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Critical Opinions of this Work. 


JOHN BULL. 


‘While the Author (the well-known Harrow Master) justly 
apologises for the production of a new Greek Grammar, he 
fully justifies doing so, not so much because his colleagues 
pressed him, as from the scholarlike and, above all, from 
the intelligible manner in which he simplified his Giree/: 
Grammar Rules into this Brief Greek Syntax, which bids 
fair to become a standard work.’ 


EDUCATIONAL TIMES. 

‘Mr. Farrar’s Greek Syntax differs in its method from ali, 
or nearly all, preceding Greek Grammars ; partly in its freer, 
larger, and more unhackneyed treatment of the subject, and 
partly in its constant reference to the general principles of 
comparative philology, and in its endeavour, wherever prac- 
ticable, to illustrate the idioms of Greek, by the similar 
idioms or peculiarities of other languages, especially English. 
: The whole of this Syntax is very well done. 
Mr. Farrar seems to have a happy way of explaining an 
intricate subject; and we are sure that any fairly-instructed 
youth will find no difficulty in going through this volume 
without any aid from a teacher. The Author has made his 
Greek Syntax indeed a really readable work—something far 
beyond a compendium of dry rules. He gives many apt 
quotations from some of our best old English poets; and 
illustrates, often very happily, not a few peculiar construc- 
tions in Greek by reference to similar pages in other 
languages. . . . In freshness and interest, in copious- 
ness of illustration, and in its freedom from all grammatical 
mysticism and pedantry, Mr. Farrar’s volume surpasses all 
the Greek Grammars we have seen.’ 


Critical Opinions of this Work. 





MUSEUM. 

‘Mr. Farrar has produced a book in every way admirable, 
and calculated in no common degree to facilitate the study 
of Greek, and to make that study profitable for the educing 
the powers of the pupil. Mr. Farrar has shewn by his 
previous works that he was thoroughly acquainted with the 
subject of comparative philology, and had taken a high 
place as an original thinker and discoverer in that depart- 
ment. He has applied his knowledge in this little work to 
the elucidation of Greek Syntax. Perhaps the most striking 
feature in the book is that Mr. Farrar grapples, in a fresh, 
independent way, with every question of Greek Syntax that 
comes up. He knows when he knows a thing with certainty, 
and he states what he knows in remarkably clear and un- 
mistakable language. He is equally decided in knowing 
when a point is justly a matter of doubt, and he is also 
equally distinct in stating where exactly the doubt arises, 
and how it arises. This is a feature of the utmost impor- 
tance in a school-book. Most of the treatises on Greek 
Syntax often leave the young student at a loss as to what 
the meaning of the writer really is, and he is apt to go 
away from the perusal of these treatises with vague, imper- 
fect ideas, This one feature of Mr. Farrar’s work will 
recommend it strongly to teachers. But there are many 
others which will make it exceedingly acceptable. Mr. 
Farrak carries his comparative philology into all portions 
of the work, and gives his explanation of the formation of 
the tenses, of the derivations of particles, of the meaning of 
the various terms used in grammars, and their history, and 
many other things only to be got by much reading and re- 
search. He has also employed, to a large extent, analogous 
examples from a variety of languages, and he calls to his 
use, not merely classical Greek, but the Greek of the New 
Testament and Modern Greek. In one word, he has made 
the study of Greek Syntax an interesting study for boys, 
and he has done this at the same time that he has amply 
satisfied all the demands of the present stage of scholarship 
and of comparative philology.’ 


GREEK SYNTAX. 





ὁ Inter virtutes grammaticas habebitur aliqua nescire.' 
QUINCT. 


‘Non obstant he discipline per illas euntibus sed circa illas 
hzrentibus,’ Id. 


A BRIEF 


GREEK SYNTAX 


AND 


HINTS ON GREEK ACCIDENCE: 


WITH SOME REFERENCE TO 


COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY, AND WITH ILLUSTRATIONS FROM 


VARIOUS MODERN LANGUAGES, PA Sy 
[ΞΞ ἘΞ 


τ 


“΄ 


BY THE a 


REV. FREDERIC W. FARRAR, M.A., ΚΞ ΕΒ. 


Honorary Chapiain to the Queen ; lute Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge ; 
Honorary Fellow of King’s College, London; one of the Masters at Harrow School: 
Author ὦ The Origin of Language, ‘ Chapters on Language,’ 

‘ Families of Speech,’ «ec. 


EIGHTH EDITION. 


LONDON: 
LONGMANS, GREEN, AND 60. 
1876, 


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{7- 


ὧν 


LONDON: PRINTED BY 
SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET &Q 
ND PARLIAMENT STREET 


TWA 
Us. 


RE 


TO THE 


REY. H. MONTAGU BUTLER, D.D. 


AND TO MY FRIENDS AND COLLEAGUES 
THE ASSISTANT MASTERS OF HARROW SCHOOL 


A Dedicute 


(ὩΣ 


WITH FEELINGS OF CORDIAL ESTEEM 
WHATEVER MAY BE FOUND WORTHY OF APPROBATION 
IX THIS ATTEMPT TO RENDER THE STUDY OF GREEK GRAMMAR 


BROADER, MORE INTERESTING, AND MORE FRUITFUL. 








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7 





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Ue ee ee ἠδ ΩΝ 
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PREFACE 


TO 


THE THIRD EDITION, 


I HAVE taken the opportunity offered me by the demand for a 
third edition to revise this Syntax carefully, to add a con- 
siderable number of illustrations, and to introduce some fresh 
matter which struck me as likely to be curious, interesting, 
or important. I have also corrected a few trifling blemishes 
which have been pointed out by the kindness of friends or 
reviewers. For the convenience of all who possess the pre- 
vious edition, I have left the structure of the book and the 
numbering of the sections undisturbed. 

I trust that these improvements may secure for this Syntax 
a continuance of the approval with which it has been generally 
received. I have tried, even more than in the previous 
editions, to illustrate many of the more remarkable idioms of 
English Syntax by comparing them with similar idioms in the 
classical and other languages, 


April 1870. 


AS 


PREFACE 


TO 


THE FIRST EDITION. 





THE PUBLICATION of a new Greek Grammar when there are 
already so many in existence, is an act which requires justi- 
fication; and as it is also an act of some temerity, I will 
briefly state the causes that induced me to undertake the 
task. 

I observed from the comparison of a large number of 
‘Grammar and Scholarship papers’ that the same questions, 
—or questions involving the same points of scholarship,— 
recurred with a remarkable frequency. As there is a Gram- 
mar Examination every year at Harrow, I wished to draw up 
for my own pupils a manual which should, in as clear a 
manner as possible, give them some insight into these special 
points. With the encouragement, and by the wish, of some 
competent judges among the Harrow masters, I published in a 
small compass my card of ‘ Greek Grammar Rules,’ in which 
I had attempted to fulfil this object; and in drawing up these 
rules it appeared to me that many most valuable points 
relating to them and to the general structure of the Greek 
Language, had not hitherto found their way into any ordinary 
schoolbook. I therefore thought that I could render a service 
to the cause of Classical Philology, by amplifying my ‘ Greek 
Grammar Rules’ into a larger and fuller Syntax; and the 
great favour with which the ‘Rules’ were received, the 


PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. ix 


number of schools that adopted them, and the many eminent 
scholars and teachers who wrote to me to express their appro- 
bation of them, confirmed me in this belief. 

IT aimed above all things at making every point intelligible 
by furnishing for every usage (as far as was possible) a 
satisfactory reason; and by thus trying to eliminate all mere 
grammatical mysticism, I hoped that I should also render 
grammar interesting to every boy who has any aptitude for 
such studies, and is sufficiently advanced to understand them. 
On the latter point I venture to lay some stress. I have 
published elsewhere my reasons for believing that we com- 
mence too soon the study of formal grammar, and that this 
study, which is in itself a valuable and noble one, should be 
reserved to a later age and for more matured capacities than is 
at present thought necessary. I should never think of putting 
this Grammar into the hands of boys who have no aptitude for 
linguistic studies, or of any boys below the fifth or sixth forms 
of our public schools; and I have purposely avoided stating 
rules or reasons under a form in which they could be learned 
by rote. Taught in a parrot-like manner to crude minds, I 
believe that grammar becomes bewildering and pernicious; 
taught at a later age and in a more rational method, I believe 
that it will be found to furnish a most valuable insight into 
the logical and metaphysical Jaws which regulate the expres- 
sion of human thought, and that it will always maintain its 
ground as an important branch of knowledge, and a valuable 
means of intellectual training. 

All grammars must necessarily traverse a good deal of 
common ground, but the careful perusal of a very few of the 
following pages will prove, I trust, that this Syntax differs 
in its method from all, or nearly all, that have preceded it; 
partly in the more free and informal manner of treatment, 
partly in its perpetual reference to the general principles of 
Comparative Philology, and partly in its constant endeavour 
to leave no single idiom of Greek unillustrated by the similar 
idioms or peculiarities of other ancient languages, of modern 
languages, and of English. A good illustration often throws 
over an idiom a flood of lizht unattainable by the most 


x PREFACE TO TIE FIRST EDITION. 


lengthy explanation; and I feel great hopes that a student 
who has gone carefully through the following pages, will, 
—in addition to what he will have learnt about ancient 
Greek,—have acquired some insight into the principles of 
his own, and of other languages. Further than this, I shall 
have failed in my endeavour if he do not also gain some 
interest in observing the laws and great cyclical tendencies 
of Language in general. The historical development of one 





language bears a close analogy to the historical development 
of a large majority of the rest; and this is the reason why I 
have called such repeated attention to A/odern Greek, and to 
the traces in Hellenistic Greek of those tendencies which in 
Modern Greek are still further developed, and carried to their 
legitimate result. 

I am not so sanguine as to hope that I have escaped errors. 
He would be a bold man, who, even after years of study 
should suppose that he had eliminated all the chances of error 
in treating of a language which is so delicate, so exquisite, 
and so perfect a medium for the expression of thought, as the 
Greek language is felt to be by all who have studied it. For 
myself, I may candidly confess that I have entered on the 
task with the utmost diffidence. Some critics may doubtless 
regard as erroneous, views which I may have deliberately 
adopted, and which I believe that I could adequately defend ; 
but independently of these I may doubtless have fallen into 
positive mistakes, 

‘quas aut incuria fudit, 
Aut humana parum cayit natura.’ 


For the correction of any such errors I shall be grateful, and 
I trust that they will neither be sufficiently numerous nor 
sufficiently important to outweigh some other advantages. 
My plan is necessarily, to a certain degree, tentative : if it meet 
with any favour, the knowledge and the experience of others 
may enable me in the future to introduce, from time to time, 
considerable further improvements. I have given to it the 
best thought and care at my command. With more leisure 
I could doubtless have rendered it far more perfect; but I 


PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. XI 


hoped that the result might still be found commendable, how- 
ever much I may have fallen short of even my own standard of 
ideal perfection. The inability to reach the excellence which 
would have been attainable under more favourable circum- 
stances is no excuse for declining to attempt anything at all. 
It is unnecessary to give a list of the large number of 
grammars, monographs, and works of scholarship which I 
have felt it a duty to consult in the composition of these pages. 
I believe that I have not neglected any Greek grammar of 
great importance; and special obligations will be found acknow- 
ledged in their proper place. I have of course constantly 
referred to the chief works on Comparative Grammar both 
English and German, and to that immense repertory of Greek 
scholarship, the Greek Grammar of Mr. Jelf. I have found 
much that was most useful in Bernhardy, in Burnouf, in 
Winer, in Madvig, in the Student’s Greek Grammar of Dr. 
Curtius edited by Dr. Smith, in Mr. Miller's Greek Syntax, 
and in ‘ Die wichtigsten Regeln der Griechischen Syntax’ by 
Dr. Klein. There are however three authors to whom I am 
under more peculiar and extensive obligations, viz., Mr. F. 
Whalley Harper, Dr. Clyde, and Dr. Donaldson. Mr, Harper’s 
book cn ‘ The Power of the Greek Tenses’ has rendered me 
most material assistance in treating that part of the subject. 
The well-known works of Dr. Donaldson have been constantly 
in my hands, even when I venture to dissent from the con- 
clusions of that admirable scholar. The Greek Syntax of 
Dr. Clyde, which is much less known in England than it 
ought to be, is a most suggestive and valuable book, to which 
I have been under constant obligations. I have often been 
surprised by finding that it was unknown to English teachers 
to whom I have mentioned it. If its arrangement had been 
a little more convenient, and if it had seemed to be well- 
adapted for school usage in our higher forms, I should not 
have undertaken my present task. I am indebted to Dr. 
Clyde’s work for many hints and many illustrations, all or 
most of which I believe that I have acknowledged in their 
proper places. Ifin any instance (and especially in the treat- 
ment of the Moods) I should have omitted to do so, I must 


ΧΙ PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 


content myself now with this more. general reference to his 
Syntax, and to the other admirable books which I have just 
mentioned. I have gained more suggestions from the study of 
them than it was always possible specifically to acknowledge.* 

One pleasant task remains. I have to offer my warmest 
thanks to the Rev. Dr. Collis, the distinguished Head Master 
of Bromsgrove School, and to my friend and colleague 
H. M. Young, Hsq., Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, for 
their kindness in helping me to get through the task of 
correcting the proof sheets. Mr. Young was good enough 
to correct for me the sheets of the earlier part of the book; 
Dr. Collis, though Iam personally unknown to him, yet with 
a kindness for which I hardly know how to express sufficient 
gratitude, not only helped me to revise and correct the proofs 
of the entire book, but constantly enriched them with many 
acute and interesting suggestions, the result of his own ripe 
learning and judgment. Should this Syntax succeed in rend- 
ering the study of Greek Grammar more fruitful and more 
interesting, some of its success will be due to the kind offices 
of that well-known scholar. 

Κ΄, W. Farrar. 
Harrow: 
March, 1867. 


* I may observe that the same fact or rule is in some instances 
intentionally repeated. 


CONTENTS. 


— +e 
INTRODUCTORY. 
Tur Greek LANGUAGE ἢ A 5 : 5 i 6 


1, 2. The families of ἜΣ 8, The Semitic family. 4, 5. 
The Aryan family. 6. The classes of languages. 7-9. 
Synthetic and analytic languages. 10, 11. The progress of 
language from synthesis to analysis. 12. Respective advan- 
tages of synthesis and analysis. 13-15. Inflections not 
arbitrary. .16. Reasons for the study of Greek . : : 


HINTS ON THE ACCIDENCE. 


Tus ALPHABET . Ξ 


1. The Greek ni pabee rharmsonnned fa ἘΠ 2. The original — 


sixteen letters. 2 (dis). Epsilon, Omega, ὅσο. 8. The di- 
gamma, &e. 4. The Ionian letters. Archonship of Euclides, 
5. San. 6. Koppa, yod. Origin of the alphabet. 


Lurrers as NUMERALS 5 : ὃ 3 : ἢ : ἐ 
7. Numerical value of letters. 8, στοιχεῖα γράμματα. 9, 
Harliest Greek writing. 


PRONUNCIATION . : . 3 : : 0 6 ἥ 6 
10. Consonants. 11. Sound of vowels. Itacists and Etists. 


CLASSIFICATION OF LETTERS ° 5 . . : . . 
12. Importance of the subject. 13. Labials, gutturals, dentals, 
14, Final consonants. 15. Laws of euphony. 


VowEIs . ὃ 0 ο 0 5 ὃ 
16--19. Benne πταίει erasis, ieee 


DIALECTS . 4 i : 3 : : 


20. The chief ἐπ: Ὁ i. Tonic and Attic. 11, Adolie. ἘΠ. Doric. 


iv. Hellenistic. 


PAGE 


1- 


co 


16 


18 


X1V CONTENTS, 


Parts or SPEECH ᾿ 
21. All roots nominal or ΠῚ 
speech. 
Nouns 0 δ 
23. The ἀξ πε σὴς; 
CasEs . . j : ὃ : : F : : ‘ 
24. *Casus.’ 25. The five cases. 26. The nominative and yoca- 
tive. 27. The locative. 28. Origin of case-endings. 29, 
Evanescence of case-distinctions. 
NuMBERS ὃ : τ 5 Ξ 0 : 5 δ 
90, Named. 381. The dual number. 
GENDERS : 3 5 : 
32, 33. Origin and Nee of perder! 34. General rules of 
gender. 


. The eight parts of 


bos 
bo 


DECLENSIONS - : . - . : : . 
35. A declension ormed by suffixes. 37. Heteroclites. 
ADJECTIVES . : . ¢ . ᾿ : ὃ . 
38. Adjectives not indiepeneable: 39. Their gender. 40. Ad- 
jJectival terminations. 41-43. Degrees of comparison. 44. 
Intensive prefixes. 45. ᾿Αγαθὸς and κακός. 
Pronouns . . . . : ο 5 . 
46, 47. Nature of the sac 48-50. The third personal 
pronoun. 51. Peculiarities of οὗ, 652-56. Reflexive and 
demonstrative pronouns. 57, 58. Possessive pronouns. 49. 
Αὐτός. 60, 61. Ὅστις, ὅς, 
NuMERALS . : 5 ο : : 9 5 . . 
62. Cardinals. 63. Ordinals. 64. Other numerals, 
ADVERBS - 
65-68. Nature and lasses of παῖσαι 
VERBS 
69-71. ater and secintion of τ core 72, 73, peat ene 
ings. 74, 75. Duals. 76. Voices. 77. Nature of the middle. 
78. Deponent verbs. 79. Reduplication. 80. Chief rules of 
reduplication. 81. Augment. 82. Chief kinds of augment. 
83. Moods. 84, 85. Verbs in -μι. 86-94. Verbs in -o. 
Irregularities of verbs. 95-100. Classes of verbs: incep- 
tives, desideratives, frequentatives, ὅσο. 
CompounpD Worps . : . . . . : 
101, 102. Parathetic eomroendes 103-105. Synthetic com- 
pounds. 106. Inferior power of composition in Latin. 107- 
109. Laws and irregularities of composition. 110. The 
word ‘telegram.’ 


PAGE 
20 


21 


id. 


23 


28 


29 


81 


36 


37 


50 


CONTENTS, 


SYNTAX, 
1-3. Sentences and clauses . Ε 5 C 0 ὃ ; 
Tne ARTICLE . 5 5 5 5 ὃ 


4, Originally a demonemative pronoun. 6d, 6. Subsequent 
traces of this. 7. It also served as a relative. 8. tts original 
form. 9. Development of the article in other languages. 10, 
11. It both specifies and generalises. 12. Its use with proper 
names. 19. Anarthrous words. 14. Distinguishes the sub- 
ject from the predicate. 15. Used instead of the possessive. 
16-19. Its position. 20. The pasta predicate. 21. Appa- 
rent violations of the law. 22. Main usages of the article, 
23. With the infinitive. 24. Various phrases. 


Concord. : : . : : : : : : 
25-27. Apparent πιο of the concords. 28. Duals agree- 
ing with plurals. 29. The Schema Pindaricum. 80, Whole 
and part figure. 31,32. Plural of excellence. 33. Use of 
aye, &e. 
CasEs . . . . . . . . . ° 
84. The case- saline were once separate words. 388. Varying 
points of view from which the relations of objects may be 
observed. 35. Gradual evanescence of case-meanings. 87. 
Comparison of cases in Greck, Latin, and Sanskrit. 


THE NoMINATIVE : : : 7 ὃ : : : : 
38, The ‘nominative absolute. 389. Copulative verbs are fcl- 
lowed by a nominative. 


Tur VOCATIVE . F 5 6 5 ὃ 
40. The slightest of all Ain cases. LG. The nominative often 
substituted for it. 42. Its origin. 


THE GENITIVE . C : : : : : : - . 

43. The name due toa mistake. 44. Its three main uses. 45. 

Genitives of ablation (causal, material, &c.). 46. Genitives 

of partition. 47. Genitivesof relation. 48. Genitives of the 

subject and of the object. 49. Double genitive. 50. Geni- 

tive absolute. 51. Compared with the ablative absclute. 62. 
Absolute cases in other languages. 


Tur DATIVE : 0 δ : : . : : 
53. The dative expresses ΠΑ ΠΣ 54, Hence it is used to 
express accidents, instruments, &c. Datives of place, time, 
manner, general reference, &c. 655. The ethic dative in 
Greek and yarious other languages, 


XV 


G4 


67 


68 


69 


70 


77 


ΧΥῚ CONTENTS. 


Tim ACCUSATIVE : . . . : . . . : 
56. The accusative implies motion towards and extension over. 
57. Accusatives of space, time, the cognate notion, &e. 48. 
Double accusative. 59. Whole and part figure. 60. Accu- 
sative after passive verbs. 61. Accusative in apposition to 
the sentence. 62. Omission of the governing verb. 69. Anti- 
ptosis. 64. ‘ Accusativus de quo. 65. The accusative used 
absolutely. 


Contrastrep Mranincs or THE Cases F ; Σ Ε 3 
66. Fundamental conceptions of the cases. 67, Their absolute 
use. 68. Contrasted instances. 


ADJECTIVES . ὃ ο Ρ ο : ; Ὁ : ο 
69. Illustrations of the chief idioms in the use of adjectives. 


CoMPARATIVES . ὃ : c . - : ᾿ . : 
70. Illustrations of the chief idioms in the use of comparatives. 


SUPERLATIVES . ; : ᾷ : Ε ὦ : 5 5 
71. Qualitative superlative. 72. Inclusive use of superlatives. 
73. Phrases used to strengthen superlatives. 


PREPOSITIONS . : : : - ο ὃ : 5 ὃ 

74. The prepositions were originally local adverbs. 75. Their 

meanings are modified by the cases with which they are used. 

76. Due to the analysing tendency of language. 77. Spurious 

prepositions. 78. The name ‘preposition.’ 79. The eighteen 

prepositions. 80. Variation in the use of prepositions. 81. 
Manner in which they alter the meanings of verbs. 


PREPOSITIONS WHICH GOVERN THE GENITIVE 5 : 6 ᾿ 
82. 1. ᾿Αντί, ii, πρό. ili. ἐκ, ἐξ. iv. ἀπό, εὐθύ, μεταξύ͵ &e, 
PREPOSITIONS WITH THE DATIVE : F : 3 5 ᾿ 
80. 1 Ἔ: ἢ σὺν» 

PREPOSITIONS WITH THE ACCUSATIVE . 3 5 : ᾿ : 
84. 1. Εἰς. il. os. 

PREPOSITIONS WITH THE GENITIVE AND ACCUSATIVE . O 6 
85. 1. Διά, 1], κατά, ill. ὑπέρ. 

PREPOSITIONS WITH THE DATIVE AND ACCUSATIVE . é é 
1. Ανά, Contrast of ἀνὰ and κατά. 

PREPOSITIONS WHICH GOVERN THREE CASEs. ; ὃ 3 
86. 1. ᾿Αμφί. ii, περί, iii, ἐπί, iv. μετά, v. παρά, vi. πρός. 

vii. ὑπό, 87. Passage of Philo-Judeeus, 

PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION . : , ς F P 

88, Prepositions in Composition. 


PAGE 
81 


86 


87 


91 


92 


94 


97 


98 


99 


CONTENTS. ΧΥΠ 


Paar 
TIp1oMs CONNECTED WITH Prepositions ὃ : . ο ὁ alto 
89. Constructio pregnans. 90-92. Other idioms. $3, Variation 
of prepositions in the same clause. 95. Various phrases, 


Pronouns . . . . ; . 108 
96. Personal pronouns need for pant 97. Meatinas of αὐτός. 


98. Possessive pronouns. 99. Use of reflexive pronouns. 
100. Interchange of reflexive and reciprocal pronouns, 101. 
Chief uses of demonstrative pronouns. 102. Chief uses of 
relative pronouns, 103. Chief uses of indefinite pronouns, 
104. Chief uses of distributive pronouns. 


THe VERB . 5 : : : ᾿ ὃ : ο {π| 
105. The kinds of ee 106-110. The voices. 111. Four 


chief uses of the middle voice. 112. Contrasted meanings of 
the active and middle. 1138. Special uses of the middle. 
114, The middle voice in other languages. 


‘TENSES : : : . . : . . . . Ὁ 119 
115-117. General remarks on the tenses. 118. Nine possible 
tenses of the indicative. 119, 120. Tabulation of the tenses. 
121. Important inferences from this scheme of the tenses. 
2-128. Full explanation of the nature and importance of 
the aovrist. 129-131. Perpetual contrast of the aorist and 
imperfect tenses. 132. The past-aorist sometimes used for 
the (wanting r) present-aorist. 183. Tabulation of tho tenses 


of the passive. 


Cur Inromatic Uses oF THE TENSES 9 Sp : + 190 
134. ‘Idioms.’ 135. Dramatic use of the present and ἘΠῚ Πα 
186. Used to express an attempt. 137. Potential use of the 
imperfect without ἄν. 138. Use of the present with πάλαι; 
illustrated from other languages. 1389. Use of κλύω, ἧτο, 
149-143, Idiomatic uses of the imperfect. 


Tus Furure : . : ο ὃ ὃ . 188 
144. Imperative use of ine Pate) 145, The periphrastic future. 


146. Four passive and middle forms. 147, 148. The future 
perfect. 


Tur PERFECT . ὃ : . . : : : . 184 
149, 150. Its use to express adie results, 


Tur Aorist : : ὃ : : d : au: 
151. The aorist as an litstorieal forse: 162, 1538. Its connection 
in form and meaning with the future. 154. The gnomic 


aorist. 


XVili CONTENTS. 


THE PLUPERFECT δ . . . . . . 
155. Comparative neglect of the Ἐπ in Greek. Its use to 
imply rapidity. 
Moops 5 : : 5 : 5 
166. ΤΠ ΠΣ and importance of ae πες 157, 158. The 
moods properly three in number. 159. Unsatisfactory no- 
menclature of the moods. 


THe INDICATIVE . - . . . - 
160. Already treated of coder ‘The Renee? 
Tue IMPERATIVE. : : : . . . 


161-163. Slightness of tense- neater in the imperatiye. 
164. Other modes of expressing command, 
THE SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE . : δ . . 
165. They are ‘by-forms of the future “ind τοῦθ "106. They 
form one suhjective mood. 167, 168. Consideration of their 
tenses. 169. The tense-distinctions chiefly preserved in 
oratio obliqua. 170. Possible origin of the aorist subjunctive. 
171, 172. Only four tense-forms (the present and aorist sub- 
junctive, and the present and aorist optative) in frequent 
practical use. 173. The optative mood a refinement of lan- 
guage, 174, 175. Its comparative unimportance and gra- 
dual evanescence. 


Tuer SuEBsJUNCTIVE IN Simple SENTENCES . ο . . é 
176. Used in Homer as a modified future. Its use in pro- 
hibitions; its deliberative, hortative, and elliptic use. 
Tue OPTATIVE IN SIMPLE SENTENCES. " 6 ; 0 5 
177. 1. The optative not, in reality, a separate mood. 2. Its use 
in wishes due to an ellipse. Its potential force. 3. Used 
with ἂν as a milder future, and 4. as a polite command. 5. 
Its use to express a hopeless wish. 6. Its use to express 
indefinite frequency. 7. The correspondence of optatives. 
Tue Moops 1n Compound SENTENCES : : ο C 3 
178. The chief kinds of compound sentence. 


ΕἾΝΑΙ, SENTENCES 5 ὃ Ο : 
179. The infinitive and Rites nartenle ane τοῖν final 180. 
“Os, ὅστις with the future indicative after verbs of sending, 
&e. 181-183. The moods with final conjunctions. 182. 
Violations of the rule due to the dramatic tendency. 184. With 
past tenses of the indicative the final conjunctions express an 
unfulfilled result. 185. The subjunctive and optative used in 
the same sentence to express the nearer and the more remote 
result. 


PAGR 
136 


id, 


137 


138 


139 


142 


143 


146 


147 


CONTENTS. XIX 


PAGE 
RELATIVE SENTENCES . : : 5 : . . , . 149 
186--188. Use of the moods in relative sentences. 
Oratio Osriqua. : . . : : : . 160 
189. Rules of the oradio fiona, 190, 191. The optative and 
subjunctive in oratio obligua, and in indirect questions. 192, 
The tenses in oratio obligua. 198. The accusative and infini- 
tive. 
ConDITIONAL SENTENCES  . 5 : . lol 
194-196. Advantage of mane ἐὐ τοῖν Ihe πα οῆο and 
apodosis. 
Tue Prorasis . ὁ ; : : . : . ἃ o ΜΠ 


197. Eiand ἐάν. 198. Four kinds of protasis. 199. Εἰ with the 
indicative to express possibility. 200. Ἐὰν with the subjunc- 
tive to express slight probability. 201. Et with the opta- 
tive to express complete uncertainty. 202. Et with past tenses 
of the indicative (followed by & with a past tense of the indi- 
cative) to express impossibility. 203. Difficulty and yague- 
ness of the English versions of conditional sentences. 

Tur Apoposis . c : 6 . c ὃ . : . 1dd 
204. Variation of the apodosis. 


ComerreTn ConpitIoNAL SENTENCES . : . ὃ . 156 
205-208. Complete and regular conditional ες, with 
their English and Latin equivalents. 209, 210. Impossibility 
of representing them accurately in idéomatic English. 211, 
212. Influence of the dramatic tendency. 213. Instances of 
the four classes of conditional sentences with regular and 
varied apodoses. 


TremMPoRAL SENTENCES . : . : . . - 161 
214. General rules of temporal πος τὰ examples. 


Speciat Uses oF πρίν, ἕως, &e. Σ Ε : : ὃ 5 es 
215. 1. πρὶν ἂν never used unless a negative conception precedes, 
11, πρὶν with the optative in oratio obliqua, or with reference 
to the thoughts of another. 111. Correspondence of optatives. 
iv. Difference between πρίν, ἕως, and πρίν ἄν, ἕως ἄν. The 
infinitive with πρίν, General summary of the uses of πρίν. 


Tue INFINITIVE ἃ : : : . : 164 
216. The sv saline not anys a ἘΠῚ 217. Its connection 
with the noun. 218. Its use in Greek and English more 
extensive than in Latin. 219. Close analogy between the 
use of the infinitive in Greek and English. 220. Its use to 
express a consequence. 221. Qualified by various conjune- 


xx CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

tions, 222, The cpexegetie infinitive. 229, Adverbial use 
of the infinitive. 224, Used elliptically in commands, prayers, 
ἕο, 225. Tenses of the infinitive. 226-228. The accusative 
and infinitive. 229. The nominative and infinitive. 230. 
The infinitive with other cases. 231. Future infinitive after 
verbs of promising. 282-234. Declension of the infinitive 
with the article in Greek and other languages. 


Tur Parricreie . ; . 169 
235, Affinities of the senate aati ie) adjostive 236, The 
Greeks φιλομέτοχοι. 297. Its two main uses. 238. It com- 
pletes the notion of the verb. 239. Differences between the 
infinitive and the participle after verbs of knowing, &e. 
240. φθάσας, λαθών, ἀνύσας. 241, The participle expresses 
the accidents of the verbal notion. 242-245. Other uses of 
the participle. 246. Adverbs used to define participles. 
VERBALS IN -τέυς. : : ; : : ὃ ὃ elie 
247. Verbal adjectives. 248. Used in the neuter plural. 249. 
Verbal adjectives in -τὸς and --τέος, 
“Ay wit Tur Moovs : : : : . : 5 
250. Meaning of ἄν, κέν. 251. Used with three moods. 252. 
Used with three tenses of the indicative. 253. Potential use 
of ἄν. 254. Frequentative use of ἄν. 255. Illustrated from 
English usages. 256. Key with the present and future indi- 
cative. 267, 258. Special uses of ἄν. 260, 261. When com- 
bined with relatives and zelative particles ἂν takes the sub- 
junctive. 262. Exceptions to this rule merely apparent. 
263-267. “Av with the infinitive and participle. 267. i. The 
verb belonging to ἂν sometimes omitted. ii. ἂν sometimes 
omitted. 111. Sometimes repeated, or iv. misplaced. y. The 
conjunction ἄν. vi. Elliptical use of ἄν. 


Tue ΕἾΝΑΙ, Consuncrions . 5 3 5 5 mo one iD 
268. ὡς, ὅπως, iva. Rule for their use. 269. Irregularities in- 
troduced by the dramatic tendency. 270. ὅπως with the 
future indicative. 271. Its elliptical use. 272. Final con- 
junctions with past tenses of the indicative. 279. I. Sum- 
mary of the uses of ὥς, II. Summary of the uses of ὅπως, 
111. Summary of the uses of ἵνα, 


Tus NEGATIvVEs . ὃ ἢ ; ; : é 0 εὐ 189 
274. Differences of ov and μή. 2765. Distinctions between οὐ 
and μή. 276, Cases in which μὴ is used. 277. μὴ after 
verbs of fearing, &c. 278. Illustrations of this apparent 
pleonasm. 


CONTENTS. XX1 


PAGH 
οΘὺ. : ° : 0 : . C . . . . 186 
279. General uses of οὖ, 280. Its ;ower of coalescing with 
words. 281-283. Special uses of od. 284, 285. Contrasted 
uses of οὐ and μή. 286, 287. The accumulation of negatives. 
288. Omission of negatives. : 


Οὐ μὴ. : ὃ ἢ : : : : : : : o Mil 
289. Prohibitive and negative uses of οὐ μή. 290, 291. Ex- 
planation of them. 
Μὴ οὐ F ‘ : j 5 ‘ ὃ 4 4 ὃ . 192 
292. Use of μὴ οὐ after negative notions. 293, 394. Use of μὴ 
with the infinitive. 


Various Nrcativs Purases ὁ δ : : 5 . . 194 
295. Negative terms. 
Particirs , . : : . δ : - : . . 196 
296. Importance of the particles. 297-308. Various classes of 
conjunctions. 804. Particles of emphasis. 
INTERJECTIONS . . ὃ ὃ . . : : - 20] 
305. Importance of the interjections. 


Orper or Worps AnD Ficurus or Srexcit : : : .. 

8060, 307. Difference of order in synthetic and analytic lan- 
guages. 808. Rhetorical inversions. 309. Spnsu-consTruc- 
tions. a. Constructio pregnans. ὦ. Zeugma. ὁ. Syllepsis. 
d. Comparatio compendiaria. 7. Various forms of anakolu- 
thon. g. Aposiopesis. 310. Hyprrpaton, a. Antip*osis. 
ὃ. Chiasmus. c. Hysteron Proteron. d. Hypallage. 311. 
Evruemism. a. Irony. ὦ. liypokorisma. ὁ. Litotes. d. Anti- 
phrasis. 6. Ambiguity: 312. Preonasm. a. Periphrasis. ὦ, 
Polyptoton. 818. Hrnpiapys. 314. Asynprron. 316. 
ParonomasiA. «. Onomatopeia. ὦ. Alliteration. ὁ, Oxy- 
moron. d. Antithesis. ὁ. Rhyme. f. Rhythm, 


dora cis eR 













= ᾿ int i 4 ‘a. ΠΤ. 
' ἐν ᾿ ὍΤΩΙ ΒΝ ΔΝ, a eS 
οὐ γε ΚΡ ον ΓΑ ἃν 


; ᾿ ; io vine he Cail BN, 














Π δὰ 
- if Ἷ § ἊΝ 
Ξ ᾿ - ᾽ 
ΒΕΡΕ 00. 0 Στ Εν ὦν . 
i 
᾿ ᾿ ini ᾿ 
Ν te? LW eee 
e. * ᾿ 
᾿ bile! i A 
rae : ἌΝ, " ; eas = ol wie eee ὦ 
ἢ ay Mee 
ae Tait it ye’ io aaa i 
Ce 9 n Ἧ oan UX, fi 
et | ΣΝ “δ 
. ᾿ ee εἷϑὴ cs ἢν a 
" 4 ἐν ἌΝ δ δ τ av | ug 
᾿ ie | = τ ΤῊ ee) 
ay ecu ἴων 
gee ey a ee 
i ees el a iff (alisha Lise ἠὲ 


A BRIEF 


Guy Ke ΘΎΝ ΤΑ Χ. 


INTRODUCTORY. 
THE GREEK LANGUAGE. 


1. Toe Greek Lanauace belongs to the Aryan or Indo- 
European family of languages. 

2. There are two great recognised Famities of Language, 
the Aryan and the Semitic. ‘These languages are spoken by 
the most advanced and civilised of human races. The other 
languages of the world, which may be classed together under 
the names Sporadic or Allophylian, have not yet been reduced 
to any unity, but fall under a number of different divisions. 

9. The Semitic languages are Hebrew, Pheenician, Cartha- 
ginian, Aramaic (i.e. Syriac and Chaldee), and Arabic. The 
name ‘Semitic’ is purely conventional, and they might con- 
veniently be called, from their geographical limits, Syro- 
Arabian. 

4. The Aryan languages consist of eight main divisions, 
which we may call the Sanskritic, Iranic, Hellenic, Italic, 
Lithuanian, Sclavonic, Teutonic, and Celtic. The name Aryan 
is derived from the title Arya, ‘noble,’ which was arrogated 
to themselves by the first founders of the race. 

5. The Aryan family of languages is the most perfect family 
in the world, and Greek is the most perfect language in this 
family ; it is ‘the instinctive metaphysics of the most intelli- 
gent of nations.’ 

6. Again, there are four different Crasses of Languages, divided 
according to their structure. 

These morphological or structural divisions are: 

i, Isolating languages, which have no proper grammar, and in which 
the words suffer no change to express any shades of thought or varieties 

BR 


2 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


of circumstance ; of these Chinese is the chief. Thus in Chinese the 
prayer ‘Our Father which art in heaven, assumes the form ‘ Being 
heaven me-another (= our) Father who;’ a style not unlike the natural 
language of very young children. Isolating languages are perhaps the 
oldest of all, and yet by that curious cyclical process which is observable 
in language, many modern languages in the last stage of their history 
resemble them. For instance, Chinese has never possessed cases or 
inflections of any kind, and English has Jost nearly all which it once 
possessed; or, as Dr. Latham expresses it, Chinese is aptotic, English 
anaptotic. 

il. Agglutinating, like the Turkish, in which the material elements of 
words (root or stem), and the formal elements (pronouns, indicating 
space, position, &c.), are juxtaposed in one word without undergoing any 
modification. In these languages all compound words are separable, i.e. 
the component parts are not fused together and altered in the process, 
but are merely parathetic or joined mechanically, as in the English words 
star-fish, railroad, clock-work, &c. 

111. Polysynthetic (also called holophrastic or incorporant), in which, 
as in Basque, and in the aboriginal languages of America, each sentence 
is one long compound word, and is an agglomeration of simple words 
‘in a violent state of fusion and apocope,’ e.g. in one of these languages 
nicalchihua means ‘1 build my house,’ but neither mi ‘1,’ cad ‘house,’ or 
chihua ‘make,’ can be employed as separate words.* 

iv. Inflectional languages, in which, as in Greek and Latin, the mate- 
rial elements (roots), and the formal] elements (pronouns, &c., expressive 
of various modifications), are united by synthesis into one inseparable 
whole, and in which the inflections have so entirely lost their force as 
separate words that their very origin is often undecipherable. 


7. Greek presents the most perfect specimen of an inflectional 
or synthetic language. 

8. A language which gets rid of inflections as far as possible, 
and substitutes separate words for each part of the conception, 
is called an analytic language; and next to Chinese (which 
has never attained to synthesis at all) few languages are more 
analytic than English. Thus in nouns we have only retained 
one case-inflection, viz. the s which is a sign of the genitive ; 
and in verbs only one inflection to express tense, the -d in past- 
aorists, as I loved (=I love-did). Yet English continues 
to be a thoroughly synthetic language, and it contains hun- 
dreds of single words which in any isolating language would 
require four or five separate words for their expression. 

9. A synthetic language will express in one word what 
requires many words for its expression in an analytic language, 
as will be seen by an instance or two: e.g. 





* Strange as this holophrasis may appear to us, there are distinct 
traces of it both in Greek and Latin; see Origin of Language, p. 174. 





SYNTHESIS AND ANALYSIS. 3 


φιληθήσομαι, amabor, I shall be loved, Ich werde geliebt 
werden. 
πεφιλήσομαι, 1 shall have been loved, [ch werde geliebt 
worden sein. 
ἐτετιμήμεθα, honorati eramus, we had been honoured. 
λύσωμαι, que je me sois délié, 
λελυσοίμην, may I have been unloosed! que j’eusse df 
étre délié ! 
wxero, abierat, il s’en était 4116. 
Similarly the synthetic character of the Semitic languages 
enables them to express by an affix or a suffix some modifica- 
tion of meaning, which in modern languages would necessitate 
one or more separate words for its enunciation; e.g, to render 
the one word #AIDW vehirkabhteeka,* we require at least 
seven words, ‘and I will cause thee to ride ;’ and yet in spite 
of this the one Hebrew word expresses more than cur seven, for 
it implies that the person addressed is a male, so that in fact 
to give the full meaning of that one word we should require 
the nine words, ‘And I will cause thee, Ὁ man, to ride.’ No 
instance could illustrate more forcibly than this the difference 
between Synthesis and Analysis in language. 

10. The tendency of all languages, at least in historic times, 
is from synthesis to analysis, e.g. from case-inflections to the 
use of prepositions, and from tense-inflections to the use of 
auxiliaries. ‘This tendency may be seen by comparing any 
modern language with its ancestor, e.g. Arabic with Hebrew, 
Bengali with Sanskrit, Persian with Zend, Danish with Ice- 
landic, German with Gothic, or English with Anglo-Saxon. 

11. It’ may also be constantly illustrated by a comparison 
of Modern with ancient Greek, for which reason Modern Greek 
is often referred to in the following pages. But the simplest 
way of studying the tendency is to compare Latin with any 
of those six Romance languages (Italian, French, Spanish, 








* Ancient Hebrew, says Herder, ‘seeks like a child to say all at once.’ 
This reminds us of the remark in Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme. Mons. 
Jourdain: “ Zant de choses en deux mots? Cov. Oui, la langue turque est 
comme cela, elle dit beaucoup en peu de paroles.’ Géthe remarks of 
French, ‘O eine Nation ist zu beneiden, die so feine Schattirungen in 
einem Worte auszudriicken weiss’ (Wilhelm Meister); but the remark 
is true in a far higher degree of Greek than of any other language; e.g. 
to represent fully in French the word ἀντιπαρεξάγειν, we should require 
‘ faire sortir une armée en face de l’ennemi, et la mener contre lui’— 
thirteen words for one. See Burnouf, Méthode pour étudier la langue 
grecque, p. 165. 


B 2 


4 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


Portuguese, Wallachian, and Engadinish) which have been 
immediately derived from it; e.g. amabo becomes in French 
j amerai, which is a corruption of the analytic expression Lgo 
amare habeo 1 have to love.* 

12. The advantage of a synthetic language lies in its com- 
pactness, precision, and beauty of form; analytic languages 
are clumsier, but they possibly admit of greater accuracy of 
expression, and are less liable to misconception. What they 
lose in euphony, force, and poetic concision, they gain in the 
power of marking the nicest shades of thought. What they 
lose in elasticity they gain in strength. If they are inferior 
instruments for the imagination, they better serve the purposes 
of reason. Splendid efflorescence is followed by ripe fruit. In 
the tragedies of AZschylus and the odes of Pindar, marvellous 
as is the power which crams every rigid phrase with the 
fire of a hidden meaning, we yet feel that the form is cracking 
under the spirit, or at least that there is a tension injurious to 
the grace and beauty of the general effect. A language which 
gets rid of its earlier inflections,—English for instance as 
compared with Anglo-Saxon,—loses far less than might have 
been supposed. 

13. It is most important to observe that no inflection is 
arbitrary; it is now certain that every inflection is the frag- 
ment of a once separable word, having its own distinct mean- 
ing. Among all the richly-multitudinous forms assumed by 
the Greek and Latin verbs, there is not one which does not 
follow some definite and ascertainable law. The actual analysis 
of the inflections has been carried to considerable perfection ; 
but the derivations of many of them are as yet to a certain 
extent disputable and uncertain. ‘The wise warning of 
Quinctilian is still required, ‘Inter virtutes grammaticas 
habebitur aliqua nescire.’ 

14. Parsing,—the hopeless stumbling-block of so many 
young students,—loses its difficulty and repulsiveness, when it 
is once understood that there is a definite recurrence of the 
same forms in the same meaning, and that the distorted 
shape assumed by some words is not due to arbitrary license 
but to regular and well understood laws of phonetic corruption. 

15. i. For instance, the word ἐβουλεύσαντο means ‘ they took 
counsel for themselves ;’ we express the same conception by 
five words, and should require seven, but that we do possess 








* For further remarks on this subject see Origin of Language, 
pp. 173-181. 


SYNTHESIS AND ANALYSIS. 5 


an aorist* (‘took’) in English verbs, and also an inflection 
‘s’ to express the plural; but if we analyse the word 
ἐβουλεύσαντο we shall have to write it 

ἐ-βουλεύ-σ-α-ντ-ο, 
and shall find that it consists of βὶχ 7 parts, viz.: 

1. An augment ἐ (the fragment probably of the same root 
which we find in the preposition ava, expressing zndefi~ 
nite past time). 

2. A root or stem, βουλευ. 

ὦ. A tense-letter, o, here characteristic of the first aorist, 
and derived from the root as to be. 

4. A vowel, a, used as a tach between the tense-letter 
and the person-inflection. 

5. The relic of a pronoun, v7, characteristic of the third 
person plural. Perhaps we ought to call this the 
relics of two pronominal roots, ana, and the demon- 
strative -ta [he and he=they].t This termination 
was slurred in pronunciation, as we see from the Latin 
forms fuere, amavere, &c. 

6. A voice letter, 0, indicating the passive or middle. 


il. Similarly, é-re-réu-y-vr-o consists of six parts, the re- 
duplication being used to mark the perfect, and the augment 
to place this perfect event still farther back in the past. 

111. So too in Latin, such a word as amabantur is analysed 
thus: ama-ba-nt-u-r = root + sign of the imperfect + sign of 
the 3rd pers. plur.+ junction-vowel + pronominal elements. 
In this instance we know that ‘ba’ is a fragment of the root 
which we find in the auxiliary verb dv, fu, &c., and the original 
form may have been am-a-ba-nt-u-se. 

iv. Again, take such a form as λυθήσομαι, “1 shall be 
loosed ;’ this, when analysed, is Av-0-n-ov-yat, and consists, 
no less than the English phrase, of five parts, viz. : 

1. The root Av-. 
2. θ- the relic of the root dha, todo or make: this mean- 
ing is preserved even in the Greek τίθημι, as τί κε θεῖμεν; 


Sapph. jr. 62. 





* When this aorist is formed qualitatively, i.e. by mere internal modi- 
fication of the root as in take, took, (which is the ordinary Semitic 
method,) it is called a strong aorist; when it is formed by the addition 
of some extraneous word as loye, love-did (=loved), it is called a weak 
aorist. 

tT See Dwight’s Modern Philology, ii. p. 274. 

¢ See A, Schleicher, Vergleichende Grammatik, § 276. 


6 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


3. η- the representative of the root ja =ire (εΐμι), to go. 
4. σο- the future sign, which we find in ἔσο-μαι, eso (ero). 
5. μαι, the first personal pronoun (in oblique case). 


The whole conception therefore is synthetically built up of 
the elements There will be (co) a going (7) to make (6) me 
(μαι) loose (Av).* (Thus the two auxiliary verbs ‘to go’ and 
‘to be,’ however much disguised, occur in every Greek and 
Latin future. 

15 (dis). i. Sometimes the original constituent elements are 
greatly obliterated. 

Take, for instance, the pluperfect ἐπεπήγειν, or, to use the 
more Attic form, ἐπεπήγη. This is resolvable into ἐ-πε-πηγ-εα, 
1.6. augment+redupl.+root-+-auxiliary. This ea is really <o- 
αμ (cf. eram), which is the root es, a junction vowel a, and 
the first personal pronoun. 

ii. The traces of a previous form of the word are sometimes 
unexpectedly preserved in the accentuation. Thus édvoy, in 
the Ist person plural, is proparoxytone; but in Dorie the 
rd pers. plur. is accented ἐλύονυ. The reason of this is that 
the 1st person was originally ἔλυομ (cf. inquam, sum, and the 
provincial Ich bim=Ich bin); but the 3rd pers. plural has 
been softened from an original ἐλυοντ. 

111. It will be seen that this analysis of Greek inflections de- 
pends entirely on the distinction between the material and 
formal elements of words, i.e. between the stem or inflective 
base (which the Hindoo grammarians call the aiiga or body) 
of a word, and the various affixes or suffixes, which indicate 
its special meaning and relations. ‘This distinction was un- 
known or disregarded until the discovery of Sanskrit led to the 
study of Indian works on grammar; but it is a distinction of 
extreme importance, and one which reduces grammatical con- 
ceptions to an extreme simplicity. 

The root of a word must be carefully distinguished from its 
stem. 

A root is the ultimate constituent sound of a word reduced 
to its simplest form. It is in fact the core, or vocal skeleton of 
a group of kindred words. In some languages, as in Chinese, 
all words are also roots, and their mutual relations are only 
indicated by position. 

‘The Indian grammarians called a root dhdtu, from dha, to 
nourish : dhdtu means any primary or elementary substance, 
and consequently shows that these grammarians looked on 





* See A. Schleicher, Vergleichende Grammatik, § 300. 


SYNTHESIS AND ANALYSIS. 7 


roots as the primary elements of words.’—Ferrar, Comp. Gram. 
p. 178. 

All roots are either verbal (i.e. predicative) or pronominal 
(i.e. demonstrative). 

The stem of a word is what remains of the word when its 
inflections have been removed. It may be identical with the 
root : €.g. om-, στιχ-ν duc-, are both the stems and the roots of 
ὄμμα, στίξ, and dux. But more often the stem is the root 
already modified and followed by various suffixes, as in στοῖχο-ς, 
ὀπτικό-ς, ductili-s. Thus of πρᾶγμα the root is zpay-, but 
the stem is mpaypar. The stem, says Bopp, may be con- 
sidered as a sort of general case, never employed in an isolated 
form, but which in a compound word takes the place of all 
cases : e.g. τελες-φόρος, λογο-γράφος. Some stems are conson- 
ant, some vocalic. 

The inflections, or formal elements of a word, are those little 
syllables—the relics of pronouns and auxiliary verbs—which 
express the mutual relations of ideas, the various conditions of 
time, space, and circumstance. Elastic in their form and fluid 
in their meaning, they lend themselves to the expression of all 
modifications in the sense, and add in a marvellous degree 
to the clearness, wealth, and freedom of language (see Bréal, 
Bopp, Gram. Comp. 11. xxviii.). 

16. The reasons why we spend so long a time in acquiring 
a mastery over the Greek language are manifold. We do se 
partly because it is one of the most delicate and perfect in- 
struments for the expression of thought which was ever 
elaborated by the mind of man, and because it is therefore 
admirably adapted, both by its points of resemblance to our 
own and other modern languages, and by its points of dif- 
ference from them, to give us the Idea or fundamental con- 
ception of all Grammar; i.e. of those laws which regulate the 
use of the forms by which we express our thoughts. Again, 
Greek is the key to one of the most astonishing and splendid 
regions of literature which are open for the intellect to explore, 
—a literature which enshrines works not only of imperishable 
interest, but also of imperishable importance (both directly 
and historically) for the development of human thought. It 
is the language in which the New Testament was first written, 
and into which the Old Testament was first translated. [0 
was the language spoken by the greatest poets, the greatest 
orators, the greatest historians, the profoundest philosophers, 
that the world has ever seen. It was the language of the 
most ancient, the most eloquent, and in some respects the 


8 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


most important of the Christian fathers. It contains the 
record of institutions and conceptions which lie at the base 
of modern civilisation, and at the same time it contains the 
record, and presents the spectacle, of precisely those virtues 
in which modern civilisation is most deficient. Nor is it an 
end only; it is also a means. Even for those who never suc- 
ceed in reaping ail the advantages which it places within 
their reach, it has been found to be in various nations and 
ages* during many hundred years, one of the very best 
instruments for the exercise and training of the mind. It 
may have been studied irrationally, pedantically, and too 
exclusively; but though it is desirable that much should 
be superadded, yet with Latin it will probably ever continue 
to be;—what the great German poet Gothe breathed a wish 
that it always snould be,—the basis of all higher culture. 
fGreek,} the shrine of the genius of the old world, as universal 
as our race, as individual as ourselves; of infinite flexibility, 
of indefatigable strength, with the complication and the dis- 
tinctness of nature herself, to which nothing was vulgar, from 
which nothing was excluded ; speaking to the ear like Italian, 
speaking to the mind like English; with words like pictures, 
with words like the gossamer film of the summer; at once the 
variety and the picturesqueness of Homer, the gioom and the 
intensity of schylus ; not compressed to the closest by 
Thucydides, not fathomed to the bottom by Plato, not sound- 
ing with all its thunders, nor lit up with all its ardours, even 
under the Promethean touch of Demosthenes himself.’ 


THE ALPHABET. 


1. The Greeks borrowed their alphabet from the Pheenicians. 
It originally consisted of sixteen letters, which were said to 
have been introduced by Cadmus. Hence Ausonius calls 
letters, ‘ Cadmi nigelle filie.’{ The name Cadmus is probably 
a mere mythical personification of the Hebrew word Dp 
Kedem ‘ the East.’ ὃ 





* For the study of Greek formed one of the main branches in the 
education of the young Romans. 

+ H.N. Coleridge, Jntroduction to the Greek Classic Poets. 

¢ Auson. Hp. iv.7. It is sometimes stated that, according to Hesy- 
chius, ἐκφοινίξαι may mean ‘torcad’ witha reference to Vhenician letters, 
This is not the case. His gloss is ἐκφοινίξαι, ἀναγνῶσαι, tor which 
Abresch doubtfully suggested ἀναγνῶναι; but probably the word should 
be αἱματῶσαι. 

§ This word also means ‘the ancient,’ See Ps. xliy. 2, &e. 


THE ALPHABET. 9 


2. These original sixteen letters, called ra Φοινικήϊα (Herod. 
v. 58, 59), or ra ἀπὸ Κάδμου, or τὰ Πελασγικά, were probably 
as follows :— " 

ΑΒΙΔ 

ΒΕΗΘ 

ΟἼΟΥ 
and the liquids A M N &. 

In this list F is digamma; Q is koppa; H is the sign of 
the aspirate. 

The arrangement of this alphabet is evidently systematic, 
viz., a followed by three mediz, ε followed by three aspirates, 
o followed by three tenues; and the four liquids (see Donald- 
son, New Cratylus, ch. v.). 

The other letters of the Semitic alphabet were gradually 
borrowed. The Semitic alphabets, however, differ from the 
Aryan: i. in having no vowels; 11. in being arranged in no 
phenetic order. 

2 (bis). The names Epsilon, Upsilon, Omega, Omicron were 
wholly unknown to the ancients, and were not introduced till 
the vowel-sounds were confused. It is now known that ψιλόν 
is opposed not to δασύ (as smooth to aspirate) but to cipboyyor. 
Plat. Orat. 393 p.; Athen. x. 453 F. Y and Q should bear the 
same name as they do in English, unless ‘Omega’ be retained 
for its association. E was called εἶ, O was called ot. Hence 
© was a positive refusal. When Dionysius the Tyrant invited 
Philoxenus to Syracuse, his only answer was a page of circles, 
one within the other, ©), ἐμφαίνων ὅτι πολλάκις καὶ σφόδρα 
ἀρνεῖται. Hence τὸ Φιλοξένου οὗ became the proverb for any 
emphatic negative. The Lacedemonians gave a similar answer 
to Philip of Macedon. Plut. De Garrulit. c. 21; Auson. xxiv. 
36, 37. 

3. The digamma, or vau, F (Jai), and koppa, 9 (kér7a), 
represent the Hebrew 1 vau, and p kooph. Although found 
in some old inscriptions, they early fell out of use in Greek ; 
but are retained in Latin under the forms of F and Q. The 
digamma was replaced by v and 9 ;* 9 by κ and x. H, which 





* The digamma F was evidently in use when the Homeric poems were 
composed; but it had ceased to be employed as a written character when 
they were first preserved in manuscripts; hence such apparent hiatuses 
as ὅσσα ἔοικε at the end of an hexameter line. The first grammarian 
who called attention to it was the celebrated Apollonius Dyscolus in the 
time of Hadrian. In many Greek words o very early took its place, as 
we see by finding Fotos for “Oatos on old coins, and by a comparison of 

B 3 


10 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


was originally an aspirate, and continues to be so in the 
Latin H, was adopted as a sign of the double «. Palamedes 
is the legendary inventor of v, ¢, and ~; Simonides and 
Epicharmus are variously asserted to have added the two other 
double letters ξ and Z, and the long vowels ἡ and ὦ (EKurip. 
Fr. Palam.; Plin. N. H. vii. 26). 

The entire Greek alphabet of twenty-four letters, as it now 
stands, is said to have been first used by the Jonians of Asia 
Minor, and hence is called ra ᾿Ιωνικὰ γράμματα. It was early 
adopted by the Samians; and it is very probable that 
Herodotus, who often resided at Athens, and was a warm 
friend of the poet Sophocles, first introduced it among the 
educated Athenians. Hence (even before the archonship of 
Euclides) when Euripides introduces a peasant who cannot 
read, describing the written characters of the word Θησεύς, he 
distinguishes between ἡ and ¢.* The passage, which is a very 
interesting one, is preserved by Athenzus (Deipn. x. 79, 80) 
in his curious chapters on the Greek alphabet. 

4. The Ionian letters were not, however, formally adopted 
by the Athenians, or used in public monuments, until the 
archonship of Huclides, B.c. 408. Hence they are called ra 
γράμματα τὰ ἀπ’ Ἑῤκλείδου ἄρχοντος. The alphabet of 





οἶδα, οἶκος, οἶνος with the Latin video, vicus, vinum; in others v, as we 
see by comparing βασιλεῖς (still pronounced vasilefs in Modern Greek) 
with βασιλεύς, and by the absence of contraction in πλέω, féw, xéw, 
which are the ultimate forms of wAeFw, πλεύω (cf. aor. ἔπλευσα), ὅσο. 
The digamma was called Afolic, because it was retained latest in that 
dialect ; and the traces of it abound in Latin, which resembles Molic 
more than any other form of Greek. It is represented in Latin by va- 
rious letters, as Ὁ, Ὁ, f, and especially v. Thus πρᾶβος becomes probus, 
daFis daps, βορμίαι Formic, adv, ἔαρ, ἕσπερος, ἴον, ovum, ver, vesper, viola, 
&c. It may however be considered probable that the F had a complex 
sound, viz. the sound of a guttural combined with a labial, a fact which 
is etymologically of the utmost importance, since it accounts for many 
otherwise impossible letter-changes in Greek words. See Garnett, Phi- 
lolog. Essays, p. 241 seqg. The F is fully handled in Ferrar’s Compara- 
tive Grammar, pp. 87-90. He says it had nearly the sound of w, 
quoting Dionysius of Halicarnassus, who defines it as ov συλλαβὴ ἑνὶ 
στοιχείῳ γραφομένη. 
* He describes the H thus: 
πρῶτα μὲν γραμμαὶ δύο 
ταύτας διειργει δ᾽ ἐν μέσαις ἄλλη μία. 
and E thus: 
ἦν μὲν eis ὀρθὸν μία 
λοξαὶ δ᾽ ἐπ αὐτῆς τρεῖς κατεστηριγμέναι. 


Similarly, Agathon in his Telephus, 


THE ALPHABET. 17 


twenty-one letters (i.e. all except ἕ, ψ, w, the three which 
were last adopted), is called τὰ ᾿Αττικά. 

5. Besides the obsolete F and 9, the Greeks at one time had 
a letter Lav, the representative of the Hebrew Zain; it was 
ousted by ¢, which properly was the representative of the 
Hebrew Shin. Both Σὼν and Korma were retained as marks 
of the breed of horses; a horse branded av was called 
Σαμφόρας, 


οὐκ ἐλᾷς ὦ Σαμφόρα; Arist. Hg. 603; cf. Nub. 122; 


and was guaranteed as being of a particular breed. A horse 
branded with Kérra* was called Κοππατίας, and was sup- 
posed to be of the Corinthian breed descended from the fabled 
Pegasus. Hitzig, however, thinks that these two letters were 
used in branding horses to represent the first and last letters 
of YP Kodesh ‘ holy,’ i.e. precious. 

5 (bis). 1. Koppa (kooph = Q) was obviously valueless, as Καὶ 
could easily supply its place. In Latin, where K was not an 
indigenous letter, an irate grammarian called Q ‘littera 
mendica, supposititia, vere servilis, manca, et decrepita; sine u 
tanquam bacillo nihil potest, et cum u nihil valet amplius 
quam k.’ 

ii. The letter yod, though obsolete in Greek, leaves repeated 
traces of its presence. Thus ἀμείνων, κτείνω, στέλλω, κορύσσω 
are assimilations for awevywy, revyw, στελγω, κορυτγω; μᾶλλον 
is for μαλγον, μέλαινα for pedavya, τέρεινα for repevya. We 
can often detect the original existence of this yod by referring 
to the Latin; e.g. farcio is the Latin equivalent of φράσσω. 

6. The discovery of the Alphabet, and its representation by signs, 
must always rank among the very highest discoveries of human in- 
genuity; probably, however, the discovery was very gradual. 

Writing seems to have passed through three stages ; viz.: 

1. The pictorial stage, in which, as in hieroglyphics, and the Mexican 
picture writing, each object was represented by its picture, and abstract, 
unmaterial things by some picture which metaphorically indicated them. 

2. These pictures were taken to stand not for the olvect itself, but for 
the syllable which named the object ; e.g. a picture of the sun stood no 
longer for the sun itself, but for the word, sound, or syllable which 
meant sun (this in Egyptian is Ra, so that a picture of the sun would 
stand in any word in which the syllable va occurred). 

3. The picture was taken for the letter with which the syllable it 
represented commenced (so that in Egyptian a picture of the sun would 





* We still find φόρινθος in inscriptions, &c., for Κόρινθος, and it is found 
in the inscription on a helmet brought by Col. Leake from Olympia, 


as 5 5 , 
Qolos μάποεσεν -Ξ-  Κοιθὸ5 μ' ἐποιῆσεν. 


12 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


stand for 7). We can still trace the pictorial origin of the Hebrew 
alphabet, from which the Greek is derived. Thus aleph (alpha) means 
ox, and is represented by yy, originally *¥. 

Beth (deta) means house, and is represented by 3, originally A, a tent, 
and soon. To this day we can trace back our sign for the letter m to 
the wavy line which was the conventional representation of water. See 
Chapters on Language, p. 139. 


LETTERS AS NUMERALS. 


7. The letters of the alphabet from a to ὦ are used in 
regular order to number the twenty-four books of Homer; 
but, besides this, they had the following numerical values, 
which should be remembered, because they not unfrequently 
occur in Greek books. When used as numerals, the letters 
are distinguished by a dash, as a’, β΄, Ke. 

a’ to ε΄ stand respectively for 1, 2, 3, 4,5. Then to make 
up for the lost digamma the sign s’, called stau or stigma, was 
used for 6. ζ΄ to εἶ stand respectively for 7, 8, 9,10. Then 
ra, 48). cece for 11, 12. «τον eas 20) kal 21, ΚΘ, 22 ces eller 
N= 30) = 40, >= 50, 2 =60; o' = 70; 7’ = 80.” but themexs 
letter p’=100. From this fact we see at once (as in the cor- 
responding numerical gap for the lost digamma between 5 and 
7) that a letter has been lost; thisis the letter koppa 9, which 
is accordingly retained as the sign of 90. 

The remaining letters from σ΄ to w’ are used for the hun- 
dreds from 200 to 800. For the number 900 the Greeks use 
the obsolete sanpi 4 or sp, the reverse of Ψ or ps. 

For the thousands the dash is placed beneath the letter to 
the left; thus a=1000, 8=2000, ,y=5000, &c. 

Thus 1865 would be expressed in Greek by ,awée’; and 
10,976 by os’. 

8. The word Alphabet, which is comparatively late, is 
derived from the first two letters a, 3.* The letters considered 
as elementary sounds are called στοιχεῖα ; considered as 
written signs γράμματα. 

9. The earliest known piece of Greek writing (not later 
than B.c. 600) is on a prize vase brought from Athens by Mr. 
Burgon. It runs from right to left,f and is— 


IMA YOAGA “-VOAUTOA YOT 





* The Latin elementa (perhaps =ol-e-mentu-m, from ol-cre) has been 
by some derived from the three liquids, 7, m, 2; and there is something 
to be said for this derivation, strange as it may appear. See Hitzig, 
Die Evfindung des Alphabetes, S. 13, 14. 

t The modes of writing varied ; some inscriptions are found in which 











PRONUNCIATION. 183 


or τῶν ᾿Αθήνηθεν ἄθλων εἰμί, ‘I am one of the prizes from 
Athens.’ Here we see o for w, and ε for ἡ. The shape of the 
A is, however, more modern than the shape V which is re- 
tained in the Latin L. 


PRONUNCIATION. 


10. The Greek consonants were probably prorounced much 
as we pronounce them now, except that 9, which we pro- 
nounce as f* (compare φώρ fur, φηγός fagus, φράτωρ frater, 
φάναι fari, &e.), was probably more often pronounced like 
ph in haphazard. We know that the Macedonians pronounced 
it like p, and talked of Πίλιππος. But although graphically » 
was represented in Latin by ph, yet in all the words of the 
original Aryan stock the Greek ᾧ appears in Latin as 7 (e.g. 
φέρω fero, φήμη fama, &c.). That there was, however, a dis- 
tinction between the two in sound appears from Cicero’s 
ridicule of the Greek witness who could not pronounce Funda- 
nius (Quinct. Just. Or. i. 4. 14). See Ferrar’s Comp. Gram. 
p- 108. 

Zeta was probably pronounced like the s in maison. It was 
a weak sibilant, which often has its origin in the obsolete yod. 
Cf. Zeve with Dyaus, and ga with διά. 

11. The school of Erasmus used to dispute with that of 
Reucilin whether the ἡ should be pronounced like our 2, as 
in Modern Greek, or like our 6. This is what is meant by the 
quarrel between Itacists and Etacists, of which we hear so 
much at the revival of letters. Neither were exactly right, 
for ἡ must have had the sound of ad, since it was used to 
represent a sheep’s bleat, as in the line of Cratinas: 

ὁ δ᾽ ἠλίθιος ὥσπερ πρόβατον βῆ βῆ λέγων βαξίζει, 
‘but the booby goes saying baa baa like a sheep.’ 

ι was clearly pronounced as in French, for κοΐ, κοΐ, is a 
pig’s squeak, Arist. Acharn. 780; and oi, the peewit’s cry, 
Av, 227. 





the words are written from the top to the bottom, which is called 
κιονηδόν ; others are written first from right to left, and then from left 
to right, as the ox turns in the furrow; this style is called βουστροφηδόν. 
(Pausan. Lliac. i. p. 388.) The ἄξονες and κύρβεις of Solon are said to 
have been written βουστροφηδόν (Hesych. 5. v.), as is the famous Sigean 
inscription. Originally none but capital letters were used, which is 
called the Uncial style; the ordinary cursive Greek letters are not 
found in MSS: till the eighth or ninth century. 

* Ph is the more frequent Latin equivalent of ¢, as in philosophia, &c. 


14 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


av must have been pronounced ‘ow,’ since bow-wow, a 
dog’s bark, is in Greek αὖ αὖ (Aristoph. Vesp. 903); and 
to bark is βαυβάζειν, baubari. 

ov must have been pronounced 00, as we see in the onomato- 
poetic * word βοῦς (compare our childish m00-cow) ; and the 
exclamation ἰοῦ for ugh ! 


CLASSIFICATION OF LETTERS. 


12. i. It is of the utmost importance to know and to re- 
member the divisions of the letters; a division which lies at 
the root of all etymology. For, as a general rule, it is only 
letters pronounced by the same organ that are etymologically 
interchangeable (dentals with dentals, labials with labials, 
&c.). Whenever it appears to be otherwise, | we may gene- 
rally assume that both letters existed in the original form. 
Thus bis does not come from dic, but the ὦ represents the w 
in the Sanskrit dwis; nor is Bava derived from γυνὴ but 
from the F in yFara. Similarly μέλας and κελαινὸς are the 
same word, but the original form of the word was κμέλας, 
uel the labial μ᾿ has not been interchanged with the guttural 

x. Similarly σὺν and cum are the same word, but the fact is 
accounted for by the form ξύνξεκσυν (cf. καπ-νὸς and vap-or 
with the Lithuanian kvap-a-s). 

Donaldson, who claims to have discovered this principle 
(art. Philology, Hine. Brit. p. 539), calls it ‘the law of diver- 
Bent articulations.’ Older grammarians called it Metalepsis ; 

e.g. Sanskr. paktas=rerréc=coctus ; but p cannot pass into k, 
so that Sanskrit differs from Greek in Inlaut, and from Latin in 
Anlaut. But even in Quinctilian’s time coquus was pro- 
nounced quoquus (Milt. Or. vi. 8.47); and here we see the 
origin of the divergent forms of the word, since gv=kp. 
Similarly, by comparing vivus and ‘quick’ (‘ quick and dead’), 
we are led to an original form quiqvus. Cf. Gothic quivs. 
See on this whole subject Curtius, Grundziige d. Griech. Etym. 
n. 36. 2a; Corssen, Lat. Mormenlehre, p. 28. 

il. . the vowels (φωνήεντα) are a, €, 4, υ, ὦ. 

. The consonants are divided into: i. semi-vowels (ἡ μί- 





* An onomatopeia is a word formed in imitation οὗ ἃ sound. 

+ The digamma F was really and originally a compound of y or σ and 
v; ‘and from their combination, and from the different changes which 
they separately and together admit of, arises that great variety of letters 
which are traced to an original identity.’ Donaldson, Gk. Gr. p. 10, 


CLASSIFICATION OF LETTERS. 15 


pwva) or liquids, which are X, p, v, p, and the sibilant σ; 1]. 
double letters, Z, &, ~; and 111. mutes (ἄφωνα), which do not 
form a syllable, unless a vowel follows them. 
iv. Mutes are divided into three classes, viz.: 
Rough (aspirate, δασέα), φ x 0. 
Smooth (tenues, ψιλά), 7k τ. 
Middle (media, μέσα), By δ. 
It is easy to remember the three aspirates, which at once recall the 
three tenwes; the medie are the three first consonants, B, y, δ. 


13. Letters are also divided, according to the organs required 
to pronounce them,* into 
Labials, or lip-letters, wT Bo p. 
Dentals, or teeth-letters, r 0 OA». 
Gutturals, or throat-letters, « y x. 


In Hebrew grammar these letters are remembered by useful mnemonic 
words; e.g. the Labials by the word dumaph;:the Dentals by datlanath; 
the Gutturals by gichak. They are exhibited conveniently in the follow- 
ing table, and should always be borne in mind. 





Tenues Mediz | Aspirate 


Maibialsiemeren eee π B 





Guttural sie ὁ ὁ K Ύ 











Dental Siem eects τ ὃ 





14. No Greek word (except οὐκ and éx), ends in any con- 
sonant except ν, p, or ¢ (é, W). Any other consonant at the 
end of a word is rejected, as μέλι(τ), o@palr), ἤσαν(τ), &e. 
Hence v has superseded p in ἔτυπτον, and the first person 
singular of other historical tenses, 


15. Two laws of euphony are of constant recurrence : 


i. When two letters of different. organs (e.g. labial and 
dental) come together, a tenuis only can precede a tenuis, a 
medial a medial, and an aspirate an aspirate. 








* This classification of letters is first found in Dionysius of Halicar- 
nassus περὶ συνθέσεως ὀνομάτων. R was called by the Latins litera 
canina—-‘ Irritata canis quod 7r quam plurima dicit.’ Lucil. S was 
ealled littera serpentina, and also solitarium, because it stands alone. 


16 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


This is why we have 


πλεχθείς, not πλεκθεις from πλέκω. 
τυφθείς,Ἠ not τυπθεις from τύπτω. 
ἑφθήμερος, ποῦ ἑπθημερος from ἐπτὰ ἡμέραι. 
νύχθ᾽ ὅλην, not νυκθ᾽ ὅλην 
λεκτύς, not λεγτος from λέγω: 

and so on. 


The only exception admitted is in the case of the preposition ἐκ, as in 
ἐκδοῦναι, ἐκθεῖναι, ἐκβάλλειν, &e. 


ii. The Greeks dislike the concurrence of aspirates (when 
not necessitated by the last rule, as is the case in τεθάφθαι, 
ἐθρέφθην, &e.), and avoid it when possible. They had no ob- 
jection to 90, especially when the ¢ belongs to the root. 
Bopp, i. 104, a. , 

Thus aspirates cannot be doubled, but the former is 
changed into the corresponding tenuis, as in Βάκχος, Σαπφώ, 
Πιτθεύς. 

For the same reason, in reduplication, we have κεχώρηκα, 
riOnut, πέφυκα, for χεχώρηκα, θίθημι, &e.; ἐτύϑην, σώθητι, for 
ἐθύθην, σώθηθι, &c. And this accounts for such peculiarities 
as θρίξ, τριχός---τρέχω, θρέξω---ταχύ, θᾶσσον---ἔχω, ἕξω, &e. 

Exceptions are a. Some compounds, as ἀνθοφόρος, ὀρνιθοθήρας, &c. 

ὃ. The formative syllables -@n and -θι are not changed, 
as in πανταχόθεν, Κορινθόθι, ὠρθώθην, τέθναθι; or, 
if any change is made, it is not in the -θη of the 
first aorist, but in the aspirate which follows it. 
Thus we have τύφθητι, not τυπτηθι 

ὁ. ἁφὴ, ὑφαίνω, ἕθεν, ἧχι. 

N.B. This dislike of concurrent aspirates, though found in Greek and 
in Sanskrit, is not a peculiarity of the Aryan languages generally; e.g. 
in such Latin reduplications as fefelli the f’s represent an original aspi- 
rate. Ferrar’s Comp. Grammar, Ὁ. 184. 

Some interesting remarks on the peculiarities of the aspirate may be 
found in Meissner’s Palestra Gallica, p. 16. 


VOWELS. 


16. Attic Greek avoids hiatus, or the concurrence of vowels, 
as much as possible, especially in verse. 


17. The fusion or coalescence of vowels is called cvradogij; 
of which the varieties may be tabulated as follows: i. Ke- 
thlipsis, or cutting off; ii. Crasis, or mixture of two words into 
one; iii. Syneresis, or contraction of two syllables into one, 


VOWELS. 17 


18, SyNAL@PHA. 





i. Ecthlipsis or 11. Crasis or 111. Syneeresis or 
Elision, as ἀφ᾽ ov — Mixture, as Contraction, as 
for ἀπὸ ov. κἀκ for καὶ ἐκ. τιμᾶτε for τιμάητε. 


i. Hethlipsis. Elision and hiatus are often avoided by adding 
a p (called » ἐφελκυστικὸν or tapaywytkov)* to Various datives, 
neuters, and 3rd persons. 

The cin τί, ὅτι, περί, and the datives in the 3rd declension 
do not suffer elision in Attic. 

ii. Crasis. The absorption of a short vowel at the beginning 
of a word is called improper crasis ; as in ἣ ᾿᾽μὴ for ἡ ἐμή, ἢ ᾿γὼ 
for ἣ ἐγώ. This is also called Prodelision. 

The aspirate in a compound word may prevent crasis; as 
προέξω from πρὸ and ἕξω ; but spovxw from πρὸ and ἔχω. 

ui. Syneresis. The following of the least obvious contrac- 
tions should be remembered :— 


an=a, as τιμάητε τεετιμᾶτε. 
on=w, as δηλύητε =Cnd\Gre. 
αειξξεᾳ, aS τιμάει πετιμᾷ. 
οειξεεοι, AS δηλόει πτεεδηλοῖ. 
αὐιξξῳ, AS τιμάοιμεν' κεετιμῷμεν. 
, ~ 
ay=g, as τιμάῃ =r. 
> , ~ 
on=or, as δηλόῃ Ξεδηλοῖ. 


Besides this, there is an incipient crasis called Synizesis or 
subsidence, by which two written syllables are pronounced as 
one; thus in verse θεὸς is often a monosyllable, πόλεως a 


dissyllable, &c. 





* It must not, however, be supposed that this v is a mere arbitrary 
suffix. It may be laid down asa proved fact that in language nothing 
is arbitrary. If the so-called ν ἐφελκυστικὸν is not purely a phonetic 
necessity, it is the mutilated relic of some older termination. Schleicher 
says, ‘Das bekannte v ἐφελκυστικὸν ist kein Rest einer friiheren Sprach- 
periode, sondern eine speciellegriechische junge Erscheinung, z.B. &pepe-v, 
altind. und grundf. dbharat; in diesem Valle trat das vy also erst ein, 
nachdem das urspriingliche auslautende ¢ geschwunden war, und das 
Sprachgefiihl sich gewohnt hatte, die Form als vocalisch schliessend zu 
empfinden.’ Vergl. Gram. § 149. (I have not thought it necessary to 
preserve Schleicher’s orthographic innovations.) 

The v ἐφελκυστικὸν is in fact a kind of anusvarah or after-sound, as it 
is called in Sanskrit grammar; such as we find in τύμπανον, πίμπρημι, 
anguis (ἔχις), βένθος (βάθος), &c., and twice over in such words as 
λαμβάνω, μανθάνω, τυγχάνω, &e. 


18 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


19. While we are on the subject of these changes of form (meta- 
plasms, as they are called), we may mention Apocope, the shortening of 
a word, as δῶ for δῶμα ; Apheresis, the cutting off an initial sound, as 
εἴβω for AclBw; Metathesis, as θάρσος for θράσος; Syncope, as idolatry 
for εἰδωλολατρεία, τράπεζα for τετραπεζα, Se. 


DIALECTS. 


20. Greek has three chief dialects, which may be tabulated 
thus :— 
GREEK (φωνὴ Ἑλληνική). 
| 


i ᾽. 


1. il. iii. 
* Tonic 7 Ἰὰς ZEolic ἣ Αἰολίς, Dorie ἡ Δωρίς, 
διάλεκτος of the lyric poets, of Pindar, Theocri- 
Alezeus, Sappho, &c. tus, and the tragic 
choruses. 





| | 
Old Ionic or Epic, New Ionic of Attic ; ᾿Ατθίς, 
of Homer, Herodotus. of the tragedians, 
Hesiod, &c. orators, historians, 
philosophers, &c. 


ἡ κοινή, or Ἑ λληνιστική, 
of the Septuagint, and 
the New Testament. 


i. The Old Ionic or Epic of Homer contains many forms 
which afterwards became special in other dialects; hence 
arose the common absurdityt of old Homeric commentators, 
when they say that one form is Doric, another Molic, &c., in 
the same verse, as though Homer wrote in many different 
dialects at once. 

From its use in the soft regions of Asia Minor, and many 
Egean islands, Ionic became pleasant and musical; it rejects 
aspirates (as δέκομαι, αὖτις), tolerates hiatus (as φιλέεαι), and 





* Donaldson derives Δωριεῖς from da- and ὄρος -- Highlanders; Ἴωνες 
from 7ovia=Coast-men (cf. “Axator Sea-men, Αἰγιαλεῖς Beach-men), 
Αἰολεῖς from afodos=Mixed men. Attica is ᾿Ακτικὴ the shore-land, 
ἀκτὴ ‘shore, being derived from ἄγνυμι “1 break.’ 

+ The grandest instance of this is the remark of Herakleides on the 
word εἰλήλουθμεν, which he says is a mixture of four dialects, τέσσαρσι 
πεποίηται διαλέκτοις! The v is Attic; the o Beotian; thes Ionic; and 
the syncope Aolic! Nothing can beat this! (See Kleist, De Philoxent 
Stud. Etymol. p. 41.) 


TABLE OF DIALECTS. 19 


avoids contraction (as τυφθέω, -énc, -éy) 5 it uses ἢ where the 
Doric uses a (as ἡμέρη), ov for o (as μοῦνος), w for on (as 
ἔνωσα for ἐνόησα), εὖ for eo (as πλεῦνες for πλέονες), &c.* 

The chief peculiarity of the Attic is its proneness to con- 
tractions; this may seem a strong contrast to its kindred 
dialect the Ionic, but in point of fact the uncontracted vowels 
of the Ionians spring from the rejection of intermediate con- 
sonants, and the Attics only went one step farther by contract- 
ing the vowels in order to avoid the resultant hiatus. 

li. The Molic is chiefly interesting from the points of 
resemblance which it offers to Latin. 

a. Thus, like Latin, it has no dual;f such at any rate is the 
ease in Lesbian (olic. 

ὃ. Like the Doric, it makes the first person plural in peg 
(not per), the Latin mus, as ἤνθομες venimus, rumropec verber- 
amus; and the third person plural in yr, like the Latin nt, 
τύπτοντι verberant. 

c. Nominatives in τὴς it forms in rd, as ἱππότᾶ, αἰχμητά, 
like the Latin poeta, nauta, seriba, &c. 

d. It makes but little use of the middle. 

e. It accentuates, more frequently than other dialects, on the 
penultimate or antepenultimate syllable. 

iii. Doric was characterised by its πλατειασμός (brogue, 
or broad sound), especially in the use of a for n, as gap, 
τεθνακώς. This very breadth and richness of sound made it 
better suited for songs and music (as the Scotch dialect among 
us), and hence (among other reasons) its appearance in the 
tragic choruses. 

It puts a for w, as τῶν μουσᾶν for the gen. plur. 
a for ε, as ἐγώγα. 
é for εἰ, as TUTTEC, μελίσδεν (for μελίζειν). 
x for 7, as πόκα for ποτέ. ᾿ 
ν for A, as ἦνθον, βέντιστος. 
τ for σ, as τίθητι, pare. 





* Numerous Epic forms may be observed by attentively reading any 
page of Homer, e.g. the infinitives in euevat, the genitives in oto, the 
dative plurals in fo, &c.; aud new fenic forms in any page of Hero- 
dotus, as ὧν for οὖν, Sonine for ἐνταῦθα, &e. 

t+ The grammarian Theodosius (Bekker, Anecd. Gree. p. 1184) says 
Οἱ Αἰολεῖς οὐκ ἔχουσι δυϊκά, ὅθεν οὐδὲ vi Ῥωμαῖοι, ἄποικοι ὄντες τῶν Αἰολέων. 
The ‘Cui est sermo noster simillimus’ of Quinctilian is well known. 
(Instt. Or. i. 1-6.) But no genealogical connection between the two 
must be dreamed of. The interesting question of the real relation of 
Greek to Latin belongs to Comparative Philology. 


20 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


The common dialect (ἡ κοινή), often called Hellenistic 
Greek, or Greek spoken by those who had acquired it as a 
foreign language, owed its origin and dissemination to the 
conquests of Alexander. It is ἃ somewhat corrupt and loose 
Attic, with an admixture of Macedonian and Alexandrian 
words. It adopts various new forms, as Wetopa, νῖκος, vou- 
θεσία, ἐκχύνειν, στήκω, ὀμνύω for ψεῦδος, νίκη, νουθέτησις, 
ἐκχέειν, ἵστημι, ὄμνυμι; it admits various poetical words, as 
αὐθεντεῖν ‘ to lord it,’ ἀλέκτωρ for ἀλεκτρνών, ἔσθω for ἐσθίω, 
βρέχω ‘to rain,’ &c.; it uses old words in new senses, as 
συνίστημι ‘I prove,’ ὀψώνιον ‘wages,’ ἐρεύγεσθαι eloqui, γεννή- 
para ‘fruit,’ λαλιὰ ‘language ;’ and it frames new words and 
new compounds,* as γρηγουῶ, παιδιόθεν, καλοποιεῖν, αἱματεκ- 
χυσία, ταπεινοφροσύνη, ἀκροβυστία, σκηνοπηγία, εἰδωλόθυτον. 
Besides this, it ceases to employ the dual; entirely abandons 
the use of the optative in oratio obliqua; uses the infinitive 
instead of the future participle after verbs of going, sending, 
&e.; admits εἰ with the subjunctive, ὅταν and ἵνα with the 
pres. ind.; and, finally, shows a tendency to analysis, by using 
prepositionst where the case-terminations would have been 
originally sufficient to express the meaning, and by employing 
the active with ἑαυτὸν instead of the muddle (ἐγάραξεν ἑαυτὸν 
= ἐταράξατπ 0). 


PARTS OF SPEECH (τὰ μέρη, τὰ στοιχεῖα, τοῦ λόγου). 


οἷ. It is probable that all words may be reduced to roots 
which are either the bases of nouns, or are pronouns denoting 
relations of place; and indeed, at first, roots stood (as is still 
the case in Chinese) for any or every part of speech. The 
distinction between their functions is due to the advance of 
Language. (See Chapters on Language, p. 197.) 

22. A long time elapsed before men learned to analyse into 
distinct classes these ‘grammatical categories.’ Plato (Crat. 
§ 88; Soph. p. 261) only recognises the noun and the verb. 
Compare the remark of Jack Cade, ‘It will be proved to thy 
face that thou hast men about thee that usually talk of a noun 
and a verb and such abominable wordsas no Christian ear can 
endure to hear.—Henry VZ., part 11. iv. 7. To these Aris- 
totle adds conjunctions (σύνοεσμα, ovyxarnyophpara, see 





τ Many Latin words in Greek characters occur inthe New Testament, 
as λεγεών, κεντουρίων, σουδάριον, σπεκουλάτωρ, κῆνσος, &e. 

t e.g. ἀποκρύπτειν τι ἀπό τινος, ἐσθίειν ἀπὸ τῶν Ψ' χίων, προσκυνεῖν 
ἐνώπιόν τινος, ὅχο. 


PARTS OF SPEECH. Zi 


Quint. Jnstt. Orat. 1. iv. 12), and the article (Arist. Poet. 20). 
The Stoics* and the Alexandrian grammarians finally adopted 
the division into e7ght parts of ‘speech, which the Romans 
borrowed from them, only omitting the article and distinguish- 
ing the interjection from the adverb. 


NOUNS (Ὀνόματα). 


23. The Greek noun has five cases, three numbers, and 
three genders. ‘There are usually said to be ten declensions 
(kXioerc), and it is true that all substantives, not anomalous, 
may be classed under ten types. But there was originally 
only one declension, and the various types alluded to, arise 
from the gradual changes assumed by the inflections in course 
of time under phonetic influences. In all more modern and 
philosophical grammars (as, for instance, those of Curtius, 
Donaldson, &c.) the declensions are more properly ranged 
under three heads, viz. the vowel declension, which has two 
divisions, i. the a declension, when the uninflectedt form of 
the noun ends in a or ἡ (rapia-c, κριτή-Ο) and the fem. noun 
ina or ἡ; li. the ὁ declension, when the uninjlected form of 
the noun ends in ὁ, as Adyo-¢ ΣΤ and ili. the consonant declen- 
sion, when the uninflected form ends in a consonant, or (the 
final consonant having been lost) in c or υ. 

There is no doubt that this is the better and truer arrange- 
ment; in any case, however, the declension of a certain 
number of typical nouns must be learnt by heart. <A better 
arrangement may enable the student to understand better, 
and to master with more rapidity, the Jaws and genius of the 
language, but there is no royal road by which labour in the 
acquisition of the language can be avoided, 


CASES (Πτώσειο). 


24. Cases (πτώσεις, casus, fallings) were probably so called 
because the nominative was regarded as the normal or upright 





* For other tentative divisions of the Parts of Speech, see Burgeraff, 
Principes de Grammaire Générale, p.176. They are all contained in the 
Greek line, πρὸς δ᾽ ἐμὲ τὸν δύστηνον ἔτι φρονέοντ᾽ ἐλέησον, It, xxii. 59, 
and in the Latin line, ‘ Ve tibi ridenti quia mox post gaudia flebis.’ 

7 The stem or uninflected form must be carefully distinguished from 
the nominative case. Thus πραγματ- is the stem of the nominative 
πρᾶγμα, gen. πράγματ-ος ; and λογο- of the nom. λόγος. 

1 This includes nouns like νόος, νοῦς, ὀστέον, λεώς, &c., where the 
uninfiected form ends in 00 or eo, 


22 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


form of the word, and the other cases as deflections from it 
(wAdyeae obliqui). The Sanskrit grammarians call a case 
vibhakti, ‘ division.” Hence also come the terms κλίσις, 
declensio. 


25. The cases are— 


Nominative* (εὐθεῖα or ὀρθὴ πτῶσις casus rectus). 
Genitive (γενική, κτητική, πατρική). 

Dative (δοτική, ἐπισταλτικῆ). 

Accusative (αἰτιατικῆ). 

Vocative (κλητικη). 


26. The nature and use of these cases will be briefly ex- 
emplified farther on. We must however observe that neither 
nominative nor vocative are properly cases, nor did the Stoics, 
from whom the term is derived, ever call them so; since 
they are independent and, so to speak, upright forms of the 
word, not resting or depending on other words. 

27. Besides these cases there was originally a sixth locative 
case, which is still retained as a distinct form in some nouns, as 
᾿Αθήνῃσι, Πλαταιᾶσι, ᾿Ολυμπίασι, το. at Athens, Platea, Olym- 
pia, &c.; θύρασιν ‘ foris,’ out of doors; Μεγαροῖ, Πυθοῖ, Mapa- 
θῶνι, οἴκοι (domz) at Megara, at Pytho, at Marathon, at home. 


28. That the case-endings in Greek, as well as in all other languages, 
are mere corruptions of words once separable, is certain; and that in 
Greek these words were pronominal in their nature (1.6. forms of pro- 
nouns) may also be considered certain. (See Donaldson's Gk. Gram. 
Ῥ. 80, Garnett’s Philolog. Essays, 217 seqq.) The case-endings, like the 
pronouns from whence they spring, originally represented only concep- 
tions of space (nearness, distance, presence, absence) ; but they were after- 
wards extended to express relations of time, cause, ὅσο. Bopp, Compar. 
Gram. § 115. The etymology of inflections is of course difficult from 
their antiquity, and the numerous contractions and other changes they 
have undergone. Having bit upon these pronominal words as mere 
formative elements, language naturally made them as mechanical as 
possible. For the original sense of the pronominal roots is nearly iden- 
tical, and many new meanings had to be given to them. 

There are three pronominal elements 7, 9, 7, or pa, qua, ta, which 
mean primarily here, near, and there. 

1. The first (7) under the forms πα or μα, signifies superposition, and 
occurs in the first personal pronoun (με) and the first numeral (μείς, μία, 
μέν, compare our ‘ number one’=1). 

2. The second (9 qua), under a great variety of different forms, sig- 





* The first passage in which the names of the cases occur is in 
Chrysippus περὶ τῶν πέντε πτώσεων (ap. Diog. Laert. vii. 192). πλάγιαι 
δὲ πτώσεις εἰσὶ γενικὴ [καὶ δοτικὴ] καὶ caine Lersch, Sprachphiloso- 
phie, ii. 185. 


NUMBERS. 23 


nifies proximity, and occurs in the second personal pronoun, and in the 
nominative and dative cases. 

3. The third (τ) denotes distance, and, variously modified, is found in 
the third personal pronoun, in negatives, in the genitive and the accusa- 
tive cases. 

To make this quite clear, and to follow these elements through their 
various changes, would require an entire treatise; we may, however, at 
once make the important observation that these three main relations of 
derivation, proximity, and direction towards, are respectively expressed 
by the genitive, dative, and accusative. 

29. Language, as it advances, tends to discard cases, and indeed all 
synthetic forms. The dative has disappeared from Modern Greek. The 
Romance languages have almost entirely discarded cases, using preposi- 
tions instead, i.e. expressing the requisite shades of meaning analytically, 
not synthetically. So too in English, where the s of the genitive is 
almost the only remaining case, except the m of the old dative plural in 
them, whom, seldom, whilom, ὅσο. In some ruder languages (e.g. Basque, 
Greenland, &c.) there are very many cases. 


30. The numbers are singular (ἑνικός), dual (δυϊκός), and 
plural (πληθυντικός). 


NUMBERS (Δριθμοί). 


How many numbers is there in nouns ? 
Two! Merry Wives of Windsor, iv. 1. 


31. The dual number (in the possession of which the Greek 
noun resembles the Sanskrit and Hebrew, but differs from 
Latin and most modern languages) is a mere luxury of lan- 
guage,* probably arising from the number of things which 
are usually and necessarily spoken of in pairs.| That there 


* The dual survives in Lithuanian and Icelandic, and once existed in 
the Anglo-Saxon personal pronouns. In English we have the one dual 
word ¢wain, but even this is corrupted into twins. 

+ Another theory about the dual is that it was an older plural, origi- 
nating in the primary notion of the Ego and the Non-ego, or in the fact 
of there being two speakers, 7 and yow, which stamps a character of 
dualism on the very essence of speech. It iscurious that nos and vos in 
Latin are obviously connected not with ἡμεῖς, duets, but with the duals 
vb, σφώ. (Cf. νωΐτερος noster.) Donaldson accepts the theory that the 
dual is an older and weaker form of the plural, and mentions that some 
considered the Latin forms dizere, &c. for dixerunt, &c. as duals. 
(Quint. i. 5, § 42; New Crat. p. 396.) Schleicher (Compend. § 248) 
thinks that the dual may have been originally a mere doubling of the 
plural. Du Ponceau’s jest that it must have been invented for lovers 
and married people finds a curious illustration in certain dual-forms in 
Australian dialects. For this and many other interesting facts about 
dual and plural, see Geiger, Urspr. d. Sprache, § ix. 369-386. Lord 
Monboddo’s remarks (Orig. of Lang. 1. 550) are a strange mixture of 
shrewdness and error. 


24 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


is a slight distinction between the conceptions of duality and 
plurality we may see at once from the fact that we cannot 
use the word ‘ all’ of two, though we can of three things. For 
instance, we could not say ‘ 7'wo birds sat all together on a 
tree.” Nothing but an instinctive feeling that such a form 
corresponded to some external reality, could account for its 
existence among people so utterly unlike each other as Green- 
landers and New Zealanders on the one hand, and Attic 
Greeks on the other.* It is however quite unnecessary to have 
a separate inflectional form for so slight a difference of con- 
ception, and as it is the tendency of advancing language to 
get rid of its original superfluous exuberance, it is mainly in 
dead languages and obsolete dialects that the dual exists. A 
language may be too perfect in its synthetic forms, and so 
tyrannise over the free motion of the intellect. Simplicity, 
not complexity, is the triumph of language ; and an immense 
wealth and multiplicity (divitias miseras!) of grammatical 
formst is mainly to be found in the most savage languages, 
such as Kaffir, and the languages of the American aborigines. 
Hence the dual, being unnecessary, early begins to evanesce, 
and to be treated as quite subordinate to the plural.{ It is 
not found in olic, barely in Hellenistic Greek, and in Modern 
Greek it has ceased to exist.§ Long before it disappeared, the 
sense of it as a grammatical form is so vague that it may 
always be put with a plural verb; and as in Hebrew we find 
such collocations as ΠῚ Dy ‘lofty eyes,’ where the noun is 


dual, and the adjective plural, so in Plato we have ἐγελασάτην 


* See on this whole subject the very interesting pamphlet of W. von 
Iumboldt, Ueber den Dualis, Berlin, 1828. He quotes from Lactantius 
the remark, ‘ Ex quo intelligimus quantum dualis numerus, una et sim- 
plici compage solidatus, ad rerum valeat perfectionem.’ De Opif. Dei. 

t+ The Abipones, a tribe in Paraguay, have two kinds of plurals, one 
for two or three objects, and another ending in -rip? for larger numbers. 
We may observe that as long as language is regarded as in itself an 
end, it abounds in forms capablo of expressing the minutest distinctions ; 
but, as civilisation advances, language becomes more and more a mere 
instrument, and therefore only retains those forms which are necessary 
to produce immediate comprehension. 

{ Another trace of this fact isthat the mase. of the dual in the article, 
and in αὐτός, οὗτος, ἐμός, &c., is in Attic put with fem. nouns; as δύο 
τινὲ ἰδέα (Plato), τούτω τὼ ἡμέρα, τὼ χεῖρε, &c. (Xen.). Observe, too, 
that the dual has only two case-terminations; having only three even in 
Sanskrit. (Meyer, Gedrangte Vergl. d. Gr. und Lat. Decl. S. 54.) 

§ Cheroboscus wrongly argues from this fact, τὰ δυϊκὰ ὑστερογενῆ 
ἐστιν" ὕστερον γὰρ ἐπενοήθησαν τὰ δυϊκά, (Bekk. Anecd. Gree. iii. 1184, 


GENDERS. pds. 


ἄμφω, βλέψαντες εἰς ἀλλήλους (Plato, Huthyd. 273 Ὁ): and 
even in Homer we find such concords as ὄσσε φαεινά, and 
βασιλῆες. . . . πεπνυμένω ἄμφω, Od. xviii. 64. No doubt, 
however, the possession of a dual stamps on language some 
of that beauty of form which is so remarkable in Greek ; and 
the κρατερόφρονε γείνατο παῖδε of Homer is more lively and 
expressive than the ‘Ambo conspicui, nive candidioribus 
ambo Vectabantur equis’ of Ovid. ‘The strong logic of the 
Italians,’ says Mommsen, ‘seems to have found no reason for 
splitting the idea of moreness into two-ness and many-ness.’ 
Besides the words ambo, duo, and possibly octo, the only trace 
of a dual in Latin is the neuter dual termination 7 in viginti 
(see Corssen, Arit. Nachtr. zur Latein. ormenl. $8.96). The 
same is true of Pali. In Prakrit the dual disappears alto-- 
gether. 

31 (bis). i. The Sanscrit plural as for masc. and fem. nouns 
is an enlargement of s, the sign of the nominative singular, the 
enlargement being a symbolic indication of plurality. The 
neuter alike in the singular, dual, and plural is deprived of s, 
which is reserved for genders which indicate persons. Bopp, 
§ 226. 

ii. The method of forming numbers in other languages forms 
a curious chapter of philology. In Chinese and other mono- 
syllabic languages, plurality is expressed by the addition of 
words meaning ‘another’ or ‘crowd.’ In Basque the plural 
ean only be expressed by suffixing the plural article, e.g. 
gizon =man, gizonak = men (homme-les), ak being the plural 
article ; ‘mais il n’est pas possible ἃ exprimer hommes,’ Van 
Eys, p. 14. See too Geiger, wbi supr. 


GENDERS (γένη). 


32. In the ancient, and in many modern languages, the 
substantive expresses the gender (γένος), real or imaginary, 
of the object which it names. There are usually, as in 
Greek, three genders, masculine (ἀρσενικόν, feminine (θηλυκόν), 
and neuter (οὐδέτερον), ἢ but some languages (e.g. the Hebrew )f 





* Words like ἵππος, ἄνθρωπος, &c., are common; and words which do 
not change their gendcr, though applied to different sexes, are called 
ἐπίκοινα epicene ; e.g. Aristotle says, καὶ 6 θῆλυς δὲ ὀρεὺς ἐπληρώθη. Hist. 
Anim. xxiv. The sophist Protagoras is said to have been the first to 
eall marked attention to the genders of words. See Aristoph. Nudb. 669. 

t Hence we have the fem. for the newt. in the LXX. version of Ps. exix, 
50, exvill. 23. The names οὐδέτερον, neutrum, ‘neither of the two,’ show 


Cc 


26 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


use the feminine to express the neuter, to which we find some- 
thing analogous in the fact that, in Greek and Latin, feminine 
names are often of a neuter form, as Πλόκιον, Glycerium,* just 
as in German all diminutives in -chen and -lein are neuter 
(das Madchen, das Fraulein), even when they signify females. 
The feminine is generally indicated by a weakening of the 
masculine termination. 

99. The attribution of any gender to inanimate things 
only leads to endless confusion and anomaly, and a multipli- 
cation of rules and exceptions, for the most part admitting of 
no rational explanation, but due to the varying influences ot 
fancy or caprice. It is the relic of a time when the imagina- 
tion was much more active than now, and when the energetic 
fancy of mankind attributed a life, analogous in some respects 
to its own, to the whole external world; and, as some would 
express it, tinged everything with which it dealt with some 
faint trace of its own subjectivity. The necessity of regarding 
everything as partaking of life, and therefore as having some 
gender, is a heritage of the childish-poetic stage of human in- 
telligence, when ¢ language was regarded as an end as well as 
a means, and when the mind felt an imperious necessity that 
the forms of language should faithfully reflect the slightest 
variations of conception. 

The fancifulness of genders may be seen by comparing the 
same word in different languages. Thus καρδία ‘heart’ is 
feminine; but cor is neuter, and cwur masculine. In French 
labeur is masculine, douleur feminine; and couleur though 
derived from color is feminine, arbre though from arbor is 
masculine. In most languages, for obvious reasons, the sun 
is masc., the moon fem.; but in Gothic, Anglo-Saxon,{ and 


how purely negative was the conception of the neuter gender; in San- 
skrit itis called Adéva, ‘eunuch ;’ in Servian srednji, ‘ intermediate gender;’ 
in Dutch onzijdig, unsided, ‘qui ne penche d’aucun cété.’—Du Méril, p. 356. 

* It is a well-known rule in Greek that when women speak of them- 
selves in the plural, they also use the masculine. 

t+ See the author’s Origin of Language, p. 45; Chapters on Language, 
p. 212. There is really no more necessity for gender in nouns and adjec- 
tives than there is in verbs which also express gender in Hebrew, Arabic, 
and Berber. The American languages are without it. 

1 ‘Mundilfori had two children, a son Mani, and a daughter 50]. 
~—The prose Edda. See Latham, Hngl. Lang. ii. 156. In Hebrew WY 
sun is sometimes fem., 1)? moon is masc. But another word for moon 
na. is fem. (cf.6 μήν, ἣ σελήνη. ‘ Dispicite.... masculwm Lunam,’ 
Tertul. Apol. 15. Forcellini, s.v, Lunus). z 


ANOMALIES OF GENDERS. 27 


German, it is the reverse, der Mond, die Sonne, and in Russian 
the sun is neuter. Again, in German, a spoon is mase. (de 
Liffel), a fork fem. (die Gabel), a knife neuter (das Messer) : 

so too a jug is masc. (der Krug), a cup fem. (die Tasse), a 
basin neuter (das Becken); wine is masc., milk fem., beer 
neuter (der Wein, die Milch, das Bier); the beginning is 
masc., the middle. fem., and the end neuter (der Anfang, die 
Mitte, das Ende). And to crown this capricious absurdity, 
the word for wife, of all things in the world, is neuter (das 
Weib!).* French has discarded the neuter gender ; and Eng- 
lish (like Persian and Chinese) abandons genders altogether, 
or only expresses them (when necessary) by a separate word, 
except in the 5rd personal pronoun (he, she, 11), and the rela- 
tive (who, which). We may well congratulate ourselves, 
therefore, that our language has been one of the very few 
which have had the wisdom to disrobe itself of this useless 
rag of antiquity, and to make al/ inanimate objects neuter, 
except in the rare cases where they are personified for the 
purposes of poetry (Prosopopeia). 

Many of these anomalies are accounted for by the fact that 
sometimes: the form of the word determines its gender, entirely 
irrespective of its meaning, and sometimes the meaning irre- 
spective of the form. Thus rivers and hills are generally 
mase., but Αἴτνη, Οσσα, Λήθη, Στύξ, are fem., Δύκαιον neut. 
And in spite of their meaning μειράκιον, παιδίον, ἀνδράποδον are 
neuter; while in spite of their form κάρδοπος and κάμινος are 
feminine. 

It is curious to observe that in Modern Greek the prevalence 
of diminutive forms—(e.g. φίδι from ὀφίδιον = snake, ψάρι from 
ὀψάριον = fish, and in the Tzaconian dialect, spoken about the 
Gulf of Nauplia,t ψιουχαροῦδα = butterfly, a diminutive of 
Ψυχή, &c.)—is due partly to a desire to secure uniformity of 
genders. 


Ruies or GENDER. 


34. The following are the general rules of gender :-— 

1, Names of male persons and animals, of rivers (ὁ ποταμός), 
nills (6 λόφος), winds (ὁ ἄνεμος), and months (ὁ μήν), ara 
masculine. 





* Possibly because a wife was regarded as a chattel; possibly, how- 
ever, on the other hand, the neuter may here be a term of endearment 
as we speak of a child as ‘a dear little thing, 

tT See Le Dialecte tzaconien, par G. Deville. Paris, 1866. 


c2 


28 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


2. Names of female persons and animals, of trees, lands 
(ἡ γῆ); islands (ἡ νῆσος), and cities (ἡ πόλις), are feminine ; 
also most abstract substantives, as ἡ ἐλπὶς hope, ἡ νίκη victory, 
iy ἀρετὴ virtue. 

Exception.—A few trees and plants are masculine ; of whieh the com- 
monest are φοῖνιξ palm, épiveds wild fig, Awrds lotus, κύτισος, ἀμάρακος, 
ἀσφόδελος, EAAEBopos. 

ὃ. Most diminutives, names of fruits, and names of things 
regarded as mere material objects, especially if they are re- 
garded collectively as forming a class, are neuter; also all 
infinitives used substantively, as ro ζῆν, life. Such phrases as 
τὸ ἄνθρωπος mean ‘the word “ man.””’ 


The following common words, which are fem., though they 
end in oc, should be remembered :— 

i. Names of countries, islands, cities, plants. 

ii. Names of earths and stones, as ἡ Ψάμμος sand, ἡ πλίνθος 
the brick, ἡ Ψῆφος the pebble, ἡ λίθος the gem. 

iii. Different words for ‘a way,’ as ὁδός, κέλευθος, ἀτραπός, 
ἁμαξιτός. 

iv. Various receptacles, as γυαθός jaw, κιβωτός chest, ληνός 
wine-vat. 

ν. Adjectives used substantivally, as ἡ ἤπειρος, χέρσος, 
ἔρημος (sc. γῆ), ἡ κέρκος (οὐρά), ἡ διάλεκτος (pwr). 

A few other feminines in ος are difficult to class, as υόσος 
disease, δρόσος dew, δοκός beam, ῥάβδος staff, βίβλος book. 

The feminine also denotes a collection of things, as ἡ ἵππος 
cavalry, ἡ κάμηλος a troop of camels; in the case of animals 
this is probably due to the fact that in a number of animals 
the females largely predominate. 


DECLENSIONS (Κλίσεις). 


35. Besides the ordinary forms of declension, there are 
traces of another declension formed by suffixes: -@ev for the 
genitive, -@¢ for the locative, -ce for the accusative. These 
terminations answer the questions woe; ποῦ; ποῖ; 


Thus—zov ; where? οἴκοι at home, θύρασι at the doors, 
Πύθοι at Pytho, ἄλλοθε elsewhere. 
πόθεν ; whence ? οἴκοθεν from home, θύραθεν from the 
door, οὐρανόθεν from heaven, ῥιζό- 
θεν from the root (radicitus). 





* Possibly ἡ νῆσος (γῆ) may be ‘ the floating land’ (véw). 


ADJECTIVES. 29 


ποῖ; Whither? οἴκαδε (domwn) homewards, θύραζε 
towards the door, ᾿Αθήναζε to 
Athens, πόλινδε to the city, ἔραζε 
to the earth. 

36. Homer also uses -¢: for the gen. (or perhaps we should rather 
say locative—Bopp, ii. 28, ed. Bréal) and dat. both sing. and plur. (evi- 
dently analogous to the Sanskrit instrumental bhyas, dhis) ; of which 
we find a trace in the Latin ἰδὲ (dat. of is), tidi, alicudé, sicudi, vodis, 
nodis, and the dat. plurals in τόδ. (Corssen, Latein, Forment. 8. 206.) 

The derivation of this syllable ὁλὲ is unknown. Pott derives it from 
abhi ‘towards,’ but this is probably itself a case of the pronouna, See 
Bréal, Bopp, ii. 36. 


HETEROCLITES, &c. 


37. Words that mix two declensions are called heteroclites, 
as σκύτος gen. σκότου and σκότους, Τάρταρος plur. Τάρταρα, 
σῖτος pl. σῖτα. 


ADJECTIVES (Emi@era). 


38. Adjectives, though highly convenient, are not indis- 
pensable to a language. The fact that substantives are fre- 
quently used adjectivally (e.g, mahogany table, door lock, 
artillery officer, &c.), and that their place can always be sup- 
plied by a periphrasis of the noun and preposition (e.g. aurea 
corona = une couronne d’or, multi homines=beaucoup d’hom- 
mes, ein goldener Ring=ein Ring von Golde, &c.), accounts for 
the non-existence in many languages of adjectival forms which 
occur in languages cognate to them. For instance, the Latin 
tot, quot, quotus, pauci, &c., can only be rendered in French 
by autant, tant, combien, peu, &c., with de. In Arabic, ‘all 
men,’ ‘no men,’ ‘some men,’ &c., can only be expressed by 
‘the totality of men,’ ‘not one among men,’ ‘a portion of 
men,* &c. In Greek, as in all languages, many adjectives 
are used for nouns, especially in poetry ; as πέντοζος the five- 
pronged, i.e. the hand, φερέοικος the house-bearer, i.e. the 
snail, avdarevc the boneless, i.e. the cuttlefish, &c.; and in 
English, ‘the deep,’ ‘the blue,’ ‘the true and the beautiful,’ 
&c. Milton uses many such adjectival substantives, e.g. ‘the 
palpable obscure,’ ‘the vast abrupt, &c.t Compare, ‘ till that 
wicked be revealed,’ 2 Thess. ii. 8; ‘the sélent of the night,’ 





* Silv. de Sacy, Gram. Gén. p. 54; Lobeck, Aglaopham. p. 845 ; Edéle- 
stand du Méril, Sur la formation de la langue frang. p. 4. 

7 In French many nouns have been formed from adjectives, e.g. 
sanglier (porcus s’zgularis), bouclier (seutvm Juceulatun), &e. 


30 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


2 Henry VI.i. 4; ‘and mighty proud to humble weak doth 
yield,’ Spenser, /. Q. 111. 7. 

39. As there was no prima facie reason why the adjective 
should so closely reflect the nature of the substantive with 
which it is joined as to express its gender by a different in- 
flection, we find many adjectives (especially those compounded 
with δυσ-, ev-, d-) which have only two terminations, and do 
not express the feminine by aseparate termination ; nouns also 
are often used in apposition with other nouns as though they 
were adjectives of one termination ; as ἡ μαινὰς γυνή, ἡ πατρὶς 
yi, &c. This is a gradual approximation to the English use 
of the adjective, for in English also the adjective used to agree 
with nouns, as, O younge Hughe, thinges espiritueles, wateres 
principales, &e. 

40. The adjectival termination is, at any rate in very many 
cases, derived from the pronominal suffix which forms the 
genitive case of nouns; e.g. δήμουτεεδημό-σιο, which becomes 
the adjective dnudcw-c by adding a new case-ending._ (New 
Cratylus, p. 474.) In many languages genitives become 
adjectival without any change at all; e.g. in Finnish, kav-en 
=of a stone, and stony; in Basque, guizon-aren-a=of man, 
and human,* &c. 

41. The three degrees of comparison are Positive (ὄνομα 
ἁπλοῦν), Comparative (ovyxpirexoy), and Superlative (ὑπερ- 
θετικόν). 

42. There are in Greek two modes of forming the compa- 
rative and superlative, one by means of the terminations repoc, 
τατος, and the other by wy, woroc; τερος, τατος imply excess 
(more, most) ; repog indicates ‘ motion from’ (cf. preter, subter, 
propter), and raroc ‘ motion through a series of points,’ since 
va denotes distance, and pa motion. (Donaldson.) 

43. The comparative and superlative in -wy, -ἰστος (being 
in fact mere strengthened forms of the adjectival termination 
wc) are originally qualitative; i.e. they do not so much imply 
excess, as ‘ a considerable amount of, like our termination -ish 
in brack-ish, or our qualifying word ‘ somewhat,’ meaning ‘a 
little too much,’ as in ‘ somewhat bitter,’ &. 

[N.B. The ¢ in wy is long in Attic, short in Homer. | 

44. It is clearly a defect both of Latin and Greek that they 
use the same form to express two conceptions so distinct as 
‘somewhat’ and ‘more;’ e.g. that ἡδίων according to the 





* Garnett, Philol. Hss. Ὁ. 267. 


PRONOUNS. 31 


context may either mean ‘sweeter’ or ‘sweetish,’ of which 
the former is a comparison between relative qualities, and the 
other a judgment about a positive quality.* There were how- 
ever certain intensive prefixes which served the latter pur- 
pose, such as the Epic intensive prefixes ζα-, épt-, ἀρι- (ζάπλου- 
TOC, ἐρικυδής, ἀρίζηλος, &c.), the comic prefixes ἱππο-, Bov-t 
(ἱππόκρημνος, βούλιμος, βούπαις " cf. our horse-laugh, horse- 
mushroom, &c.), and rprc-, wav-, which are used in all poets 
and even in prose (πάγκαλος, παγγέλοιος, παμπόνηρος, τρισμα- 
κάριος, &c.; cf. our Almighty, &c., and the German prefix 
aller-, in allerliebst, &c.). To express a less degree they used 
the preposition ὑπό, as ὑπόλευκος subalbus, whitish, ὑπογελᾶν 
to smile. 

45. ᾿Αγαθὸς good, and κακὸς bad, borrow several compara- 
tives and superlatives from other forms; but these comparatives 
and superlatives are not absolutely synonymous. 


᾿Α ναθὸς good,| apetvwrt better ew- | ἄριστος (from” Apne the 


Κακὸς bad, 


ternally, 
κρείττων stronger, 
βελτίων morally better, 


Lowy preferable, 

φέρτερος more profitable, 

κακίων  baser, more 
cowardly, 


χείρων inferior, 


ἥσσων weaker, 


War-god). 

κράτιστος (from κράτος). 

βέλτιστος (Latin bonus, 
comp. Ionic βέντι- 
στος). 

λῷστος (from λάω to 
choose). 

φέρτατος. 

κάκιστος. 


χείριστος (from χείρ, 
χείριος subject). 
ἥκιστα (adv.). 


N.B. ὕστερος, ὕστατος are derived from ὑπό; πρότερος, 
πρῶτος from mpd; ἔσχατος from ἐξ. 


PRONOUNS (‘Arrwrvpéa). 


46. A few words of explanation will perhaps throw some 
light on the nature of pronouns. 





* The kind of confusion thus introduced may be illustrated by this 
passage: ‘If that collar-bone of yours had not been ail the harder, you 
would have been,’ ἧτο. &c.-—Tom Cringle's Log. ch. xvi. 

Ὑ εἴωθε yap ἣ προσθήκη τῶν τοιούτων ζῴων τὸ μέγεθος τοῦ ὑποκειμένου 
dnrovv.—Etym. Magn. 

¢ On these forms see Donaldson, New Crat. ὃ 262. They are also 
distinguished in Donaldson’s grammar, and partially in Burnouf’s, § 197. 


32 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


Language is a sort of drama, in which, as in the older 
tragedies, there are only three characters (πρόσωπα) who 
have different rdles to play. 


These three characters are : 

1. The speaker, ἐγὼ 7. 

2. The person to whom I speak, ov thou. 

3. The person about whom the conversation is occupied, ὃ 
he; for which the Greeks have no precise or definite form, 
but use demonstratives, οὗτος, ἐκεῖνος, αὐτός, bce, as will be 
seen immediately. 

47. The noun names, and specifies exactly, as Cesar, Lu- 
cullus, the king, &c.; the pronoun only indicates the part 
which the speaker plays in the dialogue, and is therefore not 
merely in the place of the noun. ‘I’ may be any one in the 
world, from the king to the peasant, but necessarily implies 
some one who is speaking of himself; ‘ thou’ may be any one, 
but must mean the person addressed ; ‘he’ may be any one, 
from Adam to the child of yesterday, but must imply the 
person spoken of. 


48. ‘I’ and ‘thou’ are declinable in Greek, but have no 
gender. The third person is expressed by various words 
which are not only declinable, but also (as i in English) express 
gender, as αὐτὸς ipse, οὗτος hic, d0e hicce, ἐκεῖνος iste, alle. 


49. The reason of this is that ‘I’ ‘thou’ suppose two inter- 
locutors who are present, and who therefore need no further 
specification, their gender being regarded as obvious; one 
word, without gender, suffices for each. But the third person 
is or may be absent, so that for clearness the gender must be 
indicated (he, she, it); and this person may be more or less 
near, as ὅδε hicce, the person here, questo (pointing to him, 
δεικτικῶς) ; ; or close by me, cotesto (οὗτος hic); or there, by you, 
quello, ἐκεῖνος (ille, iste). 

50. Greek however is far from being the only language 
which has no distinct and separate form for the third personal 
pronoun. Some languages have, for the third personal pronoun, 

* πρόσωπον, persona, originally the mask worn by an actor in playing 
his part; hence the remark of Rousseau in his cynical old age, ‘ Le mot 
latin PERSONA signifie un masque, nom trés-convenable assurément a la 
plupart des gens qui portent parmi nous celui de Personnes.’ — Lettres sur 
la Botanique. Milton uses it in its classic sense: ‘If it were an honour 
to that person which he sustained.’— Hist of Engl. 

‘Which was thy part, 
And person, hadst thou known thyself aright.’—P. LZ, x. 155. 


PRONOUNS. 353" 


expressions which imply a person sitting, standing, lying down, 
&c.; others, as is partly the case in ‘Greek, have pronouns 
which represent the third person as being at nearer or further 
distances from the speaker ; but many have not arrived so far 
in the analysis of conceptions as to have any one word for 
the abstract ‘he.’ (See W. v. Humboldt Ueber den Dualis, § 21, 
and Ueber die Verwandtschaft der Ortsadverbien mit dem 
Pronomen in einigen Sprachen.) 

51. The uses of od, which is given in grammarsas the third 
personal pronoun in Greek, are very liable to lead to confusion : 
first of all it is defective, having lost its nominative; and 
secondly, in Attic Greek (though not in Ionic) it is not a 
personal, but mainly a reflexive pronoun. 


52. A reflexive pronoun is one which refers back to the 
subject of the sentence, or one which expresses that the object 
of the sentence (i.e. the person spoken of ) is also the subject 
(or the person speaking) ; ; us ἔτυψα ἐμαυτόν, I struck my self; 
ἐδίδασκεν τὸν ἑαυτοῦ maida, he was teaching his own son. 


53. The reflexive pronouns are ov of himself,* ἐμαυτοῦ of 
myself, σεαυτοῦ of thyself, ἑαυτοῦ of himself.t It will be ob- 
served that they have no nominatives. Why? For the 
obvious reason that in strict grammar they never serve as the 
subject of a principal sentence, but as the complement to some 
other word ; i.e. they are used when the subject of the verb 
is also its object, as I strike myself Such a sentence as ἐγὼ 
αὐτὸς ἔπραξα τοῦτο is not strictly reflexive. The reason why 
ov once had a nominative is because it was a demonstrative 
pronoun ; but when its reflexive use prevailed the nom. be- 
came obsolete.{ Similarly we have lost the custom of using 
himself, myself as nominatives in English. 


54. In Attic Greek, then, what is placed as the third personal 


* The plurals of ἐμαυτοῦ, σεαυτοῦ, are ἡμῶν αὐτῶν, ὑμῶν αὐτῶν; of 
ἑαυτοῦ either ἑαυτῶν, or σφῶν αὐτῶν. 

7 The French language uses méme to form a reflexive for the first and 
second personal pronouns; as, Je me suis blessé moi-méme. Other lan- 
guages use a periphrasis for this purpose; e.g. in Hebrew and Arabic it 
would be ‘I have wounded my soul, &c. Silvestre de Sacy, Gram. Gén. 
p-51. The simple pronouns are sometimes in poetry used reflexively in 
English, as ‘ He sat him down at a pillar’s base.—Byron. ‘I will lay 
me down and sleep.’ ‘I gat me to my Lord right humbly.’ ‘ But go, 
shewe thee to prestis. —Wiclif’s Bible. 

1 We have traces of the obsolete nominative ἧς or ἢ in ἵνα, Lat. is, 
Engl. ἐξ; and also in uly, and viv; a dative and accusative ty are found 
in fragments. 7, himseif or her self, i is only found in objective sentences, 

c3 


34 A BRIEF GREEK -SYNTAX. 


pronoun is not a personal pronoun at all, but reflexive; and 
as its nominative ὃ is obsolete, it borrows αὐτὸς instead; thus: 
αὐτός, 4, ὁ, himself, herself, itself (obsolete 7) ; 
ov of himself, &e.; 
ot to himself, &c. (οἱ enclitic = to him) ; 
é himself, &c.; 
and so on, reflexively throughout; but ἑαυτὸν is used more 
frequently than é, as ἀπέκτεινεν ἑαυτόν, he killed himself. 

55. As for the third personal pronoun, there is none in the 
nominative, in Attic, but the demonstratives are used instead ; 
but for the other cases, the oblique cases of αὐτὸς (derived by 
some from ad τὸς again he?) are used, so that we have really : 


Nom. οὗτος, ἐκεῖνος, ὅδε used for ‘ he.’ 
Gen. αὐτοῦ of him. 

Dat. αὐτῷ to him. 

Ace. αὐτὸν or viv him, &e. 


56. For ‘him,’ ‘her,’ ‘it,’ μὶν is used in Ionic; in the 
Trageedians viv, and σφέ; ode, and, sometimes, though rarely, 
vy are also used for αὐτοὺς αὐτὰς αὐτά. The root σφέ, Doric 
Wz, is seen in the Latin ipse. 


PossEssIvE Pronouns. 


57. In most languages the possessive pronoun is either 
directly formed from, or closely allied to, the genitive case of 
the personal.* 

58. Greek is richer than Latin in possessive pronouns 
(κτητικαὶ ἀ aAVTWY υμίαι). Besides ἐμὸς meus, σὸς tuus, ἡμέτερος 
noster, ὑμέτερος vester, it possesses σφὸς his, her, their, σφέτερος 
their, ‘and 4 in Jonic 1wirepoc belonging to us two, σφωΐτερος be- 
longing to you two. The Latin has no simple possessive adj. 
of the third person (his, her, its, their), for swus is reflexive; it 
uses instead ejus, dlorum, ὅσο. (It is remarkable that the neuter 
possessive pronoun of the third person ‘its’ is quite modern 
in English also, see Lev. xxv. 5, ed. 1611.) 





as in a fragment of Sophocles, preserved by Apollonius Dyscolus (De 
Pronom. Ὁ. 70): 
ἡ μὲν ὡς ὃ θάσσον᾽, ἣ δ᾽ ὡς ὃ τέκοι 
παῖδ᾽ 
‘One woman said that she (herself), the other that she (herself), bore the 
swilter son.’ οὗ, «i, € are both demonstrative and reflexive in Ionic 
and Epic. For the authorities on ἢ see Donaldson, New Crat. § 139. 


* See Garnett, Philol. ss. Ὁ. 260. 


NUMERALS. 35 


Αὐτός. 
59. i. Observe that αὐτὸς means ipse, -self (reflexive) ; * 
but αὐτοῦ of him, αὐτῷ to him, &c. (demonstrative). 
11. ὁ αὐτὸς means ‘ the same.’ 
iii. Although αὐτὸ is the neut. of αὐτός, yet for ‘ the same’ 
in the neuter, the Attic form is generally ταὐτὸν not ταὐτό. 


“Ὅστις. 

60. ὅστις, quisquis, is a compound of the relative and the 
indefinite Its declension in Attic is ὅτου, ὅτῳ, ὅτων, ὅτοις. 
In the neut. plur. ἅττα is the contraction of ἅτινα, and must 
not be confused with ἄττα, which is used in Attic for the 
neut. plur. τινὰ guedam. 

61. There is no relative pronoun (ἀναφορικὴ ἀντωνυμία) in 
Homer, for ὅς, #, 6 ἴῃ Homer is τ Θεσοτεῖ οίτοος to form a 
relative he adds re to ὅς, so that ‘and he’ is equivalent to 
‘who’ (qui=et is). Similarly in Hebrew ΠῚ ‘ this,’ is some- 
times a relative (Ps. Ixxiv. 2, &c.), and in German ‘ der.’ 


NUMERALS. 
CARDINALS. 


62. i. Cardinals answer the question ‘how many?’ The 
word is derived from cardo a hinge. 

ii. The first four cardinals only are declinable, from their 
being the most frequently used; but after 200 they are 
regular adjectives of three terminations, as διακόσιοι, at, a. 

Obs. 18 and 19 may be expressed either by ὀκτωκαίδεκα, 
ἐννεακαίδεκα, or by δυοῖν, ἑνὸς δέοντες εἴκοσιν. Similarly 28, 
29 may be δνοῖν, ἑνὸς δέοντες τριάκοντα, &e.; and even 7000, 
8000 may be τριακοσίων, διακοσίων δέοντα μύρια (Thue. 11. 13). 
This resembles the Latin duodeviginti, undeviginti, &c., and 
our way of reckoning time (e.g. a quarter to eight=forty-five 
minutes past seven). 

11. 21, 22, &c., may be either εἴκοσι» εἷς, εἴκοσι δύο or εἷς, 
δύο καὶ εἴκοσιν just as in English it may be twenty-one, or 
one and twenty; the rule being that if the smaller number 
precedes, the copula must be used. 

iv. Distinguish between μύριοι 10,000, and μυρίοι inde- 
finitely numerous; the regular number has the regular accent. 





* Thus we have in Shakspeare, ‘ Myself have letters. —Jul. Ces. 
iv. 8. ‘Were you sick, ourselves would wait upon you.’—Tennyson, 
The Princess. But for obvious reasons the nominatives of reflexive pro- 
nouns do not hold their grounds. See § 53. 


36 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


ORDINALS. 


63. i. Ordinals express the position or order; and answer 
the question ‘ which of the number ?’ 

ii. Except δεύτερος, which has the form of the comparative, 
they all take the superlative termination roc. They are all 
declinable adjectives of three terminations. 

11. The student should distinguish carefully between the 
decads and the hundreds; 30th, 4Cth, &c., are τριακοστός, 
τεσσαρακοστός, &e.; but 800th, 400th, &e., are τριακοσιοστός, 
τεσσαρακοσιοστός, &e. 

iv. 21st, 22nd, &e. » may be expressed in three ways, viz. 
εἷς καὶ εἰκοστός, πρῶτος καὶ εἰκοστός, or εἰκοστὸς πρῶτος; simi- 
larly 32nd, &c.=dvo καὶ τριακοστός, δεύτερος Kat τριακοστός, OF 
τριακοστὸς ΕΝ and so on. 


Oryer NUMERALS. 


64. Both Greek and Latin are particularly rich in their 
forms for numerals; e.g. 

Multiplicatives. ἁπλοῦς, διπλοῦς, τριπλοῦς, k.7.A. simplex, 
duplex, &c., from which are derived our English 
multiplicatives simple, double, triple, &c., referring 
to size. 

Proportionals. διπλάσιος, τριπλάσιος, κιτιλ. Auplus, tri- 
plus, &c., our twofold, threefold, &c., referring to 
number.* 

Numeral Adverbs. δίχα, τρίχα, τέτραχα, k.7T.A. In two, 
three, four ways, &c., answering to multiplicatives. 
ἅπαξ, δίς, τρίς, K.7.A. once, twice, thrice, &c., an- 
swering to proportionals. 


We have also δευτεραῖος, τριταῖος, rerapratoc, x.7.A. on the 
2nd, 3rd, 4th day, &c.; ποσταῖος ; on what day? These are 
only adjectival forms of the dative feminine of δεύτερος, k.r.X. 


ADVERBS (Βπιῤῥήματα). 


65. ‘When some case of a declinable word —whether sub- 
stantive, adjective, or pronoun—has fixed itself absolutely for 
the expression of certain secondary predications, it is called 
an adverb. ὙΠῸ prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections, 
which are generally considered as distinct parts of speech, are, 


* This distinction is due to Ammonius (de Diff. p. 48), διπλοῦς κατὰ 
μέγεθος, διπλάσιος κατ᾽ ἀριθμόν. (Donaldson.) 


VERBS. on 


in regard to their origin and primitive use, neither more nor 
less than adverbs. Their right to a separate place in the 
grammar of an inflected language depends on their syntactical 
functions only. The preposition is an adverb of place,.... 
the conjunction an adverb of manner, ... the interjection an 
exclamatory adverb.’—Donaldson, Greek Gram. p. 148. Hence, 
in spite of Horne Tooke’s sneer, ‘the old grammarian was 
right, who said that when we know not what else to calla 
part of speech, we may safely call it an adverb.’ 

66. Almost every adjective, and many participles, furnish 
an adverb in -we, a termination derived from the old ablative 
case. The neuter accusative of adjectives both singular and 
plural is often used adverbially. Adverbs derived from 
adjectives are compared by taking the neuter sing. of the 
adjective for the comparative, and the neuter plur. for the 
superlative, as i)Céwe, ἥδιον, ἥδισται. 

67. Other adverbs coincide with the actual cases of nouns, 
as κομιδῇ exactly, δημοσίᾳ publicly, ἰδίᾳ privately, κοινῇ in 
common, σπουδῇ zealously, σχολῇ leisurely* (1.6. viz, scarcely ); 
ἀρχὴν at first, οὐκ ἀρχὴν not at all (omnino non), ἀκμὴν just, 
or hardly, δωρεάν, προῖκα gratis, μακρὰν afar. 

68. Others consist of a preposition and noun, as παραχρῆμα 
immediately, καθάπερ just as, προὔργου advantageously, ἐκποδὼν 
out of the way, ἐνσχερὼ in order, &e. 

N.B. i. Observe that εὐθὺς is ‘immediately, and εὐθὺ (with 
the gen.) ‘straight towards.’ Similarly drrixpvc=outright, 
ayTixpu=opposite. 

ii. The w-c of Greek adverbs is the Sanskrit 4-t (cf. δίδωσι 
didati); thus o#@-c=the Sanskrit sama-t ‘simili;’ ὁ is the 
case-ending of the Sanskrit ablative, and in some Greek 
adverbs it is suppressed (e.g. οὕτω), in others it becomes ec. 
Compzre the Latin adverbial ablatives raro, perpetuo, quomodo, 
&c. For the proofs of this identification see Bopp, ὃ 183. 


VERBS (‘Pijpara). 


69. The nature of the verbt (ῥῆμα verbum, i.e. the word 
par excellence) has been variously defined by different gram~ 
marians. ΑἸ] acknowledge its importance; ‘ Alteruim est quod 
loquimur,’ says Quintilian, ‘ alterum de quo loquimur.’ 


* Compare Shakspeare’s ‘I'll trust by leisure him that mocks me 
once. Cf. Soph. O. T. 434. 

tT See Burggraff, Principes de Gram. gén. p. 345-349; Origin of 
Language, p. 104; Du Meéril, p. 56, 


38 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


1. According to most ancient grammarians its distinctive 
peculiarity is the expression of Time (ῥῆμα δέ ἐστι τὸ προσ- 
σημαῖνον χρόνον, Arist. De Interp. 111. 1). Hence the Ger- 
mans call it Zectwort time-word, and the Chinese ho-tseu 
living word (just as Plato calls the verb and noun ra ἐμψυχό- 
rara μέρη τοῦ λόγου). But verbs which should express no 
circumstance of time are quite conceivable, and actually exist 
in some North American languages. 

2. Others say that it necessarily expresses an Action, and 
hence some Germans call it 7hdtigkeitswort. Thus in Chinese 
a hand added to a hieroglyphic shows that a verb is intended ; 
for instance, a bent bow and a hand signify ‘to shoot an 
arrow.’ In Chinese also ‘to be’ is ‘to make’ (wet). Ob- 
viously however many verbs imply cnaction rather than 
action, 


3. In the Grammaire Générale of Port-Royal the verb is 
defined as ‘un mot qui signifie l’affirmation,’ and this definition 
may stand if we make affirmation include negation. 

4. Humboldt and others say that the verb must involve the 
abstract conception of existence, and so furnish the connection 
between the subject and the attribute (die reine Synthesis des 
Seins mit dem Begriff). This is only true if with Harris we 
resolve every verb into a participle with the verb ‘to be,’ so 
that, e.g. ypagw=éye (εἰμι) γράφων. No analysis of the verb 
however can succeed in reducing it into a participle coupled 
with the verb to be. What is there participial in the root 
yoap? ‘A verb divested of its paraphernalia may become an 
Irish participle, which is merely an abstract noun, but cer- 
tainly not a Greek, Latin, or even an English one.’ 

5. Mr. Garnett, following out a hint in Dr. Prichard on the 
Celtic language, first showed that verbs do not differ from 
nouns by any inherent vitality ; they are simply nouns with a 
pronominal affix. ‘ Motion or action is no more inherent in a 
verbal root than the power of forging a horseshoe in a smith’s 
hammer. It requires an extensive moving power to make it 
efficient, and so do the roots of verbs.’ Their power of ex- 
pressing action, motion, sensation, or their opposites, resides 
only in the addition to them of the person or agent. In other 
words, a verb is ew necessario a complex, and not a simple 
term, and as such it could not have been a primary part of 
speech. 


70. A comparison of the English and Greek verb shows the 
immense difference between an analytic and a synthetic Jan- 


PERSON-ENDINGS. 39 


guage. The English verb has five forms (e.g. dove, lovest, 
loves, loved, loving); the Greek verb has about 1,200 forms. 

71. The inflections by which a verb expresses its various 
modifications are called its conjugation (συζυγίαν). 

72. The endings or inflections by which the Greek expresses 
the three persons in the singular are really the three per- 
sonal pronouns (J, thou, he), although all trace of this fact has 
been nearly obliterated in the course of time. Thus to take a 
verb in -u (those verbs being the oldest, and therefore the 
least disguised in their person-endings), it is easy to see that 
in ei-pt, ἐσ-σί, €o-Ti(v’), μὲ 15. connected with the stem pe, -σι 
with σε, and re with the article* τό. The passive terminations 
-μαι, -σαι, and -rac show the same fact no less distinctly. The 
termination ὦ looks as if it were connected with ἐγώ, Aolic 
ἰών ; but it is certain that the person-ending comes not from 
the nominative but from objective cases of the pronouns, so that 
δίδωμι 7 would mean ‘ giving here, 1.6. my giving,’ and δίδωσι 
‘giving there, i.e. his giving.’ It is the object of Comparative 
Grammar to analyse all inflections in a similar way, and to 
show their original significance. At present however the 
results are not all certain, and the explanation of them would 
require a separate treatise, because each termination has to be 
traced through a long series of phonetic changes; and in 
Sanskrit and Greek especially ‘a vast number of articulations 
have been sacrificed to euphony, the restoration of which is 
often conjectural, and sometimes impracticable.’ 





* We shall see in the Syntax the close connection between the article 
and the third personal pronoun. It is the same in German, where the 
definite article der, die, das is constantly used as a pronoun; and the 
French article Ze is derived from tlle, as is the Italian 7, /o, and the 
Spanish Jo, 7a. In the third person plural the termination is due to 
phonetic change ; e.g. τύπτουσι =TdmT0yT1=verberant. In Welsh (which 
is an Aryan language) the pronoun of the third person plural actually 
ends in nt, wynt or huint =they (cf. Introd. § 15, 5, p. δ). 

t+ Only two Latin verbs, inquam and sum, retain a trace of the old 
termination in wt. Thefirst philologer to point out that the person-end- 
ings were pronouns im oblique cases was Mr. Garnett, and he illustrated 
the fact from Syriac, in which ith=existence, ithai-ch existences of thee 
=thou art, ithai'-hun existences of them=they are. The same result 
becomes very clear from a comparison of the Hungarian olvas-om I read, 
olvas-od thou readest, olvas-atok ye read, &c., with olma-m my apple, 
olma-d thy apple, olma-tok your apple. See Garnett’s Philolog. Essays, 
p- 291; Dr. Latham, Lect. on the Study of Language. Obviously, as 
Bopp observes, the moment that language began to mark persons by 
the addition of suffixes to the verb, those suffixes could not have been 
anything but personal pronouns. 


40 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


73. Many grammars throw no light whatever on the ordinary 
omission of a first person dual in the active. Thus we find for 
the dual of the pres. act. 





τύπτετον, τύπτετον, 
but for the dual of the pres. pass. 
τυπτόμεθον, τύπτεσθον, τύπτεσθον, 


with no explanation of the reason why we should have no 
form for ‘we two are striking,’ and yet should have one for 
‘We two are being struck.’ The reason is that in the act. the 
first pers. plural is always used for the first person dual. We 
can only conjecture why no distinct form was retained, or 
why in the passive the aovist alone should have no /irst person 
dual. 

74. There is an ingenious theory on the subject of the dual 
in the article ‘Dual’ in the ‘Penny Cyclopedia.’ Believing 
that the dual is an older plural which was only colloquially 
retained, the author points out how easily a termination in 
vy might have been changed into one in ¢ (compare τύπτομεν 
and τύπτομες verberamus; shoon and shoes, eyne and eyes, 
housen and houses, &c.), and how easily this ¢ might be 
dropped; on this theory τύπτετον and τύπτετε, &e. might also 
very easily have been phonetic varieties of the same form. 

75. In many grammars both the second and third pers. dual 
of the historical tenses (imperf., plupf., and acrists) are made 
to end in yy, as in the impf. act. of τύπτω 
ἐτυπτέτην, ETUNTETHY 5 
but in other modern grammars (and even in that of Εἰ. Bur- 
που) the second person dual even in historical tenses is made 
to end in ον, so that we find 


‘ ΄ 
ἐτυπτετοι,, ἐτυπτέτην; 


this latter is the more correct, for the Attics always prefer the 
form in oy for the second person of the dual, if we may trust 
the best MSS. 


VOICHS (Διαθέσεις). 


76. 'The Greek verb has three voices— 
1. Active (διάθεσις ἐνεργητική), ἢ as τύπτω £ am striking. 











* The Stoics called the Active κατηγόρημα ὀρθὸν ‘ upright, the Passive 
ὕπτιον ‘supinum,’ and the Neuter οὐδέτερον ‘neither of the two. Dionysius 


REFLEXIVE FORMS. 41 


This may be either transitive (@\\orabijc), i.e. the action 
may pass on to some object, as δίδωμι ἄρτον Lam giving bread. 
Or intransitive (αὐτοπαθής), 1.6. the action may stop with 
the agent, as τρέχω IT run. These verbs are also called neuter. 

2. Passive (παθητικῆ), as τύπτομαι 7 am being struck. 

3. Middle (μέση), as τύπτομαι I am striking myself. 

In Sanskrit the Active Voice is called Parasmai-pada ‘ fall- 
ing on another ;’ the Middle Atmane-pada ‘ self-affecting.’ 

77. The only tenses for which the Middle has any special 
forms are the future and aorist.* What are usually called the 
perf. and plupf. middle are not middle forms at all, but are 
other forms of the perf. and plupf. act. The name perfect 
middle for such forms as τέτυπα ought to be finally discarded ; 
the error of calling them so, rose from the instances in which 
this second perfect has an intransitive meaning, as ἐγρήγορα 
1 am awake, πέποιθα 1 am confident, taya I an broken, 
πέπηγα I stick fast, ἔῤῥωγα I burst forth, &c. But this is a 
mere speciality of meaniny. 

78. Verbs which have an active meaning, but only a passive 
or middle form, are called deponents (from depono J lay 
aside), It 15 probable however that they have not laid aside 
the active form, but never had one at all; it is generally be- 
lieved that the -μαι form of verbs is the oldest of all. For it 
was most natural that verbs should be primarily regarded as 
middle, 1.6. as expressing direct reference to the subject (or 
self). Hence the μαι forms often exist in Homer side by side 
with the forms in w. Reflexive forms are far more common 
in other languages (e.g. French, Italian, German) than they 
are in English. That the transitive form and meaning of 
verbs was due to a later development of language is clear, 
since, as we have seen, the cases represent adverbial additions 


Thrax (p. 886) says that the two former names were suggested by a 
metaphor from the position of athle!:s. On the derivation of the Latin 
word ‘supine,’ Priscian remarks, ‘ Sup'na vero nominantur, guia a pas- 
sivis participlis, que quidem supina nominantur, nascuntur’ (p. 811). 
Lersch, Sprachphil. d. Alten, ii. 197; Burggrat¥, p. 357. 

* This is just what we should expect from the close connection 
between the passive and middle, of which the middle or reflexive form 
was probably the earliest. We have very few reflexive forms (I bethink 
me, fear me, &c.) in English, but we represent many of the German, 
Italian, and French reflexive verbs by passive or neuter verbs; e.g. Ich 
freue mich I rejoice; si dice it is said; se emplearon diez hombres ten 
men were employed, &c. The gradual evanescence of the middle in 
Greek is analogous to the disuse of many old reflexive verbs in French, 
such as se mourir, se partir, &c. Pellissier, La Langue frang. p. 177. 


42 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


to the noun, and would therefore be originally independent of 
all verbal government, so that it would have been needless for 
the verb to have a transitive sense. Hence we find many 
Greek verbs that fluctuate between a tr ansitive and intransitive 
meaning, as ἔχω ‘I have’ and ‘I am,’ ἄγω ‘I lead’ and ‘I 
move,’ aipw ‘I raise’ and ‘I rise’ (e.g. of the sun, Soph. 
Phil. 1815), ἐλαύνω 41 drive’ and ‘I ride, πράσσω ‘I do’ 
and ‘I fare.’ The same is true in other languages; e.g. in 
Latin, vertere, mutare, &c.; in German, ziehen, brechen, 
schmelzen, &c.; in French, déeliner, changer, sortir, &c.; in 
English, to move, break, turn, &c. (Jelf, § 360). 


REDUPLICATION (CA va δίπλωσις). 


79. i. Reduplication, i.e. ἃ repetition of the root twice over, 
was a very primitive process, found in all languages, and 
adopted as the simplest known method of strengthening the 
meaning of the word to which it is applied. 

ii. Thus it is found in substantives both in Greek and Latin, 
as βάρβαρος, παιπάλη, βόμβος, marmor, murmur, turtur, 
papilo, &e. 

iii. And in verbs both in Greek and Latin, πέπηγα, λέλυκα, 
&c., pepigi, tutudi, cucurri, tetigi, nemini, &c. 

iv. It is by no means confined to the perfect and pluperfect. 
Distinct traces of it appear in many presents, as μίμνω, πίπτω, 
γιγνώσκω ; especially in the older verbs, viz. those in pu, as 
δίδωμι, τίθημι, (σ)ίστημι, πίμπλημι, πίμπρημι, ὀνίνημι, sisto, 
gigno, pipilo, titubo, &c.; and in the paulo-post-futurum, 
as τετύψομαι, λελύσομαι, το. 

v. It is also frequently found in the aorist, as ἤγαγον, 
ἤραρον. In Homer these reduplicated second aorists abound, 
as πέπιθον, κέκλυθι, ἀμπεπαλών, τεταρπόμην; λέλαθον, 'πέφραδον. 
It will be seen that it always emphasises * the meaning of the 
verb, and is therefore peculiarly adapted to represent repeated 
or continued actions, such as vibration (ἀμπεπαλών), thought 
(xégpadov), careful attention (κέκλυθι), scolding (ἠνίπαπον), 
&e. 

vi. It is natural therefore that it should be mainly charac- 





* Precisely on the same principle as in Hebrew, in Armorican, in 
Hindoo, and in Modern Greek, an adjective is repeated to represent the 
superlative, as pwp ΣῚΡ holy of holies=holiest; pla ψηλὴ ψηλὴ 
κρεμάθρα a very high gallows. The process is constantly resorted to in 
common conversation, and is a regular idiom of Italian, e.g. ‘Ella sen 
va notando lenta lenta,’ Dante, = very slowly, &e. 


REDUPLICATION. é 43 


teristic of the primary tenses, and especially of the pertect. 
(Besides such perfects as momordi in Latin, we find traces of 
reduplication in many others, as féci Ge fici), jéci (je-jici), 
veni (ve-veni), and many more.) 

vii. Unlike the augment, which is a mere prefix or ex- 
traneous adjunct, the reduplication is regarded as an organic 
part of the word, and therefore is retained through all the 
moods, while the augment is found in the indicative alone. 


CHIEF RULES ΟΕ REDUPLICATION. 


80. 1. Words beginning with p, with y, with double letters 
ζ, ἕξ, Ψ, with two mutes,* or with vowels, cannot take redupli- 
cation, but substitute the augment for it. This is only for 
the sake of euphony ; ῥέῤῥιφα, ψέψαλκα, &e., would sound in- 
tolerable, and therefore ἔῤῥιφα, ἔψαλκα, το. are used instead. 
2. Verbs beginning with an aspirate, use the tenuis in 
reduplication, as τέθυκα, πεφίληκα. 
3. Three verbs take εἰ instead of the reduplication, viz. :— 
λαμβάνω, εἴληφα. 
λαγχάνω, εἴληχα. 
μείρω, εἵμαρμαι. 
We have also εἴρηκα used as the perfect of φημί. λέγω makes 
both λέλεγμαι and εἴλεγμαι in composition. 
4, Some verbs, beginning with a vowel, alse what is called 
the Attic reduplication, as 


ἀγείρωυ, ἀγήγερκα, ἀγήγερμαι. 


ἀκούω, ἀκήκοα. 

ἐγείρω, ἐγήγερκα, ἐγήγερμαι. 
ἐσθίω, ἐδήδοκα, ἐδήδεσμαι. 

ἐλαύνω, ἐλήλακα, ἐλήλαμαι. 

ἐρείδω, ἐρήρεικα, ἐρήρεισμαι. 
ὄμνυμι, ὀμώμοκα, ὀμώμοσμαι. 
ὀρύσσω, ὀρώρυχα, ὀρώρυγμαι. 


We also have ἐλήλυθα, ἐνήνοχα used as perfects of ἔρχομαι, 
φέρω. 

5. Verbs in w with a reduplicated present, as βιβρώσκω, 
γιγνώσκω, διδράσκω, μιμνήσκω, πιπράσκω, τιτρώσκω, drop the 
reduplication in other tenses; hence their futures are βρώσομαι, 
γνώσομαι, δράσομαι, μνήσω, &c.t 





* Except κτάομαι, κέκτημαι, μνάομαι, μέμνημαι. 
7 But διδάσκω fut. διδάξω, βιβάζω fut, βιβάσω. 


44 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


AUGMENT (Αὔξησις). 
81. The Augment entirely differs from the Reduplication, 


both in meaning and usage. 

a. It is probably a fragment of the root which we also find 
in ἀνά, signifying remoteness, and merely refers an action to 
the past. It was originally ‘a demonstrative particle, primarily 
expressing remote place, and secondarily remote time ;’* and 
was no original part of the verbal root. 

β. It properly belongs only to the historical tenses. 

y. It is dropped in all moods but the indicative, except 
where it is used instead of reduplication. ‘This is a trace of 
its independent existence as having once been a separate 
word. In the older Sanskrit, for instance, it is separable from 
the verb, and (as in Homer) it may be omitted at pleasure. 
This helps to account for the fact that Latin has lost all traces 
of a syllabic augment. 

82. Augment is of two kinds; syllabic (ovAXafexh), which 
adds the syllable ε, and temporal (xperecy), which only in- 
creases the length of a vowel. 

The chief peculiarities in augments are as follows: 

1. In later Attic βούλομαι, δύναμαι, and (sometimes) μέλλω 
make ἠβουλόμην, ἠδυνάμην, ἤμελλον". 

2. The diphthongs εἰ and οὐ are not augmented ;{ the other 
diphthongs are augmented by giving the augment to the first 
vowel of the diphthong, and subscribing the second if it be «, 
as alpéw, ἥρουν, αὐξάνω, ηὔξανον. 

3. Ten verbs beginning with ε take the augment εἰ. The 
commonest of them are : 

i ἐάω I permit, εἴων. 
ἑλίσσω I roll, εἵλισσον". 
ἑλκύω I drag, εἵλκυον. 
ἕπομαι I follow, εἱπόμην, 2nd aor. ἑσπόμην. 
ἐργάζομαι I work, εἰργαζόμην. 
ἕρπω I creep, εἷρπον. 
ἔχω I have, εἶχον, 2nd aor. ἔσχον. 

We have also εἶπον, and εἷλον. 





* Garnett’s Philolog. Essays, p. 206. He adduces analogous forms 
from many other languages. Buttmann’s conjecture that it is a mutila- 
tion of the reduplicate prefix, and Bopp’s that it is a relic of the nega- 
tive prefix, are justly exploded. 

+ Max Miller, Sanskr. Gram. p. 144. 

¢ It is now generally belicved that the diphthong εὖ ean be aug- 
mented. 


MOODS, 45 


4. 6 is doubled after an augment, as ῥίττω, ἔῤῥιπτον. 
5. A few verbs take both the temporal and syllabic aug- 
ment, as 


. ε Ce 
ὁρόω impf. ἑώρω. pf.  ewpaxa 
, , > ’ > , A 
avolyw ” a VEMYOV ” a EWya 

’ , ’ , 
OLVOX EW ” εωνοχύθυὶ . 


Notice the pluperfects ἐῴκειν I seemed, ἐῴλπειν I hoped, e¢pyew 1 did. 


6. In synthetic compounds, i.e. compounds where the two 
parts are not separable, but are so fused together that they 
cannot exist as two separate words, the augment is placed at 
the beginning of the word, as in oixocopéw wKocopnoa, κάθημαι 
ἐκαθήμην, ἐπίσταμαι ἠπιστάμην». 

But where the compound is parathetic, 1.6. where the two 
parts are separable, and are merely juxtaposed, the augment 
is put between them, as in προσφέρω, προσέφερον ; and this is 
the case in most verbs compounded with prepositions. 

7. The augment, which is constantly omitted in Homer, is 
never omitted in Attic except in χρῆν for ἐχρῆν. But there 
are a few words, ‘quibus augmentum non proponunt tragici,’ 
e.g. ἄνωγα, καθεζόμην, καθήμην. Porson Pref. ad Hec. xvi. 
{He adds cafeveor, but see Veitch, Greek Verbs, p. 300.) 


MOODS (EysXicetc). 


83. The moods (modi) in Greek are: 1. The Indicative 
(ὁριστικὴ ἔγκλισις). 2. The Subjunctive (ὑποτακτική). 3. The 
Optative (εὐκτική). 4. The Imperative (προστακτική). Besides 
these, there are: 5. the Infinitive (ἀπαρέμφατος) ; and 6. the 
Participle (uér ‘OxXoe) j but the two latter, including the verbal 
adjective in -réoc, are by modern grammarians usually treated 
as verbal nouns, and not as moods. 

Protagoras is said to have been the first to distinguish the 
different moods of verbs. 

The first four of these moods are called personal, the latter 
impersonal, as having less formal reference to a subject. 

The nomenclature of the moods is far from perfect. ‘The 
indicative, i.e. mood of declaration, is continually used where 





* Exclusive of prodelisions like those in Cd. T. 1602, 1608, Hec. 387, 
there are only a few instances of an omission of the augment in tragedy 
at the 4eginning of lines in the speeches of messengers. And the 
augment is sometimes omitted in the pluperfect—wsually so in the New 
Testament. See Winer’s Gram. § xiii. 8. 

Τ See the authorities quoted in Donaldson, New Crat. p. 204, 2nd ed. 


46 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


no declaration is made,—in interrogatives for example, and in 
conditionals. The optative has very many uses with which 
the expression of a wish has no concern, and has moreover 
quite as good a claim to the title of subjunctive.’ (Harper.) 


CLASSES OF VERBS. 
VERBS IN -μι. 


84. There are two main classes of verbs, those in w, and 
those in μι. 

The former (verbs in w) are far the most numerous; 
the latter are the oldest. That this is the case appears, 
because : 

1. The pronouns which formed all person-endings are least 
obliterated, and most easily recognisable in verbs in pe (see 
ante § 72); and besides, these person-endings are attached 
directly to the stem, as ἔσ- μεν, Ci-do-re, whereas the verbs in 
ὦ require a connecting vowel, as λύ-ο- μεν, τιμά-οτμεν. 

2. The verbs in μὲ contain the simplest roots, and involve 
the most elementary notions, as ‘being,’ ‘going,’ ‘ giving,’ 
‘saying,’ ‘ placing,’ &e. 

ὃ. This form in μὲ is predominant in Sanskrit, and the 
oldest languages of the Indo-European family.* 


85. Observe that: a. This form of conjugation is onl 
found in a few tenses,—chiefly in the present, impf., and 2nd 
aor.; but 

β. Traces of a similar form of conjugation appear, especially 
in the 2nd aorists, in many other verbs, as ἔβην I went, ἔδραν 
Iran, ἔτλην I endured, ἔφθην 1 anticipated, σχὲς hold! the 
imperative of ἔσχον, ἑάλων I was caught, ἔγνων I knew, the 
imperative πῖθι drink, and others. 

y. In Latin we find traces of it in inquam, sum, and in the 
endings of the 8rd person sing. (as, stat=Jorars, &e.), and 
drd pers. plur. (dant=éiéor71), &e. 

N.B. i. In the imperf. τίθημι and dédwye follow the analogy 
of verbs in w, having ἐτίθουν, ἐτίθεις, ἐτίθει, and ἐδίδου», ἐδίδους, 
ἐδίδου more usually than ἐτίθην, ne, ἡ, and ἐδίδων, we, ὦ. 

11. ἵστημι Vuries in its tenses between a transitive and in- 





* The rarity of verbs in μὲ is no argument against this conclusion ; 
for, when one form has been nearly superseded by another, the feeling 
of analogy works so powerfully in language that the few remaining 
specimens of the old form soon disappear; ‘thus in Modern Greek even 
δίδωμι, τίθημι have given way for διδῶ, 07d,’ 


FORMS OF THE FUTURE, 47 


transitive meaning: thus ἵστημι 1 place, ἵστην I was placing, 
στήσω I will place, ἔστησα I placed; ἕστηκα I stand, εἱστήκειν I 
was standing, ἔστην I stood. [Similarly from the present of 
the German verb ich stehe we get our transitive verb to stay, 
and from the perfect ich stand our intrans. verb to stand. 
Don. | 

iii. There are ὃ aorists in καὶ ἔθηκα I placed (pf. τέθεικαλ), 
ἔδωκα I gave, yea 1 sent (pf. cixa). Whether these represent 
an older, or merely a modified form of the aorist is uncertain.* 
It is remarkable that they are used maznly in the singular, 
the second aor. being more common in the plural. On the 
varying use of first and second aorists, see the admirable 


Greek Verbs of Mr. Veitch, p. 46. 


VERBS IN τῶ, 


86. The Dorians made the fut. mid. in οὔμαι, hence the fol- 

lowing are called Doric futures :— 
πίπτω fut. πεσοῦμαι 

κλαίω fut. κλαυσοῦμαι (or opau)t 

πλέω fut. πλευσοῦμαι (or opac) 

πνέω fut. πνευσοῦμαι (or omar) 

φεύγω fut. φευξοῦμαι (or opac). 

87. Contracted futures like κομιῶ from κομίζω I convey, 
σκεδάζω I scatter, fut. σκεδῶ, τελέω I accomplish, fut. τελῶ, 
are called Attic futures.t 

88. The following futures have no tense sign :—yéw J shall 
pour, ἐρῶ I shall say, ἔδομαι and φάγομαι L shall eat, πίομαι 1 
shall drink, νέομαι I shall return, εἶμι I will go (compare the 
Enelish ‘I am going (=I shall go) next week.’ In fact the 
verb ‘go’ involves a notion of futurity,§ as when we are going 
to doa thing; and asin ‘The first said unto him, I go, Sir, 
and went not.’ 





* In ἤνεγκα, the borrowed aor. of φέρω, the o has been lost; as also 
in εἶπα, ἔχεα, ἔσσενα, and κέας from καίω, 

Τ In English in the same way we often have two forms coexisting, as 
in swelled and swoll, chided and chode, hanged and hung, rang and 
rung, &c., but the tendency always is to give different meanings to them 
(i.e. to desynonymise them). We are more alive to these varieties of 
form assumed by the same tense in Greek, because wo have specimens 
of their language extending over the space ot hundreds of years. 

¢ A few rare dialectic forms like κένσω, πεφύρσομαι, &c., are called 
Holic futures. 

§ So in Spanish ‘ Nosotros nos vamos mafiana, y ellos salen el dia 
despues,’ we go to-morrow, and they leave the next day. Delmar’s 
Span. Gram. p. 189. See too Veitch, Ghee Verbs, p. 200. 


48 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


89. There are fourteen verbs in which the fut. mid. has a 
passive meaning, par tly for metrical reasons, partly because the 
fut. passive was not in use ;* such are 


λέξομαι I shall be said. 

μισήσομαι, στυγήσομαι I shall be hated. 
ἁλώσομαι I shall be taken. 

ἄρξομαι L shall be ruled. 

ἐάσομαι I shall be suffered. 

οἰκήσομαι 1 shall be inhabited. 
τιμήσομαι I shall be honoured. 
ἀδικήσομαι 1 shall be injured. 
ζημιώσομαι I shall be punished. 


90. The following verbs among others (especially denoting 
some bodily activity) use the fut. mid. in an act/ve meaning. 
These verbs present an analogy to such verbs as se tavre, s’en 
aller, &c., which are similarly reflective in form but not in 

3 ᾽ ) 
sense, 

gow, ᾷἄσομαι I shall sing. 

᾿ , 3 ,ὔ 

ἀκούω, ἀκούσομαι 1 shall hear. 

ἀπολαύω, ἀπολαύσομαι I shall enjoy. 

βαίνω, βήσομαι I shall go (Je men irai). 

γιγνώσκω, γνώσομαι 7 shall know. 

γελάω, γελάσομαι I shall laugh (Je me rirai de). 

διδράσκω, δράσομαι 1 shall run. 

θαυμάζω, θαυμάσομαι 1 shall wonder (Je m’étonnerai). 

I ’ if } 

θηυάω, θηράσομαι 1 shall hunt. 

κλέπτω, κλέψομαι 1 shall steal. 

σιγάω, σιγήσομαι silebo, I shall be still (Je me tairai). 

σιωπάω, σιωπήσομαι tacebo, I shall hold my tongue. 

σπουδάζω, σπουζάσομαι I shall be busy (Je m’étudierai ἃ). 7 


91. The presents ἥκω I have come, οἴχομαι I have gone, have 
a perfect meaning. 
The perfects ἄνωγα I bid, ἔοικα I seem, κέκτημαι I possess, 





* These verbs tend to prove the theory of the original identity of the 
passive and middle; and the evolution of the passive owt of the middle, 
as is actually the case in the Scandinavian languages. A similar argu- 
ment might be deduced from the fact that several aorists middle have a 
passive sense, and aorists passive a middie sense, as διελέχθην I conversed, 
ἠρνήθην I denied, &e. (Clyde’s Gk. Syntax, p. 57. ) In the New Tes- 
tament, ἀπεκρίθην is constantly used in the sense of ἀπεκρινάμην. 

ΤΑ list of peculiarities like these, as well as of the commonest irre- 
gular verbs, nouns, &ec., has been drawn up by the author, in a little 
card of three pages, for the use of the Harrow School, 


IRREGULAR VERBS. 49 


οἷδα 1 know, novi, μέμνημαι i remember, memint, and some 
other 8, have a present meaning. “8 


92. The four verbs ζάω 7 live πεινάω 7 hunger, διψάω 1 
thirst, χράομαι I use, contract into ἡ not into a; thus the 
infinitives are ζῆν, πεινῆν, διψῆν, χρῆσθαι, being contracted 
frcm older forms of the infinitive ζάεν, πεινάεν, &e. 

$3. When a verb has tenses derived from several stems 
the reason is that originally several verbs were synonymous in 
meaning. Language at an early stage abounds in synonyms ; 
but at a later period cannot be burdened with this superfluous 
exuberance, and either desynonymises the words (1. 6. uses 
them to express different shades of meaning) or drops them 
altogether. Sometimes, as in the cases before us, it retains 
only one tense of a verb, dropping all the others. Thus the 
verbs φέρω, φημί, τρέχω, dpaw, ἐσθίω, ὅζο. borrow their tenses 
from other obsolete roots conveying a similar meaning. 


94. The irregular verbs are precisely those which the 
learner will encounter most frequently ; he can hardly read 
any page of Greek without finding some which are of constant 
occurrence. In truth, the irregularity of verbs is often due 
to their antiquity, and to the fact of their expressing con- 
ceptions so common as to be most liable to phonetic corruption 
from the wear and tear of language. Philologically speaking, 
too, such verbs are generally the most interesting, since their 
very peculiarities often reveal to us secrets respecting the 
growth and structure of language at which we might otherwise 
guess in vain. 


95. Verbs in dw, éw, evw, ώσσω, imply to be or to have that 
which the name signifies, as κομάω 7 have long hair, φιλέω 7 
am a friend, φονεύω [ am a murderer, ὑπνώσσω I am sieep- 
ing. 

96. Causatives usually end in dw, (Zw, dfw, vvw, aivw, as 
δουλύω I make a slave, πολεμίζω 1 make war, ἁρμόζω I fit, 
ἡδύνω I sweeten, σημαίνω I signify, κοιλαίνω I make hollow. 





* ‘Rien n’est plus facile que d'expliquer cette irrégularité apparente ; 
θνήσκω Je meurs, τέθνηκα jai souttert la mort; done: je suis mort; 
κτάομαι j’acquiers, κέκτημαι j'ai acquis; donc, je possede. ’_Burnout, 
Gr. Gram. § 254. 

7 The infinitive of these contract verbs should not have the iota sub- 
script, as they have in many editions; τὰ εἰς ἂν ἀπαρέμφατα οὐκ ἔχει Thi 
προσγεγραμμένον" ὅτι τὰ εἰς ν Niyovre ῥήματα οὐδέποτε ἔχει πρὸ τοῦ ν τι 
averporvntrov.—Etym. Magn. See Viger, Idiot. p. 220. 


D 


50 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX 


97. When a noun gives rise to several derivative forms they 
differ in meaning, as 

πολεμύω I make hostile,* πολεμέω 1 am at war, πολεμέζω 
I make war. 

πλουτέω 1 am rich, πλουτίζω I enrich. 

δουλόω I enslave, δουλεύω I am a slave. 

oppéw I lie at anchor, ὁρμίζω I bring to anchor (éppaw 1 
stir up, is from a different root). 

ῥίπτω jacio I throw, ῥιπτῶ jacto I boast, ῥιπτάζω 1 throw 
often. 


98. Frequentatives usually end in dw, iw, uw, as στενάζω, 
ὠθίζω, ἑρπύζω. 

99. Inceptives in σκω,Ἷ as ἡ βάσκω juvenesco, γηράσκω seneseo, 
μεθύσκω I begin to make drunk, &e. 

100, Desideratives in σείω, as γελασείω I am inclined to 
laugh, δρασείω I want to do, πολεμησείω I should like to go to 
war, épyaseiw I long to work; cf. esurio, parturio, &c. 

Obs. i. The inceptive form cxw has the same zterative mean- 
ing as the Epic substitution of oxoy for the augment, e.g. 
δινεύεσκε for ἐδίνευε, γοάασκεν for éyoa. 

ii. The desiderative form σείω is probably ‘an old future in 
-ceiw, of which the corresponding aorist is found in the so- 
called Aolic aorist optative in ceva,’ as τύψεια. 


COMPOUND WORDS. 


101. There are two kinds of compounds, Synthetic and Para- 
thetic. 


It is a curious and interesting fact that in Aryan languages the de- 
termining word always precedes; in Semitic languages, where however 
compounds of any kind are rare, the determining word is always suf- 
fixed; e.g. compare Newtown, Neapolis with Carthage; Ben-Yakoub 
with Jacobson, ὅσο. See Fanvilies of Speech, Lect. ii. 


102. i. Parathetic compounds are formed by the mere 
juxtaposition of two separate words, as ναυσικλυτός famous 
for ships (ναυσὶ κλυτός), γαστρίμαργος greedy, κυνόσσημα the 
dog's tomb, &e. 








* Where a verb has two forms, one in dw and one in ἕω, the former is 
usually transitive, the latter neuter; e.g. πολεμοῦν to make an enemy of, 
πολεμεῖν to be at war. 

Ὑ Some verbs in idw have a quasi inceptive meaning, as ἰλιγγιάω I 
grow dizzy, κελαινιάω I grow black, ὠχριάω 1 grow pale, &e. 

6 See New Cratylus, ὃ 386. 


- 


SYNTHETIC COMPOUNDS. 51 


English is very rich in these parathetic compounds. Ben Jonson in 
his quaint grammar (1640) says, ‘in which kind of composition our 
English tongue is above all othervery handy and happy, joyning together 
after a most eloquent manner sundry words of every kind of speech.’ 
But he confuses such parathetic compounds as mill-horse, lip-wise, cut- 
purse, with such synthetic compounds as notwithstanding, nevertheless, 
ὅσο. One of his instances, twy-light, has since become the synthetic 
twilight. 

ii. The commonest class of parathetic compounds in Greek 
is furnished by the junction of verbs with prepositions, hence 
these compounds admit of tmesis, as κατὰ πίονα μήρι᾽ Exnar, or 
ἐκ δέ οἱ ἡνίοχος πλήγη φρένας ; this tmesis is found, though 
rarely, even in Attic, as ἐκ δ᾽ ἤῦσ᾽ (Soph. Zr. 565), ἐκ δὲ πηδή- 
σας (Eur. Hee. 1172). See too Ant. 420, 427, 432. 

Sometimes even, in Homer, the preposition follows, as 
ἐνάριζον am ἔντεα. 

iii. Yet merely parathetic as the compound is, a verb is often entirely 
altered in meaning by the preposition with which it is compounded ; 
e.g. γιγνώσκω 151 know, but ἀναγιγνώσκω I read ; καταγιγνώσκω I con- 
demn, ἐπιγιγνώσκω I decide, μεταγιγνώσκω 1 change my mind, ovyyty- 
νώσκω 1 pardon. Hence such a sentence as ᾿Ανέγνως GAN οὐκ ἔγνως" εἰ 
γὰρ ἔγνως οὐκ ἂν κατέγνως, you read it but did not understand; for 
had you understood you would not have condemned. 

So, too, ἀκούω 1 hear; ἐπακούω 1 overhear; ὑπακούω 1 answer the door; 
εἰσακούω I obey; παρακούω I mishear, &e. 


103. Synthetic compounds consist of elements which are 
not separable, but have been modified before being moulded 
into one organic whole, as μεγαλόδοξος, παντομίσης. 


104, i. Adjectives and nouns in composition usually assume 
their crude form, as πολύπους, μεγαλόπολις, and if any con- 
necting vowel be needed, o is generally used, as in πατροκτόνος, 
φυσιολόγος. 

ii. This ὁ is not contracted if the second part of the word 
originally began with a digamma, as in μηνοειδής, ὀρθοεπής, 
BEVOELRIC. 

111. Some synthetic compounds are however joined by the 
ietter ἢ, as ξιφηφόρος, ἐλαφηβόλος, ἀσπιδηφόρος, θανατηφύρος, 
στεφανηφόρος. ‘This may possibly have arisen from a desire to 
avoid the concurrence of short syllables, since side by side 
with these forms we find ξιφοκτόνος, ἐλαφοκτόνος, ἀσπιδοφέρμων, 
στεφανοποιός. 


105. In these compounds both words are generally signifi- 
cant, as in vynpopoc. Sometimes however one half is 
merely poetical and ornamental, as in μονόσκηπτρος θρόνος, 
γέννα θηλύσπορος, ἀνὴρ ὀιόζωνος. And frequently one half of 

D2 


52 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


the word has become superfluous, and lost all its meaning, the 
entire compound being only accepted in some secondary sense, 
as μονόψηφον ξίφος a single G -voting) sword, οἰόφρων πέτρα a 
lonely (-minded) rock, é ἱπποκόμος καμήλων a (horse- -) groom of 
camels, νέκταρ ἐῳνοχόει, ἄς. So in Sanskrit agwa-gd-sht'ha 
a horse cow-stall, and even gd-g6-sht/ha a cow-cow-stall.* 

N.B. i. Notice that \.66/30hog¢=pelted ; λιθοβόλος = pelting ; 
pnrpoxrovoc=killed by his mother; pnrpoxrdvoc=matricide. 

11. Compounds of ἐργάζομαι, if they imply bodily action 
only are oxytone, as*\Woupyde, ἀμπελουργός ; but on the other 
hand we have παγοῦργος, κακοῦργος, περίεργος, &c., implying 
moral action. 

106. Latin has to a great extent lost—perhaps by contact 
with some aboriginal language—the rich power of composition 
possessed by Sanskrit and by Greek. ‘ Faciliore ad duplicanda 
verba Greco sermone.—Liv. xxvii. 11. Even in historical 
times we can trace something of the loss. Virgil, for instance, 
has no compound words to compare with the ‘Ubi cerva s7lvi- 
cultrix ubi aper nemorivagus’ of Catullus. 

107. It is an important and almost invariable law in Greek 
that a verb never occurs as a synthetic compound except as 
derived from some other synthetic compound. ‘ Verba non 
possunt nisi per flecuram quandum cum aliis orationis partibus 
preter preepositiones consociari,’ observes Lobeck. In other 
words, ‘a verb, without losing its nature, can only be com- 
pounded with a preposition. When any other word is to be 
compounded with a verbal stem a noun is first formed of the 
two, and then a verb is derived from the noun.’ Hence such 
words as λιθοβάλλω, ἱπποτρέφω, ναυμάχομαι, εὐτυγχάνειν, 
μετριοπάσχειν, &c., would be simple monstrosities in Greek ; 
the only admissible forms being λιθοβολέω (from the inter- 
mediate substantive λιθοβύλοο), ἱπποτροφέω (from ἱπποτρόφοο), 
"αὐμαχέω (from ναύμαχος), εὐτυχέω (from εὐτυχής), μετριοπα- 
θεῖν (from μετριοπαθής). 

108. Apparent violations of thisrule are either wrong read- 
ings or the result of carelessness, as in Euripides ovracogeir, 
δυσθνησκειν, σταδιοδραμοῦμαι, κακοβουλευθεῖσα. The latter 
however should be σταξιοδρομήσω (Herc. F. 863), κακοβουλη- 
θεῖσα (Jon, 867), and were probably altered by some ignorant 
copyist. 





* See Pott, Ziéhlmethode, p.127. I have collected many other in- 
stances in my Chapters on Language, p. 217, and may add ‘ Lrass fire- 
trons,’ ‘tin shoe-horns, ‘wooden mile-stones,’ &c. 


ἐς TELEGRAM.” . 53 


In the N. Test. we have εὐδοκεῖν to be well pleased; aud 
xapadoxety to expect earnestly is found in some writers. Even 
Scaliger had seen that such a verb as εὐαγγέλλω 15 not Greek, 
‘nam τὸ εὖ καὶ τὰ στερητικὰ μόρια Componuntur non cum verbis 
sed cum nominibus.’ The careless violation of analogy in the 
δυσθνήσκω of Euripides (Jthes. 791, El. 834) may be due to 
the metrical impossibility of δυσθανατέω ; yet in any other 
dramatist we should have been more surprised to find it.* 

109. The same rule applies to abstract substantives. Com- 
pounds like λιθοβολή, ravpayn, εὐπρᾶξις would be impossi 
bilities in Greek; the substantive must receive a derivative 
ending as λιθοβολία, ναυμαχία, εὐπραξία. 

110. Hence the word ‘telegram’ is a monstrosity,—‘ a spot 
of barbarity impressed so deep on the English language that 
criticism never can wash it away.’ From the words τῆλε and 
γράφω might have been formed the substantive rneypagoc, 
and then through the verb τηλεγρεφέω the abstract substan- 
tive telegrapheme.t ‘Telegram’ violates the laws of Greek 
synthesis, and if it meant anything, could only mean ‘a letter 
at a distance.’ It must be regarded as a convenient Hnglish 
hybrid; and unfortunately many English hybrids are by no 
means convenient. It is said that we owe many of them, and 
this among the number, to the French. 











* New Cratylus, p. 624. For a list of other careless peculiarities of 
Euripides, see Bernhardy, Griechische Syntax, 5. 14. 

t Cf. from ζῷον and ypadw, ζωγράφος, ζωγραφέω, and then ζωγράφημα 
a painting. Plat. Phil. 39 Ὁ. 


54 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


SYNTAX. 


1, 1. Syntrax (σύνταξις, constructio, arrangement) gives the 
rules for expressing or arranging sentences. 

ii. The syntax of a language is not elaborated till late. 

There could not be said to be such a thing as Greek grammar 
till the Alexandrian epoch. Suetonius tells us that the first 
Greek grammar was brought to Rome by Crates Mallotes, the 
ambassador of King Attalus, between the second and third 
Punic wars. 
* iii. In the grammar of any language there must be a great 
deal which is common to it with every other language, and 
which must necessarily arise from the fundamental resemblance 
between the intelligence of different races. The points in 
which a language differs from others are called its idioms 
(ἰδιώματα or peculiarities). Some such idioms are isolated or 
unproductive; others form a starting-point for many similar 
phrases, and may be called paradigmatic (see Craik, Engl. of 
Shakespeare, p. 208). 

2. When a sentence, however short, offers a complete sense, 
it is called a proposition (αὐτοτελὴς λόγος oratio), 1.6. an eX- 
pression of judgment. 

3. A sentence must consist of three parts— 

a. The subject, or thing spoken of. 

β. The predicate, 1.6. what is stated of the subject. 

y. The copula,* some separate verb expressed or under- 
stood, or some lingual contrivance to express the mental act 
which connects the subject and predicate. 

N.B. i. As both the copula and subject are often wnderstood, or merely 
implied in the termination of a verb, a sentence may be expressed in 
Greek and Latin bya single word, as ὕει, βροντᾷ, ἔσεισε, σαλπίζει, it rains, 
it thunders, there is an earthquake, the trumpeter is blowing. In Eng- 
lish and most modern languages, at least ¢wo words are required, since, 
owing to the analysing tendency, we express the pronouns eyen when 
they are unemphatic. 





* The copula belongs however rather to logie than to syntax; in 
Greek it is constantly omitted. Thus ἀγαθὸς 6 ἀνὴρ means ‘the man is 
good,’ but we in English must express the ‘7s, to give any meaning. 
On the supposed necessity of this copula, see Origin of Language, 
p. 104 seqq. 


THE ARTICLE. 55 


ii. Most forms of the finite verb make a sentence, containing these 
three parts 8.0. τύπτω means ‘I (subject) am (copula) striking (predt- 
cate).’ 

iii. Whatever may be the length of a simple sentence (i.e. a sentence 
that contains but one finite verb), it can always be reduced to these tliree 
parts, all other words being accessory either to the subject or the predi- 
cate; e.g. The virtuous and happy old man lived i in peace and prosperity ; 
here « the virtuous, ὅσο. man’ is the subject, ‘was’ is the copula, ‘ living 
in,’ &c., is the predicate. 

iv. A compound sentence (i.e. a sentence that has more than one finite 
verb in it) may contain many simple sentences which are called its 
clauses. 

y. Clauses are either coordinate, i.e. of equal importance with the 
main sentence, as ‘ Alexander conquered Darius, and died young’ (παρά- 
tatis); or subordinate, as ‘ Alexander collected an army that he might 
conquer’ (ὑπόταξι5). 


THE ARTICLE (Αρθρον).ἢ 


4, The Article 6, ἡ, τὸ, was originally a demonstrative pro- 
noun, which also served as a personal pronoun; as in 
Homer— 


φθίσει σε τὸ σὸν μένος that courage of thine will ruin 
thee. f 

τὴν ἐγὼ ov λύσω her I will not set free. 

Δητοῦς καὶ Διὸς υἱός" ὁ yap βασιλῆϊ χολωθείς «.7.d. the 
son of Leto and of Zeus; for he ere) with the king, 
&e. 

ὡς ἔφατ᾽" ἔδδεισεν δ᾽ ὁ γέρων" So said he; but he, the old 
man, feared. 


N.B. In this last, and in similar instances, 6 is not an 
article,t but a pronoun in apposition, as in ‘ The Lord, He 
is the God.’ 


‘ My banks, wey are furnished with bees.’-—Shenstone. 





* The word ἄρθρον in this sense is first found in Aristotle, Poet. xx. 
It means ‘a joint’ or ‘limb’; see Egger, Apollon. Dyscol. pp. 112, 118. 

+ The τὸ in this and similar examples merely adds to the emphasis, 
and is like the use of the Latin ‘ille’ before possessive pronouns, as_ ille 
tuus pater,’ that father of yours; it is retained in the Romance lan- 
guages,—as ‘il mio cavallo, ὅσο. It is a constant Spanish idiom to use 
the article in a demonstrative sense as a personal pronoun, as ‘ H/ que es 
sabio’ he (lit. the) that is wise. 

{ In some instances however this demonstrative is, even in Homer, 
to all intents and purposes an article; e.g. ll. vii. 412, xii. 289, τὸ δὲ 
τεῖχος ὑπὲρ πᾶν δοῦπος ὀρώρει, &c. Apollonius Dyscol. Synt.i i. 31. But 
these instances are not numerous; and on the other hand it is often 


56 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


5, Even when ὁ, ἡ, τὸ had developed into a definite article 
(like our ‘ the’), it was used as a demonstrative ;* as 

100 γὰρ καὶ γένος ἐσμέν, ‘for we are also his offspring.’ 
—Aratus, quoted in Acts xvii. 28. 

πρὸ τοῦ, before this (German ehedem). 

ἢ τοῖσιν ἢ τοῖς πόλεμον αἴρεσθαι to take up war against 
these or those. 

ot ἐν ἄστει those in the city. 


> 


Especially with various particles, as μέν, δέ, καί, &e. 
ἔβλαψέ pe ὁ δεῖνα τὸ καὶ τὸ ποιήσας so and so injured me 
doing this and that (or doing such and such a thing). 

καί μοι κάλει τὸν καὶ τὸν now call me so and 50. 
οἱ μὲν ἐθαύμαζον, οἱ δὲ ἐβόων Some were in astonishment, 
others were shouting. 

7. This demonstrative pronoun (0, 7, 70) also served origin- 
ally for the relative (ὃς ἣ ὃ).7 with which it is most closely 
connected. In fact ὅς re not ὃς means ‘ who’ in Homer (et 
is=qui); or, in other words, language originally states 
co-ordinately what was afterwards made subordinate. 
ἀλλὰ τὰ μὲν πολίων ἐξεπράθομεν τὰ δέδασται the things 

which we sacked from the cities those things have been 

divided.—J1. 1. 125. 


(The example is acurious one because it is, I believe, the only instance 
in which Homer puts the relative defore the antecedent.) 


This usage continued in Ionic, and even in Attic, as 
τὰ μὲν ᾽Οτάνης εἶπε... . λελέχθω κἀμοὶ ταῦτα the things 
which Otanes said, &c. 
διπλῇ μάστιγι, wy" Apne φιλεῖ (Aisch. Ag. 642), with the 
double scourge, which Ares loves. 
It is even continued in Modern Greek, as τὰ φέρνει ἣ ὥρα what an hour 
brings. (Clyde.) 
8. i. Possibly ὃς ἣ τὸ was the original form of this demon- 
strative, and the ¢ was dropped because (e.g.) 6(¢) ἀγαθὸς ἀνὴρ 
would not sound well; just as in German we have der gute 





omitted where an article is required, as νηῦς δέ μοι ἥδ᾽ ἕστηκεν em’ ἄγρου 
_ ψοσφὶ πολῆος far from the city. 


ἄλλοι μέν pa θεοί τε καὶ ἀνέρες the rest of gods and men. 
* Similarly, in Hebrew ΠΠ was originally demonstrative, and occa- 
sionally retains its demonstrative force, as in D477 this day. 


t+ ‘Thus too in English the demonstrative that has come to be also a 
relative. —Clyde, Gr. Synt. p. 9, 


DEVELOPMENT OF THE ARTICLE. 57 


Mann, not der gute(1) Mann, because the grammatical instinct 
would have been offended by the conscious repetition of the 
pronoun (which was felt, though not recognised) in der guter. 
See Bréal, Bopp, ii. § 281. “Oc in Attic is still demonstrative 
in the phrases καὶ ὃς and he, ἢ δ᾽ ὃς said he, Ke. 

ii. In fact the use of an article with the nominative is an 
unconscious pleonasm, due to the obliteration of the nominatival 
termination. The nominative termination is derived from sas 
the Sanskrit article: many ages afterwards the Greeks used 
this same article under the form 6 to accompany and define 
the nominative. This double process of obliteration and re- 
production in language has already been illustrated in § 105. 
See Bréal, Bopp, il. xxxvii. 

9. We see then that the article, the demonstrative, and the 
relative are merely developments of one and the same form.* 
This is illustrated by the fact that— 

1. There is no article in Latin in which hie and ille serve 
the same purpose, when anything very definite is wanted. 
‘ Noster sermo articulos non desiderat, says Quinctilian (Jnstt. 
Or. τ. iv. 19). It must however be admitted that the article 
if unnecessary is at any rate very convenient. So far from 
being, as J. C. Scaliger called it, ‘ otiosum loquacissime gentis 
instrumentum,’ it adds to language a most desirable precision.{ 





* In fact they are all three simply determinative adjectives. Du Meéril, 
Form. de la Langue frang. p. 60. 
+ Duclos cites, as instances of the precision attainable by the use of 
articles, the sentences— 
a. Charles est fils de Louis 
B. -- un fils — 
WN — le fils — 


Here a. expresses the general fact; 8. shows that Charles has brothers , 
y. shows that Charles is an only son. Here then one may see both the 
desirability of the article, and the absurdity of Scaliger’s remark, ‘ Dis- 
pleased with the redundance of particles in the Greek, the Romans 
catended their displeasure to the article, which chey totally banished!’ 
Prof. Trithen observes that his arrogant dictum ‘ Articulus nobis nullus, 
et Grecis superfluus’ is much as if he had said ‘There are no Alps in 
England ; they exist in Switzerland, but they are superfluous.’ (Z7rans. 
of the Philolog. Soc. 1850, p.11.) Moreover, colloquial Latin in all 
probability did use the pronouns as definite articles, and the numeral as 
an indefinite article; hence such phrases as Terence’s ‘Forte unam 
aspicio adolescentulam.’—Andria, τ. 1. 91; cf. Plaut. Most. iv. 3.9. This 
is an instance of one of ‘those instincts of clearness which anticipate 
grammatical development.’ For other methods by which the Latin 
makes up for its want of an article, see Nagelsbach, Lateinische Stylistik, 


§ 3. 
D3 


58 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


β. The article has been developed by the Romance lan- 
guages (1.6. those derived from Latin) out of the demonstrative 
pronoun ille, as: 

In French le, la, les. 

In Italian 7, lo, la, 2, gli, 
In Spanish οἰ, la, los, las 
In Wallachian lu, a; le, 7. 

In Sanskrit the article did not exist, the demonstrative sas, sa, tat 
being used instead (as in Latin); nor does it occur in Sclavonic and 
Lithuanian. 

y. The same three uses of the article (as article, demon- 
strative, and relative) are found in German, as Der Mensch, 
den (relative) ich befreundete, der (demonstrative) hat’s gethan, 
the man whom I befriended, he has done it (Clyde). The 
demonstrative der has been applied as a definite article, just 
as the Anglo-Saxon ‘pat’ has become ‘the.’ Similarly, in 
many languages, the indefinite article a or an (the Scotch ane) 
has been developed out of the numeral one. An for one is 
first found in Layamon’s Brut, and at one time they seem to 
have been used almost interchangeably, e.g. ‘The Owl and 
the Nightingale’ (a.p. 1250) line 6, ‘An hule and one night- 
ingale.’ Probably in later Greek the numeral was used in- 
definitely, cf. Matt. xxi. 14, ἰδὼν συκῆν μίαν ἐπὶ τῆς ὁδοῦ. 


Cuier Uses oF THE ARTICLE. 
10. The Greek article (as in English) either (i.) specifies 
and individualises, as— 
ὁ βοῦς ἐσφάχθη the ox (which you know of) has been 
killed ; 
Or (ii.) generalises, i.e. represents an individual as belong- 
ing to a class— 
ὁ βοῦς ζῷον χρησιμώτατόν ἐστι the ox is a most useful 
animal. 
Both uses exist in modern languages. Thus, in German, Der Mensch 
ist sterblich man is mortal; in Spanish, EZ? caballo es animal noble the 
horse is a noble animal, &e. 





* See Clyde’s Gr. Syntax. In Wallachian (as in Basque) the article 
is sufficed, Just as ille may follow its word in Latin, as ochiw’'l for ochiu il, 
Museei for Musca lei. (Du Méril, p. 362.) It has also formed the 
articles aquestu, aquelu, from hie iste, hic ile. In the Romance lan- 
guages the article still constantly retains its demonstrative force, as in 
Spanish, ‘ Mis libros y dos que 6] tiene,’ my books and the which he has; 

Los de vuestra nacion,’ those of your nation; in French, ‘ Le roi de 
veut,’ the king wills it, de Ja sorte, ἃ /instant méme, &e. 


USES OF THE ARTICLE. 59 


11. In the latter case we often use our indefinite article a, 
an, as— 

Ta σημεῖα τοῦ ἀποστόλου the signs of an apostle.—2 Cor. 
xii. 12. 

οὐδὲ... τιθέασιν αὐτὸν ὑπὸ τὸν μόδιον ἀλλὰ ἐπὶ τὴν 
λυχνίαν they do not put it under a bushel but on a 
candlestick.—Mt. v. 15. 

δεῖ τὸν στρατιώτην τὸν ἄρχοντα φοβεῖσθαι a soldier should 
fear his general. 


12. The article is only used with proper names* when they 
have been previously mentioned, or to call special attention to 
them, as ὁ Σωκράτης; but not generally if any designation is 
added, as Σωκράτης ὁ φιλόσοφος, Θουκυδίδης 0’ Αθηναῖος, Kpoicoc 
ὁ τῶν Λύδων βασιλεύς. So in Southern Germany Der Johann 
(the John, i.e. our servant John) soll das Pferd bringen is to 
bring the horse. And we talk of the O’Donoghue, the Chis- 
holm, &c. (Clyde.) In French this is common when names 
are used familiarly, as ‘la Taglioni,’ το. 

Our non-usage of the article with proper names leads to the style of 
deeds, &c., with their troublesome addition of ‘ the said,’ ‘ the aforesaid,’ 
ὅσο. ‘This tedious repetition which clogs and encumbers the style of 
our writs so much would be saved if we used the article in the way the 
Greeks do, and the style would be as well-connected as it is without 


such gouty joints, to use an expression of my Lord Shaftesbury’s.’— 
Monboddo, Orig. of Lang. ii. 57. 


13. Words signifying objects of which only one exists, are 
used as proper names, and need take no article, as βασιλεὺς 
the king of Persia,} év ἄστει ‘in town,’ ἐν ἀγορᾷ at market, 
ἐπὶ θαλάσσῃ at sea, νυκτὸς by night, &c. Hence ἥλιος, γῆ, &e. 
and the names of virtues and vices are often anarthrous. 

14. The article distinguishes the subject from the predicate, 


as: 
βασιλεὺς ἐγένετο τὸ πτωχάριον the beggar became a king. 





* Names of places are expressed very variously with the article, as 
ὁ ποταμὸς 6 Εὐφράτης the river Euphrates; ἢ Αἰτνη τὸ ὄρος Mount Attna ; 
Πάρνης τὸ ὄρος Mount Parnes; Σικελία 7 νῆσος Sicily; 7 πόλις of Tapoot 
the city of Tarsus, ὅσο The vommon order however is 6 Εὐφράτης ποταμὸς 
the river Euphrates; 7 Βολβὴ λίμνη the lake Bolbe; τὸ Αἰγαλέων dpos 
Mount Aigaleum ; 7 Θεσπρωτὶς γῆ the Thesprotian land; 7 Δῆλος νῆσος 
the isle of Delos. The substantive and proper name are really in appost- 
tion, and a similar collocation is not uncommon in English poetry, as 
‘This great Oxus stream,’ ‘famous London city,’ &e. 

1 The king of Persia was called βασιλεὺς king, or B. 6 μέγας, but not 
ὁ B., 6.5. of πρόγονοι οἱ βασιλέως. 


60 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


νὺξ ἡ ἡμέρα ἐγένετο day was turned into night. 
Θεὸς ἦν ὁ Λόγος the Word was God. 

The same rule holds in Hebrew and English. There is a strange 

violation of it in Milton’s 
‘Light the day and darkness night he named,’ 
where Bentley reads ‘the Light. Day.’ 

15. Often Greek (like French) uses the article where we 
use the possessive pronoun ;* as 

ἀλγῶ τὴν κεφαλὴν j'ai mal a la téte, my head aches. 

ὁ βασιλεὺς σὺν τῷ στρατεύματι the king with his army. 

ἔχει ὀξεῖς τοὺς ὀφθαλμοὺς his eyes are sharp (compare the 
French il a Jes yeux beaux, and the Italian egli ha la 
vista acuta). 

16. You may say in Greek either ἀγαθὸς ἀνήρ, or ἀνὴρ 
ἀγαθὸς for a good man; but ‘the good man’ (and every 
similar collocation) must be in Greek in the same order as the 
English : 


ὁ ἀγαθὸς ἀνὴρ the good man, 


or which is equally correct but more pleonastic ὁ ἀνὴρ ὁ 
ἀγαθός. 

17. The attributive genitive follows the same order, as ἢ Θεμιστοκλέους 
ἀρετὴ or 7) ἀρετὴ Θεμιστοκλέους, ὁ ᾿Αθηναίων δῆμος or 6 δῆμος ὁ ᾿Αθηναίων ; 
and this holds true no matter how many intermediate words are inter- 
posed, as in 

τὸ τῆς τοῦ ξαίνοντος τέχνης ἔργον the work of the wool-earder’s art. 

ἣ τῶν τὰ τῆς πόλεως πράγματα πραττόντων apeth the virtue of our 

statesmen. 

In phrases like ‘my mother,’ ‘thy word,’ the order is 7 ἐμὴ μήτηρ, or 
N μήτηρ μου, ὃ σὸς λόγος, or 6 λόγος σου. 

N.B.—The attributive genitive must have the article, if the noun on 
which it depends has it, waless there be some special reason to the con- 
trary, as 

ἡ Tod γεωργοῦ δόξα the husbandman’s opinion. 
τὸ τῆς ἀρετῆς κάλλος the beauty of virtue. 


18. But if the adjective, when it occurs with a substantive 
and article, is placed ether first or last, it becomes a predicate ; 
as: 

ἀγαθὸς ὁ ἀνὴρ good (is) the man. 
ὁ ἀνὴρ ἀγαθὸς the man (is) good. 


So in Chinese xgozyin=a bad man; but gin-2go=the man is bad. 





* ‘Tho Greek article here denotes that the swbject has a definite kind 
of property it is known to possess.’— Winer, ut. ὃ xviii. 2. 


USES OF THE ARTICLE. 61 


19. This must be specially noticed in all the cases; thus: 


οἱ λόγοι ψευδεῖς ἐλέχθησαν not ‘the false words’ but ‘the 
words spoken’ were false. 

ὁ μάντις τοὺς λόγους ψευδεῖς λέγει the words which the 
prophet utters are false. 


20. The last example is an instance of what Dr. Donaldson 
calls a tertiary predicate, which assumes or anticipates the 
existence of another predicate, and must therefore be often 
rendered by a separate sentence, as: 

ὀξὺν ἔχει τὸν πέλεκυν the axe which he has is sharp. 

ἀρχαῖα τὰ Λαβδακιξᾶν οἴκων ὁρῶμαι πήματα the woes of 
the Labdacide which J see are ancient. 

διπλᾶ δ᾽ ἔτισαν θἀμάρτια the penalty which they paid was 
two-fold. 

ov yap βάναυσον τὴν τέχνην ἐκτησάμην for the art which I 
acquired 1s no mean one. 


Notice the position of the adjective and article in the fol- 
lowing sentences : 

ἀφίεσαν τὴν δοκὸν χαλαραῖς ταῖς ἁλύσεσι they let down 
the beam with the chains loosened. 

ἐνέπρησαν rac σκηνὰς ἐρήμους they burned down the tents, 
deserted as they were. 

Levy On ὀξύχολος παῖς ὁ Δρύαντος the son of Dryas, because 
he was keen in wrath, was bound. 

κανταῦθ᾽ ὁ παῖς δύστηνος ovr ὀδυρμάτων ἐλείπετ᾽ οὐδὲν and 
thereupon the boy, unhappy as he was, was neither 
lacking in lamentations, &c. 


21. Sometimes the law of the position of the article appears 
to be violated, as in 
(ηθ᾽ ὁ λυμεὼν ἐμὸς nor he who is my outrager.—Soph. 
Aj. 572. 
Ζεύς σ᾽ ὁ γεννήτωρ ἐμὸς Zeus who is my father.—Eur. 
Hipp. 683. 
τὠμπέχονον ποίησας ἐμὸν ῥάκος you've made my dress a 
rag.—Theocr. xxvil. 58. 

In all these instances probably the true reading is ἐμοί 
(New Crat. p. 487). Some editors however think that the 
possessive is emphatic, and content themselves with the re- 
mark, ‘ Articuli collocatio valde inusitata.’ 


* Possibly however the ἐμὸς is added as an afterthought. 


62 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


22. The following examples will illustrate the chief pecu- 
liarities of the article : 
i. δὲς τοῦ μηνὸς twice a month. 
τρία ἡμιδαρεικὰ τοῦ μηνὸς τῷ στρατιώτῃ three half darics 
a month to each soldier. 
δραχμὴν τῆς ἡμέρας a drachma a day. 


This is called the distributive use cf the article; Clyde 
compares the German, Zweimal den Monat, and the Italian 
due volte ἐ} mese; so too in French, un franc da bouteille, ὅσο, 

li. οὗτος ὁ avjp* this man. 

ἐκεῖνος ὁ λόγος that argument. 
ἥδε ἡ γνώμη this opinion. 
ἑκάστη ἡ ἀρχὴ each kingdom ; or, which is equally correct 
though less emphatic, ὁ ὁ ἀνὴρ οὗτος, ἡ γνώμη ἥδε, &e. ; 
but ὁ must NEVER immediately PRECEDE οὗτος, ἐκεῖνος, 
ὅδε, ἕκαστος, ἑκάτερος : preceding αὐτὸς it means ‘ the 
same,’ as: 
ὁ αὐτὸς ἄνθρωπος the same man ;f (homo zdem). 
but ὁ ἄνθρωπος αὐτὸς 
αὐτὸς ὁ ἄνθρωπος 


μιο man himself; (homo zpse). 
iii. Notice the difference made by the article in the following 
phrases : 
τριάκοντα thirty, οἱ τρίακοντα the thirty (tyrants). 
ἕνδεκα eleven, ot ἕνδεκα the eleven (executioners). 
ὀλίγοι few, ot ὀλίγοι the oligarchy. 
πλείους more, οἱ πλείους the majority; sometimes=the 
dead (cf. ‘abiit ad plures’). 
πολλοὶ many, οἱ πολλοὶ most, the mob. 
ἄλλοι others, οἱ ἄλλοι the rest. 
πάντα δέκα ten of each, τὰ πάντα δέκα ten in all. 
δύο μέρη two parts, τὰ δύο μέρη two thirds. 
ἄλλη χώρα another land, ἡ ἄλλη χώρα, the rest of the 
land. 
ava πᾶσαν ἡμέραν every day, ava πᾶσαν τὴν ἡμέραν" all 
day long. 
πᾶσα πόλις every city, πᾶσα i) πόλις Or ἡ πᾶσα πόλις the 
whole city. 





* When οὗτος, ἐκεῖνος; &c., are used without the article, they are in 
apposition, as ταύτην ἔχει τέχνην he has this as an art; τούτῳ παραδεί- 
γματι χρώμενος using this as an example. 

ς , «ς > > ΄ Ω » ε » tf 5 
+ αὗτός, αὑτή, ταὐτό or ταὐτόν, are used for 6 αὐτός, ἣ αὐτή, τὸ αὐτό. 
1 The difference between ὁ πᾶς and πᾶς 6 is much the same as that: 


USES OF THE ARTICLE. 63 


δοῦλος ἐμὸς a slave of mine, ὁ ἐμὸς δοῦλος that slave of 
mine. 

ἔσχατον τὸ ὄρος the farthest part of the mountain, τὸ 
ἔσχατον ὄρος the farthest mountain. 

i) μέση πόλις the middle city, μέση ἡ πόλις or ἡ πόλις 
μέση the middle of the city. 

τὸ μέσον τεῖχος the middle wall, μέσον τὸ τεῖχος the 
middle of the wall. 

τοῖς ἄκροις ποσὶν With the toes, ἄκροις τοῖς ποσὶν on tiptoe. 

βασιλεύων 6 ἹΚῦρος Cyrus when he was king, Κῦρος 6 
βασιλεύων Cyrus, who is king. 

τὸ καλὸν the beautiful, τὰ καλὰ things beautiful. 

23. The article can turn any infinitive into a substantive: 
τλήσομαι τὸ κατθανεῖν I will endure to die. 
τὸ λέγειν speaking, τοῦ λέγειν of speaking, ke. 
So our ‘to; as 
‘ To err is human, to forgive divine’ 
(like the Italian 2/ peccare. Clyde); and even in oblique cases, 
as Spenser’s 
‘For not to have been dipped in Lethe’s stream 
Could save the son of Thetis from to die.’ 

24. Observe the phrases οἱ πάνυ ἢ the élite, ὁ ἀεὶ κρατῶν the 
king for the time being, οἱ πάλαι the men of old, τὸ σύμπαν 
on the whole, τἄλλα for the rest, τὰ πολλὰ for the most part, 
τὰ μάλιστα in the highest degree, τὸ ἐπ᾿ ἐμοὶ for my part, ra 
ἀπὸ τοῦδε henceforth, τὸ aver) the word ‘ virtue.’ 





between ‘the whole’ and ‘all the; i.e. the difference is almost inap- 
preciable. We might say that 6 πᾶς, like the Italian tutto, meant an 
indivisible whole ; and that πᾶς 6, like ogni, was a distributive whole ; 
—but in point of fact both orders are used in the same clause, as πᾶσι 
τοῖς κριταῖς καὶ τοῖς θεαταῖς maot.—Ar. Av. 444. mas =omnis; ἅπαντες -- 
cunctt (1.6. conjuncti); σύμπαντες -- universi, all by common consent ; 
ὅλος --- totws.—Donaldson, Lat. Gr. p. 79. 
* This adjectival use of adverbs is not unknown in English; e.g. 
‘My sometime daughter. —King Lear, Act i. se. i. 
‘ Mild innocence 
A seldom comet is.’—Denne. 


‘They hoped for @ soon and prosperous issue.—Sidney. ‘ The then Par- 
liament voted, &c. Even in Latin, though it has no definite article, we 
find such phrases as ‘ discessu tm meo,’ by my then departure. Cic. Pis 
ix. 21; ‘ipsorum deorum spe presenti, the frequent presences of the 
gods, &c.—Cie. De Nat. Deor. τι. xvi. 166 ; Nagelsbach, Lat. Styl. § 75 


64 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


ἐν τοῖς Tp@ToL=omnium primi.—Thuce. i. 6. 

ἐν τοῖς πλεῖσται quite the most. 

τὸ and τὸ dé sometimes=therefore (at the beginning of 

. sentences). 

τὸ τῶνδ᾽ εὔνουν the good will of these; cf. @d. Col. 
8, 579, &e., vide ὃ 38. 

N.B. Before we leave the article, it is worthy of notice that 
in such phrases as ‘the more they have, the more they desire,’ 
we use ὅσῳ, τοσούτῳ, and in Latin guo, eo. Here ‘the’ in 
English is not an article at all, but a corruption of the Ger- 
man 76. 


CONCORD. 


25, The rules for the three concords are the same in Greek 
as in Latin. The numerous violations of them which are 
given below are nearly all self-explaining, and arise from the 
fact that the Greeks being an extremely quick race, often 
allowed the sense to overrule the grammar, or substituted the 
logic of thought to that of grammatical forms. They saw 
through the form, and often disregarded it. This important 
principle of construction is called the sense-fi. gure,—oxijpa 
πρὸς τὸ σημαινόμενον, constructio ad sensum, ΟΥ̓ briefly Kara 
σύνεσιν. Hence all such expressions as the following :— 

ὁ ὄχλος. . . ἐπικατάρατοί εἰσιν the people... are ac- 
cursed.—John vii. 49. 

pire τέκνον dear child. 

τὸ μειράκιον ἐγένετο καλὸς the boy grew up handsome. 

Τροίαν ἑλόντες . . . στόλος the host, after taking Troy. 

φεύγει ἐς Kepxipay we αὐτῶν ἐὐερν δ ν he flies to 
Corcyra, as being their benefactor. 

πόλιν ἔπραθον ὥλεσα δ᾽ αὐτοὺς I burnt the city, and slew 
them (i.e. the inhabitants). 

ἐς δὲ τὴν Σπάρτην we ἠγγέλθη .. . ἔδοξεν αὐτοῖς when it 
was announced at Sparta, they decided, &c. [ compare 
Gibbon’s expression ‘Each legion, to whom was al- 
lotted,’ &e. ]. 

τερπνὸν τράπεζα πλήρης a full table is a good thing. 





bo Expressions like ‘The ship sailed, and they (i.e. the crew) were 
brave,’ or ‘The city was in confusion, and they voted,’ &c., are very 
common in Greek, which very properly despised a pedantic accuracy of 
grammatical structure, when the meaning could be quite as clearly 
expressed with more brevity. In Thue, i. 110 we find τριήρεις... οὐκ 
εἰδότες. 


THE ‘ SENSE-CONSIRUCTION.’ 65 


οἱ παϊδές εἶσιν ἀνιαρὸν boys are a bore. 

ἀξύνατά ἐστιν ἀποφυγεῖν it isimpossible (neut. plur.) to fly. 
ἀμυντέα ἐστὶν αὐτῷ we must defend him. 

δόξαν ταῦτα when this had been decreed. 

δοκεῖ μοι ὁρῶν it seems to me, seeing, Ke. 

ἐμὰ κήδεα θυμοῦ the woes of my heart. 

26. Neuter plurals take a verb singular, because mere 
multeity or mass implies no plurality, or separation of 
agencies ; * in fact, the neut. plur. is an accusative or objective 
case, things not animate being regarded as only capable of 
being acted on. Hence ra ζῶα τρέχει properly means ‘as to 
the animals there is running.’ This is called the Attic figure 
(σχῆμα ᾿Αττικόν), and it exists also in Hebrew and Arabic. 

27. But here also the sense also controls the form, when 
requisite : 

ra τέλη ἐξέπεμψαν the magistrates sent out. 

σπάρτα λέλυνται the ropes have grown slack (i.e. one and 
all of the ropes). 

τοσάδε ἔθνη ἐστράτευον SO Many nations were going to 
war. 


28. Duals agree with plurals, because the dual is a subor- 
dinate plural, as εἵλετο δ᾽ ἄλκιμα δοῦρε and he grasped two 
stout spears.—Hom. 

In ἄμφω τὼ πόλεε both the cities (Thuc.) we have a mase. dual with a 
fem. noun (τὼ for 7a), as is always the case in Attic Greek. 

29. Sometimes by what is called the Pindaric or Baotian 
Jigure a singular verb is put with a plural noun, as μελιγάρνες 
ὕμνοι ὑστέρων ἀρχαὶ λόγων réAXNerar.—Olymp. xi. 4. Honeyed 
hymns becomes the origins of later songs. ‘The exigences of 
metre have even forced from Shakspeare this violation of 
syntax, as 

‘Hark! hark! the lark at heaven’s gate sings, 
And Pheebus ’gins arise, 
His steeds to water at those springs 
On chaliced flowers that lies.’ 





* ‘The neuter plural governing, as they call it, a singular verb, is one 
of the many instances in Greek of the inward and metaphysic grammar 
resisting successfully the tyranny of formal grammar. In truth, there 
may be multeity in things, but there can only be plurality in persons. 
Observe also that, in fact, a neuter noun in Greek has no real nominative 
case, though it has a formal one—that is to say, the same word in the 
accusative. The reason is, a thing has no subjectivity or nominative 


case; it exists only as an object in the accusative or oblique case.’ 
—Coleridge, Table Talk. 


66 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


Mr. Morris shows that {168 is a plural form in some English 
dialects, but similar phrases are common in Shakspeare, Bacon, 
ἄς. ‘Js this the fashions. —2 Henry VJ.i.2. ‘ There is 
tears for his woe.—Jul. Ces. ili. 2. ‘There zs none of 
Hercules’s followers,’ &c.—Bacon, Adv. of Learn. ‘ Good 
Things cometh from God,’ is the title of one of the 
Homilies. This idiom is confined in Attic to εἰμί, used im- 
personally at the beginning of sentences. 

ἔστι γὰρ ἔμοιγε Kat βωμοὶ 1 too have altars. 

ἔστιν ol==Evioc= sunt qui. 

ἔστι δ᾽ ἑπτὰ στάδιοι ἐξ ᾿Αβύδου it is seven stades from 
Abydos. 

ἣν δ᾽ ἀμφίπλεκτοι κλίμακες there was wrestling tricks.— 
Soph. 77. 520. 

We have the same idiom ; e.g. ‘it is now a hundred years 
since,’ &c. Dr. Priestley defends the propriety of a singular 
verb after ‘there’ even when a plural follows.* Compare the 
French il y a des hommes; and the German ‘s sind 
Menschen.’ This construction is the rule in Turkish (Barker, 
Turk. Gram. p. 89). 

30. A singular and plural are often mixed t by what is 
called ‘the whole and part figure’ (σχῆμα καθ᾽ ὅλον καὶ μέρος); 
as 

ἔμενον ἐν τῇ ἑωυτοῦ τάξει ἕκαστος they stayed, each in his 
own rank. 

οὗτοι μὲν ἄλλος ἄλλο λέγει they say, some one thing, 
some another (cf. Matt. xviii. 35). 

31. The plural of excellence (by whicha person says ‘ we ’) 
often leads to a mixture of concords,t as 

ἢν θάνω θανούμεθα if I die, we will die. 

So in Ovid: 

‘Et flesti et nostros vidisti flentzs ocellos.’ 





* Such a construction apparently wsed not to be uncommon; e.g. we 
find in Dowsing’s record of his desecration of Cove Hythe Church in 
1643, ‘ There was four steps with a vault underneath. There was many 
inscriptions to Jesus in capital letters,’ ὅσο. 

7 Rarely a plural is put between two singulars, as in 

εἰ δέ kK” Apns ἄρχωσι μάχης ἢ Φοῖβος ᾿Απόλλων.---71. v. 188. 


This is called the σχῆμα ᾿Αλκμανικόν (see Lesbonax, p. 179), from the 
occurrence in Aleman of the phrase Κάστωρ τε πώλων ταχέων δμητῆρες 
καὶ Πολυδεύκης Castor, tamers of swift steeds, and Pollux. Bernhardy, 
Griech. Synt. s. 421. 

1 Compare in Hebrew P'S DION 


CASES. 67 


32. A woman using the plural alsu uses the masculine; 
thus Electra says : 
πεσούμεθ᾽ εἰ χρὴ πατρὶ TYyLwpovpevor.—Soph. Hl. 391. 
99. ἄγε, φέρε, ἰδέ, εἰπέ, being merely interjectional, can 
be put with plurals; as 
εἰπέ μοι, TL πάσχετ᾽, ὥνδρες ;---Οτν. Paz, 325. 


CASES (Πτώσεις).ἢ 


34. The case-endings, which once were separate words 
although in course of time they have got inseparably united to 
the noun-stems, originally denoted the simplest and most 
obvious relations, viz. those of place. From these relations, 
which, as we have seen, were expressed by pronominal ele- 
ments, the others were developed. ‘There are some languages 
in which the cases are expressed by entirely separate words; 
e.g. in Chinese the word ¢ehi ‘bud’ is used for the genitive 
case, as metaphorically indicating the ideas of dependence and 
causality. 

35. The relations of objects may be considered from so 
many points of view, that we must not be surprised to find 
that the border-limits of the cases are by no means very de- 
finite, and that different cases can be used to express nearly the 
same conception. Thus ἐξ ἀριστερᾶς (a dextr’), ἐν ἀριστερᾷ, 
ἐς ἀριστεράν (zur Rechten), ἐπ᾽ ἀριστερά are all good Greek for 
on the left; and we can say equally well in English on the left, 
at the left, and to the left. (Clyde.) The nominative and voca- 
tive are generally treated as cases, but they are not really so, 
because they express no objective relations. The word πτῶσις 
casus in its original meaning (falling) is entirely inapplicable 
to either of them. 





* The word πτῶσις ‘case’ from πίπτειν is first found in this sense in 
Aristotle, Categor.i. For a full account of it see Lersch, Sprachphilos. 
der Alten, ii. 182 seqq. Indeclinable words are called ἄπτωτα. The 
nominative was not regarded as a πτῶσις, and hence in Aristotle it is 
called simply ὄνομα; but each other case was considered ὡς ἀπὸ τοῦ 
ὀνόματος πεπτωκυῖα ; they were called πτώσεις πλάγιαι, obliqui cases ; and 
also, by Chrysippus, ὕπτια. The number of cases differ greatly in 
different languages. Many modern languages (e.g. French, Italian, ὅσο.) 
have lost them altogether ; Hebrew has two, Arabic three, German four, 
Greek five, Latin six, Russian seven, Sanskrit eight; while some lan- 
guages, like Basque and the American languages, have as many cases as 
there are prepositions, or rather postpositions. See Burggraff, Princ. de 
Gram. gin. p. 249. 


68 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


36. The metaphysical nicety with which the Greek cases 
are employed rendered their use very difficult to foreigners. 
This is one of the reasons why in the New Testament preposi- 
tions are so often employed where they would be superfluous 
in classic Greek, as in διδόναι ἐκ, ἐσθίειν ἀπό, πολεμεῖν μετά, 
&c. In Modern Greek the dative case (and the genitive 
plural) have been entirely displaced by analytical phrases 
(prepositions, &e.).* 

97. Οὗ the eight cases found in Sanskrit (which is pro- 
bably the oldest language of the Aryan family) the Greek 
retains but five, and the Latin six; so that we have these 
three tables : 


Sanskrit. Greck. Latin. 


1. Nominative. 1. Nominative. 1. Nominative. 
2. Genitive. 2. Genitive. Ablative. 2. Genitive. 
3. Dative. 3. Dative. Instrumental. 38. Dative. 
Locative. 
4. Instrumental. 4. Accusative. 4, Accusative. 
5. Locative. ὃ. Vocative. 5. Vocative. 
6. Accusative. 6. Ablative,. Instru- 
7. Vocative. mental. Locative. 
8. Ablative. 


From this table it appears that in Greek the accusative 
alone of all the cases has preserved its exact original force. 
The genitive and dative are mixed, or, as Pott calls them 
(Εἰ. Forsch. i. 22), syncretistic cases, and cannot be reduced to 
a single principle. ‘Thus the gen. is also an ablative; the dat. 
is also an instrumental and locative. 

The cases fall under two divisions, of which one consists of 
the nom., accus., and vocative; the other cases admit of fre- 
quent interchanges. 

On this view of the cases see Quinctilian (Znstt. Orat. 1. 4-- 
26), who points out the distinct traces of a locative in the 
Latin (militia, humi, domi, dell’, ruri, ib’, ubi), just as we 
have similar traces in the Greek οἴκοι, &c. AUsch. has πέδοι, 
cf. μέσσοι (Zol.) moi, ot. Simon., fr. 209, has ἐν Ἰσθμοῖ, 
where the locative is defined by a preposition. The only 
locative of the a declension is χαμαί. 

Such forms as οὐρανόθεν, θύραθεν, are ablatival. 


‘NOMINATIVE (Πτῶσις ὀρθή, εὐϑεῖα, ὀνομαστική). 


38. By an example of the constructio ad sensum, the nomina- 
tive is sometimes placed in independent apposition to the 





* Deville, Dialecte traconien, Ὁ. 98. 


THE VOCATIVE. 69 


notion of the sentence, though not to the form in which it is 
expressed. This is called the nominative absolute, as 
αἰδώς μ᾽ ἔχει (ΞΞαἰδοῦμαι) race πράξας Tam ashamed at 
such conduct. 
λόγοι δ᾽ ἐν ἀλλήλοισιν ἐρρόθουν κακοί, 
φύλαξ ἐλέγχων φύλακα there was an angry dashing of 
mutual reproaches, guard reviling gquard.—Soph. Antig. 
259. 

Obs. Such phrases as οὐδὲν δέον where it was not necessary, οὐδὲν 
προσῆκον αὐτοῖς though it did not concern them, εἰρημένον although it 
had been said, δεδογμένον after it had been resolved, δόξαν ταῦτα when 
this resolve had been taken, ὅσο, have teen sometimes regarded as no- 
minatives absolute; but this, as we shall afterwards see, is an error. 

The nominative absolute, which is not unfrequent in English, especially 
in poetry, is of a different kind from this; eg. ‘And we being excecd- 
ingly tossed with a tempest, the next day they lightened the ship,”— 
Acts xxvii. 18. 

These instances are not like the so-called Greek nominative absolute, 
but like the genitive absolute. They have risen from the loss of caso- 
endings in English, exactly like the nom. absol. of Modern Greek. See 
§ 52 inf. 

39. Copulative words (implying existence, seeming, being 
called, chosen, ὅσο.) take the same case after as before them 
(as in English ‘it is I,’ &c.); as 

καθέστηκε βασιλεὺς he is appointed king. 
θεὸς ὠνομάζετο he was styled ‘a god.’ 

So too ἀκούω in the sense J am called, as in ἐχθροὶ ἀκού- 
ovary they are called enemies.* 

N.B. Bopp connects the ¢, which is the common suffix of 
the nominative, with the Sanskrit pronominal theme sa ‘ he,’ 


‘that person there’ (Comp. Gram. § 184), from which root 
the article is also derived. 


THE VOCATIVE (Ἀλητική). 


40. The vocative is the slightest of all cases, and has no 
influence on the syntax. encen in many languages it does 
not exist at all ; even in Latin it is almost non- vexistent) for 

~ the nominative is constantly used for it in the 2nd declension 


* So audio in Latin—‘Seu Jane libentius audis,’ or whether you 
prefer to be called Janus; and in English, ‘DoI hear ill of that side 
too ?’=Am I ill spoken of in that quarter also ?—(Ford.) 

‘Or hear’st thou rather, pure etherial stream, 
Whose fountain who shall tell ?’—Par. Lost, iii. 6. 


Cf. Spenser, F. Q. i. 23. 


70 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


in which alone it is found at all. Greek does not possess it in 
neuter words, and even in some masculines, as ὦ θεός, ὦ φίλος, 
ὦ ᾿Βέλιος ; and Buttmarn observes further (Gram. p. 180), 
that the nominative is used for it in all instances where its 
occurrence would naturally be rare, e.g. ὦ ποῦς. 

41, Hence too the nominative (especially with the article) 
is often substituted for it, as 

δημοβώύρος βασιλεύς" ἐπεὶ οὐτιδάνοισιν ἀνάσσεις people- 
eating king! since thou lordest it over weaklings.— 
I. i. 231. 

ὦ οὗτος Αἴας ho Ajax ! 

σὺ ὁ πρεσβύτατος you, the eldest.—Xen. Cyrop. tv. v. 17. 

χαῖρε 6 βασιλεὺς τῶν “lovdaiwy hail, king of the Jews! 

Compare Degener 0 populus.—Lue. 11. 11. Vos o Pompilius sanguis. 
—Hor. A, P. 298. 

42. It is not unreasonable to conjecture that when a separate 
form for the vocative exists, it is merely due to the change 
produced in the nominative when used rapidly in calling or 
addressing others; in fact, that it is due like other phonetic 
corruptions to what Prof. Miiller calls ‘muscular effeminacy.’ 
It usually contains the stem of the word, occasionally modified 
by euphonic laws (Bopp, § 205). 


THE GENITIVE (Γενική)." 


43. i. The name of this case is probably due to a simple 
mistake. The Stoic grammarians called it πτῶσις γενικὴ or 
general case, because it expresses the genus or kind; in fact, 
there are many languages in which the genitive is directly 
formed from the nominative by adding to it the adjectival 
termination, and it is often a matter of indifference whether 
we use an adjective or a genitive case, e.g. ‘an aquatic bird’ 
is the same thing as ‘a bird of the water.’ 

ii. The genitive termination is derived from dya or tya, the 
pronominal root of the second person. Probably the termina- 
tion was first used for adjectives (δημο-σιο- 6) before it was 
adopted for the expression of genitival relations, 





* Genitivus would have been a translation, not of γενικὸς but of 
γεννητικός. (See some valuable remarks on this point in Max Miller's 
Lectures, i. 103-105.) Obviously, the Latin names of this case (genitivus, 
patricus, possessivus, ὅσα.) cover but a very small part of its signification. 
Some authors call it the whence-case. The nomenclature of the cases 15 
very inadequate, though Priscian observes of it, ‘Multas et diversas 
unusquisque casus habet significationes, sed a notioribus et frequentior- 
ibus acceperunt nominationem’ (lib. v. de Casw). 


THE GENITIVE. 71 


44, All the multitudinous uses of the genitive are traceable 
to its employment for the expression of three* main con- 
ceptions; and these are so wide that they are often almost 
interchangeable,—in fact, both ablation and partition fall in 
reality under the head of relation. 

1, Adlation, in which it is an ablative case, and corresponds 
to the English ‘ from.’ 

2. Partition, in which it implies ‘ some of’ 

3. Relation, in which it involves the notion of connection or 
comparison, &c. The vagueness of this term is quite in accord- 
ance with the essence of the genitive, of which the characteristic 
sutixes in Greek are -oc, o:-o, derived from the Sanskrit 
pronoun sya; and of which the general function is ‘to per- 
sonify an object in attaching to it a secondary idea of local 
relation’ (Bopp, §§ 189, 194). 

45. To the first head Ablationt belong the genitives of 
cause, material, fulness, exclusion, motion from, perceptions, 
both mental and physical (as derived from an object), Ge. ; 
a very little thought will show how these conceptions can be 
arranged under this head, although some of them (e.g. full of, 
made of, &c.) might be, from some points of view, equally 
well arranged under the genitive of partition, The close 
connection of the two classes of conceptions may be seen from 
the possible interchanges of our ‘ os and $ from,’ the German 
von, the French de, and the SURGE ἐξ and ἀπό. 


Causal Genitives ; 

κύματα παντοίων ἀνέμων Waves caused by all kinds of 
wind. 

“Hpac ἀλατεῖαι wanderings caused by Hera. 

ἑάλωσαν προδοσίας they were condemned for treachery. 

εὐχωλῆς ἐπιμέμφεται he blames me for a vow (unpaid). 

χωόμενος γυναικὸς angry about the woman. 

οἴμοι τῆς τύχης ᾧ alas for my misfortune (Germ. O des 
Leides ! and in vulgar French ‘ pauvre de moi’). 

τῆς μωρίας What folly ! 

χρηστοῦ ἀνδρὸς excellent fellow ! 





* Donaldson, Gr. Gram. p. 464 seqq. 

7 Although Greek has not a distinct ablative (ἀφαιρετικὴ πτῶσις) like 
the Latin, yet some Greek grammarians recognised the forms οὐρανόθεν, 
ἐμέθεν as a sixth case. The name adblativus for the sixth ease is believed 
to have been first used, if not invented, by Julius Cesar, in his treatise 
De Analogid, Lersch. ii, 231, 

¢ De is used after exclamations in Spanish, as Infeliz demi! ah poor 
me! Ay de mi hijo! alas! my poor son! 


72 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


εἴτε τευ ἀγγελίης pér ep ἤλυθες ; didst thou visit me 
for the sake of some message ? 
τοῦ δ᾽ ἔφυν ἐγὼ from him I sprang. 
κρατίστου πατρὸς τραφεὶς nurtured by a noble sire. 
Σωκράτης ὁ Σωφρονίσκου Socrates the son of Sophron- 
iscus. 
Material ;* 
γόμισμα apyupiov a coin of silver. 
πωρίνου λίθου ποιέειν τὸν ναὸν to build the temple of tuff. 
Fulness, or Emptiness ; f 
ἔκπωμα οἴνου a cup of wine. 
ἅλις δὲ παίδων" but enough of sons! 
πληρὴς στεναγμῶν οὐδὲ Caxpywr κενὸς full of groans, 
nor void of tears. 
‘Supplied of kernes and gallow-glasses.’— Macb. i. 2. 
‘Tam provided of ἃ torchbearer.’—Aerch. of Ven. ii. 2. 


Exclusion, or Separation ; 1 
ἀπέχομαι οἴνου 1 abstain from wine. 


λῆγε χόλοιο cease from wrath (cf. Abstine irarum, 
desine querelarum, &c., Hor.). 





* It might be better perhaps to regard the genitive of material ag 
falling under the head of partition—something detached from the whole. 
In Modern Greek it is expressed by ἀπό, as σπαθὶ ἀπὸ ξύλο a sword of 
wood. 

t+ So in English, ‘empty of all good’—Milton; and in Italian, ‘ De 
beni della fortuna abbondante.’-—Boccaccio. With these we may range 
genitives implying skill, ignorance, as μάχης εὖ εἰδότε πάσης ; compare 
‘ Pugnee sciens,’ Hor.; and Milton’s ‘ Intelligent of seasons,’ Par. Lost, 
vil. 427; and 

‘Yet oft his heart, divine of something ill, 
Misgayve him.’—Id. ix. 845 


(‘mens presaga futuri,’ Claud.). Similarly in Italian, pratico, ‘skilled 
in,’ takes a genitive, e.g. ‘pratichissimo di questa sorte d’ antichita’ ; 
and in Spanish, ‘Dotado de ciencia,’ gifted with learning; ‘ escaso de 
medios,’ scanty im means. 

1 Here belong the genitives after compounds in « privative, as ἄφωνος 
ἀρᾶς, ἀγευστὸς κακῶν, ἄπεπλος φαρέων λευκῶν, ἄπαις τέκνων, &e., and the 
Latin imitations ‘Immodicus ire,’ Stat. 7h. ii. 41; ‘Immunis aratri,’ 
Oy. M. ili. 11; ‘interritus leti,’ Id. x. 616. We have something like it 
in English, as in Shakspeare’s ‘ Unwhipped of justice;’ and Milton’s 
‘the teats Unsucked of lamb or kid;’ and Keats’ ‘ Innumerable of hues 
and splendid dyes ;’ and still more closely Sheridan, ‘The land-lord was 
unfurnished of every kind of provisions.’—Life of Swift. It is probably 
to an imitation of this idiom that we owe the much-abused line—‘ Yet 
virgin of Proserpina from Jove. —Par. Lost, ix. 396. 


THE GENITIVE. 78 


σφάλλομαι τῆς ἐλπίδος I am balked of my hope. 
ἐλεύθερος φόβου free from fear. 
πλήν γ᾽ ἐμοῦ except me. 
ἀπήλλαγμαι τῆς νόσου 1 am quit of the disease 
ἥμαρτον σκόπου I missed the mark. 
ἵστασθε βάθρων get up from the steps. 
ἄλλοθι γαίης elsewhere in the earth. 
Motion from ; 
γῆς ὑποίας ἦλθον from what land I came. 
Perceptions ; 
ὄζουσι πίττης they smell of pitch. 


ἀκούω τοῦ διδασκάλου 1 listen to the teacher. 
καὶ κωφοῦ συνίημι 1 even understand the dumb. 


46. Under the second head ‘Genitive of Partition’ fall those 
which express time, possession, place, and all which can 
possibly imply that the action affects a part of the object. 

The following are all partitive genitives of one or other class ; 
and with them may be compared such English expressions ag 
‘ Of long time,’ Acts viii. 11; ‘There be of them,’ &c., Lev. 
his, ΤῸ: 

καὶ θέρους καὶ χειμῶνος both winter and summer.* 
νυκτὸς by night, ἡμέρας by day. 
σύν σοι μετεῖχον τῶν ἴσων with thee I shared an equal 
fortune. 
συμβάλλεται δὲ πολλὰ τοῦδε δείματος many things con- 
tribute to this terror. 
ἑστίας μεσυμφάλου ἕστηκεν ἤδη μῆλα, Adsch. Ag. 1054, 
already the victims stand on the central altarf (cf. 
Soph. £1. 900, ἐσχατῆς ὁρῶ πυρᾶς... βόστρυχον I sea 
on the mound’s edge... a curl). 
τῆς γῆς ἔτεμον they laid waste some of the land. 
κρητῆρας ἐπεστέψαντο ποτοῖο they crowned the goblets 
with wine. 
~ ἃ Comp. Italian, di notte; French, de nuit; German, Nachts, eines 
Abends ; Spanish, de noche, ὅτε. The English ὁ οὐ nights’ is probably ‘on 
nights.’ See Morris, Specimen of Early English, p. ἵν. 

ft The genitive of place is confined (mainly) to poetry, but is found in 
the local adverbs οὗ, ποῦ, αὐτοῦ, &c. Cf. the German, Ich gehe des 
Weges. 

1 Buttmann, in his Lerilogus, shows that even the learned Virgil 
misunderstood this genitive, and took it to mean ‘they crowned (with 
flowers) the goblets of wine;’ hence his expressions ‘ Vina cororant’- 
and ‘Magnum cratera corond Induit implevitque mero.’ 

Ε 


74 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


βεβρωκὼς κρειῶν τε καὶ αἵματος battened on flesh and 
gore.* 

πάσσε δ᾽ ἁλὸς and he sprinkled some salt over it. 

χεῖρας νιψάμενος πολιῆς ἁλὸς washing his hands in the 
foamy brine. 

ἀλλ’ ἔστι τοῦ λέγοντος but he is at the mercy of the 
speaker. 

{roduc ἀνδρός ἐσθ᾽ ἑνὸς the state belongs to one man. 

οὐκ ἐστὲ ἑαυτῶν ye are not your own. 

πολλῆς ἀνοίας ἔστι it is a matter of no slight folly. (Cf. 
James iv. 1.) 

ov παντὸς ἀνδρὸς εἰς Κόρινθόν ἐσθ᾽ ὁ πλοῦς it isn’t every 
man who can sail to Corinth. 

οὔτι μὴ λάχωσι τοῦδε συμμάχου they shall certainly not 
gain mé as an ally. 

ποδῶν ἔλαβεν he grasped him by the feet. 

κισσὸς δρυὸς ἔχεται the ivy clings to the oak. 

γενείου ἁψάμενος touching his beard. 

εἰς τόδ᾽ ἡμέραις to this day.—Eur. Phen. 428. 

εἰς τοῦτο κινδύνου to such a pitch of danger. 


47. Under the wide term of Genitives of Relation (which is 
in point of fact merely a convenient term for such genitives 
as do not obviously fall under the two other heads) are classed 
those which express or involve comparison,{ value, price, &c. 


* Cf. the French ‘manger de,’ and our ‘eat ef my venison,’ or ‘he 
that drinketh of this water’ Similar is the Latin ‘Implentur veteris 
Bacchi, pinguisque fering.” Many such idioms in Latin are mere imita- 
tions of the Greek idiom, only admissible in the poetie style. They 
abound in Silius Italicus, who has been called by Jani ‘the great patron 
of the genitive case.’ 

+ The instances in which the possessive genitive sinks into a mere 
epithet are few ; as in ἄστρων εὐφρόνη a night. of stars, χιόνος πτέρυξ ἃ 
wing of snow, oroAls Tpupas a robe of luxury, τραύματα αἵματος wounds 
of blood. This is frequent in English poetry, as in Crabbe’s 


His cap of darkness on his head he placed. 
His shoes of swiftness on his feet he braced. 
His sword of sharpness in his hand he took, &e. 


Cf. ‘ Nearer there grew no sticks of bigness.’—Fuller’s Holy War. And 
in Hebrew, as ‘Ships of desire,’ Job ix. 26=pleasant ships, &e. 

{ Some may prefer to arrange the genitive of comparison under the 
head of ablation, as in Latin; in Modern Greek, comparison is expressed 
by ἀπό, as ὁ καπνὸς εἶνε ΝΣ 's ἀπὸ τὸν ἀέρα. Sophocles, Mod. Gr. 
Gram. p. 125. ‘When two objects are compared, it is natural to say 
that one is the better, &c. of the two, and it is an easy transition to say 
that one is better of the other. —Sir G. C. Lewis, Romance Languages, 


THE GENITIVE. 75 


μείζων ἐστὶ τοῦ πατρὸς he is taller than his father. 

διπλάσιος αὐτὸς ἑωυτοῦ ἐγένετο became twice as great as 
before. 

ὅτε δεινότατος σαυτοῦ ἦσθα when you were at your best. 

οὐδενὸς δεύτερος second to none. 

ἄλλα τῶν δικαίων» things other than what is just. 

κρείσσον᾽ ἀγχόνης things worse than hanging. 

dia θεάων divine of goddesses.* 

κρεισσόνων νικώμενοι conquered by superiors. 

περιδόσθαι τῆς κεφαλῆς to bet one’s head. 

ἀμείβειν χρύσεα χαλκείων to exchange golden for brazen. 

κέκρισθε . . . μηδενὸς ἂν κέρδους τὰ κοινὰ τῶν Ἑλλήνων 
προέσθαι ye have determined that for no gain would 
ye abandon the common interests of the Greeks. 

πόσου τιμᾶται; how much is it worth? 

τιμᾶταί μοι ὁ ἀνὴρ θανάτου he fixes my penalty at death. 

θανάτου ἐδίωκε he brought a capital charge. 

we εἶχον τάχους with all the speed they could. 

TxXpnparey ev ἥκοντες being well off for money. 

μετρίως ἔχειν φρενῶν to be fairly antelo ont: 

πῶς ἔχεις τῆς γνώμης; what do you think? 

πῶς ἀγῶνος ἥκομεν ; how does the contest stand with us? 

ὁ φόβος τῶν πολεμίων the fear of the enemy (i.e. which 
they feel; subjective genitive). 

This genitive of relation is common in English; e.g. ‘’Tis pity of 
him.—WMeas. for Meas. ii. 3.‘ Roses are fast flowers of their smells.’— 
Bacon, Ess. 

48. This last instance may also mean ‘the fear about the 
enemy,’ i.e. with respect to them. This is often called the 
objective genitive. It may sometimes be regarded as causal ; 
but it usually belongs rather to the ablative meaning of the 
genitive than to its meaning of relation. Other instances of 
the so-called objective genitive are λύσις θανάτου deliverance 





p. 148. Compare the Italian piu ricco di me,’ more rich than I; ‘ meno 
grande della citta, less large than the city, &c.;-‘in comparison of? 
Judge. viii. 2. 

* Here the δῖα is a quasi superlative ; compare Milton’s ‘ O sovran, 
virtuous, precious of all trees in Paradise’”—P. LD. ix. 795. Virg. Ain. 
iv. 576: ‘Sequimur te, sancte Deorum.’ ‘O prestans animi juvenis.’ 

t+ Compare the Italian ‘antico di sangue, nobile di costumi,’ Boc- 
caccio; and the Spanish ‘ agudo de ingenio,’ acute of intellect ; ‘ancho de 
boca,’ wide of mouth, &c. Similar too are such genitives as ‘ holy and 
humble men of heart,’ ‘ Ancient of Days,’ and in Chevy Chase— 

‘For a better man of heart, nare of hande 
Was not in all the north countree.’ 
E 2 


76 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


from death, ἀφορμὴ ἔργων a stimulus to deeds, ἀπόστασις τῶν 
᾿Αθηναίων defection from the Athenians, πόθος υἱοῦ desire felt 
by a son (subjective), or desire felt towards or in respect to a 
son (objective). This possibility of a genitive being either 
objective or subjective (amphibologia) leads occasionally to 
uncertainty, e.g. εὐαγγέλιον τοῦ Χριστοῦ may be either the 
Gospel about Christ (objective), or which emanated from 
Christ (subjective). The objective genitive is common in 
Hebrew; and in Latin after sau metus, &e. Nor is it 
unknown j in English; cf. Rom. x. 2, ‘a zeal of God.’ Addison 
has ‘such of my readers as ave a taste of [= for] fine 
writing.” Ἢ ἀγαπὴ τοῦ Θεοῦ TIT! NIAS amor Dei, I’ amore 
di Dio, amour de Dieu, all involve the same ambiguity.* 

49. Very frequently we find a double genitive after a word, 
as Ζεύς, 007’ ἀνθρώπων ταμίης πολέμοιο τέτυκται Zeus who is 
the arbiter of war for mortals.—JI. iv. 84. For instances of 
accumulated genitives see Rom. vill. 21, Rev. xvi. 19. 

50, The Genitive Absolute properly falls under the causal 
use of the genitive, as ὁρῶν τοῦ χωρίου χαλεποῦ ὄντος τοὺς 
τριηράρχους . . . ἀποκνοῦντας seeing the captains hesitating 
because the place was steep. It is therefore a genitive οἱ 
ablation, and so resembles the Latin ablative absolute. It is 
used also however to express time and circumstance, as ἐμοῦ 
καθεύδοντος while I was sleeping, τούτων οὕτως ἐχόντων such 
being the case, σαλπέζοντος while the trumpeter was blowing. 

t derives its temporal and other meanings from the participle 
with which it is joined. 

δῖ. This construction is less frequent than the ablative 
absolute, because Greek possesses past participles active, and 
Latin does not, e.g. ταῦτα εἰπόντες ἀπῆμεν his dictis egredie-~ 
bamur; this could not be in Greek τούτων λεχθέντων, “which 
could only mean when this had been said by others. (Madvig ; 
see too Niigelsbach, Lat. Stylistik, § 97.) 

52. This genitive absolute is found in German, in suc’ 
phrases as ‘stehenden Fusses’ (Curtius). In Afodern Greek 
the nominative absolute las superseded it, as ᾿Αποθανόντας 6 
Σωκράτης ὁ Πλάτωνας πῆγε ἐς τὴν Αἴγυπτο Socrates δοίη} 
dead Plato went away into Egypt. So too in English we us? 
the nominative absolute where the Greek would require th»: 





* Crombie, Etym. and Synt. Ὁ. 34. 
f The absolute objective case is much more rare in modern English, as 


‘him destroyed, 
Or won to what may work his bitter loss.”—Milton. 


THE DATIVE. 77 


genitive, and the Latin the ablative; as ‘I being in the way, 
the Lord led me,’ Gen. xxiv. 27. But this nominative is due 
to the loss of case-endings, i.e. it is not, properly speaking, a 
nominative, although in uninflected languages it has the same 
form, e.g. 
‘ And by her side there sate a gentle paire 
Of turtle doves, she sitting in an yvory chair. —Spenser. 


THE DATIVE (Aorixh). 


53. The fundamental conception of the dative case is Juxta- 
position. It corresponds both in the sing. and plur. to the 
Sanskrit locative. The ὁ, which is its characteristic suffix, 
is used to indicate permanence in space and time, and is the 
root of the demcnstrative pronoun (Bopp, §§ 177, 201). 

Hence the dative is diametrically opposed to the genitive, 
of which the fundamental conception is ablation. ‘hus the 
dative is used with ἐν, σύν, ἐπί; the genitive with ἐξ, ἀπό. 

a. The dative signifies proximity, the genitive separation ; as 

Τολυκράτει ὡμίλησε he associated with Polycrates ; 
but πάλιν τράπεθϑ᾽ υἷος éoto he turned back from his son. 


b. The dative denotes addition, the genitive subtraction; as 
δίδωμί σοι τὰ χρήματα I give the money to you, 
but δέχομαί cov τὰ χρήματα 1 receive the money from you. 


c. The dative expresses equality or sameness, the genitive 
comparison of things different; as 


τι ᾿ . e ᾽ Ν ᾽ , . . 
οὗτός ἐστιν ὁ αὐτὸς ἐκείνῳ this man is the same as that. 
ἐπιστήμη ἐπιστήμης διάφορος one science differs from 
another.* 


58 (bis). It will be seen from the following remarks that 
the dative is an eminently syncretistic case (see § 37), being 
both dative, instrumental, locative, and comitative. 


The him here is a dative; the Anglo-Saxon having no ablative, used 
instead the dative absolute; e.g. wp-a-sprungenre sunnan, the sun 
having risen. See Latham, The Hngl. Language, ii. 437. So we find in 
Wiclit’s Bible (Matt. viil.), ‘and hym secn, thei preiden hym that he 
shulde pass fro her coostis,’ which becomes in Tyndale’s Bible, ‘ when 
they sawe him. ‘This dat. absolute is of constant occurrence in 
Wiclif, ‘And hem gadrid togidre, he seide to hem.—Mark iii. 23; 
vi. 20, &e. 

* Donaldson’s Gr. Gram. p. 486. Horace imitates this use of the 
dative with idem—‘ Invitum qui servat idem facit occidenti, which 
might be in Greek ταὐτὸ ποιεῖ τῷ κτείνοντι. Burnouf, p. 267. 


78 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


54, Hence the dative expresses accidents, accessories, cir- 
cumstances, instruments; as 


1. Place. We have abenie seen traces of the iocative case 
in the dative, in such phrases as Μαραθῶνι at Marathon, οἴκοι 
at home. 'Thus we find zn the poets— 


τόξ᾽ ὦμοισιν ἔχων having his bow on his shoulder. 

αἰθέρι ναίων dwelling in the sky. 

μίμνει ἄγρῳ he is staying in the country. 
But in prose, and even in poetry, the preposition ἐν is usually 
added to express place. 


2. Time. Though ἐν is not so frequent with the locative of 
time, 1t may be used; as 
τῇ τρίτῃ ἡμέρᾳ on the third day. 
τῇ νουμηνίᾳ On the first of the month. 
ἐν τῷ παρόντι in present circumstances. 


3. The manner of a thing, ie. limit, specification, accom- 
paniment, resemblance; as 
βίᾳ ἐσιέναι to enter by force (so σπουδῇ, σιγῇ; ἔργῳ, τῷ 
ὄντι, icia). 
γένει “ENAnv by race a Greek. 
ναυσὶν ἰσχύειν to be strong in ships. 
κατεστρατοπεδεύσατο τῷ πεζῷ he encamped with the foot. 
τοῖς κακοῖς ὁμιλῶν associating with the bad. 
δούλῳ ἔοικας you are like a slave. 


N.B. The dative of accompaniment is more usually expressed 
by σύν, except when αὐτὸς is used; as 
THN αὐτῇ πήληκι κάρη βάλε he flung away the head 
helmet and all. 
μίαν ναῦν ἔλαβον αὐτοῖς ἀνδράσιν they took one ship 
crew and all. 


And σὺν may be used even with αὐτός, as ἀνόρουσεν ᾿Αχιλ- 
λεὺς αὐτῇ σὺν φόρμιγγι uprose Achilles, harp in hand. 


4, Instruments of all kinds, as κάμνειν voow, πατάσσειν 
ῥάβδῳ, ὠθεῖν ταῖς χερσίν, πολέμῳ προσκτᾶσθαι. 

Hence with such verbs as χρῆσθαι, αἰσχύνεσθαι, λυπεῖσθαι, 
τεκμαίρεσθαι, &C. 

N.B. The English ‘with’ is also both instrumental and 
comitative, eg. ‘I went with him,’ ‘I cut with a knife.’ 
—Schleicher, Compend. p. 577. 


5. Agents, as being in one point of view instruments; thus 


THE DATIVE. 79 


after passive verbs we may have either tro with the genitive, 
or the dative; as 
προσπύλοις φυλάσσετα! he is guarded by attendants. 
ταῦτα λέλεκται ἡμῖν these things have been said by us* 
(or ὑφ᾽ ἡμῶν). 
τί πέπρακται τοῖς ἄλλοις; what has been done by the 
others? (or ὑπὸ τῶν ἄλλων ; just as in Latin poetry, 
‘Non intelligor wll’ or ab ullo; ‘cud non sunt audite,’ 
or a quo, &¢.). 

6. General reference, advantage, and disadvantage. 

Hence with such verbs as δίδωμι, ὑπισχνοῦμαι, πιστεύω, εἰμί, 
ἀρήγω, ὑπακούω, 7 ὑπηρετῶ, ἡγοῦμαι, μάχομαι, πολεμῶ, &e. ; 
after each verb it expresses the remote or indirect object. 

ἐστί μοι I have.t 

ἐγὼ σιωπῶ τῷδε: am I to hold my tongue for this fellow? 
τῷδε δ᾽ οἴχομαι as far as he is concerned, I am dead. 
δέξατ ό οἱ σκῆπτρον he received at his hand the sceptre. 
ἐπ᾽ ἀριστερὰ ἐσπλέοντι to the left as one sails in. 

ἀνάξιαι yap πᾶσίν ἐστε δυστυχεῖν ye are unworthy of 


misfortune in the judgment of all—sSoph. O. C. 1446.§ 











* * Burnouf compares the French ‘ c'est bien dit a vous. 

+ The verb ‘to obey’ used to take a dative in English, no less than 
in ene and Latin; e.g. ‘ That asa harp obeyeth to the hand.’—Chaucer, 
Legend of Women. ‘Yet to their general’s voice they soon obeyed.’ 
—Milton, Par. Lost, i. 887. Comp. ‘Spenser, Ff, Ὁ ut. xi. 85. In fact, 
verbs of advantage, disadvantage, &c. govern a dative in English no less 
than in Greek and Latin, only in English the datival inflection has 
disappeared. ‘If you please’ is really as much a dative as ‘si ¢ibi 
placet.’ Cf. methinks with δοκεῖ μοι, and the Anglo-Saxon peet Se seolfum 
mislica6 with ὃ ἀπαρέσκει σοι. The following are instances: ‘ Beleve 
yee to the gospel,’ Wiclif, Mk. i. 15; ‘thretenyde ¢o hym,’ id. v. 25; 
‘comsnaundith zo unclene spirits, id. 27; ‘the wind and the see obey- 
ghen ¢o hym, iv. 40; ‘pleside to Eroude,’ vi. 22, ὅσο. Even in our ver- 
sion we read ‘ answered him ¢o never a word. —Matth. xxvii. 14. 

{ Thus the dative as well as the genitive may be used to express pos- 
session. In Hebrew ? ‘to’ is used for possession, and the Gascon says 
‘la fille ἃ Mr. N’ instead of de. In Greek such a phrase as 7 κεφαλὴ 
τῷ ἀνθρώπῳ for τοῦ ἀνθρώπου was called {Π6 σχῆμα Κολοφώνιον. Lesbonax 
περὶ Σχημάτων, p. 181. The collocation is rather clumsy, but similar 
phrases are common, as ἀναίρεσιν τοῖς νεκροῖς, Thue. vi. 18; ἀναθήματα 
Κροίσῳ, Hdt. 11. 113. 

S Cf. ἄξιον yap Ἑλλάδι, Ar. Ach. 8; ἡμῖν δ᾽ ᾿Αχιλλεὺς ἄξιος τιμῆς, 
γύναι, Eur. Hee. 313; and many other instances in Bernhardy, Gricch. 
Synt. 8. 78. Under this head fall such phrases as of πρεσβύτεροι αὐτοῖς 
τῶν εὐδαιμόνων, Thuc. i. 6. αὐτῷ is frequently used in this way in Thue. 
and Plato; and sid? has a somewhat similar redundancy in some Latin 
sentences, 


80 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


This is especially found with various participles; as 

el σοι βουλομένῳ ἐστὶ if you please (cf. Tac. Agric. 18, 
* Quibus bellum volentibus erat’). 

συνελόντι εἰπεῖν to speak briefly. 

ἐμοὶ δέ κεν ἀσμένῳ εἴη I should be glad of it. 

θέλοντι κἀμοὶ τοῦτ᾽ ἂν ἦν I too should have wished for 
this. 

ὡς ἐμοί, or ὥς γ᾽ ἐμοὶ κρίτῃ meo quidem judicio. 


55. To this dative of reference belongs what is called the 
ethic (i.e. emotional) dative; the apparently superfluous intro 
suction of personal pronouns to show the speaker’s or hearer’s 
interest in what is said; as 

μή pot γε, μή pot, μὴ διασκανδικίσῃς don’t, dont’t, I beg 
of you, dose me with cabbage. 

ὦ μῆτερ, we καλός μοι ὁ πάππος bless me! mother, how 
handsome my grandfather is.—Xen. Cyr. i. 82. 

ἀλλά μοι ἐσθίεμεν καὶ πίνεμεν but eat, 7 pray you, and 
drink. 


ὅδ᾽ εἰμ᾽ ἐγώ σοι κεΐνος look you, 1 am that famous man. 


N.B. a. The same use is found in Modern Greek, where 
however the dative case has disappeared and resigned its 
functions to the genitive, as auv τὸν ἐτίναξαν ἕνα καλὸ ῥαβὲί 
they thrashed him soundly—J know you are pleased to hear it. 
See Sophocles, Mod. Gr. Gram. p. 151. 


β. This ethic dative is common in other languages; as 


“At tibi repente . . . venit ad me Caninius’* lo you ofa 
sudden comes Caninius to me !’—Cic. 

Quid mzhi Celsus agit? what is my Celsus doing ?—Hor. 

Non mihi bellus homo es J don’t think you a good- 
looking person. 

Es lief mir ein Hund iiber den Weg there ran me a dog 
across the road.* 

‘ Afin qwil fat plus frais et de meilleur débit 

On lui lia les pieds, on vous le suspendit.’—Feéneion, 
Fables, 111. 1. 


γ. It was extremely common in Iinglish, e.g. 
‘ Look how this river comes me cranking in.’—Henry IV. 





* ¢inen Apfel schiesst der Vater diz vom Baum auf hundert Schritte.’ 
My father shoots vow an apple from a tree at a hundred yards.—Schiller 
Tell, 


VIE ACCUSATIVE. 81 


‘This scull has lain you in the ground these three years.’ 
—Hamlet.* 

‘ Your serpent of Egypt is lord now of your mud,’ &e.— 
Ant. and Cleop. ii. 7. 


[Ὁ is not unknown even in modern writers; e.g. in Taylor’s 
‘Philip von Artevelde’ we have 

‘ Mount me a messenger.’ 

‘Gag me this graybeard,’ 

‘ And twinkling me his dagger in the sun.’ 

‘I might eat four hoofs of an ox yet my stomach would 
flap you, look you, and droop you, look you, like an 
empty sail.’ 

This latter phrase, ‘look you’ (or ‘ for you’), is the most 
common modern substitute for the Ethic Dative. 


THE ACCUSATIVE (Αἰτιατική). 


56. i. The accusative is probably, next to the vocative, the 
oldest of the cases, as is seen from the fact that its charac- 
teristic suffix m appears even in the nominative of pronouns, 
as aham ἐγών, tvam Beeot. τού», idem, &c. This suffix pro- 
bably acted the part of an article, i.e. it called attention to the 
word to which it was attached. See Ferrar, Comp. Gram. 
p: 211. 

ili. The ove of the accus. plur. is a relic of rc, which is 
preserved in Gothic, vulfans, sununs, &c. (ef. τύπτουσι = 
τύπτοντι). It was preserved in the Cretan and Argive dialects,_ 
tove (Goth. thans); and in Borussian deiwans = deos (Bréal, 
Bopp, ii. 55; Ahrens, De Dialect, ii. § 14, 1). 


56 (05). The fundamental conception of the accusative is 


~ * Inthe Taming of the Shrew, Act i. sc. 2, Grumio affects to mis- 
understand it. 


‘Petr. Villain, I say, knock me here soundly. 
Grum. Knock you here, sir; why, sir, what am I, sir, that I should 
knock you here, sir? 
Petr. Villain, I say, knock me at this gate 
And rap me well, or I'll knock your knave's pate.’ 


+ Varro renders this ‘ accusandei casus, deriving it from αἰτιάομαι 
I aceuse; but more probably it comes from αἰτία, a cause. Hence Pris- 
cian calls it cawsativus. See Trendelenburg, Act. Soc. Grec. 1836, 1.119 
seqq.; Lersch, Sprachphil. d. Alten, ii. 186. The characteristic suffix of 
the accusative is in Greek y, in Sanskrit and Latin m ; for its pronominai 
origin, see Bopp, § 156. 
Ε 8 


82 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


motion towards, and therefore also extension over space. It is 
the case 70 which,* and is therefore put after transitive verbs 
to express the end of the motion or action; as τύπτω αὐτὸν I 
strike him, 1.6. the direction of my blow is towards him. It 
also expresses the action itself, as τύπτω πληγὴν I strike a 
blow. Three accusatives may occur after one verb, in each 
of which this fundamental conception is discernible, as νύκτα 
ἀγγέλους ᾿Αθήνας ἔπεμπεν he was sending messengers all 
night long towards Athens. (Compare ‘ docere aliquem phi- 
losophiam aliquot annos.’) 


57. In accordance therefore with the idea of the case (motion 
towards} and extension over) it expresses 

1. Space, as ἀπέχει πειτήκοντα σταδίους it is fifty stades 
distant. 

2. Time, as τρεῖς μῆνας ἔμεινεν he stayed three months. 

3. Any notion cognate to, 1.6, connected in meaning { with 
that of, the verb, even when the verb is neuter, as κακίστην 
δουλείαν ἐδούλευσε he served the worst slavery. 

This cognate notion is capable of a very considerable ex- 
tension, as in 

στεῖχε γύας go to the fields—Eur. Med. 668. (Comp. Go 
home; but even this phrase has become analytic in the 
American ‘Go to home,’ and the Cornish ‘Is she to 
home 77) 

δπολλοὺς ἀγῶνας ἐξιὼν going out for many contests.— 


Soph. Zr. 185. 





* Donaldson connects the form δὲ in accusatives like Οὔλυμπόνδε 
with δύο, just as in English two, too, to, are different stages of the same 
word. 

+ The particle eth which so often precedes the accusative in Hebrew 
signifies towards. The same fact is well illustrated in Spanish, where, 
by a strong extension of the analytic tendency, the preposition ὦ usually 
precedes the accusative if it expresses a person; e.g. ‘Amar ὦ Dios,’ to 
love [to or towards] God ; ‘Cain mato a@ Abel, Cain killed Abel, &c. 

t This form of the cognate accusative (πόλεμον πολεμεῖν, &c.) is called 
Figura etymologica. See Lobeck, Paralip. Gram. Grec. dissert. viii. 

§ Cf. the Latin exsequias, suppetias, infitias ire; and see Lobeck’s 
note to Soph. 47. 290, and Curtius’s Erlduterungen, 163. Milton, who 
has left few classical idioms unadapted, even ventures on the cognate 
accusative after a neuter verb of motion : 

‘Upborne with indefatigable wings 
Over the vast abrupt, ere he arrive 
The happy isle”—Par. Lost, ii. 410. 


And ‘ Whatever creeps the ground, Insect or worm.’ —Id. vii. 475. Early 
English admitted a wider use of the accusative than modern; eg. we 


THE ACCUSATIVE. 83 


Μ \ Ν 
ὄμνυμι τοὺς θεοὺς I swear by the gods. 
~ 3 , . . . 
νικᾶν ᾿Ολύμπια to win in the Olympic games. 
βλέπειν νᾶπυ, ὄμφακας, ναὐύφρακτον to look mustard and 
cress, sour grapes, a three-decker.* 
γραφὴν διώκειν to bring an action. 
͵ S as ’ ͵ > ΄, ῳ. 
TL δῆτα ποίμναις τήνὸ ἐπεμπίπτει βάσιν; why did he thus 
rush striding (= ἐμπεσὼν βαίνει) on the flocks ?—Soph. 
Aj. 42 (πόδα and χέρα are frequently thus used). 


4, It defines or localises the action of the word to which it 
is Joined, i.e. in strict accordance with the idea of the case, it 
expresses the extent affected by the word on which it depends. 


ἀλγῶ τὴν κεφαλὴν I have a headache. 

τούτου μᾶλλον τὴν φύσιν ἐστὶ its nature is rather of this 
kind.—Arist. AZeteor. iv. 4. 

πυρίτης τὴν τέχνην a smith by trade. 

καλὸς τὰ ὄμματα with beautiful eyes. 

δεινοὶ μάχην skilled in battle. 

οὐδεὶς ἅπαντα σοφὸς No one is wise in everything. 


These and similar instances used to be explained by the 
ellipse of kara; the fact is however the very reverse, since the 
case expresses these conceptions by its own natural foree and 
meaning, and when κατὰ is expressed it is due to the analysing 
tendency of all language in its progress from its original con- 
dition. The superfluous preposition only shows that the true 
meaning of the case is a little worn out. 





find in Wiclif’s version of the Bible, ‘ Blessid be thei that hungren and 
thirsten rightioisnesse ;’ and in Milton, ‘I gazed the ample sky, 

* This is a favourite idiom of Aristophanes; he even uses it with a 

_neuter participle, as κλέπτον βλέπει he looks thievish ; and with an infi- 
nitive, as τιμᾶν BAémw.—Ach. 879. Theocritus has the exquisite ex- 
pression ἔαρ ὁρόωσα looking spring.—dZd, xiii. 45. So we talk of ‘ look- 
ing daggers, ‘a vinegar aspect.’ 

Ὑ ἀΐσσω means 7 rush, yet Sophocles (47. 40) has πρός τι δυσλόγιστον 
ὧδ᾽ néev χέρα ; ‘for what inexplicable cause did he thus rush (i.e. wield) 
his hand?’ ‘This accusative describing the result of the verbal notion 
is common in English; e.g. ‘to walk a horse,’ ‘to dance a baby,’ ‘ to boil 
a kettle’ &c. Cf. Spenser, #. Ὁ. 1.1.17. Such verbs are said to be 
used factitively, and, as in Hebrew, all absolute verbs admit this cau- 
sative use. (Hwald, Hebr. Gram. ὃ 102, and Lobeck, ad Aj. 40.) Latin 
uses the accusative in the same bold manner in apposition with the 
notton contained in the verb, and expressing the extent affected by it, 
as in ‘pedibus plaudunt choreas,’ Virg. A’m. vi. 664; ‘ Bacchanalia 
vivunt,’ Juv. ὅσο. Comp. Par. Lost, 1. 723, ‘The ascending pile Stood 
fixed her stately height” See Abbott, Shaksp. Gram. p. 69. 


E 6 


84 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


57 (bis). Curtius, &c., call this cognate accusative, the accus. 
of the inner object. It is either, (i. ) immediately cognate, as 
μάχην ἐμάχοντο, or (11.) indirectly co, gnate, as τύπτεται TAN= 
γήν, or (111.} it defines the verb, as νόσους κάμνει, or (iv.) 
it gives the result of the verb, as ἀγγελίην ἐλθεῖν. Often 
(especially in poetry) a neuter accus. specialises a verb 
almost like an adverb; e.g. μέγα ψεύδεται, παῖσον διπλῆν, 
&c.—Curtius. 


58, As some verbs may have two objects, a nearer and a 
more remote, a person and a thing, an external object and 
an internal, such verbs (especially those of asking, teaching, 
clothing, depriving, doing good or ill to) may take a double 
accusative.* 


ἐδίδαξα τὸν παῖδα τὴν μουσικὴν I taught the boy music. 
Θηβαίους χρήματα ἤτησαν they asked the Thebans for 
money. 


59. In one large class of instances in which there is ap- 
parently a double accusative, one of the two may be regarded 
as being in apposition with the other, and defines it; this 
is called the ‘whole and part figure,’ σχῆμα Kab’ ὅλον καὶ 
μέρος, us 

μέθες με πρὸς θεῶν χείρα by the gods, let go my hand 
[lit. release me, that is my hand |. 

Τρῶας δὲ τρόμος αἰνὸς ὑπήλυθε γυῖα ἕκαστος dread tremor 
invaded each Trojan’s limbs [lit. the Trojans, each one, 
as to his limbs]. 


60. The accusative of the thing still remains when the verb 
itself is the passive, as 


ἀφήρημαι τὸν ἵππον I have been robbed of my horse. 

πεπίστευμαι τὸ εὐαγγέλιον I have been entrusted with the 
gospel. 

61. The accusative is sometimes put in apposition to the 
sentence, as 

Ἑλένην κτάνωμεν, Μενελέῳ λύπην πικρὰν let us kill Helen, 
a bitter grief to Menelaus. 

ῥίψει ἀπὸ πύργου, λυγρὸν ὄλεθρον you will be flung from 
a tower, a terrible death. 





* In such instances one of the accusatives expresses the object directly 
affected by the verb, and the other expresses some notion cognate to the 
meaning of the verb. 


DOUBLE ACCUSATIVE. 85 


62. The verb on which an accusative depends is often 
omitted,* as in 
σὲ δὴ σὲ τὴν νεύουσαν ἐς πέδον Kapa (sc. \€yw).—Soph. 
Ant. 441 (cf. Aj. 1228). μὴ τριβὰς ér’.—Soph. Ant. 
577. οὐκ εἰς OXcOpov.—O. R.415. Finem inquit inter- 
rogandi !—Cic. 
ἀλλὰ τίς χρεία σ᾽ ἐμοῦ (sc. ἔχει) ;—Eur. Hee. 976. 

63. Not unfrequently the nominative of a dependent clause 
is anticipated by being made the accusative of a principal 
clause, as 

ταρβεῖν τὸν εὖ πράσσοντα μὴ σφαλὴ ποτε ἴο dread the 
prosperous man, lest he should slip. 

This is called Ant/ptos’s, and is also found in Latin, as 

‘ Nosti Marcellum quam tardus sit.’ You know Marcellus 
how slow he is.—Cic. 

‘ Ham veretur, ne perierit.’ He fears her lest she should 
perish.—Plaut. 

And in English, as 

‘TL know thee, who thou art.’-—Luke iv. 54. 
‘ Conceal me what I am.’—Shakspeare, Z'wel/th Night, i. 2. 
‘Didst thou not mark the king, what words he spake ?’— 
King Richard 11]. v. 4 (cf. id. ui. ὃ; Merchant of 
Venice, iv. 1). 
This may be called the accus. of the redundant object. 


64, Sometimes this accusative is placed first in the sentence, 
and is called by some the accusativus de quo, as 
τοὺς κρίτας ἃ κερδαίνουσι βυυλόμεσθ᾽ ὑμῖν φράσαι the 
- judges, what they get, we want to tell you.—Ar, Nub. 
1118. 

Χαιρεφῶντα ἀνήρετο ψύλλαν ὁπόσους ἄλλοιτο τοὺς αὑτῆς 
mocac; he asked Cherephon—a flea, how many of its 

own feet it jumped? 


So in Latin, Urbem quam statuo vestra est.—Virg. in. i. 
nS 

577. Cf. Is. 1.7, ‘ Your land, strangers devour it in your 

presence.’ 


65. i. The accusative is used absolutely,t chiefly in the case 





* The verb thus omitted is often some subjective conception, like 
‘knowing,’ ὅσο. ; e.g. ἠμέλει ὡς ἀνδροφόνου, καὶ οὐδὲν ὃν πρᾶγμα ci καὶ 
ἀποθάιοι.---ῬΊ]αῖ. Huthyph. 4. Ὁ. 

+ The accusative absolute, when the expression is not adverbial or 
impersonal, is very rare, asin τέκν᾽ εἰ φανέντ᾽ ἄελπτα μηκύνω λόγον. 


86 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


of certain participles, as δόξαν ταῦτα on this decision, προσῆκον 
it being fit, ἐξόν, παρόν, whilst it is allowed, &c.; and in certain 
neuter adverbial expressions like τίνα τρόπον ; how? πρόφασιν 
in pretext, ἐμὴν χάριν for my sake, ἀμφότερα both ways, τὸ 
λοιπὸν for the future, &e. (Cf. the use of ὡς in Soph. Ad. 
Tyr. 101; Gd. Col. 407.) 

It is less correct to regard δόξαν, &c. as nominatives abso- 
lute, since, as we have seen already, neuters have, properly 
speaking, no nominative. They are rather adverbial inde- 
clinable expressions, in which however the accusatival con- 
ception of duration may gener ally be detected. 

11. 6, ἅ, τοῦτο, ἐκεῖνο (like the Latin Quod in adjurations, as 
Quod per te lacrimas oro, &c.), sometimes mean wherefore, 
therefore with the same sense as δι᾿ 6, as in Eur. Hee. 13, &e.; 
and in the phrase αὐτὰ ταῦτα ἥκω I have come for this very 
purpose. See Phen. 145, 263; Thue. 11. 40, 11. 12, &e. 


CoNTRASTED MEANINGS OF THE CASES. 


66. ‘From this examination, the learner may derive brief 
rules as to the meaning of the cases. - 


The genitive denotes motion from, and separation. 


The dative » rest in, and conjunction. 
The accusative ,, motion to, and approach,’— 
Donaldson. 


67. The so-called ‘absolute’ use of the cases springs from 
their simple meanings; e.g. 

The genitive absolute expresses time as a cause τοῦ ἔαρος 
ἐλθόντος τὰ ἄνθη θάλλει when spring comes the flowers 
bloom. 

The dative absolute represents time considered as a point, 
as περιιόντι τῷ ἐνιαυτῷ at the return of the e year. 

The accusative “absolute, duration in time, as ταύτην τὴν 
νύκτα during this night. 


68. A few instances in which the distinctions of the cases 
are brought into prominence or contrast, are added. 


νυκτὸς during the night; noctw (part.). 

νύκτα all night; “ noctem;’ answering the question ‘ how 
ες long?’ 

νυκτὶ in the night ; nocte; answering the question ‘ when ?’ 
ἡμέρας during the day (part.). 

ἡμέραν throughout the day (duration), 

ἡμέρᾳ in the day time (limit). 


ADJECTIVAL IDIOMS. 87 


πέντε μνῶν Worth five mina, as a price (relation). 

πέντε μναῖς worth five mine, as an instrument. 

πέντε μνᾶς five mine (extension over a certain value). 

πόσου πωλεῖς ; at how much do you sell? (cause). 

πόσῳ ὠνεῖ for (= with) how much do you buy (instrument), 

πόσον δύναται; how much is it worth? (extension). 

τέρπομαι τούτου I am delighted for this (cause). 

τούτῳ I am delighted with this (instrument). 

τοῦτο Iam delighted at this (cognate notion = 
τοῦτο χάρμα). 

παρὰ τοῦ βασιλέως from the king (motion). 

παρὰ τῷ βασιλεῖ with the king (rest). 

Tapa TOY βασιλέα to the king (approach). 

προορᾶν τοῦ πολέμου to provide about the war. 

τῷ πολέμῳ to provide for the war. 

. τὸν πόλεμον to foresee the war. 

μεθίημί σε I dismiss you; μεθίεμαί cov I let go of you. 

ἔλαβόν σε I caught you; ἐλαβόμην σου I seized hold of 
you. 

ἔχειν re to possess a thing; ἔχομαι βρετέων I cling to the 
images. 

Wwe βρόχους he fastened nooses; ἥψατο τοῦ τείχους he 
peepee the wall. 

ὥρεξε τὴν κύλικα he held out the cup; ov παιδὸς ὀρέξατο 
he yearned for his son. 


2) 
” 


”? 


ADJECTIVES. 


69. The chief peculiarities in the use of adjectives will here 
be given, and a line of explanation appended when required. 


1. πολλά TE καὶ κακὰ ἔλεγεν he uttered many reproaches. 
συνειδὼς αὑτῷ πολλὰ καὶ πονηρὰ being conscious of many 


wicked deeds. 
The Greek and Latin idioms require ‘ many and wicked,’ ὥο. 


il. πτανὸν δίωγμα πώλων winged pursuit of steeds, i.e. pur- 

suit of winged steeds. 

λευκοπήχεις KTUTOL χερῶν White-armed clappings of hands, 
i.e. clappings of white-armed hands. 

γραῖαι ὄσσων πηγαὶ aged fountains of eyes, i.e. tears from 
aged eyes. 

πολιᾶς πόντου θινὸς of the hoary sea-beach, 1.6. beach of 
the hoary sea. 


88 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


Compare ‘ Sansfoye’s dead dowry,’ i.e. the dowry of dead 
Sansfoye.—Spenser, J’. Q. τ. iv. 51. 

It will be seen from these instances that the adjective is 
liable to a strange inversion* of order, agreeing with the 
wrong word, or rather with the whole notion implied. This 
is an instance of the constructio ad sensum, and is called 
Hypallage. Bold as these inversions are they may be pa- 
ralleled in English by such expressions as ‘his all-obeying 
breath,’ ‘tearfalling pity,’ ‘the church-going bell.’ Words- 
worth’s severe criticism of the latter expression was mis- 
placed. (See next page.) 


ili. Σκύθην € ἐς οἵμοι' to the Scythian track (= Σκυθικήν). 
τὴν ᾿Βλλάδα φωνὴν ἐξέμαθον I learned the Greek tongue 
(ΞΕ: Ἑλληνική»). 


Here we see that substantives (especially the names of 


countries) are sometimes used adjectivally, as in the Latin 
Asia prata, Virg. G. 1. 883; Aque Baie, Prop. 1. xi. 807; 
and our India rubl ber, Russia leather, China bowl, Turkey 
carpet, &c. All such ‘phrases, ‘ a labouring day,’ ‘a walking 
stick,’ ‘a riding whip,’ ‘a fox-hunting country,’ fall under the 
same head: the two substantives are in apposition, and one 
qualifies the other. A substantive in apposition often defines 
another in an adjectival way, as ἀνὴρ βασιλεύς, ἀνὴρ ναύτης, 
ἄνθρωπος γεωργός, &c.; as in the Latin hostes turme, Stat. 
Th, xi. 22; Fabule manes, Hor. Od. τ. ἵν. 10 ; and our a sailor 
man, a butchér fellow, a warrior host, Ke. 


iv. Neoropén παρὰ νηὶ by the Nestorean ship (i.e. Nestor’s). 
Βερενεικεία θυγάτηρ Bereniceian daughter (1.6. of Bere- 
nice). 
γόστιμον ἧμαρ returning day, i.e. day of return. 


* In Latin we find ‘Alexandri Phrygio sub pectore,’ Lucret. i. 475, 
and ‘ Nemeeus hiatus Leonis,’ id. 24. We have something like it in 
Ossian, ‘The hunter’s early eye.’ Carlyle, in his French Revolution, 
speaks of ‘the housemaid with early broom, 

The genitive may be even involved in the epithet, as ὀξύχειρ κτύπος 
a sharp clapping of hands.’ See Lobeck’s 47. p. 63, on epithets in 
general. Often, by a kind of metonymy, the adjective represents the 
general conception or result of the substantive, as ‘pallida mors,’ χλωρὸν 
δέος, ‘ Rugosum piper et pallentis grana cumini,’ Pers.; ‘yulnera despe- 
rantia, Plin.; ‘As messenger of Morpheus on them cast sweet slom- 
bring deaw, Spenser, F. Q. 1. 1. 86; ‘the sleepy drench Of that forgetful 
lake.’ —Milton, P. 7. 11. 74, &e. 

Tt See Jani’s Art of Poetry, Engl. Tr. p. 44. 


ADJECTIVAL IDIOMS. 89 


[In all such instances the adjective is used for the genitive 
of the noun; as in Milton’s 


‘ Above the flight of Pegasean wing.’ —Par. Lost, vii. 4; 
and in Tennyson’s 


‘A Niobeian daughter, one arm out 
Appealing to the bolts of heaven. —The Princess. 


ν. daira πένοντο δειελινοὶ they in the evening were preparing 
their meal. 
σκοταῖος * ἦλθεν he came zn the dark. 
τεταρταῖος ἀφίκετο he arrived on the fourth day. 
ὅρκιός σοι λέγω I tell you on oath. 


Hence observe that the Greek uses adjectives in many in- 
stances in which we use prepositions with a substantive, and 
that this is especially the case in expressions of time. Compare 
the Latin 


‘ Aineas se matutinus 1gebat’ was bestirring himself in 
the morning. 

Hesterni Quirites citizens of yesterday. 

Domesticus otior I am at ease in my home. 


We have precisely the same idiom in English, as 


‘ Gently they laid them down as evening sheep. —Dryden. 

‘The nightly hunter lifting up his eyes,’ &c.—Words- 
worth. 

‘The noonday nightingales.’—Shelley. 


vi. δήλη ἡ οἰκοδομία Ere ὅτι κατὰ σπουδὴν ἐγένετο it is still 
evident on the face of it that the building was hurriedly 
done. 

δῆλός ἐστιν We τι Cpaceiwy κακὸν it is evident that he means 
some mischief. 

στέργων φανερὸς ἦν οὐδένα 1! was obvious that he loved 
no one. 

The Greeks are much less fond than ourselves of the 
impersonal} construction; they substitute the personal con- 
struction for it. (There is no true impersonal in Greek ; either 
the nom. is merely understood, or the sentence is the nom.) 








* Compare Milton’s ‘ As the wakeful bird Sings darkling’ Clyde 
compares Virgil’s ‘Ibant obseuri. 

+ In fact, the constant use of ‘it’ is a strange idiom, in which English 
differs from most languages, ancient and modern; e.g. /¢ was they who 
did it = ἐκεῖνοι ἐποίησαν, isti fecerunt, Hran ellos los que hicieron, ete. 


$0 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


Vil. τῶν σῶν ἀδέρκτων ὀμμάτων THT@pEVoc.—Soph. O. C. 
1200, robbed of thy blinded eyes, i.e. robbed of thine 
eyes so that they are blind. 

εὔφημον ὦ τάλαινα κοίμησον ordua.—Asch. Ag. 1247, lull 
thy tongue to silence, O hapless one. 
εἴσοκε θερμὰ λόετρα θερμήνῃ till he warmed the baths hot. 


This is what is called the proleptic or anticipative* use of 
the adjective. It is found quite as strongly in Latin; e.g. in 
Virgil, 

Submersas obrue puppes overwhelm the ships in the 
depths. 

Scuta latentia condunt they conceal the shields zn hiding. 

Spicula lucida tergunt they wipe their darts bright. 


We also find it in English,f as 
‘The Norman set his foot upon the conquered shore.’—- 
Drayton. 
‘ Heat me these irons hot.’—Shakspeare. 
‘Who with our spleens 
‘Would all themselves laugh mortal’—Id. 
‘And strikes him dead for thine and thee.’—Tennyson. 


vill. By what is called antimeria the adjective is often used 
where the adverb would be more correct; as in 
λῦσαν δ᾽ ἀγορὴν αἰψηρὴν ‘they loosed the assembly quick.’ 
θυὰν νύμφωαν ἄγαγες thot leddest a swift bride, i.e. 
swiftly (Soph. Tr. 862. Lobeck on Aj. 249). 
κρήν ἢ ἄφθονος ῥέουσα a fountain flowing abundantly. 
ἄσμενος ὑμᾶς εἶδον I saw you gladly. 


Similarly in Milton we find 


‘Meanwhile inhabit Jaz (i.e. loosely), ye heavenly powers.’ 
-- αν. L, vii. 161. 
‘Thou didst it eacellent..—Shaksp. Tam. of Shrew, 1.1. 89. 





* Some call it the factitive adjective. For abundant instances, see 
Lobeck, Paralip. Gram. Grec. p. 531 seqq., and id. ad 4j. 517. The 
neglect of this has led to strange errors. Thus, in Soph. Ant. 883, τὸν 
ἐμὸν πότμον ἀδάκρυτον οὐδεὶς στενάζει ‘no one groans for my tearless 
fate’ Valcknir, not observing that the ἀδάκρυτον is proleptic of the 
result, makes it = πολυδάκρυτον, adopting the purely fictitious alpha 
intensivum. 

+ There is a fine and ghastly instance of prolepsis 1 in Keats’s Pot of 
Basil, 

‘So those two brothers, and their murdered man, 
Rode to fair Florence.’ 


COMPARATIVES. 91 


Compare the Biblical expressions ‘Open thy hand wide,’ 
‘Cry shrill with thy voice,’ &c. But in English these phrases 
are often due to the obsolescence of the final adverbial -e; 
e.g. righte=rightly, sothe =truly, &e. (Morris, Specimens of 
Fingl. p. lv.). 


COMPARATIVES. 


70. The following instances illustrate the chief idioms in 
the use of SORA NES: — 
16 ἀγροικότ ἐρόν ἐστιν εἰπεῖν 1ῦ 15 somewhat rude to say. 
ἄμειν ov ἐστι κιτ.ιλ. it is as well to, &e. 
li. ἦν οἱ ἀδελφεὸς Uropapyodrepoc he had a brother rather mad. 


These instances merely express degree. The want of two 
forms in Greek, one comparative, and one qualitative, has 


already been pointed out. (See § 44, p. 30.) 


_éhagpérepor ἢ ἀφνειότεροι swifter than richer (i.e. rather 
swift than rich).* 
ἐποίησα ταχύτερα ἢ σοφώτερα more quickly than (more) 
wisely. 
Notice the two comparatives, like the Latin ‘ Subtelius quam 
verius.’ 
Phrases like the following are common with comparatives :--- 
iil. ἀνδρειότερος γίγνεται αὐτὸς ἑαυτοῦ he grows braver than 
he ever was. 
ἀμβλύτατα αὐτὸς ἑαυτοῦ ὁρᾷ he sees more dully than ever. 
μεῖζον φορτίον ἢ καθ᾽ αὑτὸν a burden too great for him 
(lit. greater than in proportiont to himself). 
Kaka μείζω ἢ κατὰ δάκρυα or ἢ ὥστε δακρύειν or ἢ δ. Woes 
too big for tears. 
μεῖζον ἢ κατ᾽ ἄνθρωπον too great for man. 
λόγου μεῖζον too big for words. 
θανὼν ἂν εἴη μᾶλλον εὐτυχέστερος he would be more 
fortunate (literally ‘more happier’) when dead. 


Compare μᾶλλον ἄσσον, Soph. Ant. 1210, Eur. Hip. 485; 
Hee. 377. 








* ‘He was more of a knave than fool,’ might be expressed in Greck, 
μοχθηρότερος ἦν ἢ ἀνούστερος. One way of hinting at a superlative is 
εἴ τις καὶ ἄλλος ‘if any one ever was you are, as εἴ τις καὶ ἄλλος 
σώφρων εἶ you are the most temperate of men. 

+ πρό, ἀντί, and παρὰ are often used after comparatives. (Cf. Virg. 
in, i. 346, ‘ Pygmalion scelere ante alios immanior omnes.’) 


92 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


This last phrase shows a tendeacy to that analytic mode of 
expressing the comparative,* which began in the similar Latin 
phrases ‘ magis certius,’ ‘ magis dulcius,’ &c. So in the Bible 
‘The Most Highest;’ and in King Lear ‘Iam sure my heart’s 
more richer than my tongue.’ The gradually analytic tendency 
in comparatives and superlatives may be seen from the fact 
that we should no longer use such terms as grievousest, 
famousest, artificialest, &e., which we find in Bacon, Shak- 
speare, Milton, &c., or even the ‘impudentest’ of Gray. Ben 
Jonson calls this ‘a certain kind of English Atticism, imitating 
the manner of the most ancientest and finest of the Grecians.’ 

iv. On the other hand μᾶλλον is sometimes omitted, as 
θάνατον ἣ βίον αἱρούμενοι choosing death (rather) than life. 
This is frequent in the New Test., as Mk. ix. 43; Lk. xv. 7, 
xvil. 2; 1 Cor. xiv. 19; and in the LXX., as ἰσχύει οὗτος ἢ 
ἡμεῖς he is stronger than we.—Num. xxii. 6. So in Plaut. 
Stud. iv. iv. 70, Tacita bona est mulier semper quam loquens; 
Liv. vii. 8, Ipsorum quam Annibalis interest, &e. 

v. Another peculiarity of μᾶλλον ἢ is, that οὐ is sometimes 
inserted after it, as 

οὐδέν τι μᾶλλον ἐπ᾽ ἡμέας μᾶλλον ἢ ov καὶ ἐπ᾽ ὑμέας, Hdt. 
iv. 118, no whit more against us than against you. 

πόλιν ὅλην διαφθεῖραι μᾶλλον ἢ οὐ τοὺς αἰτίους, Thue. 11], 
36, to destroy a whole city rather than the guilty. 


| Donaldson compares the English vulgarism ‘ rather nor ;’ 
and Clyde the redundant negative after comparisons in Italian, 
as Io scrivo pit che io non parlo I write more than I (lit. 
don’t) speak. Still closer is the Spanish parallel, El es mas 
rico que no ella he is richer than she; mejor es el trabajo 
que no la ociosidad labour is better than idleness. ] 

vi. The common Comparatio Compendiaria, or Brachylogy 
of Comparison, should be noticed; as πυραμὶς μείζων πατρὸς 
a pyramid larger than (that of) his father. Instances of it 
will be found in the Syntaxis Ornata at the end. 


SUPERLATIVES. 


71. The superlative, like the comparative, sometimes merely 
expresses degree, as σεῖο δ᾽ ᾿Αχιλλεῦ οὔτις ἀνὴρ προπάροιθε 
μακάρτατος no one, Achilles, was ever before so very happy as 
you (Keiner war mehr so ganz gliicklich als du). 





* The analytic comparative begins to appear in later Latin; e.g. 
_ ‘ Plus tamen ecce meus, plus est formosus Jollas,’—Calpurn. 
The instances from Plautus show that it always existed colloquially. 


SUPERLATIVES. 93 


72. The Greeks had a peculiar idiom with superlatives. 
Instead of saying ‘more beautiful than all others,’ they said 
‘most beautiful of all others, as 


Νιρεὺς ὃς κάλλιστος ἀνὴρ ὑπὸ ᾿Ιλιον ἦλθεν 
τῶν ἄλλων Aavawy.—Hom. Jl. ii. 673. 
ἀξιολογώτατον τῶν προγεγεν'ἡ μένων more worthy of narra- 


tion than any that preceded it. 


Milton boldly imitates this znclusive use of the superlative 

in the lines 

‘Adam the goodliest of all men since born 
His sons, the fairest of her daughters Eve ;’ 

where not only ignorant critics, but even Addison and Bentley, 
have censured him for making Adam one of his own sons, 
and Eve one of her own daughters! For an explanation 
of this idiom see supra § 47 note. Cf. Hor. Sat. 1. i. 100: 
‘fortissima Tyndaridarum’ braver than the Tyndarids; ‘ Diana 
. . . comitutn pulcherrima’ fairer than all her comrades. 

Nor is Milton the only English writer who has adopted the 
idiom. Shakspeare has ‘ This is the greatest error of all the 
rest’ (Mids. Night's Dream, v. 1); and Sir Thomas Elyot ‘A 
young woman, the fairest of all others,’ &c. (Lhe Governone). 

73. The following are phrases to strengthen superlatives *:— 

ἀνὴρ ἐν τοῖς μάλιστα ἐναντίος τῷ δήμῳ especially opposed 
to democracy. 

εἷς ἀνὴρ πλεῖστον πόνον παρασχὼν giving more trouble 
than any one. 

πάγου οἵου δεινόταιτου of the sharpest possible frost. 

ὅπως ἄριστα in the best possible way. 

ὅσον τάχιστα as speedily as possible. 

ὡς οἷόν τε βέλτιστον in the best possible manner. 

ὅτι μάλιστα as much as possible. 


N.B. i. In St. John (i. 15; xv. 18) πρῶτος is used as a 
comparative,—éumpoober pov γέγονεν ὅτι πρῶτός pov ἦν. 

ii. There is sometimes a reduplication of superlatives, espe- 
cially in comic writers, as in the words ἐλαχιστότερος, πρώτισ- 
τος, αὐτότατος (Plaut. ipsissimus); μειζοτέρως, ὃ John 4. 








* One of the ways of expressing the superlative in Hebrew is by a 
mere repetition of the word, as ‘good good’=very good. We find a 
trace of this in Heb. x. 37, ἔτι yap μικρὸν ὅσον ὅσον very, very soon. 
There is something like it in ὅσον ὅσον στίλην, Ar. Vesp. 218, A tiny 
tiny drop=quantillum. (Winer, Gr. N. 1. ὃ 35.) By a similar prin- 
ciple we find μεγέθει μέγας = μέγιστος in Pausanias. 


94 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


PREPOSITIONS (Προθέσειο). 


74, The prepositions (as we still see in Homer) were 
originally mere local adverbs, i.e. like the case-endings, they 
originally denoted relations of place, but their meaning was 
gradually extended to express all kinds of metaphysical or 
figurative relations. 

75, Cases, without prepositions, are sufficient for languages 
which are at their simplest stage. A remdniscence of the 
previous existence of case-inflections often remains when the 
inflections themselves have disappeared (e.g. Le jils Em- 
pereur, Ville Hadrien; cf. Hétel-Dieu, Faubourg St.-Antoine, 
Bar le Duc, De part le roi, &c.). But every language, as it 
advances from synthesis to analysis, develops prepositions, and 
uses them more and more to give precision to the obliterated 
forms and more extended meanings of the case-terminations. 
Moreover as the requirements of language become more and 
more complicated, the quickness of the mind is naturally 
diminished and encumbered. In fact, prepositions become 
more and more necessary to distinctness and accuracy in 
Janguage,* and hence they are often used in prose where they 
would be omitted in poetry. It should then be clearly 
understood that it is the case which indicates the meaning of 
the preposition, and not the preposition which gives the 
meaning to the case. Each preposition has some one distinct 
meaning of its own, varied by the cases with which it is used. 
Its purpose is only to supplement and to define. ‘Thus ἀπὸ 
naning ‘ from’ entirely coincides with the conception of 
ab.ation, and hence is used with the genitive only; ἐν denotes 
‘ p sition in,’ and therefore coincides with the meaning of the 
d: <ive, and is joined with the dative only; εἰς indicates 
notion towards, and therefore (naturally) is only joined with 
the accusative. Παρὰ means ‘ alongside of,’ and really retains 
this sense with all three cases, παρὰ σοῦ = from (alongside of) 
you; mapa σοὶ at alongside of you=with you; παρὰ σὲ to 
alongside of you=to you. It is therefore not strictly accurate 
to talk of prepositions governing cases; since in point of fact 
they merely define the exact sense in which the case is used. 
It is the case which borrows the aid of the preposition, not 





* See some excellent remarks on this subject in Burggraff, p. 268 
seqq. As Mr. D'Arcy Thompson expresses it, modern languages have 
all discarded (or nearly so) the tight affixes (or case-endings) of the 
encient languages for loose prefixes or prepositions, 


PREPOSITIONS. 95 


the preposition which requires the case. It should be observed 
also that where prepositions appear to change their meanings 
with the cases which they define, it is really a difference in 
the meaning not of the preposition but of the case. 

76. We are not therefore surprised to find that prepositions 
have nearly superseded cases in Modern Greek and in the 
Romance languages; and we can see the tendency to use them 
(which ended in the final evanescence of case-distinctions), 
on the one hand in the New Testament where they abound ; 
and on the other in the practice of the Emperor Augustus,* 
who was observed to make great use of them in the endeavour 
to speak as perspicuously as possible. Thus he preferred to 
say or speak ‘ impendere in aliquam rem,’ and ‘ includere in 
carmine,’ when most of his cotemporaries would have used 
the phrases ‘impendere alicud rez, and ‘ includere carmine,’ 
or carmint. In doing this he was only a little before his age ; 
but the same tendency is fornd often enough, as ‘ ad carni- 
ficem dare,’ Plaut.; ‘Fulgorem reverentur ab auro,’ Vire.; 
“Genera de ulmo,’ Plin.; ‘Scribas ad me,’ Cic. Att. xi. 25 ; 
‘ Offerre se ad mortem,’ id. Zuse. Disp. 1. 15. 

76 (bis). The same remarks apply to our own language, as 
will appear at once by a comparison of our English version of 
the Bible, first with Tyndale’s, then with Wiclif? s, and then 
with the Meso-Gothic fraements of Ulphilas. 

77. Several prepositions (called improper or spurious) are 
also adverbs, as ἐγγύς, ἅμα, πόῤῥω, πέλας; χάριν, &e., as in 
English ‘ before,’ ‘ after, ἕο. This adverbial use of prepositions 
is most frequent, as might have been expected, in the older 
writers. 

78. The name Προθέσεις preverbia is due to their use in 
composition with verbs, &c. When they stand alone many of 
them may (especially in poetry) be placed a/ftert the words 





* See Egger, Gram. Comp. p. 195. Tho very interesting passage in 
Suetonius, which mentions this analysing phraseology of the careful 
emperor, is as follows: Precipuam curam duxit sensum animi quam 
apertissime exprimere ; quod quo facilius exprimeret, aut necubi lectorem 
vel auditorem obturbaret ac moraretur, nec prepositiones verbis addcre, 
neque conjunctiones seepius iterare dubitavit, gue detracte afferunt aliquid 
obscuritatis etsi gratiam augent. The passage might have been used to 
describe the style of Lord Macaulay, and the last clause hints at the 
respective advantages of synthetic and analytic languages, the latter 
gaining in accuracy what they lose in vivid conciseness. 

7 In many languages (e.g. Turkish) they are entirely postpositions ; 
in Latin we have mecwm, vobiscum, &c.; in English wherein, wherewith, 
&c.; in German Deinetwegen, &e. 


96 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


they govern. When this is the case, the accent is thrown 

back by what is called anastrophe, aS TEKVWY πέρι, μάχῃ ἔνι, 
&e.* Διὰ and ἀνὰ are excepted from the law of anastrophe, 
lest they should be confused with the accusative of Ζεύς, and 
the vocative of ἄναξ. 

79. There are eighteen prepositions, of which four, ἀπό, 
ἐξ, ἀντί, πρό, govern the genitive; two, ἐν and σύν, the dative; 
one, ara, the dative and accusative; three, διά, κατά, ὑπέρ, 
the genitive and accusative; and seven, ἀμφί, περί, ἐπί, μετά, 
rapa, πρός, ὑπό, take three cases, the genitive, dative, and 
accusative. Besides these there are the improper prepositions. 


80. Examples will only be given where the meaning is 
peculiar or not obvious; and those usages which are very 
rare or quite abnormal, are omitted ; for completeness in treat- 
ing of the prepositions cannot be combined with brevity. In 
all languages the usages and phrases connected with preposi- 
tions are too numerous to be briefly exhausted. For instance, 
in English the same prepositions may even have opposite 
meanings, as ‘I fight with you,’ which may either mean ‘at 
your side and for you,’ or ‘against you’; so in Latin we may 
have ‘ pugnare cum hostibus,’ and ‘ire cum sociis’; and πρός 
τινὸς may mean either against or for a person, according to 
the context, &c. ‘The reason of this is that even the com- 
meonest matters may be viewed under many ΒΒ OUS 5 compare, 
for instance, the phrases ‘to talk about a thing, λέγειν περὶ 
τινὸς dicere de aliqua re, 3 127 tber etwas sprechen.’ ‘Here 
we and the Greeks aoe the object s spoken of as something 
encompassed ; the Latins as a whole of which part is supplied ; ἢ 
the Hebrew asa ground to stand on; the Germans as a ground 
to be gone over’ (Winer, Gram. N. f. ii. § 47). Besides, 
when mental and metaphysical relations have to be figuratively 
expressed by words and cases which originally had only a 
local meaning, it is obvious that the metaphor must be of so 
very general a character that the same relation may be ex- 
pressed with equal propriety in several ways. It is generally 
easy with a little thought and care to trace the metaphysical 
meaning directly from the physical, but, as the explanation 


* But otherwise πάρα, ἔπι, μέτα, πέρι, ὕπο, ἔνι (notice the accents), 
stand for πάρεστι, ἔπεστι, &c., and ἄνα for ἀνάστηθι stand up! or for the 
vocative of ἄναξ (in Homer). A change of meaning is in all languages 
naturally accompanied by a change of accent, or spelling; thus in 
English ‘ sith’ is a causal particle, but since (sithens) is also a preposi- 
tion and an adverb, 


PREPUSITIONS AND COMPOSITION. 97 


would require an entire treatise, and as views differ on the 
subject, this is best left to the student himself: 


81. The student should accustom himself to notice the 
manner in which the meaning of a verb alters according to 
the prepositions with which it is compounded; e.g. 

δίδωμι I give; ἐκδιδόναι to disembogue; ἐνδιδόναι to 
yield; ἐπιδιδόναι to increase; παραδιδόναι to hand . 
down; προδιδόναι to betray ; ἀποδίδοσθαι to sell, Ke. 

τείχισμα a fort; διατείχισμα a partition; ἐπιτείχισμα a 
fort built in an enemy’s country ; παρατείχισμα a cross- 
wall; προτείχισμα a bulwark; περιτείχισμα a line of 
circumvallation, &c. 

ἵστημι I place; συνίστημι I introduce; ἐξέίστημι I drive 
mad; καθίστημι I establish. 

inpe I send; ἀνιέναι to remit; ἐφιέναι to give up to; 
μεθιέναι to relax, &c. 

ἔχω Ihave; ἀνέχειν to continue, to rise up; ἐξέχειν ta 
project; προσέχειν to attend; κατέχειν appellere, to 
touch at a shore; ὑπερέχειν to excel; ἀντέχειν to 
resist; ἐπέχειν to wait for; (ἄγνεχε καὶ πάρεχε “ bear 
and forbear’). : 

σείω I shake; προσείω I threaten, or entice by waving; 
ἐπισείω 1 hark on, &c. 

ἔρχομαι 1 come; κατέρχομαι 1 return from exile; perép- 
χομαι 1 go after, &e. 


PREPOSITIONS WHICH GOVERN THE GENITIVE. 


82. These are: 


i, ἀντὶ opposite to, contra; then instead of, for. (Compare 
the words ἄντα, ἄντην, ἀντικρύ, ἐναντίος, ante.) 

ἀντ᾽ ἐμοῦ instead of me. 

ἀνθ᾽ οὗ on account of which. 

ἀλλάττεσθαι ἀντὶ χρυσοῦ to change for gold. 

χάριν acl χάριτος grace for grace, i.e. unceasingly re- 
newed. 


ii. πρὸ (pre) before, both of time, place, and preference. 
It is closely connected with, but slightly more general 
than, ἀντί; hence ἀντ᾽ ὀφθαλμῶν = πρὸ τῶν ὀφθαλμῶν. 

iii, ἐκ, ἐξ ‘ from out of,’ extrinsecus. 

ἐκ παίδων from boyhood (cf. ‘of a child,’ Mk, ix. 21; 
‘ Being of so young days,’ Ham. ii. 2). 
F 


98 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


éx often = after, as 
γελᾶν ἐκ δακρύων to laugh after tears. 
ἐκ δείπνων ὕπνος ἡδὺς sweet is sleep after dinner. 
Ἀ 2 la - Ω 
τυφλὸς ἐκ δεδόρκοτος blind after seeing. 
ἐκ κύματων γαλήν᾽ ὁρῶ I see after storms a calm. 


Compare the Latin ex: e.g. Scriba ew quinqueviro; e# 
homine factus est Verres (Cic. Div., Verr. 17 f.). 
Our of is used in just the same way by Milton, as 
ΕἼ of brute, human, ye of human, gods.’—Par. Lost, 
ix. 712. 
‘How cam’st thou speakable of mute ?’—Id. ix. 563. 
‘Is of a king become a banished man.’—Shakspeare, 
3 Henry VI. iii. ὃ. 

iv. ἀπὸ (a, ab, abs, off) ‘from’; ἀπὸ means ‘ from the out- 
side,’ ἐξ from the inside of a thing; as ἀπὸ Γαλιλαίας, 
ἐκ πόλεως Nalaper.—Luke ii. 4. It expresses place, 
time, and cause; also sometimes the agent, as ἐπράχθη 
ἀπ᾽ αὐτῶν οὐδὲν ἔργον ἀξιόλογον. 

Besides these four, the spurious prepositions ἄνευ without, 
ἄχρι, μέχρι until, μεταξὺ between, ἕνεκα and ἕκατι for the sake 
of, εὐθὺ straight towards, πλὴν except, τρόπον and δίκην like, 
and χάριν for the sake of, govern a genitive. 

N.B. εὐθὺς = immediately, εὐθὺ with the gen. = straight 
towards; μεταξὺ by a curious ellipse sometimes omits one of 
the two things between which another is placed, as μεταξὺ 
τῶν Ἰνοῦς (Ar. Ach. 434) between those of Ino (and the ones 
last mentioned). Compare our word ‘ twilight,’ i.e. twixt light 
(and darkness). Cf. Par. Lost, ix. 50, and Shilleto, Dem. de 
F. Leg. ὃ 181. μεταξὺ δειπνῶν = whilst dining. 


PREPOSITIONS WITH THE DATIVE, ἐν, σύν. 


83. i. ἐν (in with the ablative) of place and time; also of 
the instrument and manner, as 
ἐν or σὺν τάχει with speed, 
ἐν ὀφθαλμοῖς ὁρῶν seeing with the eyes. 
ἦν ἐν τοῖς ‘Tepocohvpore ( place), ἐν τῷ πάσχα (time), ἐν τῇ 
ἑορτῇ (circumstance).—2 Cor. vii. 16. 

li. Σύν (ξύν, cum) with. It implies a closer union than 
pera. See Soph. Ant.115. πολλῶν μεθ᾽ ὅπλων, σύν θ᾽ ἱππο- 
κόμοις κορύθεσσι (Donaldson). σύν τινι implies coherence; 
μετά τινος coexistence (Winer). 


Σύν, eis, ws, διά. 99 


N.B. Σὺν is by no means coextensive with the English 
‘with;’ thus ‘they fought with him,’ would be not σὺν αὐτῷ 
but πρὸς αὐτόν. 


ὙΥΊΤΗ THE ACCUSATIVE, εἰς, we. 


84, i. εἰς (ὑπ with accusative), into, of place. Also up to, 
of time, as ἔτος εἰς ἔτος year by year, εἰς εἴκοσι μάλιστα up to 
about twenty. Also of purpose, as εἰς τόδε ἥκομεν for this 
purpose we have come. 

εἰς into stands in the same relation to πρὸς towards, as ἐξ 
out of does to ἀπὸ away from. 

εἰς sometimes, in the tragedians, means ‘as regards;’ we 
οὔτις ἀνδρῶν εἰς ἅπαντ᾽ εὐδαιμονεῖ since no man is happy in 
all respects (cf. Eur. Phen. 619, 1645; Or. 529). 

εἰς is often used with ellipses, as ἐς διδασκάλου into the 
teacher’s (house), ἐς “Αἰδου to (the realm of) Hades, &c. 


li. ὡς ‘to’ only with persons, or words that involve per- 
sons, as 
ἔπεμψεν αὑτὸν ὡς βασιλέα he sent him to the king. 
ὡς τάσδε χεῖρας to these hands of mine. 


Probably it is a merely elliptic expression for ὡς πρός, ὡς 
ἐπί, &c., which we frequently find; e.g. εἰς Φωκέας, ὡς πρὸς 
ouptuayovc.—Demosth. (cf. Acts xvii. 14). Constructions like 
we “APvdov ‘to Abydos,’ are very rare. 


WITH THE GENITIVE AND ACCUSATIVE, διά, κατά, ὑπέρ. 
85. i. διά through (connected with δύο; δι᾿ ἐκ = right 
through; cf. Engl. between with twain). 

a. With genitive = per.* 

dv ἀγγέλων by means of messengers. 

διὰ τῶν ὀφθαλμῶν ὁρῶμεν We see with our eyes. 

διὰ χερῶν ἔχειν to have in hand. 

διὰ φιλίας ἰέναι to be on friendly terms. 

διὰ στόματος ἔχειν to talk about. 

διὰ μακροῦ after a long interval. 

διὰ δέκα ἐπάλξεων πύργοι towers at zntervals of ten battle- 

ments. 





* Διὰ with the genitive is rarely used of the direct agent (which is 
ὑπὸ or παρὰ with the genitive); δι’ οὗ is not ‘by whom,’ but ‘by whose 
means,’ per guem not ἃ quo. 

1 Ch ἄγειν διὰ φροντίδος curare, διὰ μνήμης mentionem facere, δι᾿ 
αἰδοῦς venerari, δι εὐχῆς in votis habere, &c. 

F2 


100 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


β. With the accusative, through or about (poet.), as διὰ 
δώματα. Also on account of = propter, as ἔχω yap axw διά σε. 
Thus διὰ νήσου ἱέναι would be to pass through an island; 
διὰ νῆσον ἰέναι would be in poetry to make a tour through an 
island; and we should say διὰ πεδίον ἐμάχετο he was fighting 
all about the plain, but διὰ πεδίου ἔδραμεν he ran through the 
plain. 1 Cor. xi. 9, οὐκ ἐκτίσθη ἀνὴρ διὰ τὴν γυναῖκα ‘ for the 
sake of’; id. vers. 12, ὁ ἀνὴρ διὰ τῆς γυναικός * by means of.’ 
δ᾽ ὃν ra πάντα καὶ δι’ ov τὰ πάντα, Heb. ii. 11, for 
whose sake, and by whose means all things exist. 
διὰ σοῦ per te, by your means; αὐτὸς δι ἑαυτοῦ ἐποίε. 
he was doing it by himself, sua unius opera. 
διὰ σὲ propter te, because of you; εἰ μὴ oc αὐτὸν but for 
him. 
διὰ τούτων by means of these things, per hee. 
διὰ ταῦτα wherefore, propter hec. 


N.B. διὰ νυκτὸς and διὰ νύκτα differ very little; the former 
calls attention to the fact that a thing lasted til] next morning, 
the latter that it occupied all night long. 


li. κατά ‘ down.’ 
a. With genitive, down from; also against, as λέγειν κατά 
τινὸς to speak against any one. 
β. With accusative, along, about, according to, in re- 
JSerence to.* 
kara ῥόον down stream. 
Kara τὸν αὑτὸν χρόνον about the same time. 
κατὰ γνώμην τὴν ἐμὴν according to my notion. 
τὸ κατὰ Μάρκον εὐαγγέλιον the gospel according to Mark. 
Compare the following: | κατὰ with the genitive, vertical 
motion ; —> κατὰ with the accusative, horizontal motion. 
οἱ κατὰ χθονὸς the dead. 
οἱ κατὰ χθόνα the living. 
κατ᾽ Οὐλύμποιο καρήνων down from the crest of Olympus. 
κατὰ θάλασσαν ἐπορεύετο he went by sea. 
111. ὑπὲρ over. 
a. With the genitive, position over, super; also on behalf 
of,t as in ὑπὲρ σοῦ ἀποκρινοῦμαι I will answer on your behalf. 


* Hence both καθ᾽ ἑαυτόν, and δι᾽ ἑαυτοῦ, mean ‘by himself, seorsum ; 
but the former implies ‘ in r¢ference to, the latter ‘ by means of.’ 
t Both ὑπὲρ and πρὸ with the genitive mean ‘on behalf of,’ because a 


Κατά, ava. 101 


β. With the accusative, over and beyond, ultra; as ῥίπτειν 
ὑπὲρ τὸν δόμον to fling over the house. 


With THE DatTIVE AND ACCUSATIVE. 
"Ava ‘up.’ 
a. With the dative, only in Epic and lyric poetry, on. 


εὕδει δ᾽ ava σκάπτῳ Διὸς αἰετὸς and the eagle slumbers on 
the sceptre of Zeus. 


β. With the accusative, wp, throughout, &e. 

ἀνὰ ῥόον up stream. 
ἀνὰ πᾶν ἔτος quotannis. 
ἀνὰ πᾶν τὸ ἔτος throughout the year. 

N.B. i. ᾿Ανά, κατά, are probably the origin of the hypo- 
thetical particles ἄν, κέν. 

ii. They are used in constant contrast, as ἄνω κάτω up and 
down, sursum deorsum; ἀνὰ κατὰ ultro citroque, ἀνέβη he 
went inland, κατέβη he went to the sea, avédu it rose, κατέδυ 
it set, ἀνανεύω I throw back the head in token of dissent, 
karavevw I nod assent. 


iii. And yet, since wp and down are but two ways of re- 
garding motion along the same line, it is often indifferent 
which of the two we use;* hence we find either κατὰ or ave 
κράτος forcibly ; κατὰ or ἀγὰ στρατὸν throughout the army; 
κατὰ or ava orp’ ἔχειν to talk about, κατὰ or ἀνὰ τέτταρας 
by fours (also ἐπὶ τεττάρων), κατὰ or ἀτὰ πόλεις about the 
cities. 


Wirn GENITIVE, DaTIVE, oR ACCUSATIVE, ᾿Αμφί, περί, ἐπί, 
μετά, παρά, πρός, ὕπο. 


86. i. ἀμφί (Lat. amb-, apud, German um). ‘It is mostly 
confined to Ionic Greekf and to poetry, and it is the only pre- 





champion in battle stood in both positions, as μὴ θνήσχ᾽ ὑπὲρ τοῦδ᾽ 
ἀνδρός, οὐδ᾽ ἔγὼ πρὸ cov.— Alc. 690. (Donaldson.) 

* We must not suppose because two prepositions are interchangeable, 
even with different cases (as ἐπὶ τεττάρων and ἀνὰ tértapas) that they 
mean the same thing. The explanation is that the same relation may be 
regarded from two entirely different points of view. In German Auf die 
Bedingung and Unter der Bedingung both mean ‘ on the condition,’ but 
auf ‘on’ is not=unter, ‘under.’ (Winer, 111. 8 xlvii. 

+ In Later Greek (e.g. in Plutarch and Lucian), by a wild extension of 
the dislike to all directness or personality of speech, of ἄμφι Πλάτωνα 
simply means Plato! In Herod. i. 62, of ἀμφὶ Πεισίστρατον... ἀπικνεεται 
is due not to this phrase, but to anacoluthon. 


102 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


position which has disappeared in Modern Greek.’ (Clyde.) 
As usual, we may trace its comparative insignificance in the 
fact that it never occurs in the New Testament except in com- 
position. 
With all three cases it means around or about. 

ἀμφὶ τὸν χειμῶνα about winter. 

ἀμφὶ τοὺς μυρίους about ten thousand. 

οἱ ἀμφὶ Πλάτωνα Plato and his school.* 


It is not used with the dat. in Attic prose. 


ii. wept around and about (Lat. per-, as adv. πέρι = very. 
Compare our English phrase, ‘ good all round’). ‘This becomes 
the Gothic faur-, the German ver-, the English for-; e.g. for- 
lorn = verloren = utterly lost, etc. 

a. With the genitive = de, about. Notice the phrases περὶ 
ἔριδος pre iva (Hom.), περὶ πολλοῦ ἐστιν ἡμῖν it is of much 
consequence to us. 

β. With the dative,t around, of place, and concerning, as 
θαῤῥεῖν περί τινι to be of good cheer about any one. 

y. With the accusative around, and in regard to, and about, 
as περὶ τοῦτον τὸν χρόνον about this time. 

In these two prepositions the distinctions of meaning with 
the different cases are not at all distinctly marked. Hence we 
find in the same sentence εὐφραίνειν θυμὸν ἀμφί τινι, and ἀμφί 
τινα, and in the same sentence of Herodotus, vil. 61, περὶ μὲν 
τῇσι κεφαλῇσι εἶχον τιάρας. .. περὶ δὲ τὸ σῶμα κιθῶνας. 
And ‘ both are used with vague indications of time or number.’ 
—Donaldson. 


111. ἐπὶ upon. It has various meanings, which can gene- 
rally be deduced from its adverbial sense, and the meaning of 
the case with which it is joined. Thus with the genitive it 
implies partial superposition ; with the dative absolute super- 
position, or rest upon; and with the accusative motion with a 
view to superposition (Donaldson). 


a, With the genitive— 
ἐφ᾽ ἵππων ὀχεῖσθαι to ride on horseback. 
πλεῖν ἐπὶ Σάμου to sail towards Samos. 


ἐπὶ Δαρείου ἐγένετο it happened i in the time of Darius.t 
ἐφ᾽ ἡμῶν in our days. 








* See note t on preceding page. 
+ wepland ὑπὸ are never used with the dative in the New Testament. 
1 This temporal meaning of ἐπὶ is partly derived from the participles 


"Emi, μετά, παρᾶ. 108 


β. With the dative— 

ἐπὶ τῇ θαλάσσῃ οἰκεῖν to live near the sea (i.e. upon the 
shore). 

ἐπὶ τούτοις thereupon, or besides, 

ἐφ᾽ οἷς τε on condition that. 

ἐπὶ θήρᾳ or ἐπὶ θήραν ἐξιέναι to go a hunting. 

ἐπὶ τόκοις δανείζειν to lend on interest. 

τὸ ἐπὶ σοὶ as far as you can; nearly = τὸ ἐπὶ σὲ quantum 
in ée est. 

y.- With the accusative, motion towards— 

ἀναβαίνειν ἐφ᾽ ἵππον to mount on horseback. 

στρατεύεσθαι ἐπὶ Λύδους to go on an expedition against 
the Lydians. 

τὸ ἐπὶ σφᾶς εἶναι as far as depended on them.* 

iv. Mera with (connected with μέσος, German mit) implies 
separable connection. 

a. With the genitive = with, (Lat. cum) accompanied by 
(but never our ‘ with’ in the sense of an instrument, as ‘ with 
a sword’). 

β. With the dative = among (only in poetry). 

γ. With the accusative = ‘after, either in space or time; 
e.g. βῆ δὲ per’ Ἰδομενῆα he went after (i.e. in quest of) Ido- 
meneus; pera ταῦτα after these things. 

Our ‘after’ has the same two meanings, for we say (collo- 
quially), ‘To send after a person, a book,’ ὅθ. Succession in 
place and time are constantly confused, as in the word ‘ inter- 
val,’ used of time, but properly a space between two ramparts. 

v. παρὰ beside (apud). 

a. With the genitive, from, ἐλθεῖν παρά τινος = venir de 
chez quelqu’un. 

8. With the dative, near, ἦν παρὰ τῷ βασιλεῖ he was with 
the king. 

y- With the accusative, towards. All its shades of meanings 
with the accusative are derived from the notion of ‘ motion 
hear, or with a view to conjunction.’ 

ἰέναι παρὰ νῆας to go to the ships. 
mapa θῖνα θαλάσσης along the sea beach. 


with which it is generally joined; we use a very similar phrase when 
we say ‘upon this’=when this happened; ‘ Upon his coming to the 
throne,’ &ec. 

* In several of its meanings ἐπὶ resembles the German axf, which is 
used both of hills and plains ; as ἐπ᾽ épyulas=auf dem Felde. (Winer.) 


104 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


mapa ὅλον τὸν βίον during one’s whole life. 
map ἐλπίδα beyond expectation. 

ἁμαρτωλοὶ παρὰ πάντας sinners beyond all. 
mapa νόμον contrary to the law. 

mapa ταῦτα besides these things. 

παρὰ μικρὸν within a little. 

map ἦμαρ from day to day. 


The causal meaning cf παρά, as in παρὰ τὴν ἑαυτοῦ ἀμέλειαν, 
has been compared with our colloquial, ‘it’s all along of his 
own neglect;’ in this instance however ‘all along’ possibly 
means ‘ throughout, and of is the preposition denoting the 
source of action. 

παρὰ σοῦ =apud me a te, i.e. from you; παρὰ coit=apud 
te ame, 1.6. with or by you; παρὰ σὲ a me ita ut apud 
te sit, 1.6. towards you. It is however simpler to ex- 
plain it as meaning from (alongside of) you, near 
(alongside of) you, towards (alongside of) you. 


vi. mpdc* (adversus), to. 


a. With the genitive, on the side of, &c., πρὸς μητρὸς on the 
mother’s side (cognati a matre versus me). 


οἱ πρὸς αἵματος blood relations. 

πρὸς θεῶν by the gods. 

οὐδαμῶς πρὸς σοῦ λέγεις you're not talking at all like 
yourself. 

πρός τινὸς λέγειν to speak for a person. 


β. With the dative, at, to, besides. 


y. With the accusative, towards, with respect to; οὐδὲν 
πρὸς ἐμὲ it’s nothing to me; πρὸς βίων, violently, &c. 
πρὸς τούτων in consequence of this (motive). 
πρὸς τούτοις in addition to this (juxtaposition). 
πρὸς ταῦτα therefore (with reference to this) ‘ so then.’ 
πρὸς σὲ Θεῶν αἰτοῦμαι per te Deos oro: notice the posi- 
tion of the pronoun. 


See Eur. Phen. 524; Aisch. P. V. 992. 


* Since ‘from’ and ‘ fo’ may imply motion along the same line, only 
regarded from two different points, we are not surprised to find in the 
same sentence τὸν μὲν πρὸς βορέω ἑστεῶτα τὸν δὲ πρὸς νότον one standing 
from (i.e. towards) the north (as in Latin ‘ ad oriente’ = versus orientem), 
the other towards the south.—Herod, 11. 121, 


Ὑπό. 10ὅ 


vii. ὑπὸ under. The physical meanings of ὑπὸ are very dis- 
tinct ; thus 
. With the genitive=from under (motion from), 

ὑπὸ πτερῶν σπάσας dragging from under the wings. 

β. With the dative=(at) under (position), 
καλῇ ὑπὸ πλατανίστῳ under a fair plane tree. 

γ. With the accusativeto under (motion to), 
ὑπ᾿ Ἴλιον ὦρτο sped under (the walls of) Ilium. 


ὑπὸ with the genitive is the commonest method of expressing 
the agent after passive verbs, as 
ἑάλω ὑπὸ τῶν Ἑλλήνων it was taken by the Greeks. 


Notice the phrases, 
ὑπὸ vuxra=sub noctem, about nightfall. 
ὑπὸ σάλπιγγος πίνειν to the sound of the trumpet. 


87. Donaldson quotes an interesting passage of Philo Judezus 
(i. 162), in which he says that the efficient cause or agent 
(ὑφ᾽ ov) in creation was God; the material cause (ἐξ ov) was sub- 
stance (ἡ ὕλη); the caginanenan (δ ov) was the Word; the final 
cause or reason for it (δι᾿ ὅ) is the goodness of God. 


PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION. 


88. In compounds, the use of the prepositions is generally 
obvious; but the following may be noticed. Sometimes ἀπὸ 
has a negative force, as in ἀπόφημι nego, ἀπαρέσκω displiceo ; 
ava resembles the Latin re- in ἀνατίθεμαι retracto, ἀναβάλλω 
rejicio; διὰ has a reciprocal force, as in διαμάχονται they fight 
together; éxi means besides, as ἐπιγαμεῖν to marry a second 
wife; mapa=male, &c. as παραφρονεῖν to be mad, παρακρούειν 
to cheat; tro=secretly or slightly, as ὑπογελῶᾶν subridere, 
ὑπόλευκος whitish, ὑπεκπέμπειν to send out secretly. 


ComMON CONSTRUCTIONS WITH PREPOSITIONS. 


89. i. The agility of intellect among the Greeks, and their 
love of terseness, led them to a frequent use of what is called 
the constructio pregnans (one of the forms of the constructio 
κατὰ σύνεσιν or ad sensum), by which they put a preposition 
implying rest with a verb implying motion, or vice versd, so 
that two clauses are compressed into one, as 

ἐφάνη Nig... εἰς ὁδὸν a lion appeared into the road (i.e. 
came into and appeared in). 
ol ἐκ τῆς ἀγορᾶς ἀπέφυγον those who were in the forum 
fled from it. 
Fg 


106 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


καθήμεθ᾽ ἄκρων ἐκ πάγων we sat (on and looked) from 


the hill tops. 

στᾶσ᾽ ἐξ Οὐλύμποιο standing (on and looking) from 
Olympus. 

πρὸς τὸ πῦρ καθήμενος sitting to the fire (1.6. going to and 
sitting at). 


Φίλιππος δὲ εὑρέθη εἰς ᾿Αζωτον Philip was found into 
(==at) Azotus * 
ii, So in Latin we find 
In amicitiad receptus.—Sall 
In, aquam macerare.—Cat. 
Responde ubz cadaver abjeceris.—Tac. 
And in English, ‘ To place a thing zn (=7nto) his hands :᾿ ‘ to 
hang something from (=on) a peg;’ ‘where (=whither) are 
you going?’ But our instances are fewer and far less strongly 
marked.+ Chaucer, however, has, ‘ Whan Scipio was come In 
A fricke.’—Assembl. of Fowles (see Bible Word Book, p. 263). 
90. In poetry, if there be two substantives the preposition 
is often put with the last only, as 
ἢ Νεῖλον ἢ ᾽πὶ Méwguy.—Anacr. 
ἡ ἁλὸς ἣ ἐπὶ γῆς.---Οα. 1. 247. 
ἴθι ναούς, ἴθι πρὸς βωμούς.---Εἰαν. Hec. 146, 
It is the same in Latin as 
‘Que nemora, aut quos agor zm specus ?’—Hor. 
‘Baias et ad Ostia currunt.’—Juv. 
91. On the other hand, the preposition is omitted from the 
second of two verbs, as 
προβᾶτε [3 Pare.—id. Col. 859. 
κατῆγεν, ἦγεν, ἦγεν, ἐς μέλαν wédov.—Eur. Bacch. 1018. 
So, too, in Latin— 
‘ Retinete, tenete.’—Pacuvius in Niptris, Cic. 











* In the New Testament this occurs all the more frequently from its 
also being a Hebrew idiom, as 1 NID εἰσέρχεσθαι ἐν. (Winer.) Compare 
‘Ye shall be beaten into (cis) the synagogues.’—Mark xiii. 9. In Col. iv. 
16, τὴν ἐκ Λαοδικείας ἐπιστολὴν means the letter written to L. and sent 
thence to you; not ‘from L.’ as it has been erroneously taken by those 
who were not aware of this constructio pregnans. Winer, § lxvi. 6. 
Cf. Ps. lxxxix. 39. 

7 The strongest instance I have found is in the ballad of Sir Patrick 
Spens— 
᾿ ‘ And lang lang may the ladies sit, 

With their kaims ino their hands ;’ 


unless this be a Scoticism. 


INTERCHANGE OF PREPOSITIONS. 107 


92. T'wo prepositions are often used with the same word for 
the sake of greater distinctness, as 


ἀμφὶ σοὔνεκα, Soph. Phil. 554. 

ἀπὸ βοῆς ἕνεκα, Thue. viii. 92. 

μὴ πρὸς ἰσχύος χάριν, Eur. Med. 538. 
And we find compounds such as ὑπεκπέμπειν, ἐξαποφθειρειν, 
προπροβιάζεσϑαι, Xe. 


Various INSTANCES OF THE USE OF PREPOSITIONS. 


93. The prepositions are often varied in the same clause, 
which shows how often the shades of difference between their 
meaning are very slight; as οὔτε ἐπὶ γῆν οὔτε διὰ θαλάσσης, 
Thue. ; τῆς ἐπὶ τὴν ᾿Αττικὴν 6000 καὶ τῆς εἰς Πελοπόννησον, 
Demosth.; μὴ περὶ τῶν δικαίων μηδ᾽ ὑπὲρ τῶν ἔξω πραγμάτων 
εἶναι σὴν βουλήν, id.; ἔκ τε τῆς Κερκύρας καὶ ἀπὸ τῆς ἠπείρου, 
Thue. vii. 88 ; ἐκ πολέμον μὲν ... ἀφ᾽ ἡσυχίας dé, Thue. i. 124. 


94. i. We find the same variety in the New Testament, as 
ὃς δικαιώσει τὴν περιτομὴν ἐκ πίστεως (the source) καὶ τὴν 
ἀκροβυστίαν διὰ τῆς πίστεως (the means), Rom. iil, 80, azo 
and ἐκ are synonymous in John ΧΙ. 1; Rev. ix. 18. 


ii. We might say 

Χριστὸς ὑπὲρ ἀσεβῶν ἀπέθανε, Rom. v. 6, 8, xiv. 19; 
or δοῦναι τὴν ψυχὴν αὐτοῦ λύτρον ἀντὶ πολλῶν, Matt. xx. 28 ; 
or αἷμα τὸ περὶ πολλῶν ἐκχυνόμενον, Matt. xxvi. 28. 


In all these passages we might use ‘for’ in English, but ὑπὲρ 

means in behalf of, ἀντὶ instead of (loc.), and rept on account 

of us, as the cause. Yet the difference of meaning is so slight 
that, the readings often differ, as in Gal. i. 4. 


iii. The variation of prepositions to present the thought 
from all points of view is very common in St. Paul, as 
ἀπόστολος οὐκ ἀπ᾿ ἀνθρώπων (as the source) οὐδὲ δ᾽ av- 
θρώπου (as the intermediate authority) ἀλλὰ διὰ Ἰησοῦ 
Χριστοῦ, Gal. i. 1. 
ἐξ αὐτοῦ (from him), καὶ δι αὐτοῦ (by his means) καὶ εἰς 
αὐτὸν (to him as their end) τὰ πάντα, Rom. xi. 36. 
95. Notice the phrases, 
i. καθ᾽ ἡμέραν day by day, singulis diebus. 
μεθ᾽ ἡμέραν in the day time, interdiu (properly after 
day-dawn), 


108 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


παρ᾽ ἡμέραν during the day, per diem; also = ἡμέρα 
παρ᾽ ἡμέραν from day to day, alternis diebus. 
ava πᾶσαν ἡμέραν daily, quotidie. 
11. κατὰ τὸ αὐτὸ eodem tempore. 
ὑπὸ τὸ αὐτὸ sub idem tempus. 


ill, Ammianus (Anthol. xi. 231) says to Marcus— 
θήριον εἶ κατὰ γράμμα καὶ ἄνθρωπος διὰ γράμμα 


[(Δ])αρκ(τ)ος. 
PRONOUNS. 


96. The Personal Pronouns, being involved in the finite 
verb, are only expressed when emphatic, as ἐγὼ μὲν διδάσκω, 
σὺ δὲ παίζεις J am teaching, but you are playing.* As might 
have been expected, they are more common in later than in 
earlier stages of the language; e.g. they abound in the New 
Testament. 


97. Αὐτὸς when placed first is emphatic, as αὐτὸν ἔτυψεν he 
struck him (and no one else), but ἔτυψεν αὐτὸν merely ‘he 
struck him ;’ αὐτὸς παρεγένου ; were you present in person? 

αὐτοὶ ἔσμεν we are (by) ourselves, i.e. alone. 
τέταρτος, πέμπτος αὐτὸς with three, four others, &c.f 
αὐτὸς ἔφη the master said it. 


98. i. Possessive Pronouns are sometimes put for personal, 
as 
σὸς πόθος regret for you. 
ἐς τὴν ἐμὴν ἀνάμνησιν in memory of me.—Luke xxii. 19. 
τῷ ὑμετέρῳ ἐλέει the mercy shown to you.—Rom. xi. 31. 


ii. They are placed after the article, as ὁ σὸς υἱός ; whereas 
the genitives of the personal pronoun are placed after the 
noun, as ὁ υἱός aov.t 


ii. The attraction of a personal into a possessive pronoun, 
as in 
τἀμὰ δυστήνου κακὰ the woes of me unhappy, 
ἐμὰ κήδεα θυμοῦ the cares of my mind, 


* A pronoun is sometimes emphatically inserted in the latter of two 
clauses, as ἤτοι μανεὶς ἢ ὅγε ἀποπληκτὸς γενόμενος, Herod. ii. 173. 
Ναπο ἀοχύγᾶ ingeminans ictus nunc i/e sinistra, Virg. 

1 Cf. Il allait dud cinquiéme. 

¢ In Soph. 4). 572, 6 λυμεὼν ἐμὸς is at any rate a very rare expres- 
sion for 6 λυμεὼν οὗμός ; but probably the reading should be ἐμοί, See 
§ 21, ἐσὺ 


PRONOUNS. 109 


is very common; and is closely paralleled by the Latin ‘ meas 
presentis preces,’ ‘nomen meum absentis.’ It is also found 
in German, as ‘ An meiner Schwelle, des armen Mannes.’— 
Schiller, Zell. 

iv. The form auds -- ἡμέτερος is sometimes found in the tragedians. 
When it stands for ἐμὸς some would write it without the aspirate. 
Brunck says, @ubs Doricum pro ἡμέτερος, duds Atticum pro ἐμός. See 
Eur. Hel. 581; Iph. Aul. 1455; Absch. Cho. 428. 

v. As Greek has no possessive pronoun for the 3rd person 
(‘ his,’ &e.), αὐτοῦ is used for ‘ his,’ ἑαυτοῦ for ‘ his own ;’ eg. 
μετεπέμψατο τὴν ἑαυτοῦ θυγατέρα καὶ τὸν παῖδα αὐτῆς arces- 
sivit swam filiam, ejusque filium. 


‘ His’ in English till Shakspeare’s time meant also ‘its,’ just like the 
Greek αὐτοῦ. See Craik, Engl. of Shaksp. p. 97 seqq. 


Vi. Σφέτερος is exclusively reflexive=their own. 


THe RECIPROCAL AND REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS. 


99. The reflexive pronouns (those implying ‘-self’ or 
‘own ’) give to Greek and Latin a clearness absolutely unat- 
tainable in English; e.g. if we say, ‘he laid the wounded man 
on his own bed,’ it is zmpossible to mark in English whether 
‘his own’ refers to the subject ‘he’ or to the accusative ‘ the 
man.’* In Greek and Latin, ἐς τὸ ἑαυτοῦ λέχος ‘in suo lecto,’ 
would at once show clearly when the former was intended. 
Similarly, such sentences as ‘Quis profitetur suum esse dicere ?’ 
‘Suum Cesari gladium restituit,’ could only be rendered in 
French or English, unequivocally, by a long periphrasis. See, 
too, Eve’s German Syntax, p. 36. 

N.B. i. οὗ, €, are not found in Attic prose; οἱ is rare in 
the orators. 


ii. The reflexive is often used when the thoughts of another 
are referred to, as κελεύει δέ of συμπέμψαι ἄνδρας and bids 
them to send him(sed/) men. 


iii, The dramatic and graphic tendency of Greek writers is 


* As a srecimen of the utter confusion thus introduced into English, 
take this sentence of Goldsmith: ‘ He (Philip) wrote to that distinguished 
philosopher in terms the most polite and flattering, begging of him 
(Aristotle) to undertake his (Alexander’s) education, and to bestow upon 
him (Al.) those useful lessons which fis (P.’s) numerous avocations 
would not allow him (P.) to bestow.’ See Dalglish, Engl. Gram. p. 116. 
There are several inaccuracies in the common usage of the English 
reflexives. See Latham, Hngl. Gram. p. 150, 


110 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


generally sufficient to account for any apparent inaccuracy in 
the use of the pronouns. 

iv. There is no reciprocal pronoun in Latin; its absence is 
supplied by such phrases as inter se, invicem, alius alium, ἄτα. 
(See Nagelsbach, Lat. Stylistik, § 89.) 

Compare ἔτυψαν ἀλλήλους verberavit alius alium (ils s’entre- 
frappérent, or ils se frapperent l'un J’autre). 

The Greek ἀλλήλων is only a reduplication of ἄλλο-, and is therefore 
a synthetic form for the quasi-parathetic aliuws alium. (For the 7 com- 
pare ἔψηλα from ψάλλω, &c.) 

100. Reflexive pronouns are often substituted for re- 
ciprocal, as 

ἐδουλώθησαν οὐκ ἀμύνοντές σφισιν αὐτοῖς they were en- 
slaved, not defending themselves (one another). 

διελεγόμεθα ἡμῖν αὑτοῖς we conversed with ourselves 
(i.e. with one another). 


1.6. the reciprocity is extended into identity, just as in the 
German ‘ Wir sehen uns wieder,’ ‘we see one another again,’ 
and in the French se battre, s’entendre, se disputer, &c.: ‘ les 
républiques italiennes acharnées a se détruire.’ So in Italian, 
‘S’ amano |’ un I’ altro,’ they love each other. — Boccaccio. 
In Spanish, se aman, they love one another. ‘The case is 
reversed in this sentence of the Spectator, ‘The greatest 
masters of critical learning differ among one another’ (xeci- 
procal, instead of ‘among themselves,’ reflexive).* 


DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 


101. i. ὅδε hicce, οὗτος hic, {116,7 ἐκεῖνος iste; compare the 
Spanish este hic, ese 1116, aqued iste; and the Italian questo, 
cotesto, quello. 


li. ὅδε like questo is often used of the first person; in the 
tragedians ἀνὴρ de=éyo. 

111. So ὅδετεξέμός, Soph. Ant. 48, εἰ τὸν νεκρὸν σὺν τῇδε 
κουφιεῖς χερὶ with my aid. 

The avoidance of the personal pronoun as being too posi- 
tive and self-assertive, leads to the most curious page in the 
history of language; e.g. the use of the first person plural by 


* Dr. Latham has adduced many instances of reflexive pronouns 
becoming reciprocal and vice versé. Philolog. Trans. 1844. So the 
Hebrew Hithpahel or middle voice is often reciprocal, as hishtakshak, to 
run to and fro among one another. Ewald, Hebr. Gram. ὃ 243. 

Ὑ ὁδὶ οὑτοσὶ &e. are still more emphatic forms. 


DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 111 


royal personages, the editorial ‘we,’ &c.; the invariable substi- 
tution of the second person plural for the second person 
singular, ‘you’ for ‘thou,’ until in modern languages to 
‘duzen’ or ‘tutoyer ’ a person is either a great familiarity or an 
insult.* In Spanish, instead of thow and you, we have Usted, 
Ustedes (written Vmd.) which are contractions of Vuestra 
Merced, το. your honour. In German we have sie=‘ they,’ 
and in Italian ella ‘she,’ agreeing with vostra signoria under- 
stood. The use of a demonstrative (as οὗτος, ὅδε for ἐγὼ) is 
carried to most extravagant lengths in Chinese, where a person 
speaking of himself to a superior says, ‘this thief,’ or ‘this 
little dog,’ ‘this pigeon,’ &c. Cf. p. 28. 

iv. ὅδε also ushers a new character on the stage = δεῦρο or 
de. 


ξη 


ἀλλ᾽ ἥδ᾽ ὀπαδῶν ἐκ δόμων τις ἔρχεται but lo} one of the 
attendants is coming hither from the palace. 


Vv. οὗτος often calls a person (cf. Heus tu!); as 


ὦ οὗτος οὗτος Οἰδίπους, τί μέλλομεν 5 what ho! CKdipus, 
why are we lingering ?—Cid. C. 1627. 


Vl. kal ravra=and that too; καὶ ταῦτα δὴ τοιαῦτα so much 
then for that. 


vil. ταῦτα and τοιαῦτα usually refer to what goes before, 
rade and τοιάδε to what is coming ; 3 as 
εἰ μὴ ταῦτά ἐστιν, οὐδὲ τάδε if it isn Ἔ that, neither is it 


this—Plat. Phed. 76 ε. 

ὅταν τοῦτο λέγωμεν, τόδε λέγομεν When we say that, we 
say as follows. 

τοῦτο μὲν σὺ λέγεις, παρ᾽ ἡμῶν δ᾽ ἀπάγγελλε τάδε SO you 
say, but announce our reply as follows. 

διὰ τήνδε αἰτίαν for the following reason. 


Vill. ἐκεῖνος has the sense of ‘the famous,’ like the Latin 
alle ;f as 


* ©All that Lord Cobham did was at thy instigation, thou viper, for 
I thou thee, thou traitor. —Coke to Sir Walter Raleigh. ‘If thou thow'st 
him some thrice, it shall not be amiss.—Twelfth Night. An extract 
from the Journal of G. Fox might show that the change took place in 
his lifetime (1624-90); but even Ben Jonson says, ‘The second person 
plural is used for reverence to a singolar thing.’ Compare too the rude 
‘What trade art ¢how?’ with the polite “ You, sir, what trade are you?’ 
—Julius Cesar, i. 1. See De Vere, Studies in English, Ὁ. 242 seqq. 
Guesses at Truth, i. 163-190, &e. 

tT C£ Cic. Tusc. Quest. v. 103, ‘ Hic est ille Demosthenes.’ ‘ Hae illa 
Charybdis,’ &c., Virg. Ain, iii. 558 








112 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


60 εἰμ᾽ ἐγώ σοι κεῖνος look, I am that famous man. 
τοῦτ᾽ ἐκεῖνο, κτᾶσθ᾽ ἑταίρους this is the well-known 
proverb ‘ get friends.’ 


ix. αὐτὸς = he himself; as 
αὐτὸς ὁ ἀνὴρ the man himself. 
but ὁ αὐτὸς ἀνὴρ the same (or self-same) man. 
ταῦτα τὰ χρήματα these things. 
τὰ αὐτὰ χρήματα the same things. 


x. The supposed distinction between αὔτως ‘ likewise’ and 
αὕτως ‘in vain’ is a mere fiction of the grammarians. They 
are one cane the same word passing through various phases of 
meaning.* 


RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 


102, i. It has already been pointed out that ὅς, ἥ, 6, was 
originally a demonstrative, not a relative pronoun, and was 
probably another form of ὁ, 4, 7¢.— Hence such phrases as 
καὶ ὃς and he, ἦ δ᾽ ὃς said he, &c. 

ὃς μὲν πεινᾷ ὃς δὲ μεθύει one man is hungry, another 
drunken.—1 Cor. xi. 21. 
ὃν μὲν ἔδειραν, ὃν δὲ ἀπέκτειναν.---- Ια, xxi. 35. 


li. ὃς = who (definite), ὅστις whoever, referring to a class 
(indef.) ; ὅσπερ the very person who, referring to a distinct 
person, as 

ἔστιν δίκης ὀφθαλμός, ὃς τὰ πάνθ᾽ ὁρᾷ there is an eye of 
justice, which sees all things. 

φεύγειν μὲν οὖν Χρὴ πόλεμον. ὅστις εὖ φρονεῖ nay rather, 
any one who (quicunque) i is wise should avoid war. 

ἡμεῖς κτενοῦμεν οἵπερ ἐξεφύσαμεν I, the very person who 
bore them, will slay them. 


iii. But ὅστις does not always retain this indefinite sense; 
as ἡ πόλις ἥτις ἐν Δελφοῖς κτίζεται. 


iv. The demonstrative is often pleonastic, or merely em- 
phatic, after the relative, as 


ὧν ὁ μὲν αὐτῶν of which one of them. 


* See Hermann, Annot. de Pronom. αὐτός, ὃ xv. In such phrases as 
αὐτὴ πρὸς αὑτὴν sola mecum, Tots αὐτὸς αὑτοῦ πήμασιν βαρύνεται, &c., the 
aspirate shows that αὑτήν, &c., are contractions for cases of the reflexive 
ἑαυτοῦ, &c. 

t+ Sanskrit offers a remarkable analogy to this dropping of the final s; 
seo Monier Williams, Sanskr. Gram. ὃ 67. 


RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 1159 


οἷς Ὀλύμπιοι θεοὶ dviév ποτ᾽ αὐτοῖς, κιτ.λ. 
to whom may the Olympian gods grant in their own 
persons, &c. 

From the frequency of this idiom in Hebrew, we find it 

constantly in the LXX. and N.T. See 1 Pet. 11. 24, ἄο. 
This is precisely analogous to the English vulgarism ‘ which 
it’s a shame;’ see especially Hadt. iv. 44, ‘the Indus, which 
it’s the second river that,’ &c. In Chaucer we find such ex- 
pressions as ‘ Crist which that is to every wound triacle.’— 


Man of Lawe’s Tale. 


V. ὅστις, ὁποῖος, ὅποσος, ὅπως, ὅπου, &c.* are used in 
tndirect (or repeated) questions and sentences, for τίς ; ποῖος ; 
πῶς; ἄς. Thus 

τίς ἐποίησεν; who did it? οὐκ οἶδ᾽ ὅστις ἦν I don’t know 
who it was. 

οὗτός τι ποιεῖς ; you sir, what are you doing? ὅτι ποιῶ; 
what, quotha? 

πῶς δή, φράσω ἐγώ. “Ὅπως; φήσει How then, J shall 
say. How, quotha? he will say, &e. 


vi. The contemptuous use of ποῖος, especially with the 
article in repeated questions, should be noticed, as 
ποῖον τὸν μῦθον ἔειπες ; What manner of specch is this of 
thine ! 
Κ. οἱ πρέσβεις οἱ παρὰ βασιλέως. A. ποίου βασιλέως; Her. 
The ambassadors from the king. Dic. Fine king for- 
sooth !—Ar. Ach. 62; cf. 157, &c. 


vii. Pronouns (and especially relatives) are peculiarly liable 
to attraction, as 


μέμνησθε οὗ ὁμωμόκατε remember the oath which you 
swore. 

χρῶμαι οἷς ἔχω βιβλίοις 1 use the books I have. 

ἄντρον ἃς Μακρὰς κικλήσκομεν a cave which we call Macre. 


In English, by a reverse process, the antecedent is sometimes 
attracted into the case of the relative; as ‘When him we 


* These being mere luxuries, not necessaries of language, have for 
the most part disappeared in the New Testament; and, as usual, in 
Modern Greek. When the question is not repeated out of any surprise, 
irony, misapprehension, &c., then these forms are not used; e.g. 


Tl. καὶ πῶς ἐν ἄντρῳ παῖδα σὺν λιπεῖν ἔτλης ; 
Kp. πῶς δ᾽;---]οη, 958. 


And how didst thou endure to leave thy child in the cave? Cr. ΔΒ] 
how indeed! [‘ You may well ask how.’} 


114 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


serve’s away. —Ant. and Cleop. iii. 1; cf. Coriol. v. 5. This 
resembles the Latin ‘ Hunuchum, quem dedisti nobis, quas 
turbas fecit.—Ter. Hun. iv. 8. Cf. Virg. din. i. 573. 


vill. Notice the phrases, 
οὐκ ἔσθ᾽ ὅπου nowhere. 
οὖκ ἔστιν ὅπως nullo modo. 
οὐκ ἔσθ᾽ ὅπως ov most certainly. 
ὃ δ᾽ ἐζήλωσας ἡμᾶς quant ἃ ce que vous nous portez envie, 
‘as for your jealousy of us’ (cf. guod in Latin). 
ix. Notice the following pronominal adverbs : 


πῶς; how? quomodo? πώς, somehow ; aliguo modo, 
ποῦ; where? ubi? πού, somewhere; alicubt. 

πῇ: ’ which way? gud? mh, some way; aligud. 

πότε; when ? quando? ποτέ, at some time ; aliquando. 
ποῖ; ‘whither? quo ¢ mot, some whither; aliquo. 


The forms ὅπου, ὁπότε, &ec., are used in indirect sentences ; ποῖ, πῇ, are 
the dative masculine and feminine of an obsolete pronoun πός (as a 
from és). 


INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 


103. i. τίς ; = who? τις enclitic = a, or a certain. 
ἤ τις ἢ οὐδεὶς scarcely any one. 
τρεῖς τινες some three, ‘ one or two.’ 
ii. The indefinite is sometimes politely put for the definite, 
as we say ‘some one shall smart for it’ =you; κνίζω τινὰ 
I’m annoying some one = you. 


11, The indefinite τις resembles our ‘ one,’ the German man, 
the French on, as 
τοῦτο δή τις ἀποκρίναιτ᾽ ἂν on pourrait répondre, cela; 
hoc juste responderis. 
ποῖ τις τρέψεται; whither shall one turn oneself? 


iv. 6 δεῖνα ‘a certain person,’ ‘so and so,’ some one whom 
we do not know, or do not choose to name. 
ὁ δεῖνα καὶ 6 deiva==‘ John Doe and Richard Roe,’ ‘ Brown, 
Jones, and Robinson;’ compare the Latin ‘ Caius et 
Sempronius.’ 


v. Observe the phrases, 
τί παθών ; from what cause? 
τί μαθών ; on what inducement? > = why? 
τί ἔχων ; with what reason? 
τί yap; why then? ἵνα τί; why? 
τί μήν ; of course! why not? 


VERBS. 115 


DIsTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS. 


104. i. ΓΑλλος alius, another; érepoc* the othe: of two, 
alter; ἕκαστος unusquisque, ἑκάτερος uterque. 
ἄλλοι = others; οἱ ἄλλοι the rest, cetert. 
οἱ ἕτεροι the opposite party, pars altera; ἑτερόφθαλμωυς 
having lost one eye. 
μετατίθεσθε.. . . εἰς ἕτερον εὐαγγέλιον, ὃ οὐκ ἔστιν ἄλλο, 
Gal. i. 6, Ye are changed to a quite different Gospel, 
which is not another of the same kind (Clyde). 

ii, By a curious apposition of ἄλλος with its substantive, we 
get the common Greek form of expression, ‘sheep and other 
camels’ = sheep, and other animals, viz. camels; as 

ὑπὸ τῶν πολιτῶν καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ξένων, Plat. Gorg. 473 ο, 
by the citizens and the rest, viz. foreigners. 

ἤγοντο δὲ καὶ ἕτεροι δύο κακοῦργοι σὺν αὐτῷ ἀναιρεθῆγχαι, 
Luke xxiii. 32, And two different persons, viz. male- 
factors, were led to be crucified with him (not as in 
the Eng. Ver. ‘ two other malefactors’). 

N.B. Αλλο καὶ ἄλλο one thing after another. 

ἄλλος ἄλλο λέγει ONE Man says one thing, another another. 
Cf. ‘ Alia ex aliis in fata vocamur,’ /n. 111. 496, We are 

summoned into one destiny after another. | 
‘ Alii 8110 intueri,’ Liv. ix. v. 8. 


It will be seen how much more awkward is the English 
idiom. 


THE VERB. 


105. i. The very name Verb (ῥῆμα verbum) implies that it 
is the word, the most important word, in the sentence (see 


§ 69). 
ii. The forms of verbs may be tabulated thus: 
Verbs. 
| 


Transitive. Intransitive. 
spec ee Seine τα inne nana 
| 


Active. Deponent. Neuter. Passive. 


* ἕτερος, Sanskrit antaras, Germ. ander, ὅσο. 


116 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


VoIces (διαθέσεις). 


106. A Greek verb has three voices, active, passive, and 
middle. 

107. Active Voice.—We have already seen that the reason 
why so many transitive verbs have also an intransitive mean- 
ing, is that the latter is the older meaning out of which the 
other was developed. 

108. Deronent Vers have only a middle form, and it is 
probable that they were all originally reflexive. It is not 
surprising that many deponents have also tenses of a passive 
form (e.g. ἐδεξάμην excepi, ἐδέχθην exceptus sum; ἐβιασάμην 
coegi, ἐβιάσθην coactus sum, &c.); or that their tenses are 
used in a passive sense,* as is so commonly the case with the 
future middle (ἄρξομαι, τιμήσομαι, ἑηλώσομαι, λέξομαι, κηρύ- 
ξομαι, ἁλώσομαι, &c.). 

109. i. Passtve Voice.—The passive form implies that the 
subject of the proposition is not the agent; the agentiis usually 
expressed by ὑπὸ with the genitive, or, in verbs which imply 
comparison, by the genitive alone; also by ἐκ (poet.), and 
παρὰ (more rarely by πρὸς and ἀπὸ) with the genitive; and, 
especially after the perf. pass., by the dative case; as ἐμοὶ 
πέπρακται τοὖργον the deed has been done by me. 

ii. Even those verbs which govern a genitive or dative may 
in Greek be used passively, and this genitive or dative may 
become the subject of the passive verb; e.g. ἀποτέμνειν τινὸς 
τὴν κεφαλήν, and in the passive ot στρατηγοὶ ἀποτμηθέντες τὰς 
κεφαλάς ; πιστεύω τινί τι, and in the passive πεπίστευμαί τι 
I have been entrusted with something. 

N.B. Notice the difference between the Greek and Latin 
idiom in Wevarne ov πιστεύεται mendaci non creditur. 

110. Mippie Vorce.—The middle voice always refers to 
self in some relation or other, which may be expressed a. by 
the genitive, ὦ. dative, c. accusative, or d. by a pronominal 
adjective; as 

a. ἀπωσάμενος pushing away from myself. 
ὃ. παρασκευάζομαι I prepare for myself. 





* Just as, on the other hand, some passive forms are used in the 
sense of neuters, as πορευθῆναι to march, κοιμηθῆναι to sleep, φοβηθῆναι, 
ἀπαλλαγῆναι, &c. In later Greek, the middle is often used in a passive 
sense. Such peculiarities cause no practical confusion; in French the 
reflexive verb is often passive, as in ‘ Votre heureux larcin ne se peut 
plus celer.—Racine. 


THE MIDDLE VOICE. 117 


δ. ἀπάγξασθαι to hang oneself. 
ἃ. τύπτομαι τὴν κεφαλὴν I beat my own head. 


In Jater Greek a reflexive pronoun with the active is often 
used instead of the middle, as ζωννύειν ἑαυτόν, John xxi. 18; 
and this reflexive pronoun is even added to the middle, as 
διεμερίσαντο ἑαυτοῖς, John xix. 24. The gradual obsolescence 
of the middle in the New Testament appears from its being 
sometimes used indifferently with the active (cf. συγκαλεῖ, 
Luke xv. 6, with συγκαλεῖται, id. 9). 


111. There are four chief uses of the middle. 


i, Simply reflexive, as λούομαι I wash myself. 

ii. Causative, as παρατίθεμαι τράπεζαν I get a table spread 
for me; διδάσκομαι τὸν υἱὸν I get my son taught (do- 
cendum curo). This is like the German reflexive 
(sich) lassen. 

iii. Indirect or appropriative, as παρασκενάζομαι τὰ ἐπιτήδεια 
apparo mihi commeatum ; κατεστρέψατο τὸν Μῆδον he 
subdued the Mede to himself; πράττομαι χρήματα I 
get myself money. 

iv. Reciprocal, as rumrovra they strike each other; ὠστι- 
οὔνται they jostle each other; κελεύονται they exhort 
each other; διαμάχονται they fight each other. (Cf 
the Latin deponents convicior, cohortor, &c.) 


Sometimes too a distinctly reflexive middle takes an accusa- 
tive of the object affected by the state, as in Homer, εἴπερ ἂν 
αὐτὸν Σεύωνται ταχέες τε κύνες even though swift dogs should 
stir themselves in pursuit of him; ἐκόπτοντο αὐτὴν (Luke viii 


52) they beat their breasts for her. Cf. Aristoph. Lys. 397. 


112, Notice the difference of θεῖναι νόμους of a despot; 
θέσθαι νόμους of a legislator who will himself be bound by the 
laws he makes. 

θεῖναι οἰκίαν to mortgage a house; θέσθαι οἰκίαν to take 
a house on mortgage. 

λῦσαι to set free; λύσασθαι to ransom. 

χρῆσαι to lend (or give an oracle) ; χρήσασθαι to borrow 
(or consult an oracle). 

δανείζω Llend; δανείζομαι I borrow. 

λανθάνω I lie hid: λανθάνομαι I forget. 

φοβέω I frighten ; φοβοῦμαι I fear. 

παύω I make to cease; παύομαι I cease. 

aipéw I take; alnstipsan I choose. 

βουλεύω 1 counsel; βουλεύομαι I consult. 


118 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


ἀποδίδωμι 1 restore; ἀποδίδομαι I sell. 

περιδίδωμι 1 give round ; περιδίξομαι I wager. 

γράφω 1 enrol; γράφομαι I indict. 

φράζω I speak; φράζομαι I think. 

μισθῶ I let; μισθοῦμαι 1 hire. 

πείθω I persuade ; πείθομαι I obey. 

ἄρχω Irule; ἄρχομαι I begin. 

στέλλω I send; στέλλομαι I set out. 

γαμῶ duco uxorem (of a man); γαμοῦμαι nubo (of a 
woman). 

σπένδω I pour a libation; σπένδομαι I make a truce. 

σκοπῶ I look ; σκοποῦμαι 1 look mentally, I consider. 

ποιῶ λόγον I compose a speech; ποιοῦμαι λόγον I make 
a speech. 

πολιτεύω Lam a citizen; πολιτεύομαι I live as a citizen. 


The last two instances are typical of many others. 


118. The following passages will illustrate some uses of the 
middle : 

"Avépa τις λιπόγυιον ὑπὲρ νώτοιο λιπαυγὴς 

ἦγε, πόδας χρήσας, ὄμματα χρησάμενος (Anthol.) a blind 
man was carrying on his back a lame man, lending his 
feet, borrowing his eyes. 

ἐκεῖνος οὐκ ἔγημεν ἀλλ᾽ ἐγήματο (Anacr. 84) he didn’t 
marry her, but she married him (of a henpecked hus- 
band; comp. Martial’s ‘uxori nubere nolo mez,’ I don’t 
want my wife to marry me). 

TOV TE ἀετὸν ἀνεσωσάμην καὶ TOY στρατοπεδίρχην ἔσωσα 
(Dion H. iv. 2088) I saved my eagle and saved the 
tribune. 

αἰτεῖτε καὶ ob λαμβάνετε, διότι κακῶς αἰτεῖσθε (Jas. iv. 2) 
Ye ask and receive not, because ye ask for yourselves 
amiss. 


114. It will be observed that the active form of verbs is 
often used when the meaning is simply physical, the middle 
when some action of the mind is involved; compare, for in- 
stance, ποιεῖν δῶμα and ποιεῖσθαι ἀναβολήν, βρόχους ἅπτειν 
and ἅψασθαι πέπλων (sc. in supplication), ὥρεξε κύλικα and 
παιδὸς ὠρέξατο. 

N.B. i. The Hebrew middle voice (Hithpael) is closely analogous to 
the Greek, and is similarly reflexive, indirect, and reciprocal. (Ewald, 
Hebr. Gram. § 243.) 

ii. The middle voice exists in Latin, though not developed to the same 
extent as in Greek; e.g. accingi, tr gird oneself; provolui ad pedes, to 


NINE POSSIBLE TENSES. . 119 


roll oneself at a person’s feet ; misceri, to mix with others; mutari, to 
change ; vertor, versor, volvor, plangor, cireumfundor, &e. 

iii. There is no middle voice in English; in such sentences as ‘ the 
book reads badly,’ ‘the doors open at six, &c., the verbs are merely 
transitives used intransitively. The same remark applies to many 
Latin verbs, such as muto, &c. 

iv. The name Middle is clearly defective, since it is as active as the 
Active; it is also a name of little meaning (see Clark, Comparat. Gram. 
Ῥ. 182). 


TENSES (ypovor).—CoOMPARISON OF THE GREEK, LaTIN, AND 
ENGLISH VERBS. 


115. A tense (tempus χρόνος) is properly speaking a form 
of the verb which by its termination (or inflection) expresses 
time. 


116. There are two main classes of tenses, primary and 
historical. 

Since there are only three primary modes of regarding time, 
viz. present, past, and future,* the three primary tenses are 


1. Present (ὁ ἐνεστὼς ypdvoc). 
2. Perfect (or past, perfectum=finished) (ὁ παρακείμενος). 
3. Future (ὁ μέλλων). 


All the other tenses are called historical, viz, aorist (ἀόριστος), 
imperfect (wapararikdc), and plupertect (ὑπερσυντελικός). ᾿ 


117, Observe that the 3rd pers. dual of the primary tenses 
(and also of the subjunctive mood) ends in ov; but the 3rd 
pers. dual of the historical tenses (and of the optative mood) 
ends in nr. 

Besides this difference, simple reduplication belongs mainly 
to the primary, and the pure augment only to the historical 
tenses. 


118, Since any action can only be regarded as either 
1. present, 2. past, or 3. future; and since every action may 
be a. finished, or perfect; . going on, i.e. unfinished, or 
imperfect; and y. indefinite; it is clear that any verb, to 
be faultlessly synthetic, would provide nine tenses{ in the 


* Hence the inscription on the veil of the mystic Isis, “1 am that 
which is, hath been, and shall be.’—Plut. Jsid. ix. 

t+ This distinction of primary and historic tenses applies mainly to 
the indicative, and with far less precision to the other moods; e.g. in 
the imperative λέξον is as much a primary tense as λέγε. 

1 The number of tenses varies greatly in different languages. In 
Sanskrit there are six, in Hebrew only two, in French five, in English 


120 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


indicative mood, viz. three past tenses, three present tenses, and 
three future tenses; or, which is another way of expressing 
the same thing, three tenses (past, present, and future) to ex- 
press that an action is, was, or will be going on; three (past, 
present, future) to express that it is, has been, or will be 
Jinished ; and three (past, present, future) to express that it is, 
has been, or will be indefinite. [‘Nulléd dum temporis habitd 
ratione, res queque potest tripliciter significari, et ut futura, 
et ut inchoata, et ut absoluta. Jam tempus in universum tri- 
plex est, preteritum, instans, futurum.—Reizius. | 

119. These tables may be tabulated thus, and a thorough 
mastery of their classification is essential to a right under- 
standing of tenses. It is easy to master, and when once 
mastered, cannot well be forgotten :* 


1. Three present tenses—— 


Time. English. Greek and Latin. 
a, Finished or ve T have (sc. now) dined Γ δεδείπνηκα 


fect. . ὁ. ὁ Leenavi. 

5. Untied oF.) yam dining soe aa 
psa Ware .“ιἷ57ς᾿- 
2. Three past tenses— 

a tater Vz iad dee Ua 
δ᾽ Mimperfoat ς ἡ tas dining Ῥα 
γεν οὐδ τὰ a τσοὺ. { anette in Latin]. 





two, &c. It will be observed that I confine the name ¢ense to actual 
inflected forms of the verb, and do not include in it compound tenses, 
i.e. expressions formed by auxiliaries. 

* Harris, in his celebrated Hermes, has the credit of originating (by 
improvements on the hints of the Stoics and Varro) this very lucid and 
philosophical view of the tenses. It is admirably developed in a useful 
book of Mr. F. Whalley Harper’s—Powers of the Greek Tenses. An 
inferior but ingenious tabulation had been previously given in S. Clarke’s 
note on Hom. Jl. i. 37, which Wolf called the best note in his edition. 
For a vast amount about the whole subject, see Herm. Schmidt, Doctrina 
Temporum verbi Greci et Latini, 1836. It was partially, but indepen- 
dently, elaborated by Reizius, Dissert. de temporibus et modis verbi. 
Lips. 1766. Burnout’s classification, adopted by Donaldson and others, 
appears to me much less accurate and philosophical. 

t+ The unfinished present or present-imperfect, Sema, ceno, used 
instead. 





SCHEME OF TENSES. 121 


ὃ. Three future tenses— 


Time. English. Greek and Latin. 
= panes ODE. aa I shall have dined. eta isa 
ἢ ΤΈΣΣ ἐν a5} PELE COTO at ee ae 
y. Indefinite or | ro [δειπνήσω 
ΠΗ, Ὁ. ὦ οἱ ECL σε. cenabo. 


120. Or we may have the same scheme reversed, and as it 
is very important that it should be understood, let us give 
it in the reverse order, as follows: 


a. Three finished or perfect tenses— 


Time. English. Greek. Latin. 
1. Present . .|Jhave(now)dined| δεδείπνηκα cenavi 
2. Past . . .|J had dined ἐδεδειπνήκειν cenaveram 
8. Future . .|Z shall have dined | [wanting] cenavero 


β. Three unfinished or imperfect tenses— 











1. Present . Iam dining δειπνῶ ceno 

2. Past . . I was dining ἐδείπνουν cenabam 

3. Future . 1 shall be dining [wanting] [wanting] 
y. Three indefinite or aorist tenses— 

1. Present . 1 dine [wanting] [wanting 

2. Past . 1 dined ἐδείπνησα [ wanting 

3. Future . 1 shall dine δειπνήσω cenabo 











* “Ecouat δειπνῶν (comp. New Testament, Matt. xxiv.9; ἔσεσθε μισυύ- 
pevot, Luke i. 20, v. 20) would be admissible for the future-imperfect 
‘I shall be dining; ’ and this is an approach which the Greek verb makes 
to the use of auxiliaries for the purpose of conjugation. But the instances 
are not common, a3 πεποιηκὼς ἔσομαι I shall have done it.—Isoe. 7. ἀντιδ, 
§ 317. οὐκέτ᾽ ἐκ καλυμμάτων | ἔσται δεδορκώς.--- Asch. Ag. 1178. γεγραμ- 
μένος ἦσθα you were painted. Of course we find the auxiliary in the 
moods of the perfect passive τετυμμένος ὦ, &c. Another instance of this 
terxdency is the occasional resolution of a future into θέλω or μέλλω with 
the infinitive, an analytical proceeding which has ousted the synthetic 
future from modern Greek; as θὰ πολεμῶμεν we shall be fighting; θὰ 
ἔχω I shall have. Such forms as ἀτιμάσας ἔχει, Soph.; ἦτε πάσχοντες 
τάδε, Hur., are not mere auxiliaries, but periphrases adopted to imply 
continuance (cf. Ps. exxii.2; Heb. Matt. vii. 29); and the same remark 
applies to the σχῆμα Χαλκιδικὸν (or Oropism) of τυγχάνω, ὑπάρχω, &e., 
with various participles (cf. Mark i. 4). 


G 


122 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


Or the same arrangement might be tabulated as follows: 


OBJECTIVE TENSES 


(i.e. tenses of the Indicative, expressive of facts). 





| 
DEFINITE. INDEFINITE, ra AOLISTIC. 
| | | 
Present. Past. Future. 
[wanting] ἐδείπνησα δειπνήσω 
I dine. I dined. I shall dine 
caenabo. 
FINISHED, or UNFINISHED, or 
PERFECT. IMPERFECT. 
| 
| | | | | 
Present. Past. Future. Present. Past. Future. 
δεδείπνηκα ἐδεδειπνήκειν [wanting] δειπνῶ ἐδείπνουν [wanting] 
Ihave dined Ihad dined Ishallhave Iamdining I was dining I shall be 
(now) cenaveram dined ceno. cenabam. dining ἔσομαι 
cenavi. , caenavero. δειπνῶν cena- 
turus sum. 


121. This scheme of tenses suggests several important 
remarks and inferences. 

1. Observe that it offers us a means of comparing the 
Greek, the Latin, and the English verb, and that taking the 
word ‘tense’ to mean an inflected verbal-form significant ot 
time, there are 


In Greek six of the nine tenses; 
In Latin six 3 5 
In English two 5 7 


The six Greek tenses are not however the same as the six Latin, 
for Greek has a separate aorist (ἐδείπνησα) which Latin has 
not; * and Latin has a future perfect (ccenavero) which Greek 
has not (except in rare forms like ἑστήξω, τεθνήξω). The 
only tense which is wanting both in Greek and Latin is the 
aorist-present or indefinite-present (‘I dine’), which strange 
to say is one of the only two tenses which English possesses ; 


* It has been said that ‘the superiority of the Greek verb to the 
Latin, consists in the possession of another voice, another mood, another 
tense, and a much greater variety of participles.’ This judgment is by 
no means correct. We shall see hereafter that Latin is not destitute 
of a middle; that the optative is no mood at all, but merely a name for 
past tenses of the subjunctive, and that Latin has an optative ; that if 
it has no separate form for the past-aorist (I dined, ἐδείπνησα) it has 
on the other hand in the active a future-perfect (cwnavero, I shall have 
dined), which Greek has not; and that, although it has fewer parti- 
ciples, it has gerundives and supines which are wanting to Greek. 


NOMENCLATURE OF TENSES. 123 


the other English tense, the aorist-past or indefinite-past 
(‘I dined’), being also wanting in Latin, though it exists in 
Greek (ἐδείπνησα). 
The other so-called tenses of the English verb (I have dined, 
I shall dine, &c.) are not properly speaking tenses at all, not 
being formed by inflection, but by a mere use of the auxiliary, 
which is much less neat and expressive than the synthetic or 
inflectional forms of Greek and Latin. 
2. Observe particularly that, whenever strictly and properly 

used, 

τύπτω is not ‘I strike,’ but ‘I am striking.’* 

τύπτομαι is not “1 am struck,’ but ‘I am beng struck.’ 
In other words, they are wn/finished (imperfect) tenses; and if 
the tenses were at all correctly named, τύπτω, τύπτομαι would 
not be called presents (as though there were only one present 
in each voice, whereas as we have seen there are three) but 
present-imperfects. Thus δείκνυται ταῦτα is, ‘these things are 
being proved, but most boys would render it quite wrongly, 
‘these things are proved,’ which would be the rendering (not 
of δείκνυται but) of δέδεικται. Frequently indeed, just as the 
Greeks have no present-aorist, and sometimes use the present- 
imperfect for it (i.e. they say δειπνῶ “1 am dining’ when they 
mean ‘I dine’), so we translate their present-imperfect by our 
present-aorist; thus 

Erp. πρῶτον μὲν ὅτι δρᾷς ἀντιβολῶ κάτειπέ μοι. 

Σωκρ. ἀεροβατῶ καὶ περιφρονῶ τὸν ἥλιον. 
This has been racily rendered 


Streps. First tell me, I implore, what are you doing? 
Socr. I tread the air and circumspect the sun. 


But literally it is, ‘ ] am treading the air,’ &c., which is much 
more vivid in Greek ; it would also be more vivid in English, 
but for the intolerable awkwardness of the English periphrasis 
(‘I am’ with the present-participle) for the Greek present- 
imperfect. 

The translators of our English Version have failed more 
frequently from their partial knowledge of the force of the 
tenses than from any other cause, and their neglect of the 
continuous meaning of the present often loses us lessons of 
profound significance; e.g. in Col. 111. 6, dv ἃ ἔρχεται ἡ ὀργὴ 


* So that in this respect Greek is the reverse of German, which has, 
like the English, a present aorist (ich ese, I read), but no present imper- 
fect, ‘I am reading,’ for which they must use ich lese jetzt or eben. 


G2 


124 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


τοῦ Θεοῦ ἐπὶ rove υἱεῖς τῆς ἀπειθείας on which account the 
wrath of God ts ever coming upon, &c., i.e. by a process of 
natural laws; Matt. xxv. 8, at λαμπάδες ἡμῶν σβέννυνται our 
lamps are going out, are being quenched, not ‘ are gone out.’ 
3. Clearly then the present nomenclature of tenses is very 
misleading unless we are specially careful to see through it, 
and not suffer it to mislead us; it is of course far too deeply 
rooted to be superseded, but any one who has understood the 
above tables will see that 
The so-called present is a present-imperfect : 
‘I am dining;’ i.e. an action is going on, which is not 
yet finished. 
The so-called imperfect is a past-imperfect : 
‘I was (at some past time) dining’ (and the action 
was not finished). 
The so-called perfect is a present-perfect : 
‘I have (at this moment) dined.’ 
The so-called pluperfect is a past-perfect : 
‘T had (at some past time) dined,’ or ‘ finished dining.’ 
The so-called aorists (1st and 2nd) are past-aorists : 
ΟἽ (at some time or other not specified) dined.’ The 
Greek has no present-aorist, ‘ I dine.’ 
The so-called future is a future-aorist : 
‘I shall (at some time or other not specified) dine.’ 


4, It may be asked why in the above scheme no notice is 
taken of the second aorist? Simply because the first and 
second aorists, when both exist, are merely two different forms 
to express the same* meaning. 


122. The terms first and second aorist are misleading; 
indeed the second aorist is always the older form of the two ; fT 
for the second aorist is formed directly from the stem, thus 
preserving the simplest form of the verb, and its most un- 
qualified meaning (e.g. ἔτυπον from rum), whereas the first 
aorist is formed not only by the prefix of an augment, but 


* The same remark applies to tao first and second perfect, except 
that in this case it is disputed among grammarians which of the two 
forms is really the older. The grounds on which Donaldson decides in 
favour of the second perfect being a younger and mutilated form, seem 
to me very unconvincing. (New Crat. p. 566.) 

+ Few verbs have both the first and second aor. in use. The exist- 
ence of two forms, one older and more recent, side by side, may be 
paralleled by the English, as in clomb climbed, squoee squeezed, clave 
cleft, ὅσο. The archaic forms clomb, squoze, clave, &c., are analogous to 
the Greek second aorist (so-called), 


NATURE OF THE AORIST. 125 


also by the suffix of the letter σ (which is no doubt conneeted 
with ἐσ-μι, éo-re), denoting futurity. 

The reason why the first and second aorist have the same 
meaning is because the second aorist (e.g. érurov) by simply 
preefixing the augment to the pure stem of the verb, implies a 
momentary action in the past. And the first aorist by pre- 
fixing the augment (which indicates past time) and suffixing o, 
which indicates future time, implies an action which was future 
and is past, i.e. an indefinite past action, which thus coincides 
in meaning with the second aorist.* (Clyde, Gk. Syntax.) 

123. The student should avoid rendering the aorist by 
‘have,’ which is the sign of the present-perfect. It is indeed 
true that the Greeks sometimes used the aorist indicative 
where we use the perfect, and in this case we must substitute 
our idiom for theirs; but this does not obliterate the distinc- 
tion between the aorist and perfect (see note t, next page). 


124, Whatever difference there is in English between 
I dined (e.g. ten years ago at Rome) 
and 
IT have dined (this evening), 
the same difference exists in Greek between 
ἐδείπνησα = I dined. 
δεδείπνησα = 1 have dined. 


It is one of the main defects of the indicative of the Latin 
verb, that it is obliged to use one form cenavi for these two 
very different meanings. In fact the existence of the aoristic 
termination in such perfects as vix?, scrip-s7, &c. shows clearly 
that in Latin verbs there is sometimes a perfect, formed by 
reduplication, and sometimes an aorist substituted for it. Thus 


* Curtius calls the second the strong, and the first the weak aorist, 
because the latter is formed by extraneous additions to the stem. Thus 
in English ‘I took’ is a strong aorist, being formed from ‘I take’ by a 
modification of the vowel (called by Pott a qualitative change, as in 
Hebrew, and named by German philologists laut, and by the French 
apophonie, as in sing, sang, sung); but ‘I loved’ is a weak aorist, being 
I love-d=I love-did, and thus being formed by an auxiliary. In fact 
the strong aorist €rumoy differs from the weak ἔτυψα hardly more than 
λέλυται does from solutus est. 

t+ Burnouf says, ‘Le parfait exprime une action accomplie, mais dont 
l’effet subsiste au moment οὐ Jl’on parle; tandis que l’aoriste présente 
Yaction comme simplement passée;’ e.g. if I say ‘he has lived well,’ I 
can only be speaking of some one yet alive, or just dead; if I say ‘he 
lived well,’ I may be referring to any one since the days of Adam. 


126 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


the Latin perfect has both meanings, but is more often an aorist 
than a perfect. This accounts for the fact that vent ut videam 
and veni ut viderem are both right; the former meaning ‘I 
have come that I may see,’ the latter ‘I came that I might see.’ ὁ 
It is extremely probable that a slight difference in pronuncia- 
tion may have helped to distinguish between the meanings.* 


125, The aorist, which most English boys look upon as some 
unknown Greek monster, ought to be the most familiar tense 
of all, because the only tenses in their own language are aorists ; 
‘I dine’ (the present aorist), ‘I dined’ (the past aorist). 


126. The word aorist, which is first found in Dionysius 
Thrax, simply means indefinite,t being derived from a not, 
and δρίζω I limit (whence comes our word horizon, the bound- 
ing line). A boy usually takes ‘I dine,’ ‘I strike,’ &c., for pre- 
sents, and ‘I dined,’ ‘I struck,’ &c., for perfects; yet in answer 
to the question ‘what are you doing?’ he would not dream 
of using the aorist ‘I dine,’ but the present ‘I am dining;’ 
nor when leaving the tabie would he say ‘I dined,’ but ‘I 
have dined.’ 


127. Thus it will be seen that the aorist, as the tense of 
narration, the tense in which all history is written, is one of 
the most necessary tenses of all! Consequently it is more 
important and more frequently used than the perfect, which 
belongs to the present rather than to the past. Hence in 
Modern Greek the aorist has almost superseded the perfect, 
and the so-called Latin perfect is far more frequently aoristic 
in sense. 


128. Very rarely indeed we are compelled by the English 
idiom to introduce the present-perfect (or perfect with ‘ have’) 
in rendering the aorist (especially the aorist participle); { but 





* Burgeraff suggests that when the aorist meaning was intended, the 
word may have been pronounced slightly more rapidly. (Principes de 
Gram. Gén. p. 373.) 

t+ It is the same word as ‘infinitive,’ which also means ‘ indefinite,’ 
being a form of the verb not limited to any subject. Curiously enough 
the aorist is called in French ‘le prétéri défini’ (e.g. ’écrivis). The 
reason is that it is definite with reference to some other action which 
may be in the mind; e.g. ‘A Varrivee du messager j écrivis une lettre.’ 
Greek often uses it when no other term to mark time is employed ; but 
French does not. E. Burnouf, Grammaire grecque, § 60. 

1 “ χρονικὰ emipinuara aoristo conjungi solent; ἄρτι ἐποίησα, πολλάκις 
ἐθαύμασα, &e.; unde naturam perfecti quodam modo induere videtur. 
Shilleto on Demosth. De Fals. Legat. § 228. Mr. Cope (Pref. to his 
edition of the Gorgias, p. Xvi.) quotes ἔφυγον κακόν, εὗρον ἄμεινον, the 


AORISTS AND IMPERFECTS. 127 


the rule is, never translate the aorist by ‘have.’ The past- 
aorist must often be rendered by a present aorist, because the 
Greek uses it in this sense, having, as we have seen, no special 
form for the present aorist; e.g. ‘many things happen contrary 
to experience,’ would be in Greek πολλὰ παρὰ γνώμην ἔπεσε. 

129. Unless the student is alive to the true nature of the 
aorist, and the fact that it is often used with imperfect tenses 
to express the contrast between momentary and continuous 
actions, he will miss half the beauty and picturesqueness of 
the best Greek authors. 

Take some instances : 

Κροῖσος “Αλυν διαβὰς μεγάλην ἀρχὴν καταλύσει not 
‘having crossed the Halys,’ but ‘ Cresus on crossing 
the Halys will ruin a great kingdom.’ 

παθὼν δέ τε νήπιος ἔγνω ‘ even a child learns by suffering,’ 
not ‘ having suffered.’ 

γελάσας εἶπε not ‘having laughed,’ but ‘he exclaimed, 
laughing,’ or ‘ he burst out laughing, and said.’ 

130. In our English version of the Bible the aorist is often 
wrongly rendered by have, and the picturesque difference 
between aorists and imperfects lost ;* e.g. 

Luke viii. 23: 


κατέβη λαῖλαψ ... καὶ συνεπληροῦντο there came down a 
gust of wind and they (not ‘ were filled,’ but) began to 
be filled. 

Mark vii. 35: 

ἐλύθη ὁ δεσμὸς τῆς γλώσσης αὐτοῦ, Kal ἐλάλει ὀρθῶς the 
string of his tongue was loosed, and he began to speak 
plainly. 

John vi. 14: ; 
ἀνέβη . . . καὶ ἐδίδασκεν went up, and began to teach. 





exultant cry of the newly-initiated, as an instance of the aorist where we 
should use the perfect. All such cases prove, not any identity of mean- 
ing between the tenses, but a different intellectual stand-point; the aorists 
here (as in Modern Greek) express merely a finished past action, with no 
reference to the time of completion. And the same is true of the gnomic 
aorist (§ 154); e.g.in such a line as ‘ Qui ne sait se borner ne swt jamais 
écrire’ (Boileau), either ‘ne sait pas,’ or “π᾿ α jamais su’ would have done 
equally well; but this does not prove any identity between the tenses. 
As we haye no aorist participle or infinitive, we must, of course, some- 
times use the auxiliary ‘ have’ in rendering those forms. 

* German, like Latin, has no aorist; it therefore uses the imperfect 
regularly in its place. 


128 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


John xii. 13: 
ἐξῆλθον .. . καὶ ἔκραζον went out, and kept crying. 
John xiii. 27: 
ὃ ποιεῖς ποίησον do (at once) what you are about. 
Acts xi. 6: 
ἀτενίσας Karevdovy καὶ εἶδον gazing, I began to distinguish 
(impf.), and saw (aor.), &. 
κρεῖσσον γαμῆσαι ἣ πυροῦσθαι it is better to marry (once 
for all) than to be burning. 


In Matt. ili. 7, 8, ποιήσατε τοὺς κάρπους is not ‘bring 
forth,’ but ‘ have done bringing forth,’ i.e. do it once for all. 
See, too, John vii. 8, 24, xii. 6, xvii. 12. 


131. In classical Greek take one or two further instances : 
Nub. 2338: 
εἴπερ βάλλει τοὺς ἐπιόρκους πῶς οὐχὶ Σίμων᾽ ἐνέπρησε; 
‘If his way is to strike the perjured, why does he not 
blast Simon ?’ 
ot Ἕλληνες ἐπαίανιζον ... καὶ ἅμα τὰ δόρατα καθίεσαν" 
ἐνταῦθα οὐκέτι ἐδέξαντο οἱ πολέμιοι ἀλλ᾽ ἔφευγον the 
Greeks began the war song, and at the same moment 
levelled their spears; whereon the enemy no longer 
awaited them, but began to fly. 


Iph. Taur. 1806: 


ἀνωλόλυξε καὶ κατῇδε ‘She raised her voice, and began to 

sing.’ 
Plat. Parmen. 127: 

ἐβαδίζομεν καὶ κατελάβομεν τὸν ᾿Αντιφῶντα we were walk- 
ing and overtook Antipho. 

χαλεπὸν τὸ ποιεῖν τὸ δὲ κελεῦσαι padioy it is difficult to 
carry out a thing, but to give the order is easy. 

μὴ τύπτε do not be striking (a general prohibition) ; μὴ 
rune do not strike (a special prohibition).* 

ἐάν τις κάμνῃ τῶν οἰκετῶν Should any of the servants be 
sick [xapn=should fall sick] παρακαλεῖς ἰατροὺς ὅπως 
μὴ ἀποθάνῃ. 

τοῦτον ἡμεῖς φοβώμεθα ; are we to be afraid of him? τοῦ- 
Tov ἡμεῖς φοβησώμεθα ; are we to take alarm at him? 





* Donaldson points out that in John xx. 17, μή μου ἅπτου is not 
‘touch me not’ (which would be ἅψῃ), but ‘do not be clinging to me ’— 
a most important difference. 


USES OF THE TENSES. 129 


132. Owing to the use of the past-aorist [e.g. ἐδείπνησα] 
to supply the absence of any present-aorist [‘I dine’] in 
Greek, many past-aorists have permanently acquired a present 
sense, as nveca I praise, ἀπέπτυσα 1 hate, ἐθαύμασα I wonder, 
ἐδεξάμην I accept, &c. For a list of such expressions see 
Hermann in Vigerum, 162. Dr. Ciyde thinks that the usage 
may have gained ground because a personal statement becomes 
less obtrusive if put into a past tense (cf. .od7, novi, &c.). 

133. The same scheme of tenses might of course be made 
for the passive, the only difference being (which is curious) 
that in the passive the Latin has not and the Greek has a 
future-perfect. What anomaly it was which gave the Greek 
a form for ‘I shall have been struck,’ and no form for ‘I shall 
have struck’ cannot be explained.* 

In the passive, therefore, we have 

Three finished tenses, or perfects. 
Present. I have been struck . . τέτυμμαι verberatus sum. 
Past. Ihad been struck . . ἐγετύμμην verberatus eram. 
Future. I shall have been struck τετύψομαι verberatusfuero. 


Three unfinished tenses, or imperfects. 
Present. Iam being struck . . τύπτομαι verberor 
Past. I was being struck . . ἐτυπτόμην verberabar. 
Future. I shall be being struck . [wanting] [wanting]. 


Three aorist tenses, or indefinites. 


Present. Tam struck . . . .[wanting] [wanting]. 
(τέτυμμαι and verberatus sum 
used instead). 
Past. Iwasstruck . . . . [wanting] [wanting]. 
Future. I shall be struck. . . τυφθήσομαι verberabor. 


To complete therefore our comparison of the indicatives of 
the Greek, Latin, and English verb, we see that of the nine 
possible tenses, in the passive, 


Greek has six tenses, 
Latin _ has three tenses only, and 
English has no tenses. 


The only passive form in English is that of the participle 
(‘ struck’=having been struck). 


* One or two Greek verbs have an active future-perfect, as ἑστήξω, 
τεθνήξω. Deponents have to make their future-perfect by the auxiliary, 
as εἰργασμένος ἔσομαι. The comparative want of future-forms may be 
due to the fact that men care to speak with less precision of the unknown 
future than of the past, 


G3 


130 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


CureF Ip1omatic Usrs or THE TENSES. 


134. When a language has a peculiar form or mode of 
expression this is called the idiom of the language (ἰδίωμα 
from ἴδιος ‘ private,’ ‘ peculiar’); and these idioms are what 
specially need to be learned and remembered ; for the ordinary 
meanings and uses present no difficulty. 


Tue PRESENT AND IMPERFECT. 


135. The present, used dramatically in narratives in order 
to represent the events narrated as going on before the eyes, is 
called the historical present;* and the imperfect is used in 
the same way for the same reason; as 

καὶ ἐπιτηδές σε οὐκ ἤγειρον ἵνα we ἥδιστα διάγῃς I was not 
awaking you on purpose, that you may be going on as 
pleasantly as possible. 

ἔρχεται πρὸς τοὺς μαθητὰς καὶ εὑρίσκει αὐτοὺς καθεύδοντας 
he cometh to the disciples and findeth them sleeping. 


The historic present, in the sequence of tenses, is treated as 
an historical tense, and is therefore followed by the optative. 


136. Both the present and the imperfect are used to express 
an attempt (conatus rei eflficiende): 
διὰ ποῖον αὐτῶν ἔργον λιθάζετέ με; for which work of these 
are you for stoning me ?—John x. 32. 
Κύριε, ov μου νίπτεις rove πόδας ; Lord, dost Thou mean 
to wash my feet ?—John xiii. 6. 





* The historical present, seldom used except colloquialiy in English, 
is very common in German ; and tolerably so in French, as in the lines 
of Racine: 

‘J’ai vu, seigneur, j’ai vu votre malheureux fils, 
Trainé par les chevaux que sa main a nourris. 
1] veut les rappeler, et sa voix les effraie. 
Ils courent. Tout son corps 7’est bientét qu'une plaie.’ 


Of English writers Carlyle uses it most frequently ; e.g. ‘ Far down in 
their vaults the seven prisoners hear muffled din as of earthquakes; their 
turnkeys answer vaguely,’ &c. In one passage of Milton, the historical 
present is powerfully used for the future: 

‘If from this hour 
Within those hallowed limits thou appear, 
Back to the infernal pit I drag thee chained 
And seal thee so,’ i 





Comp. An. iii. 867. So faras I am aware no such usage is found in 
classical Greek. 


IMPERFECT TENSES. 131 


ἐκάλουν αὐτὸ. .. Ζαχαρίαν they wished to call him 
Zacharias.—Luke i. 59. 

6 δὲ Ἰωάννης διεκώλνεν αὐτὸν John tried to prevent him. 
—Matt. iii. 14. 

ἐξανεχώρει τὰ εἰρημένα he tried to back out of his words. 
—Thuc. iv. 28. 


In all these instances ‘ Vere incipit actus, sed ob impedimenta caret 
eventu.’—Schaefer, Eur. Phen. 79. 


The constant substitution in the New Testament of a parti- 
ciple and auxiliary (e.g. ἦν καιομένη, Luke xxiv. 32) shows 
that when the continuance required to be emphasised, the 
simple imperfect was no longer sufficient. 


137. Hence the impf. alone is often, rhetorically, used 
where the impf. with a» would have been more regular, as 


τίς μοι φύλαξ ἦν εἰ σὺ συμφορᾶς τύχοις ; (Hur. Bacch. 612) 
who were my guardian (=would have been) should 
you have met with a misfortune? 


This suppression of ἂν is very common in conditional sen- 
tences, as 


οὐκ εἶχες ἐξουσίαν... εἰ μὴ you would not have had 
power, unless, &c.—John xix. 11. 

καλὸν ἦν αὐτῷ εἰ οὐκ ἐγεννήθη it were well for him if he 
had never been born.—Matt. xxvi. 24. 


A similar potential use of the impf. is not unknown in 
Latin ; as 
Respublica poterat esse perpetua, si patriis viveretur in- 
stitutis.—Cic. de R. P. iii. 29. 
138. The present is used with πάλαι ‘ long ago,’ &e.; as 


ἀπ᾽ ἀρχῆς μετ᾽ ἐμοῦ ἐστε ye are (=have been) with me 
from the beginning.—John xv. 27. 
γῆ νοσεῖ πάλαι the land has long been sick.—Eur. 


So in Latin: 
Jampridem cupio Alexandriam visere.—Cic. 
And in German: 


‘Finf Jahre trag ich schon den gliih’nden Hass.’— 
Schiller, Turandot. 


And in French: 


“Tl y a longtemps que je suis ici.’ 
‘Je le regarde depuis longtemps.’ 


132 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


And very rarely in English. Mr. Boyes quotes from Hey- 
wood: 

‘’Tis dinner-time at least an hour ago.’ 

And in Walpole’s letters : 
‘Lord Dalkeith zs dead of small-pox in three days.’ 
Compare 

‘*Tis now a nineteen years agone at least.’—Ben Jons., 
Case is Altered. 

‘ He is ready to cry all this day.’—Ibid., Silent Woman. 

139, κλύω, ἀκούω, μανθάνω, γιγνώσκω (verbs of perception), 
and those which indicate an abiding result (as ro, φεύγω), 
are used in the present where we use the perfect ; as 

ἄρτι γιγνώσκεις τόδε ; have you only just learnt this? 

ἀπαγγέλλετε Ore ἡμεῖς νικῶμεν βασιλέα answer that we 
have conquered the king. 

140. The imperfect expresses incompleteness, continuance, 
and (especially with av) repetition. Rarely it is used as 
giving a more emphatic meaning, where we should use the 
present ; as 

ὅς κε θεοῖς ἐπιπείθηται μάλα τ᾽ ἔκλυον αὐτοῦ whosoever 
obeys the gods, him they ever hear (cf. 71. i. 418). 

‘Tempus erat’ (Hor. Od. i. 37) ’Tis full time. 

141. ἔδει, ἐχρῆν, εἰκὸς ἦν, wpedov imply dissatisfaction, and 
a wish that something else had happened ; as 

εἰκὸς ἦν ὑμᾶς μὴ μαλακῶς, ὥσπερ νῦν, συμμαχεῖν you 
ought not in all fairness to prove yourselves such 
feeble allies as you do. 

Here ‘it was right’ means ‘it would have been right,’ and is 
equivalent to εἰκὸς ἂν ἦν, precisely as in these two English 
sentences : 

‘ Was man like his maker . . . I skould be for allowing,’ 
ὥς. (Addison) [=7f man had been]. 

‘It were well for the insurgents . . . if the blood that was 
now shed had been thought a sufficient expiation for 
the offence’ (Goldsmith) [= it would have been well 
ἀγαθὸν ἂν ἢν]. 

So in Latin: 

‘$i mihi omnes, ut erat equum, faverent..—Cic. de Div. 
iii. 10. 

* Compare ‘Gold were as good as twenty orators’ (=would be). 
Obserye however that ‘ were’ is the English subjunctive, 





THE FUTURE. 133 


142, Notice the graceful and modest use of the imperfect in the 
inscriptions used by old artists, Πολύκλειτος ἐποίει ; this implied how 
far they felt themselves to fall short of ideal perfection, ‘ tamquam inchoata 
semper arte et imperfecté’ (Plin. Nat. Hist. i. 20), and it showed them 
to be imbued with the highest spirit of art. 

148. Sometimes the imperfect expresses what was but zs not, as Eur. 
Troad. 585, πρίν ποτ᾽ ἦμεν we once were (but are no longer)! Compare 
Fuimus Troes, fuit Ilium, Virg. Ain. iii. 325. After the execution of 
the Catilinarian conspirators, Cicero said of them, Vixerunt. ‘ Pro- 

‘bablement 4 midi j’aurai vécu, pour parler le langage romain.’—Letter 
.f Charlotte Corday. There is a fine instance in Dante, /nf. x. 67, 


Di subito drizzato grido: Come 
Dicesti egli ebbe? non viv’ egli ancora ? 


Tue FUTURE. 


144, The future active answers to our shall and will, even 

in its imperative use ; as 
ἕξεις ἀτρέμας ; will you keep quiet ἢ * 
ἔσεσθε οὖν ὑμεῖς τέλειοι be ye therefore perfect ! 

145, The periphrases of μέλλω, θέλω, βούλομαι with the 
infinitive are by no means ‘ periphrastic futures,’ as they are 
sometimes called, but differ from the simple future in mean- 
ing, by emphasising the purpose or wish to do a thing. They 
show however the dawnings of an aim at analytic precision 
(see Herod. i. 109). 

N.B. ποιήσω I will do, fatiam; μέλλω ποιήσειν I am on 
the point of doing (cf. the Italian sono per lasciarti Iam on the 
- point of leaving you); μέλλω ποιεῖν Tintend todo. 

146. Few verbs have all the four -μαι forms of the future 
in use (τυφθήσομαι, τυπήσομαι I shall be struck, τύψομαι I 
shall strike myself, τετύψομαι I shall have been struck). 

147. The future-perfect (6 per’ ὀλίγον μέλλων, paullo- 
post-futurum), as its name implies, mingles the future and 
the perfect both in form and meaning (as in English ‘I shall 
have been struck’). It also expresses rapidity; as 


φράζε καὶ πεπράξεται speak and it shall be done at once ;f 


* Both in English and Latin the future is a polite substitute for the 
imperative ; e.g. Valebis et salvebis=vale et salve! 

‘Tu interea non cessabis. —Cic. Epp. ad Fam. vy. 12. : 

‘Inter cuncta leges et percunctabere doctos.’—Hor. Epp. τ. xviii. 26. 

+ Being a mere luxury of language, it occurs but once in the New 
Testament (Luke xix. 40), κεκράξονται, and there, only because the 
simple future of κράζομαι is not used. The name Futurum exactum was 
invented by Pomponius Letus (1497). 

1 Cf. Cicero, #p.—‘ Tu invita mulieres, ego accivero pueros,’ 


134 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


and a continued result; as 
οὐξεὶς κατὰ σπουδὰς μετεγγραφήσεται, 
ἀλλ᾽ ὥσπερ ἦν τὸ πρῶτον ἐγγεγράψεται 
‘No one shall be transferred to another list by favour, 
but shall remain inscribed as he was at first.’ 
κληθήσεται he shall be called; κεκλήσεται he shall bear 
the name. 


148. Since μέμνημαι, κέκτημαι, &e. have the sense of pre- 
sents, μεμνήσομαι I shall remember, κεκτήσομαι I shall possess, 
&c., are simple futures. 


Tue PERFECT. 


149. The perfect corresponds to the English perfect with 
‘have’; it is a present-perfect, e.g. ‘I have struck’ means 
‘T have now struck,’ or ‘I struck and the effect continues.’ * 
Hence it is substituted for the aorist (which is the ordinary 
tense in which events are narrated) to describe past events of 
which the result remains; as 

πενεστέρους πεποίηκε καὶ πολλοὺς κινδύνους ὑπομένειν 
ἠνάγκασε it has made us poorer (and we still are so), 
and it compelled us to undergo many dangers. 


150. This explains such meanings as κέκτημαι I possess, 
τεθαύμακα I wonder, κέκλημαι I am called, ἔρρωμαι I am 
strong,t &c.; and it is curiously paralleled by the German 
idiom (see Clyde, Greek Syntax, p. 69). In the same way 
such a phrase as ‘I have often wondered’ generally implies 
that the effect still continues. For another view of these 
perfects with a present sense, see p. 49, note ἢ. 


Tue AORIST. 


151. The nature of this tense ought to be clear, from all 
that has been said about it in the previous section. Its vitality 
is accounted for by its importance. It is the regular tense of 
narration, as it is in English, because it has no relation to the 
present. ‘Take any sentence from a history, such as ‘ William 
Rufus died from the wound inflicted by an arrow’; here 


* This use of the perfect in Homer is very common; e.g. in describing 
a chariot he says, ἀμφὶ δὲ πέπλοι Πέπτανται tapestries hang around it. 
Zi.v.195. (Exigua tantum ratione habita preeteriti temporis, quo stragula 
illa expansa fuerunt, sed presentis precipue, quo expansa sunt.— 
Schmidt, Doctr. Temp. 11. 10.) 

+ Compare the Italian ho capito I understand.—Clyde. 


THE AORIST. 135 


died’ is an aorist, κατέθανεν, and we could no more substitute 
an imperfect (‘was dying’), a perfect (‘has died’), or a plu- 
perfect (‘had died’) in English than we could in Greek. 


N.B.—The aorist with ἂν sometimes expresses iteration, as ὁπότε 
προσβλέψειέ τινα τότε μὲν εἶπεν ἄν, K.T.A. ‘whenever he saw any one, 
then he would say,’ ete.; and sometimes is equivalent to the Latin 
pluperfect subj., as οὐδὲν ἂν ἔπραξεν nihil fecisset. Thus ἔλεξεν ἂν may 

.- mean ‘he used often to say, or ‘he would have said,’ according to 
context. 


152. There is an obvious connection im form between the 
aorists and the future,* as we see at a glance: 


͵ / A ’ 
τύψω τυφθήσομαι τυπήσομαι τύψομαι 
ἔτυψα ἐτύφθην ἐτύπην ἐτυψάμην. 
And there are one or two cases in which either future or 
aorist is admissible; 7 e.g. 


ἀνὴρ σοφὸς τὰς συμφορὰς ῥᾷον οἴσει τῶν ἄλλων a Wise 
man will bear his misfortunes more easily than the rest 
of mankind. 


It would be just as good Greek to say ἤνεγκε bore, and just as 
good English to use the present-aorist ‘bears’; and we find 
the aorist subj. in the same clause with the future ind.;{ as 


εἴπωμεν ἣ σιγῶμεν ; ἣ τί λέξομεν ; are we to speak, or be 
silent, or what shall we say 1 


153. Obviously what has taken place (especially if it be 
frequently) in the past, will probably recur in the future,§ so 
that either aorist or future may be used, for instance, in com- 
parisons, and so far there is a connection between the tenses. 
Further than this no theory has ever established what was 
the historical connection between these tenses, except that 


* Besides this, the first aor. subjunctive is τύψω, which is the same 
“form as the future active. In Latin there is no difference in form 
between the future perfect and the perfect subjunctive (except in the 
first person), and very little in meaning. See Roby’s Lat. Gram. p. xv. 

+ Similarly in John xv. 6, ἐὰν μή τις μείνῃ ἐν ἐμοί, ἐβλήθη ἔξω, the 
future βεβλήσεται would have given the same sense. 

¢ In such a line as οὐ γάρ πω τοίους ἴδον ἀνέρας οὐδὲ ἴδωμαι never saw 
I nor shall I see such men, the aor. subjunctive ἴδωμαι is practically a 
future. 

§ Burnouf’s view that the future expresses posteriority relative to the 
present moment, and the aorist, posteriority with reference to some other 
(unspecified) time, does not seem to me free from objection; e.g. his 
explanation of the aorist in the line ‘Je chante le héros qui régna sur 
la France,’ seems to me impossible on his own principles. 


136 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


the o of both aorist and future is derived from the auxiliary 
verb ‘as’ to be (ἐσμέν, ἐστί). 

154. The aorist is used in proverbs, &c. (gnomic aorist), to 
express what once happened, and has thereby established a 
precedent for all time; as 

πολλὰ παρὰ γνώμην ἔπεσε many things fall out contrary 
to expectation.* 


In Rev. iv. 10 the future is used in this gnomic sense, as in Gaelic. 


THe PLUPERFECT, 


155. This tense is comparatively neglected in Greek, the 
aorist being substituted for it in many instances where it 
would be used in Latin, and even in English; e.g. 

we ἤκουσαν τους λόγους. . . διηπόρουν when they (had) 
heard the words, they began to doubt. 

Its chief idiomatic use is to express rapidity; as 

οὐδ᾽ ἀπίθησε 
μύθῳ ᾿Αθηναίης" ἡ δ᾽ Οὔλυμπόνδε βεβήκει. 
nor did he disobey the order of Athene; but she had 
already vanished heavenwards.—Z1. i. 221. 
“Ore of σύμμαχοι ἐπλησίαζον, οἱ ᾿Αθηναῖοι τοὺς Πέρσας 
ἐνενικήκεσαν When the allies were approaching, the 
Athenians had already conquered the Persians, 


MOODS (Ἐγκελίσεις). 


156. In coming to treat of the moods, we have reached by 
far the most difficult part of Greek syntax. The clumsy 
analytic periphrases of our own and most modern languages 
are quite inadequate to represent the delicate accuracy and 
beauty of those slight mwances of thought which the Greek 
reflected in the synthetic and manifold forms of his verb. 
One of the chief reasons for the study of Greek is the fact 
that it presents us with the most perfect instrument for the 
expression of thought. Our own language is singularly noble, 
powerful, and splendid, but its points of excellence differ 
entirely from those of Greek. 


* The Latin aorist has a similar use, as ‘ Hine apicem rapax Fortuna 
cum stridore acuto Sustulit,’ Hor. Od. i. 34,=solet tollere. Non tam 
precipites bijugo certamine campum Corripuere.—Ain. v. 145. 

t The form of the pluperfect in ἡ (ἐγεγράφη, ὅτε.) is older than that in 
ew, and more Attic. ea=e-cau=eram. 


THE MOODS. 137 


But the study of Greek would not be valuable as a mental 
discipline if it presented no difficulty. There is no royal road 
to anything worth acquiring; χαλεπὰ ra καλά. Yet after a 
thoughtful and careful study of the following pages, the 
student ought at least to have some clear notions which will 
serve as a guide to further study. 


157. The moods express the aspects or modes under which 
the action is regarded, and are three in number, viz. : 


The indicative, which deals with facts, certainties, direct 
questions, &c., i.e. it is the objective mood; and therefore the 
tense-distinctions exist mainly in this mood. 

The imperative, which deals with commands. 

The subjunctive and optative, which deals with suppositions, 
uncertainties, contingencies,* &c. The subjunctive connects 
such modes of conception with the present or future; the 
optative connects them with the past. The two together form 
but one SUBJECTIVE mood. 


158. The infinitive is no mood at all, since it represents the 
verb absolutely, in no particular aspect, and with no relation 
to any subject (ἔγκλισις ἀπαρέμφατος). 


159. It will be convenient to treat of the moods first as they 
occur in simple sentences, and afterwards in compound. 

But we may observe at once that the names of the moods 
are as unsatisfactory as those of the tenses.| The indicative 
mood, or mood of declaration, does not declare at all in inter- 
rogative or conditional sentences. The optative, or wishing 
mood, does indeed sometimes express a wish, but this is a very 
small part of its meanings, and it is quite as much subjoined 
as the so-called subjunctive, of which, as we shall see, it forms 
a part. 


Tue INDICATIVE, 


160. The indicative mood (ἔγκλισις ὁριστικὴ) denotes an 
actual, or (in the future tense) a certain state. In treating of 
the separate tenses we have given all its most distinctive 
usages. 


* ‘Indicativus res per se, seu nude positas, conjunctivus autem res ex 
mente agentis spectatas (velut luminis radios vitro fractos) vel in cogita- 
tionem inclusas notat.—De Formis dictorum conditionalium, Ἐς, Ellendt. 
Konigsb. 1827. The illustration is an exceedingly good one, but the 
treatise itself is not very clear. 

{ See F. Whalley Harper On the Powers of the Greck Tenses, p. 137, 


138 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


Tue IMPERATIVE. 


161. The imperative mood (προστακτικὴ) commands,* and, 
with negatives, prohibits. As all commands must refer to the 
future, we see that the temporal meanings of the indicative 
tenses vanish in the imperative; the distinctions between the 
tenses in the imperative not being those of time. 

162. μὴ xparre don’t be doing it (of continuous or recurring 
actions, and of actions already begun =leave off doing 
it !). 

μὴ πράξῃς don’t do it (of momentary or single actions). 

λαβὲ τὰς μαρτυρίας καὶ ἀναγίγι woe take the depositions 
(aor. imp.=an instantaneous act), and read them (pres. 
imp.=a continued act). 

163. The perfect imperative denotes the permanence of the 
result; as 

τέθναθι lie dead !=keioo τεθνηκώς. 
εἰς TOY Πυριφλεγέϑοντ a ἐμβεβλήσθω let him be flung (at 
once, and for all) into Phlegethon ! 


164, Other ways of expressing command are 
a, By the infinitive; as 
μὴ Of μοι ἀπόπροθεν ἴσχεμεν ἵππους do not I pray you 
rein the horses at a distance from me. 
8. By the optative with av; as 
χωροῖς ἂν εἴσω like our ‘perhaps you would go in.’ 
y- By the subjunctive ; as 
ἴωμεν let us go 


to] 


. By various periphrases; as 
οἶσθ᾽ οὖν ὃ δρᾶσον ; do then—know’st thou what? 7 1.6. 
dost thou know what thou must do? 
οἷσθ᾽ ὡς ποίησον ; do—know’st thou how ὃ 
ὅπως ἄνδρες ἔσεσθε see that ye be men (sub. ὁρᾶτε). 





* In Sanskrit the imperative has a jivs¢ as well as a second and third 
person. 1715 is also the case in English, though only in poetry and in 
the plural, as ‘Leave we the theme.’ ‘Charge we the foe.’—New Crat. 

593. 

Ei + Mr. Boyes quotes a close parallel from Chaucer: 
‘And deemith you, what ye shall do therefor ? 
Go thanketh now my lady there, quoth he.’ 


We find the same idiom in Latin; ‘ Tange, sed scin quomodo ?’—Plaut. 
Rudent, 11. v. 18. 


THE SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE. 139 


φέρε δὴ ἀναγνῶ τὰς μαρτυρίας come now let me read you 
the evidence. 

μὴ δῆτ᾽ ἀδικηθῶ let me not be injured.— Soph. O. C. 174; 
ef. Tr. 802. ‘ Prima conjunctivi persona sic usurpatur 
ut admonitio ad secundam spectet.—Herm. . 


THE SuBJUNCTIVE (ὑποθετική) AND OPTATIVE (εὐκτική). 


165. ‘ The subjunctive is a byform of the future, the optative 
a byform of the aorist.’ * 

We have already seen the points of connection between the 
future and the subjunctive,f and in fact the notion of futurity 
is essentially involved in the subjunctive, since that which is 
contingent and dependent must necessarily be analogous to 
what is future. Hence the student must not be misled by 
such names as perfect subjunctive, &c. to suppose that the 
forms of the subj. and opt. express time in the same way as 
their cognate indicative tenses. 

166. The subjunctive and optative are not two moods, but 
one subjective mood,t which expresses not facts and realities, 
but suppositions and contingencies; the subjunctive forms are 
the present or future tenses of this mood, and the optative 
forms its past tenses. In other words, the optative 18 merely 
the subjunctive of the past or historic tenses. It carries with 
it a reference to the past. 

Everything that we say about these moods will illustrate 
and explain this fundamental fact, which the student is urged 
to master and to keep steadily in mind throughout the follow- 
ing observations. 

167. The Greek subjective mood furnishes seven separate 
forms, usually called tenses; e.g. 

pres. subj. δειπινῶ, aor. subj. δειπνήσω, perf. sub. δεδειπνήκω, 
pres. opt. δειπνοίην, aor. opt. δειπνήσαιμι, perf. opt. δε- 
δειπνήκοιμι, fut. opt. δειπνήσοιμι. 





* ©The subjunctive and optative are by-forms of the future and aorist.’ 
—Don. p. 546. The connection is indicated by a similarity of form. 

+ We see it also in Latin, where dicam is both future indicative and 
present subjunctive, the termination -m being a relic of the old -y form 
of verbs. In Gothic Ulphilas often renders Greek futures by the 
subjunctive. 

¢ In treating this part of the subject, I have on the whole received 
more assistance from Mr. F. Whalley Harper and Dr. Clyde’s Greek 
Syntax, than from any other of the numerous treatises which I have 
consulted. 

§ Some verbs have also second aorist optatives and subjunctives, but 


140 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


168, And Latin offers four, as cenem, cenarem, cenaverim, 
cenavissem. 

We shall find that on examination these forms evaporate 
considerably ; but before discussing them let us try to under- 
stand them in the form of a table. 


We have already tabulated the actual and possible Indicative tenses ; 
the table of the Subjective tenses should be compared with it, although 
it will be seen immediately that these tense-forms are in reality evan- 
escent, and in part illusory. 

SUBJECTIVE TENSES. 


ie. Tenses of the Subjective Mood, expressive of suppositions, &c. 
) Pp PP 
——  θξἑΞΡρ 
DEFINITE. apart eas or AORISTIC. 


| | | 
Present. Past, Future. 
δειπνήσω. δειπνήσαιμι. δειπνήσοιμι.- 


| | 
PERFECT, or IMPERFECT, or 





FINISHED. UNFINISHED. 
| | 
| | | | | | 
Present. Past. Future. Present. Past. Future. 
δεδειπνήκω. δεδειπνήκοιμι. [wanting] δειπνῶ. δειπνοίην. (wanting) 


On this table we have to remark—1. That very little stress must be 
laid on the exactness of any direct English or Latin equivalents; the 
idiomatic uses of Greek being very strongly marked in the use of the 
moods. Even the French equivalents, as λύσω que j’aie délié; λύσοιμι 
que j’eusse délié, are quite inadequate. 2. Observe however that the 
English may is the best general representative of the Greek subjunctive, 
ΜΙΘῈΤ of the optative. 3. Two of the future forms are wanting; and the 
other future form, although it occurs, is merely a chose de luxe, because 
the whole mood involves futurity, so that the present forms serve instead. 
4, The past tenses of the Latin subjunctive are equivalent to the Greek 
optative. 


169. Further: of the seven Greek forms, three are very 
rarely used, viz. the perfect subj., the perf. optative, and the 
future optative. We may in fact dismiss those three forms, 
with the remark that the perfect forms are only used where 
something is specially to be marked out as completed; and 
the future opt. only in oratio obliqua (or reported speech), 
and that very rarely, to represent the future indicative. Thus, 
in direct speech : 

Συέννεσις λέλοιπε ra ἄκρα Syennesis has left the heights; 


these being merely other forms of the same tense, are not noticed; e.g. 
in English no one regards hung and hanged as two separate tenses, 


TENSES OF THE SUBJECTIVE MOOD. 141 


in reported speech : 
ἔλεξεν Ore Συέννεσις λελοιπὼς εἴη τὰ ἄκρα he said that 
Syennesis had left the heights. 


Direct speech : 


ἡ ὁδὸς ἔσται πρὸς βασιλέα Our march will be to the great 
king. 
Reported speech : 


ἔλεγεν ὅτι ἡ ὁδὸς ἔσοιτο πρὸς βασιλέα he kept saying that 
their march would be to the great king. 


We may then draw this conclusion: the tenses of the optative 
only retain a tense-meaning in oratio obliqua. 


170. But it may be asked how come we to have an aorist 
subjunctive δειπνήσω, if the subjunctive be merely the form 
assumed by the primary tenses in the subjective mood ? for the 
aorist is an historical and not a primary tense, and therefore 
its form in the subjective mood ought to be only δειπνήσαιμι. 

The answer to this very natural objection appears to be 
that the past aorist is necessarily sometimes used in Greek for 
the present aorist (‘I dined’ for ‘I dine’), as we have seen 
already (§ 126); and it is perhaps this use of the past aorist 
so frequently as a present that accounts for the existence of 
such a form as δειπνήσω. And in full accordance with this 
hypothesis we find that the present and aorist forms of the 
subjective mood are in many sentences used interchangeably 
and almost indifferently. 


171. We have then considerably reduced the importance 
of the number of tenses in the subjective mood, by showing 
that in practical use three of them at least are nearly eliminated. 
Further than this, as we have just observed, the differences 
between δειπνῶ δειπνήσω, and between δειπνοίην δειπνήσαιμι, 
are very slightly marked, and are not distinctions of time; the 
present forms merely imply that the result continues, the aorist 
forms draw no attention to more than the momentary fact. 
Thus we may say almost indifferently 

σπουδάζω ἵνα μανθάνω or μάθω. 
ἐσπούδαζον ἵνα μανθάνοιμι οΥ μάθοιμι. 


172. And since these are the only forms in constant use, 
it will be seen that the subjective mood for all ordinary 
practical purposes contains (as in Latin) but jfowr tenses, viz. 
a present and an aorist form which follow the primary tenses ; 


142 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


and a present and an aorist form which follow the historical 
tenses.* 


173. Then, further, notice that this so-called optative mood 
(which we have, as far as any frequent use is concerned, re- 
duced to a present and an aorist form, differing but little from 
each other in meaning, and used as the dependent and sub- 
jective form of the historical tenses) was itself a refinement of 
language but little needed; and therefore that it gradually 
fell into desuetude, and in Modern Greek nearly disappears, 
the few forms in which it appears (such as μὴ γένοιτο) being, 
as Dr. Clyde says, ‘merely the coffin of the dead optative.’ 


174, Even by Attic writers the distinction between subjunc- 
tive and optative was (if we may believe the MSS. rather than 
the editors) very negligently observed ; in the New Testament 
and in later Greek writers the optative in final sentences (seeinf. 
§ 179) almost disappears ; 7 and itis very probable that in the 
speech of the vulgar the optative hardly existed at all, being too 
delicate in its distinctions for daily use. Possibly the very 
existence of such a mood may have been practically disre- 
garded by an Athenian cobbler. Observe too that whereas 
(owing to the dramatic principle which led the Greeks to omit 
the reference to the past, and to represent past things as still 
going on before the eyes) the subjunctive is often used where 
the optative would be more regular, the reverse of this is never 
the case, i.e. we never find the optative for the subjunctive. 


175, We shall continue to use the names subjunctive and 
optative, but it must not be forgotten that by optative we do 
not mean a different mood from the subjunctive, but only a 
name for those subjective forms which correspond to the 
historical tenses of the indicative. 


THE SvuBJUNCTIVE IN SIMPLE SENTENCES. 
176. 1. Used absolutely, the subjunctive in Homer differs 





* It has already been pointed out that the third person dual of the 
subjunctive (like that of primary tenses) ends in ov; and of the optative 
(like that of the historical tenses) in yy. 

1 The past tenses of the French subjunctive (which correspond to the 
Greek optative) are disappearing in the same way. In English, the 
whole subjunctive mood is very rapidly disappearing, and its evanescence 
is much to be regretted; by all our dest writers it was, and still zs, used 
regularly after all causal and hypothetical conjunctions; but in common 
ecnversation it is now rarely heard. See some admirable remarks on 
this subject in Craik’s Engl. of Shaksp. p. 104. 


THE OPTATIVE MOOD. 143 


but little from a future,* as is also the case with the subjunctive 
aorist after ov μὴ in strong negations; as 
ov μὴ ποιήσω I certainly won't do it; ob μὴ φύγῃς you 
certainly will not escape. 
2. It is used (in the aor. 2nd per. sing. and plur.) ἐπ 
prohibitions ; as 
μὴ κλέψῃς don’t steal (this or that). 


3. Deliberatively (1st pers. sing. and plur.); as 
πᾷ βῶ; whither am I to go? ποῦ στῶ; where am I to 
stand ? 
τί φῶ; what am I to say? 


4, Hortatively (1st pers. sing. and plur.); as 
ἴωμεν let us go; ἐγκονῶμεν let us exert ourselves; espe- 
cially with φέρε, aye, ἴθι, εἰπέ, &e. 
5. It is often used elliptically after βούλει, θέλεις, κιτ.λ.; a8 
θέλετε θηρασώμεθα ; do. you wish that we should hunt? 
—KHur. Bacch. 719. 
θέλεις μείνωμεν αὐτοῦ; do you wish that we should re- 
main on the spot ?—Soph. H/. 80. Compare Ov. Met. 
ix. 734, Vellem nulla forem. 


6. In Plato and Demosthenes the subjunctive is often used 
with dy=éay, ἤν. Thus: 
ἂν swopovn.—Phed. 61 8B; ἂν θεὸς ἐθέλῃ.--- Id. 80 ν. 


[ This is curiously analogous to the obsolete English ‘ an’ with 
the subjunctive, ‘an God be willing,’ &c. ] 


Tue OPTATIVE IN SIMPLE SENTENCES. 


177. ‘L’optatif n’est point réellement un mode a part; c’est 
uue simple dénomination sous laquelle on a rangé les temps 
secondaires du subjonctif.’—Burnouf. 

_ The distinctive sign of the optative is derived from ya to go. See 
Max Miller, Stratific. of Lang. p. 30. 

1. The optative gains the credit of being a separate mood, 
as well as its name (ἔγκλισις εὐκτική), simply because when 
u ed absolutely it often expresses a wish; as 


* @g.in 11. vi. 459, καί ποτέ τις εἴπῃσι corresponds to ὥς ποτέ τις ἐρέει 
a little further on. Cf. 1. 1. 262; Od. χνι. 487, vi. 201. 

ἡ Cf. οὐκ tw; shall I not go? which resembles the Latin guin with 
the present indicative. Quin redimus ’—Plaut. Menechm. τι. 1. 22, 


{44 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


ὦ παῖ, γένοιο πατρὸς εὐτυχέστερος, 

τὰ δ᾽ ἀλλ᾽ ὅμοιος" καὶ yévou ἂν οὐ Kaxdc.—Soph. Aj. 550. 

‘Boy, mayest thou (lit. mightest thou be) more fortunate 
than thy father, but like him in all else, and then thou 
wouldest be noble.’ 

οὔτ᾽ ἂν δυναίμην μήτ᾽ ἐπισταίμην λέγειν (Soph. Ant. 
682) I could not, and may I never know how to say. 

We express wishes by ‘ mayst thou,’ &c., using the suhjunctive, which, 
by referring to the present time, hints at the possibility of the thing 
becoming realised ; the Greek, more accurately, uses a mood which refers 
altogether to the past,* and therefore can be regarded as a wish, and a 
wish only. We however use ‘ might’ after ‘ would that ;’ and probably 
the wishing-power of the optative is merely due to an ellipse 7 of one of 
those frequent formulas which are used with it, as εἰ, εἰ γάρ, εἴθε, ὥφελον, 
πῶς tv, εἴθ᾽ ὥφελον [which, in the case of zmpossible wishes, are used 
with past tenses of the indicative, as εἴθε ov) τότε συνεγενόμην would I 
had then been with you!] In Ζεῦ πάτερ, ὡς Χαλύβων πᾶν ἀπόλοιτο γένος, 
Callim. (Jupiter, αὖ Chalybum omne genus pereat, Cat. lxili. 54), every 
one would at once recognise an ellipse; is there any less reason for the 
ellipse, if ὡς be omitted ? 

N.B.—My} is used (not οὐ) in negative wishes, as Μὴ γένοιτο would 
that it might not be! God forbid! [μὴ γένοιτο utinam ne fiat! μὴ 
γενέσθω jubeo ne fiat! μὴ γένηται cavendum ne fiat! ] 

ὑμῖν δὲ τοιοῦτο μὲν οὐδὲν οὔτ᾽ Hv μήτε γένοιτο τοῦ λοιποῦ but in your 
case nothing of the kind ever happened, and may it never happen 
hereafter. 

2. If it be correct to suppose that this votive force of the 
opt. is merely due to an ellipse, the name ‘ optative’ becomes 
more unfortunate than ever. Vo separate name for it is needed, 
because, as we have seen, it consists merely of the past tenses 
of the subjunctive; but, if it must be named, potential would 
perhaps be better, since it not only regularly expresses poten- 
tiality (could, might, &c.) with ἂν (which makes the possibi- 
lity depend on conditions), but even without it, especially in 
poetry. If this view be correct, the prevalence of av with 
the optative was due to the analytic tendency of all advancing 
language. This potential use of the optative without av would 
not be so rare as it is, if the MSS. had not been repeatedly 
altered by scholars who wished to square them with their own 
views. The following are instances: 


veoyroc ἀνθρώπων μάθοι a mere child might understand 
it.—/Esch. Ag. 1163. 


* Latin uses both subjunctive and optative, the former for possible 
wishes, as Utinam dives iam ; the latter for impossible, as Utinam Deus 
essem. ‘The subjunctive gives a notion of the realisation of the proposed 
end ; the optative represents it as a mere possibility.’—Jelf, § 809. 

{ Just as in the Italian volesse Iddio=plit ἃ Dieu.—Clyde., 


THE OPTATIVE MOOD. 145 


ἐν εἴκοσι πᾶσι μάθοις νιν you might know him among a 
score.—Mosch. 

πείθοι᾽ ἂν εἰ πείθοι, ἀπειθοίης δ᾽ ἴσως (Asch. Ag. 1048) 
comply (a mild imperative) if thou wouldst comply, 
but perhaps thou wouldst not comply (sc. under any 
circumstances). See Paley’s notes to Aisch. Ag. 535, 
1133, 1847; and Jelf, 426, 1. 

τὸ δ᾽ ἔπος οὑξερῶ τάχα 

ἤδοιο μέν, πῶς δ᾽ οὐκ ἄν, ἀσχάλλοις ο᾽ tgoc.—Soph. O. 1. 
990. 

‘ you might possibly rejoice at what Iam about to say— 
how should you not ?—but you might be grieved.’ 


Some however would understand the ἂν (from the previous 
clause) in the clause where it is not expressed; as in Xen. 
Jiawei ie 

ov μόνον φιλοῖ᾽ ἄν, ἀλλὰ Kal ἐρῴῷο. 

9. With ἂν the optative is often used as a milder future, or 
less positive assertion. This is due to the refinement and 
sensitiveness of the Greck intellect, and their dislike of what 
is blunt, and downright, and uncontingent ; as 

οὐκ ἂν ἀπέλθοιμ᾽ ἀλλὰ κόψω τὴν θύραν I won't go away 
but I'll knock at the door. 

οὐκ ἂν ἔγωγε θεοῖσιν ἐπουρανίοισι μαχοίμην I will not fight 
with heavenly gods. 

οὐκ ἂν φθάνοις λέγων; quantocius dicas! quin statim 
loquere? speak at once ! 

οὐκ οἷδ᾽ ἂν εἰ πείσαιμι 1 doubt whether I could persuade. 
—Eur. Med. 941. 


οὐκ ἂν οἶδ᾽ εἰ δυναίμην I doubt whether I should be able. 
—Plat. Tim. p. 26. 


In the last two examples the Gy belongs to the optative, but 
is merely transposed by a spurious hyperbaton; as 
οὐκ oid’ εἰ =I doubt whether, πεέσαιμ᾽ ἂν =I could per- 
suade him. 
ov« οἶδ᾽ ei=haud scio an. 
4, In polite commands, the optative is often used with ἂν 
which points to a suppressed protasis; as 
χωροῖς ἂν εἴσω go in, please! (literally, ‘ you would go in 
if it should please you.’) 


ἔρδοι τις ἣν ἕκαστος εἰδείη τέχνην Ξε! sutor ultra cre- 
pidam. 


H 


146 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


ἀλλὰ ταῦτα μὲν καὶ φθόνῳ ἂν εἴποιεν (Herod. ix. 71) but 
people might say this even out of envy (sc. εἰ εἴποιεν if 
they were to say it). 
5. It expresses a sort of hopeless wish (hopeless because the 
optative throws it in connection with things past); as 
ποῖ τις φύγοι (Ar. Plut. 488) whither could one fly ? 
but 
ποῖ τις ἂν φύγοι “ whither ἐπ the world’ 


is more common, and ποῖ τις φύγῃ. 


6. The optative is often used in sentences which imply 
iteration, or indefinite frequency ;* as 
ὁπότε προσβλέψειέ τινα whenever he saw any one. 
δεινότατον δὲ ἦν ἡ ἀθυμία ὁπότε τις αἴσθοιτο κάμνων but 
most terrible was the despair whenever any one felt 
that he was falling ill. 
This is also the case in English where ‘might’ is used to 
express recurrence, as in Shelley : 
‘The sweet nightingale 
Ever sang more sweet as day might fail.’ 


7. What is called the correspondence of optatives should be 
noticed, where the principal verb in the optative seems to 
attract the dependent verb into the same mood ; as 

γενοίμαν κιτιλ. ὅπως προσείποιμεν ᾿Αθάνας (Soph. Aj. 
1217) would that I were, &c., that we might address 
Athens. 

ὕλοιο μήπω πρὶν πάθοιμι (Soph. Phil.) may you perish— 
not till I have learnt. 

N.B. It may be as well to repeat, that as an all but invariable 
rule εἰ takes the optative, ἐάν, ἣν the subjunctive; ἂν by itself 
the optative. 


Tue Moops 1x CompounD SENTENCES. 
178. Of the different kinds of possible sentences, those 
which chiefly need elucidation are : 
1. Final sentences (‘in order that’). 
2. Declarative sentences (oratio obliqua). 
ὃ. Conditional or hypothetic (if, &e., ‘then,’ &e.). 
4. Temporal (‘ when, until,’ &ec.). 








* Not that the mood of itself necessarily involves this conception. 
Burggraff acutely remarks, ‘L’emploi d’un temps dans telle ou telle 
circonstance et son emploi powr exprimer cette circonstance, sont deux 
choses différentes que les grammairiens ont souvent confondus,’—p. 412. 


FINAL SENTENCES. 147 


ΕἾΝΑΙ, SENTENCES. 


179, A final sentence is one which expresses a purpose, 
motive, or end (finis). In English it is generally expressed 
by ‘to,’ but never by the infinitive in Latin prose, and not 
properly in Greek. 

It may sometimes appear to be expressed by the infinitive ;* 
ag 

ἦλθεν ἀδικεῖν or ὡς, ὥστε ἀδικεῖν he came to do wrong. 
στρατ ἡγεῖν ἠρημένος chosen to be a general. 
βῆ δ᾽ ἰέναι he started to go. 


But here it is rather a fact or consequence which is indicated ; 
and when the final sentence appears to be expressed by a 
future participle it is really temporal; as 

ἦλθεν ἀδικήσων he came to do wrong. 
ἔρχομαι φράσων I come to tell. 


180. After verbs of sending, coming, &c., ὅς, ὅστις are 
used with the future indicative (whereas in similar Latin in- 
stances gui requires the subjunctive); as 


πέμπειν τινὰς ἐν οἵτινες κατηγορήσουσι τῶν τὰ Φιλίππου 
πραττόντων (Demosth. De 1, Leg. § 849) to send some 
to accuse Philip’s faction. 

κήρυκα πρωοαπεστείλατε ὅστις ἡμῖν σπείσεται (Ld. ὃ 189) 
ye sent a herald before us to make a truce for us. 


N.B. “Ὃς cum conjunctivo nunquam ponitur post verba 
mittendi, veniendi, similia.’-—Shilleto. 


181. Sentences really final, or expressive of purpose, are 
expressed by ἵνα, ὅπως, we in order that (always with μὴ not 
ov in negative clauses); and the rule about them both in 
Greek, Latin, and English is, that they are followed by the 
subjunctive after primary tenses, and by the optative after the 
historical tenses; as 

γράφω, γράψω, γέγραφα ἵνα μανθάνῃς οΥ μάθῃς 

seribo, scribam, scripsi (perfect) ut discas 

I am writing, will write, have written that you MAY be 
learning, or MAY learn ; 

ἔγραφον, ἔγραψα, ἐγεγράφη iva μανθάνοις or μάθοις 

scribebam, scripsi (aorist), scripseram ut disceres 

I was writing, wrote, had written that you micut learn. 


* But see Jelf, § 669, p. 300, and supra. 
H 2 


148 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


182. This rule is constantly violated in the New Testament, 
and by later writers (e.g. Lucian), because the optative fell 
out of general use. When it is violated by any Attic writer, 
the reason is the same as that which leads to the use of the 
imperfect tenses (historic present, &c.), namely, a desire to be 
graphic (πρὸ ὀμμάτων ποιεῖν) by representing the event as 
passing under the eyes; e.g. 

κτείνει με χρυσοῦ τὸν ταλαίπωρον χάριν 

ξένος πατρῷος, καὶ κτανὼν ἐς oldp’ ἁλὸς 

μεθῆχ᾽ iv’ αὐτὸς χρυσὸν ἐν δόμοις ἔχῃ. 

‘My father’s friend slays me, unhappy that I am, for the 
sake of gold, and after slaying, he flung me into the 
sea-wave, that he may be having (=may keep, the 
effect being represented as present and continuous) 
the gold in his house.’—Eur. Hee. 


183. i. The historic present is syntactically regarded as an 
aorist, and may therefore be followed by the optative. 

ii. The subjunctive and imperative, as they connect the 
action with the future, are regarded as primary tenses, and 
are therefore regularly followed by the subjunctive. 


184, When the final particles ὡς, ἵνα, ὅπως are used with 
past tenses of the indicative, they imply an impossible or un- 
fulfilled result; as 

τί μ᾽ ov λαβὼν 

ἔκτεινας εὐθὺς ὡς ἔδειξα μήποτε, κιτ.λ.---Ο, T. 1898. 

‘why didst thou not seize and slay me instantly, that I 
might never have shown,’ &c. 

εἰ δ᾽ ἀκουούσης Er ἦν 

πηγῆς δι’ ὥτων φραγμός, οὐκ ἂν ἐσχόμην 

τὸ μὴ ᾽ποκλεῖσαι τοὐμὸν ἄθλιον δέμας, 

iv’ ἦν τυφλός τε καὶ κλύων pndev.—O. 7. 1889. 

‘had there been besides any stoppage of the fount of 
hearing, I had not restrained myself from closing up 
my wretched frame, that I might have been both blind 
and hearing nothing.’ 


\ , 
ἐζήτησεν ἄν pe... ἵνα μηδὲν δίκαιον λέγειν ἐδόκουν he 


would have sought me... that I might have appeared 
to be saying nothing just.—Dem. 


N.B. These passages are sometimes rendered ‘in which 
case I should have,’ &c.; the negative μὴ shows that such a 
rendering is incorrect. 


RELATIVE SENTENCES. 149 


185. Sometimes in Thucydides and other writers the imme- 
diate and certain result is in the subj., the remoter and less 
certain in the opt.; as 

περὶ yup oie ποιμένι λαῶν 

μή τι πάθῃ μέγα δέ σφεας ἀποσφήλειε πόνοιο. 

for he feared greatly for the shepherd of the people, lest 
he may suffer harm, and might so greatly thwart them 
in their toil.—ZI. v. 567.* 

παρανῖσχον φρυκτοὺς ὅπως ἀσαφῆ τὰ σημεῖα τοῖς πολεμίοις 
ἦ καὶ μὴ βοηθοῖεν they kept raising counter fire-signals, 
that the signs may be unintelligible to the enemy, and 
they might not come to the rescue.—Thue. iii. 32. 


RELATIVE SENTENCES. 


186. The rule about final clauses holds also in correlative 
sentences; as 
OUK ἔχω, ἕξω, ἔ ONE ὅποι τράπωμαι. 
οὐκ εἶχον, ἔσχον ὅποι τραποίμην.- 


187. In relative sentences ἂν follows the relative when the 
subjunctive is required; as 
ὃν ἂν ἴδῃ κολάζει he punishes whomsoever he sees; 
but 
ὃν ἴδοι ἐκόλαζεν he kept punishing every one whom he 
saw (i.e. as often as he saw them,—the opt. implying 
iteration). 
The reason of this is obvious; it is here due to the futurity 
involved in the subjunctive, which requires an ἂν to qualify it. 


188. And here we may add the important rule that ὡς ἄν, 
ὅπως ἄν, ὃς ἄν, ὅταν, ἐπειδάν, εἰ ἄν (ἐάν), &e., go regularly 
with the subj.; in the rare cases in which ὅς, ὅστις, ὡς, ὅπως, 
εἰ, followed by ἄν, occur with an optative, the ἂν belongs, not 
to them, but to the verb; as 


οὐκ ἔστι τοῦτον ὅστις ἂν κατακτάνοι there is no one who 
would killhim [not ὅστις ἂν whoever, but ὅστις who ἂν 
κτάνοι would kill]. 
9 3) of 4 -" 7 \ , . 
οὐκ ἔστιν ὅ,τι ἄν τις μεῖζον τούτου κακὸν πάθοι there is no 
evil which (ὅ,τι) one could suffer (ἂν πάθοι) greater 
than this. 


* See Arnold, ad Thue. iii. 22. Other instances of this succession of 
consequences, indicated first by the subjunctive and then by the optative, 
are Thue. vill. 17; Herod. ix. 51; Eur. Hec.1120; ΕἸ. 56; and in Latin, 
Virg, Ain, 1. 298, 


150 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


ἐπιμέλονται we ἂν βέλτιστοι εἶεν οἱ πολῖται they take 
pains how (ὡς) the citizens might be (ἂν εἶεν) most 
excellent. 

οὐκ-οἷἶδά- γ᾽ -εἰ φθαίης- ἂν I almost doubt whether you will 
be in time (φθαίης dv)=I'm afraid you won't. 


N.B. The general rule is that the relative, when definite, 
takes the indicative, as οὺς εἶδεν those whom he saw; when 
indefinite the optative, as οὺς ἴδοι those whom he might see; 
when combined with ἄν, invariably the subjunctive, as ode ἂν 
ἴδῃ whomsoever he may see. 


ORATIO OBLIQUA. 


189, In oratio obliqua (indirect assertion, reported speech), 
when it is not expressed by the accus. and inf, the indicative 
may be used with we or ὅτι, 

i, when the exact words of another are quoted; or 
ii. when the statement is vouched for as a fact; or 
111, when some special emphasis attaches to one part of the 
sentence; as 

i. λέγει ὅτι ὁ ἀνὴρ θνητός ἐστι he says that ‘the man is 
mortal.’ 

φὰς ἐπὶ χώρην ἄξειν ὅθεν χρυσὸν οἴσονται saying that 

he will lead them against a country from which they 
will (for a certainty) win gold. 

ii, ἔλεγον Ore Κῦρος μὴν τέθνηκεν, ᾿Αριαῖος δὲ πεφευγὼς 
ἐν τῷ σταθμῷ εἴη, καὶ λέγοι ὅτι περιμένειεν ἂν αὐτοὺς 
εἰ μέλλοιεν ἥκειν they said that Cyrus was dead [a 
fact], and that Arius having fled was in his camp, 
and that he said he would wait for them if they 
intended to come [assertions which might be true 
or not]. 

lll. ἐκέλευε τῆς ἑωυτοῦ χώρης οἰκέειν ὅκου βούλονται (Herod. 
i. 186) he bade them live in his own country where- 
ever they prefer. 

θαυμάζοντες ὅποι ποτὲ τρέψονται οἱ “Ἕλληνες καὶ τί ἐν 
νῷ ἔχοιεν Wondering whither the Greeks will turn 
themselves, and what their purpose possibly could be. 

In Latin, this opinion as to the truth or doubtfulness of what is 


reported cannot be shown by the form of the sentence, because the 
accusative and infinitive is their only form for indirect assertions ;* nor 





* The reason of this is that Latin has no equivalent to the Greek ὅτι 
with the indicative merely stating ὦ fact; wt is a final conjunction in 


CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 151 


can it be shown in English. But in German the distinction is just the 
same as in Greek, i.e. the indicative is used of certainties (Hr sagt er δ 
gefailen), the subjunctive of uncertainties (Er sagt er sed gefallen). 

190. The optative however is the ordinary mood for oratio 
obliqua after historical tenses (including the historical pre- 
sent); as 

ἤρετο εἰ αἰσθάνοιτο he asked whether he felt it. 


This use of the optative in oratio obliqua once existed in 
English, e.g. Sir I. Newton, in a letter to Hadley, writes: 
‘Since my writing this I am told how that Mr. Hooke should 
make a great stir,’ ἄο. 

This subjunctive is only used irregularly when the reporter 
involuntarily slips back into the oratio recta, generally from 
some allusion to the future; as 

ἔλεγον, we χρῆν ὑμᾶς εὐλαβεῖσθαι μὴ ὑπ᾽ ἐμοῦ ἐξαπατηθῆτε 
I kept telling you that ‘you ought to be on your guard 
that you may not be deceived by me.’ 


191. The same rule holds good of indirect interrogation." 


192, The tenses used are those which would be used in 
oratio recta, or direct speech; thus the three assertions ‘he 
did it,’ ‘he has done it,’ ‘he will do it,’ would be respectively 
in oratio obliqua, ἔλεγον ὅτι ποιήσειε, πεποιηκὼς εἴη, ποιήσοι. 


193. The accusative and infinitive may always be used in 
oratio obliqua; as 


ἤγγειλαν τὸν Κῦρον νικᾶν they announced that Cyrus 
was victor. 


CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 


194, Every complete conditional sentence consists of two 
clauses, of which the clause which contains the condition 
(‘zf’) is called the protasis, and the clause which expresses 
the inference or consequence is called the apodosis. 


195. Since, in these sentences, Greek is able to express 
very numerous shades of thought (modified even by the pass- 
ing emotion of the moment), which English does not, and 
often cannot idiomatically (i.e. in accordance with the ordinary 
use of the language) express; and since, in consequence of 
this, the apodosis often places the statement in a slightly 


Latin. The difference between ὅτι and ὡς in declarative sentences ig 


slight, but of the two ὅτε implies rather ‘the fact that,’ and ὡς the asser- 
tion that. 


152 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


different point of view from that on which the protasis is 
framed, it will be convenient to treat the forms of protasis and 
apodosis separately, and then to give instances of them in 
combination. 


196. A categorical proposition declares that something 
actually took place; a conditional proposition only states a 
connection between two events of which one depends on the 
other. 


Tue PRorasis. 


197, The common way of expressing the protasis is by εἰ 
Or εἰ». 

Li,* ‘if, is derived by Donaldson from the dative of the 
pronoun ἵ, gen. ov. It would therefore mean ‘on this condi- 
tion.’ It is joined with the indicative (generally the imperfect 
or aorist), and the optative ; very rarely with the subjunctive. 

’"Eav=eci ἄν, and may be compared with our pleonastic 
‘an if’; it invariably takes the subjunctive. 


198. The protasis may imply: I. Possibility, or mere 
assumption (sumptio dati). IL. Sight probability. III. Un- 
certainty, or mere supposition. JV. Impossibility (sumptio 
ficti); as in the following typical sentences to which the 
English and Latin equivalents are appended : 


199. I. Possibility (the condition being assumed); as 
εἴ τι ἔχει if he has anything, si quid habet. 
εἰ λέγει τοῦτο if he says this, si hoc dicit. 
ei γενήσεται ἵ ταῦτα if this shall happen, si hee accident. 
εἰ τοῦτο ἐπεπράχει if he had done this (the result still 
continuing): this is a nuance of meaning which we 
cannot express in English. 


We see then that εἰ with the indjcative implies a mere 
assumption ; and is equivalent to our ‘assuming that.’ It is 
purely neutral, and expresses no opinion either way. 


N. B. In this sense εἰ may go with any tense of the indica- 


* εἰ 8180 -- ὅτι ‘ that;’ for which it is a politer form, after verbs im- 
plying disapprobation; and verba affectuum generally (θαυμάζω, ἀγαπάω, 
δεινόν ἐστι, &e.). It also has the sense of num? si? whether? in in- 
direct questions. 

T «i, si, ‘if, with the future is comparatively rare in all three lan- 
guages. Notice the difference between εἰ ὕει νέφη ἔστι, if it is raining 
there are clouds, and εἰ ὕσει νικήσομεν, if it rains (at some future time) 
we shall win. 


THE PROTASIS. 153 


tive ; it only indicates zmpossibility (or that a thing is not the 
case) when it 18 ρος by the indicative with ἄν, e.g 
εἴ ποτέ TOL χαρίεντ᾽ ἐπὶ νηὸν epee 
«ον τόδε μοι κρήῃνον ἐέλδωρ.----Ἴ|. 1. 89. 
‘Ifever I reared for thee a beauteous fane . . . accom- 
plish for me this my desire.’ 
εἴ τις καὶ τότε ὠργίζετό por... ἀναπειθέσθω (Thuc. vi. 
89) if then any one was angry with me... let him 
now change his opinion. 
σοὶ εἰ πῇ ἄλλῃ δέδοκται λέγε if you have come to any 
different conclusion, tell me. 
200. II. Slight probability ; as 
ἐάν τι ἔχῃ if he have Ἐ anything, si quid habeat. 
ἐὰν τοῦτο λέγῃ if he say this, si ‘hoc dicat. 
ἐὰν γένηται ταῦτα if this happen, si hee accidant (or 
acciderent). 
᾿Εὰν is a compound of εἰ and ἄν, and calls attention to some 
condition; it is invariably joined to the subjunctive; hence it 
differs from 1. because it must always refer to future time.f 
201. III. Complete uncertainty (the condition being purely 
amagimary); as 
εἴ re ἔχοι if he were (or, should be) ravine anything, si 
quid habeat. 


* The English subjunctive, in this phrase, implies the same shade of 
probability; whereas ‘if he has,’ like εἰ ἔχει, expresses no probability 
whatever, but merely ‘assuming that, then, &c. Yet the difference 
between the two is so slight that both may be used in the same clause. 
(Herod. iii. 36.) 

t Εἰ (as well as ἐάν) may, very rarely, be joined even in good writers 
with the subjunctive. (See Hermann, ad Soph. Aj. 491, de particuld ἄν, 
p. 96.) The distinction between the very rare εἰ γένηται ‘and the common 
correct construction ἐὰν γένηται can hardly be expressed in English or 
Latin, except by using ‘forte’ ‘perhaps’ in the latter case. Thus 
we have— 

1. εἰ γενήσεται ταῦτα assuming that this will happen (possibility). 

ὍΣ ἐὰν γένηται ταῦτα if perchance this happen (probability). 

3. εἰ γένηται ταῦτα if this happen (apart from any conditions). 

4, εἰ γένοιτο ταῦτα if this should happen (uncertainty). 

It will be seen that the nwances of meaning here conveyed are too deli- 
cate to be expressed except by periphrases in Latin or English, and barely 
even by them; in fact, even high authorities (e.g. Rost) deny the exist- 
ence of any perceptible difference between 1 and 3, and Liddell and 
Scott between 2 and 3. Certainly, εἰ with the subjunctive is rare and 
archaic ; one would but rarely require to say ‘if—leaving all conditions 
out of sight—not implying the probability or even the possibility of the 
supposition.’ 
H3 


154 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


el τοῦτο λέγοι if he were (or, should be) saying this, si hoc 
dicat. 

εἰ γένοιτο ταῦτα if this were to (or, should) happen, si hec 
accidant. 


Both the English ‘were’ and the Greek optative strictly 
belong to the past, but in these instances the supposition refers 
to the present (if he were now to, &c.). This form of protasis 
might also be correctly rendered in English by ‘If he had,’ 
‘if he sazd,’ &c.; but this, though more idiomatic, would not 
be strictly correct or accurate. 

Latin makes no distinction between this and II., using the 
pres. subj. for both; or else employing ‘si quid haberet,’ &c. 
for both this and IV. 


N.B. When εἰ is used with the optative, the sense varies 
with the tense; e.g. 
εἰ ταῦτα wot 1 he should be doing this (now), 
7) 9, ποιήσοι if he should do this (hereafter), 
» 9  momoee if he did this. 


202. IV. Impossibility (the condition being denied). 
a. εἴ τι εἶχεν if he were (or had been) having, si quid 
haberet. 
β. εἴ τι ἔσχεν if he had had, si quid habuisset. 


a. εἶ τοῦτο ἔλεγεν if he were (or had been) saying this, 
si hoc diceret. 
β. εἰ τοῦτο ἔλεξεν if he had said, si hoc dixisset. 


a. εἰ ἐγίγνετο ταῦτα if this were (or had been) happening, 
Bi hec acciderent. 

β. εἰ ἐγένετο ταῦτα if this had happened, si hee acci- 
dissent. 


N.B. When these sentences are set in examination papers, 
as is so frequently the case, the student should give an accurate 
English translation, even at the expense of our ordinary idiom ; 
and therefore εἴ τι εἶχεν ἐδίδου av should not be rendered ‘ if 
he had anything he would give it’ (as in Arnold, Dr. Donald- 
son, &c.), but by these two formularies (ether of which is 
correct, and both of which should be given) : 

a. ‘If he were having anything, 
he would be giving it’ 
or 0. ‘If he had been having any- si quid haberet, daret. 
thing, he would have 
been giving it’ 


THE APODOSIS. 155 


This is a literal translation of the Greek which is required ; 
but, no doubt, neither sentence is in zdiomatic English, which 
would require for 

a. ‘If he had anything, he would give it,’ for 

ὃ. ‘If he had had anything, he would have given it ;’ 


which last would be expressed in Greek by εἴ τι ἔσχεν, ἔδωκεν 
ἄν. The very fact that a study of Greek enables us to appre- 
ciate shades of thought so subtle as to be scarcely capable of 
being expressed in our own language, adds to its value as an 
educational instrument. 


203. The reason why the student will constantly see dif- 
ferent English forms used to render these expressions, is the 
practical inaccuracy of the English language in neglecting all 
these shades of thought. We have tried to use the most 
accurate English equivalents; but, practically, English en- 
tirely neglects the distinction between continued and single 
actions in conditional sentences; and thus, though εἴ τι εἶχεν 
means ‘if he were (or had been) having,’ and εἴ τι ἔσχε» means 
‘if he had had,’ and although these forms convey clearly 
distinct meanings, yet ordinary English would use ‘if he had 
had’ for all three. 

Dr. Collis, in a letter to me, writes: ‘We in English should 
say, If you took that money, you are a thief. We do not 
stop to weigh whether the stealing is a habit, or a repeated 
single act, or in what degree of uncertainty, possibility, or 
probability it may be predicated; nor whether the result is 
that with such or such a degree of contingency you will be, 
or may be, or may be considered to be always, or in that one 
particular instance a thief; we simply say, with a thump on 
the table, You are a thief.’ 

N.B.—Notice the use of εἴθε, εἰ (like the Latin 82) in wishes; as εἴθε 
τοῦτο ἐγίγνετο utinam hoc fieret; εἴθε ἐγένετο utinam factum esset; 
εἰ γὰρ γένοιτο utinam fiat! In unfulfilled wishes, εἴθε, εἰ γάρ, are used 
with the imperfect (of continuous) and aorist indicative (of single acts), 


as εἴθ᾽ ἦσθα δυνατὸς τοῦτο δρᾶν would that you had been able to do this ; 
εἴθε σε μήποτ᾽ εἰδόμην would I had never seen you! 


Tue APpoposis. 


204, The same Protasis may have different Apodoses ac- 
cording to the meaning required. The commonest forms of 
apodosis are 

a. The imperative. 
β. Some tense of the indicative. 


156 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


γ. The optative with ay which is the commonest of all, 
and may follow any protasis, because being more 
polite and indirect the Greeks preferred it to the 
indicative. 

6. When the non-fulfilment of the condition is implied, a 
past tense of the indicative with ay. 


And here we again meet the distinction between the aorist 
and the imperfect with ἄν, which may indeed be unidiomati- 
cally expressed in English, but which for the most part we 
neglect; thus 

ἀπέθνησκεν ἂν means ‘he would be dying,’ or ‘ he would 
have been dying ;’ 

ἀπέθανεν ἂν “ he would have died ;’* 

ἐτεθνήκει ay he would have been dead. 


COMPLETE CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 


205. I. Possibility, or mere assumption, with no expression 
of uncertainty. 
el τι ἔχει, δίδωσι Si quid habet, dat. If he has anything, 
he gives it. 
εἰ τοῦτο λέξεις, ἁμαρτήσει si hoc dices, errabis. If you 
say this, you will be in the wrong. 
206. II. Slight probability. 
ἐάν τι ἔχῃ, δώσει si quid habeat (or habebit), dabit. If he 
have anything, he will give it. 
ἐὰν ταῦτα λέξῃ, ἁμαρτάνει si hoc dicat, errat. If he say 
this, he errs. 


207. III. Uncertainty, or mere supposition. 
εἴ τι Exot, δοίη ἂν tf si quid habeat, det (rare in Latin). 
If he were (or should be) having anything (sc. now), 
he would give it. 
εἰ ταῦτα λέγοι, ἁμαρτάνοι ἂν si hee dicat, erret. If he 
were (or should be) saying this, he would be erring. 





* Some scholars maintain that ἀπέθανεν ἂν may mean ‘he would die,’ 
as well as ‘he would have died;’ but this is exceedingly questionable, 
and therefore I have taken no notice of it. 

+ Or indefinite frequency ; as εἴ που ἐξελαύνοι περιῆγε τὸν Κῦρον when- 
ever he went out riding he used to take Cyrus about with him. 

t ‘This is the favourite apodosis, and is often put with one of the other 
protases; e.g. τἄμ᾽ ἐὰν θέλῃς ἔπη Κλύων δέχεσθαι... . ᾿Αλκὴν λάβοις ἄν 
(Soph. 0. 7. 216) if you be willing to listen to and obey my word... 
you would gain help (where λάβοις ἂν is politely indefinite for Aner). 


CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 167 


208. IV. Impossibility, or the implied nonfulfilment of the 

condition. 

a. εἴ τι εἶχεν, ἐξίδου dv* si quid haberet, daret. If he 
were (or had been) having anything (which is not the 
case) he would be (or have been) giving it. 

εἰ ταῦτα ἔλεγεν ἡμάρτανεν ἂν si hee diceret, erraret. 
If he were (or had been) saying this, he would be (or 
have been) in the wrong. 


B. εἴ τι ἔσχεν, ἔδωκεν ἂν si quid habuisset, dedisset. If 
he had had anything, he would have given it. 
εἰ ταῦτ᾽ ἔλεξεν ἥμαρτεν ἂν si hee dixisset, errasset. If 
he had said this, he would have been in the wrong. 


209. It will be seen at once, as already stated, that the 
chief difficulty in understanding the use of conditional sen- 
tences arises from the fluctuating and uncertain use of the 
English equivalents, since our ordinary idiom often prevents 
us from representing the accurate meaning of the Greek; yet 
we may in English accurately render 


I. by ‘7f’ with the indicative. 
Il. by ‘zf’ with the subjunctive. 
Il. by ‘if’ with ‘were to’ or ‘ should.’ 
IV. β. by ‘if’ with the pluperfect, and by ‘would have’ 
in the apodosis. 


210. The main difficulty is with IV. a Many scholars 
translate εἴ τι εἶχεν, ἐδίδου ἂν by ‘if he had anything, he 
would give it;’ others, declaring this to be inaccurate and 
unphilosophical, render it ‘if he (were, or) had been having 
anything, he would (be, or) have been giving it.’ It is clear 
that in many sentences, such periphrases would be intolerable 
in classical English, although they are correct, and discri- 
minate well such sentences as 

a. εἰ μὴ τότ᾽ ἐπόνουν, οὐκ ἂν νῦν εὐφραινόμην had I not 
then been toiling, I should ποῦ now have been rejoicing. 

β. εἰ τοῦτ' ἐποίει μέγα pe ὠφελεῖ ἂν if he had been acting 
this, he would have been doing me a great service. 


Clearly εἰ τοῦτ᾽ ἐποίει, and therefore the apodosis dependent 





* Compare the French 51] avait, 11 donnerait. 

{ The protasis of every one of these four may be represented by 
ἔχων τι; and that of I. by ἃ ἔχει; of II. by ἃ ἂν ἔχῃ ; of 117. by ἃ ἔχοι; 
of IV. a. by ἃ εἶχεν ; of IV. β. by ἃ ἔσχεν. 


158 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


on it, sometimes refers to the present,* sometimes to the 
past; e.g. 
εἰ τὸν Φίλιππον τὰ δίκαια πράττοντα ἑώρων, σφόδρα ἂν 
θαυμαστὸν ἡγούμην αὐτὸν if I but saw Philip acting 
with justice, my opinion of him would be that he is 
very admirable. 
οὗτος εἰ ἦν» προφήτης ἐγίνωσκεν ἂν if he were a prophet, 
he would be aware. 

911, The Greek love for dramatic imperfects, expressive of 
continuous acts, going on as it were before the eyes, leads 
them to a constant use of this form of the conditional sen- 
tence; e.g. 

οὐκ ἂν προέλεγεν εἰ μὴ ἐπίστευεν ἀληθεύσειν he would not 
have been in the habit of saying so beforehand, had he 
not been confident that he would be speaking truth. 

οὐκ ἂν οὖν νήσων ἐκράτει, εἰ μή τι καὶ ναυτικὸν εἶχεν he 
would never, then, have held sovereignty over the 
islands, had he not been in possession of some fleet 
also. 


212. To sum up then what has been said about IV. a., the 
context only can determine exactly whether in the particular 
instance any such sentence as 

εἰ ταῦτ᾽ ἐγίγνετο, ἀπέθνησκεν ἂν means 
If these things were taking place, he would be dying; 
or, If these things had been taking place, he would have been 
dying. 

213. One or two instances of conditional sentences, both 
Greek and Latin,t are added, in some of which the apodoses 
are varied{ from the regular construction. In the light of 





* Dr. Donaldson cannot be right in making it refer to the present 
only. (Gr. Gram. p. 540.) In the same way, ‘Si quid haberet, daret,’ 
may mean either ‘if he had been having anything, he would have been 
giving it.’ Vellem=éBovAduny ἂν lit. I should have been wishing, or 
‘I should be wishing,’ se. if it were, or had been, possible. In English 
however we should use neither of these imperfects to express the con- 
tinuous action, but merely ‘I could have wished,’ 

t+ I borrow some of these from a difficult, but careful little treatise on 
The Theory of Conditional Sentences, by Mr. R. Horton Smith (Mac- 
millan). Many Latin instances are given by Jani in his Art of Poetry 
(Engl. Tr.), p. 52. 

¢ Such a change in the apodosis of a sentence is regarded as an 
inaccuracy in English (however frequently it may occur); e.g. such a 
sentence as Steele’s, ‘If you please to employ your thoughts on that 
subject, you would easily conceive, &c., where ‘you will, &c., would 


CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 159 


what has gone before they will be easily understood by the 
attentive student; their occasional irregularities are all due 
to the triumph of the dramatic tendency over formal grammar. 
I. Possibility (condition assumed). 
Ἰ μ᾽ ἐθέλεις πολεμίζειν, "ANNove μὲν κάθισον if you want 
me to fight, make the rest sit down.—Z1. iii. 67. 

ἦ καλόν, ἦν δ᾽ ἐγώ, τέχνημα κέκτησαι, εἴπερ κέκτησαι In 
truth, said I, a fine contrivance you have acquired, if 
you have but really acquired it—Plat. Prot. p. 319 a. 

el μὲν θεοῦ ἦν, οὐκ ἦν, φήσομεν, αἰσχροκερδής if he was 
the son of the god, he was not, we shall say, basely 
avaricious.—Plat. Rep. 408 c. 

Erras, si id credis, et me ignoras, Clinia, you are mistaken 
if you think so, and don’t know me, Clinia.—Ter. 
Fleaut. τ. 1. 55. 

Si quod erat grande vas leti afferebant, if there was any 
large vessel, they would bring it to him with exultation. 
—Cic. J. Verr. 1v. xxi. 47. 

II. Slight probability. 

Νέος ἂν πονήσῃς γῆρας ἕξεις εὐθαλὲς si juvenis labora- 
veris, senectutem habebis jucundam. 

καὶ ἣν ἄρα μὴ προχωρήσῃ ἴσον ἑκάστῳ ἔχοντι ἀπελθεῖν, 
πάλιν πολεμήσομεν and if by any chance things proceed 
not smoothly for each side to separate on equal terms, 
we will go to war again.—Thuce. iv. 59. 

Nunquam labere, si te audies You will never slip, if you 
listen to your own guidance.—Cic, 11. ad Fam. vii. 1. 

Pol si istuc faxis (=feceris) haud sine peena feceris Faith 
if you do so, you will not have done it with impunity. 
—Plaut. Capt. 11. v. 87. 


have been more regular; but in Greek, which submitted less tamely to 
formal rules, and allowed more for the passing play of thought, such a 
sentence would have been regarded as quite admissible. It is the same 
in French, where one might have either ‘Si vous aviez fait le contraire 
il aurait mieux valu, il valait mieux, or wu vaudrait mieux.’ 

1 collect one or two English instances of conditional sentences with 
varied apodoses from an excellent pamphlet by the Rev. E. Thring, ‘On 
Common Mood Constructions.’ They will show that Greek is not in 
this respect one whit more irregular than our own language. 

‘Til speak to it though hell itself should gape.’ 
‘ Thou wrongst thyself, if thou shouldst choose to strike,’ 
‘If I answer not you might haply think 
Tongue-tied ambition yielded.’ 
‘AnI might live to see thee married once 
I have my wish.’ 


160 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


III. Uncertainty (condition mag ginary). 
ΣΤΡ, γυναῖκα φαρμακίδ᾽ εἰ πριάμενος Θετταλήν, 
καθέλοιμι τὴν σελήνην, φῇ, ὮΧΒ er 
50. Ὁ Ὁ κάτα τηροίην ἔχων,.. .. 

LQ. τί δῆτα τοῦτό σ᾽ ὠφελήσειέν σ᾽; ΣΤΡ, ὅ,τι; 

εἰ μηκέτ᾽ ἀνατέλλοι σελήνη μηδαμοῦ 
οὐκ ἂν ἀποδοίην τοὺς τόκους.---ΑτΥ. Nub. 749.* 

Str. If purchasing a Thessalian witch I should draw 
downt the moon (single act), ... . and then 
keep it in my own possession (continued act)... 

Soc. Why, what good would that do you? 

Str. What good, quotha? why if the moon should no 
longer be rising (continued act) I should not pay 
(single act) the interest on my debts. 


IV. Impossibility (condition denied). 

a. and β. (combined). Πλάτων πρός τινα τῶν παίδων 
Μεμαστίγωσο ἄν, ἔφη, εἰ μὴ ὠργιζόμην Plato exclaimed 
to one of his slaves, ‘ You would have been flogged, 
were I not ina passion.’ 

εἰ ἐπείσθην οὐκ ἂν ἠρρώστουν had I then taken your 
advice I should not now have been suffering from 
illness. 

Si has inimicitias cavere potuisset, viveret had he been 
able to avoid this enmity, he would now be living.— 
Cic. p. Rose. vi. 17. 

Si possiderem (regnum) ornatus esses ex tuis virtutibus 
were I in possession of it, you would have been 
decorated in accordance with your merits.—Ter, Adel. 
Il. 1. 21. 

μένοιμ᾽ ἄν" ἤθελον δ᾽ ἂν ἐκτὸς ὧν τυχεῖν (Soph. Aj. 88) 
I suppose I must stay; but I should have wished (lit. 
been wishing) to be out of the way. [Here the 
protasis ‘ had it been possible’ εἰ δυνατὸν ἦν is (as often) 
suppressed. | 


* Several idioms occur in this instructive example ; e.g. the difference 
of present (τηροίην, &c.) and aorist (καθέλοιμι) tenses; the use of tke 
relative ὅ,τι in repeating a question, ὅσο, 


T ‘His mother was a witch, and one so strong 
She could controul the moon.’—Shaksp. Tempest. 
‘While the labouring moon 
Eclipses at their charms.—Milton. 


+ For other instructive Latin instances, see A. iv. 19, ii.55, xi 12; 
Ov. Trist. v. v. 42, &c. 


TEMPORAL SENTENCES, 161 


TEMPORAL SENTENCES. 


214. In sentences which indicate time by means of any of 
the particles of time, as dre, ἕως, ἐπεί, πρίν, μέχρις, &e., the 
general rule is that a. the InpicaTIVE is used when facts are 
stated; (. the SuBJUNCTIVE with ἂν (as in ὅταν, ἐπειδάν, &c.) 
after primary tenses, when anything future and uncertain 
is mentioned; and y. the OpraTive (without dv) in oratio 
obliqua, and after historical tenses, frequently implying re- 
currence; as 


a. The indicative of facts. 

ἐπεὶ δὲ φέγγος ἡλίου κατέφθιτο but when the light of the 
sun waned. 

οὐκ ἦν ἀλέξημ᾽ οὐδὲν πρίν γ᾽ ἐγώ σφισιν ἔδειξα, κιτ.λ. there 
was no remedy till I showed them, &c.—Aisch. P. V. 
479. 

πίνει ἕως ἐθέρμην᾽ αὐτὸν ἀμφιβᾶσα φλὸξ he drank till the 
pervading flame warmed him.—Hur. Alc. 757. 


ἔφυγον ὅτε ἦλθον οἱ σύμμαχοι when the allies came, they 
fled. 


β. The subj. with ἂν of things future and uncertain. 
ὅταν ἃ Χρὴ ποιήσῃς εὐτυχήσεις Whenever you do your 
duty you will prosper, quum officia tua expleveris, 
felix eris. 
ἐπειδὰν ἅπαντα ἀκούσητε, κρίνατε whenever you have 
learnt all, judge. 


y. The opt. (generally without av) after historical tenses, 
often of indefinite frequency. 

ὑπερῷον εἶχεν ὁπότ᾽ ἐν corer διατρίβοι he used to occupy 
an upper-room as often as he was staying in town. 

περιεμένομεν ἕως ἀνοιχθείη τὸ δεσμωτήριον we used to 
wait about, until the prison should be opened.* 

οὐκ ἠβούλοντο μάχην ποιεῖσθαι πρὶν οἱ σύμμαχοι παραγέ- 
γοιντὸ they did not wish to fight till the allies should 
have come up. 





* Sometimes, but rarely, ἂν is added to ἕως, &c., with the optative, as 
in Soph. Trach. 684, σώζειν (ἐκέλευεν) ἕως ἂν ἀρτίχριστον ἁρμόσαιμί που 
he bade me keep it until (skowld occasion arise) 1 might perchance use it 
fresh-spread. Cf. Ar. Hg. 133. Hermann accounts for this anomaly by 
saying that where πρὶν ἄν, &c., would have the subjunctive in oratio 
recta, the ἂν may still be retained in oratio obliqua, although there the 
optative is substituted for the subjunctive, 


162 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


ΘΡΕΟΙΑΙ, UsEs OF πρίν, Ewe, &e. 


215. Notice these facts about the uses of πρίν ‘before,’ and 
ἕως until.’ 


1. πρὶν ἂν is never used unless a negative, or something 
equivalent * to a negative precedes, as 
ov ποιήσω ταῦτα πρὶν ἂν κελεύσῃς non hee faciam, prius- 
quam jubeas. 


ii. πρὶν is only used with the optative in oratio obliqua, or 
when there is reference to the thoughts or words of another. 


οὐκ ἤθελον ποιῆσαι ταῦτα πρὶν κελεύσειας antequam ju- 
beres. 

ἀπηγόρευε μηδένα βάλλειν πρὶν Κῦρος ἐμπλησθείη he 
forbade any one to shoot until Cyrus was satisfied 
[referring to his own words]. 

οὐκ ἔθελεν φεύγειν πρὶν πειρήσαιτ᾽ ᾿Αχιλῆος he did not 
wish to fly till he had made trial of Achilles [referring 
to his thoughts]. 


iii, Sometimes (as we have already noticed ὃ 177, 7) an 
optative after πρὶν is due to the attraction of a previous opta- 
tive, as 

ὔὕλοιο μήπω πρὶν μάθοιμι (Soph. Phil. 961) mayst thou 
perish! Yet no, not till I learn. 


Here we should have expected the infinitive, but compare 
Ο. 1. 505. 


iv. πρίν, ἕως, with the subj. differs from πρὶν ἄν, ἕως ἄν, by 
being only used zn poetry when something certain to happen is 
spoken of; e.g. an actually dying man should not say μίμνετε 
ἕως ἂν θάνω but μίμνετε Ewe θάνω. 

μὴ στέναζε, πρὶν μάθῃς (Soph. Phil. 917) do not groan 
till you have learnt (which will be the case imme- 
diately) ; 
but 
ἕως δ᾽ ἂν ἐκμάθῃς ἔχ᾽ ἐλπίδα till you have learnt (which 
you may or may not do) keep hope. 


% 


e.g. ἃ question, or such words as ἄφρων, &e. In fact, πρὶν very 
rarely occurs before the optative or subjunctive at all without a nega- 
tive preceding. (Jelf, § 848, obs. 8.) For a few trifling exceptions or 
irregularities, see Shilleto, Dem. de I. Leg. § 235. 


USES OF πρίν. 163 


Usually * however ay is added, because the Greeks disliked 
talking of future certainties, and ‘amant omnia dubitantius 
loqui.’ 

γ. We find a similar fact with és, ὅπως, which (in Attic poets) are 
used alone with the subjunctive of things certain, as ἀλλ᾽ ὡς τόδ᾽ εἰδῇς 
ἐννέπω σαφέστερον but 1 tell you more plainly that you may know it 
(which ef course you will do, when I have told you); but σταθῶμεν 
ἐκποδών, ὡς ἂν μάθω let us stand aside, that I may (sc. if possible) learn. 

Thus we find them in the same passage, Aisch. Choeph. 9883— 

exteivar’ αὐτὸν.... ὦ ς ἴδῃ πατήρ, 
οὐχ οὑμὸς ἀλλ᾽ ὃ πάντ᾽ ἐποπτεύων τάδε 
Ἥλιος ἄναγνα μητρὸς ἔργα τῆς ἐμῆς" 
ὡς ἂν παρῇ μοι μάρτυς ἐν δίκῃ ποτέ 
ὡς τόνδ᾽ ἐγὼ μετῆλθον ἐνδίκως μόρον 
τὸν μητρός. 

Unfold it that .... the sun may sce (which of course will be the case) 
the unhallowed deeds of my mother, so that perchance he may here- 
after be my witness (of the fact) that I justly wrought this fate of my 
mother. 


N.B. i. The infinitive with πρὶν may be substituted for 
any other mood. 


li. πρὶν δειπνεῖν before dining, priusquam cenem. 
πρὶν δειπνῆσαι before having dined, priwsquam 
cenavero. 
πρὶν δεδειπνηκέναι before having finished dinner, 
priusquam ἃ ccena surrexero. 


iii. The following sentences will illustrate the com- 
monest uses of πρίν. 
ἐποίησα ταῦτα πρὶν ἐκέλευσας ante- 
quam jubebas 
οὐκ ἤθελον ποιῆσαι ταῦτα πρὶν 
κελεύσειας antequam juberes 
ποιήσω πρίν σε κελεῦσαι. 
οὐ ποιήσω ταῦτα πρὶν ἂν κελεύσῃς. 


ΟΥ πρὶν σε κελεῦσαι. 


On these sentences we may observe: a. That πρὶν may 


* ἕως ἄν, with the subjunctive present, often implies duration, =so 
long as. 
σιωπᾶτε ἕως ἂν καθεύδῃ as long as he continues sleeping, be still, 
λέγειν χρὴ ἕως ἂν ἐῶσιν of ᾿Αθηναῖοι, Plato, Phed. 85 A, one must 
continue speaking as long as the Athenians permit. 


It is easy to see that the ἂν is here used because of the uncertainty of 
the duration alluded to; but χρησμοὺς ἔνεγκε ἕως καθεύδει, Ar. Hg. 110, 
bring the oracles while he is asleep (where no ἂν is needed—his sleep 
being a fact). 


164 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


always go with the accusative and infinitive, except where a 
negative statement is limited by a future contingency. /. It 
takes the indicative when certain facts are spoken of in the 
past. y. It takes the optative in oratio obliqua, and after 
another optative. 6. Itisrarely used at all, and with the sub- 
junctive or optative never, unless a negative notion precedes. 


THE INFINITIVE (ἔγκλισις ἀπαρέμφατοο). 


216. The Infinitive can hardly be considered as a mood; 
it is rather a noun expressive of action, and therefore it can 
take the article. Hence some grammarians call it ‘ the noun 
of the verb’ (ὄνομα τοῦ ῥήματος). It resembles however the 
verb in having tenses, in governing cases, in being used with 
ἄν, and in being qualified by adverbs, not by adjectives, as 
καλῶς θνήσκειν, but καλὸς θάνατος. 


217. The connection between the infinitive and the abstract 
noun accounts for the fact that in many languages—for in- 
stance in Arabic and in Modern Greek—there is no infinitive 
mood. We shall see that in most languages infinitives with 
the article may be used as substantives; e.g. in French le 
savoir, le toucher, &c. 


218. The uses of the infinitive in Greek are far more rich 
and varied than its uses in Latin; e.g. 


τίς Φίλιππον κωλύσει δεῦρο βαδίζειν; quis Philippum 
impediet quominus huc veniat ἢ 

τοῖς Αἰγινήταις ἔδοσαν Ovpeay οἰκεῖν dederunt Thyream 
habitandam. 

πάντες αἰτοῦνται τὸν Θεὸν τἀγαθὰ διδόναι omnes homines 
precantur Deum ut bona largiatur. 

ἀκοῦσαι μαλθακὰ dulcia ad audiendum. 

φοβερὸς ὁρᾶν horribilis aspectu. 

ἄξια ἀποδέξασθαι digna que quis accipiat. 

219. Most of the idioms in which the Greek infinitive is 
employed closely resemble those of English, as will be seen 
by the following instances, in which the infinitive completes 
or qualifies the meaning of various words; as 

ἱκανὸς ἦν εἰπεῖν he was able to speak. 

θείειν ἀνέμοισιν ὁμοίη like the winds to run. 

ἔστι πόα καθίζεσθαι there is grass to sit down upon. 

μέγα καὶ ἐσσομένοισι πυθέσθαι great even for posterity to 
hear of. 


INFINITIVES. 165 


δοκεῖς ἁμαρτεῖν you seem to have erred. 
οὐχ ἡδὺ πολλοὺς ἐχθροὺς ἔχειν it is not pleasant to have 
many enemies. 


For some good remarks on the English infinitive see Prof. 
Whitney’s Lectures, p- 119; Abbott, Shak sp. Gram. p. 81. 


220. The Greek infinitive is even used, as in English (but 
never in Latin prose*), to express a fact or consequence 
almost resembling a purpose, where the Latin supine would 
be used : 

pay θάνειν ἥκομεν we have come to learn. 

Ξενοφῶν τὸ ἥμισυ τοῦ στρατεύματος κατέλιπε φυλάττειν 
τὸ στρατόπεδον Xenophon left half the army to guard 
the camp. 


ἤλθομεν προσκυνῆσαι αὐτῷ we have come to worship him. 
Matt. 11. 2. 


221. It is often qualified by various conjunctions, ὥστε, ἐφ᾽ 
©, &¢., and by ἢ after comparatives; as 
ἐλπίδα δὲ δὴ τίν᾽ ἔχομεν, ὥστε μὴ θανεῖν; but what hope 
then have we of escaping death ? 
To γὰρ νόσημα μεῖζον ἢ φέρειν the disease is too great to 
bear. 

222. In such instances as χαλεπὸν εὑρεῖν, ἡδὺ ἀκούειν, θείειν 
ἄριστος, ἄξιος θαυμάζεσθαι, &c., the infinitive is called epewe- 
getic, because it defines or limits the notion of the adjective 
with which it is joined.f ‘This infinitive is not uncommon 
after δίδωμι. 


223. It is used in various adverbial phrases, as 


ἑκὼν εἶναι “ ποῦ if I can help it’ (after negatives). 
ἐμοὶ δοκεῖν 1 in my opinion. 
ὅσον γ᾽ ἔμ᾽ εἰδέναι so far as I know. 
we εἰπεῖν so to speak. 
Nee > 
τὸ νῦν εἶναι at present, at all events. 
κατὰ τοῦτο εἶναι in this respect. 
ὀλίγου δεῖν almost, &c. 


* Latin poets however allow themselves to use a similar idiom with 
verbs of going, sending, coming; as 
‘Non nos... Libycos populare Penates 
Venimus.’—Virg. i. 527. 
‘Vultisne eamus visere?’—Ter. Phorm. τ. 11. 52; ‘ibis fraenare 
cohortes.’—Stat. Sylv. rv. iv. 61. 
‘Legati veniunt speculari,—Liy. ΧΗ]. 25-8 ; Prop. i. 1-12, &e. 


t The Latins copy the Greck epexcgetic infinitive in such phrases as 


166 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


224. In commands,* prayers, laws, expressions of wonder, 
&c., it is used elliptically, generally with a sententious or 
dictatorial tone (Jebb, Soph. £1. 9). 

χαίρειν πολλὰ TOY ἄνδρα Θυώνειχον good morning, Thyoni- 
chus! (sc. κελεύω χαίρειν). 

τοὺς Θρᾷκας ἀπιέναι παρεῖναι δ᾽ εἰς ἔνην the Thracians to 
go away, and appear the day after to-morrow. 

pn με δουλείας τυχεῖν (grant) that I may not be en- 
slaved ! 

γυμνὸν δὲ σπείρειν γυμνὸν δὲ βοωτεῖν (Hes. Opp. 889) 
nudus ara, sere nudus. 

τοῦτον ὑβρίζειν, ἀναπνεῖν δέ that this fellow should be 
insolent, and that he should be alive! 


So in Latin: 
‘ Men’ incepto desistere victam ?’—Virg. in. 1. 41. 


‘ Adeone hominem . . . infelicem esse ut ego sum.’—Ter. 
Andr. 1. v. 11. 


225. After verbs of declaring, feeling, &c., the tenses of the 

infinitive are used in their proper meaning; as 
ἠνάγκασε Tove μαθητὰς ἐμβῆναι εἰς τὸ πλοῖον καὶ προ- 
ἄγειν αὐτὸν he made the disciples embark on the ship 


(single action), and go before him (continued action). 
— Matt. xiv. 22.7 


226. The subject of the infinitive is put in the accusative, 
not in the nominative as in the case of a finite verb, as 


ὁ Κῦρος ἐνίκησε, but 
ἤγγειλαν τὸν Κῦρον νικῆσαι. 


λευκὸς ἰδεῖν niveus videri, Hor. Od. iv. 2, and also the infinitive in appo- 
sition to the meaning of the sentence; compare dap ἀθανάτων οἷα διδοῦσιν 
ἔχειν, Theogn. 1164, with ‘Ile suo moriens dat habere nepoti,’ Ain. ix. 
362, and δῶκεν ἀνέμοις φέρεσθαι with ‘dederatque comam diffundere 
ventis, Virg. A. i. 323. ‘And give him to partake Full happiness 
with me’—P. LZ, ix. 818. ‘Une seule remarque reste ἃ faire.— 
Chateaubriand. 

* This use of the infinitive as an imperative is found in other lan- 
guages. In Hebrew the infinitive and imperative are generally the 
same in form. In Provencal Non temer Maria=fear not Mary. In 
English military commands, ‘ Left division ¢o march,’ &e. 

t+ The very frequent use of the infinitive with τοῦ to express purpose 
in the Now Testament (0.2. εἰσῆλθε Tod μεῖναι σὺν αὐτοῖς, Luke xxiv. 29) 
is neither an ellipse of ἕνεκα, nor a Hebraism, but may be paralleled in 
classical Greek (see Winer, Gram. N. T. ὃ xliv.), and arose from the 
meaning of the genitive. It is however used in a lax and extended 
manner, especially by St. Luke. 


γ᾽ 
ACCUSATIVE AND INFINITIVE. 167 \ , 


227. This use of the accusative and infinitive in good 
classical English is very much more rare, although it is not 
unknown; e.g. I hear you sing, I bid you go,—Clyde. It 
is really due to what is called antiptosis, 1.6. to that pro- 
lepsis of the subject of the dependent clause, which has been 
already explained in ὃ 63; e.g. 

ἔλεγον ὅτι ὁ Κῦρος τέθνηκε they said that ‘Cyrus is 
dead,’ 
may become 
ἔλεγον τὸν Κῦρον dri τέθνηκε, ἢ 
which is the same as 
ἔλεγον τὸν Κῦρον reOvnxévat.—Curtius. 

228. Instead of the accusative and infinitive after verbs 
of declaring, ὅτι may be used with the indicative where we 
should use inverted commas to show that we are quoting a 
person’s exact words, as 

they said * Cyrus is dead’ ; 


but where the narrator does not wish to vouch for the fact 
stated, ὡς with the optative is used, as 
διαβάλλει τὸν Κῦρον πρὸς τὸν ἀδελφὸν we ἐπιβουλεύοι 
αὐτῷ he accused Cyrus to his brother, alleging that 
he was plotting against him (compare the English 
vulgarism ‘saying as how’). 
229, If the subject of the infinitive is the same as that of 
the finite verb, the nominative and infinitivef are used, as 
ἔφη οὐκ αὐτὸς ἀλλ᾽ ἐκεῖνον στρατηγεῖν he said that not he 
(himself), but that Nicias was general. 
ὁ ᾿Αλέξανδρος ἔφασκεν εἶναι Διὸς υἱὸς Alexander alleged 
that he was a son of Zeus. 
[So too with participles; as ἴσθι ἀνόητος ὧν know that you 
are foolish. | 


* And this construction with ὅτε being more precise, becomes more 
frequent in later writers (e.g.in Hellenistic Greek). Accordingly, we 
are (once more) not surprised to find that the infinitive has vanished 
from Modern Greek, being replaced by va (=tva) and a finite verb; just 
as in French, gue with a verb is often used where the infinitive would 
have been used in Latin, because in later Latin quod or quia with the 
finite verb is substituted for it. 

+ This is really a case of brachylogy, i.e. a shortened form of expres- 
sion, for αὐτὸς ovx ἔφη ἑαυτὸν στρατηγεῖν. In Latin, and sometimes in 
Greek, the full construction is used, as οἴομαι ἐμαυτὸν ἁμαρτεῖν credo me 
errasse, 


168 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


It is the same in Latin; as 


‘Rettulit Ajax 
Esse Jovis pronepos.’—Ov. J/, xii. 141. 


230. ‘ Predicative qualifications referring to a genitive or 
dative may be in these cases.’—Clyde. 
ἐδέοντο αὐτοῦ εἶναι προθύμου they besought him to be of 
good cheer. 
ἕξεστί μοι γενέσθαι εὐδαίμονι licet mihi esse beato. 

231, English differs from Greek and Latin in taking a 
present instead of a future infinitive after verbs of promising, — 
&c.; as 

ἐλπίζω εὐτυχήσειν spero me beatum fore I hope to be 
happy. 

ὑπέσχετο δώσειν πέντε μνᾶς promisit se quinque minas 
daturum he promised to give five mine. 

232. The infinitive with the article becomes a declinable 
substantive, and may be used in any case (τὸ τύπτειν striking, 
τοῦ τύπτειν of striking, &c.), thus answering to the Latin 
gerund; as 

Nom. τὸ ἁμαρτώνειν ἀνθρώπους ὄντας οὐδὲν θαυμαστὸν 
‘to err is human.’ 

Gen. ἐπιθυμία τοῦ πιεῖν desiderium bibendi. 

Dat. κεκράτηκε τῷ πρότερος πρὸς τοὺς πολεμίους ἰέναι 
he has conquered by going first against the 
enemy. 


233. Accus. αὐτὸ τὸ ἀποθνήσκειν οὐδεὶς φοβεῖται no one fears 
the mere dying. Even without the article the infinitive is 
often substantival; as 

δεῖ λέγειν it is necessary to say. 

σχήσω σε πηδᾶν I will stop your leaping. 

dv θανεῖν ἐρρυσάμην whom I saved from death. 

234. This substantival use of the infinitive is common to 
most languages; e.g. it is found in Hebrew: 

In Latin: Matris lallare recusas, you refuse your mother’s 
lullaby.—Persius. Multum interest inter dare et ac- 
cipere.—Sen. Benef. v. 10. 

In German : 

Und ihr Leben ist immer ein ewiges Gehen und 
Kommen, 

Oder ein Heben und Tragen, Bereiten und Schaffen 
fiir Andre.—Goethe, Herm. und Dorothea. 


PARTICIPLES. 169 


In French: 1] en a perdu le boire et le manger. 
In Italian: Non era I’ andar suo cosa mortale.—Petrarch. 
In Spanish: ΕἸ mucho estudiar, too much study. 
In English : 
For not to have been dipped in Lethe’s stream 
Could save the son of Thetis from to die.-—Spenser.* 


THe PaRTICIPLE (μετοχή). 


285. The Participlef has affinities with the adjective, as the 
infinitive has with the noun. Hence Voss calls the participles 
mules, ‘ because they partake alike of the noun and the verb, as 
the mule of the horse and the ass.’ Its essential force is attr7- 
butive, and hence it always refers to some substantive expressed 
or understood. The present participle in Sanskrit was origin- 
ally an ablative (or genitive) of the verbal root ending in at; 
the nasal addition of πὶ is non-essential, though it appears in 
the Greek termination wy and the Latin ns. Thus the parti- 
ciple would be analogous to our participial forms a (i.e. on) 
hunting, a fishing, &c. We have already seen in the instance 
of the adjective that it is a common practice in most languages 
to form new declinable expressions by adding case-endings to 
some oblique case of a noun; e.g. in German the adjective 
vorhandener is obviously formed by declining a dative case. 


236. In the use of the participle, as in that of the infinitive, 
English and Greek are more rich and varied than Latin or 
German. In consequence of their frequent use of the parti-. 
ciple, one of the grammarians calls the Greeks φιλομέτοχοι. 


237. Like the infinitive, the participle may express 


I. Either the necessary accessories of the verbal notion; as 
WY ἢ 
χαίρω τῷ πατρὶ ἐλθόντι I rejoice at my father’s arrival. 
Or 


II. ‘It expresses notions of time, cause, manner, which are 
the mere acczdents of the verbal notion; { as 





* ‘Our English infinitive is the mutilated form of the dative of a 
gerund. Rask says that the present infinitive is never used in Anglo- 
Saxon with the particle #o as in Modern English, though the gerund 
always requires to. —New Crat. p. 603. 

7 Meroxh ἐστι λέξις μετέχουσα τῆς τῶν ῥημάτων Kal τῆς τῶν ὀνομάτων 
ἰδιότητος, Dionys. Thrax, § 19; i.e. it is so called from participating in 
the nature both of verbs and nouns. 

t Jelf, § 680. 


“4... 


170 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


τελευτῶν εἶπε at last he said. 
ληϊζόμενοι ζῶσι they live by plunder. 
χαίρων with impunity. 

κλαίων to your sorrow, &c. 

238, I. It completes the verbal notion by expressing the 
exact circumstances under which the action took place; as 

ὁρῶ ἄνθρωπον τρεχονται. 
ἀκούω Σωκράτους λέγοντος. 

In such cases it is really equivalent to a separate clause 
introduced by ὅτι, and when the subject of both these clauses 
is the same, the participle is attracted into the nominative, 
e.g. ‘I know that £ am mortal,’ becomes in Greek vida θνητὸς 
ov.* 

The verbs which take this construction are a. Verbs of 
physical or mental perception. ὦ. Verbs of emotion. ¢c. Verbs 
of pointing out. d. Verbs which express a state or condi- 
tion; as 

a. ἀδύνατοι ὁρῶμεν ὄντες περιγενέσθαι we see that we are 
unable to conquer. 
πρὸς ἄνδρος ἤσθετ᾽ ἠξικημένη she perceived that she 
had been injured by her husband. 
ἐπειδὰν γνῶσιν ἀπιστούμενοι When they know that 
they are distrusted. 
ὦ. οἱ θεοὶ χαίρουσι τιμώμενοι the gods rejoice in being 
honoured. 
ὁ δὲ φρεσὶ τέρπετ᾽ ἀκούων he rejoiced in heart to 
hear it. 
ὁ. κακὸς ὧν ἁλίσκεται he is convicted of being base. 
δῆλός ἐστιν ὥς τι δρασείων κακὸν it is evident that he 
intends to do some mischief. 
στέργων δὲ φανερὸς μὲν ἦν οὐδένα it Was obvious that 
he loved no one. 
d. τίς ἔτυχε παραγενόμενος ; who happened to be present? 
οὐκ ἀνέξομαι ζῶσα I will not endure to live. 
παῦσαι λέγουσα cease saying. 
ἤρξαντο οἰκοδομοῦντες they began building. 
διατελεῖ pre ἀγαπῶν he continues loving me. 








* With σύνοιδα, συγγιγνώσικω ἐμαυτῷ “1 am conscious of,’ the nomina- 
tive or dative may be used, as σύνοιδα ἐμαυτῷ σοφὸς wv, or σοφῷ ὄντι. 
N.B. οἷδα ἀγαθὸς dy I know that I am good; but οἶμαι ἀγαθὸς εἶναι I 
think that I am good. 

tT Notice the personal construction of λέγομαι, δῆλος, φανερός, δίκαιός 
εἶμι, unlike the English idiom ‘¢¢ is evident that,’ &e. 


PARTICIPLES. 171 


We find the same idiom in Latin; as 


Sensit medios delapsus in hostes, he perceived that he had 
slipped into the midst of foes—Virg. dn. ii. 577 
(Ξξἤσθετο ἐμπεσών). Video deceptus ab illis, I see that 
I have been deceived by them (αἰσθάνομαι ἐξηπατη- 
μένος). 


And it has been imitated by Milton (Par. Lost, ix. 792): 


‘She engorged without restraint, 
And knew not eating death,’ 


ie. that she was eating death. Cf. Oppian, Halicut. ii, 106: 


οὐδ᾽ ἐνόησαν ἑὸν σπεύδοντες ὄλεθρον. 


239. With the infinitive some of these verbs express an 
entirely different meaning; e.g. 

ἐπίσταμαι ποιῶν I know that I am doing it; ἐπίσταμαι 
ποιεῖν I know how to do it. 

οἶδα ἀγαθὸς ὧν I know that I am good; οἶδα ἀγαθὸς 
εἶναι I know how to be good. 

μέμνησο ἄνθρωπος ὧν remember that you are mortal; 
μεμνήσθω ἀνὴρ ἀγαθὸς εἶναι let him remember to be a 
brave man. 

φαίνομαι ὧν it is obvious that 1 am; φαίνομαι εἶναι I 
appear to be. 

αἰσχύνομαι λέγων I am ashamed though I say it; αἰσχυ- 
γοίμην ἂν εἰπεῖν I should be ashamed Zo say. 

ἄρχομαι διδάσκων 1 enter on the position of a teacher; 
ἄρχομαι διδάσκειν I begin to teach. 

λέξας ἔχει he has declared; ἔχω λέγειν 1 have something 
to say. 

240. φθάνω and λανθάνω may have two constructions, as ἐποίησε 
φθάσας (or &vioas) he did it beforehand or quickly; ἀπὸ τείχεος ἄλτο 
λαθὼν he leapt from the wall unnoticed ; or ἔφθη πεζὸς ἰὼν he was before- 
hand going afoot, ἔλαθε φεύγων he escaped notice in his flight, It is 
equally correct to say φθάσον ποιῶν or ποίησον φθάσας. 


241, II. The participle expresses the accidents of the verbal 
notion,—time, cause, manner; as 
ἅπερ καὶ ἀρχόμενος εἶπον as I said at first. 
ληϊζόμενοι ζῶσιν they live by plunder. 
τί μαθών, τί παθὼν ταῦτα ἐποιῆσας ; cur hee fecisti? 
οὖκ ἔστιν ἄρχειν μὴ δίδοντα μισθὸν one cannot rule if one 
does not pay. 
12 


172 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


242. In this way the participle serves as a substitute for 
the Latin gerund, as in 
θρηνεῖν ἐπῳδὰς πρὸς τομῶντι πήματι to shriek charms 
over a cutting wound, i.e. one that requires to be cut. 
ὅταν τις ἐς πλέον πέσῃ τοῦ θέλοντος. 


243. Participles tend to compact sentences together, and to 
supersede that constant necessity for conjunctions which exists 
in English, as 

"ANN ἀναστάντες καταψηφίσασθε But now rise and con- 
demn me. 
The sentences of the Greeks, it has been observed, were like 
their earliest buildings, Cyclopean in structure,—dispensing, 
as far as possible, with mortar. 

244, "Ἔχων, φέρων, ἄγων, λέγων, χρώμενος, ἀπιών, are 

used where we use ‘ with,’ as 
ἵππον ἄγων ἦλθεν, ξίφος φέρων προσήλασε, τέχνῃ χρώμενος 
ἐνίκησεν. 
“Εχων is sometimes colloquial and superfluous, as 
τί ληρεῖς, φλυαρεῖς ἔχων ; why do you trifle so? &c. 

245. The uses of the genitive and accusative absolute (ἐμοῦ 
διδάσκοντος while I am teaching, δέον it being my duty, ὅσ.) 
are explained under the heads of those cases. 


246. Various adverbs are used to add distinctness to parti- 
ciples, as 
ἅμα φεύγοντες whilst flying. 
μεταξὺ δειπνῶν during dinner. 
εὐθὺς ἰδὼν on seeing (a person). 
ἅτε παῖς ὧν inasmuch as he was a boy. 
axrdpevdc περ though grieved. 
καίπερ᾽ εἰδότες though knowing. 
N.B. Notice the difference between such phrases as 
κολακεύοντες ἀπατῶσι they deceive by flattery, 
and 
ot κολακεύοντες ἀπατῶσι flatterers deceive ; 
between 
ἐποίησε βασιλεύων he did it during his reign, 
and 
ὁ βασιλεύων ἐποίησεν the reigning sovereign did it. 


* “Ayew καὶ φέρειν ‘to harry and carry,’ the former of animate, the 
latter of inanimate things. 


ἂν WITH THE MOODS. 173 


VERBALS IN -7éoc. 


247. Verbal adjectives are a kind of participles passive. 
They are found in -réoc or -rdc, and when derived from transi- 
tive verbs may be used either 


i, Personally, as 
ἀσκητέα σοί ἔστιν ἣ ἀρετὴ you must practise virtue; 
ΟΥ 
ii. Impersonally,* as 
ἀσκητέον ἐστί σοι τὴν ἀρετήν. 
ἐπιθυμητέον ἐστί σοι τῆς ἀρετῆς. 


248. They are frequently used in the neuter plural, as 


ove ov παραδοτέα τοῖς ᾿Αθηναίοις ἐστὶν Whom we must not 
give up to the Athenians. 

γυναικὸς οὐδαμῶς ἡσσητέα we must by no means be 
worsted by a woman. 


249. Verbal adjectives in -τὸς usually imply posszbility ; 
those in -τέος necessity; as 


λυτὸς one who is loosed, or able to be loosed; λυτέος one 
who is to be loosed. 

ποιητὸν what may be done; ποιητέον what must be 
done. 


Tue Particle “Av witH THE Moops. 


250. The very important particles ἄν, and epic κέ, κά, are 
supposed to be derived respectively from ἀνὰ and κατά, 
‘according to,’ and to be connected with the Latin an, and 
quam. They always imply a verb and a condition,} but have 
no exact equivalent in any language. ‘Their chief use is to 
articulate, analyse, give prominence or emphasis to the con- 
dittonality of a notion. 





* This resembles the use of the Latin participle in -dus, in such 
phrases as ‘pacem Trojanoa rege petendam,’ Virg. Ain. xi. 230 (αἰτητέον 
εἰρήνην). Cf. Lucr. i. 111. Canes paucos et acres habendum.—Varro. 

+ The particles re, που, ἴσως, ἂν express ascending degrees of uncer- 
tainty; viz.: i. surely, ii. very likely, iii. possibly, iv. contingently, or 
on certain conditions. The very existence of this unparalleled particle 
shows how intensely the Greeks realised the conception of contingency, 
and their general dislike to positive directness. On its derivation see 
Pott, Etymolog. Forschungen, 1.420. In some of its usages (ἄν = ἐάν) it 
offers a curious fortuitous analogy to the now obsolete ‘an,’ which indeed 
might often be used in rendering it. ‘An,’ and ‘ avd, in the sense of 


174 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


201. “Ay is used with three moods, the indicative, optative, 
and (when combined with other words) the subjunctive; and 
also with the infinitive and participle. But it is never found 
with the imperative. 


252. In the indicative, it is generally found with the zm- 
perfect (of continued acts), the aorist (of momentary acts), and 
less frequently the pluperfect (of abiding results); but not 
with the present and perfect, and very rarely (if ever) with 
the future.* 

253. Its potential meaning is always clear; thus 

ἀπέθνησκεν he was dying ; 
ἀπέθανεν he died; 
ἐτεθνήκει he had died; 
but 
ἀπέθνησκεν av he would be, or have been, dying; 
ἀπέθανεν ἂν he would have died ; 
ἐτεθνήκει ἂν he would have been dead 3f 


i.e. in each case ‘ he would, ἐγ, so and so had happened ;’ and 





‘if, were once common, as ‘an it please you,’ ‘an I should catch 
you,’ &e. 
‘What knowledge could we have of ancient things past, ad historie 
were not? ’—Lord Berners, Preface to Froissart. 
‘To glut up, and you could, your wasting hunger.’—Sir John Cheek. 


See Craik, Engl. of Shaksp. p.114; Abbott, Shaksp. Gram. p. 29. 

* The best scholars (Hermann, Porson, ὅσο.) decide against ἂν with 
the future; there is indeed no reason in the nature of things against such 
an idiom (since what wi// be may be supposed to depend on conditions), 
and κε is used freely with the future in Epic; but as it is certain that a 
people ‘qui amant omnia dubitantius loqui,’ would have used this formula 
if it had not grated against their sense of fitness, it is better to attribute 
to carelessness or corrupt readings the few cases which do occur. 

+ The position of ἂν is always nearest to the word which colours the 
sentence. Sentences like οὐκ οἶδ᾽ ἂν et πείσαιμι, Hur. Med. 941, Alc. 48, 
vereor ut suadeam, J fear I shall not persuade, are mere instances of a 
spurious hyperbaton, meaning οὐκ-οἶδ᾽ -εἰ = haud scio an, πείσαιμι- ἄν ; for 
ἐὰν in Attic is never resolved into εἰ ἄν, and never takes the optative 
(or the indicative). oti οἶδ᾽ ἂν εἰ Suvvaluny=I fear I shall not be able 
= φοβοῦμαι-μὴ οὐ-δύνωμαι. 

It is true that in /ate Attic ἐὰν is found with the optative (e.g. twice 
in Lucian); in Thue. iii. 44, the reading ἤν τε καὶ ἔχοντές τι συγγνώμης 
εἶεν is probably wrong, or else the expression is a mere solecism, such 
as is found even in the best writers. Thomas Magister lays down the 
rule, ἢν ἀεὶ μετὰ τῶν ὑποτακτικῶν παρὰ τοῖς ἂκριβεστάτοις, ἣν is always 
found with subjunctives in the most accurate writers ; and then alluding 
to this passage of Thucydides as an exception, he adds ἀλλ᾽ οὐ δεῖ ζηλοῦν 
τὸ ὅπαξ ῥηθὲν isolated exceptions should not be imitated, 


» 


USES OF ἄν. 175 


ἂν always implies a protasis of this kind, even where such 
protasis is not expressed. 
τὰ yap τοιαῦτα ovr ἐγίγνετο ovr ἂν ἐγένετο for such 
things neither were taking place, nor could have taken 
place (sc. on any conditions). 
On ἂν with the imperfect see Mr. Jebb’s Electra, 1. 323. 


254. But, besides this potential usage, ἂν with the imperfect 
is also used frequentatively, to mean ‘you did so as often as 
such and such circumstances recurred ;’ and sometimes it can- 
not be certainly known which of the two meanings is intended. 
Thus ὅ,τι μάθοιμ᾽ ἑκάστοτε 

ἐπελανθανόμην ἂν εὐθὺς ὑπὸ πλήθους ἐτῶν (Ar. Nub. 831) 
but whatever I learnt on each several occasion, I used 
to be forgetting directly in consequence of my old 
age. 

ὡς προτοῦ 

οὐδεὶς ἐπρίατ᾽ ἂν δρέπανον οὐδὲ κολλύβον may be either 

‘since previously, no one used to be buying a sickle 
_ even for a farthing,’ or, ‘no one would have been buy- 
ing one,’ i.e. if it had been for sale. 


255. This double use of ἂν with the imperfect (potential 
and frequentative) is closely paralleled by the English ‘ would,’ 
which not only implies a condition, but also indefinite re- 
currence ;* as 

‘Pleased with my admiration, and the fire 
His words struck from me, the old man would shake 
His years away,’ &c.—Wordsworth. 


256. In Epic κε is found both with the present and future 
indicative; but in Attic Greek, ἂν with these tenses is so ex- 
tremely exceptional, that it must be regarded as due to mere 
carelessness. 

257. “Av becomes rarer in the New Testament and in later 
Greek. 

258. We have seen that the optative by itself has a potential 
force; and thus we find both 

ποῖ τις φύγοι ; Whither can one fly ?—Ar, Plut. 438; 
and 
mot tic ὧν φύγοι: whither could one fly P—Eur. Or. 
598. 





* F. Whalley Harper On the Greek Tenses. 
ὁ In ποῖ τις φυγῇ ; the subjunctive expresses a sort of hopeless delibe- 


176 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


But when the optative is potential in meaning, it is generally 
accompanied by ἄν, as 
τοῦτο γένοιτ᾽ ay this might happen. 


Hence it is used to soften the asperity i. of commands; ii. of 
inferences; and iii. direct assertions; as 
1. χωροῖς ἂν εἴσω you might go in=be so good as to 
enter. 

li. οὐκ dpa σωφροσύνη ἂν εἴη αἰδὼς it seems then that 
sobriety and modesty could not be synonyms. 

lil. ὑθλεῖς" ἄπερρ᾽, οὐκ ἂν διδαξαίμην σ᾽ Ere you talk non- 
sense; get away; I couldn’t [=will not] teach 
you any more. 

ov μὲν κομίζοις ἂν σεαυτὸν ἧ θέλεις you then may 
convey yourself where you like.—Soph. Ant. 444. 


N.B. Expressions like the last being im form conditional 
(though really polite imperatives), are negatived by οὖ, not 
by μή. | 

59, In negative sentences the omission of ἂν with the optative makes 


the negation stronger, by denying the potentiality absolutely and inde- 
pendently of all conditions, as 


τὸ γὰρ ἐμφυὲς οὔτ᾽ αἴθων ἀλώπηξ οὔτ᾽ ἐρίβρομοι λέοντες διαλλάξαιντο 
ἦθος neither tawny fox nor loudly-roaring lions could change their 
inborn nature.—Pind. 

πῶς ay; tis ἄν ; are used with the optative in wishes. 


260, “Av does not proper! y go with the subjunctive ;* but it 
often qualifies εἰ, dc, οἷος, πρίν, ἕως, &e., and often coalesces 
with some other particle, as in ἐάν, Seam ἐπειδάν, &c.; and 
these combinations always take the subjunctive. In "such 
cases therefore dv does not belong to the verb, but modifies the 
particle or relative ; thus ὃς who; ὃς ἂν whoever; ἵνα where; 
iva ἂν wheresoever ; ὅτε when; ὅταν whensoever; πρὶν ere; 
πρὶν ἂν or ever, &e. 








ration, ‘ whither is one to fly?’ N.B. You can say ποῖ τις φύγῃ ; because 
this is equivalent to ποῖ φύγω; whither am I to fly? but you cannot 
say mot φύγῃ without the τις. 

* As Hermann briefly states it, ‘ you cannot say λέγῃ ἄν; and in 
phrases like ὃς ἂν λέγῃ, ὅταν λέγῃ, ἐὰν λέγῃ, &c., the particle modifies, 
not the verb but, the preceding relative. Not ἂν therefore, but its com- 
bination with the preceding word, is correctly said to be construed with 
the subjunctive ; for ds ἂν λέγῃ gives a meaning, and so does ὃς ἂν who- 
ever, but ἂν λέγῃ combines into xo meaning at all. Hence we always find 
ὃς ἂν λέγῃ, never ds λέγῃ ἄν. The rule for beginners, says Dr. Donaldson, 
ig ‘ Relativa ct particule relative cum ἂν subjunctivum exigunt,’ 


USES OF ἄν. 177 


ὃς ποιεῖ he who does; ὃς ἂν ποιῇ whosoever may do. 

ove εἶδεν those whom he saw ; ovg ἂν ἴδῃ whomsoever he 
sees. 

tya where ; ἵνα ἂν wheresoever ; as πατρὶς γάρ ἐστι πᾶσ᾽ ἵν᾽ 
ἂν πράττῃ τις εὖ for every land is one’s country where- 
soever one fares well (iva ἂν always=ubicunque). 


261. We get therefore this rule: Whenever an indefinite 
sense is not required for ὅς, ὅστις, ὅτε, ἐπεί, &e., the optative 
is almost always used; when an indefinite sense is required, 
they are combined with av and followed by the subjunctive.* 


262. If however any such combination of a conjunction 
with ἂν zs found in the same clause with the optative, the ἂν 
then belongs to the verd and not to the conjunction, as 


ἐσθῆτα δι᾿ ἣν ἂν μάλιστα ἣ Spa ξιαλάμποι dress such as 
through it her beauty might best shine (ἂν-διαλάμποι); 
but if it had been διαλάμπῃ it would mean through whatever 
dress (δύ ἣν av) her beauty may best shine. 
So too 
οὐκ-ἔχω-ὅπως ἂν-ἀπιστοίην I know not how I-could- 
possibly- disbelieve. 
τίς δ᾽ οὕτως ἄνους 
ὃς ὑμέ κα-πρίαιτο.----ΑτΥ. Ach. 720. 
N.B. Compare 
ὅσους εἶδεν aS many as he saw (on some past occasion). 
ὅσους ἴδοι as many as he saw (i.e. ‘from time to time’) 
(the optative being zterative = happened to see). 
ὅσους ἂν ἴδῃ as many as ever he sees. 


263. “Av with the infinitive and participle gives thema 
potential or hypothetic meaning ; ¢ as 





* We have already seen that ὅς, ὅτε, ei, &c., may be joined with the 
subjunctive without ἂν in those very rare cases in which it is intended to 
exclude all notion of any possible condition. 

+ In Latin we cannot express the distinction between the aorist and 
the present ; so that we get 

γράφειν ἂν =scripturum esse 
γεγραφέναι Saba aes fuisse \ = γράψαι tv.— Clyde. 


¢ In Thue. iv. 24, we have τοῖς ᾿Αθηναίοις τε οὐκ ἂν εἶναι ἐφορμεῖν καὶ 
τοῦ πορθμοῦ κρατεῖν ‘In that case they thought that it would be im- 
possible for the Athenians to lie at anchor there, and that they them- 
selves would remain masters of the strait,” where the ἂν with εἶναι 
implies that chat result is slightly less probable than the other. 


13 


178 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


Κῦρος εἰ ἐβίωσεν ἄριστος ἂν δοκεῖ ἄρχων γενέσθαι Cyrus, 
had he lived, would I think have been a consummate 
general (= οἶμαι ὅτι ἂν ἐγένετο). 

δυνηθεὶς ἂν αὐτὸς ἔχειν ἀπέδωκεν though he might have 
kept it, he gave it back (= ἐδυνήθη ἄν). 

264. Practically it is not used with the future infinitive or 
participle. 'The few apparent cases in which this occurs are 
so rare, that they must be due to carelessness. 


265. Just as 
ταῦτ᾽ ἂν ἐγίγνετο = these things would be taking place, or 
would have been taking place ; 
50 
ἔφη ταῦτ᾽ ἂν γίγνεσθαι = he said that these things would 
be, or would have been taking place. 
And as 
ταῦτ᾽ ἂν ἐγένετο = these things would have taken place; 
SO 
ἔφη ταῦτ᾽ ἂν γενέσθαι = he said that these things would 
have taken place. 


266. With the participles we have 
τὰ γιγνόμενα the things which are taking place; ra ἂν 


γιγνόμενα the things which would be (or, would have 
been) taking place. 


τὰ γενόμενα the things which took place; τὰ ἂν γενόμενα 
the things which would have taken place. 
267. Demosthenes often uses the phrase 
πολλὰ δ᾽ ἂν ἔχων εἰπεῖν though I should have plenty to 
say, &c. 
N.B. i. The verb belonging to ἂν is often omitted, as in 
Plato’s phrases 
πῶς γὰρ ἅν; πῶς οὐκ ἄν; 
and in 
τάχ᾽ ἄν, ὥσπερ ἂν εἰ. 
οἱ δ᾽ οἰκέται ῥέγκουσιν ἀλλ᾽ ovK ἂν πρὸ τοῦ and the servants 
are snoring, but they would not have been heretofore. 
φέρε τί δῆτ᾽ dv; come then what would you have done? 


ii. On the other hand ὧν itself is sometimes omitted where 
it can be easily understood, and this is the usual way of 
explaining such phrases as 


THE FINAL CONJUNOTIONS. 179 


melOov ἂν εἰ πείθοι᾽, ἀπειθοίης δ᾽ ἴσως obey if thou wouldst 
obey; perhaps thou wouldst disobey, Asch. Ag. 1049 
(where however, as we have already seen, ὃ 177, 2, ἀπει-- 
θοίης may be potential without ἂν being understood). 


iii. ἂν is sometimes repeated with the optative, partly 
for rhetorical effect,* and partly to emphasise two words in 
the same conditional sentence, of which one is often the nega- 
tive; as 

φθάνοις δ᾽ ἂν οὐκ ἂν τοῖσδε συγκρύπτων δέμας you could 
not possibly be too soon in clothing your person with 
these arms (i.e. do it with all speed). 
τῷ γὰρ ἂν καὶ μείζονι 
λέξαιμ᾽ ἂν ἢ coi; for to whom in the world even greater 
than thyself could I possibly say it ?—Soph. O. 7.772. 


οὐκ ἂν γενοίμην Ἡρακλῆς av I shouldn’t at all like to be 
Hercules (ich mag nicht etwa Hercules werden). 


iv. ἂν is sometimes misplaced, by hyperbaton, as in 


οὐκ οἶδ᾽ ἂν εἰ πείσαιμι I think it doubtful whether (οὐκ 
oid εἰ haud scio an) I could persuade (πείσαιμ᾽ ἄν). 

v. ἂν asa conjunction means if = ἐάν, ἤν, as is often the case 
in Plato (but not in the poets). It may be distinguished from 
the particle dy by its standing first in the sentence, which the 
particle ἂν never does. This usage of ay closely resembles 
the obsolete English ‘ an,’ as 


ἂν Θεὸς ἐθέλῃ an God will. 


vi. ἂν may sometimes be rendered ‘ otherwise’ (pointing to 
a suppressed clause), as 
ἐπιστευύμην ὑπὸ τῶν Λακεδαιμονίων" ov γὰρ ἄν pe ἔπεμ- 
πον I was trusted by the Lacedemonians, otherwise 
they would not have sent me. 


THE FINAL CONJUNCTIONS. 


268, Final Conjunctions are those which express an end or 
purpose, Viz. we, Wwe, ἵνα, and in Epic ὄφρα. 

We have already seen that after primary tenses they 
regularly take the subjunctive (where we use may), and after 
historical tenses the optative (might). 





* Tho first ἂν is called by the grammarians δυνητικὸν ‘ effective,’ and 
the second παραπληρωματικὸν ‘complementary.’ 


180 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


269. When this rule is violated, it is from a desire to be 
graphic (πρὸ ὀμμάτων ποιεῖν); as in the following sentence of 
Lysias (de Cede Eratosth. ix. 2): 

ἐπειδὴ δὲ TO παιδίον ἐγένετο ἡμῖν, ἣ μήτηρ αὐτὸ ἐθήλαζεν, 
ἵνα δὲ μή, ὁπότε λούεσθαι δέοι, κινδυνεύῃ κατὰ τῆς 
κλίμακος καταβαίνουσα, ἐγὼ μὲν ἄνω διῃτώμην, αἱ δὲ 
γυναῖκες κάτω . .. μετὰ δὲ τὸ δεῖπνον τὸ παιδίον ἐβόα 
καὶ ἐδυσκόλαινεν ὑπὸ τῆς θεραπαίνης ἐπίτηδες λυπούμε- 
γον ἵνα ταῦτα ποιῇ . . . but when our boy was born, 
the mother used to nurse it. But that she may not 
run a risk by descending down the stairs whenever it 
wanted washing, I used to live upstairs, and the women 
below. And after dinner the child used to cry and 
fret, being pinched on purpose by the nurse that he 
may be doing so, &c. 

It will here be seen at once that κινδυνεύοι ‘might run no 
risk,’ and ποιοῖ might do so, would have been the regular con- 
structions; and that the subjunctives are only dramatically 
substituted for them, to represent the events as going on 
before the hearer’s eyes. 


270. On similar principles ὅπως is constantly joined with 
the future indicative ;* as 

δέδοιχ᾽ ὅπως μοι μὴ λίαν φανεῖ σοφὴ I fear that you will 
seem too wise to me (cf. the vulgar English ‘I fear as 
how’). 

καὶ τὸ μὲν καλῶς ἔχον 

ὅπως χρονίζον εὖ μενεῖ βουλευτέον (Asch. Ag. 846) and 
we must take measures whereby all which now is well, 
shall long continue so. 

ἀλλ᾽ ὅπως μὴ ᾽ν τοῖς τρίβωσιν ἐγκάθηνταί που λίθοι see 
that there are not stones lying anywhere in your cloaks. 
—Ar. Ach. 848. 


271. ὅπως with the future constantly means ‘see that,’ ‘ take 
care that,’ ‘I fear that,’ &c. 
ὅπως μὴ σαυτὸν οἰκτιεῖς ποτὲ take care that you will not 
have some day to pity yourself.— βου, P. V. 68. 
νῦν οὖν ὅπως σώσεις μ᾽ ἐπεὶ κἀπώλεσας Now then see that 
you save me, since you too destroyed me.—Ar. Nub. 
1177. 


* This is less frequently the case with ἵνα; and when it is, ἵνα may 
always have its quasi-local meaning of where=in which case 


THE FINAL CONJUNCTIONS. 181 


272. With the past tenses of the indicative ὡς, ὅπως, ἵνα 
imply that something has not occurred,—an impossible or un- 
fulfilled result. It is often rendered ‘in which case,’ but such 
a rendering is unnecessary, and in the third of the following 
examples would have required οὔποτε not μήποτε. 

οὐκοῦν ἐχρῆν σε Πηγάσου ζεῦξαι πτερόν, 

ὅπως ἐφαίνου τοῖς θεοῖς τραγικώτερος.---Ατ. Paz, 135. 

Ought you not to have, &c., that you might have appeared 
to the gods more tragic-looking? 

εἰ τῆς ἀκουούσης ἔτ᾽ ἦν 

πηγῆς δι᾿ ὥτων φραγμός, οὐκ ἂν ἐσχόμην 

τὸ μὴ ᾿ποκλεῖσαι τοὐμὸν ἄθλιον δέμας, 

iv’ ἦν τυφλός τε καὶ κλύων pndév.—Soph. O. T. 1386. 

If there had been any further means of stopping the 
fount of hearing through the ears, I would not have 
abstained from closing up my wretched frame, that I 
might have been both blind and deaf. 

τί μ᾽ ov λαβὼν 

ἔκτεινας εὐθύς, ὡς ἔδειξα μήποτε 

ἐμαυτὸν ἀνθρώποισιν ἔνθεν ἦν γεγώς ;—Soph. Ο. 7. 1393. 

Why didst thou not take, and slay me at once, that I 
might ne’er have shown to men whence I was sprung ? 


273. We may thus briefly sum up the uses of ὡς, ὅπως, 
iva: 

I, w&e=as; [@c=thus; except when ὡς follows the word 
which it compares, as πατὴρ ὧς like a father. | 

ὡς is the adverb of ὃς ἣ 6; when we=as, we ἂν means ‘in 
whatever way.’ 

a. It is used with superlatives, as 
we τάχιστα quam celerrime as quickly as possible. 


ὃ. Like the Latin ut, ὡς sometimes means when. 


c. It is sometimes used declaratively for ὅτι quod when 
we intend to express an assertion rather than a fact. 


d. ὡς as a final conjunction=7n order that; ὡς av* in 
order that perhaps; the former used, as we have 


* In one or two instances only, ὡς ἂν appears to mean ‘so long as;’ 
e.g. Soph. 47. 1096, 
τοῦ δὲ σοῦ ψόφου 
οὐκ ἂν στραφείην ὡς ἂν 7s οἷός περ εἶ but I will not swerve because 
of thy clamour, so long as thou art what thou art. (Comp. 
Eur. lon, 77, Hee. 330.) 


182 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


seen, when the result is certain; the latter when 
less certain (but only in poetry; ὡς ἂν is never used 
of a purpose in Attic prose). 


IL, a. ὅπως how stands to πῶς in the same relation as ὅστις 
to τι.) &c., as has been already explained. 
Ν, καὶ πῶς; A. ὅπως: N. How then? D. How quotha? 
πῶς; how? od« of8° ὅπως I don’t know how. 


When oxuc—how, ὅπως ἂν =-howsoever ; as 
ἀξιῶν αὑτῷ τε ἐξεῖναι διαλέγεσθαι ὅπως βούλεται, καί σοι 
ὅπως ἂν αὖ σὺ βούλῃ claiming the right for himself to 


discourse how he likes, and “for you too however you 
like.—Plat. Prot. 336 8. 


ὃ. Like the English how, ὅπως comes to mean that, and in 
many sentences either translation may be used.* 

c. When érwe=in order that, ὅπως &v=in order that 
perhaps. 


III. a. tva=where ; as 
οὐχ ὁρᾷς ἵν᾽ εἶ κακοῦ ; see you not in what evil plight (lit. 
where of evil) you are ? 


iva &v==wheresoever (sicudi, ubncungue): —Soph. Gd. Col. 
189. 


b. Asa final conjunction, iva=whereby, i.e. in order that. 
But in this meaning it differs from we, ὅπως in two respects: 


1. It igs never combined with ἄν. 
ii, It is never found with the future indicative. 


THE NEGATIVES. 


274, The Greek language has two classes of negatives, ov 
and its compounds οὐδέ, οὔτε, οὐδείς, οὐδαμῶς, &c.3 μὴ with 
its compounds μηδέ, μήτε, μηδείς, μηδαμῶς, &c. The differences 
between them are simple and definite. 


* ‘How’ and ‘that’ are interchanged throughout the whole of Cole- 
ridge’s beautiful poem of Genevieve; and Johnson quotes as an instance 
of this sense the following sentence, ‘Thick clouds put us in some hope 
of land, knowing ow that part of the South Sea was utterly unknown,’ 
&e.—Bacon. [Harper, p. 117.] 

+ Naturally the subjective negation μὴ is too refined and luxurious for 
some dialects of Modern Greek; accordingly i in Tzaconian we find only 
the negatives δὲν (-- οὐδέν), and ὁ (=ov). See Suidas, s.v. φιλόξενος, 
Athen. Deipnos. x1. v. p. 466; Farrar, Chapters on Language, p. 91. 


THE NEGATIVES. 183 


275. The main distinctions between οὐ and μὴ are as 
follows: ‘ οὐ negat, μὴ vetat; οὐ negat rem, μὴ conceptionem 
quoque rei.—Herm. In fact, as Madvig observes, οὐ is always 
used when some specific rule does not require the use of μή. 

i, ob denies, as 

οὐκ ἔστι ταῦτα it 15 Not 80. 
μὴ forbids, as 
μὴ κλέπτε do not steal. 

li. οὗ is objective and categorical, i.e. it negatives facts and 
certainties. 

μὴ is subjective and hypothetical, i.e. it negatives concep- 
tions, thoughts, &c. 

iii, ov is the negation of the judgment; μὴ of wishes and 
suppositions. 

ov ...3 expects the answer Yes; as ἄρα ov;==nonne? ov 
peveic; guin manes? Won't you stop?=stop! 

py». «$ expects the answer No; doa ph=pév ; (μὴ obv)= 
num? μὴ τέθνηκεν ὃ πατήρ; 1 hope my father is not dead, num 
mortuus est pater ? 


Μή." 
276. Μὴ is used 
1, With the hypothetical participle, as 
μὴ δρῶν 17 he does not do it. 
ii. After εἰ, ἐάν, ἐπειδάν, ὅταν, as 
εἰ μὴ λέγεις unless you say. 
iii, After final particles, ἵνα, ὅπως, &e., as 
παρακάλει ἰατρόν, ὅπως μὴ ἀποθάνῃ summon a physician 
that he may not die. 
iv. After all hypothetical, indefinite, or causal relatives, ὃς 
ἂν, ὑποῖος ἄν, &e. 
v. In all wishes, as 
μὴ γένοιτο God forbid ! 
vi. In all prohibitions, as 
μὴ κλέψῃς τοῦτο do not steal this. 


Μηδεὶς ἀγεωμέτρητος εἰσίτω let no one untrained in 
geometry enter. 





* In Hebrew ON αἱ -εμή, x lo=ov. 


184 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


vii. With the hortative and deliberative subjunctive, as 


μὴ γράφωμεν let us not write. 
μὴ ἀποκρίνωμαι; am I not to answer you? 


viii. With the infinitive* (except after verbs declarandi et 
sentiendi, because then the infinitive=the indicative with ére), 
as ; 

σοὶ TO μὴ σιγῆσαι λοιπὸν ἦν it remained for you not to be 
silent. 


ix. With questions which expect the answer no; as 


μὴ ἀρχιτέκτων βούλει γενέσθαι you don’t want to become 
an architect, do you ? 


Hence μῶν ; =p) οὖν s=num ? 
It will be seen at once that every one of these uses of μὴ 


springs from its character as a subjective or hypothetical 
negative. 


277, An apparently superfluous μὴ is found after verbs 
which involve a negative notion, e.g. verbs of refusing, fear- 
ing,t doubting, denying, hindering, &c., as 


* ὥστε when followed by the indicative requires οὐ, when by the infi- 
nitive μή. Thus 
οὕτως ἄφρων ἣν ὥστε | adeo stultus fuit ut | he was so foolish that 





οὐκ ἠβούλετο noluerit, he did not wish 
(expressing the fact). 
υὕτως ἄφρων ἣν ὥστε | adeo stultus fuit ut | he was so foolish as 
μὴ βούλεσθαι nollet, not to wish ἡ 
(expressing the natural consequence). 





The former construction is the more oratorical and picturesque. 
Sometimes, when the negative belongs to a single word, οὐ with the in- 
finitive follows ὥστε, and sometimes by an apparent irregularity as in 
Soph. Zl. 783. See Shilleto on Dem. de F. Leg. App. c. 
1 φοβοῦμαι μὴ =forsitan, οὐκ οἶδ᾽ ei =haud scio an, which signifies less 
probability. Notice the distinction between the following, 


δέδοικα μὴ ποιῆς vereor ne facias, I fear that you may be doing it. 
— ποιήσεις —  facturus sis, I fear that you will do it. 


But for δέδοικα μὴ ποιεῖς, ἐποίεις, ἐποίησας, πεποίηκας I fear you are, were 
doing, did, or have done it (where no doudt is expressed, and the δέδοικα 
is merely due to courtesy), there is no exact Latin equivalent, since in 
Latin the subjunctive must be used. See Shilleto, Demosth. de F. Leg. 
App. A. Hearing a person soliloquise on the spelling of a word I might 
say δέδ. μὴ ἁμαρτάνῃς, but if I saw him beginning to spell it wrong, I 
should say δέδ. μὴ Guaptdvers.—Jebb’s Electra, 1. 581. 


THE NEGATIVES. 185 
φοβοῦμαι μὴ ἀμφοτέρων ἡμαρτήκαμεν I fear we have missed 
both. 


ἠναντιώθην αὐτῷ μηδὲν ποιεῖν παρὰ τοὺς νόμους j’empéchai 
quil ne fit rien contre les lois. 
οὐκ ἂν ἔξαρνος γένοιο μὴ οὐκ ἐμὸς υἱὸς εἶναι tu ne nieras 
pas que tu ne sois mon fils. 
μη λαβεῖν ἐξαρνούμενος denying that he received them. 
278. In all these instances the μὴ is merely a repetition of 
the negative implied in the verb ; e.g 
ἠρνοῦντο μὴ πεπτωκέναι they made a denial to the effect 
that ‘they had not fallen.’ 


After verbs of fearing and considering μὴ ΞΞ ἰ68ὲ, as 


δέδοικα μὴ θάνῃ Vereor ne moriatur, I fear lest he die, i.e. 
that he will die. 
This pleonastic negative is common in modern languages, 
e.g. 
In English : 
‘First, he denied you had in him no right.’—Shakspeare, 
Comedy of Errors, iv. 2.7. 
‘Tf any of you know .. . just impediment why these two 
should not be joined ‘together. ’"—Prayer-book. 
‘Can any man forbid water that these should not be 
baptised . . .?Acts x. 47. 
In French: 
Je crains que sa maladie ne soit mortelle, I fear his disease 
is fatal. 
Tn Italian : 
Guardarsi di non credere, be on your guard against 
believing. 
In Spanish : 
Temia no entrara, I feared he might come in. 
Por poco no me caigo, haud multum abfuit quin caderem. 


Οὐ. 

279. οὐ is the proper negation of the indicative, and of all 
forms that can be directly resolved into the indicative ; eg. 
in Homer of the subjunctive, where it scarcely differs from a 
future (see § 176); of the optative in oratio obliqua (after 
ὅτι and wc), where it merely represents the indicative of the 


oratio recta; and of the optative with ἄν, which is merely a 
milder future or imperative. 


186 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


280. οὐ has a property, not possessed by μή, of coalescing 
with single words, like the privative a; as 
ta ov καλὰ inhonesta; οὐχ ἥκιστα decidedly; ov φημι 
nego; οὐχ ὑπισχνοῦμαι 1 refuse; ov στέργω I hate. 
Hence such sentences as 
εἰ τοὺς θανόντας οὐκ ἐᾷς θάπτειν if you prevent the burial 
of the dead, 
or 
εἰ δέ τοι ov δώσει if he shall refuse it to you, 


are no violations of the rule that μὴ should be used after con- 
ditionals, because οὐκ ἐῶ = veto, ov dwow=recusabo ; and so of 
all similar cases. Such expressions are due to the figure of 
speech called litotes, by which less is said than is meant; e.g. 
‘Shall I praise you for these things? -I praise you not’ 

=I do anything but praise you.* 

281. The same thing sometimes occurs where e’==dre after 
verbs of disapprobation, &c., an indirect form due to Attic 
politeness ; as 

θαυμάζω εἰ ταῦτα ov ποιεῖς I wonder that you do not act 
thus; 


but here μὴ is more usual [see Jelf, 804, 8]. 


282. Similarly verbs declarandi et sentiendi may be followed 
by οὐ with the infinitive, as 
ὁμολογῶ ov κατὰ Μέλητον cat” Avuroy εἶναι ῥήτωρ I confess 
that I am not an orator after the fashion of Meletus and 
Anytus. 


288. ov is redundant after ἢ than generally in negative 
sentences, as 
πόλιν ὅλην διαφθεῖραι μᾶλλον ἢ οὐ τοὺς αἰτίους (Thue, iii. 
36) to destroy a whole city rather than the guilty ; 
se in French - 
On méprise ceux qui parlent autrement qu’ils ne pensent. 


Il n’écrit pas mieux cette année-ci qwil ne faisait ’année 
passée.—Jelf, § 749, 3. 


284, A few contrasted and mixed instances of οὐ and μὴ 
will illustrate the principles here laid down, which are 
sufficient to meet every case which occurs in good Greek. 

* This is a common idiom in Hebrew with S?=‘ anything but.’ See 
Hos. 1. 9; Ps. i. 4. 


THE NEGATIVES. 187 


ει μὴ ταῦτά ἐστι, οὐδὲ τάδε (Plat. Pheed. 76, Β) tf that is 
not true, neither 7s this. 

μὴ θνήσχ᾽ ὑπὲρ τοῦδ᾽ ἀνὸρός, οὐδ᾽ ἐγὼ πρὸ σοῦ (Eur. Ale. 
690) die not on my behalf, nor (will J die) for thee. 

ἐγὼ δ᾽ ὅπως ov μὴ λέγεις ὀρθῶς τάδε 

οὐκ ἂν δυναίμην μήτ᾽ ἐπισταίμην λέγειν (Soph. Ant. 682) 

but I could not say, and may I never know how to 
say, that you are not right in what you say. 


[μὴ λέγεις because it follows the indefinite relative ὅπως ; οὐκ 
ἂν δυναίμην because ἂν δυναίμην isa mild future ; μήτ᾽ ἐπισταί- 
μὴν because this is a wish. ] 

ὁ πιστεύων εἰς αὐτὸν οὐ κρίνεται, ὁ δὲ μὴ πιστεύων ἤδη 
κέκριται, ὅτι μὴ πεπίστευκεν κιτ.λ. (John ill. 18) he that 
believeth on him is not condemned, but if any one 
believeth not he has been condemned already, because 
he hath not believed, &c. 


[οὐ κρίνεται is a fact; 6 μὴ πιστεύων is an hypothesis=if any 
one does not; ὅτε μι) because this depends on the former 
hypothesis. | 
ἔξεστι κῆνσον δοῦναι ἢ ov; δῶμεν ἢ μὴ δῶμην ; (Mark xii. 
14) is it lawful to give tribute, or (is it) not? [direct 
question with ov,| are we to give, or are we not to 
give? [deliberative subjunctive with pj. | 
οὐκ ἔστιν ἐν τοῖς μὴ καλοῖς βουλεύμασιν 
οὐδ᾽ éric.—Soph. Tr. 727. 
there is not even hope in any plans if they be not 
honourable. 
ov πιστεύων 15 gui non credit. 
μὴ πιστεύων si quis non credat. 
ἀληθὴς τὰ μὴ ὄντα ὡς οὐκ ὄντα λέγει he who is true re- 
presents whatever things are not [ μὴ = an indefinite con- 
ception | as not-being (or as non-entities). 


Or Or 


On 


οὐκ ἐμπειρία the actual want of experience. 

μὴ ἐμπειρία Want of experience if, or wherever it may 
exist. 

τὸ οὐκ ἀγαθὸν that which is bad; ro μὴ ἀγαθὸν whatever 
may not be good. 


ae a 


ὃς οὗ ποιεῖ ταῦτα qui non facit hee. 

ὃς μὴ ποιεῖ ταῦτα qui hee non faciat, or si quis, &c. 

ἃ οὐκ οἶδα certain things which I do not know; ἃ μὴ 
oida whatever things I may not happen to know. 


188 A&A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


προσπασσαλεύσω..... tv’ οὔτε φωνὴν οὔτε του μορφὴν βροτῶ» 
oWer.—Asch. Prom. 20. 

I will nail thee to a spot where thou shalt never see, &c. 
(of a definite place). 

μέλλουσι γάρ σ᾽ εἰ τῶνδε μὴ λήξεις yowv 

ἐνταῦθα πέμψειν ἔνθα μή ποθ᾽ ἡλίου 

φάος προσόψει.----ϑορῃ. Elect. 379. 

for they are about to send thee, unless thou wilt cease 
from these complaints, to some (unknown) region 
where thou shalt never gaze on the sun’s light. 

οὔτοι φίλα τὰ μὴ φίλ᾽, ὦ κόραι (Hur. Troad. 468) truly 
things are not acts of friendship, 7f they be not pleasant, 
maidens. 


ἔξεστι yap μοι μὴ λέγειν ἃ μὴ τελῶ (ARsch. Hum. 859) 
for it rests with me not to mention anything which I 
shall not carry out. 

ἃ μὴ φρονῶ yap οὔποτ᾽ ἀξιῶ λέγειν I never think fit to 
speak anything which I do not think (ἃ οὐ φρονῶ would 
be any definite things). 


285, Οὐ and μὴ are frequently combined in the same sen- 
tence, as in the following examples: 


ov otya; μηδὲν τῶνδ᾽ ἐρεῖς κατὰ πτόλιν silence! mention 
none of these things throughout the city.—AKsch. 
Sept. c. Theb. 250. 


ov oty ἀνέξει, μηδὲ δειλίαν ἀρεῖς ; keep silent, and as- 
sume not cowardice !—Soph. Aj. 75. 


οὐχὶ συγκλείσεις στόμα, 
καὶ μὴ μεθήσεις αὖθις αἰσχίστους λόγους; 
close thy mouth, and utter not again most disgraceful 
words !*—Eur. Hipp. 498. 


ἀλλ᾽ εἴσιθ᾽" οὔ σοι μὴ μεθέψομαί wore but enter; I shall 
certainly never follow after you.—Soph. El. 102, 


* Of the two very difficult lines— . 
ἐγὼ δ᾽ οὐ μή ποτε 
τἄμ᾽ ὡς ἂν εἴπω μὴ τὰ σ᾽ ἐκφήνω κακά, Soph. Ο. T. 329, 
one can only say ‘ Quot viri tot sententiz.’ Donaldson supposes that 
μὴ is repeated before the verb, because the οὐ μὴ is separated from it. It 


would then mean ‘Never will I, for the sake of uttering my own pre- 
dictions, never will I reveal thy woes,’ —New Crat. p. 587. 


MULTIPLIED NEGATIVES. 189 


These passages are usually and simply explained by under- 
standing the ov before the following μὴ in the manner illus- 
trated in § 290 infra. Some scholars however put the inter- 
rogation after each clause of the sentence, and maintain that 
μὴ with the future is admissible in prohibitions. We believe 
that in point of theory this is correct, although the actual 
instances are so few, that the idiom must never be imitated.* 


286. Two negatives only destroy each other when they 
belong to different predicates, as 


οὐδεὶς ὅστις ov γελάσεται there is no one who will not 
laugh, i.e. every one will; 


otherwise they only strengthen the negation. In fact it may 
be laid down as a rule that all men have a tendency to 
strengthen negation by adding negative words to each accessory 
of the sentence ;} as 


μήποτ᾽ ἀσεβὲς μηδὲν μηδὲ ἀνόσιον μήτε ποιήσητε μήτε 
βουλεύσητε neither do, nor plan anything either im- 
pious or unholy.—xXen. Cyr. vii. vii. 22. 

οὗ οὐκ ἦν οὐδέπω οὐδεὶς κείμενος Wherein never man had 
yet been laid.—Luke xxiii. 52. 

ἀκούει δ᾽ οὐδὲν οὐδεὶς οὐδένος NO One obeys any one in 


anything. 


* Μὴ νῦν μοι νεμεσήσετ᾽ ᾿Ολύμπια δώματ᾽ Exovres.—TI. xiv. 
καὶ τἀμὰ τεύχη μήτ᾽ ἀγωνάρχαι τινὲς 
θήσουσ᾽ ’AXatots.—Soph. 4). ὅ72. Cf. Ant. 84. 


The other instance sometimes quoted (Eur. Med. 882, λέξεις δὲ μηδέν, 
k.1.A.) is perhaps not to the point; but Elmsley’s attempt to change as 
many of such instances as possible into subjunctives, was one of those 
premature applications of ἃ priort reasoning which have done so much 
to injure scholarship. Dawes’ restriction of the use of οὐ μὴ with the 
subjunctive to the second aorist only is another instance. 

+ ‘No sonne were he never so old of yeares might o¢ marry.’— 
Ascham, Scholemaster. ‘Not nohow, said the landlord, thinking that 
where negatives were good, the more you heard of them the better.— 
Feliz Holt, ii. 198. Whatever may be said of the genius of the English 
language, yet no one could have misunderstood the query of the London 
citizen, ‘Has nobody seen nothing of never a hat not their own?’ The 
addition of words like γρῦ in Greek, hilum in Latin (ne hilum, nihil), 
pas and point in French, yamas and nada in Spanish, &c. is due to the 
τ tendency. ‘And caréd not for God or man a point.’—Spenser, 

. Ὁ. 11. 12. 

Two negatives are often found in Hebrew also (1 K.x. 21; Zeph. ii. 2; 
Is. v. 9, ‘without no inhabitant, &c.). So we have οὐδὲ πολλοῦ δεῖ 
minime gentium, far from it, after negatives. 


190 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


287. Old German and Old English both agreed with Greek 
in this idiom, and have only lost it from the influence of 
Latin ;* thus we find in Chaucer— 

‘He never yet no vilanie ne sayde 

In all his life unto no manner wighte.’ 
‘His horse was good, but he ne was not gaie.’ 
‘There ne was none him like,’ &e. 


And even in Queen Elizabeth’s time the idiom prevailed, for 
we find her writing to King James, 


‘If I had meant it, I would never lay it on others’ 
shoulders, no more will I not damnify myself that 
thought it not.’ 


And, in the same letter— 
‘but as not to disguise fits not the mind of a king.’ 


The latter instance is illogical though the meaning is clear; 
it shows how prevalent was the use of the double negative. 

Hence Dr. Clyde correctly observes that ‘I don’t know 
nothing’ is simply the relic of a once classical idiom ; and this 
is true, it may be added, of many vulgarisms and colloquial 
forms of speech. They are frequently relics of the old infantine 
pleonastic condition of all languages at their commencement. 

Hickes says that before the Conquest we often find as many 
as four negatives combined : 

‘He is fre of hors that ner nade non’ (=never had one). 
—Hendyng’s Proverbs (circ. 1300). 


288, The first of two negatives is sometimes omitted ; as 


Πάρις οὔτε πόλις neither Paris nor the city.—ZRsch, Ag. 
514. 
λέγουσα μηδὲ Opdoa.—Eur. Hee. 874. 





* In Latin however the rule is sometimes broken; e.g. Nulla nec 
exustas habitant animalia terras.—Tib. rv. i. 104, Absenti nemo ne 
nocuisse velit (=ne quis).—Prop. 1. xix. 82. Cf. Luc. m. xix. 82, ὅσο. 
The Romance languages have not imitated the pedantic purism of Latin 
in this matter. Thus in Latin nonnullus=someone, non nemo =some- 
body; but in Italian ‘Non dice nulla, ‘non v'é niuno, are negatives. 
So in Provencal, ‘ Nuw/s hom non pot ben chantar sens amar’ is ‘#0 man 
can sing well witnout loving. —Sir G. C. Lewis, Romance Languages, 
p- 238. So in Spanish mo lo sabe nadie nobody knows it ; 20 lo he viste 
gamas I have never seen it. In fact in Latin the colloquial instinet was 
often too strong for grammatical nicety. Thus in Plautus, Mit. Glor. v. 
v. 18, we find ‘ Jura te non nociturum esse homini de hae re nemini,’ and 
even Cicero has (Verr. ii. 57) ‘Non mihi preetermittendum videtur ne 
illud quidem genus, ὅσο. See Jani, A. P. p. 236, 


Οὐ μή. 191 
As in Milton— 


‘Fearing God nor man ;’ 
and Shakspeare— 
‘Tongue nor heart cannot conceive nor name thee.’— 
Macb. 1. ὃ; 
and in Carew— 


‘Give Lucinda pearl nor stone ;’ 
‘Gums nor spice bring from the East ;’ 


and in Gifford— 
‘Pallas nor Licinus had my estate.’ 
So too in Latin— 
‘Qua fornace graves, qua non incude catene ?’—Juyv. 


Οὐ μή. 
2989. i. οὐ μὴ with the 2nd person of the future, is a strong 
prohibition; as 
ov μὴ ποιήσεις ; do not do it! 


ii. ov μὴ with the aorist subjunctive and with other persons 
of the future, is a strong negation; as 


ov μὴ ποιήσῃς you certainly shall not do it. 
Instances of i. are 
ov μὴ φλναρήσεις ἔχων; don’t keep playing the fool._— 
Ar. Ran. 202. 
ov μὴ προσοίσεις χεῖρα, βακχεύσεις δ᾽ ἰών, 
μήδ᾽ ἐξομόρξει μωρίαν τὴν σὴν ἐμοί ;---- παν, Bacch. 345. 
put not forth thy hand, but go play the bacchanal, and 
wipe not off thy folly on me. [The ov is understood 
both before βακχεύσεις and before μήδ᾽ ἐξομόρξει. 
οὐ μὴ προσοίσεις χεῖρα, μήδ᾽ Aer πέπλων ; put not forth 
thy hand, nor grasp my robes!—Id. Hipp. 601. 
290. These are usually explained by the interrogative; 
thus 
ov μὴ προσοίσεις ;= will you ποῦ not- put-forth ? 
= will-you-not abstain - from -putting 
forth ? 
= put not forth! 


Undoubtedly this explanation is open to the serious objection 


192 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


that it attributes to μὴ that power of coalescing with, and so 
reversing, the meaning of a word which properly belongs to οὐ 
only. It is far better to explain the idiom thus: 
οὐ Toujoerc;—ph3 1.6. you will not do it—will you? 
=do not do it!* 


Instances of 11. are 


ov σοι μὴ μεθέψομαί ποτε I will never follow after thee.— 
Soph. El. 1052. 

ov τι μὴ ληφθῶ δόλῳ I shall certainly not be caught by 
craft.— isch. Sept. 38. 

ἀλλ᾽ οὐ μὴ οἷός τ᾽ ἧς but you certainly will not be able, 
—Plat. Rep. 341 c. 


291. These are usually explained by the ellipse of δέος or 
δεινόν (‘ There is no fear lest, &c.’), which are often expressed, 
asin Ar. Eccles. 646: 


οὐχὶ δέος μή σε φιλήσῃ there’s no fear of his kissing you. 
So in Latin: 


‘Non metus officio ne te certasse priorem Peeniteat.’— 
Ain, i. 548. 


This is a simple explanation, and is certainly admissible. It 
may however be doubted whether these idioms, arising from 
the union of an objective and subjective negative, do not owe 
their prevalence to that accumulation of negative wordstowards 
which there is an instinctive tendency in all languages. 


Μὴ ov. 
292, After negatives, verbs expressive of negative notions 


fear, doubt, shame, disapprobation, &c.), and in indirect 
᾽ ier ’ PP 1) ἢ 
questions, μὴ ov=ne non, or wt, is ποθ. The μὴ really 


* T have never met with any formal explanation of this idiom which 
satisfied me; I feel convinced that these idioms are simply due to the 
tendency to accumulate negatives for the sake of emphasis. 

+ Verbs of fearing in Attic poetry are also followed by érws=vereor 
ut, 1 fear that not; and ὅπως wy=vereor ne, 1 fear that. δέδοικα ὅπως 
ἔλθῃ I fear that he will not come; δέδοικα ὅπως μὴ ἔλθῃ I fear that he 
will come; as 

δέδοιχ᾽ ὅπως 
μὴ ᾽κ τῆς σιωπῆς τῆσδ᾽ ἀναρρήξει kakd.—Soph. Ο. ΚΠ. 1047. ‘I fear 
that calamities w7/l burst forth from this silence.” [Literally, ‘I fear 
how lest,’ &c.] Here again the French idiom resembles the Greek, ‘ Je 
crains que yous ze m’abandonniez’ I fear you will abandon me; ‘Je 
erains quelle soit heureuse’ I fear that she is mot happy.—Clyde, 
p. 185. 





Μὴ ov. 193 


belongs to the previous words, and expresses that their general 
result and effect is negative. 


δέδοικει- μὴ οὐκ ἀποθάνῃ I fear he will not die, vereor ut 
moriatur. 

δέδοικα-μὴ οὐκ ἔλθῃ I fear that he will not come, vereor 
ut veniat. 

ἄθρει μὴ οὗ τοῦτο ἡ τὸ ἀγαθὸν consider whether this be 
not ‘the good.’ 


293. Μὴ ov with the infinitive often has the sense of quin, 
quominus, after negatives, or quasi-negatives; after verbs of 
preventing, denying, &c.; and after δεινόν, αἰσχρόν, αἰσχύνη; 
ἐστί, &&.; 6.5. 

οὐδὲν κωλύει μὴ ovK ἀληθὲς εἶναι τοῦτο nihil impedit 
guominus id verum sit, nothing hinders this from being 
true. 
τί ἐμποδὼν μὴ οὐκ ἀποθανεῖν ἐμέ ; quid impedit guominus 
moriar? what prevents me from dying? 
μὴ παρῇς τὸ μὴ ob φράσαι do not omit saying it. 
οὐδὲν ἐλλείψω τὸ μὴ οὐ 
πᾶσαν πυθέσθαι τῶνδ᾽ ἀλήθειαν πέρι 
nihil pretermittam quin verum cognoscam, I will leave 
no stone unturned to discover the whole truth respect- 
ing these matters.—Soph. Zr. 88. 
πείσομαι γὰρ ov 
τοσοῦτον οὐδὲν ὥστε μὴ οὐ θανεῖν καλῶς 
for I shall suffer ne penalty so great as to prevent my 
dying nobly.—Soph. Ant. 96. 
οὐχ οἷός τε εἰμὶ μὴ οὐ λέγειν NON possum quin dicam, I 
cannot but say. 


294, Μὴ ov with the participle follows negative expressions, 
and means unless; as 
δυσάλγητος γὰρ ἂν 
εἴην τοιάνοε μὴ οὐ κατοικτείρων ἕδραν 
I should be ruthless [a negative motion] if I did not pity 
such a suppliant posture——Soph. O. 7’. 12. 


αἵ τε πόλεις .. «. χαλεπαὶ λαβεῖν... μὴ οὐ χρόνῳ the 


cities are difficult (=not easy) to take except by time 
—Dem. de I’. Leg. § 135. 


is} 


194 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


VARIOUS NEGATIVE PHRASES. 


295, Distinguish between οὔπω, μήπω nondum, not yet. 
οὐκέτι, μηκέτι non amplius, no 
longer. 
4 SDA . 
οὔτετεεπθο, ovde=ne quidem. 
ov 7=not a whit. 
οὐχ Ore=not only. 
μὴ Grt=nedum, ne dicam, not to mention.* 
These two phrases however, like οὐχ ὅπως, οὐχ οἷον, often 
mean ‘not only not ;’ as 
μὴ ὅπως ὀρχεῖσθαι ἀλλ᾽ οὐδ᾽ ὀρθοῦσθαι ἐδύνασθε you were 
not only unable to dance, but even to stand upright ; 
80 too οὐχ οἷον, as 
οὐχ οἷον ὠφελεῖν δύναιτ᾽ ἄν, ἀλλὰ μήδ᾽ αὐτὴν σώζειν not 
only unable to assist, but even to save herself. 
i. οὐκ ἔσθ᾽ 6twe=nullo modo. 
οὖκ ἔσθ᾽ ὅπως λέξαιμι τὰ ψευδῆ καλὰ I could not possibly 
call lies honourable.—Aisch. Ag. 620. 
11. οὐκ ἔσθ᾽ ὅπως ov non fiert potest quin, it cannot be but 
that.—Soph. 1.1. 1479; Ar. Hq. 426. 
iii. ὅσον ov, μόνον οὐ all but, tantum non. 
ὅσον οὐκ ἤδη ἀπῆλθεν he has only just gone, il ne fait 
que de partir. 
iv. ov μὴν ἀλλὰ Snot but what,’ ‘however.’ 
ov μὴν ἀλλὰ ἐπέμεινεν ὁ Κῦρος μύλις πως not but what 
with some difficulty Cyrus kept his seat. 
ν. μὴ πολλάκις in Plato means ‘ lest perchance.’ 
vi. οὔτε μέγα οὔτε μικρὸν nothing whatever (cf. 1 Kings xxxii. 
21, fight neither with small nor great, &¢.). 
Vil. οὐδὲν χεῖρον ‘it is just as well to.’ 
99\ ἊΝ - ς ~ Ν 9 , > 
οὐδὲν CE χεῖρον ὑπομνησθῆναι Kat Evrodwdog one may 
just as well mention Hupolis also. 
Vill. οὐδὲν οἷον there is nothing like (doing so and so); as 
οὐδὲν γὰρ οἷον ἀκούειν αὐτοῦ τοῦ νόμου car wl n'y a rien 
de tel que d’entendre la loi méme. 





* As ἄχρηστον καὶ γυναιξί, μὴ drt ἀνδράσι useless even to women, not 
to mention (or much more to) men ; so in Italian ‘i fortissimi uomini non 
che le tenere donne’ the bravest men, not to mention delicate ladies, &c. 
Clyde, p. 175. 


THE PARTICLES. 195 


PARTICLES, 
Μὴ νεμέσα βαιοῖσι, χάρις βαιοῖσιν ὀπηδεῖ. 


296, A perfect knowledge of the particles in which Greek 
abounds can only be obtained by extensive reading.* The 
manner in which, especially in Homer, ‘they sustain and 
articulate the pulses of emotion’ is in itselfa fruitful and valu- 
able study. By them alone we can perceive that Greek was 
the language of a witty, refined, intellectual, sensitive, and 
passionate people. It would be impossible in any book to 
tabulate the delicate shades of meaning, the subtle intricate 
touches of irony or pathos, the indescribable grace and power 
which the particles lend to many of the grandest passages in 
ancient literature. Indeed these can often be only felt at all 
by a scholarlike appreciation of the entire context, and of the 
circumstances which dictated the particular expression; so 
that in very many instances, not in Greek only but in German, 
and in most languages to a greater or less degree, the force of 
the particles cannot be accurately transferred into a foreign 
version. In short they are often untranslatable, and can only 
be approximately represented by some look, gesture, emphasis, 
or tone of the voice. Thus μὲν and δέ, two of the commonest 
Greek particles, correspond to the English ‘on the one hand,’ 
‘on the other hand ;’ but to substitute these long and heavy 
periphrasesf for them in all cases would be utterly unidiomatic, 
and would not in any way represent their force and meaning 
in Greek. 


It would be out of the question to attempt here anything 
approaching toa complete treatment of the conjunctions, which 
Apollonius Dyskolus{ and Priscian arrange logically under 
no less than eighteen heads. All that we shall here attempt 
will be to give one or two notes and suggestions, which can 
be amplified by each student for himself. 





* Hence even the New Testament, though it represents the spoken 
Greek of its day, yet being Greek written by foreigners, is comparatively 
poor in the use of particles. 

t+ The attempt to translate a particle exactly leads to curious results. 
Dr. Cyril Jackson used always to render Τρῷές pa by ‘the Trojans, God 
help them!’ and a former head-master of Eton always distinguished 
between σοι Sir, to you, and to: at your service (Coleridge, Gk. Classic 
Poets, p. 221). 

{ Egger, Apollon. Dysc. p. 209. On the other hand, Dionysius Thrax 
only recognised eight classes of conjunctions. 


kK 2 


196 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


297. CopuLativE ConguNcTions.*—xcal=et, re=que. In 
poetry we have ἠδέ, idé=atque. Often καὶ is used to mean 
also, even; and sometimes ‘ and yet, as 


σὺ Διὸς Epuc ... Kat ἰαχὴ σὴ ἄδικος and yet thy utterance 
is unjust !—Eur. Hel. 1147; cf. Here. F. 296. 
Occasionally καὶ nearly means Easton: as 
ἤδη ἠὼς διέφαινε καὶ ἐπ᾽ ἀκρωτηρίῳ ἐγενόμεθα .---- τοί, 
vii. 217. 
ἤδη τε ἦν ὀψὲ .... καὶ οἱ ἹΚορίνθιοι πρύμναν ἐκρούοντο.--- 
Thue:.1; 50. ΟἿ Soph. 0. 7. 117} ‘Heredsiicet ler: 
iv. 189, 181; Hebr. vii. 8 ;f Luke xix. 48. 
καὶ ravra==and that too. 
μικρὰ καὶ οὐδὲν little or nothing (literally, ‘and even 
nothing’). 
After % ἴσος, ὅμοιος, ὃ αὐτός, and words of likeness generally, 
kat==‘as,’ like the Latin similis et, ac; ἴσα xat=cque ac. 
οὐχ ὁμοίως πεποιήκασι καὶ Ὅμηρος they did not act in the 
same way as Homer.—Plat. Jon, p. 500 Ὁ. 
εἴ τις Kat ἄλλος More than any one (by litotes). 
ἄλλως τε καὶ especially. 
καὶ δὴ well, suppose, or granted ; fac tia esse. 
καὶ With πῶς, &e., often expresses surprise, &c. It is used too 
in eager appeals, as 
καί μοι δὸς τὴν χεῖρα ‘give me then your hand.’ 
ἢ καὶ τοιαύτας THO ἐπερρουδεῖε φυγάς ; dost thou too really, 
&e.—Esch. Lum. 424. 
It often seems to connect the speaker’s first words with a long 
train of his thoughts. One of Lord Lytton’s tales begins with 
the word ‘and ’—‘ And the stars sat each upon his ruby throne, 
and looked with sleepless eyes upon the world.’—Pilgr. of the 
Rhine. 
‘And, says Ben Jonson (Kngl. Gram. Ὁ. 82), ‘in the 
beginning of a sentence serveth for a mark of admiration.’ 
‘What, quoth shee, and be ye wood ! 
And wene ye for to doe good, 
And for to have of that no fame?’ 
Chaucer, Man of Lawe’s Tale. 
καὶ εἰ etiam si, even if; εἰ καὶ guamquam, even though 
(wenn auch). 


* The Hebrew 1 ‘and’ means a hook, and resembles a hook in shape. 
+ So in the Latin e¢: ‘Nox media, οὐ domine mihi yenit epistola 
nostra.’ —Prop. 1, xiv. 1. 


THE PARTICLES. 197 


Negative clauses are coordinated (united together) by οὔτε nec, 
οὐδὲ ne quidem, ἄτα. 
οὔτε followed by re=so far from .. . that. 
298. DissuNcTIVE CoNJUNCTIONS.—i)... ἢ; εἴτε... εἴτε. 


299, ADVERSATIVE ConsuncTions.—pév ‘indeed,’ ‘on the 
one hand,’ the old neuter from εἷς, pia, ἕν = ‘one thing’ 
δὲ ‘but,’ ‘on the other hand,’ derived from δεὶς = δύο = 
‘two things.” μὲν is always (regularly) followed by δέ, or, 
less accurately, by some other adversative particle, as ἀλλά, 
αὖ, μέντοι, ἄς. μήν, δή, are lengthened forms of μέν, dé. 
καίτοι =‘ and yet,’ ‘although,’ verum, sed tamen. καίπερ 
‘although’ is used with the participle; καίτοι with the finite 
verb, as καίτοι ἀγαθὸς ἦν, καίπερ ἀγαθὸς ὦν. 
ὅμως ‘nevertheless,’ nihilominus ; as 
ἤκουσα κἀγὼ τηλόθεν μέν, ἀλλ᾽ ὅμως I heard it from a 
distance, indeed, but st7ld I heard it.t—Hur. El. 753. 
Dic. ἀλλ᾽ ἐκκυκλήθητ, Hur. ἀλλ᾽ ἀδύνατον. Dic. ἀλλ᾽ 


e 


ομως. 

1). Now do be wheeled out. NV. NayI can’t, D. Nay 
but do!—Ar. Ach. 401. 

κἀγώ σ᾽ ἱκνοῦμαι, Kal γυνή περ ova’ ὅμως and I too beseech 
thee, though but a woman, still !—Eur. Or. 671. 


890. ConJUNCTIONS OF COMPARISON.—wWe, ὥσπερ, ὥστε. Hom. 
wre. 

ὡς = as, ὡς thus; but when we as follows its word it 
receives an accent; as λέων we like a lion. 


901. TEMPORAL CONJUNCTIONS.—ére, ὁπότε quando, quum. 
Hom. εὖτε. 

ἐπεί, ἐπειδή, ἕως, ἔστε, ἄχρι, μέχρι, πρίν, πάρος [see Tem- 
poral Sentences, § 214 seqq. ]. 

αὐτίκα immediately, is used by Plato to mean ‘ for instance.’ 


302, CausaL ConJuNCTIONS.— Ort, διότι, ἕνεκα, γάρ, &e. 
yap is derived from ye and ἄρα. γὰρ in animated style often 
points to a suppressed sentence. 

πῶς γὰρ ov; of course! t 
τί yap; how so? τί yap κακὸν ἐποίησε; why, what evil 
hath He done? 


* ᾿Αλλὰ νὴ Ala=but some one will say, at enim. 

+ Compare the position of ¢amen in ‘ Perfida, sed quamyis perfida, cara 
tamen. 

t Cf. Ital. perché no?=certainly ! 


198 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


εἰ γὰρ utinam. 

ov γὰρ ἀλλὰ however. 

ἦ γὰρ τέθνηκεν οὗτος; what! is this man dead? 

γὰρ also may express indignation, as 

᾿Ατρείδη κύδιστε » Φιλοκτεαγώτατε πάν των, 

πῶς γάρ τοι ΣΡ ΣΕ: γέρας μεγάθυμοι ᾿Αχαιοί ;- 1.1 ἘΠ 7p 

“Aropec ᾿Εφέσιοι, τίς γάρ ἐστιν ἄνθρωπος ὃς οὐ γιγνώσκει, 
k.7.. (Acts xx. 85), Ephesians! why what person is 
there who is not aware, &c, 


Like the Latin nam, as 


Nam quis te, juvenum confidentissime, nostras 
Jussit adire domos?—Georg. iv. 445 (cf. din. ii. 573). 


909, INFERENTIAL ConsuNcTIONS.— Apa (Ep. ἄρ and pa) 
often expresses surprise, emotion, like ‘zt seems,’ ‘ after all,’ 
&c. So that the Dean (see note ¢ p. 195) was not so far wrong 
when he translated Τρῶες ἄρα ‘ the Trojans, God help them’ 
(New Crat. p. 835); as 

ταῦτα ἀκούσας ὁ Κῦρος ἐπαίσατο ἄρα τὸν μηρὸν when 
Cyrus heard this, he smote on his thigh. 

ὑφ᾽ οὗ 
φονέως ἄρ᾽ ἐξέπνευσας; 

by whose murderous blade after all you died.—Soph. 
Aj. 1025. 

ἦλθεν εἰ ἄρα εὑρήσει τι ἐν αὐτῇ he came if haply he might 
find any thing thereon.—Mark xi. 13. 

ὦ παῖδες, we dpa ἐφλυαροῦμεν boys, how we were triflin 
after all! 


This is like the Latin ergo, as in 
‘Ergo Quintilium perpetuus sopor urget’ 
so then the sleep that knows no end is weighing down 
Quintilius !—Hor. Od. 1. xxiv. 5. 
Goan — 2, 
dpa ov . . .3 =nonne, 
ἄρα μὴ . . .; = num? 
οὖν then, οὔκουν not then, οὐκοῦν therefore. In this sense the 
οὐκ becomes simply otiose (see § 103, and Herm. Vig. n. 261). 
μὲν οὖν nay rather, mmo. 
τάδ᾽ ἂν δικαίως ἦν, ὑπερδίκως μὲν οὖν this would have been 
justly done, na y more than | justly —“Esch. Ag. 1363. 
ἐγὼ ov φημι; φημὶ μὲν ony ἔγωγε do I deny it? nay on 
the contrary, J assert it——Plat. 


THE PARTICLES. 199 


In the Knights of Aristophanes when Kleon proposes that 
Demos, the personified Great Public, should wipe his nose on 
—but we must leave the line untranslated, Hq. 910: 


ἀπομυξάμενος, ὦ Δῆμ᾽, ἐμοῦ πρὸς τὴν κεφαλὴν ἀποψῶ, 
the sausage-seller feeling that he cannot beat that proposal, 
cries out 

ἐμοῦ μὲν οὖν, ἐμοῦ μὲν οὖν nay rather on mine, on mine! 


PanrtIcLes OF EMPHASIS. 


304, Té ‘at least’ is used to modify various words; as 
dc ye quippe qui, ‘ seeing that he.’ 
ἔγωγε equidem, I for my part. 
el ye since. 
γε μὴν however. 
Often ironical, as 
εὖ ye κηδεύεις πόλιν good care you (forsooth) take of the 
city ! 
παῦσαί γε do cease! 
The exclamation μὴ σύ ye oh do not! is often used with 
great pathos by Euripides, as in 
μὴ δῆτα, θυμέ, μὴ σύ γ᾽ ἐργάσῃ race.—Med. 1056. 
οὕλει . .. ἀσχημογῆσαί τ᾽ ἐκ νέου βραχίονος 
σπασθεῖσ᾽, ἃ πείσει" μὴ σύ γ᾽" οὐ γὰρ ἄξιον.---- Π|ο. 405. 
See too Jon, 489, 13834; Phen. 531; Iph. Aul. 1460. 
mov often expresses surprise, οὔτι που ‘not, I presume; 
οὗ δήπου ‘not, I suppose;’ e.g. 
πῶς; οὔτι TOV σῷ φασγάνῳ βίου orepeic¢;—Eur. Hel. 95 
[οἢ 475, 541, or 1510]. 
ov τί που minantis et indignantis est, ob δήπου suspicantis. 
—Stallbaum. 


γοῦν at any rate. 


b 


δὴ “ certainly :’ 
kat τότε δὴ even then; οὕτω δὴ then at last. 
viv ὁρᾶτε δὴ now of course you see. 
μέγιστος δὴ far the greatest [compare αὖτος δὴ i-dem, 
πρὶν δὴ pri-dem, ἄγε Cy age dum). 
Often like δήπου ‘ of course,’ ‘ forsooth,’ with a shade of sarcasm, 
καὶ δὴ often means fac ita esse; as 


200 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


καὶ ζὴ τεθνᾶσι" τίς pe δέξεται πόλις; Well, suppose them 
dead; what state then will receive me?—Eur. Jed. 
386; Hel. 1066. 
Sometimes it implies quid tum? as in Hel. 101; ΕἸ, 655. 
βλέψον κάτω look downwards. 
καὶ δὴ βλέπω well, I am looking—what then? 
σχεδόν τι ‘it may perhaps be said’ also expresses great 
irony; as 
σχεδόν TL μωρῷ μωρίαν ὀφλισκάνω (Soph. Ant.470) perhaps 
it is a fool at whose hands I incur the charge of folly. 
ξῆτα is a lengthened form of δή; e.g. 
οἴκτειρε O Hpac... . οἴκτειρε δῆτα but pity us—ay, do 
pity us.—Eur. El. 678. 
ἴω tw δῆτ᾽ woe! ay, woe!—Soph. O. &. 541. 
οῆθεν ‘naturally enough ;’ or, as they alleged, ‘ scilicet,’ 
mostly in an ironical sense.—Hdt. 1.59; Thue. i. 92. 


,ὔ 


δήπουθεν ‘I should hope.’ 


’ vero, a lengthened form of pey— 


μὴν * verily,’ ‘ truly, 
τί μήν; why not? of course; what then? 
ἕπου μὴν do follow. 
ἀλλ᾽ ἐστὶ μὴν οἰκητὸς well, it certainly 18 inhabited,—Soph. 
did. Col. 29. 
καὶ μὴ enimvero, moreover. 
μὰ a form of adjuration, generally in negative oaths, as 
ov pa Δία no by Zeus! 
ob μὰ τόδε σκῆπτρον never by this sceptre! 
πὲρ a shortened form of περί; in its adverbial sense of 
‘exceedingly ’ it increases the force of words, like per in Latin, 
as ‘ pergratus, perque jucundus.’ 
ἐάν περ even if. 
ἀγαθός περ very good; compare our colloquial expression 
‘good all round,’ and the French trés, which is derived 
from trans, so that tres bon = thoroughly good (= good 
throughout). 
Often it comes to mean ‘ although,’ as 
γεν» αἷός περ ξὼν though noble, &e. 
τοι ‘ay,’ as 
σέ τοι, σὲ κρίνω you, ay, youu—Soph. £7. 1445, 
Probably the rou in τοιγὰρ ‘ therefore’ is derived from τῷ since 
it may begin a sentence, as in Soph. Tr, 1249; Ant. 594, 


ORDER OF WORDS, 201 


INTERJECTIONS. 


805. Interjections being, as their name implies, passionate 
exclamations thrown in to the sentence, are for the most part 
unsyntactical. The Greeks did not even regard them as 
forming separate parts of speech, but classed them with ad- 
verbs. The Roman grammarians first treated them separately. 
Their claim to be separately considered, and their high lin- 
guistic importance, I have vindicated elsewhere (Chapters on 
Language, pp. 88-103). Their antiquity and their truthfulness 
have justified grammarians so eminent as Scaliger and Destutt 
de Tracy in regarding them as words par excellence. 

ὦ the sign of the vocative (ἄρθρον κλητικῆς πτώσεως) is an 
interjection in all languages, and is in reality the same as ὦ 
the interjection (ἐπίρρημα σχετλιασμοῦ). 

Interjections may be followed either by the causal genitive 
(as οἴμοι τῶν κακῶν) ; or, more rarely, by the accusative of 
the object. 

The tragedians often have interjections extra metrum; 1.6. 
they do not take them into the scansion of the line. 


ORDER OF WORDS, &c. 


306, A sentence is arranged in the natural order when the 
subject with all that belongs to it is placed first, and then the 
predicate with all that belongs to it, the copula being either 
expressed between the two, or understood, or involved in 
some inflection. 

307, Thus in all languages such a sentence as 

Alexander conquered Darius 


is expressed in the natural order (φυσικὴ τάξις); and it would 
usually be so expressed in Greek, as 
ὁ ᾿Αλεξάνδρος ἐνίκησε τὸν Δαρεῖον. 
But owing to the inflection of the accusative in Greek and 
Latin, the order may be altered in those languages in every 
possible way (πλαγιασμός), without any modification of the 
sense,—the subject, the verb, or the accusative being placed Ὁ 
first, according as it is requisite to make any one of them em- 
phatic; whereas in English or French any variation of the 
order destroys the sense, and if it were necessary to bring 
Darius into prominence we should be obliged to adopt some 
entirely different turn of sentence, as 
Darius was conquered by Alexander. 
K 38 


202 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


308. We can indeed use a rhetorical inversion in English 
poetry (though but rarely in prose), and often with the finest 
effect ; as 


And over them triumphant Death his dart 

Shook, but delayed to strike.—Milton. 

Under a coronet his flowing hair 

In curls on either cheek played ; wings he wore, &c.—Id. 


But our power of doing this is extremely limited, as must 
always be the case in a flexionless language; and it is impos- 
sible to read a page of Demosthenes, or Cicero, or Virgil, 
without seeing the immense rhetorical power which they are 
able to command by a mere variation in the order of construc- 
tion. It is almost impossible to render in an analytical lan - 
guage the matchless force of such expressions as 


ἐν δὲ φάει καὶ ὄλεσσον, 

or; 
Me, me, adsum qui feci, in me convertite ferrum, 
O Rutuli! 


And although the rich and powerful vocabulary of English 
renders it one of the noblest of all languages, yet in harmony, 
precision, elasticity, variety, grace, and force, it must yield an 
easy victory to the Greek. 


309. We may here mention one or two of the figures, 
rhetorical and idiomatic, which are of the most constant occur- 
rence in Greek. It will be seen that many of them are due to 
that agility and acuteness of the Greek intellect which enables 
them readily to sacrifice the grammar of a sentence to its logic, 
or in other words its form to its meaning. Hence arose the 
many forms of the sense-figure (σχῆμα πρὸς τὸ σημαινόμενγον 
constructio ad sensum); 6.6. 


i, When the concord is only a concord of the sense,* as 
φίλε τέκνον ; varium et mutabile semper Femina; Διὸς 
τέκος ἥτε μοι αἰεί, Ke. 
ii. When the expression is shortened by the suppression of 
a clause or word (Brachylogy, breviloquentia), as 


δεινὰ βοᾶν, sc. βοήματα, τύπτομαι πολλάς, SC. πληγάς. 





* Cf. the Italian Corsevi le sorelle ; (each of) the sisters ran thither.— 
Boccaccio, 


es 


FIGURES OF SPEECH. 203 


Of this there are several varieties, as 


a. Constructio pregnans, where two clauses are compressed 
into one; as 


Φίλιππος εὑρέθη cic” ACwrov P. was carried to Azotus, and 
found there. 


b. Zeugma, where two nouns are joined to a verb, which 
only suits one of them, but suggests the other verb, which may 
often be even opposite in sense; as 

γάλα ὑμᾶς ἐπότισα, ov βρῶμα I gave you milk to drink, 
not meat.—1 Cor. 11. 2. 

κωλνόντων γαμεῖν, ἀπέχεσθαι βρωμάτων preventing from 
marriage, (ordering to) abstain from meat (where the 
positive κελευόντων is understood out of the negative 
κωλνυόντων).---Ἰ Tim. iv. 3. 

‘See Pan with flocks, with fruits Pomona crowned’ 
(where from ‘crowned’ we must understand ‘ sur- 
rounded’ in the first clause).—Pope. 


This figure of speech is very rare in English, and illustrates 
more than any other the Greek quickness of apprehension. 


c. Syllepsis, often confounded with Zeugma,* where the 
same word is applied to different nouns but in a different 
Sense ; as 


ἕλεν δ᾽ Οἰνομάου βίαν παρθένον τε σύνευνον he subdued 
the might of G@nomaus, and [won] the virgin as his 
bride.—Pind. Ol. i. 88. 

‘ Quas et aque subeunt et aure’ under which the waves 
and breezes flow.—Hor. 


In English the chief instances are comic, as 


‘This general is a greater taker of snuff as well as of 
towns.’—Pope. 


‘ And there he left his second leg, 
And the forty-second foot.’—Hood. 


‘Miss Bolo went home im a flood of tears and a sedan- 
chair.’—Dickens. 

‘He flung his powerful frame into the saddle and his 
great soul into the cause. —Earl of Carlisle, Siege of 
Vienna. 


* On the distinction between the two, see Lobeck, ad Soph. Aj. p. 429 
seqq. 


204 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


d. Comparatio Compendiaria, or Brachylogy of comparison ; 
as 

κομαὶ Χαρίτεσσιν ὁμοῖαι hair like (that of) the Graces.— 
UL exv atv 51. 

εἶχε κέρατα δύο ὅμοια prim he had two horns like (those 
of) a ram.—Kev. xii. 11. 

πυραμὶς πατρὸς μείζων a pyramid loftier than (that of) 
his father. 

‘His ascent is not so easy as those who,’ &c.—Shakspeare, 
Coriolanus, ii. 2. 


6. Ellipsis, the omission of a word easily understood, as 


9 ων ε Ν ᾽ ὔ of ? , ᾽ν 
εἰς Goov, we βαθὺν ἐκοιμήθης sc. ὕπνον, ἐς κόρακας SC. ἔρρε, 
ποτήριον ψυχροῦ sc. ὕδατος, calida sc. aqua, &e, 
‘To whom thus Eve in few.’—Milton. 


This is common in all languages, as when we say a coach and 
six (se. horses), a bottle of port (sc, wine), to St, Paul’s (se. 
church), he sat on the right (sc. hand), &e. 


f. Anakoluthon, or non-sequence; when the sentence begins 
with one construction, and continues in another, This is very 
common in Greek, which is a language eminently swayed by 
emotion, and one in which the syllogism of passion often super- 
sedes and transcends the syllogism of logic. It is found in 
writers who adopt a naive, simple, childlike style, as Herodotus; 
in those profound and powerful writers whose thoughts flow 
more rapidly than their words, as Thucydides, Pindar, Aischy- 
lus, and St. Paul; and in those who, like Plato, adopt the 
informal and easy style of common life.* 


Sometimes, a., they are common sense-constructions; some- 
times, β.,) rhetorical; and sometimes, y., merely due to care- 
lessness or accident. 


a. ἔδοξε τοῖς ᾿Λποστόλοις .. . ypawarrec.—Acts xv. 22.7 


β. Under this head fall the instances of oratio variata, where 
for the avoidance of monotony, the phrase is altered, as 
ζηλοῦτε Tan νευματικὰ μᾶλλον δὲ ἵνα προφητεύητε.---Ἰ Cor, 
xiv. 1; 








* See Jelf, § 901. 
+ Cf. ἀπηγγέλη αὐτῷ λεγόντων, Luke viii. 20, and similar idioms in 
the LXX. passim. 3 


FIGURES OF SPEECH. 205 


and the frequent transition from oratio obliqua to oratio recta ; 
as 
παρήγγειλεν αὐτῷ μηδενὶ εἰπεῖν ἀλλ᾽ ἀπελθὼν δεῖξον κιτ.λ, 
he bade him to tell no one, but departing shew thyself, 
&c.—Luke v. 14; cf. Acts xxii. 22; Ps. lxxiv. 16 
seqq.; Virg. “fn. vill. 291. 
This is sometimes used with fine effect in poetry, as in Milton 
(Par. Lost, iv. 721): 
‘ Both turned, and under open sky adored 
The God that made both sky, earth, air, and heaven... 
And starry pole. Thou also madest the night, 
Maker Omnipotent, and thou the day,’ &c.* 
See Stebbing’s Longinus, pp. 102, 103. 
y. Careless anakolutha are found even in the best writers ; as 
θεωρῶ, Ore μετὰ VGpews .... μέλλειν ἔσεσθαι τὸν πλοῦν. 
Acts xxvii. 10. 
* These who he thought true to his party. —Clarendon, 
The sun upon the calmest sea 
Appears not half so bright as thee.—Prior. 


7. Aposiopesis, the passionate suppression of the latter part 
of a sentence ; as 
Kay μὲν ποιήσῃ Kaprov ... εἰ δὲ pyye.—Luke xiii. 9 (for 
other instances see Luke xix. 42; xxii. 42; Acts 
xxi. 9), Here, as Winer finely observes, ‘ sorrow has 
suppressed the apodosis.’ 
μὴ ov y’.—EHur. Hee, 405.4 
Quos ego—sed motos prestat componere ventos.—Virg. 
in, i. 135. 
Compare the German Warte, ich will dich... ! 
‘ Bertrand is—what I dare not name !’—Scott. 


910, Among other figures of speech we may mention 


HYPERBATON,} 


verbi transgressio, the rhetorical misplacement of a word, as 
@ kal δεκάτην ᾿Αβραὰμ ἔδωκεν ἐκ τῶν ἀκροθινίων, ὁ πατρι- 
άρχης to whom even Abraham gave a tithe of his first- 

fruits, the patriarch—Heb. vii. 4; cf. Mark xi. 10, 


* For similar instances see Forbiger, Virg. Afn. ii. 182, iii. 185. 

7 See 11,1. 340. 

{ The word, which first occurs in Plato (Protag. p. 848 8) was pro- 
bably borrowed from him by the scholiasts. See Weil, De [ordre des 
mots dans les langues anciennes, Ὁ. 8. 


206 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


This is not uncommon in Elizabethan English. 


‘More than ten criers and siz noise of trumpets.’-—Ben 
Jonson, Sejanus, v. 7. 


Under this head we may range, 


a, ANTIPTOSIS, the transposition of the subject from one 
clause to another, as 
ὃν εἶδες ἄνδρα οὗτός ἐστιν. Cf. Acts xxi. 16; Rom. vi. 
17. 
vid’ ἣν ἔθρεψεν ᾿Ερμιόνην μήτηρ éun—Eur. Or. 1117. 
Urbem quam statuo vestra est.— in. i, 572. 
Him I accuse 
The city gates by this hath entered.—Shaksp, Ant, ana 
Cleop. iii. 1. 
‘ And God saw the light that it was good.’—Gen. i. 4. 
See p. 78. 


ὃ. Cutasmus, when words are arranged cross-wise like the 
letter X, as 


ἡδόνη βραχεῖα 


μακρὰν λύπην τίκτει, 
This is very common in Latin, where the arrangement 
Ratio consentit, repugnat oratio (Cic. de Fin. iii. 3) 
is more elegant and forcible than ratio consentit, oratio repug- 
nat. Something like it is found in English, as 
‘He hath fed the hungry—the rich he hath sent empty 
away.’ 
‘ Foreknowledge, will, and fate, 
Fixed fate, free will, foreknowledge absolute.’ 
Milton, Par. Lost, ii. 560. 


c. Hysteron ῬΕΟΤΕΒΟΝ (πρωθύστερον) or Last-first, as 

τὰς μὲν apa θρέψασα τεκοῦσά re.—Od. xii. 134. 

‘ Moriamur et in media arma ruamus.’—Virg. 4n. ii. 353. 

‘In Africam redire atque ex Italia decedere.’—Cic. Cat. 
τν- ΣΧ: 2]. 

‘Ts your father well, the old man of whom ye spake, is 
he yet alive ?’—Gen. xliii. 47. 

“1 die, I faint, I fail.’—Shelley. 


FIGURES OF SPEECH. 207 


ἃ. HyPA..acgr, an attraction of the adjective to a substan- 
tive with which it does not properly agree, or more generally 
a change of case (Enallage, as dare classibus Austros, for 
classem Austris). 

ὄγκον ὀνόματος μητρῷον motherly boast of a name=boast 
of a mother’s name.—Soph. 7’. 817. 


Nec purpurarum sidere clarior 
Delenit usus.—Hor. Od. m1. i. 42. 


‘Holy and humble men of heart’==men of holy and 
humble hearts. Cf. Isaiah. 


‘With the innumerable sound 
Of hymns and sacred songs.’—Par, Lost, iii. 147, 


911, EUPHEMISM, 


the principle of avoiding all strong or unpleasant forms of 
expression. ‘This tendency has exerted a most powerful in- 
fluence over the Greek language,* and leads to the use of such 
terms as ἐάν τι πάθῃ for ‘if he die,’ εὐήθης for ‘silly,’ οἴκημα 
for ‘prison,’ &c. (See Abbott, Shaksp. Gram. p.75, and some 
remarkably beautiful lines of Faber, quoted in Reed’s Lect. on 
Eng. Lit. p. 90.) We may range under this head 


a. Irony (χλενασμός, very different from the Greek εἰρωνεία 
of which the style of Plato is so perfect an example), Persiflage 
(χαριεντισμός), complimentary expressions (doreiopdc), &e., 
which need no special illustration. 

b. Hypoxorisma, the use of exaggerated terms of endear- 
ment, and the veiling over of that which is disagreeable or 


vicious by specious glosses (see Chapters on Language, pp. 
281, 282). 


c. Lirores (smoothness), the suggestion of a strong notion 
by the use of an over-weak form of speech, as 
ov πάνυ = omnino non, οὐχ ἥκιστα = padiora.t 
οὐδέ κέ μίν τις 
γηθήσειεν ἰδών.---- 71. 





* In fact euphemism is woven into the very structure of Greek, and 
explains many of its words and idioms. Hence ἂν with the optative fora 
polite imperative, and an indirect future ; the use of the optative as the 
most indirect mood in wishes ; the use of the indefinite τις for a personal 
pronoun (as in English ‘one ’—‘ it’s enough to enrage one,’ &e.). See 
Chapters on Language, p. 278. 

1 This particular use of the negative, as when we say of a poor man 
‘he’s not rich,’ of a short man ov μέγας, &e. is called Meiosis, 


208 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX, 


Illaudati Busiridis aras.—Vire. Georg. iii. 5. 
‘ Shall I praise you for those things? I praise you not.’ 
‘ Narcissa’s nature tolerably mild 

To make a wash would hardly stew a child.’-—Pope. 


εἰ. AntipHRasis, the suggestion of a word by the use of its 
opposite, as εὐώνυμος and ἀρίστερος for the ill-omened left. 


e. AmBicuity, the use of a formula to dismiss an unpleasant 
subject ; * as 
ὃ γέγραφα γέγραφα what I have written I have written 
(cf. ‘If I perish, I perish;’ ‘If I be bereaved of my 
children, I am bereaved,’ &c.).—O. T. 1376, &c. 
He is that he is, I may not breathe my censure.—Othello. 


Among other figures we may briefly mention 


$12, PLEONASM, 
or the use of words apparently superfluous, as in 
πόλεμον πολεμεῖν, μεγέθει μέγας, πανύστατον On κοὔποτ᾽ 
αὖθις αὖ πάλιν, ἔφη λέγων, cursim currere, ‘ we have 
seen with our eyes,’ ζο 


This is an important tendency in language, and admits of a 
very wide range of illustration, which cannot here be given. 
Under this head we may range two out of many rhetorical 
figures (such as Epanaphora, Anadiplosis, Palillogia, &e.), eg. 


* Hance formulam et similes adhibent ii qui rem clarius exponere aut 
nolunt, aut nequeunt.—Seidler. 


+ ‘Pistol. He hears with his ears. 

Sir Hugh. The tevil and his tam! what phrase is this, “ He hears 
with ear?” Why it is affectations’—Shaksp. Merry Wives of 
Windsor, τ. 1. 

Lobeck has treated the subject with his usual exhaustive learning, 
Paralip. Gram. Gree. 61 seqq. and Dissert. 8; and on Aj. v. 140, 866; 
see too Id. pp. 181-185. Itis a special characteristic of immaturity, 
and therefore of children; hence it is very common in colloquial usages, 
and in infant literatures. One very common form of pleonasm, espe- 
cially in the tragedians, is the repetition of a participle after the principal 
verb; e.g. κτείνει Κρέοντα καὶ κτανὼν ἄρχει xPovds.—Eur. Here. F. 33. 
Cf. Hec.25, Phen. 22, ὅδε. There is an instance of pleonasm in Pope’s 
Odyssey, which Lord Macaulay used to call ‘the very worst line in the 
English language,’ viz. : 

‘To the rock he clung 
And stuck adherent, and suspended hungV 


See Origin of Language, p. 108. 


FIGURES OF SPEECH. 209 


a. PERIPHRASIS, or circumlocution ; as 
μέγα χρῆμα cvdc,* βίη ‘Hpaxdjjoc, σθένος “Ἕκτορος, ἱερὴ 
ὃς Τηλεμάχοιυ, κιτιλ. 


Compare : 
‘When once the service of the fort is gangrened.’—Shaksp. 
‘The high promotion of his Grace of Canterbury, 
Who holds his state at door with pursuivants,’—Hen. 
WEE Saar 


Milton— 
‘where the might of Gabriel fought 
And with fierce ensigns pierced the deep array 
Of Moloch, furious king.’—Par. Lost, vi. 345. 


and Gibbon— 
‘The youth and inexperience of the prince declined a 
perilous encounter.’ 


and Schiller— 
‘Zu Aachen in seiner Kaiserpracht, 
Im alterthiimlichen Saale, 
Sass Kénig Rudolphs heilige Macht 
Beim festlichen Krénungsmahle.’ 
Der Graf von Habsburg. 


See Stebbing’s Longinus, p. 108. 


b. Potyproron, the collocation of different cases or tenses 
of the same word, as 

δόσιν κακὰν κακῶν Kaxotc.—/bsch. Pers. 1035. 

Clipeus clipeis, umbone repellitur umbo, 

Ense minax ensis, pede pes, et cuspide cuspis.—Stat. 

Dart follows dart, lance lance.—Byron. 

Alive they shall not take him; not they alive, him alive, 
—Carlyle, L’rench Rev. i. 282. 

‘Both stricken strike, and beaten both do beat.’—Spenser, 
JE QV ls 


313, HENDIADYS, 


the use of two nouns to convey one notion, as 


Bora καὶ λεῖαν = plundered booty,—Soph. Aj, 145. 
Pateris libamus et auro = with golden cups.—Virg. Georg. 
jy 102. 





* See Bernhardy. Griech. Syntax, 8. 52. 


210 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


See Lobeck ad loc. p. 112. He distinguishes four kinds of 
hendiadys: 
1. Where the second word is explanatory, as 
πυρὶ καὶ στεροπαῖς ‘ with lightning flames.’ 
2. Where the dependent notion precedes, as 
αἷμα καὶ σταλαγμὸν ‘a drop of blood.’ 
3. Where two entire synonyms are united, as 
λῆγε βοῶν καὶ παῦε (compare ‘I am a widow woman, 
and my husband is dead,’ 2 Sam. xiv. 5). 
4, When words of similar origin are joined, as 
στροβεῖ Kat στρέφεται. 


914, ASYNDETON, 


the omission of conjunctions, as Abiit, excessit, evasit, eruplt. 
There is a fine instance in Eur. Hipp. 352, expressive of the 
most violent emotion. Many epithets are often thus joined 
(πύργωσις ἐπιθέτων), as in Homer, 1]. xi. 32 :* 

ἀμφιβρότην πολυδαίδαλον ἀσπίδα θοῦριν καλήν. 
Thus we find in Shakspeare— 

Unhouseled, unanointed, unanealed. 


and Milton— 
Among innumerable false, unmoved, 
Unshaken, unseduced, unterrified, 
His loyalty he kept, his love, his zeal—P. LZ. v. 501. 


315. PARONOMASIA,F 


the juxtaposition of words of similar sound, which is especially 
frequent in proverbs, and proverbial expressions, as 

παθήματα μαθήματα, bear and forbear, changes and 

chances, giving and forgiving, &c. 

In Rom. i. 29, 381 we have πορνείᾳ πονηρίᾳ, φθόνον φόνου, 
ἀσυνέτους ἀσυνθέτους. 

‘Quam ferus et vere ferreus 1116 fuit.’—Tibullus, 

‘ Fear the fierceness of the boy..—Ben Jonson. 





* In Aschylus we have six epithets to one noun, 4g. 155, 
μίμνει φοβερὰ παλίνορτος, 
οἰκονόμος, δολία, μνάμων μῆνις τεκνόποινος. 


{ This subject is treated at some length (being a very important one 
in the history of language) in Chapters on Language, p. 264, 


FIGURES OF SPEECH. 211 


Such assonances form the staple ornament of Arabic prose (see 
Families of Speech). They were very popular in euphuistic 
style: 


‘Who can perswade where treason is above reason, and 
might ruleth right, and it is had for law/full whatsoever 
is lustfull; and commotioners are better than com- 
missioners, and common woe is named common- 
wealth ?’—Sir John Cheeke. 


Under this head fall the numerous plays on names and words* 
found in writers of every age and every language; and under 
the same general division fall such figures as, 


a. OnomaToPata, the imitation of the sense by the sound; 
whether in words, as τήνελλα the sound of a harpstring, 
taratantara the blast of a trumpet, &c., or in lines, as 

δεινὴ δὲ κλαγγὴ γένετ᾽ ἀργύρεοιο βιοῖο (of a twanged bow- 
string). 

πολλὰ δ᾽ ἄναντα, κάταντα, πάραντά τε, δόχμιά τ᾽ ἦλθον 
(of galloping horses). me 

Quamquam sunt sub aqué sub aqua maledicere tentant 
(of the eroaking of frogs).—Ovid. 


Quadrupedante putrem sonitu quatit ungula campum.— 
Virg. din. vill. 596. 


‘ Shocked like an iron-clanging anvil banged 
With hammers.’—Tennyson, Z'he Princess. 


Und es wallet, und siedet, und brauset, und zischt, 
Wie wenn Wasser mit Feuer sich mengt, 
Bis zum Himmel spritzet der dampfende Gischt, &c. 
Schiller, Der Taucher. 


This figure abounds in the best poets of every age.f 


* It is particularly common in Tennyson; as 
‘Every soldier waits 
Hungry for honour, angry for his king,’ 


‘the sea-wind sang 
Shrill, chill with flakes of foam’ 


‘To break my chain, to shake my mane.’ 


t It is a principle of immense importance. See Origin of Language, 
chap. iv.; Chapters on Language, p. 168 and passim, 


212 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 


ὦ. ALLITERATION, as 
Σῶσος καὶ Σωσὼ Σωτείρῃ τήνδ᾽ ἀνέθηκαν 
Σῶσος μὲν σωθεὶς Σωσὼ δ᾽ ὅτι Σῶσος EcwOn.—Simonides. 
‘O Tite, tute, Tati, tibi tanta, tyranne, tulisti.—Ennius. 
ς Alliteration adds its artful aid’ very commonly in our own 
poets, and is, as alternate alliteration, used very subtly in the 
following examples: 


Her dainty limbs did lay.—Spenser. 
His heavy-shotted hammock-shroud.—Tennyson. 


Ὁ. Oxymoron is the juxtaposition of opposite words, as 

γάμος ἄγαμος, χάρις ἄχαριο. 

Funera ne-funera ‘living deaths’ (Catull. lxiv. 83), 
splendide mendax, &c.,* insaniens sapientia, impietate 
pia est (Ov.), strenua nos exercet inertia (Hor.). 

‘His honour rooted in dishonour stood, 

And faith unfaithful kept him falsely true.’ 
Tennyson’s [dylls, Ὁ. 192. 

‘Shall make the name of Danton famous infamous in 
every land.’—Carlyle. 

d. Antiruests, the contrast of opposite conceptions, as 

Infelix Dido, nulli bene nupta marito, 
Hoe fugiente peris, hoc pereunte fugis——Auson. 
κτᾶσθαι μὲν we χρῷτο, χρῆσθαι δὲ we τιμῷτο to obtain that 
he might use, and to use that he might be honoured.— 
Ag. thet. ii. ὃ. 
This sentence illustrates both antithesis, parisosis (balancing 
of clauses), and paromoiosis (assimilation of endings). 

The παρὰ γράμμα σκῶμμα or sudden pun, referable to anti- 
thesis, is frequent in Aristophanes. A good example of this 
σκῶμμα is the verse 

᾿ , ‘ ig τ - Quem 

ἐκ κυμάτων γὰρ αὖθις αὖ γαλῆν ὁρῶ.Ἷ 

So in English, 
Ῥ 
‘Here the first { i \ oses of the year shall blow.’ 





* Hor. Od. mt. xi. 353; ef. 1. xxxiv. 2, m1. xvi. 28. 

+ The line in Euripides (Orest.279) ran γαλήν᾽ = γαληνὰ ‘calm’—‘after 
storm I see a calm,’ but the actor did not pronounce so as to allow for 
the elision, and it became a standing joke at Athens—‘ out of the waves 
I see—a weasel |’ 


VIGURES OF SPELCH, 213 


The σκῶμμα mapa προσζοκίαν corresponds in some measure to 
the ‘pleasantry by surprise’ of the (miscalled) Augustan age 
of English literature; as 
ἔστειχε δ᾽ ἔχων ὑπὸ ποσσὶ. .. χίμετλα he was walking, 
having under his feet—chilblains—Ar. Arist. 2het. 
111. GN 


‘Where thou, great Anna, whom three realms obey, 
Dost sometimes counsel take, and sometimes—tea !’ 
Pope. 


6. Rurme, The secret of the pleasurableness of Rhyme was 
not unknown to the ancients, and it is found in many pas- 
sages, as 

"Hire ἔθνεα εἶσι μελισσάων ἀδινάων, 
Πέτρης ἐκ γλαφυρῆς αἰεὶ νέον epyopevawy.—Hom. 71.11.87, 
Ceelum nitescere, arbores frondescere, 
Vites leetificee pampinis pubescere, 
Rami baccarum ubertate incurvescere. 
Ap. Cic. Tusc. Quast. i. 69. 


Jf. Ruyroms. Occasionally an accidental verse, or a sentence 
with the cadence of a verse, occurs in good writers, but this is 
as much a defect as the blank-verse style of English prose. 

πᾶσα ζόσις ἀγαθὴ Kat πᾶν δώρημα réXecov.—James 1. 17. 

καὶ τροχίιις ὀρθὰς ποιήσατε τοῖς ποσὶν vparv.—Heb. xii. 18. 

Auguriis patrum et prisc&i formidine sacram.— Tac. 
Germ. 39. 

Urbem Romem a principio reges habuere.—Tac. Ann. 6.1. 

Cnzi Pompeii veteres fidosque clientes.—Sall. Cat. 19. 


It will be readily understood that many figures of speech 
are here designedly passed over as of secondary importance, 
but the subject is one which will bear examination, and is 
essential to the study of language as illustrating psychological 
tendencies. 








ee SE 











TIN DE Χ. 





[I am entirely indebted for this Index to the ready kindness of two former 
Pupils—Mr. Walter Leaf (Harrow), Scholar of Trinity College, Cam- 
bridge; and Mr. H. M. Swindells (Marlborough), of Brasenose 


College, Oxford.]} 


Accusative, the, 81 
absolute, 86 
cognate, 82 
double, 84 
fundamental notion of, 82 
in apposition, 84 
of definition, 83 
of inner object, 84 
of redundant object, 85 
with infinitive, 167 


with prepositions, 99, 101, ete. 


Active Voice, the, 116 
Adjectives, 29 
- Genders of, 30 
Personal use of δῆλος, etc., 89 
Proleptic, 50 
terminations of, 30 
used for Adverbs, 90 
uses of, 87-93 
Adverbs, 36 
ZEolic dialect, 19 
Agglutination, 2 
Alexandrian grammarians, 21 
Alliteration, 212 
Allophylian languages, 1 
Alphabet, the, 8, 11 
Ionian, 10 
of Euclid, 10 
Ambiguity, 208 
Anacoluthon, 294 
analysis of words, 3-6 
Analytic languages, 2 
Anastrophe, 96 
Antimeria, 90 
Antiphrasis, 208 


Antiptosis, 85, 167, 206 
Antithesis, 212 
Acrist, the, 124, 134 


connected with future, 135 
gnomic, 136, 127 note 

in ka, 47 

meaning of, 126 

strong and weak, 125 note 
Subjunctive, 141 

used like Perfect, 126 note 

uses of, 127 

with ἄν, expressing frequency, 135 
with present sense, 129 


Apheeresis, 18 
Apocope, 18 
Apodosis, 155 
Apollonius Dyscolus, 
Aposiopesis, 205 
Article, the, 55 


convenience of, 57 
distributive, 62 
generalising, 58 
gradual development of, 56 
order of, 60, 61 

special idioms of, 62, 64 
specific use of, 58 

used for possessive, 60 
uses of, 58-64 

with infinitive, 63 

with names, 59 


Aryan languages, 1 
Aspirates, concurrence of, avoided, 


16 


Asyndeton, 210 
Attraction, 113 


216 


Augment, rules of, 44, 45 
Auxiliary Conjugation, 121 


Brachylogy, 202 

Brachylogy of Comparison, 92, 204 
Burggraff, quoted, 21, 146 note 
Burnouf, quoted, 8, 148, 125, 135 


Cadmus, meaning of, 8 
Cardinals, 35 
Cases, 21-23 
contrasted meanings of, 86, 87 
evanescence of, 68 
local view of, 67 
origin of, 67 
syncretistic, 77 
Chiasmus, 206 
Chinese, 2 
Classification of languages, 1 
Clauses, co-ordinate and subordi- 
nate, 55 
Clyde, quoted, 56 
Command, ways of expressing, 138 
Comparatio Compendiaria, 92, 204 
Comparatives, 91, 92 
pleonasm of, 91 
Comparison, degrees of, 30, 91 
Compounds, synthetic and para- 
thetic, 45, 50-53, 105 
Concord, 64 
Conditional sentences, 151 
table of, 156 
in English, 155 
irregular, 159 
Conjugations, 39 
Monjunctions, 196 
adversative, 197 
causal, 197 
comparative, 197 
copulative, 196 
disjunctive, 197 
inferential, 198 
temporal, 197 
Constructio ad Sensum, 64, 88, 202 
Constructio Pregnans, 105, 208 
Copula, the, 54 
Copulative Verbs, 69 
Crasis, 17 


Dative Case, the, 77-81 


INDEX. 


syneretistic, 77 
commodi et incommodi, 79 
Echic, 80, 81 
instrumental, 78 
of Manner, 78 
of Place, 78 
of Time, 78 
with αὐτός, 78 
with Prepositions, 98, 101, et 
sqq. 
Declensions, 21, 28 
Deponents, 41, 116 
Dialects, 18 
Digamma, the, 9 
Dorie dialect, 19 
Dramatic Tendency of Greeks, 130. 
142, 168,180 | 
Dual number, 23, 24, 40 
evanescence of, 6d 


Kethlipsis, 17 

Elements, pronominal, 22 
Ellendt, quoted, 187 
Ellipsis, 204 

Epithet, 

Erasmus, quoted, 19 
Euclides, archonship of, 10 
Euphemism, 207 

Euphony, laws of, 15 


Families of languages, 1 

Ferrar, quoted, 7, 10, 16 

Figures: 
Figura Etymologica, 80 
σχῆμα ᾿Αλκμανικόν, 66 note 
σχῆμα ᾿Αττικόν, 65 
σχῆμα καθ᾽ ὅλον καὶ μέρος, 66, 84 
σχῆμα Πινδαρικόν, 65 
σχῆμα τρὸς τὸ σημαινόμενον, 64, 

202 


σχῆμα Χαλκιδικόν, 121 
ὕστερον πρότερον, 206 
Final Conjunctions, 179 
Final Sentences, 147 
Futuro, the, 47, 188 
Attic, 47 
folic, 47 
Doric, 47 
Irregular, 47 
Middle with Passive meaning, 48 


INDEX. 7 


Middle with Active meaning, 48 
Perfect, 133 

periphrastic, 129 note, 133 

a polite imperative, 188 note 


- 


Garnett, quoted, 10, 22, 30, 34, 36 
Genders, origin of, 25, 26 
rules of, 27, 28 
Genitive Case, 70-77 
absolute, 76 
attributive, 60 
causal, 71 
double, 76 
name a mistake, 70 
objective, 75 
of Ablation, 71 
exclusion, material, ete., 72 
Partition, 73 
Perception, 73 
Relation, 74 
three main conceptions of, 71 
Gnomie Aorist, 136 
in Latin, 186 note 
‘Go, future, 47 
Greek language, 1 
connection with Latin, 19 note 
immense range of, 8 
reasons for learning, 7 
rhetorical advantages of, 202 
synthetic nature of, 3 


Hebrew, 3 
Hellenistic Greek, 20 
Hendiadys, 209 
Heteroclites, 29 
Hitzig, quoted, 11 
Horne Tooke, quoted, 37 
Hypallage, 88, 207 
Hyperbaton, 205 
spurious, 145, 179 
Hypokorisma, 207 
Hysteron Proteron, 206 


Idiomatic use of Tenses, 130 

Idioms, paradigmatic, 54 

Imperative Mood, 138 
substitutes for, 138 

Tm perfect, the, 130 


graceful use of, 133 
expressing what has ceased to be, 
133 
idiomatic uses of, 132 
in conditional sentences, 154, 157 
in conditional sentences in Latin, 
158 note 
Indicative Mood, the, 137 
in final sentences, 147 
with ὅπως, 148, 180 
Infinitive, the, 164 
epexegetic use of, 165 note 
in Latin and English, 164 
in. Adverbial phrases, 165 
Subject of, 166 
Tenses of, 166 
used as Imperative, 166 
used as Latin Supine, 165 note 
used elliptically, 166 
with Article, 167 
Inflecting languages, 2 
Inflections, origin of, 4, 7, 22, 39 
Interjections, 201 
Tonic Dialect, 18 
Irony, 207 ᾿ 
Irregular Verbs, 49 
Itacists, 13 


Knowing, verbs of, 170 
Koppa, 11 


Languages, 1, 2 
analysing tendency of, 3, 20, 94 
Letters, as numerals, 12 
classification of, 14 
names of, 9 
Litotes, 207 
Locative case, 22, 28, 68 


Metathesis, 18 
Middle Voice, 41, 116 
altering meaning of verb, 117, 
118 
four meanings of, 117 
in English, 119 
in Hebrew, 118 
in Latin, 119 
Modern Greek, 3, 56, 80 


218 


Moods, nature of, 45, 186 
in compound sentences, 146 


Nogatives, μή and οὐ, 182 
destroying one another, 189 
first of two omitted, 190 
phrases, 194 
pleonastic, 185, 189 190 

Neuter plural with sing. verb, 65 

Nominative, 68 
absolute, 68 
with copulative verbs, 69 

Nouns, 21 

Numbers, 23-25 

Numerals, 12, 35, 36 


Onomatopeia, 211 
Optative Mood, the, 139, 143 
correspondence of Optatives, 146 
in conditional sentences, 153, 156, 
160 
in conditional sentences express- 
ing frequency, 156 
in Oratio Obliqua, 151 
in temporal sentences, 146, 161 
in temporal sentences of indefinite 
frequency, 
in wishes, 144, 146 
Potential use of, 144, 175 
Potential use of with ἄν, 176 
uselessness of, 142 
with ἄν τοῦ mild Future, 145 
with &v=a polite Imperative, 146 
Oratio Obliqua, 150 
Order of words, 201 
Ordinals, 36 
Oxymoron, 212 


Palamedes, 10 
Parathetic compounds, 45, 50 
Paranomasia, 210 
Participles, 169 
completing verbal notion, 170 
expressing accidents of verb, 171 
like Latin Gerund, 172 
to compact sentences, 172 
with Article, 172 
Particles, 195 
of emphasis, 199 


INDEX. 


Parts of Speech, 22 
Passive Voice, 116 
origin of the term, 40 note 
Paullo-post-futurum, 133 
Perception, verbs of, 
peculiarity of, 132 
with Participle, 170 
with Infinitive, 171 
Perfect, the, 48 
Imperative, 138 
Middle (so-called), 41 
with Present sense, 49 note, 188 
Periphrasis, 209 
Person, the word, 32 note 
Philoxenus, 9 
Pindarie figure, 65 
Pleonasm, 208 
Pluperfect, the, 136 
Plural, the, 65 
of excellence, 66 
some peculiarities of, 66, 67 
Polyptoton, 209 
Predicate, the, 60 
tertiary, 61 
Prepositions, 94-108 
constructions of, 97-108 
due to analysis, 95 
eighteen, 96 
idioms of, 107, 108 
in composition, 97, 105 
nature of, 94 
spurious, 95 
varied, 107 
Present, the, 130 
expressing attempt, 130 
for Future (Milton), 130 note 
for Perfect, with κλύω, νικάω, 
ete., 132 
historical, the, 130 
with πάλαι, ete., 131 
Prolepsis, 90 
Promise, verbs of, construction of, 
168 
Pronouns : 
attraction of, 118 
demonstrative, 110 
demonstrative pleonastic, 112 
distributive, 115 
idioms of, 114 
indefinite, 114 
nature of, 30-34 
possessive, 34, 108 


INDEX. 


reflexive, 338, 109 

relative, 35, 112 

relative, with ἄν, 149, 176 
Pronunciation, 13 
Proper names with Article, 59 
Proposition, structure of, 54 
Protagoras, the first to distinguish 

Moods, 45 
Protasis, 152 
Puns (σκώμματα), use of, in Greek 
and English poetry, 212 


Reduplication, 42, 48 
of aspirates, 16 
Relatives, 36, 112 
Relative sentences, 149, 157 note, 


Rhetorical Imperfect, use of, 131 
Rhetorical inversion, 202 
Rhyme, 213 

Rhythm, 213 

Romance languages, 3 

Roots, 6 


‘San,’ 11 
Schaefer, quoted, 131 
Schleicher, quoted, 5, 6, 17 
Semitic languages, 1 
Sense-figure, the, 64, 202 
Sentence, structure of, 54 
Sentences, 151, 156 
conditional, 147 
final, 149 
relative, 149 
temporal, 161 
Stems, 7 
Stoics, the, 21 
Subjective Mood, the, 137-139 
in Latin, 140 
table of Tenses of, 140 
Subjunctive Mood, the, 139, 142 
connected with future, 139, 143 


᾿Αγαθός, comparison of, 31 
“Ayov, meaning ‘ with,’ 172 
᾿Αλλὰ νὴ Ala, 197 note 
᾿Αλλήλων, 110 

“AAXos, 115 


219 


deliberative use of, 175 note 
for Optative in final sentences, 148 
Substantives, used as Adjectives, 88 
Superlative, 92, 93 
inclusive, use of, 93 
phrases used to strengthen, 98 
Supine, 40 note 
Syllepsis, 208 
Syneresis, 17 
Synaleepha, 17 
Syncope, 18 
Syncretistic: cases, 68 
Syntax, 54 
Synthetic languages, 2 
Synthetic compounds, 51 


‘Telegram,’ the word, 53 

Tenses, the, 119, 130 
nomenclature of, 124 
tables of, Active, 120 
table of, Passive, 129 

Tertiary Predicate, 61 


Verbs, 37 
classes of, 46, 49 
inflections of, 39 
in -μι, 37, 46, 115 
in -, 46 
nature of, 38 
Verbal Adjectives, 47 
Vocative, the, 69 
Voices, the, 40, 116 


Writing, 12 note 
‘We’ for “1, ‘you’ for ‘thou,’ 111 


Yod, an obsolete spirant, 11 


Zeugma, 208 


*Auds, 119 

"Audi, 102 

“Av, 178 
δυνητικόν, etc., 179 note 
for ἔαν, 143, 178 note, 179 


1, 2 


220 INDEX. 
in phrases, 178 Ἔδει, 132 
in conditional sentences, 156 Εἰ, 152 


in final sentences, 181 
in temporal sentences, 161 
meaning ‘ otherwise,’ 179 
misplaced, 174 
omitted with Optative, 176, 178 
omitted with Imperfect, 131 
position of, 174 note 
repeated, 179 
with Aorist, 1385 
with Future, 174 note 
with Indicative, 175 
with Imperfect, frequentative, 175 
with Infinitive and Participle, 177 
with Optative, 176 
with equal polite Imperative, 145 
with πρίν, ἕως, etc., 161 note, 162 
with Relatives, 149, 176 

’Avd, 101 

᾿Αντί, 97 

"Apa, Apa, 198 
ἄρα μή, 198 
ἄρ᾽ οὐ, 198 
like ergo, 198 

Αὐτίκα, 197 

Αὐτός, 35 


Βουστροφηδόν writing, 18 


Γάρ, 197 
expressing indignation, 198 
like ‘ nam,’ 198 
pointing to suppressed sentence, 
197 


Te, 199 
μὴ σύ ye, 199 
Tovy, 199 


Aé, 197 

Aciva, 114 

An, δήπου, 199 

Δῆλος, etc., construction of, 170 note 
δῆτα, 200 

Aid, 99, 100 

Δίκαιος, construction of, 170 note 


"Edy, 152 
with Optative, 174 note 





with Subjunctive, 153 noze 
in wishes, 155 
other uses of, 152 note 
Eiée, 155 
Εἶκος ἦν, 182 
Εἰς, 99 
Ἐκ, 97 
Ἐκεῖνος, 111 
Ἔν, 98 
Ἔπει, 161, 197 
Ἐπί, 102, 102 
“Etepos, 115 
Ἐχρῆν, 132 
“Exov = with, 172 
“Ews, 161 
special uses of, 162 


Θέλω, with Infinitive, 133 


. “I, 88 note 


“Iva, 179 
final, 145, 147 
summary of uses of, 181 
with Past Indicative, 181 
Ἴσως, 173 note 


Καί, 196 
expressing surprise ; also in Eng- 
lish, 196 
Καὶ δή, 199 
Καίπερ, καίτοι, 197 
Καὶ ταῦτα, 111 
Κακός, comparison of, 31 
Kard, 100 
Ke, 173 


Λανθάνω, 171 
Λέγομαι, personal construction of, 
170 


Μά, 200 

Μετά, 108 

Μέλλω, with Infinitive, 133 
Mey... δέ, 197 

Μὲν οὖν, 198 


Méxpis, 161 
Μή, uses of, 183 


after verbs of fearing, etc., 184 


pleonastic, 185 
Mav, 200 
ΜῊ ov, 192 

like ‘ quin,’ 198 


with Participles, meaning ‘ un- 


less, 193 
Moy, 184 


N ἐφελκυστικόν, 17 


“Ὧδε, 110 

“Ὅμως, 179, 197 
like ‘tamen,’ 197 note 

“Orws, 179 
final, 147, 148, 163, 174 
summary of uses of, 181 
with ἄν, 177 
with Future, 180 

“Os, 35 

“Os ἄν, ete., 176 

“Ὅστις, 85, 112, 118 

“Ore, 161, 197 

“Ὅτι, causal, 192 
difference from ὡς, 150 note 
in Oratio Obliqua, 167 

Ov, 185 
coalescing, 186 
redundant after #, 186 
with Infinitive, 186 

Οὗ, 109 

Ov and μή, differences, 183 
in same sentence, 188 
mixed examples of, 187 

Οὔκουν, οὐκοῦν, 198 

Οὐ μή, 188, 189, 191 

Οὖν, 198 

Οὔτε... τε, 197 

Οὗτος, 11 


INDEX. 


Παρά, 108 





Tlep, 200 

Περί, 102 
Πλατειασμός, 19 
Ποῖὺς, 113 

Ποῦ, 178 note, 199 
Πρίν͵, 161 note 


special uses of, 162 


Πρό, 97 
Πρός, 164 


Πῶς ἄν, in wishes, 176 


Suv, 98 
Σφέτερος, 109 


Te 





Σχεδόν τι, 200 


Ταῦτα, opposed to τάδε, 


os, verbals in, 1738 


Te, 173 note, 196 
Tis, τις, 114 
τίς ἄν, 176 


“γπὸ, 105 


Φανερός, 170 note 
Φέρων = with, 172 
φθάνω, construction of, 171 


3 
Q, 


200 


‘Ms, comparative, 197 


final use of, 147, 148, 163, 179 
in reported speech, 67 
summary of uses of, 181 


‘Os ἄν, 149, 168, 181 
“Ὥσπερ, 197 
“Ὥστε, 184 note 


comparative, 197 


LONDON: PRINTED BY 
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Eleventh Edition, in 8vo. price 1s. 6d. 


GREEK GRAMMAR RULES 


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‘The Greek Grammar Rules drawn up for the use of Harrow School 
by a Harrow Tutor (the Rey. F. W. Farrar) are at once simple and 
exhaustive. Seldom could a more apposite publication be found.’ 

Joun Butt. 


‘Mr. Farrar has managed to compress his Rules into the fewest 
possible words, and at the same time to keep them free from ambi- 
guities and technicalities. The examples seem well chosen; the Editor 
seems to have chosen the correct mean between too much and toc little ; 
and we think his tractate will be found an excellent companion and 
guide to the ordinary Greek grammars in our public schools.’ 

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‘Mr. Farrar has hit upon an exceedingly happy idea in this little 
book, and has carried it out with great skill. In teaching Latin or 
Greek, the master’s first concern should be to imprint the main inflexions 
and the rules of syntax indelibly on the memory. Exceptions will be 
easily remembered if the regular forms and laws are so thoroughly 
learned that they cannot be forgotten, and the pupil can have no hesi- 
tation in regard to them. If he is not absolutely and entirely master 
of these regular forms the exceptions will perplex and confuse him. 
And indeed the secret of success lies in selecting from the mass of 
grammatical details just those points which form, as it were, the back- 
bone of the grammar. Mr. Farrar’s work is a model of the kind of 
book which should be thoroughly mastered. He gives as much of Greek 
syntax as, if perfectly learned, will form a first-rate foundation. Nothing 
essential is omitted. The Rules are arranged in natural order, and 
explanations are given which will rivet them on the memory. The 
work bears traces, as might be expected, of a thorough knowledge of 
comparative philology, and Mr. Farrar employs his rare knowledge of 
English literature and modern languages to throw light on the Greek 
idioms. The book deserves a hearty welcome from teachers and 
scholars.’ Museum. 


London LONGMANS & CO. 


Works by the same Author. 


OD 





The Influence of Classical Studies on English Literature. 
The Le Bas Prize Essay. 1856. 


The Christian Doctrine of the Atonement. 
The Norrisian Prize Essay. 1857. 


Eric; or, Little by Little, 
Tenth Edition. 1857. 


Julian Home. 
Fourth Edition. 1857. 


St. Winifred’s; or, the World of School. 
Fourth Edition. 1862. 


The Origin of Language, based on Modern Researches. 
1860. 


Chapters on Language. 
1865. 


Greek Grammar Rules 
Seventh Edition. 1870. 


The Fall of Man, and other Sermons. 
Preached before the University of Cambridge, ὅσο 1868. 


Seekers after God. 
(Sunday Library. 1868.) 


On Some Defects in Public School Education. 
A Lecture delivered before the Royal Institution. 1867. 


Essays on a Liberal Education. 


By Various Writers. Edited by the Rev. F. W. Farrar. Second 
Edition. 1868. 


Families of Speech ; 


Four Lectures delivered before the Royal Institution of Great Britain 
in March 1869, and published by request. 


89 ParerNosTER Row, E.C. Lonpon, February 1878. 





SELECT GENERAL LISTS 


SCHOOL-BOOKS 


PUBLISHED BY 


Massrs. LONGMANS anp CO. 


The School-Books, Atlases, Maps, &c. comprised in this Catalogue 
may be inspected in the Educational Department of Messrs. LONGMANS 


and Co. 39 Paternoster Row, E.C. London, where also all other works 
oublished by them may be seen. 


------------- 


English Reading-Lesson Books. 


Bilton’s Infant Primer for School and Home use, 18M0..........-0:ceccecces covers ves 8d. 
— Infant Reader, Narratives and Fables in Monosyllables, 18mo. ... 4d. 
First Reading Book, for Standard I. 18m0. «τς τοῦτον τοι ccs τος τούτον costes res ree 6d. 
Second Reading Book, for Standard IT. 18m0.  ..........2.ceeceecee ree resees 6d. 
Third Reading Book, Boys’ Edition and Girls’ Edition, ἕο». θα. each 
Fourth Reading Book, Boys’ Edition and Girls’ Edition, fcp.1s. each 
— Fifth Reading Book, or Poetical Reader, £0. -...cccesceccescescescesresresres 18. δας 
Isbister’s First Steps in Reading and Learning, 12M0..........-c.-::csserscessevsseeee 18, θα. 
- Word-Builder, First Standard, 6d. Second Standard, 8d. 
- Sixth Standard Reader, 9160. «-- τον τον τοτντοκσο τόνον ses ces ces sos resssereeccsreevee 18s 
Laurie & Morell’s Graduated Series of Reading-Lesson Books :— 
Morell’s Elementary Reading Book or Primer, 18100. -.....0..0.s01 ces ces eee roscoe coe 





: 2d, 
Book I. pp. 144... 8d. Book V. comprehending Read- 
Book If. pp. 254 ... 1s. 3d. ings in the best Bnglish 
Book III. pp. 312 1s. θα. Literature, pp. 496............... 28 θα. 
Book IV. pp. 440 τ Poh 





M'Leod’s Reading Lessons for Infant Schools, 30 Broadside Sheets ..,...... 38, 
— First School-Book to teach Reading and Writing, 18mo............1. 










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— Second School-Book to teach Spelling and Reading, 18mo. ......... 9d. 
Stevens’s Domestic Economy Series for Girls :— 
Book I. for Girls’ Fourth Standard, crown 8V0. .......cccccessssssereen con νον 99. 
Βοοκ II. for Girls’ Fifth Standard, crown 8vo..... 28. 
Boox III. for Girls’ Sixth Standard, crown 8vo...... Qe. 
Stevens & Hole’s Introductory Lesson-Book, 18m0. ..........2:ce:ceeces roscoe cou res eee 6d, 
Stevens & Hole’s Grade Lesson-Book Primer, crown 800. ......--.-+.++. στσξοσ ο 8d. 
Stevens & Hole’s Grade Lesson Books, in Six Standards, 12mo. :— 
The First Standard,pp.128... 9d. The Fourth Standard, pp. 224... 1s. 8d, 
The Second Standard, pp. 160 9d. The Fifth Standard, pp. 224...... 19. 8d, 
The Third Standard, pp. 160... 9d. The Sixth Standard, pp. 260...... 1s. 6d. 


Answers to the Arithmetical Exercises in Standards I. Ii. and III. price 4d, in 
Standard IV. price 4d. in Standards V. and VI. 4d. or complete, price Is, 2d, 
Stevens & Hole’s Useful Knowledge Reading Books :— 


Boys’ First Standard, 12mo. ... 9d. | Girls’ First Standard, 12mo. ..,, 
— Second Standard, 12mo... Ips Second Standard, 12mo. ... 18. 

Third Standard, 12mo. ... 19. Third Standard, 12mo...... 1s, 
Fourth Standard, 12mo.... 18. 3d. Fourth Standard, 12mo. ... 1s. $d, 
Fifth Standard, 12mo....... 1s. 84. Fifth Standard, i2mo. ..... 19. 3d. 
Sixth Standard, 12mo..... 18. 6d. Sixth Standard, i2mo. ..,... 1s. 6d. 


94. 


ΠῚῚ 





London, LONGMANS ἃ CO. 





A 


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2 General Lists of School-Books 


TT Bm σα 





Jones’s Secular a Lesson-Book, 18mo. .. nese dase saupet tee rietteect an GES 
— Secular Early Lesson-Book. Part ἔπ Proverbs... ieivee 4d, 
— Advanced Reading-Book; Lessons in English History, 18mo. ...... 10d. 

Marcet’s Seasons, or Stories for Young Children, 4 vols. 18mo... genie Qe. 

Sullivan’s Literary Class-Book; Readings in English Literature, fep. ...... 28. 6d 


Writing Books. 


Combes, Stevens, and Hole’s Complete Writer ; a Set of 16 Graduated Copy- 
Books, on Fine Paper, price 4s. 6d. per Dozen to Hae 


Johnston’s Civil Service Specimens of Copying MSS. folio .............. 28, 6d. 
M‘Leod’s Graduated Series of Nine Copy-Books . ἘΝ Teach 3d. 
Miilhauser’s Writing Books, 2s. 8d. per Dozen to Teachers. 

The Ready Writer, a Course of 18 Graduated Copy Books ......... each 8d. 


Books I. to VIII. 0 fthe REapy WRITER are printed in PENCIL-INE. 


School Poetry Books. 


Bilton’s Poetical Reader for all Classes of Schools. fep. ΓΒ 
Byron’s Childe Harold, annotated by W. Hiley, M.A. fep. '8v0 
Cook’s First Book of Poetry for Elementary Schools, 18mo. . 
Goldsmith’s Deserted Village, by Stevens & Morris, fcp. 4d. sewed or 6d. inet 
Traveller, by Stevens & Morris, fep. 8vo. 9d. sewed or 18. cloth, 
Gray’s 5 Elegy, edited by Stevens & Morris, fep. 4d. sewed or 6d. sod 
— Poems, with Notes by G. Candy, M. A., fep. 8vo. 
Hughes’ Select Specimens of English Poetry,. 12mo. . 
Hunter’s 35 Plays of Sh ea with Explanatory ‘Notes, ea 
















All’s ye that ends| Henry VI. Part III. Much ado about 
Well Henry VIII. Nothing. 

Antony and Cleopatra.| Julius Cesar, Othello. 
As You Like it. King John. Richard IT. 
Comedy of Errors. King Lear. Richard III, 
Coriolanus. Love’s Labour’s Lost. Romeo and Juliet, 
Cymbeline. Macbeth. | Hees of the Shrew, 
Hamlet. Measure for Measure. | The Tempest, : 
Henry IV. Part I. Merchant of Venice. Timon of Athens. 
Henry IV. Part I. Merry Wives of Troilus and Cressida, 
= enry a, ΠΕ Ν ARO ΕΝ eles -Night. 

enry By idsummer Night’s Ὁ Gentlemen 
Henry VI. Part II. Dream. Verona. ee 


Winter’s Tale, 
Johnson’s London and Vanity of Human Wishes, BY Meme, ΤΟΣ ore ances 1s. θᾶ. 


M'Leod’s First Poetical Reading Book, fep. 8vo... res od, 
Second Poetical Reading Book, fep. 8vo. .... 1s. 8d. 

M‘Leod’s Goldsmith’s Deserted Village, and Traveller, each esis ‘mo. 1s. 6d. 
Marlowe’s Doctor Faustus, annotated by Wagner, fep. Svo. een 28. 
Milton’ s Lycidas, by Stevens & Morris, fep. 4d. sewed, or 6d. cloth. ; 
Samson Agonistes, by Fleming, fep... ἀπε ΔΌΣ ΟΕ ΙΝ 2s, 

and Lycidas, by Hunter, 12mo... ὩΣ ΘΗΝ 


L’Allegro, by Stevens & Morris, fep. 4d. sewed or 6d. cloth. 

Tl Penseroso, by Stevens & Morris, fep. 4d. sewed or 6d. cloth, 

Comus, L’Allegro and Il Penseroso, by Hunter, 12mo. ...... 19. 6d. 

Paradise Lost, by Hunter, I. & ΤΙ, 1s. 6d. each; III. to V. le. each, 

Paradise Regained, annotated by Jerram, fep. Syo. ἘΣ 

Pope’s 5 Select Poems, annotated by Arnold, fep. 8vo... 

Scott’ 8 Lady οἱ of the Lake, Canto I. by Stevens & Morris, fe 
-- Cantos I. and II. by Jeaffreson, fep. 

Thomson’ 5 Seasons, Spring and Summer, by Morris, fep. 8yo. 
utumn and Winter, by Morris, fep. 8vo. 

Tells” Poetry for Repetition, comprising 200 short pieces, 18mo. 


English Spelling-Books. 


Johnson’s Civil Service Spelling Book, fep.. ὩΣ 
Sewell’s Dictation pe rei First Series, 18mo. 18. “Second Series... 3 
Sullivan’s Spelling-Book Superseded, 18mo. ..... ie 

— Words Spelled in Two or More Ways, 18mo.... 










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Gaver Lists of School-Books 3 


AAAI _ oo 
eae ee tees 


Grammar and the English Language. 





Arnold’s Manual of English Literature, CrOWD 800. ........scssssesssseeceseeeseesees .. 78. θᾶ. 
ΞΞ Beowulf (Text and English Translation), with Notes &c.8vo. ...... 129. 
Bain’s First or Introductory English Grammar, 18mo... ae . 1s. 4d. 
— Higher English Grammar, fep. 8vo... ia 2s. θᾶ. 
— Companion to English Grammar, crown ‘8y0.. 88. θᾶ. 


Brewer’s Guide to English Composition, fep. 8νο.. 









Edwards’s History of the English Language, with Specimens, 18mo.. 9a. 
Farrar’s Language and Languages, crown 8VO. ...... ceonco (a0 
Ferrar’s Comparative Grammar, Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Vou. i v0. aN 128. 
Fleming’s Analysis of the English Language, Crown 800. .....cccsessesceceeecereee DBs 
Gostwick’s English Grammar, Historical and Analytical, crown BV Oereetences 10s. 6d, 
Graham’s English, or the Art of Composition DER: poe 300} aancenentcce 5a. 
Hiley’s Child’s First English Grammar, 18mo... chon mo τὰ δὲ 
8. 9d. 


Abridgment of Hiley’s English Grammar, 18mo.. ob 
Hiley’s English Grammar and Style, 12mo. ...... deste eccveseences Ope Oe 
— Exercises adapted to his English Grammar, 12mo....... “Os. 6d. Key «48. 6d. 
— Practical English Composition, Part I. 18mo. ............. 1s.6d. Key 2s. 6d. 

- -- -- - Part IT. 18m0..........00.0. 38 Key 48, 
Hunter’s Text-Book of English Grammar, 120, .-. «Ὁ. ον νον νον κου νσο roe reeves τε DOs Oe 
- Manual of School Letter-Writing, 12mo. .. Es ee crveee LS θῆς 
Isbister’s English Grammar, 12mo...... TUS. sUevecsesecos) δι Os 
- First Book of Grammar, Geography, and ‘History, AZMOvmicsreceree θᾶ. 











Johnston’s English Composition and Essay-Writing, post 8vo. .......... . 88. 6d, 
Latham’ 8 Handbook of the English Language, Crown 800. -...... γε νννννν κεν ενε νον 63. 

ἶ - Elementary English Grammar, crown 8vo. ae Pafrerdits pics fy 

— _ English Grammar for Classical Schools, fep. 8vo. .. sesrcervee 28. θα. 

- Outlines of Philology, crown 8γο... .. Just ready. 


= Rules and Principles for the study of “English Grammar, 18mo. 1s. 
Lowres’s Grammar of English Grammars, 120. -s.coccoscercsssossesssscssrescercerres 98. 6G, 
— Companion to English Grammar, 12m0........1:cccccccceceneeneecseesseeeesesces Qs. 6d. 
M‘Leod’s Explanatory English Grammar for Beginners, 18mo. 
- English Grammatical Definitions, for Home Study, 18mo. ercdevees 
Marcet’s Willy’s Grammar for the use of Boys, 18m. .......2. -.sescessereesresrerres 282 6, 
— Mary’s Grammar, intended for the use of Girls, 18mo. ἘΣ παν 58. 
Morell’s Essentials of English Grammar and Analysis, “ΟΡ. 8V0. «1.2100 -+s000 8d. 
Morgan’s Learner’s Companion to the same, post 800. --.... «ον τευ νον κεν κεν πε κσο res 6d. 
Morell’s Grammar of the English Language, post 8vo. 2s. or with ‘Exercises 28. 6d, 
— Graduated English Exercises, post 8vo. 8d. sewed or 9d. cloth. 
Morgan’s Key to Morell’s Graduated Exercises, 120. ....Ψ.. ὁ ον νον γεν κον νον κου νεννν 48, 
Miiller’s (Max) Lectures on the Science of Language, 2 vols. crown 870. ...163. 






Murison’s First Work in English, fep. 8vo.... oh .. 38, 6d. 

Roget’s Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases, crown ‘Bv0. 103, 6d, 

The Stepping-Stone to English Grammar, 18mo. .......... ποσὶ 

Sullivan’s Manual of Etymology, or First Steps to English, “1smo... co = Le? 
- Attempt to Simplify English Grammar, 18mo. ............. re Ἐι 


Wadham’s English Versification, Crown 8V0........0..0..ce00-008 i OE gia ὅκα 43. 6d. 
Weymouth’s Answers to Questions on the English Language, fep.8vo....... 2s. θᾶ. 


Paraphrasing, Parsing, and Analysis, 


Hunter’s Introduction to Précis-Writing, 12M0.............ccecccssssesssesesccessecerere 98. 
- Johnson’s Rasselas, with Notes &c. 12mo. ........ οὗ . 28. 6d. 
- Paraphrasing and Analysis of Sentences, 12mo. ...... 15. Sd. “Key 18. 3d. 
= Progressive Exercises in English Parsing, 12mo. ......... cc 6d. 
- Questions on Paradise Lost, I. & IT. &on the Merchant οὗ Venice 12, 








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4 General Lists of School-Books 





tt tt a err 


Johnston’s Civil Service Précis, 12mo. ....... 

Lowres’s System of English Parsing and Derivation, 18mo... 
Morell’s Analysis of Sentences Explained and Systematised, Ἴρτηο.. 
Morgan’s Training Examiner, First Course, 4d. Second Course, 1s. 





Dictionaries ; with Manuals of Etymology. 
Black’s Student’s Manual of Words derived from the Greek, 18mo............. 18. 6a. 





-- -- - - Latin, 18mo.... 23. 6d. 
— Student’s Manual, Greek and Latin, complete, 18mo. νον 83. 60, 
Graham’s English Synonyms, Classified and Explained, fep. 8vo. . set ORs 


Latham’s English Dictionary, founded on Dr. Johnson’s, 4 vols, ato. price £7. 
= Abridged English Dictionary, 1 vol.medium 8γο... 
Maunder’s Scientific and Literary Treasury, fcp. 8VO. ..........+ 
- Treasury of Knowledge and Library of Reference, fep. ὅγο, 
Sullivan’s Dictionary of the English Language, 12mo... eu, 
Dictionary of Derivations, or Introduction to Etymology, fep.. Bory 















Whately:s Emeglish\Synonymss fps. SO. τ Πρ ΠΡ SB 
Elocution. 
Bilton’s Repetition and Reading Book, crown 8vo. .... Sievers Bee OG. 
Hughes’s Select Specimens of English Poetry, 12mo. ..... .. 38. θᾶ. 
Isbister’s lustrated Public School Speaker and Reader, 12mo... . 3s. 6d. 
ΞΞ Lessons in Elocution, for Girls, 12mo. . asastseeee . 12. θᾶ. 
= Outlines of Elocution, for Boys, 12mo.. τὸς «. 18. 6d. 
Millard’s Grammar of Elocution, fop. 8V0. ........:ecceseeecese ... 2g. 6d. 
Rowton’s Debater, or Art of Public Speaking, fep. 8vo.. . 68. 
Smart’s Practice of Elocution, 12mo.. . 43, 
Twells’s Poetry for Repetition, 200 short "Pieces and Extracts, nesace 28, 6d. 
The London Series of English Classics. 
Bacon’s Essays, annotated by E. A. Abbott, 2 vols. fep... . 63. 
Ben Jonson’s Every Man in his Humour, by H. B. Wheatley, Ἕ. S. VN . 23. 6d 
Macaulay’s Essay on Lord Clive, annotated by H. C. Bowen, M.A. ... 28, 6d. 
Marlowe’s Dr. Faustus, annotated by Wilhelm Wagner, Ph.D. .... Qs. 
Milton’s Paradise Regained, annotated by C.S. Jerram, M.A. .... ~. 28. Gd. 
Selections from Pope’s Poems, annotated by T. Arnold, M.A, 2s. θα. 


Arithmetic, 


Anderson’s Book of Arithmetic for the Army, 18M0..........s01ssscereessercesresresere 18, 

Calder’s Familiar Arithmetic, 12mo. 4s. 6d. or with Answers, 5s. 6d, the 
Answers separately, 18. the Questions in Part II. separately............... 18 

Calder’s Smaller Arithmetic for Schools, 180... ...........:sssccsccsceceeseeerestescerces 29. OG, 


Colenso’s Arithmetic designed for the use of Schools, 12mo. πο τ τι . 48. 6a. 
Key to Colenso’s Arithmetic for Schools, by Rev. J. Hunter, M.A. 12mo. . προς ΡΒ 
Colenso’s Shilling Elementary Arithmetic, 18mo. 1s. with Answers. ............ sds, 6d. 
- Arithmetic for National, Adult, and Commercial Schools :— 
. Text-Book, 18mo.. 6d, | 3, Examples, Part II. Compound Arithmetic 4d. 
2 Examples, Part I. Simple 4, Examples, Part III. Fractions, eee 
Arithmetic ................ 4d. Duodecimals ..... er’) 
5. Answers to Hxamples, with Solutions of the difficult Questions | Ἦν Ce 
Colenso’s Arithmetical Tables, ona Card . la. 


Combes and Hines’ Standard Arithmetical Copy-Books, Ni ine Books, 4d. each, 
Combes and Hines’ Complete Arithmetical Copy-Books; in Nine Books, on 
Fine Paper, 4d. to 6d. each. Price 4s. 6d. per dozen to Teachers. 


London, LONGMANS & CO. 














General Lists of School-Books 5 


a 








eee 


Harris’s Graduated Exercises in Arithmetic and ia ae crown 8vo. 


2s. 6d. or with Answers, 35. the Answers separately, 9d... ...Full Key 68. 
Hiley’s Recapitulatory Examples in Arithmetic, 12mo. ...... See ore 18. θ.ἦν 
Hunter’s Modern Arithmetic for School Work or Private Study, 12mo. 33.6d.Key, 58, 
Hunter’s New Shilling Arithmetic, 18mo... 18 Key 2s. 
Isbister’s High School Arithmetic, 12mo. ἊΝ or with ‘Answers... rape csustecsuperies 18. Ol 
Johnston’s Civil Service Arithmetic, 12mo.... τς wee 88 θᾶ. Key 48. 

- Civil Service Tots, with ‘Answers ‘and Cross- Tots... τς 0 


Liddell’s Arithmetic fcr Schools, 18mo. 1s. cloth; or in Two Parts, ‘Sixpence 
each. The Answers separately, price Threepence. 
Lupton’s Arithmetic for Schools and Candidates for roa 12mo. 


2s, 6d. or with Answers, 88. θα. the Answers separately 12................ Key 63. 
Examination-Papers in Arithmetic, crown 8γ0. ......... pcecsaesercat de 











M'Leod’s Manual of Arthmetic, containing 1,750 Questions, 18mo. ἈΣρελος 9d. 
- Mental Arithmetic, I. ‘Whole Numbers, 11, Fractions .. ...each 19. 
—— Extended Multiplication and Pence Tables, 18mo......... Sedopsvavceieevess 2d. 


Merrifield’s Technical Arithmetic and Mensuration, small 8yo. 33.6d. Key 3s. θα. 
Moffatt’s Mental Arithmetic, 12mo. 1s. or with Key, 18. 6d. 

Pix’s Miscellaneous Examples in Arithmetic, 1210...........ccceccsecerceererreseeeees 28. θα, 
Thomson’s Elementary Treatise on Algebra, 12M0...............::00014-08 Key 49, 6d. 


Book-keeping and Banking. 


Hunter’s Exercises in Book-keeping by Double Entry, 12mo....1s.6d. Key 99. 6d, 
- Examination-Questions in Book-keeping by Double Entry, 12mo., 35. 6d, 
-- Examination-Questions &c. as above, separate from the Answers ls. 
- Ruled Paper for Forms of Account Books, 5sorts ... per quire, ls. 6d. 
- Self-Instruction in Book-keeping, 12mo................... ΠΗ τα wo 28e 
Isbister’s Book-keeping by Single and Double Entry, 18m0..............c..0000008 9d, 
-- Set of Eight Account Books to the above.. sdavacees sae 
Macleod’s Elements of Banking, Third Edition, crown Byo. sua ϑε ρου σεν το ese 





Mensuration. 


Boucher’s Mensuration, Plane and Solid, 12mo... 
Hiley’s Explanatory Mensuration, 12mo.......... ΠΝ 
Hunter’s Elements of Mensuration, 18100........ννννννννεν εν ννννενννον τε 9d, 
Merrifield’s Technical Arithmetic ἃ Mensuration, small 8yo. . . 88. θα. 
Nesbit’s Treatise on Practical Mensuration, by Hunter, 12mo. Be. ( 6d. "Key 58. 





Algebra, 
Colenso’s Algebra, for National and Adult Schools, 18mo.......... le.6d. Key 28. θᾶ, 
- Algebra, for the use of Schools, Part I. 12mo ............48. θα, Key 52. 
- Elements of Algebra, for the use of Schools, Part 11.19γηο. 68. Key ὅ8. 
- Examples and Equation Papers, with the rp ee 2mo. ...... 28. 6d. 
- Student’s Algebra, crown 8ὅγο. ........ ΕΣ Ἐν τ OSe) ἜΚ ΘΥ OSs 


Colenso and Hunter’s Introductory Algebra, 18mo. .. Sees De. θα. ee 28. 6d, 






Griffin’s Algebra and Trigonometry, small 8vo... nacntoccaseneieetree . 88. θα. 
-- Notes on Algebra and Trigonometry, small ‘By. acoeeen rea Sea Obs 

Lund’s Short and Easy Course of Algebra, crown Svo.. “28, ‘6d. Key 29. θα. 

Reynolds’s Elementary Algebra for Beginners, 18mo, 9d. i. Answers, 3d. Key 19. 

Tate’s Algebra made Hasy, 12mo... ee Pavers +028. ee 88. 6d. 

Wood’s Algebra, modernised by Lund, crown 8y0. .. ecerest ΡΣ Ph (Th, 

Geometry and Gerona 
Booth’s New Geometrical Methods, 2 vols. 8yo. Ἐπ ΒΟ ΤᾺ 


Colenso’s Elements of Euclid, 18mo. 4s. 6d. or with Key ts ‘to ‘the Exercises . . 68. 6d, 
- Geometrical Exercises and Key... ἘΣ Tivesvecs 
- Geometrical Exercises, separately, 18mo... 
= Trigonometry, 12mo. PartI. 3s. 6d. Key 38. 6d. Part II, 






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6 General Lists of ee 











Hawtrey’s Introduction to Euclid . Sees sn 

Hunter’s Plane Trigonometry, for Beginners, 18mo.. 2 Key 9d. 

= Treatise on Logarithms, 18mo... see a Key 9d. 

Isbister’ 8 School Euclid, the First Two Books, 12mo. Te. ‘6d. ‘& Booxs!. to IV. 2s. θα. 
Jeans’ Plane and Spherical Trigonometry, 12mo. 7s.6d.or2 Parts,each 48. 
— Problems in Astronomy &c. or Key to the above, 12mo. . 68. 
Potts’s Euclid, University Edition, 8vo... "108. 

- - Intermediate Edition, Books us ‘to TV. 38. “Books I. to Tit. 22. 6d. 
Books I, II. 1s.6d. Book 1. 18. 

— Enunciations of Euclid, 12mo... Rae Suaph ete useesceecn cn cemeetneees 6d. 


















Tate’s First Three Books of Euclid, 18mo. . ἐν : 9d. 
— Practical Geometry, with 261 Woodcuts, smo... ὅν ἈΠ ΜΙΒΣ 

-- Geometry, Mensuration, Trigonometry, &c. 12mo... ως 88. 60, 
Thomson’s Euclid, Books I. to VI. and XI. &XIT. 12mo weve 580 

- Plane and Spherical Trigonometry, 8vo. ...... sue 48, θα. 

- Differential and Integral Calculus, 12mo. . 58. 6d. 


Watson’s Plane and Solid Geometry, small 8vo............ 88. 6d. 
Williamson on Differential Calculus, crown 8vo. .. . +108. 6d. 
- on Integral Calculus, crown Svo,. «108. 6d, 
Willock’s Elementary Geometry of the Right Line, ‘crown ‘yO... sera 
Wright’s Elements of Plane Geometry, crown 8vo... coo EE 





Land Surveying, Drawing, and Practical Mathematics. 


Binns’s Orthographic Projection and Isometrical Drawing, 18mo............... 18 

Kimber’s Mathematical Course for the University of London, 8vo. ....... .195. 
Part I. for Matriculation, separately, ls. 6d. Bebe in 2 Parts, 5s. “each. 

Nesbit’s Practical Land Surveying, 8vo... Sel sevevevcetvesescecovc tee epee ΕΣ 


Pierce’s Solid or Descriptive Geometry, post 4to. 
Salmon’s Treatise on Conic Sections, 8vo._ ...... +128, 

Winter’s Mathematical Exercises, post 8vo... . 6s. 6d. 
Winter’s Elementary Geometrical Drawing, Part Ἢ: ‘post 8vo. 3a. ‘6d. “Part ἯΙ. 68. 6d. 


128, 6d, 








Wrigley’s Examples in Pure and Mixed Mathematics, 8yo. ...... ceased πον πον εἶτ ΠΡ 
Musical Works by John Hullah, LL.D. 

Chromatic Scale, with the Inflected Syllables, on Large Sheet ........ccccreeee 18 60. 
Card of Chromatic Scale, price 1d. 

Exercises for the Cultivation of the Voice. ForSopranoor Tenor ............ 28. 6d. 
Grammar of Musical Harmony, royal Svo. Two Parts.........-0.s0:e+ee+ee--€CH 1s, 6d, 
Exercises to Grammar of Musical Harmony ...............-. sass κόρ ροανος τ Βα 
Grammar of Counterpoint. Part I. super-royal ϑνο. πα ἐρτδο Sauencess εν ΜΗ, ΟἿΣ 
Hullah’s Manual of Singing. Parts I. & II. 2s. 6d. or together... ΕΝ 
Exercises and Figures contained in Parts I. & Il. Books I. & ΤΙ. .. “each 8d. 


Large Sheets, containing the Figures in Part I. Nos. 1 to8in a Parcel... 68. 
Large Sheets, containing the Exercises in Part I. Nos. 9 to 40, in Four 





Parcels of Hight Nos. each ............c0s000e vsereesroreseeeee DEY Parcel 68. 
Large Sheets, the Figures in Part ΤΙ. Nos. 41 to 52 i in @ Parcel | xciccccasiee ae 
Hymns for the Young, set to Music, royal 8V0. ......ἀενννννν ssesvacscectaenser te mOEeG 
Infant School Songs ......... Εὖ 6d. 
Notation, the Musical ‘Alphabet, crown "8y0... a 5 ποτ (π΄: 
Old English Songs for Schools, Harmonised  ..... ΠΝ 6d. 
Rudiments of Musical Grammar, royal 800. ....0.ceecseeeereree roel 
School Songs for 2 and 8 Voices. 2 Books, 8V0. .....:-::e+ τ} 6d. 


Time and Tune in the Elementary School, crown 8vo.. ssvernee 28s OOo 

Exercises and Figures in the same, crown 8yo. 18. or 2 2 Parts, ‘6d. “each. 

Helmore’s Catechism of Cease based Pid peruano on Dr. Hullah’s 
Method, crown 8vo.... Gansta ancsneeapnepons aeg a .. Just ready. 





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General Lists of School-Books 7 


RRR RR ene 








RADAR AAA 


Political and Historical eas 
Burbury’s Mary’s Geography, 18M0. 28. 6d. .-..00 γον τον ον νον γον γον core 








Sob ene la. 


Butler’s Ancient and Modern Geography, post 8vo. . 78. θᾶ. 
— Sketch of Modern Geography, post 8vo. ... .. 48. 
— Sketch of Ancient Geography, post 8vo... νον 49. 
Hiley’s Child’s First Geography, 18mo. ............ Pees © Ode 
— Blementary Geography for Beginners, 18mo. soles ocosomnensencs UR 


— Compendium of European Geography and History, 12mo Cocca of (teh 

— Asiatic, African, American and Australian Geography, 12mo. ......... 
Hughes’s Child’s First Book of Geography, 18mo. ......... ieabasleeveseees 
— Geography of the British Empire, for Beginners, 18mo. ἀχιτο σοῦ: 9 
-- General Geography, for Beginners, 18m0, ...... «εν νον νον να δου κου νου sos vonees 9d. 
Questions on Hughes’s General Geography, for Beginners, 18mo. ... 
Hughes’s Geography of British History, fcp. 8V0. w......eecsecseseeseee snes 
-- Manual of Geography, with Six Coloured Maps, fep. 8vo. ...... 
Or in Two Parts:—l. Europe, 3s. 6d. II. Asia, Africa, See eae &e. ewe 
Hughes’s Manual of British Geography, fep. 8vo. eae. 
Keith Johnston’s Gazetteer, or Geographical Dictionary, '8v0 .. 
Lupton’s Examination-Papers in Geography, crown 8vo. ... 
M‘Leod’s Geography of Palestine or the Holy Land, 12mo. .. 










Maunder’s Treasury of Geography, fep. SVO. ..........::ceeceeceeseeees οὐ το ἘΝ 6s. 
The Stepping-Stone to Geography, 18mo. ........ προσ κ συ ΟΡ Las 
Sullivan’s Geography Generalised, fep. 38. or with h Maps, 2s. 6d. 

- Introduction to Ancient and Modern Geography, 18mo. moran 5 

Physical Geography and Geology. 

Butler’s Text Book of Physical Geography ......... . In the press, — 
Hughes’s (E.) Outlines of Physical Geography, 12mo. "33. δά. “Questions, θά, 

- (W.) Physical Geography for Beginners, 18mo. ........... . Ls, 






Keith’s Treatise on the Use of the Globes, 12mo.......... "68. 6d. Key 23. 6d, 
Maury’s Physical Geography for Schools and General Readers, es 8vo. .... 28. 6d. 





Nicols’s Puzzle of Life (Elementary Geology), crown 8vo... ἀπο ei bee Ga: 
Proctor’s Elementary Physical Geography, fep. Bree πεν . 1s. 6d. 
Woodward’s Geology of England and Wales, CrOWD 800. ....ssce:sseseseresseeeeeee 149. 


School Atlases and Maps. 


Butler’s Atlas of Modern Geography, royal 8V0. ............ rOSRCCLOOCRCOOFpEON hs 
— Junior Modern Atlas, comprising 12 Maps, royal ‘8y0. 
— Atlas of Ancient Geography, royal 8vo. 
— Junior Ancient Atlas, comprising 12 Maps, royal 8yo. 
— General Atlas, Modern & Ancient, royal 4to. .......... 

Public Schools Atlas of Ancient Geography, 25 entirely New Coloured Maps, 
imperial 8vo. or imperial 4to. 78. 6d. cloth. 

Public Schools Atlas of Modern Geography, 31 entirely New Coloured Maps, 
imperial 8vo. or imperial 4to. 5s, cloth. 





Natural History and Botany. 


Lindley and Moore’s Treasury of Botany, Two Parts, fep. 8V0..........c00002.00+-0128, 
Maunder’s Treasury of Natural History, revised by Holdsworth, fep. 8vo. 63, 
Owen’s Natural History for Beginners, 18mo. Two Parts 9d. each, or 1 vol. 99. 
The Stepping-Stone to Natural History, 18mo. ....... ων 28,60, 
Orin Two Parts.—l. Mammalia, 1s. ΤΙ, Birds, Reptiles, and Fishes 1a, 





London, LONGMANS ἃ CO, 


LL 





8 General Lists of School-Books 


RPL LP LIL LLL LDP AR ADA AA NAAR RRR RRR REE RE tk rs 





ΔΝ ΔΩ 


Wood's BiblevAmimalsiSyosic.ats.:cecsssavksncessconeaccthesdaas stoveteostchaotits τεσ τον τι τον ΕΔΗ 
Homes without ee. 8y0. ze 
Insects at Home, 8vo .. 
Insects Abroad, 8Vo. ....... 
Out of Doors, crown 8Vo........... Restate Ἢ 
Strange Dwellings, CrOWN 8V0.......:..sscscccstessesssscsssesscsectcossvsccevescesess 18. Ole 







Chemistry and Telegraphy. 


Armstrong’s Organic Chemistry, small 8vo. ........... sca casessuscscensteen ΖΘ ΟΥΣ 
Crookes’s Select Methods in Chemical ais crown ὅσοι. Ὀὐ ΟΣ 000025 ..128. 6d. 
Οα] θυ ΕἸ Practical Telegraphy,|8¥0;......:.dsssseccssesucsceoucsssascsecoencseucncaneravaceereecl OSs 
Miller’s Elements of Chemistry, 8 vols. 80. 

Part 1I.—Chemical Physics, Sixth Edition, 16s. 

Part II.—Inorganic Chemistry, Fifth Edition, 21s. 

Part III.—Organic Chemistry, Sixth Edition in the press, 





-- Introduction to Inorganic Chemistry, small 8vo. ............ . 88. θᾶ. 
Odling’s Course of Practical Chemistry, for Medical meee crown ‘80... 63. 
Preece and Sivewright’s Telegraphy, crown 8vo.... NEE aT Ων serene 08, 6G, 







Tate’s Outlines of Experimental Chemistry, 18mo... 
Thorpe’s Quantitative Chemical Analysis, small ΠῚ ‘ . 48, θᾶ. 
Thorpe and Muir’s Qualitative Chemical Analysis, small 8vo.. .. 88, 6d. 
Tilden’s Theoretical and Systematic Chemistry, small 8V0. ............cesessseevee 382 δα. 


seseceee 9d. 


Natural Philosophy and Natural Science 


Bloxam’s Metals, their Properties and Treatment, small 8VO. ..........c..s0000002 88. θα, 
Day’s Numerical Examples in Heat, crown 500. ........ - 18. 6d. 
— HElectrical & Magnetic Measurement, 16mo.... .... 28. 6d, 
Downing’s Practical Hydraulics, Part I. 8vo... σὰ ἔπ ΠΡ ΤΡ} Ὁ 
Ganot’s Physics, translated by Prof. E. ‘Atkinson, large | crown By0. erect 

















— Natural Philosophy, translated by the same, CrOWD 8VO, ......cc00+0 78. θα. 
Helmholtz’ Popular Lectures on Scientific pont 8vo. ΒΛ Sashes eee 6d. 
Irving’s Short Manual of Heat, small 8vo.. ρον ΠΡ 
Jenkin’s Electricity & Magnetism, small 8y0.. Sennccersetaanasscecs tre on 
Marcet’s Conversations on Natural ἘΆΠΟΕΟΒΗΝ, ὯΙ 8v0. setacaabaeed ‘18. θᾶ. 
Maxwell’s Theory οὗ Heat, small 8V0. ......ἀὙοννον κοονννννννον UiocsetedveatUtelUtte 
Minchin’s Treatise on Statics, crown Syo. seereee ees ον 0 8. 6A. 





Tate’s Light & Heat, for the use of Beginners, 18m 9d. 
— MHydrostatics, Hydraulics & Pneumatics, 18mo. .... 9d. 
— Electricity,explained for the use of Beginners, 18mo Mahe 9d. 


— Magnetism, Voltaic Electricity & Electro-Dynamics, 18mo. ............ 9d. 
Tyndall’s Lesson in Electricity, with 58 Woodcuts, crown 8VO. ......secccerees 28. 60. 
-- Notes of Lectures on Electricity, 1s. sewed, ls. 6d. cloth. 
- Notes of Lectures on Light, 1s. sewed, 1s. 6d. cloth. 
Weinhold’s Introduction to Experimental Physics, 8V0. .......::cscseesscseeseeeeereOL8e θα, 


Text-Books of Science, Mechanical and Physical. 


Abney’s Treatise on Photography, small 8vo. seen 38. θα 

Anderson’s Strength of Materials ................ "ὍΣ A « 88. θᾶ... 
Armstrong’s Organic Chemistry .. eeaee) 9.85 6» 
Barry’s Railway Appliances............ ...... 88, 6G, 
Bloxam’s Metals . 38. 6d. 








Goodeve’s Elements of Mechanism . Bircnssece . 88, 6d, 
-- Principles οὗ Mechanics -........ὁ,κπὶίοονονο κου σον νον Pears «. 38. 6d. 

Gore’s Art of Electro-Metallurgy ............ Ceosectede 

Griffin’s Algebra and Trigonometry .........:..cescescecsseenseescesceeceeseeeescons evecccctrne 98. Ole 


London, LONGMANS & CO. 

















General Lists of School-Books 9 


eee 





Jenkin’s Electricity and Magnetism .... Baseeewecectntsseavananensscsteessucversanane 8a. 6d. 
Maxwell’s Theory of Heat... ;: 
Merrifield’s Technical Arithmetic ‘and ‘Mensuration .. 
Miller’s Inorganic Chemistry .. ΕΝ oe 
Preece & Sivewright’s Telegraphy ae aneeseee Nitesstenceccessearsaase ων. 88. θα, 
Shelley’s Workshop Appliances ......... ἘΠ 
Thomé’s Structural and Physiological Botany 






Thorpe’s Quantitative Chemical Analysis ............ : 48. 6d. 
Thorpe & Muir’s Qualitative Analysis ......... OCLC REECE ELD 8. έζε 
Wildenis Chemical’ PHITOSOpHY. 26. ...ce-ccccecsacess careveosscossvececeescasdensacesesescrareseoe 25, δ 
Unwin’s Elements of Machine Design .. w+. 38. 6d. 





Watson’s Plane and Solid Geometry . ἣν Ἐπ τοί ΤΟΣ Ὁ 
*,* Other Text- Books it in 1 active preparation, 


The London Science Class-Books, ee Series, 







Algebra, by G. Henrici, Ph.D. F.R.S, Fep. 8vo.... sess eeretcerseeee, Vearly ready. 
Astronomy, by R.S. Ball, LL.D. F.RB.S. δε τας ἐροτν ταν τον δς 18. θα. 
Botany, Morphology and Physiology, by W. ‘R. McNab, ἍΜ. D. 1s. 6d. 

— the Classification of Plants, by W. R. McNab, M.D. ........ Nearly ready. 
General Biology, by J. G. McKendrick, M.D. 4 = a ἜΡΟΝ ready. 
Thermodynamics, by R. Wormell, M.A. D. Se. .. ae . ls. 6d. 
Zoology of Vertebrate Animals, by A. McAlister, M. D. a 1s. 6d, 


Zoology of Invertebrate Animals, by A. McAlister, M.D. ............... Nearly ready. 
*.* Other Class- Books in active preparation. 


Mechanics and Mechanism. ; 
Barry’s Railway Appliances, small SvO. WOOdCULS.........cs:sesssseessessecsesssssssess 38. Oe 








Goodeve’s Elements of Mechanism, small §vo. ........ we 38, θα. 
- Principles of Mechanics, small 8vo. .. .... 88, 60, 
Haughton’s Animal Mechanics, 8vo.. ae eel es 
Magnus’s Lessons in Elementary Mechanics, “small ‘8y0. .. 38. θα. 
Shelley’s Workshop Appliances, small 8vo. Woodcuts .. . 83. 6d. 


Tate’s Exercises on Mechanics and Natural Philosophy, 12mo. ise 38, 5. Key 88. 6d. 
— Mechanics and the Steam-Engine, for Beginners, 18mo.... waives 9d. 
— Elements of Mechanism, with many Diagrams, 12mo. ..... .... 38. θα. 
ἘΡΆΞΞΘΣΙ s Introduction to Practical Mechanics, crown 8V0......... «+108. θα, 
First Lessons in Theoretical sie crown 8v0. we. 88. 60, 

Willis’ 8 Principles of Mechanism, 8vo. .... Prassduantacntucaseasversertersecerstrares 155. 





Engineering, Architecture, &c. 


Anderson on the Strength of Materials and oe small 8v0. ............ 38 θα, 
Bourne’s Treatise on the Steam-Engine, 4to... ra Ἐπ ΝΒ 

-- Catechism of the Steam-Engine, fep. δγο.. ΕΣ ecole 

- Recent Improvements in the Steam- Engine, fep. 8y0.. we 68, 

- Handbook of the Steam-Engine, fep. 8vo. τὸ ccneccono ΠΕΡ 
Downing’s Elements of Practical Construction, Part πῇ 8γο, Plates .. +148, 
Fairbairn’s Useful Information for Engineers. 8 vols. crown 8vo........ .. 819. 6d. 
Gwilt’s Encyclopedia of Architecture, 8νο........μεννννννννον «+528, θα. 
Main and Brown’s Marine Steam-Hngine, 8vo............ CCCoEECD ....128, θα. 

- - Indicator & Dynamometer, 870. .............. .. 48. 6d, 
- - Questions on the Steam-Engine, 8yo. ..... . 58. 6d. 
Mitchell’s Stepping-Stone to Architecture, 18mo. Woodcuts...... aren Up 
Moseley’s Mechanical Principles of Engineering and Architecture, 8y0... ae “Oe. 










ses εκ κε κε κ κε κεν 








London, LONGMANS & CO. 





B 


ee SS ee 











10 fone! Lists a SAUDE T ; 


PR ee Pe 





Popular ΠΤ and eae 







Brinkley’s Astronomy, by Stubbs & Briinnow, crown 8yo.... πο το τος Ute 
Eyers’s Navigation & Great Circle Sailing, 18mo. ......... rosa Ls 
Herschel’s Outlines of Astronomy, Twelfth Edition, square crown ‘8y0. pases Bah 
Jeans’s Handbook for the Stars, royal 8vo.... om oe ceesecsee Sai GUL, 

-- TEAR and Nautical Astronomy, Parr ἔπ "Practical, ‘Jamo. sorted 88. 

- Part II, Theoretical, royal Bis 73, 6d. 
Laughton’s Nautical Surveying, small 8vo.. a ἘΠ το, 5. 
Merrifield’s Magnetism & Deviation of the Compass, 18mo. doseavied Bee Gi} 
Proctor’s Lessons in Elementary Astronomy, fep. 8yo. ..... νον. 18. 6d. 

-- library ΞΌΒΙΣ ΔΙΌ ΒΗ ΟΠΟΙ ΤΕ Be 


- New Star Atlas for Schools, crown 8yo. .. 
- Handbook for the Stars, square fep. 8vo... 





The Stepping-Stone to Astronomy, 18mo, ........ - 19. 
Tate’s Astronomy and the use of the Globes, for ‘Beginners, 18mo αὐ 9d. 
Webb’s Celestial Objects for Common Telescopes, 16M0. ..........c:sceseecesseeees 78. θᾶ. 
Animal Physiology and Preservation of Hi salt. 
Bray’s Education of the Feelings, crown 8vo... . 28. 6d. 
— Physiology and the Lawsof Health, lith Thousand, te. νοι. Proce AGTH 
— Diagrams for Class Teaching................. τέκεν ...per pair 6s. 6d. 
Buckton’s Healthin the House, small 8v0. poo spe ΤΡ 
Hartley’s Air and its Relations to Life, small 8vo. ......... spostaaceOse 
House I Live In; Structure and Functions of the Human. Body, i8mo. ἀνε 28. 6G, 
Mapother’s Animal Physiology, 18mo. ........... stvavetecs epecooc enna 
General Teale 
The Stepping-Stone to Knowledge, 18mo. ..... ποτ LH 
Second Series of the Stepping-Stone to General Knowledge, 18mo. . shoeuonaupes 18. 
Sterne’s Questions on Generalities, Two Series, each 38, Keys............each 48, 


Chronology and Historical δι ιν 


Cates and Woodward’s Chronological and Historical enor E 8vo. ...428. 





Crook’s Events of England in Rhyme, square 16mo, idcacuenvecsnctsesceeseerentale 
Slater’s Sententie Chronologice, the Original Work, 12mo. aathiuseers . 18. θα. 
= -- - improved by Miss Sewell, 12mo................ 38. 6d. 
Mythology and Antiquities. 
Becker’s Gallus, Roman Scenes of the Time of Augustus, post 8vo. ......... 79. 6d. 
- Charicles, illustrating the Private Life of the Ancient Greeks ... 78. 6d. 
Cox’s Manual of Mythology, in Question and Answer, ὌΝ 8v0... ΤΟ τστ τ ἘΤῈ 
-- Mythology of the Aryan Nations, 2 VoIS. 8γ0. ........ννννννννννον So omoaat 
— Tales of Ancient Greece, crown 8VO. ......... .. 68. 
Ewald’s Antiquities of Israel, translated by Solly, 8v0. Ἐπ "198. θὰ. 





Goldziher’s Mythology among the Hebrews, translated by Martineau, 8y0. ‘168. 
Hort’s New Pantheon, 18mo. with 17 Plates... ἘΠῚ δετονρεῖνις 2B nO, 
Rich’s Illustrated Dictionary of Roman and Greek ‘Antiquities, “post 8γο.... 79. θᾶ. 


Biography. 


Cates’s Dictionary of General Biography, 8Vo. ........ 258. 








Macaulay’s Clive, annotated by H. C. Bowen, M.A. ‘fep. Ἔνο.. 2s. θα. 
Maunder’s Biographical Treasury, re-written Pe W.L. R. Cates, ‘fen. vO. 68. 
The Stepping-Stone to Biography, 18mo.............. πον τ. ΠῚ 
Epochs of Modern History Yi 
Church’s Beginning of the Middle Ages, fcp. 8vo. eae ΠΡ τ 07 
Cordery’s French Revolution to the Battle of Waterloo .. "Nearly ready. 


London, LONGMANS ἃ CO. 











General Lists of School-Books 11 


EET .- .-- - .-- ---- ee, 








Cox’s Crusades, fep. 8vo. Maps ............. a ἢ: ἀπ 28, GG, 
Creighton’s Age of Elizabeth, fep. ϑνο, Maps... Mneucanivanivarsesrectrrentcacecs 28. 6d 
Gairdner’s Houses of Lancaster & York, fep. 80. “Maps. 2s. 6d 
Gardiner’s Thirty Years’ War, 1618-1648, fep. 8vo. Maps ....... acne 5 ΠΟΥ 


- First Two Stuarts and the Puritan Revolution, fep, 8vo. pone 2e. θὰ. 
Hale’s Fall of the Stuarts, fep. 8vo. Maps ............ ~ 28. 6d. 
Johnson’s Normans in Hurope, fep. 8v0. Maps.........ccseccccscesccesessercesces con σον νον 2s. 6d. 

- Lawrence’s Early Hanoverians.. ... In the press. 

- Longman’s Frederick the Great and the 7 Years’ War . ...In the press. 
Ludlow’s War of American Independence, fep. 8vo. eRe ne peeceeecoreocen 2s. 6d. 
Morris’s Age of Anne, fcp. 8vo. Maps ........ 4 .. 28. 6d. 
Seebohm’s Protestant Revolution, fep. Svo. “Maps... . 28. 6d. 
Stubbs’s Early Plantagents, fep. 8vo. Maps .............c0008 pacccercconeceres eG 

-- Empire under the House of Hohenstaufer dep preparation. 
Warburton’s Edward the 'Third, fcp.8v0. Maps .......c.ccccossercoursyssssescesrosrosees 28 OG, 


nee ee ree eee ree ren renter res rosrons 










Epochs of English History. 


Browning’s Modern England, from 1820 to 1876. .......ccccececceeeeeres ceveeeees In the press. 
Cordery’s Struggle against Absolute Monarchy, 1603-1688, fep. Maps.......... 9d. 
Creighton’s England a Continental Power, 1066-1216, fep. Maps. 9a. 

-- Tudors and the Reformation, 1485-1603, fep. Svo. Maps. 9d. 





Powell’s Early England up to the Norman Conauest, fep. 8vo. Maps. ......... 18. 

Rowley’s Rise of the People and Growth of Parliament, 1215-1485, fep. Maps. 9d. 
- Settlement of the Constitution, 1688-1778, fep. Maps .....Ψ.«ννενενννννννον 9d. 

Tancock’s England during the Revolutionary Wars, 1778-1820. 


British History. 


Armitage’s Childhood of the English Nation, sD SV On ceseossanctoceberssarateeseee! 28. [075 
Bartle’s Synopsis of English History, fep. 8vo .. secesei Os 6.2» 
Cantlay’s English History Analysed, fep.8vo. ... ΡΣ EEL 

Catechism of English History, edited by Miss Sewell, 18mo, . 1g. 6d. 




















Gleig’s School History of England, abridged, 12mo. .......... co Oe 
— First Book of History—England, 18mo. 2s. or 2 Parts . 9d, 
— British Colonies, or Second Book of History. 18mo... ples 
— British India, or Third Book of History, 18mo... 9d. 
— Historical Questions on the above Three Histories, 18mo... 2 9d, 
Littlewood’s Essentials of English History, fep. 8vo. . ae . 38 
Lupton’s Examination-Papers in History, crown 8v0.... αὐ ΟΡ 
- English History, revised, crown 8v0............ . 78, 6d, 
Morris’s Class-Book History of England, fep. 8vo. 88. θᾶ. 
The Stepping-Stone to English History, 1Smo... le. 
The Stepping-Stone to Irish History, 18mo. . ae le. 
Turner’s Analysis of English and French History, fen. '8v0. ΠΡ ΡΒ. ΠΣ 
Epochs of Ancient History. 
Beesly’s Gracchi, Marius and Sulla, fep. 8v0. Maps .....cccceesesesssseceecssesssseee 28, θα, 
Capes’s Age of the Antonines, fep. 8vo. Maps........ sven 28, θᾶ. 
— Early Roman Empire, fep. 8vo. ΤΕΡΡΣΣ 28. Gd. 
Cox’s Athenian Empire, fep. 8vo. Maps... woe 9238: Ge 
— Greeks & Persians, fep. 8vo. Maps ......... 28. 6d. 
Curteis’s Rise of the Macedonian Empire, fep. “Sv0. AMaps.. 28. θᾶ. 
Thne’s Rome to its Capture by the Gauls, fep. 8vo.Maps... Ὡς 38, 6d... 
Merivale’s Roman Triumvirates, fep.8vo. Maps ........νγκονεννεονν ..-. 28. θᾶ. 
Sankey’s Spartan and Theban Supremacies, fep. '8vo. pats 28. 6d. 
Smith’s Rome and Carthage, the Punic Wars  ....c....ccsceeseeseroeevee dn the press, 


London, LONGMANS ἃ CO. 











12 General Lists of School-Books 


Paes mms ks: msSmes=—_=EEeeeell 





eee 


History, Ancient and Modern. 


Browne’s History of Greece, for Beginners, 18M0.............sseceeseeeee 
= History of Rome, for Beginners, i8mo. .. 
Cox’s History of Greece, Vous. I. & II. 8vo. Bee 
— General History of Greece, crown 8vo. Maps 
— School History of Greece, fep. 8vo. oe ees 
Gleig’s History of France, 18mo... oe 
Thne’s Roman History, Vots. 1. to Ti. 8v0.. ΣΤΥ ἘΝ ΣῈ 
Mangnall’s Historical and Miscellaneous Questions, 12mo.. 
Maunder’s Historical Treasury, with Index, fep. 8vo... ine 
Merivale’s History of the Romans under the Empire, 8 vols. ost 8y0.. eeteeces SOBs 












- Fall οὗ the Roman Republic, 12mo. . 5. 6d. 
- General History of Rome, crown 8γο. “Ma ps... 78. 6d. 
Puller’s School History of Rome, abridged from Merivale, “fep. Maps ἐξ 83. 6d. 


Rawlinson’s Sixth Oriental Monarchy (the Parthians), ὅνο. Maps &c. 168. 
- Seventh Oriental Monarchy (the Sassanians) 8vo. Maps &c. ...288. 













Sewell’s Ancient History of Egypt, Assyria, and cae: fon. 8V0. ....01. 63 
= Catechism of Grecian History, 18mo.. ἘΣ Soonocncancros Haz 
— Child’s First History of Rome, fep. 8vo... Poco SG 
— First History of Greece, fep. 8vo. .......... ἘΝ ΣΝ ΣΤῊ oe ΘΟ 
— Popular History of France, crown ὅγο. Maps ... on seacsocesssepes 78. Olle 


The Stepping-Stone to Grecian History, 18M0. .....Ψ.,ννννννννννν κεν νεννν no Uh 
The Stepping-Stone to Roman History, 18mo. . Picks 
Taylor’s Student’s Manual of Ancient History; crown 8γο,. .. 78. 6d, 
— Student’s Manual of Modern History, crown 8vo..... 78. 6d, 
— Student’s Manual of the History of India, crown 8vo... 78. 6a. 
Turner’s Analysis of the History of Greece, fep. 8vo... Be 98. θᾶ. 
- Analysis of Roman History, fep. SYOS eek en ΜΉΜΑ͂Ν 28. 6d. 


Scripture History, Moral and Religious Works. 
Ayre’s Treasury of Bible Knowledge, fep. 8vo. ........ dcvadtactateelOBe 











Boultbee’s Commentary on the Thirty-Nine Articles, crown '8yo. . ΘΒ. 
Browne’s Exposition of the Thirty-Nine Articles, 8vo.... chooocbaad . 163, 
Examination Questions on the above, fep. 8vo... . Se. 6d. 


Conybeare and Howson’s Life and Epistles of St. Paul, Ἢ vol. crown 8v0. .. so ΘΓ 
Gleig’s Sacred History, or Fourth Book of History, 18mo. 2s. or2 Parts, each 9d. 
Kalisch’s Commentary on the Old Testament; with a New Translation. 
Vol. I. Genesis, 8vo. 18s. or adapted for the General Reader, 12s. Vol. 11, 
Exodus, 15s. or adapted for the General Reader, 123. Vol. ΤΙ, 
Leviticus, Part I. 15s. or adapted for the General Reader, 8s. Vol. IV. 
Leviticus, Part II. 15s. or adapted for the General Header, ὃ 88. 






Norris’s Catechist’s Manual, 18mo. ΕΠ ΞΕ 
Potts’s Paley’s Evidences and Hore Pauling, | BVO... A 108, θα. 
Pulliblank’s Teacher’s Handbook of the Bible, crown ὅγο. Stance . 88. θα. 
Riddle’s Manual of Scripture History, ἴορ. 8vo.. δ στο Ὁ .. 48, 

- Outlines of Scripture History, fep. 8γο.. 28. 6d. 
Rogers’s School and Children’s Bible, crown 8vo. Qe. 





Rothschild’s History and Literature of the ABV. τοις 2 vols. “crown 8y0... a ‘128, θα. 
- τε εΐτ mon 8v0... 89. 6d. 


Sewell’s Preparation for the Holy Communion, 32M0... ...........cses esses . 88, 





The Stepping-Stone to Bible Knowledge, 18mo.. males 
Whately’s Introductory Lessons on Christian Evidences, ‘18mo. sesete 6d. 
Young’s New Concordance to the Bible, imperial 8V0.............s:+20 the press. 
Mental and Moral Philosophy, and Civil Law. 
Amos’s Science of Jurisprudence, 8Vo. ........ sacevocessunessst sows 
— Primer of English Constitution and Government, ‘crown 8y0. ἘΠ ΘῈΣ 


London, LONGMANS & CO. 








$$$ $$$ 





General Lists of School-Books 18 


rn 








RII ee ene 















Bacon’s Advancement of Learning, analysed by Fleming, crown 8vo. ...... 88. θα. 
— Essays, with Annotations by Archbishop Whately, 8v0. ...............103. 6d. 
ΞΞ — annotated by BEEBE | CLOWDUSV Oe icccccctercccsavsere . 88. θα. 
= — annotated by Abbott, 2 vols. fep. 8vo...... co ΣῈ 
= — with References and Notes by Markby, fer. 80. . 1s. 6d. 
Bain’s Rhetoric and English Composition, crown 8yvo. τ Ὁ ΚΕ 
— Mental and Moral Science, crown 8vo... 109. θα 


Hume’s Treatise on Human Nature, by Green and Grose, 2 vols. 8y0. 
—  KEssays, by the same Editors, 2 vols. 8yo. ......... con 
Lewes’s History of Philosophy from Thales to Comte, 2 vols. ΕΝ 0 
Lewis’s Influence of Authority in Matters of Opinion, 8vo.... seeees 
Mill’s System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive, 2 vols. By0... POOLE 
Killick’s Student’s Handbook of Mill’s System of Logic, crown 8vo... 
Morell’s Handbook of Logic, for Schools and Teachers, fcp. 8vo. .... 
— Introduction to Mental ἄπ Ὁ Οὐ τὰ 8γο. 


Sandars’s Institutes of Justinian, 8vo... ἤν πὲ Or: 188, 
Swinbourne’s Picture Logic, crown BVO. κομῶν ρα ssieceu Ode 
Thomson’s Outline of the Necessary Laws of Thought, post δὲ ‘Byo. cs wees 685 


Ueberweg’s Logic, translated by Lindsay, 8vo. ............. ἜΣ ΤΡ Ὁ 168. 
Whately’s Elements of Logic, 8vo. 10s. θα. crown 8yvo. 0 . 


oS Elements of Rhetoric, 8vo. 10s. 6d, crown 8vo...... wee 48, θα. 

= Lessons on Reasoning, fcp. 800. .......εννόνννν ἘΠ ΠΡ Ν 18. Ole 
Principles of Tosching, Se 

Gill’s Systems of Education, fep. 8v0. .......... απ τε τεν ty 2a OUs 


— Ari of Religious Instruction, fep. 8vo. In the press. 
— Artof Teaching to Observe and Think, “fep. νοι. : . 28. 
Johnston’s (Miss) Ladies’ College and School Examiner, fe, ‘Ye. 6d. Key 28. 6d. 








Johunsion’s (R.) Army and Civil Service Guide, crown 8γο.... ἐδ eh 0 
Ξ Civil Service Guide, Crown 8νο.........οννννννννῖνον νὸν 38 6d, 
τ Guide to Candidates for the Excise, 18mo...... . 1s. θα. 



















= Guide to Candidates for the Customs, 18mo. ...... mo kG 
Lake’s Book of Oral Object Lessons on Common Things, 18mo. .. 1s. 6d, 
Potits’s Liber Cantabrigiensis, fep. 8vo... pmoncenn LL Get 
— Account of Cambridge Scholarships ‘and “Exhibitions, fep. "8y0... .. 18. 6d. 
— Maxims, Aphorisms, &c. for Learners, crown 8500, .........6.66 18, 6d. 
Robinson’s Manual of Method and Organisation, fep. 8vo... . 88, θα. 
Sewell’s Principles of Education, 2 vols, fp. 8γ0........Ψ.Ὁνρννννννονν .128. 6d. 

Sullivan’s Papers on Education and School-Keeping, 12M0, ...,..scsecseeesseere ὥϑο 

The Greek Language. 

Bloomfield’s College and School Greek Testament, £CD. SVO. viccsescessseresesesoee DS 

Bolland & Lang’s Politics of Aristotle, post 8vo.. Ἐς ΤΣ eres .. 18. θᾶ. 


Builinger’s Lexicon and Concordance to Greek Testament, medium 1 870... .909. 





Ὁ 01115᾽5 Chief Tenses of the Greek Irregular Babee 8 8γο... τ ΠΣ 
-- Pontes Classici, No. 11. Greek, i2mo... eS. .. 89. 6d. 
— Praxis Greca, Etymology, 12mo. ......... .. 28, θα. 
— Greek Verse-Book, Praxis Iambica, 12mo.... ... 43,60, 
Congreve’s Politics of Aristotle, translated, 8vo. ... 183, 


Farrar’s Brief Greek Syntax and Accidence, 12mo. ......... ἐν 45, 6d. 
— @Greek Grammar Rules for Harrow School, 12mo. .. 18. 6d, 






Fowle’s Short and Easy Greek Book, 12mo..., ... 28. 6d. 
- Eton Greek Reading-Book, 12mo.......... ...ὄ 18. 6d. 
- First Easy Greek Reading-Book, 12mo. ee rer BO 
— Second Hasy Greek Reading Book, 12mo. ... ἘΣ 8. 

Grant’s Ethics of Aristotle, with Essays and Notes, 2 vols, δγο, ααχκο τ 829, 

Green’s Birds and Peace of Aristophanes, crown 8070. .......... ..each 89, 6d. 


Hewitt’s Greek Examination-Papers, 12M0. .........s.csssesssssesssssesssesssesssnesereee 18, 60, 


London, LONGMANS & CO. 








14 General Lists of School-Books 


RN es 















Isbister’s Kenophon’s Anabasis, Books I. to III. with Motes T2MOsWicesccses 88. 6d. 
Kennedy’s Greek Grammar, 12mo. ἘΣ Vassevrpronse) SO nO 
Liddell and Scott’s Larger Greek- Lexicon, crown Ato... ies 112308. 

—- -— —  Greek-English Lexicon abridged, square 12mo... =o 25.686. 
Linwood's Sophocles, Greek Text, Latin Notes, 4th Edition, 8vo................168. 

- Theban Triology of Sophocles literally oxpipinels crown 'Byo. . . 7s. 6d. 
Mahoaffy’s History of Greek Classical Literature... In the press. 
Morris’s Greek Lessons, square 18M0. .........cseseeeee eee “Part τι 28. 6d. “Part ἘΠ. 
Parry’s Elementary Greek Grammar, 12mo. ......... Ἔσο τος τ . 88, 6d. 
Sheppard and Evans’s Notes on Thucydides, crown ‘BVO... cece 25: 0. 
Thucydides’ Peloponnesian War, translated by Crawley, 8vo. . sores LOSBAs 


Valpy’s Greek Delectus, improved by the Rev. Dr. White, 12mo. ΓΝ ‘6d. Key 28. θᾶ. 
White’s Four Gospels in Greek, with English Lexicon, square 32mo....... .. 
—  Xenophon’s Expedition of Cyrus, with English Notes, 12mo.......... 
Wilkins’s Manual of Greek Prose Composition, crown 8vo....... 78, θᾶ. 
= Exercises in Greek Prose Composition, crown 8vo. ...48. 6d. 





- Progressive Greek Delectus, 12M0, ........νννννννννν μεν νννννννννν 48, ΚΟΥ 28. 6d. 
- Progressive Greek Anthology, 12Mm0, ............sssssssecsscceccesceecsesecenens 5s. 
= Scriptores Attici, Excerpts with English Notes, crown 8vo. ...... 78. 6a. 






= Speeches from Thucydides translated, post 8vo. . 
Williams’s Nicomachean Ethics of Aristotle translated, crown. ‘8V0....... 
Wright's Plato’s Phedrus, Lysis and Protagoras, translated, totem 8vo... 
Yonge’s Larger English-Greek Lexicon, 4to. . : Ξ 

-- English-Greek Lexicon abridged, square 12m... 


meee ses eee eerecseersenaneneeees 





Zeller’s Plato and the Older Academy, by Alleyne ἃ Goodwin, cr. 8vo. ...... 18s, 
— Socrates, translated by Reichel, crown 8V0, .........seseseccesescereeeveecee 10s. 6d. 
White’s Grammar-School Greek Texts. 
sop (Fables) and Palephatus St. Matthew’s Gospel ...... Price 2s. 6d. 
(Myths), 32mo................ Price 1g, St. Mark’s Gospel δε 
Homer,, Iliad, Book I. .........-00-+. 18 St. Luke’s Gospel 
Lucian, Select Dialogues ......... 1s. St. John’s Gospel ...... 
Xenophon, Anabasis, Book 1.... 19. 6d. St. Paul’s Unies ‘to ‘the ‘Ro- 
-- - Book II. le. MAN Sieeeeseees is . 1s. 6d. 


The Four Gospels in Greek, with Greek-English Lexicon ‘Editea by Sohn ee 
White, D.D. Oxon. Square 32mo. price 5s. 


White’s Grammar-School Latin Texts. 








Oesar, GallicWar, BookI. Price 1s. Nepos, Miltiades, Cimon, Panu- 
Ceasar, Gallic War, Book I1....... 1é. sanias, Aristides ............Price 9d. 
Cesar, Gallic War, Book III.... θᾶ. Ovid, Selections from Epistles 
Ceesar, Gallic War, Book IV. ... 9d. and Fasti ....... 1s, 
Cesar, Gallic War, Book V....... le. Ovid, Select Myths | from Meta- 
Ceesar, Gallic War, Book VI. ... 18. morphoses ........... 9d. 
Cicero, Cato Major ......... . 18. 6d. Pheedrus, Select Easy Fables . 9a. 
@iceroMlislivisyeesss re . 1s. 6d. Phedrus, Fables, Book I. & II. 14. 
Eutropius, Roman History. Sallust, Bellum Catilinarium ... 18, 6d. 
Books I, and II. . Wetter δὲ Virgil, Georgics, Book IV. ...... 14. 
Eutropius, Roman | “History, Virgil, Aineid, Book I. .... . le, 
ΒΟΟΣ UN Verne basennocn τος Virgil, Auneid, Book II. ... « la 
Horace, Odes, Book I..... Virgil, 7Eneid, Book III. .. la 
Horace, Odes, Book II. .... Virgil, neid. Book IV. sens 
Horace, Odes, Book III. Virgil, Aineid, Book V.. os 
Horace, Odes, Book IV. Virgil, Aneid, BookVI.. ae ΓΝ 


Livy, Books XXII. and XXIII. The Latin Text with English “Ricplaiineory, 
and Grammatical Notes and a Vocabulary of Proper Names. Edited by 
John T. White, D.D. Oxon. 12mo. price 2s, 6d. each Book. 


London, LONGMANS & CO. 








General Lists of School-Books 15 


PRR EE Se  ς τς ς τς οἔοςςςςἘἐέΚάΑαυυυο 





The Latin Language, 


Bradley’s Latin Prose Exercises, 12mo. 
- Continuous Lessons in Latin Pr , 12mo. ... τ pe ey 58. 62 
- Cornelius Nepos, improyed by White, 12mo. . 88. θα 
- Ovid’s Metamorphoses, improved by White, 12mo. 070" 43, 6d. 
- pele Fables of Phzedrus, improved by MEE LINO See α 28. 6d 
tropius, improved by White, 12mo. ............... a 
Collis’ 8 omer Tenses of Latin [Irregular Ver 
ΠΕ περι ete eM Vine στρ ΤΠ Ύπν Ἢ ἔπ 
onington’s Aneid of Virgil, translate into Englis Verse, ¢ crown 8yo. ... Ἂ 
Fowle’s Short and Easy Latin Book, 12mo.. nel δα Uh 
— First Hasy Latin Reading-Book, 12mo...... 
— Second Easy Latin Reading- -Book, 12mo, 
Hewitt’s Latin Examination-Papers, 12mo... 
isbister’s Ceesar, Books I. —VILI. 12mo. 4s. or with Reading Lessons" 
= Ceesar’s Commentaries, Books I.—V. 1 
- First Book οἵ Cesar’s Gallic War, 12 ΠΟΥ͂Ν Jeess 
Jerram’s Latine Reddenda, Crown 8V0. ......cs0cesceeceeceeceeseeseceeees 
Kennedy’s Child’s Latin Primer, or First Latin Lessons, 12mo, 
- Child’s Latin Accidenee, 12m0. ........ ὁ. νον ννονσν σον ον σου οὐδ 
-- Elementary Latin Grammar, 12m: 
- Elementary Latin Beading=Hooks ia irocinium Latinum, 12 





...88, θᾶ, Key 58, 












erbs, ὅγο. 





= Latin Prose, Paleestra Stili Latini, 12m: 63. 
= Subsidia Primaria, Exercise Books ‘6 ake Public School Latin 
Primer, I. Accidence and Simple Construction, 2s. 6d. II. BynUAS, ἔροσρο 88, θᾶ 


-- eee pace ‘Sali ‘Gattni, 12mo. 48. ΕΣ Key, 7s. 6 


- Palestra Latina, or Second Latin Hendin Ἢ δες Ml2mowe ἢ ὅδ. 
Gees 3 Ceesar’s Commentaries, Book I. 18mo.1s. Books i. (AND 1 εξ τος 13, 
-- Virgil’s ΖΦ ποῖα, Books 1, 11. fit. & V.18mo. ...... ...each Book us 


rigines Romane, on ity, with pene te Notes, 0 crown pore “once τὰς 


Prendergast’s “Mastery Series, Manual of Latin, 12mo. .... 28. 6d. 


Rapier’s Introduction to Composition of Latin Verse, 12mo....38. 6d. “Key 28. 6a 
Riddle’s Young Scholar’s Lat.-Eng. & Eng.-Lat. Dictionary, square 13mo, 108. 62. 






§ The Latin-English Dictionary, 63, 
Separately 1 (he English-Latin Dictionary, mo 
Riddle and Arnold’s English-Latin Lexicon, 8vo. ..... conocrococercereopeaeer eG 
Sheppard and Turner’s Aids to Classical Study, 12mo. . 53, Key 63. 
Simcox’s History of Latin Classical Literature... sais ..._In the press. 
Valpy’s Latin Delectus, improved by White, 12mo. ... 28. 6a 


Virgil’s Works, edited by Kennedy, crowr 8vo. .... 10s. 62 
Walford’s Progressive Exercises in Latin Elegiac Verse, 12mo. 58. 6d. “Key 53. τ᾿ 
White and Riddle’s Large Latin-English Dictionary, 1 vou. AOS © ACL SOS ai 
White’s College Latin-English Dictionary (Intermediate size), medium 8vo. 153 
White’s Junior Student’s Complete IEA Latin & Latin-English — 
Dictionary, SQUATC 12M0........cssccecrescesss-ssessessessesseosscassocens ἀρουραῖος 122, 


Separately ἡ The English-Latin Dictionary, price! 52. 6d. 

- Middle-Cless Latin Dictionary, sauare fep. 8vo.... 
—  Cicero’s Cato Major and Laelius, 12mo. 
- Livy, Books XXII. ἃ XXIII. with English Notes, ea 
Wilkins’ s Progressive Latin Delectus, 12mo. i 
Easy Latin Prose Exercises, crown 8vo.. τ: “Key a “6a 

Manual of Latin Prose Composition, crown 2 By0. senda 58. θα, Key 2s. 6a, 





















— Latin Prose Exercises, crown 8V0............. 48. lech 

—  Rulesof Latin Syntax, 8vo...... sede ΕΟ, ἘῈ 

— Latin Compound Sentence, ὅτο.... cigs 

— Notes for Latin Lyrics (in use in Harrow, &c.) 12mo . 48. θὰ 

— Latin Anthology, for the Junior Classes, 12mo. ........., 43. 6d. 
Yonge’s Odes and Epodes of Horace, School Edition, imo. ... 4. δ΄ 

—  Satires and Epistles of Horace, School Edition, 12mo.. ᾿ς 5a. 

=— Library Edition of the Works of Horace, $vo............. 919, 


Latin Gradus, post ὅγο. 95. or with ΑΡΡΘπσῖχ..........μννονννν νει 128, 


London, LONGMANS & CO. 














16 General Lists of School-Books 


PPL LILI SL IIL LLL EEDA AAA RASS AR ARAN NNR RANA RAR AA  ., ..ν,νῳρνκκ 


The French Language. 


Cassal’s French Genders, HO .Wearly ready. 
Cassal & Karcher’s Modern French ‘Anthology, ‘Pant I. 38. 6d. Parr IT. 63. 
= GraduatedFrench Translation Book, Part I. 88. 6d. ee ep 








Contanseau’ 5 Practical French and English Dictionary, POSt 8VO........c0000 78s 6, 
- Pocket French and English piionaty: cauake Ἰδηῖο.. a . 88. 6d. 
-- Premiéres Lectures, 12mo. ......... rece 28, 6d, 
- First Step in French, 12mo.... wees 28, 6d “Key 88. 
-- French Grammar, 12mo. ΕΣ ΝΣ iccecccs eccvascescereeeneth Ad ἜΘ Iss 
Contanseau’s Middle-Class French Course, fep. 'By0, 
Accidence, 8d. French Translation-Book, 8d. 
Syntax, 8d. Easy French Delectus, 8d. 
French Conversation-Book, 8d. First French Reader, 8d. 
First French Exercise- Book, 8d. Second French Reader, 8d. 
Second French Exercise- Book, 8d. | French and ene Dialogues, 84. 
Contanseau’s Guide to French Translation, T2MON eee: ον ὅπ Ὁ 6d. Key 8s. θᾶ. 


- Prosateurs et Poétes Francais, 12mo. ..... 
- Précis de la Littérature Frangaise, demo. 
-- Abrégé del’ Histoire de France, 12mo... 
ΜΟῚ ΤΟ ΘΕ ΤΕΣ Grammar, fep. 8vo 










ench Pronunciation and Accidence, fep. 88. θα, 


Syntax of the French Grammar, fens Seo Meee i } ay, ei price 3s. 6d. 


-- Le Traducteur, fep. 8vo. vised scivnueresasenomeidlel Obs 

— Stories for French Writers, fep. 8vo.... are ae I Qe, 

— Apercu de la Littérature Frangaise, fep. 8vo. .... ..... 28. GEL 

- Exercises in French Composition, fep. BYO: ceocaen cvereseecseune) rls Oe 

- French Synonymes, fep. 8vc. ...... ἘΝ ον ον τος 8. θα. 
Synopsis of French Grammar, fep. 8y0.. 8. θα. 


Prendergast’ 5 Mastery Series renchy 12m.) eecccccsccerser sent τ. 94. θᾶ. 
Sewell’s Contes Faciles, crown ὅνο.. . 
Che Stepping- -Stone to French Pronunciation, {8mo. .. 
Souvestre’s Philosophe sous les Toits,by Stiévenard, sauare i8mo. 
Stiévenard’s Lectures Fran¢aises from Modern Authors, 12mo........ το 
- Rules and Exercises on the Fr freneh Language, 1 imo. sesveseeevsees O82 OG 
TYarver’s Eton French Grammar, 12mo... τὸς sevsuisenstee eros bore (Nesp 


German, Spanish, Hebrew, Sanskrit, 


Renfey’s Sanskrit-English Dictionary, medium 8vo... ronctnd 
Blackley’s Practical German & English Dictionary, Bost ὅν 
Buchheim’s German Poetry, for Repetition, 18mo... ae 
Collis’s Card of German Irregular Verbs, 8vo. ...... 
fischer-Fischart’s Elementary German Grammar, fep. νος. 
Just’s German Grammar, 12mo... meee 
— German Reading Book, 12mo. ... ΕΣ to 
Kalisch’s Hebrew Grammar, ὄνο. .........Part I. 128. 6d. “Key ‘be. 
Longman’ 5 Pocket German & English. Dictionary, square 18mo. ... 
Milne’s Practical Mnemonic German Grammar, crown 8vo. 
Miiller’s (Max) Sanskrit Grammar for Beginners, royal 8vo. .. 
Naftel’s Elementary German Course for Public Schools, fep. 8vo. 
German Accidence, 9d. German Prose ΤΟΣΠΕΡ ae Book, 9d. 
German Syntax, 9d. | First German Reader, 9d. 
First German Exercise-Book, 9d. Second German Reader, 9d. 
Second German Exercise-Book,9d. 








Prendergast’s Handbook to the Mastery Series, aa Ceocshorcecocecctoccoccansany “ob 
Mastery Series, German, 12mo. ....... ne . 28. 6d. 
- Manual of Spanish, 12mo.. .. 28. 6d. 
- Manual of Hebrew, crown ΒΟ sae. Penety . 38. θᾶ. 
Wintzer’s First German Book for Peeinners: fee. ἜΤΟΣ vase .. 88. 6d, 
Wirth’s German Chit-Chat, crown 8vo. ....... saterevarecenactarenetoutetesemeemeeTiOera 


London, LONGMANS & CO. 





Spottiswoode & Co., Printers, New-street Square, London, 











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