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BRITANNIC A
BOOK OF THE YEAR

I 95 1

BRITANNICA
BOOK OF THE YEAR

1951

*i768 *

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, LTD

CHICAGO LONDON TORONTO

ENCYCLOPEDIA BR1TANNICA, LTD.
LONDON, 1951

PRINTED AND BOUND BY

KNIGHT FORSTFR, LTD.

LPEDS

PREFACE

FOR this, the 1951 edition of the Britannica Book of the Year, the opportunity
was taken to emphasize by an increase in length the importance of a few articles
dealing with topics especially prominent in 1950. One of the selected articles
was COMMUNIST MOVEMENT. For, as the contributor has said in his introductory
sentence to it, " it was generally recognized by 1950 that the Communist movement
in the world was a much more complicated affair than had often been realized."
It was hoped, therefore, that the article would give to all a better understanding of
the subject's facets. A corollary to this decision was a fuller treatment for the article
CHINA, a country which by Oct. 1950 had completed its first full year of control by
the People's Republic. A third choice fell most deservedly but less dramatically
upon the British domestic topic of LIBRARIES to mark the centenary of the passing
of the Public Libraries act in 1850.

The year also demanded a number of new titles. One of these, HOLY YEAR,
though by its nature transitory, offered the opportunity for some good descriptive
writing; another, unwelcome, was KOREAN WAR. The barometers of opinion and
emotion were seldom steady about this war but at the start the mood of the Western
world was captured by the cartoon reproduced from Punch on page 649.

Other new articles to be introduced included CIVIL DEFENCE, EUROPEAN COAL
AND STEEL POOL (Schuman Plan), EASTERN EUROPEAN ECONOMIC PLANNING and

HEAVY ENGINEERING and LIGHT ENGINEERING. It had been felt for some time

that the articles on individual industries, which were retained, had failed by
themselves to give the general reader a sufficiently, clear picture of industrial
achievements and developments. The articles on heavy and light engineering were
planned to overcome this defect.

An innovation was the assigning of separate articles to all British and French
colonies, the article FRENCH UNION now becoming a general review like its counter-
part COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS. Marching with the times COMMONWEALTH OF
NATIONS was itself a change of title taking the place of the former BRITISH EMPIRE.
Other changes of title were YOUTH EMPLOYMENT for JUVENILE EMPLOYMENT;
JEWRY, WORLD for JUDAISM. Grave and gay, as much as possible of the happenings
of 1950 were recorded. KASHMIR was conspicuous; Brumas was remembered.

JOHN ARM1TAGE

London Editor.

EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS

WALTER YUST, Editor in chief of Encyclopaedia Britannica
JOHN ARM IT AGE, London Editor

The initials and names of contributors to the Britannica Book of the Year with the principal
articles written by them are given below. The arrangement is alphabetical by initials.

A.A.P. Greece

ALEXANDER ALEXANDROU PALLIS. B.A. Minister Pleni-
potentiary attached to the Greek Embassy; Director, Greek Office of
Information, London. Author of Greece's Anatolian Venture
and After; etc.

A.C.Ch. X-Ray and Radiology

ARTHUR C. CHRISTIE, M.D. Chief, Department of Radiology,
Doctors Hospital Medical Centre, Washington.

A.Ck. English Literature (in part)

ARTHUR CROOK. Literary Critic, London.

A. Da. Football (in part)

ALLISON DANZIG. Member of sports staff, The New York Times.
Author of The Racquet Game; etc.

A.D.Ls. Entomology

ANTHONY DAVID LEES, M.A., Ph.D. Senior Scientific Officer,
Agricultural Research Council, Unit of Insect Physiology, Great
Britain.

A,Dr. Textile Industry (in part)

ALFRED DAWBER, Mem. Text. Inst. Editor of Textile Manu-
facturer, Manchester; compiler of Textile Manufacturer Year Book;
etc.

Ae. Rackets; Tennis

LORD ABERDARE. Chairman, National Association of Boys'
Clubs. Former rackets and tennis amateur champion of Britain,
U.S. and Canada. Author of First Steps to Rackets (with E. B. Noel).

A.Flo. Spanish-American Literature

ANGEL FLORES. Chairman, Latin American Area Studies, and
Professor of Latin American Literature, Queens College, Flushing,
New York. Author of Lope de Vega; Cervantes Across the Centuries;
The Kafka Problem; Fiesta in November.

A.G.Br. Dyestuffs (in part)

ANSCO G. BRUINIER, Jr. Technical Advertising Manager,
Dyestuffs Division, Organic Chemicals Department, E. I. du Pont
de Nemours and Company, Inc., Wilmington, Delaware.

A.G.L.I. Hospitals (in part); Nursing

A. G. L. IVES, M.V.O., M.A. Secretary, King Edward's Hospital
Fund for London. Author of British Hospitals.

A.G.Ne. Munitions of War (in part)

A. G. NOBLE. Rear Admiral, U.S. Navy. Chief of the Bureau of
Ordnance, Department of the Navy, Washington.

A.H.H. Venereal Diseases (in part)

ARTHUR HERBERT HARKNESS, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P. Director,
Endell Street Clinic (Institute of Urology), London; Civil Consultant
to the Royal Navy. Author of Non-gonococcal Urethritis.

A.H. J.B. Docks and Harbours (in part) ; etc.

ALFRED HENRY JAMES BOWN, F.C.I.S., M.I.T. General
Manager and Clerk, River Wear Commissioners, Sunderland.
Author of Port Operation and Administration (with C. A. Dove).

A.H.Ld. Forestry (in part)

ARTHUR HENRY LLOYD, O.B.E., M.C., T.D., M.A. Lecturer
in Forestry, University of Oxford. Author of Engineering for Forest
Rangers.

A.H.Md. Betting and Gambling (in part} ; Contract Bridge (in part)
ALBERT H. MOREHEAD. Editor, The Official Rules of Card
Games', Bridge Editor, The New York Times. Author of The Modern
Hoyle; etc.

A.J.A. Social Security, U.S.

A. J. ALTMEYER. Commissioner, Social Security Administration,
Federal Security Agency, Washington.

A. J.Ar. Industrial Health (in part)

ARTHUR JOSEPH AMOR, C.B.E., M.D., M.Sc., D.l.H. Principal
Medical Officer, Imperial Chemical Industries, Ltd., London.
Author of An X-ray Atlas of Silicosis; The Chemical Aspects of
Silicosis; Notes on the Toxicity of Solvents.

A.J.Coe. South African Literature (in part)

ABEL JACOBUS COETZEE, M.A., D.Litt., D.Litt. et Phil. Pro-
fessor of Afrikaans Language and Folklore, University of the
Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa. Author of Opkoms
van die Afrikaanse Kultuurgedagte aan die Rand; Afrikaanse
Volksgeloof\ etc.

A.J.Hy. Advertising (in part)

ARTHUR JAMES HEIGHWAY. Editor, World's Press News,
London.

A.J.L1. Spirits (in part)

ALFRED J. LIEBMANN. President, Schenley Research Institute,
New York.

A.J.Mac. Anglican Communion; Church of England; etc.

ALAN JOHN MACDONALD, D.D., F.S.A., F.R.Hist.S. Pre-
bendary of St. Paul's; Rural Dean of the City of London and Rector
of St. Dunstan-in-the-West. Author of Lanfranc, His Life, Work
and Writings', Hildebrand; etc.

A.J.P. Rifle Shooting

ARTHUR JOHN PALMER. Secretary, National Small-Bore
Association, London. Editor of the Rifleman.

A.Kk. Printing (in part)

ALBERT KIRK. Technical Secretary, British Federation of Master
Printers.

A.L.Blr. Scandinavian Literature

ALAN LEIGH BLAIR. Translator and writer on Scandinavian
literature.

A.L.HI. Dance (in part)

ARNOLD LIONEL H ASK ELL, M.A. Director/Principal, Sadler's
Wells School, London; Vice President and Chairman of the Education
Committee of the Royal Academy of Dancing; Joint Director of
the Teacher's Training Course; Chairman of the Ballet Benevolent
Fund. Author of Balletotnania', Diaghlleff; etc.

A.L.W.S. Stocks and Shares (in part)

A. L. W. SHILLADY. Chief Market Editor, Financial Times,
London.

A.M.Ds. Local Government (in part)

AUDREY M. DAV1ES. Librarian, Institute of Public Adminis-
tration, New York.

A.M.F. Cartography

ANTHONY MARGARET FERRAR, B.Sc. Assistant Map
Curator, Royal Geographical Society, London.

A.Mjd. Islam

ABDUL MAJID, M.A. The Imam, the Mosque, Woking, Surrey.
Editor of Islamic Review, Woking.

A.Mu. Dance (in part)

ARTHUR MURRAY. President, National Institute of Social
Dancing, U.S.A. Author of How to Become a Good Dancer', Modern
Dancing ; etc.

An. Child Welfare (in part)

LADY ALLEN OF HURTWpOD, F.I.L.A. President, Nursery
School Association of Great Britain; President, World Organization
for Early Childhood Education; Member of Advisory Council on
Child Care (Home Office, London). Author of Whose Children?

A.N.O. International Monetary Fund

ANDREW N. OVERBY. Deputy Managing Director, International
Monetary Fund.

A.R.K. Chambers of Commerce (in part)

ARTHUR RICHARD KNOWLES, C.B.E., F.C.l.S. Secretary-
General, The Association of British Chambers of Commerce,
London.

A.R.M. Fisheries

ARTHUR RICHARD MARGETTS, M.A. Scientific Officer,
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Fisheries Laboratory, Lowes-
toft, Suffolk.

A.R.MacK. Immigration and Emigration (in part} ; Aliens (in part)
ARGYLE R, MacKEY. Acting Commissioner, Immigration and
Naturalization Service, U.S. Department of Justice, Washington.

A.S.A. Telegraphy (in part)

SIR ARTHUR STANLEY ANGWIN, K.B.E., D.S.O., M.C., f .D.,
M.I.C.E., M.I.E.E., B.Sc.(Eng-). Chairman, Cable and Wireless, Ltd.,
London, 1947-51.

A.Stn. Exchange Control and Exchange Rates (in part)

ALEXANDER STEVENSON. Senior Economist, International
Bank for Reconstruction and Development.

A.T.CI. New Zealand

ARTHUR TREVOR CAMPBELL, M.A. Public Relations Officer,
New Zealand Government, London.

A.T.Me. Historical Research

ALEXANDER TAYLOR MILNE, M.A., F.R.Hist.S. Secretary
and Librarian, Institute of Historical Research, University of
London. Compiler of Writings on British History (in progress).

A.Var. Helsinki

ANTERO VARTIA. Press Attache*, Finnish Legation, London.

A.W.E. Botany

ARTHUR WALLIS EXELL, M.A., F.L.S. Deputy Keeper, Botany
Department, British Museum (Natural History), London.

A. Ws. Fashion and Dress (in part)

AUDREY WITHERS, B.A. Editor, Vogue, London.

VII 1

CONTRIBUTORS

B.A.S. Wine*

BAS1LE A. SAMARAKIS. Director, 1'Office International du Vin,

Paris.
B.C.Pt. Theology

BERNARD CLIFFORD PLOWR1GHT, B.A., B.D. Secretary,

Life and Work Department, Congregational Union of England and

Wales, London. Author of Humanism Pagan or Christian', Our

Gospel or His; Rebel Religion.
B.Dr. Art Sales

BERNARD DENVIR, B.A. Art Critic, Tribune and Daily Herald,

London; Joint Editor, Art News and Review, London. Author of

Drawings of William Hogarth; etc.
B.Fy. Machinery and Machine Tools (in part}

BURNHAM FINNEY. Editor, American Machinist, New York.

B.J.W. Dentistry

BRYAN JARDINE WOOD, F.D.S.R.C.S. Editor, British Dental

Journal, London.
B.L. Timber (in part)

BRYAN LATHAM. Past President, Timber Trade Federation of the

United Kingdom; Member of Timber Advisory Committee to the

Board of Trade, London.
B.L.B. Immigration and Emigration (in part}

BERTHA LILIAN BRACEY, O.B.E., B.A. Women's Affairs

Ofliccr for Schlcswig-Holstcin, Control Commission for Germany

(British Element).
B.Nc. Cinema (in part)

BOYCE NEMEC. Executive Secretary, Society of Motion Picture

and Television Engineers, New York.
B.PI. Girl Guides (in part)

OLAVE ST. CI AIR, LADY BADEN POWELL, G.B.E. World

Chief Guide. Author of Opening Doorways.
B.R.P. Burma; Thailand

BERTIE REGINALD PEARN, M.A., F.R.Hist.S. Formerly

Professor of History, University of Rangoon. Author of History

of Rangoon.
Br.S. Crime (in part); Police (in part)

BRUCE SMITH. Secretary, Institute of Public Administration,

New York. Author of Police Systems in the U.S.; Rural Crim

Control; etc.
B.Sk. Gliding (in part)

BEN SHUPACK, B.S., M.A. Director, Soaring Society of America.
B.W.C. Swimming (in part)

BERTRAM WILLIAM CUMMINS. Hon. Publicity Secretary and

Past President, Amateur Swimming Association. Founder and

Hon. Editor, Swimming Times, Croydon, Surrey.

C.A.Br. Australian Literature

CLIFFORD AMANDUS BURMESTER, B.A. Chief Reference
Officer, Commonwealth National Library, Canberra, Australia;
former Librarian, Office of the High Commissioner of Australia in
London and Liaison Officer of the Commonwealth National Library.

C. A.Hh. Hotels, Restaurants and Inns (in part)

CHARLES A. HORRWORTH. Executive Vice-President, American
Hotel Association, New York.

C.A.,1. French Union; Indo-China; etc.

CHARLES-ANDR JULIEN. Professor of the History of Coloni-
zation at the Sorbonne, Paris. Author of Histoire de VAfrique du
Nord; Histoire de V expansion et de la colonization francair>es (vol. I,
1948).

C.A.Mo. Meat (in part)

CECIL ALFRED MORRISON. Advertising Manager and Assistant
Editor Meat Trades* Journal, London. f

C.A.Sd. Leather; Shoe Industry

CALVIN ADAMS SHEPARD. Editor, Shoe and Leather News,
London.

C.A.T. Spices

CHARLES A. THAYER. Former President and Former Director,
American Spice Trade Association.

C.Bd. Rubber (in part)

COLIN BRISLAND. Press Officer, British Rubber Development
Board, London.

C.B.E. Archery

CHARLES BERTRAM EDWARDS. Secretary, Grand National
Archery Society and Royal Toxophilite Society, London.

C.Bt. Golf (in part)

CHARLES BARTLETT. Golf Editor, Chicago Tribune; Secretary,
Golf Writers' Association of America.

C.Bu. Sculpture (in part)

CARLYLE BURROWS, B.A. Art Editor, New York Herald Tribune.

C.C.C. Police (in part)

CHARLES CRAIK CUNNINGHAM, C.B., C.V.O., M.A., B.Litt.
Secretary, Scottish Homes Department, Edinburgh.

C.C.N.V. Physiology

CHARLES CYRIL NORROY VASS, M.Sc., Ph.D., M.B., Ch.B.
Reader in Physiology in the University of London. Part author of
Synopsis of Physiology (4th ed.).

C.C.Ws. Consumer Credit (in part)

CHARLES COWLEY WORTERS, F.I.C.M. Secretary, the Hire
Purchase Trade Association and the International Association for
Promotion and Protection of Trade, Ltd., London; Member of
Council of the Institute of Credit Management, London.

C.Cy. Canadian Literature; etc.

CHARLES CLAY. Director, Canadian Research and Editorial
Institute, Ottawa, Ontario. Author of Young yoyageur; Muskrat
Man; etc.

C.D.H. Mexico

C. DAVID HELLYER. Assistant Director, Institute of Inter-
American Affairs, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida.

C.D.M. Book Collecting and Book Sales

CHARLES DUDLEY MASSEY. Managing Director of Pickering
and Chatto, Booksellers, London.

C.E.L.-Q. Lutherans

CARL E. LUND-QUIST, B.D. Assistant Executive Director, U.S.A.
National Committee for Lutheran World Federation; Executive
Secretary, Division of Public Relations, National Lutheran Council.

C.E.R. Forestry (in part)

CHARLES EDGAR RANDALL, A.B., M.A. Information
Specialist, Division of Information and Education, Forest Service,
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington. Author of Our Forests;
etc.

C.E.R.S. Railways (in part)

CHARLES ELY ROSE SHERRINGTON, O.B.E., M.C., M.A.
Secretary, Railway Research Service, London. Author of Economics
of Rail Transport in Great Britain; 100 Years of Inland Transport.

C.F.As. Airports (in part)

CHARLES FERDINAND ANDREWS, A.R.Ae.S., A.I.B. Assistant
Editor, Air Travel and Editor, Airports and Air Transportation,
London; former member of the technical stalT of the Aeroplane.

C.F.Ke. Motor Industry (in part)

CHARLES F. KETTERING. Director and former Vice President,
General Motors Corporation.

C.F.Mt. Wool

CECIL FINER MALLETF, M.B.E. Joint Editor, Weekly Wool
Chart. Statistics Adviser, United Kingdom Wool Industry Bureau
of Statistics.

C.G.C. Jet Propulsion and Gas Turbines (in part)

CYRIL GORDON CONWAY, B.Sc. Consulting Engineer, Power
Jets (Research and Development) Ltd., London.

C.G.Fe. Chambers of Commerce (in part)

CECIL GEORGE FREKE, C.I.E., M.A., B.Sc. Director, British
National Committee, International Chamber of Commerce.

C.G.My. Poultry

CLARENCE GEORGE MAY. Editor, Poultry World, London.
Author of Natural Hatching and Rearing; Bantams for Eggs.

C.H.Bd. leprosy

C. H. BINFORD, M.D. Medical Director, U.S. Public Health
Service; Pathologist, U.S. Marine Hospital, Baltimore, Maryland.

C.H.Bu. Machinery and Machine Tools (in part)

CHARLES HENRY BURDER, M.B.E., B.A. Director and Acting

Editor. Machinery, London.
Ch.F. Cambridge University

CHARLES FOX, M.A. Sometime Director of Training in the

University of Cambridge. Author of Educational Psychology (4th

ed.); etc.
Ch.Fl. Motor Racing

CHARLES FOTHERGILL. Motoring Correspondent, News

Chronicle, London. Author of The Story of Grand Prix Motor Racing.
C.H.G.T. Banking (in part); Bank of England; etc.

C. GORDON TETHER. Money Market Editor, Financial Times,

London.
C.L.B. Psychology (in part)

SIR CYRIL LODOWIC BURT, M.A., D.Sc., Hon.Ll.D..

Hon.D.Litt. Fellow of the British Academy. Hon. Fellow, Jesus

College, Oxford. Professor of Psychology, University of London.

Author of Mental and Scholastic Tests; The Subnormal Mind; The

Young Delinquent', etc.

C.L.Be. Wild Life Conservation (in part)

CHARLES LEOFRIC BOYLE. Secretary, The Fauna Preservation
Society, London.

C.L.D. Motor Transport (in part)

CHARLES L. DEARING. Senior Staff Member of The Brookings
Instil ution, Washington. Author of American Highway Policy and
National Transportation Policy (with Wild red Owen).

C.L. de B. Fencing

CHARLES-LOUIS de BEAUMONT, M.A. Membre d'Honneur
de la Federation Internationale d'Escrime; President, British Empire
Fencing Federation; Hon. Secretary, Amateur Fencing Association,
London. Author of Modern British Fencing.

C.McG. Cuba; Netherlands Overseas Territories (in part); etc.

CONSTANTINE EDWARD McGUIRE. Economic Adviser
(U.S.A.). Author of Italy's International Economic Position; etc.

C.Mn. Shipbuilding (/// part); Shipping, Merchant Marine (in part)
CUTHBERT MAUGHAN. Shipping Correspondent, The Times,
London. Author of Commodity Market Terms; Our Mercantile
Marine; etc.

C.M.Pn. Industrial Health (in part)

CARL M. PETERSON, M.D. Secretary, Council on Industrial
Health, American Medical Association.

C.M.R. Girl Guides (in part)

CONSTANCE M. RITTENHOUSE (Mrs. Paul Rittenhouse).
National Executive Director, Girl Scouts of the United States of
America.

C.M.Wi. Bolivia; Ecuador; Liberia

CHARLES MORROW WILSON. Economist, Caribbean and West
African Affairs. Director, American Foundation for Tropical
Medicine. Author of Tropics; World of Tomorrow; Ambassadors
in White; One Half the People; Liberia; etc.

CONTRIBUTORS

^.r. Missions, Foreign Religious

CECIL NORTHCOTT, M.A. General Secretary, United Council
for Missionary Education, London. Author of Religious Liberty.

C.Q. Motor Cycling

CYRIL QUANTRILL. Sports Editor, Motor Cycling, London.

C.R.A, Marriage and Divorce

CLIFFORD R. ADAMS, M.A., Ph.D. Professor of Psychology
in Charge of Marriage Counselling for the School of Education,
The Pennsylvania State College. Regional Consultant, American
Institute of Family Relations. Author of Looking Ahead to Marriage.

C.V.C. ' Korean War (in part)

CHESTER V. CLIFTON, Jr., Lt. Col., U.S. Army. Assistant to
the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Washington.

D.A.C. Women's Activities

DOROTHY A. CANNELL. Writer and Editor, London.

D.A.G.R. Building and Construction Industry (in part)

DONALD A. G. REID, B.Sc.(Eng.), A.M.I.C.E., A.M.l.Struct.E.
Principal, London County Council Brixton School of Building.

D.A.Sn. Malaya, Federation of; Singapore

DERRICK ADOLPHUS SINGTON, B.A. Correspondent in the
Far East, contributing to Glasgow Herald; Manchester Guardian;
New Statesman; etc.

D.B.S. Bridges (in part)

DAVID BARNARD STEINMAN, A.M., C.E., Sc.D., Ph.D.,
F.R.S.A. U.S. Authority on the Design and Construction of Long-
Span Bridges.

D.C.B. Words and Meanings, New (in part)

DAVID CLAYTON BROWNING, M.A., B.A., B.Litt. Journalist
and author. Author of Everyman's English Dictionary; Everyman's
Dictionary of Quotations and Proverbs.

D.Cr. Aircraft Manufacture; Royal Air Force

DOUGLAS COLYER, C.B., D.F.C., M.A. British Civil Air Attache
at Paris, Brussels, The Hague, Rome, Madrid and Berne.

D.D.C. Children's Books (In part}

DORIS DAV1ES CHILCOT, F.L.A. Principal Assistant in Charge
of Work with Young People, Islington Public Libraries, London.

D.Dz. Atomic Energy (in part)

DAVID DIETZ. Science Editor, Scripps- Howard Newspapers.
Lecturer in General Science, Western Reserve University, Cleveland,
Ohio. Author of Atomic Energy in the Coming Era; etc.

D.F.K. Israel; etc.

DAVID FRANCIS KESSLER, B.A. Managing Director, The
Jewish Chronicle, London.

D.F.Ky. Angling

DONOVAN FRANK KELLEY. Writer on Angling, Plymouth.

D.G.B. Sugar (in part)

DAVID GRAHAM BURNS, B.A. Member of the staff, Common-
wealth Economic Committee, London.

D.G.Wo. Textile Industry (in part)

DOUGLAS G. WOOLF. Former Editor in Chief, Textile World,
New York. Textile Consultant and Publisher, East Pasadena Herald,
Pasadena, California.

D.Hn. Newspapers and Magazines (/// part)

DEREK HUDSON, M.A. Literary Editor, Spectator, London.
Author of Thomas Barnes of tl The Times'"; British Journalists and
Newspapers; etc.

D.Hs. Nairobi

DAVID HUGHES, M.A. British Council, Nairobi, Kenya.

D.I. Ireland, Republic of

DENIS LIDDELL IRELAND. Senator, Republic of Ireland.
Author of Eamon de Valera Doesn't See It Through; Six Counties
in Search of a Nation.

D.I.C. Spirits (in part)

DENYS IRVINE COOMBER, B.Sc., A,R.1.C, Ph.D. Senior
Scientific Officer, Government Chemist's Department, London.

D.J.H. Wages and Hours (in part)

DONALD J. HART, M.A. Dean, School of Business Administra-
tion, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho.

D.Me. Scotland

SIR DAVID MILNE, K.C.B., M.A. Permanent Under Secretary
of State for Scotland.

D.M.T. Vegetable Oils and Animal Fats (in part)

DONALD MARK TAILBY, B.A. Economic Assistant, Common-
wealth Economic Committee, London.

D.N.L. Societies, Learned and Professional

DAVID NICOLL LOWE, O.B.E., M.A., B.Sc. Secretary, British
Association for the Advancement of Science.

D.Nn. London

LADY DOROTHY NICHOLSON, M.A., M.B.fc. Author of
Private Letters, Pagan and Christian; Pilgrims were They All; The
Londoner; etc.

D.R.Gi. France; Saar

DARSIE RUTHERFORD GILLIE. Legion of Honour. Paris
Correspondent, Manchester Guardian.

D.St. Advertising (in part)

DANIEL STARCH. Consultant in Business Research. Former
Lecturer and Professor at Harvard University and the University of
Wisconsin. Author of Principles of Advertising; etc.

D.V. Oxford University

DOUGLAS VEALE, C.B.E., M.A. Registrar of Oxford University
and Fellow of Corpus Christi College, Oxford.

D.W. Botanical Gardens (in part)

DONALD WYMAN. Horticulturist, Arnold Arboretum, Harvard
University, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts.

D.W.H. Socialist Movement

DENIS WINSTON HEALEY, M.B.E., M.A. Secretary, Inter-
national Department of the British Labour Party.

D.W.K.-J. Bread and Bakery Products

DOUGLAS WILLIAM KENT-JONES, Ph.D., B.Sc., F.R.I.C.
Analytical and Consulting Chemist, London. Author of Modern
Cereal Chemistry ; The Practice and Science of Bread-making.

E.A.P. Spanish Literature

EDGAR ALLISON PEERS, M.A., Hon.LL.D. Professor of
Spanish, University of Liverpool. Author of Studies of the Spanish
Mystics; A History of the Romantic Movement in Spain; etc.

E.Ba. Freemasonry

ERNEST BEHA. Editor of The Freemason, London. Author of
Lodges with a Difference.

E.B.K. New Delhi

Mrs. E. B. BRIDGWATER-KITCAT, M.B.E. Office of the Adviser
in India to the Central Commercial Committee, New Delhi.

E.B.Mc. Korea (in part)

EVELYN BECKER McCUNE (Mrs. George McCune). Lecturer,
University of California, Berkeley, California.

E.C.-Js. Infantile Paralysis; Tuberculosis

EDWARD CLAYTON-JONES, M.D. Assistant Editor, The
Lancet, London.

E.C.Sd. Aviation, Civil (in part); Gliding (in part)

EDWIN COLSTON SHEPHERD, B.A., B.Litt. Air Correspondent,
Sunday Times. Formerly Aeronautical Correspondent, The Times,
and Editor, Aeroplane. Author of The R.A.F. To-day; Great Flights.

Ed.D. Cinema (in part)

EDGAR DALE. Professor of Education, Bureau of Educational
Research, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Author of
Audio- Visual Methods in Teaching; How to Read a Newspaper; etc.

Ed.R.P. Architecture (in part)

EDMUND R. PURVES. Executive Director, American Institute
of Architects.

E.E.Bs. Civil Service

SIR EDWARD ETTINGDENE BRIDGES, G.C.B., G.C.V.O.,
M.C, M.A., Hon.LL.D., Hon.D.Litt., Hon.D.C.L. Permanent
Secretary to the Treasury, London.

E.E.R. United States of America

EDGAR EUGENE ROBINSON, A.M., LL.D. Byrne Professor of
American History and Director of the Institute of American History,
Stanford University, Stanford, California.

E.F.Hk. Yachting

EDWARD FOWLES HAYLOCK. Editor, Yachting World, London.

E.G. Children's Books (in part)

ELIZABETH A. GROVES, B.A. Assistant Professor, School of
Librarianship, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington.

E.G.Cs. Ice Skating (in part)

ERIC GEORGE COGGINS. Secretary, National Skating Associa-
tion of Great Britain.

E.Hd. , Afghanistan; Ceylon; Tibet; etc.

EDWIN HAWARD. Secretary, India, Pakistan and Burma Associa-
tion. Author of A Picture of India; Manchurian Medley; The Last
Rebellion; etc.

E.Hin. ' Zoological Gardens (in part) ; Zoology

EDWARD HINDLE, M.A., Sc.D., Ph.D., F.R.S. Scientific Director,
Zoological Society of London. Author of Flies and Disease- Biting
Flies; A Laboratory Notebook of Zoology.

E.H.Kg. National Trust

EDWARD HERBERT KEELING, M.C, M.A. Member of
Parliament; Chairman, Publicity Committee, National Trust.

E.H.Kr. Mineralogy

EDWARD HENRY KRAUS. Dean Emeritus of the College of
Literature, Science and the Arts, and Professor Emeritus of Crystal-
lography and Mineralogy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,
Michigan.

E.H.S. Isle of Man

ERNEST HENRY STENNING, M.A. Vice-Principal, Chaplain
and Senior Science Master of King William's College, Isle of Man.
Canon of St. Columba. Chairman of the Ancient Monuments
Committee. Author of The Isle of Man.

E.l.F. Horticulture (in part)

E. I. FARR1NGTON. Former Secretary, Massachusetts Horti-
cultural Society and Editor of Horticulture. Author of The Gardener's
Almanac; etc.

E.I.P. Salvation Army (in part)

ERNEST 1. PUGMIRE. National Commander of the Salvation
Army in the United States.

E.I.U. Vital Statistics

ECONOMIST INTELLIGENCE UNIT, Economist Newspaper
Ltd., London.

E. J.C. Canning Industry (in part)

EDWIN J. CAMERON. Director, Research Laboratories, National
Canners' Association, U.S.A.

E.J.L. " Sweden

ETHEL JOHN LINDGREN, M.A., Ph.D. Lecturer, Department
of Anthropology, University of Cambridge. Edi|or of The Study of
Society; Methods and Problems.

CONTRIBUTORS

E.L.Co. Shipping. Merchant Marine (in part)

E. L. COCHRANE. Vice Admiral, U.S. Navy (Retired). Chairman,
Federal Maritime Board, and Administrator, Maritime Adminis-
tration, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington.

E.L.S. Armies of the World

EDWIN L. SIBERT. Brigadier General, U.S. Array. Director of
Staff, Inter-American Defence Board, Washington. '

E.M.C. Fertilizers

EDWARD MORTIMER CROWTHER, D.Sc.. F.R.I.C. Head of
the Chemistry Department and Deputy Director, Rothamsted
Experimental Station, Harpenden, Hertfordshire.

E.M.E. Airports (in part)

EMERY M. ELLINGSON. Manager, Air Transport Association
of America, Los Angeles, California.

E.Mgh. Glass (in part)

EDWARD MEIGH, M.B.E., M.Sc., F.I.I. A., F.S.G.T. Director,
Glass Technical Services, Ltd., London.

E.N.T. Paints and Varnishes

ERIC NESHAN TIRATSOO, Ph.D., D.I.C., B.Sc., A.R.S.M..
F.G.S., F.R.G.S., M.Inst.Pct. Editor, Paint Manufacture', Petroleum;
Atomics; Chemical Industries^ London. Author of Petroleum Geology.

E.O.G. Cocoa; Coffee

EDGAR OTTO GOTHSCH, B.Sc.(Econ.). Member of the staff,
Commonwealth Economic Committee, London.

E.P.J. Diabetes

E. P. JOSLIN, M.D., Sc.D. Professor Emeritus of Clinical Medicine,
Harvard University Medical School; Medical Director, George F.
Baker Clinic, New England Deaconess Hospital, Boston, Massa-
chusetts.

E.R.Bk. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development

EUGENE R. BLACK. President, International Bank for Recon-
struction and Development, Washington.

E.S.Br. Lawn Tennis (in part)

EDWIN S. BAKER, A.B. Executive Secretary, United States Lawn
Tennis Association.

E.Se. Book Publishing (in part) ; Literary Prizes (in part)

EDMOND S. SHGRAVE. Editor, Bookseller, London.

E.S.J. Youth Employment (in part)

ELIZABETH S. JOHNSON. Chief. Division of Child Labour and
Youth Employment, Bureau of Labour Standards, U.S. Department
of Labour, Washington.

E.T/B. Mathematics

ERIC TEMPLE BELL. Professor of Mathematics, California
Institute of Technology, Pasadena. Author of The Magic of Numbers;
The Search for Truth ; etc.

E.V.Lh. Brewing and Beer (in part)

E. V. LAHEY. Chairman and President, United States Brewers
Foundation, Incorporated.

E.W.G. Electrical Industries (in part) ; etc.

EDWARD WILLIAM GOLDING, M.Sc. .Tech., M.I.E.E.,
M.A.I.E.E. Head of Rural Electrification and Wind-power Depart-
ment, Electrical Research Association, London. Author of Electrical
Measurement and Measuring Instruments; etc.

E.Wi. Italy; Switzerland; etc.

ELIZABETH WISKEMANN, M.A., M.Litt. Writer on Foreign
Affairs. Author of Czechs and Germans; Undeclared \yar; Italy;
The Rome-Berlin Axis.

E.W.We. Tourist Industry

ERNEST WALTER WIMBLE, C.B.F, Member of the British
Tourist and Holidays Board; Member of the Motels Executive
(British Transport Commission).

F.A.Sw. Art Exhibitions (in part); Museums (in part)

FREDERICK A. SWEET. Associate Curator of Painting and
Sculpture, The Art Institute of Chicago.

F.C.H. Rotary International

FREDERICK C. HICKSON, F.C.I.S. General Secretary, Rotary

International in Great Britain and Ireland.
F.C.W. Cancer

FRANCIS CARTER WOOD, M.D. Emeritus Director, Cancer

Research, Columbia University, and Consulting Pathologist, St.

Luke's Hospital, New York. Author of Clinical Diagnosis; etc.
F.E.Lk. Gems

FRANCIS ERNEST LEAK, F.G.A. Manager, John Bennett,

Jeweller; Senior Partner of West of England Gemmological Labora-
tory, Bristol.
F.E.S. Eritrea; Libya; etc.

FRANK EDMUND STAFFORD, C.B.E., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S.

Adviser on former Italian colonies, African Department, Foreign

Office, London (attached from Colonial Service).
F.Ge. Exploration and Discovery: Geography

FRANK GEORGE, M.A. Assistant Editor, Royal Geographical

Society, London.
F.H.Aw. Netherlands

FRANCIS HARRY ANDREW. Writer on Foreign Affairs, London.
F.J.K. Electrical Industries (in part)

FRANCIS J. KOVALCIK. Assistant Editor, Electrical World,

New York.

F.J.Os. Town and Country Planning (in part)

F. J. OSBORN. Chairman of Executive, Town and Country Planning
Association, London. Author of Green-Belt Cities; etc.

F.J.S. Food Research (in part)

FREDERICK J. STARE, M.D. Professor of Nutrition, Schools of
Medicine and Pflblic Health, Boston, Massachusetts.

F.L.C. Salvation Army (in part)

FREDERICK L. COUTTS. Assistant Literary Secretary, Salvation
Army International Headquarters, London. Author of The Timeless
Prophets; etc.

F.L.D. New York City; Police (in part)

FRANK LEE DONOGHUE. Director of Commerce for the City
of New York. Author of Guardians of the Mine Country; Spotted
Horse Patrol.

F.L.K. Libraries (in part)

FRANCIS LAWRENCE KENT, M.A. Librarian, United Nations
Scientific, Educational and Cultural Organization, Paris; formerly
Librarian of Bristol University. Co-editor of the World List of
Scientific Periodicals.

F.M.I. Karachi

FERGUS MUNRO INNES, C.I.E. Adviser in Pakistan to the
Central Commercial Committee. Accredited correspondent to
Economist, Round Table and Capital, London; Contributor to the
Annual Register, 1949 and 1950.

F.Neu. Seismology

FRANK NEUMANN. Chief, Seismology Branch, Coast and
Geodetic Survey, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington.

F.N.H. Nuts

FRANK NORMAN HOWES, D.Sc. Principal Scientific Officer,
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Author of Nuts, their Production and
Everyday Uses; etc.

F.P.L.L. Pneumonia

FRANK PATRICK LEE LANDER, O.B.E., M.D., F.R.C.P.
Consultant Physician, Putney Hospital, London; Assistant Physician,
Brompton Hospital and Royal Free Hospital, London.

F.S.B. Literary Research

FREDERICK SAMUEL BOAS, M.A., Hon.LL.D., Hon.D.Litt.,
F.R.S.L. A Vice President, Royal Society of Literature and English
Association; President, Elizabethan Literary Society. Author of
Shakespeare and his Predecessors; Christohper Marlowe: A Study,
University Drama in the Tudor Age; etc.

F.Sn. Great Britain and Northern Ireland, United Kingdom of

FRANK SINGLETON, M.A. Editor, Tillotson's Newspapers Ltd.,
Bolton, Lancashire. Author of Independent Means; Lancashire and
the Pen nines.

F.S.R. Marine Biology

FREDERICK STRAITEN RUSSELL, F.R.S. Director of the
Plymouth Laboratory of the Marine Biological Association of the
United Kingdom. Author of The Seas (with C. M. Yongc).

F.V.W. Soap, Perfumery and Cosmetics

FREDERICK VICTOR WELLS, F.C.S., F.R.H.S. Editor of

Soap, Perfumery and Cosmetics, London; Chairman, Society of

Cosmetic Chemists of Great Britain.
F.W.Ta. Cotton (in part)

FREDERICK WILLIAM TATTERSALL, F.R.S.S., F.R.E.S.

Cotton Trade Expert and Statistician, Manchester.
F.W.W.-S. Interior Decoration

FRANCIS WILLIAM WENTWORTH-SHEILDS, N.R.D.

Designer; Visiting Instructor at the Twickenham School of Art,

Middlesex.
G.A.Ro. Iron and Steel (in part); Metallurgy; etc.

GAR A. ROUSH. Former Editor, Mineral Industry, New York.

Author of Strategic Mineral Supplies.
G.A.Si. United Church of Canada

GORDON A. SISCO, D.D. Secretary, The United Church of

Canada.
G.B:En. Alimentary System

GEORGE B. EUSTERMAN, M.D. Professor Emeritus of Medicine,

Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, Graduate

School, University of Minnesota; Head of a Section in Medicine

(Emeritus), Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota. Co-author (with

D. C. Balfour) of The Stomach and Duodenum.

G.D.H.C. Employment (in part); Trade Unions (in part); etc.

GEORGE DOUGLAS HOWARD COLE, M.A. Chichele Professor
of Social and Political Theory, Oxford University. Author of The
British People (with R. W. Postgate) ; World in Transition.

G.D.H.L. Air Races and Records

GEORGE DAVID HOUGH LINTON. Former Press Officer,
Ministry of Civil Aviation, London Airport.

Ge.Bu. Hospitals (in part)

GEORGE BUGBEE. Executive Director, American Hospital
Association, Chicago.

Ge.C. Christian Science

GEORGE CHANNING. Manager, Christian Science Committees
on Publication, Boston, Massachusetts.

G.E.L. Ear, Nose and Throat, Diseases of (in part)

GEORGE E. LIEBERMAN, M.D. Associate, in Otolaryngology,
University of Pennsylvania Graduate School of Medicine, Phila-
delphia.

G.E.R.D. Oceanography

GEORGE EDWARD RAVEN DEACON, D.Sc., F.R.S. Deputy
Chief Scientific Officer, Royal Naval Scientific Service, Great Britain.

G.Hb. Floods and Flood Control (in part)

GENE HOLCOMB. Deputy Chief, Technical Information Division,
Office of the Chief of Engineers, Department of the Army,
Washington.

G.H.Ba. Lacrosse

GEORGE HENRY BARK. Hon. Secretary, English Lacrosse
Union.

CONTRIBUTORS

G.H.Be. Genetics

GEOFFREY HERBERT BEALE, M.B.E., Ph.D. Lecturer in
Genetics, University of Edinburgh.

G.H.B1. Local Government (in part)

GEORGE HAROLD BANWELL. Secretary, Association of
Municipal Corporations, London.

G.H.H. International Court of Justice

GREEN H. HACKWORTH, B.A., LL.B., Hon.LL.D. Judge,
International Court of Justice, The Hague. Author of Digest of
International Law.

G.H.M.F. Canning Industry (in part)

GEORGE HENRY MORRIS FARLEY, B.Sc. Editor, The Canning
Industry and Tin-Printer and Box Maker, London.

G.Hs. Hemp; Jute

GORDON HUGHES. Managing Director, British-Continental
Trade Press, Ltd.; Editor, Jute and Canvas Review, London. Author
of Jute Markets and Prices; etc.

GJ.Wk. Speedway Racing

GEOFFREY JOHNSON WOODCOCK. Secretary, Speedway
Riders' Association, Great Britain.

G.L.B.S. Television (in part)

GEORGE LISLE BEERS, Sc.D. Assistant Director of Engineering,
RCA Victor Division, Radio Corporation of America, Camden,
New Jersey.

G.L.W. Refugees

GEORGE L. WARREN, A.B. Adviser on Refugees and Displaced
Persons, U.S. Department of State, Washington.

G.M.C. Ear, Nose and Throat, Diseases of (in part)

GEORGE MORRISON COATES, M.D. Emeritus Professor of
Otolaryngology, Medical School and Graduate School of Medicine,
University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.

G.McA. Housing (in part)

GILBERT MCALLISTER, M.A. Member of Parliament. Author
of Town and Country Planning (with Elizabeth Glen McAllister);
Homes, Towns and Countryside.

G.M.Hy. Newspapers and Magazines (in part)

GRANT M. HYDE, A.M. Professor of Journalism, School of
Journalism, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin.

G.P. Argentina; Brazil; etc.

GEORGE PENDLE, M.A. Writer and Broadcaster on Latin
American alTairs. Author of Much Sky; Impressions of South
America.

G.P.O. Post Office (in part) ; Telephone (in part)

Articles compiled through the courtesy of the Postmaster General,
London.

G.R.Mn. Northern Rhodesia; Southern Rhodesia; etc.

GEORGE ROY NEVILL MORRISON. Journalist. Author of
Farming in East Africa ; Kenya Carols.

G.R.Rr. Fives (in part)

GEOFFREY ROLAND RI.MMER. Chairman, Executive Com-
mittee of the Rugby Fives Association.

G.S.B. Korean War (in part)

GEORGE S. BLANCHARD. Captain, U.S. Army. Assistant to
the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Washington.

G.S.K. Presbyterian Church

GUY SOULLIARD KLETT. Research Historian, Department of
History, The Presbyterian Church in the United States of America.

G.St. Russian Literature

GLEB PETROVICH STRUVE, B.A. Professor of Russian, Univer-
sity of California, Berkeley, California. Author of 25 Years of Soviet
Russian Literature.

G,Wt. Tobacco

GORDON WEST. Editor of Tobacco, London.

H.A.E.S. Badminton

HERBERT A. E. SCHEELE. Hon. Secretary, International Bad-
minton Federation; Secretary, Badminton Association of England.

Editor of the Badminton Gazette, 1946-51.
H.A.Rn. Cold, Common

HOBART A. REIMANN, M.D. Professor of Medicine, Jefferson

Medical College, Philadelphia.
H.B. Motor Cycle and Cycle Industry

HAROLD BRIERCLIFFE. Assistant Editor, Motor Cycle and

Cycle Trader , London.
H.B.Cs. Anthropology (in part)

HENRY B. COLLINS, Jr. Senior Ethnologist, Bureau of American

Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution, Washington.
H.B.S. Heart Diseases

HOWARD BURNHAM SPRAGUE, M.D. Associate Physician,

Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston.
H.Btr. Council of Europe

SIR HAROLD BERESFORD BUTLER, M.A., Hon.LL.D.

Director of the International Labour Office, Geneva, 1932-38;

Warden of Nuffield College, Oxford, 1939-43. Author of The Lost

Peace; Peace or Power.
H.B.Wy. Judiciary, U.S.

HAROLD B. WILLEY. Deputy Clerk, United States Supremo

Court, Washington.
H.C.Ce, Hotels, Restaurants and Inns (in part)

HENRY CHARLES CLARKE. Formerly Secretary of the Hotels

and Restaurants Association of Great Britain. Author of Hotels

and Restaurants as a Career.
H.C.D. Education (in part); Unifcrsities and Colleges; etc.

HAROLD COLLETT DENT, Hon.F.E.I.S., B.A. Editor, The Times

Educational Supplement , London. Author of A New Order in English

Education; Education in Transition; Secondary Education for All;

Part-time Education in Great Britain.

H.C.Ln. Betting and Gambling (in part)

HERBERT CARL LAWTON, B.Sc., Ph.D. Private Consultant.
Chairman, Education and Action for Leisure, London. Author of
Everyman's Leisure.

H.D.Z. Belgian Colonial Empire; Belgium; etc.

HERBERT DAVID ZIMAN, M.A. Leader-writer and special
correspondent of the Daily Telegraph, London.

He.Br. Banking (in part)

HENRY BRUfcRE. Chairman of the Board, The Bowery Savings
Bank, New York.

H.E.Hn. Squash Rackets

HENRY ERIC HAYMAN. Secretary, Squash Rackets Association,
London.

H.G.N. Congress, U.S.

HERBERT GEORGE NICHOLAS, M.A. Fellow, Librarian,
Tutor and Lecturer in Politics and Modern History, Exeter College,
Oxford; Faculty Fellow, Nuffield College, Oxford; Lecturer in
Politics, Oxford University.

H.G.Rn. India; Kashmir; Pakistan

HUGH GEORGE RAWLINSON, M.A., F.R.A.S. Indian Educa-
tional Service (retired). Author of India, a short Cultural History;
British Beginnings in Western India; The British Achievement in
India.

H.G.S. Shipbuilding (in part)

H. GERRISH SMITH. Chairman of the Board, Shipbuilders
Council of America.

H.H.Ik. Soil Conservation (in part)

'HUGH H. BENNETT. Chief, Soil Conservation Service, U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Washington.

H.ls. Hong Kong

WILLIAM HAROLD ING RAMS, C.M.G., O.B.E. Colonial
Office, London. Author of Arabia and the Isles; Seven across the
Sahara.

H.J.A. Narcotics

H. J. ANSLINGER. Commissioner of Narcotics, Treasury Depart-
ment, Washington. U.S. Representative on the United Nations
Commission on Narcotic Drugs. Member, Committee on Narcotic
Drugs and Drug Addiction, National Research Council. Author of
The Physician and the Federal Narcotic Law; etc.

H.Jn. Iceland

HALLD6R J6NASSON. Department of Statistics, Government
of Iceland, Reykjavik.

H.Js. Town and Country Planning (in part)

HARLEAN JAMES, A.B. Executive Secretary, American Planning
and Civic Association and National Conference on State Parks;
Secretary-Treasurer, Joint Committee on the National Capitol.
Author of Land Planning for the City, State and Nation; Romance
of the National Parks.

H.J.S. Suez Canal

HUGH JOSEPH SCHONF1ELD. Author of The Suez Canal; etc.

H.L. Golf (in part)

HENRY CARPENTER LONGHURST, B.A. Author of Golf; etc.

H.L.B. Fives (in part)

HEDLEY LE BAS, B.A. Hon. Secretary, Eton Fives Association.

H.Ln. Denmark; Greenland; etc.

HELCJE LARSEN, M.A. Teacher at Nyk0bing Katedralskole,
Denmark. Author of Politiske Crundtauker (Political Ideas); Contri-
butor to Defem lauge ar (The five long years).

H.L.T. Rubber (in part)

HARLXN L. TRUMBULL. Vice President in charge of research,
The B.F. Goodrich Company, Brecksville, Ohio.

H.M.H. . American Literature

HARRISON.M. HAYFORD, Ph.D. Assistant Professor of English,
Northwestern University, Evanstown, Illinois..

H.Mnt. Crime (in part)

HERMANN MANNHEIM, Dr. jur. Reader in Criminology in
the University of London. Author of Social Aspects of Crime in
England between the Wars; Criminal Justice and Social Recon-
struction; etc.

H.M.P. Housing (in part); etc.

HENRY M. PROPPER. Housing Consultant; Lecturer, Division
of Graduate Studies, Brooklyn College, Brooklyn, New York.
Former Executive Vice President, National Committee on Housing.

H.M.W. Psychology

HELEN M. WOLFLE. Managing Editor, American Psychologist.

H.Ra. Dermatology

HERBERT RATTNER, M.D. Professor of Dermatology, North-
western University, Evanstown, Illinois.

H.R.MI. Luxembourg

H. R. MADOL. Commissioner of Information, Legation of the
Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, London.

H.R.V. Psychiatry

HENRY R. VIETS, M.D. Lecturer on Neurology, Harvard Medical
School; Neurologist, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston.
Librarian, Boston Medical Library.

H.S.A. Cricket

HARRY SURTEES ALTHAM, D.S.O., M.C., M.A. Master at
Winchester College, Hampshire. Treasurer of the M.C.C., London.
Chairman of the M.C.C. Enquiry Committee. Author of A History
of Cricket.

H.S.D. Egypt; etc.

HERBERT STANLEY DEIGHTON, M.A., B.Litt. Fellow, Dean,
Chaplain and Lecturer in Classics and Modern History, Pembroke
College, Oxford; Former Visiting Professor, Fuad I University,
Cairo.

H.Su. Accidents (in part)

HELEN ISABEL SUTHERLAND, M.Inst.T.A., F.C.T.S.,
F. Comm. A. Secretary, The Royal Society for, the Prevention of
Accidents, London.

Xtl

CONTRIBUTORS

H.S.Vg. Air Forces of the World (in part)

HOY T S. VANDENBERG. Chief of Staff, United States Air Forces,
Washington.

H.S.-W. Czechoslovakia; Hungary; Yugoslavia; etc.

GEORGE HUGH NICHOLAS SETON-WATSON, M.A. Fellow
and Praelector in Politics, University College, Oxford; Lecturer in
Politics, Oxford University. Author of Pastern Europe Between the
Wars, 19 18-4 I; The East European Revolution', etc.

H.W.Dg. Prisoners of War; Red Cross

HENRY W. DUNNING. Executive Secretary, League of Red
Cross Societies, Geneva, Switzerland.

H.W.Iflk. Child Welfare (in part)

HOWARD W. HOPKIRK, A.B. Senior Consultant, Child Welfare
League of America, Inc.

H.W.Le P. British Anrty

H. VV. Le PREVOST. Major, British Army. Information Division,
Ministry of Supply, London; formerly of Directorate of Public
Relations, War Omce, London.

H.W.Pe. Friends, the Religious Society of

HUBERT WILLIAM PEET. Formerly Editor, The Friend, London.

H./. Wild Life Conservation (In part)

HOWARD 7AHNISER. Executive Secretary, The Wilderness
Society (U.S.A.). Editor, The Living Wilderness, Book editor,
Nature Magazine,

I.Cg. Post Office (in part)

ISAAC GREGG. Former Director of Press Relations, Office of the
Postmaster, Washington.

l.L.BI. Linen and Flax; etc.

IRENE BLUNT. Secretary, The National Federation of Textiles,
Inc., New York.

I. M.S. Hawaii

INGRAM M. STAINBACK. Governor of Hawaii.

I. Mu. Table Tennis

HON. IVOR MONTAGU, M.A. Chairman, English Table Tennis
Association; President, International Table Tennis Federation.
Author of Table Tennis Today ; Table Tennis.

l.R.M.M. Architecture (in part)

IAN ROBERT MORE McCALLUM, A.R.I.B.A., A.A.dipt.
Editor, The Architectural Review. Editor of Physical Planning'.
The Groundwork of a New Technique.

l.W.R. Words and Meanings, New (in part)

I. WILLIS RUSSELL. Chairman of the Research Committee on
New Words of the American Dialect Society which prepared the
American contributions to the article. The Committee consisted
(1950) of Henry Alexander, O. B. Emerson, Atcheson L. Hench,
Albert H. Marckwardt, Mamie J. Meredith and Peter Tamony.

J.A.F. Archaeology (in part)

JAMES A. FORD. Assistant Curator of North American Arch-
aeology, American Museum of Natural History, New York.

J.A.G. Furniture Industry (in part)

JEROME ARTHUR GARY. Editor, Furniture Age, Chicago.
Author of The Romance of Period Furniture', etc.

J.A.Hu. Conlirtonwealth of Nations (in part); etc.

JOHN ANTHONY HUTTON, B.A. Formerly research assistant,
Institute of Colonial Studies, Oxford.

J.A.MK Electric Transport (in part)

JOHN ANDERSON MILLER, Ph.B. GeneraJ Electric Company,
Schenectady, New York. Author of Fares Please ; Me n and Volts
at War; etc.

J.A.Rs. Greyhound Racing

JOSEPH ALEXANDER RICHARDS. Managing Editor, Grey-
hound Owner and Breeder ; London.

J.A.S.R. Coal

JOHN ANTHONY SYDNEY R1TSON, D.S.O., O.B.E., M.C.,
T.D., B.Sc., M.I.M.E. Professor of Mining in the University of
London at the Royal School of Mines, Imperial College, London.

J.Bs. Gynaecology and Obstetrics

JOSEPHINE BARNES, M.A., D.M., M.R.C.P., F.R.C.S.,
M.R.C.O.G. Assistant, Obstetric Unit, University College Hospital,
London. Assistant Obstetrician and gynaecologist, Elizabeth
Garrett Anderson Hospital, London, etc. Author of Gynaecological
Histology.

J.Bx. Shops and Department Stores

JOHN BAXTER, B.Com., Ph.D.(Econ). Head of Research Depart-
ment, Marks and Spencer, Ltd., London.

J.C.G. Polo

JACK ROSE COMPTON GANNON, C.B.E., M.V.O., Writer on
polo; formerly Manager and Secretary, the Hurlingham Club.

J.C.G.J. Wales

J. C. GRIFFITH JONES. Journalist and Broadcaster; Welsh
Correspondent, Observer, London.

J.Chn. Archaeology (in part)

JOHN CHARLTON, M.A., F.S.A. Inspectorate of Ancient Monu-
ments, England; Excavator of Roman and Mediaeval sites.

.I.C.P.P. Osteopathy

JOCELYN CAMPBELL PATRICK PROBY, M.A., B.Litt., D.O.
Member, General Council and Register of Osteopaths, Ltd., London.
Author of Essay on Osteopathy; The Relation of Micro-Organisms
to Disease; etc.

J.Cw. Music (In part)

JOHN CULSHAW. Author, lecturer and broadcaster on music.
Author of Sergei Rachmaninov; The Concerto.

J.C.Wn. Tunnels

JOHN CROSSLEY WADDINGTON, M.Inst.C.E., M.A.S.C.E.
Chief Engineer, A. Waddington and Son, Ltd., London.

J.De. Taxation (in part)

JOHN DANE, Jr., Partner, Choate, Hall and Stewart, Boston,
Massachusetts.

J.E.Ce. Tea

JOYCE EVELYN CUTMORE. Economic Assistant, Common-
wealth Economic Committee, London.

J.K.N. Livestock (in part)

JAMES EDWARD NICHOLS, M.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S.Ed. Professor
of Agriculture (Animal Husbandry) in the University of Wales at
the University College of Wales, Aberystwyth. Author of Livestock
improvement.

J.E.Sp. Philippines

JOSEPH E. SPENCER. Associate Professor of Geography, Univer-
sity of California, Los Angeles.

J.E.Ss. Northern Ireland

JOHN EDWARD SAYERS. Political Correspondent, Belfast
Telegraph.

J.E.Wi. Germany; Berlin

JOHN EMLYN WILLIAMS, M.A., Ph.D. Central European
Correspondent, the Christian Science Monitor, Boston, Massachusetts.

Ice Hockey (in part)
Secretary to the British

Mental Diseases

i.S., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.,
Royal Hospital and the

Finland

Staff Tutor, Cambridge
Author of Finland; The

J.F.A.

JOHN FRANCIS AHEARNE, F.C.I.S.
Ice Hockey Association.

J.G.H.

JOHN GERARD HAMILTON, M.D., B
D.P.M. Consultant Psychiatrist, Bethlem
Maudsley Hospital, London.
J.H.Jn.

JOHN HAMPDEN JACKSON, M.A.
University Board of Extra Mural Studies.
Between-War World; etc.

J.HI. Civil Defence

SIR JOHN HODSOLL, Wing Commander, Royal Air Force.
Director General, Civil Defence Training, Home Office, London.

J.H.L. Unitarian Church (in part)

JOHN HOWLAND LATHROP, D.D. Minister, the First Unitarian
Congregational Society in Brooklyn, New York; Member, Board of
Directors, American Unitarian Association.

J.H.Ps. London University

J. HOOD PHILLIPS, M.A. Secretary to the Senate, University of
London.

J.Kd. Water Supply (in part); etc.

JULIUS KENNARD, B.Sc.(Eng.), M.I.C.E., M.I.W.E., M. Cons.E.
Chartered civil engineer; Partner of Edward Sandeman, Kcnnard
and Partners, Westminster, London.

J.K.L. Banking (in part); Federal Reserve System

JOHN K. LANGUM. Vicc-President, Federal Reserve Bank of
Chicago.

J.K.R. Agriculture (in part); Meat (in part); etc.

JOHN KERR ROSE, A.M., Ph.D., J.D. Geographer, Legislative
Reference Service, Library of Congress, Washington.

J.Ky. Unitarian Church (in part)

JOHN KIELTY. Secretary, General Assembly, Unitarian and Free
Christian Churches, London.

J.LaF. Pius XII; Roman Catholic Church (in part)

JOHN LaFARGE, S. J. Associate Editor, America, National
Catholic Weekly, New York.

J.L.Be. Patents

JOHN LUCIAN BLAKE, M.Sc. Barrister-at-Law. Comptroller
General, Patent Office, London.

J.L.-Ee. Puerto Rico

JUAN LABADIE-EURITE, M.S.(Agric.). Chief, Division of
Statistics, Bureau of the Budget, San Juan, Puerto Rico.

J.L.Ms. Atomic Energy (in part)

JOHN LOUIS MICHIELS, Ph.D., A.R.C.S. Lecturer in Physics,
Imperial College, London.

J.Ln. South Africa, Union of; etc.

JULIUS LEWIN, B.A., LL.B. Barrister-at-Law. Advocate of the

Supreme Court qf South Africa. Senior Lecturer in Native Law and

Administration, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg.

Joint Editor, African Studies; Author of Studies in African Native

Law; etc.
J.Lwh. Jewry, World

JOSEPH LEFTWICH. Author of Yisroel; What Will Happen to

the Jews; The Tragedy of Anti-Semitism; etc.

J.M.Br. Juvenile Delinquency

JOSEPHINE MACALISTER BREW, M.A., LL.D. Education
Adviser, National Association of Girls' Clubs and Mixed Clubs.
Author of Informal Education; In the Service of Youth; etc.

J.McA. Chile; Uruguay

JOHN McADAMS. Former Instructor of Latin American History
and Government, University of Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras, Puerto
Rico.

J.Of. Lawn Tennis (in part)

JOHN SHELDON OLLIFF. Lawn Tennis Correspondent, Daily
Telegraph, London. Author of OUiff on Tennis; Lawn Tennis; The
Romance of Wimbledon.

CONTRIBUTORS

xni

Jo.Ms. National Health Service; National Insurance

JOHN MOSS, C.B.E. Barrister-at-Law. Author of Health and
Welfare Services Handbook; Editor of Local Government Law and
Legislation.

J.P.D. Boxing (in part)

JAMES P. DAWSON, Writer on Baseball and Boxing, The New
York Times.

J.P.V.Z. Aviation, Civil (in part)

J. PACKER VAN ZANDT, B.S., Ph.D. Deputy Assistant Secretary
of the U.S. Air Force, Washington. Author of Civil Aviation and
Peace; etc.

J.R.Ay. Nationalization

JOHN RAYNER APPLEBEY, M.A. Leader Writer, Financial
Times, London.

J.R.Ra. Agriculture

JOHN ROSS RAEBURN, B.Sc.(Agric.), M.S., M.A., Ph.D. Reader
in Agricultural Economics, University of London.

J.S.L. Anaesthesiology

JOHN S. LUNDY, M.D. Professor of Anaesthesiology, University
of Minnesota Graduate School, Minneapolis. Head, Section on
Anaesthesiology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota.

J.Sto. Electronics (in part)

JAMES STOKLEY, B.S.(Ed.), M.S. Publicity Representative,
General Electric Research Laboratory, Schenectady, New York.
Author of Science Xemakes Our World; Electrons in Action; Editor
of Science Marches On.

J.W.D. Canoeing

JOHN WEBSTER DUDDERIDGE, B.Sc. Hon. Secretary, the
British Canoe Union. Master in Charge of Physical Education at the
Haberdashers' Aske's School, Hampstead.

J.W.Fr. Bowls

JOHN WILLIAM FISHER, M.R.C.S., D.P.H., D.P.M. Bowls
correspondent, Western Morning News, Express and Echo, etc.
Author of A New Way to Better Bowls; Bowls; etc.

J.W.Ce. Electric Transport (in part)

JOHN WATK1N GRIEVE, B.Sc., A.M.I.E.E. Assistant (Schemes
and Calculations), Electrical Engineering New Works and Develop-
ment Section, The Railway Executive, London.

J.W.J. Electric Power (in part)

JOHN W. JENKINS. Publications Division, Federal Power Com-
mission, Washington.

J.W.Mw. Reparations; etc.

JOSEPH W. MARLOW, A.B., LL.B. Lawyer. Former Editor and
Research Analyst, Military Intelligence Service, U.S. War Depart-
ment.

K.Bn. Libraries (in part)

KARL BROWN, A.B., LL.B. Associate Bibliographer and Editor
of Publications, New York Public Library. Editor, Library Journal,
New York.

K.E.H. Dairy Farming (in part); etc.

KENNETH EDWARD HUNT, M.A., Dipl.Agric. Demonstrator in
Agricultural Economics, Oxford University.

K.E.R. Gold Coast ; Nigeria ; etc.

KENNETH ERNEST ROBINSON, M.A. Official Fellow of
Nuffield College, Oxford; Reader in Colonial Administration,
Oxford University.

K.G.B. British Borneo; Kenya; etc.

KENNETH GRANVILLE BRADLEY, B.A., C.M.G. Editor of
Corona. Author of Diary of a District Officer; The Colonial Service
as a Career.

K.Sm. Eastern European Economic Planning; Poland; etc.

KAZIMIERZ MAC1EJ SMOGORZEWSKI. Foreign Correspon-
dent; Founder and Editor, Free Europe, London. Author of The
United States and Great Britain; Poland 1 s Access to the Sea; etc.

K.W. Petroleum

KENNETH WILLIAMS, B.A. London Correspondent, Al Ahram.
Author of Britain and the Mediterranean; Ibn Sa'ud.

L.A.L. Insurance (in part)

LEROY A. LINCOLN. Chairman of the Board, Metropolitan
Life Insurance Company, New York.

L.A.WI. Telephone (in part)

LEROY A. WILSON. President, American Telephone and Telegraph
Company, New York.

L.B.E. Sewerage

LEONARD BUSHBY ESCRITT, A.M.I.C.E., F.I.San.E.,
M.R.San. I., Hon.M.inst.S.P., F.G.S. Senior Engineer, G. B. Ker-
shaw and Kaufman, consulting engineers, London.

L.Bp. Canada

LESLIE BISHOP, M.A. Author and Lecturer; former London
correspondent of the Winnipeg Free Press, Winnipeg, Canada.

L.de B.H. Swimming (in part)

LOUIS de BREDA HANDLEY. Honorary Coach, Women's
Swimming Association of New York. Author of Swimming for
Women; etc.

L.D.L. Painting (in part)

LESTER D. LONGMAN. Head of Art Department, University of
Iowa. Author of History and Appreciation of Art; Outline of Art
History.

L.E.F. Insurance (in part)

LAURENCE E. FALLS. Secretary-Treasurer, Insurance Institute
of America, Inc., New York.

L.E.Ms. Dyestuffs (in pan) ; etc.

LAURENCE EDMUND MORRIS. Editor, Dyer, London.

L.F.C. Methodist Church (in part)

LESLIE FREDERIC CHURCH, B.A., Ph.D., F.R.Hist.S. Editor-
in-Chief to the Methodist Church in Great Britain and Ireland.
Author of The Early Methodist People; The Knight of the Burning
heart; A Life of John Wesley; etc.

L.Fi. Rome

LIANA FERRI. Journalist and film script writer, Rome.

L.Gu. Local Government (in part)

LUTHER GULICK, A.M., Ph.D., Litt.D. President, Institute of
Public Administration, New York. Author of Administrative
Reflections from World War II; etc.

L.Hdn. Gas

LESLIE HARRY HARDERN, B.A. Public Relations Officer,
North Thames Gas Board, London. Joint author of Physical Planning.

L.Hmn. South African Literature (in pan)

LOUIS HERRMAN, M.A., Ph.D. Examiner in English for the
Joint Matriculation Board of South Africa. Author of In the Sealed
Cave: A Scientific Fantasy.

L.J.D.R. Classical Studies

LEOPOLD JOHN DIXON RICHARDSON, M.A. Professor of
Greek, University College, Cardiff; Hon. Secretary, Classical
Association.

L.K.M. International Trade

LORING K. MACY. Deputy Director, Office of International
Trade, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington.

L.L. Furniture Industry (in pan}

LESLIE LEWIS. Editor, Furnishing World and British Furnishing.
Author of Furniture Facts.

L.M. Football (in pan}

LAURENCE MONTAGUE, B.A. Sports Editor of the Manchester
Guardian.

L.M.GH. United Nations

LELAND M. GOODRICH. Professor of International Organization
and Administration, Columbia University, New York. Co-author of
Charter of the United Nations: Commentary and Documents.

L.M.K. Biochemistry

LLOYD M. KO/LOFF. Research associate. Department of Bio-
chemistry, University of Chicago.

L.M.W. Alaska

LEW M. WILLIAMS. Secretary of Alaska, United States Depart-
ment of the Interior, Juneau, Alaska.

L.N. Gymnastics

LEONORRISS, Dipl.Phys.Ed. Schoolmaster, Hertfordshire County
Council.

Ln.M. Dance (In part)

LILLIAN MOORE. Concert Dancer. Choreographer for NCB
Opera Television Series. American Correspondent, Dancing Times,
London. Former Soloist, Metropolitan Opera Ballet, New York.

L.O.P. Cinema (in part)

LOUELLA O. PARSONS. Editor, Motion Picture Department,
International News Service. Author of The Cay Illiterate; How To
Write in the Movies.

L.Pa. English Literature (in part)

LUKE THORNBROUGH PARSONS. Contributor to The Fort-
nightly, 'Scots Review, Today and Tomorrow, etc. Author of Clough
Plays Murder.

L.Rb. t Baseball

LOWELL RglDfeNBAUGH. Member of the staff, The Sporting
News, St. Louis, Missouri.

L.Rs. Balance of Payments

LASZLO ROSTAS, Ll.D., Dr.rer.pol. Research Statistician,
Board of Trade, London. Author of Comparative Productivity in
British and American Industry; part-author of Taxation of War
Wealth.

L.V.D. Field Sports

LEONARD VINCENT DODDS. Editor, The Field, London.

L.W.B. Boy Scouts (in part)

LORNE W. BARCLAY. National Director of Publications, Boy
Scouts of America.

L.Wd. Boxing (in part)

LAINSON WOOD. Boxing Correspondent and Assistant Sports
Editor, Daily Telegraph, London.

L.W.F. Prisons (in part)

LIONEL WRAY FOX, C.B., M.C. Chairman, Prison Commission
for England and Wales. Author of The Modern English Prison.

L.Wo. Trade Unions (in part)

LEO WOLMAN, Ph.D., LL.D. Professor of Economics, Columbia
University, New York. Author of Ebb and Flow in Trade Unionism;
etc.

L.W.R. Friends, Religious Society of (in part)

LYMAN W. RILEY. Assistant Librarian, Friends Historical
Library of Swarthroore College, Swarthmore, Pennsylvania.

M.Ab. Investments Abroad (in pan)

MILTON ABELSON. Economic Analyst, Washington.

Ma.Br. Turkey; etc.

MALCOLM BURR, D.Sc., A.R.S.M., F.R.Ent.Soc. Author of
In Bolshevik Siberia; Slouch Hat; The Insect Legion; etc.

M.A.Me. Horse Racing (in part)

MICHAEL AUSTIN MELFORD, B.A. Sporting Correspondent,
Daily Telegraph, London. ,

XIV

CONTRIBUTORS

M.Blf. Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (in part)', etc.

MAX BELOFF, B.Litt., M.A. Faculty Fellow, Nuffield College,
Oxford; Reader in the Comparative Study of Institutions, Oxford
University. Author of The foreign Policy of Soviet Russia, 1929-1941.

M.C.G. Arts Council of Great Britain

MARY CECILIA GLASGOW, C.B.E., B.A. Secretary General,

Arts Council of Great Britain.
IVI.D.Cn. Plastics Industry

MAURICE DELOISNE CUR WEN, B.Sc., A.R.l.C. Editor,

Plastics* London. Author of Plastics in Industry; etc.
M.Dk. Holy Year; Roman Catholic Church; etc.

JOHN MICHAEL DERRICK. Assistant Editor, Tablet, London;

Editor, Catholic Almanac. Author of Eastern Catholics under

Soviet Rule; etc.
M.Ds. Iron and Steel (in part)

MAX EMIL DAVIES, B.A. Public Relations Officer, British Iron

and Steel Research Association. Joint Editor of the Handbook of

Steel and Steel Products', Author of The Story of Steel.
M.Dw. Law and Legislation (in part)

MITCHELL DAWSON, Ph.B., J.D. -Lawyer and Writer. Former

Editor. Chicago Bar Record.
M.F.de C. Virgin Islands

MORRIS F. DE CASTRO. Governor of the U.S. Virgin Islands.
M.Fe. Trust Territories

MAURICE FANSHAWE, B.A. Author of Permanent Court of

International Justice', Armaments', The Covenant Explained; etc.
M.Fi. Medicine (in part); etc.

MORRIS FISHBEIN, M.D. Editor, Excetpia Medico', Contributing

Editor, Postgraduate Medicine (U.S.A.).
M.F.T. Food Research (in part)

MARTHA F. TRULSON. Research Associate in Nutrition, School

of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts.

M.G.C. Water Supply (in part)

MARTIN G. GLAESER. Professor of Economics, University of
Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin.

M.Gt. Budget, National (in part); National Income (in part); efr ,

MILTON GILBERT. Chief. National Income Division, U.S.
Department of Commerce. Author of Currency Depreciation and
Monetary Policy; National Income and Product Static f ! cs of the U.S.

M.H.Sm. Air Forces of the World (in part)

MAURICE H. SMITH. Librarian, Institute of the Aeronautical
Sciences, New York.

M.Jol. French Literature; Paris; etc.

MARIA JOLAS (Mrs. Eugene Jolas). Writer and Critic, Paris.

M.L.M. Colombia; Costa Rica; etc.

MAX L. MOORHEAD. Assistant Professor of History, University
of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma.

M .Ml. Betting and Gambling (in part)

S. MICHAEL MacDOUGALL. Author of Gamblers Don't Gamble;
Card Mastery; MacDougall on Dice and Cards; MacDougall on
Pinochle; etc.

M.N. Bacteriology

MILAN VACLAV NOVAK. Professor and Head of Department of
Bacteriology, Univ. of Illinois College of Medicine, Chicago;
Bacteriologist in Chief, Research and Educational Hospital Con-
sultant on Bacteriology, Veterans Administration, Hines Hospital;
Associate Dean of the Graduate College, University of Illinois,
Chicago. *

M.S.F. ' Japan

MIRIAM S. FARLEY. Editor, Far Eastern Survey, American
Institute of Pacific Relations. Author of The Problem of Japanese
Trade Expansion; Aspects of Japan's Labor Problems.

M.Si. Printing (in part)

MacD. SINCLAIR. Editor, Printing Equipment Engineer, Cleveland,

Ohio.
N.A.D.W. Art Exhibitions (in part); Painting (in part); etc.

NEVILE ARTHUR DOUGLAS WALLIS, F.R.S.A. Art Critic

of the Observer, London. Author of Fin de Siccle.
N.B.D. National Parks (in part)

NEWTON B. DRURY, B.L., LL.B. Director, National Park Service,

U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington.
N.Bh. Jerusalem

NORMAN BENTWICH, Hon. LL.D., M.A. Professor at the

Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Author of Palestine; Judea Lives

Again; etc.

N.C.B. Timber (in part)

NELSON C. BROWN, A.B., M.F. Professor in Charge of Forest
Utili/ation, New York State College of Forestry, Syracuse University,
New York.

N.E.W. Plague

NEWTON E. WAYSON, A.B., M.D. Former Medical Officer in
Charge, Plague Investigations, U.S. Public Health Service, San
Francisco.

N.F.S. Munitions of War (in part)

NATHANIEL F. SILSBEE. Colonel, United States Air Force
Reserve. Contributing Editor, Aviation Age, Skyways. Co-author of
Jet Propulsion Progress.

N.McW. Athletics (In part); Empire Games

NORRIS DEWAR McWHIRTER, M.A. Contributor Track and
Field News (U.S.A.), the Athlete (London); etc, Author of Get to
Your Marks.

N.Mgh. Commonwealth of Nations (In part)

NICHOLAS SETON MANSERGH, O.B.E., B.Litt, M.A., D.Phil.
Abe Bailey Research Professor of British Commonwealth Relations,
Royal Institute of International Affairs, London. Author of The
Commonwealth and the Nations; Britain and Ireland.

N.N. Country Life

NORMAN NICHOLSON. Poet and critic, Millom, Cumberland.
Authot of Cumberland and Westmorland; Five Rivers; The Old
Man of the Mountains.

O.F.K. Norway; Oslo

OLE FERDINAND KNUDSEN, M.Sc.(Econ.). Assistant Press
Attach^ to the Royal Norwegian Embassy, London.

O.M.G. China; Peking

OWEN MORTIMER GREEN, B.A. Far Eastern Specialist, the
Observer, London. Author of The Foreigner in Chine; Story of the
Chinese Revolution; etc.

O.R.F. Physics

OTTO ROBERT FRISCH, D.Phil., F.R.S., O.B.E. Fellow of
Trinity College, Cambridge; Jacksonian Professor of Natural
Philosophy, Cambridge University. Author of Meet the Atoms;
editor of Progress in Nuclear Physics.

O.S.T. World Council of Churches

OLIVER STRATFORD TOMKINS, M.A. Associate General
Secretary, World Council of Churches. 'Author of The Wholeness
of the Church.

O.Tw. Arabia; Arab League; etc.

OWEN MEREDITH TWEEDY, B.A. Retired Government Officer.
Author of By Way of the Sahara; Russia at Random; Cairo to Persia
and Back.

P.A.Sd. Meteorology

PERCIVAL ALBERT SHEPPARD, B.Sc., F.Inst.P. Assistant
Professor of Meteorology, Imperial College, London; Reader in
Meteorology, London University. Author of " The Earth's Atmos-
phere " in A Century of Science.

P.Br. Billiards and Snooker (in part)

PETER BRANDWEIN. Sports Writer, The New York Times;
Editor, sports section, Information Please Almanac.

P.Dn. English Literature (in part)

PATRIC DICKINSON, B.A. Author of Theseus and the Minotaur;
Stone in the Midst and Poems.

P.Eg. Budget, National (in part); Taxation (in part); etc.

PAUL EINZIG, D.Sc.(Pol. and Econ.). Political Correspondent,
Financial Times, London. Author of Primitive Money; The Theory
of Forward Exchange; etc.

P.H.-M. British West Indies; Caribbean Commission; etc.

PHILIP HEWITT-MYR1NG. Public Relations Adviser. Articles
written on behalf of the Development and Welfare Organization
in the West Indies.

P.H.M.-B. Tropical Diseases

SIR PHILIP HENRY MANSON-BAHR, C.M.G., D.S.O., M.A.,
M.D., F.R.C.P., M.R.C.S., D.T.M. and H., F.2.S. Consulting
Physician, Hospital for Tropical Diseases, London. Author of
Life and Work of Sir Patrick Manson; Dysenteric Disorders; editor
01 Manson's Tropical Diseases. 7th-13th ed.; etc.

P.H.P. Chemistry

PETER HARIOLF PLESCH, M.A., Ph.D., A.R.l.C. Lecturer in
Physical Chemistry, University College of North Staffordshire,
Stoke-on-Trent.

P.J.A.C. Liberal Movement

PETER J. A. CALVOCORESSL Survey Department, Royal
Institute of International Affairs, London. Author of Nuremberg.

P.M.S. Botanical Gardens (in part); Horticulture

PATRICK MILLINGTON SYNGE, M.A., F.L.S., F.R.G.S.
Editor to the Royal Horticultural Society. Author of Mountains
of the Moon ; Plants with Personality ; etc.

P.O'S. Johnstone, William Raphael

PETER JOHN O'SULLEVAN. Racing Correspondent, Daily
Express, London; radio commentator, etc.

P.Ss. Insurance (in part)

PERCY STEBBINGS. Insurance Editor; Correspondent to Financial
Times; Bankers' Magazine; Investors Chronicle, London; etc,

P.Ta. Employment (in part); Strikes and Lockouts (in part)

PHILIP TAFT, B.A., Ph.D. Professor of Economics, Brown
University. Providence, Rhode Island. Author of Economics and
Problems of Labor; etc.

P.W.H. Photography (in part)

PERCY WOOTTON HARRIS, Hon.F.R.P.S., M.R.I. Former
President, Royal Photographic Society, London. Editor of Miniature
Camera Magazine, London.

Q.W. International Law

QUINCY WRIGHT, A.M., Ph.D., LL.D. Professor of International
Law, University of Chicago. Author of A Study of War; etc.

R.A.Bn. Advertising (in part)

ROGER A. BARTON. Editor, Advertising Agency Magazine and
Advertising Handbook, New York. Lecturer in Advertising, Columbia
University, New York.

Ra.L. Endocrinology (in part)

RACHMIEL LEVINE, M.D. Director of Metabolic and Endocrine
Research, Michael Reese Hospital; Professorial Lecturer, Depart-
ment of Physiology, University of Chicago. Co-author of Carbo-
hydrate Metabolism.

CONTRIBUTORS

R.Ba. Consumer Credit (in part)

ROBERT BARTELS. Associate Professor of Marketing, Ohio
State University, Columbus, Ohio. Co-author of Credits and
Collections in Theory and Practice.

R.C.-W. Philosophy

RUPERT CRAWSHAY-WILLIAMS. B.A. Writer on Philosophy
and the Psychology of Language and Reasoning. Author of The
Comforts of Unreason; A Study of the Motives behind Irrational
Thought.

R.D.B. Rowing

RICHARD DESBOROUGH BURNELL, B.A. Rowing Corres-
pondent, The Times, London. Editor, British Rowing Almanack.

R.E.Bs. Literary Prizes (in part)

RUTH ELLEN BAINS, B.A. Assistant Book Editor, R. R. Bowker
Company, New York.

R.E.E.H. Baptist Church

REUBEN E. E. HARKNESS, M.A., B.D., Ph.D. President, The
American Baptist Historical Society. Professor of Christianity,
Crozer Seminary, Chester, Pennsylvania.

R.F.Am. British Council

GENERAL SIR RONALD FORBES ADAM, Bt., G.C.B., D.S.O.,
O.B.E. Chairman and Director-General of the British Council.

R.F.G.C. Congregational Churches

RALPH FORMAN GODLEY CALDER, M.A., B.D. Secretary,
Colonial Missionary Society; Secretary, Congregational Fund Board.
Former Editor, Scottish Congregationalist; Editor, British Missionary,

R.G.D.A. Prices (In part)

ROY GEORGE DOUGLAS ALLEN, O.B.E., M.A., D.Sc.(Econ.).
Professor of Statistics, University of London. Author of Mathe-
matical Analysis for Economists; Statistics for Economists; etc.

R.G.L. Inventors, Awards to

RHYS GERRAN LLOYD, M.A., B.Sc. Barrister-at-Law. Secretary
of the Royal Commission on Awards to Inventors. Editor of Kerly
on Trade Marks (7th edition).

R.H.B. Epidemics

R. H. BARRETT, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P. Medical Officer, Ministry
of Health, London.

R.H.Frg. Arthritis

RICHARD HAROLD FREYBERG, M.D. Associate Professor of
Clinical Medicine, Cornell University Medical College; Director,
Department of Internal Medicine and Director of Arthritis Clinic,
Hospital for Special Surgery; Assistant Attending Physician and
Director of Arthritis Clinic, New York Hospital, New York.

R.H.Ls. Museums (in part)

RALPH H. LEWIS. Assistant Chief, Museum Branch, National
Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington.

R.Ho. Billiards and Snooker (in part)

RICHARD HOLT. Editor, Billiard Player, London.

R.H.Ri. Grain Crops; Wheat

RICHARD HOOK RICHENS, M.A. Assistant Director of the
Commonwealth Bureau of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Cambridge.
Author of The New Genetics in the Soviet Union (with P. S. Hudson).

R.I!. SI. Jet Propulsion and Gas Turbines (in part)

REGINALD HERBERT SCHLOTEL, F.R.Ae.S. Deputy Director
of Engine Research and Development, Ministry of Supply, London.

Ri.A.B. Ex-Servicemen's Organizations (in part)

RICHARD A. BROWN. Executive Secretary, Veterans' Organiza-
tions Information Service, New York.

R.Is. Anaemia

RAPHAEL ISAACS, M.A., M.D. Attending Physician in Hacma-
tology, Michael Reese Hospital, Chicago. Co-author of Diseases of
the Blood.

R.J.My. Clothing Industry (in part); Fashion and Dress (in part)

RONALD JOSEPH MURRAY. Features Editor, Men's Wear,
London.

R.Js. Moscow (in part)

RICHARD JONES. Former Editor of British Ally (Britansky
Soyuznik), Moscow. Former Assistant News Editor, Daily Telegraph
and Night News Editor, Daily Mail, London.

R.LFo. Accidents (in part)

R. L. FORNEY. General Secretary, National Safety Council,
Chicago.

R.L.Hs. Hockey

RICHARD LYNTON HOLLANDS. Hockey Correspondent,
Sunday Times and Evening Standard, London.

Rln. Boy Scouts (in part)

LORD ROWALLAN, M.C., T.D., LL.D. Chief Scout of the
British Commonwealth arid Empire.

R.L.S.-R. Radio, Scientific Developments in; etc.

REGINALD LESLIE SMITH-ROSE, D.Sc., Ph.D., D.I.C., A.R.C.S.
Director of Radio Research, Department of Scientific and Industrial
Research, Slough, Buckinghamshire.

R.Man. Cinerta (in part)

ROGER MANVELL, B.A., Ph.D. Director of the British Film
Academy, London. Editor of The Cinema 1950; Author of Film;
Author (with Rachel Low) of History of the British Film ; etc.

R.M.Ge. Soil Conservation (in part)

ROBERT MACLAGAN GORRIE, D.Sc., F.R.S.E. Soil Conserva-
tion Officer, Ceylon. Author of Use and Misuse of Land; Soil and
Water Conservation in the Punjab; etc.

R.N.Ba. Royal Navy

ROBERT NESHAM BAX. Admiral, Royal Navy (retired).

Ro.B. Zoological Gardens (in part)

ROBERT BEAN. Director of the Chicago Zoological Park,
Brookfield, Illinois.

R.R.W.F. Fruit; Market Gardening; etc.

ROGER ROLAND WESTWELL FOLLEY, B.Sc., B.Com. Depart-
mental Demonstrator, Institute for Research in Agricultural
Economics, University of Oxford.

R.S.T. Munitions of War (in part)

ROBERT S. THOMAS, A.M. Military Historian, Historical

Division, Special Staff, War Department, Washington. Author of

The Story of the 30th Division, A.E.F.
R.Sy. Methodist Church (in part)

RALPH STOODY. Executive Director, The Commission on Public

Information of The Methodist Church, U.S.A.
R. Tu. Political Parties, U.S.

RAY TUCKER, B.A. Writer of Syndicated Column, " The National

Whirligig ". Author of The Mirrors of J932; etc.
R.U.C. Skiing

MISS R. U. CROXTON. Secretary, Ski Club of Great Britain.

R.V.B.B. Navies of the World

RAYMOND VICTOR BERNARD BLACKMAN, A.M.I.N.A.,
A.l.Mar.E. Editor, Janes Fighting Ships; Author of Modern World
Book of Ships.

R.W.B. New Zealand Literature

ROBERT WILLIAM BURCHFIELD, M.A. Rhodes Scholar at
Magdalen College, Oxford.

R.W.Cr. Broadcasting (in part)

RUFUS WILLIAM CRATER. Associate Editor, Broadcasting-
Telecasting Magazine, Washington.

R.W.J.K. Young Men's Christian Association (in part)

REGINALD WILLIAM JAMES KEEBLE, B.A. Headquarters
StafY, Young Men's Christian Association, London.

R.Wr. Young Women's Christian Association (in part)

RUTH CHRISTABEL WALDER. National General Secretary,
Young Women's Christian Association of Great Britain.

Prisons (in part)
Former President, American Prison

S.A.L.

SAM A. LEWISOHN.
Association.

S.D.L.R. Peru

SIDNEY DE LA RUE. Financial Consultant to the Peruvian and
Liberian Embassies in Washington.

S.E.Ws. Albania

SEWARD ELIOT WATROUS. Programme Organizer, British
Broadcasting Corporation, London.

S.F.M. Museums (in part)

SYDNEY FRANK MARKHAM, M.A., B.Litt. Former President,
Museums Association, London. Hon. Associate Director, Inter-
national Council of Museums. Author of Museums of the British
Empire; etc.

S.F.Sn. Anthropology (in part)

SOPHIA FELICIA STALLMAN, M.A. Assistant Secretary, Royal
Anthropological Institute, London; Assistant Secretary, Folk-Lore
Society, London.

S.Hr. European Recovery Programme; etc.

SEBASTIAN HAFFNER, Dr.jur. Diplomatic Correspondent,
Observer, London.

S.J.Bkr. Police (in part)

STANISLAUS JOSEPH BAKER, C.B., B.Sc. Assistant Under-
secretary of .State, Home Office, London.

S.L.L. Furs (in part)

SAMUEL LEWIS LAZARUS. Editor, Far Weekly News, London.

S.L.S. Clothing Industry (in part)

STANLEY L. SIMONS, Ph.B., LL.D. Editor, The Clothing Trade
Journal, Director, Garment Technical Institute, U.S.A.

S.McC.L. International Labour Organization

SAMUEL McCUNE LINDSAY. Professor Emeritus of Social
Legislation, Columbia University, New York. Author of Railway
Labor in the U.S.; Emergency Housing Legislation; etc.

S.Nr. Formosa; Pacific Islands, U.S.; etc.

STANLEY NEHMER. Office of International Trade Policy, Depart-
ment of State, Washington. Lecturer in Economics, American
University, Washington.

S.P.J. Air Forces of the World (in part); etc.

S. PAUL JOHNSTON. Director, Institute of the Aeronautical
Sciences, New York.

S.Ps. Philately

STANLEY PHILLIPS. Managing Director and Editor in Chief,
Stanley Gibbons Ltd., London; Vice President, British Philatelic
Association. Author of Stamp Collecting; Stamps of Great Britain,
1911-21; etc.

S.R.S. Glass (in part)

SAMUEL RAY SCHOLES. Head of Department of Glass Tech-
nology, New York State College of Ceramics, Alfred, New York.

S.Sd. Export-Import Bank of Washington

SIDNEY SHERWOOD, A.B. Secretary, Export-Import Bank of
Washington.

S.S.H. Stocks and Shares (in part)

SOLOMON S. HUEBNER, Sc.D., Ph.D. President, American
College of Life Underwriters. Professor of Insurance and Com-
merce. Wharton School of Finance and Commerce, University of
Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. >

XVI

CONTRIBUTORS

S.So. Endocrinology (in part)

SAMUEL SOSK1N, M.D.. Ph.D. Director, Medical Research
Institute. Michael Reese Hospital, and Dean, Michael Reese Hospital
Postgraduate School; Professorial Lecturer, Department of Physiol-
ogy, The University of Chicago. Co-author of Carbohydrate Meta-
bolism', Editor of Progress in Clinical Endocrinology.

S.Sp. Music (in part)

SIGMUND SPAETH, A.M., Ph.D. Lecturer and Broadcaster.
Author of The Art of Enjoying Music', A History of Popular Music in
America; etc.

S.I f. Broadcasting (in part)

SOL TAISHOFF. President, Editor and Publisher of Broadcasting-
Telecasting Magazine, Washington.

I. Bar. Wealth and Income, Distribution of (in part)

TIBOR BARNA, B.Sc.(Econ.), Ph.D. Chief of Economics Section,
Research Division, Economic Commission for Europe; formerly
Official Fellow of Nuffield College, Oxford. Author of Redistribution
of Income through Public Finance.

T.C. Church of Scotland

THOMAS CALDWELL, M.A., B.D., Ph.D., D.D. Principal Clerk
of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland.

T.E.U. Political Parties, British

T. E. UTLEY, M.A. Editorial Staff, The Times, London.

T.G.W. Aliens (in part)

TERENCE GERARD WEILER, B.A. Principal, Aliens Depart-
ment, Home Office, London.

T.H.MacD. Roads (in part)

THOMAS H. MacDONALD. Commissioner, Bureau of Public
Roads, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington.

T.J.B. Venereal Diseases (in part)

THEODORE J. BAUER, M.D. Chief, Division of Venereal Disease,
U.S. Public Health Service, Washington.

T.Q.C. Theatre (in part)

THOMAS QUINN CURT1SS. Dramatic Critic. Editor Common
Sense, Decision. Former Drama Critic and Drama Editor, Junior
Bazaar (Harper's); Contributing book-reviewer to Herald-Tribune,
New York, and The New York Times Book Review.

T.Rsc. Canasta ; Contract Bridge (in par /

JOHN TERENCE REESE. Bridge correspondent, Observer and
Evening News, London. Author of Reese on Play; The Elements of
Contract (with Hubert Phillips).

T.T.S. Nervous System

THEODORE THADDEUS STONE, M.D., M.S., Ph.D., F.A.C.P.
Professor in Nervous and Mental Diseases, Northwestern University
Medical School, Chicago; Chief and Attending Ncuro-Psychiatrist,
Wesley Memorial Hospital, Chicago.

T.V.H. Athletics (in part)

THOMAS V. HANEY. Member of the Staff, The New York Times.

V.E.F. Antarctica

VIVIAN ERNEST FUCHS, M.A., Ph.D. Head of the Falklands
Islands Dependencies Scientific Bureau.

V.S.S. Paper and Pulp Industry

VINCENT STANLEY SMITH. Advertising Consultant to Paper
Manufacturers.

W.A.D. Theatre (in part)

WILLIAM AUBREY DARLINGTON, M.A. Dramatic Critic,
the Daily Telegraph, London, and London Drama Correspondent,
The New York Times. Author of The Actor and His Audience; etc.

W.A.Ft. Bridges (in part)

WILLIAM ALBERT FAIRHURST, M.l.Struct.E. Senior Partner,
F. A. Macdonald and Partner, Consulting Stru9turul and Civil
F'ngineers, Glasgow. Author of Arch Design Simplified; Reinforced
Concrete Bridge Design (with A. W. Legal and George Dunn).

W.As. Heavy Engineering; Light Engineering

WILLIAM ANDREWS, B.Met., F.l.M. Technical Editor, The
Times Review of Industry.

W.B.Hd. Geology

WALTER BRIAN HARLAND, M.A. Fellow of Gonvillc and
Caius College, Cambridge; Lecturer in Geology, Cambridge Uni-
versity.

W.B.Mi. Immigration and Emigration (in part)

WATSON B. MILLER. Commissioner, Immigration and Natural-
ization Service, U.S. Department of Justice, Washington.

W.C.An. Portugal; Spain; etc.

WILLIAM CHRISTOPHER ATKINSON, M.A. Stevenson
Professor of Spanish, University of Glasgow. Author of Spain, a
Brief History; etc.

W.E.S. Palaeontology

WILLIAM ELGIN SWINTON, Ph.D., F.R.S.E. Principal Scientific
Officer, British Museum (Natural History), London. Author of
The Dinosaurs; The Corridor oj Life; Geology and the Museum.

W.F.Br. Urology

WILLIAM F. BRAASCH, B.S., M.D. Professor Emeritus of
Urology, University of Minnestoa Graduate School, Mayo Founda-
tion, Rochester, Minnesota. Editorial Committee, Quarterly Review
of Urology and Minnesota Medicine.

W.Fr. Australia. Commonwealth of; etc.

WOLFGANG FRIEDMANN, LL.D. Professor of Public Law at
the University of Melbourne, Australia. Author of The Allied
Military Government of Germany; Legal Theory; Crisis of the National
State; Introduction to World Politics.

W.Ft. Paraguay

WESLEY FROST, A.M., LL.D. Professor of International
Relations, The American Institute for Foreign Trade, Phoenix,
Arizona. Former U.S. Ambassador to Paraguay.

W.G.P. Indonesia; Netherlands Overseas Territories; etc.

WIBO GODFR1ED PEEKJEMA, D.L. Legal Adviser to the

Standard- Vacuum Oil Company, The Hague.
W.H.Ctr. Austria

WILLIAM HORSFALL CARTER, M.A. Head of Western
European Section, Research Department, Foreign Office, London.

W.H.G. Roads (in part)

WILLIAM HENRY GLANVILLE, C.B.E., D.Sc., Ph.D., M.I.C.E.
Director of Road Research, Department of Scientific and Industrial
Research, Road Research Laboratory, Harmondsworth, Middlesex.

W.H.Jn. Business Review; Gold (in part)

WALTER HENRY JOHNSTON. B.A. Assistant Editor, Yorkshire
Post. Translator of Hegel's Science of Logic.

W.H.McC. Astronomy

WILLIAM HUNTER McCREA, M.A., Ph.D., B.Sc., F.R.S.E.
Professor of Mathematics, University of London. Author of
Relativity Physics; Physics of the Sun and Stars; etc.

W.H.Oe. Surgery

/SIR WILLIAM HENEAGE OGILVIE, K.B.E., M.A., M.D.,
Hon.LL.D., Hon.F.A.C.S., Hon.F.R.C.S.C, Hon.F.R.A.C.S.,
Hon. M.S. Surgeon to Guy's Hospital and the Royal Masonic
Hospital, London; late Vice-President, Royal College of Surgeons,
London; Editor, Practitioner. Author of Recent Advances in Surgery;
Forward Surgery in Modern War; Surgery Orthodox and Heterodox;
etc.

W.H.R. Beekeeping

WILLIAM HENRY RICHARDSON. Fellow of the Royal Entomo-
logical Association; former Chairman, British Beekeepers'
Association.

W.H.Tr. Motor-Boat Racing

WILLIAM H. TAYLOR. Associate Editor, Yachting, New York.
Co-author of Yachting in North America.

W.J.Bp. Alder, Kurt; Diels, Otto; etc.

WILLIAM JOHN BISHOP, F.L.A. Librarian, Wellcome Historical
Medical Library, London. Author of Notable Names in Medicine
and Surgery (with H. Bailey); etc.

WJ.Bt. Furs (in part)

WILLIAM J. BRETT, B.S. President, the Fur Reporter, New York.

W.J.C. Railways (in part)

WILLIAM J. CUNNINGHAM. James J. Hill Professor of Trans-
portation, Graduate School of Business Administration, Harvard
University.

VV.J.C1. Co-operative Movement (in part)

WALLACE JUSTIN CAMPBELL. Director, Washington Office,
Co-operative League of the U.S.A.

W.K.F. Pharmacy

WILLIAM KENNETH FITCH, M.P.S. Editor, Pharmaceutical
Journal; Publications Manager of the Pharmaceutical Society of
Great Britain. Author of Gas Warfare.

W.L.Be. Eye, Diseases of

WILLIAM L. BENEDICT, M.D. The Mayo Clinic, Rochester,
Minnesota. Professor of Ophthalmology, University of Minnesota
Graduate School, Mayo Foundation, Rochester, Minnesota.

W.Mr. Organi/ation of American States

WILLIAM MANGER, Ph.D. Assistant Secretary-General
Organization of American States.

W.O.L.S. Youth Employment (in part)

WILLIAM OWEN LESTER SMITH, LL.D. Professor of the
Sociology of Education, University of London. Author of Education
in Great Britain; etc.

W.P.K. Medicine

WALTER PHILLIP KENNEDY, B.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.F.P.S.(G).,
L.R.C.P.E., L.R.C.S.E., F.R.I.C., F.R.S.E. Senior Medical Officer
Pharmacologist, Ministry of Health, London.

W.P.Ma. Telegraphy (in part)

WALTER P. MARSHALL. President, The Western Union Tele-
graph Company, New York.

W.R.W. Veterinary Medicine

WALTER REGINALD WOOLDRIDGE, M.Sc., Ph.D.,
M.R.C.V.S., F.R.I.C. Scientific Director and Chairman of Council
of Animal Health Trust, London. Author of War Gases and Food-
stuffs.

W.Sm. Korea (in part)

WARREN SMITH. University of California, Berkeley, California.

W.T.Ws. Judiciary, British; Law and Legislation (In part); etc.

WILLIAM THOMAS WELLS, B.A. Barrister-at-Law; Member of
Parliament. Member of the Lord Chancellor's Committee on the
Practice and Procedure of the Supreme Court. Author of How
English Law Works.

W.V.M. Hutchins, Robert Maynard

WILLIAM V. MORGENSTERN. Director of Public Relations,
The University of Chicago.

W.V.Wt. Prices (in part)

WILLIAM V. WILMOT, Jr. Instructor, Department of Economics,
University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin.

W.W.Bn. Education (in part)

WILLIAM W. BRICKMAN. Department of History and Philosophy
of Education, New York University; President's Research Fellow,
Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island (1950-51). Former
Editor, Education Abstracts; author of Guide to Research in Educa-
tional History.

ANONYMOUS.

DIARY OF EVENTS, 1950

JANUARY

1 : Great Britain. Six peers were created
in the New Year Honours.

Austria. Major General T. J. W.
Winterton succeeded Lieut. General Sir
Alexander Galloway as British high
commissioner.

India. Cooch Behar state was merged
with West Bengal.

2: Persia. The shah returned from his
visit to the United States.

3: Egypt. General elections were held.
The final results gave the Wafd (nation-
alist party) 225 seats.

4: Great Britain. The chancellor of the
exchequer, Sir Stafford Cripps, stated
that in the fourth quarter of 1949 the
gold and dollar deficit had fallen to
$31 million.

China. The Communist government
was recognized by Pakistan.

India-Afghanistan. A five-year treaty
of peace and friendship was signed in
New Delhi.

5 : Greece. The government led by A. Dio-
midis resigned. Field Marshal A. Papagos
resigned as commander in chief.

Indo-China. Bao Dai dissolved the
Vietnam government and requested
Nguyen Phan Long to form a new one.

6: Great Britain. Notes were sent to the
governments of Bulgaria, Hungary and
Rumania concerning the alleged violation
of human rights. Similar notes were sent
by Canada and the U.S.

China. The Communist government
was recognized by Great Britain, Ceylon
and Norway.

Greece. John Theotokis formed a
caretaker government. Field Marshal
Papagos withdrew his resignation.

India-Pakistan. Jawaharlal Nehru
stated it had been proposed that the two
governments should sign a declaration
renouncing war as a means of settling
their disputes.

North Atlantic Treaty. The North
Atlantic council met in Washington.

United States. In his annual economic
report to congress, President Truman
stated that the renewed confidence in the
U.S. economy was "justified by the
facts."

9: Commonwealth. A conference of the
foreign ministers of the Commonwealth
countries opened in Colombo.

China. The Communist government
was recognized by Denmark and Israel.

Council of Foreign Ministers. The
deputies of the foreign ministers resumed
meetings in London on the Austrian
peace treaty.

United States. In his budget message,
President Truman estimated expenditure
at $42,400 million.

0: Great Britain. It was announced that
parliament would be dissolved and that
a general election would be held on
Feb. 23.

Canada. A three-day conference of
federal and provincial prime ministers
to discuss a method of making amend-
ments 19 the British North America act
opened in Ottawa.

E.B.Y. 2

Indonesia. It was learned that a revolt
was taking place in west Java under
Captain " Turco " Westerling, a former
Dutch officer.

United Nations. The Soviet delegate,
Y. Malik, proposed that the Chinese
Nationalists should be expelled from the
Security council. After it was decided to
defer consideration, Malik walked out of
the council.

11: Italy. The government resigned to
enable the Saragat Socialists to enter a
reconstructed government.

Persia. The government resigned.
Mohammed Saed, the outgoing prime
minister was asked to form a goverment.

12: Egypt. An all- Wafd government was
formed with Nahas Pasha as prime
minister.

Gold Coast. A state of emergency was
proclaimed following the opening of a
civil disobedience campaign.

Soviet Union. A decree was issued
restoring capital punishment for offences
of treason, espionage and sabotage.

13: China. The Communist government
was recognized by Finland.

Poland. It was announced that the
French Institute in Warsaw had been
closed.

United Nations. By 6 votes to 3 in the
Security council, the Soviet motion to
expel the Chinese Nationalists was
defeated. Y. Malik again left the council.

14: Commonwealth. The Colombo confer-
ence ended. Among the subjects dis-
cussed were the world situation, China,
Japanese peace treaty, southeast Asia
and Europe. Recommendations for
economic development (the ** Spender
plan ") in southeast Asia were submitted
to the Commonwealth governments.

Bolivia. The government declared a
state of siege following the discovery of
" subversive activities."

China. The Communist government
was recognized by Sweden.

Italy. Alcide De Gasperi was asked to
form a new government.

Persia. Mohammed Saed formed a
new government.

15: Cyprus. An unofficial plebiscite on
union with Greece resulted in a 96% vote
in favour.

16: Finland. Presidential elections were
held. The final results showed the Social
Democrats and Agrarians as the largest
parties.

International Labour Organization. A
regional conference opened in Ceylon.

17: Pakistan. Liaquat Ali Khan agreed to
the Indian proposal for a ** no- war "
declaration only after the settlement of
certain outstanding differences.

United Nations. The interim committee
(" little assembly ") met for the first time
in 1950 and elected Joao Carlos Muniz
of Brazil as president.

18: Scandinavia. A joint committee on a
customs union between Denmark, Ice-
land, Norway and Sweden issued a report,
recommending a transition period of 10
years.

19: Bulgaria. The government requested
the immediate recall of D. R. Heath,
the U.S. minister in Sofia.

Israel. De jure recognition was granted
by Italy.

United Nations. Soviet delegates with-
drew from the Atomic Energy com-
mission as a protest at the presence of a
Chinese Nationalist delegate.

United States. By 193 votes to 191 the
House of Representatives defeated a bill
for continued U.S. aid to Korea.

20: Bolivia. The government resigned.

China. Chpu En-lai, prime minister
and foreign minister, arrived in Moscow.

United States. In its reply to the
Bulgarian note, the United States govern-
ment refuted the allegations against
D. R. Heath and threatened to break
diplomatic relations.

21: Ireland-United States. A treaty of
friendship, commerce and navigation was
signed in Dublin.

22: United States. Alger Hiss, a former
State Department official, was found
guilty of perjury for denying under oath
that 12 years before he had handed
government documents to a Soviet spy.

23: Bulgaria. V. Kolarov, prime minister,
died.

Israel. The Knesset adopted a resolu-
tion proclaiming Jerusalem as the capital
of Israel.

24: India. The Constituent Assembly
unanimously elected Rajendra Prasad
as the first president of India.

Indonesia. The prime minister of
West Java, Anwar Tjokroaminoto, was
arrested. The federal government was
recognized by the U.S.S.R.

25: Council of Foreign Ministers. The four
deputies received Karl Gruber, Austrian
foreign minister.

Western Union. The finance ministers
of the five countries met in Paris.

26: France. By 540 votes to 2 the National
Assembly renewed the 3,000-franc cost-
of-living bonus.

India. The republic of India was
formally proclaimed. The last governor
general, Chakravarti Rajagopalachari,
handed over to the first president,
Rajendra Prasad.

O.E.E.C. The consultative group
began a two-day meeting in Paris.

27: Burma. The prime minister, Thakin
Nu, arrived in Colombo.

Indonesia. The West Java government
resigned.

Italy. A new cabinet was formed
consisting of 11 Christian Democrats,
3 Social Democrats and 2 Republicans.

North Atlantic Treaty. Eight signatory
nations of the treaty Great Britain,
Belgium, Denmark, France, Italy, Luxem-
bourg, the Netherlands and Norway
signed bilateral arms aid agreements
with the United States.

United Nations. The Trusteeship
council voted in favour of an Italian
trusteeship agreement for Somaliland.

28: Bolivia. A new government was
formed. All but one of the ministers were
members of the Republican Socialist
Union party.

Egypt. King Farouk received Ernest
Bevin who had arrived in Cairo on hi*
return from the Colombo conference.

DIARY OF EVENTS, 1950

France. By 396 votes to 193 the
National Assembly ratified the treaties
with Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam.
30: Indonesia. The head of the state of
West Java, Wiranata Kusumah, laid
down his mandate. The parliament
handed over all powers to the federal
government.

O.E.E.C. An agreement was signed
between representatives of Great Britain,
Denmark, Norway and Sweden accepting
recommendations for closer economic
co-operation.

South Africa. A motion of no-confi-
dence in Dr. Malan's government was
defeated by 78 votes to 71.
3 1 : Australia. P. C. Spender, minister for
external affairs, said any attempt by
Indonesia to establish control over
Australian New Guinea would be treated
as an act of hostility.

Indo-China. The U.S.S.R. recognized
the administration of Ho Chi Minh.
The French government protested that
this step violated international law.

O.E.E.C. The council appointed
D. U. Stikker, Netherlands foreign minis-
ter, to the new post of political conciliator.
The two vice presidents, Karl Gruber,
Austria, and Sean MacBride, Ireland,
were invited to join the consultative
group.

United States. President Truman
announced that he had directed the
Atomic Energy commission to continue
work on all forms of atomic weapons,
including the hydrogen bomb.

FEBRUARY

1 : Bulgaria. The National Assembly
elected Vlko Chervenkov as prime minis-
ter.

Indo-China. The Soviet ambassador
returned the French note to the French
foreign office.

Iraq. The prime minister, Ali Jawdat
al Ayyubi, resigned.

Soviet Union. The government sent
notes to the governments of Great
Britain, Communist China and the United
States proposing the trial of Emperor
Hirohito as a war criminal.
2: France. The Council of the Republic
ratified the treaties with Cambodia,
Laos and Vietnam by 294 votes to 20.

Indo-China. The Vietminh govern-
ment was recognized by Czechoslovakia.

Indonesia. Ahmed Sukarno returned to
Jakarta after visiting India, Pakistan and
Burma.

Pakistan. The government withdrew
its trade ban with South Africa.

3: Great Britain. The 38th parliament of
the United Kingdom was dissolved.

Ernest Bevin returned to London
from Colombo.

Chile. Following a wave of strikes the
government resigned.

Indo-China. The Vietminh republic
was recognized by Hungary, Poland and
Rumania.

Indonesia. The government was recog-
nized by Poland.

Tanganyika. Rioting broke out in the
native quarter of Dar-es-Salaam.

United States. The government rejected
the Soviet note proposing the trial of
Hirohito.

4: Chile. President G. Gonzalez Videla
appointed an all-party cabinet.

France. Th Socialist members of the
Cabinet resigned.

Italy. The Chamber of Deputies
passed the Somaliland bill by 287 votes
to 153. The bill provided for preliminary
expenditure in Somaliland for trusteeship
purposes.

Empire Games. The fourth Empire
Games were opened in Eden Park,
Auckland, by Sir Bernard Freyberg,
governor general of New Zealand.
5: Egypt. The government decided to end
martial law.

Greece. The last British troops left
Greece.

Iraq. Tawfiq as Suwaidi formed a
coalition government.
6: South Africa. Preliminary discussions
began in Capetown between representa-
tives of India, Pakistan and South Africa.

7: France. Non-Socialists were appointed
to fill the vacancies in the government.
By 225 votes to 185 (with 200 abstentions)
the National Assembly supported the
Bidault government.

Indo-China. The British and United
States governments granted recognition
to the governments of Vietnam, Cam-
bodia and Laos.

United Nations. The Soviet, Czecho-
slovak and Polish delegates walked out
of the Economic and Social council after
failing to unseat the Chinese Nationalist
delegation.

8: Australia. P. G. Menzics, prime
minister, announced the ending of petrol
rationing.

Bvlgium. The House of Representatives
voted by 117 votes to 92 in favour of a
referendum on the return of King Leo-
pold.

Indo-China. The governments of Aus-
tralia and Belgium granted recognition
to Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam. The
Vietminh government was recognized
by Bulgaria.

9: India. Troops were called out in
Calcutta during an outbreak of com-
munal rioting.

United States. The House of Represen-
tatives passed by 240 votes to 134, a bill
authorizing economic aid to Korea and
to Fortnosa.

10: Great Britain-Israel. A financial agree-
mcnt was concluded in London.

United States. The Export-Import bank
announced a loan of $100 million to
Indonesia.

1 1 : India. Twenty people were killed and
100 injured when police opened fire to
quell a riot in Salem prison, Madras.

13: Great Britain. Nominations ended for
the general election. 1,868 candidates
had been nominated for 625 seats,
including two unopposed returns.

Scandinavia. A conference was held at
Halmsted, Sweden, between the prime
ministers of Denmark, Norway and
Sweden.

South Africa. Rioting broke out in
Newclare, near Johannesburg.

United States. A conference of the
heads of U.S. diplomatic missions in 14
Asian countries was held in Bangkok.

14: Great Britain. In an election speech at
Edinburgh, Winston Churchill suggested
direct talks with the Soviet Union on the
control of atomic energy.

Italy. The Chamber of Deputies
passed a motion of confidence in the new
De Gasperi government. Fighting took
place in the chamber during the prime
minister's speech.

Liberia. A state of emergency was
proclaimed following a riot by rubber
workers on strike.

Soviet Union-China. A 30-yr. treaty
of friendship, alliance and mutual assist-
ance was signed in Moscow by A; Vyshin-
sky and Chou En-lai. Agreements were
also signed dealing with the Manchurian
railway, Port Arthur and Dairen, and
with the establishing of long-term credits
by the U.S.S.R. to China.

United States-Yemen. The State
Department announced the restoration
of full diplomatic relations which had
been broken off in 1948.

15: Finland. Juho Paasikivi was re-
elected president.

Indonesia. The first session of the Indo-
nesian parliament opened in Jakarta.

16: Burma. The parliament unanimously
decided to postpone the general election
for a further 12 months.

Indonesia. The government was recog-
nized by Rumania.

International Court of Justice. Hearings
began on the question whether the general
assembly could over-rule the Security
council on the admission of new members.

West Indies. Princess Alice was installed
as first chancellor of the University
College of the West Indies, in Jamaica.
17: China. Mao Tse-tung and Chou En-lai
left Moscow for Peking.

Nepal. Maharaja Mohan Shumshere

Jung Bahadur Rana, prime minister,

arrived in New Delhi on an eight-day

good will visit to India.

18: Belgium. The cabinet endbrsed a

10-yr. plan for the Belgian Congo.
20: Somaliland. The first Italian troops

disembarked at Mogadishu.
21: Eritrea. 22 people were killed in
rioting between Copts and Moslems.

Hungary. At a trial in Budapest, Edgar
Sanders (Great Britain) and Robert
Voegler (U.S.) were found guilty of
espionage and sentenced to long terms of
imprisonment.

Indo-China. The Yugoslav government
recognized the Ho Chi Minh adminis-
tration.

World Health Organization. Rumania
withdrew from the W.H.O.
22: Hungary. The British and U.S. govern-
ments were requested to reduce the size
of their legations in Budapest.

United States. The government sus-
pended diplomatic relations with Bulgaria
(later Poland agreed to represent Bul-
garian interests in the U.S., and Switzer-
land, U.S. interests in Bulgaria).

23: Great Britain. A general election was
held. The Labour party was returned to
office with a majority over all other
parties of 6. Over 84% of the electorate
voted.

China. Communist troops landed on
Namoa island.

Eritrea. A total curfew was imposed in
Asmara following continued clashes.

Italy. The trial of Marshal Rudolfo
Graziani on charges of war crimes opened
before a military court in Rome.

24: Western Germany. It was announced
that Field Marshal Manstein's sentence
had been reduced from 18 to 12 years.

25: Indonesia. The leader of the West Java
revolt, Captain Westerling, was arrested in
Singapore on charges of entering the
colony illegally.

Soviet Union. A Ministry of the Navy
of the U.S.S.R. was created. Admiral
I. S. Yumashev was appointed minister.

27: United States-Canada. A treaty on the
preservation and usage of the Niagara
falls was signed in Washington.

DIARY OF EVENTS, 1950

28: Great Britain. The Labour government
was reformed. Emanuel Shin well
returned to the cabinet as minister of
defence, and Hugh Qaitskell was appoin-
ted minister of state for economic affairs.

Chile. The government was defeated
in the congress.

Indo-China. The governments of
Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam were
recognized by Thailand.

International Court of Justice. Hearings
began in the case concerning the inter-
pretations of the peace treaties with
Bulgaria, Hungary and Rumania.

MARCH

1: Great Britain. The new House of
Commons met for the first time and re-
elected Colonel Douglas Clifton Brown
as speaker.

Dr. K. E. J. Fuchs, a naturalized
British subject working on atomic re-
search, was sentenced to 14 yr. imprison-
ment for giving information on atomic
energy to the U.S.S.R.

Council of Foreign Ministers. The
deputies met to discuss the Austrian
treaty.

Iceland. The government led by Olafur
Thors resigned.

Persia. The shah of Persia arrived in
Karachi on a state visit to Pakistan.

Soviet Union. The rouble was revalued
on a gold basis. New price reductions in
many goods came into effect.

United States. The U.S. Export-Import
bank authorized an additional $20 million
loan to Yugoslavia.

2: Western Germany. The high com-
mission signed a law prohibiting German
activity in the field of atomic energy.
3: France-Saar. A series of agreements
was signed in Paris by R. Schuman,
French foreign minister, and Johannes
Hoffmann, prime minister of the Saar.

International Court of Justice. The
court ruled that the general assembly was
not competent to override the Security
council on the question of the admission
of new members.

Rumania. The British Information
office in Bucharest was closed at the
request of the Rumanian government.

Spain. The government granted recog-
nition to Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos.

United States. The House of Repre-
sentatives passed a bill by 186 votes to
146 granting statehood to Alaska; the
bill was then passed to the Senate for
approval.

4: Elections were held in South Australia.
The Liberal-Country league government
was returned to office.

China. Mao Tse-tung and Chou En-lai
returned from Moscow.

United States. The government rejected
a Hungarian request to reduce the size
of its legation in Budapest as " improper
and irrelevant."

Western Germany. Konrad Adenauer,
federal chancellor, strongly criticized the
Saar agreements.

5: Greece. A general election was held.
The Populist party emerged as the
largest with 62 seats in a chamber of 250.
6: Great Britain. The King opened
parliament. His speech announced a
limited programme of legislation.

India. Jawaharlal Nehru arrived in
Calcutta to study the communal situation.

United Nations. The Economic and
Social council granted " category A "
consultative status to the International
Confederation of Free Trade Unions.

World Health Organization, Albania
withdrew from the W.H.O.

7: Great Britain-France. President Vin-
cent Auriol and Mme. Auriol of France
arrived in Britain on a state visit.

Burma. A joint note from Great
Britain, Australia, Ceylon, India and
Pakistan announced that the Common-
wealth would make a loan to Burma of
6 million.

France-Italy. Agreements were signed
to further a customs union.

Germany. Sir Brian Robertson, British
high commissioner, re-affirmed the British
intention of remaining in Berlin.

United States. The House of Represen-
tatives passed a bill granting statehood
to Hawaii; the bill was subsequently
passed to the Senate for approval.

8: Great Britain. The secretary of state
for commonwealth relations, P. Gordon-
Walker, announced that the government
had decided to withhold recognition of
Seretse Khama as chief of the Bamang-
wato tribe in Bechuanaland for at least
five years.

China. General Chen Cheng was
elected Nationalist prime minister in
succession to Marshal Yen Hsi-shan.

Nigeria. The secretary of the Zikist
movement, Mokwugwo Okoye, was
sentenced to 33 month's imprisonment on
charges of possessing seditious publica-
tions.

Singapore. Captain Westcrling pleaded
guilty to entering the colony illegally and
was sentenced to one month's imprison-
ment.

9: Great Britain. A division in the new
House of Commons on steel nationaliza-
tion gave the government a majority of
14 (310 votes to 296).

Conservatives retained the Moss Side
seat of Manchester. Polling had been
delayed because of the death of a
candidate.

Indonesia. Central Java, East Java, the
town of Padang in Sumatra, and the
islands of Madura and Sebang were
merged with the republic.

10: Scandinavia. A two-day conference of
the foreign ministers of Sweden, Den-
mark and Norway opened in Stockholm.
A representative of Iceland was present.

1 1 : Belgium. A referendum was held on
the question of King Leopold's return,
57-68% of the votes being cast in favour.

12: Indo-China. The Holy See granted
recognition to Vietnam, Laos and Cam-
bodia.

Indonesia. West Java was merged with
the republic.

Soviet Union. Elections were held for
the Soviet of the Union and the Soviet of
Nationalities. 99-98% of the electorate
voted; the Communist and non-party
lists received for the Soviet of the Union
99-73% and for the Soviet of National-
ities 99-78% of the respective votes.

13: Great Britain. A debate on housing
in the House of Commons resulted in a
government majority of 25.

Belgium. The prime minister, G. Eys-
kens, left Brussels for discussions with
King Leopold.

International Monetary Fund and Bank.
Poland withdrew from membership.

Syria-Lebanon. The Syrian government
announced the rupture of the customs
union between the two countries.

14: Czechoslovakia. Vladimir dementis
was replaced as foreign minister by
Vilem Siroky.

Iceland. A coalition government was
formed by Steingrimur Steinthdrsson.

India. Jawaharlal Nehru made a
second visit to Calcutta to study the
communal situation.

1 5 : Persia-India. A treaty of friendship was
signed in Tehran.

16: Great Britain. The appointments were
announced of General Sir Brian Robert-
son as commander in chief Middle East
Forces, and Sir Ivonc Kirkpatrick as
high commissioner in Germany.

The government requested the Rum-
anian government to close its information
office in London.

Belgium. King Leopold declared he
would accept the decision of parliament
and would abdicate if parliament con-
sidered he should not resume his duties.

17: Finland. The president of the parlia-
ment, Urho Kekkonen, formed a govern-
ment.

Persia. The shah left Karachi at the
end of his good-will visit to Pakistan.
18: Belgium. The government led by
G. Eyskcns resigned.

Iceland. The Kr6na was devalued to
16-29 to the U.S. dollar, and its value
increased in relation to the pound sterling
from 26-22 to 45 -60.

19: Belgium. G. Eyskens was asked to
form a new government.

Burma. Government forces recaptured
Toungoo, 180 mi. north of Rangoon.

Persia. The government led by
Mohammed Saed resigned.
21: Great Britain. The appointment was
announced of Sir Gladwyn Jebb as
permanent representative at the United
Nations in succession to Sir Alexander
Cadogan.

Malaya. General Sir Harold Briggs
was appointed director of operations.
22: Belgium. G. Eyskens failed to form a
government and Count Henri Carton de
Wiart was asked to try.

Persia. Ali Mansur was asked to form
a government.

United States. President Truman
nominated Thomas E. Murray to succeed
David E. Lilienthal on the Atomic
Energy commission.

23: Belgium. The ministers of state, last
convened in 1914, met to discuss the
political situation.

Greece. A new cabinet under Sophocles
Venizelos was sworn in.

World Meteorological Organization.
The organization formally came into
effect.

24: Belgium. Count Carton de Wiart gave
up his attempt to form a government.

Italy-Turkey. A treaty of friendship
was signed in Rome.

25: Australia. A general election was held
in Western Australia. The Liberal-
Country coalition government was re-
turned to office.

Belgium. Albert Deveze agreed to try
to form a government.

Indo-China. Three members of Bao
Dai's cabinet resigned.

Netherlands-Indonesia. The first union
conference opened in Jakarta under the
chairmanship of Dr. Hatta.

Afghanistan. The king arrived in Teh-
ran on a state visit to Persia.

Yugoslavia. General elections were
held. 93% of the votes cast were in
favour of the official People's Front.
27: Arab League. The council of the league
met in Cairo.

China. The Communist government
was recognized by the Netherlands

DIARY OF EVENTS, 1950

India. Howrah was placed under
martial law following communal dis-
turbances.

29: Horse Racing. Mrs. L. Brotherton's
Freebooter, ridden by J. Power, won the
Grand National by 15 lengths.
29: Great Britain. The government was
defeated in the House of Commons by
283 votes to 257 after a debate on fuel
and petrol policy.

Arab League. A Jordan representative
and representatives from the Gaza
government attended the council meeting.

China-Soviet Union. An agreement
was signed giving the U.S.S.R. half of
Sinkiang oil and non-ferrous metal output
for 30 years.

North Atlantic Treaty. The North
Atlantic Defence, Financial and Econo-
mic committee met in London.

United States. The House of Represen-
tatives voted, by 99 votes to 66, to with-
hold E.C.A. funds to Great Britain until
the British policy on Ireland was changed.

30: Great Britain. Clement Attlee
announced that the government's defeat
would not be regarded as a vote of no
confidence and that the government
would not resign.

Great Britain-Israel. A financial agree-
ment was signed in London.

France. Leon Blum, three times prime
minister of France, died.

International Court of Justice. By 1 1
votes to 3 the court decided that disputes
existed under the peace treaties with
Bulgaria, Hungary and Rumania.

Kenya. The town of Nairobi was raised
to the status of a city. The King was
represented by the Duke of Gloucester.
31: Great Britain. The financial year
ended with a budget surplus of 549
million.

Council of Europe. The council of
ministers approved the text of invitations
to Western Germany and the Saar and
allocated 18 seats in the assembly to
Germany and three to the Saar.

India. Total prohibition was intro-
duced in Bombay.

Kenya. The Duke of Gloucester was
made the first freeman of Nairobi.

United States. The Foreign Aid bill
was passed by the House of Representa-
tives by 287 votes to 86, after the decision
concerning the partition of Ireland
(March 29) had been rescinded.

APRIL

I : Arab League. The council agreed to
expel any member concluding a separate
peace with Israel.

India. The central government took
over control of the armed forces, posts
and telegraphs, customs and income tax
from the states.

North Atlantic Treaty. The defence
ministers of the 12 treaty powers met at
The Hague.

Somaliland. The administration of the
former Italian colony was transferred
from the British to the Italian authorities
as trustees.

Rowing. Cambridge won the university
boat race by 3} lengths in 20 min. 1 5 sec.

2: Burma. On the advice of the official
astrologers the government resigned at
9.15 a.m. and resumed office again five
minutes later.

Greece. P. Kanellopoulos resigned
from the govf rnment to allow it to be
broadened.

India-Pakistan. Liaquat Ali Khan,
prime minister of Pakistan, arrived in
New Delhi for talks with Jawaharlal
Nehru.

Norway. The prime minister announced
increases in the prices of many foodstuffs
and other commodities.

3: Belgium. Albert Deveze, the Liberal
leader who was trying to form a govern-
ment, saw King Leopold at Pregny.

E.R.P. The half-way mark of the
European Recovery programme was
celebrated. Since April 1948, the total
U.S. aid to Europe under the programme
was $8,686 million.

Norway. The rationing of margarine,
butter and cooking fats ended.

Persia. A new cabinet was appointed
with Ali Mansur as prime minister.

Trinidad. A new constitution for the
colony was published.

United Nations. The Soviet delegate
left the Economic and Social commission
in protest at the presence of a Chinese
Nationalist delegate.

4: Great Britain. Sir Stafford Cripps
said that in the first quarter of 1950 the
gold and dollar reserves had risen by
$296 million.

Afghanistan-India. A treaty of trade
and commerce was signed at Kabul.

Belgium. Albert Deveze gave up his
attempt to form ^ government.

O.E.E.C. D. U. Stikker (Netherlands)
was elected chairman of the council. The
consultative group was abolished. Sir
Edmund Hall-Patch (Great Britain)
remained chairman of the executive
committee.

Saar. The parliament ratified the five
agreements with France by 47 votes to 1 .

United Nations. The Trusteeship
council adopted a statute for Jerusalem
by nine votes to none.

5 : Great Britain. Maurice Webb, minister
of food, announced increases in price of
butter and bacon.

Sir Frank Soskice, solicitor general,
was elected in the first by-election of the
new parliament in the Neepsend division
of Sheffield.

Belgium. Paul van Zeeland agreed to
try to form a government.

.Pakistan. Sir Frederick Bourne, gover-
nor of East Bengal, retired and was
succeeded by Malik Firoz Khan Noon.

Soviet Union. A Ministry of Cotton
Growing of the U.S.S.R. was created.

6: India. President Prasad inaugurated
the programme of total prohibition in
Bombay state.

Indonesia. The federal government
arrested Sultan Hamid II of West Borneo.
United States. President Truman
announced the appointment of John
Foster Dulles, Republican, as consultant
to the secretary of state.

7 : New Zealand. F. W. Doidge, minister
for external affairs, announced that the
New Zealand legation in Moscow would
be closed.

8: American States. The council of the
Organization of American States voted
unanimously to warn Cuba, Guatemala
and the Dominican Republic that sanc-
tions would be applied if there was further
unrest in the Caribbean area.

India-Pakistan. The two prime mini-
sters reached agreement on minority
rights, with special reference to East
Bengal, West Bengal and Assam.

9 : Arab League. The political committee
unanimously approved a collective secur-
ity pact.

Bolivia. The government devalued the
peso by 43%.

10: Iraq. The High Court sentenced Ali
Khalid, former chief of police, to life
imprisonment for trying to overthrow
the government by force.

11: China. The Sino-Soviet treaty of
friendship, alliance and mutual assistance
was ratified by the Chinese People's
government.

Soviet Union. The government, in a
note to the U.S. government, alleged that
U.S. aircraft flew over Latvia and opened
fire on Soviet fighters on April 8.

12: Chile. President Gabriel Gonzalez
Videla arrived in Washington on a state
visit.

Jordan. The prime minister, Tawfik
Pasha Abulhuda, resigned.

Soviet Union. The government pro-
tested to Italy over the failure to deliver
reparations.

Soviet Union-Eastern Germany. A
trade and payments agreement was
signed in Moscow.

United Nations. The Security council
appointed Sir Owen Dixon, Australian
high court judge, mediator in the Kashmir
dispute.

13: Arab League. The council of the
league adjourned after all member states
had signed an agreement for collective
defence and economic co-operation.

Jordan. A new cabinet was formed by
Said Pasha el Mufti.

South Africa. In a speech to the Union
House of Assembly Dr. Malan proposed
that the negotiations started with Great
Britain over the three protectorates and
interrupted by World War II should be
resumed.

14: Greece. S. Venizelos, the prime
minister, resigned. General N. Plastiras
was asked to form a new government.
Poland. The government decided to
recognize the Mongolian People's repub-
lic.

15: Belgium. In a broadcast King Leopold
announced that after being recalled by
parliament he might delegate his powers
temporarily to the crown prince.

Greece. A coalition government led by
General Plastiras was sworn in.

16: Great Britain. It was announced that
Stanley Evans, parliamentary secretary to
the ministry of food, had resigned.

Trieste. Elections were held in the
Yugoslav zone. 86 77 % of the electorate
voted, of whom 88-36% voted for the
People's front.

Western Union. The eighth session of
the consultative council was held in
Brussels.

17: Bechuanaland. Seretse Khama returned
to Serowe where he was greeted by
tribesmen.

18: Great Britain. Sir Stafford Cripps
presented his third budget to the House
of Commons. The lower rates of income
tax were reduced and the price of petrol
increased. Total revenue for 1950-51 was
estimated at 3,898 million and expendi-
ture at 3,455 million.

International Bank. An agreement for a
loan of $18-5 million to India was signed
in Washington.

Shipping. The Seafarers' section of the
International Transport Workers' federa-
tion meeting at Amsterdam decided to
boycott all ships sailing under the flag of
Panama.

DIARY OF EVENTS, 1950

United States. The text of the U.S.
reply to the Soviet note of April 1 1 was
published. It accused the Soviet govern-
ment of shooting down an unarmed plane
over the Baltic.

19: India. The president accepted the
resignations of the minister for industry
and supply, S. P. Mookerjee, and the
minister for commerce, K. C. Neogy.

Pakistan-India. Trade negotiations
were resumed in Karachi.

Soviet Union-China. A trade agreement
and an agreement on an exchange of
goods were signed in Moscow.

United Nations. The Soviet Union
withdrew its support for an international
regime for Jerusalem.

20: Great Britain. The minister of labour,
George Isaacs, denounced a strike at the
London docks as Communist inspired.
6,737 men were on strike.

Australia. A motion of censure on the
speaker, A. G. Cameron, was defeated
in the House of Representatives by 67
votes to 38.

21 : Soviet Union. The government rejected
the U.S. note of April 18 concerning a
missing U.S. plane.

World Health Organization. Czecho-
slovakia withdrew from the W.H.O.
22: Italy. Count Carlo Sforza stated that
Italy was willing to negotiate directly with
Yugoslavia over Trieste.
23 : Great Britain. The centenary of William
Wordsworth, who died at Ambleside on
April 23, 1 850, was celebrated in the Lake
district.

Roman Catholic Church. The first

canonization during the Holy Year took

place at St. Peter's when Emilias dc Rodat

was declared a saint.

24: Norway. The rationing of chocolate

and sweets ended.

25: Great Britain. The Labour party
retained its seat in the Dumbarton west
by-election with a majority of 293.

Czechoslovakia. Alexej Cepicka, mini-
ster of justice, was appointed minister of
defence.

Food and Agriculture Organization.
Poland left the organization because, it
alleged, the F.A.O. had not given it
sufficient help after World War II.

France. It was announced that oil
deposits had been found near Pau.

South Pacific. The first conference of
representatives of the native peoples of
the South Pacific opened in Suva, Fiji.
26: Great Britain. The government sur-
vived two divisions on its budget propo-
sals with majorities of five in each division.

Council of Foreign Ministers. The
deputies held their 252nd meeting in
London.

Indonesia. A republic of the South
Moluccas was declared in Amboina.

Pakistan-India. Jawaharlal Nehru
arrived in Karachi for talks with Liaquat
Ali Khan.

27: Great Britain. The British government
recognized Jordan and granted de jure
recognition to Israel.

The London Dock Labour board
announced that unless the strikers
returned by May 1 their services would be
terminated. About 14,400 men were on
strike.

Australia. R. G. Menzies, prime
minister, introduced in the House of
Representatives a bill dissolving the
Communist party.

Indo-China. The prime minister of
Vietnam, N'guyen Phan Long, resigned.
Bao Dai asked Tran Van Huu to form a
government.

Pakistan-India. Talks in Karachi
between Liaquat Ali Khan and Jawahar-
lal Nehru were ended.
28: France. F. Joliot was dismissed from
his post of high commissioner for atomic
energy.

Singapore. An attempt was made on
the life of governor, Sir Franklin Girnson,
when a grenade was thrown at him.

Thailand. The marriage of King
Phumiphon Adundet and Princess Sirikit
Kitiyakara was solemnized in Bangkok.
29: Australia. The Labour government in
Queensland was returned to office in a
general election.

Belgium. The regent dissolved parlia-
ment.

Football. Arsenal beat Liverpool by
2 goals to in the Football Association
cup final at Wembley.
30: Italy. The Free Italian Confederation
of Trade Unions, the Italian Federation
of Labour and the Italian Confederation
of Worker's Trade Unions decided to
form one trade union federation.

Panama. The government outlawed
the Communist party.

MAY

1 : Great Britain. After a debate in the
House of Commons on the government's
road transport policy the government and
opposition tied in a division with 278
votes each. The chairman of committees
gave a casting vote in favour of the
government.

Commonwealth. Representatives of the
Commonwealth countries met in London
to consider the terms of a peace settlement
with Japan.

Indo-China. King Norodom Sihanouk
of Cambodia took over the functions of
head of the government in view of the
serious internal situation.

South Africa. In May day disturbances
on the Rand, 18 Africans were killed and
38 wounded.

2: Great Britain. The 5s. limit on meals
in restaurants was removed.

India. Chandernagore, French India,
was formally merged with the republic of*
India. *

Italy. At a trial in Rome Marshal
Graziani was found guilty of military
collaboration with the Germans. He was
sentenced to 19 yr. imprisonment, of
which 13 yr. 8 rrKh. were remitted.

3 : Great Britain. It was announced that a
British trawler fishing in the White sea had
been arrested by the Russians and taken
into Murmansk.

4: Great Britain. In a by-election at
Brighouse and Spenborough Labour
retained its seat with a reduced majority.
Council of Foreign Ministers. The
253rd meeting of the deputies discussing
the Austrian treaty was held in London.
The deputies adjourned till May 22.

5: India. After resignations over the Indo-
Pakistan minorities agreement Jawaharlal
Nehru formed a new government.
C. C. Biswas was appointed minister of
state for minorities.

South Africa. A bill to outlaw the
Communist party was introduced in the
House of Assembly.

United States. The Senate approved a
$3,122 million programme of U.S. foreign
economic aid for the financial year
starting on July 1.

6: Nicaragua. President Manuel Roman y
Reyes died in Philadelphia, U.S.

7: Great Britain. In May day demon-
strations in London skirmishes took place
and 70 persons were arrested.

Haiti. The cabinet resigned over a
move to permit the re-election of President
Dumarsais Estime.

India. The Punjab mail train was
derailed. More than 70 persons were
killed.

8: Hungary. A bill to establish local
councils on the Soviet model was passed
by the National Assembly.

Syria. K ha led el Azam, prime minister,
resigned. He was asked to form a new
government.

United States. After discussions in
Paris with Robert Schuman, Dean
Acheson announced that the U.S. would
provide economic aid to Indo-China.

World Health Organization. The third
world health assembly opened in Geneva.
Rajkumari Amrit Kaur of India was
elected president.

9: Great Britain. The House of Commons
approved a loan of 3-75 million to
Burma. This was Great Britain's share
of a Commonwealth loan of 6 million.

France. Robert Schuman announced a
French plan for the joint control of
French and German steel and coal under
a common authority which other coun-
tries would join. (This became known as
the " Schuman plan ").

Western Germany. The cabinet
decided to accept the invitation to join
the Council of Europe as an associate
member.

10: Haiti. President Dumarsais Estime
resigned after a coup d'hat led by a
military junta.

Red Cross. The Soviet delegation left
the committee of the League of Red Cross
Societies in Geneva in protest at the
presence of Chinese Nationalists.
1 1 : Great Britian. A conference in London
between Ernest Bevin, Dean Acheson
and Robert Schuman opened with a
general review of the world situation.

In the House of Commons, Clement
Attlee welcomed the French proposal
for integrating French and German heavy
industry as a contribution towards the
solution of a major European problem.

United Nations. The secretary general,
Trygve Lie, arrived in Moscow.
12: Czechoslovakia. The government
denounced the 1947 cultural agreement
with Great Britain and ordered British
information offices in Czechoslovakia to
close from May 13.

Monaco. The offices of the French
Communist party in Monaco were closed.
13: Great Britain. The British, French and
the U.S. foreign ministers announced that
they had reached agreement on the main
lines of policy in all parts of the world.

Australia. Elections were held for the
Victoria Legislative Assembly. The
Liberal and Country party lost 3 seats but
remained the largest with 27 scats.
14: Great Britain. The foreign ministers of
Great Britain, France and the U.S.
issued a declaration on Germany.

Norway. The city of Oslo began to
celebrate the 900th anniversary of its
founding.

Soviet Union. The government sent a
note to the government of Persia pro-
testing at the carrying out of surveys near
the Soviet Union-Persian frontier by
foreigners.

Turkey. In a general election the
People's party led by President Ismet
Indnii was heavily defeated by the
Democrats under CelAl Bavar.

DIARY OF EVENTS, 1950

15: Great Britain. In retaliation against
the Czechoslovak action the British
government ordered the closing of the
Czechoslovak institute in London and
the discontinuance of the information
work of the embassy.

Commonwealth Conference. A con-
ference of Commonwealth countries on
economic aid to southeast Asia opened
in Sydney.

North Atlantic Treaty. The North
Atlantic council met for its fourth session
in London.

Soviet Union. J. V. Stalin received
Trygve Lie, secretary general of the
United Nations.

Universal Postal Union. The executive
and liaison committee met in Berne. For
the first time at an international confer-
ence representatives from Communist
China were admitted.

16: Arab League. The political committee
of the league announced that Syria,
Saudi Arabia, Lebanon and Egypt were
in favour of expelling Jordan.

Egypt. The crown council deprived
Princess Fathia of her title following her
marriage in San Francisco to a commoner.

France. The National Assembly, by
320 votes to 1 79, passed a resolution that
would permit the Comtc de Paris,
pretender to the French throne, to return
to France.

International Court of Justice. The
court started hearings on the status of
South- West Africa.

1 7 : United States. The Export-Import bank
announced a credit of $125 million to a
group of Argentine banks.
18: Council of Europe. Representatives of
the committee of ministers and of the
consultative assembly met in London and
decided to create a joint committee of
five representatives of the ministers and
seven of the assembly.

North Atlantic Treaty. The fourth
meeting of the Council ended. It was
decided to set up a permanent defence
organization in London.
19: Burma. Government forces recaptured
Prome.

Commonwealth Conference. The con-
ference at Sydney ended. Agreement was
reached on the need for a programme of
economic development for south and
southeast Asia.

Indonesia. A treaty was signed between
the republic of the United States of
Indonesia and the republic of Indonesia
providing for the implementation of the
principle of the unitary state.
20: Great Britain. The points rationing
system ended. (The only foods remaining
on the ration were meat, butter, mar-
garine, tea, cooking fat, cheese, sugar and
sweets.)

Western Germany. A mining disaster
at Gclsenkirchen caused more than 75
deaths.

21: Great Britain. During widespread
storms in southern, central and eastern
England, a tornado developed over the
Chiltern hills causing considerable dam-
age.

A conference of Labour party leaders,
T.U.C. and Co-operative party repre-
sentatives ended at Dorking, Surrey.

Bolivia. The government announced
that 13 persons were killed and 112
wounded in rioting at La Paz on May 18
and 19.

Nicaragua. General Anastasio Samoza
was elected president in succession to
V. M. Roman y Reyes, who died on
May 6.

Peru. A severe earthquake shook parts

of Peru. The city of Cuzco was destroyed.

22: Council of Foreign Ministers. The

253rd meeting of the deputies discussing
the Austrian treaty was held in London.
No progress was made.

India. Jawaharlal Nehru stated that it
had been decided not to recognize the
Bao Dai government in Vietnam or the
Vietminh communist government.

Turkey. Celal Bayar, leader of the
Democratic party, was elected president
by the Grand National Assembly.
Adnan Menderes was appointed prime
minister.

U.N.E.S.C.O. The fifth general
conference opened in Florence. The
delegates of Czechoslovakia and Hungary
left in protest at the presence of Chinese
Nationalist delegates.

Western Union. Naval exercises of
units from the British, French and
Netherlands navies started in the Bay of
Biscay.

23: Eastern Germany. The British, United
States and French governments sent notes
to the Soviet government protesting
at the creation of a militarized police
force in Eastern Germany.

Netherlands. Queen Juliana and the
Prince of the Netherlands arrived in
Paris on a state visit.

South Africa. General Smuts was made
a freeman of Johannesburg on the eve of
his 80th birthday.

United States. The House of Repre-
sentatives, by 247 votes to 88, passed the
Foreign Economic Aid bill.
24: Great Britain. Field Marshal Earl
Wavell died in London.

The Minister of Food announced that
Sir Leslie Plummer had agreed to relin-
quish the chairmanship of the Overseas
Food corporation

25: Finland. The Trade Union federation,
the last non-Communist member of the
W.F.T.U. decided to withdraw from
membership.

Malta. It was announced in London
and Valetta that the British government
would ferant Malta 1 -5 million over the
next five years.

Middle East. The governments of
Great Britain, France and the U.S.
announced that they had reached agree-
ment on the supply of arms to Arab
countries and to Israel.
26: Council of Foreign Ministers. The
deputies met in London to fix the date of
their next meeting.

Germany. The text was published of
letters sent by the British, French and
U.S. high commissioners in Germany to
General Kotikov proposing measures to
bring about the political and economic
unity of Germany.

27: Great Britain. Petrol rationing in
force from Sept. 1939 was ended.

Bulgaria. Vladimir Poptomov was
replaced as foreign minister by Mincho
Neychev.

Horse Racing. M. Boussac's Galcador,
ridden by W. R. Johnstone, won the
Derby at Epsom.

28: Albania. Elections were held for the
People's Assembly. 99% of the electorate
voted; 98% of the votes were cast for
candidates of the Democratic Front.

Germany. The Free German Youth,
during a great Whitsun rally in Berlin,
marched past the East German govern-
ment in flic Lustgarten.
29: Syria. The prime minister, Khaled el
Azam, and his government resigned. He
was asked to form a new government.

30: Asian Conference. A conference of
seven southeast Asian and Pacific coun-
tries ended at Baguio, Philippines.

Hungary. The government announced
the closing of a 10-mi. zone along the
Yugoslav frontier.

Korea. A general election was held in
South Korea. Nine persons were killed
in disturbances. Of the 2,237 candidates,
30 had been arrested after the discovery
of a " Communist spy-ring."

Yugoslavia. The government recalled
its diplomatic staff in Tirana, Albania,
and closed the legation.
31: France. Jean Mons was replaced as
resident general of Tunisia by Louis
Perillier.

New Zealand. The immediate ending
of petrol rationing was announced.

South Africa. The House of Assembly
gave a second reading, by 69 votes to 61,
to the Group Areas bill.

Cricket. In the test trial at Bradford
the Rest were dismissed for 27 runs,
J. Laker taking 8 wickets for 2 runs.

JUNE

1: Poland. The government decided to
create three new provinces to be known as
Koszalin, Opole and Zielona G6ra.

United Nations. The Soviet represen-
tatives left the Trusteeship council in
protest at the presence of Chinese
Nationalists.

Aviation. The first permanent passenger
helicopter service from Liverpool to
Cardiff was started.

2: India. Jawaharlal Nehru left India for
a tour of southeast Asian countries.

South Africa. Dr. Malan announced
that the government had decided not to
recognize the Chinese Communist govern-
ment.

3: North Atlantic Treaty. The defence
ministers of Great Britain, Norway and
Denmark met in London.
4: Belgium. A general election was held.
In both the Chamber of Deputies and the
Senate the Social Christian party obtained
a small overall majority.

Japan. Elections were held for 132
scats in the House of Councillors. The
Liberals (the government party) obtained
76 seats. The Socialists vote was doubled,
the Communist halved, compared with
1949.

Switzerland. A referendum was held
on a law proposing to withdraw the power
of levying direct taxes from the federal
government. The proposed law was
defeated by 485,400 votes to 266,800.

Syria. A new cabinet was formed by
Nazim el Kudsy.

5: Brunei. Omar Ali Saifudin, brother of
the last sultan, was chosen as the new
sultan of Brunei.

Eastern Germany-Poland. A German
delegation led by Walter Ulbricht arrived
in Warsaw. Agreement was reached on
the Oder-Neisse frontier between Ger-
many and Poland.

Egypt. Field Marshal Sir William Slim
held discussions in Cairo with the prime
minister and foreign minister.

United States. President Truman
signed the Foreign Aid bill.

Mountaineering. Two Frenchmen
climbed the 26,492-ft. Annapurna peak in
Nepal. This became the highest peak
climbed by man.

6: Belgium. G. Eyskens, prime minister,
placed the resignation of his cabinet in
the hands of the regent.

DIARY OF EVENTS, 1950

Malta. Dr. P. Boffa's government was
defeated by 21 votes to 18 on a motion to
consider the 1950-51 budget.

7: Eastern Germany. It was announced
that the commandant of Berlin, General
A. G. Kotikpv, was to be replaced by
S. A. Dienghin.

Indonesia. Jawaharlal Nehru, prime
minister of India, arrived at Jakarta at
the beginning of a ten-day visit to
Indonesia.

Soviet Union. The government sent
notes on the administration of the
Antarctica to the governments of Great
Britain, Argentina, Australia, France,
New Zealand, Norway and the U.S.

8: Great Britain. Seven barons were
created in the Birthday Honours. They
included Lewis Silkin, D. R. Rees-
Williams, Sir Gilbert Campion and E. W.
Hives.

Belgium. A new Social Christian
government under Jean Duvieusart was
sworn in.

Burma-China. Diplomatic relations
were established.

India. The government announced that
it would not participate in the proposed
round table conference between South
Africa, India and Pakistan.

Western Germany. The Allied High
commission announced that the Federal
German government would have greater
freedom to negotiate and conclude inter-
national agreements other than on trade
and payments.

9: Great Britain. The report was pub-
lished of the disturbances in Nigeria in
Nov. 1949. The view was expressed that
the chief commissioner for the eastern
provinces had erred in treating the
miners' dispute at Enugu as political
rather than industrial.

Finland. Urho Kekkonen, prime
minister, arrived in Moscow to sign the
Finnish-Soviet trade agreement.

10: Singapore. Field Marshal Sir William
Slim arrived in Singapore.

11: Great Britain. James Griffiths and
John Strachey returned to London after
visiting the far east.

12: Arab League. The council of the league
met in Alexandria.

Austria. ' The governments of Great
Britain, France and the U.S. sent notes
to the Soviet Union concerning Austria.
They asked the Soviet Union to appoint
a civilian high commissioner.

Soviet Union. The Supreme Soviet met.
Mikhail Yasnov was elected chairman
of the Soviet of the Union, and Z.
Shayakhmetov, chairman of the Soviet of
Nationalities.

Cricket. England won the first test
against the West Indies at Old Traffbrd,
Manchester, by 202 runs.

13: Great Britain. Parliament re-assembled
after the Whitsun recess. The prime
minister, in a statement on the Schuman
plan said that the British government was
unable to accept commitments in advance.
The Labour party issued a policy state-
ment on European unity.

Malta. Dr. Boffa, prime minister,
requested the governor to dissolve the
Legislative Assembly.

Peru. A revolt, led by Francisco J.
Mostajo, broke out in Arequipa.

South Africa. The House of Assembly,
by 73 votes to 58, gave a third reading to
the Group Areas bill.

Soviet Union. A. G. Zverev, minister
of finance, presented his budget to the
Supreme Soviet. Revenue was estimated
at 432,000 million roubles and expendi-
ture at 427,937 million roubles.

Soviet Union-Finland. A five-year trade
agreement was signed in Moscow.

U.N.E.S.C.O. Atthegeneralconference
in Florence, Dr. Jaime Torres Bodet,
director general, submitted his resignation
in protest at the inadequate budget for
the organization.

14: Belgium. The government rejected a
plan to give further credits of Belgian
francs to finance intra-European trade.

Netherlands. The minister of economic
affairs, J. R. M. Van Der Brink, an-
nounced that the Netherlands had
reserved freedom of action in case the
Schuman plan proved to be impracticable.

O.E.E.C. The Netherlands government
circulated proposals for the integration
of European economies.

United Nations. The Trusteeship
council voted in favour of returning the
Jerusalem question to the general
assembly.

15: Great Britain. The first German consul-
general in London since 1939 arrived in
London.

Peru. The revolt was quelled. More
than 40 persons had been killed.

U.N.E.S.C.O. Dr. Jaime Torres Bodet
withdrew his resignation.

Western Germany. The Bundestag
voted by 220 votes to 152 to join the
Council of Europe.

16: Trieste. The governments of Great
Britain, France and the U.S. rejected the
Soviet note of April 20 in which the
Soviet government claimed that the
western powers had violated the Italian
peace treaty.

United States. President Truman
appointed W. Averell Harriman, E.C.A.
representative in Europe, to be his special
assistant.

17: Africa. A 20-yr. convention relating to
the port of Beira and the Beira railway
was signed in Lisbon by representatives
of the British, Portuguese and Southern
Rhodesian governments.

Arab League. Egypt, Saudi Arabia,'
Syria, the Lebanon and the Yemen signed
a collective security pact. Iraq did not
sign and Jordan was not present.

Australia. Elections were held in New
South Wales. The Labour government
was returned with a majority of two
(including the two independent members).

India. Jawaharlal Nehru arrived in
Singapore.

Soviet Union. The Soviet of the Union
and the Soviet of Nationalities both
adopted the budget. The proposed
income was increased to 433,167 million
roubles.

18: Western Germany. Elections were held
in North Rhine- Westphalia. The Christ-
ian Democrats remained the largest party.

19: Egypt. King Farouk ordered the
enlargement of the Senate by 30 seats.
A number of senators were removed and
replaced by Wafdists.

New Zealand. The prime minister
announced that the Legislative Council
would be abolished in the next parlia-
mentary session.

South Africa. The Group Areas bill
was given a third reading in the Senate
by 20 votes to 19.

20: India. Jawaharlal Nehru arrived in
Rangoon.

Schuman Plan. A six-power conference
opened in Paris. The countries repre-
sented were Belgium, France, Italy,
Luxembourg, Netherlands and Western
Germany.

South Africa. During a debate in the
House of Assembly on the Suppression of
Communism bill the Communist party
announced its dissolution.

United States. Dean Acheson, addres-
sing the annual conference of state
governors at White Sulphur Springs, West
Virginia, spoke of U.S. assistance to
under-developed areas.
21: South Africa. The Suppression of
Communism bill was read a third time in
the House of Assembly by 61 votes to 49.
22: Argentina. The Senate approved a
declaration affirming Argentine sover-
eignty over the Falkland islands.

France. The government was defeated
when the National Assembly approved,
by 351 votes to 201, a Socialist bill to
increase civil servants' salaries.

New Zealand. 25 members were
appointed to the Legislative Council
thus giving the government a majority.

South Africa. The president of the
Senate used his casting vote to secure a
second reading of the Suppression of
Communism bill.

War Crimes. The court at Los Negros,
Philippines, found Takuma Nishimura, a
former lieut. general in the Japanese army,
guilty of the murder of 1 10 Australian
and 35 Indian prisoners of war and
sentenced him to death.
23: Australia. Parliament rose for the
winter recess without passing the Com-
munist Party Dissolution bill.

Egypt. The Liberal, Saadist, National-
ist and Kotla parliamentary groups
decided to boycott the sittings of the
Senate and the Chamber of Deputies.
24: Council of Europe. The joint committee
of representatives of the committee of
ministers and the consultative assembly
met in Strasbourg.

France. The Bidault government was
defeated on a motion of confidence in the
National Assembly by 230 votes to 352.

North Atlantic Treaty. The defence
ministers of Great Britain, Denmark and
Norway met in Copenhagen.

Football. The World Cup series opened
in Rio de Janeiro.

25 : Australia. The government of Victoria
resigned after the governor had refused a
dissolution.

Korea. Troops from the Democratic
People's Republic of Korea (North
Korea) invaded the territory of the
Republic of Korea (South Korea). The
Ongjin peninsular was evacuated. The
Security council met at Lake Success.
By 9 votes to (U.S.S.R. absent and
Yugoslavia abstaining) the council de-
clared the fighting in Korea a threat to
international peace and called upon
North Korea to cease hostilities forth-
with and to retire to the 38th parallel.
26: France. President Auriol invited Henri
Queuille, Radical, to try to form a
government.

Korea. Troops from North Korea
entered Suisak, seven miles north of
Seoul. A seven-man military committee
was formed in North Korea under Kim
lr Sung.

Persia. A new cabinet was formed by
General AH Razmara, formerly chief of
staff.

South Africa. A day of protest by non-
Europeans in South Africa passed off
quietly. *

DIARY OF EVfeNTS, 1950

27: Great Britain. The government's policy
on the Schuman plan was approved in the
House of Commons by 309 votes to 296.

A private member's bill, the Liberties
of the Subject bill, was given a second
reading in the House of Lords by 66
votes to 24, a majority of 42 against the
government.

Korea. President Truman ordered U.S.
planes and warships to give cover and
support to the South Koreans, and
directed the U.S. 7th fleet to be prepared
to intervene to prevent any attack on
Formosa. He also announced increased
military aid to the Philippines and Indo-
China. Clement Attlee in the House of
Commons endorsed President Truman's
statement. The Security council, by 7
votes to 1 (Yugoslavia) the U.S.S.R.
was absent and Egypt and India abstained
-denounced the attack in Korea as a
breach of the peace and authorized all
members of the U.N. to help the South
Koreans.

28: Burma. The agreement of the Common-
wealth loan to Burma was signed in
Rangoon.

Japan. Shigeru Yoshida formed a new
government. He retained the posts of
prime minister and foreign minister.

Korea. The British government put
their naval forces in the Pacific at the
disposal of the United Nations. The
North Koreans occupied Seoul. The
South Korean government moved to
Taejon.

29: Great Britain. Sir David Kelly,
ambassador in Moscow, called at the
Soviet foreign office and expressed the
British hope that the Soviet Union would
co-operate in effecting a peaceful settle-
ment in Korea.

Indo-China. A conference opened at
Pau, France, to discuss the establishment
of certain federal services.

Korea. General Douglas Mac Arthur
visited Korea. The South Koreans
recaptured Kimpo airport. The Austra-
lian and New Zealand governments put
naval forces at the disposal of the United
Nations. India announced its support
for the Security council resolution of
June 27 on Korea.

United Nations. The Commission for
Eritrea presented three separate reports
to the general assembly.

Cricket. West Indies beat England by
326 runs in the second test match at
Lords.

30: Australia. A new Labour government
in New South Wales led by James McGirr,
prime minister from 1947, was sworn in.

Belgium. Jean Duvieusart's govern-
ment obtained a vote of confidence in the
House of Representatives by 108 votes to
100.

Korea. General MacArthur was
authorized " to use certain supporting
ground units " in Korea. It was an-
nounced that 23 member states had
endorsed the security council decision of
June 28.

JULY

1: France. Henri Queuillc was elected
prime minister by 363 votes to 208 in the
National Assembly.

Jordan. A new currency was intro-
duced. The Palestine pound was replaced
by the Jordan dinar, and Jordan re-
entered the Stirling area.

2: France* Henri Queuille announced his

cabinet. Robert Schuman remained

foreign minister and Paul Reynaud was

appointed minister for associated states

, and far east.

Korea. R.A.A.F. aircraft went into
action for the first time.

Pakistan. Liaquat AH Khan arrived
in London from the United States.

Peru. Presidential elections were held.
General Manuel A. Odrfa was elected.

Football. England was beaten by Spain
in the World cup at Rio de Janeiro, and
was thus eliminated from the competition.

3: Korea. U.S. marines and marine air
units were ordered to Japan. The North
Korean forces were pushing forward on a
wide front. Two New Zealand frigates
left for Korean waters.

United Nations. The 1 1th session of the
Economic and Social council opened in
Geneva. The Soviet, Polish and Czecho-
slovak delegates were absent.

4: France. The National Assembly
unseated the Queuille government by
334 votes to 221.

Korea. North Korean forces captured
the town and airfield of Suwon. A. A.
Gromyko, Soviet deputy foreign minister,
described the events in Korea as "an
internal conflict between two groups in
one state " and accused the United States
of aggression. Kim Ir Sung was appointed
supreme commander of North Korean
forces. The North Korean government
announced measures for agrarian reform
in South Korea.

5: Great Britain. The House of Commons
approved, without a division, the govern-
ment's policy on Korea.

France. Guy Mollet, secretary general
of the Socialist party, agreed to undertake
a " mission of inquiry " to form a govern-
ment.

6: Korea. The North Koreans captured
Pyongtaek and Chonan, 23 mi. and 37 mi.
respectively south of Suwon. The United
Nations announced that 45 member
states nad replied to the Security council
resolution 3 states, U.S.S.R., Poland,
and Czechoslovakia, had rejected the
appeal.

Poland-Eastern Germany. The frontier
treaty, negotiated in Warsaw in June, was
signed by J6zef Cyrankiewicz and Otto
Grotewohl in Zgorzelec (Gorlitz).

Soviet Union. At the request of A.
Gromyko, deputy foreign minister, the
British ambassador called at the Soviet
foreign office.

7: Korea. The U.N. Security council
approved a unified command for the U.N.
forces in Korea. The United States was
asked to name a commander.

O.E.E.C. The council approved a
scheme for a European Payments union.

United States. The government decided
to use conscription to bring its forces up
to strength required for the fighting in
Korea.

Golf. A. D. Locke of South Africa won
the Open championship at Troon, Ayr-
shire, for the second year in succession.

Lawn Tennis. B. Patty (U.S.A.) beat
F. A. Sedgrnan (Australia) in the final of
the men's singles at Wimbledon.

8: France. Ren6 Pleven accepted the
president's invitation to form a govern-
ment.

Korea. The North Koreans occupied
Chonan.

Trieste. The Soviet government replied
to the notes of Great Britain, France and
the United States on June 16 and again
maintained that the responsibility for the
non-implementation of the Italian peace
treaty concerning Trieste lay with the
western powers.

Lawn Tennis. Miss Louise Brough
(U.S.A.) won the women's singles, the
women's doubles with Mrs. M. du Pont
(U.S.A.) and the mixed doubles with E.
W. Sturgess (South Africa) at Wimbledon.

9: Western Germany. Elections were held
for a new Landtag in Schleswig-Holstein.

10: Great Britain. The Finance bill was
given a third reading in the House of
Commons. The government had received
majorities in all the divisions on Opposi-
tion amendments.

Council of Foreign Ministers. The
deputies held the 256th meeting in London
to discuss the Austrian treaty. The Soviet
delegate, G. N. Zarubin, repeated the
Soviet view on Trieste and the deputies
adjourned until Sept. 7.

Korea. The United Nations announced
that 48 member states were supporting
the Security council resolution. In addi-
tion 3 non-membersCeylon, Italy and
Jordan had announced their support.

World Power Conference. The fourth
World Power conference opened in
London under the chairmanship of Sir
Harold Hartley.

1 1 : France. Ren6 Pleven was elected prime
minister in the National Assembly by
373 votes to 185.

International Court of Justice. The
court gave an advisory opinion on the
international status of South- West Africa.
The court declared unanimously that
South-West Africa was still under man-
date and also declared that the inter-
national obligations from the mandate
were still incumbent on the South African
government.

Korea. The North Koreans broke
through the U.S. line between Chonui
and Chochiwon. The North Koreans
occupied Chochiwon.

International Bank. Pakistan joined the
bank and the International Monetary
fund.

Soviet Union. The government sent a
note to United Nations challenging the
decision of the Security council regarding
a unified command in Korea and the use
of the United Nations flag. A. Gromyko,
deputy foreign minister, again received the
British ambassador.

12: France. Ren6 Pleven announced his
new cabinet. R. Schuman remained
foreign minister. Guy Mollet was
appointed minister in charge of Council
of Europe affairs.

Korea. The U.S. forces withdrew to
the south bank of the Kum river.

13: Australia. The prime minister, R. G.
Menzies, arrived in London.

France. The Pleven government
received a vote of confidence by 335 votes
to 226.

India. Jawaharlal Nehru in a letter to
Marshal Stalin appealed to him to use his
influence to help to find a basis for a final
solution of the Korean situation.

Korea. U.S. Superfortresses dropped
500 tons of bombs on military targets in
North Korea. The United Nations flag
was flown for the first time over General
MacArthur's headquarters in Tokyo.

Persia. The shah offered to mediate in
the Pakistan-Afghanistan dispute.

DIARY OF EVENTS, 1950

14: Great Britain. Several naval ammuni-
tion barges blew up in Portsmouth har-
bour. Sabotage was suspected.

Korea. The secretary general of the
United Nations telegraphed all member-
states asking them to provide further
assistance to the South Koreans.

Sierra Leone. Proposals for a new
constitution in the colony were published.

Yugoslavia. The government sent a
note to Bulgaria demanding an immediate
end to frontier provocations.
15: Korea. The North Koreans crossed the
Kum river.

Persia. The government replied to the
Soviet note complaining about the
alleged conduct of Americans engaged in
oil surveys near the Soviet-Persian border.
The Persian government stated that to
avoid friction it would engage only
Persian subjects to make the surveys.

Soviet Union. Marshal Stalin, in a
reply to Pandit Nehru's letter, stated that
he believed a settlement of the Korean
question could only be achieved if the
Security council heard representatives of
the Korean people and of the People's
Government of China.
16: Korea. The U.S. defence on the Kum
river collapsed.

Football. Uruguay beat Brazil by 2
goals to 1 to win the World cup at Rio de
Janeiro.

17: Council of Europe. It was announced
that the Saar and Western Germany had
accepted the statute of the council and had
become associate members.

Korea. U.S. forces abandoned the
airfield at Taejon.

Soviet Union-Afghanistan. A four-year
trade agreement was signed in Moscow.
18: Indonesia. The Ministry of Defence
announced that landings had taken place
on Buru against the rebel " Republic of
the South Moluccas."
19: United States. President Truman in a
message to congress asked for $10,000
million for the armed forces. He also
reported that he had empowered the
secretary of defence to call up as many men
as necessary.

20: Great Britain. In the House of Com-
mons Clement Attlee welcomed President
Truman's statement on July 19. He also
reported on the talks in Moscow between
the British ambassador, Sir David Kelly,
and A. Gromyko, Soviet deputy foreign
minister.

Belgium. A joint session of both houses
of parliament recalled King Leopold to
the throne after six years of exile. 198
votes were cast in favour, none against
the opposition parties leaving the chamber
before the vote was taken.

India. Liaquat Ali Khan arrived in New
Delhi for talks with Jawaharlal Nehru.
Both ministers later met Sir Owen Dixon,
U.N. mediator on Kashmir.

Indonesia. A conference was held in
Jakarta between the federal state and the
republic of Indonesia. Many issues
concerning the establishment of a unitary
state were settled.

Korea. Taejon was occupied by the
North Koreans.

Western Union. The five defence
ministers met in Paris. The ministers
considered the international situation and
decided on increasing the defensive power
of the western Union land, air and sea
forces.

21 : Argentina. The government suspended
meat shipments to Britain because of the
failure to reach agreement with the
British government on prices.

Belgium. The prime minister, Jean
Duvieusart, flew to Geneva to see King
Leopold.

22: Belgium. King Leopold, accompanied
by Prince Baudouin and Prince Albert,
returned to Belgium after six years of
exile. He broadcast to his peoples and
appealed for unity. The Socialist ministers
of state resigned and the Liberal ministers
refused to attend a meeting of the state
council. The government formally
resigned and was asked by the king to
remain in office.

Canada. W. L. Mackenzie King died
at Kingsmere, near Ottawa.

23: Korea. The North Koreans occupied
Kwangchwu, capital of South Chunra
province, and Boyn.

24: Commonwealth. The standing commit-
tee of the Commonwealth Consultative
committee met in Colombo.

India. Jawaharlal Nehru and Liaquat
Ali Khan met in New Delhi to discuss the
working of the minorities agreement.
The five-day tripartite talks on Kashmir
ended.

Guatemala. After disturbances and
strikes the government suspended all
civil rights for thirty days.

25: Baltic Sea. Denmark and Sweden
jointly accused the Soviet Union of
" encroaching upon the freedom of the
open sea " in a protest on the Soviet claim
for a 12-mi. limit in the Baltic.

North Atlantic Treaty. The first meeting
of the deputies* council met in London.
Charles Spoffard (U.S.) was elected
chairman.

Cricket. West Indies beat England by
10 wickets in the third test match at
Nottingham.

26: Great Britain. At the opening of a two-
day debate on defence, Emanuel Shinwcll,
minister of defence, announced that a
self-contained British force would be sent
to Korea.

Indonesia. The Royal Netherlands
Indonesian army ceased to exist.

Korea. The New Zealand government
decided to send a special combat unit to
Korea, and the Australian government
decided to provide ground forces.

United States. President Truman signed
the bill authorizing $1,222-5 millicfn in
arms aid to the North Atlantic treaty
and other nations.

27: Great Britain. The debate on defence
continued. Winston Churchill moved
that the debate be continued in private
session. This was defeated by one vote.

Australia. R. G. Menzies arrived in
Washington.

United Nations. Yakov Malik
announced that the Soviet Union was
resuming its seat on the Security council
on Aug. 1.

28 : Israel. It was announced that de jure
recognition had been granted by New
Zealand.

Korea. The North Koreans launched
attacks all along the front and occupied
Hatong and Kwangyang.

North Atlantic Treaty. The council of
deputies unanimously approved recom-
mendations designed to accelerate defence
production.

Aviation. British European Airways
used the Vickers Viscount jet airliner on
the London-Paris route. This was the
first time a jet aircraft was used on a
regular scheduled service.

29: Belgium. Disturbances took place all
day in Brussels.

30: Great Britain. C. R. Attlee broadcast
an appeal for increased production, per-
sonal service and a close watch on the
"enemy within.**

Belgium. Anti-Leopold disturbances
increased in many parts of the country.
Three men were shot by police near
Lige. J. Duvieusart called on King
Leopold during the evening.
31: Great Britain. Patrick Gordon- Walker,
secretary of state for commonwealth
relations, arrived in Australia from New
Zealand.

China. General MacArthur arrived in
Formosa for two-day talks with Chiang
Kai-shek.

Egypt. The Senate and Chamber of
Deputies approved an addition to the
penal code forbidding the publication of
news concerning the royal family unless
issued by the minister of the interior.

India. An emergency session of the
parliament opened in New Delhi.
Hyderabad was represented for the first
time.

Korea. The U.S. 2nd Infantry division
arrived at Pusan. The North Koreans
continued to advance and occupied
Chinju.

Nepal-India. Treaties of peace and
friendship and of trade and commerce
were signed at Kathmandu.

Portugal. Dr. Salazar reshuffled his
cabinet and created three new ministries.

AUGUST

1: Belgium. King Leopold's agreement
with the leading political parties was
announced. He would transfer the royal
prerogatives to Prince Baudouin at once,
and would abdicate on Sept. 7, 1951
Prince Baudouin's 21st birthday.

Korea. North Korean troops entered
Masan.

United Nations. Yakov Malik returned
to the Security council. As president he
ruled that Dr. T. F. Tsiang was not the
legal representative of China. He was
over-ruled by 8 votes to 3 (Soviet Union,
India and Yugoslavia).
2: Nigeria. 30,000 technicians and clerks
employed by the United Africa company
started a strike.

Western Union. The ninth session of
the consultative council was held at
The Hague.

3 : Great Britain. Details were announced
of the government's defence plan. It was
estimated that 3,400 million would be
spent in three years, but this would
depend on the amount of U.S. aid.

Council of Europe. The committee of
ministers met at Strasbourg for their
fifth session.

Pakistan. The government accepted
Persia's offer to mediate in the dispute
with Afghanistan.

United Nations. The U.S. proposal that
the Korean situation should be the only
item on the Security council agenda was
approved by 8 votes to 1 . On a proposal
to discuss the question of Chinese
representation the voting was 5-5.
4: Great Britain. Raymond Blackburn,
Labour M.P. for Northfield, Birmingham,
resigned from the Labour party.

Venezuela. A severe earthquake shook
El Tocuyo, 200 mi. west of Caracas.
More than 100 deaths were reported.
6: France. The government handed its
memorandum on defence to the U.S.
ambassador. It estimated an expenditure
in three years of about 2,000 million.

DIARY OF EVENTS, 1950

7: Colombia. Laureano G6mez was
sworn in as 48th president of Colombia.

Council of Europe. Paul-Henri Spaak
was re-elected president of the consulta-
tive assembly by 90 votes to 23. The four
vice-presidents elected were: Lord Lay ton
(Great Britain), F. de Menthon (France),
S. Jocini (Italy) and A. Gjores (Sweden).
The Saar and Western Germany took
their seats in the assembly.

Korea. U.S. troops launched an attack
east of Chinju.

8: Belgium. Jean Duvieusart, prime
minister, announced that the government
intended to propose an increase in
defence expenditure of Fr. 5,000 million.

Indonesia. The Ministry of Defence
announced that a cease-fire had been
achieved in the fighting in Macassar.

Swimming. Florence Chad wick (U.S.)
completed her crossing of the English
channel in 13 hr. 23 min. 1 hr. 11 min.
faster than the previous fastest time by a
woman.

9: Belgium. The Chamber of Representa-
tives passed the bill transferring the royal
prerogatives to Prince Baudouin by
165 votes to 27.

Denmark. Hans Hedtoft, prime minis-
ter, announced that he would ask the
king to dissolve parliament. The lower
house passed a bill authorizing an
additional expenditure of Kr. 350 million
for defence over the next two years.

Korea. U.S. forces continued to drive
North Korean forces back across the
Naktong river.

10: Belgium. The Senate approved the bill
to transfer the royal powers by 121 votes
to 22.

Korea. United States forces continued
their advance towards Chinju. The North
Koreans occupied Pohang.

United Nations. The eleven members
of the Security council met informally
to discuss the Soviet obstruction in the
council, but no agreement was reached.

11: Great Britain. The prime minister
announced that parliament would be
recalled on Sept. 12.

Belgium. Prince Baudouin was sworn
in as prince royal. Jean Duvieusart,
prime minister, submitted the resignation
of his government.

Council of Europe. A resolution
introduced by Winston Churchill calling
for the creation of a European army was
carried by 89 votes to 5, with 27 absten-
tions.

12: Korea. Two British correspondents,
Ian Morrison, The Times, and Christopher
Buckley, Daily Telegraph, were killed.

Nigeria. 23 people were killed in inter-
tribal rioting in eastern Nigeria.

13: Australia. Robert Menzies, prime
minister, arrived in Tokyo.

Belgium. Paul Van Zeeland accepted
the prince royal's invitation to try to
form a government.

14: Belgium. Princess de Rethy, wife of
King Leopold, returned to Belgium after
an exile of six years.

Indonesia. The House of Assembly
approved a provisional unitary constitu-
tion by 90 votes to 18.

United Nations. In the Security council
the Indian delegate proposed the setting
up of a commission of the six non-
permanent members to prepare plans for
the future of Korea.

15: Great Britain. Princess Elizabeth
gave birth to a daughter at Clarence
House. London at 11 SO a m

Arab League. The political committee
of the league met in Alexandria.

Belgium. A new Social Christian
government was formed. Joseph Pholien
became prime minister; Paul van Zeeland
remained foreign minister.

India. Severe earth tremors rocked
parts of eastern India. Most damage
was done in Upper Assam.

Korea. North Korea forces occupied
Kosung.

16: Great Britain. The prime minister
met Winston Churchill and Clement
Davies who had asked for an earlier
recall of parliament. Mr. Attlee was
unable to meet their request.

Burma. The government announced
that its forces had liberated the entire
Henzada district in western Burma.

Cricket. West Indies beat England
by an innings and 56 runs in the fourth
and last test match at the Oval. West
Indies thus won the rubber by three
matches to one.

17: Belgium. The Chamber of Representa-
tives passed a vote of confidence in the
government of J. Pholien by 107 votes
to 78.

China. Chinese batteries mounted on
Taitami and Puntin islands opened fire
on H.M.S. "Concord." The ship was
not damaged but there was one minor
casualty.

Greece. The nine Liberal ministers
tendered their resignations.

Indonesia. On the fifth anniversary of
the declaration of the republic Indonesia
was declared a unitary state. President
Sukarno in a speech in Jakarta re-
affirmed the Indonesian claim to Irian
(Dutch New Guinea). The government
formally resigned.

Korea. The North Koreans launched a
big offensive east of the Naktong river.

18: Belgium. Julien Lahaut, leader of the
Communist party, was shot dead in his
home at Seraing.

The Senate, by 82 votes to 61, passed
a motion of confidence in the government.

Council of Europe. The consultative
assembly adopted a series of resolutions
to reinforce the council and also its own
authority.

Greece. The cabinet resigned.
Sophocles Venizelos, Liberal, was asked
to form a new government.

19: Korea. The government of Syngman
Rhee left Taegu for Pusan.

New Zealand. The Legislative Council
Abolition bill passed through its final
stages.

20: Great Britain. The War Office
announced that an infantry force was
being sent immediately from Hong Kong
to Korea.

21: Great Britain. The Labour party
issued a statement of policy entitled
Labour and the New Society. It proposed
a world plan for mutual assistance to
succeed the European Recovery pro-
gramme in 1952.

Bechuanaland. Seretse Khama, exiled
chief-designate of the Bamangwato,
arrived in London, with his wife and
daughter.

Greece. A partial cabinet of members
of the Liberal party was sworn in under
Sophocles Venizelos as prime minister.

United States. The Senate, by 84 votes
to 3, passed the Economic Controls bill.

22: Canada. A national railway strike
began. Louis St. Laurent, prime minister,
announced the recall of parliament.

France. The government decided to
send a battalion of troops to Korea.

Internationa) Bank. It was announced
that the bank would make a loan of
$100 million to Australia.
> North Atlantic Treaty. The council of
deputies opened its second session.

Southeast Asia. A conference of
governors of British territories opened in
Bukit Serene, Malaya.

Swimming. 24 swimmers left Cap Griz
Nez in the Daily Mail international cross-
channel swimming race. 9 of them, 7
men and 2 women, completed the
crossing.

23: Kashmir. The U.N. mediator, Sir
Owen Dixon, left Karachi for London
and Lake Success to report the failure
of his mission. Liaquat Ali Khan said
the responsibility for the failure M lies
squarely on the shoulders of India."

Netherlands. It was announced that
2,000 infantrymen would be sent to
Korea.

United States. Two trade unions called
for a nation-wide rail strike to start on
Aug. 28.

24: China. Chou En-lai, foreign minister,
cabled to the U.N. Security council
asking for action to be taken against
4i U.S. armed aggression in Formosa.*'

Kashmir. Jawaharlal Nehru, in a state-
ment in New Delhi said " I put the blame
100% on Pakistan for the whole Kashmir
trouble."

25: Council of Europe. The consultative
assembly adopted the report of its legal
administrative committee expressing gen-
eral approval of the draft European
convention on human rights.

Hong Kong. British troops left Hong
Kong for service in Korea.

Norway. The government announced
that defence expenditure would be
increased by 12-5 million over the
next 2i years.

Pakistan. Liaquat Ali Khan announced
a gift of 400 tons of rice to the victims of
the Assam earthquake in India.

United States. A proposed rail strike
was called off after President Truman
ordered the taking over of the nation's
railways.

26: Bulgaria. Two former Communist
ministers, Bonu Petrovski and Lubomir
Kayrakov, were sentenced to life
imprisonment for " passing economic
information to the west."

Council of Europe. By 73 votes to
with 32 abstentions, the assembly
approved the proposals of the economic
committee on the links between the coal
and steel pool and the Council of Europe.

Lawn Tennis. Australia beat the U.S.
in the Davis Cup contest. The cup was
won from Australia by the U.S. in 1946.
27: China. U.S. planes crossed the boun-
dary between Korea and China and
raided Antung airfield causing casualties.
28: Council of Europe. The consultative
assembly adjourned its second session.

Greece, The government was enlarged
by the inclusion of members of the
Democratic Socialist party.

Israel. The Haifa refineries resumed
operations for the first time for over two
years.

Peru. General Manuel A. Odrla was
installed as president.

United States. President Truman
reaffirmed his government's policy on
Formosa after directing (on Aug. 26)
General MacArthur to withdraw a state-
ment \vhich related Formosa to the U.S.
defence position in the Pacific.

DIARY OF EVENTS, 1950

29: Great Britain- Yemen. Discussions
began at the Foreign Office on frontier
and diplomatic matters affecting Great
Britain, Yemen and Aden protectorate.

Argentina. The peso was devalued from
9-4 to 14 to the pound.

China. A U.S. aircraft shot at Chinese
boats on the Chinese bank of the Yalu
river killing 10 and injuring 23.

Korea. British troops, the first United
Nations troops to be sent to aid the
United States forces, landed in Korea.

United Nations. The Security council,
by 7 votes to 2 with 1 abstention, decided
to place the question of Formosa on the
agenda.

30: Great Britain. Clement Attlee, in a
broadcast, announced increased pay for
servicemen and an increase to 2 yr. in the
period of national service.

The 1 12th annual meeting of the British
Association for the Advancement of
Science opened in Birmingham under the
presidency of Sir Harold Hartley.

Canada. A bill to end the Canadian
railway strike was given a third reading
in the House of Commons. The strike
ended the same evening.

South- West Africa. Voting took place
for six members to sit in the Union House
of Assembly, and for 18 members in the
South-West African Legislative Assembly.
Dr. Malan's Nationalist party won the 6
seats in the Union House of Assembly
and 15 of the seats in the South- West
Africa Legislative Assembly.

United States. Dean Acheson reaffirmed
that the U.S. had no agressive intentions
towards Communist China in Formosa
or elsewhere.

31: Great Britain. The Foreign Office
announced that British Ally, the Russian-
language newspaper published in Mos-
cow, would close down.

India. Police opened fire on demon-
strators in Bombay killing 5 and wound-
ing 41.

United Nations. The Security council
decided to add to its agenda the question
of a complaint by China that a U.S.
plane caused damage in China near the
Korean border.

Aviation. 55 persons were killed when
an American Trans- World Airlines Con-
stellation crashed in Egypt.

SEPTEMBER

1 : Korea. The North Koreans launched
an offensive on a 50-mi. front against
U.S. troops. They gained much ground
east of Naktong while the Americans
regained Haman in the south.

Scandinavia. A meeting of the foreign
ministers of Denmark, Iceland, Norway
and Sweden ended in Reykjavik. The
ministers discussed the agenda for the
U.N. general assembly.

2: Belgium. The government announced
that a bill extending military service
from one to two years would be laid
before parliament.

France. R. Pleven, prime minister,
announced that the period of military
service would be increased.

India. Purshottamdas Tandon was
elected president of the Indian national
congress.

3. Israel. A conference opened in
Jerusalem between cabinet ministers and
Jewish leaders from the United States,
Great Britain and South Africa to
prepare a long-term plan for maintaining
the existing rate of immigration.

4: Greece. The E.P.E.K. party decided
not to join the government of S. Veniz-
elos. The cabinet was completed by the
inclusion of more Liberal and Demo-
cratic Socialist ministers.

Korea. The U.N. forces shot down a
plane " bearing a red star/' The body
of a Russian was discovered.

Persia. Fighting broke out between
Kurdish tribesmen and government forces
near the Iraqi frontier.

5 : Commonwealth. It was announced that
the King and Queen would visit Australia
and New Zealand in 1952.

Denmark. A general election was held
for the lower house. Hans Hedtoft's
Social Democrat party obtained 59
seats as against 57 in the old house.

Korea. The North Koreans captured
Pohang.

Syria. Hashem Bey Atassi was elected
president.

Tibet, A Tibetan mission arrived in
New Delhi for talks with the Chinese
ambassador.

Western Union. The five defence
ministers held their eighth meeting.

6: International Monetary Fund. The

annual session of the fund and of the
International Bank for Reconstruction
and Development opened in Paris.

Korea. The North Koreans continued
their pressure against the U.N. troops
on the northern front.

United Nations. Y. Malik, the Soviet
delegate to the Security council, explained
that the Soviet plane shot down off Korea
was unarmed on a training flight from
Port Arthur. A U.S. resolution seeking
to isolate the Korean war was vetoed
by the Soviet delegate.

7: Great Britain. The Trades Union
congress voted in favour of abandoning
the policy of wage restraint and in favour
of equal pay for women.

France. The minister of the interior
declared illegal the Spanish Communist
party (whose headquarters were in
France) and the Unified Socialist Party
of Catalonia (Pyrenean France).

Syria. Nazim el Kudsi formed the first
constitutional cabinet in Syria since the
coup d'etat of Husni ez Zaim in March,
1949.

Western Germany. Hans Ehard was
elected president of the Bundesrat in
succession to K. Arnold.

9: Canada. The minister of national
defence announced that the Canadian
regular forces had been placed on active
service.

Greece. The government led by
S. Venizelos was defeated on a vote of
confidence by 124 votes to 106. Venizelos
resigned and recommended a general
election. The king called on C. Tsaldaris,
Populist, to form a government.

10: Great Britain. 116 of 129 miners
trapped in a mine at New Cumnock,
Ayrshire, were brought safely to the
surface.

South Africa. An exchange of notes
between South Africa and Great Britain
confirming the transfer of Prince Edward
and Marion islands to South Africa was
published.

1 1 : Greece. The king called on K. Tsald-
aris, S. Venizelos and G. Papandreou
to collaborate in order to give Greece a
strong government. Venizelos became
prime minister, the other leading parties
agreeing to serve in the government.

Iraq. The government led by Tewfik
el Suwaidi resigned.

Malta. The final results in the general
election were announced. The Nationalist
party obtained 12 seats, the Malta
Labour party 11, Dr. P. Sofia's Labour
group 1 1 and others 6.

South Africa. Field Marshal Jan
Christiaan Smuts died at his home near
Pretoria.

United Nations. The Security council
rejected a proposal to invite Chinese
Communists to attend the debate on
charges that U.S. planes had violated
Chinese territory. The voting was 6 votes
to 3 in favour with 2 abstentions, but
7 votes were necessary for a resolution
to be carried.

12: Great Britain. Parliament reassembled
for an emergency session. Clement
Attlee opened a debate on defence in the
House of Commons. The Conservatives
supported the government.

United Nations. The Security council
approved the annual report by 10 votes
to 0. The Soviet delegate abstained.

United States. The foreign ministers

of the U.S., Great Britain and France

opened a three-day session in New York.

13: Greece. A three-party government

under S. Venizelos was sworn in.

Denmark. King Frederik asked the
outgoing prime minister, Hans Hedtoft,
Socialist, to form a government.

United Nations. A U.S. proposal that a
committee of inquiry should be sent to
China to investigate charges of U.S.
violation of the border was vetoed by
the Soviet representative.
14: Great Britain. The government
announced its intention of carrying out
the Iron and Steel act at the earliest
opportunity.

Foreign Ministers Conference. The
conference in New York of the foreign
ministers of Great Britain, France and the
United States was adjourned. The
ministers agreed that " immediate effec-
tive steps must be taken ... to strengthen
the defence of the free world, both in
Europe and Asia."

15: Great Britain. The National Service
bill, extending national service to 2 years
was passed by the House of Commons.

Greece. The new government led by
S. Venizelos received a vote of confidence
with a majority of 110.

Korea. United Nations forces made a
number of landings. The U.S. 10th Army
corps and elements of the 1st Marine
division landed at Inchon, the port for
Seoul.

North Atlantic Treaty. The fifth session
of the council opened in New York under
the chairmanship of Dean Acheson.
16: Iraq. General Nuri cs Said formed a

new government.

17: Bahamas. Sir George Sandford,
governor from Feb. 1 950, died at Govern-
ment house, Nassau.

Korea. United Nations forces captured
Kimpo airfield, 15 mi. northwest of Seoul.

Malta. Paul Boffa, prime minister,
resigned, and E. Mizzi, leader of the
Nationalist party, was asked to form a
government.

18: India. The government granted de jure
recognition to Israel.

Indo-China. Vietminh forces captured
the French military outpost of Dong-khe.

Korea. United Nations forces crossed
the Han river and reached a point within
7 mi. of Seoul.

North Atlantic Treaty. The council
" warmly welcomed " the proposal to
create an integrated military force ade-
quate enough to defend turope.

DIARY OF EVENTS, 1950

Trinidad. The first general elections
were held in the colony. The Home Rule
party fed by Uriah Butler and the
Independents each obtained six of the
18 seats.

19: Great Britain. The House of Commons
approved the government's proposal to
take over the iron and steel industry by
306 votes to 300.

Commonwealth. Commonwealth minis-
ters met in London to discuss economic
and trade questions.

Foreign Ministers Conference. The
ministers concluded their conference in
New York and agreed to end the state of
war with Germany, to reinforce their
troops in Germany, to treat an attack on
Berlin or Western Germany as an attack
upon themselves and to give greater
powers to the West German government
including the setting up of a foreign
ministry.

Korea. Troops of the U.S. 24th
division crossed the Naktong river 4 mi.
south of Waegwan.

O.E.E.C. The agreement setting up a
European Payments union within the
framework of the O.E.E.C. was signed
in Paris.

United Nations. The fifth session of the
general assembly opened at Flushing
Meadow. The question of Chinese
representation was referred to a com-
mittee.

20: Korea. United Nations troops cut the
road to Pyongyang.

New Zealand. A state of emergency
was declared because of a dock strike
which had started on Sept. 15.

Norway. The parliament unanimously
approved proposals for spending an
additional 12-5 million on defence.

South Africa. E. G. Jansen, minister
of Native affairs, was appointed governor
general designate to succeed G. B. van
Zyl.

United Nations. In the general assembly
Dean Acheson (U.S.) submitted a plan
for a world security force and for greater
powers for the assembly.

21: Great Britain. C. R. Attlee flew to
Balmoral for an audience with the King.
Indonesia. The government decided
to give Irian (Dutch New Guinea) direct
representation in the Indonesian parlia-
ment.

22: Foreign Ministers Conference. The

foreign ministers of Great Britain, France
and the U.S. again met in New York.
The three defence ministers were also
present.

New Zealand. Dockers at all New
Zealand ports returned to work.

Nobel Prize. The Nobel prize com-
mittee of the Norwegian Storting decided
to award the Peace prize to Ralph Bunche,
former U.N. acting mediator in Palestine.

United States. President Truman
vetoed the Communist Control bill.
The House of Representatives over-rode
the veto.

23: Korea. U.S. aircraft accidentally
attacked men of the Argyll and Suther-
land Highlanders.

United States. The Senate over-rode
the President's veto on the Communist
Control bill, which thus became law.

24: Indo-China. French forces recaptured
Chucphaithan, a frontier post west of
Moncay.

25: Great Britain. Lord Trefgarne resigned
as chairman yf the Colonial Develop-
ment corporation.

Commonwealth Conference. A confer-
ence on economic development of south
and southeast Asia opened in London.

Korea. United Nations troops cap-
tured Osan and Chochiwon, thus reducing
the gap between the U.N. northern and
southern armies to 25 mi.

Spain-Portugal. Dr. O. Salazar arrived
at Vigo for talks with General Franco.

United Nations. Ernest Bevin, in a
speech to the general assembly, pledged
British support for the U.S. 4t peace
force " plan outlined by Dean Acheson
on Sept. 20.

United States. Paul Hoffman resigned
as head of the E.C.A. and was succeeded
by his deputy, William Foster.
26: Great Britain. 80 miners died and 19
escaped in a fire at Creswell colliery, near
Worksop, Derbyshire.

International Court of Justice. The
court began public hearings of a dispute
between Peru and Colombia.

Korea. United Nations troops occupied
Seoul. Troops of the U.N. northern and
southern armies met south of Seoul.

Malta. E. Mizzi, leader of the Nation-
alist party, formed a minority govern-
ment.

North Atlantic Treaty. The council
announced a plan for setting up an
integrated defence force for Europe under
a supreme commander.

United States The resignation of Lewis
Douglas as ambassador in London was
announced.

27: r ;reat Britain. Labour retained its
seat in a by-election at North-East
Leicester.

United States. Walter Sherman Giffotd
was nominated ambassador to Great
Britain.

28: Spain-Portugal. It was announced
that discussions on international affairs
had taken place in Spain and Portugal
between General Franco and Dr. Salazar.

Trade Conference. International talks
on tariffs and trade opened in Torquay.

United Nations. Indonesia was admit-
ted as the 60th member.
29: Korea. South Korean forces reached
the 38th parallel: General MacArthur
formally handed over control of Seoul to
Syngman Rhee.

^Sweden. The village of Surte, near
Gothenburg, was wrecked when its clay
foundations slid into the river valley.
The Gota river, railway lines and roads
were blocked.

United Nations. The Security council
decided to invite the Chinese Communist
government to be represented during its
discussion on Formosa. Brazil and the
Netherlands were elected to the Security
council. After 12 ballots neither Turkey
nor Lebanon secured a two-thirds maj-
ority for the third seat. Great Britain,
U.S.S.R., Uruguay, Philippines, Poland
and Sweden were elected to the Economic
and Social council. Dominica and Thai-
lancj were elected to the Trusteeship
council.

30: Canada. Douglas Abbott, minister of
finance, announced the freeing of the
Canadian dollar.

India. At a press conference in New
Delhi, Jawaharlal Nehru said it would be
wrong for United Nations forces to
invade North Korea.

OCTOBER

1 : Korea. General MacArthur called on
the North Koreans to surrender. South
Korean forces crossed into North Korea.

Vietnam. French and Vietnam force*
entered the town of Thai-Nguyen, th<
military capital of the Vietminh forces.

2: Great Britain. The 49th annual con-
ference of the Labour party opened al
Margate under the chairmanship of Sam
Watson.

Indonesia. An offensive was launched
by Indonesian troops against Amboina
island, centre of the South Moluccas
republic. This was the only state still
resisting incorporation into Indonesia.

Korea. South Korean forces occupied
Yangyang, north of the 38th parallel.

United Nations. A. Vyshinsky put
forward proposals for Korea to the
political committee. His draft resolutions
named the United States as the aggressor,
and called for the withdrawal of the U.S.
forces and the disbandment of the existing
U.N. commission.

3: Great Britain. The Treasury announced
that the gold and dollar reserves of the
sterling area on Sept. 30, 1950, were
2,756 million compared with 1,340
million at the time of devaluation of
sterling, Sept. 18, 1949.

Brazil. Getulio Vargas was elected
president to succeed Eurico Dutra.

Islamic Conference. Ghulam Moham-
med, Pakistan finance minister, in his
presidential address to the second Islamic
Economic conference at Tehran, called
for some integration of Moslem countries
on an economic basis.

4: Commonwealth Conference. The meet-
ings on aid to Asia ended in London.

Pakistan. The Ministry of Defence
announced that Afghan tribesmen and
troops had crossed into Pakistan and
were being driven back.

5: Israel. The cabinet conferred on the
prime minister, David Ben-Gurion, the
special powers formerly held by the
British high commissioner, enabling him
to conduct an intensive war against the
black market.

7: Tibet. Chinese forces invaded Tibet.
(This action was not made public until
the end of October).

United Nations. The general assembly
approved, by 47 votes to 5 with 8
abstentions, an eight-power resolution
for the unification and rehabilitation of a
peaceful and democratic Korea.

8: Great Britain. Hugh Gaitskell, minister
of state for economic affairs, arrived in
New York.

Korea. U.S. forces crossed the 38th
parallel and South Korean troops
occupied Wonsan.

Morocco. The sultan of Morocco
arrived at Bordeaux on a state visist to
France.

Pakistan. Jogendra Nath Mandal,
Hindu minister of law, resigned.

9: Great Britain. The minister of supply
appointed Feb. 15, 1951, as the general
date of transfer of the iron and steel
industry.

Denmark. Winston Churchill arrived
in Copenhagen as the guest of the Danish
government.

Western Germany. Gustav Heinemann,
minister of the interior, resigned.

10: Canada-United States. The Niagara
waters treaty became operative after
the deposit of ratification documents.

Denmark. Winston Churchill was awar-
ded the degree of doctor of philosophy
and arts by Copenhagen university.

Morocco. The sultan of Morocco
arrived in Paris.

DIARY OF EVENTS, 1950

11: Korea. British and Commonwealth
forces advanced across the 38th parallel.

Medicine. The minister of health
announced the setting up of a committee
to investigate the claims of David Rees
Evans to have discovered a treatment for
cancer.

12: Great Britain- Yemen. Negotiations
which opened on Aug. 29 ended. Among
the subjects discussed was the setting up
of diplomatic relations between the two
countries.

Jordan. King Abdullah accepted the
resignation of his cabinet and asked
Said Pasha el Mufti to form a new
government.

United Nations. The Security council
notified the president of the general
assembly that it had been unable to agree
on a recommendation regarding the
appointment of a secretary general.

13: United States. President Truman
arrived at Honolulu on his way to a
meeting with General Douglas Mac-
Arthur.

14: Indonesia. Mohammed Hatta, former
prime minister, was elected vice-president.
Jordan. A new cabinet was formed
under Said Pasfca el Mufti.

United States. President Truman and
General MacArthur held a three-hour
meeting on Wake island. They discussed
Korea and other far eastern matters.

15: Eastern Germany. Elections were held
for both houses of parliament. 98-44%
of the electorate voted.

Israel. The cabinet resigned after
members of the Religious bloc had
notified the prime minister, David Ben-
Gurion, that they were unwilling to
accept his proposed cabinet changes.

16: Australia. The executive of the Labour
party decided to withdraw its opposition
to the government's Communist Party
Dissolution bill.

Israel. David Ben-Gurion proposed
the formation of a caretaker cabinet until
a general election.

Malta. The second parliament elected
under the 1947 constitution was opened.

Western Germany. Erich Kohler
resigned as president of the Bundestag.

17: Great Britain. The judicial committee
of the Privy Council reported that in
their opinion the Rev. J. G. MacManaway
was disabled from sitting in the House of
Commons because he was a priest of the
Church of Ireland.

18: Indo- China. Vietminh troops entered
the border town of Langson.

Israel. The Knesset rejected David
Ben-Gurion's proposals for a caretaker
government.

Scotland. The Queen opened the Loch
Sloy scheme, the first of the major
projects of the North of Scotland Hydro-
Electric board to come into operation.
19: Great Britain. Sir Stafford Cripps
resigned as chancellor of the exchequer
for reasons of health. Hugh Gaitskell,
minister of state for economic affairs,
was appointed to succeed him.

The House of Commons declared
vacant the Rev. MacManaway's seat at
West Belfast.

Israel. President Weizmann asked
P. Rosen, leader of the Progressive party,
to try to form a government.

Korea. United Nations forces captured
Pyongyang, capital of North Korea.

Tibet. Chinese troops occupied Chang-
tu (Chamdo), northeast of Lhasa.
20: Australia. The Communist Party
Dissolution bill received the royal assent.

21: Great Britain. Princess Elizabeth's
second child, Princess Anne Elizabeth
Alice Louise, was christened by the
archbishop of York at Buckingham
palace.

Germany. A statement was issued at
the end of a two-day conference in
Prague attended by V. Molotov and the
foreign ministers of the eastern European
countries and Eastern Germany. The
conference proposed a four-power dec-
laration against the remilitarization of
Germany, and a peace treaty with
Germany.

Jordan. King Abdullah arrived in
Baghdad.

22: Indo-China. French forces withdrew
from Loc Binh, a frontier post, and
evacuated Langson.

Tibet. Chinese forces occupied Lhad-
zong, 250 mi. northeast of Lhasa.

23: Arab League. The 13th regular meeting
of the council was held in Cairo. It
lasted 20 min.

24: Great Britain. The House of Commons
approved an address to the King for
making arrangements for the building
of the new chamber and thanked the
Lords for the hospitality of their chamber
for nearly ten years.

Australia. Eric Harrison, minister
resident in London, was sworn in as
Australian minister of the interior in
London by the lord chancellor.

France. R. Pleven, prime minister,
proposed the creation of a unified
European defence force in which Ger-
many could play a part.

North Atlantic Treaty. The council of
deputies decided to establish an economic
and financial working group at the head-
quarters of O.E.E.C. in Paris.

25: Great Britain. The Conservative
party retained its seat in a by-election at
Scotstoun, Glasgow.

Hugh Gaitskell took the oath as
chancellor of the exchequer.

United Nations. The Security council
again considered the appointment of a
secretary general. Carlos Romulo
(Philippines) and Charles Malik (Leb-
anon) each received 4 votes. ,

26: Great Britain. The King opened the
new House of Commons chamber.
Speakers and presiding officers of 29
Commonwealth assemblies were present.
The House of Lords returned to its own
chamber, which since 1941 had been
occupied by the Commons.

Denmark. Hans Hedtoft's minority
Labour government resigned.

Korea. South Korean patrols reached
the Manchurian border north of Kojang.

Tibet. India sent a note to the Chinese
expressing " deep regret " that the
Chinese had invaded Tibet instead of
trying to reach a settlement by negotia-
tion.

Nobel Prize. The prize for physiology
and medicine was awarded jointly to
P. S. Hench and E. C. Kendall of the
Mayo clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, U.S.,
and to T. Reichstein of Basle, Switzer-
land, for the discovery of Cortisone.

27: France. General Juin returned to
France after visiting Indo-China.

Tibet. Chinese forces occupied Shosh-
ado.

28 : France. The bill to extend compulsory
military service from 1 yr. to 18 months
was passed by 414 votes to 185.

North Atlantic Treaty. The defence
committee met in Washington.

29: Sweden. King Gustaf V died at
Drottningholm castle at the age of 92
after a reign of 43 years.

Western Germany. K. Adenauer
publicly rejected the French terms to
allow German units to serve in a Euro-
pean army.

30: Israel. David Ben-Gurion announced
the formation of a coalition government.

Nepal-Great Britain. A treaty of
perpetual peace and friendship was
signed in Kathmandu.

North Borneo. The newly constituted
Legislative Council met for the first
time.

Poland. A drastic revaluation of the
zloty came into effect. The new zloty
was based on gold and was at par with the
Soviet rouble.

Sweden. King Gustaf VI Adolf took
the royal oath.

Syria. General Sami Hinnawi, leader
of the revolt against Husni ez Zaim in
Aug. 1949, was shot dead in Beirut.

Tibet. In a reply to the Indian note
the Chinese government reiterated its
claim that Tibet was an integral part of
China and a matter solely for the Chinese
government.

31: Great Britain. The King opened parlia-
ment. The King's speech included pro-
posals for a permanent Supplies and
Service bill and the taking over of the
beet sugar industry.

Italy. Palmiro Togliatti, leader of the
Communist party, underwent an emer-
gency operation for the removal of a
blood clot on the brain.

Puerto Rico. An unsuccessful attempt
was made on the life of the governor,
Luis Mufloz Marin.

Tibet. In a further note to the Chinese
government the Indian government again
expressed " their hope that the Chinese
government will still prefer methods of
peaceful negotiation and settlement to
solution under duress and by force."

NOVEMBER

1: Roman Catholic Church. The Pope
proclaimed a dogma of the bodily
assumption into heaven of the Virgin
Mary.

United Nations. By 46 votes to 5 with
7 abstentions, the general assembly
decided to prolong Trygve Lie's term as
secretary general for three years.

United States. Two Puerto Ricans
attempted to shoot their way into
President Truman's home in Washington
with the intention of assassinating him.
One was shot dead and the other wounded.
One guard was shot dead. An attempt
was made to blow up the Puerto Rican
government offices in New York.
2: Great Britain. George Bernard Shaw
died at his home at Ayot St. Lawrence,
Hertfordshire.

Conservatives retained their seat in a
by-election at Oxford city.

Greece. S. Venizelos's coalition
government resigned after disagreements
with the Populist party.

Indo-China. Vietminh forces occupied
Laokay.

3: Bulgaria. A decree became effective
which permitted Soviet citizens to assume
posts in Bulgaria as though they were
Bulgarians.

Greece. S. Venizelos formed a Liberal-
Social Democrat coalition government.

Indonesia. The Indonesian flag was
again hoisted in the city cf Amboina after
five weeks of military operations.

DIARY OF EVENTS, 1950

Soviet Union. The government handed
notes to the British, French and United
States ambassadors in Moscow proposing
a meeting of the Council of Foreign
Ministers to consider " the question of
implementing the Potsdam agreement on
the demilitarization of Germany.'*

4: Persia-Soviet Union. A new trade
agreement was signed in Tehran.

United Nations. The general assembly
annulled its decision of Dec. 1946 calling
on member states to withdraw their
ambassadors or ministers from Madrid.

5: Korea. General MacArthur reported
that Chinese Communist troops were now
engaged with the U.N. forces.

6: Great Britain. In a division on housing
the government received a majority of 12.

7: Great Britain. In two divisions on cost
of living and controls the government
received majorities of 15 and 10.

Nepal. The ruler, Maharajadhiraja
Tribhuvana Bir Bikram Jung Bahadur,
and his family sought asylum in the
Indian embassy in Kathmandu. The
crown prince's second son, aged 3, was
proclaimed king.

Soviet Union. Celebrations were held
to mark the 33rd anniversary of the 1917
revolution.

United States. Flections were held for
the House of Representatives and 36
seats in the Senate. The final results were:
Senate, Democrats 49, Republicans 47;
House of Representatives, Democrats
227, Republicans 196, Independents 1.

8: Great Britain. The government was
defeated by 6 votes in the House of
Commons on a motion concerning
private members' bills.

Eastern Germany. Otto Grotcwohl,
prime minister, announced that the
government had resigned. He was asked
to form a new cabinet.

France. General Boyer de la Tour du
Moulin was appointed to succeed General
Alessandri as commander in Tongking.

Japan. The Soviet representative
attended the Allied Council for Japan for
the first time since April 26.

United Nations. The Security council
decided to invite Chinese Communist
representatives to be present for discus-
sion on General MacArthur's report that
Chinese troops were fighting in Korea.

9: France. The National Assembly
defeated by 466 votes to 98 a motion
calling on the government to ameliorate
the conditions of Marshal Petain's
detention.

Sweden. King Gustaf V was buried in
Riddarholm church, Stockholm. The
Duke of Gloucester represented King
George VI.

10: Great Britain. Lord Tedder was elected
chancellor of Cambridge university in
succession to General Smuts.

It was announced that it had been
decided to establish diplomatic relations
with Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia.

Nobel Prizes. The 1950 prize for litera-
ture was awarded to Earl Russell (Bert-
rand Russell); the 1949 prize to William
Faulkner (United States); the prize for
physics was awarded to Professor Cecil
Powell of Bristol.

11: France. M. Thorez, secretary general
of the French Communist party, left
Paris by air for medical treatment in the
Soviet Union!

World Peace Congress. It was

announced that because of the action of
the British government in refusing entry
into Britain of many delegates the con-
ference due to open at Sheffield on Nov.
13 would open in Warsaw on Nov. 16.
Yugoslavia. The government ordered
the Albanian legation in Belgrade to be
closed.

12: Great Britain. Remembrance day cere-
monies were held throughout Britain and
the Commonwealth.

Tibet. Chinese forces occupied Lho
Dzong and captured Chapatsitun, the
commander of the 7th Tibetan regiment.

13: Nepal. The exiled king of Nepal
visited President Prasad in New Delhi.

United Nations. The secretary general
announced the receipt of an appeal
(dated Nov. 7) from the government of
Tibet for aid.

Venezuela. Lieut. Colonel Carlos
Delgado Chalbaud, president of the
military junta since 1948, was shot dead
in Caracas.

14: Great Britain. The National Coal
board issued its national plan for spending
635 million on capital development
before 1965.

Great Britain- Yugoslavia. It was
announced that Britain had agreed to
make available to Yugoslavia a credit of
3 million for tKe purchase of food and
consumer goods.

India. In opening the winter session
of parliament President Prasad an-
nounced the postponement of the first
general elections from April-May 1951
to Nov.-Dec. 1951.

Venezuela. General Rafael Urbina,
who shot Lieut. Colonel Chalbaud on
Nov. 1 3, was shot while trying to escape.

Boxing. Jack Gardner beat the holder
Bruce Woodcock for the British and
Empire heavy-weight titles.

15: Eastern Germany. Otto Grotcwohl
presented his new National Front govern-
ment to the Volkskammer. It included
5 deputy prime ministers.

16: Great Britain. Conservatives retained
the seat in the Handsworth, Birmingham*
by-election with an increased majority.

Egypt. In his speech to the parliament,
King Farouk said his government would
insist on the evacuation of British troops
from Egyptian soil and the unification of
the Nile valley under the Egyptian crown.

Greece. The new government received
a vote of confidence by 1 64 votes to 54.
The Populist party, which was excluded
from the government, voted for the
government.

India. The Madras government lifted
its ban on the Communist party.

World Peace Congress. The World
Peace congress transferred from Shef-
fieldopened in Warsaw.

17: Tibet. The Dalai Lama was invested
with full powers as the spiritual and
temporal head of the state.

United Nations. The general assembly,
by 50 votes to 0, approved proposals for
the creation of a unified and sovereign
state of Libya.

18: Council of Europe. The second session

of the consultative assembly was resumed

in Strasbourg.
19: Indonesia. All inhabitants of Jakarta

were confined to their houses for six

hours while troops and police searched

for illegal arms.
Korea. U.S. troops captured Kapsan

and advanced to within 16 mi. of the

Manchurian border.

20: Great Britain. Ernest Bevin stated in
the House of Commons that Great
Britain had no intention of withdrawing
British forces and so leaving the middle
east defenceless.

Philip Noel-Baker, minister of fuel and
power, announced that the National
Coal board would be buying coal from
abroad.

International Court of Justice. The
court delivered judgement in the Colom-
bian-Peruvian asylum case.

Netherlands-Indonesia. The second
union conference opened in The Hague
under the chairmanship of Willem Drees.

Scandinavia. The foreign ministers and
ministers for trade of Denmark, Norway
and Sweden met in Copenhagen. The
Iceland minister in Copenhagen was
present.

United Nations. The general assembly
approved the U.S.-sponsored peace reso-
lution by 51 votes to 5.
21: Great Britain. Queen Juliana and the
prince of the Netherlands arrived in
Britain on a state visit.

The government was defeated by 65
votes to 32 in House of Lords on a
private member's bill to amend the
Transport act.

22: Great Britain. Following demands
from Conservative and Labour members,
the government agreed to suspend
delivery of Centurion tanks to Egypt until
the foreign secretary had reported to the
House of Commons on his discussions
with the Egyptian foreign minister.

Austria. The three western govern-
ments sent notes to the Soviet government
protesting at further Soviet interference
with the Austrian police.

Commonwealth. C. R. Attlee announced
in London that a conference of Common-
wealth prime ministers would be held in
London in Jan. 1951.

Egypt. A state of emergency was
declared in Cairo, Alexandria and Port
Said when students began a series of
anti-British demonstrations.

Railways. 78 persons were killed in a
rail crash outside New York.
23: Great Britain. It was confirmed that
Britain had sent a message to the Chinese
government reassuring it that the presence
of U.N. troops in Korea was not a threat
to China.

Finland. Urho Kekkonen, prime mini-
ster, announced that he would try to
broaden the government.

France. The government's policy on
Indo-China was approved in the National
Assembly by 345 votes to 193.

Gibraltar. The Duke of Edinburgh
opened the new Legislative Council.

Korea. General MacArthur launched
a new offensive in Korea.
24: China. The people's government in the
Tibetan autonomous region in Sikang was
founded.

United States. President Truman
announced the allocation of $16 million
to provide food for the Yugoslav armed
forces.

Council of Europe. The session of the
consultative assembly was ended.
25: Indo-China. French troops retook the
frontier post of Tan May.

Italy. Mount Etna began to erupt.

Korea. The North Korean and Chinese
troops began a counter offensive.

Libya. The first meeting of the Libyan
Constituent Assembly was held. The
Mufti of Tripolitania was elected presi-
dent and the assembly declared that the
Emir of Cyrenaica should be king of all
Libya.

DIARY OF EVENTS, 1950

Malta. Princess Elizabeth arrived by
air from London.

26: Indo-China. A conference presided over
by Bao Dai and attended by the prime
minister of Vietnam, Tran Van Huu, and
military commanders was held in Tong-
king.

Uruguay. Elections were held for the
presidency. A. Martinez Trueba was
elected to succeed Luis Batlle Berres.

27: Commonwealth. A conference of the
Commonwealth Parliamentary associa-
tion opened in Wellington, New Zealand.

France. The economic conference at
Pau between representatives of France
and Indo-China ended after five months.

India-Nepal. Two representatives of
the government of Nepal arrived in New
Delhi for talks with Indian ministers.

United Nations. Delegates from the
Chinese People's republic attended a
meeting of the Security council for the
first time.

Venezuela. G. Suarez Flammerich was
installed as president of the new civilian-
military junta,

28: Great Britain. By 389 votes to 134 the
House of Commons, on a free vote,
carried an amendment to prevent the
Sunday opening of the Festival of Britain
fun fair.

Commonwealth. Details were published
of the proposals for co-operative econo-
mic development in south and southeast
Asia, known as the Colombo plan.

France. The king and queen of Den-
mark arrived in Paris on a state visit.

The government was defeated in the
National Assembly on a Communist
motion to impeach Jules Moch, minister
of defence. Rene Pleven offered the
resignation of his government to the
president, but it was not accepted.

India-Pakistan. Correspondence was
published between Jawaharlal Nehru and
Liaquat Ali Khan on the proposed " no
war " declaration.

Korea. General Mac Arthur reported
to the United Nations that 200,000
Chinese troops were in Korea.

United Nations. General Wu Hsiu-
chuan, leader of the Chinese Communist
delegation, accused the United States of
aggression against China, Korea, Vietnam
the Philippines, Japan and other Asian
countries, after Warren Austin, U.S., had
accused China of aggression in Korea.

29: Great Britain. The House of Commons
opened a two-day debate on foreign
affairs.

The Ulster Unionists retained the seat
in a by-election at West Belfast but with a
much reduced majority.

Korea. United Nations forces, after
being forced back across the Chongchon
river, were in general retreat towards
Sunchon.

30: Great Britain. At the close of the
foreign affairs debate, C. R. Attlee
announced that he was flying to Washing-
ton for talks with President Truman.

Labour retained its seats in by-elections
at South East Bristol and Abertillery.

France, By 369 votes to 181 the
National' Assembly adopted a bill for
constitutional reform.

Indo-China. It was announced that the
frontier post of Chuc-Phai-San had been
recaptured by French and Vietnam
troops.

United States. President Truman stated
that the use of the atomic bomb in Korea
was under consideration.

DECEMBER

1: France. The National Assembly
approved a motion of confidence in the
government by 347 votes to 184,

United States. President Truman sent
a message to congress asking for a
further $17,978 million for defence.

2: Great Britain. Clement Attlee and
Ernest Bevin held consultations in
London with Rene Pleven and Robert
Schuman of France.

Bulgaria-Turkey. The frontier, closed
on Oct. 7, was reopened by decision of
the Turkish government.

United Nations. The general assembly
passed resolutions dealing with the
federation of Eritrea with Ethiopia, aid
to Palestinian refugees and the treatment
of Indians in South Africa.

3 : Jordan. Said Pasha el Mufti submitted
the resignation of his cabinet and was
succeeded by Samir Pasha el Rifai.

Nepal. Sir Esler Dening of the British
Foreign Office arrived in New Delhi and
left for Kathmandu accompanied by
Frank Roberts, deputy high commis-
sioner in India.

Western Germany. Elections were held
in the western sectors of Berlin. The
Social Democrats remained the largest
party with 44-7% of the votes.

4: Great Britain. Sir Eric Young resigned
from the National Coal board.

China. Chou En-lai, in a statement on
the peace treaty with Japan, declared that
Communist China should take part in
preparing the treaty.

Netherlands- Indonesia. The conference
on the future of Dutch New Guinea
opened at The Hague.

United States. Clement Attlee met
President Truman in Washington.

5: Greece. Princess Elizabeth and the
Duke of Edinburgh arrived in Greece
for a week's visit to King Paul and Queen
Frederika.

India-Sikkim. A new treaty was signed
in Gangtok, providing that Sikkim
should continue to be a protectorate of
India enjoying internal autonomy.

United Nations. Asian and Arab mem-'
bers appealed to Communist China and
North Korea not to cross the 38th
parallel.

Cricket. Australia beat England in
the first test match at Brisbane by 70 runs.

6: Great Britain. A memorial to the first
Earl of Oxford and Asquith was unveiled
in the Palace of Westminster by Winston
Churchill.

France. General de Lattre de Tassigny
was appointed high commissioner and
commander in chief in Indo-China.

Haiti. Paul E. Magloire was installed
as president.

India. Jawaharlal Nehru appealed to
the four great powers to try to solve the
far eastern crisis by peaceful negotiations.

Korea. Chinese troops launched an
attack on a 70-mi. front. Pyongyang was
taken by the North Koreans.

United Nations. By 51 votes to 5 with
3 abstentions the general assembly
decided to discuss the question of Chinese
intervention in Korea.

7: Great Britain. In a statement to the
House of Commons, E. Shinwell, minister
of defence, said that Great Britain might
have to prepare for still harder tidings
but that there was no thought of with-
drawal from Korea.

8: Great Britain-United States. C. R.

Attlee and President Truman ended their
talks in Washington. A joint statement
announced agreement on many matters.
They were ready to negotiate on Korea
but repudiated appeasement.

Eastern Germany. The Supreme Court
sentenced Leonhart Moog, a former
finance minister in Thuringia, and three
others to 15 years' imprisonment for
inflicting " great damage on the national
economy of the republic.'*

Finland. Jan Sibelius celebrated his
85th birthday. He was presented with
the Grand Cross with Brilliants of the
Order of the White Rose.

Hungary. The National Assembly
unanimously passed the Defence of Peace
law.

9: Korea. Half of ihe 20,000 U.S. and
British troops fighting their way out of
the Choshin area reached Hungnam.

United States. General Marshall stated
that the president was considering pro-
claiming a national emergency.

10: Danube. The third session of the
Danube commission opened in Galatz,
Rumania.

India-Nepal. The talks in New Delhi
ended. The communique^ said that the
conversations were conducted in a
friendly atmosphere. The two Nepalese
representatives left New Delhi for Kath-
mandu.

Spain. General Franco called for
44 fair play " over Gibraltar but said that
the colony was " not worth a war."

Nobel Prizes. Dr. R. Bunche was
presented with the Peace prize in Oslo.
The other prize winners received their
awards from King Gustaf VI Adolf in
Stockholm.

11: Great Britain. Winston Churchill was
created a freeman of Portsmouth.

Singapore. Rioting broke out following
the decision of the high court to adjourn
hearings until Dec. 12, in the case of the
Dutch girl, Maria (Bertha) Hertogh.

12: Great Britain. C. R. Attlee returned to
London from Washington and later
reported on his talks to the House of
Commons.

New Zealand. Peter Fraser, prime
minister from 1940 to 1949, died in
Wellington.

Suez Canal. The Danish government
joined Great Britain and France in
protesting to Egypt against restrictions
on shipping passing through the canal.

13: Great Britain. Hugh Gaitskell an-
nounced that the British and United
States governments had agreed to suspend
aid under the E.R.P. to Great Britain on
Jan. 1, 1951.

Singapore. Rioting continued, but by
dusk the situation was reported under
control.

Suez Canal. Norway also protested to
Egypt against restrictions on shipping.

United Nations. The general assembly
called on South Africa to place South-
West Africa under the supervision of the
United Nations. The assembly again
asked for further discussions on the con-
trol of atomic energy and appointed a
committee to consider the question of
China's representation.

14: Great Britain. In the House of Com-
mons Ernest Bevin stated that Great
Britain had opposed the latest drive by
U.N. forces.

Indo-China. French forces began a new
drive against Communist positions north-
east of Hanoi.

DIARY OF EVENTS, 1950

South Africa. It was announced that
South African gold mines would supply
uranium to Great Britain and the U.S.

Switzerland. Eduard von Steiger was
elected president of the Swiss confedera-
tion.

United Nations. The general assembly
appointed a committee of three " to
determine the basis on which a satisfac-
tory cease-fire in Korea can be arranged/*
15: Council of Foreign Ministers. The
deputies again met in London to discuss
the Austrian treaty. No progress was
made.

Eastern Germany. The parliament
passed a school law which provided that
all children must be educated in state
schools and also a law safeguarding
peace.

India. Vallabhbhai Patel, deputy prime
minister from 1947, died in Bombay.

Soviet Union. The government sent
notes to the British and U.S. governments
calling for the trial as a war criminal of
Emperor Hirohito. The government also
sent notes to Britain and France again
protesting at the decisions to remilitarize
Germany.

Broadcasting. The B.B.C. stated that
more than 60% of its capital investment
in the next three years would be spent on
television.

16; Indo-China. J. Let ourneau and General
de Lattre de Tassigny, newly appointed
high commissioner, arrived in Saigon.

United Nations. General Wu, delegate
froni Communist China, announced that
China would call for the withdrawal of
volunteers in Korea provided that all
foreign troops were withdrawn and that
Communist China was admitted to the
United Nations.

17: Italy. P. Togliatti, Italian Communist
leader, left for recuperation in the Soviet
Union.

Korea. United Nations forces aban-
doned the Yonpo airfield near Hungnam.
1 8 : Great Britain. The Treasury announced
an increase in the foreign tourist allow-
ance from 50 to 100.

Eastern Germany. A protocol was
signed extending until March 1951 the
Frankfurt agreement on intra-German
trade.

Indo-China. The garrison of the
frontier post of Dinhlap withdrew to the
south.

Libya. Princess Elizabeth visited
Tripoli where she inspected units of the
Brigade of Guards.

North Atlantic Treaty. The fifth
meeting of the North Atlantic council
opened in Brussels under the chairman-
ship of Paul van Zeeland (Belgium).
Agreement was reached on the appoint-
ment of a supreme commander and on
German participation in a European
army.

Poland-Eastern Germany. A German
delegation, headed by Wilhelm Pieck,
arrived in Warsaw.

19: Indo-China. The retiring high com-
missioner, Lon Pignon, left for France.

North Atlantic Treaty. General
Dwight D. Eisenhower (U.S.) was
appointed supreme commander. It was
also suggested that a European director
of production should be appointed as a
counterpart to the military command.
The council ended its meetings. The
foreign ministers of Great Britain,
France and the United States later met
together.

Singapore. The governor, Sir Franklin
Gimson, announced the setting up of an
inquiry into the riots over Maria Hertogh.

20: Belgium. The House of Representa-
tives passed by 105 votes to 76 a bill
fixing the strength of army.

Chile. A naval expedition sailed from
Valparaiso to set up a third military base
in the Falkland Islands dependencies.

Soviet Union. The presidium of the
Supreme Soviet instituted Stalin inter-
national prizes " for consolidation of
peace among the nations.'*

21: Czechoslovakia. The National Assem-
bly passed a law to safeguard peace.

Germany. Cardinal von Preysing,
bishop of Berlin, died.

India-Nepal. Jawaharlal Nehru gave
details of the Indian proposals to Nepal.
These included the setting up of a
constituent assembly. The Nepalese
reply was still awaited.

Italy. The new central railway station
in Rome was opened by President
Einaudi.

United Nations. The committee of
three to arrange a cease-fire in Korea
sent a further message to Peking.

United States. Charles E. Wilson took
office as director of defence mobilization.

22: Great Britain. Sir Eustace Missenden,
chairman of the Railway executive,
resigned.

China. Chou-En-lai, prime minister
and foreign minister, rejected the United
Nations appeal f r a cease-fire in Korea.

Germany. The western powers replied
to Soviet notes of Nov. 3 proposing
four power talks on Germany. The
western powers proposed that the
permanent representatives at the United
Nations should meet to prepare an
agenda.

23: Korea. Lieut. General W. Walker,
commander of the United States 8th
army, was killed in a road accident in
Korea.

Netherlands-Indonesia. The conference
at The Hague on New Guinea was
resumed after Mohammed Rum had
returned with fresh proposals from
Jakarta.

Roiran Catholic Church. The Pope in
his Christmas message confirmed that the
tomb of St. Peter had been found under
the Basilica of St. Peter, Rome.

24: Indo-China. An agreement was signed
in Saigon giving Vietnam greater powers
over internal affairs. The U.S. ambassador
signed an agreement giving military aid to
France and to Vietnam, Laos and Cam-
bodia.

Korea. Syngman Rhee ordered the
evacuation of civilians from Seoul.

Roman Catholic Church. The Pope
declared the 1950 Holy Year ended.
More than 4 million pilgrims had visited
Rome during the year.

25: Great Britain. The King broadcast his
Christmas message to the peoples of the
Commonwealth from Sandringham.

It was announced that the Coronation
stone had been stolen from Westminster
abbey.

Bulgaria. The National Assembly
passed the Defence of the Peace act.

Korea. The withdrawal of U.N.
troops from Hungnam was completed.

Nepal. The two houses of parliament
approved proposals for convening within
three years a constituent assembly based
on adult suffrage. A new cabinet of nine
members was formed including repre-
sentatives of the people.

26: India. Jawaharlal Nehru held talks in
New Delhi with R. G. Menzies.

Chakravarti Rajagopalachari was ap-
pointed minister of home affairs in
succession to Sardar Patel.

Korea. A unified military command
was set up under General M. Ridgeway
who arrived in Korea to succeed General
Walker.

The South Korean minister of justice
announced that 84 Koreans sentenced to
death had had their sentences altered to
terms of imprisonment. 1,200 Koreans
under sentence of imprisonment were
released.

New Zealand. The Canterbury cen-
tenary games were opened by the gover-
nor general.

27: Commonwealth. D. S. Senanayake
(Ceylon) and S. G. Holland (New Zealand
left for the Commonwealth conference in
London.

Netherlands-Indonesia. The talks on
New Guinea ended in a deadlock.

Pakistan. R. G. Menzies arrived in
Karachi for talks with Liaquat Ali
Khan.

United States-Spain. President Truman
announced that he had nominated
Stanton Griffis as the first ambassador to
Spain since ambassadors were withdrawn
in Dec. 1946.

Cricket. Australia beat England in the
second test match at Melbourne by 28
runs.

28: Benelux Countries. A conference of the
prime ministers of Belgium, Luxembourg
and the Netherlands opened at The Hague.

Finland. Urho Kekkonen, prime
minister, arrived in Rome " for health
reasons."

Soviet Union. The presidium of the
Supreme Soviet decided to divide the
Ministry of the Metallurgical Industry
into separate ministries for ferrous and
non-ferrous metals.

Tibet. It became known that the Dalai
Lama had reached Gyantse from Lhasa.

United States-India. An agreement was
signed in New Delhi under President
Truman's " point four " programme.

29: Great Britain. A petition to the King
by persons who claimed to have stolen
the Coronation stone, asking for the
stone to be kept in Scotland, was left at
a Glasgow newspaper office.

France. The National Assembly
approved the expenditure of Fr. 740,000
million on armaments in 1951. Only the
Communist; voted against the proposal.

Gold Coast. A new constitution for the
colony was published. It was announced
that the first general election would be
held in Feb. 8, 1951.

Poland. The Diet passed a law for the
defence of peace.

Southern Rhodesia. Sir Godfrey
Huggins left Salisbury for the Common-
wealth conference in London.

30: Pakistan. Liaquat Ali Khan announced
the postponement of his departure to the
Commonwealth conference because it was
not proposed that the problem of
Kashmir should be discussed.

31: Austria. The president, Karl Renner,
died in Vienna.

France. The special rearmament
budget, providing fr. 355,000 million for
national defence was adopted by the
National Assembly.

India-Nepal. General Bijaya Bahadur
Rana, foreign minister of Nepal, and
Jawaharlal Nehru, held further talks in
New Delhi.

Yugoslavia. The government granted
an amnesty for 11,327 prisoners.

BOOK OF THE YEAR

ABYSSINIA: see ETHIOPIA.

ACCIDENTS. Road Safety. The Ministry of Transport
continued its National Road Safety campaign in Great
Britain, in which the Royal Society for the Prevention of
Accidents assisted. The theme of the ministry's advertising
was " Mind how you Go."

The year 1950 was dedicated to child safety. A campaign
was launched on Holy Innocents' day, Dec. 28, 1949. The
ministries of Transport and Education urged local authorities
to co-operate in a National Children's Safety week in March,
during which an amazing amount of local ingenuity was
shown. Though accident statistics during the week did not
show a decrease, the following month had the lowest April
total of child pedestrian fatalities since 1937. For the whole
year, despite the increase in accidents which was bound to
occur with the return of unrationed petrol, the increase in
child accidents was much smaller than in the case of adults.

Millions of posters, leaflets, bookmarks and magazines were
distributed, several thousand films and exhibitions hired and
many hundreds of lectures given. New films included
Mr. Jones takes the Air (dealing with rural road safety),
Calling all Children and The Cockney Kids' Adventure.
The British rights of an Australian film, Death on the Road,
were purchased. Four films were also made by the Crown
Film unit: Report on Road Safety; a " flash " appealing to
parents; and two trailers, The Golden Rule and Careless and
Carefree. Five hundred thousand people visited static or
mobile exhibitions of the society. The Ro.S.P.A.'s training
centre was visited by 24,342 children, learner-drivers and
others. A nation-wide poster competition was held for art
students, designers and children.

A quarter of a million commercial transport drivers were
entered in the society's annual safe-driving competition,
including drivers from most of the government and service
departments; 121,595 awards of silver and gold medals
and diplomas were presented. Eight hundred London
Transport drivers qualified for awards for 20 years or more
of safe driving, totalling between them 16,000 " safe " years

and 3,111,000,000 miles in safety. The number of young
cyclists who successfully passed the society's cycling profi-
ciency test was 10,000.

The society's annual National Safety congress held in
October in London, was opened by the minister of transport,
Alfred Barnes, and was attended by over 1,000 delegates.
Proposals from accident-prevention federations all over the
country were discussed.

The House of Lords held a debate in July on road safety,
initiated by the Ro.S.P.A.'s president, Lord Llewellin.
Lord Lucas", parliamentary secretary to the Ministry of Trans-
port, assured the house that the ministry had a firm policy
and that plans existed for a complete road system.

The minister of transport said that 156,516 persons were
killed in road accidents from Jan. 1, 1926 to June 30, 1950;
even if 1939-41, for which years figures were not available,
were excluded 3,795,258 persons were injured. Reports on
accidents included an analysis of the causes and circumstances
of road accidents in 1949 by the commissioner of police for
the metropolis, Sir Harold Scott.

The Ministry of Transport issued the Traffic Signs (Size,
Colour and Type) regulations, 1950, revoking previous
regulations and bringing previous authorizations up to date.
The " Halt at Major Road ahead " and " Slow Major
Road ahead " signs were now legally authorized with the
red triangle in the red circle resting either on its base or its
apex. A select committee on estimates called for a survey
into the effectiveness of road safety propaganda.

Concern was expressed over the rise in motor-cycling
accidents. *" The scheme of the R.A.C./A.C.U. for training
motor-cyclists was extended.

The Road Research laboratory, under the heading of
traffic and safety, dealt with subjects such as the effect of
fog; traffic behaviour on a three-lane road and a dual
carriageway; the effects of a pedestrian crossing week and of
zebra-marked crossings; and the relative risk to pedestrians
on crossings and elsewhere.

Toys. The National Home Safety committee recommended
to the Inter-Departmental Committee on Home Accidents

xx-^J^t^--

Cartoons from " Fire! Fire/" a 16-page booklet published in July 1950 by H. M. Stationery Office to help the public to avoid the dangers

of fire in the home.
B.B.Y. 3 17

ACHESON

TABLE I. ACCIDENTAL DEATHS IN AND ABOUT THE HOME, ENGLAND

AND WALES

Falls and Crushing

Drowning .

Burns, Scalds and Conflagration*

Suffocation .

Others

Total .

1947
4,001
1,149
904
1,054
1,482
8,590

1948

3,498

984

651

838

1,315

7,286

TABLE II. ACCIDENTAL DEATHS AND INJURIES IN GREAT BRITAIN

Killed

1947
447

4,881
618
839

1948
367

4,513
468
861

1949
321

4,773
460

772

Injured
1947

1948

1949

30,113

30,050

29,311

161,318

148,884

172,006

162,544

2,391*

2,180*

202,397

200,225

192,210

Railways
Roads .
Coal Mines
Factories

Railways
Roads .
Coal Mines .
Factories

* Serious injuries only.

that the manufacture and importation of highly inflammable
celluloid and plastic toys be prohibited or that, if this were
not possible, such toys be marked ** highly inflammable."

Industrial Safety. Two new volumes in the series '* I.C.J.
Engineering Codes and Regulations (Safety Series) " were
issued by the Ro.S.P.A. entitled Portable and TransportabL
Plant and Equipment and Buildings and Structures (Design).
A pamphlet on Stacking of Materials was prepared by the
Industrial Safety Officers' section.

Accident prevention and working conditions in iron
foundries were discussed in the House of Commons in June.
New requirements for seating in factories came into force
on Oct. 1. Under these, all employees who have reasonable
opportunities to sit without detriment to their work must
be given facilities to do so: where they can do a substantial
proportion of any work sitting, the employees must be given
work seats and, where necessary, foot-rests.

A campaign to reduce accidents in the furniture trade was
initiated by the British Furniture Trade Joint Industrial
council in conjunction with the Furniture Development
council; the Ro.S.P.A. participated in a one-day conference
held in London in April. The 16th International Congress
of Ophthalmology and an exhibition of industrial eye-
protection were held in London in July. A trade exhibition
of safety devices, equipment and protective clothing was
incorporated with the National Industrial Safety conference
at Scarborough.

In his annual report for 1948, published in 1950, the chief
inspector of factories, G. P. Barnett, reported an increase
in fatalities but a decrease in the total number of accidents.
The number of accidents per 1,000 workers had also steadily
declined, from 40 in 1944 to 28 in 1948.

The British Electricity authority in its first report outlined
the steps taken to develop a high standard of safety through-
out the whole industry. (H. Su.)

United States. Accidents caused 91,000 deaths in the
United States in 1949. This total was exceeded only by
deaths from heart disease, cancer and cerebral haemorrhage.
Information available at the end of Oct. 1950 indicated that
the 1950 accidental death total would probably drop slightly
below that of 1949. In addition to the deaths, accidents in
1950 also caused about 9 million non-fatal injuries.

An industrial safety highlight of 1950 was the President's
Conference on Industrial Safety, when 1,500 representatives
of management, labour, government and the public met in
Washington in June to consider committee reports and
develop plans for the reduction of industrial accidents.

It appeared, late in 1950, that the year's toll of occupational
accident fatalities would be a little greater than the 1949
toll of 15,000.

As 1950 drew to a close, it appeared that the number of
traffic accident deaths would be nearly 35,000 the largest
annual total since 1941. This increase in deaths was appar-
ently matched by the increase in miles travelled by motor
vehicles. Key committee members of the President's Highway
Safety Conference met in Chicago in May 1950 to appraise
progress and plan goals for further achievement.

Recognition of the seriousness of the farm accident prob-
lem was indicated by the fact that 24 states had State Farm
Safety committees in 1950, and 12 states had a full-time farm
safety specialist, working through many public and private
agencies to spread information on the ways and means of
meeting the problem. The president of the United States,
for the seventh successive year, proclaimed a National Farm
Safety week in July 1950. More than a million pieces of
educational material were distributed, and radio, newspaper
and magazine support were outstanding.

The 1949 toll of deaths in home accidents was 31,000,
about the same as that for motor vehicles. Reports for the
first ten months of 1950 indicated that home fatalities were
less numerous than in 1949. It appeared that the year's
total might be less than 30,000.

During 1950 about 85 out of the several hundred local and
state safety organizations throughout the country qualified
for acceptance as chapters of the National Safety council,
this relationship signifying that these organizations fully
represented the National Safety council in the communities
in which they operated, although at the same time retaining
their own autonomy. The 38th National Safety congress
was held in Chicago in Oct. 1950, with an attendance of
approximately 12,000. In addition, about 30 regional safety
conferences were held during the year. (R. L. Fo.)

ACHESON, DEAN GOODERHAM, US states-
man (b. Middletown, Connecticut, April 11, 1893), the son
of an Englishman who became bishop of Connecticut, was
educated at the Groton school, Connecticut, at Yale univer-
sity and at the Harvard Law school. After serving in the
navy in World War I he took up a legal career and in 1933
was under secretary of the treasury. In 1941 he became
assistant secretary of state and was under secretary of state
from Aug. 16, 1945, to June 30, 1947. On Jan. 7, 1949,
President Harry S. Truman appointed him secretary of state.

During 1950 Acheson was perhaps the most controversial
figure in U.S. public life and was the target of repeated attacks
in congress, particularly by Senator Joseph McCarthy (</.v.),
on the grounds that his far eastern policy had failed; President
Truman repeatedly affirmed, however, that Acheson would
not, as his critics were demanding, be asked to resign. On
May 7 the secretary of state flew to Paris where he had
discussions with the French foreign minister; two days later
he went on to London for a ten-day visit during which he
had extensive discussions with the British foreign minister
and other Commonwealth and western European statesmen
and was received by the King. He also presided over meetings
of the Atlantic Treaty council. Among his social engage-
ments during the stay were the Middle Temple Grand Day
dinner on May 9 and a dinner given in his honour by the
Pilgrims on May 10. In September he had further talks in
New York with the British and French foreign ministers and
attended further meetings of the Atlantic Treaty council.
After the conferences between President Truman and Clement
Attlee in Washington in December, the attacks on Acheson's
foreign policy eased a little, when Thomas E. Dewey and
other Republican leaders urged that the nation should unify
in its stand against Communism.

ADEN ADULT EDUCATION

King Phumiphon Adundet of Thailand (left} in Aden in March 1950.
On right is the governor, Sir Reginald Champion.

ADEN. A British colony and protectorates and a free
port on the southern coast of Arabia.

Colony. Area: 80 sq.mi. (incl. Perim island [5 sq.mi.],
the strait of Bab el Mandeb and the five Kuria Muria islands
off the Dhufar coast of Oman). Pop. (1946 census): 80,876
(Perim 360). Language: Arabic; Indian languages and Somali
also spoken. Religion (1946): Moslem c. 90%, Jewish 5%.
Administration: governor; executive council, ex officlo
members (3) and nominated members (in 1948, 3);
Legislative Council, established 1947, 4 ex officio members
and up to 12 nominated members (up to 4 official and
8 unofficial).

Protectorates. Western and eastern, the latter including the
Hadhramaut and Socotra island (150 mi. E. from Cape
Guardafui, pop. c. 5,000). Total protectorate area, 112,000
sq.mi.; total pop. (1947 est.) 650,000, almost entirely Moslem
Arabs. Administration: indirect, by sultans with advice of
political officers under the British agent. Premier chieftain
(western), Fadl Abdul Karim, Sultan of Lahej; premier
chieftain (eastern), Sir Salih bin Ghalib al Qu'aiti, Sultan of
Shihr and Mukalla. Governor and c. in c. of the colony
and governor of the protectorates, Sir Reginald S. Champion.

History. Since the end of World War II there had been a
steady increase in shipping using the port and in 1950 an
average of 360 vessels a month called; the demand for oil
bunkering rose to about 3 million tons a year. This led to
considerable improvement in the port and pilotage services
and to the construction of more oil tanks ashore.

After recurrent border difficulties with the Yemeni a
conference was held in London in September with Yemeni
representatives. Agreed proposals were submitted by the
delegates to their respective governments.

Development plans made for the colony covered the
extension of medical and educational services, including
female education, an Aden college and a technical institute:
the institute was opened towards the end of the year. Two-
thirds of a scheme costing 250,000 to irrigate 60,000 ac.
for rice growing in the Abyan district of the protectorates
was completed.

Trade. The principal local product exported is salt. The bulk of
the trade is entrepdt with the interior of Arabia and neighbouring
territories. Imports (1949) Rs. 328,953,002; exports (1949), incl.
re-exports, Rs. 203,961,079.

Finance. Budget estimates 1950-51 : revenue Rs. 128,036,859; expendi-
ture Rs. 173,028,572. Currency: Indian rupee (Re. \- Is. 6d.).

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Doreen Ingrams, A Survey of Social and Economic
Conditions in the Aden Protectorate (Asmara, 1950); The master of
Belhaven, The Kingdom of Melchior (London, 1950). (K. G. B.)

ADULT EDUCATION. In 1950 good progress in
mass education campaigns was reported from many British
colonies and dependencies, such as the Anglo-Egyptian
Sudan, the Gold Coast, Nigeria, Togoland, Uganda, Fiji and
Sarawak, and from countries in eastern Europe.

Following up its 1949 international conference on adult
education, held at Elsinore, Denmark, U.N.E.S.C.O.
organized in July-August, at Mondsee, near Salzburg,
Austria, a six weeks' international seminar which was
attended by some 70 representatives of 22 nations. Four
working groups studied respectively the organization and
administration of adult education, the question of how the
adult could be helped to think most effectively in today's
complex world (with special reference to scientific develop-
ments), the relation of adult education to social, economic
and political problems, and the educational use of leisure,
with special reference to the arts.

In England, Birmingham's centre for continued studies,
believed to be unique, reported a successful first year's work.
The centre offered two types of short course : a general course
at a higher intellectual level than most adult education; and
specialist courses for university graduates. The courses
attracted many oversea graduates studying in Britain. In
October Ernest Green, a pioneer of the adult education
movement, retired from the post of general secretary of the
English Workers' Educational association.

In August-September a committee appointed by the High
Commission for the Federation of Malaya investigated the
possibilities of extending adult education throughout the
federated states.

The first annual report of the New Zealand National
Council of Adult Education, set up under the Adult Education
act, 1947, stated that the four regional councils established
by the act had already become the chief adult educational
agencies in tho country.

The annual report of the Transvaal Workers' Educational
association reported successful Afrikaans classes for immi-
grants and graded courses of general education in native
townships.

In August it was reported from Poland that in 85 towns
and 5,000 villages illiteracy had been eliminated, and from
Rumania that 700,000 persons had learned to write during
the previous 12 months. Yugoslavia reported "impressive
progress " in its anti-illiteracy campaign among its national
minorities. For its Turkish minority Yugoslavia opened in
July at Bitolj a " People's university." (A Yugoslav People's
university aimed to give the general public information about
the latest achievements in science and the arts). In the same
month Poland launched a scheme of residential People's
universities designed to teach fundamental knowledge about
Poland and to train young persons for professional and
social work. Conditions of entry were that candidates must
be children of landworkers or small peasants, at least 18yr.
old, and have completed seven years' elementary education.

In September Poland reorganized its general education
schools for adult workers on two levels, elementary and
secondary, to give to all the opportunity of secondary
education. Over 50 correspondence schools, to serve 30,000
students, were established. In August, Yugoslavia reported
that during the previous year over 7,000 shock workers and

ADVERTISING

SOME OF GOAHS 3000 BY PRODUCTS

other experts had attended its general education schools.
These schools ranked as junior secondary schools; from
them workers could progress to workers' training or profes-
sional schools, and ultimately to universities. (H. C. D.)

ADVERTISING. Although the two-year-old voluntary
scheme for limiting advertising expenditure, agreed between
the government and the Federation of British Industries,
was allowed to lapse at the end of Feb. 1950, the year was
one of disappointment and difficulty for British advertising.
As paper became progressively dearer and, in the case of
newspapers, more difficult to buy, publishers tried to recoup
themselves by calling on advertisers to pay more for their
space.

The Statistical Review calculated that the sum of
30,522,199 was spent on advertising in British newspapers,
periodicals and magazines of all kinds during 1949, which
was 40-15% above 1948. For the first six months of 1950
the figure was given as 18,441,862, which suggests that the
1950 total would exceed the 1949 peak. The Statistical
Review estimated that the limit had been reached, however,
and forecast that as newspapers were going back to a six-
page basis in July, for a short period having produced alternate
eight-page issues, " we shall no doubt encounter a sizeable
fall in aggregate expenditure." The second half of 1950 was
marked by a prolonged dispute in the London printing trade
which interfered with the production of more than 100
newspapers and periodicals.

The advertising business continued to try to build up
British sales abroad, particularly in the dollar areas. At the
close of 1949 the government, through the Board of Trade's
export guarantee department, had told exporters that where
necessary they would be guaranteed against losses on market
research and " extraordinary advertising and promotional
expenses " incurred in the North American markets. Con-
siderable changes were carried out within the British Export
Trade Research organization, a non-profit-making body
with predominately advertising connections set up by the
industry in 1945 to assist British trade overseas. Roger Falk
became B.E.T.R.O.'s first director general. One of his
initial moves was to effect a strong link between B.E.T.R.O.
and the Federation of British Industries whereby the former
concentrated upon market research and at the same time
shared F.B.I, facilities abroad. The arrangements resulted
in savings for both bodies.

The British code of standards in relation to the advertising
of medicines and treatments was strengthened, in a second
edition, issued in 1950, to the extent that advertisers of
medicines and treatments could no longer claim that their
products possessed power to slim the human body, or even
to keep it slim. In October the Joint Advertisement com-
mittee of the Newspaper Proprietors association and the
Newspaper society issued a warning that no advertising
would be accepted which claimed that a hair treatment was
capable of preventing or eliminating baldness. Outdoor
advertising continued to pass through a period of re-adjust-
ment due to the operation of the Town and Country Planning
acts. The trade's outdoor advertising committee contested
an application by Winchester corporation, to have the whole
of the Winchester area put under " special control." This
would have empowered the Winchester authorities to ban
advertising and signs from the streets at will. Following a
public inquiry in Dec. 1949, the Ministry of Town and
Country Planning issued a compromise ruling in June 1950
which allowed " special control " to be applied only in
certain parts of Winchester.

A growing number of municipal transport undertakings

Two posters issued in 1950 by the British Electricity authority and
the National Coal board.

ADVERTISING

took steps to permit the sale of advertising space on their
vehicles, and several large contracts, notably in Glasgow,
Aberdeen and Liverpool, were signed between the local
authorities and advertisement contractors. Contemplating
the large revenues (2,969,536 in 1949) earned by the British
Transport commission through the letting of advertisement
position on its vehicles and properties, some municipalities
saw in advertising a means of offsetting mounting costs
which might otherwise have to be met through increased
fares or out of the rates.

The Advertising association pressed on with its plans for
staging the International Advertising conference (Britain)
1951 to which it hoped to attract a large number of U.S.,
Commonwealth and European advertising representatives.

Civil estimates published in March 1950 gave details of cuts
in Central Office of Information expenditure to be carried out
during the year ending March 31, 195 1 . The press advertising
appropriation, which totalled 867,000 in 1949-50, was reduced
to 763,000; some 253,000 was allocated for poster adver-
tising, as against 574,000 in the previous 1 2 months. All told,
the estimate of the total amount of money required for C.O.I.
advertising and promotional activities in 1950-51 was put at
3,038,310 compared with 3,934,739 in 1949-50

Commonwealth. In the third quarter of 1950 an historic
advertising campaign, that for the Festival of Britain 1951,
was launched, making its first appearance in the Australian
press. It was followed by a similar drive in South African
newspapers and magazines. The campaign was afterwards
extended elsewhere in the Commonwealth.

In South Africa the government-operated South African
Broadcasting corporation opened the first station in its
" Springbok Radio " chain or " C " service. Like the
British Broadcasting corporation the S.A.B.C. had not
previously allowed air time on its two existing networks to
be sold, but this new group of transmitters carried pro-
grammes sponsored and paid for by advertisers.

In Australia a plan to develop public goodwill towards
advertising was initiated by the advertising agencies, adver-
tisement media and advertisers working together. Purpose
of the project was stated to be " to portray in simple terms
what advertising does for the community and its benefits
to the national economy."

Europe. Advertising artists from all the European countries
in receipt of Marshall aid, including Great Britain, took
part in a contest sponsored by the Economic Co-operation
administration for posters illustrating 4t inter-European
co-operation." There were 2,584 entrants and the first
prize went to Reijn Dirksen, a 25-year-old Dutch commercial
artist. Two of the 16 finalists were British. An exhibition of
posters from Switzerland, where the standard of outdoor
advertising was highly rated, was arranged by the Advertising
Creative circle and opened by the Swiss Minister in London
on March 6. In Paris, on Dec. 3, 1949, an International
Federation of Advertising Clubs was established, founder
members being the Club de la Publicite, Paris; Club de la
Publicite, Brussels; and the Club van Veertig, Amsterdam.

Representatives of advertisers organizations from Belgium,
Denmark, France and Sweden visited London in Oct. 1950,
to attend the golden jubilee celebrations of the Incorporated
Society of British Advertisers. The International Chamber
of Commerce commission on advertising met in Paris on
Oct. 20 when it was announced that 1 1 countries had adopted
the I.C.C.'s code of standards governing advertising practise
and that others were contemplating doing so. (A. J. HY.)

United States. The .year's advertising in the U.S. was
marked by higher total expenditures than in 1949, by the

Two further examples of state advertising by the North Thames
Gas board and the National Savings movement.

AFGHANISTAN

spectacular growth of television as a medium and by the
effects of the mobilization economy into which the country
was entering.

Total expenditure was approximately $5,700 million, an
increase of $500 million over that of 1949, distributed among
the various media as shown in the table.

U.S. ADVERTISING EXPENDITURE* (millions of dollars)
1950
Newspapers ....... 2,059-0 1

1949
,905-0
633-8

Radio . .658-0

Television

161-6

63-0

Magazines
Direct mail .

517-0
838-7

492-5
755-6

Trade and business
Outdoor

papc

248-0
140-7

248-1
131-0

Farm papers
Miscellaneous

22-1
1 039-6

20-5
952-7

Total 5,684-7 5,202-2

* Mstimate by Robert Cohen, McCann Erickson, Inc.

Television. In 1950 manufacturers made about 7-5 million
television sets (as against 3 million in 1949), and at the end
of the year there were nearly 10 million sets in operation in the
U.S. (as against 3 '95 million at the end of 1949) and 107
television stations operating in 65 markets. There were about
2 million sets in metropolitan New York City alone, viewed
by approximately 8 million persons. Advertisers in 1950 spent
approximately $100 million on television time (about four
times their expenditure in 1949) but were beset by soaring
time and talent costs: television network charges were
running well above radio network charges (e.g., $20,630 a
half-hour as against $16,600), though their total available
audience was only one-quarter of radio's; a major effort
would cost about $1 -25 million.

Radio. Total gross revenue of radio advertising in 1950 was
approximately $448 million, an increase of 5 -4% over that of

1949. Network time-sales declined 3-3%, but this loss was
offset by gains in spot and local radio advertising. Radio
manufacturers produced 14 million sets, the gross dollar
volume of $1,700 million being the highest in peacetime
history. There were 2,230 stations on the air at the end of

1950, as against 2,087 at the end of 1949.

The Korean war stimulated radio listening ajid led to
determined efforts to improve programmes; and aggressive
selling helped to improve the industry's position. The Asso-
ciation of National Advertisers made a report on radio and
television costs and called for substantial reductions in night
radio rates because of the losses of that audience to television.
Late in the year the National Broadcasting company asked
its stations in television areas to make cuts of some 10% in
their rates in view of the altered values.

Newspapers. Newspapers in 1950 enjoyed record adver-
tising volume and circulation. The Bureau of Advertising
of the American Newspaper Publishers' association estimated
that national advertising in 1950 would be larger than the
$445 million of 1949 and would constitute the third successive
record-breaking year in this respect. Media Records estimates
for the first ten months of the year showed that national
advertising (general and automotive) was 9 9 % greater than
during the corresponding period of 1949. Circulation was
stimulated by the Korean war news. Representative papers
in large cities showed gains of from 6% to 15%.

The line rate for advertising in daily newspapers increased
50% in the period 1940-50, but the milline rate, or cost of
reaching a reader, rose only slightly, according to a study by
Kelly-Smith company: the average milline rate for all news-
papers, Sunday papers excepted, was given as $3-32 in 1940
and $3 '41 in 1950. There were general advertising-rate
increases among newspapers, as among other printed media.
The volume of rate increases by media was characterized by
the Standard Rate and Data service as the heaviest in 25 years.

Magazines. The Magazine Advertising bureau predicted a
national advertising volume of between $470 million and
$475 million for 1950, as against $445 million in 1949. The
first half of 1950 showed a total circulation of 146,579,475 for
all general and farm magazines reporting to the A.B.C.,
3 million more than the second half of 1949.

The Committee on Advertising of the United States
Chamber of Commerce, in a survey among advertising
managers of 46 national publications, found that 67 % had
raised advertising rates during the first three-quarters of the
year by an average of 11 %; that advertising linage was up
an average of 15% for 61% of the respondents, down an
average of 8% for 39%; and that no inroads from television
were observed by 60%, but that 40% had noted the effects of
television competition in securing new advertising accounts.
Practically all reported increased circulation.

Other Media. A circulation of 18,000 million passengers
was estimated for advertising in the 90,000 vehicles carrying
car-cards. There were 80 transportation companies, about
75 % of the business being done by a dozen of them. Greater
use of fluorescent inks was noted in travelling displays on the
outside of buses and trolley cars.

The volume of national outdoor advertising was somewhat
more than $80 million, according to Outdoor Advertising,
Inc. ; that of local advertising was estimated at approximately
a third of this figure. It was estimated that national adver-
tising was divided as follows: automotive (automobiles,
gasoline and oil, tyres and accessories) 38% of dollar volume;
beverages (soft drinks, beer, wine, spirits) 29%; food 19%;
other products (cigarettes, appliances, etc.) 14%. The dollar
volume of direct mail advertising, according to estimates
from the Direct Mail Advertising association, was $80,223,785
in October, an increase of 9 % over September's volume and
0-5% above March's, the previous record. For the first ten
months of 1950 the dollar volume was $726,357,050.

Industrial advertisers and agencies were thrown into some
confusion by the Korean war. Many of them had just become
organized for extensive advertising and selling campaigns
following the mid-year recession in 1949, when the Korean
crisis developed and with it a rush of orders for industrial
goods. The National Industrial Advertisers association set in
motion a project to evaluate inquiries and their proper
follow-up and to make a thorough study of industrial cata-
logues. The National Machine Tool Builders association set
up an advertising committee to promote the desirability of
machine replacements.

Business publications raised advertising rates generally.
A study of a group of 75 such increases showed that 12 were
based upon gains in circulation, 31 upon higher publishing
costs. (D. ST.; R. A. BN.)

AFGHANISTAN. Independent kingdom in the centre
of Asia bounded N. by the U.S.S.R., W. by Iran, S. and S.E.
by Pakistan and E. by China (Sinkiang). Area: c. 270,000
sq.mi. Pop. (no census ever taken, 1947 est.): 12 million.
Races: Afghans or Pathans or Pashtuns 53%, Tajiks 36%,
Uzbeks 6%, Hazarah 3%, others 2%. Language: Pashtu
or Pakhtu, but Tajiks and Hazarah speak Persian. Religion:
Moslem (Afghans are Sunni, others mainly Shia). Chief
towns (pop. 1946 est.): Kabul (cap., 206,200); Kandahar
(77,200); Herat (75,600); Mazar-i-Sharif (41,900). King,
Mohammed Zahir Shah; prime minister (from May 1946),
Shah Mahmud Khan, the king's uncle.

History. The year 1950 began auspiciously by the signature
on Jan. 4 at New Delhi of a treaty of friendship with India.
The treaty provided that each signatory should be able to
establish trade agencies in the other's territory. It would last
for five years in the first instance, and at the end of that period
it would be terminable at six months* notice.

AGRICULTURE

Jawaharlal Nehru, prime minister of India (centre), and Sardar Najibullah Khan, Afghan a

of friendship in New Delhi on Jan. 4, 1950.

in New Delhi (right), signing a treaty

Unhappily this friendship with India did not find reflection
in Afghanistan's relations with the closer neighbour Pakistan.
This, to some extent, may have been due to the acuteness of
Indo-Pakistani tension over Kashmir and the devaluation
issue. However that might be, both in Karachi and in Kabul
there were at times sharp expressions of suspicion. Pakistan
felt that Afghanistan was too tolerant of the so-called
independent " Pashtunistan " movement, which had for its
aim the creation of a Pashtu-speaking enclave and therefore
a new state to be carved out of what was now Pakistani
territory. As this movement was in a sense a legacy of the
former political dominance in the North- West Frontier
Province of the Congress supporters known as Red Shirts
in the days of British rule, it had its dangers as a source of
controversy between Afghanistan and Pakistan. Both
countries had reason to be chary of pushing differences to
extremes. On each side of the Durand line, which was the
border between them, were turbulent tribesmen of first-class
fighting qualities, whose economic condition made raiding an
occupation secondary only to agriculture. If their overlords
were not on good terms opportunities for mischief were
obvious. The result was charges on one side or the other of
violations of the frontier. A special example arose in Septem-
ber, when disturbances were caused by an apparent invasion
of Pakistan near the Bogra pass. The Afghan government
promptly denied that the invaders had comprised Afghan
troops. The prime minister of Pakistan, Liaquat AH Khan, in
disclosing that a protest had been sent to Kabul on what he
described as the culminating incident in a number of minor
frontier violations, declared that Pakistan was willing to
discuss economic and cultural questions of common concern
to the two countries. He nevertheless deprecated any action
which might disturb the peace of the strategic frontier area.

With Egypt, Saudi Arabia and Persia, Afghanistan
developed closer relations during the year, as was symbolized
by state visits of King Zahir to Cairo, Riyadh and Tehran
in March. Relations with the U.S.S.R. were naturally of
much importance to Afghanistan. The conclusion in Moscow
in July of a four-year trade agreement was taken as a
favourable sign in that regard. As the guardians of the Hindu
Kush and a potential Switzerland of Asia, Afghanistan might
have to live dangerously, but its king and government
appeared to preserve their equilibrium successfully. (E. HD.)

Education. (1948) Schools: primary 400, secondary 25, higher
(lyctes) 7; teachers' training colleges 2. University at Kabul with four
faculties.

Agriculture. Main food crops are wheat, barley, rice, maize and fruit.
Production ('000 metric tons, 1949): cotton 13-6; sugar beet (1949-50)
32; wool 8. Livestock ('000 head, Jan. 1948): cattle 3,000; sheep
14,000; goats 6,000; camels 350; horses 700.

Industry. Fuel and power: coal ('000 metric tons, 1949) 5-5. Raw
materials (1949): chrome ore (metric tons) 907; salt (metric tons)
5,443; skins and hides (number) 7,250,000.

Foreign Trade. Principal imports (1949): textiles, china, petrol
(4-5 million gal.) cement (18,100 metric tons), machinery, tea, coffee
and cocoa. Principal exports (1949): opium, karakul skins ($22-6
million in 1948-49; $8-7 million in 1949-50) and carpets.

Communications. Roads (1949) 2,265 mi. Licensed motor vehicles
(Dec. 1949): cars 630, commercial 3,650. Telephone subscribers
(Jan. 1949) 3,899.

Finance and Banking. Revenue est. at 220 million afghani. Note
circulation (April 1950) 800 million afghanis. Monetary unit: afghani
with an exchange rate (Nov. 1950) l=Af. 47-65.

See Sir Kerr Fraser-Tytler, Afghanistan (London, 1950).
*

AGRICULTURE. In western Europe during 1950,
agricultural policies continued to be determined largely by
difficulties in balancing international payments. Devaluation
of sterling and other currencies in Sept. 1949 helped to expand
the market for western European manufactures in North
America and in other ways to prevent further reduction of
gold and dollar reserves, but the fundamental need to raise
the productivity of western Europe remained. All countries
planned that their farms as well as their mines and factories
should continue to increase production. There were few
changes in the agricultural programmes submitted to the
Organization for European Economic Co-operation for the
period to 1952-53.

In North America during 1950, European balance-of-
payment problems were more clearly recognized as limiting
export outlets for farm produce, and fears of surpluses after
the end of Marshall aid tended to grow. Producers of wheat,
cotton, tobacco, fruit, tinned and dried milk and dried eggs
were particularly liable to suffer. But the continuation of
Marshall aid, the revival of industrial production during
the first part of the year to the high levels of 1948, and later
the Korean fighting and the rearmament programme to-
gether allayed fears of serious price reductions. There
remained, however, a strong underlying desire to free export
outlets to Europe and elsewhere of the currency, quota

AGRICULTURE

and tariff arrangements which restricted them. In the
U.S. some farming groups had an even stronger desire to
ensure that federal price policies and storage arrangements
should maintain high prices and high incomes from farm-
ing. Such arrangements for potatoes, dried eggs, dried milk
and butter proved to be costly but general economic con-
ditions were such that existing price supports were not fully
tested. Thus, though there were many discussions of post-
war agricultural trends in western Europe and North America,
and some growing doubts and fears amongst certain farming
groups, no important changes were made to basic policies.

The year was more memorable for the changes it witnessed
in attitudes to the agricultural development of Africa and
Asia. The enthusiastic launching of the United Nations'
Food and Agriculture organization, the east African ground-
nut scheme, and plans for India and southeast Asia had given
way during 1948 and 1949 to many doubts and substantial
criticisms. In Asia, these were largely removed during 1950
in consequence of the expansion of Communist-controlled
areas and the growing menace to Indo-China, Siam and
Burma, the major rice-exporting countries of the world.

A Commonwealth conference at Colombo resulted in a
realistic study of six-year development programmes for the
countries of southern Asia but not including Burma or
Indonesia. The conference arranged priorities within a
programme that up to 1957 would cost some 1,900 million,
of which the major portion would directly benefit agriculture.
Part of this would be contributed from within Asian countries
themselves by loans and tax revenues and part would , be
loans from the World bank, the Export-Import Bank of

Washington and the United States technical assistance pro-
gramme originally known as President Truman's " Point
Four " programme. In addition, loans, interest-free credits,
and gifts from western governments, particularly from the
U.S., would be sought. The general aim was to prevent the
continuing upsurge of human populations from further
undermining living standards and curtailing economic
progress.

In some parts of British tropical African territories the
need for the rapid expansion of agricultural production was
re-emphasized. Growing human populations, changing
political ideas and demands for higher standards of living
despite financial difficulties were the basic reasons. The costs
and failures of the east African groundnut scheme also drew
public attention to African problems. The postwar shortage
of vegetable oils and the balance-of-payment problems of
the sterling area were the initial reasons for this scheme,
and at first it gained wide support. But the large capital
investment required and the high overhead costs of producing
in sparsely populated areas of Tanganyika with unreliable
rainfall and many unsolved scientific problems soon became
apparent. By Sept. 1950, a drastic curtailment and alteration
of production plans had to be decided on. In place of the
450,000 ac. of crops first projected at Kongwa, only 12,000 ac.
were to be cropped in 1951, 1952 and 1953. The remaining
80,000 ac. of the cleared area were to be used for cattle
ranching. These changes and the public criticism that
preceded them did not, however, prevent development in
African agriculture elsewhere. Small trials of tractors and
farm implements were begun in many areas. High prices for

Stocked corn under water In afield in Perthshire following the flooding of the river Isla in Sept. 1950.

AGRICULTURE

farm produce and shortages of labour due to mining and
industrial developments encouraged innovations by those
responsible for native agricultural progress. The Colonial
advisory council on agriculture, animal health and forestry
published a survey of the problems involved.

In eastern Europe the principal development in agricultural
policy was an acceleration of the collectivization of holdings
in Poland and Czechoslovakia. Ambitious five-year plans
were announced to increase livestock production by 66%
in Poland and 86% in Czechoslovakia, the increase in Poland
to make possible considerable exports. In the U.S.S.R.
increases in the size of collective farms and further attempts
to increase labour and machine efficiencies were planned.
But in Yugoslavia, the resistance of peasant farmers brought
a promise from Marshal Tito that they would no longer be
placed under duress to join collective farms and that their
needs would be as well attended to as were those of the
existing collectives.

In the southern dominions the most noteworthy develop-
ment was towards substantial further expansion of meat
production. In Australia meat production would have to
increase 34% by 1970 to keep pace with the expected increase
in the population and to maintain exports. Transport facilities
costing 5-5 million were projected to help the flow of
cattle from northern Australia and further trials were made
of the air transport of fresh carcases from outlying areas.
In New Zealand a rapid expansion of pork production,
partly at the expense of bacon, was proposed and won the
general support of the dairy and meat boards. South African
plans were curtailed by a sharp reduction of the maize crop
there from 32 million bags in 1949 to 25 million in 1950,
owing to drought.

Northern Hemisphere Harvests of 1949. Despite some
reduction of wheat and rye acreages in favour of crops for
feeding to livestock and despite severe drought in some
areas, European production of wheat and rye was some 4 4
million metric tons greater in 1949 than in 1948 (Table I).
North American production of these grains was finally
estimated as 5-7 million metric tons less than in 1949.
Most of this reduction was in the U.S. The reduction in
the world total exports of wheat and flour was equal to 4 1
million metric tons but, taking into account the increase in
domestic harvests, the net reduction in the total supplies of
Europe was only some 1 -3 million metric tons (2%). This
caused no difficulty, because stocks were adequate and
because, with increasing supplies of milk, meat and eggs, the
consumption of bread grains tended to decline. Thus flour
consumption which averaged so much as 100,800 tons a
week in the United Kingdom during 1948, fell to 92,000 tons
a week by spring 1950 and was 88,200 tons a week during
the month of October. The minister of food was able,
on Aug. 27, 1950, to lower the rate of flour extraction from
wheat from 85% to 80%.

The 1949 European crop of coarse grains was also generally
satisfactory as compared to the 1948 crop, though still
5 million metric tons (9%) less than the prewar average.
Some countries, notably France and Spain, had shortages
of hay and roots caused by severe droughts in the spring
and summer of 1949. But net imports of coarse grains into
Europe were some 0-6 million metric tons greater during
1949-50 than during 1948-49 (Table II). Total imports of
feedingstuffs to the United Kingdom were greater during
1948-49 by some 0-6 million metric tons of grain equivalent,
which more than compensated for a reduction in supplies
of home-grown feedingstuffs for livestock, largely owing to
smaller crops of roots and potatoes.

The North American coarse grain crop was, in all, some
13 million metric tons (10%) lighter than the exceptionally
heavy crop of 1948, most of the decline occurring in the U.S.

TABLE I. PRODUCTION OF BREAD GRAINS AND COARSE GRAINS

(million metric tons)

Wheat and rye

Europe .

North America

South America

Asia

Near East

Africa

Australasia

Total*

Barley, oats and mai/e

Europe .

North America

South America

Asia

Near East

Africa

Australasia . .
Total*

Prewar

61-4

27-8
8-9

34-8
8-5
2-5
4.4

148-3

1948

53-7
47-6

8-3
35-1

9.4

2-5

5-4

162

1949

58-1

41-9

8-4

34-4

6-8

2-8

6-0

158-4

54-8 48-5 49-7

78-5 131-3 118-1

19-8 18-5 15-8

28-8 30-5 28-8

7-0 7-3 6-5

6-8 79 8-6

0-8 1-1 1-3

196-5 245-1 228-8

Excluding U.S.S.R.

SOURCE: F.A.O. Monthly Built tin of Statist lex, Aug. 1950.

In Canada, the end-of-July stocks of barley and oats were
reduced by only 0-5 million metric tons to 2- 1 million.

Thus both in Europe as a whole, and in North America,
supplies of cereals for livestock feeding during the winter of
1949-50 were generally as adequate as those available during
winter 1948-49, and despite difficulties in some countries
owing to shortage of roughage feedingstuffs following 1949
droughts, livestock production continued to expand.

Livestock Production, 1949-50. Pig production responded
rapidly. During the year ended in early summer 1950 the
number of breeding sows and gilts was increased by 11%
both in the United Kingdom and in Denmark, and by 10%
in the Netherlands. These changes brought the numbers in
the United Kingdom to 71 % of their prewar average, but the
comparable percentage for Denmark was 203, and for the
Netherlands 125. Competition in the United Kingdom
market for bacon was therefore growing, and greater attention
was devoted to improving quality.

Egg production in Europe also increased, but only in the
United Kingdom and Denmark was it estimated to be
appreciably greater in 1950 than in prewar years. In North
America and Australia by contrast egg production remained
much greater than before the war, being 48% greater and
still increasing slightly in Canada and 97% greater but
declining in Australia.

The yields of winter milk during 1949-50 were raised
substantially in western Europe. Sales of milk in the United
Kingdom during the first four months of the year were 13%
larger in 1950 than in 1949. In the Netherlands the com-
parable percentage was 15; in Denmark, about 19. The
summer output of milk was greater in 1950 than in 1949 by
some 5% in the United Kingdom, 9% in the Netherlands
and 8% in Denmark. In Canada on the other hand, winter
milk production was only slightly larger in 1949-50 than in
1948-49 and summer production was slightly smaller in 1950
than in 1949. In New Zealand, butter production in factories
during the later part of the 1949-50 summer was reduced by
12% below the previous summer's production, but in
Australia production was sustained.

Cattle numbers continued to increase in western Europe.
In the United Kingdom, the number under one year old on
June 4 was 4% greater in 1950 than in 1949 and 23% greater
in 1950 than in 1939. Most of the increase since 1939 had
been in cattle for milk production, but the output of fat
cattle was rapidly increasing. During the year ended Nov.
1950, it was (by weight of carcases) 22% greater than during
the previous year, and 2% greater than the annual output
of the late 1930s. The total world production of all meats
in 1950 was estimated as somewhat greater than the 1949
production, which had been slightly more than prewar
production. But total supplies of meat per head of population

AGRICULTURE

Cattle being paraded in the main ring at the Great Yorkshire show at Malt on, July 1950.

were still about 5% below prewar supplies, with greater
reductions in the United Kingdom and most European
countries as against substantial increases in North America
and the Argentine, and slight increases in Australia and
New Zealand.

Harvests in 1950. The area sown to bread grains in Europe
was some 3% greater in 1950 than in 1949, but still some 7%
smaller in 1950 than in the late 1930s. Yields were, on the
whole, satisfactory and total production was 3% greater
than in 1949; but it was also 3% smaller than in prewar
years. France and Yugoslavia suffered substantial reductions
as a result of weather conditions. The United Kingdom had
a wheat crop estimated as 15% greater than that of 1949,
and 48 % greater than the average prewar crop. But harvesting
conditions were exceptionally difficult. In the republic of
Ireland bread rationing had to be re-imposed.

In Canada, the acreage was only slightly reduced and with
favourable weather during most of the growing season,
production was 34% greater than in 1949. At harvest the
weather deteriorated badly, making the proportion of low
quality grain exceptionally high. In Australia, the wheat
crop was approximately equal to that of the late 1930s,
but 19 % less than the large crop of 1949. The South American
crop of wheat was some 4% larger than that of 1949 and
some 3 % larger than the prewar average.

The harvest of coarse grains in Europe as a whole was
only slightly less than in 1949, but the United Kingdom

TABLE II. NET EXPORTS () AND IMPORTS (4-) OF BREAD GRAINS AND
COARSE GRAINS

(million metric tons)

Prewar

Wheat and rye

Europe .

North America

Latin America

Far East .

Near East

Africa

Australasia
Barley, oats and maize

Europe .

North America

Latin America

Far East .

Near East

Africa

Australasia
SOURCE: F.A.U Monthly Bull ft in of Statistics. Aug. 1950.

1948-49 1949-50

4-9-5

4-17-1

-HI -4

5-4

19-8

14-5

1-8

4-0-4

-H-o

4-5-1

4-4-6

4-M

4-1-1

-0-1

4-0-7

4-0-3

2-7

3-1

2-9

4-9-5

4-5-9

-1-6 -5

0.2

3-3

3-1

7-4

2-2

1-5

0-7

4-0-8

4-0-4

-0-2

+0-4

-0-7

0-6

0-8

0-1

0-6

0-4

harvest was much damaged by continuous rain and official
estimates suggested a reduction in out-turn by some 0-9
million metric tons (19%). Shortages of feedingstuffs
became serious in the west and southwest of the country.
Hay was imported from Norway. Unfavourable weather
reduced the coarse grain harvest of Danubian countries by
fully 7%, including a very serious reduction in the Yugoslav
maize crop, threatening famine conditions in some localities.
Denmark and the Netherlands also had smaller coarse grain
crops.

The effects of these changes were aggravated by the shortage
of Argentine maize as a result of the partial failure of the
crop harvested in March and April 1950. Exports of maize
from Argentina fell to a very low level. Fortunately, North
American harvests of coarse grain were favourable and
exportable supplies were adequate to meet, during the period
to autumn 1951, any demand likely to be backed by the
necessary dollars. Fortunately also, the effects of the wet
summer on the grain harvest of the British Isles was in part
offset by good yields from pastures, and root and green fodder
crops.

Agricultural Production and Marketing Plans. Some note-
worthy alterations were made in administrative arrange-
ments in prices and in supplies of requisites. In the United
Kingdom the slogan for the last half of the five-year
programme was " Plough for Plenty/' The tillage area,
which was 8-8 million ac. in 1939 and 14-5 million ac. in
1945, had fallen to 12-9 million ac. in 1947 and 12-6 million
ac. in 1949. It was expanded to only 12-7 million ac. in
1950 but the announced objective was 14-6 million ac. by
1952. The annual review of agricultural prices in the United
Kingdom was complicated by the withdrawal of the subsidies
(43 million a year) on feedingstuffs and fertilizers, by the
government's intention to reduce subsidies on foodstuffs
from 440 million in the financial year to April 1950 to
410 million, despite the underlying tendency of prices to
rise, and by the high level of the net farm income during
1949 (283 million against 258 million in 1948 and 60
million in 1938). The agreed settlement was expected to
reduce the net farm income to very nearly the minimum
that the leaders of the farmers* unions stipulated was essential
for achievement of the production programme. But this
level was not published. Retail prices of food were raised
3-4% between February and November.

AGRICULTURE

In Ireland progress was made in the land reclamation
project, the biggest of its kind in Europe.

Steps needed to secure adequate feedingstuffs for livestock
expansion programmes were much discussed in western
Europe. In Denmark, the Agricultural Organization society
published a comprehensive plan, entailing more capital for
buildings and equipment and aiming at larger acreages of
high yielding root crops, more silage, pasture improvement,
better alfalfa, greater use of artificial fertilizers, fuller control
of weeds and higher conversion efficiency in individual live-
stock enterprises. If these changes were fully carried out,
imports of feedingstuffs by 1952-53 would not need to be
much more than one-fifth of what they were before World
War II, despite a projected increase in livestock production
by 10%

Nitrogenous, phosphatic and potassic fertilizers were all
available in greater quantity for 1950 crops, both in the
British Isles and in continental Europe (Table III). India,
Japan and Egypt markedly increased their use of nitrogenous
types, and Japan had more phosphates. The progress of
agricultural mechanization continued in most western
countries under the stimulus of high prices for farm products
and difficulties in securing sufficient labour, but international
trade in tractors and farm machinery tended to decline.
This was partly because of further revival of domestic
production in western Europe. In France, 17,100 tractors
were produced during 1949, against only 1,700 during 1938.

Marketing of farm produce received greater attention in
many countries. In the United Kingdom, under the agricul-
tural marketing acts, schemes for wool and tomatoes and
cucumbers were approved; and others for apples and pears,
dried peas and horticultural seeds were in various stages of
preparation. The Milk Marketing board urged restoration
of its prewar powers of control over the utilization of milk
but the Ministry of Food, with an eye to international
balance-of-payment problems and food rations, continued to
determine the proportions of supplies used for each type of
manufactured product.

The first year's operations under the International Wheat
agreement ended in July. Prices in the free markets remained
above the maximum agreed export prices throughout the
period, because of the prevailing need of the importing
countries to buy as much as possible in the soft currency
areas and because the U.S. decided to sell only at the maxi-
mum prices, though this resulted in less than the full U.S.
quota being exported. Total transactions under the agree-
ment were equivalent to 90% of the minimum agreed exports
and imports and to 53 % of the total world trade in wheat and
flour.

Wool, rubber and coffee prices rose to new high levels,
but no multilateral agreements for their control could be
achieved. The International Federation of Agricultural
Producers began to explore the possibilities of agreements to
sustain prices of dairy products.

In the field of agricultural education the Asian training
centre for agricultural and allied development projects
deserves mention. It was sponsored jointly by the govern-
ment of Pakistan, the United Nations* Food and Agriculture
organization, the International bank and the Economic
Commission for Asia and the Far East. Men from many
countries received four months' practical training.

Research and Technical Development. Among the multitude
of research studies being carried on in the natural sciences
affecting agriculture, special interest attached to the follow-
ing: the indirect and delayed effects of the herbicides and
insecticides developed during and after the war, and their
toxicity for man; the physiology of artificially induced
polyploid plants; the conditioning of seeds and tubers for
early maturity; responses of crops and stock to the correction

TABLE III.

[June-July]
Year

CONSUMPTION OF ARTIFICIAL FERTILIZERS
(thousand metric tons)
British Canada and
Isles Europe* U.S.f India Japan

OtherJ

Nitrogen

1948-49 .

195

,299

947

300

333

1949-50 .

204

,421

968

114

411

428

1950-51H .

214

,658

994

113

406

502

Phosphoric acid

1948-49 .

420

.855

1,872

165

736

1949-50 .

461

,923

1,845

221

802

1950-51 .

486 2,114

1,881

250

901

Potash

1948-49 .

210 1,813

986

164

107

1949-50 .

219 2,289

958

116

119

1950-51H .

231 2,421

1,003

120

135

* Excluding British Isles, t Including U.S. possessions, J Excluding U.S.S.R.
and China. Excluding rock phosphates. || Forecast.

SOURCE: F.A.O. Commodity report: Fertiliztrs, No. 1. Aug. 1950.

of deficiencies of "trace" elements; the possibilities of
artificial pollination of fruit trees; control of the biennial
bearing of fruit trees; the physiology of "letting down"
milk. In agricultural economics the most interesting develop-
ments were in studies of mechanization, and of the relations
between agriculture and industry under conditions of full
employment. (J. R. RA.)

United States. Crop Production. The crops of the eight
principal grains in 1949 produced a total tonnage of 158-4
million. The record was 180-5 million short tons in 1948.
Food grains constituted 33 5 million tons of the total, the
smallest in seven years but larger than any total before 1944.
The 1950 tonnage included the smallest buckwheat crop on
record. The feed grain total of 125 million tons, which
included the largest grain sorghum crop on record, was
slightly less than in 1949 and showed a significant decline
from the 138 million tons of 1948. A large hay crop, together
with an average carry-over, provided the most abundant hay
supply per animal on record.

The oilseed crop of 1950, amounting to 14-7 million tons,
was only 6% below the record of 1949. Soya beans, a record
crop, made up well over half the total. There was a record
sugar-beet tonnage.

Corn was planted later than usual, as a result of a late cool
wet spring in the main commercial area; largely because of
official acreage allocation, the harvested acreage was the low-
est since 1894. The late start, a cool summer, considerable
but not extraordinary cornborer damage and local frosts as
early as August resulted in a yield of 37-6 bu. per acre
(38 8 in 1949) and in more being used for ensilage than usual.

In accordance with official acreage allocations, the planted
acreage of wheat was reduced by about 16% compared with
1949; seeding conditions were generally favourable in the
southern plains but later drought and green-bug damage led
to the abandonment of more than nine million ac. in Texas
53 % of the seeded acreage was not harvested. The cold wet
spring of the northern plains was followed by nearly ideal
conditions except for some early frost. As a result, storage
was abundantly available for the crop. It was indicated that
total domestic consumption of the crop and large carry-over
would not be much more than 225 million bu. Exports,
which in 1948-49 reached the unprecedented level of 503
million bu., were expected to be about 265 million bu. Thus,
the carry-over at the end of the crop year, July 1, 1951, was
expected to be about 450 million bu. The preliminary survey
in December of the 1951 winter wheat crop suggested that
sown acreage was about 6% more than had been requested,
and that the crop was in good condition except for need of
surface moisture and snow cover, especially in the southern
plains.

The cotton crop of 9,884,000 bales was one of the smallest
for 50 years grown on the smallest harvested acreage since
1884. Allocation of about 21 million ac., as u>mpared with

AIRCRAFT MANUFACTURE

27-23 million ac. harvested in 1949, together with unfavour-
able weather and heavy boll- weevil damage, combined to
relieve the Commodity Credit corporation of its large surplus
stocks, push prices to new high levels and institute export
controls and caused the government to remove all restrictions
on cotton acreage in 1951.

A crop of 439 - 5 million bu. of white or Irish potatoes was
produced, compared with the record 454-7 million bu. in
1948, even though the harvested acreage was the smallest
since 1874 and the subsidized price was set at 60% of parity
instead of 90% as in 1949. Nevertheless, the crop was about
100 million bu. more than national requirements. The average
yield of 237 9 bu. per acre was a new record, and Maine
again had a new record yield of 475 bu. per ac. (see Table IV).

Livestock Production. All cattle at the beginning of the year
totalled 80,277,000 head, compared with 78,298,000 head a
year earlier and 85-6 million head at the peak in 1945, but
approximately 12 million head more than before World War
II. Of that total, 24,625,000 head were milch cows, against
24,416,000 a year before. Slaughter of a slightly larger
number of beef animals at heavier weights than in 1949
provided an estimated 10,873 million Ib. of beef and veal,
compared with 10,770 million Ib. in 1949 and about 8,000
million Ib. prewar. It was anticipated that the number of beef
cattle slaughtered in 1951 would be somewhat larger even
though fewer feeder cattle were placed in corn beef feed lots
in the autumn of 1950 than in 1949.

There were 60,424,000 pigs on U.S. farms at the beginning
of the year, an increase from 57, 1 28,000 head in 1949 but much
less than the 83-7 million head at the peak in 1944. The
major spring pig crop was 59,997,000 head, much more than
the 55,191 ,000 head of a year earlier, and the autumn pig crop
was estimated at 40,657,000 head, as compared with
37,175,000 head a year before. Slaughter during the year
produced 10,939 million Ib. of pork, against 10,333 million
Ib. in the previous year. At the end of the year it was
estimated that pork production in 1951 might be about
1 1 ,700 million Ib., a result of the increased autumn pig crop of
1950 and an estimated expansion to 63-5 million head in the
spring crop of 1951.

Livestock prices in 1950 followed divergent trends. Pig
prices were at least $2 or $3 per cwt. higher than In 1949 and
ended the year at more than $20 per cwt. Fat beef cattle were
generally lower in price than in 1949, whbreas feeder animals
were considerably higher, thus narrowing 'the spread and
increasing the risk to those farmers engaged in finishing high-
grade beef. Late in the year the price of best grade of fat beef
cattle was nearing $40 per cwt. Grain-fed lambs, late in the
year, rose to a record price of just under $33 per cwt. Pig
prices were not subsidized by the government after March.
The 1950 chicken and turkey crop was not subsidized.

Sheep on U.S. farms at the beginning of the year, 30,797,000
head, were the smallest number in the period during which
records had been kept, having declined from 31,654,000 head
at the beginning of 1949 and more than 50 million head pre-
war. Consequently, the lamb crop of 1950 was a record
small one of 18,431,000 head; slaughter during 1950 provided
only an estimated 608 million Ib. of lamb and mutton, about
the same as in the previous year. It was anticipated that the
decline in sheep numbers would probably halt in 1950.

The 24,625,000 milch cows on U.S. farms at the beginning
of 1950 represented an increase from 24,416,000 head in 1949
and a further increase took place during 1950, although the
total remained far short of the previous peak of 27,770,000
head in Jan. 1945. As a result of very heavy feeding and the
uncommonly fine pastures of 1950, milk production per cow
reached record levels, and total production for the year was
about 120,500 million Ib., as compared with 119,136 million
Ib. in 1949. "

TABLE IV. U.S. CROP PRODUCTION

1950 1949

Yield Production Yield Production
per ac. ('000) per ac. ('000)

Field Crops

Corn, bu.

37-6

3,131,009

38-8

3,379,436

Wheat, bu.

16-6

1,026,755

14-9

1,141,188

Oats, bu..

34 9

1,465,134

32-9

1,329,473

Barley, bu.

26-9

301,009

24-0

236,737

Rye, bu. .

12-6

22,977

12-0

18,739

Flaxseed, bu. .

10 1

39,263

18-6

43,946

Rice, bags (yield in Ib.)

2,361-0

37,971

2,215-0

40,747

Hay, all, tons .

1-41

106,819

1-36

99,536

Beans, bags (yield in Ib.)

1,128-0

16,843

1,163-0

21,377

Soya beans, bu.

21-6

287,010

22-7

230,897

Peanuts, Ib.

881-0

2,038,425

804-0

1,875,825

Potatoes, bu. .

237-9

439,500

215-2

411,565

Sweet potatoes, bu. .

104 4

58,729

100-5

55,368

Tobacco, Ib. .

1,277-0

2,035,915

1,209-0

1,972,359

Sugar beets, tons

14-3

13,383

14-8

10,197

Cotton, bales (yield in

Ib.) .

265-4

9,884

284-0

16,128

Fruit Crops

Apples, bu.

120,499

133,742

Peaches, bu. .

52,573

74,818

Pears, bu.

31,263

36,404

Grapes, tons .

2,641

2,662

Oranges, boxes

1 1 1 ,290

108,535

Grapefruit, boxes

48,520

36,500

Poultry output during 1950 was 180% of 1935-39, whereas
1949 had been 169 %. At the beginning of the year there were
481,190,000 hens, compared with 448,676,000 head a year
before. Chickens raised in 1950 amounted to only 670
million head, as compared with 744 million in the previous
year. Commercial broilers (540 million head) were 10% more
numerous than in 1949. Turkey production was at a record
high level.

The number of horses continued to decline. There were
5,310,000 head on farms, against 5,898,000 head in 1949.
Mules totalled 2,153,000 head, as compared with 2,348,000
head in the previous year.

Food Stocks and Exports. Food exports by the U.S. in
1949-50, mostly to Economic Co-operation administration
countries or occupied areas, amounted to only 34,863 million
Ib., as compared with 49,072 million Ib. in 1948-49. This
export accounted for 11-7% of the total U.S. food supply
in 1949-50. Wheat in some form made up more than half the
total. Other grains accounted for about a quarter.

Farm Labour. There was an average of 10,676,000 workers
in the period Jan.-Nov. 1950, as compared with 11,084,000
in the previous year. The average farm worker received
$102 a month with board and room or, if employed by the
day, $4 50. (See also BEEKEEPING; COCOA; COFFEE; DAIRY
FARMING; FERTILIZERS; FOOD SUPPLY OF THE WORLD;
FORAGE CROPS; FRUIT; GRAIN CROPS; HOPS; LIVESTOCK;
NUTS; POULTRY; ROOT CROPS; SOIL CONSERVATION; SPICES;
SUGAR; TEA; VEGETABLE OILS AND ANIMAL FATS; VEGETABLES;
WHEAT; WOOL.) (J. K. R.)

AIRCRAFT MANUFACTURE. During 1950 Great
Britain retained its lead in the field of jet propulsion, and a
number of interesting new types made their appearance.
Overseas sales were maintained at a satisfactory level:
exports of aircraft and aviation material averaged slightly
less than 3 million a month.

At the annual display of the Society of British Aircraft
Constructors in September, 28 of a total of 58 aircraft were
powered by turbo-jet or turbo-prop engines; 35 were military
types; and 30 aircraft were shown for the first time. Never-
theless the keynote of the year was one of consolidation after
the sensational strides of 1949.

On the military side a new Hawker fighter, the P.1081,
showed improved performance over the P. 1052 of 1949,
which it resembled. It seemed probable that the Ncne with

AIRCRAFT MANUFACTURE

Havilland 112 Venom fighter, powered by a D.H. Ghost jet engine.

which it was powered would be only interim equipment
during trial and that it would go into production with the
Rolls-Royce Tay or Avon. Another experimental fighter,
the Supermarine type 535, also powered by a Rolls-Royce
Nene, made its first flight in August and was subsequently
demonstrated at Farnborough in early September. Fitted
with an after-burner, the 535 probably exceeded the speed
of sound in level flight at altitude.

The English Electric company's Canberra, the United
Kingdom's first jet-engined bomber, demonstrated in 1949,
was slightly modified and put into production for the R.A.F.
in 1950. Though it was capable of carrying a satisfactory
bomb-load, its speed and manoeuvrability fitted it potentially
for a number of other roles, in much the same way as the
Do Havilland Mosquito became the maid-of-all-work in
the later stages of World War II.

Another interesting development during the year was the
appearance of no less than three anti-submarine aircraft,
designed by different constructors but all powered by
means of Armstrong-Siddeley Mamba turbo-prop engines.
The two co-axial airscrews allowed the pilot to stop one
for economical cruising and to start it up again immediately
when full power was required.

The Brabazon I continued experimental flying with its
eight Bristol Centaurus engines: at London airport and at
Farnborough, where it took off in 1,400yd. and landed in
1,200yd., it demonstrated that it could be used much more
widely c.uin had been originally supposed. The construction
of the Brabazon II, powered by eight Bristol Proteus turbo-
prop engines coupled in pairs, made good progress; and the
aircraft was expected to fly in 1952. The Proteus engines
were extensively flight-tested, using a Lincoln bomber as a
flying test-bed.

The De Havilland Comet demonstrated its capabilities
during its first year by making record flights in Europe and
Africa and by completing over 300 hr. of flying. The second
prototype was flying by the middle of 1950; and it was hoped
that the first of a production-order for British Overseas
Airways corporation would be ready for flying in early 1951.
The Vickers Viscount, which was to go into service with
British European Airways, gained the distinction of being
the first jet aircraft to operate on a regular airline: the
prototype, with four Rolls-Royce Dart turbo-prop engines,
flew during the summer on B.E.A.'s normal London-Paris
and London-Edinburgh routes.

The Armstrong-Siddeley Sapphire engine, believed to
be the most powerful aero-engine in the world (giving 7,200
Ib. static thrust), was demonstrated for the first time in
September, two being mounted in a Gloster Meteor as a
flying test-bed.

The Korean war and the consequent decision on rearma-
ment by the western nations emphasized the need for increased
production of military types of aircraft. However, within the
existing constructional caoacitv of the British aircraft

industry, there was already a preponderance on the military
side; and up to the end of 1950 there was no sign of any
official restriction on the carrying-out of contracts for the
supply of civil aircraft.

United States. The value of a strong merchant air fleet as
a military asset was emphasized by the action of the United
States government early in the Korean war in requisitioning
civil aircraft for use as transports. This was followed up by
considerable military orders for transport aircraft (including
a number of the lengthened Super-Constellations from the
Lockheed Aircraft corporation, for naval use).

The year 1950 saw some interesting developments in the
field of military aircraft. The Thunderjet's successor, the
YF-96 with swept-back wings, was powered by a new edition
of the Allison J-35 turbo-jet engine which showed a 38 5 %
improvement on the original J-35 which appeared in 1947.
Another swept-back wing experimental aircraft, the Martin
XB-51 ground-support bomber, had also great possibilities
with its three General Electric J-47 jet engines. Westing-
house's J-34, an 11-stage axial-flow turbo-jet, developing
3,200 Ib. thrust at take-off, was certified for commercial
use; and the Northrop Turbodyne XT-47, claimed to be the
most powerful turbo-prop aero-engine in existence, was
developed especially to power future military types of air-
craft. Pratt and Whitney continued work on their new PT-2
turbo-prop engine, which was installed in a Boeing B-17
for air test; it was said that the PT-2 developed about
6,000 h.p. In October it was announced that the Curtiss
Wright corporation had purchased the licence to build the
Armstrong-Siddeley Sapphire as well as the same firm's
Python and Double Mamba airscrew turbine engines.

The trend in civil aircraft construction was towards a
stopgap programme to convert existing airline power plants
from piston engines to jets, though some airlines took a
conservative view and ordered some of the new Super-
Constellations similar to those being turned out for the navy.

Boeings announced provisional plans to replace the existing
engines in the B-377 Stratocruiser and its military counter-
part with turbo-prop engines. They were also said to be
considering the addition of two auxiliary turbo-jets to the
Pratt and Whitney R-4360s to increase the speed and take-
off weight of the Stratocruiser.

In the Super-Constellations, Eastern Airlines proposed in
1950 to replace the piston engines, with which th;y would
be originally equipped, with improved Allison T-38 turbo-
prop engines after a year or two's operation. This was
expected to increase the speed of the aircraft to 403 m.p.h.

A similar re-equipment with Allison T-38 engines was
being considered by the Douglas Aircraft company and
Martin's for the DC-6 and the 4-0-4 respectively.

Meanwhile Congress authorized the expenditure of $12-5
million on the development of gas-turbine transport aircraft,
including the testing of prototypes and the conduct of
experimental transport operations. Most of the bie

AIR FORCES OF THE WORLD

constructors were working on projects for jet airliners,
but none appeared during 1950.

Canada and Australia Late in the year the Canadian
defence minister announced the increase of the order for
North American F-86 sabre fighters to " several hundreds,"
to be built under licence in Montreal by Canadair. Mean-
while, A. V. Roe (Canada) continued the tests of its Orenda
direct-entry axial-flow turbine with good results; it was
intended to power the Avro CF.100 fighter aircraft with it.
Canadian Pacific Airlines ordered two De Havilland Comets
for delivery in 1952-53 for their north Pacific route. Mean-
while development of the Avro Jetliner went on satisfactorily.

Teams of technicians from the Australian government
factory and the Commonwealth Aircraft corporation visited
the United Kingdom to draw up plans for the production
of the Canberra jet bomber and the Hawker P. 1081 four-
cannon fighter. In Australia the Commonwealth Aircraft
corporation prepared to build the Rolls-Royce Avon axial-
flow jet engine. The first production-models of the feeder-
line three-engined D.H.A. Drover were delivered to the air
lines during the autumn.

Western Europe. In France the year 1950 did not see very
much new progress, though development continued on the
S.N.C.A.S.E. Armagnac four-engined transport and the
S.N.C.A.S.O. twin-engined Bretagne. On the military side,
the Dessault 450 Ouragan went into production, powered
by Nene engines built under licence by Hispano-Suizr .
But perhaps the most interesting French contribution was
the O.10 Leduc aircraft powered by an " athodyd " or ram-
jet engine.

Both Fokker in the Netherlands and Fiat in Italy were
working on designs for jet-engined trainers; and in France,
Switzerland, Belgium, the Netherlands and Italy arrangements
were made for the production of British jet fighter airframes
and engines under licence. (See also JET PROPULSION AND
GAS TURBINES.) (D. CR.)

AIR FORCES OF THE WORLD. In 1950 the
world's air forces, both eastern and western, continued with
the intensive development of advanced types of aircraft. The
events of the summer, however, tended to shift the emphasis
in all countries toward production. The rate of expansion
came under security restrictions on both sides of the " iron
curtain.*' Little was made known by governments about
quantities of aircraft or the results of advanced research, but
aircraft with and without pilots were undoubtedly improving
in performance, and guided missiles could be assumed to be a
major field for research in the larger nations. There was a
strong trend toward the modification of existing types of
military aircraft for tactical uses. Standardization of types of
aircraft for a United Nations air force, while by no means
fully achieved, appeared to be on the way.

Great Britain. Aircraft and engine production became a
problem of first importance during 1950 as plans for the
defence of the Commonwealth and the North Atlantic treaty
nations took form. Production began to increase in July, and
in November Clement Attlee, the prime minister, announced
that orders for aircraft for the first two years of a three-year
defence plan had been placed.

Farnborough Display. The display at Farn borough of the
Society of British Aircraft Constructors, held in Sept. 1950,
again showed excellent results of intensive research and
development on gas turbine-powered tactical, defence and
transport aircraft. New bombers in the medium and heavy
classes were again lacking, and heavy bombers above 150,000-
Ib. loaded weight were not planned, though some projects in
the 150,000-lb. medium class and lighter were reported to be
progressing tqward the prototype stage. Vickers-Armstrongs,
Ltd., were said to be leading in the medium jet bomber field,

Three helicopters taking part in demonstration flights at the Royal
Air Force display at Farnborough, Hampshire, June 1950.

and others reported in progress were the Handley Page
tail-less jet bomber and a Bristol light jet bomber. Delivery
of new jet bombers by the middle of 1951 was expected at
the end of 1950.

Night fighters shown included the Gloster Meteor N.F.2,
the English Electric Canberra 2 and the de Havilland Venom
N.F.2, all of which had been ordered in quantity. The Venom
N.F.2 was a carrier-borne fighter having a crew of two,
designed for both all-weather and night-fighter duties. The
Canberra 2, with its two Rolls-Royce Avon turbo-jets,
impressed observers with its performance as its predecessor
had in 1949, and was scheduled for light bombing and ground
attack as well as night-fighter duty. In addition to English
Electric, Handley Page, Short and Harland, and A. V. Roe
were manufacturing this aeroplane.

Transition of the Royal Navy to jet-powered equipment was
well begun in 1950 with quantity orders for the Vickers
Supermarine Attacker and the Hawker Sea Hawk jet fighters,
and the Westland Wyvern turbine-propeller fighter. New
anti-submarine types shown at Farnborough included the
Blackburn and General Y.B.I and the Fairey 17, both
powered by coupled Armstrong Siddeley Mamba turbine-
propeller engines, and the Short and Harland SB. 3, powered
by two Mambas. The SB. 3 was a version of the Sturgeon
reconnaissance bomber and naval target tower, with an
underslung nose for radar equipment.

Experimental Aircraft. Experimental types at Farnborough
included the Avro 707B delta-wing research plane, a second
version of the 707 shown in 1949. Six 707Bs were reported
to have been ordered. This was the first of a planned research
series intended to investigate the delta wing at all speeds for
its suitability as a bomber wing. The Nene-powered Boulton
Paul P. Ill, not shown at Farnborough, was first flown in
October. It was designed for transonic speeds. The third in
this planned series would be the high-speed Fairey delta wing,
possibly with a rocket engine.

Other British experimental aircraft in various design stages,

AIR FORCES OF THE WORLD

besides the jet bombers already mentioned, were Fairey and
Gloster jets, a de Havilland twin-jet and the de Havilland
Comet with axial jets. (See also AIRCRAFT MANUFACTURE;
JET PROPULSION AND GAS TURBINES; ROYAL AIR FORCE.)

Canada. The Canadian-designed front-line fighter, the all-
weather Avro CF.100, was first flown in Jan. 1950, powered
by two Rolls-Royce Avon turbo-jets. The Royal Canadian
Air Force ordered ten of these in 1950, which would probably
be powered with the successful Canadian Avro Orenda axial
turbo-jet. Negotiations were reported under way for the
manufacture of the Orenda in several European countries.
The Avro C.I 02 jet liner attracted wide attention in its flights
in 1950.

Australia. A small jet research plane, designed and built
entirely in Australia, was reported late in 1950. It was
described as an ultimate guided missile for fighter and anti-
aircraft training, capable of very high speed and rapid rate of
climb to high altitudes. The Armstrong Siddeley Adder, the
turbo-jet version of the Mamba, was used in the prototype,
which was flown by a pilot. The pilotless radio-controlled
version would be powered by the Viper, an expendable version
of the Adder, delivering 1,500 Ib. thrust. The twin-jet long-
range Australian fighter reported in 1949 to be under develop-
ment was expected to reach the prototype stage late in 1950.
It would have all swept-back surfaces. The Rolls-Royce Tay
turbo-jet, which would be manufactured in Australia, was
expected to furnish its power. Production was begun on the
de Havilland Drover, designed as a light civil transport for
Australian flying, but capable of use as a military freighter or
an ambulance.

United States. United States Air Force. Participation in
the Korean war as a member of the United Nations air-land-
sea team took precedence over other U.S. air force activities
during 1950. During the first half of 1950 budgetary limita-
tions had necessitated a downward readjustment from
previously planned strength. In spite of loss of personnel, the
closing of installations and the curtailment of numerous
plans, the air force sought to increase its fighting capacity,
and to this end advanced a programme of joint training with
the other military services. When war broke out in Korea on
June 25, the U.S.A.F. accomplished the evacuation of U.S.
nationals from the area of conflict with troop carrier aircraft.
F-80s and F-82s, based in Japan, protected the evacuation
area and escorted the transport planes. As a result of
President Truman's decision on June 27 to use U.S. air and
naval forces to carry out the mandate of the United Nations
Security council, the far east air force began active combat
operations.

F-51 (propeller-driven) and F-80 (jet) fighters helped to
stop the mechanized advance of the Korean Communist
army, while B-26 and B-29 bombers flew far behind the enemy
ground force fighting lines to attack the invader's production,
supply and distribution plants, and depots. After initial
resistance by North Korean aircraft of Soviet manufacture,
U.N. forces gradually achieved mastery of the air.

Construction funds were made available during Dec. 1949
for an Aircraft Control and Warning system, earlier autho-
rized by congress, and in Oct. 1950 the air force announced a
speed-up in the production of equipment and training of men
to put the system into operation well before July 1951. The
Lockheed F-94 (an adaptation from the F-80 day interceptor)
was introduced into the continental air defence system as the
first jet all-weather interceptor. The strategic air command
was reorganized to give each of its three air forces its own
reconnaissance and bombing capabilities, enabling each to
work as a separate organization in launching an immediate
counterstroke. The continental air command (Con.A.C.)
was divided into three major commands, Con.A.C. retaining
responsibility for the administration and training of the

U.S.A.F. civilian components. The tactical air command had
as its primary mission the development and training of tactical
support aviation in conjunction with army field forces. The
air defence command was to be responsible for air defence of
the U.S. The air force special weapons command was estab-
lished for the field development and testing of equipment and
technique relating to atomic energy. The air research and
development command was established to provide increased
emphasis on the qualitative improvement of the air force.
Largely as the result of the spring exercise in the supply of
large-scale operations entirely by strategic air lift, the mission
of the military air transport service was revised.

As an immediate result of the Korean conflict, congress
passed legislation authorizing a 70-group air force, suspended
the personnel ceiling and made supplementary appropriations
increasing the military budget for fiscal year 1951 from
$13,000 million to $24,000 million. By the end of Sept. 1950,
approximately 1,100 of the 2,800 rated officers previously
removed from flying status were restored. Construction was
expedited. There was a general acceleration of the programme
to meet increased defence needs, but the air force, in the
second half of 1950, continued to emphasize the long-range
programme especially in the field of research and development.

The XF-91 interceptor underwent performance tests
during the year. The F-89 was the first jet aircraft accepted by
the air force specifically designed as an all-weather interceptor.
The F-86D was an all-weather interceptor version of the
earlier F-86 day fighter. The jet YF-93, the XF-88 and the
XF-90, three new penetration fighters, were evaluated.
The F-84F was an improved version of previous F-84 models.
The XB-51, a light bomber with crew of two, was the first
postwar bomber specifically designed for ground support
work. The XG-20 was a medium cargo assault glider, capable
of being towed at a much higher speed than any operational
gliders used in World War II. The XC-120 medium transport
was a detachable compartment version of the C-119, unique
in its possibilities. It was designed to test the feasibility of
preloaded detachable cargo compartments.

The C-124 heavy cargo transport represented a milestone
in air transportation because of its capacity and adaptability.
An operational flight of the year was especially significant.
On Sept. 22, two U.S.A.F. pilots, each flying an F-84 Thunder-
jet, took off from Manston, England, in a flight that made use

The Avro Canada CF-100 jet fighter, first flown in Jan. 1950.

AIR FORCES OF THE WORLD

of the drogue-probe refuelling system. Lieut. Colonel
William D. Ritchie was forced to bail out over Labrador, but
Colonel David C. Schilling completed the first non-stop
transoceanic flight in a jet aircraft in 10 hr. 1 min. On Sept. 29
Capt. Richard V. Wheeler established a new (but unofficial)
high-altitude bail-out record in an experimental jump from
an altitude of more than eight miles (42,449 ft.) in an auto-
matic opening parachute.

The air engineering development centre authorized by the
congress in Oct. 1949 to provide the military service, private
institutions and industry with facilities for exploring the
aeronautical field beyond the sonic barrier, which was under
construction at Tullahoma, Tennessee, was named the
Arnold Air Engineering Development centre in honour of
General Henry H. Arnold, who died on Jan. 15, 1950.

By May 31,1 950, the total number of officers and airmen on
duty in the U.S.A.F. had declined to 408,844. By the end of
August, command strength had been rebuilt to approximately
450,000 officers and airmen, with almost one-third of the
total deployed overseas. At the same date, there were approxi-
mately 12,000 U.S.A.F planes in active status (H. S. Vo.)

United States Navy. For naval aviation, as for other U.S.
forces, the year 1950 was clearly divided. The first six months
emphasized the continued effort to reach what was expected
to be a permanent peacetime establishment. Then late in
June a rapidly deteriorating international situation and the
necessity for supporting United Nations forces in Korea
caused an abrupt reversal. By the end of the year a total ot
four fleet carriers and two escort carriers had engaged in
active operations in Korean waters. Naval pairol aircraft
flying from land bases or supported by aircraft tenders,
conducted daily reconnaissance flights and anti-submarine
patrols. The first marine air wing also operated from shore
bases in Korea and Japan. Transport squadrons of the navy
and marine corps joined similar units of the air force in
rushing men and equipment across the Pacific.

New equipment and aircraft types, notably jets and new
attack planes, received thorough test under combat conditions.
Helicopters made their first appearance in combat with the
marines carrying supplies to forward units and evacuating
casualties. The navy continued to press the design qtf improved
jet-propelled fighter aircraft for carrier use. The AJ-1, a
high-speed attack plane, went into service \yith fleet squadrons.
Test-flying was begun on a patrol plane (XP5Y) and a carrier
plane (XA2D), both powered by turbo-propeller engines.
Equipment was devised for refuelling airships at sea and thus
extending their usefulness in anti-submarine operations.
Experiments with guided missiles aboard submarines and on
the specially equipped U.S.S. " Norton Sound " were
continued, and congress authorized the conversion of a
cruiser to a guided missiles ship.

There were three large Midway-class carriers and six fleet
carriers in the active fleet at the end of the year. About 3,400
officers and 24,000 enlisted men were added to the aero-
nautical organization of the navy and proportional increases
occurred in marine corps aviation. Training of pilots was
increased to produce about 1,500 yearly. At the end of the
year, the navy had about 13,700 aircraft in its inventory, of
which 7,200 were in operating status. (J. H. C.)

U.S.S.R. Attention in the west was centred on the U.S.S. R.
as the source of the war potential in the east. Aircraft and
armament used by the Chinese Communists and the North
Koreans were manufactured in the Soviet Union. The Soviet
air force was placed under the army in the reorganization
announced in Feb. 1950. The army air organization consisted
of a large force for the support of ground troops, an air defence
force, principally of fighters, and a long-range air arm. The
navy was equal to the army, under the reorganization, and its
aircraft were administered as integral parts of the navy.

4 fy W& v f - ^ W ^ f" tF^ '^

; * j< ' *.'*

The United States AD-3W Skyr aider powered by a 2,400 h.p.
Wright R-3350 engine.

The U.S.S.R. undoubtedly had more troops, aeroplanes
and submarines in service than any other nation. Western
estimates placed the number of Soviet first-line military
aircraft in service at about 15,000. Aeroplane production was
estimated to be 7,000 planes per year early in 1950, and the
country's capacity to produce planes was variously estimated
at 40,000 to 50,000 planes per year. The U.S.S.R. was
believed to have continued production after 1945 without
the drastic reductions made in the west, at the same time
emphasizing research on jet types, guided missiles and the
atomic bomb. At the annual parades in May each year new
jet types were flown over Red square, Moscow, and the
Korean war 'brought the MIG-15 fighter into action for
Communist China. These fighters were also reported late in
1950 in numbers over Berlin and other Soviet bases in Ger-
many.

The Mikoyan and Gurevich MIG-15 was a swept-wing
fighter powered by a centrifugal turbo-jet. Its speed was
reported by U.S. pilots in Korea to be very high, particularly
during bursts when power boost was used. The two standard
advanced fighters in production in 1950 were the MIG-15 and
the Lavochkin LA- 17, both rated in the 685-m.p.h. class.
With afterburning or other power boost, as in the case of the
MIG-15 in Korea, they probably could travel at near-sonic
speeds for short intervals. The Yakovlev YAK- 17 fighter,
also reported to be in production, was a third fighter using a
centrifugal jet engine. It was first flown in 1947, and resembled
the U.S. F-84 Thunderjet. Earlier piston fighters such as the
YAK-7 and YAK-9, used in Korea, the LA-7, LA-9 and
LA- 11 and the twin-jet MIG-9, were still in service in large
numbers in 1950.

Bomber development in the U.S.S.R. was not emphasized
up to about 1947. In World War II Soviet bombers were
typified by such twin-engined models as the Tupolev TU-2,
llyushin 1L-4 and the Petlyakov PE-2. Twin-jet prototypes
were observed over Moscow in May 1950. The twin-jet TU-10
was an axial turbine-powered light bomber of 70-ft. wing
span, estimated to be in the 525-m.p.h. class. The IL-16 four-
jet bomber, first seen in 1947, was of conventional design.
The principal Soviet bomber in service was the TU-4, gener-
ally considered to be a copy of the U.S. B-29. The IL-10
piston-engined Shturmovik was the standard ground-support
aircraft in all Soviet-controlled air forces. Its maximum
speed was 280 m.p.h. It was seen in numbers in Germany.

Rocket fighter development in the U.S.S.R. was based on
the YAK-21 derived from the Messerschmitt Me- 163 of
World War II. It was reported capable of a climbing rate of
12,000 ft. a minute, and a top speed of 670 m.p.h., for a
15-20 minute duration.

AIRPORTS

Soviet Jet Engines. Soviet engine design showed in 1950 a
trend toward more powerful axial-flow types, corresponding
to the trend in the west. The axial-flow turbo-jet designs
taken over by the U.S.S.R. from Germany in 1945 were
developed slowly by Soviet and German engineers, without
conspicuous success for the first several years after World
War II. The best of the Soviet production fighters in 1950
were using centrifugal turbo-jets based on the Rolls-Royce
Nene and Denvent engines sold to the U.S.S.R. in 1947.
Later aircraft going into production were reported to be
equipped with axial-flow types. The German BMW-003 and
BMW-018 and the Jumo-004 were the basic designs for the
later Soviet turbo-jets.

France. The best military aircraft made in France in 1950
were the de Havilland Vampire and the Dassault M.D. 450
Ouragan (Hurricane). One was a British fighter being built
under licence, and the other was developed by a private
aircraft company. The emphasis was upon defensive inter-
ceptors. There was no large production of bombers, no
flying delta-wing research planes and little activity in missiles.
The Rolls-Royce Nene, built under licence, was the only
production turbo-jet. Production on the more powerful
Rolls-Royce Tay was scheduled for 1951. Apart from the
Vampire, the French air forces and navy were equipped
mostly with aircraft from World War II surplus, to which
U.S. jet aircraft were added late in 1950.

The British Cluster Meteor m>/ / / //.

Italy. The importation of de Havilland Vampire fighters
indicated how the Italian air force would replace some of its
World War II surplus British and U.S. planes with new
jet-powered equipment. Tooling was reported progressing
late in 1 950 for the production under licence of Vampire and
Venom aeroplanes and Ghost and Goblin turbo-jets. The
Italian aircraft industry's activity in arranging for the licensed
manufacture of aircraft and engines was accompanied by
design and development work on transports, light planes,
trainers and fighters. Breda and Savoia-Marchetti transports,
Fiat and Abrosini trainers and ventures into jet propulsion
by Caproni and Fiat were the principal developments up to
the end of 1950. The Caproni Ca.195 attracted most attention
in the west. It was described as a conventional modern
fighter, having a slightly swept-back leading edge, powered
by two axial-flow turbo-jets producing 2,000 Ib. thrust for a
maximum speed of 565 m,p.h. at 20,000 ft. The Fiat G.80
two-seat jet trainer would be powered by a de Havilland
Ghost turbo-jet.

Other Countries. According to the trend of 1950, air forces
of the Atlantic pact nations and nations friendly to the west
would be equipped largely with U.S. and British military
aircraft, by purchase or by licensed manufacture. Soviet
satellites would be largely supplied from the U.S.S.R. Con-
struction of successful jet aircraft and engines was, however,
in progress outside the U.S. and the United Kingdom. The

Saab Aircraft company, supplier of numerous aircraft to the
Swedish air force, was reported developing a successor to its
J29 jet fighter of 1948. In the Netherlands, the Fokker
Derwent-powered S.I 4 advanced trainer was reported nearing
completion, and the S.I 3 twin-engined advanced trainer
prototype was flown early in the year. This company was
also manufacturing Gloster Meteor fighters for both the
Netherlands and the Belgian air forces, and Hawker Sea Fury
fighters for the Dutch navy. From the Argentine development
was reported of the I.Ae.33 Fulqui II fighter, a swept-wing
version of the first Argentine jet aeroplane of 1947. (See also
AIRCRAFT MANUFACTURE; JET PROPULSION AND GAS TUR-
BINES; ROYAL AIR FORCE.) (M. H. SM.; S. P. J.)

AIRPORTS. Sir Robert Watson-Watt, the British
radar scientist, commented during 1950 on the backward
state of air traffic-control equipment as established at air-
ports and on airways throughout the world: much of the
existing radio and radar used in civil aviation was out-of-
date as applied to conditions at that moment; and most
of the control sets had been adapted from former military
stock.

This opinion was shared by those in official administration
of airports and was particularly significant in view of the
approaching era of jet airliners with operational speeds of
500 m.p.h. Jet aircraft came into the civil picture in 1950,
but for operating-economy had to fly at great heights.
Any time spent in the air at low altitudes, such as was the
practice for piston-cngined types in approach-procedures to
airports, would have introduced costly and sometimes
impractical conditions for the new class of high-speed air-
liners. Consequently much of the progress in airport design
and construction in 1950 was rather towards improving air
traffic-control equipment, passenger- and freight-handling
facilities and buildings than in the way of establishing new
airports. In a number of instances this policy of improvement
extended to the lengthening and strengthening of runways
and other hard pavings so as to bring existing airports up to
current international standards. This trend was especially
noticeable in Europe, where for example a rejuvenated
Ciampino airport near Rome carried the greatly increased
air traffic for the Holy Year celebrations.

Great Britain. Probably of great importance to the air-
traffic-control systems of the future was the installation of
long-range radar search -equipment at London airport.
By this means controllers were able to direct approaching
and departing aircraft on scheduled flights within their area
by reference to a radar picture showing the whole sky in
azimuth up to a maximum of 150 mi.

A decision moreover was reached on Stage 3 development
of London airport. The original duplicate " triangular "
runway scheme north of the Bath road was abandoned in
favour of a new plan on that site to construct two runways
placed end to end and running east-west but slightly divergent
from one another. The object of this off-set arrangement was
to provide lateral separation for aircraft making simultaneous
landing and take-off.

Africa. A new airport of considerable potentiality was
opened to traffic on Aug. 12 by Lord Pakenham, British
minister of civil aviation, at Livingstone, Northern Rhodesia.
This airport, classed as C.2 under the specifications of the
International Civil Aviation organization, was thought to
have possibilities as a cross-roads of air routes in central
and southern Africa; and its proximity to the Victoria falls
on the Zambezi river was judged to be a great tourist
attraction.

Similarly the new main Egyptian air terminal established
at Farouk airport near Cairo was said to ha\c possibilities
as the cross-roads for north Africa and the middle east.

AIRPORTS

The largest airport in Northern Rhodesia at Livingstone, c/s seen from the air. The airport was opened in Aug. 1950 by the British minister

of civil aviation, Lord Pakenham.

India, Pakistan and Australia. Little progress was reported
towards the implementing of plans to extend and improve
the international airports in these countries. Admittedly the
physical problems were great: notably the surrounding
foothills at Santa Cruz (Bombay), the swampy site of Dum
Dum (Calcutta), the need for the reclamation of part of
Botany bay for runway extension at Kingsford Smith
(Mascot, Sydney) and constructional difficulties f or a dupli-
cate main runway at Drigh Road (Karachi).

Argentina. The new airport near Buenos Aires at Ezeiza
became fully operational during 1950, with three runways
capable of taking the largest and heaviest airliners and with
adequate means for passenger- and freight-handling.

United States. With initial operational problems settled, the
new international airport of Idlewild, Jamaica bay, controlled
by the Port of New York authority, was handling greatly
increased traffic in 1950. On the constructional side, some
alleviation of the %k dust bowl " nuisance was gained by
the planting of sea-grass and more hangars of the unobstruc-
ted arch type were erected.

As regards New York's " internal " services, La Guardia
airport reached almost saturation-point in aircraft move-
ments: on one day alone some 630 were logged in and out.
Newark airport, New Jersey was being developed, obviously
to take much of that congested traffic; accordingly a very
advanced design of terminal building was planned, and
" pre-positioned " services for fuelling, lubricating, electrical
charging etc. were being laid ** on tap " to supersede the
almost universal practice at airports of servicing aircraft
by mobile tender. (C. F. As.)

The 1947 National Airport plan and the 1948 and 1949
revisions were based on a three-year forecast of the needs of
civil aviation in the United States. The 1950 National Airport
plan, accordingly, was assembled as revision and refinement
of the preceding plans and showed a projected three-year
forecast of aviation needs. It reflected an up-to-date appraisal

of the way airports were serving the nation and what was
required to round out safely and effectively the National
Airport system.

The fiscal summary of the 1947-50 federal airport pro-
gramme indicated that the federal government had expended
or committed the sum of $130,731,802 for airport develop-
ment and that the sponsors' contribution (state or territory)
amounted to $140,741,656 for a total programme of
$271,473,458.

Civil airports in Jan. 1950 numbered 6,484 and were
classified as follows: class 1 and below (length from less than
1,800 ft. to 2,700 ft.) 4,100; class 2 (from 2,700 ft. to 3,700 ft.)
1,027; class 3 (from 3,700ft. to 4,700ft.) 576; class 4 (from
4,500 ft. to 5,500 ft.) 445; class 5 (from 5,500 ft. to 6,500 ft.)
1 85 ; classes 6, 7, 8 and (from 6,500 ft. by thousands to 9,500 ft.
and more) 149. (Lengths were increased for elevations
above sea level; classes 1, 2 and 3 had lengths decreased by
200ft. if paved; classes 4-9 had to have at least one paved
runway of a specified length.) Of these airports 2,585 were
commercial, 2,200 municipal, 139 Civil Aeronautics adminis-
tration landing fields and 350 military, with 1,210 of other
types.

Airports for scheduled air service were assigned service
types as defined in the Civil Aeronautics administration's
technical standard order N6a as follows: feeder type (up
to 3,500ft.), for feeder-type service; trunk type (3,500 to
4,200ft.), to serve on air-line trunk routes; express type
(4,200 to 5,000 ft.), at large cities or important junctions on
trunk routes; continental type (5,000 to 5,900ft.), serving
long non-stop continental flights; intercontinental type
(5,900 to 7,000 ft.), serving long intercontinental or trans-
oceanic flights; intercontinental express type (7,000 to
8,400ft.), serving transoceanic flights of largest types of
aircraft. Lengths were increased for elevation, temperature
and gradient.

A three-year study of what was required to develop a

AIR RACES AND RECORDS ALASKA

high-efficiency air freight terminal had reached a stage
late in 1950 where specifications for the terminal and related
components were nearly complete. In devising a terminal
for efficient freight flow, a basic functioning part of the plan
for an air freight depot was found to be a flexible, portable
ramp device designed to eliminate, by bridging the aeroplane
door to a terminal dock, the high hoist that makes aeroplane
cargo loading a time-consuming and expensive operation.
(See also AVIATION, CIVIL.) (E. M. E.)

AIR RACES AND RECORDS. The classic events

of British air racing in 1950 were again dispersed to a number
of provincial centres. Although the circuits necessarily varied,
each race was flown as a handicap over a number of short
laps based on the home aerodrome thus enabling some
competitors to attempt speed records over the 100-km.
closed circuit within weight categories laid down by the
Federation Ae>onautique Internationale.

The King's cup, flown on June 17 over a three-lap course
centred on Wolverhampton, was won by E. Day, flying a
Miles Hawk trainer. F. Dunkerley, in his Miles Gemini
(representing the Lancashire Aero club), was again successful
in the Siddeley trophy, held on Sept. 2, and in the Kemsley
trophy contest. Five world class records over the 100-km.
closed circuit were set up during the King's cup race, among
them Miss R. M. Sharpens 322 -5 m.p.h. in a wartime Spit-
fire; this was also a British women's record.

The two-lap Air League Challenge cup race (won by
W. I. Lashbrook, Percival Proctor) and the Society of British
Aircraft Constructors* Challenge cup contest for jet-powered
aircraft were flown over the same course at Sherburn-in-
Elmet, Leeds, on July 22. The S.B.A.C. race was won at an
average speed of 533 m.p.h. by M. J. Lithgow, piloting a
Vickers-Supermarine Attacker. Another 100-km. world

Two light aircraft taking part in the Bournemouth to Herne Bay
air race in Sept. 1950

record was achieved L. R. Colquhoun's 209-46 m.p.h. with
a Vickers-Supermarine Seagull a new record for amphibians.

An entirely new race was organized by the Daily Express
along the south coast of England from Hum, Hampshire,
to Herne Bay, Kent, on Sept. 16. This attracted an entry of
67 aircraft and was won in a Proctor by N. W. Charlton,
who had started 48th.

An important world record was captured for Great Britain
on May 12 by J. R. Cooksey, flying a Gloster Meteor 8,
This was the 1,000-km. closed circuit at 511 m.p.h. (822 25
km.p.h.).

From July 1, aircraft using rocket-assisted take-off were
eligible for F.A.I, speed record attempts. Other important
changes in the rules were provision for speed records over a
15-25 km. course at unlimited altitudes (instead of over 3 km.
at a height of below 200 m.), and the introduction of rate-of-
climb records. In addition, the F.A.h divided certain world
records into two main categories: piston-powered and jet*
propelled.

A number of international course records (hitherto known
as point-to-point records) were set up during the year, notably
seven by the prototype de Havilland Comet, piloted by J.
Cunningham; three of these were later exceeded. (G. D. H. L.)

ALASKA, including the Aleutian Islands, the northern-
most territory of the United States is separated from Siberian
U.S.S.R. by the Bering strait. The boundary line runs
between the Big Diomede Island (Soviet) and the Little Dio-
mede Island (U.S.). Area: 586,400 sq.mi. Pop.: (1940
census) 72,524; (1950 census) 128,643, excluding U.S. mili-
tary, naval or coastguard personnel. Chief towns (pop.
1950): Juneau (cap., 5,818); Anchorage (11,060); Fairbanks
(5,625); Ketchikan (5,202); Petersburg (2,291). Governor
since 1939, Ernest Grueninc.

History. An epidemic of infantile paralysis broke out in
Alaska during 1950 and at the end of the year 70 cases were
reported in the territory, the majority of them in the interior
area around Fairbanks. Advances were made in improving
the hospital system. A new 400-bcd sanatorium was com-
pleted at Anchorage ; a 40-bed wing was added to St. Joseph's
hospital; a new 34-bed hospital was finished at Nome and
125 beds Were added at Mt. Edgecumbe sanatorium near
Sitka. The latter institution previously had 200 beds.

Millions of dollars went into the building up of the defences
in Alaska in 1950. The army and navy were spending more
than $120 million for construction, and more than $4 million
more was earmarked for improving the Alaska communica-
tion system, a branch of the army. Another $1,500,000 was
being spent to repair the Alaska railroad, a government-
owned line which operates through interior Alaska from
Seward to Fairbanks and to Whitticr, a port, like Seward,
on the southwest coast.

Education. Alaska in 1950 had 32 high schools with 2,169 pupils
and 182 teachers; 94 elementary schools with 10,727 pupils and 471
teachers. For native children, the Alaska native service, a division
of the U.S. Department of the Interior, maintained 85 day schools and

3 boarding schools, with 5,000 pupils.

Fisheries. Alaska's salmon pack, considered the largest in the world,
totalled 3,177,003 cases in 1950 with a value of $85 million. The
halibut, shrimp, crab and cod fishery brought the total value of the
sea-food pack of the territory up to more than $100 million for the
year.

Mining. Total value of mineral production for 1950 was slightly
more than $15 million, gold accounting for $8 million while the balance
represented coal, silver, copper, lead, zinc and platinum. The gold
strike of 1949 in the Yukon river area northeast of Fairbanks failed to
develop in 1950. The few claims which revealed possible bonanza
production could show no colour worthy of production on large-scale
operation.

Banking and Finance. Net cash balance (end of 1950): $2,728,117.
Alaska has no bonded indebtedness and operates on a cash basis.
Funds of the territory were deposited in the 17 territorial banks and

4 national banks situated in Alaska. > (L. M. W.)

ALBANIA ALGERIA

ALBANIA. People's republic in the western part of the
Balkan peninsula bounded N. and E. by Yugoslavia and S.
by Greece, with an Adriatic coastline of 200 mi. Area:
10,629 sq.mi. Pop.: (1930 census) 1,003,097; (mid-1950
est.) 1,300,000. Language: literary Albanian and two
spoken dialects, the Gheg north of the river Shkumbi and the
Task in the south. Religion (1949 est.): Moslem 820,000;
Greek Orthodox 250,000; Roman Catholic 115,000. Chief
towns (1949 est.): Tirana (cap., 40,000); Scutari or Shkoder
(30,000); Koritsa or Korce (28,000); Elbasan (18,000).
Chairman of the presidium of the People's Assembly, Dr.
Omer Nishani; prime minister, minister of foreign affairs and
of national defence, General Enver Hoxha.

History. The Communist government remained subservient
to Soviet policy and there was no change in the hostile
attitude towards Greece and Yugoslavia. Hunger, approaching
famine in winter, and widespread disease were the results of a
year of political and economic isolation. This situation was
only partially relieved at the end of the year by shipments of
consumer goods and light industrial equipment from the
Soviet Union and its satellites. Repeated government claims
of success in industry through the employment of " stakhano-
vi te " methods and in agriculture by the development of the
Soviet collective system, were exaggerated. A realistic
picture of the situation was given on March 9 when four
senior government officials, including the minister of industry,
Abedin Shehu, were expelled from the central committee of
the Communist party for what was termed ** serious errors
and mistakes in state and party work." One month later,
on April 10, Enver Hoxha, addressing tho second national
conference of the party at Tirana, stated that more than 5,000
" enemies of the people " had been chased by the defence
corps over the border into Yugoslavia. The prime minister
also condemned the minister of industry for the failure of
the economic plan.

Two espionage trials, at which six Albanians were accused
of spying on behalf of the western powers, preceded the
general election on May 28. Full publicity given to the death
sentences provided a resentful electorate with a timely
reminder of their expected loyalty to the regime. There were
the usual single lists of Communist candidates in 121 constitu-
encies, each with an electorate of about lO.CKXt. Official
results claimed an outstanding victory. Out of 99-43% of
the electorate who voted 98 99 % votes * were cast for the
[Democratic front (Communist) candidates.

On May 30 Yugoslavia closed its legation in Tirana after
protesting against numerous frontier incidents and mal-
treatment of its diplomatic officials. During the year western
diplomatic representation remained restricted to the French
and Italian legations. Great Britain's attempts to obtain
compensation, awarded by the International Court of
Justice, for the damage caused to its two destroyers by mines
in the Corfu channel in 1947 were unsuccessful.

The United Nations Special Committee on the Balkans
established that the government had actively interfered in
Greek affairs by providing both the arms and the means for
Greek Communists to return to Greece after they had received
a period of political and sabotage training in Poland under
Soviet instruction. It was learned that the majority of Greek
guerrillas who had escaped to Albania in 1948 had been
removed by ship to Rumania and Poland.

In September there was a Soviet month of culture and a
Korean friendship week, during which funds were collected
for the North Koreans. Delegations of technicians, workers,
Orthodox and Moslem clergy and peasants visited the
U.S.S.R. to learn Soviet methods. A Soviet mission, com-
posed of more than 3,000 technicians, directed the construc-
tion of a railway line from Durazzo (Durres) to Tirana and
the erection of port installations at Valona (Vlore). Despite the

faithful allegiance of the government to Moscow, Albania
was not granted membership of the Cominform nor was
she brought into the network of mutual aid treaties, which
bind all the other satellites to the Soviet Union.

The Free Albania committee, composed of anti-Communist
leaders in exile, continued its activity in Rome. Hasan
Dosti was appointed chairman and Ihsan Toptani became
the Albanian representative on the eastern section of the
European movement. (S. E. Ws.)

Education. Schools (1949): elementary I t 910, pupils 162,000; higher
elementary 145, secondary 20, total pupils 19,140. A teachers' college
was opened at Tirana in 1946.

Agriculture. Main crops ('000 metric tons): maize (1947) 140; wheat
(1947) 54; tobacco (1945) 1 -5; olives (prewar) 17; grapes (prewar) 14.
Livestock ('000 head): cattle and buffaloes (1945-46) 371; sheep (1946)
1,700; horses (1946 est.) 50; pigs (1946 est.) 35; goats (1946 est.) 854;
asses (1946 est.) 40; mules (1946 est.) 10; chickens (1938) 2,000.

Industry. Crude oil production ('000 metric tons, 1949; 1950, six
months, in brackets): 325 (165).

Foreign Trade. Before 1939, main imports were cotton yarns and
manufactures, petrol, wheat and maize. Main exports were crude
petroleum, skins and hides, foodstuffs.

Transport and Communications. Roads (1949): 1,766 mi. Licensed
motor vehicles (Dec. 1949): cars 500; commercial 1,200. Railways
(1949): 26 mi. Shipping (1949): number of merchant vessels 6. Post
and telegraph offices 53. Radio receiving sets (1949) 40,000.

Finance. Monetary unit: lek, until mid- 1948 at par with the Yugoslav
dinar, with an official exchange rate 139 lek to the pound and 49-6
lek to the U.S. dollar.

See " Isolation of Albania," The Times, London, Feb. 1, 1950;
Vandeleur Robinson, ** Albania : a Balkan Bridgehead," The World
Today, London, Feb., 1950.

ALDER, KURT, German chemist (b. July 10, 1902),
obtained the degree of doctor of philosophy from the Uni-
versity of Kiel, where he was a pupil of Otto Diels (^.v.). He
was appointed extraordinary professor of chemistry at Kiel
in 1934 but later went to occupy the chair of chemistry and
chemical technology at Cologne. In 1950 the Nobel prize for
chemistry was awarded jointly to Diels and Alder for their
work on dienc synthesis (the Diels-Aldcr reaction). Diene
synthesis is concerned with the formation of complex organic
compounds such as plastics and is of great practical as well as
theoretical importance. The discovery was an outstanding
achievement of organic chemistry, such as would establish the
names of Diels and Alder permanently in the annals of their
science. Their first paper on the reaction was published in
1928. Alder, who was still working on the diene synthesis in
1950, made important contributions to the stereochemistry
and the energetics of the process. (W. J. BP.)

ALGERIA. French territory of north Africa, situated
between Morocco (west) and Tunisia (east), with a status
of government general of the French Union. Total area:
851,078 sq.mi., administered in two parts: Northern Algeria
(80,919 sq.mi.), comprising the overseas departements of
Algiers, Oran and Constantine, and the four territories of
Southern Algeria (770,159 sq.mi.). Pop.: (1936 census)
7,234,684; (1948 census) 8,676,016 including 816,993 (9-4%)
in the southern territories. Arabs and Berbers constitute
86-7% of the population; they are Moslem and speak
Arabic, though the countryfolk of Kabylia still use the Berber
tongue. In 1936 there were 987,252 Europeans in Algeria
(predominantly Roman Catholic), including 853,209 French
citizens (many of Spanish or Italian descent). There was a
flourishing Jewish community estimated in 1949 at 130,000.
The Algerian Assembly, which has the representative nature
of a parliament, consists of 120 members elected by two
colleges. In the first college there are all citizens of French
status and Moslems distinguished by military, university,
administrative or judicial qualifications; in the second college
are grouped all other Moslem citizens. It is the task of the
Assembly to manage Algerian affairs in agreement with the

ALIENS

governor general. It passes the budget and possesses statutory
powers in fields which in metropolitan France are objects of
legislation. It may propose to the French parliament the
extension of a law to Algeria; or it is, at the least, called upon
for advice. The governor general has wide powers. Chief
towns (1948 census): Algiers (cap., 315,210); Gran (256,661);
Constantine (118,774); Bone (102,823); Tlemcen (69,668).
Governor general (appointed in 1948), Marcel-Edmond
Naegelen.

History. Despite constant bitter attacks by the Nationalist
Democratic Union of the Algerian Manifesto (U.D.M.A. or
Union D6mocratique du Manifeste Algerien, led by Ferhat
Abbas) in its organ La Rtpublique Algerienne, and notwith-
standing violent pan-Arab opposition by the Movement for
the Triumph of Democratic Liberties (M.T.L.D. or Mouve-
ment pour le Triomphe des Libertes Democratiques, led by
Messali Haj), conditions remained calm. Public opinion
appeared little disturbed by the plot engineered by the
paramilitary organization of the M.T.L.D., which in May led
to many arrests. Of greater importance was the action taken
by the ulemas to ensure the independence of the Moslem
faith in relation to the state and to develop the teaching of
Arabic. The president and vice president of their association
in December visited Paris to petition the government for full
religious liberty. Under the education scheme 500 new
classes with capacity of 25,000 pupils were opened for
instruction in French. The extension by special enactment of
the term of office of the governor general Naegelen, which
by the statute of the National Assembly (of which he is a
member) was due to expire in August, gave rise to discussion.

The country depends mainly on agriculture the total
production in which amounted in 1949 to Fr. 128,200 million.
Wine, figs and dates failed to reach the estimated export
targets. The index number of mining production rose from
100 in 1945 to 223 in 1949. Prospects for the development of
the manufacture of paper from alfalfa grass, and of cement
seemed promising. During the first half of 1950 the adverse
balance of trade showed no signs of improvement.

Agriculture. Main crops (1949, '000 metric tons): wheat 946-4;
barley 890-4; oats 142-3; citrus fruits 223; olives 125; figs 80; dates
105; tobacco 20; vegetables 544; wine ('000 hi.) 14,467. Livestock
(1949, *000 head): cattle 747; sheep 3,839; goats 2,596; pigs 160; horses
204; asses 255; mules 230; camels 138.

Industry. Mineral production (1949, '000 metric tons); phosphate
rock 644-8; coal 258; iron ore 2,536-9; zinc ore 17-4. Industrial
production (1949, metric tons): pig iron 6,418; steel 893; copper 3,721 ;
cement 128,000; superphosphates 87,888; telephonic cables 4,193;
matches 128 million boxes.

Foreign Trade. (Million francs, 1949; 1950, six months, in brackets)
imports 127,521 (72,492); exports 88,709 (50,636).

Transport and Communications. Railways (1947): 4,338 km. Metalled
roads (1947): northern Algeria 52,519 km., southern Algeria 282 km.;
non-metalled roads 15,046km.; tracks 20,575km. Motor vehicles
licensed (Jan. 1948): cars 26,165, coaches 1,003, taxis 1,387, lorries
19,895. Ships entered (1949): Algiers 3,041, Oran 2,437; cargo unloaded
(in all ports, '000 metric tons): 2,910-2, loaded 5,811-8. Air transport
(1949): aircraft landed 10,916; passengers flown: arrivals 118,700,
departures 147,000; freight carried (metric tons) 19,324, mail 860.
Telephone subscribers (1949): 56,000.

Finance. Budget (1950-51 est., the fiscal year beginning April 1):
revenue Fr. 72,530 1 million, expenditure Fr. 72,508 -9 million. Algerian
franc=metropolitanfranc;l-Fr.980; U.S. $ = Fr.350. (C. A. J.)

ALIENS. Great Britain. The number of aliens over 16
years of age registered in the United Kingdom on Oct. 1,
1950, was 426,437 (males 261,915; females 164,522), of whom
139,994 were living in the metropolitan police district (Lon-
don). The figure on Jan. 1 was 430,058. The principal
nationalities represented and the numbers of each compared
with similar figures at the same date in 1949 were: Austrian
10,037 (11,034); Belgian 5,520 (6,467); Chinese 9,725 (9,367);
Czechoslovak 6,017 (7,207); Dutch 9,117 (9,158); Estonian
5,599 (5,816); French 14,901 (14,087); German 47,762

(44,249); Hungarian 4,996 (5,536); Italian 21,672 (18,667);
Latvian 13,794(13,855); Lithuanian 6,860 (7, 165); Norwegian
5,966 (5,868); Polish 145,524 (150,378); Russian 38,172
(40,785); Swiss 12,878 (13,107); U.S. 18,283 (16,656). The
figures included 11,000 aliens to whom no nationality could
be attributed.

Among aliens not required to register and therefore not
included in these figures were members of the diplomatic
and consular services of foreign governments, certain officials
of international organizations, members of Allied forces on
duty, British protected persons and tourists and other
visitors who spent less than two months in the U.K.

The flow of foreign passenger traffic through United King-
dom ports continued to be heavy, and the number of incoming
travellers remained at nearly 650,000. In July 1950, 1 14,738
foreigners landed at United Kingdom ports, and 97,062
embarked. Similar figures in July 1949 were 101,768, and
84,076. Further steps were taken to reduce formalities at
ports of arrival and to facilitate the passage of tourists
through the necessary controls.

As a result of individual visa agreements, nationals of the
following countries were not required to obtain visas for
travel to the United Kingdom: Belgium, Denmark, France,
Iceland, Italy, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Monaco, the
Netherlands, Norway, San Marino, Sweden, Switzerland and
the United States.

By Oct. 1, 1950, some 77,000 aliens, mostly of Polish or
Baltic origin, who had been temporarily accommodated in
displaced persons camps on the continent, had been admitted
for employment in the United Kingdom with a view to
settlement. With them came nearly 4,000 dependants. These
foreigners were restricted * to employment in undermanned
industries but from Jan. 1, 1951, those with three years resi-
dence would be free to take any work they could obtain.

Out of the 174,000 Polish servicemen brought to the
United Kingdom after mid- 1945, some 61 ,500 were repatriated
and 17,000 assisted to emigrate. The remainder settled in
civilian life in Great Britain, and 31,000 persons dependent
on them were brought from abroad to join them. During
1950 about 2,000 further Polish refugees were admitted
from the I ebanon and east Africa.

The number of foreigners admitted after the end of World
War II under compassionate schemes introduced to allow
relatives in the United Kingdom to offer homes to aliens in
isolated and distressed circumstances abroad, or the victims
of political persecution, rose to over 7,000. During 1950
the government agreed to admit 2,000 displaced persons in
the care of the International Refugee organization in Germany
or Austria, provided their accommodation and maintenance
were guaranteed by individuals or organizations in the United
Kingdom. About 2,000 foreigners were allowed to remain
in the United Kingdom after marriage to British subjects.

In 1950 about 36,000 permits were issued for non-resident
foreigners to come and work in the United Kingdom for
periods of varying length. This maintained the average of
previous years. The majority of permits were for domestic
employment in hospitals, institutions and private households.

Between Jan. 1 and Oct. 1, 1950, 5,702 new applications for
naturalization were lodged, compared with a yearly average
of 1,708 before World War 11, and 5,610 for the same period
in 1949. Certificates granted during the same period numbered
5,197, an annual rate of approximately 6,950 as compared
with 9,066 in 1949. The number of applications received
immediately after World War II was abnormally high and the
time taken in dealing with individual applications was
necessarily slower. The decrease in the number of certificates
granted in 1950 indicated that the bulk of the postwar
applications had been disposed of and that numbers had
returned to a normal level. (T. G. W.)

ALIMENTARY SYSTEM

1950

1949

1948

1947

12,697

13,284

12,361

20,328

5,882

5,347

3,860

6,065

5,777

7,486

10,703

8,743

8,301

9,452

11,516

3,793

4,371

5,136

6,495

2,122

2,752

3,143

3,562

3,257

3,478

5,768

10,764

23,787

23,284

22,944

30,536

66,346

66,594

70,150

93,904

United States. It is estimated that there were approximately
3 million resident aliens in the continental United States on
June 30, 1946. This estimate does not take into account
persons there temporarily, that is, non-immigrants, border
crossers and imported labourers.

Naturalizations. During the year ended June 30, 1950,
66,346 petitions for naturalization were granted to non-
citizens and during 1950 2,276 petitions were denied.

In addition to those persons whose U.S. citizenship was
revoked, 5,792 persons expatriated themselves by affirmative
action: 1,693 by voting in foreign political elections; 1,096
through naturalization in a foreign state; 1,424 by taking up
residence in a foreign state; 721 by serving in foreign armed
forces; 109 by leaving the U.S. to avoid military service and
for other reasons.

NoN-Cm/nNs NATURALIZED IN IHK U.S., 1947-50

(Years ended June 30)
Former nationality
British
Canadian
German
Italian
Polish
Russian
Filipino
Other
Total

* Included with British.

New Legislation. On April 20, 1950, S.3455 an orinibus
bill having as its objective the complete revision of immigra-
tion and nationality laws was introduced in the Senate.
One of the more important legislative enactments of the
year affecting the work of the immigration and naturalization
service was public law No. 555, approved June 16, 1950,
which amended the Displaced Persons act of 1948. Under
the amending act the number of refugees and displaced persons
who might be admitted to the U.S. was increased to 415,744.
Additional safeguards were provided against the entry of
those whose admission to the U.S. would be against the
national interest. The Department of State was given author-
ity to determine eligibility for certain groups outside Germany
and Austria. The date for issuance of visas under the Dis-
placed Persons act generally was extended to June 30, 1951,
although in some instances (such as applicants who were
orphans or had been expelled from Germany), visas might be
issued until June 30, 1952.

Public law 587, approved June 30, made 250 special quota
immigration visas available to certain alien sheep-herders
for a period of one year. (See also IMMIGRATION AND EMI-
GRATION.) (A. R. MACK.)

ALIMENTARY SYSTEM. Oesophagus. The import-
ance of the psychomatic factor in irritable colon, cardio-
spasm, pylorospasm, anorexia nervosa and possibly peptic
ulcer and chronic ulcerative colitis was generally conceded.
Stewart Wolf, T. P. Almy and Catherine R. Lee reported
experimental observations on cardiospasm in 14 human
subjects. Their studies indicated that the dilated, elongated
and obstructed oesophagus of cardiospasm may be the end-
stage of a process which in early stages is reversible and
never entirely static. In all patients episodes of sympto-
matic exacerbation and remission could be correlated with
variations in life-situation, feeling-state and attitude.

Stomach and Duodenum. Works on peptic ulcer continued
to dominate gastro-enterotogic literature in 1950. Interest
was displayed in aetiology in differentiating small ulcerating
gastric carcinoma from benign gastric ulcer and also in
more effective methods of medical treatment. A. C. Ivy,
M. I. Grossman and W. H. Bachrach revealed the multi-
plicity and interdependence of factors in the production of
experimental ulcer in the rabbit and dog and the super-

imposition of one factor on another and looked forward to
the day when mutilating operations for ulcer would be
unnecessary (Peptic Ulcer, pp. 766, 1088, Philadelphia, 1950).
The parasympatholytic chemical agent, banthine, was found
to be usually effective in the treatment of uncomplicated
ulcer, especially if the drug was well tolerated. The results
of vagotomy after a five-year follow-up of thousands of
cases were almost identical with those of gastro-enterostomy.

Prolonged and excessive intake of milk (containing large
amounts of calcium and phosphorus) and alkali in the treat-
ment of peptic ulcer may cause damage to the kidneys,
tendency to fixation in urinary calcium secretion, excessive
calcium in the blood, tendency to supersaturation with
calcium phosphate and deposition of calcium salts in body
tissues, according to the observations of C. H. Burnett,
R. R. Commons, Fuller Albright and J. E. Howard. Clinical
improvement followed intake low in milk and alkali.

To ascertain whether gastric juice is hypersecreted before
the development of ulcer and of duodenal ulcer in particular,
R. Doll, F. A. Jones and N. F. Maclagan undertook a
follow-up study on 100 normal medical students who had
been subjected to histaminc test meals 15 years earlier.
Subsequent medical histories were obtained in 85 of the
original group. The results indicated that hypersecretion is a
cause rather than an effect of ulcer.

R. C. Batterman and I. Ehrenfeld concluded after investi-
gation that tobacco-smoking is detrimental to the peptic
ulcer patient: of 108 patients observed 39 were non-smokers
and 26 discontinued smoking on first seeking treatment.

Hepatohiliary and Pancreatic Systems. Experiences in
differential diagnosis of jaundice by needle biopsy of the
liver were reported by F. G, Weisbrod, L. Schiff, E. A. Gall,
F. P. Cleveland and J. R. Berman (Gastroenterology, 14:
56-72, Jan. 1950). From 157 patients with jaundice 181
adequate liver biopsies were obtained. Diagnosis based on
biopsy was shown to be more reliable than that based on the
combined results of certain tests of liver function, namely
cephalin flocculation, thymol turbidity and serum alkaline
phosphatase determinations in the various forms of jaundice
studied. Errors in differentiating virus hepatitis from
obstructive jaundice on the basis of needle biopsy under
certain circumstances were pointed out.

The detection of chronic pancreatitis in its earlier stages
had been exceedingly difficult, and an advance in diagnosis
apparently depended on results of tests of pancreatic function.
Norms were established for total secretory volume, con-
centration of bicarbonate and total bicarbonate and amylase
responses to a standard commercially available preparation
of secretin. A study of the data by D. A. Dreiling and
Franklin Hollander yielded evidence making necessary the
use of an 80-min. collection period and the inclusion of
enzyme determinations in the clinical application of the
procedure. Body-weight adjustment of the values for total
volume of secretion and total quantity of amylase resulted in a
marked decrease in a scatter of the data and therefore a
narrowing of the range of normalcy; volume and enzyme
data should therefore be reduced to a per kilogram
basis.

Intestines. Sulphonamides reduce the carrier rate following
the acute phase of bacillary dysentery, but reports were
contradictory as to their efficacy in other respects during this
phase. Streptomycin is uniformly effective in relieving the
symptoms of tuberculous enteritis. H. H. Anderson and
his associates found the thioarsenates highly effective and
superior to all other arsenical amoebacides. Aureomycin
in the treatment of refractory amoebiasis was followed by
encouraging results. The potency of chloroquine in the
treatment of hepatic amoebiasis was amply confirmed.

(G. B. EN.)

AMBASSADORS AND ENVOYS

AMBASSADORS AND

Britain, Dec. 31, 1950.

To Great Britain

*Shah Wali Khan

*Carlos Alberto Hogan .

Lothar Wimmer ....

*Vicomte Obert dc Thieusics .

* Napoleon Solares Arias

*J. J. Moniz de Aragao

Naiden K. Nikolov

*Manuel Bianchi ....

* Rafael Sanchez Amaya .
tGmllermo Padilla Castro .
*Roberto Gonzalez de Mendoza y de la Torre ,

*Rudolf Bystricky

'Count Eduard Reventlow .

Julio Vega Batlle

*Gonzalo Zaldumbide

*Abd-el-Fattah Amr Pasha .

Ato Abbebe Retta

Eero Aarne Wuori

"Rene Massigli

^{Hans Schlangc-Schocningen.

*Leon Victor Melas

Francisco Linares Aranda .

Frederic Duvigneaud

Tiburcio Carius

Elek BolgAr

Stefan Thorvardsson

*Subandrio

*Emir Zeid ibn al-Hussein .

'Frederick H. Boland

Eliahu Elath

*Tommaso Gallarati-Scotti .

Emir Abdul-Majid Haidar .

Tchi Chang Yun

Victor Khouri

Baron Robert Aernout de Lynden .

Andre Clasen

*Fedcrico Jimenez O'Farrill .
*Shanker Shumshere Jung Bahadur Rana
*Jonkhecr E. Michiels van Verduynen

ENVOYS. The following is a list of ambassadors and envoys to and from Grea

*Per Preben Prebensen .
Bernardino Gonzalez Ruiz
Augusto Saldivar .
*AH Soheily

*Ricardo Rivera Schreiber
Jose E. Romero .
*Jerzy Michalowski
*Ruy Enncs Ulrich
Nicolac Cioroiu .
J. Arturo Castcllanos .
*Sheikh Hafiz Wahba .
jDuke of San Lucar la Mayor
*Bo Gunnar R. Hagglof
Henry de Torrent^
Edmond Homsy .
*Phra Bahiddha Nukara
*Cevat Acikalin .
*Ghcorghy N. Zarubin .
Walter Sherman Gifford
*Enrique E. Buero
||Archbishop William Godfrey
"Carlos Sosa-Rodriquez
Tran Van Don (designate)

*Joze Brilej ....

Country
Afghanistan .

Argentina

Austria

Belgium

Bolivia

Brazil

Bulgaria .....
Burma .....

Chile

China

Colombia

Costa Rica ....

Cuba

Czechoslovakia ....
Denmark .....
Dominican Republic .
Ecuador

Egypt

Ethiopia .....

Finland

France

Germany

Greece

Guatemala

Haiti

Honduras

Hungary

Iceland

Indonesia .....

Iraq

Ireland, Republic of

Israel

Italy

Japan .....

Jordan

Korea

Lebanon .....

Liberia

Luxembourg ....

Mexico

Nepal . . . . t .
Netherlands . . .
Nicaragua .....

Norway

Panama *

Paraguay .....
Persia (Iran) ....

Peru

Philippines .....

Poland

Portugal

Rumania .....
Salvador, El ....
Saudi Arabia ....

Spain

Sweden

Switzerland ....
Syria .....

Thailand (Siam) ....

Turkey

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
United States of America
Uruguay .....

Vatican

Venezuela ".....
Vietnam

Yugoslavia ....

United Nations ....

From Great Britain
*Sir Alfred John Gardiner
*Sir John Balfour
J Sir Harold Anthony Caccia
*Sir John Helier Le Rougetel
"John Garnett Lomax
*Sir Ncvile Montagu Butler
Paul Mason

* Richard Langford Speight
*Sir Cecil Bertrand Jerram
|John Colville Hutchison
Gilbert MacKereth
Bernard Ponsonby Sullivan
*Adrian Holman
*Philip Mainwaring Broadmead
*Sir Alec Randall
Stanley Herbert Gudgeon
*John Eric Maclean Carvcll
*Sir Ralph Clarmont Skrine Stevenson
Daniel William Lascelles
Oswald Arthur Scott
*Sir Oliver Charles Harvey
ffSir Ivone Augustine Kirkpatrick
*Sir Clifford Norton
Wilfred Hansford Gallienne
David Jarvis Mill Irving
Gerald Ernest Stockley
Geoffrey Wallingcr
John Dee Green way
*Derwent William Kermode
*Sir Henry Mack
*Sir Gilbert Laithwaite
Sir Alexander Knox Helm
*Sir Victor Mallet
Sir Alvary Gascoignc
Sir Alec Kirkbride
Vyvyan Holt (taken prisoner by North

Koreans, July 1950)
Sir William Evelyn Houston-Boswall
John Gilroy Baillie
Geoffrey Allchin
"John William Taylor
*Sir George Falconer
*Sir Philip Nichols
Nigel Oliver Willoughby Steward

* Michael Robert Wright
Eric Arthur Cleugh

Ian Henderson

*Sir Francis Michie Shepherd

*Sir James Leishman Dodds

Linton Harry Foulds

*Sir Charles Harold Batcman

*Sir Nigel Ronald

Walter St. Clair Howland Roberts

Ralph Henry Tottenham-Smith

*Alan Charle$ Trott

t Douglas Frederick Howard

*Sir Harold Lister Farquhar

Patrick Stratford Scrivener

William Horace Montagu-Pollock

*Sir Geoffrey Thompson

*Sir Noel Charles

*Sir David Kelly

*Sir Oliver Franks

* Douglas Frederick Howard
Sir J. V. T. W. T. Pcrowne
*Sir John Hall Magowan

Frank Stannard Gibbs (also accredited to

Cambodia and Laos)
*Sir Charles Peake
**Sir Hubert Miles Gladwyn Jebb

* Ambassador Unstarred, Minister. t Charg6 d'Aflaires. t Also United Kingdom High Commissioner in Austria. 5 Political Representative.

H Apostolic Delegate. H Consul General. * Permanent U.K. representative to the United Nations. tt High Commissioner to West German federal

government. i

AMERICAN LITERATURE

Sir Ralph Stevenson (centre), British ambassador to Egypt, seen
after presenting his credentials to King Farouk, June 1950.

The following is a list of high commissioners within the
Commonwealth of Nations, Dec. 31, 1950.

From Australia to
Canada ....
Ceylon ....
Great Britain

India

New Zealand

Pakistan ....

South Africa

From Canada to

Australia . . . ,

Great Britain

India

New Zealand

Pakistan ....

South Africa

From Ceylon to

Australia ....

Great Britain

India

Pakistan ....
From Great Britain to
Australia ....
Canada ....
Ceylon ....

India

New Zealand

Pakistan ....

South Africa.

Southern Rhodesia

Francis Michael Forde
Charles William Frost
*Eric John Harrison
Herbert Roy Gollan
Arthur Roden Cutler
John Egfton Oldham
(vacant)

Uo-Richer LaFteche
L. Dana Andrews
Warwick Fielding Chipman
Alfred Rive
David Moflfat Johnson
T. W. L. MacDermot

J. Aubrey Mairtensz
Sir Oliver Goonctilleke
C. Coomaraswamy
T. B. Jayah

Edward John Willhms

Sir Alexander Clutterbuck

Sir Walter Crossfield Hankinson

Sir ArchiSald Nye

Sir Charles Roy Price

Sir Laurence Graflftey-Smith

Sir Evelyn Baring

Ian M. R. MacLennan

From India to

Australia .

Canada ....

Ceylon .

Great Britain

Pakistan .

From New Zealand to

Australia . . .

Canada ....

Great Britain

From Pakistan to

Australia . . . .

Canada .

Great Britain

India

From South Africa to
Australia ....
Canada ....
Great Britain
Southern Rhodesia
From Southern Rhodesia to
Great Britain
South Africa

* Resident Minister in London.

Prince M. S. Duleepsinhji

(vacant)

V. K. Krishna Menon

(vacant)

G. E. L. Alderton

Thomas Charles Atkinson Hislop

William Joseph Jordan

Yusaf A. Haroon
Mohammad Ali
Habib Ibrahim Rahimtoola
Mohammad Ismail

Philippus Rudolph Viljoen
Alfred Adrian Roberts
Albertus Lourens Geyer
Terence Henry Eustace

Kenneth M. Goodcnough
Anthony Drinkwater Chataway
(designate)

The state landau carrying the Indonesian ambassador, Subandrio,

from his embassy to present his letters of credence to the King,

March 23 t 1950. This was the first time an ambassador had been

driven in a landau since before World War II.

AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOUR:

see TRADE UNIONS.

AMERICAN LITERATURE. The confusion and
uncertainty in the United States in 1950 shaped the writing
of the year. It was also a year of looking backward: there
were a remarkable number of books devoted to scholarship
in American history and novels which re-created historic
figures or eras.

The reading public, however, responded to the new tensions
by turning in great numbers to three controversial books.
Gayelord Hauser's Look Younger, Live Longer promised peace
of soul through yeast, yoghurt and hormones. L. R. Hubbard
propounded a new science of mental health through special
techniques of self-psychoanalysis in his Dianetics. Immanuel
Velikovsky's Worlds In Collision, an explanation of ancient
historic events in terms of two series of cosmic catastrophes,
roused such a storm over its veracity and sincerity that its
original publishers handed over the rights to another pub-
lishing house.

At the outbreak of war in Korea, many books on Asiatic
politics and history appeared. Among them were George
McCune's Korea Today and Owen Lattimore's Pivot of Asia,
a study of the frontiers of China and Russia. Two other
books on Asia were Foster Bowman Hailey's Half of One
World and Bruno Lasker's Human Bondage in Southeast Asia.

The stream of books about World War II continued.
They included Frank Howley's Berlin Command and Lucius
Clay's Decision in Germany. Mark Clark told the inside story
of the Italian campaign in Calculated Risk, Robert L. Eichel-
berger that of the ground war in the Pacific in Our Jungle Road
to Tokyo. Admiral William D. Leahy, in / Was There,
reported on his personal observations at the Cairo, Tehran,
Yalta and Potsdam meetings.

A flood of books documented the country's confusion with
regard to loyalty* security and freedom of speech. Walter
Gellhorn's Security, Loyalty, and Science analysed the dangers
to scientific workers of the screening process. Carey
McWilliams, in Witch Hunt, related the present purges to
similar episodes in history. Nathaniel Weyl wrote Treason, a
survey of disloyalty and betrayal in American history up to
the Hiss case. Two books dealt with the Hiss trial: Ralph
de Toledano and Victor Lasky, in Seeds of Treason, defended
the proposition that Hiss had betrayed his country; Alistair
Cooke, a British reporter who covered the trial, wrote A
Generation on Trial as an objective study of the facts and issues.
Haywood Patterson's Scottsboro Boy told the story of an
earlier trial and prison terrors.

ANAEMIA

Two collections of Roosevelt documents appeared:
F.D.R.: His Personal Letters, 1929-1945, edited by Elliott
Roosevelt, and The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D.
Roosevelt, compiled by Samuel I. Roseman. John Gunther's
popular Roosevelt in Retrospect attempted an appraisal of
the president.

Five volumes appeared in the series Chronicles of America,
edited by Allan Nevins: The Era of Franklin D. Roosevelt, by
Denis William Brogan; From Versailles to the New Deaf, by
Harold Underwood Faulkner; The New Deal and World
Affairs (1933-1945), by Allan Nevins; The United States in a
Chaotic World (1918-1933), by Allan Nevins; and War for
the World, by Fletcher Pratt.

Other historical works for the general reader included:
Carl Van Doren's Jane Mecom, a biography of Benjamin
Franklin's sister; Catherine Drinker Bowen's John Adams and
the American Revolution; Irving Brant's James Madison,
Father of the Constitution, 1787-1800, the third volume of a
series, and Margaret L. Coil's John C. Calhoun, American
Portrait, excellent for its picture of the times.

A large group of books appeared on psychoanalysis.
Erich Fromm's Psychoanalysis and Religion advanced the
belief that both can work together for the saving of man's
soul. Karen Horney's Neurosis and Human Growth presented
her positive approach to psychoanalytic therapy. There were
also Psychosomatic Medicine by Franz Alexander and
Psychoanalysis: Evolution and Development by Clara Thomp-
son and Patrick Mullahy.

Fiction. Although some good new novels appeared in 1950,
there were no striking developments in fiction and the quality
of lesser novels was undistinguished. Ernest Hemingway's
Across the River and Into the Trees, the story of an ageing
colonel, his loves, memories, opinions and manner of dying,
was immoderately praised and damned; the condemnation
arose not so much from the book itself as from the critics'
conception of Hemingway's personality and prejudices. Many
other novels portrayed characters involved in special settings
or with special problems, the most distinguished being John
Hersey's The Wall, about the Warsaw ghetto under Nazi
persecution. James Aldridge, in The Diplomat, wrote the
story of the political awakening of a young man attached to a
distinguished empire-building British diplomat. William L.
Shirer, turning for the first time to fiction, used his knowledge
of Germany in The Traitor, a character study of a renegade.
Ned Calmer 's The Strange Land was one of the few novels
directly using the war. Henry Morton Robinson's The
Cardinal, a best-seller, the story of a Catholic priest, showed
the workings of the church. Arthur Gordon's Reprisal was a
story of a Georgia lynching. Michael Amrine, in Secret,
portrayed a physicist with a conscience about the atom bomb.
Two writers who chose a background of South American
politics, plots and revolutions were Robert Pick with his
Guests of Don Lorenzo and Gore Vidal with his Dark Green,
Bright Red. Upton Sinclair wrote Another Pamela; or Virtue
Still Rewarded, a review of contemporary social history.
Budd Schulberg's The Disenchanted ranked among the top
books of the year. Based partly on the life of F. Scott Fitz-
gerald, it was a solid, mature treatment of a man's struggle
with and for success.

The number of historical romances was slightly smaller
than usual this year. Thomas B. Costain's Son of a Hundred
Kings, a novel of the 1890s in Canada, was a best-seller.
Samuel Shellabarger used a 16th-century French setting for
The King's Cavalier. Nancy Hale's The Sign of Jonah was
one of the better panoramic historical novels.

The psychiatric novel and the novel of character, still
important, were exemplified in Brendan Gill's The Trouble of
One House, Nancy Wilson Ross's /, My Ancestor, Susan
Yorke's The Widow and Laura Z. Hobson's The Other Father.

The playwright Tennessee Williams ventured into the field
of fiction with The Roman Spring of Mrs. Stone. Erskine
Caldwell published Episode in Palmetto.

Short stories gave a much richer relative yield than novels.
The Collected Stories of William Faulkner (q.v.) headed the
list. Faulkner's long-held position as an eminent American
writer was confirmed by the award to him of the 1949 Nobel
prize for literature. The stories in Paul Bowies' The Delicate
Prey were of violence and death in an African setting. Mary
McCarthy collected her sharply satirical pieces in Cast a
Cold Eye. Walter Van Tilburg Clark's Western stories, The
Watchful God and Other Stones, were too often marred by
heavy symbolism. Irwin Shaw's Mixed Company was a
group of neatly told stories often concerned with the impact
of World War 11. The stories in William Carlos Williams
Make Light of It were sketches of character. Other volumes
of stories were James T. Farrell's occasionally sharp group
on An American Dream Girl, Charles Jackson's The Sunnier
Side and Jesse Stuart's Kentucky stories, Clearing in the Sky.

Belles Lcttres. Perhaps the most original contribution of
the year was Henry Nash Smith's Virgin IMHC!, a study of the
West as myth and symbol in American history and literature.
Henry Steele Commager in The American Mind (1880-1950)
contributed on the whole the best survey of American thought
since the classic work of Parrington. Lionel Trilling, in
The Liberal imagination, collected his influential essays on
literature and society.

Of the studies of classical figures, several were about Herman
Melville. Most important was Newton Arvin's addition to
the American Men of Letters Series, Herman Melville, the best
critical survey of his work. Another was M. O. Perceval's
A Reading of Moby Dick. Another title in the distinguished
new American Men of Letters was John Bcrryman's Stephen
Crane. Two books on Mark Twain appeared: Kenneth R.
Andrews' Nook Farm: Mark Twain" s Hartford Circle and
Gladys C. Bellamy's Mark Twain as a Literary Artist. Other
biographies were Lloyd Morris' William James and Louise
Hall Tharp's highly readable The Peabody Sisters of Salem.

Some of the critical works on contemporary Writers were
William Carlos Williams by Vivienne Koch, The Shaping
Spirit: A Sntdy of Wallace Stevens by William Van O'Connor
and The An ofT. S. Eliot by Helen Gardner. Edgar Kemler's
sympathetic biography, The Irreverent Mr. Mencken, reviewed
the era as well as me subject.

A volume of great historical value and of interest in view
of the controversy about the 1949 Bollingen prize was The
Letters of Ezra Pound 1907-1941, edited by D. D. Paige.
Kenneth Burke, the most philosophical of the new critics,
wrote A Rhetoric of Motives; and Edmund Wilson collected
in Classics and Commercials his often brilliant critical essays.

Poetry. The year 1950 saw the deaths of several disting-
uished literary figures: F. O. Mathiessen; John Gould
Fletcher; William Rose Benet; Carl Van Doren; Edna St.
Vincent Millay; and Edgar Lee Masters (for the last two
see OBITUARIES).

Mathiessen's new edition of the Oxford Book of American
Verse appeared, in general an excellent selection. Carl
Sandburg, with the publication of Complete Poems, announced
the end of his career as a poet. Conrad Aiken revised his
44 symphonic poems " and published them in The Divine
Pilgrim. William Carlos Williams gathered together The
Collected Later Poems. Wallace Stevens wrote The Auroras
of Autumn and received the Bollingen Award. E. E. Cummings
wrote XA1PE, 71 new poems, and also won the Academy
of American Poets' fellowship. (See also LITERARY PRIZES.)

(H. M. H.)

ANAEMIA. The treatment of special anaemias due to
changes in red blood cells received much attention during

ANAESTHESIOLOGY ANDORRA

1950 and the effectiveness of vitamin B 12 was the subject of
many reports. One microgram a day of vitamin B 12 to patients
with pernicious anaemia was confirmed as valuable. Vitamin
B 12b was also useful. These substances were of especial
value in patients sensitive to liver extract, and in those with
neurological involvement. The medication was most effective
when given by injection, but oral administration could be
enhanced by potentiators such as stomach or duodenal
mucosa, folic acid or gastric juice from normal people. The
blood-producing effect of gastric juice concentrate or beef
muscle extract was found to be proportional to their vitamin
B 12 content. Folic acid and vitamin B 12 were found to be
synthesized in relatively large amounts in the large intestine,
even in patients with pernicious anaemia. The vitamin was
not effective in the treatment of large cell anaemia of
pregnancy in ordinary doses although folic acid or large
doses of vitamin B 12 caused an adequate improvement.
There appeared to be a relation between folic acid, folinic
acid and the Lcuconostoc citrovorum factor, and the possibility
was suggested that folic acid, liver extract and vitamin B 12
were essential to the formation of nucleic acid and nucleo-
protein through a chemical chain reaction.

Monkeys deficient in folic acid failed to become anaemic
when they were supplied with sufficient quantities of ascorbic
acid, but folic acid deficiency anaemia responded only to folic
acid. This substance while producing an improvement in the
blood in pernicious anaemia did not check or prevent the
neurological symptoms. Vitamin B 12 , however, was effective
in reversing these complications. Folic acM was not harmful
to the central nervous system when used in the treatment of
other types of anaemia.

Patients with pernicious anaemia had a special predis-
position to cancer of the stomach, the rate being three times
that expected of a corresponding age group and more than
six times as frequent as in a group showing achlorhydria or
hypochlorhydria.

A heat-labile haemolytic factor, resembling serum coagula-
tion accelerator, was present in the plasma of patients with
paroxysmal nocturnal haemoglobinuria as an inert precursor
which could be activated by thrombin. The haemolysis was
inhibited by dicumarol.

The relationship of sensitization of Rh-negative women
received much attention. Besides tfye development of
erythroblastotic infants who were Rh-positive in mothers
sensitized from the infant, examples of the development of
antibodies were described after blood transfusion and
subcutaneous hacmotherapy. The occurrence of erythroblas-
tosis in one of a set of twins was reported.

Erythroblastosis foctalis was treated by replacement trans-
fusions, counter-sensitization with bacterial vaccines and with
hapten (extract of Rh-positive red blood cells). While results
were sometimes encouraging in individual patients, the
effects were, as a whole, poor. Erythroblastosis was pre-
vented in some patients by the treatment of the mother with
vitamin K. and a nhydro-hydroxy -progesterone. Good results
were noted in one series of cases after the transfusion of 50 to
60 c.c. of scdimented red blood cells. The results of treatment
with exchange transfusions varied; some workers reported
cures whereas others had a high death rate.

The concentration of anti-A and anti-B substances in the
blood of group O (universal) donors was reduced to safe
levels for use in treating anaemia by the addition of substances
isolated from animal stomach linings. Otherwise severe
haemolytic anaemia developed in some patients. Some
reactions were prevented by the use of washed red blood
cells instead of whole blood. At high altitude during an
aeroplane trip sudden enlargement of the spleen, with heart
complications, was noted in a patient with sicklaemia.
Anaemia was noted in 14 % of the people in middle Tennessee.

BIBLIOORAHPY. C. C. Unglcy, ** Use of Vitamin B lf Therapy in
Pernicious Anaemia,'* Brit. Med. /., 2, 1370, Dec. 17, 1949; W. H.
Crosby and W. Dameshek, " Paroxysmal Nocturnal Hemoglobinuria.
The Mechanism of Hemolysis and Its Relation to the Coagulation
Mechanism," Blood, J. of Hematology, 5, 822 (Sept. 1950); E. B. Brown,
C. V. Moore, C. Reynafarje and D, E. Smith, " Intravenously Admini-
strated Saccharated Iron Oxide in the Treatment of Hypochromic
Anaemia. Therapeutic Results, Potential Dangers and Indications/'
/. Am. Med. A., 144, 1084, Nov. 25, 1950; B. H. Sullivan, " Danger
of Airplane Flight to Persons with Sicklemia," Ann. Int. Med., 32, 338,
Feb. 1950. (R. I S .)

ANAESTHESIOLOGY. During 1950 it became
apparent that certain specially prepared synthetic salts, such
as methyl iodide and methyl chloride of curare, had no
apparent advantages over the standard </-tubocurarine that
had become almost a standard agent in a solution of 3 mg.
per c.c. Curare possessed an advantage over decamethonium
bromide, or C-10, with the trade name of Syncurine, in that
an antidote for curare was available, whereas there was
none for Syncurine. Previously, prostigmine had been fairly
effective as an antidote for curare, but by the middle of 1950
an agent, an analogue of prostigmine (HofTmann-LaRoche,
Inc.) was found to be very effective in increasing the volume
of respiration when undesired depression had developed
from the use of curare. In the field of shock therapy dextran,
gelatin and periston showed themselves to be valuable.

The so-called pain clinics in the U.S increased in number;
each clinic showed an increase during the year in the number
of patients treated. Refinement in technique was achieved,
so that the use of roentgenograms which showed that the
needles had been properly placed had become almost essential
in most instances of nerve block. Measurements of skin
temperature and skin resistance to electric current proved to
be very informative as to the effectiveness of blocks that were
done and of subsequent operations in which nerves had been
sectioned.

Albert Faulconer, Jr., invented a device which enabled
the intermittent intravenous administration of solution of
pentothal sodium solution to be automatically controlled
by measuring the minute volume of respiration. The meter
of the device became useful in the measurement of respiratory
depression caused by curare and the effect of the various
antidotes used to abate such depression. It was found to be
useful in the post-anaesthesia observation room in helping
to estimate the patient's condition as anaesthesia became
light or disappeared. (See also SURGERY; ELECTRONICS.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Curt P. Richter," Instructions for Using the Cutaneous
Resistance Recorder, or * Dermomcter ' on Peripheral Nerve Injuries,
Sympathectomies and Paravertebral Blocks," J. Neurosurg., 3, 181-191,
Springfield, Illinois, May 1946; Raymond F. Courtin, Reginald
G. Bickford and Albert Faulconer, Jr., " Electro-encephalography
During Surgical Anesthesia A New Aid for the Control of
Anesthesia," J.A.M.A., 139, 1195, Chicago, April 23, 1949; Reginald
G. Bickford, Albert Faulconer, Jr., Donald E. Soltero and Charles
W, Mayo, ** Automatic Encephalographic Control of Anesthesia," ibid,
143, 285, Chicago, May 20, 1950; John S. Lundy, Howard K. Gray and
Winchell McK. Craig, " Dextran in Supportive Therapy, with Comments
on Periston and Gelatin," Arch. Surg., 61, 55-61, Chicago, July 1950.

(J. S. L.)

ANDORRA. A' small autonomous principality between
France and Spain, bounded on the N. by the dtpartements
of Ari&ge and Pyrenees Orientates, and on the S. by the
Spanish province of Lerida. Area: 191 sq. mi. Pop. (1950
est.): 5,400. Language: Catalan. Religion: Roman Catholic.
Capital: Andorra-la- Vieja (pop., 1950 est, 980). Co-princes:
the president of the French republic and the bishop of Urgel,
Spam, respectively represented in 1950 by Andr6 Bertrand
and Jaime Sansa Nequi, their viguiers. An elected General
Council of 24 members appoints one of its members as the
syndic gtniral des valltes (from 1946, Franciscp Cayrat).

The event of the year was the reduction from 100 to 60

ANGLICAN COMMUNION

of the French gardes mobiles which were stationed from
autumn 1944 on Andorran territory for the purpose of
maintaining order.

On Feb. 2 the Paris Tribunal des Conflits declared null
and void the order of a Paris court given on March 8, 1949,
to the Radiodiffusion Francaise to cease jamming the broad-
casts of Radio Andorra. However, the Andorran broadcasts
were not jammed during the year.

ANGLICAN COMMUNION. The Church of South
India was the leading topic of discussion and negotiation
within the Anglican communion in 1950. In January the
Church of India, Burma and Ceylon urged that the doctrinal
position of the Church of South India should be clarified in
accordance with the resolutions of the Lambeth conference
(1948). In the meantime former Anglican clergy now belong-
ing to the Church of South India might function only in
Anglican churches when visiting North India. Lay people
from South India were to receive communion in North
India, with the permission of the bishop, only if their con-
firmation had been adequate; other communicants of the
Church of South India might receive communion on the
principle of " economy."

The report of the joint committee of the convocations of
Canterbury and York on relations with the Church of South
India was issued. Though fully satisfied with the credal
orthodoxy of the Church of South India and with its
sacraments, confirmation service and synodal procedure,
it expressed the hope that all its ministers would have
been episcopally ordained at the end of 30 years: till
this had been accomplished full inter-communion could
not take place, but the question of the recognition of
the South Indian ministry was to be reconsidered in live
years' time. Suggestions were made for the reception
of bishops, clergy and laity of the Church of South India
when in England and of members of the Church of England
when in South India. Celebration of the Holy Communion
by bishops of the Church of South India, when in England,
was left to the discretion of the diocesan bishops.

The Church of South India published an interim reply to
the six questions raised by the Lambeth conference (1948)
and a reply to questions on faith and order raised by the
joint committee of the convocations of Canterbury and York.
The Church of India, Burma and Ceylon agreed to appoint
a bishop as commissary of the metropolitan for the Anglicans
in Nandyal who were standing out of the Church of South
India.

The endowment funds of the bishoprics of Tinnevelly and
Dornakal, supplied by the S.P.C.K. and S.P.G., were returned
to those societies, under the judgment of Mr. Justice Vaisey
(Dec. 1949); and a scheme was arranged whereby similar
funds, supplied by the Colonial Bishoprics fund, were made
available for bishoprics in North India. Bishop Aurobindo
Nath Mukerji of Delhi was elected metropolitan of India
and bishop of Calcutta in succession to the Right Rev. G. C.
Hubback who had retired. Canon John Richardson was
consecrated first bishop of the Nicobar Islands.

The South African Church continued its opposition to
the colour bar in South Africa, not only in church circles
but as a principle to be observed generally by the British
community in South Africa. Bishop Stephen Neill conducted
a three months' tour of the churches in Africa. A
conference of East African bishops proposed a new
province for Central Africa consisting of the dioceses of
Nyasaland, Northern Rhodesia and Southern Rhodesia.
The Rev. J. A. A. Maund, rector of Pretoria, was consecrated
bishop of the new see of Basutoland.

Early in the year the bishop of Chichester, the Right Rev.
G. K. A. Bell, toured Australia, New Zealand and India on

Dr. Geoffrey Fisher \ Archbishop of Canterbury, seen in Bixhopscourt,

Ballarat, Victoria, during his visit to Australia in 1950.
behalf of the World Council of Churches. A church at
Matakohe, North Auckland, built by the New Zealand
government, was dedicated in memory of J. G. Coates
(prime minister, 1925-28). The archbishop of Canterbury
(q.v.) (Dr. Geoffrey Fisher) at the end of the year toured
Australia, Tasmania and New Zealand. Two centenaries
were celebrated during this visit: that of the Australian Board
of, Missions and that of the foundation of the Anglican
Church at Canterbury, New Zealand. The diocese of Carpen-
taria, Australia, celebrated its 50th anniversary. The erection
of a new cathedral at Suva, Fiji, was begun. Bishop Yashira
of Kobe toured the Anglican churches in the United States,
Canada, Manila, the Philippines and Australia and testified
to the cordial welcome given to him by people who had
suffered at the hands of the Japanese in World War II.

The bishop of Fulham, the Right Rev. G. E. Ingle, began
a series of tours of the Anglican churches in northern and
central Europe. In July he was in Moscow. He held a
conference of European chaplains at Amsterdam attended
by the bishop of London, the Right Rev. J. W. C. Wand.
The archbishop of Wales, the Most Rev. John Morgan,
was requested by the governing body of the Church in Wales
to set up a commission for the reform of the Welsh
prayer book. It was decided to use a sum of 30,000,
bequeathed in order that a tower might be added to the
cathedral at Bangor, for other purposes connected with the
cathedral. The synod of the Church of Ireland inaugurated
negotiations for inter-communion with the Old Catholic
Church of the Netherlands. (See also CHURCH OF ENGLAND;
MISSIONS, FOREIGN RELIGIOUS; THEOLOGY; WORLD COUNCIL
OF CHURCHES,) (A. J. MAC.)

ANGLING ANTARCTICA

ANGLING. Rough weather during much of the year
handicapped sea anglers, tunny catches being especially
affected; but although the total was well below that of 1949
one angler opened the season remarkably well by getting
five tunny in two trips, averaging over 600 Ib. apiece. In
August a record brill of 16 Ib. was caught at St. Johns,
Isle of Man. Among the coast-town festivals Looe was
again prominent, notable captures there including skate of
103 Ib., bass of 13 Ib. and pollack of 14 Ib., besides a number
of blue sharks (of which two anglers took 1 1 in one day).
The Dover club's annual camping week on the breakwater,
with all-night fishing, produced a total of 754 fish weighing
579 Ib., including several good bass. At Bournemouth two
trigger-fish were caught rare visitors to British waters.

Two new fresh-water records during the year were a
grayling of 7 Ib. 2 oz. (R. Melgum) and a tench of 8 Ib.
caught in the Leicester canal. The annual all-England con-
test, fished at Peterborough in September, produced good
weights, the local association winning with 62^ Ib.

A proposal to introduce a large Indian species to British
rivers was turned down in view of the risk to indigenous
species.

The Angler's Co-operative association, formed to combat
pollution of rivers, added several more to its list of successful
actions during the year. (D. F. KY.)

ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN. Territory in north-
east Africa under the joint sovereignty of Great Brite ; n and
Egypt. Area: 967,500 sq.mi. Pop. (no census ever taken,
1948 est.): 7,547,500. Language: English, Arabic, and various
Nilotic and Negro tribal dialects in the south. Religion:
Arabic minority is Moslem; the bulk of the Negro population
is heathen; only c. 20% of population in the south is Christian.
Chief towns (1948 est.): Khartoum (cap., 71,400); Omdurman
(125,300); El Obeid (70,100); Wad Medani (57,300); Port
Sudan (47,000). Governor general, Sir Robert George Howe;
leader of the Legislative Assembly, Miralai Abdullah Bey
Khalil.

History. The differences between Great Britain and Egypt
about the future of the Sudan remained unsolved and were
the subject of renewed political excitement in Egypt towards
the end of the year. This dispute continued to have its effect
upon the internal political life of the country, yet it could be
said that the year was one of progress towards the govern-
ment's declared object the Sudanization and independence
of the Sudan. In his report on local government, which had
been called for in 1949, A. H. Marshall made proposals for
drastic changes in policy, involving the creation of single
local authorities for all purposes, financially independent
and answerable to the local electors. The executive council
accepted the proposals in principle and laid them before the
Sudan Legislative Assembly, which thereon approved what
amounted to the replacement of the Egyptian (and originally
French) system by an English one.

The ministers of health and agriculture announced five-year
plans, but ihe most notable developments were in the field
of education. The minister, Abdurrahman Ali Taha, stated
that his department planned to extend elementary education
to cover two-fifths of the children of school age in the northern
Sudan within a decade. This would involve the opening of
new centres for the training of teachers and the increasing of
the number of boys' elementary schools in the area from 156
to 356 and of girls' schools from 101 to 211. The third
government secondary school, opened at El Obeid in January
with accommodation for 480 boarders, was under the charge
of the first Sudanese headmaster in history. Less happily,
there were signs of the spread to the Sudan of student strikes,
familiar in Egypt and elsewhere, although these were on a
much smaller scale than in the preceding autumn.

A potentially serious source of Sudanese disunity was the
difference between the Moslem, Arabic-speaking and advanced
north and the more backward and still largely pagan Negro
south. The considerable activities of Christian European
missionaries in the south led to assertions that Islam and
Arabic were being handicapped. The minister of education
announced that 18 northern officials were to be sent to
further the spread of Arabic in the south, while southern
requests for English programmes from the Omdurman radio
station were not acceded to.

National feeling showed itself in debates on the Sudan
defence force, although it was made clear that Sudanization
had progressed so far that there were in 1950 only 40 British
officers, as against 69 in 1939. On June 30 the Sudan Planta-
tions syndicate was wound up, and the Gezira scheme came
under nationalized control. This was the occasion of what
must be regarded as the most striking feature of the events
of the year because, when a British member of the executive
council was appointed to its management, he was replaced
by a Sudanese, thereby giving rise to a Sudanese majority
(7 Sudanese as against 5 British members) on that body.
The Legislative Assembly debated the future of Gezira and
important reforms in land registration were undertaken. In
December considerable excitement was caused by a debate
on a motion in the Legislative Assembly in favour of the
immediate independence of the country, which was defeated
by one vote. (H. S. D.)

Education. (1949) Northern System. Government schools .-elementary
249, pupils 35,613; sub-grade and Koran 544, pupils 38,550; inter-
mediate 17, pupils 2,568; secondary 5, pupils 1,045; technical 2, pupils
312; teachers* training colleges 5, teachers trained annually 245.
Non-government schools 60, pupils 14,791. University education at
Gordon Memorial college, higher education at Kitchener School of
Medicine. Southern System. Schools: elementary 3, pupils 291 ; inter-
mediate 1, pupils 150; secondary 2; pupils at mission schools 20,669.

Agriculture. Main crops ('000 metric tons, 1948; 1949 in brackets):
cotton seed 106 (110); cotton, ginned 56 (55); sesame seed (1947)
141 -2; gum arabic (1947) 37; groundnuts (1947) 20; dates (1947) 46.
Livestock ('000 head, Jan. 1948): cattle 3,500; sheep 5,500; camels 1,500.

Foreign Trade. (E million, 1949; 1950, six months, in brackets)
import 23-9 (13-9); export 27-4 (17-2). Main sources of imports
(1949): U.K. 32%; Egypt 16%. Main destination of exports: U.K.
65%; Egypt 10%. Main imports: cotton piece-goods 18%; sugar,
coffee, tea 14%; coal, oil fuel and petrol 0-5%. Main exports: raw
cotton 69%; livestock 10%; gum 0-6%.

Transport and Communications. Railways (1949): 2,013 mi. Licensed
motor vehicles (Dec. 1949): cars 2,600; commercial 3,300. Telephone
subscribers (1949): 3,520. Wireless licences (1949): 3,227.

Finance and Banking. (E million) budget (1949 actual) revenue
18*7, expenditure 11 -6; (18 months 1950-51 est.) revenue 28 -7, expendi-
ture 21 1. Total external debt (Dec. 1948) 12-8, of which 5-4 to Egypt
for development. Monetary unit: Egyptian pound with an exchange
rate of E 975 to the pound sterling and E - 348 to the U.S. dollar.

ANGOLA : see PORTUGUESE COLONIAL EMPIRE.
ANNAM : see INDO-CHINA.

ANTARCTICA. The considerable activities of various
countries in the Antarctic regions during recent years were
maintained in 1950.

Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey. The Falkland
Islands Dependencies survey in its seventh consecutive year
established a new base at Rytviken, South Georgia, and
maintained its other bases with the exception of that on
Stonington Island, Marguerite bay. In 1949 relief of the
Stonington Island base proved impossible owing to the
failure of the sea ice to break up. Dr. V. E. Fuchs with 10
companions had therefore to remain in the south for an
additional year. The final sledge journey of 1,080 mi. lasted
90 days, the party returning to base shortly before recon-
naissance flying began from the northern bases. With the
first appearance of open water those men who had spent
three consecutive winters in the south were flown out in a

ANTARCTICA

Norseman seaplane. On Feb. 12 the survey's ship " John
Biscoe " brought out the rest of the party together with their
dogs, specimens, records and much equipment. The base
remained closed for the time being. The new base at Rytviken
would carry out a survey and study of the biology of the
elephant seal population of South Georgia during 1951.
This would be co-ordinated with the work already done in
the South Orkneys.

The International Norwegian-British-Swedish Expedition.
This expedition met with considerable difficulty in effecting a
landing on the Queen Maud Land coast, guarded as it is by a
barrier of lOO-ft.-high ice cliffs. The expedition was accom-
panied by two Auster float planes, operated by an R.A.F.
party under Squadron Leader B. Walford. Reconnaissance
by these planes finally located a single break in the barrier
cliffs allowing access to the hinterland in the vicinity of
Cape Norvegia (Lat. 7103'S.; Long. 1054'W.). There the
expedition leader, Capt. J. Giaever, established his base well
back from the ice cliffs, using " weasels " (light, tracked carriers)
and trailers to transport huts, stores and equipment. The
base which lay more than 100 mi. from the nearest rock
outcrop had been named " Maudheim." At the end of the
winter a sledge party using both dogs and " weasels " recon-
noitred a route for nearly 200 mi. to the south. During the
summer it was hoped to use this route for exploration of
the ice-free mountain area first seen and photographed from
the air by the German 4 * Schwabenland " expedition of 1938.
The R.A.F. party and the aircraft returned to England on
board the expedition's 700-ton vessel " Norsel." In Nov.
1950 the ship again left Norway for the south carrying stores
and equipment for the expedition which would remain in
the field for another year.

French Adtlie Land Expedition. Under the command of
Andre Liotard, this expedition failed to penetrate the ice

in 1949, but in 1950 succeeded in reaching the mainland on
Jan. 18. A base was established on a low rocky point along
the coast. This was the first French expedition to Ad61ie
Land since Dumont d'Urville discovered that coast in 1840.
The first party to land there was Douglas Mawson's
Australian expedition in 1913. The present expedition's
ship, ** Commandant Charcot," named after the great
French explorer, departed on Feb. 3, after putting down two
years' supplies. The main subjects of study were geography,
geology, hydrography and meteorology. The expedition
was equipped with a four-seater Stinson aircraft and two
" weasels," with over 30 sledge dogs in addition. Ad&ie
Land lies between 136 and 142E. longitude and extends
from the Antarctic circle to the pole.

Other Work in the Antarctic. The work of the Australian
National Antarctic Research expedition on Heard and
Macquarie Islands, having been in progress for three years,
continued under the command of its leader, Phillip C. Law.
In 1950 equipment was landed at Macquarie Island for
cosmic ray work and for maintaining ionospheric, geo-
magnetic and scismographic records. The Argentine and
Chilean governments maintained the bases which they set
up within the Falkland Islands Dependencies sector. It was
reported that on Oct. 15 the Argentine supply ship, " Ernesto
Tornquist," ran aground on Cape Constance, South Georgia.
Some 250 persons on board were taken off by whale catchers
from Grytviken.

During the last season the pelagic whaling fleet and shore-
based whalers of various nationalities continued operations
with satisfactory results under the conditions laid down by
the Washington convention of 1946. It was expected that the
U.S.S.R. would again despatch a whale factory ship and
catchers to the Antarctic in 1950. (See also EXPLORATION
AND DISCOVERY.) (V. E. F.)

!^'?cl|pl

The Norwegian-British-Swedish antarctic expedition in Queen Maud
Land, 1950. The winter quarters (7), the steamer ** Norsel" at anchor
in Norse I bay (2) and members of the Royal Air Force unit with
one of the Auster aircraft which had been specially fitted with skis
to enable it to land on snow.

ANTHROPOLOGY

ANTHROPOLOGY. The third session of the Inter-
national Congress of Prehistoric and Protohistoric Sciences
met at ZUrich in August; its work was divided among six
sections and 96 papers were read. An invitation to hold the
fourth session in Spain in 1954 was accepted. The seventh
International Congress for the History of Religions met in
Amsterdam in September; the theme of the congress had been
announced as the discussion of a myth and ritual pattern in
civilization and in primitive society, but many other topics
were included. Relations of the Congress with the United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural organization
(U.N.E.S.C.O.) came under review and it was decided to
establish an international organization to promote the study
of the history of religion under the auspices of the Conscil
International de la Philosophic et des Sciences Humaines (of
U.N.E.S.C.O.). It was hoped that the eighth congress would
meet in Rome in 1955 (see Man, 1950, London).

The International Anatomical congress met at Oxford in
July under the presidency of Professor W. E. Le Gros Clark,
and was attended by over 500 members from 56 countries.
Three sessions were devoted to physical anthropology and
about 20 communications presented. Several papers were
concerned with the fossil remains excavated in Africa;
Professor S. Zuckerman (Birmingham) claimed that Australo-
pithecinae could not be classified as more hominid than ape
while Professor Le Gros Clark differed. L. S. B. Leakey
(Nairobi), on whom Oxford university conferred the Degree
of doctor of science honoris causa, described the environ-
mental background associated with his finds of Early Miocene
fossil primates. Later, in collaboration with Professor Le
Gros Clark, he delivered an address to the Royal Anthro-
pological institute on the Miocene apes of Kenya. Racial
differentiation in modern man, climatic adaptation and human
phylogeny, blood grouping and many other special studies
were discussed (see report in Man, 1950, 237).

Research into the antiquity of man was continued during
the year, and a notable discovery of two large skulls, excavated
by R. Broom in the Transvaal, was reported; a full description
was expected. Professor D. A. E, Garrod (Cambridge)
addressed the Royal Anthropological institute on the excava-
tion of an early Magdalenian rock shelter at a Angles-sur-
TAnglin, Vienne, France, and showed a representation of
the life-size naturalistic portrait of an Qld Stone Age man
discovered there (" Angles Man ").

An important event in east Africa was the establishment
at Makerere college, Uganda, of the East African Institute
of Social Research with Audrey I. Richards, distinguished as
an anthropologist, as the first director. The functions of the
institute were announced as the establishment of a centre for
the extension of knowledge of the cultures and languages of
the peoples of east Africa and their reactions to modern
conditions and policies; the conduct of field studies; co-
operation with similar institutions; the organization of studies
of administrative importance for government; the training
of research workers; and the accumulation and publication
of data.

An Institute of the Desert (Institut Fouad ler du Desert)
was established in Egypt at Heliopolis with a comprehensive
programme providing for the study of all aspects, past and
present, of the desert; a library and museum and field and
experimental work in all sections were planned.

A Norwegian traveller, Thor Heyerdahl, published a
popular account, The Kon-Tiki Expedition by Raft across the
Pacific (London, 1950), of his adventure in sailing a steerable
raft of green balsa logs for 4,300 mi. from Peru to Tuamotu
along the south equatorial current; he claimed that this was a
line of migration to Polynesia about A.D. 500 and 1 100. The
argument was, received with interest and the further publica-
tion of scientific data was awaited.

Race was the subject of a statement by U.N.E.S.C.O.
summarizing the findings of a panel of scientists (see The
Times, July 16, 1950). The panel was asked to define the
concept of race and to summarize established scientific facts:
the seven-point statement issued laid down that racial
discrimination had no foundation in biological fact; that the
range of mental capacities in all races was about the same,
there being no evidence of innate qualitative differences;
that there was no evidence that race hybridization produced
biologically bad results, social difficulties being attributable
to social and cultural factors; that race was less a biological
fact than a social myth; that scientifically no modern national
or religious group was a race, nor was a linguistic, geographic
or cultural community a race; that tests had shown an essen-
tial similarity in mental characters among racial groups; and,
lastly, that all human beings possessed educability and adapta-
bility.

The British Association of the Advancement of Science
held its annual meeting at Birmingham. Redcliffe N. Salaman,
(president, section H, anthropology and archaeology) spoke
on the influence of food plants on social structure; he used
the potato as his example but called for investigation into
the influence of other food plants. The concept of culture
was discussed from several angles by Phyllis Kaberry (Lon-
don), Glyn Daniel (Cambridge) and Professor M. Fortes
(Cambridge). Advances were also reported in the knowledge
of blood groups and their uses in anthropology; further
reports were also made on the dating of fossil remains by
fluorine tests. R. E. M. Wheeler reported the discovery of a
platform for unloading grain at Mohenjodaro; silting along-
side had reduced its value, and decline culminated in a
massacre about 1500 B.C., the period usually assigned to the
Vedic-Aryan invasions of India. In Southern Rhodesia a new
site was found with resemblances to Zimbabwe, which, it was
hoped, would throw light on the history of mediaeval south
Africa. At Heliopolis a cemetery was opened up: four watch
dogs buried at the edge were uncovered, then graves with
offerings of small gazelles, then a row of burials of men about
1 8 m. in height, probably immigrants, and lastly, a row of
burials of small women, apparently indigenous; the cemetery
was thought to be later than that excavated at Maadi, but
both were considered earlier than the great cemetery of the
1st and 2nd dynasty at Helwan.

A scientific expedition from Oxford visited southern
Tunisia during the summer; among its members was Julek
Slaski, a social anthropologist, who studied Berber marriage
customs and also the troglodyte settlements at Matmata.

Professor J. H. Mutton was succeeded as William Wyse
professor of social anthropology at Cambridge university by
M. Fortes; S. F. Nadel left King's college Newcastle-upon-
Tyne (Durham university) to become professor at the Aust-
ralian National university at Canberra and R. O'R. Piddington
left Edinburgh to become professor at Auckland University
college, New Zealand; R. von Heine-Geldern returned to
Austria on appointment to a chair in the University of
Vienna.

The annual Huxley Memorial lecture of the Royal Anthro-
pological institute was delivered by Julian Huxley on " New
Wine for New Bottles: Ideology and Scientific Knowledge ";
the bi-annual Henry Myers lecture of the same institute was
delivered by Professor E. O. James, on " Religion and
Reality," and Professor E. E. Evans-Pritchard, president of
the institute, delivered the Marett lecture at Oxford on
" Social Anthropology: Past and Present." (S. F. SN.)

New anthropological journals included UHomme: Cahiers
d* ethnologic > de geographic et de linguistique, issued by the
Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes of the Sorbonne and edited
by Claude L6vi-Strauss, Emile Benveniste and Pierre Gourou;
and Homo, Zeitschrift fur die vergleichende Forschung am

ARABIA

Menschen, under the editorship of Egon von Eickstedt.
The latter journal, which was to appear quarterly, would
continue the tradition and international character of the
earlier Zeitschrift fur Rassenkunde.

United States. A survey by Erminie W. Voegelin published
in the American Anthropologist showed that during the
period 1900-50 the number of institutions offering anthro-
pology courses in the United States and Canada had grown
from 1 1 to 304, while the teaching staffs, originally numbering
17, had increased to 604. In the United States, foreign area
studies received further support from the Carnegie Corpora-
tion of New York which allotted additional funds to the
Social Science Research council for area training fellowships.
Yale, Harvard and the Universities of Iowa, North Carolina,
Oklahoma and Washington joined in an organization known
as the Human Relations Area Files, formerly the Cross-
Cultural survey, established by George P. Murdock at Yale.
An important contribution was Julian H. Steward's Area
Research: Theory and Practice. The University of California
at Los Angeles collaborated with the Commonwealth Serum
laboratory of Victoria, Australia, in inaugurating a long-
term genetical survey of the human populations of the
Pacific area.

Problems of common interest to anthropology and genetics
were discussed at a symposium on the Origin and Evolution
of Man, held at the Biological laboratory, Cold Spring
Harbor, N.Y. In Genetics and the Races of Man, William C.
Boyd presented the first comprehensive statement of the
role of genetics, and particularly the blood groups, in the
variation and racial classification of man. It was pointed
out by Chandler W. Rowe (" Genetics v. Physical Anthropology
in Determining Racial Types," Southwestern Journal of
Anthropology) that the genetical classification, no less than
the anthropological, had its limitations and that the objectives
of the two systems were not identical. A striking example of
the importance of blood group studies for tracing population
movements and relationships was an article in the American
Journal of Physical Anthropology, " The ABO, MN, and Rh
Blood Groups of the Basque People/' by J. N. Marshall
Chambers, Elizabeth W. Ikin and A. E. Mourant. A
comparison of the blood group gene frequencies of the Basques
with those of other Europeans led the authors to the conclusion
that the present population of western and central Europe
arose from the mixing of people akin to the Basques with later
invaders from Asia. In Races; a Study of the Problems of
Race Formation in Man, Carleton S. Coon, Stanley M. Garn
and Joseph B. Birdsell emphasized the importance of
environmental conditions in the development of phenotypic
features characteristic of the various races.

The year 1950 brought new proof of the effectiveness of
two recently discovered techniques for dating ancient skeletal
and cultural materials the fluorine and carbon- 14 methods.
The fluorine-dating method, described by Kenneth P. Oakley
and C. Randall Hoskins in Nature (" New Evidence on the
Antiquity of Man "), gave a decisive answer to the long
disputed question of the age and faunal associations of
Eoanthropus. Analysis of the fluorine content in these
hominid and other mammalian fossils from the Piltdown
gravel showed that all of the Eoanthropus specimens teeth,
skull and jaw fragments were contemporaneous and that
they belonged to the Upper or Middle instead of Lower
Pleistocene, as formerly supposed. On the other hand the
fluorine test confirmed the antiquity of the Swanscombe
skull. The method of dating organic materials by means of
radioactive carbon, which was developed during the past
several years by W. F. Libby and J. R. Arnold of the Univer-
sity of Chicago Institute for Nuclear Studies, yielded fruitful
results in 1950, when the first carbon-14 dates were officially
announced. Of particular significance for American anthro-

pology was the dating of the last glaciation as about 12,000
years ago and the demonstration that man was living in
western North America at least as early as 8000 B.C. and
at the southern tip of South America some 2,000 years later.

Problems of Alaskan archaeology, physical anthropology
and ethnology were discussed by anthropologists from the
United States and Canada at the Alaskan Science conference,
held in Washington, D.C., Nov 9 to 1 1 under the auspices of
the National Academy of Sciences and the National Research
Council.

Columbia university inaugurated a programme for the
study of contemporary cultures in the middle east and far
east, beginning with a field project in India. Studies of the
Chinese and Japanese segments of the population in Hawaii
were made by Francis L. K. Hsu and Marvin K. Opler,
respectively. Henry Field completed measurements of more
than 2,000 individuals of different tribes in Iraq and Iran.
Carleton S. Coon conducted archaeological and somatological
work in Persia. Philip Drucker completed an ethnographic
survey of the Marshall Islands for the U.S. naval adminis-
tration.

A number of field investigations were conducted in the
American Arctic. L. L. Hammerick, professor of Germanic
philology at the University of Copenhagen, made linguistic
studies on Nunivak Island, Alaska. William S. Laughlin
and Frederica de Laguna continued their research programme
in the Aleutian Islands and in the Tlingit area of southeast
Alaska, respectively. Viola Garfield collected data on
northwest coast Indian art and Douglas Leechman worked
among the Athabaskan Indians in the interior. J. L. Gid-
dings, Jr., and Helge Larsen, joined by F. G. Rainey, con-
tinued their investigation of pre-Eskimo remains on Seward
peninsula and the Bering sea coast. On Cornwallis Island
in the Canadian arctic H. B. Collins and W E. Taylor found
evidence of three periods of occupation Dorset, early
Thule and late Thule.

Gordon R. Willey was appointed Bowdich professor of
Mexican and Central American archaeology and ethnology
at Harvard, and Alfred Metraux became head of the United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural organization's
division for, the study of race relations. The Viking fund
medalists for 1950 were George P. Murdock, general anthro-
pology, William K^. Gregory, physical anthropology, and
Hallam L. Mowus, archaeology.

A second edition of the International Directory of Anthro-
pologists, edited by Melville J. Herskovits, was issued by the
Committee on International Relations in Anthropology of
the National Research council. Important publications that
appeared in 1950 included volume 6 of the Bureau of Ameri-
can Ethnology's Handbook of South American Indians,
edited by Julian H. Steward; Man in the Primitive World:
An Introduction to Anthropology, by E. Adamson Hoebel;
An Introduction to Social Anthropology, by Ralph Piddington ;
Anthropology, the Science of Human Society and Culture, by
J. S. Slotkin. " (H. B. Cs.)

ARABIA. Peninsula of southwestern Asia of approx-
imately 1,027,300 sq.mi., with a total population estimated at
9,500,000. It consists politically of two independent Arab
states, Saudi Arabia and Yemen (a.v.), the independent
sultanates of Oman and Masqat or Muscat; the autonomous
sheikhdoms of Bahrein, Kuwait, Qatar and the Trucial
sheikhdoms; and Aden colony and protectorates (<y.v.).
Language: Arabic. Religion: overwhelmingly Moslem
(Sunni).

Saudi Arabia. Area: c. 597,000 sq.mi. (excluding the
Rub al Khali desert covering approximately 193,000 sq.mi.).
Pop. (no census ever taken, 1947 est.): 6,00p,000. Chief
towns: Riyadh (cap., 60,000); Mecca (150,000); Medina

ARAB LEAGUE

(45,000); Jedda (40,000); Hufuf (31,500). Ruler, King
Abdulaziz Ibn Abdurrahman Ibn Faisal Ibn Sa'ud; viceroy
of Nejd and commander in chief, Emir Sa'ud, crown prince;
viceroy of Hejaz and minister of foreign affairs, Emir Faisal.

History. During 1950 King Ibn Sa'ud celebrated the jubilee
of his rule. During his reign he had expanded his territories
from his original kingdom of Nejd so that his government
extended over nine-tenths of the whole of the Arabian
peninsula. In 1913 he captured from the Turks the province
of Hasa, where two decades later was to be found one of
the richest oilfields in the world. In 1920 he conquered the
Hail emirate on the north of Nejd. In 1924 he completed the
conquest of the Hejaz which placed him in possession of the
two holy cities of Islam Mecca and Medina. In 1925 he
captured the province of *Asir, south of the Hejaz. His
jubilee focused the interest of the world on a great personality
who had earned its respect and admiration.

In the Arab league Saudi Arabia tended, in association with
Egypt, Syria and the Lebanon, to oppose the expansionist
policy of King Abdullah of Jordan. A new development,
which showed the extent to which the " unchanging east "
was modernizing itself, was the loan of $6 million which
Saudi Arabia made to Syria in Feb. 1950 (see SYRIA). In
return for the loan of which a portion was already paid,
Syria undertook to supply Syrian goods for Saudi-Arabian
consumption. The dollars were presumed to have come from
American oil royalties.

In August Saudi Arabia contracted a $15 millio** loan from
the American Export-Import bank. An immediate payment
of $4 million was to be devoted to the construction of airports,
roads and seaports. The remainder was to be applied for the
development of agriculture and for the improvement of
health, sanitation and transport conditions.

The report published in July of the Arab- American Oil
company (Aramco), whose active concessions were \n the
Saudi Arabian province of Hasa on the Persian gulf,
announced the progress of the railway which was being
constructed westwards from the oilfields by way of Kharj
and Hufuf to Riyadh. Already 108 mi. of track had been
laid and the line was expected to be open early in 1951.

Another development from the oilfields during 1950 was
the practical completion of the desert pipeline to pump the
Aramco oil westwards across the desert thrpugh Saudi Arabia,
Jordan, Syria and the Lebanon to the Mediterranean port of
Sidon, south of Beirut. The company was negotiating
44 passage rights " with the governments concerned and it was
hoped that oil would be flowing early in 1951.

Developments elsewhere in Saudi Arabia included the
building of a new deep-water jetty and customs sheds at
Jedda, the Red sea port of Mecca, which would greatly
improve the conditions of pilgrim traffic arriving by sea from
Africa and India and the far east. A new all-weather highway
was also being constructed from Jedda to Medina. (O. Tw.)

Education. Schools (1949): primary 30, secondary 5; prc-university 1.

Agriculture. Dates form the main crop of the Arabian desert, and
camels and horses the principal livestock.

Industry. Crude oil production (*000 metric tons, 1949; 1950, six
months, in brackets): 23,460 (11,937). Raw materials: copper (metric
tons, 1948) 67; gold (troy ounces, 1949) 67,200; silver (troy ounces,
1948) 67,819.

Foreign Trade. Main imports: textiles, food products and vehicles.
Main exports: oil, gold concentrates, hides and skins.

Transport and Communications. Licensed motor vehicles (Dec. 1949) :
cars, 6,000; commercial vehicles 7,700. Radio sets (1949) 9,000.

Finance. Pilgrimage dues (1948 est., 10 million) and oil royalties
(1948 est., over 20 million) are the main sources of revenue. Monetary
unit: riyal nominally=R. 1 (Indian) with an exchange rate of 13-33
riyals to the pound.

Oman and Masqat. Area: c. 65,000 sq.mi. Pop. (1947
est.): 830,000. Ruler (from 1932), Sultan Said bin Taimur,
the 13th of rtjis dynasty. British consul, Major F. L, L.
Chauncy.

Bahrein. Area: 21 3 sq.mi. Pop. (1947 est.): 125,000.
Ruler (from 1942): Sheikh Sulman bin Hamad al Khalifah.
British political agent, C. J. Pelly.

Kuwait. Area: c. 9,000 sq.mi. Pop. (1949 est.): 120,000.
Ruler, Sheikh Abdullah bin Salim. British political agent,
H. C. Jakins. The present ruler succeeded his uncle, Sheikh
Ahmad al Jabir as Subah who died on Jan. 29, 1950.

Qatar. Area: c. 4,000 sq.mi. Pop. (1947 est.): 25,000.
Ruler (from 1949): Sheikh Ali bin Abdullah al Thani. In
March the new oilfield was formally inaugurated at the new
oil port of Umm Said by the ruling sheikh who, by the turn
of a tap, started the flow of oil to a waiting tanker.

Trucial Sheikhdoms. Area: c. 16,000 sq.mi. (including
the sheikhdoms of Shargah, Ras al Khaimah, Umm al
Qawain, Ajman, Debai, Abu Dhabi and Kalba). Pop.
(1947 est.): 115,000.

See Gerald de Gaury, Arabian Journey and Other Desert Travels
(London, 1950).

ARAB LEAGUE. The League of Arab States came
into being on March 22, 1945, when its covenant was signed
in Cairo by the representatives of Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon,
Saudi Arabia, Syria, Transjordan and Yemen. The council
of the league, on which each member has one vote, has its
seat in Cairo. The main object of the League was stated to
be to co-ordinate the political action and safeguard the
independence and sovereignty of the Arab states. Secretary
general, Abdurrahman Azzam Pasha.

During 1950 no progress was made towards the conclusion
of peace treaties between the member states of the league
and Israel; and on July 10 the Palestine Conciliation commis-
sion issued a communiqu6 in Geneva that its mediation
efforts over the past six months had failed and that it was
transferring its activities to Palestine to resume contact with
the interested governments.

But though they could not agree on peace terms with
Israel, the members of Arab league in April did agree unani-
mously among themselves against the making of a separate
peace with Israel by member states, and for the banning
of supplies for ships going to Israel; for the blacklisting of
ships suspected of working for Israel; and for the refusing of
visas to those with Israeli visas on their passports.

Prince Faisal of Saudi Arabia (left} with Nahas Pasha* prime
minister of Egypt, at a meeting of the Arab League in 1950.

ARCHAEOLOGY

THE MIDDLE EAST

E G

S U

The members of the Arab League are shown dotted.

A week before, however, on April 16, Jordan had opposed
the general approval, subject to reservations, by the political
committee of the league of the United Nations' plan for
Jerusalem; and on April 13 the Jordan delegate reaffirmed at a
full meeting of the league that his government's policy was
to annex Arab Palestine subject to the approval of the Jordan
parliament for which elections, which covered both the former
Transjordan and Arab Palestine, had been held on April 11.
On April 24 the newly convened Jordan parliament approved
King Abdullah's speech from the throne announcing the
annexation of Arab Palestine. The league promptly called an
extraordinary session (May 10-15) to discuss Jordan's action;
but Egypt failed to carry its motion for the expulsion of Jordan
who refused to modify its action or to accept a compromise.
Egypt was supported by Syria, Saudi Arabia and the Lebanon;
the Yemen and Iraq requested postponement to consult
their governments.

The council of the Arab league reassembled on June 12,
but Jordan absented itself on the grounds that its attitude
was irrevocable; whereupon Egypt, the Lebanon, Syria and
Saudi Arabia revived their motion for Jordan's expulsion
from the league. The outcome was a new resolution
approved by all the states (except Jordan) that Jordan should
treat the area of Arab Palestine as " trust property " until
Palestine was " finally liberated." The meeting also considered
the Arab states' collective security pact. It was eventually
signed by Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Syria, the Lebanon and the
Yemen. Of the remaining member states, Jordan was absent
and Iraq abstained for " technical reasons."

During the rest of the year this divergence of domestic
policy persisted among the member states, although in their
general policy there was unanimity in a reply to a declaration
by the U.S., France and Great Britain about the middle east,
affirming: first, that the league desired peace; secondly, that
it refused to tolerate any act that attacked the sovereignty
and independence of its members; lastly, that the members'
rearmament programmes were for legitimate local defence and
not, as alleged by Israel, for aggression.

In its session on Nov. 3 the general assembly of the United
Nations unanimously adopted a resolution to invite the Arab
league to send an envoy to all the assembly's sessions. Israel

S.I.Y. -5

abstained from voting. All the member states of the Arab
league, except the Yemen, sent delegates to the second meeting
of the Pan-Islamic Economic conference which was held in
Tehran in November. (See ISLAM.) (O. Tw.)

ARCHAEOLOGY. The year 1950 was one of steady
progress rather than of spectacular discovery. Particular
mention, however, should be made of the discovery of a
Roman fort in London; of the excavation of the Mithraic
temple on Hadrian's wall; of the completion of work on the
Odeion in the Agora at Athens; of the re-excavation of
Nimrud in Iraq; of the first examination of the Lashkari-
Bazar palaces in Afghanistan; and of the establishment of a
state Department of Antiquities in Pakistan.

Great Britain. R. J. A. Atkinson, S. Piggott and J. F. S.
Stone examined some of the Aubrey holes at Stonehenge;
i.e., the outermost circle of holes, a number of which were
excavated in the period 1920-26, when they were taken to
be the holes of posts (since decayed or destroyed) and to
have been made during the early life of the monument,
before the standing stones were dressed and erected. The
new excavation produced no evidence that the holes had ever
contained posts or stones, though it confirmed the early date
assigned to them by the previous excavators. Burnt matter
and cremated bones were, however, found in circumstances
similar to those encountered on similar sites in recent years:
they may have served some ritual purpose.

In the Cripplegate area of London, in the northwest of
the Roman city, where variation from the standard con-
struction of the city wall was noted in 1949, a Rortian fort
was located by the Roman and Mediaeval Excavation
council, directed by W. F. Grimes. The area of the fort was
about 11 ac., its date probably late in the 1st century A.D.
The destruction of the city by Boadicea in A.D. 61 was thought
to have shown the need for some military protection when the
city came to be rebuilt: as the civil buildings gradually
spread to the neighbourhood of the fort, the fort was, it
seemed, eventually incorporated in the later city defences.
Certain peculiarities of the outline and street plan of Roman
London were thus now explained.

On Hadrian's wall I. A. Richmond completely excavated
the newly found Mithraeum outside Carrawburgh (Pro-
colitia), a wall-fort 4 mi. E. of Housesteads and 6 mi. N.W.
of Hexham, Northumberland. The temple, built just south
of the well dedicated to the local goddess Coventina (found
in the 19th century), had three periods, which corresponded
with the 2nd-, 3rd- and early 4th-century occupations of the
wall. The building, in its last phase, is one of the most
complete ever found in Britain or Europe: it consisted of a
main rectangular room with a vestibule, by which the building
was entered; at the north, or sanctuary end, were three
inscribed altars, one of which bore a painted relief of Mithras;
along the side walls were substantial remains of post-and-
wattle stall-work, in front of which were set a number of.
small uninscribed altars; statues of the two dadophori stood
near the entrance to the vestibule, which contained a recess
for ritual burial or initiation in its floor. The building was
placed under the care of the Ministry of Works.

Apart from London, the main work on Roman towns was
at Canterbury and Chichester. At Canterbury traces were
found of a large public building of massive construction:
it was thought to have been a theatre, but, if so, it was of
classical rather than of Romano-Celtic type. At Chichester
it was established that the embankment of the walls was
raised late in the 1st century A.D. and heightened in the 2nd,
and part of a house with a tesselated floor was found. Among
a large number of other places excavated may be mentioned:
Brockley hill, Middlesex (traces of industrial activity at the
site of the town of Sulloniacae); Brough-by-Bambridge,

ARCHAEOLOGY

Some of the jewels and ornaments found on April J4, 7950, in a
2 \500~year-old tomb near At rib village, north of Cairo.

Yorkshire (a fort); Great Casterton, Rutland (a town
destroyed in the Pictish war of 369); Lullingstone, Kent
(a villa); and Whittington, Gloucestershire (a villa with
tesselated pavements). The Ordnance Survey discovered and
traced a Roman road running northwards from Chichester.
In the Scilly Isles excavations by the Ministry of Works
showed the extent of Roman influence there: pottery of the
Roman period was found on St. Martin's and St. Mary's in
houses of native type similar to those in Cornwall.

Europe. Austria. H. Vetters reported on work at
Magdalensberg, 10 mi. N.W. of Klagenfurt. The town may
have been the capital of Noricum, which was absorbed into
the Roman empire in 15 B.C. Structural 'finds included a
large hall, standing about 30 ft. to the wall plate and having
traces of iron reinforcement, mosaics and wall paintings.
Beneath the remains of the city were found remains of earlier
occupations of the middle bronze age and later. An account
of the border fortifications of the Roman provinces of
Noricum and Pannonia was given by G. Pascher in Der
Romische Limes in Oesterreich, vol. xix, Vienna, 1950:
it contains a catalogue of sites and finds and a classification
of the Roman roads.

Greece. In Athens, the plan matured to restore the stoa
built by Attalus II of Pcrgamum (159-138 B.C.) as a museum
for the material excavated in the Agora. The work was to be
carried out for the Greek government (the owner of the finds)
by the American School of Classical Studies, with some
financial help under the European Recovery programme.
In 1949 traces were found in the northwest corner of the Agora
of a mid-5th-century limestone building which was identified
as the stoa poikile of Peisianax. Further work in the area
was described in Hespena (Princeton) by Homer A. Thomp-
son, who gave an account of the examination of the Odeion
mentioned by Pausanias in his account of the Agora. This
great theatre lay in a dominating position immediately north
of the middle stoa (2nd century B.C.); built towards the end
of the 1st certury, it was perhaps connected with Agrippa's
visit to Athens in 16 or 14 B.C. The original structure com-

prised a central complex of auditorium, dressing rooms and
lobby, surrounded by a balcony, which was in effect an
extension of the terrace of the middle stoa. The building
is important in the development of ancient theatre design,
not least for its combination of Greek and Roman features.
The auditorium was square and of considerable extent, a
factor which probably led to a collapse in A.D. 150. There-
after the building was re-modelled and re-roofed, with the
scena turned into a colonnade, the piers of which bore
monumental figures of giants and tritons. The building was
thenceforward devoted to rhetorical rather than to dramatic
performances until its sack by the Heruli in 267. Some
continuity of use may be associated with the use of the site
as a gymnasium during the 5th century, after which it was
abandoned and silted up.

In Samothrace it was reported that excavations by the
Institute of Fine Arts of New York university, conducted by
K. Lehmann, had secured further evidence for the date and
setting of the famous figure of the Winged Victory (now in
the Louvre), together with a fragment of Parian marble
which was thought to be part of the right hand. The fingers,
except the third, were gone; but enough remained to suggest
that the hand had held some light object; e.g., a golden fillet.
Pottery evidence suggested a date c. 200 B.C.

Italy. In a grotto on Levanza in the Egadi archipelago
P. Graziosi investigated some latterly found neolithic cave-
paintings. Further exploration revealed an inner cave, with
figures described by Graziosi as of a naturalistic, palaeolithic
style and including many representations of deer, some of
bulls and of stylized human figures and one of a horse.
G. Jacopi investigated Sybaris in Calabria, a city of Magna
Graecia: founded late in the 8th century B.C. and destroyed
by the citizens of Croton in 510, it rose again but was finally
destroyed by the Bruttii in the middle of the 4th century B.C.
Further researches in the plain of Foggia in northern
Apulia were conducted by J. P. S. Bradford, whose work was
based primarily on aerial surveys, though selected examples
were tested by excavation. Discoveries included some 200
ditched and enclosed neolithic settlements, of which those
examined on the ground yielded large quantities of pottery,
stone axes and bone implements. The survey also showed
remarkable details of the Roman system of centuriation,
with its associated farmsteads, especially in the neighbour-
hood of the colonia of Lucera. Later earthworks and their
associated field systems also were plotted, as well as what
might have been the emperor Frederick ll's hunting palace at
San Lorenzo. The further investigation of a chance wartime
discovery at Castelseprio, 20 mi. N. of Milan, was reported.
In the ancient church of Santa Maria there was found a
well-preserved cycle of wall paintings of the Infancy of
Christ of the highest quality, in treatment and subject not
unlike the work on the ivory throne of Maximian at Ravenna.
It was suggested that they might be the work of a 7th-century
refugee artist from the Levant. (G. P. Bognetti, G. Chierici
and A. dc C. d'Arzago, Santa Maria di Castelseprio, Milan).
Near and Middle East. North Africa. A British expedition
surveyed Syrtica and Cyrenaica for the Map of Roman
Libya committee. Attention was mainly directed to the
Roman road and frontier system; and the latter was found to
be strongest towards the Syrtica region, the main direction
of barbarian attack.

Cyprus. C. F. A. SchaefTer, director of the French Centre
of Scientific Research, Paris, described further work at the
Mycenaean site of Enkomi near Famagusta: in addition to
examining the lower Mycenaean levels, he was able to show
that the upper levels were to be associated with the period of
Philistine occupation. The work was expected to throw much
light on the birth and growth of the iron age in the eastern
Mediterranean.

ARCHAEOLOGY

Turkey. Tahsin Ozguc reported on further excavations
directed by him (for the Turkish Historical foundation) at
the Karum; i.e., the Assyrian trade-enclave, near the great
mound of Kultepe in central Anatolia. The settlement
belonged to the early part of the 2nd millenium B.C. and came
to a sudden end before the main Kultepe site. Of four
occupation levels found, the second highest had ended in a
disastrous fire so rapid in its effect that the inhabitants had
been unable to salve their belongings, which now constituted
an archaeological find of remarkable completeness.

The British school at Athens continued work at Old
Smyrna and encountered occupation levels contemporary
with the reign of Croesus. They produced black and white
pottery of Eastern Greek origin and some imported pieces
from Attica.

Syria. C. F. A. Schaeffer reported on his work on the
Canaanite city of Ugarit (Ras Shamra), near Latakia. The
massive fortifications, 50 ft. across, had been further defended
by a great gate tower, masking the approach. The palace,
near this entrance, was fronted by a portico with two rows of
wooden columns on heavy stone bases; inside, Schaeffer
discovered a large audience chamber and three royal tombs,
long since robbed. Near the way into the palace, but not
directly connected with it, were several rooms containing a
large number of inscribed clay tablets, mostly relating to
administrative matters. One of these rooms, thought to
have been a schoolroom for scribes, contained a tablet (and
a fragment of another) bearing an alphabet : a discovery which
carries back to the 14th century B.C. the order of letters of
our alphabet. The city was damaged in an earthquake of 1365
and sacked about 1350; but some occupation continued for
the next two centuries.

Iraq. M. E. L. Mallowan directed, for the British School
of Archaeology in Iraq and for the Department of Antiquities
of Iraq, the excavation at Nimrud of the 9th century palace
of Assur-nasir-pal II, the source of the famous Assyrian
sculptures found by A. H. Layard in the 19th century and now

in the British Museum. Nimrud, an Assyrian city and army
centre, lies some 20 mi. S. of Mosul. Part of the area dug by
Layard was re-examined; and some impressive sculptures,
comparable to his finds, as well as some inscriptions, were
discovered. Excavation of the south wing of the palace
showed it to be a plain brick structure: it was assigned to
officials, to the royal bodyguard and to servants and con-
tained stores of arms and food. Three inscriptions were found
there, recording the campaigns of Assur-nasir-pal. At a
new site, in the east part of the great mound, a block of
offices was discovered, including a repository for archives
containing many 8th-century inscribed tablets. Among other
buildings was a block of similar date, planned with a central
courtyard surrounded with ranges of rooms and a group of
barracks. The site was rich in finds of all classes, but probably
most notable for its carvings, among which were an 8th-
century chalcedony seal bearing a mythological scene, a
magico-medical plaque and many small animals in ivory.

D. E. McCown dug near the temple of Enlil, an early
paramount god of Sumer. Beneath the remains of a Parthian
fortress and Kassite temple was an occupation of the 3rd
dynasty of Ur (early 2nd millenium B.C.). The latest excava-
tion of the temple settlement and cemetery at Eridu, directed
by Firad Safar, gave a remarkably complete picture of the
pre-Sumerians of the 4th and 5th millenia B.C.: discoveries
included evidence of a culture earlier than that of al-Ubaid,
with pottery resembling that of Halap and Samarra in
northern Iraq: many prehistoric temples which contribute to
the typology of temple building; and an al-Ubaid cemetery of
great size and richness. Tell Hamal continued to produce a
flood of documents of the beginning of the 2nd millenium
B.C., the latest being a mathematical text.

Persia. The work of the French archaeological mission at
Susa fell into two parts. In the " Royal Town," beneath two
Islamic occupations and one 6th-century, was found a brick-
built town, which had been inhabited by Christian Persians
but was destroyed with its inhabitants by Shapur II in the

Arab workers, under the supervision oj J. L. Keiso, oj Pittsburgh, U.S., clearing earth from the site of an ancient fortress fa the ruined city

of Jericho, Palestine.

ARCHAEOLOGY

middle of the 4th-century. West of the main site an extensive
necropolis was excavated. The tombs took the form of deep
vaulted burial chambers, approached by shafts or steps;
dated by R. Ghirshman as belonging to the period 300 B.C.-
A.D. 300, they contained clay sarcophagi with associated
pottery and alabaster vessels and figurines of both Hellenistic
and oriental styles.

Afghanistan. M. D. Schlumberger reported on excavations
at one of three Ghaznavid palaces of Lashkari-Bazar, first
located in 1948, near the great Ghaznavid fortress and city
of Bust, about 90 mi. W. of Kandahar. Of considerable
importance in the study of Moslem secular architecture, the
palace examined was probably built by Mahmud of Ghazni,
who began the Moslem drive on India early in the llth
century; covering about 35 ac. and rectangular in outline,
it was symmetrically planned round a great central courtyard
with a large open bay in the middle of each side. In addition
to suites of private apartments, the discoveries included a
large banqueting hall and an audience chamber decorated
with human figures (contrary to orthodox Moslem tradition)
and stucco medallions.

Pakistan. The government of Pakistan established a
national museum at Karachi. The new Department of
Antiquities began work (under R. E. Mortimer Wheeler) on
the great prehistoric city of Mohenjo-daro in Sind. The
brick-built walls of the granary of the citadel,* standing to a
considerable height, showed the use of timber reinforcement, a
feature not hitherto encountered in buildings rf the Indus
civilization. (R. E. Mortimer Wheeler, Five Thousand Years
of Pakistan, Karachi, 1950.) (J. CHN.)

North America. W. F. Libby and James Arnold of the
University of Chicago, having completed the testing-phase of
the radioactive carbon isotope, Carbon 14 , for securing dates
of prehistoric organic materials, made available in 1950 a list
of samples dated by this means within the previous two years.
The dates were to be correlated with archaeological and
geological evidence, and statements as to the probable validity
of the results obtained were expected from the investigators
who provided the samples. Two additional Carbon 14 dating
laboratories were being prepared for operation at the Univer-
sity of Michigan and Columbia university.

The problems of early cultures in the New World, particu-
larly in North America, received considerable attention. The
apparent gap between the chronologies of the later Indian
cultures that could be connected with the historic period and
early remains such as Folsom and Yuma was being closed.
New dating techniques indicated that archaeologists had been
too conservative in estimating recent chronologies, while
geologists had over-estimated the age of late Pleistocene
phenomena.

George F. Carter continued work at La Jolla, California, on
problems of terraces, valley fill, soils and sea-level and their
relations to evidences of human occupation. One grinding
stone, a core tool and two flint flakes found beneath the soils
of the Scripps cliff came from formations that suggested that
they had been deposited during a period of high sea-level and
that man might have been there in interglacial times.

Near Port Arthur, Ontario, Richard MacNeish of the
National Museum of Canada discovered a site which offered
additional information on Palaeo-Indian culture. Plain view-
type projectile points, large crude choppers and a variety of
flint scrapers, some very delicately chipped, were found in an
old beach deposit now 235 ft. above the level of Lake Superior.

J. L. Gidaings of the University of Alaska continued work
at the remarkable early site at lyatayet on Cape Denbigh in
Norton sound. Additional artifacts from the sealed basal
layer of the deposit further demonstrated the relationship of
this microlithic complex to the Folsom and Yuma cultures of
western Nortli America and to the Mesolithic of northern

Europe and Asia. This site is extremely important in that it
has given the first clear evidence relating early cultures of the
Old and New Worlds.

The cave in the Trail creek region of Seward peninsula
discovered in 1949 was completely excavated and 1 1 additional
caves discovered, one of which proved to contain cultural
material. In the surface layers Eskimo artifacts were found;
but beneath these, separated by a layer of accumulated rock
dust, was discovered a complex of flint artifacts very similar
to that found by Giddings at lyatayet.

Large-scale excavation took place on outstanding sites
discovered by surveys of areas destined to be covered by the
waters of reservoirs. Nearly all the fieldwork was done in
co-operation with the River Basin Surveys project of the
Smithsonian institution:. Robert L. Stephenson excavated a
variety of sites in the Whitney reservoir area on the Brazos
river in Texas. Most interesting were some unexplained large
pits 60 to 70 ft. in diameter discovered near Lavon. Jack
Hughes and Alex Krieger surveyed the Falcon Reservoir area
on the lower Rio Grande and discovered a number of sites
both historic and prehistoric.

The Wisconsin Archaeological survey worked primarily at
the Aztalan site. Two houses were found and new data added
on stockade features and burials. The University of Michigan
began a five-year survey and excavation programme in the
central Mississippi valley between the mouths of the Illinois
and Ohio rivers under the direction of James B. Griffin.
Excavations were made at the Cahokia mound-group in an
effort to define more closely the two Mississippian cultural
levels found there; and surface surveys were extended down
the Missouri side of the Mississippi to Cape Girardeau, out-
lining a sequence from Eastern Archaic to Mississippian.
The Ohio state museum excavated an Archaic site near
Oxford, Ohio, and found a series of trough-like refuse pits,
heavy stemmed projectile points, scrapers, bone awls and
needles. A post-mould pattern was worked out.

The University of Kentucky partially excavated a large
Adena-culture burial mound in Mason county. The summer
field school of the University of Georgia under the direction of
A. R. Kelly continued survey and salvage in the projected
reservoir areas of the lower Flint and Chattahoochee. William
Sears excavated a burial mound at the Kolomoki site and
found ceramics and other artifacts of the Weeden Island
period. Ripley Bullen of the Florida Park service excavated at
the Madirs Bickel Mound state monument and worked out
the chronology of the site. John Goggin conducted the
summer field session of the University of Florida at the
Zetrouer site (17th-century Spanish-Indian) and briefly
investigated Fort Pupa (a slightly earlier Spanish fort) on the
St. Johns river. A large collection of European and aborig-
inal artifacts was secured.

The University and the Museum of New Mexico co-oper-
ated with the National Park service in excavating sites that
were to be flooded by the Chamita reservoir on the Chama
river. A pueblo dating c. A.D. 1300 with some unusual
semi-subterranean structures was one of the sites investigated.
Paul Martin and John Rinaldo of the Chicago Natural
History museum continued their work in the Pine Lawn valley
in southwestern New Mexico, this season's efforts being
particularly directed to the excavation of several dry caves.

Central America. Jorge Acosta excavated at Tula and some
of the smaller surrounding sites in Mexico. Most of the work
at Tula was concentrated on the Quetzalcoatl structure. The
Museo Nacional of Mexico continued work at the remarkable
site of Tlatilco. Numerous additional burials were found,
adding considerably to the collection of Middle Culture and
Olmec-like grave furnishings.

From the Rio de La Pasi6n in Guatemala Barnum Brown
reported the discovery of a fragment of fossil bone, possibly

ARCHERY ARCHITECTURE

sloth, which has three V-shaped cuts that appear to have been
made in fresh bone by man. This specimen, associated with
other Upper Pleistocene faunal remains, gave the first direct
suggestion of very early occupation of Guatemala.

Linton Satterthwaite of the Museum of Pennsylvania began
a programme of investigation of house mounds in British
Honduras. At Caracoi he found a number of previously
undiscovered monuments including stelae with dates. At
Benque Viejo a part of a magnificent stucco facade was
uncovered in very good condition. Stanley Boggs continued
work at Tazumal for the government of Salvador (this was
the tenth season of work at this complex site, and considerable
information was gathered on the relations of the Tohil
plumbate horizon to the local equivalents of Maya classic).

South America. In Chile a party headed by Greta Mostny
of the Museo Nacional de Historia Natural conducted an
ethnographic survey in the region near the town of Peine in
the Atacama desert: small protohistoric stone buildings with
some cut stone at the corners and in door jambs were dis-
covered, and the culture was related to the modern occupation.

Wendell C. Bennett of Yale university made a survey of the
Montaro basin in the central highlands of Peru and excavated
at the extensive prehistoric site of Huari. This latter work
suggests strongly that Huari was the highland centre from
which the coastal Tiahuanaco culture spread. M. and Mme.
Henry Reichlen of the Mus6e de I'Homme, Paris, completed
their work in the Cajamarca region of the northern highlands
and continued in Lima, working up the material. Richard
Schaedel of the University of Trujillo, Peru, conducted a study
of prehistoric architecture on the north coast between Casma
and Leche valleys. (J. A. F.)

ARCHERY. The 1950 world championships were held
in Copenhagen in July. Hans Deutgen (Sweden) won the
men's title for the fourth time with a score of 3,141. E. Tang
Holbek (Denmark) was second with 2,878, Russ Reynolds
(U.S.A.) third with 2,854 and Frantisek Hadas (Czecho-
slovakia), the 1949 runner-up, fourth with 2,801. The men's
team results were: Denmark first, Sweden second, Czecho-
slovakia third. The ladies' title was won by Jean Lee (U.S.A.)
with 3,254 points. Jean Richards (U.S.A.) was second with
2,919, and R. Windahl (Sweden) third. The ladies' team
results were: Finland first, Sweden second, England third.

At Oxford in August the British National championship
results were, ladies: first, Mrs. George Arthur (Edgware,
Middlesex) with 1,336; second, Mrs. A. W. Burton (Ports-
mouth) with 1,326; third, Mrs. T. H. Fisher (Portsmouth)
with 1,191. The gentlemen's results were : first, Russell
J. Beal (Portsmouth) with 1,376; second, B. McNaughton
(Portsmouth), 1,256; third, George Brown (London), 1,232.
Hampshire teams won both the ladies' and gentlemen's
county championships.

In the United States championships, at Lancaster, Pennsyl-
vania, Jean Lee (Massachusetts) won with 3,812 points;
Ann Weber (New Jersey) was second with 3,584 and Mrs. J.
Richards (California) third with 3,556. The first three men
were Stan Overby (California), 3,249, Russ Reynolds (Ohio),
3,1 1 5, and William Sterner (New York), 3,027. (C. B. E.)

ARCHITECTURE. The completion of the new House
of Commons was without doubt the architectural event which
attracted most attention during 1950. The " Tudor Domestic'*
style of the new chamber inevitably aroused controversy.
There were those who would have preferred a conjectured
reconstruction of St. Stephen's chapel, the first permanent
home of the House of Commons, those who had wanted a
faithful reconstruction of Sir Charles Barry's Gothic-revival
chamber, and those who believed that each age should have
the courage of its own architectural convictions and could

see no reason why the new chamber was not frankly contem-
porary. In his planning it was generally agreed Sir Giles
Gilbert Scott (q.v.) had exercised considerable ingenuity.
With only a slight addition in total height three extra floors
had been fitted in. Two were in the vertical space of 27 ft.
below the floor of the old chamber, where its heating and
ventilating apparatus had been housed; these provided space
for committee and ministers' rooms, for secretaries and for
interviewing. The third extra floor, for the clerk of the House
and his staff, was over the top of the new House. Accom-
modation in the chamber itself was increased from 802 to
939, chiefly by replanning and extending the galleries. The
new floor of the House was not made larger since it was
thought important to retain that sense of intimacy in debate
which is characteristic of the House of Commons. An
elaborate and advanced system of air-conditioning was
designed by Oscar Faber. In view of the varying conditions
in different parts of the House at different times, eight separate
air-conditioning plants were provided. The wood used for
the roof and for the major part of the panelling was oak
and the floor of Queensland maple.

The main structural work was completed on two of the
largest buildings on the South Bank site of the 1951 Festival
of Britain. On the Dome of Discovery building, the last
sheet of aluminium for the roof was laid in October. The
building would incorporate three platforms, supported on a
concrete podium. The dome was supported on eight cigar-
shaped steel struts, consisting of 3-in. tubes. The installation
of the internal equipment for the permanent concert building,
to be known as the Royal Festival hall, was well under way
by the end of the year and was to be completed in time for
the opening on May 3, 1951. On Nov. 9 the King and
Queen visited the site of the ^Festival of Britain's " Live
Architecture " exhibit, a new neighbourhood to be known
as Lansbury. The scheme would finally form part of the
London County council's long-term scheme for the compre-
hensive redevelopment of the Stepney-Poplar reconstruction
area and would cover an area of 30 ac. It was planned in the
town planning division of the department of the architect
to the L.C.C., Robert H. Matthew, under the planning
officer Arthur Ling. A number of private architects were
invited to design the various buildings that would form the
neighbourhood. .

In the City oS Westminster the housing problem was still
very acute and drastic measures were needed to deal with it.
The Westminster City council decided to concentrate on
alleviating the shortage in one large area rather than several
small ones. In 1945-46 a competition had been held to
provide designs for a large number of dwellings on a site
which covered 30 ac. and stretched 600 yd. along the north
bank of the Thames at Pimlico. The winners were the firm
of Powell and Moya, and the first block of flats in the scheme
was completed in Oct. 1950. Density would be at 200 persons
an acre and, apart from the flats, there would be about 30
shops, laundries, a mortuary, a restaurant, public lavatories
and a service station with an underground garage for 200
cars. The scheme was to be carried out in four sections,
the first consisting of 495 flats and the second of 300 dwellings
some of which would be three-storey houses. When all
sections were finished there would be a total of approximately
1,600 dwellings. Space heating and domestic hot water
were provided by a district heating system utilizing waste
heat from Battersea power station which faced the site
across the river. It was estimated that the scheme would
save 10,000 tons of coal each year.

Commonwealth. Australia. Designs were published for
the new National university at Canberra. The architect was
Professor Brian B. Lewis, of the University qf Melbourne.
His designs were based on a main axis which followed a

ARCHITECTURE

well-defined ridge of ground. At one end, above a future
lake, there would be an open-air auditorium and along the
ridge, ranged at each side of a central lawn, the library
administrative offices and public lecture rooms. University
house, at the other end of the axis, would be the social focus
of the university and provision was made for employing the
best Australian artists and sculptors to decorate it. The
Institute of Physical Sciences would be the first faculty
building to be completed, and this would later be followed
by those for the Medical institute, and for the social sciences
and Pacific studies departments. A housing scheme, sited
on a steep slope overlooking the lake, formed part of the
layout. The house types were designed in collaboration with
Roy Grounds.

Canada. The most interesting new building in Canada
during 1950 took place in British Columbia. Sharing, as it
does, many similarities of climate and geography with
California, it is not surprising that the influence of San
Francisco's Bay Region architecture should have been so
marked. Among the most noteworthy buildings were Ridge-
view Elementary school, the Vocational institute and a
public library, all at Vancouver and all designed by the
firm of Sharp and Thompson, Berwick, Pratt. An air-
conditioned Gospel hall, was built in Vancouver to the
designs of Robert R. McKee for the Plymouth Brethren;
it comprised an auditorium to seat 600 and an insulated
cry-room for babies and a cafeteria. A house overlooking
the sea, also by McKee, was constructed of six-foot module
fir posts and beams, faced with glass and cedar board. It
had a large " Indian " mural by thf* architect, depicting a
whale, painted on a screen wall outside the front door.

South Africa. The first three floors of a building in
Johannesburg, designed by J. C. Cook and Cowen for the
South African Blood Transfusion services, were completed.
A further seven floors, containing flats and professional
suites, would be added later. The building would have a
reinforced concrete frame structure; panel infillings and
facings would be of brick and terrazo. In order to provide
accommodation for the rapidly growing population of
Salisbury, the capital of Southern Rhodesia, the city council
inaugurated a scheme for a block of flats which would be
the highest building in Rhodesia. Designed by the firm of
Ross Mackenzie, van Heerden and Hartford, it would
comprise 108 one-room and 84 two-room flpts on 12 floors.
The foundations would be a reinforced concrete rait and
spreader beams and the main structure, a series of parallel
spine walls, would be carried at ground floor level on piers
similar to those of Le Corbusier's Unite d' Habitation near
Marseilles. Windows would be continuous, and protected
by hoods against the midday sun. Finishes would be of
brick and fair-faced concrete, with aluminium cladding for
the projecting fins of the spine walls and a polished stone
veneer round the main entrances. The flat reinforced concrete
roof would be surfaced with bitumen, screed and a light
44 umbrella " of corrugated asbestos. Vertical expansion
joints would divide the building into seven separate structures.

Europe. Denmark. One of the best office buildings in
Copenhagen was completed for the Shell company. Designed
by Wilhelm Lauritzen (architect also of the excellent broad-
casting building) it had a reinforced concrete frame and was
faced with black slate, the outlines of the framework being
in white plaster. At Klampenborg, north of Copenhagen,
a terrace of houses was built to the designs of Arne Jacobsen.
Built of yellow brick, the south facades were mostly of glass.
The roofs were low-pitched and covered with asbestos
tiles.

France. The results were announced of an important
competition launched in April 1949 by the French Ministry
of Reconstruction and Town Planning. The aims of the

competition, which was concerned with the design ar
construction of flats and houses, were threefold: to stimula
new ideas; to provide a means of assessing under comparab
conditions various building methods old and new; to arrr
at new solutions of the housing problem that were bo
economically feasible and aesthetically pleasing. The cor
petitors formed groups consisting of architects, engineers ar
builders, and entered schemes for any one of the thr
suggested sites: (1) nine- to twelve-storey flats at Villeneuv
Saint-George; (2) two- to four-storey flats at Creil-Cori
piegne; and (3) bungalows or two-storey houses at Chartre
The three winning designs, which it was intended to execu
were (1) by Marc and Leo Solotareflf, architects, and Lajoini
builders; (2) by Gravereaux, architect, and Societe" Cogetravo
builders; and (3) by Camelot, Sainsaulieu and Rivet, arch
tects, and Societe* Nouvelle de Construction et de Travau
builders.

Germany. The building that temporarily housed the fir
parliament of the German federal republic was inaugurate
in 1950. Originally erected by the Prussian government i
1930 as part of Bonn university, it occupied a fine site on tf
banks of the Rhine. Alterations and additions were mac
under the direction of Professor Hans Schwippert to pro vie
a large hall for the Bundestag (lower house), a restaurant t
seat all members of both houses and additional offices. ,
great deal of ingenuity was shown in the construction whic
had to be completed in four months during which the existir
building continued in use. The impersonal simplicity of tf
earlier building was carried successfully through into the ne
wings.

Italy. In Rome the important extensions to the ne
railway station were nearing completion. They were designe
by two groups of architects who shared first prizes in
competition held shortly after World War II. The first pa
of the new station was completed just before the war, in tfc
style popular under Mussolini, with facades resembling
Roman aqueduct. The exceptionally elegant new extensior
of glass and reinforced concrete provided a marked contra;
with the original work.

Switzerland. Two notable buildings were both in Genev;
One was a block of flats, by Marc T. Saugey. The othe
a Protestant church and assembly hall by W. M. Moser, <
Haefeli, Moser and Steiger, with an exposed reinforce
concrete frame, had walls of specially designed concrel
blocks and circular sheets of glass.

Eastern Europe. In both Hungary and Czechoslovakia
number of good modern buildings were completed, apparent!
still free from the stultifying grip of Stalinist aesthetic theor
This could not be due to ignorance of the party line since th
architectural magazines of both countries devoted a larj
amount of space'in an attempt to elucidate it. In Hungai
the most interesting buildings were the new school fc
apprentices attached to the Matyas Rakosi metal foundr
and the clinic at Ujpcst by Ferenc Kiss. In Czechoslovak!;
a central post office at Bratislava was built by Krama
The structural framework was of steel with a brick infillinj
faced with Slovak sandstone. A 1 3-storey block of flats fc
factory workers was completed at Horni Litvinov. Tt
design, by E. Linhart and V. Hylsky, won first prize in
competition held in 1947. The flats provided accommodatic
for single people and families and included day nurseries,
nursery school and a central kitchen with canteen. The stru<
ture, of steel with brick infilling, was faced with prefabricate
panels. (I. R. M. M.)

United States. The general effect of the Korean war o
the U.S. architectural profession had some immediate effec
in 1950. Credit controls at once curtailed building i
the small house field. The directive on credit controls wi
followed by restrictive order M-4 of the National Productio

ARCHITECTURE

MODERN HOUSING ami
PUBLIC BUILDINGS

A single- storey hou.se in
Denmark by E. Hoff and
B. Winding? (2) and flats in
Geneva by Marc T. Saugey (4)
arc examples of housing in
1950. The Parliament building
(l)al Bonn, Western Germany,
which wax inaugurated in 1950.
In Geneva, a new Protestant
church by W. M. Moser (3)
was completed, while in Rome
progress was made on the new
railway station (5) which was
started before World War 11.

AREAS AND POPULATIONS

authority. This banned amusement and recreational building.
Its effect was immediate, especially as it was apparently the
forerunner of further restrictive orders to come.

The slight panic nevertheless quickly evaporated. The
reluctance on the part of contractors to submit firm bids
appeared to be lessening toward the end of the year. Curiously
enough there arose an interesting stimulation of immediate
planning in various non-military fields. This was the result
of a desire to get planning work under way, and if possible
construction also, before the country found itself in a serious
predicament. As the year closed, the outlook for the pro-
fession was more stable that it had been six months earlier.

Residential. Considerable interest was focused in 1950
upon the public housing programme. At the close of the
year this programme was almost entirely in the planning
stage, and the rise in prices was causing a drastic change in
the planning phases. It was obvious that, under existing
authorizations and appropriations, the programme could not
be carried out as originally foreseen. The official remedy had
been the cutting down of space allotments and the elimination
of any superfluity in architectural design.

In the private residential field there was in some areas a
marked falling off in construction of'what are loosely termed
** luxury houses.*' Houses well out of the low-cost range
were being built in Texas, Nebraska and other places which
hitherto had not been especially noteworthy in this field.
An interesting manifestation was the building of fine homes
for well-to-do farmers and ranchers in remote p^.rts of the
middle west. Very often in these houses the architects had
the opportunity to develop completely contemporary and
up-to-date structures.

Many interesting smaller modern houses were designed and
built, and modern architecture seemed to be passing through
its growing stages and arriving at maturity. In many of
these houses the modernistic cliches had been eliminated
except where the design of modern houses had fallen into
less capable hands, or in some instances had fallen outside
the hands of the profession completely.

Techniques and Materials. There was an increasing con-
centration on research, in which the American Institute of
Architects was taking a leading role, as was the Building
Research Advisory board, set up under the National Research
council and supported entirely by the construction industry.

The construction industry also established a project to
explore and advocate modular co-ordination. This was
being carried out under the immediate direction of the
American Institute of Architects and was expected to have
a profound effect on architectural design in general. Weather
conditions which affected the design of buildings were also
being studied.

Commercial. The general tendency toward decentralization
throughout the country gave the architect a chance to develop
a new field of design, principally of the shopping centre and
of the supermarket, a peculiarly American institution.

Further studies were made in the field of indoor and out-
door car-parking facilities, and new and ingenious develop-
ments were being carried out in public garages. The open-air
cimena which, in its initial development, seemed to offer
little opportunity to the architect, had progressed to a point
where architectural service was demanded, and some archi-
tects had become experts in this field. No longer was the
open-air cinema simply a screen set up on a piece of waste
land: it had become an architecturally planned centre of
amusement.

In 1950 office building design was characterized by greater
simplicity bordering on barrenness, except in the case of
the U.N. building in New York city, which was a special-
purpose building. The year saw a breaking-away from the
skyscraper per se. There no longer appeared to be a striving

for a building higher than its fellows for the sake of the
owner's prestige.

Governmental. In governmental architecture there was,
too, a trend toward simplicity. Great attention was paid to
functional suitability and to the lowering of maintenance
cost. That these objectives could be achieved with a corres-
ponding improvement in the architectural appearance of a
building was shown in Louis Justement's courthouse, under
construction in Washington.

To sum up the architectural progress of 1950, there was an
intelligent concentration on study and research, an adapta-
bility to the national economic pattern and a steady advance,
despite a momentary uncertainty brought about by the
disturbed international situation. (See also BUILDING AND
CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY; HOUSING; INTERIOR DECORATION;
TOWN AND COUNTRY PLANNING.) (ED. R. P.)

AREAS AND POPULATIONS OF THE
COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. The political entities
of the world are listed here with their areas, populations and
number of persons per square mile. The latest census or
official estimates are given for each country. Areas in square
miles are in accordance with the boundaries for the year of
the population figure unless otherwise noted.

Name of continent and state Area

Population

(sq.mi.)

COOO) per sq.mi.

WORLD TOTAL . . . 58,062,977

2,388,939 45-9*

AFRICA 11,611,409

191,410 16-5

Belgian colony and trusteeship . 925,094

14,811

British colonies, dependencies, etc. 3,046,063

67,038

Egypt 383,000

20,045 52-3

Ethiopia 350,000

10,000 28-6

French overseas territories . 4,270,896

50,037

Italian trusteeship and condominium 194,000

955 4-9

Liberia 43,000

1,648 38-3

Libya 679,183

1,177 1'7

Portuguese colonies . . . 794,959

11,480

South-West Africa (mandate of

Union of South Africa) . . 317,725

374 1-2

Spanish colonies and protectorate . 134,763

1,587

Tangier, International Zone of . 232

150 646-6

Union of South Africa . . 472,494

12,108 25-6

ANTARCTICA .... 6,000,000

Uninhabited

ASIA (exclusive of U.S.S.R.) . 10,575,583

1,274,211 120-5

Afghanistan .... 270,000

12,000 44-4

Arabian desert .... 193,000

Uninhabited

Bhutan 18,000

300 16-7

British colonies, dependencies, etc. 245,932

10,577

Burma 261,749

18,200 69-5

Ceylon 25,332

7,500 296-1

China (including Formosa, Kwan-

tung, Manchuria and Tibet) . 3,876,956

475,000 122-5

French overseas territories . 285,987

27,777

India . . . 1,220,099

347,340 284-5

Indonesia .

583,479

79,260 135-8

Iraq .

116,600

4,990 42-8

Israel

7,800

1,247 159-9

Japan (1949)

146,690

83,074 566 3

Jordan

37,110

400;

Korea

85,225

29,291 343-2

Kuwait

9,000

120 13-3

Lebanon

3,470

1,238 356-8

Mongolia .

606,000

2,000 3-3

Nepal

54,000

6,910 128-0

Netherlands New Guin<

151,789

1,000 6-6

Oman and Masqat
Pakistan

65.000
3371524

830 12-8
75,000 222-2

Persia

634,413

18,387 29-0

Philippines .

115,600

19,356 167-4

Portuguese colonies

8,876

1,487

Qatar

4,000

16 4-0

Ryukyu Is. (U.S. occup

ied tc

rr.) - 935

909 972-2

Saudi Arabia

597,000

6,000 10-1

Sikkim

2,745

122 444

Syria

72,560

3,407 47-0

Thailand (Siam) .

198,272

17,987 90-7

Trucial Sheikhdoms

16,000

105 6-6

Turkey

296,185

20,903 70-6

Yemen

31,000

1,600 51-6

ARGENTINA

Name of continent and state Area

Population

(sq.mi.)

('000) (per sq.mi.)

AUSTRALIA AND OCEANIA . . 3,304,507

12,759

3-9

Australia 2,974,581

8,179

2-7

Australian dependencies . . 183,553

1,313

British colonies, dependencies, etc. 24,700

552

French colonies ... 9,199

109

New Zealand

103,416

1,881

18-2

New Zealand dependencies

1,656

United States possessions .

7,402

632

EUROPE (exclusive of U.S.S.R.)

1,903,369

391,902

205-9

Albania ....

10,629

1,300

122-3

Andorra ....

191

26-2

Austria ....

32,375

7,090

218-9

Belgium ....

11,783

8,614

731-1

British colonies and dependencies

124

337

Bulgaria ....

42,796

7,160

167-3

Czechoslovakia (1950) .

49,330

12,463

252-6

Denmark (excl. Greenland, incl

Faeroe Islands)

17,109

4,261

249-1

Estonia ....

18,357

854

46-5

Finland (including Aland islands)

130,159

4,015

30-8

France ....

213,010

42,000

197-2

Germany (1950, including Saar)

138,017

69,382

505-2

Greece (including Dodecanese)

51,182

7,960

155-5

Hungary ....

35,893

9,201

256-3

Iceland ....

39,768

140

3-5

Ireland ....

26,602

2,991

112-4

Italy (1950)

116,224

46,001

395-8

Latvia ....

25,395

1,650

65-0

Liechtenstein

213-1

Lithuania ....

25,173

2,353

93-5

Luxembourg

1,010

295

292-1

Monaco ....

0-6

Netherlands

12,868

9,955

773-6

Norway (including Spitsbergen)

149,161

3,237

21-7

Poland (1950) .

120,359

25,036

208-0

Portugal (incl. Azores and Madeira

35,413

8,491

239-8

Rumania ....

91,654

15,873

173-2

San Marino

342-1

Spain (including Canary Islands)

194,945

28,023

143-7

Sweden ....

173,390

6,986

40-3

Switzerland

15,940

4,696

294-6

Trieste, Free Territory of

293

381

United Kingdom

94,205

49,919

529-9

Vatican City

0-5

Yugoslavia (after Sept. 15, 1947) . 98,826

16,040

162-3

U.S.S.R. (1950 area, 1946 pop. est.) 8,436,188

193,000

22-9

NORTH AMERICA . . . 9,375,934

217,192

23-2

British colonies and dependencies . 2 1 ,060

2,751

Canada 3,843,144

13,845

3-6

Costa Rica 19,238

851

44-2

Cuba 44,217

5,400

122-1

Danish colony (Greenland) . . 840,000

Dominican Republic . . . 19,129

2,400

125-5

French territory and departments . 1 ,206

553

Guatemala . ... 45,452

3,784

83-3

Haiti . ... 10,748

3,750

348-9

Honduras . ... 59,160

1,534

25-9

Mexico . ... 760,373

25,368

33-4

Netherlands Anti Ics . . . 403

165

409-4

Nicaragua . . . . 57,145

1,503

26-3

Panama . ... 28,575

764

26-7

Salvador, El . . . 13,176

2, 150

163-2

United States . . . 3,022,387

150,697

50-6

United States possessions . . 590,521

2,418

SOUTH AMERICA . . . 6,856,054

108,465

15-8

Argentina 1,079,965

17,098

15-8

Bolivia 416,040

3,990

9-6

Brazil 3,286,170

50,000

15-2

British colonies and dependencies . 90,68 1

410

Chile 286,323

5,761

20-1

Colombia 439,714

11,015

25-1

Ecuador 104,510

3.404

32-6

French Guiana .... 34,740

1-0

Netherlands territory (Surinam) . 54,291

192

3-5

Paraguay 157,047

1,304

8-3

Peru 482,258

8,204

17-0

Uruguay 72,172

2.353

32-6

Venezuela 352,143

4,697

13-3

* In computing the world density the area of Antarctica is omitted,
t Includes Eritrea as military trustee area.
t Population of former Tramjordan only.

I Areas and populations of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania included in 1950
and 1946 U.S.S.R. totals.

ARGENTINA. Second largest South American republic,
occupying the southeastern portion of the continent. Area
(excluding the so-called " Zona Austral " which is supposed
to comprise the "Malvinas"; i.e., Falklands, and other
islands or territory in Antarctica): 1,079,965 sq.mi. Pop.:
(May 10, 1947, census) 16,108,573; (mid-1948 est.) 16,300,000.
The population is overwhelmingly European in origin (mostly
Spanish and Italian, with Irish, German, Croat and Polish
admixtures); in 1940 about 9% were of mixed blood, the
dwindling Indian population was estimated at 262,600 and the
total of foreign-born population was 2,355,900. The distri-
bution of the population is uneven: the federal capital and the
four provinces of the littoral (La Plata, Corrientes, Parana
and Sante F6) cover only one-fifth of the total area but have
two-thirds of the country's population; urban population is
estimated at 75%. Language: Spanish. Religion: mainly
Roman Catholic; Jewish 360,000. Chief towns (pop. 1947
est.): Buenos Aires (/.v.) (capital and leading port, 3,000,371);
Avellaneda, a Buenos Aires suburb (279,572); Rosario
(464,688); C6rdoba (351,644); La Plata (271,738); Lanus
(242,760); Santa F6 (168,01 1); Tucuman (152,508). President
of the republic, General Juan Domingo Peron.

History. The Argentine national hero, General Jos6 de San
Martin, died in exile in France in 1850. The year 1950 was
officially dedicated to his memory, and it was decreed that on
every day throughout the centennial year the words Afro del
Libertador General San Martin were to be added to the
calendar date at the head of all newspapers and other printed
matter. In January one hundred or more newspapers in
Buenos Aires and the provinces were closed for varying
periods by order of a congressional committee, on the pretext
that they had failed to print the prescribed legend in their
date-lines. Most of these publications happened to be news-
papers which were known to be in some degree critical of
President Per6n's regime. The committee which performed
this indirect censorship had been appointed originally to
investigate " anti-Argentine activities " and was headed by
Jos6 Emilio Visca. By taking control of the country's chief
newsprint stock, Visca obtained almost complete power over
the Argentine press, though La Prensa, in spite of considerable
obstruction, managed to preserve its traditionally independent
outlook. Visca's intolerance aroused indignation in the
United States at a time when Argentina was badly in need of
economic assistance from Washington. In March the U.S.
assistant secretary of state, Edward G. Miller, visited Buenos
Aires and indicated that if certain concessions were made to
U.S. susceptibilities a dollar credit might be forthcoming. A
few days later the Argentine minister of the treasury, Ramon
A. Cereijo, concluding a two months' visit to North America,
assured U.S. businessmen that Argentina would welcome
private U.S. capital and would treat it fairly. In May it was
announced that the Export-Import Bank of Washington would
be willing to grant a credit of $125 million to a group of
Argentine banks for the purpose of cancelling the debts which
Argentine importers owed to U.S. firms. At the beginning of
June the Argentine congress pointedly did not re-nominate
Visca to his post on the committee of investigation.

To improve the balance of dollar payments the Argentine
government also restricted imports from the United States
and made a big effort to increase exports to that country. In
the first half of the year exports to the U.S rose from the 1949
figure of 107 million pesos to 467-8 million, while imports
from the U.S. were reduced from the 1949 figure of 372-8
million pesos to 321 -6 million. The subsequent outbreak of
war in Korea stimulated U.S. demand for Argentine products.

On July 17 the Ministry of Foreign Affairs published
Argentina's reply to the appeal of the secretary general of the
United Nations for support in connection with the Korean
war The reply declared Argentina's willingness 1 to fulfil her

ARMIES OF THE WORLD

obligations and added: "We are waiting for the unified
command to enter into direct communication with the
Argentine government." The publication of this message
immediately provoked public demonstrations against Argen-
tina's participation in hostilities. People marched through
the streets of Buenos Aires and Rosario shouting " We want
peace ! ", " Keep our children out of war ! " On the following
day the Ministry of Foreign Affairs explained that the reply
to the United Nations did not commit Argentina to send
troops to Korea as that would require the sanction of congress.

For the national economy it was unfortunate that the far
eastern war began in a year when Argentina's agricultural
production was suffering from the effects of a serious drought
and from the effects of the government's previous policy of
encouraging urban industry at the expense of agriculture.
Before the outbreak of hostilities it had already become
apparent that Per6n's industrialization projects still depended
on the importing of equipment and fuel which, because of the
evaporation of foreign currency reserves, could now only be
paid for by increasing the export of Argentina's traditional
pastoral and agricultural products. In April, therefore, the
president launched a campaign for an increase in the sowing
of cereals and announced the higher prices which the I.A.P.I.
(Institute Argentine de Promoci6n de Intercambio) would
pay for the forthcoming crops. On June 7 Peron raised the
official price of steers by 23 %. In September and October
further increases were announced in the prices at which
I.A.P.I. would purchase cereals.

Throughout the year Anglo- Argentine commercial and
financial negotiations were periodically broken off and resumed.
Although trade between the two countries was substantial,
there was great dissatisfaction on both sides. Because of the
devaluation of sterling, Argentina now asked for 140 a ton
for meat, whereas the United Kingdom offered 90. The
Argentine authorities demanded compensation on their
sterling balances existing at the time of the 1949 devaluation of
the pound, but the British contended that no such balances
existed at that date. The British negotiators complained that
the Argentine government had only issued import licences for
an insignificant quantity of non-essential manufactures and
that there were enormous arrears of commercial and other
debts owing to Great Britain for which remittance permits had
not been granted. The Argentines replied that they had no
sterling available for those purposes. On Jijly 21, as no price
agreement had been reached, I.A.P.I. instructed the local
meat-packing organizations to cease shipping meat to the
U.K. On Aug. 21 the Ministry of Economic Affairs announced
new and higher minimum prices for light steers in preference
to the heavy steers traditionally bred in Argentina for the U.K.
market. The ministry stated that Argentine stock-breeders
must now cater for European and South American markets
where light steers were preferred, and that they must no longer
cater only for the U.K. The suspension of shipments to the
U.K., coupled with the difficulty of finding alternative
markets, caused a great accumulation of meat in the packing
houses, and on Oct. 18 the Ministry of Economic Affairs
therefore authorized the packers to use their stocks of frozen
meat for canning. At the end of November negotiations
between the U.K. and Argentina were once again resumed in
London and Buenos Aires.

On Aug. 28 the Ministry of Finance announced a simpli-
fication in the Argentine system of multiple exchange rates.
The new system and rates represented a substantial devalua-
tion of the peso. It was anticipated that this devaluation
would assist the export of Argentine products and thereby
enable Argentina to purchase from abroad the essential
supplies which, under the influence of the Korean war, were
becoming scarcer and more expensive.

The cost o*f living continued to rise during 1950, and many

strikes occurred. The higher wages demanded by the strikers
were invariably granted, and the popularity of the regime did
not diminish. Provincial congressional elections took place in
March, with satisfactory results for Per6n's party. Colonel
Domingo Mercante, a supporter and close friend of the
president, was re-elected governor of the province of Buenos
Aires. His Radical opponent, Ricardo Balbin, was arrested
on polling day.

In September Per6n made a speech in which he defined his
policy as being ideologically " on the left, on the right, or in
the centre, according to events." He said: " We are altogether
anti-sectarian. We are anti-Communist because the Com-
munists are sectarian, and we are anti-capitalist because the
capitalists are sectarian too." The president stated that he
had raised three great banners: " Economic independence,
social justice and national sovereignty," and he named his
policy Justicialismo, the policy of justice. (G. P.)

Education. Schools (1945): primary 14,294, pupils 2,064,464, teachers
79,741; secondary (1946) 1,145, pupils 221,409, teachers 28,360;
universities (1943) 8, students 62,870.

Agriculture. Main crops ('000 metric tons, 1948-49; 1949-50 in
brackets): wheat 5,170 (5,720); barley 610 (600); oats 700 (650); rye
250 (240); maize 4,600 (2,000); potatoes 850 (1,210); linseed 490 (600);
sunflower seed 1,100 (800); groundnuts 100 (110); tobacco 26 (27);
cotton, ginned 91 (93); rice 120 (HO); sugar, raw value, 565 (549).
Livestock ('000 head): cattle (1947) 41,268; sheep (1949) 45,000;
pigs (1949) 3,500; horses (1949) 7,238; asses and mules (1949) 501;
poultry (1949) 20,000. Meat production ('000 metric tons, 1949):
beef 1,814. Wool production ('000 metric tons, greasy basis, 1948-49;
1949-50 in brackets): 209 (200).

Industry. Industrial establishments (1947) 101,884; persons employed
in manufacturing industries (1949) 1,169,000. Fuel and power: coal
('000 metric tons, 1947) 32-9; crude oil ('000 metric tons, 1949; 1950,
six months, in brackets) 3,200 (1,655); electricity consumption (million
kwh., 1948; 1949, six months, in brackets) 3,072 (1,588). Raw materials
('000 metric tons, 1949): lead 18; zinc 19; sulphur 9; iron ore 22.
Manufactured goods (main products, '000 metric tons, 1949; 1950,
six months, in brackets): iron and steel products 154; cement 1,440
(776); paper pulp 37; rubber types ('000 units) 820.

Foreign Trade. (Million pesos, 1949; 1950, six months, in brackets)
import 4,645-4 (2,278-1); export 3,717-5 (2,566-7). Main sources of
imports (1949): Italy 16%; U.K. 15-6%; U.S. 14-8%; France 10-0%.
Main destinations of exports: U.K. 22-8%; Brazil 10-9%; U.S.
10-7%. Main imports (1949): machinery and vehicles 21-5%; textiles
18-6%; iron and steel goods 16-3%; fuel and lubricants 10-7%. Main
exports : meat and animal products 50 5% ; agricultural products 45 -0%.

Transport and Communications. Roads (1949): 20,082 mi. Licensed
motor vehicles (Dec. 1949): cars 250,000; commercial 160,000. Rail-
ways (1948): 26,568 mi.; freight carried (1948) 43 million tons; passengers
carried (1947) 335 million. Shipping (July 1949): number of merchant
vessels over 100 gross tons 403; total tonnage 834,840. Air transport
(1949, six months): mi. flown 3,996,721; passengers flown 132,538;
cargo carried 302,004 tons; air mail carried 51,779 tons. Telephones
(1949): subscribers 650,058. Wireless licences (1949): 2 million.

Finance and Banking. (Million pesos) budget: (1950 est.) revenue
4,870-0, expenditure 5,040-9; (1951 est.) revenue 4,844-1, expenditure
4,844-0. Budget of autonomous agencies (1950; 1951 in brackets):
balanced at 5,022-7 (5,987-9). National debt (Dec. 1948; Dec. 1949
in brackets): 12,940 (15,408). Currency circulation (July 1949; July
1950 in brackets): 7,018 (9,174). Gold reserve (million U.S. dollars,
July 1949; July 1950 in brackets): 167 (216). Monetary unit: peso with
a free market rate (pre-devaluation, 1949; Nov. 1950 in brackets) of
19-38 (38-22) pesos to the pound and 4-81 (13-65) pesos to the U.S.
dollar.

See J. C. J. Melford, San Martin: The Liberator (Oxford, 1950).

ARMIES OF THE WORLD. Three outstanding
developments affected the armies of the world during 1950:
on June 25 the army of North Korea invaded South Korea;
the United States abandoned attempts to economize in its
defence expenditure, passed a new draft law and began
major shipments of arms to North Atlantic treaty nations
while greatly expanding its own ground forces; and Chinese
Communist troops intervened in Korea, and China launched
an invasion of Tibet and built up forces in Kwangtung for
a possible amphibious thrust at Formosa or support of the
Communist forces in Indo-China.

The major changes in the disposition of the armies of the

ARMIES OF THE WORLD

world during 1950 resulted from the Korean war. Nearly
all of the U.S. forces of occupation in Japan were sent to
Korea, while most of the regular army troops in the United
States were also sent to the far east. Within the United
States the troops being sent overseas were replaced by con-
scripts and the activation of four national guard divisions.
France continued to send additional troops, mostly colonials,
to Indo-China. At the same time a gradual build-up of
strength commenced among the North Atlantic treaty
nations. There was little change in the disposition of the
Soviet and satellite armies.

Great Britain. The international crisis forced Great Britain
to modify its programme for economic recovery and concen-
trate on building up its armed forces. In July a three-year
defence plan was announced, involving an expenditure of
3,400 million. Military service for men from 18 to 26 was
extended from 18 months to two years and service pay was
increased by as much as 75 % for some ranks. Increases in
pay would add another 200 million to defence expenditure.
Great Britain was to expand its forces in Germany, and pro-
duce tanks, transport and heavy artillery for the Atlantic
treaty army.

Disposition. Steps were taken during 1950 to increase the
army by 55,000. This was to bring the 6^ divisions overseas to
full strength. A new division, the 1 Hh Armoured, was moved
to Germany, joining the 7th Armoured and 2nd Infantry
which were already in the British Army of the Rhine. British
troop strength of about 50,000 was maintained in the middle
east with a concentration in the Suez canal zone and with
troops in Eritrea and Cyprus. There was the equivalent of
two divisions in Malaya together with about 70,000 police of
all types. Strength in Hong Kong was 40,000. In Korea the
28th and 29th brigades and supporting troops, including
armour, fought as part of the United Nations forces.

Equipment. The 60-ton Centurion tank, which saw some
service in Korea, was one of the best heavy tanks in the world,
along with the Soviet Stalin Mark III. However, British
production of the Centurion was only slightly more than 100
a year. (See BRITISH ARMY.)

United States. At the beginning of 1950 the U.S. army
faced an economy programme, by which the number of troops
would be reduced from 677,000 to 630,000. At this time about
20% of the strength of the army was allocated to " house-
keeping " duties normally performed by civilian employees
who had been dismissed during the economy drive. Conse-

quently, when hostilities broke out in Korea the army had
only about 596,000 men.

With the bulk of the regular army committed in Korea, the
trend was completely reversed. The rate of military appro-
priations indicates the development of plans for U.S. rearma-
ment. The appropriation for the army for the fiscal year 1950
was $4,407 million. With economy in mind the initial
appropriation for the fiscal year 1951 (beginning July 1, 1950)
was $4,018 million, a reduction of $389 million. The over-all
defence appropriation for this period was $13,000 million.
However, during 1950 congress passed two supplementary
defence appropriations the first for $1 1,000 million and the
second for $15,000 million, bringing defence appropriations
to more than $42,000 million or three times the original
figure by the end of the calendar year. Of this amount approxi-
mately half was for the army and provided for a strength of
1,263,000 men.

At the outbreak of the Korean war in June 1950 the U.S.
army had only ten active divisions. Of these, four were on
occupation duty in Japan, one was in Germany and the rest
were in the U.S. Two of the divisions in the U.S., the 2nd
and 3rd Infantry, were sent to Korea and four National
guard divisions the 28th (Pennsylvania), 40th (California),
43rd (Connecticut, Rhode Island and Vermont) and 45th
(Qklahoma) were called to active duty. In addition the
196th (South Dakota) and 278th (Tennessee) Regimental
Combat teams were called up, These units were to be brought
to full strength with drafted men. Some non-divisional
National guard units were mobilized to replace units of
regular divisions sent overseas. The strength of the National
guard at the start of the Korean conflict was 325,976 and
included 27 divisions and 20 regimental combat teams. At
that time the organized reserve had a strength of 185,000 and
the volunteer reserve 337,000. By the end of 1950 more than
200,000 men had been inducted into the army under selective
service, bringing the over-all ground strength to nearly a
million. Plans called for the equivalent of 24 divisions to be
organized by June 1951.

Disposition. Approximately half the U.S. troops, 314,000,
were in the United States during the first half of 1950, and
about 100,000 in Europe and 150,000 in the Pacific area. At
the end of 'the year U.S. troop strength in the Pacific was
considerably greater, the forces stationed in Europe increasing
only slightly.

Steps were taken to transform the occupation forces in

Tanks of the French tinny taking part in manoeuvres, Aug. 30 to Sept. /, 7950

ARMIES OF THE WORLD

Germany into a component part of the Atlantic treaty army.
The 7th U.S. army was put on an active service footing with
headquarters at Stuttgart. The first combat forces assigned
to this army included the 1st U.S. Infantry division and
constabulary units which were to be reorganized into an
armoured division.

Training, The U.S. army began to put its stations on an
active basis and modernize training areas necessary for
handling an army of two to three times the size of the regular
army in 1950. Initial plans called for the induction of about
80,000 men a month during the early part of 1951.

During 1950 three major training exercises were conducted.
In February " Sweetbriar " was held in Alaska jointly with
the Canadian army to test arctic equipment and technique.

Fifty-ton Centurion tanks oj the British army, each carrying a
20-pdr. gun seen at Catterick camp, Yorkshire.

About 5,300 troops participated in a " mechanized march "
across difficult Alaskan terrain to attack an airstrip held by
an "aggressor*' force. The U.S. 14th Regimental Combat
team and elements of Princess Patricia's Canadian Light
infantry, with some airborne troops, participated. " Portex,"
held in March, was the largest peacetime amphibious-airborne
joint operation held up to the end of 1950. With about
80,000 U.S. army, navy, marine and air force personnel
participating this exercise was designed to provide training
in joint operations including airborne-amphibious techniques,
to test under service conditions and to train the defence
forces of the Caribbean command. In May " S warmer "
put to test a purely aerial invasion. Conducted with about
63,000 men and 375 planes, including the bulk of the 1 Ith and
82nd Airborne divisions, this operation tested the practicality
of capturing and supporting completely from the air a foothold
in enemy-held territory. The operation proved that capture
of an airhead was feasible and that airborne operations of a
greater scope than any attempted in World War II could be
mounted. The principal lesson from this exercise was that
paratroopers needed to be protected from enemy tank
attacks. Another training problem which received attention
in 1950 was that of close support of ground units by tactical
aircraft. An army air-support centre was established at Fort
Bragg, North Carolina, to train air-ground teams.
Equipment. New tanks put into production during 1950
included a light tank, the T-41, weighing 28 tons, mounting
a 76-mm. gun, with a speed of 35 m.p.h. The T-41 was stated
to be superior to anything in its class, including the thinly
armoured M-24 light tank which mounted a 75-mm. gun. An
improved medium tank, the M-47, was also put into produc-
tion. A development of the General Patton, the new tank had
similar characteristics, such as a weight of 48 tons, a 90-mm.
gun and a speed of 33 m.p.h.

A new anti-tank weapon was also produced in 1950, a
105-mm. jeep-mounted recoilless rifle. This weapon was
designed for infantry units, to be used with 5 5-in. bazookas
and the 75-mm. recoilless rifle against armour.

U.S.S.R. There was little evidence of change in the over-all
strength of the Soviet army in 1950. With about 100 divisions
at full strength, and another 100 in cadres, the U.S.S.R. was
maintaining about 2-5 million men on active service in the
army. Because the proportion of administrative and supply
troops was smaller in the Russian army than in the western
armies, this number gave the U.S.S.R. a higher proportion
of effective combatants than would usually be the case for
this number of men in an army. The published defence
appropriations for 1950 amounted to 19% of the total
budget.

Disposition. No major changes in disposition of the Soviet
army took place in 1950. About 30 to 35 divisions were
maintained in Germany at full strength (1 1,000 for the infantry
units). These divisions included six armoured formations
and there were some unattached tank regiments. In addition
there were six Soviet divisions in Hungary and Rumania and
two in Austria. The exact number of units in Poland was
unknown and it was apparent that a great concentration of
strength could take place there almost unobserved. Bridges
in the eastern zone of Germany were strengthened to carry
the very heavy Stalin Mark III tanks. The strength maintained
in the far east was 650,000 men.

Training. At least one special task force was trained during
1950 in arctic warfare technique. Large-scale exercises were
held in Germany, although tank manoeuvres were believed
to be restricted because of the deterioration of equipment.
An analysis of the state of training and equipment in the
Soviet army showed the following conditions: (1) Main-
tenance of mechanized equipment and armour was at its
lowest ebb since World War II because of an extreme shortage
of technicians. It was deduced that Soviet industrial expan-
sion had received first priority for technicians and that the
army was required to train its own mechanics. (2) There was
a shortage of all forms of mechanized equipment. Tanks were
old, trucks were scarce and in bad condition and there was
a scarcity of self-propelled guns. (3) Armoured divisions
lacked good radio equipment. (4) The physical condition,
training and discipline of the troops were excellent. (5) Des-
pite shortcomings the Soviet army was an extremely effective
fighting force.

France. The length of military service was increased from
18 months to two years as part of the programme to expand
the army to fulfil France's commitments under the Atlantic
treaty. Plans called for the expansion of the army in Europe
to a total of ten divisions in 1951 and at least five more in

An anti-aircraft gun crew of the United States army taking part

in combined U.S. -Canada army manoeuvres in Yukon Territory,

Canada.

ARMIES OF THE WORLD

Mute-train artillery of the bodyguard of the Dalai Lama of Tibet seen during field exercises in Lhasa, Oct. 1950, as the Chinese forces

began their invasion of Tibet.

1952 and a further five in 1953. The defence budget totalled
Fr. 740,000 million (28-5% of budget).

Additional financial support was promised by the United
States, as well as arms and equipment.

Disposition. Three French divisions were engaged in
occupation duties in Germany and Austria. Four additional
divisional cadres were available in France and were to be
fully manned in 1951. Reinforcements were sent from France
and north Africa to Indo-China during the year. These
included an armoured regiment equipped with Sherman
tanks and an infantry regiment composed of battalions from
the French Foreign legion and from Morocco and Senegal.
French strength in Indo-China amounted to 150,000, of
which about one-third was French, one-third colonial and
the balance Vietnamese. About half the Vietnamese troops
were well-trained; less than 10,000 were under Vietnamese
officers, the rest having French officers.

Opposing the French and Vietnam forces in Indo-China
were 150,000 Vietminh troops, a large proportion of whom
had been armed and trained at the principal depot and
supply centre of Nanning in southern China. Ho Chi Minh
maintained 53 well-armed battalions and 50 lightly armed
units' of battalion strength in the vital Tongking area, where
French communications to Hanoi and Haiphong were
harassed.

The French continued to hold the vital areas around
Hanoi, but expected a major drive to capture this rice-
producing region. General de Lattre de Tassigny was named
commanding general in Jndo-China late in the year.

Equipment. France depended heavily on U.S. equipment
both in Indo-China and metropolitan France. Production
of armoured vehicles was increased but was still insufficient.

China. The strength of the Chinese Communist armies,
like that of most Chinese armies, was very indefinite. There
were probably about 3 million men under arms, of whom
nearly half were in central Manchuria and North Korea.
Mobilization was publicly decreed on Dec. 12, 1950, and
there were indications that the Chinese Communists were
apprehensive of a general war in Asia. In addition to the
regular army, there was the People's militia of 2 million men.

Most of the remaining forces of Chiang Kai-shek were
concentrated on the island of Formosa, although some
guerrilla bands continued to harass the Communist forces,
particularly in southwest China. Chiang's forces numbered

about 400,000, although most of these had received only six
to eight weeks' training and very few were properly equipped.

Disposition. There was an important shift in the dis-
position of the Chinese armies following the intervention of
Chinese Communist units in the Korean war. The 4th Field
army, with a strength of more than 500,000 men and one
of the best in China, was moved from the south to Korea.
To fill the gap left by this movement the 3rd Field army
moved to cover the Indo-China border and the coast opposite
Formosa. The 2nd Field army was reported to be in south-
west China and there was some indication that the 1st Field
army was in central Manchuria.

Organization. The strength of the Chinese divisions was
7,000 to 10,000 men each. These were organized into three
infantry regiments. The Chinese divisions had few supporting
services suclj as engineers, communications, reconnaissance,
etc. Artillery support was limited. Three divisions were
grouped into each arjny, and three armies into each group of
armies. A field army usually had several groups of armies.

Equipment. Most small arms were old and of Soviet or
U.S. origin. The Chinese had field artillery up to 155 mm.
There were some U.S. light and medium tanks, and some
Soviet small arms and medium tanks.

The Korean War. Military observers noted the following
facts in the Korean war. The training of both North Korean
and Chinese troops was good, with a strong emphasis on
guerrilla and infiltration tactics. The strategy was similar
to that used in the civil war in China sudden attacks which
faded away into the hills when they encountered opposition
that was too strong. The leadership of the North Korean
and Chinese forces was excellent and showed an ability to
exploit any weakness and to take advantage of terrain.
Soviet equipment stood up well under adverse conditions.
Such equipment included a sub-machine gun with a drum-
type magazine and high rate of fire, a 120-mm. mortar,
jeeps and anti-tank guns. The T-34 tank had the field to
itself until the U.S. General Patton tank with its 90-mm. gun
arrived. (See KOREA; KOREAN WAR.)

The North Atlantic Army. Agreement was finally reached
in 1950 among the powers of the Atlantic area over the
details of establishing an international army for the defence
of western Europe. This followed the creation in 1948 of
Western Union (q.v.) with its five-power defence treaty for
50 years, and the signing in 1949 of the 12-nation North

ARMIES OF THE WORLD

Atlantic treaty. Although all the Atlantic treaty nations
passed greatly augmented defence budgets in 1950, agree-
ment on the individual contributions and the composition
of the army was not reached until late in the year. Even then
the rearmament of Western Germany continued to be a
controversial subject among the North Atlantic treaty powers,
and a final solution concerning Western Germany was not
reached in 1950.

The following is a general indication of the number of
divisions from the Atlantic treaty countries and Western
Germany which were to be stationed in western Europe 'by
1953 (number of divisions in western Europe in 1950 in
brackets): the Benelux countries, 9(2); France, 25(5); Italy,
18(8); United Kingdom, 7(2); United States, 10(2); total,
69(19). To support these units the U.S. appropriated $6,000
million in 1950 for equipment to be sent to the treaty nations.

On Dec. 19, 1950, General Dwight D. Eisenhower (q.v.),
United States, was appointed commander in chief of the
forces of the North Atlantic treaty powers.

Belgium. The army was reorganized to fit into the Atlantic
treaty force. Three commands were established, one for the
troops forming part of the treaty army, one for the defence
of the national territory and one for maintenance and trans-
port. Plans were made to send a full division to Germany
to strengthen the Belgian corps, which consisted of two
brigades in 1950. Compulsory service was extended from
1 8 months to two years. Strength of the armed forces was
75,000 but was to be raised to 150,000.

Italy. During the year Italy maintained about 100,000 men
in the army; in addition there were 70,000 carabinieri. To
build up sufficient forces for defence, the 8 existing divisions
would be increased to 12; there would also be 2 armoured
brigades. The development of the army was hindered by
lack of equipment, which would, however, be forthcoming
under the Atlantic treaty.

Netherlands. With the disbandment of the Netherlands
Indies army, the Dutch commenced to build up their ground
forces for the North Atlantic army. Supplies to .arm one
infantry division were to be received from Canada.

Eastern Europe. Bulgaria. One of the most advanced of
the armies in the Soviet orbit, the Bulgarian army was
reported to have 195,000 men under arms, although the
treaty limit set a maximum figure of 55,000. The Bulgarian
army was well-equipped with Sovi