  brook  and 
much  water  had  run  under  the  bridges 
of  the  Somme,  before,  in  the  nineteenth 
century,  war  had  again  rolled  across 
the  fields  of  northern  France.  This, 
too,  had  passed  and  the  earth  had 
bloomed    again. 

THE    GREAT    TRENCHES    THROUGH    THE 
CHALKY     SOIL. 

But  the  scars  of  the  warfare  that 
began  its  ravages  in  1914  were  deeper 

511,. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


and  more  disfiguring  than  Europe  had 
ever  suffered  before.  The  long  jagged 
slash  falling  across  the  West  from  the 
North  Sea  to  Switzerland  cut  through 
Picardy,  crossing  both  the  Ancre  and 
the  Somme.  There,  after  the  first 
breathless  struggle  of  the  rival  armies 
in  their  sweep  toward  the  sea,  they  had 
dug  themselves  in  securely,  transform- 
ing towns  and  wooded  plantations 
into  formidable  fortifications.  Farther 
north,  around  Ypres,  and  farther 
south,  near  Soissons  and  Verdun, 
battles  had  raged  with  fearful  intensity, 
but  this  part  of  the  front  had  been 
comparatively  quiet. 

THE  GERMANS  BELIEVE  THEIR  POSITIONS 
IMPREGNABLE. 

For  more  than  a  year  and  a.  half  the 
time  had  been  spent  in  extensive 
preparation  for  a  possible  future  test 
of  the  endurance  and  fighting  strength 
of  two  great  forces.  On  the  one  side, 
the  German  lines  were  established  with 
intricate  and  elaborate  detail  until 
they  were  deemed  impregnable.  Be- 
hind the  imposing  first  position,  con- 
structed with  systems  of  trenches  for 
firing,  support,  and  reserve  troops,  and 
deep  dugouts  for  protecting  the  men 
and  machine-guns  against  bombard- 
ment, there  was  a  second  position  of 
almost  equal  strength.  Behind  this, 
again,  third  and  fourth  positions  lay, 
including  various  villages  and  clumps 
of  woodland.  Trenches  and  dugouts 
were  driven  far  down  below  the  sur- 
face, in  a  soil  that  "cut  like  cheese  and 
hardened  like  brick  in  dry  weather." 
They  were  connected  by  tunnels,  pro- 
vided with  manholes,  lined  with  tim- 
ber, approached  by  well-built  wooden 
stairways;  and  in  some  of  the  dug- 
outs, thirty  feet  or  more  below  ground, 
the  luxuries  of  electric  lighting,  wall- 
paper, cretonnes,  and  pictures  were 
not  wanting.  Deep  cellars  in  village 
houses  became  strongholds  and  shelters 
for  resistance  in  later  combats.  In  the 
woods,  matted  underbrush  was  inter- 
twined with  thick  barbed  wire,  until 
the  tangle  appeared  utterly  impenetra- 
ble around  the  network  of  trenches  it 
protected.  Without  exaggeration  one 
coul(l  say,  "The  great  German  salient 
which    curves   around    fr'om   Gomme- 

512 


court  to  Fricourt  is  like  a  chain  of 
mediaeval  fortresses  connected  by 
earthworks  and  tunnels."  The  arteries 
that  furnished  supplies  and  material  of 
all  sorts  to  the  complicated  structure 
were  the  railways  passing  through 
St.  Quentin,  Cambrai,  La  Fere  and 
Laon. 

THE  BRITISH  PREPARE  TO  BLAST  THEIR 
WAY  THROUGH. 

While  the  German  Command  were 
thus  building  what  they  considered  an 
immovable  wall  to  stand  in  defiance 
against  all  assault,  the  Allied  leaders 
were  bending  their  thoughts  and  en- 
ergies toward  the  destruction  of  the 
wall.  To  make  the  effort  adequate 
required  months  of  labor,  planning, 
and  training.  In  the  spring  of  1916 
the  British  area  had  been  extended  to 
include  the  whole  front  between  Ypres 
and  the  Somme,  but  the  New  Army 
was  not  yet  ready  to  undertake  a  great 
military  project.  It  was  still  in  a  state 
of  preparation,  drilling  and  pulling  into 
form  for  a  supreme  effort.  The  mate- 
rial was  of  the  best — England's  choice 
young  manhood,  intelligent,  ready, 
eager  to  give  themselves  to  the  work 
and  discipline  of  army  life,  or  to  the 
ultimate  sacrifice  in  battle,  for  the 
great  end  in  view.  For  them,  in  the 
months  of  waiting,  the  front  was  a 
training-camp.  Meanwhile,  the  manu- 
facture of  war  material  in  England  was 
being  pushed  to  the  utmost.  Guns  of 
all  sizes,  trench-mortars,  grenades  were 
produced  in  a  profusion  unheard-of 
before.  At  the  bases  vast  reserve  stores 
of  munitions  were  piled  up  and  then 
sent  forward;  for  the  supply  required 
must  be  more  than  ten  times  as  great 
as  in  any  former  campaign.  With  the 
increase  in  the  calibre  of  the  weapons 
and  the  weight  of  ammunition,  the 
demands  made  upon  lines  of  com- 
munication were  broadened  and  in- 
tensified. Railways,  tramways,  sidings 
and  platforms  were  built  behind  the 
lines.  It  was  necessary,  too,  to  lay  as 
many  as  one  hundred  and  twenty  miles 
of  water  mains  and  install  wells 
and  pumping  stations.  As  exper'ence 
brought  greater  understanding  of  the 
needs,  trenches  were  multiplied  and 
improved,  and  dugt/uts  wefe  prepared 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


to  serve  as  storehouses,  dressing  sta- 
tions and  shelters.  Gun  emplacements 
were  made  ready  and  posts  for  observa- 
tion carefully  screened  and  disguised. 

THE    BRITISH    AND    FRENCH    IN    ENTIRE 
ACCORD. 

As  the  battle  of  Verdun  progressed, 
during  the  spring  and  summer,  French 
and  British  leaders  were  working  in 
accord.  It  was  with  the  approval  of 
General  Joffre  that  the  British  lines 


which  went  on  along  the  whole  front, 
our  men  showed  always  the  greatest 
pluck;  but  it  was  horrible  warfare,  a 
warfare  of  gas  attacks  and  midnight 
raids  and  mining — all  dreadful  forms 
of  fighting." 

THE    SITUATION    AT    VERDUN    DEMANDS 
AN  OFFENSIVE. 

Sir  Douglas  Haig  felt  it  to  be  the 
part  of  wisdom  to  postpone  an  im- 
portant attack  until   his  forces  were 


THE  GERMANS  EMPLOYED  IN  DIGGmO  A  WELL 

The  imperative  need  for  water,  wherever  an  army  might  be,  furnished  one  of  the  great  problems  of  the  war.  Wells 
were  dug  behind  the  lines,  and  new  ones  constructed  when  the  lines  shifted.  Here  is  one  in  process  of  building, 
the  shaft  partly  sunk  and  crossbeams  prepared  for  a  roof.  When  leaving  a  position,  the  Germans  were  likely  to 
poison  the  water  in  their  wells  to  impede  the  enemy's  advance. 


remained  undemonstrative,  except  for 
artillery  activities,  patrol  raids  in 
quest  of  information,  and  minor  en- 
gagements in  the  way  of  trench  and 
crater  fighting,  which  held  the  atten- 
tion of  parts  of  the  enemy  forces.  But, 
in  adding  the  region  around  Arras  to 
their  own  front,  the  British  had  been 
able  to  release  the  French  Tenth  Army, 
which  had  been  stationed  there. 
■  "It  would  be  idle  to  pretend  that 
the  events  of  the  spring  and  early 
summer  of  19 16  were  on  this  whole  ex- 
hilarating," writes  Mr,  H.  Perry  Robin- 
son.    "In    the    spluttering    activities 


well  prepared  to  make  it  effectual. 
However,  the  long,  severe  strain  of 
Verdun  at  last  called  for  a  strong  stroke 
to  divert  the  enemy  from  his  con- 
centration there.  The  Somme  area 
had  already  been  determined  upon  as 
the  scene  of  the  next  great  effort.  It 
was  here  that  the  armies  of  France  and 
Britain  lay  side  by  side  and  could,  conse- 
quently, work  in  direct  co-operation. 
The  British  were  to  assume  the  main 
responsibility,  with  the  French  action 
subordinate  and  complementary.  Mid- 
summer was  set  as  the  latest  advisable 
date  for  the  advance. 

513 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


Since  the  opening  of  191 6,  the 
British  infantry  had  appeared  for  the 
first  time  in  their  new  steel  helmets, 
when  in  March  they  had  made  a  sur- 
prise attack  upon  the  German  trenches 
during  a  renewal  of  battling  in  the 
Ypres  salient.  In  April  the  enemy 
tried  various  attacks  of  tear  and  gas 
shells,  at  least  one  of  which  was  turned 
back  upon  his  own  lines  by  a  shifting 
wind.  On  May  6,  the  Anzacs,  newly 
arrived  in  France,  had  their  first  meet- 
ing with  the  foe  on  French  soil,  and  a 
week  later  there  was  a  vigorous 
German  bombardment  between  the 
Somme  and  Mari court,  followed  by 
an  unsuccessful  attack.  Then  Vimy 
Ridge  became  the  centre  of  activity 
for  a  few  days,  with  an  explosion  of 
mines  and  gallant  fighting  by  the 
Lancashires. 

THE     CANADIANS     AGAIN     DEFEND     THE 
YPRES     SALIENT. 

In  the  first  week  of  June,  the  Ger- 
mans made  another  concentrated  at- 
tempt to  break  into  the  Ypres  salient, 
where  the  3rd  Canadian  Division, 
under  Major-General  Mercer,  was  sta- 
tioned. Although  stunned  by  a  terrify- 
ing bombardment  which  preceded  the 
attack,  the  Princess  Patricia's  Light 
Infantry  and  the  Canadian  Mounted 
Rifles  made  a  splendid  resistance  in 
Sanctuary  Wood  and  around  Zillibeke, 
General  Mercer  and  several  other 
officers  were  killed,  and,  in  spite  of 
brilliant  and  determined  fighting,  the 
positions  at  the  extreme  point  of  the 
salient  were  lost.  The  line  fell  back 
behind  the  ruins  of  Hooge,  until 
Major-General  Currie  with  the  ist 
Canadian  Division,  by  making  a  suc- 
cessful attack,  regained  the  most  im- 
portant section  of  that  bit  of  the  front. 

THE    ALLIES    HAVE    THE    ADVANTAGE    IN 
THE  AIR. 

The  air  service  of  the  Allies  had 
grown  steadily  in  effectiveness  and 
confidence  until  it  had  unquestionably 
outstripped  that  of  the  Central  Powers. 
By  the  aid  of  telephoto  lenses,  photo- 
graphs could  be  obtained  from  a 
height  of  three  or  four  thousand  feet 
and  panoramic  views  prepared.  More- 
over, the  Royal  Engineers,  from  air- 
plane observations,  were  able  to  con- 

514 


struct  accurate  detailed  maps  of  the 
enemy  positions.  Wireless  apparatus 
on  aircraft  had  taken  the  place  of  the 
cruder  signals  for  regulating  gunfire 
from  above.  By  pursuing  hostile  craft 
and  by  bombing  supply  stations  and 
bases,  as  well  as  attacking  infantry 
lines,  the  airmen  furnished  invaluable 
assistance.  After  a  new  method,  drop- 
ping fire-balls,  had  been  adopted  for 
destroying  captive  balloons,  the  eyes 
of  the  enemy  were  considerably  im- 
paired. "Sausages"  were  far  less 
numerous  along  the  German  lines,  so 
many  had  collapsed  and  crumpled 
under  the  touch  of  the  fiery  darts  fall- 
ing out  of  the  sky.  Sir  Douglas  Haig's 
dispatch  reports  that  "on  the  25th  of 
June  the  Royal  Flying  Corps  carried 
out  a  general  attack  on  the  enemy's 
observation  balloons,  destroying  nine 
of  them."  However,  in  the  greater  part 
of  the  Somme  sector,  the  German 
positions  were  on  higher  ground,  afford- 
ing better  direct  observation  of  the 
lines  of  the  British  than  the  latter  had 
of  theirs,  and  the  Germans  were  sup- 
plied with  maps  giving  correct  ranges 
along  each  road  of  advance. 

In  preparation  for  the  offensive,  the 
point  of  contact  between  the  French 
and  British  troops,  previously  at  the 
line  of  the  Somme,  was  shifted  to  a 
point  a  little  north  of  the  river  in  the 
vicinity  of  Maricourt.  Without  the 
river  between  them,  they  could  make 
closer  and  better  co-operation.  Gen- 
eral Sir  Henry  S.  Rawlinson  was  en- 
trusted with  the  main  attack,  from 
Maricourt  northward  to  Serre.  His 
command,  the  Fourth  Army,  lay  across 
the  Ancre  and  rounded  the  Fricourt 
salient.  The  subsidiary  attack,  from 
Serre  northward,  near  Gommecourt, 
was  in  the  hands  of  General  Sir  Ed- 
mund Allenby  and  troops  from  his 
Third  Army. 

THE  FRENCH  HOLD  THE  POSITIONS  SOUTH 
OF  MARICOURT. 

South  of  General  Rawlinson's  right 
wing  and  extending  from  Maricourt 
across  the  Somme  to  Fay,  the  French 
attacking  force  consisted  of  the  Sixth 
Army,  under  General, Fayolle,  and  the 
Tenth  Army  under  General  Micheler. 
These  were  the  two  armies  which  had 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


Unfitudc  t«st  3*of  ^reenwidi 


FROM  YPRES  TO  THE  SOMME;  THE  BRITISH  FRONT  IN  1916,  AFTER  ITS  EXTENSION 


formerly  been  commanded  by  General 
de  Castelnau  and  General  d'Urbal, 
respectively.  General  Foch  was  in 
supreme  control  of  the  French  forces 
in  this  operation.  Ultimate  direction 
of  the  whole  operation  was  exercised, 


of  course,  by  General  Haig  and  General 
Foch.  All  the  troops  were  in  particular- 
ly good  form  and  spirit  for  the  attack, 
as  is  evidenced  by  the  words  of  a 
London  Times  special  correspondent 
who    during    the    battle    visited    the 

515 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


French  lines.  He  declares:  "I  never 
saw  an  army  gayer  or  more  fit  and  con- 
fident. The  German  prisoners  seem 
to  be  utterly  astounded  and  disgusted 
by  what  they  see  there;  and  their 
spirits  are  not  raised  by  what  they 
hear  of  what  has  been  going  on  with 
the  new  British  Army." 

THE     OBJECTIVES     AND     THE     PLAN     TO 
ACHIEVE  THEM. 

The  tactical  plan  to  be  followed  was 
for  an  advance  by  degrees,  each  stage 


pressure  upon  Verdun,  to  stop  the 
transference  of  enemy  troops  from  the 
Western  Front  to  other  theatres  of  the 
war,  and  to  break  down  the  strength 
of  the  enemy's  forces.  These,  rather 
than  the  actual  addition  of  territory, 
were  the  ends  to  be  attained.  It  was 
a  costly  process  to  roll  wave  after  wave 
of  splendid  young  manhood  against  the 
solid  wall  of  defense  set  up  by  the 
invaders;  but  the  wall  would  thus  be 
worn  thin  and  break  through,  if  the 


A  BRITISH  HOWllZER  ON  RAILWAY  MOUNTING,  SOMEWHERE  ON  THE  WESTERN  FRONT 

Railway-mounted  heavy  artillery  was  highly  developed  in  the  World  War.  Thus  was  the  necessary  rigidity  com- 
bined with  mobility.  Different  mounts  were  used  for  different  cannon.  For  howitzers  and  moderately  long-range 
guns,  mounts  with  limited  traverse  (or  lateral  swing)  were  employed.  Mounts  for  small  guns  allowed  all-around 
fire;  while  those  for  very  long-range  guns  were  fixed,  depending  upon  curved  rails  for  change  of  aim  from  side  to 
side.  Tnesi  diJ.;rjat  ty.j.'S  oi  raa,vay  moants  were  adapted  to  different  usas. 


to  have  a  thorough  preparation  by  the 
artillery  so  as  to  crush  and  weaken  as 
far  as  possible  the  enemy's  entangle- 
ments and  fortifications.  In  a  general 
way  the  objective  of  the  British  armies 
was  Bapaume  and  that  of  the  French, 
Peronne;  but  their  immediate  move- 
ments were  aimed  eastward  by  three 
simultaneous  Echelons  (or  steps).  The 
first  of  these,  by  the  British  centre,  was 
to  push  toward  La  Boisselle ;  the  second, 
by  the  British  right,  toward  Harde- 
court  and  the  Somme;  the  third,  by  the 
French  section,  had  as  its  goal  the 
Somme  beyond  Biache  and  Barleux. 
And  there  were  three  underlying  pur- 
poses for  the  offensive : — to  relieve  the 

516 


process  were  pursued  with  vigor  and 
endurance. 

On  June  24  began  the  fearful  bom- 
bardment that  ushered  in  a  battle 
which  was  to  become  a  five-months' 
siege.  Irregular  artillery  attacks  since 
mid-June  all  along  the  Franco-British 
front,  had  led  up  to  this  intensified 
fire,  concentrating  now  here  and  now 
there  with  misleading  emphasis.  But, 
during  the  last  week  of  June,  through 
cloudy,  heavy,  rainy  weather,  ninety 
miles  of  British  guns,  with  flanking 
miles  to  north  and  south,  of  Belgian 
and  French  guns,  ppured  forth  cease- 
less volumes  of  shells  and  raged  with 
roll  upon  roll  of  thunderous  roaring. 


Copyright 


THE  AREA  OF  THE  GREAT  BATTLE  OF  THE  SOMME 
The  key  map  in  the  lower  corner  shows  the  Allied  line  before  the  battle,  and  the  relation  of  the  battle  area  to  the 
rest  of  the  Western  Front.  The  British  forces  involved  extended  from  Gommecourt  to  Maricoixrt,  roundmg  the 
Fricourt  salient.  The  attack  on  the  section  reaching  from  Gommecourt  nearly  to  Thiepval,  in  the  hands  of  the 
right  wing  of  General  AUenby's  Third  Army,  was  subsidiary  and  failed.  The  five  corps  of  the  Fourth  Army  under 
General  Rawlinson  made  the  chief  attack,  on  the  front  between  Thiepval  and  Maricourt.  The  French  Sixth  Army, 
with  General  Fayolle  in  command,  lay  next  on  the  right,  from  Maricourt  to  Fay.  This  attacking  force  was  flanked 
on  the  right  by  General  Micheler's  Tenth  Army.  Broadly,  the  British  objective  was  Bapaume;  the  French,  Peronne. 
The  west  face  of  the  salient  whose  angle  was  at  Fricourt  lay  acrois  the  Ancre  and  was  crossed  by  the  Albert- 
Bapaume  road.  The  French  line  stretched  north  and  south  across  the  Somme  itself.  Fortified  woodlands  were 
traps  Ln  the  path  of  advance.  The  first  change  in  the  line  was  made  between  la  Boisselle  and  Montauban,  while 
the  forbidding  barriers  surrounding  Thiepval  and  Combles  resisted  for  many  weeks.  The  French  made  steady 
progress  toward  their  goal,  and  co-operation  between  the  allies  was  close  and  effective. 


517 


mSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


"A  German  prisoner  who  had  taken 
part  in  the  Verdun  fighting  subse- 
quently remarked,  'The  shell-fire  on 
the  Somme  was  much  worse  than  that 
in  the  region  of  the  Lorraine  fortress.'  " 

AN    OBSERVER    TELLS     OF     THE     FIERCE 
x\     RAIN     OF     SHELLS. 

Of  this  phase  of  the  battle,  Mr. 
Robinson  says:  "Never  since  the  war 
had  entered  on  its  stationary  phase  in 
the  existing  positions  had  there  been 
anything  approaching  in  scope  and 
intensity  the  shelling  and  miscellaneous 
fighting  which  raged  along  a  hundred 
miles  of  front.  It  was  only  the  over- 
ture; but  it  was  stupendous  and  terrify- 
ing, even  though  what  one  saw  and 
heard  was  only  a  small  section  of  the 
dreadful  whole." 

The  effect  of  the  raking  fire  he 
describes  in  part  as  follows: — "All 
the  foreground  was  a  mere  brown 
wilderness  embroidered  with  a  maze 
of  trenches.  The  woods  within  the 
dreadful  zone  were  being  deliberately 
stripped  leafless,  and  chateau  and  farm 
and  village  alike  converted  into  jagged 
piles  of  ruins.  Most  terrible  of  all  was 
the  constant  cloud  of  smoke  which 
overlay  the  landscape." 

And  at  midnight  of  the  thirtieth  of 
June,  as  he  watched  from  the  Albert 
ridge,  "As  far  as  the  eye  could  see  it 
was  one  amazing  display  of  fireworks. 
It  was  more  constant  than  the  flicker- 
ing of  summer  lightning,  resembling 
rather  the  fixed  but  quivering  glow  of 
Aurora  .Borealis.  One  could  distin- 
guish the  bursts  of  the  great  shells 
from  the  rhythmical  pounding  of  the 
trench  mortars,  and  the  quick,  ruddier 
flashing  of  the  shrapnel  bursting  in  the 
smoke  bank  which  hung  overhead. 
Punctuating  it,  intensely  white  against 
the  other  flames,  rose  almost  like  a 
continuous  fountain  the  star  shells  and 
with  them  red  flares,  like  the  balls  of 
huge  Roman  candles,  which  rose  and 
hung  awhile  and  slowly  sank  and 
died  away." 

The  enemy  divisions  holding  the 
area  of  the  proposed  attack  were  the 
Sixth  Army,  under  the  Crown  Prince 
of  Bavaria,  and  the  right  wing  of  Otto 
von  Below's  Second  Army.  Anticipat- 
ing that  the  assault  would  be  made 

518 


between  Arras  and  Albert,  they  had 
stiffened  themselves  for  resistance 
there,  with  the  result  that  when  the 
blow  fell  it  was  repelled  with  appalling 
loss  to  the  Allies  in  the  region  of  their 
subsidiary  attack,  between  Gomme- 
court  and  Thiepval,  while  it  drove 
through  in  the  direction  of  Combles 
and  the  Somme. 

'y*HE  FIRST  STAGE  OF  THE  GREAT  BATTLE. 

In  the  early  morning  of  the  first  of 
July,  a  morning  bright  and  fair,  with 
mists  still  hanging  over  the  valleys, — 
the  artillery  action  grew  to  a  height 
that  dwarfed  even  its  extraordinary 
preparation  of  the  preceding  week. 
French  and  British  guns  spoke  their 
loudest,  and  smoke  screens  were  pro- 
jected in  the  face  of  the  enemy.  The 
experiences  of  listeners  varied  strange- 
ly. To  some  at  close  range,  there  came 
almost  no  sound  from  the  explosions 
they  were  watching;  while  others, 
miles  away,  were  overwhelmed  by  the 
furor  of  deafening  noise.  It  was  a 
curious  phenomenon.  Philip  Gibbs 
was  on  the  hills,  witnessing  the  storm 
of  conflict. 

"For  a  time,"  he  says,  "I  could  see 
nothing  through  the  low-lying  mist 
and  the  heavy  smoke  clouds  which 
mingled  with  the  mist,  and  I  stood  like 
a  blind  man,  only  listening.  It  was 
a  wonderful  thing  which  came  to  my 
ears.  Shells  were  rushing  through  the 
air  as  though  all  the  trains  in  the  world 
were  driving  at  express  speed  through 
endless  tunnels  in  which  they  met  each 
other  with  frightful  collisions." 

'Y^HE  SIGNAL  FOR  THE  ADVANCE  IS  GIVEN. 

At  7:30  an  instant's  break  in  the 
thunder  sound  marked  the  lengthening 
of  the  range  and  the  dropping  of  a 
barrage.  Then  came  the  added  rattle 
and  crack  of  machine  gun  and  rifle  fire. 
The  men  were  starting  forward.  On 
they  moved  through  the  hail  of  shrap- 
nel and  shot  coming  from  the  German 
guns  behind  the  smoke  and  barrage 
screens.  At  Gommecourt  there  were 
three  shrapnel  curtains  falling  between 
the  British  and  their  goal — a  distance 
of  five  hundred  yards.  As  high  explo- 
sives from  the  German  lines  had  shat- 


GERMAN  SOLDIERS  BESIDE  A  CANAL  OF  THE  SOMME 
A  canal  accompanies  the  course  of  the  Somme  River,  avoiding  the  marshes  and  cutting  across  at  the  bases  of  the 
deep  loops  formed  by  the  stream.    These  Germans  are  on  the  look-out  in  a  concealed  position  on  the  bank  of  the 
canal.    "Dieir  attention  seems  fixed  upon  something  in  the  distance  down  the  canal. 


A  REVIEW  BY  RUPPRECHT,  CROWN  PRINCE  OF  BAVARIA 

Prince  Rupprecht,  Commander-in-Chief  of  the  Bavarian  Army,  the  only  member  of  German  royal  families  to  gain 
distinction  during  the  war,  was,  at  the  opening  of  the  Battle  of  the  Somme,  in  command  of  the  German  army  lying 
in  the  northern  area,  where  the  offensive  was  repulsed.  Later,  he  was  given  supreme  command  of  the  German 
forces  engaged  in  the  battle.  Pictures.  Henry  Ruschin 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


tered  the  assembly  trenches,  the  British 
ranks  had  to  be  formed  chiefly  on  the 
open  ground;  but  in  regular  formation 
as  if  for  parade  the  companies  marched 
forward  into  a  shattering  shower  of 
explosives.  Thousands  were  destined 
to  pay  the  price  at  once.  Others  broke 
through  in  safety  to  the  goal  beyond. 

At  Beaumont  Hamel,  where  for 
seven  months  British  fatigue  parties, 
under  the  direction  of  Lancashire 
miners,  had  been  at  work  upon  a  mine 
of  cavernous  proportions,  the  largest 
in  the  campaign  thus  far,  the  explosion 
on  that  July  morning,  immediately 
before  the  infantry  advance,  carried 
upward  and  scattered  "half  the  vil- 
lage," according  to  one  of  the  sergeants 
present. 

THIEPVAL  AND  THE  SCHWABEN  REDOUBT 
TAKEN  AND  LOST. 

From  Thiepval  northward,  where 
the  German  preparations  were  most 
careful,  and  machine-guns,  safe  and 
sound,  could  be  lifted  out  of  deep 
shelters  to  be  carried  far  to  the  front 
through  tunnels  leading  to  protected 
pits,  there  to  be  used  to  isolate  parties 
that  had  already  passed,  the  enfilading 
fire  from  thickly  clustered  guns  of  all 
sorts  and  sizes  cut  down  numbers  of 
the  assaulting  divisions,  leaving  only 
scattered  groups  to  seize  points  that 
they  could  not  hold.  Thiepval  village 
was  entered  by  the  members  of  a 
Scottish  battalion;  while  the  Ulster 
Division  reached  and  for  a  time  held 
the  Schwaben  Redoubt,  on  the  ridge 
north  of  the  village.  They  took  about 
600  prisoners  and  gallantly  fought 
against  all  odds,  making  the  day  for 
them  a  day  of  glory.  Yet,  before  night 
fell,  the  line  from  Thiepval  to  Gomme- 
court  had  been  forced  to  return  to  its 
original  positions. 

The  main  attack,  from  the  Ancre 
at  St.  Pierre  Divion  to  Maricourt,  in- 
cluded, as  we  have  noticed,  the  Fricourt 
salient.  Running  back  of  Fricourt  was 
a  stiffly  fortified  chalk  ridge  ("the 
highest  in  the  whole  region  between 
Albert  and  Peronne"),  reaching  from 
La  Boisselle  to  the  brickworks  directly 
east  of  Montauban.  Mametz  was  a 
hamlet  situated  on  the  southern  slope 
of  the  ridge  and  very  near  Fricourt. 

520 


Instead  of  attacking  Fricourt  directly, 
the  Allies  used  again  the  pincers  meth- 
od that  had  been  applied  at  St.  Mihiel 
and  on  other  salients.  From  the  west, 
by  way  of  Ovillers  and  La  Boisselle 
toward  Contalmaison,  and  from  the 
south  by  way  of  Mametz  and  Mon- 
tauban, incisions  were  to  be  made  in 
the  sides  of  the  angle. 

VETERANS  OVERWHELMED  BY   SOLDIERS 
OF  THE  NEW  ARMY. 

Mametz  was  early  taken  by  a  divi- 
sion already  famous  for  achievements 
at  Ypres  and  elsewhere;  and  within  a 
few  hours  of  the  opening  of  the  attack 
Montauban  too  had  fallen.  The  vic- 
tors there,  unlike  the  garrison  of  experi- 
enced Bavarian  soldiers,  were,  among 
others,  the  Manchesters — chiefly  young 
clerks  and  warehousemen,  who  had 
been  but  a  few  months  in  training,  and 
who  fought,  nevertheless,  with  a  spirit 
worthy  of  veterans.  The  6th  Bavarian 
Regiment  opposing  them  was  reduced 
almost  to  annihilation  by  a  loss  of  3000 
out  of  3500.  The  brickworks,  where  the 
British  had  anticipated  vigorous  re- 
sistance, were  captured  without  diffi- 
culty, for  they  were  found  to  have  been 
shattered  by  artillery  fire. 

THE  FRENCH  ALSO  MAKE  CONSIDERABLE 
GAINS. 

Where  the  French  left  joined  the 
British  right  wing,  the  two  armies 
kept  pace  together  in  a  steady  advance. 
Among  the  French  troops  in  action  was 
the  20th  Corps,  which  had  fought 
gloriously  at  the  Marne  and  at  Verdun. 
North  of  the  Somme,  on  the  first  day 
of  the  battle,  the  French  arrived  at  the 
edges  of  Curlu  and  Hardecourt.  South 
of  the  Somme,  where  their  attack  was 
not  at  all  expected  by  the  enemy  (who 
supposed  the  French  resources  strained 
to  the  utmost  by  the  battle  of  Verdun), 
they  swept  on  into  Dompierre,  Bec- 
quincourt,  Bussu  and  Fay  before  night- 
fall. Their  casualties  were  compara- 
tively few,  but  the  Germans  had 
suffered  great  losses  in  killed  and 
wounded. 

•  On  July  2,  the  French  progress  kept 
up  the  same  rate.  Curlu,  Frise,  the 
Wood  of  M^reaucourt  and  the  village 
of  Herbecourt  were  added  to  their 
conquests.      General     Fayolle's    right 


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'•'J'"*'"  THE  SCENE  OF  FRENCH  SUCCESSES  ON  THE  SOMME,  1916 

The  progress  of  the  French  on  their  part  of  the  front  was  accomplished  without  enormous  losses  owing  largely 
to  exact  co-ordination  between  artillery  and  infantry.  Hardecourt  fell  into  the  hands  of  General  Fayolle's  Sixth 
Army  at  once.  By  gradual  steps  they  moved  toward  Combles,  taking  Maurepas  in  August.  In  September  Combles 
was  surrounded  by  British  and  French,  the  latter  crossing  the  Peronne-Bapaume  Road  and  seizing  Bouchavesnes, 
Le  Priez  Farm,  Rancourt  and  Fregicourt.  On  September  26,  Combles  was  entered  by  troops  of  both  nations. 
Further  progress  north  of  the  Somme  was  toward  Le  Transloy.  The  French  in  October  attacked  Sailly-Saillisel 
and  took  Sailly.  Farther  south,  along  the  river  and  beyond  it,  an  immediate  approach  to  Peronne  had  been  gained 
early  in  July  by  the  capture  of  Curlu,  Dompierre,  Becquincourt,  Fay,  Herbecourt,  Assevillers,  Flaucourt,  Feuilleres, 
Estrees,  Belloy-en-Santerre,  Assevillers,  Hem,  Biaches,  and  la  Maisonnette.  In  September  General  Micheler's 
Tenth  Army  came  into  action  and  took  the  German  first  position  on  a  front  of  almost  three  miles.  During  September 
and  October  they  continued  to  go  forward,  taking  Vermandovillers,  Deniecourt  and  other  places. 

521 


fflSTORY   OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


wing  was  no  more  than  four  miles 
from  Peronne.  In  the  two  days,  the 
French  forces  alone  had  secured  6000 
prisoners,  beside  numbers  of  guns  and 
masses  of  other  material.  It  was  evi- 
dent that  the  German  Command  had 
begun  the  process  known  as  "milking 
the  lines,"  for  several  battalions  from 
the  Aisne  appeared  as  reinforcements 
in  the  loop  of  the  Somme.  They  were 
rapidly  dispersed,  however,  by  the 
French.  In  spite  of  storms  and  un- 
favorable conditions,  General  Fayolle's 
forces  still  drove  forward.  House  by 
house  they  secured  Estrees  after  sev- 
eral days  of  fighting.  Belloy-en-San- 
terre,  Assevillers,  and  the  woods  before 
Barleux,  thoroughly  intrenched  and 
wired,  were  in  their  possession  before 
July  6.  On  the  day  before,  they  had 
obtained  Hem,  north  of  the  Somme. 
So  close  were  they  now  to  Peronne,  the 
centre  of  supplies  for  that  part  of 
Picardy,  that  the  enemy  shifted  his 
railhead  from  there  to  Chaulnes. 

GENERAL    HAIG    NOW    FORMS    ANOTHER 
ARMY. 

At  the  end  of  the  first  day,  Sir 
Douglas  Haig  had  decided  to  give  into 
the  command  of  Sir  Hubert  Gough, 
who  had  a  nucleus  of  a  Fifth  (Reserve) 
Army,  the  two  northern  corps,  the  4th 
and  the  8th  of  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson's 
Army.  Their  position  was  north  of 
the  fine  national  road  (whose  founda- 
tions were  laid  by  the  Romans)  which 
passes  through  Albert  and  Bapaume. 
They  were  now  to  continue  a  steady 
pressure  upon  the  enemy  from  La  Bois- 
selle  to  the  Serre  Road  and  to  serve  as 
a  pivoting  point  for  the  line  on  their 
right,  engaged,  in  the  principal  attack. 
The  whole  British  line  of  the  original 
assault  had  been  something  short  of 
twenty  miles,  with  the  French  adding 
about  ten  miles  more  on  the  right.  Sir 
Henry  Rawlinson  was  now  to  con- 
centrate his  efforts  upon  a  front  be- 
tween six  and  seven  miles  long. 

On  July  2,  Fricourt,  having  been 
cut  off,  was  taken,  and  the  fighting 
pushed  on  into  the  woods  north  and 
east  of  the  village.  These  woods  had 
been  originally  park-like  plantations 
scattered  at  frequent  intervals  among 
the  villages.    Their  undergrowth,  un- 

522 


cut  for  several  seasons,  had  been  ren- 
dered more  matted  and  inextricable 
by  the  German  barbed  wire  and  the 
recent  artillery  work  of  the  French  and 
British.  As  for  the  trees,  it  was  not 
long  before  where  they  had  stood  there 
were  to  be  seen,  according  to  an  oflficer's 
letter,  "only  a  few  jagged  spikes." 
Most  desperate  struggles  for  the  pos- 
session of  these  woods  were  fought  out 
during  the  next  few  days.  The  Ger- 
man machine-guns  and  rifles,  con- 
cealed in  trees  or  in  briery  tangles, 
were  able  to  defy  approaching  antago- 
nists and  make  their  advance  both 
difficult  and  slow.  Fricourt  Wood, 
Shelter  Wood,  Birch  Tree  Wood,  and 
others  in  the  same  group  were  ga'ned 
by  hard  fighting.  On  July  4,  Mametz 
Wood,  an  approach  to  Contalmaison, 
was  entered,  though  it  was  not  cleared 
until  nearly  ten  days  later,  since  the 
strong  fortress  known  as  the  Quad- 
rangle had  to  be  conquered  first. 
Bernafay  Wood,  on  the  eastern  edge  of 
Montauban,  was  taken  on  the  fourth. 

THE    BRITISH    GAINS    IN    FIVE    DAYS    OF 
FIGHTING. 

All  through  those  first  days  of  July 
a  grim  and  sanguinary  contest  was 
being  waged  about  and  in  La  Boisselle. 
Its  ruins  were  finally  occupied  on  the 
fifth,  when  the  battle  passed  farther 
forward  into  Bailiff  Wood,  west  of 
Contalmaison  As  the  result  of  the  first 
five  days  of  the  conflict,  Sir  Douglas 
Haig  reported  for  his  army  the  seizure 
of  94  officers  and  5724  men  of  other 
ranks,  with  a  territorial  gain  of  one 
mile  along  a  front  of  about  six  miles. 
This  included,  of  course,  the  "four 
elaborately  fortified  villages,"  Mon- 
tauban, Mametz,  Fricourt  and  La 
Boisselle. 

The  second  week  of  July  was  spent 
in  preparing  for  a  fresh  advance  upon 
the  German  second  position  and  in 
completing  the  conquest  of  all  strong- 
holds 'eading  up  to  that  position. 
Gains  were  made  in  the  neighborhood 
of  La  Boisselle,  and  the  outer  defenses 
of  Ovillers  were  occupied — Ovillers, 
which  was  by  this  time  "a  place  of 
abominable  ruin,  perl^aps  more  ghastly 
than  any  other  ruined  ground  along 
this  front."  Betweenjuly  7and  July  12. 


A  WAVE  OF  GAS  SEEN  FROM  THE  AIR 
Waves  of  terrible  destruction— waves  advancing  and  retreating— rolled  along  the  battle-acres,    splintering  the 
trees  and  buildings,  crushing  out  aU  life  and  beauty.   StiU  men  fought  to  take  or  hold  them.   Here  a  wave  of  poison 
gases  drives  the  Germans  fleeing  backward  to  the  trenches  and  the  shell-holes  on  that  plam  of  desolation. 


SEAMS  AND  SCARS  ON  THE  SURFACE  OF  PICARDY 
Shorn,  excoriated,  shattered,  pounded,  beaten,  crushed  and  furrowed,  ploughed,  upheaved,  torn,  pitted,  harrowed, 
wasted,  desolated,  ravaged,  sown  with  pitiable  wreckage  nameless,  horrible  and  mingled,— after  months  ot  Datue- 
torture  lay  the  sad  and  broken  surface  of  the  Santerre  doomed  and  stricken.  From  the  air  it  looked  a  desert  cut 
with  giant  seams  and  gashes,  strangely  scooped  in  cups  and  hollows;  and  the  mfantry  advancing  seemed  but 
pygmies  in  the  fissures. 

5^3 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


Contalmaison  was  taken,  lost,  and 
taken  again.  At  last  its  tenure  was 
made  sure  by  clearing  Mametz  Wood 
of  all  enemy  posts.  There  the  British 
came  face  to  face  at  last  with  the  main 
German  second  position.  Meanwhile, 
approaching  from  the  west,  a  battalion 
of  a  South  Country  Regiment  had 
spent  July  seventh  and  eighth,  gaining 
control  of  the  road  leading  from 
Ovillers  to  Contalmaison.  There  they 
"had  been  fighting  in  a  quagmire  of 
yellowish-white  mud  so  tenacious  that 
the  very  boots  of  the  men  stuck  in  it 
and  had  often  to  be  wrenched  off." 
A  young  Company  Commander  likened 
the  churned-up  ground  soaked  with 
drenching  rains  to  "porridge  with 
syrup  over  it."  It  appeared  to  him 
"as  though  cartloads  of  it  had  been 
dropped  from  the  sky  by  giants — 
spilt  porridge." 

During  this  same  time,  British  troops 
from  Montauban  were  co-operating 
with  their  allies  around  Hardecourt. 
While  the  French  approached  the  town 
from  the  south  and  took  it,  the  British 
carried  on  a  hot  and  desperate  struggle 
for  Trones  Wood,  northwest  of  Harde- 
court. Day  and  night  they  waged 
fierce  battle  in  an  area  so  raked  by 
artillery  fire  from  both  sides  that 
neither  could  establish  a  base  there. 
There  were  numerous  counter-attacks 
in  which  the  enemy  lost  hundreds  of 
men,  but  his  position  behind  the  wood 
gave  him  the  opportunity  of  pouring 
in  reinforcements  until  they  might  be 
urgently  called  for  on  other  parts  of 
the  front. 

A     SUMMARY  OF  THE  FRENCH   ADVANCE. 

South  of  the  Somme,  the  French  had 
reached  and  occupied,  on  July  9, 
Biaches,  separated  from  Peronne  by 
only  the  river  and  its  marshes.  Then, 
fighting  on  through  the  night  and  early 
morning,  they  reached  and  took  the 
high  ridges  occupied  by  the  Maison- 
ette estate,  which  overlooked  Peronne, 
commanding  railroad  stations  and 
neighboring  roadways.  General  Fa- 
yolle's  army  had  now  advanced  over 
ground  to  a  depth  of  six  and  a  half 
miles  upon  a  ten-mile  front.  In  some 
places    they    had    penetrated    to    the 

524 


German  third  position.  Some  12,000 
men,  beside  236  officers,  had  been 
captured,  and  85  guns  with  a  great 
quantity  of  other  war  material  taken, 
by  the  French  alone. 

THE  GERMAN  FIRST  LINE  BROKEN  ON  A 
WIDE  FRONT. 

Sir  Douglas  Haig's  report  stated: 
"Our  troops  have  completed  the  meth- 
odical capture  of  the  enemy's  first 
system  of  defense  on  a  front  of  14,000 
yards."  This  had  been  accomplished 
by  steadily  working  on  "from  wood  to 
wood  and  from  ruined  village  to  ruined 
village."  About  22,000  German  prison- 
ers had  been  captured,  and  tens  of 
thousands  of  the  enemy  had  fallen. 
The  British  losses  were  terribly  heavy, 
especially  those  of  the  first  attack. 
An  entire  disregard  for  danger  prob- 
ably increased  the  number  even  be- 
yond what  was  necessary  and  un- 
avoidable. 

An  abomination  of  desolation  lay 
behind  the  advancing  armies  in  un- 
recognizable heaps  and  masses  that 
had  once  had  form  and  beauty  and 
human  interest.  Seen  from  the  air,  the 
battle  area  seemed  a  desert  place,  up- 
heaved and  churned,  and  pitted  with 
deep  hollows  as  if  some  mammoth 
birds  had  settled  there,  shaping  for 
themselves  huge  nesting-places  with 
rim  touching  rim.  The  trenches  were 
but  long,  straggling  scratches  such  as 
might  have  been  drawn  by  a  gigantic 
finger  through  the  crumbled,  arid  sur- 
face. Where  a  mine  or  a  large  shell 
exploded,  a  monstrous  geyser  spouted 
high — a  mass  of  earth  and  fragments — 
tossing  upward  to  fall  back  in  new 
heaps  of  horror  and  ruin.  And  all 
about  along  the  miles  of  battle-front 
puffs  and  clouds  of  smoke  broke  out 
and  drifted  and  dissipated — always 
renewed  from  moment  to  moment. 

THE    STORY    OF    AN    OLD    WOMAN'S    TWO 
LITTLE  FIELDS. 

Only  the  men  who  had  lived  and 
struggled  in  that  tormented  region 
could  realize  fully  the  extent  of  its 
torture  and  transformation.  The  story 
of  two  little  fields,  whose  owner,  an 
old  blacksmith's  wif.e,  was  overjoyed 
by  their  recovery,  is  sketched  in  an 
ofiicer's  letter: 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


"Think,"  he  writes,  "what  those 
fields  must  have  been  in  the  spring  of 
1 914,  and  what  they  are  today,  every 
yard  of  them  torn  by  shells,  burrowed 
through  and  through  by  old  trenches 
and  dugouts;  think  of  the  hundreds  of 
tons  of  wire,  sand-bags,  timber,  gal- 
vanized iron,  duck-boards,  revetting 
stuff,  steel,  iron,  blood  and  sweat,  the 
rum  jars,  bully-beef  tins,  old  trench 
boots,  field  dressings,  cartridge  cases, 
rockets,  wire  stanchions  and  stakes, 
gas  gongs,  bomb  boxes,  S.  A.  A.  cases, 
broken  canteens,  bits  of  uni- 
forms, and  buried  soldiers,  and 
Boches — all  in  the  old  lady's 
two  little  fields." 

THE     SECOND     STAGE    OF     THE 
GREAT    BATTLE. 

With   no    really    perceptible 
pause  for  preparation,  the  sec- 
ond  stage  of  the  great  battle 
was  launched.     The   work  of 
clearing    up    the    positions    in 
Mametz  Wood,  around  Contal- 
maison  and   in  Trones  Wood 
went   hand   in   hand  with  the 
work  of   preparing  the  attack 
upon  the  German  second  line, 
which   lay  a  little   above   and 
beyond,  stretching  in  front  of 
Pozieres,      Bazentin  -  le  -  Petit, 
Bazentin-le-Grand,   Longueval 
and  Guillemont.  From  July  1 1 , 
the  artillery  fire  was  violent  ^nd  spas- 
modic along  the  whole  line;  and  toward 
the  end  of  the  bombardment  gas  and 
smoke  attacks  were  made  in  the  sec- 
tion north  of  the  Ancre,  although  the 
British    front    of    attack    in    the    new 
effort  was  to  be  limited  to  the  four  or 
five   miles   between   Pozieres   and   the 
Wood  of  Delville.    There    not  a  mo- 
ment   was    lost    in    the    brief    space 
allowed   for  preparation. 

On  July  14,  the  one  hundred  twenty- 
seventh  anniversary  of  the  Fall  of  the 
Bastille,  while  Paris  was  celebrating 
in  an  unprecedented  fashion,  with 
troops  of  all  the  Allies  marching  in 
procession  amid  cheering  crowds,  the 
armies  of  the  British  Empire  on  the 
Somme  battlefield  were  shouting  for 
France  as  they  executed  their  "Great 
'do*  "  on  France's  own  great  festival 
day.  The  skirling  of  the  Scottish  pipers 


who  led  the  advance  across  the  long 
stretch  of  No  Man's  Land  north  of 
Montauban  was  echoed  by  the  skirling 
of  the  pipers  on  the  Champs  Elysee. 

THE      BOMBARDMENT      BECOMES      EVEN 
MORE  FURIOUS. 

Before  dawn  on  the  fourteenth,  the 
bombardment  reached  its  highest  de- 
velopment, even  outdoing  the  earlier 
demonstrations,  impressive  as  they  had 
been.  The  correspondent  of  The 
Times,  Mr.  Robinson,  says  of  it: 

"It  was  a  thick  night,  the  sky  veiled 


SOME  SOUVENIRS  FROM  GERMAN  TRENCHES, 
JULY,  1916 

in  mottled  and  hurrying  clouds, 
through  which  only  one  planet  shone 
serene  and  steadily,  high  up  in  the 
eastern  sky.  But  the  wonderful  and 
appalling  thing  was  the  belt  of  flame 
which  fringed  a  great  arc  of  the  horizon 
before  us.  It  was  not,  of  course,  a 
steady  flame,  but  it  was  one  which 
never  went  out,  rising  and  falling, 
flashing  and  flickering,  half  dimmed 
with  its  own  smoke,  against  which  the 
stabs  and  jets  of  fire  of  the  bursting 
shells  flared  out  intensely  white  or 
dully  orange.  Out  of  it  all,  now  here, 
now  there,  rose  like  fountains  the  great 
balls  of  star  shells  and  signal  lights — 
theirs  or  ours — white  and  crimson  and 
green.  The  noise  of  the  shells  was 
terrific,  and  when  the  guns  nearest  to 
us  spoke  not  only  the  air  but  the  earth 
beneath  us  shook.   .   .   . 

"Far  oflf  to  the  right  the  shimmering 

525 


HISTORY   OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


in  the  sky  told  us  where  the  beautiful 
French  guns  were  busy.  On  the  left 
the  region  of  Ovillers-la-Boisselle  was 
like  a  volcano  in  eruption.  But  it  was 
on  the  ground  immediately  before  us 
that  the  chief  interest  centred,  for 
there,  between  3  o'clock  and  3:30,  the 
great  attempt  was  to  be  made." 

THE  EFFECT  OF  THE  FIRE  ON  THE  GER- 
MAN LINES. 

The  effective  service  of  the  artillery 
was  realized  by  the  men  who  followed 
the  guidance  of  its  storming  cloud  into 
the  German  lines  and  found  trenches 
demolished,  walls  pulverized  (as  at 
Bazentin-le-Grand  where  2000  shells 
or  more  were  dropped  in  the  last  20 
minutes)  and  dugout  entrances  sealed 
with  wreckage.  The  telephone,  the 
indispensable  auxiliary  of  every  bat- 
tery, guided  the  fire,  whether  the  mes- 
sages came  from  balloons  far  overhead 
or  from  operators  pushing  forward  in 
the  assault  and  unrolling  reels  of  wire 
as  they  went.  A  French  officer  states 
that  by  the  middle  of  July  there  were 
12,420  miles  of  telephone  wire  in  use 
in  the  Army  of  the  Somme,  and  at 
least  1000  operators  at  work.  As  for 
the  field  artillery,  a  Lance-Corporal  of 
a  Yorkshire  Regiment  gives  evidence 
of  their  activity.  "Some  of  their  guns," 
he  declares,  "were  right  up  behind  us, 
when  we  were  in  the  fourth  line.  Their 
teams  stood  ready  and  they  limbered 
up  like  lightning  and  were  after  us, 
racing  over  trenches  and  communica- 
tion trenches,  as  if  they  were  on  a  high 
road." 

In  the  hour  before  daybreak  on  that 
unnatural  morning  of  July,  while  a 
lark's  song  drifted  down  in  intervals 
between  the  din  of  gun  voices  and  a 
quail  called  from  the  fields  behind  the 
battle-lines,  the  attack  broke  forth. 
Just  before  3:30  the  men  went  over  the 
lines  that  had  so  short  a  time  been 
theirs,  to  claim  others  farther  up  the 
slopes  before  them.  With  the  first 
signs  of  light,  aeroplanes  moved  across 
in  the  same  direction  and  kite  balloons 
began  to  rise,  to  furnish  eyes  for  the 
advancing  host.  The  enemy's  shells  fell 
thick  and  furious,  but  most  of  them 
fell  behind  the  forward-hastening  fig- 
ures  they   would   have   halted. 

526 


THE     CAPTURE      OF      BAZENTIN-LE-PETIT 
WOOD. 

On  the  southern  edges  of  the  main 
ridge  that  still  rose  before  the  British 
Armies  stood  the  villages,  Bazentin-le- 
Petit  and  Bazentin-le-Grand,  each  with 
its  attendant  woodland.  Farther  east 
was  Longueval,  engulfed  in  Delville 
Wood.  In  the  central  background, 
rather  "out  of  the  picture"  at  first, 
because  a  mile  behind  the  German  line, 
the  Bois  des  Foureaux  (known  as  High 
Wood)  crowned  the  loftiest  crest  of  the 
ridge.  Fighting  through  the  woods 
where  the  enemy  had  established  him- 
self so  firmly  with  trenches,  dugouts, 
wire  protections,  and  machine  guns, 
was  exhausting  and  precarious  busi- 
ness. One  bad  feature  was  the  great 
difficulty  of  removing  the  wounded. 
But  there  was  no  hesitation  about 
dashing  into  the  woods  and  setting 
about  the  task  of  clearing  them. 
Bazentin-le-Petit  Wood,  for  instance, 
we  are  told,  was  "spanned  at  intervals 
by  three  successive  lines  of  trenches, 
each  with  its  separate  wire  protection. 
.  .  .  The  men  waited  in  one  trench 
while  our  guns  from  far  behind  them 
pounded  the  next,  then  pushed  and 
staggered  forward  as  soon  as  the  guns 
had  lifted,  while  the  artillery  went  to 
the  next.  Then  the  process  was  re- 
peated." 

In  this  way  they  were  three  hours 
working  through  the  wood,  which  was 
full  of  Germans.  Among  the  300 
prisoners  taken  was  a  colonel  who  had 
sworn  to  "stay  in  the  wood  and  hold 
it  to  the  last."  He  was  found  "hold- 
ing" it,  in  a  dug-out  at  the  bottom  of 
two  flights  of  stairs,  each  of  which 
went  down  twenty  feet. 

THE     HIGHLANDERS    TAKE     LONGUEVAL, 
HOUSE  BY  HOUSE. 

The  nearest  villages,  the  two  Bazen- 
tins,  were  entered  immediately  and  in 
Longueval  the  ammunition  stores  and 
dumps  were  set  on  fire  in  less  than  an 
hour  after  the  assault  had  started. 
Far  on  the  right  flank,  a  new  attempt 
upon  Trones  Wood  was  aided  by  the 
firm  stand  of  a  little  group  of  less  than 
two  hundred  of  the  Royal  West  Kents, 
who,  separated  from  their  battalion  the 
day  before,  had  fortified  a  position  and 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


held  it  all  night.  At  last,  by  the  even- 
ing of  the  fourteenth,  the  Wood  of 
Tr6nes  was  cleared. 

It  was  a  band  of  Highlanders  who 
followed  their  pipers  across  the  long 
stretch  northeast  of  Montauban,  nearly 
a  mile,  to  charge  the  trenches  of  Lon- 
gueval.  They  fought  their  way  through 
the  wire  entang  ements,  which  here 
had  been  less  injured  by  artillery  fire 


Deccan  Horse.  After  eighteen  months, 
cavalry  were  able  again  to  take  some 
part  in  the  fighting.  Moving  from 
Bazentin-le-Grand  by  way  of  a  shallow 
valley,  they  came  out  among  the  corn- 
fields at  the  bottom  of  High  Wood,  and, 
attacking  both  from  on  foot  and  on 
horseback,  they  disposed  of  the  Ger- 
man infantry  among  the  corn  before 
taking   up   a   position   from   which   to 


KILTIES  CARRYING  A  KETTLE  OF  "HOTCHPOTCH" 
These  members  of  a  fatigue  party  belonging  to  a  Scotch  regiment  are  making  their  way  through  the  tossed  and 
tumbled  debris  of  a  village  in  Picardy,  bearing  to  their  fellows  in  the  trenches  refreshment  in  the  form  of  a  kettle 
of  their  native  stew,  which  it  is  to  be  hoped  will  have  a  homelike  taste. 


than  in  other  places.  They  fought 
through  the  cellars  where  the  Germans 
were  caught  like  "trapped  animals." 
They  stormed  the  strong  redoubt  that 
had  been  fitted  in  where  Longueval  and 
Delville  Wood  conjoined.  And  at  last 
they  worked  around  to  link  up  with 
the  English  infantry  in  Trones  Wood. 

Two  REGIMENTS  OF  CAVALRY  TAKE  PART 
IN  THE  FIGHTING. 

By  afternoon  of  that  first  day,  High 
Wood  was  no  longer  in  the  background. 
The  enemy's  third  position  had  been 
reached  there  by  a  division  which  was 
accompanied  by  two  regiments  of 
cavalry,  the  Dragoon  Guards  and  the 


protect  their  own  advancing  infantry. 
By  evening,  the  German  second  line 
trenches  had  been  secured  on  a  front 
of  about  three  miles,  from  Bazentin-le- 
Petit  to  Longueval;  and  by  the  end  of 
the  first  twenty-four  hours  over  2000 
prisoners  had  been  taken. 

THE   SOUTH   AFRICANS   BEGIN  TO  CLEAR 
DELVILLE  WOOD. 

The  Scottish  victors  at  Longueval 
set  about  extending  and  consolidating 
their  position,  fortifying  certain  useful 
points,  in  spite  of  a  severe  shelling 
with  all  kinds  of  projectiles  and  ex- 
plosives, including  gas  and  lachryma- 
tory shells.    On  July  15,  a  brigade  of 

527 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


South  Africans  passed  through,  to 
begin  the  difficult  work  of  clearing  up 
Delville  Wood  (soon  known  as  "Devil's 
Wood").  For  the  next  three  days  the 
South  Africans  went  on  with  their  task 
so  doggedly  and  with  such  sprit  that 
we  are  assured,  "no  mortal  troops 
could  have  fought  with  more  gallantry 
and  stubbornness  than  the  South 
Africans  at  Delville  Wood."  But  the 
utterly  destructive  and  withering  bom- 
bardment flung  upon  the  new  British 
lines  from  German  guns  on  the  morn- 
ing of  the  eighteenth  made  the  posi- 
tions in  the  wood  untenable,  especially 
when  parties  of  infantry  with  machine- 
guns  and  rifles  pushed  down  through 
from  the  northern  part  of  Longueval. 
Dropping  back  as  far  as  the  Scottish 
trenches,  the  South  Africans  helped  to 
hold  the  reserve  line  there  against  the 
vigorous  attack  of  the  enemy.  To- 
gether, the  spent  and  exhausted  forces 
rallied  for  a  counter-attack  which 
drove  back  the  body  of  fresh  German 
troops  and  saved  the  line  forming  on 
the  newly  taken  front.  "Shell-shocked 
and  wounded,  sound  or  hurt,  these  men 
who  had  had  four  sleepless  days  and 
nights  of  continuous  effort  and  fighting, 
somehow  went  forward.  Unfortunately, 
one  can  get  accounts  of  it  only  from  men 
who  were  in  it — -and  they,  being  Scots- 
men, mostly  will  say  very  little.  But  it 
must  have  been  such  a  sight  as  is  not 
often  seen  in  war." 

GERMANS    IN    HIGH    WOOD    RESIST    FOR 
TWO  MONTHS. 

Reinforcements  were  strengthening 
the  German  lines  considerably  from 
day  to  day.  Among  others  came  the 
Fifth  Brandenburg  Division,  a  corps 
d'elite.  But  the  New  Army  was  prov- 
ing itself  able  to  meet  the  best  of  them. 
Back  in  Delville  Wood  the  fighting 
went  on  desperately  for  nearly  two 
weeks.  And  at  High  Wood,  though  the 
German  counter-attacks  on  the  six- 
teenth forced  a  withdrawal  of  the 
troops  whose  temporary  hold  had  been 
valuable  in  furnishing  a  screen  for  the 
lines  behind  as  they  were  getting 
settled  and  consolidated,  the  struggle 
continued  for  two  months.  The  Ger- 
mans had  connected  by  a  "switch" 
line  their  third  position  with  that  por- 

528         . 


tion  of  their  second  position  which  they 
still  held.  This,  in  turn,  became  an 
object  of  attack  and  contest,  forming 
as  it  did,  "the  backbone  of  the  enemy's 
defenses"  between  the  British  and  the 
summit  of  the  ridge.  The  day  after 
the  great  attack  was  one  of  extra- 
ordinary success  for  the  airmen,  who 
within  twenty-four  hours  had  brought 
down  four  Fokkers,  three  biplanes,  and 
a  double-engined  plane,  with  no  loss  to 
themselves. 

The  part  of  the  German  second  line 
between  Pozieres  and  Bazentin-le- 
Petit  had  not  been  included  in  the 
attack  of  July  14,  although  it  had 
undergone  a  series  of  intense  bombard- 
ments which  continued  until  the  morn- 
ing of  the  sixteenth.  The  result  of  the 
attack  that  followed  was  the  capture 
of  the  first  and  second  lines  of  German 
trenches  up  to  a  distance  of  about  five 
hundred  yards  from  Pozieres,  within 
reach  of  the  fire  of  the  guns  there. 
From  the  west  and  south  the  right 
wing  of  the  Fifth  Army  was  slowly 
and  gradually  working  toward  Pozieres. 
Ovillers-la-Boisstlle  had  been  for  days 
the  centre  of  siege.  A  remnant  of  its 
garrison,  members  of  the  Third  Prus- 
sian Guard,  were  finally  so  closely 
pressed  by  their  attacking  foes  that 
the  British  batteries  could  no  longer 
fire  upon  them  for  fear  of  hitting  their 
own  men.  The  struggle  in  Ovillers  then 
became  one  of  bombs  and  machine- 
guns,  with  a  barrage  of  shell  dropping 
steadily  between  the  garrison  and  their 
own  lines. 

THE    THIRD    PRUSSIAN    GUARD    AT    OVIL- 
LERS-LA-BOISSELLE. 

Cut  off  from  supplies  and  reinforce- 
ments, they  still  did  not  yield  but 
fought  on  through  tortures  of  hunger 
and  thirst,  taking  refuge,  between 
bombing  raids,  in  the  vaults  and  cel- 
lars amid  the  horrible  ruin  in  which 
they  were  enclosed.  "They  were  living 
in  a  charnel  house  strewn  with  the 
dead  bodies  of  their  comrades  and 
with  wounded  men  delirious  for  lack  of 
drink."  When  at  last  they  surrendered, 
on  the  night  of  July  17,  the  survivors 
(not  more  than  one  hyndred  and  forty) 
were  received  by  their  British  victors 
with  the  honors  of  war.    By  that  time. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


while  La  Boisselle  "was  no  more  than 
a  flat  layer  of  pounded  grey  stones 
and  mortar  on  the  bare  face  of  the 
earth,"  Ovillers-la-Boisselle  was  "non- 
existent." With  reference  to  these  posi- 
tions, a  young  officer  said:  "It's 
marvellous  to  think  those  lines  could 
ever  have  been  taken.  I  am  not  a  bit 
surprised  the  Hun  thought  them  im- 
pregnable. Anyone  would,  when  you 
come  to  look  over  them.  Even  now, 
when  they  have  been  pounded  out  of 
all  recognition  by  our  heavies,  you'd 
think  such  a  network  could  be  held 
against  any  possible  advance." 

The  courageous  behavior  of  this 
garrison  was  the  more  notable  by  con- 
trast with  the  cases  where  numbers  of 
German  soldiers,  caught  in  cellars  or 
dugouts,  surrendered  in  mass.  As  a 
Middlesex  sergeant  expressed  it,  "They 
fight  real  well  till  you're  right  on  top  of 
them,  I'll  say  that.  Only,  man  for 
man,  when  it  comes  to  it,  they  can't 
live  alongside  our  chaps,  ye  know,  sir — 
not  they."  The  same  sergeant  adds 
his  testimony  to  the  frequently  stated 
experience  as  to  the  scarcity  of  German 
officers  in  the  captured  lines,  when  he 
says,  they  "do  keep  most  uncommon 
well  out  of  the  way."  He  himself  had 
seen  only  one,  a  "boy"  who  fought 
bravely  in  a  dugout  near  OviUers. 

NEW    GERMAN    GUNS    ARE    TURNED    ON 
THE  BRITISH. 

Several  days  of  rain  and  mist,  when 
poor  visibility  impeded  observation 
from  the  air,  gave  the  enemy  an  oppor- 
tunity to  bring  up  guns  and  increase 
bombardments  from  new  batteries 
upon  territory  every  foot  of  which  was 
familiar.  They  concentrated  attack 
with  shells,  gas  and  fiammenw erf er  upon 
the  region  around  Longueval  and 
Delville  Wood. 

It  was  considered  unnecessary  to 
make  a  direct  assault  upon  Combles  if 
the  ridges  on  each  side  could  be  taken. 
Accordingly,  the  right  wing  of  the 
British  had  been  assigned  the  village  of 
Morval  as  their  objective,  while  the 
French  were  to  advance  toward  Sailly- 
Sailisel.  This  involved  the  capture  of 
several  well-fortified  villages,  woods, 
•  and  trench  systems.  In  Sir  Douglas 
Haig's  summary  he  states:    "As  the 


high  ground  on  each  side  of  the 
Combles  valley  commands  the  slopes 
of  the  ridge  on  the  opposite  side,  it 
was  essential  that  the  advance  of  the 
two  armies  should  be  simultaneous  and 
made  in  the  closest  co-operation." 

The  next  step  to  be  taken  eastward 
by  the  British  was  an  approach  to 
Guillemont  from  Trones  Wood,  a 
movement  so  difficult,  because  of  the 
bare  stretch  of  country  between,  that 
their  first  effort  failed.  Meanwhile, 
the  French  made  a  good  advance  east 
of  Hardecourt,  widening  their  break  in 
the  enemy  front.  Beyond  them  lay 
their  most  difficult  problem,  in  the 
defile  between  the  Combles  valley  and 
the  fortified  wood  of  St.  Pierre  Vaast. 

THE   ADVANCE   OF  THE   FIFTH   ARMY   ON 
THE  LEFT. 

Sir  Hubert  Gough's  advance  in  the 
direction  of  Pozieres  had  been  steady 
and  unremitting,  though  slow.  On  the 
left,  where  his  Fifth  Army  was  operat- 
ing, certain  adjustments  had  been 
made,  before  July  23,  when  the  great 
attack  upon  Pozieres  was  launched. 
In  the  section  between  the  Ancre  and 
the  Albert-Bapaume  road  and  extend- 
ing a  little  south  of  the  road,  the 
Second  Corps  and  the  First  Anzac 
Corps  had  been  placed,  just  to  the  left 
of  the  Third  Corps.  The  attack  upon 
Pozieres  was  assigned  to  the  Austra- 
lians, who  were  to  come  up  from  the 
southeast,  with  a  certain  Midland 
Territorial  division  co-operating  by 
attacking  from  the  southwest.  Lying 
between  them  and  the  ridge  beyond 
the  village,  where  the  ruins  of  the 
Windmill  crowned  the  highest  eleva- 
tion of  the  water-shed,  three  almost 
parallel  lines  of  enemy  works  presented 
formidable  barriers  to  be  surmounted. 
The  first  was  a  sunken  road  which  had 
been  transformed  into  a  strong  line  of 
defense.  The  second  was  a  difficult 
line  of  trenches.  The  third  was  the 
highway  itself  where  it  entered  and 
passed  through  the  heart  of  the  village. 
After  three  days  of  unfailing  heroism, 
cool  indifference  to  danger,  steady 
response  to  discipline,  in  the  face  of 
incessant  barrage  from  the  invisible 
German  guns  as  well  as  the  frenzied 
fighting  of  the  more  immediate  adver- 

529 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


saries,  the  Australians  and  the  Mid- 
land troops  were  able  to  join  forces  in 
the  cemetery  north  of  the  village. 
"The  whole  resources  of  military  art 
had  been  exhausted  to  render  this  posi- 
tion impregnable.  But,  battered  to 
pieces  so  far  as  the  above-ground  con- 
structions were  concerned,  the  nerve- 
shattered  garrison  had  been  unable  to 
resist  the  determined  assaults  of  the 
British  and  Australians." 

'-pHE  AUSTRALIANS  ALSO  WIN  HIGH  PRAISE. 

As  at  Gallipoli,  Lieutenant-General 
Birdwood's  Anzacs  had  displayed  an 
undaunted  and  invincible  spirit,  going 
along  through  the  barrage  "as  you 
would  go  through  a  summer  shower." 
One  of  their  best  officers  announced, 
"I  have  to  walk  about  as  if  I  liked  it; 
what  else  can  you  do  when  your  own 
men  teach  you  to?"  The  distinguished 
British  regulars  on  their  flank  sent 
them  a  message  to  say  they  were 
proud  to  fight  side  by  side  with  such 
valiant  men. 

"The  sight  of  that  ridge  from  the 
road  east  of  Ovillers  was  one  that  no 
man  who  saw  it  was  likely  to  forget. 
It  seemed  to  be  smothered  monoto- 
nously in  smoke  and  fire.  Wafts  of  the 
thick  heliotrope  smell  of  the  lachry- 
matory shells  floated  down  from  it. 
Out  of  the  dust  and  glare  would  come 
Australian  units  which  had  been  re- 
lieved, long,  lean  men  with  the  shadows 
of  a  great  fatigue  around  their  deep- 
set,  far-sighted  eyes.  They  were  per- 
fectly cheerful  and  composed,  and  no 
Lowland  Scot  was  ever  less  inclined 
to  expansive  speech.  At  the  most  they 
would  admit  in  their  slow,  quiet  voices 
that  what  they  had  been  through  had 
been  'some  battle.'  " 

QTRONG  POSITIONS  YET  TO  BE  TAKEN. 

While  making  the  "slow  and  meth- 
odical progression"  appointed  for  it, 
the  Fifth  Army  was  carrying  out  the 
further  instruction  to  act  as  a  pivot  for 
the  troops  on  its  right.  Thiepval,  still 
before  them,  was  a  point  in  the  old 
German  first  line,  with  all  approaches 
deeply  fortified.  In  good  time  it  was 
to  be  stormed.  On  the  right  flank  of 
the  Fourth  Army  the  position  at  Del- 

530 


ville  Wood  and  Longueval  formed  a 
dangerous  salient  for  the  elimination 
of  which  the  combined  advance  of  the 
adjoining  British  and  French  Knes  on 
the  south  was  necessary.  The  guns  of 
Guillemont  were  the  great  menace. 
Several  unsuccessful  isolated  attacks 
by  the  British  upon  the  village  led  to 
the  planning  of  a  "series  of  combined 
attacks  to  be  delivered  in  progressive 
stages"  upon  the  surrounding  enemy 
strongholds.  In  the  interval  before 
the  next  great  phase  of  the  battle 
opened,  on  September  12,  the  prose- 
cution of  these  plans  was  pushed  for- 
ward. On  the  right,  the  French  and 
British  were  swinging  around  to  come 
into  line  with  the  centre;  on  the  left 
the  pivoting  point  was  holding  firmly 
and  preparing  the  way  for  an  advance  to 
a  new  position.  Between,  the  centre 
forces  were  climbing  up  towards  the 
summit  of  the  ridge  and  waging  stern, 
incessant  warfare  for  the  mastery  of 
High  Wood  and  Delville  Wood.  Be- 
tween Pozieres  and  Thiepval  the  ruin- 
ous remains  of  what  had  been  the 
Windmill  and  Mouquet  (familiarly 
called  "Moocow")  Farm  did  not  cease 
to  be  scenes  of  hot  turmoil  until  they 
were  secured  beyond  question.  Al- 
though most  of  the  fighting  was  in  the 
way  of  local  attacks,  sapping  and 
bombing,  three  general  attacks  were 
delivered,  on  August  18,  September  3, 
and  September  9,  with  what  results  we 
shall  see. 

The  last  days  of  July  and  the  early 
part  of  August  were  a  period  of  hot, 
stifling  weather,  when  the  dust  and 
stench  of  the  battle  grounds  made 
existence  there  almost  insupportable. 
The  stubborn  endurance  of  the  men 
was  unshaken,  however,  and  no  epi- 
demic developed.  The  latter  part  of 
the  second  week  of  August  brought 
some  relief,  when  the  drought  broke. 
On  the  whole,  there  was  more  rainfall 
and  haze  during  both  mid-summer 
months  than  is  usual,  a  condition  which 
favored  the  enemy  by  producing  poor 
visibility  for  observers.  In  July  the 
casualties  of  the  Allied  forces  in  their 
offensive  had  been  considerably  heavier 
than  those  of  the  Germans.  But,  dur- 
ing the  second  month,  the  situation  was 


HISTORY   OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


reversed.  The  British,  it  is  true,  lost 
4,711  officers  and  123,234  men;  but  it 
has  been  estimated  that  the  Germans 
suffered  far  greater  loss. 

COURCELETTE    AND    MARTINPUICH   NOW 
IN   SIGHT. 

By  August  6,  the  Australians  had 
driven  their  way  beyond  Pozieres  to 
the  top  of  the  watershed  at  the  site  of 
the  long-fought-for  Windmill.  From 
that  point,  the  British  could  now  look 
down  upon  the  German  lines  on  the 
northern  slope  and  upon  the  towns  of 
Courcelette  and  Martinpuich,  both  of 
which  were  under  bombardment.  At 
the  extreme  right,  on  the  eleventh  and 
twelfth  of  the  month,  the  French, 
after  working  through  the  remainder 
of  the  German  second  position  around 
Hardecourt,  opened  a  brilliantly  or- 
ganized assault  upon  a  front  about 
four  miles  long,  extending  from  east  of 
Hardecourt  to  the  Somme.  They 
pushed  through  the  trenches  and  re- 
doubts of  the  German  third  line  to  a 
depth  of  three-quarters  of  a  mile  or 
more,  and  captured  in  one  day  at  least 
1000  prisoners.  A  few  days  later,  they 
had  extended  their  own  line  north  of 
Maurepas,  making  gains  there  and  a 
mile  and  a  quarter  south  of  the  village. 
By  this  time,  they  controlled  the  whole 
of  the  German  third  line  south  of  the 
Somme. 

During  the  second  week  of  August, 
the  Armies  on  the  Somme  were  heart- 
ened by  a  visit  from  King  George.  At 
the  British  Headquarters  he  was  met 
by  President  Poincare,  who  com- 
mended his  Allies  for  the  good  work 
of  their  offensive. 

At  the  end  of  the  first  six  weeks  of 
fighting  in  the  sector  around  the 
Somme  it  had  become  evident  that 
the  Germans  had  not  been  able  to 
stand  the  persistent  push  upon  their 
front  without  throwing  in  some  of  their 
best  reserves.  They  had  already  used 
there  as  many  divisions  as  had  been 
in  action  at  Verdun  during  four  months 
of  struggle.  Their  lines  were  not 
broken  through,  but  were  bending 
under  a  strain  far  more  severe  than  had 
been  anticipated.  The  vaunted  strength 
of  their  elaborate  fortifications  was 
proving  vulnerable  at  last. 


ISOLATED     POSITIONS     ARE     NEXT     SEPA- 
RATELY ASSAILED. 

The  combined  general  attack  of 
August  18  and  19,  differed  in  several 
respects  from  previous  assaults.  It 
consisted  of  a  number  of  separate, 
independent  attacks,  by  different  corps 
at  different  times,  starting  at  various 
hours  in  the  day.  It  was  a  "cleaning 
out  of  a  nameless  maze  of  trenches"  all 
along  the  front  then  existing.  Where 
the  Australians  had  broken  up  defenses 
of  almost  every  conceivable  kind,  they 
had  taken  altogether  by  the  end  of  this 
day  a  mile's  length  of  German  second 
line  upon  the  ridge.  Beyond  Pozieres, 
too,  a  new  push  was  made  in  the  direc- 
tion of  Martinpuich.  Farther  to  the 
left,  where  Leipzig  Redoubt  formed  the 
"very  nose  of  the  Thiepval  salient,"  a 
lodgment  had  been  made  on  the  first 
day  of  the  battle,  July  i ;  but  the  gar- 
rison of  the  supposedly  impregnable 
stronghold,  secure  in  their  subterranean 
fortress  with  their  generous  supply  of 
machine  guns,  had  been  left  for  weeks 
to  a  life  of  ease  and  relaxation.  This 
was  suddenly  and  rudely  broken  up,  on 
Friday,  August  18,  when  the  redoubt 
was  rushed  by  two  British  battalions 
and  the  occupants — perhaps  2000 — 
caught  as  in  a  trap.  "Many  of  the 
garrison  fought  stubbornly  to  the  end; 
others  we  smoked  out  and  rounded  up 
like  the  occupants  of  a  gambling-house 
surprised  by  the  police.  Six  officers  and 
170  men  surrendered  in  a  body." 
The  garrison  had  been  composed  of 
Prussians  of  the  29th  Regiment. 

The  newly  constructed  "switch" 
line  was  cut  through  in  one  place. 
Fighting  around  Delville  Wood  re- 
sulted in  gain  there.  But  Guillemont, 
tfce  one  important  part  of  the  German 
second  line  untaken  up  to  this  time, 
resisted  still,  although  the  quarry  on 
the  outskirts  of  the  ruin  that  had  once 
been  a  village  was  captured.  Thence 
the  British  thrust  southward  to  a  point 
of  junction  with  the  French.  In  a 
sector  east  of  High  Wood  some  Suffolk 
troops  who  had  taken  possession  of  a 
trench  vacated  by  the  enemy  found 
themselves  isolated  and  forced  to  with- 
draw. They  accomplished  their  retreat 
so    imperceptibly    by    "leaking"    out 

531 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


through  shell  holes  and  a  sap  while  one 
man  guarded  each  end  of  the  trench, 
using  discarded  German  bombs  to  keep 
back  the  assaulting  parties,  that  when 
these  two  men  finally  followed  their 
fellows,  the  Germans  from  either  side 
kept  on  bombing  each  other  across  the 
traverse.  This  incident  was  connected 
with  the  one  ' '  failure ' '  of  the  day. 


offered  by  the  Brandenburgers.  The 
honor  fell  to  Irish  troops  from  Munster, 
Leinster,  and  Connaught.  "Of  the 
village  nothing  fit  to  be  called  a  village 
remained.  One  wrecked  and  battered 
building,  apparently  a  barn,  was  all 
that  stood  among  the  waste  of  masonry 
pounded  into  the  tortured  earth.  How 
even  a  fragment  of  the  walls  of  that 


MOPPING  UP  GERMAN  TRENCHES  IN  THE  COURSE  OF  AN  ADVANCE 

Having  learned  by  experience  that  the  enemy  were  likely  to  hide  in  their  dugouts  and  come  out  after  a  charging 
troop  had  passed,  to  attack  from  the  rear  with  rifles  and  machine  guns,  the  British  detailed  part  of  each  advancing 
force  to  clear  the  trenches  and  dugouts  and  make  sure  that  not  a  living  foe  was  left  therem.  Experience  taught 
them,  too,  to  let  a  bomb  precede  them  in  entering. 


For  the  rest  of  the  month  there  was 
no  cessation  of  activities.  Violent 
German  bombardments  and  counter- 
attacks accomplished  no  permanent 
advantage  for  the  enemy.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  weather  gave  oppor- 
tunity again  for  air  attacks  by  the 
Allied  aviators. 

In  that  same  week,  the  French 
carried  Maurepas;  they  and  the  British 
came  together  south  of  Guillemont; 
and  a  charge  by  a  Rifle  Brigade  bat- 
talion practically  finished  the  long 
sanguinary  conflict  in  Delville  Wood. 

How     THE     IRISH     OVERWHELMED     THE 
BRANDENBURGERS    AT    GUILLEMONT. 

On  September  3,  Guillemont  was 
taken  in  spite  of  the  desperate  defense 

532 


one  building  stood  was  a  mystery,  but 
some  queer  chance  had  kept  it  totter- 
ing on  its  feet  when  everything  else  had 
not  only  fallen  long  before  but  had 
been  pounded  to  nothing  after  it  fell. 
The  ruins,  however,  were  full  of  enemy 
lurking  holes,  and  all  round  the  edges 
there  were  strong  positions  with  ma- 
chine-guns and  (especially  on  the 
southwestern  and  southern  sides)  deep 
dugouts.  Besides  the  main,  formid- 
ably fortified  trench  line  running  along 
and  before  these  faces  of  the  village, 
the  ground  everywhere  was  dotted 
with  smaller  works  and  with  shell- 
holes  converted  into  outlying  strong- 
holds." 

With  their  pipers  playing,  the  Irish- 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


men  swept  rapidly  through  and  beyond 
this  position  to  the  sunken  road  farther 
east  where  they  could  establish  them- 
selves more  strongly,  while  the  Light 
Infantry  fighting  on  their  right  finished 
the  task  in  Guillemont,  dealing  with 
troublesome  machine-gun  shelters  and 
clearing  the  dugouts.  In  the  roads  and 
woods  east  and  south  of  Guillemont, 
the  fight  ■  was  pressed  forward  for 
several  days  following. 

MOUQUET     FARM     YIELDS    AFTER    TWO 
YEARS. 

At  the  other  end  of  the  attacking 
line,  on  the  afternoon  of  September  3, 
the  English,  Scots,  and  Australians 
were  engaged  in  one  of  the  fiercest  of 
conflicts  with  a  Reserve  Regiment  of 
the  1st  Prussian  Guards,  among  the 
positions  of  the  Mouquet  Farm.  "Of 
the  farm  itself,  nothing  remained  but 
a  waste  of  pounded  rubbish  and  a  few 
shattered  fragments  of  trees.  The 
enemy,  however,  had  covered  the 
whole  area  in  and  around  the  farm  with 
trenches,  isolated  posts  and  deep  dug- 
outs, until  it  was  practically  all  one 
fortress."  There  in  the  dimness  before 
dawn  the  Germans  were  attacked  and 
dislodged  from  their  fastness  after  two 
years'  occupation. 

Nearer  the  Somme,  the  French  First 
Corps,  men  from  the  northern  districts 
whose  homes  were  in  the  hands  of  the 
Germans,  carried  two  villages  and 
pushed  on  to  the  edges  of  Combles 
itself.  Two  days  afterward.  General 
Micheler's  Tenth  Army,  south  of  the 
Somme,  came  into  action  for  the  first 
time  since  the  battle  started.  They 
immediately  seized  a  part  of  the  Ger- 
man first  position  on  a  front  of  almost 
three  miles,  taking  about  3,000  pris- 
oners. And  on  the  next  day  the  French 
Armies  both  north  and  south  of  the 
river  made  considerable  progress. 

GINCHY  IS  TAKEN  BY  THE  SAME  IRISH- 
MEN. 

In  the  attack  of  September  9,  the 
only  success  of  importance  was  the 
capture  of  Ginchy  by  the  same  Irish 
troops  who  had  had  their  part  in  taking 
Guillemont.  At  other  points,  the  ad- 
vance was  quickly  checked.  Extracts 
from  an  ofificer's  account  of  the  attack 
upon  Ginchy  give  a  striking  impression 


of  the  impetuous  fervor  of  the  assault- 
ing troops:  "Between  the  outer  fringe 
of  Ginchy  and  the  front  line  of  our  own 
trenches  is  No  Man's  Land,  a  wilder- 
ness of  pits  so  close  together  that  you 
could  ride  astraddle  the  partitions  be- 
tween any  two  of  them.  As  you  look 
half  right,  obliquely  down  along  No 
Man's  Land,  you  behold  a  great  host 
of  yellow-coated  men  rise  out  of  the 
earth  and  surge  forward  and  upward 
in  a  torrent — not  in  extended  order,  as 
you  might  expect,  but  in  one  mass. 
There  seems  to  be  no  end  to  them.  Just 
when  you  think  the  flood  is  subsiding, 
another  wave  comes  surging  up  the 
bend  towards  Ginchy.  We  joined  in  on 
the  left.  Our  shouts  and  yells  must 
have  struck  terror  into  the  Huns,  who 
were  firing  their  machine-guns  down 
the  slope.  But  there  was  no  wavering 
in  the  Irish  host.  We  couldn't  run. 
We  advanced  at  a  steady  walking  pace, 
stumbling  here  and  there,  but  going 
ever  onward  and  upward. 

"How  long  we  were  in  crossing  No 
Man's  Land  I  don't  know.  It  could  not 
have  been  more  than  five  minutes,  yet 
it  seemed  much  longer.  We  were  now 
well  up  to  the  Boche.  We  had  to 
clamber  over  all  manner  of  obstacles — 
fallen  trees,  beams,  great  mounds  of 
brick  and  rubble — in  fact,  over  the 
ruins  of  Ginchy.  It  seems  like  a  night- 
mare now.  I  remember  seeing  com- 
rades falling  round  me.  ...  I  be- 
lieve our  prisoners  were  all  Bavar- 
ians, who  are  better  mannered  from  all 
accounts  than  the  Prussians." 

A  FEW  USEFUL  MILES  ARE  GAINED  AT  A 
PRICE. 

By  steady,  persistent  uphill  pushing, 
the  British  had  gained  the  high  posi- 
tion on  the  ridge  between  Thiepval 
and  Combles.  Step  by  step,  the  artil- 
lery and  infantry  had  worked  together, 
becoming  more  and  more  skilful  in 
co-ordinating  their  movements.  As  a 
result,  the  lines  had  been  pushed  back 
a  little  way  and  the  Germans  on  that 
part  of  the  front  driven  into  new  and 
improvised  positions.  A  young  officer 
who  had  been  wounded  in  the  battle 
exclaimed,  "We've  gained  such  a  few 
miles,  they  say.  Pretty  useful  miles, 
though,  to  the  top  of  the  ridge." 

533 


les-Bucquoy 


S^^^blainzevelle 


[Mory 


;/%/o  Louweri  far 


tXc\\iet-,fe-Grand 
iihucouVt 


AIRAUMONt 


'■^rlencgurt'  Ji         la 


•^^'flutte  deJWgHencourt 


V^ 

J     >w 

Quar/y 

>^-          yWEmt 

/        ^ 

THIEPm 

^          A. 

■"^     Courcelett^ 

gs%Ctfm^^ 

^■'"Jm        (    / 

r^^ 

\^"">^'tt^yi 

^ 

'^J^ 

S^artinpuichj((_^__^ 

s^Vto(,4t. 

^RES^^^^ 

""H 

U  J 

^i^ 

ws.     8  V 

Gueudecourt 


fillers- 


I    I       /^^^HT'iraSfc    *l  eazentin 


j>* ..^^la  Boisselle       -''^  ^   ■-■ 

\jpTJt£ZVi>Ot 


ijji  Bazentin-  ■*      AsassviJis. 


^^pSr" 

/a« . 

^ 

Fricourtj^ 

1 

■s 

f 

5^?del-fieai;A 

s,^ 

noy 


Sncoury    «J^«Va, 


-Qhop^Me  Cur/a 


English  Miles 


ftaitwqys 
Hoods  =^ 
Canals 


MerJWS  «  ««tr. 


BRAY^ 

iur-Somme\ 


copyniht       WHERE  MEN  FROM  EVERY  PART  OF  THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE  FOUGHT  IN  1916 

In  the  opening  action  of  the  Allied  offensive,  July  1,  the  British  front  of  attack  was  about  twenty  miles  long,  from 
Gommecourt  to  Montauban.  The  actual  advance  made  in  the  1st  Stage  of  the  battle,  over  a  mile  in  depth  on 
about  a  6-mile  front,  included  the  villages  of  Montauban,  Mametz,  Fricourt  and  la  Boisselle,  with  the  formidable 
woodlands  between.  A  foothold  was  gained  in  Trones  Wood.  The  2nd  Stage,  beginning  July  14,  was  concentrated 
on  a  3-mile  front,  from  Longueval  to  Bazentin-le-Petit  Wood.  Trones  Wood,  the  two  Bazentins,  Ovillers,  Lon- 
gueval,  and  Poziv-res  yielded  after  terrific  warfare.  Then  the  fearful  struggle  for  the  Ridge  went  on  through  mid- 
summer heat  in  Delville  Wood,  High  Wood,  and  around  Guillemont  and  Ginchy.  The  3rd  Stage,  opening  Sep- 
tember 15,  took  part  of  the  Germans' last  original  defenses: — Flers,  High  Wood,  MartinpAich,  Courcelette,  Morval, 
Les  Boeufs,  Combles  (gained  with  the  aid  of  the  French),  Gueudecourt,  Thiepval,  etc.  At  Mouquet  Farm,  Leipzig 
Redoubt  and  Schwaben  Redoubt  famous  deeds  were  done.  The  4th  Stage,  launched  November  11,  swung  across 
the  Ancre  from  St.  Pierre  Divion  to  Beaumont  Hamel  and  Bsaucourt. 

534 


A  Tank  Advancing  Into  Action 


Chapter  XXXIII 

The  Battle  of  the  Somme     II 

THE    FINAL    STAGES    OF    THE    GREATEST    BATTLE   THAT 

HISTORY    RECORDS 


CEVERAL  scenes  in  the  patches  of 
woodland  that  were  spread  over  the 
rolling  chalk  country  north  of  the 
Somme,  will  help  to  a  realization  of 
what  happened  among  those  wooded 
slopes  during  the  various  stages  of 
the  battle  that  brought  them  out 
of  obscurity  into  world-notice.  The 
woods  as  they  appeared  while  yet  un- 
touched by  warfare  may  be  pictured 
from  this  description,  by  Masefield, 
of  a  strip  on  the  edge  of  the  battle 
region:  "It  is  a  romantic  and  very 
lovely  wood,  pleasant  with  the  noise 
of  water  and  not  badly  damaged  by  the 
fighting.  The  trees  are  alive  and  leafy, 
the  shrubs  are  bushing,  and  the  spring 
flowers,  wood  anemones,  violets,  and 
the  oxlip  (which  in  this  country  takes 
the  place  of  the  primrose  and  the 
cowslip)  flower  beautifully." 

A  GERMAN    ARTILLERY    CAMP    DEEP    IN 
THE  WOODS. 

When  the  offensive  was  under  way, 
a  correspondent  of  the  New  York 
Times  found  in  some  of  those  woods 
the  setting  of  an  odd  encampment, 
where  Germans  were  resting  after  two 
weeks  of  service  in  the  first  trenches. 
"I  walked  down  a  narrow,  winding 
pathway,"  he  wrote,  "through  a  jungle 
of  underbrush  full  of  infantry  re- 
serves. It  was  the  strangest  gypsy 
colony  I  had  seen  on  any  front.  The 
men  were  living  in  galvanized  sheds, 


semi-cylinders  about  ten  feet  in  diam- 
eter, easily  transportable,  quickly  set 
up,  absolutely  rain-proof,  and  re- 
sembling miniature  models  of  the 
Zeppelin  hangars.  Eight  men  could 
sleep  beneath  each  zinc  dome."  Al- 
ready the  German  gunners  were  show- 
ing effects  of  the  strain.  Their  faces 
"told  their  own  story.  The  good 
nature  of  these  skilled  Teuton  me- 
chanics had  given  place  to  a  grim  set 
expression  as  if  biting  their  jaws 
together  and  nerving  themselves  to 
fight  off  the  physical  fatigue  of  long 
weeks  of  continued  cannonading.  In 
their  shirt  sleeves  and  perspiring,  with 
facial  muscles  drawn  and  strained, 
they  reminded  me  of  over- trained 
athletes  toward  the  end  of  a  hard- 
fought  long-distance  race  who  realized 
that  they  must  not  'crack*  before 
breasting  the  tape.  They  continued 
working  their  battery  automatically, 
with  the  disciplined  perfection  and 
finished  form  of  veterans." 

SOME      WOODS      OBLITERATED      BY      THE 
FIERCE     BOMBARDMENT. 

In  a  few  weeks,  shells  and  mines  and 
shattering  fire  worked  their  will.  The 
conformations  of  the  land  itself  were 
shifted  and  changed.  At  the  outbreak 
of  a  bombardment,  an  officer's  letter 
says,  "Immediately  the  German  lines 
became  a  mass  of  earth,  bits  of  trees 
being  tossed  about  in  the  air  like  the 

535 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


foam  on  giant  waves — in  fact,  it 
looked  for  all  the  world  like  a  heavy 
sea,  only  the  waves  were  of  earth." 

After  the  flood  of  destruction  had 
passed  over  the  devoted  crest  of  the 
wooded  ridge,  Masefield,  looking  north- 
ward from  Mametz,  described  the 
mutilated  remnants  that  he  beheld: 
"Just  visible  as  a  few  sticks  upon  the 
sky-line,  are  two  other  woods,  High 
Wood,  like  a  ghost  in  the  distance,  and 
the  famous  and  terrible  Wood  of 
Delville."  A  French  writer  declares  of 
High  Wood  (Bois  des  Foureaux)  that 
he  can  think  of  no  more  melancholy 
walk  than  a  visit  to  the  spot.  A  dark 
stain  upon  the  height,  it  can  be  seen 
from  all  around,  and  broad  bare 
stretches  of  the  plateau  have  to  be 
crossed  in  order  to  reach  it  from  any 
direction.  "An  immense  silence,"  he 
says,  "reigns  over  all  these  solitudes." 
As  for  the  forests  themselves,  he  calls 
them  ruins  of  woods,  where  only  tree- 
trunks  are  left  standing — wraiths  of 
trees — and  where  the  bordering  copses 
are  all  hacked  or  obliterated. 

THE  GERMANS  DRIVEN  FROM  THEIR 
COMFORTABLE  DUGOUTS. 

We  have  noted  how  the  British  lines 
had  gained  the  top  of  the  ridge  along 
almost  its  whole  extent  and  were  even 
in  some  places  reaching  over  the  top 
and  down  on  the  other  side.  Many  of  the 
Germans  were  no  longer  living  in  their 
safe  and  comfortable  dugouts,  which  a 
cockney  private  eulogized  as  "prime," 
a  place  where  you  could  "generally 
always  find  a  bit  er  suthin  tasty,  an' 
if  yer  strike  a  orficer's  dugout  it's 
a  Lord  Mayor's  banquit  fer  certin." 
Instead,  they  were  in  very  tentative 
quarters,  for  the  most  part,  on  the 
wrong  slope  of  the  ridge.  An  officer's 
letter  gives  a  mournful  picture  of  their 
condition  beyond  Pozi^res.  "The 
wind-mill  is  over  the  hill.  The  hun- 
dreds of  dead  bodies  make  the  air 
terrible,  and  there  are  flies  in  thousands 
.  .  .  We  have  no  dugouts.  We  dig 
a  hole  in  the  side  of  a  shell-hole,  and 
lie  and  get  rheumatism.  We  get 
nothing  to  eat  or  drink.  .  .  .  The 
ceaseless  roar  of  the  guns  is  driving  us 
mad.  Many  of  the  men  are  knocked 
up."    An  indication  of  the  weakening 

536 


morale  of  the  defenders  was  observed 
in  the  increasing  numbers  of  un- 
wounded  prisoners  taken. 

To  open  the  way  for  the  next  step 
in  advance,  the  British  found  it 
necessary  to  devote  especial  attention 
to  an  elaborate  stronghold  situated  on 
a  spur  of  land  south  of  Thiepval,  so 
sturdy  a  stronghold  that  it  was  known 
as  the  Wunderwerk.  No  power  of  en- 
gineering art  had  been  spared  in  de- 
veloping it.  Before  the  valleys  on 
either  side  could  be  entered  or  a  move 
be  made  upon  Courcelette  and  Martin- 
puich,  this  fortification  must  be  de- 
molished. On  September  14,  after 
two  weeks  of  vigorous  bombardment 
which  had  laid  low  all  above-ground 
portions  of  the  works  and  wrought 
havoc  in  some  of  the  dugouts,  the 
position  was  won  by  a  part  of  Sir 
Hubert  Gough's  Army.  Those  of  the 
garrison  who  remained  were  either 
killed  in  a  fierce  hand-to-hand  en- 
counter or  driven  by  the  onrush  of  the 
attacking  party  into  the  barrage  that 
had  been  dropped  beyond  them  when 
the  charge  began.  Now  that  the 
Wunderwerk  and  the  adjoining  trenches 
had  been  secured,  their  wrecked  forti- 
fications were  quickly  turned  into  a 
strong  position  adjusted  to  protect 
the  left  centre  of  General  Gough's 
forces  in  their  progress  during  the  com- 
ing offensive. 

BRITISH  AND   FRENCH   PREPARE   TO   ACT 
SIMULTANEOUSLY. 

The  special  feature  of  this  new  attack 
compared  with  those  preceding  was 
that  it  should  be  a  simultaneous  move- 
ment of  all  the  forces,  British  and 
French,  between  Thiepval  and  Ver- 
mandovillers ;  whereas,  previously,  the 
British  divisions  and  the  two  bodies  of 
French  troops  had  acted  independently 
and  toward  separate  objectives.  The 
plans  about  to  be  undertaken  called 
for  entire  co-operation.  From  Le 
Sars  to  Morval,  the  last  of  the  original 
German  systems  of  defense  was  to 
receive  the  entire  attention  of  Sir 
Henry  Rawlinson's  Army.  In  case  the 
right  wing  were  successful  in  reaching 
Morval,  the  attacking  line  on  the  left 
would  be  extended  to  include  Courcel- 
ette and  Martinpuich.    In  the  section 


HISTORY   OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


from  the  French  positions  south  and 
east  of  Combles  to  the  Somme,  General 
Fayolle's  Army  was  to  continue  ad- 
vancing, concentrating  its  efforts  chiefly 
upon  Rancourt  and  Fregicourt  with 
the  object  of  closing  in  farther  upon 
Combles.  South  of  the  Somme,  General 
Micheler's  Army  was  to  advance  on  a 
front  of  seven  or  eight  miles  extending 
south  from  Barleux  to  beyond  Ver- 
mandovillers — an  area  including  a  line 
of  strong  German  defenses. 

The  most  difficult  positions  of  those 
to  be  won  were  situated  on  the  flanks. 
Combles,  itself,  was  too  well-garrisoned 
and  too  carefully  protected  to  make  a 
direct  assault  upon  it  practicable.  It 
covered  vast  underground  caverns  and 
was  shielded  by  strongly  fortified 
points  in  the  vicinity.  The  French 
were  still  aiming  toward  Sailly-Saillisel, 
but  Morval  furnished  a  stiff  obstacle, 
and  the  approach  to  Morval  from  the 
British  side  was  a  most  difficult  one. 
Moreover,  the  southern  road  of  ap- 
proach to  Sailly-Saillisel  lay  between 
the  menacing  strongholds  in  the  Wood 
of  St.  Pierre  Vaast  and  the  Combles 
Valley.  The  two  Allied  bodies  must 
work  in  complete  harmony  around 
Combles.  At  the  western  extremity 
of  the  line,  Thiepval  still  remained  a 
forbidding  goal,  which  would  be  con- 
siderably nearer  attainment  if  Cour- 
celette  and  Martinpuich  could  be 
gained. 

THE    REMNANt    OF    THE    OLD    GERMAN 
DEFENSES  ATTACKED. 

The  old  third  line  of  the  Germans, 
which  had  now  become  their  front  line, 
had  been  but  slightly  developed  when 
the  battle  began,  in  July.  By  the  time 
of  the  September  operations,  it  was  not 
only  completed  but  elaborated,  while 
a  fourth  position  had  been  established 
behind  it.  Courcelette,  Martinpuich, 
Flers,  Lesboeufs,  and  Morval  were  the 
strongest  links  in  the  chain  forming  the 
old  third  position.  The  British  units, 
most  of  which  were  composed  of 
fresh  troops,  had  been  assigned  definite 
objectives  for  attack.  Courcelette  was 
confronted  by  a  Canadian  division 
which  had,  "under  conditions  of  ex- 
*  treme  difficulty,"  relieved  the  Aus- 
tralians there;  Martinpuich  was  to  be 


surrounded  by  a  Scottish  division  of 
the  New  Army,  when  they  had  com- 
pleted the  capture  of  the  switch  line; 
Northumbrian  and  London  Territorial 
divisions  were  given  responsibility  for 
clearing  High  Wood;  the  New  Zea- 
landers,  who  were  having  their  in- 
troduction into  action  on  the  Western 
front,  were  to  advance  upon  Flers;  two 
divisions  of  the  New  Army  had  for 
their  task  the  rounding  out  of  the 
position  in  Delville  Wood  by  securing 
the  ground  north  and  east  of  it;  on  their 
right  were  the  Guards,  who,  with  a 
division  of  old  Regulars,  were  to  gc 
forward  from  Ginchy  against  Les- 
boeufs and  Morval;  the  last  division 
on  the  right  of  the  British  line  was 
made  up  of  London  Territorials,  op- 
erating in  Bouleaux  Wood  and  acting 
as  a  defensive  flank. 

The  surprise  element  in  the  attack  of 
mid-September  lay  in  the  intensity 
and  character  of  the  action.  The 
enemy  suspected  that  an  attack  was 
pending,  but  he  was  misled  with 
regard  to  the  location  by  the  intro- 
ductory rush  upon  the  Wunderwerk. 
His  own  assault  upon  the  British  left 
wing,  timed  two  hours  before  the 
Allies  were  to  start  forward,  was 
quickly  checked.  It  resulted  in  the 
Canadians'  capturing  many  prisoners  in 
their  own  trench-lines  before  crossing 
into  the  German  lines. 

A  GROTESQUE    NEW  INVENTION  APPEAR  S 
ON  THE  FIELD. 

German  aviators,  on  September  14, 
when  they  caught  sight  of  a  herd  of 
fantastic  mechanical  monsters,  made  a 
discovery  which  gave  some  hint  of  the 
remarkable  innovation  to  be  introduced 
to  the  world  on  the  following  day. 
Whispers  of  a  mysterious  war  engine 
of  some  sort  had  been  in  circulation  on 
both  sides,  but  the  nature  of  the 
engine  had  been  carefully  shrouded  in 
secrecy.  When  the  "tanks"  (so-called 
because  the  name  explained  nothing 
with  regard  to  their  structure  or  use) 
lumbered  into  the  foreground  of  battle, 
the  shock  of  astonishment  was  un- 
softened  by  any  preparation.  The 
first  gasp  of  amazement  was  followed 
by  shouts  of  hilarity  or  of  terror.  And 
in  this  reaction  lay  a  part  of  the  use- 

537 


fflSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


fulness  of  the  new  armored  cars.  The 
spirit  of  the  British  fighters  was 
braced  into  greater  enthusiasm  and 
dash  by  the  appearance  of  an  element 
of  comedy  upon  the  grim  page  of 
warfare.  A  corporal  of  the  Canadian 
Division  wrote  that  a  tank's  motions 
"would  draw  gales  of  laughter  from  a 
circus  crowd." 


Nothing  obstructed  it;  a  supernatural 
force  seemed  to  drive  it  onwards. 
Sorneone  in  the  trenches  cried  'the 
devil  comes'  and  that  word  ran  down 
the  line  like  lightning.  Suddenly 
tongues  of  fire  licked  out  of  the  armored 
hide  of  the  iron  caterpillar,  shells 
whistled  over  our  heads,  and  a  terrible 
concert  of  machine-gun  orchestra  filled 


BRITISH  HOWITZERS  DIRECTED  BY  AIRPLANE 
The  howitzer  on  the  left  has  the  muzzle  tilted  upward  ready  to  fire  over  the  slight  elevation  in  front.  The  one  in  the 
middle  of  the  picture  is  being  loaded.     Dugouts  for  the  men  and  shelters  for  the  ammunition  are  excavated  in  the 
bank,  and  strengthened  by  logs  and  sandbags.    Both  guns  are  concealed  by  boughs. 


The  effect  upon  the  German  soldiers, 
of  the  unaccustomed  danger  rolling 
down  upon  them  was  to  awaken  terror, 
in  some  cases  almost  superstitious 
terror,  and  so  drag  down  their  already 
wavering  morale.  A  protest  against 
the  "cruelty"  of  the  invention  arose 
from  the  German  Command  and  the 
German  press.  A  correspondent  for 
the  Dusseldorfer  General- Anzeiger,  in 
giving  an  account  of  its  first  approach, 
calls  the  machine  a  "devil's  trick," 
"a  mystery  which  oppressed  and 
shackled  the  powers."  He  goes  on: 
"The  monster  approached  slowly,  hob- 
bling, moving  from  side  to  side,  rock- 
ing and  pitching,  but  it  came  nearer. 

538 


the  air.  The  mysterious  creature  had 
surrendered  its  secret,  and  sense  re- 
turned with  it,  and  toughness  and 
defiance,  as  the  English  waves  of 
infantry  surged  up  behind  the  devil's 
chariot." 

SOME    DESCRIPTIONS   OF   THEIR    APPEAR- 
ANCE AND  ACTIONS. 

The  aspect  of  the  tanks  was  so 
utterly  extraordinary  and  grotesque 
that  writers,  in  describing  them,  used 
perforce  humorous  or  fantastic  terms. 
They  were  like  "toads  of  vast  size 
emerging  from  the  primeval  slime  in 
the  twilight  of  the,  world's  dawn," 
"inhuman  shapes  crawling";  or  "gi- 
gantic slugs,    spitting    fire  from   their 


THE  TANKS  MAXE  THEIR  APPEARANCE  IN  THE  BATTLE  OF  THE  SOMME 
Somehow,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  they  were  "neither  silent  nor  inconspicuous"  the  tanks  were  kept  miraculously 
secret  until  their  debut  on  September  15,  1916.    Their  fantastic  appearance  acted  as  tonic  to  the  British  fighters 
and  brought  terror  to  the  foe.    This  is  one  of  the  early  types  of  British  tanks. 


A  STRUGGLE  IN  THE  RUINS  OF  THE  SUGAR  REFINERY  AT  COURCELETTE 


Not  only  on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  among  the  wreckage  of  buildings  and  machinery,  but  in  trenches  and  in 
underground  fortifications  as  well,  the  stubborn  conflict  over  the  sugar  refinery  at  Courcelette  was  fought.  A 
tank,  the  "Creme  de  Menthe,"  brought  timely  aid,  and  after  the  position  had  been  won  the  Canadians  pressed 
on  farther.     Nowhere  in  the  whole  war  were  the  fighting  qualities  of  the  Canadians  shown  to  better  advantage. 


539 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD   WAR 


mottled  sides."  They  were  spoken  of 
as  trudging,  strolling,  waddling,  grunt- 
ing, "nosing  heavily  into  the  soft 
earth,"  sitting  poised,  straddling,  or 
sprawling  across  trenches,  "dipping 
and  plunging  like  a  dismasted  Dutch 
lugger  in  a  storm-tossed  sea."  One 
was  represented  as  "heaving  itself  on 
jerkily  like  a  dragon  with  indigestion, 
but  very  fierce" ;  one  as  acting  the  part 
of  "a  kind  of  chaperon"  for  the  in- 
fantry. Their  "uncanny  nonchalance" 
was  referred  to.  Their  machinery  was 
characterized  as  "internal  organs." 

These  latest  and  only  really  satis- 
factory armored  cars  were  officially 
known  as  the  Machine  Gun  Corps, 
Heavy  Section.  They  were  a  British 
adaptation  of  the  American  caterpillar 
tractor,  provided  with  armor  and 
armament.  As  the  tank  did  not  de- 
pend upon  wheels  for  locomotion,  and 
the  wedge-shaped  front  presented  a 
surface  that  was  not  liable  to  damage, 
this  was  a  form  of  armored  car  far  less 
vulnerable  than  the  earlier  ones.  By 
means  of  the  caterpillar  constructions 
on  the  sides,  the  machine  made  its 
way  over  trenches  and  ditches,  crawled 
up  the  sides  of  shell-holes,  and  pushed 
across  the  roughest  terrain.  Walls, 
wire-entanglements,  tree-trunks,  and 
other  obstructions  were  charged  and 
laid  low;  therefore,  the  tank  was  of 
great  service  in  clearing  the  way  for 
an  infantry  attack.  Dubbed  "His 
Majesty's  Landships,"  the  individual 
tanks  were  given  names  such  as  are 
bestowed  upon  ships  of  the  navy. 
Collectively,  they  were  called  "Wil- 
lies," "Humming  Birds,"  and  other 
derisive  names. 

It  can  be  seen  that,  in  spite  of  their 
protective  paint,  in  browns  and  greens 
and  yellows,  these  giant  creatures 
could  not  easily  be  concealed.  They 
were  "neither  silent  nor  inconspicu- 
ous." Yet,  parked  in  secluded  spots 
back  of  the  lines,  they  were  somehow 
kept  almost  an  absolute  secret  until 
the  day  of  their  d6but. 

THE    FIRST    DAY   ON   WHICH   THE   TANKS 
OPERATED. 

A  bombardment  in  which  the  bat- 
teries exhibited  great  skill  and  exact- 
ness   of    performance    went    on    from 

540 


September  12  until  6:20  on  the  morn- 
ing of  the  fifteenth,  when  the  tanks  for 
the  first  time  moved  forth  upon  the 
fighting  field  in  advance  of  the  charging 
infantry.  We  have  already  seen  how 
the  Canadians  were  given  an  oppor- 
tunity by  the  German  rush  into  their 
trenches  to  dispose  of  a  number  of  the 
enemy  before  the  hour  appointed  for 
the  Allied  advance.  Then,  when  the 
time  arrived,  they  went  forward 
promptly  and  with  sweeping  force 
that  carried  them  far  along  into  the 
enemy  front.  This  was  their  first  real 
offensive  and  they  were  determined 
that  nothing  should  stop  them.  F'irst, 
the  trenches  around  Mouquet  Farm 
were  taken.  Then  the  struggle  was 
transferred  to  the  sugar  refinery  near 
Courcelette,  where  trenches  and  sub- 
terranean works  were  stubbornly  de- 
fended. Here,  as  in  other  places  where 
some  of  the  German  trenches  were 
arranged  so  as  to  sweep  the  lines  with 
a  flanking  fire,  the  assistance  of  a 
tank  was  effectual  in  hastening  the 
advance.  In  this  case  it  was  the 
"Creme  de  Menthe"  which  came 
creeping  along,  cumbrously,  a  bit 
unsteadily,  yet  surely,  surmounting 
obstacles  wnth  a  lurch  and  a  swing,  and 
lifting  itself  athwart  the  troublesome 
trench  where  it  quickly  controlled  the 
German  guns  by  pouring  its  own  fire 
into  them  on  the  right  and  the  left. 
When  this  position  had  been  won  and 
the  attack  had  pushed  to  the  outskirts 
of  Courcelette,  the  Corps  Commander, 
Sir  Julian  Byng,  did  not  hesitate  to  go 
on  and  assault  the  town  itself.  In  this, 
too,  the  Canadians  were  successful. 
They  did  not  stop  to  dig  themselves  in 
until  they  had  reached  a  line  well  to 
the  north  of  Courcelette.  Then  they 
staunchly  held  what  they  had  taken, 
repelling  a  number  of  counter-attacks. 
They  took,  in  all,  about  1300  prisoners. 
Men  from  every  part  of  Canada  were 
included  in  the  4th,  5th,  and  6th 
Canadian  Brigades, — the  troops  that 
achieved  this  glorious  success.  Among 
them  were  many  French  Canadians 
who  thus  had  a  share  in  rescuing  the 
land  of  their  ancestors.  That  they  had 
no  laggard  spirit  for  the  work  is 
shown  by  an  incident  that  is  told  of 


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HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


one  of  them  who  leaped  forward  to 
haul  in  a  machine  gun,  calling:  "Come 
on  boys!  There  are  lots  of  these  things 
lying  about;  let's  go  and  get  them." 
He  got  the  gun  over,  then  fell,  shot 
dead. 


SIR  JULIAN  BYNG 

General  Sir  Julian  Byng,  who  had  received  command 
of  an  army  corps  during  the  Dardanelles  expedition, 
led  the  Canadian  Corps  in  the  Battle  of  the  Somme. 

THE    GREAT    WORK    OF   THE   CANADIANS 
AT  THIS  TIME. 

"Courcelette  was  to  the  Second 
Canadian  Division  what  Ypres  was  to 
the  First  Division.  It  was  a  magnifi- 
cent and  brilliant  offensive."  At  this 
time  the  First  Division  was  occupied 
in  making  numerous  subsidiary  at- 
tacks, involving  hard  fighting  and 
many  casualties, — attacks  which 
counted  in  helping  the  greater  offen- 
sives to  reach  their  objectives. 

While  this  was  happening  on  the 
left  side  of  the  Albert-Bapaume  road, 
to  the  right  at  Martinpuich  there  was 
stern  fighting  for  the  mastery  of  a 
maze  of  trenches,  dugouts,  and  fortified 
shell-holes.  With  tanks  for  protection 
and  support,  the  Scottish  infantry, 
who    had    been    forced    back   a    little 

542 


after  their  first  rush,  succeeded  in 
driving  their  way  through  the  village, 
with  a  showing  of  about  700  prisoners 
as  a  result  of  the  day's  work.  One 
hundred  of  these  had  surrendered  to  a 
single  tank.  Courcelette  and  Martin- 
puich, although  they  had  not  been 
positively  included  in  the  original 
program  for  the  advance,  furnished  the 
most  rapid  and  striking  conquests  of 
the  day. 

THE    STURDY     BAVARIANS    ARE    DRIVEN 
FROM  HIGH  WOOD. 

In  the  northern  end  of  High  Wood, 
the  Germans  were  still  on  the  highest 
ground,  and  in  the  eastern  angle  they 
had  a  stronghold  of  unusual  resistance. 
From  these  two  positions  machine 
guns  could  sweep  the  whole  wood, 
while  barricades  of  wire  and  fallen 
trees  blocked  all  approach  to  them. 
The  2nd  Bavarian  Corps,  some  of  the 
best  fighting  material  in  the  German 
ranks,  held  these  fortresses,  until  the 
London  and  Northumbrian  Terri- 
torials, on  September  15,  worked  up 
the  sides  of  the  wood,  clearing  out 
trenches  and  shell  hole  positions, — a 
task  that  was  "horrible  in  every  foot" 
and  cost  grave  losses.  By  the  end  of 
the  day,  the  lines  which  for  two 
months  had  been  confined  to  the 
southern  end  of  the  wood,  were  pushed 
on  to  a  distance  of  about  1000  yards 
beyond  its  northern  limits.  "There 
was  no  finer  achievement  in  the  day's 
advance." 

The  New  Zealanders,  co-operating 
with  the  division  of  the  New  Army  on 
their  right  in  the  capture  of  Flers,  had 
for  their  objective  a  strip  of  high  ground 
to  the  west  of  Flers  on  the  top  of  the 
plateau.  High  wood  was  on  their  left; 
the  division  advancing  upon  Flers,  on 
their  right.  After  the  switch  trench 
lying  before  them  had  been  rushed  and 
occupied,  they  made  a  new  start 
onward  against  the  section  of  the 
German  third  line  called  "the  Flers 
line."  There  they  were  overtaken  by 
two  tanks,  which  flattened  down  wire 
and  disabled  machine  guns,  opening  a 
way  for  the  troops.  The  New  Zea- 
landers, with  one  of  the  tanks  to 
accompany  them,  proceeded  until  they 
formed  a  salient  extending  beyond  the 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


divisions  on  their  right  and  left.  They 
had  gone  on  to  a  point  fully  800  yards 
beyond  the  most  advanced  position 
they  had  been  expected  to  reach.  It 
was  necessary  to  straighten  their  line, 
so  they  drew  back  into  a  position  run- 
ning directly  westward  from  the  north- 
ern end  of  Flers.  The  counter-attacks 
which  were  flung  against  them  failed  to 
move  them. 

FLERS  IS  EASY  BUT  THE  QUADRILATERAL 
IS  MORE  DIFFICULT. 

At  Flers,  which  was  taken  by  a  force 
made  up  largely  of  London  troops,  after 
they  had  broken  through  their  portion 
of  the  trench-lines  stretched  before  the 
town,  a  tank  made  a  pathway  of 
approach  through  the  wire  entangle- 
ments that  had  held  up  the  foot 
.soldiers,  then  "proceeded  up  the  main 
street  amid  the  cheers  of  our  men,  as 
calmly  as  an  omnibus  up  Oxford 
Street."  Resistance  was  not  at  all 
stiff  at  this  point,  and  the  British 
casualties  were  few.  A  division  of 
Light  Infantry  had  had  a  share  in  the 
taking  of  Flers.  They  started  by 
clearing  out  "Mystery  Corner,"  on 
the  eastern  side  of  Delville  Wood,  be- 
fore the  general  advance  began. 

The  greatest  difficulty  and,  ac- 
cordingly, the  least  progress  attended 
the  efforts  on  the  extreme  right  of 
General  Rawlinson's  army.  This  was 
owing  to  the  remarkable  strength  of  the 
fortified  point,  called  the  Quadrilateral, 
700  yards  or  more  east  of  Ginchy, 
where  a  protected  bend  of  the  Morval 
road,  deep  in  a  wooded  ravine,  was 
intrenched  and  well  fortified.  When 
the  Regulars  who  were  given  the  work 
of  advancing  against  this  position 
found  it  impossible  to  go  forward,  the 
check  in  their  progress  affected  the 
work  of  the  forces  on  their  left  and 
their  right.  The  former  were  the 
Guards,  who  were  to  start  from  Ginchy 
and  make  an  attack  upon  Lesboeufs. 
The  London  Territorial  Division  on  the 
right,  beside  forming  a  defensive  flank, 
as  we  have  said,  was  to  work  through 
Bouleaux  Wood.  The  Guards,  as  was 
to  be  expected,  advanced  boldly  and  in 
fine  order  until  it  became  apparent 
that  their  narrow  front  pushed  in 
between   enfilading   fires  and,  lacking 


support  from  the  sides,  could  not  be 
sustained. 

THE  MOST  SUCCESSFUL  BLOW  YET  STRUCK 
BY  BRITISH  TROOPS. 

For  the  next  two  days  the  Quadri- 
lateral was  under  a  strain  of  gunfire, 
which  damaged  the  redoubt  and  helped 
to  cut  a  way  through  the  wire.  In  the 
attack  launched  on  the  evening  of 
September  17,  the  Bavarian  troops  of 
the  garrison  were  finally  overwhelmed 
by  impetuous  fighting  with  bombs  and 
bayonets.  From  the  redoubt  alone 
170  unwounded  prisoners  were  taken, 
beside  many  wounded.  The  whole  of 
the  V-shaped  corner  yielded,  and  by 
the  following  morning  the  British  were 
able  to  consolidate  their  line,  with  the 
Quadrilateral  lying  behind  them.  A 
dash  was  made  even  farther  on  into 
the  hollow  between  them  and  Morval. 

In  the  three  days,  September  15,  16, 
and  17,  "the  most  effective  blow  yet 
dealt  at  the  enemy  by  British  troops" 
had  been  struck.  The  advance,  av- 
eraging one  mile  in  depth  on  a  six- 
mile  front,  included  the  three  fortified 
villages  of  Courcelette,  Martinpuich 
and  Flers;  over  4000  prisoners,  of 
whom  127  were  officers,  had  been 
taken,  while  the  casualties  had  been 
comparatively  few. 

The  sensational  experiment  in  the 
introduction  of  the  tanks  had  proved 
successful  without  question.  Aside 
from  the  immediate  effect  produced  by 
the  surprise  of  their  unexpected  ap- 
pearance, they  had  shown  their  per- 
manent value  in  acting  as  machine-gun 
destroyers,  a  function  of  primary 
importance  to  the  Allies,  whose  greatest 
losses  had  been  due  to  close-range  or 
enfilading  fire  from  almost  numberless 
machine  guns  in  the  hands  of  German 
gunners.  With  a  tank  looming  among 
them,  acting  as  a  magnet  for  the  bul- 
lets or  rolling  over  the  gun  positions 
"blanketing  the  bugbear,"  the  men 
could  move  with  greater  freedom  and 
safety.  It  has  been  estimated  that  per- 
haps as  many  as  20,000  British  lives 
were  saved  in  the  later  stages  of  the 
battle  of  the  Somme  by  the  inter- 
vention of  the  tanks.  Although  some  of 
the  machines  broke  down  before  reach- 
ing the  battle-front  and  one  was  dis- 

543 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


abled  by  the  enemy,  not  one  was  cap- 
tured in  these  first  days,  while  hun- 
dreds of  prisoners  had  surrendered  to 
the  tanks  and  their  crews.  Moreover, 
in  their  first  hour  of  action,  they  had 
accompHshed  more  damage  to  the 
enemy  than  the  Zeppelins  had  done  in 
two  years,  and  this  without  danger  or 
injury  to  non-combatants.  As  to  the 
number  engaged,  twenty-four  went 
over  into  the  German  lines.  Of  those, 
seventeen  performed  excellent  service. 


hands,  together  with  trenches  there 
and  on  the  south  side  of  the  town. 
Meanwhile,  south  of  the  Somme,  be- 
tween Barleux  and  Vermandovillers, 
General  Micheler's  Army  was  securing 
German  positions,  over  a  long  front. 
Vermandovillers  fell  on  September  17. 
The  capture  of  Deniecourt  and  its 
famous  fortified  park,  on  the  eight- 
eenth, completed  their  conquest  of  the 
plateau  on  which  it  was  situated.  The 
official    register    stated    that    in    the 


CANADIAN  ARTILLERY  IN  ACTION 

This  picture,  painted  by  Captain  Kenneth  K.  Forbes,  presents  with  startling  force  a  scene  of  vivid  action  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Thiepval  before  the  capture  of  the  town.  It  shows  a  6-inch  Howitzer  Battery  which  underwent 
severe  shelling,  with  many  casualties.  The  survivors  who  were  not  too  badly  wounded,  with  splendid  fortitude 
and  indomitable  will,  kept  the  guns  in  action  through  the  whole  attack.  ©   Canadian  War  Records 


One  went  on  a  "lonely  tour"  as  far  as 
Gueudecourt.  When  it  had  to  be 
abandoned,  the  crew  wrecked  it,  leav- 
ing it  as  a  memento  of  their  visit. 

'-J'^HE     FRENCH     LIKEWISE     ADVANCE     IN 
1       THEIR    SECTION. 

After  a  signal  victory,  on  September 
13,  when,  with  the  seizure  of  Bou- 
chavesnes,  the  army  of  General  Fayolle 
had  taken  a  step  over  onto  the  east 
side  of  the  Peronne-Bapaume  road, 
securing  more  than  2000  prisoners  at 
the  same  time,  these  French  forces 
continued  to  carry  forward  their  part 
of  the  envelopment  of  Combles.  Le 
Priez  Farm,  one  of  the  principal  pro- 
tective works  of  the  Germans  on  the 
east  side  of  Combles,   fell  into   their 

544 


attack  of  these  three  mid-September 
days  the  British  and  French  together 
had  added  7059  prisoners  to  their 
account. 

For  nearly  a  week,  while  thick,  rainy 
weather  prevented  a  continuance  of 
the  larger  operations,  local  fighting  at 
many  points  served  to  straighten  out 
the  front.  It  was  on  Sunday,  Septem- 
ber 24,  that  a  renewal  of  bombardment 
gave  warning  that  a  new  charge  was 
about  to  be  made.  Morval,  Lesboeufs, 
Gueudecourt,  and  a  strip  of  land  be- 
yond Flers,  stretching  around  in  the 
direction  of  Martinpuich,  were  des- 
tined to  feel  the  forpe  of  the  Fourth 
Army's  attack,  in  an  endeavor  to  drive 
the  enemy  back  into  his  fourth  line  of 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


defense.  The  seizure  of  Thiepval  by 
the  right  wing  of  the  Fifth  Army,  and 
the  completion  of  the  capture  of  Com- 
bles  by  the  combined  work  of  General 
Rawlinson's  and  General  FayoUe's 
forces  were  hoped  for.  The  actual 
advance  yielded  results  of  unusual 
success,  leaving  little  unattained  that 
had  been  planned. 

GIRD  TRENCH  TAKEN  WITH  THE  AID  OF 
A  TANK  AND  AN  AEROPLANE. 

At  12:35  P.M.  on  the  twenty-fifth, 
the  forward  rush  started.  At  last  the 
difficulties  surrounding  Morval  were 
conquered,  and  the  town  was  entered. 
Lesboeufs  in  spite  of  its  complicated 
barriers  of  fortified  sunken  roads  and 
ravines,  was  carried  by  the  Guards  in  a 
short  time.  Gueudecourt,  its  approach 
"a  veritable  porcupine,  with  prickles 
in  all  directions,"  did  not  yield  so  soon. 
The  vigorous  resistance  of  Gird  Trench 
and  Gird  Support,  double  fortified 
lines  lying  south  and  west  of  the  place; 
artillery  fire  that  prevented  the  ap- 
proach of  supporting  troops;  and 
flanking  machine-gun  fire  from  an- 
other trench,  postponed  the  victory 
of  the  British  there  until  the  following 
day. 

Early  in  the  morning  of  that  day  a 
tank  and  an  aeroplane  took  part  in 
subduing  Gird  Trench.  The  one  rolled 
along  down  the  trench,  while  the  other 
flew  over  it.  Both  used  machine  guns 
with  such  effect  that  numbers  of  the 
enemy  were  killed,  and  the  remainder 
waved  white  handkerchiefs  in  sur- 
render so  that  when  the  trench  was 
cleared,  the  total  number  of  prisoners 
amounted  to  370,  eight  of  whom  were 
officers.  The  tank,  after  going  through 
the  village  with  the  victorious  infantry, 
made  a  trip  into  the  midst  of  the 
enemy  farther  on.  Temporarily  dis- 
abled by  some  trouble  in  its  machinery, 
it  came  to  a  stop  and  very  soon  was 
surrounded  by  Germans,  who  swarmed 
over  it  "like  the  Lilliputs  on  Gulliver" 
until  the  infantry  arrived  to  drive  them 
off  and  the  mechanism  was  put  into 
working  order  again. 

COMBLES,     A     MAZE     OF     UNDERGROUND 
FORTIFICATIONS. 

On  the  afternoon  of  the  twenty-fifth 
the  French  had  secured  Rancourt;  dur- 


ing the  night  they  had  passed  on  to 
Fr^gicourt,  taken  that,  and  obtained 
a  hold  upon  the  fringes  of  Combles. 
The  Germans  in  the  town  had  been 
left  but  one  outlet,  a  ravine  running  out 
to  the  northeast.  From  the  south 
side  of  the  railway  the  French,  and 
from  the  north  side  the  British,  worked 
in,  meeting  no  resistance  once  they 
had  reached  the  town.  In  the  dimness 
of  early  dawn,  on  the  twenty-sixth, 
they  came  together  at  the  railway  in 
the  centre  of  Combles.  The  mightily- 
fortified  mass  of  cellars  and  under- 
ground galleries,  which  had  provided 
extensive  shelter  for  troops  and  ma- 
terial (in  fact,  a  German  arsenal)  had 
passed  into  the  possession  of  the  Allies, 
yielding  large  quantities  of  ammunition 
and  other  stores,  although  the  greater 
part  had  been  removed  before  the 
town  was  entered.  It  was  rather  be- 
cause of  its  use  as  a  large  distributing 
centre  than  because  of  its  strategic 
value  that  the  reduction  of  Combles 
was  desirable.  It  was,  too,  the  first 
canton  capital  to  be  recovered  from 
the  Germans  since  October,  1914. 

At  last  the  time  had  come  for  the 
downfall  of  Thiepval  overlooking  the 
valley  of  the  Ancre  and  lying  in  a  nest 
of  almost  invincible  fortifications.  On 
the  spurs  of  high  land  around  the 
town  forming,  as  they  did,  the  western 
extremity  of  the  long  ridge  now  so 
nearly  won,  there  had  been  prepared 
such  strongholds  as  Leipzic  Re- 
doubt, the  southernmost  stronghold; 
the  Wunderwerk;  the  Zollern  Re- 
doubt; Stufen  (or  Stuff)  Redoubt,  to 
the  northeast;  and  Schwaben  Redoubt, 
on  the  highest  land  of  all,  1000  yards 
north  of  the  village.  "The  whole 
area,  with  a  southern  frontage  of  about 
2500  yards,  was  practically  one  fortress, 
a  veritable  Gibraltar  with  cellars  and 
subterranean  galleries,  and  the  de- 
fenses inside  as  nearly  perfect  as  two 
years  of  labor  could  make  them." 

MORE    UNDERGROUND    WORKS    IN    AND 
AROUND  THIEPVAL. 

In  the  opening  attack  of  July  i,  a 
foot  had  been  set  upon  Leipzic  Re- 
doubt. By  the  end  of  August,  the 
Fifth  Army  was  less  than  a  mile  from 
Thiepval.     In   the   brilliant   charge  of 

545 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


September  14,  the  Wunderwerk  had 
been  seized.  But  Thiepval  was  over 
the  edge  of  an  intervening  ridge,  with 
its  original  garrison  of  veteran  troops, 
the  1 80th  Wurtembergers,  who  were 
serenely  confident  of  the  impregnabil- 
ity of  their  underground  works,  al- 
though the  constructions  on  the  surface 
had  been  pounded  into  powder  by 
long  and  terrible  artillery  fire.  A 
spot  of  crushed  red  brick  identified 
the  site  of  the  Chateau,  which  before 


In  a  few  hours  they  had  gained  the 
Chateau.  Where  machine  guns  were 
too  insistent  and  devastating  for  the 
infantry  alone,  tanks  came  to  the 
rescue.  One  of  them  for  a  while  acted 
as  a  stationary  fort.  Two  battles 
simultaneously  stormed  through  the 
ruins, — one  in  the  open,  and  one  in  the 
dim,  subterranean  depths.  The  enemy 
had  been  taken  unawares  and  could 
hardly  realize  his  danger,  so  sure  had 
been  his  confidence  in  his  impregnable 


A  GERMAN  DUGOUT  AS  THE  BRITISH  FOUND  IT 

This  picture  gives  a  definite  impression  of  the  ertent,  equipment  and  finish  of  some  of  the  German  dugouts.  Note 
the  stairway,  the  smoothly  boarded  walls  and  ceiling,  the  electric  fixtures,  the  wire-spring  berths,  and  the  bell  to 
give  alarm  of  gas  attacks.    The  clutter  of  canteens,  helmets,  boots  and  bottles  offers  a  sad  comment. 


the  war  had  been  owned  by  a  German. 
He  is  supposed  to  have  made  prepara- 
tions for  hostilities,  for  the  cellars  and 
passages  under  the  building  were  so 
cavernous  and  strong  as  to  form  the 
heart  cf  a  maze  of  dugouts,  shelters, 
and  tunnels  that  were  of  most  formid- 
able proportions  and  strength.  Con- 
necting with  them  and  passing  from 
the  village  to  the  fortified  cemetery 
on  the  north,  a  sunken  road  with 
burrows  and  machine-gun  positions 
along  its  length  made  another  unit  in 
the  complicated  system. 

Men  of  the  Suffolks,  of  Essex  and 
Middlesex,  leaped  out  to  rush  the 
Thiepval  area,  in  an  attack  timed  for  a 
half-hour  after  noon  on  September  26. 

546 


walls.  Communication  with  his  rear 
seems  to  have  been  cut  off  for  some 
time,  since  the  action  of  his  artillery 
was  delayed  until  evening,  when  it 
came  too  late  to  save  the  town. 

CANADIANS    TAKE   MOUQUET   FARM,   ZOL- 
LERN  REDOUBT  AND  HESSIAN  TRENCH. 

Simultaneously  with  the  attack  of 
the  men  from  Britain  upon  Thiepval, 
the  Canadians  on  the  right  wing  of  the 
Fifth  Army  advanced  toward  the 
town  from  their  position  on  the  east, 
where  Mouquet  Farm  and  Zollern 
Redoubt,  the  key  to  the  whole  system 
of  redoubts  east  and  north  of  Thiepval, 
presented  a  stiff  resistance.  An  in- 
tense bombardment  was  followed  by 
desperate  hand-to-hand  encounters,  as 


fflSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


a  result  of  which  the  Canadians  had 
the  satisfaction  of  securing  the  Farm, 
ZoUern  Redoubt  and  Hessian  Trench. 
At  the  Farm,  a  working  party  of 
Pioneers  had  taken  a  hand  in  the  fight, 
when  a  machine  gun  appeared  above- 
ground  to  attack  the  rear  of  the  in- 
fantry who  had  just  passed.  Dropping 
their  tools,  the  Pioneers  attacked  the 
gun  position  and,  when  joined  by 
others,  dashed  into  the  recesses  under 
the  Farm  and  fought  through  them 
until  they  had  been  cleared. 

In  order  to  make  sure  of  the  hold  up- 
on the  western  end  of  the  ridge,  it  was 
essential  to  get  control  of  the  Cemetery, 
the  Stuff  and  Schwaben  Redoubts, 
and  the  difficult  Regina  Trench.  Ac- 
cordingly, the  next  progress  was  north- 
ward. The  tide  of  advance,  on  the 
twenty-seventh,  rolled  on  through  the 
Cemetery  and  up  to  the  southern  end 
of  the  Schwaben  Redoubt,  which  was 
broken  into  and  held.  The  British 
at  this  stage  had  reached  a  point  from 
which  they  could  look  down  upon  the 
valley  of  the  Ancre  to  the  west,  while 
on  the  other  side  Bapaume  was  but 
three  miles  away.  Since  the  middle  of 
September  they  had  captured  seven 
villages  in  an  advance  to  an  average 
depth  of  two  or  three  miles.  They 
had  taken  some  10,000  prisoners  and 
great  stores  of  supplies.  The  machine 
was  moving,  slowly,  to  be  sure,  but 
apparently  with  irresistible  force.  It 
was  a  moment  of  encouragement  and 
expectation. 

MUD  HINDERS  AND  THEN  ARRESTS  THE 
ADVANCE. 

But  inexorable  Nature  turned  her 
hand  against  them.  The  October 
rains,  drenching  the  newly  taken 
acres  all  churned  and  pitted  and 
furrowed,  transformed  them  into  quag- 
mires and  sloughs  of  mud  where  men 
and  horses  must  struggle  for  every  step 
forward.  The  chalky  subsoil,  viscid 
when  soaked,  clung  tenaciously  to 
whatever  had  sunk  into  it.  Men  left 
their  boots  and  their  socks  imbedded 
when  they  drew  forth  their  feet.  One 
officer  is  reported  to  have  been  forced 
to  abandon  his  breeches,  and  High- 
landers found  themselves  parted  from 
their  kilts.     In  shell-holes  and  mine- 


craters  were  horrible  pools  of  water, 
wherein  men  and  horses  sometimes  fell 
and  were  drowned.  Months  afterward 
the  pools  were  still  there,  and  Mase- 
field  walked  -"mong  them.  "Some- 
times," he  wriies,  "the  pressure  of  the 
water  bursts  the  mud  banks  of  ore  of 
these  pools  and  a  rush  of  water  comes, 
and  the  pools  below  it  overflow,  and  a 
noise  of  water  rises  in  that  solitude 
which  is  like  the  mud  and  water  of  the 
beginning  of  the  worltx  before  any 
green  thing  appeared." 

The  earth,  dry  and  receptive  when 
the  storms  began,  could  absorb  the 
rain  of  the  first  week  of  October;  but 
when,  for  the  greater  part  of  five 
weeks,  the  heavens  poured  down  tor- 
rents, the  point  of  saturation  was 
passed,  and  the  surface  of  the  battle- 
razed  fields  became  fluid.  What  had 
been  described  as  porridge  turned 
into  gruel. 

THE  BOTTOM   FALLS  OUT  OF  THE  ROADS 
SUPPLYING  THE  LINES. 

The  only  excellent  roads  that  crossed 
the  area  of  the  battle  were  the  Albert- 
Bapaume  and  the  P6ronne-Bapaume 
highways,  and  even  these  had  been 
rutted  and  worn  rough  by  the  heavy 
traffic  of  passing  armies.  The  other 
roads,  of  lighter  construction,  could 
hardly  be  considered  roads  at  all. 
While  the  work  of  repairing  and  of 
making  new  roads  was  pressed  with  all 
urgency,  it  was  beset  with  extraordi- 
nary difficulties.  The  soil,  poor 
originally,  had  been  shattered  and 
powdered  and  crushed  until  it  had  lost 
whatever  virtue  it  had  ever  possessed 
for  making  road-beds.  Wood  and 
stone  and  other  materials  had  to  be 
brought  from  a  distance.  Yet  the 
armies  had  to  be  provisioned  from 
beyond  that  strange  new  No  Man's 
Land  behind  the  existing  lines.  And 
here  was  "such  a  traffx  as  the  world 
had  scarcely  seen  before.  Not  the 
biggest  mining  camp  or  the  vastest 
engineering  undertaking  had  ever  pro- 
duced one  tithe  of  the  activity  which 
existed  behind  each  section  of  the 
battle  line." 

In  addition  to  putting  obstacles  in 
the  way  of  communication  with  supply- 
bases,  the  stormy  weather  introduced 

547 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


another  great  impediment  to  progress 
by  interrupting  the  work  of  aviation. 
In  the  occasional  intervals  furnished 
by  clear  days,  when  visibility  was 
possible,  there  was  great  activity  on 
the  part  of  the  airmen.  On  the  one  day, 
October  20,  for  instance,  there  were 
more  than  80  combats  in  the  air;  and 
on  November  9  a  great  battle  was 
fought    northeast   of    Bapaume,    at    a 


their  left  were  moving   northward   in 
the  direction  of  Bapaume. 

FOOT      BY      FOOT      THE      ADVANCE      WAS 
CARRIED    ON. 

Through  heavy  rain  an  attack  was 
launched  on  October  i,  which  resulted 
in  the  capture  of  Eaucourt  I'Abbaye 
and  an  advance  toward  Le  Sars.  Eau- 
courtl'Abbaye,  a  settlement  grouped 
about  an  old   religious  establishment, 


ABOMINATION  OF  DESOLATION  IN  THE  WAKE  OF  BATTLE 

When  lakes  and  seas  of  thick  clinging  chalk-soil  mud,  acres  wide,  deeply  sown  and  interpenetrated  with  unnamable 
debris,  stretched  between  the  armies  and  their  bases,  with  deluges  of  rain  from  a  heavy  sky,  who  can  calculate 
the  persistent,  straining  effort  that  kept  supplies  in  motion  and  still  pushed  on?  The  imagination  staggers  in  an 
attempt  to  reconcile  such  a  picture  with  one  of  flowery  stretches  of  pastoral  peace  and  beauty. 


height  of  500G  feet.  But  the  enemy 
had  more  opportunity,  during  the  days 
of  storm,  to  bring  up  reserves  unob- 
served and  make  adjustments  in  his 
line,  thus  strengthening  his  resistance; 
consequently,  his  counter-attacks  in- 
creased in  force  and  effectiveness. 

After  Morval  had  been  secured,  it 
was  passed  over  to  General  FayoUe,  to 
facilitate  his  advance  toward  Sailly- 
Saillisel.  Thus  the  point  of  junction 
between  French  and  English  had  been 
moved  again  and  now  lay  to  the  east  of 
Lesboeufs.  From  Morval  and  Ran- 
court  the  French  pushed  nearer  to 
their  objective,  while  the  British  on 

548 


had  been  leveled  with  the  ground  by 
artillery  action,  like  all  the  hamlets 
and  villages  of  the  neighborhood,  but 
it  was  prepared  in  the  usual  way  with 
heavy  fortification  of  its  cellars  and 
ruins.  Fighting  for  possession  of  the 
position  continued  until  the  morning 
of  the  fourth,  when  the  British  were  left 
in  control.  A  break  in  the  stormy 
weather,  on  the  sixth,  presented  a 
favorable  moment  for  pushing  the 
attack  upon  Le  Sars,  the  last  village 
of  importance  on  the  Albert-Bapaume 
road.  It  was  rushed  and  taken  the 
following  day,  making  the  number  of 
villages  captured  thus  far,  twenty-two. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


The  whole  front  of  attack  on  the 
seventh  extended  from  Lesboeufs  west- 
ward to  beyond  Le  Sars.  Of  this  the 
most  difficult  portion  was  between 
Eaucourt  and  Le  Sars,  where  a  gully 
running  through  was  raked  by  gunfire 
from  the  northern  end  near  the  Butte 
of  Warlencourt  (a  high  mound  of  land). 
While  the  British  held  points  at  the 
southern  end,  from  which  they  could 
command  a  sweep  of  the  gully,  they 
did  not  try  to  keep  their  line  united 
across  the  rain-sodden  hollow  but 
held  firmly  the  high  ground  on  both 
sides.  West  of  Le  Sars,  east  of  the 
Butte  of  Warlencourt  and  beyond 
Gueudecourt  the  attack  proved  success- 
ful. Altogether,  the  operations  of 
the  day  resulted  \n  the  capture  of  al- 
most looo  prisoners  and  took  con- 
siderable toll  from  the  enemy  in  dead 
and  wounded. 

DIFFICULTIES     OF     LIFE     IN     THE     NEW 
TRENCHES. 

In  the  trenches,  newly  constructed 
on  the  far  front,  conditions  were  in- 
creasingly bad.  Hastily  prepared  for 
occupation  and  defense,  the  trenches 
were  without  shelters  or  board  flooring. 
At  first,  in  fact,  shell  holes  were  utilized 
for  the  front  line.  In  all  alike  the 
water  stood  knee-high  at  least.  And, 
while  the  enemy  now  had  his  back  at 
the  very  edge  of  open  country  where 
no  battle  had  torn  and  mutilated  the 
land,  the  British  were  separated  by 
almost  impassable  and  indescribable 
acres  of  mire  and  water  from  every 
necessity  or  comfort  of  life.  "It  re- 
quired physical  fitness  merely  to  live 
in  the  trenches.  To  stay  and  hold 
them  under  fire  was  heroism.  To  at- 
tack from  them  almost  impossible.  In 
such  operations  as  did  take  place,  the 
men  helped  each  other  out  of  the  waist- 
high  water,  over  the  parapets  of  mud, 
and  attacked  across  a  'ground'  which 
at  its  solidest  was  quagmire,  and  for 
half  of  its  surface  standing  water." 

Subsequent  movements  of  the  Allied 
armies  in  the  region  between  the  Ancre 
and  the  Somme  can  be  better  under- 
stood if  we  consider  here  Sir  Douglas 
Haig's  view  of  the  situation  as  it 
•  existed  in  early  October.  Of  the  Thiep- 
val  area  on  the  northwestern  end  of 


the  ridge,  he  says:  "  During  this  period 
our  gains  in  the  neighborhood  of  StufT 
and  Schwaben  Redoubts  were  gradual- 
ly increased  and  secured  in  readiness 
for  future  operations;  and  I  was  quite 
confident  of  the  ability  of  our  troops, 
not  only  to  repulse  the  enemy's 
attacks,  but  to  clear  him  entirely  from 
his  last  positions  on  the  ridge  when- 
ever it  should  suit  my  plans  to  do  so. 
I  was,  therefore,  well  content  with 
the  situation  on  this  flank." 

SIR  DOUGLAS  HAIG'S  VIEW  OF  THE   SITUA- 
TION. 

Regarding  the  centre  of  the  line 
from  Gueudecourt  to  west  of  Le  Sars 
he  felt  that,  "Pending  developments 
elsewhere  all  that  was  necessary  or 
indeed  desirable  was  to  carry  on  local 
operations  to  improve  our  positions 
and  to  keep  the  enemy  fully  employed." 
"On  the  eastern  flank,  on  the  other 
hand,"  he  continues,  "it  was  impor- 
tant to  gain  ground."  There,  the  en- 
emy's "last  completed  system  of  de- 
fense before  Le  Transloy,  was  flanked 
to  the  south  by  the  enemy's  positions 
at  Sailly-Saillisel,  and  screened  to  the 
west  by  the  spur  lying  between  Le 
Transloy  and  Lesboeufs.  A  necessary 
preliminary,  therefore,  to  an  assault 
upon  it  was  to  secure  the  spur  and  the 
Sailly-Saillisel  heights.  Possession  of 
the  high  ground  at  this  latter  village 
would  at  once  give  a  far  better  com- 
mand over  the  ground  to  the  north  and 
northwest,  secure  the  flank  of  our 
operations  towards  Le  Transloy,  and 
deprive  the  enemy  of  observation  over 
the  Allied  communications  in  the 
Combles  Valley.  In  view  of  the 
enemy's  elTorts  to  construct  new  sys- 
tems of  defense  behind  the  Le  Transloy 
line,  it  was  desirable  to  lose  no  time  in 
dealing  with  the  situation." 

The  unfortunate  circumstance  of 
the  interruption  by  bad  weather  during 
October  and  early  November  pre- 
vented the  accomplishment  of  these 
plans  to  the  extent  desired  but  the 
progress  made  was  remarkable,  con- 
sidering the  obstacles  to  be  overcome. 
In  a  general  attack  on  October  lo,  the 
chief  success  fell  to  General  Micheler's 
Tenth  Army,  south  of  the  Somme,  in 
action  on  a  front  of  three  miles.    Over 

549 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


1 200  prisoners  were  seized  and  the 
French  Hne  pushed  farther  to  the  east. 
At  the  hamlet  of  Bovent,  which  was 
included  in  the  area  gained,  the 
Germans  had  constructed  in  an  orchard 
an  observation  tower  of  reinforced 
concrete.  As  soon  as  its  shelter  of 
leaves  had  been  thinned,  either  by- 
autumnal  changes  or  by  artillery  shots, 
the    tower    became   a    target    for    the 


THE  FOURTH  CANADIAN  DIVISION  TAKES 
REGINA  TRENCH. 

On  the  night  of  October  15-16, 
General  FayoUe's  forces  attacked  the 
twin  village  of  Sailly-Saillisel,  which 
was  built  on  both  sides  of  the  P6ronne- 
Bapaume  road.  The  approach  was 
made  simultaneously  from  three  sides, — 
north,  west  and  south.  A  hold  was 
secured  in  the  chateau  and  the  church 


PREPARATION  FOR  A  CHARGE;  FIXING  BAYONETS 

These  determined  Canadian  soldiers  are  making  ready  for  whatever  may  happen  when  they  go  over  the  top  for  a 
charge  across  No  Man's  Land.  It  is  a  grim  moment,  that  of  fixing  bayonets.  Whatever  may  happen,  whether  they 
have  to  penetrate  into  machine-gun  lairs  in  woodland  tangles  or  battle  through  dark  underground  mazes  or  follow 
a  tank  on  a  trench-taking  jaunt,  the  faces  of  these  men  are  set  forward  unflinchingly. 


French  guns.  After  it  had  been  badly 
battered,  gas  shells  were  discharged 
upon  it.  Then,  a  huge  shell  falling 
about  ten  yards  to  the  left  of  the  tower 
burst  there  and  tore  out  a  hole  fifteen 
feet  deep.  When  the  French  soldiers 
had  taken  the  position,  they  found 
that  the  explosion  had  blocked  with 
masses  of  concrete  the  entrances  to 
the  German  shelters  around  the  tower. 
In  those  deep,  strong  chambers,  which 
had  been  provided  with  many  concealed 
exits,  lay  thirty  Germans  with  gas 
masks  on,  unwounded  but  dead. 
Among  them  were  two  colonels,  who 
had  been  seeking  information. 

550 


on  the  western  edge  of  Sailly,  from 
which  the  struggle  was  carried  on 
through  underground  trenches  and 
ruins  of  houses  to  the  central  cross- 
roads. In  spite  of  vigorous  counter- 
attacks, Sailly  was  cleared  of  the 
enemy,  on  the  eighteenth.  Saillisel 
remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Germans. 
Taking  advantage  of  the  promise 
offered  by  clearing,  frosty,  drying 
weather,  on  October  20,  the  Germans 
prepared  to  strike  with  especial  force 
at  the  Schwaben  Redoubt,  where  they 
had  since  the  end  of'  September  made 
no  fewer  than  eleven  counter-attacks 
against    the     British     position.      The 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


stroke,  delivered  on  the  twenty-first, 
was  promptly  met  and  repulsed,  then 
answered  by  an  attack  which  drove 
along  the  Regina  and  Stuff  Trenches. 
In  this  attack  the  Fourth  Canadian 
Division  gained  about  two-thirds  of 
the  length  of  Regina  Trench,  thus 
crowning  with  success  the  long  series  of 
struggles  for  its  possession  which  had 
cost  so  dearly  in  lives.  Advanced 
posts  were  established  by  the  British 


Trench,  at  the  eastern  end,  was  taken 
on  the  night  of  November  lo-ii.  The 
British  were  now  in  a  dominating 
position  overlooking  the  Ancre  Valley, 
and  pushing  close  to  the  strong  Ger- 
man first  line  across  the  stream.  An 
attack  upon  the  Ancre  was  the  next 
action  for  which  Sir  Douglas  Haig  was 
planning,  and  by  the  second  week  of 
November  the  weather  changed,  giving 
him  his  opportunity. 


SCHWABEN  REDOUBT,  THE  THEATRE  OF  MANY  STRUGGLES 
Schwaben  Redoubt,  though  reached  by  an  ITlster  Division  on  the  first  day  of  the  battle,  was  not  secured  until  late 
in  October.    Barrage  and  bombardment,  attack  and  counter-attack  rolled  across  its  slopes  for  days  and  weeks. 
Wreathed  in  fire  and  smoke  it  stood  before  Thiepval,  a  guardian  dragon  resisting  to  the  death.    Here  the  British 
infantry  are  seen  storming  the  mound,  in  the  face  of  heavy  barrage  and  rain  of  shells. 


well  on  to  the  north  and  northeast  of 
Schwaben  Redoubt  and  their  line 
pushed  out  in  the  direction  of  the 
Ancre.  The  casualties  were  under  1200, 
and  the  number  of  prisoners  taken, 
somewhat  over  1000. 

Then  heavy  weather  settled  down 
again,  making  it  impossible  to  enter 
upon  any  large  undertaking.  Fighting 
continued,  however,  around  Chaulnes 
Wood,  St.  Pierre  Vaast  Wood,  Sailly- 
Saillisel,  the  Butte  of  Warlencourt, 
le  Sars  and  Schwaben  Redoubt.  Coun- 
ter attacks  were  met,  and  positions 
rounded  out.    The  last  bit  of  Regina 


MASEFIELD'S       DESCRIPTION       OF       THE 
SCHWABEN      REDOUBT. 

Schwaben  Redoubt,  which  had  been 
first  reached  on  July  i  by  the  Ulster 
Division  but  had  not  been  won  until 
October,  was  a  good  example  of  the 
German  fortified  positions.  As  John 
Masefield  found  it,  the  year  after  the 
battle,  it  was  still  impressive,  though 
desolate  and  solitary.  "Clambering 
over  the  heaps  of  earth  which  were 
once  the  parapets  one  enters  the 
Schwaben,  where  so  much  life  was 
spent.  As  in  so  many  places  on  this 
old    battlefield,    the    first    thought    is: 

551 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


'Why,  they  were  in  an  eyrie  here;  our 
fellows  had  no  chance  at  all.'  There 
is  no  wonder,  then,  that  the  approach 
is  strewn  with  graves.  The  line  stands 
at  the  top  of  a  smooth,  open  slope, 
commanding  our  old  position  and  the 
Ancre  Valley.  There  is  no  cover  of  any 
kind  upon  the  slope  except  the  rims 
of  the  shell-holes,  which  make  rings  of 
mud   among  the  grass.     Just  outside 


gunners    in    the    fortress    felt    indeed 
that  they  were  in  an  eyrie." 

THE    ATTACK    IS    TRANSFERRED    TO    THE 
ANCRE  FRONT. 

The  last  blow  delivered  by  the  Allies 
before  settling  into  winter  conditions 
fell  upon  the  Ancre  front  at  the  spot 
where  the  initial  drive  of  July  i  had 
been  blocked.  Little  by  little,  since 
that  time,  Sir  Hubert  Gough's  forces 


APPROPRIATING  THE  ENEMY'S  ROOF  AND  THRESHOLD 

Secure  for  the  moment  in  a  trench  that  recently  sheltered  the  Boches,  these  Tommies  are  using  a  temporary  pause 
inactivities,  as  Nature  suggests.  One  has  fallen  into  sound  sleep  after  who  knows  what  hours  of  driving  exertion. 
The  other  has  lost  himself  in  writing  and  is,  perhaps,  far  away  m  fancy,  among  different  scenes. 


the  highest  point  of  the  front  line  there 
is  a  little  clump  of  our  graves.  Just 
inside  there  is  a  still  unshattered  con- 
crete fortlet,  built  for  the  machine 
gun  by  which  those  men  were  killed. 

"All  along  that  front  trench  of  the 
Schwaben,  lying  on  a  parapet  half 
buried  in  the  mud,  -are  the  belts  of 
machine  guns,  still  full  of  cartridges. 
There  were  many  machine  guns  on 
that  earthen  wall  last  year.  When  our 
men  scrambled  over  the  tumbled 
chalky  line  of  old  sandbags,  so  plain 
just  down  the  hill,  and  came  into  view 
on  the  slope,  running  and  stumbling 
in    the    hour   of   attack,    the    machine 

552 


had  moved  up  nearer  and  nearer  to 
the  vast  and  solid  fortress  wherein  the 
enemy  had  put  his  confidence.  "The 
position  was  immensely  strong,  and 
its  holders — not  without  reason — be- 
lieved it  to  be  impregnable.  All  the 
slopes  were  tunneled  deep  with  old 
catacombs,  many  of  them  made  orig- 
inally as  hiding-places  in  the  Wars  of 
Religion."  Stretching  across  the  Ancre 
these  fortified  works  extended  for 
nearly  five  miles,  from  Serre  to  where 
the  British  now  stood  upon  the 
Schwaben  Redoubt..  South  of  the 
Ancre,  and  under  direct  observation 
from   the   redoubt,   St.    Pierre   Divion 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


presented  a  formidable  defensive  posi- 
tion, which  was  serving  as  a  "gangHon 
of  German  communications  at  the 
mouth  of  the  valley."  From  well 
sheltered  entrances  on  the  river  valley 
level,  a  tunnel  ran  back  into  the  hill 
for  300  yards,  then  branched  in  a  T 
shape,  with  the  ends  of  the  cross 
gallery  opening  through  stairways  and 
passages  into  trenches  on  the  edge 
of  Thiepval  ridge,  west  of  Schwaben 
Redoubt.  In  the  galleries  were  great 
storehouses  and  chambers,  some  used 
for  dressing  stations,  some  for  ofiBcers' 
quarters,  some  as  shelters  for  the  men. 
On  the  northern  side  of  the  Ancre, 
Beaucourt,  somewhat  back  from  the 
German  front  line  and  situated  in  a 
hollow,  formed,  with  its  deep  dugouts 
under  the  ruins  of  its  buildings,  a 
station  for  masses  of  reserves.  Beyond, 
farther  northwest,  stood  Beaumont 
Hamel,  "a  tumbled  heap  of  ruins," 
seated  in  a  fold  of  the  slope  and  backed 
by  a  strongly  organized  plateau  reach- 
ing north  as  far  as  Serre.  So  wide  and 
deep  were  the  successive  tiers  of  wire 
entanglements  guarding  the  trenches 
before  Beaumont  Hamel  that,  in  their 
rusted  condition,  they  gave  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  broad  brown  belt  of 
ploughed  land.  Prepared  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  war  as  an  impregnable 
barrier  commanding  the  valley,  which 
at  this  point  had  a  width  of  about  500 
feet,  the  caves  of  the  position  were 
"subterranean  barracks  impervious  to 
shell  fire." 

THE     DIFFICULTY     OF     TAKING     THE     Y 
RAVINE. 

But  between  Beaumont  Hamel  and 
the  point  where  the  battle  line  crossed 
the  Ancre,  a  gorge,  known  because  of 
its  shape  as  the  Y  Ravine,  furnished 
the  most  difificult  problem  for  attack. 
With  the  branches,  or  prongs,  of  the  Y 
opening  upon  the  German  front  line 
trench  and  the  end  of  the  stem  resting 
upon  the  road  connecting  Beaumont 
Hamel  with  the  Ancre,  the  ravine  had 
a  length  of  800  yards  or  more.  At  the 
western  entrances  the  precipitous  sides, 
at  places  even  overhanging,  were 
perhaps  more  than  thirty  feet  deep, 
furnishing  abundant  opportunity  for 
hidden   burrows   and    lairs.     Some   of 


the  caves  were  able  to  accommodate  a 
battalion  and  a  half  of  soldiers  each, 
and  provide  them  with  perfect  shelter. 
A  tunnel  dug  from  the  forward  end  of 
the  ravine  back  to  the  German  4th 
line  made  it  possible  for  reinforce- 
ments to  be  poured  into  the  hollow 
while  it  was  being  besieged  from 
outside. 

Of  the  whole  8000  yards  of  front  to 
be  attacked,  5000  yards  lay  north  of 
the  Ancre,  and  3000  on  the  south  side. 
With  the  British  upon  the  Thiepval 
ridge,  this  part  of  the  German  line  had 
become  a  salient,  which  could  be 
attacked  from  the  south  and  west  at 
the  same  time.  A  preliminary  bom- 
bardment, starting  at  5  A.  M.  on  No- 
vember II  and  lasting  until  the  hour 
for  the  advance,  just  before  six  on  the 
morning  of  November  13,  crushed  and 
obliterated  barbed  wire  and  other 
surface  obstacles,  leveling  the  way 
for  the  infantry.  Fog  and  darkness 
shrouded  the  lines  in  their  forward 
rush,  which  seems  to  have  taken  the 
enemy  by  surprise.  For  the  first  few 
hours  the  fighting  was  so  confused  that 
results  could  not  be  reported  with 
certainty  until  a  day  or  two  afterward. 
Then  the  gains  were  found  to  be  even 
greater  than  had  been  supposed,  in- 
cluding St.  Pierre  Divion,  Beaucourt, 
and  Beaumont  Hamel  with  their  en- 
virons. 

How  THESE  DIFFERENT  HAMLETS  WERE 
TAKEN  ONE  BY  ONE 

For  the  attack  on  the  area  south  of 
the  Ancre  two  divisions  of  the  New 
Army  were  responsible.  Rapidly  se- 
curing their  objectives  east  of  St. 
Pierre  Divion,  they  had  its  garrison 
shut  in  between  themselves  and  the 
river.  For  a  while  the  prisoners  out- 
numbered the  attacking  force.  With 
the  aid  of  a  tank,  the  hamlet  was 
completely  occupied,  its  caverns  and 
tunnels  cleared.  The  new  ground  won 
on  the  southern  side  of  the  Ancre  was  a 
wedge-shaped  piece  whose  base  along 
the  river  measured  about  1500  yards 
and  whose  apex  was  an  acute  angle 
resting  upon  Regina  Trench.  One 
division  alone  had  taken  1400  pris- 
oners, suffering  in  the  action  a  loss  of 
not  more  than  600  casualties. 

553 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


On  the  other  bank  of  the  Ancre, 
progress  was  not  so  smooth  and 
rapid  at  all  points,  especially  at  the 
entrances  to  the  Y  Ravine.  A  Naval 
Division  between  the  end  of  the 
ravine  and  the  river  were  flanked  on 
the  left  by  a  Highland  Territorial 
Division  lying  before  Beaumont  Hamel 
and  the  ravine.  While  the  extreme 
right  of  the  Naval  Division  swept 
along  on  the  level  of  the  valley  bottom 


action,  had  already  gained  a  reputation 
for  bravery  at  Gallipoli.  Wounded  in 
crossing  No  Man's  Land  on  the  morn- 
ing of  November  13,  and  twice  more 
in  the  next  twenty-four  hours,  he  did 
not  lay  down  his  command  until  his 
men  had  pushed  on,  taken  Beaucourt, 
and  established  posts  beyond  it.  A 
fourth  and  severe  wound  was  received 
in  the  charge  upon  Beaucourt  on  the 
morning  of  the  fourteenth. 


MibisRi,  As  THE  INVADERS  LEFT  IT 

The  village  of  Misery,  situated  about  six  miles  southwest  of  Peronne,  suffered  wreck  at  the  hands  of  the  Germans 
before  they  evacuated  it.  There  was  no  military  reasoa  or  excuse  for  its  destruction.  The  object  was  to  appal  the 
minds  of  the  civil  population  in  France  in  the  hope  of  hastening  a  negotiated  peace. 


and  the  extreme  left  moved  along  the 
highest  ground,  the  centre,  attacking 
diagonally  on  the  slope,  was  held  up 
by  a  strong  redoubt  between  the  Ger- 
man first  and  second  lines.  Right  and 
left  extended  their  lines  and  joined 
hands  along  the  Beaucourt-Beaumont 
Hamel  road,  holding  their  position  all 
night  until  the  redoubt  had  fallen.  A 
tank,  arriving  at  three  o'clock  in  the 
morning,  hastened  the  surrender  of 
the  garrison  of  360  unwounded  men. 
Lieutenant-Colonel  C.  B.  Freyberg, 
who  was  the  leader  and  inspiration  of 
the   Naval    Division   in    their  valiant 

554 


THE    HIGHLANDERS    HAVE    A    SHARE    OF 
THE    FIGHTING. 

While  the  Naval  Division  had  been 
thus  engaged,  there  had  been  stubborn 
and  savage  fighting  by  the  Highlanders 
around  the  ravine.  It  was  entered 
from  north  and  south  just  behind  the 
fork  of  the  Y  and  from  the  western 
end.  Then  fierce  and  bloody  hand-to- 
hand  encounters  with  bombs  and 
bayonets  drove  the  Germans  from 
their  subterranean  lairs.  The  Scots 
there  and  at  Beaumont  Hamel  took 
1400  prisoners.  In  Beaumont  Hamel, 
which  was  entered  before  midday  on 


fflSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


the  thirteenth,  the  fighting  was  not 
done  in  units.  It  was  "a  true  soldier's 
fight — each  man  'on  his  own'  "  through 
the  underground  hiding-places.  There 
is  a  story  of  a  Signal  Corps  man  who, 
while  carrying  forward  a  telephone 
line,  was  hit  and  fell  at  the  mouth  of  a 
dugout.  When  the  Germans  started 
to  come  out,  they  were  halted  by  the 
signaler,  who  kept  them  prisoners 
until  help  came  in  response  to  his  call 
over  the  telephone  which  he  had  just 
installed.  And  there  is  another  ac- 
count of  a  Scottish  Lieutenant  who 
was  alternately  captor,  prisoner,  and 
captor  again  of  a  German  Battal- 
ion commander  and  his  staff. 

By  the  night  of  the  second  day, 
November  14,  the  "total  of  prisoners 
on  the  five-mile  front  of  battle  was 
well  over  5000 — the  largest  captures 
yet  made  in  the  time  by  any  army  in 
the  West  since  the  campaign  began." 
With  the  German  first  line  system  for 
a  half-mile  beyond  Beaumont  Hamel 
in  their  hands,  the  British  were  in 
command  of  the  Ancre  on  both  banks 
where  it  entered  the  enemy's  lines. 
Only  the  attack  in  the  direction  of 
Serre  had  had  to  be  abandoned  because 
of  the  .soaked  condition  of  the  ground. 
Everywhere  else  the  assault  had  been 
successful. 

FREEZING     WEATHER     ALLOWS     CERTAIN 
SMALL  ADVANCES. 

The  weather  remained  clear  and 
frosty  for  several  days,  freezing  the 
water  in  the  puddles  and  leaving  the 
roads  "ringing  hard."  Fighting  con- 
tinued, with  the  result  that  the  front 
was  straightened  and  extended  and 
more  prisoners  taken.  Then,  on  the 
morning  of  the  eighteenth,  a  further 
advance  was  made.  South  of  the 
Ancre  a  gain  of  about  500  yards  on  a 
two  and  a  half  mile  front  carried  the 
lines  to  the  outskirts  of  Grandcourt; 
while  north  of  the  river  they  were 
pushed  three-quarters  of  a  mile  north- 
east of  Beaucourt.  The  total  number 
of  prisoners  taken  in  the  Ancre  battle 
of  six  days'  duration  amounted  to 
over  7000. 

Before  nightfall,  on  the  night  of  the 
eighteenth,  however,  a  thaw  had  begun 
with  a  renewal  of  rain,  slush,  mud,  and 


raw  heavy  fog.  In  the  alternating 
frosts  and  storms  during  the  remaining 
weeks  of  the  year,  the  attack  died 
away  in  the  mud.  No  definite  engage- 
ments took  place  but  the  guns  were 
busy  somewhere  all  the  time,  frequent 
trench  raids  were  made,  and  on  clear 
days  there  was  much  aerial  fighting. 

A  REVIEW      OF      THE      OBJECTIVES      AND 
ACCOMPLISHMENTS. 

In  order  to  get  a  just  estimate  of  any 
battle,  particularly  a  great  modern 
battle  like  that  of  the  Somme  in  1916, 
one  must  consider  many  other  matters 
beside  the  mere  seizure  of  a  certain 
amount  of  territory.  It  can  not  be 
measured  in  square  miles  alone.  First 
in  importance  we  may  regard  the  aims 
of  the  attacking  armies.  In  planning 
the  olTensive  on  the  Somme,  the 
Allies  had  as  their  first  intention  the 
holding  of  as  many  German  troops  as 
possible  on  that  part  of  the  Western 
Front  in  order  to  furnish  relief  for  the 
French  at  Verdun  and  to  keep  rein- 
forcements from  the  Austrians  in  their 
efforts  against  the  Russians  and  Ital- 
ians. Another  object  in  view  was  to 
break  down  as  rapidly  and  extensively 
as  might  be  the  man  strength  and  re- 
sources of  the  enemy  and  reduce  his 
morale  by  dislodging  him  from  posi- 
tions built  up  with  skill  and  labor  dur- 
ing twenty  months  of  war  and  looked 
upon  as  impregnable. 

It  has  been  reckoned  that  up  to  the 
end  of  November  the  Germans  had 
used  in  the  Somme  area  the  equivalent 
of  nearly  140  infantry  divisions.  Of 
individual  divisions  the  actual  number 
fighting  is  said  to  have  been  97,  out  of 
which  some  had  been  put  in  twice  and 
some  three  times.  As  the  total  number 
of  divisions  in  the  German  Army 
organization  was  200,  this  would  mean 
that  "the  equivalent  of  rather  over 
two-thirds  of  all  the  German  Armies 
on  all  the  fronts"  were  engaged  upon 
the  Somme  battlefield.  The  pressure 
on  other  fronts  had  been  lightened  by 
this  concentration  in  the  west.  More- 
over, many  of  the  divisions  had  suffered 
a  loss  of  more  than  half  their  fighting 
Strength  and  the  average  loss  is  be- 
lieved to  have  been  almost  45  per  cent, 
in    all    perhaps    500,000    men.      The 

555 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


GIANT  CAPTURED   FROM   THE   GERMANS 


This  periscope  would  furnish  an  eye  with  a  wide  scope 
of  vision,  peering  over  trees  and  hills.  If  could  con- 
veniently telescope  together  into  comparatively  small 
compass  for  transportation  on  its  wheeled  support. 


British  alone  had  taken  38,000  pris- 
oners between  July  i  and  the  middle  of 
November;  they  and  the  French  armies 
together  had  taken  about  80,000. 
1  heir  losses  however  were  largest, 
even  greater  than  those  of  the  Germans. 
The  increasing  tendency  of  the  German 
soldiers  to  surrender  in  "batches" 
when  they  were  discovered  in  dugouts 
and  tunnels  and  had  to  face  hand-to- 
hand  fighting,  indicated  a  shaken  con- 
dition of  morale  among  them  after 
their  strongholds  were  shattered  and 
torn  and  their  nerves  battered  by 
incessant  bombardments.  Another 
cause  of  discouragement  and  depres- 
sion among  the  enemy  was  the  un- 
doubted superiority  of  the  Allied 
airmen  over  their  own. 

FOR  THE  FIRST  TIME  FRENCH  AND  BRIT- 
ISH HAVE  SHELLS  ENOUGH. 

In  the  battle  of  the  Somme,  for  the 
first  time  since  the  war  began,  the 
French  and  British  had  had  at  their 
command  supplies  that  were  adequate 
for  effectual  operations.  And  since 
"war  had  become  largely  a  question  of 
material,"  this  factor  was  of  foremost 
importance.  With  factories  and  rail- 
roads and  supply  bases  at  work  in  un- 
ceasing activity  behind  the  Armies, 
with  rapid-firing  implements  of  the 
highest  efficiency  in  their  hands,  the 
men  could  do  battle  day  after  day 
except  when  the  weather  gave  them 
pause.  Of  the  enemy's  weapons,  the 
British  had  taken  over  as  booty,  29 
heavy  guns,  96  field  guns  and  field 
howitzers,  136  trench  mortars,  and  514 
machine  guns,  beside  large  quantities 
of  stores  of  all  kinds.  The  temper  and 
quality  of  the  Allied  troops  had  been 
well  proven  by  the  long  strain  of  the 
half-year  in  the  trenches  and  on  the  hill 
slopes,  in  heat  and  cold  and  mud  and 
under  constant  fire.  The  New  Army 
had  shown  no  lack  of  spirit  or  efficiency, 
but  had  gone  to  its  task  with  cheerful 
determination  and  indifference  to  dan- 
ger. In  fact  this  was  the  universal 
attitude  throughout  the  armies,  so 
that  a  correspondent  of  The  Times 
announced:  "Almost  every  Battalion — 
€v€Fy  Brigade — every  Division — was 
the  best  in  the  Army,  I  know  it, 
because    the   officers   have    told    me." 


556 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


Even  a  clergyman  of  Germany  blindly 
paid  tribute  when  he  said:  "Many 
wounded  men  are  coming  back  to  our 
Church  from  the  dreadful  Western 
Front.  They  have  been  fighting  the 
British,  and  they  find  that  so  ignorant 
are  the  British  of  warfare  that  the 
British  soldiers  on  the  Somme  refuse 
to  surrender,  not  knowing  that  they 
are  really  beaten,  with  the  result 
that  terrible  losses  are  inflicted  upon 
our  brave  troops." 


Gueudecourt,  Lesboeufs,  and  Morval, 
with  the  final  reduction  of  Combles  and 
Thiepval.  October  added  Eaucourt 
I'Abbaye  and  Le  Sars,  leading  up  to 
the  final  brilliant  record  of  November 
when  Beaumont  Hamel,  Beaucourt, 
and  St.  Pierre  Divion  yielded  up  their 
strength  before  the  last  bold  assault  of 
the  year. 

These  are  the  fortified  villages 
through  which  the  advancing  British 
lines  were  pushed.     We  have  seen  how 


KING  GEORGE  WITH  SIR  DOUGLAS  HAIG  AND  SIR  HENRY  RAWLINSON 


In  August  the  King  spent  a  week  among  the  armies  in  France,  visiting  not  only  headquarters  but  the  fighting  front 
as  well.  He  exchanged  courtesies  with  the  French  commanders,  discussed  the  situation  fully  with  Sir  Douglas 
Haig  and  made  tours  through  captured  German  trenches,  inspecting  much  of  the  ground  of  recent  conflict. 


SUMMARY     OF 
THE  BATTLE. 


THE     GEOGRAPHY     OF 


A 

Let  us  look  back  across  the  months 
of  conflict  among  the  hills  and  woods 
of  Picardy.  In  the  first  week  of  July 
the  first  line  of  the  German  rampart 
was  broken  through,  and  Mametz, 
Montauban,  Fricourt,  Contalmaison 
and  La  Boisselle  were  reduced.  Mid- 
July  brought  the  second  crashing 
stroke,  that  yielded  Longueval,  the  two 
Bazentins,  Ovillers-la-Boisselle,  and 
Pozieres.  Through  August  there  was 
steady,  hard,  up-hill  fighting  under 
burning  heat  to  gain  the  top  of  the 
ridge.  This  was  followed  in  September 
by  the  seizure  of  Guillemont,  Ginchy, 
F  I  e  r  s,      Martinpuich,      Courcelette, 


numbers  of  separate  contests  were 
fought  over  many  a  farm  and  wood- 
land, fortified  valley  and  sunken  road, 
a  windmill,  a  redoubt,  a  trench,  a 
cemetery.  So  this  battle  which  was  in 
truth  more  than  fifty  battles,  each  of 
which  would  have  been  counted  as  an 
important  engagement  judged  by  the 
standards  of  warfare  in  earlier  days, 
had  altered  the  lines  on  the  Western 
Front.  For  the  first  time  since  settling 
there,  the  Germans  had  lost  the  initia- 
tive. It  had  been  taken  over  into  the 
hands  of  the  Allies.  At  one  point  the 
strong  wall  of  defense  had  been  battered 
through  and  laid  in  ruin — a  thing  of 
shattered,  splintered,  crumbling  frag- 
ments. 


557 


FRENCH  TROOPS  MARCHING  ON  MONASTIR 
In  this  picture  French  soldiers  brigaded  with  the  Serbian  contingent  are  ascending  the  ste^p  Selechka  Mountains. 
This  force  advanced  through  the  most  difficult  country,  for  the  Serbians  knew  the  mountains,  and  the  tactics 
which  led  finally  to  the  recapture  of  Monastir  were  manoeuvre  and  pressure  all  along  the  Moglena  and  Selechka 
ridges  with  the  object  of  piercing  the  enemy  line  at  one  point,  thus  outnanking  his  position. 


Bridge  on  the  Railway  to  Monastir  Guarded  by  Zouaves 


Chapter  XXXIV 


The  First  Operations  Around  Saloniki 

BRITISH,   FRENCH,   SERBIANS,  ITALIANS  AND  RUSSIANS 
ATTACK   IN   THE   BALKANS 


"TOURING  the  late  summer  of  1915, 
'^  it  became  clear  that  the  Central 
Powers  were  preparing  for  a  thrust 
southwards  in  the  Balkans  to  gain 
control  of  the  Morava-Maritza  valleys 
and  the  Orient  railway  which  would 
give  them  through  communication 
with  Constantinople,  and  further  im- 
peril the  Allied  position  a,t  Gallipoli. 
Serbia  barred  the  way  and  in  encom- 
passing her  destruction,  the  Central 
Powers  planned  to  seize  the  Vardar 
valley,  the  sole  avenue  of  supplies  from 
the  south.  Teuton  diplomacy  there- 
fore devoted  itself  to  Bulgaria  in  order 
that  she  might,  from  her  point  of  van- 
tage, attack  the  Vardar  trench,  and  to 
that  end  concessions  were  promised 
that  would  give  her  a  coveted  egress 
to  the  sea.  To  guard  against  this 
menace  to  Serbia  the  idea  of  a  Balkan 
campaign  began  to  take  shape  in  Paris, 
and  General  Sarrail  was  asked  to  make 
a  report  on  the  possibilities  of  an  under- 
taking in  the  peninsula. 

SALONIKI   MIGHT  BE  IMPORTANT  TO  THE 
GERMANS. 

The  project  most  in  favor  was  a 
landing  at  Saloniki,  because  of  its 
harbor,  the  three  railways  that  led  up- 
country  from  the  city,  its  proximity  to 
Gallipoli,  and  because  the  Venizelist 
Government  then  in  power  in  Greece 
was  strongly  pro-Ally,  and  there  was 
reason  to  believe  that  the  co-operation 


of  the  Greek  Army  might  shortly  be 
counted  upon  to  help  to  defend  the 
Vardar  trench.  While  yet  decision  was 
impending,  the  rapid  march  of  events 
in  the  Balkans  brought  a  dramatic  close 
to  all  hesitation.  Bulgaria  under  a 
thin  disguise  of  neutrality  began  to 
mobilize,  Greece  followed  suit,  and  on 
September  21,  M.  Venizelos  asked  the 
Allies  for  an  army  of  150,000  men  to 
supply  the  place  of  the  troops  which 
Serbia  by  her  treaty  of  alliance  with 
Greece,  June  3,  1913,  was  pledged  to 
put  on  her  southern  frontier,  and  which, 
because  of  the  Austrian  invasion,  she 
could  not  spare. 

THE  ALLIES  LAND  TROOPS  TO  FORESTALL 
TEUTON  OCCUPATION. 

The  Cabinets  of  Paris  and  London 
came  to  a  decision,  and  the  necessary 
steps  were  taken,  as  the  Allies  then 
believed  that  Greece  would  recognize 
her  treaty  obligations  and  support 
Serbia.  King  Constantine  did  nothing, 
but  skillfully  avoided  all  responsibility, 
and  October  2  a  purely  formal  protest 
to  protect  Greece's  neutrality  was 
handed  to  M.  Guillemin  who  had  noti- 
fied the  government  of  the  prospective 
arrival  of  the  French  troops.  The 
German-Austrian  menace  to  Serbia 
upon  Save  and  Danube  was  so  serious 
that  speed  was  essential,  and  General 
Bailloud's  French  division  from  Cape 
Helles,  and  the  loth  British  Division 

559 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


under  General  Sir  Bryan  Mahon  from 
Suvla  were  hurried  from  the  Dardan- 
elles and  the  first  detachments  landed 
at  Saloniki  October  5.  That  was  an 
eventful  day.  In  the  morning  King 
Constantine  informed  Venizelos  that  he 
had  gone  beyond  his  rights  and  de- 
manded his  resignation,  which  was  given 
just  two  hours  before  the  French  troops 
began  to  disembark. 

T^ING  CONSTANTINE  BEGINS  TO  QUIBBLE. 

By  this  act  the  king  gave  the  plainest 
possible  avowal  of  sympathy  with  Ger- 
many, and  the  Saloniki  expedition 
from  the  outset  was  doomed  not  only 
to  Greek  hostility,  but  laid  open  also 
to  the  charge  of  violating  Greek  neu- 
trality, for  the  king  quickly  proceeded 
to  repudiate  the  treaty  with  Serbia 
on  the  ground  that  it  held  good  in  case 
of  Bulgarian  aggression  alone.  "Come 
over  into  Macedonia  and  help  us"  is 
a  cry  repeated  down  the  ages,  but  the 
helpers  when  they  came  were  no  more 
welcome  in  this  latter  day  than  in 
earlier  times.  Nevertheless  the  Allies 
stayed,  and  strove,  by  avoiding  occa- 
sion of  strife,  to  make  Constantine  for- 
get that  the  neutrality  of  Greece  no 
longer  existed  save  in  theory. 

General  Sarrail  left  for  Saloniki 
October  7,  and  arrived  on  the  twelfth. 
So  hurried  was  the  whole  undertaking, 
that  his  orders  were  changed  twice  on 
the  way  and  once  again  within  forty- 
eight  hours  of  his  arrival,  when  the 
French  Government  gave  orders  to 
move  up  the  Vardar  in  a  desperate 
effort  to  join  hands  with  the  Serbian 
army.  In  those  few  days  much  had  hap- 
pened. On  the  seventh  of  the  month, 
von  Mackensen  had  forced  the  line 
of  the  Save  and  Danube;  on  the  ninth, 
Belgrade  had  fallen,  and  on  the 
eleventh  the  Bulgars  had  crossed  the 
Serbian  marches.  Soon  200,000  Austro- 
Germans  under  von  Mackensen  were 
pushing  south  from  Save  and  Danube 
against  the  Serbian  front,  while  250,000 
Bulgars  were  moving  east  against  the 
Serbian  right  flank.  Far  to  the  south 
a  small  Franco-British  force  was  pre- 
paring to  go  against  the  Bulgarian  left, 
fearing  that  already  it  was  too  late  to 
succor  Serbia  or  hold  up  the  retreat. 

560 


The  Serbian   story   of   the   fighting   is 
told  in  Chapter  XXII. 

THE    SERBIAN    HOPE    OF    ALLIED     ASSIST- 
ANCE. 

The  Serbians  had  hoped  that  the 
Allies,  using  the  railway  from  Saloniki, 
would  rush  up  to  Nish,  and  houses 
were  decorated  with  flags  in  their 
honor,  and  crowds  waited  for  them  at 
the  station.  But  General  Sarrail  had 
decided  against  this  plan.  Nish  was 
200  miles  from  Saloniki  and  connected 
only  by  a  single  railway  line.  If  troops 
were  sent  it  would  mean  that  they 
would  be  flung  into  the  battle  unit  by 
unit  as  they  arrived,  that  they  would 
pass  under  the  Serbian  High  Command 
and  cease  to  exist  as  a  separate  force, 
and  that  they  must  share  in  the  in- 
evitable Serbian  retreat.  Moreover, 
the  Greeks  by  this  time  were  showing 
themselves  so  hostile  that  Sarrail 
judged  it  unwise  to  expose  himself  to 
being  cut  off  in  the  rear.  Accordingly, 
he  decided  to  protect  the  Vardar  valley 
with  the  forces  at  his  disposal,  and 
thereby  secure  for  the  Serbians  one 
line  of  retreat  to  the  sea.  The  French 
troops  were  hurried  to  secure  the  rail- 
way and  join  hands  if  possible  with  the 
Serbians  before  the  Bulgar  thrust  had 
cut  communications.  The  British  force 
was  to  hold  Saloniki,  and  protect  the 
communications. 

The  advance  began  on  October  14, 
and  in  five  days  General  Bailloud  had 
established  headquarters  at  Strum- 
nitza  station,  and  started  to  drive  back 
the  Bulgars  in  the  hilly  region  on  the 
east  of  the  line  towards  their  own 
frontier.  The  position  on  the  crest  of 
these  hills  was  secured  and  taken  over 
by  the  British  division  which  began 
to  arrive  on  the  26th.  Meanwhile  the 
French  left  and  more  mobile  wing  had 
pushed  further  north  and  captured 
the  Demir  Kapu  gorge,  a  point  of 
special  danger  where  river  and  railway 
are  penned  up  for  ten  miles  in  a  ravine, 
whose  entrance  is  a  gap  so  narrow  that 
only  the  river  can  force  a  passage 
between  its  high  walls  and  where  the 
railway  has  to  burrow  into  the  rock 
itself.  This  defile  was  seized  only  just 
in  time,  for  the  Bulgai-s  were  advancing 
from  the  east. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


BULGARS     SUCCEED     IN     SEPARATING 
FRENCH  AND  SERBIANS. 

Sarrail's  first  French  brigade  had 
reached  Krivolak  on  October  20.  His 
intention  had  been  to  push  up  to  Veles 
where  the  Serbian  Colonel  Vasitch  was 
Still  holding  out,  though  almost  sur- 
rounded. If  Veles  could  have  been 
reached  there  would  have  been  no 
journey  across  Albania  for  the  weary 
Serbians,  but  the  Allies  were  too  late 


signal  for  retreat  sounded.     It  was  the 
beginning  of  the  end. 

Meanwhile,  in  the  south  covering 
Monastir,  for  over  a  month  5,000 
Serbians  with  few  guns  and  little  food 
were  holding  in  the  Babuna  pass  a 
Bulgarian  force  fully  four  times  as 
great.  Here  a  second  effort  to  effect  a 
junction  was  made,  this  time  by  the 
French.  Krivolak  had  been  captured, 
the    line    was    strengthened    down    to 


fSj^s-i, 


'     V       KOPKULU 


aA  t*^  "^il  '*  V^  *''*'^j  - 

iSi„.N,A  .••^••tr^l^*J•••^J^|TJ,.Vil.'^'■'Cs"cs/      /!%^ 

■  '■■■  f/„  >/*< 


ALLIED  OPERATIONS  FROM  SALONKI 

The  Allies  had  three  routes  by  which  they  might  debouch  from  Saloaiki;  by  the  Struma  or  Vardar  valleys,  or  by 
road  and  railway  to  Monastir.  In  August  1916,  the  Bulgarians  captured  the  Struma  valley.  Drama,  Seres,  and 
Kavalla  so  that  Sarrail  could  not  advance  to  help  Rumania.    In  September  he  pushed  east  as  far  as  Monastir. 


in  landing.  Uskub  fell  on  the  22nd  and 
Veles  on  the  28th  of  the  month.  The 
Bulgarian  invasion  had  accomplished 
its  first  great  purpose;  it  had  driven 
a  wedge  between  retreating  Serb  and 
advancing  Frenchman.  Was  it  pos- 
sible to  cut  through  this  wedge  by 
fighting?  Two  attempts  were  made, 
both  of  them  doomed  to  failure.  The 
first  was  the  so-called  "manoeuvre  of 
Katshanik"  in  which  from  November 
4-8  the  Serbians  took  the  offensive 
in  the  hope  of  cutting  through  to 
Uskub.  But  they  were  tired  out  and 
short  of  guns  and  so  after  five  hard 
days  the  attack  was  called  off,  and  in 
its    place   on    the    twelfth    the    tragic 


Strumnitza  station,  and  at  Krivolak 
the  Kara  Hodjali  mountain  command- 
ing the  railway  was  taken  by  the 
French  who  called  it  Kara  Rosalie 
in  token  of  the  bloody  bayonet  fighting 
around  its  slopes.  In  order  to  begin 
the  attack,  the  swollen  Vardar  had  to 
be  crossed  and  re-crossed  many  hun- 
dreds of  times  in  an  old  Turkish  punt 
and  the  height  was  secured  only  just 
in  time,  for  two  days  later  the  Bul- 
garians realizing  its  importance  attacked 
in  force  and  were  only  beaten  off  in  a 
fierce  close  fight  (November  4  and  5), 
and  still  remained  intrenched  over 
against  the  French  on  the  flat  crest  of 
the  mountain. 

561 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


-rpRENCH  AND  SERBIANS  ARE  KEPT  APART. 

By  road  Babuna  is  twenty-five  miles 
due  west  of  Krivolak — as  the  crow  flies 
it  is  a  brief  ten — but  the  country 
between  is  a  tangled  mass  of  mountains 
and  the  sole  road  a  mere  track.  At 
Vozartzi  the  Tcherna,  deep  and  unford- 
able,  is  crossed  by  a  long  wooden  bridge. 
The  French,  already  far  from  their 
base,  pushed  on  deeper  into  the  rugged 
mountains  and  finally  flung  themselves 
against  the  slopes  of  Mount  Archangel 
where  the  Bulgars  lay  entrenched,  in  a 
final  furious  efifort  to  reach  the  Serbians 
whose  rifle  shots  re-echoed  faintly 
and  despairingly  among  the  lonely  val- 
leys to  the  west.  But,  in  spite  of  hard 
fighting  on  the  part  of  the  French,  the 
limit  of  Serbian  endurance  was  reached 
on  November  i6,  and  they  retreated 
up  the  pass  and  left  the  French  left 
exposed,  while  all  hope  of  effecting 
a  junction  was  now  over. 

"A  single  track  railway  a  hundred 
miles  long,  threatened  by  open  ene- 
mies on  the  greater  part  of  its  length 
and  exposed  to  secret  enemies  on  the 
rest,  followed  by  i8  or  20  miles  of  a 
bad  road  which  included  two  wooden 
bridges  across  formidable  rivers.  Such 
was  their  sole  line  of  supply  and  their 
sole  line  of  retreat."  So  General  Sar- 
rail  fell  back  to  the  Vardar  and  took 
up  a  position  between  that  river  and 
the  Tcherna  in  the  so-called  triangle 
of  Kavadar.  "A  dreary  place  was  this 
Kavadar  triangle"  writes  the  corres- 
pondent quoted  above,  "almost  tree- 
less; the  once  fertile  fields  deserted; 
the  rare  villages  in  ruins,  burnt  by  the 
Comitadji  bands  which  used  to  ravage 
the  Balkans  in  the  interests  of  con- 
flicting national  propaganda.  The 
wretched  population,  was  the  usual 
mixture  of  Bulgarian,  Serb  and  Mus- 
sulman but  with  each  section  accus- 
tomed to  change  their  racial  and  re- 
ligious labels  under  the  application  of 
terrorism.  Order  was  kept  among  them 
with  a  strong  hand  by  an  ex-Comitadji 
named  Babounski,  who  made  short 
work  of  doubtful  characters,  hanging 
them  or  'sending  them  down  to  Salon- 
iki'  as  he  euphemistically  termed  it, 
which  meant  a  summary  execution  on 

562 


the  banks  of  the  Vardar  after  which 
the  body  was  thrown  into  the  stream. 
Mud,  filth,  half-wild  dogs  were  the 
most  conspicuous  features  of  the  coun- 
tryside. No  supplies  of  any  kind  could 
be  drawn  from  a  region  whose  re- 
sources even  in  the  way  of  fuel  were 
limited  to  cakes  of  bullock-dung  dried 
by  being  stuck  on  to  the  decaying 
walls." 

Q  ARRAIL  FORCED  TO  RETIRE  ON  SALONIKI. 

Sarrail's  main  purpose  had  failed; 
his  attack  had  broken  against  the 
Bulgar  intrenchments  on  the  slopes 
of  Mount  Archangel.  Winter  was 
coming  on,  and  the  commander  deter- 
mined to  retire  on  Saloniki.  He  knew 
that  it  was  only  a  matter  of  time  till 
Todorov's  Southern  Army,  having  dis- 
posed of  the  fleeing  Serbians,  would 
turn  upon  him.  Indeed,  Bulgar  at- 
tacks upon  the  British  in  the  Lake 
Doiran  sector  and  upon  the  French  on 
the  Vardar  had  already  begun  in  early 
December.  The  attitude  of  the  Greek 
Government  was  in  no  way  reassuring. 
Troops  had  been  mustered  in  the  north- 
west corner  and  reports  of  opposition, 
covert  but  unmistakable,  came  daily 
to  increase  his  anxiety.  Therefore  re- 
treat was  ordered  and  carried  out  by 
stages;  while  an  appearance  of  activity 
was  kept  up  at  the  front  a  series  of 
strong  entrenched  positions  was  pre- 
pared down  the  Vardar  to  guard  the 
rear  of  the  retiring  army.  Besides  the 
one-track  railway,  there  were  but  two 
or  three  rough  tracks  possible  only  for 
men  on  foot  and  pack-animals.  All  the 
carts,  motor  lorries  and  other  heavy 
material  had  to  go  down  by  rail,  and, 
of  course,  congested  traffic  enormously. 
It  was  bitterly  cold  and  the  snow  lay 
thick.  The  Bulgars  were  hard  upon 
their  heels,  but  the  intrenched  posi- 
tions served  as  break-waters  to  delay 
the  fury  of  their  assault.  Nevertheless 
the  Allies  experienced  something  of  the 
misery  of  the  Serbians  among  the 
Albanian  wilderness  in  those  dreary 
days  of  December,  191 5. 

"As  they  fell  steadily  back,  the  con- 
ditions of  their  retreat  desperately  bad 
as  they  were  already  rendered  by  the 
deep  snow,  the  bitter  cold,  the  fog,  and 


ON  THE  SERBIAN  BORDER 

In  the  southwest  of  Serbia  lie  her  best  and  most  luxuriant  pastures  where  cattle,  sheep  and  swine  are  raised  ex- 
tensively, and  oxen  are  used  freely  as  work  animals.  The  population  is  almost  entirely  agricultural,  although  the 
mineral  resources  are  varied  and  valuable.    There  is  little  mining  from  lack  of  capital  and  of  roads. 


ON  THE  GRECO-BULGARIAN  BORDtK 

Bulgaria  is  agricultural  and  pastoral  with  exoorts  of  grain,  animals,  fruit  and  tobacco.  The  Bulears  are  mostly 
neasant  proprietors  working  their  own  land.  Trade  was  in  the  hands  of  Greeks,  Austrians,  Kumanians,  and  Jews. 
The  importance  of  Bulgaria  is  due  chiefly  to  the  fact  that  railways  connecting  Europe  and  Asia  must  pass  through 
Bulgaria  if  they  are  to  follow  the  shortest  route.  Pictures.  Henry  Ruschin 


HISTORY   OF  THE  WORLD   WAR 


the  unspeakable  mud  and  slush,  be- 
came more  difficult  in  proportion  as  the 
numbers  of  the  retiring  force  were  aug- 
mented through  its  being  withdrawn 
upon  itself.  So  bad  were  the  condi- 
tions that  the  57th  Division  took  a 
whole  day  to  cover  4  miles.  The  men, 
sinking  ankle-deep  in  mud  at  every 
step,  were  dead  tired,  staggering  under 
the  weight  of  their  packs,  wet  to  the 
skin,  starved  with  cold  and  hunger; 
they  had  been  marching  and  fighting 
for  days  in  the  snow  over  rough,  steep 
paths  high   up   the  rocky  side  of  the 


they  did  not  pursue  the  Allies  any  far- 
ther caused  some  surprise  at  the  time 
but  the  Bulgars  had  their  own  reasons 
for  delay.  It  is  possible  that  they  had 
a  secret  agreement  with  the  Greeks 
about  the  frontier,  or  on  the  other 
hand,  wished  not  to  involve  King  Con- 
stantine  at  that  date.  But  the  Allies 
were  falling  back  upon  strong  positions 
where  they  could  be  reinforced  from 
the  sea,  and  the  Bulgars  were  exhausted 
by  a  pursuit  that  had  been  even  more 
arduous  than  the  retreat,  for  the  French 
had  destroyed  tunnels  and  bridges  as 


BRITISH  BAND  PLAYING  THE  RUSSIANS  ASHORE  AT  SALONIKI 
During  the  early  months  of  1916  the  French  and  British  in  Saloniki  were  on  the  defensive,  strengthening  lines  and 
communications.    In  February  their  numbers  were  increased  by  the  Serbians  refitted  in  Corfu,  and  a  little  later 
Italian  and  Russian  contingents  arrived.    Sarrail  then  passed  to  a  successful  offensive  against  Monastir  in 
November,  which  was  intended  to  relieve  pressure  upon  Rumania. 


Vardar  gorge  where  a  slip  often  meant 
death,  often  sleeping  such  sleep  as  they 
could  get  shelterless  in  the  open.  For 
a  fortnight  they  had  not  had  their  boots 
off  or  washed  even  their  faces." 

BULGARS  PURSUE   TO  THE   GREEK  FRON- 
TIER. 

When  they  finally  arrived  within  the 
Greek  frontiers  their  troubles  were  not 
lessened  by  the  fact  that  the  only  two 
railroads  to  Saloniki  were  run  by  Greek 
officials.  The  156th  Division  of  the 
French  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Vardar 
meanwhile  had  fallen  back  by  a  parallel 
route,  and  the  loth  British  Division, 
attacked  by  a  strong  force  of  Bulgars 
from  the  first  week  in  December, 
retired  upon  Saloniki  followed  by  the 
foe  who  stopped  just  short  of  the  Greek 
frontier   stone  outside   Doiran.     That 

564 


they  came  down  the  valley,  and  their 
pursuers  had  only  the  rough  tracks 
from  village  to  village. 

By  the  time  that  all  the  British  and 
French  forces  had  arrived  at  Saloniki 
the  Allied  High  Commands  had  de- 
cided that  although  the  primary  object 
of  the  Balkan  expedition,  the  rescue  of 
Serbia,  had  failed,  yet  Saloniki  must 
still  be  held.  This  decision  resulted 
from  a  general  survey  of  the  entire 
situation  in  the  Near  East.  It  was 
acknowledged  that  Gallipoli  must  be 
evacuated,  and  the  enterprise  at  Salon- 
iki would  then  be  the  only  remaining 
menace  to  Mittel-Europa  which  was 
a  constant  threat  to  Egypt  and  India. 
The  presence  of  the  Allied  armies,  it 
was  thought,  might  keep  King  Con- 
stantine  from  throwing  in  his  lot  with 


HISTORY   OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


the  Germans,  who  could  then  create 
a  submarine  base  at  Saloniki  and  fur- 
ther threaten  communications  in  the 
Eastern  Mediterranean.  While  the 
expeditionary  force  was  spending  itself 
in  vain  efforts  to  help  the  Serbians,  the 
royal  dictatorship  had  extended  itself 
over  all  Greece.  Concessions  as  to 
liberty  of  movement  for  the  Allied 
troons  and  the  use  of  necessary  ways 


water-front  Saloniki  climbs  up-hill, 
and  on  the  hill  is  the  city  wall  and 
citadel  built  by  the  Turks  in  the  fif- 
teenth century.  This  is  medieval  in 
character  but  the  rest  is  modern  and 
Turkish.  In  the  narrow,  crooked,  ill- 
paved  streets,  where  the  second  stories 
often  overhang  the  first,  and  where 
everywhere  the  skyline  is  cut  by  the 
minarets  of  many  mosques,  throngs  a 


ON  THE  QUAYS  AT  SALONIKI 

In  spite  of  Austro-German  submarines  which  everywhere  infested  the  Mediterranean,  French  transports,  con- 
voyed by  destroyers,  accomplished  their  voyage  safely  and  the  troops  are  seen  disembarking  on  the  quays  at 
Saloniki.  Some  of  the  infantry  units  came  from  Africa  where  their  training  camps  were  situated.  The  1915 
contingent  was  at  once  hurried  up  the  Vardar  to  protect  the  southward  route  for  the  retreating  Serbs. 


and  means  of  transport  were  wrung 
from  the  government,  one  of  whose 
members  even  goes  as  far  as  to  ac- 
knowledge that,  "The  matter  has  been 
happily  arranged,  thanks  to  the  broad 
views  of  Germany,  who  has  kindly  con- 
sented not  to  place  any  obstacles  in 
the  way  of  our  benevolent  neutrality 
toward  the  Entente." 


T 


HE  OLD  CITY  OF  SALONIKI  ITSELF. 


It  is  well  at  this  point  to  consider 
some  of  the  characteristic  features  of 
Saloniki,  which  for  so  many  months  to 
come  was  to  form  general  headquarters 
for  the  Army  of  the  Orient.     From  the 


crowd  of.  many  different  races  and 
tongues.  Saloniki  in  normal  times  had 
a  population  of  about  150,000  of  which 
56  per  cent,  were  Jewish  and  the  remain- 
der Greek,  Turk,  Armenian,  Bulgarian, 
Egyptian,  French  and  Italian.  At  first 
from  the  sea  one  is  only  conscious 
of  the  innumerable  mosques;  later 
you  discover  that  the  town  contains 
many  Christian  churches  of  great  age, 
later  still  you  find  that  synagogues  of 
the  Spanish  Jews  are  around  every  cor- 
ner. That  Saloniki  seems  over-popu- 
lated is  due  partly  to  the  fact  that 
everyone  lives  in  the  streets,  the  win- 
dow   sill    forms    a    shop-counter,    the 

565 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


pavement  a  lounge.  One  is  afflicted 
by  abominable  smells  and  deafened 
by  the  crash  and  clatter  of  iron  tires 
across  the  primitive  paving  of  the 
roads.  When  General  Sarrail  brought 
in  all  his  forces,  by  this  time  60,000 
British  soldiers  and  sailors,  and  110,000 
French — added  them  to  the  110,000 
Greek  soldiers  stationed  in  Saloniki 
and  the  e\er-in flowing  stream  of  thou- 


by  an  aeroplane  which  dropped  bombs 
over  the  city.  Sarrail  was  not  ignorant 
of  the  fact  that  spies  were  everywhere 
about  him.  Bulgars,  Austrians,  Greeks, 
Turks,  Germans  lined  the  wharves  and 
counted  each  new  unit  as  it  arrived, 
or  hob-nobbed  with  the  Tommies, 
selling  them  tobacco  and  sweetmeats 
and  learning  whence  they  had  come. 
It  was  bitterly  cold  and  the  scarcity  of 


SALONIKI  FROM  THE  NORTH 
This  picture  of  Saloniki  taken  from  an  elevation  behind  the  city  reveals  only  the  beauty  of  its  site.    Pierced  by  tall 
fingers  of  the  minarets,  with  trees  breaking  the  monotony  of  its  flat  roofs  it  surges  like  white  sea-foam  against  the 
green  slopes  of  the  hills  which  rise  to  the  north.    From  afar  the  narrowness  and  noise  of  the  streets,  the  abomin- 
able smells  and  over-crowding  population  are  not  apparent.  N.  Y.  Times 


sands  of  Serbian  soldiers  and  refugees, 
the  population  was  quadrupled,  the 
traffic  increased  in  the  ratio  of  three 
motor-cars  to  one  small  donkey,  and 
the  babel  of  tongues  in  the  streets  was 
augmented  by  fully  a  half-dozen  others. 

•p^EFENSES  OF  THE  CITY  ARE  DRAWN. 

From  an  open  city  the  French  com- 
mander changed  Saloniki  into  one  of 
the  principal  fortresses  of  the  world. 
The  first  four  months  of  1916  were 
devoted  to  this  work;  nowhere  were 
the  lines  drawn  nearer  to  the  city  than 
ten  miles.  The  first  act  of  war  against 
Saloniki  was  committed  December  30 

566 


firewood  such  that  men  were  rowing 
out  into  the  bay  to  pick  up  the  packing 
cases  dropped  overboard  from  the 
Allied  warships.  There  were  many 
among  the  boatmen  who  had  no  inter- 
est in  fuel,  but  who  noted  each  new 
mooring  in  the  bay  or  wrote  down  the 
signals  wig-wagged  from  ship  to  ship. 
In  the  restaurants  the  consuls  of  the 
Central  Powers  rubbed  elbows  with 
Allied  officers,  and  daily  over  the  wires 
messages  flashed  in  code,  and  the 
train  which  ran  to  Sofia  bore  letters 
full  of  matters  of  moment.  Sarrail 
was  waiting  for  the  'overt  act  and  he 
found   it   in   the  coming  of  the   aero- 


WITH  THE  BRITISH  CONTINGENT  AT  SALONIKI 

Camp  of  an  English  Bicycle  Corps  in  the  Lake  Doiran  region  where  British  contingents  occupied  a  sector  of  the 
front  near  the  city  of  Seres.  In  the  summer  heat,  mosquitoes  and  flies  made  the  plain  unbearable.  The  Allies 
and  their  foes  were  compelled  to  go  to  the  hills  and  fighting  was  at  a  standstill. 


ALLIED  ARTILLERY  ON  THE  GRECO-SERBIAN  FRONTIER 

One  of  the  French  guns  is  being  laboriously  dragged  up  into  the  Serbian  mountains  to  participate  in  the  bombard- 
ment of  the  Bulgar-German  trenches  before  Monastir.  Most  of  the  artillery  units  which  went  into  the  French 
contingent  were  especially  formed  for  the  Saloniki  expedition.  Mountain  trails  and  heavy  rains  and  snow-storms 
imposed  the  severest  possible  strain  on  the  motor  transport. 


HISTORY   OF  THE  WORLD   WAR 


planes.  That  afternoon  he  collected 
the  representatives  of  the  Central 
Powers  with  all  their  personnel  and 
placed  them  upon  a  French  warship. 
At  their  quarters  he  found  abundant 
justification  for  his  act,  in  particular 
at  the  Austrian  office  where  there  were, 
in  addition  to  incriminating  documents, 
guns  and  ammunition. 

NATURE  HELPED  TO  CREATE  DEFENSES 
FOR  THE  CITY. 

Seen  in  the  light  of  later  events,  it 
would  seem  that  Sarrail  need  not  have 


Langaza  and  Bestick.  The  trough  con- 
tinues in  a  wooded  valley  to  Orfano, 
an  excellent  point  for  the  right  end 
of  the  line.  The  intrenchments  from 
Vardar  mouth  to  Orfano  gulf  stretched 
for  over  60  miles,  and  northwards  to 
where  the  ridges  of  hills  began  to  rise 
from  the  plain. 

Outside  this  line  there  is  an  even 
stronger  natural  barrier  of  defense — 
for  some  45  miles  up-stream  the  Vardar 
runs  in  a  network  of  channels  between 
changing  sandbanks.      "The  northern 


THE  SERBIANS  ARRIVE  AT  SALONIKI 
In  all,  contingents  from  seven  different  nations  made  up  the  Army  of  the  Orient.    These  troops  might  be  mistaken 
for  French  soldiers  rather  than  Serbian,  as  their  uniforms  of  horizon  blue  aid  their  equipment  were  furnished  by 
the  French  commission  at  Corfu.  Whatever  uniform  they  wore  all  fought  with  but  one  desire — to  revenge  them- 
selves upon  those  who  had  ruined  their  country. 


fortified  Saloniki  so  strongly,  for  the 
Bulgars  did  not  attack  then  or  after- 
wards. Probably  the  impregnability 
of  its  lines  held  ofif  the  enemy.  At  any 
rate,  Sarrail  meant  to  take  no  risks. 
Saloniki  stands  at  the  head  of  a  long 
gulf  and  to  guard  against  a  flank 
attack,  it  was  necessary  to  draw  a 
longer  line  and  find  suitable  places 
upon  which  to  rest  his  defense.  West  of 
the  city,  salt  marshes  stretch  to  the 
unfordable  Vardar,  a  suitable  starting 
point.  To  the  north  there  is  a  tree- 
less plain  rising  to  ranges  of  hills  which 
extend  some  miles  up  the  Vardar  but 
to  the  east  sink  into  flats  and  form  a 
trough  wherein  lie  two  great  lakes 
568 


slope  of  the  hill's,  towards  the  enemy,  is 
steep  and  forbidding:  the  gentle  back 
slope  towards  Saloniki  is  easily  ascended 
so  that  the  defending  forces  could 
manoeuvre  to  advantage."  There  was 
plenty  of  labor,  and  the  lines  were 
virtually  drawn  by  Christmas  Day, 
191 5.  General  de  Castelnau  paid  a 
visit  of  inspection  on  the  20th  of  De- 
cember and  expressed  himself  well  con- 
tent with  what  he  saw.  ThcJFrench 
held  the  line  from  the  Vardar  to  east  of 
the  Dedeagatch  railway,  and  the  Brit- 
ish, holding  some  parallel  lines  of 
hills  and  the  trough  of  the  lakes,  car- 
ried the  strong  defenses  on  the  right 
down  to  the  gulf. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


MACEDONIA  A  COUNTRY  WITHOUT 
ROADS  OR  BRIDGES. 

In  making  Saloniki  into  an  in- 
trenched camp  and  afterwards,  through 
March  and  April,  1916,  moving  up  the 
lines  to  the  outer  barrier  and  then  to 
the  Greek  frontier,  the  question  of 
transport  was  one  which  had  to  receive 
first  attention.  War  in  Macedonia 
meant  a  war  asainst  nature;   the  coun- 


beyond  such  trifles  as  melons,  eggs, 
tomatoes  and  occasional  fowls  there 
was  nothing. 

The  following  description  from  an 
officer  in  the  British  Saloniki  Force 
well  describes  the  barrenness  of  the 
land :  "  Hundreds  of  square  miles  that 
might  be  so  busy  growing  food  for 
man  and  beast,  and  they  grow  nothing 
but   thistles.     The   hillsides   might   be 


CORFU,  THE  MOST  NORTHERLY  OF  THE  IONIAN  ISLES 

Corfu  has  a  mixed  population:  from  the  days  of  mythology  to  the  present,  it  has  been  invaded  successively  by 
Phoenicians,  Athenians,  Romans,  Venetians  and  Greeks.  A  French  mission  during  the  winter  of  1915-16  was  in 
charge  of  the  reorganization  of  the  survivors  of  the  Serbian  army  collected  there,  and  by  spring  an  army  of  100,000 
men  was  ready  to  take  the  field.  Picture,  Henry  Ruschin 


try  was  without  roads  or  bridges,  and 
the  most  innocent  trickle  of  a  stream 
has  a  way  of  swirling  up  into  a  great 
river  in  the  course  of  an  afternoon. 
A  modern  army  cannot  be  content  with 
the  mere  tracks  that  serve  for  mules 
and  oxen.  Its  heavy  cumbersome 
things  such  as  great  guns,  ammunition, 
immense  stores  of  rations  and  forage, 
and  material  for  repairing  must  be 
close  up  to  the  men  and  instantly 
available.  Somehow  or  other,  roads 
in  Macedonia  had  to  be  made,  im- 
provised or  improved,  as  the  defense 
pushed  forward.  No  army  could  live 
on  what  it  found  in  the  country,  for 


rich  with  vineyards  and  they  are 
desolate  with  evergreen  oak.  There 
is  water  everywhere  and  it  is  allowed 
to  serve  a  little  space  and  then  to 
wander  aimlessly  to  the  sea.  There 
might  be  great  herds  of  cattle  and 
mighty  flocks  of  sheep,  but  all  you 
shall  find  is  a  few  tiny  cows,  a  few 
attenuated  goats,  and  a  few  scraggy, 
fieshless  sheep.  Each  wretched  village 
worries  along  as  best  it  may,  a  self- 
contained  community,  having  little 
traffic  with  the  outer  world.  And 
between  the  villages  there  sweep  the 
miles  of  the  wasted  land.  Wasted 
because  here  is  no  security  gf  tenure, 

569 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


no  consecutive  rule,  no  assurance  that 
he  who  sows  shall  also  reap.  Wasted 
because  it  is  a  country  where  you  may 
find  the  bones  of  the  dead  on  the  tops 
of  little  hills."  Yet  in  the  zone  of  the 
Allied  lines  within  a  few  months 
could  be  found  a  network  of  roads  and 
railways  ramifying  like  a  spider  web, 
bridges,  artesian  wells  pumping  water 
by  the  thousand  gallons  an  hour,  sup- 
ply dumps  with  their  mountains  of 
yellow  packing-cases,  buildings  in  cor- 
rugated iron  of  every  sort.  When  the 
Allies  first  came  no  lighters  could 
reach  the  shore  except  at  the  quay,  yet 
within  a  few  months  they  had  built 
twelve  piers  where  their  supplies  could 
be  unloaded. 

THE    REORGANIZED    SERBIAN    ARMY    AR- 
RIVES FROM  CORFU. 

Except  for  intrenchment  and  road- 
making  there  was  a  deadlock  at  Saloniki 
from  December,  1915,  to  April,  1916, 
for  General  Sarrail  was  not  ready  to 
advance,  nor  the  Bulgars  eager  to 
attack.  An  arrangement  was  reached 
with  the  Greeks  about  moving  troops, 
as  military  needs  required,  into  the 
region  between  Saloniki  and  the  fron- 
tier, and  thereby  daily  watch  was  kept 
upon  the  Bulgars  and  Germans  by  Lake 
Doiran  and  eastward  along  the  line. 
At  the  end  of  January  the  French 
Commander  occupied  the  forts  of 
Kuri  Burnu  on  the  east  side  of  the 
Gulf  of  Orfano  in  order  to  protect  the 
Allied  fleet,  and  the  incident  passed 
off  without  more  than  a  protest  from 
the  government.  But  Greek  hostility 
was  everywhere  in  the  air,  prevalent 
and  insidious  as  the  malaria  of 
Macedonia.  In  spite  of  the  announced 
"benevolent  neutrality"  of  the  Skou- 
loudis  Cabinet,  the  Serbian  refugee  and 
retreating  soldier  met  such  ill-will,  that 
in  January  the  Allies  seized  the  island 
of  Corfu  and  there  a  French  Commis- 
sion began  to  care  for  and  refit  the 
dispirited  host.  By  the  middle  of  April 
the  Serbians  were  ready  to  rejoin  their 
allies  at  Saloniki.  The  Greek  Govern- 
ment refused  them  passage  over  its 
soil,  (perhaps  it  was  only  asked  as  a 
blind  to  guard  against  submarines) 
and  they  were  brought  round  by  sea 
with    successful    evasion    of    attack. 

570 


The  addition  of  100,000  Serbians  to 
the  Army  of  the  Orient  seems  to  have 
alarmed  the  Bulgars  who  in  May,  with 
the  connivance  of  the  Greek  govern- 
ment (which  just  at  that  time  nego- 
tiated a  loan  with  Germany  for 
$15,000,000)  occupied  Fort  Rupel. 
This  was  a  bar  against  Allied  advance 
by  way  of  the  Struma,  and  here  the 
Bulgars  waited  until  they  were  ready 
for  a  simultaneous  push  on  the  other 
flank  before  carrying  their  occupation 
down  to  Kavalla,  where  their  line 
enclosed  the  Allied  positions  in  a  great 
arc. 

PRESSURE  IS  PUT  UPON    KING    CONSTAN- 
TINE. 

Sarrail  acted  immediately  by  pro- 
claiming martial  law  at  Saloniki  and 
throughout  the  zone  of  the  Allied 
armies,  and  military  occupation  of  the 
public  buildings  of  the  town  together 
with  the  control  of  services  of  com- 
munication and  the  police  force.  In 
June  public  manifestations  against 
France  and  England  took  place  in 
Athens.  Then  a  partial  embargo  of 
her  coasts  Ayas  laid  upon  Greece  and 
resulted  in  some  pseudo-concessions 
being  wrung  from  the  Royalist  Govern- 
ment, which  are  related  in  the  chapter 
upon  Greece  as  their  character  is 
political  rather  than  military,  except 
the  demand  which  called  for  the  im- 
mediate demobilization  of  the  Greek 
army. 

When  the  French  and  British  fell 
back  upon  the  sea  (December,  1915) 
110,000  soldiers  of  the  Greek  army  had 
been  in  Saloniki;  these  troops  had 
been  withdrawn  within  a  few  days  but 
all  through  the  late  months  of  19 15 
the  Greek  army  on  a  war  footing  lay 
between  the  Allies  and  their  enemies 
and  formed  a  tight  cordon  round 
Saloniki.  Although  this  cordon  was 
somewhat  relaxed  in  the  early  months 
of  1916,  as  the  fortified  zone  extended 
toward  the  frontier,  yet  the  Greeks 
had  bjgen  in  occupation  of  Demir  Hissar 
and  Rupel  Fort  and  yielded  them  to 
the  Bulgars  in  May,  apparently  by 
agreement.  When  the  king  submitted 
to  the  Allied  ultimatum  of  June  21 
and  agreed  to  demobilize  his  army,  he 
proceeded  to  form  leagues  of  reservists 


GERMAN  BAGGAGE  COLUMN  IN  MACEDONIA 

Bulgarian  troops  lining  the  muddy  street  of  a  Macedonian  village  to  watch  a  German  baggage  column  en  route  to 
the  front  lines.  This  method  of  transportation  was  most  common  in  a  land  whose  wretched  villages  were  con- 
nected with  each  other  and  the  outside  world  by  narrow  mule  tracks,  well-nigh  impassable  in  winter. 


BULGARIAN  SOLDIERS  RESTING 

The  Bulgar,  like  other  inhabitants  of  the  Balkan  peninsula,  is  a  veteran  fighter  accustomed  to  the  hardships  of 
war.  Except  when  in  Serbia,  from  which  nation  he  is  divided  by  ancient  feud,  he  is  said  to  have  fought  fairly 
and  to  have  treated  his  prisoners  humanely.  Taciturn  and  dogged  he  grew  by  degrees  to  hate  his  German  masters. 

Pictures,  Henry  Ruschm 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


who  as  bands  of  irregular  troops  in  the 
rear  threatened  as  definitely  as  the 
army  had  done. 

SARRAIL'S    ATTACK    IS    ANTICIPATED    BY 
THE  BULGARS. 

During  May  most  of  the  German 
troops  were  withdrawn  from  the  Bal- 
kans to  aid  in  the  attack  on  Verdun. 
Sarrail  intended  to  make  an  advance  up 
the  Vardar  in  August.  He  hoped  the 
results  of  his  offensive  might  both  suc- 
cessfully influence  the  coming  elec- 
tions in  Greece  in  favor  of  the  Venize- 
lists,  and  favorably  impress  wavering 
Rumanian  opinion,  and  he  chose  the 
Vardar  avenue  of  attack  as  seemingly 
most  practicable  and  because  it  gave 
Monastir  as  an  objective  to  the  Ser- 
bian contingent.  At  the  end  of  July 
the  Crown  Prince  Alexander  took 
over  the  command  of  his  countrymen, 
who  held  a  position  west  of  the  Vardar 
and  on  the  left  of  the  French.  On  the 
extreme  left  of  the  line,  an  Italian 
contingent  based  on  Avlona  prepared 
to  strike  through  Albania  to  cover  the 
Serbian  flank.  The  British  as  before 
held  the  right.  The  movement  was 
timed  for  the  second  week  in  August. 
A  Russian  contingent  was  now  in  line 
and  all  the  forces  were  under  General 
Sarrail,  while  General  Cordonnier  took 
over  the  French  command. 

Just  as  the  attack  started  the  enemy 
himself  took  the  offensive.  It  is 
possible  that  King  Constantine,  fear- 
ing the  results  of  the  elections,  re- 
solved to  postpone  them  indefinitely 
by  contriving  the  invasion  of  eastern 
and  western  Macedonia  by  the  Ger- 
mano-Bulgarians.  Moreover,  it  is  prob- 
able that  King  Ferdinand  was  preparing 
a  counter-bluff  to  impress  Rumania 
and  delay  her  entry  into  war.  De- 
scending the  valley  of  the  Struma,  the 
Bulgarians  seized  all  the  forts  of  the 
valley  and  the  cities  of  Drama,  Seres 
and  Kavalla.  They  carried  away  the 
garrisons  and  transported  them  to 
Germany.  They  obtained  possession 
of  war  materials  consisting  of  200  can- 
non of  the  latest  model,  50,000  rifles, 
a  great  store  of  ammunition  and  differ- 
ent kinds  of  equipment.  On  the  left, 
Fiorina  was  occupied,  the  Serbians 
were  driven  back  as  far  as  Ostrovo  and 

572 


their  position  crumpled  up  although 
the  French  and  British  held  fast  in 
the  centre  and  on  the  right.  Instead 
of  an  advance  upon  Monastir  that 
would  cloak  Rumania's  entry  into 
war,  the  Allied  position  at  Saloniki 
was  now  threatened  from  east,  north 
and  west. 

THE  BULGARS  GAIN  STRENGTH   BY  THESE 
OPERATIONS. 

The  Bulgarians  by  this  movement 
were  able  to  bring  reinforcements  and 
supplies  from  Eastern  Bulgaria,  or 
from  Turkey  even,  all  the  way  by  train. 
When  Rumania  finally  entered  the 
war  Sarrail  failed  to  advance  to  help 
her — not  from  lack  of  good-will  but 
from  sheer  lack  of  strength.  Neverthe- 
less the  Bulgarian  invasion  of  Macedo- 
nia accomplished  something  for  the 
Entente.  It  cut  the  Greek  army  in  two, 
materially  and  morally.  The  soldiers 
who  had  escaped  from  Macedonia  and 
almost  all  of  the  garrison  of  Saloniki 
formed  themselves  into  an  army  for 
national  defense  and  put  themselves 
at  Sarrail's  disposal  to  resist  the 
Bulgarians.  Thus,  for  the  first  time, 
the  French  Commander's  authority 
was  supreme  in  Saloniki.  Further, 
instead  of  hindering  revolution,  Con- 
stantine had  promoted  it.  Greek 
national  feeling  was  outraged  by  the 
spectacle  of  their  hereditary  enemies 
upon  their  soil,  and  through  September 
the  forces  of  revolution  grew  and  in 
October  open  division  occurred  and 
under  Venizelos  a  separate  provisional 
government  was  established  in  Saloniki, 
which  acted  as  a  rallying  centre  for  the 
Forces  of  National  Defense.  Venizelos 
between  October  1916  and  April  191 7 
succeeded  in  equipping  three  entire 
divisions,  that  of  Seres,  that  of  Crete 
and  that  of  the  Archipelago,  and  these 
joined  the  Allied  Army.  (For  a  fuller 
account  of  the  revolution  see  chapter 
entitled  "Greece  and  the  Venizelist 
Revolt.") 

THE  ATTACK  UPON  MONASTIR  IS 
PLANNED. 

By  August  22  the  Bulgar  attack 
upon  the  Serbian  positions  at  Lake 
Ostrovo  had  been  sugcessfully  stayed, 
and  on  September  7  a  counter-assault 
was   ordered.     Though    Sarrail    could 


mSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


not  advance  to  join  with  the  Rumanian 
General  Averescu  he  now  ordered  the 
attack  upon  Monastir  to  go  forward  in 
order  to  make  a  diversion  on  Rumania's 
behalf.  A  re-disposition  of  the  Allied 
forces,  preparatory  to  the  ad\ance, 
took  place.  In  the  new  arrangement, 
east  of  the  Vardar  none  save  British 
troops  were  to  be  found;  their  task 
was  to  hold  the  enemy  so  that  the 
second  Bulgarian  Army  would  not  go 


east  to  Monastir.  West  of  both  Mog- 
lena  and  Selechka  Mountains  a  flat 
green  plain  leads  corridor-wise  to 
Monastir,  its  edges  bounded  again  on 
the  west  by  mountains  stretching 
towards  Lake  Prespa.  In  this  plain 
the  Bulgars  had  three  lines  of  in- 
trenchments,  the  first  running  through 
Fiorina  to  Verbeni,  behind  that  the 
Kenali  line  whose  left  flank  reached  to 
the  Tcherna,  last  of  all  and  only  four 


'""''"  ALLIED  ARMY  OPERATIONS  AGAINST  MONASTIR 

The  lines  of  Bulgarian  entrenchments  defending  Monastir  are  shown  upon  this  map:  the  first  running  through 
Fiorina  to  Verbeni,  behind  that  the  Kenali  line  whose  left  fl^ank  reached  to  the  Cerna,  last  of  all  and  only  four 
miles  from  Monastir  itself,  the  Bistritza  trenches.  The  city  stands  at  the  head  of  the  only  level  approach  in  the 
region,  and  the  Bulgarian  outworks  were  therefore  strongly  made. 

miles  south  of  Monastir  the  Bistritza 
line,  most  hastily  prepared  of  all. 
The  two  mountain  groups  on  the  east 
of  the  plain  and  forming  its  wall,  be- 
cause they  commanded  road  and  rail- 
way, were  really  the  strength  of  the 
Bulgar  position. 

THE   SERBIAN   ARMY   HAS    THE    POST    OF 
HONOR. 


to  aid  Todorov,  who  was  barring  the 
way  to  Monastir. 

It  is  impossible  to  follow  the  cam- 
paign fought  for  and  in  defense  of 
Monastir  without  some  preliminary 
survey  of  the  terrain.  The  city  stands 
at  the  outlet  of  a  gorge  opening  towards 
the  south.  From  it  run  south  and  then 
east  the  road  and  railway  to  Saloniki. 
To  the  east  of  Monastir  the  river 
Tcherna  runs  south  and  then  north 
enclosing  in  its  wide  bend  the  Selechka 
Mountains.  North  of  Lake  Ostrovo 
the  Moglena  Mountains  rise  to  a  height 
of  8,000  feet  and  Mt.  Kaymakchalan 
at  their  western  end  commands  the 
approach  by  rail  or  road  from  the  south- 


The  Serbians  had  in  line  the  whole 
of  their  First  and  Third  Armies  under 
Voivode  Mishitch  and  General  Vasitch. 
Their  Second  Army  remained  where  it 
had  been  since  before  the  Ostrovo 
battle,  further  round  on  the  right  fac- 
ing the  Bulgars  on  the  steep  scrub- 
covered  slopes  of  the  Moglena  Moun- 

573 


HISTORY    OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


tains.  The  French  and  Russians  in 
the  centre  and  on  the  left  advanced  by 
way  of  the  plain,  while  the  Serbians 
stormed  the  mountain  crests.  The 
counter-offensive  started  on  Septem- 
ber 7,  and  by  the  i8th  the  Franco- 
Russian  Army  had  pushed  forward  to 
within  a  few  miles  of  Fiorina.  The 
Serbs  took  thirteen  miles  in  three  days, 
storming  the  enemy  trenches  on  the 
slopes  in  fierce  close  fighting.  The 
centre  and  right  wing  were  directed 
against  Mt.  Kaymakchalan  and  the 
task  of  keeping  both  supplied  with 
ammunition  and  food  was  a  heavy 
strain  on  the  motor  transport  over 
those  mountain  roads.  Mr.  G.  Ward 
Price,  Official  War  Correspondent  with 
the  Allied  forces  in  the  Balkans  who 
witnessed  the  attack  on  Monastir, 
wrote : 

THE   LAND  OVER   WHICH   THE    SERBIANS 
FOUGHT. 

"There  is  a  belt  of  splendid  beech 
forest  half  way  up  Kaymakchalan,  but 
beyond  that  the  bare  mountain  side 
stretches  nakedly  on  to  its  cap  of 
almost  perennial  snow  and  right  on  the 
top  stand  the  white  boundary  frontier 
stones  which  mark  the  boundary  of 
Serbia.  It  was  on  this  vantage-ground 
above  the  clouds,  with  the  country  they 
were  fighting  to  win  laid  out  before 
their  eyes,  that  the  Serbs  fought  their 
fiercest  battles  with  the  Bulgars.  Little 
intrenching  was  possible  on  the  stone- 
bound  mountain-side.  In  clefts  and 
gullies,  behind  outcrops  of  rocks  of 
under  shelter  of  individual  heaps  of 
stones  collected  under  cover  of  the  dark, 
the  soldiers  of  these  two  Balkan  armies 
fought  each  other  with  savage  and 
bitter  hatred,  under  the  fiercest  weather 
conditions  of  cold  and  exposure.  The 
wind  there  was  so  strong  that  the 
Serbs  said  they  '  almost  feared  that  the 
trench  mortar  projectiles  would  be 
blown  back  on  to  them.' 

"There  could  be  little  artillery  at 
that  point  to  keep  the  battle-lines 
apart.  Mortar,  bomb  and  bayonet 
were  the  weapons  that  worked  the 
slaughter  on  Kaymakchalan,  and  so 
fiercely  were  they  used  that  Serbs 
would  reach  the  ambulances  with 
broken-oflf  pieces  of  knives  and  bay- 

574 


onets  in  their  wounds.  You  came  upon 
the  piles  of  dead  in  every  gully;  behind 
each  clump  of  rocks  you  found  them, 
not  half-buried  in  mud  or  partly  cov- 
ered by  the  ruins  of  a  blown-in  trench 
or  shattered  dug-out,  but  lying  like 
men  asleep  on  the  clean  hard  stones. 
The  fish-tail  of  an  aerial  torpedo 
usually  furnished  evidence  of  the 
nature  of   their  death.     Not  for  days 


GENERAL  SARRAIL 
General  Sarrail  became  Commander-in-Chief  of  the 
Allied  "Arm6e  d'Orient"  at  Saloniki  in  1915.    During 
his  two  years  of  command  Saloniki  was  transformed 
into  an  intrenched  camp,  and  Monastir  recaptured. 

N.  Y.  Times 

only  but  for  weeks  after  dead  Bulgars 
lay  there,  preserved  in  the  semblance 
of  life  by  the  cold  mountain  air,  looking 
with  calm  unseeing  eyes  across  the 
battle-ground  that  had  once  been  the 
scene  of  savage  and  concentrated 
passion  and  activity,  and  then  lapsed 
back  into  its  native  loneliness,  where 
the  eagle  is  the  only  thing  that  moves." 

'■pHE  SERBIANS  STORM  MOUNT  KAYMAK- 
i       CHALAN. 

On  September  20,  the  Russian 
troops  after  a  stern  battle  carried 
Fiorina  by  assault,  the  same  day  that 
the  Serbians  stormed  the  summit  of 
Kaymakchalan,  the  key  of  the  Bulgar- 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


ian  first  line.  The  enemy  made 
desperate  attempts  to  retrieve  his  loss 
but  the  Serbians  held  fast  and  nine 
days  later  Mishitch  by  a  further  ad- 
vance outflanked  him  and  drove  him 
back  to  the  Kenali  line,  only  12  miles 
from  Monastir.  The  Kenali  position 
rested  on  the  Tcherna  where,  entering 
a  rocky  valley,  it  begins  to  turn  north 
enclosing  a  ridge  within  the  loop.  It 
was  the  task  of  Mishitch  to  cross  the 
Tcherna  and  win  the  ridge.  On  a 
rocky  corner  on  the  south  of  the  river 
the  commander  of  the  Serbian  Morava 
division  had  his  observation  post. 

Meanwhile  the  French  were  making 
frontal  attacks  on  the  Kenali  position 
in  the  plain,  and  the  Russians  doing 
rough  fighting  among  the  mountains 
to  the  west.  The  Kenali  intrench- 
ments  were  too  strong  for  frontal  at- 
tacks for  they  were  made  with  the 
skill  and  thoroughness  of  lines  on  the 
Western  Front,  and  when  it  became 
apparent  that  the  artillery  was  not 
heavy  enough  to  smash  them,  General 
Sarrail  based  his  hopes  on  Serbian 
outflanking  and  strengthened  their 
army  with  French  and  Russian  troops 
from  the  plain.  Unfortunately,  at  the 
end  of  October  the  weather  broke  and 
the  trenches  in  the  Kenali  plain  were 
flooded  out,  and  amid  the  wet  and  fog 
the  fighting  among  the  hills  slowed 
down  also.  On  November  14,  a 
general  offensive  from  Kenali  to 
Tcherna  was  ordered,  and  amid  rain 
the  Franco-Russians  captured  the  line 
and  forced  the  enemy  back  to  the 
Bistritza  river  intrenchments.  On 
the  17th  and  i8th  the  Serbs  carried 
the  last  heights  of  the  Tcherna  loop 
which  commanded  the  Prilep  road 
north  of  Monastir.  Without  further 
pressure  von  Winckler  retreated  a 
dozen  miles  to  Prilep  but  was  not 
pursued,  as  snow  now  barred  the  way 
and  the  Allied  force  was  insufficient. 

'y^HE  GREEK  MENACE  IN  THE  REAR. 

After  December  (when  street  fight- 
ing occurred  in  Athens),  the  Greek 
menace  in  the  rear  became  very 
serious.  It  was  a  real  danger,  too,  for 
the  only  communication  with  Monastir 
was  a  single  line  of  railway  a  hundred 


miles  long,  and  at  Verria  the  line  makes 
a  loop  southwards  towards  Old  Greece 
and  was  there  exposed  to  being  cut  by 
Royalist  troops  who  moved  north  in  a 
threatening  manner  and  caused  Sarrail 
to  recall  the  French  detachments  to 
meet  the  peril.  Once  again  Constantine 
had  served  his  German  masters  by  dis- 
tracting Allied  attention  from  their 
real  object,  the  Bulgars,  and  causing 
them  to  resume  the  defensive  once 
again.  Their  offensive  had  succeeded 
in  part  measure  only;  it  had  not  re- 
lieved Rumania  but  it  had  given  back 
Monastir  to  the  Serbs  as  an  earnest 
of  better  things  to  come. 

During  the  first  three  months  of  the 
next  year  mud  and  rain  imposed 
immobility  upon  campaigning  in  the 
Balkans.  It  was  a  deadlock  only 
in  so  far  as  fighting  was  concerned. 
The  Bulgars  used  the  time  in  strength- 
ening their  positions,  making  new 
roads,  bringing  up  fresh  drafts  and 
ammunition  against  the  spring  offen- 
sive. The  Allies  found  themselves 
with  their  hands  full  with  complica- 
tions resulting  from  the  Greek  revolu- 
tion of  October,  1916.  To  avoid 
conflict  a  "neutral  zone"  between  the 
spheres  of  influence  of  the  Royalists 
and  Venizelists  had  been  established, 
and  it  had  to  be  occupied  by  Allied 
troops.  To  the  rear  of  the  Saloniki 
position  the  Chacidice  Peninsula 
stretches  its  three-pronged  head  into 
the  sea,  and  armed  reservists  and  other 
Royalist  agitators  began  to  make 
disturbances  there  which  the  Venize- 
lists strove  to  repress.  Constantine 
and  his  ministers  grew  all  the  while 
more  openly  antagonistic,  but  it  was  the 
policy  of  the  Entente  to  keep  Greece 
quiescent  and  avoid  having  to  fight  a 
campaign  in  Thessaly  or  Attica  as  well 
as  in  Macedonia.  Therefore  we  have 
the  apparently  futile,  wholly  undigni- 
fied, negotiations  between  king  and 
Allies,  wherein  the  latter  played  a 
trimming  game  to  keep  Greece  out  of 
war. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  in 
September,  1916,  the  British  Saloniki 
Force  was  given  the  task  of  holding  the 
line  from  Vardar  to  Struma,  a  distance 
of  90  miles  and  of  engaging  the  Bul- 

575 


HISTORY   OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


garian  Second  Army  so  that  it  did  not 
interfere  with  the  advance  upon 
Monastir.  General  Mihie  had  per- 
formed the  task,  had  even  pushed  his 
line  forward  and  extended  communica- 
tions, but  the  wet  and  cold  winter  had 
tired  his  men  who  so  far  had  had  no 
part  in  a  brilliant  offensive.  At  the 
beginning  of   April,   191 7,  the    British 


Moglena  mountains  by  the  Serbs,  on  the 
right  bank  of  theTcherna  by  the  Serbs 
and  Russians,  in  the  loop  of  the  Tcherna 
by  French,  Russians  and  Italians,  and 
especially  on  that  semi-circle  of  hills 
west  and  north  of  Monastir  where  the 
French  were  faced  by  a  strong  concen- 
tration of  Germans,  Austrians,  and 
Bulgarians.      Local    improvements    of 


SOLDIERS  OF  THE  FRENCH  ARMY  OF  THE  ORIENT 
Camping  in  Macedonia  was  cheerless  work.    The  climate  was  treacherous.    Up  in  the  mountains  the  winter  was 
intensely  cold  with  heavy  snowfall;  in  the  plains  the  temperature   ranged  from  an  average  of  81°  Fahrenheit  in 
midsummer  to  a  minimum  of  14°  in  winter  and  canvas  tents  formed  but  little  protection  against  summer  heat  or 
penetrating  damp.     Insect  pests  were  an  ever-present  torment. 


Commander  determined,  as  part  of 
the  general  spring  offensive  ordered 
all  along  the  line,  to  attack  the  enemy 
positions  around  Lake  Doiran,  which 
were  exceptionally  strong  in  natural 
defense.  April  2  the  first  attack  was 
delivered  on  the  Doiran  fortress  and 
for  a  month  heavy  fighting  in  that 
sector  of  the  front  continued,  with 
little  result  save  that  the  British  oc- 
cupied the  enemy's  first  trenches. 
Simultaneously  all  along  the  line  were 
going  on  similar  Allied  offensive  move- 
ments "on  the  right  bank  of  the  Vardar 
by  the  French  and  Greeks,  among  the 
576 


the  line  were  made  at  several  points 
but  nowhere  was  it  found  possible  to 
drive  a  wedge  into  the  Bulgar  front." 
May  29  the  offensive  was  called 
off;  the  brief  spring  was  over  and  it  was 
time  to  make  dispositions  for  the  un- 
healthful  summer  during  which  it  was 
impossible  to  stay  among  the  malarial 
river  valleys.  The  Bulgar  was  as  well 
aware  of  the  unhealthfulness  of  the 
lowlands  as  were  the  Allies.  He  put  out 
placards,  "We  know  you  are  going 
back  to  the  hills:  so  are  we,"  and  soon 
he,  too,  had  only  a  strong  outpost 
line  on  the  plain. 


Italian  Artillery  on  the  Austro- Italian  Front 


Chapter  XXXV 


The  First  Italian  Campaigns 

ITALY  FIGHTS   FOR  THE  UNREDEEMED  LANDS  AGAINST  FEAR- 
FUL ODDS 


'T^HERE  is  a  picture  where  the  fore- 
-*•  ground  shows  only  a  solitary  battle- 
flag,  rent  and  pierced,  yet  waving  out 
from  its  staff  with  something  of  ineffable 
dignity  and  freedom,  high  above  a 
landscape  of  rough  mountainside  and 
deep  river  valley — far  and  dim  as  seen 
from  this  lonely  height.  The  flag  is  the 
flag  of  Italy.  The  river  is  the  Isonzo 
flowing  between  the  bitterly-contested 
hills  that  formed  the  eastern  barrier  of 
the  Austro-Italian  front,  a  barrier  "for- 
midable even  beyond  the  dreams  of  its 
makers. "  There  is  symbolic  suggestion 
in  the  dauntless  folds  of  the  flag  with 
its  tatters  and  scars,  in  the  grimness  and 
grandeur  of  the  whole  scene.  It  con- 
veys a  sense  of  stern,  determined  strug- 
gle in  the  midst  of  a  region  where  "in 
spite  of  the  utmost  efforts  of  two  great 
armies,  nature  was  still  big  enough  to 
be  lord  and  master." 

npHE  WORK  OF  THE  ITALIAN  ENGINEERS. 

The  work  of  the  Italian  engineers  in 
meeting  colossal  difficulties  was  a  mag- 
nificent achievement.  We  have  seen  in 
an  earlier  chapter  that  upon  Italy's 
entering  the  war,  her  armies  had  taken 
positions  upon  the  ridges  and  summits 
of  the  border.  It  was  not  many  weeks 
before  they  were  feeling  the  support  of 
the  engineering  forces,  "whose  techni- 
cal skill  was  equal  to  their  audacity," 
and  who,  more  and  more,  as  the  war 


proceeded,  met  the  needs  of  the  fighting 
men.  Where  first  therewere  rough  roads 
or  no  roads  at  all,  there  came  to  be 
miles  of  good  highway,  built  with 
gradual  incline  and  rolled  smooth. 
Light  railways  were  constructed  for 
communication  with  the  forces  in  the 
field.  Drinking-water,  lacking  in  many 
of  the  rocky  posts,  was  carried  by  mules 
or  lorries  in  some  cases;  but,  as  soon  as 
possible,  pipe-lines  and  reservoirs  fur- 
nished a  more  satisfactory  supply. 
Perhaps  the  most  interesting  engineer- 
ing contrivance  employed  was  the  tele- 
ferica,  or  aerial  cable  railway,  which 
made  a  direct  connection  between  the 
fighters  on  their  mountain-peaks  and 
shelves  and  the  sources  of  supply  below, 
and  was  capable  of  raising  a  load  of 
nearly  a  half  ton.  Systems  of  trenches 
and  underground  galleries  became  a 
necessity  as  soon  as  it  was  proven  that 
the  conflict  would  be  one  of  siege  rather 
than  a  rush  through  the  enemy's  lines. 

'T^HE  ITALIAN  PLAN  OF  CAMPAIGN. 

Let  us  take  a  look  at  the  situation 
along  the  frontier  immediately  after 
the  declaration  of  war  against  Austria, 
on  May  23.  It  will  be  recalled  that 
General  Cadorna's  plan  was  to  secure 
the  northern  line  and  hold  it,  while 
driving  insistently  against  the  eastern 
barrier  in  the  hope  of  breaking  a  way 
across  into  Austria,   and,   if  possible, 

577 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


seizing  Trieste.  The  Commander's 
intimate  knowledge  of  that  difficult 
frontier  was  invaluable  in  preparing 
plans  for  the  armies  which  had  sprung 
into  place  in  the  Trentino,  among  the 
Carnic  Alps,  and  on  the  Isonzo,  to  close 
the  entrances  that  pierce  the  mountain 
rampart  along  the  four  hundred  eighty 
miles  from  the  Stelvio  Pass  to  the 
Adriatic  Sea. 

The  last  week  in  May  saw  the  Aus- 
trians  falling  back  from  their  foremost 
stations  in  the  mountains  and  the  Ital- 
ians taking  their  places,  tearing  out,  as 
they  moved  forward,  the  yellow  and 
black  poles  that  bore  the  Austrian  eagle. 
The  enemy  wasted  no  great  effort  in 
trying  to  retain  positions  that  were  too 
difficult  to  defend.  As  the  main 
strength  of  the  Austro-Hungarian  army 
was  needed  in  Galicia  for  the  time,  the 
object  of  the  Archduke  Eugene,  in  com- 
mand on  the  Italian  front,  was  to  hold 
his  line  with  as  little  risk  as  possible  un- 
til more  and  better  troops  could  be 
spared.  In  a  general  way,  the  fortified 
line  may  be  described  as  following  the 
crest  of  the  passes  along  the  Trentino, 
and  the  Carnic  Alps  and  running  down 
the  east  bank  of  the  Isonzo,  except 
where  Monte  Sabotino  and  the  ridge  of 
Podgora  had  been  kept  as  protection 
for  bridgeheads  west  of  Gorizia.  Santa 
Lucia  was  to  serve  the  same  purpose  for 
Tolmino. 

Naturally  the  attention  of  both  sides 
was  concentrated  in  the  neighborhood 
of  points  where  railways  ran  through 
gaps  between  the  mountains;  near 
Trent,  where  the  road  from  Verona  runs 
up  the  Adige  Valley;  Tarvis,  opposite 
the  Pontebba  Pass,  on  the  road  to  Lai- 
bach;  and  Gorizia,  the  key  to  Trieste 
and  the  Austrian  front. 

'T"»HE  ADVANCE  ON  THE  ISONZO  LINE. 

The  Italian  advance  on  the  Isonzo 
line  was  planned  in  three  divisions.  On 
the  north,  the  left  wing  had  for  its  ob- 
jectives Tolmino  and  Monte  Nero, 
"the  southernmost  Alpine  giant." 
With  these  in  their  control,  the  Ital- 
ians could  break  off  communication  be- 
tween Vienna  and  the  Isonzo  forces. 
The  Italian  centre  was  placed  over 
against    Gorizia,    with    the    Austrian 

578 


strongholds  on  Podgora  as  an  immedi- 
ate focus  for  attack.  The  right  wing 
was  entrusted  with  the  taking  of  Mon- 
falcone  and  an  advance  upon  the  Carso 
plateau,  on  each  side  of  which  stretched 
lines  of  railway  making  a  double  con- 
nection between  Gorizia  and  Trieste. 

In  most  of  the  early  fighting,  before 
heavy  guns  could  be  employed  in  large 
numbers,  light  troops  were  engaged. 
In  the  mountains  the  Alpini  naturally 
took  the  lead.  These  sturdy  Alpine 
climbers,  with  their  supporting  batter- 
ies of  mountain  artillery  were  the  spe- 
cial northern  frontier  troops.  And 
faithful  guardians  they  showed  them- 
selves through  three  long  winters  of 
war.  Where  quick  action  was  required, 
the  Bersaglieri  were  relied  upon.  Each 
army  corps  had  its  regiment  of  four 
Bersaglieri  battalions,  of  which  one  was 
composed  of  cyclists — the  swift  "ci- 
clisti."  On  Alpini  and  Bersaglieri 
rested  the  heaviest  part  of  the  "long- 
drawn  weight  of  the  war." 

MONFALCONE    TAKEN    BY    THE    BERSAG- 
LIERI. 

Monfalcone  is  a  seaport  at  the  foot  of 
the  Carso  Plateau.  During  the  last  days 
of  May  and  the  first  week  in  June  it  had 
been  under  bombardment  by  the  Ital- 
ian fleet  in  the  Adriatic.  On  June  8, 
an  attack  of  Bersaglieri,  with  their 
cyclist  corps,  and  grenadiers  was 
launched  from  the  Isonzo  side.  Their 
swift  running  fight  brought  them  into 
Monfalcone  in  a  few  hours.  On  the 
ninth  the  town  fell,  and  so  one  loop  of 
theTrieste-Gorizia  railway  was  severed. 

An  attempt  to  strike  across  the 
northern  part  of  the  Carso  by  estab- 
lishing a  bridge-head  at  Sagrado,  the 
very  point  of  the  Carso  salient,  met 
with  far  greater  obstructions.  June 
was  almost  over  before  Sagrado  was 
won.  The  floods  in  the  Isonzo,  a  natur- 
al impediment,  were  augmented  by  the 
Austrians'  destroying  the  bank  of  a 
canal  and  locking  up  the  dam,  so  flood- 
ing almost  all  the  land  from  Sagrado 
to  Monfalcone.  After  persistent  efforts 
the  Italians  succeeded  in  blowing  up 
the  dam  and  gaining  a  crossing,  in 
small  detachments,  ?n  the  face  of  en- 
filading fire  from  the  Austrian  guns.  A 
full  month  had  been  consumed  in  this 


THE  VALLEY  OF  THE  ISONZO  AND  THE  CARSO  PLATEAU 

With  the  topography  of  the  Italian  eastern  frontier  clearly  in  mind,  one  can  understand  why  the  Austrian  soldiers 
were  given  the  memorandum:  "We  have  to  retain  possession  of  a  terrain  fortified  by  Nature.  In  front  of  us  a 
great  watercourse;  behind  us  a  ridge  from  which  we  can  shoot  as  from  a  ten-story  building."  The  glacial  trough 
of  the  Isonzo  above  Gorizia  lies  between  the  southern  mounds  and  ridges  of  the  Julian  Alps.  Monte  Nero  stands 
guard  north  of  Tolmino;  a  long  spur  runs  southward  west  of  the  river  as  far  as  Podgora.  Between  Tolmino  and 
Gorizia  stretches  the  irregular  plateau  of  the  Bainsizza  with  rocky  heights  rising  above  it.  South  of  Gorizia,  that 
strange  broken  region,  the  Carso  plateau,  rears  a  seemingly  insurmountable  barrier  before  Trieste, — a  flat-topped 
mountain,  whose  sides  are  precipitous  walls  three  hundred  to  a  thousand  feet  high,  and  whose  broad  top  is  a  hot, 
dry,  hole-pitted  desert.  The  Vallone,  a  long,  deep,  natural  trench,  breaking  off  the  Doberdo  plateau  from  the  rest 
of  the  Carso,  is  one  more  vast  obstacle  for  an  advancing  army.  All  the  natural  fortifications  had  been  utilized 
and  improved  by  the  Austrians.  Railways  to  Trieste  run  on  both  sides  of  the  Carso,  the  southern  one  near  the 
Gulf,  the  other  following  the  Vipacoo  (Wippach)  Valley. 


579 


HISTORY   OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


undertaking.  Through  July  and  Au- 
gust they  fought  on,  gaining  by  slow  de- 
grees a  hold  upon  the  north-western 
edge  of  the  plateau.  With  Monte  San 
Michele  and  Monte  Sei  Busi  theirs,  be- 
side almost  20,000  prisoners,  they  had 
not  fought  in  vain. 

qpHE  ATTACK  ON  HILL  383. 

Meanwhile,  a  few  miles  to  the  north 
of  Gorizia,  at  Plava,  another  hard-won 


forcements  added  night  by  night,  the 
Italians  pushed  steadily  upon  the  hill 
until  by  a  strategem  they  caused  confu- 
sion among  the  Austrians  and  drove 
them  from  their  stronghold.  By  the 
seventeenth  of  June  the  line  from  Gor- 
izia to  Villach  was  definitely  cut  at 
Plava. 

Although  the  hill  and  the  bridge- 
head thus  obtained  were  in  range  of  the 
guns  on  Kuk  (Monte  Cucco)  and  Monte 


■^ — ' — - — ~^^ 

fell. 

'^'iKMPflttfliiHflill 

^^-  \j 

-  ^ 

R?'' 

■'■  "5^^^'' 

»*.^"f^'^^ 

■■        ;'#^#^ 

ki 

■f^^"  .      "m"  ■ 

''^B 

^  ";'' 

; 

'*4k                -^ImI 

w 

^ 

lA&^ 

w^^^. 

IW 

H^S*      '«.'     -"tflTM    J     ■'''^ 

iL^j^B^f'^^    iSH 

«lMr,.. 

"'"  ^'^  :*'^ 

MONTE  NERO,  A  GIANT  ON  GUARD 
Overlooking  Tolmino  and  Caporetto  at  the  bend  of  the  Isonzo,  Monte  Nero,  in  the  Julian  Alps,  stood  at  the  head 
of  the  valley  which  reached  to  its  foot  almost  straight  from  the  Gulf  of  Trieste.    The  summit  of  the  mountain 
(not  black  as  the  name  would  imply,  but  pearly  gray)  was  so  steep  and  forbidding  as  to  be  inaccessible  of  capture 
by  any  but  the  Alpini,  whose  mountain  craft  and  intrepid  zeal  almost  surpass  belief. 


success  came  to  the  Italian  forces.  The 
attempt  to  cross  the  river  there  was  be- 
gun on  the  night  of  June  8,  but  the 
pontoon  bridges  were  demolished  by 
enemy  fire  the  next  morning.  On  the 
following  night,  a  reconnoitring  force 
of  two  hundred  men  crossed  by  boat 
and  captured  the  Austrian  pickets  with- 
out having  revealed  their  presence. 
Bridges  were  again  started  and  again 
destroyed,  so  that  rafts  were  finally 
resorted  to  for  transportation.  In  this 
way  two  battalions  crossed,  on  the 
night  of  June  ii  —  enough  to  begin 
attack  upon  Hill  383,  which  was 
strongly  fortified  with  cement  trenches 
and  heavy  barbed  wire.  With  rein- 
■580- 


Santo  and  there  was  but  one  road,  and 
that  entirely  exposed,  leading  to  the 
bridge-head  on  the  west  bank  of  the 
river,  this  precarious  position  was  held. 
Two  years  later,  when  a  new,  sheltered 
road  of  approach  had  been  built,  Hill 
383  served  as  a  base  for  the  attacks 
which  conquered  Kuk  and  Bainsizza. 


T 


HE  MISLEADING  NAME  OF  MONTE  NERO. 


The  capture  of  Monte  Nero  (Black 
Mountain)  north  of  Tolmino,  has  been 
acclaimed  as  "one  of  the  finest  feats 
of  the  whole  European  war,"  "as  fine 
a  feat  of  arms  and  mountaineering 
combined  as  stands  on  record  in  his- 
tory."    The  final  seizure  of  the  sum- 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


mit,  early  in  June,  was  accomplished 
by  Alpini,  who  alone  were  equal  to  that 
task.  Caporetto,  on  the  west  bank  of 
the  Isonzo,  had  fallen  to  the  Italians 
on  the  first  day  of  the  war.  With  slight 
delays  caused  by  floods  and  the  wreck- 
ing of  bridges,  they  proceeded  to  take 
the  heights  beyond  the  river.  One  of 
these  was  Monte  Nero,  whose  pearly 


side  on  the  southwest.  Their  feet 
bound  with  rags  for  greater  noiseless- 
ness,  the  climbers  roped  themselves  to- 
gether in  groups.  They  were  not  dis- 
covered by  the  enemy  until  they  had 
nearly  reached  the  crest.  Then  while 
the  Austrians  gave  attention  to  dis- 
lodging them,  the  main  body  came  up 
from  the  other  side  and  closed  in. 


QUARTERS  IN  THE  FAR  MOUNTAINS  OF  NORTHERN  ITALY 

The  Camic  Alps,  a  connectiag  link  between  the  Venetian  Alps  and  the  Julian  Alps,  were  the  wildest  and  farthest 
distant  section  of  the  Italian  front.  There  the  mountains  are  most  rough,  jagged  and  abrupt.  To  keep  men  prop- 
erly supplied  on  such  far-lying,  high-hung  ledges  as  this  called  for  continual  vigilance  and  executive  force. 


gray  summit  belies  its  name.  The  Slo- 
vene term  for  rocky  peak,  Kru,  was 
sometimes  confused  with  another  word, 
Cru,  meaning  black,  and  so  the  moun- 
tain has  become  familiar  as  Monte  Nero. 
The  peak  seems  impossible  of  attack, 
and  so  it  looked  to  Lord  Kitchener 
when  he  visited  the  site  in  the  following 
autumn;  but  the  Alpini  were  not 
daunted.  After  they,  with  the  Bersag- 
lieri  and  infantry  of  the  line  had  estab- 
lished themselves  on  the  hillsides,  they 
alone  completed  the  conquest  of  the 
peak.  Two  cracks  in  the  precipitous 
northern  face  gave  footing  to  a  picked 
company,  while  a  larger  column  ap- 
proached by  the  steeply-sloping  rocky 


qpHE  APPROACH  TO  TOLMINO. 

From  Monte  Nero  the  Italian  troops 
broadened  their  area  of  occupation, 
since  the  position  was  important  as  a 
point  of  approach  toward  Tolmino. 
That  town  itself  was  a  militar^^  depot  of 
sufficient  strength  to  hold  out  as  yet 
against  all  efforts.  It  was  protected 
to  the  westward  by  the  two  hills,  Santa 
Maria  and  Santa  Lucia,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  river.  During  the  summer 
the  Italians  pressed  in  slowly  from  the 
northwest  and  west,  and  in  August, 
after  a  vigorous  attack,  were  able  to  in- 
trench upon  Santa  Lucia.  Trench 
fighting  continued  until  October,  when 

581 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


another  offensive  movement  secured 
parts  of  both  hills,  and  there  the  situa- 
tion rested  again  for  a  while. 

Through  the  summer  the  Isonzo  val- 
ley settled  into  trench  warfare.  The 
Austrian  side  had  been  prepared  in  ad- 
vance. From  the  river-banks  to  the 
mountain  tops  overlooking  them  there 
were  rows  of  cement  structures  and  ex- 
cavations, well-guarded  by  machine- 
guns  and  fields  of  heavy  barbed-wire 
charged  with  electricity.  The  whole 
appeared  like  "a  kind  of  formidable 
staircase,  which  must  be  conquered 
step  by  step  with  enormous  sacrifice. " 
In  places  the  gorge  of  the  river  formed 
a  deep  natural  moat  before  the  fortifi- 
cations. On  Monte  Sabotino,  opposite 
Gorizia,  the  slope  toward  the  Italians 
was  a  glacis  of  limestone  across  which 
the  Austrians  had  blasted  out  a  deep 
trench,  known  to  the  Italians  as  the 
trincerone  (the  big  trench).  Besides, 
there  were  great  shelters  prepared  for 
protection  in  bombardments. 

'y»HE  DIFFICULT  ITALIAN  POSITION. 

Over  against  these  previously  estab- 
lished lines  of  defense  the  Italians 
scraped  out  their  new  trenches,  still  in 
disadvantageous  positions  in  spite  of 
all  their  valiant  endeavor.  Supplies 
and  reinforcements  were  brought  up  by 
night  over  narrow  muddy  roads  which 
by  day  were  exposed  to  the  eye  of  the 
enemy.  Lorries,  mules,  ambulances, 
and  columns  of  troops  passed  and  re- 
passed in  the  dark  on  those  sharply- 
curving,  difficult  roadways,  which  as 
yet  had  not  been  made  adequate  by 
the  engineers.  By  day  the  ambulances 
alone  traveled  back  and  forth,  but  even 
they  were  not  safe  from  the  enemy  fire. 
The  red  cross  upon  them  and  upon  the 
hospital  sites  was  not  always  respected; 
for  the  attitude  of  the  gunners  varied 
in  different  localities.  At  Plava  the  op- 
posing trenches  were  within  a  few  yards 
of  each  other,  with  room  for  only  one 
set  of  barbed  wire  on  their  No  Man's 
Land.  And  in  this  close  proximity,  face 
to  face,  the  combatants  remained  for 
nearly  two  years. 

In  the  mountains  there  was  continual 
fighting  and  unremitting  heroic  achieve- 
ment, but  of  such  a  nature  that  single 

582 


engagements  can  hardly  be  selected 
and  described.  Among  the  Dolomites 
far  to  the  north,  the  Alpini  with  their 
supporting  troops  were  gaining  new 
heights,  to  be  held  by  guns  lifted  to  po- 
sition through  almost  superhuman 
effort.  There  was  much  blind  bom- 
bardment by  the  Austrian  gunners  in 
their  search  for  the  new  gun-emplace- 
ments of  the  Italian  positions.  Quiet 
villages  and  hospitals  often  suffered, 
when  the  shells  fell  into  the  valleys  in- 
stead of  finding  their  objectives. 

'T^HE  ATTEMPT  TO  REDUCE  TRENT. 

We  have  seen  how  the  Trentino 
salient  was  edged  with  smaller  wedges 
thrust  out  into  northern  Italy.  Five 
out  of  the  six  conspicuous  points  thus 
formed  had  been  occupied  at  once  by 
the  Italian  armies  in  their  first  forward 
movement.  Only  the  Lavarone  plateau 
had  successfully  resisted  them. 
Through  the  Giudicaria  Valley,  the 
Lake  of  Garda,  the  Adige  Valley  and 
the  Val  Sugana  the  first  steps  had  been 
taken  on  lines  that  converged  upon 
Trent.  Then  came  a  pause  while  the 
new  lines  were  fortified — a  pause,  util- 
ized by  the  Austrians  in  making  strong- 
er their  defenses.  Consequently,  later 
progress  was  by  slow  and  small  de- 
grees. Artillery  duels  had  to  take  the 
place  of  infantry  attacks,  and  the  lines 
showed  little  change  from  week  to 
week.  By  the  end  of  the  year,  the  Ital- 
ian positions  in  the  southern  Trentino 
stretched  from  near  Condino  on  the 
Giudicaria  across  to  the  Adige  and 
Vall'Arsa  just  south  of  Rovereto, 
around  the  Lavarone  plateau,  and 
north  to  Borgo  in  the  Val  Sugana. 

On  the  northwestern  border  of  the 
Trentino,  the  Stelvio  and  Tonale  Pass- 
es were  sufificiently  fortified,  but  there 
was  no  great  activity  in  that  region. 
On  the  northeastern  border,  however, 
a  long,  rigorous  conflict  was  in  progress 
for  the  possession  of  Col  di  Lana,  an 
ordinary  round-topped  Alp  set  among 
the  sharp  points  of  the  Dolomites,  west 
of  the  Cortina  Pass.  It  commanded  an 
extensive  view  down  the  valleys  into 
Italy.  "The  Italians  had  already  shut 
the  doors  of  their  houfee,but  until  Col  di 
Lana  was  taken  there  was  a  window  still 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


open  for  a  prying  eye. "  It  was  needed, 
too,  to  complete  the  crescent  described 
by  the  Itahan  fortified  Hne.  From 
three  sides  Italian  guns  assailed  the 
mountain,  and  Alpini  repeatedly  under- 
took to  gain  its  slopes. 

r^GL  Dl  LANA  IS  FINALLY  TAKEN. 

But  Col  di  Lana  was  a  fortress  of  ex- 
traordinary strength,  prepared  by  Aus- 
trian engineers.  A  spiral  system  of 
trenches,  beginning  at  the  base  on  the 
eastern  side,  wound  to  the  top.  The 
Italians,  who  had  seized  the  western 
slope  in  their  first  rush,  were  baffled  in 
many  efforts  to  charge  up  the  sides;  for 
avalanches  of  rock,  dynamited  from 
the  ledges  above  their  heads,  w^ere 
hurled  upon  them  as  they  strove  to  take 
higher  positions,  and  machine-guns 
rained  down  fire.  A  charge,  under 
Colonel  Peppino  Garibaldi,  one  of  the 
grandsons  of  the  great  Liberator,  finally 
got  possession  of  the  summit,  in  Novem- 
ber. Since  the  crest  itself  was  too  ex- 
posed to  use,  the  Italians  retired  into 


A    STAIRWAY    FOR    THE    INITIATED    ONLY 

By  this  rope  ladder,  the  lofty  cliff-side  shelter  was 
reached.  Only  those  of  mountain  training  and  experi- 
ence might  safely  venttire  to  ascend  it. 


HEADQUARTERS  IN  A  MOUNTAIN 
CLEFT 
The  Italian  engineers  were  not  daunted  by  the  most 
unpromising  sites.    Here  in  a  cleft  they  built  a  shelter 
as  headquarters  for  an  Alpine  outpost. 

positions  on  the  side  of  the  mountain 
and  there  took  up  their  work  of  defense 
against  the  violent  counter-attacks  of 
the  weeks  that  followed.  There  they  re- 
mained masters  of  the  situation. 

Two  mountain  ridges  in  the  Carnic 
Alps  comprised  the  only  bit  of  Italian 
soil  which  the  Austrians  had  occupied 
since  the  fighting  began.  Until  the  end 
of  August  they  were  not  shaken  from 
their  hold.  Then,  two  columns  of  Ital- 
ian troops  attacked  them  from  east  and 
west,  and  drove  them  back  upon  their 
own  ground.  At  Pontebba,  the  princi- 
pal gap  in  the  Carnic  Alps,  long  artil- 
lery bombardments  were  exchanged,  in 
the  course  of  which  the  Italian  guns 
battered  the  Malborghetto  fortifica- 
tions into  ruins,  although  they  did  not 
remove  the  Austrians  from  their  po- 
sitions. 

'T^HE  ITALIANS  GAIN  INCH  BY  INCH. 

The  comparative  quiet  of  the  front 
during  the  summer  was  balanced  by 
energetic  production  of  munitions  and 

583 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


active  preparation  for  a  new  offensive. 
In  October  the  fresh  outburst  began 
with  general  bombardment  in  the  low- 
er Isonzo  region.  Three  centres  of 
action  had  been  indicated.  At  Plava 
the  bridgehead  was  to  be  enlarged  so  as 
to  lead  to  an  attack  upon  Monte  Santo. 
From  Plava  the  river  bends  away  to 
the  southeast  for  about  five  miles  and 
then  makes  another  turn  to  the  south- 


NOVEL  SHELTERS  ON  THE  ISONZO  FRONT 

OflScers'  quarters  are  sometimes  found  in  strange 
and  unexpected  settings.  These  Italian  officers  have 
taken  up  their  abode  in  enormous  hogsheads  fitted 
with  substantial  doors. 

west.  At  the  second  bend,  Monte  Santo 
occupies  the  east  bank  and  Monte 
Sabotino,  the  west.  Less  than  five 
miles  farther  down  the  river  lies  Gor- 
izia,  protected  by  the  Podgora  ridge 
across  the  stream.  The  second  objec- 
tive of  the  autumn  offensive  was  the 
high  land  occupied  by  the  Austrian 
lines,  from  Monte  Sabotino  to  below 
Podgora.  Lastly,  invasion  of  the  Carso 
was  to  be  urged  with  great  vigor. 

A  MISTAKE  LOSES  A  SUCCESS. 

Opposite  Gorizia,  attack  and  count- 
er-attack went  on  for  weeks,  with  some 
small  gains  for  the  Italian  contestants. 

584 


On  November  20,  the  village  of  Osla- 
via  was  taken.  Monte  Sabotino  was 
theirs  for  a  short  time,  when  with  in- 
tense effort  a  brigade  had  secured  it. 
But,  through  some  mistake,  reserves 
failed  to  arrive.  The  exhausted  victors 
had  to  retreat;  their  heroic  feat  had 
been  in  vain.  Results  in  the  Carso  were 
not  much  more  satisfactory.  A  slight 
advance  on  the  northern  slopes  around 
Monte  San  Michele  and  San  Martino, 
and  some  gain  on  the  southwestern 
ridge  near  Doberdo,  carried  the  Ital- 
ian lines  a  trifle  nearer  to  Trieste. 

On  the  Italian  front  the  Austrians 
had  massed  numbers  of  Hungarians, 
Tyrolese,  and  Slavs,  who  fought  fierce- 
ly and  doggedly,  yielding  nothing  that 
they  could  hold.  Yet,  when  winter 
closed  down  upon  the  trenches,  the 
Italians  had  climbed  to  the  water-shed 
on  the  north,  had  made  some  impres- 
sion on  the  Isonzo  front  and  had  gotten 
a  hold  upon  the  Carso  plateau.  In  addi- 
tion they  had  gathered  in  some  30,000 
prisoners  and  considerable  material 
of  war. 

INCREDIBLE    HARDSHIPS    ON    THE    MOUN- 
TAIN TOPS. 

The  coming  of  winter  on  a  battle- 
front  so  great  a  part  of  which  was  situ- 
ated upon  mountains  brought  peculiar 
problems.  For  the  Alpini,  an  altitude 
of  a  mile  or  more  and  a  temperature 
that  might  fall  to  22  degrees  below  zero 
was  rigorous  enough  but  not  unfamil- 
iar. For  troops  from  southern  Italy 
and  Sicily  such  conditions  would  be 
insupportable  without  very  particular 
preparation.  By  forethought,  good  or- 
ganization, and  co-operation,  satisfac- 
tory provision  was  made  for  the  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  who  had  to  spend 
the  winter  in  barracks  and  trenches. 

Front-line  trenches  had  a  flooring  of 
planks  and  were  provided  with  cover- 
ings of  matting.  For  one  army  corps 
alone  300,000  planks  were  needed.  Of 
these  about  100,000  had  to  be  carried 
to  their  destinations  on  mule-back  or 
by  men.  Shelters  were  blasted  out  and  . 
behind  the  lines  huts  and  sheds  were 
built.  Heavy  winter  coats  and  boots, 
flannel  shirts,  chest-protectors,  woolen 
socks  and  blankets  and  sleeping  bags 
were  distributed  for  the  comfort  and 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


protection  of  the  country's  defenders. 
A  few  figures  will  indicate  in  some  de- 
gree the  efforts  that  had  to  be  put 
forth  to  meet  these  requirements.  For 
a  single  army  corps  there  was  need  of 
280,000  blankets,  and  as  many  woolen 
shirts  and  socks;  80,000  fur  coats; 
60,000  fur  chest-protectors;  and  10,000 
lur-lined  sleeping  bags.  Add  to  these 
demands  the  task  of  keeping  the  men 


quired  from  the  Austrian  trenches. 
Owing  to  the  extreme  difficulty  of  re- 
moving patients  from  the  front  to  hos- 
pitals where  they  could  be  cared  for, 
there  were  many  deaths;  but  by  careful 
quarantine  and  isolation,  coupled  with 
strict  surveillance  of  food,  water, 
houses,  and  barracks,  the  disease  was 
controlled  in  a  few  months. 

Our  review  of  Italv's  warfare  would 


VENICE  THE  CITY  OF  "LIQUID  STREETS" 

Venice,  a  centre  of  many  interests,  was  peculiarly  exposed  to  attack  by  sea  and  air;  therefore,  especial  precautions 

were  taken  for  the  protection  of  the  city  and  its  treasures.    This  is  a  view  of  the  Grand  Canal  and  that  part  of  the 


city  directly  east  of  the  familiar  Piazza  of  St.  Mark's, 
left,  lie  the  prison,  the  Doge's  Palace,  and  St.  Mark's. 

supplied  with  hot  and  nourishing  food, 
wherever  they  might  be,  and  it  will  be 
clear  that  the  country  had  to  devote  an 
intensified  industrial  service  to  the  sup- 
port of  its  army  during  the  winter 
campaign.  Furthermore,  both  winter 
and  summer,  the  mountain  troops,  for 
their  exploits  among  the  snowy  slopes 
used  skis  and  were  clothed  in  white 
garments.  Protected  by  this  imitative 
coloring  they  could  move  with  greater 
freedom  and  assurance  in  positions  un- 
der the  very  eyes  of  the  enemy. 

QICKNESS  INCREASES  THE  DIFFICULTIES. 

Another  problem  of  this  first  winter 
arose  from  an  epidemic  of  cholera  ac- 


Out  of  the  picture,  just  beyond  the  buildings  shown  on  the 

be  incomplete  without  some  considera- 
tion of  the  air  service,  which  was  in 
acti\'e  operation  over  coast  and  plain 
and  mountain.  Pioneer  of  nations  in 
the  use  of  aeroplanes  for  war,  Italy  had 
had  recent  helpful  experience,  during 
the  war  for  Tripoli,  in  testing  and  de- 
veloping this  branch  of  military  art. 
Her  flyers  are  peculiarly  adapted  to 
their  occupation,  as  they  are  by  nature 
quick  and  skillful  in  the  use  of  mechani- 
cal devices. 

THE   ITALIAN  FLYERS  CONTROL  THE 
SITUATION. 

At  the  very  outset  of  the  Austro- 
Italian  war,  the  air  machines  of  both 
nations  became  active  around  the  north- 

585 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


ern  end  of  the  Adriatic.  The  Italians 
made  bombing  attacks  upon  Trieste 
and  its  dockyards;  upon  Fiume,  where 
there  was  a  torpedo  and  submarine  fac- 
tory ;  and  upon  the  harbors  of  Pola  and 
Monfalcone.  A  steady  "patrol  of  the 
skies"  was  maintained  by  aerial  ob- 
servers, on  the  lookout  for  the  enemy. 
Indeed,  the  reconnaissance  and  pho- 
tographic work  of  the  Flying  Corps 
was  of  the  utmost  importance.  Along 
the  coast  seaplanes  kept  up  a  vigilant 
search  for  warships  and  submarines. 

Throughout  the  war,  the  air  forces 
acted  as  efificient  auxiliaries  to  the  land 
forces;  and  the  terrain  which  offered 
such  extraordinary  obstacles  to  the 
latter,  produced  almost  as  great  dififi- 
culty  for  the  flyers.  They  could  not 
have  accomplished  their  rapid  and 
successful  flights  across  the  irregular 
mountain  areas  through  fog  and  storm, 
without  an  intimate  knowledge  of  the 
topography  as  well  as  ability  to  make 
quick  and  exact  calculations  in  regu- 
lating their  altitude  and  avoiding  peaks. 

npHE  ART  OF  VENICE  UNDER  COVER. 

While  all  the  towns  of  northern  Lom- 
bardy  and  Venetia,  menaced  by  Aus- 
trian aircraft,  established  warning  sig- 
nals and  extinguished  or  shaded  their 
lights  at  night,  Venice,  because  of  her 
exposed  situation,  required  especial 
precaution  against  damage.  A  squad- 
ron of  French  seaplanes  guarded  her 
shore;  and  hardly  a  glimmer  of  light 
could  be  detected  after  daylight  was 
gone.  The  famous  historic  monuments 
and  art  treasures  of  the  old  city  by  the 
sea  were  protected  or  hidden  away. 
Between  the  columns  of  the  Doge's 
Palace  supporting  walls  of  brick  were 
built  in.  Paris  of  the  facade  of  St. 
Mark's  Cathedral,  where  the  mosaic 
decorations  were  most  precious,  were 
banked  up  with  sand  bags.  Then  the 
whole  western  facade  was  sheathed 
with  planks  covered  with  asbestos. 
Mounds  of  sand-bags  grew  up  around 
altars  and  statues  in  the  interior  of  the 
church,  and  thick  padding  rendered  tlie 
columns  shapeless  masses. 

The  much-traveled  and  world-famed 
bronze  horses  over  the  portals  had  en- 
joyed a  century  of  rest  since  their  re- 

586 


turn  in  1815  from  Paris,  where  Napole- 
on's ambition  had  given  them  a  brief 
visit.  Now  they  were  lifted  down  again, 
to  be  concealed  in  the  arcade  of  the 
Palace.  Later  in  the  war,  when  the 
Austrian  menace  grew  darker,  they 
were  carried  off  to  Rome  and  shut  up 
in  Hadrian's  Tomb  beside  the  Tiber. 
At  that  time,  too,  the  great  equestrian 
statue  of  Colleone,  by  Verrochio,  which 
had  been  a  familiar  figure  in  Venice  be- 
fore Columbus  turned  his  prows  west- 
ward on  the  unknown  sea,  was  trans- 
ported to  Rome  for  security.  The  first 
step  for  safe-guarding  the  horseman 
and  his  steed,  in  the  earlier  phase  of  the 
war,  was  the  erection  of  a  shelter  over 
their  heads  where  they  stood,  "a  titanic 
armored  sentry-box"  covered  with 
sand-bags. 

T-\ESTRUCTION  OF  ARTISTIC  OBJECTS. 

But  not  all  the  treasures  could  be 
saved.  During  a  bombardment  of 
Venice  late  in  October,  191 5,  a  ceiling 
decoration  by  Tiepolo,  counted  as  his 
finest  work,  was  destroyed  by  the  explo- 
sion of  a  bomb  in  the  church  of  the 
Scalzi,  on  the  Grand  Canal.  Raids,  in 
November,  upon  Venice,  Ancona,  Bres- 
cia, and  Verona,  worked  further  havoc. 
And  in  February,  1916,  Ravenna  suf- 
fered from  an  attack  that  badly  in- 
jured the  mosaics  in  the  cathedral  of 
St.  Apollinare — rich  masterpieces  of 
early  Christian  art.  As  on  other  parts 
of  the  Allied  front,  churches  and  hospi- 
tals seemed  particular  marks  for  the 
enemy's  bombardments,  and  many 
women  and  children  were  innocent 
victims. 

When  Italy's  fleet  had  been  joined 
by  English  and  French  squadrons  in  the 
Mediterranean,  the  Adriatic  operations 
passed  over  into  its  control.  In  addition 
to  protecting  the  Italian  coast- towns, 
especially  Brindisi,  Ancona,  and  Ven- 
ice, which  were  a  temptation  to  enemy 
raiders,  there  were  other  duties.  The 
blockade  of  the  Straits  of  Otranto  con- 
tinued, now  under  Italian  vigilance;  the 
patrol  of  the  Sea  by  submarine  de- 
stroyers was  constant;  the  principal 
Austro-Hungarian  fleet,  safely  enclosed 
in  the  strong  naval  base  at  Pola,  was 
held  impotent.    Other  fleets  of  the  ene- 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


my,  at  Fiunie  and  Cattaro,  sent  out 
frequent  raids  into  the  sea  and  toward 
the  opposite  coast.  Danger  from  mines 
required  the  frequent  services  of  mine 
sweepers.  There  were  encounters  with 
submarines,  in  which  some  of  the  older 
ItaHan  vessels  were  sunk  or  damaged, 
and  there  were  other  encounters  when 
the  submarine  raiders  were  themselves 
sent  to  the  bottom.  In  the  northern  end 
of  the  Sea,  wherever  it  was  possible, 


ernment  at  Rome  made  announcement 
that  Valona  had  been  occupied,  for  use 
as  a  military  and  naval  base  to  forward 
the  work  of  transportation.  Valona,  in 
Albania,  faces  the  heel  of  Italy,  across 
the  narrowest  part  of  the  Adriatic. 
With  Otranto  on  the  west  and  Valona 
on  the  east,  the  Italians  had  command 
of  the  gateway  between  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  the  Adriatic. 
The  next  step  was  in  the  direction  of 


ii 

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1 

DURAZZO,  ON  THE  ALBANIAN  COAST  OF  THE  ADRIATIC 
In  order  to  keep  open  communication  with  Montenegro  and  Serbia  and  help  furnish  them  with  supplies,  Italy  took 
possession  of  Valona  on  the  southern  coast  of  Albania.    Durazzo,  a  little  farther  up  the  coast,  was  occupied,  too, 
for  about  a  month  at  the  beginning  of  1916,  to  secure  embarkation  for  Serbian,  Albanian,  and  Montenegrin  troops 
who  were  transported  to  Corfu.    The  picture  shows  the  town's  location  on  the  Adriatic  and  part  of  its  fortifications. 


the  fleet  co-operated  with  the  land 
forces  in  the  struggle  toward  Trieste  on 
the  Carso,  as  when  the  bombardment 
from  the  ships  in  the  gulf  helped  to 
reduce  Monfalcone. 

COMMUNICATIONS   ACROSS   THE 
ADRIATIC. 

Not  least  among  the  tasks  assumed 
by  Italy  was  that  of  keeping  open  com- 
munication with  the  distressed  coun- 
tries, Montenegro  and  Serbia.  Succor, 
in  the  form  of  food  and  ammunition, 
passed  across  into  Albania  in  defiance 
of  hostile  seaplanes,  cruisers,  and 
mines.    In  December,  1915,  the  Gov- 


Durazzo,  half  way  between  Valona  and 
Cattaro.  By  the  end  of  January,  this 
port,  too,  was  secured.  Meanwhile, 
over  200,000  men,  many  animals  and 
great  quantities  of  materials  and  sup- 
plies had  been  landed  upon  the  Alba- 
nian coast.  However,  the  occupation 
of  Durazzo  was  but  temporary,  in  order 
to  provide  a  place  for  the  embarkation 
of  the  Serbian,  Montenegrin,  and  Alba- 
nian troops  in  Albania,  whom  the  Al- 
lied Powers  had  concluded  to  withdraw 
into  Corfu,  in  order  the  more  readily  to 
revictual  and  supply  them.  The  trans- 
port of  the   160,000  men,  with   their 

587 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


beasts,  stores,  and  baggage,  was  accom- 
plished without  loss.  Then,  after  cov- 
ering their  embarkation  and  bombard- 
ing the  roads  around  Durazzo,  the  Ital- 
ian fleet  withdrew.  Not  an  Italian  gun, 
nor  an  undamaged  Turkish  gun,  was 
left  for  the  enemy,  who  re-entered  the 
town  on  February  27. 


A  POSITION  REQUIRING  POISE 

The  terrain  of  the  Austro-Italian  frontier  furnished  full  play  for  the 
skill  and  daring  of  mountain  troops.  In  the  picture,  Austrian  in- 
fantry on  a  surface  approaching  the  vertical,  are  making  use  of  rope 
secured  to  the  rock  to  reach  a  desired  position  on  the  mountain. 


M 


INING  OPERATIONS  ON  COL  DI  LANA. 


prise,  under  the  direction  of  Don  Gela- 
sio  Caetani,  was  begun  in  January,  to  be 
triumphantly  completed  in  April.  It 
was  a  tunnel  driven  through  the  moun- 
tain in  the  direction  of  the  Austrian 
works.  When  its  existence  became  sus- 
pected, a  countermine  was  begun  by  the 
enemy,  but  in  a  wrong  direction.  P  t 
last,  on  April  17,  the  Italian 
mine  was  exploded,  tearing  out 
a  huge  crater,  150  feet  wide 
and  50  feet  deep.  The  Italian 
infantry  followed  close  upon 
the  explosion  and  so  succeeded 
in  routing  the  Austrians  that 
were  left. 

At  the  same  time,  on  the 
Adamello  ridge,  south  of  the 
Tonale  Pass  and  northwest  of 
Lake  Garda,  the  Alpini  on  skis 
and  in  their  white  uniforms, 
were  performing  feats  of  ex- 
treme boldness.  On  a  glacier, 
10,000  feet  above  the  sea,  in  a 
wild  swirl  of  wind  and  snow,  a 
small  company  of  these  intrepid 
mountaineers  made  an  assault 
upon  the  Austrians  holding  the 
mountain  crest.  This  was  on 
April  II.  On  the  twenty-ninth 
of  the  month,  a  larger  body  of 
Alpini  followed  up  the  exploit 
by  attacking  again,  with  the 
support  of  a  battery  of  6-inch 
guns  that  had  been  drawn  up  to 
the  edge  of  the  glacier.  The 
result  was  that  the  Italians 
controlled  the  whole  summit 
and  had  taken  a  new  point 
commanding  part  of  the  Aus- 
trian lines  in  the  Val  Giudi- 
Colonel  Giordano,  who  had  been 
of   the  detachment,  was 


Renewed  operations  of  the  Italians 
on  the  Isonzo,  in  March,  1916,  were 
somewhat  interrupted  by  the  usual 
spring  floods.  On  the  high  mountains  of 
the  north  and  west,  however,  winter 
conditions  still  continued.  Among  deep 
snows  and  Arctic  cold  the  mountain 
troops  pursued  their  almost  incredible 
achievements.  On  the  Col  di  Lana, 
where  the  Italians  were  still  in  posses- 
sion of  the  southern  and  western  slopes, 
the  enemy  held  strong  positions  on  the 
northern  side.    A  great  mining  enter- 

588 


can  a. 

in  command 
promoted  to  major-general  and  trans- 
ferred to  the  eastern  side  of  the  Tren- 
tino.  Not  long  afterward  he  met  his 
death  there. 

A  USTRIANS  ATTACK  IN  THE  TRENTINO. 

It  is  probable  that  the  Austrian  offen- 
sive of  May  and  June  in  the  Trentino 
was  intended  to  forestall  an  Italian  at- 
tack which  was  anticipated  in  the  Ison- 
zo region.  By  pushi,ng  down  into  the 
Venetian  plains,  where  lay  the  lateral 
railways  that  furnished  communication 


A  MOUNTAIN  BATTERY  OF  THE  AUSTRIANS  USED  ON  THE  ISONZO 
On  the  steep,  winding,  broken  ways  of  the  mountain  battle-fronts,  artillery  adjustments  of  many  sorts  were 
necessary.    In  this  mountain  battery  the  sure-footed  horses  and  mules  not  only  furnished  the  ^°^J^^  Voveihxit 
served  as  limbers  and  gun-carriages  too. 


Once  in  position,  the  guns  had  to  be  "unlimbered"  and  fitted  together. 


A  LARGE  ITALIAN  GUN  ON  THE  ISONZO  FRONT 
In  spite  of  insufficient  equipment  upon  entering  the  war  and  serious  lack  of  coal  and  iron,  Italy  rose  to  the  demands 
of  Se  moment.  The  gr\at  Ansaldo  works-a  ship-building  and  armament  plant  near  Genoa-rapidly  mcreased 
its  output,  making  guns  in  advance  of  the  Government's  orders.    Late  m  1916  the  monthly  product  on  of  cannon 
is  said  to  have  blen  equal  to  the  usual  yearly  output.  Photo  from  Kadel  and  Herbert 


fflSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


with  the  troops  on  the  eastern  front,  it 
might  be  possible  to  interrupt  General 
Cadorna's  plans  by  cutting  off  the 
means  of  reinforcement  and  supply. 
Through  the  winter  months  concentra- 
tion of  the  enemy's  men  and  guns  in  the 
Trentino  had  been  going  forward.  At 
least  2,000  guns  were  ready  to  open  fire 
along  a  line  of  about  thirty  miles.  Of 
the  two  armies  under  the  Archduke 
Charles  in  the  Trentino,  there  were  be- 
tween 350,000  and  400,000  men — fifteen 
picked  first  line  divisions — prepared  to 
strike  in  the  section  between  Val  Laga- 
rina  and  Val  Sugana.  The  heir  to  the 
Imperial  throne  in  addressing  his  troops 
characterized  the  proposed  attack  as  a 
'' straf -expedition,"  and  a  propaganda 
of  hate  was  in  circulation  among  them. 
The  Italian  First  Army  occupied  the 
lines  that  had  already  been  won  on  the 
edges  of  the  Trentino.  Since  General 
Roberto  Brusati,  who  held  command 
there,  had  neglected  to  take  adequate 
measures  for  securing  his  position.  Gen- 
eral Cadorna  moved  his  own  head- 
quarters to  the  First.  Army,  in  April. 
As  a  result  of  his  investigations.  Gener- 
al Brusati  was  removed  and  General 
Pecori-Giraldi  entrusted  with  the  diffi- 
cult task  of  rapid  and  thorough  reor- 
ganization. The  work  of  repairing  de- 
ficiencies could  not  be  completed  in  the 
few  days  before  the  offensive  began  and 
the  Italians  were  taken  at  a  disadvan- 
tage, with  far  too  little  artillery  to  re- 
sist the  storm  that  burst  upon  them. 

q^HE  ROADS  INTO  THE  ITALIAN  PLAIN. 

In  the  threatened  area  three  roads, 
following  three  river  valleys,  gave  ac- 
cess from  the  heights  then  occupied  by 
the  Austrian  armies,  to  the  plains  of 
Italy.  Three  elevations  command 
them.  Once  they  had  passed  these 
three  heights,  the  enemy  would  have 
gained  the  plains.  At  these  points  they 
must  be  stopped,  if  their  advance  could 
not  be  halted  earlier.  General  Cadorna 
placed  his  forces  so  that  the  strongest 
resistance  might  be  made  on  the  flanks, 
near  the  Adige  and  the  Brenta.  The 
heaviest  drive,  however,  fell  upon  the 
Italian  centre,  where  least  preparation 
had  been  made.  Consequently,  the 
centre  fell  back,  day  by  day,  making 

590 


the  enemy  pay  heavily  for  his  advance, 
but  unable  to  stand  against  him  or  push 
him  back,  unable  even  to  dig  them- 
selves in. 

From  the  fourteenth  of  May,  when 
the  great  Austrian  bombardment  be- 
gan, until  the  last  days  of  the  month, 
when  the  next  movement  would  be 
down-hill,  the  Italian  retirement  was 
not  checked.  The  left  centre  had 
reached  Pasubio,  and  the  valley  of  the 
Posina,  the  centre  proper  was  drawing 
back  across  the  Sette  Communi.  There 
"the  word  was  still,  'Go  back,' — The 
time  had  not  yet  come  for  the  men  to 
die  where  they  stood  on  the  uplands  of 
the  Sette  Communi."  (See  the  map 
on  page  359.) 

'yHREE  WEEKS  OF  HARD  FIGHTING. 

But  on  the  extreme  left  the  time  had 
already  come  for  that  last  desperate 
stand.  There,  against  greatly  superior 
guns  and  several  times  their  own  num- 
ber of  men,  the  37th  Division  of  the 
Italian  Army,  assisted  by  some  other 
troops,  was  exerting  all  its  strength  to 
hold  Zugna  and  Pasubio.  On  May  30, 
at  the  Pass  of  Buole,  the  struggle 
reached  its  height.  Austrian  infantry 
charges  were  flung  in  vain  against  the 
defenders  of  the  Pass.  Seven  thou- 
sand Austrians  fell  on  that  day  alone. 
Having  failed  at  Buole,  the  enemy 
turned  toward  Pasubio  in  a  persistent 
attack;  but  after  three  weeks  more  of 
fighting  there,  the  effort  gradually 
died  away. 

In  the  Austrian  Army  Order  of  June 
I,  announcement  was  made  that  only 
one  mountain  remained  between  the 
Austrian  troops  and  the  coveted  plain. 
At  that  moment,  fortunately,  General 
Cadorna  was  able  to  bring  up  his  new 
5th  Army,  of  little  less  than  500,000 
men,  which  had  been  rapidly  gathered 
together  from  various  posts  and  assem- 
bled in  the  vicinity  of  Vicenza.  Re- 
markable feats  of  transport  and  organ- 
ization had  been  achieved  in  collecting 
and  equipping,  within  a  few  days,  this 
reserve  army,  with  its  staff,  artillery, 
and  medical  units,  ready  for  action. 
Railways,  motors,  .  and  engineers 
worked  together  in  a  supreme  effort 
accomplishing    the    result    with    only 


fflSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


slight  interruption  of  normal  traffic. 
On  June  3,  General  Cadorna  de- 
clared the  offensive  to  have  been 
stopped  along  the  whole  line.  By  June 
4,  increased  pressure  fell  upon  the 
x\ustrian  Army,  when  General  Brusi- 
lov  launched  an  offensive  in  Bukovina 
and  Galicia. 

'y  HE  AUSTRI ANS  ARE  FORCED  TO  RETREAT. 

The  Austrians  in  the  Trentino  wedge 
found  themselves  at  a  disadvantage, 
with  their  large  numbers  crowded  into 
too  narrow  a  space  on  a  front  where 
they  had  not  adequate  facilities  for 
transport  from  their  bases  in  the  rear. 
The  Italian  commander,  recognizing 
their  situation,  increased  the  pressure 
on  their  flanks  while  he  pushed  forward 
against  their  centre.  Having  failed  to 
turn  the  Italian  line  at  either  flank  or 
to  break  through  the  centre  south  of 
Posina,  the  Austrian  Army  started  to 
draw  back,  shortening  its  front  and 
trying  to  extricate  some  of  its  divisions, 
that  they  might  be  sent  to  Galicia.  Al- 
though the  retreat  was  well  conducted, 
General  Cadorna  did  not  allow  it  to 
take  place  as  smoothly  and  as  swiftly 
as  had  been  planned.  Nor  did  he  let  it 
stop  in  the  positions  chosen.  There  was 
fighting  at  every  step. 

Soon  after  the  middle  of  the  month, 
then,  the  Italians  began  to  climb  back 
up  the  slopes,  in  their  counter-offensive. 
On  June  26,  Asiago  was  retaken,  and, 
on  the  next  day,  Arsiero.  "  In  two  days 
the  Austrians  lost  more  than  half  the 
ground  they  had  gained  in  their  six 
weeks'  offensive."  Yet  they  did  not 
lose  all  the  territory  taken.  By  the  end 
of  June  their  new  line  extended  a  little 
to  the  east  of  Borgo  on  the  Brenta.  be- 
yond the  northern  side  of  the  Sette 
Communi,  across  the  Val  d'Astico  and 
Monte  Maggio,  north  of  Col  Santo, 
south  nearly  as  far  as  Chiese,  and  then 
northwest  to  Zugna  Torta.  Their  loss- 
es had  amounted,  probably,  to  nearly 
150,000. 

'-pHE  ITALIANS  RECUPERATE  RAPIDLY. 

Although  the  Italians  had  paid  heav- 
ily for  success  in  keeping  their  plains 
free  from  the  enemy,  the  results  of  the 
offensive   were   not   so   disastrous   for 


Signer  Boselli,  "Father  of  the  Italian  Chamber  of  Dep- 
uties," for  the  sake  of  reconciling  discordant  political 
elements  became  Premier  in  June,  1916,  succeeding 
Signor  Salandra.  Central  News  Service 

them  as  the  Austrian  Staff  believed. 
The  proof  that  they  had  of  their  own 
ability  to  meet  the  situation,  in  spite 
of  unpreparedness,  was  tonic  in  effect. 
In  spirit  they  were  the  more  ready  for 
their  slightly  deferred  movement  on 
the  Isonzo.  If  a  rapid  transfer  of 
troops  from  that  front  to  the  Trentino 
had  been  possible,  a  similar  transfer  in 
the  opposite  direction  was  equally  pos- 
sible. But  the  failure  immediately  to 
check  the  offensive,  combined  with 
other  causes,  led  to  the  fall  of  the  Salan- 
dra Ministry.  Under  Signor  Boselli  a 
new  Coalition  Cabinet  was  formed,  in 
which  Baron  Sonnino  was  persuaded  to 
retain  his  portfolio  as  Minister  of 
Foreign  Affairs. 

By  June  29,  as  soon  as  they  could 
be  spared  from  the  Trentino,  troops  be- 
gan to  move  eastward  again;  for  Gen- 
eral Cadorna  still  declared:  "I  shall 
make  the  big  offensive  on  the  lower 
Isonzo."  The  work  of  placing  power- 
ful new  guns  and  distributing  the  men 
along  the  front  continued  until,  in  the 
first  days  of  August,   all  was  ready. 

591 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


Necessity  and  experience  had  brought 
about  a  number  of  changes  and  adjust- 
ments in  equipment.  During  the  year 
1916,  for  example,  helmets  had  been 
adopted  as  the  headgear  for  the  whole 
army,  though  the  Bersaglieri  and  Al- 
pini  preserved  as  well  as  they  could 
their  picturesque  distinguishing  fea- 
tures, fastening  the  feathers  upon  their 
helmets.    The  Bersagliere  "trot"  had 


of  the  river  in  three  sections — north  of 
Tolmino,  east  of  Plava  and  on  the 
northwestern  butt  of  the  Carso.  Gor- 
izia,  about  halfway  between  Plava  and 
the  Italian  stand  on  the  Carso,  was 
guarded,  north  and  south,  respectively, 
by  Monte  Santo  and  Monte  San  Mich- 
ele,  still  in  the  hands  of  the  Austro- 
Hungarians.  General  Cadorna's  plan 
called  for  sharp  and  sudden  attacks  on 


The  rapid-fire  guns  shown  here  as  operated  by  Italian  soldiers  in  the  region  of  the  Isonzo  River,  were  fitted 
with  sil  ncers  which  were  attached  to  the  muzzles  of  the  guns  and  ran  ofif  into  the  ground  nearby.  These  men 
are  wearing  the  infantry  beretlo.  later  replaced  by  the  helmet.  Kadel  and  Herbert 


been  set  aside  for  the  bicycle  or  "push- 
bike."  And  a  new  weapon  was  being 
produced  with  great  rapidity — the 
"bombarda, "  a  sort  of  "glorified  trench- 
mortar. "  Requiring  less  material  and 
less  skill  in  the  making  than  a  gun,  the 
bombarda  proved  useful  when  carried 
well  to  the  front.  Of  93^-inch  calibre, 
it  could  hurl  big  projectiles  upon  the 
enemy  front,  tearing  openings  through 
wire  entanglements  and  demolishing 
fortifications. 

qpHE  CAPTURE  OF  GORIZIA  IS  PLANNED. 

If  we  recall  the  previous  accounts  of 
movements  along  the  Isonzo,  we  shall 
see  that  the  Italians  held  positions  east 

592 


these  two  buttresses  and  the  seizure  of 
the  city  itself. 

The  direction  of  the  offensive  was  en- 
trusted to  the  Duke  of  Aosta,  com- 
manding the  3rd  Army  Corps,  on  the 
Carso.  His  army  was  to  advance  across 
the  northern  side  of  the  Carso,  so  as  to 
make  secure  the  southern  approach  to 
Gorizia.  At  the  same  time,  the  6th 
Army  Corps,  under  General  Capello 
and  his  Chief  of  Staff,  Colonel  Badoglio, 
was  given  the  task  of  carrying  Monte 
Sabotino,  Oslavia,  and  Podgora,  those 
heretofore  impregnable  bastions  on  the 
west  bank  of  the  river  opposite  Gor- 
izia. Then  they  were  to  capture  Gor- 
izia and  storm  Monte  Santo  and  Monte 
San  Gabriele. 


mSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


/-^  AS  BOMBS  AT  MONFALCONE. 

The  violence  of  the  bombardment 
that  shook  the  whole  Isonzo  front,  on 
August  I,  spoke  loudly  of  the  efficien- 
cy of  the  preparation  that  had  been 
made.  After  a  day  or  two,  the  bom- 
barded area  was  narrowed  to  the 
stretch  between  Monte  Sabotino  and 
the  Adriatic.  The  greatest  fury  cen- 
tred upon  Monfalcone  where,  in  ac- 
cordance with  General  Cadorna's  strat- 
agem, a  misleading  feint  attack  was 
made  on  August  4.  The  Austrians, 
driven  from  their  trenches,  left  asphyx- 
iating bombs  there,  which  exploded 
after  the  Italians  had  rushed  in.  As  the 
Italian  gas-masks  provided  up  to  this 
time  fitted  very  closely  and  were  un- 
comfortable, many  of  the  men  had  dis- 
carded them.  Consequently,  several 
thousand  were  caught  defenseless 
against  the  poison  fumes  and  many 
died.  In  the  confusion  that  followed, 
an  Austrian  counter-attack  succeeded 
in  taking  back  the  trenches  which  had 
been  captured.  But  the  feint  had  ac- 
complished all  that  General  Cadorna 
desired.  The  Austrians  hastened  to  re- 
inforce the  Monfalcone  position,  in  an- 
ticipation of  further  attack  there. 

Then  the  storm  broke  about  Monte 
Sabotino  and  San  Michele.  The  former 
hill  had  been  given  most  careful  study 
by  Colonel  Badoglio  for  several  months. 
Under  his  direction,  the  engineers  had 
constructed  long  tunnels  reaching  with- 
in a  distance  of  less  than  a  hundred  feet 
from  the  Austrian  trenches.  The  artil- 
lery bombardment  directed  toward 
Gorizia  and  Sabotino  was  aimed  at  the 
enemy's  "brains  and  eyes."  An  exact 
knowledge  of  his  arrangements  made  it 
possible  to  destroy  his  headquarters 
and  cut  off  wire  communication  between 
the  centre  and  the  outlying  posts  on 
the  surrounding  heights.  In  this  way 
the  bringing  up  of  Austrian  reinforce- 
ments was  greatly  impeded. 

qpHE  GREAT  TRENCH  IS  TAKEN. 

Besides,    the  bombing  of   the   trin- 

cerone  and  its  cave-like  fastnesses  on 

Sabotino  was  so  terrific  that  its  de- 

•  fenders  gathered  by  thousands  in  their 

rock-hewn  shelters  for  refuge.    Thus, 


the  Italian  infantry,  issuing  from  their 
tunnels,  were  able  to  rush  into  both 
ends  of  the  great  trench  and  capture  the 
garrison  in  large  groups.  In  less  than  an 
hour  the  summit  was  taken,  and  the 
Italians  were  moA  ing  down  on  the  east 
face  of  the  great  hill. 


English  Mites 


^M.  fanto 
^Convent 


ITALIAN  ADVANCE  IN  AUGUST,  1916 

The  three  days  following  were  spent 
in  battle  for  the  ridges  of  Oslavia  and 
Podgora,  where  scientifically  construct- 
ed fortifications  were  held  by  stubborn 
contestants.  In  one  case,  an  Austrian 
major  and  forty  of  his  men  fought  with 
such  fortitude  and  gallantry  that  the 
Italian  officer  who  conquered  them  or- 
dered his  own  men  to  present  arms  to 
the  prisoners. 

•~^  ORIZIA  IS  ENTERED  BY  THE  KING. 

At  last  the  long-disputed  strongholds 
on  the  west  bank,  Sabotino,  Oslavia, 

593 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


and  Podgora,  were  won.  There  was 
still  an  obstacle  to  overcome  before 
Gorizia  could  be  entered.  The  retreat- 
ing foe  had  badly  damaged  the  bridges. 
While  the  engineers  were  repairing  them 
with  all  possible  speed,  a  small  force  of 
Italians  forded  the  stream.  As  soon  as 
the  iron  bridge  could  possibly  be  used, 
ambulances  and  supply  trains  traveled 
perilously  across  it,  and  on  the  morning 
of  August  9,  the  main  army  had 
reached  the  east  shore.  That  day,  the 
Duke  of  Aosta  with  his  royal  cousin, 
King  Victor  Emmanuel  III,  rode  into 
Gorizia  at  the  head  of  the  army.  The 
Duke,  by  his  bravery  and  kindliness, 
and  the  king,  by  his  democratic  simpli- 
city and  his  friendly  intercourse  with 
his  fighting  subjects,  had  early  won  the 
admiration  and  devotion  of  their 
soldiers. 

The  advance  on  the  Carso  had  been 
keeping  pace  with  the  proceedings  far- 
ther north  before  Gorizia.  The  3rd 
Army  made  a  direct  assault  upon  four- 
crested  San  Michele,  parts  of  which  had 
already  passed  back  and  forth  between 
the  contesting  forces  many  times  since 
the  Italians  had  first  set  foot  upon  the 
Carso.  On  the  eighth  of  August,  there 
was  no  longer  any  question  about  its 
possession.  The  southern  buttress  of 
the  Gorizia  bridgehead  thus  made  sure, 
it  was  possible  to  enter  the  city  in  se- 
curity. On  the  ninth,  as  we  have  seen, 
the  entry  was  made. 

THE     LEGEND    OF    THE    ORIGIN    OF    THE 
CARSO. 

The  barren,  arid  table-land  of  the 
Carso  was  a  battle-field  hardly  sur- 
passed for  difiliculty  and  danger.  An 
old  legend  accounts  for  it  by  narrating 
that  when  the  Creator,  after  He  had 
finished  making  the  world,  was  about 
to  cast  into  the  sea  all  the  stones  left 
over,  the  Devil  overtook  Him  beside 
the  Isonzo  and  slit  open  the  bag  con- 
taining the  stones.  The  result  was  the 
Carso  plateau.  "Its  sides  facing  north 
and  west  are  partly  wooded,  but  the 
table-land  itself  has  no  vegetation 
higher  than  grass  and  stunted  brush- 
wood. The  earth  is  red,  the  limestone 
white;  in  winter  these  are  the  two  colors 
of  the  Carso,  but  in  summer  an  outcrop 
of  green  grass  completes  the   Italian 

594 


tricolor."  Hundreds  of  doline,  or  huge 
cup-shaped  hollows,  made  hiding-places 
where  men,  huts,  and  guns  were  utterly 
concealed.  The  plateau  became  an 
"ominous  ambushed  desert."  The 
stone  surface  itself  greatly  multiplied 
the  danger  from  projectiles,  when  it 
splintered  into  thousands  of  flying  frag- 
ments under  an  exploding  bomb  or 
shell. 

In  the  limestone  surface  the  Austro- 
Hungarian  belligerents  had  drilled  and 
blasted  their  defensive  works,  even  re- 
inforcing them  with  thick  iron  plates 
in  some  exposed  position.  Lord  North- 
clilTe  was  forcibly  impressed  by  the 
works  when  he  visited  them  during  this 
very  invasion.  A  French  correspondent 
gives  a  detailed  description  of  their 
elaborate  completeness.    He  writes : 

/T^HE  LUXURY  OF  THE  AUSTRIAN  QUARTERS. 

"Behind  the  trenches  the  troops  had 
as  shelters  deep  caverns  which  could 
contain  several  battalions.  Confident 
that  they  would  never  be  beaten  back, 
the  Austrians  had  fitted  them  out  lux- 
uriously; the  walls  were  paneled,  elec- 
tricity was  installed  everywhere,  ven- 
tilating ducts  made  it  easy  to  change  the 
air,  water  mains  brought  good  drinking 
water.  Along  the  Vallone  ridge,  every 
regiment  had  its  numbered  cavern.  The 
officers'  rooms  were  sumptuous;  beds, 
chairs,  sofas,  tables,  carpets,  nothing 
was  missing  in  them.  The  newspapers 
found  there  were  dated  August  3rd, 
and  reported  the  declarations  of  Pre- 
mier Tisza,  assuring  his  auditors  that 
the  Austrian  StafT  had  taken  all  the 
necessary  measures  to  keep  the  Ital- 
ians forever  out  of  Gorizia.  " 

Upon  this  doubly  hostile  plateau 
General  Cadorna's  forces  now  turned 
their  faces  toward  Trieste.  San  Mar- 
tino  del  Carso,  the  Doberdo  plateau, 
and  the  heights  of  Sei  Busi  and  Cosich 
yielded  before  their  impetuous  on- 
slaught. Directly  south  from  Gorizia  a 
straight,  dry  valley  cuts  through  the 
Carso  upland  in  a  direct  line  toward  the 
head  of  the  Adriatic.  It  can  plainly  be 
seen  that  this  Vallone  afforded  a  natur- 
al road  of  communication.  General 
Cadorna  aimed  to  control  it  by  occupy- 
ing the  ridges  on  either  side.    August 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


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t'Pa'-'ii'* 


THE  ISONZO  FRONT  AND  THE  ADJOINING  AUSTRIAN  LANDS 

12  saw  the  Italians  in  entire  domina-  As  the  troops  went  on  they  were  ac- 
tion over  the  whole  end  of  the  Carso  companied  by  auto-cisterns  and  reser- 
lying  west  of  the  Vallone;  and  within  voirs  on  mule-carts  to  furnish  the  neces- 
two  more  days  they  had  gained  a  vil-  sary  water  in  that  arid  district,  where 
lage  and  some  slopes  on  the  east  side,  heat  and  thirst  were  twin  torments. 

595 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


TTt  THAT  THE  CAPTURE  OF  GORIZIA  MEANT. 

Northeast  of  Gorizia,  another  \illage 
was  taken  before  August  15,  when 
the  offensive  slackened;  but  the  men- 
acing elevations  of  Monte  Santo  and 
Monte  San  Gabriele  remained,  until  the 
summer  of  1917,  strong   enemy  posts 


BROKEN  TERRAIN  BETWEEN  GORIZIA  AND  TRIESTE 


for  observation  and  attack.  Yet  the 
taking  of  Gorizia  had  been  a  decided 
and  important  success — the  most  nota- 
ble one  that  had  been  achieved  by 
Italian  arms  in  the  war.  The  whole  west 
side  of  the  Isonzo  south  of  the  Tol- 
mino  bridgehead  was  now  swept  clear 
of  the  enemy,  and  several  strong 
thrusts  had  been  made  into  the  eastern 
side.  On  the  Carso,  only  about  a  dozen 
very  difficult  miles  lay  between  the  line 

596 


and  Trieste.  The  fortnight's  offensive 
had  brought  in  18,758  Austro-Hunga- 
rian  prisoners,  including  members  of 
almost  every  race  in  the  Empire.  Of 
these  393  were  officers.  30  heavy  guns, 
62  pieces  of  trench  artillery,  92  machine- 
guns,  and  great  quantities  of  rifles, 
cartridges,  shells,  and  other  supplies, 
had  fallen  into  the 
hands  of  the  Italians. 
An  estimate  of  the 
total  losses  in  men,  for 
both  sides,  places  them 
at  30,000. 

In  considering  the 
Italian  campaigns  we 
must  never  lose  sight  of 
the  immense  obstacles 
to  be  overcome  in  the 
topography  of  the  fron- 
tier and  the  lands  be- 
hind it.  A  glance  at 
an  ordinary  map  would 
hardly  reveal  any  seri- 
ous reason  why  the 
army,  well  started  up- 
on the  western  end  of 
the  Carso  and  in  pos- 
session of  Monfalcone, 
should  not  have  pushed 
directly  on  to  Trieste. 
But  almost  every  step 
eastward  from  the 
Isonzo,  especially  on 
the  Carso  upland,  led  to 
a  yet  stronger  fortress 
than  had  already  been 
faced.  The  Bainsizza 
Plateau,  northeast  of 
Plava;  Monte  Santo 
and  Monte  San  Ga- 
briele, north  of  Gorizia ; 
and  Hermada,  east  of 
Monfalcone,  presented 
steep  and  bristling 
ridges,  whose  tunneled  passages  and 
hidden  gun-emplacements  might  well 
be  considered  almost  invulnerable. 
And,  until  they  could  be  mastered,  no 
real  strides  were  possible. 

/^THER  OPERATIONS  ON  THE  CARSO. 

After  August,  the  offensive  was  re- 
newed intermittently,  through  the 
Autumn,  as  the  weather  gave  oppor- 
tunity;   for    thunderstorms,    fogs   and 


GORIZIA,  TAKEN  BY  THE  ITALIANS 

In  the  first  week  of  August,  1916,  the  Italian  commanders  concentrated  their  efforts  upon  Gorizia.  Podgora, 
Monte  Sabotino,  and  the  ridges  before  the  town  taken  by  heavy  storming  and  bold  attack,  there  was  stern  fighting 
at  the  bridges  and  on  the  river  banks  for  possession  of  Gorizia  itself.  Losses  on  both  sides  were  heavy.  The 
first  man  to  enter  the  town,  a  nineteen-year-old  sub-lieutenant,  Aurelio  Baruzzi,  raised  a  small  flag  in  triumph. 

597 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


violent  rains  prevented  any  continuous 
action.  A  fresh  drive  on  the  Carso  be- 
gan on  September  14,  north  and  east 
of  Oppachiacella,  which  had  been 
taken  before  the  lull  in  the  August  ad- 
vance. Four  days  of  intense  fighting 
yielded  no  noticeable  gain  in  position, 
but  more  than  4,000  prisoners  were  se- 
cured. The  next  effort,  October  10 
to  14,  made  a  new  line  showing  a  for- 
ward move  of  nearly  a  mile  east  of 
Villanova  (Nova  Vas).  Farther  south, 
Hermada's  guns  furnished  so  strong  a 
support  for  the  Austrian  left  wing  that 
no  impression  could  be  made  upon  it 
by  direct  attack. 

On  October  30,  a  powerful  bom- 
bardment poured  upon  the  Austrian 
positions,  all  day  and  all  the  following 
night.  The  attack  that  followed  during 
the  first  three  days  of  November 
created  a  broad  Italian  salient  that  ex- 
tended two  miles  beyond  the  previous 
positions.  From  the  Vippacco  River, 
near  its  junction  with  the  Vertoibizza, 
a  short  distance  south  of  Gorizia,  the 
line  now  lay  along  the  northern  edge 
of  the  Carso  to  Fajti  Hrib,  "the  highest 
point  of  the  step  of  the  great  staircase 
which  runs  from  the  Vippacco  to  Kos- 
tanjevica. "  The  southern  side  of 
the  almost  square  salient  reached  to 
within  a  very  short  distance  of  the  vil- 
lage of  Kostanjevica  (Castagnevizza) 
In  that  part  of  the  front  the  Austrians 
had  been  driven  back  to  their  third 
line.  By  the  early  October  fighting  the 
Italians  added  to  their  account  some 
5,000  prisoners,  and  in  November 
over  8, coo.  The  supposedly  invincible 
stronghold  was  yielding  under  the 
steady  blows  of  the  determined  attack. 


AT  TINTER  ENDS  FURTHER  OPERATIONS. 

Winter  conditions  precluded  any 
further  activity  during  1916.  The  year 
had  written  on  the  roll  of  heroic  deeds 
some  shining  new  records.  On  the 
Carso  alone  there  were  many  splendid 
examples  of  devotion.  One  old  general, 
dying  of  cancer,  refused  to  leave  his 
command  until  he  could  say,  "the 
battle  is  won."  At  another  time  and 
place,  when  a  Bersaglieri  Brigade  had 
to  spend  the  night  in  the  open  with 
practically  no  shelter  from  the  rain  of 
high  explosives  and  shrapnel,  a  briga- 
dier and  two  regimental  commanders 
walked  up  and  down  all  night  in  the 
front  lines  to  keep  the  men's  courage 
from  failing.  In  the  morning  only  one 
of  the  three  remained  unwounded. 
And  always  there  were  the  men,  no 
less  devoted,  who  "laid  down  their 
lives  in  little,  lonely  conflicts  that  never 
figured  in  the  official  dispatches." 

When  it  was  evident  that  operations 
would  have  to  be  suspended  until 
Spring,  attention  was  again  concen- 
trated upon  the  training  of  new  units 
and  upon  the  manufacture  and  distri- 
bution of  guns  and  munitions.  Italy's 
lack  of  coal  and  metals  made  it  impos- 
sible to  produce  military  supplies  in 
the  quantities  required  for  the  most 
effective  work  on  her  long  battle-line. 
But  the  production  went  on  as  rapidly 
as  was  possible.  With  the  successes  of 
the  year  behind  them,  the  nation  might 
look  forward  to  a  future  of  greater 
promise.  In  hopeful  anticipation  of 
that  future,  they  continued  to  plan 
and  to  work. 

L.  Marion  Lockhart 


598 


Uetting  Away  the  Guns  on  the  Galician  Front 


Chapter  XXXVl 


On  the  Eastern  Front  During  1916 

THE   RUSSIAN  ARMIES  ARE  SUCCESSFUL  BUT  THE  AUTOC- 
RACY WEAKENS 


'T^HE  remarkable  recuperative  power 
of  Russia  was  manifested  in  her 
ability  to  strike  back  vigorously  at  the 
Austro-Germans  almost  immediately 
after  the  end  of  the  terrible  retreat 
of  the  summer  of  191 5,  when  Warsaw 
fell  and  almost  the  whole  of  Russian 
Poland  was  overrun  by  the  Teutons. 
Before  the  end  of  the  year,  as  already 
narrated,  General  Ivanov  was  punish- 
ing the  Austrians  severely  in  Galicia. 

THE  PEOPLE  BECOME  SUSPICIOUS  OF  THE 
GOVERNMENT. 

But  the  events  of  1915  had  never- 
theless inflicted  wounds  on  the  Russian 
nation  which  were  not  to  heal  again 
entirely.  Dark  suspicion  had  arisen 
within  the  hearts  of  the  Russian 
people,  not  only  of  the  common  people, 
but  of  those  classes  which  hitherto 
had  been  most  staunch  supporters  of 
the  autocracy,  that  the  core  of  that 
same  autocracy  was  rotten  with  treason. 

Even  the  Duma,  that  body  of  pseudo 
representatives  of  the  people,  chosen 
according  to  laws  which  gave  only  the 
reactionary  elements  suffrage — even 
the  Duma,  demanded  an  investigation 
of  the  Government  machinery.  It  was 
rumored  that  trainloads  of  ammunition 
from  Vladivostock  had  been  shunted 
oflf  on  sidings  at  provincial  railroad 
stations  and  allowed  to  stand  there  for 
weeks.  It  was  rumored  that  the  Grand 
Duke  Nicholas,  whom  even  the  enemy 


had  praised  in  their  reports,  had  been 
displaced  in  his  command  of  the 
Russian  armies  at  the  instigation  of 
those  elements  which  now  began  to  be 
known  as  "the  dark  forces."  For  the 
first  time  loyal  Russians  recalled  the 
fact  that  the  Tsar  himself  was  seven- 
eighths  German,  and  that  the  Tsaritsa 
had  not  a  drop  of  Slavic  blood  in  her 
veins. 

ALLIED    IGNORANCE    OF    CONDITIONS    IN 
.     RUSSIA. 

During  the  first  two  years  of  the  war 
little  was  known  to  the  general  public 
of  the  Allied  countries  of  the  political 
situation  in  Russia  itself;  the  press 
reports  emphasized  the  fact  that  most 
of  the  political  exiles  had  returned 
home  to  give  the  Government  their 
support  in  the  war  against  German 
imperialism.  Never  had  the  Russian 
autocracy  had  such  an  opportunity 
to  weld  the  Russian  people  together 
into  one  loyal  unit,  and  never  was  an 
opportunity  more  wantonly,  or  more 
stupidly,  thrown  aside. 

At  the  outbreak  of  the  war  the 
Premier  had  been  Ivan  L.  Goremykin, 
a  bureaucrat  of  bureaucrats,  intellec- 
tually fossilized  in  the  routine  of  the 
autocracy,  and  now  well  past  three 
score  and  ten  in  years.  Unable  to 
adapt  himself  to  new  situations,  he 
attempted  to  rule  Russia  during  war 
time  as  she  had  been  ruled  for  the  past 

599 


HISTORY   OF  THE. WORLD  WAR 


generation.  First  he  initiated  an  anti- 
Semitic  campaign,  at  a  moment  when 
the  most  violent  anti-Semites  would 
be  irritated  by  such  a  course.  He 
caused  rumors  to  be  spread  that  the 
Jews  were  betraying  the  cause  of  Russia, 
and  even  caused  a  number  of  pogroms 
to  be  instigated.  When  Galicia  had 
been  occupied  by  the  Russian  armies, 
he  had  sent  there  a  number  of  petty 
officials  who  immediately  set  about 
"nationalizing"  the  Polish  and  Ruth- 
enian  inhabitants. 

Fortunately  these  efforts  had  been 
partially  frustrated  by  the  military 
authorities.  Finally,  when  the  political 
exiles  began  arriving  in  Petrograd,  to 
throw  themselves  into  the  struggle 
against  Germany,  Goremykin  had  them 
imprisoned  arbitrarily.  His  mind  work- 
ed automatically;  these  things  were  to 
him  a  matter  of  routine,  to  be  carried 
out  as  a  regular  course  of  procedure; 
his  aged  mind  failed  completely  to 
realize  that  the  war  had  created  new 
conditions. 

'y*HE  DUMA  BEGINS  TO  ASSERT  ITS  VIEWS. 

Even  the  reactionaries,  who  had 
previously  been  the  main  support  of 
the  autocracy,  became  disgusted.  This 
feeling  manifested  itself  most  promi- 
nently in  the  Duma,  within  which  was 
formed  the  famous  Progressive  Bloc, 
including  not  only  the  few  radical 
representatives  in  the  body,  but  all  the 
Constitutional  Democrats  and  a  large 
portion  of  the  extreme  right,  including 
such  notorious  Black  Hundreds  leaders 
as  the  Jew  baiter  Purishkevitch.  The 
climax  to  the  unrest  in  the  Duma  came 
when  the  President  of  that  body, 
Rodzianko,  addressed  a  letter  to  the 
Premier,  placing  the  responsibility  of 
Russia's  heavy  defeats  squarely  on 
him.  "You  are  obviously  too  old," 
concluded  the  letter,  "to  possess  the 
vigor  to  deal  with  so  difficult  a  situation. 
Be  man  enough  to  resign  and  give 
room  to  someone  younger  and  more 
caoable. "  Never  had  Russian  subject 
before  dared  address  the  Premier  in 
such  language.  But  Goremykin  re- 
signed. At  least  he  proved  himself  no 
worse  than  incompetent. 

But  the  old  man's  resignation  only 

600 


brought  on  a  worse  situation,  for  he 
was  immediately  succeeded  by  Boris 
Stiirmer,  a  younger  and  a  more  capable 
man,  to  be  sure,  but  one  whose  ca- 
pacities were  to  be  turned  in  an  evil 
direction.  Not  only  was  he  a  reaction- 
ary, but  he  was  German  of  blood  and 
German  in  his  sympathies,  as  was 
later  to  develop. 

StURMER     FAVORS     A    SEPARATE     PEACE 
WITH    GERMANY. 

Stiirmer  hardly  took  the  trouble  to 
hide  the  fact  that  he  desired  to  bring 
about  a  separate  peace  with  Germany, 
to  desert  the  cause  of  the  Allies.  Rus- 
sian papers  which  attempted  to  stir 
the  patriotic  fervor  of  the  Russian 
people  were  suppressed  by  Sturmer's 
censorship,  while  others,  which  de- 
nounced Russia's  allies  and  covertly 
insinuated  that  Germany  was  Rus- 
sia's truest  friend,  were  allowed  to 
pursue  their  way  unmolested.  Finally 
it  became  known,  even  among  the 
rank  and  file  of  the  garrison  in  Petro- 
grad, that  agents  had  been  sent  to 
Switzerland  to  confer  with  the  Ger- 
mans. As  we  shall  show  later  Stiirmer 
betrayed  Rumania,  hoping  to  secure 
peace  for  Russia. 

That  the  German  Premier  of  Russia 
did  not  succeed  in  his  designs  of  treach- 
ery was  due  to  the  violent  protest 
which  arose  from  among  the  loyal 
Russians.  This  opposition  Stiirmer 
did  his  best  to  remove.  The  Duma 
would  be  satisfied  with  nothing  less 
than  a  real  voice  in  the  government, 
including  the  right  to  dismiss  ministers. 
So  indignant  were  the  working  classes 
that  a  general  strike  of  the  munitions 
workers  was  threatened — which  would 
have  precipitated  the  final  crisis  a  year 
before  its  time,  perhaps  prematurely. 

THE  REMOVAL  OF  SAZONOV  CAUSES  ALARM 
IN  THE  DUMA. 

Then  came  the  removal  from  the 
Cabinet  of  Sazonov,  the  Minister  of 
Foreign  Affairs,  the  one  man  in  the 
administration  in  whom  the  Russian 
people  had  confidence,  and  the  one 
man  in  whom  the  French  and  British 
had  absolute  trust.  Like  a  rock  he 
stood  against  the  black  forces  within 
the  court.  A  pure  Russian,  he  cham- 
pioned the  cause  of  the  Allies  against 


FEEDING  THE  KAISER'S  TROOPS 
Napoleon's  adage  that  "an  army  marches  on  its  stomach"  is  as  true  in  our  times  as  in  his.   Mechanical  transport 
has  rendered  the  commissariat  more  dependable,  but  against  this  gain  must  be  set  the  barrier  of  curtain  fire  and 
the  long  range  of  modern  g^ns  which,  directed  by  aeroplane,  can  jeopardize  an  army's  communications. 


SORTING  GERMAN  MAIL  IN  GALICIA 
A  picture  of  a  temporary  German  field  post-office  set  up  in  a  village  in  occupied  Galicia.   German  equipment  was 
complete  from  the  outset  and  all  their  invading  armies  carried  with  them  the  wherewithal  to  keep  the  troops  in 
communication  with  their  friends.    On  the  other  hand  though  excellent  conditions  prevailed  at  a  later  date  in  the 
Allied  armies,  the  system  had  to  be  worked  up  to  meet  the  exigency.  Pictures,  Henry  Ruschin 

6oi 


fflSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD   WAR 


the  Teutons — and  now  he  was  dis- 
placed. More  deeply  significant  be- 
came this  removal  when  it  was  an- 
nounced that  Stlirmer  himself  would 
take  up  the  portfolio  for  Foreign 
Affairs. 

Fortunately  for  the  Allies  Stiirmer 
lacked  the  fine  touch  of  the  really  clever 
diplomatic  intriguer;  he  was,  in  fact, 
at  bottom,  a  sordid,  dishonest  thief, 
and  this  proved  his  final  undoing. 
Later  in  the  year,  in  the  fall  of  1916, 
Paul  Miliukov,  chief  of  the  Constitu- 
tional Democrats,  denounced  Stiirmer 
as  a  corrupt  rogue,  proving  that  he  was 
enriching  himself  by  taking  bribes 
from  dishonest  food  speculators,  and 
so  this  prominent  tool  of  the  dark 
forces  was  obliged  to  retire  in  shame 
and  disgrace. 

THE  ARMY  LEADERS  TRUE  TO  THE  ALLIED 
CAUSE. 

That  all  these  domestic  events  in  the 
Russian  political  situation  did  not 
bring  about  the  final  overthrow  of  the 
corrupt  and  treacherous  court  party 
in  the  beginning  of  1916,  instead  of  a 
year  later,  was  due  to  the  stimulus  of 
the  military  successes  which  came  to 
the  Russian  arms  during  the  spring 
and  summer  of  the  year.  At  least  the 
military  leaders  seemed  true,  nor  was 
there  afterwards  any  cause  for  judging 
them  otherwise.  With  the  material 
at  their  disposal  they  did  indeed  per- 
form wonders.  Fortunately,  during  the 
brief  period  of  comparative  quiet  which 
prevailed  along  the  whole  Eastern 
Front  after  the  great  retreat  had  been 
stopped,  enough  ammunition  reached 
the  firing  line  to  enable  the  Russian 
commanders  to  strike  at  the  enemy 
with  some  semblance  of  equality  in 
equipment.  For  the  first  time  the 
Russian  gunners  were  able  to  rain 
"curtains  of  fire"  on  the  rear  of  the 
beaten  foe  and  cut  off  his  retreat. 

As  already  narrated  in  the  chapter 
covering  activities  along  the  Eastern 
Front  during  1915,  General  Ivanov 
had  begun  a  successful  movement 
against  the  Austrians  down  in  Galicia 
in  December,  and  while  this  offensive 
was  considerably  hampered  by  the 
severe  winter,  it  broke  out  again  in  the 
spring   and    eventually,    later   in    the 

602 


summer,  developed  against  Austria 
into  one  of  the  most  wholesale  dis- 
asters that  overtook  any  of  the  greater 
belligerents  during  the  whole  war. 

THE   RUSSIAN   OFFENSIVE   AT   FIRST    SUC- 
CESSFUL. 

Up  in  the  northern  sector  of  the 
front  the  Germans  had  settled  down 
into  trenches,  facing  Riga  and  Dvinsk, 
hoping  to  spend  a  comparatively 
comfortable  winter  in  their  under- 
ground chambers.  Thus  they  were 
settled  in  February  and  March,  when 
the  Russians  under  General  Kuropat- 
kin  suddenly  swept  over  the  snow- 
covered  marshes  and  drove  the  Ger- 
mans out  of  their  quarters,  forcing 
them  to  make  the  best  of  it  on  the  frozen 
ground  half  a  mile  further  back.  And 
now  the  Germans  found  themselves 
facing  a  Russian  artillery  fire  which 
was  quite  equal  to  their  own. 

While  considerable  military  activity 
took  place  along  the  whole  line  during 
the  first  five  months  of  the  year,  some- 
times developing  into  battles  of  the 
first  magnitude,  the  relative  positions 
of  the  opposing  armies  were  not  ma- 
terially changed,  though  the  Russians 
took  large  numbers  of  prisoners  from 
the  Austrians  and,  in  general,  had  the 
better  of  the  fighting.  Obviously  there 
was  close  co-operation  between  Russia 
and  Italy,  for  the  big  Russian  offensive 
against  Austria  began  on  June  3,  at  a 
moment  when  the  Italians  were  being 
seriously  threatened  by  an  Austrian 
offensive  on  their  front. 

THE   AUSTRIAN  LINE   CRUMBLES  BEFORE 
THE  ATTACK. 

The  Russian  armies  opposing  the 
Austrians  were  now  under  the  com- 
mand of  General  Brusilov,  as  General 
Ivanov  had  retired  on  account  of 
sickness.  Along  a  front  of  over  three 
hundred  miles  the  Russians  attacked, 
from  the  Rumanian  frontier  up  to  the 
Pripet  Marshes.  And  now  the  Rus- 
sians were  obviously  superior  in  num- 
bers; all  during  the  winter  mobilization 
and  concentration  of  forces  had  been 
going  on.  As  the  Teutons  had  done  the 
year  before,  so  now  the  Russians  rolled 
on  in  overwhelming  numbers,  beating 
up  against  the  Austrian  defensive  like 
a  flood  against  a  crumbling  sandbank. 


fflSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


Within  three  days  the  Austrians 
had  lost  25,000  men  in  prisoners  alone. 
On  June  7  the  fortress  of  Lutsk  was 
taken  by  General  Kaledin,  whose 
artillery  had  literally  smashed  the 
earthworks  of  the  stronghold  into 
powder.  Here  alone  11,000  Austrians 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Russians, 
together  with  immense  supplies  of 
munitions.  By  this  time  the  prisoners 
taken  numbered  over  60,000.   For  now 


sian  lines  in  the  north.  On  the  day 
that  Czernovitz  fell  attacks  were 
delivered  at  many  points  along  the 
150-mile  line  between  Dvinsk  in  the 
north  and  Krevo  in  the  south.  Some 
local  successes  fell  to  the  Germans, 
but  on  the  whole  this  attempted  di- 
version was  a  failure,  for  the  Russians 
held  the  Germans  back  without  having 
to  weaken  their  offensive  movement 
in  the  south. 


'*""        MAP  SHOWING  THE  RUSSIAN  NORTH  FRONT  LINE  FROM  RIGA  TO  DVINSK 
The  lake  district  between  Riga  and  Dvinsk  is  of  immense  strateeic  importance,  as  it  covers  Petrograd.    The  coun- 
try is  so  spotted  with  lakes,  large  and  small,  that  it  resembles  a  piece  of  lace.    The  Germans  had  dug  themselves 
in  deeply,  but,  at  the  end  of  March,  General  Kuropatkin  drove  them  half  a  mile  farther  back. 


the  Russians  were  able  to  cut  off  the 
retreat  of  the  beaten  enemy  regiments 
by  sweeping  their  rear  with  heavy 
artillery  fire.  On  June  17  General 
Lechitsky  compelled  the  Austrians  to 
abandon  Czernovitz,  the  capital  of 
Bukovina,  after  a  terrific  six  days' 
battle  for  its  possession.  Here,  however, 
the  Austrians  had  had  time  to  with- 
draw and  so  lost  only  1,000  men  as 
prisoners  to  the  Russians. 

GERMANS   FEAR   THE   COLLAPSE    OF    THE 
AUSTRIAN  ARMIES. 

Meanwhile  the  Germans  were  mak- 
ing a  strong  effort  to  help  their  ally, 
not  so  much  by  sending  reinforcements 
directly  to  their  aid,  but  by  beginning 
energetic  operations  against  the  Rus- 


The  battle  which  ended  with  the 
capture  of  Czernovitz  had  completely 
smashed  the  Austrian  army  operating 
in  that  sector.  On  the  following  day 
the  Russian  Cossack  cavalry  swarmed 
after  the  fleeing  Austrians  and  reached 
the  Sereth  River.  Some  of  the  Aus- 
trians made  for  the  Carpathian  passes, 
which  were  still  in  their  possession, 
but  the  bulk  of  them  fled  southward, 
hugging  the  Rumanian  frontier. 

THE    AUSTRIAN    RETREAT    TOWARD     THE 
SOUTH. 

"The  disordered  retreat  of  the  ene- 
my," wrote  a  Russian  officer,  to  a  Petro- 
grad newspaper,  "was  an  extraordinary 
spectacle.  As  far  as  we  could  see  from 
our   observation    station  the   country 

603 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


was  alive  with  infantry,  artillery  and 
transport;  horsemen  in  twos  and  threes, 
riderless  horses  rushing  about  wildly — 
a  whole  army  in  flight.  Upon  the  mass 
of  the  fugitives  we  let  loose  our  cavalry. 
We  could  clearly  see  the  panic  which 
followed.  The  cavalry  dashed  forward 
and  cut  off  the  way  of  escape  of  many 
thousands  of  rrien  and  vast  quantities 
of  stores.  Many  entire  batteries  were 
captured  as  they  were  being  driven  to 
the  rear,  in  addition  to  large  numbers 
of  guns  which  were  too  heavy  to  be 
moved  from  their  positions." 

By  the  end  of  the  third  week  in  June 
the  Russian  cavalry  had  occupied 
Radautz,  after  which  they  carried  the 
town  of  Kimpolung,  cutting  off  all  the 
Austrian  fugitives  who  were  hiding 
in  the  foothills  of  the  south-eastern 
corner  of  Bukovina.  A  few  days  later 
the  Russians  found  their  way  toward 
the  Borgo  and  Kirlibaba  passes,  and 
so  again  the  door  into  Hungary  was 
forced  open.  One  or  two  raids  took 
place,  but  for  the  time  being  it  was 
impossible  to  begin  any  real  invasion 
of  the  land  of  the  Magyars.  By  this 
time  the  Russian  reports  stated,  and 
the  dispatches  from  Vienna  did  not 
deny,  that  over  300,000  Austrians  had 
fallen  alive  into  Russian  hands  since 
the  beginning  of  the  offensive  in  the 
first  week  of  June. 

THE  SWIFT   RUSSIAN  ADVANCE  BEGINS  TO 
SLACKEN. 

But  the  end  of  July  saw  the  high- 
water  mark  of  the  Russian  advance. 
Russian  successes  continued  for  another 
month  or  two,  but  the  enemy  defensive 
began  to  stiffen.  Yet  all  the  world 
was  impressed  by  Brusilov's  brilliant 
campaign.  His  success  had  been  more 
genuine  than  if  he  had  merely  taken 
a  large  area  of  territory,  as  the  Germans 
had  done  the  year  before,  for  he  had 
weakened  Austrian  man  power  to  the 
extent  of  about  a  third  of  a  million 
men.  More  important  still,  Brusilov 
had  finally  brought  the  Rumanians 
to  the  point  of  making  a  decision  in 
favor  of  the  Allies.  Unfortunately 
they  delayed,  took  time  to  negotiate. 
If  they  had  made  their  decision  in 
June,  and  had  taken  immediate  action 
when  Czernovitz  fell,  they  might  have 

604 


rushed  their  armies  across  the  moun- 
tains and  cut  off  the  retreat  of  the 
bulk  of  the  Austrian  forces  in  Bukovina. 
But  they  waited. 

And  while  they  waited  Germany 
was  preparing  for  a  great  counter  blow 
which,  had  it  fallen  on  the  Russians 
alone,  might  have  been  disastrous 
to  the  Allied  cause  as  a  whole.  As  it 
was,  it  fell  squarely  on  Rumania.  Yet 
even  as  they  struck  Rumania  this 
vital  blow,  the  Teutons  had  enough 
surplus  strength  to  check  the  Russians 
along  the  whole  Eastern  Front. 

LEMBERG      AND      KOVEL      THE     NEXT     OB- 
>     JECTIVES. 

From  June  4  to  August  i,  1916,  the 
Russians  had  conquered  some  15,000 
square  miles  in  Bukovina,  Galicia  and 
Volhynia.  Lutzk,  Dubno  and  Czer- 
novitz were  only  the  three  most  val- 
uable prizes  which  had  fallen  to  the 
Tsar's  armies.  And  now,  at  the  begin- 
ning of  August,  the  Russians  threatened 
the  important  railroad  centres  of 
Lemberg  and  Kovel. 

The  advance  toward  these  two 
objectives  was  energetically  continued 
during  the  late  summer,  but  now  the 
Teutonic  defense  began  holding  back 
the  Russian  advance,  especially  along 
the  Stokhod  River,  which  protected 
Kovel.  Here  the  proportion  of  German 
troops  was  larger  and  the  fighting  on 
the  Teutonic  side  was,  consequently, 
more  intelligently  conducted.  Nor 
had  the  Russians  further  north,  where 
the  Germans  were  more  numerous, 
registered  any  considerable  gains.  Nev- 
ertheless Stanislau  in  the  south  was 
taken. 

THE  FINAL  ATTEMPT  TO  BREAK  THROUGH 
THE  AUSTRO-GERMAN  LINES. 

In  August  the  Russians  launched  a 
furious  attack  against  the  Germans 
north  of  the  Dniester,  and  for  some 
days  it  seemed  that  Scherbachev 
would  break  through.  At  several 
points  he  succeeded  in  crossing  the 
river  and  piercing  the  German  lines. 
Here  was  fought  the  most  bitterly 
contested  battle  of  the  campaign. 
Back  and  forth  swayed  the  fighting  line, 
as  first  one  side,  thei;i  the  other,  was 
reinforced  by  the  continually  arriving 
reserves.    It  was  the  culminating  effort 


AREA  OF  THE  RUSSIAN  VICTORIES  ON  THE  STRYPA 

General  Brusilov's  offensive  in  Volhynia  and  Galicia  began  on  Sunday,  June  4,  1916,  and  the  battle  quickly  de- 
veloped along  a  wide  front  from  the  River  Pripet  to  the  Rumanian  border,  particularly  heavy  fighting  taking  place 
between  the  P»ruth  and  the  Styr.  Lutsk  was  entered  by  the  victorious  Russians,  June  6,  and  Czernowitz,  the  capital 
of  Bukovina  fell  for  the  fifth  time  in  twenty-one  months,  June  10.  The  next  day  the  Cossacks,  in  pursuit  of  the 
Austrians,  reached  the  Sereth  River.  Some  of  the  fugitives  in  disordered  rout  made  for  the  Carpathian  Passes, 
others  fled  southward  hugging  the  Rumanian  frontier.  By  the  end  of  the  third  week  in  June  the  Russian  cavalry 
had  occupied  Radantz,  after  which  they  carried  the  town  of  Kimoolnng  and  cut  off  the  Austrian  fugitives  in  the 
foothills  of  Bukovina.  A  few  days  later  the  Russians  pierced  the  Borgo  and  Kirlibaba  passes,  so  that  the  way  into 
Hungary  was  open.  They  made  two  or  three  raids  but  no  serious  invasion  was  possible  at  the  time. 


605 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


of  the  whole  Russian  drive.  Finally, 
in  the  middle  of  August,  it  broke;  the 
point  of  the  Russian  dagger  was 
broken  against  the  German  stone  wall. 
And  then  the  intensity  of  the  fighting 
died  down. 

In  the  beginning  of  September  the 
Russians  made  another  determined 
effort  to  take  Lemberg,  and  here  the 
fighting  was  almost  as  sanguinary  as 
it  had  been  in  August.  Beginning 
with  an  artillery  preparation  which 
could  hardly  be  rivaled  on  the  Western 
Front,  the  Russian  masses  were  driven 
solidly  up -against  the  strongly  held 
Austro-German  positions,  in  one  wave 
after  another.  But  here,  too,  the  in- 
fluence of  German  brains  was  visible. 
General  von  Hindenburg  had  been 
placed  in  command  of  the  whole  front 
and  German  officers  were  everywhere. 

GERMAN     AND     AUSTRIAN     FORCES     ARE 
MINGLED  ALONG  THE  FRONT. 

"The  most  significant  observation 
one  makes  on  coming  to  this  front," 
wrote  Stanley  Washburn,  correspond- 
ent for  the  London  Times,  "is  the 
complete  reorganization  of  the  Austrian 
front  since  the  beginning  of  the  Russian 
offensive  in  June.  It  was  then  held 
by  six  Austrian  divisions  and  one 
German.  It  is  now  held  with  a  slightly 
extended  front  by  fragments  of  nine 
German  divisions,  two  Turkish  di- 
visions, and  three  and  a  half  Austrian 
divisions.  Of  the  Austrian  divisions 
originally  here  three  have  been  com- 
pletely destroyed,  and  two  have  de- 
parted, one  for  the  Rumanian  front 
and  another  is  missing.  The  composi- 
tion of  the  German  forces  here  shows 
the  extraordinary  efforts  the  Germans 
are  making  to  bolster  up  the  Austrian 
cause  and  preserve  Lemberg."  Many 
of  these  German  battalions  had  been 
brought  directly  from  the  Somme. 

For  weeks  the  fighting  in  the  Lem- 
berg district  raged  furiously  back  and 
forth,  with  no  other  result  than  that 
the  Germans  succeeded  in  holding 
the  Russians  back.  And  as  had  hap- 
pened before,  gradually  the  Russian 
strength  ebbed  away  and  the  two  sides 
settled  down  to  comparative  quiet,  a 
quiet  which  was  not  to  be  seriously 
disturbed  during  the  rest  of  the  year. 

606 


Nor  did  any  important  changes  of 
relative  position  between  the  opposing 
forces  occur  during  this  period  up  in 
the  northern  half  of  the  Eastern  Front, 
where  both  sides  contented  themselves 
with  holding  w^hat  they  had. 

THE  CENTRAL    POWERS    PROMISE    TO   ES- 
TABLISH  A  POLISH  STATE. 

The  promises  of  Russia  to  give  auton- 
omy to  the  Poles  was  mentioned  in  an 
earlier  chapter,  but  no  attempt  to  re- 
deem the  pledge  was  made.  The  inhab- 
itants of  Russian  Poland  had  no  more 
love  for  the  Germans  than  for  the  Rus- 
sians, but  as  the  weary  months  went 
on,  gradually  many  Poles  came  to 
believe  that  an  Austro-German  vic- 
tory, if  not  too  sweeping,  might  be  for 
their  interest.  The  Central  Powers 
did  all  in  their  power  to  encourage  this 
sentiment. 

When  they  had  occupied  Poland  a 
proclamation  was  issued,  November  5, 
1916,  promising  to  set  up  an  independ- 
ent kingdom  of  Poland  with  a  constitu- 
tional government  in  "intimate  rela- 
tions" with  Austria-Hungary  and  the 
German  Empire.  The  Poles  were  dis- 
appointed to  find,  however,  that  neither 
the  German  nor  the  Austrian  Poles 
were  to  be  included.  Russia,  thereupon 
promised  to  establish  an  autonomous 
state  containing  all  the  Poles  under 
the  sovereignty  of  the  Tsar. 

Sharp  division  among  the  Poles  then 
followed.  The  Polish  Legion  fought 
bravely  with  the  French,  and  many 
Poles  continued  to  support  Russia. 
An  important  party,  however,  believ- 
ing that  Russian  promises  were  worth- 
less, raised  an  army  and  General 
Pilsudski,  of  whom  we  shall  hear  again, 
put  himself  and  his  men  at  the  disposal 
of  Austria.  They  did  not,  however, 
give  up  for  a  moment  the  hope  of 
"Greater  Poland." 

THE  RUSSIAN  FORCES  ATTEMPT  TO    SAVE 
RUMANIA. 

Down  in  the  Carpathians  the  Rus- 
sians under  Lechitsky  also  made  a 
final  effort  to  attain  an  important 
success  against  the  Austrians.  In  the 
middle  of  September,  obviously  to 
divert  the  Austrian  blow  against  Ru- 
mania, they  delivered  a  general  attack 
along  a  line  extending  from  Smotrych, 


AUSTRIANS  IN  THE  CARPATHIANS 

Austrian  troops  and  baggage  trains  halting  for  rest  in  a  Carpathian  pass.  The  men  are  already  high  up  amid  the 
mountains,  and  rests  were  brief,  for  the  men  could  not  keep  warm  unless  they  were  moving.  Frequent  halts  were 
necessary,  however,  for  the  horses  had  to  drag  heavy  loads  over  difficult  roads.  N.  Y.  Times 


RUSSIAN  CAPTIVES  BEING  SENT  TO  THE  REAR 

Of  the  nations  engaged  in  war  Russia  lost  most  heavily.  Her  total  deaths  in  battle  amounted  to  1,700,000.  This 
figure  does  not  take  into  account  men  who  died  of  disease  or  accident,  or  those  who  disappeared  and  were  not 
accounted  for.  The  Germans  captured  large  numbers  of  prisoners  during  the  battle  of  Tannenberg  and  afterward. 
Their  lot  in  captivity  was  a  sad  one,  which  many  did  not  survive.  Henry  Ruschin 

607 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


southwest  of  Zabie,  to  the  Golden 
Bystritza,  but  without  making  any 
noteworthy  advances.  A  few  days 
later  the  Teutons  responded  with  a 
violent  counter-offensive  along  the 
entire  Carpathian  front,  from  the 
Rumanian  frontier  to  the  Jablonitza 
Pass.  In  the  Dorna  Watra  regions  the 
Russians  suffered  a  severe,  though 
local,  reverse,  but  before  the  Teutons 
could  follow  up  their  advantage  on  an 
extensive  scale,  severe  weather  con- 
ditions intervened  and  gradually  set- 
tled down  into  winter  conditions, 
rendering-  serious  operations  almost 
impossible. 

The  truth  is  that  the  Russians  had 
worn  themselves  out  in  the  attack,  had 
expended  all  their  munitions  recklessly 
and  were  now  in  little  better  condition 
than  they  had  been  in  1914.  So  much 
energy  had  been  expended  in  the  pre- 
liminary attacks  that  there  was  not 
strength  enough  for  the  final  blow. 

With  the  check  suffered  by  the 
Russian  armies  along  the  entire  East- 
ern Front  in  the  fall  of  191 6,  but  above 
all  because  of  the  disaster  to  the  Ru- 
manians, whom  the  Russians  had 
undertaken  to  support,  there  came  a 
renewal  of  the  disturbances  in  the 
domestic  situation  in  Petrograd,  cen- 
tering about  the  Duma,  and  directed 
against  the  reactionary  and  pro-Ger- 
man Premier,  Stiirmer. 

DOMESTIC  DISTURBANCES   ARISE  AGAIN 
IN  PETROGRAD. 

Stiirmer,  it  will  be  remembered,  had 
been  almost  openly  working  for  a 
separate  peace  with  Germany,  and 
in  his  general  effort  to  clear  opposition 
from  the  way  before  him  had  brought 
about  the  dismissal  of  Sazonov,  the 
pro- Ally  Foreign  Minister.  Of  a  deeper 
significance,  though  this  was  not  ob- 
vious at  the  time,  was  his  appointment 
of  Alexander  Protopopov  as  Minister 
of  the  Interior,  the  most  sinister  figure 
in  the  administration  just  before  the 
revolution  was  precipitated  in  the 
following  year. 

PROTOPOPOV,   THE   INSTRUMENT   OF    RE- 
ACTION APPEARS. 

Protopopov  had  been  an  Octoberist, 
a  moderate  Conservative,  but  had  join- 
ed the  Progressive  Bloc  with  the  rest 

608 


of  his  party  when  that  political  union 
was  formed  in  the  Duma  in  protest 
against  the  dark  forces  at  court  and 
in  the  administration.  In  the  Duma 
he  had  figured  as  quite  a  radical. 
Quite  unexpectedly,  through  the  resig- 
nation of  a  vice  president  of  the  Duma, 
Protopopov  was  elected  to  fill  the 
vacancy  and  thus  was  brought  into 
prominence.  During  1916  he  had  been 
one  of  a  delegation  to  visit  France  and 
England,  and  on  his  return  to  Petrograd 
through  Stockholm,  he  there  met  and 
held  a  conversation  with  a  person 
known  to  be  a  German  agent.  Charges 
were  brought  against  him  later,  but 
he  managed  to  place  an  innocent 
complexion  on  the  interview  in  Stock- 
holm, and  apparently  the  matter  was 
forgotten.  According  to  report,  how- 
ever, the  charges  against  him  attracted 
the  notice  of  Rasputin,  the  monk 
under  whose  influence  the  court  was 
supposed  to  be.  Rasputin,  it  was  said, 
was  responsible  for  Protopopov's  ap- 
pointment to  the  Cabinet.  Certainly 
later  events  only  corroborate  this 
supposition. 

At  the  time  of  his  elevation  to  this 
high  post,  however,  Protopopov  was 
still  considered  a  man  of  comparatively 
liberal  tendencies,  and  at  first  it  was 
supposed  that  his  appointment  in- 
dicated a  desire  on  the  part  of  the 
Government  to  placate  the  opposition. 
But  the  new  minister  soon  showed  that 
he  was  in  close  harmony  with  Stiirmer. 
As  became  known  later,  he  instituted 
a  new  set  of  intrigues,  whether  hatched 
in  his  own  brain,  or  conceived  in  the 
mind  of  Rasputin,  is  immaterial,  save 
that  he  set  about  putting  them  into 
execution.  His  plan  was  deliberately 
to  bring  about  the  crisis  which  the 
Allies  feared,  to  bring  about  such 
internal  disorders  within  Russia  itself 
that  the  Government  would  have  an 
excellent  pretext  for  entering  into  a 
separate  peace  with  Germany.  Some 
students  of  Russian  affairs  yet  believe, 
however,  in  Protopopov's  honesty. 

THE    DUMA    BECOMES    ALMOST     REVOLU- 
TIONARY. 

This  climax  would  undoubtedly  have 
been  precipitated  without  any  artificial 
stimulation,  had  it  not  been  that  the 


PEASANT  WOMEN  OF  RUTHENIA 

rE^^'r^^iVi^^wifn^i  %^  *  ^'^'i-l^f  °5lfc-°^  l^l  eastern  rroup  forming  a  branch  of  the  Little  Russians.  They  live  chiefly 
m  Gahcia  where  they  constitute  40%  of  the  population.  There  are.  besides,  some  400,000  in  Hungary,  and  300.000 
m  Bukovma.    The  picture  shows  women  making  roads  in  sections  of  the  country  captured  by  the  Germans. 


GERMAN  TROOPS  IN  RUSSIAN  POLAND 

A  typical  scene  on  the  Polish  levels,  part  of  the  great  European  Plain  stretching  from  the  Urals  to  the  North  Sea. 
Mile  after  mile  of  suoply  columns  went  up  daily  to  feed  the  great  armies  of  the  Fatherland.  As  far  as  the  Polis^ 
frontier  the  Germans  were  abundantly  supplied  with  strategic  railways,  but  farther  east  were  obliged  to  depend 
upon  indifferent  roads  which  in  winter  became  at  times  almost  impassable.  Pictures,  Henry  Ruschin 

609 


GERMAN  TROOPS  CARRYING  MACHINE  GUNS 
This  picture?  was  taken  at  nightfall  as  the  Germans  were  withdrawing  to  their  quarters  and  carrying  with  them 
their  machine  guns  so  as  to  have  them  at  hand  if  necessary  for  attack  or  defense.    In  no  previous  war  did  the 
machine  gun  take  such  a  prominent  place  in  the  armaments  of  contending  forces.  Ruschin 


GERMANS  IN  SNOW-LINED  TRENCHES 
These  soldiers  are  armed  with  several  varieties  of  weapons.    Some  have  an  early  type  of  grenade  with  a  handle, 
one  has  a  trench  mortar,  and  others  have  rifle  grenades,  which  are  inserted  into  the  muzzle  of  a  rifle.     The  bullet 
goes  through  a  hole  in  the  grenade  and  the  gases  which  expelled  the  bullet  drive  the  grenade  about  200  yards. 

Leipziger  Presse  Bureau,  from 
New  York  Times 

6io 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


whole  nation  was  waiting  the  opening 
of  the  Duma,  on  November  14,  1916. 
It  was  hoped  that  this  body  would 
save  the  situation.  The  Duma  did 
convene  on  the  date  set,  and  then 
was  witnessed  the  singular  spectacle 
of  this  conservative  legislative  body- 
almost  unanimously  denouncing  the 
Russian  autocracy.  The  few  Socialist 
and  Socialist-Revolutionist  members 
suddenly  found  the  whole  Duma  in 
complete  harmony  with  them,  so  far 
as  fiery  speeches  could  indicate,  at 
any  rate.  It  was  then  that  Paul  Mili- 
ukov,  leader  of  the  Kadets,  denounced 
Sturmer,  not  only  as  a  traitor  to 
Russia,  but  as  a  common  thief  who 
used  his  post  as  a  means  to  corrupt 
practices. 

In  alarm  Sturmer  immediately  took 
steps  to  have  the  Duma  dissolved, 
but  the  Tsar,  whose  signature  was 
needed  for  such  a  purpose,  was  at  the 
front,  and  for  the  time  being  Sturmer 
was  unable  to  accomplish  his  object. 
During  this  interval  the  Minister  of 
War,  General  Shuvaviev,  and  the 
Minister  of  Marine,  Admiral  Gri- 
gorovitch,  appeared  before  the  Duma 
and  proclaimed  themselves  for  the 
opposition.  This  strengthened  the 
hand  of  the  Duma  so  decidedly  that 
when  Sturmer  arrived  at  the  front, 
he  did  indeed  obtain  the  Tsar's  signa- 
ture, not  to  an  ukase  dissolving  the 
Duma,  but  to  his  own  dismissal. 

THE  CIVIL  ADMINISTRATION  MAKES  WAR 
IMPOSSIBLE. 

For  the  time  being  the  liberal  and 
pro-Ally  elements  believed  they  had 
won  a  victory,  but  it  required  only  a 
brief  period  to  bring  them  to  a  realiza- 
tion that  they  were  mistaken.  For 
now,  with  a  brazen  courage  that  de- 
serves a  measure  of  admiration,  Proto- 
popov  stepped  forward,  and  by  action, 
if  not  quite  in  words,  said:  "I  am 
the  man  you  must  fight.  I  am  for 
Germany.  I  defy  you  all."  Which, 
in  eflfect,  he  did. 

Protopopov  now  began  open  war- 
fare against  all  the  leaders  of  the 
opposition,  as  though  they  were  the 
veriest  anarchists.    Almost  openly  he 


disrupted  the  transportation  service 
so  that  great  stores  of  food  supplies 
accumulated  in  the  provinces,  while 
in  the  cities  the  people  stood  in  food 
lines,  waiting  for  their  meagre  rations 
of  the  commonest  necessities.  The 
social  organizations,  the  Co-operative 
Unions,  the  Zemstvo  Unions,  the 
federation  of  municipalities  and  towns, 
all  of  which  had  been  active  in  supply- 
ing the  armies  and  the  civil  population 
with  food  and  clothing,  he  attempted 
to  disrupt  by  forbidding  them  to  hold 
conferences.  Then  he  endeavored  to 
have  Paul  Miliukov  assassinated,  and 
would  have  been  successful  had  not  the 
hired  assassin  repented  at  the  last 
moment  and  made  a  public  confession. 
All  Russia  was  against  him,  and  he 
was  against  all  Russia,  save  for  those 
sinister  figures  in  the  background  of 
which  the  Tsaritsa  and  the  monk 
Rasputin  only  were  distinguishable. 
Even  Purishkevitch,  that  notorious 
reactionary,  the  leader  of  the  Black 
Hundreds,  denounced  him  as  a  traitor, 
as  an  enemy  of  the  people. 

THE   DARK   FORCES   CONTROL   THE    ACTS 
OF  THE  TSAR. 

To  their  credit  be  it  said  that  the 
inajority  of  the  Imperial  family  sided 
strongly  with  the  loyal  Russians, 
including  the  Grand  Dukes  and  the 
mother  of  the  Tsar  herself.  She  had 
warned  that  feeble  minded  monarch 
that  danger  threatened,  told  him  plainly 
where  the  danger  lay,  and  he  had  only 
twirled  his  thumbs  and  smiled.  In 
December,  1916,  Grand  Duke  Nich- 
olas Michailovitch  had  held  a  long 
interview  with  the  Tsar,  in  which  he 
had  denounced  the  Tsaritsa  and  Ras- 
putin in  such  strong  terms  that  when 
he  finished,  realizing  he  had  spoken 
in  tones  not  suited  to  Imperial  ears, 
he  added : 

"You  may  now  call  in  your  guards 
and  have  them  kill  me  and  bury  me 
in  the  garden,  but  at  any  rate  I  have 
done  my  duty."  Whereupon  the 
Tsar  had  smiled  again  and  offered  the 
Grand  Duke  a  light  for  the  cigarette 
which  he  held  unlighted  in  his  nervous 
fingers.  Albert  Sonnichsen. 


611 


A  STREET  m  CONSTANZA 


A  view  of  one  of  the  streets  in  the  Rumanian  sea-port.  Constanza  was  taken  by  the  Germans,  October  22,  1916, 
and  the  capture  of  the  town  involved  the  loss  of  much  grain  and  oil,  and  also  the  cutting  of  a  short  line  of  com- 
munication between  Bucharest  and  Odessa  by  the  Black  Sea. 


♦ 

"in 

• 

1  m 

1  ^\ 

WBIBl^^Bpii,"             V  .%r^<^||^^^^^^^^^HHp^^»'' - 

RUMANIAN  PEASANTS  OFF  TO  MARKET 

Rumania  declared  war  against  Austria  chiefly  because  she  wanted  to  conquer  Transylvania,  the  south-eastern  part 
of  Hungary,  which  has  a  large  Rumanian  population.  Disregarding  the  advice  of  her  Allies  she  made  an  incursion 
iato  Transylvania  but  her  plans  were  thrown  out  of  gear  by  the  enemy's  capture  of  Turtukai,  and  she  was  forced 
to  withdraw  and  in  turn  suffer  invasion.  Pictures,  Henry  Ruschin 

6l2 


Constanza,  the  Chief  Port  of  the  Rumanians 


Chapter  XXXVII 

The  Sacrifice  of  Rumania 

THE   FORCES  OF   RUMANIA  SUFFER  A  SWIFT  AND  CRUSH- 
ING DEFEAT 


AITHEN  the  Great  War  came  in  1914 
Rumania  was  in  a  position  almost 
parallel  to  that  of  Italy  in  her  political 
relations  to  the  Central  Powers.  A 
small  state  situated  between  two 
powerful  neighbors  is  practically  com- 
pelled to  ally  itself  with  one  or  the 
other,  if  it  would  escape  being  ground 
betw^een.  the  two  millstones.  With 
Austria-Hungary  on  the  one  side  and 
Russia  on  the  other,  in  their  march 
toward  the  Aegean  Sea  and  Asia  Minor, 
Rumania's  situation  was  delicate. 

RUMANIA'S    ATTITUDE    TOWARD  ALL  HER 
^     NEIGHBORS. 

Her  people  were  bound  to  neither 
through  racial  ties,  as  has  been  shown 
in  Chapter  IV.  In  the  Russo-Turkish 
War  of  1877  Rumania  had  assisted 
Russia  against  the  Turks  with  the  full 
force  of  her  military  power.  In  return 
Russia  had  appropriated  a  part  of 
Bessarabia,  with  its  Rumanian  popula- 
tion. Five  years  later,  in  1883,  following 
the  example  of  Italy,  Rumania  un- 
officially entered  into  the  political- 
military  convention  which  bound  to- 
gether Germany,  Austria-Hungary, 
Italy  and  herself.  Thus  it  was  that 
the  course  Italy  pursued  after  August, 
1914,  was  watched  very  closely  by  the 
Rumanian  statesmen. 

But  again  like  Italy,  Rumania  had 
a  strong  griev^ance  against  one  of  her 
allies — Austria-Hungary.    As  was  the 


case  in  the  Balkans,  the  boundaries  of 
the  state  did  not  include  all  the  popu- 
lation. In  the  case  of  the  Rumanians, 
Austria-Hungary  had  been  the  chief 
aggressor.  The  Dual  Empire  included 
the  former  principality  of  Transylvania, 
in  which  a  majority  of  the  population 
is  Rumanian,  in  language,  customs, 
and,  above  all,  in  sentiment.  The 
latest  official  statistics  giving  the 
population  of  Hungary  show  a  Ru- 
manian population  of  nearly  3,000,000. 
About  half  of  these  were  concentrated 
in  Transylvania,  where  they  formed, 
according  to  the  test  of  language,  more 
than  half  of  the  total  population.  In 
the  Banat  of  Temesvar  were  many 
thousands  more. 

HUNGARY     OPPRESSES     RUMANIAN     SUB- 
JECTS IN  TRANSYLVANIA. 

Being  bound  to  Austria-Hungary 
by  the  Convention  of  1883,  Rumania 
was  not  able  to  carry  on  a  national 
propaganda  among  her  kindred  across 
the  frontiers,  as  did  Serbia.  Yet  Austria- 
Hungary,  or  more  particularly  Hun- 
gary, to  which  Transylvania  was  at- 
tached, carried  on  the  same  campaign 
of  nationalization  in  Transylvania  as 
was  carried  on  in  Bosnia  and  Herze- 
govina. First  of  all,  Rumanian  language 
schools  were  hampered,  and  the  at- 
tempt to  forbid  any  language  except 
Magyar  was  constant.  Rumanians 
were  unable  to  fill  public  offices,  unless 

613 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


they  spoke  Hungarian  perfectly,  and 
any  activity  on  an  official's  part  in 
favor  of  a  national  spirit  was  the 
cause  of  immediate  dismissal. 

In  the  same  way  the  press  was 
muzzled;  the  editor  who  dared  publish 
any  matter  in  favor  of  Rumanian 
nationality,  even  in  a  cultural  sense, 
ran  the  risk  of  having  his  paper  sup- 
pressed and  faced  a  term  in  prison  as 
well.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Magyar 
press  devoted  much  space  toward 
fanning  up  the  natural  race  prejudice 
of  the  Magyars  against  their  Ru- 
manian neighbors. 

The  political  rights  of  the  Rumanian 
population  in  Hungary  existed  largely 
in  theory.  Legally  the  Rumanians 
had  the  right  to  vote,  but  at  all  the 
elections  the  government  employed 
terroristic  measures  to  insure  the 
election  of  the  Hungarian  deputies.  As 
a  concrete  instance,  out  of  413  deputies 
in  the  National  Chamber,  the  Ru- 
manians, in  proportion  to  their  num- 
bers, should  have  had  something  like 
75  deputies,  but  actually  they  had  only 
one.  This  same  injustice  afifected  all 
the  non-Magyar  populations,  to  such 
an  extent  that  for  a  long  period  the 
Croats  and  the  Serbs  refrained  entirely 
from  voting,  as  a  mark  of  silent  protest. 

SUFFERING    OF   THE    RUMANIAN   POPULA- 
TION OF  BESSARABIA. 

On  the  other  hand,  somewhat  the 
same  situation  existed  in  Bessarabia, 
where  over  a  million  Rumanians  form- 
ing nearly  half  the  population,  lived 
under  the  government  of  Petrograd. 
Here,  too,  their  condition  was  bad, 
but  at  least  in  their  sufferings,  they 
were  on  more  or  less  of  an  equality 
with  the  native  Little  Russian  popula- 
tion. The  government  was  bad,  but 
not  especially  so  for  the  Rumanians. 
Yet  the  fact  remained  that  Russia,  too, 
stood  as  a  barrier  against  the  ambition 
of  the  Rumanian  Government  to  bring 
all  Rumanians  together  into  a  single, 
national  unit.  . 

We  must  not  forget  that  nearly 
300,000  Rumanians  were  included  in 
Bukovina,  over  a  third  of  the  popula- 
tion, but  Austria  proper  was  not  so 
harsh  with  her  subject  peoples  as 
Hungary.    The  Rumanians  in   Buko- 

614 


vina,  like  the  Austrian  Poles,  had  less 
cause  for  complaint  than  any  other 
of  their  subject  brethren. 

RUMANIA'S     ECONOMIC     DEPENDENCE 
UPON    GERMANY. 

Another  very  important  element  in 
Rumania's  situation  during  the  early 
part  of  the  European  war  was  her 
economic  dependence  upon  Germany. 
For  many  years  German  commercial 
firms  had  been  encouraged  by  the 
German  Government  to  capture  the 
Rumanian  market  for  goods  of  German 
manufacture.  Long  term  credit  was 
offered  the  Rumanian  merchants,  whose 
notes  were  discounted  by  the  German 
banks.  These  German  banks  estab- 
lished branches  in  Rumania  and  en- 
couraged Rumanian  industries  by  lib- 
eral investments.  Like  all  countries 
with  agricultural  populations,  Rumania 
had  not  the  capital  with  which  to 
develop  national  industries,  and  was, 
therefore,  compelled  to  secure  it  from 
outside  on  the  best  terms  possible. 

Several  years  before  the  war  the 
Rumanian  Minister  of  Finance,  Mar- 
ghiloman,  went  to  Paris  to  negotiate 
a  loan.  The  French  bankers,  receiving 
no  encouragement  from  their  Govern- 
ment, refused  to  advance  the  money. 
Marghiloman  thereupon  went  to  Ger- 
many, was  immediately  successful  in 
procuring  his  loan,  and  the  same  French 
bankers  who  had  refused  to  assist  him 
in  Paris  were  among  the  subscribers 
to  the  loan  raised  in  Germany,  but 
the  transaction  maintained  its  German 
complexion.  When  the  war  broke  out, 
Rumanian  industries,  especially  those 
concerned  with  the  oil  production, 
were  largely  in  the  hands  of  German 
capitalists.  Consequently  there  was  a 
pro-German  party  in  Rumania  whose 
interests  were  bound  up  with  those  of 
the  German  investors. 

THE  KING  OF  RUMANIA  A  HOHENZOLLERN 
PRINCE. 

This  pro-German  sentiment,  or  in- 
terest, was  strongly  represented  in  the 
government  and  the  Council  of  the 
King  during  the  period  in  which 
Rumania  debated  her  policy  toward 
the  two  groups  of  belligerent  powers. 
King  Carol  (Charles),  himself  of 
German    origin    and    bound    to    the 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


House  of  HohenzoUern  by  ties  of 
blood,  and  being  also  responsible  for  the 
covenant  with  Austria-Hungary,  was 
naturally  in  personal  sympathy  with 
the  cause  of  the  Central  Empires. 

Early  in  the  month  of  August,  after 
hostilities  had  begun,  the  King  called 
together  a  council,  consisting  of  the 
members  of  the  cabinet,  the  chief  party 
leaders,  and  the  presidents  and  ex- 
presidents  of  the  legislative  bodies. 
The  King,  apparently  realizing  his  own 
prejudices,  refused  to  assume  the 
responsibility  of  acting  on  his  own 
initiative  in  this  important  crisis.  The 
pro-Germans,  represented  by  a  former 
Premier,  Carp,  were  strongly  in  favor 
of  immediately  joining  hands  with  the 
Central  Empires.  The  Premier,  Bra- 
tiano,  was  for  neutrality,  for  the  time, 
at  least.  Then  the  King  arose  and 
made  a  fervent  speech  upholding  the 
treaty  with  Austria-Hungary,  citing 
Italy's  situation  and. her  determination 
to  remain  true  to  her  allies. 

THE    EFFECT    OF    ITALY'S    DECISION     TO 
REMAIN  NEUTRAL. 

"But  will  she?"  demanded  one  of 
those  present. 

Before  the  King  could  reply,  an 
attendant  announced  that  Baron  Fas- 
ciotti,  Italian  Minister  to  Rumania, 
wished  to  be  received  on  a  matter  of 
great  urgency.  Silence  fell  upon  the 
assembly.  Without  a  word  the  King 
left  the  room.  A  few  minutes  later 
he  returned  and  announced  that  he 
had  been  informed  by  the  Italian 
Minister  that  Italy  had  decided  to 
remain  neutral.  There  was  no  further 
discussion.  Rumania,  too,  would  re- 
main neutral,  for  the  time  being,  at 
least. 

In  the  following  October  King  Carol 
died  and  his  nephew  Ferdinand  became 
King  of  Rumania.  The  new  ruler, 
though  also  a  HohenzoUern  by  blood, 
showed  no  inclination  to  use  his  per- 
sonal influence  in  diverting  the  govern- 
ment from  its  policy  of  strict  neutrality. 
Among  the  people  the  feeling  that  now 
was  the  time  to  make  an  effort  in  be- 
half of  the  Rumanians  in  other  lands 
grew  stronger.  This  feeling  was  in- 
creased by  the  initial  successes  of  the 
Russian  armies  against  the  Austrians 


in  Galicia,  resulting  in  the  capture  of 
Lemberg  and  Przemysl.  In  November, 
1914,  Count  Czernin,  Austro-Hun- 
garian  Minister  at  Bucharest,  reported 
to  his  government  that  there  were  only 
two  factions  in  Rumania;  those  who 
did,  and  those  who  did  not,  think  the 
time  was  opportune  for  declaring  war 
against  Austria-Hungary. 


FERDINAND,  KING  OF  RUMANIA 

Ferdinand  I,  King  of  Rumania,  is  a  nephew  of  the  late 
King  Carol  whom  he  succeeded  on  October  11,  1914. 

THE  CENTRAL  POWERS  MAKE  OFFERS   TO 
SECtTRE  AID. 

Meanwhile  Rumania  had  received 
and  considered  propositions  and  ofTers 
from  both  sides.  In  the  middle  of  191 5 
the  Central  Powers  ofTered  Bukovina 
up  to  the  River  Sereth  in  return  for  a 
"benevolent"  neutrality,  which  meant 
that  munitions  should  be  permitted 
passage  through  the  country  to  Turkey. 
But  as  a  reward  for  prompt  military 
aid  Rumania  would  receive  Bukovina 
up  to  the  River  Pruth,  and  an  extension 
of  her  territory  along  the  Danube  up 
to  the  Iron  Gate. 

Russia  on  the  other  hand,  offered 
Bessarabia,  and  Transylvania,  when 
it  should  be  conquered.  In  the  mean- 
time France  and  England,  in  trying 

615 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD   WAR 


to  persuade  all  the  Balkan  states  to 
make  concessions  to  Bulgaria  as  corn- 
pensation  for  her  intervention  in  their 
favor,  turned  to  Rumania  and  attempt- 
ed to  persuade  her  to  surrender  all  or 
some  of  the  territory  in  the  Dobrudja, 
taken  from  Bulgaria  after  the  Second 
Balkan  War.  Rumania  asked  as  her 
price  for  this  territory  and  her  active 
intervention  all  of  Transylvania,  the 
Banat  of  Temesvar,  also  containing 
some  Rumanian  population,  and  Bu- 
kovina.  Russia  objected  to  giving  up 
all  of  Bukovina,  which  her  troops  now 
occupied.  '  Then  Rumania  insisted  on 
the  possession  of  Czernowitz  and  the 
boundary  of  the  Pruth.  Russia  refused 
to  consider  this  proposal,  until  after 
she  lost  Lemberg,  when  she  not  only 
agreed  to  cede  Czernowitz  and  the 
Pruth  boundary,  but  to  international- 
ize the  Dardanelles. 

RUMANIA      CHEERFULLY     TRADES      WITH 
.     BOTH     SIDES. 

Ostensibly  Rumania  would  not  allow 
the  passage  of  German  munitions  to 
Turkey,  but  for  long  periods  at  a  time 
this  traffic  was  permitted.  German 
agents  also  bought  large  quantities  of 
petrol  from  the  Rumanian  oil  wells. 
Rumania  sold  food  products  to  both 
sides.  In  January,  1916,  Great  Britain 
purchased  Rumanian  wheat  to  the 
extent  of  $50,000,000,  though  it  could 
not  all  be  delivered  and  had  to  be 
stored.  At  about  the  same  time  Aus- 
tria and  Germany  bought  a  million 
tons  of  corn,  150,000  tons  of  barley 
and  100,000  tons  of  oats.  Turkey  was 
supplied  with  benzol  and  wheat  in 
exchange  for  tobacco. 

By  June,  1916,  it  was  still  impossible 
to  say  on  which  side,  or  when,  Ru- 
mania would  intervene  in  the  war. 
But  now,  in  June,  Brusilov  began  his 
tremendous  offensive  against  the  Aus- 
trians  in  Galicia  and  Bukovina  and 
occupied  Czernowitz,  completely  clear- 
ing the  enemy  out  of  Bukovina,  while 
the  Austrians  suffered  apparently  dis- 
astrous losses.  It  seemed  that  the 
Austrians  could  never  recover  from 
this  blow.  The  Rumanians  were  deep- 
ly impressed,  and  the  time  for  a  de- 
cision seemed  to  have  come.  Take 
Jonescu  and  Filipescu,  both  prominent 

616 


politicians,  had  been  strongly  advocat- 
ing co-operation  with  the  Allies.  An- 
other strong  influence  in  favor  of  the 
Allies  was  the  fact  that  Italy  had  now 
definitely  abandoned  her  neutrality 
and  entered  the  war  against  Austria. 
Still  the  King,  and  the  Premier,  Bra- 
tiano,  hesitated. 

-pUSSIA     PUSHES     RUMANIA      INTO     WAR. 

Just  now  came  a  practical  ulti- 
matum from  Russia  ordering  Ru- 
mania to  enter  the  war  upon  pain 
of  losing  any  racial  or  territorial 
unification  after  the  war.  The  docu- 
ments published  by  the  Bolsheviki 
in  Russia  indicate  that  the  plan  to  se- 
cure a  separate  peace  for  Russia  by  the 
betrayal  of  Rumania,  was  already 
formed.  More  will  be  said  of  this  in  the 
chapters  dealing  with  the  Russian 
Revolution.  About  this  time  the 
members  of  the  Government  definitely 
made  their  decision.  Trainloads  of 
munitions  began  to  arrive  from  Russia, 
though  it  is  not  yet  certain  that  a  final 
agreement  had  then  been  reached 
between  Rumania  and  the  Entente. 
Austrian  and  German  workers  were 
discharged  from  the  Rumanian  muni- 
tions factories.  Austria's  representa- 
tive in  Bucharest,  Count  Czernin, 
protested  against  the  unusual  con- 
centration of  Rumanian  troops  against 
the  Transylvanian  frontier,  while  the 
Russian  frontier  was  comparatively 
denuded.  German  papers  assumed  that 
negotiations  were  going  on  between 
Rumania  and  the  Allies,  but  that  there 
was  a  disagreement  over  the  influence 
that  Rumania  was  to  have  at  the  final 
peace  conference. 

THE    DECISION    TO    INTERVENE    IS    MADE 
AUGUST  27,   1916. 

Finally,  on  August  27,  1916,  the 
King  convened  another  extraordinary 
Council  and  then,  for  the  first  time, 
both  he  and  Bratiano  declared  them- 
selves unequivocally  for  war  on  the 
side  of  the  Allies.  Carp,  the  pro-Ger- 
man, declared  himself  as  fervently  as 
ever  in  favor  of  joining  the  Central 
Empires,  while  Marghiloman  though 
favoring  Germany,  stood  out  for  a 
continued  neutrality. 

According    to    Stanley    Washburn, 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


the  London  Times  correspondent.  King 
Ferdinand  was  told  that  a  Hohenzol- 
lern  had  never  been  and  never  could 
be  defeated.  "That  is  not  true,"  re- 
plied the  King.  "I  have  defeated  the 
Hohenzollern  within  me."  That  eve- 
ning the  Rumanian  Government,  with- 
out consulting  the  legislative  body, 
issued  its  declaration  of  war  against 
Austria-Hungary. 

RUMANIA'S   REASONS   FOR  WAR  WITH  THE 
.     CENTRAL  POWERS. 

The  reasons  for  this  act,  as  given  in 
the  declaration,  were  as  follows:  The 
alliance  between  Germany,  Austria- 
Hungary  and  Italy  had  been  essentially 
of  a  defensive  nature,  to  preserve  the 
peace  of  Europe.  Desiring  to  harmon- 
ize her  politics  with  these  peaceful 
tendencies,  Rumania  had  joined  the 
alliance.  The  last  Balkan  wars,  by 
destroying  the  status  quo,  had  imposed 
on  her  a  new  line  of  conduct.  When 
actual  war  broke  out,  Rumania,  like 
Italy,  refused  to  join  in  the  declaration 
of  war.  When  Italy  declared  war  on 
Austria-Hungary,  the  Triple  Alliance 
had  ceased  to  exist.  Rumania  felt 
herself  no  longer  bound,  for  the  Central 
Powers  had  themselves  upset  the  basis 
on  which  the  alliance  had  rested. 

Hitherto  Rumania  had  maintained 
a  strict  neutrality,  because  she  had 
been  assured  by  Austria-Hungary  that 
the  attack  against  Serbia  had  not  been 
undertaken  with  the  object  of  conquest. 
This  promise  had  not  been  kept.  Since 
it  was  obvious  that  great  territorial 
transformations  were  imminent,  Ru- 
mania felt  herself  in  danger  and  was 
compelled  to  take  measures  to  protect 
herself. 

By  adhering,  in  1883,  to  the  group 
of  the  Central  Powers,  Rumania  had 
not  forgotten  the  ties  of  blood  uniting 
the  populations  of  the  kingdom  with 
the  Rumanian  subjects  of  Austria- 
Hungary.  As  for  Austria-Hungary, 
she  found  in  the  friendly  relations 
estabHshed  between  herself  and  Ru- 
mania assurances  for  her  tranquility. 
In  spite  of  these  assurances,  the  Ru- 
manians of  Austria-Hungary  had  been 
severely  oppressed.  Two  years  of  war 
had  passed,  and  Rumania  had  hoped 
that    internal    reforms    might    be    in- 


stituted in  favor  of  her  kinsmen  in 
Austria-Hungary.  These  hopes  had 
not  been  realized.  The  war,  in  which 
almost  all  of  Europe  participated, 
brought  out  the  gravest  problems 
which  affected  the  national  develop- 
ment and  the  very  existence  of  states. 
Rumania,  desiring  to  contribute  toward 
hastening  the  end  of  the  conflict,  and 
under  the  imperative  necessity  of 
guarding  her  racial  interests,  felt  com- 
pelled to  join  the  ranks  of  those  who 
would  assure  her  national  unity.  For 
these  reasons  she  considered  herself 
from  this  moment  in  a  state  of  war 
with  Austria-Hungary.  Dated  at  Bu- 
charest, August  27,  1916,  9  P.M. 

•f  T7HAT  THE  ALLIES  HAD  PROMISED  FOR 
VV       ASSISTANCE. 

The  Allies,  France,  Italy,  Great 
Britain  and  Russia,  promised  Ru- 
mania not  only  the  new  territorial 
acquisitions  which  she  claimed,  but 
the  integrity  of  her  territory.  Mili- 
tary assistance  was  also  promised.  A 
Russian  army  was  to  pass  the  Danube 
and  establish  a  front  against  the 
Germans,  Bulgarians  and  Turks  who 
had  for  some  time  been  massed  in 
the  Dobrudja  against  the  Rumanian 
frontier.  The  forces  at  Saloniki,  were 
to  begin  an  offensive  simultaneously 
with  the  Rumanian  attack  on  the 
Austrians.  Most  important  of  all. 
a  sufficient  supply  of  munitions  was 
guaranteed. 

It  was  considered  at  the  time  that 
the  diplomacy  of  the  Allies  had  won 
a  great  victory  in  gaining  the  military 
support  of  Rumania,  for,  although 
her  participation  in  the  Second  Balkan 
War  had  been  no  test  of  the  efficiency 
of  her  Army,  her  military  organization 
was  still  considered  one  of  the  best 
in  the  Balkans,  at  least  equal  in  quality 
to  that  of  Bulgaria  and  Serbia.  With 
a  population  of  over  7,000,000,  Ru- 
mania could  raise  over  700,000  men. 
The  artillery  of  all  classes  numbered 
about  1,500  guns,  nearly  all  of  small 
calibre.  In  rifles  there  was  a  consider- 
able shortage;  these  numbered  about 
600,000.  In  ammunition  the  shortage 
was  perhaps  even  more  marked,  but 
great  quantities  were  /expected  from 
the  Allies,  largely  through  Russia,  and 

617 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


some  shipments  had  already  arrived 
before  the  declaration  of  war. 

THE  RUMANIANS  FIRST  ATTACK  IN    THE 
CARPATHIANS. 

The  first  news  of  actual  fighting  was 
given  to  the  outside  world  by  the 
Austrian  Government,  which  reported, 
on  August  28,  that  during  the  preceding 
night  the  Rumanians  had  made  a 
heavy  attack  on  the  Austrian  forces 
stationed  on  the  frontier  in  the  Red 


small  defensive  forces  in  the  Carpa- 
thian passes,  to  repel  any  attempted 
invasion  by  the  Austrians,  while  with 
her  main  armies,  together  with  such 
Russian  assistance  as  was  offered, 
begin  an  invasion  of  Bulgaria.  This 
latter  course  would  probably  have 
been  the  wiser,  considering  the  good 
of  the  Allied  cause  as  a  whole,  but 
the  campaign  was  shaped  with  a  view 
toward     satisfying     public    sentiment 


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MAP  OF  RUMANIA  SHOWING  THE  AREA  CAPTURED  UP  TO  THE  END  OF  1916 

Rumania  formed  a  salient  jutting  out  into  territories  in  German  hands.  She  was  exposed  to  attack  by  Austrians 
on  the  Transylvanian  frontier,  and  on  the  line  of  the  Danube  by  Bulgarians.  She  invaded  Transylvania  but  the 
enemy  captured  Turtukai.  Then  Mackensen  swept  from  the  west  and  south,  and  von  Falkenhayn  from  the  Tran- 
sylvanian Passes,  and  by  the  end  of  1916  all  Rumania  from  the  Iron  Gates  to  the  River  Sereth  was  in  their  hands. 

which  demanded  conquest  of  the  ter- 
ritory inhabited  by  the  oppressed 
Rumanians  under  Austria-Hungary. 
It  was  understood  also  that  the  Russian 
forces  in  Bessarabia  should  defend 
the  Dobrudja,  leaving  Rumania  free 
to  overrun  Transylvania.  It  seems 
also  that  the  Russians  assured  the 
Rumanians  that  Bulgaria  would  not 
attack. 

MUCH   OF   TRANSYLVANIA    IS    OCCUPIED 
BY  THE  RUMANIANS. 

The  initial  attacks  of  the  Rumanians 
against  the  Austrians  in  the  Carpa- 
thians met  with  immediate  success, 
and  at  once  the  former  began  penetrat- 
ing to  a  considerable  depth  into  Tran- 


Tower  Pass,  and  in  the  passes  leading 
to  Brasso.  Thus  it  was  indicated  that 
Rumania  would  probably  direct  her 
main  campaign  toward  an  invasion  of 
Transylvania,    the    coveted  province. 

In  planning  her  campaign,  Rumania 
had  this  choice  before  her.  She  might 
station  a  mere  defensive  force  in  the 
south  and  east,  along  the  Danube, 
hoping  that  Sarrail  in  Salonika  would 
keep  the  Bulgarians  too  busy  in  Mac- 
edonia to  enable  them  to  attack  Ru- 
mania from  the  Dobrudja,  while  the 
main  Rumanian  armies  crossed  the 
Carpathians  into  Transylvania  and 
cleared  that  region  of  the  Austrians. 
Or,  she  might  do  the  opposite;  station 

618 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


sylvania,  while  the  Austrians  retired 
before  them.  Meanwhile  on  September 
I,  1916,  the  German  Empire  declared 
war  against  Rumania. 

Down  in  the  Dobrudja,  as  already- 
stated,  was  a  force  of  mixed  Bulgarians, 
Turks  and  some  Germans,  numbering 
about  180,000  under  the  command  of 
the  famous  von  Mackensen.  Against 
these  the  Rumanians  had  only  a  few 


GENERAL  VON  MACKENSEN 

General  von  Mackensen  broke  the  Russian  line  in 
1915  with  his  "Grand  Phalanx"  tactics.  Before  Verdun 
early  in  1916,  he  afterwards  directed  the  fighting  against 
Rumania  in  the  Dobrudja. 

divisions.  Bulgaria  had  not  remained 
neutral  but  had  declared  war  on  Ru- 
mania on  September  I, and  invaded  the 
Dobrudja.  The  fortress  of  Turtukai 
was  taken,  and  the  garrison  at  Silistria 
hastily  evacuated  the  position. 

THE    DOBRUDJA    A    HIGHWAY     BETWEEN' 
EUROPE  AND  ASIA. 

The  Dobrudja,  about  which  so 
much  has  been  said,  is  a  plateau 
bounded  on  the  west  and  north  by  the 
Danube,  on  the  east  by  the  Black  Sea, 
and  on  the  south  by  Bulgaria.  This 
desolate  land,  without  trees  and  almost 
without  water,  has  been  the  highway 
between    Southern     Russia    and    the 


Balkan  Peninsula  for  two  thousand 
years.  The  Roman  Emperor  Trajan 
built  a  wall  across  it  to  keep  back  the 
barbarians;  the  Goths  and  Slavs  in 
their  invasion  of  the  Eastern  Empire 
came  this  way,  and  Russia  followed 
in  her  invasions  of  the  Turkish  lands. 

This  sparsely  populated  region  con- 
tains representatives  of  many  peoples, 
Turks,  Russians,  Tartars,  Germans, 
Rumanians,  Serbs,  Greeks,  Armenians 
and  Bulgarians.  In  the  South  the 
Bulgarians  predominated,  and  the  fact 
that  the  Southern  Dobrudja  was  taken 
from  Bulgaria  and  added  to  Rumania 
as  a  result  of  the  Second  Balkan  War, 
was  one  of  Bulgaria's  chief  grievances. 

This  defeat  came  to  Rumania  as  a 
severe  shock.  Three  divisions  were 
immediately  withdrawn  from  the  Tran- 
sylvanian  front,  (none  too  strong  as  it 
was),  to  strengthen  the  southern  front. 
An  appeal  was  sent  to  Russia  for 
assistance,  but  the  traitor  Stiirmer 
was  then  Premier,  and  his  reply  was 
that  only  two  or  three  divisions  could 
be  sent.  Three  divisions  did  arrive 
from  Russia  some  days  later,  one  of 
which  was  composed  of  Serbian  vol- 
unteers. 

THE  DOBRUDJA  IS  FINALLY  OCCUPIED  BY 
VON  MACKENSEN. 

But  von  Mackensen,  with  superior 
numbers  and  superior  artillery  contin- 
ued his  advance,  while  the  Rumanians 
fought  delaying  engagements,  some- 
times driving  their  opponents  back 
with  severe  loss.  All  through  Sep- 
tember and  well  into  October  this 
struggle  continued  in  the  Dobrudja, 
until  the  Rumanians  had  been  driven 
over  to  the  north  bank  of  the  Danube, 
first  destroying  the  famous  bridge 
crossing  the  river  at  Czernavoda,  the 
only  bridge  over  the  Danube  below  Bel- 
grade. Constanza,  Rumania's  one  sea- 
port, was  taken. 

Meanwhile  the  main  Rumanian  ar- 
mies across  the  Carpathians  in  Tran- 
sylvania were  also  finding  themselves 
in  difficulties.  With  furious  determina- 
tion Germany  rushed  to  the  assistance 
of  the  Austrians  with  some  800,000 
men,  taken  from  both  the  eastern  and 
western  fronts.  The  combined  forces 
of  the  Austrians  and  Germans,  amount- 

619 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


ing  to  about  a  million  and  a  half  of 
men,  under  the  command  of  General 
von  Falkenhayn,  began  to  drive  the 
Rumanians,  who  on  this  front  number- 
ed considerably  less  than  half  a  million, 
back  toward  the  Carpathians. 

Once  more  in  the  passes,  the  Ru- 
manians offered  desperate  resistance; 
they  had  the  courage  of  men  defending 
their  homeland  from  invasion.  But 
the  German  artillery  was  far  superior 
to  anything  the  Rumanians  possessed, 
and  one  by  one  the  mountain  passes 
were  cleared  and  the  Teutons  began 
pouring  down  into  the  level  plains  of 
Rumania,  driving  King  Ferdinand's 
troops  before  them.  By  the  middle  of 
November  the  Allied  countries  realized 
that  Rumania  was  in  danger.  It  was  a 
period  during  which  the  whole  Allied 
cause  seemed  in  peril,  for  on  none  of 
the  fronts  could  real  pressure  be  applied 
to  relieve  the  struggling  Rumanians. 
In  Macedonia  Sarrail  indeed  began  an 
advance,  but  beyond  capturing  the 
unfortified  city  of  Monastir,  he  made 
no  material  progress.  Along  the  eastern 
front  the  Russians  were  meeting  with 
more  resistance  than  they  encountered 
before  the  Rumanians  entered  the  war. 

THE     GERMAN     FORCES     PRESS     TOWARD 
THE  DANUBE. 

Toward  the  end  of  November  it  was 
not  only  obvious  that  the  Rumanians 
were  being  pressed  back,  but  that  they 
were  in  imminent  danger  of  being 
destroyed  as  a  fighting  organization; 
that  at  least  a  part  of  the  army  might 
be  captured.  Von  Falkenhayn's  right 
wing  was  moving  rapidly  toward  the 
Danube;  should  it  reach  the  north 
bank,  there  would  be  nothing  to  prevent 
a  junction  with  von  Mackensen's  forces 
on  the  other  side.  On  the  24th  came 
the  announcement  from  Berlin  that 
von  Falkenhayn  had  captured  Turnu- 
Severin  on  the  Danube.  More  serious 
to  the  Rumanians  was  the  news  that 
von  Mackensen's  men  had  crossed  the 
Danube  at  Zimnitza,  opposite  Sistovo, 
and  were  advancing  toward  Bucharest, 
behind  the  main  Rumanian  lines.  The 
crossing  was  made  under  cover  of 
artillery  and  with  the  help  of  river 
craft.  This,  rather  than  pressure  from 
in  front,  sent  the  Rumanians  retreating 

620 


rapidly,  for  now  their  rear  was  threat- 
ened. 

That  Bucharest  was  in  danger  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  a  few  days 
later  the  Rumanian  Government  re- 
tired from  the  capital  and  established 
itself  at  Jassy,  about  two  hundred 
miles  northeastward,  near  the  Russian 
frontier.  By  December  i  the  Teutons 
had  almost  reached  the  Argesh  River, 
the  last  wide  stream  that  lay  between 
them  and  the  outer  fortifications  of 
Bucharest.  Here  the  Rumanians  stay- 
ed their  flight  and  fought  a  hard  battle 
for  a  whole  day,  making  the  last  stand 
that  was  possible  before  Bucharest 
must  be  abandoned.  The  treachery  of 
General  Sosescu,  a  naturalized  German, 
lost  the  battle,  according  to  the  Ru- 
manians. 

BUCHAREST      IS     ABANDONED      AND      OC- 
CUPIED    BY    THE    GERMANS. 

The  blow  which  finally  decided  the 
fate  of  Bucharest,  howe\er,  came 
from  the  north.  The  real  danger  lay 
in  the  German  forces  coming  down  from 
the  passes  south  of  Kronstadt — north 
of  Bucharest.  From  this  point  the 
invaders  streamed  down  the  Prahova 
Valley,  which  begins  at  the  passes  and 
which  runs  down  southeast,  behind 
Bucharest.  The  Rumanians  now  had 
the  choice  of  evacuating  their  capital, 
or  having  it  surrounded  and  besieged. 
Bucharest  was  a  fortified  city,  but 
the  Germans  carried  guns  which  no 
man-made  fortifications  could  with- 
stand. The  Belgian  fortresses  had 
shown  that  fact.  The  Rumanian 
General  Staff  wisely  decided  in  favor 
of  abandoning  Bucharest,  first  blowing 
up  the  arsenal.  The  Germans  entered 
on  December  6,  and  General  von  Mack- 
ensen  occupied  the  Royal  Palace. 

One  of  the  picturesque  incidents  of 
the  retreat  of  the  Rumanians  from 
their  capital  was  the  destruction  of 
the  oil  wells,  which  was  expertly  ac- 
complished by  the  British  engineers 
in  charge.  All  the  machinery  was 
destroyed  and  the  wells  themselves 
were  clogged  with  tons  of  nails  and 
scrap  iron.  The  accumulated  oil  in 
the  big  reservoirs,  however,  could  not 
be  taken  along,  and  this  was  set  afire. 
From  horizon  to  horizon  extended  the 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


rolling  clouds  of  black  smoke  from 
the  burning  tanks,  and  all  this  part 
of  Rumania  seemed  a  roaring  furnace, 
the  flames  shooting  up  as  though 
emerging  from  the  craters  of  active 
volcanoes.  M  uch  wheat  was  also  cover- 
ed with  oil  and  set  on  fire. 

THE   SPIRIT   OF   THE   RUMANIAN    PEOPLE 
REMAINS  STRONG. 

Rumania  had  lost  heavily,  perhaps 
300,000   men,    and    two-thirds   of   her 


the  Rumanian  retreat.  Had  this  as- 
sistance come  three  months  sooner  the 
whole  course  of  events  would  probably 
have  been  different.  There  was  still 
some  hard  fighting  during  the  rest  of 
December,  but  before  January  10,  191 7, 
the  Rumanian  retreat  had  come  to  an 
end.  The  tremendous  energy  of  the 
Teuton  armies  had  by  this  time  been 
spent,  and  they  were  compelled  to  rest 
on    their    laurels.      The    Rumanians, 


HUNGARIAN  VILLAGE  ON  THE  RUMANIAN  BORDER 

Every  Rumanian  peasant  soldier  on  entering  Transylvania,  when  greeted  in  his  own  tongue  by  his  count^men 
from  over  the  border^  could  grasp  the  full  meaning  of  the  war  for  liberation  and  national  unity.  In  the  invasion  of 
Transylvania  sentimental  motives  counted  for  as  much  as  in  the  original  French  march  into  Alsace-Lorraine, 
August  1914.  Ruschin 


territory  had  been  occupied.  This 
part  was  the  most  fertile  and  the 
Germans  secured  some  food  from  it. 
Later  they  were  able  to  repair  some 
of  the  damage  done  to  the  oil  wells. 
Meanwhile  the  Rumanian  troops  stood 
firm  in  the  northern  part  of  the  country, 
and  the  people  were  undaunted. 

After  the  fall  of  Bucharest  there  was 
a  halt  in  the  German-Austrian  advance, 
due  to  bad  weather  conditions  and 
disadvantages  of  terrain  which  they 
were  now  encountering.  By  this  time, 
too,  the  belated  Russian  assistance 
was  beginning  to  arrive  and  stiffened 


together  with  the  Russians,  were  hold- 
ing a  line  along  the  Sereth  River. 

RUSSIAN     TREACHERY    IS    CHARGED     BY 
RUMANIA. 

The  conquest  of  Rumania  was  un- 
doubtedly one  of  the  most  unexpected 
blows  which  the  Germans  were  able 
to  deliver  against  the  Allied  cause 
during  the  war.  With  the  support 
that  had  been  promised  King  Ferdi- 
nand's armies,  it  was  expected  that 
they  would  at  least  be  able  to  hold  the 
frontiers  of  their  kingdom  against  the 
Teutons  in  the  north  and  the  Bul- 
garians and  Turks  in  the  south,  thus 

621 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


detaching  great  forces  from  both  the 
Western  and  the  Russian  fronts.  When 
disaster  first  began  to  manifest  itself, 
there  arose  from  Rumania  itself  a  cry 
of  treachery,  an  accusation  of  broken 
promises.  These  charges  seemed  to  be 
substantiated  when,  later,  the  do- 
mestic situation  in  Russia  was  re- 
vealed. Stiirmer  was  at  the  time 
Russian  Premier,  and  of  his  treachery 
there  is  hardly  a  doubt.  It  was,  and 
still  is,  believed  that  he  had  a  secret 
agreement  with  Germany  whereby  a 
Rumanian  defeat,  rather  than  a  Rus- 
sian defeat,  was  to  be  the  pretext  for  a 
separate  peace.  The  campaign  plans 
of  the  Rumanian  General  Staff  seemed 
on  every  critical  occasion  to  be  com- 
pletely known  to  the  enemy. 

Stanley  Washburn,  the  correspond- 
ent of  the  London  Times  on  the  Eastern 
Front,  who  was  present  at  Rumanian 
headquarters  during  the  retreat,  while 
admitting  the  treachery  of  the  Russian 
Premier  and  the  "dark  forces"  within 
the  Russian  Court,  places  the  chief 
blame  on  the  bad  judgment  of  the 
Allied  chiefs,  rather  than  on  bad  faith. 

A  PLAUSIBLE       EXPLANATION       OF       THE 
DISASTER. 

"The  greatest  mistake,"  he  said, 
"on  the  part  of  the  Allies  was  their 
estimate  of  the  number  of  troops  that 
the  Germans  could  send  to  Rumania 
during  the  fall  of  1916.  As  I  have  said, 
experts  placed  this  number  at  from 
ten  to  sixteen  divisions,  but,  to  the  best 
of  my  judgment,  they  sent,  between 
September  i  and  January  i,  not  less 
than  thirty.  The  German  commitments 
to  the  Rumanian  front  came  by  express, 
and  the  Russian  supports,  because  of 
the  paucity  of  lines  of  communication, 
came  by  freight.  The  moment  it  be- 
came evident  what  the  Germans  could 
do  in  the  way  of  sending  troops, 
Rumania  was  doomed. " 

On  the  other  hand,  Gogu  Negulescu, 
a  senator  of  the  Rumanian  Parliament, 
who  visited  the  United  States  after 
the  war,  attributes  the  defeat  entirely 
to  the  treachery  of  the  whole  Russian 
Government.  He  declares  that  Russia 
was  from  the  beginning  averse  to 
calling  in   Rumania  to  help  win   the 


war  on  account  of  the  price  demanded 
by  Rumania  for  her  assistance.  Having 
been  forced  to  accept  assistance,  the 
Russians  determined  to  utilize  Ru- 
mania as  a  shock  absorber,  allowing 
the  hardest  blows  to  fall  on  the  Ru- 
manian Army,  while  the  Russians 
sheltered  themselves  in  the  rear. 

This   latter   assumption   at   least   is 
plausible,  for  again  and  again  Russia 


GENERAL  ZOTTU 

General  Zottu  was  chief  of  the  Rumanian  General 
Staff  in  1916.  His  deputy-chief  was  General  Iliescu, 
who  formerly  had  been  Secretary  of  the  War  Office. 

had  rejected  Rumanian  terms  as  ex- 
orbitant. Finally,  in  the  summer  of 
1916,  perhaps  having  knowledge  of  the 
vast  forces  which  Germany  was  draw- 
ing from  her  reserves  for  a  tremendous 
blow  against  the  Russians  on  the 
Eastern  Front,  Petrograd  came  to 
terms  with  Rumania.  Had  the  armies 
which  smashed  Rumania  struck  Russia 
alone,  undoubtedly  her  forces  would 
have  crumpled  under  the  impact. 
Russia  would  have  been  forced  to  a 
separate  peace,  the  Teuton  armies  on 
the  Eastern  Front  would  have  been 
liberated  for  service  on  the  Western 
Front — ^with  results  that  need  only 
be  imagined.  The  service  Rumania 
rendered  the  Allied  cause  was  none  the 
less  because  she  suffered  so  disastrously. 


622 


Buiiwck  iidiiapuii  ill  Mesopotamia 

Chapter  XXXVIII 

The  War  in  the  Near  East 

THE  TURKS  TAKE  KUT-EL-AMARA,  BUT  THE 
RUSSIANS  CAPTURE  ERZERUM. 


Supporters  of  the  theory  that  the 
war  had  to  be  won  upon  the  Western 
Front,  who  characterized  the  cam- 
paigns in  the  Balkans,  in  Armenia,  in 
Mesopotamia,  and  in  Egypt  as  "side- 
shows" irrelevant  to  the  main  struggle 
ignored  two  important  facts.  The 
first  was  the  value  of  Turkey  to  the 
Central  Alliance.  If  Turkey  were  not 
attacked  in  her  spheres  of  influence, 
they  would  serve  as  important  reserves 
of  men  and  material  to  supplement 
the  Austro-German  armies.  Secondly, 
these  critics  of  "side-shows"  ignored 
one  of  the  great  causes  of  the  war: 
Germany's  intention  to  build  up  an 
empire  of  the  Levantine  countries — 
a  project  which  not  only  menaced 
British  rule  in  India,  and  Egypt,  and 
Russia's  expansion  into  a  warmer  sea, 
but  threatened  ever>^  other  power  in 
Europe  outside  of  the  Teutonic  Al- 
liance. 

SOME    OF    THE    EFFECTS    OF    THE    MINOR 
OPERATIONS. 

Ill-Starred  as  some  of  these  opera- 
tions were — against  the  gun-studded 
heights  of  Gallipoli,  during  the  heat 
and  thirst  of  the  first  advance  upon 
Bagdad,  through  the  long  months  of 
seeming  helplessness  at  Saloniki — there 
is  nevertheless  a  balance  and  con- 
tinuity in  all  of  them  which  posterity 
perhaps  may  perceive.  In  spite  of  the 
collapse    of    Russia,    they    ultimately 


achieved  their  end  in  the  downfall  of 
the  Turk. 

During  the  autumn  of  1915  the 
pressure  of  the  Gallipoli  expedition  was 
felt  in  Armenia  and  the  Caucasus,  and 
when  it  was  abandoned  the  force  in 
Mesopotamia  took  up  the  task  of 
relieving  the  Russians  in  the  Caucasus. 
When  this  in  turn  got  into  difficulties 
and  was  surrounded  by  the  Turks  in 
Kut,  roles  were  reversed.  Russia,  with 
her  strength  mobilized  for  the  first 
time  upon  the  Asiatic  front  under  a 
brilliant  commander,  the  Grand-Duke 
Nicholas,  was  able  to  assume  the 
offensive  in  an  effort  to  relieve  some  of 
the  pressure  upon  the  British  on  the 
Tigris.  She  succeeded  in  her  task — 
not  indeed  in  time  to  save  Kut — but 
so  that  the  British  preparations  for  a 
second  advance  upon  Bagdad  went 
forward  all  through  the  summer  and 
were  complete  by  the  end  of  the  year. 

THE  ATTEMPT  TO  RELIEVE  TOWNSHEND 
IN  KUT-EL-AMARA. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  in 
Chapter  XXIV,  Townshend  was  left 
beleaguered  in  Kut,  awaiting  relief 
by  reinforcements  from  overseas.  Mean- 
while two  Indian  divisions,  the  Lahore 
and  Meerut,  had  set  sail  from  Mar- 
seilles. At  sea,  news  came  that  Kut  was 
invested  and  instead  of  landing  in 
Egypt  and  getting  the  expedition  into 
shape,    everything    was    sacrificed    to 

623 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


haste.  At  Marseilles  the  departure 
had  been  so  hurried  that  bombs,  rifle 
grenades,  range  finders,  Verey  lights 
and  periscopic  rifles  had  been  left  in 
France,  and  there  was  from  the  first 
a  shortage  of  telephone  wire.  Sir  John 
Nixon  had  been  forced  to  resign  the 
chief  command  on  account  of  ill-health, 
and  his  place  was  taken  by  Lieutenant- 
General  Sir  Percy  Lake,  Chief  of  the 
Indian  Staff.  It  must  be  remembered 
that  General  Aylmer  had  been  told 
that  Kut  must  be  relieved  within 
eight  days  and  that  January  15,  1916, 
was  the  last  day  Townshend  could 
hold  out.  Therefore  the  Corps  Com- 
mander gave  orders  for  an  advance  to 
be  made  on  the  fifth  against  the  first 
Turkish  position.  The  Third  Division 
was  already  on  the  river  and  if  Aylmer 
could  have  waited  ten  days,  he  would 
have  doubled  his  striking  power. 

THE       TURKISH        LINES       BEFORE       KUT 
SKILLFULLY  DRAWN. 

The  Turks  had  drawn  their  lines 
before  Kut  with  considerable  ingenuity 
and  strength.  Three  natural  features 
of  the  country,  the  Tigris,  the  marshes 
and  the  flat  bare  expanse  devoid  of  all 
cover,  determined  their  character.  In 
general  the  positions  were  made  on 
both  banks  of  the  river,  drawn  so  as 
to  rest  the  flanks  on  marsh  or  tributary 
wadi  (ravine).  In  addition  to  the  first 
lines  the  enemy  had  prepared  trenches 
in  echelon  which  extended  far  back  and 
rendered — even  where  the  marsh  did 
not — turning  movements  impossible. 
Attack  then  must  be  delivered  frontally 
and  in  the  open.  A  reference  to  the 
map  will  show  the  position  of  the 
enemy  lines.  The  first.  Sheik  Saad,  on 
both  sides  of  the  Tigris  with  its  main 
force  on  the  left,  had  trenches  at  right 
angles  to  protect  its  flanks.  Against 
this  position  Aylmer  chose  to  divide 
his  forces  in  proportion  to  those  opposed 
and  make  a  concentrated  attack  on  both 
banks  at  the  same  time.  January  6, 
the  columns  on  both  sides  came  into 
touch  with  the  enemy,  General  Kem- 
ball's  force  attacking  on  the  right  and 
General  Rice's  on  the  left  or  north 
bank.  On  the  seventh  amid  intense 
heat  the  attack  was  renewed.  Kemball 
had  been  successful  on  the  right  and 

624 


the  Turks  feared  lest  he  might  turn 
their  flank.  The  engagements  (as  in 
those  that  followed)  were  frontal 
infantry  attacks  made  over  open  ground 
under  heavy  fire  against  deep  and 
narrow  trenches,  which  had  been  con- 
structed by  adepts  in  the  art,  and  which 
further  were  untouched  by  artillery 
fire,  for  owing  to  the  mirage  the  artil- 
lery did  not  find  the  enemy  trenches. 
Instead  of  a  quick  rush  measured  by 
seconds,  the  infantry  came  under  rifle 
fire  at  2000  yards,  and  it  was  a  woefully 
thin  line  before  its  members  even  saw 
the  head  of  a  Turk.  January  9,  the 
enemy  fearing  for  his  flanks,  fell  back 
on  a  second  position  at  Orah  where  on 
his  left  he  had  the  protection  of  the 
wadi  descending  from  the  Pushtikuh 
Hills.  The  seven  miles'  advance  was 
dearly  bought  for  the  British  lost 
4,262  officers  and  men,  a  casualty  list 
equal  to  one  half  of  the  garrison  they 
were  relieving. 

THE   BREAKDOWN   OF  THE   MEDICAL  DE- 
PARTMENT DEPLORABLE. 

The  tragic  memory  of  the  wounded 
will  forever  mark  the  day.  The  official 
Eyewitness  with  the  Relieving  Force 
writes:  "Never  since  the  Crimean 
War  can  there  have  been  such  a  collec- 
tion of  maimed  and  untended  humanity 
in  a  British  camp  as  were  gathered  on 
the  Tigris  banks  on  the  night  of 
January  7.  After  fifteen  months  of  the 
war  there  was  not  a  hospital  ship  or 
barge  upon  the  river.  Doctors,  am- 
bulances, medical  equipment,  vital 
to  the  scene,  were  following  the  Force 
in  leisurely  transports  from  France. 
The  five  field  ambulances  of  the  7th 
Division  were  on  the  high  seas.  While 
our  casualties  in  the  battle  were  over 
4,000  there  was  barely  provision  for 
250  beds — all  was  chaos.  Three  doc- 
tors and  a  hospital  assistant!  At  five 
o'clock  two  tents  had  been  put  up  and 
the  wounded  still  poured  in.  More 
than  a  thousand  came  to  the  ambulance 
alone  before  10  o'clock  and  they  lay 
like  bales  in  the  dailc  and  cold  with 
nobody  to  tend  them.  .  .  .One  lent  what 
aid  one  could  but  there  were  neither 
wraps  nor  food  nor  warm  drink.  .  .  . 
Stretchers  ran  short — there  was  one  to 
fifty  wounded.    Shattered  limbs  were 


TROOPS  FROM  INDIA  AT  THE  MOHAMMEDAN  HOUR  OF  PRAYER 


Instead  of  responding  to  the  Sultan's  call  to  a  Holy  War,  the  Mohammedan  races  of  India,  for  the  most  part, 
adhered  loyally  to  their  British  leaders.  In  the  picture  the  long  row  of  be-turbanned  Moslem  soldiers,  kneeling  on 
their  prayer  rugs  and  with  faces  turned  toward  Mecca,  are  in  the  attitude  of  prayer.  Picture,  Henry  Ruschin 


BRITISH  MONITOR  IN  ACTION  AGAINST  THE  TURKS  ON  THE  TIGRIS 

The  vessel  which  can  be  adapted  to  all  the  vagaries  of  the  Tigris  is  hard  to  find.  From  the  end  of  March  to  the 
beginning  of  July  there  is  flood  water,  and  a  steamer  has  to  make  head  against  a  5-knot  current.  Then  in  the  late 
summer  and  autumn  the  channel  is  only  5  feet  deep.  The  channel  is  constantly  changing  and  sharp  twists  and 
turns  complicate  navigation  already  difficult  enough. 

625 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


laid  on  the  jolting  transport  carts; 
many  must  have  died  in  them  who 
might  have  been  saved.  The  next  day 
it  rained,  and  still  the  wounded  were 
gathered  in.  Hunger  and  weakness  and 
delay  in  treatment  caused  many  of  the 
wounds  to  become  septic  and  gangrene 
set  in.  Less  serious  cases  were  carried 
on  to  the  boats,  laid  in  rows  on  the 
decks  with  little  shelter  from  the  rain 
and  shipped  downstream  to  the  already 
congested  hospital  at  Amara. " 

Meanwhile  the  relieving  force  had 
pushed  on  against  the  second  Turkish 
position  atOrah.  Here  it  was  hoped  by 
crossing  the  wadi  high  up  beyond  the 
Turkish  left,  the  force  could  make  a 
wide  encircling  movement  and  reach 
the  Suwaicha  Marsh  between  which 
and  the  Tigris  lay  only  a  gap  of  a  mile. 
If  the  gap  could  be  held  then  15,000 
Turks  would  be  cut  off.  But  the  plan 
failed.  Maps  were  inaccurate,  the 
rains  had  begun  and  under  a  cold 
driving  wind  churned  up  the  mud;  the 
detour  described  was  not  wide  enough, 
and  the  transport  in  crossing  the  wadi 
was  delayed  by  the  steep  high  banks. 
Though  the  Turks  fell  back  from  Orah 
it  was  they  who  held  the  gap,  and  in 
the  strongly-entrenched  position  of 
Umm-el-Hanna  presented  yet  another 
obstacle  to  the  relief  of  the  beleaguered 
garrison.  Meanwhile  the  expedition 
had  more  heavy  casualties  to  pay  for 
the  frontal  attack. 

The  next  three  lines  of  the  enemy 
forbade  outflanking  for  their  positions 
were  supported  on  the  left  by  the  great 
Suwaicha  Marsh  and  on  the  right  by 
the  Tigris.  It  was  believed  that  Towns- 
hend  could  not  possibly  hold  out 
much  longer,  and  so,  January  21, 
the  relieving  force  pushed  on  to  another 
futile  tragic  attempt  in  the  open  under 
heavy  fire  against  the  Umm-El-Hanna 
lines.  Some  of  the  troops  got  into  the 
front  trenches  but  the  supports  were 
late  in  coming  up,  and  those  that  were 
left  were  driven  out  again.  That  night 
the  scandal  of  Sheikh  Saad  and  the 
wadi  was  repeated,  and  the  misery  of 
the  wounded  aggravated  still  further 
by  the  rain  and  cold. 

Then  the  rains  precluded  further 
movement    and    for   over   a   fortnight 

626 


the  relieving  force  devoted  itself  to 
sapping  up  to  the  El  Hanna  position. 
News  came  through  that  Townshend 
had  found  fresh  supplies  and  could 
hold  out  until  March,  and  so  further 
advance  waited  for  the  arrival  of 
reinforcements. 

THE  SUCCESS    OR    FAILURE    DEPENDENT 
UPON  TRANSPORTATION. 

The  whole  question,  both  of  the 
advance  to  Bagdad  and  of  the  relief 
of  Kut,  hinged  upon  transportation. 
For  sure  and  deliberate  progress  a 
railway  was  essential;  without  it  so 
many  ships  and  so  many  tugs  and 
barges  and  mahailas  were  needed. 
Yet  the  carrying  capacity  of  the  Tigris 
fleet  at  the  time  of  the  British  advance 
was  not  equal  to  that  of  a  single  line 
of  railway  with  an  average  supply  of 
rolling  stock.  To  supplement  the 
paddle-steamers,  mahailas,  bellums,  and 
gufars  of  the  Tigris,  the  most  hetero- 
genous collection  of  river  traffic  was 
gathered  in  from  the  inland  waters  of 
India.  Of  these,  the  Aerial,  half-house- 
boat half-aeroplane,  with  a  hull  from 
the  Brahmaputra  and  fitted  with  an 
air-propeller  and  a  50-horse-power  Die- 
sel engine  which  made  more  noise  than 
a  minor  battle  was  a  type,  and  became 
the  officially  recognized  hospital  ferry 
plying  between  field  ambulances  and 
hospital  camp.  Land  transport  had 
not  quite  the  same  variety:  the  first 
and  second  lines  were  served  by  pack- 
mules,  the  Army  transport  carts  were 
drawn  by  mules  and  horses,  and  the 
heavy  guns  served  by  camels  and  a 
bullock  train. 

On  the  night  of  March  7,  another 
attempt  to  reach  Kut  was  made. 
Townshend  sent  word  that  he  still 
could  last,  but  the  Staff  feared  that  a 
week  was  all  they  could  count  upon 
before  being  inundated  by  floods.  The 
enemy's  strongest  position  was  the 
Es  Sinn  line  stretching  between  Tigris 
and  Shatt-el-Hai,  some  eight  miles 
only  from  Kut.  In  the  centre  the 
Dujaila  redoubt  formed  the  point  of  a 
salient,  and  it  was  decided  to  attempt 
to  outflank  the  Turk  by  forcing  in  the 
sides  of  this  redoubt.  To  achieve 
success,  the  element  of  surprise  was 
essential;  by  thorough  organization  of 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


a  forced  night  march  this  condition  was 
obtained — only  to  be  thrown  away  at 
the  critical  moment  by  lack  of  initia- 
tive and  elasticity  in  the  higher  com- 
mand. 

THE    LONG,    HARD    MARCH    ACROSS    THE 
DESERT  IN  THE  NIGHT. 

On  the  night  of  March  8,  the  troops 
assembled  at  the  Pools  of  Siloam  and, 
in  the  darkness  guided  by  scouts  amid 
a  silence  broken  only  by  the  jingle  of 


instead  of  attacking  the  Turkish  lines 
in  the  early  hours,  the  attack  waited 
for  the  artillery  to  advertise  its  presence 
by  shelling  their  camp.  A  flood  of 
infantry  came  pouring  in  from  all  parts 
to  reinforce  the  redoubt,  a  streamer  of 
Arab  horse  spread  like  a  ribbon  to  the 
south  to  hold  the  bridgehead  at  Shatt- 
el-Hai.  Every  moment  added  to  the 
enemy's  advantage  and  weakened  the 
chance  of  victory. 


BRITISH  TROOPS  CROSSING  THE  RIDGE  BETWEEN  DELI  ABBAS  AND  KIFRI 

The  glare  and  dust  and  heat  of  marching  in  the  daytine  in  Mesopotamia  can  better  be  imagined  than  described. 
Often  where  a  man's  pith  helmet  ceased  its  shade,  his  face  was  blistered  as  by  fire.  In  this  campaign  the  services 
of  mule  drivers,  whose  jerky  carts  were  compelled  to  act  as  ambulances  in  the  early  advance,  were  heroic. 


harness  or  creaking  of  a  transport  cart, 
the  host  of  20,000  men  moved  like  a 
great  machine  across  the  desert.  Time 
after  time  men  in  the  ranks  and  officers 
at  the  heads  of  columns  reached  for  a 
pipe  but  remembered  just  in  time,  and 
soon  in  the  still  air  the  soldier  moved 
like  one  asleep  over  the  illimitable 
level  beneath  the  stars.  At  dawn  the 
columns  diverged.  General  Keary  lead- 
ing his  men  against  the  left  face  of  the 
redoubt,  and  General  Kemball  against 
the  right.  It  was  evident  that  the 
Turks  were  yet  unalarmed  for  the 
relief  force  passed  silently  through  the 
Arab  fires  in  the  cold  light  of  the  after 
dawn.      Daylight    was    growing,    but 


General  Keary  had  been  ordered  to 
wait  until  General  Kemball's  force 
came  up.  His  route  was  longer  and  he 
was  two  hours  after  time.  By  the  delay 
and  enforced  wait,  the  element  of 
surprise  was  lost  and  the  attack  fore- 
doomed to  failure  for  Kemball  and 
Keary  had  no  advantage  in  numbers,  the 
Turk  was  infinitely  better  placed,  and 
the  relieving  force  was  compelled  to 
seek  a  rapid  decision  through  the 
exigencies  of  desert,  waterless  country. 
After  marching  all  night  the  troops 
fought  on  through  long  sun-baked 
hours,  yet  at  half-past  four  no  progress 
had  been  made,  and  withdrawal  was 
ordered   and   effected   in   good   order. 

627 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


Again  the  casualties  were  severe — 
3,476  officers  and  men — and  nothing 
had  been  gained  to  balance  this  loss. 

THE     CASE     OF     THE     KUT     GARRISON 
BECOMING    HOPELESS. 

The  reverse  of  March  8  made 
Townshend's  case  almost  hopeless; 
whatever  action  was  now  taken  the 
waters  would  have  to  be  reckoned  with. 
After  failure  to  break  through  El 
Hanna,  January  21,  trench  warfare  had 
begun  on  the  left  bank  and  continued 
until  the  capture  of  the  position  on  the 
morning  of  April  5.  There  was  little 
resistance  -  at  this  spot  but  the  Turk 
was  playing  for  time — time  to  starve 
out  Kut,  time  to  wear  the  British 
down  as  they  advanced — and  he  fell 
back,  three  miles  beyond  the  El  Hanna 
lines,  on  to  what  was  known  as  the 
Falahiyeh  position.  This  was  rushed 
at  night,  and  the  attackers  pushed  on 
straight  to  Sannaiyat  where  the  enemy 
held  three  lines,  all  with  their  flanks 
resting  on  river  and  marsh.  Six  miles 
behind  this  again  lay  his  strongest 
position  of  all,  the  Sinn  line,  which  he 
had  been  building  up  for  months. 
Two  attacks  were  delivered  on  San- 
naiyat, but  both  failed,  and  at  the  end 
the  elements  themselves  enlisted  for  the 
Turk,  and  with  the  rains  the  Tigris 
rose  and  the  marsh  spread.  On  the 
night  of  the  eleventh  a  thunder  storm 
of  extraordinary  violence  followed  by 
a  water-spout,  a  hail  storm  and  a 
hurricane  set  the  spray  leaping  four 
feet  in  the  Tigris  and  the  water  in  the 
marsh  rising  visibly. 

For  a  time  all  movement  on  the  left 
bank  was  impossible,  and  the  relieving 
force  put  its  energies  into  clearing  up  the 
network  of  trenches  and  the  two  difficult 
lines  of  Beit  Aiessa  and  Chahela. 
Though  the  Turks  counter-attacked 
determinedly  with  twelve  battalions, 
flinging  into  the  assault  the  famous 
2d  Division  of  Constantinople,  veter- 
ans of  the  Balkan  War  and  of  Gallipoli, 
they  were  repulsed  and  put  out  of 
action  with  a  loss  of  the  best  part  of 
two  divisions.  But  the  attack  had  not 
yet  carried  the  Sannaiyat  position, 
and  to  go  forward  with  the  possibility 
of  the  Turk  letting  in  the  Tigris  upon 
the  rear  was  not  to  be  thought  of  and 

628 


once  more,  April  22,  when  the  floods 
had  somewhat  abated  the  Mesopo- 
tamian  Army  attacked,  with  no  success. 

A  FINAL   EFFORT   TO   RELIEVE    THE    GAR- 
RISON    IS   MADE. 

One  more  efifort  was  made  to  prolong 
the  struggle.  On  the  night  of  April  24, 
the  paddle  steamer  J  ulnar  with  a  cargo 
of  provisions  sufficient  to  feed  the 
garrison  for  three  weeks  attempted  to 
force  the  blockade.  Eyewitness  says: 
"The  Julnar  started  her  voyage  at  nine 
on  a  moonlight  night.  A  surprise  was, 
of  course,  impossible;  she  awoke  the 
whole  camp  with  her  engines  and  screw; 
and  it  was  not  long  before  we  heard  the 
fusillade  she  drew  from  the  Turks. 
She  ran  a  terrific  gauntlet  of  rifle 
and  machine  gun  fire  from  both  banks 
as  she  passed  through  the  enemy's 
position  at  Sinn,  but  she  was  well 
plated  and  sandbagged  and  steamed 
through.  She  was  nearing  Magasis, 
within  four  miles  of  Kut,  when  she 
struck  the  steel  wire  hawsers  which  the 
Turks  had  stretched  across  the  stream. 
Her  rudder  became  entangled  and  she 
was  held  up.  .  .  .  With  a  nice  calculation 
the  Turks  had  laid  their  trap  for  their 
prize  at  the  one  point  on  the  river 
where  she  would  be  out  of  range  of  the 
guns  both  of  the  Kut  garrison  and  of 
the  relieving  force.  The  next  morning 
an  airman  sighted  her  moored  to  the 
bank  by  Magasis  fort,  intact  and 
floating  on  her  own  keel.  The  Turks 
drew  rations  from  her  the  same  day, 
and  christened  her  'The  Gift'.  " 

GENERAL    TOWNSHEND    IS    FINALLY 
FORCED   TO   SURRENDER. 

The  drama  of  Kut  which  had  cost 
the  relieving  force  22,500  lives  was 
played  out;  only  the  epilogue  remains 
to  be  told.  On  the  morning  of  April  29, 
Townshend  sent  a  wireless:  "Have 
destroyed  my  guns  and  am  destroying 
most  of  my  munitions  and  have  sent 
out  officers  to  Khalil  to  say  am  ready 
to  surrender.  Khalil  is  at  Madug.  I  am 
unable  to  hold  on  any  more.  I  must 
have  some  food  here.  I  have  told 
Khalil  today,  and  have  sent  launch 
with  deputation  to  bring  food  from 
Julnar."  Nine  thousand  fighting  men, 
nearly  3,000  British  and  6,000  Indians 
surrendered  at  Kut.    The  Turks  were 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


much  impressed  by  Townshend  and 
allowed  him  to  retain  his  sword,  and 
made  his  captivity  as  little  irksome  as 
possible.  At  the  time  of  surrender  the 
Kut  garrison  was  well  treated  by  the 
enemy;  it  was  only  in  the  terrible 
march  northwards  in  June  that  the 
desert  and  inhuman  guards  took  such 
fearful  toll  of  the  survivors. 

The  happenings  in  beleaguered  Kut 


tained  6,000  civilians  and  to  this  Arab 
civilian  population  General  Townshend 
issued  the  same  rations  as  were  given 
to  British  soldiers  and  sepoys.  Very 
little  doubt  existed  as  to  the  certainty 
of  relief.  Townshend  himself  was  the 
chief  fount  of  the  optimism  and  steady 
courage  which  characterized  the  gar- 
rison. At  the  end  of  January  he 
issued  an  address  that  his  men  might 


SCALE  OF  HILE8 
6 


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It 

I  »«sstU  J.  Walfath.  Int..  H.  Y 


MAP  SHOWING  THE  TURKISH  DEFENSES  BEFORE  KUT 
Sheik  Saad  and  Orah  were  evacuated  by  the  Turks  during  the  first  ten  days  of  the  British  advance.      Frontal 
attack  failed  against  the  Umm-El-Hanna  lines,  but  a  diversion  against  the  enemy's  strongest  position  at  Es-Sinn 
was  almost  successful.  In  the  first  week  in  April  both  Umm-El-Hanna  and  Falahiyeh  fell,  but  the  enemy  still  held 
Sannai-Yat  and  £s-Sinn;  floods  precluded  further  advance  and  Townshend  was  forced  to  surrender,  April  29. 

can  be  but  briefly  touched  upon. 
They  fall  under  two  phases':  first  a 
determined  siege,  then  a  protracted 
investment.  For  the  first  month  Turk- 
ish pressure  was  very  heavy  upon  the 
invested  city,  but  with  the  advance  of 
the  relieving  force,  it  relaxed  and  the 
question  of  ammunition  was  less  press- 
ing. Food  was  the  great  problem  and 
not  until  after  the  costly  actions  of 
January  7,  13,  and  22  had  been  fought 
by  insufficient  forces  were  hidden 
stores  found  in  Kut  which  gave  three 
months'  supplies  to  the  besieged  on 
a  gradually  reduced  scale.     Kut  con- 


know  how  things  stood.  "I  have 
ample  food  for  eighty-four  days,"  he 
said,  "and  that  is  not  counting  the 
3,000  animals  which  can  be  eaten.  I 
expect  confidently  to  be  relieved  in  the 
first  half  of  the  month  of  February. 
Our  duty  stands  out  clear  and  simple. 
It  is  our  duty  to  our  Empire,  to  our 
beloved  King  and  country,  to  stand 
here  and  hold  up  the  Turkish  advance 
as  we  are  doing  now,  and  with  the 
help  of  all,  heart  and  soul  together, 
we  will  make  the  defense  to  be  re- 
membered in  history  as  a  glorious  one 
.  .  .  We  will  succeed — :mark  my  words — 

629 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


but  save  your  ammunition  as  if  it  were 
gold." 

FAMINE  DEPLETED  THE  VITALITY  OF  THE 
TROOPS. 

Scurvy  set  in  in  February  and  a 
vegetable  garden  was  planted  from 
seeds  dropped  by  aeroplane.  Midway 
through  the  month  a  message  from 
King  George,  and  news  of  the  capture 
of  Erzerum  cheered  the  troops  though 
privations  were  now  beginning  to  be 
seriously  felt.      Many  of  the   Indians 


a  further  reduction  of  food.  On  March 
31  a  further  decrease  was  necessary, 
and  April  8  the  mill  stopped  working 
for  want  of  fuel.  Two  weeks  more  and 
the  flour  ration  was  again  cut  down. 
On  April  21  even  the  4-ounce  ration 
gave  out  and  the  troops  subsisted  on 
two  days'  reserve  rations  held  since 
January.  When  after  the  third  battle 
of  Sannaiyat,  immediate  relief  was 
hopeless,  Kut  was  fed  by  aeroplane. 
When    the    J  ulnar    was    captured    the 


CAMELS  FROM  EGYPT  ON  THEIR  WAY 

The  scope  of  the  Tigris  as  a  line  of  communication  was  limited  to  the  number  of  vessels  that  could  move  at  one 
time  up  and  down  stream  through  the  narrows.  At  Basra  there  was  a  model  like  a  war  game  showing  the  position 
of  every  ship  on  the  river  with  its  distinguishing  flag,  and  with  this  map  before  him  the  controller  of  navigation  at 
the  end  of  the  wire  regulated  the  movements  of  the  fleet. 


would  not  eat  the  bullocks  or  oxen, 
and  scurvy  took  heavy  toll  of  them; 
in  the  hospitals,  milk  gave  out,  and 
the  patients'  diet  was  confined  to 
cornflour  or  rice  water  for  the  sick, 
and  ordinary  rations  for  the  wounded. 
Early  in  March  it  was  clear  that  the 
vitality  of  the  troops  was  almost  ex- 
hausted, the  recuperative  power  of  the 
sick  was  low,  and  skin  and  flesh  had 
lost  the  power  of  renovation.  The 
disappointments  of  the  failures  of 
January  and  March  8  left  them  weary 
with  exhausted  expectancy.  Again 
on  the  tenth  Townshend  issued  another 
communique  sympathizing  with  his 
men  but  inviting  their  co-operation  in 
630 


garrison  was  on  the  verge  of  starvation, 
and  on  the  day  of  surrender  the  men 
in  the  trenches  were  too  weak  to  carry 
back  their  kits.  To  an  heroic  defense 
of  five  months  succeeded  two  and  a 
half  years  of  captivity  with  all  its 
hardships  and  humiliations,  and  more 
than  half  of  the  rank  and  file  suc- 
cumbed to  the  hard  conditions  of  exile. 
When  the  armistice  was  concluded 
it  was  found  that  of  2,680  N.  C.  O.'s 
and  privates  taken  at  Kut  over  65  per 
cent  had  perished.  Of  the  10,486 
Indians,  combatants  and  followers, 
1,290  died  and  1,773  were  untraced. 
Most  of  the  Kut  prisoners  perished 
in  the  terrible  crossing  of  the  desert 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


between  Samarrah  and  Aleppo  in  June. 
They  were  separated  from  their  officers 
and  if  too  weak  to  march  left  by 
callous  guards  to  perish  by  the  way- 
side, exposed  to  the  depredations  of 
marauding  Arabs. 

A  RENEWED      RUSSIAN      OFFENSIVE      IN 
ARMENIA  BEGINS. 

We  must  now  turn  to  the  efforts  of 
the  Russians  in  Armenia  to  relieve  the 


The  latter,  little  suspecting  the 
possibility  of  attack  at  this  time,  were 
badly  placed.  Because  of  British 
advance  up  the  Tigris  they  had  held 
many  reinforcements  in  Bagdad,  and 
German  influence  in  Constantinople 
had  succeeded  in  retaining  a  number 
of  men  in  Thrace  and  Syria.  Not  until 
the  Cossacks  appeared  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Erzerum  were  Turkish  divisions 


CAMEL  TRANSPORT  IN  THE  NEAR  EAST 

During  the  war  the  camel  has  been  the  steed  of  the  German  and  the  Turks,  the  Arab  and  the  Indian,  the  Anzac 
and  the  South  African.  Because  the  desert  is  his  home,  he  can  bear  its  glare  and  dust  and  sandstorms,  and  carry 
heavy  burdens  for  Ion?  distances  without  food  or  water.  He  is  not  swift  like  motor  transport,  but  he  is  valuable 
in  that  he  can  penetrate  through  trackless  sandy  wastes. 


pressure  upon  the  Tigris.  In  January, 
1916,  Townshend  was  shut  up,  and  on 
the  9th  of  the  month  the  evacuation 
of  Gallipoli  had  been  completed.  Be- 
fore the  Turkish  troops  released  from 
this  area  could  be  redistributed  on  the 
Saloniki  Bagdad,  and  Caucasian  fronts, 
Grand-Duke  Nicholas  decided  to 
advance,  although  the  difficulties  of 
winter  fighting  among  the  plateaux  and 
mountains  of  Armenia  might  have 
deterred  a  bolder  man.  In  December, 
191 5,  the  Russian  Caucasian  army  had 
been  reinforced  by  170,000  men,  and  a 
new  expeditionary  force  under  General 
Baratov  sent  to  clear  Central  Persia 
of  Turks. 


directed  in  haste  towards  Angora,  and 
Sanders  Pasha  made  commander  of 
the  Army  of  Armenia. 

THE    NATURAL    DEFENSES    OF    ERZERUM 
VERY  STRONG. 

The  Turkish  line  from  the  Black  Sea 
to  the  neighborhood  of  Lake  Van 
extended  through  a  very  difficult 
tangled  mass  of  mountain  and  ravine. 
The  ranges  of  Taurus  and  Anti-Taurus 
lift  the  central  Armenian  country  into 
a  tableland,  crossed  in  its  turn  by 
many  mountain  ranges.  From  the 
Black  Sea  the  ascent  is  by  a  continual 
chain  of  latitudinal  ridges  which  rising 
one  behind  and  higher  than  the  other 

631 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


lead  up  like  a  ladder  to  the  edge  of  the 
plateau.  On  this  plateau  and  in  a 
depression  lies  Erzerum,  the  centre  of 
the  Turkish  defense,  fortified  by  Na- 
ture and  man  in  a  way  that  seemed  to 
preclude  all  possibility  of  capture.  To 
the  south  of  the  city  the  Palanteken 
Mountains  tower  more  than  3,000  feet, 
crowned  by  advance  forts.  To  the 
north  of  this  range  and  forming  the 
only  approach  to  the  city  from  the 
east  lies  the  Passain  Plain.  North  of 
this  again  a  tangled  mass  of  mountains 
guards  the  northern  and  eastern  flanks 
of  Erzerum,  and  is  only  pierced  by  the 
ravine  of  the  so-called  "Georgian 
Gates." 

The  Turkish  problem  then  was  to 
guard  the  Passain  Plain,  where  they 
stationed  their  9th  and  part  of  their 
loth  Army  Corps;  and  to  block  the 
gap  in  the  mountains  on  the  north-east, 
where  their  nth  Corps  accordingly 
intrenched. 

THE  PLAN  OF  THE  RUSSIAN  ASSAULT  ON 
ERZERUM. 

Duke  Nicholas'  plan,  which  he 
entrusted  to  the  execution  of  General 
Yudenitch,  was  a  main  attack  upon 
the  Turkish  centre,  along  the  Passain 
plain,  while  the  Second  Turkestan 
Army  Corps  at  Olti  in  the  Chorok 
depression  was  to  divert  the  Turks  in 
the  north,  and  another  column  to 
threaten  the  flanks  of  the  Turks  at 
Azak  Keui  and  Gey  Dag. 

According  to  the  Russian  calendar 
the  simultaneous  attacks  on  Olti, 
Tortoum,  and  Kepri-Keui  were  de- 
livered at  the  New  Year.  They  were 
immediately  successful  and  AbduUa 
Kerim  Pasha,  January  16,  ordered  a 
general  retreat  upon  the  last  line  of 
defenses — the  forts  of  Erzerum.  "Then 
followed,"  writes  Mr.  Morgan  Price, 
special  correspondent  for  the  Manches- 
ter Gtiardian  who  was  with  the  Russian 
army,  "what  is  frequently  met  with  in 
Turkish  retreats  and  is  very  charac- 
teristic of  that  race.  The  Turk  has  all 
the  stubbornness  and  endurance  of  a 
highlander  and  an  agriculturist.  He 
does  not  see  at  once  when  he  is  out- 
mastered;  but  when  he  does,  the 
untrained  Oriental  comes  out  strong  in 
him;  he  throws  everything  away  and 

632 


bolts  in  a  general  sauve  qui  pent.  In 
this  case  he  just  ran  till  he  reached 
Erzerum."  Thus  the  Russians  reached 
Kupri-Keui  on  the  i8th,  and  on  the 
19th  the  last  Turkish  column  dis- 
appeared behind  the  Deve-Boyun  range. 
The  Cossacks  pursued  right  up  to  the 
outer  chain  of  forts  under  cover  of 
darkness  and  secured  1000  prisoners. 
The  rout  of  the  centre  was  complete; 
and  the  attack  on  Erzerum  which 
followed  was  so  rapid  that  fractions  of 
the  Turkish  army  on  the  wings  could 
not  retreat  upon  Erzerum,  but  fell 
back  in  the  north  by  the  Chorok  valley 
on  Baiburt,  and  in  the  south  upon 
Mush. 

ERZERUM  IS  TAKEN  IN  SPITE  OF  GREAT 
OBSTACLES. 

Yudenitch  decided  to  attack  Erzer- 
um at  once,  for  he  had  intercepted  a 
wireless  from  the  commander  of  the 
fortress  to  Enver  Pasha  stating,  "Con- 
dition of  the  Third  Army  is  serious; 
reinforcements  must  be  sent  at  once 
or  else  Erzerum  cannot  be  held." 
He  knew,  furthermore,  that  a  siege 
in  winter  was  impossible;  that  the 
Caucasus  Tiflis-Kars  railway  only  ran 
to  Sari-Kamish  and  that  it  would  be 
impossible  to  bring  up  siege  guns  over 
the  snowy  mountain  roads.  Russian 
papers  of  the  day  describe  how  the 
soldiers  took  apart  field  and  mountain 
guns  and  toiled  with  them  up  the  steep 
slopes  covered  with  snow  in  a  tem- 
perature of  25°  below  zero.  Sometimes 
the  drifts  lay  six  feet  deep  and  the  men 
could  only  save  themselves  from  being 
buried  by  spreading  their  coats  before 
them  every  three  feet  of  the  way.  When 
they  came  to  storm  the  outer  forts 
of  Erzerum  they  found  that  the  Turk- 
ish soldiers  had  poured  water  down  the 
slopes  and  they  had  to  hack  their  way 
up  over  fields  of  ice. 

The  garrison  defended  itself  with 
fury,  even  making  violent  counter- 
attacks. But  nothing  could  stay  the 
Russian  advance  and  after  five  days 
and  nights  of  continuous  fighting  the 
Cossacks  swept  through  the  city  and 
threw  themselves  upon  the  booty 
which  the  Turks  had.  left,  before  pur- 
suing the  remnants  of  the  Third  Army 
fleeing  upon  Baiburt  and  Erzhingian. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


Such  was  the  rapidity  of  the  capture 
that  Grand-Duke  Nicholas  was  not  up 
to  the  front  in  time  for  the  final 
triumph. 

THE  PORT  OF  TREBIZOND   IS   ATTACKED 
FROM  LAND  AND  SEA. 

Yudenitch  allowed  no  time  for  the 
Turks  to  reform ;  his  left  wing  delivered 
an  attack  in  the  neighborhood  of  Lake 
Van,    capturing    Mush    and    Akhlet, 


the  great  Black  Sea  port,  and  the  sea- 
gate  for  Armenia,  Kurdistan  and 
Northern  Persia.  In  order  to  capture 
it,  Russian  naval  and  land  forces 
worked  in  conjunction.  The  Russians 
were  almost  supreme  on  the  Black  Sea 
by  now,  though  the  sporadic  appear- 
ances of  Turkish  submarines  and  the 
partially-crippled  Breslau,  which  acted 
as    an    escort    to    transports    bringing 


WITH  THE  TURKS  EN  DESERT  LANDS 

The  woman  shown  in  the  picture  is  Dr.  Koch,  a  plucky  German  woman  who  ventured  far  from  the  Fatherland  and 
risked  unknown  perils  with  the  Turks  in  the  desert.  Because  of  Mohammedan  traditions  and  conservatism  the 
Tuiks  were  for  the  most  part  deprived  of  the  ministrations  of  women  in  their  hospitals. 


while  the  right  pursued  the  Turks  in 
the  dilftcult  Chorok  valley.  The  fruits 
of  the  victory  at  Erzerum  were  not 
slight:  a  Turkish  fortress  of  the  first 
rank  together  with  all  its  stores  of  arms, 
munitions,  signaling,  telegraph  and 
telephonic  material.  In  addition  the 
enemy  lost  some  12,000  men  and  the 
key  to  the  trade  route  from  the  port 
of  Trebizond  into  Persia  by  way  of 
Erzerum.  The  Turkish  communiques 
first  delayed,  then  falsified  the  news 
of  the  disaster,  announcing  that  for 
military  reasons  the  garrison  had 
withdrawn  without  suffering  loss  to  a 
position  to  the  west  of  the  city. 
Yudenitch's  goal  now  was  Trebizond, 


reinforcements  to  Trebizond,  still  con- 
stituted a  danger.  Thoroughly  roused 
by  the  fall  of  Erzerum  the  Turks 
strained  every  nerve  to  save  their  port, 
rushing  up  two  army  corps  for  its 
defense  and  reconstructing  their  whole 
line.  By  sea  the  Russians  advanced 
from  Batum,  and  by  land  across  the 
steep  chain  of  Lcizistan,  under  General 
Liakhov.  They  met  stiff  resistance  at 
the  line  of  Kara  Dere  but  forced  its 
passage  in  ten  days'  fighting  aided  by 
their  fleet.  Then  all  was  easy.  The 
ships  sailed  on  to  Platana  and  effected 
a  landing  which  threatened  the  Turks 
in  the  rear.  After  this  manoeuvre 
Turkish    defense    collapsed,    and    by 

633 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


April    1 8,    their   army  was   streaming 
along  the  Gumush-khane  road. 

THE    TURK    STRUGGLES    TO    REGAIN    HIS 
LOST   POSITIONS. 

Meanwhile  in  the  south,  Bitlis,  one 
of  the  posterns  of  the  Armenian  Taurus 
opening  the  route  into  Mesopotamia, 
had  fallen;  Mush  was  occupied  and 
the  whole  region  around  Lake  Van 
quickly  cleared  up.  But  the  Russian 
line  was  now  extended  on  its  flanks 
dangerously  beyond  its  centre,  and 
when,  April  29,  Kut  surrendered,  its 
fall  made  vain  all  efforts  of  Yuden- 
itch's  left  wing  and  Baratov's  Persian 
army  to  reach  the  British.  Yudenitch 
then  pursued  a  slower  advance  towards 
the  west,  endeavoring  to  straighten 
his  line  and  gain  the  cornlands  of  Sivas 
in  the  plain. 

In  the  meantime,  the  Turk  himself 
assumed  the  offensive  at  various  points 
through  May,  in  an  effort  to  regain  his 
hold  upon  Erzerum.  Some  of  his 
attacks  were  upon  Bitlis  and  Mush  in 
an  attempt  to  get  in  the  rear  of  the 
Russians  and  cut  their  communications. 
Yudenitch  began  his  advance  July  2, 
and  it  rolled  as  irresistibly  forward  as 
the  attacks  upon  Trebizond  and  Er- 
zerum. Baiburt  fell  and  Gumush- 
khane,  the  road  to  Erzhingian  lay 
open,  and  the  city  was  entered  July  26, 
three  weeks  after  the  campaign  had 
opened.  In  that  time  the  Russian 
front  had  advanced  seventy  miles  and 
added  some  two  to  three  thousand 
square  miles  of  territory  to  its  con- 
quests in  Armenia. 

SOME  OF  THE  CAPTURED  POSITIONS  ARE 
REGAINED. 

The  Turkish  force  routed  in  this 
advance  did  not,  as  in  the  previous 
retreats,  move  westward,  but  turned 
south-east  on  the  Lake  Van  country 
in  an  endeavor  to  cut  the  Russian 
communications.  Railway  communica- 
tion could  supply  reinforcements  from 
the  Levantine  coast  much  more  easily 
around  Lake  Van  than  in  Anatolia, 
and  from  this  quarter  the  Turkish 
troops  were  now  a  constant  threat  to 
Mush  and  Bitlis. 

During  the  last  days  of  July  and 
early  August  the  enemy  prepared  a 
powerful  counter-stroke  to  the  Russian 

634 


advance  upon  Erzhingian.  Planned 
and  executed  by  an  able  young  German 
officer,  Major-General  Gresmann,  its 
object  was  to  rupture  the  Russian 
centre  east  of  Erzerum  by  a  rapid 
advance  northwards  from  Mush,  re- 
capture the  city,  hurl  back  the  right 
wing  on  the  Black  Sea  and  the  left 
on  Lake  Van.  Severe  fighting  took 
place  and  the  Turks  recaptured  Mush 
and  Bitlis.  The  latter  was  important 
for  its  narrow  gorge  is  the  only  passage 
through  the  difficult  country  west  of 
Lake  Van,  and  its  capture  constituted 
both  a  threat  to  Mush  and  a  bar  to 
communication  with  Bagdad  in  the 
event  of  a  British  advance  upon  that 
city.  Reinforcements  reached  the  Rus- 
sians at  the  end  of  the  month  and  they 
retook  Mush  in  the  exhaustion  of  the 
Turkish  counter-stroke,  but  Bitlis  re- 
mained in  the  enemy's  hands  through- 
out the  autumn  of  1916. 

GENERAL    SARATOV    AND    HIS    COSSACKS 
IN  PERSIA. 

The  scope  of  this  chapter  forbids 
more  than  a  brief  outline  of  the  fighting 
in  Persia  caused  by  wide-spread  Ger- 
man propaganda,  set  on  foot  also  in 
Baluchistan,  Afghanistan  and  among 
the  Pathans  on  the  Indian  border. 
Through  the  activities  of  Prince  Reuss, 
the  German  Minister  at  Teheran,  and 
other  agents,  anti-Russian  and  anti- 
British  riots  took  place  throughout  the 
country,  and  chaotic  anarchy  became 
chronic.  The  government  under  the 
youthful  Shah  and  swiftly-changing 
ministries  was  helpless.  So  critical  had 
things  become  in  November,  1915,  that 
a  Russian  force  marched  from  Kazvin 
to  within  a  day's  march  of  the  capital 
to  protect  the  Allied  legations.  After 
this  coup  d'etat  the  Shah  decided  to 
throw  the  Germans  overboard.  North- 
ern and  Western  Persia  were  cleared 
as  the  Russians  swept  south  defeating 
the  irregular  bands  of  tribesmen, 
Turks  and  gendarmerie  at  Kum  (De- 
cember 15),  and  Hamadan  (December 
21),  finally  driving  them  west  through 
the  passes  bordering  on  Mesopotamia 
back  to  their  own  frontier  from  Ker- 
manshah.  Baratov's, spirited  advance 
was  a  demonstration  intended  to  re- 
lieve the  pressure  upon  Kut  and  Yu- 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


denitch.  In  January  the  Turks  ad- 
vanced again  and  occupied  Kermanshah 
but  again  Baratov  smote  them  heavily 
back  into  the  mountain  passes. 

Meanwhile  in  the  south  the  British 
were  active.  Sir  Percy  Sykes  arrived 
at  Bundar  Abbas  in  March  and  or- 
ganized a  police  force  for  Southern 
Persia,  to  rid  the  country  of  German 
and    Turkish    bands    and    rebel    gen- 


cavalry  and  4,000  infantry  continued 
his  march  upon  Khanikin,  twice  at- 
tacking the  Turks  and  inflicting  losses 
upon  them.  Then  he  withdrew  to  the 
Persian  frontier  and  engaged  the  enemy 
in  an  eight  days'  battle  in  the  Taq-i- 
Garra  Pass,  before  falling  back  in 
orderly  retreat  upon  Kerind,  Kerman- 
shah and  Hamadan.  He  had  effected 
his  purpose  and  relieved  the  pressure 


SCENE  ON  THE  ROUTE  OF  THE  RUSSIAN  ADVANCE  THROUGH  PERSIA 
The  conformation  of  Persia  is  interesting.    Most  of  the  country  consists  of  a  plateau,  with  an  average  height  of 
4,000  feet  above  sea-level,  surrounded  by  lofty  ranges  of  mountains.    The  tableland  has  a  diversified  surface; 
parts  are  desert,  others  highlands  or  lakes  of  immense  size.    Transport  is  diJScult  even  on  ancient  caravan  routes. 

darmerie.  April  saw  the  beginning  of 
the  collapse  of  the  revolt  in  the  eastern 
provinces:  the  governor  of  Kerman 
expelled  the  Germans  from  the  town, 
disarmed  the  gendarmerie  and  sent 
them  to  Shiraz.  Then  Sirjan  was 
purged  and  Shiraz  and  all  the  gen- 
darmerie placed  under  arrest  and 
editors  of  inflammatory  leaflets  seized. 

THE  TURKISH    REINFORCEMENTS    FORCE 
SARATOV   TO   RETIRE. 

The  surrender  of  Kut  had  freed 
some  Turkish  divisions,  which  brought 
up  the  Turkish  forces  opposing  Baratov 
to  23,000.  In  spite  of  these  reinforce- 
ments,   however,  Baratov   with   5,000 


upon  the  forces  in  Armenia  and  the 
Tigris.  In  his  retreat  he  played  the 
same  useful  role,  drawing  the  enemy 
from  the  essential  theatre  of  war  al- 
though he  himself  suffered  some  loss 
of  political  prestige.  Finally  he  took 
stand  at  Sultan  Bulagh  blocking  the 
Turkish  advance  on  the  capital.  In 
the  meanwhile  a  Russian  force  under 
Chernobuzov  had  pushed  through  from 
Urumiah  and  defeated  the  Turks  at 
Lalgan  (August  23),  when  the  whole 
of  the  Turkish  nth  Division  and  two 
battalions  of  the  loth  were  captured. 
The  Turks  threatened  in  their  rear 
withdrew,  the  pressure  on  Baratov  was 

63s 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


relieved,  and  by  September  once  more 
the  Russians  were  near  Hamadan. 

BRITISH    OPERATIONS    UPON    THE    TIGRIS 
AFTER  THE  FALL  OF  KUT. 

From  the  fall  of  Kut  until  August, 
operations  on  the  Tigris  were  of  a 
minor  class,  and  of  a  defensive  nature. 
Sir  Percy  Lake  was  in  command  and 
he  judged  that  neither  the  health  of 
the  troops  nor  their  numerical  strength 
admitted  of  more  than  regularizing 
the  occupation  of  the  vilayet  of  Basra 
and  the  region  of  the  Lower  Euphrates. 

In  May  a  little  breath  of  adventure 
brought  a  stir  into  the  stagnation  of 
the  monotonous  campaign.  A  sotnia  of 
Saratov's  Cossacks,  125  strong  with 
ID  pack  animals,  left  Mahidasht, 
twenty  miles  south  by  west  of  Ker- 
manshah,  May  8,  with  orders  to  get 
into  touch  with  Lake  at  any  cost.  Rid- 
ing light,  they  went  south  through  the 
Pushti-Kuh  hills,  sometimes  over  passes 
8000  feet  high,  on  tracks  that  were 
rough  and  difficult  for  mules.  When 
they  had  consumed  their  three  days' 
rations  they  lived  on  the  country  and 
kept  up  their  twenty-four  miles  a  day. 
After  halting  for  a  brief  interval  at  the 
court  of  the  Wali  of  Pusht  i-Kuh, 
they  pushed  into  the  British  camp  at 
El-Gharbi,  May  15,  their  guide's  neck 
in  a  noose  for  detected  treachery.  The 
enterprise  was  barren  of  results,  but 
was  a  demonstration  of  what  could  be 
done  in  such  a  country  by  resource. 


GENERAL    MAUDE    TAKES    COMMAND    OF 
THE  MESOPOTAMIAN  ARMY. 

In  August  the  command  of  the 
Mesopotamian  Army  was  transferred 
to  Sir  Stanley  Maude,  who  had  seen 
service  in  the  Sudan  and  South  Africa, 
and  been  severely  wounded  in  the 
retreat  from  Mons.  On  his  recovery  he 
had  been  appointed  to  command  the 
13th  Division  at  Gallipoli,  and  the 
brilliant  service  of  this  force  in  Meso- 
potamia had  given  their  leader  his 
command.  The  hot  weather  was 
somewhat  abating,  and  Maude,  in  a 
general  survey  of  the  situation,  esti- 
mated that  the  Turk  intended  to  con- 
tain the  British  on  the  Tigris,  while 
he  expended  his  force  in  making  Persia 
into  a  dependency  and  perhaps  extend- 
ed his  attack  on  the  British  further  east. 
He  therefore  decided  to  strike  at 
Bagdad,  the  base  of  Turkish  operations 
both  in  Persia  and  on  the  Tigris.  That 
this  attack  should  not  fail  Maude 
made  three  and  a  half  months'  careful 
preparation:  building  up  the  health 
and  training  of  the  troops,  making 
efficient  the  long  communications  both 
by  light  railway  and  by  water,  getting 
up  reserves,  strengthening  the  Medical 
Service,  equipping  each  unit  properly 
and  tuning  up  the  General  Staff.  At 
the  end  of  November  the  Mesopota- 
mian Army  was  at  the  top  of  its  form. 
The  story  of  the  capture  of  Bagdad 
will  be  told  elsewhere. 


636 


British  Nigerian  troops  in  the  Cameroons 


Chapter   XXXIX 


The  Course  of  the  War  During  1916 

LAVISH  EXPENDITURE  OF  MEN  AND  MUNITIONS  FAILS  TO 

BRING  A  DECISION 


AT  the  beginning  of  1916  the  Central 
■^  Powers  were  confident  of  an  early 
and  a  favorable  decision.  During  1915 
they  had  had  success  after  success.  A 
minimum  of  men  had  held  the  Western 
Front  while  the  armies  of  Russia  were 
being  pushed  back,  or  else  were  con- 
ducted to  German  prison  camps.  Ser- 
bia had  been  destroyed,  the  Allied 
expedition  against  Gallipoli  was  ob- 
viously a  failure,  and  General  Towns- 
hend  and  his  men  were  shut  up  in 
Kut-el-Amara,  awaiting  the  relief 
which  never  came.  A  short  sharp 
campaign  on  all  fronts  would,  so  the 
German  High  Command  believed, 
bring  the  contest  to  a  glorious  end. 

ALLIED  HOPES  ARE  AROUSED  DURING  THE 
L     YEAR. 

Before  the  end  of  the  year,  about 
September  i,  the  Allied  peoples  also 
had  their  moment  of  confidence.  The 
German  attack  upon  Verdun  had 
failed,  the  Austrian  attack  on  Italy 
had  been  repulsed,  and  the  Italians 
had  advanced  well  toward  Trieste; 
Brusilov  was  still  advancing  and  his 
ofifensive  seemed  destined  to  succeed; 
Rumania  had  just  declared  war  upon 
Austria-Hungary  and  had  crossed  the 
mountains  into  Transylvania.  On  the 
Somme  the  great  British  offensive  was 
pounding  the  quaking  German  line. 
It  seemed  that  the  Central  Powers 
must  soon  vield. 


Both  German  and  Allied  hopes  were 
disappointed.  Verdun  did  not  fall; 
the  German  line  on  the  Somme  was  not 
broken;  the  Russian  recovery,  though 
brilliant,  lacked  the  final  ounce  of 
strength  necessary  for  success;  though 
the  Austrians  could  not  drive  down 
into  the  Italian  plain,  they  were  able 
to  prevent  the  Italians  from  seizing 
the  key  to  the  Adriatic;  Rumania's 
high  hopes  of  annexing  her  scattered 
children  were  blasted,  and  the  enemy 
held  her  capital,  her  seaport,  her 
granaries,  and  her  oilfields.  The  great 
naval  battle  of  Jutland  had  shown  the 
German  sailors  to  be  possessed  of 
greater  skill  and  better  guns  than  had 
been  suspected,  but  the  British  fleet, 
though  somewhat  battered,  continued 
to  hold  undisputed  command  of  the 
seas. 

THE     SUPPLY     OF     MUNITIONS     AT     LAST 
SUFFICIENT. 

The  end  of  the  year  saw  more  men  in 
the  field  than  before.  Kitchener's 
New  Armies  had  shown  their  quality, 
and  the  British  Parliament  had  defin- 
itely adopted  a  policy  of  conscription. 
Both  in  France  and  Great  Britain  the 
question  of  munitions  was  no  longer 
a  nightmare.  The  supply  was  ample 
and  continued  so  until  the  end  of  the 
war.  Russia  was  short  toward  the  end 
of  the  year  in  spite  of  large  shipments 
from    Japan    and    the    United    States, 

637 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


which  the  government  apparently 
made  no  real  effort  to  send  forward  to 
the  fighting  line.  Russia  was,  in  truth, 
on  the  point  of  collapse  though  this 
fact  was  not  realized  by  her  allies. 


Baron  von  Freytag-Loringhoven  was  the  most  distin- 
guished student  of  war  in  the  German  Empire.  He 
was  Quartermaster  General  under  von  Falkenhayn 
and  later  Deputy  Chief  of  the  General  Staff. 

The  Western  Front  was  the  scene  of 
the  heaviest  fighting  yet  seen  on  both 
the  French  and  the  British  fronts. 
During  January  there  were  small 
operations,  some  of  them  bloody,  but 
nothing  approaching  a  general  engage- 
ment. In  February,  however,  came  the 
German  attempt  to  break  through  at 
Verdun.  This  was  neither  a  single 
battle,  nor  a  siege,  but  a  whole  series  of 
operations  continuing  through  many 
months.  It  was  marked  by  great 
bravery  and  grim  determination  on  the 
part  of  the  German  forces,  and  by 
bravery  no  less  remarkable  and  by 
unbelievable  endurance  on  the  part 
of  the  French. 

VERDUN   A   SOURCE   OF   DANGER   TO   THE 
GERMAN  LINE. 

From  the  beginning  of  the  war  Ver- 
dun and  its  ring  of  nearly  forty  forts 
638 


had  projected  as  a  salient  into  the 
German  lines.  Situated  on  both  banks 
of  the  Meuse  it  was  feared  by  the 
Germans  as  a  possible  base  from  which 
an  attack  might  be  launched  upon 
Metz  and  upon  their  communications. 
The  French  valued  it  highly,  not  only 
as  one  of  their  major  defenses,  but 
also  as  a  symbol  of  French  invincibility. 
The  Allies  were  hoping  to  break 
through  during  191 6.  To  forestall 
them,  by  paralyzing  the  French  offen- 
sive, on  February  21  after  two  days  of 
preliminary  bombardment,  a  perfect 
hail  of  steel  descended  upon  a  small 
section  of  the  French  defenses.  A 
thousand  pieces  of  artillery  were  en- 
gaged, some  of  them  the  great  Krupp 
and  Skoda  howitzers  which  had  so 
easily  destroyed  the  Belgian  forts. 
The  French  lines  were  pulverized,  but 
the  French  withdrew,  to  new  positions, 
always  selling  the  ground  they  left  at 
a  high  price.  During  the  first  week 
great  German  gains  were  made  and 
the  German  people  were  informed  that 
the  fortress  was  on  the  point  of  capture; 
but  the  French  held  on,  regaining 
occasionally  a  bit  of  the  lost  ground. 

THE    LATER    ASPECTS    OF    THE    VERDUN 
BATTLES. 

These  crushing  attacks  continued 
until  April  9,  about  which  time  they 
were  brought  to  a  standstill.  Then 
followed  a  period  in  which  the  German 
attacks  were  intended  not  so  much  to 
take  the  fortress,  as  to  prevent  the 
French  from  reinforcing  the  British 
armies  on  the  Somme.  About  the 
middle  of  July  the  French  regained 
the  offensive,  and  for  five  months  the 
Germans  struggled  to  hold  what  they 
had  already  taken,  only  to  lose  in  a 
few  days  in  October,  and  again  in 
December,  what  they  had  gained  so 
painfully  in  weeks  and  months.  The 
casualties  on  both  sides  were  enormous, 
but  the  whole  campaign  was  a  French 
victory,  for  they  held  fast.  General 
von  Falkenhayn,  the  Chief  of  the 
German  General  Staff,  paid  the  penalty 
for  failure,  and  was  relieved  by  General 
von  Hindenburg  at  the  end  of  August. 

During  191 5  great  British  armies  had 
been  in  process  of  formation.  English 
youth  from  the  most  exalted  to  the 


TESTING  BOMBS  FOR  TRENCH  MORTARS 
The  trench  mortar  is  an  effective  weapon  at  close  quarters.    A  small  charge  of  powder  throws  a  bomb  into  the 
enemy  trenches  where  it  explodes  either  by  contact  or  by  a  time  fuse.    The  fish  tail  is  attached  to  steady  the 
projectile  in  its  flight,  and  prevent  it  from  turning  over.    This  is  a  French  factory. 


THE  LIGHT  RAILWAY  CARRYING  SUPPLIES  TO  THE  FRONT 

Motor  and  horse  transport  both  had  their  uses  for  which  nothing  else  answered;  but  the  l»K^t  railway  was  also 
ei?ensively  used,  and  tracks  were  laid  everywhere  behind  the  Unes.  No  great  attetnpt  ^^  made  to  m^ettie  road- 
way smooth,  but  nevertheless  the  engines  and  cars  generally  stayed  on  the  teack.  When  the  ro^  of  tr^Ioort 
its  purpose  the  rails  were  taken  up  and  relaid  somewhere  else.  Rails  which  were- the  Pnncip^  ."^^"^  °*  transport 
in  one  region  today  might  be  serving  the  same  purpose  a  dozen  or  more  miles  away  a  ^^'^^'"Sht^l^atM^^^.^^  oadal 

639 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


humblest  was  in  the  ranks  learning  a 
new  trade.  In  the  spring  of  1916, 
division  upon  division  had  been  landed 
in  France.  There  were  heavy  guns 
enough,  and  the  gunners  could  not 
complain  of  scarcity  of  ammunition. 
Where  was  this  new  force  to  be  tested? 

THE  BEGINNING  OF  THE  BATTLE  OF  THE 
SOMME. 

The  point  chosen  was  the  western 
side  of  the  salient  which  the  Germans 


bombardment  on  June  24,  followed  on 
July  I,  by  an  assault  by  the  British  on 
a  front  of  twenty  miles,  and  half  as 
much  by  the  French.  On  the  British 
left  little  or  no  gain  was  made,  but 
on  the  right  about  seven  miles  of  the 
German  first  line  trenches  were  taken. 
The  French  had  been  more  successful. 
The  losses  were  appalling  and  the 
hope  of  an  immediate  break  in  the 
German  lines  soon  died. 


A  FRENCH  RELIEF  POST  IN  ALSACE 


had  pushed  past  Noyon.  Here,  on 
both  sides  of  the  Somme  River,  the 
British  and  the  French  were  to  push 
forward.  The  sanguine  had  hoped  that 
they  might  break  through  and  cause  a 
general  German  retreat.  At  least  they 
would  relieve  the  pressure  on  Verdun. 
Before  the  end  of  the  five  months 
Verdun  was  no  longer  in  danger,  and 
the  contest  had  settled  into  a  war  of 
attrition,  an  attempt  to  reduce  Ger- 
many's man-power  as  she  had  at- 
tempted to  bleed  France. 

The  attack  was  hastened  a  little  on 
account  of  the  situation  at  Verdun  but 
not  unduly.  The  battle,  or  series  of 
battles,  began  with  a  grand  artillery 

640 


GENERAL    HAIG    DETERMINES    TO    CON- 
TINUE THE  FIGHTING. 

General  Haig  determined  to  continue 
the  fighting  and  for  two  weeks  he 
slowly  blasted  his  way  toward  the 
German  second  line,  breaking  through 
it  on  a  narrow  front,  on  July  14.  For 
more  than  a  month  more  he  struggled 
to  widen  the  breach  in  the  first  and 
second  lines  and  to  clear  the  country 
between.  This  was  the  first  open 
fighting  in  the  West  since  trench  war- 
fare began.  The  French  likewise  moved 
forward  and  were  approaching  Combles 
at  the  middle  of  August.  Combined 
British  and  French  attacks  followed 
and   during   September   the   Germans 


A  GERMAN  ARTILLERY  REGIMENT  ON  THE  MARCH 
A  German  artillery  regiment  is  here  shown  on  its  leisurely  way  to  the  front  early  in  the  war  before  there  was  any 
shortage  of  horses.    Later  horses  becamj  fewer  and  less  able  to  work  on  account  of  the  scarcity  of  fodder,  and  the 
men  were  compelled  to  march  instead  of  riding  at  their  ease.  Picture   Henry  Ruschin 


GENERAL  VON  HEERINGEN  AND  STAFF  AT  GREAT  HEADQUARTERS 

General  von  Heeringen  was  a  good  soldier  though  he  proved  unequal  to  the  task  laid  upon  him.  Here  he  is  seen 
with  his  staff  upon  the  steps  of  Great  Headquarters  saluting  the  troops  marching  by,  and  calUng  for  a  "Hoch"  for 
the  Kaiser  and  the  Fatherland.  This  picture  was  issued  by  authority  of  the  General  Staff  and  was  widely  cir- 
culated in  Germany.  N.  Y.  Time?  Photo  Service 

641 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


were  driven  from  their  third  line  into 
the  low  ground  beyond.  Martinpuich, 
Courcelette,  Delville  Wood,  Combles 
and  the  rest  were  taken,  and  Bapaume 
and  Peronne  were  threatened. 

Just  when  the  Allied  forces,  having 
broken  through  the  supposedly  im- 
pregnable German  defenses,  were  ready 
to  press  their  advantage.  Nature  in- 
tervened. Five  weeks  of  almost  con- 
tinuous rain  turned  the  pitted,  tor- 
tured ground  into  almost  bottomless 
quagmire  through  which  progress  was 
impossible.  Tanks,  first  used  in  the 
engagements  earlier  in  the  autumn, 
were  now  useless,  artillery  could  not  be 
advanced,  and  supplies  were  brought 
forward  with  great  difficulty.  The 
great  offensive  was  smothered  in  the 
mud,  an  ignominious  end  to  perhaps 
the  greatest  battle  History  records. 

It  is  believed  that  the  Germans  lost 
500,000  men,  the  British  at  least  as 
many,  and  the  French  half  as  many,  a 
terrible  price  to  pay  for  a  few  square 
miles  of  shell-torn  ground.  The  ad- 
vantage remained,  however,  with  the 
Allies,  and  incidentally  these  gains 
forced    the    German    retreat    in    191 7. 

RUSSIA'S  GREAT  OFFENSIVE  BEFORE  REV- 
OLUTION AND  DISSOLUTION. 

The  Central  Powers  boasted  that  the 
Russian  disasters  of  1915  including  the 
fall  of  Warsaw,  had  destroyed  Russian 
military  effectiveness.  They  were  mis- 
taken, for  before  the  end  of  that  year, 
the  Austrians  were  being  driven  head- 
long in  Bukovina.  In  the  beginning 
of  1 91 6,  the  Russians  showed  wonder- 
ful recuperative  power.  Alexiev,  the 
real  commander  under  Tsar  Nicholas, 
had  brought  order  out  of  military  chaos 
and  from  the  fragments  of  armies  had 
welded  a  powerful  force.  Striking 
early  in  June  on  a  long  line  from  the 
Pripet  Marshes  to  the  Rumanian 
border  he  destroyed  two  Austrian 
armies  and  weakened  the  force  the 
Central  Powers  might  have  brought 
against  the  Italian  and  the  Western 
Fronts;  but  his  blows  could  not  be 
driven  home  and  the  Russian  advance 
gradually  slowed  down  and  then 
stopped,  never  to  revive  in  force. 

The  Russian  generals  had  shown 
ability,  and  the  Russian  soldier  fought 

642 


magnificently,  but  treason  had  begun 
to  show  itself  in  the  government  and 
even  in  the  court  itself.  The  Premier, 
Stiirmer,  was  openly  in  favor  of  a 
peace  with  the  Central  Powers,  and  the 
Tsaritsa,  herself,  influenced  by  the 
monk  Rasputin,  seconded  his  efforts. 
With  her  and  others  of  the  autocracy 
the  motive  was  not,  perhaps,  so  much 
pro-Germanism  as  a  realization  that, 
with  the  downfall  of  the  German 
Empire,  autocracy  in  the  adjoining 
states  was  likely  to  perish  also.  What- 
ever may  have  been  the  motives  the 
result  was  the  same.  The  army  was 
purposely  hampered  and  the  offensive 
of  1916  was  the  last  expiring  flare  of 
Russian    resolution. 

RUMANIA    COMES  INTO  THE  WAR  AND  IS 
.     OVERWHELMED. 

The  decision  of  Rumania  to  join  the 
Entente  was  hailed  with  delight,  and 
the  invasion  of  Hungary  on  August  27 
was  expected  to  be  of  material  assist- 
ance. The  invasion  failed,  and  German, 
Austrian,  and  Bulgarian  troops 
swarmed  into  Rumania,  and  before 
the  end  of  the  year,  two-thirds  of  the 
country  was  in  enemy  hands.  Some 
supplies,  chiefly  oil  and  wheat,  which 
the  Rumanians  were  unable  to  destroy, 
went  to  aid  the  Central  Powers,  which 
needed  them  sorely.  We  now  know 
that  the  country  was  pushed  into  the 
war  by  Stiirmer,  and  then  abandoned, 
with  the  hope  that  by  the  sacrifice 
calamity  might  be  averted  from  Rus- 
sia. Four  small  nations,  in  turn,  Bel- 
gium, Serbia,  Montenegro,  and 
Rumania,  had  been  sacrificed  to  the 
God  of  War,  and  the  end  seemed  little 
nearer. 

During  the  year  the  British  fleet 
tightened  the  blockade  of  Germany. 
All  the  resources  of  German  science 
and  invention  were  mobilized  to  pro- 
vide substitutes  for  the  many  articles 
no  longer  procurable,  but  for  food, 
particularly  fats,  no  substitute  could 
be  found,  and  the  pinch  of  hunger,  or 
rather  malnutrition,  began  to  be  felt. 

THE  BRITISH  FLEET  AND  THE  BATTLE  OF 
JUTLAND. 

The  British  battle  fleet  kept  guard 
in  the  North  Sea,  though  smaller  units 
were     everywhere,      combating     sub- 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


marines,  sweeping  for  mines,  convoying 
transports,  protecting  merchant  ves- 
sels. The  Italian  and  the  French 
fleets  were  occupied  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  the  Adriatic,  but  no  im- 
portant engagement  occurred  during 
the  year.  A  Russian  fleet  in  the  Gulf 
of  Riga  helped  to  repulse  a  German 
assault  upon  that  port,  and  another  in 
the  Black  Sea  aided  in  the  capture  of 
Trebizond. 


fleet  under  Admiral  Jellicoe.  The 
Germans  followed  fast,  but  when  the 
British  Grand  Fleet  loomed  up  in  the 
mist,  attempted  to  flee  in  turn.  In 
the  early  hours  of  the  night  the 
greatest  battle  in  marine  history  oc- 
curred. The  night  was  dark,  the  seas 
swarming  with  German  submarines 
and  other  torpedo  craft,  and  Admiral 
Jellicoe  after  he  had  succeeded  in 
getting  between  the  German  fleets  and 


WOUNDED  CANADIAN  SOLDIER  CARRIED  BY  GERMAN  PRISONERS 

German  prisoners  are  here  being  used  to  carry  to  the  rear  a  stretcher  improvised  from  a  blanket  and  a  pole  in  which 
is  a  wounded  Canadian  soldier.  The  Germans  have  been  furnished  with  tobacco  and  are  apparently  glad  to  be 
where  they  are,  and  their  patient  is  bearing  up  under  misfortune  as  well  as  could  be  expected. 

©Underwood  and  Underwood 

their  base  did  "not  press  his  advantage 
home.  The  morning  light  showed  that 
the  German  fleet  had  escaped  during 
the  night. 

THE  COURSE  AND  THE  RESULTS  OF  THE 
ENGAGEMENT. 

This  then  was  the  course  of  the  en- 
gagement. Beatty  with  his  cruisers 
while  engaged  in  a  reconnaissance  fell 
in  with  an  inferior  force  of  German 
cruisers  under  Hipper  similarly  en- 
gaged. Hipper  fled  fighting,  hoping  to 
lure  Beatty  within  reach  of  the  main 
German  fleet.  He  was  successful, 
whereupon  Beatty  turned  toward  the 

643 


On  the  afternoon  of  May  31,  Vice- 
Admiral  Sir  David  Beatty,  with  a 
fleet  of  cruisers,  supported  by  a 
squadron  of  four  battleships,  fell  in 
with  a  squadron  of  German  cruisers 
under  Vice-Admiral  Hipper.  A  running 
fight  ensued  during  which  the  Inde- 
fatigable and  the  Queen  Mary  were 
sunk,  as  the  German  gunnery  was 
excellent.  The  fight  carried  Beatty 
into  the  neighborhood  of  the  main 
German  fleet,  under  Vice-Admiral 
Scheer,  whereupon  Beatty  naturally 
turned  northward  hoping  to  lure  the 
German  fleet  toward  the  main  British 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


main  British  fleet  with  the  same  hope. 
When  the  main  German  fleet  met  the 
main  British  fleet,  it  in  turn  sought  to 
escape  and  was  successful. 

The  British  Admiralty  frankly  ac- 
knowledged its  losses,  three  battle 
cruisers,  three  armored  cruisers,  eight 
destroyers,  114,000  tons  in  all,  and 
5,613  officers  and  men.  The  German 
losses  as  first  announced  were  much 
smaller.  Later  additional  losses  were 
grudgingly  acknowledged,  but  the  final 
total  announced,  was  only  63,000  tons 
and  3,966  officers  and  men.  The 
British  claim  that  the  German  losses 
were  much  larger,  but,  be  that  as  it 
may,  the  German  fleet  did  not  again 
risk  an  engagement  during  the  war 
and  the  British  fleet  remained  in  com- 
mand of  the  seas. 

THE   DETERMINATION   TO  RENEW   RUTH- 
LESS SUBMARINE  WARFARE. 

Submarine  warfare  was  marked  by 
vacillation  upon  the  part  of  the 
Germans.  They  were  anxious  to  use 
the  weapon  to  the  fullest  extent,  but 
they  hesitated  to  defy  the  United 
States.  On  September  i,  1915,  the 
United  States  government  had  been 
assured  that  no  more  passenger  ships 
would  be  torpedoed  without  warning, 
and  for  several  months  the  promise 
was  kept,  with  some  exceptions,  but 
soon  the  discussion  over  armed  mer- 
chantmen arose.  An  unsuccessful  at- 
tempt was  made  in  the  Congress  of 
the  United  States  to  pass  a  resolution 
warning  American  citizens  not  to 
travel  on  armed  ships.  In  spite  of  the 
supposed  restrictions  on  the  freedom 
of  action  of  the  submarine  com- 
manders, about  a  thousand  British 
ships    were    sunk    during    1916. 

THE  SITUATION  OF  THE  NEUTRAL  POWERS 
EVER  MORE  DIFFICULT. 

The  lot  of  the  neutral  powers  grew 
steadily  more  difficult.  German  sub- 
marines sank  their  ships  while  the 
Allied  blockade  interfered  with  their 
commerce  and  even  with  their  food 
supply.    Portugal,  long  closely  associ- 


ated with  Great  Britain,  gave  up  the 
vain  effort  to-  preserve  neutrality, 
March  10,  1916,  and  sent  a  contingent 
to  France.  Though  some  individuals 
in  Holland  made  fortunes  by  selling 
food  stuffs  to  both  belligerents,  the 
cost  of  maintaining  the  army  and  the 
hindrances  to  commerce  more  than 
counterbalanced  this  advantage.  The 
other  neutrals  were  equally  unhappy. 
The  United  States  was  evidently 
moving  toward  war.  The  diplomatic 
correspondence  with  the  German  au- 
thorities was  increasingly  unsatis- 
factory, German  sympathizers  con- 
tinued to  destroy  lives  and  property 
and  to  foment  discord  among  the 
various  elements  of  the  population. 
The  deep-rooted  love  for  peace  in  the 
United  States  was  giving  way  to 
the  realization  that  war  was  inevitable. 
Though  some  votes  were  cast  for  the 
re-election  of  President  Wilson  on 
the  ground  that  "he  kept  us  out  of  the 
war,"  the  Germans  seem  to  have  had 
no  illusions  on  that  score.  Meanwhile 
the  President  held  his  majority  in  Con- 
gress well  in  hand  and  prevented  the 
passage  of  a  resolution  warning  Ameri- 
cans not  to  travel  on  armed  rrerchant 
vessels.  It  was  evident  that  the 
participation  of  the  United  States  was 
a  matter  of  months  at  most. 

FAILURE  TO  END  THE  WAR  BY  MILITARY 
FORCES  EVIDENT. 

The  year  191 6  was  the  year  of  the 
soldier.  On  every  front,  on  both  sides, 
the  commanders  had  had  liberty  to 
force  a  decision  if  it  could  be  done  by 
lavish  expenditure  of  men  and  mate- 
rials of  war.  They  had  spent  both 
freely,  but  no  decision  had  teen  reached 
and  none  seemed  in  sight,  although 
Russia  was  already  in  the  early  throes 
of  revolution.  Many  men  on  both  sides, 
as  well  as  in  the  neutral  states,  were 
beginning  to  question  whether  a  decision 
could  be  reached  by  military  force; 
and  during  the  next  year  we  are  to  see 
a  series  of  abortive  attempts  to  secure 
peace  by  negotiation. 


644 


By  permiasioti  of  Ceo.  Pulman  &  Sons,  Ltd. 

THE  RIGHT  HON.  DAVID  LLOYD  GEORGE 

Minister   for  Munitions,    1915-16.      Prime  Minister   from  December,    1916 


Photo — Haines. 


hi^- 


The  Houses  of  Parliament  in  London 


Chapter  XL 


The  British  People  at  War 

GREAT    BRITAIN    STRIVES    WITH    UNFALTERING    DETER- 
MINATION TO  WIN  THE  WAR 


'"pHE  Great  War  was  primarily  a 
-'■  struggle  of  nations,  rather  than  of 
armies.  It  was  fought,  not  only  on 
the  battle-front,  but  also,  and  perhaps 
more  decisively,  on  the  home  front. 
Consequently,  the  true  story  of  the 
war  is  to  be  found  as  much  in  the 
sphere  of  national  war  efforts  as  in 
the  sphere  of  military  operations. 

In  waging  war,  the  British  people 
have  almost  always  started  badly. 
The  Seven  Years  War,  the  Napoleonic 
War,  the  Crimean  War,  and  the  Boer 
War  were  all  long-drawn-out  struggles, 
marred  in  the  beginning,  so  far  as 
Great  Britain  was  concerned,  by  bung- 
ling and  mismanagement,  and  crowned 
with  success  only  when  the  nation  was 
thoroughly  aroused,  and  had  learned 
its  lesson  in  the  school  of  experience. 
"Muddling  through,"  in  fact,  has 
become  the  traditional  modus  operandi 
of  the  British  people  at  war. 

BRITISH      ARMS      OFTEN      UNSUCCESSFUL 
AT     FIRST. 

The  British  have  never  "gone  in" 
for  short,  sharp  military  successes, 
such  as  that  which  the  French  won 
over  the  Prussians  in  1806,  or  as  that 
which  the  Prussians  won  over  the 
French  in  1870.  They  have  preferred 
usually  to  drag  out  the  drama  through 
all  its  five  acts,  leaving  the  denoue- 
ment to  the  very  last;  and  there  is  no 
doubt  that,  during  the  most  depressing 


days  of  1914  and  1915,  many  an 
Englishman  found  much  solace  and 
comfort  in  the  fact  that,  whereas 
British  arms  had  never  prospered  at 
first  in  war,  they  had  almost  invariably 
prospered  in  the  end. 

For  the  comparative  ill-success  of 
the  British  in  waging  war  at  the  outset, 
there  are  various  reasons.  One  of  these 
lies  perhaps  in  the  national  tempera- 
ment. The  British  are  a  practical, 
rather  than  a  theoretical,  people.  They 
do  not  as  a  rule  take  long  views,  but 
prefer  rather  to  feel  their  way,  to  take 
each  step  only  as  they  become  con- 
vinced of  the  necessity  for  it.  Con- 
sequently, when  war  has  come,  it  has 
usually  found  them  only  half-prepared ; 
and  the  task  of  readjusting  themselves 
to  the  new  conditions  imposed  by  the 
outbreak  of  war  has  often  been  a  long 
and  painful  process. 

DEMOCRACY     NOT     ALWAYS     EFFICIENT 
IN     WAR. 

Another  reason,  no  doubt,  is  to  be 
found  in  the  British  type  of  govern- 
ment. Democracy  is  notoriously  less 
efficient,  up  to  a  certain  point,  in 
waging  war  than  autocracy;  and  the 
British  type  of  democracy,  with  its 
dependence  on  the  principle  of  cabinet 
government,  is  peculiarly  ill-adapted 
to  the  conduct  of  war.  A  ship  of 
state  which  goes  into  action  under 
the   direction   of   a   navigating   board 

645 


fflSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


of  twenty-three  members,  any  or  all 
of  whom  are  liable  to  be  thrown  over- 
board at  a  moment's  notice,  does  not 
enter  battle  under  the  most  favorable 
auspices. 

A  WAVE      OF     PACIFISM      SWEEPS      OVER 
GREAT  BRITAIN. 

In  1 914,  moreover,  there  were  special 
reasons  why  Great  Britain  was  ill- 
prepared  to  go  to  war.  During  the 
opening  years  of  the  twentieth  century 
there  had  swept  over  the  British  Isles 
a  wave  of  pacifist  feeling.  Many 
people  were  persuaded  by  the  argu- 
ments of  writers  like  Mr.  Norman 
Angell,  the  author  of  The  Great 
Illusion,  who  taught  that  war  under 
modern  conditions  was  so  ruinous 
that  it  was  unthinkable;  and  many 
were  misled  by  the  apparent  solidarity 
of  the  Labor  Internationale  into 
thinking  that  a  general  European  war 
was  actually  impossible. 

A  group  of  the  Unionist  party,  led 
by  Lord  Roberts  and  Lord  Charles 
Beresford,  had,  it  is  true,  preached 
the  danger  of  the  "German  menace", 
and  had  urged  the  country  to  gird 
itself  for  the  coming  struggle;  but 
their  warnings  had  fallen  on  deaf  ears. 
It  so  happened  that  during  the  years 
preceding  the  Great  War  there  was 
in  power  in  England  a  Liberal  govern- 
ment which,  pacific  and  anti-militarist 
in  tendency,  was  committed  to  a  policy 
of  rapprochement  with  Germany. 

In  1 91 2  Lord  Haldane,  a  member  of 
the  British  cabinet  who  had  described 
Germany  as  his  "spiritual  home", 
went  to  Berlin  carrying  an  olive  branch, 
in  the  hope  apparently  of  conciliating 
the  "blond  beast",  and  though  it  is 
now  clear  that  his  mission  was  at  best 
only  partially  successful,  the  British 
government  was  so  encouraged  by  the 
friendly  reception  which  Lord  Haldane 
was  given  in  some  quarters  in  Berlin 
that  it  continued  its  attempt  to  bring 
about  better  relations  between  the 
two  countries.  "The  anticipation  that 
good  would  result  from  a  free  exchange 
of  views,"  said  Mr.  Asquith,  the 
Prime  Minister,  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons on  February  14,  1912,  "has  been 
realized.  It  has  dispelled  the  suspicion 
that  either  government  contemplates 

646 


aggressive  designs  against  the  other." 
Dwelling  as  they  did  in  this  fool's 
paradise,  it  is  small  wonder  if  the 
Asquith  government  and  its  anti- 
militarist  supporters  were  unready 
when  the  world  war  broke  out. 

FEW   FORESAW   THE   EXTENT   OF   BRITISH 
PARTICIPATION. 

Even  among  the  advocates  of  pre- 
paredness there  were  few  who  foresaw 
the  extent  to  which  Great  Britain 
would  be  compelled  to  go  in  partici- 
pating in  a  continental  struggle.  The 
doctrine  enunciated  in  the  eighteenth 
century  by  the  elder  Pitt  when  he 
said,  "The  fleet  is  our  standing  army," 
still  held  sway  in  England,  and  it  was 
expected  that  Great  Britain's  con- 
tribution to  a  general  European  war 
would  be  primarily  naval.  So  far  as 
war  on  land  was  concerned,  it  was  not 
anticipated  that  Great  Britain  would 
have  to  take  part  in  it  except  on  the 
theory  of  limited  liability.  Plans  for 
the  dispatch  of  an  expeditionary  force 
to  the  continent  in  the  event  of  war 
had  indeed  been  agreed  upon,  but 
this  force  was  not  apparently  expected 
to  exceed  a  few  divisions,  and  the 
machinery  for  the  sudden  creation 
of  a  larger  force  simply  did  not  exist. 

The  British  people  had  steadfastly 
set  their  faces  against  the  principle  of 
compulsory  military  service;  the  Ter- 
ritorial forces  were  under  obligation  to 
serve  only  in  home  defense;  and  the 
only  troops  immediately  available  for 
overseas  service  were  the  units  of  the 
comparatively  small  regular  army, 
many  of  which  were  required  for 
garrison  duty  elsewhere.  Even  had  the 
machinery  existed  for  calling  up  a 
large  army,  no  preparations  of  an 
adequate  nature  had  been  made  for 
officering,  equipping,  or  provisioning 
such  a  force.  A  levee  en  masse  in 
England  in  1914  would  have  produced 
an  army  like  the  rabble  Falstaff  led  to 
Coventry. 

THE    LACK    OF    AN    EFFICIENT    GENERAL 
STAFF. 

In  yet  one  other  respect  Great  Brit- 
ain was  ill-organized  for  waging  war. 
She  had  no  machinery,  such  as  was 
afi^orded  in  Germany  by  the  Great 
German  General  Staff,  whereby  policy 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


might  be  co-ordinated  with  military 
and  naval  strategy.  She  had  no  central 
control  for  waging  war.  The  modern 
General  Staff  system  contemplates  the 
co-ordination  by  one  person,  the  Chief 
of  the  General  Staff,  of  advice  tendered 
by  a  host  of  subordinate  experts, 
covering  every  possible  phase  of  the 
situation ;  but  under  the  British  system 
in  1914,  there  was  no  real  head  of  the 


UNCERTAINTY     AS    TO     A     DECLARATION 
OF     WAR. 

Up  to  the  last  minute  it  seemed 
doubtful  whether  Great  Britain  would 
throw  herself  into  the  war  or  not.  War 
broke  out  between  the  continental 
powers  on  July  31:  but  as  late  as 
August  3,  when  the  British  parliament 
was  called  together,  the  British  govern- 
ment had   not   yet  decided   to   throw 


Sm  SAM  HUGHES  AND  LORD  ROTHERMERE 

General  Sir  Sam  Hughes  is  photographed  with  Brigadier-General  Seely  and  Lord  Rothermere.  General  John 
Seely  was  appointed  to  command  a  brigade  of  Canadian  Cavalry  in  February  1915.  At  the  end  of  1917  the  Air 
Board  of  Great  Britain  was  expanded  into  an  Air  Ministry  and  Lord  Rothermere  became  special  Air  Minister. 

©  Canada,  1919 


General  Staff,  save  the  unwieldy  civil- 
ian .cabinet,  and  the  real  direction  of 
the  war  rested  in  the  hands  of  a 
number  of  departments,  the  War  Office, 
the  Admiralty,  the  Foreign  Office,  and 
even  the  India  Office;  and  if  all  these 
departments  worked  in  harmony  it 
was  more  by  good  luck  than  by  good 
management.  Too  often,  especially 
during  the  earliest  stages  of  the  war, 
decisions  were  taken  by  the  British 
government  on  the  strength  of  half- 
baked  and  half-digested  advice,  owing 
to  the  absence  of  any  organization 
for  the  proper  consideration  of  plans 
by  experts  from  all  points  of  view. 


in  its  lot  with  France.  It  had  even 
steadfastly  declined  to  enter  into  any 
definite  engagement  with  France.  Only 
when  the  German  forces  had  actually 
violated  the  neutrality  of  Belgium,  of 
which  Great  Britain  was  one  of  the 
guarantors,  did  the  British  cabinet 
take  the  plunge  and  declare  war  on 
Germany;  and  even  then  there  was  an 
element  in  the  Liberal  and  Labor 
parties  which  opposed  an  entry  into 
the  war.  Lord  Morley  and  Mr.  John 
Burns  resigned  from  the  cabinet;  and 
Mr.  Ramsay  Macdonald  and  his  friends 
openly  deplored  the  government's  ac- 
tion. 

647 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


The  overwhelming  majority  of  the 
people,  however,  stood  solidly  behind 
the  cabinet.  If  it  had  been  merely  a 
question  of  Serbia's  sovereign  rights, 
if  it  had  been  even  a  question  of  the 
invasion  by  Germany  of  the  eastern 
frontier  of  France,  it  is  doubtful  if 
British  public  opinion  would  have  been 
in  favor  of  participation  in   the  war; 


THE  SCRAP  OF  PAPER 


The  Germans  have  broken  their  pledged  word 

and  devastated  Belgium.  Help  to  keep  ■your 

Country's  honour  bright  by  restoring  Belghnn 

her  liberty. 

ENUST  TO-DAY 


AN  ENGLISH  RECRUITING  POSTER 

This  facsimile  of  the  treaty  guaranteeing  the  neutrality 
of  Belgium  was  used  on  a  recruiting  poster  in  England, 
and  was  quite  effective. 

but  when  Germany,  with  a  cynical 
disregard  of  her  plighted  word,  invaded 
Belgium,  the  soul  of  the  British  nation 
was  immediately  roused  to  action. 
Not  only  was  the  occupation  of  Bel- 
gium by  an  unfriendly  power  likely 
to  prove,  in  the  language  of  Napoleon, 
'  *  a  pistol  aimed  at  the  heart  of  England , ' ' 
but  it  became  a  point  of  honor  with 
Great  Britain  to  make  good  her  guar- 
antee of  the  neutrality  of  Belgian  soil. 

A  PARTY    TRUCE     IS     IMMEDIATELY     DE- 
CLARED. 

The  way  in  which  the  British  people 
rose  to  the  situation  had  in  it  some- 
648 


thing  magnificent.  A  political  truce 
was  promptly  declared  between  the 
two  great  historic  parties;  and  even 
the  Irish  Nationalists  and  the  Ulster- 
men,  who  had  been  a  few  weeks  before 
on  the  brink  of  civil  war,  buried  the 
hatchet  and  vied  with  each  other  in 
their  loyalty  to  the  common  cause. 
It  was  symptomatic  of  the  truce  to 
party  feeling  that  Lord  Kitchener,  the 
Empire's  foremost  soldier,  who  was 
actually  on  the  way  to  Egypt,  was 
recalled,  and  made  Secretary  of  State 
for  War — a  position  that  had  been 
temporarily  occupied  by  the  Prime 
Minister,  Mr.  Asquith. 

A  SURVEY  OF  THE  DOMESTIC  SITUATION 
IN  1914. 

During  1914  there  appeared  no 
rifts  within  the  lute.  It  had  been  feared 
that  on  the  outbreak  of  war  there 
would  be  a  serious  collapse  of  credit 
and  a  financial  panic;  but  the  measures 
taken  by  Mr.  Lloyd  George,  the  Chan- 
cellor of  the  Exchequer,  in  conjunction 
with  the  leading  British  bankers,  suc- 
cessfully averted  the  danger  of  disaster 
and  Great  Britain  embarked  on  the 
war  in  an  astonishingly  good  financial 
position.  The  temper  of  the  nation 
remained  firm  and  resolute.  Lord 
Kitchener,  far-sighted  enough  to  dis- 
cern that  the  war  would  be  a  long 
one — he  was  credited  with  having 
prophesied  for  it  a  duration  of  three 
years — ,  immediately  scouted  the  the- 
ory of  Great  Britain's  limited  liability, 
and  laid  plans  for  a  whole-hearted 
participation  in  the  struggle.  Not 
only  did  he  accept  the  offers  of  the 
Territorial  units  to  serve  abroad,  but 
he  issued  a  call  for  a  new  army  of 
a  million  men.  His  recruiting  appeal 
was  splendidly  answered.  Especially 
during  the  dark  days  of  the  retreat 
from  Mons  and  the  anxious  weeks  of 
the  First  Battle  of  Ypres,  the  volun- 
teers poured  into  the  recruiting  booths 
faster  than  the  recruiting  organization 
could  deal  with  them. 

Nothing  perhaps  was  more  sig- 
nificant of  the  temper  of  the  people 
than  the  unreserved  way  in  which 
they  placed  their  trust  in  the  govern- 
ment. During  the  autumn  of  1914 
hardly  a  breath  of  criticism  was  heard. 


BRITISH  VOLUNTEERS  WHO  HAVE  JUST  SIGNED  UP 
Voluntary  enlistment  in  Britain  during  the  early  weeks  of  the  war  was  so  large  that  equipment  in  uniforms  and 
weapons  fell  far  short  of  the  demand.    As  time  went  on,  however,  better  system  prevailed.    The  men  shown  in 
the  picture  standing  before  the  barracks  have  passed  their  medical  examination  and  been  accepted  for  service. 


THE  SAME  MEN  TEN  MINUTES  LATER 
These  are  the  same  men  ten  minutes  later  (a  record)  in  uniform,  furnished  with  their  kit  and  regimental  number, 
and  ready  to  entrain.    From  the  barracks  where  they  stayed  only  a  few  minutes,  they  were  sent  to  one  of  the 
instruction  camps  dotted  all  over  England.     After  training  they  were  sent  to  some  part  of  the  British  front  in 
France.    Notice  the  extra  pair  of  boots  standing  before  every  man's  kit-bag. 


649 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


Parliament  virtually  abdicated  its  pow- 
ers in  favor  of  the  cabinet.  It  began 
by  authorizing  the  expenditure  by  the 
government  of  £100,000,000,  to  be 
spent  for  any  war  purpose  without 
specification  or  estimate;  and  this  vote 
was  followed  by  other  and  larger  votes. 
It  passed  a  Defense  of  the  Realm  Act, 
the  first  of  a  series  of  acts  which  con- 
ferred on  the  executive  government 
the  widest  powers  of  legislation  by 
Order-in-Council,  and  which  even  au- 
thorized, for  the  first  time  in  more 
than  two  centuries,  the  sentencing  to 
death  of  a  civilian  without  trial  by 
jury.  "The  Houses  may  be  said  to 
have  agreed  to  a  sort  of  Ultimatum 
senatus  consultum;  videant  consules/' 

SOMEWHAT  LATER  THE  PARTY  TRUCE   IS 
BROKEN. 

Early  in  1 91 5,  however,  the  har- 
mony that  had  prevailed  began  to 
break  down.  The  Asquith  govern- 
ment still  received  general  support, 
and  there  was  at  first  no  open  attempt 
to  force  its  retirement.  But  evidence 
of  uneasiness  and  dissatisfaction  began 
to  appear  both  inside  and  outside 
of  parliament.  The  continuance  of 
Lord  Haldane  in  the  cabinet  came  in 
for  criticism  from  those  who  had 
disapproved  of  his  pre-war  policy  and 
who  suspected  him,  though  without 
reason,  of  being  pro-German.  The 
indiscretions  of  Mr.  Winston  Churchill 
at  the  Admiralty,  especially  his  ill- 
starred  attempt  to  relieve  Antwerp 
(which  prolonging  the  resistance  of  the 
city,  endangered  the  Belgian  army), 
offered  another  target  of  attack. 

The  general  policy  of  the  govern- 
ment, moreover,  had  been,  despite 
the  vast  powers  placed  in  its  hands, 
unstable  and  vacillating.  In  the  matter 
of  liquor  control,  it  embarked  on  an 
ill-considered  venture  which  ended 
in  an  inglorious  surrender  to  the 
"trade".  In  its  treatment  of  alien 
enemies  it  was  forced  to  reverse, 
because  of  popular  pressure,  the  policy 
of  lenience  which  it  had  first  adopted. 
And  in  the  all-important  matter  of 
munitions,  it  confused  and  irritated 
the  country  by  ministerial  announce- 
ments displaying  alternate  compla- 
cency and  panic. 

650 


LORD     KITCHENER     AND     THE     QUESTION 
y     OF  MUNITIONS. 

The  question  of  munitions,  indeed, 
more  perhaps  than  any  other,  was 
the  rock  on  which  the  government 
came  to  grief.  Lord  Kitchener,  the 
Secretary  of  State  for  War,  whp  had 
charge  of  the  supply  of  munitions  for 
the  army,  had  devoted  his  energies 
mainly  to  the  problem  of  recruiting 
and  had  devoted  apparently  less  at- 
tention to  the  matter  of  supplies. 
The  probability  is  that  he  attempted  to 
supervise  too  much  himself,  and  was 
not  able  to  give  to  all  aspects  of  his  task 
the  attention  they  required.  When 
it  became  clear  that,  in  spite  of  min- 
isterial assurances  to  the  contrary, 
the  British  army  in  France  was  being 
hampered  and  hindered  by  a  serious 
shortage  of  artillery  shells,  and  that 
among  the  shells  sent  forward  there 
was  too  high  a  proportion  of  shrapnel 
and  too  small  a  proportion  of  high 
explosive,  the  pountry  naturally  be- 
came aroused. 

Lord  Northcliffe,  the  proprietor  of 
The  Times  and  the  Daily  Mail,  opened 
in  his  papers  an  attack  on  the  Asquith 
government  in  general  and  Lord  Kit- 
chener in  particular.  On  May  14,  The 
Times  printed  a  dispatch  from  its 
correspondent  at  British  General  Head- 
quarters in  France  which  revealed 
the  existence  of  a  disagreement  be- 
tween Lord  Kitchener  and  Sir  John 
French,  the  British  commander-in- 
chief  in  the  field,  over  the  question 
of  munitions.  The  following  day. 
Lord  Fisher,  the  father  of  the  modern 
British  navy,  resigned  from  the  post 
of  First  Sea  Lord  at  the  Admiralty, 
as  the  result  of  differences  with  his 
official  chief,  Mr.  Churchill.  The 
effect  of  these  combined  events  was 
seriously  to  shake  the  stability  of  the 
administration;  and  when,  in  the 
third  week  in  May,  the  Unionist 
leaders  in  parliament  privately  served 
notice  on  Mr.  Asquith  that  they  could 
no  longer  refrain  from  criticism  unless 
big  changes  were  made,  Mr.  Asquith 
was  forced  to  accept,  as  a  solution  for 
his  difificulties,  the  idea,  of  a  national  or 
coalition  government,  in  which  all  par- 
ties should  be  represented. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


A  COALITION     CABINET      IS     FORMED     IN 
MAY,   1915. 

On  May  25,  consequently,  a  radical 
reorganization  of  the  cabinet  was 
effected,  with  the  inclusion  in  it  of 
eight  Unionists  and  one  Labor  member. 
Mr.  Asquith  remained  Prime  Minister; 
but  Lord  Haldane  was  dropped,  and 
Mr.  Churchill  was  relegated  to  the 
sinecure  post  of  Chancellor  of  the 
Duchy  of  Lancaster,  while  his  place  at 
the  Admiralty  was  taken  by  Mr.  A.  J. 
Balfour.  Lord  Kitchener  remained 
at  the  War  Office,  but  he  was  relieved 
from  the  oversight  of  munitions  by  the 
creation  of  a  new  Ministry  of  Muni- 
tions, which  was  placed  in  charge  of 
Mr.  Lloyd  George. 

Mr.  Lloyd  George  had  been  before 
the  war  the  bete  noire  of  the  more  con- 
servative element  in  the  country;  but 
his  skillful  solution  of  the  financial 
difficulties  at  the  beginning  of  the  war, 
and  his  tactful  handling  of  some  labor 
disputes  which  had  broken  out  in  the 
winter  of  1914-^915,  had  met  with 
general  approval;  it  was  significant 
of  his  altered  position  in  the  public 
eye  that  he  should  have  been  entrusted 
with  the  task  which,  more  perhaps 
than  any  other,  was  the  object  of 
public  concern. 

THE    RECORD    OF    THE    COALITION    CAB- 
INET. 

The  Coalition  Cabinet  promptly 
gave  evidence  of  a  more  energetic 
policy.  Under  Mr.  Lloyd  George  the 
production  of  munitions  was  speeded 
up  so  successfully,  and  on  so  stupen- 
dous a  scale,  that  never  again  was  the 
shortage  of  supplies  a  cause  for  serious 
anxiety  with  the  British  people.  In 
February,  1916,  a  new  Ministry  of 
Blockade  was  created,  with  the  object 
of  tightening  the  cordon  drawn  around 
the  Central  Empires;  and  in  half  a 
dozen  other  ways,  the  new  ministry 
showed  itself  more  effective  than  the 
old. 

But  its  efficiency  still  left  something 
to  be  desired.  The  record  of  the 
Coalition  Cabinet,  which  remained  in 
power  for  a  year  and  a  half,  has  been 
well  described  by  an  English  political 
commentator  on  the  war,  who  wrote; 

"The  Coalition  Government  proved 


in  almost  every  sphere  of  war  direction 
and  war  administration  that  it  was 
stronger  than  its  predecessor,  but 
not  strong  enough,  that  it  acted  more 
swiftly,  but  yet  acted  too  late,  that 
its  measures  were  better  adapted  to 
the  needs  of  the  time  than  the  measures 
of  the  first  year  of  the  war,  but  yet 
were  almost  invariably  half  measures. " 


THE  CHIEF  COMMONER 

David  Lloyd  George  during  the  war  was  in  turn  Chan- 
cellor of  the  Exchequer,  Minister  of  Munitions  and 
Prime  Minister. 


R.    ASQUITH    LOSES    THE    CONFIDENCE 
OF  PARLIAMENT. 


M 

Very  early  criticism  of  the  coalition 
government  began  to  make  itself  felt. 
It  was  complained  that  it  was  merely 
an  alliance  of  front-bench  politicians, 
rather  than  a  real  national  govern- 
ment. In  particular,  many  people 
were  distrustful  of  what  was  called 
"the  Old  Gang",  namely  the  As- 
quithian  Liberals  who  still  dominated 
the  cabinet.  Mr.  Asquith  himself,  was 
accused  of  being  deficient  in  leader- 
ship, and  a  phrase  which  he  had  used, 
"Wait  and  see, "  was  held  up  as  typify- 
ing his  war  policy.  The  obvious  failure 
of    the    Dardanelles    expedition,    the 

651 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


comparative  ill-success  of  British  di- 
plomacy in  the  Balkans,  the  apparent 
stalemate  on  the  Western  Front,  all 
contributed  to  discredit  Mr.  Asquith's 
direction  of  the  war. 

There  were,  moreover,  domestic  ques- 
tions which  embarrassed  the  govern- 
ment. One  of  these  was  the  question 
of  recruiting.  By  the  summer  of  1915, 
the  flow  of  recruits  had  begun  some- 
what to  ebb.  There  were  many,  and 
among    them    some    of    the    cabinet 


Derby,  the  Director  of  Recruiting; 
and  this  appeal  was  moderately  suc- 
cessful, but  during  its  course  promises 
were  made  which  rendered  the  adop- 
tion of  conscription  in  the  case  of 
unmarried  men,  obligatory.  This  led 
to  the  introduction  of  the  first  com- 
pulsory service  measure  in  January, 
1916,  and  to  a  further  measure  in  April; 
but  these  bills  were  so  mild,  despite  the 
fact  that  serious  opposition  developed 
to  them  in  the  cabinet,  that  dissatis- 


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AFTER  THE  FLEETING  FURLOUGH 

This  picture  shows  British  veterans  awaiting  the  Flanders  trench  special  at  Victoria.  Many  of  the  privates  who 
had  never  left  England  before  or  even  been  to  London,  came  to  take  the  land  and  sea  journey  with  its  at  least  three 
changes  very  phlegmatically.    All  railroad  and  boat  service  was  of  course  under  government  control. 


ministers,  who  believed  that  the  only 
satisfactory  solution  of  the  recruiting 
problem  was  to  be  found  in  conscrip- 
tion, or  compulsory  military  service. 
Others,  and  these  included  at  least  a 
majority  of  the  cabinet,  hesitated  to 
admit  the  necessity  for  conscription 
until  it  had  been  shown  that  the 
voluntary  system  had  definitely  failed. 

SOME    OF    THE    DIFFICULTIES    OVER    RE- 
CRUITING. 

The  internal  conflict  in  the  cabinet 
over  this  question  produced  naturally 
indecisive  and  compromise  measures. 
In  July,  1915,  a  national  registration 
was  held.  In  October,  1915,  a  final 
recruiting  appeal  was  made  by  Lord 

652 


faction  rose  to  a  great  height  and  a 
more  sweeping  measure  had  to  be 
brought  in,  early  in  May,  1916. 

This  Act  definitely  placed  the  ques- 
tion of  British  man-power  on  a  com- 
pulsory service  basis,  and  it  went  far 
toward  solving  the  problem  of  rein- 
forcements for  the  front.  But  its 
passage  brought  little  prestige  to  the 
government.  On  the  one  hand,  it 
earned  for  the  government  the  op- 
position of  the  anti-conscriptionist 
element  in  the  Liberal  and  Labor 
parties  and  it  was  a  curious  fact  that 
there  grew  up  a  more  active  opposition 
in  Parliament  to  the  Coalition  ministry 
than   to   the  purely  Liberal    ministry 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


which  had  preceded  it.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  measure  earned  for  the 
government  Httle  commendation  from 
the  conscriptionists,  who  attributed 
the  passage  of  the  measure,  not  to 
leadership  on  the  part  of  the  govern- 
ment, but  to  subservience  on  their  part 
to  pubHc  opinion.  Many  of  them,  in- 
deed, looked  on  the  measure  as  a  victory 
over  the  government,  which  they  had 
forced  to  conform  to  their  views.    The 


munition  workers  of  the  Clyde;  and 
even  where  strikes  did  not  break  out, 
production  was  disappointing.  It  prov- 
ed difficult  to  persuade  the  working- 
man  to  give  up  his  trade  union  regula- 
tions with  regard  to  such  matters  as 
hours,  wages,  and  the  competition  of 
unskilled  and  female  labor.  "The  life 
of  Britain,"  said  Mr.  Lloyd  George 
at  the  end  of  February,  1915,  "is 
being  imperiled   for  the  matter  of  a 


BUSY  SCENE  IN  A  MUNITION  WORKSHOP 
Women  of  the  Allied  and  enemy  countries  had  the  privilege  of  making  munitions  before  their  sisters  in  Great 
Britain,  who  only  had  their  desire  granted  in  the  summer  of  1915.    While  government  schemes  were  under  con- 
sideration a  volunteer  movement  was  set  on  foot  at  the  Vickers  factories  at  Erith.    The  movement  once  siaited 
gained  very  rapidly. 

truth  was,  of  course,  that  the  Coalition, 
containing  as  it  did  many  shades  of 
political  opinion,  had  to  proceed  in  all 
contentious  matters  by  way  of  com- 
promise and  concession;  and  this  fact 
alone  was  sufficient  to  account  for  the 
appearance  of  vacillation  and  inde- 
cision in  the  policy  it  followed. 

QOME  OF  THE  DIFFICULTIES  OVER  LABOR. 

Another  question  which  caused  the 
government  much  worry  was  the 
Labor  difficulty.  Early  in  1915  unrest 
began  to  appear  among  certain  ele- 
ments of  the  working-class.  Strikes 
kept  breaking  out,  especially  among 
the  Welsh  miners  and  the  shipping  and 


farthing  an  hour."  Another  cause  of 
the  trouble  was  heavy  drinking  among 
some  of  the  workers;  and  it  was  with 
the  object  of  setting  an  example  that 
on  March  30,  the  King  banished 
alcoholic  liquor  from  the  royal  house- 
hold. 

The  trouble  may  have  been  due  also 
in  part,  to  political  causes.  The  extreme 
wing  of  the  Labor  party  in  Great 
Britain,  represented  by  the  Indepen- 
dent Labor  party  and  the  Union  of 
Democratic  Control,  had  become  open- 
ly anti-war,  and  it  was  obvious  that 
the  influence  of  this  element,  combined 
perhaps  with  the  machinations  of 
German  agents,  had  something  to  do 

653 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


with  the  Labor  unrest.  But  whatever 
the  source  of  the  trouble,  there  was  no 
doubt  that  the  attitude  of  an  element 
in  the  working  classes  was  a  cause 
of  rliuch  embarrassment  to  the  govern- 
ment; and  there  were  many  people, 
otherwise  friendly  to  Labor,  who  felt 
that  the  government  handled  the 
situation  too  timidly.  It  seemed  an 
anomaly  that  a  deserter  at  the  battle- 
front  should  have  to  suffer  the  extreme 


war,  as  the  result  of  the  introduction 
into  parliament  by  the  Asquith  govern- 
ment of  a  bill  granting  Home  Rule  for 
Ireland,  Ireland  had  been  on  the  verge 
of  civil  war.  The  Protestant  people 
of  the  North  of  Ireland,  under  the 
leadership  of  Sir  Edward  Carson,  had 
organized  an  army  of  "Ulster  Volun- 
teers", had  imported  arms  from  Ger- 
many, and  had  announced  their  de- 
termination to  resist  by  force  of  arms 


THE  GRAVE  OF  MAJOR  REDMOND  IN  A  CONVENT  GARDEN 
Major  William  Redmond,  M.P.,  brother  of  Mr.  John  Redmond,  the  Irish  Nationalist  leader,  was  mortally  wounded 
April  26,  1917,  during  the  successful  attack  on  Messines  Ridge.    His  body  was  taken  to  the  little  village  of  Loecre 
behind  the  lines  and  there  buried  in  the  private  garden  of  the  convent  Photograph  British  Official 

the  application  of  Home  Rule  to 
Ireland;  and  the  Roman  Catholic 
South  of  Ireland  had  replied  with  the 
formation  of  a  volunteer  army  of  its 
own. 

The  declaration  of  war  had  had  a 
sobering  effect  on  both  parties.  The 
question  of  Home  Rule  for  Ireland, 
together  with  other  contentious  meas- 
ures, was  shelved  for  the  time  being; 
and  both  the  Ulstermen,  under  Sir 
Edward  Carson,  and  the  Irish  Nation- 
alists, under  Mr.  John  Redmond,  sank 
their  dififerences,  and  united  to  support 
the  government  in  its  war  policy  against 
Germany.      Mr.     Redmond     actually 


penalty  when  deserters  on  the  home- 
front  got  off  scot-free. 

ryWK  OUTBREAK  OF  THE  IRISH  REBELLION. 

The  most  disastrous  failure  of  the 
Coalition  Government  in  domestic 
affairs  was  its  handling  of  the  Irish 
question.  Ireland  has  always  been 
a  thorn  in  the  side  of  England  at  times 
of  crisis.  It  was  so  at  the  time  of  the 
Puritan  Revolution,  at  the  time  of  the 
Revolution  of  1688  and  during  the 
Napoleonic  Wars.  But  at  no  time 
was  it  more  so  than  during  the  Great 
War  of  1914-1918.  In  the  spring  of 
1914,  just  before  the  outbreak  of  the 

654 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


DUBLIN  POST  OFFICE 

The  portico  of  the  gutted  Post  OflBce — a  scene  of 
devastation,  dust  and  debris.  Photograph  taken  from 
the  lofty  Nelson  Pillar, 

went  on  the  stump  and  delivered  re- 
cruiting speeches;  and  if  the  people 
of  Ireland  had  followed  his  lead  fuU- 
heartedly,  it  is  possible  that  they 
might  have  converted,  not  only  the 
people  of  Great  Britain,  but  even  the 
people  of  Ulster,  to  Home  Rule. 

It  is  significant  that  the  way  in 
which  the  female  suffrage  organizations 
of  Great  Britain  suspended  their  agita- 
tion, and  threw  themselves  heart  and 
soul  into  the  war,  resulted  in  the  con- 
cession of  their  demands  in  191 8; 
and  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  if 
the  Irish  had  followed  their  example, 
they,  too,  would  have  established  an 
irresistible  claim  to  consideration.  But 
unfortunately  the  hatred  of  England 
was  so  deep-rooted  in  Irish  breasts,  the 
distrust  of  England  was  so  ineradicable 
in  Irish  minds,  that  the  people  of  Ire- 
land were  not  able  to  rise  to  the  height 
of  their  opportunities. 

THE    SINN    FEIN    ORGANIZATION     GROWS 
STRONGER. 

Early  in  191 5  it  became  clear  that 
Mr.  Redmond  had  failed  to  carry  with 


him  a  large  body  of  Irish  opinion. 
There  had  been  founded  in  Ireland 
about  ten  years  before  the  outbreak 
of  the  war,  an  Irish  republican  organiza- 
tion named  Sinn  Fein,  which  had  as 
its  ideal  the  complete  independence  of 
Ireland,  and  which  was  virtually  a 
revival  of  the  Fenian  organization 
of  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
The  leaders  of  this  movement  were 
chiefly  dreamers,  doctrinaires,  and 
fanatics.  They  now  showed  themselves 
willing  to  sacrifice  on  the  altar  of  Irish 
nationalism  all  those  ideals  for  which 
Great  Britain  and  her  allies  were 
fighting.  They  discouraged  recruiting; 
they  formed  a  secret  revolutionary 
organization;  they  organized  an  army 
of  Irish  Volunteers,  not  to  fight  against 
the  Germans,  but  to  embarrass  the 
British;  and  they  did  not  hesitate,  as 
subsequent  events  showed,  to  ally 
themselves  with  the  Germans,  to 
accept  German  aid,  and  to  champion 
the  German  cause.  Anti-recruiting 
meetings  were  held ;  posters  discourag- 
ing recruiting  were  openly  displayed; 


IMPERIAL  HOTEL,  DUBLIN 
Ruin  of  the  Imperial  Hotel,  Dublin,  as  seen  from  the 
top  of  the  Nelson  Pillar.     Not  a  room  in  the  building 
remained  intact. 


655 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


seditious  literature  was  published  broad- 
cast, and  the  police  in  the  execution 
of  their  right  of  search  were  met  by 
armed  resistance. 

The  Irish  Secretary  in  the  Coalition 
Government  was  Mr.  Augustine  Bir- 
rell,  a  genial  man  of  letters,  a  humani- 
tarian Liberal,  a  believer  in  the  best 
side  of  human  nature.  An  enemy  of 
the  policy  of  repression,  he  showed 
himself  loth  to  use  drastic  measures  in 
dealing  with  the  Sinn  Fein  agitation. 
After  the  rebellion  which  broke* out, 
he  admitted  to  having  held  "an  untrue 
estimate  of  the  Sinn  Fein  movement, 
not  of  its  character,  or  of  the  probable 
numbers  of  persons  engaged  in  it,  nor 
of  the  localities  where  it  was  most  to 
be  found,  nor  of  its  frequent  disloyal- 
ties; but  of  the  possibility  of  disturb- 
ances, of  the  mode  of  fighting  which 
has  been  pursued,  and  of  the  desperate 
folly  displayed  by  the  leaders  and 
their  dupes."  But  whatever  the  mo- 
tives which  actuated  the  British  govern- 
ment, the  result  of  their  policy  was 
disastrous.  On  April  24,  1916,  the 
Sinn  Feiners  issued  a  proclamation 
"from  the  Provisional  Government 
of  the  Irish  Republic  to  the  People 
of  Ireland",  which  called  on  the  Irish 
people  to  rise;  and  the  same  day 
armed  rebellion  broke  out  in  Dublin 
and  in  other  places. 

SIR    ROGER    CASEMENT    LANDS    IN     IRE- 
LAND. 

For  some  time  German  arms,  am- 
munition, and  money  had  been  finding 
their  way  into  Ireland.  Only  four 
days  before  the  rebellion,  for  example, 
a  German  auxiliary,  in  the  guise  of  a 
neutral  merchant  ship,  acting  in  con- 
junction with  a  German  submarine, 
had  attempted  to  land  arms  and  am- 
munition on  the  Irish  coast;  and  Sir 
Roger  Casement,  a  former  British 
official  who  had  been  in  Germany, 
actually  succeeded  in  landing  from 
the  submarine — only  to  be  captured  a 
few  days  later,  and  to  suffer  ultimately 
the  penalty  of  high  treason.  Armed 
with  German  rifles  and  cartridges,  and 
garbed  in  a  sort  of  uniform,  the  Sinn 
Feiners  attempted  on  April  24  a  coup 
d'etat  in  Dublin.  They  occupied  St. 
Stephen's  Green,  seized  the  Post  Office, 

656 


took  possession  of  the  ammunition 
magazine  in  Phoenix  Park,  captured 
the  Four  Courts  and  other  important 
buildings,  barricaded  the  streets  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Dublin  Castle, 
cut  the  telegraph  and  telephone  wires, 
and  attacked  the  3rd  Royal  Irish 
Regiment  when  the  latter  attempted  to 
relieve  the  Castle.  In  Charles  Street 
a  British  cavalry  regiment  was  sur- 
rounded and  besieged  for  over  three 
days,  until  it  was  relieved. 

The  outbreak  seems  to  have  taken 
the  authorities  by  surprise.  There  does 
not  seem  to  have  been  in  the  vicinity 
of  Dublin  a  sufficient  number  of  troops 
to  cope  with  the  rebellion.  For  several 
days  the  rebels  were  in  virtual  control 
of  Dublin,  and  all  the  authorities 
could  do  was  to  hold  the  Castle  and 
the  Custom  House.  But  gradually 
troops  began  to  pour  in;  a  cordon  was 
drawn  around  the  district  in  which 
the  rebels  were  concentrated ;  field  guns 
were  brought  up  to  bombard  the  van- 
tage-points which  the  rebels  had  seized ; 
and  on  April  29  the  rebels  surrendered 
unconditionally. 

THE  LONG  ROLL  OF  CASUALTIES  DURING 
THE  UPRISING. 

In  the  street-fighting  which  occurred 
during  the  rebellion,  there  were  many 
casualties  and  some  "unfortunate  in- 
cidents" on  both  sides.  The  military 
casualties  were  521,  of  whom  124 
were  killed;  and  the  civilian  casualties, 
so  far  as  known,  were  794,  of  whom 
180  were  killed.  Many  buildings  were 
destroyed,  and  millions  of  pounds 
worth  of  damage  was  done.  Mr.  John 
Healy,  the  editor  of  the  Irish  Times, 
who  was  an  eye-witness  of  the  rebellion, 
declared  that  "there  must  be  no  mis- 
take about  the  uprising.  It  was  brutal, 
bloody,  savage  business.  It  was  marked 
by  many  cases  of  shocking  and  callous 
cruelty.  Innocent  civilians  were  butch- 
ered in  cold  blood.  Unarmed  policemen 
and  soldiers  were  shot  down.  As  the 
result  of  promiscuous  looting  and 
incendiarism  one  of  the  finest  public 
buildings  in  Ireland,  and  the  most 
important  commercial  centre  of  Dublin, 
are  in  ashes.  The  full  t>oll  of  death  will 
never  be  known. "  To  the  rank  and 
file  of  the  rebels  clemency  was  extended, 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


which  was  interpreted  by  some  of 
them  as  a  sign  of  weakness  on  the  part 
of  the  government;  but  the  leaders  of 
the  rebelHon  were  duly  tried  and  ex- 
ecuted, and  thus  the  rebellion  ended, 
as  it  was  bound  to  end,  in  a  tragic 
fiasco. 

Under  normal  circumstances,  the 
whole  British  Cabinet  would  have 
been  compelled  to  bear  the  blame  for 
the  failure  of  their  Irish  policy.  But 
the  European  situation  was  in  1916 
so  critical  that  the  resignation  of  the 
government  would  have  been  a  calamity ; 
and  Mr.  Birrell,  whom  a  Royal  Com- 
mission found  mainly  responsible  for 
"the  situation  that  was  allowed  to 
arise  and  the  outbreak  that  occurred," 
was  made  the  scapegoat  for  his  col- 
leagues, and  forced  to  resign.  But 
there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the 
Irish  tragedy  seriously  undermined 
the  prestige  of  the  government,  and 
was  a  factor  in  bringing  about  its  fall. 

THE  FINAL  DOWNFALL  OF  THE  COALITION 
CABINET. 

As  191 6  wore  on,  evidences  of  dis- 
satisfaction with  the  Coalition  Cabinet 
increased.  Criticism  became  louder 
and  more  vigorous  with  regard  to  a 
great  number  of  phases  of  the  govern- 
ment's policy.  The  comparative  fail- 
ure of  British  diplomacy  in  the  Bal- 
kans; the  lack  of  unity  in  the  work  of 
the  Air  Forces;  the  supineness  of  the 
Admiralty,  where  Mr.  Balfour  was 
considered  out  of  place,  and  especially 
its  failure  to  scotch  the  growing  sub- 
marine menace;  the  slackness  of  the 
British  blockade  of  Germany;  the 
failure  to  grapple  with  the  serious 
decline  of  the  British  merchant  ship- 
ping; the  inertia  of  the  government 
with  regard  to  food  production  and 
food  control;  the  mishandling  of  the 
question  of  the  distribution  of  man- 
power; the  slowness  in  winding  up  the 
German  banks  in  England — these, 
and  other,  matters  came  in  for  the 
frankest  strictures.  As  in  191 5,  the 
Northcliffe  press  led  in  the  chorus  of 
denunciation.  At  the  beginning  of 
December,  1916,  the  Sunday  Times 
described  the  government  as  "mud- 
dlers, "  and  the  Daily  Mail  character- 
ized them  as ' '  The  Limpets — a  National 


Danger."  Some  of  the  members  of 
the  Cabinet  were  held  up  to  ridicule 
as  "idle  septuagenarians;"  and  the 
general  attitude  of  the  Cabinet  was 
lampooned  as  one  of  inaction  and 
indecision. 

THE   FAILURE   OF   THE   CABINET   TO   ACT 
PROMPTLY. 

The  actual  crisis,  when  it  came, 
however,  occurred  not  over  any  of  the 
questions  which  have  been  enumerated, 
but  over  the  question  of  the  reorganiza- 
tion of  the  cabinet  system.  It  had 
early  been  recognized  that  "a  body 
of  23  men  of  very  unequal  ability, 
tired  by  their  departmental  labors,  and 
meeting  every  day  for  a  couple  of 
hours,  was,  indeed,  an  impossible 
machinery  for  making  war. "  Such  a 
system  was  well  described  as  "govern- 
ment by  debating  society."  In  Nov- 
ember, 1915,  a  standing  War  Commit- 
tee of  the  Cabinet  had  been  created, 
composed  of  the  prime  minister  and 
five  other  ministers;  but  this  com- 
mittee, though  a  step  in  the  right 
direction,  was  still  open  to  grave 
objections.  Its  members  were  still 
heads  of  departments,  engrossed  in  the 
details  of  departmental  administration ; 
its  decisions  were  subject  to  ratification 
by  the  Cabinet  as  a  whole;  and  owing 
to  its  practice  of  calling  in  technical 
and  official  advisers,  as  well  as  min- 
isters from  other  departments,  it  be- 
came hardly  less  cumbrous  a  body 
than  the  Cabinet  itself. 

-ly /TR.  ASQUITH  IS  COMPELLED  TO  RESIGN. 

In  the  summer  of  191 6  Lord  Kitchen- 
er, when  on  his  way  to  Russia,  had 
met  his  death  when  the  battleship 
on  which  he  was  traveling  had  been 
sunk  by  an  enemy  mine  or  submarine; 
and  Lloyd  George  had  succeeded  him 
as  Secretary  for  War.  It  was  not  long 
before  Lloyd  George,  with  his  keen 
sense  for  organization,  became  dis- 
satisfied with  the  existing  machinery 
for  prosecuting  the  war.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  December  he  proposed  a 
plan  for  the  reduction  in  size  of  the 
War  Committee,  the  exclusion  from 
it  of  ministers  immersed  in  depart- 
mental business,  and  the  investment 
of  it  with  full  authority  to  deal  with 

657 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


all  questions  of  war  and  strategy, 
without  reference  to  the  whole  cabinet. 
This  plan  might  have  been  accepted 
had  it  not  been  that  it  was  definitely 
stipulated  that  the  prime  minister 
should  not  be  a  member  of  the  com- 
mittee. This  stipulation  Mr.  As- 
quith  naturally  refused  to  approve: 
and  a  few  days  later  he  charged  that 
there  had  been  a  * '  well-organized  care- 


upon  applied  to  Mr.  Lloyd  George, 
"the  man  of  the  hour";  and  on  De- 
cember ID  the  latter  announced  the 
formation  of  a  new  "  Win-the-War " 
government. 

THE    LLOYD    GEORGE     MINISTRY    IS 
FORMED 

The  new  Cabinet  differed  profoundly 
from  the  old.  Not  only  was  a  clean 
sweep  made  of  the  old-fashioned  school 


THE  BISHOP  OF  LONDON  "RECRUITING" 

The  Church  in  Britain  as  in  every  country  vehemently  espoused  the  cause  of  war  as  the  cause  of  right.  This  picture 
of  the  Bishop  of  London  was  taken  during  one  of  the  great  recruiting  drives  frequent  in  England  before  the  com- 
pulsory service  act  of  May  1916.  The  British  as  a  nation  were  set  against  conscription,  and  it  required  almost 
two  years'  casualty  lists  to  prove  the  unsatisfactoriness  of  the  voluntary  system,      tfnderwood  &  Underwood. 


fully  engineered  conspiracy"  against 
himself  and  some  other  members  of 
the  cabinet.  However  this  may  have 
been,  when  he  refused  to  accept  Mr. 
Lloyd  George's  plan  the  latter  re- 
signed, and  thus  precipitated  a  crisis 
which  immediately  brought  about  the 
resignation  of  Mr.  Asquith  and  the 
whole  of  the  Cabinet.  The  King  first 
invited  Mr.  Bonar  Law,  the  leader 
of  the  Unionist  party,  to  form  an 
administration:  but  Mr.  Bonar  Law, 
who  appears  to  have  worked  in  har- 
mony with  Mr.  Lloyd  George  during 
the  crisis,  found  himself  unable  to 
accomplish  the  task.    The  King  there- 

658 


of  politicians,  such  as  Mr.  Asquith, 
Lord  Grey,  and  Lord  Lansdowne,  but 
there  was  a  liberal  infusion  of  new 
blood  in  the  Cabinet.  A  number  of 
self-made  business  men,  such  as  Lord 
Rhondda  and  Sir  Albert  Stanley,  were 
included;  Labor  was  represented  by 
Mr.  Arthur  Henderson,  Mr.  John 
Hodge,  and  Mr.  George  N.  Barnes; 
education  was  placed  in  the  hands  of 
a  distinguished  British  scholar,  Mr. 
H.  A.  L.  Fisher ;  shipping  was  assigned  to 
Sir -Joseph  Maclay,  a  great  ship-owner; 
and  agriculture  was.  placed  under 
Mr.  R.  E.  Prothero,  a  well-known 
authority  on  food  production.    To  a 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


COAL-WOMENON  ADAILYROUNDIN  GLASGOW 

It  was  not  only  the  light  work  that  the  women  of  Great 
Britain  took  over  in  order  to  free  men  for  service  at  the 
front.     "Doing  their  bit"  required  grit  and  endurance. 

large  extent  the  Cabinet  was  one  of 
experts  and  business  men. 

Another  new  development  was  the 
creation  of  an  "Inner  Cabinet",  or 
War  Cabinet.  This  War  Cabinet  was 
given  complete  charge  of  the  general 
direction  of  the  war,  without  the 
necessity  of  reporting  its  decisions  to 
the  whole  Cabinet.  It  was  composed 
of  five  members,  Mr.  Lloyd  George, 
Lord  Curzon,  Lord  Milner,  Mr.  Arthur 
Henderson,  and  Mr.  Bonar  Law;  and 
all  of  these  ministers,  with  the  exception 
of  Mr.  Bonar  Law,  who  was  Chancellor 
of  the  Exchequer,  were  relieved  of  all 
departmental  duties.  It  was  even 
decided  that  the  prime  minister,  as 
the  head  of  the  War  Cabinet,  should 
be  relieved  from  the  burden  of  at- 
tendance in  the  House  of  Commons; 
and  the  leadership  of  the  Commons 
devolved  on  Mr.  Bonar  Law. 

THE  EFFECT   OF   THE   ORGANIZATION    OF 
THE  WAR  CABINET. 

This  arrangement  marked  a  distinct 
step  in  advance  in  the  organization 
of  the  government  for  war;  it  provided 
the  most  effective  instrument  which 
Great  Britain  had  as  yet  had  for  the 


HELPMATES  AT  HOME 

This  picture  shows  a  form  of  service  that  was  quite 
heavy  for  women  to  perform,  namely  wheeling  coke 
to  fill  trucks  at  Coventry  gasworks. 

unified  direction  of  the  war,  while  it 
left  the  heads  of  departments  free  to 
devote  their  whole  energies  to  their 
administrative  duties.  It  paved  the 
way,  moreover,  for  one  of  the  most 
interesting  developments  of  the  British 
Constitution  in  the  last  century  or 
more,  the  Imperial  War  Cabinet,  a 
development  which  offers  at  least 
the  possibility  of  the  solution  of  the 
intricate  problem  of  the  government 
of  the  British  Empire.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  dictatorial  powers  enjoyed 
by  the  War  Cabinet  threw  into  relief 
the  decline  which  had  taken  place 
in  the  authority  of  Parliament. 

Once  the  necessity  was  removed  of 
keeping  the  ministry  within  the  bounds 
of  an  executive  committee,  the  number 
of  departments  in  the  government 
began  steadily  to  increase.  A  Min- 
istry of  Labor  and  a  Ministry  of  Pen- 
sions, an  Air  Board  and  a  Ministry 
of  Blockade,  the  office  of  Shipping 
Controller  and  that  of  Food  Controller, 
a  Ministry  of  National  Service  and  a 
Ministry  of  Reconstruction — all  these 
were  created  in  rapid  succession,  until 
the  number  of  administrative  depart- 

659 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


ments  was  almost  double  that  of  the 
pre-war  period.  At  one  time  it  was 
estimated  that  the  number  of  new 
departments,  boards,  commissions,  and 
committees  exceeded  the  total  of  four 
hundred. 

NEW     AND     DIFFICtTLT     PROBLEMS     ARE 
CREATED. 

This  multiplication  of  departments 
and  agencies  of  government  produced 
an  inevitable  overlapping  and  duplica- 
tion of  business;  and  it  soon  became 
clear  that  it  created  as  many  problems 
as  it  solved.  Lord  Curzon  admitted 
in  the  House  of  Lords  that  most  of  the 
time  of  the  War  Cabinet  was  taken 
up  with  the  adjustment  of  internal 
disputes  between  the  ministers.  The 
jurisdiction  of  the  Food  Controller 
clashed  with  that  of  the  President  of 
the  Board  of  Agriculture;  the  new 
Ministry  of  Labor  trenched  upon  the 
spheres  both  of  the  Ministry  of  Mu- 
nitions and  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  and 
the  Director  of  the  new  department 
of  National  Service,  which  proved  a 
gigantic  and  expensive  fiasco,  resigned 
because  he  had  been  left  nothing  to  do. 

But,  despite  these  and  other  obvious 
defects,  the  Lloyd  George  government 
proved  itself  to  be  a  distinct  improve- 
ment on  either  of  the  administrations 
that  had  preceded  it.  It  showed  leader- 
ship where  its  predecessors  had  had  to 
be  pushed;  its  policy  was  thorough- 
going and  decisive  where  the  policy 
of  its  predecessors  had  been  weak  and 
vacillating ;  it  was  on  time  where  they 
had  been  "too  late."  The  masterful 
energy,  the  cheery  optimism,  the 
indomitable  courage  of  the  new  Prime 
Minister  infected  the  rest  of  the  nation. 
The  years  191 7  and  191 8  were,  for  the 
people  of  Great  Britain,  by  all  odds 
the  most  trying  and  severe  of  the  war. 
Not  only  did  the  casualty  lists  spread 
their  tragic  tidings  among  practically 
every  family  in  the  country,  but,  as  a 
result  of  the  German  submarine  war- 
fare, the  food  supply  of  Great  Britain 
ran  dangerously  low.  The  war  struck 
home  at  the  everyday  life  of  English- 
men as  it  had  never  done  before.  Yet, 
under  the  inspiration  of  "the  little 
Welshman"  who  by  sheer  force  of 
character  had  risen  from  the  humblest 

660 


to  the  highest  position  in  the  land, 
the  people  of  Great  Britain  met  the 
crisis  with  a  serenity  and  a  resolution 
that  had  in  it  something  of  the  heroic. 

THE     FOOD     PROBLEM     WAS     THE     MOST 
CRITICAL. 

The  most  critical  problem  the  coun- 
try had  to  face  under  the  Lloyd  George 
government  was  probably  that  of 
maintaining  the  food  supply.  In  peace 
time  Great  Britain  had  been  a  heavy 
importer  of  food-stufifs;  and  during  the 
first  two  years  of  war,  owing  to  the  way 
in  which  the  army  had  drained  off  the 
able-bodied  men  from  the  land,  Great 
Britain  became  even  more  dependent 
than  ever  on  foreign  imports.  Already, 
however,  in  191 6  the  difificulty  of 
keeping  up  the  flow  of  imports  had 
made  itself  felt,  partly  owing  to  the 
diversion  of  a  vast  amount  of  merchant 
shipping  to  purely  military  and  naval 
uses,  and  partly  owing  to  the  growing 
success  of  the  German  submarine  cam- 
paign. 

It  so  happened  that  just  after  the 
entrance  into  office  of  the  Lloyd  George 
government  the  Germans  embarked 
on  an  unrestricted  submarine  offensive. 
Hitherto  they  had  used,  out  of  defer- 
ence to  the  United  States  and  other 
neutral  powers,  some  discretion  in  their 
use  of  the  submarine  weapon;  but 
now  they  threw  caution  to  the  winds, 
and  adopted  a  policy  of  sinking  every- 
thing on  the  high  seas  at  sight.  The 
result  was  that  the  carrying  trade  of 
the  world  became  threatened  with 
extinction.  In  January,  191 7>  the 
sinkings  of  British,  Allied,  and  neutral 
ships  totaled  333,000  tons,  in  Feb- 
ruary 470,000,  in  March  600,000,  in 
April  788,000,  in  May  540,000,  in  June 
758,000,  in  July  463,000,  and  in  August 
591,000 — a  grand  total  of  4,561,000 
tons  in  eight  months.  As  against  these 
figures  there  stood  only  a  total  of 
i,500,cioo  tons  of  new  shipping  launched 
in  the  same  period — so  that  Great 
Britain  and  her  Allies  had  to  face 
in  these  few  months  a  net  shrinkage 
of  over  3,000,000  tons  of  shipping. 
And  this  loss  represented  not  only 
a  serious  reduction  of  carrying  space, 
but  it  meant  also  the  complete  de- 
struction of  vast  cargoes  of  food-stuffs. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


coal,    munitions    of    war,    and    other 
commodities. 

MEASURES  TAKEN  TO  RELIEVE  THE  FOOD 
SHORTAGE. 

Sir  Edward  Carson,  who  was  First 
Lord  of  the  Admiralty  during  the 
first  half  of  191 7,  has  confessed  that 
during  these  terrible  months  there 
were  times  when  those  at  the  Admiralty 
could  see  no  ray  of  light  in  the  black 
outlook.  The  Germans  became  jubi- 
lant, and  many  of  them  regarded  the 
war  as  already  won.  Yet  the  British 
government  turned  to  face  the  new 
peril  undaunted,  and  to  organize  the 
country  to  meet  it.  The  measures 
adopted  by  the  government  were  of 
five  kinds.  First,  there  were  the  purely 
naval  measures  taken  with  a  view  to 
crushing  the  submarine  menace;  second, 
there  were  the  measures  taken  to 
increase  the  output  of  new  shipping, 
and  to  speed  up  the  repair  of  damaged 
shipping;  third,  th^re  was  a  rigorous 
restriction  of  imports,  so  that  all  cargo 
space  would  be  available  for  the  im- 
portation of  essentials;  fourth,  a  sys- 
tem of  food  control,  and  also  liquor 
control,  was  set  up  which  aimed  at 
limiting  the  consumption  of  food-stufTs 
in  the  country;  and  fifth,  a  policy  of 
food  production  was  inaugurated,  which 
had  as  its  object  the  raising  in  Great 
Britain  itself  of  the  maximum  of  food- 
stuffs of  which  the  country  was  capable. 

The  anti-submarine  warfare  was 
one  of  the  most  thrilling  and  romantic 
phases  of  the  Great  War.  But  the 
story  of  the  hunting  of  the  submarines 
by  destroyers,  motor-launches,  sea- 
planes, blimphs,  and  mystery  ships,  the 
story  of  the  mine-sweepers  and  of  the 
mine  barrages,  the  story  of  the  number- 
less duels  between  lonely,  merchant 
vessels  and  gigantic  submarine-cruisers 
— these  things  fall  outside  the  scope 
of  this  chapter.  What  does  deserve 
mention  here,  however,  is  the  work 
of  the  sailors  of  the  merchant  marine. 
These  heroic  men,  without  even  the 
protection  of  the  King's  uniform,  faced 
daily  danger  and  death  as  fearlessly 
and  gallantly  as  any  bluejacket  or 
soldier;  and  if,  in  the  end,  the  sub- 
marine menace  was  held,  if  not  mas- 
tered, the  credit  was  due  no  less  to  the 


sailors  of  the  merchant  marine  than 
to  those  of  the  Royal  Navy.  If  the 
forecastle  hands  of  the  British  mer- 
chantmen had  in  any  way  failed  in 
their  duty,  as  those  of  some  of  the 
neutral  countries  failed,  the  results 
would  have  been  disastrous. 


BORING  mSEDE  BREECH  PIECES  OF  HEAVY 

GUNS 
When  the  Ministry  of  Munitions  was  formed  in  England 
women  clamored  to  work  in  the  factories,  and  govern- 
ment schemes  on  a  large  scale  were  set  on  foot  for  their 
employment. 

THE     DIFFICULTIES     OF     THE     SHIPPING 
CONTROLLER. 

The  work  of  the  Shipping  Controller 
was  not  without  its  difficulties.  The 
lack  of  trained  mechanics,  strikes  in  the 
shipyards,  scarcity  of  materials,  trou- 
bles over  the  attempt  to  standardize 
ships,  delays  in  regard  to  the  erection 
of  new  shipyards — all  these  things 
retarded  the  hoped-for  increase  in  the 
output  of  -shipping.  But  gradually 
these  difficulties  were  overcome;  and 
by  the  end  of  1917,  while  the  losses  of 
shipping  had  begun  to  show  a  decided 
downward  curve,  the  curve  of  ship- 
building was  upward.  The  two  curves 
had  not  yet  by  any  means  met ;  but  In 
every  shipyard  in  Great  Britain  and 
America  men  were  rivaling  one  another 
to  see  who  could  rivet  the  greatest 
number  of  bolts  in  one  day,  and  there 
was  every  prospect  that  sooner  or  later 
the  Allies  would  be  able  to  build  as 
many  ships  as  the  German  mines  and 
torpedoes  could  sink.  In  that  day 
the  war  would  be  won. 

661 


fflSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


The  restriction  of  imports  was  a 
comparativ^ely  simple  matter.  Orders- 
in-council  were  issued  prohibiting  the 
importation  of  foreign  fruit,  tea,  coffee, 
cocoa,  rum,  wines,  hnen,  books,  and 
generally  all  things  that  did  not  come 
under  the  head  of  necessities.  The 
importation  of  other  things,  such  as 
paper  and  canned  salmon,  was  re- 
stricted by  25  or  50  per  cent.  On  the 
whole,  it  was  estimated  that  the  new 
restrictions  would  effect  a  saving  in 
cargo  space  of  nearly  1,000,000  tons, 
and  would  thus  go  a  long  way  to 
counterbalance  the  loss  of  shipping 
which  had  already  taken  place. 

T7INAL   RESORT   TO   RATIONING   OF    FOOD. 

Food  economy,  like  recruiting,  was 
at  first  put  on  a  voluntary  basis.  Lord 
Devonport,  who  occupied  the  office  of 
Food  Controller  until  the  summer  of 
191 7,  hesitated,  on  account  of  practical 
difficulties,  to  adopt  a  system  of  com- 
pulsory rationing;  and  he  merely  put 
people  on  their  honor  to  ration  them- 
selves voluntarily  according  to  a  fixed 
schedule.  This  voluntary  rationing 
undoubtedly  resulted  in  a  considerable 
decrease  in  the  consumption  of  food- 
stuffs, for  most  people  adhered  to  it 
religiously;  but  it  offered  a  loophole 
for  the  glutton  and  the  food-hoarder, 
just  as  voluntary  recruiting  had  offered 
a  loophole  for  the  "slacker".  A  strong 
demand  consequently  developed  for  a 
compulsory  system ;  and  Lord  Rhondda, 
who  succeeded  Lord  Devonport  as 
Food  Controller,  acceded  to  this  de- 
mand, and  in  December,  191 7,  in- 
augurated a  system  of  compulsory 
rationing  by  means  of  food  cards. 
Sugar  was  at  first  the  only  commodity 
rationed;  but  the  system  worked  with 
unexpected  smoothness,  and  in  the 
beginning  of  191 8  other  foodstuffs  were 
rationed  as  well,  notably  meat. 

Parallel  with  the  food  economy 
campaign  was  the  policy  of  liquor 
control.  The  output  of  the  breweries 
and  distilleries  was  rigorously  re- 
stricted; and  by  this  means  an  annual 
saving  of  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
tons  of  foodstuffs  was  effected.  No 
attempt  was  made  to  ration  beer  and 
spirits,  except  on  the  part  of  the  dealers, 

662 


and  the  prices  of  all  kinds  of  spirituous 
beverages  rose  to  unheard-of  heights, 
until  in  the  summer  of  1918  prices 
were  fixed:  but  temperance  advocates 
believed  that  the  restrictions  imposed, 
by  limiting  drunkenness,  contributed 
greatly  to  the  effectiveness  of  the 
British  war  effort. 

EFFORTS     TO     STIMULATE      PRODUCTION 
OF  FOOD. 

Lastly,  every  effort  was  made  to 
stimulate  food  production  in  Great 
Britain  itself.  A  "back  to  the  land" 
propaganda  was  launched;  local  agri- 
cultural committees  were  given  au- 
thority to  place  land  under  the  plough, 
with  the  result  that  tennis-courts, 
golf-links,  and  ancient  estates  which 
had  not  been  under  cultivation  for  a 
century  were  transformed  into  potato 
patches  and  wheat  fields;  generous 
minimum  prices  for  foodstuffs  were 
guaranteed  by  the  government;  and 
a  revival  of  agriculture  took  place 
such  as  Great  Britain  had  not  seen 
since  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  In  every  village  and  town 
in  England  old  men,  women,  and 
boys — of  every  grade  of  society — had 
their  allotments  of  cultivated  land, 
which  they  worked  in  their  hours  after 
business. 

Taken  all  in  all, "  the  race  with  death ," 
as  a  German  newspaper  denominated 
the  anti-submarine  struggle,  imposed 
on  the  British  people  unprecedented 
privations  and  sacrifices.  It  involved 
an  experiment  in  state  socialism  such 
as  few  people  ever  thought  would 
be  made  on  British  soil.  Yet  the 
British  nation  accepted  the  situation 
with  a  certain  phlegmatic,  but  heroic 
equanimity;  and  in  the  end  the  com- 
bined result  of  the  measures  adopted 
was  that  the  Germans  were  cheated 
of  the  victory  which  they  had  thought 
was  all  but  within  their  grasp. 

rpHE  SMALL  EFFECT  OF  AIR-RAIDS. 

Just  as  the  submarine  menace  was 
met  and  held,  so  the  menace  of  the 
German  air-raiders  was  in  the  end 
scotched.  The  first  air-raids  on  England 
were  made  by  Zeppelin  dirigibles, 
which  crossed  the  North  Sea  under 
cover  of  dark  and  cloudy  nights,  and 


TWO  GIRLS  CARRY  ON  A  FARM 

On  a  farm  in  Devonshire  all  the  men  employed  were  in  the  army,  and  the  farmer  was  ill.  His  two  daughters,  one 
eighteen  the  other  fourteen,  carried  on  all  the  work  of  the  farm,  milking,  ploughing  and  taking  care  of  the 
calves  and  sheep  and  driving  the  animals  to  market.  Picture  British  Official. 


A  GERMAN  PICTURE  OF  ENGLISH  GUNS 
Though  this  picture  was  apparently  made  in  France  it  was  widely  circulated  in  Germany  as  being  ^aj®  j'^^'^Sl*^^- 
It  pretended  to  show  that  the  English  were  so  much  alarmed  by  the  threat  of  German  invasion  that  they  were 
retaining  heavy  guns  in  England  and  scattering  them  all  through  the  country-side  near  the  sea,  instead  ot  senaing 
them  to  France.  -»  »  Feature  Photo  Service. 

663 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


BACK  TO  THE  LAND 

This  picture  shows  the  woman  prize-winner  for  harrow- 
ing and  driving  in  Cornwall,  where  the  heavy  soil  re- 
quires a  steady  hand. 

dropped  bombs  promiscuously  over 
the  east  of  England.  These  raids 
wrought  occasionally  no  small  damage ; 
but  on  the  whole  they  proved  a  failure, 
not  because  of  the  effectiveness  of  the 
British  defenses,  but  on  account  of 
atmospheric  conditions  and  other  prac- 
tical or  technical  difficulties.  The 
Germans  then  had  resort  to  aeroplane 
raids.  These  were  made  at  first  on 
moonlit  nights,  and  they  proved  more 
difficult  to  deal  with  than  the  Zeppelin 
raids.  Then,  growing  bolder,  the 
Germans  ventured  on  daylight  raids; 
and  the  first  daylight  raid,  which  took 
place  in  Kent  in  May,  191 7,  did  great 
havoc. 

Gradually,  however,  the  British  anti- 
aircraft defenses  were  improved.  Lon- 
don, which  was  the  chief  object  of 
attack,  was  provided  with  a  plentiful 
supply  of  anti-aircraft  artillery;  an 
elaborate  system  of  air-raid  warnings 
was  evolved,  which  gave  time  for 
precautionary  measures;  and  the  grow- 
ing ascendancy  of  the  '  British  air 
forces  made  it  increasingly  dangerous 
for  the  Germans  to  attack  England. 
Very  little  of  the  damage  done,  more- 
over, was  of  military  importance;  and 

664 


RELEASING    MEN    FOR   MILITARY    SERVICE 

A  woman  acting  as  a  bricklayer's  assistant  in  an  English 
village.  Others  cleaned  and  painted  ships,  sawed 
lumber,  even  carried  coal. 

during  the  last  stages  of  the  war  any 
German  air-raids  on  England  were 
undertaken,  apparently,  more  with 
the  hope  of  pinning  down  a  part  of  the 
British  air-forces  to  the  defense  of 
England  than  with  the  hope  of  obtain- 
ing any  decisive  result  through  terror 
or  demolition.  Throughout  the  war, 
indeed,  the  German  air-raids  on  Eng- 
land, far  from  weakening  the  resolution 
of  the  British  people,  rather  steeled  it, 
and  thus  contributed  in  the  long  run 
to  the  downfall  of  Germany. 

npHE    GREAT    WAR    EFFORT     OF     1917-1918. 

During  191 7  and  191 8  everyone 
recognized  that  the  crisis  of  the  war 
was  approaching;  and  Great  Britain 
strained  every  nerve  to  make  her 
weight  felt  as  strongly  as  possible. 
To  cite  statistics  with  regard  to  the 
magnitude  of  the  British  war  effort 
during  these  years  would  merely  be- 
wilder without  convincing;  a  clearer 
idea  may  be  gained  from  a  few  simple 
but  significant  facts.  By  the  begin- 
ning of  191 8  the  military  age  in  Great 
Britain  had  been  raised  to  fifty  years 
and  lowered  to  eighteen;  the  medical 
standard  for  recruits  had  been  lowered 


A  PARTY  OF  THE  W.A.A.C.  AT  TOURS 

This  group  of  the  W.A.A.C.  was  detailed  to  do  clerical  work  in  the  American  Central  Record  ofiSce  at  Tours.  The 
workers  are  shown  on  a  little  island  made  into  a  play-ground  for  war-workers  of  all  nationalities  which  was  in  charge 
of  a  young  American  Y.W.C.A.  worker,  in  the  centre  of  the  picture. 


WOMEN'S  ARMY  AUXILIARY  CORPS  IN  BARRACKS 

In  1917  after  the  heavy  losses  in  the  Somme  campaign  the  problem  of  man-power  was  serious  in  Great  Britain. 
A  Women's  Army  Auxiliary  Corps  was  formed  as  an  adjunct  of  the  army,  and  similar  corps  for  the  navy  and  air 
forces.  They  relieved  men  for  duty  at  the  front  who  had  been  held  behind  the  lines.  They  were  under  strict 
inilitary  authority  while  on  duty  and  did  almost  everything  a  man  could  do. 

665 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


repeatedly,  and  all  exemptions  revised; 
the  principle  was  adoBted  that  all  pri- 
vate considerations,  oP  whatever  sort, 
should  give  way  before  the  needs  of  the 
state,  and  every  man  who  was  not 
physically  unfit  was  forced  either  into 
the  army  and  navy, -orr. into  some  in- 
dustry, such  as  munitions,  shipbuild- 
ing, or  agriculture,  "v^hich  was  essential 
to  the  prosecution  of-  the  war.  By 
1918, 'indeed,  there  ^was  hardly  an 
otiose  'man  In  "the  British  Isles,  out- 
side of  Ireland;  and  "the- total  enlist- 
ments in  the  army  had  soared  to  a 
figure  around  six  millions. 

THE   WORK   OF   WOMEN   IN   WAR   AND   IN- 
DUSTRY. 

An  even  more  striking  illustration 
of  war  effort  was  to  be  ^found  in  the 
work  of  the  women.  Froni  the  begin- 
ning the  women  of  Grea:t'Bntain  had 
enlisted  in  large  numbers  as  hospital 
workers  and  as  makers  of  soldiers' 
comforts;  and  when  the  munitions 
crisis  arose,  great  numbers  of  them 
entered  the  munition  factories.  Some 
factories  indeed  came  to  be  staffed 
almost  wholly  by  women.  Then,  when 
the  problem  of  man-power  came  to  the 
fore  in  1917,  women  flocked  into  service 
in  a  score  of  different  spheres,  where 
they  had  never  been  seen  before.  A 
Women's  Army  Auxiliary  Corps  was 
formed  as  an  adjunct  of  the  army; 
and  these  "Waacs",  as  they  were 
familiarly  known,  more  than  justified 
their  existence  by  relieving  for  duty 
at  the  front  men  who  heretofore  had 
been  held  on  the  lines  of  communica- 
tion. Similar  corps  were  formed  also 
in  connection  with  the  navy  and  the 
air  forces;  the  former  were  known  as 
"Wrens"  (Women's  Royal  Naval  Serv- 
ice), and  the  latter  as  "Wrafs"  (Wom- 
en's Royal  Air  Force).  Large  numbers 
of  "land  girls  "  volunteered  for  work  on 
the  farms;  women  became  bank  clerks, 
taxi  drivers,  bus  conductors,  and  even 
railway  hands.  In  every  branch  of  life 
women  stepped  up  and  took  the  places 
of  the  men  who  had  gone  to  the  front; 
and  the  remarkable  feature  of  this 
social  revolution  was  that  it  was  the 
result  of  voluntary  effort. 

Still  another  illustration  of  the  war 
effort  of  the  British  people  was  seen 

666 


in  the  sphere  of  finance.  Although  by 
191 8  the  cost  of  the  war  had  risen  in 
Great  Britain  to  over  £6,000,000  a 
day,  and  the  national  debt  had  grown 
to  over  six  times  its  pre-war  size. 
Great  Britain  was  able  to  meet  a  con- 
siderable part  of  the  cost  of  the  war 
out  of  an  enormously  increased  tax 
revenue.  The  tax  on  quite  moderate 
incomes  rose  to^ys'.  6d.  in  the  pound; 
and  on  large  incornes  it  rose  to  more 
than  los.  This  'taxation,  however, 
did  not  prevent  the  country  from  sub- 
scribing liberally  to  the  government 
loans;  and  of  the  war  loans  and  victory 
loans  issued  nearly  three-fourths  of 
the  total  was  taken  up  in  the  country 
itself. 

THE  "WILL-TO- VICTORY"  IN  THE  GOVERN- 
MENT. 

Government  action  in  1917  and  1918 
afforded  many  evidences  of  the  Lloyd 
George  Cabinet's  determination  to 
prosecute  the  war  to  a  successful 
issue.  Every  effort  was  made  to  keep 
the  Cabinet  at  the  highest  point  of 
efficiency.  Mention  has  already  been 
made  of  the  substitution  in  June,  1917, 
of  Lord  Rhondda  for  Lord  Devonport 
as  Food  Controller.  Lord  Rhondda, 
one  of  the  ablest  business  men  in  Great 
Britain,  undertook  the  duties  of  Food 
Controller  against  the  advice  of  his 
physicians,  and  he  died  when  his  work 
was  accomplished,  as  true  a  martyr  to 
the  cause  as  any  soldier  that  died  at  the 
front.  In  July,  191 7,  Sir  Edward 
Carson  was  superseded  as  First  Lord  of 
the  Admiralty  by  Sir  Eric  Geddes,  one 
of  the  "supermen"  thrown  up  by  the 
war,  a  civilian  who  had  risen  to  the 
rank  of  Major-General  in  the  army 
and  Vice- Admiral  in  the  navy.  In 
August,  1 91 7,  Mr.  Arthur  Henderson, 
the  representative  of  Labor  in  the  War 
Cabinet,  was  forced  to  resign  on  ac- 
count of  his  equivocal  attitude  toward 
the  International  Labor  Conference 
at  Stockholm,  where  it  was  apparently 
proposed  that  British  and  German 
Socialists  should  sit  side  by  side  and 
discuss  the  terms  of  peace;  and  his 
place  in  the  War  Cabinet  was  taken 
by  Mr.  George  N.  Ba.rnes,  who  had 
opposed  sending  British  delegates  to 
the  Conference. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


THE   DEPARTMENT   OF   PROPAGANDA    OR- 
GANIZED. 

A  singular  illustration  of  the  efficien- 
cy of  the  British  government  was  seen 
in  the  creation,  in  February,  1918,  of 
a  department  of  Propaganda.  This 
department  was  placed  in  charge  of 
Lord  Beaverbrook,  a  Canadian  finan- 
cier who  had  had  a  meteoric  career  in 
British  politics,  and  who  had  played 
a  leading  part  in  the  formation  of  the 
Lloyd  George  Cabinet;  and  the  over- 
sight of  propaganda  in  enemy  coun- 
tries was  given  to  Lord  Northcliffe, 
whose  great  abilities  had  previously 
been  employed  in  a  special  mission  to 
the  United  States.  The  new  depart- 
ment was  the  result  of  a  realization  that 
the  issue  of  the  war  was  likely  to  be 
decided  as  much  on  the  home-front 
as  on  the  battlefield,  and  that  the 
struggle  had  now  entered  the  realm 
of  psychology. 

The  work  of  the  department  was 
twofold.  On  the  one  hand,  it  devoted 
itself  to  strengthening  the  "will-to- 
victory"  of  the  British  .people  and 
their  allies,  through  the  newspapers, 
through  books  and  pamphlets,  and 
even  through  the  cinema;  and  on  the 
other  hand,  it  strove  to  break  down  the 
will  of  the  Germans  and  their  allies 
by  getting  the  facts  about  the  war 
effort  of  the  Allies  and  •  the  United 
States  into  the  Central  Empires,  if 
only  through  literature  scattered  over 
enemy  countries  by  British  airmen. 
That  the  propaganda  carried  out  was 
successful  in  weakening  the  German 
resistance  was  proved,  during  the  war, 
by  captured  German  army  orders,  and 
has  been  amply  corroborated,  since 
the  armistice,  by  the  narratives  which 
the  German  generals  and  admirals  have 
poured  from  the  press. 

THE   IMPERIAL  WAR   CABINET   IS  ORGAN- 
IZED. 

As  the  war  entered,  moreover,  on 
its  final  stages,  the  British  machinery 
for  the  direction  of  the  war  grew 
steadily  better.  The  creation  of  the 
War  Cabinet  paved  the  way  for  the 
formation  in  March,  191 7,  of  the 
Imperial  War  Cabinet,  in  which  sat, 
not  only  the  members  of  the  British 
War    Cabinet,    but    also    the    Prime 


Ministers  of  the  British  overseas  Do- 
minions. This  new  body,  which  was 
well  described  as  a  "  Cabinet  of  Govern- 
ments, "  and  which  possessed  not  merely 
advisory  but  executive  powers,  pro- 
vided what  had  hitherto  been  lacking, 
a  unified  control  for  the  war  effort  of 
the  British  Empire.  Later,  in  No- 
vember, 1917,  largely  as  a  result  of  the 
insistence  of  Mr.  Lloyd  George,  a 
Supreme  War  Council  was  set  up  at 
Paris,  which  gave  the  same  sort  of 
unity  to  the  war  effort  of  all  the  Allies 
that  the  Imperial  War  Cabinet  had 
given  to  the  war  effort  of  the  British 
Empire;  and  the  culmination  of  the 
process  was  reached  in  March,  191 8, 
when  Marshal  Foch  was  made  General- 
issimo of  the  Allied  armies  on  the  West- 
ern Front. 

CRITICISM  OF  THE  GOVERNMENT   SOME- 
TIMES HEARD. 

The  Lloyd  George  government,  of 
course,  did  not  estape  criticism.  At 
times,  indeed,  criticism  of  both  the 
policy  and  conduct  of  the  administra- 
tion was  hardly  less  vigorous  than  it 
had  been  under  the  Asquithian  regime. 
But  it  was  criticism  of  a  different  kind. 
Little  complaint  was  heard  of  vacilla- 
tion or  dilatoriness  in  government 
action ;  most  of  the  critics  of  the  govern- 
ment were  people  who  believed,  on 
various  grounds,  that  the  policy  of 
the  government  was  too  thoroughgoing. 
From  the  beginning  a  part  of  the 
Labor  party  and  the  extreme  Radical 
wing  of  the  Liberal  party  had  been 
opposed  to  the  war ;  and  under  the  Lloyd 
George  regime  this  pacifist  element 
grew  bolder  and  more  active.  They 
attacked  nearly  every  measure  whereby 
the  government  sought  to  strengthen 
the  war  effort  of  Great  Britain;  and 
they  continually  advocated  "a  peace 
by  negotiation"  rather  than  a  decision 
on  the  battlefield.  As  the  war  dragged 
on,  a  certain  war-weariness,  which  be- 
gan to  appear  among  some  people, 
gave  to  this  party  an  accession  of 
strength;  and  they  received  support 
from  an  unexpected  quarter  when, 
in  November,  191 7,  no  less  a  person 
than  Lord  Lansdowne  wrote  a  letter 
to  The  Times  urging  that  peace  ne- 
gotiations with    the   Germans   should 

667 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


be  opened.  But  among  the  rank  and 
file  of  the  British  people  these  pacifists 
were  regarded  as  disloyal,  and  their 
attacks  probably  strengthened  the 
government  rather  than  weakened  it. 

DISAGREEMENT    IN    ARMY    AND    NAVAL 
CIRCLES. 

An  attack  from  a  different  angle 
was  that  conducted  by  certain  groups 
connected  with  the  War  Office  and  the 
Admiralty.  In  this  campaign  a  number 
of  questions  were  at  issue.  The 
"Westerners" — those  who  believed 
that  the  war  was  to  be  decided  on  the 
Western  Front — objected  to  the  various 
"side-shows"  which  the  government 
was  conducting  atSaloniki,  in  Palestine, 
and  in  Mesopotamia;  and  an  element  in 
British  military  circles  condemned 
what  they  regarded  as  the  undue  central- 
ization of  authority  in  the  hands  of  an 
Allied  Generalissimo.  The  old  cry 
was  heard  that  the  politicians  were 
bedeviling  the  conduct  of  the  war. 
Unfortunately,  in  the  controversies 
that  arose,  personalities  seemed  to  play 
a  considerable  part.  The  friends  of 
Lord  Jellicoe  were  angry  at  his  dis- 
missal from  the  post  of  First  Sea  Lord; 
the  friends  of  General  Sir  W.  R.  Rob- 
ertson were  angry  at  his  having  been 
forced  out  of  the  position  of  Chief  of 
the  General  Staff  over  the  question 
of  the  unity  of  the  Allied  command; 
and  when,  on  May  6,  1918,  General 
Sir  Frederick  Maurice,  the  Director 
of  Military  Operations  at  the  War 
Office,  wrote  a  letter  to  The  Times 
accusing  Mr.  Lloyd  George  of  having 
misled  the  House  of  Commons  with 
false  information,  the  personal  feeling 
between  the  professional  soldiers  and 
the  politicians  became  all  too  apparent. 
The  attack  resulted  only  in  a  parlia- 
mentary victory  for  Mr.  Lloyd  George; 
General  Maurice  was  disciplined  by 
the  Army  Council ;  and  as  soon  as  the 
tide  turned  in  France  in  the  summer  of 
1918,  and  the  advantages  of  the  unity 
of  command  became  apparent,  the 
attack  died  down. 


'T^HE  DAY  OF  VICTORY  FINALLY  ARRIVES. 

The  victory  of  the  Allies  in  the 
autumn  of  19 18 — the  collapse  of  Bul- 
garia, the  break-up  of  Austria-Hun- 
gary, the  defeat  of  Germany — was 
almost  a  personal  triumph  for  Mr. 
Lloyd  George.  It  proved  the  soundness 
of  his  views  with  regard  to  the  prosecu- 
tion of  the  war;  and  it  justified  the 
shining  optimism  with  which  he  in- 
spired the  people  of  Great  Britain  even 
in  the  darkest  days  of  the  struggle. 
His  presence  at  the  head  of  affairs  in 
Great  Britain  during  the  critical  years 
of  191 7  and  1918  was  worth  many 
army  corps  to  the  Allies;  and  it  was 
not  surprising  that,  as  the  war  closed, 
he  became  a  popular  idol  among  the 
majority  of  his  countrymen.  The 
general  elections  held  at  the  end  of 
1918  resulted  in  the  tribute  of  an  over- 
whelming victory  for  the  Lloyd  George 
government — a  tribute  rendered  more 
remarkable  since  a  new  Act  (the  Repre- 
sentation of  the  People  Act,  191 8)  had 
enormously  widened  the  electorate, 
inaugurating  not  only  manhood  suf- 
frage, but  female  suff^rage  as  well. 

But  great  as  was  the  contribution 
made  by  Mr.  Lloyd  George  and  his 
colleagues  in  the  government  to  the 
final  victory  of  the  Allied  arms,  the 
chief  credit  for  the  war  effort  of  Great 
Britain  rests  with  the  average  British 
citizen.  Encompassed  about  with  dan- 
gers of  which  he  had  never  dreamt, 
faced  with  famine,  subject  to  restric- 
tions against  which  at  other  times  his 
liberty-loving  soul  would  have  re- 
volted, enduring  the  daily  torture  of 
the  casualty  lists,  and  often  mourning 
the  fact  that  the  light  of  his  life  had 
gone  out,  the  average  Britisher  never- 
theless played  his  part  with  stolid  and 
unfaltering  constancy — not  doubting 
that  the  clouds  would  break.  Never, 
not  even  in  the  Napoleonic  Wars,  did 
the  prosaic  heroism  of  the  British 
people  shine  more  brightly  or  clearly 
than  in  the  Great  War  of  1914-1918. 
W.  S.  Wallace. 


668 


French  infantry  awaiting  attack 


Chapter  XLI 

M.  Poilu,  As  I  Knew  Him 

AN  ENGLISHMAN'S  COMPARISON  OF  THE  FRENCH  AND  THE 

BRITISH  SOLDIER 

By  Basil  Clarke 


\/r  POILU,  the  French  soldier? 
*  Which  way  shall  one  turn  to  find 
the  type?  Take  the  bearded  old  man 
you  see  in  the  roadway  there,  sitting 
with  his  hammer  beside  a  heap  of 
stones.  He  is  bent  and  rheumatic;  his 
eyes  are  failing,  and,  despite  the 
spectacles  he  wears  behind  his  stone- 
breaker's  goggles,  he  can  hardly  see 
the  stones  he  is  so  busily  breaking.  His 
lunch  is  by  his  side — a  loaf,  an  apple 
and  half  a  bottle  of  mixed  wine  and 
water.  He  will  work  there  from  sunrise 
till  sundown,  and  thdn,  with  bent 
back  and  slow  step,  he  will  hobble  to 
some  neighboring  cottable  to  sup  and 
sleep.  A  quaint,  pathetic  old  figure! 
But  he  is  a  French  soldier,  none  the 
less^  His  weather-worn  blue  coat  was 
served  out  to  him  by  a  regimental 
commissariat  goodness  knows  how 
many  years  ago.  His  corduroy  trou- 
sers are  also  uniform;  his  cap  is  the 
uniform  peak  cap  of  the  French  Army. 

BOTH   OF   THESE   OLD    MEN   SOLDIERS   OF 
FRANCE. 

Soon,  perhaps,  you  may  see  this  old 
Poilu's  corporal  come  along  the  road  to 
take  a  look  at  the  work  done,  and  to 
pass  censure  if  the  amount  is  too  little. 
The  corporal  is,  perhaps,  just  as  old  as 
the  stonebreaker  himself.  He  may 
wear  the  stripe  of  the  "caporal"  be- 


cause his  sight  is  a  little  better  or 
because  he  can  walk  along  the  roads 
at  a  whole  mile  an  hour  instead  of  only 
at  half  a  mile.  Both  are  equally 
soldiers  of  France,  and  they  work  for 
soldier's  pay — which  is  the  luxurious 
sum  of  three  or  five  sous  (three  cents 
to  five  cents)  a  day. 

THE    FRENCH    ARMY    AND    THE    FRENCH 
NATION  SYNONYMOUS. 

They  may  never  go  near  the  front. 
They  may  be  now,  as  you  watch  them, 
a  good  fifty  miles  away  from  the  near- 
est trench.  But  over  the  roads  they 
make  or  mend  pass  the  troops  and  the 
stores,  the  horses  and  the  guns,  that 
go  to  the  winning  of  France's  battles. 
And  just  as  those  guns  are  necessary 
so  also  are  the  stones  for  the  roads  that 
take  the  guns,  and  the  stonebreakers 
that  break  the  stones  for  the  roads  that 
take  the  guns.  It  is  like  the  "House 
that  Jack  Built"  over  again;  and  in 
France,  when  the  house  is  to  be  built 
is  a  war  to  be  won,  every  man  necessary 
for  building  that  house  is  caught  up 
in  that  immense  and  all-embracing 
labor  net,  the  Army  of  the  French 
Republic.  He  may  make  you  a  boot 
or  pull  you  out  a  tooth,  bake  you  a  loaf 
or  bury  you,  but  he  becomes  a  soldier. 
The  French  Army  just  now  is  the 
French  nation. 

669 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


To  take  the  French  equivalent, 
therefore,  of  the  British  soldier  you 
must  take  the  French  fighting  soldier. 
This  is  not  so  all-comprehensive  a 
term  as  the  term  French  soldier,  who 
is  everyone.  Gunners,  sappers,  horse 
and  foot — there  are  numerous  types 
enough  of  the  French  "fighting 
soldier"  and  the  wider  age  limit  that 
exists    in    the    French    Army    yields 


THE    PASSION    AND    THE    FIERCENESS    OF 
THE  FRENCH. 

First,  then,  I  think  the  French 
soldier  is  the  fiercest  of  all  the  soldiers 
fighting  in  this  war.  His  war  spirit 
burns  him.  It  is  a  passion.  I  shall 
never  forget  the  face  and  the  eyes  of  the 
infantry  sergeant  who  one  night,  early 
in  the  war,  came  across  me  in  a  French 
troop  train  (to  which  one  of  his  men 


SOLDIERS  INCAPABLE  OF  ACTIVE  SERVICE  MENDING  ROADS 

These  old  men,  decrepit,  and  perhaps  half  blind  are,  nevertheless,  soldiers  of  France  under  military  discipline. 
Every  man  on  the  rolls  who  could  render  service  in  any  capacity  was  called  to  the  colors.  Though  entirely  in- 
capable of  service  in  the  trenches  he  might  be  set  to  making  munitions,  farming,  building  roads,  or  any  one  of  a 
dozen  other  occupations  all  of  which  helped  to  carry  on  the  war. 


greater  contrasts  in  individual  types 
than  are  to  be  found  in  even  our  own 
Army.  To  reduce  the  French  fighting 
soldiers  to  a  type,  therefore,  to  take, 
that  is,  all  the  types  of  French  soldier, 
and  in  the  manner  of  those  horrid 
little  sums  we  used  to  do  at  school,  to 
take  their  G.  C.  M.  or  H.  C.  F.  and 
say  this  is  the  French  fighting  soldier 
type — would  be  rather  speculative 
mathematics.  I  don't  think  one  could 
do  it.  What  I  will  try  to  do  instead 
is  to  set  down  certain  qualities  which 
I  think  belong  especially  to  the  French 
soldier,  at  least  to  a  greater  degree 
than  to  any  others. 
670 


had  invited  me),  and,  as  he  stood  with 
a  lantern  peering  into  my  face,  said, 
"Swear  to  me  that  you  are  not  a 
Boche."  Even  though  I  was  not  a 
Boche  the  look  in  that  man's  eyes 
quite  scared  me  then  and  still  remains 
in  my  memory  as  the  most  fearful 
examination  I  have  ever  undergone. 
Had  he  not  been  satisfied  and  had  my 
papers  not  been  in  order  as  well  as  my 
general  appearance,  I  could  have 
hoped  for  no  mercy,  even  no  respite 
from  a  man  who  could  look  like  that. 

I  saw  that  look  seV^eral  times  again 
in  French  soldiers.  Once  when  walking 
along   a   country   road   near   Ypres   I 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


THE  YOUNG  RECRUIT  AMONG  THE  VETERANS 
The  word  "poilu"  once  meant  bristly  or  hairy,  and  was  used  rather  contemptuously,  but  in  spite  of  objections 
the  French  people  began  to  use  it  affectionately  as  applied  to  their  unshaven  and  unshorn  soldiers  undergoing  the 
hardships  of  the  trenches.    It  was  then  only  a  step  to  apply  it  to  all  private  soldiers. 


Stumbled  upon  a  masked  French  bat- 
tery. It  was  a  bearded  lieutenant,  this 
time,  who  darted  out  and  stood  in  front 
of  me,  revolver  in  hand.  "What  is 
monsieur  doing?"  I  can  hear  to  this 
day  the  icy  coldness  and  suspicion  of 
those  words  of  his;  can  feel  still  the 
cold  glint  of  his  black  eyes  as  they 


looked  me  up  and  down  and  through 
and  through.  He  thought  me  a  spy. 
and  to  have  his  battery  located  by  the 
Germans  was  an  appalling  risk.  He 
marched  me  in  front  of  him  to  the 
commandant  of  the  battery,  and  all  the 
way  there  I  could  feel  those  eyes  at 
my  back.  The  commandant,  fortunate- 

671 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


ly,  was  more  satisfied  with  me,  and 
showed  me  over  his  battery,  but  the 
lieutenant  stood  by,  and  though  he  did 
his  best  to  be  friendly,  I  could  never 
forget  his  first  greeting.  I  remember 
thinking  that  had  I  been  a  Boche,  I 
would  rather  have  been  taken  by  the 
British,  or  by  any  other  race  than  by 
the  French.  My  end  might  not  have 
been  any  the  less  swift,  but  the  manner 
of  it  could  never  have  been  so  cold  and 
full  of  passionate  enmity. 

THEIR     UNRELENTING     DETERMINATION 
SHOWN  IN  BATTLE. 

The  French  are  like  this  in  all  their 
war,  but  especially  in  a  charge  or  an 
attack.  They  are  not  as  athletic  as  our 
men;  they  are  not,  perhaps,  when  it 
comes  to  the  number  and  quickness  of 
thrusts,  so  deadly  with  the  bayonet. 
And  yet  the  Germans  fear  the  French 
bayonets,  I  think,  more  than  they  fear 
ours.  There  is  a  greater  deadliness  of 
purpose,  a  more  unrelenting  hate  and 
determination  to  kill  and  naught  but 
kill.  They  are  terrible  fighters,  but 
even  more  terrible  "haters."  I  saw  a 
spy  once  being  taken  into  custody  by 
the  French  and  noted  the  look  on  his 
guards'  faces.  I  heard  the  shots  that 
finished  his  spying  and  his  life  the 
following  morning.  And  a  cold  chill 
went  along  my  spine,  and  I,  somehow, 
longed  to  be  back  in  England. 

This  fierceness  is  an  outcome  of  their 
intensity  of  nature  and  resoluteness  of 
purpose.  I  don't  think  any  Army  shows 
resolution  more  than  the  French  Army. 
Our  boys  are  resolved  enough,  but  it 
is  the  fashion  to  hide  this  rather  than 
to  show  it.  A  singer  who  dares  to  sing 
to  our  soldiers  at  the  front  about 
fighting  for  King  and  country,  dying 
"with  face  to  the  foe,"  and  the  like,  is 
generally  shouted  off  the  platform  be- 
fore very  long.  Our  soldiers  cannot 
bear  it.  They  will  fight  as  bravely  as 
any  soldier  for  these  things,  but  they 
don't  like  it  talked  about. 

BRITISH     AND     FRENCH     TEMPERAMENT 
SHOWN  IN  SONGS. 

In  their  songs,  in  fact,  they  prefer  to 
pretend  that  they  are  afraid.  The 
most  popular  type  of  song  out  at  the 
front  is  the  song  that  displays  its 
singers   as   "having   the   wind   up" — 

672 


which  is  soldier  slang  for  being  in  a 
downright  funk.  The  French  soldier 
would  no  more  think  of  singing  a  song 
like  this  than  he  would  of  flying. 
Marching  along  the  roads,  over  camp 
fires,  and  in  billets  and  trains  he  will 
sing  blithely  about  glorious  France, 
fighting  for  France,  death  before  the 
foe  and  the  like.  None  of  these  phrases 
has  become  trite  and  jejune  for  him; 
he  feels  and  thinks  that  way.  Yet  he  is 
at  heart  less  combative  a  type  than 
the  average  British  soldier,  especially 
the  North-country  soldier.  He  fights 
less  readily,  but  with  less  consideration 
for  his  enemy  when  he  does  begin.  No 
false  ideas  of  "sport"  moderate  his 
warfare. 

EXACTNESS    AND    PRECISION    MARK    THE 
FRENCH  GUNNER. 

The  French  soldier  has  a  wonderful 
gift  for  exactness,  precision,  and  essen- 
tial detail.  This  is  partly  what  goes 
to  make  him  the  best  gunner  in  the 
world.  Some  of  our  sergeants  mistake 
precision  and  synchronization  and 
clock-work  movement  for  efficiency. 
To  watch  a  French  gun  crew  working, 
say,  a  field-gun,  you  would  at  first 
deny  even  the  possibility  of  their 
being  so  efficient  as  some  of  the  spick- 
and-span  British  gun  crews  you  had 
seen.  They  seem  to  go  in  a  "go-as-you- 
please"  fashion.  That  fellow  slogs 
open  the  gun-breech  and  takes  a  look 
round  the  horizon  perhaps  as  he  does 
it;  this  fellow  rams  in  the  shell  and 
makes  a  joke  about  "les  sales  Boches"; 
this  fellow's  tunic  is  half  off^  because  he 
has  not  fastened  it  properly — there 
seems  no  comparison  at  first  sight 
between  that  crew  and  its  work  and  a 
British  crew.  But  note  the  number  of 
shells  that  French  gun  "gets  away"  to 
the  minute;  note  the  number  of  direct 
hits,  and  it  will  amaze  you;  the  truth 
being  that  the  French  gunner  con- 
centrates on  the  one  or  two  little  points 
that  make  for  quick  fire  and  accurate 
aim  and  lets  all  else  go  by  the  board. 
His  skill  for  detail  has  shown  him 
what  these  one  or  two  points  are,  and 
he  has  paid  attention  to  these  things 
till  no  mortal  man  could  do  them  better 
than  he.  The  German  gunnery  officers 
have  slaved  for  years  to  get  their  gun 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


crews  as  quick  as  the  French,  but  they 
are  to  this  day  not  within  many  shots 
per  minute  as  fast. 

The  French  soldier  is  as  gentle  when 
not  fighting  as  he  is  fierce  when  fighting. 
With  his  friends  he  is  more  like  a  wom- 
an. He  will  laugh  with  their  joys,  weep 
with    their   sorrows,    and   while    he    is 


They  have  not  the  old  "biting  on  the 
bullet"  tradition  of  the  British  soldier, 
and  they  do  not  hesitate  to  show  signs 
of  pain.  But  put  fifty  Frenchmen  to 
take  a  trench,  and  assure  them  that 
at  least  thirty-five  will  be  killed  in  the 
taking,  and  I  don't  think  you  would 
see  anv  of  them  fall  out.    The  French 


TYPICAL  FRENCH  REGIMENT  RESTING  ON  THE  MARCH 

These  soldiers  are  older  than  those  seen  in  the  first  year  of  the  war.  As  the  need  grew,  older  and  older  men  were 
called  until  often  father  and  son  were  in  the  ranks,  while  the  grandfather  might  be  making  roads  or  guarding 
prisoners.    The  French  kit  was  heavy  and  frequent  short  rests  were  necessary  on  the  long  marches. 


laughing  or  weeping  he  means  it.  His 
forgetfulness  of  these  moods  will  be 
quicker  than  that  of  a  British  soldier, 
it  is  true,  but  there  is  no  insincerity 
at  the  time. 

COURAGE      ARISING     FROM     QUITE      DIF- 
FERENT SOURCES. 

The  French  soldier's  courage  is  un- 
doubted, but  it  is  a  different  kind  of 
courage  from  that  of  the  British 
soldier.  It  is  not  the  stoic  kind  of 
courage.  I  have  been  in  French  hos- 
pitals many  times,  and  have  always 
been  struck  by  the  fact  that  the  French- 
man makes  more  of  pain  than  our  men. 


soldier's  courage  and  the  Briton's 
rise,  I  think,  from  different  sources. 
The  source  of  the  Briton's  courage  is 
more  egotistical.  He  sets  a  standard 
for  himself,  and  tries  to  live  up  to  that 
standard.  British  bravery  may  often 
be  traced  to  this  rather  noble  form  of 
egotism.  A  man  does  not  wish  to  "let 
himself  down"  in  his  own  eyes  any 
more  than  in  other  people's  eyes.  He 
will  not  desert  a  post  or  shirk  a  danger 
because  he  would  feel  not  so  good  to 
himself  if  he  did  one  of  these  things. 
It  would  not  be  "playing  the  game." 
-    The  French  soldier's  courage,  on  the 

673' 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


other  hand,  owes  more,  I  think,  to  the 
communal  sense.  For  his  own  partic- 
ular sake  he  would  do  much  to  avoid 
a  cut  finger  or  a  black  eye,  but  for 
"La  Pa  trie"  and  a  cause  he  has  at 
heart  he  would  face  the  biggest  Boche 
and  the  longest  bayonet.  The  French 
soldier  always  strikes  me  as  a  man  who 
overcomes  his  own  personality  and 
makes  himself  do  brave  things.  His 
imagination  tells  hirn.the  risks  he  is 
running  far  more  vividly  than  does  the 
imagination  of  the  average  Briton. 
He  will  do  his  brave  deed,  then,  with 
a  little  flourish.  He  is  consciously 
brave,  whereas  some  of  our  fellows 
really  do  not  know  when  they  are 
braVe.  ,  They  know  only  when  anyone 
funks.     '  ^ 

THE   RELATIONS   OF   OFFICERS   AND   MEN 
IN  THE  FRENCH  ARMY. 

The  French  soldier  has  the  dramatic 
temperament;  the  British  soldier  has 
not.  This  is  another  reason  of  the 
Frenchmen's  greater  demonstrative- 
ness.  You  will  see  them  kiss  one  an- 
other on  the  cheeks  after  a  successful 
charge.  They  are  delighted  to  have 
won  and  to  have  "come  through.'' 
See  an  English — or  particularly  3. 
Scottish — regiment  in  like  circum- 
stances and  they  will  be  laughing  anH 
joking  no  doubt,  but  striving  at  the 
same. time,  by  all  the  means  that  they 
know,'^  to  keep  to  themselves  their 
deeper  emotions — the  fact  that  they 
are  pleased  to  see  one  andther  safe  and 
sound  and  to  be  alive.  Yet  they  must 
feel  this  just  as  much  as  the  gallant 
French  soldiers  do. 

The  French  soldier's  relations  with 
his  officer  are  rather  different  from 
those  of  the  British  soldier.  Men  and 
officers  in  the  French  Army  are  not 
nearly  so  like  two  different  races  of 
men.  There  is  a  tremendous  respect, 
but  at  the  same  time  there  is  not  the 
same  stiffness.  The  relationship  does 
allow  room  for  a  mutual  smile  now  and 
again.  The  nearest  approach  to  this 
that  I  ever  saw  in  the  British  Army 
was   between   the   chaplains   and   the 


men.  A  French  soldier  once  asked  me 
if  it  was  against  the  rules  in  the  British 
Army  for  an  officer  under  the  rank  of 
major  to  smile  with  a  common  soldier. 
He  said  he  had  been  struck  by  the  way 
our  young  officers,  except  when  alone 
with  one  man,  avoided  anything  like 
cheery  relations  with  their  men.  ' '  Your 
older  officers,"  he  said,  "are  not  so 
stiff  and  unnatural."  Yet  the  French 
officers,  he  argued,  were  harder  on 
offenders  in  the  ranks  than  were  the 
British.  This  greater  intimafcy  between 
a  French  officer "  and  thil^ifien — to^ 
whom  he  stands  rn'ore  in.tl\e^ight  of  " 
father  than  of  ta|l^master^— probably 
arises  from  the  rrtore  democratic  spirit 
of  the  French  nation.  Perfiaps^we  shall 
come  to  that  in  time.  ^,  * 

FRENCH      INABILITY      TO      UNDERSTAND 
BRITISH  SPORTS  IN  WARTIME. 

The  French  soldier  is  generous,  but 
not  so  generous  as  the  British.  He  is 
much  more  thrifty.  He  cannot  throw 
trouble  aside  in  the  way  "a^  British 
soldier  can,  nor  can  he  quite  under- 
stand the  determination  to  throw 
trouble  aside  in,  say,  a  game  of  foot- 
ball or  a  comic  song.  For  a  long  time 
our  men's  football  and  games  behind 
the  lines,  were  utterly  incomprehen- 
sible to  the  French,  who  quite  misunder- 
stood them.  "Why  do  your  men  make 
a  sport  of  the  war?"  they  have' asked 
me,  in  horrified  tones.  And  the  same 
idea  struck  other  people  than  French- 
men. M.  Take  Jonescu,  the  great  pro- 
Entente  statesman  of  Rumania,  once 
asked  me  the  same  question,  all  be- 
cause of  a  football  game  behind  the 
lines.  But  the  French  have  now  come 
to  see  that  fresh  air  and  games  are  as 
much  a  part  of  the  British  race  as  the 
meat-breakfast  habit. 

The  French  soldier  has  an  endurance 
and  hardihood  far  greater  than  his 
physical  condition  and  his  more  seden- 
tary mode  of  life  would  suggest.  I 
am  still  left  wondering  how  the  French 
ever  contrived  that  great  advance  of 
theirs  over  two  miles  of  Somme  mud. 
It  will  rank  among  the  wonders  of  war. 


674 


The  Winter  Palace  and  Square,  Petrograd 

Chapter  XLII 

The  Russian  Revolution 

THE  METEORIC  RISE  AND  THE  SUDDEN  FALL  OF  ALEXAN- 
DER KERENSKY  DURING  1917 


T^HOUGH  the  tremendous  events 
■*■  which  occurred  in  Russia  during 
the  early  part  of  191 7  have  generally 
been  designated  as  "  the  Russian  Rev- 
olution," the  facts  indicate  that  they 
might  be  more  truly  described  as  the 
collapse,  the  disintegration,  of  the 
Russian  autocracy,  brought  about 
through  its  own  inherent  weakness  in 
the  face  of  outside  pressure.  The 
revolutionary  elements  simply  took 
advantage  of  the  situation  to  establish 
an  organization  to  take  the  place  of 
the  dead  autocracy.  It  is  only  at  a 
later  date  that  they  assume  importance. 

SOME   REASONS   FOR   THE   DOWNFALL   AL- 
READY MENTIONED. 

Some  of  the  numerous  factors  con- 
cerned in  the  downfall  of  Russian 
autocracy  have  already  been  briefly 
mentioned:  the  treason  of  the  inner 
court  circle  gathered  about  the 
Tsarina;  the  growing  suspicion  of 
the  conservative  intellectual  elements, 
hitherto  the  main  support  of  autocratic 
Russia,  that  they  were  being  betrayed; 
and  the  weakness  of  the  nation's 
economic  organization.  But  out  of 
these  more  or  less  abstract  causes  rise 
one  or  two  striking  personalities  which 
help  us  to  visualize  the  situation  and 
which  lend  dramatic  value  to  the  events 
leading  up  to  the  climax  of  March, 
1917. 

First  of  these,  from  the  point  of  view 


of  human  interest,  is  the  dark  and  evil 
figure  of  the  monk,  Rasputin,  a 
mysterious  shadow  in  the  background. 
Rather  a  symbol  of  the  portending 
disaster  than  an  active  participant  in 
national  affairs,  never  once  does  he 
emerge  into  the  open  daylight  of  the 
political  arena.  Yet  his  was  the  guiding 
hand  which  swung  the  nation's  helm 
hard  over  and  headed  it  for  the  rocks 
of  fatal  calamity. 

THE  MYSTERIOUS  FIGURE  OF  THE  MONK 
RASPUTIN. 

Gregory  Novikh  was  the  son  of 
illiterate  Siberian  mujiks.  His  early 
life  was  that  of  a  common  peasant 
boy,  but  even  then  he  showed  signs  of 
those  abnormal  qualities  which  were 
eventually  to  bring  him  his  question- 
able and  short-lived  success.  It  was 
during  his  early  youth  that  he  gained 
the  name  by  which  he  is  most  widely 
known;  Rasputin,  meaning  a  rake,  a 
person  of  loose  morals.  For  Gregory 
had  that  magnetic  personality  before 
which  many  women  of  high  and  low 
quality  succumbed.  Of  this  power  he 
took  every  advantage. 

Discarding  the  garb  of  a  laboring 
mujik,  Rasputin  turned  toward  a 
field  of  wider  opportunity  and  became 
an  itinerant  monk,  preying  on  the 
superstitious  credulity  of  the  peasantry 
to  whom  he  presented  himself  as  a 
holy    man   and    a   healer.     Gradually 

675 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


he  sought  higher  game  among  the 
women  of  the  more  prosperous  classes 
and  so  eventually  he  made  the 
acquaintance  of  Madam  Virubova, 
the  favorite  lady-in-waiting  to  the 
Tsarina. 

THE  SUPERSTITIOUS  CREDULITY    OF    THE 
TSARINA. 

Despite  her  exalted  position,  the 
Tsarina  was  a  woman  of  rather  ordin- 
ary intellectual  qualities.  She  had 
long  been  a  patroness  of  the  occult 
cults,  but  when  finally  the  Tsarevitch 
was  born,  a  puny  child,  constitutionally 
diseased,  she  turned  toward  occultism 
with  renewed  faith. 

Thus  it  was  that  Rasputin  found  his 
opportunity  in  an  introduction  to  the 
inner  court  circle.  Perhaps  he  really 
had  some  abnormal  powers  which 
rare  persons  possess,  perhaps  he  was 
only  a  clever  faker,  but  the  fact 
remains  that  he  succeeded  in  convinc- 
ing the  Tsarina,  and  the  Tsar  as  well, 
that  he  had  a  healing  influence  on  the 
little  Tsarevitch.  Report  has  it  that 
Madam  Virubova  drugged  the  boy, 
and  that  Rasputin's  demonstration  of 
healing  consisted  in  applying  the 
antidote.  Whatever  the  truth  may  be, 
Rasputin  remained  a  permanent  fixture 
in  the  court  life.  Once  or  twice,  when 
the  saner  outer  circle  of  the  Imperial 
family  succeeded  in  having  him 
expelled,  the  Tsarevitch  immediately 
became  ill,  the  Tsarina  developed  a 
succession  of  hysterical  outbursts,  and 
always  Rasputin  was  recalled.  Grad- 
ually he  acquired  an  influence  possessed 
by  no  other  one  person,  over  the  royal 
family;  especially  over  the  ignorant 
Tsarina. 

TT7HAT  WERE  THE  MOTIVES  WHICH  AF- 
VV     FECTED  RASPUTIN? 

There  are  those  who  contend  that 
German  gold  bought  Rasputin  after 
the  war  broke  out,  that  he  was  hired 
to  plant  the  poison  which  was  presently 
to  develop  within  the  court  itself  as 
rank  treason.  It  is  more  probable  that 
he  realized  that  a  defeated  German 
autocracy  would  also  mean  an  end 
to  the  Russian  autocracy,  to  all 
autocracies,  and  so  would  wither  the 
plant  on  which  he  was  a  parasite. 
Whatever    his    motives,    he    was    the 

676 


central  figure  of  the  "dark  forces," 
of  those  intriguing  pro-German  con- 
spirators within  the  court  and  the 
government  who  desired  the  triumph 
of  Germany  and  all  that  she  represent- 
ed, even  at  the  cost  of  a  defeated 
Russia. 

Nicholas  himself  was  a  man  of  sub- 
normal intelligence  and  capacity — 
indeed,  his  mental  flabbiness  almost 
approached  a  condition  of  feeble- 
mindedness. The  Tsarina  was  at 
least  a  personality,  a  woman  of  some 
will  power  and  capacity  for  determina- 
tion, and  she  undoubtedly  influenced 
the  Tsar  in  all  his  actions,  as  her 
letters  show.  And  she  was  the  willing 
tool  of  Rasputin — "Our  Friend,  "she 
called  him — and  those  he  served. 
Such  was  the  chain  from  Potsdam  to 
Petrograd. 

STURMER      RETIRES      BUT      PROTOPOPOV 
CARRIES  ON. 

The  appointment  of  Boris  von 
Stiirmer  as  Premier  had  undoubtedly 
been  at  the  instigation  of  Rasputin, 
The  intrigues  to  bring  about  a  separate 
peace  with  Germany  have  been  men- 
tioned in  a  previous  chapter,  and  the 
exposure  of  Stiirmer  in  the  Duma. 
Even  before  this  it  was  evident  that  he 
had  been  a  disappointment  to  his 
masters.  He  lacked  the  skill,  the 
subtlety  of  a  really  clever  intriguer, 
and  had  neither  the  force  of  character 
nor  the  executive  ability  to  carry 
through  his  task.  Undoubtedly  the 
"dark  forces"  were  very  little  con- 
cerned over  the  exposure  which  forced 
his  resignation.  The  man  appointed 
to  steer  the  ship  of  state  on  to  the 
rocks  of  destruction  had  already  been 
appointed — Protopopov,  Minister  of 
the  Interior.  As  already  narrated,  the 
loyal  Russians  were  still  congratulating 
themselves  over  the  elimination  of  von 
Stiirmer  when  Protopopov  stepped 
forward  in  his  place.  For  the  Premier 
who  followed  von  Stiirmer,  Trepov, 
was  and  remained  a  mere  figurehead, 
who,  in  fact,  later  developed  sympathy 
for  the  Progressives. 

Protopopov  successfully  weathered 
the  storm  of  indignation  from  the  floor 
of  the  Duma,  and  steadfastly  con- 
tinued to  develop  his  plans.    Not  long 


mSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


before  the  close  of  191 6  there  came 
to  the  ears  of  the  members  of  the  Duma 
reports  of  revolutionary  activities 
among  the  working  classes,  especially 
those  engaged  in  the  munition  fac- 
tories. At  first  they  turned  accusingly 
to  the  members  who  represented  the 
organized  revolutionary  elements,  the 
Socialists  and  the  labor  leaders,  who 
had  declared  themselves  strongly  for 


urging  them  to  remain  at  work  while 
the  nation  was  straining  to  win  the  war. 
It  was  not  long  before  it  was  dis- 
covered that  the  agitation  among  the 
masses  of  Petrograd  was  being  carried 
on  by  the  paid  agents  of  the  Ministry 
of  the  Interior.  Possibly  a  few  leaders 
of  the  "impossibilist"  Socialist  ele- 
ments, later  known  as  the  Bolsheviki, 
worked    in    harmony   with    them,    not 


RASPUTIN  AND  HIS  COTERIE 

Gregory  Rasputin — a  sinister  figure  of  a  weird  mediaeval  type — in  whom  the  "dark  forces"  of  disloyal  and  pro- 
German  Russians  centred.  Rasputin  was  a  kind  of  fakir  or  wizard  such  as  flourished  in  all  lands  of  twilight  culture 
before  the  daybreak  of  modern  science.  Such  men  were  known  in  pagan  Rome  and  in  the  heathen  Orient  and  in 
Christendom  they  continued  to  appear  until  the  seventeenth  century.  Copyright,  Underwood  &  Underwood 


national  unity  in  the  face  of  the 
enemy.  These  radical  leaders  quickly 
convinced  their  conservative  colleagues 
that  they  were  not  responsible  for  the 
agitation. 

THE   SOURCES   OF   SEDITIOUS     AGITATION 
ARE  DISCOVERED. 

Mysterious  placards  had  appeared 
on  the  walls  of  the  munition  factories 
and  in  working  class  districts,  calling 
upon  the  workers  to  strike  for  better 
conditions.  To  prove  their  own  sin- 
cerity the  working  class  leaders  imme- 
diately issued  proclamations  to  their 
followers,  calling  on  them  to  turn  deaf 
ears  to  the  mysterious  agitators,  and 


because  they  were  paid,  but  because 
they  believed  that  the  war  would 
be,  or  could  be,  brought  to  an  end  by 
the  working  classes  in  all  the  bellig- 
erent countries  striking  behind  the 
lines. 

1OYAL    RUSSIANS    STRIVE    TO    STEM    THE 
^     TIDE  OF  SEDITION. 

Protopopov's  plan  was  clear,  so 
clear  that  a  panic  literally  swept 
through  the  Duma  and  all  intelligent, 
loyal  Russians.  Protopopov  contem- 
plated nothing  less  than  a  revolution 
at  home,  in  Petrograd,  which  would, 
first  of  all,  paralyze  all  effort  behind 
the  lines  and   make   further  military 

677 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


operations  impossible.  Then,  when 
Russia  lay  helpless,  he  would  call  in 
the  German  forces  to  suppress  the 
disorders — and  the  final  aim  of  the 
conspirators  would  be  accomplished. 

This  fact  was  literally  shouted  from 
the  floor  of  the  Duma,  and  it  roused 
all  loyal  Russians  regardless  of  their 
previous  attitude  toward  the  autocracy. 
This  was  the  fact  which  members  of 


putin.  On  the  night  o£  December 
30,  1916,  a  lonely  policeman  on  patrol 
heard  revolver  shots  and  shouts  from 
within  the  mansion  of  Prince  Felix 
Yusopov,  a  member  of  the  Imperial 
family  by  marriage,  and  one  of  the 
largest  land-owners  in  Russia.  Knock- 
ing at  the  door  to  investigate,  the 
policeman  was  sent  about  his  business 
by  no  less  a  person  than  the  Grand 


AFTER  THE  STORM  OF  WAR  HAD  PASSED 

Effects  of  German  bombardment  in  a  town  in  Russian  Poland.  Such  scenes  of  general  desolation  were  only  too 
frequent  in  the  pathway  of  this  war,  and  their  horror  is  the  modern  repetition  of  the  horror  of  the  Middle  Ages 
when  cities  were  burned  and  sacked.  The  power  of  reparation  and  indemnity  is  confined  to  inanimate  brick  and 
stone.  It  cannot  recreate  homes  and  household  gods  destroyed  in  the  gun-blast. 


his  own  family  presented  to  the  Tsar — 
without  success.  The  Tsarina  was 
almost  openly  accused  before  him.  As 
ever  his  answer  was  only  a  smile,  and 
the  remark,  "There  is  none  more  loyal 
than  the  Tsarina." 

RASPUTIN  IS  EXECUTED  BY   A   GROUP   OF 
.     NOBLEMEN. 

In  sheer  desperation  the  leaders  of 
those  very  elements,  which  in  pre-war 
days  had  been  the  strongest  supporters 
of  the  throne,  took  action.  At  that 
time,  toward  the  end  of  the  year, 
Protopopov's  personal  responsibility 
for  the  plot  was  not  so  obvious,  and 
the  blame  was  laid  directly  on  Ras- 

678 


Duke  Dimitri  Pavlovltch,  an  ex-Min- 
ister  of  the  Interior,  who  opened  the 
door.  Nor  did  he  dare  interfere  when, 
half  an  hour  later,  he  saw  four  men 
leave  the  house  and  get  into  an  auto- 
mobile, carrying  an  object  resembling 
a  human  body  in  shape. 

When  daylight  came  bloodspots  were 
discovered  on  the  pavement  and  trailed 
to  the  river  by  the  police,  then  over 
the  ice  to  a  hole  which  had  been  cut 
through.  A  rubber  galosh  was  found 
near  the  hole.  Three  days  later  a 
human  body,  clad  in.  the  black  cassock 
of  a  monk,  was  found  in  the  river.  The 
dead   man  was   Rasputin.     The  dead 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


Copyright,  I: 


&  Underwood 


M.  MICHAEL  RODZIANKO 

President  of  the  Russian  Duma  who  guided  its  fortunes  in  the  days  of  the 

revolution,  and  showed  himself  both  moderate  and  far-seeing. 

monk  had  been  lured  to  the  house  of 
Prince  Yusopov  and  there  been  sum- 
marily tried,  found  guilty,  and  executed 
by  a  group  of  men  including  the  Prince 
himself,  the  Grand  Duke  Dimitri, 
A.  N.  Khvostov,  also  an  ex-Minister 
of  the  Interior,  and  Vladimir  Purish- 
kevitch,  the  notorious  Black  Hundred 
leader  and  reactionary.  These  men 
openly  proclaimed  their  deed,  and  no 
one  dared  call  them  to  serious  ac- 
count. Indeed,  they  were  hailed  by 
every  articulate  Russian  as  heroes. 

RASPUTIN'S    DEATH    TOO    LATE    TO    SAVE 
-     THE  THRONE. 

In  striking  contrast  to  the  pompous 


ceremonies  with 
which  the  funeral  of 
the  dead  monk  was 
conducted,  and  in 
which  the  Tsar  him- 
self and  Protopopov 
acted  as  pallbearers, 
was  the  general  re- 
joicing which  took 
place  all  over  Russia 
at  the  news  that  Ras- 
putin was  dead.  But 
Rasputin  had  been 
destroyed  too  late  to 
interfere  with  the 
succession  of  events 
which  had  been  set 
in  motion.  With  the 
desperation  given  him 
by  the  knowledge  that 
he  might  any  day 
share  the  fate  of  his 
master  and  colleague, 
Protopopov  set  about 
with  renewed  deter- 
mination to  accom- 
plish his  aims  and 
protect  the  interests 
of  his  -cause.  And 
now,  during  the  latter 
part  of  January  and 
early  February,  191 7, 
his  efforts  began  to 
bear  fruit. 

He  began  arresting 
and   imprisoning   the 
labor     leaders     who 
were  fighting  against 
the  agitations  of  his 
agents.    Nothing  that 
he  had  as  yet  done    was   so   openly 
significant.     With    a    clear     field     in 
which   to    work,    without  being   ham- 
pered  by   the   police,   of  which   they 
were  themselves  members,  the  pseudo- 
revolutionists    began    to    succeed    in 
arousing      the     discontent      of      the 
workers   of   Petrograd.     The    scarcity 
of  food  was  now  reaching  the  stage  of 
acute  famine.    The   few  honest  Socia- 
lists  and  labor  leaders  still  at  liberty 
could     no     longer     make    themselves 
heard.     On   February  27,    1917,  over 
300,000     workers    were    on    strike    in 
Petrograd.    The  critical   moment  was 
approaching. 

679 


mSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


THE  STRIKES  IN    PETROGRAD    CONTINUE 
TO  INCREASE. 

On  March  i  the  only  labor  repre- 
sentative left  in  the  Duma  issued  a 
last  appeal  to  the  strikers,  exhorting 
them  to  return  to  work  to  save  Russia. 
That  proclamation  was  completely 
suppressed  by  the  Government — the 
leaflets  were  seized  and  destroyed  by 
the  police.  This  was  the  final  proof  of 
Protopopov's   treachery,    if   any   were 


of  certain  houses,  to  cover  the  public 
squares  and  other  strategic  points, 
where  disorder  was  likely  to  begin. 
Protopopov  wanted  disorder,  but  he 
did  not  mean  to  let  it  get  out  of  his 
control.  A  few  days  like  Red  Sunday 
were  needed  to  serve  as  a  pretext. 

THE   COUNCIL    OF    WORKINGMEN'S    DELE- 
GATES IS  ORGANIZED. 

But  the  disorders  did  not  manifest 
themselves  so  soon  as  he  had  expected 


STREET  FIGHTING  IN  PETROGRAD 

Much  of  the  bloodshed  which  stained  the  streets  of  Petrograd  in  the  Russian  Revolution  was  due  to  Protopopov 
and  the  police,  who  had  promoted  disturbances  among  the  disaffected  in  order  to  suppress  them  by  force.  When 
the  soldiers  threw  in  their  lot  with  the  populace  the  police  were  in  a  hopeless  position,  and  those  who  were  not  shot 
were  imprisoned.  In  the  street  fighting  in  Petrograd  about  2500  people  were  killed  and  wounded. 


needed.  During  the  following  week 
the  unrest  among  the  populace  con- 
tinued to  increase.  Food  was  so  scarce 
that  not  only  the  wealthy  went  hungry, 
but  the  troops  of  the  garrison  were 
starved,  which  was  poor  tactics  on  the 
part  of  the  conspirators. 

On  March  9  street  railway  trafific 
in  Petrograd  ceased,  for  the  street 
railway  men  had  gone  on  strike.  The 
people  gathered  in  the  streets,  shouting 
for  food,  but  otherwise  creating  no 
disorders.  The  soldiers,  both  cavalry 
and  infantry,  were  called  out  to  patrol 
the  streets,  while  squads  of  police 
lugged  machine  guns  up  to  the  roofs 

680 


or  desired.  Realizing  that  the  workers 
were  going  to  strike  anyhow,  the  real 
leaders  of  the  labor  elements  desisted 
from  protesting  and  began  directing 
the  strike  instead.  Quietly  they  or- 
ganized the  Council,  or  Soviet,  of 
Workingmen's  Delegates,  and  through 
this  body  representing  the  strikers, 
they  assumed  control,  thus  checking 
disorders.  What  might  otherwise  have 
been  a  blind  mass  protest  without  any 
conscious  leadership,  and  therefore 
bound  to  end  in  disorder,  became  a 
controlled  movement.'  The  agent  pro- 
vocateurs had  been  able  to  arouse  the 
movement,  but  failing  another  Father 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


Gapon,  they  had  not  been  able  to  direct 
it,  once  it  was  aroused. 

The  leaders  in  the  Soviet  were  at 
first  in  harmony  with  the  members  of 
the  Duma.  One  of  them,  in  fact,  a 
young  lawyer,  Alexander  Kerensky, 
was  also  a  member  of  the  Duma, 
representing  the  Social  Revolutionist 
Party.  Thus  the  Duma  leaders  under- 
stood   the   situation,    and    the   danger 


its  connections."  The  Tsar  was  then 
at  military  headquarters,  but  Protopo- 
pov  hastily  despatched  a  messenger  to 
him,  who  brought  back  a  signed  ukase 
proroguing  the  Duma  for  a  month.  The 
Elder  Committee,  representing  all  the 
political  factions  in  the  Duma,  de- 
cided to  ignore  the  ukase  and  refused 
to  dissolve. 

Meanwhile    the    crowds    continued 


REVOLUTIONISTS  STARTING  ON  A  POLICE  HUNT 

Animosity  against  the  police,  creatures  of  the  old  bureaucracy,  suppressed  through  long  years  of  terrorism,  burst 
into  full  flame  when  they  started  shooting  upon  assembled  crowds.  Armed  civilians  and  soldiers  crowded  into 
motor-lorries  and  raced  from  point  to  point,  driving  the  police  by  a  hail  of  bullets  from  coigns  of  vantage  on  roofs 
and  in  garrets. 


which  had  been  momentarily  averted. 
But,  realizing  that  it  might  be  only  a 
question  of  a  few  days,  or  perhaps 
hours,  before  acts  of  aggression  on 
the  part  of  the  police  might  break  the 
restraining  hold  of  the  Soviet  leaders  on 
the  strikers  and  precipitate  disorder, 
the  Duma  hastened  to  take  action. 

'T*HE  DUMA  REFUSES  TO    BE   PROROGtTED. 

By  March  loth  the  strike  was 
practically  general.  On  that  day  the 
Duma  ofificially  broke  off  official  rela- 
tions with  the  Government,  stating  in 
its  proclamation  that  "with  such  a 
Government  the  Duma  forever  severs 


marching  up  and  down  the  streets  of 
the  city,  shouting  and  calling  on  the 
Cabinet  to  resign,  but  still  in  an  orderly 
manner.  It  was  noted  that  the  Cos- 
sacks, usually  so  rough  in  handling 
demonstrators,  hustled  them  very 
gently  and  good-naturedly.  An  order 
was  issued  forbidding  the  gathering 
of  crowds.  The  people,  as  was  to  be 
expected,  ignored  the  order.  This  gave 
Protopopov  a  pretext.  He  commanded 
the  chief  of  the  garrison  to  order  out 
his  troops  in  full  force  and  clear  the 
streets,  even  if  they  must  be  swept 
clean  with  machine  gun  and  rifle 
fire. 

68i 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


PROTOPOPOV    ATTEMPTS    TO    QUELL     THE 
STORM    HE    HAD    RAISED. 

The  police,  men  picked  for  their 
fitness  for  just  such  work,  immediately 
obeyed  and  began  firing  down  on  the 
multitudes  from  their  stations  on  the 
housetops,  and  so  precipitated  the  first 
skirmishes,  for  now  a  few  armed  work- 
ingmen  and  students  became  suddenly 
belligerent.  It  was  over  his  faith  in 
the  troops  that  Protopopov's  plans 
went  to  pieces.  There  were  40,000 
soldiers  in  Petrograd  at  that  time,  more 
than  enough  to  suppress  an  uprising. 
And  when  had  Russian  soldiers,  espe- 
cially Cossacks,  ever  refused  to  sup- 
press revolutionary  demonstrations? 

But  the  Russian  Army  had  under- 
gone a  very  radical  transformation 
during  the  three  years  of  the  war. 
The  old-time  regular  establishment 
had  been  flooded  by  recruits  from  the 
masses.  The  Russian  Army  had  be- 
come the  masses  themselves — armed. 
Even  the  Cossack  regiments,  isolated 
and  privileged,  had  been  in  the  field 
and  come  into  intimate  contact  with 
the  people  in  the  democratic  life  at 
the  front.  All  the  young  men  of  the 
nation  had  come  together  in  the 
trenches,  where  men  talk  as  well  as 
shoot,  and  they  had  come  to  a  realiza- 
tion of  their  common  interests. 

THE     PICKED     REGIMENTS      REFUSE      TO 
FIRE  UPON  THE  PEOPLE. 

,  When  the  officers  of  the  Petrograd 
garrison  called  out  their  regiments  and 
commanded  them  to  shoot  down  the 
people  in  the  streets  of  the  city, 
there  was  an  almost  unanimous  refusal 
on  the  part  of  the  soldiers  to  do  so. 
As  an  instance,  James  J.  Hough teling, 
Jr.,  an  eye-witness  of  the  revolution. 
States  in  his  "Diary  of  the  Russian 
Revolution"  that  "this  morning  Tur- 
ner, of  the  Embassy,  passed  the  bar- 
racks of  the  Preobrajensky,  Peter  the 
Great's  old  bodyguard,  and  saw  the 
entire  regiment  drawn  up  in  a  hollow 
square  and  its  colonel  addressing  it  on 
the  necessity  of  firing  on  the  mob. 
Suddenly  a  soldier  stepped  from  the 
ranks  and,  clubbing  his  rifle,  struck 
down  the  speaker;  and  the  greater 
part  of  the  regiment  seized  and 
disarmed  the  other  officers.  A  few 
682 


blocks  distant,  in  front  of  the  Artillery 
Arsenal,  the  soldiers  of  the  Volhynian 
Life-Guards  had  shot  the  general  in 
command,  and  practically  the  whole 
regiment  had   revolted." 

However,  serious  disorder  or  dis- 
organization might  have  been  the 
result  had  it  been  only  the  common 
soldiers  who  refused  to  support  the 
corrupt  autocracy,  but  the  same  spirit 
which  had  created  the  Progressive 
Bloc  in  the  conservative  Duma  had 
also  permeated  the  army  leadership. 
In  the  majority  of  cases  the  officers  of 
the  regiments  went  over  to  the  cause  of 
the  people  with  their  soldiers.  It  was  a 
general  military  mutiny  which  en- 
couraged the  Duma  to  declare  itself 
the  supreme  government  of  the  Rus- 
sian nation. 

THE  SOLDIERS  JOIN  THE  ATTACK  ON  THE 
POLICE. 

The  soldiers  not  only  refused  to  fire 
on  the  people,  but  they  marched  out 
into  the  streets  and,  joining  the 
people,  began  to  attack  the  police. 
This  fighting  began  in  the  afternoon 
of  March  11,  and  it  may  be  said  that 
at  that  hour  began  the  Russian 
Revolution;  at  that  hour  the  Russian 
autocracy  fell.  Michael  Rodzianko, 
President  of  the  Duma,  sent  a  last 
telegraphic  appeal  to  the  Tsar  to  save 
the  situation.  "The  situation  is 
serious.  In  the  capital  is  anarchy. 
The  government  is  paralyzed.  ...  It 
is  indispensable  to  entrust  to  a  person 
having  the  confidence  of  the  country 
the  formation  of  a  new  ministry.  .  ." 
To  this  urgent  appeal  the  Tsar  made 
no  answer,  and  so  lost  the  last  oppor- 
tunity to  save  his  throne. 

Rodzianko  then  telegraphed  to  the 
army  commanders  at  the  front  to 
present  the  situation  to  the  Tsar, 
but  the  monarch  seemed  to  be  in  a 
comatose  state,  unable  to  develop 
sufficient  resolution  to  take  action. 
It  was  said  that  while  the  generals  ex- 
plained the  situation  to  him  he  twirled 
his  thumbs  and  gazed  abstractedly 
out  of  the  window  of  his  car.  And 
so  the  revolution  in  his  capital  sped 
past  him.  This  same  ioertia,  to  a  lesser 
degree,  also  possessed  the  majority  of 
the  members  of  the  Duma. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


IEADERS    IN    THE    DUMA    ARE    DEVELOPED 
^     FOR  THE  OCCASION. 

It  was  the  leaders  of  the  old  revolu- 
tionary elements,  the  Social  Revolu- 
tionists and  the  Social  Democrats, 
who  asserted  themselves  and  took 
the  situation  in  hand,  and  so  saved 
Russia  from  complete  anarchy.  Several 
of  them,  notably  Alexander  Kerensky 
and  N.  S.  Tchkheidze,  both  Socialists, 
were  also  members  of  the  Duma,  and 


Under  the  danger  of  that  political 
disorganization  which  Protopopov  had 
wished  to  bring  about,  so  that  he 
might  have  a  pretext  for  making  sep- 
arate peace  with  Germany,  these  two 
naturally  antagonistic  factions  allowed 
their  fundamental  difTerence  of  inter- 
ests to  recede  into  the  background, 
inspired  by  a  common  sentiment  of 
patriotism.  So,  for  the  time  being, 
they  worked  loyally  together.     • 


• .-::  f    .  "T^t^ 

''^wiKrL^^-^av^mmk 

■F^^^iir 

^"f     W^hJ^.           "f^ST^^lB 

Wn    .^S!  ^   -^             -^    —                    ^W^ 

rx                        ^^ 

BARRICADES  ACROSS  A  MAIN  STREET 

Guns  decorated  with  the  red  flag  of  international  Socialism  defend  these  barricades  which  have  been  thrown  up  in 
one  of  the  principal  thoroughfares  of  the  Russian  capital.  All  business  was  at  a  standstill,  and  the  government 
paralyzed.  When  the  soldiers  showed  their  intention  of  siding  with  the  workers  the  police  soon  surren- 
dered. 


together  with  such  strong  characters  as 
Rodzianko,  Prince  Lvov  and  Paul 
Miliukov,  saved  it  from  utter  discred- 
it. It  was  the  Soviet,  however, 
the  Council  of  Workingmen's  and 
Soldiers'  Deputies,  which  instantly  grip- 
ped the  reins  which  had  fallen  from 
the  hands  of  the  dead  autocracy.  Thus, 
from  the  very  beginning  the  new  gov- 
ernment assumed  a  dual  character, 
a  partnership  between  two  irreconcil- 
able elements.  For  the  Duma,  by  a 
large  majority,  represented  the  aristo- 
cratic and  the  mercantile  interests, 
while  the  Soviet  represented  those 
elements  of  the  people  who  had  already 
had  experience  in  mass  organization. 


THE  SOVIET  ORGANIZES  THE    FORCES    OF 
THE  REVOLUTION. 

By  Monday  morning,  March  12, 
the  Soviet  had  knit  together  the  fight- 
ing forces  of  the  revolution  into  an 
organization  that  might  have  done 
credit  to  men  of  far  more  military 
experience.  There  were,  of  course, 
high  ranking  officers  among  the  mu- 
tineers thoroughly  in  sympathy  with 
the  Socialistic  ideals  of  the  Soviet 
leaders,  and  no  doubt  they  assisted  in 
directing  the  operations  of  the  revolu- 
tionary forces.  On  that  Monday  morn- 
ing the  red  flag  of  international 
Socialism  was  raised  over  Petrograd. 

During    that    morning    the    revolu- 

683 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


tionists  delivered  their  first  organized 
attack  against  the  remnant  of  the  loyal 
forces  of  the  autocracy  by  storming 
the  Arsenal.  This  building  was  taken, 
its  commanding  officer  killed  and  the 
arms  and  ammunition  distributed 
among  the  soldiers  of  the  revolution. 
Automobiles,  crowded  with  armed  rev- 
olutionists, scoured  the  streets  of  the 
city,  hunting  down  the  police,  many 
of  whom  were  still  hiding  in  houses 
and  buildings  and  sniping  the  revolu- 
tionists. The  jails  and  prisons  were 
broken  open  and  the  political  prisoners 
were  liberated.  The  police  headquar- 
ters building  was  also  stormed  and 
sacked ;  all  its  archives  and  records 
were  thrown  out  in  the  street  in  si  heap 
and  burned.  Then  came  a  lull  in  the 
fighting  and  a  delegation  from  the 
revolted  soldiers  presented  itself  before 
the  Duma  building  and  demanded  an 
interview  with  the  Duma  leaders. 

THE  PROVISIONAL  GOVERNMENT    IN   THE 
PROCESS  OF  ORGANIZATION. 

"The  autocracy  is  overthrown," 
they  said.  "We  have  liberated  Russia 
from  her  tyranny.  Where  do  you 
stand?"  In  reply  Rodzianko  stepped 
forward  and  addressed  the  crowd. 
He  declared  himself  and  the  members 
of  the  Duma  unequivocally  in  favor  of 
a  constitutional  democratic  govern- 
ment for  Russia.  Kerensky  and 
Tchkheidze  also  came  forward  in  his 
support,  and  the  assembled  soldiers 
cheered  for  the  Duma. 

That  afternoon  the  Elder  Council 
of  the  Duma,  representing  all  the 
political  parties,  elected  a  temporary 
committee  to  co-operate  with  a  similar 
committee  of  the  Soviet  to  maintain 
order  and  organize  a  provisional  gov- 
ernment. These  two  committees  then 
went  into  joint  session  and  so  remained 
almost  continuously  for  many  days. 
Meanwhile  there  was  a  steady  stream 
of  delegations  from  all  sorts  of  civic 
and  military  organizations  to  the  Duma 
building,  where  the  committee  was  in 
session,  bearing  the  formal  adhesion  of 
their  constituents  to  the  new  regime. 
One  of  these  represented  the  Imperial 
Guards  at  the  Imperial  Palace  who 
had  revolted  and  arrested  the  Tsarina 
and    her    children.      Meanwhile    the 

684 


soldiers  of  the  new  government  were 
bringing  in  as  prisoners  all  the  officials 
of  the  old  autocracy  until  none  re- 
mained at  large  except  the  arch- 
traitor,  Protopopov.  A  determined 
search  had  been  made  for  him,  but  he 
seemed  to  have  disappeared.  Finally, 
on  the  evening  of  the  13th  an  old 
man  in  civilian  dress  presented  him- 
self before  the  student  guard  at  the 
doorway  of  the  Duma  building. 

PROTOPOPOV  GOES  TO  PRISON   NEVER   TO 
EMERGE  ALIVE. 

"  I  wish  to  present  myself  to  those  in 
authority,"  he  said.  "  I  am  Protopopov, 
ex-Minister  of  the  Interior."  A  shout 
of  rage  went  up  from  the  bystanders, 
and  had  not  Kerensky  just  then  ap- 
peared violence  might  have  been  of- 
fered to  the  old  autocrat.  He  was  led 
away  to  prison,  never  again  to  emerge, 
for  when  they  came  into  power  the 
Bolsheviki  made  short  work  of  him. 
One  report  has  it  that  he  died  insane. 

On  Wednesday  the  Grand  Duke  Cyril 
Vladimirovitch  presented  himself  to 
the  Duma  and  placed  himself  and  his 
whole  bodyguard  at  its  disposal.  But 
this  was  no  more  surprising  than  the 
alacrity  with  which  all  the  military 
commanders  on  the  fighting  front 
responded  to  the  telegrams  sent  them 
by  Rodzianko,  explaining  the  new 
situation.  One  and  all  sent  in  their 
declarations  of  loyalty  to  the  new 
revolutionary  regime.  The  whole 
Russian  Army  was  with  the  revolu- 
tion, from  the  Baltic  to  the  Black  Sea. 

From  the  provincial  cities  came  news 
equally  encouraging.  Everywhere  the 
revolution  was  accepted,  if  not  with 
great  enthusiasm,  at  least  with  quiet 
acquiescence.  Equally  encouraging 
was  the  attitude  of  the  Allied  govern- 
ments; the  French  and  British  am- 
bassadors had  immediately  hastened 
to  inform  the  President  of  the  Duma 
that  their  respective  governments  ac- 
corded recognition  to  the  new  regime. 
These  countries  and  the  United  States 
as  well,  later  sent  missions  to  offer  all 
possible  aid  to  the  new  government. 

THE    PROVISIONAL    GOVERNMENT    IS 
FINALLY  ORGANIZED. 

Early  in  the  afternoon  of  March  15, 
the    two    committees    announced    the 


fflSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


result  of  their  labors — the  formation 
of  the  Provisional  Government.  Prince 
George  Lvov,  widely  known  as  a 
Liberal-Constitutionalist,  but  above 
all  as  the  organizer  of  the  All-Russian 
LTnion  of  Municipalities,  which  had 
been  such  a  power  in  the  work  behind 
the  lines  during  the  war,  was  named 
as  Premier,  the  one  man  against  whom 
no   protest  was   raised   in   either   the 


the  new  government.  Obviously  the 
Soviet,  though  it  undoubtedly  held 
the  real  power  in  Petrograd,  desired 
strongly  to  gain  the  confidence  of  the 
middle  classes. 

■fTTHAT    SHOULD    BE    THE    FUTURE    FORM 
VV       OF  GOVERNMENT? 

In  the  maintenance  of  law  and 
order  the  two  elements  stood  as  one. 
In   their  desire   to   continue   the  war 


VIEW  OF  CHURCH  IN  PRZEROSL,  RUSSIA  / 

Poverty-stricken  and  primitive  as  is  the  interior  of  this  little  church,  its  aspect  in  no  wise  aSects  the  simple  piety 
of  the  mourners  praying  for  the  soul  of  the  departed  at  the  side  altars.  Unlettered  and  rude,  the  Russian  peasant's 
nature  has  nevertheless  a  deep  fount  of  mysticism — rich  soil  for  the  tenets  of  his  church. 

Ruschin 


radical  or  the  middle  class  camp.  Paul 
Miliukov,  learned  historian  and  leader 
of  the  Constitutional  Democrats,  was 
Minister  of  Foreign  Relations.  Alex- 
ander Kerensky,  a  member  of  the 
Social  Revolutionary  Party,  was  Min- 
ister of  Justice.  Shingarev,  a  physician 
by  profession  and  a  member  of  the 
Constitutional  Democratic  Party,  was 
made  Minister  of  Agriculture,  an 
important  post  since  the  food  problem 
came  under  its  jurisdiction. 

The  Liberals,  or  Constitutional  Dem- 
ocrats, obviously  had  a  majority  in 
the  Cabinet,  as  Kerensky  was  prac- 
tically the  only  radical  prominent  in 


against  the  Central  Powers  to  a 
triumphant  finish,  together  with  the 
Allies,  there  was  also  no  room  for 
disagreement.  But  in  the  character, 
or  form,  of  the  future  permanent 
government  of  Russia  there  was  con- 
siderable difference,  but  this  was  finally 
settled  by  compromise.  The  radicals 
ceded  their  demand  for  a  pure  Socialist 
republic  and  agreed  to  a  constitutional 
monarchy.  But  the  conservatives  on 
their  part  agreed  that  Tsar  Nicholas 
must  be  deposed.  It  was  agreed  that 
the  puny  invalid,  the  Tsarevitch, 
should  be  placed  on  the  throne  for 
the  present,  under  the  control  of  some 

685 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


responsible  regent.  As  for  the  con- 
stitutional form  of  the  future  Russian 
state,  that  would  be  left  to  a  Con- 
stituent Assembly,  to  be  elected  as 
soon  as  possible  by  the  whole  Russian 
people,  on  the  basis  of  universal 
suffrage  for  women  as  well  as  men. 

The  Duma  and  the  Soviet,  together, 
had  already  dispatched  two  representa- 
tives to  the  front  to  obtain  the  formal 
abdication    of    the    Tsar.     Rodzianko 


GRAND  DUKE  MICHAEL  OF  RUSSIA 

In  his  favor  Nicholas  II  abdicated  his  crown,  March, 
1917. 

had  been  in  close  telegraphic  communi- 
cation with  General  Ruzsky,  in  com- 
mand of  the  northern  armies,  and  he, 
in  his  turn,  had  communicated  with  all 
the  other  commanders  along  the  whole 
front.  All  agreed  with  the  Provisional 
Government  that  the  Tsar  should  be 
made  to  abdicate.  Before  the  two 
delegates,  Gutchkov,  War  Minister  in 
the  new  Cabinet,  and  Bublikov,  a 
deputy,  had  arrived  in  Pskov,  Ruzsky's 
headquarters,  Ruzsky  had  made  a 
determined  effort  to  awaken  the 
Tsar  to  a  realization  of  the  situation 
and  to  make  some  sort  of  action  which 
would  save  him  his  throne.  When  the 
delegates  arrived  Ruzsky  was  con- 
686 


vinced  that  this  was  impossible,  and 
joined  the  two  delegates  in  demanding 
of  the  Tsar  that  he  abdicate. 

THE  TSAR  ABDICATES  FOR  HIMSELF  AND 
HIS  SON. 

Nicholas  acted  under  this  new  in- 
fluence as  readily  as  he  had  succumbed 
to  the  influence  of  his  former  reaction- 
ary advisers  and  signed  the  document 
which  left  his  throne  vacant. 

"But  I  cannot  consent  to  part  from 
my  son,"  he  said,  "so  I  abdicate  in 
favor  of  my  brother  Michael." 

The  Grand  Duke  Michael  wisely 
refused  to  accept  the  honor  thus  be- 
stowed on  him  unless  at  the  request 
of  a  Constituent  Assembly,  thus  leav- 
ing the  throne  vacant.  By  that  time 
the  manifestation  of  public  opinion  in 
favor  of  abolishing  entirely  the  mon- 
archial  form  of  government  asserted 
itself  so  strongly  that  no  further  effort 
was  made  to  find  a  candidate  for  the 
throne,  and  the  Provisional  Govern- 
ment remained  the  supreme  authority 
of  the  state. 

The  ex-Tsar  Nicholas,  for  several 
days  remained  at  liberty,  traveling 
aimlessly  back  and  forth  in  his  sump- 
tuous drawingroom  car,  until  finally  he 
was  arrested  and  imprisoned  at 
Tsarskoe  Selo,  together  with  the  rest 
of  his  family.  Here  he  resigned  himself 
completely  to  his  fate,  devoting  his 
time  to  association  with  his  family, 
chopping  down  trees  and  making 
entries  of  these  minor  occupations  in 
his  diary. 

DISAGREEMENTS    ARISE    BETWEEN    THE 
SOVIET  AND  THE  DUMA. 

For  some  weeks  the  Provisional 
Government  continued  its  work  of 
establishing  its  power,  in  complete 
harmony  with  the  two  contending 
factions  which  it  represented,  person- 
ified in  the  members  of  the  Soviet  and 
the  Duma.  Orders  were  promulgated 
liberating  all  political  prisoners,  ex- 
propriating the  Imperial  estates  and 
granting  full  civil  recognition  to  the 
Jews.  Then  the  death  penalty  was 
abolished  in  the  army,  but  as  the 
danger  of  political  anarchy,  which 
both  factions  feared,  disappeared,  rival 
tendencies  began  to  assert  themselves. 

The  first  of  these  was  the  desire  of 


HISTORY  OF  'THE  WORLD  WAR 


the  radicals  within  the  Soviet  to 
extend  extreme  democratic  principles 
to  the  army  organization.  Officers 
should  not  be  appointed,  but  elected. 
The  salute  should  be  abolished;  officers 
and  men  should  be  equal.  Unfortunate- 
ly the  country  was  still  at  war,  fighting 
against  armies  which  were  under 
strict  discipline — and  practical  military 
operations  do  not  harmonize  with 
democratic  idealism.  The  military 
commanders  at  the  front  immediate- 
ly protested  against  these  radical 
demands.  And  for  a  time  the  Soviet 
recognized  their  protests.  But  the 
idea  had  been  voiced;  the  rank  and 
file,  having  heard  so  much  talk  about 
democracy,  desired  to  see  it  in  practice 
among  them.  The  same  spirit  began 
to  permeate  the  workingmen  in  the 
munition  factories.  Their  leaders  had 
told  them  that  Socialism  would  mean 
shorter 'hours  and  more  pay,  a  fuller 
life.  Why,  then,  should  this  speeding 
up  continue?  Yes,  the  war  must  be 
won,  and  that  meant  increasing  the 
output  of  war  munitions  as  rapidly  as 
possible.  But — had  not  these  same 
Socialists  once  said  that  all  men  were 
brothers?  So  what  were  they  fighting 
the  Germans  for,  anyhow?  These 
thoughts  were  not  as  yet  loudly  voiced, 
but  they  began  to  grip  the  minds  of  the 
workers  and  soldiers  alike. 

THE    FUTURE    DICTATOR    OF   RUSSIA    AR- 
RIVES ON  THE  SCENE. 

Early  in  April  there  arrived  in 
Petrograd .  one  who  was  to  formulate 
these  thoughts  in  words,  loudly  and 
more  loudly,  as  time  passed — Nikolai 
Lenin,  the  "impossibilist"  Socialist. 
Like  most  revolutionary  leaders  he 
had  adopted  a  pseudonym.  His 
name  was  Vladimir  lUitch  Ulyanov. 

In  theory  there  was  little  difference 
between  the  opinions  of  Kerensky 
and  those  of  Lenin — both  were  Marxian 
Socialists.  It  was  entirely  in  tactics 
that  they  disagreed.  Both  believed 
that  society  is  composed  of  two  classes, 
the  capitalist,  or  exploiting  class,  and 
the  proletariat,  or  the  exploited  class, 
and  that  the  proletariat  should  forever 
abolish  this  difference  by  coming  into 
power  and  establishing  a  social  system 
based  on  the  collective  ownership  and 


democratic  control  of  industry.  But 
Kerensky  believed  that  this  could  only 
be  accomplished  gradually  through 
evolution,  and  that  meanwhile  con- 
ditions as  they  are  must  be  dealt  with 
practically.  He  was  what  in  Socialist 
terminology  is  called  an  "opportunist." 
Above  all,  he  believed,  German  im- 
perialism must  be  crushed  first  of  all, 
and  to  accomplish  that  both  classes 
must  join  together  in  the  effort  to 
accomplish    it,    as    they    had    joined 


SHADOWS  OF  GLORY 
Empty  frame  in  the  Duma  whence  the  Tsar's  portrait 
was  removed.    Eagles  and  other  heraldic  pomp  that 
adorned    the   Imperial   Palace    were   torn   down   and 
burnt  in  the  courtyard. 

together  in  overthrowing  the  Russian 
autocracy.  Later  the  social  reorgani- 
zation could  be  accomplished,  peace- 
fully or  otherwise. 

IENIN'S     UNCOMPROMISING      THEORY      OF 
^     THE    ORGANIZATION    OF  SOCIETY. 

Lenin  placed  the  social  revolution 
first  and  foremost  in  the  order  of  im- 
portance. The  war  with  Germany  was 
only  a  struggle  between  two  capitalist 
states,  in  which  the  proletariat  was 
merely  the  tool  of  the  contending 
powers.  Let  Germany  invade  Russian 
territory,  what  matter?  For  it  would 
be  only  a  question  of  a  little  time  be- 
fore the  German  proletariat  would 
destroy  the  German  autocracy,  which 
was    in    its    essence    capitalistic.      A 

687 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


conquering  Germany    would    only  de- 
stroy itself  as  a  capitalist  state. 

This  was  the  propaganda  which 
Lenin  and  his  thirty  followers  who 
came  into  Russia  a  month  after  the 
revolution  began  to  spread  among 
the  soldiers  and  the  workingmen. 
Later  came  Leon  Trotzky,  from 
America,  and  joined  forces  with  them. 
Trotzky  was  a  Russian  by  birth,  and 
had  lived  in  several  other  countries  of 
Europe   before   coming  to  the  United 


WHERE  DEMOCRACY  BROKE  THE  BARRIERS 

One  of  the  first  things  the  revolutionaries  did  was  to 
cover  the  royal  insignia  on  the  Palace  gates  or  public 
buildings. 

States  where  he  had  lived  a  few 
months.  He  was  not  so  much  of  a 
pacifist  as  Lenin,  but  he  believed  that 
it  was  not  necessary  to  defeat  the 
Central  Powers  before  the  Russian 
proletariat,  at  least,  could  proceed 
to  establish  a  perfect  Socialist  state. 
Later  the  German  proletariat,  however 
victorious  the  masters  might  have 
been,  would  follow  the  example  of  the 
Russian  working  classes  and  so  pave 
the  way  to  a  world-wide  common- 
wealth. 

A  MAJORITY     IN     THE     SOVIET     AGAINST 
THESE  VIEWS. 

With  these  "impossibilist"  views 
the  majority  of  the  radicals  of  the 
Soviet  were  not  in  sympathy,  however 
much  they  might  agree  with  the  Lenin- 

688 


ites  in  their  ultimate  ideals.  Yet  they 
were  growing  more  and  more  conscious 
of  their  differences  with  the  Liberals. 
This  growing  difference  of  opinion 
came  to  a  head  in  April,  191 7,  when 
Miliukov,  as  Foreign  Minister,  ven- 
tured to  express  the  foreign  policy 
of  the  Provisional  Government  for 
the  benefit  of  the  outside  world,  more 
especially  Russia's  allies  in  the  war. 
The  occupation  of  Constantinople  by 
Russia  and  command  of  the  Dar- 
danelles, said  Miliukov,  was  neces- 
sary to  the  economic  welfare  of  the 
Russian  nation. 

This  was  a  proposition,  involving 
sovereignty  of  one  people  over  another, 
against  which  the  mildest  Socialist 
might  be  expected  to  protest.  Either 
Miliukov  completely  misunderstood 
the  Socialist  point  of  view,  or  disre- 
garded it.  At  any  rate,  his  words 
brought  forth  a  perfect  storm  *of  pro- 
test. The  Soviet  literally  boiled  over. 
The  radicals  quickly  asserted  them- 
selves, and  a  few  days  later  came  the 
famous  manifesto,  or  declaration  of 
policy,  ennunciating  the  rights  of 
"self  determination"  of  all  peoples, 
big  or  small,  whatever  the  outcome  of 
the  war  might  be.  Indemnities  also, 
in  principle,  were  denounced. 

THE    DETERMINATION    TO     FIGHT    STILL 
STRONG. 

But  if  the  Germans,  who  made  a 
great  deal  of  capital  of  this  difference  of 
opinion  which  had  arisen  within  the 
governing  body  of  revolutionary  Rus- 
sia, hoped  that  it  might  be  utilized  in 
creating  such  a  split  as  would  weaken 
the  prosecution  of  the  war,  they  were 
mistaken.  This  was  not  to  be  the 
cause  of  the  decline  of  Russia's  military 
strength.  For  in  the  second  week  of 
April  a  national  convention  of  the 
Soldiers'  and  Workingmen 's  Soviets 
from  all  Russia  passed  a  resolution  in 
favor  of  continuing  the  war  against 
Germany,  by  a  vote  of  325  against  57. 

The  real  source  of  discord  came  in 
the  conflicting  tendencies  within  the 
army  itself.  The  Soviet,  representing 
as  it  did,  the  rank  and  file  of  the  army, 
still  realized  that  the'  organization  of 
an  army  is  incompatible  with  the 
principles  of  democracy,  and  conceded 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


that  on  the  field  of  battle  the  army 
commanders  should  have  full  and 
absolute  authority.  Behind  the  lines 
they  would  not  concede  so  much.  This 
brought  about  a  continual  conflict 
with  the  commanding  generals.  Finally 
on  May  13,  191 7,  General  Kornilov, 
commanding  the  Petrograd  garrison, 
registered  his  protest  by  handing  in 
his  resignation.     Generals  Gurko  and 


the  Provisional  Government,  which  it 
had  hitherto  refused  to, do. 

A  complete  reorganization  of  the 
Cabinet  followed  on  May  19. 
Miliukov,  who  had  made  himself 
unpopular  by  his  utterance  regarding 
Constantinople,  retired,  but  Prince 
Lvov  continued  as  Premier.  Kerensky 
took  up  the  portfolio  of  War.  Terest- 
chenko,  a  man  of  the  same   type  as 


TEE  BATTALION  OF  DEATH 

Russian  girl  soldiers  of  the  "Battalion  of  Death"  assembled  in  front  of  their  barracks  at  Tsarkoe  Selo,  fifteen  miles 
south  of  Petrograd,  the  seat  of  two  former  imperial  palaces.  The  battalion  remained  loyal  to  the  last  to  the  Keren- 
sky  Provisional  Government  and  the  Allies,  and  for  a  while  counted  as  an  effective  military  unit. 

N.  Y.  Times  Photo  Service 

Lvov,  became  Minister  of  Foreign 
Affairs,  but  Shingarev  was  made 
Minister  of  Finance.  There  were  six 
Socialists  in  the  new  Cabinet.  The 
Soviet  now  passed  a  resolution  express- 
ing full  confidence  in  the  Provisional 
Government  and  agreed  to  recognize 
it  as  the  supreme  authority  in  all 
matters. 


Brusilov  did  likewise.  Obviously  it  was 
a  concerted  move  on  the  part  of  the 
army  authorities,  for  a  few  days  later 
Minister  of  War  Gutchkov  also  re- 
signed. A  serious  crisis  was  thus 
precipitated. 

TO     AR- 


KERENSKY     COMES     FORWARD 
RANGE  A  COMPROMISE. 

Again  it  was  Kerensky  who  rose  to 
the  occasion  as  the  mediator  between 
the  two  conflicting  elements.  In  an 
impassioned  speech  he  appealed  for 
unity  to  a  joint  meeting  of  the  Soviet 
and  Duma  committees,  with  the  result 
that  the  Soviet  agreed  to  exercise  its 
power  solely  through  representation  in 


KERENSKY    ATTEMPTS    TO    AROUSE    THE 
SPIRIT  OF  THE  ARMY. 

The  generals  now  withdrew  their 
resignations  and  returned  to  their 
posts.  Kerensky,  as  War  Minister,  set 
out  on  a  tour  of  all  the  fronts,  where  he 
exhorted  the  soldiers  to  observe  strict 

689 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


discipline  until  the  war  should  have 
been  won.  At  this  time  a  peasant's 
congress  was  held,  and  it  is  significant 
that  though  showing  itself  strongly 
Socialistic,  Lenin,  who  was  candidate 
for  one  of  the  offices  in  the  organiza- 
tion, received  only  eleven  votes. 

The  Government  now  made  active 
preparations  for  a  determined  offen- 
sive on  the  fighting  fronts.  Kerensky 
had  accepted  the  resignation  of  Alexiev 


■■B 

Sir* 

1 

^m 

Sik^58  S^^k 

^ 

^B^ 

W^Si 

V/oKbh 

i 

Mm 

P 

■<^  „  ^^^B#    *  1 

^  4 

H  *  1b 

« 

B^  ,*t-t  1 

01 

**■ 

P'.t'^ 

^ 

\Mi^  rf* 

GENERAL  SOUKHOMLINOV 
General  Soukhomlinov,  Russian  Minister  of  War  at 
the  beginning  of  the  struggle,  was  convicted  of  high 
treason  under  the  P>rovisional  Government  and  sen- 
tenced to  life  imprisonment. 

as  Commander-in-chief,  and  appointed 
Brusilov  in  his  stead.  The  Leninites, 
otherwise  known  as  the  Bolsheviki, 
now  began  intensive  efforts  to  counter- 
act these  preparations.  Possibly  they 
sensed  the  growing  demoralization  in 
the  army,  and  mistook  it  for  sympathy 
for  their  doctrines,  for  in  the  middle 
of  June  they  prepared  to  organize  a 
popular  demonstration  in  Petrograd, 
in  the  hope  of  having  it  develop  into 
an  overthrow  of  the  Provisional  Gov- 
ernment. However,  on  June  23,  the 
date  fixed  for  the  demonstration, 
690 


nothing  occurred.  The  Soviet  issued  a 
proclamation  calling  on  ail  its  con- 
stituents to  boycott  it. 

THE  MEANING  OF  THE  NEW  TERMS, 
BOLSHEVIKI  AND  MENSHEVIKI. 

There  is  much  confusion  over  the 
term,  "Bolsheviki".  The  origin  is  sim- 
ple. After  the  Revolution  of  1905  the 
Social  Democratic  party  in  Russia  split 
into  two  factions.  The  more  radical 
had  a  majority,  holshinstvo;  the  more 
conservative  wing  was  a  minority, 
menshinstvo.  Hence  the  Bolsheviki 
meant  at  this  time  the  majority,  or 
more  radical  wing,  of  the  party  and 
the  Mensheviki  the  minority  wing. 
The  Bolsheviki  were,  of  course,  op- 
posed to  the  Provisional  Government 
which  they  considered  to  be  an  unholy 
compromise,  and  desired  to  overthrow 
it  at  once. 

Early  in  the  first  week  of  July 
dispatches  from  the  front  indicated 
that  the  offensive  against  the  Germans 
was  beginning.  Day  after  day  the 
reports  continued  describing  Russian 
successes,  and  for  a  while  it  seemed 
that  the  Russian  revolutionary  army 
was  to  score  a  great  triumph  over  the 
German  and  Austrian  forces. 

The  sudden  collapse  of  this  brilliant- 
ly begun  offensive  is  described  else- 
where. By  the  middle  of  the  month  it 
was  obvious  that  the  fighting  spirit 
had  gone  out  of  the  majority  of  the 
Russian  soldiers.  On  July  18  the 
Bolsheviki  succeeded  in  creating  some 
disorders  in  the  streets  of  the  capital, 
which  resulted  in  several  skirmishes 
between  the  demonstrators  and  the 
troops  of  the  garrison.  The  latter  still 
showed  themselves  loyal  to  the  Gov- 
ernment, and  the  disturbance  was  put 
down  with  sharp  determination. 

KERENSKY  BECOMES  THE  HEAD  OF  THE 
GOVERNMENT. 

On  July  20  it  was  further  announced 
that  Prince  Lvov  had  resigned  as 
Premier,  for  the  reason  that  Kerensky 
and  his  radical  associates  were  trying 
to  rouse  the  enthusiasm  of  the  soldiers 
at  the  front  by  declaring  Russia  form- 
ally a  republic.  Prince  Lvov  declared 
it  to  be  his  opinion  that  they  were 
trespassing  upon  the  prerogatives  of 
the     future     Constituent     Assembly, 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


which  alone  had  the  right  to  determine 
the  final  form  of  Russia's  permanent 
government.  Nevertheless,  five  non- 
Socialists  still  remained  in  the  Cabinet, 
so  that  it  still  remained  a  coalition 
government  with  Kerensky  as  Premier. 
At  the  same  time  Kerensky  removed 
Brusilov  as  Commander-in-Chief,  and 
in  his  place  appointed  General  Korni- 
lov,  the  Cossack  chief. 

From  this  time  Kerensky's  position 


powers.  Kerensky  and  his  associates, 
on  the  other  hand,  while  recognizing 
the  necessity  of  stricter  discipline  on 
the  fighting  fronts,  believed  that  the 
enthusiasm  of  the  soldiers  only  could 
save  Russia,  and  that  a  dictatorship, 
however  temporary,  would  kill  what- 
ever enthusiasm  there  still  remained 
and  lead  to  a  strong  movement  toward 
the  left,  toward  the  "Bolshevik!  of  the 
Left",  the  Leninites. 


KERENSKY  AND  BRUSILOV 
A  photograph  of  Kerensky  (right)  and  General  Brusilov  at  the  Russian  headquarters  on  the  Southwestern  front. 
"Stout  hearts  and  stern  hands  are  required  to  stay  the  rout  in  the  army,"  stated  the  Preniier,  and  for  a  while 
Brusilov  hoped  to  bring  the  army  back  to  its  old  morale  and  sweep  the  Germans  out  of  Russia. 

Copyright,  Underwood  &  Underwood 


was  peculiarly  trying.  There  was  deep 
discontent  throughout  the  nation  over 
the  failure  of  the  military  offensive. 
The  conservative  elements  laid  it  to 
the  agitation  for  democratic  prin- 
ciples which  had  been  carried  on  in  the 
army.  There  was  deep  discontent  with 
Kerensky's  policy  of  making  conces- 
sions to  the  radical  elements,  which  he 
was  undoubtedly  doing,  behind  the 
lines,  at  least.  These  "Bolsheviki  of 
the  Right,"  as  Kerensky  termed  the 
extreme  conservatives,  believed  that 
the  time  had  come  to  establish  a 
"strong  government,"  with  dictatorial 


THE  GAP  BETWEEN  CONSERVATIVE    AND 
RADICAL  WIDENS. 

Kerensky  has  since  stated  in  his 
recently  published  book  ("The  Prelude 
to  Bolshevism;  the  Kornilov  Rebel- 
lion," London,  1919)  that  conspiracies 
against  the  Provisional  Government 
were  forming  in  various  conservative 
circles,  notably  in  the  League  of  Army 
Officers,  the  Cossack  organizations 
and  among  the  financial  interests  of 
Moscow. 

Believing,  however,  that  the  nation 
as  a  whole  was  strongly  in  favor  of 
prosecuting   the  war   to   a   victorious 

691 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


conclusion  before  establishing  a  per- 
manent form  of  national  organization, 
Kerensky  determined  to  give  the  whole 
people  an  opportunity  to  express  them- 
selves through  something  more  broadly 
democratic  than  either  the  Soviet  or 
the  Duma.  So  he  called  a  national 
conference,  to  be  held  in  Moscow  in  the 
latter  part  of  August.  All  kinds  of 
organizations  and  social  bodies  were 
invited  to  send  delegates;  the  Zemstvos, 
the  co-operative  societies,  the  labor 
unions,  the  Red  Cross,  the  professional 
leagues  and  the  army  itself.  It  was,  in 
fact,  a  sort  of  provisional  constituent 
assembly,  whose  authority,  Kerensky 
hoped,  would  impress  both  the  extreme 
right  and  the  extreme  left. 

REPRESENTATIVES       OF       ALL       FACTIONS 
-     ASSEMBLE  IN  MOSCOW. 

The  gathering  took  place  in  Moscow 
on  August  25,  191 7.  As  nearly  as  was 
possible,  all  Russia  was  represented 
there.  For  three  days  representatives 
of  all  shades  of  political  opinion 
expressed  themselves  freely.  Kerensky 
states  in  his  book  that  the  parties  of 
the  extreme  right  hoped  to  develop  so 
strong  a  sentiment  in  their  favor  among 
the  delegates  that  they  might  make  it 
the  occasion  of  a  coup  d'etat,  and 
there  and  then  proclaim  a  dictatorship, 
with  the  Commander-in-Chief  as  its 
head.  If  this  is  true,  they  were  sorely 
disappointed.  The  keynote  of  the  con- 
ference was  sounded  when  Bublikov, 
representing  the  Liberal  Party,  made 
a  passionate  plea  to  the  middle  classes 
to  co-operate  with  the  democratic 
elements.  As  he  finished,  Tseretelli,  a 
Socialist  representative,  impulsively 
sprang  forward  and  gripped  his  hand, 
whereupon  the  floor  of  the  conference 
hall  became  the  scene  of  a  tremendous 
demonstration  of  enthusiasm. 

THE  CONFLICTING  STORIES  OF  THK  KOR- 
NILOV  REBELLION. 

The  result  of  the  Conference  was  to 
strengthen  Kerensky  in  his  belief  that 
a  coalition  Government  was  the  only 
thing  that  could  save  Russia  from 
anarchy.  Many  of  the  measures  Kor- 
nilov  demanded,  not  only  at  the  con- 
ference but  of  the  Provisional  Govern- 
ment directly,  Kerensky,  who  was 
apparently  developing  a  high  sense  of 

692 


his  own  importance,  believed  proper, 
but  he  objected  to  the  form  in  which 
they  were  put;  Kornilov  "demanded" 
them,  and  Kerensky  insisted  that 
Kornilov  give  the  first  example  of 
discipline  by  moderating  his  attitude 
toward  the  government. 

Now  come  the  contradictory  stories 
of  the  Kornilov  conspiracy.  Let  us 
take  Kerensky's  story  first.  He  says 
that  on  the  night  of  September  8,  1917, 
Vladimir  Lvov,  who  had  previously 
been  a  member  of  the  Cabinet,  came  to 
him  in  Petrograd  and  announced  that 
he  brought  a  message  from  Kornilov, 
at  army  headquarters  to  this  effect, 
that  the  Provisional  Government 
should  resign  from  power  and  hand 
over  their  authority  to  Kornilov. 
Kerensky  says  that  this  ultimatum 
came  as  a  complete  surprise,  that  he 
immediately  placed  himself  in  direct 
telegraphic  communication  with  Kor- 
nilov, who  verified  the  message,  and 
demanded  that  all  power  be  handed 
over  to  him. 

Kerensky's  measures  to  suppress 
this  act  of  rebellion  were,  naturally, 
backed  by  the  full  power  of  the  Soviet. 
Kornilov  had  dispatched  a  division  of 
Caucasians  toward  the  capital,  osten- 
sibly to  quell  a  Bolshevist  uprising, 
but  really,  so  Kerensky  believed,  for 
the  purpose  of  overthrowing  him, 
should  he  refuse  to  retire.  The  com- 
mander of  this  division.  General 
Krimov,  sensing  the  opposition  he 
would  have  against  him,  first  demon- 
strated to  him  by  the  refusal  of  the 
railroad  workers  to  transport  his  sup- 
plies and  troops,  came  to  Petrograd 
alone  and  shot  himself.  A  few  days 
later  Kornilov  also  came  to  a  realiza- 
tion of  the  hopelessness  of  a  counter- 
revolution from  the  right,  and  sub- 
mitted to  arrest.  For  a  few  days 
Alexiev,  though  very  reluctantly,  con- 
sented to  assume  the  chief  military 
command  in  his  place,  but  presently 
he  was  superseded  by  General  Duk- 
honin. 

KORNILOV'S    STORY    DIFFERS    IN    MANY 
PARTICULARS. 

On  the  other  hand,  Kornilov  said 
that  Savinkov,  Kerensky's  Minister  of 
War,  and  Lvov  had  come  to  him,  he 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


supposed  with  the  authorization  of 
Kerensky,  and  had  discussed  the  ques- 
tion of  the  dictatorship,  and  that  he 
had  consented  to  an  arrangement 
under  a  directorate  of  four,  of  which 
he  and  Kerensky  were  to  be  the  two 
dominating  personalities,  and  that  at 
the  last  moment  Kerensky  had  treach- 
erously gone  back  on  the  understand- 
ing, to  gain  credit  in  the  eyes  of  the 
radicals.      He    further    said    that    the 


highly  improper  to  have  anticipated 
the  findings  of  this  commission  by  any 
declaration  of  his  own.  Unfortunately 
the  final  catastrophe  came  before  the 
commission  could  conclude  its  work 
and  publish  its  findings.  Kerensky 
presents  his  own  testimony  before  the 
commission  with  explanatory  notes 
in  full  in  his  book.  His  story  is  plau- 
sible, but  it  is  probable  that  neither 
he  nor  Kornilov  told  all  the  truth. 


WHEN  THE  MEN  LAID  DOWN  THEIR  ARMS 
The  "Battalion  of  Death"  was  recruited  from  among  the  intellectual  classes  of  Russia.    Only  women  between  eight- 
een and  twenty-five  years  were  taken,  and  then  not  unless  they  were  of  exceptional  physique.    They  wore  their 
hair  cropped,  and  were  trained  by  one  of  the  regiments  which  remained  loyal  to  the  Kerensky  regime. 

International  News 


troops  had  been  dispatched  toward 
Petrograd  at  the  suggestion  of 
Savinkov.  So  Kornilov  said  in  plain 
words. 

Kerensky,  in  his  recent  work, 
ascribes  his  later  downfall  to  the  suspi- 
cion this  accusation  aroused  against 
him  in  the  minds  of  the  radicals. 
Certainly  the  conservative  papers  made 
the  most  of  this  accusation  and  openly 
denounced  him.  On  the  other  hand, 
he  says  that  he  did  not  come  out  with  a 
public  statement  of  the  actual  facts, 
because  a  commission  of  inquiry  had 
been  instituted,  and  it  would  have  been 


KERENSKY    DECLARES    RUSSIA    TO    BE    A 
REPUBLIC. 

On  September  15,  191 7,  Kerensky 
issued  a  proclamation  declaring  Russia 
a  Republic.  While  an  attack  from 
Kornilov  was  expected  and  the  result 
of  his  conspiracy  still  remained  in 
doubt,  the  Soviet  had  exerted  all  its 
power  and  influence  in  its  support  of 
the  Provisional  Government.  Fear  of 
a  reactionary  revolution  dominated 
the  masses  of  the  workers  and  soldiers 
who  had  supported  the  overthrow  of 
the  autocracy.  With  the  arrest  of 
Kornilov  and  the  return  of  more  or  less 

693 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


normal  conditions,  this  fear  began  to 
manifest  itself  into  a  strong  swing 
toward  the  left — toward  the  doctrines 
of  the  Bolsheviki.  It  was  Kornilov's 
attempted  revolution  "by  the  Bolshe- 
viki of  the  Right,"  Kerensky  says, 
which  brought  about  the  later  success- 
ful revolution  by  "the  Bolsheviki  of 
the  Left."  The  people  had  been  fright- 
ened, and  this  fear  caused  them  to 
turn  hastily  in  the  opposite  direction. 


Tchkheidze,  had  resigned,  Leon 
Trotzky  was  elected  to  fill  the  office 
he  had  vacated.  The  Soviet  was  now 
truly  in  the  hands  of  the  Bolsheviki. 

The  elements  now  in  power  in  the 
Soviet,  represented  by  such  men  as 
Trotzky,  held  that  the  Moscow  Con- 
ference had  not  truly  represented  the 
peasant  and  working  classes  of  Russia; 
that  the  bourgeoisie,  or  propertied 
classes,  had  been  the  controlling  ele- 


THE  KREMLIN,  IN  MOSCOW,  THE  HOLY  CITY 

Kremlin,  a  word  of  uncertain  origin,  is  used  to  designate  the  citadel  in  a  Russian  city.  The  best  known  kremlin  is 
that  of  Moscow  lying  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Moskva,  for  many  centuries  the  centre  of  the  political  and  religious 
life  of  Russia  and  still  the  most  venerated  place  in  the  heart  of  every  Russian. 


THE    BOLSHEVIKI    SECURE    CONTROL    OF 
THE  SOVIET. 

On  the  evening  of  September  13 
the  delegates  to  the  Petrograd  Soviet 
held  a  special  meeting  to  discuss  the 
situation,  and  it  was  on  this  occasion 
that  the  Bolsheviki  suddenly  developed 
a  majority  vote — 279  against  150.  At 
least  this  was  the  vote  against  the 
principle  of  a  coalition  government — in 
favor  of  an  exclusive  control  of  the 
state  by  the  representatives  of  the 
"proletariat."  The  result  of  this 
unexpected  swing  of  opinion  in  the 
Soviet  toward  the  left  was  the  resigna- 
tion of  the  members  of  the  Executive 
Committee,  on  the  19th,  It  was 
extremely  significant  that  after  the 
chairman  of  the  Executive  Committee, 

694 


ment  in  the  deliberations.  Therefore, 
being  now  in  control,  they  used  the 
Soviet  as  a  means  for  calling  another 
conference  in  Petrograd,  known  as 
the  Democratic  Congress,  which  was 
to  represent  the  working  classes  of 
Russia.  About  1,200  delegates  at- 
tended, representing,  first  of  all,  the 
provincial  Soviets.  Aside  from  these, 
however,  there  were  representatives  of 
the  Zemstvos,  the  labor  organizations, 
the  co-operative  societies  and  the 
peasants'  unions. 

THE      PROVISIONAL      GOVERNMENT       AT- 
TEMPTS TO  ASSERT  INDEPENDENCE. 

This  gathering  the  Provisional  Gov- 
ernment refused  to  recognize  officially, 
but  Kerensky  appeared  before  the 
opening  session,  in  his  private  capacity, 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


he  took  care  to  explain.  The  Govern- 
ment, he  declared,  would  henceforward 
recognize  no  bodies  except  the  Consti- 
tuent Assembly,  when  that  should  have 
been  elected. 

Kerensky  obviously  sensed  that  he 
was  facing  opposition  on  the  floor  of 
the  Democratic  Congress,  for  he 
immediately    assumed    a     belligerent 


that  no  change  should  be  made  in  the 
personnel  of  the  Provisional  Govern- 
ment without  its  sanction.  Of  this 
resolution  Kerensky  took  no  notice, 
for  several  days  later,  on  October  4,  he 
completely  reorganized  his  Cabinet, 
appointing  a  number  of  Constitutional 
Democrats  to  portfolios,  which  was 
against    the    principle    enunciated    by 


TYPES  OF  RUSSIAN  PEASANTS 


attitude.  Nor  did  he  make  a  mistake 
in  so  assuming,  for  a  strong  animosity 
was  shown  toward  him,  visible  in  the 
lack  of  applause,  the  hissing  of  his 
remarks  and  the  antagonistic  remarks 
from  various  parts  of  the  hall. 

"You  may  hiss,  my  friends,"  he 
paused  once,  to  remark,  "but  do  not 
forget  that  a  German  fleet  is  sailing  up 
the  Baltic!" 

THE  ACTIONS  AND  RESOLUTIONS  OF  THE 
CONGRESS. 

At  a  later  session  a  resolution  was 
passed    by    the    Congress    demanding 


Courtesy  of  the  Red  Cross  Magazine 

the  Congress — that  the  Government 
should  be  exclusively  Socialist.  But 
three  days  later  Kerensky  weakened 
and  arrived  at  a  compromise  with  the 
Congress.  The  result  was  some  further 
changes  in  the  Cabinet  in  which  the 
radicals  were  given  more  repre- 
sentation. 

As  a  last  act  the  Congress  organized  a 
body  which  was  to  serve  as  a  temporary 
constituent  assembly,  to  fill  the  interval 
until  the  real  Constituent  Assembly 
should  be  convened,  some  time  in 
December.    This  body  was  called  the 

695 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


Temporary  Council  of  the  Russian 
Republic.  As  a  compromise  the  "non- 
democratic"  elements  were  allowed 
certain  representation  in  it.  Further, 
the  Temporary  Council  was  invested 
with  the  right  to  act  in  an  advisory 
capacity  with  the  Government  and 
with  certain  initiative  powers. 

THE    BOLSHEVIKI    OPPOSE    THE     GOVERN- 
MENT OPENLY. 

On  October  20,  the  Temporary  Coun- 
cil held  its  first  meeting.  Trotzky 
and  a   number  of  his  associates  had 


ftUSSIAN  PEASANTS  AT  HOME 

By  Courtesy  of  the  Red  Cross  Magazine 


been  elected  as  members,  though  they 
had  been  strongly  opposed  to  its  crea- 
tion. Nor  had  they  any  intention  of 
participating  in  its  deliberations,  for  as 
soon  as  he  could  obtain  the  floor, 
Trotzky  rose  and  hurled  a  speech  of 
fiery  denunciation  at  the  Government 
and  at  the  Temporary  Council  itself. 

KERENSKY      ATTEMPTS     TO     OVERCOME 
THE  BOLSHEVIKI. 

As  he  had  set  himself  against  the 
"Bolsheviki  of  the  Right,"  so  Kerensky 
696 


now  faced  the  "Bolsheviki  of  the 
Left,"  the  real  Bolsheviki,  being  fully 
convinced,  as  he  was,  that  only  all 
classes  of  Russian  society  together 
could  save  Russia  from  the  enemy 
and  from  ruin.  Already  he  realized 
that  this  second  revolution,  from  the 
opposite  direction,  would  not  be  so 
easily  downed  as  had  been  the  first. 
Foreign  correspondents  who  saw  him 
at  this  time  reported  him  as  careworn 
and  obviously  suffering  from  nervous 
exhaustion.  And  there  was  distinctly 
a  note  of  despair  in  the  state- 
ment which  he  issued  on 
November  i ,  through  the  As- 
sociated Press,  to  all  the  news- 
papers of  the  Entente  coun- 
tries and  the  United  States. 

"Russia  has  fought  contin- 
uously since  the  beginning," 
he  said,  "She  saved  France 
and  England  from  disaster  in 
the  early  part  of  the  war.  She 
is  worn  out  by  the  strain, 
and  claims  now  that  the  chief 
weight  of  the  burden  should 
be  borne  by  the  Allies." 

THE  BOLSHEVIKI  NOW  RESORT 
TO  ARMED  FORCE. 

Indeed,  the  new  leaders  in 
the  Soviet  were  already  at 
this  time  preparing  the  first 
steps  toward  the  downfall  of 
the  Provisional  Government. 
On  being  elected  to  the  chair- 
manship of  the  Petrograd 
Soviet,  Trotzky  had  imme- 
diately organized  a  "military 
committee  of  revolution."  In 
the  evening  of  November  4, 
1 9 1 7, representatives  from  this 
committee  appeared  at  the 
staff  office  of  the  Petrograd 
garrison  and  demanded  the  right  of 
inspection  and  veto — that  no  orders 
should  be  given  without  the  consent 
of  the  committee.  This  demand  was 
flatly  refused. 

On  November  7,  191 7,  an  armed 
naval  detachment,  under  orders  from 
the  Soviet  revolutionary  committee, 
suddenly  appeared  at  the  gates  of  the 
Marie  Palace,  where  •  the  Temporary 
Council  was  in  session,  and  occupied 
the  building  by  force  of  arms.    Later 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


similar  action  was  taken  in  the  building 
of  the  Smolny  Institute  and  the 
Central  Telegraph  Agency. 

THE     SOLDIERS     REFUSE     TO     OBEY     THE 
GOVERNMENT. 

Against  this  hostile  action  the  Pro- 
visional Government  was  unable  to 
offer  any  immediate  resistance,  for  the 
troops  of  the  garrison  showed  them- 
selves indisposed  to  obey  commands. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  Bolsheviki 
also  refrained  from  a  too  active  mani- 
festation of  force,  for  within  the  Soviet 
there  was  still  a  strong  minority  in 
favor  of  compromising  with  the  Pro- 
visional Government. 

It  was  not  till  the  forces  of  the 
Soviet  appeared  before  the  Winter 
Palace,  the  headquarters  of  the  Pro- 
visional Government,  that  the  first 
actual  fighting  took  place.  As  the 
Bolsheviki  approached,  shots  were 
fired  from  within  the  grounds  of  the 
building,  and  the  attacking  party 
immediately  took  shelter  behind  the 
piles  of  firewood  which  had  been 
stacked  in  the  square  before  the  gates. 
From  here  they  opened  a  steady  fire 
at  the  windows  of  the  Palace.  The 
cruiser  Aurora,  whose  crew  had  gone 
over  entirely  to  the  Soviet,  drew  up 
off  the  Palace  and  opened  a  desultory 
fire.  About  thirty  of  the  military  cadets 
defending  the  Palace  were  killed,  and 
then,  toward  midnight,  the  rest  sur- 
rendered. 

KERENSKY  AND  HIS  CABINET  FLEE  FROM 
PETROGRAD. 

Kerensky  and  the  majority  of  his 
Cabinet  had  meanwhile  left  Petrograd. 
Outside  the  city  he  encountered  a 
small  force  of  Cossacks  under  the 
command  of  General  Krasnov,  with 
which  he  attempted  to  return  and 
suppress  the  rebellion.  But  the  Cos-* 
sacks  themselves  were  naturally  only 
half-heartedly  in  his  favor,  and  on 
approaching  the  city  began  deliberat- 
ing over  the  advisability  of  going  over 
to  the  Bolsheviki.  Kerensky  then 
fled,  and  so  disappeared  from  the 
arena  of  Russia's  internal  politics. 


Kerensky  had  failed  to  save  Russia 
though  he  had  striven  with  all  his 
might.  Sincerely  devoted  to  the  wel- 
fare of  his  country  he  had  given  all  his 
energy  and  strength  to  the  reconcilia- 
tion of  opposites  which  could  not  be 
reconciled,  grasping  at  the  shadow 
and  losing  the  substance.  He  believed 
in  the  power  of  words,  and  often 
talked  when  he  should  have  acted. 
Toward  the  end  of  his  power  he  was 
possessed  by  "delusions  of  grandeur" 
and  rebuffed  men  who  might  have 
aided  him  in  saving  Russia.  He  failed, 
but  whether  any  one  else  could  have 
succeeded  is  improbable. 

The  Bolsheviki  had  acted  according 
to  a  general  plan,  for  the  same  acts  of 
rebellion  occurred  in  all  the  principal 
centres  of  Russia  simultaneously.  Al- 
most everywhere  this  second  revolu- 
tion was  peacefully  and  bloodlessly 
accomplished,  except  in  Moscow,  where 
the  military  cadets  offered  a  determined 
resistance. 

THE    BOLSHEVIKI    PROCEED    TO    FORM     A 
GOVERNMENT. 

Having  gained  control  of  Petrograd, 
the  revolutionary  committee  of  the 
Soviet  immediately  issued  a  proclama- 
tion, announcing  the  "dictatorship 
of  the  proletariat" — the  advent  bi  the 
"real  revolution  of  the  Russian 
people."  The  programme  which  they 
published  enunciated  the  following 
points: 

First — to  open  negotiations  with 
all  the  belligerent  states  for  the  purpose 
of  obtaining  a  democratic  peace. 

Second — to  distribute  land  holdings 
among  the  peasants. 

Third — recognition  of  the  Soviet  as 
the  supreme  power  in  the  government 
of  Russia. 

Fourth — the  convocation  of  a  gen- 
uine Constituent  Assembly,  represent- 
ing the  Russian  democracy. 

On  the  following  day  another  proc- 
lamation announced  the  formation  of 
a  new  cabinet,  of  which  Nikolai  Lenin 
was  Premier,  and  Leon  Trotzky  Min- 
ister of  Foreign  Relations. 

Albert  Sonnichsen. 


697 


698 


Greek  Destroyers  Off  the  Piraeus,  the  Port  of  Athens 

Chapter  XLIII 


Greece  and  the  War — The  Venizelist  Revolt 

THE  ATTEMPT  OF  KING  CONSTANTINE  TO  ESTABLISH  AB- 
SOLUTISM IN  A  DEMOCRATIC  LAND 


(^REECE  lies  in  the  pathway  from 
Asia  to  Europe,  and  when  East 
invaded  West,  and  the  Turk  entered 
Europe,  Greece  became  a  subject 
nation  for  many  centuries.  Enslave- 
ment almost  blotted  out  her  previous 
history,  and  that  any  fraction  of  in- 
dividuality and  tradition  survived  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  her  mountain 
fastnesses  and  multitudinous  islands 
preserved  it  from  utter  extinction. 
With  the  turn  of  the  tide  in  the  other 
direction  in  the  nineteenth  century, 
what  was  left  of  Greece  began  a  new 
life  in  common  with  all  the  other  sub- 
ject races  under  Turkish  rule  in  the 
Balkans. 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY    AND    RUSSIA    DESIRED 
l\     WEAK  BALKAN  STATES. 

The  history  of  the  wars  against 
Turkey  has  been  told  in  a  previous 
chapter  (Chapter  IV).  Who  should 
take  the  Turk's  place  in  the  peninsula 
was  a  complicated  problem.  From 
the  point  of  view  of  Austria  or  Russia 
it  was  advantageous  to  maintain  a 
balance  of  power  among  the  Balkan 
States  that  would  be  so  nicely  poised 
as  to  keep  all  the  rivals  engaged  in 
maintaining  its  equilibrium.  It  was  a 
menace  to  this  balance  of  power  when 
Bulgaria  precipitated  the  second  Bal- 
kan War,  ending  in  the  Treaty  of 
Bucharest  which  left  her  so  angry. 
Stripped  of  the  Dobrudja  by  Rumania, 


and  of  Macedonia  by  Greece  and  Ser- 
bia, Bulgaria  bided  her  time.  She  had 
brought  on  the  war  herself  rather  than 
submit  her  claims  in  Macedonia  to 
arbitration,  but  she  felt  that  she  had 
been  over-punished  and  her  services 
against  the  Turk  under-recognized  by 
the  terms  of  the  treaty.  On  the  other 
hand,  Serbia  and  Greece  knew  they 
had  reason  to  fear  Bulgaria  and  had  a 
treaty  of  mutual  support  in  case  of 
Bulgarian  aggression. 

THE    ALLIES    SEEK    TO    WIN    THE    FAVOR 
OF  BULGARIA. 

Bulgaria  was  the  pivot  upon  which 
the  whole  question  of  the  Near  East 
turned,  and  their  mistaken  attitude 
toward  that  country  is  the  cause  of 
the  failure  of  the  Allies  in  the  Balkans. 
They  thought  to  recast  the  Treaty  of 
Bucharest  and  cut  up  Macedonia  into 
slices,  apportioning — with  a  fair  con- 
sideration for  racial  distribution — slices 
of  it  among  Serbia,  Greece  and  Bul- 
garia, hoping  to  establish  a  united 
action  of  the  Balkans  against  the 
Austro-Germanic  League.  Thus  Serbia 
and  Greece — their  certain  friends — 
were  to  be  made  to  pay  to  placate 
Bulgaria — a  possible  enemy.  So  think- 
ing, Allied  diplomacy  ignored  two 
facts:  the  ambition  of  Bulgaria  towards 
the  hegemony  of  the  peninsula,  and 
her  strongly  developed  Austro-Ger- 
manic leanings.     But  Serbia  saw  these 

699 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


things  and  to  Greece  they  were  par- 
ticularly distinct.  When  the  Triple 
Entente  pressed  concessions  to  Bul- 
garia upon  Greece  and  Serbia,  an 
atmosphere  of  doubt  was  created  in 
the  Greek  mind  which  the  Central 
Powers  were  quick  to  foster  by  vigor- 
ous propaganda.  Further,  not  content 
with  blinding  itself  as  to  the  signs  of 
the  times  in  Bulgaria,  Allied  diplomacy 
neglected  all  means  of  cultivating 
popular  support  in  Greece,  or  of  coun- 
teracting German  propaganda.  With 
the  failure  at  the  Dardanelles,  the 
tragedy  of  Serbia,  and  the  sacrifice  of 
Rumania  before  her  eyes,  was  it 
astonishing  that  Greece  held  back  and 
hesitated  to  pay  the  debts  of  honor  and 
of  gratitude  that  she  owed  to  Serbia 
and  professed  to  Russia,  England  and 
France? 

At  the  beginning  of  the  war,  popular 
sympathy  had  been  with  the  Allies, 
for  Greece  and  Serbia  had  been  allies 
in  the  last  war,  Russia,  France,  and 
England  had  set  Greece  up  as  a  nation, 
and  their  Premier,  M.  Venizelos,  was 
popular  and  pro-ally.  But  the  Greek 
Queen,  Sophia,  was  the  Kaiser's  sister 
and  she  exercised  a  powerful  influence 
with  all  members  of  the  governing 
classes,  and  was  moreover  clever 
enough  to  take  advantage  of  political 
divisions  to  aid  the  German  cause.  In 
the  tangle  there  was  only  one  man  who 
in  spite  of  Allied  blunders  saw  and 
persisted  in  seeing  that  the  cause  of 
liberty  must  be  that  of  Greece. 

VENIZELOS    THE     GREATEST     STATESMAN 
OF  MODERN  GREECE. 

That  man  was  Eleutherios  Venizelos, 
premier  of  Greece  and  leader  of  the 
Liberal  party.  In  1864,  in  the  little 
village  of  Murniaes  on  the  island  of 
Crete,  was  born  the  greatest  statesman 
modern  Greece  has  known.  He  was 
christened  Eleutherios,  meaning  Liber- 
ty, and  the  name  seems  to  have  in- 
fluenced his  vocation  in  life  through 
the  years  he  struggled  for  the  libera- 
tion of  Hellas  and  to  free  Christendom 
from  Prussian  militarism.  His  father 
had  first  intended  him  to  follow  in  his 
own  steps  as  a  merchant,  but  gave  the 
boy  a  liberal  education  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Athens,   where  he   passed   his 

700 


examinations  brilliantly,  and  returned 
to  Crete  to  practice  as  a  lawyer.  When 
only  twenty-three  he  entered  the 
Cretan  Assembly  and  soon  succeeded 
M.  Mitsotakis  as  leader  of  the  Liberal 
party.  It  seemed  to  be  the  Turkish 
policy  to  stir  up  factions  among  the 
population  so  as  to  involve  them  in 
internal  political  struggles.  When 
strife  flared  into  bloodshed  in  1889, 
Turkey  stepped  in  and  took  sanguinary 
reprisal.  Again  in  1895  revolution 
broke  out,  and  in  the  following  year 
Turkey  laid  more  massacres  to  her 
account.  At  last  the  Greek  govern- 
ment asked  the  Great  Powers  to 
intervene  on  behalf  of  their  little 
neighbor,  and  through  their  concerted 
action  for  a  time  Crete  had  a  measure 
of  autonomy  under  the  Sultan. 

Self-government  aff"orded  little  pro- 
tection against  the  Turk,  however, 
and  when  further  massacres  took  place 
the  Cretans  proclaimed  their  union 
with  Greece.  Leaving  his  practice, 
Venizelos  placed  himself  at  the  head  of 
the  insurgents  who  resisted  the  inter- 
ference of  the  Great  Powers  with 
obstinate  intrepidity  until  they  were 
obliged  to  yield.  In  1897,  war,  which 
the  Powers  had  striven  to  avert, 
broke  out  between  Greece  and  Turkey 
because  of  Crete.  Greece  was  obliged 
to  withdraw  her  forces  from  the  island, 
and  the  Cretans  were  again  forced  to 
accept  autonomy,  though  Venizelos 
and  his  supporters  did  so  conditionally, 
claiming  it  was  only  a  stage  towards 
the  national  aim  of  final  union  with 
Greece. 

THROUGH    VENIZELOS     CRETE     BECOMES 
GREEK  TERRITORY. 

The  Powers  appointed  as  High 
Commissioner  of  the  island  Prince 
George,  son  of  the  King  of  Greece, 
and  in  1898  he  took  over  the  reins  of 
government.  Time  passed,  however, 
the  goal  of  union  seemed  no  nearer, 
and  administrative  mistakes  added  to 
general  dissatisfaction.  A  general 
rising  at  Therisso  broke  out  in  1903. 
Venizelos  led  with  the  mountaineers 
their  rough  life  and  shared  their 
fortunes  until  Prince  George  resigned 
in  July,  1904.  The  rebels  had  taken  a 
vow  to  recognize   no  ruler  save  one 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


M.  ELEUTHERIOS  VENIZELOS,  GREEK  PREMIER 
The  Greek  premier  whose  meteoric  career  during  recent  years  has  astonished  the  world.  A  patriot,  feeling  the 
most  sacred  obligation  to  the  Constitution  and  to  the  National  Cause,  he  was  for  long  styled  a  traitor  and  an 
adventurer  by  ungrateful  fellow-countrymen.  Not  only  had  he  to  fight  against  a  treacherous  king  and  unscrupulous 
and  self-seeking  rivals,  but  he  had  to  fight  against  them  without  open  support  from  his  natural  friends.  Patient 
and  long-enduring,  possessed  of  great  vision  and  imagination,  Venizelos  could  realize  the  difficulties  of  the  Allied 
Powers  as  well  as  his  own.  In  the  bud  he  saw  the  triumph  of  his  dreams :  a  Greece  freed  from  tyranny  and  once 
more  united,  a  Greece  allied  with  those  powers  whose  traditional  ally  she  had  always  been. 

701 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


appointed  by  the  King  of  Greece,  and 
so  with  the  nomination  of  M.  Zaimis, 
a  former  premier,  brief  tranquillity 
succeeded.  The  Young  Turk  revolu- 
tion began  in  1908,  with  a  general 
loosening  of  authority  in  the  Ottoman 
Empire.  Austria  took  advantage  of 
the  time  to  annex  Bosnia-Herzegovina, 
the  Bulgarians  asserted  their  complete 
independence,  and  on  October  7,  the 
fourteenth  insurrection  since  1 830 
broke  out  in  Crete  with  the  same 
object  as  heretofore — the  union  of  the 
island  with  Greece.  The  government 
took  an  oath  of  fidelity  to  King  George 
and  chose  a  committee  of  six  to  govern 
the  island  in  the  name  of  the  Hellenic 
King,  but  it  was  not  until  1912,  when 
Venizelos  had  left  them,  that  the 
Cretans  were  formally  annexed  to 
Greece. 

Two  years  before  this  the  Cretan 
deputy  had  been  summoned  to  Athens 
by  the  Military  League  which  had 
been  formed  by  the  officers  of  the  army 
in  hopes  of  bringing  about  a  better 
state  of  affairs  in  their  country. 
General  unrest,  parliamentary  slack- 
ness, governmental  indifference  and 
laxity  of  discipline  were  reacting  upon 
the  national  life  so  that  the  country 
seemed  dead.  With  the  determination 
of  breaking  altogether  with  the  past 
the  Military  League  was  formed  and 
it  hoped  by  recasting  the  laws  to  re- 
vive the  nation.  There  had  been  no 
time  to  evolve  a  policy  to  fit  the  new 
situation,  and  it  soon  became  evident 
that  a  leader  with  a  matured  political 
programme  which  he  would  apply 
without  flinching,  was  imperative.  In 
their  need,  the  officers  of  the  army 
who  had  served  in  Crete  to  organize 
the  police,  remembered  Venizelos  and 
sent  for  him. 

THE  GREEK  CONSTITUTION  REVISED  AND 
REFORMS  INTRODUCED. 

The  constitution  was  revised,  legis- 
lative and  administrative  reforms  were 
carried  out,  the  favlokratia  or  "rule  of 
the  incompetent"  done  away  with, 
and — ^greatest  of  all — the  Balkan 
League  brought  about.  Knowing  that 
such  a  project  must  be  supported  by 
military  preparedness,  Venizelos  direct- 
ed improvements  in  army  and  navy, 

702 


and  in  May,  191 2,  when  Greece  held 
some  grand  manceuvres  the  Bulgarian 
and  Serbian  attaches  were  so  much 
impressed  by  what  they  saw  that  soon 
after  a  treaty  of  alliance  between  the 
three  powers  was  signed.  As  a  con- 
sequence of  Bulgaria's  defeat  in  the 
Second  Balkan  War,  and  through  M. 
Venizelos'  influence  in  the  Conference 
of  Bucharest,  the  territory  of  Greece 
was  much  enlarged,  and  the  popula- 
tion almost  doubled.  M.  Hanotaux  in 
"La  Guerre  des  Balkans  et  I'Europe" 
thus  sums  up  the  benefits  acquired  by 
Greece,  "If  ever  Pan-Hellenism  felt  on 
the  point  of  realizing  her  dream  it  is 
at  the  present  hour;  Crete,  the  islands, 
Albania,  Saloniki,  the  coast  as  far 
as  Kavalla  is  a  haul  the  consequences 
of  which  in  the  future  can  hardly  be 
estimated.  Greece  seems  to  be  the 
maritime  heir  of  the  Turkish  Empire." 
King  Constantine  (succeeding  his 
father  who  was  assassinated  in  Salon- 
iki, March  18,  191 3)  was  pleased  to 
confer  upon  his  Prime  Minister  the 
Grand  Cross  of  the  Order  of  the  Saviour 
accompanied  by  a  telegram:  "I  thank 
you  for  announcing  the  signing  of 
peace.  .  .  .  You  have  deserved  well 
of  your  country."  One  wonders  if 
King  Constantine  and  M.  Venizelos 
remembered  these  last  words  when  the 
time  of  exile  for  both  came, — for  the 
one  a  brief  stay  in  Saloniki  to  be  ended 
by  a  triumphant  recall  to  Athens,  for 
the  other  an  indefinite  sojourn  in 
Switzerland,  his  future  as  closed  in  as 
the  valleys  before  him. 

VENIZELOS    RESTORED    AND     STRENGTH- 
ENED THE  DYNASTY. 

The  issue  between  King  Constantine 
and  his  minister  was  never  a  personal 
one.  When  their  ways  of  thought 
divided,  the  enemies  of  the  Cretan 
patriot  always  sought  to  make  out 
that  Venizelos  was  anti-dynastic  and 
anti-Constantine.  On  the  contrary, 
when  Venizelos  was  called  upon  to 
address  the  crowd  in  Athens  in  the 
early  days  of  his  premiership,  he  spoke 
of  the  Greek  chamber  as  being  revision- 
ary  in  character.  "Constituent!" 
shouted  the  frenzied  crowd  who  blamed 
the  royal  house  for  all  the  evils  frorn 
which  the  people  suffered.    "Revision- 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


ary,  I  said,"  repeated  M.  Venizelos 
and  waited  calmly  until  the  shouting 
died  away  and  his  qualification  was 
accepted.  Consistent  with  this  dec- 
laration, too,  was  the  manner  in  which 
he  brought  forward  and  exalted  the 
throne  on  every  possible  occasion.  In 
his  opinion  Greece  was  not  ready  for 
a  democratic  form  of  government  but 
needed    a    dynasty,    and     the     thing 


GREECE    ONE    OF    THE    CHIEF    HEIRS    OF 
TURKEY. 

With  the  outbreak  of  war  and  Tur- 
key's entry  into  the  conflict,  all  hope 
for  the  maintenance  of  Balkan  peace 
vanished.  Venizelos  did  not  believe 
that  Turkey  would  survive  the  struggle 
and  sought  means  by  which  Greece 
could  help  the  Allies  in  that  part  of 
the  world.    By  reason  of  the  reforms 


CYPRUS,  THIRD  LARGEST  ISLAND  IN  THE  MEDITERRANEAN 

In  ancient  times  Cyprus  supplied  the  Greek  monarchs  of  Egypt  with  timber  for  their  fleets.  It  was  also  cele- 
brated for  its  copper  which  takes  its  name  (cuprum)  from  the  island.  It  is  now  bare  of  trees  and  little  mining 
has  been  done  in  modern  times.  Cyprus  belonged  to  the  Ottoman  Empire,  but  in  1878  passed  under  British 
control.  Picture  from  Henry  Ruscmn 


to  do  was  to  strengthen  the  one  that 
existed.     He    therefore    neglected    no 
opportunity  to  enhance   the  glory  of. 
Constantine. 

Greece  had  shown  her  ability  to  live 
and  go  forward,  and  after  191 3  Venize- 
los tackled  the  problem  of  extensive 
internal  reforms.  He  needed  a  long 
peace  for  this,  and  even  tried  to  revive 
the  Balkan  League,  notwithstanding 
memories  of  the  recent  war.  While 
Turkey  was  trying  to  exterminate  the 
Greek  population  of  the  Ottoman 
•  Empire,  M.  Venizelos  was  seeking  to 
reconcile  the  Greco-Turkish  differences. 


undertaken  by  the  Liberal  party  the 
opposition,  in  the  parliamentary  sense 
of  the  word,  had  disappeared.  The 
Liberal  party  was  all-powerful,  and 
the  king  could  not  dream  of  imposing 
his  personal  political  views.  It  was 
entirely  due  to  external  events  that  the 
design  to  substitute  personal  for  demo- 
cratic government  arose. 

In  another  chapter  the  attitude  of 
Greece  towards  the  war  during  1914 
and  1 91 5  has  been  outlined.  Upon 
the  outbreak  of  hostilities  Venizelos 
used  all  his  influence  to  have  Greece 
join  the  Allies.    Constantine  took  the 

703 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


stand  that  so  long  as  Bulgaria  re- 
mained neutral  and  the  Balkan  equili- 
brium created  by  the  Treaty  of  Bucha- 
rest was  not  upset,  Greece  would  remain 
neutral.  Early  in  1915  the  Triple 
Entente  decided  to  embark  upon  the 
Dardanelles  campaign,  and  became 
eager  to  secure  Greece's  help  to  hold 
Bulgaria  in  check,  and  to  secure  bases 
of  operation  in  the  neighborhood. 
Accordingly,  Greece  was  offered  con- 
cessions on  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor  in 
return  for  the  co-operation  of  her 
fleet,  and  the  use  of  a  single  division  of 
her  army.  The  territorial  concessions 
would  include  regions  of  Greek  colonies 
and  strengthen  her  hold  upon  the 
islands. 

THE    GREEK    GENERAL     STAFF     OPPOSES 
THE  GALLIPOLI  PROJECT. 

These  reasons  together  with  his 
firm  conviction  that  Greece  should 
stand  beside  her  former  allies  caused 
M.  Venizelos  to  press  earnestly  for 
intervention.  But  the  opinion  of  the 
Greek  General  Staff  condemned  the 
enterprise,  and  when  the  king  refused 
to  agree  with  M.  Venizelos,  the  latter 
resigned  in  March,  191 5.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded at  once  by  M.  Gounaris  who, 
without  dissolving  the  Chamber,  an- 
nounced a  policy  of  strict  neutrality. 
In  April,  M,  Gounaris  was  approached 
by  the  Entente  with  a  request  that 
Greece  should  make  war  upon  Turkey. 
Gounaris  submitted  proposals  which 
the  Allied  governments  allowed  to 
fall  through,  and  Gounaris  turned, 
rebuffed,  towards  the  pro-Germans 
and  began  to  create  an  anti-Venizelist 
party.  Constantine  was  ill  and  did 
not  interfere  by  word  or  deed  even 
when  his  minister  dissolved  the  legisla- 
tive body,  headed  a  furious  campaign 
against  the  Venizelist  candidates  for 
the  coming  elections,  and  told  the 
electors  that  they  must  choose  between 
Constantine  and  his  minister,  neu- 
trality or  hazardous  intervention. 
Many  new  seats  were  thus  won  by  the 
government  but  when  the  returns  were 
declared  in  June,  the  Liberal  party  had 
a  majority,  184  against  130.  Still 
Gounaris  held  office,  giving  as  a  pretext 
that  during  the  king's  illness  things 
must  continue  as  they  were,  and  the 

704 


ministerial  press  did  not  cease  to  calum- 
niate Venizelos.  Finally  Venizelos  was 
recalled  in  August. 

At  this  point  it  is  well  to  estimate 
the  strength  of  the  opposition  arrayed 
against  the  former  premier.  The  king 
himself  had  received  his  military  educa- 
tion in  Germany  and  was  possessed 
with  the  greatest  admiration  for  the 
Prussian  military  machine.  Of  his 
military  advisers.  General  Dousmanis 
and  Colonel  Metaxas,  the  former  was 
violently  anti-French  and  bureaucratic, 
and  the  latter,  like  the  king  himself,  a 
brilliant  product  of  the  Berlin  Kriegs- 
akademie.  Queen  Sophia,  of  course, 
had  her  own  special  instructions  from 
William  II  of  Germany  as  to  the  course 
she  should  pursue  in  her  native  coun- 
try's interests,  though  her  influence 
was  more  marked  in  the  creation  of  a 
pro-German  environment  at  court  and 
in  the  government  than  in  its  direct 
action  upon  her  husband. 

KING      CONSTANTINE       BELIEVED       GER- 
MANY   TO    BE    UNCONQUERABLE. 

The  royal  mind  seems  to  have  be- 
lieved at  this  time  that  only  an  inde- 
cisive peace  could  be  reached  in  Europe, 
and  that,  therefore,  it  would  pay  to 
maintain  neutrality  to  the  end.  It 
inclined  to  the  Austro-Germanic  Pow- 
ers as  a  shield  against  the  Slav  from 
without  and  a  protection  against  an 
inconvenient  development  of  democ- 
racy from  within.  We  have  not  all  the 
inside  history  of  Teutonic  intrigue, 
but  it  is  probable  that  Constantine 
and  William  II  met  in  July,  1915. 
The  attack  upon  Serbia  in  the  autumn 
was  outlined  to  the  Greek  king  and 
Bulgaria's  complicity  foreshadowed, 
Greece  must  remain  quiescent  or  she 
would  share  in  the  Serbian  disaster, 
but  the  price  of  her  non-intervention 
would  secure  territorial  integrity.  Un- 
fortunately the  Triple  Entente  chose 
this  very  season  to  press  the  question 
of  concessions  to  Bulgaria. 

In  continued  blindness.  Entente 
diplomacy  still  affected  to  believe  that 
Bulgaria  might  be  bought  with  the 
spoil  of  Macedonia,  but  Bulgaria  had 
entered  into  a  secret  treaty  with  Berlin, 
Vienna  and  Constantinople  in  July,  and 
between  the  14th  and  20th  of  Septem- 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


ber,  she  signed  a  further  treaty  with 
Turkey.  On  September  21,  after  the 
German  advance  upon  Serbia  had 
begun,  M.  Venizelos,  believing  that  his 
country  in  the  terms  of  her  alHance  with 
Serbia  must  enter  the  fray,  asked  the 
AlHes  for  150,000  men,  and  on  the 
23rd  of  the  month  asked  the  king  for 
an  order  of  general  mobilization  of  the 
Greek  army.    It  is  probable  that  Bul- 


assistance,  and  if  in  this  action  she 
found  herself  brought  face  to  face  with 
powerful  nations  he  was  certain  that 
Greece  would  do  her  duty,  A  vote  of 
confidence  was  carried  by  an  effective 
majority  of  46,  and  pro-German  activ- 
ities seemed  frustrated.  At  this  junc- 
ture Constantine  violated  the  Greek 
constitution  and  began  his  course  of 
substituting    personal    for    democratic 


ATHENS  FROM  THE  ACROPOLIS 

The  central  point  of  the  ancient  city  was  the  Acropolis :  the  modern  city  lies  almost  entirely  to  the  north  and  east 
between  the  Acropolis  and  Mount  Lycabettas,  and  along  the  west  slope  of  the  latter.  The  temple  and  the  other 
*  buildings  on  the  Acropolis  were  destroyed  by  the  Persians  (480-479  B.  C.)  and  never  entirely  rebuilt. 

Ruschin 


garia  took  the  first  steps  toward 
mobilization  on  September  21,  though 
her  formal  order  was  not  dated  until 
the  23rd. 

THE    KING'S    PARTY     BEGINS     TO     WORK 
AGAINST  VENIZELOS. 

This  Step  was  as  far  as  the  king  and 
his  premier  went  together;  at  this  point 
a  vigorous  royalist  programme  of 
resistance  was  set  on  foot  by  the 
Gounarists,  the  staff  officers,  the  paid 
agents  of  Germany,  by  Queen  Sophia 
and  the  king's  brothers.  When  the 
chamber  met,  Venizelos  in  an  impas- 
sioned speech  declared  that  Greece 
was  in  honor  bound  to  go  to  Serbia's 


government.  Summoning  M.  Veni- 
zelos to  the  palace  he  informed  him 
that  he  had  gone  beyond  his  rights 
and  demanded  his  resignation,  Octo- 
ber 5.  Then  in  face  of  popular  elec- 
tions and  the  vote  of  the  Chamber, 
Constantine  took  the  helm  of  state 
into  his  own  hands.  M.  Zaimis  was 
again  appointed  premier  and  pro- 
claimed a  policy  of  "benevolent  neu- 
trality." We  know  now  that  Constan- 
tine had  already  secretly  assured 
Bulgaria  that  Greece  would  not  aid 
Serbia. 

It  is  easy  to  be  wise  after  the  event; 
had  the  Allies  in  this  crisis  made  some 

705 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


forceful  demonstration  in  favor  of  the 
interventionists  and  offered  vigorous 
resistance  to  the  royalist  party,  the 
forces  which  were  just  landing  in 
Saloniki  would  have  had  a  different 
record  of  achievement,  and  it  is  even 
possible  that  the  tragedies  of  Serbia 
and  Rumania  might  have  been  avoided. 
As  it  was,  they  did  nothing.  In  the 
meantime  the  French  forces,  on  the 
invitation  of  Venizelos,  landed  at 
Saloniki  and  were  met  by  a  formal 
protest.  The  need  of  help  for  Serbia 
was  the  more  urgent  through  Con- 
stantine's  treachery.  When  M.  Zaimis 
formed  his  government  on  October  7th 
he  did  not  at  first  take  open  stand 
against  the  Venizelist  policy,  and  for 
that  reason  the  Liberal  majority  prom- 
ised its  support.  But  the  inertia  of  the 
Triple  Entente  and  the  fine  scrupulous- 
ness of  M.  Venizelos  left  the  king  a 
free  hand,  and,  master  of  the  staff 
and  of  the  army,  he  felt  himself  in  a 
position  to  resist  parliamentary  pres- 
sure. His  praises  were  sung  in  a  tone 
almost  of  adoration  by  a  chorus  of 
journalists  richly  bribed  by  Baron 
Schenck,  who  had  come  to  Greece 
originally  to  sell  Krupp  guns  and  had 
remained  to  buy  Greek  honor.  The 
way  lay  open  for  dictatorship,  and  on 
October  13th,  M.  Zaimis  by  Con- 
stantine's  orders  notified  Serbia  that 
Greece  could  not  enter  the  war  against 
Germany  and  Austria-Hungary. 

THE     ENTENTE      MAKES      ANOTHER     BID 
FOR    GREEK     ASSISTANCE. 

The  gage  was  flung;  Serbia  did  not 
dare  to  break  off  diplomatic  relations 
with  her  one-time  ally.  The  Entente 
tried  to  buy  Greek  support  of  Serbia 
by  offering  Cyprus.  The  Greek  Cham- 
ber protested  against  the  action  of  the 
government  by  adopting  the  pro- 
gramme of  the  Liberal  party  by  147 
votes  against  1 14,  declaring  the  declar- 
ations of  the  government  unsatis- 
factory, and  censuring  the  conduct  of 
the  Minister  of  War.  But  Constantine 
had  prepared  the  way;  the  Allies' 
offer  was  coolly  declined,  as  other  and 
more  alluring  promises  were  in  his 
mind,  and  he  there  and  then  pro- 
ceeded to  lay  the  fabric  of  absolutism 
within    the    country.     The    Chamber 

706 


which  had  voted  against  him  he 
dissolved,  the  minister  who  had  failed 
to  win  the  opposition  he  dismissed, 
and  nominated  in  his  place  M.  Skou- 
loudis,  whom  he  charged  with  the 
formation  of  a  Cabinet  that  was 
strongly  royalist  in  tone  and  which 
Constantine  intended  to  be  both  tool 
and  screen  in  bis  personal  government. 
While  the  king  was  thus  building 
up  royal  despotism  within  the  country, 
in  other  parts  of  the  peninsula  things 
were  going  ill  with  the  Allied  cause. 
The  overwhelming  disaster  that  fell 
upon  Serbia  and  the  ineffective  cam- 
paign of  the  Saloniki  contingent  are 
all  told  in  another  chapter  (Chapter 
XXH).  Their  effects  upon  the  popular 
mind  were  considerable.  The  royalists 
could  affirm  that  Serbia's  fate  would 
have  been  that  of  Greece  had  she  inter- 
vened when  the  Allies  wished;  Bul- 
garia no  longer  loomed  large  and 
menacing  in  the  public  eye,  for  she 
had  food  for  her  rapacity.  But  the 
Allied  occupation  of  Saloniki  was 
used  to  irritate  national  pride,  and  all 
the  time  the  grip  upon  the  Venizelist 
press  grew  daily  more  strangling  until 
one  by  one  the  papers  either  dropped  ofT 
and  suspended  publication  altogether, 
or  went  over  to  the  ministerial  side. 

THE  SUPPORTERS  OF  VENIZELOS  REFRAIN 
FROM  VOTING. 

There  was  no  election  campaign; 
M.  Venizelos  requested  his  friends  not 
to  run  for  office  and  advised  the  elec- 
tors not  to  vote.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
half  of  the  voters  were  under  arms, 
including  fifty-three  Venizelist  dep- 
uties, and  though  the  government  was 
ready  to  give  furloughs  to  its  sup- 
porters it  withheld  them  from  its 
opponents.  The  June  total  of  voters 
had  been  750,000,  the  December  elec- 
tion only  showed  200,000.  Constantine 
meant  this  Chamber — so  unrepre- 
sentative and  so  packed — merely  to 
serve  the  purpose  of  a  screen  for  his 
unconstitutional  acts:  he  relied  on  his 
military  council  almost  entirely  and 
used  the  Cabinet  only  as  their  tool. 
Through  his  military  council  he  began 
the  Germanization  of  the  army.  The 
leaders  of  the  army  needed  little  en- 
couragement in  this  project. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


THE  GREEK  COMMANDER  OF  FORT  RUPEL 
SURRENDERS  BY  ORDER. 

In  spite  of  Skouloudis'  advertised 
"benevolent  neutrality"  towards  the 
Triple  Entente  he  announced  his  inten- 
tion of  disarming  soldiers  who  might 
be  driven  back  on  Greek  soil,  and  a 
threatening  note,  a  partial  blockade, 
and  a  painful  discussion  were  neces- 
sary in  November  to  force  him  to  re- 
move this  menace  to  the  rear  of  the 
Saloniki  force.  Finally,  when  some  of 
the  escaping  Serbians  took  refuge 
upon  Greek  soil  the  ill-treatment  .they 
suffered  contained  no  measure  of 
benevolence.  To  guard  against  this 
ill-will.  Allied  warships  on  January  lo, 
1916,  seized  Corfu  and  prepared  relief 
for  such  Serbians  as  had  taken  refuge 
on  the  Albanian  coast.  Later  in  April 
when  these  same  Serbians — refreshed 
and  reformed — desired  to  rejoin  the 
Allies  in  Saloniki,  M.  Skouloudis 
offered  objection  after  objection  to 
their  passing  over  Greek  soil.  The 
movement  of  the  Serbians  seems  to 
have  alarmed  Bulgaria  also,  for  on 
the  23rd  of  May  a  column  of  Germano- 
Bulgarians  advanced  over  the  border 
to  Fort  Rupel  in  the  Demir-Hissar 
Pass  and  summoned  the  Greek  garrison 
to  surrender.  Slight  resistance  was 
offered,  but  in  the  night  the  Greek 
troops  received  an  order  to  withdraw 
and  the  incident  was  explained  in  the 
Athenian  Chamber  as  a  concession  to 
neutrality! 

There  was  instant  reaction  from  two 
directions.  The  Allied  uneasiness  at 
this  threat  to  their  right  flank,  and  the 
evident  co-operation  of  the  Skouloudis 
Cabinet  and  the  king  with  the  Bul- 
garians, caused  them  to  send  a  landing 
force  to  the  Bay  of  Salamis.  In  Athens 
the  population  rose,  protesting  that 
Greek  interests  had  been  sold  to  the 
Germans  since  the  detested  Bulgarians 
were  allowed  to  occupy  the  sacred  soil 
of  Greece.  Nevertheless,  the  royal 
programme  continued.  At  the  end  of 
May,  General  Yannakitsas  warned  his 
troops  that  they  must  be  prepared  to 
fight,  and  the  king  in  an  address  to  the 
men  stated  that  as  soldiers  they  should 
♦  be  obedient  to  orders  and  not  to  senti- 
ments.  It  seemed  as  if  the  stream  were 


at  last  flowing  as  William  II  and  Con- 
stantine  had  desired.  Athenian  hooli- 
gans incited  by  German  money  dem- 
onstrated against  the  English  and 
French  legations  with  the  apparent 
approval  of  the  Chief  of  Police.  On 
the  2 1st,  the  Entente  struck  hard; 
they  presented  an  ultimatum  which 
contained  four  demands: 

1.  Immediate  demobilization  of  the 
Greek  army. 

2.  The  dismissal  of  the  Skouloudis 
Cabinet,  and  its  replacing  by  a  business 
cabinet  without  bias. 

3.  The  dissolution  of  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies  to  be  followed  by  free 
elections,  when  demobilization  was 
complete. 

4.  A  change  in  the  police  force 
whereby  certain  individuals  known  to 
be  in  the  Austro-German  pay  were  to 
lose  their  places. 

THE  TERMS  OF  THE  ALLIES    ARE   RELUC- 
TANTLY MET. 

When  this  note  was  delivered,  British 
and  French  warships  appeared  before 
the  Piraeus  and  a  practical  blockade 
was  established.  Awed  at  last  by  this 
show  of  force  and  energy,  Constantine 
submitted  for  the  moment,  allowed 
M.  Skouloudis  to  be  put  out  and 
recalled  M.  Zaimis  who,  on  June  23rd, 
accepted  the  ultimatum.  Six  days 
later  general  demobilization  of  the 
army  was  ordered,  and  by  the  end  of 
July  it  was  on  a  peace  footing.  Yet 
once  again,  cunning  robbed  the  move- 
ment of  its  salutary  effects  by  creating 
among  the  returned  soldiers  in  their 
own  homes  Reservists'  Leagues  whose 
object  was  the  defense  of  their  king. 
The  Chamber  was  not  dissolved — 
merely  adjourned,  and  still  pro-Entente 
newspapers  were  prosecuted.  Baron 
Schenck  and  other  German  agitators 
continued  their  work.  In  those  times 
the  life  of  Venizelos  was  threatened, 
but  he  continued  to  conduct  vigorously 
an  electoral  campaign.  Constantine 
at  the  bidding  of  his  imperial  brother- 
in-law  was  playing  for  time,  and  finally, 
to  postpone  the  elections  from  which 
the  Venizelists  were  hoping  so  much, 
contrived  the  invasion  of  Eastern 
Macedonia  by  the  Germano-Bulgarian 
forces. 

707 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


During  June  and  July  the  military 
situation  at  Saloniki  had  not  changed 
from  the  deadlock  which  had  begun  in 
December,  1915,  after  the  withdrawal 
into  the  zone  around  the  city.  An 
Allied  offensive  was  planned  to  take 
place  early  in  August  by  which  it  was 
hoped  to  influence  the  Greek  elections 
in  favor  of  the  Liberal  party  and  inter- 
vention and  also  to  occupy  the  atten- 
tion of  Bulgaria  on  her  southern 
boundary  so  that  Rumania,  already 
secretly  committed  to  the  Allies,  might 
have  freedom  to  complete  her  mobiliza- 
tion. Accordingly,  on  August  10,  an 
advance  against  Doiran  was  under- 
taken by  the  Allied  forces.  Suddenly 
the  scene  changed;  Bulgaria  had  cog- 
nizance of  the  advance  and  meant  to 
strike  first.  Where  her  advance  was 
met  by  Serbian  or  Allied  troops  it  was 
checked,  but  in  Eastern  Macedonia 
the  Bulgarians  advanced  and  occupied 
the  cities  of  Ka valla,  Seres,  Doxata 
and  Drama,  together  with  what 
amounted  to  a  whole  province.  The 
Greek  troops  were  ordered  by  the 
government  not  to  resist  the  Bulgarian 
advance,  and  submitted  without  strik- 
ing a  blow  to  being  carried  away  and 
transported  to  Germany.  The  Hellenic 
Government  had  admitted  the  invaders 
as  guests,  so  to  speak,  and  promises 
had  been  made  to  maintain  the  local 
administration  and  safeguard  the  se- 
curity and  tranquility  of  the  in- 
habitants. 

THE   BULGARS   COMMIT   MANY   EXCESSES 
IN  EASTERN  MACEDONIA. 

Nevertheless,  only  a  few  days  after 
their  entry  into  Greek  territory  they 
gave  themselves  up  to  excesses  and 
devastai:ions  of  every  sort.  Instead  of 
maintaining  the  local  Greek  authorities 
for  any  period  of  time  the  administra- 
tion was  entrusted  to  well-known 
Comitadjis  upon  whom  the  Bulgarian 
government  had  conferred  military 
rank,  or  to  Greek  officials  who  had  been 
corrupted.  Their  authority  was  that 
of  brigands  and  criminals  as  the  Report 
of  the  Greek  University  Commission 
upon  Atrocities  and  Devastations  clear- 
ly proves.  Nor  was  this  vandalism 
merely  the  result  of  Greco-Bulgarian 
jealousy.    It  had  the  definite  purpose 

708 


of  clearing  Eastern  Macedonia  of  its 
Greek  population  by  famine,  by  out- 
rage, by  torture,  by  deportation,  and 
by  murder.  It  is  anticipating  history 
only  a  little  to  add  that  when  Greece 
entered  the  war  the  persecution  in 
Macedonia  became  even  more  cruel. 
Deportations  of  public  employees  and 
later  of  all  persons  between  the  ages  of 
15  and  60  years  were  made  for  the 
purpose  of  supplying  Bulgaria  with 
labor  for  building  strategic  roads  and 
the  work  in  the  fields.  Privation  and 
maltreatment  took  fearful  toll  of  these 
wretched  victims  so  that  the  figures 
of  the  report  show  that  more  than 
four-fifths  (at  least  70,000  persons) 
succumbed  to  the  savagery  of  their 
enemies.  Thus  was  a  province  of 
Greece  betrayed  by  its  king  who  had 
based  his  policy  of  neutrality  upon  a 
condition  of  territorial  integrity;  who 
had  accepted  the  guarantees  of  his 
country's  hereditary  enemies  that  they 
would  respect  the  lives,  liberty  and 
property  of  his  subjects. 

This  was  a  severe  blow  to  Con- 
stantine's  prestige;  and  a  vigorous 
movement  of  protest  at  once  took  place 
in  Athens  and  other  large  cities.  Be- 
fore the  house  of  M.  Venizelos  an 
immense  crowd  gathered  to  cheer  for 
the  chief  of  the  Liberal  party.  To  them 
the  ex-premier  proposed  that  they 
should  elect  a  delegation  which  should 
submit  to  the  king  an  appeal  that  he 
had  prepared.  He  read  it  to  them  and 
the  great  concourse  approved  it  en- 
thusiastically. 

'y*HE  GREEKS  IN  SALONIKI  RISE  IN  REVOLT. 

All  was  in  vain.  King  Constantine 
refused  to  receive  the  deputation, 
alleging  illness,  and  on  the  same  ground 
delayed  the  dissolution  of  the  Chamber 
and  the  elections.  But  he  could  not 
stay  the  march  of  events  which  in  the 
next  few  weeks  came  thick  and  fast. 
The  Bulgarian  invasion  had  harmed  the 
royal  cause  seriously  in  that  it  had  cut 
in  two  the  army — hitherto  his  greatest 
asset.  On  August  30,  a  revolution 
broke  out  in  Saloniki.  The  insurgents 
were  Cretan  gendarjnerie  and  Mace- 
donian volunteers;  a  Committee  of 
National    Defense   was   formed   under 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


Colonel  Zymbracakis  who  addressed  a 
proclamation  to  the  people  inciting 
them  "to  cease  to  obey  the  authorities 
who  had  betrayed  the  national  honor," 
and  exhorting  the  army  to  deliver  the 
fatherland. 

After  some  disorder  General  Sarrail 
interfered  to  save  bloodshed  and  the 
troops  of  the  5th  Division  quartered  at 
Saloniki  either  joined  the  Committee 


THE   DEPOSITION   OF    THE    KING    IS   SERI- 
OUSLY  DISCUSSED. 

King  Constantine  experienced  great 
difficulty  in  finding  a  successor.  He 
sent  for  M.  Dimitracopoulos  intending 
to  form  an  ordinary  political  ministry, 
but  the  latter,  when  he  found  that  the 
Allies  still  insisted  upon  compliance 
with  their  note  of  June  21,  resigned  at 
once.    Then  the  king  had  recourse  to 


MEMBERS  OF  THE  GREEK  ROYAL  FAMILY 

To  the  right  is  Prince  Alexander  who  succeeded  his  father.  He  is  three  years  younger  than  the  ex-Crown  Prince 
George,  who  together  with  bis  three  sisters  and  Prince  Paul,  accompanied  his  parents  into  exile.  Embarked  for 
Italy,  they  had  not  yet  reached  the  residence  of  their  choice  when  their  hopes  were  dashed,  and  they  had  to  slip 
out  of  Lugano  en  route  for  Switzerland  amidst  manifestations  of  public  scorn.  Ruschin 


or  were  disarmed.  Those  officers  who 
resigned  were  allowed  to  go  to  Athens 
where  the  king  received  and  congrat- 
ulated them.  Franco-British  warships 
appeared  off  the  Piraeus  on  September 
I,  and  demanded  the  dismissal  of 
Baron  Schenck  and  his  followers, 
the  immediate  disbanding  of  Reservist 
Leagues,  and  control  of  all  com- 
munications. On  the  loth,  the  Reser- 
vists demonstrated  against  the  French 
Legation  and  on  the  nth,  the  premier, 
helpless  against  the  forces  of  anarchy 
breaking  out  all  over  the  country, 
resigned.  He  had  never  been  strong 
enough  to  rule  Greece. 


M.  Nicholas  Calogeropoulos,  a  member 
of  the  Germanophile  coterie  who  pro- 
ceeded to  form  a  ministry  of  second- 
rate  men  of  noted  anti-Venizelist 
tendencies.  To  this  ministry  the  Allies 
refused  recognition  although  M.  Calo- 
geropoulos published  his  intention  of 
complying  with  their  note.  On  Septem- 
ber 20,  Constantine  addressed  some 
5,000  young  infantry  recruits  in  a  spirit 
of  pure  absolutism,  informing  them 
that  they  were  "soldiers  of  the  king 
owing  blind  devotion  to  the  will  of  the 
king."  On  the  22nd,  a  battalion  of  the 
Greek  revolutionary  army  at  Saloniki 
left  for  the  front  to  fight  against  the 

709 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


Bulgars.  Two  days  later  the  Congress 
of  Hellenic  Colonies,  assembled  in  Paris, 
declared  the  deposition  of  King  Con- 
stantine.  Early  next  morning  M. 
Venizelos  and  Admiral  Coundouriotis 
set  sail  from  Phalerum  for  Crete — the 
revolution  had  begun. 

In  a  statement  published  before  he 
left,  the  Cretan  patriot  reviewed  the 
injuries  suffered  by  Greek  honor,  and 
added,  "Do  not  think  I  am  heading  a 
revolution  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the 
word.  The  movement  now  beginning 
is  in  no  way  directed  against  the  king  or 
his  dynasty.  This  movement  is  one 
made  by  those  of  us  who  can  no  longer 
stand  aside  and  let  our  countrymen  and 
our  country  be  ravaged  by  the  Bul- 
garian enemy.  It  is  the  last  effort  we 
can  make  to  induce  the  king  to  come 
forth  as  King  of  the  Hellenes  and 
follow  the  path  of  duty  in  the  protec- 
tion of  his  subjects." 

THE     ISLANDS     ARE     FIRST     TO     RISE     IN 
REVOLT. 

At  the  same  time  manifestoes  came 
in  to  the  king  from  many  of  the  islands, 
Mytilene,  Samos,  Chios,  demanding 
intervention,  and  over  seventy  Anti- 
Venizelist  deputies  and  some  prominent 
army  officers  urged  the  king  to  enter 
the  war.  The  revolution  in  Crete  was 
so  decided  that  in  ten  days  the  insur- 
gents to  the  number  of  30,000  had  com- 
plete possession.  M.  Venizelos  was 
received  with  enthusiasm  at  Canea  by 
the  people  and  the  troops  and  he  issued 
a  proclamation  reviewing  the  disorder 
which  had  resulted  from  the  fatal  policy 
of  the  king  during  the  last  year  and  a 
half.  Immediately  adherents  flocked 
to  the  cause.  In  all  the  larger  islands 
royal  officials  were  replaced  by  Venize- 
lists,  from  Athens  itself  many  officers 
and  men  set  sail  for  Saloniki,  the  Con- 
gress of  Hellenic  Colonies  sent  their 
assurance  of  support  "on  the  path  of 
honor  and  glory,"  the  Committee  of 
National  Defense  placed  itself  at  the 
disposal  of  the  movement.  On  the  last 
day  of  September  a  triumvirate  con- 
sisting of  Venizelos,  Coundouriotis  and 
Danglis  was  formed  to  direct  the 
National  Movement  towards  the  form- 
ing of  a  Provisional  Government. 

Meanwhile,  unrecognized  and  inef- 

710 


fective,  the  Calogeropoulos  Cabinet 
felt  bound  to  resign,  and  King  Con- 
stantine  then  called  to  the  head  of  the 
government  Professor  Spyridon  P. 
Lambros  who  proceeded  to  form  a 
service  Cabinet  in  accordance  with 
the  Allied  note.  That  same  day, 
October  9,  Venizelos  in  Saloniki  amid 
scenes  of  wildest  enthusiasm  estab- 
lished the  Provisional  Government 
"with  full  authority  to  organize  the 
forces  of  the  country  with  the  object 
of  joining  the  Allies  and  fighting  by 
their  side  against  all  their  enemies." 

HEAVIER    ALLIED    DEMANDS    ARE    MADE 
UPON  GREECE. 

Afterwards  a  conference  called  by 
the  Entente  at  Boulogne  gave  the 
revolutionary  government  a  qualified 
recognition.  Only  in  the  Peloponnesus 
and  in  Athens  did  the  king's  cause  seem 
to  prosper,  and  the  Allies  were  laying 
increasingly  heavy  demands  as  a  pre- 
caution against  treason,  for  it  was 
suspected  that  there  was  a  royalist 
plot  afoot  to  send  forces  to  Thessaly  to 
co-operate  with  a  German  army  in  an 
attack  upon  Saloniki.  Early  in  Octo- 
ber Admiral  Dartige  du  Fournet  pre- 
sented an  ultimatum  demanding  that 
Greece  should  hand  over  the  Greek 
fleet  entire,  save  for  the  armored 
cruiser  AverofT  and  the  battleships 
Lemnos  and  Kilkis,  by  I  o'clock  of  the 
iith,  and  even  the  vessels  retained 
were  to  be  disarmed  and  their  crews 
reduced  to  one-third,  while  the  forts 
on  the  seacoast  must  be  dismantled 
and  the  two  commanding  the  moorings 
turned  over  to  the  Admiral.  At  the 
same  time  the  Allies  took  control  of 
the  police  and  demanded  that  Greek 
citizens  be  prohibited  from  carrying 
arms,  that  the  sending  of  war  munitions 
to  Thessaly  be  stopped,  and  that  the 
embargo  on  the  exportation  of  Thessa- 
lian  wheat  should  be  raised. 

A  period  of  suspense  and  delay  fol- 
lowed. The  royalists  put  oiif  fulfilment 
of  the  conditions  prescribed  and,  en- 
couraged by  their  success  in  evasion 
and  the  Bulgarian  victories  in  Ruma- 
nia, grew  more  and  more  insolent, 
while  the  nation  in  general,  because  it 
was  ignorant  of  the  king's  German 
intrigues  but  felt  the  effects  of  block- 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


ade  and  of  the  Allied  demands,  grew 
more  anti-Entente.  On  account  of  a 
slight  collision  between  royalist  and 
nationalist  troops  on  the  frontier, 
General  Sarrail  and  the  Greek  Govern- 
ment established  the  Neutral  Zone 
between  the  territories  of  the  Provi- 
sional Government  and  Old  Greece, 
but  it  is  all  of  a  piece  with  Entente 
diplomacy  in  the  Near  East  that 
Thessaly  and  Epirus,  which  devoted 
to  Venizelos  were  only  waiting  the 
appearance  of  Saloniki  contingents 
to  rise,  were  thus  prevented  from 
doing  so.  On  the  17th  of  November 
Admiral  Dartige  sent  M.  Lambros  a 
new  note  demanding  the  surrender  of 
eighteen  field  batteries,  sixteen  moun- 
tain batteries  with  a  thousand  rounds 
of  projectiles  per  battery,  as  well  as  of 
4000  Mannlicher  rifles,  140  machine- 
guns  and  50  automobile  trucks,  to  make 
up  for  the  war  material  which  it  had 
surrendered  to  the  Bulgarians  in  Au- 
gust. Three  days  later  the  diplomatic 
representatives  of  the  Central  Powers 
were  ordered  to  leave  Greece,  and  on 
the  22nd  an  ultimatum  demanding  the 
cession  of  ten  mountain  batteries  be- 
fore the  1st  of  December  and  the  rest 
before  the  15th  was  delivered  to  the 
Greek  Government.  Athens  seethed 
with  excitement,  especially  when  it 
was  learned  that  the  Venizelos  govern- 
ment had  declared  war  on  Bulgaria 
and  Germany. 

KING    CONSTANTINE    HOPES   TO    AROUSE 
POPULAR  SENTIMENT. 

By  December  i,  nothing  had  been 
done  towards  surrendering  the  guns 
and  Admiral  Dartige  after  an  inter- 
view with  King  Constantine  went 
away  with  the  impression  that  a  show 
of  force  was  all  that  was  necessary  to 
bring  about  compliance,  and  that  no 
resistance  was  contemplated.  It  is 
evident  now  that  the  king  was  luring 
the  Allies  to  their  own  destruction  by 
causing  them  to  formulate  and  enforce 
demands  irritating  to  the  popular 
pride,  and  influencing  them  to  defeat 
their  own  ends  by  neutralizing  the 
efforts  of  the  Venizelists  by  the  creation 
of  the  Neutral  Zone.  On  the  night  of 
*  the  29th  the  troops  of  the  garrison  of 
Athens   left   their   barracks  and    took 


up  position  in  the  environs  of  the  city, 
and  a  decree  was  published  authorizing 
voluntary  engagements. 

The  military  authorities  were  or- 
dered not  to  hinder  the  Allies  in  disem- 
barking but  to  follow  them  in  equal 
numbers  and  to  prevent  the  execution 
of  the  Admiral's  commands.  As  Anglo- 
French  detachments  advanced  from 
the  sea  along  the  roads  to  Athens  the 
Greek  soldiers  blocked  their  way  and 
opened  fire.  The  landing  forces,  unpre- 
pared for  resistance,  suff"ered  cruel 
losses.  All  through  that  day  the 
fighting  continued  for  through  lack  of 
preliminary  arrangements  the  Allied 
fleet  remained  almost  inert.  Only  a 
few  shells  were  fired  into  the  garden 
of  the  Grand  Palace.  Finally,  on 
December  2, at  2  a.m.  in  the  morning, 
the  king  proposed  to  surrender  six 
mountain  batteries  instead  of  ten,  and 
the  Allied  troops  withdrew  from  the 
city.  The  day  was  spent  by  the 
Royalists  in  hunting  out  the  Venizelists 
whom  they  massacred,  tortured  and 
imprisoned,  and  also  destroyed  news- 
paper offices  of  the  Liberal  press. 

THE    KING    AND    HIS    PARTY    YIELD     TO 
SUPERIOR  FORCE. 

On  December  7,  the  Entente  an- 
nounced a  blockade  of  the  Greek 
coasts,  and  on  the  14th  presented  a 
note  ordering  complete  demobiliza- 
tion of  the  army,  restoration  of  control 
by  the  Allies  over  posts,  telegraphs 
and  railways  and  the  release  of  the 
Venizelists  who  had  been  imprisoned; 
failing  compliance,  the  Allied  Ministers 
were  instructed  to  leave  Greece  and  a 
state  of  war  would  begin.  The  Greek 
government  thus  found  itself  com- 
pelled to  choose  between  peace  and  war 
and  accepted  the  ultimatum,  but  true 
to  its  nature,  began  to  quibble  about 
the  construction  of  the  terms.  On  the 
31st,  a  Second  Allied  Note  was  deliv- 
ered, containing  their  demands  for 
military  guarantees  and  for  reparation 
for  the  events  of  the  ist  and  2nd  of 
December,  but  agreeing  not  to  allow 
the  Venizelist  troops  to  profit  by  the 
withdrawal  of  Royalist  troops,  or  to 
pass  over  the  Neutral  Zone.  The 
Greek  government  objected  to  certain 
provisions,    especially    that    referring 

711 


fflSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


to  the  immediate  release  of  the  Venize- 
lists,  but  on  January  9,  the  Allies 
answered  the  protest  by  giving  forty- 
eight  hours  in  which  to  comply. 

This  ultimatum  was  drafted  by  the 
Allied  War  Council,  then  sitting  in 
Rome,  and  was  due  to  the  decision  of 
Premiers  Lloyd  George  and  Briand  to 
enforce  fresh  vigor  in  the  handling  of 
the  Greek  situation.  An  important 
development  was  that  Italy  now  came 
into  full  agreement  with  Great  Britain, 
France  and  Russia,  in  regard  to  the 
whole  course  of  action  in  the  Balkan 
Peninsula.  Shrewd  as  ever,  the  king 
recognized  that  he  had  reached  the 
limit  of  Allied  patience  and  he  accord- 
ingly accepted  their  terms.  The  trans- 
fer of  Greek  troops  to  the  Peloponnesus 
as  demanded  in  the  Note  began,  and 
on  January  24,  the  Greek  government 
formally  apologized  to  the  Allied 
Ministers,  and  in  front  of  the  Zappeion 
the  flags  of  the  Entente  were  solemnly 
saluted. 

THE    UNDIGNIFIED    ALLIED     DIPLOMACY 
KEPT  GREECE  NEUTRAL. 

The  Allied  diplomatic  quibbling,  un- 
dignified and  unworthy  though  it 
seems,  yet  succeeded  in  keeping  Greece 
neutral.  An  attack  from  the  rear  on 
Saloniki  was  held  suspended  as  long 
as  Constantine  did  not  openly  join 
with  the  Central  Powers.  Further- 
more, it  must  be  remembered  that  the 
Allies  were  hampered  in  their  actions 
in  that  they  were  by  no  means  united 
in  their  views  of  the  situation.  Italy 
disliked  Venizelos,  because  she  feared 
the  increase  of  Greek  power  in  the 
Mediterranean,  and  imperial  Russia 
branded  him  as  revolutionary.  So  he 
was  to  some  extent  blocked  by  the 
temporizing  of  the  Allies  with  Con- 
stantine and  his  advisers.  Yet  he 
held  on  to  his  purpose,  ready  to  change 
his  means  as  the  occasion  demanded. 
"I  have  tried,"  he  said,  "not  to  cause 
any  difficulties  for  my  friends.  I  am 
told  to  evacuate  Katerini — I  evacuate 
Katerini.  I  am  told  to  abandon 
Cerigo — I  abandon  Cerigo.  The  Neu- 
tral Zone  is  imposed  on  me,  I  respect 
the  Neutral  Zone.  I  am  asked  to 
bring  my  movement  to  a  standstill — 
I  bring  it  to  a  standstill." 

712 


Thus  a  seeming  peace  lay  over  Greece 
in  the  opening  months  of  1917,  but  it 
was  false  and  hollow.  Constantine 
and  M.  Lambros  were  employing 
every  artifice  to  avoid  the  execution  of 
the  conditions  laid  down  by  the 
Entente.  "Soldiers  transported  to 
the  Peloponnesus  made  their  way  back 
again  in  citizen's  dress  or  on  military 
leave  of  absence;  lies  were  told  about 
the  contents  of  cases  of  weapons,  and 
arms  were  cached  in  the  earth.  Mean- 
while, the  Royalist  newspapers  in- 
vented calumny  on  calumny  against 
the  Allies,"  and  as  these  were  the  only 
newspapers  that  did  appear  the  public 
was  kept  in  an  abnormal  state  of 
ferment  by  the  organs  of  King  Con- 
stantine. 

GREATER    UNITY   NOW   APPEARS   IN   THE 
ALLIED  COUNCILS. 

In  the  third  week  in  March  the 
Briand  Cabinet  resigned  in  France 
and  was  succeeded  by  the  Ribot 
ministry  which  promised  stronger  han- 
dling of  the  Greek  situation.  At  the 
same  time  revolution  broke  out  in 
Russia,  and  Constantine  lost  valuable 
support.  In  April  the  United  States 
entered  the  war,  taking  up  the  sword 
against  absolutism  and  autocracy. 
"The  ground  began  to  fail  beneath 
the  feet  of  the  slayer  of  Venizelists, 
the  constitutional  king  who  had  been 
transformed  by  the  grace  of  William  II 
into  the  Lord's  Anointed,  accountable 
to  God  alone."  Throughout  the 
months  of  April  and  May  one  by  one 
the  Venizelist  journals  appeared,  more 
of  the  Ionian  Islands  gave  in  their 
adherence  to  the  Provisional  Govern- 
ment, and  rumor  filled  the  court  of 
Athens  with  uneasiness.  M.  Lambros 
resigned  and  on  May  3,  the  ineffective 
but  respectable  M.  Zaimis  took  upon 
himself  the  prime  ministry  once  more. 
General  dissatisfaction  with  King  Con- 
stantine's  rule  was  spreading  through- 
out Greece.  The  end  of  May  saw 
Venizelos  with  60,000  men  at  his 
command.  Thereafter  things  moved 
swiftly.  On  June  3,  the  Italians  pro- 
claimed the  independence  of  Albania, 
and  occupied  Janina,  'thus  cutting  the 
last  line  of  communication  open  be- 
tween Athens  and  the  Central  Powers. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


THE    ALLIES    ETEMAND    THE    ABDICATION 
OF  KING  CONSTANTINE. 

On  June  6  M.  Charles  Jonnart,  a 
French  senator  invested  with  the  rank 
of  High  Commissioner  of  the  protect- 
ing powers,  arrived  in  Greek  waters. 
A  great  movement  of  Allied  warships 
in  the  bay  of  Salamis,  and  the  Saronic 
and  Corinthian  Gulfs  took  place. 
From  Salamis  the  High  Commissioner 


palace,  and  a  deputation  headed  by 
Naval  Commander  Mavromichaelis 
was  received  by  Constantine  and 
pledged  the  devotion  of  the  army  and 
the  people  to  his  cause.  On  the  day  fol- 
lowing, that  is,  June  12,  M.  Zaimis  com- 
municated the  king's  decision  in  these 
words : 

"The  Minister  and  High  Commis- 
sioner of  France,   Great   Britain  and 


THE  DOWNFALL  OF  AUTOCRACY 
A  French  sentinel  on  guard  in  Athens  on  the  day  that  King  Constantine  and  his  family  departed.  Though  disorder 
was  expected  none  came  for  the  reason  that  while  M.  Jonnart's  proclamation  strove  to  allay  uneasmess,  yet  it 
promised,  on  the  other  hand,  severe  action  against  any  who  broke  the  peace.    Allied  warships  in  the  Gull,  and 
AJlied  troops  in  the  capital  did  much  to  make  the  change  pass  off  quietly. 


sailed  to  Saloniki.  On  the  loth  he 
returned  and  on  the  nth  the  blow 
fell.  He  summoned  M.  Zaimis  to  his 
warship  and  in  the  name  of  the  three 
protecting  powers  demanded  the  ab- 
dication of  King  Constantine  and  the 
nomination  of  his  successor,  with  the 
exclusion  of  the  Crown  Prince.  M. 
Jonnart  informed  the  Premier  that  he 
had  troops  at  his  disposal  but  would  not 
land  them  until  King  Constantine 
had  given  his  answer.  A  Crown  Coun- 
cil consisting  of  former  premiers  was 
summoned,  and  a  hue  and  cry  filled 
the  streets  of  Athens;  2,000  Reservists 
formed  a  cordon  of  defense  around  the 


Russia:  Having  demanded  by  your 
note  of  yesterday  the  abdication  of  his 
Majesty,  King  Constantine,  and  the 
nomination  of  his  successor,  the  under- 
signed. Premier  and  Foreign  Minister, 
has  the  honor  to  inform  your  Excel- 
lency that  his  Majesty  the  King,  ever 
solicitous  for  the  interests  of  Greece, 
has  decided  to  leave  the  country  with 
the  Prince  Royal,  and  nominates 
Prince    Alexander   as    his    successor." 

Zaimis. 

the    king  promptly  yields  to  the 
inevitable. 
The  following  day  two  royal  procla- 
mations  were    posted   in   the  streets; 

713 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


the  first  that  of  ex-King  Constantine 
read: 

"Obeying  the  necessity  of  fulfilling 
my  duty  towards  Greece,  I  am  depart- 
ing from  my  beloved  country  with  the 
heir  to  the  throne  and  am  leaving  my 
son  Alexander  my  crown.  I  beg  you 
to  accept  my  decision  with  calm,  as 
the  slightest  incident  may  lead  to  a 
great  catastrophe." 

The  second  proclamation  was  from 
the  new  king  declaring  he  would  follow 
in  the  steps  of  his  illustrious  father — a 
determination  for  which  he  was  re- 
quired to  apologize  and  declare  his 
willingness  to  respect  the  constitution. 
At  the  same  time  military  measures 
were  being  taken  by  the  Allies  in 
Thessaly  which  are  fully  described  in 
another  chapter.  On  June  13,  the  ex- 
king  and  his  family  embarked  at  the 
Piraeus  on  a  British  warship  for  his 
summer  palace  at  Tatoi,  and  the  next 
morning  started  from  thence  for  Italy, 
whither  one  of  his  private  secretaries 
had  preceded  him  to  look  for  a  large 
villa  suitable  for  the  exiled  royalties. 

THE    ALLIED    EXPLANATION    AND    JUSTI- 
FICATION   OF    THE  ACTION. 

M.  Jonnart,  who  had  brought  about 
his  deposition,  published  a  note  to  the 
Greek  people  explaining  the  stand 
taken  by  France,  Great  Britair^  and 
Russia  who  "are  here  to  checkmate 
the  manoeuvres  of  the  hereditary 
enemies  of  the  kingdom.  They  will  put 
an  end  to  the  repeated  violations  of 
the  Constitution,  of  treaties,  and  the 
deplorable  intrigues  which  led  up  to 
the  massacre  of  soldiers  of  the  Allies." 
After  outlining  the  overthrow  of  Ger- 
man influence  in  Athens  the  proclama- 
tion closes : "  Hellenes,  the  hour  of  recon- 


ciliation has  arrived.  Your  destinies 
are  closely  associated  with  those  of  the 
protecting  powers,  your  ideals  are  the 
same  as  theirs,  your  hopes  are  identical. 
"Today  the  blockade  is  raised.  Any 
reprisal  against  Greeks,  to  whatever 
party  they  belong,  will  be  pitilessly 
repressed.  No  breach  of  the  peace 
will  be  tolerated.  The  liberty  and 
prosperity  of  everyone  will  be  safe- 
guarded. This  is  a  new  era  of  peace 
and  labor  which  is  opening  before  you. 
Know  that,  respectful  of  the  national 
sovereignty,  the  protecting  powers 
have  no  intention  of  forcing  upon  the 
Greek  people  general  mobilization. 
Long  live  Greece,  united  and  free!" 

VENIZELOS  RETURNS  TO  ATHENS  TO  TAKE 
UP  HIS  TASKS. 

In  the  absence  of  Constantine,  M. 
Venizelos  started  for  Athens  and  on 
the  19th  of  June  a  committee  of  four 
was  appointed,  consisting  of  two  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Athenian  government 
and  two  of  the  Saloniki  government  to 
consider  methods  of  reconstruction.  In 
less  than  a  week  M.  Venizelos  was 
called  upon  to  form  a  cabinet  and  set 
about  the  laborious  task  of  building  up 
again  that  which  King  Constantine  had 
destroyed.  In  July  Greece  formally 
declared  war  against  Bulgaria  and 
the  German  Empire.  When  "the 
vision  and  the  fact,  the  poetry  and 
prose  of  life  find  a  rare  union  in  a  single 
soul,  they  provide  a  combination  which 
in  the  long  run  is  as  irresistible  as  the 
forces  of  Nature."  By  his  superhuman 
patience,  no  less  than  by  his  ardent 
patriotism,  Venizelos,  in  spite  of  the 
Allies,  had  saved  Greece  from  going 
down  into  the  abyss  of  self-destruc- 
tion. 


714 


A  Squadron  of  Cossacks  Passing  in  Review 

Chapter  XLIV 

Military  Operations  During  the  Russian 

Revolution 

THE   PROGRESSIVE   DEMORALIZATION  OF  THE  ARMY  AND 
THE  NAVY  DURING  THE  YEAR 


AFTER  the  heavy  activities  which 
■^  resulted  in  the  conquest  of  Ru- 
mania, the  fighting  which  occurred 
along  the  Russian  fronts  was  of  a  purely 
local  character  for  many  months. 
During  the  fall  of  1916  the  Austro- 
Germans  had  developed  unexpected 
strength  and  the  Russian  government 
had  deliberately  utilized  the  Ruman- 
ians as  a  shock  absorber.  Therefore, 
the  Russian  armies  had  not  suffered 
so  severely  as  they  might  otherwise 
have   done. 

THE  RUSSIAN   MILITARY  LEADERS  LOYAL 
TO  THE  ALLIES. 

As  Stated  elsewhere  in  this  volume, 
there  could  be  no  doubt  as  to  the 
loyalty  and  the  patriotism  of  the 
fighting  generals  at  the  front.  Though 
they  suppressed  expression  of  their 
opinions  in  public,  according  to  mili- 
tary ethics,  there  could  be  no  doubt 
that  they  were  in  sympathy  with  those 
loyal  Russians  who  were  represented 
in  the  Duma  by  what  was  known  as  the 
"Progressive  Bloc," 

When  Rodzianko,  President  of  the 
Duma,  sent  his  telegrams  to  the  army 
commanders  along  the  front  announc- 
ing that  the  Duma  had  defied  the 
Government,  on  March  11,  the  army 
commanders  were  inclined  to  accept 
the  situation  hopefully,  for  with  the 


Duma  in  full  control  there  was  a  new 
possibility  of  bringing  the  united 
effort  of  the  whole  people  to  bear  in 
support  of  the  military  operations 
against  the  enemy.  Protopopov's  inter- 
ference with  the  social  organizations 
which  were  working  behind  the  lines 
had  turned  the  military  commanders 
bitterly  against  him  and,  incidentally, 
the  autocracy  he  represented.  When 
the  Provisional  Government  was  finally 
established  in  Petrograd  and  recognized 
by  the  whole  country,  the  General 
Staff  accepted  the  situation  with  un- 
doubted sincerity. 

EQUALITY     AND     MILITARY     DISCIPLINE 
SOMEWHAT  CONTRADICTORY. 

What  the  military  commanders  did 
not  foresee,  however,  was  the  impor- 
tance of  the  Socialists  in  the  new  situa- 
tion or  the  extent  of  their  influence 
among  the  rank  and  file  of  the  Army. 
However  desirable  democratic  prin- 
ciples may  be  in  time  of  peace,  they 
are  ill  adapted  to  warfare.  Discipline 
is  the  first  essential  in  a  large  fighting 
organization,  and  discipline  is  only 
possible  where  the  command  is  centred 
in  one  head.  Successful  warfare  can 
only  be  waged  as  men  are  willing  to 
merge  their  individual  identities  into 
the  supreme  will  of  their  commander. 

This  fact  such  leaders  as  Alexander 

715 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


Kerensky  and  Plekhanov  were  intel- 
ligent enough  to  realize;  and  as  they 
recognized  the  supreme  necessity  of 
defeating  German  Imperialism  before 
establishing  Socialism  in  Russia,  they 
believed  that  the  principles  of  equality 
should,  for  the  time  being,  be  suspend- 
ed, so  far  as  the  Army  was  concerned 
at  least.  But  their  simple  followers, 
who  constituted  a  large  part  of  the 
rank  and  file  of  the  military  forces, 
remembered  only  that  their  leaders 
had  preached  democracy,  the  brother- 
hood of  man,  equality  and  frater- 
nity. Now  that  the  ideas  of  these 
preachers  of  Socialism  were  trium- 
phantly embodied  in  the  new  revolu- 
tionary government,  they  could  not 
all  understand  why  they  should  not 
immediately  be  applied  everywhere. 

THE   SOLDIERS    GIVEN    REPRESENTATION 
IN   THE   PETROGRAD   SOVIET. 

This  powerful  sentiment  had  to  be 
met  and  placated.  The  soldiers  were 
given  representation  behind  the  lines  in 
the  Soviet,  and  through  the  Soviet 
they  demanded  the  right  of  discussion. 
The  members  of  a  company  in  the  front 
lines  would  meet  to  discuss  the  political 
situation.  This  gave  the  ultra-radicals, 
the  pacifists,  who  did  not  believe  in 
any  further  fighting,  an  opportunity  to 
make  themselves  heard  and  to  carry 
on  agitation.  Thus  demoralization 
was  spread.  Then  came  the  abolition 
of  the  death  penalty,  and  when  these 
ultra-radicals  refused  to  fight  during 
the  desultory  skirmishing  which  was 
all  this  time  going  on  with  the  enemy, 
they  could  not  be  punished. 

Thousands  of  others  took  advantage 
of  the  situation  and  deserted,  openly 
returning  to  their  homes.  Next  they 
demanded  that  the  salute  be  abolished 
as  incompatible  with  equality.  That 
was  granted.  Again,  in  some  sectors 
the  sentiment  in  favor  of  "the  brother- 
hood of  man"  led  to  fraternization 
with  the  enemy,  though  often  this  was 
done  in  the  hope  of  being  able  to  spread 
revolutionary  propaganda  among  the 
Austrian  and  German  troops,  that  it 
might  lead  to  the  overthrow  of  their 
autocracies.  The  German  commanders 
encouraged  such  intercourse  at  first, 
for    in    this   way    they   gained    much 

716 


valuable  information  and  were  able  to 
observe  more  closely  the  progress  of 
the  demoralization  which  was  going  on 
among  the  Russians. 

THE  SOLDIERS  DEMAND  SOVIETS  AT   THE 
FRONT. 

Week  by  week,  as  the  Soviet  in 
Petrograd  increased  in  power,  the 
demands  continued  progressively.  In 
some  army  organizations  the  soldiers 
insisted  that  every  command  from 
their  superior  officers  was  to  be  obeyed 
only  after  having  the  approval  of  a 
general  meeting  of  the  members  of  the 
company,  or  regiment.  That  this 
would  destroy  both  promptness  and 
unity  of  action  so  essential  in  a  fighting 
organization  is  plain  enough.  Finally 
it  was  even  demanded  that  all  the 
officers  should  resign  and  the  vacancies 
be  filled  by  election  from  the  ranks. 
That  was  done  later,  under  the  Bolshe- 
viki,  but  at  this  time,  under  the  regime 
of  the  Provisional  Government,  it  was 
firmly  refused.  Even  the  ultra-radicals 
in  the  Executive  Committee  of  the 
Soviet  realized  the  utter  impossibility 
of  carrying  out  such  a  principle,  if  the 
Army  was  to  maintain  its  fighting 
efficiency. 

Had  the  Germans  attempted  to 
take  advantage  of  the  situation  by 
initiating  a  general  offensive,  it  is 
probable  that  they  would  have  defeated 
their  own  ends.  The  impending  dan- 
ger might  have  roused  the  patriotic 
spirit  of  the  Russians  to  fighting  heat 
again,  as  the  war  itself  had  brought 
together  the  radicals  and  the  con- 
servatives. But  the  Teutons  were  too 
wise  to  commit  any  such  blunder.  Time 
was  their  strongest  ally,  and  they  re- 
frained from  any  aggressive  operations, 
waiting  for  the  disintegration  of  the 
Russian  Army. 

KERENSKY    STRIVES    TO    MAINTAIN    THE 
MORALE  OF  THE  ARMY. 

For  two  months  the  army  com- 
manders fought  this  deterioration  of 
morale  of  the  troops.  Finally,  in  the 
middle  of  May,  they  forced  the  issue 
by  resigning  simultaneously.  They 
refused  longer  to  assume  the  responsi- 
bility of  command  if,  discipline  were 
undermined  by  the  atithority  of  the 
Soviet  which,  consisting  in  large  part 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


of  the  soldiers'  delegates,  was  in- 
clined to  grant  all  that  the  soldiers 
demanded.  Kerensky,  though  himself 
an  ardent  Socialist,  realized  the  on- 
coming danger  as  keenly  as  the  army 
commanders.  He  was  able  to  impart 
some  of  his  apprehensions  to  his  more 
radical  associates,  with  the  result  that 
the  Soviet  agreed  not  to  interfere 
further     in     the     army    organization, 


near  future.  Alexiev,  as  commander- 
in-chief,  was  displaced  by  Brusilov, 
who  had  so  distinguished  himself  in 
his  offensive  in  Galicia  the  year  before. 
During  all  this  period  a  certain 
amount  of  fighting  had  been  going  on. 
It  was  notably  in  such  defensive 
fighting  that  the  Russians  showed 
themselves  at  the  best.  Wherever  the 
Germans    did    initiate    local    attacks, 


"CARRIED  AWAY  INTO  CAPTIVITY" 

These  are  Russian  prisoners  being  sent  to  Germany  on  a  freight  train.  They  only  heard  rumors — purposely  dis- 
torted by  the  Germans — of  what  was  happening  in  their  own  country  while  they  were  in  captivity,  and  found  it 
difficult  to  adjust  themselves  to  the  new  conditions  when  they  were  at  last  allowed  to  return  to  their  homes. 


though  given  stronger  representation 
in  the  Provisional  Government.  For 
the  time  being,  the  fatal  tendency  was 
checked  and  the  commanders  were 
again  given  a  firm  grip  on  their  com- 
mands. Kerensky  himself  went  to  the 
front  and  exhorted  the  soldiers  to  ad- 
here to  the  rigid  discipline  demanded 
for  a  continuance  of  the  war  against 
Germany. 

Kerensky  had  at  this  time  been 
made  Minister  of  War.  Realizing, 
perhaps,  that  the  old  tendencies  must 
inevitably  assert  themselves  again,  he 
rushed  the  preparations  for  a  strong 
offensive  against  the  Germans  in  the 


they  were  repulsed.  The  Russians,  on 
the  other  hand,  attempted  very  few 
offensive  operations. 

AN   ATTACK    IS   PLANNED    FOR    THE    SUM- 
/\     MER. 

In  the  early  part  of  June  the  reports 
indicated  a  strengthening  of  the  Rus- 
sian fighting  spirit.  On  the  20th  of 
that  month  the  All-Russian  Soviet, 
representing  the  soldiers  on  all  the 
fronts,  as  well  as  the  workingmen 
throughout  the  country,  passed  a 
resolution  in  favor  of  an  offensive 
against  the  enemy  as  soon  as  it  could 
be  undertaken.  At  this  time  Ge'rman 
reports   indicated   greater  activity  of 

717 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


artillery  and  more  raiding  parties  from 
the  Russian  lines  than  for  many 
months  past.  Fraternization  came  to  a 
complete  and  abrupt  end;  parties  of 
Germans  approaching  the  Russian 
trenches  with  white  flags  were  every- 
where fired  upon. 

On  the  last  day  of  June  reports 
indicated  that  the  Russians  had  begun 
fighting  on  a  larger  scale  than  at  any 


ing  the  Russians  began  another  infan- 
try advance  on  a  thirty-five  mile 
front  west  of  Lemberg.  Press  reports 
stated  that  Kerensky  himself  was  in 
this  region,  exhorting  the  soldiers  to 
make  a  supreme  effort.  During  this 
day  of  fighting  the  Russians  not  only 
made  some  slight  advance,  driving  the 
Teutons  out  of  their  first  line  trenches, 
but  claimed  to  have  taken  i6o  officers 


GERMAN  DUG-OUT  UPON  THE  EASTERN  FRONT 

Examples  of  German  comfort  in  dug-outs  became  the  wonder  of  the  Allied  soldiers  who  saw  them.  This  is  a 
typical  underground  home,  comfortably  stocked  with  provisions  and  drink,  and  aesthetically  decorated  with 
tapestry-hung  walls  and  a  picture  of  the  Kaiser.  One  queries  if  the  tall  wine-glasses  and  graceful  candlesticks  were 
issued  by  the  Army.  Ruschin 

and  nearly  9,000  men  prisoners.  The 
Germans,  on  their  part,  reported  that 
the  severity  of  the  engagements  ex- 
ceeded anything  that  had  taken  place 
for  a  year  and  that  the  Russians 
suffered  severely.  How  seriously  the 
Germans  took  these  operations  may  be 
judged  from  the  fact  that  Field  Mar- 
shal von  Hindenburg  and  General  von 
Ludendorff"  had  hastened  to  Austrian 
field  headquarters. 

THE  OFFENSIVE   IS    SUCCESSFUL   DURING 
THE  EARLY  DAYS. 

During  the  first  fe>v  days  of  July, 
191 7,  it  became  obvious  that  the  Rus- 
sian   offensive   was    not   only    in    full 


time  since  the  previous  year.  After 
heavy  artillery  preparation,  lasting  all 
day,  the  Russians  on  the  upper  Strypa 
began  an  advance  along  an  eighteen- 
mile  front.  This  attack  was  eventually 
forced  back  by  the  destructive  fire  of 
the  Austro-German  machine  guns,  but 
the  Russians  had  persisted  so  strongly 
that  they  suffered  heavy  losses.  On 
the  same  day  a  similar  attack  was 
delivered  by  the  Russians  in  the  region 
of  Brzezany  and  west  of  Zalocz,  with 
the  same  result. 

During  that  night  artillery  roared 
up  and  down  almost  the  entire  length 
of  the  Eastern  Front.   The  next  morn- 

718 


mSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


swing,  but  was  pressing  the  Austro- 
Germans  hard  at  many  points.  Grad- 
ually the  fighting  was  widening  over  a 
broader  zone.  The  Czecho-Slovak 
brigade,  organized  from  prisoners,  espe- 
cially distinguished  itself,  sweeping 
over  three  lines  of  German  trenches, 
and  capturing  nearly  4,000  prisoners. 

Above  the  Pripet  Marshes  toward 
Riga,  the  Germans  held  their  own, 
though  their  counter-attacks  were 
hurled  back.  But  in  Galicia  the  Austro- 
Hungarians  were  everywhere  being 
pressed  back.  On  July  4,  German 
reinforcements  made  some  attempts  to 
regain  lost  ground  in  Galicia,  without 
success.  On  July  5,  an  artillery  battle 
developed  with  unusual  violence  be- 
tween Zborov  and  Brzezany,  in  Galicia. 
Here  Turkish  troops  for  the  most  part 
held  the  Teuton  lines.  These  showed 
better  morale  than  the  Austrians  and 
Hungarians,  and  all  that  day  were 
able  to  repel  the  repeated  Russian 
infantry  attacks. 

HALICZ      AND      STANISLAU      ARE      BOTH 
THREATENED. 

By  the  7th  the  Russian  lines  had 
advanced  so  far  westward  that  Halicz, 
only  sixty  miles  southwest  of  Lemberg, 
the  capital  of  Galicia,  was  within  range 
of  the  heavier  Russian  guns.  Here  the 
Russian  offensive  covered  a  front  of 
more  than  thirty  miles,  along  the 
Narayuvka  River.  On  this  same  day 
there  was  heavy  fighting  near  Stanislau, 
where  one  wave  after  another  of  Rus- 
sian infantry  stormed  the  Austro- 
Hungarian  trenches,  engaging  the 
enemy  in  hand-to-hand  combats. 

By  the  end  of  the  first  ten  days  of  the 
offensive  it  became  evident  that  the 
Russians  had  concentrated  their  efforts 
against  the  Austrians  and  Hungarians 
in  the  south,  whose  lines  they  seemed 
to  consider  the  weakest.  Toward  the 
Baltic,  they  had  not  attempted  any 
determined  forward  move,  being  sat- 
isfied to  check  the  German  attacks. 
So  far  their  strategy  was  proving  emi- 
nently successful;  so  far  the  Russian 
morale  showed  itself  as  strong  as  ever. 

GENERAL    KORNILOV,    THE     COSSACK,     IS 
SUCCESSFUL. 

On  July  10,  Petrograd  was  able  to 
announce     the     first     really     notable 


achievement  of  the  general  offensive — 
the  capture,  on  the  day  before,  of 
Halicz,  an  important  railroad  point  on 
the  Dniester.  General  Kornilov,  the 
Cossack  leader,  was  in  command  of 
the  Russian  army  in  this  sector,  and 
the  Austrians  defending  the  town  were 
unable  to  withstand  his  attacks.  Within 
two  days  the  Teuton  positions,  to  a 


'•WIE- 


THE LAST  RUSSIAN  OFFENSIVE 


depth  of  seven  miles  and  fortified 
during  a  two  years'  occupation,  had 
been  overrun  by  the  Russians. 

In  the  direction  of  Dolina,  in  the 
region  west  of  Stanislau,  General 
Kornilov  continued  his  offensive  opera- 
tions successfully.  Here  the  Russians 
advanced  toward  Lemberg,  on  the 
heels  of  the  retiring  Austrians,  along 
a  front  of  nearly  twenty  miles. 

On  the  loth  the  troops  which  had 
captured  Halicz  crossed  to  the  left 
banks  of  the  river.  By  evening  they 
had  reached  the  valley  of  the  River 
Lomnitza.  They  were  now  threatening 
the  approaches  to  the  passes  in  the 
Northern  Carpathians.  In  this  region 
the  Russians  took  over  10,000  prisoners 
during  three  days  of  fighting,  as  well  as 
seventy  field  pieces  and  a  dozen  guns 
of  heavy  calibre. 

719 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


THE     BATTLE     LINE     SWAYS     BACK      AND 
FORTH. 

Fighting  now  grew  more  intense  in 
the  northern  stretch  of  the  Eastern 
Front  toward  Riga,  where  the  Russians 
became  suddenly  more  aggressive.  But 
the  main  offensive  still  continued  in 
the  south,  especially  between  the 
Dniester  and  Lomnitza  rivers.  On 
July    II,    Kornilov's   troops   fought   a 


the  Russians,  by  hand  to  hand  fighting 
in  the  streets,  finally  drove  the  enemy 
out  and  remained  in  possession. 

On  the  following  day  the  Austro- 
Germans  counter-attacked  at  Kalusz 
again,  but  the  Russians  were  now  in 
such  strong  force  that  they  not  only 
repulsed  them,  but  resumed  their 
advance.  After  heavy  fighting  they 
occupied  the  village  of  Novica,  south- 


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AUSTRIAN  LANDSTURM  GOING  TO  FIRING  LINE 

Good  examples  of  the  southern  temperament  with  its  abandon  to  the  mood  of  the  hour  and  inconsequent  light- 
heartedness  are  these  soldiers  of  the  Austrian  landsturm  en  route  for  the  front.  Mercifully,  in  these  tragic  days 
men  learned  to  live  in  the  present  and  he  who  whiled  away  a  tedious  hour  never  lacked  a  following.  Ruschin 


very  stubborn  battle,  with  the  result 
that  the  enemy  was  forced  out  of  the 
town  of  Kalusz,  which  had  normally  a 
population  of  io,ooo.  This  gave  the 
Russians  a  hold  on  the  important  rail- 
road running  between  Stanislau  and 
Lemberg.  The  Russians  holding 
Kalusz,  however,  were  soon  attacked 
by  enemy  reinforcements  and  were 
compelled  to  retire.  Again  they  re- 
turned with  a  stronger  force,  and  re- 
entered the  town,  and  once  more  the 
Austro-Germans  counter-attacked,  sup- 
ported by  an  armored  train.  Back 
and  forth  swayed  the  battle  line,  in 
and  out  of  the  town,  until  dark,  when 
720 


west  of  Kalusz.  But  now  a  heavy 
rain  began  falling  and  swelled  the 
rivers  and  rendered  the  ground  so 
marshy  that  further  operations  were 
considerably  hampered. 

The  Russian  operations  up  to  this 
point,  in  the  middle  of  July,  had 
been  efficiently  conducted,  and  pre- 
eminently successful.  Two  important 
strategic  centres  had  been  taken, 
Halicz  and  Kalusz,  and  the  Austro- 
German  lines,  driven  back  many  miles. 
During  this  period  the  Russians  had 
taken  nearly  36,000  prisoners,  900  of 
whom  were  officers,  and  large  quanti- 
ties of  guns  and  other  war  material. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


'-pHE      RUSSIAN     OFFENSIVE      BEGINS      TO 
1       SLACKEN. 

But  it  now  became  daily  more  evident 
that  the  Russian  strength  had  reached 
its  maximum  of  effort  and  that  it  was 
beginning  to  slacken.  Added  to  that, 
the  Austro-Germans  were  bringing  up 
heavy  reinforcements  from  behind  the 
lines.  Thus  they  were  able  to  bring 
their  superior  transportation  facilities 


Germans  were  obviously  gaining  the 
advantage. 

During  the  next  few  days  the  fight- 
ing raged  more  violently  than  ever. 
From  all  along  the  whole  front  came 
reports  of  strong  attacks  and  counter- 
attacks. East  of  Brzezany  the  Rus- 
sians suffered  a  serious  set-back,  being 
driven  out  of  their  trenches  along  a 
length  of  several  miles.   Then  came  the 


SOLDIERS  LEAVING  THE  FRONT  AND  GOING  HOME 
Arrival  at  a  point  in  the  interior  of  Russia  of  a  train  seized  by  panic-stricken  troops  who  have  fled  before  the 
Germans.  For  the  most  part  the  enemy  refrained  from  attack,  knowing  such  action  would  tend  to  unite  tHe  soldiers 
in  a  common  defense.    They  recognized  that  socialism  in  the  ranks  could  do  more  deadly  work.  . 

Central  News  Service 


to  bear  in  their  favor.  On  July  15,  these 
reinforcements  began  showing  their 
presence  by  a  perceptible  stiffening  of 
the  Teuton  defense  along  the  whole 
front.  On  that  day  there  was  excep- 
tionally heavy  fighting,  but  the  Rus- 
sians made  no  further  advances.  On 
the  contrary,  they  were  thrown  back 
slightly  at  several  points. 

On  July  16,  the  Austrians,  reinforced 
by  Germans,  resumed  their  counter- 
attacks against  the  Russians  about 
Kalusz.  The  latter  were  driven  back 
across  the  river  and  the  town  aban- 
doned. The  weather  was  clearing  now, 
but  with  the  renewal  of  operations  the 


first  signs  of  the  fundamental  deteriora- 
tion of  the  Russian  soldier  as  a  fighting 
unit. 

THE  FIRST  WHOLE  REGIMENT   ABANDONS 
THE  TRENCHES. 

After  a  thorough  artillery  prepara- 
tion the  Germans  had  attacked  the 
Russians  near  Barbutzov,  twenty  miles 
south  of  Brody.  During  the  morning 
(July  19),  the  Russians  successfully 
drove  the  German  attacks  back.  But 
shortly  before  mid-day  the  607th 
Mlynov  Regiment,  stationed  between 
Batov  and  Manajov,  deliberately  letf 
its  trenches,  at  a  moment  when  the 
enemy  was  not  pressing  the  attack,  and 

721 


mSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


retired  to  the  rear,  refusing  to  fight 
any  further.  The  Russian  Hues  on 
each  side  of  the  regiment  had,  in  con- 
sequence, also  to  retire  to  prevent  the 
Germans  pouring  in  through  the  breach 
at  the  next  attack.  The  Russian  re- 
ports blamed  this  incident  to  the 
agitation  of  a  number  of  Bolshevist 
members  of  the  regiment. 

Unfortunately   this   was   typical   of 


fused  to  obey  their  commanders.  Con- 
sequently our  lines  were  forced  to 
retire." 

KORNILOV     GIVEN     COMMAND     OF     THE 
WHOLE  GALICIAN  FRONT. 

Hastily  the  Provisional  Govern- 
ment attempted  to  check  the  demoral- 
ization by  a  change  in  the  command  of 
the  Russians  operating  in  Galicia. 
Kornilov,  who  had  shown  such  brilliant 


mx'i:}/^ 


yj/iUi 


"-V>**-r*> 


(>i.^»*#*^**''^' 


BARBED  WIRE  CONSTRUCTION  IN  POLAND 

Instead  of  the  bindweed,  barbed  wire — twisted  around  and  darting  from  stakes  which  covered  the  ground  for 
miles  "over  hill,  over  dale"  as  a  first  line  defense.  The  work  of  setting  up  these  entanglements  and  of  destroying 
them  was  hazardous  in  the  extreme,  and  the  Italians  called  their  bodies  of  wire-cutters  "Death  Companies."  This 
is  German  wire  but  the  line  of  battle  was  moved.  Pictures  from  H.  Ruschin 


dozens  of  such  incidents,  which  hap- 
pened during  the  operations  of  the 
next  few  days.  Everywhere  men  were 
refusing  to  obey  their  officers.  Under 
the  strain  the  Russian  spirit  was 
broken,  not  so  much  by  attacks  on 
the  front  as  from  the  rear.  Russian 
reports  now  admitted  that  Russian 
army  organization  was  collapsing,  that 
disaflfection  was  spreading  like  a  prairie 
fire.  Speaking  of  the  Russian  retreat 
before  Tarnopol,  the  Petrograd  report 
said: 

"On  the  whole  our  soldiers  did  not 
show  the  necessary  determination  to 
win.    Some  regiments  deliberately  re- 

722 


results  in  the  capture  of  Kalusz  with 
the  Eighth  Russian  Army,  was  given 
command  of  the  whole  front  in  Galicia. 
Kornilov  was  unpopular  with  the 
radical  elements,  on  account  of  the 
almost  ferocious  disciplinary  methods 
he  sometimes  employed,  but  Kerensky 
was  willing  to  risk  the  displeasure  of 
the  Soviet,  if  only  the  German  advance 
could  be  stemmed.  But  neither  Kor- 
nilov nor  any  other  general  could  have 
accomplished  that  with  the  material 
at  his  disposal.  The  soul  of  the  army 
had  vanished.  Regiments  with  glorious 
records  now  fled  before  the  enemy,  or 
refused  to  advance. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


The  German  General  Staff  under- 
stood the  situation,  and  was  now 
determined  to  take  full  advantage  of  it. 
The  German  offensive  was  pushed 
with  extreme  energy.  Again  and  again, 
day  by  day,  the  Austro-Germans 
struck  at  the  Russian  lines,  pushing 
them  back  mile  after  mile.  The  main 
point  of  their  offensive  was  at  Tarnopol, 
and  here  the  Russians  were  completely 


was  launched,  but  broke  up  before  the 
German  fire.  In  the  direction  of  Vilna 
a  succession  of  Russian  infantry  attacks 
succeeded  in  penetrating  the  German 
lines  over  two  miles  and  taking  over  a 
thousand  Germans  prisoners.  But 
•  this  and  similar  slight  successes  could 
not  be  sustained,  largely  through  the 
apathy  of  the  rank  and  file  of  the 
Russian    troops.      In    the    south    the 


RUSSIAN  TROOPS  DRINKING  FROM  A  STREAM 

Spring  comes  late  in  northern  Russia  and  the  ice  in  the  rivers  and  snow  take  a  long  time  to  thaw.  In  this  picture 
Russian  soldiers  are  refreshing  themselves  by  a  drink  of  water  on  the  way  to  Germany.  It  is  a  typical  scene,  for 
who  can  think  of  Russia  without  recalling  snow  and  plains? 


routed.  In  the  afternoon  of  July  21, 
the  Germans  and  Austrians  forced 
their  way  forward  from  Tarnopol  to  a 
point  as  far  as  the  Sereth  bridgehead. 
The  town  of  Tarnopol  and  a  number  of 
neighboring  villages  were  soon  a  mass 
of  flames.  By  the  end  of  the  day  the 
entire  Russian  front  from  the  Zlota 
Lipa  to  the  Dniester  was  retiring  before 
the  pressure  of  the  enemy. 

THE     WHOLE     RUSSIAN     LINE     IS      BADLY 
DEMORALIZED. 

Hoping  to  create  a  diversion,  the 
Russians  now  attempted  to  take  the 
offensive  in  the  north.  From  Smorgon 
to    Krivo    a    general    infantry   attack 


Teutons  advanced  more  and  more 
swiftly,  along  a  line  almost  170  miles 
in  length,  from  the  River  Sereth  to  the 
foothills  of  the  Carpathians. 

By  the  23rd  the  Teutons  had  crossed 
the  Sereth,  near  Tarnopol,  and  ad- 
vanced beyond  Halicz.  Some  Russian 
divisions  here  offered  a  resistance 
noteworthy  in  contrast  with  the  general 
demoralization  of  the  Russians  as  a 
whole,  but  they  did  not  succeed  in 
doing  more  than  temporarily  delaying 
the  German  advance.  Southwest  of 
Dvinsk  several  Russian  regiments  suc- 
ceeded in  taking  and  occupying  the 
German  front  line  trenches  and  then, 

723 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


without  any  pressure  from  the  enemy, 
they  threw  down  their  guns  and  retired 
to  the  rear.  The  gains  of  1916  and 
more  had  been  lost  in  a  week. 

BRUSILOV    RESIGNS    AND    IS    SUCCEEDED 
BY  KORNILOV. 

On  August  I,  the  Russian  Com- 
mander-in-chief, Brusilov,  handed  in 
his  resignation,  and  the  Provisional 
Government    immediately    appointed 


were  presented  and,  had  he  followed 
his  own  will,  he  would  not  have 
accepted  them.  Kerensky  had  a  fixed 
belief  that  wars  could  be  won  by 
words,  but  the  other  members  of  the 
Cabinet  felt  that  Kornilov  was "  the 
only  man  capable  of  maintaining  a 
front  against  the  enemy,  if  any  man 
were  capable  of  that  gigantic  task. 
But  if  Kornilov  succeeded  in  accom- 


TRENCHES  ON  THE  EASTERN  FRONT 

These  are  Russian  trenches  supposedly  bomb-proof,  built  with  thoroughness  and  method.  Besides  their  value 
for  safety,  they  were  warm  during  the  long  snowy  winters.  Where  the  trenches  were  anywhere  permanent  Rus- 
sians and  Germans  vied  with  one  another  in  their  elaboration,  though  the  latter  were  as  a  rule  better  fitted  up 
inside. 


Kornilov  in  his  stead.  Kornilov  imme- 
diately made  certain  "conditions"  on 
which  depended  his  acceptance  of  the 
supreme  command.  First  of  all,  he 
refused  to  be  responsible  to  anybody 
in  his  direction  of  the  military  op- 
erations, except  to  "his  own  con- 
science." He  also  insisted  that  "the 
measures  adopted  during  the  past  few 
days  at  the  front  shall  also  be  applied 
behind  the  lines,"  which  meant  that 
he  had  re-established  the  death  penalty. 
Kerensky  has  since  stated  that  the 
members  of  the  Government  found  the 
substance  of  these  demands  more 
acceptable  than  the  form  in  which  they 
724 


plishing  any  good  by  his  severe  methods, 
it  was  not  obvious  in  any  stiffening  of 
the  Russian  lines.  From  all  points 
came  only  reports  of  retreat.  In  the 
Carpathians  the  Austro-German  forces 
pressed  back  the  Russians  west  of  the 
River  Putna,  about  thirty-five  miles 
southwest  of  Czernowitz.  On  August 
3,  the  Russians  gained  a  local  and  a 
temporary  success,  driving  the  Aus- 
trians  out  of  a  number  of  villages  south 
of  Skala,  in  Galicia.  But  this  was  more 
than  offset  by  the  Austrian  advance 
further  south  in  Bukgvina,  where  they 
drove  the  Russians  oiit  of  Czernowitz 
and   across    the    Pruth.     The   capital 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


of   Bukovina   was   once   more   in   the 
hands  of  the  Austrians. 

From  now  on,  however,  the  Austro- 
German  offensive  in  GaHcia  and  further 
south  slackened.  Conditions  such  as 
those  which  had  existed  during  the 
early  part  of  the  year  began  to  prevail 
again.  The  Russians  had  been  thor- 
oughly beaten,  and  the  Germans  could 
remain  satisfied  with  what  they  had 


the  rescue  and  attempted  to  cross  the 
river  Sereth. 

In  spite  of  the  wholesale  desertion 
of  whole  Russian  regiments  the  Ru- 
manians stood  firm.  If  they  gave  way 
all  Rumania  was  lost,  but  the  First 
Army  did  not  give  a  yard.  The  battle 
centred  around  Marasesti,  the  greatest 
battle  in  Rumanian  history.  On  August 
19,   the  last  desperate  assault  failed. 


RUTHENIAN  BLACKSMITH  AT  WORK 

The  Ruthenians,  as  subjects  of  the  Austrian  Empire,  were  impressed  into  the  armies  and  forced  to  fight  in  a 
quarrel  about  which  they  knew  little,  and  cared  less.  This  blacksmith,  a  fine  sturdy  type,  is  plying  his  trade  in  a 
quiet  field  behind  the  lines  with  the  primitive  appliances  with  which  he  has  always  worked. 

Picture,  H.  Ruschin 


won  while  the  Bolshevist  agitators 
with  the  weapons  of  propaganda  con- 
tinued the  war  for  them. 

THE    REMNANT    OF    RUMANIA    IS    SAVED 
FOR  A  TIME. 

Meanwhile  lower  down  the  Ruman- 
ian front  was  held  by  the  First  and 
Second  Rumanian  Armies,  and  the 
Fourth  Russian  Army  under  General 
Scherbachev.  During  the  latter  part 
of  July  there  was  some  sharp  fighting 
in  the  Susitza  valley.  The  Austro- 
German  forces  were  driven  back, 
though  various  units  of  the  Russian 
forces  were  evaporating  and  disap- 
pearing.    Von    Mackensen    came    to 


The  attack  against  the  Second  Army, 
around  Ocna  was  hardly  more  suc- 
cessful, and  the  remnant  of  Rumania 
was  preserved  until  the  complete 
demoralization  of  Russia  left  it  sur- 
rounded by  enemies. 

THE  GERMANS  NOW  TAKE  RIGA  WITHOUT 
DIFFICULTY. 

Toward  the  end  of  August  the 
Germans  showed  increasing  activity  in 
the  northern  section  of  the  Eastern 
Front.  They  had  decided  that  they 
wanted  Riga,  and  set  out  to  obtain  it. 
On  August  22,  they  began  to  advance, 
and  in  two  days  they  had  reached  the 
River  Aa  and  several  points  on  the 

725 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


Gulf  of  Riga.  On  September  i,  191 7, 
the  Germans  delivered  persistent  in- 
fantry attacks,  about  fifteen  miles 
above  Riga.  They  successfully  crossed 
the  Dvina  and  drove  the  Russians 
back.  On  the  morning  of  September  3, 
the  Russians  were  compelled  to  evac- 
uate the  city  of  Riga,  blowing  up  the 
bridges  across  the  river  and  the 
fortifications  as  they  retired.    Already 


his  Cabinet  strove  heroically  to  restore 
the  discipline  of  the  Army  by  a  re- 
establishment  of  those  measures  which 
had  been  demanded  by  General  Kor- 
nilov.  The  latter  remained  dissatisfied, 
however;  he  wished  the  death  penalty 
to  apply  behind  the  lines  as  well, 
especially  in  the  transport  service  and 
in  the  munitions  factories. 

Then,   encouraged   by   the   conserv- 


ANOTHER  COMMON  USE  OF  BARBED  WIRE 

Types  of  Russian  prisoners  in  a  German  detention  camp  at  Zossen,  a  town  just  south  of  Berlin.  The  men  are 
warmly  clad  and,  so  far  as  their  clothes  and  boots  are  concerned,  are  in  good  condition.  When  prisoners  were  cap- 
tured in  an  advance  they  were  taken  to  the  rear  and  left  in  wire  compounds  until  final  disposition  could  be  made 
of  them.  Pictures  from  Henry  Ruschin 


German  shells  from  large  calibre  guns 
were  dropping  into  the  heart  of  the 
city  and  causing  much  destruction. 
That  same  evening  the  German  troops 
entered  and  took  possession.  They 
found  little  in  the  way  of  war  material, 
however,  for  the  Russians  had  had 
time  to  remove  everything  of  military 
value. 

THE     QUESTION    OF    A    DICTATORSHIP    IS 
NOW  DISCUSSED. 

The  fall  of  Riga  caused  propor- 
tionately a  greater  shock  in  Russia 
than  anything  that  had  befallen  the 
Russian  armies  during  the  retreat 
after  the  middle  of  July.   Kerensky  and 

726 


ative  elements,  he  decided  to  take  the 
situation  entirely  into  his  own  hands 
and  proclaim  himself  dictator,  that  he 
might  autocratically  apply  his  dis- 
ciplinary system  in  full.  But  it  was 
now  too  late.  The  rank  and  file  of 
his  armies  had  drunk  too  deeply  of  the 
Socialist  doctrines  to  be  willing  to 
support  him.  He  could  depend  only 
on  the  semi-barbarian  regiments  from 
the  Caucasus  and  Asiatic  Russia,  and 
even  these,  including  his  own  Cossacks, 
showed  no  enthusiasm  for  a  dictator- 
ship. On  the  other  hand,  the  rank  and 
file  rallied  to  Kerensky's  call  for  help. 
For  a  short  period  the  workers  in  the 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


munitions  factories  worked  day  and 
night,  believing  that  thereby  they 
were  helping  to  suppress  Kornilov, 

'T^HE  ARMY  NOW  ONLY  AN  ARMED  MOB. 

After  Kornilov's  arrest,  in  the  middle 
of  September,  even  Kerensky  realized 
that  the  Russian  Army  was  no  longer 
a  factor  in  the  war  against  the  Central 


cause.  Fighting,  except  of  the  most 
sporadic  kind,  ceased  on  the  Russian 
front,  and  the  soldiers  gave  themselves 
up  almost  entirely  to  holding  meetings 
and  discussing  politics.  Many  officers 
were  killed  or  degraded.  Only  to  repel 
German  raids  or  local  attacks  would 
they  take  up  their  guns,  and  these  acts 
of  aggression  the  Germans  soon  ceased 


OPERATIONS  AROUND  THE  GULF  OF  RIGA 


Powers.  Kornilov's  successor,  General 
Dukhonin,  was  an  honest  and  sincere 
supporter  of  the  Provisional  Govern- 
ment, but  he  had  not  the  genius  to 
affect  in  the  slightest  the  situation  at 
the  front. 

It  was  now  that  the  Bolshevist 
propaganda  began  to  make  rapid 
strides  within  the  army  itself,  shown  in 
the  sudden  majority  given  the  Bol- 
shevist faction  in  the  Soviet.  Fear  of  a 
counter-revolution  in  favor  of  the 
autocracy,  rather  than  a  genuine 
jelief  in  the  doctrines  of  Lenin,  was  the 


almost  entirely.  The  artillery  regi- 
ments for  a  long  time  showed  them- 
selves least  susceptible  to  the  Bol- 
shevist agitation,  and  for  some  time 
the  Russian  guns  did  continue  bom- 
barding the  German  lines,  but  even 
while  the  artillery  continued  hostilities, 
the  infantry  would  fraternize  with  the 
enemy  in  the  trenches.  This  was 
strongly  encouraged  by  the  Bolshevist 
agitators,  who  had  leaflets  and  pam- 
phlets printed  in  German,  which  were 
passed  over  to  the  German  soldiers  in 
the  hope  of  converting  them  to  the 

727 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


Bolshevist  doctrines  of  pacifism.  As 
later  events  were  to  prove,  the  Ger- 
mans were  little  affected,  though  it 
was  the  policy  of  the  German  officers 
to  encourage  a  belief  to  the  contrary 
among  the  Russians. 

THE    GERMANS    TAKE    WHATEVER     THEY 
WISH. 

Before  the  final  collapse  of  the 
Kerensky  regime,  however,  Russian 
patriots  were  to  suffer  another  blow 
from  an  enemy  success.  On  October 
12,  191 7,  under  cover  of  strong  naval 
detachments,  the  Germans  landed 
marines  and  soldiers  on  the  shore  of 
Tagga  Bay,  north  of  the  Island  of 
Oesel,  in  the  Gulf  of  Riga.  An  engage- 
ment took  place  between  the  German 
ships  and  the  Russian  ships  and  shore 
batteries,  in  which  the  former  prevailed 
through  their  greatly  superior  force, 
though  here  the  Russians  showed  a 
determined  resistance.  During  the 
next  few  days  the  Germans  also 
occupied  Oesel  and  Dago  islands,  and 
still  later.  Moon  Island.  In  the  naval 
operations  which  took  place  during  this 
period  the  Russians  lost  several  large 
ships,  though  the  Russian  official  re- 
ports claimed  that  the  Germans  lost 
two  dreadnoughts,  one  cruiser,  twelve 
torpedo  boats  and  a  number  of  smaller 
craft. 

As  a  contrast  to  these  German  suc- 
cesses, the  German  lines  in  the  Riga 
sector  were  withdrawn  considerably  for 


the  purposes  of  straightening  out  the 
front.  This  at  least  relieved  the  fear 
of  the  Russians  that  Petrograd  was 
to  be  made  the  object  of  immediate 
attack.  Only  a  few  weeks  intervened, 
however,  between  then  and  the  final 
collapse  of  Russia  as  an  enemy  of 
Germany,  when  the  Bolsheviki  were  to 
open  the  negotiations  which  were  to 
culminate  in  the  humiliating  peace  of 
Brest-Litovsk. 

SOME    SLIGHT    OPERATIONS    TAKE    PLACE 
ON  THE  TURKISH  FRONT. 

Of  the  operations  on  the  Russo- 
Turkish  front  during  the  Kerensky 
regime  only  a  few  words  are  necessary. 
In  April  the  Russians  had  been  forced 
to  retire  from  Mush.  During  the  rest 
of  the  summer  practically  no  reports 
came  in  from  this  front.  On  November 
4,  only  three  days  before  the  Bolshevist 
revolution,  there  was  a  slight  revival 
of  activity  against  the  Turks.  In  the 
Black  Sea  Coastal  region,  in  the 
Kalkit-Tchiflik  sector,  the  Russians 
began  a  sudden  offensive  and  penetrat- 
ed the  Turkish  lines  to  their  third  line 
trenches.  But  this  slight  success  was 
not  sustained.  Later  in  November 
further  hostilities  were  continued,  in 
co-operation  with  the  British  forces 
north  of  Bagdad,  for  apparently  the 
Russians  in  this  more  distant  theatre 
of  the  war  were  the  last  to  be 
affected  by  the  wave  of  Bolshevist 
propaganda. 


728 


The  White  House  at  Washington 


Chapter  XLV 

The  United  States  Enters  the  War 

UNRESTRICTED     SUBMARINE    WARFARE    BRINGS  THE 
NATION  INTO  THE  CONTEST 


RY  the  close  of  191 5  American 
diplomacy  seemed  to  have  won  a 
victory  in  the  submarine  controversy. 
Germany  had  agreed  that  no  passenger 
vessels  should  be  sunk  without  pro- 
vision being  made  for  the  complete 
safety  of  the  passengers  and  crew. 
The  feeling  of  relief  which  this  agree- 
ment brought  was  soon  disturbed  by 
the  controversy  over  the  arming  of 
merchant  vessels.    (See  p.  275.) 

THE      GERMAN      GOVERNMENT      DENIES 
RESPONSIBILITY    FOR    THE  SUSSEX. 

Pending  the  settlement  of  the  dispute 
the  country  was  aroused  by  the  news 
of  the  'sinking  of  the  cross  channel 
steamer  Sussex  on  March  24,  1916. 
The  Sussex  was  not  armed  and  had 
never  carried  troops.  The  attack  was 
without  warning  and  resulted  in  the 
injury  or  death  of  eighty  passengers, 
among  them  several  Americans.  This 
was  a  violation  of  an  explicit  promise. 
The  German  government,  while  ad- 
mitting that  a  vessel  had  been  sunk 
at  the  time  and  place  indicated,  con- 
tended that  the  vessel  was  not  the 
Sussex.  To  substantiate  this  claim 
the  authorities  submitted  a  sketch  of 
the  vessel  sunk,  made  by  the  com- 
mander of  the  submarine,  differing 
in  shape  and  construction  from  the 
Sussex.  It  is  difficult  to  believe  that 
even  the  German  officials  took  this 
"evidence"  seriously. 


THE    AMERICAN    NOTE    AMOUNTS    TO    AN 
ULTIMATUM. 

Secretary  Lansing  despatched  a  note 
to  Germany  in  the  nature  of  an 
ultimatum.  Recalling  the  previous 
promises  made  by  the  German  authori- 
ties and  indicating  that  the  sinking 
of  the  Sussex  clearly  violated  these 
pledges,  he  declared  that  unless  the 
Germans  should  immediately  abandon 
their  "present  methods  of  submarine 
warfare  against  passenger  and  freight- 
carrying  vessels"  the  United  States 
would  have  no  other  recourse  than  to 
break  diplomatic  relations  with  Ger- 
many. 

The  German  reply  was  received  on 
May  4,  191 6.  It  stated  that  the 
commanders  of  submarines  had  re- 
ceived the  following  instructions:  "In 
accordance  with  the  general  principles 
of  visit  and  search  and  destruction 
of  merchant  vessels  recognized  by 
international  law,  such  vessels,  both 
within  and  without  the  area  declared 
a  naval  war  zone,  shall  not  be  sunk 
without  warning  and  without  saving 
human  lives  unless  these  ships  attempt 
to  escape  or  offer  resistance." 

AMERICAN       RIGHTS       NOT       DEPENDENT 
11     UPON  BRITISH  ACTION. 

It  was  Stated,  however,  that  the 
United  States  was  expected  to  insist 
that  Great  Britain  should  abandon 
her    blockade    of    Germany    and    her 

729 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


interference  with  neutral  trade.  Should 
the  British  government  fail  to  do  so 
the  German  note  stated  that  "the 
German  government  would  then  be 
facing  a  new  situation,  in  which  it 
must  reserve  to  itself  complete  liberty 
of  decision." 

Mr.  Lansing  replied  that  the  United 
States  would  expect  Germany  to  carry 
out  scrupulously  its  announced  change 
of  policy  and  "cannot  for  a  moment 
entertain,  much  less  discuss,  a  sugges- 
tion that    respect    by  German   naval 


THE  GERMAN  BLOCKADE  OF  EUROPE 


The  area  declared  blockaded  is  indicated  by  diagonal 
lines,  and  the  lanes  through  which  passage  was  per- 
mitted are  indicated. 

authorities  for  the  rights  of  citizens 
of  the  United  States  upon  the  high 
seas  should  in  any  way  or  in  the  slight- 
est degree  be  made  contingent  upon 
the  conduct  of  any  other  government 
affecting  the  rights  of  neutrals  and  non- 
combatants.  Responsibility  in  such 
matters  is  single,  not  joint;  absolute, 
not  relative."  No  reply  was  received 
to  this  note. 

THE  GERMAN  GOVERNMENT  ANNOUNCES 
UNRESTRICTED  SUBMARINE  WARFARE. 

Once  more  the  people  of  the  United 
States  breathed  more  freely  as  a  result 
of  what  appeared  to  be  a  final  settle- 
ment of  the  submarine  problem.  For 
nine  months,  from  May,  1916,  to 
February,  1917,  German  submarines 
generally  observed  the  promise  which 

730 


had  been  made  to  comply  with  the  rules 
of  cruiser  warfare.  The  relief  proved 
to  be  but  temporary,  as  this  pause  in 
submarine  frightfulness  was  not  due  to 
any  change  of  heart  on  the  part  of  the 
German  authorities,  but  to  policy. 
Admiral  von  Tirpitz'  Memoirs  show 
the  conflicting  forces  in  Germany  at 
this  period. 

On  December  12,  1916,  the  Teutonic 
alliance  without  previous  intimation  or 
explanation  proposed  that  the  belliger- 
ents "enter  forthwith  into  peace  ne- 
gotiations." The  military  situation 
and  the  internal  conditions  in  Germany 
will  explain  the  reason.  The  war  map 
showed  the  Teutonic  powers  in  posses 
sion  of  large  areas  of  enemy  territory. 
Belgium,  Northern  France,  Serbia, 
Montenegro,  Rumania  and  Russian 
Poland  and  some  of  the  Baltic  lands  of 
Russia  had  been  overrun.  All  of  these 
were  valuable  pawns  with  which  to 
negotiate  if  the  Entente  should  agree 
to  enter  upon  peace  discussions.  It 
seemed  improbable  that  the  situation 
would  ever  be  more  favorable  for  the 
Teutonic  powers.  But  these  notable 
gains  had  not  been  won  without  great 
sacrifices  by  the  German  people.  Two 
years  of  warfare  had  made  great 
inroads  upon  the  man  power  and 
material  resources  of  the  Teutonic 
allies.  The  blockade  was  making  it 
increasingly  difBcult  for  the  German 
authorities  to  obtain  essential  war 
materials,  to  say  nothing  of  food  and 
clothing    for   the   civilian    population. 

THE   REASONS  FOR   THE  GERMAN  OFFER 
OF  PEACE. 

In  these  circumstances  something 
was  needed  to  strengthen  the  morale 
of  the  German  people.  By  making  a 
peace  offer  which  they  knew  would  be 
rejected  by  their  enemies,  the  German 
leaders  hoped  to  be  able  to  convince 
the  German  people  that  they  were 
fighting  a  defensive  struggle  and  thus 
to  reconcile  them  to  greater  sacrifices. 

As  was  anticipated  the  Entente 
Allies  refused  to  consider  the  German 
proposal,  which  they  stated  was  "empty 
and  insincere."  Mr.  Lloyd  George 
declared  that  "to  enter  on  the  in- 
vitation of  Germany,  proclaiming  her- 
self victorious,  without  any  knowledge 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


of  the  proposals  she  intends  to  make, 
into  a  conference,  is  putting  our 
heads  into  a  noose  with  the  rope  end 
in  the  hands  of  the  Germans." 

PRESIDENT   WILSON   ASKS   FOR   A   STATE- 
MENT OF  WAR  AIMS. 

When  the  German  peace  offer  ap- 
peared President  Wilson  had  already 
prepared  a  communication  to  the 
various  belligerents.  In  this  note  the 
President  directed  attention  to  the 
fact  that  each  side  professed  to  be 
fighting  a  defensive  war;  each  claimed 
to  be  "ready  to  consider  the  formation 
of  a  League  of  Nations  to  ensure  peace 
and  justice  throughout  the  world." 
The  objects  for  which  both  sides  were 
fighting  "stated  in  general  terms  seem 
to  be  the  same."  The  President  felt 
justified,  therefore,  in  asking  the  belli- 
gerents to  state  "the  precise  objects 
which  would,  if  attained,  satisfy  them 
and  their  people." 

In  reply  the  German  government 
evaded  the  question  but  renewed  its 
offer  to  enter  upon  peace  negotiations. 
The  Entente  powers  replied  more  to 
the  point.  While  they  were  unwilling 
to  declare  their  objects  in  complete 
detail,  certain  fundamental  conditions 
were  set  down.  These  included  the 
restoration  of  Belgium,  Serbia,  and 
Montenegro  with  compensation;  the 
evacuation  of  France,  Russia  and 
Rumania  with  just  reparation;  the 
reorganization  of  Europe  on  a  stable 
basis  which  involved  the  liberation 
of  the  subject  nationalities  in  Germany, 
Austria  and  Turkey.  At  the  same  time 
it  was  stated  that  it  was  not  the  pur- 
pose of  the  Entente  allies  "to  encom- 
pass the  extermination  of  the  German 
people  and  their  political  independence." 

PRESIDENT'S  ADDRESS  TO  THE  CONGRESS 
OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  j 

In  requesting  this  information  from 
the  belligerents  the  President  indicated 
that  he  was  not  proposing  mediation 
or  even  the  calling  of  a  peace  confer- 
ence. He  was  seeking  information  by 
which  the  United  States  could  be 
guided  in  formulating  its  future  policy 
toward  the  war  and  more  particularly 
in  regard  to  the  peace  which  should 
end  the  war.  In  a  remarkable  address 
delivered  before  the  Senate  on  January 


22,  191 7,  President  Wilson  developed 
more  fully  this  idea.  He  stated  that  it 
was  inconceivable  that  the  United 
States  should  not  play  a  part  "in  the 
days  to  come  when  it  will  be  necessary 
to  lay  afresh  and  upon  a  new  plan 
the  foundations  of  peace  among  na- 
tions." In  such  an  enterprise  the  people 
of  the  United  States  had  a  great 
service  to  perform.     "That  service  is 


WOODROW    WILSON,    PRESIDENT    OF    THE 
UNITED  STATES 

nothing  less  than  this;  to  add  their 
authority  and  their  power  to  the 
authority  and  force  of  other  nations  to 
guarantee  peace  and  justice  throughout 
the  world. "  If  the  people  of  the  United 
States  were  to  be  asked  to  join  in  this 
great  enterprise  he  felt  that  it  was 
necessary  to  formulate  the  conditions 
upon  which  he  "would  feel  justified 
in  asking  our  people  to  approve  its 
formal  and  solemn  adherence  to  a 
League  for  Peace. " 

While  the  United  States  would  have 
no  voice  in  determining  the  actual 
terms  of  peace  it  was  greatly  interested 
in  what  the  terms  of  peace  shall  be. 
"We  shall  have  a  voice  in  determining 
whether  they  shall  be  made  lasting  or 

731 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


not  by  the  guarantees  of  a  universal 
covenant;  and  our  judgment  upon 
what  is  fundamental  and  essential 
as  a  condition  precedent  to  permanency 
should  be  spoken  now,  not  afterwards 
when  it  may  be  too  late." 

THE   IDEA   OF   A  LEAGITE  OF   NATIONS  IS 
PRESENTED. 

"First  it  will  be  absolutely  necessary 
that  a  force  be  created  as  a  guarantor 


balance  of  power,  but  a  community  of 
power;  not  organized  rivalries,  but  an 
organized,  common  peace." 

PEACE    WITHOUT    VICTORY    A    NECESSITY 
FOR  PERMANENCE. 

Furthermore  a  permanent  peace 
must  be  based  upon  an  equality  of 
nations  and  national  rights.  "It  must 
be  a  peace  without  victory.  It  is  not 
pleasant  to  say  this.  I  beg  that  I  maybe 


FORGING  A  CANNON  AT  THE  BETHLEHEM  STEEL  WORKS 

In  making  a  heavy  cannon  the  great  ingot  of  cast  steel  is  forged  into  shape  by  continual  blasts  of  heavy  hammers 
before  it  is  entirely  cool.  Here  we  see  an  ingot  under  the  hammer.  The  Bethlehem  works  had  been  engaged 
in  making  munitions  for  the  Allies  on  a  large  scale  before  the  United  States  entered  the  war. 


of  the  permanency  of  the  settlement 
so  much  greater  than  the  force  of  any 
nation  now  engaged  or  any  alliance 
hitherto  formed  or  projected,  that  no 
nation,  no  probable  combination  of 
nations,  could  face  or  withstand  it." 
But  the  terms  of  the  peace  must  be 
such  as  to  warrant  such  a  guarantee. 
"The  question  upon  which  the  whole 
future  peace  and  policy  of  the  world 
depends  is  this:  Is  the  present  war  a 
struggle  for  a  just  and  secure  peace, 
or  only  for  a  new  balance  of  power? 
If  it  be  only  for  a  new  balance  of  power, 
who  will  guarantee,  who  can  guarantee, 
the  stable  equilibrium  of  the  new 
arrangement?    There  must  be,  not  a 

732 


permitted  to  put  my  own  interpretation 
upon  it  and  that  it  may  be  understood 
that  no  other  interpretation  was  in  my 
thought.  I  am  seeking  only  to  face 
realities  and  to  face  them  without  soft 
concealments.  Victory  would  mean 
peace  forced  upon  the  loser,  a  victor's 
terms  imposed  upon  the  vanquished .  .  . 
Only  a  peace  between  equals  can  last .  . 
Equality  of  territory  or  of  resources 
there,  of  course,  cannot  be;  nor  any 
sort  of  equality  not  gained  in  the 
ordinary  peaceful  and  legitimate  de- 
velopment of  the  people  themselves. 
But  no  one  asks  or  expects  anything 
more  than  an  equality  of  rights." 
Of  even  greater  importance  was  the 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


ROBERT  LANSING,    SECRETARY    OF    STATE 

recognition  of  the  rights  of  peoples  to 
formulate  their  own  political  institu- 
tions. "No  peace  can  last,  or  ought  to 
last,  which  does  not  recognize  and 
accept  the  principle  that  governments 
derive  all  their  just  rights  from  the 
consent  of  the  governed,  and  that  no 
right  anywhere  exists  to  hand  peoples 
about  from  sovereignty  to  sovereignty 

as    if    they   were    property Any 

peace  which  does  not  recognize  and 
accept  this  principle  will  inevitably 
be  upset." 

THE  FREEDOM  OF  THE  SEAS  AND  LIMITA- 
TION OF  ARMAMENTS. 

A  further  principle  which  President 
Wilson  considered  of  vital  importance 
was  the  freedom  of  the  seas.  "The 
freedom  of  the  seas  is  the  sine  qua  non  of 
peace,  equality,  and  cooperation." 
Such  freedom  contemplated  "the  free, 
constant,  unthreatened  intercourse  of 
nations"  on  the  high  seas.  In  the  case 
of  nations  whose  territory  did  not 
touch  the  high  seas  a  guaranteed  and 
neutralized  right  of  way  should  be 
provided.  The  problem  of  the  freedom 
of  the  seas  involved  the  limitation  of 
naival  armaments  which  in  turn  "opens 
the  wider  and  perhaps  more  difificult 
question  of  the  limitation  of  armies 


and  of  all  programmes  of  military  pre- 
paration."  These  questions  are  difificult 
and  "they  must  be  faced  with  the 
utmost  candor  and  decided  in  a 
spirit  of  real  accommodation,  if  peace  is 
to  come  with  healing  in  its  wings,  and 
come  to  stay.  Peace  cannot  be  had 
without  concession  and  sacrifice." 

These  were  the  conditions  upon  which 
the  President  felt  that  the  United 
States  might  be  asked  to  join  with  the 
nations  of  Europe  in  guaranteeing 
the  peace  of  the  world.  While  speaking 
as  an  individual  he  was  "confident  that 
I  have  said  what  the  people  of  the 
United  States  would  wish  me  to  say." 
Moreover  he  expressed  the  hope  that 
he  was  speaking  "for  the  silent  mass 
of  mankind  everywhere  who  have  had 
as  yet  no  opportunity  to  speak  their 
real  hearts  out  concerning  the  death 
and  ruin  they  see  to  have  come  already 
upon    the    persons   and    homes    they 

hold  most  dear I  speak  with  the 

greater  boldness  because  it  is  clear  to 
every  man  who  can  think  that  there  is 
in  this  promise  no  breach  in  either  our 
traditions  or  our  policy  as  a  nation, 
but  a  fulfilment,  rather,  of  all  that  we 
have  professed  or  striven  for.  I  am 
proposing,  as  it  were,  that  the  nations 


WALTER  H.  PAGE,  AMBASSADOR  TO  GREAT 
BRITAIN 

733 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


should  with  one  accord  adopt  the 
doctrine  of  President  Monroe  as  the 
doctrine  of  the  world;  that  no  nation 
should  seek  to  extend  its  polity  over 
any  other  nation  or  people,  but  that 
every  people  should  be  left  free  to 
determine  its  own  polity,  its  own 
way  of  development,  unhindered,  un- 
afraid, the  little  along  with  the  great 
and  powerful." 


out  the  country  the  President's  words 
made  a  deep  impression,  and  excited 
much  discussion.  It  is  significant  that 
there  was  so  little  popular  dissent  from 
the  bold  stand.  Such  criticism  as  ap- 
peared was  directed  chiefly  to  the  de- 
mands of  a  "peace  without  victory. "  A 
few  objected  to  the  idea  that  the  United 
States  should  assume  any  position  in 
settling   European   quarrels.     Senator 


GENERAL  PERSHING  AND  STAFF  ON  BOARD  THE  BALTIC 

General  Pershing  and  his  staff  arrived  at  Liverpool  June  7,  1917,  and  after  a  short  stay  in  England  crossed  over  to 
France  and  established  headquarters  there,  first  in  Paris,  but  later  at  Chaumont.  Though  the  stafi  was  subse- 
quently much  enlarged,  and  changed  in  harmony  with  General  Pershing's  idea  of  giving  every  man  service  with 
troops,  some  of  these  ofScers  retained  their  positions  until  the  Armistice. 


THE  UNITED   STATES  TO   ABANDON   THE 
POLICY  OF  ISOLATION. 

This  speech  gives  striking  evidence 
how  greatly  two  years  of  war  in  Europe 
had  influenced  political  thinking  in 
the  United  States.  Probably  no  Amer- 
ican president  had  ever  before  so 
frankly  proposed  such  a  fundamental 
change  in  the  foreign  policy  of  the 
country.  It  was  a  clear  call  to  the 
people  of  the  United  States  to  abandon 
their  traditional  isolation  from  the 
affairs  of  Europe  and  to  assume  among 
the  nations  of  the  world  that  position 
of  leadership  which  their  material  and 
moral  strength  warranted.     Through- 

734 


Borah  was  thus  early  voicing  loud  op- 
position to  any  change  in  the  policy 
of  the  Nation.  Many  expressed  the 
view  that  a  lasting  peace  would  not 
come  until  the  military  power  of  Ger- 
many was  crushed.  Ex-President 
Roosevelt  was   particularly   bitter. 

Scarcely  time  enough  was  allowed 
for  the  country  to  realize  the  full 
significance  of  the  change  which  this 
address  contemplated  before  it  was 
called  upon  to  face  a  situation  which 
transformed  the  United  States  from 
a  deeply  interested  observer  into  a 
full  participant  in  the  great  world 
drama. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


NEWTON   D.   BAKER,  SECRETARY   OF   WAR 

WHY   UNRESTRICTED   SUBMARINE   WAR- 
FARE WAS  RESUMED. 

For  nine  months  the  German  author- 
ities generally  observed  the  promise 
that  merchant  vessels  should  not  be 
sunk  without  warning  and  without 
saving  human  lives.  All  at  once 
without  the  slightest  warning,  on  the 
31st  of  January,  1917,  they  served 
notice  that  they  proposed  to  resume 
unrestricted  submarine  warfare. 

The  war  had  lasted  much  longer 
than  the  German  military  leaders  had 
anticipated.  The  strength  of  the 
Teutonic  allies  had  reached,  if  it  had 
not  passed,  its  maximum.  Every  month 
that  passed  brought  added  strength  to 
their  enemies.  A  war  of  attrition 
could  only  end  in  a  German  defeat. 
The  resources  of  the  United  States 
were  aiding  the  Entente.  There  appear- 
ed to  be  but  one  hope  and  that  was  to 
force  Great  Britain  to  capitulate  by  a 
policy  of  submarine  terror.  The  ele- 
ments which  were  willing  to  risk  a 
rupture  with  the  United  States  grew 
stronger.  In  the  event  of  a  break  the 
German  leaders  assumed  that  a  coun- 
try so  unprepared  for  war  could  do 
little  damage,  at  least  not  before  the 
submarine  had  starved  Great  Britain 
into  submission.   Events  were  to  prove 


that  they  miscalculated  as  badly  in 
this  instance  as  they  did  in  the  invasion 
of  Belgium. 

DIPLOMATIC  RELATIONS  WITH  THE  GER- 
MAN EMPIRE  ARE  SEVERED. 

The  new  war  zone  extended  from  a 
point  four  hundred  miles  west  of  Ireland 
and  ran  to  a  point  nine  hundred  miles 
west  of  Bordeaux.  Lanes  of  safety  in  the 
North  Sea,  along  the  Spanish  coast 
and  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea  were 
designated  in  order  that  access  might 
be  had  to  neutral  states.  As  a  con- 
cession to  the  United  States  one  ship  a 
week  was  to  be  permitted  to  sail  to 
England,  provided  it  sailed  on  a 
specified  day,  over  a  designated  course 
to  the  port  of  Falmouth,  and  displayed 
certain  distinctive  markings.  Moreover 
the  United  States  government  must 
guarantee  that  such  ships  carried  no 
contraband.  In  submitting  these  pro- 
posals the  German  government  hoped 
"that  the  United  States  may  view  the 
new  situation  from  the  lofty  heights  of 
impartiality  and  assist,  on  their  part,  to 
prevent  further  misery  and  avoidable 
sacrifice  of  human  life."  Both  the 
remarkable  character  of  the  German 
proposals  and  the  arrogant  method  of 


JOSEPHUS  DANIELS,  SECRETARY  OF 
THE  NAVY 

735 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


GENERAL  JOHN  J.  PERSHING,  COMMANDING 
AMERICAN  EXPEDITIONARY  FORCE 

their  presentation  created  amusement 
as  well  as  resentment  throughout  the 
United  States. 

The  German  proposals  were  so 
clearly  a  repudiation  of  the  Sussex 
pledge  that  President  Wilson  immedi- 
ately ordered  the  recall  of  Ambassador 
Gerard  from  Berlin  and  sent  Ambassa- 
dor von  Bernstorff  his  passports.  At 
the  same  time  he  stated  that  he  did  not 
believe  that  Germany  would  really  do 
what  she  threatened  to  do.  In  closing 
jbis  address  to  Congress  he  said:  "We 
^o  not  desire  any  hostile  conflict  with 
the  Imperial  German  Government. 
We  are  the  sincere  friends  of  the 
German  people  and  earnestly  desire 
to  remain  at  peace  with  the  Govern- 
ment that  speaks  for  them.  We  shall 
not  believe  that  they  are  hostile  to  us 
unless  and  until  we  are  obliged  to 
believe  it;  and  we  purpose  nothing 
more  than  the  reasonable  defense  of 
the  undoubted  rights  of  our  people.  .  .  . 
seek  merely  to  vindicate  our  right  to 
liberty  and  justice  and  an  unmolest- 
ed life.  These  are  the  bases  of  peace, 
not  war.    God  grant  we  may  not  be 

736 


challenged  to  defend  them  by  acts  of 
willful  injustice  on  the  part  of  the 
Government  of  Germany!" 

OTHER  NATIONS  HESITATE  TO  BREAK  OFF 
RELATIONS. 

President  Wilson  imme(^iately  noti- 
fied all  other  neutral  governments  of 
the  action  of  the  Unite<^'  States  and 
suggested  that  they  take  similar  action. 
Though  none  follQ,wed  the  example  of 
iiie  United  States,  all  the  European 
nations,  the  majority  of  the  South 
American  republics,  and  China  also, 
sent  vigorous  notes  of  protest  to  the 
German  government.     •, 

There  is  little  doubt  that  the  Presi- 
dent expressed  the  feeling  of  the 
majority  of  the  American  people.  It  is 
true  that  there  were  some  who  felt  that 
the  United  States  should  have  entered 
the  war  at  the  time  of  the  sinking 
of  the  Lusitania,  while  on  the  other 
hand  there  were  some  German-Ameri- 
cans and  pacifists  who  maintained  that 
the  President  was  leading  the  country 
into  a  war  which  might  be  avoided. 
The  most  conspicuous  of  the  latter 
was  Mr.  Bryan  who  urged  the  people 


VICE-ADMIRAL  WM.  S.  SIMS,  COMMANDING 
IN  EUROPEAN  WATERS 


THE  FIRST  AMERICAN  TROOPS  DISEMBARKING  IN  FRANCE 
The  first  American  troops  that  landed  in  France  in  June,  1917,  belonged  to  the  First  Division.    The  French  were 
much  interested   in  their  appearance,  their  uniforms    and  their    methods,  all    of    which  were  quite    different 
from  those  of  the  French  Soldiers,    Here  they  are  in  line  waiting  to  carry  their  impedimenta  from  the  transport. 


THE  FLAG  OF  THE  SIXTEENTH  REGIMENT  IN  PARIS 
Some  of  the  regiments  of  the  American  Army  have  a  long  and  honorable  history.     This  is  the  regimental  flag 
with  the  national  colors,  and  the  color  guard  of  the  Sixteenth  Regiment  of  the  Regular  Army.     This  regiment 
paraded  in  Paris  on  July  4,  1917,  where  the  American  troops  attracted  much  attention.    The  size  of  the  men  was 
one  of  the  causes  of  wonder  and  almost  of  astonishment. 

737 


fflSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


to  telegraph  the  President  and  Con- 
gressmen not  to  involve  the  country 
in  a  war  "on  European  soil  in  settle- 
ment of  European  quarrels." 

AMBASSADOR   GERARD    IS    HAMPERED    IN 
l\     LEAVING  GERMANY. 

Leaving  German  interests  in  the 
hands  of  Dr.  Paul  Ritter,  the  Swiss 
Minister,  Ambassador  von  Bernstorff 
sailed  from  New  York  on  February  14, 
accompanied  by  the  embassy  officials 
and  a  number  of  prominent  Germans. 
After  some  delay  at  Halifax,  where  the 
British  authorities  made  a  thorough 
search  of  baggage  despite  protests,  the 
party  arrived  safely  at  Copenhagen. 
The  American  ambassador  was  not  so 
fortunate  in  his  efforts  to  leave  Germany. 
Upon  presenting  his  demand  for  his 
passports  he  was  assured  that  they 
would  be  promptly  furnished.  Sub- 
sequently, however,  the  German  au- 
thorities submitted  to  him  a  number  of 
proposals  which  they  suggested  should 
be  added  to  the  existing  treaty  between 
the  United  States  and  Germany.  These 
proposals  provided  that  the  personal 
and  property  rights  of  the  citizens  of 
each  nation  should  remain  undisturbed 
and  that  such  citizens  should  not  be 
interned  or  otherwise  molested.  Mr. 
Gerard  firmly  declined  to  transmit  any 
such  proposals  and  renewed  his  request 
for  his  passports.  After  a  delay  of  four 
more  days  the  German  authorities 
complied  with  his  demand  and  he  was 
able  at  last  to  leave  for  Switzerland. 
Thence  he  returned  to  the  United 
States  by  way  of  France  and  Spain. 
The  Spanish  Ambassador  and  the 
Dutch  Minister  took  over  the  affairs 
of  the  United  States. 

With  the  break  in  diplomatic  rela- 
tions the  German  authorities  tried 
to  induce  the  President  to  enter  upon 
another  long  diplomatic  discussion. 
Through  the  Swiss  Minister  it  was 
proposed  that  the  United  States 
indicate  how  the  submarine  warfare 
might  be  modified  to  satisfy  our 
demands.  To  this  suggestion  the 
President  returned  a  flat  refusal  to 
enter  upon  any  discussion  unless  the 
German  authorities  repealed  the  decree 
of  January  31  with  its  threat  of  unre- 
stricted submarine  warfare. 

738 


THE  EFFECT  OF  THE  ANNOUNCEMENT  ON 
AMERICAN  SHIPPING. 

In  American  shipping  circles  the 
German  threat  aroused  serious  concern. 
Owners  refused  to  allow  their  vessels  to 
leave  American  ports  and  under- 
writers declined  to  insure  the  cargoes 
unless  adequate  protection  was  assured. 
As  a  result  there  was  a  practical 
embargo  on  American  shipping.  To 
meet  this  situation  President  Wilson 
went  before  Congress  on  February  26 
and  asked  for  authority  to  place  arms 
on  American  ships  and  to  use  "any 
other  instrumentalities  and  methods" 
that  he  might  deem  necessary  to 
protect  American  ships  and  property 
on  the  high  seas.  In  Congress  a  bill  was 
introduced  appropriating  $100,000,000 
to  provide  armament  for  merchant 
ships  but  that  body  was  unwilling  to 
grant  the  President  the  additional 
power  which  he  requested.  The  bill 
passed  the  House  of  Representatives 
by  a  large  majority.  In  the  Senate  a 
small  but  determined  group  of  Senators 
conducted  a  filibuster  to  prevent  the 
passage  of  the  bill  before  the  expiration 
of  the  session  on  March  4.  They  were 
Senators  La  Follette,  Norris,  Cummins, 
Gronna,  Clapp,  and  Works,  Republic- 
ans; and  Stone,  O'Gorman,  Kirby, 
Lane  and  Vardaman,  Democrats. 

THE  INTERCEPTED  GERMAN  NOTE  SEEK- 
ING ALLIANCE  WITH  MEXICO. 

While  the  debate  in  the  Senate  was 
proceeding  the  State  Department  is- 
sued an  intercepted  dispatch  from 
Dr.  Alfred  Zimmermann,  then  German 
Under-Secretary  for  Foreign  Affairs, 
to  the  German  Minister  in  Mexico 
which  gave  a  striking  illustration  of 
the  utter  stupidity  of  German  diplo- 
macy. The  Zimmermann  dispatch 
was  as  follows: 

"On  the  first  of  February  we  intend 
to  begin  submarine  warfare  unrestrict- 
ed. In  spite  of  this,  it  is  our  intention 
to  endeavor  to  keep  neutral  with  the 
United  States  of  America.  If  this 
attempt  is  not  successful,  we  propose 
an  alliance  on  the  following  basis  with 
Mexico.  That  we  shall  make  war 
together  and  together  make  peace. 
We  shall  give  general  financial  support 
and  it  is  understood  that  Mexico  is  to 


fflSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


reconquer  the  lost  territory  of  New 
Mexico,  Texas  and  Arizona.  The 
details  are  left  to  you  for  settlement. 
"You  are  instructed  to  inform  the 
President  of  Mexico  of  the  above  in 
the  greatest  confidence  as  soon  as  it 
is  certain  that  there  will  be  an  outbreak 
of  war  with  the  United  States,  and 
suggest  that  the  President  of  Mexico, 


effect  of  overcoming  the  opposition 
in  the  Senate  to  the  President's  propos- 
al and  the  session  closed  without  action 
having  been  taken.  Seventy-five  of 
the  ninety-six  members  of  the  Senate 
signed  a  protest  in  which  they  in- 
dicated their  desire  to  vote  for  the 
measure  but  were  prevented  from 
doing  so  because  of  the  Senate  rule 


THE  LANDSHIP  "RECRUIT"  IN  XJWION  SQUARE,  NEW  YORK 

One  of  the  most  interesting  and  eSective  aids  to  recruiting  for  the  Navy  was  the  landship"  Recruit"  in  ITnion  Square, 
which  remained  during  the  whole  war.  It  was  a  reproduction  in  wood  of  one  of  the  great  steel  battleships,  lattice 
masts,  ship's  bell  and  all.    Prospective  recruits  coidd  see  sailors  goifig  about  their  daily  tasks. 

New  York  Times  Photo  Service 


on  his  own  initiative,  should  com- 
municate with  Japan,  suggesting  ad- 
herence at  once  to  the  plan,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  off^er  to  mediate  between 
Japan  and  Germany.  Please  call  to  the 
attention  of  the  President  of  Mexico 
that  the  employment  of  ruthless  sub- 
marine warfare  now  promises  to  compel 
England  to  make  peace  in  a  few 
months." 

THE  PRESIDENT  REBUKES  "THE  LITTLE 
GROUP  OF  WILLFUL  MEN." 

The  disclosure  of  this  effort  on  the 
part  of  Germany  to  embroil  the  United 
States  with  its  southern  neighbor 
aroused  bitter  resentment  throughout 
the  country,  but  it  did  not  have  the 


allowing  unlimited  debate.  Others 
would  have  signed  had  they  been 
present. 

The  day  following  the  close  of  the 
session  of  Congress  President  Wilson 
issued  a  stinging  rebuke  to  the  "little 
group  of  willful  men  "  who  had  defeated 
the  will  of  the  great  majority  of  the 
members  of  Congress.  He  declared 
that  it  was  a  situation  "unparalleled 
in  the  history  of  the  country,  perhaps 
in  the  history  of  any  modern  govern- 
ment  More  than  500  of  the  531 

members  of  the  two  houses  were  ready 
and  anxious  to  act;  The  House  of 
Representatives  had  acted  by  an 
overwhelming  majority,  but  the  Senate 

739 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


was  unable  to  act  because  a  little 
group  of  eleven  Senators  had  deter- 
mined   that    it    should    not The 

Senate  of  the  United  States  is  the  only 
legislative  body  in  the  world  that 
cannot  act  when  its  majority  is  ready 
for  action.  A  little  group  of  willful 
men,  representing  no  opinion  but  their 
own,  have  rendered  the  great  Govern- 
ment of  the  United  States  helpless 
and  contemptible The  only  rem- 
edy is  that  the  rules  of  the  Senate  shall 


can  be  brought  to  a  vote  when  two- 
thirds  of  the  members  so  order. 
Having  accomplished  his  purpose 
President  Wilson  then  obtained  an 
opinion  from  the  Attorney-General 
that  he  had  the  authority  to  place 
armament  on  merchant  vessels  without 
further  authorization  from  Congress. 
Acting  upon  this  opinion  it  was  announ- 
ced that  armed  guards  would  be  placed 
on  all  American  vessels  passing  through 
the  war  zone.    This  condition  of  armed 


FLEET  OF  AMERICAN  TROOPSHIPS  OUTWARD  BOUND  ON  THE  ATLANTIC 

At  a  distance  of  about  a  mile,  in  order  to  be  able  to  manoeuvre  freely,  steam  the  second  and  third  ships  of  this 
fleet.  The  men,  wearing  their  life-belts,  are  prepared  for  submarine  attack;  the  guns  in  readiness  for  training 
on  the  difficult  mark  of  the  elusive  periscope;    the  life-boats  swung  out  for  quick  launching. 

©  International  Film  Service 


be  so  altered  that  it  can  act.  The 
country  can  be  relied  upon  to  draw  the 
moral.  I  believe  that  the  Senate  can  be 
relied  on  to  supply  the  means  of  action 
and  save  the  country  from  disaster," 

ARMED  NEUTRALITY  MOVES  ON  TOWARD 
l\     OPEN  WAR. 

The  response  of  the  country  to  the 
appeal  of  the  President  was  immediate 
and  impressive.  Mass  meetings  were 
held  to  condemn  the  action  of  the 
"willful"  Senators.  Societies  adopted 
resolutions  of  protest  and  the  legisla- 
tures of  a  number  of  states  pledged 
their  support  to  the  President. 
Impressed  by  this  outburst  of  public 
feeling  the  Senate,  in  special  session, 
modified  its  rules  so  that  a  measure 

740 


neutrality  could  obviously  not  con- 
tinue any  great  length  of  time.  Either 
Germany  must  abandon  her  policy 
of  submarine  ruthlessness  or  a  clash 
was  certain  to  result.  On  March  19, 
news  was  received  that  three  American 
ships  had  been  sunk  within  twenty-four 
hours  with  the  loss  of  fifteen  lives. 
From  all  parts  of  the  country  came 
demands  for  immediate  and  decisive 
action. 

Fortified  by  these  expressions  of 
public  opinion  the  President,  on  March 
21,  summoned  Congress  to  meet  in 
special  session  on  April  2  "to  receive 
a  communication  from  the  Executive 
on  grave  questions  of  national  policy 
which    should   be    taken   immediately 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


under  consideration."  As  the  mo- 
mentous day  approached  there  was  in- 
creasing evidence  of  popular  enthusi- 
asm. Mass-meetings  were  called  for 
the  purpose  of  adopting  patriotic 
resolutions.  Numbers  of  prominent 
persons  went  to  Washington  for  the 
historic  event.  On  the  other  hand  a 
group  of  pacifists  also  appeared  to 
make   a   final    demonstration     against 


"With  a  profound  sense  of  the 
solemn  and  even  tragical  character 
of  the  step  I  am  taking  and  of  the 
grave  responsibilities  which  it  involves, 
but  in  unhesitating  obedience  to  what  I 
deem  my  constitutional  duty,  I  advise 
that  the  Congress  declare  the  recent 
course  of  the  Imperial  German  Govern- 
ment to  be  in  fact  nothing  less  than  war 
against   the   Government  and   people 


THE  FIRST  UNITED  STATES  SOLDIERS  IN  LONDON 

For  the  first  time  in  historj'  United  States  soldiers  marched  through  London  on  August  IS,  1917.  They  were  re- 
viewed by  the  King,  the  War  Cabinet  adjourned  to  observe  the  spectacle,  and  the  streets  were  crowded  with 
interested  and  friendly  spectators.    Here  they  are  seen  marching  through  Bird  Cage  Walk  to  their  camp. 

©  London  Daily  Mail 


entering  the  war.  At  8:30  in  the 
evening  of  April  2,  the  President 
entered  the  hall  of  the  House  of 
Representatives.  He  was  greeted 
with  the  greatest  enthusiasm.  Nearly 
every  member  in  the  great  audi- 
ence carried  an  American  flag.  With 
an  earnestness  and  dignity  which  the 
gravity  of  the  occasion  called  for  the 
President  read  his  war  message. 

PRESIDENT    WILSON'S    MEMORABLE    WAR 
MESSAGE  TO  CONGRESS. 

Reviewing  Germany's  acts  since  the 
renewal  of  unrestricted  submarine 
warfare  and  characterizing  them  as 
"warfare  against  mankind,"  he  said; 


of  the  United  States;  that  it  formally 
accept  the  status  of  belligerent  which 
has  thus  been  thrust  upon  it  and  that 
it  take  immediate  steps  not  only  to 
put  the  country  in  a  more  thorough 
state  of  defense,  but  also  to  exert 
all  its  power  and  employ  all  its  re- 
sources to  bring  the  Government  of 
the  German  Empire  to  terms  and  to 
end  the  war." 

The  President  then  indicated  some 
of  the  things  which  he  considered 
essential  to  be  done  in  order  to  make 
our  participation  in  the  war  effective. 
These  included  the  extension  of 
financial  aid  to  the  nations  at  war  with 

741 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


Germany,  the  development  and  or- 
ganization of  our  industries  to  make 
them  most  effective  for  conduct  of 
the  war,  the  strengthening  of  the 
navy  and  the  expansion  of  the  army 
to  at  least  five  hundred  thousand  men 
at  once  with  additional  forces  to  be 
raised  "upon  the  principle  of  universal 
liability  to  service. "  In  defraying  the 
expenses  of  the  war  the  President 
suggested  that  as  large  a  proportion  as 
possible  should  be  borne  by  taxation. 

WAR     ONLY     A    STEP     TOWARD     A     NEW 
WORLD   ORDER. 

While  the  illegal  actions  of  the 
German  Government  were  a  sufficient 
justification  for  our  entrance  into  the 
war  the  President  desired  to  look 
beyond  questions  of  self  interest  to  the 
more  fundamental  question  of  the 
defense  of  democratic  ideals  and  the 
organization  of  a  new  world  order. 
Turning    to    these    objects    he    said: 

"My  own  thought  has  not  been 
driven  from  its  habitual  and  normal 
course  by  the  unhappy  events  of  the 
last  two  months,  and  I  do  not  believe 
that  the  thought  of  the  nation  has  been 
altered  or  clouded  by  them.  I  have 
exactly  the  same  things  in  mind  now 
that  I  had  in  mind  when  I  addressed 
the  Senate  on  the  twenty-second  of 
January  last;  the  same  that  I  had  in 
mind  when  I  addressed  the  Congress 
on  the  third  of  February  and  on  the 
twenty-sixth  of  February.  Our  object 
now,  as  then,  is  to  vindicate  the 
principles  of  peace  and  justice  in  the 
life  of  the  world  as  against  selfish  and 
autocratic  power  and  to  set  up  amongst 
the  really  free  and  self-governed  peoples 
of  the  world  such  a  concert  of  purpose 
and  of  action  as  will  henceforth  ensure 
the    observance    of    these    principles. 

"Neutrality  is  no  longer  feasible  or 
desirable  where  the  peace  of  the  world 
is  involved  and  the  freedom  of  its 
peoples,  and  the  menace  to  that  peace 
and  freedom  lies  in  the  existence  of 
autocratic  governments  backed  by 
organized  force  which  is  controlled 
wholly  by  their  will,  not  by  the  will 
of  their  people.  We  have  seen  the 
last  of  neutrality  in  such  circumstances. 
We  are  at  the  beginning  of  an  age  in 
which  it  will  be  insisted  that  the  same 

742 


standards  of  conduct  and  of  re- 
sponsibility for  wrong  done  shall  be 
observed  among  nations  and  their 
governments  that  are  observed  among 
the  individual  citizens  of  civilized 
states." 

"TT  TE  HAVE  NO  QUARREL  WITH  THE  GER- 
W       MAN  PEOPLE." 

The  President  made  it  clear  that  our 
quarrel  was  with  the  German  govern- 
ment not  the  German  people.  "We 
have  no  quarrel  with  the  German 
people.  We  have  no  feeling  toward 
them  but  one  of  sympathy  and  friend- 
ship. It  was  not  upon  their  impulse 
that  their  Government  acted  in  enter- 
ing the  war.  It  was  not  with  their 
previous  knowledge  or  approval.  It 
was  a  war  determined  upon  as  wars 
used  to  be  determined  upon  in  the 
old,  unhappy  days  when  peoples  were 
nowhere  consulted  by  their  rulers  and 
wars  were  provoked  and  waged  in 
the  interest  of  dynasties  or  of  little 
groups  of  ambitious  men  who  were 
accustomed  to  use  their  fellowmen 
as  pawns  and  tools. 

' '  We  are  now  about  to  accept  the  gage 
of  battle  with  this  natural  foe  of 
liberty  and  shall,  if  necessary,  spend 
the  whole  force  of  the  nation  to  check 
and  nullify  its  pretensions  and  its 
power.  We  are  glad,  now  that  we  see 
the  facts  with  no  veil  of  false  pretense 
about  them,  to  fight  thus  for  the 
ultimate  peace  of  the  world  and  for  the 
liberation  of  its  peoples,  the  German 
peoples  included;  for  the  rights  of 
nations  great  and  small  and  the 
privilege  of  men  everywhere  to  choose 
their    way    of    life    and     obedience. 

"'T^HE  WORLD  MUST  BE  MADE   SAFE   FOR 
1       DEMOCRACY." 

"The  world  must  be  made  safe  for 
democracy.  Its  peace  must  be  planted 
upon  the  tested  foundations  of  political 
liberty.  We  have  no  selfish  ends  to 
serve.  We  desire  no  conquest,  no 
dominion.  We  seek  no  indemnities 
for  ourselves,  no  material  compensation 
for  the  sacrifices  we  shall  freely  make. 
We  are  but  one  of  the  champions  of 
mankind.  We  shall  be  satisfied  when 
these  have  been  made  as  secure  as 
the  faith  and  the  freedom  of  nations 
can  make  them 


fflSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


"It  is  a  distressing  and  oppressive 
duty,  gentlemen  of  the  Congress, 
which  I  have  performed  in  thus 
addressing  you.  There  are,  it  may  be, 
many  months  of  fiery  trial  and  sacrifice 
ahead  of  us.  It  is  a  fearful  thing  to  lead 
this  great  peaceful  people  into  war, 
into  the  most  terrible  and  disastrous 
of  wars,  civilization  itself  seeming  to 
be  in  the  balance. 


had  taken.  The  alliance  of  the  Russian 
autocracy  with  the  democracies  of  the 
w^est  had  been  an  anomaly.  It  had 
weakened  the  contention  of  the  Entente 
that  they  were  fighting  to  maintain 
democratic  ideals.  But  the  Russian 
Revolution,  which  occurred  some  two 
weeks  before  the  entrance  of  the  United 
States  into  the  war,  left  Germany 
as  the  one  great  stronghold  of  autoc- 


GENERAL  PERSHING  ARRIVING  AT  BOULOGNE 
On  his  arrival  at  Boulogne,  June  13,  1917,  General  Pershing  was  met  by  a  delegation  including  M.  Besnard,  Under 
Secretary  of  State  for  War,  and  the  one-armed  veteran.  General  Pelletier,  who  had  been  designated  to  attend  him. 
General  Pershing  is  here  passing  in  review  the  sailors  assigned  as  part  of  the  guard  of  honor. 

©     Picture,  Kadel  &  Herbert 

racy  in  the  world.  With  truth  could 
the  President  then  proclaim  that  the 
struggle  was  between  the  two  antagon- 
istic principles  of  autocracy  and  democ- 
racy. 

CONGRESS  VOTES  FOR  WAR  BY  AN  OVER- 
WHELMING MAJORITY. 

Following  the  reading  of  the  Presi- 
dent's Message  resolutions  were  intro- 
duced in  both  houses  of  Congress 
declaring  that  a  state  of  war  had 
been  thrust  upon  the  United  States 
by  Germany.  The  resolution  passed 
the  Senate  April  4,  by  a  vote  of  82  to  6. 
The  six  negative  votes  were  cast  by 
Senators    La    Follette,    Gronna    and 

743 


"But  the  right  is  more  precious  than 
peace,  and  we  shall  fight  for  the  things 
which  we  have  always  carried  nearest 
our  hearts,  —  for  democracy,  for  the 
right  of  those  who  submit  to  authority 
to  have  a  voice  in  their  own  govern- 
ments, for  the  rights  and  liberties  of 
small  nations,  for  a  universal  dominion 
of  right  by  such  a  concert  of  free 
peoples  as  shall  bring  peace  and  safety 
to  all  nations  and  make  the  world 
itself  at  last  free." 

THE  RUSSIAN  REVOLUTION  ADDS  FORCE 
TO  THE  MESSAGE. 

Events  in  Russia  had  given  added 
force  to  the  position  which  the  President 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


Norris,  Republicans;  and  Stone,  Lane 
and  Vardaman,  Democrats,  In  the 
House  of  Representatives  after  an 
all  day  debate  the  resolution  passed 
April  6,  by  a  vote  of  373  to  50,  nine 
members  not  voting.  Of  the  negative 
votes  16  were  Democrats,  32  Republic- 
ans, I  Socialist,  and  i  Independent. 
The  resolution  was  signed  by  President 
Wilson  the  same  day. 

Among  the  nations  at  war  with 
Germany  the  entrance  of  the  United 
States  into  the  struggle  created  a 
profound  impression.  From  both  of- 
ficial and  private  sources  came  ex- 
pressions of  deepest  feeling  and  appre- 
ciation. President  Poincare  declared 
that  "the  great  American  Republic" 
had  proven  "faithful  to  its  ideals  and 
its  traditions."  Mr.  Asquith,  speaking 
before  the  House  of  Commons,  said, 
"I  do  not  use  language  of  flattery  or 
exaggeration  when  I  say  it  is  one  of  the 
most  disinterested  acts  in  history." 

rpHE    EFFECT    OF   THE    DECLARATION   ON 
i       THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Throughout  the  United  States  the 
news  was  received  with  a  calm  dignity 
which  befitted  the  momentous  charac- 
ter of  the  action.  There  was  neither 
tumult  nor  hysteria,  but  everywhere 
there  was  evidence  of  a  deep  and 
sincere  patriotism. 

The  immediate  effects  of  the  entrance 
of  the  United  States  into  the  war  were 
moral  rather  than  material.  Not  for 
many  months  were  the  tremendous 
resources'  of  the  country  fully  prepared 
to  make  their  force  felt  in  Europe. 
But  the  moral  value  of  the  action  was 
immediate  and  profound.  To  the  war- 
weary  British  and  French  it  brought 
new  hope  at  a  time  when  the  situation 
was  particularly  discouraging. 

Following  the  declaration  of  war 
against  Germany,  Austria-Hungary 
broke  diplomatic  relations  with  the 
United  States,  April  8,  but  the  United 
States  did  not  formally  declare  war 
against  her  until  December  7,  1917. 
With  the  other  two  members  of  the 
Teutonic  alliance,  Turkey  and  Bulgaria, 
no  declaration  of  war  was  made,  and 
diplomatic  intercourse  was  not  sus- 
pended with  the  latter.  Turkey  broke 
relations  on  April  20,  191 7. 

744 


THE   ACTION   OF   OTHER  STATES  OF   THE 
WESTERN  HEMISPHERE. 

Influenced  by  the  action  of  the 
United  States,  Cuba  immediately  de- 
clared war  without  a  dissenting  voice. 
The  President  of  Panama  had  previ- 
ously been  given  authority  to  declare 
war  when  he  should  deem  it  advisable, 
and  at  once  issued  a  proclamation, 
placing  Panama  beside  the  United 
States.  Brazil  severed  diplomatic  re- 
lations on  April  10,  and  declared  war 
in  October.  Haiti  declared  war  in 
September,  and  Guatemala,  Nicara- 
gua and  Costa  Rica  followed  in  1918. 

Bolivia  severed  relations  on  April  13, 
Honduras  in  May,  San  Salvador  and 
Santo  Domingo  in  June,  Uruguay  and 
Peru  in  October,  and  Ecuador  in 
December.  Mexico  declared  for  neu- 
trality, but  was  really  unfriendly  to 
the  United  States.  Chile,  Argentina, 
Venezuela,  Paraguay  and  Colombia  for 
various  reasons  remained  neutral, 
though  public  sentiment  in  some  of 
these  countries,  so  far  as  it  was 
articulate,  was  strongly  against  Ger- 
many. 

FRENCH     AND     BRITISH     MISSIONS     VISIT 
THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Soon  after  the  Declaration  of  War, 
several  Allied  Commissions  visited  the 
United  States.  The  British,  headed  by 
Mr.  Arthur  J,  Balfour,  which  reached 
Washington  April  22,  and  the  French, 
headed  by  ex-Premier  Viviani  and 
Marshal  Joffre,  which  arrived  April  25, 
excited  the  greatest  enthusiasm.  Both 
M.  Viviani  and  Mr.  Balfour  addressed 
the  House  of  Representatives  by  in- 
vitation and  the  former  addressed  the 
Senate  also.  Both  Commissions  visited 
the  tomb  of  Washington  at  Mt.  Vernon 
where  impressive  exercises  were  held. 

Both  then  made  visits  to  some  of  the 
principal  cities  of  the  country  and  were 
everywhere  received  with  great  en- 
thusiasm. Marshal  Joffre  was  greeted 
with  especial  warmth  and  his  frank 
honesty  deepened  the  regard  in  which 
he  was  already  held  in  Chicago,  St. 
Louis,  Kansas  City,  Springfield,  111., 
and  Philadelphia.  In  New  York  the 
city  was  elaborately .  decorated  to  re- 
ceive the  missions,  and  dinners  and 
receptions   were   offered. 


"LAFAYETTE!    WE  ARE  HERE" 
On  the  afternoon  of  June  15,  1917,  General  Pershing  with  members  of  his  staff  and  French  officers  visited  the  tomb 
of  Lafayette  at  the  Picpus  Cemetery,  and  laid  a  wreath  upon  the  grave  of  the  man  who  had  left  home  and  family 
and  crossed  the  ocean  to  fight  for  the  freedom  of  the  struggling  American  colonies. 


RECEPTION  GIVEN  TO  GENERAL  PERSHING  IN  PARIS 
After  showing  himself  to  the  people  of  Paris  from  the  balcony  of  the  Military  Club,  this  picture  was  made.  General 
Pelletier  is  seen  immediately  behind  M.(dame  Joffre,  who  is  seen  between  General  Pershing  and  Marshal  Joffre. 
On  the  other  side  of  General  Pershing  is  General  Foch,  not;  yet  recognized  as  the  man  of  the   hour.     General 
Dubail  and  his  little  son  are  to  the  right  of  Marshal  Joffre.  Upper  picture  ©  Kadel  &  Herbert 

745 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


Meanwhile  the  technical  members 
were  at  work  with  the  corresponding 
American  officers,  or  officials,  giving 
them  the  benefit  of  the  knowledge  they 
had  gained  in  the  hard  school  of 
experience.  This  instruction  was  of 
untold  benefit,  and  enabled  the  War 
and  Navy  Departments  to  avoid  mak- 
ing many  mistakes,  and  at  the  same 
time  showed  how  they  could  best 
co-operate  with  their  associates  in  the 
war.    Several  of  the  officers  remained 


as,  first,  money,  second,  food,  third, 
raw  materials  (both  of  these  dependent 
upon  shipping)  and  finally,  men. 

Congress  at  once  went  to  work  upon 
the  problems.  The  first  loan  act  pro- 
viding for  a  popular  loan  of  seven  bil- 
lion dollars  passed  the  House  April  14, 
and  the  Senate  on  April  17  without  a 
dissenting  voice.  Of  this,  three  billion 
dollars  was  to  be  loaned  to  the  nations 
of  the  Entente.  Two  billion  dollars 
was  offered  for  popular  subscription  on 


WOMAN'S  MOTOR  CORPS  DRILLING. 


The  women  of  the  United  States  sought  ways  to  help,  and  numerous  motor  corps  were  organized  to  drive  ambu- 
lances, act  as  chauffeurs  for  officers,  carry  messages,  or  transport  soldiers.  This  picture  shows  the  Woman's 
Motor  Corps  in  their  smart  uniforms  drilling  at  Fort  Totten,  under  direction  of  Lieutenant  Colonel  Paul  Loesser. 

Times  Photo  Service 


as  technical  advisers  after  their  chiefs 
had  returned  home  by  way  of  Canada. 
Later  M.  Andre  Tardieu  and  Lord 
Northclifife  were  appointed  special  com- 
missioners by  France  and  Great  Britain 
respectively. 

WHAT     WERE     THE     MOST      IMPORTANT 
NEEDS  OF  THE  ALLIES? 

The  extent  and  form  of  American 
participation  was  next  to  be  settled. 
Some  had  supposed  that  food  and  raw 
materials,  together  with  perhkps  some 
naval  co-operation  would  be  all  that 
would  be  expected  from  the  United 
States,  President  Wilson  soon  indi- 
cated, however,  that  all  the  resources 
of  the  country  would  be  thrown  into 
the  scale.   The  Allied  needs  wer*^.  stated 

746 


May  15,  and  was  oversubscribed  by 
fifty  per  cent.  The  first  loan  to  an 
Entente  nation  was  $200,000,000  to 
Great  Britain,  one  of  the  largest  checks 
ever  drawn,  and  before  the  middle  of 
July  the  total  loans  to  Great  Britain, 
France,  Russia,  Italy  and  Belgium 
amounted  to  more  than  $1,300,000,000, 
and  these  loans  were  continued.  Mean- 
while the  House  Committee  on  Ways 
and  Means  worked  upon  a  revenue 
bill  greatly  increasing  taxation. 

THE    COUNCIL    OF    NATIONAL    DEFENSE 
BEGINS  ITS  WORK. 

A  Council  of  National  Defense  had 
been  created  consisting  of  the  Secre- 
taries of  War,  Navy,  Interior,  Agricul- 
ture, Commerce,  and  of  Labor,  with  an 


ON  THE  WAY  TO  CAMP  UPTON  AT  YAPHANK 
Selective  Service  men  from  New  York  City  were  sent  to  Camp  Upton  at  Yaphank,  Long  Island.    These  men 
were  sent  by  Local  Boards  174  and  175  and  their  expressions  show  the  spirit  in  which  the  great  majority  of  the 
young  men  of  the  United  States  approached  the  duty  laid  upon  them.  New  York  Times  Photo  Service 


SELECTIVE  SERVICE  MEN  FROM  CfflCAGO  PARADING 
The  term  "conscript"  has  never  been  popular  in  the  United  States.    In  this  war,  the  term  Selective  Service  men 
was  used  in  preference  and  every  effort  was  made  to  do  them  honor.    Here  are  shown  men  of  some  of  the  early 
drafts  from  Chicago  on  their  way  to  camp,  parading  before  a  crowd  which  packed  the  sidewalks.  The  National 
Guard  is  drawn  up  on  the  left  of  the  picture.  Underwood  &  Underwood 

747    ■ 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


Advisory  Commission  consisting  first  of 
Daniel  Willard,  chairman,  Transporta- 
tion and  Communication;  Howard  E, 
Coffin,  Munitions  and  Manufacturing 
(including  standardization)  and  Indus- 
trial Relations;  Julius  Rosenwald,  Sup- 
plies (including clothing),  etc. ;  Bernard 
M.  Baruch,  Raw  Materials,  Minerals 
and  Metals;  Dr.  Hollis  Godfrey,  En- 
gineering and  Education;  Samuel 
Gompers,    Labor,   including  conserva- 


sands  of  "dollar-a-year"  men,  many  of 
whom  rendered  services  of  inestimable 
value.  The  office  of  Food  Controller 
was  filled  by  the  appointment  of 
Herbert  C.  Hoover,  who  had  won  fame 
by  his  administration  of  the  Commis- 
sion for  Relief  in  Belgium,  and  Presi- 
dent H.  A.  Garfield  of  Williams  College, 
himself  a  son  of  President  Garfield  and 
formerly  an  attorney,  was  appointed 
Fuel   Administrator. 


MEN  IN  TRAINING  BUILDING  ROADS 

The  heavy  trucks  carrying  supplies  soon  cut  the  roads  around  the  camps  into  holes  and  mud.  One  of  the  first 
things  to  be  done  was  to  construct  permanent  roads  which  would  stand  up  under  the  trafiSc.  Many  of  the  men 
were  not  accustomed  to  manual  labor.     These  are  members  of  Company  D,  22d  Engineers. 

Int.  News  Service 


tion  of  health  and  welfare  of  workers; 
Dr.  Franklin  Martin,  Medicine  and 
Surgery,  including  general  sanitation. 

This  body  began  immediately  to 
make  a  survey  and  to  organize  the 
resources  of  the  country.  They  called 
business  and  professional  men  of  the 
country  to  their  aid  and  thousands 
responded  to  the  call.  Then  began  an 
interesting  feature  of  the  war.  Many 
men  left  their  private  affairs  and 
sought  to  serve  the  government  gratis. 
In  order  to  be  enrolled  it  was  necessary 
that  a  salary  be  attached  to  the  posi- 
tion.    Therefore   we    have    the    thou- 

748 


THE  SELECTIVE  SERVICE  ACT  BRINGS  THE 
WAR   TO  ALL. 

After  some  hesitation.  Congress 
passed  the  Selective  Service  Act  on 
May  18.  The  authorized  strength  of 
the  regular  army  was  increased  to 
293,000  and  the  National  Guard  to 
625,000  men,  and  men  might  enlist  for 
the  war  and  not  for  a  fixed  term.  More 
important,  however,  were  the  provi- 
sions calling  for  a  registration  of  all 
men  between  the  ages  of  twenty-one 
and  thirty-one.  From  these  a  first 
draft  of  500,000  men  was  to  be  drawn 
for   the    new    National    Army   and   a 


THE  FIRST  AMERICAN  GUN  FIRED  IN  FRANCE 
Early  in  the  morning  on  October  23,  1917.  this  gun,  belonging  to  Battery  C  of  the  6th  Field  Artillenr,  was  drawn 
forward  and  fired.    The  shot  was  aimed  in  the  direction  of  Berlin— not  at  any  definite  target.    The  gun  then 
ranked  as  an  historic  "relic,"  and  was  shipped  home  to  West  Point  for  preservation  and  exhibition. 


GRAVES  OF  THE  FIRST  AMERICANS  KILLED  IN  FRANCE 
The  first  American  battle  losses  occurred  in  a  German  trench  raid  on  the  n^ht  »*  November  3,  1917.  Three  men. 
Corporal  Gresham  of  Indiana,  and  Privates  Enright,  of  Pennsylvania,  and  Hay,  <>«  I"*^' J^"^^^-    V'^Z^■t^% 
buried  with  the  honors  of  war  at  the  village  of  Bathlemont,  and  the  French  erected  these  temporary  memorials 
over  their  graves. 

749 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


second  instalment  of  the  same  size 
when  needed.  Men  might  also  be 
drafted  into  the  Regulars  and  the 
National  Guard.  Local  and  district 
boards  composed  of  civilians  appointed 
by  the  President  had  entire  control  of 
exemptions,  in  accordance  with  the 
provisions  of  the  law.  The  President 
fixed  June  5  as  Registration  Day,  on 
which  day  the  young  manhood  of  the 
country  was  to.  report.  The  total  regis- 
tration was  9,659,382. 

The  drawing  to  determine  the  order 
in  which  the  registrants  should  be 
called  before  their  Local  Boards  was 
held  in  Washington  on  July  20,  1917. 
The  plan  was  simple.  The  registrants 
in  each  district  had  been  numbered  in 
order  as  they  appeared.  Since  the 
largest  district  had  registered  some- 
thing less  than  10,500  men,  that  num- 
ber of  capsules  each  containing  a  num- 
ber had  been  prepared.  From  a  large 
urn,  blindfolded  tellers  drew  capsules 
until  all  were  exhausted.  The  first 
number  drawn  was  "258".  This  meant 
that  Number  258  in  every  district  in 
which  so  many  had  registered  was  to  be 
the  first  man  called  before  his  Local 
Board  for  examination.  The  second 
number  was  2,522  and  the  third,  9,613. 
Where  these  high  numbers  did  not 
appear  in  the  smaller  districts  they  were 
ignored,  and  the  next  number  which 
did  appear  taken.  These  "master 
sheets"  containing  the  numbers  in  the 
order  in  which  they  were  drawn 
governed  absolutely  the  order  in  which 
men  were  called.  The  quota  which 
each  state  and  district  was  to  furnish 
depended  upon  the  population. 

THE  OFFICERS'  TRAINING  CAMPS  GRADU- 
ATE THOUSANDS  OF  CANDIDATES. 

Meanwhile  sixteen  Officers'  Train- 
ing Camps  where  candidates  for  com- 
missions could  undergo  a  period  of 
intensive  training  for  three  months 
were  established  in  different  parts  of 
the  country  corresponding  to  the  dis- 
tricts into  which  the  country  was 
divided  for  the  purpose  of  training. 
They  were  soon  filled  with  40,000  young 
men  of  whom  more  than  27,000  re- 
ceived commissions.  A  second  series 
immediately  followed.  In  January, 
191 8,  a  third  series  drawing  candidates 

750 


chiefly  from  the  army  itself  was  held, 
and  later  a  fourth  series. 

Camps  to  train  the  citizen  soldiers 
were  established,  sixteen  for  the  Na- 
tional Guard  and  the  same  number 
for  the  National  Army  as  the  forces 
raised  under  the  Selective  Service  Act 
were  called.  In  the  National  Guard 
camps  the  men  were  housed  in  tents, 
though  warehouses,  mess  halls  and  the 
like  were  of  wood.  The  National  Army 
camps  or  cantonments  were  wooden 
cities,  each  of  which  housed  nearly 
forty  thousand  men.  The  number 
of  men  in  a  division  was  increased,  and  a 
whole  division  was  trained  in  each. 
For  reasons  of  climate  the  National 
Guard  camps  were  generally  placed 
in  the  South,  and  the  National  Army 
camps  were  placed  as  far  South  as 
the  limits  of  the  department  would 
allow.  They  were  named  for  former 
military  leaders  of  the  United  States. 
It  may  be  stated  here  that  August  7, 
1918,  an  order  was  issued  abolishing  all 
distinctions  and  consolidating  Regu- 
lars, Guard  and  National  Army  into 
the  United  States  Army. 

WHY  WERE  TROOPS  SENT  TO   FRANCE   SO 
EARLY? 

It  had  been  understood  to  be  the  plan 
of  the  General  Staff  to  train  a  large 
army  upon  this  side  and  transfer  it  to 
France  as  a  unit.  Suddenly  it  was 
announced  that  Major-General  John  J. 
Pershing,  who  had  won  a  reputation  in 
Cuba,  in  the  Philippines,  and  as  the 
leader  of  the  force  which  pursued  Villa 
into  Mexico,  had  been  appointed  com- 
mander of  the  American  Expeditionary 
Force,  and  had  arrived  in  England, 
June  8.  Soon  the  news  came  that 
American  troops  had  arrived  in  France, 
June  26,  27,  and  that  others  would 
follow.  It  was  later  learned  that  spe- 
cial units  of  Engineers  and  other  tech- 
nical troops  had  preceded  these. 

For  this  sudden  change  of  plan 
Marshal  JofTre  was  largely  responsible, 
as  it  was  learned  later.  France  was  at 
that  time  struggling  with  that  phe- 
nomenon known  as  "defeatism"  \v^ich 
has  been  discussed  elsewhere  (Chapter 
XXXI).  The  French  people  had  suf- 
fered cruelly  and  were  war-weary'and 
despondent.    Marshal  Joffre  declared 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


that  the  sight  of  American  troops,  no 
matter  how  few,  as  tangible  evidence 
of  America's  intentions  would  have  a 
tonic  effect  upon  French  morale.  The 
troops  sent  were  the  First  Division  of 
Regulars  and  a  regiment  of  Marines. 
Their  parade  in  Paris  on  July  4,  ex- 
cited great  enthusiasm  a^d  the  ex- 
pected effect  was  produced.-*  Before  the 
end  of  1917  the  First  and  Second 
Divisions  of  Regulars  and  tliree  Guard 
Divisions  had  reached  '"France  and 
*were  in  training  there.  These  were  the 
Twenty-sixth,  or  New  England  Divi- 
sion, the  Forty-second,  or  Rainbow, 
drawn  from  every  section  of  the  coun- 


Commander  J.  K.  Taussig,  arrived  at 
Queenstown,  Ireland,  and  took  their 
share  of  patrol,  convoy  and  anti- 
submarine work.  They  were  followed 
by  other  ships  of  various  kinds,  the 
story  of  which  is  told  elsewhere.  Before 
formal  declaration  of  war,  Rear-Ad- 
miral William  S.  Sims,  President  of  the 
Naval  War  College,  had  been  sent  to 
Great  Britain  to  act  as  the  representa- 
tive of  the  United  States  Navy.  When 
the  United  States  entered  the  war  he 
was  raised  to  the  temporary  rank  of 
Vice- Admiral  and  given  large  author- 
ity. Meanwhile  recruiting  for  the  Navy 
was  brisk. 


ENGINEERS  ERECTING  A  CANTONMENT  IN  FRANCE 

Housing  two  million  men  is  a  difficult  task.  Here  a  cantonment  for  special  purposes  is  being  erected  in  France 
by  the  engineers.  The  lumber  was  cut  to  fit  in  the  United  States  and  properly  marked.  Where  possible,  without 
taking  up  more  space  on  shipboard,  the  pieces  were  fastened  together  before  shipment.  Times  Photo  Service 


try,  and  the  Forty-first  or  Sunset, 
drawn  from  the  Far  West.  American 
soldiers  entered  the  trenches  in  a 
quiet  sector  on  October  22,  1917,  and 
the  next  morning  Battery  C  of  the 
Sixth  Field  Artillery  fired  the  first 
shot.  Two  Americans  were  wounded 
on  October  28,  and  on  November  3  the 
first  casualties  were  suffered.  Three 
men.  Corporal  James  B.  Gresham  of 
Evansville,  Ind.,  Thomas  F.  Enright 
of  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  and  Merle  D.  Hay, 
of  Glidden,  Iowa,  were  killed.  Eleven 
others  were  wounded  and  the  same 
number  taken  prisoners. 
American  destroyers  appear  at  oNtE 

.TA-     in  EUROPEAN  WATERS. 

Immediately  upon'the  recognition  of 
a  state  of  war,  preparations  were  made 
for  naval  co-operation  and  on  May  4, 
the  first  flotilla  of  destroyers,   under 


The  Shipping  Board  sought  to  in- 
crease the  tonnage  by  building  both 
wood  and  iron  ships,  in  new  yards 
and  in  old  ones  which  had  been  re- 
vived. On  December  i,  191 7,  the 
Emergency  Fleet  Corporation  (the  con- 
struction agency  of  the  Shipping  Board) 
had  under  construction  884  ships. 

By  the  end  of  191 7  nearly  two  mil- 
lion men  were  in  training  in  France  or 
the  United  States,  and  the  industries  of 
the  country  were  making  every  effort 
to  provide  for  the  wants  of  these  young 
men.  In  spite  of  the  submarine, 
American  troopships  sailed  in  safety 
to  Europe,  and  at  no  time  did  the 
menace  seriously  interfere  with  sup- 
plies and  food  for  them,  or  for  the 
Entente  nations.  The  American  people 
had  recognized  that  the  war  was  their 
own,  and  acted  accordingly. 

751 


A  NATIONAL  GUARD  REGIMENT  LEAVING  FOR  CAMP 
The  Twelfth   Regiment,  National  Guard,  of  New  York  is  shown  parading  on  Fifth  Avenue  on  its  way  to  Camp 
Wadsworth,  Spartanburg,  South  Carolina,  where  it  became  a  part  of  the  Twenty-Seventh  Division.     Later  this 
division  won  glory  over  its  service  along  with  the  Thirtieth,  as  a  part  of  the  British  Army. 


ANOTHER  NATIONAL  GUARD  REGIMENT  ON  FIFTH  AVENUE 
The  Seventh  Regiment  has  a  long  and  distinguished  record  in  New  York.    For  a  long  time  it  v^ore  a  special  uniform 
very  much  like  that  still  worn  by  the  West  Point  cadets,  but  later  adopted  the  blue  and  then  the  khaki.    This  regi- 
ment also  became  a  part  of  the  Twenty-Seventh  Division,  commanded  by  Major-General  John  F.  O'Ryan,  who 
was  in  command  of  the  New  York  National  Guard  before  the  war.  Pictures,  Times  Photo  Service 


A  Ghurka  Draft  in  Mesopotamia 


Chapter  XLVI 


The  Capture  of  Bagdad 

KUT  IS  AVENGED  AND  THE  GREAT  CITY  OF  THE  CALIPHS 

IS  TAKEN 


TN  another  chapter  we  left  the 
Mesopotamian  Army,  at  the  end  of 
1916,  fully  equipped  for  whatever  ad- 
vance its  commander-in-chief  might 
determine  upon.  "Briefly  put,"  wrote 
General  Maude  in  his  official  narrative 
of  the  fighting,  "the  enemy's  plan 
appeared  to  be  to  contain  our  main 
forces  on  the  Tigris,  while  a  vigorous 
campaign,  which  would  directly  threat- 
en India,  was  being  developed  in  Persia. 
There  were  indications,  too,  of  an  im- 
pending move  down  the  Euphrates 
towards  Nasiriyeh.  It  seemed  clear 
from  the  outset  that  the  true  solution 
of  the  problem  was  a  resolute  offensive, 
with  concentrated  forces,  on  the  Tigris, 
thus  effectively  threatening  Bagdad, 
the  centre  from  which  the  enemy's 
columns  were  operating." 

THE     TURKISH     DEFENSES     ALONG     THE 
TIGRIS  STRENGTHENED. 

During  the  autumn  the  enemy  had 
not  been  idle  but  had  strengthened 
his  defenses,  particularly  the  Sanna-i- 
yat  position,  where  he  judged  attack 
would  come.  In  addition  to  his  six 
lines  there  he  had  drawn  a  regular  net- 
work of  defenses  stretching  back  fifteen 
miles  to  Kut.  On  the  right  or  south 
bank  of  the  river  he  deemed  himself 
impregnable  by  reason  of  a  bridgehead 
on  the  Shatt-el-Hai.  Nevertheless, 
the  British  Army  had  the  advantage, 
for    if   an    attack   were   delivered    on 


Sanna-i-yat  its  right  flank  would  be 
protected  by  the  Suwaicha  Marsh,  and 
if  the  attack  were  made  on  the  line  of 
the  Shatt-el-Hai  the  enemy  would  be 
fighting  with  his  "communications 
parallel,"  which  would  imperil  his  re- 
treat. Maude  decided  on  this  latter 
course,  and  to  mislead  the  Turk  opened 
with  an  assault  on  the  position  at 
Sanna-i-yat.  Then,  when  the  Turkish 
troops  massed  here,  the  weight  of 
the  offensive  swung  against  the  de- 
fenses covering  the  Shatt-el-Hai. 

GENERAL  MAUDE'S  PLAN  OF  ATTACK  IN 
TWO  COLUMNS. 

The  attacking  troops  were  in  two 
columns:  those  on  the  left  bank  under 
Lieutenant-General  Sir  A.  S.  Cobbe, 
V.C.;  those  chosen  to  make  the  sur- 
prise march  on  the  right  under  Lieuten- 
ant-General Sir  W.  R.  Marshall.  Cobbe 
opened  a  bombardment  of  the  Sanna-i- 
yat  positions  December  13,  and  the 
following  night  Marshall's  column  con- 
centrated before  Es-Sinn.  The  next 
morning  the  Hai  River  was  crossed 
in  two  places  and  the  column  moved 
north  on  both  sides  of  the  river  to 
within  three  miles  of  Kut.  Heavy  rain 
fell  during  the  latter  part  of  December, 
but  activities  were  not  suspended;  the 
light  railway  was  extended  to  the  Hai, 
more  pontoon  bridges  thrown  across, 
and  successful  raids  made  upon  Turk- 
ish communications.    Though  the  bom- 

753 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


bardment  of  the  Sanna-i-yat  positions 
continued,  the  foe  was  alive  to  the 
threat  against  his  right  rear  and  made 
dispositions  to  guard  against  it. 

Maude's  first  objective  had  been 
attained;  his  next  step  was  to  clear 
the  remaining  Turkish  trench  systems 
on  the  right  of  the  Tigris.    Kut  lies  in  a 


THE  CONQUEROR  OF  BAGDAD 

Lieutenant-General  Sir  Frederick  Stanley  Maude,  was  greatly  be- 
loved of  the  staff  and  men  of  the  Mesopotamian  Force,  whose  gal- 
lantry and  endurance  ensured  success  in  the  campaign  so  thor- 
oughly organized  by  their  commander. 

loop  of  the  river  which,  immediately 
above  and  below  the  city,  makes  two 
deep  curves  known  respectively  as  the 
Dahra  and  Khadairi  Bends.  Across 
both  of  these,  and  especially  at  the 
point  where  the  Hai  enters  the  Tigris 
the  Turks  were  strongly  intrenched. 
General  Maude  described  the  Dahra 
Bend  as  "bristling  with  trenches." 
At  Khadairi  the  enemy  had  three  lines 
across  a  2,400-yard  loop  so  that  both 
flanks  rested  on  the  river,  and  the 
guns  on  the  north  bank  could  sweep 
the  assault  with  enfilading  fire. 

754 


THE  REMAINING  TURKISH  DEFENSES  ON 
THE  RIGHT  BANK  ARE  TAKEN. 

The  British  attack  began  January  5 
on  a  narrow  front  of  some  600  yards 
and  lasted  for  a  fortnight.  The  Turk 
fought  stubbornly  and  with  great 
courage,  his  sole  communications,  the 
flooded  Tigris  in  the  rear,  bridged  only 
by  a  few  pontoons.  No  at- 
tempt was  made  to  rush  his 
positions,  for  it  would  have 
wasted  men,  but  slowly  the 
British  artillery  pounded  out 
his  trenches  and  threw  forward 
their  own,  until  at  last  the 
restricted  area  became  unten- 
able under  fierce  gunfire  and 
what  was  left  of  the  defenders 
slipped  across  the  river  on  the 
night  of  January  8-9.  Found 
upon  a  prisoner  were  the  pic- 
turesque words  of  the  Turkish 
commander  congratulating  his 
troops  upon  their  steadfast 
valor  in  the  face  of  bloody 
losses  sustained  under  bom- 
bardment: "The  Corps  Com- 
mander kisses  the  eyes  of  all 
ranks  and  thanks  them." 

There  still  remained  upon  the 
right   bank  of  the  Tigris   the 
Turkish   trenches   astride    the 
Hai  River  and  those  across  the 
Dahra  Bend,  strongly  made  and 
protected  on  three  sides  from 
over  the  river  by  artillery  and 
nests  of  machine  guns.     It  took 
twenty  days  of  obstinately  con- 
tested fighting  to  force   these 
lines,   for  the  Turk    was  bat- 
tling as  one  resisting  the   in- 
vasion of  his  soil.    The  Brit- 
ish and   Indian    troops  were  possess- 
ed however  with  the  grim  determina- 
tion  to  wipe  out  there  on  that  site, 
beneath  the  walls  of  Kut,  the  memory 
of  their  tragic    failure   to   succor  the 
garrison,  ten  months   before.     Febru- 
ary   15   there  was  an   almost   general 
surrender  of    two    enemy   brigades, — 
2,200  men,  a  large  amount  of  artillery, 
war  material  and  medical  equipment. 

THE    MAIN    EFFORTS     ARE     NEXT    TO    BE 
MADE. 

In  two  months'   strenuous  fighting 
the  preliminaries  had  been  successfully 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


carried  through:  now  the  Turks  held 
only  Kut  and  the  left  bank  of  the  river. 
The  Sanna-i-yat  lines  were  the  key  to 
the  city,  and  the  Mesopotamian  Army 
had  experienced  the  cost  of  frontal 
attacks  against  these — even  before  they 
had  been  reinforced  in  the  autumn. 
Rather  than  pay  this  price  again  the 
British  commander  determined,  if  pos- 
sible, to  cut  the  Turkish  communica- 


To  take  the  latter  first.  The  Turks 
were,  of  course,  keenly  alive  to  any 
attempted  crossing  of  the  Tigris.  Their 
guards  patrolled  the  low  banks,  their 
artillery  swept  every  yard  of  the 
opposite  shore,  and  the  current  was 
running  strongly  downstream.  The 
odds  against  traversing  a  wide  stretch 
of  water  in  open  pontoons  were  serious, 
and   General   Maude   made  elaborate 


WHERE  THE  POPULATION  IS  AMPHIBIOUS 

Tigris  and  Euphrates  unite  their  waters  to  form  the  Shatt-el-Arab  and  it  is  at  the  mouth  of  this  waterway  that  the 
troops  are  seen  disembarking.  In  Mesopotamia  as  in  Egypt  football  "shorts"  were  regulation  wear,  and  the  soubri- 
quet of  "red  knees"  applied  to  the  new  arrival  recalls  the  "red-necks"  of  the  Boer  War. 


tions  above  Kut,  and  so  to  imperil  the 
enemy's  retreat  that  he  would  be 
forced  to  evacuate  the  town.  For  the 
success  of  this  action  it  was  necessary 
to  divert  some  of  the  Turkish  strength 
and  activity  to  Sanna  i-yat.  To  make 
this  diversion  effective,  a  feint  was  not 
sufficient.  No  mere  knocking  at  the 
front  door  would  cause  the  wide-awake 
owner  of  the  house  to  leave  his  back 
door  open.  Accordingly,  dispositions 
for  concerted  and  simultaneous  action 
were  made  against  Sanna-i-yat  and 
upon  the  Shumran  Bend  immediately 
above  the  Dahra  loop,  and  curving  in 
the  opposite  direction. 


feints  at  crossing  the  river  at  Kut  and 
Magasis,  and  allowed  his  preparations 
to  be  covertly  observed  by  the  enemy 
who  duly  noted  the  creaking  of  carts 
and  splashing  of  pontoons — in  the  wrong 
places.  By  day  and  night,  too,  the 
guns  thundered  against  Sanna-i-3'at, 
then  paused  significantly  as  though  to 
allow  of  infantry  advance,  while  time 
after  time  the  Turk  braced  himself  to 
repulse  the  bayonet  charge  which 
never  came.  Uncertainty  then  as  to 
direction,  a  diverting  of  troops,  and  a 
certain  lowering  of  morale  were  ob- 
tained before  the  actual  onslaught  was 
made. 

755 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


THE  ATTEMPT  TO  CROSS  THE  TIGRIS  AT 
SHUMRAN  BEND. 

The  crossing  at  the  south  end  of  the 
Shumran  Bend  was  to  be  made  at  three 
points.  At  No.  i  Ferry  the  Norfolks 
made  the  attempt.  All  night  the 
pioneers  labored  to  prepare  the  ground, 
and  at  early  dawn,  before  the  mists  dis- 
appeared under  the  hot  sun,  the  pon- 
toons were  lifted  over  the  embankment 
and  took  the  water  silently.  Not  until 
they  were   within    fifty   yards   of   the 


the  story  afterwards  in  the  mud," 
wrote  Mr.  Edmund  Candler,  Ofifidial 
Eye  Witness.  "Wherever  a  keel  had 
scored  the  Turkish  shore  there  were 
Ghurka  dead  and  dead  Hants  rowers 
who  had  been  lifted  from  the  boats. 
Many  of  the  pontoons  still  lay  stranded 
in  the  mud.  One  had  a  hole  in  its  side, 
a  direct  hit  by  a  shell,  and  nine  dead 
in  it.  And  dead  Ghurkas  lay  tumbled 
about  the  parapet;  some  had  pitched 
forward  and  lay  sprawling  over  it  with 


Ihliltalty* 

>>••«- 

Husey 

»et»to*l 

>v>K*l*«(72»^ 

EnglUh  Mi 

le* 

\^^  V 

«••«<                :>_ 

>>ZJ| 

C/UiU    Kr.Kasr 

Kf-Hmlt 

1*.^ 

FROM  KUT  TO  TEKRIT 
This  map  shows  the  bends  of  the  river  east  and  west  of  Kut  where  the  struggle  for  the  position  was  finally  decided. 
The  British  pursued  the  Turks  upstream  but  halted  at  Aziziyeh  for  reorganization.   After  crossing  the  Diala,  Bag- 
dad was  entered  from  two  sides.    Endeavoring  to  cut  off  the  Turkish  XIII  Corps  the  Russians  advanced  from 
Persia  and  met  the  British  at  Kizil  Robat  but  the  enemy  escaped  and  fell  back  on  Tekrit. 


Opposite  shore  were  they  discovered 
by  a  sentinel  whose  rifle  shot  across 
the  desert  silence  gave  signal  for  a 
fusillade.  Soon  the  watchers  on  the 
right  bank  were  drawing  in  the  first 
returning  pontoon  with  its  freight  of 
wounded,  while  others  took  their  places 
in  the  boat  and  shot  out  across  the 
current  under  a  hail  of  bullets  which 
raised  spray  upon  the  water.  Mean- 
while, at  No.  2  Ferry,  a  thousand 
yards  downstream,  the  2nd  and  9th 
Ghurkas  were  having  a  still  hotter 
crossing.  If  enough  of  the  crew  sur- 
vived to  bring  the  boat  to  land  they 
had  then  to  face  the  Turks  who  lined 
the  banks  and  threw  grenades  as  the 
landing  was  made.     "One  could  read 

756 


the  impetus  of  the  fall.  Beyond  were 
dead  Turks  who  had  counter-attacked 
from  inland." 

So  fierce  was  the  artillery  fire 
against  the  lower  ferries  that  they  had 
to  be  abandoned.  But  at  the  upper 
ferry  by  7:30  A.  M.  three  companies 
of  the  Norfolks  and  some  150  Ghurkas 
were  intrenched.  At  8  o'clock  gallop- 
ing mules  brought  up  the  first  load  of 
bridging  and  a  long  stream  of  pontoons 
on  carts  came  up  at  a  swinging  canter. 
By  10  A.  M.  one  could  stand  out  in  the 
stream  on  the  fifteenth  pontoon,  and  in 
six  hours  the  bridge  was  open  for 
traffic.  Troops  and  transport  poured 
across,  and  the  infantry  advancing  to 
a   ridge   astride   the   bend   swept   the 


EN  ROUTE  TO  BAGDAD  BY  CAMEL  TRAIN 

Vehicular  transport  being  impossible  in  this  country,  the  British  forces  organized  cancel  convoys  modeled  upon 
the  caravans  which  from  time  immemorial  have  assured  communication  in  the  east.  Water  transport  of  course  is 
much  easier  in  Mesopotamia  than  land,  and  was  chiefly  relied  upon  to  supply  the  armies. 


AT  RAMADIYA  DUMP 
British  soldiers  inspecting  material  left  behind  by  the  Turk  when  he  hastily  evacuated  in  September,  1917.   When 
the  enemy  retreated  from  Bagdad  part  of  his  force  had  established  itself  at  Ramadiya  upon  the  Euphrates,  whence 
in  the  general  clearing  operations  undertaken  around  the  city  he  was  dislodged  after  the  hot  months  were  over. 

British  Official 

757 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


enemy  before  them.  The  dead  in  the 
rudderless  pontoons  swept  on  down 
the  Tigris  towards  the  great  waters, 
but  their  sleep  was  peaceful,  for  their 
sacrifice  had  not  been  made  in  vain. 

THE   SUCCESSFUL  ATTACK  UPON  SANNA- 
I-YAT. 

Meanwhile,  in  concerted  action  thir- 
teen miles  downstream,  the  assault 
against   Sanna-i-yat   had   begun.     To 


dug  themselves  in  an  old  water-course 
awaiting  the  counter-attack,  which 
swept  forward  three  times  and  left 
dreadful  harvest  of  death  on  the  burn- 
ing alkaline  soil. 

On  the  23rd,  the  British  pushed  on 
to  the  fourth  line,  already  a  veritable 
shambles — the  dead  and  dying  half- 
buried  in  choking  sand  and  gun-evoked 
litter.    It  was  evident  that  the  foe  was 


A  STORY-TELLER  IN  THE  BAZAAR  AT  KUT 


Shows  an  Arab  boy  telling  local  Arabs  of  the  anniversary  of  the  British  recapturing  Kut  town.  In  all  probability 
the  tale  lost  nothing  in  the  relating  for  the  Arab  is  gifted  with  vivid  imagination  and  indulges  in  flowery  diction. 
It  is  evident  from  the  faces  of  his  listeners  that  he  is  possessed  of  some  histrionic  power. 


the  "  Chinese  bombardment"  of  several 
weeks  succeeded,  on  the  morning  of 
February  22,  the  real  attack  delivered 
by  the  19th  Brigade.  The  first  and 
second  line  of  Turkish  trenches  were 
only  forty  yards  apart.  The  third, 
some  two  hundred  yards  behind,  was 
lightly  held  on  the  day  of  attack,  but 
behind  this  again  there  ran  a  succession 
of  lines  with  a  clear  field  of  fire.  To 
ensure  surprise  the  barbed  wire  was 
all  standing  in  front  of  the  Seaforths* 
and  92nds'  trenches,  ready  to  be 
swung  back  as  they  advanced.  They 
found  the  first  trench  deserted,  and 
the    second    filled    in.      They    hastily 

758 


in  retreat;  the  fifth  and  sixth  lines  fell 
with  barely  a  casualty  on  the  25th,  and 
the  brigade  swept  unresisted  on  to  Kut, 
which  they  found  empty.  When  the 
Shumran  Bend  was  captured  and  his 
left  wing  in  danger  of  being  cut  off, 
Khalil  Pasha  ordered  a  withdrawal  to- 
wards Bagdad,  and  to  ensure  the  re- 
tirement from  Sanna-i-yat  formed  a 
strong  flank  guard  to  hold  the  northern 
end  of  the  peninsula  in  the  Dahra  Bend 
until  his  men  had  passed  upstream. 

THE  TURKS   IN   RETREAT    TOWARD   BAG- 
DAD ARE  PURSUED. 

Pursuit  followed.  The  enemy's  forces 
were  on  the  whole  well-handled,  and  he 


BRITISH  TROOPS  ENTER  BAGDAD 


The  entry  of  the  British  forces  into  the  "City  of  the  Caliphs"  was  undrairatic.  The  populace  lined  the  streets  and 
acclaimed  their  coming,  but  the  British  soldier  had  experienced  the  treachery  of  the  native  of  the  East  and  fcis 
vociferous  clamor  rang  hollow  to  the  paraders  through  the  dim  and  blue  city.  Central  News  Service 


X  *■-  " 


.1,  a^i 


WHILE  SOME  WORKED  OTHERS  FOUTTO  TIME  TO  PLAY 

Some  of  General  Marshall's  men  bathing  near  Narin  Kupri  Bridge  while  sappers  repaired  it.  The  enemy  as  he 
retreated  had  blown  up  the  central  span  in  an  effort  to  hold  up  pursuit.  One  of  the  alleviations  of  the  trials  of 
the  men  in  this  hot  and  dusty  land  was  the  bathing  in  the  Tigris  and  tributary  streams  which  was  encouraged 
by  o£9cial  provision. 

759 


History  of  the  world  war 


escaped  destruction  (though  he  lost 
severely  in  prisoners  and  abandoned 
material)  by  fighting  strong  rear-guard 
actions  in  fortified  nullahs.  In  that 
flat  country  he  had  the  advantage  for 
his  gun-pits  were  hidden,  while  those 
of  his  pursuers  were  in  the  open.  When 
Sanna-i-yat  fell,  the  British  naval  flotilla 
was  able  to  come  upstream  and  formed 
the  left  wing  of  the  advance  column. 


in  towards  the  river,  and  the  machine 
guns  played  havoc  with  the  transport 
and  gun-teams.  More  guns  were 
abandoned.  Our  horse  artillery  got 
on  to  them  at  the  same  time.  The 
next  morning  we  found  Turkish  dead 
on  the  road.  There  was  every  sign  of 
panic  and  rout — bullocks  still  alive 
and  unyoked,  entangled  in  the  traces 
of    a    trench    motor    carriage,    broken 


IN  ANCIENT  BABYLONIA— HOME  OF  A  VANISHED  CIVILIZATION 
The  ruins  of  Cteslphon,  scene  of  General  Townshend's  victory  in  the  first  advance  upon  Bagdad,  but  from  which 
he  had  to  retire  because  the  Turks  were  strongly  reinforced.   In  the  second  advance  the  British  found  Ctesiphon 
strongly  fortified,  but  it  had  been  evacuated  by  tlie  enemy  who  had  fallen  back  behind  the  Diala  River. 


while  the  cavalry  spread  out  to  the 
north.  The  gunboats  lengthened  the 
striking  arm  of  the  off^ensive  consider- 
ably, firing  first  at  the  Turkish  Army 
on  the  bank  and  then  reserving  its 
ammunition  to  destroy  the  Turkish 
shipping.  On  the  morning  of  February 
26,  H.  M.  S.  Tarantula,  Mantis  and 
Moth  passed  the  infantry  at  full  steam 
and  came  under  sharp  fire  at  the  Nahr 
Kellak  bend,  so  that  the  casualties 
amounted  to  one-fifth  of  the  forces 
engaged. 

"Swinging  round  the  bend  at  sixteen 
knots,"  writes  Eye  Witness,  "the  fleet 
reached  a  point  where  the  road  comes 

760 


wheels,  cast  equipment,  overturned 
limbers,  hundreds  of  live  shells  of 
various  calibres  scattered  over  the 
country  for  miles.  Either  the  gunners 
had  cast  off  freight  to  lighten  the 
limbers  or  they  had  been  too  rushed 
to  close  up  the  limber  boxes.  Every 
bend  of  the  road  told  its  tale  of  confu- 
sion and  flight." 

I-^HE  BRITISH  OUTRUN  THEIR  GUNS    AND 
SUPPLIES. 

About  the  middle  of  the  afternoon 
the  fleet  broke  ofi^  its  firing  at  the  re- 
tiring army  to  save  its  ammunition  for 
the  enemy's  shipping.  Of  these  several 
surrendered   when    they   came    under 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


range,  including  the  armed  tugSumana, 
captured  at  Kut,  and  the  Firefly,  taken 
in  the  retreat  from  Ctesiphon.  Thus 
the  intervention  of  the  naval  arm 
changed  the  Turkish  retreat  into  a 
rout  and  soon  his  troops  were  spread 
out  rabble-wise  on  a  wide  front  instead 
of  in  column  of  four. 

At  Aziziyeh,  half-way  to  Bagdad  and 
fifty  miles  from  Kut,  pursuit  was  bro- 
ken off,  for  the  three  days'  advance  had 


Ctesiphon,  strongly  intrenched,  was 
left  unoccupied  as  the  Turk  fell  back 
on  the  Diala  river,  destroying  the 
bridge  which  crosses  it  at  its  junction 
with  the  Tigris.  At  this  stage  the  pur- 
suit divided,  the  cavalry  and  7th  Divi- 
sion and  35th  Brigade  crossing  to  the 
right  or  west  bank  to  work  around 
Shawa  Khan,  where  the  enemy  had  a 
force  covering  the  approach  to  Bagdad 
from  south  and  south-west. 


INDIAN  TROOPS  IN  BAGDAD 


As  was  perhaps  inevitable  when  the  Tvuks  evacuated  the  city  there  was  much  looting  in  the  bazaars.  For  a  long 
time  the  municipal  affairs  and  finances  of  Bagdad  had  been  in  parlous  state.  With  the  advent  of  the  conquerors 
looting  was  stopped,  firm  local  administration  under  military  supervision  set  up,  reconstruction  of  streets  and 
reorganizing  of  sanitary  afiairs  begun. 


completely  disorganized  the  transport 
and  left  all  light  railways  behind.  For 
a  week  the  army  paused  until  March 
5,  when  General  Marshall  advanced  to 
Zeur,  some  18  miles,  and  the  cavalry 
rode  on  to  Laj,  where  in  a  blinding 
dust-storm  they  attacked  the  enemy 
rearguard  which  had  intrenched.  When 
the  pursuit  began  it  had  been  hoped 
that  in  open  fighting  at  last  the  cavalry 
would  come  into  its  own.  These  hopes 
were  disappointed  because  of  the  hidden 
guns  and  fortified  nullahs.  In  their 
place,  however,  the  light  armored 
motor-cars,  or  "Lambs"  as  they  were 
christened,  achieved  some  success. 
That     night     the     enemy    withdrew. 


GENERAL  MARSHALL  FORCES  THE  CROSS- 
ING OF  THE  DIALA. 

Experience  had  demonstrated  the 
value  of  surprise  in  storming  a  river 
position  and  Marshall  hastened,  on  the 
night  of  the  7th  and  8th  of  March,  to 
make  an  attempt  to  cross  the  Diala. 
The  Turks  had  posted  machine  guns 
very  cleverly  in  the  houses  on  the  far 
bank  and  sharp  moonlight  rendered 
concealment  impossible.  The  first  five 
pontoons  were  riddled  with  bullets  and 
drifted  downstream.  On  the  following 
night  the  houses  on  the  shore  were 
first  pounded  into  dust  and  then  under 
this  blinding  pall  an  attempt  was  made 
to  ferry  troops  across  at  four  separate 

761 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


points.  Only  one  crossing  succeeded — 
a  detachment  of  the  North  Loyal 
Lancashires  establishing  themselves  in 
a  hund  on  the  far  shore,  where  for 
twenty-four  hours  they  lay  under  con- 
stant fire.  The  third  attempt  was 
successful  on  the  morning  of  the  loth, 
and  by  noon  the  bridge  was  completed, 
and  troops  moving  on  faced  the  enemy's 
last  position  at  the  Tel  Muhammad 
Ridge. 

Although  the  force  which  was  assault- 
ing the  left  bank  defenses  was  delayed 
by  numerous  nullahs  which  had  to  be 
ramped,  it  was  almost  continually  in 
touch  with  the  Turkish  rearguard, 
which  on  the  loth  was  considerably 
aided  in  its  withdrawal  by  a  choking 
dust-storm.  Nevertheless,  early  on  the 
morning  of  the  following  day,  advance 
guards  of  the  Black  Watch  occupied 
Bagdad  railway  station  and  the  suburbs 
on  the  west  of  the  river,  and  the  enemy 
was  in  full  retreat  upstream.  On  the 
I2th,  Marshall's  column  from  the  right 
entered  Bagdad  and  was  greeted  with 
acclamation  by  Christian  and  Jew  alike. 

WHAT  THE  CAPTURE  OF  BAGDAD  MEANT 
IN  THE  EAST. 

To  the  man  in  the  West  the  talk  of 
"prestige"  has  little  meaning.  Yet  it 
is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that  the 
most  valuable  result  of  the  capture  of 
the  "city  of  the  Caliphs"  was  the 
restoration  of  British  prestige  in  the 
bazaars  and  through  the  length  of  the 
caravan  routes  in  the  East.  Bagdad 
was  the  greatest  and  most  historic 
city  that  had  yet  been  taken  by  the 
Allies:  it  had  fallen  to  an  army  that 
had  suffered  and  retrieved  a  great  dis- 
aster— to  an  army  that  from  being 
the  most  ill-equipped  had  become 
perhaps  the  best.  In  addition,  the 
material  loss  to  both  German  and  Turk 
was  great:  to  the  former  it  sounded 
the  knell  of  a  far-reaching  ambition, 
to  the  latter  the  loss  of  a  valuable  base 
and  of  wide  territories. 

General  Maude  issued  a  proclamation 
to  the  inhabitants  emphasizing  the  fact 
that  the  British  entered  the  city  as 
liberators,  not  as  conquerors.  Under 
their  Turkish  rulers  they  had  seen  the 
wasting  of  many  of  their  resources, 
which  it  was  the  hope  of  the  new  rulers 

762 


to  conserve.  The  commercial  tie  be- 
tween the  merchants  of  Bagdad  and 
of  Great  Britain  was  old-established, 
peaceful.  The  Germans  and  Turks, 
on  the  contrary,  had  used  the  city  as 
a  centre  of  intrigue  and  as  a  base  for 
political  penetration.  In  other  places — 
notably  in  Hedjaz  and  Koweit — the 
Arab  had  cast  off  the  Turkish  and  Ger- 
man yoke,  and  ceased  to  be  their  dupes. 
Instead  of  the  setting-up  of  one  house 
against  another  for  selfish  aims,  the 
newcomers  hoped  that  in  new-gained 
unity  the  Arabs  might  attain  self- 
expression  and  the  fulfillment  of  their 
national  aspirations. 

GENERAL    MAUDE    PROCEEDS    TO    MAKE 
HIS  POSITION  SECURE. 

There  had  been  looting  in  bazaars 
and  houses  as  the  Turks  hastily  retired 
but  order  was  quickly  established  under 
the  new  occupation.  With  the  capture 
of  the  city  Maude's  task  was  by  no 
means  ended.  His  position  had  to  be 
secured.  To  achieve  this,  four  things 
were  necessary:  the  capture  of  the 
railhea;d  of  Samarra,  the  rout  of  the 
1 8th  Corps  retreating  north  of  Bagdad, 
the  control  of  the  irrigation  of  the 
Tigris  and  Euphrates  north  of  the  city, 
and  the  cutting  off  of  the  13th  Corps, 
which  was  retreating  before  the  Rus- 
sians from  Hamadan.  Leaving  only 
sufficient  forces  in  the  city  to  garrison 
it,  the  commander-in-chief  sent  a 
column  up  both  banks  of  the  Tigris, 
dispatched  a  third  westward  to  the 
Euphrates,  and  a  fourth  up  the  Diala 
towards  Khanikin.  The  fortunes  of 
the  third  column  may  be  very  briefly 
told.  As  the  British  entered  Bagdad  the 
Turks  cut  the  dam  above  the  city,  so 
that  the  water  burst  through  Akkar 
Kuf  Lake  and  overflowed  to  the  hund 
which  protected  the  suburbs  and  rail- 
way station  on  the  west  of  the  Tigris. 
Fortunately,  the  river  was  low  for  the 
time  of  year  and  the  hund  held;  the 
pursuing  column  entered  Feluja,  March 
19,  just  too  late  to  cut  off  the  Turkish 
garrison,  which  fell  back  on  Ramadiya, 
twenty- five  miles  upstream. 

Meanwhile,  after  a  seventeen-mile 
march,  the  21st  and  28th  Brigades  of 
the  7th  Division  on  the  right  of  the 
Tigris  attacked  the  Turks  at  M  ushadiya. 


A  PICTURESQUE  BRmOE  OF  BOATS 

This  boat  bridge,  250  metres  long,  connects  both  banks  of  the  Tigris  at  Bagdad.  In  the  foreground,  the  gufars — 
circular  boats  whose  usage  dates  back  to  pre-historic  days — are  nothing  but  enormous  baskets  of  reeds  coated 
with  tar.  They  serve  as  ferries  from  one  bank  of  the  Tigris  to  the  other.  In  the  city  there  are  wonderful  monu- 
ments, vestiges  of  ancient  splendor:  mosques  with  gilded  cupolas,  fretted  minarets,  high  walls  moat-encircled. 
The  most  animated  part  of  the  town  is  the  bazaar,  for  Bagdad,  situated  on  the  caravan  route  between  Aleppo  and 
Damascus  on  one  side  and  the  Persian  Gulf  and  India  on  the  other,  is  an  important  industrial  and  commercial 
centre. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


After  a  stiff  fight,  with  severe  casual- 
ties and  great  suffering  from  thirst 
(for  the  troops  had  had  thirty  hours' 
marching  and  fighting  with  only  the 
water  they  had  started  with),  they 
drove  the  enemy  from  the  place  in 
precipitate  retreat  so  that  airmen 
on  the  morning  of  the  20th  reported 
them  spread  over  a  depth  of  twenty 
miles.  Further  advance  along  the 
railway,  however,  was  impossible  until 


left  General  Baratov  just  east  of 
Hamadan.  As  General  Maude  ad- 
vanced, the  Turks  fell  back  from  Ha- 
madan in  an  endeavor  to  reach 
Khanikin,  and  the  Cossacks  followed 
hard  upon  them.  Maude's  eastern  col- 
umn advancing  up  the  Diala  captured 
Bahriz  and  Bakuba.  The  former  place 
was  the  end  of  a  mountain  road  neces- 
sary to  the  Turkish  retreat,  and  by 
-  his    manoeuvre    they   were    forced    to 


""^  TWO  AND  A  HALF  YEARS  IN  MESOPOTAMIA 

In  this  map  may  be  followed  the  story  of  the  Mesopotamian  operations  from  the  landing  of  General  Delamain's 
force  in  November,  1914,  up  to  General  Maude's  triumph  at  Bagdad,  March  11,  1917.  In  it,  too,  may  be  seen 
where  Russian  pressure  on  the  retreating  Turks  was  exercised  from  Persia  and  the  Caucasus. 


operations  on  the  left  bank  were  equally 
advanced,  and  there  the  Turks  were 
concentrating  in  order  to  ward  off 
attack  upon  their  railhead. 

THE     COMBINED     RUSSIAN  AND  BRITISH 
EXPEDITION  FAILS. 

It  was  hoped  that  the  Russians  ad- 
vancing from  Persia  and  the  British 
up  the  Diala  might  seize  the  13th  Turks 
Corps  in  a  nutcracker.  This  hope  was 
not  realized.  It  failed  because  the 
political  situation  that  had  developed 
in  Russia  left  Saratov's  force  starved 
of  reinforcements  and  supplies,  and 
because  of  the  fine  generalship  of  the 
Turkish  general  in  charge  of  the  retreat- 
ing forces.    In   a   former   chapter  we 

764 


abandon  their  guns  and  endeavor  to 
cross  the  mountainous  country  between 
Karind  and  the  Upper  Diala.  In  this 
impasse  their  leadership  saved  them. 
Strong  rearguards  or  screens  were 
placed  by  the  Turkish  Commander 
against  the  weaker  Russian  forces  in 
the  Pia  Tak  Pass,  and  against  the 
British  on  the  ridge  of  the  Jebel  Ham- 
rin  range.  While  these  rearguards 
held  off  attack,  the  main  body  by  way 
of  Khanikin  was  making  for  the 
crossing  of  the  Diala  and  the  road  to 
Mosul. 

Thus  Maude  in  fche  torrid  heat  of 
the  desert  was  attacking  at  Kizil  Robat 
and  Deli  Abbas,  while  seventy  miles 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


Railway  •    aia^i^ 

M       n   (h'ojtcttd)  : 
SlaaMsfcip  Reata 


C>«rV» 


COMMUNICATIONS  IN  MODERN  WARFARE 
This  map  illustrates  the  advantage  possessed  by  the  Central  Powers  over  the  Allies  in  respect  of  communications 
with  the  forces  fighting  in  Mesopotamia.    From  Zeebrugge  to  Nisibiu,  above  Bagdad,  Germany  had  3,000  miles 
of  railway  secure  from  all  save  an  attack.   From  London  to  Basra  the  steamship  route  is  7,680  miles,  all  exposed 
to  submarine  dangers. 


away  Saratov's  Cossacks  were  strug- 
gling amid  the  snows  of  the  Pia  Tak 
Pass.  By  the  end  of  the  month  the  13th 
Corps  had  eluded  their  vise:  Maude 
had  carried  Deli  Abbas,  and  Baratov 
his  pass,  but  this  was  because  the 
screens  were  being  withdrawn  as  the 
main  army  crossed  the  Diala.  Baratov 
reached  Khanikin  and,  April  2,  an 
advance  sotnia  of  Cossacks  joined 
hands  with  the  British  force  at  Kizil 


Robat.  Persia  was  now  cleared  of  the 
Turk  and  there  was  no  enemy  east  of 
the  Diala.  Nevertheless,  the  13th 
Army  Corps  had  been  extricated  from 
grave  peril.  If  the  Russian  force  had 
had  half  of  the  vitality  it  had  had 
eighteen  months  previously  the  enemy 
could  not  have  got  away  as  he  did. 
In  purport  the  advance  on  Bagdad 
was  a  two-fold  operation;  in  reality 
the   heavy  end   had   fallen   upon   the 

765 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


British  forces.  A  Turkish  counter- 
attack delivered  by  the  13th  Corps 
developed  about  the  7th  of  April,  and 
fierce  fighting  which  began  in  a  mirage 
lasted  until  the  13th,  when  the  Turks 
were  driven  back  into  the  Jebel  Ham- 
rin  range  once  more. 

THE  LAST  TXJRKISH  POSITIONS  ARE  TAKEN 
AT  THE  END  OF  THE  SUMMER. 

The  column  on  the  west  bank  of  the 
Tigris  had  made  good  progress,  and 
reinforced  by  the  Diala  troops  who  left 
the  Russians  to  hold  this  sector,  were 
ready  by  the  17th  for  the  final  attack 
on  Samarra.  After  six  days  of  unin- 
terrupted fighting  the  railhead  was 
captured.  Khalil  made  a  last  effort. 
The  1 8th  Corps  intrenched  15  miles 
north  of  Samarra;  and  the  13th  Corps 
on  its  left  flank  emerged  from  its  hill 
fastnesses,  striking  against  the  two 
forces  of  the  British  on  the  Tigris 
which  had  now  joined.  It  was  driven 
back  but  again  emerged — to  meet  the 
same  fate.  The  i8th  Corps  fell  back 
on  Tekrit;  in  every  direction  Bagdad 
was  cleared  of  the  enemy  for  a  radius 
of  50  miles,  while  the  enemy  corps  was 
driven  back  on  divergent  lines. 

General  Maude  could  afford  to  take 
a  rest  in  the  terrible  summer  heat — 
the  season  was  the  hottest  known  for 
years,  the  temperature  often  rising 
above  120°  Fahrenheit.  It  was  unfortu- 
nate, in  view  of  the  hot  season,  that  a 
campaign  was  planned  on  the  Eu- 
phrates in  July.  The  Turks  were  com- 
fortably established  at  Ramadiya  and 
the  Arabs  downstream,  encouraged  by 
their  proximity,  made  hostile  demon- 
strations against  the  British  at  Feluja. 
The  operation  failed  for  the  troops  could 
make  no  headway  in  a  blinding  dust- 
storm  and  intense  heat  and  the  enter- 


prise was  abandoned.  Two  months 
later,  in  September,  a  successful  attack 
had  as  its  objectives  not  only  Ramadi- 
ya but  the  capture  of  the  whole  enemy 
force — and  attained  them. 

GENERAL    MAUDE    FALLS    A    VICTIM    TO 
HIS  COURTESY. 

The  Turks  had  designs  for  the  re- 
capture of  Bagdad,  and  two  German 
divisions  reached  Aleppo  early  in  No- 
vember. Just  then  came  news  of  Sir 
Edmund  Allenby's  victories  in  South- 
ern Palestine  (November  7,  1917)  and 
General  von  Falkenhayn,  then  acting 
as  the  Turkish  military  adviser  in 
Asia,  drafted  the  divisions  to  that  front. 
On  the  19th  of  the  month  the  Mesopota- 
mian  Army  lost  its  great  commander, 
General  Maude,  who  fell  a  victim  to 
the  cholera — his  courtesy  forbidding 
him  to  refuse  a  draught  of  cold  milk 
offered  by  a  native. 

So  perished  a  great  soldier  and  a 
great  organizer.  Bagdad  was  won  by 
gallantry  and  endurance,  but  equally 
by  organized  transport,  commissariat 
and  medical  departments.  With  a  gift 
for  detail  and  a  tireless  energy,  Maude 
had  also  the  rarer  faculty  of  vision 
which  could  see  the  whole  situation  in 
true  perspective.  He  was  succeeded 
by  Lieutenant-General  Sir  William 
Marshall,  who  had  already  rendered 
valuable  service  in  the  campaign  against 
Bagdad.  The  Palestine  victories  had 
changed  the  plans  of  the  Turkish  Staff, 
and  henceforth  the  chief  task  of  the 
British  commander-in-chief  was  to 
continue  to  strengthen  his  position. 
The  danger  of  a  Turco-German  offen- 
sive was  now  slight,  although  unable  to 
withstand  the  summer  heat  in  the  Di- 
ala triangle,  Baratov's  Cossacks  had 
withdrawn  to  the  Persian  hills. 


766 


Bridge  of  Vidor  over  the  Piave,  Where  Italy  Halted  the  Invader 

Chapter  XLVII 

The  Italian  Disaster  at  Caporetto 

THE  ITALIANS  LOSE  WHAT  THEY  HAD  GAINED,  BUT  RALLY 

AND  HOLD  FAST 


CTERN,  silent,  immutable,  amid  the 
shifting  tide  of  human  concerns,  the 
Julian  Alps  have  looked  upon  strange 
scenes.  Long  centuries  ago,  barbarian 
hordes  of  Goth  and  Hun  and  great 
imperial  armies  battled  in  their  gate- 
ways. Yet,  in  all  the  flow  of  years, 
perhaps  no  stranger  spectacle  of  man's 
ingenuity  and  endeavor  can  be  con- 
ceived than  that  which  was  staged  over 
and  around  those  wardens  of  the  Isonzo 
region  in  191 7,  leaving  them  with  new 
scars  which  they  must  carry  for  the 
rest  of  time. 

THE  ALLIED  NATIONS  PROMISE  TO  SEND 
AID  TO  ITALY. 

In  January,  during  the  mid-winter 
lull  in  fighting  operations,  a  conference 
of  distinguished  military  and  political 
representatives  from  the  four  leading 
Allied  nations  met  for  three  days  at 
Rome.  There  Italy  was  promised 
assistance  by  the  French  and  British. 
As  a  consequence,  France  sent  guns, 
to  be  manned  by  Italian  gunners,  and 
England  sent  batteries  of  six-inch 
howitzers,  with  2,000  men. 

Until  May  the  Italian  High  Com- 
mand had  to  wait  until  the  late  spring 
floods  subsided.  There  were  evidences 
that  their  opponents  were  preparing 
for  a  new  offensive;  therefore.  General 
Cadorna  laid  plans  for  an  attack  to 
•  anticipate  it.  The  main  attack  was  to 
fall  on  the  middle  Isonzo.  A  supplemen- 


tary movement  in  the  Carso  had  for 
its  aim  to  gain  new  territory  on  that 
forbidding  plateau  in  the  direction  of 
Hermada. 

THE  ITALIAN  ATTACK  IS  DELIVERED  ON 
THE  ISONZO. 

The  Italian  artillery  bombarded  the 
whole  Isonzo  front,  from  May  12  until 
the  morning  of  May  14,  in  preparation 
for  an  infantry  attack  from  Plava  and 
Gorizia  upon  Kuk,  Monte  Santo,  and 
the  hills  along  the  edge  of  the  Bain- 
sizza  Plateau.  After  the  first  day, 
General  Capello,  commander  of  the 
Second  Army,  placed  the  artillery  com- 
mand of  the  2nd  Corps  in  the  hands  of 
Major-General  Badoglio,  whose  plans 
for  taking  Sabotino  had  been  so  suc- 
cessful. Under  his  direction,  the 
Italian  guns  seemed  to  be  "driving  nails 
along  given  lines"  of  the  Austrian 
positions,  "and  the  hammerstrokes 
were  delivered  with  unfailing  skill." 

On  the  night  of  May  15  a  diversion 
was  created  about  eight  miles  south  of 
Tolmino,  where  Bersaglieri  and  Alpini 
forced  a  passage  across  the  Isonzo  and 
improvised  a  bridgehead  on  the  east 
bank.  They  held  it  under  fearful  odds 
until  the  eighteenth,  when,  deeply  cha- 
grined at  having  to  abandon  the  attack, 
they  were  withdrawn,  as  the  purpose 
of  the  action  had  been  accomplished. 
In  the  first  stage  of  the  offensive, 
sections  of  Kuk,  Vodice,   and  Santo 

767 


mSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


were  taken,  as  well  as  several  hamlets 
and  hills  east  of  Gorizia  and  Plava. 
The  Plava  bridgehead  had  by  this  time 
been  strengthened  by  the  building  of 
the  "Badoglio  Road,"  the  "road  of  the 
thirty-two  hairpins,"  which  dropped 
by  successive  zigzags  down  from  Monte 
Corada.  As  to  Kuk,  a  distinguished 
English  author  writes:  "A  few  days 
after  its  capture  I  saw  on  the  top  of 
Monte  Kuk  some  Italian'  'seventy- 
fives'  that  had  been  dragged  up, 
Heaven  knows  how,  by  sheer  strength 
of  arm  and  will  during  the  m^lee  it- 
self." 

THE      ITALIANS     SUFFER     VERY      HEAVY 
LOSSES  ON  THE  ISONZO. 

"The  Italian  losses  were,  of  course, 
very  heavy.  The  attacking  troops  had 
carried  positions  that  might  well  have 
been  thought  impregnable,  and  they 
had  paid  the  price.  When  the  Avel- 
lino  and  Florence  Brigades  were  taken 
out  of  the  line  to  rest  and  re-form  after 
three  and  four  days'  fighting  respective- 
ly, the  Avellino  had  lost  over  loo  offi- 
cers and  nearly  2,700  men,  out  of  140 
officers  and  5 ,000  men ;  and  though  the 
casualties  in  the  Florence  Brigade  were 
not  quite  so  heavy,  they  lost  nearly 
50  per  cent  of  their  strength."  The 
Austrians  attempted  a  diversion  on 
the  Trentino  at  this  juncture,  opening 
heavy  fire  in  the  Val  Sugana,  on  the 
Asiago  Plateau,  and  in  the  Adige Valley. 
There  was  vigorous  fighting  on  Monte 
Colbriconand  the"  Den te del  Pasubio." 

Necessity  for  economizing  in  military 
supplies  forbade  General  Cadorna's  at- 
tempting to  attack  simultaneously  on 
two  sectors  of  any  great  width.  Con- 
sequently, the  stroke  upon  the  Carso 
was  not  delivered  until  May  23.  It 
fell  with  such  overwhelming  force  that 
in  a  few  hours  the  Austro-Hungarians 
had  been  driven  back  nearly  a  mile 
beyond  their  immensely  strong  front 
lines  from  Kostanjevica  to  the  sea, 
and  had  yielded  Hudi  Log  ("the  Evil 
Wood  "),  Lukatic,  Jamiano,  and  several 
hills.  At  the  southern  end,  on  the 
coast,  Bagni  was  taken  in  a  battle  that 
engaged  130  airplanes  and  a  group  of 
the  Royal  Navy  seaplanes.  The  first 
day's  contest  gave  the  Italians  9,000 
prisoners.     By  May  28,  the  line  had 

768 


moved  still  farther  east,  across  the 
Timavo  River  to  San  Giovanni,  at  the 
southern  end;  and  proportionately  all 
the  way.  Hermada  was  nearly  taken. 
Unhappily,  the  Italian  supply  of  shells 
was  falling  so  low  that  the  advance 
had  to  stop  at  the  very  moment  when 
it  seemed  most  likely  to  break  through 
the  opposing  line. 

THE    AUSTRIANS    STRIKE    BACK    IN    THE 
CARSO. 

The  inevitable  counter-attack,  occu- 
pying the  first  week  in  June,  was  most 
violent  from  San  Marco  southward. 
From  Fajti  Hrib  to  Jamiano,  the  bom- 
bardment and  infantry  drives  did  not 
make  much  impression;  but  farther 
south  the  Italians  fell  back  from  one- 
third  of  a  mile  to  a  mile  and  a  quarter 
on  a  three  mile  front,  recrossing  the 
Timavo  and  dropping  behind  Flondar. 
The  fighting  was  fierce  and  terrible. 
Yet  there  was  one  strange  stain  on  the 
great  record  of  valorous  endeavor.  A 
brigade,  engaged  on  the  slopes  of 
Hermada,  surrendered  without  any  at- 
tempt at  real  resistance  and  so  made 
way  for  the  enemy.  It  was  composed 
of  men  newly  drafted  from  a  region 
where  pacifist  propaganda  was  astir. 
A  danger  from  within,  more  baleful 
than  any  host  of  tangible  warriors 
however  armed,  had  begun  to  raise  its 
head.  General  Cadorna  at  once  wrote 
to  the  Government  with  warning  and 
appeal. 

In  the  whole  spring  offensive  the 
Italians  lost  nearly  130,000  men,  of 
whom  about  6,000  were  prisoners.  They 
had  taken,  in  return,  24,260  Austro- 
Hungarian  prisoners,  and  had  reduced 
the  enemy  fighting  forces  by  something 
less  than  100,000  in  killed  and  wound- 
ed. In  mid-summer,  the  glacier-fed 
flood  of  the  river  was  rushing  through 
gorges  between  lofty  cliffs,  or  roll- 
ing beside  occasional  narrow  plains. 
Far  to  the  north,  it  passed  towering 
Monte  Nero,  overlooking  Caporetto  on 
the  west,  with  its  peaceful  Italian  garri- 
son, and  Tolmino  on  the  southeast,  with 
its  unmolested  Austrian  inhabitants. 

HERMADA  SHAKEN,  BUT  NOT  CAPTURED 
BY  THE  ATTACK.. 

Less  than  twenty  miles  farther  down 
the  stream,  close  behind   the   Italian 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


jxjsition  at  Gorizia,  rose  the  sheer  preci- 
pice of  Monte  Santo,  on  whose  summit, 
lifted  "like  a  church  spire,"  lay  the 
ruins  of  a  shrine.  There,  at  the  out- 
break of  hostilities,  the  aged  emperor 
of  Austria-Hungary  had  been  carried  in 
a  sedan  chair,  to  pray  for  the  success 
of  his  Imperial  arms.  Now,  Franz 
Josef  had  passed  beyond  the  bounds 
of  human  history,  and  the  shrine  had 
crumbled  into  a  heap  of  white  marble 
under  shell-fire  from  Sabotino,  only  a 
half-mile  away  across  the  river.  Still 
farther  southward,  where  Isonzo  meets 
the  sea,  across  the  blue  gulf  one  could 
gaze  along  the  Carso  to  "ugly  turtle- 
backed  Hermada  Mountain  blocking 
the  road  to  Trieste."  But  the  boast 
of  Hermada  was  partly  silenced.  Not 
all  its  guns  could  speak  as  they  had 
done. 

After  the  unavoidable  check  in  the 
vigorous  Italian  offensive  of  May,  191 7, 
General  Cadorna  was  unable  to  press 
for  further  progress  until  summer  had 
begun  to  wane.  His  allies  could  not 
spare  him  sufficient  aid  for  a  great 
offensive  movement,  while  his  adver- 
saries were  enabled  to  build  up  their 
resistance  by  transferring  troops  from 
the  demoralized  Russian  front,  no 
longer  formidable  since  the  collapse  of 
the  Russian  government  in  the  spring. 

THE    BATTLE    RESUMED    ON    THE    ISONZO 
IN  AUGUST. 

After  mid-summer  had  passed  in 
comparative  quiet,  a  month  of  con- 
tinuous and  intense  conflict  was  in- 
augurated on  August  18  by  a  great 
bombardment  from  Tolmino  to  the  sea. 
North  of  Gorizia,  where  the  Isonzo 
makes  a  bend  that  points  westward,  lies 
Plava,  which  had  been  steadily  useful 
to  the  Italians  since  its  capture  in  June, 
191 5.  Again  it  was  to  be  employed  as 
a  starting  place  for  an  important  at- 
tack,— this  time,  upon  the  Bainsizza 
Plateau.  Fitting  into  the  angle  of  the 
river  and  stretching  eastward  as  far  as 
the  Chiapovano  Valley,  the  Bainsizza 
is  an  elevated  region  with  surface 
broken  by  rock  masses,  glens,  and 
doline,  or  depressions,  somewhat  in  the 
same  way  as  that  of  the  Carso. 

The  Second  Army,  under  General 
Capello,   was  operating  from  Gorizia 


northward,  with  General  Badoglio  in 
command  of  the  left  wing  near  Santa 
Lucia  and  Tolmino.  In  that  position 
there  was  such  concentration  of  Austrian 
artillery  that  General  Badoglio's  forces 
were  compelled  to  leave  the  enemy  in 
possession  of  the  Lom  Plateau,  a 
stronghold  whose  strategic  value  was 
startlingly  revealed  a  few  weeks  later. 


AUSTRIAN  DEFENSES  ON  THE  CARSO 

BRIDGES  CONSTRUCTED  AT  NIGHT  UNDER 
GREAT  DIFFICULTIES. 

But  from  Plava,  on  August  18,  a 
sally  was  made  to  the  northeast,  re- 
sulting in  the  seizure  of  a  valley 
situated  between  Kuk  and  the  Bain- 
sizza. A  short  distance  farther  up  the 
river,  where  as  yet  the  Italians  had 
found  no  foothold  upon  the  eastern 
bank,  a  crossing  was  accomplished  on 
the  night  of  August  19.  In  preparation 
for  this  feat,  the  river  had  been  nightly 
diverted  from  its  channel  until  ten 
foot-bridges  had  been  constructed.  By 
day  the  stream  flowed  as  usual,  show- 
ing no  sign  of  change.  On  the  evening 
of  the  nineteenth,  four  pontoon  bridges 
were  added,  though  the  cliffs  were  so 
abrupt  that  the  boats  had  to  be  dropped 

769 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


on  skids,  and  ladders  had  to  be  used  to 
get  the  men  to  the  level  of  the  river  and 
up  again  on  the  opposite  side.  To 
screen  the  movements  on  the  river,  a 
great  battery  of  search -lights,  ranged 
along  the  heights  of  the  western  shore, 
was  turned  upon  the  Austrian  gunners, 
and  heavy  firing  covered  the  sound  of 
work  upon  the  bridges. 

By  their  impetuous  and  unexpected 
rush  up  the  declivity,  in  the  face  of 
machine  guns,  the  heroic  fighters  of 
Capello's  army  drove  their  way  through 
the  front  lines  of  the  enemy,  then  pushed 
on  north  and  east  across  the  plateau 
until,  by  August  24,  they  could  look 
across  to  the  edge  of  Lom  in  the  one 
direction,  and  were  within  range  of 
the  Ternova  batteries  in  the  other. 
On  the  Bainsizza  they  soon  were  be- 
yond-all points  where  artillery  or  trucks 
and  ambulances  could  accompany  them. 
The  engineers  followed  as  fast  as  was 
possible,  in  an  effort  to  keep  communi- 
cations open;  but  the  Austrians  had 
not  made  good  roadways  leading  to 
their  own  front  lines  and  the  poor 
approaches  were  now  ploughed  up  or 
encumbered  with  wreckage.  There- 
fore, there  were  several  days  during 
which  the  advance  of  the  Italian  army 
could  be  supplied  only  by  carriers  on 
foot,  and  the  wounded  had  to  be  borne 
back  for  miles  over  the  rough  ground 
by  their  companions.  Water  also  was 
lacking.  It  was  a  time  of  great  danger, 
but  the  venturous  battalions  held  their 
own  until  the  paths  had  been  leveled 
sufficiently  for  guns,  lorries,  and  am- 
bulances to  carry  them  relief.  Always 
the  reliable  Fiat  cars,  with  their  in- 
trepid drivers,  and  the  British  Red 
Cross  units  arrived  as  near  the  front 
as  might  be  and  at  the  earliest  moment 
possible.  Further  relief  was  furnished 
by  a  diversion  in  the  form  of  attacks  in 
the  middle  Isonzo  region,  around  San 
Gabriele. 

MONTE   SANTO   SURROUNDED   AND 
FORCED  TO  SURRENDER. 

In  that  sector,  northeast  of  Gorizia, 
on  August  23,  Monte  Santo  had  been 
threatened  from  the  rear,  and  its 
garrison  isolated  by  the  capture  of 
Sella  di  Dol,  "the  saddle "  connecting 
Santo  with  San   Gabriele.    Thus  cut 

770 


ofT  and  surrounded,  Monte  Santo 
yielded,  on  the  twenty-fourth.  Above 
its  summit,  more  than  2,000  feet  high, 
the  Italian  tricolor  floated  out,  while 
regimental  bands  celebrated  there  the 
victorious  hour,  playing  under  the 
direction  of  the  great  Toscanini. 

During  this  first  week  of  the  offen- 
sive, the  Duke  of  Aosta  and  the  Third 
Army  had  been  doing  admirable  work 
on  the  southern  Carso,  where  the  23rd 
Corps,  under  Diaz,  demolished  the 
Austrian  12th  Division  and  secured 
Selo.  Very  quickly  the  ground  that 
had  been  lost  in  June  was  recovered, 
and  the  Austrian  line  forced  back  from 
Kostanjevica  (Castagnevizza)  across 
the  Brestovica  Valley.  Nearer  the 
sea,  an  advance  was  made  beyond  San 
Giovanni  and  Medeazza,  and  attacks 
on  Hermada  reopened. 

In  that  sector,  British  and  Italian 
monitors  took  part  in  the  bombard- 
ment. The  Italian  monitors,  it  is  said, 
were  of  a  sort  never  before  used  in  war, 
and  employed  shells  of  greater  calibre 
than  had  ever  before  been  fired  from 
warships.  Around  the  head  of  the 
Adriatic  and  on  the  Bainsizza  as  well 
Caproni  airplanes,  too,  furnished  ad- 
mirable assistance  in  the  offensive, 
flying  forward  by  swarms,  in  advance 
of  the  infantry,  and  dropping  tons  of 
bombs  upon  the  enemy  positions. 

THE    SAN    GABRIELE    RIDGE    THE    NEXT 
OBJECT  OF  ATTACK. 

The  first  week  of  September,  191 7, 
marked  the  beginning  of  "a  fight  for  a 
natural  fortress  within  as  narrow  limits 
of  movement  as  any  old  battle  for 
town  or  castle."  It  was  a  struggle  for 
the  possession  of  San  Gabriele  ridge, 
which,  by  the  fall  of  Santo,  had  be- 
come an  Austrian  salient  surrounded 
by  Italians  everywhere  except  on  the 
northeast.  For  ten  days  the  contest 
seethed.     A  correspondent  writes: 

"When  first  I  looked  down  (from 
Santo)  upon  the  battle  for  San  Gabriele 
I  seemed  to  hang  directly  over  the 
crater  of  a  volcano.  A  matter  of 
40,000  Italian  shells  on  a  daily  aver- 
age are  bursting  over  San  Gabriele's 
crest.  In  addition, are  the  Austrian 
shells,  for  the  lines  on  San  Gabriele  are 
now  so  close  that  the  topmost  positions 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


have  been   taken  and   retaken  half  a 
dozen  times." 

THE     AUSTRIANS     DECIDE     TO     CONCEN- 
TRATE THEIR  FORCES. 

By  September  7,  the  losses  were  so 
appalling  that  the  Austrians  called  a 
War  Council,  where  they  decided  to 
hold  the  eastern  ridges  of  the  Bainsizza 
and  concentrate  attacks  against  the 
army  of  the  Duke  of  Aosta.  Over 
30,000  Austro-Hungarian  prisoners,  of 
whom  848  were  officers,  had  been  taken 


peril,  since  it  had  reached  a  depth  of 
lyi  miles  on  an  eleven-mile  front.  In 
reviewing  the  situation,  on  September 
15,  1917,  one  correspondent  wrote. 
"The  Isonzo,  excepting  one  little  por- 
tion opposite  Tolmino  at  the  northern 
extremity  of  the  offensive  line,  is  now 
well  within  Italian  possession. "  Scarce- 
ly more  than  a  month  passed  before  that 
"one  little  portion  "  began  to  loom  into 
a  significance  that  made  the  world 
catch  its  breath  in  astonishment  and 


in    the    engagements 

01    August   and      suspense. 

[^ 

^H^?I^Ml^e^lu<^P^^S 

3hMH 

^ 

"^l 

.«^  - 

SAND-BAG  TRENCHES  ON  THE  CARSO  TABLELAND 

That  forbidding  plateau,  the  Carso,  "yields  as  Uttle  shade  or  water  as  the  Sahara."  Its  stunted  vegetation 
reminded  the  South  Africans  of  their  veldt.  In  places,  great  natural  hollows  in  the  rock  furnished  ready-made 
shelters  for  men  and  guns;  but  in  other  parts,  where  digging  was  an  impossibility,  sand-bag  trenches  were  used. 

AR  IS  FINALLY   DECLARED  UPON   THE 
GERMAN  EMPIRE. 


September;  145  cannons,  265  mitrail- 
leuses, and  great  quantities  of  other 
guns  and  materiel  had  fallen  into  the 
hands  of  the  victors.  But  on  the  oppo- 
site side  of  the  account  were  written 
155,000  Italian  casualties. 

Under  the  Austrian  counter- strokes, 
the  Italians  fell  back  from  Hermada 
and  San  Giovanni,  though  they  re- 
linquished no  ground  in  the  vicinity 
of  Kostanjevica.  San  Gabriele  was 
still  divided.  Not  yet  was  the  road 
from  Gorizia  to  Trieste  opened,  when 
in  mid-September  the  offensive  died 
away.  General  Capello's  Bainsizza 
position  had  been  reinforced,  but  it 
was  a  salient  of  peculiar  difficulty  and 


W 

Not  until  August,  1916,  was  the  last 
link  of  the  Triple  Alliance  formally 
severed.  Up  to  that  time,  Italy  had 
declared  war  against  Austria-Hungary, 
against  Turkey,  even  •  against  Bul- 
garia, but  not  against  Germany.  The 
situation  was  anomalous  and  com- 
promising, for  there  was  no  question 
that  Germany  stood  behind  Austria- 
Hungary  with  support  and  direction 
in  her  warfare  upon  Italy.  Moreover, 
the  Prussian  power  was  continually 
committing  unfriendly  acts,  in  viola- 
tion of  all  agreements  with  its  Latin 
ally.    The  atmosphere  was  cleared  by 

771 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


the  Italian  Government's  denunciation 
of  the  Commerical  treaty  with  Ger- 
many, which  had  been  made  on  May 
21,  1915,  and  finally,  on  August  27, 
Victor  Emmanuel  made  proclamation 
that  Italy  declared  war  upon  Germany. 
No  change  of  plans  was  involved.  The 
only  difference  in  the  situation  was 
that,  in  name,  as  well  as  in  fact,  Italy 
and  Germany  were  thenceforth  at  war. 


the  face  behind  it. "  Yet,  the  war  had 
gone  on  without  bringing  forward  any 
German  army  upon  the  Italian  frontier. 

THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  THE  ITALIAN  PEAS- 
ANT SOLDIER. 

At  the  eastern  end  of  that  frontier, 
after  the  terrific  strife  of  August  and 
September,  191 7,  "both  sides  settled 
down  exhausted  on  the  ground  where 
they  found  themselves."    The  Italian 


ITALIAN  DOCTOR  INOCULATING  BERSAGLIERI  AGAINST  DISEASE 

Italian  soldiers  are  for  the  most  part  sound  and  tough  in  physique,  especially  the  mountain  troops.  And  the 
Bersaglieri  are  particularly  uncomplaining  when  wounded  and  in  pain.  In  modern  warfare  no  precautions  are 
spared  to  prevent  epidemics;  so  inoculation,  quarantine,  careful  supervision  over  food,  drinking  water,  hygienic 
conditions  of  barracks,  etc.,  are  part  of  the  duty  of  the  Sanitary  Department.  Picture  from  Henry  Ruschin 

Third  Army,  under  the  Duke  of  Aosta, 
rested  along  the  line  they  had  estab- 
lished on  the  Carso,  facing  the  extreme 
left  wing  of  the  enemy  from  Gorizia 
to  the  sea.  Flanking  them,  from 
Gorizia  and  San  Gabriele  northward 
over  the  Bainsizza  to  beyond  Tolmino 
and  Caporetto,  stood  the  Second  Army, 
commanded  by  General  Capello,  whose 
area  of  control  had  been  considerably 
extended  since  1916. 

Many  in  these  two  armies  had  sus- 
tained the  heavy  strain  of  war  for 
months,  had  borne  the  "heat  and  bur- 
den" of  long  days  of  furious  fighting, 
the  cold  and  depression  of  weeks  of 


Three  months  later,  when,  on  Novem- 
ber 21,  Franz  Josef  came  to  the  end  of 
his  long  career,  the  hostile  feelings  of 
the  Italians  for  their  German  antago- 
nists grew  more  intense.  The  old  emper- 
or, nicknamed  "Cecco  Beppe"  by  his 
southern  neighbors,  had  long  held  the 
r6le  of  their  traditional  oppressor  and 
evil  genius.  At  his  death  the  heritage 
of  hatred  passed,  not  to  his  young 
successor,  Karl,  but  to  the  German 
Empire.  Caricatures  of  "  Cecco  Beppe" 
were  then  given  Prussian  lineaments 
and  crowned  with  Prussian  helmets. 
The  natural  animosity  of  the  race  had 
been  transferred  "from  the  mask  to 

772 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


millions,  lost  in  anarchy,  had  scattered 
from  their  place  in  the  Allied  ranks, 
some  members  of  the  Soviet  had 
pushed  in  among  the  Italian  armies 
to  spread  unsettling  doctrines  there. 
The    Italian    soldier    heard    that    the 


winter  vigil.     With  the  patience  char- 
acteristic of  their  peasant  natures  they 
had  toiled  and  climbed  and  endured, 
although  they  little  comprehended  the 
purpose  and  meaning  of  the  conflict  in 
which  they  were  involved.    They  came, 
for  the  most  part,  from  country 
villages  where  life  was  simple 
and  where  they  had  almost  no 
touch  with  great  aff"airs  of  state 
and,    of    the    world    at    large. 
Education    had   never   opened 
for  them  the  paths  of   under- 
standing and  large  enterprise. 
Some   could    indeed   read  and 
write,    some    could    not.     The 
explanations  of  the  war  and  of 
political     questions    to    which 
they  listened  were  conflicting 
and  confusing.    Which  should 
they  believe?  After  all,  govern- 
ment and  politics  belonged  to 
the  towns.     It  was  in  the  towns 
that   the  decision  for  war  had 
been  made.    They  themselves 
had  had  no  part  in  that  de- 
cision. 

AGITATORS   APPEAR  AND  SOW  SE- 
l\     DITION  IN  THE  RANKS.  ' 

The  patriotism  of  these  sons 
of  Italy  was  natural  and  spon- 
taneous rather  than  a  thing  of 
reason  and  conviction.  Tradi- 
tion taught  them  to  hate  the 
Austrians.  Against  such  foes 
they  would  follow  their  gallant 
officers  with  spirit  and  devo- 
tion, because  in  some  vague 
way  they  knew  that  their  coun- 
try  needed   them.     They  saw 

their  brothers  and   companions  The  jagged  peaks  and  crags  of  the  Dolomites  caUed  for  great  moun- 

rr  1-  T^  1-  tain  prowess.    Alpine  clubs  had  been  encouraged  by  the   German, 

SUner  or  die.      It  was  SOmenOW  Austrian  and  Italian  governments,  as  the  skill   acquired  and  the 

a  necessary  sacrifice.  "***^^  discovered  were  assets  in  war. 


AN  AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN  PATROL 


With  no  apparent  need  for  guarding 
against  treason  among  such  troops,  no 
precautions  were  taken  and  danger 
crept  in  unnoticed.  Propaganda  which, 
in  the  months  of  neutrality,  had  been 
actively  at  work  to  prevent  Italy's 
entering  the  war,  was  still  abroad  up 
and  down  the  land  sowing  seeds  of  un- 
rest. Socialist  and  pacifist  agitators 
talked  in  terms  of  brotherhood  and 
amity,  making  use  of  the  Vatican 
Peace  Note  to  support  their  arguments 
for  ending  the  war.    When  the  Russian 


Russians  had  been  wise  in  abandoning 
their  arms  and  going  home  to  seize  land 
that  they  might  live  upon  it  in  peace. 

THE    ITALIAN    AUTHORITIES    REFUSE    TO 
SEE  THE  DANGER. 

Although  General  Cadorna  had  sought 
to  arouse  the  government  to  take  some 
action  toward  checking  the  insidious 
growth  of  such  pernicious  influences, 
nothing  had  been  done.  Signor  Orlando, 
Minister  of  the  Interior,  did  not  favor 
adopting  stern  methods  of  repression; 
and    Signor    Boselli,    the    Premier,    a 

773 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


veteran  statesman,  had  undertaken  to 
shoulder  the  burden  of  Government  in 
wartime  at  the  age  of  eighty.  Warn- 
ings of  trouble  passed  unheeded, 
though  they  flamed  out  in  such  start- 
ling manifestations  as  the  bread  riots 
in  Turin  in  the  month  of  August,  where 
the  enemy's  hand  was  plainly  at  work. 
Turin,  one  of  the  most  important  cen- 
tres in  the  country  for  the  production 
of  munitions,  had  been  strangely  open 
to  the  propaganda  of  anarchy.  Even 
the  troops  who  were  set  to  restore  order 
became  infected  with  the  spirit  of 
mutiny.  Turin  was  threatened  with 
martial  law  before  there  was  an  end  to 
the  disturbance. 

Thus  the  enemy  operated  within  the 
gates.  At  the  same  time  he  was  laying 
plans  to  creep  up  outside  the  gates 
and  force  them  in  with  a  crushing 
blow.  By  the  breaking  down  of  the 
Russian  front  there  had  been  released 
Austrian  and  German  forces,  ready  to 
be  used  on  the  southern  frontier. 
Thereupon  a  composite  army,  the 
Fourteenth,  was  formed,  including  six 
German  and  seven  Austrian  divisions. 
Under  Ludendorff's  direction  they  were 
drilled  and  equipped  for  fighting  in  the 
open  in  hill  country.  Half  of  the  field 
artillery  was  displaced  by .  mountain 
guns,  and  among  the  German  divisions 
was  a  Bavarian  Alpenkorps.  Ostensi- 
bly, the  Austro-Hungarian  Staff  con- 
tinued in  control  as  before;  but  the 
actual  authority  and  direction  had 
passed  over  to  the  German  General 
Staff.  "It  was  a  thoroughly  German 
outfit  and  had  been  prepared  in  the 
usual  thorough  German  fashion." 

THE   GERMAN   HIGH   COMMAND    SELECTS 
THE  WEAKEST  SPOT. 

The  Italian  Command  failed  to  per- 
ceive these  ominous  preparations.  Lu- 
dendorfT,  on  the  other  hand,  seems 
carefully  to  have  studied  their  own 
arrangements  and  to  have  placed  his 
finger  upon  .the  weakest  spot,  between 
Plezzo  and  Tolmino,  where  the  same 
Austrian  and  Italian  divisions  had  for 
months  been  pacific  neighbors  and  had 
begun  to  fraternize,  encouraged  in 
their  friendly  tendencies  by  Socialist 
agents.  The  position  was  considered 
so  safe  that  It  received  little  attention 

774 


from  General  Capello,  even  after  the 
mutinous  contingents  from  Turin  had 
unfortunately  been  sent  there  by  way 
of  punishment.  By  these  combinations 
of  circumstance  it  came  about  that  a 
"whole  sequence  of  great  events"  has 
been  called  "by  the  name  of  a  little 
Alpine  market-town";  for  Caporetto 
was  the  centre  of  the  vulnerable  spot 
opposite  which  Ludendorff  slipped  in 
his  Fourteenth  Army,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Otto  von  Below.  Around 
Gorizia  and  on  the  Carso,  the  Austrian 
armies  remained,  with  Prince  Eugene 
at  their  head. 

Upon  that  quiet,  little-noticed  cor- 
ner far  north  on  the  Isonzo,  with  the 
sharpness  and  suddenness  of  complete 
surprise,  German  strategy  flung  its 
attack.  The  Monte  Nero  salient  there 
made  an  abrupt  eastward-reaching 
loop  in  the  Italian  line,  which  crossed 
the  river  a  little  southwest  of  Plezzo 
and  again  just  northwest  of  Tolmino. 
A  similar  loop  in  the  river,  at  Tolmino, 
enclosed  Santa  Lucia,  which  furnished 
the  Austrians  with  an  excellent  bridge- 
head, protected  on  the  south  by  Lorn. 
It  will  be  recalled  that  Lom,  on  the 
northern  border  of  the  Bainsizza,  had 
resisted  all  attacks  in  August,  and  that 
consequently  the  enemy  position  at 
Santa  Lucia  west  of  the  river  had  re- 
mained unshaken.  Hence  a  way  to  the 
Italian  position  lay  open  through  the 
Isonzo  Valley  itself  from  Tolmino  and 
from  Plezzo.  Halfway  between,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  river,  little  Caporetto 
was  situated,  in  the  shadow  of  Monte 
Nero  but  too  far  below  to  find  protection 
from  the  Italian  positions  on  its  heights. 

THE   GERMAN   TROOPS    BREAK    THROUGH 
WITH  A  RUSH. 

Bombardments,  by  the  enemy,  open- 
ing on  October  2 1 ,  soon  narrowed  to  the 
stretch  between  Saga  and  Auzza.  In 
courtyards  and  on  roadways  where 
all  had  been  secure  and  peaceful 
hitherto,  shells  burst  and  confusion 
awoke.  Under  cover  of  the  artillery,  on 
October  24,  the  German  divisions  broke 
through,  seeking  by  three  routes  to 
reach  the  plains  below: — from  Tolmino 
and  Santa  Lucia  through  the  valley  of 
the  Judrio;  from  Plezzo  over  into 
Saga  and  thence  down  the  Isonzo  to  the 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


Natisone;  lastly,  around  Nero  and 
across  the  Isonzo  to  Caporetto,  whence 
a  good  road  and  newly  finished  railway 
followed  the  valley  of  the  Natisone  to 
Cividale. 

The  attacks  at  both  ends  of  the  sa- 
lient were  met  with  sturdy  resistance. 
But  the  centre  drove  through  at 
Caporetto,  where  were  stationed  the 
newly-drafted,     untried     elements    of 


THE  GAP  AT  CAPORETTO   FORCES  RETIRE 
MENT  OF  OTHER  FORCES. 

When  the  first  day  ended,  the  Italian 
position  from  Saga  to  Auzza  had  been 
carried.  The  Monte  Nero  garrison, 
thus  isolated,  with  characteristic  de- 
termination fought  on  for  days,  until 
none  were  left.  Not  all  the  Second 
Army  failed,  in  that  awful  test.  There 
were  those  who  would  die  rather  than 


^V/^/z  P^ts' 


-ainburtf    ^' 


BtiCt<oTl*cVq 


Vipacco 


Au«rspcrf 


(fisfcerg 


6uir    of  Trieste 


THE  RETREAT  FROM  THE  ISONZO  FRONT  TO  THE  TAGLIAMENTO  RIVER 

From  the  northeastern  section  opposite  Tolmino  the  disorganized  Second  Army  fell  back  in  confusion,  cross- 
ing the  Tagliamento  at  Codroipo  on  October  30.  On  the  thirty-first,  the  Third  Army  began  to  cross  at  Latisana, 
having  made  a  masterly  retreat  from  the  Carso  region.  Meanwhile,  the  Fourth  Army  was  moving  southwest  from 
the  Carnic  front,  to  join  hands  with  the  Third  Army.    About  forty  miles  lie  between  the  Isonzo  and  the  Tagliamento. 

Capello's  Army  and  the  disaffected 
spirits  from  Turin.  If,  as  has  been 
narrated,  deluded  Italian  soldiers  sprang 
forward  to  grasp  the  hands  of  their 
expected  Austro-Hungarian  brothers, 
they  had  little  time  to  wonder  before 
they  fell  under  the  blows  of  Prussian 
steel.  Panic,  surrender,  flight,  were 
the  natural  sequence.  General  Capello 
was  ill  with  fever  at  the  time,  and 
General  Montuori  was  acting  as  his  sub- 
stitute. The  weather,  with  storm  and 
mist,  and,  on  the  mountains,  snow, 
made  for  the  advantage  of  the  invaders. 
The  very  atmosphere  of  disaster  seemed 
to  envelop  the  whole  sector. 


step  back  from  their  hard-won  battle- 
front.  And  yet,  there  were  those  for 
whom  war-weariness  and  ignorance 
and  discouragement  proved  too  severe 
a  strain,  so  that  they  inevitably  became 
infected  with  the  spirit  of  helplessness 
and  desertion.  Unhappily  there  were 
two  corps  in  the  Caporetto  section 
which  "melted  away"  before  the 
first  blast.  Neglect,  thoughtless  com- 
plaints of  the  uninstructed,  and  hostile 
propaganda  had  w^orked  together  to 
shake  the  morale  of  these  men. 

The  falling  in  of  the  salient  on  the 
north  left  the  troops  on  the  Bainsizza 
exposed.    If  the  enemy  moved  on  down 

775 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


the  valleys  in  their  rear,  they  would  be 
cut  off  from  communication  and  supply. 
There  was  but  one  thing  they  could  do 
to  avoid  being  outflanked.  On  the 
twenty-fifth  and  twenty-sixth  they 
withdrew  from  the  whole  plateau,  re- 
linquishing, as  well,  Kuk  and  Santo  and 
San  Gabriele.  During  that  time,  too, 
the  headquarters  of  General  Cadorna, 
which  had  been  at  Udine,  were  removed 
to  Padua,  since  Udine  could  be  reached 
directly  by  rail  from  Cividale,  only  ten 
miles  away  and  already  seriously 
threatened. 

A  DISORGANIZED     THRONG     POURS     INTO 
THE  PLAINS. 

On  the  highroads  that  led  to  the 
plains  a  mixed,  disorganized,  and 
wretched  throng  trailed  slowly  on- 
ward, hour  by  hour,  through  mud  and 
rain.  Exhausted,  famished,  dispirited, 
they  moved  toward  the  southwest, 
with  the  enemy,  almost  at  their  heels, 
kept  back  only  by  the  heroic  rear-guard 
efforts  of  regiments  that  held  together 
and  strove  to  retard  the  on-sweeping 
German  lines.  There  were  among  the 
multitude  soldiers  whose  Socialist  tu- 
tors had  instructed  them  to  lay  down 
their  arms,  since  the  war  was  over. 
They  were  simply  "going  home." 
There  were  civilian  refugees  from  the 
districts  through  which  the  sad  train 
was  passing,  and  so  the  company  was 
constantly  augmented.  Carts,,  horses, 
motor-vehicles,  ambulances,  lorries, 
without  oflticial  control  or  guidance, 
traveled  by  tedious  degrees,  side  by  side 
with  the  crowds  on  foot,  ever  in  one 
direction  and  "the  slowest  set  the  pace. " 
Now  and  then  an  aeroplane  swooped 
near,  with  terrifying  menace,  but  the 
storms  provided  some  protection  from 
air  attack,  and  the  Italian  aviators  were 
valiant  in  combating  enemy  airmen,  so 
preventing  much  possible  horror  and 
devastation. 

The  German  divisions  under  von 
Below  began  to  pour  out  upon  the 
plains,  at  the  mouth  of  Natisone  Valley, 
on  October  28.  They  entered  Cividale 
that  day,  and  left  it  in  ruins.  Then 
they  pushed  upon  Udine,  where  the 
Arditi  disputed  their  entrance  and 
withstood  them  until  the  twenty-ninth. 
The  Austrian  forces,  who  had  recovered 

776 


the  Bainsizza,  took  possession  of  Gori- 
zia  on  the  twenty-eighth,  when  it  was 
reluctantly  evacuated  by  the  last  of  its 
defenders. 

THE    THIRD    ARMY    SAVES    THE     DAY    BY 
ITS  ORDERLY  RETREAT. 

As  the  position  of  the  Third  Army, 
with  the  Duke  of  Aosta,  on  the  Carso, 
had  become  untenable  before  the  loss 
of  Gorizia,  it  had  withdrawn  across  the 
Vallone  and  started  on  the  brilliant 
and  orderly  retreat  toward  the  Taglia- 
mento.  This  river,  some  forty  miles 
west  of  the  Isonzo,  was  the  goal  toward 
which  the^  whole  retiring  mass  looked 
with  hope.*  A  host  of  fugitives,  includ- 
ing what  was  left  of  the  Second  Army, 
crossed  at  Codroipo  on  October  30. 
On  the  west  side  of  the  Tagliamento 
they  found  "a  more  hopeful  and  active 
world,  where  officers  and  Carabinieri 
were  sorting  out  the  men  as  they 
arrived  over  the  bridge,  and  orders 
were  being  given  and  obeyed." 

The  next  day,  at  Latisana  near  the 
coast,  the  greater  part  of  the  Third 
Army  crossed  to  the  west  side  of  the 
river,  with  500  of  their  guns,  and  began 
to  take  positions  there.  "The  Duke  of 
Aosta's  retreat  was  one  of  those  per- 
formances in  war  which  succeed  against 
crazy  odds,  and  which,  consequently, 
we  call  inexplicable.  It  made  the 
Italian  stand  possible,  and  deprived 
the  enemy  of  the  crowning  triumph 
which  he  almost  held  in  his  hands." 

The  British  guns  had  all  been  saved 
and  carried  from  the  Carso.  "Heaven 
knows  how  it  was  done,"  observes  one 
who  took  part  in  the  retreat  and  who 
states  that,  owing  to  the  efficient  serv- 
ices of  the  British  Red  Cross  Unit 
attending  the  Third  Army,  "no  British 
sick  or  wounded  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  enemy."  The  Austro-German 
Command  was  claiming  the  capture  of 
200,000  prisoners  and  1,800  guns. 
Several  thousand  of  the  prisoners  were 
non-combatant  workmen  who  had  been 
caught  in  the  first  rush. 

A  TEMPORARY  HALT  BEHIND  THE  TAGLIA- 
MENTO RIVER. 

The  flooded  Tagliamento  furnished 
the  Italians  a  temporary  barrier,  which 
gave  opportunity  for  the  restoration  of 
order  and  the  preparation  of  new  plans. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


The  fighting,  up  to  this  point,  had  been 
done  in  detached  sections  with,  "Hter- 
ally,  hundreds  of  isolated  encircHng 
movements"  by  the  enemy,  resulting 
in  the  seizure  of  prisoners  in  large 
numbers.  But  the  invading  armies 
found  greater  difificulty  in  moving  up 
their  guns  as  they  advanced  farther 
over  the  plains  and  swollen 
streams,  while  the  space  be- 
tween the  Italian  Third  Army 
and  the  Fourth  Army  under 
De  Robilant  on  the  Carnic 
front  was  becoming  narrower 
and  narrower.  The  two  would 
soon  be  "able  to  link  hands 
across  the  gap"  created  by  the 
disappearance  of  the  Second 
Army. 

With  no  prospect  of  holding 
firmly  at  the  Tagliamento,  nor 
at  the  Livenza  River,  next  be- 
yond, the  banks  of  the  Piave 
offered  the  first  promising 
ground  on  which  to  make  a 
stand.  "There  the  right  bank 
was  protected  by  the  most 
modern  and  approved  practice 
trenches,  constructed  by  '  rook- 
ies'  before  they  had  been  al- 
lowed to  go  to  the  battle  line. " 
On  November  3,  the  Germans 
and  Hungarians  crossed  the 
Tagliamento  at  Tolmezzo,  Pin- 
zano,  and  other  points.  By  the 
eighth  they  had  pushed  across 
the  Livenza.  At  last,  on  No- 
vember 10,  the  Italians  stood 
along  the  Piave,  ready  to  defy 
further  Teutonic  aggression 
and  to  protect  Venice  from 
disaster.  In  crossing  the  rivers, 
armored  motor  cars,  with  quick-firing 
guns  in  their  turrets,  held  the  bridges 
until  all  others  had  passed  across. 
Then,  following  the  cavalry  rear-guards, 
they  burned  the  bridges  behind  them. 

npHE  LINE  OF  THE  PIAVE  RIVER  IS  TAKEN. 

It  was  with  utter  reluctance  and 
regret  that  the  Fourth  Army  had  re- 
tired from  the  Carnic  Alps,  and  the 
First  Army,  under  Pecori-Giraldo,  from 
the  peaks  and  passes  in  the  Cadore  re- 
gion. They  now  took  their  places  side 
by  side  with  the  reorganized  Second 


Army  and  the  Third  in  the  line  that 
sheltered  Venice  and  her  neighbor 
cities  on  the  plains.  On  the  Adriatic 
side  Venetia  had  been  laid  open  by  the 
withdrawal  of  the  naval  batteries  along 
the  Northern  Adriatic  coast,  conse- 
quent upon  the  loss  of  the  Carso  and 
the  region  between  the  Isonzo  and  the 


GENERAL  ARMANDO  DIAZ 

General  Diaz,  General  Cadorna's  successor  in  command  of  the 
Italian  armies,  was  born  and  educated  at  Naples.  He  had  fought 
in  Atrfca,  After  brOliant  success  on  the  Carso,  he  was  given  com- 
mand of  the  23rd  Army  Corps  on  the  Isonzo,  where  he  added  to  his 
reputation. 

Piave.  The  Allied  Navy  was  the  whole 
length  of  the  peninsula  away,  at 
Taranto. 

With  the  realization  that  the  offen- 
sive was  a  serious  danger,  requiring  in- 
stant and  vigorous  action,  on  October 
26  the  existing  Ministry  had  been  over- 
thrown as  inadequate.  The  first  of 
November  found  the  government  re- 
constructed, with  Signor  Orlando  as 
Premier,  Baron  Sonnino  at  the  head 
of  the  Foreign  Office,  Signor  Nitti  in 
charge  of  the  Treasury,  and  Signor 
Alfieri  as  Minister  of  War.    All  parties, 

m 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


except  the  extreme  Socialists,  laid  aside 
party  issues  and  devoted  themselves 
earnestly  to  the  task  of  saving  the 
country  from  calamity. 

ALLIED     REINFORCEMENTS    AND    A    NEW 
l\     ITALIAN  COMMANDER. 

The  first  step  toward  a  united  com- 
mand for  the  Western  Allies  was  taken 
when  a  council  was  held  at  Rapallo, 
near  Genoa,  on  November  5,  to  consider 
how  best  to  deal  with  the  perilous  situ- 
ation in  Italy.  From  England  came 
Lloyd  George,  General  Smuts,  Sir 
William  Robertson,  and  Sir  Henry 
Wilson;  from  France,  M.  Painleve  and 
General  Foch.  Italy  was  represented 
by  Signor  Orlando,  Baron  Sonnino, 
and  Signor  Alfieri.  Out  of  this  council 
grew  a  triune  General  Staff,  of  which 
General  Cadorna  was  made  a  member, 
together  with  General  Foch  and  Gener- 
al Sir  Henry  Wilson.  Headquarters 
were  at  Versailles.  General  Foch,  at 
the  time,  held  the  post  of  Chief  of 
Staff  of  the  French  War  Office,  and  Sir 
Henry  Wilson  belonged  to  the  British 
General  Staff.  As  Commander-in- 
Chief  of  the  Italian  armies,  General 
Cadorna  was  superseded  by  General 
Diaz,  who  had  as  his  Chief  of  the 
General  Staff,  General  Badoglio,  and 
as  Sub-Chief  of  the  Staff,  General 
Giordino. 

Reinforcements  of  French  and  Brit- 
ish troops  had  already  been  hastened 
into  the  country,  the  French  12th 
Corps,  under  General  Fayolle,  first, 
followed,  early  in  November,  by  a 
British  corps,  the  14th,  under  Sir 
Herbert  Plumer.  "One  of  England's 
best  loans  to  Italy  was  General  Plu- 
mer. "  He  gave  his  influence  strongly  to 
the  holding  of  the  Piave  if  it  could 
possibly  be  done,  although  at  the  mo- 
ment the  risk  involved  seemed  so  great 
that  the  French  and  British  divisions 
were  stationed  near  the  Adige  and  on 
the  hills  around  Vicenza,  to  form  a  re- 
serve; there  in  case  the  Italians  should 
be  forced  back.  Therefore,  the  Italians, 
alone,  except  for  the  British  batteries 
rescued  from  the  Carso,  formed  a  line 
of  defense  before  the  Piave.  The  pres- 
ence of  the  Allies,  however,  supplied  a 
moral  buttress  for  the  spirits  of  the 
heavily-strained  nation.     Britons  and 

778 


Frenchmen    met    with    a    sincere    and 
enthusiastic  welcome. 

THE     ITALIAN     PEOPLE     REALIZE     THEIR 
DESPERATE  SITUATION. 

General  Cadorna's  communique  of 
October  28  had  revealed  the  very  truth 
about  the  situation  where  the  line  gave 
way.  In  his  rage,  at  that  shocking  in- 
stant, he  had  used  the  plainest  terms, 
not  hesitating  at  "treason"  itself. 
Although  the  message  was  not  made 
public  until  its  language  had  been 
modified,  rumor  got  abroad  and  was 
caught  up  without  delay.  The  effect  was 
that  of  an  electric  current  shaking  men 
and  women  into  consciousness  of  their 
stupid  or  wilful  failure  to  perceive  the 
dangers  they  had  been  fostering  instead 
of  fighting. 

"Now,  in  the  souls  of  four-and- 
thirty  millions  from  the  Alps  to  Sicily, 
a  decisive  battle  was  waged  in  the 
secular  conflict  between  the  persistent 
materialism  and  the  no  less  persistent 
idealism  of  the  Italian  nature.  The 
very  existence  of  the  idealist  principle 
in  the  common  life  of  the  race  was 
threatened,  and  to  some  seemed  al- 
ready doomed.  Italy,  having  striven 
for  a  hundred  years  to  be  a  great  and 
free  country  with  traditions  and  memo- 
ries of  her  own  making,  had  not,  it 
seemed,  the  necessary  staying  power. 
Was  she,  after  all,  fit  only  to  be  a 
'museum,  an  inn,  a  summer  resort' 
for  German  'honeymoon  couples,' 
'a  delightful  market  for  buying  and 
selling,  fraud  and  barter,'  as  in  the 
days  before  Mazzini?  Had  the  fathers 
of  the  Risorgimento  been  mere  sent- 
mentalists,  who  tried  to  make  the  land 
of  their  dreams  out  of  earthen  clay? 
Had  the  true  decision  been,  not  in  i860, 
but  in  1849,  if  only  they  had  had  the 
sense  to  accept  it?  Or  had  they  per- 
chance been  right  after  all,  those  great 
ones  of  old,  with  that  large  faith  of 
theirs?    The  world  would  soon  know. " 

On  the  heels  of  the  communique  fol- 
lowed the  Propaganda  of  the  Mutila- 
ted, launched  on  the  same  day,  October 
28.  Both  officers  and  privates  whose 
injuries  had  removed  them  from  active 
service  gave  themselves  to  the  work  of 
reviving  a  burning  spirit  of  patriotism 
in   the  country.     Blinded,   lamed,   or 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


paralyzed,  they  yet  had  tongues  to 
persuade  their  fellow-citizens  to  meet 
the  country's  need. 

THE  SITUATION  OF  THE  OPPOSING  ARMIES 
IN  NOVEMBER. 

On  November  9,  the  day  before  the 
Italian  armies  reached  their  standing- 
ground  behind  the  Piave,  the  ruined 
remnant  of  Asiago  passed  again  into 
the  hands  of  the  Austrians.  Two  days 
later,  the  enemy  line  was  a  united 
whole,  when  the  eastern  and  western 
ends  were  knitted  together  between 
the  Upper  Piave  and  the  Val  Sugana. 
In  that  sector,  the  Fourteenth  Austro- 
German  Army  and  the  Tenth  Austrian 
Army  faced  the  Italian  Fourth  Army 
under  de  Robilant,  which  had  moved 
southwest  from  the  Carnic  front.  West 
of  the  Brenta,  on  the  Asiago  Plateau, 
Pecori-Giraldo,  with  the  Italian  First 
Army,  was  prepared  to  hold  those 
heights  and  the  Val  Frenzela,  against 
the  Austrian  Eleventh  Army.  In  the 
"bottle-neck"  between  the  Brenta  and 
the  Piave,  the  Italians  occupied  the 
ridges,  of  which  the  Monte  Grappa  and 
Monte  Tomba  massifs  lay  nearest  the 
south.  About  ten  miles  southeast, 
beyond  the  Piave's  bend  eastward,  on 
its  right  bank,  Montello  provided 
another  ridge  to  fortify  for  defense  at 
a  distance  of  twenty-five  miles  from 
Venice.  The  Asiago  Plateau,  Monte 
Grappa,  and  Montello  were  the  north- 
ern centres  of  the  struggle  that  dark- 
ened the  remaining  days  of  November 
and  the  whole  month  of  December, 
while  the  flood  of  the  Lower  Piave  was 
being  disputed  hotly  by  the  Italian 
right  wing  under  the  gallant  Duke  of 
Aosta.  At  the  other  end  of  the 
shortened  Italian  line,  the  Fifth  Army 
with  General  Morrone  did  not  change 
its  position  west  of  the  Trentino;  but 
its  right  flank  was  endangered  by  the 
enemy's  presence  in  the  Val  Sugana. 

THE      AUSTRO-GERMAN      FORCES      MAKE 
SLIGHT  GAINS. 

Working  down  the  Brenta  Valley 
from  the  Val  Sugana  and  pressing 
eastward  from  Asiago,  the  Austrian 
mountain  troops  and  some  Hungarian 
divisions,  under  von  Below,  drove  the 
defenders  of  the  uplands  back  toward 
the  last  ridges  at  Monte  Tomba  and 

780 


Monte  Grappa,  and  approached  the 
upper  end  of  the  Val  Frenzela.  Mean- 
while, the  Italians  eagerly  watched  the 
mountains  for  the  first  sign  of  the  ex- 
pected snows.  The  storms  came  late. 
"It  was  not  the  snow  that  saved 
Italy,  but  the  valor  of  her  sons." 

On  the  Piave,  .Boroevic's  forces 
crossed  to  the  west  side  at  Zenson,Only 
eighteen  miles  from  the  sea,  on  Novem- 
ber 13,  and  took  a  bridgehead  farther 
up  the  stream.  When,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  river,  Hungarian  battalions  crossed 
the  canalized  stream  and  started  over 
the  marshes  to  the  old  river-bed, 
Piave  Vecchia,  or  Sile.  the  engmeers 
opened  the  flood-gates  which  had  been 
built  to  reclaim  land  in  the  delta  and  to 
control  the  rise  of  waters  in  the  lagoons 
of  Venice  less  than  twenty  miles  away. 
Of  the  conditions  after  the  floods  were 
let  loose  on  November  15,  we  have  this 
account  by  a  correspondent: 

FLOODS   DEFEND   THE   ITALIANS   ON   THE 
LOWER  PIAVE. 

"The  water  effectively  holds  the 
enemy  at  most  exposed  points  and  for 
fifteen  miles  on  the  west  bank  of  the 
Piave.  The  flooded  area  is  about 
seventy  square  miles,  and  the  water  is 
a  foot  to  five  feet  deep  and  twelve  miles 
in  width  at  some  points,  making  the 
district  impossible  of  occupation  or 
movement  by  enemy  troops.  The 
enemy  clings  to  the  west  bank  at  Zen- 
son,  but  is  crowded  into  a  small  U- 
shaped  position  and  relying  on  batteries 
across  the  river  to  keep  the  Italians 
back. 

"The  lower  floors  of  the  houses  in 
such  villages  as  Piave  Vecchia  are 
under  water,  and  the  campanili  stick 
up  from  the  mud-hued  level  of  the 
flood  like  strange  immense  water 
plants;  and  here  in  the  silence  of  the 
floods  the  enemy  is  moving  in  boats 
and  squelshing  over  mud  islands. 
Peasants,  awaiting  rescue  from  the 
inundation,  see  him  arrive  with  feelings 
much  like  those  of  shipwrecked  people 
who  hail  a  passing  sail  and  find  it  is  a 
pirate  craft." 

THE  AUSTRIANS  ATTACK  ON  THE  ASIAGO 
PLATEAU. 

As  December  opened,  there  were 
indications  on  the  Asiago  Plateau  that 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


a  vigorous  Austro-German  offensive  was 
in  preparation.  On  a  front  of  twelve 
miles  no  fewer  than  2,000  guns  were 
massed.  General  Plumer  offered,  in 
conjunction  with  the  French,  to  take 
over  some  sectors  in  the  foot-hills;  but 
the  Italian  High  Command  feared  the 
effect  of  the  cold  and  snow  upon  troops 
unaccustomed  to  mountain  conditions 
and  not  equipped  for  them.    Therefore, 


danger  of  a  break  into  the  plains  un- 
doubtedly increased." 

The  anticipated  attack  on  the  Asiago 
began  toward  the  end  of  the  first  week 
December.      Slowly    the    Italians 


m 


yielded  position  after  position,  holding 
out  so  long  that  they  sometimes  lost 
many  prisoners  at  a  time.  The  number 
captured  by  the  enemy  soon  mounted 
to  15,000,     But  he,  too,  was  losing  his 


1 

^^^^H^BS.^l^^^^^^K^^H 

ikllMIl      llitt           ^     P^^ 

I 

1 

BRITISH  TROOPS  ON  THE  MARCH  ACROSS  THE  PLAINS  OF  ITALY 
The  wise,  sound  strategic  advice  of  General  Plumer  and  the  sense  of  support  furnished  by  the  presence  of  British 
and  French  troops  helped  to  sustain  the  spirits  of  the  Italians  in  their  desperate  stand  at  the  Piave.    The  British,  in 
their  march  across  the  historic  northern  plains,  were  greeted  with  enthusiastic  demonstrations.     They  took  up 
their  position  on  the  Montello  height,  between  Montebelluna  and  the  Piave,  the  first  week  in  December. 


the  assisting  forces  were  assigned  to 
the  Montello  sector,  which  formed  "a 
hinge  to  the  whole  Italian  line."  The 
aid  was  much  appreciated  as  a  means 
of  relief  for  General  de  Robilant's 
army  in  its  too-difficult  position.  To 
keep  the  sector  supplied,  boys  no  more 
than  eighteen  years  old  had  been  poured 
into  the  ranks  after  barely  a  month  of 
drill  in  camp.  Such  was  the  sacrifice 
the  country  was  offering  up. 

Yet,  "December  was  an  anxious 
month,"  Sir  Herbert  Plumer  says. 
"Local  attacks  grew  more  frequent 
and  more  severe,  and  though  the 
progress  made  \yas  not  great,  yet  the 


thousands.  Already,  since  the  be- 
ginning of  the  invasion,  he  had  given 
up  150,000  in  killed,  wounded  and 
captured. 

ALPINI  AND  BERSAGLIERI   FIGHT   TO   THE 
l\     LAST  MAN. 

Both  east  and  west  of  Brenta, 
heights  were  taken  and  retaken.  "It 
was  a  saturnalia  of  killing.  To  realize 
what  was  then  happening,  you  need  a 
vision  of  death  striding  those  misty 
valleys  like  a  proprietor  walking  in  his 
own  fields.  The  hill  of  the  Bersaglieri 
was  held  by  front  men  who  had  fought 
since  the  offensive  in  August  on  the 
Bainsizza  Plateau.     They  fought  till 

781 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


fighting  availed  no  longer,  and  then 
fell  back,  fighting  still  and  attacking 
ateveryopportunity  with  the  bayonet." 
These  are  the  words  of  Perceval  Gib- 
bon. 

As  so  many  times  before,  Alpini  and 
Bersaglieri  performed  unheard-of  feats 
/  of  sheer  daring,  exhibiting  that  dash 
and  spirit  which  are  suggested  by  the 
very  mention  of  their  names.  How- 
ever, by  Christmas  Day,  the  prospect 
was  still  unlightened.  The  enemy  had 
advanced  into  the  Val  Frenzela  and 
had  secured  the  lower  summit  of  Monte 
Tomba.  threatening  to  outflank  Monte 
Grappa. 

THE  TIDE  TURNS  WITH  THE  END  OF  THE 
YEAR. 

Then,  on  December  30,  the  French 
left,  supported  by  British  batteries, 
cleared  the  summit  and  slopes  of  Monte 
Tomba,  taking  i  ,500  Austrian  prisoners. 
With  this  success,  the  tide  seemed  to 
turn.  The  hills  were  aiding  their  de- 
fenders, at  last,  for  wild  storms  had 
broken  out.  The  Piave  was  rushing, 
swollen  to  a  width  of  i  ,000  yards  or 
more  in  places,  its  waters  icy  and  for- 
bidding. In  spite  of  the  peril  of  wad- 
ing or  crossing  on  rafts,  volunteers  never 
were  lacking  for  the  raids  that  were 
made,  from  time  to  time  upon  the  east 
bank.  Before,  the  first  fortnight  of  the 
new  year  was  gone,  Zenson  bridgehead 
had  been  retaken  by  the  Duke  of 
Aosta,  and  the  Austrians  driven  back 
across  the  river. 

Step  by  step,  hour  by  hour,  the  Teu- 
ton forces  lost  ground  and  the  Italian 
positions  became  less  cramped.  The 
counter-offensive  was  marked  by  some 
signal  successes,  as  when  on  January 
27,  Col  del  Rosso  and  Col  d'Echele  were 
both  taken  and  held  and  more  than 
1,500  prisoners  captured;  while,  the 
next  day,  an  attack  on  Monte  di  Val 
Bella  resulted  in  carrying  the  summit 
and  added  over  a  thousand  more 
Austrian  prisoners. 

Since  the  hope  of  getting  down  on  to 
the  Venetian  plains  had  been  frustrated, 
Ludendorfif  began  to  withdraw  German 
troops  for  use  on  other  battle-fronts 
where  they  .  were  needed.  In  the 
Austrian  command  a  change  was  made, 
when,  about  January  21,  1918,  General 

782 


Boroevic  succeeded  the  Archduke  Eu- 
gene as  head  of  the  entire  front  against 
Italy — an  appointment  which  was  con- 
sidered "merely  a  sop  thrown  to  the 
Slav  element  of  Austria-Hungary." 

THE     NAVY    HELPS    IN   THE    DEFENSE    OF 
VENICE. 

On  the  side  of  the  Allies  there  was 
increasing  harmony  and  understand- 
ing. When  British  and  French  batter- 
ies were  working  in  conjunction  with 
those  of  Italy,  an  Italian  Staff  officer 
declared:  "At  last  we  have  realized 
unity  of  command  right  in  the  face  of 
enemy  fire.  '  But  the  Italians  them- 
selves bore  the  chief  burden  of  the 
fighting.  "The  Italian  Army  could 
not  only  resist — that  had  been  shown 
by  the  wonderful  stand  after  the  long 
retreat — but  could  already  hit  back 
hard  and  retake  from  the  enemy  very 
strong  positions  which  had  been  in  his 
hands  for  over  a  month.  The  recovery 
from  the  long  trial  was  very  quick;  and 
it  was  of  special  significance  that  the 
brigade  which  took  Col  del  Rosso  and 
held  it  against  all  the  furious  counter- 
attacks of  the  Austrians  was  the 
Sassari  Brigade,  which  had  belonged 
to  the  Second  Army  and  come  through 
the  worst  of  the  great  retreat." 

In  following  the  efforts  of  the  Alpini, 
Bersaglieri,  Infantry,  Cavalry,  and 
Arditi,  we  must  not  lose  sight  of  the 
equally  necessary  and  heroic  part 
played  by  the  Navy  in  the  defense  of 
Venice.  The  spirit  of  its  men  was  mani- 
fested as  soon  as  news  of  the  Austro- 
German  invasion  reached  them  in  the 
naval  bases.  Almost  with  one  accord 
they  asked  to  be  transferred  to  the 
infantry  and  allowed  to  go  to  the  front. 
As  many  as  could  be  spared  had  their 
requests  granted;  but  there  was  plenty 
of  work  to  be  done  on  the  water.  All 
through  the  retreat,  the  right  flank  of 
the  army  was  protected  by  marines 
along  canals  and  rivers.  "Platoons 
of  marines  stood  in  the  mud  behind 
guns  corroded  by  the  inundations, 
holding  back  entire  companies  of  enemy 
troops  for  days  and  nights  without 
the  possibility  of  obtaining  relief  or 
food.  Some  of  the  gurf  crews  dragged 
not  only  the  mounts  and  the  guns  by 
hand  across  very  swampy  ground,  with 


VENICE,  WHERE  ROMANCE  AND  BEAUTY  ABIDE 

Venice,  whose  islands  offered  a  refuge  from  Attila  and  his  Huns  in  452  A.D.,  is  a  land  of  blue  waters,  radiant  skies, 
flashing  colors  and  lilting  songs.  She  has  picturesque,  romantic  charm,  and  encloses  a  store  of  artistic  treasure. 
With  her  industries  hard  hit  by  the  war,  she  made  a  patriotic  and  heroic  readjustment.  Then  came  the  invasion,  and 
the  fair  city  waited  silent,  almost  deserted,  while  her  defenders  strove  for  her  safety. 


FOR  THE  PROTECTION  OF  VENICE,  THE  BELOVED  CITY 
Among  the  provisions  for  the  defense  of  Venice  in  the  hour  of  invasion  were  the  guns  mounted  upon  pontoons 
in  the  marshes  at  the  mouths  of  the  Piave  and  other  rivers.     Disguised  as  islands  or  house-boats,  the  pontoons 
frequenUy  shifted  their  positions  and  the  guns  furnished  effective  protection.  r— *— 1  v»w.  «^^^,^» 


Central  News  Service 


783 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


the  water  up  to  their  knees,  but  also 
the  munition  cases,  without  taking 
time  for  sleeping  or  eating."  Sub- 
marine chasers  ran  up  into  the  rivers 
to  disperse  Austrian  patrols.  Hydro- 
planes bombed  bridges.  And  aviators 
were  tireless  in  making  bombing  and 
observation  flights  and  keeping  the 
difi^erent  sections  of  the  army  informed 
of  one  another's  movements. 

THE     GULF    OF    VENICE     PROTECTED    BY 
MINE  FIELDS. 

Two  weeks  after  Monfalcone  and 
Grado  had  been  abandoned,  "the  work 
of  forming  the  principal  ring  of  defense 
around  the  city  of  the  Doges  was  confi- 
ded to  the  machine  gunners  of  the  navy." 
As,  fifteen  hundred  years  earlier,  fugi- 
tives from  the  terrors  of  Attila's  inva- 
sion had  taken  refuge  in  the  marshes 
and  founded  there  the  city,  Venice, 
again  the  safety  of  the  Venetian  people 
depended  partly  upon  the  waters. 
We  have  noted  how  the  Lower  Piave 
had  been  flooded.  The  whole  region 
of  the  northern  shore  of  the  Venetian 
Gulf  was  inundated  and  protected  by 
mine  fields.  The  Gulf,  therefore,  was 
converted  into  an  isolated  sea.  Secrfet 
channels  in  the  bottom  of  the  lagoons 
were  known  to  none  but  war  pilots, 
who  alone  could  safely  navigate  even 
the  smallest  boats  there.  Moving  about 
among  the  marshy  islands,  a  great 
fleet  of  floating  batteries  furnished  a 
strong  defense.  An  eyewitness  gives 
the  following  account  of  these  batteries: 

"Each  is  camouflaged  to  represent 
a  tiny  island,  a  garden  patch,  or  a  house 
boat.  Floating  on  the  glass-like  sur- 
face of  the  lagoons,  the  guns  fire  a  few 
shots  and  then  change  position — 
making  it  utterly  impossible  for  the 
enemy  to  locate  them.  The  entire 
auxiliary  service  of  supplying  this 
floating  army  has  been  adapted  to 
meet  the  lagoon  warfare.  Munition 
dumps  are  on  boats,  constantly  moved 
about  to  prevent  the  enemy  spotting 
them.  Gondolas  and  motor  boats  re- 
place the  automojaile  supply  lorries 
customary  in  land  warfare.  Instead  of 
motor  ambulances,  motor  boats  carry 
off  dead  and  wounded.  Hydro-aero- 
planes replace  ordinary  fighting  air- 
craft." 

784 


THE    DARING     EXPLOIT    OF     LIEUTENANT 
RIZZO. 

There  were,  besides,  stationary  land 
batteries  and  armed  ships  of  all  sizes, 
including  huge  flat-bottomed  British 
monitors  carrying  the  largest  guns. 
Swift  little  armored  motor  boats  darted 
about,  "the  cavalry  of  the  marshes," 
running  up  to  the  very  trenches,  where 
the  enemy  lines  bordered  a  river,  and 
attacking  companies  that  attempted 
to  cross  the  lagoons. 

On  the  night  of  December  9,  191 7, 
when  the  invasion  was  still  swinging  on, 
a  spirited  exploit  was  performed  by 
Lieutenant  Rizzo,  of  the  Italian  Navy. 
With  two  small  launches  he  approached 
Trieste  Harbor,  which  was  carefully 
shut  in  by  a  network  of  steel  wire 
studded  with  mines.  In  defiance  of  the 
danger  from  explosion,  in  case  a  jar 
should  set  off  the  mines.  Lieutenant 
Rizzo  and  his  men  cut  the  wire  cables 
that  held  the  structure  to  the  piers, 
until  the  "cobweb  of  metal  and  ex- 
plosives" dropped  down  to  the  sands. 
Then  they  ran  their  boats  into  the 
harbor  near  the  great  vessels.  Monarch 
and  Wien,  and  launched  their  torpe- 
does. Both  ships  were  injured,  the 
Wien  fatally,  so  that  she  sank  to  the 
bottom.  The  Italian  launches  escaped 
miraculously  through  a  storm  of  shrap- 
nel and  gunfire,  under  the  brilliant 
illumination  of  searchlights  and  burst- 
ing shells,  while  the  Austrians  sought 
to  discover  whence  the  attack  had  come. 

SUMMARY  OF  THE  CAUSES  OF  THE  GREAT 
DISASTER. 

When,  under  an  unusual,  sudden 
strain,  a  man's  physical  system  suffers 
collapse,  the  breakdown  is  often  reason- 
ably accounted  for  by  the  discovery  of 
a  "complication"  of  disorders  or  cir- 
cumstances. The  same  reasonable  ex- 
planation applies  to  national  catas- 
trophes, although,  in  the  immediate 
shock  and  confusion,  this  fact  may  be 
overlooked.  So,  for  Italy's  "Capo- 
retto"  there  are  reasons,  military, 
economic,  moral,  and  personal.  The 
one  most  patent,  and  therefore  most 
emphasized,  at  the  moment,  was  the 
local  break  in  morale,  which  in  itself 
was  due  to  a  complex  and  intricate 
tangle  of  causes.    The  Russian  failure, 


HISTORY  OF  .THE  WORLD  WAR 


the  consequent  spread  of  Bolshevist 
tenets,  the  unsatisfied  demands  of 
Socialists  and  pacifists,  the  exhaustion 
of  mind  and  body  resulting  from  months 
of  terrible  war  conditions  without  relief 
or  refreshment, — these  are  a  few  of  the 
threads  that  wove  the  web  to  entangle 
unwary  feet.  ' 

When  we  get  close  enough  to  see  the 
military  situation,  the  disaster  is  even 
more  accountable.  With  General 
Capello's  command,  the  Second  Army, 


*  blow  is  that  the  Italian  positions  were 
those  suitable  for  offensive  movements, 
such  as  the  army  had  been  developing 
along  the  eastern  front,  rather  than  for 
defense.  The  foremost  lines  were  far 
the  strongest  and  the  guns  had  been 
pushed  far  forward.  When  the  first  lines 
were  put  under  sudden  bombardment 
and  weakened  by  clouds  from  shells  of 
asphyxiating  and  mustard  gas,  then 
attacked  during  an  unexpected  lull  in 
the  artillery  storm,  there  was   not  a 


A  DARING  NIGHT  EXPLOIT  IN  THE  HARBOR  OF  TRIESTE 

Arrived  at  Trieste  in  torpedo  boats  on  the  night  of  December  9-10,  1917,  Luigi  Rizzo  and  some  of  his  men 
made  their  way  in  on  motor  scouts,  cut  the  mined  wire  entanglements  and  approached  the  vessels,  Monarch 
and  Wien,  discharging  torpedoes  which  sank  the  Wien  and  damaged  the  Monarch.  Austrian  search-lights 
swept  the  skies  for  air  raiders  while  the  seamen  crept  in  unperceived.     They  escaped  to  their  base  in  safety. 


several  times  too  large  for  one  officer's 
efficient  control,  and  its  4th  Corps, 
poorly  trained  and  filled  up  from  new 
drafts,  in  a  sector  far  removed  from 
the  commander's  field  of  action,  there 
was  difficulty  enough,  had  General 
Capello  himself  been  able  to  direct 
affairs.  But  his  illness  had  left  control 
in  the  hands  of  General  Montuori,  who 
was  unacquainted  with  the  region. 
General  Capello  under  the  press  of 
unusual  circumstances  resumed  his  re- 
sponsibility before  he  was  considered 
fit  to  "carry  on." 

THE  ITALIAN  POSITIONS  NOT  SUITED  FOR 
DEFENSE. 

Another  condition  that  explains  what 
happened    under    the    Austro-German 


firmly  held  "battle  position"  behind 
them  -for  support.  Worse  than  all  else, 
enemy  troops,  masquerading  in  Italian 
uniforms,  carried  out  a  "collective 
deception." 

"It  was  Italy's  misfortune  to  be 
attacked  at  the  time  of  her  weakness  and 
at  the  place  where  she  was  weakest." 
More  astonishing  than  the  retreat  was 
the  immediate  rally  after  such  an  ex- 
perience. That  the  spirit  of  the  army 
as  a  whole  was  far  from  being  demor- 
alized had  ample  demonstration  before 
the  year  was  over.  And  now,  behind 
the  army  stood  firmer  walls  of  support 
than  before,  due  to  a  newly  aroused 
spirit  in  government  and  in  people — 
even  in  the  Allied  command. 

785 


CAPTIVE  BUT  UNDISMAYED 

French  colonial  troops  awaiting  roU-call  in  the  German  prison  camp  at  Zossen,  south  of  Berlin.  The  troops  of  the 
Fatherland  had  full  proof  of  their  valor  in  the  recapture  of  Forts  Douaumont  and  Vaux,  and  in  the  second  battle  of 
the  Aisne  when  they  fiung  themselves  against  the  machine-gun-infested  slopes  of  the  Craonne  plateau.  Ruschin 


RUSSIANS  IN  FRANCE 
In  1916  a  contingent  of  Russians  were  transported  to  France  by  the  Trans-Siberian  riilway.   A  Russian  brigade 
under  General  Lochwitsky  was  stationed  in  front  of  Courcy  in  the  battle  of  the  Aisne,  and  its  members  were  burn- 
ing to  inspire  by  their  conduct  their  liberated  countrymen,  and  show  what  Russians  could  achieve  when  properly 
disciplined  and  led.   In  a  day  of  fierce  fighting  they  took  all  their  objectives.  French  Oflficial 

786 


Photo — Vandi/fc 


M.  GEORGES  CLEMENCEAU 
Premier  of   France,    1917-20 


Russians  in  France  in  1917 


Chapter  XLVIII 

On  the  French  Front  in  1917 

THE  ATTEMPT  TO  SMASH  THE  GERMAN  DEFENSES  AND 
BREAK  THROUGH  FAILS 


'TpHE  Allied  offensive  in  191 6  had 
■'■  nowhere  achieved  decision.  Ger- 
man attack  at  Verdun  had  held  the 
French;  British  gains  on  the  Somme 
had  been  limited  to  a  depth  of  six  or 
seven  miles  on  a  narrow  front;  Italy's 
blow  at  Gorizia  had  fallen  short;  and 
Russia's  campaign  after  initial  vic- 
tories had  broken  down.  In  the  win- 
ter, the  High  Command  took  counsel 
and  decided  upon  a  further  general 
attack   co-ordinated    upon    all    fronts. 

THE   GERMAN   GENERAL   STAFF   SURVEYS 
THE  SITUATION. 

The  enemy,  facing  the  situation 
squarely,  took  stock  of  assets  and 
liabilities  and  made  wise  provision  to 
anticipate  the  offensive  and  thus  se- 
cure— even  to  a  limited  degree — the 
initiative.  He  knew  that  as  an  ally 
Austria  was  failing,  that  he  could  rely 
upon  Bulgaria  only  in  the  Balkans  and 
upon  Turkey  merely  in  the  east.  On 
the  other  hand,  he  sensed  the  growing 
weakness  of  Russia,  perceived  the 
widening  cracks  in  the  framework  of 
the  mighty  colossus  whose  shadow  had 
hitherto  darkened  the  fortunes  of  the 
Central  Powers — and  he  determined 
to  profit  by  its  fall.  Until  Russia  were 
out  of  action,  Italy  might  safely  be 
left,  for  the  German  Staff  felt  she  was 
too  much  under  the  influence  of  Eng- 
land to  make  a  separate  peace,  even 
if  she  were  defeated.    On  the  Western 


Front  a  difficult  problem  had  to  be 
faced. 

WITHDRAWAL  TO  THE  LINE  OF  DEFENSE 
ALREADY  PREPARED. 

The  fierce  conflict  on  the  Somme  had 
left  the  Germans  with  an  awkward 
salient  in  their  line.  It  was  urgently 
necessary  for  them  to  improve  their 
position  or  run  the  risk  of  being  en- 
veloped by  the  Allies.  An  attack 
against  the  enemy  at  the  point  where 
he  had  broken  through  was  the  most 
obvious  remedy,  but  the  German  Chief 
of  Staff  could  not  venture  a  great 
offensive  in  the  Somme  region  at  a  time 
when  he  knew  attacks  were  imminent 
on  other  parts  of  the  Western  and 
Eastern  fronts.  There  remained  only 
the  alternative  of  withdrawal,  and 
Hindenburg  decided  to  adopt  this 
expedient  and  transfer  his  line  of  de- 
fense which  had  been  pushed  in  at 
Peronne  at  one  point  and  bulged  out 
to  the  west  of  Bapaume,  Roye  and 
Noyon,  at  others  to  the  chord  position 
Arras,  St.  Quentin,  Soissons.  The 
retreat  was  a  great  blow  to  the  German 
army,  to  the  people  at  home,  to  their 
allies  abroad.  For  the  time,  until  its 
soundness  as  a  strategical  manoeuvre 
was  borne  in  upon  them  by  bitter 
experience,  it  seemed  a  great  triumph 
for  the  British  and  French,  who  has- 
tened to  exploit  it  for  propagandist 
purposes. 

787 


fflSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


Retreat  began  on  March  i6,  1917, 
and  left  in  its  wake  a  devastated  and 
shell-scarred  wilderness  where  rivers 
had  been  dammed  to  flood  wide  areas, 
where  towns  and  villages  lay  in  black- 
ened heaps,  where  spectral  shapes 
stood  that  once  were  trees,  and  where 
silence  replaced  the  peaceful  murmur 
of  a  smiling  countryside.  The  British 
and  French  followed  slowly  for  all  rail- 
ways, roads  and  bridges  had  been 
obliterated,  and  there  was  fighting 
with  rear-guards  until  the  fluid  line 
crystallized  into  shape  once  more.  By 
the  first  week  in  April,  German  dis- 
positions in  the  new  Siegfried  (or 
Hindenburg)  Line  were  complete  and 
commanders  could  appreciate  the  fore- 
sight which  had  engineered  such  a 
great  strategic  "stand  to,"  which, 
although  it  abandoned  the  initiative  to 
the  enemy  for  the  time  being,  gave 
favorable  local  conditions  and  short- 
ened the  line  in  a  way  that  made  it 
possible  to  build  up  strong  reserves. 

TT  THERE  AND  WHAT  WAS  THIS  NEW  HIN- 
W       DENBURG  LINE. 

The  new  line  hung  like  a  cable  be- 
tween Vimy  ridge  and  the  Craonne 
plateau.  In  making  it,  the  Germans, 
profiting  from  experience  in  earlier 
battles,  had  departed  from  their  old 
pattern  of  defenses.  "In  future," 
writes  the  veteran  Marshal  von  Hin- 
denburg, so  closely  associated  with  its 
conception,  "our  defensive  positions 
were  no  longer  to  consist  of  single  lines 
and  strong  points  but  of  a  network  of 
lines  and  groups  of  strong  points.  In 
the  deep  zones  thus  formed  we  did  not 
intend  to  dispose  our  troops  on  a  rigid 
and  continuous  front  but  in  a  complex 
system  of  nuclei  and  distributed  in 
breadth  and  depth.  The  defender  had 
to  keep  his  forces  mobile  to  avoid  the 
destructive  effects  of  the  enemy  fire 
during  the  period  of  artillery  prepara- 
tion, as  well  as  voluntarily  to  abandon 
any  parts  of  the  line  which  could  no 
longer  be  held,  and  then  to  recover  by  a 
counter-attack  all  the  points  which 
were  essential  to  the  maintenance  of 
the  whole  position.  These  principles 
applied  in  detail  as  in  general. 

"We  thus  met  the  devastating  effects 
of   the   enemy   artillery   and    trench- 

788 


mortar  fire  and  their  surprise  infantry 
attacks  with  more  and  more  deeply  dis- 
tributed defensive  lines  and  the  mo- 
bility of  our  force.  At  the  same  time 
we  developed  the  principle  of  saving 
men  in  the  forward  lines  by  increasing 
the  number  of  our  machine  guns  and 
so  economizing  troops."  In  the  maze 
of  these  deep  lines  before  the  many- 
angled  fire  of  machine  guns  French 
attack  was  to  experience  tragic  check 
at  the  Craonne  plateau. 

THE  BRITISH  AGREE  TO  FOLLOW  FRENCH 
DIRECTION. 

In  the  Allied  plan  of  attack — a  plan 
considerably  modified  by  the  Hinden- 
burg retreat — it  was  arranged  that 
combined  British  and  French  attacks 
should  be  made  on  the  two  pivots  of  the 
new  German  position.  Thus,  British 
operations  against  Arras  on  a  lesser 
front  were  to  be  preparatory  to  more 
decisive  operations  by  the  French 
against  the  Craonne  plateau,  to  be 
begun  a  little  later  on,  and  in  the  sub- 
sequent stages  of  which  the  British 
were  to  co-operate.  If  this  combined 
offensive  did  not  produce  the  full 
effects  hoped  for,  it  was  arranged  that 
the  British  should  shift  their  attack  to 
the  Flanders  area,  and  the  French 
should  lend  their  aid  where  it  was  most 
needed.  To  achieve  such  co-ordination, 
unity  in  command  was  essential  and 
for  the  first  time  in  the  history  of  the 
war  the  British  commander  consented 
to  place  himself  under  a  French  gen- 
eralissimo, Nivelle  of  Verdun  fame. 
Sir  Douglas  Haig  reserved  to  himself, 
however,  the  right  of  deciding  when  to 
break  off  his  own  action. 

Nivelle's  appointment  to  succeed 
Joffre,  in  preference  toPetain  and  Foch, 
had  in  it  something  of  surprise.  That 
he  was  an  advocate  of  decisive  action 
appealed  to  a  more  or  less  war-weary 
France,  faint-hearted  over  the  "nib- 
bling" methods  of  Joffre,  and  the 
"limited  objectives"  of  the  Somme 
and  Verdun  fields.  He  was  more  popu- 
lar than  Petain  whose  coldness  and 
sarcasm  made  enemies  among  his 
equals,  readier  with  a  colossal  scheme 
than  Foch,  at  this-  time  believed  ex- 
hausted after  a  series  of  great  actions. 
His  war  record  was  a  distinguished  one: 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


at  the  Battle  of  the  Aisne  in  Septem- 
ber, 1 9 14,  he  had  saved  a  portion  of 
the  VII  Corps  from  destruction;  at 
Verdun  from  command  of  the  III 
Corps  he  had  passed  to  the  command 
of  the  Verdun  army  and  had  recov- 
ered considerable  ground  by  the  end  of 


THE  BRITISH  BEGIN  WITH  GAINS  AROUND 
ARRAS. 

The  first  storm  in  the  West  broke 
just  after  the  beginning  of  spring.  On 
April  9,  British  attack  at  Arras  gave 
signal  for  the  opening  of  the  great 
offensive.  For  days  masses  of  artillery 
and  trench-mortars  pounded 
the  enemy's  lines  and  then  the 
infantry  moved  forward  with 
considerable  success.  The  high- 
water  mark  was  reached,  April 
14,  when  Sir  Douglas  Haig,  but 
for  his  agreement  with  Nivelle, 
would  have  broken  off  the 
fight,  but  the  French  offensive 
had  already  begun — and  begun 
badly — and  the  British  were 
forced  to  continue  fighting  at 
a  disadvantage  to  relieve  the 
pressure  upon  the  French  army. 
The  French  line  from  Soissons 
to  west  of  Rheims  faced  enemy 
positions  of  extraordinary  diffi- 
culty as  attested  by  the  fact 
that  since  the  first  struggle  on 
the  Aisne  heights  in  September, 
1 914,  little  had  changed  in  the 
sector.  In  the  Hindenburg 
retreat  only  a  short  alteration 
of  the  line  north-east  of 
Soissons  had  been  made.  The 
first  section  of  the  front  from 
Vauxaillon  to  Troyon,  perhaps 
the  most  difficult  and  therefore 
most  important,  was  the  west- 
NIVELLE,  SUCCESSOR  TO  JOFFRE  em  end  of  the  Craonne  plateau 

In  the  first  battle  of  the  Aisne,  Nivelle  performed  brilliant  service,    descending  On  the  SOUth  tO  the 
He  became  division  commander  in  February,  1915,  and  fourteen     A"  11  j  4.U  t-U 

months  later  commanded  the  3rd  corps  at  Verdun.  Later  in  the  year    rVlSne  VailCy  ana   On  tne   nortn 


he  succeeded  Petain  as  commander  of  the  Verdun  army. 

the  year.  It  was  his  belief  that  artillery 
would  decide  the  fate  of  the  war;  and 
he  urged  a  decisive  blow,  not  "to 
weaken  but  to  crush,"  not  to  "break 
up"  but  "to  break  through."  What 
Petain  had  performed  on  a  narrow  two- 
three  mile  front  at  Verdun,  Nivelle 
proposed  to  do  with  multiplied  forces 
on  a  wide  front  of  fifty  miles  from 
Soissons  to  Rheims,  with  the  object  of 
piercing  into  the  plgiin  and  capturing 
Laon,  the  pivot  of  the  Siegfried  Line 
and  the  source  of  isupplies  for  every 
man  and  gun  around  the  massif  of 
St.  Gobain  and  the  Chemin  des 
Dames. 
790 


to  the  little  Ailette  river.  A 
reference  to  the  map  will  show  that  the 
German  line  ran  just  west  of  Laffaux, 
crossed  to  the  south  bank  of  the  river 
at  Missy-sur-Aisne  and  continued  to  a 
mile  or  two  east  of  Chavonne  whence 
it  struck  back  across  the  river,  north- 
east through  Soupir  to  Troyon  where  it 
touched  the  Chemin  des  Dames. 
Southwards  the  plateau  here  breaks 
into  five  spurs  intersected  by  ravines 
cut  by  brooks  running  into  the  Aisne. 
The  thickly  wooded  sides  afforded 
cover  for  innumerable  nests  of  machine 
guns,  so  situated  as  to  pour  a  deadly, 
many-angled  fire  upon  the  attacking 
infantrv. 


791 


Efi|hsli  Miles 


onde  i 

r  Ai!^ 


'■"y^^*  THE  CHEMm  DES  DAMES  AND  CONTIGUOUS  COUNTRY 

The  Chemin  des  Dames,  constructed  in  the  eighteenth  century  for  the  daughters  of  Louis  XV,  runs  along  the 
high  ridge  of  ground  between  the  Aisne  and  the  Ailette.  From  its  hard  limestone  rock  was  quarried  much  of  the 
stone  of  which  Rheims  Cathedral  was  built.   After  intense  fighting,  the  French  stormed  this  position  in  1917. 


THE  CHEMIN  DES  DAMES  AND  THE  QUAR- 
RIES OF  CRAONNE. 

Where  the  spurs  join  the  main  ridge 
and  along  its  summit  runs  the  famous 
Chemin  des  Dames,  before  the  struggle 
a  beautiful  shady  highway  made  for 
his  daughters  by  Louis  XV.  Next  to 
Verdun  the  Chemin  des  Dames  has 
witnessed  more  bitter  fighting,  per- 
haps, than  any  other  region  on  the 
French  front.  To  the  north  the  plateau 
drops  steeply  to  the  narrow  marshy 
valley  of  the  Ailette.  Northwards 
again  rises  a  lesser  plateau  beyond 
which  lie  the  plain  and  city  of  Laon — 
the  goal  of  Nivelle's  campaign.  For 
hundreds  of  years  the  Craonne  plateau 
has  been  quarried  for  building-stone 
and  in  its  depths  run  countless  pas- 
sages, caves,  and  grottos  which  afforded 
secure  assembly  points  for  troops,  and 
bomb-proof  shelters  against  the  French 
artillery.  The  Germans  had  literally 
lined  these  caverns  with  machine  guns 
so  constructed  that  they  could  be 
whirled  behind  granite  walls  whenever 
necessary  to  avoid  concentrated  French 
fire.  A  correspondent  who  visited  the 
strongholds  later  in  the  year  after  the 
French  had  captured  them,  writes: 
"  I  went  down  into  one  of  the  quarries. 
The  opening  was  a  tiny  hole  in  solid 
granite.  I  went  down  and  down  in 
pitch  blackness.  The  officer  and  I 
stumbled  along,  fumbling  at  solid  rock 
walls.  A  soldier  came  up  to  meet  us 
with  an  electric  lamp,  and  below  we 
could  see  a  line  of  wooden  steps,  at 
least  a  hundred  of  them.  Then  we  came 
into  a  great  arched  cavern  that  led 
into  another  similar  one,  and  then  to 

792 


another,  and  then  into  long  galleries 
and  through  dark,  narrow  passages, 
where  we  had  to  stoop  low,  only  to 
come  into  other  caverns  with  exits 
leading  in  various  directions  and  so  on 
until,  at  least  half  a  mile  from  the  Ger- 
man rear,  from  where  we  entered,  we 
walked  out  again  into  daylight.  That 
quarry  alone  was  big  enough  to  secrete 
5000  German  soldiers  w^ho  poured  from 
a  dozen  similar  exits  when  the  French 
infantry  advanced.  Every  gallery  of 
these  underground  fortresses  the  Ger- 
mans raked  with  machine  guns  when 
stormed."  Above  ground  their  trenches 
ran  line  upon  line  up  the  gentle  slope 
to  the  summit;  on  the  reverse  side 
nestled  their  heavy  artillery  in  safe 
positions. 

No  LABOR  SPARED  TO  SUPPLY  NATURAL 
DEFICIENCIES. 

The  second  sector  of  the  line  from 
Troyon  to  Craonne  embraced  the  east 
end  of  the  highway  and  plateau,  nar- 
rowest at  Hurtebise  Farm  where  it 
measured  only  lOO  yards  but  rose  to 
650  feet.  Craonne  at  the  eastern  ex- 
tremity towered  over  the  rolling  Cham- 
pagne country  below. 

From  Craonne  to  Betheny  the 
twelve-mile  front  in  its  course  dropped 
to  marshy  woodlands  below  the  plateau 
and  then  entered  the  level  Champagne 
terrain,  unbroken  save  for  the  Fresnes 
and  Brimont  heights.  Southwest- 
wards  it  continued  to  Rheims,  north 
and  east  of  which  rise  the  hills  of 
Nogent  I'Abbesse  and  Moronvilliers 
respectively.  This,  was  the  weakest 
part  of  the  front,  but  the  Germans  had 
expended  great  labor  on  its  defenses, 


QUARRIES  OF  FRANCE  IN  THE  HANDS  OF  THE  GERMANS 

Quarries  in  the  occupied  area  might  serve  the  invader  as  mines  of  wealth  or  as  walls  of  defense.  Where 
such  excavations  occurred  on  the  line  of  battle  they  could  be  easily  transformed  into  strong  fortifications  or 
stations  for  sheltering  troops.     On  the  Craonne  heights  the  extensive  quarries  and  natural  caves  were  well  utilized. 


GERMANS  AT  WORK  ON  AN  UNDERGROUND  GALLERY 
Trenches  and  galleriee  hewn  from  stone  or  solidly  constructed  of  concrete  are  more  enduring  than  waUs  of 
earth:   but  all  kinds  were  made  by  the  Germans  in  their  miles  upon  miles  of  trench  and  tunnel.     Here  they  are 
setting  up  supporting  walls  and  roofing  of  timber  in  an  earthen  gallery.     As  the  cut  of  a  garment  depends  on  the 
cloth,  the  style  of  trench  is  determined  somewhat  by  the  material  at  hand. 

793 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


MODERN  FACE  ARMOR 

French  poilu  equipped  in  steel  mask  to  protect  him 
against  scattering  shrapnel  fire. 

studding  it  with  pill-boxes  containing 
machine  guns,  and  in  the  event  it 
proved  as  great  a  barrier  as  the  Aisne 
heights. 

The  French  forces  were  still  in  three 
groups:  the  Northern  under  Franchet 
d'Esperey,  the  Central  under  P4tain, 
the  Eastern  under  de  Castelnau,  with 
a  fourth  or  reserve  group  under 
Micheler.  Nivelle  planned  to  put  into 
action  the  centre  and  right  of  this  last 
group  between  the  Ailette  and  Rheims 
in  the  following  order:  the  VI  Army 
under  Mangin  from  LafTaux  to  Hurte- 
bise  was  to  attack  the  German  salient 
from   west,    south,    and   east;    the   V 

794 


Army  under  Mazel  from  Hurtebise  to 
Rheims  was  to  pierce  through  the  gap, 
Craonne — Berry-au-Bac,  into  the  plain 
of  Laon,  and  simultaneously  turn  the 
Rheims  hills  from  the  north.  The  day 
after  the  main  attack,  which  Nivelle 
confidently  expected  would  reach  Laon 
itself.  General  Anthoine  was  to  hurl  the 
IV  Army  against  the  Moronvilliers 
heights  to  the  east  of  Rheims,  while 
Duchesne  with  the  V  Army  was  to  be 
in  reserve. 

Against  Micheler 's  group  of  armies 
were  those  of  the  Crown  Prince,  the 
VII  German  Army  under  von  Boehn  to 
the  west  of  Craonne,  and  eastward  the 
I  German  Army  under  Fritz  von  Be- 
low. They  had  been  ordered  to  hold 
their  ground  at  all  hazards,  and  to 
retake  at  once  any  yard  of  ground  lost. 

THE    WEATHER    UNFAVORABLE    FOR    AR- 
TILLERY  ATTACK. 

The  winter  of  191 6-17  was  an  ex- 
ceptionally bad  one  in  Europe:  it 
was  followed  by  a  late,  cold  and  stormy 
spring.  The  English  attack  at  Arras 
had  been  delivered  amid  hurricanes  of 
rain  and  snow  and  sleet  and  the  artil- 
lery work  had  been  correspondingly 
crippled  by  the  limitations  of  aerial 
guidance  under  such  conditions.  On 
the  8th  of  the  month,  Nivelle's  artil- 
lery preparation  began  and  grew  in 
volume  until  the  i6th,  when  at  6  a.m. 
amid  stinging  hail  the  infantry  went 
over  the  top.  Alas  for  their  sanguine 
hopes  of  finding  the  enemy's  lines 
broken  and  pulverized!  Where  their 
really  furious  bombardment  had  been 
effective  the  Germans  had  taken  refuge 
in  the  caves  and  passages  beneath,  and 
swept  down  the  advancing  Frenchmen 
with  deadly  machine-gun  fire. 

Again  and  again  the  waves  hurled 
themselves  against  the  spurs:  the  day 
ended  as  it  had  begun,  in  driving  sleet; 
though  something  in  the  way  of  local 
gains  had  been  made — the  crowning 
point  of  Hurtebise,  a  sentinel  hillock 
of  the  gap  between  Craonne  and  Bri- 
mont,  a  position  threatening  Brimont 
and  Fresnes,  many  prisoners,  and  many 
guns,  yet  no  gap  had  been  made. 
Nivelle  had  said,  "Laon,"  and  officers 
and  rank  and  file  realized  that  the 
ambitious  plans  had  miscarried,  that 


CRAONNt,  v^P.    iHE  CHEMIN  DES  DA. 


At  the  western  extremity  of  the  plateau  stands  the  town  of  Craonne,  rising  above  the  level  Champagne  country  as 
the  bow  of  a  ship  from  the  sea.  In  the  Napoleonic  wars  it  was  the  site  of  a  great  battle,  and  its  crooked  streets 
witnessed  severe  fighting  during  the  great  war  as  the  battle  Une  surged  back  and  forth. 


LAON,  THE  CAPITAL  OF  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  AISNE 
Before  th«  war  Laon  possessed  numerous  ancient  buildings  and  three  gates  belonging  to  thirteenth-century 
fortifications  TheRom^s  fortified  it,  and  it  was  important  under  the  Franks,  being  the  residence  o*  the  Carolingian 
Ssiflth«  tenth  century.   In  modern  times  Napoleon  was  defeated  here  by  the  Germans  under  Blucher  >^^181*^ 

795 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


reverse  was  theirs  instead  of  victory. 
This  bloody  repulse  proved  the  bitter- 
est, indeed  the  most  overwhelming 
disappointment  to  the  French  leaders 
and  their  men. 

THE  FRENCH  SOLDIERS  THROW  THEM- 
SELVES AGAINST  THE  GERMAN  DE- 
FENSES. 

On    the    second    day    the    weather 
was  equally  bad,  yet  the  battle  line 


Ailette  and  Suippe  it  had  captured 
23,000  prisoners,  175  guns,  119  trench 
mortars  and  412  machine  guns.  Ter- 
ritorially it  now  held  the  banks  of  the 
Aisne  from  Soissons  to  Berry-au-Bac, 
all  the  spurs  of  the  Aisne  heights  and 
the  centre  of  the  tableland.  But  the 
dominating  height  of  Craonne  still 
resisted,  the  hills  of  Brimont  and 
Fresne  had   not  been  turned,   and   in 


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WHERE  GENERAL  ANTHOINE  WAGED  WAR 

The  western  end  of  the  area  in  which  Nivelle  waged  the  second  battle  of  the  Aisne,  and  the  scene  of  the  fight  of 
General  Anthoine's  army.  It  was  impossible  to  take  Rheims  without  turning  the  enemy's  strong  positions  on  the 
Nogent  I'Abesse  and  Moronvilliers  hills  to  the  west  of  the  city. 


lengthened  as  Anthoine's  army  passed 
into  attack  against  the  Moronvilliers 
hills  with  the  object  of  broadening  the 
entrance  into  the  plain  for  Micheler's 
centre.  For  the  next  five  days  severe 
fighting  raged  on  the  whole  front  but 
everywhere  along  the  line  the  "elastic 
defense,"  which  had  been  a  departure 
for  the  Germans,  justified  itself,  as  the 
machine  guns  in  their  hiding  places 
survived  the  artillery  preparation  and 
kept  the  situation  well  in  hand.  The 
French  had  gained  ground  under  sur- 
prising difftculties  but  they  had  not 
secured  the  key  positions. 

Twelve  days  after  the  battle  started 
the  French  Headquarters  published  a 
summary  of  its  gains:    between   the 

796 


the    Moronvilliers    heights    the^  g^ins 
were  inconsiderable. 

BITTER    DISAPPOINTMENT   AT   THE   FAIL- 
URE OF  NIVELLES  PLANS. 

There  was  another  side  of  the  picture : 
long  and  ever-lengthening  casualty 
lists,  a  certain  unmistakable  demorali- 
zation among  the  rank  and  file,  and  a 
series  of  definite  protests  from  a  num- 
ber of  officers. 

French  expectations  had  been  tuned 
to  a  high  pitch  by  the  audacity  and 
confidence  of  Nivelle's  plan  and  the  re- 
action was  sharp.  Instead  of  strong 
support  for  the  "break  through "  policy 
came  reversal  to  the  strategy  of  the 
Somme,  the  advance  on  a  limited  front, 
and  a  cry  for  the  man  who  had  success- 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


salient  between  Laffaux  and  Vauxail- 
lon — but  with  no  success.  The  fighting 
along  the  Chemin  des  Dames  ridge  was 
pierhaps  the  most  bitter  of  the  war. 

While  the  French  stood  upon  the 
defensive,  Petain  was  restoring  the 
army:   strengthening  its  morale,  read- 


fully  used  it  to  regain  French  territory 
around  Verdun.    In  the  crisis  the  old 
office  of  Chief  of  General  Staff  was 
revived  in  the  Ministry  of  War — the 
holder  of  which  had  to  pass  upon  the 
plans  of  all  the  commanders  and  esti- 
mate the  various  resources  in  materiel 
— and    Petain    was   appointed 
to  fill  it.    Meanwhile  the  army 
was  struggling  on  in  vain  en- 
deavor to  make  Nivelle's  plan 
succeed,    but   it   was   dashing 
itself    to    pieces    against    the 
German   stand,  and   on   May 
15,   Petain    succeeded    to   the 
office  of  Nivelle  with  the  task 
once   again    of    restoring    the 
French  army.     Foch  replaced 
Petain  at  Staff  Headquarters 
and  FayoUe  assumed  direction 
of  the  Central  Group  of  armies. 

THE    STRUGGLE    FOR    LOCAL 
STRONGHOLDS    CONTINUES 
FOR  WEEKS. 

A  new  battle  had  begun, 
April  30,  in  the  Moronvilliers 
sector.  Here  the  French  made 
scattered  gains  and  finally  at 
the  end  of  three  weeks  captured 
the  whole  of  the  summit  ridge. 
May  4  and  5  the  left  and  centre 
came  into  action  and  fire  swept 
the  entire  front  again.  In  this 
fighting  the  French  captured 
Craonne  promontory  itself  so 
that  nothing  now  blocked  their 
vision  towards  Laon.  The  Ger-  jfo^RE  dame  cathedral,  laon 

mans  counter  attacked  fiercely  Before  the  tide  of  battle  surged  over  it,  this  cathedral  was  one  of 

hilt  rfo-icfprPTl  nn  crainc     Oiirincr  the   finest   twelfth-century  Gothic   edifices  in  France.   Finished  in 

UUL  ic^isLcicu  iiu  gdiiis.   iyui  lug  j22S,  it  is  surrounded  by  numerous  toWers,  those  two  flanking  the 

June  the  rrench   made  a  slight  fasade  being  adorned  with  huge  oxen.                                        Ruschin 


advance  and  improved  their  line  with 
the  net  result  that  they  managed  to 
secure  the  enemy's  points  of  observa- 
tion over  the  valley  of  the  Aisne  east 
and  west,  without  themselves  winning  a 
line  from  which  they  could  command 
the  valley  of  the  Ailette  to  the  north 
over  the  historic  plateau  crowned  by 
the  Cathedral  of  Laon.  German  shock 
troops  {stosstruppen)  launched  nearly 
forty  local  attacks  over  the  period  of 
the  following  three  months  to  recover 
such  vantage  points  as  the  California 
and  Casemates  plateaux  (or  Winter- 
berg  as  the  Germans  called  them), 
Hurtebise  Farm,  and  the  apex  of  the 


justing  and  in  some  cases  replacing 
his  staff,  strengthening  the  lines,  the 
aerial  service  and  the  artillery,  and 
putting  into  the  task  all  the  meticulous 
care  and  attention  to  detail  that  had 
prefaced  the  attacks  in  the  preceding 
autumn  on  Forts  Vaux  and  Douau- 
mont.  When  he  took  over  command 
he  told  Sir  Douglas  Haig  that  it  would 
be  fully  two  months  before  anything 
more  could  be  expected  of  the  French 
army,  and,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  it  was 
October  before  Petain  again  took  the 
offensive  in  this  area.  It  must  be  con- 
ceded that  the  second  battle  of  the 
Aisne  was  a  reverse :  it  had  failed  of  its 

797 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


purpose  to  break  the  Laon  pivot  of  the 
Siegfried  Line,  it  had  wasted  both 
French  and  British  troops  (for  the 
latter  had  had  to  hold  on  at  Arras  to 
relieve  the  strain  on  the  French  army 
long  after  the  legitimate  point  was 
passed). 

NIVELLE'S       PLAN        IMPOSSIBLE       WITH 
FORCES  AT  HIS  DISPOSAL. 

The  failure  was  not  entirely  due  to 
bad    generalship:     the    unusually   bad 


to    throw    in    reserves    where    most 
needed. 

Again,  Nivelle's  attempt  to  destroy, 
almost  consecutively,  the  enemy's  dif- 
ferent lines  of  defense  failed.  Instead 
of  separating  these  successive  offen- 
sives by  days  or  weeks,  he  allowed  only 
a  few  hours  to  intervene.  The  second 
position  was  to  be  carried  six  hours 
after  the  first,  and  twenty-four  hours 
after    preliminary  attack    the  war  of 


A  FIELD  FORTIFICATION  SUPPLY  POST 

These  great  cylindrical  baskets  were  used  to  make  redoubts,  barriers  and  breastworks.  Placed  upright  and  filled 
with  earth  or  sand,  they  were  arranged  several  rows  deep  both  as  to  depth  and  height  and  sometimes  half  sunk 
into  the  ground,  and  with  the  limbs  of  trees  as  reinforcements  they  were  commonly  used  for  field  fortifications. 


weather  of  the  opening  days  slowed  up 
advance ;  an  accident  in  the  V  Army 
Intelligence  Corps  gave  the  enemy 
wind  of  expected  attack;  the  new  tanks 
had  broken  down.  But,  in  general,  the 
reverse  was  due  to  bad  judgment. 
Attack  had  been  made  on  a  broad 
front  with  the  idea  of  not  allowing  the 
Germans  to  concentrate  at  vital  points, 
but  these  points  were  so  strong  that 
special  eflfort  was  needed  to  reduce 
them,  and  this  was  not  possible  in  such 
an  extended  movement.  Moreover,  the 
mobile  defense  of  the  Germans  and  the 
shortening  of  their  line  allowed  them 
798 


movement  was  to  begin.  The  idea  was 
excellent,  the  means  were  inadequate. 
The  attempt  to  smash  at  the  same  time 
both  the  first  and  second  German  posi- 
tions defeated  its  own  end  inasmuch 
as  neither  line  was  sufficiently  dam- 
aged. Everywhere  the  destruction 
was  insufficient  and  imperfect,  without 
counting  the  blockhouses  that  were 
left  practically  intact  and  which  gave 
so  much  trouble.  Instead  of  over- 
running the  first  position  without 
striking  a  blow,  it  had  to  be  conquered 
foot  by  foot.  The  tanks  on  which  the 
French    had    counted    so   much    could 


SHELL  FACTORY  AT  CREUSOT 
In  this  factory  shells  of  large  calibre  are  made.  After  they  have  been  forged  they  are  shaped.  This  factory  re- 
ceived most  of  its  steel  from  the  Bethlehem  Steel  Works  and  from  England.    From  being  ill-supplied  with  such 
projectiles  in  the  first  year  of  the  war  France  came  to  supply  Russia  and  her  allies  in  the  Balkans. 


FRENCH  ARTILLERY  TRAIN 
Railway  artillery  has  become  as  varied  in  its  design  as  field  artillery.    Each  type  of  railway  mount  has  certain 
tactical  uses  and  it  is  not  considered  desirable  to  use  the  different  types  interchangeably.   Thus,  there  are  those 
that  gave  the  gun  all-round  fire,  those  which  provided  limited  traverse  for  the  gun,  and  those  which  allowed  no 
movement  for  the  gun  or  the  carriage  but  were  used  on  curved  tracks  to  give  the  weapons  traverse  aim. 

799 


INSTRUCTION  AT  A  FRENCH  SCHOOL  OF  GUNNERY 
This  picture  and  the  three  following  show  stages  in  the  firing  of  a  gun—in  this  case,  a  "75."      Here  the  can- 
noniers  are  ready  for  action.      Facing  the  gun  on  either  side  stand  the  loader,  the  layer  and   the   firer.     Just 
beyond  is  the  ammunition  wagon,  turned  down  and  opened,  behind  which,  crouching  on  his  heels^is  the  fuse- 
puncher  between  two  other  men  whose  duty  it  is  to  serve  out  the  cartridges.  "  -     "— -'        ""- 


The  instructor  stands  at  the  left. 


THE  LOADER  RECEIVES  THE  CARTRIDGE 
In  this  picture  the   same   gun-crew  is  seen  from  the  rear.     The  loader,  standing  between  the  wagon  and  the 
gun,  has  just  taken  in  his  hands  a  cartridge  which  has   been   passed  to  him  by  the  man  crouching  at  his  lelt, 
who,  in  turn,  had  received  it  from  the  fuse-puncher.     The  next  act  is  to  load  the  gun. 

800 


THE  ACT  OF  LOADING  THE  GUN 

Here  we  have  the  same  point  of  view  as  in  the  first  picture,  but  with  the  men  in  slightly  changed  positions. 
The  loader  is  inserting  the  cartridge  in  the  breech  of  the  gun.  while  the  layer  and  the  firer  have  taken  their 
places  asteide  their  seats— an  indication  that  the  gun  is  properly  laid,  in  other  words,  that  the  spade  is  suflBciently 
imbedded  in  the  earth.     The  next  step  is  to  fire  the  shot. 


CLEANING  OUT  BREECH  AND  BORE 


Tf  thP  <!hell  which  contains  the  powder  and  which  remains  in  the  breech  after  the  shot  has  been  fired,  fails  to 
be  driven  ouTby  the  ejector,  the^  firer  must  thrust  a  rammer  down  through  the  mouth  of  the  gun  to  push  the 
shell  out  of  the  breech.     For  cleaning  the  bore  of  the  gun.  a  swab  is  used. 


807 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


not  enter  the  action.  Finally,  due  to 
unwise  publication  of  plans,  there  was 
no  strategic  nor  tactical  surprise.  No 
preparation  escaped  the  enemy,  who 
judged  how  to  receive  the  attack  and 
make  the  counter-thrust. 

A  GERMAN  VIEW  OF  THE  FRENCH  OFFEN- 
SIVE. 

Indisputably,  the  principle  of  the 
"break-through"  is  excellent.  The 
Germans  did  almost  the  same  thing  in 
their  1918  March  offensive.  But  in 
modern  warfare,  tactics  are  intimately 
linked  to  armament  and  effectives,  and 
on  the  Aisne  the  vision  was  too  great. 
The  end  and  the  method  were  not 
compatible  with  the  means  and  mate- 
rial at  hand.  The  finest  military  con- 
ceptions are  only  valuable  if  finely 
executed,  and  in  April  it  must  be 
admitted  that  the  command  was  worse 
than  mediocre. 

Field-Marshal  von  Hindenburg's  ver- 
dict on  the  Arras-Aisne-Rheims  battle 
must  complete  this  account  of  its  first 
phase.  "In  my  judgment  the  general 
result  of  the  great  enemy  offensive  in 
the  West  had  not  been  unsatisfactory 
hitherto  .  .  .  Though  gaining  a  good 
deal  of  ground,  our  enemies  had  never 
succeeded  in  reaching  more  distant 
goals,  much  less  in  passing  from  the 
break-through  battle  to  open  war- 
fare." 

On  the  British  front  in  conformance 
with  the  general  scheme  the  Flanders 
battle  flared  up  at  the  end  of  July,  and 
did  not  die  down  until  December.  As 
on  the  Somme  neither  of  the  two 
adversaries  could  raise  the  shout  of 
victory,  though  in  November  the 
British  gained  a  striking  success  on 
another  part  of  the  line  at  Cambrai. 

PETAIN     REGAINS      THE      GROUND      LOST 
AROUND  VERDUN  THE  YEAR  BEFORE. 

In  the  latter  half  of  August  after  a 
space  of  nine  months  the  magic  word 
of  Verdun  again  thrilled  the  heart  of 
France.  After  a  three  days'  bombard- 
ment Petain  sent  the  French  II  Army 
forward  astride  of  the  Meuse,  on  an 
eleven-mile  front.  Success  was  immedi- 
ate. Within  a  week  almost  all  the 
objectives  had  been  taken,  and  held 
in  spite  of  German  counter-attack. 
On  September  8  another  slight  gain 

802 


was  made.  The  French  had  advanced 
to  a  penetration  of  14  miles.  All  the 
fortifications  between  Avocourt  Wood, 
Le  Mort  Homme,  Corbeaux  and  Cu- 
mi^res  Woods,  Cote  de  Talou,  Champ- 
neuville,  Mormont  Farm,  Hill  240  and 
Fosses  Wood  had  been  taken.  The 
French  had  regained  the  positions  they 
had  held  in  February,  1916. 

In  October  Petain 's  preparations 
were  complete  for  a  renewed  stroke  on 
the  Aisne.  As  an  example  of  his 
meticulous  care  in  all  departments,  in 
his  arrangements  for  transportation, 
every  army  corps  had  a  supply  station 
directly  behind  it  where  there  was  a 
platform  350  yards  long,  for  discharg- 
ing heavy  shells,  another  platform  the 
same  length  for  light  shells,  another 
for  engineers'  supplies,  another  for 
macadam  for  roads  and  another  for 
food. 

THE  WHOLE  OF  THE  CHEMIN  DES  DAMES 
IS  TAKEN. 

Although  the  Germans  had  lost  their 
observation  posts  commanding  the 
Aisne,  yet  they  believed  that  their 
positions  south  of  the  Ailette  would 
stand  any  amount  of  bombing.  On  the 
17th,  Petain  began  searching  out  these 
positions,  hidden  in  quarry  caverns, 
sometimes  with  6-inch  and  sometimes 
with  8-inch  guns.  Having  ascertained 
them  by  the  German  return  fire,  on  the 
20th  he  added  some  batteries  of  15-16- 
inch  guns  and  for  three  days  thundered 
away  until  the  rocks  crumbled  and  the 
caverns  lay  exposed.  Aeroplanes  ob- 
served the  breaches  and  then  into  them 
poured  a  steady  stream  of  shrapnel 
from  the  famous  French  "  75's, "  hither- 
to silent  in  hiding  places  near  the  front 
line.  "Zero"  was  set  for  5:15  on  the 
23rd  and  in  mist  and  rain  the  French 
infantry  pushed  forward  and  carried 
Malmaison  Fort  in  the  centre  and 
AUemant  and  Vaudesson  on  the  le't. 
Supported  by  a  highly  concentrated 
barrage  of  16-inch  shells  and  by  squad- 
rons of  newly  devised  tanks,  the  in- 
fantry captured  10,000  prisoners  and 
70  heavy  guns.  The  next  day  the 
Oise- Aisne  Canal  was  reached,  and  the 
French  consolidated. th6ir  gains.  Avia- 
tors found  signs  of  preparation  for  the 
enemy's  retreat  which  was  inevitable, 


KEEP  OUR  LOVED  ONES  NOW  FAR  ABSENT' 


A  field  post-office  and  letter  box,  the  sight  of  which  opens  a  whole  realm  of  human  history  to  the  imagination. 
In  a  box  perhaps  somewhat  similarly  situated  our  "own  soldier"  has  put  his  precious  letters  that  we  have  devoured 
with  such  eagerness,  and  dwelt  upon  with  such  lingering  care. 


FRENCH  MACHINE  GUNS  IN  AN  ORCHARD 

Along  the  roadside  a  line  of  apple  trees  offers  partial  concealment  for  these  guimers  who  have  dug  for  them- 
selves shallow  pits  as  temporary  gun  positions.  After  months  of  trench  fighting,  with  earthen  or  concrete  walls 
shutting  one  in,  and  with  shattered,  desolated  country  lying  on  every  side,  open  warfare  on  fresh  ground  makes 
a  strange  contrast. 

803 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


GOING  FORWARD  TO  THE  ATTACK 


A  squadron  of  "Chars  d'Assaut"  or  French  bahy  tanks  on  the  Aisne  front.  Because  of  the  late  spring  and  bad 
weather  the  ground  proved  impassable,  and  the  tanks  in  a  gallant  attack  near  Pontavert  designed  to  open  the  way  for 
cavalry  exploitation,  halted  at  the  German  second  line,  and  thereby  added  to  the  confusion  and  congestion  of  the 
arrested  advance.  French  Pictorial  Service 


as  their  positions  south  of  the  Ailette 
and  on  the  western  ridge  of  the  Chemin 
des  Dames  could  now  be  enfiladed 
from  both  east  and  west. 

On  November  14  the  Germans  with- 
drew behind  the  Ailette  abandoning 
the  western  elevations  on  the  Chemin 
des  Dames,  with  the  French  close  at 
their  heels,  and  retired  until  they 
reached    prepared    positions    on    the 


northern  side  of  the  valley  of  the 
Ailette.  Thus  by  the  offensive  forty 
square  miles  were  regained  in  the  de- 
partment of  the  Aisne.  Petain's  opera- 
tion had  been  a  triumph  for  the  old 
limited  objective:  less  than  half  the 
front  had  been  attacked  but  success 
so  striking  had  followed  that  the  enemy 
had  had  to  evacuate  all  along  the 
line.  Muriel  Bray. 


804 


yeoiiumr\-  on   uk-   js-cige  of  a  Mine   i^raier 


Chapter  XL IX 

On  the  British  Front  in  1917 

DESPERATE  FIGHTING  IN  MUD  AND  RAIN  GAINS  TERRI- 
TORY AT  A  TERRIBLE  PRICE 


"YY/^HEN,  in  November,  1916,  active 
operations  in  the  area  of  the 
Somme  and  the  Ancre  were  no  longer 
possible,  Sir  Douglas  Haig  directed 
the  efforts  of  the  armies  there  toward 
improvements  and  adjustments  to  pave 
the  way  for  new  advances  in  the  spring. 
Trenches,  roads  and  all  means  of  com- 
munication required  immediate  and 
energetic  attention.  To  help  solve  the 
serious  transport  problem,  England 
and  Canada  contributed  of  their  own 
rails,  locomotives,  and  rolling  stock; 
and  engineers  worked  assiduously. 
And,  in  order  to  be  ready  to  assault 
the  strong  enemy  lines  along  the 
Ancre  and  north  of  that  stream,  the 
artillery  was  arranged  in  new  posi- 
tions. 

''pHE  BRITISH  EXTEND  THEIR  LINES  AND 
i       MAKE  PROGRESS. 

In  January,  a  decision  was  reached 
among  the  Allies  to  extend  the  British 
front  until  it  should  reach  as  far  south 
as  Roye.  Before  the  end  of  February 
this  had  been  accomplished.  Through 
January  and  February,  many  local 
attacks  near  the  Ancre  resulted  in  the 
gradual  broadening  of  the  reclaimed 
section,  as  the  Germans  evacuated 
Grandcourt,  Serre,  Gommecourt  and 
other  positions,  one  by  one.  This  with- 
drawal of  the  enemy — a  part  of  Hin- 
•  denburg's  plan  of  retreat  to  the  strong- 
ly prepared  Siegfried  (or  Hindenburg) 


Line — was  aided  by  the  heavy  frosts 
of  an  unusually  cold  January,  which 
had  hardened  the  ground  and  made  it 
fit  for  the  transfer  of  heavy  guns.  But 
when,  in  March,  the  British  started  to 
follow  the  main  body  of  the  retreat, 
springtime  thaws  had  left  the  earth 
even  more  sodden  and  spongy  than  it 
had  been  in  the  autumn  previous. 

THE  HINDENBURG  LINE  AND  ITS  SEVERAL 
BRANCHES. 

The  reasons  for  the  strategic  Ger- 
man retreat  have  been  explained  in  the 
previous  chapter.  The  Siegfried  Line 
(renamed  by  the  Allies  the  Hinden- 
burg Line),  branching  from  the  old 
positions  just  south  of  Arras,  running 
through  Queant,  then  southward,  pass- 
ing west  of  Cambrai  and  St.  Quentin, 
crossing  the  Oise  to  the  heights  of  the 
Aisne  northeast  of  Soissons,  lying  along 
the  Craonne  plateau  there,  and  extend- 
ing on  toward  Rheims,  "had  been 
built  to  meet  the  experience  of  the 
Somme  battle."  Its  wire  entangle- 
ments were  so  deep  and  close  that  a 
man  could  not  see  through  them,  and 
its  low  machine-gun  shelters  of  con- 
crete were  so  constructed  as  to  be 
invisible  from  the  air  and  to  resist 
even  tank  attacks.  The  plan  of  mak- 
ing it  a  development  in  depth  where  an 
enemy  might  become  ensnared  only 
to  find  himself  facing  stronger  fortifica- 
tions while  under  enfilading  machine- 

805 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


gun  fire,  has  already  been  described. 
In  the  northern  area,  further  support 
was  gained  by  the  construction  of  two 
switch  lines.  First,  the  Oppy  Line 
started  north  of  Lens  and  made  a 
broad  bulge  eastward  through  Oppy, 


NORTHEAST  AND  SOUTHEAST  OF  ARRAS 

The  Douai  and  Cambrai  roads,  on  either  side  the 
River  Scarpe,  crossed  the  Oppy  Line  and  the  Drocourt- 
Queant  Line,  guarding  the  northern  end  of  the  Hin- 
denburg  Line. 

returning  to  the  main  line  southwest  of 
Monchy.  Beyond  that,  the  Wotan 
Line  (known  better  as  the  Drocourt- 
Queant  Line)  was  under  construction 
between  Drocourt  (west  of  Douai)  and 
Queant  (west  of  Cambrai)  where  it 
joined  the  Siegfried  Line. 

In  drawing  back  to  their  new  posi- 

806 


tions  from  the  salients  south  of  Arras 
and  Peronne,  the  Teuton  armies  over- 
stepped all  bounds  set  by  civilization 
for  a  people  at  war,  from  the  old  Mosaic 
injunction  against  destroying  fruit 
trees  to  the  latest  unwritten  laws  of  the 
modern  Christian  world.  With  delib- 
erate intent  they  left  in  their  path 
utter  waste, — trees  felled  one  by  one, 
dwellings  looted  and  wrecked,  sanc- 
tuaries defiled  or  razed,  graves  torn 
open,  wells  filled  in  or  poisoned. 
What  they  could  use,  the  spoilers  car- 
ried away;  all  else  they  rendered  use- 
less. The  growth,  the  thought,  the 
labor  of  centuries  they  made  as  nothing. 

BAPAUME   AND  PERONNE   ARE  OCCUPIED 
WITH  LITTLE  RESISTANCE. 

When,  in  the  middle  of  March,  the 
British  commander  perceived  that  the 
enemy  front  was  thinning  in  spots,  a 
general  advance  of  the  forces  between 
Arras  and  Roye  was  ordered.  The 
forward  push  began  on  March  17  and 
proceeded  at  first  without  serious 
opposition,  except  for  a  position  here 
and  there  that  was  contested  more 
hotly  than  the  rest  by  German  rear- 
guard detachments.  The  greatest  diffi- 
culty lay  in  the  condition  of  the  de- 
vastated country,  where  roads  and 
bridges  had  been  demolished  and 
snares  and  mines  had  been  planted. 
Nevertheless,  on  the  first  day,  the 
British  entered  Chaulnes  and 
Bapaume,  while  the  French  took 
possession  of  Roye.  On  the  eighteenth, 
Peronne  was  occupied  and  in  Nesle, 
farther  south,  French  and  British 
cavalry  came  together.  With  several 
miles  of  the  west  bank  of  the  Somme 
under  their  control,  the  Allies  con- 
trived to  make  crossings  at  various 
points.  At  Brie,  for  instance,  the  en- 
gineers had  a  single-file  foot-crossing 
over  the  ruined  bridge  ready  in  a  few 
hours,  while  in  less  than  four  days  the 
bridge  was  capable  of  supporting  any 
traffic. 

Day  by  day  the  conditions  improved 
for  the  Germans,  whose  line  was 
shortening  and  whose  communication 
with  their  bases  was  growing  more 
direct.  Of  the  Allied  troops  exactly 
the  reverse  was  true.  And  as  the  dis- 
tance from  their  supplies  broadened, 


"RAGE  NOT,  ONLY  WONDER!" 
Ruthless,  deliberate  ruin  lay  in  the  wake  of  the  German  Army  after  its  retreat  in  March,  1917.   Looting,  despoil- 
ing, wrecking,  defiling,  the  hordes  withdrew  to  their  new  lines.     Upon  some  examples  of  their  handiwork  of 
destruction,  as  here  in  the  Grande  Place  of  Peronne,  they  set  the  derisive  inscription,  "Nicht  argern,  nur  wundern!" 


ON  THE  TRAIL  OF  THE  HUN  IN  BAPAUME 
The  Australians,  riding  through  the  Rue  de  Peronne  in  Bapaume,  beheld  there  such  demolition  as  might  be 
found  in  a  town  where  earthquake  shocks  or  a  tornado  had  torn  up  and  crumpled  and  crushed  the  buildings.    But 
this  was  the  intentional  performance  of  twentieth  century  human  beings.    No  wonder  that  a  German  soldier 
should  have  written,  "We  live  now  not  like  men,  but  like  beasts,"  and  "We  can  scarcely  be  looked  upon  as  soldiers. 

807 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


enemy  resistance  stiffened.  Yet,  on 
April  2,  north  of  the  Bapaume-Cambrai 
road,  where  they  were  very  near  the 
Hindenburg  Line,  they  captured  some 
of  its  advance  positions  on  a  ten-mile 
front.  By  that  time,  von  Hindenburg's 
armies  were  established  in  their  newly 
fortified  lines. 

THE      GERMAN      RETREAT      INTERFERES 
WITH  ALLIED  PLANS. 

The  retreat  had  not  been  actually 
a  surprise  to  the  Allies,  who  had  noted 


fighting  to  which  General  Haig  had 
hoped  to  turn  promptly  would  have 
to  be  delayed  until  the  outcome  of  the 
French  contest  on  the  Craonne  pla- 
teau might  be  known. 

When  the  moving  lines  came  to  a 
halt  the  first  week  in  April,  the  British 
armies  from  south  to  north  stood  as 
follows:  Next  to  the  French  left,  Sir 
Henry  Rawlinson's  Fourth  Army  had 
advanced  to  within  about  two  miles 
of  St.    Ouentin;   Sir   Hubert   Gough's 


TREES  FELLED  IN  HASTE  AT  PERONNE 

"Our  pioneers  have  sawed  and  cut  the  trees  which  for  days  have  fallen  until  the  whole  surface  of  the  earth  is 
swept  clear,"  boasted  the  Berliner  Tageblalt.  Little  orchard  trees,  too  small  to  yield  shelter,  were  destroyed  as 
mercilessly  as  great  roadside  trees  which  (like  those  being  cleared  away  by  a  British  working  party  in  the  picture) 
became  obstructions  in  the  path  of  British  advance.    Some,  because  of  haste,  had  been  only  partly  cut  through. 


preparations  indicating  such  a  move- 
ment; indeed.  Sir  Douglas  Haig  felt 
that  his  efforts  in  the  Ancre  section  had 
accelerated  the  German  withdrawal. 
However,  the  plans  he  had  made  for 
the  spring  had  to  be  modified  in  view 
of  the  change  of  front  as  well  as  for  the 
sake  of  co-operation  with  the  new 
French  commander,  General  Nivelle, 
whose  programme  of  operations  has 
been  set  forth  in  the  preceding  chapter. 
The  German  salient  between  the  Scarpe 
and  the  Ancre,  which  was  to  have  been 
pinched  between  the  British  Third  and 
Fifth  Armies,  had  now  dropped  out. 
The  intended  attack  upon  Vimy  Ridge 
could  be  undertaken ;  but  the  Flanders 
808 


Fifth  Army,  in  the  Bapaume  region, 
had  reached  the  very  borders  of  the 
Siegfried  Line;  around  Arras  Sir 
Edmund  Allenby's  Third  Army  was 
ready  for  action;  opposite  La  Bassee 
and  Lens  lay  Sir  Henry  Home's  First 
Army;  and  beyond  them,  to  the  sea, 
extended  the  Second  Army  under  Sir 
Herbert  Plumer.  The  whole  body 
numbered  fifty-two  divisions,  as  over 
against-  thirty  in  the  battle  of  the 
Somme  and  seven  at  the  time  of  the 
first  battle  of  Ypres.  It  was  by  this 
time  an  army  trained  and  tried,  dis- 
ciplined by  sternest  conflict  yet  in- 
spirited by  a  measure  of  success, — an 
army  ready  to  go  forward. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


THE   ATTACK  AROUND  ARRAS  INTENDED 
TO  AID  THE  FRENCH. 

The  work  appointed  for  the  British 
was  to  occupy  the  attention  of  as  large 
a  number  of  the  German  troops  as 
possible  in  the  north,  while  the  French 
were  endeavoring  to  shake  the  south- 
ern pivot  of  the  Siegfried  Line. 
The  first  part  of  Sir  Douglas 
Haig's  original  programme  fit- 
ted well  into  this  demand,  inas- 
much as  Vimy  Ridge,  forming 
the  key  to  the  situation  at  the 
northern  pivot,  around  Arras, 
was  to  have  been  one  of  the 
main  objectives  for  his  attack. 
On  the  Ridge  the  enemy  com- 
manded full  observation  over 
Arras,  while  his  own  communi- 
cations were  shielded  from  view. 
Established  there  since  the  fall 
of  1914,  he  had  not  lost  his 
hold  during  the  French  offen- 
sives of  1915,  and  now,  in  April, 
191 7,  he  claimed  the  whole 
Ridge  except  a  small  section  on 
the  northwest.  Once  lost,  this 
barrier  of  Vimy  Ridge,  unsur- 
passed on  all  the  Western  Front 
"alike  in  natural  strength  and 
in  the  extent  of  its  fortifica- 
tions," would  hardly  be  re- 
gained, since  its  steep  approach 
on  the  eastern  side  would  make 
it  an  impregnable  wall  in  the 
way  of  a  German  offensive. 
The  following  year,  in  fact, 
furnished  a  demonstration  that 
this  was  true. 

For  the  initial  attack  of 
April  9  the  troops  responsible 
were  the  Third  Army  and 
the  Canadian  Corps  of  the  First 
Army,  to  the  latter  falling  the  honor 
of  wresting  Vimy  Ridge  from  Ger- 
man mastery,  "the  greatest  success 
for  them  in  the  whole  war."  After 
days  of  steady  artillery  preparation 
and  insistent  battling  in  the  air  to  close 
the  eyes  of  the  foe,  there  came  a  hush 
on  Easter  Sunday,  April  8,  a  day  of 
clear,  sunny,  springlike  weather.  But, 
the  following  day,  through  cold, 
drizzling  rain,  in  the  gray  dimness  of 
early  morning,   under  a  barrage  that 


the  men  sprang  forth  to  the  assault. 
Out  of  the  ancient  quarries  and  cellars 
of  Arras,  which  had  been  transformed 
into  an  underground  camp,  electric- 
lighted  and  supplied  with  water,  poured 
hosts  of  warriors.  The  battle  had 
begun. 


was  "one  canopy  of  shrieking  steel," 


ADVANCES  NEAR  THE  SOMME  AND  THE  ANCRE 

The  solid  black  line  marks  the  positions  of  July  1,  1916  (before  the 
Battle  of  the  Somme) ;  the  finely  checkered  line,  those  of  March  1, 
1917;  the  black  and  white  line  farther  east,  those  of  March  IS,  the 
shaded  area  indicating  the  German  retreat. 

THE  CANADIANS  TAKE  VIMY  RIDGE  WITH 
A  BOUND. 

Forty  minutes  sufficed  for  the  cap- 
ture of  practically  all  the  German  first 
positions.  The  Canadians  were  well 
up  on  the  Ridge;  the  Scottish  and 
English,  to  their  right,  were  in  the 
eastern  suburbs  of  Arras;  and  South 
Africans  were  pushing  forward  with 
their  usual  determination.  With  a 
short  pause  before  attacking  each  new 
defensive  system,  the  contest  went  on 
successfully  all  day;  and  before  the 
end  of  another  day  the  whole  of  Vimy 

809 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


Ridge,  even  the  difficult  Hill  145,  had 
been  cleared  of  its  Teutonic  tenants; 
the  German  second  position  had  been 
won  all  along  the  line;  and  at  many 
points  breaches  had  been  made  in  the 
third  system  of  defense.    It  must  not 


ARRAS  CATHEDRAL  IN  RUINS 

When  in  July,  1915,  the  first  shells  fell  upon  the  cathedral,  it  burned 
for  two  days.  The  Descent  from  the  Cross,  attributed  to  Rubens, 
and  other  pictures  were  saved;  but  the  building  joined  the  company 
of  ruins  witnessing  the  barbaric  work  of  German  invasion.     Ruschiru 

be  overlooked  that  the  second  sys- 
tem included  works  of  extraordinary 
strength,  such  as  had  cost  many  days' 
delay  in  the  early  weeks  on  the  Somme. 
Among  the  intricacies  of  the  Harp, 
south  of  Tilloy-les-Mofiflaines,  the  Rail- 
way Triangle,  east  of  Arras,  and  other 
such  fortifications,  groups  of  tanks  (of 
which  each  corps  had  its  assignment) 
worked  with  excellent  results. 

The  achievement  of  the  third  day, 
April  II,  was  the  taking  of  Monchy-le- 
Preux  on  its  little  plateau  south  of  the 
Scarpe  River.  Here  cavalry  worked 
with  the  infantry  and  tanks  came  up 
in    time   to   help    in    overcoming   the 

8io 


sturdy  defense  of  the  enemy.  Heavy 
losses  paid  for  this  capture;  but 
Monchy,  like  Vimy,  was  of  great  value 
for  its  wide  outlook.  The  Germans  did 
not  yield  it  until  several  counter- 
attacks had  been  repulsed. 

I^HE    OBJECTIVES  OF   THE    BRIT- 
ISH TAKEN  VERY  EARLY. 

As  in  most  of  their  offen- 
sives, the  British  had  been 
fighting,  these  three  days,  un- 
der very  adverse  weather  con- 
ditions. Thick  snowfalls,  inter- 
spersed with  wind  and  rain 
squalls,  made  the  way  im- 
possible for  rapid  advance  of 
artillery.  Nevertheless,  on  a 
twelve-mile  front,  they  had 
driven  half-way  to  the 
Drocourt  -  Queant  Line,  and 
had  secured  two  miles  of  the 
Siegfried  Line  at  its  northern 
end.  Twelve  thousand  prison- 
ers and  one  hundred  fifty  guns 
made  a  record  capture  for  their 
armies  in  an  equal  period  of 
time. 

By  the  fourteenth  of  April, 
in  the  judgment  of  Sir  Douglas 
Haig,  it  would  have  been  wise 
to  close  the  offensive  at  Arras, 
had    it    been  an   independent 
movement.     The    enemy   had 
continued  his  withdrawal,  leav- 
ing   in    the    possession   of   his 
pursuers    several    towns   with 
numbers   of    guns   and    great 
stores    of    all    kinds.     British 
posts   now   held    a    front    ex- 
tending from  the  outskirts  of 
Lens,    through    Vimy,     Bailleul     and 
Monchy    to    Fontaine  -  les  -  Croisilles, 
about  seven  miles  southeast  of  Arras. 
If   it   had    not    been    for    the    French 
assault  about  to  begin,  the  British  com- 
mander would  have  been  satisfied  to 
turn  at  once  to  the  Flanders  problem. 

SUBSEQUENT     ENGAGEMENTS     DESIGNED 
TO  HOLD  THE  GERMANS  IN  LINE. 

The  fighting  during  the  remaining 
weeks  of  the  Arras  battle  fulfilled  its 
purpose  of  engaging  great  numbers  of 
the  enemy;  but  it  drew  heavily  upon 
the  man  power  of  the  British,  as  well. 
Every  step  was  contested  with  sharp- 
ness.    Fierce  counter-attacks  wrested 


A  VISTA  ALONG  THE  SCARPE 
This  quiet,  picturesque,  tree-bordered  bit  of  the  River  Scarpa  at  Rceux,  east  of  Arras,  lay  in  the  path  of  the  Brit- 
ish offensive  in  April,  1917.    Farther  up  its  course,  the  Scarpe  passes  close  beside  the  northern  edge  of  Arras 
itself.   The  trade  of  the  city  is  greatly  facilitated  by  the  canalization  of  the  river,  Ruschin 


AT  DROCOURT,  BETWEEN  LENS  AND  DOUAI 
The  support  line,  branching  from  the  main  Hindenburg  Line  at  Queant  and  running  almost  due  north  to  Dro- 
court,  covered  the  railways  to  Douai  and  Cambrai.   As  it  was  under  construction  when  the  battle  of  Arras  begaiu 
Prince  Rupprecht  threw  division  after  division  into  the  front  to  gain  time  for  its  completion,  after  the  British  had 
broken  the  first  two  German  systems.     The  struggle  raged  around  Gavrelle,  Roeux  and  Guemappe. 

British  Omcial 

8ii 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


back  ground  that  had  been  won  by 
awful  effort.  In  this  way,  Gavrelle, 
Roeux,  Guemappe  and  other  villages 
were  taken  and  retaken  and  taken 
again.  Distinct  attacks  were  opened 
on  April  23,  April  28  and  May  3.  On 
May  5,  General  Haig  extended  his 
active  front  to  a  length  of  sixteen  miles, 
so  as  to  include  an  attack  by  the  Fifth 
Army  upon  the  Hindenburg  Line  near 


tion  over  the  Douai  plain.  Unhappily, 
these  engagements,  in  themselves  re- 
markably skilful  and  successful,  fell 
short  of  the  full  measure  of  their  results, 
because  General  Nivelle's  major  opera- 
tions on  the  Aisne  did  not  accomplish 
their  purpose.  The  experience  had  the 
unfortunate  but  natural  effect  of  preju- 
dicing the  British  against  the  plan  of 
unity  of  command. 


VIMY  RIDGE  AND  THE  DOUAI  PLAIN 


BuUecourt.  The  Australians  there  car- 
ried a  section  of  the  Line,  and  the 
enemy's  positions  were  shaken  along 
the  whole  front  of  attack.  BuUecourt 
itself  was  not  completely  taken  until 
after  the  middle  of  May.  Up  to  the 
fifth  of  May,  which  Sir  Douglas  Haig 
regarded  as  the  close  of  the  immediate 
campaign,  the  British  had  taken  more 
than  19,500  prisoners,  257  guns,  in- 
cluding 98  heavy  guns,  with  464  ma- 
chine guns,  and  227  trench-mortars. 
They  had  gained  about  sixty  square 
miles  of  territory, — somewhat  more, 
in  less  than  one  month,  than  had  re- 
sulted from  the  whole  Somme  offensive. 
Moreover,  the  possession  of  Vimy 
Ridge  meant  relief  from  a  long-suffered 
menace,  as  well  as  new  security  due  to 
the  command  of  a  wide  field  of  observa- 
812 


PLANS     TO     STRENGTHEN     THE     BRITISH 
POSITION  AROUND  YPRES. 

While  around  Arras  the  battle  was 
moving  through  the  final  stages  of 
consolidation  and  strengthening  of 
lines,  during  the  end  of  May,  farther 
north  preparations  were  being  com- 
pleted for  a  long-anticipated  offensive 
near  Ypres.  There  were  far-reaching 
aims  in  this  plan,  which  had  been 
made  toward  the  close  of  the  previous 
year.  If  the  venture  proved  success- 
ful, the  German  west  flank,  if  not 
crushed,  would  be  turned  from  its 
firm  hold  in  Flanders,  the  dangerous 
bases  of  submarine  mischief  on  the 
Belgian  coast  would  be  cut  off  from 
German  control,  and  Lille  and  the 
other  industrial  towns  of  northern 
France  be  set  free.    The  chances  for 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


success,  however,  were  so  greatly 
reduced  by  the  change  in  conditions 
that  had  come  about  between  the 
planning  of  the  campaign  and  its  prose- 
cution that  the  wisdom  of  trying  to 
carry  it  through  must  be  questioned. 
The  breaking  down  of  the  Russian 
ally  was  making  possible  the  release 
from   the    Eastern   Front   of   German 


themselves  of  any  considerable  height, 
they  overlooked  the  flat  country  around 
in  such  a  way  as  to  furnish  the  enemy, 
seated  solidly  upon  them,  with  most 
advantageous  means  of  observation. 
One  writer  likens  the  British  in  Ypres 
to  foot-ball  players  in  a  stadium,  with 
the  Germans  for  the  spectators  on  the 
benches,  the  sad  difference  being  that 


AMID  THE  RUIN  THAT  WAS  YPRES 
After  centuries  of  varying  experience  this  venerable  city  in  Flanders  has  become  the  very  symbol  of  tragedy.   Her 
Quaint  dwemngs,  her  famous  Cloth  Hall,  her  streets  and  her  towers,  crushed  into  dust  and  spmters,  will  breathe 
to  cominrSratioL  a  new  story  of  romance  and  heroism,  while  their  old  glories  remain  only  m  the  words  and 
p°ctS^s  If^ormer  Wstori^s  and  admirers.   These  "cUff-dwellings"  are  the  remains  of  old  French  bar«c^ks.^.^^ 

shells  instead  of  cheers  were  showered 
down  into  the  arena.  Another  says 
that  an  offensive  launched  from  Ypres 
without  the  precaution  of  clearing  the 
ridges  would  put  the  British  in  the 
position  of  "  fighting  blindly  against  an 
enemy  with  a  hundred  eyes." 


hosts  that  could  be  poured  as  reserves 
into  any  section  where  pressure  grew 
heavy.  Nor  were  conditions  on  the 
other  fronts  helpful  at  this  time. 
Finally,  the  devotion  of  British  re- 
serves to  the  subsidiary  action  at 
Arras  and  the  unsatisfactory  outcome 
of  the  French  battle  on  the  Aisne  had 
further  injured  the  prospects  by  caus- 
ing delay  and  loss.  But  courage  and 
enterprise  were  not  wanting  in  Sir 
Douglas  Haig  and  his  supporters. 
While  deploring  the  unfortunate  cir- 
cumstances, they  set  forward  upon  the 
campaign. 

As  a  first  move  it  was  essential  to 
clear  the  ridges  before  Ypres.    Not  in 


T 


»HE  SMALL  ELEVATIONS  AROUND  YPRES 
IMPORTANT. 

Before  the  city,  ridges  running  north 
and  south  formed  an  angle  with  a 
ridge  running  east  and  west.  Where 
they  came  together,  the  village  of 
Wytschaete  occupied  the  highest  point, 
260  feet  above  the  sea.  (The  elevation 
of  Ypres  was  82  feet.)  Close  by  stood 
the   neighboring  village  of   Messines. 

813 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


GENERAL  SIR  HERBERT  PLUMER 

Hence  the  battle  of  June  7  is  known  as 
the  battle  of  the  Messines-Wytschaete 
Ridge  (or,  according  to  the  Tommy, 
the  Messines-"Whitesheet"  Ridge). 
Little  remained  to  mark  the  sites 
of  the  villages — only  a  "dust-heap" 
where  Wytschaete  had  been,  and  the 
"tooth  of  the  ruined  church  of  Mes- 
sines."  Since  the  end  of  1914  no  open 
fighting  had  taken  place  upon  the 
ridge,  but  the  Germans  had  spared  no 
labor  or  ingenuity  in  preparing  the 
place  for  defense,  and  the  British  had 
been  working  steadily  on  a  scheme  for 
its  destruction. 

Forming  a  deep  curve  around  the 
foot  of  the  ridge  the  first  system  of 
German  defenses  presented  a  convex 
front  of  nearly  ten  miles  for  the  British 
to  carry  at  the  outset  of  their  attack. 
On  the  crest,  the  second  system  lay  in 
another,  or  inner,  curve.  About  two 
and  a  half  miles  back  from  the  point 
of  this  small  salient,  the  third  system 
formed  a  chord  of  the  arc,  stretching 
from  near  Oosttaverne  to  Gapaard. 
This  was  to  be  the  ultimate  British 
objective  in  the  opening  battle.  Be- 
sides a  fourth   system,  about  a   mile 

814 


farther  east,  there  were  many  cunning- 
ly placed  trenches  and  redoubts  in  the 
woods  north  and  northwest  of  the  ridge, 
devised  for  raking  an  attacking  party 
with  a  flanking  fire. 

From  the  Oise  to  the  sea,  the  Ger- 
man front  was  commanded  by  the 
Crown  Prince  of  Bavaria.  North  of 
the  Douve  river,  which  skirted  the 
southern  foot  of  the  ridge,  the  Fourth 
Army  under  General  Sixt  von  Arnim 
held  the  positions  extending  on  to  the 
sea.  Flanking  them  on  the  south,  the 
right  wing  of  General  Otto  von  Below's 
Sixth  Army  lay  partly  within  the  area 
of  the  prospective  assault. 

THE      EXCELLENT      ARRANGEMENTS      OF 
GENERAL  PLUMER. 

The  British  troops  involved  were 
three  of  the  six  corps  of  the  Second 
Army,  whose  commander.  Sir  Herbert 
Plumer,  had  shown  himself  as  excellent 
a  leader  through  the  peculiarly  difficult 
months  of  comparative  inaction  as 
during  the  stirring  hours  of  the  Second 
Ypres.  That  battle  had  been  the  last 
great  action  in  which  this  army  had 
taken  part,  and  they  had  occupied  the 
same  position  since  the  spring  of  1915. 


RDPPRECHT,  CROWN  PRINCE  OF  BAVARIA 


fflSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


But  the  calm  patience  and  steady 
resolution  of  their  commander  had 
held  their  confidence  and  kept  their 
spirit  and  energy  alert.  He  had  been 
the  "true  warden  of  the  Flanders 
marches." 

In  the  work  of  preparation  (which 
had  been  under  way  for  more  than  a 
year),  his  performance  attained  the 
highest  degree  of  excellence.  Roads 
and  railways  were  improved  or  con- 
structed lead'ng  toward  proposed  ob- 


neous  explosion  of  nineteen  mines  on 
the  morning  of  the  assault.  It  was 
the  culmination  of  a  two-years'-long 
offensive  underground,  for  mining  had 
been  going  on  all  that  time  under  the 
control  of  expert  operators,  members 
of  great  mining  corporations.  The 
galleries  driven  through  the  clay  stra- 
tum aggregated  five  miles  in  length, 
and  more  than  a  million  pounds  of 
ammonal  were  used  in  the  charges.  Of 
the  twenty-four  mines  prepared,  four 


AMBULANCE  MEN  OF  THE  RED  CROSS  AT  WORK  IN  YPRES 

The  world  will  not  soon  forget  that  at  Ypres  on  April  22,  1915,  the  Germans  sent  out  their  first  wave  of  poison 
gas,  adding  a  new  horror  to  modern  warfare.  These  Red  Cross  workers  moving  wounded  through.  YpieSf  when  the 
city  had  become  but  a  shell,  were  wearing  masks  as  a  protection  against  the  poison  fumes. 

jectives;  and  provision  was  made  for 
ample  water  supply  by  building  cis- 
terns, establishing  sterilizing  barges 
on  the  Lys  river,  and  laying  lines  of 
pipe.  So  perfect  were  the  arrange- 
ments that,  when  the  battle  was  on, 
in  one  instance  the  pack  carriers  arrived 
with  supplies  four  minutes  after  the 
troops  had  reached  their  objective,  and 
each  section  was  provided  with  water 
in  about  a  half-hour  after  taking  up  a 
position  on  an  objective  that  had  been 
won. 

^TINETEEN   MINES   BLOW   OFF   THE   TOPS 
^       OF  THE  HILLS. 

The  feature  of  the  battle  of  the  Mes- 
sines-Wytschaete  Ridge  which  makes 
it  unique  in  history  was   the  simulta- 


were  outside  the  front  chosen  for  this 
battle,  and  one  was  exploded  by  the 
enemy.  Twenty-seven  "camouflets" 
had  been  discharged  to  destroy  counter- 
mines, in  the  course  of  two  years,  some 
by  one  side,  some  by  the  other. 

Since  the  preparations  for  renewed 
activity  were  not  secret,  the  enemy, 
in  anticipation  of  a  blow,  made  his 
arrangements,  putting  In  new  batteries, 
installing  anti-tank  guns,  and  experi- 
menting in  the  building  of  concrete 
"pill-boxes;"  as  General  von  Arnim  had 
divined  that  the  ridge  would  be  the 
object  of  attack,  the  garrisons  were 
given  orders  to  hold  fast  in  the  assur- 
ance of  plentiful  reserves  for  their 
support. 

815 


fflSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


But  the  hour  of  attack  had  not  been 
revealed.  General  Haig  usually  suc- 
ceeded in  surprising  his  opponents 
with  regard  to  the  time  of  an  offensive. 
So,   although    a   week   of   tremendous 


^'^  THE  MESSmES-WYTSCHAETE  RIDGE 

bombardment  had  been  obliterating 
all  that  had  formerly  been  left  stand- 
ing upon  the  ridge  and  incessant  raids 
and  air  contests  had  been  launched, 
the  actual  moment  of  opening  the  great 
struggle  produced  a  shock. 

THE      EARTH      SHAKES      ON      THE      JUNE 
MORNING. 

At  ten  minutes  after  three,  on  the 
morning  of  June  7,  the  nineteen  mines 
flung  up  huge  masses  of  the  ridges, 
shaking  the  whole  region  and  waking 
thunderous  reverberations   that   were 

8i6 


heard  in  London  itself.  Hill  60,  on  the 
north,  which  had  given  much  trouble 
heretofore,  was  upheaved  and  re- 
moved. Amid  the  rolling  dust  of  the 
shaken  slopes,  the  infantry  rushed 
forward.  The  aircraft 
which  for  days  had 
prevented  the  enemy's 
flyers  from  advancing 
as  far  as  their  own 
front  lines  were  still  on 
guard  to  observe  and 
to  give  aid. 

Of   the  attacking 
troops,    the    Cheshires 
had  spent  the  night  in 
No  Man's    Land,  and 
the    German    barrage, 
when  it  started,  fell  be- 
hind them.  They,  with 
an   Ulster    Division, 
worked  through  the 
Bois  de  I'Enfer  and  the 
other  "Hell"  positions 
situated  between  Mes- 
sines  and  Wytschaete. 
The    Ulster   left   wing 
was  on  the  Wytschaete 
Ridge  by  shortly  after 
five.     They,  with    a 
South  Ireland  Division, 
then   secured   the    site 
of  Wytschaete  village, 
which    was    theirs    by 
noon.  By  seven  o'clock, 
M  e  s  s  i  n  e  s    had   been 
cleared    by    the    New 
Zealanders,  whose 
right    flank    was    pro- 
tected   by    the    Third 
Australian  Division. 
After     this     successful 
start  the  Anzacs  drove 
on  toward  the  main  objective,  which 
they  had  won  by  midday.    The  north- 
ern positions  were  carried  by  English 
and  Welsh   troops,  whose  experiences 
varied   in   difficulty.    By    early    after- 
noon,   then,    all    were   standing    over 
against    the    German    third    system, 
ready  for  the  last  effort;    and  before 
nightfall  the  final  objectives  had  been 
gained. 

During  the  next' week,  further  ad- 
vance was  made,  so  that  before  June  15, 
Gapaard  had  been  taken,  von  Below's 


MERCKEM  IN  1915 
Merckem,  a  Flemish  village  about  seven  miles  north  of  Ypres,  was  situated  in  an  important  position  between  the 
ridge  and  the  Houthulst  Forest.  It  is  here  shown  as  photographed  from  the  air  in  1915,  when  it  had  suffered  com- 
paratively little  from  bombardment.  The  church  (in  the  centre  of  the  picture)  just  below  the  curve  in  the  road,  had 
lost  its  spire  but  otherwise  seems  to  have  been  not  greatly  damaged;  houses  and  roadways  are  clearly  discernible. 


MERCKEM  m  1917 
This  view  of  Merckem,  again  photographed  from  the  air,  after  two  years  of  artillery  bombardment  had  done  their 
shattering  work,  shows  the  same  spot  but  altered  almost  beyond  recognition.  The  curving  road  and  the  outline 
of  the  church  foundations  are  the  only  clues  for  identification.  During  the  last  week  in  October,  1917,  the  French 
under  General  Anthoine  and  the  Belgians  under  General  Rucquoy  by  a  concerted  attack  upon  the  boggy  tongue 
of  land  known  as  the  Merckem  peninsula  (east  of  the  Yser-Ypres  Canal)  gained  possession  of  it. 

8i7 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


army  pressed  back  to  the  Warnave 
river,  and  strong  positions  north  of 
the  Ypres-Comines  Canal  cleared. 

The  Messines-Wytschaete  battle — a 
brilliant  introduction  to  the  main 
Ypres  contest — was  tactically  a  master- 
piece, a  full  triumph,  crowning  the  long, 
skilful  and  painstaking  preparations 
by  Sir  Herbert  Plumer.  It  stands  as 
"a  perfect  instance  of  the  success  of 


Suit  »f  lliUi 


PUSHING  THE  LINE  BACK  FROM  YPRES 

the  limited  objective."  Hopes  and 
expectations  rose  high,  only  too  soon 
to  droop  heavily  as  the  offensive  pro- 
ceeded against  calamitous  odds  of 
circumstances. 

THE    RIDGES    BACK  TO    PASSCHENDAELE 
NEXT  TO  BE  TAKEN. 

In  order  to  secure  the  large,  strategic 
ends  in  view,  the  slopes  still  in  the 
enemy's  hands,  rising  as  far  back  as 
Passchendaele,  must  be  won  quickly 
to  open  the  way  for  broader  objectives. 
Granted  good  weather,  this  would  be 
hard  enough,  for  any  movement  was 
almost  impossible  to  conceal  from 
observers  on  those  elevations,  so  that 
tunneling  was  necessary,  though  diffi- 
cult. Moreover,  the  ground,  with  its 
natural  drainage  turned  aside  or 
dammed  by  the  furious  shelling  from 

8i8 


which  it  had  suffered,  offered  little 
solid  support  for  transport  and  was 
so  yielding  that  tanks  were  hardly 
anywhere  able  to  come  to  the  aid  of 
the  infantry.  The  rains  which  deluged 
the  region  after  the  offensive  opened, 
clogged  and  drowned  the  ways  until 
the  progress  made  by  the  armies  strug- 
gling through  such  sloughs  and  mo- 
rasses seems  all  but  miraculous. 

Unlike     the    stiff, 
hard   intrenched    lines 
farther  south,  the  Ger- 
man   front    here    had 
been  prepared  by  von 
Arnim  so  as  to  prove 
"elastic"   when    pres- 
sure   was    brought 
against  it.    A  loose  and 
lightly  held    first    line 
would  yield  to  assault 
only  to  plunge  the  at- 
tackers into  a  zone  of 
fortifications  built  and 
arranged     on     a    new 
plan.    These  were  the 
thick    concrete    "pill- 
boxes," so  constructed 
that  they  showed  little 
above  ground  (and 
were  thus  almost  safe 
from  enemy  guns),  but 
were  able  to  shelter  a 
score    or   two   of   men 
whose    machine    guns 
could     sweep    a    wide 
range  in  the  alleys  of  approach  where 
attacking    parties    would    be    caught. 
Besides,  the  German  guns  were  placed 
well  back  so  as  to  drop  a  barrage  upon 
troops  thus  entrapped,  while  numerous 
reserves  were  waiting  in  the  second  line 
to  drive  forward  a  counter-stroke  and 
prevent  the  offensive  from  maturing. 

LINE       IS       RE- 


THE       BRITISH-FRENCH 
ARRANGED. 

As  a  preliminary  to  the  new  stroke, 
the  forces  on  the  Allied  front  were 
rearranged  as  follows:  General  Raw- 
linson's  Fourth  Army  replaced  French 
troops  on  the  Belgian  coast;  the  Belgian 
Army,  lying  next  on  the  south,  drew  in 
its  right  so  as  to  make  room  for  the 
First  French  Arnjy  under  General 
Anthoine,  which  was  to  take  part  in 
the   battle;   the   British   Fifth   Army, 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


under  General  Gough,  held  the  section 
around  Ypres,  from  Boesinghe  to  the 
Zillibeke-Zandvoorde  road ;  between 
them  and  the  Lys  lay  General  Plumer's 
Second  Army;  Sir  Henry  Home's 
First  Army  occupied  the  line  from 
Armentieres  to  Arras;  and  from  Arras 
south  to  the  junction  with  the  French 
stretched  the  Third  Army,  now  under 
Sir  Julian  Byng,  General  Allenby's 
successor. 

As  a  consequence  of  the  arrival  of 
the  British  contingent  on  the  coast,  the 


heaviest  blow  was  between  the  Zilli- 
beke-Zandvoorde road  (south-east  of 
Ypres)  and  Boesinghe,  where  Sir 
Hubert  Gough's  Fifth  Army  was 
stationed.  On  the  left,  the  French  were 
to  keep  close  touch,  advancing  side  by 
side  with  their  allies;  the  first  step  for 
General  Plumer's  army  was  to  be  a 
short  one,  for  the  purpose  of  spreading 
out  the  area  of  attack  and  engaging 
part  of  the  enemy's  artillery.  The 
principal  assault  was  made  by  English, 
Scottish,  Irish,  and  Welsh  forces. 


A  ROAD  IN  FLANDERS 

Words  are  scarcely  needed  where  the  story  of  blasted,  blighted  desolation  is  so  graphically  told  by  the  camera. 
Yet  there  is  added  force  in  the  phrases  written  by  an  historian  of  the  Flanders  battle-ground,  who  describes  one 
stretch  of  it  as  "a  wilderness  of  tree-stumps,  littered  branches,  barbed  wire  entanglements,  craters  and  ponds." 


German  command  showed  alarm  by 
trying  to  take  a  bridge-head  on  the 
east  side  of  the  Yser,  at  Lombartzyde 
near  Nieuport.  The  attack,  which  was 
made  on  July  lo,  succeeded  in  destroy- 
ing most  of  the  bridges,  shattering 
two  British  battalions  and  seizing  the 
northern  section  of  the  bridge-head. 

THE  BEGINNING  OF  THE  THIRD  BATTLE 
OF  YPRES. 

For  various  reasons — among  others, 
the  retirement  of  the  German  lines 
under  counter-battery  work — ^the  new 
advance  did  not  begin  until  July  31. 
The  whole  front  of  attack,  from  a  point 
north  of  Steenstraate  south  to  the  Lys 
river,  measured  more  than  fifteen 
miles.  Of  this,  the  part  reserved  for  the 


When,  on  the  morning  of  July  31, 
at  3:50,  the  attack  was  begun  which 
opened  the  Third  Battle  of  Ypres,  the 
excellence  of  the  Allied  barrage  and  the 
feebleness  of  the  German  barrage  made 
for  few  casualties  and  good  progress. 

British  and  French  on  the  north 
moved  in  accordance  with  their  time- 
table through  the  first  trenches  and 
into  the  second  system.  Pilkem,  Ver- 
lorenhoek,  and  Frezenberg  were  soon 
taken.  Before  ten  o'clock,  all  the 
second  objectives  north  of  the  Ypres- 
Roulers  Railway  were  under  control. 
Resistance  was  stronger  and  diffi- 
culties greater  farther  south,  where  the 
road  to  Men  in  crosses  the  Wytschaete- 
Passchendaele    ridge;    this,   being  the 

819 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


key  to  the  positions  beyond,  was 
guarded  vigorously.  Nevertheless, 
Sanctuary  Wood  was  passed,  and 
Stirling  Castle,  Hooge  and  the  Belle- 
warde  ridge  captured.  Then  Glen- 
corse  Wood  and  Inverness  Copse  pre- 
sented sternest  resistance.  Before  the 
end  of  the  day,  with  the  French  in 
Bixschoote  and  the  British  in  St. 
Julien,    in    spite    of   rain    and    heavy 


Then  came  the  rain,  bringing  days 
of  disheartening  delay  during  which 
the  enemy  found  time  to  make  ready 
for  future  opposition.  As  Sir  Douglas 
Haig  describes  the  conditions,  "The 
weather  had  been  threatening  through- 
out the  day,  and  had  rendered  the 
work  of  our  aeroplanes  very  difficult 
from  the  commencement  of  the  battle. 
During  the  afternoon,   while  fighting 


ENGLISH  WOUNDED  GOING  TO  THE  REAR 
For  help  on  the  painful  journey  along  the  road  to  hospital  care,  some  of  these  Tommies  have  the  support  of  a 
German  prisoner,  who,  though  apparently  unwounded,  is  not  the  most  cheerful-looking  member  of  the  party. 


counter-attacks,  the  line  north  of 
St.  Julien  had  gone  beyond  the  second 
system  of  defense;  from  St.  Julien 
southward  to  Westhoek  (which  had  not 
yet  been  entirely  secured),  the  second 
system  was  held;  and  south  of  West- 
hoek, the  first  system  had  been  taken. 
The  crest  of  the  ridge  had  been  gained, 
and  over  six  thousand  prisoners  had 
fallen  to  the  British  alone. 

RAIN      AGAIN     INTERFERES      WITH      THE 
.     BRITISH  ADVANCE. 

The  work  of  the  Second  Army  had 
succeeded  admirably,  for  they  had 
added  as  their  share  of  conquest  La 
Basse  Ville,  Hollebeke  and  Klein 
Zillibeke,  just  north  of  the  Ypres- 
Comines  Canal. 

820 


was  still  in  progress,  rain  began,  and 
fell  steadily  all  night.  Thereafter,  for 
four  days  the  rain  continued  without 
cessation,  and  for  several  days  after- 
wards the  weather  remained  stormy 
and  unsettled.  The  low-lying  clayey 
soil,  torn  by  shells  and  sodden  with 
rain,  turned  to  a  succession  of  vast 
muddy  pools.  The  valleys  of  the 
choked  and  overflowing  streams  were 
speedily  transformed  into  long  stretches 
of  bog,  impassable  except  by  a  few  well- 
defined  tracks,  which  became  marks  for 
the  enemy's  artillery.  To  leave  these 
tracks  was  to  risk  death  by  drowning, 
and  in  the  subsequent  fighting  on  sev- 
eral occasions  both  men  and  pack  ani- 
mals were  lost  in  this  way." 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


THE    FAILURE    TO    ADVANCE    CAUSES    DE- 
PRESSION AMONG  THE  MEN. 

Besides  a  significant  stroke  in  the 
suburbs  of  Lens,  where  on  the  fifteenth 
the  Canadians  captured  Hill  70,  the 
middle  of  August  brought  the  second 
stage  of  the  Ypres  battle.  It  opened 
on  the  sixteenth.  The  French  made  a 
good  advance  which  secured 
the  strong  bridge-head  of  Drei 
Grachten,  and  the  British 
gained  Langemarck  with  a  part 
of  the  German  third  position, 
the  Langemarck-Gheluvelt  line 
(lying  from  Menin  road  along 
the  second  tier  of  ridges). 
Although  there  were  distinct 
gains  and  the  enemy  lost 
heavily,  so  grievous  were  the 
losses  of  the  British  centre,  ow- 
ing to  the  weather  and  to  the 
success  of  von  Arnim's  tactics 
^the  frequency  of  the  "pill- 
boxes" and  the  strength  of  the 
counter-attacks),  that  a  wave 
of  depression  rolled  among  the 
British  soldiers.  They  began 
to  want  confidence  in  their 
commanders.  To  check  this 
serious  state  of  affairs,  Gen- 
eral Haig  revised  his  plans  so 
as  to  give  Sir  Herbert  Plumer, 
whose  resourcefulness  was  well- 
known,  command  over  the 
troublesome  portion  of  the 
German  front  around  the 
Menin  road.  This  was  done 
by  extending  the  left  of  the 
Second  Army  farther  north. 
General  Plumer  then  made 
certain  changes,  especially  in  artillery 
tactics,  that  seemed  advisable  in  order 
to  cope  more  satisfactorily  with  the 
"elastic  defense." 

August  had  been  the  wettest  August 
known  for  years,  so  that  it  took  several 
weeks  of  better  weather  in  early 
September  to  make  the  ground  pass- 
able for  another  advance.  This  was 
undertaken,  September  20,  over  an 
eight-mile  front  between  the  Ypres- 
Comines  Canal  and  a  point  north  of 
Langemarck,  on  a  clearing  morning 
after  a  night  of  rain.  The  Fifth  Army 
did  good  work  on  its  front,  but  the 
most  important  thing  achieved  was  the 


Second  Army's  capture  of  the  high 
ground  crossed  by  the  Menin  road, 
where  the  fighting  had  been  so  per- 
sistent and  costly  heretofore,  and  where 
the  enemy  had  already  put  in  sixteen 
divisions.  This  was,  in  fact,  the  south- 
ern entrance  to  the  Passchendaele 
ridge.     The  attack,  which  had  moved 


THROUGH  MARSHLANDS  AND  UP  RmGES  TO 
POELCAPPELLE  AND  PASSCHENDAELE 

with  smoothness  and  precision  in  spite 
of  its  severity  and  difficulty,  furnished 
an  example  of  what  might  b^  accom- 
plished by  the  enduring  force  of  the 
British  soldiers  under  thoughtful  and 
patient  leadership,  even  against  the 
most  severe  opposition. 

"UGH  OF  THE  GROUND  FAMILIAR  TO  THE 
BRITISH  SOLDIER. 

"Few  struggles  in  the  campaign 
were  more  desperate,  or  carried  out  on 
a  more  gruesome  battlefield.  The 
maze  of  quagmires,  splintered  woods, 
ruined  husks  of  'pill-boxes,'  water- 
filled  shell-holes,  and  foul  creeks  which 
made  up  the  land  on  both  sides  of  the 

821 


M' 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


Menin  road  was  a  sight  which  to  the 
recollection  of  most  men  must  seem 
like  a  fevered  nightmare.  It  was  the 
classic  soil  on  which  during  the  First 
Battle  of  Ypres  the  First  and  Second 
Divisions  had  stayed  the  German  rush 
for  the  Channel.  Then  it  had  been  a 
broken,  but  still  recognizable  and 
featured  cou,ntryside;  now  the  elements 
seemed  to  have  blended  with  each 
other  to  make  of  it  a  limbo  outside 


counter-stroke,  brought  in  five  thou- 
sand prisoners  and  had  attained  all  its 
objectives  within  a  few  hours,  the 
British  left  capturing  Poelcappelle  and 
a  New  Zealand  Division  taking  Gra- 
venstafel,  the  crest  of  a  spur  jutting 
out  west  of  Passchendaele. 

SIR   DOUGLAS   HAIG'S   REASONS   FOR   CON- 
TINUING TO  FIGHT. 

Although  it  was  now  clear  that  the 
Third    Battle    of    Ypres    had    failed 


MOVING  UP  THE  GUNS  IN  SPITE  OF  ENGULFING  MUD 

In  order  to  hammer  the  "pill-boxes"  into  silence  and  to  cut  them  off  from  the  reserves  beyond,  it  became  neces- 
sary to  shorten  the  range  of  the  British  guns  and  move  them  closer  to  their  targets.  This  was  no  easy  task  where 
there  was  more  water  than  solid  earth  on  the  crater-pitted  ground,  which  seemed  to  be  made  up  of  "strings  of 
small  ponds."    Often  corduroy  tracks  were  laid  over  the  boggy  surface.  British  Official 


mortal  experience  and  almost  beyond 
human  imagining.  Only  on  some  of  the 
tortured  hills  of  Verdun  could  a  parallel 
be  found." 

Eleven  counter-attacks  along  the 
newly  won  positions  were  a  further  test 
of  British  endurance.  By  a  minor  but 
successful  attack  on  September  26,  the 
ruins  of  Zonnebeke  were  secured. 

Came  October  with  downpours  of 
rain  that  turned  the  battle  area  into 
"one  irreclaimable  bog"  in  which  the 
conflict  raged  on.  Of  the  five  attacks 
launched  during  that  month,  the  first, 
on  October  4,  intercepting  a  German 

822 


strategically,  through  an  evil  and 
untoward  combination  of  storms  and 
delays.  Sir  Douglas  Haig  chose  to 
extend  the  time  of  the  campaign  until 
Passchendaele  had  been  fully  secured. 
Over  two  months  had  been  necessary 
for  the  conquest  of  ground  that  he  had 
hoped  to  gain  in  a  fortnight  so  as  to 
pass  on  to  the  more  vital  objectives  of 
his  programme.  Yet,  he  would  work 
through  to  the  immediate  objective. 
It  was  desirable,  too,  to  draw  on  the 
enemy's  growing  reserves  so  as  to 
relieve  the  French,  attacking  again  on 
the  Aisne  heights. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


Each  advance  moved  the  lines  closer 
up  around  Passchendaele  itself,  until 
on  October  30,  by  some  of  the  severest 
fighting  of  the  whole  battle,  the 
Canadians  drove  their  way  into  the 
very  outskirts  of  the  desired  position. 
They  formed  there,  however,  so  sharp 
a  salient  that  a  few  days  more  were 
needed  for  improving  the  approach  and 
supports.  A  little  favorable  dry  weath- 
er came  by  way  of  help,  and  then,  on 
November  6,  Passchendaele  fell  before 
their  sweeping  advance.  The  danger- 
ous salient  of  Ypres  had  been  cut  out 
of  the  front  of  battle.  The  Third 
Battle  of  Ypres  had  come  to  an  end. 

The  record  of  gains  after  July  31 
shows  24,065  prisoners  taken,  74  guns, 
941  machine  guns  and  138  trench- 
mortars.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
price  paid  had  been  heavier  than  even 
at  the  Somme.  Weather  that  pre- 
vented the  air  service  from  playing 
its  role  of  observation  and  support  in  a 
region  where  the  enemy  had  the 
natural  advantages  on  his  side,  was  in 
part  accountable  for  this  toll.  Add  to 
that  the  new  method  of  defense  de- 
vised by  von  Arnim,  the  stream  of 
reserve  forces  from  the  Eastern  Front, 
and  always  the  mud — perhaps  the 
worst  on  any  battle-field  ever — and 
there  is  glory  for  the  heroes  who  worked 
up  the  ridges  and  gained  them,  though 
the  greater  success  aimed  at  had  to  be 
foregone. 

THE    BATTLE    OF    CAMBRAI    FOUGHT    TO 
AID  ITALY. 

Before  the  year's  end,  another  de- 
mand was  to  be  made  upon  the  British 
troops  who  had  already  borne  enough 
to  deserve  a  time  of  reprieve  and  rest. 
There  was  no  possibility  of  another 
extensive  undertaking  at  this  time,  but 
Sir  Douglas  Haig  felt  that  the  enemy 
must  be  engaged  in  order  to  keep  him 
from  sending  greater  numbers  into 
Italy,  where  the  southern  ally  was 
making  a  desperate  stand  at  the  Piave 
river  after  the  Caporetto  breakdown 
and  retreat.  England  had  sent  as  her 
best  contribution  General  Plumer  to 
Italy.  Now  she  was  about  fo  con- 
tinue her  efforts  on  the  Western  Front 
partly  for  the  sake  of  Italy's  safety. 
There  was,  besides,  a  desire  to  offset 


the  discouraging  experiences  of  the 
year  by  some  heartening  success  that 
w^ould  lift  the  morale  of  the  Allied 
peoples  at  home  and  on  the  field. 

The  attack  upon  Cambrai  was  so 
planned  as  to  restore  the  element  of 
surprise  which  had  not  been  much  em- 
ployed in  the  more  recent  offensives. 
The  importance  and  significance  of  the 
battle  as  it  was  fought  lie  in  the  suc- 
cess of  the  methods  tried  out  by  both 
sides,  methods  to  be  used  conclusively 
in  the  campaigns  of  IQ18.  That  of  the 
Allies  was  the  sharp,  sudden  "crash" 
attack  with  squadrons  of  tanks  to  cut 
the  way  through  and  co-ordinate  with 
the  infantry;  that  of  the  Teutons  was 
the  massing  of  hidden  reserves  just  far 
enough  back  to  be  secretly  brought 
forward  and  thrown  into  line  where 
they  had  not  been  anticipated. 

1"»HE   TANKS   AT   LAST   COME   INTO   THEIR 
OWN. 

The  front  chosen  for  assault  was 
before  Cambrai — a  seven-mile  line 
between  the  Amiens-Cambrai  road 
and  the  Peronne-Cambrai  road.  The 
most  formidable  barrier  in  the  way  of 
advance  was  the  Scheldt  Canal  which 
lay  beside  the  Scheldt  river.  Cambrai 
was  not  definitely  an  objective,  al- 
though it  might  be  taken;  but  the 
ground  to  be  attained  was  on  the 
shoulders  west  and  south  of  the  town — 
Bourlon  Wood  and  the  heights  east  of 
the  Scheldt  Canal,  where  Crevecoeur 
was  situated.  From  these  points  of 
vantage  it  would  be  possible  to  make 
the  Germans  uncomfortable  in  their 
positions    beyond. 

The  ground  was  suitable  for  the  use 
of  tanks,  which  had  been  of  no  real 
avail  on  the  broken,  muddy  flats  of 
Flanders.  But  here,  the  surface  had 
been  little  affected  by  battle  and  had 
no  great  natural  inequalities.  Since 
the  size  of  the  early  tanks  had  been 
recognized  as  a  disadvantage,  providing 
targets  for  hostile  guns,  both  French 
and  English  had  been  producing  num- 
bers of  smaller  machines,  which  are 
known  as  "whippets."  At  the  Battle  of 
Cambrai  the  tank  had  its  first  great 
triumph  and  was  fully  vindicated. 

No  long  preliminary  bombardments 
prepared   the  enemy  for  the  coming 

823 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


blow.  The  plan  of  General  Haig  was  to 
break  through  with  a  sudden  shock 
into  the  German  lines,  then  send  in 
cavalry  to  undo  as  far  as  possible  the 
enemy's  system  before  reinforcements 
could  be  gathered  for  a  counter-move- 
ment. He  hoped,  by  the  surprise,  to 
gain  forty-eight  hours  before  effective 
resistance  could  be  organized.  In  case 
the  venture  moved  rapidly  toward 
success,  French  troops  were  to  co- 
operate. 

A  single  gun-shot,  on  the  morning  of 
November  20,  gave  the  signal  for  a 
bombardment  along  a  twenty-mile 
front,  from  Bullecourt  south  to  the 
St.  Quentin  sector.  At  the  same  time, 
under  cover  of  mist,  smoke  and  gas, 
moved  forward  the  tanks,  which  had 
ingeniously  been  kept  from  the  view 
and  knowledge  of  the  enemy.  The 
attacking  army  was  the  Third,  under 
Sir  Julian  Byng,  who,  as  we  have  noted, 
succeeded  to  the  command  of  General 
Allenby  when  the  latter  was  transferred 
to  Palestine. 

EXCELLENT     PROGRESS     MADE     IN     THE 
FIRST  ONRUSH. 

The  first  sweep  forward  was  one  of 
the  most  rapid  and  remarkable  ad- 
vances accomplished  up  to  this  time. 
One  division,  before  evening,  had 
reached  Anneux,  nearly  halfway  to 
Cambrai,  and  had  carried  the  Siegfried 
Reserve  Line  on  the  way.  Another 
had  driven  the  enemy  from  the  bank 
of  the  canal,  pushed  along  the  Siegfried 
Line  and  carried  the  German  trench 
system  west  of  the  canal  as  far  as  the 
Bapaume  road.  At  Flesquieres,  a 
single  German  artillery  officer  held  up 
the  advance  by  firing  upon  the  tanks 
until  he  died.  To  the  south,  Marcoing 
was  taken.  Side  by  side  with  the 
infantry,  where  possible,  the  cavalry 
were  at  work,  although  at  Masnieres 
they  were  delayed  by  the  Germans' 
having  destroyed  the  bridge  at  this 
vital  point. 

Further  gains  were  made  on  the 
twenty-first;  yet  the  objectives  were 
not  attained.  Bourlon  Wood,  thickly 
sown  with  machine  guns,  had  not  been 
entered,  although  the  village  of  Fon- 
taine-notre-Dame  between  Bourlon 
and  Cambrai  had  fallen;    Cr^vecoeur 

824 


and  Rumilly  had  not  been  secured,  nor 
had  the  fipal  line  been  broken  suffi- 
ciently to  let  the  cavalry  through.  The 
salient  as  it  now  stood  could  not  be 
held.  Retreat  or  further  advance 
must  be  chosen.  Sir  Douglas  Haig, 
unmindful  of  the  strong  German  re- 
serves close  at  hand,  decided  to  press 
forward  upon  the  Bourlon  heights. 
Furious  fighting  went  on  there  for 
several  days,  while  the  positions  on 
other  parts  of  the  line  were  improved. 
By  the  twenty-seventh,  the  gains 
reported  were  10,500  prisoners  and 
142  guns,  with  14,000  yards  of  the 
main  Siegfried  Line  and  10,000  yards 
of  the  Reserve  Line  captured,  and,  all 
together,  over  sixty  square  miles  of 
territory  occupied.  London,  rejoicing, 
set  her  bells  ringing  for  "Cambrai." 
Then  came  Ludendorff's  reply.  Dur- 
ing the  last  week  of  November,  sixteen 
fresh  German  divisions  were  introduced 
upon  the  field  of  battle  where  General 
von  der  Marwitz  and  his  Second  Army 
were  situated  in  the  area  under  attack. 
The  order  issued  on  the  twenty-ninth 
stated,  "We  are  now  going  to  turn  the 
(British)  embryonic  victory  into  de- 
feat by  an  encircling  counter-attack." 

IUDENDORFF       MAKES       A       SUCCESSFUL 
u     COUNTER-ATTACK. 

Ludendorff's  tactical  surprise  suc- 
ceeded here  as  it  had  at  Riga  and  at 
Caporetto;  for  the  reserve  troops  had 
not  been  suspected,  so  well  were  they 
kept  concealed.  In  carrying  out  his  full 
intention  he  was  not  so  successful, 
although  twenty-four  divisions,  nearly 
all  fresh,  were  used  in  the  great  counter- 
stroke.  His  object  was  to  pinch  the 
salient  in  from  both  sides  and  so  cut 
off  the  centre,  striking  heavily  there 
at  the  same  time. 

The  blow  fell  on  November  30  and 
crushed  through  on  the  south  where 
the  new  line  of  the  salient  joined  the 
old  British  line.  There  a  division,  ex- 
hausted in  the  Flanders  fighting,  had 
been  placed  while  its  new  material 
should  be  in  training.  It  was  not  strong 
enough  to  hold,  and  the  enemy  drove 
through  taking  Gonnelieu,  Villers- 
Guislain  and  Gouzecourt.  On  the  left 
and  in  the  centre,  the  resistance  was 
gallant    and    firm,    so    the    Germans 


FORT  GARRY  HORSE  ON  PARADE  IN  FRANCE 


©Canada,  1919 


FORT  GARRY  HORSE  AFTER  THE  SUCCESSFUL  CHARGE  AT  CAMBRAI 

A  squadron  of  these  horsemen  from  the  Canadian  Cavalry  Brigade  crossed  the  can^  bJtferv^at°t"cked"nd%ver- 
Masnieres;  drove  forward  about  two  miles  into  enemy  territory;  captured  a  German  batte^^attacKea  ana  over 
powered  a  body  of  German  infantry  in  a  sunken  road;  then,  nusleading  the  enemy  by  stamped  ng  those  of  meir 
horses  that  had  not  fallen,  fought  on  dismounted.   By  night  they  pushed  back  to  the  British  hues,  taking  their 
wounded  and  their  prisoners.  . 

825 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


failed  of  the  large  success  they  had 
entered  upon.  But  the  losses  on  both 
sides  were  desperately  heavy.  Gouze- 
court  was  recovered  by  the  British 
Guards  Division  which  came  forward 
to  strengthen  the  wavering  line;  but  the 
Bourlon  position  was  too  difficult  a 
salient  to  keep.  It  was  relinquished 
by  a  skilful  withdrawal  on  Decem- 
ber 4-7. 

THE  GERMANS  GAIN  BACK  ONE  PART  OF 
THEIR  LOSSES. 

In  the  end,  the  Germans  held  seven 
square  miles  of  the  ground  taken  newly 
from  the  British,  while  the  latter  kept 
sixteen  square  miles  of  what  they  had 
seized  from  the  Germans,  including  a 
seven-mile  stretch  of  the  Siegfried  Line. 
In  prisoners  and  casualties  the  results 
were  about  equal.  It  had  been  a 
brilliant  feat  of  arms — "the  most 
successful  single  surprise  attack  up 
to  this  time  on  the  Western  Front." 
Whether  it  should  have  been  under- 
taken or  whether  Sir  Douglas  Haig 
should  have  closed  it  after  the  first 
dashing  advance,  are  questions  that 
may  never  be  satisfactorily  decided. 

Viewed  in  the  light  of  the  opera- 
tions of  191 8,  Cambrai  is  of  especial 
interest.  It  offered  a  foretaste  of  the 
return  to  open  fighting,  and  it  gave 
warning  (which,  however,  was  not 
heeded)  of  the  tactics  which  were  to 
keep  victory  wavering  in  the  balance 
for  months,  during  the  last  year  of  the 
war. 

RETROSPECT  OF  THE    BRITISH    FIGHTING 
.     FOR  THE  YEAR. 

In  looking  back  upon  the  British 
battles  of  191 7 — Arras  in  April,  the 
Messines  Ridge  in  June,  the  Third 
Ypres  from  July  to  November,  and 
Cambrai  in  .November  and  early  De- 
cember— we  get  an  impression  of 
steady,  arduous,  exhausting  fighting, 
well-planned  for  the  most  part,  pushed 
with  admirable  spirit  and  endurance, 
yielding  a  gain  of  territory  not  ex- 
tensive but  important  for  its  dominat- 


ing character.  It  was  brilliant  fighting 
for  successes  that  were  not  fully  ade- 
quate to  compensate  for  the  struggle 
and  the  loss — not  quite  determinate.  It 
was  such  a  transition  stage  as  can  be 
reckoned  rightly  only  in  relation  to 
what  precedes  and  what  follows.  The 
process  that  had  been  the  only  success- 
ful method  under  earlier  conditions — 
the  war  of  attrition,  with  the  limited 
objective — was  no  longer  the  best  after 
the  events  of  this  year  had  shifted  the 
conflict  practically  onto  a  single  front, 
giving  the  enemy  the  advantage  of 
almost  unlimited  reserves. 

The  actual  achievement  was  not 
inconsiderable.  Prisoners  taken  num- 
bered 125,000.  From  the  Oise  to  the 
North  Sea  the  Allies  had  gained  ad- 
vantageous positions,  through  the  cap- 
ture of  commanding  ridges  which  had 
long  overlooked  their  own  lines.  To 
Canada  had  been  granted  the  distinc- 
tion of  regaining  Vimy  Ridge,  Hill  70 
(which  had  been  a  fateful  fighting 
ground  in  the  Battle  of  Loos  in  1915), 
and  Passchendaele. 

Yet,  there  was  much  to  offset  these 
advantages.  The  levies  for  the  British 
armies  were  not  sufficient  to  keep  the 
ranks  filled  with  men  that  were  trained 
and  ready.  And,  under  the  pressure 
resulting  from  the  Russian  failure  and 
the  exhaustion  due  to  fearful  and 
unceasing  effort  under  the  worst  kind 
of  weather  conditions,  for  which  the 
British  movements  are  said  to  have 
become  "an  accurate  barometer,"  the 
strongest  spirits  sagged.  The  Italian, 
set-back  added  to  the  depression. 

That  united  consideration  might  be 
devoted  to  the  grave  problems  troub- 
ling the  Allies,  in  November  at  a  con- 
ference of  prime  ministers  and  chiefs  of 
staff  from  Great  Britain,  France  and 
Italy,  a  Supreme  War  Council  was 
established.  By  this  council  was  ap- 
pointed, then,  the  Inter-Allied  General 
Staff  consisting  of  General  Foch,  Gen- 
eral Wilson  and  General  Cadorna. 

L.  Marion  Lockhart 


826 


Australians  in  camp  in  Egypt 


Chapter   L 


The  Conquest  of  Palestine 

THE  BRITISH  AND  THEIR  ARAB  ALLIES  WREST  THE  HOLY 
LAND  FROM  THE  GRASP  OF  THE  TURK 


pROM  GallipoH  Lord  Kitchener  sailed 
to  Egypt,  and  the  story  is  current 
that  he  summed  up  the  situation  on 
that  front  in  early  1916  by  his  question : 
"Are  you  defending  the  Canal,  or  is 
the  Canal  defending  you?" 

It  matters  little  whether  the  story 
is  true  or  not.  It  was  to  the  point. 
Was  the  Egyptian  Expeditionary  Force 
to  continue  to  think  and  act  locally, 
or  was  it  to  advance  to  a  broader 
view  in  which  the  true  value  of  the 
canal  as  an  artery  of  empire  and  as  a 
touchstone  of  British  prestige  in  the 
East  was  justly  appreciated?  Events 
had  shown  that  the  problems  of  defend- 
ing the  canal  and  of  defending  Egypt 
were  not  identical.  The  Turk  had 
crossed  the  desert  once,  he  might  do  it 
again.  He  had  placed  casual  and  stray 
mines  in  the  canal,  he  might  accom- 
plish greater  things.  How  then  could 
supplies  and  reinforcements  be  taken 
to  Mesopotamia,  relyingalmost entirely 
upon  Britain  because  of  the  breakdown 
of  the  Indian  Army  machine? 

THE  MEANING  OF  THE  CAMPAIGN  UNDER- 
TAKEN IN  1916. 

Only  a  new  line  of  defense  for  the 
canal  east  of  the  desert  would  remove 
the  threat  of  strangle-hold  upon  the 
canal.  Such  a  line  could  be  gained 
only  at  the  cost  of  a  vigorous  offensive. 
Upon  this  ground  the  Egyptian  Ex- 
peditionary Force   embarked    in  191 6 


upon  a  campaign  which  w.as  to  lead  it 
not  only  to  the  Holy  City  itself,  but 
to  a  conquest  extending  from  "Dan 
even  unto  Beersheba. " 

Different  fronts  have  had  their  differ- 
ent needs  at  different  periods.  Desert 
campaigning  recognized  two  great  fac- 
tors: water  supply  and  transport. 
Without  these  nothing  could  be  at- 
tempted, with  them  all  might  be 
accomplished.  The  Desert  of  Sinai  had 
no  water  supplies  save  such  amounts 
as  were  collected  in  Roman  or  Babylon- 
ian cisterns  or  in  pools  in  the  rocks  in 
scattered  spots  where  the  winter  rains 
were  heavy.  These  could  not  be  relied 
upon  for  large  forces.  Water  in 
quantities  sufficient  for  numbers  of 
men  and  animals  had  to  be  run  out 
into  the  sandy  wastes  from  the  sweet 
water  canal  which  ran  beside  the 
waters  of  the  ship  canal. 

THE   WATERS    OF    THE    NILE    RUN    INTO 
THE  JORDAN. 

Dwellers  in  Egypt  are  subject  to  a 
troublesome  disease  (Bilhaziosis)  de- 
veloped from  drinking  the  waters  of  the 
Nile,  which  contain  a  parasitic  worm. 
In  the  new  system  this  danger  was 
fully  guarded  against.  The  water  was 
passed  under  the  ship  canal  in  siphons, 
having  filters  attached,  into  reservoirs 
on  the  eastern  bank.  Here  it  was  again 
filtered,  chlorinated  and  pumped  for- 
ward to  its  destination.    There  were 

827 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


in  the  water  system,  at  its  fullest 
development,  seventeen  pumping  sta- 
tions. At  all  important  troop  centres 
reservoirs  were  built  which  served 
the  camel  transport,  bearing  the  water 
in  advance  of  railhead  and  pipe  line. 
Macbeth  was  told  by  the  witches  that 
he  was  safe  "  till  Birnam  Wood  do  come 
to  Dunsinane, "  and  in  fancied  security 
he  plunged  to  ruin.    The  Arabs  had  a 


Kitchener  had  demonstrated  the  need 
of  a  railroad  in  desert  campaigning  in 
the  Sudan,  and  early  in  1916  engineers 
began  a  standard  gauge  line  upon  the 
eastern  bank  of  the  Canal.  Natives, 
formed  into  the  Egyptian  Labor  Corps, 
under  British  officials  did  valuable 
work  both  upon  railway  and  pipe  line. 
"The  standard  gauge  line  running 
from    Kantara    to    Palestine   was    the 


SUEZ  CANAL,  THE  CENTRAL  ARTERY  FOR  FOUR  CONTINENTS 

The  Canal,  through  which  Asiatic,  Australian  and  African  elements  passed  to  mingle  in  the  service  of  the  great 
system  of  British  Empire,  was  a  vitally  essential  organ.  For  its  defense  was  developed  the  campaign  in  Pales- 
tine, which  added  a  chapter  of  modern  romance  to  the  mediaeval  and  ancient  stories  of  that  old,  old  battle-ground. 

keystone  of  strategic  structure  in 
Eastern  Egypt.  It  was  the  backbone, 
the  arteries,  the  very  life-blood  of  the 
Army."  Kantara  was  formerly  a 
quarantine  station  with  two  houses  and 
a  mosque ;  with  the  development  of  the 
railroad  its  growth  was  amazing. 
There  were  great  wharves  where  ocean- 
going vessels  discharged  their  freight, 
a  big  filtration  plant  and  pump-house 
and  siphons,  vast  ordnance  stores, 
hospitals  and  workshops. 

CAMELS  COME  FROM  EVERY  PART  OF  THE 
WORLD. 

Camel     transport    was    thoroughly 
reorganized,     too.       The     natives    of 


saying  that  Palestine  could  not  be 
conquered  until  a  prophet  turned  the 
waters  of  the  Nile  into  Jordan.  Under 
General  Allenby  (whose  very  name 
the  Bedouins  thought  presaged  victory, 
Allah,  God,  and  Nebi,  a  prophet)  was 
brought  to  pass  that  which  to  the 
people  of  the  desert  had  seemed 
the  great  impossibility. 

Equally  important  was  the  question 
of  transport.  In  Western  Egypt  ex- 
periments had  established  the  value  of 
motor  transport,  but  in  the  Sinai 
district  the  sand  was  softer,  and  camel 
and  horse  transport  across  the  roadless 
waste    had    been     the    only    reliance. 

828 


CAMPAIGNING  IN  THE  DESERT 
In  the  sandy  desert  one  can  hardly  construct  a  shelter,  still  less  a  block-house;  machine  gunners  had  therefore 
to  content  themselves  with  the  feeble  protection  afforded  by  heaped-up  stones.   Exposed  to  the  pitiless  rays  of  a 
sub-tropical  sun  the  men  served  their  guns  with  uncomplaining  cheerfulness  and  fortitude  through  long  hours 
under  hostile  fire. 


AUSTRALIANS  ON  THE  LINE  OF  FIRE 
In  the  sand  of  the  desert  trench-digging  was  an  arduous  affair.   To  make  a  trench  three  feet  wide  a  cut  of  fifteen 
feet  was  necessary.    Then  battens  with  canvas  backs  were  put  in  and  anchored,  and  the  spaces  behind  refilled 
with  excavated  soil.   A  tiny  rent  in  the  canvas  would  allow  the  sand  to  filter  through  alarmingly;  when  the  kham- 
seen  blew  a  whole  series  of  trenches  would  be  filled  up  in  a  night. 

829 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


Egypt  were  astounded  at  the  numbers 
assembled:  from  every  camel-market 
of  the  world,  from  India  to  Morocco, 
the  camel  came  to  Egypt.  When  the 
natives  or  French  colonists  were  asked 
as  to  the  camels'  rations  they  laughed, 
for  how  could  one  tell  how  much  a 
beast  ate  in  pasturage?  Yet  the 
British  soldier  —  like  Robinson  Crusoe 
—  evolved  a  system  of  his  own  and, 
stable-fed,  the  camel  thrived.  Four 
kilos  of  straw  and  four  kilos  of  millet 


as  Wadi  Haifa.  The  first  four  months 
of  191 6  were  entirely  given  over  to 
various  preparations  for  a  great  ad- 
vance. In  addition  to  rail  and  pipe- 
laying,  the  defenses  of  the  canal  were 
strengthened,  and  to  enlarge  the  area 
of  safety,  parties  were  sent  out  into  the 
desert  to  drain  off  all  water  the  enemy 
might  use  within  a  sixty-mile  radius. 
Thus  in  April,  from  one  big  pool 
at  Er  Rigm,  5,000,000  gallons  were 
taken,  and  by  June  not  a  bucketful  of 


LIGHT  CAVALRY  OF  THE  DESERT 

Camels,  like  horses,  are  differently  bred  for  different  purposes.  Those  for  burden-carrying  are  heavier  and 
larger  than  those  which  are  destined  for  riding  purposes.  The  camels  in  the  picture  are  meharis,  fitted  by  their 
slender  proportions  to  move  with  remarkiable  s,peed,  capable,  indeed,  of  a  rate  of  over  100  miles  in  24  hours.  They 
come  from  northern  and  central  Africa.  Their  riders,  here,  are  Arab  allies  of  the  British. 

water  was  available  in  a  wide  strip  of 
desert. 

THE    TURKS    ATTACK    THE    GANGS    CON- 
STRUCTING THE  RAILWAY. 

The  Turks  descended  upon  the 
guards  protecting  the  construction 
gangs  on  the  railroad,  and  at  the-efnd 
of  April  three  regiments  of  yeomanry 
and  a  half  company  of  engineers 
suffered  substantial  losses  when,  'under 
cover  of  dense  fog,  several  thousand 
Turks  in  three  columns  attacked  at 
Oghratina,  Katia  and  Dueidar,  But 
the  railway  went  on  and  by  July 
reached  Romani.  There  in  the  third 
week  the  Turk  attacked  and  a  battle  — 
the  most  serious 'in  the  campaign 
fought     on     Egyptian     soil  —  ensued. 


or  dourrah  were  apportioned  daily, 
and  in  camps  and  bivouacs  the  camel 
was  picketed  like  the  horse.  It  is  a 
tribute  to  German  thoroughness  to 
relate  that  manuals  in  Arabic  on  the 
care  of  camelry  were  picked  up  after 
the  Battle  of  Romani  and  used  there- 
after by  the  Egyptian  Army  with  great 
profit. 

The  position  on  the  Eastern  Egyptian 
Front  had  been  made  easier  by  the 
victories  early  in  191 6  over  the  Grand 
Sheikh  of  the  Senussi,  but  then  the 
Sultan  AH  Dinar  rose  in  Darfur,  and 
the  Sirdar  had  to  turn  his  attention 
to  this  open  evil.  To  lighten  his  task 
Sir  Archibald  Murray  sent  troops  to 
take  over  the  Nile  district  as  far  south 

830 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


It  was  the  hot  season  when  the  ther- 
mometer registered  100-115°  in  the 
shade,  and  a  man  got  sunstroke  in  a 
bell  tent  if  he  moved  without  his 
helmet.  Both  sides  were  wont  to  use 
this  season  for  preparation  rather  than 
for  fighting,  and  upon  this  the  Turk 
had  reckoned.  His  preparations  had 
gone  on  secretly  for  months;  equipment 
had  been  especially  made  in  Germany. 


von  Kressenstein,  the  Turkish  force 
numbered  some  18,000  men.  At  mid- 
night on  August  3rd,  the  Turks  at- 
tacked and  fighting  continued  through- 
out the  day.  "Allah,  finish  Austraha" 
the  Turks  shouted  as  they  charged. 
Pivoting  on  the  shore  the  British 
cavalry  withdrew  so  as  to  entangle  the 
enemy  in  difficult  sand-dunes.  When 
reinforcements    came    up    a    counter- 


"THE  BREAD  LINE"  IN  THE  EAST 
A  remarkable  picture  of  the  Camel  Transport  in  Palestine  ladeii  with  bags  of  bread  ready  for  ^e  men  m^^ 
lines.  Each  camel's  burden  though  bulky  was  not  so  heavy  as  it  looks,  and  the  men  learmng  from  the  native  anvers 
quickly  became  experienced  in  making  their  loads. 


His  camel  pack-saddles  were  the  best 
in  the  country,  his  machine-gun  and 
mountain-gun  packs  scientifically  prac- 
tical. To  bring  up  4-inch,  6-inch,  even 
8-inch  howitzers  he  had  evolved  an 
ingenious  road  in  the  sand  by  cutting 
two  trenches  each  a  foot  deep  and 
eighteen  inches  wide  which  he  filled 
in  with  brushwood  and  tough  scrub  and 
covered  with  sand,  or,  where  the  sand 
was  too  soft,  with  wide  planks. 

As  they  made  evening  reconnaissance 
over  Bir  el  Abd,  British  airmen  dis- 
covered this  large  force  of  the  enemy 
within  fifty  miles  of  the  canal.  Under 
command  of  the  German  general  Kress 


attack  was  delivered,  and  by  nightfall 
the  enemy  was  in  full  retreat.  He  was 
not  suffered  to  get  off  lightly,  but  for 
four  days  was  driven  before  the 
cavalry.  When  pursuit  halted  it  was 
found  to  have  covered  nineteen  miles, 
and  in  its  course  to  have  captured  4,000 
prisoners  and  a  large  quantity  of 
stores.  In  addition,  Turkish  casualties 
amounted  to  5,000,  so  that  in  all  the 
enemy  suffered  fully  fifty  per  cent 
wastage  of  his  attacking  force.  The 
Battle  of  Romani  marks  the  last 
attempt  to  attack  the  Suez  Canal  and 
Egypt.  Henceforth,  in  the  campaign 
the  Turk  was  on  the  defensive. 

831 


fflSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


THE  INTERRUPTED  PROGRESS  OF  THE 
ADVANCE. 

Throughout  the  autumn  the  railway 
pushed  slowly  on.  As  soon  as  it  reached 
a  suitable  spot  stores  were  collected  and 
the  front  cleared.  Then  followed  a 
pause  for  the  army  while  the  railroad 
was  again  advanced.  Water  was 
brought  up  in  great  tanks  until  the 
pipe-line  could  be  laid,  and  where  the 
front  overshot  the  railhead  the  gap  was 
bridged  by  camel  transport.  After 
the  Battle  of  Romani,  the  Turks  had 
consolidated  a  position  at  Bir-el-Mazar, 
twenty  miles  to  the  east.  They  were 
there  attacked  by  the  Desert  Column 
operating  under  Sir  Philip  Chetwode 
and  withdrew  to  El  Arish.  There 
was  again  a  pause  while  the  engineers 
toiled  to  bring  up  the  railway.  During 
the  interval  the  Royal  Flying  Corps  did 
much  bombing  work  over  the  enemy's 
positions,  and  the  cavalry  was  active. 
By  December  20  the  advance  was 
ready  again,  but  airmen  discovered 
that  the  Turk  had  evacuated  his  lines 
without  pausing  to  give  battle.  He 
was  followed  by  a  flying  column  and 
found  in  a  strong  position  to  the  south 
at  Magdhaba. 

The  British  attack  that  followed  was 
delivered  entirely  by  mounted  troops: 
the  Australian  Light  Horse  and  New 
Zealand  Mounted  Rifles  operated 
against  right  flank  and  rear,  and  the 
Imperial  Camel  Corps  against  the 
front.  Mirage  delayed  the  work  of 
the  horse  artillery  batteries,  so  that  as 
the  day  wore  on  shortage  of  water 
became  a  serious  menace  to  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  attack.  Orders  were 
given,  therefore,  to  press  the  charge 
and  by  four  o  clock  the  place  was  won. 
This  time  the  Turk  retreated  to  Rafa 
on  the  border  of  Syria,  while  pursuit 
halted  until  the  Egyptian  Labor  Corps 
and  the  engineers  could  send  forward 
supplies.  In  a  fortnight  all  was  ready 
again  and  Sir  Philip  Chetwode's  Desert 
Column  left  El  Arish  on  the  evening 
of  January  8,  1917,  and  at  dawn  on  the 
9th  had  surrounded  the  enemy.  The 
action  lasted  ten  hours,  and  mobility 
and  tactical  boldness  carried  the  day. 
At  last  the  desert  had  been  conquered : 
the  Promised  Land  was  in  sight. 

832 


THE   BRITISH   ON   THE   BORDERS   OF   THE 
PROMISED  LAND. 

Briefly,  the  positions  of  the  con- 
tending forces  at  the  end  of  February 
191 7  were:  while  the  main  Egyptian 
Expeditionary  Force  had  reached  El 
Arish,  portions  of  the  army  had  crossed 
into  Palestine  at  Rafa  and  the  cavalry 
had  penetrated  to  Khan  Tunas.  The 
Turkish  line  defending  Syria  ran  from 
Gaza  to  Beersheba,  both  places  were 
strongly  fortified.  Dobell's  first  objec- 
tive was  Gaza  —  that  point  on  the 
Jerusalem  railway  which  had  served  as 
a  base  for  the  attacks  upon  Egypt. 
Like  all  border  cities,  Gaza  has  long 
legendary  and  historical  associations. 
One  of  the  five  lordships  of  the  Philis- 
tines, it  was  the  scene  of  Samson's 
triumph  when  he  carried  off  the  city's 
"massy  gate  and  bar"  to  the  top  of  a 
neighboring  hill,  and  of  his  humiliation 
when  he  worked  as  a  slave  at  the  mill 
among  his  enemies.  In  crusading  days 
Gaza  had  witnessed  the  triumph  of 
Frank  and  of  Saracen.  In  this  last  war 
against  the  Turk  the  city  was  to  be  the 
site  of  three  sanguinary  battles,  and  of 
six  months'  trench  warfare.  Taken 
and  retaken  some  forty  or  fifty  times, 
well  might  its  walls  re-echo,  "Happy  is 
the  city  that  has  no  history." 

In  preparation  for  the  assault  upon 
the  fortress,  at  the  end  of  March  a 
large  force  was  concentrated  at  Rafa 
and  marched  up  secretly  at  night. 
The  first  objective  was  secured  without 
serious  opposition.  Meanwhile  from 
the  north  a  cavalry  screen  had  pierced 
into  the  town  itself.  But  a  sea-fog 
had  cost  two  hours'  precious  daylight — 
a  vital  thing  where  water  shortage 
limited  the  fighting  to  daylight.  At  this 
juncture,  as  the  Turks  received  strong 
reinforcements,  the  British  were  given 
orders  to  retire,  for  they  were  strung 
out  on  a  thin  line  investing  the  city  and 
had  no  water  for  their  horses,  although 
they  were  within  measurable  distance 
of  their  goal.  Thus  for  two  days' 
battle  they  had  nothing  to  show  save 
considerable  casualties. 

THE  SECOND  ATTACK  ON  GAZA  LIKEWISE 
UNSUCCESSFUL.' 

For  three  weeks  both  sides  made 
preparations  for  renewing  the  struggle : 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


the  British  were  reinforced  by  some 
tanks  and  hoped  to  cover  the  2,000 
yards'  open  advance  across  the  sandy 
plain  under  their  screen  and  a  strong 
artillery  preparation,  as  well  as  en- 
filading fire  from  a  flotilla  at  sea. 
The  Turkish  outposts  of  Wadi-Gaza 
were  captured  on  the  17th  of  April 
without  difficulty,  and  the  public 
expected  a  victory  as  far-reaching  in  its 
eff^ects  in  Palestine  as  had  been  that  of 
Kut  in  Mesopotamia.  But  the  Turks 
had  been  strongly  reinforced  and  had 
in  line  five  infantry  divisons  supported 
by  cavalry  and  good  artillery  served 
by  Austrian  gunners.  Furthermore, 
they  had  strengthened  their  intrench- 
ments.  The  battle  was  hotly  contested 
throughout  the  19th  but  the  British 
tanks  were  too  few  in  number,  and  some 
of  them  caught  fire,  so  that  the  in- 
fantry in  frontal  advance  lost  tragically 
as  the  enemy  machine  guns  cut  down 
swath  after  swath.  Under  cover  of  dark 
such  as  survived  the  hail  of  fire  crept 
back  and  'dug  themselves  in  at  Man- 
sourah.  Had  the  Turk  counter-attack- 
ed, the  whole  force  would  have  been  at 
his  mercy,  but  he  contented  himself 
merely  with  coming  out  of  his  trenches 
and  exulting  over  the  victory,  and  the 
British  line  stayed  where  it  was. 

Because  the  results  did  not  cor- 
respond to  the  hopes  of  writers  who 
had  no  understanding  of  the  difficulties 
of  the  enterprise,  and  who  under- 
estimated the  fighting  value  of  the 
Turk,  a  violent  stir  followed  in  the 
British  Press  and  Parliament.  Sir 
Archibald  Murray  was  recalled,  and 
Sir  Edmund  Allenby  appointed  to 
succeed  him. 

GENERAL      ALLENBY,     THE      NEW     COM- 
MANDER OF  THE    EGYPTIAN  ARMY. 

General  Edmund  H.  H.  Allenby  was 
fifty-six  years  old  when  he  succeeded 
to  the  command  of  the  Third  Army  in 
Egypt.  From  his  first  commission  in 
the  Inniskilling  Dragoons  he  had 
served  in  every  war  for  the  Empire. 
In  the  days  of  the  retreat  from  Mons 
he  had  commanded  the  Expeditionary 
Cavalry  Force  with  distinction.  With 
his  coming  the  Egyptian  Expeditionary 
•  Force  was  reshaped.  The  whole  force 
was   organized    into    corps,    and    the 


strength  of  the  artillery  and  infantry 
considerably  augmented.  In  this  army 
all  the  Empire  was  represented  except 
Canada.  There  were  English,  Scotch, 
Irish,  and  Welsh  battalions,  batteries 
and  regiments.  Every  state  in  the 
Australian  Commonwealth  had  regi- 
ments, as  had  also  New  Zealand,  while 
the  Maoris  furnished  a  battalion. 
There  was  a  brigade  of  South  Africans, 


GENERAL  SIR  HERBERT  LAWRENCE 
General  Lawrence  under  Sir  Archibald  Murray  was  in 
Command  of  the  land  operations  in  Egypt  during  1916, 
and  played  a  distinguished  part  in  repelling  von  Kres- 
senstein's  invasion  during  July  and  August.  In  Janu- 
ary, 1918,  he  was  appointed  Chief  of  General  Staff. 

and  from  India  many  warlike  races: 
Ghurkas,  Sikhs,  Bikaners,  and  Pun- 
jabis. The  tea-planters  of  Ceylon  came 
to  Egypt  as  a  rifle  corps,  from  Singapore 
and  Hong-Kong  a  mountain  battery. 
The  three  corps  into  which  Allenby 
organized  the  force  were  thus  composed : 
The  XXth  Corps  comprised  the  loth 
(Irish),  53rd  (Welsh),  6oth  (London), 
and  74th  (Dismounted  Yeomanry) 
Divisions,  In  the  XXI  Corps  were 
included  the  52nd  (Scottish  Lowland), 
54th  (East  Anglian),  and  75th  (Wessex 
and  Indian)  Divisions.  The  Desert 
Corps  was  made  up  of  the  Australian 
Mounted  Division,  the  Anzac  Mounted 

833 


fflSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


English  Miles 


Copyright     ILLUSTRATING  THE  TURKISH  DEFENSES  ON  THE  GAZA-BEERSHEBA  LINE 


Division  and  the  Yeomanry  Division. 
There  was  in  addition  a  composite 
brigade  of  French  and  Italians  —  fami- 
liarly known  as  "Mixed  Vermouth." 

GENERAL    ALLENBY'S     PLANS     FOR    THE 
CAMPAIGN. 

When  Allenby  took  over  command 
at  the  end  of  June,  191 7,  he  submitted 
a  report  on  the  military  situation  and 
outlined  the  necessary  conditions  in 
which  an  offensive  operation  might  be 
undertaken  in  the  autumn  or  winter  of 
191 7.  The  enemy's  line  from  Gaza  to 
Beersheba,  some  thirty  miles,  was  a 
strong  one.  "Gaza,"  he  stated,  "had 
been  made  into  a  strong  modern 
fortress,  heavily  intrenched  and  wired, 

834 


offering  every  facility  for  protracted 
defense."  The  remainder  of  the  enemy's 
line  consisted  of  a  series  of  strong 
groups  of  works.  These  groups  were 
generally  from  1,500  to  2,000  yards 
apart,  except  that  the  distance  from 
the  Hareira  group  to  Beersheba  was 
about  four  and  a  half  miles.  Lateral 
communications  were  good,  and  any 
threatened  point  of  the  line  could 
be  very  quickly  reinforced. 

Such  were  the  positions.  Allenby's 
plan  was  to  deliver  a  decisive  blow 
against  the  enemy's  left  flank  where  his 
line  bent  back  at  Hareira  and  Sheria. 
First,  however,  'it  was  essential  to 
clear    away    the    isolated    position    of 


AGRICULTURE  m  PALESTINE 
Somewhat  primitive  methods  for  cultivating  the  soil  exist  in  Palestine  where  changes,  as  in  all  eastern  countries, 
come  slowly.   The  Arab  does  not  drive  his  yoked  ox  and  ass  by  means  of  reins  but  with  his  long  pole  taps  horns 
or  ears  for  direction  and  uses  his  voice  for  checking  or  starting.  Henry  Ruschin. 


.-'_-».-3S!S5Si/«« 


^ych..  'ps^    *^*^r*,    ir^*^ 


WITH  THE  BRITISH  EXPEDITIONARY  FORCE 
Shortage  of  water  was  the  primary  difficulty  in  the  Palestine  Campaign,  but  the  contour  of  the  country  was  much 
•  broken  up  by  dried-up  water  courses  or  Wadis  whose  beds  on  the  edges  of  the  desert  among  the  early  slopes  of  the 
hills  presented  great  obstacles  to  wheeled  trans^rt.   Engineers  are  shown  making  a  practicable  crossmg  over 
such  a  gully,  which  after  rains  would  be  filled  with  a  swift  spate. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


Beersheba  where  there  —  and  there 
only  —  was  a  good  water  supply,  and 
at  the  same  time  by  an  operation 
against  Gaza  keep  the  enemy  in 
doubt  as  to  the  real  object  of  attack. 
Allenby  hoped  in  turning  the  Turkish 
left  flank  to  allow  room  for  his  own 
mounted  troops,  in  which  he  was 
superior,  to  have  ground  to  manoeuvre. 
The  difficulties  were  formidable  be- 
cause there  was  no  water  except  at 
Beersheba  until  Hareira  and  Sheria 
were  captured ;  and  there  were  no  good 
roads  for  motor  transport.  To  meet 
this  last  difficulty  30,000  camels  (the 
whole  of  thje  strength  available  for  the 
Expeditionary  Army)  were  allotted  to 
the  Eastern  force  to  enable  it  to  be  kept 
supplied  with  food,  water  and  am- 
munition fifteen  miles  in  advance  of 
railhead,  while  a  branch  line  from 
Gamli  towards  Beersheba  was  rapidly 
put  under  construction. 

THE  FAMOUS  OLD  TOWN    OF    BEERSHEBA 
IS  TAKEN. 

During  the  hot  weather  and  until 
October  vigorous  preparations  were 
made  by  both  sides.  October  31  was 
fixed  for  the  attack  on  Beersheba,  and 
the  eastern  force  under  General  Chet- 
wode  entrusted  with  its  operation. 
Four  days  earlier  the  bombardment  of 
the  Gaza  defenses  opened,  and  monitors 
and  warships  joined  in  with  the  bom- 
bardment on  the  30th.  To  keep  the 
attack  a  surprise,  units  detailed  for 
attacking  Beersheba  from  south  and 
southwest  made  a  night  march  and 
were  in  position  by  dawn  of  the  31st. 
To  bring  their  guns  within  range  it  was 
necessary  first  to  capture  the  enemy's 
advanced  works  at  Hill  i  ,070,  two  miles 
southwest  of  the  town.  Then  wire- 
cutting  proceeded  and  the  final  assault 
ordered  for  12:15  p.m.  had  by  7  p.m. 
attained  all  its  objectives.  Meanwhile, 
mounted  troops  moved  out  and  by 
a  night  ride  of  thirty-five  miles  got 
into  the  hills  five  miles  to  the  east  of 
Beersheba.  There  was  fighting  on  the 
tangled  slopes  until  late  afternoon. 
Thence  to  the  city  the  approach  was 
over  an  open  plain  and  progress  was 
slow.  At  7  P.M.  the  Australian  Light 
Horse,  using  their  fixed  bayonets  as 
lances  against  the  Turks,  rode  straight 

836 


at  the  town,  galloping  over  two  deep 
trenches  and  sweeping  forward  in  irre- 
sistible charge.  The  enemy  was  com- 
pletely taken  by  surprise  and  lost 
heavily  in  prisoners  and  guns. 

Thus  with  Beersheba  fallen  and  the 
Turkish  left  flank  exposed,  the  date  of 
the  main  attack  upon  Gaza  which  would 
draw  off  further  enemy  reserves  could 
be  fixed.  On  November  2  the  assault 
was  begun  by  the  western  force. 
To  the  west  the  Turkish  defenses  were 
flanked  by  Umbrella  Hill,  and  General 
Bulfin,  after  capturing  this,  planned 
to  take  the  hostile  works  on  a  front  of 
6,000  yards  from  the  hill  to  Sheik 
Hasan.  The  approach  was  difficult  and 
necessitated  an  advance  in  the  open 
over  sand-dunes  which  rose  in  places  to 
one  hundred  and  fifty  feet.  The  attack 
was  timed  before  dawn  because  of  the 
distance  to  be  covered  before  reaching 
the  enemy's  position :  it  was  successful, 
reached  all  its  objectives  and  captured 
four  hundred  and  fifty  prisoners  besides 
inflicting  heavy  casualties.  The  whole 
Gaza  position  was  now  distinctly 
threatened. 

THE  TURKS  ATTEMPT  TO  RELIEVE    GAZA 
BY  AN  ATTACK  ELSEWHERE. 

Meanwhile  on  the  right  mounted 
troops  had  pushed  into  the  difficult 
waterless  hill  country  north  of  Beershe- 
ba in  order  to  secure  the  flank  of  the 
attack  on  Sheria,  and  another  body  had 
pushed  north  along  the  Hebron  road  to 
seize  the  water  supply  at  Dhaheriya. 
At  this  point,  taking  a  gambler's 
chance,  the  Turk  risked  all  his  available 
reserves  in  an  effort  to  entangle 
AUenby's  forces  in  the  difficult  country 
north  of  Beersheba  and  so  cause  the 
British  Commander  to  make  alterations 
in  his  original  offensive  plan.  Had 
he  succeeded  in  his  design  of  draw- 
ing considerable  forces  against  him, 
the  flank  attack  on  the  Hareira- 
Sheria  positions  might  have  failed, 
and  the  possession  of  Beersheba  then 
would  have  been  nothing  but  an 
incubus  of  the  most  inconvenient  kind. 

With  rare  good  judgment  Allenby 
over-rode  this  diversion,  detaching 
enough  troops  to  draw  in  and  exhaust 
the  enemy  reserves,  but  at  the  same 
time  pushing  forward  his  own  attack 


TANK  AMONG  THE  PALM  TREES 
In  the  second  battle  of  Gaza  tanks,  brought  up  by  rail  from  Egypt,  were  used  but  there  were  not  enough  of  them 
to  be  effective.    The  advance  was  in  the  open  across  3000  yards  of  sand,  progress  was  slow,  and  several  of  the 
tanks  were  hit  by  shells  and  burned  out.  British  Official 


THE  IMPERIAL  CAMEL  CORPS 
The  Imperial  Camel  Corps  consisted  not  only  of  fighting  units  but  of  draught  and  transport  detachments  as  welL 
«Attached  for  the  most  part  to  the  Desert  Column  of  the  Egyptian  Expeditionary  Army  they  were  nevertheless  a 
mobile  force  swung  where  the  need  was  greatest.   In  the  battle  at  Magdhaba  they  first  co-operated  with  the  Anzacs 
\nd  thereafter  the  association  was  one  of  mutual  esteem.    Napoleon  instituted  a  similar  body  when  in  Egypt. 

837 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


on  the  Sheria  defenses  at  Kauwukah 
and  Rushdi  on  the  6th.  "This  attack 
was  a  fine  performance,  the  troops 
advancing  eight  or  nine  miles  during 
the  day  and  capturing  a  series  of  very 
strong  works  covering  a  front  of  about 
seven  miles,  the  greater  part  of  which 
had  been  held  and  strengthened  by  the 
enemy    for    over    six    months."     The 


ed  themselves  on  the  north  bank  in  face 
of  considerable  opposition  from  the 
Turkish  rearguard.  By  the  morning 
of  the  8th  the  retreat  was  general  all 
along  the  line,  and  all  the  original 
Turkish  positions  were  in  British  hands. 
The  enemy  opposite  the  right  flank 
had  retreated  into  the  Judean  Hills. 
Later  he  reorganized    and    descended 


AUSTRALIAN  MILITARY  MOTOR  CYCLISTS  IN  PALESTINE 

Crossing  the  desert  of  Sinai  there  was  little  use  for  the  motor  bicycle  because  the  sand  was  too  soft  in  many  places. 
Roads  were  constructed  by  laying  down  wire-netting  which  formed  some  sort  of  support  for  wheeled  transport. 
In  Palestine,  however,  roads  were  numerous  though  poor,  especially  in  the  coastal  plain.  Red  Cross 


Turks  fell  back  and  mounted  troops 
took  up  the  pursuit  and  pushed  on  to 
occupy  Huj  and  Jemammeh. 

THE  TURKS  EVACUATE  GAZA  AND  RETIRE 
SULLENLY. 

On  the  left  the  bombardment  of 
Gaza  still  continued,  and  an  attack 
was  ordered  for  the  night  of  the  6th- 
7th.  Little  resistance  was  offered  and 
when  patrols  were  pushed  forward  the 
enemy  was  found  to  have  evacuated 
the  city,  leaving  strong  rearguards  at 
Beit-Hanun  and  Attawinah,  who  fired 
on  the  city  as  the  British  entered  it. 
Thus  skilfully  had  Kress  von  Kressen- 
stein  evaded  another  battle.  Cavalry 
advanced  to  Wadi  el  Hesi  and  establish- 

838 


to  the  plain  on  the  flank  of  the  pursuing 
force  to  create  a  diversion. 

Pursuit  followed  and  was  in  echelon 
with  the  left  flank  advanced,  for 
further  east  the  enemy  rearguard 
clung  to  Beit  Hanun  and  Attawinah  all 
through  the  7th,  and  thus  it  was  that 
Jaffa  fell  some  weeks  before  the  capture 
of  Jerusalem  was  attempted.  No 
considerable  body  of  the  enemy  was 
cut  ofif  for  the  rearguards  fought 
obstinately.  When  Cavalry  and  Royal 
Flying  Corps  reported  that  the  retreat 
was  disorganized,  the  infantry  pressed 
forward.  All  arms  suffered  much 
from  thirst,  for  the  khamseen  was 
blowing  and  the  hot  air  was  heavily 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


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LAST  STAGES  IN  ALLENBY'S  CAMPAIGN  AGAINST  JERUSALEM 


laden  with  sand.  Allenby  was  pushing 
on  to  reach  Junction  Station  so  that 
communications  with  Jerusalem  might 
be  cut. 

THE    TURKS    NOW    ATTEMPT    TO    RESIST 
THE  FORWARD  MOVEMENT. 

At  this  juncture  the  enemy  descended 
from  the  Judean  Hills  in  order  to  take 
pressure  off  his  main  force  retreating 
along  the  coastal   plain,   but  he  was 


known  to  be  short  of  transport  and 
munitions  and  generally  disorganized, 
and  so  his  threat  against  the  British 
right  could  be  practically  disregarded 
and  in  no  way  allowed  to  hold  up  the 
pursuit.  November  9,  10  and  11  were 
days  of  minor  engagements,  great 
hardships,  great  activity.  By  the  12th 
it  was  discovered  that  the  coastal  army 
was   making   a   final   effort   south   of 

839 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


^  ... 

1 

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1'  _____^___ 

THE  DAMASCUS  GATE,  JERUSALEM 

Junction  Station  to  arrest  the  for- 
ward movement.  Strung  out  for 
twenty  miles  on  a  line  from  El 
Kubeibeh  to  Beit  Jibrin,  von  Kressen- 
stein  had  stationed  a  force  of  about 
20, GOO  rifles. 

I  Allenby 's  report  continues : ' '  Arrange- 
ments were  made  to  attack  on  the  13th. 
The  country  over  which  the  attack 
took  place  is  open  and  rolling,  dotted 
with  small  villages,  surrounded  by 
mud  walls,  with  plantations  of  trees 
outside  the  walls.  The  most  prominent 
feature  is  the  line  of  heights  on  which 
are  the  villages  of  Katrah  and  El 
Mughar.  .  .  .This  line  forms  a  very 
strong  position,  and  it  was  here  that 
the  enemy  made  his  most  determined 
resistance  against  the  turning  move- 
ment directed  against  his  right  flank. 
The  capture  of  this  position  by  the  52nd 
(Lowland)  Division,  assisted  by  a 
most  dashing  charge  of  mounted  troops, 
who  galloped  across  the  plain  under 
heavy  fire  and  turned  the  enemy's 
position  from  the  north,  was  a  fine  feat 

of    arms After    this    the    enemy 

resistance  weakened,  and  by  the  even- 
ing his  forces  were  retiring  east  and 
north." 
840 


THE      CAPTURE      OF     JUNCTION     STATION 
BREAKS  THE  TURKISH  ARMY  IN  TWO. 

Infantry  captured  Junction  Station 
on  the  morning  of  the  14th,  and  the 
enemy's  force,  broken  into  two  separate 
parts,  retired  east  and  north  respective- 
ly. In  fifteen  days  the  British  infantry 
had  covered  over  forty  miles  and  the 
cavalry  sixty  miles,  had  driven  the 
enemy  from  positions  which  he  had 
held  for  six  months,  and  inflicted 
losses  upon  him  amounting  to  two- 
thirds  of  his  effectives.  In  addition, 
over  9,000  prisoners,  a  large  number  of 
guns,  and  quantities  of  munitions  had 
been  captured.  It  was  necessary  still 
to  clear  up  the  British  left  flank  and 
give  it  a  strong  pivot  to  swing  round 
upon  before  proceeding  against  Jerusa- 
lem, accordingly  Ramah  and  Lydda 
were  occupied  and  patrols  pushed 
forward  towards  Jaffa  which  fell  with- 
out further  opposition  on  the  i6th. 

The  position  was  now  this:  by  the 
capture  of  Junction  Station  the 
enemy's  force  had  been  cut  in  two  and 
had  retired  east  upon  Jerusalem  and 
north  along  the  plain.  The  shortest 
route  by  which  they  could  unite  was 
along  the  one  good  road,  the  Jerusalem- 


TOWER  OF  DAVID  AND  CITY  WALT 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


Nablus  (Shechem)  highway  running 
along  the  crest  of  the  Judean  range 
north  of  the  Holy  City.  Although 
Jerusalem  could  still  obtain  supplies 
from  the  east  by  Amman  on  the 
Hedjaz  Railway,  yet  aeroplane  re- 
connaissance at  this  time  discovered 
that  it  was  probably  the  enemy's 
intention  to  evacuate  the  city  and  fall 
back  upon  Nablus  to  reorganize.  But 
before  Allenby  could  advance  further 
he  had  to  wait  railway  construction 
and  the  landing  of  stores  along  the 
coast. 

THE  TURKS  HOLD  A  COUNCIL  OF  WAR  IN 
JERUSALEM. 

At  this  juncture  the  Turks  held 
council  of  war  in  Jerusalem.  To  it  came 
hurriedly  Enver  Pasha  from  Con- 
stantinople and  Djemal  Pasha  from 
Damascus  (the  latter  only  narrowly 
escaped  death  for  his  train  was  blown 
up  by  Arabs).  That  the  enemy 
appreciated  the  gravity  of  the  crisis  was 
evident.  Next  came  General  von 
Falkenhayn  from  headquarters  at 
Aleppo,  promising  reinforcements.  The 
Germans  were  much  more  panicky 
than  the  Turks  and  started  to  evacuate 
the  city  but  the  Governor  of  Jerusalem, 


CHURCH  OB  THE  HOLY  SEPULCHRE 


JERUSALEM  FROM  THE  MOUNT  OF  OLIVES 

Izzet  Bey,  began  vigorous  defense 
measures  which  shamed  the  Teutons. 
Ali  Fuad  Pasha  at  the  head  of  the 
military  forces  at  once  deported  the 
Zionists  and  others  suspected  of  Allied 
leanings  to  Nablus,  as  well  as  all 
essential  stores. 

Southern  Palestine  is  divided  into 
parallel  strips  of  alternate  depression 
and  elevation,  running  north  and  south. 
The  region  next  the  Mediterranean  Sea 
consists  of  sand-dunes  and  then  of 
coastal  plain  to  an  average  width  of 
fifteen  miles.  To  the  east  rises  the  range 
of  mountains  on  which  stands  Jerusa- 
lem, the  hills  of  Samaria  and  Judea, 
some  3,000  feet  above  the  sea.  These 
mountains  drop  steeply  to  the  Valley 
of  Jordan  and  the  Dead  Sea,  and  be- 
yond the  depression  tower  the  abtupt 
hills  of  Moab.  Finally  to  the  east 
again  stretches  waterless  desert. 

So  far  the  Expeditionary  Force 
had  moved  north  chiefly  on  the  coastal 
belt  and  among  the  early  slopes  of  the 
hills.  Now  it  was  to  turn  east  and 
penetrate  the  intricate  passes  of  Judea 
which  have  been  fatal  to  so  many  in- 
vading armies.  From  the  main  ridge 
running  north  and  south,  spurs,  as  from 

841 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


the  backbone  of  a  fish,  run  east  and 
west  to  the  plains.  The  aspect  of  these 
hills  is  steep,  bare  and  stony  for  the 
most  part,  and  only  one  good  road,  the 
Jaffa-Jerusalem  road,  penetrates  from 
east  to  west.  All  the  other  roads  are 
mere  tracks,  unpractical  for  wheeled 
transport,|and  the  water  supply  through- 
out is  scanty. 

THE      EXPEDITIONARY      FORCE      TURNS 
FROM  THE  SEA  TO  THE  HILLS. 

The  British  Commander's  object 
was  to  isolate  the  Turkish  Jerusalem 
Army  from  the  northern  army  by 
cutting  the  Nablus  road.  He  could 
not  afford  to  delay  his  attack  upon  the 
Judean  passes  and  thus  allow  Turkish 
defense  to  stiffen  in  these  already 
formidable  valleys;  so  he  pushed  for- 
ward in  rapid  advance  upon  the  village 
of  Bireh  which  commanded  the  high- 
way, and  which  as  a  point  of  attack 
would  serve  to  keep  fighting  away  from 
the  vicinity  of  the  Holy  City.  The 
transition  from  desert  to  mountain 
warfare  was  not  easy  for  the  troops, 
though  if  their  equipment  had  been 
fitting  it  would  have  seemed  familiar 
enough  to  the  Indian  frontiersmen. 
As  it  was,  their  kit  was  too  heavy,  their 
mountain  guns  too  few,  the  physical 
effort  of  conquering  the  heights  toil 
enough  without  the  sharp  fighting  by 
which  progress  was  made  from  height 
to  height.  Because  of  their  greater 
mobility  the  Yeomanry  advanced 
through  the  hills  directly  upon  Bireh, 
leaving  the  highway  to  the  infantry 
who  by  November  19  captured  the 
defile  to  Saris,  fiercely  defended  by 
hostile  rearguards  and  a  position  of 
great  natural  strength. 

Turkish  resistance  was  stiffening  as 
von  Falkenhayn's  reinforcements  came 
into  line  and  on  the  20th  the  Yeomanry 
who  had  reached  to  within  4  miles  of 
the  highway  were  checked  by  strong 
opposition  at  Betunia,  and  had  to  fall 
back  upon  Upper  Beth-Horon.  The 
infantry  captured  Enab  at  the  point  of 
the  bayonet  and  a  strong  position 
known  as  the  Neby  Samwil  Ridge.  Here 
on  the  2 1st  advance  stayed,  for  fierce 
counter-attacks  developed.  Though 
the  objective  on  the  Nablus  road  had 
not  been  reached,  excellent  positions 

842 


had  been  won  from  which  the  final 
attack  could  be  prepared  and  delivered 
with  good  prospects  of  success.  Some 
of  the  bitterest  local  fighting  followed 
on  Neby  Samwil  and  north  of  Jaffa 
for  both  sides  felt  the  crisis.  Bright 
moonlight  aided  the  Turkish  snipers 
and  they  picked  off  the  outposts  with 
disconcerting  promptness.  At  one 
point  where  the  Ghurkas  ran  short  of 
ammunition  they  hurled  rocks  and 
boulders  down  upon  their  foes. 

THE    TURKS    GIVE    UP    THE     HOLY     CITY 
WITHOUT  FIGHTING. 

By  December  4  all  ranks  were  full; 
existing  roads  and  tracks  had  been 
improved  and  new  ones  constructed 
so  that  heavy  artillery,  munitions  and 
supplies  had  been  brought  up,  and  the 
water  facilities  developed.  The  enemy's 
lines  protecting  Jerusalem  from  north 
and  north-west  lay  on  a  front  five 
miles  from  the  city,  but  he  had  machine 
guns  and  artillery  in  the  outskirts  of 
the  city  itself.  Besides  the  road 
north  to  Nablus,  a  second  good  highway 
ran  to  Jericho  on  the  east,  and  the 
general  idea  of  the  assault  upon  the  city 
was  simultaneous  pressure  on  these  two 
roads  by  three  divisions. 

The  date  for  the  attack  was  fixed  as 
December  8.  On  the  7th  the  weather 
broke  and  rain  for  three  days  was 
almost  continuous.  Airmen  could  not 
work  in  the  mists  that  veiled  the  hills, 
mechanical  transport  and  camels  halted 
on  the  mud-logged  roads.  Neverthe- 
less, on  the  night  of  7th-8th,  detach- 
ments crept  down  the  mountain  side, 
crossed  the  deep  wadi  bed  at  the 
bottom  in  silence  and  clambered  up 
the  opposite  ridge,  where  they  stormed 
the  main  Turkish  line  before  daylight, 
and  thus  captured  the  western  defenses 
of  Jerusalem,  The  74th  Division 
swung  forward  against  the  Turkish 
positions  defending  the  Nablus  road, 
but  during  the  night  the  Turks  had 
withdrawn,  and  the  74th  and  part  of 
the  6oth  occupied  positions  northwest 
of  Jerusalem.  The  53rd  was  detailed 
to  clear  the  Mount  of  Olives  and  they 
drove  the  enemy  east  and  occupied 
the  road  to  Jericho.  These  operations 
isolated  Jerusalem  and  at  about  noon 
on   the  9th   of   December  the  enemy 


VICTIMS  OF  TURKISH  MISGOVERNMENT 

These  children  have  walked  all  the  way  in  the  hot  sun  from  Es  Salt  beyond  Jordan  to  Jerusalem.  They  are  waiting 
with  their  parents,  1,500  in  all,  in  the  court  yard  of  the  St.  James  Monastery  in  Mount  Sion,  to  be  taken  to  the 

;.t  rmanent  camp  for  refugees  at  Port  Said. 


REFUGEES  FROM  BEYOND  JORDAN 

These  Armenians  from  Kerak,  southeast  of  the  Dead  Sea,  are  coming  into  Jerusalem  through  the  Garden  of 

Gethsemane,  made  forever  memorable  by  the  events  recorded  in  the    Gospels.    Behind    them  lies  the  Jeri- 

♦cho-Jerusalem  road  along  which  they  fled.    Early  in   1917  the  Hedjaz  Arabs  captured  the  region  south  and 

east  of  the  Dead  Sea  of  which  Kerak  is  the  capital.  ,  ^ 

Pictures  by  courtesy  of  Red  Cross  Magazme 


fflSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


ALLENBY  ENTERING  BY  JAFFA  GATE 


sent  out  a  parlementaire   and  surren- 
dered the  city. 

GENERAL  ALLENBY  ENTERS  JERUSALEM 
WITHOUT  CEREMONY. 

On  the  nth  General  Allenby  entered 
the  city  by  the  Jaffa  Gate.  He  came  on 
foot  and  left  on  foot  and  no  pageantry 
profaned  the  solemnity  of  the  occasion. 
A  proclamation  announcing  that  order 
would  be  maintained  in  all  the  hallowed 
sites  of  the  three  great  religions  which 

844 


were  to  be  guarded  and  preserved,  and 
no  impediment  to  be  placed  in  the  way 
of  worshippers  therein,  was  read  in 
English,  French,  Italian  and  Arabic 
from  the  parapet  of  the  citadel  below 
the  Tower  of  David.  When  this  was 
done  General  Allenby  went  to  the 
small  space  behind  the  citadel,  where 
the  chief  notables  and  ecclesiastics  of 
the  different  communities  that  re- 
mained were  presented  to  him.    After 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


this  brief  ceremony  the  general  left 
the  City  of  David  by  the  Jaffa  Gate. 
No  stronghold  has  been  so  repeatedly 
sacked  and  rebuilt.  Jerusalem  stands 
for  ruin  and  renewal,  for  death  and 
rebirth.  It  has  survived  attacks  from 
the  Egyptians,  Babylonians,  Assyrians 
and  Arabians,  the  Pharaohs,  Caesars, 
Caliphs,  the  Selucidae,  the  Abassids, 
the  Seljuks, — yet  it  has  remained  a 
monument  of  loneliness. 


rose  high.  Early  in  November,  as 
Allenby's  troops  pressed  into  the 
Judean  Hills,  Mr.  Balfour,  acting  for 
the  British  Government,  declared  that 
they  viewed  "with  favor  the  establish- 
ment of  a  national  home  for  the  Jewish 
people,  and  will  use  their  best  endeavors 
to  facilitate  the  achievement  of  their 
object."  With  great  aspirations  and 
some  grounds  for  hope  the  Zionists 
looked  forward  to  the  final  ending  of 


BRroOE  BUILT  OVER  THE  JORDAN 

At  El  Ghoraniyeh  the  British,  with  the  assistance  of  the  Egyptian  Labor  Corps,  built  a  pontoon  bridge  across  the 
Jordan  in  order  that  they  might  capture  Jericho  and  attack  the  Hedjaz  railway,  the  main  line  of  Turkish  com- 
munications.  In  the  picture  shown  above  the  bridge  is  being  tested  for  traffic. 


THE      CITY     DEAR      TO      BOTH    JEW     AND 
CHRISTIAN. 

No  triumph  in  the  annals  of  the  war 
meant  more  to  the  greatly  differing 
peoples  who  made  up  the  Allies,  united 
against  the  Turk  in  the  bond  of  a 
common  Christianity  that  was  stronger 
and  more  enduring  than  the  bond  of 
mutual  self-interest.  The  city  so  nearly 
associated  with  the  Founder  of  their 
faith,  whose  streets  He  had  trod,  whose 
^courts  He  had  viewed,  had  —  save  for 
rare  intervals  —  been  in  the  hands  of 
unbelievers  for  well-nigh  a  thousand 
years.  For  the  Jews  the  city  of  Zion 
meant  even  more.  Seat  of  their  ancient 
temples  and  source  of  much  inspiration, 
its  capture  seemed  to  herald  a  new  era 
in  the  history  of  their  race,  and  with  the 
dispossession  of  the  Turk  their  hopes 


the  struggle,  and  the  solution  of  their 
problems. 

The  Allied  press  acclaimed  the 
triumph  of  General  Allenby  but  the 
Germans  declared  that  Jerusalem  had 
no  military  value.  Yet  in  less  than 
three  weeks  (December  26-27)  the 
Turks  made  fierce  Counter-attacks  to 
regain  it.  They  failed,  and  instead  the 
British  lines  were  pushed  north  and  the 
security  of  the  city  assured,  while 
their  left  wing  pushed  back  the  Turk 
from  Jaffa.  Eastwards  the  enemy 
still  held  Jericho  but  this  was  captured 
(February  21),  and  thus  the  eastern 
flank  made  safe.  The  Commander-in- 
Chief  was  unable  because  of  transport 
and  supply  difficulties  to  continue 
his  operations  to  the  north,  and  under- 
took instead   to   co-operate  with   the 

845 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


Arabs  in  attacks  on  the  enemy's 
chief  remaining  line  of  communication 
— the  Hedjaz  Railway  east  of  the 
Jordan.  A  quick  glance  at  the  war 
record  of  AUenby's  Arabian  Allies  will 
be  in  order  at  this  juncture. 

THE      HEDJAZ      REVOLT      AGAINST      THE 
SULTAN. 

The  nomadic  Arab  tribes  of  Mesopo- 
tamia were  neither  pro- Ally   nor  pro- 


was  as  lightly  acknowledged.  Selim 
the  Grim  conquered  Egypt  in  1517, 
Damascus  and  Jerusalem  had  already 
fallen  to  him,  and  the  Sherif  of  Mecca 
acknowledged  him  therefore  as  Caliph 
and  lord  of  the  Hedja^.  Turkish  rule 
in  the  Hedjaz  in  later  times  became 
shadowy,  resting  only  upon  subsidies 
to  native  chiefs  and  supported  by 
garrisons  of  soldiers,  but  the  guardian- 


THE  TURKISH  RETURN  TO  THE  HOLY  CITY 

A  picture  of  Turkish  prisoners,  recently  captured  by  the  British  forces,  being  marched  through  the  streets  of 
Jerusalem.  Note  the  signposts  in  English  for  the  direction  of  the  victorious  troops.  From  the  "Post  Office" 
British  officers  are  watching  the  columns  defile.  Buildings  are  intact  because  the  Commander  was  careful  not  to 
fire  upon  the  Holy  City.  British  Official. 

ship  of  the  Holy  Places  was  important 
to  Turkey  as  a  foundation  of  prestige  in 
the  Mahommedan  world.  With  true 
foresight  Sultan  Abdul  Hamid  between 
1901  and  1908  built  the  so-called 
"  Pilgrims'  Railway"  east  of  the  Jordan 
between  Damascus  and  Medina,  ap- 
parently to  render  the  annual  pilgrim- 
age to  the  Holy  Places  more  con- 
venient —  in  reality  to  strengthen  the 
Turkish  grasp  upon  Hedjaz  and  Asir 
and  Yemen  to  the  south.  When  to 
Sultan  Abdul  Hamid  succeeded  the 
Committee  of  Union  and  Progress 
and  a  policy  of  pro-Germanism,  the 
subject    races    of    the    empire    grew 


German :  they  were  unashamedly  pro- 
winner.  Stragglers  from  either  side 
became  their  victims,  while  to  the 
victor  in  an  engagement  they  gave 
local  support.  Nominally,  the  Turk 
was  their  lord  and  co-religionist  who 
had  invoked  their  aid  in  a  jihad: 
actually  he  was  the  alien  and  wasteful 
owner  of  their  soil,  who,  however,  when 
successful  must  be  supported.  Thus, 
to  choose  typical  incidents,  Turkish 
victory  at  Kut  and  failure  before 
Bagdad  made  a  wide  disparity  in  the 
strength  of  their  Arab  contingents. 

In  Arabia,  another  part  of  their 
empire,  the  authority  of  Constantinople 

846 


fflSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


HAIFA    //'    \     f      ^■^""''rfJi 


•t^g^:;'-. 


m^' 


m  e  o  i  terranean 
Sea 


JAFF/. 


j/TuI  l&ram 


W^aTTineh 


afcrdan 


oBir  Madkur 


£/  >rL       °^,>,   y-f^\      \      ^T^     :!5,,Reersf*ba  -5-.. 
V,  -^-^g^--_^^  ,^    .°^«,.;>.  ..,>., /fate,;      (iJS»l''Yy^    T    ^ 


■^JSi-Wii 


SheJIi/T 
IflKubr 


iBedc 


''■     %Jf  ^Jl 


w 


\ 
I 


'A 


r  uAmr  Shawn 


QDnvr<ht 


MAP  ILLUSTRATING  THE  ADVANCE  OF  THE  EGYPTIAN  EXPEDITIONARY  FORCE 


restless.  A  jihad  was  proclaimed 
throughout  the  Moslem  world  when 
Turkey  joined  the  Teutonic  Alliance, 
but  many  of  the  faithful  found  it 
*  difificult  to  reconcile  the  acts  of  Talaat 
Bey,   Enver  Pasha  and   Djemal  with 


Islamism.  Thus  early  in  1916  Djemal 
Pasha  arrested  and  executed  many 
leading  notables  in  Damascus  and 
Enver  Pasha  on  a  visit  to  Mecca 
shocked  the  orthodox  by  his  undisguised 
atheism  and  callousness. 

847 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


O 


THER   CAUSES   OF   UNREST   AMONG    THE 
ARABS 

There  were  other  causes  of  unrest 
among  the  Arabs.  Racial  feeling  ran 
strongly  and  they  despised  a  con- 
queror less  intellectual  than  them- 
selves. The  Grand  Sherif  of  Mecca 
commanded  considerable  respect  by 
virtue  of  his  office  as  custodian  of  the 
Holy   Places  and   himself  valued   the 


tempt  and  profanation  of  the  Sacred 
House.  But  we  are  determined  not  to 
leave  our  religions  and  national  rights 
as  a  plaything  in  the  hands  of  the 
Union  and  Progress  Party."  If  the 
Arabs  once  again  become  the  leaders 
of  the  Mohammedans  throughout  the 
world  this  proclamation  will  have 
considerable  historic  interest. 

In     the     military     operations     that 


AUSTRALIAN  LIGHT  HORSE  ENTERING  DAMASCUS 

October  1,  1918,  the  Australians  entered  Damascus  "a  rose-red  city  half  as  old  as  Time."  They  had  taken  the 
route  to  the  north  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  had  met  serious  opposition  both  at  tlie  Jordan  and  El  Kuneitrah.  To  the 
east  of  Jordan,  British  Cavalry  and  an  Arab  column  advanced  upon  Damascus. 


advantages  of  western  civilization. 
In  June,  1916,  he  issued  a  proclamation 
to  the  Moslem  world  forswearing  his 
allegiance  to  the  Turk  on  religious 
grounds.  After  detailing  the  offenses 
of  the  Committee  of  Union  and  Progress 
the  document  proceeds:  "We  have 
sufficient  proof  of  how  they  regard  the 
religion  and  the  Arab  people  in  the  fact 
that  they  shelled  the  Ancient  House .  .  . 
firing  two  shells  at  it  from  their  big  guns 
when  the  country  rose  to  demand  its 

independence We  have  the  whole 

Mohammedan    world    from    East    to 
West  to  pass  judgment  on  this  con- 
848 


followed  the  Hedjaz  Arabs  were  handi- 
capped becauvse  they  were  fighting 
against  highly  disciplined  troops  equip- 
ped with  the  scientific  appliances -of 
modern  warfare.  Nevertheless,  they 
can  claim  in  two  years'  warfare  not 
only  to  have  cleared  the  Turks  from 
south  and  central  Hedjaz  (a  territory 
somewhat  larger  than  Great  Britain) 
and  from  800  miles  of  the  Red  Sea 
coast,  but  also  to  have  captured,  killed 
or  immobilized  40,000  of  the  finest 
Turkish  troops.  In  the  final  stage  of  the 
advance  upon  Damascus  they  gave  val- 
uable assistance  on  the  east  of  Jordan. 


DAMASCUS,  THE  DAY  AFTER  CAPTURE 
Perhaps  one  of  the  oldest  cities  in  the  world,  Damascus  has  a  very  heterogeneous  population,  7"«»|ly  estimated 
as  ranging  between  160.000  and  350,000.    Of  the  many  Jew,  Christian,  and  Moslem  places  of  worship,  the  last 
predomlnfte  wUh  a  total'of  over  two  hundred..  The  city  was  once  a  famous  seat  of  learning  and  contame^numermw 
schools  in  which  grammar,  theology,  and  jurisprudence  were  taught.  isntisn  umciai. 


A  STREET  SCENE  IN  DAMASCUS 
Seen  from  a  distance  Damascus  is  impressive  but  on  closer  acquaintance,  like  most  Oriental  cities,  somewhat 
disappointing.    With  the  exception  of  the  street  called  "Straight"  aU  its  streets  "«  P^^^^'' '"'I^'^^^/illef  mant 
Its  bazaars  though  numerous  and  well-kept  are  but  poorly  stocked  and  '"differently  attended.   The  chief  manu 
factures  are  silver  and  gold  ornaments,  interwoven  fabrics,  brass  and  copper  work  and  inlaid  furniture.   Caravans 
from  Aleppo  visit  the  city  every  month. 

849 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


THE  ARABS  FREE  HEDJAZ  AND  ADVANCE 
TO  THE  DEAD  SEA. 

After  the  proclamation,  the  Emir's 
troops  mastered  the  Turkish  garrisons 
in  Mecca  and  its  sea-port  Jeddah.  In 
September  Taif,  the  Turkish  head- 
quarters, surrendered  and  with  the  city 
Ghaleb  Pasha,  Vali  and  Commander-in- 


GENERAL  SIR  EDMUND  H.  H.  ALLENBY,  K.C.B. 


him  first  of  all  to  seize  command  of  all 
roads  and  tracks  leading  from  Judea 
into  the  Jordan  Valley  so  as  to  prevent 
reinforcements  reaching  the  Turks  on 
the  east  of  the  river.  From  March 
8-12  severe  fighting  took  place  on  the 
Jerusalem-Nablus  and  Jericho-Beisan 
roads.  Though  the  Turks  were  driven 
off  they  continued  to  use  the 
roads  farther  north.  The  way 
was,  however,  open  for  attacks 
on  the  Hedjaz  railway  and, 
March  21,  Allenby  forced  the 
crossing  of  the  Jordan  and 
raided  Amman.  The  attack 
drew  in  the  Turkish  reserves 
but  was  otherwise  only  rnod- 
erately  successful,  although 
Feisal,  seizing  the  opportunity, 
cut  the  line  north  and  south 
of  Ma'an  and  held  possession 
of  the  station  itself  for  a  brief 
interval.  A  second  trans- 
Jordanic  raid  was  planned  and 
advance  began  April  30,  but 
the  Arab  tribe  which  had  prom- 
ised help  did  not  arrive  and 
the  British  troops  had  to  retire. 

ALLENBY       FORCED       TO       SEND 
L     TROOPS      TO     THE     WESTERN 
FRONT. 

The  situation  on  the  Western 
Front  now  cast  its  shadow 
over  the  fortunes  of  the  Egyp- 
tian Army.  Allenby  was  forced 
to  send  a  large  part  of  his 
army  to  Europe  and  in  re- 
organizing filled  up  his  corps 
largely  with  untried  Indian 
troops.    No  offensive  was  possi- 


Commanding  the  Cavalry  Expeditionary  Force  at  the  beginning  of 

the   war.    In   April,    1915,  he   succeeded   Sir  Herbert  Plumer  as 

commander  of  the  Fifth  Corps:    in  June,  1917,  he  was  appointed  to    blc  Under  SUch  Conditions,  and 

command  the  Egyptian  Expeditionary  Force.  ,         i    /-    i  ,  •         i  ^i  i 

local  fighting  became  the  rule 


chief.  By  the  end  of  the  year  Osmanli 
authority  in  Hedjaz  was  confined 
to  Medina  and  a  narrow  strip  of 
country  on  either  side  of  the  railway. 
In  November  the  Emir  Hussein  as- 
sumed the  title  of  King  of  the  Hedjaz. 
Early  in  191 7  the  Arabs  had  advanced 
from  the  south  and  were  based  on 
Akaba  on  the  Dead  Sea  and  under  the 
Emir  Feisal  (Hussein's  eldest  son)  were 
opposed  to  a  Turkish  army  somewhat 
their  superior  in  strength. 

In  order  for  Allenby  to  make  raids 
across  the  Jordan  it  was  necessary  for 

850 


in   the   hot   months. 

In  Septernber  before  the  heavy 
autumn  rains  began  the  British  again 
resumed  the  offensive.  The  Turkish 
line  at  this  time  lay  on  a  front  from 
Jaffa  through  the  hills  of  Ephraim  to  a 
front  half  way  between  Nablus  and 
Jerusalem,  thence  on  to  Jordan  and 
down  its  eastern  bank  to  the  Dead  Sea. 
Menacing  their  left  flank,  though  at 
some  distance  from  it,  were  the  Hedjaz 
Arabs  under  Feisal  at  Ma'an.  From 
west  to  east  the  Turks  had  the  VII  and 
VIII    Armies   to    the   right  (west)    of 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


the  Arabs,  on  the  31st  Feisal  captured 
Deraa  on  the  railway,  and  the  4th 
Cavalry  Division  and  Arabs  pushed  on 
together,  and  at  6  a.m.  October  i 
entered  Damascus.  In  twelve  days 
the     Egyptian     Expeditionary     Force 


Marash 


Jordan  and  the  IV  Army  on  the  left 
(east). 

ALLENBY      ATTEMPTS    TO    DESTROY    THE 
.    TURKISH     ARMIES. 

At  4:30  A.M.  on  September  19  the 
main  attack  began.  The  infantry  in 
rapid  advance  overran  the  en- 
emy defenses  and  penetrated 
to  a  depth  of  five  miles.  Then 
the  cav^alry  galloped  through 
the  broken  lines  and  by  midday 
had  covered  nineteen  miles. 
Near  the  sea  the  Naval  Flotilla 
hastened  the  retreat  by  shell- 
ing the  coast  roads.  In  the 
hill  country  the  advancing 
right  wing  met  some  stiff  re- 
sistance, but  overcame  it  by 
the  evening  of  the  20th.  The 
cavalry  riding  north  took 
Nazareth  (whence  Liman  von 
Sanders,  commander  of  the 
Turkish  Army  since  March, 
precipitately  fled),  the  railway 
at  Beisan  and  the  bridge  over 
the  'Jordan,  south  of  the  Sea 
of  Galilee.  In  thirty-six  hours 
the  trap  closed,  for  British  in- 
fantry and  cavalry  held  the 
Turkish  VII  and  VIII  Armies 
between  them  and  no  escape 
was  possible  save  south-east 
to  the  Jordan  crossing  at  Jisr 
ed  Damieh.  By  the  24th  the 
two  armies  had  fallen  into 
British  hands.  Allenby  lost  no 
time  in  pressing  his  advantage. 
Only  the  IV  Army  on  the  east 
of  Jordan  remained.  It  did 
not  begin  its  retreat  until  the 
fourth  day  of  battle,  then 
Amman  fell  (25th  September), 
and  Feisal  pressed  the  Turks 
back  north  along  the  railway. 
Damascus  was  the  next  step,    ^^'g**    ™E  full  extent  of  allenby'S  conquests 

had  disposed  of  three  armies,  from  which 


ElKoraaima 


Aln  elWeibrf* 


Htriliroy 


Chauvel  and  the  Desert  Mounted 
Column  advanced  in  two  groups  to  the 
north  and  south  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee. 
The  Australians  taking  the  northern 
route  occupied  Tiberias  and  pushed 
on  to  a  fiercely  contested  passage  of  the 
Jordan  and  formidable  resistance  at 
El  Kuneitrah.  Nevertheless  by  the 
30th  they  were  only  thirty  miles  south- 
west of  Damascus.  The  southern  col- 
umn gained  touch  at  Er  Remte  with 


they  had  captured  60,000  prisoners 
and  between  300-400  guns.  Only  a 
mob  of  perhaps  17,000  Turks  and 
Germans  fleeing  north  remained  of 
the  defenders  of  the  Syrian  front. 

THE    TURKISH    FORCES    IN    SYRIA    WIPED 
OUT. 

Allenby,  however,  could  not  rest 
upon  his  laurels:  he  needed  a  port 
and  railway  running  in  from  the  sea- 

851 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


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INDIANS  IN  CAPTIVITY  IN  GERMANY 

The  lot  of  Allied  prisoners  was  never  an  enviable  one,  and  in  the  case  of  the  Indians  its  hardships  were  further 
aggravated  by  the  difficulties  of  obtaining  food  that  kept  inviolate  their  rules  of  caste,  and  by  the  inclemencies  of 
the  northern  European  winter  bearing  hardly  upon  men  accustomed  to  subtropical  heat.  Picture,  H.  Ruschin 


coast  to  keep  up  his  supplies,  and 
shortly  after  (Oct.  6-8)  the  Rayak- 
Beirut  line  fell  into  his  hands.  The 
rest  was  a  triumphal  progress:  Balbek 
fell  on  the  nth,  Horns  and  Tripoli 
on  the  13th.  The  last  stage  was 
Aleppo:  the  5th  Cavalry  Division  and 
armored  cars  went  forward  and  after 
a  few  slight  brushes  with  the  enemy 
reached  the  place  on  the  25th  where 
they  were  joined  by  an  Arab  contin- 
gent and  occupied  it  on  the  26th. 
Since  September  19,  the  Allied  front 
had  advanced  300   miles   north;    the 


Turkish    Armies    in   Syria   had    been 
wiped  out. 

The  time  was  ripe  for  Marshall  to 
move  in  Mesopotamia.  One  column 
pushed  up  the  Tigris,  drove  back  a 
Turkish  army  of  7,000  men,  cut  off  its 
retreat  and  forced  its  surrender  (Octo- 
ber 30) .  A  second  force  advanced  up  the 
Kifri  Kirkuk-Keupri  road  until  Mosul 
was  within  its  reach.  When  Marshall 
entered  the  city  November  3  there 
was  no  need  for  fighting:  Turkey  like 
Bulgaria  had  surrendered. 

Muriel  Bray 


8.';2 


Exercising  newly  arrived  men  at  Yaphank 

Chapter  LI 

Training  the  Citizen  Army 

THE    AMERICAN    INFANTRY    COMBAT    DIVISION 
k  -,      .'  TRAINING  FOR  THE  WORLD  WAR 


AND    ITS 


;*^^ 


By  Major-General  Leonard  Wood,  U.S.A. 

Commanding  89th  and  loth  Divisions 


AN  American  Division  is  a  self-con- 
tained unit  made  up  of  all  neces- 
tesary  arms  and  services,  and  complete 
in  itself  with  every  requirement  for  in- 
n dependent   action   incident   to   its   or- 
dinary operations.     It  is  the  basis  of 
organization  for  a  mobile  army. 

INTENSIVE   TRAINING  OF  THE  AMERICAN 
INFANTRY  COMBAT  DIVISION. 

In  answer  to  the  request  of  the 
Entente  for  reinforcements  to  meet  the 
great  German  Drive  of  1918,  special 
intensive  training  of  divisional  units 
was  begun. 

In  the  training  of  a  division  one  is 
confronted  with  the  problem  of  not 
only  imparting  military  information 
and  training,  but  also  with  that  of 
building  up  an  organization  spirit,  an 
organization  morale,  without  which 
no  amount  of  military  training  will 
make  a  first-class  fighting  organiza- 
tion. 

For  a  military  organization  to  be 
effective,  it  must  be  a  living,  human 
organization.  It  must  have  not  only  a 
body  but  a  soul,  a  spirit,  a  character 
and  individuality.  Unless  these  are 
developed  the  training  has  not  been 
successful.  Everything  must  be  done 
not  only  to  build  up  the  military  body, 
«or  organization,  but  to  put  into  it  a 
spirit  and  a  soul.    This  means  that  its 


men  must  be  kept  together  as  much  as 
possible.  When  men  are  taken  from  a 
division  because  of  wounds  or  sick- 
ness, every  effort  must  be  made  to 
return  them  to  their  division.  Nothing 
demoralizes  men  more  quickly  or  com- 
pletely than  the  disregard  of  this  basic 
principle.  Whenever  this  principle 
has  been  disregarded,  morale  has  been 
impaired  and  the  fighting  efficiency  of 
the  division  lowered. 

GENERAL  principles    WHICH    MUST   BE 
OBSERVED  IN  TRAINING. 

Everything  possible  must  be  done  to 
convince  the  men  of  the  worthiness  of 
the  cause  for  which  they  are  fighting,  to 
build  up  a  feeling  of  service  and  sacri- 
fice and  an  appreciation  of  the  nobility 
of  service  in  a  good  cause ;  to  point  out 
that  they  are  offering  their  lives  that 
others  may  live  and  that  their  govern- 
ment and  its  institutions  may  endure. 

They  must  be  taught  respect  for  their 
officers  and  be  made  to  understand 
that  the  salute  is  an  indication  not 
only  of  discipline,  but  also  a  mark  of 
recognition  between  members  of  the 
great  Brotherhood  of  Men  at  Arms. 
Men  must  be  taught  to  look  upon  the 
uniform  as  a  symbol  of  their  country, 
and  as  such  to  honor  it  and  to  keep  it 
clean  by  keeping  it  out  of  places  of 
ill-repute. 

853 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


THE    TRAINING    AND    ATTITUDE    OF    THE 
JUNIOR  OFFICERS. 

In  their  training  the  officers  must  be 
impressed  with  the  idea  that  they  are 
under  the  strictest  possible  obHgation 
to  prevserve  the  self-respect  of  their 
men — that  men  whose  self-respect 
has  been  destroyed  are  of  little  value 
as  soldiers;  to  so  conduct  themselves 
that  they  will  always  be  not  only  an 
example,  but  also  a  source  of  inspira- 
tion; that  the  best  discipline  is  not 
founded  upon  fear  but  upon  respect 
for  and  confidence  in  the  officer.    The 


the  maintenance  of  efficiency  and  high 
morale,  have  ever  present  evidence  of 
the  human  element  in  his  relations 
with  his  men. 

THE     FAILURES     AND     DEFICIENCIES     OF 
OFFICERS  AFFECT  MEN. 

When  troops  come  back  from  war 
dissatisfied  with  their  officers — hating 
service — it  can  be  asserted  that  the 
officer  body  has  failed  to  understand 
the  real  function  of  an  officer,  that  is, 
to  create  that  spirit  of  discipline  which 
is  founded  upon  mutual  respect  and 
confidence. 


CAMP  MILLS,  WHERE  THE  RAINBOW  DIVISION  WAS  TRAINED 

Camp  Mills  at  Mineola,  Long  Island,  was  intended  for  an  embarkation  camp,  but  the  Forty-Second,  or  Rainbow 
Division,  received  the  greater  part  of  its  training  here.  The  organization  included  units  from  twenty-seven 
states.  Times  Photo  Service 

When  men  first  come  for  training 
they  must  be  treated  with  the  utmost* 
patience.  The  officers  should  assume 
that  the  men  are  there  to  do  their  best. 
This  assumption  is  correct  in  about 
97  per  cent  of  the  cases.  He  must  re- 
member that  the  men  are  utterly  with- 
out information  upon  military  matters, 
and  they  have  no  idea  of  military  dis- 
tinctions— all  of  these  matters  must  be 
explained  to  them.  That  the  gradual 
merging  of  individuality  into  massed 
discipline  to  the  extent  necessary  for 
the  purpose  of  effective  movement  in 
large  bodies  can  be  done  effectively 
only  when  it  is  done  intelligently.  Not- 
withstanding this  massed  discipline, 
there  must  be  left  the  spirit  of  in- 
dividuality, self-reliance  and  initiative, 
which    has   always    characterized    the 


men  will  rise  to  the  level  of  the  officer 
and  the  spirit  of  service  if  he  is  a  real 
leader;  and  the  spirit  of  the  men  col- 
lectively is,  of  course,  the  spirit  of 
the  organization. 

The  first  duty  of  a  good  officer  is  to 
look  to  the  welfare  of  his  men,  and  un- 
der this  comes  not  only  the  training, 
but  also  their  physical  condition,  their 
food,  their  clothing,  their  morale — in 
brief,  everything  which  tends  to  bring 
them  upon  the  battlefield  in  the  best 
possible  physical  and  moral  condition 
to  fight  a  successful  battle. 

The  officer  must  have  impressed 
upon  him  that  if  he  is  fit  to  be  an  officer 
he  will  be  able  to  maintain  friendly  and 
kindly  relations  with  his  men,  and  at 
the  same  time  maintain  a  rigid  dis- 
cipline.   He  must,  in   order   to  assure 

854 


fflSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


individual  American  soldier  and  which 
the  conditions  of  modern  warfare 
make  more  and  more  important. 

THE  FIRST  DAYS  IN  CAMP  DIFFICULT  FOR 
THE  MEN. 

The  drafted  men  on  arrival  at  the 
Division  Cantonment  were  assigned 
to  a  Depot  Brigade  for  physical 
examination — inoculation,  vaccina- 
tion, et   cetera — equipment  and   pre- 


and  aiming  drills;  mechanism  of  the 
.piece;  instruction  in  the  Articles  of 
iWar;  relations  between  officers  and 
men;  military  courtesy;  sanitation, 
personal  and  general.  Drill  was  broken 
to  advantage  by  periods  of  interesting 
games,  not  too  strenuous  in  character. 
They  were  also  given  some  work  in 
company  formations.  In  other  words, 
the  men  were  occupied  with  helpful 


SETTING-UP  EXERCISES  AT  CAMP  HANCOCK 

Much  attention  was  given  to  the  physical  development  of  the  young  recruits.    A  carefully  graded  system  of  physical 
exercises  strengthened  the  muscles,  increased  the  endurance,  and  improved  the  carriage  of  the  men.     No  part 


of  the  training  was  more  important  than  this. 
Guard  was  trained. 


This  picture  was  taken  at  Camp  Hancock  where  the  Pennsylvania 

U.  S.  Official. 


liminary  training.  During  this  time, 
due  to  the  change  of  food,  surroundings, 
method  of  living,  the  prospect  of  long, 
hard  service  and  to  the  fact  that  they 
were  undergoing  a  biological  struggle 
as  they  were  receiving  various  inocula- 
tions, vaccinations,  et  cetera,  their  gen- 
eral physical  resistance  was  lowered. 

The  men  were  kept  in  the  Depot 
Brigade  for  about  one  month,  during 
which  time  an  immense  amount  of 
work  was  done.  There  were  brief  but 
lively  periods  of  setting-up  exercises, 
short  and  snappy  instruction  in  the 
School  of  the  Soldier  and  Squad; 
musketry  instruction,  such  as  pointing 


work  adapted  to  their  physical  capabil- 
ity. All  of  this  instruction  had  value 
in  quickening  the  men  and  in  giving 
them  bodily  balance  and  control. 

This  system  of  training  resulted  in 
the  men  being  ready  when  they  were 
assigned  to  a  division  for  infantry  train- 
ing to  take  up  their  work  with  some 
knowledge  of  the  weapon  which  they 
had  to  use,  its  care  and  mechanism,  and 
the  basic  principle  of  military  service. 
They  also  had  a  fair  knowledge  of 
military  courtesy,  and  if  they  were 
properly  handled  they  were  in  good 
physical  condition  and  keen  for  their 
real  work. 

855 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


TEXT-BOOKS  FOR  THE  ARMY 

All  athletic  sports  were  encouraged,  and  few  were 
more  popular  than  boxing.  The  instructor  at  Camp 
Dix,  New  Jersey,  is  shown  carrying  his  text-books. 

Xew  York  Times  Photo  Service 

HOW    WAS    AN    AMERICAN     COMBAT     DI- 
VISION ORGANIZED? 

The  American  Infantry  Combat 
Division  in  the  World  War  had  an 
authorized  strength  of  i,oo6  officers 
and  27,084  enlisted  men,  and  was 
organized  as  follows: 

(a)  Division  Headquarters, 

(b)  2  Infantry  Brigades, 

(c)  I  Field  Artillery  Brigade, 

(d)  Divisional  Machine  Gun  Bat- 
talion, 

(e)  I  Regiment  of  Engineers  (Sap- 
pers), 

(f)  I  Field  Signal  Battalion, 

(g)  Train  Headquarters  and  Military 
Police, 

(h)  Ammunition  Train, 
(i)  Supply  Train, 
(j)  Engineer  Train, 
(k)  Sanitary  Train. 

(a)  Division  Headquarters,  consist- 
ing of  the  Division  Commander  (Ma- 
jor General),  his  personal  staff  of  5 
aides-de-camp    and    a    division    staff 

856 


composed  of  the  General  Staff,  Tech- 
nical Staff  and  Administrative  Staff; 
one  Headquarters  Detachment  which 
furnished  clerks,  stenographers,  et 
cetera,  for  carrying  on  the  business  of 
the  Headquarters;  one  Headquarters 
Troop  which  furnished  the  guard  and 
mounted  orderlies  for  Headquarters. 
Taken  in  the  order  named  these  parts 
of  the  Division  Headquarters  were 
organized  as  follows: 

General  Staff,  consisting  of  the  Chief 
of  Staff  and  3  assistants  known  as: 
Assistant  Chief  of  Staff  for  Adminis- 
tration, Supply  and  Transportation, 
G-i;  Assistant  Chief  of  Staff  for  In- 
telligence, G-2;  Assistant  Chief  of 
Staff  for  Operations,  G-3,  and  their 
assistants. 

Technical  Staff,  consisting  of  the 
Artillery  Brigade  Commander,  Division 
Engineer,  Division  Surgeon,  Division 
Signal  Officer,  Division'  Machine  Gun 
Officer,  Division  Chemical  Warfare 
Service  Oflficer,  Division  Quarter- 
master, Division  Ordnance  Officer, 
Division  Veterinarian,  and  their  as- 
sistants. 

Administrative  Staff,  consisting  of 
the  Division  Adjutant,  Division  In- 
spector, Division  Judge  Advocate,  and 
their  assistants. 

Headquarters  Detachment,  consist- 
ing of  5  field  clerks,  i  postal  agent  and 
no  enlisted  men. 

Headquarters  Troop,  consisting  of  3 
officers  and  112  enlisted  men. 

Total  strength  of  Division  Head- 
quarters: 55  officers,  5  field  clerks,  i 
postal  agent  and  232  enlisted  men. 

(b)  Two  Infantry  Brigades,  each 
consisting  of  Brigade  Headquarters, 
Brigade  Commander  (Brigadier  Gen- 
eral) and  3  aides-de-camp.  Brigade 
Adjutant  and  20  enlisted  men.  To 
each  brigade: 

Two  regiments  of  infantry,  each  con- 
sisting of  Headquarters,  Regimental 
Commander  (Colonel),  a  second  in 
command  (Lieutenant  Colonel),  4 
officers,  I  each  for  operations,  regi- 
mental adjutant,  personnel  adjutant 
and  regimental  intelligence,  i  chaplain; 
attached  services — medical,  7  officers, 
48  enlisted  men;  ordnance,  8  enlisted 
men.    To  each  regiment : 


TRAINING  IN  THE  USE  OF  RIFLE  GRENADES 

The  rifle  grenade  was  propelled  by  the  gas  from  the  discharge  of  the  gun  and  describing  a  curve  fell  into  the 
enemy  trenches  where  it  sometimes  did  considerable  damage  when  it  exploded.  This  and  the  hand  grenade 
were  revivals  of  old  devices  used  long  ago  in  warfare,  and  then  discarded  for  a  long  time. 


BAYONET  PRACTICE  AT  CAMP  WHEELER 
The  bayonet  is  another  weapon  of  which  the  use  was  supposed  to  be  declining.    The  peculiar  conditions  of  trench 
warfare  led  to  a  revival  of  the  use  of  the  bayonet.    The  instruction  was  largely  under  the  direction  of  f°'^^^°J^^°- 
commissioned  officers.     Here  the  men,  masked  and  protected,  are  practicing  with  wooden  weapons.     W"^^ Jjj^ 
actual  weapons  were  given  the  men,  the  attack  was  made  on  sacks  of  straw  or  bundles  of  s*^^^^^^^^°^u   §   offi^ral 

tfAtuCS* 

857 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


One  Headquarters  Company,  7  of- 
ficers and  336  enlisted  men,  organized 
into  5  platoons,  i.  e.,  Headquarters 
Platoon,  Signal  Platoon,  Sappers  and 
Bombers  Platoon,  Pioneer  Platoon  and 
i-Pounder  Gun  Platoon, 

One  Supply  Company,  6  officers 
and  164  enlisted  men. 


tion.  Hand  Bombers;  2nd  Section, 
Rifle  Grenadiers;  3rd  Section,  Rifle- 
men; 4th  Section,  Automatic  Rifles); 
total  strength  each  regiment  114  of- 
ficers, 3,720  enlisted  men; 

One  Machine  Gun  Battalion,  con- 
sisting of  Battalion  Headquarters,  Bat- 
talion Commander  (Major),  2  officers, 
I  each  Battalion  Adjutant  and 
Battalion  Supply  Officer,  and 
44  enlisted  men ;  attached  serv- 
ices— medical,  i  officer,  12  en- 
listed men ;  ordnance,  4  enlisted 
men;  4  Machine  Gun  Com- 
panies, each  consisting  of  6 
officers  and  172  enlisted  men; 
of  same  interior  organization 
as  Regimental  Machine  Gun 
Company. 

Aggregate  strength  each  bri- 
gade, 262  officers  and  8,213 
enlisted  men. 


TRAINING  MACHINE  GUNNERS 

These  future  machine-gunners  being  trained  at  Camp  Dix  are  being 
trained  not  only  in  the  use  of  their  weapons  but  also  to  take  ad- 
vantage of  any  cover,  however  slight.  New  York  Times 

One  Machine  Gun  Company,  6 
officers  and  172  enlisted  men,  organized 
into  a  Headquarters,  3  platoons  and 
a  train. 

Three  Battalions,  each  consisting 
of  Battalion  Headquarters,  i  Battal- 
ion Commander  (Major)  and  2  offi- 
cers, I  each  for  Battalion  Adjutant 
and  Intelligence  Officer.  To  each  battal- 
ion: 

Four  Rifle  Companies,  6  officers  and 
250  enlisted  men  each,  organized  into 
Headquarters  and  4  platoons,  each 
platoon  organized  into  Platoon  Head- 
quarters and  Four  Sections  (ist  Sec- 

858 


(c)  Field  Artillery  Brigade, 
consisting  of  Brigade  Head- 
quarters, Brigade  Commander 
(Brigadier  General)  and  2  aides- 
de-camp.  Brigade  Adjutant  and 
8  officers — operations  3,  intelli- 
gence 2,  radio  I,  telephone  I, 
munitions  i — and  67  enlisted 
men. 

Two  regiments  75-mm.  guns 
(3 -inch),    horse-drawn,    each 
regiment    consisting    of    Regi- 
mental   Headquarters,    Regi- 
mental Commander  (Colonel), 
second     in     command    (Lieut. 
Colonel),  regimental  adjutant 
and   personnel  adjutant,  I 
chaplain;    attached  services — 
medical,  3  officers  and  23  enlisted  men; 
veterinary,  2  officers,  6  enlisted;   ord- 
nance, 12  enlisted.     To  each  regiment: 
Headquarters   Company,  17   officers 
and  205  enlisted   men,  organized  into 
4  sections;  Supply  Company,  5  officers 
and  108  enlisted  men. 

Two  Battalions,  consisting  of  Bat- 
talion Headquarters,  Battalion  Com- 
mander (Major)  and  2  officers,  i  each 
for  Battalion  Adjutant  and  Intelli- 
gence Officer.     To  each  battalion: 

Three  Batteries  each,  5  officers,  194 
enlisted  men,  organized  into  Battery 
Headquarters,  instrument  detail,  sig- 


fflSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


nal  detail,  scouts,  firing  battery,  or- 
ganized into  3  platoons  and  combat 
train. 

Total  regiment,  66  officers,  1,501  en- 
listed men. 

One  regiment  155-mm.  guns,  motor- 
ized, consisting  of  Regimental  Head- 
quarters, Regimental  Commander 
(Colonel),  second  in  command  (Lt.  Col- 
onel), 2  officers,  I  adjutant  and  i 
personnel  adjutant;  attached  services: 


quarters,  instrument  detail,  signal  de- 
tail, scouts,  5  sections  and  train. 

Total  strength  regiment,  74  officers, 
1,608  enlisted  men. 

One  Trench  Mortar  Battery,  6-inch 
Newton-Stokes  mortars,  5  officers,  172 
enlisted  men,  organized  into  Head- 
quarters Section,  Special  Detail  Sec- 
tion and  3  platoons. 

Aggregate  strength  Field  Artillery 
Brigade,  223  officers,  4,852  enlisted  men. 


TRAINING  THE  SIGNAL  CORPS 

The  Signal  Corps  used  a  dozen  different  methods  of  conveying  information.  Where  protected  from  enemy  fire 
lights  were  often  used.  This  shows  the  use  of  the  heliograph  which  conveyed  messages  by  flashes  of  light  of 
different  duration.  This  method  depended  upon  the  sun  by  day.  The  picture  was  made  at  Camp  Meade,  Mary- 
land, where  a  part  of  the  selected  men  from  Pennsylvania  were  trained. 


I  chaplain;  medical,  3  officers  and  19 
enlisted  men;  ordnance,  16  enlisted 
men. 

Headquarters  Company,  17  officers 
and  195  enlisted  men,  organized  into 
4  sections. 

Supply  Company,  organized  into  3 
sections,  and 

Three  Battalions,  each  consisting  of 
Battalion  Headquarters,  Battalion 
Commander  (Major),  2  officers,  i 
each  Battalion  Adjutant  and  Bat- 
talion Intelligence  Officer;  2  bat- 
teries each,  5  officers  and  130  enlisted 
men,    organized    into    battery    head- 


(d)  Divisional  Machine  Gun  Bat- 
talion (motorized)  consisting  of  Head- 
quarters, Battalion  Commander  (Ma- 
jor), 2  officers,  I  each  Battalion  Ad- 
jutant and  Battalion  Supply  Officer,  27 
enlisted  men;  attached  services,  med- 
ical, I  officer,  6 enlisted  men;  ordnance, 
2  enlisted  men ;  2  companies,  each  has  6 
officers,  172  men  organized  into  a  head- 
quarters, and  3  platoons  and  train. 

Aggregate  strength  of  battalion,  16 
officers,  379  enlisted  men. 

(e)  Regiment  of  Engineers  (Sappers) , 
consisting  of  Headquarters,  Regimental 

859 


fflSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


Commander  (Colonel)  second  in  com- 
mand (Lt.  Colonel),  6  officers  as  fol- 
lows ;  regimental  adjutant,  personnel  ad- 
jutant, 2  supply  officers,  intelligence 
officer  and  band  leader;  i  chaplain; 
attached  services,  medical,  3  officers, 
27  enlisted  men;  ordnance,  6  enlisted 
men. 

Two  battalions,  consisting  of  Bat- 
talion Headquarters,  battalion  com- 
mander   (Major),    battalion    adjutant 


(g)  Train  Headquarters  and  Military 
Police,  consisting  of  Headquarters, 
Trains  Commander  (colonel),  2  officers, 
I  each  Trains  Adjutant  and  Trains 
Supply  Officer,  18  enlisted  men;  at- 
tached services:  medical,  i  officer,  6 
enlisted;  i  Mobile  Veterinary  Section, 
I  Veterinarian,  21  enlisted  men;  3 
Veterinary  Field  Units,  3  Veterinarians, 
9  enlisted  men;  ordnance,  5  enlisted 
men. 


SIGNAL  CORPS  MEN  LEARNING  THE  USE  OF  THE  TELEPHONE 
In  no  other  war  was  the  telephone  ever  used  as  in  the  World  War.    There  were  regular  Centrals  like  those  in  any 
city,  behind  the  lines  and  several  modifications  of  regular  instruments  for  use  close  to  the  lines.   A  network  of  wires 
was  spread  on,  above  or  imder  the  ground  in  some  localities.  U.  S.  Official 


and  I  officer — battalion  adjutant;  and 
3  companies,  each  consisting  of  6 
officers,  250  enlisted  men. 

Aggregate  strength  of  regiment  of 
engineers  (sappers) ,  52  officers  and  i  ,695 
enlisted  men. 

(f)  One  Field  Signal  Battalion,  con- 
sisting of  Battalion  Headquarters,  Bat- 
talion Commander  (Major),  i  officer, 
Battalion  Adjutant,  13  enlisted  men; 
attached  services,  medical,  i  officer,  14 
enlisted  men. 

One  radio  company,  3  officers,  75 
enlisted  men;  one  wire  company,  3 
officers,  75  enlisted  men;  one  outpost 
company,  5  officers,  280  enlisted  men. 

Aggregate  strength  of  Field  Signal 
Battalion,  15  officers,  473  enlisted  men. 

860 


One  company  Military  Police,  5 
officers,  200  enlisted  men,  organized 
into  4  platoons. 

Aggregate  Trains  Headquarters  and 
Military  Police,  14  officers,  273  en- 
listed men. 

(h)  Ammunition  Train,  consisting  of 
Train  Headquarters,  Train  Command- 
er (Lt.  Colonel),  2  agents,  i  Train 
Adjutant  and  Supply  Officer,  28  en- 
listed men. 

One  Motor  Battalion,  consisting  of 
Battalion  Headquarters,  Battalion 
Commander  (Major),  i  Battalion  Ad- 
jutant; I  Assistant  Supply  Officer 
30  enlisted  men,  4  truck  companies, 
each  consisting  of  3  officers,  146  en- 
listed men,  organized  into  6  sections. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


Aggregate  Motor  Battalion,  15  offi- 
cers, 614  enlisted  men. 

One  Horsed  Battalion,  consisting  of 
Battalion  Headquarters,  Battalion 
Commander  (Major),  i  Battalion  Ad- 
jutant, I  Assistant  Supply  Officer, 
21  enlisted  men;  2  caisson  companies, 
each  consisting  of  3  officers,  191  en- 
listed men  organized  into  11  sections; 
I  wagon  company,  3  officers,  153  en- 
listed men  organized  into  12  sections. 


(j)  Engineer  Train,  consisting  of  2 
officers,  82  enlisted  men,  organized 
into  2  sections. 

Aggregate  Engineer  Train,  2  officers, 
82  enlisted  men. 

(k)  Sanitary  Train,  consisting  of 
Train  Headquarters,  Train  Commander 
(Lieutenant  Colonel),  i  Personnel  Ad- 
jutant, 2  supply  officers,  14  enlisted 
men. 


A  BEAN  FIELD  AT  CAMP  DIX 

In  their  spare  time  the  young  soldiers  in  training  joined  in  the  effort  to  increase  the  production  of  food, 
camps  considerable  areas  were  cultivated  by  the  men  and  valuable  additions  to  their  diet  were  grown. 


At  some 


Aggregate  Horsed  Battalion,  12  offi- 
cers, 556  enlisted  men;  attached  ser- 
vices— I  Mobile  Ordnance  Repair  Shop, 
3  officers,  45  enlisted  men;  ordnance, 
I  officer,  23  enlisted  men;  medical,  3 
officers,  29  enlisted  men. 

Aggregate  Ammunition  Train,  38 
officers,  1 ,295  enlisted  men. 

(i)  Supply  Train  (motorized),  con- 
sisting of  Train  Headquarters,  Train 
Commander  (Captain),  i  Train  Ad- 
jutant, I  Train  Supply- Officer,  13  en- 
listed men;  attached  services,  medical, 
I  officer,  10  enlisted  men. 

Six  Truck  Companies,  each  consist- 
ing of  2  officers,  77  enlisted  men,  or- 
ganized into  3  sections. 

Aggregate  Supply  Train,  16  officers, 
485  enlisted  men. 


One  Ambulance  Section ,  consisting  of 
Section  Headquarters,  Section  Com- 
mander (Major),  3  enlisted  men. 

Three  Ambulance  Companies  (motor- 
ized) each  5  officers,  122  enlisted  men, 
organized  into  3  ambulance  platoons, 
I  service  platoon. 

One  Ambulance  Company  (animal 
drawn),  5  officers,  153  enlisted  men, 
organized  into  3  ambulance  platoons,  i 
service  platoon. 

Aggregate  Ambulance  Section,  21 
officers,  525  enlisted  men. 

One  Field  Hospital  Section,  consisting 
of  Section  Headquarters,  Section  Com- 
mander (Major),  3  enlisted  men,  and 

Three  Field  Hospital  Companies 
(motorized),  each  consisting  of  6  offi- 
cers and  83  enlisted  men,  and 

One  Field  Hospital  Company  (animal 

861 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


drawn)  consisting  of  6  officers  and  82 
enlisted  men. 

All  with  same  organization  as  that  of 
Ambulance  Section. 

Aggregate  Field .  Hospital  Section, 
25  officers,  337  enlisted  men. 

Attached  Services,  8  Camp  Infirm- 
aries, 16  enlisted  men. 


Armament  of  the  division  as  follows: 
16,163  rifles;  960  automatic  rifles;  224 
machine  guns  (heav>') ;  36  anti-aircraft 
machine  guns;  24  155-mm.  howitzers; 
48  3-inch  or  75-mm.  guns;  12  one- 
pounder  guns;  36  trench  mortars;  1,560 
rifle  grenade  discharges;  13,139  pistols; 
1920  trench  knives. 


ATHLETIC  SPORTS  AT  THE  PELHAM  BAY  STATION 

Young  volunteers  for  the  navy  were  first  sent  to  one  of  the  naval  stations,  of  which  there  were  about  twenty  per- 
manent or  temporary.  Here  they  had  instruction  in  swimming  and  handling  boats  as  well  as  military  drill  and  phy- 
sical training.    Here  the  young  naval  reserves  are  playing  push-ball  in  the  time  allowed  for  sports.      U.  S.  Official 


Divisional  Medical  Supply  Unit,  i 
officer,  8  enlisted  men. 

Aggregate  Sanitary  Train,  51  offi- 
cers, 900  enlisted  men. 

The  following  services  were  at  times 
attached  to  an  American  Infantry 
Combat  Division: 

One  Bakery  Company,  2  officers, 
loi  enlisted  men. 

One  Clothing  and  Bath  Unit,  i  officer, 
21  enlisted  men. 

One  Headquarters  Conservation  and 
Reclamation  Service,  11  officers,  20 
enlisted  men. 

One  Sales  Commissary  Unit,  i  officer, 
14  enlisted  men. 

One-half  Section  Graves  Registra- 
tion, I  officer,  25  enlisted  men. 

862 


INFANTRY  TRAINING    THE    GROUNDWORK 
OF  ALL  LATER  TRAINING. 

Upon  completion  of  this  preliminary 
training  the  men  were  transferred  from 
the  Depot  Brigade  to  organizations  in 
the  division  where  their  instruction 
was  continued,  the  first  month  of  which 
was  largely  devoted  to  organization, 
development  and  training  of  the  pla- 
toon in  close  and  extended  order;  pre- 
liminary work  in  the  School  of  the 
Company,  and  basic  training.  From 
the  beginning,  non-commissioned  offi- 
cers were  trained  as  platoon  and 
group  leaders,  for  there  never  was  a 
time  when  efficient  leadersnip  was  more 
important. 

During  the  latter  part  of  this  period, 
troops    began    record    practice,    rifle 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


firing,  and  preliminary  instruction  in 
gas  and  use  of  the  gas  mask.  It  was 
important  for  the  men  to  have  this 
instruction  early  in  their  training 
period  as  it  was  not  known  how  soon 
they  would  be  called  for. 


vision  and  with  the  valued  assistance  of 
British  and  French  officers  who  had 
already  gained  much  useful  experience 
in  the  war. 

During  the  third  month  of  training 
(the   second   month    in    the    Division) 


A  SECTION  OF  TRENCl; \INING  CAMP 

The  attempt  was  made  to  visualize  for  the  young  soldiers  the  conditions  they  would  meet  in  France.  This  section 
of  trench  is  as  elaborately  constructed  as  any  in  a  strong  sector.  The  men  are  charging  upon  it  with  the  same 
care  and  attention  that  they  would  bestow  upon  an  actual  trench  filled  with  Germans.  U.  S.  Official 


TRENCH    INSTRUCTION    UNDER    BRITISH 
AND  FRENCH  OFFICERS. 

During  the  preliminary  rifle  practice 
on  the  range,  the  men  were  instructed 
in  night  firing,  using  both  illuminated 
and  non-illuminated  targets,  and  in 
addition  they  received  instruction  in 
firing  in  daylight  and  at  night  wearing 
their  gas  masks.  The  firing  on  the 
range  was  done  by  regiment,  one 
battalion  following  the  other.  As  each 
battalion  completed  its  record  firing, 
it  was  moved  to  a  trench  system  for 
instruction  in  trench  warfare.  The 
instruction  period  in  the  trench  system 
for  each  battalion  was  two  days  and 
two  nights.  Relief  was  made  at  night 
and  the  relieved  battalion  marched 
•  back  to  its  barracks.  This  work  was 
carried  on  under  the  direction,  super- 


instruction  progressed  to  include  that 
of  the  battalion,  regiment  and  brigade, 
and  during  this  month  each  regiment 
was  given  a  period  of  at  least  five  days 
in  a  trench  system  area  where  every 
man  was  given  instruction  in  the  use  of 
the  automatic  rifle,  throwing  live 
grenades,  going  through  wire,  intensive 
bayonet  work  over  a  difficult  course, 
consisting  of  trench  entanglements, 
runways,  jump-olTs,  et  cetera.  Also 
exercises  in  occupying  trenches,  taking 
trenches,  reorganizing  trenches,  prep- 
aration for^  counter  attacks,  et  cetera. 
The  object  of  this  instruction  was  to 
have  every  man  and  every  organization 
have  some  experience  with  what  was 
considered  as  absolutely  essential  to 
modern  training.  The  scene  shown 
above  is  typical  of  this  training. 

863 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


VARIETY    OF    WORK    DURING    THE    FIRST 
THREE  MONTHS. 

During  this  month  the  intelligence 
personnel  received  special  attention. 
It  was  carefully  organized  and  trained 
in  the  requirements  of  intelligence 
work,  which  has  become  more  and  more 
important,  and  upon  its  efficiency  de- 
pends very  largely  the  success  of 
operations. 

In  the  latter  part  of  this  month  in- 
struction in  liaison  between  units  and 


problems,  small  matters,  and  the  staff 
work  connected  with  them  had  been 
accomplished.  In  short,  the  division 
was  tied  together  as  a  battle  unit. 

ARTILLERY,     ENGINEER,     AND     SIGNAL 
l\     TRAINING   BEGUN  EARLY. 

Artillery  troops  were  given  basic 
infantry  and  artillery  training.  It  was 
recognized  that  the  all-important  train- 
ing for  artillery  was  making  them  ex- 
pert gunners  as  quickly  as  possible. 
With  that  end  in  view  actual  firing 


LEARNING  HOW  TO  FIRE  A  STOKES  TRENCH  MORTAR 

The  Stokes  mortar,  the  invention  of  an  English  civilian,  was  a  valuable  weapon  at  close  quarters  It  dropped 
bombs  into  the  enemy  trenches  with  considerable  accuracy.  Though  provided  with  a  tripod,  this  was  seldom 
used  by  the  soldiers  in  open  warfare.    This  is  a  detachment  of  the  142d  Infantry  in  training  in  France. 

U.  S.  Official 


with  the  artillery  was  taken  up,  first 
through  a  series  of  demonstrations  and 
then  through  practical  problems  exe- 
cuted in  the  field.  Great  attention  was 
given  to  this  instruction  in  order  that 
liaison  might  be  made  as  nearly  perfect 
mechanically  as  possible,  and  in  order 
to  build  up  a  sympathetic  understand- 
ing between  the  diiTerent  arms  and 
branches  of  the  service.  Rest  periods 
between  exercises  were  utilized  for 
talks  to  the  men  on  various  subjects  of 
general  and  military  interest. 

By  the  end  of  the  third  month  the 
men  had  had  a  great  variety  of  work, 
and  as  a  rule  there  was  no  flagging  of 
interest.  Every  organization  had  been 
put   through    its   basic  work,    combat 

864 


was  begun  in  their  first  month  of  train- 
ing. Equitation  and  co-related  mat- 
ters with  reference  to  traction  and  care 
of  animals  was  considered  as  of  second- 
ary importance  and  the  training  pro- 
gramme was  arranged  accordingly.  In- 
struction in  liaison  with  the  other  arms 
of  the  division,  combat  problems  and 
manoeuvres  by  day  and  night  was  taken 
up  in  the  third  month  of  training. 

Engineer  troops  were  given  basic 
infantry  training  and  instruction  in 
combat  formation,  problems  and  ma- 
noeuvres. Their  technical  training  was 
considered  as  of  first  importance.  It 
progressed  rapidly,  for  the  reason  that 
the  personnel  was  made  up  of  men 
drawn    from    the    crafts    trained    to 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


skilled  mechanical  and  technical  work. 
Instruction  in  liaison  with  the  other 
arms  of  the  division,  combat  problems 
covering  construction  of  field  fortifica- 
tions, et  cetera,  both  by  day  and  night, 
was  taken  up  in  the  third  month  of 
their  training. 

Signal  troops  were  given  basic  in- 
fantry training  and  technical  training 
in  all  means  of  signal  communications 


a  machine  gun  school,  conducted  in  the 
division  by  experienced  expert  officers, 
trained  in  battle.  The  effect  of  this 
system  was  to  standardize  the  instruc- 
tion and  to  develop  quickly  machine 
gunners.  They  were  instructed  in  the 
use  of  standard  machine  guns  in  use  by 
the  Entente  and  their  allies. 

In  the  third  month  of  their  training 
they  were  instructed   in  liaison  with 


THE  SURGICAL  WARD  AT  CAMP  WADSWORTH 

Though  it  had  not  massive  buildings  the  hospital  at  Camp  Wadsworth,  at  Spartanburg,  South  Carolina,  where 
the  New  York  National  Guard  was  trained,  had  every  necessary  appliance  for  the  treatment  of  the  sick.  The 
buildings  were  roomy  and  were  flooded  with  air  and  sunlight.    The  well  men  at  these  camps  lived  in  tents. 


such  as  wireless  telegraphy,  buzzer- 
fone,  telephone,  visual  signalling,  pi- 
geons, et  cetera. 

In  the  third  month  of  their  training 
they  worked  with  the  other  arms  of  the 
division  in  combat  problems  and  ma- 
noeuvres in  solving  the  construction, 
maintenance  and  operation  of  all  means 
of  signal  communication  by  day  and 
night,  in  open  warfare  and  in  trench 
warfare. 

THE    TRAINING    OF    THE    MACHINE    GUN 
ORGANIZATIONS. 

Machine  gun  organizations  were 
given  basic  infantry  training.  All 
machine  gun  units  were  instructed  in 


the  other  arms  of  the  division,  in 
combat  problems  and  manoeuvres  by 
day  and  night,  both  in  open  warfare 
and  in  trench  warfare. 

THE  DUTIES  OF  THE  VARIOUS  TRAINS  IN 
A  DIVISION. 

Trains. — Men  of  the  trains  were 
given  basic  infantry  instruction  and 
instruction  in  the  care,  maintenance 
and  operation  of  means  of  transporta- 
tion. Reading  of  road  maps  and  in 
estimating  transportation  capabilities 
of  roads  and  material  was  specialized  in. 
Ammunition  train  organizations  were 
instructed  in  the  transportation  of 
various  classes  of  shell,  ammunition, 

865 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


et  cetera,  by  day  and  night.  Supply 
train  organizations  were  instructed  in 
the  transportation  of  suppHes,  by  day 
and  night.  Engineer  trains  received 
special  instruction  in  handling  the 
technical  material  pertaining  to  the 
engineer  troops,  by  day  and  night. 
Sanitary  train  organizations  were 
specially  trained  in  care  and  evacua- 
tion of  sick  and  wounded,  transporting, 
setting-up  and  maintenance  of  field 
hospitals,  under  conditions  of  open 
warfare  and  trench  warfare,  by  day 
and  night. 

In  their  third  month  of  training,  all 
trains  were  instructed  in  liaison  with 
the  other  arms  of  the  division,  in  com- 
bat problems  and  manoeuvres  by  day 
and  night. 

QOME  GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  TRAINING. 

The  fundamental  principles  of  war- 
fare are  as  old  as  time,  but  methods  of 
combat  change  with  the  introduction  of 
new  kinds  of  weapons  and  with  our 
increased  knowledge  of  the  use  of 
terrain.  For  this  reason  it  was  essential 
to  have  instructors  who  were  familiar 
with  modern  methods  of  combat. 
These  instructors  were  furnished  by  the 
Allies  and  they  were  of  inestimable 
value  to  us  in  our  efforts  to  prepare  for 
the  struggle.  They  impressed  upon  the 
men  and  officers,  especially  the  latter, 
the  underlying  principle  of  reinforcing 
hard-pressed  points  not  by  men  but 
by  fire,  that  is,  by  the  use  of  automatic 
rifles  and  machine  guns. 

Our  officers  had  not,  as  a  class, 
learned  to  appreciate  this.  Nor  had 
they  sufficient  knowledge  of  the  hand- 
ling of  platoon  and  company  by 
modern  methods  to  realize  what  a 
wonderfully   effective    instrumentality 


the  new  forms  of  organization  had  given 
them.  All  of  these  things  the  Allied 
instructors  taught  us  and  impressed 
upon  us. 

Bayonet  training,  of  course,  gives 
a  desire  for  close  combat,  and  a  sense 
of  personal  power  to  the  man  who  is 
well  trained.  Certain  kinds  of  games, 
that  make  a  man  more  alert,  quick  and 
strong  on  his  feet,  are  very  valuable  in 
training.  Everything  possible  must  be 
done  to  increase  the  self-respect  of  the 
men,  to  teach  them  to  salute  as  though 
they  were  proud  of  their  profession, 
and  to  cause  them  to  take  a  real  pride 
in  being  soldiers  of  the  nation. 

TIME      NECESSARY      FOR      THE     FULLEST 
MEASURE  OF  SUCCESS. 

The  efficiency  of  the  divisional  train- 
ing will  be  very  largely  measured  by 
the  amount  of  time  which  is  available 
for  this  work.  The  doing  of  things  over 
and  over  again,  under  varying  con- 
ditions of  weather,  terrain,  by  day  and 
night,  is  what  makes  a  highly  effective 
divisional  fighting  unit  pliable,  re- 
sourceful and  competent  to  adjust  it- 
self properly  to  any  problem  which  may 
confront  it. 

The  foregoing  represents  the  general 
procedure  which  is  found  most  effective 
for  training  American  divisions  for 
the  war  of  position  and  the  war  of 
movement,  as  exemplified  during  the 
recent  war.  The  building  up  of  morale 
and  the  keeping  of  the  elements  of  a 
division  together,  making  it  an  or- 
ganization instead  of  an  aggregation, 
cannot  be  too  strongly  emphasized. 

The  training  of  a  division  is  a  big 
job  and  an  interesting  one,  and  if 
properly  done,  insures  good  Discipline, 
Efficiency,  mutual  Respect  and  Con- 
fidence between  Officers  and  Men. 


866 


The  Wake  Left  by  the  Periscope  of  a  Submarine 


Chapter  LII 


The  Course  of  the  War  During  1917 

NO  IMMEDIATE  DECISION  IS  APPARENT  THOUGH  THE 
WHOLE  WORLD  IS  IN  ARMS 


npHE  year  191 7  was  a  year  of  alter- 
^  nate  exultation  and  depression  for 
both  sides,  but  as  it  closed  the  deadlock 
was  unbroken.  All  Europe  was  tired 
of  war,  but  in  spite  of  openly  manifest 
war-weariness  no  one  could  prophesy 
when  the  end  would  come.  During 
1 916  military  leaders  had  had  full 
opportunity  to  reach  a  decision,  but 
had  failed.  The  peace-makers  attempt- 
ed to  end  the  struggle  in  1917,  with  no 
better  success. 

THE     FIRST     PEACE    PROPOSAL     BY     THE 
CENTRAL  POWERS. 

Just  before  the  end  of  1916  (Decem- 
ber 12)  the  Central  Powers  proposed  a 
Peace  Conference  without  cessation  of 
hostilities,  or  suggesting  any  basis  of 
discussion.  Their  proposal  was  for- 
warded to  the  Entente  Powers  by  the 
neutrals  to  whom  it  was  addressed, 
and,  on  December  30,  a  joint  reply 
signed  by  Russia,  France,  Great  Brit- 
ain, Japan,  Italy  Belgium,  Montene- 
gro, Portugal  and  Rumania  was  re- 
turned declaring  that  no  peace  was 
possible  without  reparation. 

President  Wilson  had  prepared  a 
note  inquiring  upon  what  terms  the 
belligerent  powers  were  prepared  to 
make  peace,  before  the  publication  of 
the  note  of  the  Central  Powers.  With 
some  hesitation  it  was  published  on 
December  18.  To  it  the  Central  Powers 
returned    an    evasive    answer.      The 


Entente  nations,  on  the  other  hand, 
declared  that  while  they  could  not  give 
specific  details  of  their  demands,  the 
groundwork  must  include  restoration 
of  Belgium,  Serbia  and  Montenegro 
with  compensation;  evacuation  of  the 
invaded  portions  of  France,  Russia  and 
Rumania,  with  reparation;  the  reor- 
ganization of  Europe  upon  a  stable 
basis;  the  expulsion  of  the  Turk;  and 
the  liberation  of  subject  peoples.  At 
the  same  time  they  disclaimed  the 
desire  to  destroy  German  nationality. 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY      SECRETLY      NEGGTI- 
l\     ATES  FOR  PEACE. 

Austria-Hungary  had  suffered  more 
than  Germany  because  of  less  efificient 
organization,  and  was  less  united  in 
sentiment.  During  the  spring  of  1917 
secret  peace  negotiations  with  the 
Allies  were  undertaken.  The  whole 
truth  is  not  yet  known,  but  apparently 
King  Alfonso  of  Spain,  a  relative  of  the 
Austrian  Emperor,  was  delegated  to 
approach  France.  A  brother  of  the 
Empress,  Prince  Sixtus  of  Bourbon, 
himself  a  soldier  in  the  Belgian  army, 
made  one  or  more  visits  to  Austria,  and 
conferred  with  representatives  of 
France  in  Switzerland.  Mutual  dis- 
trust, fear  of  Germany,  and  finally  the 
collapse  of  Russia  which  gave  new  heart 
to  the  Austrian  rulers,  all  had  something 
to  do  with  the  failure  of  the  negotia- 
tions. 

867 


fflSTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


THE    POPE    ISSUES    A    NOTE    CONTAINING 
PROPOSALS  FOR  PEACE. 

Pope  Benedict  XV  had,  at  various 
times  since  his  elevation  to  the  Papacy, 
expressed  his  .hopes  for  peace.  On 
August  I,  1917,  he  issued  a  note  to  the 
belligerent  powers  suggesting  a  basis 


^B 

1 

>     \ 

k 

* 

POPE  BENEDICT  XV 

Giacomo  della  Chiesa,  Archbishop  of  Bologna,  suc- 
ceeded Pius  X  in  1914.  On  August  1,  1917,  he  issued 
a  note  suggesting  a  basis  of  peace  for  the  warring 
nations. 

for  peace,  to  include  among  other 
things:  decrease  of  armaments;  arbi- 
tration of  international  disputes;  free- 
dom and  community  of  the  seas; 
renunciation  of  indemnities,  with  cer- 
tain possible  exceptions;  evacuation 
and  restoration  of  all  occupied  terri- 
tories; examination  of  rival  territorial 
claims,  as  for  example,  Alsace-Lorraine 
and  the  Trentino. 

By  this  time  the  United  States  had 
entered    the    war,    and    the    reply   of 

868 


President  Wilson,  August  27,  was 
tacitly  accepted  as  the  reply  of  all  the 
nations  opposing, the  Teutonic  alliance. 
President  Wilson  pointed  out  that  the 
actions  of  the  German  government 
would  render  any  negotiations  with  it 
fruitless,  that  an  irresponsible  govern- 
ment .could  not  be  trusted,  and 
appealed  to  the  German,  people  to 
assert  themselves.  The  Central  Powers 
attempted  to  flatter  Pope  Benedict,  by 
pretending  to  accept  his  ideas,  but 
their  actions  did  not  square  with  their 
words. 

A  STRONG  DESIRE  FOR  PEACE  MANIFESTED 
IN  GERMANY. 

In  Germany,  meanwhile,  there  was 
a  strong  movement  for  peace.  The 
declaration  of  unlimited  submarine 
warfare  had  not  brought  Great  Britain 
to  her  knees;  the  appeals  of  Pope 
Benedict  for  peace  had  had  their  effect 
upon  the  Centre  (Catholic)  party;  the 
denunciations  of  Socialists  of  other 
countries  had,  perhaps,  had  some  slight 
effect  upon  the  German  Socialists. 
Greater  than  all  of  these,  Germany  was 
tired  of  privations.  The  formation  of 
an  anti-Government  combination  of 
parties  and  factions  led  to  the  retire- 
ment of  Bethmann-Hollweg  as  Imperial 
Chancellor  on  July  14,  and  five  days 
later  the  Reichstag  passed  a  resolu- 
tion declaring  against  annexations,  and 
in  favor  of  a  peace  by  understandings. 
The  Reichstag  had  so  little  influence 
in  the  governmental  scheme  of  the 
German  Empire  that  the  real  rulers 
paid  little  attention  to  the  declaration 
and  the  Kaiser  appointed  a  typical 
Junker,  Dr.  George  Michaelis,  as 
Chancellor,  who  soon  adjourned  the 
Reichstag. 

In  October  when  the  Reichstag  re- 
assembled there  was  much  angry  dis- 
cussion between  the  Conservative  and 
Radical  elements,  and  Dr.  Michaelis 
resigned.  He  was  succeeded  by  Count 
von  Hertling,  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
Centre  party.  Count  von  Hertling 
promised  sweeping  reforms  in  the 
internal  affairs  of  the  Empire  and  ex- 
pressed himself  as  favoring  peace. 
Meanwhile  the  Bolshevist  element  in 
Russia  had  secured  control,  and 
German   chances    for    success  seemed 


SCOTTISH  PRISONERS  IN  A  GERMAN  PRISON  CAMP 


There  seems  to  be  no  doubt  but  that  British  prisoners  were  treated  with  especial  severity  by  their  German  can- 
tors, but  It  was  a  point  of  honor  among  them  not  to  weaken.  This  group  of  Scotch  prisoners  seem  to  be  keeoine 
up  their  spirits  m  spite  of  poor  and  insufficient  food,  and  the  general  hardness  of  their  lot  Sleeping 


BARRACKS  AT  THE  PRISON  CAMP  AT  DOBERITZ 
E*^  J^ol^"^\''"^°°  *^*"P  Y^^  *^°"*  twenty  miles  from  Berlin.  Here  some  of  the  barracks  were  of  metal  At 
M^nv  iKh  wrrf„nfin^H^.".'n"K'*"?;^'-^°?  Stables,  warehouses  and  other  buildings  were  used  I?  oth«  places! 
inihe  war  A^r^ntiv  tw»  i  ^°?>".'t^  including  a  large  part  of  the  Naval  Brigade  captured  at  Antwerp  early 
in  the  war.    Apparently  these  are  civihans,  who  were,  however,  usually  sent  to  Ruhleben.  Ruschin 

869 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


brighter.  Both  in  Austria-Hungary 
and  Germany  the  militarists  increased 
their  influence,  and  the  liberal  elements 
either  became  silent  or  imperialistic, 
and  the  Central  Powers  ceased  to  seek 
for  peace. 

THE    RUSSIAN   REVOLUTION    AND    AMERI- 
CAN INTERVENTION. 

Reference  has  been  made  to  the 
Russian  Revolution  and  to  American 
intervention.  Both  occurred  at  nearly 
the  same  time  and  the  causes  leading 
up  to  them  are  so  many  and  so  complex 
that  they  can  not  easily  be  summarized 
in  less  space  than  the  chapters  devoted 
to  these  two  most  important  events  of 
the  year. 

The  treachery  of  the  Russian  Premier, 
Boris  von  Stiirmer,  has  been  discussed 
at  length.  He  and  many  in  the  court 
circle  had  clearly  shown  that  they 
did  not  desire  a  defeated  Germany,  not 
so  much,  perhaps,  because  they  favored 
Germany,  as  because  they  favored 
autocracy  and  feared  that  the  end  of 
autocracy  in  Germany  would  mean  its 
end  in  Russia  also.  Though  the  Duma 
was  able  to  have  Stiirmer  dismissed, 
the  "dark  forces"  continued  to  plot, 
in  spite  of  the  denunciations  of  the 
leaders  of  the  Duma.  The  Government 
apparently  was  seeking  to  induce 
revolt  which  would  then  be  quelled 
by  force,  thereby  strengthening  the 
reactionary  elements. 

THE  REVOLUTION  IN  PETROGRAD  ALMOST 
BLOODLESS. 

On  March  ii,  191 7,  Premier  Golitzin 
prorogued  the  Duma,  which  refused  to 
disperse.  That  same  day  soldiers  in 
Petrograd  refused  to  fire  upon  crowds 
in  the  streets  and  the  next  day  soldiers 
disarmed  their  officers,  who  would  not 
agree  to  lead  them  against  the  police. 
The  radicals  had  organized  Councils 
(Soviets)  of  Workmen's  and  Soldiers' 
Delegates  which  gained  great  influence 
over  the  soldiers,  both  in  Petrograd 
and  at  the  front.  On  March  15,  it  was 
announced  in  the  Duma  that  the  Tsar 
was  to  be  deposed,  a  Provisional 
Government  constituted,  and  a  Con- 
stituent Assembly  was  to  be  called  as 
soon  as  possible  to  determine  the  future 
of  Russia.  The  Tsar  did  abdicate  for 
himself  and  his  son  and  named,  as  his 

870 


successor,  his  brother,  the  Grand  Duke 
Michael,  who  refused  the  empty  honor. 
The  Provisional  Government,  com- 
posed chiefly  of  the  moderate  elements 
in  the  Duma,  tried  to  carry  on  the 
government  and  the  war.  The  story  of 
the  difficulties,  and  the  progressive 
demoralization  of  the  Russian  army  is 
told  elsewhere  (Chapter  XL!  I). 
Gradually  the  extremist   (Bolshevist) 


COUNT  CZERNIN 

While  Foreign  Minister  of  Austria-Hungary,  Count 
Czernin  was  concerned  in  the  mysterious  negotiations 
for  peace  during  1917,  and  was  forced  to  resign  early 
in  1918. 

elements  gained  control  both  in  the 
army  and  among  the  civil  population. 
The  Russian  people  had  undergone  great 
suffering  and  they  were  weary  of  war. 
The  Provisional  Government  did  not 
end  the  war.  The  Bolsheviki  promised 
peace,  and  November  7,  8,  by  military 
force  they  secured  control  of  Petro- 
grad, and  soon  extended  their  power 
over  other  parts  of  the  country.  On 
December  15,  a  truce  was  signed  with 
the  Teutonic  armies. 

THE  GERMAN  DECLARATION  OF  UNLIMIT- 
ED SUBMARINE  WARFARE. 

The    Allied    cause,     however,     had 
received  an  addition,  which,  as  circum- 


PART  OF  A  GERMAN  BATH  TRAIN 
The  German  sanitary  equipment  early  in  the  war  was  very  complete,  and  no  pains  were  spared  to  keep  the  soldiers 
in  health.    This  is  the  "Badezug,"  a  very  important  feature  in  the  scheme.    It  was  a  series  of  shower  baths  on 
wheels  which  could  be  moved  from  place  to  place.    This  is  the  tank  containing  the  water. 


THE  BATHING  COMPARTMENT  OF  THE  nMHT 
Careful  inspection  will  show  near  the  roof  of  this  car  several  nozzles  through  wlndi  water  from  the  tank  shown 
above  can  flow.    Soldiers  were  detailed  by  companies  for  bathing  when  the  "Badezug"  was  in  the  neighborhood. 
Toward  the  end  of  the  war  the  equipment  gave  out  and  was  not  renewed.    The  German  soldier  had  very  few 
comforts  during  the  last  year  or  two  he  was  fighting.  Pictures,  Ruschin 

871 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


stances  proved  was  to  counterbalance 
the  Russian  defection.  The  German 
government  had  promised  in  May, 
1916,  that  the  submarine  campaign 
would  be  conducted  Hke  ordinary 
cruiser  warfare,  that  is,  that  no  mer- 
chant vessels  would  be  sunk  without 
warning,  and  without  provisions  for 
the  safety  of  their  crews.  On  January 
31, 191 7,  a  note  was  presented  announc- 


execution.  A  request  that  Congress 
authorize  the  arming  of  American 
merchantmen  passed  the  House  by  an 
overwhelming  majority,  March  i,  but 
was  defeated  by  a  filibuster  in  the 
Senate  as  the  session  ended  by  limita- 
tion on  March  4.  Meanwhile  the 
"Zimmermann  Note,"  dated  January 
16,  seeking  an  alliance  with  Mexico,  had 
been  published. 


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SHIPS  OF  STONE  TO  REPLACE  WOOD  OR  METAL 

The  destruction  of  tonnage  by  the  submarine  and  the  necessity  of  using  so  much  of  what  was  left  for  war  pur- 
poses led  to  considerable  use  of  concrete  vessels.  This  boat  was  constructed  at  Ivry-sur-Seine,  France,  during 
1917.    Concrete  vessels  were  also  constructed  by  other  nations,  and  generally  proved  seaworthy. 

French  Official  from  N.  Y.  Times 


ing  that,  beginning  the  next  day, 
February  i,  all  sea  traffic  within  cer- 
tain zones  around  Great  Britain, 
France,  Italy  and  the  Eastern  Medi- 
terranean would  "be  prevented  by  all 
weapons,"  except  that  the  United 
States  might  under  restrictions  be  per- 
mitted to  send  one  ship  a  week  to 
England. 

President  Wilson  immediately  broke 
ofT  relations  with  Germany,  ordering 
Ambassador  Gerard  home  and  sending 
Ambassador  von  BernstorfT  his  pass- 
ports, though  he  declared  that  he  was 
unwilling  to  believe  that  Germany 
would   actually  put  her  threats  into 

872 


THE    UNITED    STATES,    APRIL    6,    ENTERS 
THE  WAR. 

Germany  made  good  her  threats  and 
within  twenty-four  hours  (March  i6, 
17)  three  American  ships  were  sunk 
on  the  homeward  voyage  and  American 
citizens  lost  their  lives.  Congress  was 
called  in  special  session,  and  on  April  2, 
President  Wilson  asked  for  recognition 
of  a  state  of  war  with  Germany.  The 
Senate  by  a  vote  of  82  to  6  agreed, 
April  4,  and  the  House  followed  April  6, 
by  a  vote  of  373  to  50.  The  formal 
proclamation  was  issued  the  same  day. 

The  regular  army  and  the  National 
Guard  were  increased  and  a  compulsory 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


Selective  Service  Act  was  passed,  au- 
thorizing the  calling  of  1,000,000  men 
from  those  between  twenty-one  and 
thirty-one  years  of  age,  with  proper 
provisions  for  exemptions.  Registra- 
tion day  was  June  5,  and  on  July  15, 
the  order  in  which  the  registrants  were 
to  be  called  was  settled,  as  described 
elsewhere.  Two  Liberty  Loan  Acts 
were  passed,  and  loans  of  seven  billion 


sectors.  Moreover,  it  was  clear  that 
the  United  States  was  in  the  war  to  the 
extent  of  its  resources,  whether  of  men 
or  material. 

The  intervention  of  the  L'nited 
States  had  not  come  too  soon.  Both 
France  and  Great  Britain  had  borne  a 
heavy  burden.  The  latter  had  been 
obliged  to  finance  some  of  her  Allies 
and  the  loans  from  the  United  States 


! 

pL'  ^  !XftlfTljli4iM| 

f,-.             .  . .■>  .2^-   """^^"^  " ■i.Si^^l^giF^ 

^^H^BBl^^^LiB^ 

^.^                                       — «««<«!^a^l  ISSt  ISIEI  IS; 

"      """^ 

THE  STOCK  EXCHANGE,  BERLIN,  WHICH  REMAINED  OPEN 

Military  authorities  in  Germany  took  little  chance  of  reverse  and  failure  being  reflected  in  civil  life  by  a  panic  on 
the  Stock  Exchange,  for  they  ordered  it  to  be  kept  open.  This  was  perfectly  feasible  as  the  blockade  left  only 
domestic  stocks  on  the  market,  which  by  degrees  passed  under  government  control.        Picture  from  Henry  Ruschin 

dollars  to  the  Allies  were  authorized. 
Revenue,  food  control,  and  shipping 
acts  were  passed,  and  in  December  the 
government  took  over  the  control  of  the 
railroads. 


THE     UNITED     STATES     AT     ONCE     SENDS 
SHIPS  AND  MEN. 

Within  a  few  weeks  after  the  declara- 
tion of  war  American  destroyers  were 
on  patrol  in  European  waters,  and  in 
June  General  John  J.  Pershing  and 
the  first  contingent  of  American  troops 
reached  France.  Before  the  end  of  the 
year  five  divisions  besides  various 
special  units,  about  200,000  men  in  all, 
were  in  France,  and  American  soldiers 
were  in  the  front  line  trenches  in  quiet 


were  welcome,  as  was  also  the  assist- 
ance against  the  submarines.  In  France 
the  phenomenon  known  as  "defeatism  " 
was  widespread  (see  p.  500),  and  the 
moral  effect  of  the  presence  of  United 
States  troops  had  a  tonic  effect  long 
before  any  considerable  numbers  were 
ready  for  the  fighting  line. 

FIGHTING      ON      THE      WESTERN      FRONT 
DURING   1917. 

The  fighting  during  the  year  must 
be  dismissed  in  a  few  words.  On  the 
Western  Front  the  Allies  held  the 
offensive.  The  British  and  French 
attacks  on  the  Somme  in  1916  had 
pushed  the  Germans  to  the  edge  of  the 
high  ground,  and  had  left  them  holding 

873 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


an  awkward  salient  around  Noyon, 
though  the  Allies  had  failed  to  take 
Bapaume  and  Peronne.  Marshal  von 
Hindenburg  prepared  a  strong  system 
of  trenches,  first  called  the  Siegfried 
Line,  but  later  called  by  his  own  name, 
running  from  the  neighborhood  of 
Arras  to  the  heights  of  the  Aisne.    To 


SPIKES  BEFORE  A  GERMAN  TRENCH 

this  he  withdrew  during  March,  1917, 
just  as  the  Allied  attack  was  about  to 
begin.  About  1,000  square  miles  of 
occupied  territory  were  given  up,  and 
all  the  country  between  the  old  and 
the  new  positions  was  wantonly  laid 
waste. 

The  British  attack  around  Arras 
began  April  9,  and  Virny  Ridge  was 
soon  taken.  The  French  attacked  the 
heights  of  the  Aisne,  April  16.  The 
scheme  of  General  Nivelle,  now  com- 
mander-in-chief, was  audacious.  He 
would  not  "nibble"  or  wage  a  war  of 
attrition.  He  would  attack  almost 
simultaneously  in  four  major  operations 
and  break  through.  He  made  some 
progress  but  the  plan  was  impossibly 
difficult,  and  the  losses  were  tremen- 
dous.   Nivelle  was  succeeded  by  Petain, 

874 


while  Foch  was  made  Chief  of  Staff  at 
Paris.  The  old  method  of  seeking 
limited  objectives  was  resumed.  Cra- 
onne  and  both  ends  of  the  Chemin  des 
Dames  (Ladies'  Road)  were  taken  and 
held  against  German  attack,  while  the 
British  strengthened  their  position 
around  Arras. 

THE    WEARY    STRUGGLE    FOR     THE     PAS- 
SCHENDAELE  RIDGE. 

Later  (June  7),  Sir  Douglas  Haig,  in 
one  of  the  most  brilliant  operations  of 
the  war,  took  the  Messines-Wytschaete 
Ridge  between  Ypres  and  Lens,  wiping 
out  a  German  salient  and  strengthen- 
ing the  British  hold  in  Ypres.  The  next 
British  move  was  an  offensive  from 
Ypres  against  the  Passchendaele  Ridge. 
The  battle  raged  from  July  until 
November  in  the  face  of  torrential 
rains,  but  the  British  pushed  steadily 
forward  with  the  double  object  of 
gaining  ground  and  drawing  as  many 
German  troops  as  possible  from  before 
the  French,  farther  south.  Finally  the 
village  of  Passchendaele  was  entered, 
October  30,  and  a  week  later  fully  se- 
cured by  the  Canadians. 

Next  came  the  drive  on  Cambrai 
(November  20),  which  almost  succeed- 
ed, but  a  German  counter-attack 
forced  the  British  to  retire,  giving  up  a 
part  of  their  gains.  The  British  were 
learning  that  the  Hindenburg  Line,  or 
any  other  line,  could  be  taken.  The 
British  gains  were  substantial,  though 
the  cost  in  men  and  munitions  had  been 
high. 

General  Petain 's  first  duty  was  to 
reorganize  his  shattered  armies  and  to 
rebuild  their  belief  in  their  invincibility. 
A  brilliant  attack  northwest  of  Soissons 
in  October  gained  ground  and  forced 
the  Germans  to  give  up  the  remaining 
portion  of  the  Chemin  des  Dames.  In 
August  and  September  the  French  had 
already  regained  the  greater  part  of 
the  ground  around  Verdun,  lost  the 
previous  year. 

THE   GREAT   ITALIAN   DISASTER   ON    THE 
ISONZO 

Slowly  over  great  obstacles  the 
Italian  armies  had  made  their  way 
toward  Trieste.  Around  Caporetto, 
on  the  upper  Isonzo,  the  lines  were 
lightly  held  by  inferior  troops,  as  no 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


attack  was  anticipated.  Whether  by 
incompetence  of  commanders  in  the 
region  or  because  of  treachery,  con- 
siderable fraternization  of  Austrian 
and  Italian  soldiers  took  place,  and  the 
former  took  opportunity  to  sow  dis- 
content. Various  other  reasons  dis- 
cussed elsewhere  (Chapter  47)  tended 
to  impair  Italian  morale.  On  October 
21,  after  a  severe  bombardment,  Ger- 


June  and  July  toward  Lemberg  with 
decided  success  at  first,  but  the  Russian 
soldiers  were  becoming  demoralized. 
Soviets  had  been  organized  at  the  front 
and  orders  were  discussed  by  the  rank 
and  file  before  they  were  obeyed. 
Reports  that  the  lands  of  Russia  were 
being  distributed  were  spread,  and 
some  regiments  determined  to  go  home 
to  get  their  share.     All  the  gains  of 


HEADQUARTERS  OF  A  GERMAN  BATTALION  COMMANDER  ON  THE  WESTERN  FRONT 

The  Germans  held  some  parts  of  the  Western  Front  so  long  that  they  began  to  feel  a  proprietary  interest  in  them. 
Quarters  for  officers  shown  above  were  not  uncommon  in  quiet  sectors.  Much  care  had  been  lavished  upon  them, 
and  they  are  doubtless  exceedingly  comfortable.  Often  costly  rugs  and  china  from  neighboring  chateaux  were 
placed  in  them. 


man  divisions  which  had  been  sub- 
stituted for  the  supposedly  friendly 
Austrians,  broke  through,  leaving  the 
flank  of  the  two  armies  on  the  southern 
Isonzo  exposed.  The  necessary  with-^ 
drawal  became  almost  a  rout,  and  the 
Italians  were  forced  to  fall  back  to  the 
Piave  river.  There  the  new  Com- 
mander-in-Chief, General  Diaz,  with 
the  help  of  French  and  British  held  the 
line,  and  repulsed  desperate  Austro- 
German  assaults,  even  regaining  some 
of  the  lost  ground.  Though  shaken, 
Italy  was  still  a  factor  in  the  war. 

Of  the  Russian  fighting  little  need 
be  said.     General   Brusilov  struck  in 


1917  and  1916  were  wiped  out,  and  the 
Russian  army  ceased  to  exist  as  a 
dependable  military  force.  On  the 
Eastern  Front,  only  the  Rumanians 
held  fast. 

THE  PRESTIGE  OF  THE  TURK  RECEIVES  A 
STUNNING  BLOW." 

In  the  NeAr  East  the  Allies  were 
more  successful.  Venizelos,  who  had 
been  prevented  from  placing  Greece 
on  the  side  of  the  Allies  by  King  Con- 
,stantine,  raised  the  standard  of  revolt 
and  joined  the  Allied  forces  at  Saloniki. 
On  June  12,  King  Constantine  was 
forced  to  abdicate  in  favor  of  his  second 
son,  and  on  June  25,  Venizelos  became 

875 


HISTORY  OF  THE  WORLD  WAR 


CHINESE  COOLIES  AT  WORK  BEHIND  THE  BRITISH  LINES 


British  Official 


Prime  Minister  of  all  Greece,  which  he 
took  into  the  war  against  the  Central 
Powers  on  July  2.  No  longer  was  the 
Greek  army  a  threat  against  the  rear 
of  the  Allied  forces  at  Saloniki.  No 
important  military  operations,  how- 
ever, occurred  on  this  front  until  the 
next  year. 

In  Mesopotamia  General  Maude 
had  been  preparing  to  recover  the 
ground  lost  by  the  surrender  of  Kut-el- 
Amara,  but  he  did  not  move  until  his 
expedition  was  well  equipped.  In 
February  Kut  was  taken  and  in  March 
Bagdad  was  entered.  Next  Ramidiya 
and  Samara  were  taken,  ahd  but  for  the 
demoralization  of  the  Russians  in 
Armenia  the  Turkish  armies  might 
have  been  destroyed. 

The  British  forces  advancing  from 
the  Suez  Canal  crossed  the  Sinai 
Desert  and  entered  Palestine.    Under 


General  Allenby,  Beersheba  and  Gaza 
were  taken.  Advancing  along  the 
coast,  Jaffa  was  taken,  November  i6, 
and  then  began  the  movement  to 
encircle  Jerusalem.  The  Turkish  outer 
defenses  were  taken  by  storm,  and  on 
December  lo,  Jerusalem  was  sur- 
rendered. Turkish  power  and  prestige, 
by  the  operations  in  Mesopotamia 
and  Palestine,  had  suffered  blows  from 
which  they  could  not  recover. 

The  war  seemed  to  have  become  a 
question  of  endurance  on  which  the 
side  with  the  stronger  nerves  would 
win — the  side  which  could  hold  out 
"the  last  quarter  of  an  hour."  Some 
of  the  nations  on  both  sides  had  been 
shaken,  or  put  out  of  the  war.  Would 
the  strong  members  of  the  coalition 
be  able  to  hold  the  wavering  members 
in  line?  This' was  the  question  which 
191 8  was  to  answer. 


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