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BRITANNICA 
BOOK    OF    THE    YEAR 

1950 


"  '  " 


BRITANNICA 
BOOK    OF    THE    YEAR 


1950 


ENCYCLOP/EDFA    BRITANNICA,    LTD. 
102     DEAN     STREET,     SOHO     SQUARE,     LONDON,     W.I 


PREFACE 

WITH  this  volume  of  the  Britannica  Book  of  the  Yatriht  story  of  the 
'40s  is  brought  to  its  close.  For  the  second  decade  in  the  lifetimes  of 
many  men  and  women  the  world,  and  Europe  more  than  the  other 
continents,  is  climbing  back  to  peacetime  economy  after  a  holocaust.  In  this 
one  respect  the  record  for  1949  is  almost  an  encouraging  one.  Many  articles 
in  the  Book  of  the  Year  speak  of  industrial  and  business  effort  made  and 
rewarded:  indeed,  if  more  and  more  production  were  the  complete  answer  to 
20th  century  difficulties  man,  in  spite  of  some  shortage  of  food,  would  have 
little  to  fear.  But  other  articles  in  the  Book  of  the  Year  tell  of  the  less  successful 
struggle  to  promote  peace.  Ideologically  the  world  is  divided  into  factions, 
clear  cut  as  never  before,  and  as  yet  there  is  no  sign  that  the  two  sides  are 
approaching  a  new  and  lasting  understanding.  Fortunately  it  is  not  the  job 
of  the  Book  of  the  Year  to  prophesy.  Its  only  endeavour  is  to  record  happenings 
and,  as  faithfully  as  possible,  the  statements  of  those  whose  opinions  and 
actions  shape  contemporary  history. 

The  Britannica  Book  of  the  Year  1950  contains  a  number  of  new  entries. 
Included  among  them  are  COUNCIL  OF  EUROPE,  NORTH  ATLANTIC  TREATY 
and  MACEDONIAN  PROBLEM.  This  year  attention  is  especially  drawn  to  these, 
as  it  is  to  the  presentation  of  the  long  statistical  sections  at  the  close  of  the 
articles  on  France,  Germany,  Great  Britain,  the  United  States  and  the 
U.S.S.R.  All  national  articles  end  with  statistical  summaries  but  these,  for 
their  outstanding  importance,  are  exceptionally  full. 

To  the  other  new  titles  it  is  impossible  to  draw  particular  attention,  unless 
exception  is  made  for  the  charmingly  written  entry  on  COUNTRY  LIFE.  But 
all  the  752  titles  have  the  same  purpose,  accurately  to  report  and  interestingly 
to  describe  the  events  of  1949:  it  is  the  earnest  hope  of  their  492  British, 
American  and  European  authors  that  they  in  fact  do  so. 

JOHN   ARMITAGE 

London  Editor. 


COPYRIGHT     Bfj 

ENCYCLOPAEDIA     BRITANNICA,     LTD, 
LONDON,     1950 


PRINTED     AND     BOUND     BY 

KNIOHT        &       FORSTER*      LID. 

LEEDS 


EDITORS    AND   CONTRIBUTORS 

WALTER    YUST,    Editor-in-chief    of    Encyclopaedia    Britannica 
JOHN    ARMiTAGE,    London    Editor 

(Initials  and  names  of  contributors  to  the  Britannica  Book  of  the  Year  with  the 
principal  articles  written  by  them.    The  arrangement  is  alphabetical  by  initials.) 


A.A.P.  Greece 

ALEXANDER  ALEXANDROU  PALLIS,  B.A.  Minister  Plenipo- 
tentiary attached  to  the  Greek  Embassy;  Director,  Greek  Office  of 
Information,  London.  Author  of  Greece's  Anatolian  Venture — 
and  After ;  etc. 

A.B.C.  Baseball 

ALBERT  B.  CHANDLER.    U.S.  Baseball  Commissioner. 

A.Blr.  Scandinavian  Literature 

ALAN  LEIGH  BLAIR.  Translator  and  writer  on  Scandinavian 
literature. 

A.C.Ch.  X-Ray  and  Radiology 

ARTHUR  C.  CHRISTIE,  M  D  Chief,  Department  of  Radiology, 
Doctors  Hospital  Medical  Centre,  Washington,  D.C. 

A.Ck.  English  Literature  (in  part) 

ARTHUR  CROOK.    Literary  critic,  London. 

A.Da.  Football  (in  part) 

ALLISON  DANZIG.  Member  of  sports  staff,  The  New  York  Times, 
New  York.  Author  of  The  Racquet  Game\  etc.  - 

A.D.Ls.  Entomology 

ANTHONY  DAVID  LEES,  M.A  ,  Ph  D.  Senior  Scientific  Officer, 
Agricultural  Research  Council,  Unit  of  Insect  Physiology,  Great 
Britain. 

A.Dr.  Textile  Industry  (in  part) 

ALFRED  DAWBER,  Mem  Text.  Inst.  Editor  of  Textile  Manufac- 
turer, Manchester.  Compiler  of  Textile  Manufacturer  Year  Book ;  etc. 

Ae.  Rackets;  Tennis 

LORD  ABERDARE.  Chairman,  National  Association  of  Boys 
Clubs.  Former  rackets  and  tennis  amateur  champion  of  Britain, 
U.S.  and  Canada.  Author  of  First  Steps  to  Rackets  (with  E.  B  Noel). 

A.E.Sh.  Chemotherapy 

AUSTIN  E.  SMITH.  Editor,  The  Journal  of  the  American  Medical 
Association.  Author  of  Techntc  of  Medication,  etc. 

A.G.B.  Dyesruffs  (in  part) 

ANSCO  G.  BRUINIER,  Jr.  Technical  Advertising  Manager, 
Dyestuflfs  Division,  Organic  Chemicals  Department,  E  I.  du  Pont  de 
Nemours  &  Company,  Inc.,  Wilmington,  Delaware. 

A.G.L.I.  Hospitals  (in part);  Nursing 

A.  G.  L.  IVES,  M.V.O.,  M.A.  Secretary,  King  Edward's  Hospital 
Fund  for  London.  Author  of  British  Hospitals. 

A  G  Ne  Munitions  of  War  (in  part) 

'A'.  G.  NOBLE.  Rear  Admiral,  U.S  N.  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of 
Ordnance,  Department  of  the  Navy,  Washington,  D.C. 

A.G.S.  Insurance  (in  part) 

ANTONE  G.  SINGSEN.  Assistant  Director,  Blue  Cross  Com- 
mission, American  Hospital  Association. 

A  H  Ha  Venereal  Diseases  (in  part) 

'ARTHUR  HERBERT  HARKNESS.  M.R.C.S  L.R.C.P.  Director 

Endell  Street  Clinic,  St   Peter's  and  St.  Paul's  Hospitals,  Institute  of 
Urology,  London  University. 
A  H  Ld  Forestry  (in  part) 

'ARTHUR  HENRY  LLOYD,  O.B.E.,  M  c..  T.D.,  M.A.  Lecturer 

in  Forestry,  University  of  Oxford.  Author  of  Engineering  for  forest 
Rangers. 

A.H.Md.  Betting  and  Gambling  (in  part) ;  Contract  Bridge  (in  part) 

ALBERT  H.  MOREHEAD.  Bridge  Editor,  The  New  York  Times 
Author  of  The  Modern  Hoyle;  editor,  The  Official  Rules  of  Card 
Games. 


A.J.Ar.  Industrial  Health  (in  part) 

ARTHUR  JOSEPH  AMOR,  M.D.,  M.Sc.,  D.I.I  I.  Principal  Medical 
Officer  Imperial  Chemical  Industries,  Ltd.  Author  of  An  X-Ray 
Ada  oj  Silicosis;  The  Chemical  Aspects  of  Sihcosis. 

A.  J.Hy.  Advertising  (in  part) 

ARTHUR  JAMES  HEIGH  WAY.  Editor,  World's  Press  News. 
London. 

A.J.Li.  Spirits  (in  part) 

ALFRED  J.  LIEBMANN.    President,  Schenley  Research  Institute, 

New  York. 

A.J.Mac.  Anglican  Communion;  Church  of  England,  etc. 

ALAN  JOHN  MACDONALD,  D.D.,  F.S.A.  Rural  Dean  of  the 
City  of  London  and  Rector  of  St.  Dunstan's-m-the-West.  Author 
of  Lanfranc,  His  Life,  Work  and  Destiny.  Hildebrand;  etc. 

A.J.P.  Rifle  Shooting 

ARTHUR  JOHN  PALMER.  Secretary,  National  Small-bore  Rifle 
Association  and  Editor,  The  Rifleman,  Richmond,  Surrey. 

A.Kk.  Printing  (in  part) 

ALBERT  KIRK.  Technical  Secretary,  British  Federation  of  Master 
Printers. 

A.L.HI.  Dance  (in  part) 

ARNOLD  LIONEL  HASKELL,  M.A.  Director/Principal,  Sadler's 
Wells  School,  London ;  Vice  President  and  Chairman  of  the  Education 
Committee  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Dancing;  Joint  Director  of 
the  Teachers'  Training  Course,  and  Chairman  of  the  Ballet  Benevo- 
lent Fund.  Author  of  Balletomania;  Diaghileff;  etc. 

A.L.S.      ^  Wines  (in  part) 

ANDRfi-LOUIS  SIMON.  President,  Wine  and  Food  Society, 
London.  Author  of  yintagewise;  A  Wine  Primer;  A  Dictionary  of 
Gastronomy;  etc. 


Stocks  and  Shares  (in  pan) 

Chief  Market  Editor,  Financial  Times, 


A.L.W.S. 

A.   L.   W.   SHILLADY. 
London. 

A.M.Ds.  Local  Government  (in  part) 

AUDREY  M.  DAVIES.  Librarian,  Institute  of  Public  Administra- 
tion, New  York,  N.Y. 

A.Mjd.  Islam 

ABDUL  MAJID,  M.A.  Iman  of  the  Mosque,  Wokmg.  Editor, 
Islamic  Review,  Wokmg,  Surrey. 

A.Mu.  Dance  (In  part) 

ARTHUR  MURRAY.  President,  National  Institute  of  Social 
Dancing.  Author  of  How  to  Become  a  Good  Dancer;  Modern  Dancing; 
etc. 


International  Monetary  Fund 

Deputy    Managing    Director,    International 


AJSf.O. 

A.    N.    OVERBY. 
Monetary  Fund. 

A.Nr.  Painting  (in  pan) 

ALFRED  NEU  MEYER.  Director,  Print  Room,  Public  Library, 

San  Francisco,  California.  Professor  of  Art  History,  Mills  College, 
Oakland,  California. 

A.Pe.  Congregational  Churches 

ALBERT  PEEL,  M.A.,  Litt.D.  Late  Editor,  Congregational  Monthly 
and  Transactions  of  the  Congregational  Historical  Society,  London. 
Author  of  The  Congregational  Two  Hundred;  Inevitable  Congrega- 
tionalism; etc. 


A.«J»A« 


Social  Security 


A.J.   ALTMEYER.      Commissioner,   Federal   Security   Agency, 
Social  Security  Administration,  Washington,  D.C. 


Chambers  of  Commerce  (in  part) 
ARTHUR  RICHARD  KNOWLES,  O.B.E.,  F.C.I.S.  Secretary- 
General,  The  Association  of  British  Chambers  of  Commerce,  London. 


Vlll 


CONTRIBUTORS 


A.S.A.  Telegraphy  (in  part) 

SIR    ARTHUR   STANLEY   ANGWIN,  K.B.E.,    D.S  O.,    M  C., 

T.D.,  M.I.C.E.,  M.I.E.E.,  B.Sc.  (Eng.).  Chairman,  Cable  and 
Wireless,  Ltd.,  London. 

A.Sdn.  Shops  and  Department  Stores 

ARTHUR  SELDON,  B.Com.    Consulting  Editor,  Store,  Magazine 

of  Merchandising,  London. 
A.Stn.  Exchange  Control  and  Exchange  Rates 

ALEXANDER   STEVENSON       Senior   Economist,   International 

Bank  for  Reconstruction  and  Development.   Author  of  The  Common 

Interest  in  International  Economic  Organization 
A.T.C1.  New  Zealand,  Dominion  of 

ARTHUR  TREVOR  CAMPBELL,  M.A.    Public  Relations  Officer, 

New  Zealand  Government,  London. 
A.T.Me.  Historical  Research 

ALEXANDER  TAYLOR   MILNE,   M  A.,  F.R.Hist  S      Secretary 

and  Librarian,  Institute  of  Historical  Research,  University  of  London. 

Compiler  of  Writings  on  British  History  (in  progress). 
A.Ws.  Fashion  and  Dress  (in  part) 

AUDREY  WITHERS,  B.A.    Editor,  Vogue,  London. 
B.Dr.  Art  Sales  (in  part} 

BERNARD  DENVIR,  B.A.    Art  critic,  Tribune  and  Daily  Herald, 

London,    Joint  Editor,  Art  News  and  Review.    Author  of  Drawings 

of  William  Hogarth;  etc. 
B.Fy.  Machinery  and  Machine  Tools  (in  part) 

BURNHAM  FINNEY.     Editor,  American  Machinist,  New  York, 

N.Y. 
B.H.P.  Geology  (in  part) 

BEN  H.  PARKER.    President,  Colorado  School  of  Mines,  Golden, 

Colorado. 
B.J.W.  Dentistry 

BRYAN  JARDINE  WOOD,  F.D.S.R.C  S.    Editor,  British  Dental 

Journal,  London. 
B.L.  Timber  (in  part) 

BRYAN  LATHAM.    Past  President,  Timber  Trade  Federation  of 

the  United  Kingdom;  Member  of  Timber  Advisory  Committee  to 

Board  of  Trade,  London. 
B.L.B.  Immigration  and  Emigration  (in  part) 

BERTHA    LILIAN   BRACEY,   O.B  E.,    B  A.      Women's    Affairs 

Officer  for  Schleswig-Holstem,  Control  Commission  for  Germany 

(British  Element). 
B.PI.  Girl  Guides  (in  part) 

OLAVE  ST.  CLAIR,  LADY  BADEN  POWELL,  G.B.E.    World 

Chief  Guide.    Author  of  Opening  Doorways. 
B.R.P.  Thailand  (Siam);  etc. 

BERTIE    REGINALD    PEARN,    M.A,    F.R  Hist  S.       Formerly 

Professor  of  History,  University  of  Rangoon.    Author  of  History  of 

Rangoon. 

Br.S.  Crime  (in  part) ;  Police  (in  part) 

BRUCE  SMITH.  Secretary,  Institute  of  Public  Administration, 
New  York.  Author  of  Police  Systems  in  the  U.S.;  Rural  Crime 
Control. 

B.Sk.  Gliding  (in  part) 

BEN  SHUPACK,  B.S  ,  M  A.  Director,  Soaring  Society  of  America. 

B.W.C.  Swimming  (in  part) 

BERTRAM  WILLIAM  CUMMINS.  Hon.  Publicity  Secretary  and 
Past  President,  Amateur  Swimming  Association.  Founder  and  Hon. 
Editor,  Swimming  Times,  Croydon,  Surrey. 

C.A.Bn.  Plastics  Industry  (in  part) 

CHARLES  A.  BRESKIN.    Publisher,  Modern  Plastics,  New  York, 

N.Y. 

C.A.Br.  Australian  Literature 

CLIFFORD  AMANDUS  BURMESTER,  B.A  Librarian,  Office 
of  the  High  Commissioner  of  Australia  in  London.  Liaison  Officer 
of  the  Commonwealth  National  Library,  Canberra,  Australia. 

C.A.J.  French  Union;  etc. 

CHARLES-ANDRf:  JULIEN.  Professor  of  the  history  of  coloniza- 
tion at  the  Sorbonne,  Pans  Author  of  Histoire  de  V 'Afnque  du  Nord; 
Htstotre  de  ^expansion  et  de  la  colonisation  fran$aises  (vol.  1,  1948). 

C.A.Mo.  Meat  (in  part) 

CECIL  ALFRED  MORRISON.  Advertising  Manager  and  Assistant 
Editor,  Meat  Traders'  Journal,  London. 

C.A.Sd.  Leather  (in  part);  Shoe  Industry  (in  part) 

CALVIN  ADAMS  SHEPARD.  Editor,  Shoe  and  Leather  News, 
London. 

C.A.T.  Spices 

C.  A  THAYER.  Former  President  and  Former  Director,  American 
Spice  Trade  Association. 

C.B.E.  Archery 

CHARLES  BERTRAM  EDWARDS.  Secretary,  Grand  National 
Archery  Society  and  of  the  Royal  Toxophilite  Society,  Great  Britain. 

C.Bt.  Golf  (in  part) 

CHARLES  BARTLETT.  Golf  Editor,  Chicago  Tribune,  Chicago, 
Illinois.  Secretary,  Golf  Writers'  Association  of  America. 

C.Bu.  Sculpture  (in  part) 

CARLYLE  BURROWS,  B.A.  Art  Editor,  New  York  Herald 
Tribune,  New  York,  N.Y. 


C.C.N.V.  Physiology 

CHARLES  CYRIL  NORROY  VASS,  M  Sc.,  Ph.D.,  M  B  ,  Ch.B. 
Reader  in  Physiology  in  the  University  of  London  at  St.  Thomas's 
Hospital  Medical  School,  London.  Part  author  of  Synopsis  of 
Physiology  (4th  ed.). 

C.C.Ws.  Consumer  Credit  (in  part) 

CHARLES  COWLEY  WORTERS,  F.I.C.S.  Secretary,  The  Hire 
Purchase  Trade  Association  and  of  the  International  Association  for 
Protection  and  Promotion  of  Trade,  Ltd.,  London;  Member  of 
Council  of  the  Institute  of  Credit  Management,  London. 

C.Cy.  Canadian  Literature 

CHARLES  CLAY.  Director,  Canadian  Research  and  Editorial 
Institute,  Ottawa,  Ontario.  Author  of  Young  Voyageur;  Muskrat 
Man;  etc. 

C.D.Hu.  Chemistry 

CHARLES  D.  HURD,  Sc  D.,  Ph.D.  Morrison  Professor  of 
Chemistry,  Northwestern  University,  Evanston,  Illinois. 

C.E.A..T.  Newfoundland  and  Labrador 

CHARLES  E.  A.  JEFFERY,  M.B  El.  Editor,  Evening  Telegram, 
St  John's,  Newfoundland;  Correspondent,  The  Times,  London. 

C.E.L.-Q.  Lutherans 

CARL  E.  LUND-QUIST,  B.D.  Assistant  Executive  Director, 
National  Lutheran  Council.  Editor,  National  Lutheran. 

C.E.R.  Forestry  (in  part) 

CHARLES  EDGAR  RANDALL,  A.B.,  M  A.  Information  Special- 
ist, Division  of  Information  and  Education,  Forest  Service,  U.S. 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D  C.  Author  of  Our 
Forests;  etc. 

C.K.R.S.  Railways  (In  part} 

CHARLES  ELY  ROSE  SHERRINGTON,  M.A.  Secretary,  Railway 
Research  Service,  British  Railways.  Author  of  Economics  of  Rail 
Transport  in  Great  Britain;  etc. 

C.F.Dn.  Clothing  Industry  (in  part);  Iron  and  Steel  (in  part);  etc. 

CYRIL  FRANK  DUNN.  Industrial  Correspondent,  Observer, 
London. 

C.F.Sz.  National  Income  (in  part);  Wealth  and  Income,  Distribution,  of 
CHARLES  F.  SCHWARTZ,  B.A.,  MA,  Ph.D.  Chief,  Income 
Section,  National  Income  Division,  Office  of  Business  Economics, 
U.S  Dept.  of  Commerce,  Washington,  D  C. 

C.G.Fe.  Chambers  of  Commerce  (in  part) 

CECIL  GEORGE  FREKE,  C.t  E  ,  M.A.,  B.Sc  Director,  British 
National  Committee,  International  Chamber  of  Commerce. 

C.G.My.  Poultry 

CLARENCE  GEORGE  MAY.  Editor,  Poultry  World.  Author  of 
Natural  Hatching  and  Rearing;  Bantams  for  Eggs. 

C.H.Bd.  Leprosy 

C.   H.   BINFORD,   M.D.      Medical  Director,   U.S.   Public   Health 

Service,  Chief  of  Pathology  Service,  U.S  Marine  Hospital,  Balti- 
more, Maryland. 

C.H.Br.  Roads  (in  part) 

SIR    CHARLES    HERBERT    BRESSEY,      C.B ,     C.B  E.,     D.Sc. 

Chartered  Surveyor  and  Town  planner;  Principal  Technical  Officer, 
British  Ministry  of  Transport,  1928-35. 

C.H.Bu.  Machinery  and  Machine  Tools  (in  part) 

CHARLES  HENRY  BURDER,  M  B.E ,  B.A.  Acting  Editor, 
Machinery,  London 

Ch.F.  Cambridge  University 

CHARLES  FOX,  M.A.  Sometime  Director  of  Training  in  the 
University  of  Cambridge.  Author  of  Educational  Psychology;  etc. 

Ch.Fl.  Motor  Racing  (in  part) 

CHARLES    FOTHERGILL  Motoring    Correspondent,    News 

Chronicle,  London.  Author  of  The  Story  of  Grand  Prix  Motor 
Racing. 

C.H.G.T.  Banking  (In  part);  Bank  of  England;  etc. 

C.  GORDON  TETHFR.  Deputy  City  Editor,  Financial  Times. 
London. 

C.Ho.  Arabia;  etc. 

HUGH  CHRISTOPHER  HOLME,  B  A.  Chief  Assistant,  Third 
Programme,  British  Broadcasting  Corporation,  London 

C.L.B.  Psychology  (in  part) 

SIR  CYRIL  LODOWIC  BURT,  M.A.,  D.Sc.,  D.Litt.,  LL.D. 
Fellow,  Jesus  College,  Oxford.  Professor  of  Psychology,  University 
of  London.  Author  of  The  Factors  of  the  Mind;  etc. 

C.L.Bt.  Rowing  (In  part) 

C.  LEVERICH  BRETT,  B.A.  Editor,  National  Association  of 
Amateur  Oarsmen  Rowing  News. 

C.L.deB.  Fencing  (in  part) 

CHARLES-LOUIS  de  BEAUMONT,  M.A.  Membre  d^Honneur 
de  la  Federation  Internationale  d'Escrimc.  Hon.  Secretary,  Amateur 
Fencing  Association,  London.  Author  of  Modern  British  Fencing. 

C.L.V.M.  Architecture  (in  part) 

CARROLL  L.  V  MEEKS,  Ph.D.  Associate  Professor  of  Architec- 
ture and  of  the  History  of  Art,  Yale  University,  New  Haven,  Con- 
necticut. President,  Society  of  Architectural  Historians. 

C.McG.  Cuba;  Haiti;  etc. 

CONSTANTINE  EDWARD  McGUIRE.  Economic  Adviser. 
Author  of  Italy's  International  Economic  Position;  etc. 


CONTRIBUTORS 


IX 


C.M.Ky.  Gynaecology  and  Obstetrics 

C.  MEAVE  KENNY,  M.D.,  F.R  C.O  G.  University  Reader  in 
Obstetrics  and  Gynaecology,  Postgraduate  Medical  School,  Univer- 
sity of  London. 

C.Mn.  Shipbuilding  (in  part);  etc. 

CUTHBERT  MAUGHAN.  Shipping  Correspondent,  The  Times, 
London.  Author  of  Commodity  Market  Terms;  Our  Mercantile 
Marine;  etc. 

C.M.Pn.  Industrial  Health  (in  part) 

CARL  M.  PETERSON,  M.D.  Secretary,  Council  on  Industrial 
Health,  American  Medical  Association. 

C.M.R.  Girl  Guides  (in  part) 

CONSTANCE  M.  RITTENHOUSE  (Mrs.  Paul  Rittenhouse) 
National  Director,  Girl  Scouts  of  the  United  States  of  America. 

C.M.WI.  Liberia. 

CHARLES  MORROW  WILSON.  Economist,  Caribbean  Affairs, 
West  African  AfTdirs.  Director,  American  Foundation  for  Tropical 
Medicine.  Director,  Libcrian  institute.  Author  of  Oil  Across  the 
World,  Liberia;  etc. 

C.R.A.  Marriage  and  Divorce 

CLIFFORD  R.  ADAMS,  MA,  Ph  D  Professor  of  Psychology 
in  Charge  of  Marriage  Counselling  for  the  School  of  Education, 
Pennsylvania  State  College,  State  College,  Pennsylvania  Regional 
Consultant,  American  Institute  of  Family  Relations  Author  of 
Looking  Ahead  to  Marriage. 

C.T.D.  Air  Forces  of  the  World  dn  part) 

CALVIN  T  DURGIN  Vice  Admiral,  U  S  N  Deputy  Chief  of 
Naval  Operations  (Air),  Department  of  the  Navy,  Washington,  D  C 

C.W.S.  Motor  Transport  (in  part) 

CARL  W.  STOCKS,  B  S.  Edi'or  Emeritus,  Bus  Transportation, 
New  York 

D.A.C.  Women's  Activities 

DOROTHY  A.  CANNLLL.    Writer  and  Editor,  London 

D.A.G.R.  Building  and  Construction  Industry  (in  part) 

DONAL  D  A  G.  REID,  B  Sc  (bng  ),  A.M  I  C  L  ,  AMI  Struct  L 
Principal,  London  County  Council  Bnxton  School  of  Building 

D.A.Sn.  Berlin;  Germany  (in  part);  etc. 

DERRICK  ADOLPHUS  SINGTON,  BA  Press  Control  Officer, 
Control  Commission  for  Germany.  Author  of  Behen  Uncovered; 
etc. 

D.B.S.  Bridges  (in  part) 

DAVID  BARNARD  STEINMAN,  A.M,  CE,  Sc  D  ,  Ph.D  , 
F  R  S  A  Civil  Engineer  Author  of  A  Practical  Treatise  on  Suspension 
Bridges,  The  Builder?  of  the  Bridge. 

D.C.II.J.  Libraries  (in  part) 

DhNIS  CLIFFORD  HENRIK  JONES,  FLA.  Librarian,  Library 
Association,  London. 

D.D.C.  Children's  Books  (in  part) 

DORIS  DAVIES  CHILCOT,  F  L.A  Principal  Assistant  in  Charge 
of  Work  with  Young  People,  Islington  Public  Libraries,  London 

D.Dz  Atomic  Energy  (in  part) 

DAVID  DIETZ.  Science  Editor,  Scripps-Howard  Ncwspapeis 
Lecturer  in  General  Science,  Western  Reserve  University,  Cleveland, 
Ohio.  Author  of  Atomic  Energy  in  the  Coming  Era,  etc. 

D.F.K.  Israel;  etc. 

DAVID  FRANCIS  KESSLER,  B  A.  Managing  Dnector,  Jewish 
Chronicle,  London. 

D.F.Ky.  Angling 

DONOVAN  FRANK  KELLEY. 

D.G.B.  Sugar  (in  part) 

DAVID  GRAHAM  BURNS,  B  A.  Member  of  the  stafT,  Common- 
wealth Economic  Committee,  London. 

D.G.Wo.  Textile  Industry  (in  part) 

'DOUGLAS  G.  WOOLF.  Former  Editor  in  Chief,  Textile  World, 
Textile  Consultant  and  Publisher,  East  Pasadena  Herald,  Pasadena, 
California. 

D.Hn.  Newspapers  and  Maga/ines  (in  part) 

'DE'REK  HUDSON,  M  A.  Literary  Editor,  Spectator  Author  of 
Thomas  Barnes  of  "The  Times";  British  Journalists  and  News- 
papers', etc. 

njC  Spirits  (in  part) 

'DENYS  IRVINE  COOMBER,  B.SC,  AR.I.C,  PhD     senior 

Scientific  Officer,  Government  Chemists'  Department,  London. 
j)  j  ft  Wages  and  Hours  (in  part) 

*DONALD  J    HART,   M  A.      Associate  Professor  of  Economics, 

Carroll  College,  Waukesha,  Wisconsin 

D  Me  Scotland 

'SIR  DAVID  MILNE,  K.C.B.,  M  A.   Permanent  Undcr-Secretary  of 

State  for  Scotland. 

j)  M  f  Vegetable  Oils  and  Animal  Fats  (in  part) 

'DONALD  MARK  TAILBY,  B.A    Economic  Assistant,  Common- 
wealth Economic  Committee,  London. 
n  N  *  Societies,  Learned  and  Professional 

DAVID  NICOLL  LOWE,  O  B  E.,  M.A  ,  B  Sc.    Secretary,  British 

Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science. 
n  Vn  London 

LADY   DOROTHY   NICHOLSON,    M.A,    M  B.E.      Author   of 

The  Londoner;  etc. 


D.R.G.  Football  (in  part) 

DAVID  ROBERT  GENT.  Rugbv  Correspondent,  Sunday  Times, 
London 

D.R.Gi.  France 

DARSIE  RUTHERFORD  GILLIE  Legion  of  Honour.  Paris 
Correspondent,  Ma^thester  Guardian 

D.St.  Advertising  (in  part) 

DANIEL  STARCH.  O*n-ultant  in  Business  Research.  Former 
Lecturer  and  Professor  at  Harvard  University  and  the  University 
of  Wisconsin  Author  of  Principles  of  Advertising,  etc. 

D  V.  Oxford  University 

DOUGLAS  VEALE,  C.B  E  ,  M  A.  Registrar  of  Oxford  University 
and  Fellow  of  Corpu^  Christi  (_  ollege 

D.W.H.  Socialist  Movement 

DENIS  WINSION  HEALFY,  MBE,  MA.  Secretary,  Inter- 
national Department  oi  the  British  Labour  Party. 

D.W.K.- J  Bread  and  Bakery  Products;  Flour  (in  part) 

DOUGLAS    WILLIAM    KLNT-JONES,    Ph.D,    B  Sc ,    F.R.I.C. 

Analytical  and  Consulting  Chemist.  Author  of  The  Practice  and 
Science  oj  Breadtrtaking,  Modern  Cereal  Chemistry. 

E.A.Gs.  Children's  Books  (in  part) 

I  LI7ABETH  A.  GROVFS,  B  A.  Assistant  Professor,  School  of 
Librananshif),  University  of  Washington,  Seattle,  Washington. 

E  \.P  Spanish  Literature 

LDGAR  ALLISON  PEERS,  M.A,  Hon  LL  D.  Professor  of 
Spanish,  University  nf  Liverpool.  Author  of  Studies  of  the  Spanish 
Af>'s//o,  A  History  of  the  Romantic  Movement  in  Spain. 

E.C  Sd.  Aviation,  Civil  (in  part);  Gliding  (in  part) 

EDWIN  COLSTON  SHEPHERD,  B  A  ,  B  Litt.  Secretary  General, 
Air  League  of  the  British  Empire,  Air  Correspondent,  Sunday  Times. 
Author  of  The  R  A.F.  To-day,  Great  Flights 

E.Cul.  Contract  Bridge  (in  part) 

ELY  CULBERTSON.  Editor,  The  Bridge  World,  New  York. 
Author  of  Contract  Bridge  Complete,  Culbertson's  Hoyle;  etc. 

E.E.Bs.  Civil  Service 

SIR  EDWARD  ETTINGDENE  BRIDGES,  G.C  B.,  G  C.V.O  , 
M  C  ,  Hon  LL  D  ,  Hon  D.Litt.,  Hon  D.C.L.  Permanent  Secretary 
to  H  M  Treasury,  London. 

E.E.R.  United  States  of  America,  The  (in  part) 

EDGAR  EUGENE  ROBINSON,  A  M  ,  LL.D.  Byrne  Professor 
of  American  History  and  Director  of  the  Institute  of  American 
History,  Stanford  University,  Stanford,  California. 

E.F.Hk.  Yachting  (in  part) 

EDWARD  FOWLESHAYLOCK.  Editor,  Yachting  World,  London. 

E.G.  An.  Shoe  Industry  (in  part) 

ESTELLE  G  ANDERSON  (Mrs.  Arthur  D.  Anderson)  Associate 
Editor,  Boot  and  Shoe  Recorder,  New  York,  N.Y. 

E.G.Cs.  Ice  Skating  (in  part) 

ERIC  GEORGE  COGGINS.  Secretary,  National  Skating  Associa- 
tion of  Great  Britain 

E.II.Co.  Gold  (in  part) 

EDWARD  H  COLLINS,  B  Litt.  Member,  Editorial  Board,  The 
New  York  Times,  New  York,  N.Y.  Author  of  Inflation  and  Your 
Money. 

E.Hd.  Calcutta;  Ceylon 

EDWIN  HAWARD.  Editor,  /  P  B.  Bulletin;  Secretary,  India, 
Pakistan  and  Burma  Association  Author  of  A  Picture  of  India; 
Europeans  in  the  Indian  Legislature;  etc 

E.Hin.  Zoology 

EDWARD  HINDLE,  M  A  ,  Sc  D  ,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S.  Scientific  Director, 
Zoological  Society  of  London.  Author  of  Flies  and  Disease;  Blood- 
sucking Hies,  etc. 

E.H.Kg.  National  Trust 

HOWARD    HERBERT  KEELING,    M.C.,    M.A.       Member    of 

Parliament,  Chairman,  Publicity  Committee,  National  Trust, 
England  and  Wales 

E.H.Kr.  Mineralogy 

EDWARD  HENRY  KRAUS.  Dean  Emeritus  of  the  College  of 
Literature,  Science  and  the  Arts  and  Professor  Emeritus  of  Crystallo- 
graphy and  Mineralogy,  University  of  Michigan,  Ann  Arbor, 
Michigan. 

E.I.F.  Horticulture  (in  part) 

E.  I.  FARRINGTON.  Former  Secretary,  Massachusetts  Horti- 
cultural Society;  Editor,  Horticulture,  Boston,  Massachusetts. 
Author  of  The  Gardener's  Almanac,  etc. 

E.I.P.  Salvation  Army  (in  part) 

ERNEST  I.  PUG  MIRE.  National  Commander  of  the  Salvation 
Army  in  the  United  States. 

E.I.U.  Vital  Statistics 

ECONOMIST  INTELLIGENCE  UNIT,  Economist  Newspaper 
Ltd  ,  London. 

E.J.C.  Canning  Industry  (in  part) 

EDWIN  J  CAMERON.  Director,  Research  Laboratories,  National 
Canners  Association,  U.S.A. 

,E.J.L.  Denmark;   Norway;    etc. 

ETHEL  JOHN  L1NDGREN,  M.A.,  Ph.D.  Lecturer,  Department  of 
Anthropology,  University  of  Cambridge.  Editor  of  The  Study  of 
Society;  Methods  and  Problems. 


CONTRIBUTORS 


E.Kn.  Contract  Bridge  (in  part) 

EWART  KEMPSON  Cards  Editor,  Star,  London.  Author  of 
Bridge  Quiz. 

E.L.S.  Arnlies  of  the  World 

FDWIN  I.  SIBERT.  Brigadier  General,  USA.  Commanding 
General  of  the  United  States  Army  Forces  in  the  Antilles 

E.M.C.  Fertilizers  (in  part) 

EDWARD  MORTIMER  CROWTHER,  D  Sc  .  F  R  I  C.  Head  of 
Chemistry  Depaitment,  Rothamsted  Experimental  Station,  Harpen- 
den,  Hertfordshire 

K.M.E.  Airports  and  Flying  Fields  (in  part) 

EMERY  M  ELLINGSON.  Manager,  Air  Transport  Association 
of  America,  Los  Angeles,  California. 

E.Mgh.  Class  (in  part) 

EDWARD  MEIGH,  M  B  L  ,  M  Sc  ,  P. I  LA  ,  F.S  G  f  Directoi, 
Glass  Technical  Services,  Ltd  ,  London. 

E.N.T.  Paints  and  Varnishes 

ERIC  1MESHAN  TIRATSOO,  PhD.,  DIC,  B  Sc  ,  A.R.S  M  , 
F.G  S  ,  F  R  G.S  ,  M  Inst.Pet.  Editor,  Paint  Manufacture,  Petroleum, 
Atomics,  Chemical  Industries,  London  Author  of  Petroleum  Geology. 

E.O.G.  Cocoa;  Coffee 

EDGAR  OTTO  GOTHSCH,  B  Sc  (Fcon  ).  Member  of  the  staff, 
Commonwealth  Economic  Committee,  London 

E.P.Jo.  Diabetes 

E.  P  JOSLIN,  M  D.,  Sc.D  Professor  Emeritus  of  Clinical  Medicine, 
Harvard  University  Medical  School,  MedicaJ  Director,  George  F. 
Baker  Clinic,  New  England  Deaconess  Hospital,  Boston,  Massa- 
chusetts. 

E.R.Bk.  International  Bank  for  Reconstruction  and  Development 

EUGENE  R.  BLACK.  President,  International  Bank  for  Recon- 
struction and  Development. 

E.S.Br.  Lawn  lennis  (in  part) 

EDWIN  S  BAKER,  A,B.  Executive  Secretary,  United  States 
Lawn  'lennis  Association. 

E.Se.  Book  Publishing  (///  part);  Literary  Pri/es  (in  part) 

EDMOND  S.  SEGRAVE     Editor,  Bookseller,  London. 

E.S.J.  Juvenile  Employment  (in  part) 

ELIZABETH  S.  JOHNSON.  Chief,  Division  ol  Child  Labour  and 
Youth  Fmployment,  Bureau  of  Labour  Standards,  U  S.  Department 
of  Labour,  Washington,  D  C. 

E.T.B.  Mathematics 

ERIC  TEMPLE  BELL  Professor  of  Mathematics,  California 
Institute  of  Technology,  Pasadena,  California.  Author  of  Men  of 
Mathematics,  The  Development  of  Mathematics;  etc. 

E.W.G.  Electrical  Industries  (///  pan);  etc. 

EDWARD  WILLIAM  GOLDING,  M  Sc.Tech  ,  M  LE  E., 
M.A  I  E  E  Head  of  Rural  Electrification  and  Wind-power  Depart- 
ment, Electrical  Research  Association,  London.  Author  of  Electrical 
Measurements  and  Measuring  Instruments',  etc. 

E.Wi.  Italy;  etc. 

ELIZABETH  WISKEMANN,  M  A  ,  M.Litt      Writer  on  Foreign 

Affairs.  Author  of  Czechs  and  Germans,  Undeclared  War;  Italy , 
The  Rome-Berlin  AMS> 

E.Ws.  Psychosomatic  Medicine 

EDWARD  WEISS,  M  D  Professor  of  Clinical  Medicine,  Temple 
University  Medical  School,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania.  Co-author 
of  Psychosomatic  Medicine. 

E.W.We.  Tourist  Industry 

ERNLST  WALTER  WIMBLE,  C.B  E.  Member  of  British  Tourist 
and  Holidays  Board;  Member  of  The  Hotels  Executive  (British 
Transport  Commission);  Chairman  of  Editorial  Board,  Go,  inter- 
national travel  monthly. 

F.A.Sw.  Art  Exhibitions  (in  part)  etc. 

FREDERICK  A.  SWEET,  M.A.  Associate  Curator  of  Painting 
and  Sculpture,  The  Art  Institute  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  Illinois. 

F.B.C.  Music  (in  part) 

FRANK  B.  COOKSON.  Chairman  of  the  Theory  Department  and 
Assistant  Professor  of  Theory  and  Composition,  School  of  Music, 
Northwestern  University,  Evanston,  Illinois;  Managing  Editor, 
Educational  Mime  Magazine. 

F.C.II.  Rotary  International 

FREDERICK  C  HICKSON,  F.C.I  S  General  Secretary,  Rotary 
International  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

F.C.W.  Cancer 

FRANCIS  CARTER  WOOD,  M.D.  Emeritus  Director,  Cancer 
Research,  Columbia  University,  New  York.  Consulting  Pathologist, 
St.  Luke's.  Hospital,  New  York.  Author  of  Clinical  Diagnosis,  etc. 

F.E.Lk.  Gems 

FRANCIS  ERNEST  LEAK,  F.G  A.  Manager,  John  Bennett, 
Jeweller;  Senior  Partner  of  West  of  England  Gemmological  Labora- 
tory, Bristol. 

F.Ce.  Exploration  and  Discovery;  Geography 

FRANK  GEORGE,  M  A.  Assistant  Editor,  Royal  Geographical 
Society,  London. 

F.HI.  Woo!  (in  part) 

FRANK  HEPPENSTALL,  A.C.A.  Secretary,  British  Wool 
Federation 


F.J.K.  Electrical  Industries  (in  part);  etc. 

FRANCIS  J.  KOVALCIK.     Assistant  Editor,  Electrical  World. 

F.J.Os.  Town  and  Country  Planning  (in  part) 

F  J  OSBORN.  Chairman  of  Executive,  Town  and  Country 
Planning  Association,  Great  Britain.  Author  of  Green-Belt  Cities;  etc. 

F.J.Se.  Food  Research  (in  part) 

FREDRICK  J  STARE,  M  D.  Professor  of  Nutrition  and  Chair- 
man  of  the  Department  of  Nutrition,  School  of  Medicine,  Harvard 
University,  Boston,  Massachusetts. 

F.L.C.  Salvation  Anrty  (in  part) 

FREDERICK  L  COUTTS.  Assistant  Literary  Secretary,  Salvation 
Army  International  Hcadquaiters,  London.  Author  of'lhe  Timeless 
Prophets;  etc 

F.M.V.T.  Geology  (in  part) 

FRANCIS  M.  VAN  TUYL  Professor  and  Head  ol  the  Department 
of  Geology,  Colorado  School  of  Mines,  Golden,  Colorado. 

F.N.I  I.  Nuts 

FRANK  NORMAN  HOWES,  D  Sc.  Principal  Scientific  Officer, 
Royal  Botanic  Gardens,  Kew,  Surrey.  Author  of  Nuts,  their  Produc- 
tion and  Everyday  Uses;  etc. 

F.P.L.L.  Pneuoionia 

FRANK    PATRICK    LEE    LANDER,    O  B  E.,    M  D.,    F  R  C.P. 

Consultant  Physician,  Putney  Hospital,  London;  Assistant  Physician, 
Brompton  Hospital  and  Royal  Free  Hospital,  London. 

F.S.B.  Literary  Research 

FREDERICK  SAMUEL  BOAS,  MA,  lion  LL  D  ,  Hon.D.Lit, 
F  R  S  L  A  Vice-President,  Royal  Society  of  Liteiature  and  English 
Association;  President,  Elizabethan  Literary  Society.  Author  of 
Shakespeare  and  his  Predecessors;  Christopher  Marlowe'  A  Study; 
University  Drama  in  the  Tudor  Age 

F.S.R.  Marine  Biology 

FREDERICK  STRATTEN  RUSSELL,  F.R  S.  Secretary,  Marine 
Biological  Association  of  the  United  Kingdom,  Director  of  the 
Plymouth  Laboratory,  Devonshire. 

F.St.  Anthropology  (in  part) 

FELICIA  STALLMAN,  M  A  Assistant  Secretary,  Royal  Anthro- 
pological Institute,  London,  Assistant  Secretary,  Folk  Lore  Society, 
London. 

F.Ts.  Friends,  Religious  Society  of  (in  part) 

FREDERICK  B.  TOLLES,  A  M.,  Ph.D.  Librarian,  Friends 
Historical  Library,  Swarthmore  College,  Swarthmore,  Pennsylvania. 

F.V.W.  Soap,  Perfumery  and  Cosinetics  (in  part) 

FREDERICK  VICTOR  WELLS,  F.C.S  ,  F  R  H  S.  Editor  of 
Soap,  Perfumery  and  Cosmetics,  London,  Chairman,  Society  of 
Cosmetic  Chemists  (UK  Section) 

F.W.Rr.  Meteorology  (in  part) 

F.  W.  REICHELDERFLR,  AB,  D  Sc.  Chief,  Weather  Bureau, 
U  S.  Department  of  Commerce,  Washington,  D.C. 

F.W.Ta.  Cotton  (in  pirt) 

FREDERICK     WILLIAM     TATTERSALL,     FRSS,     F  R  F!  S. 

Cotton  Trade  Expert  and  Statistician. 

F.W.W-S.  Interior  Decoration 

FRANCIS       WILLIAM       WFNTWORTH  -  SHIELDS,       N.R.D. 

Designer;  Visiting  Instructor  at  the  Twickenham  School  of  Art, 
Middlesex. 

G.A.Ro.  Mineral  and  Metal  Production  and  Prices;  etc, 

GAR  A.  ROUSH.  Former  Fditor,  Mineral  Indus-try,  U  S  A.  Author 

of  Strategic  Mineral  Supplies. 
G.A.Si.  United  Church  of  Canada 

GORDON    A.   S1SCO,   D  D       Secretary,  The   United   Church   of 

Canada 

G.B.En.  Alimentary  System 

GFORGE  B.  EUSTERMAN,  M  D  Senior  Consultant  in  Medicine 
(Retired),  Mayo  Clinic,  Rochester,  Minnesota,  Emeritus  Professor 
of  Medicine,  Mayo  Foundation,  University  of  Minnesota  Graduate 
School,  Minneapolis,  Minnesota. 

G.D.H.C.  Co-operative  Movement  (in  part);  etc. 

GEORGE  DOUGLAS  HOWARD  COLE,  M.A.  Chichele  Professor 
of  Social  and  Political  Theory,  Oxford  University  Author  of  The 
Intelligent  Man's  Guide  to  the  Post-war  World;  etc. 

G.D.H.L.  Airports  (in  part);  etc. 

GEORGE   DAVID    HOUGH   LINTON.      Former   Press   Officer, 

Ministry  of  Civil  Aviation,  London  Airport. 

Gc.Bu.  Hospitals  (in  part) 

GEORGE  BUGBEE.  Executive  Director,  American  Hospital 
Association 

G.E.L.  Ear,  Nose  and  Throat,  Diseases  of  (in  part) 

GEORGE  E.  LIEBERMAN,  M  D.  Associate  in  Otolaryngoiogy, 
University  of  Pennsylvania  Graduate  School  of  Medicine,  Phila- 
delphia, Pennsylvania. 

G.F.R.D,  Oceanography 

GEORGE  EDWARD  RAVEN  DEACON,  D  Sc.,  F.R.S.  Deputy 
Chief  Scientific  Officer,  Royal  Naval  Scientific  Service,  Great 
Britain. 

G.Hb.  Canals  and  Inland  Waterways  (in  part);  etc. 

*  GENE  HOLCOMB.  Deputy  Chief,  Technical  Information  Division, 
Office  of  the  Chief  of  Engineers,  Department  of  the  Army,  Washing- 
ton, D.C 


CONTRIBUTORS 


XI 


G.H.Ba.  Lacrosse 

GEORGE  HENRY  BARK,  Hon.  Secretary,  English  Lacrosse 
Union. 

G.H.Be.  Genetics 

GEOFFREY  HERBERT  BEALL,  MBE,  PhD  Lecturer  in 
Genetics,  University  of  Edinburgh 

G.-H.D.  Belgium;  etc. 

GEORGES-HENRI  DUMONT.  Editor,  Vtai  (weekly),  Brussels. 
Author  of  Leopold  III,  Roi  des  lielges,  etc 

G.II.II.  International  Court  of  Justice 

GREEN  H  HACKWORTH,  B  A.,  LL  B  ,  Hon  LL  D.  Judge, 
International  Court  of  Justice,  The  Hague,  Netherlands.  Author 
of  Digest  of  International  Law,  8  vols. 

G.H.lVf .F.  Canning  Industry  (in  part) 

GEORGE  HFNRY  MORRIS  FARLEY,  B  Sc.  Editor,  C  anmng 
Industry  and  Tin-Printer  and  Box  Maker,  London. 

G.Hs.  Hemp;  Jute 

GORDON  HUGHES  Managing  Director,  British-Continental 
Trade  Press,  Ltd  ,  Editor,  Jute  and  Canvas  Reveiw,  London  Author 
of  Jute  Marked  and  Pru.e\,  etc. 

G.H.S.  Public  Opinion  Surveys  (in  part) 

GEORGE  IIORSLEY  SMITH.  Associate  Prolessor  of  Psychology, 
Newark  Colleges  of  Rutgers  Umveisity,  Newark,  New  Jersey. 
Research  Associate,  Office  of  Public  Opinion  Research. 

G.I.B.  Bolivia;  Ecuador  (in pun);  etc. 

GEORGE  I.  BLANKSTLN,  A  M.  Instructor  in  Political  Science, 
Northwestern  University,  Evanstown,  Illinois. 

G.I.Q.  Archeology  (in  part) 

GEORGE  I  QUIMBY,  Jr  Curator  of  Fxhibits,  Department  ot 
Anthropology,  Chicago  Natural  llistoiy  Museum,  Chicago,  Illmoi-. 
Co-author,  Indians  Before  Columhu\ ,  etc. 

G..I.N.  Iheatre  (in  part) 

GEORGE  JhAN   NATHAN       Ciitic       Author  .if   1  he   Critic   and 

the   Drama,   I  n<  v<  lopu'dia  of  the   Iheatre,  etc. 
G.J.Wk.  Spcedwav  Racing 

GEOFi  REY    JOHNSON    WOODCOCK         Secretary,    Speedway 

Riders'   Association,  Great  Britain. 
G.L.Bs.  television  (in  part) 

GEORGE  LISLh  BhERS,  Sc.D     Assistant  Directoi  of  Engineering, 

RCA    Victor    Division,    Radio   Corporation   of  America,   Canulen, 

New  Jersey. 
G.L.W.  Refugees 

GEORGE  L   WARREN,  A  B     Adviser  on  Refugees  and  Displaced 

Persons,  Depaitment  of  State,  Washington,  D.C 
G.M.C.  Ear,  Nose  and  Throat,  Diseases  of  (///  part) 

GEORGE   MORRISON   COATFS,   M  D       Professor  ot   Otorhin 

ology,   Graduate  School  of  Medicine,    University  of  Penns}lvania, 

Philadelphia,   Pennsylvania. 
G.McA.  Housing  (///  part) 

GILBERT  McALLlSTFR,  M  A     Member  ot  Parliament     Author 

of  Town  and  Country  Plan/tin?  (\vith   1  lizabeth  Glen    McAllister), 

Homes,    lo\\n\   and  Countryside. 

G  M  Hy.  Newspapers  and  Magazines  (in  part) 

'GRANT  M  HYDF,  A  M  Professor  of  Journalism,  School  ol 
Journalism,  University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison,  Wisconsin. 

G.Mit.  Shanghai 

GEORGE  EDWARD  MITCH FLL,  O  B  E.  Vice-Chairman  and 
Secretary,  China  Association,  London 

G^p.  Buenos  Aires;  Rio  de  Janeiro 

GEORGE  PLNDLL,  M  A  Managing  Director,  Pendle  and  Rivett, 
Ltd  Commentator  in  General  Overseas  Service,  and  Latin  American 
Service,  British  Broadcasting  Corporation  Author  of  Much  Sky; 
Impre^ions  of  South  America. 

G.P.O.  Post  Orhce  (in  part);  Telephone  (in part) 

By  courtesy  of  the  postmaster  general,  London 

G  R  Mn  Southern  Rhodesia 

'GEORGE  ROY  NLVILL  MORRISON    journalist.    Author  of 

Farming  in  ra\t  Af/i<a;  Kenya  Car  oh. 

Q  D  j^|.  Fives  (in  part) 

GEOFFREY  ROLAND  RIMMER  Chairman,  Executive  Com- 
mittee of  the  Rugby  Fives  Association. 

Q  £„  Dutch  Literature 

GARMT  STUIVELING,  Doctor  of  Arts.  Literary  Adviser  and 
Critic  to  the  Socialist  Broadcasting  Company  '  V  A  R  A.  ,  Nether- 
lands. Author  of  Ecu  Eeuw  Nederland^e  Leiteren,  Rekernchar. 

Russian  Literature 

"GLFB  PETROVICH  STRUVE,  BA      Professor  of  Russian, 

University  of  California,  Berkeley,  California.    Author  of  25  Year* 

of  Soviet   Russian  Literature. 
r  T,  Botany 

GEORGE  TAYLOR,  D  Sc  ,  F  R.S.E  ,  F.L.S.     Deputy  Keeper  of 

Botany,  British  Museum  (Natural  History). 
r  w  Motor  Cycling 

GRAHAM  WILLIAM  WALKER.  Editor,  Motor  Cycling,  London. 
G  wt  ,  Tobacco 

"GORDON  WEST.    Editor  of  Tobacco,  London. 


G.St. 


H.A.E.S.  Badminton  (in  part) 

HERBERT  AUGUST  EDWARD  SCHEELF  Secretary,  Bad- 
minton Association  of  England,  Hon.  Secretary,  International 
Badminton  Federation;  Editor,  7 he  Badminton  Gazette. 

H.A.Rn.  Cold,  Coirirdon 

HOBART  A.  REIM  \NN,  M  D  Professor  of  Medicine,  Jefferson 
Medical  College,  Philadelphia,  Pennsvlvima. 

H.B.Cs.  Anthropology  (in  part) 

HENRY  B  COLLINS,  Ji  Senior  Ethnologist,  Bureau  of  American 
Ethnology,  Smithsonian  Institute,  Washington,  D  C. 

H  Bd.  Ftour  (in  part) 

HARVIF  BARNARD,  BS  Research  Chemist,  Clinton  Industries, 
Inc  ,  Clinton,  Iowa 

H  B.S.  Heart  and  Heart  Diseases 

HOWARD  BURNHAM  SPRAGUE,  M.D  Associate  Physician, 
Massachusetts  'jcneral  Hospital.  President-Elect,  American  Heart 
Association. 

H.Btr.  Council  of  Europe 

SIR     HAROLD     BERESFORD     BUTLER,     M.A  ,     Hon  LL.D. 

P>  rector  of  International  Labour  Ollicc,  Geneva,  1932-38;  Warden 
ol  NuffieM  College,  Oxford,  1939-43  Author  ol  The  Lost  Peace; 
Peace  or  Power. 


Judiciary,  U.S. 

Deputy  Clerk,    United  States  Supreme 


H.B.Wy. 

HM<01  D    U     WILLEY 
Couu    Washington,  D  C 

H.C.Ce  Hotels,  Restaurants  and  Inns  (in  part) 

HFNRY  CHARLES  CLARKE  Formerly  Secretary  of  the  Hotels 
and  Restaurants  Association  of  Great  Britain  Author  of  Hotels 
and  Restaurants  at  a  Career. 

H.C.D.  Education  (in  part);  etc. 

HAROLD  COLLETT  DENT,  Hon  F  E  I  S  ,  B  A.  Editor,  The 
'J  ime\  Educational  Supplement,  London.  Author  of  A  New  Order  in 
English  Education,  Pdiuatton  in  Transition,  Secondary  Education 
for  All 

H.C.Ln.  Betting  and  Gambling  (in  part) 

HERBERT  CARL  LAWTON,  B  Sc  ,  PhD.  Private  Consultant; 
Chairman,  Education  and  Action  for  Leisure,  London.  Author  of 
Everyman  s  Leisure 

He.Br.  Banking  (in  part) 

HENRY    BRUT  RE       Chairman   of  the   Board,    Bowery   Savings 

Bank,  New  York,  N  Y 

H.I   Hi.  Epidemics 

HERMAN  L  HILLFBOE,  B  S  ,  M  D.  Commissioner  of  Health, 
New  York  State  Department  of  Health,  Albany,  New  York. 

H.Fx.  Dermatology 

HOWARD  I  OX,  M  D.  Professor  Emeritus  of  Dermatology  and 
Syphilology,  College  of  Medicine,  New  York  University,  New  York. 
Author  of  bkin  Di\ea\es  in  Infancy  and  Childhood',  etc. 

H.G  M.  Fisheries;  Wild  Life  Conservation  (in  part);  etc. 

HENRY  GASCOYEN  MAURICE,  C.B  ,  B.A.  Secretary,  Society 
for  the  Pieservation  of  the  Fauna  of  the  Empire,  London.  Author 
of  Sometimes  an  Angler;  etc. 

H.G.Rn.  India;  Pakistan 

HUGH      GFORC.E      RAWLINSON,      C.I.E.,  M.A.,    F.R.A  S., 

F  R  Hist  S  Indian  Educational  Service  (retd.).  Author  of  India: 
4  Short  Cultural  History;  etc. 

1 1  .G.S.  Shipbuilding  (in  part) 

H    GERRISH  SMITH.   President,  Shipbuilders  Council  of  America. 

H.I  I.Be.  Soil  Conservation  (in  part) 

HUGH  H  BENNETT,  LED.,  D.Sc.  Chief,  Soil  Conservation 
Service,  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D  C. 

H.J.A.  Narcotics  (in  part) 

H.  J.  ANSLINGER  Commissioner  of  Narcotics,  Treasury  Depart- 
ment, Washington,  D  C.  U.S.  Representative  on  the  United  Nations 
Commission  on  Narcotic  Drugs.  Author  of  The  Physician  and  the 
Federal  Narcotic  Law. 

1 1.  J.K  Anthropology  (in  part) 

HERBERT  JOHN  r-LEURE,  M  A.,  D.Sc.,  Sc.D.,  F.R.S.  Ex- 
President,  Royal  Anthropological  Institute,  London.  Emeritus 
Professor,  Manchester  University.  Co-author  of  The  Corridors  of 
lime;  etc. 

H.Js.  Town  and  Country  Planning  (in  part) 

HARLEAN  JAMFS,  A  B.  Executive  Secretary,  American  Planning 
and  Civic  Association. 

H.J.S.  Suez  Canal 

HUGH  JOSEPH  SCHON FIELD.    Author  of  The  Suez  Canal,  etc. 

ti.Ko.  Communist  Movement 

HANS  KOHN  Professor  of  History,  The  City  College  of  New  York. 
Author  of  The  Idea  of  Nationalism;  The  Twentieth  Century. 

H.L.  Golf  (in  part) 

HENRY  CARPENTER  LONGHURST,  B.A.    Author  of  Golf;  etc. 

H.L.B.  Fives  (in  part) 

HEDLEY  LE  BAS,  B.A.    Hon.  Secretary,  Eton  Fives  Association. 

*H.M.H.  American  Literature 

HARRISON  M.  HAYFORD,  Ph.D.  Assistant  Professor  of  English, 
Northwestern  University,  Evanston,  Illinois. 


Xll 


CONTRIBUTORS 


H.Mm.  Crime  (in  part) 

HERMANN  MANNHEIM,  Dr.J.  Reader  in  Criminology  in  the 
University  of  London.  Author  of  Social  Aspect?  of  Crime  in  England 
between  the  Wars,  Criminal  Justice  and  Social  Reconstruction;  etc. 

H.M.P.  Building  and  Construction  Industry  (in  part);  etc. 

HENRY  M.  PROPPER.  Housing  Consultant;  Lecturer,  Division 
of  Graduate  Studies,  Brooklyn  College.  Former  Executive  Vice- 
President,  National  Committee  on  Housing. 

H.M.Wr.  Infantile  Paralysis 

H  M.  WEAVFR,  MD,  M  Sc ,  Ph.D.  Director  of  Research, 
National  Foundation  for  Infantile  Paralysis,  New  York,  N  Y. 

H.Pk.  Psychology  (in  part) 

HELEN  PEAK,  Ph.D.  Professor  of  Psychology,  Connecticut 
College,  New  London,  Connecticut  Author  of  Observations  on  the 
Characteristics  and  Distribution  of  German  Nazis 

H.R.V.  Psychiatry 

HENRY  R.  VIETS,  M.D.  Lecturer  on  Neurology,  Harvard 
Medical  School;  Neurologist,  Massachusetts  General  Hospital, 
Boston  Librarian,  Boston  Medical  Library,  Boston,  Massa- 
chusetts. 

H.S.A.  Cricket 

HARRY  SURTEES  ALTHAM,  D.S  O  ,  M.C.,  M.A.  Master  at 
Winchester  College,  Hampshire.  Chairman  of  the  Inquiry  Com- 
mittee, M  C  C.,  London  Author  of  A  history  of  Cricket. 

H.S.D.  Egypt;  etc. 

HERBERT   STANLEY    DEIGHTON,    M.A.,    B  Litt.      Fellow   of 

Pembroke    College,    Oxford,    Former    Visiting    Professor,    Fuad 

Al-Awal  University,  Cairo 
H.Su.  Accidents  (in  part) 

HELEN      ISABEL      SUTHERLAND,      M.Inst.T  A  ,      F.C  T  S  , 

F  Comm  A.     Secretary,  The  Royal  Society  for  the  Prevention  of 

Accidents,  London. 
H.S.Vg.  Air  Forces  of  the  World  (in  part) 

HOYT   S.   VANDENBERG.      Chief  of  Staff,    United    States   Air 

Force. 
H.S.-W.  Bulgaria;  Czechoslovakia;  etc. 

GEORGE  HUGH  NICHOLAS  SETON-WATSON,  M.A.    Fellow 

and  Prelector  m  Politics,  University  College,  Oxford.     Author  of 

Eastern  Europe  Between  the  Wars  1918-1941;  etc 

H.T.  Soap,  Perfumery  and  Cosmetics  (in  part) 

HENRY  TETLOW,  Henry  Tetlow  Company,  Washington,  D  C 

H.W.Dg.  Prisoners  of  War;  Red  Cross 

HENRY  W.   DUNNING.      Executive  Secretary,   League  of  Red 

Cross  Societies,  Geneva,  Switzerland. 
H.W.Dt.  Public  Opinion  Surveys  (in  part) 

HENRY  WILLIAM   DURANT,   B  Sc    (Econ  ),   PhD.      Director, 

British  Institute  of  Public  Opinion  and  Social  Surveys,  Ltd.  (The 

Gallup  Poll).    Author  of  The  Problem  of  Leisure. 
H.W.Ilk.  Child  Welfare  (in  part) 

HOWARD    WILLIAM    HOPKIRK,    A.B.       Senior    Consultant, 

Child  Welfare  League  of  America,  Inc.,  New  York,  N.Y. 
H.W.Pe.  Friends,  The  Religious  Society  of  (in  part) 

HUBERT  WILLIAM  PEET.    Editor,  The  Friend,  London. 
H.W.Rn.  Tunnels  (in  part) 

HAROLD  W.   RICHARDSON,  B  S.(C.E.).     Editor,   Construction 

Methods  and  Equipment. 
H.Z.  Wild  Life  Conservation  (///  part) 

HOWARD  ZAHNISER.    Executive  Secretary,  Wilderness  Society. 

Editor,  Living  Wilderness. 
I.D.duP.  South  African  Literature  (in  part) 

IZAK   DAVID   DU  PLESSIS,   M.A  ,   B.Ed  ,   Ph  D.      Lecturer  in 

Dutch  and  Afrikaans  Literature,   University  of  Capetown,  South 

Africa.    Author  of  The  Cape  Malays;  Tales  from  the  Malay  Quarter. 
I.Gg.  Post  Office  (in  part) 

ISAAC  GREGG      Former  Director  of  Press  Relations,  Office  of 

the  Postmaster  General,  Washington,  D.C. 
I.L.BI.  Linen  and  Flax;  etc. 

IRENE  L.  BLUNT.   Secretary,  The  National  Federation  of  Textiles, 

Inc  ,  New  York,  N.Y. 
I.M.S.  United  States  Territories  and  Possessions  (in  part) 

INGRAM  M.  STAINBACK.     Governor  of  Hawaii. 
I.R.M.M.  Architecture  (in  part) 

IAN  ROBERT  MORE  McCALLUM,  A  R  I  B.A  ,  A  A.dipl. 

Assistant    Editor,    The   Architectural   Review       Editor   of  Physical 

Planning.   The  Groundwork  of  a  New  Technique. 
I.W.RI.  Words  and  Meanings,  New  (in  part) 

I.  WILLIS  RUSSELL.    Chairman  of  the  Research  Committee  on 

New  Words  of  the  American   Dialect  Society  which  prepared  the 

article.  The  Committee  consists  of:  Henry  Alexander,  O.  B.  Emerson, 

Atcheson  L.  Hench,  Albert  H.   Marckwardt,  Mamie  J.  Meredith, 

Peter  Tamony,  and  Harold  Wentworth. 
J.A.G.  Furniture  Industry  (in  part) 

JEROME   ARTHUR    GARY.       Editor,    Furniture   Age,   Chicago, 

Illinois.    Author  of  The  Romance  of  Period  Furniture,  etc. 
J.A.Hu.  British  Empire  (in  part);  etc. 

JOHN  ANTHONY  HUTTON,  B.A.    Formerly  research  assistant, 

Institute  of  Colonial  Studies,  Oxford 
J.A.Mi.  Electric  Transport  (in  part) 

JOHN    ANDERSON    MILLER,    Ph  B.       General    Electric    Co.,' 

Schcnectady,  New  York.    Author  of  Fares  Please,  Men  and  Volts 

at  War\  etc. 


J.A.MI.  Patents  (in  part) 

JOHN  A.  MARZALL.  Commissioner,  United  States  Patent  Office, 
U  S.  Department  of  Commerce,  Washington,  D.C. 

J.A.My.  Tuberculosis 

J.  A  MYERS,  M  D.  Professor  of  Medicine  and  Preventive  Medicine 
and  Public  Health,  University  of  Minnesota  Medical  School, 
Minneapolis,  Minnesota. 

J.A.Rs.  Greyhound  Racing 

JOSEPH  ALEXANDER  RICHARDS.  Editor,  Greyhound  Owner 
and  Breeder,  London. 

J.A.S.R.  Coal  (in  part) 

JOHN  ANTHONY  SYDNEY  RITSON,  D.S.O.,  O.B  E ,  M.C., 
T  D.,  B  Sc.,  M.I.M.E.  Professor  of  Mining,  Royal  School  of 
Mines,  London. 

J.Bk.  Book  Collecting  and  Book  Sales  (in  part) 

JACOB  BLANCK.  Editor,  Bibliography  of  American  Literature. 
Author  of  Peter  Parley  to  Penrod,  etc. 

J.C.As.  Ex-Servicemen's  Organizations  (in  part) 

JOHN  CHRISTOPHER  ANDREWS.  Press  Officer,  British  Legion, 
London 

J.C.G.  Polo  (in  part) 

JACK  ROSE  COMPTON  GANNON,  C  B  E.,  M.V.O.  Writer 
on  Polo 

J.C.G.J.  Wales 

J.  C.  GRIFFITH  JONES.  Journalist  and  Broadcaster;  Welsh 
Correspondent,  Observer,  London. 

J.Chn.  Archaeology  (in  part) 

JOHN  CHARLTON,  M.A.,  F  S  A  Inspectorate  of  Ancient  Monu- 
ments, England;  Excavator  of  Roman  and  Mediaeval  sites. 

J.C.P.P.  Osteopathy 

JOCELYN  CAMPBELL  PATRICK  PROBY,  MA,  B.Litt ,  DO. 
Chairman,  General  Council  and  Register  of  Osteopaths,  Ltd , 
London.  Author  of  Eswy  on  Osteopathy;  The  Relation  of  Micro- 
Organisms  to  Disease;  etc. 

J.Cr.  Book  Collecting  and  Book  Sales  (in  part) 

JOHN  WAYNFLETE  CARTER,  M  A  Managing  Director, 
Charles  Scnbner's  Sons,  Ltd  ,  Publishers,  London:  Sandars  Reader 
in  Bibliography,  Cambridge  University,  1947.  Author  of  Taste  and 
Technique  in  Book-Collecting. 

J.Cw.  Music  (in  part) 

JOHN  CULSHAW.  Author,  lecturer  and  broadcaster  on  music. 
Author  of  Sergei  Radimaninov;  The  Concerto. 

J.E.Ce.  Tea 

JOYCE  EVELYN  CUTMORE.  Economic  Assistant,  Common- 
wealth Economic  Committee,  London. 

J.E.N.  Livestock  (in  part) 

JAMES  EDWARD  NICHOLS,  M.Sc.,  Ph.D.,  F  R  S  E.  Professor 
of  Agriculture  (Animal  Husbandry),  University  College  of  Wales, 
Aberystwyth.  Author  of  Livestock  Improvement. 

J.E.Sr.  Philippines,  Republic  of  the 

JOSEPH  E  SPENCER.  Associate  Professor  of  Geography, 
University  of  California,  Los  Angeles,  California. 

J.F.A.  Ice  Hockey  (in  part) 

JOHN   FRANCIS  AHEARNE,  F  C  1  S.     Secretary  to  the  British 

Ice  Hockey  Association. 
J.F.B.  Squash  Rackets 

JOHN  FORBES  BURNET,  M.A.     Fellow  of  Magdalene  College, 

Cambridge. 
J.G.I  f.  Mental  Diseases 

JOHN  GERARD  HAMILTON,  M.D  ,  B.S  ,  M  R  C  S  ,  L.R.C.P  , 

D  P.M       Consultant    Psychiatrist,    Bethlem    Royal    Hospital    and 

The  Maudsley  Hospital,  London. 
J.H.Jn.  Finland 

JOHN   HAMPDEN   JACKSON,   M  A.      Staff  Tutor,   Cambridge 

University   Board   of  Extra    Mural   Studies.      Author  of  Finland; 

The  Between-War  World;  etc 
J.H.I..  Unitarian  Church  (in  part) 

JOHN   HOWLAND   LATHROP.      Minister,   the   First   Unitarian 

Congregational  Society  m  Brooklyn,  New  York,  Member,  Board 

of  Directors,  American  Unitarian  Association. 
J.H.Ps.  London  University 

J.   HOOD  PHILLIPS.  M.A.     Secretary  to  the  Senate,  University 

of  London, 
j.Kd.  Floods  and  Flood  Control  (in  part);  etc. 

JULIUS  KENNARD.  B.Sc.  (Eng.),  M.I  C  E ,  M  I.W.E.,  M.Cons  E. 

Chartered  civil  engineer;  Partner  of  Edward  Sandeman,  Kennard 

and  partners,  Westminster,  London. 
J.K.I,.  Banking  (in  part);  Federal  Reserve  System 

JOHN  K.  LANGUM.     Vice-president,  Federal  Reserve  Bank  of 

Chicago,  Chicago,  Illinois. 
j.Kr.  Czech  Literature;  German  Literature 

JOSEPH   KALMER.      Correspondent  of  Austrian   and   German 

papers.    Author  of  European  Poetry  1900- J 925;  The  Life  and  Death 

oj  John  II us ,  etc. 
JKR  Agriculture  (in  part);  etc. 

JOHN  KERR  ROSE,  A.M  ,  Ph  D  ,  J.D.     Geographer,  Legislative 

Reference  Service,  Library  of  Congress,  Washington,  D.C. 


J.Ky. 

JOHN    KIELTY.      Secretary,    General   Assembly 
Free  Christian  Churches,  London. 


Unitarian  Church  (in  part) 
Assembly    Unitarian   and 


CONTRIBUTORS 


Xlll 


Roman  Catholic  Church  (in  part) ;  etc. 
JOHN  LaFARGE,  S\J.  Associate  Editor,  America,  National 
Catholic  Weekly,  New  York,  N.Y. 

J.L.Be.  Patents  (in  part) 

JOHN  LUCIAN  BLAKE,  M.Sc ,  Barrister-at-Law.  Controller- 
General,  Patent  Office,  London. 

J.L.-Ee.  United  States  Territories  and  Possessions  (in  part) 

JUAN  LABADIE-EURITE,  M.S.(Agnc )  Chief,  Division  of 
Statistics,  Bureau  of  the  Budget,  San  Juan,  Puerto  Rico. 

J.Lwh.  Judaism 

JOSEPH  LEFTWICH  Author  of  Ynroel;  What  Will  Happen  to 
the  Jews;  The  Tragedy  of  Anti-Semitism ,  etc. 

J.M.Br.  Juvenile  Delinquency 

JOSEPHINE  MACAIJSTER  BREW,  M.A.,  LL.D  Education 
Adviser,  National  Association  of  Girls'  Clubs  and  Mixed  Clubs. 
Author  of  Injormal  Education,  In  the  Set  vice  of  Youth;  etc 

J.McA.  Argentine  (in  part);  Cnile;  etc. 

JOHN  McADAMS  Former  Instructor  of  Latin  American  History 
and  Government,  University  of  Puerto  Rico,  Rio  Piedras,  Puerto 
Rico. 

J.M.We.  Words  and  Meanings,  New  (///  part) 

JAMES  McLEOD  WYLLIE,  M  A.   Lexicographer  to  the  Clarendon 

Press,  Oxford     Editor,  Oxford  Latin  Dictionary. 
J.Of.  Lawn  Tennis  (in  part} 

JOHN  SHELDON  OLLIFF.     Lawn  Tennis  Correspondent.  Daily 

Telegraph,  London.     Author  of  Olhjj  on  Tennis;  I  he  Romance  of 

Wimbledon ,  etc. 
Jo.Ms.  National  Health  Service;  National  Insurance 

JOHN   MOSS,  C  B  E  ,   Barnster-at-Law.      Author  of  Health  ami 

Welfare  Services  Handbook 
J.P.D.  Boxing  (in  pan) 

JAMLS  P.  DAWSON      Writer  on  Baseball  and  Boxing,   Jhe   v  <-»»• 

York  Time^  New  York,  N  Y 
J.P.V.Z.  Aviation,  Civil  (in  pan) 

J.    PARKER    VAN    /ANDT,    US,    PhD        President,    Aviation 

Research    Institute,    Washington,    D  C       Author   of   Geography   of 

World  An    'transport,    World    4\ianon  Annual,    Civil  Aviation  and 

Peace,  etc. 
J.R.Ay.  Nationalization 

JOHN    RAYNHR    APPLEBY,    M  A        Leader    Writer,    Financial 

limes,  London 
J.R.Ra.  Agriculture  (in  part) 

JOHN   ROSS   RAEBURN,  B  Sc  (Agnc  ),   M  S  ,  Ph  D.     Reader  in 

Agricultural  Fconomics,  University  of  London 
J.R.W.  Food  Research  (in  part) 

JAMLS   ROBERT  WILSON,  M.D.     Secretary,  Council  on  Foods 

and  Nutiition,  American  Medical  Association. 
J.R.W.A.  Gas 

JOHN  RUSSELL  WILLIS  ALEXANDER,  M.A  ,  LL  B  ,  F  C  I  S  , 

Barnstcr-at-Law     Formerly  General  Manager,  British  Gas  Council. 

J.S.L.  Anaesthesiology 

JOHN  S  LUNDY,  M.D.  Professor  of  Anjcsthesiology,  University 
of  Minnesota  Graduate  School,  Minneapolis,  Minnesota,  Head, 
Section  on  An.csthesiology,  Mayo  Clinic,  Rochester,  Minnesota 

J.Sto.  Electronics  (in  part) 

JAMES  STOKLEY,  B.S  (Fd.).  MS.  Publicity  Rcpresentatne, 
General  Electric  Research  Laboratory,  Schenectady,  New  York. 
Author  of  Science  Remakes  Our  World;  Electrons  in  Attion. 

J.T.As.  Drawing  and  Engraving  (in  part) 

JOHN  TAYLOR  ARMS  President  Emeritus,  Society  of  American 
Etchers  President,  National  Academy  of  Design  Author  of  Hand- 
book oj  Print  making  and  Print  Makers,  etc 

J.T.By.  Netherlands 

JAMFS  THOMAS  BROCKWAY  English  writer  and  poet. 

J.T.R.  Spanish-American  Literature 

JOHN  T.  REI D  Public  Affairs  Officer,  American  Embassy,  Caracas, 
Venezuela.  Author  of  Modern  Spam  and  Liberalism,  An  Outline 
History  of  Spanish  American  Literature 

J.W.Fr.  Bowls 

JOHN  WILLIAM  FISHER,  M.R  C  S.,  D.P.H  ,  D  P.M  Bowls 
correspondent.  Western  Morning  News,  Plymouth,  Devon.  Author 
of  A  New  Way  to  Better  Bowls;  etc 

J  W  Ge  Electric  Transport  (in  part) 

JOHN  WATK1N  GRIEVE,  B  Sc  ,  AM  I.F.E.  Assistant  (Electric 
Traction),  London  Midland  Region,  British  Railways 

J.W.Mw.  Congress  U.S. ;  etc. 

JOSEPH  W  MARLOW,  A.B.,  LL  B.  Lawyer;  Editor  and  Research 
Analyst,  Military  Intelligence  Service,  U  S  War  Department, 
1944-46. 

j  YVr  Jerusalem;  etc. 

*JACK  WINOCOUR,  BA.  Associate  Editor,  Contact  Books. 

£  Bn  Libraries  (in  part) 

*KARL  BROWN  A  B.,  LL  B  Associate  Bibliographer  and  Acting 
Editor  of  Publications,  New  York  Public  Library,  New  York,  N.Y. 
Editor,  Library  Journal,  New  York,  N.Y. 

K  Bs  Theology 

'KATHLEEN  MARY  BLISS,  M.A  ,  D.D.  Editor,  Christian  News 

Letter.  London,  1945-49. 
K  K  H  Dairy  Fanning  (in  part);  etc. 

'KENNETH  EDWARD  HUNT,  MA.,   Dipi.Agnc.    University 

Demonstrator,  Oxford. 


K.Srrt.  Elections;  Peasant  Movement;  Poland;  etc. 

KAZIMIERZ  MACIEJ  SMOGORZEWSKi  Foreign  Corres- 
pondent, Founder  and  Editor,  Free  Europe,  London.  Author  of 
The  United  States  and  Great  Britain,  Poland's  Access  to  the  Sea;  etc. 

K.W.  Petroleum 

KENNETH  WILLIAMS,  B  A  London  Correspondent,  Al  Ahram. 
Author  of  Britain  and  the  Mediterranean,  Jbn  Sa'ud. 

L.A.L.  Insurance  (in  part) 

LEROY  A  LINCOLN  President,  Metropolitan  Life  Insurance 
Company,  New  York,  N  Y 

I  A.Wi.  Telephone  (in  part) 

VEROY  A  WILSON  President,  American  Telephone  and  Tele- 
graph Company,  Neu,  York,  N  Y. 

I  .Bp.  Canada,  Dominion  of 

LFSLIh  BISHOP  Author  and  Lecturer,  formerly  London  Corres- 
pondent, Winnipeg  Free  Press,  Winnipeg,  Canada 

L.de  B.H.  Swimming  (in  part) 

LOUIS  de  BRFDA  HANDLEY  Honorary  Coach,  Women's 
Swimming  Association  ot  New  York.  Author  of  Swimming  for 
Women,  etc 

I  .h  Ms.  Dycstuflfs  (in  part) 

1  AURi  N(  f  LDMUND  MORRIS.  Editor,  Dyer,  London. 

L  I  .C  Methodist  Church  (in  part) 

LLSL1L  FREDERIC  CHURCH,  B  A  ,  Ph  D  ,  F  R  Hist  S.  Editor- 
m-rinct  to  the  Methodist  Church  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 
Author  ot  fhe  Early  Methodist  People,  fhe  Knight  of  the  Burning 
Heart  A  Lije  of  Jof-n  Wesley;  etc. 

L.Gu.  Local  Government  (in  part) 

I  UTHhR  GULICK,  A  M  ,  Ph  D  ,  Litt  D  President,  Institute  of 
Public  Administration,  New  York  Author  of  An  Adventure  in 
Denwtraty,  Education  for  Ameiican  Life,  Municipal  Finance. 

L.H.L.  Chicago 

LEWIS  HARPER  LEECH.  Editorial  Writer,  Chicago  Daily  News, 
Chicago,  Illinois  Author  of  The  Paradox  of  Plenty;  etc. 

L.Hmn.  South  African  Literature  (in  part) 

LOUIS  HERRMAN,  MA.,  PhD.     Examiner  in  English  for  the 

Joint  Matriculation  Board  of  South  Africa.    Author  of  In  the  Sealed 

Cave     A   Stientifi<    Fantasy. 

L.J.D.K.  Classical  Studies 

LEOPOLD  JOHN  DIXON  RICHARDSON,  M.A,  Professor  of 
Greek,  University  College,  Cardiff;  Hon.  Secretary,  Classical 

Association 
L.L.  Furniture  Industry  (in  part) 

LESLIE  LEWIS.     Editor,  Furnishing  World  and  British  Furnishing, 

London 
L.M.Gh.  United  Nations 

LFLAND  M   GOODRICH     Professor  of  Political  Science,  Brown 

LJniversity,  Providence,  Rhode  Island     Co-author  of  Charter  of  the 

United  Nations     Commentary  and  Documents. 
L.Mrc.  Dance  (in  port) 

LILLIAN   MOORE.      Concert  dancer;   Choreographer  for   NBC 

Opera  Television  Series,    American  correspondent,  Dancing  Times, 

London    Author  of  Artists  of  the  Dance. 
L.M.W.  United  States  Territories  and  Possessions  (in  part) 

LEW  M    WILLIAMS.     Secretary  of  Alaska. 
L.N.  Gymnastics 

LEO  NORRISS      Schoolmaster,  Hertfordshire  County  Council. 
L.N.McA.  Mexico 

LYLE  NELSON   McALISTER.      Engaged  in  research   under  the 

office  of  Education,  Federal  Security  Agency,  U.S  A. 
L.O.P.  Cinema  (in  part) 

LOU  ELL  A  O.  PARSONS.     Motion  Picture  Editor,  International 

News  Service     Author  of  The  Cay  Illiterate,  How  to  Write  in  the 

Movies. 
L.R.L.  Railways  (in  part) 

LENOX  R.  LOHR.     President,  Museum  of  Science  and  Industry, 

Chicago,  Illinois.    President,  The  Chicago  Railroad  Fair,  Chicago, 

Illinois. 
L.V.D.  Field  Sports 

LEONARD  VINCENT  DODDS.     Editor,  Field,  London. 
L.Wd.  Boxing  (in  part) 

LAINSON  WOOD.     Boxing  Correspondent  and  Assistant  Sports 

Editor,  Daily  Telegraph,  London. 

L.W.F.  Prisons  (in  part) 

LIONEL  WRAY  FOX,  C.B.,  M  C.  Chairman,  Prison  Commission 
for  England  and  Wales.  Author  of  The  Modern  English  Prison. 

L.Wo.  Trade  Unions  (in  part) 

LEO  WOLMAN,  Ph.D  ,  LL.D.  Professor  of  Economics,  Columbia 
University,  New  York,  N.Y.  Author  of  Ebb  and  Flow  in  Trade 
Unionism,  etc. 

M.Ab.  Investments  Abroad  (in  part) 

MILTON  ABELSON.  Economic  Analyst,  Bureau  of  Foreign  and 
Domestic  Commerce,  U.S.  Department  of  Commerce,  Washington, 
D.C 

Ma.Br.  Istanbul;  Turkey 

MALCOLM  BURR,  D.Sc.,  A.R.S.M  ,  F  R  Ent.Soc.  Author  of 
In  Bolshevik  Siberia;  etc. 

'  M.A.Me.  Athletics  (in  part);  Horse  Racing  (in  part) 

MICHAEL  AUSTIN  MELFORD,  B.A.  Athletic  Correspondent, 
Observer,  London;  Editor,  Thoroughbred,  London. 


XIV 


CONTRIBUTORS 


M.An.  Child  Welfare  (in  part) 

MARJORY,  LADY  ALLEN  OF  HURTWOOD,  F  Inst  Land- 
scape Architects.  President,  Nursery  School  Association  of  Great 
Britain;  President,  World  Organization  for  Rarly  Childhood 
Education;  Member  of  Advisory  Council  on  Child  Care  (Home 
Office,  London).  Author  of  Whose  Children. 

M.Blf.  Union  of  Soviet  Socialist  Republics  (in  part} 

MAX  BELOFF.  B  Litt.,  M  A.  Reader  in  the  Comparative  Study 
of  Institutions,  Oxford  University.  Author  of  The  Foreign  Policy 
of  Soviet  Russia,  1929-1941 

M.C.G.  Arts  Council 

MARY  CECILIA  GLASGOW,  C.B  fc  ,  B  A  Secretary-General, 
Arts  Council  of  Great  Britain. 

M.C.Rt.  Seismology 

MARY  COLLINS  R  \BBITT,  A  B.  Geophysiast,  U  S  Geological 
Survey,  Washington,  D  C.  Editor,  Geophysical  Abstracts. 

M.D.Cn.  Plastics  Industry  (in  part) 

MAURICE  DELOISNE  CURWEN,  B  Sc.,  A  R.I  C.  hditoi. 
Plastics,  London.  Author  of  Plastics  in  Industry,  etc 

M.Dk.  Christian  Democratic  Movement;  etc. 

JOHN  MICHAEL  DERRICK  Assistant  Editor,  Tablet,  London; 
Editor,  Catholic  Almanac.  Author  of  Eastern  Catholu  s  under  Soviet 
Rule\  etc 

M.Dn.  Law  and  Legislation  (in  part) 

MITCHELL  DAWSON,  Ph  B ,  J.D.  Lawyer,  writer,  Former 
editor,  Chicago  Bar  Record,  Chicago,  Illinois. 

M.E.H.  Biochemistry 

MARTIN  E.  HANKE,  SB,  PhD.  Associate  Professor  of  Bio- 
chemistry, University  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  Illinois  Co-author  of 
Practical  Method's  in  Biochemistry. 

M.F.de  C.  United  States  Territories  and  Possessions  (in  part) 

MORRIS  F   dc  CASTRO.    Acting  Governor  of  the  Virgin  Islands. 

M.Fe.  Trust  Territories 

MAURICE  FANSHAWE,  BA  Writer.  Author  of  Permanent 
Court  of  International  Justice,  What  the  League  has  Done,  etc 

M.Fi.  Medicine  (in  pan) 

MORRIS  FISHBEIN,  M  D  Editor,  Excerpta  Medina;  Contributing 
Editor,  Post-graduate  Medicine,  Editor  of  medical  articles,  Bntanmca 
Book  of  the  Year. 

M.Fr.  Bacteriology 

MARTIN  FROBISHER,  Jr.,  SB,  Sc  D.  Chief,  Bacteriology 
Branch,  Communicable  Disease  Centre.  U  S.  Public  Health  Service, 
Atlanta,  Georgia  Author  of  Fundamentals  of  Bacteriology,  etc 

M.H.Mn.  Art  Exhibitions  (in  part);  Painting  (in  part);  etc. 

MICHAEL  HUMFREY  MIDDLETON  Art  Editor,  Picture 
Post;  Art  Critic,  Spectator,  London. 

M.H.Sm.  Air  Forces  of  the  World  (in  part) 

MAURICE  H.  SMITH  Librarian,  Institute  of  the  Aeronautical 
Sciences,  New  York,  N  Y, 

M.Jol.  French  Literature;  Theatre  (in  part) 

MARIA  JOLAS  (Mrs.  Eugene  Jolas),  Pans,  France. 

M.L.M.  Colombia:  Costa  Rica;  etc. 

MAX  L.  MOORHEAD.  Assistant  Professor  of  History,  University 
of  Oklahoma,  Norman,  Oklahoma. 

M.M1.  Betting  and  Gambling  (in  part) 

MICHAEL  MacDOUGALL,  Author  of  Gamblers  Don't  Gamble; 
MacDougall  on  Dice  and  Cards,  Danger  in  the  Cards;  Mat  Dougall 
on  Pinochle. 

M.Si.  Printing  (in  part) 

MacD  SINCLAIR.  Editor,  Printing  Equipment  Engineer,  Cleve- 
land, Ohio. 

N.B.D.  National  Parks  and  Monuments  (in  part) 

NEWTON  B  DRURY,  B  L.,  LL.B.  Director,  National  Park 
Service,  U.S.  Department  of  the  Interior,  Washington,  D  C 

N.C.B.  Timber  (///  part) 

NELSON  C  BROWN,  A  B  ,  M  F.  Professor  in  charge  of  Forest 
Utilization,  New  York  State  College  of  Forestry,  Syracuse  University, 
Syracuse,  New  York. 

N.K.W.  Plague 

NEWTON  E.  WAYSON,  A  B  ,  M  D  Former  Medical  Officer  in 
charge,  Plague  Investigations,  U.S  Public  Health  Set  vice,  San 
Francisco,  California 

N.F.S.  Munitions  of  War  (in  part) 

NATHANIEL  F.  S1LSBCE.  Colonel,  United  States  Air  Force 
Reserve,  Contributing  Editor,  Aviation  Operations.  Co-author  of 
Jet  Propulsion  Progress 

N.Mgh.  British  Empire  (in  part) 

NICHOLAS  SETON  MANSERGH,  O  B  E  ,  B  Litt  ,  M  A  ,  D  Phil. 
Abe  Bailey  Research  Professor  of  British  Commonwealth  Relations, 
Royal  Institute  of  International  Affairs,  London  Author  of  'Ihe 
Commonwealth  and  the  Nations,  Britain  and  Ireland 

O.M.G.  China 

OWEN  MORTIMER  GREEN,  BA  Far  Eastern  Specialist  on 
staff,  Observer  Author  of  China's  Struggle  with  the  Dictators; 
The  Foreigner  in  China,  etc. 

O.P.P.  Motor  Industry  (in  part) 

OSCAR  PAUL  PEARSON,  B  A  Manager,  Statistical  Department. 
Automobile  Manufacturers'  Association,  Detroit,  Michigan 

O.S.T.  World  Council  of  Churches. 

OLIVER  STRATFORD  TOMKINS,  M.A.  Associate  General 
Secretary,  World  Council  of  Churches  Author  of  rhe  Wholeness  of 
the  Church 


O.T.J.  Geology  (In  part) 

OWEN  THOMAS  JONES,  M.A.,  D  Sc  ,"  F  R.S  ,  F.G.S.  Fmeritus 
Professor  (of  Geology),  formerly  Woodwardian  Professor,  Cam- 
bridge University 

P.B.F.  Shipping,  Merchant  Marine  (in  part) 

PHILIP  B.  FLEMING.  Chairman,  United  States  Maritime  Com- 
mission, Washington,  D.C 

P.B.M.  Atomic  Knergy  On  part) 

PHILIP  BURTON  MOON,  M  Sc  ,  M  A  ,  Ph  D  ,  F  R  S.  Professor 
ol  Physics,  University  of  Birmingham 

P.Br.  Billiards  and  Snooker  (in  part) 

PETER  BRANDWEIN  Sports  Writer,  The  New  York  Times 
Editor  of  the  Sports  Section  of  the  Information  Please  Almanac. 

P.Eg.  Budget,  National  (in  part);  etc. 

PAUL  EINZIG,  DSc(Po).  and  Econ  )  Political  Correspondent, 
Financial  Times,  London  Author  of  Pumitne  Money,  rhe  Iheory 
of  Forward  L\<hange,  etc. 

P.E.M.  Council  of  Foreign  Ministers 

PHILIP  L  MOSELY.  Professor  of  International  Relations,  Russian 
Institute  of  Columbia  University,  New  York,  N  Y 

P.H.M-B.  Tropical  Diseases 

PHILIP  HhNRY  MANSON-BAHR,  C.M  G  ,  DSO,  M  D., 
FRC.P,  D.T.M.  &  H.  Consulting  Physician,  Hospital  for 
Tropical  Diseases,  London.  Author  of  Life  and  Work  of  Sir  Patruk 
Manson,  D\\enteric  Disorders,  editor  of  Manson's  Tropical  Diseases, 
7th- l.Uh  cd  ,  etc 

P.J.A.C.  Liberal  Movement 

PETFR  J  A  CALVOCORESSL  Survey  Department,  "Royal 
Institute  of  International  Affairs,  London.  Author  of  Nuremberg 

P.M.Se.  Botanical  Gardens  (in  part);  etc. 

PATRICK  MILLINGTON  SYNGE,  MA,  FLS,  F.R  G  S. 
Editor  to  the  Royal  Horticultural  Society  Author  of  Mountains 
oj  the  Moon,  Plants  with  Personality,  etc. 

P.Ss.  Insurance  (in  part) 

PERCY  STFBBINGS  Insurance  fcditor;  Correspondent  to  Financial 
//wo.  Banket  s'  Magazine,  Investors  Chronicle,  London,  etc 

P.Ta.  Lrrtplojrnent  (///  part);  etc. 

PHILIP  TAFT,  B  A  ,  Ph  D  Professor  of  Economics,  Brown 
University,  Providence,  Rhode  Island  Author  of  Economic*  and 
Problems  of  Labor,  etc. 

P.W.H.  Photography  (in  pan) 

PERCY  WOOTTON  HARRIS,  Hon  F  R  P  S  ,  M  R  1  C  Former 
President,  Royal  Photogiaphic  Society,  London  Editor  of  Miniature 
Camera  Magazine,  London 

Q.W.  International  Law;  War  Crimes 

QUINCY  WRIGHT,  AM,  PhD,  LL  D  Professor  of  Inter- 
national law.  University  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  Illinois  Author  ol 
A  Study  oj  War,  etc 

R.A.B.  Ex-Servicemen's  Organizations  (///  part) 

RICHARD  A  BROWN  Executive  Secretary,  Veterans'  Organiza- 
tions Information  Service,  New  York,  N  Y 

R.A.Bn.  Advertising  (in  part) 

ROGtR  A  BARTON.  Editor,  Advertising  Agencv  Magazine  and 
Advertising  Handbook,  New  York,  NY.  Lecturer  in  Adveihsmg, 
Columbia  University,  New  York,  N  Y. 

Ra.L.  Endocrinology  (///  part) 

RACHMIEL  LEVINE,  M  D  Director  of  Metabolic  and  Endocrine 
Research,  Michael  Reese  Hospital,  Professorial  Lecturer,  Depart- 
ment of  Physiology,  University  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  Illinois 
Author  of  Carbohydrate  Metabolism  (with  Dr  S  Soskin) 

H.Ba.  Consumer  Credit  (///  part) 

ROBERT  BARTELS.  Associate  Professor  of  Marketing,  The 
Ohio  State  University,  Columbus,  Ohio  Co-author  (with  F  N. 
Beckman)  Credits  and  Collections  in  'Iheory  and  Practice. 

R.B.B.  Leather  (in  part) 

RALPH  B  BRYAN.  Technical  Consultant,  Mottershead  Associates, 
Chicago,  Illinois.  Editor-in-chief,  J.ncydopcrdia  of  the  Shoe  and 
Leather  Industry. 

R.Cch.  English  Literature  (in  part) 

RICHARD  CHURCH.  Director  of  English  Festival  of  Spoken 
Poetry;  Examiner  in  Poetics  to  London  University.  Author  of 
Collected  Poems,  20th  Century  Psalter,  etc 

R.C.-W.  Philosophy 

RUPERT  CRAWSHAY-WILL1AMS,  B  A  Writer  on  Philosophy 
and  the  Psychology  of  Language  and  Reasoning.  Author  of  The 
Comforts  of  Unreason,  A  Study  of  the  Motive?  behind  Irrational 
Thought. 

H.D.B.  Rowing  (in  part) 

RICHARD  DESBOROUGH  BURNELL,  BA  Rowing  Corres- 
pondent, The  Times,  London  Editor,  British  Rowing  Almanack. 

R.d'E.  Brazil 

RAUL  d'FXA,  MA,  PhD.  Public  Affairs  Officer,  American 
Consulate,  Recife  (Pernambuco),  Brazil  Co-author  of  Outline 
History  of  Latin  America. 

R.F..BS.  Literary  Prizes  (in  part 

RUTH  ELLEN  BAINS,  B  A  Assistant  to  the  Book  Editor,  R.  R 
Bowker  Co  ,  New  York,  N.Y. 

R.E.E.H.  Baptist  Church 

REUBEN  E  E.  HARKNESS,  M  A  ,  B.D  ,  Ph.D  President,  The 
American  Baptist  Historical  Society;  Professor  of  History  of  Christi- 
anity, Crozer  Seminary,  Chester,  Pennsylvania. 


CONTRIBUTORS 


xv 


R.F.Anl.  Rrifkh  Cminril 

SIR  RONALD  FORBES  ADAM,  Bt ,  G.C.B  ,  DSO,  OBE 
Chairman  and  Director-General  of  the  British  Council. 

R.G.D.A.  Prices  (in  Dart} 

ROY  GEORGE  DOUGLAS  ALLEN,  O.B  E  ,  M.A..  D  Sc  (Econ  ). 
Professor  of  Statistics,  University  of  London  Author  of  Mathe- 
matical Analysis  for  Economists,  Statistics  for  Economists;  etc 

R.C.L.  Inventors,  Awards  to 

RHYS,  GERRAN  LLOYD,  M  A  ,  B  Sc  ,  Barnstcr-at-Law  Prac- 
tising Barrister  (Patent  Bar);  Secretary  of  Royal  Commission  on 
Awards  to  Inventors,  Great  Britain. 

R.H.FrR.  Arthritis 

RICHARD  HAROLD  FREYBERG,  M  D.  Associate  Professor  of 
Clinical  Medicine,  Cornell  University  Medical  College,  Director  of 
the  Department  of  Internal  Medicine,  Hospital  for  Special  Surgery, 
New  York,  N  Y.  Assistant  Attending  Physician,  New  York  Hospital, 
N  Y  Director  of  Arthritis  Clinics,  New  York  Hospital  and  Hospital 
for  Special  Surgery. 

R.H.Ri.  Grain  Crops  (in  part):  Wheat  (in  part) 

RICHARD  HOOK  RICHENS,  M.A  Assistant  Director  of  the 
Commonwealth  Bureau  of  Plant  Breeding  and  Genetics,  Cambridge 
Author  of  I  he  New  Genetui  in  the  Soviet  Union  (with  P  S 
Hudson) 

R.H.S1.  Jet  Propulsion  and  Gas  Turbines  '///  part) 

REGINALD  HERBERT  SCHI  OPEL,  F  R  Ae  S  Deputy  Directoi 
of  Engine  Research  and  Development,  Ministry  of  Supply,  London. 

R.Is.  Anamia 

RAPHAEL  ISAACS,  M.A.,  M  D  Attending  Physician  in  Ha,ma- 
tology,  Michael  Reese  Hospital,  Chicago,  Illinois  Co-author  of 
Diseases  of  the  Blood. 

R.J.My.  Fashion  and  Dress  (in  p  irt) 

RONALD  JOSEPH  MURRAY  Features  Editor,  Men's  It'  ar, 
London. 

R.Kn.  Ireland,  Republic  of;  etc. 

EDMUND  RAWLE  VALPY  KNOX,  B  A.  Member  of  editorial 
starl,  Melhfont  Press,  Irish  Correspondent,  Spectator,  London. 

R.L.Fo.  Accidents  (in  part) 

R.  L  FORNEY  General  Secretary,  National  Safety  Council, 
Chicago,  Illinois 

R.L.Hs.  Hockey 

RICHARD  LYNTON  HOLLANDS  Hockey  Correspondent, 
Sundav  limes  and  Evening  Standard,  L  ondon 

RIn.  Boy  Scouts  (in  part} 

LORD  ROWAI  I  AN,  MC,  T  I)  ,  LED  Chief  Scout  of  the 
British  Commonwealth  and  Empire 

R.L.S-R.  Electronics  (in  part);  etc. 

REGINALD    LESLIE    SMITH-ROSE.    PhD,     D  Sc ,     M1EF, 

F  I  R  E       Director   ot    Radio    Research,    Department   of  Scientific 

and  Industrial  Research,  London 
R.Man.  Cinema  (in  part) 

ROGER  MANVELL,  B.A  ,  Ph  D.    Director,  British  Film  Academy. 

Editor,  Experiment  in  the  Film,  Penguin  Film  Review,  etc      Author 

of  Film ,  etc. 
R.M.Gc.  Soil  Conservation  (in  part) 

ROBERT  MAC  LAG  AN  GORR1F,  D  Sc  ,  F  R  S  F.     Conservator, 

Rawalpindi    Forest   Circle,   Rawalpindi,    Pakistan       Author  of  Use 

and  Misuse  oj  Land,  etc 
R  M  MacD  Burma,  Union  of 

SIR     RAIBEART    MACINTYRL    MACDOUGALL,    KCMG, 

C  I  E  ,   MA      Counsellor  to  the  Governor  of  Burma,   1941-47 
R.N.I  I.  Billiards  and  Snooker  (;/;  part) 

RICHARD   N     HOLT.      Editor,   Billiard  Player,  London. 
R.P.S.  Balance  of  Pa>ments;  etc. 

ROBERT    PHILIPPE   SCHWARZ        Author   of   Brction    Hoods, 

E'Autnche  de  1918  a   1925.   etc 
R.Pst.  Moscow 

RALPH  POSTON,   BA      Secretary,   Meetings  Department,  Royal 

Institute  of  International  Affairs,   London 
R  R  W  F  Fruit  (in  part);  Market  Gardening;  etc. 

'ROGER    ROLAND    WESTWILL    TOLLEY,    BSC,    BCom 

Depaitmental  Demonstrator,  Umvcrsit}  of  Oxford. 
R  S  T  Munitions  of  War  (in  part) 

'ROBERT    S     THOMAS,    A  M         Military    Historian,    Historical 

Division,  Special  Start,  War  Department,  Washington,  D  C     Authoi 

of  The  Storv  of  the  30th  Division,  A  F  F. 

R  lu  Political  Parties,  U.S. 

'RAY  TUCKER,  B  A    Writer  of  Syndicated  Column,  "  The  National 

Whirligig  "    Author  of  7 he  Mirrors  of  1932,  etc. 
R  U  £  Skiing  (In  part) 

M'ISS  R    U    CROXFON.    Secretary,  Ski  Club  of  Great  Britain 
K  V  tt  R  Navies  of  the  World 

'RAYMOND  VICTOR  BERNARD  BLACKMAN,  A. M.I  N  A., 

A  I  Mar  F-       Editor,   Jane's   Fighting   Ships.      Author   of  Modern 
World  Hook  of  Ship  v. 
R  VV  B  New  Zealand  Literature ;  etc. 

'ROBERT  WILLIAM  BURCHFIELD,  M  A.    Rhodes  scholar  m 

residence  at  Magdalen  College,  Oxford 

R  W  Cr  Broadcasting  (in  part) 

'RUFUS  WILLIAM  CRATER.  Associated  Editor,  Broadcasting 
Magazine,  Washington,  D  C. 


R.W. J.K.  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  (in  part) 

REGINALD  WILLIAM  JAMES  KEf-BLE,  B.A.  Secretary, 
Young  Men's  Chnstia  .  Associ  *ion,  London. 

R.Wr.  Young  Women's  ChrKlian  Association  (in  part) 

RUTH  CHRISTABEL  WALDE^.  National  General  Secretary, 
Young  Women's  Christian  Association  of  Great  Britain 

S.A.L.  Prisons  (in  part) 

SAM  A  LEW1SOHN  Totmer  President,  American  Prison 
Association 

SF.Ws.  Albania 

SF.WARD  El  IOT  WATROUS  Programme  Organizer,  British 
Broadcasting  Corporauon,  London 

S.F  M.  Museums  (in  part) 

SYDNEY  FRANK  MARK1IAM,  M  A  ,  B  I  itt.  Former  Piesident, 
Museums  Association,  London  Hon  Associate  Director,  Inter- 
nitional  Coun- il  of  Museums  Author  of  Museums  of  the  British 
I  mpirr'  etc 

S.Ifr.  European  Recovery  Programme;  etc. 

SFBASIMN  HAFFNER,  Dr  jur.  Diplomatic  Correspondent, 
Obst'r\cr,  \  ondon 

S.J.M  .  Jet  Propulsion  an*l  Gas  Turbines  (m  part) 

SIDNI  ^  JAMIS  1DGAR  MOYES,  B  Sc  (Fng )  A  Principal 
S;iem  lie  Otlicer  in  the  National  Gas  Turbine  Establishment  of  the 
Mnistn  of  Supply,  Great  Britain 

S.L.Bn.  Country  Life 

SAM«.bL  I  EVY  BENSUSAN.  Authoi  of  The  Heart  of  the  Wild; 
Laiir--(lav  Rural  England,  Woodland  Friends,  etc. 

S.L  L.  Furs  (in  part) 

SAMUEL  LFWIS  LAZARUS     Editor.  Fur  Weeklv  News,  London 

S.I,  I  A«.  Wool  (in  part) 

STANFORD  L  LUCE  Secretary,  Wool  Associates  of  the  New 
York  Cotton  Exchange,  Inc  ,  Boston,  Massachusetts 

S.L.S.  Clothing  Industry  (in  part) 

STAN  LI  Y  L  SIMONS,  Ph  B  ,  LL  D  Editor,  The  Clothing  Trade 
Journal  Dnector,  Garment  Technical  Institute. 

S.McC.  Korea 

SHANNON  McCUNE,  MA,  PhD  Associate  Professor  and 
Head  of  Department  of  Geography,  Colgate  University,  Hamilton, 
New  York. 

S.McC.L.  International  Labour  Organization 

SAMUEL  McCUNE  I  INDSAY  Professor  Emeritus  of  Soc.al 
Legislation,  Columbia  University,  New  York,  N  Y  Author  of 
Railway  labor  in  the  US  ,  Emergency  Housing  Legislation,  etc. 

S.Nr.  Formosa  (in  part) 

STANLEY  NEHMER  Chief  Industrial  Resources  Section,  North- 
cast  Asia  Economic  Branch,  Division  of  Research  for  Far  East, 
Department  of  State,  Washington,  D  C  ,  Lecturer  in  Economics, 
American  University,  Washington,  I)  C. 

S.P.J.  Air  Forces  of  the  World  (m  part)\  etc, 

S  PAUL  JOHNSTON  Director,  Institute  of  the  Aeronautical 
Sciences.  New  York,  N.Y 

S.R.S.  Glass  (in  part) 

SAMUEL  RAY  SCHOLFS  Head  of  Department  of  Glass  Tech- 
nology, New  York.  Slate  College  of  Ceramics,  Alfred,  New  York. 

S.Sd.  Export-Import  Bank  of  Washington 

SIDNEY  SHFRWOOD,  A  B.  Secretary,  Export-Import  Bank  of 
Washington,  Washington,  D  C  , 

S.S.I f.  Stocks  and  Shares  (in  part) 

SOLOMON  S  HUEBNFR,  Sc  D  ,  PhD  President,  American 
College  of  Life  Underwriters,  Professor  of  Insurance  and  Com- 
merce, Wharton  School  of  Finance  and  Commerce,  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania 

S.So.  Endocrinology  (in  part) 

SAMUEL  SOSK1N,  M  D  ,  Ph  D.  Dean,  Michael  Reese  Hospital 
Postgraduate  School;  Professorial  lecturer,  Department  of  Physi- 
ology, I  he  University  ot  Chicago,  Chicago,  Illinois  Author  of 
Carbohydrate  Metabolism  (with  Dr  R  Levme)  Editor,  Progrew 
in  Clinical  Endocrinology 

S.Sp.  Music  (in  part) 

SIGMUND  SPAETH,  AM,  PhD  Lecturer  and  Broadcaster. 
Author  of  The  Art  oj  Enjoying  Music  ,  A  History  of  Popular  Music 
in  America,  etc 

S.St.C.McN.  Antarctica 

STEPHEN  ST.  CLAIR  McNFILF  Participated  in  suivcy  in 
Graham  land,  Antarctica,  Geographical  Student,  Cambridge 
University 

S.Tf.  Broadcasting  (///  part) 

SOL  TAISHOFF  President,  Editor  and  Publisher  ol  Broadcasting 
Publications,  Inc  ,  Washington,  D  C. 

T.Bar.  Wealth  and  Income,  Distribution  of  (in  part) 

TIBOR  BARNA,  B  Sc   (Econ  ),  Ph  D     Fellow  of  Nutheld  College. 
Oxford.    Author  of  Redistribution  of  Income  through  Public  finance 
T.C.  Church  of  Scotland 

THOMAS  CALDWELL,  M.A.,  B.D  ,  Ph  D  ,  D  D  Principal 
Clerk  of  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  Editor, 
The  Church  of  Scotland  Year-Book. 

T.C.BI.  International  Trade 

THOMAS  C    BLAISDEI  L,  Jr.       Assistant  Secretary  for  Foreign 
and  Domestic  Commerce,  U  S.  Department  of  Commerce,  Washmg- 
»  ton,  D.C 

T.E.U.  Political  Parties,  British 

T.   E.   UTLEY,   M.A.     Editorial  Staff,   The  Times,  London. 


XVI 


CONTRIBUTORS 


T.G.W.  Aliens  (in  part) 

TERENCE  GERARD  WEILER,  B.A.  Principal,  Aliens  Depart- 
ment, Home  Office,  London. 

T.H.McD.  Roads  (in  part) 

THOMAS  H.   MacDONALD.     Commissioner,   Bureau  of  Public 
Roads,  U.S.  Department  of  Commerce,  Washington,  D.C. 
T.H.O.  Physics 

THOMAS  H.  OSGOOD  Director,  Division  of  Mathematical  and 
Physical  Sciences,  Michigan  State  College,  East  Lansing,  Michigan. 
Editor,  American  Journal  of  Physics  Co-author  of  An  Outline  of 
Atomic  Phv\ics. 

T.J.B.  Venereal  Diseases  (in  part) 

THEODORE   J     BAUER,    M  D.      Chief,    Division    of  Venereal 
Disease,  U.S.  Public  Health  Service,  Washington,  D.C. 
T.T.S.  Nervous  System 

THEODORE  THADDEUS  STONE,  M  D  .  M.S  ,  Ph  D     Professor 
in  Nervous  and  Mental  Diseases,  Northwestern  University  Medical 
School,  Chicago,  Illinois;    Chief  and  Attending  Neuro-Psychiatnst, 
Wesley  Memorial  Hospital,  Chicago,  Illinois. 
T. V.H.  Badminton  (in  part) ;  Horse  Racing  (in  part) ;  etc. 

THOMAS  V.  HANEY.    Member  of  I  he  New   York  Times  staff. 
V.B.B.  Business  Review  (in  part) 

VIVA  BELLE  BOOTHE.     Director,  Bureau  of  Business  Research, 
College  of  Commerce  and  Administration,  The  Ohio  State   Uni- 
versity, Columbus,  Ohio.    Author  of  Earnings  in  Ohio  Industries,  etc. 
V.S.S.  Paper  and  Pulp  Industry  (in  part) 

VINCENT  STANLEY  SMITH.     Advertising  Consultant  to  Paper 
Manufacturers. 
W.A.  Police  (in  part) 

WILLIAM  AR  MIT  AGE.    Journalist  and  lecturer  on  criminology 
W.A.D.  Theatre  (in  part) 

WILLIAM  AUBREY  DARLINGTON,  M.A.  Drama  Editor 
and  Chief  Drama  Critic,  Daily  Telegraph,  London  Drama  Corres- 
pondent, The  New  York  Times.  Author  of  The  Actor  and  his 
Audience;  etc. 

W.A.Dw.  Fencing  (in  part) 

WARREN  A.  DOW.  Secretary,  Amateur  Fencers  League  of 
America. 

W.A.F.  Canals  and  Inland  Waterways  (in  part)-,  etc. 

WILLIAM  AMBROSE  FLERE,  A.M.Inst.T  River  Division, 
Port  of  London  Authority. 

W.B.Mi.  Aliens  (in  part);  etc. 

WATSON  B.  MILLER.  Commissioner,  Immigration  and  Naturaliza- 
tion Service,  U.S    Department  of  Justice,  Washington,  D  C. 
W.Bn.  Afghanistan;  Bhutan;  etc. 

SIR  WILLIAM  PELL  BARTON,  K  C  LE  ,  C  S  I  hornier  Resident 
at  Hyderabad,  India.  Author  of  India's  North- West  Frontier', 
India's  Fateful  Hour;  etc. 

W.B.Pu.  Presbyterian  Church 

WILLIAM  BARROW  PUGH,  D.D  ,  LL.D.,  Litt.D.    States  Clerk, 
The  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States  of  America 
W.C.An.  Portugal;  Spain;  etc. 

WILLIAM  CHRISTOPHER  ATKINSON,  M.A.  Stevenson 
Professor  of  Spanish,  University  of  Glasgow.  Author  of  Spain,  a 
Brief  History;  etc. 

W.Cn.  Polo  (in  part) 

WILLIAM  CREAN.  United  States  Polo  Association,  New 
York,  N.Y. 

W.D.K.  Christian  Science 

WILLIAM  D    K1LPATRICK.    Manager,  Committees  on  Publica- 
tion, The  First  Church  of  Christ,  Scientist,  Boston,  Massachusetts. 
W.D.Mn.  Photography  (in  part) 

WILLARD  D.   MORGAN      Editor,  The  Encyclopedia  of  Photo- 
graphy.   Author  of  Synchroflash  Photography,  etc. 
W.E.J.  Local  Government  (in  part) 

WILLIAM  ERIC  JACKSON,  LL.B  ,  Bamster-at-Law.     Assistant 
Clerk,  London  County  Council      Author  of  Local  Government  in 
England  and  Wales;  The  Structure  of  Local  Government. 
W.E.S.  Palaeontology 

WILLIAM  ELGIN  SWINTON,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S  E.t  F.L.S.    Principal 
Scientific  Officer,  Department  of  Geology,  British  Museum  (Natural 
History).     Author  ot  The  Dinosaurs;  'I he  Corridor  of  Life',  etc. 
W.F.Br.  Urology 

WILLIAM  F.  BRAASCH,  BS,  M  D.  Professor  Emeritus  of 
Urology,  University  of  Minnesota  Graduate  School,  Mayo  Foun- 
dation, Rochester,  Minnesota. 

W.Fr.  Australia,  Commonwealth  of;  etc. 

WOLFGANG    FR1EDMANN,  LL  M      Professor  of  Public  Law 
at  the  University  of  Melbourne,  Australia.     Author  of  The  Allied 
Military  Government  of  Germany,  Legal  Theory. 
W.Ft.  Paraguay 

WESLEY  FROST,  A.M.,  LL.D.    Former  Professor  of  International 
Relations,    the   American    Institute   for   Foreign   Trade,    Phoenix, 
Arizona.   Retired  career  diplomat;  former  Ambassador  to  Paraguay. 
W.G.P.  Netherlands  Overseas  Territories  (in  part) 

W1BO  G.  PEEKEMA,  D  L.  Legal  Adviser,  Standard-Vacuum 
Petroleum  Company. 

W.H.Ctr.  Austria;  etc. 

WILLIAM    HORSFALL    CARTER,    M.A.       Head    of   Western 

European  Section,  Research  Department,  Foreign  Ortice,  Londorf. 

W.H.McC.  Astronomy 

WILLIAM   HUNTER    McCREA,    M.A.,   Ph.D.,   B  Sc ,    F.R  S.E. 


Professor  of  Mathematics,  University  of  London  (Royal  Holloway 
College).  Author  of  Relativity  Physics;  Physics  of  the  Sun  and 
Stars;  etc. 

W.II.Oe.  Surgery 

WILLIAM  HENEAGE  OGILVIE,  K.B.E.,  M  A.,  M  D.,  Hon.LL.D 
(Witwatersrand,  S  Africa),  Hon.  F.A.C.S.,  Hon.  F.R.C.S.C.,  Hon 
F.R  ACS,  Hon  M.S  (Fouad  I,  Cairo).  Surgeon  to  Guy's  Hospital 
and  the  Royal  Masonic  Hospital,  London;  late  Vice-President. 
Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  London;  Editor,  Practitioner.  Author 
of  Recent  Advances  in  Surgery,  Forward  Surgery  in  Modern  War, 
Surgery  Orthodox  and  Heterodox,  etc. 

VV.H.R.  Beekeeping 

WILLIAM  HFNRY  RICHARDSON.  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Entomo- 
logical Association,  former  Chairman,  British  Beekeepers*  Associa- 
tion. 

W.H.Tr.  Motor-boat  Racing;  etc. 

WILLIAM  H   TAYLOR.    Associate  Editor,   Yachting.    Co-author, 
Yachting  in  North  America. 
W.J.Bt.  Furs  (in  part) 

W.  J    BRETT,  BS.    Editor,  Fur  Reporter,  New  York,  N.Y. 
W.J  C.  Railways  (in  part) 

WILLIAM  J  CUNNINGHAM.  James  J  Hill  Professor  Emeritus 
of  Transportation,  Graduate  School  of  Business  Administration, 
Harvard  University,  Boston,  Massachusetts. 

W.J.C1.  Co-operative  Movement  (in  part) 

WALLACE  J.  CAMPBELL.  Director,  Washington  Office,  The 
Co-operative  League  of  the  U.S  A. 

W..T.P.  Table  Tennis 

WILLIAM  JOHN  POPE.  Honorary  General  Secretary  of  the  English 
Table  Tennis  Association. 

W.K.F.  Pharmacy 

WILLIAM  KENNETH  FITCH,  M  P  S.  Editor,  Pharmaceutical 
Journal,  Publications  Manager  of  the  Pharmaceutical  Society  of 
Great  Britain  Author  of  Gas  Warfare 

W.L.A.  Great  Britain  and  Northern  Ireland,  United  Kingdom  of 

WILLIAM  L1NTON  ANDREWS     Editor,   Yorkshire  Post,  Leeds; 
Chairman,  Joint  Editorial  Committee  of  the  Newspaper  Society  and 
Guild  of  British  Newspaper  Editors.    Author  of  Yorkshire  Folk,  etc. 
W.L.Be.  Eye,  Diseases  of  the 

WILLIAM  L.  BENEDICT,   M.D.     The  Mayo  Clinic,   Rochester, 
Minnesota.     Professor  of  Ophthalmology,  University  of  Minnesota 
Graduate   School,    Mayo    Foundation,   Rochester,    Minnesota. 
W.McM.  Chemurgy 

WHEELER   McMILLEN,  LL.D.     Editor  in  Chief,   Farm  Journal 
and  Pathfinder,  U.S  A.    Author  of  New  Riches  from  the  Soil,  etc. 
W.Mr.  Organization  of  American  States 

WILLIAM  MANGER,  Ph.D.  Assistant  Secretary-General,  Or- 
ganization of  American  States. 

W.O.L.S.  Juvenile  Employment  (in  part) 

WILLIAM  OWEN  LESTER  SMITH,  M.A.  Professor  of  Sociology 
and  of  Education,  University  of  London.  Author  of  Education  in 
Great  Britain;  etc. 

W.P.K.  Medicine  (in  part) 

WALTER  P.  KENNEDY,  F  R.F  P  S  (G.),  L.R.C.P.E.,  L.R.C.S.E., 
BSc,  Ph.D,  F.RI.C,  FRSE.  Pharmacologist,  Ministry  of 
Health,  London. 

W.P.Ma.  Telegraphy  (in  part) 

WALTER  P.  MARSHALL.  President,  Western  Union  Telegraph 
Company,  New  York,  N.Y. 

W.R.Gn.  South  Africa,  The  Union  of;  etc. 

WILLIAM  RAMSAY  GORDON,  O  B.E.,  MI  I  A,  M  Inst  F. 
Editor,  Public  Works  of  South  Africa  and  Municipal  Affairs,  Cape- 
town 

W.R.W.  Veterinary  Medicine 

WALTER  REGINALD  WOOLDRIDGE,  Ph.D.,  M.Sc.,  M.R  C.V.S. 
Scientific  Director,  Animal  Health  Trust.  Author  of  War  Gases  and 
Foodstuffs. 

W.T.Ws.  Law  and  Legislation  (in  part);  etc. 

WILLIAM  THOMAS  WELLS,  B.A.  Barnster-at-Law;  Member  of 
Parliament  Member  of  the  Lord  Chancellor's  Committee  on  the 
Practice  and  Procedure  of  the  Supreme  Court.  Author  of  How 
English  Law  Works. 

W.V.W.  Cinema  (in  part) 

WALLACE   V.   WOLFE.      Fellow   S.M.P  E.,   A  S  C.      President, 
Motion  Picture  Research  Council,  Inc.,  Hollywood,  California. 
W.V.Wt.  Prices  (in  part) 

WI LLI A  M  V  WILMOT,  Jr.  Instructor,  Department  of  Economics, 
University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison,  Wisconsin. 

W.Wb.  Polish  Literature 

WIKTOR  WEINTRAUB,  M.A.,  Ph.D.  Literary  critic  and  His- 
torian. Author  of  Jan  Kochanowskl;  etc. 

W.W.Bn.  Education  (in  part) 

WILLIAM  W.  BRICK  MAN.  Department  of  History  and  Philosophy 
of  Education,  New  York  University,  New  York,  N.Y.;  former 
Editor  of  Education  Abstracts.  Author  of  Guide  to  Research  in 
Educational  History. 

W.W.L.  Japan 

WILLIAM  W.  LOCKWOOD,  M.A.    Assistant  Director,  Woodrow 
Wilson    School   of   Public   and    International    Affairs,    Princeton 
University,  Princeton,  New  Jersey. 
X. 

ANONYMOUS 


DIARY    OF   EVENTS,  1949 


JANUARY 

1 :  Great  Britain.  The  British  Nationality 
act,  1948,  came  into  operation. 

Austria.  The  British  occupation 
authorities  handed  over  control  of  the 
frontier  with  Italy  to  the  Austnans. 

Kashmir.  A  cease-fire,  ordered  by  the 
governments  of  India  and  Pakistan,  came 
into  effect  at  midnight  Dec.  31 -Jan.  1. 

2:  Indonesia.  General  Spoor,  commander 
of  the  Netherlands  forces,  declared  that 
action  in  Java  had  ended  on  Dec.  31. 

4:  South  Africa.  Dr.  Mears,  secretary  for 
native  affairs,  announced  that  the  govern- 
ment intended  to  abolish  the  Natives* 
Representative  council. 

O.E.E.C.  The  interim  report  of  the 
Organization  for  European  Economic 
Co-operation  was  published  in  Pans. 

5:  Germany.  Otto  Grotewohl,  joint  chair- 
man of  the  Socialist  Unity  party,  announ- 
ced that  the  Communist  party  of  Western 
Germany  had  decided  to  separate  from 
the  Socialist  Unity  party. 

Indonesia.  General  Spoor  ordered  a 
cease-fire  in  Sumatra. 

United  States.  President  Truman, 
speaking  to  congiess  called  for  action  to 
combat  inflation. 

Cricket.  The  third  test  match  between 
England  and  South  Africa  at  Capetown 
ended  in  a  draw. 

6:  Great  Britain.  The  prime  ministers  of 
the  United  Kingdom  and  Northern 
Ireland  met  in  London.  It  was  re-affirmed 
that  "no  change  shall  be  made  in  the 
status  of  Northern  Ireland  without 
Northern  Ireland's  free  agreement.** 

India.  The  plebiscite  arrangements  for 
Kashmir,  proposed  by  the  United 
Nations,  were  accepted  by  the  Indian 
and  Pakistani  governments  and  pub- 
lished in  Kashmir. 

Iraq.  The  government  resigned. 
Nun  Pasha  as-Said,  president  of  the 
Senate,  formed  a  new  cabinet. 

Scandinavia.  It  was  announced  that 
ministers  of  Sweden,  Norway  and 
Denmark  had  met  at  Kailstad,  where 
defence  matters  were  discussed. 
7:  United  States.  President  Truman 
announced  that  he  had  accepted  the 
resignation  of  George  Marshall,  secretary 
of  state,  because  of  ill-health,  and  that 
Dean  Acheson  would  succeed  him. 

8:  Great  Britain.  It  was  announced  in 
London  that  five  R.A  F.  planes  had  been 
shot  down  near  the  Egyptian-Palestinian 
border.  The  government  protested  to 
Israel. 

China.  The  foreign  minister  requested 
Britain,  France,  the  United  States  and 
the  Soviet  Union  to  mediate  in  the  civil 
war. 

Transjordan.  Requested  under  the 
terms  of  the  Anglo-Transjordaman  treaty, 
British  troops  were  sent  to  Aqaba,  as  a 
defence  precaution. 

9:  Israel.  Moshe  Shertok  refused  to 
accept  the  British  protest  as  it  was 
addressed  to  "  the  Jewish  authorities  in 
Tel  Aviv'*  and  not  to  the  provisional 
government.  The  provisional  govern- 
ment protested  to  Britain  at  the  landing 
of  troops  at  Aqaba. 

E  B  Y  — 2 


10:  China.  General  Chen  Cheng,  governor 
of  Formosa,  declared  that  the  island 
would  be  used  as  a  stronghold  against 
Communism. 

Egypt.  The  Wafd  party  announced 
that  it  was  prepared  to  enter  a  national 
coalition  government  under  a  neutial 
prime  minister. 

Israel.  'I  he  cabinet  decided  to  chc  rge 
Britain  before  the  Security  council  with 
contravening  the  resolution  forbidding 
the  introduction  of  fighting  personnel 
into  Israel  and  the  Arab  states. 
1 1 :  Argentina.  The  draft  or  a  new  constitu- 
tion was  published.  It  contained  a 
provision  by  which  the  president  or  vice- 
president  could  serve  twr  consecutive 
terms  of  office. 

Italy.  A  two-hour  strike  was  held  by 
50,000  workers  in  'he  Milan  area  to  call 
attention  to  industrial  difficulties  in 
northern  Italy. 

12:  France.  T  rir  Council  of  Ministers 
agreed  on  the  immediate  reduction  in 
the  prices  of  ccitain  basic  commodities. 

13:  Pakistan-India.  A  conference  between 
the  two  dominions  at  Karachi  ended 
with  agreement  on  several  matters  con- 
cerning evacuee  property. 

United  Nations.  Dr.  Bunche,  acting 
mediator  for  Palestine,  held  separate 
meetings  in  Rhodes  with  the  Israeli  and 
Egyptian  delegations  for  peace  talks 

14:  Great  Britain.  At  the  conclusion  of 
discussions  in  London  between  Ernest 
Bevin  and  Robert  Schuman  it  was 
announced  that  views  had  been  exchanged 
on  current  international  problems. 

China.  Mao  Tse-tung  broadcast  the 
terms  on  which  he  would  insist  for  peace 
with  the  Nationalists. 

Poland-Great  Britain.  A  five-year 
trade  and  finance  agreement  was  signed 
in  Warsaw,  pro\idmg  for  an  exchange  of 
goods  worth  £130  million. 

Rumania.  A  law  was  passed  introducing 
the  death  penalty  for  offences  against  the 
state 

South  Africa.  Serious  riots  broke  out 
between  Indians  and  Africans  in  Durban. 

Turkey.  'I  he  government  led  by  Hasan 
Saka  resigned 

Western  Union.  The  defence  ministers 
of  the  five  member  countries  met  in 
Brussels. 

15:  China.  The  Communist  armies  cap- 
tured Tientsin. 

Greece.  T.  Sophouhs,  prime  minister, 
resigned  after  attempts  to  broaden  the 
coalition  government  had  failed. 

Turkey.  Scmsettm  Gunultay  was  asked 
to  form  a  government. 

16:  Greece.  King  Paul  summoned  the 
leaders  of  the  ten  political  parties  and 
told  them  that  if  they  fa«led  to  form  a 
government  within  24  hours  he  would 
find  another  solution.  The  leaders  asked 
the  King  to  choose  a  prime  minister. 

Israel-Lebanon.  Representatives  met 
near  the  frontier  for  preliminary  armis- 
tice negotiations. 

South  Africa.  Racial  riots  ended  in 
Durban. 

17:  Germany:  Western  /kines.  The  three 
military  governors  announced  the  setting 
up  of  a  Military  Security  board. 

1 


International   Court   of  Justice.      The 

court    icsumed    hearings    on    Britain's 
claim  against  Albania. 

18:  Great  Britain.  Sir  Basil  Brooke,  prime 
mimstei  of  Northern  Ireland,  was 
received  in  London  by  Mr.  Attlee. 

The  government  recognized  the  repub- 
lic of  Korea. 

Antarctic.  It  was  announced  that  the 
British,  Argentine  and  Chilean  govern- 
ments had  decided  not  to  send  warships 
south  of  latitude  60°  during  the  1948-49 
antarctic  season. 

Austria.  The  government  announced 
that  Hungary  had  denounced  the  Austro- 
Hungarian  agi cement  of  1926  on  local 
frontier  traffic. 

Greece.  King  Paul  asked  M.  Sophouhs 
to  form  a  government. 

19:  Great  Britain.  The  government  declined 
the  Chinese  government's  invitation  to 
assist  in  mediation  m  China. 

Greece.  M.  Sophouhs  formed  a  govern- 
ment of  10  Liberals,  12  Populists  and 
6  other  members. 

W.F.T.U.  The  British,  Dutch  and 
United  States  delegates  withdrew  from 
the  federation  during  a  meeting  in  Paris. 

20:  India.  A  conference  on  Indonesia  sum- 
moned by  Pandit  Nehru,  opened  in 
Delhi.  19  countries  were  represented. 
United  States.  Harry  S.  Truman  was 
inaugurated  as  president.  In  his  inaugural 
speech  he  re-affirmed  his  nation's  belief 
in  the  rights  of  man  and  its  determination 
to  work  for  peace. 

21:  China.  General  Chiang  Kai-shek 
retired  from  the  presidency  and  General 
Li  Tsung-jen  became  acting  president. 

France.  The  government  published 
details  of  the  issue  of  a  5%  loan  to 
raise  100,000  million  francs  for  recon- 
struction. 

United  Nations.  The  U.S.A.,  China, 
Norway  and  Cuba  submitted  a  resolution 
to  the  Security  council  to  settle  the 
Indonesian  problem. 

22:  China.  Peking  surrendered  to  the 
Communists. 

Rumania.  A  government  decree 
abolished  the  police  and  replaced  it  by 
a  militia. 

23:  India.  The  conference  in  Delhi  on 
Indonesia  ended,  having  adopted  three 
resolutions,  the  first  of  which  was  for- 
warded to  the  Security  council. 

Japan.  Elections  were  held  for  the 
House  of  Representatives.  The  Demo- 
cratic-Liberal party  obtained  264  seats 
out  of  a  total  of  466. 

24:  France.  The  government  granted  de 
facto  recognition  to  Israel. 

Scandinavia.  Ministers  of  Sweden, 
Denmaik  and  Noiway  concluded  a  three- 
day  meeting  n  Copenhagen,  on  economic 
and  defence  matters. 

25:  Great  Britain.  The  report  of  the 
Lynskey  tribunal  was  issued. 

Eastern  Europe.  The  formation  of  a 
Council  for  Mutual  Economic  Assistance 
between  the  U  S.S.R.,  Bulgaria,  Czecho- 
slovakia, Hungary,  Poland  and  Rumania 
was  announced 


DIARY   OF  EVENTS,   1949 


Israel.  The  first  parliamentary  elections 
were  held.  Mapai  (Labour  party) 
emerged  as  the  largest  party  with  46 
seats  out  of  120. 

26:  Great  Britain.  Mr.  Bevin  defended  his 
Palestine  policy  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons. The  House  supported  him  by 
283  votes  to  193. 

Australia.  The  Nationality  Citizenship 
act  came  into  operation. 

China.  The  government  announced 
that  its  offices  would  be  moved  from 
Nanking  to  Canton  by  Feb.  5. 

Rumania-Poland.  A  treaty  of  military 
assistance  and  friendship  was  signed  in 
Bucharest. 

United  States.  An  international  wheat 
conference  opened  in  Washington.  Fifty- 
five  countries  were  represented. 

27:  Argentina.  Miguel  Miranda,  chairman 
of  the  National  Economic  council, 
resigned  and  was  succeeded  by  Ramon 
Cereijo. 

Eire.  The  leaders  of  the  mam  political 
parties  met  in  Dublin  to  consider  means 
of  assisting  anti-partition  candidates  in 
the  Northern  Ireland  general  election. 

Greece.  Terms  were  published  in 
Belgrade  under  which  the  **  free  govern- 
ment "  would  be  prepared  to  co-operate 
with  the  government  in  Athens. 

Turkey.  Athmagoras  I  was  enthroned 
as  Oecumenical  Patriarch. 

Western  Union.  The  foreign  ministers 
of  the  Brussels  treaty  powers  met  in 
London. 

28:  Czechoslovakia.  General  H.  Pika, 
former  deputy  chief  of  the  general  staff, 
was  sentenced  to  death  for  espionage. 
United  Nations.  Dr.  van  Royen  (Nether- 
lands) opposed  the  four-power  resolution 
on  Indonesia  before  the  Security  council. 
It  was  subsequently  adopted. 

29:  Israel.  De  facto  recognition  was 
granted  by  Great  Britain,  Belgium,  the 
Netherlands,  Luxembourg,  Norway  and 
New  Zealand.  Israel  had  now  been 
recognized  by  33  states. 

Norway.  A  note  was  received  from  the 
Soviet  Union  requesting  information  on 
Norway's  attitude  to  the  North  Atlantic 
treaty. 

United  Nations.  The  commission  for 
Indonesia  held  its  first  meeting  in 
Batavia. 

30:  Germany:  Western  Zones.  The  Centre 
party  rejected  a  proposal  from  the 
Christian  Democrat  party  that  the  two 
parties  should  amalgamate. 

Paraguay.  President  Juan  Natalicio 
Gonzalez  was  deposed  in  a  revolution  led 
by  Dr.  Felipe  Molas  Lopez.  General 
Raimundo  Rolon  was  elected  provisional 
president. 

Scandinavia.  Talks  in  Oslo  on  a  common 
defence  pact  failed  to  reach  agreement. 

Soviet  Union.  Marshal  Stalin's  replies 
to  questions  put  by  a  U.S.  press  agency 
were  published.  Stalin  stated  he  had  no 
objection  to  a  meeting  with  President 
Truman  to  consider  a  "  pact  of  peace.*' 

United  Nations.  Invitations  were  sent 
to  Iraq,  the  Lebanon,  Saudi  Arabia, 
Syria,  Transjordan  and  the  Yemen  to 
attend  the  Rhodes  peace  talks. 

31 :  United  States.  De  jure  recognition  was 
granted  to  Israel  and  to  Transjordan. 

Uruguay.  Ownership  of  British  rail- 
ways was  transferred  to  the  government. 


FEBRUARY 

1 :  Burma.  Thakin  Nu  stated  that  the 
goveinmcnt  was  prepared  to  grant  a 
separate  state  to  the  Karens  but  would 
not  permit  its  secession. 

Germany:  British  Zone.  Max  Reimann, 
the  Communist  leader,  was  sentenced  to 
three  months'  imprisonment  for  making  a 
subversive  speech. 

Hungary.  An  Independence  fiont  was 
foimed,  consisting  of  the  Workeis', 
Smallholders'  and  National  Peasant 
parlies  and  other  organizations.  M. 
Rakosi  was  elected  president. 

2.  Pakistan.  The  East  Bengal  govern- 
ment closed  the  Pakistan-Burma  frontier 
to  prevent  Communist  infiltration  among 
refugees  from  Arakan. 

3:  Canada.  Louis  St.  I^aurent  said  in  a 
broadcast  that  the  British  North  America 
act  should  be  amended  to  allow  changes 
in  it  to  be  made  without  reference  to  the 
Imperial  parliament. 

Council  of  Europe.  The  permanent 
commission  of  Western  Union  in  London 
began  drafting  the  constitution. 

4:  Eire.  The  government  decided  to 
nationalize  the  public  transport  system. 

Germany:  Western  Zones.  The  British 
and  United  States  military  governors 
announced  further  intensification  of  the 
counter-blockade  of  the  Soviet  zone. 

Greece.  It  was  announced  that 
General  Markos,  leader  of  the  Greek 
Communists,  had  been  relieved  of  his 
post. 

Iran.  The  Shah  was  shot  at  and  slightly 
injured. 

5:  Cyprus.  The  resignation  of  Lord 
Winstcr,  governor  of  Cypius  from  1947, 
was  announced. 

E.C.A.  The  administration  withdrew 
charges  that  Britain,  Belgium  and  the 
Netherlands  had  resold  E.R.P.  shipments 
of  aluminium  and  lead  to  the  United 
States  at  a  profit. 

Germany.  E.  Reuter,  lord  mayor  of 
Berlin,  arrived  in  London  for  conver- 
sations with  British  ministers. 

Iran.  The  government  dissolved  the 
Tudeh  party. 

Soviet  Union.  The  government  offered 
Norway  a  non-aggression  pact,  which 
was  not  accepted. 

7:  Canada.  Louis  St.  Laurent  intioduced 
a  resolution  in  parliament  approving  the 
union  with  Newfoundland. 

North  Atlantic  Treaty.  H.  Lange, 
foreign  minister  of  Norway,  arrived  in 
Washington  to  seek  information  on  the 
proposed  treaty. 

8:  Hungary.  Cardinal  Mmdszenthy  and 
six  otheis  accused  with  him  were  found 
guilty  of  treason  at  a  trial  in  Budapest. 

United  Nations.  The  Security  council 
began  discussions  on  disarmament. 

9.  Austria.  The  deputies  of  the  British, 
U.S  ,  Soviet  and  French  foreign  ministers 
met  in  London  to  resume  discussions  on 
an  Austrian  peace  treaty. 

10:  Great  Britain-Egypt.  Agreement  was 
announced  for  a  hydro-electric  and 
iingation  scheme  for  the  head  waters 
of  the  Nile. 

Bulgaria.  Fifteen  protestant  pastors 
were  to  be  tried  on  charges  of  espionage. 

Germany:  Western  Zones.  Ihe  main 
committee  of  thr  parliamentary  council 
decided  to  accept  Berlin  as  the  12th  land 
in  the  West  German  state. 


India.  Nathuram  Vinayak  Godse,  the 
assassin,  and  Narayan  Apte  were  found 
guilty  of  the  murder  of  Mahatma  Gandhi 
in  Jan.  1948  and  were  sentenced  to  death. 

Northern  Ireland.  A  geneial  election 
was  held  for  the  House  of  Commons. 
The  Unionist  party  obtained  a  majority 
of  22  over  all  other  parties. 

11:  Austria.  The  allied  council  refused  to 
authorize  the  Austrian  Democratic  union 
as  a  political  party. 

Malaya.     The  Penang  council,  by  15 
votes  to  10,  rejected  a  proposal  to  secede 
from  the  federation  of  Malaya. 
Portugal.      Geneial   Norton   de    Mattos 
withdrew  as  a  presidential  candidate. 

12:  Great  Britain.  Earl  Baldwin  of  Bewd- 
ley,  governor  of  the  Leeward  Islands, 
arrived  in  London  for  consultations 

Egypt.  Sheikh  Hassan  el-Banna,  leader 
of  the  Moslem  Brotherhood,  was  assas- 
sinated in  Cairo. 

Germany:  Western  Zones.  The  sen- 
tence on  Max  Reimann  was  suspended 
in  order  that  he  might  continue  to  serve 
on  the  pailiamcntary  council  at  Bonn. 

Japan.  Shigeru  Yoshida  was  elected 
prime  minister. 

13:  Czechoslovakia.  General  KutelwaSr, 
who  organized  the  rising  in  Pi  ague  in 
May  1945,  was  arrested  with  14  others 
on  charges  of  espionage. 

France.  Andre  Mane,  minister  of 
justice,  resigned  on  grounds  of  ill-health 
and  was  replaced  by  R.  Lccouit. 

Portugal.  Voting  took  place  in  the 
presidential  election.  Marshal  Oi>car 
Carmona  was  re-elected  by  941,863  votes 
against  4,789  to  General  de  Mattos. 

14:  Australia.  A  conference  of  federal  and 
state  ministers  agiccd  on  plans  for  a 
£A170  million  Snowy  nver  hydro- 
electric project. 

Burma.  Pailiament  passed  the  Demo- 
cratic Local  Self-Government  bill  which 
replaced  the  old  system  of  village 
administration  by  one  providing  for 
elected  councils. 

Israel.  The  Knesset  (parliament)  met 
for  the  first  time. 

United  Nations.  The  U.S  A.  charged 
the  Soviet  Union  bclore  the  Economic 
and  Social  council  with  employing  forced 
labour  on  a  large  scale. 

15:  China.  General  Li  Tsung-jen,  acting 
president,  repeated  his  determination  to 
negotiate  a  peace  with  the  Communists. 

Denmark.  The  last  German  refugees 
left  the  country 

Eire.  John  Costello,  prime  minister, 
speaking  to  the  Fine  Gael  party,  said 
that  **  the  end  of  partition  was  envisaged 
in  our  time  " 

O.E.E.C.  A  nine-power  ministerial 
committee  met  in  Paris  under  Paul-Henri 
Spaak  of  Belgium. 

16:  Africa.  Representatives  of  Southern 
and  Northern  Rhodesia  and  Nyasaland 
met  at  Victoria  falls  to  discuss  federation. 

Israel.  The  Knesset  elected  Dr.  Chaim 
Weizmann  as  first  president  of  Israel. 

Japan.  Shigeru  Yoshida's  third  cabinet 
was  installed  in  office. 

Malaya.  The  Penang  secession  com- 
mittee decided  to  by-pass  the  Federal 
Council  and  to  take  their  case  direct  to 
the  colonial  secretary  in  London. 

World  Health  Organization.  The 
Soviet  Union,  Ukraine  and  Byelorussia 
announced  their  withdrawal. 

Cricket.  The  fourth  test  match  between 
England  and  South  Africa  at  Johannes- 
burg ended  in  a  draw. 


DIARY   OF  EVENTS,   1949 


17:  O.E.E.C.  The  council  decided  to  set 
up  an  eight-power  ministerial  committee. 
United  Nations.  The  Security  council 
referred  the  application  of  South  Korea 
to  the  membership  committee.  The 
application  by  North  Korea  was  rejected 
by  8  votes  to  2. 

18:  Germany:  Western  Zones.  The 
millionth  ton  of  supplies  was  flown  to 
Berlin.  Ernest  Bcvm  congratulated  all 
concerned  in  the  air-lift. 

19:  India.  Police  started  a  drive  against 
Communists.  By  Feb.  25,  3,932  Com- 
munists were  arrested  in  Hyderabad. 

Pakistan.  The  world  Moslem  con  Terence 
opened  in  Karachi. 

20:  Burma.  I  he  regional  autonomy 
enquiry  commission  recommended  the 
setting  up  of  a  Karen  state  within  the 
union. 

South  Africa.  Further  clashes  occurred 
between  Indians  and  Africans  in  Durban. 

Roman  Catholic  Church.  The  Pope 
denounced  the  life  sentence  passed  on 
Cardinal  Mmds/enthy. 

21  •  Costa  Rica-Nicaragua.  The  ambassa- 
dors of  the  two  states  in  Washington 
signed  a  pact  of  friendship. 

22:  France.  M.  r\  horez,  the  Communist 
leader,  made  a  hypothetical  statement  on 
the  attitude  ot  the  French  people  to  an 
anti-Soviet  war,  which  was  subsequently 
discussed  by  the  National  Assembly. 

21  •  Burma.  Rebels  advancing  on  Mandalay 
occupied  Mymgyan  and  Maymyo. 

Eire.  Scan  MaeBiidc,  minister  for 
external  affaiis,  stated  that  Eire  would 
not  join  the  Noith  Atlantic  treaty  because 
of  the  paitition  of  Ireland. 

Finland.  A  vote  of  no  confidence  in 
the  government  was  defeated  by  2  votes. 

Germany.  Representatives  of  Britain, 
France,  United  States  and  the  Benelux 
countries  met  in  Pans  to  discuss  frontier 
claims  of  Belgium,  Luxembourg  and  the 
Nethei  lands. 

Indo-China.  It  was  announced  that 
agreement  had  been  reached  between  the 
French  government  and  the  ex-Emperor 
of  Annam,  Bao  Dai. 

Siani.  \  state  of  emergency  was 
declared  throughout  the  country 

United  Nations.  The  commission  for 
conventional  armaments  agreed  by  9 
votes  to  2  to  undertake  a  census  of 
national  military  establishments. 

24:  Israel-Egypt.  An  armistice  agreement 
was  signed  at  Rhodes. 

Siam.  It  was  announced  that  a  plot 
had  been  discovered  to  assassinate  the 
prime  minister  and  overthrow  the  govern- 
ment 

Rockets.  In  a  test  at  White  Sands,  New 
Mexico,  a  two-stage  rocket  i cached  an 
altitude  of  250  mi. 

25:  Burma.     The  government  announced 
the  recapture  of  Mymgyan  and  Maymyo. 
Israel-Transjordan.    Armistice  negotia- 
tions began  at  Rhodes. 

26:  Great  Britain.  Sir  Stafford  Cnpps 
issued  a  statement  denying  suggestions 
made  in  New  York  by  Christopher 
May  hew,  under  secretary  for  foreign 
affairs,  that  British  recovery  was  com- 
plete. 

Netherlands.  The  government  announ- 
ced that  it  would  seek  to  transfer  its 
sovereignty  over  Indonesia  to  a  federal 
government  considerably  before  July  lf 


Paraguay.  General  Raimundo  Rolon 
was  deposed  by  a  "  civil  and  military 
movement."  He  was  succeeded  by 
Dr.  Felipe  Molas  Lopez 

Siam.   A  revolt  broke  out  in  Bangkok 
Various  public  buildings  were  taken  over 
and  fighting  occurred. 

27:  Egypt.  In  government  changes  announ- 
ced Ahmed  Mohammed  Khasi.aba  Pasha 
returned  to  the  cabinet  as  foreign 
minister 

San  Marino.  A  general  election  resulted 
in  the  Socialist-Communist  coalition 
being  returned  to  power. 

28:  Europe.  A  four-day  meeting  in  Bi  ussels 
of  the  International  Council  of  the  Euro- 
pean Movement  ended  after  speeches  bad 
been  made  by  Wins' DP  Chuichill  and 
Paul-Henri  Spaak 

India.  Inform  «l  talks  un  Burma  were 
held  in  Delhi  between  Bandit  Nehru, 
Dr.  H.  V.  Lvatt  (A  istralu),  Malcolm 
MacDonald  and  Arthur  B'MtomJey  (U.K.) 
and  W.  H  de  Silva  (Ceylon) 

Siam.  The  revolt  ended.  A  commission 
was  appointed  to  investigate  the  causes. 

MARCH 

I .  Soviet  Union.  Prices  of  food,  clothing 
and  other  goods  were  reduced. 

United  States.  The  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives passed  the  Judd  bill,  thus 
lifting  the  ban  denying  Asiatics  the  right 
to  immigrate  to  the  United  States. 

Yugoslavia-Czechoslovakia.  A  trade 
agreement  was  signed  in  Belgiade. 
2:  Germany:  Western  Zones.  The 
military  governors  suggested  amend- 
ments to  the  draft  consitution  of  West 
Germany. 

India.  Mrs.  Sarojim  Naidu,  governor 
of  the  United  Provinces,  died  in  Lucknow. 

Soviet  Union.  'I he  government  sent  a 
note  to  Sweden  alleging  a  series  of 
persecutions  of  Soviet  citizens  from 
Latvia,  Estonia  and  Lithuania. 

3:  United  States.  James  Forrestal, 
secretary  of  dclence,  icsigned  and  was 
succeeded  by  Louis  Johnson. 

4:  Burma.  The  government  rejected  the 
offer  of  mediation  made  after  the  Delhi 
conference  of  Feb.  28. 

Germany.  Clement  Attlce  arrived  in 
Berlin  to  inspect  the  air  lift. 

Siam.  Three  former  cabinet  ministers 
arrested  and  charged  with  plotting 
against  the  government  were  shot  while 
attempting  to  escape. 

Soviet  Union.  A.  Y.  Vyshmsky 
succeeded  V.  M  Molotov  as  minister 
for  foreign  affairs  A.  I.  Mikoyan, 
minister  for  foreign  trade,  was  replaced 
by  M.  N.  Menshikov. 

United  Nations.  The  Secuiity  council, 
by  9  votes  to  1,  approved  the  application 
for  membership  ot  Israel.  Britain 
abstained  and  Egypt  voted  against. 

5:  Hungary.  M.  Rakosi,  deputy  prime 
minister,  announced  a  purge  of  the 
National  front. 

Soviet  Union.  A.  Gromyko  succeeded 
A.  Y.  Vyshmsky  as  first  deputy  foreign 
minister. 

6:  Chile.  Parliamentary  elections  were 
held.  The  government  coalition  of 
Radicals,  Liberals  and  Conservatives 
secured  majorities  in  both  chambers. 

Finland.  The  prime  minister,  M.  Fager- 
holm,  re-affirmed  Finnish  loyalty  to  the 
Fmo-Soviet  pact. 

Atomic  Energy.  Tne  British  ministry 
of  supply  announced  the  production  of 
plutomum  at  Harwell,  Berkshire. 


7:  Council  of  Europe.  Invitations  to  join 
the  proposed  council  were  sent  to 
Denmark,  Eire,  Italy,  Norway  and 
Sweden. 

Greece.  A  rebel  broadcast  announced 
thiit  the  council  of  the  Macedonian 
National  Liberation  front  had  decided 
to  increase  its  propaganda  for  an 
independent  Macedonia. 

Sue/  Canal.  An  agreement  between 
the  board  and  the  government  of  Fgypt 
was  signed  in  Cairo. 

8:  Bulgaria.  Four  of  the  protestant 
pastors  on  tiial  in  Sofia  were  sentenced 
to  life  imprisonment.  Nine  others  were 
sentenced  to  terms  of  from  5  to  15  years. 

Burma.  The  government  announced 
that  elections  planned  for  March  28  had 
been  postponed. 

China.  Di  Sun  Fo,  prime  minister, 
resigned. 

France.  An  agreement  on  the  future 
status  of  Vietnam  was  formerly  con- 
cluded in  Pans  between  President  Vincent 
Aunol  and  Bao  Dai. 

Israel.  The  first  government  of  Israel 
was  formed  David  Ben-Gunon  remained 
prime  minister. 

9:  Cricket.  England  won  the  fifth  and 
last  test  match  between  England  and 
South  Africa  at  Port  Elizabeth. 

10:  Soviet  Union.  The  1949  budget  was 
presented  to  the  Supreme  Soviet.  Expen- 
diture included  79,000  million  roubles 
for  defence 

United  Nations.  Members  of  the 
commission  for  Indonesia  visited  Repub- 
lican leaders  on  Bangka  island. 

1 1 :  Israel-Transjordan.  A  cease-fire  agree- 
ment was  signed  at  Rhodes. 

Italy.  Alcide  DC  Gasperi  told  the 
Chamber  of  the  Deputies  that  the  council 
of  ministers  had  unanimously  agreed  to 
the  North  Atlantic  treaty. 

12:  Great  Britain.  A  successful  operation 
for  lumbar  sympathectomy  was  per- 
formed on  King  George. 

The  War  Office  announced  that  the  de- 
tachment at  Aqaba  was  being  reinforced. 

Burma.  Karen  forces  occupied  Manda- 
lay. 

China.  By  209  votes  to  30  the  legis- 
lative Yuan  appioved  the  appointment 
of  General  Ho  Ying-chin  as  prime 
minister  in  succession  to  Dr.  Sun  Fo. 

13:  Argentina.  The  Constituent  Assembly 
approved  the  new  constitution  giving 
additional  powers  to  the  president. 

Benelux.  A  conference  of  ministers  of 
Belgium,  the  Netherlands  and  Luxem- 
bourg at  The  Hague  ended  with  agree- 
ment for  the  provisional  economic 
union  to  operate  from  July  1,  1949. 

North  Atlantic  Treaty.  B.  Benediktsson, 
foreign  minister  of  Iceland,  arrived  in  the 
United  States  to  seek  information  on  the 
proposed  treaty. 

14:  Burma.  The  government  offered  an 
amnesty  to  all  insurgents  and  also  agreed 
to  offer  the  Karens  a  separate  state 
within  the  union. 

Soviet  Union.  Further  government 
changes  were  announced.  N.  A.  Vozne- 
sensky,  head  of  the  planning  commission, 
was  replaced  by  M.  Z.  Saburov. 

United  States.  John  L.  Lewis  called 
out  on  strike  425,000  coal-miners  in 
protest  against  the  appointment  of  James 
Boyd  as  director  of  mines 
15:  Great  Britain.  The  economic  survey 
for  1949  was  published,  fhe  first  main 
objective  laid  down  was  increased  exports 
to  the  dollar  countries. 


DIARY  OF   EVENTS,   1949 


The  rationing  of  clothes  and  textiles 
was  abolished. 

America.  The  committee  on  dependent 
territories  of  the  Organization  of  Ameri- 
can States  met  in  Havana,  Cuba. 

16:  Argentina.  Piesident  Per6n  took  the 
oath  of  allegiance  to  the  new  constitu- 
tion. 

Austria.  The  government  granted 
de  facto  recognition  to  Israel  the  46th 
state  to  give  recognition. 

France.  The  Council  of  Ministers 
approved  the  terms  of  the  North  Atlantic 
treaty. 

North  Atlantic  Treaty.  The  eight 
negotiating  nations  invited  Denmark, 
Iceland,  Italy  and  Portugal  to  join  the 
treaty. 

South  Africa.  N.  C.  Havenga,  finance 
minister,  presented  his  budget  to  the 
House  of  Assembly  and  denied  that  the 
country  was  heading  for  bankruptcy. 

17:  Burma.  The  government's  offer  of  an 
amnesty  directed  towards  the  Karens  in 
Insein  expired  without  a  reply. 

18:  Italy.  The  Chamber  of  Deputies 
concluded  a  seven-day  debate  on  the 
North  Atlantic  treaty.  342  votes  were 
cast  in  favour,  170  against. 

20:  Germany:  Western  Zones.  The  three 
military  governors  announced  that  the 
west  mark  would  be  the  only  legal  tender 
in  western  Berlin. 

21 :  Syria.  The  government  informed  the 
acting  mediator  of  its  willingness  to 
negotiate  with  Israel. 

Transjordan,  The  government  requested 
military  aid  from  Britain  to  defend  its 
southern  frontier  from  Isiaeli  attack. 

United  Nations.  Admiral  Chester 
Nimitz,  U.S.  navy,  was  appointed  as 
Kashmir  plebiscite  administrator. 

22:  Canada.  The  budget  introduced  by 
D.  C.  Abbott  provided  for  a  revenue  of 
$2,768  million.  He  announced  substan- 
tial tax  cuts. 

Czechoslovakia.  Captain  P.  Wildash 
of  the  British  embassy  was  arrested  and 
charged  with  plotting  against  the  state. 
He  was  later  released  and  ordered  to 
leave  the  country. 

Hungary.  Two  U.S.  assistant  military 
attach6s  were  ordered  to  leave  Hungary 
on  charges  of  spying. 

23:  Israel-Lebanon.  An  armistice  agree- 
ment was  signed. 

Leeward  Islands.  The  governor,  Earl 
Baldwin  of  Bewdley,  returned  to  the 
islands  after  consultations  in  London. 

International  Wheat  Council  A  four- 
year  agreement  was  signed  by  delegates 
from  37  countries. 

24:  China.  The  government  decided  to 
communicate  with  the  Communists  ex- 
pressing the  hope  that  they  would 
promptly  appoint  delegates  for  peace 
negotiations,  and  suggest  a  time  and  place 
for  the  talks. 

Denmark.  The  Folketing  voted  in 
favour  of  joining  the  North  Atlantic 
treaty  by  1 19  votes  to  23. 

Siam.  The  State  Council  announced 
the  ratification  of  a  new  constitution. 

Soviet  Union.  Marshal  A.  M.  Vasi- 
levsky  was  appointed  minister  of  the 
armed  forces  in  succession  to  Marshal 
N.  A.  Bulganin. 

26:  France-Italy.  A  treaty  was  signed  in 
Paris  providing  for  the  establishment  of 
a  customs  union  within  one  year  and  full 
economic  union  within  six  years. 


Germany.  The  Benelux  countries, 
France,  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States  announced  agreement  on  minor 
frontier  changes  in  western  Germany. 

Rowing.  In  the  university  boat  race 
Cambridge  beat  Oxford  by  i  length. 

27:  China.  The  Communists  named  April  1 
for  peace  talks  to  be  held  in  Peking. 

O.E.E.C.  The  council  of  the  O.E.E.C. 
in  Pans  approved  the  plan  of  action  for 
European  recovery  in  1949-50. 

28:  Canada.  It  was  announced  that  Sir 
Albert  Walsh  would  be  the  lieutenant 
governor  of  Newfoundland  after  the 
union  with  Canada. 

Council  of  Europe.  Representatives  of 
10  countries  met  in  London  to  prepare  a 
draft  constitution  for  the  council. 

Israel.  P'ans  were  announced  for  the 
transfer  of  five  Israeli  ministries  from 
Tel  Aviv  to  Jerusalem. 

South  Africa.  The  parliament  approved 
an  interim  customs  union  with  Southern 
Rhodesia. 

United  States  A  three-day  "  Cultural 
and  Scientific  Conference  for  World 
Peace  "  ended  in  New  York. 

29:  Canada.  The  House  of  Commons 
approved  the  terms  of  the  North  Atlantic 
treaty  by  149  votes  to  2. 

Norway.  The  Storting  approved 
Norway's  accession  to  the  North  Atlantic 
treaty. 

Soviet  Union.  General  V.  I.  Chuykov 
was  appointed  to  succeed  Marshal  V. 
D.  Sokolovsky  as  commander  of  the 
Soviet  forces  in  Germany. 

30:  Iceland.  The  Althing  voted  by  37 
votes  to  10m  favour  of  joining  the  North 
Atlantic  treaty. 

India.  The  United  State  of  Rajasthan 
was  inaugurated  at  Jaipur. 

Portugal.  After  consultations  with  the 
Spanish  government  it  was  announced 
that  Portugal  had  decided  to  join  the 
North  Atlantic  treaty. 

Syria.  The  government  was  overthrown 
in  a  bloodless  coup  d'etat.  Colonel 
Husni  ez-Zaim  proclaimed  himself  acting 
president 

31:  Egypt  -  Great  Britain.  A  financial 
agreement  for  1949  was  signed  in  Cairo. 

APRIL 

1 :  Belgium.  The  cabinet  approved  the 
transfer  of  about  10£  sq.  mi.  of  German 
territory  to  Belgium. 

Canada.  Celebrations  were  held  to 
mark  the  entry  of  Newfoundland  into 
the  confederation  of  Canada. 

E.R.P.  It  was  announced  that  during 
the  first  year  of  E.R.P.  grants  totalled 
$4,953  million  and  loans  $898  million. 

North  Atlantic  Treaty.  A  Soviet  note 
of  protest  against  the  treaty,  alleging  that 
it  was  aggressive,  was  received  by  seven 
of  the  twelve  participating  nations. 

2:  Burma.  Socialist  cabinet  ministers 
resigned. 

India.  The  states  of  Travancore  and 
Cochin  decided  to  unite. 

3 :  Bulgaria-Hungary-Rumania.  The  three 
governments  received  notes  from  the 
British  and  U.S.  governments  alleging 
violations  of  the  peace  treaty  terms. 

Burma.  Government  forces  recaptured 
the  greater  part  of  Mandalay. 

India-Pakistan.  An  inter-dominion 
conference  opened  in  Delhi  to  settle 
certain  outstanoing  differences. 

Israel-Trans  Jordan.  An  armistice  agree- 
ment was  signed  in  Rhodes. 


4:  Bulgaria.  It  was  announced  that 
Traicho  Kostov  had  been  relieved  of  his 
post  as  vice  premier  and  had  been  arrested. 

France.  V.  Kravchenko,  author  of 
7  Chose  Freedom,  won  his  libel  action 
against  the  Communist  periodical  Les 
Lettres  Francoises \  in  Paris. 

North  Atlantic  Treaty.  Representatives 
of  Belgium,  Canada,  Denmark,  France, 
Iceland,  Italy,  Luxembourg,  Netherlands, 
Norway,  Portugal,  United  Kingdom  and 
United  States  signed  the  treaty  in 
Washington. 

United  States.  Congress  authorized 
further  aid  to  China. 

5:  Afghanistan.  The  prime  minister 
established  himself  at  Jalalabad  in  order 
to  arouse  support  for  the  government's 
policy  concerning  the  tribal  territories 
of  Pakistan. 

Burma.  Government  changes  were 
announced.  Ne  Win  was  appointed 
deputy  prime  minister. 

United  Nations.  The  general  assembly, 
adjourned  from  Dec.  1948  in  Pans,  met 
at  Flushing  Meadow,  New  York. 

United  States.  A  request  was  received 
from  the  Brussels  treaty  powers  for 
assistance  in  carrying  out  their  common 
defence  programme. 

6:  Great  Britain.  Sir  Stafford  Cnpps 
introduced  his  budget.  Little  alteration 
was  proposed  in  the  scale  of  taxation; 
the  total  expenditure  for  1949-50  was 
estimated  at  £3,308,368,000,  leaving  a 
surplus  of  revenue  of  £469,382,000, 

7:  Great  Britain.  Elections  for  the  London 
County  council  ended  in  Labour  and 
Conservatives  each  having  64  seats,  and 
the  Liberals  1  seat. 

United  States.  Notes  requesting 
assistance  for  their  defence  programmes 
were  received  from  Norway,  Denmark 
and  Italy. 

8:  Bulgaria-Czechoslovakia.  It  was 
announced  that  a  trade  agreement  had 
been  signed. 

Germany:  Western  Zones.  An  agree- 
ment on  Germany  was  signed  in  Washing- 
ton by  the  foreign  ministers  of  France, 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States. 

Norway.  The  cabinet  declared  north 
Norway  a  special  defence  area  under 
the  command  of  Admiral  Tore  Horve. 

United  States.  The  Senate  authorized 
extension  of  the  European  Recovery 
programme  by  70  votes  to  7. 

Western  Union.  The  defence  ministers 
of  the  Brussels  treaty  powers  concluded 
a  two-day  meeting  at  The  Hague  and 
approved  a  plan  for  the  defence  of 
western  Europe. 

9:  Great  Britain.  In  county  council 
elections  in  England  and  Wales  the 
Conservatives  gained  360  seats  and  lost 
19,  while  the  Labour  party  gained  83  and 
lost  338. 

International  Court  of  Justice.  The 
court,  by  11  votes  to  5,  declared  that 
Albania  was  responsible  for  the  mining 
of  two  British  destroyers  in  the  Corfu 
channel  on  Oct.  22,  1946. 

10:  Germany:  Western  Zones.  The  occu- 
pation statute,  to  come  into  force  on  the 
establishment  of  the  federal  republic, 
was  published. 

11:  Great  Britain.  Over  7,000  London 
dockers  came  out  on  strike  against  the 
dismissal  of  33  men  described  as  re- 
dundant. 

International  Trade.  A  tariff  negotiation 
conference  opened  at  Annecy,  France. 


DIARY   OF    EVENTS,   1949 


South  Africa.  The  bill  giving  South- 
West  Africa  representation  in  the  Union 
parliament  was  passed  by  the  House  of 
Assembly. 

12:  Great  Britain.  The  Labour  party 
published  its  programme  for  the  next 
general  election  under  the  title  Labour 
Believes  in  Britain. 

The  government  replied  to  a  Soviet 
note  on  the  North  Atlantic  treaty  and 
rejected  the  suggestion  that  the  pact  was 
contrary  to  the  United  Nations  charter. 

Burma.  Thakm  Nu,  prime  minister, 
arrived  in  Delhi  to  confer  with  Pandit 
Nehru. 

Greece.  Following  the  King's  refusal 
to  dismiss  a  minister  suspected  of  illegal 
currency  dealings,  the  prime  minister, 
T.  Sophoulis,  resigned. 

United  States.  The  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives voted  by  354  votes  to  48  to 
extend  the  European  Recovery  pro- 
gramme. 

13:  Germany:  Western  Zones.  Two  agree- 
ments between  France,  Great  Britain 
and  the  United  States  on  dismantling 
were  published. 

Indonesia.  Representatives  of  II 
countries  met  in  Delhi  to  rrview  the 
situation  in  Indonesia. 

Israel-Syria.  It  was  announced  that  a 
cease-fire  agreement  had  been  signed. 

Italy-Yugoslavia.  Two  agreements, 
for  fishing  rights  and  for  the  transfer 
of  nine  Italian  naval  vessels,  were  signed. 

O.E.E.C.  A  two-day  meeting  of  the 
council  ended  in  Pans.  Paul-Henri 
Spaak  was  re-elected  president. 

14*  Greece.  A  new  government  was  sworn 
in.  T.  Sophoulis  remained  prime  minister. 

Indonesia.  Discussions  between  Dutch 
and  Indonesian  republicans  opened  in 
Batavia. 

United  Nations.  The  general  assembly 
approved  by  43  votes  to  6  a  resolution 
calling  for  moderation  in  the  use  of  the 
veto. 

15:  Great  Britain.  The  London  dockers 
voted  to  return  to  work. 

Germany.  Widespread  criticism  was 
made  of  the  Allied  agreements  on  dis- 
mantling. 

Japan.  The  government  decided  to 
form  an  advisory  council  to  study  popu- 
lation problems. 

16:  Hungary-Czechoslovakia.  A  treaty  of 
friendship,  co-operation  and  mutual 
assistance  was  signed  in  Budapest. 

Paraguay.  Dr.  Felipe  Molds  Lopez, 
the  only  candidate,  was  elected  president. 

Syria.  Colonel  Husni  ez-Zaim  formed 
a  government,  he  himself  becoming 
prime  minister,  minister  of  defence  and 
of  the  interior. 

17:  Bulgaria.  V.  Kolarov  was  appointed 
to  act  for  the  prime  minister  G.  Dimitrov 
during  his  absence  in  the  Soviet  Union 
owing  to  illness. 

Italy.  Alcide  De  Gasperi,  prime 
minister,  outlined  plans  for  land  reform. 

Rumania.  Ana  Pauker  and  V.  Luca 
were  appointed  vice  premiers. 

South  Africa.  The  government  issued 
a  report  on  the  riots  in  Durban  in  Janu- 
ary. The  report  stated  that  142  persons 
had  been  killed  and  1,087  injured. 

18:  Ireland.  The  republic  of  Ireland  was 
formally  inaugurated. 

19:  Soviet  Union.  A  joint  decree  of  the 
government  and  of  the  Communist  party 
announced  plans  for  increasing  agricul- 
tural produce  by  one-half  by  1951. 


United  States.  President  Truman 
signed  authorization  to  extend  the  Euro- 
pean Recovery  programme  for  a  further 
15  months. 

20:  China.  Peace  negotiations  between 
Nationalists  and  Communists  broke  down. 

H.M  S.  "  Amethyst  "  was  fired  on  by 
Communist  artillery  and  driven  aground 
in  the  Yantse  15  mi.  east  of  Chmkiang. 

France.  A  Communist  -  sponsored 
"  World  Congress  ot  Partisans  of  Peace  " 
opened  in  Pans. 

Japan.  The  1949  *?0  budget,  involving 
an  expenditure  of  704,667  million  yen, 
was  passed  by  the  Diet 

21 :  Commonwealth  Conference.  A  con- 
ference of  the  dominion  prime  ministers 
opened  in  London. 

Egypt.  King  Farouk  lecuved  Colonel 
Husni  ez-Zaim,  acting  president  of  Syria 

Red  Cross  Conference.  F'fty-six 
countries  were  represented  at  the  opening 
of  a  conference  in  Geneva  to  consider 
four  international  com  «.nt  ions  for  the 
protection  of  victims  of  \\ar 

22:  Iran.  It  was  announced  that  20  Icadeis 
of  the  Tudeh  party  had  been  tried  by 
court  martial  and  imprisoned. 

United  Nations  The  ad  hoc  political 
committee  adopted  by  34  votes  to  6  a 
Bolivian  resolution  condemning  the  Hun- 
garian and  Bulgarian  governments  for 
the  trials  of  religious  leaders. 

Medicine.  At  the  Mayo  clinic, 
Rochester,  Minnesota,  it  was  disclosed 
that  a  hormone,  Compound  E,  might 
eventually  prove  to  be  an  agent  of  con- 
trol in  ihcumatism,  although  not  of 
immediate  practical  significance. 

23 :  Cochin-China.  The  territorial  assembly 
voted  for  the  inclusion  of  Cochin-China 
within  Vietnam. 

Egypt.  The  government  decided  to 
recognize  the  new  Syrian  admmistiation. 

Germany-Netherlands.  The  boundary 
between  the  two  countries  was  adjusted 
in  favour  of  the  Netherlands. 

24:  China.  Nanking,  the  capital,  was 
captured  by  Communist  forces. 

Indo-China.  Bao  Dai,  ex-empcror  of 
Annam,  left  France  to  return  to  Indo- 
Chma. 

25:  Belgium.  King  Leopold  had  a  meeting 
in  Berne  with  the  Regent  and  M.  Spaak, 
prime  minister. 

Germany:  Western  Zones.  The  text  of  a 
draft  agreement  by  the  parliamentary 
council  at  Bonn  on  the  West  German 
constitution  was  transmitted  to  the 
British,  French  and  American  military 
governors. 

United  Nations.  The  general  assembly, 
by  39  votes  to  6,  with  11  abstentions, 
called  on  the  Soviet  government  to  allow 
Russian  women  to  join  their  foreign 
husbands. 

Shipping.  The  Royal  Mail  turbine 
liner  '*  Magdalena  "  ran  aground  off  the 
Brazilian  coast,  homeward  bound  on  her 
maiden  voyage.  She  broke  in  two  next 
day  while  being  towed  to  Rio  de  Janeiro. 

26:  Germany.  It  was  announced  that 
conversations  had  been  held  between 
Y.  A.  Malik,  U.S.S.R.,  and  P.  C.  Jessup, 
U.S.A.,  at  Lake  Success  on  the  lifting 
of  the  Berlin  blockade. 

27:  Belgium.  M.  Spaak  reported  to  the 
cabinet  on  his  talks  with  King  Leopold. 
The  Socialist  trade  unions  issued  a  warn- 
ing that  a  general  strike  would  be  called 
if  the  King  returned  against  the  will  of 
parliament. 


France.  The  franc  was  devalued  from 
1,061  to  the  pound  sterling  to  1,096. 

Syria.  The  government  of  Colonel 
Husni  ez-Zaim  was  recognized  by  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States. 

7^-  Commonwealth.  At  the  end  of  the 
conference  in  London  a  declaration  was 
published  whereby  the  Commonwealth 
governments  accepted  India's  full  mem- 
bership within  the  Commonwealth  as  a 
republic. 

Ireland.  Pandit  Nehru,  prime  minister 
of  India,  was  received  on  the  floor  of  the 
Da  1 1 

Uganda.  The  governor  proscribed  the 
Bataka  party  and  the  African  Farmers' 
union  following  disturbances  in  Kam- 
pala. The  province  of  Buganda  was 
declared  a  distuibed  area. 

29:  Ireland.  D.  S.  Senanayake,  prime 
minister  of  Ceylon,  visited  Dublin. 

Uganda.  The  situation  in  Kampala 
was  reported  to  be  quieter.  Police  made 
over  200  arrests. 

30:  Austria.  O.  Helmer,  minister  of  the 
interior,  announced  the  government 
would  allow  unrestricted  formation  of 
new  political  parties. 

Germany.  A  three-day  dispute  in 
Berlin  caused  by  the  Soviet  authorities' 
attempt  to  control  canal  traffic  ended 
with  a  Soviet  promise  not  to  interfere 
with  craft  of  the  western  powers  moving 
in  the  British  sector. 

United  Nations.  The  general  assembly, 
by  34  votes  to  6,  called  on  Hungary  and 
Bulgaria  to  answer  the  British  and  United 
States  charge  of  violation  of  the  human 
rights  clause  in  the  peace  treaties. 

Football.  Wolverhampton  Wanderers 
beat  Leicester  City  by  3  goals  to  1  in  the 
Football  association  cup  final  at  Wemb- 
ley, London. 


MAY 

1 :  Argentina.  President  Per6n  re-affirmed 
the  government's  policy  to  nationalize 
all  public  services  including  transport. 

Bolivia.  General  elections  were  held. 
Fighting  broke  out  in  which  five  people 
were  reported  killed. 

Egypt.  The  government  decided  to 
ask  parliament  to  retain  martial  law  for 
a  further  year. 

India.  Baroda  state  was  formally 
merged  with  Bombay  province. 

Soviet  Union.  At  the  May  day  parade 
in  Moscow  Marshal  A.  M.  Vasilevsky, 
minister  of  the  armed  forces,  read  out  an 
order  of  the  day  warning  the  people  that 
the  North  Atlantic  treaty  was  a  threat  to 
peace. 

2:  Bolivia.  The  government  declared  a 
state  of  siege. 

Ireland.  Liaquat  Ah  Khan,  prime 
minister  of  Pakistan,  arrived  in  Dublin. 

Italy.  The  resumption  of  diplomatic 
relations  with  Albania  was  announced. 

3:  Great  Britain.  The  government's  Ire- 
land bill  was  published.  It  recognized 
the  change  of  status  of  southern  Ireland, 
but  declared  it  not  to  be  a  foreign 
country.  The  bill  also  affirmed  that  no 
part  of  Northern  Ireland  should  cease 
to  be  part  of  the  United  Kingdom  without 
the  consent  of  the  parliament  of  Northern 
Ireland. 

Greece.  Parliament  passed  a  vote  of 
confidence  m  the  government  by  224 
votes  to  47. 


DIARY   OF  EVENTS,   1949 


Soviet  Union.  The  government 
announced  a  state  loan  of  20,000  million 
roubles,  redeemable  in  20  years,  for 
economic  development. 

Transjordan.  King  Abdullah  accepted 
the  resignation  of  his  cabinet. 

4:  Belgium.  The  Chamber  of  Deputies 
ratified  the  North  Atlantic  treaty  by  139 
votes  to  22. 

Council  of  Europe.  Ministers  of  Nor- 
way, Sweden,  Denmark,  Italy,  Ireland 
and  the  Brussels  treaty  powers  reached 
full  agreement  on  the  statute  of  the 
Council  of  Europe  at  a  meeting  in 
London. 

Germany.  P.  C.  Jessup  (U.S.),  Y.  A. 
Malik  (U.S.S.R.),  J.  Chauvel  (France) 
and  Sir  Alexander  Cadogan  met  in  New 
York.  Agreement  was  reached  on  the 
lifting  of  the  Berlin  blockade. 

Ireland.  Patrick  McGilligan,  minister 
of  finance,  presented  his  budget  to  the 
Dail.  He  proposed  a  reduction  of  (x/. 
in  the  standard  rate  of  income  tax. 

5:  Great  Britain.  It  was  announced  that 
the  government  had  decided  to  drop  the 
charges  of  war  crimes  against  Field 
Marshal  von  Rundstedt  and  General 
Strauss. 

Council  of  Europe.  The  statute  of  the 
Council  of  Europe  was  signed  in  London 
by  representatives  of  Belgium,  Denmark, 
France,  Great  Britain,  Ireland,  Italy, 
Luxembourg,  Netherlands,  Norway  and 
Sweden. 

7:  Indonesia.  The  preliminary  conference 
at  Batavia  agreed  that  the  Republican 
government  should  return  to  Djokjakarta, 
guerrilla  warfare  cease  and  a  round  table 
conference  be  held  at  The  Hague. 

Transjordan.  The  cabinet  was  reshuffled. 
Tawfiq  Pasha  Abulhuda  remained  prime 
minister. 

8:  Germany:  Western  Zones.  The  basic 
law  of  the  West  German  state  was  passed 
by  53  votes  to  12  in  the  parliamentary 
council  at  Bonn. 

Italy.  Count  Sforza  returned  to  Rome 
after  reaching  agreement  with  Ernest 
Bcvin  on  a  new  plan  for  the  former 
Italian  colonies.  The  ministers  proposed 
that  Tripolitania  would  return  to  Italian 
trusteeship  in  1951. 

9:  Monaco.  Prince  Louis  II  died.  He  was 
succeeded  by  Prince  Rainier. 

10:  Council   of  Foreign   Ministers.      The 

deputies  who  had  been  discussing  the 
draft  Austrian  peace  treaty  for  three 
months  adjourned. 

Germany:  Western  Zones.  The 
parliamentary  council  decided  that  Bonn 
should  be  the  capital  of  Western 
Germany. 

Ireland.  The  Dail  unanimously  passed 
a  resolution  protesting  at  the  action  of 
the  British  government  in  introducing 
its  bill  upholding  the  status  of  Northern 
Ireland. 

1 1 :  Austria.         Parliament     unanimously 

passed    a    resolution   appealing   to    the 

four  powers  to  conclude  a  peace  treaty. 

Council  of  Europe.     The  preparatory 

commission  held  its  first  meeting  in  Paris. 

United  Nations.   The  general  assembly 

admitted  Israel  as  the  59th  member  state 

by  37  votes  to  12. 

12:  Great  Britain.  The  House  of  Commons 
approved  the  North  Atlantic  treaty  by 
333  votes  to  6. 

Germany.  At  one  minute  after  mid- 
night the  blockade  of  Berlin  was  lifted. 


The  western  military  governors 
approved  the  constitution  for  a  federal 
republic  of  Western  Germany. 

13:  Great  Britain-Israel.  It  was  announced 
that  the  status  of  the  representatives  in 
Tel  Aviv  and  London  would  be  raised  to 
ministers. 

14:  Germany.  A  charter  for  the  western 
sector  of  Berlin,  on  the  lines  of  the 
occupation  statute  for  Western  Germany, 
was  agreed  to  by  France,  Great  Britain 
and  the  U.S.A. 

Libya.  A  state  of  emergency  was  pro- 
claimed in  Tripoli  after  demonstrations 
and  stnkes  against  the  Bevm-Sforza 
agreement. 

Paraguay.  Dr.  Felipe  Molas  L6pez 
was  insta'led  as  president. 

United  Nations.  The  general  assembly 
approved  a  proposal  inviting  South 
Africa,  India  and  Pakistan  to  discuss  the 
treatment  of  Indians  in  the  Union  at  a 
round-table  conference. 

The  convention  on  news  transmission 
and  rights  of  correction  was  adopted  by 
33  votes  to  6. 

15:  Germany:  Soviet  Zone.  Elections  on  a 
single-list  system  began  for  the  third 
People's  Congress. 

Hungary.  Elections  were  held  for  the 
National  Assembly.  95%  of  the  votes 
cast  were  for  the  People's  Independence 
front. 

16:  China.  Communist  troops  entered 
Hankow. 

United  Nations.  The  general  assembly 
failed  to  give  a  two-thirds  majority  to  a 
proposal  calling  for  the  resumption  of 
diplomatic  missions  in  Spain. 

17:  Germany:  Soviet  Zone.  Results  were 
published  for  elections  to  the  People's 
Congress.  66  1  %  of  the  votes  cast  were 
in  favour  of  the  single  list  of  candidates, 
33-9%  against. 

India.  The  Constituent  Assembly 
approved  the  agreement  on  India  reached 
at  the  Commonwealth  conference. 

Israel-Syria.  Armistice  talks  were 
suspended  until  further  proposals  would 
be  made  by  the  acting  mediator. 

18:  Great  Britain.  Five  parliamentary 
private  secretaries  were  dismissed  because 
they  voted  against  the  Ireland  bill. 

K.  Zilhacus  and  L.  J.  Solley  were 
expelled  from  the  Labour  party. 

International  Bank.  It  was  announced 
that  the  executive  directors  had  accepted 
the  resignation  of  John  McCloy  (appointed 
U.S.  high  commissioner  in  Germany) 
and  had  appointed  Eugene  Black  to 
succeed  him. 

Italy.  About  400,000  farm  labourers 
in  the  Po  valley  came  out  on  strike  for 
better  working  conditions. 

Spain.  General  Franco  accused  Britain 
of  failing  to  keep  her  promises  and  quoted 
Mr.  Churchill  as  having  promised  that 
Britain  would  help  Spain  to  become  a 
strong  power  in  the  Mediterranean  and 
support  her  territorial  claims  in  north 
Africa. 

United  Nations.  The  general  assembly 
failed  to  give  a  two-thirds  majority  to  a 
Bevm-Sforza  plan  for  the  Italian  colonies. 

19:  Great  Britain.  The  discovery  was 
announced  of  a  new  coalfield  near  Lich- 
field,  Staffordslure,  which  was  expected 
to  yield  400  million  tons  of  coal. 

Belgium.  Parliament  was  dissolved  and 
elections  were  ordered  for  June  26. 


Finland.  President  J.  K.  Paasikivi 
pardoned  ex-president  Risto  Ryti  who 
had  been  sentenced  to  ten  years*  im- 
prisonment by  the  war  guilt  tribunal. 

Germany.  The  western  authorities  in 
Berlin  protested  to  the  Soviet  military 
governor  against  restrictions  on  traffic 
from  western  Germany. 

20:  Austria.  Dr.  Karl  Gruber,  foreign 
minister,  in  a  speech  to  the  People's 
party  congress,  called  for  an  early  end 
to  the  four-power  occupation  of  Austria. 

China.  The  Legislative  Yuan  asked 
the  cabinet  to  seek  United  Nations' 
mediation  in  the  civil  war. 

France.  The  government  granted  de 
jure  recognition  to  Israel. 

Germany:  Western  Zones.  The  first 
meeting  of  the  international  authority 
for  the  Ruhr  was  held  in  London. 

Greece.  Archbishop  Damaskmos  died 
in  Athens. 

It  was  announced  that  discussions  had 
taken  place  in  New  York  between  A. 
Gromyko  (U.S.S.R.),  Hector  McNeil 
(U.K.)  and  D.  Rusk  (U.S.A.)  on  pro- 
posals for  a  settlement  in  Greece  put 
forward  by  Gromyko. 

21 :  Germany.  Railway  workers  in  the 
western  sectors  of  Berlin  went  on  strike 
in  an  attempt  to  enforce  the  Soviet- 
controlled  Reichsbahn  authorities  to  pay 
them  in  western  marks. 

India.  The  All-India  Congress  com- 
mittee approved  India's  continued  mem- 
bership of  the  Commonwealth. 

22:  Burma.  Insein,  ten  miles  north  of 
Rangoon,  was  occupied  by  government 
troops. 

Colombia.  A  new  government  was 
formed  with  Colonel  Regulo  Gaitan  as 
prime  minister. 

Cyprus.  Municipal  elections  were  held. 
About  60%  of  the  electorate  voted  for 
the  Nationalists  and  40%  for  the  Com- 
munist party. 

France.  The  National  Assembly  passed, 
by  351  votes  to  209,  a  bill  empowering 
Cochm-China  to  join  the  Indo-Chinese 
states  of  Tonkin  and  Annam. 

23 :  Council  of  Foreign  Ministers.  The  sixth 
session  of  the  council  opened  in  Paris. 
Present  were  Ernest  Bcvin  (U.K.), 
R.  Schuman  (France),  A.  Vyshinsky 
(U.S.S.R.)  and  Dean  Acheson  (U.S.A.). 

Hungary.  The  minister  of  education, 
Gyula  Ortutay,  announced  the  national- 
ization of  all  theatres. 

South  Africa.  The  government 
announced  stringent  new  restrictions  on 
imports  from  the  sterling  area  and  from 
the  United  States. 

Western  Germany.  The  West  German 
constitution  was  signed  at  Bonn  by  the 
members  of  the  parliamentary  council. 
The  constitution  was  formally  promul- 
gated and  the  republic  came  into  existence 
at  midnight. 

25:  China.  Communist  forces  entered 
Shanghai.  Occupation  was  completed 
two  days  later. 

26:  India.  The  Constituent  Assembly 
decided  to  abolish  the  reservation  of 
seats  in  the  legislatures  for  minorities 
except  for  the  scheduled  castes  and  Sikh 
backward  classes. 

Railways.  An  electric  tram  set  up  a 
new  speed  record  by  travelling  from  Paris 
to  Bordeaux  in  4hr.  26  mm. 

27:  Canada.  Provincial  elections  were  held 
in  Newfoundland.  The  Liberal  party 
obtained  a  majority  of  seats  in  the 
Legislature. 


DIARY   OF   EVENTS,   1949 


Germany.  The  Soviet  authorities 
stopped  further  rail  traffic  from  Western 
Germany  to  Berlin. 

28:  Bolivia.  Rioting  broke  out  in  the  tin 
mines  of  the  Patino  company. 

29:  Greece.  It  was  announced  that  from 
June  1946-March  1949,  37,934  officers 
and  men  of  the  government  forces  had 
been  killed  or  wounded. 

Syria.  The  existing  political  parties 
were  dissolved. 

Western  Germany.  Max  Reimann  was 
re-imprisoned  after  being  released  from 
Feb.  12  to  serve  on  the  parliamentary 
council  at  Bonn. 

30:  Australia.  It  was  announced  that 
radio-active  minerals  with  a  high  uranium 
content  had  been  discovered  in  central 
Australia. 

China.  The  Nationalist  government 
resigned. 

Council  of  Foreign  Ministers.  A. 
Vyshmsky  rejected  a  western  powers* 
proposal  for  a  united  Germany  under  a 
democratic  German  government  subject 
to  limited  four-power  control. 

31:   Great   Britain   -   Argentina:     It    was 

announced  in  Buenos  Aires  that  agree- 
ment in  principle  had  been  reached  on 
a  new  trade  pact. 

Bolivia.  The  government  proclaimed  a 
state  of  siege  and  outlawed  the  national 
revolutionary  movement,  the  Communist 
party  and  the  Workers'  Revolutionary 
party. 

Luxembourg.  The  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties ratified  the  North  Atlantic  treaty  by 
46  votes  to  5. 


JUNE 

1 :  Great  Britain.  General  Sir  Brian 
Robertson  was  appointed  British  high 
commissioner  in  Germany. 

It  was  announced  that  Britain  had  sent 
notes  to  the  Rumanian,  Bulgarian  and 
Hungarian  governments  informing  them 
that  enforcement  action  would  be  taken 
in  consequence  of  violation  of  the  human 
rights  clauses  m  the  peace  treaties. 

Cyrcnaica.  The  British  administrator 
in  Cyrenaica  announced  at  Benghazi  that 
Britain  was  granting  Cyrenaica  indepen- 
dence in  internal  affairs  under  Emir 
Idns  el-Sen ussi.  The  Emir  issued  a 
proclamation  of  independence. 

India.  The  administration  of  Bhopal 
state  was  taken  over  by  the  government 
of  India. 

2:  Transjordan.  It  was  announced  that  the 
name  of  the  country  had  been  changed  to 
the  Hashimite  Kingdom  of  the  Jordan. 

3 :  China.  The  Legislative  Yuan  approved 
the  appointment  of  Marshal  Yen  Hsi- 
shan  as  prime  minister  in  succession  to 
Ho  Ying-chin. 

4:  O.E.E.C.  A  two-day  meeting  of  the 
eight-power  consultative  group  ended  in 
Paris.  Agreement  was  reached  on  plans 
for  "  liberalizing  "  intra-Europcan  trade. 
Horse  Racing.  The  Derby  was  won  by 
Mrs.  M.  Glemster's  Nimbus,  ridden  by 
E.  C.  Elliott. 

5;  Great  Britain.  Railwaymen  in  north- 
east England  staged  a  one-day  strike  for 
the  fourth  Sunday  in  succession  in 
protest  against  lodging  turns. 

Colombia.  General  elections  were 
held.  The  Liberals  emerged  as  the 
largest  party. 


Denmark.  The  centenary  of  the 
constitution  was  celebrated.  A  delegation 
from  the  British  parliament  was  present 
in  Copenhagen. 

6:   Great  Britain.    The  annual  conference 

of  the  Labour  party  opened  in  Blackpool. 

Australia.     The  High  Court  declared 

that    petrol    rationing    by    the    federal 

government  was  illegal. 

7:  Great  Britain.  Troops  were  used  in  a 
dock  strike  at  Bristol.  2,000  dockets 
came  out  in  Liverpool. 

Gennany.  The  western  commanders 
of  Berlin  decided  to  reduce  the  executive 
functions  of  the  Kommandatura.  Its  18 
committees  were  reduced  to  seven. 

India.  The  government  took  over  the 
administration  of  Sikkim  af  the  request 
of  the  Maharajah. 

North  Atlantic  Treaty.  Sir  Oliver 
Franks,  British  ambassador  in  Washing- 
ton, handed  Britain's  ratification  of  the 
treaty  to  the  U  S.  State  Oepai  tment. 

8 .  International  labour  Organization.  The 

32nd  conference  of  the  organization 
opened  in  Geneva.  Sir  Guildhaume 
Myrddm-Rvans  (Great  Britain)  was 
elected  president. 

Siam.  The  embassy  in  London 
announced  that  the  name  of  the 
country  would  be  Thailand,  and  of  the 
people  and  nationality,  Thai. 

Syria.  The  government  signed  two 
agi  cements  with  the  Anglo-Iranian  Oil 
company,  the  first  for  the  passage  of  a 
pipe  line  through  Syrian  territory  and 
the  second  for  the  construction  of  a 
refinery  at  Tartus. 

9:  Canada.  Provincial  elections  were  held 
in  Nova  Scotia.  The  Liberal  government 
was  returned  to  power. 

10:  Hungary.  A  new  cabinet  was  formed. 
Istvan  Dobi  remained  prime  minister. 
L.  Rajk,  former  foreign  minister,  was 
dropped  from  the  government. 

Northern  Ireland.  An  election  was  held 
for  12  members  of  the  Senate.  Nine 
Unionists  and  three  Anti-Partitionists 
were  elected. 

1 1 :  Great  Britain.  George  Isaacs,  minister 
of  labour,  broadcast  an  appeal  to  the 
strikers  to  return  to  work. 

Albania.  Koci  Xoxe,  former  vice- 
premier,  was  shot  after  being  sentenced 
to  death  for  collaboration  with  Marshal 
Tito. 

United  States.  President  Truman,  in  a 
speech  at  Little  Rock,  Arkansas,  declared 
that  a  lasting  world  peace  must  have 
three  essential  conditions:  first,  the 
United  States  must  be  strong  and  pros- 
perous; second,  other  nations  devoted 
to  peace  and  freedom  must  also  be  strong 
and  prosperous;  and  third,  there  must 
be  an  international  structure  capable  of 
maintaining  peace. 

12:  Great  Britain.  Dockers  at  Liverpool 
voted  to  return  to  work.  Railwaymen 
again  staged  a  Sunday  strike  in  north- 
east England. 

Trieste.  Elections  were  held  for  a  new 
local  administration.  The  Christian 
Democrats  received  the  largest  number 
of  votes,  with  the  pro-Cominform  Com- 
munists second. 

13:  Great  Britain.  Railwaymen  in  London 
voted  to  "  work  to  rule  **  if  their  wage 
increases  were  not  settled  bv  July  4. 


Soviet  Union.  The  government  rejected 
the  British  and  United  States  requests 
for  a  three-power  meeting  to  discuss 
alleged  treaty  violations  by  Bulgaria, 
Hungary  and  Rumania. 

Western  Germany.  Belgian  troops 
occupied  the  Fischer-Tropsch  works  in 
the  Ruhr  after  a  dismantling  squad  had 
been  refused  access. 

14:  Great  Britain.  Dockers  at  Bristol 
voted  to  return  to  work. 

Burma.  The  Karen  National  Defence 
organization  announced  the  formation 
of  a  Karen  cabinet  with  Saw  Ba  U  Gyi 
as  prime  minister. 

Italy.  It  was  announced  that  vast 
deposits  of  petroleum  had  been  discovered 
in  the  Po  valley. 

Cricket.  The  first  test  match  between 
England  and  New  Zealand  at  Headingley, 
Leeds,  ended  in  a  draw. 

15:  Canada.  Piovincial  elections  were  held 
in  British  Columbia.  The  Liberal- 
Conservative  coalition  remained  in  power. 
Hungary.  It  was  announced  that 
L.  Raik  and  T  Szonyi  had  been  expelled 
from  the  Communist  party  as  **  spies  and 
Trotskyist  agents  of  foreign  and 
imperialist  powers/' 

United  Nations.  The  Atomic  Energy 
commission  decided  to  abandon  its 
sittings  until  the  five  permanent  members 
of  the  Security  council  and  Canada  had 
found  a  basis  for  agreement. 

17:  Bulgaria.  It  was  announced  that 
Traicho  Kostov,  former  deputy  prime 
minister,  would  be  excluded  from  the 
national  assembly  because  of  his  "  anti- 
Dimitrov  and  anti-Stalin  activities.** 

18:  Czechoslovakia.  Archbishop  Joseph 
Bcran  seated  that  he  would  never  con- 
clude an  agreement  with  the  state  which 
would  infringe  the  rights  of  the  Church. 

Mexico  A  new  parity  of  8  65  pesos 
to  the  U.S.  dollar  was  announced. 

Western  Union.  The  consultative 
council  of  the  treaty  powers  ended  a 
two-day  meeting  in  Luxembourg. 

19:  China.  Mao  Tse-tung  addressed  the 
preparatory  committee  of  the  political 
consultative  conference,  which,  he  said, 
would  announce  the  formation  of  a 
people's  republic  and  elect  a  coalition 
government. 

Czechoslovakia.  Youths  demonstrated 
in  Prague  cathedral  while  Archbishop 
Beran  was  preaching.  A  pastoral  letter 
signed  by  the  archbishop  was  read  from 
the  pulpits  throughout  the  country.  It 
declared  that  all  clergy  joining  the 
government-sponsored  Catholic  Action 
committee  would  be  excommunicated. 

Hungary.  It  was  learned  that  the 
government  had  repudiated  the  1947 
trade  agreement  with  Yugoslavia. 

India.  Chandernagore,  a  French 
possession  in  India,  voted  by  7,473  votes 
to  114  to  merge  with  India. 

20:  Great  Britain.  The  Royal  Commission 
on  Population,  set  up  in  March  1944, 
presented  its  report. 

It  was  announced  that  the  government 
had  decided  to  raise  the  embargo  on  the 
supply  of  arms  to  Jordan  and  Iraq. 

Council  of  Foreign  Ministers.  A  com- 
munique issued  after  the  final  meeting 
of  the  council  announced  details  of 
agreements  reached  concerning  Germany 
and  Austria. 


8 


DIARY   OF  EVENTS,   1949 


Dominican  Republic.  President  Tru- 
jillo  stated  that  a  rising  had  been 
attempted  in  Puerto  Plata 

Western  Germany.  The  charter  of  the 
Allied  High  Commission  for  Germany 
was  signed  by  Dean  Acheson,  Ernest 
Bevin  and  Robert  Schuman  in  Paris. 

21 :  Great  Britain.  It  was  announced  that 
the  four  M.Ps.  expelled  from  the  Labour 
party  had  formed  a  Labour  Independent 
group  with  D.  N.  Pritt  as  chairman. 

Australia.  Joseph  Chifley,  federal 
prime  minister,  asked  the  state  premiers 
to  take  over  petrol  rationing. 

Western  Germany.  The  Berlin  city 
assembly  passed  a  resolution  calling  for 
the  inclusion  of  Berlin  as  the  12th  Land 
in  the  West  German  state. 

Shipping.  "  Prinses  Astrid,"  a  cross- 
channel  steamer,  struck  a  mine  off 
Dunkirk  and  sank  after  90min.  Five 
of  the  crew  were  killed. 


23 :  Italy.  The  general  strike  of  hired  farm 
labourers  in  the  Po  valley  ended.  Land- 
owners and  the  two  confederations  of 
labour  reached  agreement. 

Netherlands.  The  rationing  of  butter, 
fats,  margarine  and  edible  oils  ended. 

O.E.E.C.  Sir  Stafford  Cnpps,  M. 
Spaak  (Belgium),  M.  Petsche  (France), 
A.  Harnman  (U.S.)  and  M.  Marjoltn 
(O.E.E.C)  held  talks  in  Brussels  on 
convertibility  of  drawing  rights  under  the 
intra-European  payments  scheme. 

Western  Germany.  The  Bizonal  Econo- 
mic council  called  on  the  western  powers 
to  stop  dismantling  of  factories  in  Ger- 
many. 

24:  Greece.  T.  Sophoulis,  prime  minister, 
died.  Konstantinos  Tsaldans  was  asked 
to  form  a  government. 

Pakistan-India.  A  one-year  trade  agree- 
ment was  signed  in  Karachi. 

Uruguay.  The  cabinet  resigned  after 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies  had  passed  a 
vote  of  censure  on  the  finance  minister, 
Ledo  Arroya  Torres. 

25:  China.  The  Nationalist  government 
imposed  a  blockade  of  ports  and  terri- 
torial waters  from  Foochow  to  Man- 
churia. 

Egypt.  Mixed  tribunals  which  had 
been  in  existence  for  67  years  were  ended. 

Ireland-Sweden.  A  trade  agreement — the 
the  first  between  the  two  countries — was 
signed  in  Dublin. 

Syria.  Colonel  Husni  cz-Zaim  was 
elected  president  at  an  election  in  which 
he  was  the  only  candidate. 

26:  Belgium.  The  second  postwar  general 
election  was  held.  The  Social  Christian 
party  gained  13  seats  in  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  but  just  failed  to  secure  a 
majority. 

Korea.  Kim  Koo,  a  former  president 
of  the  provisional  government,  was 
assassinated  in  Seoul. 

Syria.  Muhsin  Barazi  formed  a 
government. 

Trade  Union  International.  Representa- 
tives of  38  national  trade  union  centres 
concluded  a  two-day  meeting  in  Geneva. 
It  was  decided  to  set  up  a  new  trade 
union  international. 

27:  Great  Britain.  2,500  London  dockers 
went  on  strike  in  sympathy  with  Canadian 
seamen  who  were  on  strike. 


Argentina-Great  Britain.  A  new  trade 
treaty  was  signed  in  Buenos  Aires. 

Australia.  23,000  miners  stopped  work 
in  a  nation-wide  strike  for  higher  wages 
and  improved  conditions 

Canada.  In  a  general  election  for  the 
House  of  Commons  the  Liberal  party 
under  Louis  St.  Laurent  was  returned 
with  an  increased  majority. 

Czechoslovakia.  The  Ministry  of 
Education  issued  a  decree  stating  that 
all  Roman  Catholic  circulars  and  com- 
munications must  first  be  submitted  to 
the  state  authorities. 

28:  Great  Britain.  A  delegate  meeting  of 
the  National  Union  of  Railwaymen 
decided  to  reject  a  wage  offer  from  the 
Railway  executive  and  called  for  a 
go-slow  campaign  from  July  3. 

Belgium.  Paul  van  Zeeland,  Social 
Christian,  agreed  to  form  a  government. 

Germany.  Most  of  the  Berlin  railway 
workers  on  strike  returned  to  work. 

United  States.  Robert  F.  Wagner 
resigned  as  a  senator  for  New  York. 
Governor  Thomas  E.  Dewey  appointed 
John  Foster  Dulles  to  succeed  him. 

Cricket.  The  second  test  match 
between  England  and  New  Zealand  at 
Lord's,  London,  ended  in  a  draw. 

29:  Great  Britain.  The  Royal  Commission 
on  the  Press,  set  up  in  1947,  published  its 
report.  It  recommended  that  the  press 
should  establish  a  General  Council  of  the 
Press. 

Australia.  The  House  of  Representa- 
tives passed  the  Coal  Strike  bill  which 
forbade  the  trade  unions  to  use  their 
funds  to  assist  or  encourage  the  coal 
strike. 

Greece.  K.  Tsaldaris  failed  to  form  a 
government.  A.  Diomidis  was  asked  to 
try. 

Korea.  The  last  United  States  troops 
left  Korea. 

30:  Great  Britain.  More  than  7,250 
dockers  were  on  strike. 

China  The  British  representative  in 
Canton  informed  the  government  of 
Britain's  inability  to  recognize  the  closure 
of  territorial  waters. 

Greece.  A  new  government  led  by 
A.  Diomidis  was  sworn  in. 

O.E.E.C.  A  two-day  council  meeting 
ended  in  Paris.  Agreement  was  reached 
on  the  outlines  of  a  new  intra-European 
payments  scheme. 


JULY 

1:  Great  Britain.  The  National  Union 
of  Railwaymen  called  off  its  go-slow 
campaign. 

Council  of  Foreign  Ministers.  The 
deputies  of  the  foreign  ministers 
re-assembled  in  London  to  resume 
discussions  on  the  Austrian  peace  treaty. 

France  The  high  court  of  justice,  set 
up  in  1944  to  try  ministers  and  senior 
officials  on  charges  of  collaboration, 
finished  its  last  case. 

India.  Travancore  and  Cochin  were 
merged  into  one  state. 

Bulgaria.  Gheorghi  Dimitrpv,  prime 
minister,  died  in  a  sanatorium  near 
Moscow. 

Lawn  Tennis.  The  championships  at 
Wimbledon  ended,  F.  R.  Schroeder 
(U.S.)  having  \^on  the  men's  singles. 
Miss  Louise  Brough  (U.S.)  won  the 
women's  singles  for  the  second  successive 
year. 


3:  Afghanistan.  The  president  of  the 
Afghan  parliament  declared  that  Afghan- 
istan  did  not  recognize  the  Durand  line 
as  the  frontier  with  Pakistan. 

4 :  Great  Britain.  Eighty-eight  ships  were 
idle  at  the  London  docks;  8,336  men 
were  on  strike. 

United  Nations.  The  ninth  session  of 
the  Economic  and  Social  council  opened 
in  Geneva. 

5:  Finland.  The  markka  was  devalued 
by  18  1%. 

Germany.  The  four  deputy  military 
governors  agreed  to  set  up  a  committee 
to  consider  questions  of  trade,  finance 
and  communications  between  Western 
Germany  and  the  Soviet  zone. 

6:  Great  Britain.  Sir  Stafford  Cripps  told 
the  House  of  Commons  that  in  the  three 
months  to  June  30  gold  reserves  had 
fallen  from  £471  million  to  £406  million. 

Australia.  The  High  Court  upheld  the 
validity  of  the  Coal  Strike  act. 

Belgium.  Following  the  failure  of 
Paul  van  Zeeland  to  form  a  government, 
Frans  van  Cauwelaert,  Social  Christian, 
agreed  to  try. 

7:  Great  Britain.  Troops  began  to  handle 
food  aj  the  London  docks.  Over  8,000 
men  were  on  strike. 

Ireland.  The  government  was  defeated 
on  the  estimates  for  the  Department  of 
Posts  and  Telegraphs. 

Western  Union.  Four-day  naval  exer- 
cises ended.  Admiral  Sir  Rhoderick 
McGrigor,  U.K.,  was  in  command  of 
vessels  of  Great  Britain,  France,  the 
Netherlands  and  Belgium 

8:  Great  Britain.  Discussion  on  Britain's 
dollar  situation  opened  in  London 
between  Sir  Stafford  Cripps,  John  Snyder 
(U.S.)  and  D.  Abbott  (Canada). 

International  Refugee  Organization. 
Tohn  D.  Kingsley,  United  States,  was 
appointed  director  general. 

U.N.E.S.C.O.  It  was  announced  that 
Monaco  had  become  the  48th  member. 

United  States.  The  trial  for  perjury 
of  Alger  Hiss  ended  when  the  jury  failed 
to  reach  a  unanimous  decision. 

9:  France.  The  National  Assembly  ratified 
the  statute  of  the  Council  of  Europe  by 
423  votes  to  182. 

Hungary.  Cardinal  Mindszenthy's 
appeal  against  his  life  sentence  was 
dismissed. 

Golf.  Bobby  Locke,  South  Africa, 
beat  H.  Bradshaw  by  12  strokes  to  wui 
the  British  open  golf  championship. 

10:  W.F.T.U.  A  second  congress  of  the 
federation  ended  in  Milan.  Seats  were 
left  vacant  on  the  executive  committee 
for  Great  Britain,  United  States,  Canada 
and  Australia. 

Yugoslavia.  In  a  speech  at  Pola, 
Marshal  Tito  stated  that  the  first  half 
of  Yugoslavia's  five-year  industrialization 
plan  had  been  completely  fulfilled.  He 
also  announced  the  closing  of  the  frontier 
with  Greece. 

1 1 :  Great  Britain.  A  state  of  emergency 
was  declared  because  of  the  continuance 
of  the  London  dock  strike. 

Philippines.  President  Quinno  and 
General  Chiang  Kai-shek  concluded  talks 
in  Baguio  on  a  proposed  Pacific  treaty 
similar  to  the  North  Atlantic  treaty. 

Western  Germany.  The  British  and 
U.S.  sectors  of  Berlin  were  opened  to 
tourists. 


DIARY    OF    EVENTS,    1949 


12:  Great  Britain.  The  government 
appointed  a  five-man  emergency  committee 
for  the  docks. 

Egypt.  The  frontier  with  Cyrenaica  was 
closed  owing  to  the  reluctance  of  the 
British  military  administration  to  sur- 
render three  ex-members  of  the  Moslem 
Brotherhood. 

13:  Great  Britain  A  conference  of 
Commonwealth  finance  ministers  opened 
in  London  to  consider  the  problem  of  the 
balance  of  payments  between  the  sterling 
and  dollar  areas 

Ireland.  The  Dail  unanimously  ratified 
the  statute  of  the  Council  of  Europe. 

Italy.  The  Chamber  of  Deputies 
passed,  by  271  votes  to  8,  a  bill  author- 
izing approval  of  the  statute  of  the 
Council  of  Europe. 

Roman  Catholic  Church.  The  Congre- 
gation of  the  Holy  Office  issued  a  decree 
laying  down  the  penalty  of  excommuni- 
cation for  Roman  Catholics  who 
professed,  defended  or  propagated  Com- 
munist doctrine. 

14:  China.  Extensive  flooding  of  the 
Yangtse  and  Yellow  livers  caused  20,000 
casualties  and  rendered  two  million 
people  homeless. 

World  Council  of  Churches.  A  confer- 
ence of  the  central  committee  of  the 
council  ended  at  Chichester,  Sussex. 

15:  Czechoslovakia.  A  bill  giving  the 
state  control  over  the  churches  was 
published  in  Prague. 

Western  Union.  The  defence  ministers 
of  the  Brussels  treaty  powers  met  in 
Luxembourg.  United  States  and  Cana- 
dian observers  were  present. 

16:  Rifle  Shooting.  Captain  E.  Brookes 
won  the  King's  Prize  at  Bislcy,  Surrey, 
with  278  points. 

18:  Commonwealth.  The  conference  of 
Commonwealth  finance  ministers  ended 
with  agreement  on  short-term  and  long- 
term  financial  policies. 

Australia.  Miners  in  Western  Austialia 
returned  to  work. 

Guatemala.  Colonel  Francisco  Arana, 
chief  of  the  armed  forces  of  Guatemala, 
was  assassinated  and  a  revolt  was  started. 

United  Nations.  The  Palestine  com- 
mission resumed  negotiations  in  Laus- 
anne. 

19:  Great  Britain.  The  Dock  Labour  board 
ordered  all  dockers  to  return  to  work. 
The  government  later  repudiated  the 
the  statement. 

Sir  Stafford  Cripps,  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer,  left  for  Switzerland  to  undergo 
treatment  for  a  digestive  complaint. 

John  George  Haigh  was  sentenced  to 
death  at  Lewes,  Sussex,  for  murder. 
He  admitted  murdering  nine  persons. 

Ceylon.  The  ban  on  the  entry  of  Dutch 
ships  and  planes  was  lifted  after  being 
in  force  from  Dec.  1948. 

France.  President  Vincent  Auriol  and 
the  King  of  Laos  signed  an  agreement  by 
which  Laos  would  become  a  sovereign 
independent  state  within  the  French 
union. 

Guatemala.  A  state  of  grave  emergency 
was  declared  because  of  a  revolt. 

United  States.  Prohibition  ended  in 
Kansas  after  being  in  operation  from 
1880. 


20:  Bulgaria.  Vasil  Kolarov  was  elected 
prime  minister  by  the  National  Assembly. 

Guatemala.  The  revolt  was  reported  to 
have  failed. 

Israel-Syria.  After  negotiations  lasting 
105  days  an  aimistice  agreement  was 
signed. 

Soviet  Union.  The  government  sent  a 
note  to  Italy  protesting  at  Italy's 
adherence  to  the  North  Atlantic  treaty. 

21  Great  Britain.  In  a  foreign  affairs 
debate  in  the  House  of  Commons, 
Ernest  Bevm  blan.ed  the  policy  of 
unconditional  surrender  for  difficulties 
of  remodelling  Geimanv 

Ldbom  retained  its  seat  in  a  by- 
clection  at  West  Leeds. 

Lord  Ammon,  chairman  of  the  Dock 
labour  board,  icsigned  his  post  as  chief 
government  whip  in  the  House  of  Lords. 

Italy.  The  Chamber  of  Deputies 
approved  the  North  Atlantic  treaty  by 
323  to  160  after  a  vote  the  previous  day 
had  been  declared  void 

United  States.  The  Senate  ratified  the 
North  Atlantic  treaty  by  82  votes  to  13. 

22*  Great  Britain.  The  Foreign  Office 
issued  copies  ot  the  Corrective  Labour 
codex  of  the  R.S.F.S  R.  (Russia  proper). 
Canada.  The  Canadian  Seamen's 
union  decided  to  call  off  the  London  dock 
stnke. 

War  Crimes.  Otto  Abet?,  wartime 
Geiman  ambassador  to  France,  was 
sentenced  to  20  years'  hard  labour  by  a 
French  military  court. 

23:  Great  Britain.  The  Conservative  party 
published  its  statement  of  policy  and  its 
election  programme  under  the  title  The 
Right  Road  Jor  Britain. 

Belgium.  Gaston  Eyskens,  Social 
Christian,  was  asked  to  form  a  govern- 
ment. 

India.  Pandit  Nehru  told  his  provincial 
premiers  that  India  should  be  self- 
sufficient  in  food  by  the  end  of  1951  and 
urged  them  to  put  the  food  drive  on  a 
war  footing. 

Cricket.  J.  Robertson,  playing  for 
Middlesex  against  Worcester,  scored 
331  not  out  --the  highest  score  in  England 
since  1938. 

25:  Great  Britain.  Dockers  in  the  London 
docks  returned  to  work.  During  the 
strike  troops  handled  107,643  tons  of 
cargo. 

Egypt.  The  prime  minister,  Ibrahim 
Abdelhadi  Pasha,  resigned.  King 

Farouk  asked  Hussein  Sirry  Pasha  to 
form  a  government. 

Germany.  The  Soviet  authorities 
re-opened  the  crossing  points  on  the 
Soviet  zone- West  German  frontier. 

United  States  President  Truman 
signed  the  North  Atlantic  treaty.  Later 
he  sent  a  message  to  congress  requesting 
early  consideration  of  a  plan  for  military 
aid. 

26 :  Great  Britain.  The  House  of  Commons, 
by  245  votes  to  185,  approved  the 
government's  handling  of  the  London 
dock  strike. 

Australia  The  Privy  Council  in  Lon- 
don dismissed  the  Australian  govern- 
ment's appeal  against  a  High  Court 
decision  invalidating  ttoe  Banking  act. 

Ecuador.  An  attempted  revolution 
led  by  Colonel  Carlos  Manchero,  presi- 
dent for  two  weeks  in  1947,  was  smashed. 


Cricket.  The  third  test  match  between 
England  and  New  Zealand  at  Old 
Trafford,  Manchester,  ended  in  a  draw. 


27:  Great  Britain.  The  House  of  Lords, 
hv  4:>  votes  to  27,  agreed  to  a  proposal 
that  legislation  should  be  introduced 
enabling  peeresses  to  sit  in  the  House. 

The  Labour  party  expelled  Lester 
Hutchmson,  M.P.,  from  the  party. 

Australia.  A  state  of  emergency  was 
declared  in  Victoria  following  strike 
threats  of  tug  ciews  and  seamen 

North  Atlantic  Treaty.  The  National 
Assemblies  of  Portugal  and  France 
ratified  the  treaty. 

Aviation.  The  de  Havilland  Cornet,  the 
first  British  jet  airliner,  flew  for  the 
first  time. 


28*  Germany.  The  Berlin  city  assembly 
passed  a  bill  providing  that  anyone  found 
guilty  of  trying  to  abduct  persons  from 
the  western  sectors  would  be  liable  to 
imprisonment. 

Israel.  The  government  informed  the 
Conciliation  commission  that  it  was 
willing  to  take  back  100,000  Arab 
refugees. 


29:  Germany.  The  British  and  United 
States  military  governments  announced 
that  the  air-lift  to  Berlin  would  be 
reduced  as  from  Aug.  1. 


30:  Great  Britain.  Parliament  rose  for 
the  summer  recess,  havng  sat  on  a 
Saturday  for  the  first  time  since  1939. 

China.  H.M.S.  "Amethyst,"  detained 
in  the  Yangtse  from  April  20,  slipped 
her  moorings  and  sailed  to  the  open  sea. 

Italy.  The  Senate  ratified  the  North 
Atlantic  treaty  by  175  votes  to  81 

31:  Great  Britain.  H.M.  the  King 
approved  the  immediate  award  of  the 
D.S.O.  to  Commander  J.  S.  Kerans  of 

H.M  S.  "  Amethyst  " 


AUGUST 

1 :  Great  Britain.  Notes  were  sent  to  the 
governments  of  Bulgaria,  Hungary  and 
Rumania  on  the  question  of  violation  of 
the  peace  treaties. 

Belgium.  A  Socialist  party  delegation 
conferred  with  King  Leopold  in  Switzer- 
land. 

North  Atlantic  Treaty.  The  United 
States  chiefs  of  staff  conferred  in  Frank- 
furt with  military  representatives  of 
Luxembourg  and  Italy. 

Rumania.  The  first  collective  farms 
were  established. 

United  Nations  The  Commission  for 
Conventional  Armaments  approved  a 
French  proposal  by  eight  votes  to  three 
for  census  and  verification  of  armed 
forces  of  member  states. 


2:  Australia.  Troops  began  to  cut  open- 
cast coal  in  New  South  Wales. 

Belgium.  Delegations  from  the  Chris- 
tian Social  and  Liberal  parties  left 
Brussels  to  visit  King  Leopold. 

North  Atlantic  Treaty.  The  United 
States  chiefs  of  staff  arrived  in  London 
for  discussions  with  military  leaders  of 
Great  Britain,  Denmark  and  Norway. 


10 


DIARY    OF    EVENTS,    1949 


Pakistan.  Sir  Francis  Mudie,  governor 
of  West  Punjab,  handed  over  to  Sardar 
Abdurrab  Nishtar. 

3:  Indonesia.  The  Dutch  and  the  Indo- 
nesian Republicans  ordered  a  cease-fire 
from  noon. 

Netherlands.  The  Upper  House 
approved  the  North  Atlantic  treaty  by 
29  votes  to  2;  and  thus  the  treaty  had 
been  approved  by  the  legislatures  of  all 
the  countries  that  had  signed  the  treaty. 

New  Zealand.  A  national  referendum 
resulted  in  535,031  votes  in  favour  of 
peacetime  conscription  and  134,451 
against. 

4:  Italy- Yugoslavia.  A  one-year  trade 
agreement  was  signed  in  Rome. 

Korea.  It  was  reported  that  4,000 
troops  from  northern  Korea  had  crossed 
the  border  into  southern  Korea. 

North  Atlantic  Treaty.  The  United 
States  chiefs  of  staff  arrived  in  Pans  for 
discussions  with  representatives  of  France, 
Belgium,  Netherlands  and  Portugal  and 
with  Field  Marshal  Viscount  Mont- 
gomery of  Alamein. 

5:  Great  Britain.  The  government 
announced  that  it  was  referring  the 
dispute  with  Norway  over  fishing  rights 
to  the  International  Court  of  Justice. 

Belgium.  A  statement  from  King 
Leopold  was  issued  in  which  he  declared 
that  the  political  parties  and  not  himself 
were  responsible  for  finding  a  basis  for 
agreement  on  his  possible  return. 

Ecuador.  A  severe  earthquake  occurred 
in  the  province  of  Ambato.  More  than 
4,000  persons  were  killed. 

Hungary.  The  Council  of  Ministers 
approved  a  new  draft  constitution 
modelled  on  the  Soviet  Union  constitu- 
tion of  1936. 

United  States  The  State  Department 
published  a  white  paper  on  U.S.  relations 
with  China  in  the  period  1944-49. 

The  Senate  passed  the  Foreign  Aid 
bill  by  63  votes  to  7. 

6:  Bulgaria.  Vladimir  Poptomov  was 
appointed  foreign  minister  in  succession 
to  Vasil  Kolarov,  appointed  prime 
minister  on  July  20. 

7:  Iran.  Martial  law,  which  had  been 
iniposed  after  the  attempt  on  the  Shah's 
life  in  February,  was  lifted. 

Aviation.  An  endurance  record  for 
let-powered  aircraft  was  set  up  by  a 
Gloster  Meteor,  piloted  by  Patrick 
Hornidge,  who  remained  airborne  for 
12  hr.  3  mm. 

8:  Council  of  Europe.  The  committee  of 
ministers  met  in  Strasbourg.  It  decided 
to  admit  to  membership  Greece,  Iceland 
and  Turkey  and  also  approved  the 
council's  budget  for  the  first  year  of 
Fr.140  million. 

India-Bhutan.  A  treaty  of  perpetual 
peace  and  friendship  was  signed  in 
Darjeelmg. 

Norway.  Fresh,  condensed  and  dried 
milk,  cream  and  cheese  were  de-rationed. 

Philippines.  President  Quinno  arrived 
in  Washington  on  an  official  visit. 

9:  Great  Britain.  The  Board  of  Trade 
announced  that  an  agreement  had  been 
signed  for  the  supply  of  100,000  standards 
of  softwood  from  the  Soviet  Union. 


United  States.  The  joint  chiefs  of 
staff  returned  to  Washington  after  conver- 
sations in  Europe  with  military  leaders 
of  the  North  Atlantic  treaty  powers. 

10:  Belgium.  A  coalition  cabinet  of 
Christian  Socials  and  Liberals  was 
formed  with  Gaston  Eyskens  as  prime 
minister. 

Council  of  Europe.  The  consultative 
assembly  opened  in  Strasbouig  under 
the  presidency  of  E.  Hernot  of  France. 
101  delegates  were  present  from  the 
participating  countries. 

Western  Germany.  Genet  al  Joseph 
Koenig  left  Germany  after  being  military 
governor  of  the  French  zone  from  1945. 

1 1 :  Argentina.  Dr.  Juan  A.  Bramuglia 
resigned  as  foreign  minister  and  was 
replaced  by  Dr.  Hip6hto  Jesus  Paz. 

Council  of  Europe.  Paul-Henri  Spaak 
was  elected  first  permanent  president  of 
the  assembly. 

United  Nations.  The  Security  council 
decided  by  nine  votes  to  none  to  lift  the 
embargo  on  the  supply  of  arms  to  middle 
east  countries 

United  States.  The  president  signed  the 
National  Security  bill  under  which  the 
national  military  establishment  became 
the  Department  of  Defence.  General 
Omar  Bradley  was  nominated  first 
chairman  of  the  joint  chiefs  of  staff. 


12:  Red  Cross  Conference.  The  con- 
ference in  Geneva  ended  after  approving 
four  conventions  on  the  care  of  wounded 
and  sick  soldiers  and  sailors,  treatment 
of  prisoners  of  war,  and  the  protection 
of  civilians. 

Soviet  Union.  The  government  announ- 
ced that  it  regarded  Marshal  Tito's 
government  no  longer  as  a  friend  and 
ally  but  as  an  enemy  and  opponent  of 
the  Soviet  Union. 

Archery.  Mrs.  Barbara  Waterhousc 
(Great  Britain)  won  the  women's  woild 
archery  championship  in  all  categories  in 
Paris  Hans  Deutgen  Sweden,  became 
men's  champion. 


13:   Council  of  Europe.    The  committee  of 
ministers  approved  the  assembly's  agenda. 

14:  Australia.       Troops    were    withdrawn 
from  the  open-cast  coal  woi kings. 

Syria.  Husm  cz-Zaim,  president, 
and  Muhsm  Barazi,  prime  minister, 
were  arrested  by  a  group  of  army  officers 
headed  by  Colonel  Sami  Hmnawi,  tried 
by  a  militaiy  tribunal  and  shot. 

Western  Germany.  Elections  were 
held  in  the  western  zones  for  the  Bunde- 
stag of  the  West  German  federal  parlia- 
ment. The  final  result  gave  the  Christian 
Democrats  139  seats  and  the  Social 
Dcmociats  131.  78  5%  of  the  electorate 
voted. 


15 :  Australia.  The  miners  returned  to  work. 

France.  Winston  Churchill  was  made 
an  honorary  citizen  of  Strasbourg 

Malta.  Dom  Mintoff,  deputy  prime 
minister,  resigned  in  London  after 
differences  with  Paul  Boffa,  prime 
minister,  over  the  conduct  of  talks  with 
the  British  goveunmcnt. 

Syria.  Colonel  Sami  Hmnawi  handed 
over  control  to  a  government  headed  by 
Hashem  Bey  Atassi. 


16:  Malta.  E.  Ellul,  commissioner  general 
in  London,  resigned. 

O.E.E.C.  Paul  van  Zeeland  was 
elected  president  in  succession  to  M. 
Spaak. 

Cricket.  The  last  test  match  between 
England  and  New  Zealand,  at  the  Oval, 
London,  ended  in  a  draw. 

Exploration.  Otis  Barton,  an  American 
explorer,  descended  4,500  ft.  in  his 
14  benthoscope  "  in  the  Pacific  ocean  off 
California. 

17:  Belgium.  The  House  of  Representatives 
passed  a  motion  of  confidence  in  the 
government  of  Gaston  Eyskens  by  125 
votes  to  64. 

China.  The  nationalists  admitted  the 
loss  of  Foochow. 

18:  Chile.  Emergency  powers  were  granted 
to  the  government  owing  to  serious 
rioting  in  Santiago. 

Finland.  Police  opened  fire  in  attempts 
to  prevent  disturbances  between  strikers 
and  workers.  Communist-controlled 
unions  called  strikes  in  many  industries 

Jordan.  King  Abdullah  of  Jordan 
arrived  in  London  as  a  guest  of  the 
British  government. 

Soviet  Union.  A  further  note  was  sent 
to  the  government  of  Yugoslavia  The 
note  stated  that  the  Soviet  Union  might 
have  to  resort  to  more  effective  measures 
to  protect  Soviet  citizens  in  Yugoslavia. 

United  States.  The  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives voted  to  cut  by  half  the 
£290,242,500  arms  programme. 

Golf.  R.  Burton  won  a  professional 
tournament  at  Brighton,  Sussex,  with  an 
aggregate  of  266  for  72  holes — the  lowest 
in  a  major  tournament  in  Britain. 

Shipping.  Stanley  and  Colin  Smith  of 
Yarmouth,  Isle  of  Wight,  landed  at 
Dartmouth,  Devon,  after  crossing  the 
Atlantic  in  a  20-ft.  yacht  in  43  days. 

20:  Peru.  The  government  broke  off 
diplomatic  relations  with  Cuba. 

Golf.  The  United  States  retained  the 
Walker  cup  by  ten  matches  to  two  at 
Winged  Foot,  New  York. 

21*  Great  Britain.  Seven  depots  in  the 
northeastern  region  of  British  lailways 
were  affected  by  a  resumption  of  Sunday 
strikes  against  lodging  turns 

France.  Forest  fires  in  the  Landes, 
south  of  Bordeaux,  caused  more  than 
70  deaths.  About  1 1 2,000  ac.  of  forest 
land  was  devastated. 

Western  Germany.  The  Christian 
Democrat  and  Christian  Socialist  parties 
decided  not  to  invite  the  Socialists  to 
join  a  coalition  government. 

22 :  Great  Britain.  Sixty-eight  pits  were  idle 
owing  to  a  strike  by  colliery  winding 
enginemen  in  Yorkshire  and  Lancashire. 

23:  Netherlands.  Round-table  talks  on 
Indonesia  opened  at  The  Hague. 

War  Crimes.  The  trial  of  Field  Marshal 
von  Manstem  opened  in  Hamburg. 

Yugoslavia.  The  government  in  a  note 
repudiating  the  charge  of  the  Soviet 
Union's  note  of  Aug.  18,  offered  to  hand 
over  to  the  Soviet  government  all  Soviet 
citizens  detained  in  Yugoslavia  and  to 
grant  facilities  for  Soviet  citizens  to  leave 
the  country  if  they  wished  to  do  so. 

Disasters.  An  ammunition  ship  blew 
up  in  Takao  harbour,  Formosa,  causing 
500  casualties. 


DIARY    OF    EVENTS,    1949 


11 


24:  Finland.  The  trade  union  federation 
expelled  four  unions  and  ordered  the 
timber  woikers'  union  to  call  off  its 
strikes. 

North  Atlantic  Treaty  1  he  rat ifications 
of  treaty  by  Denmark,  Trance  Italy  and 
Portugal  were  piesented  in  Washington. 
As  all  the  signatories  to  the  treaty  had 
then  ratified  it,  it  came  into  force. 

Swimming.  Philip  Mickman,  an  18- 
year-old  Yorkshire  schoolboy,  swam 
across  the  English  channel  in  23  hr. 
48  rnin.,  and  was  the  youngest  person 
ever  to  do  so. 


25:  France.  The  Landes  forest  fires  were 
considered  as  ended.  83  bodies  were 
recovered. 


26:  Albania.  A  committee  for  free  Albania 
was  formed  in  Pans. 

Argentina.  The  Chamber  of  Deputies, 
by  96  votes  to  28,  approved  the  trade 
agreement  with  Great  Britain. 

China.  Communist  forces  entered 
Lanchow. 


27:  Bolivia.  A  military  revolt  broke  out 
in  four  cities.  The  icbels  were  led  by 
dismissed  army  officers  and  members  of 
the  Bolivian  National  Revolutionary 
movement. 

Eastern  Europe.  The  Council  for 
Mutual  Economic  Aid  concluded  a 
meeting  in  Sofia  "  Current  questions 
were  discussed  and  the  necessary  decisions 
taken." 


28:  Burma.  The  Kaien  rebels  occupied 
Lashio. 

China.  The  Communist  tadio  in 
Peking  announced  that  a  Manchunan 
people's  government  had  been  cieated 
in  Mukden. 

Scandinavia.  The  ministers  for  social 
affaits  of  Denmark,  Not  way,  Sweden, 
Iceland  and  Finland  concluded  a  thiec- 
day  meeting  in  Oslo  They  signed  a 
convention  providing  for  national  old-age 
pensions  to  be  payable  in  any  one  of  the 
five  countries  after  five  years'  residence. 

29:  Cricket.  Yorkshire  beat  Glamorgan, 
and  having  obtained  192  points  in  the 
county  cricket  championship,  shared  the 
championship  with  Middlesex. 

30:  Burma.  The  Sawbwa  of  Nawngpalang 
state  was  assassinated  by  Karen  rebels 
at  Nawngpalang. 

Greece.  '1  he  aimy  captured  the  heights 
of  Stcno,  Goho  and  Karnenik  in  the 
Grammos  mountains,  closing  the  last 
escape  mutes  into  Albania. 


31:  Great  Britain.  The  111th  annual 
meeting  of  the  British  Association  for  the 
Advancement  of  Science  opened  in  New- 
castle under  the  piesidency  of  Sir  John 
Russell. 

Bolivia.  Government  forces  re-entered 
Cochabama,  the  rebels'  mam  stronghold. 

O.E.E.C.  The  council  unanimously 
accepted  the  revised  figures  tor  the 
allocation  of  aid  for  1949-50.  Britain's 
allocation  was  increased  to  $962  million 
from  $840  million. 

Western  Germany.  Workers  at  Ober- 
hausen  carried  out  a  planned  operation 
against  the  dismantling  of  the  Ruhr 
Chemie  works. 


SEPTEMBER 

1 :  Council   of  Foreign    Ministers.      The 

time  limit  for  the  deputies'  talks  on  the 
Austrian  peace  treaty  expired  with  nine 
articles  still  outstanding. 

Hungary.  The  rationing  of  bread  was 
ended. 

South  Africa.  An  African  was  shot 
dead  in  Johannesburg  when  Africans 
noted  after  the  raising  of  tram  fares  to 
native  areas. 

2'  Aden.  Royal  Air  Force  planes  "  took 
action  "  against  a  fort  near  Naad  M  irgad 
near  the  Aden-Yemen  boidei 

China.  A  fire  in  Chungking  caused  the 
loss  of  more  than  1,000  lives 

France.  Ministers  o»  the  Sanr  govern- 
ment, headed  bv  Johannes  Hoffmann, 
were  received  m  Paris  b>  Robcri 
Schuman. 

3*  Japan.  Malcolm  MacDonald,  British 
high  commissioner  in  ^/jutheast  Asia, 
arrived  in  Tokyo 

Swimming.  Hcrnand  Du  Moulin,  of 
Liege,  succeeded  in  crossing  the  English 
Channel  after  swimming  for  22  hr. 

4:  China.  The  governor  of  Yunnan, 
General  I  u  Han,  declared  the  indepen- 
dence of  the  province 

India  Pandit  Nehru,  speaking  at 
Allahabad,  said  he  was  surprised  at  the 
intervention  of  President  Truman  and 
Clement  Attlee  in  the  Kashmir  dispute. 

Aviation.  The  Bristol  Biabazon  flew 
for  the  fiist  time  and  remained  airborne 
for  27  mm. 

5'  Canada  Sir  Leonard  Cecil  Outerbndge 
succeeded  Sir  Albert  Joseph  Walsh  as 
lieutenant  governor  of  Newfoundland. 

Jordan.  King  Abdullah  of  Jordan 
arrived  at  Corunna  and  was  met  by 
General  Franco 

Western  Germany.  Dismantling  of 
the  Ruhr  Chemie  plant  began;  500 
British  troops  were  on  the  premises. 

6:  United  Kingdom.  The  T  U  C  approved 
the  withdrawal  from  the  World  Federa- 
tion of  Tiadc  Unions  by  6,258.000  votes 
to  1,017,000. 

Finland.  Seven  tiade  unions  were 
expelled  bv  the  trade  union  federation. 

Thailand  The  engagement  of  King 
Phunrphon  Adundet  to  Sinkit  Kitiya- 
kara,  daughter  of  the  Thai  ambassador 
in  London,  was  announced. 

United  Nations.  A  confeicncc  on  the 
conservation  and  utilization  of  the 
woild's  natural  resources  ended  at  Lake 
Success. 

7-  Great  Britain.  The  first  annual  report 
of  the  British  Transport  commission  was 
published.  In  1948  theie  was  a  net 
deficit  of  £4,732,824. 

Frnest  Bevm  and  Sir  Stafford  Cnpps 
arrived  in  Washington  for  financial 
talks  with  the  United  States  and  Canadian 
governments 

Australia.  Joseph  Chifley,  in  presenting 
his  budget  to  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives, announced  that  Australia  would 
make  a  further  gift  of  £AIO  million  to 
Britain. 

Western  Germany,  The  federal  parlia- 
ment met  for  the  first  time  in  Bonn. 
K.  Arnold,  prime  minister  of  North 
Rhine- Westphalia,  was  elected  speaker 
of  the  Bundesrat.  A.  E.  Kohler  was 
elected  speaker  of  the  Bundestag. 


Swimming.  A  relay  team  of  six 
Egyptians  swam  the  Channel  from  Eng- 
land to  France,  in  11  hr.  11  mm. 


8:  Canada.  The  fourth  unofficial  Com- 
monwealth Relations  conference  opened 
at  Bmwm  Inn,  Ontario. 

China.  Si n ing  was  captured  by  the 
Communists. 

Council  of  Europe.  By  65  votes  to  1 
the  assembly  adopted  a  proposed  con- 
vention for  the  collective  guarantee  of 
human  nghts. 

United  States.  The  Export-Import 
bank  announced  that  it  was  making 
grants  to  Yugoslavia  and  to  Israel. 


9:  Bechuanaland.  Seretse  Khama,  chief 
designate  of  Bamangwato,  failed  in  a 
court  action  to  prevent  his  uncle,  Chief 
Tshekedi,  taking  into  exile  catt'e  and  * 
property  inherited  from  a  former  ruler. 
Council  of  Europe.  The  first  session  of 
the  assembly  ended. 


10:  Hungary*  The  indictment  against 
Laszlo  Rajk,  former  minister  of  the 
interior,  was  published.  He  was  charged 
with  conspiring,  with  Yugoslav  help,  to 
overthrow  the  Hungarian  government. 

Japan.  It  was  officially  announced 
that  the  atomic  bomb  which  fell  on 
Nagasaki  in  Aug.  1945  caused  73,844 
deaths. 

Paraguay.  Dr.  Molas  Lopez,  president 
from  Feb.  1949,  resigned  after  the 
government  party  withdrew  its  support. 
Dr.  Fedenco  Chavez,  foreign  minister, 
was  appointed  interim  president. 


1 1 :  Ceylon.  It  was  announced  that  Lord 
Caithness  would  be  the  first  commander 
in  chief  of  the  Ceylon  army. 

Switzerland.  A  national  referendum 
was  held.  281,961  persons  voted  against 
"a  return  to  direct  democracy."  272,359 
persons  voted  in  favour. 

Yemen.  It  was  announced  that  the 
government  intended  to  place  before  the 
Security  council  a  complaint  that  British 
planes  had  bombed  Yemen  territory. 


12:  Israel.  A  man  pointed  a  gun  at  David 
Ben-Gunon,  prime  minister,  in  the 
gallery  of  the  Knesset,  but  was  prevented 
from  firing  it. 

United  States.  The  three-power  talks 
on  the  dollar  situation  ended.  A  com- 
mumqu6  issued  after  the  conference 
announced  that  agreement  had  been 
reached  on  a  ten-point  programme. 

Western  Germany.  Dr.  Theodor  Heuss 
was  elected  pres-dent  of  the  West  German 
federal  republic.  He  received  416  votes 
against  312  cast  for  Dr  Kurt  Schumacher. 


13:  United  Nations.  The  Soviet  Union 
exercised  the  veto  seven  times  to  prevent 
the  admission  to  membership  of  Austria, 
Ceylon,  Finland,  Ireland,  Italy,  Jordan 
and  Portugal. 

International  Bank.  The  annual 
meetings  of  the  bank  and  the  monetary 
fund  opened  in  Washington. 


14:  India.  The  Constituent  Assembly 
decided  that  the  official  language  of 
India  should  be  English  to  be  displaced 
by  Hindu  in  Devanagn  script  within 
15  years. 


12 


DIARY    OF    EVENTS,    1949 


Scandinavia.  The  foreign  ministers 
ended  a  two-day  meeting  in  Copenhagen 
and  issued  an  official  announcement 
emphasizing  their  concord  on  a  number 
of  points  on  the  agenda  of  the  U.N. 
general  assembly. 

t5:  Burma.  Government  troops 

re-occupied  Madeya. 

U.N.ESC.O.  Israel  and  Pakistan 
joined  the  organization. 

Western  Germany.  Konrad  Adenauer 
was  elected  chancellor  by  the  Bundestag. 

16:  Argentina.  The  Chamber  of  Deputies 
passed  by  72  votes  to  22  a  bill  withdrawing 
gold  backing  from  the  peso. 

Hungary.  The  trial  of  Laszlo  Rajk  and 
seven  others  opened  in  Budapest. 

17:  North  Atlantic  Treaty.  The  first 
meeting  of  the  council  was  held  in 
Washington.  The  council  established  a 
defence  committee  consisting  of  defence 
ministers  of  member  countries. 

Shipping.  The  Great  Lakes  steamer 
"  Noromc  **  was  destroyed  by  fire  in 
Toronto  docks.  More  than  200  persons 
lost  their  lives. 

Golf.  United  States  retained  the  Ryder 
Cup  by  beating  Great  Britain  by  7  matches 
to  5  at  Ganton,  Yorkshire. 

18:  Cyrenaica.  The  Emir  enacted  a 
constitution  for  Cyrenaica. 

Exchange  Rates.  Sir  Stafford  Cnpps 
announced  in  a  broadcast  that  the 
British  government  had  decided  to 
devalue  the  pound  by  30%.  The  govern- 
ments of  Australia,  Ceylon,  Denmark, 
Egypt*  India,  Ireland,  Israel,  New 
Zealand,  Norway  and  South  Africa 
announced  similar  action. 

Swimming.  The  English  Channel  was 
swum  three  times.  Hassan  Abderrehim 
(Egypt)  swam  from  England  to  France 
in  15  hr.  46  mm.  Mane  Hassan  Hamad 
(Egypt }  swam  from  France  to  England 
in  15  hr.  22  min.  and  Zannos  Zirganos 
(Greece)  in  18  hr.  30  mm. 

19:  China.  Genera*  Yang  Chieh,  former 
ambassador  to  Moscow,  was  assassinated. 

Exchange  Rates  The  governments  of 
Burma,  Canada,  Finland,  Iceland,  France 
and  Sweden  followed  the  action  of  the 
British  government  by  devaluing  their 
currencies. 

Malta.  At  the  end  of  a  seven-day 
debate  the  Legislative  Assembly  passed 
a  vote  of  confidence  in  Dr.  Paul  Botfa 
by  24  votes  to  7. 

U.N.E.S.C.O.  The  4th  session  of  the 
general  conference  opened  in  Pans. 
E.  Ronald  Walker  of  Australia  was 
elected  president. 

20:  Ceylon.  The  House  of  Representatives 
passed  a  bill  to  sever  the  link  between  the 
Ceylon  rupee  and  the  Indian  rupee. 

China.  General  Tung  Chi-wu,  governor 
of  Suiyuan  province  was  reported  to 
have  gone  over  to  the  Communists 

Exchange  Rates.  Greece  and  the 
Netherlands  decided  to  devalue  their 
currencies.  Austria,  Brazil,  Iran,  Japan, 
Pakistan  and  Poland  decided  not  to 
devalue. 

Germany.  Dr.  Adenauer  announced 
the  composition  of  his  cabinet.  Nine 
Christian  Democrats  were  included. 

Syria.  Britain,  France,  Belgium,  Iran 
and  the  United  States  granted  recognition 
to  the  new  government. 


United  Nations.  The  fourth  general 
assembly  opened  at  Flushing  Meadow, 
New  York.  General  Carlos  Romulo, 
Philippines,  was  elected  president  by 
53  votes  to  5.  Lester  Pearson,  Canada, 
was  elected  chairman  of  the  political 
committee. 

21:  China.  Mao  Tse-tung  announced  the 
establishment  in  Peking  of  a  people's 
republic  of  China. 

Exchange  Rates.  The  governments  of 
Belgium,  Iraq,  Luxembourg  and  Portugal 
devalued  their  currencies.  The  West 
German  government  submitted  plans  for 
devaluation  to  the  allied  financial  advisers. 

Western  Germany.  The  military  govern- 
ment of  Western  Germany  ended  and  the 
allied  high  commission  took  over. 

22:  Exchange  Rates.  The  Jordanian  pound 
was  devalued  in  line  with  sterling. 

United  States.  The  Senate  approved  by 
55  votes  to  24  the  military  assistance 
programme  for  the  North  Atlantic 
treaty  signatories  and  other  countries. 
The  bill  authorized  an  expenditure  of 
$1,314,010,000. 

23:  Atomic  Energy.  The  governments  of 
Britain,  Canada  and  the  United  States 
announced  that  an  atomic  explosion  had 
occurred  in  the  Soviet  Union. 

Council  of  Foreign  Ministers.  The 
deputies  of  the  foreign  ministers  resumed 
discussions  in  New  York  on  the  Austrian 
treaty. 

Japan.  Most  of  the  restrictions  on 
friendly  relations  between  the  U.S 
occupation  forces  and  Japanese  citizens 
were  lifted 

24:  Hungary.  Laszl6  Rajk  was  found 
guilty  and  sentenced  to  death.  Two  other 
defendants  were  also  sentenced  to  death 

26:  Great  Britain.  The  government 
announced  its  intention  of  discontinuing 
the  bulk  purchase  of  tin. 

India.  The  Madras  government 
declared  the  Communist  party  of  India 
unlawful  in  the  province. 

United  Nations.  Ernest  Bevin,  British 
foreign  secretary,  in  a  speech  before  the 
general  assembly,  called  on  the  Soviet 
Union  to  join  in  an  effective  system  of 
international  control  of  atomic  energy. 

27:  Great  Britain.  Both  houses  of  parlia- 
ment re-assembled  to  debate  the  govern- 
ment's policy  of  devaluation.  Sir 
Stafford  Cnpps  moved  a  motion  of 
confidence  in  the  government's  policy. 

China.  It  was  announced  that  Peking 
was  to  be  the  capital  of  Communist 
China. 

Soviet  Union.  The  government  sent  a 
note  to  the  Yugoslav  government  in 
which  it  denounced  its  treaty  of  friend- 
ship and  mutual  assistance  with  Yugo- 
slavia which  had  been  signed  in  1945. 

28:  Great  Britain.  The  opposition  in  the 
House  of  Lords  carried,  by  93  votes  to 
24,  an  amendment  criticizing  the  govern- 
ment's financial  policy. 

Great  Britain-Czechoslovakia.  Three 
trade  and  financial  agreements  were 
signed. 

United  States.  The  Mutual  Defence 
Assistance  act  was  passed  by  congress. 

29:  Great  Britain*  The  conservative 
amendment  of  no  confidence  was  defeated 
by  350  votes  to  212,  and  the  government's 
original  motion  carried  by  342  votes  to  5. 


The  Earl  of  Harewood,  son  of  Princess 
Royal  and  nephew  of  the  King,  was 
married  m  London  to  Marion  Stein. 

The  Board  of  Trade  announced  the 
lifting  of  import  licences  for  many  goods 
from  soft  currency  countries. 

International  Bank.  The  bank  granted 
a  loan  of  $10  million  to  India  for  the 
purchase  of  agricultural  machinery. 

United  States.  The  foreign  economic 
assistance  programme  was  approved  by 
the  Senate. 

Western  Germany.  A  new  exchange 
rate  of  23 •  8  U.S.  cents  to  the  mark  was 
announced  by  the  government. 

30:  China.  Mao  Tse-tung  was  elected 
chairman  of  the  central  people's  govern- 
ment of  the  people's  republic  of  China. 

Western  Germany.  The  Bundestag  at 
Bonn  called  foi  a  halt  in  the  dismantling 
of  works  in  Western  Germany  and  set 
up  a  committee  to  consider  the  site  of 
the  capital  of  Western  Germany.  It  also 
resolved  that  Berlin  should  be  treated 
as  the  twelfth  Land 

Yugoslavia.  The  governments  of 
Poland  and  Hungary  denounced  their 
treaties  of  friendship  with  Yugoslavia. 


OCTOBER 

1 :  Soviet  Union.  The  government  pro- 
tested to  Britain,  France  and  the  United 
States  against  the  formation  of  the 
West  German  state. 

Western  Germany.  The  last  U.S. 
aircraft  Hying  in  the  air  lift  landed  in 
Berlin. 

Yugoslavia.  The  governments  of 
Bulgaria  and  Rumania  denounced  their 
treaties  of  friendship  with  Yugoslavia. 

2:  Austria.  Food  rationing  in  restaurants 
ended. 

Soviet  Union.  The  government  granted 
recognition  to  the  Chinese  people's 
republic  and  broke  off  relations  with  the 
nationalist  government. 

Uruguay.  The  Senate  approved  a  bill 
for  the  purchase  of  the  British-owned 
Montevideo  waterworks. 

3:  Bulgaria.  The  government  denounced 
its  1947  frontier  convention  with  Yugo- 
slavia. 

China.  The  people's  republic  was 
recognized  by  Rumania  and  Bulgaria. 

Shipping.  The  findings  of  the  inquiry 
into  the  loss  of  the  **  Magdalena," 
which  was  wrecked  near  Rio  de  Janeiro 
in  April  were  announced.  Captain  D.  R. 
Lee  was  guilty  of  '*  grave  dereliction  of 
duty  "  and  his  certificate  was  suspended 
for  two  years. 

4:  Great  Britain.  Sir  Stafford  Cripps, 
speaking  m  London,  announced  that  in 
the  third  quarter  of  1949  Britain's  gold 
reserves  had  dropped  from  £406  million 
on  June  30  to  £351  million  on  Sept.  30. 

China.  The  people's  republic  was 
recognized  by  Czechoslovakia,  Hungary 
and  Poland. 

Israel.  The  cabinet  decided  to  unite 
the  cities  of  Jaffa  and  Tel  Aviv  under 
the  name  of  Jaffa-Tel  Aviv. 

Paraguay.  The  government  declared  a 
state  of  siege  as  a  result  of  subversive 
activities  aimed  at  the  setting-up  of  a 
terrorist  regime. 

Yugoslavia.  The  government  of 
Czechoslovakia  denounced  its  treaty  of 
friendship  with  Yugoslavia. 


DIARY    OF    EVENTS,    1949 


13 


5:  Benelux.  A  draft  agreement  to  bring 
the  provisional  economic  union  into 
force  from  Oct.  1  was  initialled  at  The 
Hague. 

China.  The  people's  republic  was 
recognized  by  Yugoslavia. 

Eastern  Germany.  The  executive 
committee  of  the  people's  council  in 
the  Soviet  zone  decided  that  the  council 
should  declare  itself  a  **  provisional 
house  of  the  people  "  as  a  first  step  to 
setting  up  a  government. 

France.  Henri  Queuille  offered  his 
resignation  to  President  Aunot  after 
disagreement  in  the  cabinet  on  measures 
affecting  wages  and  prices. 

North  Atlantic  Treaty.  The  first 
meeting  of  the  defence  committee  was 
held  in  Washington. 

6:  Great  Britain.  Aneurin  Sevan,  minister 
of  health,  reviewed  the  first  year's  working 
of  the  national  health  service.  He  des- 
cribed the  results  as  remarkably  good. 

France.  President  Aunol  accepted  the 
resignation  of  Henri  Queuille. 

Western  Germany.  The  last  British 
plane  to  carry  supplies  in  the  Berlin  air 
lift  arr.ved  in  Berlin. 

7:  Eastern  Germany.  The  people's 
council  meeting  in  Berlin  proclaimed 
the  Democratic  People's  republic  and 
constituted  itself  into  the  provisional 
lower  house  of  the  republic.  Johannes 
Dieckmann,  Liberal  Democrat,  was 
elected  speaker  The  Socialist  Unity 
party  nominated  Otto  Grotewohl  as 
prime  minister. 

8:  France.  Jules  Moch,  Socialist,  was 
asked  by  the  president  to  try  to  form  a 
government. 

Malaya.  The  foundation  ceremony  of 
the  University  oi  Malaya  was  held  in 
Singapoic 

Western  Union.  The  cultural  committee 
of  the  Brussels  treaty  powers,  which 
ended  a  thice-day  meeting  in  Brussels, 
adopted  a  proposal  for  a  cultural  identity 
card. 

9:  Austria.  General  elections  were  held. 
The  People's  party  obtained  44  2  %  of 
the  votes. 

China.  The  people's  republic  was 
recognized  by  Mongolia. 

Malta.  Dr.  P.  Boffa  leader  of  the 
Labour  party,  was  censured  by  244  votes 
to  141  at  a  conference  of  the  party. 

10:  Eastern  Germany.  General  V.  Chuykov, 
Soviet  governor,  announced  that  the 
Soviet  administration  would  hand  over 
its  duties  to  the  provisional  government. 
Norway.  Elections  were  held  for  the 
Storting.  The  Labour  party  increased 
its  majority  over  all  other  parties,  winning 
85  seats  out  of  150. 

11:  Eastern  Germany.    W-lhelm  Pieck  was 

elected  president  of  the  people's  republic. 

India.     Pandit  Nehru,  prime  minister 

of  India,  arrived  in  Washington  on  an 

official  visit. 

12:  Eastern  Germany.  Otto  Grotewohl 
announced  his  cabinet.  The  Socia'ist 
Unity  party  he'd  seven  portfolios  in 
addition  to*  the  premiership. 

13:  Great  Britain.  The  prime  minister 
announced  that  he  did  not  intend  to 
advise  the  King  to  dissolve  parliament 
in  1949. 

China.  The  nationalist  government  left 
Canton  for  Chungking. 


Malta.  Dr.  Boffa  and  Dr.  A.  Colombo, 
minister  of  finance,  resigned  from  the 
Labour  party. 

14:  Great  Britain.  The  70th  annual 
conference  of  the  Nat'onal  Union  of 
Conservative  and  Unionist  Associations 
ended  in  London. 

Egypt.  The  mixed  courts  and  consular 
courts  closed  down,  their  jurisdiction 
being  transfer! cd  to  Egyptian  courts. 

France.  Jules  Moch,  Socialist,  was 
elected  prime  minister  with  one  vote 
over  the  constitutional  majority  of  310. 

South  Africa.  General  Smuts  was 
relieved  ot  his  post  as  commander  in 
chief  of  the  Union  defence  forces. 

United  States  Eleven  leaden  of  the 
Communist  party  were  found  guilty  of 
conspiring  to  advocate  the  overthrow 
of  the  United  States  government  by  force. 

15.  China.  Communist  advance  troops 
entered  Canton. 

Hungary.  Las/16  Rajk,  Tiber  Szonyi 
and  Andras  Szalai  were,  hanged  in 
Budapest. 

India.  The  government  took  over  the 
administration  of  Manipur. 

16:  Benelux.  A  conference  in  Luxembourg 
of  ministers  of  Belgium,  Netherlands  and 
Luxembourg  ended. 

Eastern  Germany.  Diplomatic  relations 
were  established  with  the  Soviet  Union. 

17:  Australia.  W.  J.  McKell,  governor 
general,  inaugurated  the  Snowy  river 
hydro-electric  and  irrigation  scheme  in 
a  cciemony  at  Adammaby. 

L.  Sharkey,  general  secretary  of  the 
Communist  party,  was  sentenced  to  three 
years'  imprisonment  for  sedition. 

France.  Jules  Moch  resigned  as  prime 
minister,  having  failed  to  form  a  govern- 
ment. 

International  Bank.  Loans  to  Finland 
and  Yugoslavia  were  approved. 

South  Africa  An  African  regional 
scientific  conference  opened  m  Johannes- 
burg. 

18.  Great  Britain.    Both  houses  of  parlia- 
ment re-assembled. 

United  Nations.  A.  Vyshmsky,  Soviet 
foreign  minister,  held  a  press  conference 
in  New  York,  in  which  he  said  he  could 
not  regard  an  election  of  Yugoslavia  to 
the  Secunty  council  in  succession  of  the 
Ukraine  as  either  lawful  or  just. 

Gcneial  Carlos  Romulo,  president  of 
the  assembly,  announced  that  the  efforts 
of  the  Balkans  conciliation  committee 
had  ended  in  deadlock. 

19.  Eastern   Germany.      The   government 
was   recognized  by  the  governments  of 
Bulgaria,   Hungary  and  Poland. 

Guatemala.  It  was  announced  that 
4,000  people  had  lost  their  lives  in  recent 
floods.  Damage  to  property  was  esti- 
mated at  S50  million. 

United  States.  Both  houses  of  congress 
adjourned  until  Jan.  1950. 

20:  Australia.  The  House  of  Representa- 
tives passed  a  bill  authorising  a  gift  to 
Britain  of  £A10  million. 

Denmark.  The  Folketing  passed  a  vote 
of  confidence  in  the  government's  eco- 
nomic programme  by  64  votes  to  35, 
with  39  abstentions. 

France.  Rene  May&r,  Radical,  was 
elected  prime  minister  by  the  National 
Assembly  by  341  votes  to  183. 


United  Nations.  Yugoslavia  was 
elected  to  the  Security  council  in  place 
of  the  Ukraine.  The  Soviet  Union 
announced  that  it  did  not  consider 
Yugoslavia  a  representative  of  eastern 
Europe.  Ecuador  and  India  replaced 
Argentina  and  Canada. 

21:  Germany.  Dr.  Adenauer,  in  a  speech 
to  parliament,  said  that  the  West  German 
government  was  the  only  one  entitled  to 
speak  for  the  German  people. 

United  Nations.  The  general  assembly 
voted  by  48  votes  to  6  to  continue  the 
Korean  commission. 

22:  Spain.  General  Franco  arrived  in 
Lisbon  on  a  state  visit. 

23:  India.  Pandit  Nehru  arrived  in  Ottawa 
on  a  short  visit. 

France.  Rend  Mayer  informed  the 
president  of  his  inability  to  form  a 
government.  Georges  Bidault,  M.R.P., 
was  asked  to  try. 

Iceland.  The  Conservative  party 
remained  the  largest  party  in  the  parlia- 
ment in  a  general  election. 

24:  Great  Britain.  Clement  Attlee  announ- 
ced in  the  House  of  Commons  measures 
to  curtail  the  risk  of  inflation  resulting 
from  devaluation.  About  £140  million 
was  to  be  saved  from  capital  expenditure. 
Housing,  educational  building  and  gov- 
ernment expenditure  on  agriculture  were 
to  be  reduced. 

Bolivia.  Mamerto  Urriolagoitia  was 
sworn  in  as  president  in  succession  to 
Enrique  Hertzog  who  had  resigned 
because  of  ill-health. 

United  Nations.  President  Truman 
laid  the  cornerstone  of  the  United 
Nations  secretariat  building  in  New 
York. 

United  States.  A  conference  of  U.S. 
ambassadors  and  ministers  to  nine 
European  countries  opened  in  London. 

25 :  Great  Britain-France.  A  supplementary 
agreement  on  social  security  was  signed 
in  London. 

Germany.  The  East  German  govern- 
ment was  recognized  by  the  Chinese 
Communist  government. 

Czechoslovakia.  Alexei  Cepicka,  minis- 
ter of  justice,  was  named  head  of  the  new 
state  office  to  control  Church  affairs. 

Iran.  It  became  known  that  the 
Shah  had  instructed  that  the  country 
should  be  known  in  future  as  Persia  and 
not  as  Iran. 

Aviation.  A  British  de  Havilland 
Comet,  the  world's  first  jet  air-liner,  flew 
from  London  to  Castel  Benito,  Tripoli, 
and  back  in  6  hr.  38  mm.  flying  time. 

26:  Germany.  Bishop  Aloisius  Munch 
was  appointed  Papal  Nuncio  to  the 
Western  German  government. 

Gold  Coast.  The  report  of  the  Com- 
mittee on  Constitutional  Reform  was 
published.  It  recommended  almost 
complete  home  rule  for  the  colony. 

27:  Great  Britain.  A  two-day  debate  on 
the  government's  economy  measures 
ended.  A  Conservative  amendment  was 
defeated  by  353  to  222  and  the  govern- 
ment's action  approved  by  337  to  5. 
Belgium.  The  Senate  approved,  by 
109  votes  to  65,  a  bill  for  a  referendum 
on  the  return  of  King  Leopold. 


14 


DIARY    OF    EVENTS,    1949 


Canada.  The  House  of  Commons 
passed,  by  139  votes  to  38,  a  resolution 
under  which  the  King  would  be  petitioned 
to  invite  the  British  parliament  to  allow 
Canada  to  amend  its  own  constitution. 

Guatemala.  The  government  suspended 
constitutional  guarantees  for  30  days, 
giving  as  its  reason  the  emergency  created 
by  disastrous  floods. 

28:  France.  Georges  Bidault,  M.R  P., 
was  elected  prime  minister  by  367  votes 
to  183.  He  immediately  announced  the 
formation  of  his  cabinet. 

United  States.  President  Truman 
signed  the  $1,314  million  Military  Aid 
bill. 

Aviation.  An  Air  France  Constellation 
crashed  in  the  A/ores.  Among  the  48 
persons  killed  were  Marcel  Cerdan, 
boxer,  and  Gmette  Neveu,  violinist. 

29:   International  Refugee  Organization.    It 

was  agreed  to  pay  the  government  of 
Israel  $2,500,000  for  the  care  of  aged, 
sick  and  disabled  Jewish  refugees. 

30:  Arab  League.  'I  he  council  of  the 
league  at  a  meeting  in  Cairo  decided  to 
set  up  a  committee  to  diaft  a  security 
pact  between  the  member  states. 

3 1 :  Great  Britain.  The  House  of  Commons, 
by  333  votes  to  196,  passed  for  the  third 
time  the  Parliament  bill  which  reduced 
the  power  of  veto  of  the  House  of  Loids. 

It  was  announced  that  British  troops 
would  be  withdrawn  from  Greece. 

Italy.  The  right-wing  Socialist  party 
decided  to  resign  from  the  coalition 
government. 

O.E.E.C.  The  council  met  in  Pans. 
Western  Germany  was  represented  for 
the  first  time  by  a  German.  Paul  Hoff- 
mann, E.C.A.  administrator,  called  on 
the  member  nations  to  prepare  a  pro- 
gramme to  bring  about  the  economic 
integration  of  western  Europe. 

NOVEMBER 

1 :  Czechoslovakia.  The  new  church  law 
became  operative. 

2:  Jamaica.  The  government  announced 
that  it  had  decided  to  withdraw  its  press 
bill,  which  would  have  imposed  severe 
penalties  on  the  disclosure  of  government 
information. 

Netherlands.  Dutch,  Indonesian  and 
United  Nations  delegates  signed  a  resolu- 
tion agreeing  to  a  draft  constitution  for  a 
United  States  of  Indonesia  at  the  round 
table  conference  at  The  Hague. 

O.E.E.C.  The  council  passed  a  resolu- 
tion recommending  various  measures  to 
free  European  trade. 

Singapore.  A  conference  of  British 
representatives  in  the  far  east  opened  in 
Singapore. 

3:  Great  Britain.  The  government  was 
defeated  in  the  House  of  Lords  by  116 
votes  to  29  on  a  Conservative  amendment 
criticizing  the  government's  economic 
policy. 

Council  of  Europe.  The  committee  of 
ministeis  met  in  Pans  to  discuss  the 
recommendations  of  the  consultative 
assembly.  It  decided  not  to  make  any 
change  in  the  status  of  the  assembly. 

Egypt.  The  coalition  government 
resigned.  Hussein  Sirry  Pasha,  the  out- 
going prime  minister,  formed  a  non- 
party  government. 

Netherlands.  Rationing  restrictions 
were  removed  on  textiles,  meat,  cheese 
and  rice. 


Western  Germany.  By  200  votes  to 
176,  the  Bundestag  decided  to  retain 
Bonn  as  the  federal  capital. 

4:  China.  The  British  government  warned 
the  Chinese  Nationalist  government  of 
the  consequences  incurred  if  the  Chinese 
carried  out  an  order  to  bomb  foreign 
ships  m  territorial  waters  bound  for 
Communist  ports. 

Council  of  Europe.  The  committee  of 
ministers  decided  in  favour  of  admitting 
Western  Germany  and  the  Saar  as 
associate  members.  The  committee 
requested  the  opinion  of  the  assembly's 
standing  committee. 

Persia.  Abdol  Hossem  Hajir,  former 
prime  minister,  was  shot  in  Tehian.  He 
died  from  his  wounds  on  Nov.  5. 

5 :  Council  of  Europe.  The  committee  of 
ministers  ended  Us  meeting. 

Hungary.  The  frontier  agreement  with 
Yugoslavia  was  cancelled. 

6:  Syria.  Lieutenant  Colonel  W.  F. 
Stirling,  Damascus  conespondent  of 
The  Time?,  was  shot  at  and  seriously 
wounded. 

7.  Austria.  Leopold  Figl  formed  a  new 
government,  The  Ministries  of  Food, 
Power  and  Economic  Planning  were 
abolished. 

Egypt.  King  Faiouk  signed  a  decree 
dissolving  parliament. 

Iraq.  Nun  Pasha  as-Said,  prime 
minister  from  Jan.  1949,  offered  his 
resignation  to  the  Regent. 

Pakistan.  The  Smd  cabinet  resigned. 
The  outgoing  premier,  Yuscf  Abdullah 
Haroon,  foimed  a  new  government. 

Soviet  Union.  Moscow  radio  announced 
that  Marshal  Konstantin  Rokossovsky 
had  been  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the 
Polish  government.  He  replaced  Marshal 
Michal  Zymierski  as  Polish  minister  for 
defence. 

Western  Union.  The  seventh  session  of 
the  consultative  council  of  the  Brussels 
treaty  powers  was  held  in  Pans.  Con- 
ventions for  social  security  and  medical 
assistance  were  signed. 

8:  France.  A  treaty  was  signed  with 
Cambodia  giving  her  autonomy  within 
the  French  union. 

Norway.  The  British  trawler  **  Wei- 
beck "  was  arrested  by  a  Norwegian 
corvette  and  taken  to  Hammerfest.  The 
trawler  was  alleged  to  have  been  fishing 
in  Norwegian  waters. 

Philippines,  fclpidio  Quuino  was  re- 
elected  president  with  1,711,448  votes, 
400,000  more  than  Jose  Lauicl.  More 
than  20  persons  were  killed  and  many 
injured. 

United  States.  Herbert  H.  Lehman, 
Democrat,  defeated  John  Foster  Dulles, 
Republican,  in  an  election  in  New  York 
for  the  Senate. 

9:  Council  of  Europe.  The  standing  com- 
mittee of  the  assembly  ended  a  thiee-day 
meeting  in  Pans.  It  approved  in  principle 
the  admission  of  the  Saar  and  Western 
Germany. 

Eastern  Germany.  The  Volkskammer 
approved  an  amnesty  to  many  classes  of 
prisoners,  specially  exempting  political 
prisoners. 

10:  Czechoslovakia.  All  religious  publi- 
cations and  educational,  financial  and 
charitable  activities  of  the  churches  were 
placed  under  the  control  of  the  Ministry 
of  Church  Affairs. 


United  Nations.  In  a  speech  before  the 
special  political  committee  A.  Y.  Vyshin- 
sky,  stated  that  the  Soviet  Union  was 
using  atomic  energy  for  constructive 
purposes. 

1 1 :  Australia.  Talks  ended  in  Canberra 
between  Australia,  Great  Britain  and 
New  Zealand.  Among  subjects  discussed 
was  a  peace  treaty  for  Japan  and  a  meet- 
ing of  commonwealth  foreign  ministers. 

Colombia.  The  government  relaxed 
slightly  a  state  of  siege  which  had  been 
imposed  following  disturbances. 

France.  A  conference  in  Pans  of  the 
foreign  ministers  of  Great  Britain,  France 
and  the  United  States  ended.  Agreement 
was  reached  on  measures  for  the  pro- 
gressive integration  of  the  German  people 
into  the  European  community. 

United  States.  President  Truman 
accepted  the  resignation  of  the  secretary 
of  the  interior,  Julius  A.  Krug,  and 
appointed  Oscar  L.  Chapman  to  succeed 
him. 

12:  West  Indies.  A  conference  of  governors 
of  the  West  Indian  colonies,  piesidcdover 
by  the  Eai  1  of  List  owel,  ended  in  Barbados. 
Yugoslavia.  The  government  denounced 
its  treaty  of  friendship  and  collaboration 
with  Albania  —  the  last  Communist 
country  to  maintain  its  ticaty  with 
Yugoslavia. 

13:  Danube.  Representatives  of  Bulgaria, 
C/echoslovakia,  Hungary,  Rumania,  the 
U.S  S  R.  and  Yugoslavia  met  at  Galatz 
for  the  first  meeting  of  the  Danube 
commission. 

Portugal.  All  120  seats  in  the  National 
Assembly  were  rilled  by  candidates  of 
the  national  union  paity  in  a  general 
election. 

14:  United  States.  More  than  425,000 
steel  workers  returned  to  work  after  a 
six-week  strike. 

15:  Great  Britain.  The  government  pub- 
lished amended  dates  for  the  operation  of 
the  Iron  and  Steel  bill  It  postponed  the 
vesting  day  of  the  industry  until  after  the 
last  possible  date  for  a  general  election. 

Australia.  Petrol  rationing  was  re- 
imposed  throughout  the  Commonwealth. 

Danube.  Notes  declaring  that  they 
would  not  recognize  the  Danube  con- 
vention were  delivered  by  Great  Britain, 
France  and  the  United  States  to  the 
signatories  of  the  convention. 

India.  Nathuram  Godse  and  Narayan 
Apte,  who  in  Jan.  1948  murdered 
Mahatma  Gandhi,  were  hanged  at 
Ambala. 

Western  Germany.  The  three  high 
commissioners  received  Dr.  Adenauer 
and  informed  him  of  the  decisions  of  the 
foreign  ministers'  conference  in  Pans. 

16:  Great  Britain.  Officers  and  ratings  of 
H.M.  ships  "  Amethyst,"  "  London," 
"  Black  Swan  "  and  "  Consort  "  marched 
through  London  and  were  received  at  the 
Guildhall. 

United  Nations.  The  general  assembly 
agreed  unanimously  to  launch  a  pro- 
gramme of  technical  aid  to  backward 
areas. 

17:  Czechoslovakia.  Jaromir  Dolansky, 
minister  of  planning,  stated  that  97% 
of  the  country's  industry  was  nationalized. 


DIARY    OF    EVENTS,    1949 


15 


18:  Nigeria.  Disturbances  occurred  in  the 
Enugu  area,  where  1,500  miners  were  on 
strike.  18  men  were  killed  by  police  fire. 
United  Nations.  The  general  assembly, 
by  50  votes  to  6,  decided  to  continue  in 
being  the  Balkans  commission. 

19:  Great  Britain.  A.  J.  Wakcfield  and 
J.  N.  Rosa  were  dismissed  from  the  board 
of  the  Overseas  Food  corporation. 

20:  Great  Britain.  Princess  Eli/abeth  flew 
to  Malta. 

France.  At  the  Radical  party  confer- 
ence at  Toulouse,  Fdouard  Herriot  was 
re-elected  chairman  by  759  votes  to  381 
for  Edouard  Daladier. 

Panama.  President  Daniel  Chanis 
resigned  aftei  unsuccessfully  trying  to 
force  the  resignations  of  three  police 
chiefs  He  was  succeeded  by  Roberto  F. 
Chian,  the  vice  president. 

21:  Great  Britain.  It  was  announced  that 
President  and  Mme.  Vincent  Aunol 
would  pay  a  state  visit  to  I  ondon  in 
March  1950. 

The  House  of  Commons  debated  the 
report  on  the  East  Afiican  groundnuts 
scheme.  An  opposition  amendment 
calling  for  an  inquny  was  defeated  by 
161  votes  to  315. 

United  Nations.  The  general  assembly 
decided  that  Libya  should  be  an  indepen- 
dent nation  by  1952  and  that  Italian 
Somaliland  should  be  placed  under 
Italian  trusteeship  for  10  years 

22:  United  Nations.  By  42  votes  to  5,  the 
geneial  assembly  asked  the  permanent 
members  ol  the  Security  council  to 
refrain  from  using  the  veto  on  the 
admission  of  new  members. 

Panama.  Di.  D.  Chanis  tore  up  his 
resignation  and  was  re-instated  as  presi- 
dent. 

Western  Germany.  The  three  high 
commissioners  met  Dr.  Adenauer  and 
reached  agreement  on  the  implementation 
of  decisions  made  in  Pans  by  the  foreign 
ministers. 

23:  Great  Britain.  The  report  was  pub- 
lished of  the  Ministry  of  Civil  Aviation's 
investigation  into  the  ciash  of  a  K.L.M. 
plane  at  Prestwick,  Oct.  1948.  Coires- 
pondence  was  also  published  between 
T.  P.  McDonald,  who  presided  over  the 
inquiry,  and  the  minister  of  civil  aviation, 
Lord  Pakcnham,  who  felt  unable  to 
accept  certain  implications  in  the  report. 

United  Nations.  The  general  assembly, 
by  49  votes  to  5,  called  upon  the  perman- 
ent members  of  the  Atomic  Energy  com- 
mission to  continue  discussions  on  the 
international  control  of  atomic  energy. 

United  States-Uruguay.  A  treaty  of 
friendship,  economic  development  and 
commerce  was  signed  in  Montevideo. 

Western  Union.  The  defence  com- 
mittee met  in  London. 

24:  Great  Britain.  The  House  of  I  ords 
accepted  the  government's  amendments 
for  the  vesting  date  of  the  Iron  and  Steel 
industry.  The  bill  was  passed  and  received 
the  Royal  Assent. 

India.  The  Nizam  of  Hyderabad  issued 
a  firman  announcing  the  accession  of 
Hyderabad  to  India. 

Panama.  The  supreme  court  ruled 
that  Dr.  Chanis  was  constitutional 
president.  Dr.  Arnulfo  Anas,  a  former 
president,  was  nevertheless  installed  by 
the  police  chiefs. 


25:  France.  A  24-hr,  general  strike  called 
by  the  C.G.T.  and  Force  Ouvnere  was 
held  throughout  the  countiy. 

Pakistan.  The  first  International 
Islamic  industrial  and  commercial  exhi- 
bition and  the  International  Islamic 
Economic  conference  opened  in  Kaiachi. 

Panama.  The  electoral  grand  jury 
announced  that  Dr.  Anas  had  won  the 
1948  presidential  election.  He  announced 
the  members  of  his  cabinet. 

26  France.  The  National  Assembly  ap- 
proved Robert  Schuman's  German  policy 
by  327  votes  to  249  in  the  caily  hours  of 
the  morning. 

India.  I  he  Constituent  Assembly 
adopted  the  new  constitution  Sardar 
Patel,  deputy  prime  minister,  announced 
that  the  mtegiation  of  the  Stales  was 
complete. 

Nigeria.  'I  he  governor  declared  a  state 
of  emcigency  following  disorders  at  Aba 
and  at  Port  Harcouit  and  ktbour  troubles 
at  the  Rnijgu  collieiy. 

Panama.  Piesident  Chanis  and  two 
other  former  presidents  tied  to  the 
Canal  /one 

27'  Colombia.  Because  of  a  boycott  by  the 
Liberals,  there  was  only  one  candidate, 
the  C  onservative  Laureano  Gomez,  in  a 
presidential  election.  He  received  more 
than  965,000  votes 

Nigeria.  1  he  governor  set  up  a  com- 
mission of  inquny  to  investigate  the  dis- 
orders in  the  country. 

28:  Great  Britain.  The  minister  of  trans- 
port announced  that  the  Transport  com- 
mission was  expecting  a  deficit  of  £20 
million  in  1949  and  had  asked  for  in- 
creases in  freight  and  other  charges. 

A  three-day  confcience  of  the  British 
Communist  party  ended  at  Liverpool. 

Trade  Unions.  An  inter  national  trade 
union  conference  opened  in  London. 
Paul  Finet,  Belgium,  was  elected  chair- 
man and  Vincent  Tcwson,  Great  Britain, 
secretary. 

29:  Great  Britain.  The  House  of  Lords 
i ejected  the  Parliament  bill  for  the  third 
time. 

Cominform.  It  was  announced  that  the 
first  full  meeting  of  the  Cominform  since 
June  1948  had  been  held  in  Hungary. 
Three  resolutions  were  published  on  the 
defence  of  peace,  on  the  Yugoslav 
Communist  party  and  on  unity  in  the 
working  class  movement. 

F.A.O.  The  conference  decided  by 
30  votes  to  28  that  the  permanent  hcad- 
quaitcis  should  be  in  Rome 

International  Trade.  Ceylon,  India  and 
South  Africa  signed  the  Annecy  protocol. 

North  Atlantic  Treaty.  The  military 
committee  met  in  Pans. 

30:  China.  Chungking  was  occupied  by 
Communist  forces. 

New  Zealand.  The  Labour  govern- 
ment was  defeated  in  a  general  election. 
The  Nationa1  party  led  by  S.  G.  Holland 
obtained  46  seats,  the  Labour  party  34. 


DECEMBER 

1 :  China.  A  trade  union  conference  of 
Asian  and  Australasian  countries  ended 
in  Peking. 

India.  The  World  Pacifist's  conference 
opened  at  Shantmiketan ,  83  pacifists 
were  present  from  35  countries. 


North  Atlantic  Treaty.  The  defence 
committee  met  in  Pans  and  agreed  on  an 
integrated  self-defence  plan  designed  for 
"adequate  military  strength  accompanied 
by  economy  of  resources  and  manpower.*' 

United  Nations.  A  British-United  States 
resolution  entitled  **  The  Essentials  of 
Peace  "  was  passed  by  53  votes  to  5  by 
the  general  assembly.  A  Soviet  proposal 
was  defeated. 

Yugoslavia.  The  trial  opened  in 
Sarajevo  of  1 1  Soviet  citizens  on  charges  of 
espionage. 

2  United  Nations.  Despite  objections 
by  Cireat  Bntain,  Belgium  and  France, 
the  general  assembly  approved  by  large 
majorities  ten  icsolutions  providing  for 
continuing  United  Nations'  investigation 
and  review  of  conditions  in  all  colonies. 
Western  Germany.  Dr.  Kuit  Schu- 
macher returned  to  his  seat  in  the 
Bundestag  after  agreement  had  been 
reached  with  Dr.  Konrad  Adenauer.  He 
had  been  suspended  on  Nov.  25. 

3:  Sarawak.  Duncan  Stewart,  governor 
of  Sarawak,  was  stabbed  and  wounded 
by  a  young  Malay  at  Sibu  and  was  flown 
to  Singapore  for  medical  treatment  next 
day. 

4:  France.  Petrol  and  dicscl  oil  were 
taken  off  the  ration. 

5:  China.  General  Li  Tsung-jen,  acting 
Nationalist  president,  left  Hong  Kong 
by  air  for  the  United  States. 

Pakistan.  The  International  Islamic 
Economic  conference  decided  to  create 
a  permanent  organization  with  head- 
quarters at  Karachi.  Ghulam  Moham- 
med, Pakistan,  was  elected  president. 

Atomic  Energy.  The  cyclotron  at 
Harwell,  Berkshire,  operated  successfully 
on  its  (irst  trial. 

6:  United  Nations.  The  general  assembly 
decided  by  40  votes  to  7  to  ask  the 
International  Court  of  Justice  to  rule 
on  the  legal  status  of  the  former  mandated 
territory  of  South-West  Africa. 

7:  Great  Britain.  Representatives  of  the 
crews  and  staffs  of  the  Berlin  airlift  were 
inspected  at  Buckingham  palace  by  the 
King. 

Bulgaria.  The  trial  of  Traicho  Kostov, 
former  deputy  prime  minister,  and  10 
other  communists  opened  in  Sofia.  Kos- 
tov pleaded  not  guilty  to  charges  of 
espionage  and  treason. 

Trade  Unions.  The  International 
Confederation  of  Free  Trade  Unions 
(LC  KT.U.)  was  founded  in  London. 
J.  H.  Oldenbroek,  Netherlands,  was 
elected  general  secretary  with  head- 
quarters in  Brussels. 

United  Nations.  The  special  political 
committee  of  the  general  assembly  agreed 
by  35  votes  to  13,  with  11  abstentions, 
on  a  complete  international  regime  for 
Jerusalem. 

8:  Great  Britain.  The  Labour  party 
retained  its  seat  in  a  by-election  at  south 
Bradford  with  a  reduced  majority. 

Sir  Gerald  Kelly  was  elected  president 
of  the  Royal  Academy  in  succession  to 
Sir  Alfred  Munnmgs. 

Nigeria.  The  state  of  emergency 
proclaimed  on  Nov.  26  was  ended. 

Red  Cross.  Representatives  of  29 
countries  signed  four  conventions  at 
Geneva. 


16 


DIARY    OF    EVENTS,    1949 


United  Nations.  The  general  assembly, 
by  45  votes  to  5,  affirmed  the  right  of 
the  Chinese  to  be  free  from  foreign 
domination  and  urged  all  nations  to 
refrain  from  seeking  spheres  of  influence 
in  China. 

9:  Netherlands.  At  2a.m.  the  Second 
Chamber  passed  the  bill  for  the  ratifica- 
tion of  the  Indonesian  agreements  by 
71  votes  to  29. 

United  Nations.  The  general  assembly 
voted  in  favour  of  the  internationaliza- 
tion of  Jerusalem  and  the  Holy  Places. 

Yugoslavia.  The  10  defendants  in  the 
spy  trial  at  Sarajevo  were  found  guilty. 
Sentences  were  passed  varying  from  4  to 
20  years*  imprisonment. 

10:  Australia.  The  Labour  government 
was  defeated  in  the  general  election. 
A  coalition  of  the  Liberal  party,  led  by 
R.  G.  Menzies,  and  the  Country  party 
obtained  74  seats,  the  Labour  party  47. 

China.  General  Lu  Han,  governor  of 
Yunnan,  announced  his  support  of  the 
Communist  government. 

Sarawak.  Duncan  Stewart,  governor 
of  Sarawak,  who  was  stabbed  at  Sibu 
on  Dec.  3,  died  in  hospital  at  Singapore. 

Sierra  Leone.  Sir  John  Lucie-Smith, 
chief  justice,  was  shot  at  and  wounded 
while  asleep  in  his  house  at  Freetown. 

United  Nations.  The  fourth  general 
assembly  ended.  Adrian  Pelt  was  elected 
U.N.  commissioner  in  Libya. 

11:  Great  Britain,  John  Strachey,  minister 
of  food,  left  by  air  on  an  unexpected 
visit  to  groundnut  areas  in  Tanganyika. 
12:  Great  Britain.  Manual  workers  at 
three  London  electric  power  stations 
went  on  strike.  Servicemen  were  called 
in  to  keep  the  stations  going. 

Canada.  The  British  Columbian 
Legislative  Assembly  elected  Mrs.  Nancy 
Hodges  as  its  speaker.  She  became  the 
first  woman  speaker  in  the  Common- 
wealth. 

South  Africa.  Dr.  D.  F.  Malan,  prime 
minister,  and  N.  C.  Havenga,  leader  of 
the  Afrikaner  party,  announced  that  they 
would  not  introduce  Apartheid  legislation 
during  the  coming  session  of  Parliament. 
1 3 :  Eritrea.  A  curfew  was  imposed  in 
Asmara  after  disturbances.  All  Italian 
and  Entrean  newspapers  were  suspended. 

Israel.  David  Ben-Gurion,  prime 
minister,  announced  that  the  Knesset 
would  move  to  Jerusalem  on  Dec.  26. 

New  Zealand.  The  National  govern- 
ment led  by  S.  G.  Holland  was  sworn  in 
by  the  governor  general. 

Syria.  Hashem  Atassi,  prime  minister, 
submitted  the  resignation  of  his  govern- 
ment to  the  president  of  the  assembly. 

14:  Bulgaria.  Traicho  Rostov  was  found 
guilty  and  sentenced  to  death  in  a  trial 
at  Sofia.  Six  others  were  sentenced  to 
life  imprisonment  and  five  others 
received  sentences  of  8  to  15  years. 

Council  of  Foreign  Ministers.  At  their 
243rd  meeting  the  deputies  of  the  foreign 
ministers  discussing  a  peace  treaty  for 
Austria  adjourned  until  Jan.  9,  1950. 

United  Nations.  The  Soviet  Union 
twice  used  the  veto  in  the  Security  council 
on  motions  welcoming  the  report  of  the 
Netherlands-Indonesian  agreement 
reached  at  The  Hague. 

15:  International  Court  of  Justice.    By  12 

votes  to  2  (Soviet  Union  and  Albania) 
the  court  awarded  damages  to  Great 
Britain  of  £843,947  against  Albania  for 
the  mining  of  two  British  destroyers  in 
the  Corfu  channel  on  Oct.  22,  1946. 


Switzerland.  The  Federal  Assembly 
elected  Max  Petitpierre  as  president  of 
the  confederation  for  1950. 

16:  Great  Britain.  Parliament  was  pro- 
rogued at  the  end  of  a  session  lasting 
nearly  14  months. 

Bulgaria.  Traicho  Kostov  was  executed. 

China.  Mao  Tse-tung,  chairman  of 
the  central  people's  government  of  the 
Chinese  People's  republic,  arrived  in 
Moscow. 

Indonesia.  Dr.  A.  Sukarno  was  unani- 
mously elected  first  president  of  the 
United  States  of  Indonesia. 

South  Africa.  The  Voortrekker  monu- 
ment was  inaugurated  at  Pretoria. 

17:  Burma.  The  government  announced  its 
recognition  of  the  Communist  govern- 
ment in  China. 

Sweden.  Talks  in  Stockholm  on  closer 
economic  collaboration  between  Great 
Britain,  Denmark,  Norway  and  Sweden 
were  ended. 

Radio.  Great  Britain's  second  tele- 
vision transmitter,  at  Sutton  Coldfield, 
was  brought  into  service.  It  was  the  most 
powerful  television  station  in  the  world. 

18:  Bulgaria.  A  general  election  was  held 
for  the  National  Assembly;  97  66% 
of  the  electorate  voted  for  the  single 
list  of  candidates. 

Iraq.  Martial  law,  imposed  in  May 
1948,  was  rescinded  by  royal  decree. 

19:  Australia.  The  government  of  R.  G. 
Menzies  was  sworn  in  at  Canberra. 

Greece.  The  railway  service  between 
Athens  and  Salonika  was  opened  for 
the  first  time  for  nine  years. 

Syria.  The  third  military  coup  iV&tat 
within  nine  months  occurred.  General 
Sami  Hmnawi  was  arrested. 

United  States.  It  was  announced  in 
Washington  that  Canada,  Great  Britain 
and  the  United  States  had  signed  an 
agreement  providing  for  collaboration  in 
military  standardization  of  the  three 
armed  forces. 

War  Crimes.  Field  Marshal  von 
Manstein  was  found  guilty  of  nine  war 
crimes  and  was  sentenced  at  Hamburg 
to  18  years'  imprisonment. 

20:  Jamaica.  The  Labour  party,  led  by 
W.  A.  Bustamante,  obtained  17  seats 
out  of  32  in  the  House  of  Representatives. 
The  People's  National  party,  led  by  N. 
Manley,  obtained  13  seats. 

21:  Netherlands.  The  First  Chamber 
approved  by  34  votes  to  15  the  bill 
concerning  the  transfer  of  sovereignty 
in  Indonesia. 

Soviet  Union.  Marshal  Joseph  Stalin 
celebrated  his  seventieth  birthday.  Large 
scale  celebrations  were  held  throughout 
the  Soviet  Union  and  in  all  the  Com- 
munist countries. 

Western  Union.  Representatives  of 
the  Western  Union  powers  signed  in 
London  a  multilateral  agreement  laying 
down  the  status  of  the  armed  forces  of 
any  one  member  state  when  stationed 
in  the  territory  of  any  of  the  five  states. 

22:  Malaya.  Sir  Henry  Gurney,  high 
commissioner,  announced  the  govern- 
ment's intention  to  mobilize  early  in 
1950,  on  a  voluntary  basis  and  for  about 
a  month,  all  civilian  resources  in  the 
federation  to  c8-operate  with  the  forces 
during  an  intensified  operation  against 
the  bandits. 


23:  Great  Britain.  It  was  announced  that 
Britain  had  broken  off  trade  negotiations 
with  Hungary  because  the  Hungarian 
government  would  not  permit  a  Bntjsh 
representative  in  Budapest  to  see  a  British 
subject  who  had  been  arrested. 

Poland.  A  military  court  at  Wroclaw 
found  four  French  nationals  and  two 
Poles  guilty  of  spying  and  imposed 
sentences  of  up  to  nine  years. 

Uruguay-Great  Britain.  A  five-year 
meat  agreement  was  signed  in  Monte- 
video. 

24:  France.  The  National  Assembly  gave 
a  vote  of  confidence  to  the  Bidault 
govei  nment  by  303  votes  to  297. 

Palestine.  For  the  first  time  for  two 
years  pilgrims  walked  along  the  road 
from  Jerusalem  to  Bethlehem. 

Roman  Catholic  Church.  Pope  Pius 
XII  opened  the  holy  door  of  St.  Peter's 
at  the  beginning  of  the  25th  Holy  Year. 

25:  Great  Britain.  The  King  broadcast 
to  the  peoples  of  the  Commonwealth. 

26:  Great  Britain- Yugoslavia.  A  new  five- 
year  trade  agreement  was  announced. 

Dominican  Republic.  Congress  granted 
President  R.  L.  Trujillo  power  to  declare 
war  against  any  Caribbean  nation  that 
knowingly  harboured  persons  plotting 
against  the  Dominican  government. 

Israel.  The  Knesset  met  in  Jerusalem, 
having  moved  from  Jaffa-Tel  Aviv. 

27:  Great  Britain.  Ernest  Bevin  left 
London  on  the  first  stage  of  his  journey 
to  Ceylon  for  a  conference  of  Common- 
wealth foreign  ministers. 

China.  Communist  forces  captured 
Chengtu. 

Indonesia.  Queen  Juliana  signed  the 
charter  of  the  transfer  of  sovereignty  to 
the  Republic  of  the  United  States  of 
Indonesia  in  The  Hague,  thus  bunging 
into  being  the  Netherlands-Indonesian 
union.  Ceremonies  were  also  held  in 
Batavia  (renamed  Jakarta). 

Syria.  The  parliament  refused  to 
accept  the  resignation  of  the  president- 
elect Hashem  Atassi  submitted  on  Dec. 
26  after  the  prime  minister,  Nazim  el 
Kodsi,  had  resigned. 

Physics.  Albert  Einstein  announced 
a  new  theory — the  generalized  theory 
of  gravitation — the  result  of  33  years' 
work. 

28:  Hungary.    All  industrial  undertakings 

employing    ten    or    more    people    were 

nationalized    by   a   government    decree. 

Syria.    Khaled  Azam  formed  a  cabinet. 

30:  France.  The  government  received  two 
votes  of  confidence  during  the  assembly's 
discussion  on  the  budget. 

India.  The  government  granted  recog- 
nition to  the  Communist  government  of 
China. 

Tibet.  It  became  known  that  it  was 
proposed  to  re-organize  the  cabinet  and 
to  send  diplomatic  representatives  to 
Great  Britain,  China,  India,  Nepal  and 
the  United  States. 

Vietnam.  At  a  ceremony  at  Saigon, 
Bao  Dai  and  Leon  Pignon  signed  a 
series  of  conventions  implementing  the 
agreement  of  March  1949. 

31:  Indonesia.  The  United  States  of 
Indonesia  had  been  recognized  by  18 
countries. 


BOOK  OF  THE  YEAR 


ABDULILAH  IBN  ALI,  Regent  of  Iraq  (b.  Ta'if), 
Hejaz,  1914),  son  of  Sharif  AH  ibn  Hussein  who  for  a  short 
time  was  king  of  Hejaz  after  the  abdication  in  1925  of  his 
father  King  Hussein,  Sharif  of  Mecca  and  head  of  the  Hashi- 
mite  family.  King  AH  also  abdicated  when  driven  out  by  the 
victorious  Ibn  Saud  in  Dec.  1925.  He  went  to  live  in 
Baghdad,  where  he  died  in  1934.  Prince  Abdulilah  was  edu- 
cated at  Victoria  college,  Alexandria.  On  the  death  of  his 
cousin  King  Ghazi  I  in  a  motor  accident,  he  was  appointed 
Regent  of  Iraq  on  April  4,  1939,  until  in  1953  his  nephew 
King  Faysal  11  should  attain  his  majority  (at  the  age  of  18). 
On  the  outbreak  of  World  War  II  he  sent  a  telegram  to 
King  George  VI  assuring  him  of  the  "  unshakable  attachment 
of  the  government  and  people  of  Iraq  to  the  letter  and  spirit 
of  the  treaty  of  alliance  with  Great  Britain.*'  After  the  Rashid 
Ali  coup  d'etat  in  April  1941,  he  had  to  flee  the  country;  but 
returned  to  Baghdad  with  the  British  liberating  force  on  June 
1,  1941.  He  paid  official  visits  to  Great  Britain  (Nov.  1943), 
to  the  U.S.  (April  1945)  and  to  Turkey  (Aug.  1945).  In  Arab 
politics  he  had  supported  the  British  alliance  which  had  often 
been  attacked  by  the  Iraqi  opposition;  nevertheless  he  was 
forced  by  the  pressure  of  public  opinion  to  repudiate  the 
treaty  of  alliance  at  Portsmouth  on  Jan.  15,  1948.  Prince 
Abdulilah  married  in  1948  Faiza  al-Tarabulsi,  22  year-old 
daughter  of  a  retired  Egyptian  chief  of  police.  He  visited 
Great  Britain  with  the  Princess  in  July  1949  and  was  enter- 
tained by  the  King  and  Queen  at  Balmoral.  (C.  Ho.) 

ABDULLAH  IBN  HUSSEIN,  King  of  Jordan 
(b.  Mecca,  1882),  second  son  of  King  Hussein  of  Hejaz,  was 
crowned  on  May  25,  1946.  Of  his  marriage  in  1904  to  Emire 
Musbah,  daughter  of  Emir  Nazir  ibn  Ali/  there  were  five 
children,  including  Emir  Talal,  the  crown  prince  (b.  Mecca, 
1911).  (For  his  early  life  see  Britannica  Book  of  the  Year  1949). 

On  Aug.  7,  1949,  at  the  conclusion  of  a  12  days'  visit  by 
King  Abdullah  to  Iran,  it  was  announced  that  the  two 
countries  had  signed  an  agreement  providing  for  collaboration 
in  international  problems.  On  Aug.  18  the  king  arrived  in 
Great  Britain  on  a  17  days'  visit;  on  Aug.  23  he  dined  with 
Ernest  Bevin  and  on  Aug.  27  was  entertained  at  luncheon  by 
King  George  VI  and  Queen  Elizabeth  at  Balmoral  castle. 
When  in  London  he  declared  to  the  correspondent  of  the 
Cairo  newspaper  El  Misri  that  the  creation  of  Greater  Syria, 
uniting  Syria,  Iraq,  Jordan  and  Arab  Palestine  under  a 
Hashimite  king,  was  an  obvious  necessity.  On  Sept.  5  he 
visited  Spain  for  ten  days. 

ABYSSINIA:  see  ETHIOPIA. 

ACCIDENTS.  Road  Safety.  The  principal  road  safety 
activity  during  1949  was  the  organization  of  a  national 
Pedestrian  Crossing  week  from  April  3-9,  the  aim  being  to 
focus  the  attention  of  all  classes  of  road  users  on  proper 
observance  and  use  of  crossings.  Local  authorities  were 
asked  by  the  Ministry  of  Transport  to  co-operate  (Circular 
626);  1,100  of  them  did  so.  They  were  urged  to  equip  fully 
all  pedestrian  crossing  places  in  time  for  the  week  and  each 

B.B.Y.— 3  17 


King  Abdullah  with  Air  Marshal  Sir  Basil  Embry  watching  R.A.F. 
jet  fighters  at  Odiham,  Hampshire,  Aug.  1949. 

locality  developed  its  own  ideas.  A  new  type  of  crossing,  a 
"  zebra  "  crossing,  was  tried  in  about  a  thousand  places  and 
a  comparison  of  the  use  of  these  with  crossings  marked  only 
by  studs  was  made.  Many  novel  publicity  methods  were  used 
and  the  Royal  Society  for  the  Prevention  of  Accidents 
produced  special  propaganda  material  and  suggested  pro- 
grammes for  local  efforts.  In  London,  a  Safe  Conduct 
exhibition  was  held  at  Charing  Cross  underground  station, 
opened  on  the  first  day  by  the  minister  of  transport.  Draft 
regulations  on  the  use  of  road  crossings  based  on  the  recom- 
mendations of  the  Committee  on  Road  Safety  were  prepared 
by  the  minister  of  transport  for  laying  before  the  house. 

The  National  Safety  congress  was  held  in  London  from 
Oct.  4-7  and  was  attended  by  a  thousand  local  authority 
delegates  and  a  conference  of  road  safety  organizers  from  all 
over  the  country  was  also  held  in  Harrogate,  Yorkshire, 
during  May. 

The  British  section  of  the  International  Union  of  Local 
Authorities  discussed  road  safety  at  its  conference  held  at 
Leamington  Spa,  Warwickshire,  in  February.  At  a  subse- 
quent international  conference  in  Geneva,  Switzerland,  in 
September,  the  union  discussed  a  report  on  safety  measures 
in  Different  countries  submitted  by  Sir  Howard  Roberts, 
clerk  to  the  London  County  Council  and  chairman  of  the 
Ro.S.P.A's  management  committee. 


18 


ACCIDENTS 


TABLE  I. — ACCIDENTAL  DEATHS  AND  INJURIES  IN  THE  HOME,  ENGLAND 
AND  WALES 


Falls  and  Crushing 

Drowning 

Burns,  Scalds  and  Conflagrations 

Suffocation    . 

Others 

Total      . 


1946 

3,779 

1,029 

915 

872 

1,288 

7,883 


1947 
4,001 
1,149 
904 
1,054 
1,482 
8,590 


TABLE   11  —  ACCIDENTAL 

DEATHS  AND   INJURIES 

IN   GREAT 

BRITAIN 

Killed 

1946 

1947 

1948 

Railways   . 

466 

447 

367 

Roads 

5,062 

4,881 

4,513 

Coal  Mines 

543 

618 

467 

Factories  . 

826 

839 

861 

Injured 

1946 

1947 

1948 

Railways   . 

.      31,712 

30,113 

29,701 

Roads 

.    157,484 

161,318 

148,884 

Coal  Mines 

.    167,210 

162,544 

* 

Factories  . 

.    222,933 

202,397 

200,225 

•  Unavailable. 

The  total  number  of  drivers  entered  in  the  Society's 
National  Safe  Driving  competition  was  200,000  and  138,596 
awards  were  made  during  1949.  The  War  Office  and  the  Air 
Ministry  entered  drivers. 

Industrial  Accident  Prevention.  A  National  Industrial 
Safety  conference  held  in  Scarborough,  Yorkshire,  in  May 
was  attended  by  450  industrial  delegates.  Speakers  included 
Sir  Geoffrey  King,  deputy  secretary  of  the  Ministry  of  National 
Insurance,  on  the  Industrial  Injuries  act.  Regional  industrial 
safety  conferences  were  held  in  many  provincial  towns.  A 
second  Chemical  Works  Safety  conference  was  held  at 
Scarborough,  Yorkshire,  in  October  and  a  conference  of 
London  member  firms  was  addressed  by  the  minister  of 
labour.  Firms  in  Sheffield,  Rotherham,  Barnsley,  Doncaster 
and  Chesterfield,  covering  about  200,000  workers,  co- 
operated in  a  Good  Housekeeping  week  to  draw  attention  to 
accidents  due  to  untidiness  in  works. 

The  chief  inspector  of  factories  report  for  1947  was  pub- 
lished early  in  1949.  It  showed  that  over  83%  of  all  injuries 
reported  were  due  to  causes  other  than  machinery.  Another 
report  likely  to  have  considerable  effect  on  safety  work  was 
published;  viz.,  Health,  Welfare  and  Safety  in  the  Non- 
Industrial  Employment.  A  report  by  a  Committee  of  Enquiry. 
The  report  of  the  Factory  department's  electrical  branch  on 
Electrical  Accidents  and  their  Causes — 1947 \  was  also 
published. 

The  Ro.S.P.A.  produced  a  new  film  Your  Dog  and  Mine 
showing  how  dogs  can  be  trained  in  road  sense  and  another 
film  Calling  all  Motor-cyclists  was  made  in  co-operation  with 
the  metropolitan  police  and  editors  of  motor  cycling  papers. 
Static  exhibitions,  mobile  cinemas  and  touring  exhibitions 
visited  many  districts.  The  Ministry  of  Education  published 
a  pamphlet  Safety  Precautions  in  Schools  explaining  ways  in 
which  risks  could  be  avoided  in  physical  education,  the 
laboratory,  manual  and  handicraft  work.  During  the  year 
a  joint  committee  of  industrial  and  educational  representa- 
tives was  formed  to  discuss  industrial  safety  training  and 
guarding  of  machinery  in  technical  schools.  A  leaflet  on 
"  Tubular  Steel  Scaffolding  "  was  printed.  Investigations  by 
the  society  included  tool  handle  breakages  and  the  use  of 
colour  in  industry. 

A  fourth  and  fifth  volume  in  the  series  "  I.C.I.  Fngineering 
Codes  and  Regulations  (Safety  Series)"  were  produced, 
entitled  Construction  and  Maintenance  (Civil  Engineering) 
and  Docks,  Wharves  and  Quays  respectively. 


Home  Accident  Prevention.  During  the  year  the  registrar 
general's  review  for  1946  was  issued  and  revealed  that 
7,883  deaths  occurred  in  the  home  and  everyday  pursuits, 
a  slight  decrease  on  previous  years.  The  campaign  against 
home  accidents  was  intensified  by  a  grant  made  to  the 
Ro.S.P.A.  by  the  Home  Office  for  the  provision  of  lectures, 
posters  aad  leaflets  for  this  purpose.  At  the  Ideal  Home 
exhibition  a  stand  named  '*  Hazard  House  "  was  taken  by 
the  Home  Office  Inter-departmental  Committee  on  Home 
Accidents,  and  members  of  the  Women's  Voluntary  services 
distributed  the  society's  leaflets.  (H.  Su.) 

United  States.  Accidents  caused  98,000  deaths  in  the  U.S. 
in  1948.  This  total  was  exceeded  only  by  deaths  from  heart 
disease,  cancer  and  cerebral  haemorrhage.  Information  avail- 
able up  till  Oct.  1949  indicated  that  the  1949  accidental  death 
total  would  probably  drop  5%  below  1948.  In  addition  to 
the  deaths,  accidents  in  1948  also  caused  about  10  million 
injuries. 

Organized  efforts  to  reduce  accidents  in  the  U.S.  were  led 
by  the  National  Safety  council  and  affiliated  local  safety 
councils  throughout  the  nation.  The  National  Safety  council 
served  as  a  place  for  group  planning  and  execution  by  all 
who  took  part  in  the  safety  movement  and  it  attempted  to 
discover  the  facts  of  accident  occurrence;  to  devise  or  assist 
in  devising  engineering,  educational  and  enforcement  meas- 
ures for  prevention;  to  assist  in  determining  engineering 
requirements  for  the  safe  design,  construction  and  use  of 
machines  and  equipment;  to  help  to  draw  up  model  safety 
legislation ;  to  participate  in  planning  and  executing  training 
and  educational  programmes ;  to  disseminate  this  information 
widely  to  interested  groups  and  to  the  general  public;  and 
to  encourage  and  assist  the  establishment  and  activity  of 
community  and  state  safety  organizations. 

The  President's  Conference  on  Industrial  Safety  was  held 
in  March,  when  1,500  representatives  of  management, 
labour,  government  and  the  public  met  in  Washington,  D.C., 
to  consider  committee  reports  and  develop  plans  for  the 
reduction  of  the  industrial  accident  toll. 

It  appeared,  late  in  1 949,  that  the  year's  toll  of  occupational 
accident  fatalities  might  be  reduced  by  as  much  as  6%  from 
the  1948  toll  of  16,500. 

As  the  year  1949  drew  to  a  close,  it  appeared  that  the 
number  of  traffic  accident  deaths  might  drop  500  below  the 
1948  figure  of  32,000.  This  apparent  reduction  was  in  the 
face  of  an  approximate  6%  increase  in  motor  vehicle  travel. 
In  June  1949  the  President's  Highway  Safety  conference  met 
for  the  third  time  in  Washington,  with  about  3,000  of  the 
nation's  traffic  safety  leaders  in  attendance. 

In  1949,  23  states  had  State  Farm  Safety  committees,  and 
11  states  had  a  full-time  farm  safety  specialist,  working 
through  many  public  and  private  agencies  to  spread  informa- 
tion on  the  seriousness  of  the  farm  accident  problem  and  on 
ways  and  means  of  meeting  it.  The  president  of  the  United 
States,  for  the  sixth  successive  year,  proclaimed  a  National 
Farm  Safety  week  in  July  1949,  which  focused  attention  on 
the  problem  of  rural  accidents. 

Among  children  of  1  to  14  years  of  age  accidents  were 
responsible  for  more  deaths  than  the  next  six  death  causes 
combined.  Even  so,  the  accidental  death  rate  among  children 
under  14  had  dropped  about  40%  in  the  last  40  years.  School 
authorities  showed  increasing  recognition  during  1949  of  the 
importance  of  safety  education  in  the  classroom,  in  shops 
and  elsewhere  in  school  life.  A  specialized  feature  of  school 
safety  work  had  been  the  driver  training  programmes  institu- 
ted in  many  high  schools  throughout  the  nation.  Studies  had 
shown  that  students  who  had  had  this  training  were  involved 
in  fewer  accidents  than  those  who  had  not. 

The  1948  toll  of  deaths  in  home  accidents  was  35,000, 
which  was  greater  than  in  any  other  type  of  accident.  Reports 


ACHESON— ADULT  EDUCATION 


19 


covering  10  months  of  1949  indicated  that  home  fatalities 
would  again  lead  the  list,  although  a  reduction  of  about 
6%  on  1948  seemed  probable.  Local  and  state  health  depart- 
ments gave  increased  attention  to  accident  prevention  work, 
concentrating  on  home  safety.  Women's  clubs  and  other 
organizations  and  agencies  attracting  the  support  and  interest 
of  homemakers  showed  an  increasing  tendency  to  include 
safety  in  the  home  as  a  regular  programme  activity.  During 
1949  about  50  out  of  the  several  hundred  local  and  state 
safety  organizations  throughout  the  country  qualified  for 
acceptance  as  chapters  of  the  National  Safety  council.  The 
37th  National  Safety  congress  was  held  in  Chicago,  Illinois, 
in  Oct.  1949  with  an  attendance  of  approximately  10,000. 
In  addition,  about  30  Regional  Safety  conferences  were  held 
during  the  year.  (R.  L.  Fo.) 

ACHESON,  DEAN  GOODERHAM,  United 
States  statesman  (b.  Middletown,  Connecticut,  April  11, 
1893),  was  the  son  of  an  Englishman  who  became  bishop  of 
Connecticut.  On  Jan.  7,  1949,  President  Harry  S.  Truman 
appointed  him  secretary  of  state  to  succeed  George  C. 
Marshall,  who  resigned.  He  was  sworn  in  on  Jan.  21.  He 
immediately  assumed  responsibility  for  the  negotiations  with 
the  ambassadors  and  ministers  in  Washington  of  Belgium, 
Canada,  France,  Great  Britain,  Luxembourg  and  the  Nether- 
lands on  a  defence  alliance  for  the  north  Atlantic.  On  April  4, 
he  signed  the  North  Atlantic  treaty  on  behalf  of  the  United 
States,  and  in  September  in  Washington  presided  over  the 
first  meeting  of  the  council  of  the  treaty.  In  May  and  June 
he  attended  the  Council  of  Foreign  Ministers  in  Paris  at 
which  German  and  Austrian  matters  were  discussed.  He 
visited  Paris  again  in  November  for  talks  with  Ernest  Bevin, 
Great  Britain,  and  Robert  Schuman,  France.  He  later 
visited  Western  Germany  and  called  upon  Dr.  Karl 
Adenauer,  the  federal  chancellor,  at  Bonn.  (See  also 
Britannica  Book  of  the  Year  1949.} 

ADEN.  British  colony  and  protectorates  on  southern 
coast  of  Arabia.  Colony  area:  80  sq.  mi.:  Pop.:  (1946 
census):  80,876.  Protectorate  area:  c.  11 2,000  sq.  mi.  Pop. 
1947  est.)  650,000,  almost  entirely  Moslem  Arabs.  Governor: 
Sir  Reginald  S.  Champion. 

History.  Kamaran  island  (22  sq.  mi.)  in  the  Red  sea. 
administered  by  the  government  of  India  after  capture  from 
the  Turks  in  1915,  was  placed  under  the  personal  supervision 
of  the  governor  of  Aden.  Rising  costs  necessitated  the 
revision  of  the  colony's  development  plan;  the  revised  plan 
envisaged  a  total  expenditure  of  £1,063,000  from  the  colony's 
surplus  balances,  £300,000  from  Colonial  Development  and 
Welfare  funds,  and  £660,000  to  be  raised  by  loan.  A  serious 
famine,  which  threatened  the  eastern  protectorate  in  the 
spring,  was  in  part  relieved  by  supplies  flown  in  by  the  Royal 
Air  Force. 

Finance.  Currency:  the  Indian  rupee  (Rs.l  -l.v.  6</.).  Colony's 
budget  (1947-48):  revenue  Rs.  12,112,421;  expenditure  Rs.  9,880,631. 

(J.  A.  Hu.) 

ADENAUER,  KONRAD,  German  statesman  (b. 
Cologne,  Jan.  5,  1876),  the  son  of  a  Cologne  official.  Follow- 
ing a  university  education  at  Freiburg-in-Breisgau,  Munich 
and  Bonn,  and  three  years  as  a  lawyer,  he  was  in  1906  elected 
town  councillor  in  his  native  city,  with  which  his  name  will 
always  be  coupled.  Eleven  years  later  he  was  elected  Ober- 
burgermeister  (lord  mayor)  of  Cologne,  an  office  which  he 
held  uninterruptedly  for  16  years.  During  his  period  of 
office  Cologne  university  was  founded,  the  stadium  was 
built  and  the  Cologne  fair  initiated.  For  a  short  time  in  1919, 
during  the  Allied  occupation,  Adenauer,  apprehensive  at  the 
spread  of  Communism  in  Berlin,  espoused  the  idea  of  separa- 
tion of  the  Rhineland  from  Prussia.  He  became  a  leading 


Konrad  Adenauer  who   was  appointed  federal  chancellor  of  the 
Western  German  Republic  on  Sept.  14,  1949. 

member  of  the  Catholic  Centre  party  and  in  the  1920s  was 
often  in  the  running  for  the  office  of  German  chancellor. 
From  1917  to  1933  he  was  a  member  of  the  Prussian  Landtag 
and  in  1928-33  was  its  speaker.  In  1933  Hermann  Goring, 
as  prime  minister  of  Prussia,  dismissed  Adenauer  as  politically 
unreliable.  In  June  1934  he  was  arrested  and  imprisoned  for 
a  short  time  in  connection  with  the  Rohm  purge;  and 
following  the  assassination  attempt  against  Hitler  on  July  20, 
1944,  he  was  sent  to  Brauweiler  concentration  camp  but  was 
later  released.  After  the  downfall  of  the  Third  Reich  the 
American  occupation  authorities  reinstated  Adenauer  as 
lord  mayor  of  Cologne,  but  the  British  removed  him  in 
Oct.  1945  as  "incompetent."  In  Feb.  1946  he  was  elected 
chairman  of  the  Christian  Democratic  union  in  North 
Rhine-Westphalia,  became  the  same  year  chairman  of  the 
C.D.U.  for  the  British  zone  and  on  Sept.  1,  1948,  was  elected 
president  of  the  parliamentary  council  drafting  the  West 
German  constitution  or  basic  law.  On  Sept.  15,  1949,  after 
the  elections  to  the  Bundestag  (Federal  Diet)  of  the  new 
West  German  republic  had  given  the  C.D.U.  the  largest 
number  of  seats,  Adenauer  was  appointed  chancellor.  As  a 
politician  he  is  a  constructive  conservative,  possessed  of  a 
supple,  organizing  mind,  determination  not  without  rigidity, 
and  considerable  tactical  skill.  (D.  A.  SN.) 

ADULT  EDUCATION.  In  this  article  only  non- 
vocational  education  is  discussed.  In  June  1949  an  inter- 
national conference  on  adult  education  convened  by 
U.N.E.S.C.O.  brought  over  100  delegates  representing  29 
countries  and  32  international  voluntary  organizations  to 
Elsinore  in  Denmark.  The  conference  had  a  fivefold  purpose : 
exchange  of  ideas  and  experiences;  study  of  urgent  needs 
and  common  problems;  examination  of  new  techniques  and 
methods;  aid  to  U.N.E.S.C.O.  in  planning  its  programme; 
and  consideration  of  means  to  continued  collaboration. 

U.N.E.S.C.O.'s  second  major  contribution  in  the  adult  field 
w#s  a  seminar  held  at  Mysore,  India,  in  November  and  Dec- 
ember. Delegates  from  18  countries,  all  Asian  except  3,  and  25 
observers  from  the  Indian  states  and  provinces,  worked  out 


20 


ADVERTISING 


a  series  of  recommendations  and  basic  principles  regarding 
rural  adult  education  in  Asiatic  countries.  Four  working 
groups  pooled  their  ideas  on  promoting  literacy,  raising 
health  standards,  removing  economic  grievances  and 
instilling  the  idea  of  citizenship  and  social  cohesion  into 
undeveloped  communities.  Their  principal  recommendations 
for  immediate  action  were  that  more  women  should  be 
invited  to  help  in  public  work,  cottage  industries  should  be 
revived  and  established,  local  self-governing  institutions 
should  be  set  up  in  areas  not  yet  enfranchised  and  suitable 
reading  material  should  be  prepared  for  Asian  adults  and 
distributed  through  new  systems  of  rural  libraries. 

A  general  statement  of  aims  unanimously  accepted 
declared  that  adult  education  should  attempt  to  support  and 
encourage  movements  working  for  the  creation  of  a  true 
culture  by  which  the  gaps  between  the  so-called  masses  and 
the  so-called  cultured  people  might  be  filled;  to  foster  the 
true  spirit  of  democracy  and  of  humanity,  and  to  awaken 
and  stimulate  in  young  adults  an  awareness  of  life  itself. 

Among  principal  topics  discussed  were  the  relationship 
between  the  state  and  voluntary  bodies,  the  role  of  the 
university,  adult  education  centres  and  leaders  and  the 
exchange  of  workers,  material  and  information.  The  con- 
ference resolved,  inter  a/ia,  that  (i)  U.N.h.S  C  O.  should  be 
invited  to  set  up  a  representative  consultative  committee  to 
advise  its  adult  education  division;  (n)  that  U.N.E.S.C  O. 
should  be  asked  to  give  special  attention  to  Germany;  and 
(iii)  thar  all  countries  should  be  urged  to  consider  women's 
needs.  Shortly  after  the  conference  LJ.N  E  S  C  O.  set  up  an 
international  advisory  council  on  adult  education. 

As  part  of  its  fundamental  education  programme 
U.N.E.S.C.O.  chose  as  a  discussion  theme  for  1949  ki  Food 
and  People."  Handbooks,  pamphlets,  wall  charts,  picture 
books,  film  catalogues  and  guides  were  published  in  several 
languages  for  teachers  and  as  background  material. 

In  England  and  Wales  19  residential  short  term  colleges 
for  adult  education,  all  established  since  1944,  were  in 
operation.  These  were  maintained  by  universities,  local  educa- 
tion authorities,  voluntary  organizations  (alone  or  in  com- 
bination), independent  trusts  and  private  individuals.  They 
offered,  or  provided  accommodation  for,  courses  on  every 
conceivable  topic.  Most  courses  took  place  between  Friday 
and  Monday,  but  there  were  also  many  midweek  (Monday 
to  Friday)  or  longer  courses  (up  to  one  month)  chiefly  for 
occupational  groups  and  vacation  schools.  In  Scotland  New- 
battle  abbey,  formerly  a  long  term  residential  adult  education 
college,  was  re-opened  after  wartime  requisition. 

In  May  the  British  Institute  of  Adult  Education  (founded 
1921)  and  the  National  Foundation  for  Adult  Education 
(established  1946)  were  amalgamated  to  form  the  National 
Institute  of  Adult  Education  (England  and  Wales).  The  chief 
functions  of  the  new  body  were  to  provide  information, 
devise  machinery  for  consultation  and  promote  inquiry  and 
research,  on  behalf  of  all  bodies,  statutory  and  voluntary, 
engaged  in  adult  education 

In  Canada,  a  Royal  Commission  on  National  Develop- 
ment in  the  Arts,  Letters  and  Sciences  was  created  under 
the  presidency  of  Vincent  Masscy,  chancellor  of  Toronto 
university.  It  was  given  the  widest  possible  terms  of  reference, 
including  broadcasting  and  television  and  Canadian  cultural 
relations  with  international  bodies. 

In  February  a  delegate  conference  representative  of  extra- 
mural study  groups  in  the  Gold  Coast  and  British  Togoland 
formed  a  People's  Educational  association  comparable  with 
the  British  Workers'  Educational  association.  This  was  a 
direct  result  of  the  extra-mural  study  courses  begun  by 
Oxford  university  in  1947.  ( 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  R.  I  und,  cd  ,  SiamJimnian  Adult  Lducanon  (Copen- 
hagen, 1949)  (H.  C.  D.) 


ADVERTISING.  Great  Britain.  British  advertising  ex- 
perienced a  boom  year  in  1949.  There  were  several  reasons 
for  this,  among  them  the  introduction  of  the  six-page  daily 
newspaper  in  April  with  corresponding  increases  for  Sunday 
publications,  the  50%  increase  in  the  paper  ration  for  maga- 
zines in  July  and  the  end  on  May  1  of  the  complete  ban  on 
all  forms  of  electric  signs  and  illuminated  window  displays 
which  had  been  in  operation  since  the  beginning  of  World 
War  II.  Orders  were  also  made  during  the  year  granting 
more  paper  for  direct  mail  and  poster  advertising.  Addition- 
ally, in  Dec.  1948  the  chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  in  nego- 
tiation with  the  Federation  of  British  Industries,  agreed  to 
call  off  the  Voluntary  Limitation  of  Advertising  plan,  intro- 
duced in  the  previous  March.  Under  this  plan  British  firms 
which  spent  more  than  £2,500  a  year  on  the  advertising  of 
rationed  goods,  luxury  products  and  lines  carrying  heavy 
purchase  tax  gave  voluntary  assurance  that  they  would  cut 
down  outlay  on  all  forms  of  publicity  by  1 5  %.  From  March  1, 
1949,  advertisers  were  freed  from  this  obligation,  except  to 
the  extent  that  they  promised  the  chancellor  not  to  exert 
undue  sales  pressure  in  favour  of  products  which  were  in 
shoit  supply,  thereby  stimulating  inflation. 

Advertisers  were  not  lax  in  taking  up  the  extra  advertising 
space  which  became  available  to  them.  The  Statistical 
Review  of  Press  Advertising  estimated  that  in  the  first  three 
months  of  1949  expenditure  on  advertising  in  the  British 
press  totalled  £6,490,498,  an  increase  of  22-37%  over  the 


I  heard  it  from  a  Widower 


Who  kept  a  pub  in  Wigan, 


Who  heard  it  from  a  Reveller 


Who'd  fallen  off  a  wagon, 


Who  got  it  from  a  Goblin 


(On  a  tiny  pink  toboggan), 


Who  said  it  was  in 


this  week's 


ON  SALE 
TODAY  6d. 


A  tvpical  newspaper  advertisement  of  the  humorous  weekly  **  Punch  " 
(London)~~one  of  many  similar  advertisements  by  "Punch"  in  JV49. 


ADVERTISING 


21 


corresponding  1948  figure  of  £5,303,922.  It  was  stated  also 
that  if  the  volume  of  press  advertising  recorded  in  the  first 
quarter  were  to  continue  in  like  proportion  throughout  the 
year,  the  total  would  be  about  £26  million,  only  10%  below 
the  figure  for  1938.  Later,  in  September,  the  Statistical 
Review  showed  that  its  earlier  forecast  looked  like  coming 
true.  It  commented  on  the  rise  in  press  advertising  expendi- 
ture which  had  developed  in  April,  May  and  June  and  calcu- 
lated that  British  publishers  had,  during  the  first  nine  months 
of  1949,  shared  between  them  a  total  of  £21,729,488  in 
advertisement  revenue. 

The  British  Transport  commission,  in  publishing  its  first 
accounts  in  September,  for  the  year  1948,  showed  that  a  net 
profit  had  been  made  of  £2,207,610  from  the  sale  of  advertising 
positions  on  nationalized  transport  properties  and  vehicles. 
This  indicated  that  advertising  was  the  commission's  biggest 
single  money-maker  among  its  non-carrying  activities. 

The  government  gave  details  of  its  own  expenditure  on 
posters.  For  the  12  months  ended  Sept.  30,  1949,  public 
poster  advertising  by  or  on  behalf  of  government  departments 
cost  £530,698.  Civil  estimates  published  in  March  showed 
that,  through  the  Central  Office  of  Information,  the  govern- 
ment reckoned  to  spend,  during  the  year  ending  March  31, 
1950,  £867,000  on  press  advertising,  £574,500  on  poster 
advertising,  £748,200  on  films  and  £197,000  on  exhibitions. 
All  these  figures  were  lower  than  in  the  previous  12  months. 

The  Advertising  association  held  a  successful  conference 
at  Buxton,  Derby,  May  28-June  1.  Subsequently  it  was 
decided  to  proceed  with  plans  for  a  world  advertising 
conference  to  be  held  in  London  in  1951  in  connection 
with  the  Festival  of  Britain. 

A  distinctive  feature  of  the  press  advertisement  columns 
and  of  the  hoardings  was  their  use  in  political  or  political- 
industrial  interests.  The  Conservative  party  began  in  April 
a  nation-wide  poster  campaign  designed  to  build  up  support 
for  itself  at  the  next  general  election.  A  number  of  industries 
(steel,  insurance,  sugar,  cement)  faced  with  the  prospect  of 
nationalization  used  advertising  to  campaign  against  a  change 
in  their  present  system  of  ownership. 

During  the  year  British  advertising  executives  gave  con- 
siderable attention  to  the  problem  of  developing  trade  in  the 
dollar  markets.  The  peak  effort  of  1949  in  this  connection 
was  the  establishment  in  October  of  an  Advertising  Advisory 
committee  to  the  Dollar  Exports  board.  This  committee, 
meeting  in  London,  consisted  of  representatives  of  British 
advertising  agencies  with  U.S.  connections  and  U.S.  adver- 
tising agencies  with  offices  in  Great  Britain.  The  com- 
mittee's job  was  to  give  free  advice  to  British  exporters 
contemplating  entering  or  expanding  in  the  U.S.  and  Canadian 
markets. 

In  June  the  Royal  Commission  on  the  Press  issued  its  report. 
The  commission  gave  much  attention  to  the  effect  of  adver- 
tising on  the  press  and  rejected  the  idea  that  advertisers 
influenced  the  conduct  of  newspapers.  The  commission 
declared:  *'  As  long  as  newspapers  arc  sold  to  the  public 
for  less  then  they  cost  to  produce,  they  will  need  a  supplemen- 
tary source  of  income.  Of  the  various  possible  -sources  of 
income  the  sale  of  their  space  to  advertisers  seems  to  us  to 
be  one  of  the  least  harmful.  The  publication  of  advertise- 
ments should  not  be  regarded,  moreover,  as  a  departure, 
under  pressure  of  economic  necessity,  from  the  proper 
function  of  a  newspaper.  It  is  an  essential  part  of  the  service 
which  the  newspaper  renders  to  the  community,  valuable 
alike  to  commerce  and  industry  and  to  the  general  public." 

Commonwealth.  Conflict  between  owners  of  publicity 
media  and  advertisers  on  the  one  hand  and  governments 
on  the  other  was  marked  in  both  Australia  and  India. 
In  1949  the  Australian  Federal  government  gave  up  its 
wartime  controls  on  newspaper  advertisement  rates  and  a 


The  fifth  in  a  series  of  six  posters  issued  by  the  firm  of  Whitbread 
and  exhibited  on  the  London  Underground  during  1949. 

plan  by  the  New  South  Wales  State  government  to 
reintroduce  these  for  newspapers  in  its  own  territory  aroused 
considerable  opposition  from  press  proprietors. 

In  India  some  provincial  governments  contemplated 
schemes  for  the  taxation  of  newspaper  advertisements  at 
various  rates.  Owners  of  newspapers  in  India  pointed  out 
that,  with  newspapers  circulating  across  state  frontiers, 
taxation  imposed  by  different  authorities  on  several  different 
scales  would  be  difficult  to  work  and  would  lead  to  anomalies. 
It  was  agreed  by  the  authorities  that  taxes  on  advertisements 
should  be  uniform  and  operated  by  the  central  government. 

In  South  Africa  a  survey  carried  out  by  South  African 
Research  services' (Pty.),  Ltd.,  estimated  that  in  June  1949 
some  £229,000  were  spent  on  press  advertising  of  branded 
goods  and  services  in  250  South  African  publications.  The 
figure  for  May  was  £221,000;  for  April,  £228,000.  The 
January  to  March  average  was  £209,000. 

At  the  International  Chamber  of  Commerce  1 2th  biennial 
congress,  which  took  place  in  Quebec,  Canada,  in  June, 
the  I.C.C.'s  committee  on  advertising  approved  the  Inter- 
national Code  of  Standards  of  Advertising  Practice  and  the 
reinstitution  of  the  International  Council  on  Advertising 
Practice  of  the  I.C.C. 

Europe.  Great  Britain's  Advertising  association  joined  with 
Belgium,  Brazil,  Denmark,  Finland,  France,  Norway, 
Sweden  and  Switzerland  in  establishing  the  International 
Union  of  Advertising  at  a  meeting  which  took  place  in  Zurich, 
Switzerland,  on  Sept.  24.  The  suggestion  that  the  union 
should  be  formed  was  made  by  French  advertising  interests 
ataan  international  advertising  conference  in  Paris  in  July 
1947.  The  object  of  the  International  union  was  to  bring 
together  the  advertising  associations  representative  of  all 
the  nat'pns.  Paul  O.  Althaus,  Switzerland,  was  elected 


22 


ADVERTISING 


president.  Also  in  September  the  European  Society  for 
Opinion  Surveys  and  Market  Research  adopted  a  code  of 
standards  governing  market  research  practitioners  and 
methods.  British  advertising,  through  the  Market  Research 
society,  sent  representatives  to  this  meeting,  as  did  France, 
Switzerland,  Italy,  Holland,  Belgium,  Sweden,  Finland  and 
Denmark.  (A.  J.  HY.) 

United  States.  The  rate  of  increase  in  advertising  expendi- 
tures in  1 949  was  not  so  great  as  in  previous  postwar  years, 
standing  at  approximately  5%.  The  most  important  single 
gain  was  made  by  newspaper  advertising.  The  $5,400  million 
spent  in  1949  in  all  media  was  divided  as  shown  in  the  Table. 


TABLE — U.S.  ADVERTISING  EXPENDITURES* 
(Million  dollars) 


1948 

$1,441-1 
596-9 
512-7 
574-5 
200-0 
132-1 
20-4 
924-4 

$4,402  •  1 


Newspapers 

Radio 

Magazines 

Direct  mail 

Trade  and  business  papers 

Outdoor 

Farm  papers 

Miscellaneous 

Total 

*  Estimate  by  Hans  Zcisel,  McCann-Erickson,  Inc. 

Problems  facing  advertising  in  1950,  as  stated  by  various 
leaders,  included  the  following:  how  to  encourage  adequate 
use  of  advertising  to  sell  the  vast  volume  of  goods  and 
services  the  economy  was  capable  of  producing;  how  to 
achieve  better  integration  of  advertising  with  merchandising 
and  sales  programmes;  how  to  improve  measurements  of 
advertising  effectiveness;  how  to  secure  better  public  rela- 
tions through  advertising;  how  to  set  advertising  appropria- 
tions and  to  budget  more  scientifically. 

Two  new  products  were  introduced  during  the  year, 
ammoniated  dentifrices  and  anti-histamine  cold  remedies, 
that  resulted  in  large  space  and  competitive  advertising. 
During  the  year  the  automobile  manufacturers  moved  toward 
a  buyer's  market,  with  the  result  that  their  advertising 
increased  and  often  featured  price  cuts.  In  Nov.  1949  the 
advertising  of  new  passenger  cars  in  newspapers,  for  instance, 
was  239%  higher  than  in  Nov.  1948. 

The  year  1949  closed  with  fair  optimism  among  advertisers. 
They  had  passed  through  the  recession  of  the  spring  and  early 
summer  successfully,  and  felt  that  1950  would  be  a  good  year. 
The  Research  Institute  of  America  found  in  a  poll  of  30,000 
member  firms  that  one-third  planned  to  increase  advertising 
appropriations  in  1950,  less  than  7%  to  reduce  them.  The 


Gillette  poster  -one  of  a  series  in  which   the  phrase  "  Good 
mornings  begin  with  Gillette  "  was  used.         « 


Association  of  National  Advertisers'  annual  survey  of  its 
members  did  not  indicate  that  there  would  be  much  increase 
in  spending  in  1950. 

Newspapers  and  Magazines.  Newspaper  lineage  was 
approximately  2%  higher  in  1949  than  in  the  year  before. 
Media  Records  reported  2,094,103,004  lines  for  the  first  11 
months  of  the  year,  a  gain  of  1  •  7  %  over  the  first  1 1  months  of 
1948.  The  rate  of  increase  in  December  was  faster,  so  that  it 
was  expected  the  year  would  end  with  a  gain  of  about  2  %  or 
more.  There  were  continued  rate  increases,  but  it  was  felt 
that  rates  were  reaching  a  plateau  of  some  stability. 

National  newspaper  advertising  (excluding  local  retail 
advertising)  fared  better,  being  15-9%  higher  during  the 
11 -months'  period  than  for  the  like  months  of  1948.  The 
largest  gains  were  made  by  alcoholic  beverages,  up  29-8%; 
dentifrices,  up  53-7%;  new  passenger  cars,  up  83-0%. 
Alcoholic  beverages  and  new  passenger  cars  together 
accounted  for  22-8%  of  all  national  newspaper  lineage 
during  the  first  1 1  months.  Advertising  of  the  anti-histamine 
cold  remedies  was  reflected  in  a  rise  of  30  •  3  %  for  medical 
advertising  in  November. 

The  Magazine  Advertising  bureau  estimated  that  adver- 
tising expenditures  in  national  magazines  for  the  first  six 
months  of  1949  were  at  the  annual  rate  of  $450  million, 
compared  with  $463  million  for  the  same  period  of  1948, 
a  decrease  of  2  •  8  %. 

Radio.  The  National  Association  of  Broadcasters  estimated 
that  gross  income  of  the  radio  industry  was  up  4-5%  from 
1948,  but  that  this  gain  was  almost  matched  by  a  rise  of 
about  4%  in  operating  expenses.  It  predicted  a  gross  income 
of  $435,279,000  in  1949,  as  compared  with  $416,720,279 
in  1948.  National  network  income  at  $129,300,000  was 
down  by  3-3%;  national  spot  business  at  $118,425,000  was 
up  13  -0%;  local  retail  income  at  $180,025,000  was  up  5  •  3%. 

The  year  in  radio  was  marked  by  competition  among  the 
networks  for  major  advertising  accounts,  a  competition  that 
resulted  in  several  switches  of  popular  programmes.  The  year 
was  also  noteworthy  for  the  decline  in  popularity  of  the  type 
of  programme  marked  by  contests  in  which  large  amounts  of 
merchandise  or  cash  were  given  as  prizes.  The  Federal 
Communications  commission  announced  in  the  year  that  it 
intended  to  ban  such  "  giveaway "  programmes  but  was 
temporarily  restrained  by  a  court  order  obtained  by  a  producer 
of  syndicated  radio  shows. 

Television.  Television  was  the  most  exciting  advertising 
medium  during  1949,  and  data  on  its  growth  became  inaccu- 
rate almost  as  soon  as  published.  The  number  of  television 
stations  jumped  during  the  year  from  50  to  nearly  100,  the 
number  of  owners  of  sets  from  1  million  to  about  3  •  5  million, 
the  television  audience  from  about  4  million  to  more  than 
14  million,  the  number  of  television  advertisers  from  1,000 
to  2,000.  It  was  estimated  that  approximately  $20  million 
was  invested  in  television  time  sales  by  advertisers  during 
the  year.  As  advertising  increased,  time  costs  approximately 
doubled,  in  New  York  going  from  an  average  of  $1,000  an 
evening  hour  in  January  to  $2,000  in  December. 

Other  Media.  Advertising  expenditures  in  outdoor  adver- 
tising amounted  to  approximately  $78  million,  according  to 
Outdoor  Advertising  Inc.  This  was  approximately  the  same 
as  for  1948.  Advertising  revenue  of  the  41  farm  publications 
measured  by  Farm  Publication  Reports,  Inc.,  for  the  first 
half  of  1949  was  $25,044,181,  compared  with  $23,557,027 
for  the  same  period  of  1948.  The  volume  of  advertising  in 
business  papers  in  1949  was  estimated  at  $215  million, 
compared  with  $200  million  in  the  previous  year. 

The  year  saw  an  increase  in  the  use  of  premiums  in  adver- 
tising and  one  estimate  put  their  value  at  $1,000  million,  or 
double  the  prewar  peak.  Coupons  redeemable  in  merchandise 
reappeared  on  the  package  of  one  of  the  largest-selling 


AFGHANISTAN— AGRICULTURE 


23 


brands  of  cigarettes.  Door-to-door  selling  also  increased,  an 
indication  of  greater  competition  in  selling.  The  amount  of 
merchandise  moved  by  this  kind  of  selling  was  estimated  at 
about  $7,000  million.  (D.  ST.  ;  R.  A.  BN.) 

AFGHANISTAN.  An  independent  kingdom  in  the 
centre  of  Asia  bounded  to  the  north  by  the  U.S.S.R.,  to  the 
west  by  Iran,  to  the  south  and  southeast  by  Pakistan  and  to 
the  east  by  China  (Sinkiang).  Area:  c.  270,000  sq.  mi. 
Pop.  (1947  est.):  12  million.  Races:  Afghans  or  Pathans  or 
Pashtuns  53%;  Tajiks  36%;  Uzbeks  6%;  Hazarah  3%; 
others  2  %.  Religion :  Moslem  (Afghans  are  Sunni,  others 
mainly  Shia).  Languages:  Pashtu,  but  Tajiks  and  Hazarah 
speak  Persian.  Chief  towns  (pop.  1946  est.):  Kabul  (cap., 
206,200);  Kandahar  (77,200);  Herat  (75,600);  Mazar-i- 
Sharif  (41,900).  King,  Mohammed  Zahir  Shah  (q.v.)\  prime 
minister  (from  May  1946),  Sardar  Shah  Mahmud  Khan,  the 
king's  uncle. 

History.  The  cold  war  between  Afghanistan  and  Pakistan 
continued  during  1949.  Political  circles  in  Kabul  and  the 
Afghan  government  insisted  that  Pakistan  should  constitute 
the  North  West  Frontier  an  independent  Pathan  republic 
or  at  least  allow  the  Pathans  of  the  tribal  areas  on  the  Pakistan 
side  of  the  Durand  line  to  opt  for  Kabul.  The  press  and  wire- 
less of  Kabul  continued  to  pour  out  abusive  propaganda 
against  Pakistan.  The  Pakistan  government  refrained  from 
reprisals  and  trade  between  the  two  countries  went  on  as 
before;  in  fact  economic  co-operation  was  offered.  Railway 
rates  concessions  were  however  withdrawn.  Propaganda  had 
not  undermined  the  loyalty  of  the  Pathan  tribesmen  in  the 
Pakistan  hinterland.  The  stormy  petrel  of  the  Afghan 
frontier,  the  Fakir  of  Ipi,  was  compelled  to  migrate  to 
Afghanistan  where  he  received  a  friendly  welcome.  The 
British  government  categorically  refused  the  Afghan  request 
that  it  should  intervene. 

The  country  was  in  the  grip  of  an  economic  crisis.  The 
Persian  lamb  trade,  a  vital  element  in  Afghan  finance,  was 
languishing:  Indian  import  duties  paralysed  the  export  of 


Mohammed  Zahir  Shah  reviewing  the  guard  in  the  courtyard  of  the 

Elysee  palace,  Paris,  after  visiting  President   Vincent  Auriol  on 

Oct.  13,  1949. 


fruit.  Early  in  the  year  the  United  States  refused  the  Afghan 
request  for  a  loan  of  $600  million.  A  big  American  firm  had 
for  two  or  three  years  been  carrying  out  important  work  on 
roads,  bridges  and  irrigation  dams.  Work  was  later  held  up 
owing  to  the  fading  out  of  Afghan  credit,  but  was  to  be 
resumed  on  the  strength  of  a  $21  million  loan  (repayable  in 
15  years  at  3^%)  granted  by  the  Export-Import  bank  on 
Nov.  24.  King  Mohammed  Zahir  paid  a  visit  to  France  in 
the  autumn  of  1949.  (W.  BN.) 

Education.  (1948  est.)  Primary  schools  400,  secondary  schools  25, 
higher  schools  (lyctes)  7,  and  a  university  at  Kabul  with  four  faculties: 
medicine  (founded  in  1932),  political  science  and  law  (1939),  science 
(1941)  and  arts  (1944). 

Agriculture.  Two  food  crops  are  raised  each  year — one  of  wheat, 
barley  or  lentils,  and  the  other  of  rice,  millet  or  maize.  Other  important 
crops  are  cotton,  tobacco  and  fruit.  The  fat-tailed  sheep  provide  the 
main  meat  diet. 

Foreign  Trade.  Principal  imports  are:  tea,  coffee,  cocoa,  cigarettes, 
spices,  oil,  cement,  minerals,  machinery  and  other  manufactured 
goods.  Principal  exports  are:  karakul  skins,  dried  fruit,  wool  and 
carpets. 

Transport  and  Communications.  There  are  eight  main  roads  totalling 
2.265  mi.  Licensed  motor  vehicles  (Dec.  1948):  cars  770,  commercial 
vehicles  2,070.  There  are  no  railways. 

Finance.  Monetary  unit:  afghanl  with  an  exchange  rate  (Nov.  1949; 
in  brackets  Nov.  1948)  of  47  (57-14)  afghanis  to  the  pound. 

AGRICULTURE.  The  year  1949  opened  with  the 
promise  of  continuation  of  large  grain  exports  from  North 
America  and  of  accelerating  progress  towards  increased 
livestock  production  in  Europe. 

Cereals  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere.  The  European  harvest 
of  wheat  and  rye  apart  from  the  U.S.S.R.  harvest  was 
18  million  metric  tons  (48%)  greater  in  1948  than  in  1947. 
The  harvest  of  coarse  grains,  barley,  oats  and  maize,  was 
7  million  tons  (16%)  greater.  In  North  and  Central  America 
the  wheat  and  rye  harvest  of  1948  was  almost  as  great  as  the 
1947  record  harvest  of  47  million  metric  tons,  and  the  coarse 
grain  harvest  was  39  million  metric  tons  (41  %)  greater  than 
the  1947  harvest.  The  United  States  and  Canada  were  thus 
able  to  export  during  the  cereal  year  ended  June  1949  a  total 
of  25- 1  million  metric  tons  of  grain  or  3-8  million  more  than 
during  1947-48  and  17-3  million  more  than  the  yearly 
average  during  the  late  1930s. 

Together  with  slightly  increased  supplies  from  Australia 
but  reduced  supplies  from  the  Argentine  and  other  countries, 
these  North  American  supplies  were  sufficient  to  provide 
Europe  with  17-7  million  metric  tons  of  imported  bread 
grains  during  1948-49.  With  greater  home-produced  supplies 
from  the  1948  harvest,  these  raised  Europe's  total  bread 
grain  supplies  during  1948-49  by  15-4  million  metric  tons 
to  72-0  million,  which  was  almost  as  great  a  total  supply  as 
that  consumed  in  prewar  years.  Europe's  human  population 
had  increased  14%  after  the  late  1930s  but  a  smaller  propor- 
tion of  the  wheat  supply  was  fed  to  livestock  in  the  form  of 
milling  by-products  or  low  quality  grain;  and  potato  supplies 
and  consumption  were  much  larger.  A  significant  develop- 
ment early  in  1949  was  that,  in  Germany,  certain  low  quality 
cereals  became  difficult  to  sell  as  human  rations  owing  to 
improved  imports  and  home  deliveries  of  grain.  The  im- 
provement of  the  bread  grain  position  in  the  western  world 
as  a  whole  was  indeed  such  that  stocks  of  wheat  in  the  four 
main  exporting  countries,  the  United  States,  Canada, 
Australia  and  Argentina  were  raised  by  2-8  million  metric 
tons  to  17-4  million  during  the  12  months  ended  June  1949. 
Shipments  of  wheat  and  rye  to  deficit  areas  in  South  America, 
Asia,  Africa  and  Oceania  were  increased  by  2-0  million 
metric  tons  to  8-1  million  as  against  only  3-0  million  during 
the  late  1930s.  The  greatly  improved  supplies  of  coarse 
gfains  in  North  America  were  used  largely  for  livestock 
feeding  there;  but  stocks  were  raised  by  some  24  million 
metric  tons  to  about  41  million  and  exports  by  3-0  million 


24 


AGRICULTURE 


to  5-2  million.  In  the  international  market  this  increase  of 
North  American  exports  was  largely  offset  by  a  decrease  of 
Argentine  exports  by  1-8  million  metric  tons  to  2-2  million; 
but  it  was  possible  to  sustain  total  European  imports  of  coarse 
grains  at  6-7  million.  The  whole  increase  of  some  7  million 
metric  tons  in  Europe's  own  production  of  coarse  grains  was 
thus  available  to  raise  livestock  production  further. 

Livestock  Production  in  Europe.  Europe  had  good  supplies 
of  fodder  and  favourable  grazing  conditions  during  the  autumn 
and  early  winter  of  1948  and  during  the  spring  of  1949. 

Egg,  pigmeat  and  milk  production  responded  rapidly  to 
these  better  supplies  of  feedingstufts.  Estimates  prepared  by 
the  Food  and  Agriculture  organization  (F.A.O.)  of  United 
Nations  indicated  that  in  Denmark,  the  Netherlands,  Sweden, 
Eire  and  Belgium,  considered  as  a  group,  egg  production  was 
43%  greater  during  1949  than  during  1948.  Comparable 
percentage  increases  were  16%  for  the  United  Kingdom, 
5%  for  France  and  Italy  and  24%  for  Czechoslovakia.  Egg 
production  during  1949  thus  exceeded  prewar  production  by 
some  8  %  in  the  main  prewar  exporting  countries  and  Belgium, 
but  remained  below  prewar  production  by  2%  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  by  6%  in  France  and  Italy  and  by  29%  in  Czecho- 
slovakia. 

An  expansion  of  pig  production  was  also  made  possible. 
In  Denmark  the  number  of  bred  sows  was  increased  by 
102,000  (74%)  between  July  1948  and  July  1949,  one  of  the 
most  rapid  increases  ever  recorded.  In  the  United  Kingdom 
the  comparable  increase  was  21,000  head  (10%).  In  Eire 
total  pig  numbers  increased  by  45  %,  in  Belgium  by  41  %,  in 
France  by  13%,  in  Poland  by  28%  and  in  Czechoslovakia  by 
some  23  %.  These  changes  did  not,  however,  restore  produc- 
tion to  the  levels  of  the  late  1930s.  In  Denmark,  Sweden, 
Belgium  and  Switzerland  these  prewar  levels  came  again 
within  sight  but  in  the  United  Kingdom,  tire  and  the  Nether- 
lands production  was  still  at  least  some  30%  lower  during 
1949  than  during  the  late  1930s. 

Increased  supplies  of  feedingstuffs  were  also  the  main 
cause  of  the  rapid  increase  in  milk  supplies.  Sales  of  milk 
off  farms  in  the  United  Kingdom  were  14%  and  in  Denmark 
17%  greater  during  the  first  half  of  1949  than  during  the 
first  half  of  1948.  Butter  production  in  Eire,  Denmark,  the 
Netherlands  and  Sweden  was  22%  greater. 

Improved  production  in  Europe  of  eggs,  pigmeat  and 
dairy  produce  went  largely  to  increase  domestic  food  rations 
or  to  reduce  reliance  on  imports  from  the  western  hemi- 
sphere but  the  countries  most  dependent  on  exports  of  such 
products  continued  closely  to  restrict  domestic  consumption. 
Thus  Denmark  and  the  Netherlands  exported  during  the 
first  half  of  1949,  as  compared  to  the  first  half  of  1948,  63% 
more  eggs,  32%  more  butter  and  158%  more  cheese.  Their 
exports  of  bacon  to  the  United  Kingdom  were  up  by  80%. 
There  were  also  some  significant  exports  from  Poland  and 
Yugoslavia. 

Of  beef  and  veal,  mutton  and  lamb,  the  shortage  of  inter- 
nationally traded  supplies  continued  to  be  critical  between 
January  and  June  of  1949  but  a  slight  improvement  took 
place  later  and  this,  together  with  a  temporary  increase  in 
the  rate  of  slaughter  in  the  United  Kingdom  due  partly  to 
a  change  in  the  seasonal  variation  of  the  official  buying 
prices  for  fat  cattle,  caused  a  rapid  building  up  of  meat 
stocks.  This  necessitated  release  of  substantial  additional 
rationed  supplies  during  October  as  there  was  insufficient 
cold  storage  accommodation.  But  the  general  underlying 
shortage  of  meat  in  the  United  Kingdom  and  Europe  con- 
tinued. Estimates  published  by  F.A.O.  showed  that  the 
production  of  meat  during  1948  was  less  than  in  prewar 
years  by  3-2  million  metric  tons  (36%)  in  western  Eurof>e 
and  by  1-3  million  metric  tons  (41%)  in  eastern  Europe.  In 
the  United  Kingdom  it  was  less  by  0-34  million  metric  tons 


(34%)  and  imports  into  the  United  Kingdom  were  less  by 
0-30  million  (30%).  In  North  America,  on  the  other  hand, 
production  was  greater  by  3-2  million  metric  tons  (36%),  in 
South  America  by  0-  2  million  (4%)  and  in  Australia  and  New 
Zealand  by  0-1  million  (5%).  Except  in  Australia  and  New 
Zealand  these  increases  in  supplies  over  prewar  levels  were 
mainly  taken  up  by  increased  home  consumption,  exports 
being  greater  by  only  100,000  metric  tons  from  North 
America,  by  the  same  quantity  from  South  America  and  by 
70,000  metric  tons  from  Australia  and  New  Zealand. 

Northern  Hemisphere  Harvests.  In  late  summer  of  1949 
conditions  became  less  favourable.  Drought  reduced  grain 
yields  in  some  European  countries  and  shortage  of  pasture 
was  marked  in  Switzerland,  France  and  Italy.  France  suffered 
a  reduction  of  cattle  numbers  because  of  the  impending 
shortage  of  winter  fodder.  She  had  to  plan  to  import  1-5 
million  metric  tons  of  coarse  grain  during  1949-50,  almost 
twice  as  much  as  during  1948-49.  She  also  entered  into 
special  agreements  for  the  purchase  of  butter  and  cheese 
from  the  Netherlands,  Denmark  and  Switzerland.  Even  in 
England  milk  yields  were  substantially  reduced.  The  seasonal 
decline  was  also  accentuated  in  Canada. 

On  the  other  hand,  autumn-sown  grain  crops  generally 
did  well  and  the  European  harvest  of  bread  grain  was  satis- 
factory despite  a  reduction  of  acreages  in  favour  of  spring- 
sown  coarse  grains  or  a  return  to  grass.  In  the  United  King- 
dom total  production  of  wheat  was  some  0  25  million  metric 
tons  less  than  in  1948.  In  France  and  Spain  the  reduction 
was  proportionately  greater,  but  in  western  continental 
European  countries  as  a  group  the  wheat  and  rye  harvest 
was  estimated  to  be  1  million  metric  tons  greater  than  in 
1948.  Western  Germany  was  expected  to  have  some  0*2 
million  metric  tons  more  bread  grain  and  0-45  million  more 
coarse  grains  than  from  the  1948  harvest. 

In  North  America  wheat  and  rye  production  was  some 
5  million  metric  tons  (1 1  %)  less  than  in  1948  but  still  sufficient 
to  sustain  large  gram  exports  without  calling  heavily  on 
existing  swollen  stocks. 

Coarse  gram  crops  in  western  Europe  were,  in  most  coun- 
tries, not  very  much  smaller  than  m  1948.  In  the  United 
Kingdom  the  total  production  was  estimated  as  almost  equal 
to  that  of  1948.  In  North  America  production  was  down  by 
some  12  million  metric  tons  (9%)  from  the  record  levels  of 
1948,  and  Canadian  production  was  down  by  some  15%,. 
But  with  laige  stocks  in  the  United  States,  total  supplies  of 
feed  grain  there  were  the  largest  ever  in  relation  to  the  live- 
stock population  to  be  fed.  Maintenance  or  even  increase 
of  exports  during  1949-50  became  feasible. 

Supplies  of  roughage  feedingstuffs  were  unusually  low  in 
France  and  other  European  countries  affected  by  the  summer 
drought,  and  also  in  Canada.  An  unusually  mild  October 
made  good  only  a  small  part  of  this  shortage.  In  the  United 

TABLE  j.— PRODUCTION  OF  BREAD  GRAINS  AND  COARSE  GRAINS 

(million  metric  Ions) 
1934-39        1946-47        1947-48       1948-49 


Wheat  and  rye 

Europe 

61-4 

46  3 

36  8 

54  3 

North  America 

28  2 

43-7 

47-9 

47  6 

South  America 

8-5 

7  8 

9-2 

7  2 

Asia 

41-3 

40  8 

39-5 

44*3 

Africa    . 

3-8 

3-9 

3-2 

3-7 

Oceania 

4-4 

3  3 

6  1 

5  3 

Total  (a) 

147-6 

145-8 

142-7 

162-4 

Barley,  oats  and  maize 

Europe 

54-9 

38-3 

43-4 

50-2 

North  America 

81-2 

122-8 

95-2 

134-6 

South  America 

17-0 

15-4 

16   1 

14  9 

Asia 

33-0 

31-4 

32  7 

34  6 

Africa    . 

8-9 

8-7 

9-5 

9-0 

Oceania 

0  8 

0-8 

1-5 

1-3 

Total  (a) 

195-8 

217-4 

198-4 

244-6 

(a)  Excluding  U.S.S.R. 

SOURCE.  F.A.O.  Report  of  Committee  on  World  Commodity  Problems. 


AGRICULTURE 


25 


Kingdom  fodder  roots  and  green  fodder  crops  were  unsatis- 
factory, being  affected,  like  potatoes,  sugar  beet  and  vege- 
tables, by  the  long  drought. 

Agricultural  Production  Programmes.  All  European 
governments  continued  to  be  concerned  with  agricultural 
plans  and  these  were  kept  under  general  review  by  the 
Organization  for  European  Economic  Co-operation,  by  the 
Economic  Co-operative  administration  of  the  United  States 
and  by  other  bodies.  Increased  bread  grain  production  and 
increased  production  of  coarse  grains  and  other  animal 
feedingstufts  to  permit  greater  milk,  meat  and  fat  production 
continued  to  be  the  main  objectives.  The  underlying  purpose 
in  each  country  was  to  improve  the  national  diet  and  to 
minimize  dollar  expenditure  for  imports. 

Plans  were  upset  by  weather  conditions  during  the  period 
June  to  Sept.  1949  but  basic  progress  continued  to  be  made  in 
providing  the  fertilizers,  machinery  and  motive  power  needed 
for  greater  production.  Imports  of  agricultural  tractors  into 
continental  Europe  had  numbered  54,000  during  1948  as 
against  only  14,000  during  1937  and,  in  addition,  increasing 
numbers  were  available  from  continental  factories  themselves. 
Supplies  of  agricultural  machinery  were  also  greater.  The 
number  of  farm  horses  in  Europe  was  estimated  to  have 
increased  by  300,000  (2%)  but  was  still  16%  below  the 
prewar  number.  One  of  the  most  satisfactory  improvements 
was  in  the  supply  of  nitrogen  fertilizers. 

In  several  countries  considerable  public  attention  was 
drawn  to  the  difficulties  of  inducing  farmers  to  carry  out  the 
centrally  devised  plans.  In  the  United  Kingdom  a  shortage 


Total 


11-3 

1-3 

0-3 

1-9 

14-8 

13-7 

39 

0-4 

3-0 

21-0 

19-8 

40 

0-8 

2-3 

26-9 

17-7 

5-8 

0-9 

2-2 

26-6 

11-3 

0-2 

0-1 



11-6 

5-0 

1-8 

0-5 

0-6 

7-9 

6-7 

1-4 

0-2 

0-4 

8-7 

6-7 

1-6 

0-3 

1-0 

9-6 

TABLE  II. —DESTINATIONS  OF  WORLD  GRAIN  EXPORTS 
(million  metric  tons) 

Europe     Asia       Africa       Other 
Bread  grains: 
1934-38 
1946-47 
1947-48 
1948-49 
Coarse  grains: 
1934-38 
1946-47 
1947-48 
1 948  -49 

SOURCE:  FfA.O.  Report  of  Committee  on  World  Commodity  Problems. 

of  workers,  especially  skilled  workers,  and  of  houses  for 
them  actually  led  to  a  reduction  of  acreages  of  intensive 
crops  in  some  areas. 

Planning  of  another  kind  was  re-introduced  in  the  United 
States.  Controls  of  wheat  acreages  for  harvest  in  1950  were 
imposed  for  the  first  time  since  1943  and  these  might  result 
in  a  reduction  of  the  sown  area  by  some  10  million  ac.  At 
the  same  time  congress  voted  overwhelmingly  against  subsi- 
dies to  maintain  farm  incomes  at  their  high  average  level 
since  1940.  Lack  of  grain  storage  space  threatened  to  make 
some  of  the  existing  price  supports  difficult  to  continue. 
The  basic  long  term  objectives  of  United  States  agricultural 
policy  were  discussed  during  the  latter  part  of  1949. 

Argentine  policies  continued  to  influence  European  agri- 
culture mainly  through  their  effects  on  cereal,  linseed  and 
meat  exports  to  Europe.  The  government  called  in  June  for 
:m  increase  of  3-7  million  ac.  in  the  area  sown  to  wheat,  a 


In  Kent  a  super  combine  is  seen  working  during  the  1949  harvest-   an  unusually  good  one  after  one  oj  the  sunniest  %  driest  summers  on  record. 


26 


AGRICULTURE 


NUMBER    OF    AGRICULTURAL    TRACTORS 
2         3        4        5        6        7        8        9        10       II        12       13 


U  K 

USSR 

DCNMARK 

FRANCE 

GREECE 

ITALY 

NORWAY 

POLAND 

SWEDEN 

SWITZ" 

USA 


.461 

I 

7] 

AC 
OF 

3RU 
P 
AR 

f\ 

:UL 

ER 
AB 

UN 
JU 

1,0 

LE 

BEf 
RAL 
00 
L£ 

*    C 

.    T 
AC 
^ND 

)F 
RA 

;RE 
ir 

CTC 

s 

j  C 

)RS 
>4S 

i 

3 

_^ 

I7| 

' 

—  i  —  r^ 

i 

6I 

1 

69| 

NUMBER 


BER    OF    AGRICULTURAL    TRAC" 


tO        II 
ACTORS 


slight  increase  in  that  sown  to  coarse  grains  and  maintenance 
of  the  linseed  acreage.  The  fixed  prices  paid  to  farmers  for 
fat  cattle  were  raised  some  37  %.  This  plan,  however,  would  still 
leave  Argentine  production  far  below  prewar  levels.  The 
effects  of  industrialization  and  inflation  accompanied  by 
control  of  farmers*  returns,  had  reduced  the  number  of  agri- 
cultural workers  by  some  400,000  (20%)  after  1937,  and  the 
area  sown  to  cereals  and  linseed  by  some  14  million  ac.  (30%). 
Even  during  the  later  part  of  1949,  the  prices  paid  to  farmers 
continued  to  be  at  a  much  lower  level  than  prices  charged  to 
foreign  buyers  of  farm  produce.  Large  quantities  of  maize 
did  not  find  export  buyers  at  the  prices  sought  and  had  to 
be  sold  as  insect  damaged  at  very  low  prices  to  Argentine 
livestock  producers. 

Jn  Australia  and  New  Zealand  emphasis  on  expansion  of 
production  continued  and  some  encouragement  was  obtained 
from  higher  prices  for  dairy  products  and  meat  sold  to  the 
United  Kingdom.  For  New  Zealand  the  bulk  contract 
prices  were  raised  by  7-  5  %  and  the  Dairy  Products  Marketing 
commission  raised  butter  fat  prices  to  farmers  by  slightly 
over  5%.  The  butter  fat  in  dairy  products  delivered  from 
New  Zealand  factories  during  the  year  ended  July  1949  was 
461  million  lb.,  10%  more  than  during  1947-48  and  only  1% 
below  the  record  output  of  1940-41. 

Lamb  production  for  export  was  also  satisfactory  but  there 
were  significant  reductions  in  beef  and  pigmeat  outputs.  In 
Australia  total  meat  production  was  higher  but  exports  were 
slightly  reduced  because  home  consumption  of  beef  rose  by 
9%.  The  sowing  of  wheat  was  hindered  by  dry  spells,  par- 
ticularly in  western  Australia. 

South  African  plans  were  wholly  upset  by  the  droughts 
which  seriously  reduced  the  working  capacity  of  draught 
cattle  and  caused  heavy  slaughterings. 

In  India  a  major  event  of  1949  was  the  government's 
announcement  in  April  that  except  in  case  of  widespread 
failure  of  crops  or  for  purposes  of  building  up  a  central 
reserve  no  food  grams  would  be  imported  after  1951.  A 
central  development  board  was  given  responsibility  for 
securing  an  additional  3-6  million  metric  tons  of  grain  from 
Indian  lands  through  irrigation  and  reclamation  schemes, 
clearance  of  scrub,  subsidies  for  water  supplies,  manures  and 
seeds  and  in  other  ways.  An  increase  in  the  use  of  nitrogen 
fertilizers  by  more  than  three  million  metric  tons  was  contem- 
plated and  some  compulsion  imposed  on  municipalities  to 
make  full  use  of  their  sewage  and  refuse. 

Fears  of  Surpluses.  These  Indian  plans  for  self-sufficiency 
in  grains  and  the  continuing  drive  in  the  United  Kingdom 
and  other  western  European  countries  for  greater  production 
and  reduced  imports  from  the  dollar  areas  aggravated  feafs 
of  food  surpluses  in  the  western  hemisphere  and  until  about 
mid-summer  these  were  further  aggravated  in  the  United 


States  by  declining  business  activity  and  diminishing  domestic 
demands.  The  council  of  the  F.A.O.  appointed  a  committee 
of  experts  in  June  to  examine  what  seemed  to  be  the  familiar 
prewar  problem  of  surpluses  in  some  countries  and  starvation 
in  others  and  this  committee  reported  promptly  that  the 
causes  of  surpluses  lay  mainly  in  shortages  of  western  hemi- 
sphere currencies.  They  proposed  an  international  commodity 
clearing  house  with  a  capital  of  United  States  $5,000  million. 
This  would  be  used,  for  instance,  to  buy  United  States  wheat 
for  India,  the  fund  being  repaid  by  India  in  rupees  which 
would  be  held  by  the  clearing  house  until  they  became  con- 
vertible into  United  States  dollars.  Until  there  was  funda- 
mentally better  balance  in  world  trade  it  was  foreseen, 
however,  that  this  initial  capital  might  comparatively  soon 
be  held  in  currencies  still  inconvertible  into  dollars. 

The  danger  of  surpluses,  that  is,  of  supplies  forcing  prices 
down  below  levels  considered  reasonably  remunerative  by 
producers,  was  expected  particularly  for  sugar,  cotton, 
certain  fats  and  oils  and,  in  some  years,  bread  and  feed 
grains.  Some  serious  surpluses,  especially  of  rubber  and  jute, 
were  feared  even  in  non-dollar  areas. 

General  Price  Changes.  The  mam  fears  of  farmers  were 
that  the  general  level  of  effective  demands  for  their  produce 
would  decline.  In  some  European  countries  a  slackening  of 
inflation  of  foodstuff  prices  was  evident,  especially  during 
the  early  part  of  1949.  In  the  Netherlands,  for  example, 
where  close  attention  was  paid  to  changes  in  costs  of  farm 
production  prices  of  livestock  produce  were  reduced  as  a 
result  of  greater  supplies  of  feeding  stuffs  and  improvement 
of  livestock  yields,  but  generally  farm  incomes  were  well 
sustained. 

In  the  United  Kingdom  agricultural  prices  were  raised  by 
an  average  of  7  %  following  the  February  price  review.  This 
rise  was  due  to  withdrawal  of  part  of  the  subsidy  on  feeding- 
stuffs,  to  increase  of  agricultural  wages  by  some  4%  and, 
not  least,  to  the  desire  to  expand  agricultural  production 
further  in  accordance  with  the  programme  first  announced 
in  Aug.  1947.  Agricultural  prices  were,  indeed,  raised  to 
the  highest  level  ever  recorded.  After  devaluation  of  the 
pound  sterling  these  prices  were  not  far  out  of  line  with  price 
levels  in  the  United  States  and  Canada  but  they  continued 
high  as  compared  to  the  prices  paid  for  the  principal  foodstuffs 
from  Australia,  New  Zealand  and  nearly  all  European 
countries.  Subsidies  were  continued  in  the  United  Kingdom 
on  purchased  fertilizers  and  on  labour  and  machinery  ser- 
vices administered  by  the  County  Agricultural  Executive 
committees,  but  it  was  announced  in  July  that  half  the 
fertilizer  subsidy  would  be  withdrawn  in  July  1950  and  the 
remainder  in  July  1951.  Complete  withdrawal  of  the  remain- 
der of  the  feedmgstuffs  subsidy  in  April  1950  was  announced 
in  October.  A  reduction  of  subsidized  machinery  and  labour 
services  was  also  contemplated. 

Trade  Agreements.  Freer  multilateral  trade  continued  to 
be  the  ultimate  objective  of  the  United  Kingdom  government 
and  others  receiving  financial  aid  from  the  United  States; 
and  controls  of  trade  were  relaxed  for  some  fruit  and  vege- 
tables and  minor  agricultural  products.  Competition  from 
Belgian,  Dutch  and  other  continental  countries  was  much 

TABLE  1H.— MILK  PRODUCTION 

(thousand  metric  tons) 

1937         1947         1948     1948(a)  1949  (a) 

United  Kingdom  (b)       5,439       6,800       7,582       2,307  2,639 

Australia       .           .        5,058       5,060       5,475        1,890  1,972 

New  Zealand  (c)    ..        4,508(d)  4,151        4,370        —  — 

Canada         .           .        6,859       7,818       7,551        1,850  1,900 

United  States           .      46,200     54,000     52,400      16,100  16,700 

Denmark       .            .        5,290       4,104       4,068        1,156  1,352 

Netherlands  (b)        .         —           2,886       3,674          816  1,163 

Sweden  (b)               .        2,847       3,423       3,361        1,031  1,088 
(a)  Jan  — June.                    (b)  Deliveries  of  milk  from  farms, 

(c)  Year  ending  June  30.    (d)  Average  for  July  1934— June  1938  period. 
SOURCE    F  A.O.  Monthly  Bulletin,  Sept.  1949. 


AGRICULTURE 


',& iWi'l1;!  ^V,i f  , r-  ; •  >^ ,';'! ft '•  y-..' i-^;^1 ',' '';  i"l  'V '•"'. ', '  >'"; i  •: ; !.  "''.  <",  V  'f^Kj 


rought  in  Great  Britain  in  1949  caused  many  farmers  to  improvise  water  supplies.    Here  in  Lincolnshire  a  tractor  has  been  connected 

to  a  pump  to  provide  sufficient  water  for  a  small  herd  of  cattle. 


feared  by  British  growers;  a  conference  of  the  International 
Federation  of  Agricultural  Producers  was  called  to  discuss 
control  of  trade  in  horticultural  produce  but  no  agreed 
proposals  were  reached.  Increasing  supplies  of  eggs  from 
Eire  and  the  continent  caused  anxiety  to  British  farmers  and 
this  was  aggravated  by  the  fact  that  the  official  price  paid 
for  eggs  was  not  raised  in  April  by  as  much  as  would  cover 
increases  of  feedingstuffs  and  other  costs.  Farmers  did  not, 
however,  object  to  the  comprehensive  bilateral  trade  agree- 
ment reached  between  the  United  Kingdom  and  the  Argentine 
because  meat  continued  to  be  in  such  obviously  short  supply 
and  because  many  farmers  were  anxious  to  secure  more 
coarse  grains  for  animal  feeding.  A  new  six  year  agreement 
between  the  United  Kingdom  and  Denmark  for  butter  was 
negotiated  in  June  1949  by  which  the  price  for  the  year 
Oct.  1949-Sept.  1950  was  15±%  lower  than  the  price  during 
Oct.  1948-Sept.  1949;  yearly  reductions  or  increases  of 
1\  %  could  also  be  negotiated  each  autumn  during  the  course 
of  the  agreement. 

An  international  wheat  agreement  was  negotiated  during 
the  early  months  of  1949  and  ratified  by  the  four  main 
exporting  countries  and  by  a  sufficient  number  of  importing 
countries  before  August. 

Some  Tropical  and  Sub-tropical  Developments.  World 
production  of  rice  continued  to  increase  but  serious  setbacks 
were  suffered  in  Burma.  Many  villages  were  burnt  in  Bur- 
mese-Karen warfare.  The  administrative  machinery  for 
granting  loans  to  rice  cultivators  was  largely  disrupted  and 
the  planted  rice  area  declined  further  by  some  20%  to 
8  million  ac.  as  compared  to  12-7  million  ac.  prewar. 

Cane  sugar  production  in  1948-49  was  raised  by  a  further 
3%  to  a  total  of  18%  greater  than  that  of  the  late  1930s. 
Beet  sugar  production  was  also  greater  than  in  prewar  years  by 
3  %.  The  free  market  for  sugar  exports  continued  to  be  much 
restricted  as  a  result  of  dollar  shortages  and  it  was  feared  that 
serious  surpluses  would  be  evident  before  long  in  some 
exporting  countries. 

Fats  and  oils  continued  in  short  supply  on  international 
markets.  During  1948  world  production  had  been  only  some 
7%  less  than  in  prewar  years  but  exports  had  been  less  by 
30%  since  the  producing  countries  had  been  consuming  more. 


TABLE  IV. — PRODUCTION  OF  BASIC  FOOD  AND  FEEDINOSTUFFS 
(Countries  of  the  Organization  for  European  Economic  Co-operation) 

(million  metric  tons) 


1935-38 

1947-48 

1948-49 

1952-53 

(average) 

(plans) 

Bread  grains  . 

.       34-2 

20-8 

31-8 

39-1 

Coarse  grains 

.       29-6 

24-6 

28-1 

34-4 

Total  consumption 

of  coarse  grains 

.      41-9 

29-0 

36-7 

42-9 

Milk       . 

.       74-7 

57-1 

63-4 

83-3 

Meat  and  bacon 

8-8 

5-9 

6-3 

9-3 

Fats  and  oils  . 

2-7 

2-1 

2-2 

3-2 

SOURCE:  Report  of  the  O.E.E.C.  to  the  Economic  Co-operation  Administra- 
tion of  the  United  States,  vol.  1.,  July  1949-June  1950  plans. 


During  1949  there  was  no  substantial  general  improvement  in 
this  position.  Some  further  progress  was  made  by  the 
United  Kingdom's  Overseas  Food  corporation  in  estab- 
lishing new  farming  areas  in  Tanganyika  but  the  1949  crop 
was  ruined  by  drought  and  costs  were  exceptionally  high. 
Better  progress  was  made  in  speeding  transport  of  stocks  of 
groundnuts  from  long  established  farming  areas  in  northern 
Nigeria. 

Agricultural  Research  and  Technical  Developments.  Research 
on  many  fronts  continued  in  almost  all  countries  and  there 
was  a  growing  faith  in  the  ability  of  science  eventually  to 
overcome  the  danger  to  mankind  from  malnutrition  and 
starvation.  This  was  memorably  expressed  by  Sir  John 
Russell  fy.v.)  in  his  presidential  address  in  Sept.  1949  to  the 
British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science. 

Amongst  the  more  noteworthy  lines  of  research  were 
those  in  plant  physiology,  making  use  of  radio-active  tracer 
elements,  and  those  concerned  with  organic  weed-killers  and 
pesticides  of  many  kinds.  A  considerable  advance  was  made 
towards  control  of  trypanosomes  in  tropical  cattle.  Remark- 
able increases  of  crop  yields  were  secured  in  trials  of  phos- 
phate fertilizers  in  pill  form  on  some  Nigerian  soils. 

Notable  progress  was  made  in  the  designing  of  harvesting 
machinery  and  of  labour  saving  arrangements  for  dairy  farms 
in  the  United  Kingdom.  Despite  exceptional  weather  con- 
ditions some  sound  progress  was  also  made  in  the  United 
Kingdom  in  devising  economical  methods  of  grass  con- 
servation. (J.  R.  RA.) 


28 


AGRICULTURE 


TABLE    V. — IMPORTS   OF   AGRICULTURAL   TRACTORS  AND  MACHINERY 


North     South 

Europe  America  America  Oceania 
(thousands) 


Africa 


Asia 
(a) 


13  8 

15-1 

6-3         12  4           2-5 

0  9 

26-5 

28  4 

92           5-7           94 

2  0 

35-8 

42-2 

19  5          10  0          14-7 

4  4 

56-7 

66  0 

28  7         179         35  3 

7  0 

(value 

in  million  U  S   dollars) 

32-1 

21-8 

25  8            39          12  9 

15  5 

72  4 

74-3 

39  3           9-4         32  I 

9  6 

109  8 

129  3 

93  1          24  1          63  9 

22  1 

150  4 

204  8 

113  0         31  6        118  0 

32  8 

Tractors 

1937 

1946 

1947 

1948 
Machinery 

1937 

1946 

1947 

1948 

(a)  Including  Egypt,  Sudan,  Ethiopia  and  Eritrea  ,  excluding  USSR 
SOURCE    Monthly  Bulletin  of  the  Food  and  Agriculture  Orgam/ation 

United  States.  The  U.S.  enjoyed  a  good  agricultural  year 
with  no  crop  scare;  crop  productivity  maintained  a  very  high 
level  compared  with  that  prior  to  World  War  IF,  though 
it  was  below  the  record  level  of  1948.  New  records  of  produc- 
tion were  only  achieved  in  rice,  dry  beans,  and  pears  in  1949, 
and  uniformly  large  production  gave  an  overall  result  which 
was  only  6%  less  than  the  previous  year.  Livestock  numbers, 
particularly  pigs  and  poultry,  increased. 

In  spite  of  a  slow  decline  in  prices,  the  volume  of  agricultural 
marketings  was  such  as  to  provide  a  gross  income  to  fanners 
of  about  $32,000  million,  compared  with  $35,300  million  in 
1948.  However,  because  of  higher  costs  of  production,  the 
realized  net  income,  which  had  been  declining  since  1947,  m 
1949  was  estimated  at  only  $14,000  million  compared  with 
$16,700  million  in  1948.  Agricultural  assets  at  the  beginning 
of  the  year  were  estimated  at  $130,000  million  compared 
with  $122,278  million  a  year  earlier.  But  farm  land  values 
which  constituted  a  large  portion  of  the  assets  declined  5% 
or  6%  during  the  year,  hence  total  assets  were  also  lower  by 
the  end  of  the  year. 

Crop  Production.  The  aggregate  volume  of  all  1949  crops 
in  the  U.S.  declined  from  the  record  volume  of  154°()  of 
the  1935-39  level  in  1948  to  148";  m  1949.  Food  grains 
declined  substantially  to  165%  of  the  1947  and  1948 
levels.  Cotton  was  9  points  higher  than  in  1948.  Total 
harvested  acreage  for  the  52  principal  crops  amounted  to 
356,041,000,  compared  with  352,297,000  in  1948  and  a  ten- 
year  average  of  340,709,000.  This  acreage  was  larger  than 
in  any  other  year  since  the  peak  period  of  1930-33.  Losses 
from  weather  damage  or  insect  destruction  of  planted  crops 
amounted  to  nearly  13  3  million  ac.,  more  than  in  any 
other  year  since  1943.  Yields  per  acre  were  above  average 
for  most  crops,  and  the  composite  yield  stood  at  142  °/0  of 
the  1923-33  average,  exceeded  only  by  the  151  %  of  1948. 

The  eight  major  grain  crops  in  1949  produced  a  total 
tonnage  of  163  million,  the  second  largest  on  record 
1948  provided  a  record  of  180  5  million  tons.  Food  grains 
constituted  37  million  tons  of  that  total.  The  feed  grain 
total  of  126  million  tons  represented  the  second  largest  on 
record,  but  a  decline  from  138  million  tons  the  previous  year; 
included  were  a  large  corn  crop  (in  spite  of  some  drought 
and  the  cornborer),  the  second  largest  grain  sorghum  crop, 
an  above  average  oat  crop,  and  a  below  average  barley 
crop. 

The  oilseed  crop  of  1949  amounted  to  15-3  million  tons, 
near  the  1948  record  and  41%  above  average.  Soybeans 
approximated  the  1948  record  cottonseed  was  about  9%  in 
excess  of  1948  and  40%  above  average;  flaxseed  and  peanuts 
were  below  the  1948  record  crops,  but  flaxseed  was  neverthe- 
less 45%  above  average,  and  peanuts  a  good  average  crop. 

Corn  was  planted  exceptionally  early  under  very  favourable 
conditions  on  a  slightly  larger  acreage  than  in  1948.  Although 
the  crop  progressed  to  an  early  harvest,  some  dry  weather 
plus  exceptional  damage  by  the  cornborer  reduced  the  yield 
to  an  average  yield  of  38-9  bu.  per  ac.  against  42-8  bu. 
in  1948. 


The  1949  wheat  crop,  though  the  fourth  largest  on  record, 
was  a  disappointment.  A  record  acreage  was  sown  and 
survived  the  early  stages  nicely,  only  to  be  rather  severely 
damaged  just  prior  to  harvest  in  the  Southern  and  Central 
Plains  by  excessive  rain  and  fungus  diseases.  Nevertheless, 
the  total  supply  situation  was  such  that  acreage  allocations 
were  set  for  the  1950  crop  at  about  15%  less  than  in  1949. 
Domestic  consumption  of  the  large  crop  would  not  be  much 
more  than  700  million  bu.  Exports,  which  in  1948-49  reached 
the  unprecedented  level  of  503  million  bu.,  were  expected 
to  be  less  than  400  million  bu.  Thus  the  carryover  at  the 
end  of  the  crop  year,  July  1,  1950,  would  be  350  million  bu. 
The  preliminary  survey  of  the  winter  wheat  crop  for  1950 
suggested  that  sown  acreage  had  been  reduced  as  requested 
but  that  the  crop  was  in  excellent  condition  and  might  produce 
nearly  as  much  as  in  1949. 

The  cotton  crop  of  16,034,000  bales  was  the  largest  since 
1937  and  the  sixth  largest  on  record.  The  Brazilian  crop  was 
expected  to  be  smaller  than  in  1948. 

A  crop  of  401,962,000  bu.  of  white  or  Irish  potatoes  was 
produced,  compared  with  454,654,000  bu.  in  1948,  even 
though  the  harvested  acreage  was  the  smallest  since  1878 
and  less  than  the  official  target.  Nevertheless,  an  estimated 
$50  million  to  $60  million  support  programme  was  under 
way  with  prices  being  supported  at  60%  of  parity  against 
90%  in  1948.  The  average  yield  of  21 1  4  bu.  per  ac.  was  not 
much  below  the  record  215-5  bu.  of  1948,  and  far  above  the 
145  5  bu.  ten-year  average.  Maine  had  a  record  yield  of 
450  bu.  per  ac 

Livestock  Production  The  amount  of  livestock  increased 
in  1949.  The  reasons  differed  for  each  type  of  animal,  but 
the  record  abundance  of  feedstuffs  was  lecogm/cd  as  a 
principal  factor.  The  expansion  in  livestock  and  its  products 
during  1949  was  sufficient  to  counterbalance  the  moderate 
decline  m  overall  crop  production,  giving  a  total  agricultural 
production  volume  for  1949  equal  to  the  record  1948 
production. 

All  cattle  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  totalled  78,945,000 
head,  compared  with  78,126,000  head  a  year  eailier,  but 
approximately  10  million  head  more  than  before  World 
War  M  Of  that  total,  24,450,000  head  were  milch  cows,  as 
against  25,039,000  a  year  before  The  slaughter  of  about  the 
same  number  of  cattle  for  beef  at  slightly  heavier  weights 
than  in  1948  provided  an  estimated  10,880  million  Ib  of 
beef  and  veal,  compared  with  10,600  million  Ib.  in  1948. 
A  new  record  for  prize  fat  steers  was  set  up  when  the  grand 
champion  at  the  Chicago  International  was  auctioned  for 
$11  SOpcrlb 

There  were  57,139,000  head  of  pigs  on  U  S.  farms  at  the 
beginning  of  the  year,  an  increase  from  55,028,000  head  in 
1948.  The  major  spring  pig  crop  was  59,039,000  head,  well 
above  the  51,266,000  head  of  a  year  earlier,  and  the  autumn 
pig  crop  was  estimated  at  37,262,000  head,  compared  with 
33,921,000  head  a  year  before.  During  1949  10,650  million  Ib. 
of  pork  was  produced  as  against  10,246  million  Ib.  in  the 
previous  year.  At  the  end  of  the  year  it  was  estimated  that 
pork  production  in  1950  might  approximate  11,500  million 
Ib  ,  a  result  of  the  increased  autumn  pig  crop  of  1949  plus 
an  estimated  increase  to  62  5  million  head  in  the  spring  crop 

TABLE  VI    -CONSUMPTION  OF  NtrRocrNous  FFKIILIZFRS 
(thousand  metric  tons) 

Con- 

July-Junc              United      tmental  World 
Years                Kingdom    Lurope  USA.    Canada  Oceania      total 

(a)            (b)  (b) 

1946-47      .        173            1,035       711             26  11            2,400 

1947-48              217            1,243       806             25  14            2,920 

1948-49              230            1,389       866             30  13            3,291 

(a)  Including  dependent  territories      (b)  Excluding  U  S  S.R 

SOURCE    Monthly  Bulletin  of  the  Food  and  Agriculture  Organi/ation. 


AGRICULTURE 


29 


Cropi 

Pood  grains 

Feed  grams  and  hay 

Cotton 

Tobacco 

Vegetables 

Fruits  and  nuts 

Sugar  crops 

Total  Crops 
Livestock. 

Meat  animals 

Poultry  and  eggs 

Dairy  products 
Total  Livestock 
Grand  total  . 


TABLE  VII  — INDFX  NUMBERS  OF  nit  VOIUMF  OF  U  S    AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTION  THROUGH  Two  WAR  PERIODS* 

(193  5-39  =-100) 
1915          1920         1925         1930         1935         1940         1945         1946         1947         1948 


1949 


147 
126 
86 
80 
35 
73 
73 
95 

92 

78 
70 
81 
86 


126 

149 

100 

104 

51 

76 

98 

102 

99 
78 
72 
85 
92 


95 

128 

122 

95 

74 

74 

73 

99 

107 
93 
85 
96 
97 


*  r-stimatcs  by  the  US    Department  of  Agriculture,     1949  is  prov 


onul 


of  1950.  In  great  contrast  with  the  record  high  price  of 
$31  85  per  cwt  on  the  Chicago  market  in  Aug.  1948,  average 
pig  prices  in  1949  remained  below  $20  per  cwt.  and  in  Decem- 
ber declined  to  the  lowest  price  for  the  year  at  $14-80  per 
cwt. 

Sheep  on  U.S.  farms  at  the  beginning  of  the  year,  31,963,000 
head,  were  the  smallest  recorded  number,  having  declined 
from  34,827,000  head  the  previous  year  and  more  than 
50  million  head  prewar  Consequently,  the  1949  lamb  crop 
was  a  very  small  one  of  18,906,000  head  and  provided  only 
600  million  Ib.  of  lamb  and  mutton  in  1949,  as  against  753 
million  Ib  the  previous  year. 

The  24,450,000  milch  cows  on  U.S.  farms  at  the  beginning 
of  1949  represented  a  decline  from  the  25,039,000  head  in 
1948,  but  it  was  estimated  that  the  end  of  1949  would  show 
an  increase  A  result  of  the  very  heavy  feeding  of  the  smaller 
number  of  cows  from  the  abundant  harvests  of  1948  and  the 
fine  pastures  of  1949  was  that  milk  production  per  cow 
reached  record  levels,  and  total  production  for  the  year  was 
about  118,000  million  Ib  ,  2"0  more  than  in  1948,  with  still 
larger  production  expected  in  1950.  Prices  of  most  dairy 
products  declined  in  1949,  sharply  at  wholesale,  very  modera- 
tely at  retail,  and  the  government  continued  to  accumulate 
butter  and  dry  milk  powder  in  large  amounts  in  its  price 
subsidy  operations. 

There  was  a  large  poultry  population  during  1949,  hens 
on  farms  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  numbering  448,838,000, 
compared  with  461,550,000  head  a  year  before.  Chickens 
raised  in  1949,  excluding  commercial  broilers,  were  749 
million  head,  as  compared  with  637  million  head  the  previous 
year.  Broiler  production  continued  at  a  high  level. 

The  steady  decrease  in  the  number  of  horses  continued- 
there  were  5,921,000  head  on  farms  in  1949  as  against 
6,589,000  head  in  1948.  Mules  were  2,353,000  head,  as 
against  2,541,000  head  the  previous  year. 

Food  Stock v  and  E\poits.  Food  stocks  continued  to 
increase  in  1949  in  the  major  exporting  countnes.  hxports 
reached  very  high  levels  during  the  early  part  of  the  year  but 
appeared  to  slacken  in  the  latter  part.  On  July  1,  gram  stocks 
in  the  four  principal  exporting  countries  were  at  72  8  million 
short  tons,  35%  larger  than  the  aveiage  for  five  previous 
years.  Of  that  total  about  52  million  tons  were  in  the  U  S., 
Argentina  held  15%  of  the  total,  Canada  9%  and  Australia 
4%. 

Food  exports  by  the  U.S.  in  1948-49,  mostly  to  countries 
working  with  the  Economic  Co-operation  administration  or  to 
occupied  areas,  amounted  to  about  49,521  million  Ib.  Wheat 
made  up  more  than  three-fifths  of  the  total;  other  grains 
accounted  for  about  one-fifth. 

Farm  Prices.  Farm  prices  continued  to  decline  in  1949. 
In  December,  the  index  of  prices  received  for  all  farm  products 
stood  at  236  (1909-14  =  100),  as  compared  with  268  a  year 
earlier.  Even  the  maintenance  of  that  level  was  largely  due 


109 

83 

105 

113 

91 

89 

85 

96 

100 
106 
94 
99 
98 


81 

110 

155 

164 

197 

190 

165 

91 

114 

144 

172 

131 

206 

182 

81 

95 

68 

66 

93 

117 

126 

89 

101 

137 

160 

145 

136 

137 

92 

110 

142 

158 

141 

144 

144 

95 

110 

113 

133 

129 

127 

135 

89 

104 

94 

103 

110 

89 

99 

89 

107 

122 

135 

136 

154 

148 

90 
92 
f-8 
93 
91 


118 
109 
105 
112 
110 


147 
170 
119 
141 
134 


145 
153 
120 
137 
136 


145 
157 
117 
H7 
136 


130 
153 
114 
130 
139 


133 
163 
117 
133 
139 


to  government  subsidy  programmes;  although  some  prices 
were  below  subsidized  prices,  the  official  programme  appeared 
to  have  much  weight  in  preventing  some  farm  prices  from 
falling. 

harm  Income.  Late  in  the  year  it  was  estimated  that  the 
total  gross  farm  income  for  1949  would  be  about  $32,000 
million,  about  10%  less  than  in  1948.  This  gross  income 
included  not  only  cash  income  from  marketings,  but  govern- 
ment payments,  value  of  home  consumption,  rental  value  of 
dwellings  and  the  expenses  of  agricultural  production.  Total 
farm  production  expenses  amounted  to  about  $18,000  million, 
only  3%  less  than  the  $18,600  million  of  the  previous  year. 
Reali/ed  net  income  was  estimated  at  $14,000  million, 
compared  with  $16,700  million  in  1948.  Cash  receipts  from 
marketings  in  1949  were  estimated  at  about  $27,700  million 
or  9%  below  receipts  in  1948.  Although  both  crops  and 
livestock  were  marketed  in  a  slightly  larger  volume  than  in 
1948,  total  crop  receipts  were  estimated  at  $12,500  million, 
that  is,  a  7%  decrease  from  the  1948  level,  and  livestock  and 
its  products  at  $15,200  million,  down  11%  from  1948. 
Nevertheless,  the  income,  credit  and  debt  structure  of  U.S. 
agriculture  continued  to  appear  favourable. 

Fatm  Land  Values.  Farm  real  estate  in  the  U.S.  declined 
in  value  by  about  6%  in  the  year  ending  Nov.  1949,  as 
compared  with  peak  values  a  year  earlier.  The  decline  was 
irregular,  amounting  to  10%  to  14%  in  some  mountain  and 
western  states,  whereas  a  few  midwestern  states  recorded  an 
increase.  The  amount  of  funds  available  for  farm  mortgage 
financing  decreased  as  farm  prices  declined. 

Farm  Population.  According  to  a  preliminary  estimate  at 
the  beginning  of  1949,  the  farming  population  of  27,776,000 
constituted  about  19%  of  the  U.S.  total  of  nearly  150  million; 
the  agricultural  group  increased  compared  with  1948,  when 
it  was  27,440,000  persons. 

Farm  Labour  At  the  end  of  1949  7,150,000  persons  were 
employed  on  farms,  almost  the  same  number  as  a  year 
before,  but  below  the  peak  employment  for  the  busier  part 
of  the  agricultural  year  when  slightly  more  than  12  million 
persons  were  employed,  of  whom  more  than  three-quarters 
were  family  workers.  Not  only  was  the  number  of  persons 
employed  in  agriculture  in  1949  about  3%  less  than  during 
the  previous  year  but  farm  labour  was  slightly  less  c?  pensive 
in  1949  than  in  recent  years. 

Farm  Maclunerv.  The  farm  machinery  supply  situation 
impioved  in  relation  to  demand,  although  prices  were  the 
highest  on  record.  The  mechanization  of  U.S.  agriculture 
continued  at  an  unparalleled  rate.  The  number  of  tractors 
on  farms  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  was  3  5  million,  281  % 
of  the  prewar  level  and  350,000  more  than  a  year  earlier, 
although  the  cost  of  using  tractor  power  was  higher  than  in 
any  previous  year.  Used  machinery  declined  in  price. 
Exports  of  farm  machinery  were  higher  in  early  1949  than 
before. 


30 


AIRCRAFT    MANUFACTURE 


A  modern  tractor-driven  spray  which  was  demonstrated  in  1 949  for 
use  against  tree  pests. 

Commodity  Credit  Corporation.  This  very  important 
financing  organization  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture 
carried  on  three  major  programmes  during  the  year  1948-49: 
price  support,  supply  and  foreign  purchase.  During  the  year 
it  received  additional  legislative  authority  to  expand  its  grain 
storage  activities  and  did  so,  particularly  with  reference  to 
corn,  contracting  for  more  than  250  million  bu.  of  new  storage 
space,  most  of  which  was  used  for  storing  corn  taken  over  by 
the  government  under  subsidy  operations  for  the  1948  crop. 

Under  farm  subsidizing  operations,  the  Commodity  Credit 
corporation  at  the  end  of  October  had  $3,148,577,435  (of  its 
authorized  $4,750  million  borrowing  authority)  invested  in 
farm  commodities.  It  held  at  that  time  an  inventory  of 
$1,692,478,677  worth  taken  over  under  price  support  and 
was  additionally  committed  under  loan  and  purchase  agree- 
ments to  the  possible  extent  of  $1,456,098,758. 

Commodity  Trading.  Activity  in  commodity  markets 
declined  in  1948-49,  particularly  with  regard  to  wheat  and 
cotton.  The  Commodity  Exchange  authority  continued  to 
request  legislation  to  extend  its  supervision  to  future  trading 
in  11  commodities  not  already  covered,  for  authority  to  fix 
minimum  margin  requirements  on  speculative  transactions 
and  the  registration  of  commodity  trading  advisory  services. 

Agricultural  Legislation.  The  Brannan  Proposal  (by 
Charles  Brannan,  secretary  of  agriculture)  of  April  1949  did 
not  become  law  but  it  was  the  most  discussed  farm  legislative 
proposal  of  the  year.  The  major  farm  organizations  and 
agricultural  leaders,  in  and  out  of  office,  disagreed  as  to  its 
merits.  It  was  a  price  subsidy  plan  based  on  an  income 
objective.  A  farm  income  standard  was  to  be  set  as  a  minimum 
goal  under  which  farm  purchasing  power  would  be  main- 
tained at  least  at  the  same  level  as  the  average  for  the  first 
10  of  the  most  recent  12  years.  For  1950  this  would  require 
an  income  of  $26,200  million,  about  1 5  %  less  than  the  $3 1 ,000 
million  of  1948.  This  minimum  was  to  be  used  only  as  the 
starting  point  for  computing  commodity  price  subsidies. 

Definite  price  subsidies  were  to  be  assured  on  corn,  cotton, 
wheat,  tobacco,  milk,  eggs,  chickens  and  the  meat-producing 
animals.  They  accounted  for  about  70%  of  cash  farm 
receipts.  Other  commodities  were  to  be  supported  within 
the  limits  of  available  funds. 

Two  major  methods  of  support  were  to  be  used.  On 
storable  commodities,  loan  and  purchase  agreements  were  to 
be  continued.  On  perishable  commodities  the  entire  produc- 


tion was  to  go  to  the  consumer  through  the  usual  market 
channels.  However,  if  the  average  price  received  for  a  given 
commodity  proved  to  be  lower  than  the  official  subsidized 
price  level,  the  producer  was  to  receive  a  compensatory 
production  payment  for  the  difference. 

The  Agricultural  act  of  1949  maintained  rigid  price  subsi- 
dies at  90%  of  parity  on  the  six  basic  crops,  corn,  cotton, 
wheat,  rice,  tobacco  and  peanuts.  After  1950  there  was 
provision  for  "  flexible "  or  lower  minimum  subsidies, 
depending  on  the  size  of  the  total  supply  of  the  crop  in  relation 
to  the  normal  supply.  The  1949  act  included  mandatory 
price  subsidies  for  wool,  tung  nuts,  honey,  intermediate  and 
late  Irish  potatoes,  milk,  butterfat  and  the  products  of  milk 
and  butterfat.  The  level  of  subsidization  was  to  vary  with  the 
different  commodities  and  the  secretary  had  the  power  to 
set  the  specific  level. 

Other  agricultural  legislation  of  1949  resulted  in  the  ratifi- 
cation of  the  International  Wheat  agreement,  the  amendment 
of  the  Charter  of  the  Commodity  Credit  Corporation  and 
provisions  for  rural  housing,  (See  also  BEEKEEPING;  CHEM- 
URGY;  COCOA;  COFFEE;  DAIRY  FARMING;  FERTILIZERS; 
FOOD  SUPPLY  OF  THE  WORLD;  FORAGE  CROPS;  FRUIT; 
GRAIN  CROPS;  HOPS;  LIVESTOCK;  NUTS;  POULTRY; 
ROOT  CROPS;  SOIL  CONSERVATION;  SPICES;  SUGAR;  TEA; 
VEGETABLES;  WHEAT;  WOOL.)  (J.  K.  R.) 

AIRCRAFT  MANUFACTURE.  British  supremacy  in 
the  manufacture  of  aircraft  powered  by  jet  propulsion  was 
established  during  1949.  Further,  much  was  done  to  improve 
the  standard  of  military  aircraft  and  the  high  quality  of  both 
these  and  of  British  civilian  aircraft  led  to  world-wide  export 
orders,  exceeding  a  record  of  £33  million  in  value. 

The  giant  130-ton  Bristol  Brabazon  I,  the  world's  largest 
air-liner,  flew  for  the  first  time  in  1949,  as  did  many  other 
new  aircraft  including  the  Armstrong-Whitworth  Apollo, 
the  Handley  Page  Hermes  V,  the  new  version  of  the  Vickers- 
Armstrong  Viscount  and  the  Cierva  Air  Horse  helicopter. 

The  aircraft  industry  made  many  additions  to  Britain's 
air  strength,  notably  the  first  British  jet  bomber,  the  English 
Electric  Canberra  which  had  the  speed  of  a  fighter;  the  first 
British  jet  night-fighter,  the  de  Havilland  113;  and  two  new 
fighters  thought  to  be  capable  of  sonic  speed,  the  Hawker 
1052  and  the  Supermarine  510. 

The  world's  first  four-jet  air-liner,  the  de  Havilland  Comet, 
flew  for  the  first  time  on  July  27,  1949.  Shortly  afterwards 
it  flew  at  80%  of  the  speed  of  sound,  and  on  Oct.  25  it  flew  to 
Castel  Benito,  Tripoli,  and  back  at  an  average  speed  of 
450  m.p.h.  The  whole  journey  took  the  same  time  as  a  single 
trip  on  a  scheduled  air  service. 

The  de  Havilland  Goblin  and  the  Bristol  Theseus  were 
two  aero  engines  which  successfully  underwent  remarkable 
endurance  tests  in  1949,  establishing  their  serviceability  and 
smooth  operation.  Reports  of  the  Bristol  Proteus,  however, 
were  not  so  good  and  some  delay  was  forecast  in  the  perfec- 
tion of  this  type  of  engine,  which  was  to  power  the  140-ton 
Saunders-Roe  Princess  class  10-engined  flying  boat  and  the 
8-engined  Bristol  Brabazon  II.  It  was  eventually  scheduled 
for  delivery  in  April  1951. 

Details  were  given  in  1949  of  a  revolutionary  method  of 
aircraft  construction  which  was  to  be  used  in  the  Fairey  17 
anti-submarine  machine  by  the  Fairey  Aviation  company. 
This  process  involved  a  reversal  of  the  usual  practice  in  that 
the  outside  skin  of  the  aircraft  was  accurately  shaped  in 
"  envelope  "  jigs  before  any  of  the  inside  structure  was  fitted. 
This  system,  a  patented  one,  had  taken  four  years  to  develop. 
It  was  claimed  that  it  eliminated  even  minor  errors  of  con- 
struction, made  complete  interchangeability  of  parts  possible 
from  the  prototype  aircraft  onwards  and  enabled  emergency 
large-scale  production  to  be  begun  speedily. 


AIR  FORCES   OF  THE  WORLD 


31 


United  States.  The  replacement  programme  undertaken 
by  the  air  lines  immediately  after  the  war  approached  com- 
pletion and  the  deliveries  of  civil  transports  had  fallen  from 
433  in  1946  to  approximately  160  in  1949.  In  spite  of  these 
negative  factors,  however,  the  aircraft  manufacturing 
industry  showed  a  steady  recovery  from  the  1946  low  level 
because  of  the  increasing  demand  for  new  military  aircraft. 
Employment  in  the  primary  aircraft  industry  which  had 
dropped  to  a  low  of  180,000  in  1947  had  risen  to  approxi- 
mately 218,000  by  the  middle  of  1949. 

The  unstable  state  of  world  affairs  led  congress  to  appro- 
priate very  large  sums  of  money  for  research  and  develop-  « 
ment  and  for  new  types  of  aircraft.  During  1949  this  resulted 
in  substantial  production  orders  for  machines  to   replace 
World  War  II  types  in  air  force  and  navy  squadrons. 

Certain  technological  advances  of  the  past  few  years  were 
having  a  profound  effect  upon  aircraft  manufacturing  during 
1949.  During  the  war  the  emphasis  had  been  almost  entirely 
on  production.  Intensive  reseaich  and  development  during 
the  immediate  postwar  years  had  resulted  in  drastic  design 
changes  which  were  being  reflected  in  manufacturing  pro- 
cesses and  production.  The  armed  services  were  in  1949 
replacing  their  obsolete  equipment  with  new  aircraft  of 
tremendously  improved  performance. 

The  most  radical  change  in  aircraft  manufacturing  was 
due  to  the  introduction  of  jet-type  power  plants.  This 
necessitated  a  complete  redesign  and  retooling  in  air-frame 
and  aircraft  engine  manufacturing  plants. 

The  availability  of  jet  and  rocket  power  plants  and  the 
greatly  increased  aerodynamic  knowledge  due  to  intensive 
postwar  research  greatly  extended  the  speed  possibilities  for 
aircraft.  Already  the  so-called  "  sonic  barrier  "  (approxi- 
mately 760  m.p.h.  at  sea  level)  had  been  exceeded  by  piloted 
aircraft.  Such  speeds,  however,  impose  demands  upon 
human  pilots  that  are  physically  impossible  to  meet.  More 
and  more  effort,  therefore,  had  been  focused  on  the  design 
and  manufacture  of  pilotless  aircraft  or  guided  missiles. 
During  1949  many  manufacturers  found  that  they  were 
giving  more  attention  to  the  design  of  guided  missiles  than  to 
conventional  aeroplane  types. 

Aircraft  manufacturing  was  also  made  more  difficult  by 
the  increasing  size  and  complexity  of  modern  aeroplanes. 
In  1939  the  average  bomber  weighed  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  20,000  Ib.  (empty),  a  fighter  5,000  lb.,  a  trainer  2,000  Ib. 
and  a  transport  about  12,000  lb.  By  the  end  of  World  War  II 
50,000 -lb.  bombers  and  transports  and  10,000-lb  fighters 
were  in  service.  During  1949  at  least  one  bomber  of  about 
150,000  lb.  (empty)  was  in  production.  Jet  fighters  of  about 
12,000  lb.  were  being  built  and  the  average  four-engine 
transport  in  air  line  service  weighed  about  50,000  lb  empty. 

The  net  result  of  the  increase  in  aeroplane  size  and  com- 
plexity was  greatly  to  increase  the  unit  cost  of  aircraft. 
Where  in  1939  a  twin-engine,  23-passenger  transport  cost 
about  $150,000,  a  four-engine  50-60  passenger  air  liner  of 
1949  cost  in  the  neighbourhood  of  SI, 000,000.  The  navy 
estimated  that,  on  the  average,  each  jet-powered  aircraft 
procured  during  the  1949-50  fiscal  year  would  cost  $829,000. 
The  air  force  figure  was  $900,000.  Mass  production  would, 
of  course,  materially  reduce  these  figures. 

During  1949  the  aircraft  industry  did  about  $1,700  million 
worth  of  business,  the  largest  share  of  which  came  from 
military  buying  through  government  agencies.  Output 
included  approximately  2,500  military  aircraft,  3,400  private 
type  planes  and  160  civil  transports  of  all  types.  For  reasons 
of  security  military  aircraft  production  was  computed  in 
terms  of  air-frame  weight  rather  than  the  number  of  planes. 
On  this  basis  the  production  for  the  year  would  reach 
approximately  28  million  lb.  of  air-frame  weight  as  compared 
with  approximately  25  million  in  1948. 


The  basic  aircraft  industry  at  the  end  of  1949  consisted  of 
34  manufacturers  of  complete  aircraft,  with  39  plants,  and  13 
manufacturers  of  aircraft  engines,  operating  14  plants.  The 
balance  of  the  industry  consisted  of  a  large  number  of 
propeller  and  accessory  companies  backed  up  by  suppliers 
of  parts  and  materials  as  well  as  subcontractors  and  manu- 
facturers of  sub-assemblies.  The  latter  categories  were  of 
increasing  importance.  In  the  production  of  the  Boeing  B-47 
bomber  for  example,  48  %  of  the  total  cost  went  to  hundreds 
of  subcontractors,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  the  General 
Electric  J-47  turbo-jet  engine  it  was  estimated  that  280 
subcontracting  companies  participated. 

The  3,40(f  output  of  private  planes  was  a  great  disappoint- 
ment to  those  who  before  the  end  of  the  war  predicted  a 
probable  production  of  50,000-60,000  a  year  by  1950.  The 
market  failed  to  develop  because  the  private  aeroplane 
was  not  developed  to  the  point  of  real  usefulness  at  low  cost. 
At  the  end  of  1949  there  was  nothing  in  sight  that  would 
change  this  situation  and  greatly  increase  the  demand. 

The  demand  for  commercial  transport  aircraft  had  been 
dropping  off  steadily  as  the  civil  air  lines  in  the  U.S.  com- 
pleted their  modernization  programmes.  At  the  end  of  1949 
there  were  approximately  1,100  transport  aircraft  in  service 
on  U.S.  domestic  and  overseas  air  lines,  which  appeared  to 
be  about  the  number  that  the  traffic  could  bear  in  the 
immediate  future.  Some  replacements  would  be  required 
during  the  next  few  years,  but  it  was  probable  that  the 
demands  for  the  next  year  or  two  would  fall  below  the 
1949  level. 

A  number  of  U.S.  jet  transport  designs  were  being  planned. 
Several  years  must  elapse,  however,  before  interest  would  be 
reflected  in  actual  orders  for  jet  transports.  Few  U.S.  air 
lines  could  afford  to  replace  existing  equipment  with  jet- 
powered  equipment  much  before  1955. 

In  addition  to  the  conventional  aircraft  types  mentioned 
above,  helicopters  were  a  factor  in  1949  U.S.  aircraft  produc- 
tion. A  number  of  new  companies  had  come  into  the  field 
but  over-all  production  statistics  were  incomplete.  It  was 
estimated,  however,  that  about  200  helicopters  were  pro- 
duced in  the  United  States  during  1949.  Most  of  them 
went  to  the  military  services  for  special  uses  (air-sea  rescue 
work,  etc.)  but  a  few  went  into  commercial  use  for  the 
carriage  of  mail  and  small  items  in  isolated  districts.  (See 
also  JET  PROPULSION  AND  GAS  TURBINES.)  (S.  P.  J.) 

AIR  FORCES  OF  THE  WORLD.  The  outstanding 
development  of  the  year  was  the  formal  ratification  through 
the  North  Atlantic  treaty  (tf.v )  of  the  policy  through  which 
Great  Britain  was  already  furnishing  jet  fighters  and  engines 
to  nations  of  the  Western  Union  and  their  democratic 
neighbouis,  under  the  Treaty  of  Brussels  of  1948.  Nations 
who  signed  the  Atlantic  treaty,  or  were  in  sympathy  with  its 
purposes,  had  alieady  began  to  equip  their  air  forces  with 
British  Vampire  and  Meteor  fighters.  British  jet  engines 
were  also  available  to  them.  France  purchased  British 
fighters  and  was  beginning  to  manufacture  British  jet  engines 
under  licence.  Belgium  purchased  Meteors  and  Meteor 
trainers,  and  the  Rolls-Royce  Derwent  turbo-jets  for  these 
were  being  built  at  Liege  under  licence.  About  20  Meteors 
were  purchased  by  the  Netherlands  where  the  Meteor 
trainer  was  also  in  use.  Netherlands  naval  aviation  was 
using  the  British  Hawker  Sea  Fury,  and  the  Faiiey  Firefly 
among  its  piston-engined  aircraft.  Switzerland  purchased 
75  Vampires  and  was  licensed  to  build  100  more,  with 
Goblin  engines  to  be  sent  from  Great  Britain.  Both  Norway 
and  Sweden  purchased  Vampires;  and  Sweden  was  manufac- 
turing the  de  Havilland  and  Goblin  turbo-jet  under  licence. 
Italy  ordered  50  Vampires  in  1949,  to  be  delivered  by 
March  1950. 


32 


AIR    FORCES   OF    THE  WORLD 


The  formalizing  of  the  Western  Union  defence  plan  included 
the  establishment  of  a  central  supply  and  resources  board 
under  the  Western  Union  defence  committee.  The  excellence 
and  availability  of  British  jet  fighters  and  jet  engines,  together 
with  the  fact  that  they  were  already  being  purchased,  made 
their  use  in  western  Europe  natural.  At  the  same  time  the 
western  hemisphere  would  tend  to  use  U.S.  equipment. 

The  U  S.  was  responsible  under  the  North  Atlantic  treaty 
for  long  range  strategic  bombing  requirements,  on  the  basis 
of  existing  equipment.  British  Lancasters  and  Lincolns,  and 
the  coastal-defence  Shackletons,  were  limited  in  range,  though 
Britain's  position  in  this  respect  would  be  improved  by  the 
acquisition  of  American  B-29s.  The  existing  plan  called  for 
short  range  attack  bombing  and  fighter  defence  by  Britain, 
France  and  the  other  allied  nations.  This  was  being  pursued 
at  the  end  of  1949  to  such  an  extent  that  the  allied  nations 
were  receiving  fighters  from  Britain  while  R.A.F.  reserves 
and  overseas  units  were  still  using  a  great  deal  of  wartime 
reciprocating  engine-powered  equipment. 

Great  Britain.  The  first  British  jet-propelled  bomber,  the 
English  Electric  A  I  Canberra,  was  first  flown  in  May  1949. 
It  was  powered  by  two  Rolls-Royce  Avon  turbo-jets  mounted 
in  nacelles  in  the  wings.  The  conventional  Avro  Shackleton, 
powered  by  four  Rolls-Royce  Griffons  with  counter-rotating 
propellers,  continued  to  be  the  only  British  bomber  developed 
since  the  war  in  the  100,000  Ib.  class.  The  Avro  707,  a 
Delta-wing  research  fighter  powered  by  one  Rolls-Royce 
Derwent,  was  said  to  be  part  of  a  research  programme 
leading  toward  a  Delta-wing  bomber  using  twin  turbo-jets 
contained  in  the  wing.  Handley  Page  was  reported  to  be 
working  on  a  jet  bomber  of  unconventional  design,  and  the 
de  Havilland  company  on  a  jet  bomber  which  might  be 
based  upon  its  successful  civil  turbo-jet  transport,  the  Comet. 

The  Vickers  Supermanne  510  was  one  of  the  experimental 
fighter  types  to  appear  during  the  year.  It  was  estimated  to 
have  flown  at  about  660  m  p.h.  at  Farnborough,  in  September, 
and  to  handle  well  at  high  altitudes.  A  Rolls-Royce  None 
turbo-jet  was  the  power  plant.  The  experimental  Hawker 
P.  1052  was  also  powered  by  a  Rolls-Royce  Nene.  The 
manufacturers  claimed  an  unusually  long  range  for  it.  The 
de  Havilland  Venom  F.B.I,  first  flown  on  Sept.  2,  was 
powered  by  a  de  Havilland  Ghost  turbo-jet.  Its  manoeuvra- 
bility at  altitude,  climb  and  speed  were  favourably  reported 
and  the  Venom  was  known  to  be  an  all-round  improvement 
on  the  Vampire.  The  Royal  Navy's  Westland  Wy  vern  torpedo 
fighter  appeared  at  Farnborough  as  the  first  front  line  military 
aircraft  to  be  powered  by  a  turbo-prop. 

While  Vampires  and  Meteors  were  the  standard  fighters 
of  the  R  A  F.,  the  de  Havilland  Hornet  and  Mosquito,  the 
Hawker  Tempest,  the  Supermanne  Spitfire  and  the  Bristol 
Brigand  continued  among  the  piston-engmed  aircraft  in 
service  for  various  duties  as  long-range  fighters,  night 
fighters,  fighter  bombers  and  light  bombers. 

In  addition  to  the  jet-propelled  de  Havilland  Sea  Vampire 
and  Supermanne  Attacker,  the  navy  continued  with  the 
de  Havilland  Sea  Hornet,  Hawker  Sea  Fury,  Supermanne 
Seafire,  Blackburn  Firebrand  and  Faircy  Barracuda  and 
Firefly  for  carrier-based  fighting,  night  fighting,  fighter- 
reconnaissance  and  bomber  aircraft  duties.  Two  new  R  A  F. 
anti-submarine  aircraft  were  announced  late  in  1949,  the 
Blackburn  Y.A  5  and  the  Fairey  17. 

British  gas-turbine  development  continued  intensively 
during  1949,  with  definite  trends  towards  increased  use  of 
axial-flow  designs  and  higher  power  in  both  turbo-jets  and 
turbo-props,  and  renewed  interest  in  after-burning  as  a 
source  of  additional  power.  The  first  British  rocket  motor 
made  its  appearance  in  1949,  the  de  Havilland  Sprite,  giving 
a  thrust  of  5,000  Ib.  for  9  sec.  The  Sprite  was  intended  for 
use  in  the  assisted  take-off  of  such  aircraft  as  the  de  Havilland 


Comet.  Among  the  new  turbo-jets  were  the  Rolls-Royce 
Avon,  the  Rolls-Royce  Tay  turbo-jet,  the  Armstrong  Sid- 
deley  Double  Mamba  (consisting  of  two  Mamba  3s  driving 
a  single  shaft)  and  the  Napier  Double  Naiad  which  was 
reported  under  development.  Both  the  Mamba  and  the 
Naiad  were  axial-flow  turbo-props.  The  Bristol  Proteus  turbo- 
prop, which  was  expected  to  be  flown  in  1950,  was  to  power 
the  Bristol  Brabazon  II  and  the  Saunders-Roe  Princess,  the 
giant  transports.  The  Armstrong  Siddeley  Sapphire,  latest 
of  the  turbo-jets,  was  reported  to  be  a  development  of  the 
Metropohtan-Vickers  Beryl. 

The  R.A.F.  was  using  or  had  ordered  principally  the 
Handley  Page  Hastings  (75,000  Ib.)  as  a  heavy  transport, 
the  Bristol  170  (40,000  Ib.)  and  the  lighter  Percwal  Prince 
and  Vickers  Valetta  during  1949.  The  civil  jet-transport 
programme  proceeded  intensively  and  the  possibilities  of  jet 
transports  in  military  use  and  in  bomber  development  were 
mentioned  by  observers.  The  130-ton  Brabazon  1  was  first 
flown  in  September;  and  construction  on  the  Brabazon  II 
and  the  giant  Saunders-Roe  Princess  flying  boat  was  proceed- 
ing. These  would  be  powered  by  the  Bristol  Proteus  tui  bo- 
prop.  The  first  flights  of  the  de  Havilland  Comet,  powered 
by  four  Ghost  turbo-jets,  were  successful;  and  this  plane 
was  expected  by  British  and  several  U.S.  observers  to  have 
an  excellent  future  Among  the  turbo-prop  civil  aircraft  to 
fly  first  in  1949  were  the  Handley  Page  Hermes,  heaviest 
turbo-prop  transport  at  84,000  Ib.,  and  the  Handley  Page 
Miles  Marathon,  at  18,000  Ib.  Both  the  Vickers  Viscount 
and  the  Armstrong-Whitworth  Apollo  underwent  consider- 
able flight  testing  in  1949 

The  Westland-Sikorsky  S-51  was  the  only  helicopter 
reported  in  quantity  production  for  military  purposes,  a 
number  having  been  ordered  by  the  Royal  Navy. 

The  Commonwealth.  Reflecting  the  stiong  research  and 
development  programme  on  military  an  craft  and  gas  turbines 
in  Great  Britain,  Canada  and  Australia  were  working  on 
independent  designs  which  might  affect  the  future  equipment 
of  their  air  forces. 

In  Canada,  the  Avro  Orcnda  turbo-jet  completed  more 
than  750  hr.  of  ground  tests,  and  was  being  test  flown  in  a 
North  American  F-86A  fighter.  The  CF-100  (formerly  the 
XC-100)  was  expected  to  make  Us  first  flight  early  in  1950. 
The  outstanding  transport  development  in  Canada  was  the 
Avro  C-102,  powered  by  four  Rolls-Royce  Derwcnt  turbo- 
jets.  This  aircraft  was  flown  at  500  rn.p.h.  above  30,000  ft. 

In  Australia,  a  twin-jet  all  weather  fighter  was  reported 
under  development,  probably  to  be  powered  by  Rolls-Royce 
Tay  turbo-jets.  Commonwealth  Aircraft  corporation  was 
licensed  in  September  to  produce  the  Canberra,  bomber  and 
the  Hawker  P.  1040  lighter.  The  Rolls-Royce  Nene  was  being 
manufactured  under  license  in  Australia;  and  the  de  Havilland 
company  in  Austialia  was  manufacturing  the  Vampire, 
the  standard  fighter  of  the  R.A.A.F.  (M.  H.  SM.;  S.  P.  J.j 

United  States.  Operation  "  Vittles,"  until  the  lifting  of  the 
rail  blockade  of  Berlin  on  May  12  by  the  Russians,  was  a 
major  U  S.  air  force  activity  during  1949.  The  Berlin  air  lift 
had  begun  operations  on  June  26,  1948,  by  flying,  in  a  24-hr, 
period,  80  tons  of  food  and  other  needed  supplies  into  Berlin. 
The  planes  during  the  first  days  of  the  project  were  two- 
engined  C-47s.  The  amount  of  supplies  flown  by  air  was 
greatly  increased  by  the  addition  of  four-engined  C-54 
transports  and  by  May  12,  1949,  a  total  of  195,998  flights  had 
been  made  by  U.S.  and  British  transports,  carrying  1,589,567 
cargo  and  passenger  tons.  With  the  announcement  of  the 
lifting  of  the  rail  and  road  blockade,  the  combined  air  lift 
was  gradually  inactivated  as  part  of  a  plan  to  reduce  the  scope 
of  operations  This  phasing  out  continued  until  Sept.  30, 
the  closing  day  of  the  Berlin  air  lift.  During  its  15  months  of 
operation,  U.S.  planes  had  massed  a  total  of  591,347  flying 


AIR    FORCES    OF   THE   WORLD 


33 


The   Vickers- Armstrongs  Supermarine  510 — a  single  seater  fighter 
powered  by  a  Nene  turbo-jet. 

hours  and  U.S.  air  lift  planes,  including  navy  transports, 
carried  1,783,826  tons  of  food,  coal  and  other  supplies  into 
Berlin.  British  planes  on  the  air  lift  had  flown  538,416  tons 
to  Berlin  in  addition  to  the  U.S.  tonnage. 

Production  of  the  Consolidated  B-36  long-range  bomber 
continued  during  1949  and  it  was  announced  that  a  second 
U.S.A. F.  operational  group  was  equipped  with  the  B-36  by 
June  30.  Four  J-47  jet  engines  were  installed  on  a  B-36D, 
giving  more  than  20,000  additional  pounds  of  thrust  to  the 
21,000  h.p.  supplied  by  the  six  Wasp-Majors  engines  with 
which  the  pusher-type  bomber  is  equipped.  Jet  engines  were 
being  added  to  all  existing  B-36s. 

The  nonstop  around-the-world  flight  of  an  air  force  B-50 
bomber,  the  "  Lucky  Lady  II,"  Feb.  26  to  March  2,  1949, 
demonstrated  progress  in  increasing  the  range  of  aircraft  by 
in-flight  refuelling  and  fuel  conservation  by  cruise  control 
techniques.  The  B-50  left  Carswell  air  force  base,  Fort  Worth, 
Texas,  Feb.  26,  headed  east  and  landed  at  the  take-off  point 
after  being  aloft  94  hr.  1  min.  B-29  tanker  planes  refuelled 
the  "  Lucky  Lady  II  "  by  a  flexible-hose,  gravity-feed  system 
at  four  points  along  its  global  route  of  more  than  23,000  mi. 

In  October,  the  air  force  revealed  a  new  flying  boom  in- 
flight refuelling  method  which  eliminates  some  of  the  diffi- 
culties encountered  in  the  gravity-feed  system.  In  using  this 
new  technique  developed  for  the  air  force  by  the  Boeing 
Airplane  company,  two  planes  fly  in  formation  and  a  con- 
trolled, telescoping  boom  carried  beneath  the  tanker  plane, 
is  flown  into  position  by  the  tanker  plane  and  inserted  into  a 
socket  in  the  nose  of  the  receiver  plane.  The  fuel  is  transferred 
under  pressure. 

The  Boeing  B-47  Stratojet,  a  high-speed  medium  bomber 
powered  by  six  jet  engines,  established  a  record  flight  for 


The  English  Electric  Canberra  /,  Britain's  first  jet  bomber,  powered 
by  two  Rolls-Royce  Avon  axial  flow  gas  turbines. 


bombers  by  flying  from  Moses  Lake,  Washington,  to  Andrews 
field,  Camp  Springs,  Maryland,  on  Feb.  8, 1949,  in  3  hr.  46  min. 
The  125,000  Ib.  bomber,  accepted  by  the  air  force  late  in 
1948,  utilized  a  new  type  of  landing  gear  with  wheels  mounted 
in  tandem  or  bicycle  fashion. 

Four  new  jet  fighter  planes  were  among  the  new  aircraft 
to  be  test  flown  during  the  year.  One  of  these,  the  XF-92A, 
formerly  designated  the  Model  7002  research  plane,  was  a 
radically  designed  fighter  using  the  Delta  wing  for  the  first 
time.  Experimentation  and  evaluation  of  the  aerodynamic 
characteristics  of  the  Delta  wing,  which  has  a  sweepback  of 
60°,  had  previously  been  conducted  in  wind  tunnel  tests. 

The  Republic  XF-91  interceptor,  and  the  Lockheed  XF-90 
penetration  fighter,  made  initial  flights  at  Muroc  air  force 
base,  California.  Flight  evaluation  of  the  XF-94,  a  radar- 
equipped  advanced  design  of  the  Lockheed  TF-80,  was  also 
made. 

Two  trainer  aircraft  were  test  flown  in  September.  The 
North  American  T-28,  single-engined,  low-wing  monoplane, 
was  designed  to  replace  the  T-6  Texan,  which  was  used 
widely  in  training  pilots  during  World  War  II.  The  T-28 
included  several  improvements  over  its  predecessor.  The 
T-29,  modification  of  the  Convair  Model  240  transport,  was 
designed  to  train  student  navigators.  This  flying  classroom 
had  14  stations,  each  equipped  with  a  Loran  scope,  radio  com- 
pass, altimeter,  air-speed  indicator,  drift  meter  and  map  table. 

Other  new  aircraft  included  the  XC-123,  a  twin-engined 
assault  transport,  and  an  experimental  bomber,  the  Martin 
XB-S1.  Powered  by  three  turbo-jet  engines,  the  XB-51  was 
the  first  postwar  aeroplane  specifically  designed  for  the 
destruction  of  surface  targets  in  co-operation  with  ground 
forces.  The  XB-52,  which  was  under  development,  was  a 
jet  long  range  heavy  bomber. 

The  total  number  of  officers,  and  airmen  on  duty  in  the 
U.S.A.F.  reached  419,919  as  at  Aug.  31,  1949.  This  total 
represented  full  time  military  personnel,  regulars  and  reserves, 
on  active  duty. 

As  at  July  1949  there  were  9,400  U.S.A.F.  planes  in  active 
status  including  postwar  types.  Included  in  this  total  were 
combat  and  utility  aircraft.  Combat  aircraft  included  bom- 
bers, fighters,  reconnaissance,  combat  amphibian  and  search 
and  rescue  planes  performing  the  mission  for  which  they  were 
designed.  Utility  aircraft  included  transport,  trainer  and 
communications  aircraft  and  former  combat  aircraft. 

A  new  distinctive  blue  uniform,  identical  for  officers  and 
airmen  except  for  insignia  of  rank,  was  approved  by  the  air 
force  at  the  beginning  of  the  year.  All  airmen  were  to  be 
equipped  with  new  uniforms  by  Sept.  1,  1950. 

The  headquarters  of  four  numbered  air  forces  (the  1st,  10th, 
14th  and  15th)  and  several  tactical  units  in  the  United  States 
were  re-located  and  six  tactical  groups  were  scheduled  to  be 
inactivated  in  accordance  with  a  programme  of  economies 
announced  in  August  by  the  Department  of  Defence.  Under 
this  plan,  nine  bases  were  declared  surplus  to  the  needs  of 
the  U.S.A.F.;  and  disposal,  under  the  provisions  of  public 
law  152,  81st  congress,  was  initiated.  The  group  structure  of 
the  air  force  was  reduced  from  54  to  48.  In  Oct.  1949,  the 
congress  passed  legislation  authorizing  a  group  structure 
of  58.  (H.  S.  Vo.) 

U.S.  Navy.  Reduction  of  the  aeronautic  organization  of 
the  U.S.  navy  to  the  level  permitted  by  the  budget  for  fiscal 
1950  began  early  in  1949.  By  July,  the  number  of  operating 
and  support  aircraft  was  lowered  to  10,500,  aviation  officers 
to  12,205  and  enlisted  rates  to  63,490.  By  the  same  month, 
3  battle,  5  attack,  3  light  and  3  escort  carriers  and  14  aircraft 
tenders  were  operating  with  the  fleet;  active  aviation  shore 
stations  numbered  60;  overseas  bases,  13.  Several  Pacific 
bases  were  closed  and  some  Atlantic  bases  used  in  World 
War  II  were  re-activated. 


34 


AIR    FORCES    OF   THE   WORLD 


Flight  training  was  concentrated  at  Pensacola,  Florida,  and 
Corpus  Christi,  Texas,  and  technical  training  at  Memphis, 
Tennessee.  The  F8F  fighter,  AD  attack  plane  and  P2V  patrol 
plane  were  introduced  in  flight  courses  and  jet  fighters  were 
introduced  in  operational  training.  The  organized  reserve 
was  expanded  to  7,800  officers  and  21,500  men.  Training 
was  conducted  on  a  year-round  basis  and  15  air  groups 
completed  two-week  cruises  aboard  carriers. 

On  March  4,  the  **  Caroline  Mars,'*  one  of  four  large 
seaplanes  operating  with  fleet  logistic  support  wings,  Pacific, 
broke  a  record  by  carrying  263  passengers  in  addition  to  her 
crew  of  6,  from  San  Diego  to  Alameda,  California.  The  same 
month,  a  P2V-3C  patrol  plane  with  a  10,000  Ib.  bomb  load, 
took  off  from  the  carrier  "  Coral  Sea  "  in  the  Atlantic,  flew 
across  the  United  States  to  drop  its  bomb  load,  and  returned 
nonstop  to  Patuxent  River,  Maryland,  after  a  flight  of  more 
than  4,000  mi. 

In  support  of  the  Berlin  air  lift  U.S.  navy  squadrons  VR-6 
and  8  participated  in  the  air  lift  from  Nov.  1948  to  June  1949. 
VR-8  not  only  carried  the  most  tons  in  any  month,  but  with 
VR-6  a  close  second,  led  all  air  force  and  navy  squadrons  in 
the  efficient  use  of  aircraft  over  the  entire  period. 

The  former  seaplane  tender  "  Norton  Sound,"  placed  in 
operation  early  in  the  year  as  a  test  ship,  aided  in  solving  many 
launching  and  directing  problems  in  the  field  of  guided 
missiles.  Wind  tunnel  facilities  and  equipment  were  improved. 
Research  in  turbo-jet  engines  increased  performance.  The 
jet  fighters  F2H  Banshee,  F9F  Panther,  and  F6U  Pirate,  and 
conventional  attack  planes  AD-3  Skyraider  and  AM-1 
Mauler,  which  was  capable  of  carrying  a  heavier  bomb  load 
than  any  known  single  engine  plane,  were  operating  with  the 
fleet.  Helicopters  had  replaced  single-engined  seaplanes  on 
battleships  and  cruisers.  Work  was  begun  on  the  moderniza- 
tion of  three  carriers  and  installation  of  more  powerful  deck 
gear  for  the  operation  of  larger  aircraft.  (C.  T.  D.) 

U.S.S.R.  The  main  sources  of  information  regarding 
aeronautical  progress  in  the  U.S.S.R.  were  reports  of  obser- 
vers of  Soviet  aircraft  on  the  traditional  May  day  and  Aviation 
day  displays,  the  latter  of  which  was  in  July  1949.  No  close- 
up  inspection  of  aircraft  was  allowed.  Visitors  had  to  be 
content  with  what  they  could  see  as  the  machines  flew  over- 
head. Because  of  the  variety  of  types  that  had  been  observed 
on  such  occasions  there  was  no  question  but  that  the  Russians 
were  exploiting  their  knowledge  of  jet  aircraft  and  jet  engines 
to  the  limit.  In  this  they  were  unquestionably  aided  by  large 
numbers  of  Germans  who  had  been  picked  up  in  the  Soviet 


zone  of  Germany  and  had  been  at  work  for  the  Soviet  govern- 
ment during  the  past  five  years. 

It  was  known  that  the  Russians  had  been  heavily  occupied 
with  the  development  of  the  guided-missiles  projects  based  on 
German  wartime  research.  This  lent  weight  to  speculation 
that  development  of  liquid  fuel  rocket  engines  on  a  consider- 
able scale  was  under  way,  both  for  piloted  aircraft  and  for 
guided  missiles.  The  Russians  claimed  to  have  flown  an 
experimental  jet-powered  aeroplane  at  speeds  greater  than 
the  speed  of  sound.  There  was,  however,  no  proof  of  this 
accomplishment. 

In  the  bomber  categories,  only  two  new  types  were 
definitely  identified,  the  Ilyushin  four-jet  bomber  and  the 
Tupolev  twin-jet  attack  bomber.  They  appeared  to  be  in  the 
medium  bomber  category.  The  best  guess  was  that  the  range  of 
the  Ilyushin  four-jet  bomber  was  approximately  1,500  mi. 
with  a  bomb  load  of  about  5,000  Ib.  It  was  thought  that  the 
Tupolev  twin-jet  bomber  might  be  capable  of  carrying  a  5,000 
Ib.  bomb  load  somewhat  less  than  1,000  mi.,  and  that  it  had  a 
speed  of  at  least  445  m.p.h. 

In  the  jet-fighter  category  the  work  of  only  three  designers 
had  been  definitely  identified,  Lavochkin,  Mikoyan  and 
Gurevich  (MIG),  and  Yakovlev.  Lavochkin  had  a  long 
background  of  design  of  successful  single-seat  fighters  of 
conventional  types.  As  early  as  1947,  an  LAV-9  fitted  with 
auxiliary  jet  and  rocket  power  plants  was  reported  in  the 
Aviation  day  display.  Newer  LAV  jet  designs  had  also  been 
seen  but  details  were  entirely  lacking.  The  MIG-9  twin-jet 
fighter  by  Mikoyan  was  a  single-seat  monoplane  of  conven- 
tional configuration.  The  engines  were  believed  to  be  German 
axial-flow  type  turbines  developing  a  thrust  of  approximately 
3,500  Ib.  each.  Its  estimated  speed  was  of  the  order  of  600 
m.p.h.  Two  Yakovlev  jet  fighters  were  described.  The  YAK 
-15  was  apparently  based  on  an  earlier  design  (the  YAK-3)  in 
which  the  conventional  reciprocating  engine  had  been  replaced 
by  a  Jumo-004H  axial-flow  turbo-jet  engine  mounted 
underneath  the  fuselage.  Other  dimensions  and  weights  were 
lacking.  The  maximum  speed  was  probably  in  the  500  m.p.h. 
range.  The  YAK- 17  was  a  later  development — resembling 
in  general  the  Republic  F-84  Thunderjet  of  the  U.S.  air  force. 
The  probability  was  that  this  machine  was  in  the  600-650 
m.p.h.  class.  It  appeared  to  be  the  best  of  the  1949  U.S.S.R. 
fighter  designs. 

Reports  continued  of  production  of  a  Tupolev  modification 
of  the  B-29  bomber.  A  transport  modification,  the  TU-70, 
was  also  reported.  This  was  a  four-engined  type  designed  for 


The  jet  engine  of  a  Republic  F-84  Thunderjet  being  removed  at  Falmouth,  Massachusetts.    The  Thunderjet  is  capable  of  reaching  a  speed  of 
600  m.p.h.  and  was  one  of  the  three  jet  fighters  for  which  the  United  States  A.A.F.  had  placed  extensive  orders. 


AIRPORTS 


35 


72  passengers  and  a  crew  of  4  or  5.  Ilyushin  also  appeared 
to  be  in  production  on  cargo  and  transport  types. 

The  total  number  of  aircraft  in  the  Soviet  military  and  civil 
air  fleets  was  entirely  unknown  as  was  the  1949  rate  of  aircraft 
production.  There  was  undoubtedly  a  very  considerable 
aviation  activity  within  the  borders  of  the  U.S.S.R.  Designers 
appeared  to  be  competent  and  they  seemed  to  have  access 
to  up-to-date  information  from  Soviet  research  laboratories 
and  from  those  outside  the  U.S.S.R.  The  chances  were  good 
that  a  large  well  manned  air  fleet  was  in  being,  backed  up 
by  an  industry  of  considerable  capacity,  but  British  and  U.S. 
sources  were  in  agreement  that,  at  the  close  of  1949,  the 
Western  Union  powers  had  a  marked  edge  in  technological 
development. 

Europe.  France.  The  French  air  force  in  1949  was  still 
equipped  largely  with  surplus  aircraft  of  World  War  II, 
except  for  a  few  British  de  Havilland  Vampire  jet  fighters. 
Modernizing  was  discussed  and  reported  upon,  but  action 
was  slow.  Purchases  abroad  were  expected  to  provide  most 
new  types,  such  as  jet  fighters;  but  in  the  autumn  there  was 
another  political  crisis  with  changes  in  the  defence  ministry 
and  a  new  plan  was  reported  late  in  the  year  which  would 
involve  a  considerable  overhauling  of  the  nationalized 
aircraft  industry. 

The  outstanding  French  jet  aircraft  of  1949  was  the  Leduc 
O.10  ram-jet,  which  made  its  first  powered  flight  on  April  21. 
This  plane  had  left  the  ground  only  on  the  back  of  a  Languedoc 
161  air  liner,  but  it  might  be  fitted  with  rockets  for  take-off 
power.  The  Leduc  ram-jet  engine  propelled  it  at  more  than 
450  m.p.h.  at  half  power  on  its  first  powered  flight.  The 
Dessauit  MD  450  Ouragan  fighter,  powered  by  a  Rolls- 
Royce  Nene  turbo-jet  built  by  Hispano  Suiza  in  France  under 
licence,  appeared  to  be  the  choice  under  the  new  plan  as  the 
standard  French  intercepter  fighter.  The  S.N.C.A.  (Societe 
Nationale  de  Constructions  Aeronautiques)  du  Sud-Ouest 
S.O.  6020  Nene-powered  fighter  would  probably  be  built 
to  the  number  of  several  hundred  as  all-weather  fighters 
under  the  new  plan.  Experimental  jets  of  the  S.N.C.A. 
du  Nord  were  the  Nord  1600  and  the  Nord  2200.  The  latter 
was  designed  as  a  carrier-borne  fighter.  The  Breguet  960, 
under  construction,  was  another  naval  fighter-bomber,  with 
a  Nene  turbo-jet  in  the  rear  and  a  Mamba  turbo-prop  in 
the  nose. 

The  jet  engines  used  in  military  aircraft  in  France  were 
British,  either  imported  or  manufactured  under  licence. 
French  development  of  the  gas  turbine  began  in  1946.  The 
S.N.E.C.M.A.  (Societe  Nationale  d'Etude  et  de  Construction 
de  Moteurs  deviation)  ATAR  101 B  turbo-jet,  at  5,000  Ib. 
thrust,  and  the  TB  1000  turbo-prop  of  the  same  company, 
at  1,220  shaft  h.p.,  were  in  bench  test  stages.  The  Compagnie 
Electro-Mecanique  TGAR  1008  turbo-jet,  at  4,850  Ib.  thrust, 
and  its  TGA-1  bis  turbo-prop,  at  2,410  shaft  h.p.,  were  in 
the  prototype  testing  stage.  The  Rateau  SRA-101  turbo-jet, 
made  by  the  S.N.E.C.M.A.  company,  developed  8,820  Ib. 
thrust.  New  piston-engine  development  in  France  was  almost 
at  a  standstill  at  the  end  of  1949  and  the  engine  industry  was 
considered  to  be  in  a  stage  of  transition  to  emphasize  gas 
turbines. 

Italy.  The  Italian  air  force,  by  peace  treaty  provisions,  was 
limited  to  200  defensive  fighter  and  reconnaissance  aircraft 
and  150  trainers  and  transports.  Front  line  aircraft  in  1949 
were  surplus  Supermarine  Spitfires  from  Britain  and  Mustangs 
and  Lockheed  Lightnings  from  the  U.S.  The  aircraft  and 
engine  industries  in  Italy  made  slow  progress  in  recovering 
from  war  damage  and  were  producing  only  a  few  light 
transports,  light  aircraft  and  military  trainers  at  the  end  of 
1949.  Among  Italian  transports,  the  Breda-Zappa ta  B.Z.  308 
transport  for  55  to  80  passengers,  powered  by  four  Bristol 
Centaurus  engines,  was  still  undergoing  its  flight  tests  in 


A  new  parachute  manufactured  in  England  and  demonstrated  in 
Nov.  1949,  which  opened  automatically  at  a  pre-set  height. 

1949.  This  was  the  most  advanced  transport  being  built  in 
Italy.  The  Argentine  government  ordered  10. of  these  late 
in  1949. 

The  engine  manufacturers  were  making  light  engines 
principally,  but  Alfa  Romeo  and  Isotta-Fraschini  continued 
to  develop  engines  for  transports  and  trainers.  Isotta's  two 
new  engines,  the  8-cylinder  air-cooled  Cypselus  at  400  h.p. 
and  the  18-cylinder  liquid-cooled  Gypagus  at  about  1,600  h.p. 
the  latter  with  its  latest  Delta  at  800  h.p.,  indicated  the  state 
of  Italian  engine  development  at  the  end  of  1949.  Alfa 
Romeo  was  producing  excellent  engines  in  the  medium  and 
light  class  but  little  activity  in  jet  propulsion  was  in  evidence. 

The  industry  was  in  so  weak  a  state  that  both  the  Caproni 
and  Cant  companies  were  reported  to  have  been  closed  down ; 
but  a  new  development  late  in  the  year  placed  the  Fiat, 
Macchi,  Ambrosini  and  Alfa  Romeo  companies  in  a  new 
position.  These  firms  formed  a  company  to  sign  contracts 
with  the  British  de  Havilland  company  to  manufacture 
Vampire  fighters  and  Goblin  turbo-jet  engines.  An  order 
for  50  Vampires  by  the  Italian  government,  to  be  delivered  by 
March  1950,  would  furnish  the  air  force  with  jet  fighters  until 
the  Italian  jet-building  programme  should  get  under  way. 
(See  also  AIRCRAFT  MANUFACTURE;  AIRPORTS;  AVIATION, 
CIVIL;  JET  PROPULSION  AND  GAS  TURBINES;  MUNITIONS  OF 
WAR.)  (M.  H.  SM.;  S.  P.  J.) 

AIRPORTS.  The  International  Civil  Aviation  organiza- 
tion (I.C.A.O.)  in  1947  issued  recommendations  for  standard 
and  recommended  practices  as  to  airport  size  and  capacity. 
These  standards,  although  not  binding  on  the  member  nations 
of  I.C.A.O.,  proved  a  useful  guide  to  those  authorities 
planning  new  airports  or  extensions  to  existing  ones. 

Great  Britain.  By  1949,  only  one  airport  in  Great  Britain, 
London  airport,  fell  into  the  first  category  (A.I);  i.e.,  it  had  a 
main  runway  not  less  than  8,400  ft.  in  length,  and  could 
bear  a  single  wheel  load  of  at  least  100,000  Ib.  at  1201b. 
per  sq.  in. 

The  concreting  of  the  six-runway  layout  at  London  airport 


36 


AIRPORTS 


The  2,750  yd.  runway  at  Ft  I  ton  ^  near  Bristol \  which  was  specially  constructed  for  the  Bristol  Brabazon. 


was  almost  completed;  but  only  one  triangle  was  service- 
able and  much  additional  work  to  the  lighting,  drainage  and 
radio  aids  remained  to  be  carried  out  before  further  runways 
could  be  used.  Development  of  the  central  terminal  area  was 
begun  and  four  further  temporary  hangars  were  completed 
during  the  year. 

The  air  traffic  control  problem  became  more  acute,  particu- 
larly in  the  London  area,  where  London  and  Northolt,  both 
handling  heavy  density  traffic,  proved  to  be  too  close  under 
instrument  flying  conditions.  Additional  points  of  entry 
and  exit  for  the  Metropolitan  Control  zone  were  provided, 
an  inner  zone  was  created  and  the  holding  area  for  airliners 
waiting  to  land  at  Northolt  was  moved  to  near  Bovingdon, 
Hertfordshire.  It  was  announced  that  all  civil  airlines  now 
operating  from  Northolt  would  be  re-based  at  London 
airport  by  the  end  of  1954. 

Another  development  in  the  London  area  was  the  taking 
over  of  responsibility  at  Stansted,  Essex,  by  the  Ministry  of 
Civil  Aviation,  which  intended  to  develop  it  as  a  main 
diversion  and  charter  flying  base.  Other  British  airports 
showed  little  change,  except  that  at  Manchester  (Ringway) 
one  runway  was  extended  by  over  1 ,000  ft.  and  a  new  terminal 
building  opened;  the  stressing  of  the  main  runway  at  Prest- 
wick,  the  Scottish  transatlantic  airport,  for  airliners  of 
Stratocruiser  weight  was  completed;  and  Glasgow  (Renfrew) 
had  its  runways  re-surfaced.  Although  not  a  civil  airport, 
Bristol  (Filton)  was  the  scene  of  the  Brabazon's  first  flight, 
and  the  special  runway  and  the  assembly  hall  (largest  struc- 
ture of  its  kind  in  the  world)  also  received  B.O.A.C.'s  fleets 
of  Constellations  and  Stratocruisers  for  maintenance. 

Belgium.  At  Brussels  (Melsbroek)  work  was  concentrated 
on  building  four  double  hangars  to  occupy  4,800  sq.  yd.  A 
start  was  made  on  developing  Antwerp  (Deurne)  as  an  inter- 
national air  freight  centre. 


Finland.  It  was  announced  that  the  airport  for  Helsinki, 
Malmi,  was  to  be  replaced  by  a  new  one  at  Seutula,  to  be 
ready  for  the  Olympic  Games  in  1952. 

France.  The  airport  construction  work  vote  was  cut  by 
Fr.  85  million,  but  the  planned  development  of  Paris  (Orly) 
for  intercontinental  traffic  was  continued.  The  basic  layout 
was  to  be  similar  to  that  of  London  airport;  but  two  of  the 
three  runways  in  use  by  the  end  of  1949  were  parallel. 

Germany.  The  Anglo-U.S.  airlift  of  1948-49  reached  such 
proportions  that  the  three  receiving  airports  in  Berlin  dealt 
with  the  heaviest  density  of  aircraft  movements  in  the  history 
of  aviation.  At  the  British-controlled  base,  Gatow,  landings 
reached  a  peak  of  one  every  90  sees.  (900  per  day) — three 
times  the  maximum  traffic  at  New  York  (La  Guardia), 
formerly  the  busiest  in  the  world.  The  original  steel-mesh 
runway  was  extended  by  1,500ft.  of  concrete,  and,  parallel 
to  this,  a  new  6,000  ft.  concrete  runway  was  constructed. 
The  airports  from  which  Berlin  was  supplied  all  benefited 
materially  from  the  airlift:  Hamburg  (Fuhlsbuttel)  had  a 
new  6,000  ft.  permanent  runway  in  use,  and  Frankfurt 
(Rhein-Main)  a  second  runway  of  8,200  ft.  under  construction. 

Italy.  The  airports  of  Rome  (Ciampino)  and  Naples 
(Capodichino)  were  being  improved  with  funds  provided 
under  the  European  Recovery  programme— Ciampino 
had  an  imposing  passenger-handling  building  in  use — but  an 
entirely  new  site  for  a  Rome  intercontinental  airport  was 
selected  at  Fogere,  on  the  Tyrrhenian  coast. 

Netherlands.  The  fine  steel-and-glass  terminal  building  at 
Amsterdam  (Schiphol)  came  into  partial  service  in  May  1949 
with  the  transfer  of  all  passenger  arrivals  and  departures 
and  with  the  opening  of  the  two-floor  restaurant  above. 
The  new  control  tower  was  completed  but  technical  equipment 
was  awaited.  Concreting  work  wa$  completed  on  the  new 
north-south  runway. 


AIR   RACES   AND    RECORDS— ALBANIA 


37 


Norway.  An  aviation  commission,  in  June  1949  recom- 
mended new  airports  at  Herdla,  Gosse  and  Bodo,  the 
improvement  of  Oslo  (Fornebu)  and  Stavanger  (Sola)  and  the 
retention  of  the  existing  seaplane  bases.  Gardenmoen,  a 
major  military  base  56  km.  from  Oslo,  was  scheduled  to 
take  the  long-haul  commercial  traffic. 

Portugal.  A  seaplane  dock,  460  m.  in  length,  was  partially 
constructed  at  Cabo  Ruivo  (four  mi,  upstream  from  Lisbon); 
and  Portela,  the  land  airport,  had  a  new  administrative 
block  under  construction. 

Sweden.  The  Stockholm  (Halmsjon)  project  for  an  inter- 
continental land  airport  achieved  limited  development  in 
1949.  By  June,  some  Kr.10  million  had  been  expended, 
mainly  on  blasting  operations. 

Switzerland.  Geneva  (Cointrin)  would  remain  unique 
among  Europe's  major  airports  in  retaining  a  single  broad 
6,500ft.  runway.  A  new  passenger  handling  block  with 
a  single  long  frontage  and  a  hangar  to  house  up  to  10  four- 
engined  aircraft  were  opened  in  May  1949.  Zurich  (Kloten), 
an  entirely  new  postwar  enterprise,  had  three  runways  all 
in  use  by  the  same  date;  and  the  permanent  terminal  buildings 
were  due  for  completion  in  1950.  (G.  D.  H.  L.) 

United  States.  The  1949  Civil  Aeronautics  administration 
(C.A.A.)  revision  of  the  annual  three-year  forecast  of  con- 
structions and  improvements  contemplated  under  the  Federal 
Airport  plan  called  for  the  building  or  improvement  of 
4,977  airports  at  a  cost  of  $>  1,1 15,300,000  of  which 
$510,600,000  would  be  federal  funds  and  $604,700,000  state 
and  local  contributions.  Under  this  programme  for  1949-53, 
2,794  new  airports  would  be  constructed  and  2,183  improved. 
By  the  end  of  1949  congress  had  appropriated  $117,500,000 
toward  the  total  of  $500  million  it  authorized  in  1947.  The 
projected  programme  included  plans  for  a  second  large  air- 
port in  the  Washington  area  to  relieve  congestion  at  the 
Washington  National  airport. 

The  Aircraft  committee  of  the  Munitions  board  approved 
the  C.A.A.  sponsored  slope-line  system  of  approach  lighting 
for  airport  runways  in  use  by  the  army,  navy,  air  force  and 
commercial  operators.  Immediate  installation  of  high- 
intensity  approach  lights  utilizing  the  slope-line  system  was 
planned  for  the  Washington  National  airport,  Washington, 
D.C  ,  and  the  Los  Angeles  International  airport,  Los  Angeles, 
California.  (See  also  AVIATION,  CIVIL.)  (E.  M.  E.) 

AIR  RACES  AND  RECORDS.  The  year  1949 
was  important  in  British  air  racing  history  when  the  Royal 
Aero  club  promoted  the  first  national  air  races.  These  were 
held  at  Birmingham  (Elmdon)  from  July  30— Aug.  1,  and 
incorporated  the  more  important  events  in  the  racing  calendar 
formerly  held  at  Lympne  and  elsewhere.  All  eight  events 
were  held  over  a  20-mi.  quadrilateral  course,  which,  with 
the  poor  weather  conditions,  made  high-speed  flying  a  con- 
siderable test  of  skill.  J.  N.  Somers  in  a  Miles  Gemini  won 
the  King's  cup  and  N.F.  Duke  in  a  Hawker  P.  1040  won  the 
Kemsley  challenge  trophy  with  an  average  speed  of  508 
m.p.h.  The  Siddeley  challenge  trophy  for  British  flying  clubs 
was  won  by  F.  Dunkerley  (Lancashire  Aero  club)  and  the 
challenge  cup  of  the  Society  of  British  Aircraft  Constructors 
for  jet  aircraft  was  won  by  T.  S.  Wade,  at  510  m.p.h.  average, 
in  a  Hawker  P.  1040. 

The  national  air  races  of  the  U.S.A.  were  held  at  Cleveland 
in  September.  Four  events  were  cross-country,  and  five  round 
a  closed  circuit.  All  jet  aircraft  raced  in  classes,  only  one 
type  being  involved  in  each  race.  The  Thompson  trophy  (jet 
division)  was  won  by  Captain  B.  Cunningham  with  an 
average  speed  of  586  m.p.h.  His  fastest  lap  was  at  635-4 
m.p.h.  C.  Cleland,  in  a  F2G  Corsair,  won  the  R  division  of 
the  trophy  race  with  an  average  of  397  m.p.h. 

There  were  few  new  official  major  air  records.  The  absolute 


speed  record  set  up  by  Major  R.  Johnson  (U.S.A.)  in  a 
North  American  F-86  in  Sept.  1948  was  confirmed  at 
670-981  m.p.h.  The  U.S.A.  recaptured  the  class  records  for 
helicopters  (speed,  100-km.  circuit,  and  altitude)  with  the 
Sikorsky  S-52.  A  significant  flight,  though  outside  the  official 
categories,  was  the  round-world  non-stop  flight  by  a  United 
States  air  force  B-50  bomber.  This  involved  air-to-air 
re-fuelling,  whereas  for  the  endurance  effort  of  R.  Woodhouse 
and  W.  Jongeward,  who  flew  over  Yuma,  Arizona,  for 
46  days  20  hr.  in  a  small  single-engined  Aeronca,  the  aid  of  a 
fast  moving  car  was  invoked  f  William  P.  Odom  flew  a 
Beech  Bonanza  non-stop  farther  (4,957  mi.,  Honolulu  to 
Peterboro,  New  Jersey)  than  any  other  light  aeroplane  in 
history. 

Certain  international  point-to-point  records  are  recognized 
by  the  Federation  Aeronautiquc  Internationale.  Five  British 
flights  in  1949  were  accepted  as  best  performances:  London- 
Rome,  in  2  hr.  31  mm.  (359  m.p.h.),  and  to  Karachi  in 
15  hr.  20  min.  (256  m.p.h.),  by  N.  F.  Duke,  with  Hawker 
Fury;  London-Paris,  in  20  min.  37  sec.  (618  m  p.h.),  by 
T.  S.  Wade,  with  Hawker  P.  1052;  London-Malta,  in  3  hr. 
20  mm.  (388  m.p.h.),  by  W.  R.  MacWhirter  and  three  other 
Royal  Navy  officers,  with  Sea  Furies;  Gibraltar-London,  in 
2  hr.  30  mm.  (436  m.p.h.),  by  A.  C.  P.  Carver,  with  D.H. 
Hornet.  (G.  D.  H.  L  ) 

ALBANIA.  A  people's  republic  in  the  western  part  of  the 
Balkan  peninsula  bounded  by  Yugoslavia  to  the  north  and 
east  and  by  Greece  to  the  south,  with  an  Adriatic  coastline 
of  200  mi.  Area :  10,629  sq.  mi. ;  only  one-tenth  of  the  total 
area  is  arable  land  (mainly  the  Adriatic  littoral  and  the 
Korce  plain),  about  three-tenths  being  pastures  and  the  rest 
forest,  swamps  and  mountainous  waste.  Pop.:  (1939  census) 
1,063,000;  (mid-1948  cst.)  1,1 75,000.  Chief  towns  (1946  est.): 
Tirana  (cap.,  35,000);  Scutari  or  Shkoder  (30,000);  Koritsa 
or  Korce  (27,000),  hlbasan  (15,000).  Language:  besides  the 
literary  Albanian,  there  are  two  spoken  dialects,  the  Gheg 
north  of  the  river  Shkumbi  and  the  Task  in  the  south.  Reli- 
gions (1946  est ):  Moslem  800,000;  Greek  Orthodox  220,000; 
Roman  Catholic  1 10,000.  Chairman  of  the  presidium  of  the 
People's  Assembly,  Dr.  Omer  Nishani;  prime  minister, 
General  Enver  Hoxha  (^.v.). 

History.  Owing  to  her  strategic  position  Albania  played  an 
important  role  in  Soviet  policy  which  attempted  to  retain 
influence  in  the  western  Balkans.  Despite  a  series  of  crises 
the  Communist  government  continued  its  submissive  attitude 
to  Soviet  direction,  often  at  the  expense  of  national  interests. 
In  June  the  hostile  propaganda  campaign  against  Marshal 
Tito  reached  its  peak  when,  after  a  widespread  purge  of 
so-called  Tito  sympathizers,  five  members  of  the  government 
were  sentenced  to  various  terms  of  imprisonment  and  the 
former  deputy  prime  minister  and  minister  of  the  interior, 
Koci  Xoxe  (see  OBIVUARILS)  was  executed.  Koci  Xoxe  had 
declared  in  favour  of  maintaining  relations  with  Yugoslavia. 
Yugoslavia  denounced  her  treaty  of  friendship  and  mutual 
aid  with  Albania  in  November. 

Completely  isolated  and  deprived  of  normal  trade  with  her 
Balkan  neighbours,  Albania's  economy  became  dependent 
on  the  Soviet  Union.  Albania  was  admitted  to  the  Council 
for  Mutual  Economic  Assistance  on  Feb.  22.  From  March  21 
to  April  10  Hoxha  visited  Moscow  where  negotiations 
resulted  in  an  agreement  with  the  U.S.S.R.  to  provide 
capital  equipment  for  industrial  development  as  well  as  large 
quantities  of  consumer  goods.  The  five-year  plan  based  on 
Yugoslav  support,  abandoned  in  1948,  was  translated  into  a 
two-year  plan  on  the  Soviet  model.  Albania,  however,  was 
not  granted  membership  of  the  Cominform  and  remained  the 
only  satellite  country  without  a  treaty  of  mutual  aid  with  the 
Soviet  Union. 


38 


ALEMAN,  MIGUEL— ALIENS 


It  became  clear  in  July  that  the  Soviet  Union  was  more 
interested  in  supplying  Albania  in  order  to  maintain  the  Greek 
rebel  movement  and  increase  the  tempo  of  the  nerve-war  against 
Marshal  Tito  than  to  prevent  the  Albanian  population  from 
starving.  As  the  Greek  rebellion  drew  to  its  close,  so  the 
number  of  ships  bringing  transport  and  food,  but  not  capital 
equipment,  from  Soviet  Black  sea  ports,  rapidly  diminished. 
The  result  was  that  the  already  poor  economic  situation  be- 
came serious.  There  was  famine  in  the  south  of  the  country 
and  disease  was  rife  in  many  towns.  Large  numbers  of  refu- 
gees crossed  the  frontier  into  Yugoslavia.  Deserters  to  the 
Greek  government  forces  reported  dissension  in  the  Albanian 
army.  Responsibility  for  the  internal  disorder  was  pinned  on 
to  the  minister  of  industry,  Gogo  Nushi.  He  was  arrested 
on  the  grounds  of  sabotage  in  October. 

Although  there  was  a  marked  decline  of  Soviet  interest  in 
Albania  in  the  last  half  of  the  year,  a  large  Soviet  military 
mission  was  maintained  in  Tirana  and  Soviet  technicians 
continued  work  on  the  harbour  defences  at  Vlore  (Valona) 
and  Durres  (Dura/zo.) 

In  the  report  of  the  United  Nations  Special  Commission 
in  the  Balkans,  Albania  was  indicted  as  the  principal  source 
of  material  assistance  to  Greek  Communists.  This  report, 
submitted  to  the  general  assembly,  provided  irrefutable 
evidence  to  show  that  the  Albanian  armed  forces  had  actively 
assisted  the  Greek  rebels  Some  6,000  of  them  were  given 
refuge  in  Albania  when  the  civil  war  ended.  All  attempts  by 
the  United  Nations  to  secure  an  understanding  between 
Greece  and  Albania  failed. 

There  was  little  opportunity  for  Albania  to  come  into 
contact  with  the  west  This,  however,  did  not  prevent  the 
press  and  radio  from  bitterly  attacking  the  western  nations 
on  such  subjects  as  the  North  Atlantic  treaty  and  Allied 
policy  towards  Germany 

The  Free  Albania  committee,  formed  in  Pans  during 
August,  was  singled  out  for  special  abuse.  This  committee 
composed  of  the  anti-Communist  wartime  resistance  leaders 
in  exile  pledged  itself  to  "  guide  and  encourage  the  Albanian 
people  in  their  resistance  to  Communist  tyranny "  The 
Committee  visited  London  and  Washington  during  September. 

(S.  H.  Ws.) 

Education  and  Cultural  Life.  (1949)  elementary  schools  1,909, 
pupils  162,000,  higher  elementary  (145)  and  secondary  (20)  schools 
with  a  total  of  19,000  pupils  A  teachers'  college  was  opened  at  Tirana 
in  1946  In  Aug.  1949  it  was  announced  that  there  were  12  newspapers 
and  14  other  periodical  publications  with  a  total  circulation  of  83,000 

Agriculture.  Mam  crops  (in  '000  metric  tons,  1947)  maize  140, 
wheat  54,  tobacco  (1945)  1  45,  olives  (prewar  average)  17.  Livestock 
(in  '000  head,  1946  est  )  sheep  1,548,  cattle  345,  horses  50,  asses  40, 
mules  10;  goats  854;  pigs  35.  First  20  collective  farms  were  orgam/ed 
during  1949 

Industry.  Petroleum  is  the  mam  natural  resource,  no  production 
figures  were  published  after  1939  when  Albania  produced  229,278 
metric  tons  of  crude  petroleum  Extraction  of  coal,  copper  ore  and 
chromium  ore  started  after  World  War  II  There  was  also  a  cement 
factory  in  Shkoder  and  a  brewery  in  Korce  In  June  1949  a  two-year 
plan  of  development  was  adopted  by  the  National  Assembly  Out  of  a 
total  expenditure  of  2,050  million  leks,  628  million  were  earmarked 
for  an  industrialization  programme 

Foreign  Trade.  Main  imports  food  products,  textiles  and  metals 
Mam  exports  crude  oil,  skins,  animals  and  animal  products. 

Transport  and  Communications.  Roads  (1949)  2,842  km  Licensed 
motor  vehicles  (Dec  1948)  cars  500,  commercial  vehicles  1,240  Rail- 
ways (1949)-  100  km  Shipping  (1949)  number  of  merchant  vessels  6 
(including  two  sea-going  ships  purchased  in  1949  from  Poland) 

Finance.  Monetary  unit  is  the  lek  which  until  June  1948  was  at  par 
with  the  Yugoslav  dinar.  In  July  1949  a  state  loan  of  250  million  leks — 
the  first  loan  in  Albanian  history — was  launched  On  Oct  1  all  the 
banknotes  of  1947  issue  were  withdrawn  and  replaced  by  new  ones, 
but  no  information  was  published  as  to  the  amount  of  the  currency 
circulation 

ALEMAN,  MIGUEL,  Mexican  statesman  (b.  Sayula, 
Veracruz  Sept.  29,  1903),  was  minister  of  the  interior  (1940- 
46).  In  a  presidential  election  on  July  7,  1946  in  which 


there  were  four  candidates  he  received  1,800,829  votes  and 
was  inaugurated  as  president  on  Dec.  2,  1946  for  a  six  year 
term  of  office.  On  April  29,  1947,  he  arrived  in  Washington 
on  an  official  visit  thus  repaying  a  visit  by  President  Harry  S. 
Truman  to  Mexico  in  March  1947.  In  1949  his  Partido 
Revolucionano  Institucional  obtained  143  seats  in  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  out  of  147  in  a  general  election  held 
on  July  3.  His  government  devalued  the  peso  on  June  17 
and,  in  his  state  of  the  nation  address  on  Sept.  1,  Aleman 
told  the  chamber  of  deputies  that  this  action  had  saved 
Mexico  from  a  crisis  in  foreign  trade  and  from  inflation. 
He  pledged  continued  controls  over  prices  and  supplies  of 
consumer  goods  and  disclosed  that  the  Bank  of  America 
had  granted  a  $3  million  loan  for  a  highway  across  the 
isthmus  of  Tehuantepec.  (See  also  Bntannica  Book  of  the 
Year  1949). 

ALGERIA:   see   FRENCH   UNION. 

ALIENS.  The  number  of  aliens  registered  in  Great 
Britain  at  Oct.  1,  1949,  was  429,342  (males  273,323;  females 
156,019).  The  figure  at  Jan.  1  was  410,600.  The  principal 
nationalities  represented  and  the  numbers  of  each  compared 
with  those  in  brackets  at  approximately  the  same  date  in 

1948  were:  Austrian,  1 1,034  (1 1,254);  Belgian,  6,467  (8,241); 
Chinese,   9,367   (9,309);      Czechoslovakia!!,    7,207   (6,837); 
Danish,   5,145   (4,753);      Dutch,   9,158   (9,456);      Estonian, 
5,816  (6,025);      French,   14,087  (13,019);     German,  44,249 
(42,252);    Hungarian,  5,536  (5,155);    Italian,  18,667  (17,680); 
Latvian,  13,855  (13,723);     Lithuanian,  7,165  (7,355);     Nor- 
wegian, 5,868  (5,585);     Polish,  150,378  (136,336),     Russian, 
40,785   (36,254);      Swiss,    13,107  (12,063);      USA,    16,656 
(14,967).     The  figures  included   13,000  aliens  to  whom  no 
nationality  could  be  attributed. 

Among  aliens  not  required  to  register  and  therefore  not 
included  in  these  figures  were  members  of  the  diplomatic  and 
consular  services  of  foreign  governments,  certain  officials  of 
international  organizations,  members  of  allied  forces  on 
duty,  British  protected  persons  and  short-term  visitors  who 
spent  less  than  two  months  in  the  United  Kingdom.  As  a 
result  of  the  Burma  Independence  act,  1947,  citizens  of 
Burma  became  liable  to  register  as  aliens  in  March  1949. 

The  flow  of  foreign  passenger  traffic  through  United 
Kingdom  ports  continued  to  be  heavy  and  in  July  1949 
101,768  aliens  entered  the  United  Kingdom  and  84,076 
departed;  similar  figures  in  July  1948  were  111,553  and 
74,149.  As  a  result  of  agreements  concluded  in  and  before 

1949  nationals  of  the  following  countries  were  absolved  from 
obtaining  visas  for  travel  to  the  United  Kingdom:    Belgium, 
Denmark,  France,  Iceland,  Italy,  Liechtenstein,  Luxembourg, 
Monaco,  the   Netherlands,  Norway,   San   Marino,   Sweden, 
Switzerland  and  the  United  States 

The  settlement  of  Poles  for  whom  the  British  government 
assumed  responsibility  proceeded  in  1949  and  by  Sept.  30 
the  Polish  Resettlement  corps  had  been  wound  up.  By  then, 
out  of  the  174,000  Polish  servicemen  brought  to  the  United 
Kingdom  after  mid- 1945,  61,500  had  been  repatriated  and 
17,000  assisted  to  emigrate.  Of  the  remainder  1,000  had  died, 
94,500  had  been  settled  in  civilian  life  in  Great  Britain  and 
31,000  persons  dependent  on  them  had  been  brought  from 
abroad  to  join  them. 

By  Oct.  1,  1949,  some  76,000  aliens,  mostly  of  Polish  or 
Baltic  origin,  who  had  been  temporarily  accommodated  in 
displaced  persons'  camps  on  the  continent,  had  been  admitted 
for  employment  in  Great  Britain  with  a  view  to  settlement. 
With  them  came  some  3,500  dependents.  The  number  of 
aliens  admitted  after  the  end  of  World  War  II  under  com- 
passionate schemes  introduced  to  allow  relatives  in  Great 
Britain  to  offer  homes  to  aliens  in  isolated  and  distressed 


ALIMENTARY    SYSTEM 


39 


circumstances  abroad  or  the  victims  of  political  persecution 
rose  to  about  7,000.  In  addition  some  1,000  aliens  who  had 
married  British  wives  were  allowed  to  remain  in  Great 
Britain  with  them  in  1949.  The  repatriation  of  members  of 
the  German  forces  was  completed  by  Dec.  31,  1948.  Approxi- 
mately 8,500  prisoners  of  Ukranian  origin  were  allowed  to 
remain  at  their  own  request.  Fifteen  thousand  German 
prisoners  volunteered  to  stay  and  work  in  the  agricultural 
industry  as  civilians  and  were  allowed  to  bring  over  their 
wives  and  children  to  join  them. 

Between  Jan.  1  and  Oct.  1,  1949,  5,610  new  applications 
for  naturalization  were  lodged,  compared  with  a  yearly 
average  of  1,708  before  World  War  II.  Certificates  granted 
during  the  same  period  numbered  7,731,  an  annual  rate  of 
naturalization  of  approximately  10,300  as  against  15,500  in 
1948.  Among  the  other  effects  of  the  British  Nationality  act, 
1948,  which  came  into  operation  on  Jan.  1,  1949,  was  that 
British  women  who  had  lost  their  British  nationality  by 
marriage  before  that  date  regained  it,  the  statutory  qualifi- 
cation for  British  protected  persons  seeking  naturalization 
was  reduced  and  such  persons  were  exempted  from  the  pro- 
visions of  the  Aliens  Restriction  acts;  and  foieign  women 
ceased  to  acquire  British  nationality  automatically  on 
marriage  to  a  British  subject  but  became  eligible  to  secure 
it  by  applying  for  registration  as  citizens  of  the  United 
Kingdom  and  colonies.  (T.  G.  W  ) 

United  States.  By  using  the  true  figures  for  immigration 
and  naturalization  and  estimating  alien  mortality  for  the 
period  of  registration,  it  was  possible  to  arrive  at  the  approxi- 
mate alien  population.  On  such  a  basis  it  was  estimated  that 
there  were  approximately  3  million  resident  aliens  in  the 
continental  United  States  in  June  30,  1946  This  estimate 
did  not  take  into  account  visitors,  that  is,  non-immigrants, 
and  imported  workers. 

The  number  of  non-citizens  naturalized  during  the  year 
which  ended  on  June  30,  1949,  was  66,594.  This  was  the 
lowest  number  in  37  years  Included  m  this  number  were 
35,131  naturalized  persons  who  were  married  to  United 
States  citizens  and  2,456  persons  who  had  served  in  the 
armed  forces  of  the  United  States.  Throughout  the  year 
2,271  naturalization  petitions  were  denied. 

During  1948-49,  8,575  persons  lost  their  United  States 
nationality:  4,515  by  voting  in  a  foreign  political  election 
or  plcbescite,  1 ,459  by  entering  or  serving  in  the  armed  forces 
of  a  foreign  state,  754  through  naturalization  in  a  foreign 
state,  694  naturalized  citizens  through  prolonged  residence 
in  a  foreign  state  and  1,153  for  other  reasons.  Petitions  for 
naturalizations  were  filed  by  71,044  persons,  an  increase  of 
4-1%  from  the  fiscal  year  1948, when  68,265  petitions  were  filed. 
Alien  Enemies.  At  the  beginning  of  the  1949  fiscal  year 
there  were  174  Germans  and  27  Japanese  still  under  orders 
of  removal  issued  by  the  attorney  general,  pursuant  to  the 
presidential  proclamation  of  July  14,  1945.  Of  the  Germans, 
75  departed  or  were  removed  from  the  United  States  during 
the  fiscal  year  as  the  result  of  the  supreme  court  decision  in 
the  case  of  Kurt  G.  W.  Litdecke  v.  W.  Frank  Watkini  handed 
down  on  June  21,  1948,  upholding  the  right  of  the  govern- 
ment to  remove  or  deport  under  the  Alien  Enemy  act  of 
1798  interned  alien  enemies  deemed  by  the  attorney  general 
to  be  dangerous  because  they  had  adhered  to  an  enemy 
government  or  to  the  principles  thereof;  58  were  released 
outright;  3  were  released  by  court  order;  and  6  were  paroled 
pending  further  administrative  determination  of  their  cases. 
In  view  of  the  decision  handed  down  by  the  supreme  court 
in  the  case  of  Klapprott  v.  United  States,  execution  of  removal 
orders  was  deferred  in  the  29  denaturahzation  cases  remaining 
for  further  administrative  consideration.  Only  3  Germans 
were  still  detained  at  Ellis  Island  at  the  close  of  the  fiscal  year. 

(W.  B.  Mi.) 


NON-CITIZENS  NATURALIZFD  IN  THE  U.S.  DURING  YEAR  ENDED 

JUNE  30,  1949,  BY  COUNTRIES  OF  FORMER  ALLEGIANCE 
Persons  naturalized 
Spouses  and 

children 

Country  of  of  U  S. 

former  allegiance            Total            citizens  Military  Civilian 

Austria              .                    1,194                  554  31  23 

British  Commonwealth      13,284               8.928  353  163 

Canada              .          .          5,347               3,467  202  87 

China                .                      927                  233  257  97 

Czechoslovakia                     1,284                  661  32  12 

France                                   1,658                1,222  23  30 

Germany                     .           5,777                2,986  95  83 

Greece                         .           1,638                   820  97  30 

Hungary                                1,036                  528  16  9 

Ireland                                   1,370                  789  17  6 

Italy                                       8,301                4,774  188  156 

Mexico                                   2,227                1,045  205  20 

Philippines                              3,478                    178  310  2,745 

Poland                                     4,371                 2,035  99  40 

Sweden                                   1,044                   491  12  30 

USSR                                  2,752                1,430  40  21 

Yugoslavia                               809                  382  30  17 

Other  countries                    10,097                5,056  449  424 


All  countries 


66,594 


35,579 


2,456 


3,993 


ALIMENTARY  SYSTEM.  (Esophagus.  Increasing 
interest  was  manifested  during  1949  in  oesophagitis,  an 
inflammation  of  the  gullet  which  gives  rise  to  heartburn, 
pain  and  difficulty  in  swallowing.  The  oesophagus  has  not 
the  resistance  to  acid  that  the  stomach  and  duodenum  have, 
but  there  is  a  mechanism  at  the  upper  opening  of  the  stomach 
which  normally  prevents  acid  from  reaching  it.  Failure  of 
this  mechanism  will  allow  acid  to  reach  the  (esophagus,  and 
in  time  this  inevitably  leads  to  inflammation  and  ulceration. 
According  to  P.  R.  Allison,  the  four  stages  of  oesophagitis 
are  inflammation,  inflammation  with  acute  ulcer,  inflamma- 
tion with  chronic  ulcer  and  healed  fibrous  stricture.  In  the 
presence  of  a  diaphragmatic  hernia  such  inflammation  causes 
shortening  of  the  oesophagus  as  well  as  stricture. 

Cancer  of  the  oesophagus  had  formerly  been  considered  an 
incurable  disease.  Since  the  successful  resection  of  the  upper 
portion  of  the  stomach,  with  restoration  of  continuity,  by 
W.  E.  Adams  and  D.  B  Phemister  in  1938  the  scope  of 
operations  for  oesophageal  cancer  had  been  extended  so  that 
the  entire  oesophagus  could  be  removed  and  direct  continuity 
satisfactorily  re-established.  The  overall  surgical  mortality 
in  1949  was  between  10  and  20%. 

Stomach  ami  Duodenum.  Stewart  Wolf  and  H.  G.  Wolff  in 
1948  had  summarized  the  results  of  their  extensive  investiga- 
tions concerning  emotional  disturbances  and  their  bearing  on 
gastric  disorders.  In  general  the  patterns  of  disturbance  were 
characterized  either  by  over-functioning  or  under-functioning 
of  the  stomach.  The  former  was  found  to  be  associated 
frequently  with  symptoms  characteristic  of  peptic  ulcer,  that 
is,  heartburn  and  gnawing  pain  in  the  pit  of  the  stomach, 
especially  when  it  was  empty.  The  latter  condition  was 
usually  relieved  by  taking  food,  milk  or  alkalis.  Gastric  hypo- 
activity,  on  the  other  hand,  was  found  to  be  accompanied  by 
sensations  of  fullness  and  nausea. 

Investigations  showed  that  the  average  volume  of  nocturnal 
gastric  secretion  and  the  average  output  of  hydrochloric 
acid  are  highest  in  patients  with  duodenal  ulcer.  There  is  no 
significant  difference  in  the  average  volume  secreted  by 
patients  with  benign  gastric  ulcer  and  by  normal  people.  In 
fact,  the  concentration  and  output  of  hydrochloric  acid  is 
actually  somewhat  lower  in  patients  with  gastric  ulcer.  These 
observations  have  a  definite  bearing  on  treatment.  The 
decline  in  mortality  after  massive  haemorrhage  from  the 
stomach  or  duodenum  was  attributed  largely  to  liberal 
transfusions  of  blood  and  early  feeding  which  control  shock, 
tissue  anoxia  that  is  often  irreversible  and  eventually  fatal, 
dehydration,  excessive  accumulation  of  urea  in  the  blood  and 


40 


AMBASSADORS    AND    ENVOYS 


acute  malnutrition.  As  a  result  patients  were  much  more 
able  to  withstand  further  haemorrhages. 

An  article  by  T.  L.  Althausen  published  in  1949  on  the 
prevention  of  recurrences  of  peptic  ulcer  after  medical  treat- 
ment was  characteristic  of  numerous  contributions  on  this 
important  phase  of  treatment  of  ulcers,  which  had  been 
insufficiently  stressed  in  the  past.  Factors  which  would  cause 
reactivation  or  recurrence  were  emotional  tension,  physical 
fatigue,  respiratory  infection,  alcohol,  tobacco,  condiments, 
beverages  containing  caffeine,  stimulating  or  coarse  foods  and 
hurried,  improper  mastication.  Emphasis  was  placed  upon 
the  institution  of  a  protective  regimen  during  periods  of  stress 
or  former  seasonal  worsening  of  the  disease.  Continued 
co-operation  with  respect  to  diet,  medication  and  hygiene 
was  usually  achieved  only  by  fully  acquainting  the  patient 
with  the  nature  of  the  disease  and  the  reasons  for  the  treat- 
ment. Favourable  results  continued  to  be  reported  by 
proponents  of  vagotomy  (cutting  of  both  vagus  nerves)  in 
the  treatment  of  chronic  ulcer  of  the  stomach  and  duodenum. 
Many  U.S.  surgeons  felt  that  vagotomy,  as  an  exclusive 
primary  procedure,  should  be  abandoned.  For  example,  it 
was  done  only  three  times  at  the  Mayo  clinic  at  Rochester, 
Minnesota,  during  1949  in  primary  operations  on  429 
patients  with  duodenal  ulcers.  Subtotal  gastric  resection  still 
remained  the  method  of  choice  for  duodenal  ulcer.  Vagotomy 
was  recommended  especially  for  patients  who  previously  had 
undergone  operations  such  as  pyloroplasty,  gastro-enter- 
ostomy  or  gastric  resection,  and  who  later  had  recurrent 
ulceration,  particularly  anastomotic  ulcers.  For  patients  con- 
sidered to  have  a  good  chance  of  post-operative  recovery, 
many  surgeons  preferred  to  excise  or  resect  the  recurrent 
ulcer  at  the  time  vagotomy  was  performed. 

Liver  and  Gall  Bladder.  The  advantage  and  safety  of  needle 
biopsy  of  the  liver,  in  competent  hands  was  increasingly 
apparent.  Combined  biopsy  and  tests  of  hepatic  function 
were  most  illuminating  even  though  the  results  from  the 


respective  investigations  did  not  always  parallel  each  other. 
Such  combined  procedure,  plus  thorough  clinical  study, 
represented  distinct  progress  in  the  diagnosis  and  treatment 
of  hepatobiliary  disease.  M.  W.  Comfort,  H.  K.  Gray  and 
J.  M.  Wilson  reported  observations  on  112  patients  who  had 
asymptomatic  gallstones  found  incidentally  during  the  course 
of  abdominal  operations.  Follow-up  data  on  these  patients 
for  10  to  20  years  revealed  that  indigestion  supervened  in 
30,  biliary  colic  in  21  and  both  jaundice  and  colic  in  5.  The 
remainder,  exactly  half  the  total,  continued  to  be  asymptom- 
atic. The  authors  concluded  that  surgical  treatment  for  silent 
gallstones  may  be  classified  as  optional.  Surgery  should  not 
be  postponed,  however,  especially  after  colic  occurs. 

Intestines.  The  investigations  of  Almy  and  his  associates 
confirmed  the  important  role  of  emotional  stress  in  the 
alteration  of  colonic  function,  similar  in  kind  and  degree  to 
those  alterations  seen  in  patients  with  irritable  colon.  In  a 
review  of  726  consecutive  cases  of  diverticulosis  of  the  colon, 
F.  H.  Goodwin  and  E.  N.  Collins  noted  the  following 
features:  the  cause  of  the  condition  was  unknown;  the  site 
of  the  diverticula  in  most  instances  was  the  pelvic  colon; 
three-quarters  of  the  patients  were  50  years  of  age  or  older; 
two-thirds  were  overweight;  and  symptoms,  signs  and  mode 
of  treatment  were  similar  to  those  of  irritable  colon.  Other 
observers  estimated  that  inflammation  would  develop  in 
10  to  20%  of  cases  of  diverticulosis.  Medical  treatment  was 
indicated  for  the  majority  of  the  patients  during  an  attack 
of  the  inflammatory  condition  as  well  as  before  operation. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  T.  L  Althausen,  "  Prevention  of  Recurrences  in 
Peptic  Ulcer,"  Ann.  Int.  Med ,  30  544-559,  Philadelphia,  March  1949; 
M  W.  Comfort,  H,  K.  Gray  and  J.  M.  Wilson,  "The  Silent  Gall- 
stone; a  10  to  20  Year  Follow-up  Study  of  112  Cases,"  Ann.  Surg  , 
128  931-937,  Philadelphia,  Nov.  1948,  b  H.  Goodwin  and  h  N. 
Collins,  "  Diverticulosis  of  the  Colon;  Review  of  726  Consecutive 
Cases,"  Cleveland  Clin.  Quart,  15  194-201,  Cleveland,  Ohio,  Oct. 
1948;  Stewart  Wolf  and  H.  G.  Woltt,  "  Life  Situations,  Emotions  and 
Gastric  Function  a  Summary,"  Am.  Pract  ,  3.1-14,  Philadelphia, 
Sept.  1948  (G.  B.  EN.) 


AMBASSADORS    AND    ENVOYS. 

Britain,  Dec.  31,  1949. 

To  Great  Britain 

*Sardar  Faiz  Mohammed  Zekria  Khan 
*Ricardo  de  Labougle  .... 

Heinnch  Schmid  ..... 

*Vicomte  Obert  de  Thieusies 
*Napoleon  Solares  Anas 
*J   J    Momz  dc  Aragao 
|Boyan  Athanassov      ...... 

*U  Ohn      .  

*Manuel  Bianchi.  ..... 

*Cheng  Tien-hsi 

*Dommgo  Esguerra     ...... 

tGuillermo  Padilla  Castro 

•Roberto  Gonzalez  de  Mendoza  y  de  la  Torre 

*Rudolf  Bystricky 

*Count  Eduard  Reventlow    ..... 

Julio  Vega  Batlle  .... 

*  Jorge  Carrera-Andrade        ..... 

*Abdel  Fattah  Amr  Pasha 

Ato  Abbcbe  Retta 

Eero  Aarne  Wuon        ...... 

*Rene  Massigh    .  .... 

*Leon  Victor  Melas      ...... 

Miguel  Ydigoras  Fuentes       ..... 

Fr6denc  Duvigncaud    ...... 

Tiburcio  Canas    .  .  ... 

Elck  Bolgar 

Stefan  Thorvardsson     .  .... 

*Emir  Ze»d  ibn  al-Hussein     ..... 

**John  Whclen  Dulanty        .  ... 

Mordecai  Eliash  ...... 

*Duke  Tommaso  Gallarati  Scotti  .... 


The  following  is  a  list  of  ambassadors  and  envoys  to  and  from  Great 


Emir  Abdul  Majid  Haidar 
Victor  Khouri 


Country 
Afghanistan 
Argentina    . 
Austria 
Belgium 
Bolivia 
Brazil 
Bulgaria 
Burma 
Chile 
China 

Colombia    . 
Costa  Rica 
Cuba 

Czechoslovakia 
Denmark     . 
Dominican  Republic 
Ecuador 
Egypt 
Ethiopia 
Finland 
France 
Germany     . 
Greece 
Guatemala  . 
Haiti  . 
Honduras    . 
Hungary      . 
Iceland 
Iraq    . 

Ireland,  Republic  of 
Israel 
Italy   . 
Japan 
Jordan 
Korea 
Lebanon 


From  Great  Britain 
*Sir  Alfred  John  Gardiner 
*Sir  John  Balfour 
Harold  Anthony  Caccia 
*Sir  George  Rendel 
*John  Garnett  Lomax 
*Sir  Nevile  Butler 
Paul  Mason 

'Reginald  James  Bowker 
*Sir  Cecil  Bertrand  Jcrram 
*Sir  Ralph  Stevenson 
"Gilbert  MacKereth 
Bernard  Ponsonby  Sullivan 
*  Adrian  Holman 
*Pierson  John  Dixon 
*Sir  Alec  Randall 
Stanley  Herbert  Gudgeon 
*John  Eric  Maclean  Carvell 
*Sir  Ronald  Campbell 
Daniel  William  Lascelles 
Oswald  Arthur  Scott 
"Sir  Oliver  Charles  Harvey 
JSir  Brian  Robertson 
*Sir  Clifford  Norton 
Wilfred  Hansford  Gallienne 
David  Jarvis  Mill  Irving 
Gerald  Ernest  Stockley  (designate) 
Geoffrey  Walhnger 
Charles  William  Baxter 
*Sir  Henry  Mack 
**Sir  Gilbert  Laithwaite 
Sir  Alexander  Helm 
*Sir  Victor  Mallet 
§Sir  Alvary  Gascoigne 
Sir  Alec  Kirkbnde 
Vyvyan  Holt 
Sir  William  Evelyn  Houston-Boswall 


AMERICAN    LITERATURE 


41 


To  Great  Britain 
Baron  Robert  Aernout  de  Lynden . 

Andr6  Clasen       ....  . 

*Fedenco  Jimenez  O'Farnll 

*Shanker  Shumshcre  Jung  Bahadur  Rana 
*Jonkheer  E   Michiels  van  Verduynen 

(vacant) 
*Per  Prebcn  Prebensen.          ...... 

Bernandmo  Gonzalez  Ruiz    .  . 

Augusto  Saldivar  .  . 

*Mohsen  Rais 

*Ricardo  Rivera  Schreiber 

Josd  E   Romero 

*Jerzy  Michalowski      .  . 

(vacant) 

Mihail  Macavei    .... 
Carlos  Lciva 

*Sheikh  Hafiz  Wahba  .                            . 
||  Duke  of  San  Lucar  la  Mayor 
*Bo  Gunnar  R    Hagglof 
Henry  de  Torrente        ...                   . 
Edmond  Homsy            ... 
*Pnnce  Nakkhatra  Mangala  Kitiyakara 
"Cevat  Agikalin 
*Gheorghi  N.  Zarubm 
"Lewis  W.  Douglas 
*tnnque  E  Buero 
ff  Archbishop  William  Godfrey 
*Manuel  de  Arocha               ... 
*Obrad  Cicmil      .  

*  Ambassador       Unstarred,  Minister      t  C  harge  d'affaires 
Representative       ft  Apostolic  Delegate      II  Ambassador  withdra 
d'affaires       *!(  Permanent   U  K    representative  to  the  United  Na 

The  following  is  a 
From  Australia  to 
Canada 
Ceylon  . 
Great  Britain 
India 

New  Zealand 
Pakistan 
South  Africa 
From  Canada  to 
Australia 
Great  Britain 
India 

New  Zealand 
Pakistan 
South  Africa 
From  Ceylon  to 
Australia 
Great  Britain 
India 

From  Great  Britain  to 
Australia 
Canada 
Ceylon 


Country 

Liberia         .... 

Liechtenstein 

Luxembourg 

Mexico 

Nepal 

Netherlands 

Nicaragua 

Norway 

Panama 

Paraguay 

Persia  (Iran) 
,     Peru 

Philippines,  Republic  of  the 
,     Poland 

Portugal 

Rumania 
.     Salvador,  El 
.     Saudi  Arabia 
.     Spam 

Sweden 

Switzerland 

Syria 

I  hailand  (Siam) 
.     'I  urkey 

USSR 

USA 

Uruguay 

Vatican 

Venc/uela    . 

Yugoslavia 

United  Nations    . 

**  High  Commissioner  *  High  Commi 
wn  in  accordance  with  United  Nations 
tions 


ssioncr  to 
resolution. 


From  Great  Britain 
John  Gilroy  Baiilie 
tEnc  Grant  Cable 
Geoffrey  Allchin  . 
*Thomas  Cecil  Rapp 
*Sir  George  Falconer 
*Sir  Phihp  Nichols 
NOW   Steward 
*Sir  Laurence  Collier 
John  Dee  Green  way 
Ian  Henderson 
*Sir  John  Le  Rougetel 
*James  Lcishman  Dodds 
Lmton  H   Foulds 
*Sir  Donald  St.  Clair  Gainer 
*Sir  Nigel  Ronald 
Walter  St   Clair  Howland  Roberts 
Daniel  Francis  Horseman  Bnckcll 
*Alan  Charles  Trott 
HDouglas  Frederick  Howard 
*Harold  Lister  Farquhar 
Patrick  Stratford  Scrivener 
Philip  Mamwanng  Broadmead 
*Sir  Geoffrey  Thompson 
*Sir  Noel  Charles 
*Sir  David  Kelly 
*Sir  Oliver  Franks 
*Douglas  Frederick  Howard 
J   V   T.  W  T.  Perowne 
*Sir  John  Hall  Magowan 
*Sir  Charles  Peake 
^|Sir  Alexander  Cadogan 
West  German  federal  government       §  Political 
,  1946.  embassy  at  present  headed  by  a  charge 


list  of  high  commissioners  within  the  Commonwealth  of  Nations,  Dec.  31,  1949. 


Francis  Michael  horde 

Charles  William  Frost 

(vacant) 

Herbert  Roy  Gollan 

Arthur  Roden  Culler 

John  hgerton  Oldham 

Alfred  Stirling 

Leo-Richer  Lafleche 

L.  Dana  Andrews 

Warwick  Fielding  Chipman 

Alfred  Rive 

David  Moffat  Johnson 

Edward  D'Arcy  McGreer 

J.  Aubrey  Martensz 
Sir  Oliver  Goonetilleke 
C.  Coomaroswamy 

Fdward  John  Williams 

Sir  Alexander  Clutlerbuck 

Sir  Walter  Crossficld  Hankmson 


From  Great  Britain  to 

India 

New  Zealand 

Pakistan 

South  Africa 

From  India  to 

Australia 

Canada 

Ceylon   . 

Great  Britain 

Pakistan 

From  New  Zealand  to 

Australia 

Canada 

Great  Britain 

From  Pakistan  to 

Canada 

Great  Britain 

India 

From  South  Africa  to 

Australia 

Canada 

Great  Britain 


Sir  Archibald  Nye 
Charles  Roy  Price 
Sir  Laurence  Grafftey -Smith 
Sir  Evelyn  Baring 

Day  a  Singh  Bcdi 

Santdas  Khushiram  Kirpalani 

V    V.  Gin 

V.  K.  Krishna  Menon 

Si  la  Ram 

James  Gillespic  Barclay 

James  Thorn 

William  Joseph  Jordan 

Mohammad  All 

Habib  Ibrahim  Rahimtoola 

Mohammad  Ismail 

Phihppus  Rudolph  Viljoen 
Alfred  Adrian  Roberts 
Leif  fcgeland 


AMERICAN    FEDERATION     OF    LABOUR: 

see  TRADE  UNIONS. 

AMERICAN  LEGION:  see  EX-SFRVICEMEN'S  ORGAN- 
IZATIONS. 

AMERICAN  LITERATURE.  General  and  Histori- 
cal. The  phenomenon  of  the  year  1949  in  non-fiction  books 
was  the  popularity  of  works  on  religious  subjects.  On  the 
best-seller  lists  were  Thomas  Merton's  The  Waters  of  Siloe, 
a  history  of  the  Trappist  Order,  Fulton  J.  Sheen's  Catholic 
Peace  of  Soul,  and  Fulton  Oursler's  Greatest  Story  Ever  Told,  a 
retelling  of  the  gospel.  Harry  Emerson  Fosdick  retold  the  life  of 
Jesus  in  The  Man  from  Nazareth.  Reinhold  Niebuhr's  study  of 
the  place  of  religion  in  civilization,  Faith  and  History,  was  an 
important  book.  In  contradistinction  to  these  appeared  two 
carefully  documented  studies  of  the  growing  power  of  the  Cath- 
olic church  in  temporal  affairs :  Paul  Blanshard's  American 
Freedom  and  Catholic  Power  and  Avro  Manhattan's  milder  The 
Vatican  in  World  Politics.  Vannevar  Bush's  Modern  Arms  and 
Free  Men  asserted  that  the  atom  bomb  does  not  make  other 
weaponsobsoleteandproposedapoliticallyconservative/a/55e7- 
faire  solution  .Theodor  Rosebury ,  in  Peace  or  Pestilence,  analysed 


the  frightening  facts  of  biological  warfare  and  favoured  a  liberal 
political  policy  as  the  way  to  avoid  the  possible  catastrophe. 

Samuel  Eliot  Monson  added  two  more  volumes  to  The 
History  of  United  States  Naval  Operations  in  World  War  II, 
"  Coral  Sea,  Midway  and  Submarine  Actions  "  and  "  The 
Struggle  for  Guadalcanal."  Oliver  La  Farge  wrote  a  history 
of  the  Air  Transport  command  in  World  War  II,  The  Eagle 
in  the  Egg.  Fletcher  Pratt  made  a  study  of  outstanding 
generals  from  Nathanael  Greene  to  Omar  Bradley,  Eleven 
Generals.  General  H.  H.  Arnold's  Global  Mission  combined 
his  own  life  story  with  a  history  of  the  army  air  force,  Many 
books  dealt  with  world  affairs  and  the  U.S.  role  in  them. 
Howard  Smith's  State  of  Europe  was  a  description  and  inter- 
pretation of  developments  in  European  countries  since 
World  War  II.  Owen  Lattimore,  in  his  Situation  in  Asia, 
reported  not  only  on  China  but  also  on  India  and  Indo-China. 
Anna  Louise  Strong's  Chinese  Conquer  China  described  her 
view  of  China's  ways  of  solving  its  own  problems. 

On  the  problem  of  race  relations  in  the  United  States 
E.  Franklin  Frazier's  The  Negro  in  the  United  States  was  an 
authoritative  factual  survey  of  the  Negro  from  slavery  to  the 


42 


AMERICAN    LITERATURE 


F.E.P.C.  Lillian  Smith's  Killers  of  the  Dream  tried  to  shock 
the  reader  into  realization  of  the  Negro's  desperate  situation. 
Ray  Spriglc's  In  the  Land  of  Jim  Crow  set  forth  his  experiences 
in  the  South,  where  he  passed  as  a  Negro.  Carey  McWilliams, 
in  North  from  Mexico,  studied  the  mis-treatment  of  Mexican 
minorities  in  California. 

Margaret  Mead,  in  Male  and  Female,  recorded  the  battle 
of  the  sexes  in  a  changing  world.  Clyde  Kluckhohn's  Mirror 
for  Man  discussed  the  relation  of  anthropology  to  modern 
life.  H.  A.  Overstreet's  The  Mature  Mind  analysed  how  mass 
media  of  communication  perpetuate  immaturities  and 
infantihsms.  Catherine  Mackenzie  presented  a  synthesis 
of  the  work  of  experts  in  the  field  of  child  psychology  in 
Parent  and  Child.  Lincoln  Barnett's  The  Universe  and  Dr. 
Eimtein  explained  the  scientist  to  the  layman. 

Other  books  which  studied  phases  of  the  U  S.  scene  or 
U.S.  culture  were  Oliver  Larkm's  Art  and  Lije  in  America, 
an  analysis  of  the  inter-relation  of  American  art  and  thought, 
and  Roger  Burlmgame's  Backgrounds  of  Power,  a  history  of 
mass  production  and  its  social  effects.  Isabel  Leighton  edited 
The  Aspirin  Age,  1 9 19- f 941,  a  volume  of  essays  by  Samuel 
Hopkins  Adams  and  others  on  U.S.  life  between  World  Wars 
I  and  II. 

The  most  widely  read  memoirs  of  the  year  were  Fleanor 
Roosevelt's  This  I  Remember,  a  factual  account  by  the  presi- 
dent's wife.  Grace  Tully  published  F.D.R. — My  Boss,  the 
story  of  the  president  as  his  secretary  saw  him.  Edward 
Stettinius'  Roosevelt  and  the  Russians  revealed  the  inner 
workings  of  the  Yalta  conference  and  the  attempts  of  the 
United  States  to  co-operate  with  the  U.S  S.R. 

Historical  works  included  Ray  Allen  Billmgton's  Westward 
Expansion,  a  definitive  study,  in  the  tradition  of  Frederick 
Jackson  Turner,  of  the  frontier  in  United  States  history.  The 
two  chief  Lincoln  books  were  Kenneth  P.  Williams'  Lincoln 
Finds  a  General,  a  military  history  of  the  Civil  War,  and  Carl 
Sandburg's  Lincoln  Collector,  papers  from  the  Barret  Collec- 
tion with  extended  comment. 

Novels.  Good  novels  appeared  which,  although  chiefly 
concerned  with  character,  exploited  unusual  settings  or 
occupations.  John  Brooks's  The  Big  Wheel  showed  how  a 
big-time  slick  news-weekly  gets  written.  Tom  Lea's  The 
Brave  Bulls  told  the  adventures  of  a  Mexican  matador. 
George  Weller's  The  Crack  in  the  Column  gave  a  detailed  and 
accurate  explanation  of  the  Greek  resistance  movement  and 
civil  war.  One  of  the  year's  best  novels  was  Nelson  Algren's 
The  Man  With  the  Golden  Arm,  which  dug  deep  into  the 
materials  and  people  of  the  Polish  slums  of  Chicago  Without 
Magnolias,byBuck\m  Moon, projected  realistically  the  Negro's 
position  in  the  South.  The  Sure  Thing ,  by  Merle  Miller,  set 
forth  the  catastrophic  effects  of  witch  hunts  on  government 
employees.  Albert  Malt/,  in  The  Journey  of  Simon  McKeever, 
created  a  dignified  and  almost  tragic  character  and  also 
focused  attention  on  the  problems  of  the  old  age  pensioner. 
William  Gardner  Smith's  perceptive  story  of  a  Negro  in  the 
U.S.  army  of  occupation  in  Germany,  Last  of  the  Conquerors, 
was  a  picture  of  how  democracy  sometimes  fails  to  work. 
Haakon  Chevalier's  For  Us  The  Living  used  a  background 
of  west  coast  fruit  packer  and  labour  disputes  for  his  story  of 
murder.  Kay  Boyle's  novel  of  oblique  characterization,  His 
Human  Majesty,  used  a  ski  troop  training  centre. 

Among  novels  concerned  with  character  was  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  first  novels  of  the  year,  Paul  Bowles's 
The  Sheltering  Sky.  Although  the  North  African  setting  was 
a  vivid  part  of  the  book,  it  was  his  mature  and  sensitive 
portrayal  of  somewhat  existentialist  characters  involved  in  a 
triangle  situation  which  marked  the  book.  Another  novel 
which  probed  delicate  human  relations  was  Isabel  Bolton's 
The  Christmas  Tree,  a  story  which  explored  the  sources  of 
homosexuality. 


Sinclair  Lewis'  The  God-Seeker,  an  American  frontier  novel, 
was  dubiously  received  and  was  criticized  as  the  work  of  a 
bored,  reformed  satirist.  William  Faulkner  published  Knight's 
Gambit,  a  group  of  short  semi -detect  we  stories  and  a  novella 
set  in  the  familiar  Faulkner  South  and  involving  characters 
from  his  Intruder  in  the  Dust.  James  Branch  Cabell  published 
The  Devil's  Own  Dear  Son,  an  ironic  tale  of  a  man  who  set 
out  to  find  his  real  father,  the  Devil.  John  Dos  Passos  com- 
pleted his  New  Deal  trilogy  with  The  Grand  Design.  Upton 
Sinclair  brought  Lanny  Budd  to  friendly  terms  with  President 
Truman  and  the  world  in  general  in  O  Shepherd,  Speak\ 
Pearl  Buck's  Kmfolk  was  a  novel  of  modern  China;  Jerome 
Weidman  satirized  the  business  world  in  The  Price  Is  Right; 
and  Mary  Ellen  Chase's  novelette  The  Plum  Tree  was  a  neatly 
written  story  of  insane  old  ladies  in  a  nursing  home. 

Among  volumes  of  short  stones  Eudora  Welty's  The  Golden 
Apples  gave  a  connected  picture  of  life  in  the  Mississippi 
country.  Truman  Capote,  in  A  Tree  of  Night,  and  Other  Stories 
dissected  a  group  of  disturbed  personalities.  Shirley  Jackson 
skilfully  combined  the  macabre  and  the  familiar,  especially 
in  the  title  story  of  The  Lottery:  or  The  Adventures  of  James 
Harris. 

Belles  Lettrcs.  The  most  conspicuous  token  of  the  con- 
tinued interest  in  Henry  James  was  Leon  Edel's  edition  of 
The  Complete  Plays.  The  enormous  quantity  of  research 
upon  Herman  Melville  that  occupied  scholars  during  the 
'40s  began  to  appear.  Two  major  critical  works  were  Howard 
P.  Vincent's  The  Ttving-Out  oj  Moby-Dick,  a  fascinating 
quest  for  the  book's  sources  and  an  illuminating  interpretation 
of  its  meaning;  and  Richard  Chase's  more  subjective  Herman 
Melville:  A  Critical  Study,  which  undertook  a  complex 
interpretation  and  analysis  of  all  his  works  A  specialized 
study  was  made  by  Nathalia  Wright  in  Melville* s  Use  of  the 
Bible.  The  reissue  of  Melville's  own  writings  continued. 
Henry  A.  Murray  edited  Pierre,  the  third  volume  in  the 
scholarly  new  Complete  Woiks.  Jay  Leyda's  edition  of 
The  Complete  Stories  oj  Herman  Melville  made  available  the 
neglected  magazine  pieces.  The  Confidence-Man  was  reprinted 
for  the  first  time  in  the  United  States. 

There  were  a  number  of  biographies  of  important  U.S. 
writers,  the  most  impressive  of  which  was  Ralph  L.  Rusk's  de- 
finitive Life  of  Ralph  Waldo  £>wrscw,which  was  an  exhaustively 
factual  rather  than  critical  or  intellectual  study.  Most  favour- 
ably received  by  historians  and  literary  scholars  was  Ernest 
Samuels'  The  Young  Henry  Adams,  published  at  the  close  of 
1948,  the  first  volume  of  a  projected  2-volume  biography. 
John  A.  Pollard  wrote  an  excellent  John  Greenleaf  Whittier, 
friend  of  Man.  Three  volumes  were  added  to  the  fine 
American  Men  of  Letters  series:  Mark  Van  Doren's  Nathaniel 
Hawthorne,  James  Grossman's  James  Fenimore  Cooper  and 
Perry  Miller's  Johnathan  Edwards.  Robert  H.  Ehas  wrote 
a  good  study  of  Theodore  Dreiser  and  Dixon  Wecter  edited 
the  Love  Letters  of  Mark  Twain. 

Donald  Stauffer  contributed  to  Shakespeare  scholarship 
with  his  Shakespeare's  World  of  Images  and  Francis  Fergusson 
wrote  an  important  analytic  study  of  drama  as  the  imitation 
of  action,  The  Idea  of  a  Theatre.  There  also  appeared  the 
first  translation  since  1908  of  Miguel  de  Cervantes'  Don 
Quixote,  in  idiomatic  modern  English,  by  Samuel  Putnam. 

Poetry.  Conrad  Aiken's  Skvltght  One  combined  sensuous- 
ness  and  irony.  The  Selected  Poems  of  William  Carlos 
Williams  and  The  Complete  Poems  of  Robert  Frost  appeared. 
The  most  important  anthology  was  The  Poetry  of  the  Negro 
— 1 746- 1949,  edited  by  Arna  Bontemps  and  Langston 
Hughes. 

Theodore  Roethke's  The  Lost  Son,  and  Other  Poems, 
centring  about  greenhouse  imagery,  was  well  received  by 
the  critics.  Ellis  Foote  wrote  Layman's  Fall;  A  Fantasy  in 
the  Joyous  Modey  a  long  symbolic  poem.  Richard  Eberhart's 


AN>EMIA— AN/ESTHESIOLOGY 


43 


Burr  Oaks,  May  Sarton's  The  Lion  and  the  Roue,  and  Rolfc 
Humphries'  The  Wind  of  Time  were  other  new  volumes. 

The  award  of  the  Bollingen  prize  was  made  to  Ezra  Pound 
for  his  Pisan  Cantos.  This  selection,  the  first  under  a  grant 
by  the  Bollingen  foundation  to  the  Library  of  Congress  to 
encourage  U.S.  poets,  was  made  by  the  Committee  of  the 
Fellows  in  American  Letters  of  the  library  (in  spite  of  the 
fact  that  Pound  had  been  accused  of  treason)  on  poetic 
grounds  alone.  Nevertheless  a  considerable  controversy 
was  raised  and  a  congressional  investigation  was  even  pro- 
posed but  subsequently  the  charges  against  the  committee 
were  withdrawn.  (See  also  LITERARY  PRIZES.)  (H.  M.  H.) 

AN/EMIA.  In  1949  vitamin  Bla  came  into  general  use 
in  the  treatment  of  pernicious  anemia  and  certain  other 
macrocytic  anaemias  Its  value  in  the  production  of  remissions 
was  confirmed  repeatedly,  and  its  efficiency  in  checking  the 
progress  of  neurologic  and  tongue  symptoms  was  estab- 
lished. The  mechanism  of  its  action  was  still  a  problem,  but 
some  investigators  felt  that  it  was  the  same  as  the  "  extrinsic  " 
factor  of  W.  B  Castle  and  was  identical  with  the  anti- 
permcious  anaemia  principle  of  liver  It  was  postulated  that 
the  "  intrinsic  "  factor  did  not  react  with  the  extrinsic  factor, 
as  was  previously  thought,  but  facilitated  the  absorption  of 
the  extrinsic  factor.  Vitamin  BI2  was  not  readily  absorbed 
when  given  by  mouth  unless  given  in  large  amounts,  or 
accompanied  by  intrinsic  factor  (normal  gastric  juice) 

Folic  acid  continued  to  prove  effective  in  the  treatment  of 
macrocytic  anemias,  but  the  effect  was  less  pronounced  than 
with  liver  derivatives  In  the  hands  of  different  investigators 
the  reaction  to  the  neurologic  changes  varied.  While  some 
noted  improvement  or  the  absence  of  aggravation  of  symp- 
toms, others  found  development  or  progression  of  the  cord 
changes;  these  could  be  eliminated,  however,  with  large 
amounts  of  liver  extract  Good  results  followed  its  uses  in 
the  macrocytic  anaemia  of  pregnancy,  even  when  liver  extract 
proved  inadequate. 

Sub-acute  combined  degeneration  of  the  spinal  cord  in 
pernicious  anaemia  was  found  to  be  reversible  if  intensive 
liver  or  vitamin  B^  therapy  was  instituted  before  the  axis 
cylinders  had  been  destroyed  In  some  patients,  glossitis 
responded  to  treatment  with  members  of  the  vitamin  B 
complex,  not  effective  in  improving  the  blood. 

Relapses  in  ability  to  produce  new  blood  cells  in  pernicious 
anaemia  followed  the  discontinuance  of  liver  extract  in  from 
8  to  18  months,  although  some  did  not  show  ana?mid  over  a 
period  of  26  to  29  months.  Vitamin  B1<2  was  found  to  be 
effective  in  the  megaloblastic  antenna  of  infancy. 

Increased  attention  was  given  to  the  iron  deficiency  anaemias 
and  the  mechanism  of  absorption  of  iron  Radioactive  iron 
was  absorbed  by  the  cells  of  the  circulating  blood  in  propor- 
tion to  the  number  of  reticulocytes.  During  infection  or  in 
the  presence  of  an  abscess  (turpentine)  there  was  a  fall  in 
plasma  iron  and  a  delay  in  the  uptake  of  radio-iron  by  the 
red  blood  cells,  although  the  deficiency  was  less  marked  in 
anaemic  dogs  on  a  diet  with  a  low  iron  content.  In  recovery 
from  anxmia  of  infection,  there  was  a  sharp  increase  in  the 
iron  binding  capacity  of  the  serum,  although  the  low  serum 
iron  concentration  associated  with  anaemia  in  acute  and 
chronic  infections  was  not  the  result  of  the  low  iron  binding 
capacity  of  the  serum.  In  iron  deficiency  anaemia  there  was  a 
low  percentage  saturation  of  the  iron-binding  material  of  the 
serum.  In  dogs  with  anaemia  of  haemorrhage,  haemoglobin 
regeneration  was  most  definite  after  liver  or  beef  muscle 
feeding,  whereas  total  blood  proteins  regenerated  well  after 
liver,  meat,  casein  and  egg  proteins.  In  anaemic  rats  haemo- 
globin regeneration  followed  the  use  of  dietary  proteins  in 
the  following  order:  first  eggs,  then  meat,  processed  soya, 
casein,  peanut,  maize,  wheat  and  gelatine.  Of  these,  casein, 


soya  and  maize  protein  were  more  effective  in  haemoglobin 
regeneration.  In  diets  with  caloric  deficiency,  haemoglobin 
regeneration  was  favoured  at  the  expense  of  weight  recovery. 
Molybdenum-iron  complex  was  found  to  be  more  effective 
in  some  patients  with  anaemia  during  pregnancy  than  other 
forms  of  iron.  An  iron-sucrose  preparation  was  developed 
which  was  effective  when  given  intravenously  with  only  the 
minimum  reactions. 

Vegetarian  Indian  soldiers  in  Iraq  had  significantly  lower 
blood  levels  than  meat-eating  individuals,  several  showing 
nutritional  macrocytic  anaemia,  even  though  they  were  on  a 
3,000-calone  diet  with  80  gr.  of  vegetable  protein.  One 
hundred  ant'  twenty-seven  cases  of  severe  refractory,  tropical 
macrocytic  anaemia  were  found  in  Sepoys  serving  in  Assam 
and  eastern  Bengal.  The  most  effective  therapeutic  measures 
were  adequate  diet,  control  of  infections  and  transfusions, 
but  38%  died. 

Acute  hae  molytn  anaemia  appeared  in  approximately  2%  of  all 
births  in  otherwise  healthy  Rh-positive  infants  when  there  had 
been  placental  immunr/ation  of  the  mother  with  the  Rh  antigen. 

Breaks  in  the  foetal  and  maternal  blood  vessels  in  the 
placenta  accounted  for  the  contact  of  foetal  and  maternal 
blood  in  erythroblastosis  fnetalis,  allowing  the  agglutinative 
and  haemolytic  maternal  antibodies  to  destroy  the  foetal  cells 
and  produce  a  haemolytic  anaemia.  Exchange  transfusions 
in  newborn  babies  with  haemolytic  anaemia  reduced  the  mor- 
tality from  63  5%  to  18  1  %.  After  the  use  of  Rh  hapten, 
20  of  27  babies  with  severe  erythroblastosis  recovered  and 
remained  well,  5  dying  of  other  causes.  A  number  of  reports 
added  to  the  data  on  Rh  occurrence,  types,  variants  and 
inheritance. 

Acute  macrocytic  anaemia  developed  in  rats  several  weeks 
or  months  after  the  surgical  formation  of  a  blind  loop  in  the 
small  intestine.  Nutritional  macrocytic  anaemia  was  produced 
in  swine  by  feeding  a  purified  diet  containing  a  folic  acid 
antagonist.  In  45  patients  with  tropical  macrocytic  anaemia, 
improvement  was  noted  in  39  after  the  use  of  refined  liver 
extract. 

Severe  hypoplastic  anaemia  was  noted  in  seven  patients  who 
had  prolonged  administration  of  atabnne.  Recovery  was 
spontaneous  and  gradual,  apparently  not  influenced  by 
therapeutic  measures. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  G.  F.  Taylor,  P.  N  Chhuttani  and  S.  Kumar,  "  The 
Meat  Ration  and  Blood  Levels  Investigation  of  Indian  Soldiers  m 
Persia  and  Iraq,  1944,"  Brit  Mcd  /,  1  219-221,  London,  Feb  5, 
1949,  B  E  Hall,  f  H  Krusen  and  H.  W  Woltman.  "Vitamin  Bja 
and  Co-ordination  Hxcrcises  for  Combined  Degeneration  of  Spinal 
Cord  in  Pernicious  Anaemia,"  /  Am.  Mcd  A\soc.,  141.  257-260, 
Chicago,  Sept  24,  1949,  G  h.  Cartwnght  and  M.  M.  Wmtrobc, 
"Chemical,  Clinical  and  Immunological  Studies  on  the  Products  of 
Human  Plasma  Fractionation  XXXIX  The  Anemia  of  Infection; 
Studies  on  the  Iron-Binding  Capacity  of  Serum,"  /.  Chn.  Investigation, 
28  86-98,  Jan  1949.  (R.  Is.) 

AN/ESTHESIOLOGY.  The  introduction  of  deca- 
methomum  bromide  (C-10)  under  the  trade  name  of  Syncurme 
gave  workers  in  anaesthesiology  and  in  the  field  of  shock 
therapy  an  agent  with  a  curare-like  effect  but  one  which  was 
easier  to  obtain  and  prepare  for  use.  A  safe  and  effective 
antidote,  however,  was  not  known.  The  action  of  this  agent 
appeared  to  be  less  lasting  than  that  of  curare,  the  duration 
of  a  fully  effective  dose  being  from  a  third  to  a  fourth  of  as 
many  minutes  as  for  curare.  Decamethonium  bromide 
produced  less  effect  on  the  pharyngeal  and  respiratory  muscles 
than  curare  and  was  less  active  than  the  latter  in  causing  the 
release  of  any  histamme-Iike  substance.  The  optimal  dose 
was  2  to  3  mg.,  injected  at  the  rate  of  1  mg.  a  minute.  It  appeared 
to  act  quickly,  that  is,  in  the  matter  of  a  minute  or  two,  as 
compared  to  the  five  to  ten  minutes  required  for  the  action 
of  curare.  Satisfactory  and  safe  relaxation  was  obtained  with 
the  use  of  this  new  drug. 


44 


ANDORRA 


The  use  of  dolamin  (benzyl  alcohol  0-75%,  ammonium 
sulphate  0-75%,  sodium  chloride  4-8%  in  an  ampule  with 
sufficient  water  to  make  10  cc.)  prevailed;  the  effect  could 
never  be  predicted.  In  cases  in  which  little  of  the  material 
was  to  be  used  on  only  one  or  two  nerves,  variations  in  the 
solution  were  tried,  such  as  omitting  the  benzyl  alcohol  and 
increasing  the  ammonium  sulphate  up  to  1  •  5  %  or  in  some 
cases  up  to  2  •  5  %  of  the  solution.  The  checking  of  accurate 
placement  of  needles  by  roentgenograms  continued  and 
greater  accuracy  in  technique  was  developed.  It  was  made 
clear  that  paravertebral  somatic  injection  of  alcohol  near  the 
nerve  roots  could  not  be  repeated  for  some  weeks  after  the 
first  injection  without  danger  of  a  bizarre  pattern  of  paralysis. 

R.  E.  Courtin  described  seven  electroencephalographic 
levels  of  anaesthesia  and  suggested  their  use  as  practical 
measures  of  the  depth  of  anaesthesia.  Subsequently  R.  G. 
Bickford  invented  a  device  which  automatically  controllsd  the 
depth  of  anaesthesia  both  in  human  beings  and  animals.  The 
apparatus  which  injected  the  anaesthetic  agent  worked  on  the 
principle  of  activation  by  the  electrical  potentials  emanating 
from  the  brain  of  the  subject.  (See  also  SURGERY.)  (J.  S.  L.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  H.  A.  Haxton,  "  Chemical  Sympathectomy," 
Brit.  Med.J.,  1:  1026-28,  London,  June  11,  1949;  C.  E.  Burstein, 
Fundamental  Considerations  in  Anesthesia*  (New  York,  1949). 


ANDORRA.  A  small  autonomous  state  between 
France  and  Spain,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  departements 
of  Ariege  and  Pyrenees  Orientales,  and  on  the  south  by  the 
Spanish  province  of  Lerida.  Area:  191  sq.  mi.  Pop.  (1945 
est.):  5,300.  Language:  Catalan.  Religion:  Roman 
Catholic.  Capital:  Andorra-la-Vieja  (pop.  c.  1,000). 
Co-princes:  the  president  of  the  French  republic  and  the 
bishop  of  Urgel,  Spain,  respectively  represented  in  1949  by 
Andre  Bertrand  and  Jaime  Sansa  Nequi,  their  viguiers.  An 
elected  General  Council  of  24  members  appoints  one  of  its 
members  as  the  syndic  general  des  vallees  (from  1946, 
Francisco  Cayrat). 

The  event  of  the  year  was  an  order  given  on  March  8  by  a 
Paris  court  to  the  Radiodiffusion  Francaise  to  cease  jamming 
the  broadcasts  of  Radio  Andorra.  This  order  was  confirmed 
by  the  Paris  Court  of  Appeal  on  May  24.  The  jamming  had 
started  in  April  1948  when  the  proprietors  of  Radio  Andorra 
refused  to  sell  their  station  to  a  French  concern. 

The  General  Council  suggested  during  the  year  the  building 
of  an  airfield  and  the  linking  of  Andorra  to  the  international 
telephone  trunk  system;  but  from  1945  the  strained  relations 
between  France  and  Spain  had  rendered  any  common  decision 
by  the  two  viguiers  practically  impossible. 


Dr.  John  Morgan,  bishop  of  Llandaff  from  1939,  being  enthroned  as  archbishop  of  Wa\es  on  Sept.  27, 1949,  The  ceremony  was  held  in  the 

nave  of  Llandaff  cathedral  which  was  damaged  in  World  War  11. 


ANGLICAN  COMMUNIONS-ANGLING 


45 


Andorra  had  13  local  policemen,  but  from  1944  a  hundred 
French  gardes  mobiles  were  stationed  on  Andorran  territory 
for  the  purpose  of  maintaining  order. 

ANGLICAN  COMMUNION.  Early  in  1949  most 
of  the  bishops  of  the  overseas  Churches  of  the  Anglican  com- 
munion were  occupied  after  their  return  from  England  with 
the  resumption  of  diocesan  duties  and  with  discussion  on 
the  work  and  findings  of  the  Lambeth  conference  (1948),  and 
in  some  cases  of  the  Amsterdam  World  Council  of  Churches. 

The  provincial  synod  of  the  Church  in  the  West  Indies 
accepted  resolution  96  of  the  Lambeth  conference,  which 
allowed  discretion  to  the  diocesan  bishops  to  grant  or  refuse 
permission  to  divorced  persons  to  take  part  in  the  Holy 
Communion.  The  synod  transferred  this  sanction  to  the 
archbishop  of  the  province,  who  was  granted  the  right  to 
appoint  two  diocesan  bishops  to  decide  whether  or  not  the 
case  might  be  treated  as  a  nullity  case.  In  this  event  the 
bishop  of  the  diocese  concerned  might  admit  the  applicant 
to  Communion.  A  new  political  order  was  being  framed 
for  the  West  Indies,  and  an  appeal  was  made  for  a  better 
educated  clergy  who  might  help  to  train  leaders  and  meet 
the  demand  for  higher  education.  Great  progress  was  re- 
ported from  the  diocese  of  Trinidad  after  three  years'  work 
of  Bishop  Fabian  Jackson. 

In  the  United  States  1 1  bishops  from  Great  Britain,  Ireland 
and  the  West  Indies  (bishops  of  London,  Oxford,  Bath  and 
Wells,  Glasgow,  Derry,  Barbados,  Bermudas,  Honduras, 
Nassau,  Puerto  Rico  and  Trinidad)  made  an  extensive  tour 
of  U.S.  cities  and  addressed  Eucharistic  congresses  of  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church  held  in  connection  with  the 
fourth  centenary  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer.  The  bishop 
of  London  preached  in  New  York,  Dallas,  Los  Angeles,  San 
Francisco  and  Seattle.  President  Truman  received  the  bishops 
at  the  White  House. 

The  archbishop  of  York  (^.v.)  preached  at  Washington  and 
addressed  the  general  convention  of  the  Episcopal  Church  at 
San  Francisco.  In  the  course  of  its  proceedings  the  triennial 
general  convention,  sitting  under  the  presiding  bishop  of 
Massachusetts  (Dr.  Henry  Knox  Sherrill)  received  a  report 
from  a  special  committee  of  the  house  of  bishops  appointed 
in  1946  to  consider  canon  18  (on  marriage).  That  canon  took 
away  the  right  of  the  innocent  party  in  a  divorce  suit  to  be 
married  in  church,  unless  the  conditions  of  nullity  existed  at 
the  time  of  the  first  marriage.  This  left  the  matter  ambiguous 
and  different  interpretations  of  the  canon  had  been  given. 
However,  the  committee  advised  no  change  during  the  next 
three  years.  In  the  meantime  a  joint  committee  of  bishops  and 
laymen  was  to  examine  the  whole  question  and  report  to  the 
next  triennial  convention.  The  Convention  recommended 
psychiatric  tests  for  ordination  candidates  in  order  to  ascertain 
their  mental  and  nervous  condition.  Intinction  was  authorized 
at  Holy  Communion  as  an  alternative  method  of  administra- 
tion, but  at  the  discretion  of  the  diocesan  bishop.  From  1957 
all  clergy  would  retire  at  the  age  of  72  from  active  work, 
although  they  might  take  occasional  duty.  The  convention 
adopted  the  highest  budget  on  record  ($5-6  million).  It  agreed 
to  support  the  Church  of  England  at  St.  Augustine's  college, 
Canterbury,  for  the  higher  training  of  post-ordination 
candidates  from  all  over  the  Anglican  Communion.  The  lower 
house  of  the  Canadian  Church  proposed  to  sanction  the  re- 
marriage in  church  of  the  innocent  party  in  a  divorce  suit. 

In  South  Africa  the  Anglicans  joined  representatives  of 
other  churches  in  a  deputation  to  Dr.  D.  F.  Malan,  the  prime 
minister,  on  Native  rights.  A  hearing  was  not  granted.  Dr. 
Geoffrey  Clayton,  bishop  of  Johannesburg,  succeed  Dr.  John 
Russell  Darbyshire,  who  had  died  in  England  during  the 
Lambeth  conference  in  1948,  as  archbishop  of  Capetown. 
New  bishoprics  for  Basutoland  and  Matabeleland,  to  be 


carved  out  of  Bloemfontein  and  Southern  Rhodesia,  respect- 
ively, were  being  planned. 

In  South  India  36,000  Anglicans  at  Nandyal  (Telugu 
country)  were  standing  out  of  the  new  united  Church  of  South 
India,  and  were  placed  under  the  supervision  of  the  metropoli- 
tan bishop  of  Calcutta.  In  spite  of  political  disturbances  in 
Burma  the  Anglican  Church  was  holding  firm.  It  was  en- 
couraged by  a  visit  of  the  metropolitan  of  Calcutta.  The 
archbishop  of  New  Zealand  toured  in  Polynesia,  especially  in 
Fiji.  The  bishop  of  Singapore  (J.  L.  Wilson)  became  dean  of 
Manchester  and  canon  H.  W.  Baines  of  Rugby  replaced  him 
at  Singapore.  The  central  committee  of  the  World  Council  of 
Churches  seUup  at  Amsterdam  in  1948,  held  its  first  meeting 
at  Chichester  under  the  chairmanship  of  Dr.  G.  K.  A.  Bell, 
bishop  of  Chichester.  In  the  autumn  Dr.  Bell  left  for  a  tour  of 
the  churches  in  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  and  visited  the 
Church  of  South  India  on  the  way  home.  The  synod  of  the 
diocese  of  Sydney  prohibited  the  use  of  eucharistic  vestments. 

The  general  synod  of  the  Church  of  Ireland  considered  new 
state  prayers  to  meet  the  new  conditions  created  by  the 
separation  of  Ireland  from  the  United  Kingdom.  Admission 
of  women  to  diocesan  synods  and  councils  was  approved.  The 
fourth  centenary  of  the  Prayer  Book  was  celebrated  through- 
out the  Church.  The  bishop  of  Llandaff  (Dr.  John  Morgan) 
became  archbishop  of  Wales.  Proposals  for  the  revision  of  the 
Welsh  Prayer  Book  were  considered  by  the  synod.  (See  also 
CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND;  MISSIONS,  FOREIGN  RELIGIOUS; 
THEOLOGY;  WORLD  COUNCIL  OF  CHURCHES.)  (A.  J.  MAC.) 

ANGLING.  Sea-anglers  enjoyed  a  successful  year.  In 
the  North  sea  the  tunny-fishing  was  the  best  since  1933  and 
the  total  catch  of  43  included  a  fish  weighing  852  Ib.  (a  new 
British  record).  Other  record  fish  caught  during  1949  were 
a  female  tope  of  73  Ib.  3  oz.  from  Hayling  island,  Hampshire, 
a  flounder  of  4  Ib.  13  oz.  from  Exmouth,  Devon,  and  a  plaice 
of  7  Ib.  6£  oz.  from  Teignmouth,  Devon,  The  festivals  were 
well  attended,  Folkestone's  (Kent)  entry  including  several 
French  anglers,  while  Brighton's  (Sussex)  figure  of  850  was 


J.  H.  Lewis  of  Scarborough,  Yorkshire,  with  a  tunny  fish  weighing 
852  Ib.  which  he  caught  in  Sept.  1949. 


ANTHROPOLOGY 


47 


The  survey  work  of  the  British  in  the  Falkland  Islands 
dependencies  continued  from  a  chain  of  bases  stretching  from 
the  South  Orkney  islands  to  south  Graham  land.  In  1948, 
exploratory  sledge  journeys  were  made  continuously  from 
Hope  bay  in  the  north  of  Graham  land  and  in  1949  from 
Marguerite  bay  on  the  west  coast  in  lat.  68°  S.  In  the 
north  existing  maps  of  the  Trinity  peninsula  were  corrected 
and  the  survey  advanced  down  the  west  coast.  But  most  of 
the  year's  scientific  work  and  two  lives  were  lost  in  a  fire 
which  destroyed  the  Hope  bay  base  hut  in  Nov.  1948.  From 
Marguerite  bay  two  remarkable  journeys  were  made  down 
the  King  George  VI  sound  of  80  days'  duration  and  emperor 
penguins,  of  which  little  was  known,  were  kept  in  captivity 
and  studied.  It  was  an  unfortunate  year  as  plans  to  carry 
the  survey  farther  south  by  setting  up  new  bases  were  thwarted 
by  abnormal  ice  conditions  of  the  last  Antarctic  summer. 
This  prevented  the  survey  vessel  "  John  Biscoe  "  relieving 
the  Hope  bay  party  till  February  and  from  ever  reaching 
Marguerite  bay  at  all.  She  sailed  in  the  autumn  of  1949  for  the 
following  season  and  with  two  aircraft  it  was  expected  that 
it  would  be  possible  to  rescue  the  marooned  party. 

It  was  intended  to  use  "  weasel "  (light,  tracked  carriers) 
and  aircraft  from  a  new  base  on  Alexander  I  land  and  pene- 
trate far  into  the  dependencies  while  a  specially  equipped 
motor  vessel  was  to  be  used  for  hydrographic  work;  but 
both  these  projects  had  to  wait  for  a  more  open  season. 
Deception  island  had  the  busiest  Antarctic  port  (Port  Foster) 
and  this  had  lately  been  recharted  by  Admiralty  hydro- 
graphers.  From  here,  meteorological  reports  were  combined 
with  information  from  other  bases  and  reports  from  the  big 
station  at  Port  Stanley  in  the  Falkland  islands.  This  station 
had  the  latest  *4  radio-sonde  "  system  of  transmitting  upper 
air  conditions  so  that  shipping  over  a  wide  area  could  now 
be  provided  with  reliable  weather  forecasts  which  were 
essential  in  predicting  ice  movement. 

The  South  Africans  on  Marion  island  in  lat.  45°  S.  carried 
out  continuous  meteorological  observations  and  were  in 
regular  wireless  contact  with  their  counterparts  in  the 
Australian  Antarctic  expedition  on  Heard  and  Macquarie 
islands.  This  latter  expedition  was  unable  to  set  up  a  base  in 
Feb.  1948  at  Commonwealth  bay  on  the  mainland  so  they 
landed  parties  on  the  two  islands  which  became  permanent 
bases  for  meteorological  observations  and  cosmic  ray  counts. 

The  French  expedition  ship,  "  Commandant  Charcot," 
was  also  prevented  by  ice  from  reaching  Adelie  land  in  March 
1949.  It  had  a  Stinson  monoplane  and  an  American 
44  weasel "  on  board  and  if  ice  forbade  access  to  the  continent, 


an  alternative  programme  was  arranged  for  the  party  to  work 
on  Kerguelen  island. 

Argentines  and  Chileans  set  up  bases  on  islands  off  Graham 
land  and  claimed  territory  in  the  Falkland  islands  depen- 
dencies sector.  Also,  the  U.S.S.R.  showed  interest  though, 
with  the  exception  of  whaling  in  the  years  1947-49,  there  had 
been  no  Russian  expeditions  to  the  Antarctic  since  Fabian  von 
Bellingshausen's  great  voyages  of  1819-21.  The  whaling 
industry  flourished  and  in  the  1948-49  season  Norwegian  and 
British  whalers  in  south  polar  waters  reported  good  catches. 
(See  also  EXPLORATION  AND  DISCOVERY.)  (S.  ST.  C.  Me.  N.) 

ANTHROPOLOGY.  The  meeting  of  the  International 
Congress  of  Prehistoric  and  Protohistoric  Sciences,  to  have 
been  held  in  Budapest  in  1949,  did  not  take  place  and  there 
were  no  important  international  gatherings  in  Europe 
that  year.  The  International  Congress  of  Americanists  met  in 
New  York  in  September  and  was  attended  by  delegates  from 
Europe;  an  invitation  to  hold  the  next  session  in  1952  in 
Europe  was  accepted.  The  International  Congress  of  Anthro- 
pological and  Ethnological  Sciences  continued,  through  the 
committee  appointed  at  its  last  session  (Brussels,  Aug.  1948), 
to  consider  its  international  status  and  organization,  particu- 
larly the  question  of  affiliation  to  the  newly  created  Inter- 
national Union  of  Philosophical  and  Humanistic  Studies, 
which  would  represent  the  social  sciences  and  be  the  channel 
for  all  dealings  with  U.N.E.S.CO. 

During  the  year  important  contributions  were  made  in  the 
sphere  of  human  palaeontology  and  results  were  made  known 
of  discoveries  throwing  light  on  the  problem  of  the  antiquity 
of  man.  Dr.  Robert  Broom,  of  South  Africa,  visited  England 
and  in  addresses  to  learned  societies  described  finds  of  ape- 
men  remains  in  South  Africa  over  a  period  of  years.  In  his 
address  to  the  Royal  Anthropological  institute  he  surveyed 
the  history  of  the  work  done  since  1925,  when  Professor  R.  A. 
Dart  described  the  skull  of  a  child  (called  a  "  missing-link  " 
skull),  to  the  present  day,  the  latest  finds  being  of  a  large  ape- 
man  with  a  jaw  larger  than  that  of  man  but  with  human 
teeth. 

Professor  H.  V.  Vallois,  director  of  the  Institute  of  Human 
Palaeontology  of  Paris,  gave  some  results  of  similar  researches 
in  France  when  he  spoke  to  the  Royal  Anthropological 
institute  on  "  les  hommes  fossiles  de  Fontechavade  et  le 
probleme  de  1'origine  de  Fhomme."  A.  T.  Marston  re-opened 
the  question  of  the  Piltdown  skull  in  an  address  to  the 
Royal  Anthropological  institute  in  which  he  argued  that 
the  mandible  was  that  of  an  ape  of  about  10  years  old  whereas 
the  cranium  was  of  modern  type  man  (perhaps  Wurmian) 
of  about  40  years  old.  A  fluorine  test  was  called  for.  At  the 
British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science  meeting 
of  the  year  Dr.  K.  P.  Oakley  reported  results  of  the  fluorine 
age-test  on  various  specimens;  these  results  suggested  that 
the  Galley  Hill  skull  belonged  to  a  post-palaeolithic  period, 
that  the  Piltdown  skull  and  jaw  fragments  were  all  of  much 
the  same  age  as  one  another  and  not  likely  to  be  older  than 
the  prc-Wurm  interglacial.  The  Swanscombe  fragment,  on 
the  other  hand,  seemed  to  belong  to  the  lower  Palaeolithic,  as 
its  apparent  association  with  a  bifacial  hand-axe  had  long 
suggested.  Dr.  Broom  supported  this  thesis  with  reference 
to  the  Piltdown  skull  and  claimed  that  scarcely  any  doubt 
could  remain  that  both  skull  and  jawbone  belonged  to  the 
same  individual,  one  of  the  big-brained  type  which  evolved 
with  homo  sapiens. 

The  collection  of  blood  group  data  was  included  in  the 
work  of  an  expedition  to  east  Africa,  organized  by  the 
University  of  Oxford  Exploration  club.  Professor  F.  E. 
Zeuner  visited  archaeological  sites  in  India. 

In  France,  at  Angles-sur-PAnglin  in  Vienne  departemenl. 
Professor  D.  A.  E.  Garrod  excavated  an  early  Magdalenian 


ANTHROPOLOGY 


47 


The  survey  work  of  the  British  in  the  Falkland  Islands 
dependencies  continued  from  a  chain  of  bases  stretching  from 
the  South  Orkney  islands  to  south  Graham  land.  In  1948, 
exploratory  sledge  journeys  were  made  continuously  from 
Hope  bay  in  the  north  of  Graham  land  and  in  1949  from 
Marguerite  bay  on  the  west  coast  in  lat  68°  S  In  the 
north  existing  maps  of  the  Trinity  peninsula  were  corrected 
and  the  survey  advanced  down  the  west  coast.  But  most  of 
the  year's  scientific  work  and  two  lives  were  lost  in  a  fire 
which  destroyed  the  Hope  bay  base  hut  in  Nov  1948.  From 
Marguerite  bay  two  remarkable  journeys  were  made  down 
the  King  George  VI  sound  of  80  days'  duration  and  emperor 
penguins,  of  which  little  was  known,  were  kept  in  captivity 
and  studied.  It  was  an  unfortunate  year  as  plans  to  carry 
the  survey  farther  south  by  setting  up  new  bases  were  thwarted 
by  abnormal  ice  conditions  of  the  last  Antarctic  summer. 
This  prevented  the  survey  vessel  "  John  Biscoe  "  relieving 
the  Hope  bay  party  till  February  and  from  ever  reaching 
Marguerite  bay  at  all  She  sailed  in  the  autumn  of  1 949  for  the 
following  season  and  with  two  aircraft  it  was  expected  that 
it  would  be  possible  to  rescue  the  marooned  party 

It  was  intended  to  use  "  weasel  "  (light,  tracked  carriers) 
and  aircraft  from  a  new  base  on  Alexander  I  land  and  pene- 
trate far  into  the  dependencies  while  a  specially  equipped 
motor  vessel  was  to  be  used  for  hydrographic  work;  but 
both  these  projects  had  to  wait  for  a  more  open  season 
Deception  island  had  the  busiest  Antarctic  port  (Port  Foster) 
and  this  had  lately  been  rccharted  by  Admiralty  hydro- 
graphers.  From  here,  meteorological  reports  were  combined 
with  information  from  other  bases  and  reports  from  the  big 
station  at  Port  Stanley  in  the  Falkland  islands.  This  station 
had  the  latest  "  radio-sonde  "  system  of  transmitting  upper 
air  conditions  so  that  shipping  over  a  wide  aiea  could  now 
be  provided  with  reliable  weather  forecasts  which  were 
essential  in  predicting  ice  movement. 

The  South  Africans  on  Marion  island  in  lat.  45°  S  carried 
out  continuous  meteorological  observations  and  were  in 
regular  wireless  contact  with  their  counterparts  in  the 
Australian  Antarctic  expedition  on  Heard  and  Macquanc 
islands.  This  latter  expedition  was  unable  to  set  up  a  base  in 
Feb.  1948  at  Commonwealth  bay  on  the  mainland  so  they 
landed  parties  on  the  two  islands  which  became  permanent 
bases  for  meteorological  observations  and  cosmic  ray  counts. 

The  French  expedition  ship,  "  Commandant  Charcot," 
was  also  prevented  by  ice  from  reaching  Adelie  land  in  March 
1949.  It  had  a  Stinson  monoplane  and  an  American 
"weasel"  on  board  and  if  ice  forbade  access  to  the  continent, 


an  alternative  programme  was  arranged  for  the  party  to  work 
on  Kerguelen  island. 

Argentines  and  Chileans  set  up  bases  on  islands  off  Graham 
land  and  claimed  territory  in  the  Falkland  islands  depen- 
dencies sector.  Also,  the  U  S  S.R.  showed  interest  though, 
with  the  exception  of  whaling  in  the  years  1947-49,  there  had 
been  no  Russian  expeditions  to  the  Antarctic  since  Fabian  von 
Bellingshausen's  great  voyages  of  1819-21.  The  whaling 
industry  flourished  and  in  the  1948-49  season  Norwegian  and 
British  whalers  in  south  polar  waters  reported  good  catches. 
(See  also  EXPLORATION  AND  DisrovERY.)  (S.  ST.  C.  Me.  N.) 

ANTHROPOLOGY.  The  meeting  of  the  International 
Congress  of  Prehistoric  and  Protohistonc  Sciences,  to  have 
been  held  in  Budapest  in  1949,  did  not  take  place  and  there 
were  no  important  international  gatherings  in  Europe 
that  year.  The  International  Congress  of  Americanists  met  in 
New  York  in  September  and  was  attended  by  delegates  from 
Europe;  an  invitation  to  hold  the  next  session  in  1952  in 
Europe  was  accepted.  The  International  Congress  of  Anthro- 
pological and  Ethnological  Sciences  continued,  through  the 
committee  appointed  at  its  last  session  (Brussels,  Aug.  1948), 
to  consider  its  international  status  and  organization,  particu- 
larly the  question  of  affiliation  to  the  newly  created  Inter- 
national Union  of  Philosophical  and  Humanistic  Studies, 
which  would  represent  the  social  sciences  and  be  the  channel 
for  all  dealings  with  U.N  E  S.C.O. 

During  the  year  important  contributions  were  made  in  the 
sphere  of  human  palaeontology  and  results  were  made  known 
of  discoveries  throwing  light  on  the  problem  of  the  antiquity 
of  man.  Dr.  Robert  Broom,  of  South  Africa,  visited  England 
and  in  addresses  to  learned  societies  described  finds  of  ape- 
men  remains  in  South  Africa  over  a  period  of  years.  In  his 
address  to  the  Royal  Anthropological  institute  he  surveyed 
the  history  of  the  work  done  since  1925,  when  Professor  R.  A. 
Dart  described  the  skull  of  a  child  (called  a  "  missing-link  " 
skull),  to  the  present  day,  the  latest  finds  being  of  a  large  ape- 
man  with  a  jaw  larger  than  that  of  man  but  with  human 
teeth. 

Professor  H.  V.  Vallois,  director  of  the  Institute  of  Human 
Palaeontology  of  Pans,  gave  some  results  of  similar  researches 
in  France  when  he  spoke  to  the  Royal  Anthropological 
institute  on  "  les  homines  fossiles  de  Fontechavade  et  le 
probleme  de  Torigine  de  1'homme."  A.  T.  Marston  re-opened 
the  question  of  the  Piltdown  skull  in  an  address  to  the 
Royal  Anthropological  institute  in  which  he  argued  that 
the  mandible  was  that  of  an  ape  of  about  10  years  old  whereas 
the  cranium  was  of  modern  type  man  (perhaps  Wiirmian) 
of  about  40  years  old  A  fluorine  test  was  called  for.  At  the 
British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science  meeting 
of  the  year  Dr.  K.  P.  Oakley  reported  results  of  the  fluorine 
age-test  on  various  specimens,  these  results  suggested  that 
the  Galley  Hill  skull  belonged  to  a  post-paheohthic  period, 
that  the  Piltdown  skull  and  jaw  fragments  were  all  of  much 
the  same  age  as  one  another  and  not  likely  to  be  older  than 
the  pre-Wurm  mtei glacial.  The  Swanscombe  fragment,  on 
the  other  hand,  seemed  to  belong  to  the  lower  Palaeolithic,  as 
its  apparent  association  with  a  bifacial  hand-axe  had  long 
suggested  Dr.  Broom  supported  this  thesis  with  reference 
toYhe  Piltdown  skull  and  claimed  that  scarcely  any  doubt 
could  remain  that  both  skull  and  jawbone  belonged  to  the 
same  individual,  one  of  the  big-brained  type  which  evolved 
with  homo  sapiens. 

The  collection  of  blood  group  data  was  included  in  the 
work  of  an  expedition  to  east  Africa,  organized  by  the 
University  of  Oxford  Exploration  club.  Professor  F.  E. 
Zeuner  visited  archaeological  sites  in  India. 

In  France,  at  Anglcs-sur-1'Anglin  in  Vienne  departement, 
Professor  D.  A.  E.  Garrod  excavated  an  early  Magdaleman 


48 


ANTHROPOLOGY 


rock  shelter.  The  museum  of  Aix-en-Provence  was  enriched 
by  finds  at  Entremont,  the  site  of  the  capital  of  the  Saluvii, 
long  known  as  an  important  pre-Roman  site.  The  excavations, 
started  in  1943  for  war  purposes,  resulted  in  finds  of  **  severed 
heads";  their  interpretation  remained  uncertain  but  the 
representation  of  a  hand  over  the  skull  in  some  specimens, 
would  appear  to  imply  a  protective  symbolism.  Other  pieces 
appeared  to  be  related  to  the  practice  of  collecting  the  heads 
of  enemies;  a  bas  relief  showing  a  warrior  on  horseback  was 
interpreted  as  riding  to  the  region  of  the  dead. 

An  interesting  and  potentially  important  event  took  place 
when  the  Royal  Anthropological  institute  launched  an  appeal 
for  the  establishment,  as  soon  as  possible,  of  a  Museum  of 
English  Life  and  Traditions.  The  appeal  resulted  from  the 
institute's  appointment  of  a  committee  called  the  British 
Ethnography  committee,  charged  with  examining  and  recom- 
mending on  means  of  promoting  the  study  of  the  ethno- 
graphy of  Great  Britain  A  Museum  of  English  Life  and 
Traditions  was  the  committee's  first  recommendation;  a 
scheme  was  drawn  up  and  published  and  the  movement 
started;  it  was  proposed  to  proceed  first  by  trying  to  find 
storage  for  specimens,  already  rapidly  disappearing,  and  then 
eventually  to  establish,  in  some  large  house  with  grounds, 
a  museum  with  facilities  for  showing  typical  English  village 
lay-outs.  The  plan  was  explained  to  the  1949  meeting  of  the 
British  Association  by  the  committee's  deputy  chairman, 
T.  W.  Bagshawe,  who  urged  the  need  for  quick  action  before 
too  much  was  lost.  Jt  was  also  reported  that  the  committee 
had  nearly  completed  a  collection  of  rules  for  classifying 
and  indexing  specimens  and  records.  The  museum  scheme 
was  fully  described  in  Man,  April  1949. 

The  Colonial  Month,  organized  by  the  British  Colonial 
Office,  was  of  interest  to  anthropologists  as  it  brought  about 
a  small  but  important  exhibition  of  the  traditional  art  of 
the  British  colonies,  held  at  the  Royal  Anthropological 
institute.  The  bronze  heads  of  Ife  and  the  Nigerian  terra 
cotta  heads  were  outstanding  pieces  in  the  exhibition,  which 
contained  many  other  specimens  not  before  shown  or  pub- 
lished. Also  as  a  contribution  to  the  Colonial  Month,  the 
subject  of  anthropology  and  colonial  affairs  was  discussed 
at  a  public  meeting  of  the  Royal  Anthropological  institute, 
when  the  principal  speakers  were  Professor  E.  E.  Evans- 
Pritchard  (who  succeeded  Professor  C.  D.  Forde  as  president 
of  the  institute)  and  Professor  R.  Firth.  A  chair  of  social 
anthropology  was  established  at  Manchester  university  and 
Dr.  H.  M.  Gluckman  appointed  the  first  professor.  The 
institute's  annual  Huxley  Memorial  medal  was  awarded  to 
James  Hornell,  distinguished  for  his  work  on  water  transport; 
his  death  before  the  delivery  of  the  Huxley  Memorial  lecture 
was  deeply  regretted. 

The  British  Association  held  its  annual  meeting  at 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne  under  the  presidency  of  Sir  John 
Russell  (q.v.).  Outstanding  among  the  many  subjects  dis- 
cussed was  the  relationship  between  food  and  population. 
The  problem  set  was  that  of  producing  to  meet  the  needs  of  a 
world  population  of  2,200  million  increasing  at  the  rate  of 
20  million  a  year;  the  needs  of  such  d  mass  could  be  met  only 
by  correlating  the  efforts  of  science  in  all  branches;  pro- 
duction must  be  increased  but  natural  resources,  already  much 
impaired,  must  at  the  same  time  be  restored;  the  balance  of 
nature  must  be  preserved  and  a  symbiosis  achieved  between 
man  and  his  environment.  In  the  section  for  anthropology 
and  archaeology,  Miles  C.  Burkitt,  the  president,  spoke  of 
the  value  of  archaeology  in  education. 

The  anthropological  structure  of  Poland  was  the  subject 
of  a  report  by  Ireneusz  Michalski  in  Acta  Anthropologica 
Universitatis  Lodzicnsis.  This  dealt  with  measurements  of 
36,532  men  collected  through  the  Polish  War  Office  and 
studied  in  relation  to  the  types  visualized  by  Professor  Jan 


Czekanowski.  The  16  maps  in  part  two  summarized  some 
results.  They  showed  that,  though  Nordic  traits  are  generally 
distributed,  they  are  specially  characteristic  near  the 
lower  Vistula,  accompanied  by  darker  elements  described 
as  Cromagnonoid  (broadfaced  and  tall)  and  Mediterranean 
(medium  to  narrow  face  and  short).  On  the  other  hand, 
elements  described  as  Armenoid,  Laponoid,  Subnordic  and 
Dinanc  (broadheaded  in  all  cases)  are  most  characteristic 
of  Upper  Silesia,  the  Cracow  area  and  the  country  north- 
eastwards towards  Radom. 

An  event  of  the  year  was  the  appearance  of  Dr.  R.  N.  Sala- 
man's  book  on  The  History  and  Social  Influence  of  the 
Potato  (Cambridge,  1949).  He  traced  the  tuber  back  to  an 
Andean  home  and  gave  many  clues  to  the  social  anthropology 
of  European  peoples  who  acquired  it,  a  deep  difference 
arising  from  the  imposition  of  almost  complete  dependence 
in  some  cases  and  the  utilization  of  the  potato  with  some 
freedom  of  choice  and  as  an  accessory  in  others.  Dr.  Sala- 
man  summed  up  here  a  large  part  of  the  work  of  many  years. 
Abbe  Henri  Breuil  described  in  preliminary  fashion  a 
rock  painting  in  Southern  Rhodesia  at  Chikwandu.  Its 
importance  was  due  to  the  fact  that  the  profile  of  the  man  was 
Semitic  rather  than  African  and  the  eye  almost  almond- 
shaped.  Non- African  figures  were  seen  on  a  few  rocks  in 
Southern  Rhodesia  and  this  confirmation  would,  it  was 
hoped,  lead  to  an  interpretation  of  what  at  first  glance 
seemed  like  a  link  with  Egypt  of  the  centuries  before  Islam, 
in  Social  Structure  (Oxford,  1949)  a  group  of  social  anthrop- 
ologists under  the  editorship  of  Dr.  M.  Fortes  paid  tribute 
to  the  life-work  of  Professor  A.  R.  Radcliffe-Brown.  Kin- 
ship structure  was  exhaustively  treated  by  Dr.  C.  Levi- 
Strauss  in  l.es  Structures  elementaires  de  la  parent  e  (Paris, 
1949).  African  race  problems  were  surveyed  in  Handbook  of 
Race  Relations  in  South  Africa  (edited  by  E.  Hellman,  Oxford, 
1949).  The  Rev.  W.  Schmidt  produced  another  volume, 
the  ninth,  of  his  massive  work,  Der  Ur  sprung  der  Gottetidee 
(Freiburg,  1949);  this  part  dealt  with  Asiatic  pastoral  nomads. 
Professor  E.  O.  James  issued  several  volumes  in  the  series 
of  world  religions  which  he  was  editing.  (H.  J.  F.;  F.  ST.) 

LJnited  States.  The  steady  growth  of  anthropology  con- 
tinued during  1949.  This  was  shown  especially  by  the  large 
number  of  important  publications  that  appeared  during  the 
year,  by  the  growth  of  anthropology  departments  in  the 
universities  and  by  the  expansion  of  field  studies  and  various 
international  activities.  In  the  United  States  there  was  a 
large  increase  in  membership  of  the  American  Anthropological 
association.  The  impressive  growth  in  size  and  influence  of 
this  organization  was  due  in  large  part  to  the  efforts  of  its 
first  executive  secretary,  Ermim'e  Voegelin. 

The  19th  session  of  the  International  Congress  of  American- 
ists, held  at  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History  in 
New  York  from  Sept.  5  to  12,  was  attended  by  395  anthropolo- 
gists from  Europe  and  the  western  hemisphere.  Over  200 
papers  were  presented  and  symposia  were  held  on  the  subjects 
of  early  man  in  America,  comparative  studies  in  Peru,  middle 
American  and  Andean  relations,  origin  and  relationships  of 
the  Eskimo,  population  in  native  America,  language  and 
culture,  Afro-American  studies,  and  modern  Indian,  mixed 
and  Creole  cultures.  A  special  exhibit  at  the  museum 
demonstrated  striking  parallels  in  art  and  material  culture 
between  America  and  the  far  east  and  raised  anew  the 
question  of  trans-Pacific  influences  in  western  America, 
something  which  most  North  American  anthropologists  had 
hitherto  rejected. 

Anthropological  problems  and  the  need  for  research 
programmes  for  the  Pacific  area  were  among  the  subjects 
discussed  at  the  7th  Pacific  Science  congress  which  convened 
in  Auckland  and  Christchurch,  New  Zealand,  in  February 
and  March  1949. 


ARABIA 


49 


The  American  Association  of  Physical  Anthropologists 
began  a  new  series,  Studies  in  Physical  Anthropology,  under 
the  editorship  of  W.  W.  Howells,  the  first  number  being  a 
symposium,  Early  Man  in  the  Far  East,  with  papers  on 
various  aspects  of  Pleistocene  geology,  archaeology,  palaeon- 
tology and  somatology. 

Two  volumes  bearing  the  title  Social  Structure  appeared 
in  1949.  One  was  a  collection  of  essays  edited  by  Meyer 
Fortes  and  presented  to  Professor  A.  R.  RadclirTe-Brown  by 
1 1  of  his  pupils  and  colleagues.  The  other  was  a  volume  by 
G.  P.  Murdock.  Basing  his  postulates  on  an  analysis  of  250 
societies  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  Professor  Murdock  presented 
a  new  theory  of  the  evolution  of  social  organization  and  showed 
for  the  first  time  that  human  and  social  behaviour  could  be 
analysed  and  predicted  with  a  precision  comparable  to  that 
in  the  exact  sciences.  Another  paper  was  Julian  H.  Steward's 
Cultural  Causality  and  Law:  a  Trial  Formulation  of  the 
Development  of  Early  Civilizations.  In  this  paper,  published 
in  the  American  Anthropologist,  Steward  showed  that  there 
had  been  parallel  stages  or  eras,  each  with  similar  diagnostic 
features,  in  the  development  of  early  civilization  in  northern 
Peru,  middle  America,  Mesopotamia,  Egypt  and  China. 
Leslie  A.  White's  series  of  papers  on  the  evolution  of  culture, 
which  had  a  profound  influence  on  anthropological  thinking 
in  the  past,  were  assembled  in  a  volume  The  Science  of 
Culture:  a  Study  of  Man  and  Civilization. 

Works  which  reasserted  the  importance  of  anthropology 
and  the  other  social  sciences  in  the  understanding  of  present 
world  problems  included  Clyde  Kluckhohn's  prize-winning 
book  Mirror  for  Man:  The  Relation  of  Anthropology  to 
Modern  Life,  and  Alexander  H.  Leighton's  Human  Relations 
in  a  Changing  World:  Observations  on  the  Use  of  the  Social 
Sciences.  Robert  Endleman  criticized  the  claims  of  anthro- 
pology as  expressed  by  these  and  other  authors  in  an  essay 
The  New  Anthropology:  The  Science  of  Man  in  Messianic 
Dress,  published  in  Commentary. 

An  unusually  large  number  of  important  descriptive  works 
in  ethnography  were  published  in  1949.  Among  these  were 
The  Bella  Coola  Indians,  by  T.  F.  Mcll wraith;  The  Compara- 
tive Ethnology  of  South  American  Indians,  vol.  5  of  the 
Handbook  of  South  American  Indians,  edited  by  Julian  H. 
Steward;  The  Lapps,  by  Bjorn  Collinder;  Palauan  Society,  a 
Study  of  Contemporary  Native  Life  in  the  Palau  Islands,  by 
Homer  G.  Barnett;  Majuro,  a  Village  in  the  Marshall 
Islands,  by  Alexander  Spoehr;  Culture  and  Ethos  of  Kaska 
Society,  by  John  J.  Honigmann;  The  Bantu  of  North 
Kavirondo,  by  Gunter  Wagner;  The  Tenet ehara  Indians  of 
Brazil,  by  Charles  Wagley  and  Eduardo  Galvao. 

Other  important  publications  of  the  year  were  History  of 
the  Primates:  An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Fossil  Man, 
by  W.  E.  Le  Gros  Clark;  External  Morphology  of  the  Primate 
Brain,  by  Cornelius  J.  Connolly;  Tepexpan  Man,  by  Hellmut 
de  Terra,  Janier  Romero  and  T.  D.  Stewart;  The  Web  of 
Kinship  among  the  Tallensi,  by  Meyer  Fortes;  Social  Class 
in  America,  by  W.  Lloyd  Warner;  Magic,  a  Sociological 
Study,  by  Hutton  Webster;  Male  and  Female,  by 
Margaret  Mead;  General  Anthropology  and  Primitive  War, 
Its  Practice  and  Concepts,  by  H.  H.  Turney-High;  Law  and 
Government  of  the  Grand  River  Iroauois  by  John  A.  Noon; 
and  The  Social  and  Religious  Life  oj  a  Guatemalan  Village, 
by  Charles  Wagley. 

There  was  a  marked  increase  in  field  investigations  during 
1949.  F.  Eggan,  chairman  of  the  Department  of  Anthro- 
pology, University  of  Chicago,  began  a  survey  of  social 
organization  and  culture  in  the  mountain  provinces  of 
Mindanao  and  Visayan  islands  in  the  Philippines.  Another 
Philippine  research  project  was  that  of  Grace  L.  Wood,  who 
undertook  ethnological  studies  among  the  Negritos  and  other 
primitive  groups  on  Negros  Island. 

E.B.Y. — 5 


W.  C.  Pei  of  the  Cenozoic  Research  laboratory,  Peking 
Union  Medical  college,  resumed  excavations  at  Chou  Kou 
Tien  in  search  for  further  remains  of  Peking  Man. 

David  G.  Mandelbauni,  professor  of  anthropology  at  the 
University  of  California,  returned  to  southern  India  to  resume 
his  ethnological  work  with  the  Kota  people  in  the  Nilgiri 
area.  Morris  E.  Opler  also  undertook  research  on  village 
life  in  India.  Alexander  Spoehr  began  a  year's  programme  of 
anthropological  research  for  the  Chicago  Natural  History 
museum  on  Saipan  and  the  other  Marianas  Islands.  His 
programme  included  a  study  of  cultural  change  among  the 
native  Chamorros  and  archaeological  excavations  to  determine 
how  the  islands  were  originally  peopled.  The  Pacific  Science 
board  of  the  National  Research  council  continued  its  Micro- 
nesian  investigations,  with  I.  Dyen  studying  linguistics  on 
Yap,  and  Ann  Meredith  making  a  study  of  the  socialization 
process  in  the  Truk  area. 

The  Aleutian  expedition  of  the  Peabody  museum  of  Harvard 
directed  by  William  S.  Laughlin,  continued  its  archaeological, 
anthropological  and  linguistic  investigations  on  Umnak  and 
islands  to  the  westward.  Fredenca  de  Laguna  began  an 
ethnological  and  archaeological  survey  of  the  northern  Tlingit 
country  in  southeastern  Alaska  as  part  of  an  integrated  study 
of  the  origin  and  development  of  Tlingit  culture.  A  notable 
accomplishment  in  the  field  of  Arctic  anthropology  was  the 
independent  discovery  of  pre-Eskimo  cultural  remains  by 
J.  L.  Giddings  at  Cape  Denbigh  on  Norton  sound,  by  Helge 
Larsen  in  the  interior  of  Seward  peninsula  and  by  Ralph 
Solecki  on  the  north  slope  of  the  Brooks  range  in  the  interior 
of  northern  Alaska.  Information  on  the  distribution  and 
movements  of  pre-historic  Eskimo  population  in  the  little 
known  northern  part  of  the  Canadian  Arctic  archipelago  was 
obtained  by  H.  B.  Collins'  excavation  of  old  village  sites  on 
Cornwallis  Island. 

A  new  Department  of  Anthropology  was  established  at 
Rutgers  university,  New  Brunswick,  New  Jersey,  with 
M.  F.  Ashley  Montagu  as  chairman.  Anthropology  courses 
were  offered  for  the  first  time  at  a  number  of  other  U.S. 
universities  and  colleges,  including  the  Universities  of 
Alabama,  Mississippi,  Arkansas,  Virginia,  Louisville,  and 
Florida  State  university. 

Two  prominent  anthropologists  who  died  during  the  year 
were  J.  M.  Cooper  and  L.  Bloomficld.  (H.  B.  Cs.) 

ANTIGUA:   see  LEEWARD  ISLANDS. 

ARABIA.  A  peninsula  of  Asia  of  approximately  1,027,300 
sq.  mi.  with  a  total  population  estimated  at  9,526,000.  It 
consists  politically  of  two  independent  Arab  states,  Saudi 
Ai  abia  and  Yemen  (q.  v.) ;  the  independent  sultanates  of  Oman 
and  Masqat  or  Muscat;  the  autonomous  sheikhdoms  of 
Bahrein,  Kuwait,  Qatar,  and  the  Trucial  sheikhdoms;  and 
Aden  colony  and  protectorates  (q.v.).  Religion:  overwhelm- 
ingly Moslem  (Sunni).  Language:  Arabic. 

Saudi  Arabia.  Area:  r.  597,000  sq  mi.  (excluding  the  Rub 
al-Khali  desert  covering  approximately  193,000  sq.  mi.); 
pop.  (mid- 1947  est.):  6,000,000.  Chief  towns:  Riyadh  (cap., 
60,000);  Mecca  (150,000);  Median  (45,000);  Jedda  (40,000); 
Hufuf  (31,500).  Ruler,  King  Abdulaziz  Ibn  Abdurrahman 
Ibn  Faisal  Ibn  Sa'ud;  viceroy  of  Nejd  and  commander 
in  chief,  Emir  Sa'ud,  crown  prince;  viceroy  of  Hejaz  and 
minister  of  foreign  affairs,  Emir  Faisal. 

History.  The  United  States  and  Saudi  Arabia  announced 
on  Jan.  21  that  they  had  agreed  to  raise  the  status  of  their 
respective  missions  to  the  rank  of  embassies.  On  presenting 
his  letters  of  credence  as  ambassador  to  President  Truman  on 
March  4  Sheikh  Asad  al-Faqih  revealed  that  the  American 
community  in  Saudi  Arabia  numbered  5,000.  This,  he  said, 
was  a  remarkable  development  which  was  accompanied  by  a 


50 


ARAB   LEAGUE 


rapid  growth  of  mutual  interest  and  which  had  become  of 
great  importance  not  only  to  the  general  welfare  of  the  two 
peoples  but  also  to  the  peace  and  prosperity  of  Europe  and 
the  rest  of  the  world.  Although  lie  could  not  say  that  during 
his  three  years  as  minister  in  the  U.S.  the  Arab  cause  had  fared 
well,  he  was  convinced  that  the  American  people  would  in 
due  course  realize  its  genuine  aspects.  The  U.S.  aircraft 
carrier  "  Tarawa  "  paid  a  good  will  visit  to  Jedda  in  January. 
The  agreement  with  the  U.S.  regarding  the  use  of  Dahran 
air  base  was  extended  temporarily  on  March  15  pending 
final  negotiations. 

The  economic  development  of  the  country  continued.  Oil 
production  during  Jan. -July  1949  averaged  over  two  million 
metric  tons  a  month  (not  far  short  of  that  of  Persia).  On 
this  the  Saudi  government  received  royalties  at  the  rate  of 
$50-60  million  yearly.  On  March  4  it  was  announced  that  a 
U.S.  company,  the  Pacific  Western  Oil  corporation,  had 
obtained  an  oil  concession  covering  Saudi  Arabia's  undivided 
half  interest  in  the  Kuwait-Saudi  neutral  zone.  A  first  year's 
minimum  royalty  of  $1  million  was  paid  over  on  Feb.  21. 

A  large  number  of  American  and  some  British  engineers 
and  specialists,  together  with  skilled  men  from  Moslem 
countries,  were  employed  on  public  works,  including  rail 
and  port  construction,  roadmaking,  an  electricity  installation 
in  Mecca  and  a  broadcasting  transmitter  at  Jedda. 

The  British  Military  mission,  established  in  1947,  continued 
the  training  of  Saudi  officers  and  N.C.Os.  Steps  were  taken, 
too,  to  buy  from  the  U.S.  some  light  naval  craft  for  coastal 
patrol  work;  and  the  Egyptian  government  was  asked  to 
provide  a  naval  mission  to  train  officers  and  crews.  Egypt 
was  also  asked  in  May  to  assist  in  forming  a  customs  admini- 
stration and  in  August  to  lend  some  professors  to  act  as 
educational  inspectors. 

A  trade  treaty  with  Egypt,  valid  for  one  year,  was  signed 
in  Cairo  on  May  31.  It  was  on  the  basis  of  most  favoured 
nation  treatment  and  had  annexed  to  it  a  payments  agreement. 
It  provided,  too,  for  a  permanent  exhibition  of  Egyptian 
products  at  Jedda. 

Prince  Mansur,  ninth  son  of  the  King  and  minister  of  de- 
fence, visited  Great  Britain  for  the  first  time  in  September  and 
was  taken  to  see  army  and  air  force  training  establishments. 
In  Arab  League  politics  King  Ibn  Sa'ud  generally  supported 
Egypt.  (C.  Ho.) 

Hnancc.  The  monetary  unit  is  the  Saudi  rival,  nominally  equal  to 
Rs.  1  (Indian),  which  fluctuates  strongly.  The  recognized  standard  is  the 
George  V  gold  sovereign.  The  chief  sources  of  revenue  are  oil  royalties 
(over  £20  million  yearly)  and  pilgrimage  dues  (1946  est.  £1,600,000) 

Industry.  Crude  oil  production  (in  '000  metric  tons,  1948,  1949, 
six  months  in  brackets)  19,260  (12,410) 

Foreign  Trade.  Main  imports,  food  products  and  electrical  goods. 
Mam  exports:  oil,  gold  concentrates,  hides  and  skins. 

'transport  and  Communications.  Licensed  motor  vehicles  (Dec. 
1948).  cars  3,990,  commercial  vehicles  5,000.  Air  transport  (1947). 
hours  flown  5,167,  mi.  flown  774,453,  passengers  flown  18,66^. 

Finance.  Chief  sources  of  revenue  are  the  petroleum  resources  and 
the  annual  Moslem  pilgrimage. 

Oman  and  Masqat.  Area :  c.  65,000  sq.  mi.  Pop.  (mid- 1947 
est.):  830,000.  Ruler,  Sultan  Said  Jbn-Taimur.  British 
political  agent,  R.  Eldon  Ellison. 

Bahrein.  Area  213  sq.  mi.  Pop.  (mid- 1947  est.):  125,000. 
Ruler,  Sheikh  Sir  Sulman  Ibn-Hamad  al-Khalifah.  British 
political  agent,  C.  J.  Pelly. 

Kuwait.  Area:  c.  9,000  sq.  mi.  Pop.  (mid-1949  est.): 
120,000.  Ruler,  Sheikh  Sir  Ahmed  Ibn-Jabir  al-Subah. 
British  political  agent,  Lieut.  Colonel  A.  C.  Galloway. 
Oil  production  was  more  than  6  million  metric  tons  in  the 
first  six  months  of  1949,  against  6-4  million  tons  in  12 
months  of  1948. 

Qatar.  Area:  r.  4,000  sq.  mi.  Pop.  (mid-1947  est.): 
25,000.  Ruler,  Sheikh  Abdullah  Ibn-Jasim  al-Thani. 

Bernard  Burrowes,  head  of  the  eastern  department  of  the 


British  Foreign  Office, visited  Oman,  Bahrein,  Kuwait  and  Qatar 
in  May  and  was  reported  on  his  return  to  be  drawing  up  plans 
for  the  social  and  economic  development  of  the  principalities. 

Trucial  Sheikhdoms.  Area :  c.  \  6,000  (including  the  sheikhdoms 
of  Shargah,  Ras  al  Khaimah,  Umm  al  Qawain,  Ajman,  Debai, 
Abu  Dhabi  and  Kalba).  Pop.  (mid-1947  est.):  115,000. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  H  R  P  Dickson,  The  Atab  oj  the  Desert  (London, 
1949). 

ARAB  LEAGUE.  The  League  of  Arab  States  came 
into  being  on  March  22,  1945,  when  its  covenant  was  signed 
in  Cairo  by  the  representatives  of  Fgypt,  Iraq,  Lebanon, 
Saudi  Arabia,  Syria,  Transjordan  and  Yemen.  The  council 
of  the  league,  on  which  each  member  has  one  vote,  has  its 
seat  in  Cairo.  The  main  object  of  the  League  was  stated  to 
be  to  co-ordinate  the  political  action  and  safeguard  the 
independence  and  sovereignty  of  the  Arab  states.  Secretary 
general:  Abdurrahman  A//am  Pasha. 

The  Palestine  conflict  and  the  problem  of  the  Arab  tefugees 
continued  to  preoccupy  the  league  in  1949.  It  was  however 
much  weakened  by  differences  among  its  member  states. 
Representatives  of  all  member  states  except  Jordan  met  in 
Cairo  on  Feb.  6  to  discuss  the  invitation  of  Dr.  R.  J.  Bunche 
(</.v.),  United  Nations  mediator,  to  join  Egypt  in  the  armistice 
negotiation  with  Israel  at  Rhodes.  The  U.N.  Conciliation 
commission  was  received  in  Cairo  on  Feb.  14  by  the  secretary 
general.  In  the  upshot  the  armistice  agreement  was  signed 
on  Feb.  24  by  Egypt  alone;  Jordan,  Syria  and  Lebanon 
each  negotiated  separately,  and  Iraq  and  Saudi  Arabia 
declared  themselves  ready  to  accept  any  agreement  signed 
by  the  other  Arab  states. 

At  the  10th  session  of  the  council,  held  in  Cairo  on  March 
17-21,  the  members  were  represented  by  their  diplomatic 
representatives  in  Egypt.  The  secretary  general  told  the  press 
that  Iraq  (</.v.)  had  not  sent  any  apology  or  explanation  for 
the  non-attendance  of  its  representative.  No  proceedings 
of  importance  were  reported. 

The  political  committee  on  March  21  began  discussions 
on  Palestine  and  the  Arab  refugees  with  the  U.N.  Conciliation 
commission  in  Beirut.  Discussions  were  closed  on  April  5, 
after  the  commission's  suggestion  to  continue  negotiations 
soon  at  a  neutral  place  had  been  accepted  by  all  the  delegates 
except  that  of  Iraq  who  said  his  government  were  disinclined 
to  continue  discussions  before  the  refugee  problem  had  been 
solved.  The  place  subsequently  chosen  was  Lausanne,  where 
a  conference,  attended  also  by  Israel,  began  on  April  27  and 
continued  with  adjournments  during  the  yeai,  an  Economic 
Survey  group  being  appointed  to  study  the  question  of  the 
Arab  refugees  on  the  spot. 

Events  in  Syria  (</.v.)  much  aggravated  the  differences 
among  the  member  states.  The  secretary  general,  who  had 
visited  Husni  ez-Zaim  in  Damascus  on  April  17,  on  May  8 
called  for  an  urgent  meeting  of  the  council  so  that  he  might 
answer  the  charges  made  against  him  by  the  Iraqi  foreign 
minister  of  having  exceeded  his  jurisdiction.  On  May  23  a 
statement  addressed  by  Azzam  Pasha  to  the  president  of 
the  Iraqi  Chamber  of  Deputies  was  published.  It  said  that 
he  had  taken  no  steps,  taken  part  in  no  activities  and  ap- 
proved no  measures  other  than  those  unanimously  authorized 
by  the  League  council. 

Despite  persistent  efforts  in  many  quarters  and  particularly 
by  the  prime  minister  of  Lebanon  (q.v.)  a  further  meeting 
of  the  political  committee  could  not  be  arranged.  One 
arranged  for  Aug.  20  at  Alexandria  was  adjourned  at  Egypt's 
request  owing  to  events  in  Syria.  The  council  did  however 
hold  a  meeting  in  Cairo  on  Oct.  17  where  it  was  unanimously 
decided  to  support  the  Egyptian  delegate  to  U.N.  in  his 
attitude  on  the  future  of  Eritrea,  The  meeting  ended  on 
Oct.  30  with  a  decision  to  set  up  a  committee  to  draft  a 
security  pact  between  the  seven  member  states.  (C.  Ho.) 


ARAGON,   LOUIS—ARCHEOLOGY 


51 


A  view  of  the  council  of  the  Arab  League,  meeting  in  the  Egyptian  Foreign  Office,  Cairo,  in  Oct.  1949.    Delegates  were  present  from  Egypt, 

Iraq,  Jordan,  Lebanon,  Saudi  Arabia,  Syria  and  Yemen. 

ARAGON,  LOUIS.  French  writer  (b.  1897),  served 
in  the  last  year  of  World  War  1.  Two  years  later  his  first 
book  of  poems,  Feu  de  joie,  appeared  and  was  followed  by 
Le  Libertinage  (1924)  and  Le  paysan  de  Paris  (1926).  He  was 
among  the  advance  guard  of  the  Surrealist  movement  until, 
in  1930,  he  became  a  member  of  the  Communist  party  and 
visited  Russia.  His  change  of  political  views  found  expression 
in  such  poems  as  Front  Rouge  (1931),  for  which  he  was 
prosecuted  on  a  charge  of  having  abused  the  French  flag. 
He  became  secretary  of  the  French  section  of  the  popular 
front,  a  member  of  the  editorial  staff  of  LHumanite,  then 
managing  editor  of  Ce  Soir  and  later  also  joined  the  board 
of  directors  of  Europe.  A  week  before  the  outbreak  of  war 
in  1939  Ce  Soir  was  temporarily  suppressed.  Aragon  joined  a 
tank  division  and  later  took  part  in  the  resistance  movement. 
After  the  war  he  continued  to  engage  in  literary  and  journalistic 
activity  and  resumed  the  editorship  of  Ce  Soir.  In  Sept.  1949  he 
was  charged  with  having  menaced  public  order  and  was  dep- 
rived of  his  civil  rights  as  the  result  of  an  article  which  had 
appeared  in  Ce  Soil".  On  Oct.  26,  however  as  the  result  of  an 
appeal  he  was  acquitted  and  the  sentence  was  quashed. 

Aragon  was  awarded  the  Prix  Renaudot  in  1936  for  his 
novel  Les  Beaux  Quartiers,  the  second  of  a  trilogy  of  which 
the  other  two  were:  Les  Cloches  de  Bale  (1934)  and  Les 
Voyageurs  de  rimperiale  (1941).  He  afterwards  published, 
among  other  works,  two  volumes  of  poetry,  Le  Creve-Coeur 
(1941)  and  Les  yeux  d'Elsa  (1942),  and  a  novel,  Aurelien 
(1945).  He  married  Elsa  Triolet,  a  Russian  writer  to  whom 
many  of  his  works  are  dedicated. 

ARCH/EOLOGY.  In  1949  the  story  of  the  discovery 
and  the  investigation  of  the  Hebrew  scrolls  from  the  Dead 
sea  cave  probably  attracted  most  attention.  Among  the 
more  important  events  were  the  further  examination  of 
Karatepe,  Turkey;  the  palaeolithic  cave-finds  in  France; 
the  Maglemosian  site  in  Yorkshire;  and  the  recognition  of 
the  south  Algerian  limes. 


Great  Britain.  Further  exploration  of  the  stone-axe  factory 
site  at  Pike  o'  Stickle,  Great  Langdale,  Westmorland,  con- 
firmed that  the  finishing  processes  were  carried  out  at  a 
lower  altitude.  A  small  cave  in  the  area  proved  disappointing. 
Products  of  this  factory  were  apparently  traded  more  widely 
in  Britain  than  those  of  the  better-known  Craig  Lwyd  site 
in  North  Wales  (Trans.  Cumberland  and  Westmorland 
A.  and  A.  Soc.,4S,  214,  1949). 

At  Starr  Carr,  Seamer,  six  miles  south  of  Scarborough, 
Dr.  J.  D.  G.  Clark  excavated  for  the  Prehistoric  society  a 
Maglemosian  site  of  c.  8000-6000  B.C.,  discovered  by  J.  W. 
Moore,  and  found  strikingly  abundant  evidence  for  conditions 
of  life  in  Mesolithic  Britain,  the  peaty  nature  of  the  site 
having  preserved  large  quantities  of  organic  material.  There 
were  even  structural  remains  in  the  form  of  rough  birch-bark 
flooring  held  down  by  heavy  stones.  Bones  were  found  of 
red  and  roe  deer,  elk  and  ox,  as  well  as  smaller  animals  and 
birds.  Red  deer  antlers  were  used  for  making  barbed  points 
("  harpoons  "),  of  which  60  were  found;  the  cutting  was  done 
with  burins  knapped  on  the  spot.  Other  implements  or  weapons 
were:  scrapers,  microUths  and  rough  stone  axes;  an  axe  made 
from  the  base  of  an  elk  antler;  scoops  and  chisels  of  red  deer 
antler.  There  were  also  well  preserved  birch-bark  rolls.  The 
site  proved  to  be  closely  linked  with  its  counterparts  across 
the  North  sea  and  comparable  with  them  in  importance. 

In  the  Scilly  Islands  B.  H.  St.  J.  O'Neil  and  his  wife  con- 
tinued their  work  and  excavated  a  Bronze  Age  house  at 
English  Island  Cairn.  Roughly  oval  in  plan,  it  had  three 
occupation  layers,  from  the  middle  one  of  which  came 
potsherds  assigned  to  c.  1000  B.C.  At  a  nearby  site,  Par  Beach, 
they  examined  a  well  built  round  house  of  native  construction 
associated  with  the  4th-century  Roman  pottery. 

At  Meare  lake  village,  Somerset,  H.  St.  George  Gray 
examined  three  dwelling-mounds.  Among  numerous  bronzes, 
which  included  ornamented  cheek-pieces,  was  a  spoon  of 
Roman  type  probably  imported  from  the  continent  towards 
the  end  of  the  Early  Iron  Age. 


52 


ARCHEOLOGY 


At  Snettisham,  Norfolk,  late  in  1948  three  Iron  Age  hoards 
were  found,  with  interesting  affinities  with  the  Rhineland. 
One  consisted  of  fragments  of  at  least  three  gold  tores;  the 
others  were  mainly  of  bronze  and  included  3  tores,  7  brace- 
lets, 11  rings  and  various  fragments;  the  third  hoard  also 
contained  77  coins. 

In  Roman  studies  the  main  event  of  the  year  was  the  cen- 
tenary pilgrimage  along  Hadrian's  Wall,  which  provided  an 
opportunity  for  re-stating  the  latest  views  on  the  main  Roman 
frontier  in  Britain.  It  was  shown  that  the  Wall,  with  its 
milecastles,  turrets  and  vallum,  formed  a  single  conception, 
carried  out  in  A.D.  122-126.  From  Newcastle  to  the  Irthing 
(45  mi )  it  was  designed  10  Roman  feet  thick  with  a  clay  or 
earth  core.  West  of  the  Irthing,  in  view  of  the  shortage  of 
stone  and  especially  of  limestone  for  mortar,  the  Wall  was 
of  turf  or  clay.  Before  the  stone  wall  was  completed,  however, 
its  construction  was  modified:  its  western  part  was  finished 
to  a  width  of  only  8  ft.  with  a  mortar  coie;  it  was  extended 
eastwards  to  Wallsend  and  westwards  for  a  further  two  mi  ; 
finally  the  whole  line  was  strengthened  by  the  introduction 
of  forts,  each  intended  to  hold  500  or  1,000  auxiliary  troops. 
The  change  of  military  policy  under  Antoninus  Pius  led  to 
the  construction  of  a  new  frontier  barrier  between  the  rivers 
Forth  and  Clyde  and  consequently  the  virtual  abandon- 
ment of  Hadrian's  Wall — an  event  with  which  the  well- 
known  "  crossings  "  of  the  vallum  might  be  associated,  if, 
as  it  was  suggested,  they  represented  a  formal  cancellation 
of  that  earthwork.  Later  in  the  century,  however,  the  Wall 
was  re-occupied  and  its  west  end  reconstructed  in  stone. 
Views  held  on  the  later  history  of  the  frontier  showed  less 
modification  since  the  1930  pilgrimage,  but  the  extent  of  the 
Diocletianic  reconstruction  received  increasing  attention. 
The  pilgrimage  was  succeeded  by  a  Congress  of  Frontier 
Studies,  attended  by  scholars  from  many  parts  of  the  Roman 
empire  and  organized  by  Durham  university.  This  was  to 
become  a  quinquennial  event. 

Near  Carrawburgh  fort  a  well  preserved  mithraum  was 
partly  excavated  and  three  inscribed  altars  found.  At  Bew- 
castle,  Cumberland,  the  regimental  bath  house  was  found  to 
have  been  inside  the  fort;  it  also  was  well  preserved  and 
resembled  the  bath  house  at  Chesters  in  plan.  Dr.  I.  A. 
Richmond  excavated  the  central  portion  of  the  fort  at 
South  Shields,  Co.  Durham,  uncovering  a  large  group 
of  granaries  associated  with  the  Scottish  campaigns  of 
Severus.  Other  work  on  Roman  military  sites  included  the 
excavation  at  Malton,  Yorks,  of  a  building,  possibly  a 
mansio*  with  hypocaust  and  mosaic  floor,  south  of  the  fort; 
a  fort  gateway  with  flanking  guard-chambers  at  Neath, 
Glamorgan,  where  the  earliest  (Flavian)  finds  were  associated 
by  Dr.  V.  E.  Nash- Williams  with  the  conquest  of  the  Silures 
by  Julius  Frontinus;  and  the  remains  of  the  legionary 
fortress  at  Chester. 

The  study  of  Roman  towns,  especially  in  bombed  areas, 
continued.  In  London  the  Roman  and  Mediaeval  Excavation 
council  located  an  early  2nd-century  town  wall  with  clay 
backing;  it  was  superseded  about  the  middle  of  the  century 
or  a  little  later  by  similar  composite  defences  on  an  inner 
line;  to  this  wall  hollow  bastions  were  added  during  the 
4th  century.  Bombed  sites  in  Canterbury,  excavated  by 
S.  Frere,  produced  evidence  for  the  Roman  street-plan; 
it  is  possible  that  the  Ist-ccntury  plan  was  modified  when  the 
town  walls  were  built  in  the  2nd  century.  A  large  bath-building 
of  semi-public  character  was  uncovered.  At  Verulamium  (St. 
Albans)  the  centre  of  the  Roman  city  was  examined  and  a 
large  public  building  of  massive  construction  found. 

Of  other  discoveries  the  most  striking  was  that  at  Lulling- 
stone,  near  Farningham,  Kent,  where  a  wealthy  villa  produced 
a  mosaic  pavement  depicting  Bellerophon  upon  Pegasus  and 
a  Rape  of  Europa  with  a  somewhat  provincial  couplet, 


both  ascribed  to  about  A.D.  300.  Most  remarkable  were  two 
busts  of  Pentelic  marble  probably  of  early  2nd-century  date. 
Another  villa,  of  corridor  type,  excavated  at  Whittington 
Court,  Gloucestershire,  retained  its  geometric  mosaics  and 
channelled  hypocausts  of  4th-century  date.  A  pottery  kiln 
excavated  near  Lincoln  produced  a  complete  range  of  "  kiln 
furniture." 

Later  sites  examined  included  Petersfinger,  near  Salisbury, 
where  a  6th-century  Saxon  cemetery  was  found  to  contain 
Frank ish  elements;  The  Mounts,  Pachesham,  near  Leather- 
head,  Surrey,  the  site  of  successive  manor  houses  abandoned 
towards  the  end  of  the  Middle  Ages;  and,  most  important, 
the  London  Charterhouse  of  which  the  great  church,  with 
burial  place  of  the  founder,  and  the  cloister  had  been  traced 
by  the  London  Excavation  council. 

Europe.  France.  Professor  D.  A.  E.  Garrod  reported  an 
important  find  by  Mile.  G.  Henri-Martin  of  fragments  of 
two  skulls  in  a  cave  at  Fontechevade,  near  Montbron, 
Charente,  with  rough  flint  implements  of  Tayacian  character. 
The  larger  skull  was  comparable  to  that  from  Swanscombe. 
Despite  ccitain  primitive  features  it  stands  in  the  same  line 
of  descent  as  Homo  Sapiens  and  has  indeed  a  high  vertical 
forehead.  Prof.  Garrod  pointed  out  that  the  contrast  between 
the  rough  implements  from  Fontechcvade  and  the  well 
made  implements  (mid-Acheulian)  found  with  the  Swans- 
combe  man  accorded  ill  with  "  the  seductive  theory  that  links 
certain  well  defined  industrial  complexes  with  certain  human 
types."  She  also  reported  that  her  excavations  (with  Mile.  S. 
Mathurin)  of  the  prehistoric  rock-shelter  at  Angles-sur- 
FAnglm,  Vienne,  produced  a  naturalistic  representation  of  a 
Palaeolithic  (Early  Magdalenian)  man,  executed  in  stone  in  a 
technique  combining  sculpture,  painting  and  engraving. 
Among  several  animal  carvings  that  of  a  young  ibex  was 
noteworthy. 

At  La  Colombiere,  on  the  banks  of  the  Am,  45  mi.  from 
Lyons,  Dr.  K.  Bryan  and  Dr.  H.  L.  Movius,  of  the  Peabody 
museum,  Harvard,  examined  the  late  Pleistocene  terraces, 
which  were  found  to  belong  to  Wurm  times,  and  a  rock- 
shelter  associated  with  them.  In  addition  to  a  decorated 
bone  object  of  Magdalenian  date  and  upper  Aurignacian 
tools,  the  main  find  was  an  engraved  pebble  bearing  super- 
imposed animal  outlines  depicting  horse,  reindeer,  ibex  and 
woolly  rhinoceros. 

Finds  made  during  work  in  war-damaged  towns  included 
quantities  of  6th-century  B.C.  Greek  pottery  at  Marseilles, 
among  which  was  a  figure  of  Aphrodite;  and  a  bronze  vessel 
from  Amiens,  similar  to  the  "  Rudge  cup  "  and  to  a  fragmen- 
tary example  from  Spain.  Like  the  **  Rudge  cup  "  it  is 
inscribed  with  the  names  of  forts  on  Hadrian's  Wall,  with 
the  additional  name  of  Aesica  (Great  Chesters). 

Germany.  Excavations  in  bombed  areas  took  place  at 
Trier  and  Cologne,  producing  details  of  the  Roman  city  and 
of  what  was  thought  to  be  remains  of  a  monastery  of  the 
St.  Gall  type  and  period  respectively. 

Denmark.  G.  Hatt  published  a  survey  of  ancient  field 
systems  in  Denmark  (Oldtidsagre,  Copenhagen,  1949). 
They  were  mainly  early  Iron  Age  in  date  and  were  eventually 
superseded  by  the  heavy  plough  and  strip-field  system. 
Comparative  material,  especially  from  Holland  and  England, 
was  included  in  the  survey. 

Italy.  Alba  Fucens,  the  stronghold  of  the  Aequi,  situated 
near  Avezzano  (Abruzzi)  on  the  Via  Valeria  was  partly 
excavated.  Part  of  the  city  plan  and  of  the  Via  Valeria  were 
explored,  the  finds  including  inscriptions  and  terra-cottas. 
Greece.  The  American  School  of  Classical  Studies  at 
Athens  reported  about  its  work  in  the  Agora,  in  particular 
the  excavation  of  a  fountain  house,  which  may  be  the  Ennea- 
krounos,  in  the  southwest  corner  of  the  market  square  and 
excavations  in  the  valley  west  of  the  Areopagus,  where  a 


ARCHEOLOGY 


53 


rich  cremation-burial  of  c.  900  B.C.  and  a  group  of  Sth-century 
B.C.  houses  were  found  (Hesperia,  18,  1949).  In  the  same 
volume  S.  S.  Weinburg  recorded  small-scale  work  by  the 
American  school  at  Corinth,  where  the  theatre,  south  stoa, 
and  the  Julian  and  south  basilicas  were  tested.  The  two 
latter  were  found  to  be  identical  in  plan. 

Middle  East.  Cyprus.  Dr.  Claude  F.  A.  SchaefTer,  director 
of  the  French  Centre  of  Scientific  Research,  Paris,  reported 
his  discovery  of  the  ancient  city  associated  with  the  previously 
known  Mycenaean  cemetery  at  Enkomi,  near  Famagusta, 
and  identified  it,  through  the  Tell  Amarna  letters,  with  Alasia, 
the  ancient  capital  of  the  island,  a  centre  of  the  copper  and 
bronze  industry.  The  earliest  remains  dated  from  the  begin- 
ning of  the  second  millenium  B.C.  Later  came  the  Mycenaean 
city,  covering  the  15th- 13th  centuries  B.C.,  during  which  time 
the  city  was  strongly  fortified;  and  lastly  a  post- Mycenaean 
period  of  13th- 12th  centuries  B.C.  Subsequent  work  by  the 
Cyprus  Department  of  Antiquities  under  Dr.  P.  Dikaios 
produced,  from  what  may  have  been  a  shrine  in  an 
impressive  palace  building,  a  remarkable  bronze  statue,  two 
feet  high,  of  a  horned  god,  deposited  in  the  12th  or  llth 
century  B.C. 

Turkey.  Professor  H.  Th.  Bossert,  director  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Near  Eastern  Studies,  University  of  Istanbul,  and 
his  colleagues  (Dr.  Halet  Cambel,  Dr.  Bahadir  Alkim, 
Dr.  Nihal  Ongunsu,  Dr.  Franz  Steinherr,  Dr.  Muhibbe 
Darga-Anstock  and  Ibrahim  Siizen)  reported  about  their 
further  work  at  the  two  Hittite  fortresses  of  Karatepe  and 
Domuztepe,  bordering  the  Cilician  plain,  on  both  sides  of 
the  river  Ceyham  (ancient  Pyramos).  At  Karatepe  the 
surrounding  wall,  which  had  square  interval-towers,  had 
north  and  south  entrances  with  long  gate-passages  flanked 
by  inscribed  and  sculptured  slabs.  The  inscriptions  are  half 
in  Old  Phoenician  and  half  in  Hittite  hieroglyphic  script 
and,  since  they  apparently  record  the  same  events,  constitute 
a  series  of  "  Rosetta  stones."  They  are  dated  c.  730  and  their 
deciphering  should  fill  a  great  gap  in  the  history  of  the  region. 
The  slabs  bearing  figure  subjects  were  apparently  carved 
in  situ;  the  figures,  generally  in  profile,  vary  greatly  in 
subject  matter,  including  religious  or  mythological  scenes 
and  scenes  from  the  life  of  the  royal  family  or  the  people — 
banqueting  and  hunting  scenes,  warriors  and  ships.  Artisti- 
cally and  iconographically  Egypt,  Mesopotamia,  Anatolia 
and  Syria  had  all  been  laid  under  contribution.  (Belle ten, 
12,  529,  Ankara,  1948;  Palestine  Explor.  Qly.,  Jan.-April, 
1949;  Orient,  1,  no.  2,  Leiden,  Holland,  1945-49). 

Professor  A.  W.  Persson  reported  discovering  at  Labranda, 
9  mi.  north  of  Milas  (ancient  Mylassa)  and  about  85  mi.  S.S.E. 
of  Izmir  (Smyrna),  a  peripteral  temple  of  Zeus  like  that  of 
Athena  Pollias  at  Pirene.  Epigraphic  finds  included  building- 
inscriptions  of  Maussollos  (d.  353  B.C.)  and  Idreius  (d. 
344  B.C.)  and  clay  tablets  bearing  partly  a  script  of  Carian 
character  and  partly  one  related  to  Old  Phoenician  and 
Minoan  scripts.  (Arsberettelse,  Uppsala,  Sweden,  1949). 

Palestine.  Fuller  details  became  available  of  the  discovery 
and  nature  of  the  Hebrew  scrolls,  found  in  a  cave  on  the  shores 
of  the  Dead  sea  about  6  mi.  south  of  Jericho,  and  the  vexed 
question  of  the  approximate  date  of  their  deposit  was  settled 
by  an  excavation  carried  out  by  G.  L.  Harding,  chief  curator 
of  antiquities,  Jordan,  in  collaboration  with  the  Ecole 
Biblique  et  Archeologique  of  Jerusalem  and  the  Palestine 
Archaeological  museum.  The  scrolls,  wrapped  in  linen 
squares,  were  stored  in  large,  lidded  jars  of  the  late  2nd  or 
early  1st  century  B.C.  The  jars,  to  judge  by  the  fragments, 
were  about  40  in  number  and  could  each  have  held  five  or 
six  scrolls.  Of  the  eight  known  to  have  been  removed  by 
the  goatherd  finders,  four,  now  in  the  United  States,  com- 
prise Isaiah,  a  commentary  on  Habakkuk,  a  book  of  ritual 
(the  Sectarian  Document)  and  part  of  Enoch  in  Aramaic; 


A  fragment  of  a  scroll  bearing  the  text  of  the  book  of  Deuteronomy 
found  in  Palestine  and  thought   to  be  2,000  years  old. 

the  other  four,  now  at  the  Hebrew  university  of  Jerusalem, 
The  War  Between  the  Children  of  Light  and  the  Children  of 
Darkness  (an  unknown  apocryphal  book),  part  of  Isaiah, 
a  book  of  hymns  and  psalms  and  one  not  yet  read.  Harding's 
clearance  of  the  cave  produced  many  fragments  which 
included  portions  of  Genesis,  Deuteronomy,  Leviticus,  Judges 
and  Daniel.  The  lined  documents  are  written  mainly  in  post- 
Exilic  script,  but  some,  in  Phoenician  script,  are  probably 
earlier.  It  is  possible  that  the  presumed  absence  of  many 
scrolls  may  be  associated  with  the  find  of  Hebrew  scrolls 
in  A.D.  217,  recorded  by  the  3rd-century  writer  Origen. 

The  end  was  reported  (Palestine  Explor.  Qly.9  Jan. -Apr., 
1949)  of  several  years'  work  on  the  great  Umayyad  baths 
(c.  A.D.  724-743)  at  Khirbet  Mafjar,  near  Jericho.  The  main 
structure  (135  ft.  by  110  ft.)  had  a  colonnaded  hall  90  ft. 
square;  the  roof,  supported  by  16  piers,  6  ft.  square  with 
angle-shafts,  probably  rose  by  stages  to  a  high  dome  over 
the  central  bay.  Each  wall  had  three  semi-circular  exedray 
except  the  east  wall,  where  the  central  bay  contained  the 
entrance;  this  led  to  an  elaborate  porch,  a  domed  structure 
decorated  with  male  and  female  statues.  The  central  exedra 
of  the  west  wall  was  more  richly  decorated  than  the  others. 
The  central  three  bays  of  the  south  side  of  the  hall  were 
occupied  by  a  swimming-bath.  The  paving  was  well  preserved 
and  there  were  many  architectural  fragments.  Doorways  in 
the  north  wall  led  to  a  series  of  hot  rooms  and  to  a  domed 
room,  elaborately  decorated  with  mosaic  paving  and  carved 
plasterwork. 

Discoveries  under  the  aegis  of  the  government  of  Israel 
included  a  Samaritan  synagogue  of  Hellenistic  times  near  Tel 
Aviv;  mosaic  pavements  in  Jerusalem;  prehistoric  finds  at 
Evron,  between  Acre  and  Naharia;  and  Hellenistic  marbles 
from  Oesarea,  Nathania  and  Tivon. 

Persia.  T.  Burton  Brown,  research  fellow  of  the  British 
School  of  Archaeology  in  Iraq,  reported  on  the  British 
expedition  to  northwest  Persia,  which  carried  out  trial  excava- 
tions at  Geoy  Tepe,  4  mi.  southeast  of  Rezaiyeh  (Urmia).  The 
earliest  levels  produced  remains  like  the  al  Ubaid  culture  of 
Iraq  (c.  3000  B.C.).  Later  levels  showed  instructive  affinities 
with  near  eastern  and  especially  £Egean  civilization,  of  the 
first  three  millenia  B.C.  and  included  a  remarkable  series  of 
stone  figures  with  unknown  hieroglyphs. 

Iraq.  Work  continued  on  the  pre-Hammurabic  administra- 
tive centre  at  Tell  Abu  Harmal,  near  Baghdad.  The  plan  of 
the  interior  was  completed  and  further  inscribed  tablets  found, 
some  from  early  levels.  At  Tell  Abu  Shahrein  (ancient  Eridu) 
further  excavation  revealed  a  large  public  building  of  brick 


54 


ARCHAEOLOGY 


with  fragments  of  Sumerian  sculpture  similar  to  that  at  the 
contemporary  "A"  palace  at  Kish. 

Africa.  Egypt.  In  Alexandria  recent  excavations  directed 
by  Alan  Rowe,  curator  of  the  Graeco-Roman  museum  in  that 
city,  located  the  temple  of  Serapis,  now  assignable  to  Ptolemy 
III  (241-221  B.C.),  near  the  column  of  Diocletian.  It  formed 
the  north  end  of  a  colonnaded  enclosure  560  ft.  by  250  ft. 
wide,  with  accommodation  on  the  west  for  temple  officials 
and,  to  the  south,  a  series  of  small  rooms  which  were  thought 
to  have  contained  the  Serapeum  library.  The  temple  was 
rebuilt  early  in  the  2nd  century  B.C.  and  was  destroyed  by  the 
Patriarch  Theophilus  in  A.D.  391.  East  of  the  temple  was  a 
shrine  of  Harpocrates  dedicated  by  Ptolemy  IV  (221-203  B.C.). 

At  Thebes  an  avenue  of  monolithic  sphinxes,  with  portrait 
heads  of  Nectanebis  I  and  dedicated  by  him  to  Amon,  was 
found  under  a  Roman  pavement. 

Sudan.  The  excavation  of  Amarah  was  continued  and 
results  pointed  to  peaceful  evacuation  of  the  city  in  late 
Ramassid  times,  probably  for  climatic  or  political  reasons. 
A  brick-built  shrine  outside  the  town  was  evidently  the  centre 
of  a  snake  cult  for  it  was  surrounded  by  pots  containing 
skeletons  of  snakes. 

Tripoli tonia.  The  examination  of  Sabratha,  45  mi.  west  of 
Tripoli,  was  continued  by  Dr.  J.  B.  Ward-Perkins  and 
Miss  K.  Kenyon.  Sabratha  owed  its  wealth  to  olive  oil 
exports  and  the  general  trade  of  the  north  African  hinterland. 
It  was  given  colonial  status  in  the  2nd  century  A.D.,  survived, 
though  not  undamaged,  successive  barbarian  invasions  and 
was  reconstructed  by  Justinian.  Some  traces  of  the  earlier 
Punic  city  were  found  but  work  was  concentrated  on  the 
survey  of  the  remains  and  the  study  of  their  history  and 
development.  Buildings  examined  included  the  basilica  (later 
a  Christian  church)  and  forum;  buildings  associated  with  the 
latter  were  a  curia,  a  capitolium  and  temples  to  Liber  Pater 
and  Serapis.  The  same  workers  planned  and  recorded  the 
4th-century  4t  hunting  baths"  (so-called  from  their  scheme  of 
decoration)  at  Leptis  Magna. 

Algeria.  An  air  survey  produced  the  important  information 
that  substantial  remains  survived  in  southern  Algeria  of  a 
Roman  limes.  Its  complexity  ranks  it  with,  though  after, 
Hadrian's  Wall.  (J.  Baradez,  "  Vue  aerienne  de  Torganisation 
romaine  dans  le  Sud-Algerien,"  Fossatum  Africae,  Paris, 
1949).  (J.  CHN.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  War  and  Archteology  in  Britain  (London,  H.M.S.O., 
1949). 

Western  Hemisphere.  Although  there  were  substantial 
gains  in  knowledge  of  the  archaeology  of  the  western  hemi- 
sphere during  1949,  the  most  outstanding  event  was  a  demon- 
stration of  a  system  of  absolute  dating  of  certain  kinds  of 
archaeological  remains  by  means  of  the  radioactivity  of  the 
carbon  isotope  (C14).  The  new  method,  archaso-radio- 
chemistry,  was  developed  by  Dr.  W.  F.  Libby  and  Dr.  James 
Arnold  of  the  University  of  Chicago.  By  measuring  the 
radioactivity  of  the  carbon  isotope  in  wood,  charcoal,  shell, 
horn,  ivory  and  vegetal  remains  found  in  ancient  archaeo- 
logical sites,  the  age  of  the  site  could  be  determined  with  a 
remarkable  degree  of  accuracy.  An  impressive  number  oi' 
sites  in  the  western  hemisphere  were  dated  by  the  radiocarbon 
method  and  the  results  would  probably  be  released  in  1950. 

Arctic  Area.  Under  the  auspices  of  the  Smithsonian 
institution  and  the  National  Museum  of  Canada  Dr.  Henry 
B.  Collins  assisted  by  J.  P.  Michea  excavated  a  number  of 
ancient  Eskimo  sites  on  Resolute  bay,  Cornwallis  island  in 
the  hitherto  archaeological ly  unknown  Canadian  arctic 
archipelago.  Ruins  of  four  villages  of  from  6  to  14  well 
preserved  houses  of  Thule  culture  type  were  excavated.  Over 
1,000  characteristic  Thule  artifacts  were  excavated  from  the 
houses  and  middens.  A  number  of  fine  examples  of  picto- 
graphic  art  were  obtained,  as  well  as  a  style  of  composite 


pottery  and  stone  lamp  previously  unknown.  The  excavations 
revealed  that  bow  head  whales  and  drift  wood  were  abundant 
at  the  time  of  the  Thule  occupancy  although  they  have  been 
absent  from  the  region  in  modern  times. 

A  joint  expedition  of  the  Danish  National  museum  and 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania  museum  conducted  archaeo- 
logical investigations  on  several  sites  on  the  Seaward 
peninsula  in  Alaska  during  the  summer.  The  expedition  was 
led  by  Dr.  Helge  Larsen  assisted  by  Charles  Lucier.  A 
previously  unknown  phase  of  Ipiutak  culture  was  found 
beneath  a  late  Eskimo  village  midden  at  Cape  Spencer.  Iron 
knife  blades  and  elaborate  carvings  of  ivory  were  found  in 
the  Ipiutak  levels.  Two  sites  were  excavated  at  the  Deering 
airfield.  One  of  these  sites  was  western  Thule,  the  other  was 
Ipiutak  with  artifacts  identical  to  those  of  the  type  site  at 
Point  Hope.  In  a  limestone  cave  30  mi.  from  Deering, 
stratified  deposits  revealed  a  sequence  from  what  may  have 
been  pre-Eskimo  culture  to  recent  Eskimo  culture  in  the 
uppermost  levels. 

During  the  summer,  with  a  grant  from  the  Arctic  Institute 
of  North  America,  Dr.  Louis  Giddings  of  the  University  of 
Alaska  continued  his  excavations  at  Nukleet  and  lyatayet 
on  Cape  Denbigh  in  Norton  sound,  Alaska.  He  was  assisted 
by  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Wendell  Oswalt.  Excavations  at  Nukleet 
were  carried  through  the  permafrost  to  bedrock  revealing 
several  stages  of  Eskimo  culture.  The  oldest  level  showed 
relations  with  Early  Punuk  or  Birnirk  cultures.  Quantities 
of  well  preserved  artifacts  made  of  organic  materials  were 
found. 

At  lyatayet  the  upper  layers  contained  artifacts  similar 
to  those  found  at  Nukleet.  In  the  lower  levels  Ipiutak-like 
artifacts  of  flint  were  found.  And  underneath  the  site,  sealed 
by  a  sterile  layer  of  sandy  clay  was  a  thin,  bottom  deposit 
containing  nearly  a  thousand  chipped  stone  artifacts.  Included 


Exploration  at  Lincoln,  Nebraska,  where  dwellings  5,000  years  old 
were  discovered  by  E.  Mott  Davis. 


ARCHERY— ARCHITECTURE 


55 


in  the  lithic  complex  were  burins  and  lamellar  knives  of  styles 
known  from  the  Old  World  and  additional  types  of  artifacts 
known  from  Folsom  or  Yuma  horizons  in  the  western  states. 
With  the  Folsom  and  Yuma-like  materials  was  a  fluted  point 
and  a  broken  blade  of  the  type  known  as  "  oblique  Yuma.*' 

As  part  of  the  Harvard  university  anthropological  project 
in  the  Aleutian  Islands  during  the  summer,  archaeological 
investigations  were  undertaken  under  the  direction  of  Dr. 
William  Laughlm.  Excavations  were  made  at  sites  on  Clam 
lagoon,  Adak;  at  Nikolski  on  Umnak;  and  at  Nurder  point 
on  Attu.  At  least  two  periods  of  Aleut  culture  were  recognized 
and  Hrdhcka's  idea  that  there  were  two  morphological  types 
involved  in  the  peopling  of  the  Aleutians  was  confirmed, 

Eastern  North  America.  Under  the  direction  of  Raymond 
Baby  assisted  by  Robert  Goslm  an  Ohio  State  museum  field 
party  excavated  two  sites  in  Ohio  during  the  summer.  A  large 
Adena  mound  in  the  Cowan  Creek  reservoir  area  contained 
18  burials,  some  in  log  tombs  and  one  in  an  underground  pit. 
Beneath  the  mound  was  a  circular  house  pattern  of  paired 
post  moulds;  pottery,  other  artifacts  and  food  refuse  were 
about  the  house.  In  the  Delaware  dam  area  a  communal 
burial  in  a  glacial  kame  was  excavated.  Fragments  of  charred 
fabric  and  artifacts  of  stone,  copper  and  shell  were  recovered. 

A  field  party  led  by  Dr.  William  A.  Ritchie  worked  in 
eastern  New  York  under  the  joint  sponsorship  of  the  Rochester 
museum  and  the  New  Yoi  k  State  museum.  The  party  explored 
an  early  Mohawk  site  in  the  Schohane  valley  where  Owasco- 
hke  chipped  stone  artifacts  were  associated  with  Mohawk 
type  pottery.  In  the  same  valley  an  early  Owasco  site  was 
partly  excavated;  late  period  Owasco  sites  were  not  found. 
Another  and  larger  early  Owasco  site  was  excavated  at  West 
St.  Johnsville  in  the  Mohawk  valley  The  pottery  exhibited 
the  use  of  interrupted  incising  technique  for  applying  decora- 
tion. This  technique  might  foreshadow  the  incising  technique 
of  Iroquois  potters. 

William  S.  Fowler  of  the  Attleboro  museum  undertook 
investigations  of  two  sites  in  New  England.  He  assisted  the 
Narragansctt  Archaeological  Society  of  New  England  in 
completing  excavation  of  a  stratified  shell  midden  containing 
a  pre-pottery,  steatite  bowl  occupancy  beneath  a  pottery- 
agriculture  level.  At  the  Nunkatuset  site  in  the  Taunton 
River  basin  in  Massachusetts  evidence  of  three  cultural 
horizons  was  found:  the  earliest  level  marked  by  ulus, 
plummets,  ground  slate  objects  and  grooveless  stemmed  gouges ; 
the  middle  level  marked  by  steatite  bowls;  and  the  top  level 
characterized  by  pottery 

Southwcstein  United  States.  The  University  of  Utah  Field 
School  of  Archieology  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Jesse  D. 
Jennings  made  an  aichxological  survey  of  the  upper  Virgin 
river  area  in  Washington  county,  Utah,  and  excavated  the 
Jukebox  and  Danger  cave  sites  near  Wendover  in  Tocclc 
county.  The  caves  contained  ancient  pre-ceramic  cultures 
overlain  by  cultures  with  pottery. 

The  Upper  Gila  expedition  of  the  Peabody  Museum  of 
Archaeology  and  Ethnology,  Harvard  university,  under  the 
direction  of  Dr.  J  O.  Brew  carried  out  archaeological  survey 
and  excavation  of  sites  in  west  central  New  Mexico  about 
40  mi.  south  and  east  of  Zuni  Pueblo.  A  Pueblo  II  and  a 
large  Pueblo  III  site  were  excavated. 

Pacific  Coast.  Under  the  direction  of  Douglas  Osborne 
assisted  by  Joel  Shiner  seven  sites  in  the  McNary  reservoir  of 
Oregon  were  investigated  for  Washington  State  college  and 
the  Smithsonian  River  Basins  survey.  Buried  middens  or 
the  bottom  levels  of  deep  middens  produced  artifacts  of 
basalt  and  of  a  different  style. 

A  party  directed  by  Clement  Mughan  undertook  excava- 
tions in  a  shell  mound  at  Drakes  bay  in  search  of  Caucasian 
artifacts  derived  from  a  Spanish  galleon  wrecked  there  in  1 595. 

Under  the  direction  of  Dr.  M.  R.  Harrington  a  Southwest 


museum  field  party  carried  out  excavations  in  the  Pinto  Site 
at  Little  Lake,  Inyo  county,  California.  Two  circular  houses, 
the  largest  12  ft.  in  diameter,  were  outlined  by  post  holes. 
The  site  produced  many  Pinto  points  and  some  Lake  Mohave 
and  Silver  Lake  types,  along  with  scrapers,  gravers,  crude 
metates  and  manos. 

Central  America.  In  Mexico  the  many  archaeological 
activities  of  the  National  Museum  of  Anthropology,  the 
Institute  of  Anthropology  and  History  and  the  Direction  of 
Prehispanic  Monuments  continued.  Among  the  numerous 
projects  of  these  government  institutions  were  investigations 
at  Teotihupcan  and  Xochicalco  at  the  middle  archaic 
period  site  of  Tlatilco  and  clearing  and  restoration  of  the 
Mayan  site,  Palenque. 

The  Peabody  museum,  Harvard  university,  expedition  to 
Costa  Rica,  directed  by  Dr.  S.  K.  Lothrop,  made  a  survey 
of  the  southern  Pacific  plains  on  lands  of  the  United  Fruit 
company  Testing  of  stratified  deposits  revealed  three  periods 
of  ceramic  styles.  The  early  style  was  reminiscent  of  Amazon 
valley  pottery  and  the  intermediate  style  might  be  ancestral 
to  both  classical  Chiriqui  and  classical  Cocl6. 

South  America  Financed  by  a  grant  from  the  Viking  fund 
and  a  Cutting  fellowship  from  Columbia  university  Mr.  and 
Mrs  Clifford  Evans,  Jr  ,  undertook  aichxological  investiga- 
tions in  the  lower  Amazon  basin  of  Brazil  during  the  first 
half  of  the  year.  Mounds  on  central  Marajo  island  were 
excavated.  Three  mounds  of  the  Monte  Carmelo  group  along 
the  Rio  Anajas  were  investigated  and  20  village  mounds  and 
one  cemetery  mound  were  excavated  in  the  Igarape  Os 
Camutms  m  the  headwaters  of  the  Rio  Anajas.  These 
investigations  revealed  six  separate  phases  of  occupation  in 
the  islands  of  Marajo,  Mexiana,  and  Caviana  and  two 
additional  phases  in  the  Territory  of  Amapa.  (G.  I.  Q.) 

ARCFIERY.  At  the  1949  international  tournament, 
held  in  Pans  in  August,  the  ladies'  championship  was  won  by 
Barbara  Waterhouse  (Great  Britain),  with  R.  Windahl 
(Sweden)  second,  T.  H.  Fisher  (Great  Britain)  third,  and 
M.  de  Wharton  Burr  (Great  Britain)  fourth.  The  British 
ladies  won  the  team  events  with  Sweden  second.  The  men's 
title  was  won,  for  the  third  time,  by  Hans  Deutgen  (Sweden) 
who  beat  Hadas  (Czechoslovakia);  E.  Tang  Holbek  (Den- 
mark) was  third.  Teams — Czechoslovakia  first,  Sweden 
second,  Denmark  third. 

In  Great  Britain  the  Grand  National  Archery  society 
decided  that  their  national  championships  should  be  shot  in 
one  direction  only,  instead  of  in  two  directions  as  was  the 
custom  for  more  than  a  century.  This  made  possible,  on 
equal  terms,  a  Commonwealth  mail  match,  which  was  shot, 
by  teams  of  six,  in  July.  Result:  England  7,168  points, 
Canada  7,123.  South  Africa  and  New  Zealand  also  com- 
peted. Individual  top  scores  were:  W.  Frost  (Canada) 
1,428,  R.  E.  Hunter  (S.  Africa)  1,367,  H.  A.  Hooker  (British 
champion,  Portsmouth)  1,299. 

The  British  ladies'  national  championship  was  won  by 
B.  Waterhousc  (Birmingham).  (C.  B.  E.) 

ARCHITECTURE.  Two  ambitious  building  schemes 
completed  in  London  during  1949  were  blocks  of  flats  at 
Fmsbury  and  Holborn.  The  former,  designed  by  the  firm  of 
Tecton,  comprised  three  blocks,  two  of  eight  storeys  con- 
taining 48  flats  and  one  of  five  storeys  containing  32  flats. 
The  construction,  of  reinforced  concrete,  was  based  on  the 
box-frame  principle  of  continuous  slabs  and  walls  and 
utilized  a  new  system  of  hydraulically  jacked  shuttering, 
never  previously  used  in  this  country.  The  flats  were  the 
first  in  London  to  be  provided  with  the  Garchey  system  of 
refuse  disposal.  Each  block  was  surrounded  by  a  light 
coloured  frame  with  tiled  finish.  Details  of  special  interest 


56 


ARCHITECTURE 


in  the  design  were  the  balcony  balustrades,  partly  solid  and 
partly  open,  the  "  sculptured  "  entrance  canopy  and  the 
polychromatic  pram  store,  as  well  as  the  general  siting  of  the 
buildings. 

The  Holborn  scheme,  designed  by  Robert  Hening  and 
Anthony  Chitty,  included  five  blocks  of  flats,  one  of  ten 
storeys  and  the  rest  of  five  storeys,  containing  162  flats  in  all. 
Construction  was  steel  frame  with  hollow  tile  floors  and 
reinforced  concrete  flank  walls,  staircases  and  cantilcvered 
balconies.  Cavity  walls  were  used  as  panel  infillings,  the 
first  time  this  had  been  permitted  for  high  buildings  in 
London.  On  the  flank  walls  pre-cast  concrete  slabs,  surfaced 
with  broken  brick,  were  used  as  permanent  shuttering, 

The  site  of  the  first  health  centre  to  be  approved  by  the 
minister  of  health  was  officially  opened  in  March.  Designed 
for  the  Woodberry  Down  housing  estate.  Stoke  Newington, 
by  R.  H.  Matthew,  architect  to  the  London  County  council, 
the  building  would  cost  £187,000.  Five  units  would  be 
accommodated  in  the  centre,  consisting  of  medical  and  dental 
surgeries,  school  health,  child  welfare,  ante-natal  and 
remedial  exercises  and  child  guidance. 

Among  the  most  notable  schools  were  those  built  by  the 
Hertfordshire  County  council.  During  1949  seven  primary 
schools  were  completed  in  the  county,  at  Letchworth,  Hitchin, 
Hemel  Hempstead,  Oxhey,  Bushey,  and  two  at  Croxley 
Green.  They  were  all  designed  in  the  county  architect's 
department,  under  the  direction  of  C.  H.  Aslin,  and  employed 
a  standardized  system  of  construction  which  was  intended 
for  use  throughout  the  whole  schools'  programme  of  the 
department.  The  system  was  continually  being  improved  in 
the  light  of  experience  gained  during  construction.  Tt  was 
based  on  a  light  steel  frame,  designed  as  a  series  of  component 
parts  capable  of  mass  production  and  easy  assembly.  The 
stanchions  could  be  developed  in  four  directions,  the  longer 
ones  being  able  to  receive  beams  from  the  shorter  ones  on 
any  of  their  four  sides,  thus  allowing  variation  in  ceiling 
heights  and  far  greater  flexibility  in  planning.  Pre-cast 
concrete  blocks  and  fibrous  plaster  covered  the  frame. 
The  use  of  colour  and  the  design  and  placing  of  windows 
were  carefully  considered  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  child. 

A  secondary  school  at  Stcvcnage,  designed  for  the  Hert- 
fordshire County  council  by  F.  R.  S.  Yorke,  E.  Rosenberg 
and  C.  Mardall,  was  officially  opened  in  May.  Planned  to 
accommodate  450  children,  it  included  community  centres 
for  adults  and  youths  and  an  assembly  hall  with  stage,  to  seat 
500  people,  for  the  use  both  of  the  school  and  the  general 
public.  The  construction  was  steel  frame,  with  components 
welded  into  lattice  members  and  galvanized,  the  framework 
being  planned  on  a  grid  of  8  ft.  3  in  Pre-cast  concrete  slab 
was  used  for  constructional  flooring  and  roofs,  the  roof 
slabs  being  covered  with  bituminous  material  on  insulation 
boarding. 

Britain's  first  permanent  prefabricated  aluminium  school 
was  opened  during  March.  With  accommodation  for  480 
pupils,  it  was  built  in  approximately  nine  months,  at  a  cost 
of  Is.  1 U/.  a  cu.  ft.  The  system  of  prefabricated  construction 
was  developed  by  Richard  Sheppard  and  G.  Robson,  con- 
sulting architects  to  the  housing  division  of  the  British 
Aeroplane  company.  The  planning  of  the  school  was  under 
the  supervision  of  J.  Nelson  Meredith,  city  architect  of 
Bristol. 

One  of  the  largest  building  projects  to  be  completed  in 
Britain  during  1 949  was  a  group  of  buildings  for  the  Bristol 
Aeroplane  company  at  Filton  near  Bristol.  These  buildings 
included  an  aircraft  assembly  hall,  together  with  a  canteen, 
boiler  house,  workshops,  storage  buildings  and  a  two- 
storey  block  of  offices  and  workshops  for  B.O.A.C.,  costing 
in  all  £3  million.  The  assembly  hall  consisted  of  three  bays, 
equal  in  span  (358  ft.  between  main  supports)  but  with  the 


centre  bay  420  ft.  deep  and  the  two  side  bays  each  270  ft. 
deep.  The  structural  steel  framework  spanning  the  bays  was 
in  the  form  of  two-pin  arched  latticed  ribs  tied  at  the  haunches 
and  set  at  50  ft.  centres.  Those  for  the  outermost  bays  were 
7  ft.  wide  and  those  for  the  centre  bays  5  ft.  wide.  The  roof 
was  of  steel  decking  covered  with  -J-  in.  insulating  board  and 
mineral-faced  felt.  All  walls  except  the  south  were  of  1 1  in. 
hollow  brick  up  to  15  ft.  Above,  the  external  cladding  was 
of  asbestos  cement  sheets,  insulated  with  fibre  board. 

The  eight  acres  of  floor  space  were  kept  free  of  such  things 
as  buried  pipes  and  heating  panels,  allowing  the  position  of 
the  jigs  on  which  the  aircraft  were  built  up  to  be  altered  in 
accordance  with  changes  in  the  production  lay-out.  The 
whole  south  side  of  the  assembly  hall  was  occupied  by  con- 
tinuous shding-folding  doors,  which  were  arranged  in  three 
pairs,  opening  cither  to  the  sides  of  the  centre.  The  overall 
opening  was  1,045ft.  long  and  65ft.  9  in.  high  and  the 
aluminium  doors,  powered  by  electric  motors,  could  be 
opened  up  in  two  minutes.  The  gable  ends  of  the  roof  of  the 
assembly  hall,  faced  with  corrugated  asbestos,  were  painted 
pink,  the  aluminium  doors  green  and  the  door  canopy  and 
surround  white.  The  ancillary  buildings  were  mostly  faced 
with  a  reddish  brown  brick,  in  contrast  to  the  colours  of  the 
assembly  hall  but  with  certain  wall  panels  of  white-painted 
asbestos  sheeting  to  act  as  visual  links  with  it. 

The  foundation  stone  of  the  London  County  council 
concert  hall  was  laid  on  Oct.  12  by  the  prime  minister, 
C.  R.  Attlee.  The  architects  in  charge  were  R.  H.  Matthew 
(architect  to  the  council)  and  J.  L.  Martin,  deputy  architect. 
The  site  of  the  hall  is  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Thames 
between  Hungerford  bridge  and  Waterloo  bridge.  The 
building  would  consist  of  three  mam  elements,  the  concert 
hall,  the  reception  foyer  and  the  small  hall,  with  ancillary 
accommodation  forming  an  envelope  round  the  conceit  hall. 
Very  careful  attention  was  paid  to  sound  transmission  and 
acoustics.  There  would  be  total  accommodation  for  3,450 
people  in  the  main  hall  and  750  people  in  the  small  hall. 
A  large  part  of  the  building  would  be  constructed  in  reinforced 
concrete,  which  would  be  faced  externally  with  Portland 
stone  The  work  would  be  carried  out  in  two  sections, 
five-sixths  by  May  1951  and  the  remainder,  following  the 
close  of  the  Festival  of  Britain,  at  the  end  of  the  year. 

The  plan  of  the  1951  exhibition  to  be  held  on  the  south 
bank  of  the  Thames  was  released  in  Nov  1949.  The  various 
buildings  were  designed  by  a  number  of  specially  selected 
architects,  and  two  of  the  exhibition  structures  were  made 
the  subject  of  competitions.  The  dominating  buildings  on 
the  site  would  be  the  new  L.C.C.  concert  hall  (described 
above),  and  the  saucer-shaped  aluminium  Dome  of  Dis- 
covery, 90ft.  high  and  365ft.  in  diameter. 

Commonwealth.  The  results  of  the  competition  for  the 
new  provincial  administration  headquarters  office  building 
at  Pietcrmantzburg,  Natal,  were  published.  The  winners 
were  Corigall,  Crick  may  and  Partners,  and  the  assessors, 
J.  Fassler,  D  S.  Haddon  and  A.  V.  Nunn  The  competition 
was  restricted  to  the  architects  of  Natal  and  the  competitors 
were  required  to  limit  the  total  cost  of  the  building,  including 
professional  fees,  to  £250,000.  The  accommodation  required 
comprised  four  main  departments:  a  secretariat,  with  five 
sub-departments;  a  motor  traffic  bureau;  offices  for  the 
provincial  accountant  and  for  the  auditor,  as  well  as  plant 
rooms,  garaging,  native  quarters,  etc. 

The  Cranbrooke  private  hotel  in  Johannesburg,  designed 
by  H.  le  Roith  and  Partners,  was  among  the  most  imagina- 
tively conceived  buildings  completed  in  South  Africa  during 
the  year.  Accommodation  comprised  a  basement  car  park 
and  boiler  room,  ground  floor  public  rooms,  kitchen  and 
staff  quarters,  six  bedroom  floors  with  135  furnished  rooms, 
and  native  servants'  quarters  at  roof  level.  Externally  the 


ARCHITECTURE 


57 


MODERN  FLATS  IN  BRITAIN 
AND  SWEDEN 


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58 


ARCHITECTURE 


reinforced  concrete  structure  was  faced  with  plum  coloured 
bricks,  offset  with  white  rendered  panels  and  balcony  trim. 
On  the  two  main  facades  of  the  building  the  recessed  bedroom 
balconies,  with  their  screen  and  parapet  walls,  were  used  to 
provide  repetitive  rhythms,  on  the  one  simple  and  insistent, 
on  the  other  subtle  and  modulated. 

The  results  of  the  Anzac  House  competition  were  published. 
The  winners  were  Walter  Bunning  and  Charles  Madden  and 
the  assessors,  N.  B.  Freeman,  L.  A.  Robb,  Cobden  Parkes, 
P.  J.  Gordon  and  J.  E.  Ancher.  The  winning  design  (for 
Sydney,  Australia)  was  planned  in  two  distinct  parts,  an 
auditorium  with  ancillary  rooms  and  an  office  building,  the 
two  sections  being  independent  with  separate  entrances. 
Auditorium  accommodation  was  provided  for  787  people. 
A  memorial  gallery  would  serve  as  an  annexe  to  the  foyer 
and  as  a  ceremonial  entrance  on  special  occasions.  In 
addition  there  would  be  a  gymnasium,  restaurant,  creche, 
music  rooms,  board  room  and  offices  for  ex-service  organ- 
izations. The  seventh  to  the  twelfth  floors  would  be  rented 
office  space,  with  a  memorial  garden  on  the  roof.  The  pro- 
posed construction  was  a  steel  frame  with  reinforced  concrete 
floors. 

Europe.  In  Sweden  an  1 1 -storey  block  of  flats  was  erected 
outside  the  town  of  Orebro,  to  the  designs  of  Sven  Backstrom 
and  Leif  Reinius.  Built  of  reinforced  concrete,  the  building 
was  rendered  in  bright  coloured  cement. 

In  Czechoslovakia  two  office  buildings  were  completed  in 
Prague.  One,  by  B.  Kozak,  had  a  reinforced  concrete  frame 
with  brick  panel  infilling,  faced  with  light-brown  stone. 
The  other,  also  of  reinforced  concrete  with  brick  infilling, 
was  rendered  on  the  outside.  The  latter,  designed  by  F.  Marek, 
was  the  first  large  building  in  Czechoslovakia  to  employ  the 
patent  Swedish  pivoting  side-hung  double  window.  On  Oct.  6 
at  Maiseilles,  France,  a  flag  was  unfurled,  in  the  presence  of 
the  architect  Le  Coi  busier,  on  the  roof  of  the  new  block  of 
flats  outside  the  city,  for  which  the  structural  framework  had 
been  completed. 

In  Italy  an  office  and  flat  building  was  erected  in  Milan  to 
the  designs  of  Luigi  Figim  and  Gino  Pollmi.  Sited  in  the 
garden  of  an  old  house,  there  were  two  main  blocks.  One  of 
seven  and  the  other  of  1 1  floors,  with  offices  on  the  lower 
floors  and  flats  above.  On  the  top  floors  of  both  blocks  were 
penthouses  with  garden  terraces  which  included  bathing 
pools.  The  higher  block  onto  the  street  had  an  entrance  way 
opening  through  to  the  garden  (a  typical  arrangement  in  the 
old  mansions  of  Milan  which  had  been  superseded,  in  later 
years,  by  the  closed  entrance  hall).  This  gave  access  to  the 
lower  block,  which  was  at  the  back  of  the  site.  The  structure 
was  a  reinforced  concrete  frame,  faced  with  rough  travertine 
and  artificial  stone  In  the  larger  block  the  frame  stood  free 
of  the  walls  of  the  building  flush  with  the  outside  edges  of 
the  balconies. 

The  seventh  International  Congress  of  Modern  Architec- 
ture (C  I  A  M.,  to  use  the  better-known  initials  of  the  French 
translation)  was  held  at  Bergamo,  Italy,  from  July  23-30. 
Six  permanent  commissions  were  set  up  and  embarked  on 
studies  of  the  following  subjects:  town  planning,  inter- 
relation of  the  plastic  arts,  education  for  architecture  and 
town  planning,  industrialization  of  building  construction, 
legislative  proceduie  necessary  to  implement  the  Athens 
charter  (a  town-planning  manifesto  issued  at  the  third  con- 
gress in  1933)  and  the  social  programme  of  the  C.I. A.M. 
The  congress  reflected  fairly  closely  the  currents  of  thought 
among  architects  of  the  modern  movement,  if  such  it  could 
still  be  called.  Though  there  was  still  close  concern  for  the 
scientific  and  sociological  responsibilities  of  contemporary 
architecture,  there  was  evident  at  the  congress  an  increasing 
concern  for  the  more  intangible  aesthetic  questions. 

(I.  R.  M.  M.) 


United  States.  Residential.  Early  in  1949  there  were  signs 
that  building  costs  might  come  down  a  little;  but  as  the  year 
wore  on  the  decline  proved  to  be  very  slight  and  there  was 
instead  a  general  acceptance  of  higher  prices  as  the  apparently 
normal  level.  As  a  result,  the  number  of  luxury  buildings 
commissioned  and  sold  increased,  for  the  first  time  since  the 
end  of  World  War  II.  Houses  of  greater  size  and  more 
lavishly  equipped,  costing  roughly  twice  as  much  as  similar 
ones  before  World  War  II,  were  being  built.  New  flats  on 
the  Park  avenues  of  the  country  were  easily  let  at  high  prices, 
partly  because  none  had  been  built  for  so  long  and  higher 
rents  were  becoming  accepted  as  the  normal  state  of  affairs. 
These  units  did  not  have  a  large  number  of  rooms;  the 
trend  towards  smaller  residences  reflected  the  gradual 
disappearance  of  domestic  help.  However,  the  rooms  them- 
selves were  often  large  and  the  units  contained  many  features 
intended  to  compensate  for  fewer  square  feet,  such  as  glass 
walls,  terraces  and  balconies. 

In  domestic  architecture  one-story,  open-planned  houses 
predominated.  The  "  ranch  house  "  was  the  name  generally 
used  for  the  looser,  freer  character  of  the  more  expensive 
of  these  buildings.  It  seemed  as  though  public  preference 
had  in  many  instances  swung  from  the  Cape  Cod  cottage 
and  colonial  types  of  house  to  the  ranch  house  without 
having  stopped  at  the  intermediate  phase,  the  flat-roofed 
international  style.  Many  of  these  ranch  house  units  were 
deplorably  lacking  in  restraint,  in  studied  proportions  and, 
as  usual  in  this  class  of  building,  reproduced  the  cliches  of 
the  moment.  This  led  to  some  alarm  that  the  new  mood 
was  too  relaxed  and  that  the  discipline  of  materials  and 
design  had  been  too  suddenly  jettisoned. 

Since  60%  of  building  in  1949  was  in  the  residential  field, 
it  was  significant  that  the  new  federal  legislation  was  enacted 
to  finance  more  public  housing,  about  200,000  units  having 
been  approved  by  the  Public  Housing  administration  by  the 
end  of  the  year.  Congress,  on  the  other  hand,  had  not  taken 
positive  action  to  extend  federal  aid  to  housing  in  the 
medium-price  range. 

The  two  principal  makers  of  prefabricated  houses  were 
searching  for  better  ways  in  which  to  market  their  products. 
The  small  Gunnison  house  seemed  to  be  founded  on  a  sounder 
basis  than  the  somewhat  larger  and  more  expensive  Lustron 
house.  The  latter  was  not  producing  the  expected  volume 
of  sales,  its  prices  were  higher  than  anticipated  and  it  was 
losing  money.  There  was,  however,  reason  to  think  that 
Lustron  would  survive.  It  was  inevitable  that  the  first 
large-scale,  factory-produced  house  would  need  time  as 
well  as  capital  to  pioneer  its  way. 

Techniques  ami  Matcnah.  Increasing  labour  costs,  which 
were  higher  than  ever  before  and  the  highest  in  the  world, 
continued  to  force  invention  in  techniques  and  materials. 
It  should  be  noted,  though,  that  in  the  United  States  the  cost 
of  building  in  1949  as  compared  with  1939  had  risen  less 
than  almost  anywhere  else  in  the  world.  British  observers 
commented  that  the  United  States  continued  to  lead  the 
world  in  the  use  of  building  machinery,  such  as  volume- 
mixers  for  concrete,  thus  offsetting  some  of  the  high  costs 
of  labour.  Other  steps  in  this  ducction  were  the  increasing 
use  of  larger  wall  panels,  new  and  lighter  sandwiches  for  walls, 
insulated  precast-slabs  and  wider  application  of  pre-stressing 
and  of  lightweight  structural  metal  members.  Radiant 
heating  continued  to  be  a  favourite  system  with  wider 
application  to  driveways,  terraces  and  pavements  and, 
although  it  was  recognized  that  the  distribution  of  heat  in 
this  system  was  easily  blocked  by  furniture  such  as  desks 
and  drafting  tables,  the  advantages  were  on  its  side. 

Aluminium  was  used  as  a  substitute  for  conventional 
metals  in  the  Alcoa  building  at  Davenport,  Iowa,  in  designs 
for  a  proposed  Alcoa  building  in  Pittsburgh,  Pennsylvania, 


AREAS   AND   POPULATIONS 


59 


and  throughout  an  entire  school  in  Bristol,  England.  It  was 
suggested  that  the  future  of  the  material  would  develop  more 
rapidly  when  its  own  characteristics  were  stressed.  Stainless 
steel  for  exterior  surfaces  was  used  in  several  buildings  and 
projected  for  others.  Many  experiments  were  made  in  the 
wider  application  of  lightweight  aggregates  and  lightweight 
combinations  of  natural  and  synthetic  materials. 

Commercial.  Perhaps  as  a  by-product  of  greater  costs 
and  a  consequence  of  a  longer  period  of  familiarity  with  the 
modern  approach  to  building  design,  the  onset  of  a  period 
of  maturity  in  the  design  of  commercial  and  industrial 
buildings  could  be  detected.  An  outstanding  example  was 
the  office  building  of  the  United  Nations  nearing  completion 
in  New  York  city  Its  characteristics,  such  as  reserving 
part  of  the  space  for  walks  and  parking,  thus  eliminating 
need  for  interior  courts  and  complicated  back  premises  and 
providing  better  light  and  air,  were  shared  by  other  projects 
both  under  construction  and  in  the  design  stage. 

The  highest  distinction  conferred  by  the  American  Institute 
of  Architects,  its  gold  medal,  was  awarded  to  the  great 
U.S.  architect,  Frank  Lloyd  Wright.  At  the  age  of  80,  he 
maintained  his  role  as  bete  noire  of  conservatives;  he  sug- 
gested moving  the  capital  of  the  United  States  to  a  more 
western  point,  and  continued  his  output  of  original  creative 
buildings,  houses  which  could  be  partly  built  by  the  owner's 
own  labour  and  a  theatre  which  by  its  triple  stage  proposed 
to  make  use  of  the  lessons  of  the  cinema  The  influence  of 
his  ideas  and  of  his  buildings  seemed  to  be  growing  as  the 
austerity  of  the  '30s  and  '40s  was  superseded  by  a  warmer, 
sometimes  excessively  mannered  mood  (See  also  BUILDING 
AND  CONSTRUCTION  INDUSTRY;  HOUSING;  INTERIOR  DECORA- 
TION; TOWN  AND  COUNTRY  Pi  ANNING  )  (C.  L.  V.  M.) 

AREAS      AND      POPULATIONS      OF      THE 

COUNTRIES  OF  THE  WORLD.  The  political  entities 
of  the  woild  arc  listed  here  with  their  areas,  populations 
and  number  of  persons  per  squaie  mile.  The  latest 
census  or  official  estimates  are  given  for  each  country  Areas 
in  sc]  mi  ,  including  inland  water  areas,  arc  in  accordance 
with  the  boundaries  for  the  year  of  the  population  figure 
unless  otherwise  noted 


Name  of  Continent  ami  State 
WORLD  TOTAL 

Al  RR  A 

Belgian  colony  and  trusteeship 

+  British    colonies,    dependencies,    pro- 
tectorates and  trusteeships 

Fgypt 

Fthiopia 

French  overseas  departements,  terntone: 
trusteeships  and  protectorates 

Liberia 

Portuguese  colonies 

South  West  Africa 

Spanish  colonies  and  protectorate 

Tangier,  International  Zone  of 

Union  of  South  Afuca 
ANTARCTICA 
ASIA  (exclusive  of  U  S  S  R  ) 

Afghanistan 

Arabian  desert 

Bhutan 

British  colonies,  dependencies  etc. 

Burma 

Ceylon,  Dominion  of 

China  (including  Formosa,  Kwantung, 
Manchuua  and  Tibet) 

French  ten  itones,  etc 

India,  Dominion  of 

Iraq  .... 

Japan 

Jordan,  Hashimite  Kingdom  of   . 

Korea  . 


Area  Population  (per 

(in  \q  nn  )  (in  '000)  <;q  mi  ) 

58,087,756  2,341,154  44  9* 

11,596,043  187,494  16  2 

925,094           14,748  — 


3,916,650 

68,647 

— 

386,110 

19,528 

51  0 

3^0,000 

8,000 

22-9 

'4,258,070 

49,301 



43,000 

1  ,600 

37  2 

794,959 

11,502 

-  - 

317,725 

369 

1  2 

134,763 

1,537 

232 

150 

646  6 

472,5*50 

12,112 

25  6 

6,000,000 

Uninhabited 

10,593,048 

1,242,986 

117  3 

270,000 

12,000 

44-4 

193,000 

Largely  uninhabited 

18  000 

300 

16  7 

248  861 

9,993 

— 

261,749 

17,000 

64  9 

25,332 

7,288 

291  6 

3,876,956 

463,493 

119-6 

272,552 

25,794 

— 

1,243,886 

342,114 

275  0 

168,040 

4,794 

28  5 

146,690 

82,466 

562  2 

34.750 

400 

11  -5 

85,225 

29,239 

355  6 

Kuwait 

Lebanon 

Mongolian  People's  Republic 

Nepal 

Netherlands  Indies  (Indonesia  and  New 

Guinea) 

Oman  and  Masqat 
Pakistan,  Dominion  of 
Palestine  (including  Israel) 
Persia 

Philippines,  Republic  of  the 
Portuguese  colonies 
Qatar 

Saudi  Arabia 
Syria 
Thailand 
1'rucial  sheikdoms 
Turkey 
Yemen 

AUSTRALIA  AND  OCFANIA 
Australia 

Australian  dependencies 
Bniish  colonies,  dependencies,  etc 
French  colonies 
New  Zealand 

New  Zealand  dependencies 
United  States  possessions 

fpAJROFfc  (exclusive  of  USSR) 
Albania 
Andorra 
Austria 
Belgium 

British  colonies  and  dependencies 
Bulgaria 
Czechoslovakia 
Denmark    (excluding    Greenland, 

including  Facroe  Islands) 
I  stoma 

Finland  (including  Aland  Islands) 
France 

Germany  (1937  area,  1939  population) 
Germany    (1945    area,    including    the 

Saar,  1946  population)    . 
Greece  (including  Dodecanese) 
Hungary 
Iceland 
Ireland 
Italy 
Latvia 

Liechtenstein 
Lithuania 
Luxembourg 
Monaco 
Netherlands 
Norway 

Norwegian  tei  i  itory  (Svalbard) 
Poland  (pre-World  War  11) 
Poland  (1945  area) 

Portugal  (inJ    Azores  and   Madeira) 
Rumania 
San  Marino 

Spain  (including  Canary  Islands) 
Sweden 
Swit/crland 

Trieste,  Free  Ten  itory  of 
United  Kingdom 
Vatican  City 
Yugoslavia 

USSR  (1939) 

USSR  (1945  area,  1948  pop  est  ) 

NORTH  AMFRICA 
British  colonies  and  dependencies 
Canada 
Costa  Rica 
Cuba 

Danish  colony  (Greenland) 
Dominican  Republic 
Fl  Salvador 

French  teintory  and  departements 
Guatemala 
Haiti 

Honduras 

Mexico     .  . 

Netherlands  Antilles 
Nicaragua 
Panama  (excluding  Canal  Zone)  . 


9,000 

120 

13-3 

3,475 

1,208 

348-1 

580,158 

850 

1-5 

54,000 

6,910 

128-0 

735,000 

76,360 

103-9 

65,000 

830 

12-8 

337,524 

73,321 

203-1 

10,159 

2,000 

196-9 

634,413 

17,000 

26-8 

115,600 

19,234 

166-4 

8,876 

1,496 

— 

4,000 

25 

4  0 

597,000 

6,000 

10-1 

72,587 

3,750 

51-7 

198,272 

17,666 

89-1 

16,000 

115 

6-6 

296,184 

19,750 

66-7 

31,000 

1,600 

51-5 

3,304,620 

11,697 

3   5 

2,974,581 

7,581 

2-5 

183,557 

1,216 

— 

24,670 

496 

— 

9,199 

106 

— 

103,416 

1,888 

18   3 

1,652 

94 

— 

7545 

704 

__ 

1  ,908,096 

385,390 

202-0 

10,029 

1,175 

110  5 

174 

5 

28-7 

32,388 

6,953 

214  7 

11,783 

8,603 

730  7 

124 

330 

— 

42,796 

7,100 

165  9 

49,330 

12,409 

251-6 

17,109 

4,220 

246-7 

18,357 

854 

46-5 

HO,  165 

3,958 

30-4 

212,737 

41,800 

195   7 

181,677 

69,317 

381   4 

138.069 

65,910 

477-6 

51,182 

7,960 

155   5 

35,893 

9,165 

255   3 

39,768 

139 

3-5 

26,601 

3,023 

116  2 

116,235 

46,110 

397   5 

25,395 

1,650 

65  0 

61 

13 

213-1 

25,173 

2,353 

93   5 

1,010 

292 

289-1 

0  6 

21 

_ 

12,868 

9,955 

773  6 

125,147 

3,181 

25-4 

24,295 

2 

— 

150,052 

35,339 

235   6 

120,359 

21,781 

198   2 

35,4H 

8,402 

237-3 

91,671 

15,873 

173   2 

38 

12 

315   8 

194,945 

28,154 

144-3 

173,390 

6,925 

39  9 

15,944 

4,609 

289-0 

293 

345 

- 

93,667 

50,213 

536-1 

0  5 

1 

98,826 

15,752 

159  4 

8,173,557 

170,467 

20-9 

8,436,121 

193,000 

22  9 

9,387,294 

214,824 

22-9 

21,172 

2,690 

—  . 

3,841,144 

13,636 

3   5 

19,238 

837 

44  0 

44,217 

5,295 

119  8 

840,000 

21 

— 

19,129 

2,277 

119-8 

13,176 

2,100 

159-4 

1,206 

601 

45,452 

3,717 

81  -8 

10,748 

3,500 

325-6 

59,160 

1,326 

22  4 

767,168 

24,447 

31-9 

403 

160 

397-0 

57,143 

1,173 

20-5 

28,575 

764 

26  7 

60 


ARGENTINA 


United  States    . 

3  022,387 

150,000 

49-6 

United  States  possessions    . 

589,968 

2,310 

SOUTH  AMERICA     . 

6,862,534 

105,763 

15  4 

Argentina          . 

1,079,965 

16,300 

15-1 

Bolivia     ...... 

416,040 

3,922 

9-4 

Brazil       

3,286,170 

49,350 

15-0 

British  colonies  and  dependencies 

97,161 

392 

— 

Chile        

286,323 

5,709 

19-9 

Colombia          . 

439,714 

10,777 

24-5 

Ecuador  ...... 

104,510 

3.362 

32-2 

French  dcpartement  (French  Guiana)  . 

34,740 

35 

1-0 

Netherlands  territory  (Surinam)  . 

54,291 

210 

3-9 

Paraguay           . 

157,047 

1,270 

8-1 

Peru         .          .          . 

482,258 

8,061 

16-7 

Uruguay            . 

72,172 

2,330 

32-3 

Venezuela         . 

352,143 

4,500 

12-8 

*  In  computing  the  world  density  the  area  of  Antarctica  is  omitted. 
t  Includes  as  military  trustee  areas  Libya,  Eritrea  and  Italian  Somaliland. 
t  Areas    and    populations   of    Baltic    republics    included    in    1945    and    1948 
U.S.S.R.  totals. 

ARGENTINA.  The  second  largest  South  American 
republic,  occupying  the  southeastern  portion  of  the  continent. 
Area  (excluding  the  so-called  "  Zona  Austral "  which  is 
supposed  to  comprise  the  *'  Malvinas  "  (/.*>.,  Falklands)  and 
other  islands  or  territory  in  the  antarctic):  1,079,965  sq.  mi. 
other  islands  or  territory  in  the  Antarctica):  1,079,965  sq.  mi. 
Pop.:  (1947  census)  16,108,573;  (mid-1948  est.)  16,300,000. 
The  population  is  overwhelmingly  European  in  origin  (mostly 
Spanish  and  Italian,  with  Irish,  German,  Croat  and  Polish 
admixtures);  in  1940  about  9%  were  of  mixed  blood,  the 
dwindling  Indian  population  was  estimated  at  262,600  and  the 
total  of  foreign-born  population  was  2,355,900.  The  distribu- 
tion of  the  population  is  uneven:  the  federal  capital  and  the 
four  provinces  of  the  littoral  (La  Plata,  Corrientes,  Parana  and 
Santa  Fe)  cover  only  one-fifth  of  the  total  area  but  have  two- 
thirds  of  the  country's  population;  urban  population  is 
estimated  at  75%.  Chief  towns  (pop.  1947  est.):  Buenos 


Aires  (q.v.)  (capital  and  leading  port,  3,000,371);  Avellaneda, 
a  Buenos  Aires  suburb  (279,572);  Rosario  (464,688); 
Cordoba  (351,644);  La  Plata  (271,738);  Lanus  (242,760); 
Santa  F£  (168,011);  Tucuman(152,508).  Language:  Spanish. 
Religion:  mainly  Roman  Catholic;  Jewish  350,000.  President 
of  the  republic,  General  Juan  Domingo  Peron  (q.v.). 

History.  During  1949  there  was  a  trend  in  Argentina 
toward  a  more  authoritarian  central  government,  denial  of 
civil  liberties  and  economic  self-sufficiency. 

Early  in  the  year,  at  the  Inter-American  Economic  confer- 
ence held  in  Buenos  Aires,  there  was  some  disagreement  with 
the  United  States.  The  expected  flow  of  dollars  to  be 
obtained  through  sales  to  European  countries  benefiting  from 
the  Marshall  plan  and  the  Economic  Co-operation  adminis- 
tration programme  failed  to  materialize.  The  requirements 
of  the  five-year  industrialization  and  development  plan 
launched  by  Peron  in  1946,  requiring  ever-increasing 
quantities  of  steel  and  machinery,  and  a  reduction  in  foreign 
trade,  as  a  result  of  high  Argentine  prices  and  large  crops 
elsewhere,  created  additional  economic  difficulties. 

Miguel  Miranda,  head  of  the  National  Economic  council, 
who  controlled  the  Institute  for  the  Promotion  of  Trade 
(I. A. P. I.  or  Institute  Argentine  de  Promocion  del  Inter- 
cambio),  continued  to  advocate  a  nationalistic  economic 
policy  of  high  prices,  nationalization  of  foreign-held  assets 
and  self-sufficiency.  His  theories  were  mildly  opposed  by 
Orlando  Maroglio,  president  of  the  Central  bank,  who 
advocated  economic  liberalization.  This  dispute  prompted 
Peron  to  remove  Maroglio  and  on  Jan.  19  appoint  Alfonso 
Gomez  Morales  as  minister  of  finance  and  head  of  the  Central 
bank.  He  also  removed  Miranda  and  appointed  Roberto 
Antonio  Ares  as  minister  of  national  economy.  For  a  few 
days  Miranda's  status  seemed  uncertain  and  he  was  reported 


Eva  Peron  (right)  wife  of  the  president  of  Argentina,  with  the  $paiu\ii  tun( -o  •  \.wdor  and  Mrs  de  Areiliza,  on  board  the  Spanish  training  ship 

"Juan  Sebastian  Elcano  "  when  it  visited  Buenos  Aires  in  Oct.  1949. 


ARMIES   OF  THE  WORLD 


61 


to  continue  as  financial  adviser  to  the  president.  But  on 
Jan.  26  his  resignation  was  announced  and  he  went  to 
Montevideo,  Uruguay.  The  reorganization  of  the  National 
Economic  council  seemed  to  indicate  a  desire  to  correct 
mismanagement  and  inflation.  Postage,  telephone  rates  and 
taxes  were  increased,  especially  in  Buenos  Aires  province. 

These  measures,  however,  did  not  bring  about  prompt 
relief.  A  report  issued  by  the  Institute  of  International 
finance  of  New  York  university,  The  Economic  Situation 
in  Argentina,  claimed  that  Argentine  inability  to  use  stcilmg 
and  other  non-convertible  currency  arising  from  its  trade 
with  Europe  to  cover  its  large  deficit  with  the  United  States 
was  responsible  for  most  of  its  economic  difficulties.  The 
purchase  of  foreign-owned  enterprises,  nationalization  of 
internal  air  lines,  railways,  telephones  and  merchant  fleet, 
the  reduction  of  the  dollar  debt  and  conversion  to  a  govern- 
ment-controlled economy,  were  contributory  factors  to  the 
economic  crisis.  The  report  added,  however,  that  Argentine 
economy  was  basically  sound. 

Economic  relations  between  Argentina  and  Great  Britain 
were  rather  strained  at  the  beginning  of  the  year.  Under  the 
"  Andes  "  agreement  of  Feb.  12,  1948,  Argentina  undertook 
to  deliver  to  Great  Britain  400,000  tons  of  meat  in  the  year 
ending  F7eb.  1949.  However,  during  the  last  four  months  of 
1948  shipments  fell  short  and  when  the  year  ended  108,000 
tons  of  the  carcase  meat  remained  unshipped  with  the  result 
that  from  March  21  the  British  weekly  meat  ration  was 
reduced  from  Is  to  \Qd.  worth.  The  Argentine  government 
did  not  exert  themselves  to  carry  out  the  contract  because 
of  the  alleged  "  low  price  "  paid  by  Britain  and  because  by 
keeping  Britain  in  short  supply  it  had  strengthened  its  bar- 
gaining position  in  the  negotiation  of  a  new  agreement. 

The  negotiations,  which  opened  on  Feb.  22,  were  conducted 
by  Sir  John  Balfour,  the  British  ambassador,  and  Scnor  Ares, 
the  new  minister  of  national  economy.  On  June  21  a  new 
five-year  Anglo- Argentine  trade  agreement  was  signed, 
providing  for  exchanges  totalling  about  £125  million  each 
way  in  the  first  year  and  envisaging  at  least  the  same  level 
in  subsequent  years.  Sir  Stafford  Cripps  stated  in  the  House 
of  Commons  on  July  5  that  the  average  price  of  beef,  mutton 
and  lamb  purchased  under  the  new  agreement  was  28  1% 
above  the  price  paid  under  the  "  Andes  "  agreement. 

Basically,  the  new  treaty  was  a  barter  arrangement  whereby 
Argentina  would  receive  machinery  and  manufactured  goods 
and  Great  Britain  would  receive  wheat,  meat  and  linseed 
oil.  The  treaty  constituted  an  attempt  by  Peron  to  overcome 
the  dollar  shortage.  In  the  midst  of  the  negotiations,  the 
United  States  granted  $28  million  of  E.C.A.  funds  to  purchase 
Mexican  and  U.S.  meat  to  be  sent  to  Britain.  This  was 
regarded  by  Peromstas  as  unfair  interference  in  their  internal 
affairs.  The  United  States,  on  the  other  hand,  considered 
the  treaty  as  a  denial  of  multilateral  trade  principles. 

The  constitutional  convention,  made  up  of  109  Peronistas, 
48  Radicals  and  one  Labour  member,  met  in  Buenos  Aires 
early  in  the  year.  The  outstanding  provisions  of  the  new 
charter  were:  (1)  it  allowed  the  re-election  of  the  president; 
(2)  it  incorporated  Peron's  rights  of  workers — whereby  they 
were  granted  increased  wages  and  seniority  rights — and  Eva 
Peron's  rights  of  old  age;  (3)  deputies  and  senators  were  to 
be  elected  together  with  the  president  every  six  years;  (4)  it 
incorporated  article  40  which  granted  the  government  power 
to  nationalize  enterprises  where  mutual  sale  agreements 
were  not  reached;  (5)  foreigners  could  become  citizens  after 
residing  in  Argentina  two  years;  after  five  years'  residence 
they  would  have  to  become  citizens  unless  they  expressed  a 
desire  to  the  contrary.  The  constitution  was  approved  on 
March  11,  after  the  opposition  had  walked  out  charging 
steam  roller  tactics  by  the  Peronistas,  by  a  vote  of  101  to  nil. 

Juan  A.  Bramuglia,  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  who  had 


acquired  international  renown  for  his  work  in  the  United 
Nations  assembly,  was  removed  on  Aug.  11.  It  was  reported 
he  differed  with  Jeronimo  Remonno,  ambassador  to  Washing- 
ton, over  Argentine  policy  toward  the  United  States.  Bramug- 
lia  was  reported  to  approve  international  co-operation 
and  was  regarded  as  the  outstanding  member  of  the  cabinet 
and  possible  presidential  candidate.  Hipolito  Jesus  Paz, 
a  33-year-old  law  professor,  succeeded  Bramuglia. 

In  July  the  Peronistas  held  a  convention,  which  urged 
Peron  to  run  for  re-election  in  1952.  Colonel  Domingo  R. 
Mercante,  governor  of  Buenos  Aires  province  and  chairman 
of  the  Constitutional  Convention,  was  mentioned  for  vice- 
president.  The  Peronistas  also  launched  a  purge  of  their 
party,  and  Waldino  Suarez,  governor  of  Santa  Fe,  and 
Pablo  Diana,  director  general  of  immigration,  were  expelled 
from  office  Augustin  Rodriguez  Araya,  who  had  charged 
the  government  with  graft,  and  Atilio  Cattaneo  were 
expelled  from  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  and  fled  to  Montevideo. 
To  deny  Cattaneo's  charge  that  he  had  enriched  himself  in 
office,  Peron,  flanked  by  his  cabinet,  called  a  press  conference 
where  he  produced  an  affidavit  listing  the  property  he  owned 
before  he  took  office.  Later  La  Prensa  and  La  Nation 
also  repeated  this  charge,  openly  testing  a  law  recently  enacted 
that  provided  up  to  three  years'  imprisonment  for  anyone 
who  "  insulted  "  a  public  official. 

Congress  also  passed  a  law  providing  that  new  political 
parties  must  wait  three  years  while  a  federal  court  passed 
on  their  applications;  parties  already  organized  could  be 
dissolved  if  their  ideological  principles  endangered  social  peace; 
and  coalitions  of  existing  parties  were  banned.  (J.  McA.;  X.) 

Education.  Schools  elementary  (1943)  14,565,  pupils  2,016,310, 
teachers  79,081,  secondary  (1946)  1,145,  pupils  221,409,  teachers 
28,360,  universities  (1943)  8,  students  62,870 

Agriculture.  Mam  crops  ('000  metric  tons,  1948)  wheat  4,700; 
barley  650,  oats  640,  rye  229,  maize  5,000,  potatoes  840; 
linseed  500,  cotton  ginned  92,  nee  120  Livestock  ('000  head): 
cattle  (June  1947)  41,268,  sheep  (July  1948)  54,800,  pigs 
(June  1948)  3,500,  horses  (June  1947)  7,238,  asses  and  mules 
(June  1947)  501.  Meat  production  ('000  metric  tons,  1947):  total 
1,105-1,  beef  867  3,  mutton  190  9,  pork  46  9  Wool  production 
(on  a  greasy  basis,  1948-49):  209,000  metric  tons. 

Industry.  Persons  employed  in  manufacturing  industries  (1947) 
812,000  Fuel  and  power  (1947)  coal  ('000  metric  tons)  32  9,  elec- 
tricity ('000  million  kwh  )  3,346,  crude  oil  ('000  metric  tons)  3,113. 
Timber  ('000  metric  tons,  1947)  338.  Manufactured  goods  ('000 
metric  tons,  1947).  cotton  yarn  65  9;  rayon  yarn  4  6;  cement  1,364. 

Foreign  Trade.  (Million  pesos)  Imports  (1947)  5,354;  (1948,  six 
months)  3,030  Exports  (1947)  5,328,  (1948,  six  months)  3,152. 
No  trade  figures  had  been  published  since  June  1948.  but  the  minister 
of  finance  gave  the  net  adverse  balance  of  international  payments  as 
1,866  million  pesos  in  1948  as  compared  with  1,028  million  pesos  in 
1947.  Mam  destinations  of  exports  (1947).  United  Kingdom  26%, 
United  States  10%,  Italy  10%.  Main  sources  of  imports.  United 
States  48%,  United  Kingdom  9%,  Brazil  7% 

Transport  and  Communications.  Roads  suitable  for  motor  vehicles 
(1947)-  18,000  mi  Licensed  motor  vehicles  (Dec.  1948):  cars  346,000 
commercial  vehicles  195,000.  Railways:  (1948)  26,568  mi.;  passenger 
traffic  (1947)  5,580  million  passenger-mi.;  freight  traffic  (1947)  9,370 
million  ton-mi.  Air  transport  (1947)  mi.  flown  9,380,000,  passengers 
flown  224,000,  freight  carried  2,540  metric  tons,  mail  carried  16,644 
tons.  Telephones  (per  '000  inhabitants,  1947):  38.  Wireless  licences 
(per  '000  inhabitants,  1946):  77. 

Finance  and  Banking.  (Million  pesos)  Budget  (1949  est )  revenue 
3,860,  expenditure  4,569;  (1950  est.)  revenue  4,870,  expenditure  5,835. 
Budget  of  autonomous  agencies  (1950)  balanced  at  5,022  million  pesos. 
National  debt  (Dec.  1948;  in  brackets  Dec  1947)  12,940  (11,538). 
Currency  circulation  (July  1949;  in  brackets  July  1948):  7,018  (5,201). 
Gold  reserve  (May  1949;  m  brackets  May  1948)  U  S.S142  (214). 
Monetary  unit  is  the  peso.  Before  sterling  devaluation  on  Sept.  18, 
1949,  the  free  market  rate  was  4  •  8  pesos  to  the  $  or  19  •  37  pesos  to  the  £. 
On  Oct.  3,  1949,  the  Argentine  Central  bank  announced  a  new  free 
rate  of  9  pesos  to  the  $  or  25  •  20  pesos  to  the  £. 

ARMIES  OF  THE  WORLD.  The  outstanding 
development  during  1949  in  the  armies  of  the  world  was  an 
increased  standardization  of  arms  into  two  basic  types: 
Soviet  and  American.  Regional  agreements  for  military 


62 


ARMIES   OF  THE  WORLD 


The  Swedish  army  held  large-scale  manoeuvres  in  Sept.  1949.    Photograph  shows  troops  going  into  action  after  landing  on  the  coast  near 

Nynashamn,  south  of  Stockholm. 


assistance,  the  groundwork  for  which  was  laid  in  1948,  were 
generally  established  in  1949.  The  two  most  important  allian- 
ces were  the  North  Atlantic  treaty  (^.v.)  and  the  Soviet  bloc. 

The  year  saw  the  North  Atlantic  alliance  nations  begin  the 
formation  of  integrated  programmes.  Included  in  the 
over-all  alliance  were  12  nations:  Belgium,  Canada,  Den- 
mark, France,  Iceland,  Italy,  Luxembourg,  the  Netherlands, 
Norway,  Portugal,  the  United  Kingdom  and  the  United 
States.  At  a  meeting  of  the  defence  committee  of  the  alliance, 
composed  of  the  defence  ministers  of  the  12  member  nations, 
agreement  was  reached  on  the  over-all  strategy,  an  armament 
production  programme  and  the  co-ordination  of  planning 
among  the  five  regional  groups.  The  five  regional  groups 
were  set  up  as  follows:  North  America,  north  Atlantic, 
northern  Europe,  western  Europe  and  Mediterranean. 

Certain  important  developments  also  took  place  in  the 
Soviet  bloc  of  powers.  Most  important  was  the  defection 
of  Yugoslavia,  whose  army  could  no  longer  be  assumed  to 
be  part  of  the  Soviet  alliance.  As  far  as  the  remaining  powers 
in  the  U.S.S.R.  orbit  were  concerned — Poland,  Czecho- 
slovakia, Hungary,  Bulgaria  and  Rumania — the  outstanding 
feature  of  1949  was  an  increased  sovietization.  Indicative 
of  the  extent  to  which  the  U.S.S.R.  would  carry  sovietization 
of  the  armies  of  its  satellites  was  the  situation  in  Poland, 
where  Marshal  Konstantin  Rokossovsky,  one  of  the  out- 
standing Soviet  commanders  in  World  War  II,  was  appointed 
head  of  the  Polish  armed  forces. 

The  intensive  rearmament,  particularly  of  the  western 
powers,  which  began  in  1948,  continued  apace  in  1949. 
However,  economy  measures  in  Britain,  France  and  the 
United  States  indicated  that  the  extent  of  the  rearmament 
was  to  be  definitely  limited.  The  passage  of  the  Military  Aid 
programme  by  the  U.S.  congress  assured  the  Atlantic  treaty 
nations  of  certain  assistance  in  modernizing  their  armies. 
Another  outstanding  development  of  1949  saw  the  almost 
complete  destruction  of  the  Nationalist  Chinese  armies  by 
the  Communists. 

The  principal  change  in  disposition  of  the  armies  of  the 
world  in  1949  was  the  beginning  of  the  evacuation  of  Indo- 
nesia by  the  Netherlands.  The  return  to  the  Netherlands  of 
more  than  100,000  troops  from  the  Indies  was  one  factor 
enabling  the  Netherlands  to  build  up  the  ground  forces 
required  under  the  Western  Union  treaty.  There  was  little 
change  of  disposition  of  the  occupation  forces  in  Europe, 
although  continued  replacement  and  relief  of  troops  by  the 


Soviet  Union  in  eastern  Europe  gave  rise  to  many  reports 
and  rumours  of  withdrawal.  It  would  be  safe  to  assume, 
however,  that  the  Russians  would  not  withdraw  their 
occupation  forces  until  replacement  in  the  form  of  a  reliable 
eastern  German  army  should  take  place. 

Postwar  grouping  complete,  the  three  major  powers  were 
able  to  engage  in  training  exercises  involving  up  to  the 
equivalent  of  a  corps.  France,  as  a  result  of  heavy  troop 
commitments  in  Indo-China,  was  hampered  in  effecting 
large-scale  training  exercises,  except  in  its  occupation  zone 
of  Germany. 

While  extensive  research  and  development  of  new  types  of 
equipment  continued,  most  equipment  remained  that  which 
was  in  use  at  the  end  of  World  War  II.  Economy  measures 
restricted  re-equipping  by  the  western  powers,  although  it 
appeared  that  under  the  Military  Aid  programme  certain 
new  types  of  equipment,  particularly  late  model  tanks,  would 
be  made  available. 

United  States.  The  year  might  well  be  marked  by  historians 
of  the  U.S.  army  as  the  peak  of  its  postwar  appropriations. 
With  funds  for  the  fiscal  year  1949-50  lower  than  those  for 
the  previous  year,  the  army  began  to  curtail  certain  of  its 
activities  in  1949.  Economy  measures  taken  included  closing 
of  numerous  army  posts  and  concentrating  cadres  on  fewer, 
large  posts,  reducing  of  the  number  of  reserve  officers  on 
active  duty  and  calling  up  of  fewer  men  in  the  draft.  Previous 
authorization  to  expand  the  army  to  more  than  900,000  men 
was  rescinded,  and  at  the  end  of  1949  strength  was  at 
670,000. 

To  the  regular  army  strength  should  be  added  the  national 
guard  as  reserve  strength.  After  a  year  of  intensive  training, 
national  guard  units  were  in  a  far  better  position  to  bolster 
the  regular  force  in  the  event  of  emergency.  Army  units 
of  the  national  guard  reached  a  strength  of  approximately 
350,000  officers  and  men.  Although  this  could  not  be  considered 
as  entirely  effective  combat  strength,  the  national  guard  units 
had  a  large  number  of  combat  veterans. 

Disposition  of  U.S.  units  remained  approximately  the 
same  as  in  1948  with  the  exception  that  the  llth  Airborne 
division  returned  from  Japan  to  Camp  Campbell,  Kentucky. 
Approximate  strength  of  U.S.  forces  in  1949  was  as  follows: 

Far  cast     .         .         .    127,000  Europe      .         .         .      97,000 

Hawaii       .         .         .        7,000  Caribbean.         .         .      14,000 

Alaska       .         .         .      13,000  United  States     .         .    411,000 

Exercises  were  conducted  on  all  scales  during  the  year  by 


ARMIES   OF   THE  WORLD 


63 


both  regular  and  reserve  units.  Most  of  the  reserve  and 
national  guard  units  conducted  some  form  of  divisional 
exercises  during  the  year.  All  of  the  regular  army  divisions 
engaged  in  extensive  unit  re-training.  The  chief  exercises 
conducted  by  the  United  States  army  during  the  year 
included:  operation  "Snowdrop"  held  in  the  U.S.  zone  of 
Germany  in  January,  involving  16,000  men  and  designed  to 
test  the  troops  in  winter  warfare;  the  Vieques  manoeuvres 
held  in  the  Caribbean  in  February — an  operation  held 
with  the  navy  and  naval  aviation — in  which  the  2nd  Marine 
division  and  the  65th  Infantry  participated;  exercise  **  Har- 
vest "  conducted  in  Germany  in  September,  involving  about 
112,000  troops,  in  which  the  18th  Infantry  was  transported 
approximately  300  mi.  by  air.  Manoeuvres  held  at  Fort 
Benning,  Georgia,  stressed  the  two-bladed  attack — infantry- 
artillery-tank  teams  advancing  in  conjunction  with  airborne 
assaults.  In  these  exercises,  units  of  the  llth  and  82nd 
Airborne  divisions  were  preceded  into  the  drop  zone  by 
so-called  "  pathfinder  teams "  which  guided  the  principal 
attack  formation  of  transports  and  gliders  to  the  target  by 
radio  beams. 

There  was  continued  development  of  new  airborne  equip- 
ment. In  1949  a  new  technique  was  successfully  developed 
for  dropping  completely  assembled  105  mm.  howitzers. 
The  376th  Air-borne  Artillery  battalion  successfully  dropped 
a  battery  of  four  howitzers  with  ammunition  and  150  men 
during  the  exercises  at  Fort  Benning. 

Great  Britain.  The  defence  budget  for  the  British  army  was 
cut  by  approximately  20%  for  the  year  1948-49.  The  ground 
forces  received  44%  of  a  defence  outlay  of  £692-6  million, 
or  funds  amounting  to  £305  million.  British  army  strength 
in  1949  dropped  to  400,000  men,  of  whom  more  than  175,000 
were  overseas.  Difficulty  was  experienced  in  keeping  the 
army  up  to  strength  through  voluntary  enlistments  and  there 
was  considerable  discussion  in  parliament  about  extending 
the  period  of  conscription  from  12  to  18  months. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  year  defence  critics  pointed  out 
that  not  a  single  organized  division  was  in  the  United  King- 
dom. British  army  strength  was  spread  throughout  the  world 
during  1949  with  two  divisions  in  Germany,  one  division 
and  three  scattered  brigades  in  the  middle  east  and  the 
equivalent  of  almost  two  divisions  throughout  the  far  east. 

Principal  troop  movements  in  1949  saw  the  reinforcement 
of  Hong  Kong,  bringing  the  strength  of  the  garrison 
to  approximately  25,000.  Units  sent  there  in  1949  included 
advance  elements  of  the  40th  Infantry  division  including 
the  28th  Infantry  brigade,  the  3rd  Royal  Tank  regiment 
plus  the  3rd  Royal  Marine  commando  brigade.  Troop 
commitments  in  Malaya  remained  heavy.  At  the  end  of  the 
year  elements  of  the  Scots  Guards  and  the  Gurkha  Rifles 
were  withdrawn  from  the  jungle  for  refitting  and  re-training. 
With  the  end  of  hostilities  in  Greece  that  particular  drain  on 
British  manpower  was  ended  and  the  3,000  troops  were 
withdrawn. 

In  addition  to  the  defence  exercises  conducted  in  Hong 
Kong  and  the  actual  experience  of  combatting  insurgents 
in  Malaya,  British  training  was  concentrated  in  the  army 
of  the  Rhine.  Exercises  in  Germany  stressed  co-ordination 
of  air,  artillery,  infantry  and  tanks.  British  officers  also  set 
about  training  an  army  of  3,000  in  Ceylon.  When  trained 
the  Ceylonese  would  take  over  the  coastal  and  anti-aircraft 
defence  duties. 

U.S.S.R.  Expenditures  for  the  Soviet  armed  forces 
totalled  19%  of  the  budget  in  1949,  compared  with  17%  in 
1948.  The  Soviet  Union  continued  to  maintain  approximately 
2,500,000  men  on  active  duty  organized  into  175  to  200 
divisions.  Inasmuch  as  Soviet  divisional  strength  is  8,000 
men,  the  U.S.S.R.  had  1,600,000  first-line  combat  troops 
available  for  immediate  action.  Of  the  active  divisions,  50 


were  armoured  units,  giving  the  Soviet  army  a  powerful 
striking  force.  In  addition  to  the  active  units  the  Soviet 
Union  could  mobilize  sufficient  reserves  to  field  another  100 
divisions  within  60  to  90  days.  Ultimate  Soviet  army  strength 
could  equal  500  combat  divisions. 

To  Soviet  army  strength  should  be  added  that  of  the 
satellite  armies  consisting  of  about  40  to  60  divisions.  Also, 
there  were  continued  indications  during  the  year  that  the 
long-heralded  east  German  army  was  nearer  to  becoming  a 
reality.  Latest  reports  stated  that  a  Volksarmee  of  60,000 
men  was  to  be  completely  organized  by  March  1950.  The 
army  was  to  [be  composed  of  six  motorized  divisions  equipped 
with  tanks  and  artillery.  The  similarity  of  this  force  to  the 
100,000-man  army  of  Germany  under  the  treaty  of  Versailles 
was  striking.  Each  man  was  to  be  qualified  as  a  weapons 
instructor,  thus  immediately  indentifying  the  army  as  a 
training  cadre.  The  force  was  ultimately  to  consist  of  360,000 
men,  with  conscription  of  all  men  18  to  30  reportedly  sched- 
uled to  begin  early  in  1950. 

The  principal  changes  during  1949  in  the  disposition  of 
the  Soviet  army  units  occurred  as  a  result  of  the  "  cold  war  " 
between  the  U.S.S.R.  and  Yugoslavia.  Three  new  Soviet 
divisions  moved  into  Rumania  and  Hungary  in  August, 
giving  the  Soviet  army  between  seven  and  nine  divisions  in 
these  two  countries.  About  half  of  the  Soviet  forces  in  these 
two  countries  was  composed  of  tank  units.  In  addition 
there  was  a  combat  division  in  the  Soviet  zone  of  Austria 
and  another  in  Bulgaria.  Although  far  from  sufficient  in 
strength  to  mount  an  attack,  Soviet  divisional  moves  kept 
the  Yugoslav  army  constantly  on  the  alert. 

Soviet  training  showed  an  increasing  reversion  to  the 
pomp,  ceremony  and  caste  of  the  Tsarist  army.  The  Soviet 
army,  for  example,  had  three  grades  of  marshal,  adapted  a 
modified  version  of  the  **  goose  step  "  for  parade  purposes 
and  encouraged  postwar  units  to  identify  themselves  with 
famous  wartime  units.  The  development  of  a  hereditary 
officer  corps  was  taking  place.  Professional  army  personnel 


The^British  army  during  1949  introduced  a  new  combat  suit  (right). 

On  left  is  shown  the  new  short  greatcoat  to  be  worn  over  the 

combat  suit. 


64 


ARMIES   OF  THE  WORLD 


were  provided  with  better  quarters,  could  obtain  better 
food  and  had  their  own  commissariats.  Separate  messes 
were  established  for  both  officers  and  non-commissioned 
officers.  Training  started  at  an  early  age,  cadet  schools 
beginning  at  the  age  of  8.  The  distinction  between  officers 
and  other  ranks  was  more  sharply  emphasized,  with  iron 
discipline  becoming  the  rule  rather  than  the  exception. 
Important  Soviet  training  exercises  were  held  in  Germany. 
Among  the  largest  were  the  autumn  manoeuvres  at  Ohrdruf 
in  which  all  of  the  garrisons  of  the  Soviet  zone  —including 
the  German  people's  police — participated  Spring  manoeuvres 
were  held  in  Brandenburg 

Marshal  Alexandr  M.  Vasilevsky  replaced  Nikolai  A. 
Bulganin  as  minister  of  the  armed  forces.  For  the  first  time 
since  1940  before  the  German  invasion,  the  Soviet  army 
was  under  the  control  of  a  professional  soldier.  Next  to 
Gheorghy  K.  Zhukov,  Marshal  Vasilevsky  was  considered 
one  of  the  Soviet  army's  most  gifted  strategists. 

France.  The  French  budget  of  national  defence  amounted 
in  1949  to  Fr. 350,000  million.  This  represented  28%  of  the 
total  ordinary  budget,  compared  with  an  expenditure  of  30% 
in  1948  The  maximum  authorized  strength  of  the  army 
in  1949  was  493,000,  although  actual  strength  was  closer  to 
470,000.  One  of  the  principal  problems  of  the  French  army 
was  to  maintain  the  strength  of  the  fighting  formations 
with  the  short  term  of  service.  A  bill  to  broaden  conscription 
was  presented  to  parliament  but  was  not  passed. 

France  was  still  heavily  committed  in  Indo-China  in  1949. 
The  French  forces,  however,  were  unable  to  make  sub- 
stantial progress  and  were  able  to  hold  only  the  mam  cities 
and  principal  lines  of  communication.  At  the  end  of  the 
year  the  French  forces  were  patrolling  the  Indo-China- 
Chinese  frontier  to  keep  watch  on  the  flow  of  the  defeated 
troops  of  Chiang  Kai-shek  seeking  refuge  in  Indo-China. 

Over-all  disposition  of  the  French  army  in  1949  was: 
150,000  troops  in  France;  60,000  in  Germany  and  Austria; 
91,000  in  north  Africa;  69,000  in  other  colonies;  and 
100,000  to  120,000  in  [ndo-Chma. 

Training  of  the  new  French  army  was  still  restricted  to 
exercises  of  divisional  size  and  less  as  a  result  of  overseas 
commitments.  Recruits  were  called  for  one  year,  and  most 
training  concentrated  on  fundamentals.  After  the  com- 
pletion of  1  year's  service,  16  years  had  to  be  served  in  the 
first  reserve,  followed  by  8  years  in  the  second  reserve. 

Professional  army  schools,  having  been  re-organized  and 
re-staffed  to  eliminate  all  traces  of  the  army  of  1940,  began 
turning  out  regular  officers  and  non-commissioned  officers 
of  high  calibre.  The  £cole  de  Sous-Officiers  at  Strasbourg 
had  an  enrolment  of  2,500  students,  while  the  Military 
academy  at  Coetquidan  had  an  enrolment  of  1,200  future 
officers.  Requirements  for  successful  completion  of  both 
courses  were  rigorous  and  there  was  careful  screening  of  all 
candidates.  From  Coetquidan — the  successor  to  Saint-Cyr — 
officers  advanced  to  specialized  training  for  their  particular 
branch  of  the  service  at  the  £cjles  d'Application. 

Under  Rene  Pleven,  minister  of  national  defence,  General 
Georges  Rever  was  replaced  as  chief  of  staff  by  Major 
General  Clement  Blanc.  Blanc  was  formerly  chief  of  staff  to 
General  Jean  de  Lattre  de  Tassigny  (q.v.)  at  Fontainebleau 
in  the  high  command  of  the  Western  Union. 

China.  During  1949  the  Nationalist  forces  were  virtually 
destroyed  by  the  Communists.  Perhaps  the  outstanding 
factor  in  the  Communist  victory  was  not  so  much  the  ability 
of  their  own  forces,  but  the  complete  disorganization  of 
Nationalist  armies.  Defection  and  disorder  contributed 
heavily  to  Chiang's  defeat.  The  so-called  people's  army 
was  in  possession  of  the  bulk  of  the  U.S.  equipment  given  to 
China  under  lend-lease  and  sold  after  the  war  as  surplus. 
To  this  should  be  added  all  of  the  Japanese  arms  left  in 


China  in  1945  and  a  certain  amount  of  Soviet  equipment 
picked  up  in  Manchuria.  The  most  important  question 
concerning  the  Chinese  armed  forces  was  whether  Mao 
could  hold  together  the  army  of  more  than  2  million  men 
that  had  been  assembled.  Organized  into  a  disciplined 
army,  Mao's  force  could  become  the  most  powerful  military 
instrument  to  emerge  in  Asia  in  modern  time,  with  a  potential 
strength  exceeding  5  million. 

Europe.  Albania.  Soviet  officers  were  attempting  in 
Albania  to  develop  a  force  capable,  at  least,  of  guerrilla 
activity.  Alarmed  by  defection  of  Yugoslavia  from  the 
Soviet  orbit,  the  Soviet  army  appeared  to  be  developing 
Albania  as  a  shuttle  base  for  a  two-pronged  attack  on  Tito, 
if  necessary. 

Czechoslovakia.  Although  the  information  could  not  be 
confirmed,  there  was  some  indication  that  the  progress  of 
sovietization  of  the  Czech  army  was  well  advanced.  Soviet 
General  Chitmov  was  reported  to  be  taking  over  the  com- 
mand of  the  Czech  army. 

Denmark.  The  Danish  defence  budget  for  1949  was  10% 
larger  than  that  of  1948.  After  discussion  between  the 
Danish  high  command  and  Great  Britain,  the  decision  was 
reached  to  leave  the  Danish  brigade  in  Germany  for  another 
two  years.  August  manoeuvres  were  held  by  the  Jutland 
division. 

Finland.  Manoeuvres  were  held  near  Sappola  with 
approximately  14,500  men  participating,  the  largest  held  since 
World  War  11.  Finnish  army  strength  was  being  maintained 
by  conscription  for  a  nine-month  period. 

Greece.  The  heavy  fighting  ended  in  Greece  in  autumn 
1949  The  Communist  rebels  announced  their  with- 
drawal and  survivors  of  the  guerrilla  army  were  reported  in 
Bulgaria  and  Albania.  Fewer  than  2,500  rebels  were  believed 
left  in  Greece,  with  no  bands  larger  than  200.  The  Greek 
army  announced  its  intention  of  keeping  units  in  the  Grammos 
and  Vitsi  mountains  throughout  the  winter  of  1949-50  to 
prevent  any  new  infiltration.  At  the  end  of  the  fighting 
there  were  210,000  men  in  the  army  besides  50,000  gendarmes. 
Of  these  68,000  were  to  be  demobilized,  although  a  new  class 
of  18,000  conscripts  would  be  called  up. 

Hungary.  There  were  definite  indications  that  the  new 
Hungarian  army — Soviet  model— was  nearing  treaty  strength 
of  70,000  men  in  1949.  Intensive  military  activity  throughout 
the  country  characterized  1949.  This  included,  in  addition 
to  the  rebuilding  of  the  army,  the  enlargement  and  expansion 
of  certain  key  military  airfields  and  the  building  of  guided 
missile  sites. 

Italy.  The  strength  of  Italian  forces  was  approximately 
170,000  in  1949  organized  into  five  divisions  with  three 
infantry  regiments  each  and  three  divisions  with  two  regi- 
ments each,  one  Alpine  brigade  and  one  armoured  brigade. 
Plans  called  for  bringing  up  the  over-all  strength  of  the 
Italian  army  from  8  to  12  divisions.  The  Giulia  Alpine 
brigade  of  5,000  men  organized  around  one  infantry  regiment 
would  be  reinforced  by  two  more  Alpine  brigades  of  com- 
parable organization.  Two  new  armoured  brigades  would  be 
formed,  modelled  on  the  existing  Ariete  brigade.  Both  spring 
and  autumn  manoeuvres  were  held  in  1949,  the  former 
involving  the  use  of  armour. 

Netherlands.  Out  of  a  military  budget  of  approximately 
£50  million  in  1949,  the  Netherlands  allocated  £9-5  million 
for  its  contribution  to  the  Western  Union.  Repatriation 
of  the  troops  from  the  Netherlands  Indies  relieved  certain 
of  the  problems  in  meeting  Western  Union  commitments. 
During  the  early  part  of  1949  the  only  troops  in  the  Nether- 
lands were  two  battalions  of  combat  troops  as  well  as  about 
25,000  men  in  training.  However,  by  the  end  of  1949  the  bulk 
of  the  "  Seventh  of  December "  division  was  repatriated, 
and  the  2nd  division  and  Guards  units  were  en  route.  The 


ARMIES   OF  THE  WORLD 


65 


bulk  of  the  85,000  troops  in  Indonesia  were  expected  to  be 
returned  to  the  Netherlands  or  to  be  demobilized  during 
1950. 

Norway.  Regular  army  strength  totalled  30,000  men  in 
1949,  but  a  Home  guard  of  95,000  was  being  trained  to 
support  the  regular  force.  Norwegian  units  held  training 
manoeuvres  in  conjunction  with  Swedish  army  units. 

Poland.  Marshal  Konstantin  Rokossovsky  became  minister 
of  national  defence  of  Poland.  Together  with  the  granting  of 
dual  citizenship  on  a  large  scale  to  high  ranking  Soviet 
officers,  so  that  they  could  serve  in  the  Polish  army,  this 
assured  the  virtual  integration  of  this  force  with  that  of  the 
Soviet  army.  A  majority  of  the  high-ranking  officers  were 
Soviet.  AH  equipment,  tactical  and  strategic  direction  of  the 
Polish  army  thereafter  came  from  the  U.S.S.R.  The  combat 
strength  of  the  army  in  1949  consisted  of  16  divisions.  (See 
POLAND). 

Rumania.  Poorly  trained  and  indifferently  equipped  with 
cast-off  Soviet  equipment,  the  Rumanian  army  had  approxi- 
mately five  effective  combat  divisions. 

Sweden.  Maintaining  its  forces  at  a  high  state  of  efficiency, 
Sweden  organized  a  number  of  armoured  brigades. 

Yugoslavia.  The  budget  for  defence  for  the  year  totalled 
16%  of  the  national  expenditures.  This  represented  an 
increase  of  12%  over  the  previous  year.  The  Yugoslav  army 
was  the  strongest  force  in  the  Balkans,  with  30  infantry 
and  2  armoured  divisions.  In  addition  4  security  divisions 
were  used  as  border  patrols,  although  armed  only  with  light 
weapons.  Training  in  Yugoslavia  required  2  years  compulsory 
military  service.  The  largest  manoeuvres  since  World  War  II 
were  held  in  September,  indicating  to  Moscow  that  Yugo- 
slavia was  not  yielding  to  any  further  threat  of  force. 

Commonwealth.  Australia.  The  regular  Australian  army 
was  composed  of  16,000,  with  a  reserve  strength  of  approxi- 
mately the  same,  and  a  cadet  corps  of  24,000.  There  was 
legislation  to  increase  the  regular  army  by  3,000  and  the 
number  of  reserves  by  26,000.  Another  bill  was  introduced 
to  make  the  Australian  regular  army  a  permanent  part  of 
the  defences.  Officers  were  exchanged  with  other  Common- 
wealth countries,  and  several  were  sent  to  Great  Britain  to 
study  the  latest  developments  in  land-air  warfare. 

Canada.  An  intensification  in  the  training  of  reserves 
was  put  into  effect  in  1 949.  Closer  integration  of  the  Canadian 
and  U.S.  armies  was  achieved  with  the  use  of  the  same  com- 
munications systems,  tactics  and  command  channels.  There 
was  continued  interchange  of  officers,  and  standardization 
of  weapons  was  effected  as  far  as  possible. 

India.  The  Indian  army  concentrated  its  efforts  on 
the  development  of  a  sound  system  of  military  education 
and  the  creation  of  an  adequate  body  of  reserves.  Construc- 
tion began  on  the  National  War  academy  at  Khadakvasla, 
near  Poona.  On  completion  in  1953,  the  Armed  Forces 
academy  at  Dehra  Dun  would  be  transferred  to  the  new 
location,  where  officers  for  all  three  services,  army,  navy 
and  air,  would  be  trained.  The  new  National  War 
academy,  which  was  modelled  on  Sandhurst  in  England 
and  the  U.S.  Military  academy  at  West  Point,  would 
admit  500  cadets  every  year  to  take  the  four-year 
course.  An  intensive  drive  was  conducted  to  recruit  about 
75,000  students  for  the  National  Cadet  corps.  At  the  end  of 
the  year  slightly  under  60,000  had  enrolled.  In  addition  a 
Territorial  army  of  130,000  was  being  organized  to  act  as 
reserve  for  the  regular  Indian  army.  The  Territorial  army 
was  to  be  similar  in  all  respects  to  the  regular  force, 
except  that  its  units  would  not  be  required  to  serve  outside 
India  in  peacetime. 

New  Zealand.  Conscription  was  adopted  by  referendum 
vote.  Training  would  start  at  the  age  of  18,  and  approxi- 
mately 2,800  men  would  be  called  up  each  year.  In  addition 

B.B.Y. — 6 


Lieutenant  General  D.  Dejpradiyudh,  chief  of  the  Thailand  general 
staff  during  a  visit  to  the  School  of  Infantry,  Wartninster,  Nov.  1949. 

Territorial  forces  were  being  organized,  including  about 
2,000  volunteer  and  non-commissioned  officers. 

Pakistan.  With  tension  continuing  between  Pakistan  and 
India,  no  cuts  were  made  in  the  strength  of  the  Pakistan 
army.  The  Quetta  Staff  college  was  expanded  to  handle  the 
additional  functions  of  the  army. 

Far  East.  Burma.  British  officers  assisted  the  Burmese 
in  the  establishment  of  their  own  armed  forces.  The  problem 
was  complicated  by  a  revolt  of  the  Karens  and  sporadic 
insurrection  throughout  the  country. 

Indonesia.  With  the  withdrawal  of  the  Netherlands  forces 
from  Indonesia,  a  major  problem  in  maintaining  order 
remained  for  the  Indonesian  Republican  army.  This  army, 
which  was  largely  Japanese  trained  and  armed,  could 
mobilize  420,000  men;  but  it  was  disorganized  and  politically 
divided.  General  Sudirman  had  the  problem  of  organizing 
a  fighting  force  out  of  at  least  20  different  principal  righting 
units  ranging  in  political  belief  from  the  extreme  left  to  the 
fanatic  Moslem  right. 

Korea.  There  was  an  outbreak  of  fighting  in  1949  as  the 
North  Korean  forces  probed  southward  to  test  the  strength 
of  the  southern  forces.  The  65,000  well  equipped  and  trained 
men  of  the  South  Korean  army  were  apparently  too  much 
for  the  Soviet-controlled  forces  of  the  north,  which  broke 
off  action  after  a  short  time. 

Philippines.  With  equipment  promised  by  the  U.S.,  the 
Philippines  planned  to  increase  the  strength  of  the  constabu- 
lary from  12,000  to  20,000,  and  the  army  from  17,000  to 
25,000.  The  U.S.  military  mission  continued  to  recommend 
the  consolidation  of  the  constabulary  units  with  those  of 
the  army. 

Thailand.  Active  steps  were  taken  to  organize  the  equivalent 
of  five  full-strength  divisions.  Strength  in  1949  amounted  to 
40,000  police  and  30,000  army  troops.  Five  fully  armed 
battalions  guarded  the  Malayan  border.  Compulsory  service 
of  two  years  was  required,  and  reserves  were  called  up  for 
three  months'  intensive  training  in  anti-guerrilla  tactics. 

Middle  East.  An  uneasy  truce  prevailed  in  the  middle  east. 
On  the  one  hand,  there  were  continuous  but  unsuccessful 
efforts  on  the  part  of  the  Arab  league  nations  to  agree  on  a 
plan  for  common  defence.  Political  differences,  the  principal 


66 


ART   EXHIBITIONS 


factor  in  the  Arab  defeat  of  1948,  continued  to  keep  the 
Arabs  weak.  On  the  other  hand,  Israel  passed  a  compulsory 
service  law  and  began  the  establishment  of  a  regular  army 
in  which  all  men  weie  required  to  serve.  Provision  was  made 
for  service  in  the  reserves.  (See  also  MUNITIONS  OF  WAR.) 

(E.  L.  S.) 

ART  EXHIBITIONS.  Cultural  agreements  were  con- 
cluded between  a  number  of  nations  during  1949;  and  as 
restrictions  were  dropped  the  interchange  of  exhibitions 
became  progressively  easier  than  at  any  time  after  1939. 
The  year  1949  was,  indeed,  referred  to  as  London's  anmis 
tnirabilis^  on  account  of  the  great  accumulation  of  master- 
pieces assembled  there  throughout  the  summer  and  autumn 
After  their  long  continental  tour  the  art  treasures  from 
Vienna  arrived  at  the  Tate  gallery  in  May— paintings, 
tapestries,  armour  (of  which  an  additional  exhibition  was 
held  at  the  Tower  of  London),  jewellery,  gold  and  silver  ware, 
ivories,  cameos  and  crystals  combined  to  form  a  sumptuous 
and  dazzling  display.  They  were  narrowly  preceded  by  121 
paintings  from  the  Alte  Pinakothek  in  Munich,  which  were 
simultaneously  on  view  at  the  National  gallery.  Disappoint- 
ment was  felt  at  certain  lacuna  in  these  exhibitions — in 
particular,  perhaps,  at  the  absence  of  most  of  the  great 
paintings  by  Pieter  Brueghel  the  elder  for  which  Vienna  is 
famed — but  remarkable  concentrations  of  work  by  certain 
masters  resulted.  Together  with  those  m  the  National 
gallery's  own  collection,  there  were,  for  example,  more  than 
50  important  Rubens  on  view  in  London.  Velasquez  was 
seen  to  advantage  in  both  exhibitions;  Titian  and  Tintoretto 
more  especially  at  the  Tate.  Attendances  at  these  two  rich 
displays  together  totalled  well  over  500,000. 

In  the  autumn  a  depleted  version  of  the  collection  of  work 
by  Gerard  David  and  his  followers,  which  had  been  seen 
earlier  in  the  year  at  Bruges,  was  shown  by  the  Arts  Council 
at  Messrs.  Wildenstem's  gallery.  In  December  the  winter 
exhibition  at  Burlington  house  devoted  to  "  Landscape  in 
French  Art  "  was  opened,  composed  mainly  of  oils  but 
including  also  drawings,  engravings  and  tapestries.  The 
exhibits,  ranging  in  date  from  the  15th  to  the  19th  century, 
were  drawn  in  about  equal  proportions  from  France  and  Great 
Britain  and  included  many  little-known  works  from  private 
and  provincial  collections.  From  Germany  came  Watteau's 
44  Embarkation  for  Cythera."  The  exhibition  was  chiefly 
notable,  however,  for  the  display  of  landscapes  by  Claude 
and  Nicholas  Poussin,  the  finest  perhaps  that  has  ever  been 
assembled. 

At  its  own  headquarters  gallery  the  Arts  Council  showed 
a  fifth  collection  of  work  from  overseas — an  exhibition  of 
German  graphic  art  of  the  last  50  years,  which  was  initiated 
by  the  Institute  of  Contemporary  Arts.  This  gave  London 
its  most  comprehensive  view  of  German  expressionism  since 
before  1939.  All  these  importations  served  to  draw  attention 
once  again  to  the  postwar  pressure  on  exhibiting  space  in 
London,  and  the  decision  to  re-open  the  New  Burlington 
galleries  under  the  direction  of  the  Arts  Council  as  a  centre 
for  temporary  exhibitions  was  greeted  in  November  with 
satisfaction. 

The  year  saw  no  major  changes  in  any  of  the  national 
collections.  At  the  British  museum  the  Elgin  Marbles  were 
returned  from  their  wartime  fastnesses  and  the  museum 
received  Campbell  Dodgson's  gift  of  more  than  5,000  prints 
and  drawings.  Three  important  works— a  Titian,  a  possible 
Giorgione  and  Leonardo  da  Vinci's  "  Virgin  of  the  Rocks  " — - 
were  newly  cleaned  at  the  National  gallery.  The  Tate  gallery 
showed  an  exhibition  of  work  by  Richard  Wilson  (organized 
the  previous  year  in  Birmingham)  and  a  memorial  exhibition 
of  paintings  by  James  Pryde  (seen  earlier  in  Scotland).  The 
unevenness  of  the  latter — it  was  only  the  third  large  showing 


of  his  work  ever  to  be  arranged — suggested  that  Pryde's 
most  lasting  claim  to  fame  was  his  collaboration  with 
William  Nicholson  at  the  end  of  the  last  century  as  one  of 
the  poster-designing  4*  Beggarstaflf  Brothers."  The  Victoria 
and  Albert  museum  organized  two  admirable  exhibitions  of 
applied  art.  The  first  consisted  of  half  a  century  of 
London  Transport  posters — those  daring  and  stimu- 
lating designs  which  would  always  be  associated  with 
the  name  of  Frank  Pick.  The  second  comprised  the  first 
international  exhibition  of  the  art  of  the  book  jacket,  with 
examples  culled  from  19  countries.  Reference  may  perhaps 
here  be  made  to  another  exhibition  of  drawings  for 
reproduction,  that  of  historical  and  contemporary  humorous 
art  organized  by  the  Royal  Society  of  Arts. 

In  February  Walter  Hutchinson  opened  his  so-called 
National  Gallery  of  British  Sports  and  Pastimes  at  the  fine 
18th  century  mansion  in  London  that  used  to  be  known  as 
Derby  house.  The  collection,  which  was  extensive,  was  seen 
to  contain  many  works  of  curious  interest  and  not  a  few — 
more  particularly  the  examples  of  George  Stubbs's  work 
and  Constable's  "  Stratford  Mill  "—of  real  artistic  worth. 

The  Sunday  Pictorial's  second  annual  show  of  children's 
drawings  and  paintings,  at  the  Royal  Institute  galleries,  was 
selected  in  1949  from  nearly  47,000  entries  submitted  from 
all  parts  of  the  country.  The  Society  for  Education  in  Art 
held  in  1949  its  third  4k  Pictures  for  Schools"  exhibition, 
at  the  Whitechapel  Art  gallery  Here  too,  very  fittingly, 
was  seen  the  memorial  exhibition  of  work  by  Mark  Gertler 
in  the  spring.  Often  derivative  and  certainly  uneven,  Gertler's 
talent  was  felt  by  some  to  have  been  too  lightly  dismissed 
in  the  past. 

Early  in  1949  the  ancient  dispute  between  the  Tate  gallery 
and  the  Royal  Academy  over  the  purchasing  machinery  of  the 
Chantrey  bequest  was  brought  into  the  open  once  again 
when  the  entire  Chantiey  collection  to  date  was  exhibited 
at  Burlington  house.  This  was  a  fascinating  tcminder  of  the 
tastes  of  an  era  when  British  painting  was  at  a  low  ebb  and 
was  visited,  probably  in  a  nostalgic  frame  of  mind,  by  nearly 
100,000  people  It  did,  however,  add  weight  to  the  con- 
tention that  too  great  bias  had  been  shown  towards  the 
academic  purchase;  and  later  it  was  announced  that  the 
Tate  gallery  (which  received  the  purchases)  had  been  given 
equal  representation  on  the  selection  committee  with  the 
Royal  Academy  (which  made  the  purchases).  In  the  autumn 
Burlington  house  showed  Leslie  Wright's  ambitious  collection 
of  18th  and  19th  century  watercolours,  a  project  which  gave 
considerable  pleasure. 

Between  these  two  exhibitions  the  Royal  Academy  held 
its  usual  summer  show.  This  was  remarkable,  apart  from 
the  presidential  broadcast  from  the  pre-cxhibition  dinner, 
chiefly  for  the  inclusion  of  a  gallery  devoted  to  more  "  mod- 
ern "  work  in  which  John  Minton's  large  decorative  landscape 
held  a  dominating  position.  The  academic  idiom  was  seen 
at  its  most  incisive  in  the  works  of  Pietro  Annigoni,  two 
portraits  by  whom  later  attracted  attention  at  the  Royal 
Society  of  Portrait  Painters.  By  far  the  most  enterprising  of 
the  other  exhibiting  societies  was  the  Royal  Society  of  British 
Artists,  which  gave  hospitality  to  a  lively  show  by  London 
art  students,  to  recent  work  by  Giorgio  dc  Chinco  and,  in 
the  winter,  to  the  most  exciting  collection  of  contemporary 
sculpture  since  Battersea  Park  in  1948. 

In  the  provinces  some  collections,  like  the  Ashmolean  at 
Oxford,  completed  schemes  of  postwar  re-arrangement. 
In  Glasgow,  a  selection  from  the  rich  Burrell  collection,  which 
was  presented  to  the  city  in  1944,  was  seen  publicly  for  the 
first  time.  Municipal  galleries  showed  varying  degrees  of 
initiative,  some  contenting  themselves  with  accepting  Arts 
Council  travelling  exhibitions  (which  included,  during  1949, 
shows  devoted  to  Joshua  Reynolds,  Indian  miniatures, 


ART    EXHIBITIONS 


"  Nymph  and  Shepherd "  by  Titian,  from  the  exhibition  of  art   treasures  from  Vienna   which   was  held  at   the   Tate   Gallery,  London, 

during  1949. 

women   artists   from   the   Netherlands,   pictures   from   the  logical  society  including  some  entirely  realistic  and  hitherto 

Wellington  gift,  Sickert,  Gainsborough,  Gordon  Craig  and  unknown  heads  from  Ife,  Nigeria. 

old  master  drawings  from  Chatsworth;    York,  on  the  other  British  masters  were  seen  overseas  in  Lisbon,  Madrid, 

hand,   organized   a  centenary   exhibition   of  William   Etty  Hamburg    and    Oslo;     contemporary    painting    in    Paris, 

and  Wakefield,  the  town  nearest  to  his  birthplace,  sponsored  Germany,  Holland,  Luxembourg,  the  U.S.A.  and  throughout 

an  impressive  retrospective  exhibition  of  work  by  Henry  Australia;     work  by  Paul  Nash  toured  Canada;     drawings 

Moore  which  later,  with  some  additions,   toured   Europe  and  prints  went  to  Australia,  Canada,  New  Zealand,  Austria, 


under  the  auspices  of  the  British  Council. 


France,  Germany,  Indonesia;    sculpture  was  included  in  the 


Among  the  more  memorable  offerings  of  the  commercial  international  open-air  exhibition  at  Sonsbeek  in  Holland, 

galleries  in  London  were  exhibitions  by  Michael  Ay  rton,  Francis  and  the  important  Henry  Moore  exhibition  already  referred 

Bacon,  Edward  Bawden,  Edward  Burra,  Prunella  Clough,  to  was  seen   in  Brussels  and   Paris,  where  it  aroused  the 

Robert  Colquhoun,  John  Craxton,  Ivon  Hitchens,  Frances  greatest  interest. 

Hodgkins,  Wy ndham  Lewis,  Robert  MacBryde,  John  Minton,  From  the  many  displays  in  Europe  arranged  during  1949 

Victor    Pasmore    and    F.    E.    McWilliam.      Perhaps    the  mention  may  be  made  of  the  200  paintings  of  "  Rembrandt 

most  noticeable  thing  about  the  dealers'  galleries,  however,  and  his  time,"  at  Schaff hausen ;   of  the  opening  to  the  public 

was  the  range  of  foreign  work  shown  as  a  result  of  the  easing  of  the  Thyssen  collection  at  Lugano;  of  the  belated  centenary 

of  import  restrictions.   Apart  from  those  already  mentioned,  exhibition  of  Paul  Gauguin  in  Paris;  and  the  assembly  in 

Eugene  Berman,  Massimo  Campigli,  Edouard  Goerg,  Hans  Venice  of  over   100  painting  and  drawings  by  Giovanni 

Hartung,  Charles  Howard,  Jean  Lurcat,  Pablo  Picasso  and  Bellini  from  all  over  western  Europe  and  America.    As  an 

Pavel  Tchelitchew  were  among  those  seen.      Many  other  augury  for  the  future,  note  should  perhaps  be  taken  of  the 

younger    French    painters    were    shown,    and   pictures    by  first  travelling  exhibition  of  fine  reproductions  organized 

German,  Turkish,  and  Indian  artists.     There  was  a  display  of  and  circulated  by  U.N.E.S.C.O.                       (M.  H.  MM.) 

Polish  folk  art,  and  at  least  three  exhibitions  of  the  traditional  United  States.    The  State  University  of  Iowa,  Iowa  city, 

art  of  British  colonies  were  arranged  in  connection  with  devoted  its  fifth  annual  summer  show  entirely  to  sculpture. 

"  Colonial  Month,"  that  organized  by  the  Royal  Anthropo-  Sculpture  also  had  a  prominent  showing  during  the  summer 


68 


ARTHRITIS 


at  the  Third  Fairmount  Park  Sculpture  International  in  the 
rotunda  and  in  the  garden  court  of  the  Philadelphia  museum. 
The  object  of  the  exhibition  was  to  be  a  basis  of  selection  for 
sculptors  to  create  the  remaining  historical  groups  of  the 
Ellen  Phillips  Samuel  memorial  in  Fairmount  park.  Foreign 
artists  represented  numbered  32,  compared  with  216  from 
the  United  States.  The  Philadelphia  museum  also  exhibited 
the  Henry  P.  Mcllhenny  collection,  containing  the  finest 
pictures  of  the  19th  century  and  contemporary  period. 
Among  these  were  Jacques  Louis  David's  "  Pius  VII  and 
Cardinal  Caprara";  Ingres'  "Countess  of  Tournon";  Renoir's 
"Mile.  Legrande";  Cezanne's  "  Mme.  Cezanne";  and 
Picasso's  "  Pitcher  and  Bowl  of  Fruit." 

The  Museum  of  Modern  Art  in  New  York  had  a  full- 
scale  retrospective  one-man  show  of  Georges  Braque  (in 
collaboration  with  the  Cleveland  museum)  covering  work 
from  1904  to  1947.  It  also  held  a  survey  of  20th  century 
Italian  art.  Beginning  with  early  experiments  in  sustained 
motion  by  the  Futurists,  Boccioni  and  Balla,  the  exhibition 
then  showed  an  impressive  group  of  early  works  by  De 
Chirico  and  came  down  to  the  present  with  emphasis  on  the 
sculpture  of  Manni  and  various  abstract  painters.  San 
Francisco's  California  Palace  of  the  Legion  of  Honour 
celebrated  its  25th  anniversary  with  an  exhibition  of  32 
paintings  and  24  drawings  of  the  French  18th  century  lent 
by  the  Louvre  and  several  French  provincial  museums 
Seven  Watteau's,  including  "  Le  Faux  Pas "  lent  by  the 
Louvre,  and  Chardin's  famous  **  Le  Jeune  Homme  au 
Violon,"  also  from  the  Louvre,  were  exhibited. 

The  Italian  government  made  two  good-will  gestures  of 
gratitude  in  return  for  the  help  given  by  the  United  States 
in  the  restoration  of  Italian  monuments.  Michelangelo's 
4<  David  "  (from  the  Bargello  in  Florence)  was  lent  to  the 
National  gallery  and  Donatello's  San  Lodovico  (1423), 
which  had  been  cleaned  to  reveal  the  full  splendour  of  the 
original  gilt  bronze,  was  sent  from  the  church  of  Sante  Croce 
in  Florence  to  the  Metropolitan  museum,  the  Art  Institute 
of  Chicago  and  a  few  other  American  museums. 

American  art  of  the  earlier  periods  was  prominent  in  the 
year's  exhibition  calendar.  Washington's  Corcoran  gallery 
under  the  title  "  De  Gustibus  "  showed  100  years  of  American 
taste  from  Thomas  Cole  to  the  present.  In  the  meantime 
the  Wadsworth  atheneum  in  Hartford,  Connecticut,  in 
collaboration  with  the  Whitney  Museum  of  American  Art, 
New  York,  arranged  a  large  exhibition  of  the  woik  of 
Thomas  Cole  (1801-48) 

The  Art  Institute  of  Chicago  put  on  a  comprehensive 
showing  of  American  paintings,  silver  and  blown-up  architec- 
tural photographs  under  the  title  "  From  Colony  to  Nation  " 
covering  the  period  1650-1815. 

Leonardo  da  Vinci  and  his  contemporaries  were  shown  in 
an  exhibition  at  the  Los  Angeles  County  museum  A  feature 
was  the  "  Madonna  of  the  Pomegranate,"  thought  to  be 
his  earliest  painting,  and  nine  of  his  drawings.  Of  great 
interest  were  the  reconstructions  of  several  of  Leonardo's 
designs  for  mechanical  contrivances,  including  a  flying 
machine. 

The  Louise  and  Walter  Arensberg  collection  of  20th- 
century  art  was  permitted  to  leave  their  home  in  Hollywood, 
California,  for  the  first  time  and  was  featured  at  the  Art 
Institute  of  Chicago.  More  than  200  paintings,  water  colours 
and  pieces  of  sculpture  made  up  the  group  which  marked 
the  foundation  of  the  art  of  this  century.  Sculpture  by 
Brancusi,  early  paintings  by  Braque,  Picasso  and  Marcel 
Duchamp  (including  all  four  versions  of  the  **  Nude  Des- 
cending a  Staircase")  and  works  by  Joan  Miro,  Paul  Klee 
and  Salvador  Dali  were  notable  in  the  collection. 

The  Metropolitan  museum  opened  the  autumn  season  with 
a  great  exhibition  of  the  work  of  Vincent  Van  Gogh  (organized 


in  co-operation  with  the  Art  Institute  of  Chicago),  consisting 
of  97  oils  and  67  drawings  lent  for  the  most  part  from  two 
Dutch  sources,  the  K  roller- Muller  museum  in  Otterlo, 
Netherlands,  and  the  collection  of  the  artist's  nephew  and 
namesake,  Vincent  Van  Gogh.  The  value  of  the  collection 
was  reputed  to  be  $3  million. 

Art  treasures  from  the  Vienna  collections  was  another 
great  European  exhibition  which  crossed  the  Atlantic;  it 
opened  at  the  National  gallery  in  Washington,  D.C.,  in 
November.  (See  also  ART  SALFS;  ARTS  COUNCIL;  DRAW- 
ING AND  ENGRAVING;  PAINTING;  SCULPTURE.)  (F.  A.  Sw.) 

ARTHRITIS.  During  1949  all  advances  in  the  field  of 
rheumatic  diseases  were  overshadowed  by  the  contributions 
of  P.  S.  Hench,  E.  C.  Kendall,  C.  H.  Slocumb  and  H.  F. 
Policy  who  demonstrated  the  effects  on  rheumatoid  arthritis 
of  17-hydroxy-l  1-dehydrocorticosterone  (Kendall's  Com- 
pound E,  later  renamed  "  Cortisone  "). 

While  investigating  the  mechanism  whereby  remissions  of 
rheumatoid  arthritis  occur  during  pregnancy  and  certain 
diseases  complicated  by  jaundice,  Hench  and  his  co-workers 
found  it  probable  that  the  factor  responsible  for  the  relief  of 
arthritis  might  be  a  hormone  liberated  by  one  of  the  endocrine 
glands  other  than  the  sex  glands.  Trials  of  various  hormones 
available  prior  to  1948  had  failed,  Kendall  had  isolated 
various  fractions  of  the  secretion  of  the  adrenal  cortex,  one 
of  which  was  called  Compound  E.  The  quantity  of  isolated 
material  was  inadequate  to  allow  studies  of  the  effect  of  this 
adrenal  cortical  fraction  on  arthritis  For  many  years, 
Kendall  and  his  associates  and  biochemists  in  other  labora- 
tories had  been  collaborating  to  synthesize  this  compound. 
Finally  in  1948  enought  of  this  material  was  produced 
(starting  from  one  of  the  acids  in  ox  bile)  to  allow  a  study  of 
its  effects  on  patients  to  be  made.  During  the  winter  of 
1948-49  at  the  Mayo  clinic,  Rochester,  Minnesota,  the 
effects  of  Compound  E  were  carefully  observed  in  several 
patients  with  rheumatoid  arthritis.  All  the  patients  made 
remarkable  improvements.  Stiffness  quickly  lessened,  move- 
ment of  the  joints  increased,  pain,  swelling  and  ienderness 
of  the  inflamed  joints  were  reduced  or  disappeared  in  a 
period  of  only  a  few  weeks,  and  there  was  a  gratifying 
improvement  in  the  general  health  of  the  patient.  Report  of 
these  investigations  was  made  in  the  spring  of  1949.  Through- 
out the  remainder  of  the  year  Compound  E  was  made 
available  to  other  investigators,  all  of  whom  confirmed  the 
reports  of  Hench  and  his  collaborators. 

Cortisone  was  given  by  injection  daily  to  accomplish 
remission  or  near-remission  of  the  disease.  When  it  was 
discontinued,  after  a  short  period  of  administration,  the 
arthritis  usually  relapsed,  although  some  patients  maintained 
a  portion  of  the  improvement.  In  some  persons  receiving 
the  drug  for  longer  periods,  various  undesirable  side  effects 
were  noted — all  of  which  disappeared  after  administration 
of  the  hormone  were  discontinued. 

A  fraction  of  the  hormone  complex  produced  by  the 
pituitary  gland  stimulated  the  adrenal  glands  to  liberate  an 
increased  amount  of  cortical  hormones  including  Cortisone. 
This  pituitary  secretion,  known  as  "  adrcnocorticotropic 
hormone  "  (ACTH)  was  isolated  in  a  potent  and  purified 
form  suitable  for  injection  into  humans,  and  when 
administered  to  patients  with  rheumatoid  arthritis  effects 
were  observed  similar  to  those  resulting  from  Cortisone. 

The  effects  of  Cortisone  and  ACTH  were  studied  in  other 
rheumatic  disorders  and  connective  tissue  diseases.  Some 
improvement  was  observed  in  rheumatic  fever,  gout,  diffuse 
lupus  erythematosus,  neurodermatomyositis  and  other  col- 
lagen diseases. 

The  extreme  difficulty  of  isolating  ACTH  and  the  tedious 
and  difficult  task  of  synthesizing  Cortisone  and  the  limited 


ART   SALES 


69 


supply  of  ox-bile  acid  severely  restricted  the  production  of 
these  hormones.  Consequently  these  substances  were 
important  in  1949,  chiefly  as  research  tools  in  the  study  of 
rheumatic  diseases.  The  whole  problem  of  connective  tissue 
and  rheumatic  diseases  took  on  a  new  aspect.  The  mystery 
surrounding  rheumatism  could  now  be  clarified  so  that  an 
amelioration  of  these  painful  diseases  might  be  effected. 
Much  research  however  lay  ahead:  research  to  improve  the 
methods  of  manufacture  so  that  larger  supplies  of  these 
hormones  could  be  produced  at  a  lower  cost;  the  definition 
of  the  scope  and  limitations  of  effects  of  the  hormones  in 
different  diseases;  methods  of  administration  to  produce 
the  greatest  benefit  and  the  minimum,  or  the  absence,  of 
undesired  effects;  the  elucidation  of  the  mechanism  of 
effect  of  these  hormones  which  in  time  should  reveal  the 
nature  and  possibly  the  cause  of  the  diseases;  the  study  of 
the  effects  of  steroids  chemically  similar  to  Cortisone;  'and 
the  influence  of  all  effective  steroids  on  the  entire  endocrine 
glandular  system  and  metabolic  functions.  (See  also 
CHEMISTRY.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  P.  S  Hench,  E  C  Kendall,  C  H  Slocumb  and 
H  F.  Policy,  The  Effect  of  a  Hormone  of  the  Adrenal  Cortex  (17- 
HydroKy-11-DehydroLOttnosterone  Compound  h)  and  of  Pituitary 
Adrenocorticotropic  Hormone  on  Rheumatoid  Arthritic  Preliminary 
Report,  Proc.  Staff  Meet,  Mayo  Clinic,  24.181-197,  April  13,  1949; 
G  W.  Thorn,  T.  B.  Bayles.  B  F  Massell,  P.  H  Forsham,  S  R.  Hill,  Jr  , 
S.  Smith  111  and  J  E  Warren,  "  Medical  Progress-  Studies  on  the 
Relation  of  Pituitary-Adrenal  Function  to  Rheumatic  Disease,"  New 
England  Journal  of  Medicine,  Oct  6,  1949.  (R.  H.  FRO.) 

ART  SALES.  Prices  tended  to  remain  high  during 
1949  as  a  counterbalance  to  currency  fluctuations  and  in 
Great  Britain  a  proposed  Rembrandt  exhibition  was  unable 
to  be  held  because  devaluation  of  sterling  made  the  insurance 
costs  prohibitive. 

There  were  two  moments  of  high  drama  during  the  year. 
The  first  occurred  at  Sotheby's  on  Feb.  16  when  a  Rubens 
**  Suicide  of  Dido  "  came  up  for  sale.  Its  owner  offered  it  to 
Reading  Art  Gallery  but  the  authorities  refused  the  gift 
and  it  was  afterwards  auctioned  at  Henley-on-Thamcs, 
Oxfordshire,  for  50s.  At  Sotheby's  it  was  bought  for  £3,200. 
The  second  happened  at  Christies'  in  June  when  the  Graham 
Robertson  collection  of  Works  by  William  Blake  came  up 
for  sale.  Graham  Robertson  had  bought  the  famous  "  Ghost 
of  a  Flea,'*  now  in  the  Tate  gallery,  for  £12  and  had  also 
acquired  the  collection  of  Thomas  Butts,  one  of  Blake's 
patrons.  He  had  made  many  gifts  to  public  galleries  and  it 
was  expected  that  he  would  have  made  certain  bequests  in 
his  will.  This  did  not,  however,  seem  to  be  the  case,  and  the 
items  were  auctioned  in  the  usual  way.  The  National  Gallery 
of  Scotland  bid  7,400  guineas  for  i4  Job  Confessing  His 
Presumption  ";  the  Tate  gallery  8,600  guineas  for  three  line 
examples  of  William  Blake;  and  the  British  museum  6,000 
guineas  for  "  Jacob's  Ladder "  and  tk  The  Sacrifice  of 
Jephthah's  Daughters."  The  Fitzwilliam  museum  became  the 
owner  of  "  The  Ascension  "  for  7,000  guineas.  The  sale 
realized  £61,600.  At  its  conclusion  it  was  announced  that, 
according  to  the  terms  of  the  will,  works  acquired  by  public 
galleries  would  be  presented  to  them  through  the  National 
Art  Collections'  fund,  representing  a  bequest  of  £41,181. 

Public  art  galleries  were  fortunate  in  1949.  The  Fitzwilliam 
acquired  Constable's  "  Hampstead  Heath  "  (from  the  Eck- 
stein collection)  for  £13,000;  the  Barber  institute  at  Birming- 
ham bought  The  Butleigh  Salt  (17th  century,  silver  gilt) 
for  £4,400  and  a  sheet  of  Rembrandt  drawings  in  pen  and 
bistre  for  £4,410.  At  the  same  sale  a  Rowlandson  drawing, 
"  The  Accusation,"  went  for  £25  55.  On  the  other  hand, 
at  Sotheby's  in  July,  a  Constable  of  "  The  Marine  Pier  at 
Brighton  "  was  withdrawn  at  £13,500.  The  most  interesting 
of  several  acquisitions  made  by  W.  V.  Hutchinson  for  the 
National  Gallery  of  British  Sports  and  Pastimes  was  a 


series  of  eight  Henry  Alkens  of  "  The  Grand  Leicestershire 
Steeplechase,   1829,"  for  which  he  paid  £1,995. 

The  most  impressive  series  of  sales,  which  had  begun  in 
1948,  was  of  vanous  works  of  art  acquired  by  the  late  Sir 
Bernard  Pckstem  Apart  from  the  Constable,  which  went  to 
the  Fitzwilliam,  the  most  noteworthy  examples  of  painting 
from  the  collection  were  Morland's  **  Children  Birdnesting  " 
and  **  Juvenile  Navigators,"  for  which  W.  V.  Hutchinson 
gave  110,200  and  a  Fantin  Latour  flower-piece  which  sold 
for  £4,200,  as  against  £819  in  1933.  The  only  notable  deprecia- 
tion was  a  Gainsborough,  "  Woodland  Scene,"  which  went 
for  £1,800  a-;  against  £3,150  in  1937. 

Amongst  other  sections  of  the  Eckstein  collection  £1,050 
was  given  for  a  Persian  manuscript  of  the  longest  poem  in 
the  world  (120,000  lines):  "  The  Book  of  Kings  ";  an  caster 
egg  in  rock  crystal  made  by  Faberge  and  set  with  rose  dia- 
monds brought  £l,700;  a  panel  of  Beauvais  tapestry,  after 
a  Boucher  design,  sold  for  £2,400  and  a  Tompion  travelling 
clock  (9^  in.  high)  in  its  original  case  sold  for  £2,300. 

Contemporary  artists  commanded  a  fair  market  throughout 
the  year.  A  Raoul  Dufy  "  View  of  Langres  "  sold  at  £350; 
and  £680  was  given  for  two  Richard  Sickert  views  of  Dieppe 
and  £370  for  two  Augustus  John  portraits  of  his  sons, 
Edwin  and  Caspar.  A  painting  by  Winston  Churchill 
realized  £1,312  10s.  at  Christies'  in  aid  of  the  Y.W.C.A. 

Provincial  sales  were  vigorous,  although  their  contents 
were  not  up  to  the  standard  of  the  London  sale-rooms. 
One  interesting  event  was  the  sale  in  July  of  a  work  by  Rubens 
and  Snyders  for  £2,900  at  Kimbolton  castle.  (B.  DR.) 

Sotheby  sold  the  H.  A.  C.  Gregory  collection  of  Constable 
paintings  and  drawings  at  £28,467,  top  item  of  which  was 
an  oil,  the  **  Marine  Parade"  at  £13,500.  This  was  shown 
in  the  Masterpieces  of  English  Painting  at  the  Art  Institute 
of  Chicago  in  1946. 

Christie's  held  several  important  sales  during  the  season 
including  139  lots  of  antique  gold  and  silver  sold  for  the 
earl  of  Strathmore  at  a  total  of  £15,704.  The  rarest  item  was 
a  Charles  H  gold  porringer  (1675)  which  sold  for  £4,200. 
Christie's  auctioned  the  collection  of  Mrs.  Arthur  James  in 
which  a  notable  Guardi,  "  Entrance  into  the  Grand  Canal," 
went  for  £10,290. 

United  States.  Kende  galleries  announced  a  1948-49 
season  totalling  more  than  $1  million,  their  largest  single 
sale  having  been  to  the  Cortlandt  F.  F.  Bishop  library 
which  brought  $325,900;  an  Aesop  in  maioli  binding  went 
for  $24,000;  a  Paris  Tasso  (1771)  with  68  original  Gravelot 
drawings  went  for  $23,500;  and  a  Mohere  (1734)  for  $20,250. 

In  the  Oscar  Bondy  sale  Dosso  Dossi's  "  The  Combat 
between  Roland  and  Rodomonte "  went  at  $12,000  and 
Giovanni  di  Paolo's  "  Adoration  of  the  Magi  "  for  $11,000. 

Parke-Bernet  galleries  of  New  York  city,  the  leading  art 
auction  house  of  the  country,  reported  that  their  season 
amounted  to  $5,618,628-50,  which  was  a  $400,000  increase 
over  the  previous  year.  The  highest  price  paid  for  a  single 
item  was  $54,000  for  Lincoln's  "  Gettysburg  Address " 
and  the  largest  individual  sale  was  comprised  mostly  of 
early  Christian  and  Byzantine  art  from  the  estate  of  Joseph 
Brummcr  and  totalled  $739,510.  The  top  item  in  this  sale 
was  a  pair  of  Burgundian  Gothic  tapestries  at  $42,000. 
A  Saxon  12th-century  champleve  plaque  brought  $11,000. 

Leading  prices  at  sales  of  paintings  were  $25,000  for 
Degas'  "  L'Ecole  de  Ballet ";  $12,000  for  Winslow  Homer's 
water  colour  "The  Voice  from  the  Cliffs";  $10,500  for 
Renoir's  "  Young  Bather  ";  $7,000  for  Frederic  Remington's 
"  Among  the  Led  Horses  ";  and  $6,500  for  Grant  Wood's 
"  Birthplace  of  Herbert  Hoover." 

The  sale  of  the  Joseph  H.  Seaman  prints  brought  $90,067. 
Of  these,  Rembrandt's  "  Christ  Healing  the  Sick,"  went  for 
$7,500,  "The  Young  Haaring "  for  $3,200,  "  Ephraim 


70 


COUNCIL- ASTRONOMY 


Bonus  "  for  $3,000,  and  "  Clement  de  Jonghe  "  for  $2,600. 
Many  books  came  up  at  auction  including  a  first  edition 
of  Dante's  Divine  Comedy  at  $9,000  and  a  Caxton  edition 
(1478)  of  Chaucer's  Canterbury  Talcs  at  $4,000  (Sec  also 
ART  EXHIBITIONS.)  (F  A.  Sw.) 

ARTS  COUNCIL.  For  the  Arts  Council  the  year 
1949  was  one  of  consolidation  rather  than  expansion.  The 
council's  grant-m-aid  from  the  exchequer  for  the  financial 
year  1949-50  was  the  same  as  in  1948-49,  viz.,  £575,000 
Assistance  was  again  given  on  much  the  same  scale  as  in 
previous  years  to  theatre,  opera  and  ballet  companies,  to 
orchestras  and  to  arts  clubs,  arts  centres  and  chamber  music 
clubs  throughout  Great  Butain  The  largest  grant  was  to 
the  Covent  Garden  Opera  trust,  for  building  up  a  national 
opera  and  ballet  at  Covent  Garden  on  a  scale  and  of  a  stan- 
dard worthy  of  the  country's  achievements  in  other  fields. 
The  smallest  grants  were  those  to  individual  arts  clubs  for 
purchase  of  equipment  or  as  guarantees  against  loss  on 
concerts  and  other  events. 

Apart  from  the  continuation  and  consolidation  of  the 
programme  already  laid  down,  the  Arts  Council  was  con- 
cerned in  1949  with  encouraging  two  special  developments. 
The  first  of  these  was  the  new  interest  in  artistic  enterprise 
made  possible  for  municipalities  under  the  Local  Govern- 
ment act,  1948.  The  council  was  naturally  anxious  to  co- 
operate with  local  authorities  in  the  development  of  plans 
to  implement  these  powers  and  the  local  authorities,  on  their 
side,  presented  many  new  and  varied  schemes  for  the 
council's  consideration,  assistance  and  advice.  Fxamples  of 
the  kind  of  co-operation  made  possible  with  the  joint 
assistance  of  the  municipality  and  the  Arts  Council  were  the 
arts  centres  established  at  Dudley  in  Worcestershire  and 
Leek  in  Derbyshire;  the  Civic  theatre  founded  at  Chester- 
field; the  Playhouse  at  Nottingham;  and  the  theatre  company 
installed  at  the  Grand  theatre,  Swansea.  In  all  these  instances 
the  council  sought  to  show  how  an  independent  venture, 
receiving  the  support  of  the  citizens,  might  be  encouraged  by 
the  assistance  of  public  funds,  both  from  the  rates  through 
the  local  authority  and  from  the  exchequer  through  the 
Arts  Council.  The  second  particular  interest  of  the  Arts 
Council  in  1949  was  in  preparations  for  the  Festival  of 
Britain,  1951.  When  the  festival  was  first  announced  in  the 
House  of  Commons  in  Dec.  1947,  the  council  was  charged 
by  the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  with  the  responsibility 
of  organizing  the  Festival  of  the  Arts  as  part  of  the  national 
celebrations.  The  year  saw  the  successful  progress  of  a  number 
of  local  festivals  in  which  the  council  collaborated  with 
local  authorities,  the  supreme  example  of  this  being  the 
International  Festival  of  Music  and  Drama  at  Edinburgh. 

It  was  the  continuing  policy  of  the  Arts  Council  to  assist 
independent  ventures  with  grants,  loans  and  guarantees 
against  loss,  rather  than  itself  to  organize  and  present  enter- 
tainment. The  council  did,  however,  sponsor  certain  directly 
provided  concerts  and  theatrical  tours,  and  it  was  also  the 
agency  for  several  art  exhibitions  in  London  and  the 
provinces.  The  loan  of  the  pictures  from  the  Alte  Pinakothek 
at  Munich  and  of  the  art  treasures  from  Vienna,  arranged 
by  the  council,  made  the  summer  of  1949  a  period  of  special 
interest  to  Londoners.  On  Nov.  9  the  council  re-opened  the 
newly  decorated  and  lighted  New  Burlington  galleries  in 
London  with  an  exhibition  of  modern  British  art.  (See  also 
ART  EXHIBITIONS.)  (M.  C.  G.) 

ARUBA:    see  NETHERLANDS  OVERSEAS  TERRITORIES. 
ASCENSION    ISLAND:   see  SAINT  HELENA. 

ASSASSINATIONS.  Assassinations,  actual  or  attemp- 
ted, during  1949  included  the  following: 


Feb.  4.  Tehran,  Persia.  The  Shah  was  shot  at  and  slightly 
wounded  by  a  member  of  the  Tudeh  party,  Fakhr  Rai, 
who  after  the  attempt  was  attacked  by  the  crowd  and  died 
the  following  day. 

Feb.  12.  Cairo,  Egypt.  Sheikh  Hassan  el-Banna,  leader 
of  the  Moslem  brotherhood,  was  shot  and  fatally  wounded. 

April  28  Lu/on,  Philippines.  Mme.  Manuel  Quezon, 
widow  of  president  Quezon  who  died  on  Aug  1,  1944,  and 
nine  persons  with  her  were  ambushed  and  killed  by  bandits 
while  driving  through  hill  countiy  in  Neuva  Ejica. 

May  25.  Detroit,  United  States.  Victor  Reuther,  educa- 
tional director  of  the  United  Automobile  Workers'  union, 
was  shot  in  the  face  and  neck  and  severely  wounded  at  his 
home.  His  brother  Walter  was  similarly  attacked  on  April  20, 
1948. 

June  26.  Seoul,  Korea.  Kirn  Koo,  a  politician  and  oppon- 
ent of  President  Syngman  Rhee,  was  assassinated  by  an 
army  lieutenant,  An  Du  Hi,  who  was  sentenced  to  death 
by  a  military  court  on  Aug.  6 

July  6.  Tokyo,  Japan.  Mr  Shimoyama,  president  of  the 
National  Railway  association,  was  found  dead,  believed  to 
have  been  murdered,  on  the  railway  track  near  Tokyo 

July  18.  Guatemala  City,  Guatemala.  Colonel  Francisco 
Arana,  chief  of  the  armed  forces,  was  assassinated;  and  a 
revolt  against  the  government  was  started  but  failed. 

Aug.  30.  Nawnpalang,  Burma.  The  Sawbwa  of  Nawng- 
palang  state,  Sao  Tin  Hla,  was  murdered  by  Karen  icbels 
in  front  of  his  palace  and  Sao  Tun  Scin,  Sawbwa  of  Pwchla, 
was  wounded. 

Sept.  19.  Hong  Kong.  Gencial  Yang  Chich,  former 
Chinese  ambassador  to  Moscow,  was  shot  and  killed  by 
gunmen,  believed  to  have  been  Kuommtang  agents. 

Nov.  3.  Quito,  Ecuador  An  attempt  was  made  on  the 
life  of  President  Gala  Plaza  Lasso  when  an  explosion 
destroyed  a  bridge  shortly  after  his  car  had  passed  over  it. 

Nov.  4.  Tehran,  Persia.  Abdol  Hossein  Hajir,  prime 
minister  from  June  to  Nov.  1948,  was  shot  and  severely 
wounded  by  Hossein  Imami.  Hossein  Hajir  died  on  Nov.  5; 
his  assailant  was  sentenced  to  death  by  a  military  court  the 
same  day  and  executed  on  Nov.  9. 

Nov.  6  Damascus,  Syria.  Lieutenant  Colonel  Walter 
Francis  Stirling,  Damascus  correspondent  of  The  Times, 
London,  was  shot  at  and  severely  wounded  by  three  men 
dressed  as  tribesmen. 

Dec.  3.  Sibu,  Sarawak.  Duncan  George  Stewart,  governor 
and  commander  in  chief  of  Sarawak,  was  stabbed  by  a 
young  Malay  during  the  governor's  first  visit  to  Sibu. 
He  was  seriously  wounded  and  flown  to  Singapore  for  medical 
treatment.  He  died  on  Dec.  10,  and  was  buried  the  following 
day  in  Singapore  with  full  military  honours. 

Dec.  10.  Freetown,  Sierra  Leone.  Sir  John  Lucie-Smith, 
chief  justice  of  Sierra  Leone,  was  shot  at  and  wounded  while 
asleep  in  his  house  at  3  a.m. 

ASSOCIATION    FOOTBALL:   see  FOOTBALL, 

ASTRONOMY.  Observatories.  The  year  1949  opened 
with  an  event  of  high  significance  for  the  progress  of  astro- 
nomy: the  making  of  the  first  photographs  with  the  200  in. 
Hale  telescope  on  Mount  Palomar,  California,  U.S.A. 
From  January  to  April  about  60  exposures  were  made  under 
the  direction  of  Dr.  Edwin  B.  Hubble,  who  stated  that  they 
confirmed  the  most  optimistic  predictions  of  the  designers. 
Some  plates  recorded  galaxies  at  an  estimated  distance  of 
about  a  1,000  million  light-years.  For  these  tests  the  figure 
of  the  great  mirror  had  intentionally  been  left  a  shade  too 
high  near  the  edge;  afterwards  it  was  dismantled  for  final 
re-touching.  The  Hale  telescope  has  for  an  essential  com- 
panion-instrument the  48  in.  Schmidt  camera.  Whereas  the 


ASTRONOMY 


71 


The  spiral  nebula  Messier  81,  a  stellar  system  in  the  Great  Bear.  This  photograph  was  taken  on  Feb.  18, 1949,  with  the  200  in.  Hale  telescope 

of  the  Mount  Wilson  and  Palomar  observatories,  California. 


Schmidt  will  reveal  almost  all  objects  "  readily  seen " 
with  the  200  in.  instrument  it  can  show  on  a  single  plate 
a  region  of  the  sky  some  hundreds  of  times  greater  than  the 
area  covered  by  one  plate  taken  with  the  latter.  In  July  the 
Schmidt  was  put  to  work  on  the  National  Geographic  Society — 
Palomar  Observatory  Sky  Atlas,  which  would  take  about 
four  years  to  complete  and  would  comprise  about  2,000 
plates,  covering  about  three-fourths  of  the  entire  sky,  photo- 
graphed once  in  blue  light  and  once  in  red.  It  would  record 
some  10  million  galaxies  and  some  500  million  stars  of  our 
own  Galaxy.  Besides  serving  as  an  atlas  proper,  it  would 
serve  other  important  purposes.  It  would  provide  the  most 
extensive  survey  yet  made  of  the  distribution  of  galaxies. 
Again,  for  instance,  in  future  when  a  nova  appears  there 
will  be  a  good  chance  of  identifying  the  star  concerned  in 
the  Atlas  and  thus  seeing  what  sort  it  was  before  its  outburst, 
a  feature  about  which  existing  evidence  is  meagre. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  purpose  of  the  Atlas,  however, 
is  to  locate  objects  for  detailed  study  with  the  200  in. 
Thus,  one  of  the  most  significant  classes  of  object  for  cosmo- 
logical  investigation  is  that  of  remote  clusters  of  galaxies. 
The  few  that  have  been  discovered  by  chance  indicate  that 
there  must  be  a  large  number:  the  48  in.  Schmidt  is 
incomparably  the  best  existing  intrument  for  finding  them, 
as  is  the  200  in.  for  studying  them  when  found. 

The  Solar  department  was  the  first  observing  department 
of  the  Royal  Greenwich  observatory  to  start  work  at  Hurst- 
monceux,  Sussex,  whither  the  whole  observatory  will  be 
transferred  during  the  next  few  years.  The  Nautical  Almanac 
office  and  some  other  non-observing  departments  were  in 
operation  at  Hurstmonceux  by  the  end  of  the  year.  The 
trustees  of  the  McGregor  fund  in  Michigan  presented  a 
98  in.  "  Pyrex "  glass  disk  for  use  in  the  Isaac  Newton 
telescope. 


Interstellar  matter.  This  has  been  one  of  the  most  fruitful 
fields  of  astronomical  research  in  current  years.  The  existence 
of  interstellar  matter,  in  addition  to  what  is  immediately 
evident  in  the  form  of  bright  and  dark  nebulae,  has  long 
been  known.  In  the  part  of  the  Galaxy  near  the  Sun,  it  is 
estimated  to  comprise  about  as  much  material  as  that  of  the 
stars  themselves  in  the  same  region.  Various  processes  of 
inference  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  it  consists  predominantly 
of  hydrogen  gas.  For  the  rest,  apart  from  an  undetermined 
amount  of  helium,  it  contains  under  1  %  by  mass  of  other 
elements  in  the  gaseous  state  and  about  an  equal  mass  of 
solid  particles.  There  is  no  evidence  of  any  considerable 
variation  of  composition  from  one  part  of  space  to  another. 

Interstellar  gas  absorbs  certain  frequencies  of  the  stellar 
radiation  traversing  it,  thus  producing  "  interstellar  lines  " 
in  the  stellar  spectra.  Observable  interstellar  lines  are  all 
due  to  certain  of  the  "  other  elements  "  mentioned  (conditions 
in  interstellar  space  being  such  that  the  hydrogen  and  helium 
present  cannot  in  general  produce  absorption  lines  in  acces- 
sible frequencies)  and,  as  recently  identified  by  A.  McKellar 
and  A.  E.  Douglas,  the  molecular  combinations  CN  and 
CH.  In  1936,  S.  C.  Beals  discovered  that  interstellar  lines 
are  sometimes  multiple  in  structure,  indicating  their  pro- 
duction in  such  cases  by  several  interstellar  clouds  with 
different  sightline  velocities. 

In  1949,  W.  S.  Adams  gave  an  account  of  work  at  Mount 
Wilson,  nr.  Pasadena,  California,  which  forms  the  greatest 
single  observational  contribution  yet  made  to  the  study  of 
details  of  the  distribution  and  motion  of  interstellar  gas. 
The  work  is  mainly  a  skilful  exploitation  of  Beals's  dis- 
covery, employing  the  utmost  refinement  of  spectroscopic 
technique.  Adams  used  about  300  selected  stars  in  whose 
spectra  the  interstellar  lines  are  not  confused  by  lines  proper 
to  the  stars  themselves,  and  whose  brightness  and  relative 


72 


ATHENS 


spacing  renders  them  suitable  to  yield  the  desired  information. 
Some  conclusions  indicated  or  confirmed  by  Adams  were: 
(i)  The  molecules  mentioned  are  prevalent  in  interstellar  gas 
and  have  effectively  the  same  spatial  distribution  as  the  more 
familiar  atoms  in  the  gas.  (ii)  The  interstellar  gas  is  largely 
concentrated  into  clouds  whose  thickness  averages  something 
of  the  order  of  20  parsecs.  The  clouds  themselves  tend  to 
concentrate  towards  the  galactic  plane  in  whose  vicinity  they 
are  estimated  to  occupy  about  15%  of  interstellar  space, 
(iii)  The  clouds  have  individual  random  velocities  averaging 
about  20  km. /sec.,  the  larger  clouds  having  in  general  the 
smaller  speeds,  (iv)  Apart  from  certain  particular  systems, 
there  is  no  special  association  between  individual  clouds  and 
individual  stars. 

Turning  to  the  solid  particles  in  interstellar  matter,  H.  C. 
van  de  Hulst  published  from  Utrecht,  Holland,  an  extensive 
theoretical  investigation.  Various  general  considerations 
show  the  particles  to  be  about  10~5cm.  in  diameter.  He 
studied  the  physical  chemistry  of  the  condensation  of  such 
particles  in  a  gas  under  interstellar  conditions  and  concluded 
that  they  have  indeed  originated  by  condensation.  Therefore 
he  favoured  the  term  "  smoke  "  for  this  constituent  of  inter- 
stellar matter,  rather  than  "  dust "  which  implies  an  origin 
in  the  disintegration  of  larger  bodies.  He  concluded  also  that 
the  smoke  might  be  described  as  consisting  of  **  ice  with 
impurities."  He  investigated  the  optical  properties  of  the 
particles  and  showed  that  they  provide  a  good  explanation 
of  interstellar  extinction  of  stellar  radiation  as  regards  both 
total  amount  and  dependence  on  wavelength.  His  value  for 
the  mean  density  of  the  smoke  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
Sun  is  1-4x10-26  g/cc. 

W.  A.  Hiltner  announced  the  remarkable  discovery  that 
light  from  some  distant  stars  is  polarized  (to  the  extent  of 
about  10%).  His  observations  showed  that  the  effect  is  not 
associated  with  particular  stars  but  must  be  introduced  in  the 
passage  of  the  radiation  through  interstellar  space.  Scattering 
by  the  smoke  particles  is  the  only  known  agency  that  might 
operate  in  this  way.  As  Hiltner  pointed  out,  this  would 
require  the  particles  to  be  non-spherical  and  oriented  in 
some  preferential  directions.  The  effect  might  thus  provide 
an  unexpected  means  for  investigating  physical  conditions 
in  interstellar  space. 

Sun.  The  luminosity  of  the  Sun,  measured  on  the  scale  of 
stellar  magnitudes,  is  a  quantity  whose  accurate  determina- 
tion is  of  great  importance  but  also  of  great  practical 
difficulty.  R.  van  der  R.  Woolley  and  S.  C.  B.  Gascoigne 
published  a  new  determination  from  a  comparison  of  the  Sun 
and  Sirius  by  photographic  spectrophotometry  using  devices 
developed  at  Mount  Stromlo  Commonwealth  observatory 
at  Canberra,  Australia.  The  comparison  was  made  at 
four  wavelengths.  The  authors  cited  also  preliminary  results 
of  photoelectric  spectrophotometry  performed  at  Mount 
Stromlo  which  showed  that  the  previously  accepted  magni- 
tude of  Sinus  was  somewhat  too  high.  Allowing  for  this, 
they  obtained  about  -26  •  9  for  the  Sun's  apparent  photovisual 
magnitude  in  good  agreement  with  earlier  determinations. 

E.  Durand,  J.  J.  Oberley  and  R.  Tousey  published  an 
analysis  of  the  first  rocket  ultraviolet  solar  spectra,  which 
resulted  from  the  work  of  the  U.S.  Naval  Research  laboratory 
at  Washington.  The  spectra  were  obtained  at  heights  of  35 
to  75  km.  They  covered  the  hitherto  unobserved  wavelength- 
interval  from  2,900  to  2,200  angstroms,  and  this  is  found 
to  be  more  complex  than  the  familiar  part  of  the  spectrum. 
Certain  lines  or  line-multiplets  of  neutral  and  ionized  iron  and 
magnesium,  of  neutral  silicon  and  of  ionized  magnesium 
feature  prominently.  A  pair  of  strong  lines  due  to  ionized 
magnesium  reproduces  characteristics  familiar  in  the  H  and 
K  lines  of  ionized  calcium  in  the  visible  spectrum.  The  back- 
ground intensity  was  estimated  to  be  well  below  the  black- 


body  intensity  for  6,000  degrees.  The  results  will  repay 
much  further  study;  meanwhile  they  appear  generally  to 
confirm  the  predictions  of  solar  physicists. 

One  of  the  three  **  crucial  tests  "  of  Einstein's  relativity 
theory  is  that  the  lines  in  the  solar  spectrum  should  show  a 
red-shift  in  wavelength  of  about  two  parts  in  a  million  with 
respect  to  the  corresponding  lines  in  laboratory  spectra. 
M.  G.  Adam  published  her  new  "  absolute"  measurements 
of  solar  wavelengths  using  the  high  dispersion  of  better  than 
one  angstrom  per  mm.  rendered  possible  by  an  interfero- 
metric  method.  After  all  known  corrections  had  been 
applied,  she  found  almost  no  shift  in  wavelength  except  in  the 
light  from  the  outermost  10%  of  the  radius  of  the  solar  disk, 
the  shift  reaching  about  the  Einstein  value  near  the  edge 
of  the  disk.  She  refuted  the  earlier  explanation  of  such  a 
result,  depending  upon  postulated  radial  currents  in  the 
solar  atmosphere.  Consequently,  it  was  still  undecided 
whether  the  Einstein  effect  does  exist  and  is  masked  for  most 
of  the  disk  by  some  other  unknown  effect  or  whether  it  does 
not  exist  and  some  unknown  effect  produces  a  shift  only  near 
the  solar  limb. 

Solar  system.  Following  the  discovery  of  a  fifth  satellite 
of  Uranus  in  1948,  a  second  satellite  of  Neptune  was  dis- 
covered in  1949,  also  with  the  82  in.  reflector  of  the  McDonald 
observatory,  Mount  Locke,  Texas.  The  newly  found  satel- 
lite has  an  orbital  radius  more  than  20  times  that  of  the 
previously  known  satellite  Triton,  and  a  period  of  about 
two  years;  its  estimated  diameter  is  only  about  200  mi. 

An  interesting  relation  between  the  solar  system  and  the 
interstellar  '*  smoke  "  mentioned  above  was  suggested  by  a 
new  theory  of  the  origin  of  comets  given  by  R.  A.  Lyttleton. 
According  to  this,  if  the  sun  traverses  an  interstellar  cloud, 
the  smoke  particles  moving  in  its  gravitational  field  tended 
to  collide  with  each  other  in  its  wake  and  so  to  form  a  smoke 
trail  there.  Examining  the  further  gravitational  effects  which 
ensues,  Lyttleton  concluded  that  this  trail  would  give  rise 
to  comets  having  characteristics  as  regards  number,  masses 
and  orbits  in  agreement  with  actuality.  (W.  H.  McC  ) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  Donald  H  Menzel,  Our  Sun  (Philadelphia-Toronto, 
1949),  G  J  Whitrow,  Hie  Structure  of  the  Universe  (London,  1949), 
Sir  Harold  Spencer  Jones,  "  Some  developments  in  astronomical 
instruments "  (British  Association,  Section  A,  Presidential  Address), 
Advancement  of  Science^  vol  6,  no  23  (London,  1949). 

ATHENS,  capital  of  Greece  and — cast  of  Rome  and  south 
of  Vienna — the  largest  city  of  Europe.  Area:  17  sq.  mi. 
Pop.:  (1938  est.)  392,731;  (1949  est.)  700,000.  Lord  mayor, 
General  loannis  Pitsikas. 

What  might  be  called  Greater  Athens  fills  a  triangle  of 
which  one  side  is  based  on  the  Saronic  gulf  from  Pcrama 
to  Vouhagmcni  with  the  opposite  vertex  at  Ekah.  This 
Greater  Athens  covers  approximately  70  sq.  mi.  and  con- 
tained in  1949  some  1-5  million  inhabitants —one-fifth  of 
the  population  of  Greece.  In  fact,  however,  what  appears 
to  be  agglomeration  is  divided  into  39  townships  and  rural 
districts  of  which  Athens  proper  and  the  port  of  Piraeus  are 
the  largest. 

After  the  liberation  the  city  was  governed  by  a  lord  mayor 
and  a  municipal  council  appointed  by  the  government. 
In  May,  1949,  women  were  represented  on  the  council  by 
the  appointment  of  Mmes.  E.  Pantelaki  and  A.  Manzolinou. 
The  cost  of  repair  work  to  public  utilities  in  existence  before 
1940  was  estimated  at  £410,000.  As  the  population  had 
nearly  doubled  between  1938  and  1949,  essential  new  public 
services  were  estimated  to  cost  over  £10  million.  Substantial 
progress  was  made  at  the  Piraeus  with  the  extensive  recon- 
struction begun  in  1948. 

On  Nov.  20  the  departure  from  the  city  of  the  1  st  battalion 
East  Surrey  regiment  was  marked  by  a  ceremonial  parade 
at  which  the  salute  was  taken  by  King  Paul,  Queen  Frederika» 


ATHINAGORAS  I— ATHLETICS 


73 


View  of  Athens  as  it  appeared  from  the  Acropolis  in  1949.    The 
high  ground  in  the  centre  is  Lycabettus. 

Marshal  A.  Papagos,  commander  in  chief  of  the  Greek  army, 
and  Sir  Clifford  Norton,  the  British  ambassador. 

The  circulation  of  seven  morning  and  four  evening  news- 
papers of  all  political  shades  totalled  approximately  270,000, 
three-fifths  of  the  sales  being  in  the  Greater  Athens  area. 

ATHINAGORAS  I.  (Aristoklis  M.  Spyrou),  arch- 
bishop of  Istanbul  (New  Rome)  and  268th  oecumenical 
patriarch  of  the  Holy  Orthodox  Catholic  Apostolic  Eastern 
Church  (b.  Vassilikon,  Epirus  [then  part  of  the  Ottoman 
empire],  March  25,  1886),  was  the  son  of  a  doctor.  He  was 
educated  at  the  Greek  high  school  and  the  Holy  Trinity 
theological  school  on  the  island  of  Heybeli,  near  Istanbul. 
Ordained  deacon  in  1910,  with  the  name  of  Athinagoras,  he 
became  a  priest  two  years  later  and  in  1919  was  designated 
archdeacon  and  first  secretary  to  the  archbishop  of  Athens. 
From  1 922-30  he  was  bishop  of  Corfu.  Inducted  as  archbishop 
of  the  Greek  Orthodox  Church  in  North  and  South  America 
in  New  York  on  Feb.  24,  1931,  he  established  there  a  theo- 
logical seminary.  In  Feb.  1938  he  became  a  U.S.  citizen. 
On  Nov.  1,  1948,  he  was  elected  oecumenical  patriarch  by 
the  Holy  S^nod  of  the  Orthodox  Church  in  Istanbul  and, 
renouncing  American  citizenship,  succeeded  the  Patriarch 
Maximos  V  on  his  resignation  on  Oct.  18,  1948.  Enthroned 
on  Jan.  27,  1949,  Athinagoras  stressed  the  necessity  for 
friendship  between  Turkey  and  the  United  States  and  called 
on  communicants  of  all  faiths,  "  to  unite  for  peace  which 
has  not  yet  been  established."  In  February  he  paid  an 
official  visit  to  President  Ismet  Inonii.  On  June  22  Myron 
Taylor,  personal  representative  of  President  Harry  S.  Truman 
at  the  holy  see  of  Rome,  met  Athinagoras  when  in  Istanbul. 

ATHLETICS.  The  year  following  the  Olympic  Games 
saw  no  trace  of  anti-climax  in  European  athletics.  Early  in 
the  season  a  small  American  team  visited  Great  Britain  and 
this  was  followed  in  July  by  a  larger  team  which  toured 
Scandinavia  and  western  Europe.  In  many  cases  improve- 
ments were  made  upon  performances  achieved  during  the 
Olympic  season  and,  although  it  was  evident  that  the  United 
States  could  still  field  a  team  capable  of  taking  on  the  rest 
of  the  world,  in  many  events  hitherto  their  own  preserve 
they  were  being  challenged  by  Europeans.  The  Scandinavian 
superiority  over  the  rest  of  Europe  was  less  pronounced 
than  in  former  years;  in  August  Great  Britain  easily  beat 
France  in  London,  and  a  month  later  France  beat  Sweden 
by  93  points  to  91;  the  teams  were  not  at  full  strength, 
however,  and  Great  Britain  was  able  to  call  on  Empire 
athletes,  who  would  not  represent  her,  for  example,  in  the 
Olympic  Games. 


The  main  event  of  the  season  in  Scandinavia  was  the  match 
against  the  United  States  in  which  Scandinavia  were  beaten 
by  238^  points  to  224J.  In  this  contest  the  winning  perfor- 
mance in  six  of  the  23  events  beat  that  achieved  in  the  1948 
Olympic  Games.  J.  Fuchs,  U.S.A.,  broke  the  world  record 
for  the  weight  with  a  putt  of  58  ft.  4|  in.  and  F.  E.  Gordien, 
U.S.A.,  the  discus  record  with  a  throw  of  186  ft.  10|  in. 

Sweden  remained  the  best  of  the  Scandinavian  countries 
and  in  a  match  in  September  beat  the  rest  of  Scandinavia 
by  232  points  to  196,  a  larger  margin  than  in  the  same  event 
in  1947.  A.  Ahman,  winner  of  the  Olympic  hop,  step  and 
jump  won  Niis  event  and  also  the  high  jump.  In  G.  Leander- 
sson  Sweden  had  the  greatest  marathon  runner  of  the  day. 
Amongst  the  milers,  O.  Aberg  now  led  L.  Strand,  S.  Land- 
qvist,  G.  Bergkvist  and  the  Olympic  champion  H.  Eriksson. 
Finnish  athletics  showed  a  steady  improvement  and  Czecho- 
slovakia was  defeated  by  104  points  to  97.  The  great  distance 
runner  V.  Heino,  at  36  years  of  age,  achieved  a  remarkable 
return  to  form  and  was  the  only  man  in  the  world  capable 
of  extending  the  Czech,  E.  Zatopek.  On  Sept.  1  Heino 
recaptured  the  world  record  for  the  10,000  m.  which  he 
covered  in  29  min.  27-2  sec.  However,  on  Oct.  22,  the  record 
fell  again  to  Zatopek  with  a  time  of  29  min.  21  •  2  sec.  Iceland 
produced  perhaps  the  greatest  athlete  in  her  history  in 
O.  Ciaussen,  the  leading  Scandinavian  decathlon  expert. 

A  small  team  from  Hungary  travelled  to  London  to  com- 
pete in  the  A.A.A.  championships.  I.  N6meth  won  the 
hammer  and  F.  Klics  the  discus. 

There  was  considerable  evidence  of  a  rebirth  of  athletics 
in  Germany,  although  she  played  no  part  in  international 
competition.  The  sprinters,  long  jumpers  and  hammer 
throwers  were  thought  to  be  among  the  best  in  Europe,  and 
there  were  some  remarkable  women  athletes. 

French  athletics  suffered  from  the  retirement  of  the  great 
middle  distance  runner  M.  Hansenne,  but  the  loss  was  made 
less  acute  by  the  improvement  of  the  twins  Jean  and  Jacques 
Vernier.  I.  Heinrich  set  up  a  new  French  decathlon  record 
with  7,165  points.  France  won  the  international  cross  country 
championship  at  Belfast  in  March,  supplying  the  individual 
winner,  A.  Mimoun. 

In  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  the  improvement  in  the 
general  standard  was  more  marked  than  elsewhere.  A  team 
from  Oxford  and  Cambridge  visited  the  United  States  in 
June  and,  although  beaten  by  Princeton  and  Cornell,  gained 
a  clear  victory  over  Harvard  and  Yale.  Great  Britain  beat 
France  by  82  points  to  65  at  the  beginning  of  August,  and  a 
week  later  London  defeated  Gothenburg  in  the  first  match 
between  the  two  cities  by  83  points  to  57.  The  outstanding 
performances  of  the  season  were  in  the  high  jump,  in  which 
both  R.  C.  Pavitt  and  P.  Wells  cleared  6  ft.  6  in.,  breaking  an 
English  native  record  that  had  stood  since  1921.  G.  W. 
Nankeville  was  probably  the  best  of  a  group  of  six  or  seven 
milers,  all  capable  of  4  min.  14  sec.  or  better.  A.  S.  Wint 
was  still  outstanding  in  the  middle  distances,  but  E.  McD. 
Bailey  had  lost  much  of  his  fire  as  a  sprinter  and  had  to  give 
way  to  a  Jamaican  L.  Laing.  J.  T.  Holden  remained  one  of 
the  best  marathon  runners.  D.  O.  Finlay  (</.v.),  at  the  age 
of  40,  won  the  120  yd.  A.A.A.  hurdles  championship  for 
the  eighth  time. 

Oxford  beat  Cambridge  in  the  university  sports  in  March 
by  72  points  to  54.  R.  G.  Bannister  of  Oxford  broke  the 
mile  record  for  the  meeting  which  had  stood  since  1905  and 
P.  R.  LI.  Morgan,  also  of  Oxford,  the  three  mile  record  set 
up  in  1914.  The  Kinnaird  trophy  was  won  by  Polytechnic 
harriers,  the  Achilles  club,  holders  from  1935,  fielding  a 
team  weakened  by  the  absence  of  many  members  representing 
Oxford  and  Cambridge  in  the  United  States.  (M.  A.  ME.) 

United  States.  The  National  Amateur  Athletic  union's 
100  m.  and  200  m.  sprint  titles  were  won  by  Andy  Stanfield 


74 


ATOMIC   ENERGY 


R.  C.  Pavitt,  Polytechnic  harriers,  breaking  the  English  native  high  jump  record  in  the  London-Gothenburg  international  match  at  (he 
City,  London,  in  Aug.  1949.    He  cleared  6ft.  6  in.  thus  breaking  Howard  Baker's  28  year-old  record  by  one  inch. 


White 


of  Seton  Hall.  Craig  Dixon  of  the  University  of  California 
at  Los  Angeles  won  both  the  110m.  high  hurdles  and  200  m. 
low  hurdles  events,  defeating  Harrison  Dillard  in  the  high 
event.  In  1 948  Dillard  set  up  a  world  record  of  13-6  sec. 
for  this  event,  but  in  1949  both  Dixon  and  Dillard  could  only 
achieve  13-8  sec.  Malvin  Whitfield,  1948  Olympic  winner 
at  800  m.,  won  the  National  Collegiate  Athletic  associa- 
tion's outdoor  and  the  A.A.U.  titles  at  this  distance.  His 
best  time  during  the  season  was  1  min.  50-3  sec.,  1-1  sec. 
slower  than  his  Olympic  record.  The  Wanamaker  mile 
went  to  Don  Gehrmann  of  Wisconsin  who  beat  Willy 
Slykhuis  of  the  Netherlands  in  4  min.  9  •  5  sec.  Gehrmann 
also  won  the  A.A.U.  5,000  m.  and  10,000  m.  championships. 
The  1948  Olympic  decathlon  winner,  Bon  Mathias,  retained 
his  A.A.U.  championship.  Charley  Moore  of  Cornell 
university  established  a  new  national  record  of  51-1  sec. 
for  the  400  m.  hurdles.  The  best  high  jump  of  the  season  was 
by  Walters  of  Texas  with  6  ft.  8&  in.  while  Gay  Bryan 
of  Stanford  university  jumped  25  ft.  4  j  in.  in  the  long  jump. 

Five  Europeans,  Gaston  Reiff  of  Belgium,  Slykhuis, 
Marcel  Hansenne  of  France,  and  Eric  Ahlden  and  Ingvar 
Bengtsson  of  Sweden,  took  part  in  the  U.S.  indoor  season. 

Tuskegee  institute  retained  the  women's  National  A.A.U. 
outdoor  championship.  Mrs.  Nancy  Phillips  of  New  York 
won  both  the  high  and  long  jump  events  in  the  National 
A.A.U.  indoor  games. 

ATOMIC  ENERGY.  On  Sept.  23,  1949,  it  was 
announced  officially  in  London  and  Washington  that  evidence 
of  an  atomic  explosion  in  the  U.S.S.R.  had  been  obtained. 
A  few  days  later,  the  Moscow  press  referred  to  these 
announcements  and  connected  them  with  4t  blasting  by  the 
most  modern  methods."  In  October,  A.  Y.  Vyshinsky 
confirmed  the  U.S.S.R.'s  possession  of  atomic  weapons 
and  gave  a  reminder  that  V.  M.  Molotov  had  stated  in  1947 
that  the  secret  no  longer  existed.  The  tone  of  British  com- 
ment on  this  development  was  sober.  The  news  was  not 
exactly  a  surprise,  for  it  had  been  said  many  times  by  com- 


petent authorities  that  the  basic  principles  of  atomic  weapons 
were  no  secret  and  that  the  technology  could  be  mastered 
by  any  nation  able  to  draw  upon  substantial  scientific  skill  and 
large  industrial  resources.  There  were  some  queries  both  in 
parliament  and  outside  about  British  progress,  but  generally 
there  was  more  emphasis  on  the  political  than  on  the  technical 
aspect  of  the  situation.  As  regards  the  methods  by  which 
the  western  powers  had  obtained  the  information  on  which 
their  announcement  was  based,  it  could  only  be  learned  that 
collaboration  between  observers  in  various  countries  was 
involved.  It  had  long  been  recognized  that  the  radioactive 
materials  generated  in  an  atomic  explosion  could  be  wind- 
borne  to  great  distances  and  that  methods  of  extreme  sensi- 
tivity could  be  used  to  detect  them;  for  example,  an  article 
in  the  Physical  Review  (vol.  76,  pp.  375-380)  gave  strong 
evidence  for  the  detection  in  Iowa  of  radioactivity  from  the 
1945  test  explosion  in  New  Mexico,  1,000  mi.  away. 

There  are  three  scientific  methods  of  detecting  an  atomic 
explosion.  The  ground  vibrations  are  revealed  by  seismo- 
graphs. The  air  vibrations  can  be  recorded  by  the  micro- 
barograph,  an  ultra-sensitive  barometer  which  detects  minute 
and  sudden  changes  in  atmospheric  pressure.  The  radio- 
active cloud,  which  drifts  with  the  wind,  can  be  detected  by 
Geiger  counters  and  similar  instruments.  When  the  first 
Bikini  bomb  was  set  off,  evidences  of  the  radioactive  cloud 
were  recorded  10  days  later  by  Geiger  counters  on  the 
Pacific  coast  of  the  United  States. 

British  Technical  Developments.  At  the  Ministry  of 
Supply's  Atomic  Energy  Research  establishment  at  Harwell, 
Berkshire,  the  second  and  more  powerful  uranium  fission 
pile  was  brought  into  full  operation  early  in  1949;  from 
March  onwards,  it  was  in  regular  use  for  the  production  of 
radioactive  substances  for  scientific  and  medical  purposes. 
At  about  this  time,  it  was  announced  that  some  plutonium 
had  been  extracted  from  the  low-energy  pile,  which  had  then 
been  in  operation  for  more  than  a  year.  A  large  part  of  the 
new  radiochemical  laboratory  was  completed  and  taken  into 
use  during  the  year.  This  laboratory  was  of  very  advanced 


ATOMIC    ENERGY 


75 


design  and  was  fully  equipped  for  chemical  operations  with 
substantial  amounts  of  radioactive  material.  Extreme 
precautions  were  taken  against  the  personal  hazards  involved 
in  such  work  and  against  the  spreading  of  radioactive  con- 
tamination to  other  parts  of  the  establishment. 

At  Sellafield,  Cumberland,  constructional  work  for  still 
larger  piles  went  on;  it  was  understood,  though  never 
officially  announced,  that  three  such  piles  were  to  be  built 
and  that  they  would  be  capable  of  producing  substantial 
quantities  of  plutonium.  According  to  reports  in  The  Times 
of  Dec.  5  and  6,  the  building  for  the  first  pile  was  complete, 
that  for  the  second  was  going  up  but  the  programme  for  the 
third  pile  had  been  cancelled  for  financial  reasons. 

A  large  frequency-modulated  cyclotron  was  given  a 
successful  first  trial  at  Harwell  in  December.  Cyclotrons 
are  research  tools  and  not  generators  of  atomic  energy,  and 
are  machines  for  setting  atomic  nuclei  in  motion  with 
extremely  high  speeds.  The  field  of  a  powerful  electromagnet 
causes  the  nuclei,  which  are  electrically  charged,  to  pass 
repeatedly  across  the  gap  between  two  metal  electrodes 
within  a  vacuum  chamber;  a  high-frequency  alternating 
voltage  between  these  electrodes  is  so  arranged  that  at  each 
time  the  nuclei  cross  the  gap  they  are  given  additional  speed. 
If,  for  example,  they  cross  the  gap  2,000  times  and  at  each 
crossing  are  speeded  up  by  50,000  volts  between  the  electrodes, 
their  final  speed  will  correspond'  to  100  million  volts. 

So  long  as  the  speed  attained  is  only  a  small  fraction  of 
the  speed  of  light,  the  frequency  of  alternation  of  the  voltage 
between  the  electrodes  can  be  kept  constant;  but  to  reach 
the  highest  possible  speeds  the  principle  of  frequency- 
modulation  (changing  the  frequency  of  the  alternating 
voltage  as  the  group  of  nuclei  gains  speed)  is  necessary. 
The  Harwell  cyclotron  was  the  first  frequency-modulated 
cyclotron  constructed  in  Britain;  on  its  trial,  it  accelerated 
hydrogen  nuclei  to  160  million  volts.  Nuclei  moving  with 
such  speeds  (roughly  half  the  speed  of  light)  can  cause  a 
wide  variety  of  changes  when  they  collide  with  the  nuclei 
of  other  atoms. 

Three  smaller  cyclotrons  already  existed  in  British  univer- 
sities; and  a  still  larger  one  was  under  construction  at  the 
University  of  Liverpool. 

Relations  with  Canada  and  the  United  States.  A  conference 
on  the  hazards  associated  with  the  operation  of  fission  piles 
was  held  at  the  Harwell  establishment  in  September;  it  was 
attended  by  U.S.  and  Canadian  representatives  and  was 
an  example  of  the  co-operation,  in  certain  aspects  of  atomic 
energy  work,  that  had  been  maintained  between  the  three 
countries  since  the  end  of  World  War  II.  This  collaboration, 
including  a  system  for  controlling  the  release  of  information 
obtained  jointly  during  World  War  II  and  arrangements 
concerning  the  supply  of  essential  raw  materials,  was  under 
review  during  the  year;  the  agreement  on  the  supply  of 
Canadian  uranium  to  the  U.S.  was  understood  to  expire 
at  the  end  of  1949,  but  it  was  expected  that  arrangements 
would  be  made  for  future  U.S.  purchases  of  this  material. 
Reports  were  current  that  the  agreement  on  the  exchange  of 
scientific  and  technical  information  about  atomic  energy, 
which  covered  only  limited  portions  of  the  subject,  might 
be  renewed  in  a  wider  form  and  might  be  linked  with  a 
concentration  of  large-scale  developments  on  the  North 
American  continent. 

Sources  of  Uranium  within  the  Commonwealth.  Prepara- 
tions for  the  mining  of  uranium  in  Australia  continued  and 
it  was  expected  that  substantial  yields  would  be  obtained  in 
1950.  The  possibility  that  South  Africa  might  become  an 
important  source  of  uranium  was  brought  to  mind  by  the 
announcement  of  discussion  in  Johannesburg  on  uranium 
production,  in  which  British  and  U.S.  representatives  took 
part.  There  was,  however,  no  indication  of  how  these 


deposits  of  uranium  in  the  southern  hemisphere  might  com- 
pare with  the  very  rich  ones  in  Canada.  (P.  B.  M.) 

United  Nations.  All  attempts  during  1949  to  resolve  the 
fundamental  differences  of  opinion  between  the  majority 
of  nations  in  the  United  Nations  and  the  Soviet  bloc  on  the 
international  control  of  atomic  energy  failed. 

On  Nov.  4,  1948,  the  United  Nations  general  assembly, 
meeting  in  Paris  adopted  by  a  vote  of  40  to  6  a  four-fold 
resolution  which  (1)  approved  the  plan  of  international 
control  outlined  in  the  three  reports  of  the  United  Nations 
Atomic  Energy  commission,  (2)  expressed  deep  concern 
over  the  impasse  in  the  commission,  (3)  requested  the 
representatives  of  the  five  great  powers  and  Canada  to  initiate 
private  conversations  in  an  effort  to  end  the  impasse  and 
(4)  called  on  the  commission  to  resume  its  deliberations. 

The  majority  plan  was  based  on  the  premise  that  a  mere 
agreement  outlawing  the  atomic  bomb  would  be  insufficient. 
The  plan  would  create  an  international  control  agency  which 
would  have  ownership  or  managerial  control  of  the  production 
of  uranium,  the  manufacture  of  fissionable  materials  and  all 
atomic  activities  potentially  dangerous  to  world  security. 
It  would  have  the  power  to  license,  control  and  inspect  all 
other  atomic  activities.  The  agency  would  be  empowered  to 
create  an  international  inspection  service,  make  aerial  surveys, 
maintain  guards  and  otherwise  take  precautions  to  prevent 
clandestine  operations.  It  specified  that  the  veto  power 
vested  in  the  Security  council  of  the  United  Nations  would 
not  apply  to  the  control  agency. 

In  accordance  with  the  directive  of  the  general  assembly, 
the  United  Nations  Atomic  Energy  commission  resumed  its 
meetings  on  Feb.  18,  1949.  It  became  apparent  almost 
immediately  that  the  U.S.S.R.  delegation  had  no  intention 
of  withdrawing  from  the  position  it  had  taken  during  the 
previous  three  years.  On  July  29  the  commission  voted  to 
suspend  its  work  indefinitely.  The  vote,  following  the 
characteristic  pattern  of  previous  years,  was  9  to  2  with  the 
U.S.S.R.  and  the  Ukraine  casting  the  negative  votes. 

Six-Power  Conversations.  Following  the  adjournment  of 
the  United  Nations  Atomic  Energy  commission,  the  five 
great  powers  and  Canada  initiated  the  private  conversations 
requested  by  the  general  assembly.  These  six  powers,  the 
U.S.,  U.S.S.R.,  Great  Britain,  France,  China  and  Canada, 
were  the  permanent  members  of  the  Atomic  Energy  com- 
mission and  were  known  as  "  the  sponsoring  powers."  The 
first  meeting  was  held  behind  closed  doors  at  Lake  Success, 
New  York,  on  Aug.  9,  1949. 


The  new  atom  landscape  as  seen  by  I II ing  worth  in  the  "  Daily  Mail " 

(London)  after  the  announcement  on  Sept.  23,  1949,  that  an  atomic 

explosion  had  occurred  in  the  Soviet  Union. 


76 


ATOMIC   ENERGY 


On  Oct.  26,  after  1 1  secret  meetings,  the  six  powers  made 
an  interim  report  to  the  general  assembly.  It  revealed  that 
no  progress  had  been  made.  At  the  same  time  all  the  powers 
with  the  exception  of  the  U.S.S.R.,  issued  a  joint  statement 
explaining  their  objections  to  the  Soviet  proposals.  The 
statement  summarized  "  three  basic  obstacles  in  the  way  of 
agreement."  These  were  the  proposals  of  the  U.S.S.R.  that 

(1)  nations  should  continue  to  own  explosive  atomic  materials, 

(2)  nations  continue  to  own,  operate  and  manage  facilities 
making  or   using  dangerous  quantities  of  such  materials, 
and  (3)  a  system  of  control  be  adopted  depending  on  periodic 
inspection  of  facilities  the  existence  of  which  the  national 
government   concerned   has   reported    to   the   international 
agency,  supplemented  by  special  investigations  on  suspicion 
of  treaty  violation.     The  five  powers  believed  that  these 
proposals  were  insufficient  to  prevent  the  sudden  or  clan- 
destine diversion  of  atomic  materials  to  purposes  of  war. 

The  General  Assembly.  While  the  six-power  secret  talks 
were  in  progress,  the  debate  over  the  control  of  atomic 
energy  flared  out  again  in  the  United  Nations  general 
assembly.  In  several  addresses  the  Soviet  foreign  minister, 
A.  Y.  Vyshinsky,  accused  the  U.S.  and  Great  Britain  of 
plotting  an  atomic  war.  Sharp  exchanges  took  place  between 
Vyshinsky  and  the  representatives  of  the  U.S.,  Great  Britain 
and  Canada.  In  a  letter  to  the  six  powers,  Carlos  P.  Romulo, 
president  of  the  general  assembly,  suggested  possible  com- 
promise solutions,  in  order  to  break  the  deadlock. 

An  address  by  Vyshinsky  on  Nov.  10  before  the  Special 
Political  committee  of  the  assembly  was  interpreted  by  most 
delegates  as  a  final  rejection  of  the  majority  plan.  In  the 
course  of  the  address  Vyshinsky  said  that  the  U.S.S.R.  was 
utilizing  atomic  energy  for  its  economic  needs  in  its  own 
economic  interests. 

On  Nov.  14  the  Special  Political  committee  by  a  vote  of 
48  to  5  adopted  a  resolution  introduced  by  France  and  Canada 
calling  on  the  six  sponsoring  powers  to  continue  their  private 
talks  in  an  attempt  to  solve  the  problem.  The  five  negative 
votes  were  those  of  the  Soviet  bloc. 

Early  in  Dec.  1949  General  A.  G.  L.  McNaughton,  Canada, 
chairman  of  the  United  Nations  Atomic  Energy  commission, 
in  keeping  with  this  resolution  asked  General  Carlos  P. 
Romulo  and  Sir  Benegal  Rau  to  submit  new  proposals  on 
the  control  of  atomic  energy.  Replying  on  Dec.  16,  Romulo 
suggested  that  the  search  for  a  permanent  solution  be  sus- 
pended for  a  few  months  and  an  attempt  made  to  arrive  at 
a  short-term  interim  agreement. 

United  States.  The  U.S.  stockpile  was  believed  to  contain 
more  than  100  bombs  although  the  true  figure  was  one  of 
the  nation's  most  carefully  guarded  secrets.  An  immediate 
effect  of  the  atomic  explosion  in  the  U.S.S.R.  was  to  accelerate 
the  U.S.'s  programme.  On  Oct.  18  President  Truman 
authorized  the  U.S.  Atomic  Energy  commission  to  draw  on 
its  budgetary  reserve  for  funds  to  begin  a  major  expansion 
of  its  production  programme.  Soon  after,  congress  rushed 
through  legislation  to  relax  the  curb  it  had  placed  on  the 
commission's  spending  powers  in  July  1949.  Under  the  new 
legislation,  the  commission  could  start  construction  of 
unbudgeted  facilities  if  it  satisfied  the  director  of  the  budget 
that  they  were  necessary  for  national  defence. 

New  Eniwetok  Tests.  On  Nov.  29,  1949,  the  U.S.  Atomic 
Energy  commission  announced  that  a  new  series  of  tests  cf 
atomic  weapons  would  be  held  at  Eniwetok  atoll  in  the 
Marshall  Islands  in  1950.  The  assumption  was  that  a  new 
and  yet  more  powerful  bomb  was  ready  for  testing.  The 
field  operations  were  to  be  carried  out  by  joint  task  force  3, 
representing  the  army,  navy,  air  force  and  Atomic  Energy 
commission. 

The  Ultimate  Weapon.  Scientists  believed  that  the  ultimate 
weapon  would  be  a  rocket  powered  by  atomic  energy. 


capable  of  crossing  an  ocean  or  the  arctic  regions,  and 
carrying  an  atomic  bomb  in  its  nose.  However,  they  believed 
that  before  that  day  arrived,  there  would  be  rockets  of  the 
familiar  V-2  type  capable  of  delivering  atomic  bombs. 

Three-Power  Conference.  Considerable  interest  was  aroused 
by  a  secret  meeting  called  by  President  Truman  at  Blair 
house,  Washington,  D.C.,  on  the  evening  of  July  10,  1949. 
It  was  attended  by  the  secretary  of  state,  secretary  of  defence, 
the  temporary  chairman  of  the  joint  chiefs  of  staff,  the 
chairman  of  the  U.S.  Atomic  Energy  commission  and  a 
group  of  congressmen  representing  the  foreign  affairs, 
military  and  atomic  energy  committees.  It  was  later  disclosed 
that  the  meeting  had  been  called  to  discuss  relations  of  the 
United  States,  Great  Britain  and  Canada  in  the  field  of 
atomic  energy.  It  was  understood  that  the  British  govern- 
ment had  requested  secret  data  from  the  United  States.  The 
situation  was  clarified  on  July  28  when  President  Truman 
announced  that  the  three  nations  would  hold  exploratory 
talks  on  the  question  of  sharing  atomic  information  and 
allotting  supplies  of  uranium  ores.  The  three-power  confer- 
ences began  in  Washington  on  Sept.  20.  The  expressed  purpose 
of  the  conference  was  to  consider  establishing  a  partnership 
for  the  joint  utilization  of  materials,  techniques  and  knowledge 
in  the  field  of  atomic  energy. 

U.S.  Atomic  Energy  Commission.  Chief  emphasis  was 
placed  on  the  development  and  production  of  atomic  weapons 
and  of  the  fissionable  materials  required  for  their  manufac- 
ture. Increasing  attention  was  given  to  the  design  of  new 
types  of  nuclear  reactors.  The  research  programmes  in  the 
physical,  biological  and  medical  sciences  were  expanded, 
and  important  additions  were  made  to  the  commission's 
laboratories. 

The  improved  atomic  bombs  tested  at  Eniwetok  in  1948 
were  put  into  production  during  1949.  Component  parts 
were  produced  on  an  industrial  basis  by  manufacturing 
concerns  with  special  government  facilities.  In  collaboration 
with  the  U.S.  geological  survey,  the  commission  continued 
the  examination  of  virtually  every  rock  formation  in  the 
country  for  uranium  ores.  Fissionable  materials  were 
produced  in  1949  in  greater  quantities  than  ever  before. 
Increased  shipments  of  ore  from  Canada  and  the  Belgian 
Congo  were  supplemented  by  domestic  production.  The 
chemical  and  metallurgical  plants  which  converted  ore  into 
"  feed  materials  "  for  the  Oak  Ridge,  Tennessee,  and  Hanford, 
Washington,  plants,  were  put  on  a  sound  operating  basis. 
Unit  production  costs  were  reduced  30%  below  the  1947 
level  and  intermediate  stock  piles  were  built  up  to  adequate 
levels. 

Installation  of  new  equipment  and  improvements  in 
operating  technique  reduced  the  cost  of  producing  uranium 
235  in  the  gaseous  diffusion  plant  at  Oak  Ridge  by  50%.  In 
addition,  the  yield  from  a  given  amount  of  uranium  was 
increased.  Improvements  in  the  operation  of  the  Hanford 
plutonium  plant  increased  by  40%  the  amount  of  plutonium 
produced  per  dollar  of  operating  cost.  A  new  uranium  pile 
for  the  production  of  plutonium  and  a  new  plutonium  metal 
fabrication  plant  began  operations  at  Hanford  in  1949. 
Construction  work  was  started  at  Oak  Ridge  on  a  $67  million 
expansion  of  the  plant  for  the  production  of  uranium  235. 

The  "  Breeder  "  Reactor.  On  Nov.  28,  1949,  L.  R.  Hafstad, 
director  of  the  division  of  reactor  development  of  the  U.S. 
Atomic  Energy  commission  disclosed  that  the  final  work  was 
being  done  on  the  design  of  a  "  breeder  "  nuclear  reactor,  a 
uranium  pile  that  would  produce  more  fissionable  fuel  in  the 
form  of  plutonium  than  it  consumed  in  the  form  of  uranium 
235.  He  described  this  reactor  as  the  greatest  peacetime 
development  in  the  history  of  atomic  energy  and  said  that  it 
was  hoped  to  build  the  device  during  1950  at  the  Nuclear 
Reactor  Testing  station  near  Arco,  Idaho. 


ATTLEE 


77 


On  Dec.  13  Hafstad  revealed  that  his  division  was  also 
working  on  another  reactor  of  revolutionary  design,  a 
so-called  homogeneous  reactor.  This  device  would  employ 
nuclear  fuel  in  a  constantly  circulating  liquid  form  instead 
of  a  solid  form.  It  was  anticipated  that  this  would  eliminate 
the  difficulty  of  removing  the  fission  products,  the  nuclear 
44  ashes  "  which  clogged  up  the  reactor. 

Research  on  a  type  of  reactor  suitable  for  ship  propulsion 
was  being  carried  on  by  the  Argonne  National  laboratory 
near  Chicago,  Illinois,  and  by  the  Westinghouse  Electric 
corporation. 

An  "  intermediate  power  breeder  reactor  "  which  would 
generate  power  as  well  as  breed  some  additional  fuel  was 
being  designed  at  the  Knolls  Atomic  Power  laboratory  near 
Schenectady,  New  York.  A  reactor  for  research  purposes, 
nearing  completion  at  the  Brookhaven  National  laboratory, 
Long  Island,  New  York,  was  expected  to  begin  operation 
in  1950. 

Radioactive  Isotopes.  An  average  of  400  shipments  per 
month  of  radioactive  isotopes  was  made  during  1949  from 
Oak  Ridge  to  laboratories  all  over  the  United  States  and  to 
22  foreign  countries.  The  use  of  radioactive  isotopes  was 
constantly  increasing.  Physicians  and  biologists  were  using 
them  as  "  tracers  "  to  follow  complicated  biological  processes 
in  living  organisms  ;  to  investigate  the  formation  of  the 
blood  and  body  secretions;  to  understand  the  physiological 
action  of  hormones,  vitamins  and  drugs;  to  delineate  the 
changes  in  such  diseases  as  diabetes,  heart  disease  and  kidney 
disease;  and  to  follow  the  growth  and  death  of  cancer  cells. 
An  important  development  was  the  experimental  use  of 
radioactive  cobalt  as  a  substitute  for  radium  in  the  treatment 
of  cancer. 

The  division  of  biology  and  medicine  of  the  commission 
was  carrying  on  an  extensive  programme  to  investigate  the 
effects  of  radioactivity  on  living  organisms  and  to  devise 
safeguards. 

New  Atom-Smashers.  Two  particle  accelerators  or  atom- 
smashers  of  gigantic  proportions  were  under  construction  by 
the  U.S.  Atomic  Energy  commission.  They  would  dwarf  the 
184-in.  cyclotron  at  Berkeley,  California,  which  was,  in  1949, 
the  largest  in  the  world. 

At  Brookhaven  scientists  were  building  a  proton  synchro- 
tron which  had  been  named  the  cosmotron.  It  would  impart 
energies  of  2,000  million  to  3,000  million  electron  volts 
to  subatomic  particles.  An  even  larger  proton  synchrotron, 
the  bevatron,  was  'being  built  at  the  Berkeley  Radiation 
laboratory.  It  would  develop  5,000  million  to  7,000  million  e.v. 

Smaller  atom-smashing  devices  were  completed  or  were 
nearing  completion  at  the  Brookhaven,  Argonne,  Oak  Ridge 
and  Los  Alamos  laboratories.  In  addition  the  commission 
was  financing  researches  in  the  physical  sciences  in  more 
than  50  university  and  industrial  laboratories. 

Congressional  Investigation.  On  May  22,  1949,  Senator 
Bourke  B.  Hickenlooper,  former  chairman  and  ranking 
Republican  member  of  the  congressional  joint  committee  on 
atomic  energy,  issued  a  statement  charging  David  E.  Lilien- 
thal,  chairman  of  the  U.S.  Atomic  Energy  commission,  with 
"  incredible  mismanagement  "  and  demanding  his  resignation. 
Hearings  were  held  before  the  congressional  joint  committee 
on  atomic  energy.  The  committee  brought  in  a  majority 
and  a  minority  report  in  October,  splitting  on  straight  party 
lines.  The  majority  report  held  that  all  of  the  charges  had 
been  satisfactorily  answered  and,  moreover,  that  the  commis- 
sion had  done  an  exceptionally  fine  job  of  administering  the 
atomic  energy  programme.  The  minority  report  virtually 
ignored  the  subject  matter  of  the  hearings  and,  taking  a 
new  tack,  raised  a  new  issue,  charging  the  commission  with 
hesitation  and  insufficient  boldness  in  initiating  a  major 
development  programme.  On  Nov.  23,  1949,  Lilienthal 


tendered  President  Truman  his  resignation  as  chairman  of  the 
U.S.  Atomic  Energy  commission,  to  take  effect  in  Feb.  1950. 

U.S.S.R.  It  was  impossible,  of  course,  to  say  what  point 
the  U.S.S.R.  had  reached  in  its  atomic  programme.  U.S. 
observers  were  inclined  to  discount  the  claim  that  the  U.S.S.R. 
had  had  the  bomb  since  1947.  It  was  known,  however,  that 
the  U.S.S.R.  had  been  operating  the  Czech,  Austrian  and 
Saxon  pitchblende  mines  at  a  feverish  rate.  The  U.S.S.R. 
was  reported  to  possess  uranium  deposits  in  the  Tashkent 
area  in  the  central  Asian  region  of  the  Soviet  Union;  in  the 
Ossetia  area,  north  of  Tiflis;  in  Svanetia  in  northwestern 
Georgia;  in  the  region  between  Samarkand  and  the  Ferghan 
mountains;1  in  the  Alai  mountains  in  Turkestan;  and  in  the 
Kara-Mazar  mountains,  north  of  Khodzhent. 

Reports  circulating  in  western  Europe  stated  that  the 
U.S.S.R.  had  created  a  large  underground  factory  for 
processing  uranium  on  the  Sanga  river,  a  few  miles  north 
of  Erivan,  capital  of  the  Armenian  S.S.R.  Information 
received  by  the  U.S.  state  department  indicated  that  the 
U.S.S.R.  had  deported  more  than  17,000  Greeks  and  other 
non-Russians  from  the  Caucasus  area  since  June  1949.  It 
was  believed  that  the  U.S.S.R. 's  atomic  bomb  explosion 
occurred  in  this  area. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  United  Nations  Atomic  Energy  Commission  Official 
Records,  Fourth  Year,  Special  Supplement  No.  1  (Aug.  1949).  U.S. 
Department  of  State  Publication  3646,  International  Control  of  Atomic 
Energy  and  the  Prohibition  of  Atomic  Weapons  (1949);  U.S.  Mission 
to  the  United  Nations,  International  Control  of  Atomic  Energy  (1949); 
U.S.  Atomic  Energy  Commission,  Fifth  Semiannual  Report  (Jan. 
1949)  and  Stxth  Semiannual  Report  (July  1949);  Report  of  the  Investiga- 
tion into  the  United  States  Atomic  Energy  Commission  (Oct.  1949). 
(See  also  INDUSTRIAL  HEALTH;  METALLURGY;  MINERAL  AND  METAL 
PRODUCTION  AND  PRICES;  PHYSICS;  X-RAY  AND  RADIOLOGY.) 

(D.  Dz.) 

ATTLEE,  CLEMENT  RICHARD,  British  states- 
man  (b.  London,  Jan.  3,  1883),  became  prime  minister  in 
July  1945  when  the  Labour  party  achieved  a  majority  in  the 
House  of  Commons.  (See  Britannica  Book  of  the  Year,  1949.) 


Clement  Attlee  In  the  cockpit  of  a  United  States  B-50  aircraft  at 
Marham,  Norfolk,  during  a  visit  to  air  bases  in  Oct.  1949. 


78 


AUCKLAND— AUSTRALIA 


In  April  1949  he  presided  over  the  second  meeting  within 
a  year  of  the  Commonwealth  prime  ministers;  and  in 
January  he  held  talks  with  Sir  Basil  Brooke  ty.v.),  prime 
minister  of  Northern  Ireland.  In  March  he  flew  to  Germany 
where  he  saw  the  Berlin  air  lift  and  had  discussions  with 
Western  German  political  leaders.  He  attended  the  Labour 
party  conference  at  Scarborough  in  June,  at  which  the 
party's  election  programme  Labour  Believes  in  Britain  was 
approved,  and  on  Sept.  7  addressed  the  Trades  Union  congress 
at  Bridlington,  Yorkshire.  In  the  autumn  there  was  wide- 
spread feeling  that  he  would  dissolve  parliament  and  call  a 
general  election,  but  on  Oct.  13  he  issued  a  statement 
declaring  that  he  would  not  recommend  the  King  to  dissolve 
parliament  in  1949.  During  the  parliamentary  recess  he  paid 
visits  to  the  armed  forces:  in  August  he  visited  the  Royal 
Navy  and  made  a  descent  in  a  submarine;  in  October 
he  visited  the  Royal  Air  Force  and  also  the  United  States 
Air  Force  at  Marham,  Norfolk ;  and  later  in  the  same  month 
he  watched  infantry  training  and  a  training  regiment  of  the 
Royal  Engineers  near  Aldershot,  Hampshire.  During  the 
absence  of  senior  cabinet  members  during  August  and 
September — Sir  Stafford  Cripps  G/.v.),  because  of  illness  and 
later  at  Washington,  Ernest  Bevin  O/.v.),  on  holiday,  at 
Strasbourg  and  later  in  the  United  States,  and  Herbert 
Morrison,  lord  president  of  the  council,  at  Strasbourg — he 
undertook  control  of  their  departments.  He  again  acted  for 
the  foreign  secretary  in  December  when  Ernest  Bevin  was 
on  leave.  In  April  he  received  an  honorary  degree  from  the 
University  of  Wales,  and  on  Oct.  12  he  laid  the  foundation 
stone  of  the  concert  hall  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Thames. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  Clement  Attlce,  The  Labour  Party  in  Perspective 
(London,  1949);  Vincent  Brome,  Clement  Attlee  (London,  1949). 

AUCKLAND,  the  largest  city  in  New  Zealand  and  a 
thriving  seaport  on  the  east  coast  of  the  North  Island; 
capital  of  the  province  of  its  name.  Pop.,  city  and  suburbs 
(Sept.  1948):  329,500,  Mayor,  J.  A.  C.  Allum. 

Within  the  metropolitan  area  of  approximately  70  sq.  mi., 
in  which  there  are  15  contiguous  but  independent  municipal 
authorities  each  with  their  own  officers  (including  mayor  and 
borough  councillors)  and  accounts,  the  total  revenue  (March 
31)  was  £6,890,246  and  expenditure  £6,666,798.  The  provi- 
sional total  cargo  handled  in  the  Port  of  Auckland  in  the  year 
ended  Sept.  30,  1949,  was  little  different  from  1948  (2,635,219 
tons),  in  spite  of  the  loss  of  over  72,000  man-hours  when 
watersiders  refused  overtime  work  as  a  protest  against  a 
wage  decision  by  the  Waterfront  Industry  authority  and  in 
support  of  a  nation-wide  carpenters'  strike.  Of  the  man-hours 
lost  throughout  New  Zealand  76%  were  lost  in  Auckland. 

Building  controls  curtailed  the  erection  of  other  than 
private  dwellings  but  some  leeway  in  the  severe  housing 
shortage  was  made  up. 

The  establishment  of  the  first  annual  Music  Festival  was 
of  cultural  importance;  and  performances  were  given  by 
national  and  local  groups  and  single  performers.  The  Italian 
Grand  Opera  company  visited  the  city  and  played  several 
operas.  There  was  an  exhibition  of  early  British  watercolours 
arranged  by  the  Empire  Art  Loan  Exhibition  society.  The 
number  of  boats  competing  in  the  99th  yachting  regatta  in 
Waitemata  harbour — over  500 — was  a  world  record  for  a 
one-day  regatta. 

Major  bequests  included  £30,000  by  Mr.  Hallyburton 
Johnstone  to  an  Auckland  girls*  home;  and  £59,000  by  Mr. 
Goldwater  for  the  foundation  of  a  Jewish  educational  in- 
stitution. (R.W.  B.) 

AURIOL,  VINCENT,  French  statesman  (b.  Revel, 
Haute-Garonne,  France,  Aug.  27,  1884).  On  Jan.  16,  1947, 
he  became  the  first  president  under  the  constitution  of  the 


Fourth  Republic.    (For  his  early  career  see  Britannica  Book 
of  the  Year  1949.} 

Speaking  at  Tours,  on  May  7,  1949,  he  said  that  France 
remained  convinced  that  there  would  be  no  lasting  peace  and 
prosperity  without  an  association  of  national  sovereignties. 
On  May  29,  1949,  he  arrived  at  Algiers  on  the  first  presidential 
visit  since  that  of  Gaston  Doumergue  in  1930  and  during  his 
stay  visited  Bone,  Oran,  Constantlne  and  Tlemcen.  He  said 
that  those  who  thought  Algeria  could  dispense  with  French 
sovereignty  were  madmen. 

AUSTRALIA,  COMMONWEALTH  OF.  A  self- 
governing  member  of  the  Commonwealth  of  Nations, 
situated  in  the  southern  hemisphere.  Areas  and  populations 
of  the  six  federated  states,  of  the  Northern  territory  and  the 
Australian  Capital  territory  are: 

Population 
(JuneW,  1947 
Capital 
Sydney 
Melbourne 
Brisbane 
Adelaide 
Perth 
Hobart 


States  and 
Territories 
New  South  Wales 
Victoria 
Queensland 
South  Australia 
Western  Australia 
Tasmania 
Northern  Territory 
Australia  Capital 
Territory 


Area  (sq.  mi.) 

census) 

309,433 

2,985,464 

87,884 

2,055,252 

670,500 

1,106,269 

380,070 

646,216 

975,920 

502,731 

26,215 

257,117 

523,620 

10,866 

Canberra 


939 


16,905 


2,974,581 


7,580,820 


The  total  population  figure  excludes  full  blood  aboriginals 
estimated  at  47,000;  half-castes  numbered  24,881  in  1944. 
About  four-fifths  of  the  Australian  continent  is  a  hot,  dry 
desert,  virtually  empty  of  population.  Most  Australian 
settlement  is  confined  to  three  areas ;  on  the  eastern  and  south- 
eastern coastal  plains;  on  the  eastern  plateau;  and  on  and 
near  the  southwestern  coast.  Territories  under  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  Commonwealth  but  not  included  in  it  comprise 
Papua  G/.v.),  Norfolk  Island,  the  trust  territory  of  New 
Guinea,  Nauru,  the  territory  of  Ashmore  and  Cartier  islands, 
and  the  Australian  Antarctic  territory. 

Chief  towns  (pop.,  June  30,  1947):  Sydney  (<y.v.)  (1,484,434); 
Melbourne  (?.v.)  (1,226,923);  Brisbane  (402,172);  Adelaide 
(382,604);  Perth  (272,586);  Newcastle  (127,188);  Hobart 
(76,567).  Language:  English.  Religion:  Christian  (census 
1933:  Anglican  2,565,118;  Roman  Catholic  1,161,455; 
Presbyterian  713,229;  Methodist  684,022;  other  Christians 
603,914);  Jewish  29,600.  Ruler,  King  George  VI;  governor 
general,  William  John  McKell;  prime  ministers  in  1949, 
Joseph  Benedict  Chifley  (q.v.)  and,  from  Dec.  18,  Robert 
Gordon  Menzies  (q.v.). 


The  prime  ministers  of  Australia  during  1949.     Joseph  Benedict 

Chifley   (left)  from  July  13,  1945,  and  Robert  Gordon   Menzies 

from  Dec.  18,  1949. 


AUSTRALIA 


79 


History.  The  main  event  of  the  year  was  the  general 
election  held  on  Dec.  10.  (Set'  ELECTIONS.) 

Several  decisions  of  the  High  Court  given  during  the  year 
had  a  profound  effect  on  public  life  and  on  the  relations 
between  Commonwealth  and  the  states.  The  High  Court 
held  that  the  Commonwealth  no  longer  had  the  power  to 
ration  petrol.  As  a  result,  petrol  was  de-rationed;  but  as  the 
Commonwealth  largely  depended  on  dollar  area  imports,  a 
severe  shortage  developed.  The  petrol  question  displaced  the 
Bank  Nationalization  act,  1947,  as  a  major  election  issue.  The 
Privy  Council  upheld  the  High  Court  in  declaring  vital  sections 
of  the  Bank  Nationalization  act  invalid.  (See  BANKING.) 

Following  the  failure  of  the  referendum  on  price  control, 
collaboration  between  the  six  states  was  reasonably  success- 
ful, although  the  cost  of  living  continued  to  rise.  Price  con- 
trols on  a  number  of  commodities  were  removed. 

Social  service  expenditure  for  1948-49  at  under  £81  million 
remained  below  the  estimate,  mainly  because  of  the  pro- 
tracted struggle  between  the  Commonwealth  government 
and  the  British  Medical  association  over  the  Pharmaceutical 
Benefits  scheme.  Under  instructions  from  the  B.M.A.,  the 
vast  majority  of  doctors  refused  to  issue  free  prescriptions 
on  Government  forms.  The  B.M.A.  successfully  challenged 
the  act  before  the  High  Court,  which  by  a  majority  held  that 
the  compulsion  for  doctors  to  use  government  prescriptions 
and  forms  was  an  unconstitutional  "  civil  conscription." 
The  wider  National  Health  Service  act,  passed  in  1948,  was 
not  implemented. 

The  minister  for  external  territories,  E.  J.  Ward,  was 
cleared  of  charges  of  corruption  by  a  judge  of  the 
Supreme  Court  of  South  Australia  functioning  as  royal 
commissioner. 

Communism.  Politically,  the  increased  tension  between 
the  Communist  movement  and  the  rest  of  the  community 
was  the  outstanding  development.  The  Victorian  govern- 
ment appointed  a  royal  commissioner  to  inquire  into  Com- 
munist activities  in  industry,  education  and  other  fields. 
A  coal  strike  lasting  from  June  27  to  Aug.  1 5  affected  practi- 
cally all  hard  coal  mines  in  the  country  and  paralysed  the 
industrial  life  of  the  country.  It  arose  out  of  the  decision  by 
the  Communist-dominated  executive  of  the  Miner's  federation 
not  to  await  the  decision  of  the  Coal  Industry  tribunal  on  a 
claim  for  long  service  leave.  The  strike  was  clearly  political 
in  character.  The  Commonwealth  parliament  reacted  by 
passing  an  act  prohibiting  the  payment  or  receipt  of  money 
for  the  continuance  of  the  strike.  The  Commonwealth 
Arbitration  court  was  given  power  to  grant  injunctions  for 
the  purpose  of  preventing  breaches  of  the  act.  When  leaders 
of  the  Miner's  federation  and  other  unions  refused  to  dis- 
close the  use  of  their  funds,  they  were  sent  to  prison  for  con- 
tempt of  court;  they  were  released  after  the  collapse  of  the 
strike  and  after  having  apologized  to  the  court.  The  Common- 
wealth also  used  troops  to  work  open-cut  mines.  The  strike 
collapsed  completely  without  any  new  concession  being 
obtained  by  the  miners.  The  Coal  Industry  tribunal  later 
awarded  long  service  leave,  subject  to  certain  penalties  for 
the  disruption  caused  by  the  strike.  The  general  secretary 
of  the  Communist  party,  Laurence  Sharkey,  was  sentenced 
to  three  years'  imprisonment— the  maximum  term— for  a 
seditious  utterance  in  regard  to  the  attitude  of  Australian 
workers  in  the  case  of  war  between  Australia  and  the  U.S.S.R. 
Immigration.  The  flow  of  immigrants  increased  vastly 
during  the  year.  With  more  liners  and  migrant  ships  coming 
into  service,  the  numbers  of  both  British  and  continental 
European  migrants  were  rising  steadily;  75,000  immigrants 
arrived  in  the  first  six  months,  and  the  50,000th  migrant 
from  continental  Europe,  a  Latvian  girl,  was  officially 
welcomed  on  Aug.  12  by  A.  A.  Caiwell,  minister  for  immi- 
gration. 


Sir  Donald  Bradman  (second  from  right)  with  the  governor  general 
of  Australia,  W.  J.  McKell  after  receiving  the  accolade  of  knight- 
hood, Melbourne,  March  15,  1949. 

Non-British  migrants  were  housed  in  reception  camps,  from 
which  they  went  to  employment,  mainly  in  farming,  forestry, 
nursing  services  and  industry.  After  a  minimum  period  of  two 
years  they  were  to  be  free  to  choose  their  own  occupations. 

The  government  rigidly  adhered  to  its  exclusion  of  non- 
white  immigrants,  a  policy  for  which  the  term  "  White 
Australia  "  was  officially  discarded.  Much  public  and  inter- 
national controversy  was  aroused  by  some  actions  of  the 
minister  for  immigration,  who  deported  or  threatened  to 
deport  an  Indonesian  wife  of  an  Australian,  with  a  number 
of  Australian-born  children,  a  Chinese  farmer  established 
for  20  years  in  Queensland  and  forbade  the  temporary  entry 
of  a  U.S.  army  sergeant  of  Philippine  descent  for  a  visit  to 
his  Australian  wife.  To  the  last-mentioned  action,  the 
Philippine  government  reacted  by  retaliatory  measures. 

In  1948-49,  52,573  new  houses  were  completed;  but  the 
coal  strike  affected  building  in  the  second  half  of  the  year. 

External  Affairs.  Dr.  Evatt  was  a  very  active  president  of 
the  third  session  of  the  general  assembly  of  the  United 
Nations.  Australian  representatives  were  active  in  supporting 
the  recognition  of  the  new  state  of  Israel,  and  the  sovereignty 
of  the  new  republic  of  Indonesia.  Australia  sent  an  official 
observer  to  the  Conference  of  Asian  Nations  convened  by 
the  Indian  prime  minister  at  New  Delhi,  which  strongly 
condemned  the  Dutch  police  action  in  Indonesia.  Australia 
also  took  a  lead  in  demanding  U.N.  investigation  of  the  trial 
of  religious  leaders  in  Hungary  and  Bulgaria.  As  one  of 
the  main  wheat-exporting  countries,  Australia  ratified  the 
important  International  Wheat  agreement  between  more 
than  40  countries  which  assured  guaranteed  minimum 
quantities  of  wheat  from  a  small  number  of  exporting 
countries  to  a  large  number  of  importing  countries,  at 
maximum  and  minimum  prices  fixed  in  the  agreement. 
Australia  continued  to  contribute  generously  to  international 
relief  organizations,  in  particular  to  the  International  Child- 
ren's Emergency  fund. 

Commonwealth  affairs  were  of  outstanding  importance 
during  the  year.  In  April,  J.  B.  Chifley  attended  the  conference 
of  Commonwealth  of  Nations  prime  ministers  in  London, 
which  resulted  in  a  declaration  that  the  republican  status  of 
India  was  compatible  with  continued  membership  of  the 
Commonwealth.  A  few  months  later,  J.  J.  Dedman,  minister 
for  post-war  reconstruction,  attended  in  London  a  conference 
concerning  the  financial  crisis  of  Great  Britain  and  the  sterling 
area  (see  below).  The  Australian  Nationality  and  Citizenship 


80 


AUSTRALIAN   LITERATURE 


act,  1948,  came  into  force  on  Jan.  26,  1949.  It  was  the  first 
to  recognize  officially  Australian  citizenship. 

Defence.  Expenditure  for  defence  services  was  £6 1  million1 , 
slightly  above  estimates.  Expenditure  for  total  war  and 
repatriation  services  at  nearly  £150  million  was  considerably 
above  estimates.  Corresponding  estimates  for  1949-50  were 
£60  million  and  £121  million.  A  new  aircraft  carrier, 
H.M.A.S.  **  Sydney,"  joined  the  fleet.  The  most  important 
naval  manoeuvres  after  World  War  II  were  held  by  the 
joint  Australian  and  New  Zealand  navies  in  October.  Further 
progress  was  made  on  the  guided  missiles  project  in  South 
Australia.  On  the  retirement  of  Lieut.  General  V.  A.  H. 
Sturdee,  Lieut.  General  S.  F.  Rowell  was  appointed 
chief  of  the  army  staff. 

Finance  and  Economics.  The  Budget  was  balanced  at  £535 
million.  National  income  rose  by  12%  to  a  new  record  of 
£1,955  million,  nearly  2-J-  times  the  prewar  figure.  The  in- 
come of  primary  producers  still  showed  by  far  th€  greatest 
proportional  increase,  as  the  exceptional  world  demand  for 
wool  at  very  high  prices  continued  through  the  year.  Sub- 
stantial price  rises  accounted  for  an  increase  of  the  **  C  "  rate 
index  of  retail  prices  by  nearly  9%  between  Sept.  1948  and 
Sept.  1949. 

Exports  of  merchandise  and  gold  rose  to  £536  million  as 
against  imports  of  £415  million.  Australia's  international  bal- 
ance of  payments  resulted  in  a  surplus  of  £41  million,  but  the 
prime  minister  gave  grave  warning  of  the  dangers  to  Australia's 
prosperity  that  would  follow  from  a  world  depression  and 
from  the  dollar  crisis  of  the  sterling  area.  To  safeguard 
against  a  slump,  Australia  maintained  a  large  sterling  balance 
estimated  at  over  £400  million  in  London.  The  government 
made  another  gift  of  £10  million  to  the  United  Kingdom. 
Australia  followed  the  devaluation  of  the  British  pound,  thus 
maintaining  the  ratio  of  £4  British  to  £5  Australian.  Australia 
agreed  to  cut  her  dollar  imports  by  25%  and  in  October 
obtained  a  loan  of  $20  million  from  the  International  Mone- 
tary fund. 

Of  many  industrial  development  plans,  the  official  start  of 
the  Snowy  River  Power  scheme,  which  would  provide  a 
large  proportion  of  Australia's  power  and  conserve  water 
for  irrigation  in  the  Murray  and  Murrumbidgee  valleys, 
was  the  most  important. 

Despite  substantial  immigration,  there  was  still  labour  and 
material  shortage  in  almost  every  industry.  About  30,000 
new  immigrants  were  absorbed  in  national  production.  Full 
employment  was  maintained.  The  Commonwealth  Court  of 
Arbitration  was,  for  the  second  part  of  the  year,  mainly 
engaged  in  taking  evidence  on  a  trade  union  claim  for  a  basic 
minimum  wage  of  £10. 

The  Arts.  The  shortage  of  paper  almost  entirely  disappeared 
but  publication  of  Australian  books  continued  to  suffer  from 
Board  of  Trade  regulations  made  in  connection  with  the  U.S. 
loans.  There  was  a  steady  stream  of  distinguished  visiting 
artists  from  many  countries,  including  the  conductors 
Rafael  Kubelik  and  Otto  Klemperer,  the  Shakespeare 
Memorial  Theatre  company  from  Stratford-on-Avon,  the 
pianists  Wibold  Malcuzynski  and  Aleksander  Hellman, 
and  the  singers  Joan  Hammond,  Elizabeth  Schwarzkopf  and 
Ninon  Vallm.  (W.  FR.). 

Education.  (1945)  State  schools  8,447,  pupils  726,440,  teachers 
31,061;  private  schools  1,817,  pupils  249,024,  teachers  11,799;  technical 
schools  114,  pupils  110,841,  teachers  5,175;  business  colleges  109, 
pupils  23,270,  teachers  659,  universities  (1947)  8,  students  30,477, 
professors  and  lecturers  2,141. 

Agriculture.  Main  crops  (in  '000  metric  tons,  1947-48;  1948-49  in 
brackets):  wheat  5,985  (5,162);  oats  738  (540);  maize  159  (152); 
barley  472  (450);  sugar  cane  (raw  value)  613  (930);  potatoes  501  (569). 
Livestock  (in  '000  head,  March  1948)  sheep  102,559,  cattle  13,785; 
pigs  1,255;  horses  1,1 65. Wool  production  (in  '000  metric  tons,  greasy 
basis,  1947-48;  1948-49  in  brackets)  460  (490).  Food  production  (in 

*  Throughout,  the  £  is  the  Australian  pound  (£A).  Exchange  rate, 
£A125  25^£IOO. 


'000  metric  tons,  1947-48;  1948-49  in  brackets):  butter  159-6  (163  -9); 
cheese  42-1  (44  0);  meat  962-2  (987-1)  of  which  beef  571-1  (584-7). 

Industry.  (1948)  Manufacturing  establishments  37,375;  persons 
employed  848,872.  Fuel  and  power  (1948;  1949,  six  months  in  brac- 
kets): coal  (in  '000  metric  tons)  15,059  (7,114);  lignite  (in  '000  metric 
tons)  6,792  (3,622);  manufactured  gas  (in  million  cu.  metres)  last 
six  months  1948  529  (560);  electricity  (in  million  kwh.)  8,741  (4,512). 
Raw  materials  (1948;  1949,  six  months,  in  brackets)  gold  (in  '000 
fine  o/.)  890,  (448);  pig-iron  (in  '000  metric  tons)  1,155  (509);  copper 
(in  '000  metric  tons)  13  (6);  lead  (in  '000  metric  tons)  196  (104);  zinc 
(in  '000  metric  tons)  83  (41);  tin  (in '000  metric  tons)  2(1);  steel  ingots 
and  castings  (in  '000  metric  tons)  1,236  (571).  Employment  in  manu- 
facturing (index  1937=- 100,  1948;  1949,  six  months  in  brackets): 
158  (161).  New  capital  investment  in  Australian  manufacturing  enter- 
prises totalled  £A144  million  between  Sept.  1945  and  June  1948,  of 
which  £A41  million  was  for  new  enterprises  and  £A103  million  for 
expansion  of  established  businesses.  Industries  which  were  being 
expanded  included  textiles  and  clothing,  newsprint,  agricultural  machin- 
ery and  implements,  glass,  plastics,  industrial  chemicals  and  building 
materials.  Cement  production  (in  '000  metric  tons,  1948;  1949,  six 
months  in  brackets)  1,004  (527).  Building  bricks  (in  millions,  1948; 
1949,  six  months  in  brackets)  577  (296). 

Foreign  Trade.  Imports:  (1948)  £A338  million;  (1949,  six  months) 
£A21 5  million  Exports'  (1948)  £A407  million;  (1949,  six  months) 
£A282  million  Mam  imports,  machinery,  vehicles,  piece-goods, 
other  textile  manufactures  and  petroleum.  Mam  exports:  wool, 
wheat  flour,  dairy  products  and  meats.  Mam  sources  of  supply  in  1948 
were:  United  Kingdom  39%,  other  British  countries  22%,  United 
States  20%.  Mam  destinations  of  exports  in  1948  were*  United  King- 
dom 37%,  other  British  countries  26%,  United  States  9% 

Transport  and  Communications.  Roads  (1945)-  500,000  mi.  Licensed 
motor  vehicles  (Dec  1948)-  cars  669,688,  commercial  vehicles  389,394. 
Government  railways  (1947-48)-  27,123  mi  ;  freight  net  ton-mi.  6,055 
million.  Shipping  (July  1948)'  number  of  merchant  vessels  of  100 
tons  and  upwards  352,  total  tonnage  527,647  Air  transport  (1947): 
mi  flown  33,963,000,  passengers  flown  1,035,695,  cargo  carried  18,711 
tons,  air  mail  carried  1,101  tons.  Telephones  (May  1949)  lines  730,292, 
subscribers  1,022,174.  Wireless  licenses  (May  1949)  1,916,310 

Finance  and  Banking.  Budget-  (1948-49)  revenue  £A535  million, 
expenditure  £A535  million;  (1949-50  est )  revenue  £A*>32  million; 
expenditure  £A567  million  National  debt  (Dec.  1948,  in  brackets 
Dec.  1947)-  £A2,829  (2,786)  million.  Currency  circulation  (Aug. 
1949;  in  brackets  Aug  1948)-  £A210  (196)  million  Gold  and  foreign 
exchange  (Aug  1949,  in  brackets  Aug  1948)  1,231  (863)  million 
US  dollars.  Bank  deposits  (Aug  1949,  in  brackets  Aug.  1948): 
£A678  (563)  million  Monetary  unit  is  the  Australian  pound  with  an 
exchange  rate  of  £A1  25  to  the  pound. 

AUSTRALIAN  LITERATURE.  The  Common- 
wealth Literary  fund's  fellowships  for  1949  reflected  current 
interest  in  the  Australian  historical  background.  Works 
commissioned  by  the  fund  included:  a  historical  work  on  the 
pastoral  industry  by  Judith  Wright;  a  novel  by  John  Morri- 
son, set  mainly  on  the  Melbourne  waterfront;  a  novel  of 
Australian  life  and  progress  and  a  poem  of"  epic  proportions" 
telling  of  the  discovery  of  the  Great  Southland,  both  by 
Rex  Ingamells;  and  the  completion  by  Eric  Lowe  of  the 
fifth  and  sixth  of  his  novels  covering  the  story  of  land  settle- 
ment from  1812-1938.  Much  of  the  work  published  during 
the  year  also  went  to  history  for  its  source.  There  was,  for 
example,  Frank  dune's  Wild  Colonial  Boys,  Eleanor  Dark's 
Storm  of  Time,  and  C.  B.  Chnstesen's  Australian  Heritage 
which,  like  A.  A.  Phillip's  Australian  Muster  (1946)  sought 
by  literary  selections  to  define  the  Australian  way  of  life. 
Two  biographies  combined  literary  history  with  literary 
criticism.  The  one,  Nettie  Palmer's  Fourteen  Years,  selections 
from  a  journal  kept  between  1925  and  1939,  covered  practi- 
cally everything  of  significance  in  Australian  and  New 
Zealand  writing  during  those  years.  The  other,  Story  Book 
Only,  came  from  Hugh  McRae,  and  gave  a  selection  of  all 
he  considered  worth  preserving  of  his  prose  writings  over 
some  50  years.  Percival  Serle's  two-volume  Dictionary  of 
National  Biography  filled  a  long-neglected  need,  both  of 
literary  and  general  reference. 

Among  novels  of  note  published  during  the  year  were: 
Vance  Palmer's  Golconda,  written  about  a  silver-lead  mine  in 
Queensland;  Lawson  Glossop's  Lucky  Palmer,  a  tale  of 
racing,  betting  and  bad  luck;  Pathway  to  the  Sun  by  E.  V. 


AUSTRIA 


81 


Timms,  a  sequel  to  his  Forever  to  Remain',  Ruth  Park's 
Poor  Man's  Orange,  which  carried  forward  the  story  of  slum 
life  in  a  Sydney  suburb  begun  in  Harp  in  the  South;  and 
Henry  G.  Lamond's  White  Ears  the  Outlaw,  the  story  of  a 
dingo.  High  Valley,  the  novel  with  which  Charmian  Clift 
and  George  Johnston  won  the  Sydney  Morning  Herald 
prize  for  1948,  was  also  published  during  1949.  No  entry  for 
the  Sydney  Morning  Herald  novel  competition  for  1949  was 
thought  to  merit  a  first  prize,  the  best,  T.  A.  G.  Hungerford's 
Sowers  of  the  Wind,  being  awarded  second  prize.  The  Buln- 
Buln  and  the  Brolga  by  Tom  Collins;  i.e.,  Joseph  Furphy, 
was  published  separately  for  the  first  time  during  1949. 

As  usual,  few  short  story  collections  appeared  during  the 
year.  Outstanding,  perhaps,  were  the  annual  volume  of 
Coast  to  Coast  and  Henrietta  Drake-Brockman's  Sydney 
or  the  Bush.  Australian  Poetry  1948,  selected  by  Judith 
Wright,  included  48  poems,  20  of  them  by  women  authors. 
Publications  by  individual  poets  included  Rosemary  Dobson's 
In  a  Convex  Mirror  and  the  Selected  Verse  of  Mary  Gilmore. 

A  general  anthology  of  importance  was  the  Jindyworobak 
Anthology,  which  included  prose  estimates,  criticisms  and 
tributes  assembled  in  celebration  of  the  tenth  year  of  Jindy- 
worobak activity.  The  main  bulk  of  criticisms  came  from 
such  journals  as  Mean/in  Papers,  Southerly,  the  "  Red  Page  " 
of  the  Bulletin  and,  until  it  ceased  publication,  from  the 
Australian  Observer.  (C  A.  BR.) 

AUSTRIA.  A  republic  in  central  Europe.  Area:  32,388 
sq.  mi.  Pop.:  (March  1938,  est.)  6,754,000;  (Oct.  1948,  est.) 
6,953,000.  Language:  German  98%,  other  2%  (mainly 
Slovene  in  Carinthia).  Religion  (1939):  Roman  Catholic 
88-27%,  Protestant  5-35%,  Jewish  1-26%  (0-2%  in  1945), 
others  5-12%.  Chief  towns  (pop.,  June  1948  est.):  Vienna 
fy.v.)  (cap.,  1,730,613);  Graz  (226,229);  Linz  (184,336); 
Salzburg  (106,919);  Innsbruck  (98,561);  Klagenfurt  (65,950). 
President  of  the  republic,  Dr.  Karl  Renner;  chancellor 
(prime  minister),  Leopold  Figl  (q.v.);  minister  of  foreign 
affairs,  Dr.  Karl  Gruber  (^.v.).  The  Austrian  government 
had  jurisdiction  throughout  Austria,  with  certain  limitations 
regarding  matters  control  over  which  was  reserved  to  quadri- 
partite decision  in  the  Allied  Council  for  Austria.  By  Dec.  31, 
1949,  members  of  the  A.C.A.  were:  France,  General  de 
Corps  d'Armee  Emile-Marie  Bethouart;  United  Kingdom, 
Lieutenant  General  Sir  Alexander  Galloway  (succeeded  from 
Jan.  1,  1950,  by  Major  General  T.  J.  W.  Winterton);  U.S., 
Lieutenant  General  Geoffrey  Keyes;  U.S.S.R.  (from  May 
1949),  Lieutenant  General  V.  P.  Sviridov. 

History.  A  return  to  normal  political  life  was  the  salient 
feature  of  1949  in  Austria.  The  growing  self-confidence  of 
the  coalition  government  under  Chancellor  Figl,  which 
continued  in  office  (with  some  changes)  after  the  general 
election  on  Oct.  9,  meant  that,  in  practice,  less  importance 
than  hitherto  attached  to  the  continuing  failure  of  the 
Council  of  Foreign  Ministers  to  reach  agreement  on  a  peace 
treaty — though  government  spokesmen  did  not  miss  any 
opportunity  of  raising  their  voices  in  protest  against  the 
servitude  of  the  prolonged  Allied  occupation. 

There  was,  indeed,  during  the  year,  a  mitigation  of  Allied 
control  in  certain  minor  respects.  From  Jan.  1  the  United 
Kingdom  handed  over  to  the  Austrian  authorities  full 
responsibility  for  the  control  of  the  Austro-Italian  frontier; 
in  February  airfields  in  the  United  States  zone  were  restored 
to  the  Austrian  government  for  agricultural  purposes;  a 
relaxation  of  the  control  over  goods  traffic  between  the  Soviet 
and  the  western  zones  was  announced  by  the  Soviet  authori- 
ties to  take  effect  from  May  25;  and  at  a  meeting  of  the 
Allied  council  on  July  19  notice  was  given  of  the  relinquishing 
of  certain  controls  over  Austria's  posts  and  telegraphs 
administration.  Finally,  the  council,  without  yielding  on  the 


principle  that  Allied  approval  was  necessary  for  any  addition 
to  the  three  recognized  political  parties — People's  party 
(Christian  Social),  Social  Democrats  and  Communists — in 
fact  attempted  no  interference  with  the  formation  of  new 
parties.  The  new  electoral  law,  indeed,  which  was  approved 
by  the  Allied  council  on  June  24,  specifically  provided  that 
any  electoral  group  that  could  muster  100  supporters  was 
entitled  to  put  up  candidates  in  the  general  election. 

The  meetings  of  the  foreign  ministers'  deputies  were 
resumed  (for  the  sixth  time  in  three  years)  on  Feb.  9  in  London. 
The  Soviet  deputy  at  once  brought  up  again  the  territorial 
demands  and  claims  for  reparations  of  Yugoslavia — which 
provoked  the  Austrian  government  into  a  fresh  assertion 
that  Austria  would  not  accept  any  treaty  involving  loss  of 
territory  or  the  creation  of  an  autonomous  zone  for  the 
Slovenes  of  Carinthia.  The  Yugoslav  delegate,  Dr.  A. 
Bebler,  was  given  a  hearing,  but  his  **  compromise  "  proposals 
were  not  acceptable  to  the  three  western  powers.  A  similar 
deadlock  developed  over  the  reparations  issue,  the  compen- 
sation to  the  U.S.S.R.  for  those  German  assets  to  which  a 
claim  had  been  relinquished  and  the  question  of  compulsory 
repatriation  of  displaced  persons,  etc.  When  the  talks  were 
adjourned  on  April  8,  to  enable  the  governments  to  be  con- 
sulted, the  western  deputies  made  a  significant  gesture  in 
abandoning  all  reparations  claims  in  their  zones,  subject  to 
the  Austrian  government  assuming  an  obligation  to  liquidate 
all  Reich  German  ownership  of  the  German  assets  in  question. 

By  the  time  the  Council  of  Foreign  Ministers  itself  met  in 
Paris  (May  23-June  20)  the  situation  had  been  substantially 
eased  by  the  abandonment  by  the  Soviet  government  of 
support  for  Yugoslavia's  territorial  claims.  The  ministers 
agreed  that,  while  no  reparations  should  be  exacted,  Yugo- 
slavia should  retain  all  Austrian  property  rights  and  interests 
within  Yugoslavia;  that  the  U.S.S.R.  should  receive  from 
Austria  (1)  $150  million  in  freely  convertible  currency  to  be 
paid  within  a  period  of  six  years,  (2)  the  assets  of  the  Danube 
Shipping  company  in  Bulgaria,  Hungary  and  Rumania  as 
well  as  eastern  Austria,  (3)  concession  rights  to  oil  production 
areas  equivalent  to  60%  of  Austrian  oil  production,  as  also 
to  60%  of  all  exploration  areas  in  eastern  Austria  which 
come  in  the  category  of  German  assets,  and  that,  in  return, 
the  U.S.S.R.  should  relinquish  all  property,  interests  or  rights 
held  as  German  assets  or  war  booty,  with  the  exception  of 
the  oil  and  shipping  assets  previously  conceded.  But  the 
deputies  were  unable  to  compose  their  differences  in  the  time 
allotted  (by  Sept.  1),  and  the  negotiations  were  taken  up 
again  by  the  ministers  in  New  York  on  Sept.  23. 

In  internal  politics  the  Social  Democratic  party  made  the 


One   of  ihc   posters   of  the    Ostcrrdchiwhc    Vo!?-;  \partei   (People** 
party)  used  in  the  general  election  held  on  Oct.  9,  1949. 


82 


AVIATION,   CIVIL 


running,  with  the  Communists  unable  to  make  any  real 
impression  on  the  emphatically  "  western  "  orientation  of  the 
country.  The  party  executive  tabled  a  resolution,  in  May, 
calling  for  revision  of  the  Allied  Control  agreement  in  order 
to  secure  greater  freedom  of  action  for  parliament  and 
government,  total  abolition  of  the  censorship,  the  reduction 
of  occupation  forces  to  token  level  and  the  removal  of  zonal 
frontiers.  Relations  with  the  Austrian  People's  party  became 
somewhat  strained  in  the  middle  of  the  year  owing  to  the 
latter's  reputed  electoral  bargaining  with  certain  prominent 
ex-Nazis,  and  on  July  13  a  bill  for  a  further  amnesty  for 
certain  groups  of  incriminated  Nazis,  which  had  been 
sponsored  by  the  People's  party,  was  defeated  in  parliament. 
But  the  makers  of  Socialist  policy  made  it  clear  that  they 
had  no  intention  of  breaking  up  the  coalition  before  the 
general  election;  and,  in  the  end,  both  the  principal  parties 
pledged  themselves  to  its  continuance,  whatever  the  outcome 
of  the  polling. 

In  the  event  the  election  produced  little  change  in  the 
balance  of  parties.  The  People's  party  won  77  seats,  the 
Socialists  67,  the  Communists  5  and  the  Independents  16 
(see  also  ELECTIONS).  This  represented  a  loss  of  8  seats  by 
the  People's  party  and  9  by  the  Socialists.  The  Communists 
gained  one  seat,  chiefly  on  account  of  the  defection  of  a 
left-wing  Socialist  leader,  Erwm  Scharf,  who  set  up  a  Left 
bloc  shortly  before  the  elections. 

In  February  an  occupation  costs  levy  was  imposed  to 
defray  the  outstanding  costs  for  1948.  On  March  24  a  Four 
Years'  plan  for  Austrian  agriculture  was  issued,  to  be 
operated  within  the  framework  of  the  European  Recovery 
plan.  (The  outlay  was  estimated  at  Sen.  4,900  million, 
financed  largely  by  the  farmers  themselves).  On  May  8  the 
government  announced  its  programme  of  financial  consolida- 
tion to  replace  the  wage-price  agreement  of  Sept.  1948. 
Trade  agreements  were  made  with  Italy,  Hungary  (under 
U.S.  auspices)  and  Germany.  (W.  H.  CTR.) 

Education.  (1948-49)  fclementary  schools  5,016,  pupils  829,326 
teachers  25,601.  Secondary  schools  (including  commercial  schools  and 
training  colleges)  695,  pupils  73,949,  teachers  10,301  Universities  4, 
and  institutions  of  higher  education  9,  students  31,959 

Agriculture.  Mam  crops  (in  '000  metric  tons,  1948;  1949  estimates 
in  brackets),  wheat  261  (294),  barley  125,  oats  225,  rye  289  (325); 
potatoes  2,069.  Livestock  (in  '000  head),  cattle  (May  1949)  2,125, 
sheep  (Dec.  1948)  454;  pigs  (May  1949)  1,431,  horses  (Dec  1948) 
284,  poultry  (Dec.  1948)4,114 

Industry.  Insured  persons  employed  (Aug  1949)  1,978,000.  Fuel 
and  power  (1948;  1949,  six  months,  in  brackets)  coal  (m  '000  metric 
tons)  178  (94),  lignite  (in  '000  metric  tons)  3,336  (1,831),  natural  and 
manufactured  gas  (in  million  cu  metres)  388  (215),  electricity  (in 
million  kwh)  4,213  (1,952).  Raw  materials  (in  '000  metric  tons  1948; 
1949,  six  months,  in  brackets)  pig  iron  613  (423);  steel  ingots  and 
castings  648  (389).  Manufactured  goods  (1948;  1949,  six  months,  m 
brackets),  cement  (in  '000  metric  tons)  721  (465);  leather  shoes  (in 
'000  pairs)  2,269. 

Foreign  Trade.  Imports  (1948)  Sen.  2,603  million,  (1949,  six  months) 
Sen.  1,996  million.  Exports  (1948)  Sch  1,984  million;  (1949,  six 
months)  Sch  1,583  million.  Main  imports  coal,  cotton,  wool  and 
vegetables.  Main  exports  iron  and  steel  products,  lumber  and  paper. 

Transport  and  Communications.  Roads  (1947).  53,000  mi  Licensed 
motor  vehicles  (Dec  1948)  cars  26,775,  commercial  vehicles  39,275 
Railways  (1948)  3,758  mi  ;  passenger  mi.  4,414  million;  freight  net 
ton-mi.  3,700  million  Telephones  (1949)  subscribers  219,164.  Wire- 
less licenses  (1948)  892,058. 

Finance  and  Banking.  Budget  estimates  (in  million  schillings):  (1948) 
revenue  5,294,  expenditure  5,891,  (1949)  revenue  6,090,  expenditure 
7,531.  Domestic  debt  (Dec.  1948,  in  brackets  Dec.  1947)  Sch  10,671 
(12,809)  million  Currency  circulation  (Sept  1949;  in  brackets  Sept. 
1948):  Sch  5,817  (5.132)  million.  Gold  reserve  (Sept.  1949,  in  brackets 
Sept.  1948).  $4  9(4-8)  million  Bank  deposits  (Aug  1949,  in  brackets 
Aug.  1948)  Sch  5,367  (4,917)  million  Monetary  unit,  schilling 
with  an  exchange  rate  (Dec.  1949,  in  brackets  Dec.  1948)  of  Sch. 
40  32  (40-30)  to  the  pound  and  Sch  14  40  (10- 14)  to  the  U.S  dollar. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.    E   H    Buschbeck,  Austria  (London  1949). 

AVIATION,  CIVIL.  Relatively  little  expansion  occur- 
red in  European  air  transport  during  1949.  There  were  few 
new  services  and  few  new  types  of  aircraft  were  put  into 


service;  but  business  on  the  air  lines  generally  improved. 
The  Dutch  and  the  Belgian  lines  (K.L.M.  and  Sabena*)  had  a 
surplus  on  operations  in  1948.  Sabena  appeared  to  have 
made  a  profit  on  the  work  of  1949.  K.L.M.  had  its  line  to 
the  east  closed  for  two  months  and  diverted  for  another  five 
months  by  the  closing  of  Pakistan  to  its  aircraft,  and,  like 
the  other  major  operators,  showed  a  loss  on  the  year.  Yet 
almost  without  exception  the  European  air  lines  were  busier 
than  they  had  been  in  1948.  As  compared  with  1948,  passen- 
gers increased  by  35%  and  aircraft  movements  were  more 
than  double.  At  London  airport  aircraft  movements  rose 
from  1,145  in  Dec.  1948  to  2,423  in  July  1949  and  at  Northolt, 
in  the  same  months,  the  rise  was  from  1,319  to  4,565.  These 
figures  marked  the  peak  of  the  holiday  season  but  they  also 
marked  a  big  rise  on  the  corresponding  period  of  1948.  The 
general  rise  in  the  volume  of  traffic  in  1949  seemed  to  have 
amounted  to  about  30%. 

Competition  for  the  improved  traffic  remained  as  keen  as 
ever  and  was  no  doubt  responsible  for  the  failure  in  the 
early  part  of  the  year  of  an  Anglo-American  attempt  to 
introduce  the  full  freedom  of  the  air  for  the  whole  of  Europe 
outside  the  Russian-controlled  areas.  The  proposal,  spon- 
sored by  the  United  Kingdom  and  the  United  States,  that 
the  existing  bilateral  air  agreements  (giving  reciprocal  rights 
of  operation)  should  be  replaced  by  multilateral  agreements 
(giving  general  freedom  to  operate  commercial  services)  was 
rejected  by  a  regional  conference  of  the  International  Civil 
Aviation  organization  held  at  Geneva,  Switzerland. 

Authority  to  operate  international  services  had,  therefore, 
still  to  be  sought  by  individual  negotiation  and  countries 
were  still  inclined  to  make  their  air  agreements  depend  on  the 
conclusion  of  satisfactory  bargains.  This  was  beginning  to 
be  modified  by  pooling  arrangements  on  certain  routes.  The 
United  Kingdom  had  a  pooling  agreement  with  France 
before  World  War  11  on  the  route  between  London  and 
Paris.  A  similar  arrangement  was  reported  in  1949  between 
K.L.M.,  Scandinavian  Airlines  System  t,  the  Czechoslovak 
line  and  one  of  the  Italian  companies  on  certain  common 
routes.  The  precise  terms  of  these  agreements  were  not  dis- 
closed but  their  effect  was  expected  to  restrict  some  forms  of 
competition  as  well  as  lead  to  some  measure  of  co-operation. 

Passenger  fares,  agreed  by  operators  through  their  long- 
established  International  Air  Transport  association,  remained 
steady  at  an  average  of  l\d.  a  mile  on  European  routes. 
Throughout  the  year  there  was  some  pressure  towards 
lowering  freight  rates  and  towards  introducing  lower  passen- 
ger rates  on  non-regular  services.  Indirect  competition  by 
British  charter  companies,  which  were  forbidden  to  operate 
regular  services,  had  been  checked  partially  by  allowing  a 
number  of  them  to  become  "  associates  "  of  British  European 
Airways,  operating  particular  services  under  agreements 
specifying  frequencies  and  fares.  With  the  return  of  aircraft 
from  the  Berlin  air  lift,  there  was  a  renewal  of  the  movement 
towards  cheaper  fares.  One  charter  company,  operating 
Tudor  II  and  Tudor  V  aircraft,  offered  them  at  rates  which, 
if  all  seats  were  filled,  would  represent  2d.  to  3d.  a  passenger- 
mile.  As  the  overheads  of  air  line  companies  are  not  supposed 
to  exceed  33%  of  total  costs,  this  seemed  to  argue  that  fares 
should  not  be  as  high  as  7-JJ.  a  mile  even  if  air  line  companies 
assumed  that,  on  the  average,  they  could  not  expect  to  fill 
more  than  60%  of  their  aircraft  capacity. 

Great  Britain.  The  two  British  corporations — Overseas  Air- 
ways and  European  Airways — were  engaged  in  re-organiza- 
tions designed  to  reduce  overheads  and  to  diminish 
the  losses  on  their  operations.  In  the  middle  of  the  year 
the  smaller,  third  corporation,  British  South  American 

*  K  L  M  =  Komnkhjkc  Luchtvaart  Maatschappij  (Royal  Dutch  Air  Lines)  ; 
SABENA  -Societe  Anonyme  Beige  d'Exploitationde  la  Navigation  Aeriennc. 
t  S  A  S  comprises  the  Swedish  A  B.A  (Aktiebolag  Aero-transport),  the  D  D.L^ 
(Del  Danskc  Luftfartselskab)  and  the  D.N.L.  (Det  Norske  Luftfartselskap). 


AVIATION,   CIVIL 


83 


The  British  Overseas  Airways  Corporation  flying  boat  **  London  "  at  Tower  Bridge,  London,  in  May  1949. 

the  pool  of  London  and  was  named  by  the  Lord  Mayor  on  May  10. 


The  flying  boat  landed  in 


Airways,  was  amalgamated  with  B.O.A.C.  This  was  a  direct 
result  of  the  ban  put  on  passenger-carrying  in  Tudor  I  and 
Tudor  IV  aircraft  after  two  had  been  inexplicably  lost  over 
the  Atlantic.  This  left  B.S.A.A.  with  an  inadequate  fleet  and 
with  no  prospect  of  acquiring  quickly  other  types  of  suitable 
aircraft.  B.O.A.C.  on  the  other  hand  had  good  aircraft 
prospects.  Not  only  had  it  six  Stratocruisers  on  order  but 
it  had  succeeded  in  acquiring  from  Scandinavian  Air  Services 
the  right  to  four  more  which  were  on  order  for  that  company. 
It  had  also  taken  over  from  the  Irish  company  four  additional 
Constellations;  and  it  was  expecting  delivery  of  22  Canadair 
Argonauts  and  25  Hermes  I  Vs.  In  the  event,  the  deliveries 
of  the  Hermes  IVs  and  the  Stratocruisers  were  much  delayed 
and  B.O.A.C.  was  somewhat  handicapped  both  in  handling 
its  own  business  and  in  providing  for  the  services  which 
B.S.A.A.  had  intended  to  operate. 

British  European  Airways,  equipped  chiefly  with  Viking 
aircraft,  had  fully  recovered  from  its  early  difficulties  with 
this  type  and  did  good  business  during  1949.  In  the  preceding 
financial  year  its  losses  were  about  £2,250,000.  Improved 
traffic,  combined  with  more  economical  management  and 
maintenance,  gave  a  much  better  outlook  for  the  financial 

TABLE  I.— UNITED  KINGDOM  CIVIL  AIR  TRAFFIC 

All  Internal  External 

services  services  services 

1948         1949  1948       1949  1948         1949 
Aircraft   mi.   flown 

COOO)         .         .    44,206     44,121  5,461      5,934  38,745     38,187 

Pass,  carried  fOOO).         713          917  381        450  332          467 

Pass.-mi.  ('000)       .554,536   613,383  57,038    72,199  497,498    541,184 

Freight  carried  (tons)  8,108     14,162  1,113     1,757  6,995      12,405 

Freight  ('000  ton-mi.)  15,520      18,081  197        329  15,323      17,752 

Mail  carried  (tons).      4,241        5,297  1,123      1,234  3,118       4,063 

Mail  ('000  ton-mi.)       9,938      10,563  175        205  9,763      10,358 


year  ending  in  March  1950.  The  signs  were  that  the  deficit 
would  be  reduced  by  about  £1,000,000.  B.O.A.C,  which 
lost  £5,250,000  in  1948-49,  had  not  begun  to  feel  the  benefit 
of  its  new  aircraft  and  was  not  expecting  to  show  large 
additional  savings  on  the  year  1949-50.  This  corporation 
had  already  made  notable  economies  in  administration  and 
reduced  its  deficit  by  nearly  £2,000,000  in  1948-49. 

To  fill  capacity  was  the  chief  difficulty  of  air  operators  in 
a  period  of  high  fares  and  many  competitors.  Evidence  of 
the  competition  was  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  17  inter- 
national air  companies  used  London  airport  regularly  during 
1949,  although  the  daily  passenger  totals  at  that  airport 
varied  only  between  600  and  1,000  and  the  daily  freight  loads 
between  20  and  25  tons.  Standards  of  operation  and  the 
quality  of  the  aircraft  in  use  were  becoming  important 
factors  in  securing  traffic  asiwell  as  in  economical  running. 
During  1949  the  first  signs  appeared  of  a  probable  British 
advantage  on  the  air  lines  serving  Europe.  These  arose  from 
the  successful  application  of  the  gas  turbine  to  the  needs  of 
commercial  air  transport. 

In  all  other  countries  except  Canada,  the  gas  turbine  at 
its  present  stage  of  development  had  been  considered  un- 
suitable for  commercial  operation,  largely  on  account  of  its 
high  rate  of  fuel  consumption.  In  the  face  of  that  prejudice, 
British  and  Canadian  constructors  had  proceeded  with  the 
preparation  of  air  liners  using  gas  turbines  both  as  the  motive 
power  for  driving  airscrews  and  as  the  means  of  providing 
jet  propulsion.  The  disadvantage  in  fuel  consumption  per 
h.p.-hr.  or  per  Ib.  thrust  was  admitted  but  a  counter-argument 
based  on  cost  per  passenger-mile  or  on  the  probable  return 
on  capital  invested  was  advanced  by  the  aircraft  manufac- 
turers. Proof  that  this  argument  must  be  taken  seriously 


84 


AVIATION,   CIVIL 


TABLE  II. — RFVFNUE  STATISTICS  FOR  BRITISH  AIR  LINES  (Financial  years,  April  1-March  31) 


B  O.A.C. 

1947-4 

Operating  revenue 
Operating  expense 
Operating  deficit 
Non-operating  expense 

Total  deficit 

Source     Ministry  of  Civil  Aviation. 

was  contained  in  the  interest  shown  by  United  States  opera- 
tors when  the  first  batch  of  gas  turbine  aircraft  was  exhibited 
during  1949.  There  were  four  liners  of  various  sizes  using 
gas  turbines  to  turn  their  airscrews.  These  were  the  Vickers 
Viscount  40  to  53-seater,  the  Armstrong  Whitworth  Apollo 
26  to  41-seater,  the  Handley  Page  Hermes  V  48  to  74-seater 
and  the  Miles  Marathon  16  to  20-seater.  One  jet  liner,  the 
de  Havilland  Comet  36-seater  appeared  in  England  and  one, 
the  Avro  Jetliner  36  to  40-seater,  in  Canada.  The  designer 
of  the  Viscount  produced  figures  to  show  that  it  could  be 
operated  as  cheaply  per  passenger-mile,  up  to  a  maximum 
practical  range  of  900  mi.,  as  a  comparable  piston-engine  liner. 
These  figures  had  yet  to  be  tested  in  conditions  of  regular 
service,  but  early  experience  with  liners  of  this  type  suggested 
that  an  additional  economic  advantage  might  be  derived 
from  the  smooth  running  and  relative  absence  of  vibration 
in  the  rotary  engine  which  is  responsible  for  a  large  part  of 
the  cost  of  airframe  and  instrument  maintenance.  This  fact 
impressed  air  line  operators,  first  because  of  its  probable 
attractiveness  to  passengers  and  also  because  of  other 
economic  implications.  They  were  likely  to  cruise  at  speeds 
between  270  and  330  m.p.h.  but  they  did  appear  to  offer 
new  standards  of  passenger  comfort. 

The  one  new  liner  which  promised  high  speed  was  the 
Comet.  A  number  of  its  long-range  test  flights  were  made 
at  a  speed  of  about  500  mi.  per  hr.  To  obtain  this  speed  it 
flew  at  heights  between  36,000  ft.  and  40,000  ft.  If  operators 
should  decide  to  fly  it  at  a  lower  level,  the  cruising  speed 
might  be  450  m.p.h.  or  less.  Its  value  on  a  highly  compet- 
itive route  like  that  between  Europe  and  America  was  so 
obvious  that  the  appearance  of  the  first  Comet  caused  a  stir 
among  operators  and  aircraft  manufacturers  alike  in  the 
United  States.  Sixteen  Comets  were  ordered,  14  of  them 
for  use  by  British  Overseas  Airways. 

Some  40  Viscount  turbo-prop  liners  were  also  ordered  for 
use  by  the  two  corporations  and  these  also  were  thought 
likely  to  go  into  service  in  1953.  Thus,  although  both  cor- 
porations were  still  losing  money  on  current  operations, 
there  was  a  good  prospect  of  their  leading  the  field  in  four 
years*  time.  Alongside  this  were  indications  that  B.O.A.C. 
expected  good  results  from  the  140-ton  flying-boats  which 
were  being  built  by  Saunders-Roe.  This  type  too  would  use 
gas  turbines  to  turn  its  airscrews  and  was  expected  to  cruise 
at  380  m.p.h. 

These  signs  of  the  re-entry  of  highly  efficient  British  air- 
craft into  the  field  which  had  been  largely  monopolized  by 
United  States  aircraft  led  to  some  speculation  during  the 
year  as  to  probable  American  reaction.  Strong  pressure  was 
being  applied  during  the  latter  part  of  1949  to  prevent  the 
ordering  of  new  British  aircraft  by  United  States  lines  at  a 
time  when  they  were  extending  their  interests  in  Europe  and 
on  routes  between  Europe  and  the  east.  Pan-American 
Airways,  which  already  had  an  interest  in  Turkey,  obtained 
a  36%  interest  in  the  Lebanese-owned  Middle  East  Airlines 
and  in  view  of  the  proposed  absorption  of  American  Overseas 
Airways  was  likely  to  inherit  exclusive  operating  rights  in 
Saudi  Arabia.  (E.  C.  So.) 

Canada.  Trans-Canada  Airlines  handled  a  record  volume 
of  traffic  on  its  domestic  and  overseas  routes  in  1949,  carrying 
more  than  690,000  passengers,  an  increase  of  23  %  over  1948. 
Air  cargo  and  air  express  were  up  55  %,  totalling  over  3  •  6 


B.E.A. 


1947-48 

1948-49 

1947-48 

1948-49 

1947-48 

£12,546,435 

£15,155,017 

£4,125,536 

£5,434,271 

£2,086,185 

19,049,601 

21,337,431 

7,409,818 

7,942,544 

2,478,274 

6,503,166 

6,182,414 

3,284,282 

2,508,273 

392,089 

586,273 

337,719* 

289,707 

254,812 

29,392 

7,091,439 

5,844,695 

3,593,989 

2,763,085 

421,481 

*  Revenue 

BS.A  A. 

1948-49 
£2,562,203 
3,610,742 
1,048,539 
84,543 
1,133,082 


million  ton-mi.  Mail  was  almost  double  the  1948  total 
exceeding  3-9  million  ton-mi.  Financial  results  were  not 
reported,  but  in  1948  T.C.A.  showed  a  loss  of  about  $3 
million,  60%  of  which  was  on  its  overseas  services  across 
the  Atlantic  and  to  the  Caribbean  and  40%  on  domestic 
operations.  The  route  from  Montreal  to  Bermuda  and 
Trinidad  was  flown  once  a  week  with  Canadair  4's.  On 
Dec.  1,  1949,  it  was  extended  to  Barbados. 

Canadian  Pacific  Air  Lines,  which  at  first  had  been  refused 
permission  to  operate  international  services  and  then  had 
been  awarded  the  trans-Pacific  route,  had  negotiations  under 
way  at  the  close  of  the  year  to  extend  its  services  beyond 
Australia  to  Auckland,  New  Zealand.  Altogether,  there  were 
eight  private  carriers  in  Canada  authorized  to  operate 
scheduled  services,  three  of  which  were  reported  to  have 
shown  profits.  In  addition,  there  were  about  150  private 
operators  whose  gross  revenues  exceeded  $10,000  a  year. 

Four  Canadian  aircraft  manufacturing  companies  produced 
civil  aircraft  during  1949:  the  Canadian  Car  and  Foundry 
Co.  produced  the  Norseman;  de  Havilland,  the  Chipmunk 
and  the  Beaver;  Candair  Ltd.,  the  "4";  and  A.  V.  Roe 
Canada  Ltd.,  the  Avro  C-102  jetliner.  The  last  named  was 
the  first  jet-powered  civil  transport  to  fly  in  the  western 
hemisphere. 

TABLE  III  —  POSTWAR  GROWIH  OF  AVIATION  IN  CANADA 

Aug.  31,  1946    Aug.  31.  1949 
Airports  licensed  .  134  376 


Pilot  licences 


f  private 

limited  commercial 
commercial.          . 
transport     .          . 

Air  traffic  controller  licences  . 

Air  engineer  licences     .  . 


828 

1,214 

108 

778 

93 

1,175 


2,324 

873 

78 

853 

136 

1,604 


United  States.  Scheduled  air  lines  of  the  world,  exclusive 
of  the  U.S.S.R.,  operated  about  3,800  aircraft  of  all  types 
at  the  end  of  1949.  Approximately  three-fourths  of  all  these 
transports  were  of  U.S.  manufacture.  Aircraft  produced 
in  the  United  States  carried  about  90%  of  the  world's 
scheduled  air  traffic.  Principal  U.S.  air  line  transport  types 
in  production  at  the  year-end  were  the  four-engined 
Boeing  Stratocruiser,  the  Lockheed  Constellation,  the 
Douglas  DC-6  and  the  twin-engined  Consolidated  Vultee 
240  and  Martin  2-0-2. 

Throughout  the  world  the  DC-3's  and  DC-4's,  largely 
war  surplus  equipment,  were  still  the  main  work  horses  of  the 
air  lines,  but  in  the  United  States  air  carriers  were  fast 
changing  over  to  the  more  efficient  postwar  types  of  equip- 
ment. American  Airlines,  for  example,  retired  the  last  of  its 
prewar  planes  from  passenger  service  during  the  first  half 
of  the  year  and  by  December  was  operating  with  50  DC-6's 
and  74  Convairs. 

Scheduled  American  air  carriers  operated  1,083  planes  on 
both  domestic  and  international  services  by  the  end  of  1949 
and  carried  close  to  two-thirds  of  the  world's  air  traffic. 
The  year  1949  was  the  busiest  the  air  lines  of  the  United 
States  had  experienced  to  date.  An  estimated  16-5  million 
passengers  were  carried  a  total  of  8,800  million  passenger-mi., 
representing  about  a  12%  increase  over  1948.  Scheduled 
U.S.  domestic  and  international  air  lines  employed  78,500 
persons  in  the  autumn  of  1949  and  provided  service  to  705 


AVIATION,  CIVIL 


85 


U.S.  cities,  as  well  as  their  overseas  points  of  call.  It  was 
estimated  that  the  domestic  lines  were  carrying  43  %  of  the 
first  class  rail  and  air  travel  market  in  the  U.S.  in  1949  as 
against  39%  in  1948  and  only  13%  in  1945. 

The  year  1949  witnessed  the  introduction  of  air  coach 
travel  on  a  wide  scale.  Irregular  carriers,  operating  under 
exemption  permits  from  the  Civil  Aeronautics  board,  had 
proved  that  lower  fares  and  less  emphasis  on  the  usual  air 
travel  luxuries  would  attract  many  new  passengers  to  air 
travel;  and  one  by  one  the  major  certificated  air  lines  entered 
the  coach  field.  Pan  American  World  Airways'  coach-type 
service  between  Puerto  Rico  and  New  York,  inaugurated 
in  the  latter  part  of  1948,  proved  very  popular  during  1949 
and  the  record  disclosed  little  diversion  of  first  class  passen- 
gers to  the  new  coach  service.  Capital  Airlines*  initial  coach 
service  between  New  York  and  Chicago  was  an  immediate 
success  and  by  the  last  week  of  Dec.  1949  both  American 
Airlines  and  T.W.A.  (Transcontinental  and  Western  Air)  had 
begun  low  cost  ($110)  transcontinental  coach  service  between 
New  York  and  California.  Many  regarded  the  wide-spread 

TABLE  IV. — U.S.  SCHEDULED  AIR  CARRIER  OPFRATIONS 


Revenue  passengers  carried 

Domestic     . 

International 
Revenue  miles  flown 

Domestic     . 

International 
Revenue  passenger-miles  flown 

Domestic    . 

International 
Total  passenger-miles  flown 

Domestic     . 

International 
Ton-miles  of  express  carried 

Domestic     . 

International 
Ton-miles  of  freight  carried 

Domestic    . 

International 


1948 

7949 

(Actual) 

(C.A.A. 

Estimate) 

14,540,951 

16,500,000 

13,168,095 

15,000,000 

1,372,856 

1,500,000 

436,270,224 

459,691,000 

338,216,783 

352,384,000 

98,053,441 

107,307,000 

7,852,177,000 

8,800,000,000 

5,963,180,000 

6,700,000,000 

1,888,997,000 

2,100,000,000 

8,189,726,000 

9,218,000,000 

6,227,932,000 

7,012,000,000 

1,961,794,000 

2,206,000,000 

71,497,167 

80,233,000 

30,092,833 

26,469,000 

41,404,334 

53,764,000 

75,472,194 

106,095,000 

71,283,727 

97,724,000 

4,188,467 

8,371,000 

introduction  of  coach  service  during  1949  as  a  significant  step 
toward  ushering-in  an  era  of  mass  air  travel.  (See  Table  IV). 
Substantial  improvement  in  passenger  and  cargo  traffic, 
increased  mail  pay  and  a  reduction  in  unit  operating  costs 
through  the  installation  of  new  postwar  equipment  and 
more  efficient  operations  combined  to  produce  the  best 
revenue  period  since  the  war  for  U.S.  carriers.  Gross 
revenues  increased  about  13%  over  1948,  according  to  Air 
Transport  association  estimates,  totalling  $764  million  in 
1949,  as  compared  with  $678-9  million  in  1948.  Gross 
operating  expenses  were  estimated  at  $720  million  as  against 
$662-6  million  in  1948,  resulting  in  a  major  increase  in  net 
operating  income  to  over  $44  million  for  1949 — an  impressive 
improvement  for  an  industry  which  was  operating  at  a  heavy 
loss  only  three  years  before.  Of  the  total  1949  revenues, 
passenger  traffic  contributed  about  72%,  mail  18%,  freight, 
express,  excess  baggage  and  other  services  making  up  the 
remaining  10%. 

TABLE  V.--U.S.   AIR  CARRIER  OPERATING    REVENUES  AND   INCOME. 

Revenues:                                                      194$  7949 

Domestic  trunk  airlines          .           $413,353,000  $460,000,000 

International  airlines     .         .            249,234,000  283,000,000 

Feeder  airlines     .         .         .               16,292,000  21,000,000 


Total  revenues 
Income: 

Domestic  trunk  airlines 
International  airlines  . 
Feeder  airlines  . 


$678,879,000 

$  2,075,000 

13,947,000 

369,000 


$764,000,000 

$25,800,000 

20,000,000 

(— )    1,000,000 


Total  income          .          .  $16,391,000  $44,800,000 

While  the  14  feeder  airlines  experienced  substantial  in- 
increases  in  all  categories  of  traffic  except  mail  during  1949, 
most  of  them  were  too  new  to  be  out  of  their  initial  develop- 
mental period.  E.  W.  Wiggins  Airways,  for  example,  operating 
in  New  England,  and  Central  Airlines  in  Texas  and  Oklahoma 
did  not  begin  operations  until  Sept.  1949.  Helicopter  Air 
service,  serving  the  Chicago  area,  began  operations  Aug.  20, 
1949.  It  was  the  second  helicopter  mail  service  to  be  started, 
following  Los  Angeles  Airways  which  began  in  May  1947. 


The  de  Havilland  Comet,  the  world's  first  jet  airliner,  which  flew  for  the  first  time  on  July  27  1949.    On  Oct.  25  it  flew  from  London  to 
Castel  Benito,  Tripoli,  and  back  in  8$  hrs.  at  an  average  speed  of  nearly  450  m.p.h. 


86 


BACTERIOLOGY 


The  Civil  Aeronautics  board  finally  awarded  five-year 
temporary  all-cargo  operating  certificates  in  Aug.  1949  to 
Slick  Airways,  Flying  Tigers  and  U.S.  Airlines,  culminating  a 
three  and  a  half  years'  battle  for  recognition  on  the  part  of 
these  "  irregulars  "  against  determined  opposition  from  the 
major  certificated  carriers. 

In  spite  of  four  serious  accidents  in  the  last  half  of  the 
year,  the  U.S.  scheduled  airlines  set  a  new  safety  record  in 
1949,  operating  domestically  and  on  routes  around  the  globe 
at  an  over-all  average  rate  of  1  -0  passenger  fatality  per  100 
million  passenger-mi.  On  international  routes  U.S.  carriers 
had  a  perfect  safety  record,  flying  2,100  million  passenger-mi, 
during  the  year.  On  domestic  routes,  the  safety  record  was 
the  same  as  in  1948,  namely  1-3  fatalities  per  100  million 
passenger-mi,  but  the  airlines  flew  over  1,000  million  more 
passenger-mi,  than  during  the  year  before. 

There  were  an  estimated  510,000  certificated  pilots  in  the 
United  States  at  year's  end,  as  against  491,306  the  preceding 
year.  Of  these,  9,678  were  women  pilots.  Some  1 ,800  women 
were  rated  as  air  traffic  control  operators,  about  one-fifth 
of  the  total  in  that  branch.  The  number  of  new  student 
and  private  pilot  certificates  issued  showed  a  sharp  decrease. 
Partly  due  to  a  revision  of  its  records,  the  Civil  Aeronautics 
administration  reported  a  decrease  in  the  number  of  civil 
aircraft  registered:  92,700  at  trie  end  of  the  year.  The 
number  of  airports  in  operation  remained  about  6,100. 

As  a  result  of  the  growing  use  of  landing  and  air  navigation 
aids  installed  on  the  Federal  airways  by  the  C.A.A.,  the  air- 
lines continued  to  increase  the  regularity  of  their  scheduled 
operations  without  reducing  safety  standards.  Instrument 
landing  systems  were  in  daily  use  at  87  points  in  the  contin- 
ental U.S.  and  at  2  points  in  Alaska.  Static-free  very  high 
frequency  radio  ranges  were  installed  at  370  points  by  the 
end  of  the  year.  The  Collier  trophy  was  awarded  to  the 
Radio  Technical  Commission  for  Aeronautics  for  its  new 
air  traffic  control  plan,  which  would  not  become  effective, 
however,  for  several  years.  Under  the  Federal  Aid  Airport 
programme,  the  C.A.A.  made  grants  totalling  some  $99 
million  for  improvements  at  783  different  airports. 

Meanwhile,  the  Civil  Aeronautics  board  was  wrestling 
with  approximately  1,100  undecided  proceedings  which  had 
piled  up  on  its  calendar,  including  new  route  applications, 
proposed  mergers,  interchange  agreements,  foreign  permits, 
mail  rate  decisions  and  other  matters  affecting  the  economic 
future  of  the  airline  industry. 

South  America.  In  Argentina  one  of  the  most  imposing 
airports  in  the  world,  the  Pistanni  International  airport 
located  15  mi.  from  Buenos  Aires,  was  opened  to  traffic  on 
Oct.  27,  1949.  The  four  Argentine  air  lines,  however,  reported 
heavy  losses  ever  since  the  government  had  taken  them  over 
a  few  years  previously.  F.A.M.A.,  the  principal  international 
air  line  which  had  been  expected  to  begin  operations  between 
Buenos  Aires  and  New  York  in  1949,  was  planning  to  do  so 
during  1950. 

In  Brazil,  Panair  do  Brasil  maintained  four  round  trips  a 
week  to  Europe,  Africa  and  the  middle  east  with  Constel- 
lations. Together  with  Cruzeiro  do  Sul  it  operated  seven 
round  trips  weekly  to  Uruguay,  Argentina  and  Paraguay. 
Ifhese  two  carriers  and  Aerovias  Brasil  accounted  for  over 
three-fourths  of  Brazil's  air  line  traffic. 

At  La  Paz,  Bolivia,  which  boasts  the  highest  airport  in  the 
world  (altitude  13,398  ft.),  Bran  iff  Airways  operated  DC-4's 
using  jet-assisted  take-off  (Jato)  and  Panagra  was  planning 
to  extend  similar  Jato  DC-4  operations  into  other  high- 
altitude  airports  along  the  Andean  chain,  notably  at  Cocha- 
bamba,  Bolivia,  and  Arequipa,  Peru. 

Pan  American  World  Airways'  Latin  American  division 
reported  a  record  year  for  1949,  carrying  709,000  revenue 
passengers  a  total  of  586  million  passenger-mi.,  compared 


with  683,600  passengers  and  548  million  passenger-mi,  in 
1948.  Cargo  totalled  16,650  tons  m  1949,  compared  with 
14,620  tons  the  preceding  year.  The  Latin  American  division 
completed  four  and  a  half  years  of  accident-free  operation 
on  Dec.  31,  1949,  during  which  about  2,500  million 
passenger-mi,  were  flown  without  injury  to  passengers  or 
crew.  (See  also  AIRCRAFT  MANUFACTURE;  AIRPORTS; 
AIR  RACES  AND  RECORDS;  JET  PROPULSION  AND  GAS  TUR- 
BINES )  (J.  P.  V.  Z.) 

AVIATION,  MILITARY:  see  AIR  FORCES  OF  THE 
WORLD. 

AZORES,  THE:     see  PORTUGAL. 

BACTERIOLOGY.  The  Society  of  American  Bacteri- 
ologists held  its  49th  annual  convention  at  Cincinnati,  Ohio, 
in  May  1949  with  a  full  programme  including  217  scientific 
papers.  A  significant  step  was  taken  by  a  committee  of  the 
society  with  a  view  to  improving  the  professional  status  of  all 
bacteriologists. 

A  typical  study  in  the  field  of  bacterial  physiology  was 
presented  by  S.  J.  Ajl  and  C.  H.  Werkman  of  the  Iowa 
Agricultural  Experiment  station  who  extended  knowledge 
of  the  new  concept  that  heterotrophic  metabolism  utilized 
CO^  in  synthesis.  A  related  paper  by  S.  M.  Martin  and  P.  W. 
Wilson  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin  reported  the  utilization 
of  CO.,  by  Aspergilluf  niger. 

Among  the  reports  on  agricultural  bacteriology  was  a 
study  of  nitrogen  fixing  bacteria  (Rhizobium)  from  Catagana 
arhorescens  by  K.  F.  Gregory  and  O.  N.  Allen  of  the  University 
of  Wisconsin. 

A  representative  research  in  the  field  of  industrial  micro- 
biology was  reported  by  D.  G.  Reihard  and  J.  C.  Garey  of 
the  Pennsylvania  State  college,  who  studied  the  development 
of  free  amino  acids  in  cheese  during  the  curing  period. 

A  paper  on  medical  bacteriology  was  that  by  N.  B.  Wil- 
liams and  M.  A.  Judson  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania 
School  of  Dentistry,  who  found  enterococci  in  apical  abcesses 
of  teeth  and  demonstrated  S.  /tfcaln,  S.  liquefaciens,  and 
S.  z\mogenes  in  the  normal  mouth  of  many  persons. 

All  the  local  branches  of  the  Society  of  American  Bacteri- 
ologists held  meetings  during  the  year  and  researches  in  all 
fields  were  described.  One  interesting  study  made  at  the 
U.S.  Public  Health  Service,  Communicable  Disease  centre, 
Atlanta,  Georgia,  dealt  with  the  in  vitro  virulence  test  for 
C.  diphtheria1.  The  test  was  made  in  a  special  culture  medium 
and  would  eventually  eliminate  the  necessity  of  using  animals 
in  this  important  laboratory  procedure.  At  a  meeting  of  the 
south  western  branch,  held  at  Tuscaloosa,  Alabama,  a  film 
showing  a  simple  method  for  the  prolonged  preservation  of 
bacteria  by  desiccation  in  vacua  was  shown  for  the  first  time. 
The  film,  with  sound  effects  and  spoken  narrative,  was  to  be 
made  available  on  loan  from  the  Communicable  Disease 
centre,  U.S.P.H.S.,  Atlanta,  Georgia.  Many  valuable  new 
films  and  other  visual  aids  to  education  in  bacteriology  were 
also  made  available  during  the  year  by  the  Society  of  American 
Bacteriologists. 

A  symposium  on  Brucellosis  was  held  at  Bethesda,  Mary- 
land, in  September  and  papers  were  read  on  every  important 
aspect  of  the  subject  by  a  panel  of  experts. 

On  Oct.  28  and  29  the  New  York  Academy  of  Science 
sponsored  a  conference  on  the  mechanism  and  evaluation 
of  antiseptics.  The  first  session  was  devoted  to  antibiotics, 
the  second  to  surface-active  anti-microbial  agents  and  the 
third  dealt  with  the  use  of  miscellaneous  chemicals,  especially 
halogens,  as  antiseptics.  The  value  of  ethyl  alcohol  as  a 
general  disinfectant,  long  regarded  as  insignificant,  was 
re-emphasized  during  this  meeting.  It  appeared  that  2% 
solutions  of  iodine  in  alcohol  might  be  one  of  the  most  useful 
disinfectants  for  external  application. 


BADMINTON— BALANCE  OF  PAYMENTS 


87 


Much  interest  was  also  shown  in  new  surface-active, 
synthetic  disinfectant-detergents,  a  great  many  of  which 
appeared  on  the  market  and  in  the  trade  during  the  year. 
Special  interest  centred  around  the  quaternary  ammonium 
compounds,  especially  in  their  mode  of  action  and  in  inacti- 
vators  for  them,  to  be  used  in  differentiating  between  their 
bacteriocidal  action  and  their  bactenostatic  action. 

In  November  the  American  Type  Culture  collection  pub- 
lished a  new  catalogue,  the  first  since  1938.  In  the  new 
edition  2,975  strains  of  organisms  were  listed,  of  which 
49%  were  bacteria,  28%  higher  fungi  and  16%  yeast.  Also 
included  were  algae,  protozoa  and  bacteriophages.  Viruses 
and  rickettsiae  were  to  be  handled  separately  and  listed  in  a 
separate  catalogue.  (M.  FR.) 

BADMINTON.  The  international  Badminton  cham- 
pionship was  won  by  Malaya  who  defeated  the  United  States 
6 — 3  at  Glasgow  and  Denmark  8 — 1  at  Preston,  Lancashire, 
in  the  inter-zone  ties.  Ten  countries  competed  and  England, 
after  victories  over  Scotland  and  France,  lost  to  Denmark  in 
the  European  zone  final.  In  other  international  matches 
England  beat  Scotland  7 — 2  and  Ireland  5 — 4,  and  lost  to 
Sweden  and  Malaya.  Scotland  also  lost  to  Ireland  and 
U.S.A.  The  All-England  championships  were  played  at 
Harringay  arena,  London,  when  titles  were  won  by  David 
Freeman  (U.S.A.);  Miss  Aase  Jacobsen  (Denmark);  Ooi 
Teik  Hock  and  Teoh  Seng  Khoon  (Malaya);  Mrs.  H.  S. 
Uber  and  Miss  Q.  M.  Allen  (England);  and  Clinton  Stephens 
and  Mrs.  Stephens  (U.S.A.).  Cheshire  won  the  inter-county 
championship,  beating  Surrey  in  the  final.  Thirty-three 
counties  took  part. 

Some  60  open  tournaments  were  held  in  various  parts  of 
Great  Britain.  1,900  clubs  were  affiliated  to  the  Badminton 
association  of  England  and  600  to  the  Scottish  Badminton 
union.  (H.  A.  E.  S.) 

United  States.  Marten  Mendez  of  San  Diego,  California, 
captured  the  men's  singles  honours  m  the  1 949  national  badmin- 
ton championships  at  Chicago,  Illmois,when  he  defeated  Joseph 
Alston,  also  of  San  Diego,  15—8,  12—15,  15—5,  while 
Ethel  Marshall,  Buffalo,  New  York,  won  the  women's 
laurels  for  the  third  successive  season.  Miss  Marshall  routed 
Marianna  Gott  of  West  Los  Angeles,  California,  11 — 2, 
11 — 8,  in  the  title  round. 

Wynn  Rogers  of  Arcadia,  California,  teamed  with  Barney 
McCay  of  Alhambra,  California,  to  win  the  men's  doubles. 
Thelma  Scovil  and  Janet  Wright,  both  of  San  Francisco, 
California,  again  repeated  their  previous  success  in  the 
women's  doubles  and  Rogers  triumphed  in  the  mixed  doubles 
with  Mrs.  Loma  Smith  of  Arcadia.  (T.  V.  H.) 

BAHAMAS.  British  colony  consisting  of  an  archipelago 
outside  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  off  the  coast  of  Florida. 
Area:  4,404  sq.  mi.  Pop.  (1948  est.):  c.  76,620.  Capital: 
Nassau.  Governor,  Sir  George  Sandford. 

Rapid  progress  was  made  in  the  construction  of  Button's 
vacation  village  at  West  End,  Grand  Bahama.  Announce- 
ment was  made  of  negotiations  with  the  United  States  for 
passage  over  the  colony  of  rockets  from  Florida  on  the  first 
500  mi.  leg  of  a  Caribbean  guided  missile  range.  A  general 
election  in  the  summer  resulted  in  13  new  members  being 
elected  to  the  House  of  Assembly.  After  further  re-cxamma- 
tion  it  was  decided  the  sponge  beds  were  not  yet  sufficiently 
restored  to  justify  re-opening. 

Finance  and  Trade.  The  legal  tender  is  British  sterling  currency, 
though  U.S.  currency  is  also  generally  accepted.  Budget  (1948): 
revenue  £1,360,226;  expenditure  £1,317,621.  Foreign  trade  (1948): 
imports  £4,720,151;  exports  (visible)  £551,920.  Tomatoes,  lumber 
and  crawfish  were  the  principal  exports  in  1948,  but  the  economy  of 
the  colony  is  primarily  dependent  on  the  tourist  industry.  (J.  A.  Hu.) 

BAHREIN  ISLANDS:    see  ARABIA;  BRITISH  EMPIRE. 


BAKERY    PRODUCTS:     see   BREAD  AND  BAKERY 
PRODUCTS. 

BALANCE  OF  PAYMENTS.  Events  of  1949 
justified  fears  expressed  in  the  previous  year  that  Great 
Britain  might  not  succeed  in  maintaining  the  improvement 
in  her  balance  of  payments  achieved  in  1948.  During  the 
second  and  third  quarters  of  the  year,  much  of  the  ground 
gained  during  1948  was  lost,  nor  could  it  be  fully  recovered 
in  the  last  quarter.  This  setback  was  not  immediately 
apparent;  on  the  contrary,  the  total  deficit,  amounting  to  £10 
million  for,  the  first  half  of  the  year  (or  £20  million  at  the 
annual  rate)  represented  less  than  one-fifth  of  the  £110 
million  shortfall  for  1948.  But  this  seeming  improvement 
concealed  a  renewed  increase  in  the  dollar  deficit,  its  most 
important  and  at  the  same  time  least  tractable  component. 
This  adverse  development  was  largely  due  to  a  marked 
decline  in  business  activity  in  the  U.S.  and  in  the  dollar 
area  in  general.  Thus,  according  to  estimates  of  the  U.S. 
Federal  Reserve  board,  the  volume  of  industrial  production 
in  the  U.S.  had,  by  Oct.  1949,  contracted  by  more  than 
one-fifth  (22%)  compared  with  its  maximum  of  Oct.-  Nov. 
1948.  As  a  result,  U.S.  imports  dropped  appreciably  and 
the  dollar  income  of  the  exporting  countries  shrank 
correspondingly.  The  dollar  shortage,  manifest  throughout 
the  world  after  World  War  II,  grew  worse  again,  after  some 
improvement  in  1948.  Most  countries  could  only  meet  their 
commitments  m  that  currency  by  further  depleting  such 
meagre  gold  and  hard  currency  reserves  as  they  could  muster. 
In  Great  Britain's  case,  in  particular,  a  heavy  outflow  of 
gold  and  dollars  reduced  these  reserves  to  far  below  the  safety 
level,  generally  set  at  £500  million  Ultimately,  in  an  attempt 
to  stop  the  heavy  drain,  the  pound  was  devalued  (Sept.  18), 
a  measure  followed  by  the  devaluation  of  many  other 
currencies.* 

TABLE  I.— UNITED  KINGDOM  BALANCE  OP  PAYMENTS  1947  TO  1949. 

CURRENT  ACCOUNT 

(£  million) 

Payments  1938         1947         1948       I949t 

1.  Imports  (fob.  prices)  .         .          835       1,541        1,768          955 

2.  Government    expenditure 

abroad     ....  16  207  96  79 

3.  Shipping      ....  80  181  189  97 

4.  Interest,  profits  and  dividends  30  106  108  55 

5.  Films  (net)  ....  7  14  10  3 

6.  Travel    .  40  80  77  34 


1,008   2,129   2,248   1,223 


533 

1,100 

1,555 

907 

100 

205 

246 

137 

205 

153 

174 

83 

28 

21 

33 

19 

72 

20 

130 

67 

938 

1,499 

2,138 

1,213 

7.  Total  payments 

Receipts 

8.  Exports  and  re-exports  (f  o.b.) 

9.  Shipping      .... 

10.  Interest,  profits  and  dividends 

11.  Travel          .... 

12.  Other  (net)  .... 

13.  Total  receipts   . 

14.  SURPLUS  (+)  or  DEFICIT  ( — ) 

on  current  account     . 
Of  which :  Visible  trade 

Invisible 
t   Provisional  figures  for  first  six  months 

Current  Account.  At  first  sight,  the  figures  for  the  first  half 
of  1949  (released  in  October)  hardly  reflected  the  onset  of  a 
new  crisis.  Excepting  the  second  half  of  1948,  when  there 
had  actually  been  a  surplus  of  £45  million,  the  results  were 
the  best  recorded  since  the  end  of  World  War  II.  Total 
receipts  from  abroad  had  risen  by  13-4%  over  the  period; 
total  outward  payments  had  increased  by  only  8  %.  Exports 

*  Great  Britain's  gold  and  dollar  holdings  were  as  follows.  Dec.  31,  1948; 
£457  million;  June  30,  406;  Sept  30,  351  (after  a  low  of  330  on  Sept.  18); 
by  Dec.  31,  1949,  they  had  improved  to  416  All  figures  at  pre-devaluation  rates. 


—70  —630  —110  —10 
_302  —441  —213  —48 
+232  —189  +103  +38 


BALANCE   OF   PAYMENTS 


of  merchandise  had  expanded  by  16-6%,  against  only 
6-3%  for  imports.  Altogether,  exports  had  made  a  very 
satisfactory  showing,  although  their  rate  of  expansion  had 
slowed  down.  But  analysed  by  destinations,  their  dollar 
content  had  shrunk  by  some  26%  compared  with  the 
second  half  of  1948. 

Invisible  Trade.  Income  from  invisible  transactions  had,  on 
balance,  contracted  by  26%  over  the  period.  (See  Table  II.) 

Invisibles  would  have  made  a  better  showing  but  for  the 
heavy  increase  in  government  payments  abroad  of  which  fully 
£112  million  were  military  expenditure.*  Receipts  from  all 
commercial  transactions  combined  improved  appreciably 
(-f-17-5%).  The  gradual  replacement  of  merchant  tonnage 
lost  during  World  War  II  showed  in  a  further  striking 
advance  of  shipping  receipts  (-f-42%).  The  expansion  of 
earning  assets  more  than  outweighed  the  progressive  drop  in 
freight  rates  after  1948.  The  omnibus  item  "  Other  receipts," 
containing  the  overseas  income  of  British  oil  and  insurance 
companies,  royalties,  bankers'  and  merchants'  commissions, 
etc.,  less  payments  made  under  these  headings,  rose  only  by 
a  small  amount  after  its  remarkable  expansion  in  1948.  Not 
unexpectedly,  income  from  interest,  profits  and  dividends 
dropped  (by  about  15%).  Taking  the  30  months  from 
Jan.  1,  1946]  to  June  30,  1949,  the  progressive  decline  of  Great 
Britain's  "  independent  income  " '  was  unmistakable,  reflec- 
ting further  sales  of  foreign  assets  during  the  first  postwar 
years,  after  the  large-scale  realizations  of  the  war  period. 


^Million  DEFICIT 

•TOO      -600       -500        400      -30O      -200 


UK  CURRENT   ACCOUNT 

DISTRIBUTION    BY    AREAS 


SURPLUS 
+100       +ZOO 


TOTAL  SURPLUS*  OR  DEFICIT- 
on  vltlblt 


on  Invisible  trod* 


J_ 


J_ 


_L 


J_ 


-TOO       -600      -500     -400         -3OO      -200        -IOO 


O.E.E.C.  COUNTRIES 
1947 

1948 
19490ft  ho  If) 


+200 


On  the  debit  side,  the  excess  of  British  tourist  expenditure 
abroad  over  expenditure  of  foreign  tourists  in  Britain  was 
appreciably  reduced.  The  figures  for  the  first  half  of  the  year 
did  not,  however,  include  the  results  of  the  mam  tourist 
season. 

In  the  final  outcome,  the  total  deficit  of  the  balance  of 
payments  on  current  account  at  the  end  of  June  1949 
represented,  at  £10  million,  less  than  1  %  of  the  balance  sheet 
total.  Had  currencies  been  freely  convertible  in  gold  and 
dollars,  there  would  thus  have  been  no  "  balance  of  pay- 
ments problem  "  for  Britain,  for  it  would  then  have  been 
possible  to  offset  practically  the  whole  of  payments  currently 
owed  by  Britain,  a  negligible  balance  excepted,  by  sums 
currently  received  from  her  debtors.  But  after  1939,  such 
compensation  had  in  actual  fact  been  quite  impossible.  The 
final  deficit  was  a  mere  book  entry,  the  result  of  a  purely 
nominal  compensation  between  certain  positive  and  negative 
items.  (See  Table  III.) 

As  the  surplus  of  £155  million  from  countries  outside  the 

*  £55  million  of  this  represented,  however,  special  payments  to  India  and 
Pakistan,  upon  the  termination  of  British  rule. 


dollar  area  could  not  be  used  to  settle  the  dollar  deficit 
amounting  to  £135  million,  the  latter  figure  (not  the  £10 
million  of  the  total  deficit)  measured  the  real  size  of  the  gap 
in  the  balance  of  payments.  On  an  annual  basis,  the  dollar 
deficit  was  still  equivalent  to  £270  million,  against  £280 
million  for  1948,  and  £230  million  for  the  last  six  months  of 
that  year.  Compared  with  that  last  figure,  the  best  achieved 
after  the  end  of  World  War  II,  it  had,  since  the  beginning 
of  1949,  increased  by  over  one-sixth  (  +  17-3%). 

TABLE   II.— BALANCE  OF   INVISIBLE  TRADE  OP   GREAT  BRITAIN 
(£  million) 

1948  1949 

(First  half,  at 
Net  balances  of  Income  from  (-f-)  or  expenditure  on  ( — )  •       annual  rate) 

Shipping +57  -f80 

Interest,  profits  and  dividends        .  4-66  -f56 

Films          ....  .  —10  —6 

Travel          ....  .  —44  —30 

Other  receipts       .          .          .          .  -f!30  +134 


Government  expenditure  abroad     . 
Net  balance  .... 


+  199 
—  96 

+  103 


+234 
—158 


Capital  Account.  The  current  account  thus  analysed  does 
not,  however,  disclose  the  full  story.  It  records  only 
annually  recurring  expenditure  and  receipts  (e.g.,  merchandise 
exports  and  freight  receipts  as  a  credit;  expenditure  on  films 
and  foreign  travel  as  a  debit).  But  there  are  numerous 
other  payments  and  receipts,  recurring  and  non-recurring, 
which  constitute  capital  transactions  and  as  such  are 
recorded  in  a  separate  capital  account.  This  record  shows 
the  movement  of  Great  Britain's  assets  in,  and  liabilities  to, 
foreign  countries:  loans  granted  or  contracted;  redemption 
of  debts  owing  or  owed;  purchases  of  gold,  etc.  Many 
transactions  arise  out  of  commitments  assumed  by  Great 
Britain  or  by  foreign  countries  in  past  years,  others  represent 
new  commitments.  In  Britain's  case,  these  capital  transactions 
are  particularly  important  because  of  its  role  as  banker  to 
the  whole  sterling  area.  Finally,  the  debit  balance  of  the 
current  account  appears  as  a  balancing  item  on  capital 
account  inasmuch  as  it  must  be  settled  by  a  capital  transaction 
(generally  by  shipping  gold  or  by  borrowing  funds  from 
abroad).  Gold  shipments  (or  dollar  payments  tantamount 
to  gold  shipments)  arise  in  settlements  with  the  dollar  area, 
Belgium,  Switzerland,  Persia,  etc.  With  the  sterling  area, 
a  debit  balance  on  capital  account  entails  an  increase  in 
the  sterling  debt  owed  by  Great  Britain.  But  conversely, 
a  credit  balance,  under  present  conditions,  merely  involves 
a  write-off  from  the  heavy  sterling  debt  incurred  by  Britain 
since  1939. 

TABLE  III. — THE  UNITED  KINGDOM  BALANCE  OP  PAYMENT* 
CURRENT  ACCOUNT 

(£  million) 

Surplus  Deficit 

From  O.E.E.C.  countries       .         15      With  the  dollar  area       .     135 
From  the  sterling  area  .         .       115      With  "  other  countries  "       30 
From  "  other  western  hemis- 
phere "    .         .         .         .25 
Balance  (deficit)   .         .         .         10 

165  ~165 

For  the  first  half  of  1949,  the  net  gold  and  dollar  deficit 
with  the  dollar  area,  on  capital  account,  amounted  to  £239 
million  (1948,  full  year,  £423  million;  last  six  months, 
£169  million).  Compared  with  the  second  half  of  1948,  the 
rate  of  the  deficit  had  thus  increased  by  41  -4%.  The  adverse 
movement  had  gained  in  speed  during  the  second  quarter 
of  1949  when  the  outflow  totalled  £157  million,  against 
£82  million  for  the  first  quarter.*  Payments  made  for  United 
Kingdom  account,  at  £153  million,  ran  at  practically  the 
same  rate  as  for  1948,  but  those  made  on  behalf  of  the  rest 
of  the  sterling  area  more  than  trebled  (£43  million  for  six 

*  £133  million  during  the  third  quarter  1949. 


BALANCE   OF  PAYMENTS 


89 


months,  against  £26  million  for  the  full  year  1948).  The 
major  part  of  these  gold  and  dollar  losses  must  be  ascribed 
to  increased  imports  of  American  goods  by  the  other  sterling 
area  countries  (India,  and  also  South  Africa,  despite  some 
reduction,  as  compared  with  1948).  In  part,  this  development 
might  have  been  due  to  defects  in  the  exchange  control. 
But  too  rapid  a  release  of  sterling  balances,  for  political  or 
military  reasons,  seemed  to  have  been  the  decisive  factor. 
Such  funds  were  either  converted  into  dollars  or  used  to  pay 
for  goods  purchased  in  Great  Britain.  (Such  British  exports 
were  thus  settled  through  the  capital  account  by  a  mere  book- 
keeping entry.  Hence  the  expression  "unrequited  exports" 
used  to  designate  these  transactions.  While  these  exports 
made  an  important  contribution  to  employment  in  Great 
Britain  and  to  the  maintenance  of  British  goodwill  in  the 
sterling  area,  they  frequently  absorbed  resources  which  might 
have  been  used  for  the  production  of  "dollar"  exports.) 

Against  this  outflow  of  gold  and  exchange  reserves  had 
to  be  set  the  reduction,  resulting  from  this  release,  in  the 
United  Kingdom's  external  indebtedness  (£125  million)  and 
a  net  increase  in  its  external  capital  assets  both  inside  and 
outside  the  sterling  area  (£104  million).  The  remaining  debit 
balance  of  £10  million  was  equal  to  the  deficit  on  current 
account  (see  above).  As  with  the  current  account  and  for 
the  same  reasons,  the  gold  and  dollar  deficit  was  decisive 
for  an  assessment  of  the  real  position  on  capital  account. 

Sterling  Balances.  At  the  end  of  1949,  the  future  treatment  of 
the  sterling  balances  promised  to  become  a  major  issue. 
For  economic  and  political  reasons  alike,  the  creditors — 
among  which  were  such  undeveloped  countries  as  India, 
Pakistan,  Egypt,  Iraq,  etc.,  but  also  a  number  of  countries 
outside  the  sterling  area — could  at  best  be  expected  to  accept 
a  very  partial  write-off  of  their  claims,  even  though  these 
might,  in  many  cases,  have  arisen  out  of  defence  expenditure 
undertaken  by  the  United  Kingdom  on  their  behalf  during 
World  War  II.  Yet,  the  acceleration  of  their  drawings 
(£130  million  in  1947;  £213  million  in  1948;  £125  million 
during  the  first  half  of  1949)  placed  an  excessive  burden  on 
the  United  Kingdom's  straitened  resources.  This  problem 
became  even  more  urgent  with  the  approaching  end  of  the 
European  Recovery  programme:  indeed,  E.R.P.  aid  had, 
during  the  first  half  of  1949,  covered  69%  of  the  total  gold 
and  dollar  outflow  (£166  million  out  of  £239  million).  A 
long  term  funding  agreement  limiting  both  the  conversion 
of  sterling  balances  into  dollars  and  the  volume  of  unrequited 
exports  would  thus  be  of  great  help. 

Interim  Measures.  Pending  the  conclusion  of  such  an 
agreement,  and  with  the  drop  in  dollar  receipts  from  direct 
exports,  only  two  means— both  short-term  expedients— were 
available  to  deal  with  the  dollar  deficit:  a  further  reduction 
of  imports  from  the  dollar  area ;  and  a  devaluation  of  the 
pound  in  order  to  stimulate  exports  to  the  dollar  area.  The 
cut  in  imports  was  decided  upon  in  July,  after  the  onset  of 
the  mid-year  crisis,  and  was  to  have  produced  a  saving  of 
$400  million  (then  £100  million)  over  a  full  year,  but  as 
previous  cuts  had  already  reduced  these  imports  to  the 
barest  essentials,  the  possibility  of  further  savings  on  that 
score  appeared  in  fact  doubtful,  nor  could  they  in  any  case 
be  effective  much  before  the  middle  of  1950.  Thus,  only 
devaluation  remained  to  stop  the  dollar  drain  at  short  notice. 
It  achieved  this  immediate  purpose  and  £21  million  worth 
of  gold  and  dollars  (at  the  old  rate  of  exchange)  returned  to 
the  Exchange  Equalization  account  during  the  last  fortnight 
of  September  and  the  reflux  continued  thereafter,  if  at  a 
slower  pace.  But  the  long  term  advantages  of  devaluation 
were  more  doubtful :  resources  of  manpower  and  productive 
equipment  were  fully  employed;  British  economy  showed 
distinct  signs  of  inflation,  and  devaluation  was  an  inflationary 
measure;  finally,  the  receptivity  of  the  American  market  for 


increased  imports  appeared  very  doubtful  indeed.  During 
the  last  weeks  of  1949,  it  was  not  yet  certain  whether  dollar 
receipts  could  be  maintained  at  pre-devaluation  level,  let 
alone  increased.  (At  the  beginning  of  Jan.  1950,  the  chancellor 
of  the  exchequer  announced  that  the  total  balance  of  pay- 
ments deficit  for  1949  would  "  not  be  far  from  that  of  1948 
in  which  there  was  an  overall  deficit  of  £110  million."  But 
the  amount  of  the  dollar  deficit  for  1949  was  not  yet  known. 
The  rate  at  which  it  was  running  was  higher  at  the  end  than 
at  the  beginning  of  1949.) 


UK   BALANCE  OF  PAYMENTS 


J  O«C*M  oflmpor* 
over  exports 


ovtrwoi 
D  Other  rwiptt      D  OtfWt 


tot  poyment$ 
Net  receipts 


The  Balance  of  Payments  Crisis  as  a  World  Problem.  In  a 
report  issued  in  Jan.  1949  by  the  Organization  for  European 
Economic  Co-operation,  official  admission  had  come  for  the 
first  time  that  despite  American  aid  and  whatever  their 
efforts,  the  O.E.E.C.  countries,  upon  termination  of  the 
European  Recovery  programme  (June  30,  1952,  at  the  latest), 
would  still  show  a  dollar  deficit  of  about  $3,000  million. 
At  the  end  of  1949,  it  was  practically  certain  that  Great 
Britain,  singly  or  m  conjunction  with  her  O.E.E.C.  partners, 
would  be  unable  to  equilibrate  her  dollar  balance  by  that 
date  without  outside  help.  There  was  growing  recognition 
that  the  dollar  shortage  had  to  be  considered  as  a  long  term 
factor  in  the  balance  of  payments  position,  resulting  from 
important  structural  changes  that  had  taken  place  in  world 
economy  after  1920.  To  the  persistent  deficits  of  Great 
Britain  and  most  other  countries  corresponded  as  persistent 
a  surplus  in  the  U.S.  balance  of  payments.  Both  were 
abnormal  in  volume  and  duration.  In  Europe  at  any  rate, 
it  was  no  longer  doubted  that  the  U.S.,  to  redress  this  situation, 
would  have  to  make  radical  changes  in  its  tariff  policy,  in 
order  to  replace  by  an  import  surplus  the  long  standing 
export  surplus  in  its  own  balance  of  payments. 

Despite  growing  recognition  of  this  necessity  in  the  U.S. 
— as  evidenced  by  President  Truman's  and  Dean  Acheson's 
speeches  in  November — the  slowness  of  progress  in  this 
direction  caused  grave  fears  among  European  observers. 
Many  also  held  that  neither  the  recommended  resumption  of 
American  private  lending  to  foreign  countries  nor  the 
development  of  backward  areas —point  four  in  President 
Truman's  inaugural  address  of  Jan.  1949 — would  be  an 
adequate  substitute  for  a  change  in  tariff  policy,  the  factors 
of  volume  and  time  being  decisive.  At  the  end  of  1949, 
Great  Britain's  and  western  Europe's  prospects  for  1952  and 
after  appeared  bleak  indeed.  With  the  approaching  end  of 
E.R.P.  and  failing  a  change  in  American  economic  policy, 
the  balance  of  payments  crisis  might  in  the  early  1950s 
cause  a  general  economic  crisis.  (R.  P.  S.) 


90 


BANK   FOR   INTERNATIONAL    SETTLEMENTS— BANKING 


BALLET:  see  DANCE. 

BANK  FOR  INTERNATIONAL  SETTLE- 
MENTS. Founded  in  Basle,  in  1930,  this  institution  was 
established  by  the  main  European  issue  banks  and  commercial 
banks  for  the  purpose,  first,  of  handling  the  transfer  of 
German  reparations  under  the  1930  Hague  agreement 
(Young  Plan)  and,  secondly,  of  acting  as  banker  to  these 
issue  banks.  After  1945,  its  activity  was  mainly  devoted  to 
this  second  function.  After  1947  it  also  acted  as  central 
clearing  agent  under  multilateral  monetary  compensation 
schemes  (extended  in  Oct.  1948  to  all  members  of  the  Or- 
ganization for  European  Economic  Co-operation). 

BANK  FOR  INFFRNATIONAL  SETTLEMENTS 


A  isets 

Gold  in  bar  and  corns 

Cash  and  sight  funds 

Funds   held    in    re-discountable    bills    and 

acceptances 
Miscellaneous  assets 
Funds  invested  in  Germany 


Liabilities 

Short-term  and  sight  deposits  (gold) 
Ditto  (various  currencies) 
Long-term  deposits 
Miscellaneous  provisions 
Reserves  (legal  and  general) 
PaiJ-up  capital 

Earmarked  gold  (not  included  above) 


(Million  Swiss  gold 
francs,  pre-1936  value) 
March  31,     March  31, 

1949  1948 

150-7  122-4 

39-2  42-9 


233-7 

1-6 

297-2 


98-2 
1  2 

291-2 

722-4  555  9 


21-6 
220-2 
228  9 
106-8 

19-9 
125-0 
722  4 
169  5 


17-7 

57-5 

228-9 

106-9 

19  9 

125  0 


During  the  financial  year  1948-49,  customers'  deposits 
in  gold  and  various  currencies  increased  to  almost  four  times 
the  amount  of  the  previous  year  thus  enabling  the  bank  to 
expand  correspondingly  its  productive  lendings  and  invest- 
ments. In  1948-49,  also,  the  bank's  turnover  was  two  and  a 
half  times  as  large  as  in  1947-48  but  the  net  profit,  at  Swiss 
(gold)  Frs.  5,101,856  against  9,541,434,  was  appreciably 
lower.  As  had  been  the  case  since  1944-45,  the  last  year  for 
which  a  dividend  was  paid,  the  whole  profit  was  placed  to 
reserve. 

The  bank's  cautious  dividend  policy  was  accounted  for 
by  the  fact  that  a  large  proportion  of  its  assets  continued  to 
be  invested  in  Germany  in  execution  of  the  Hague  agree- 
ments of  1930.  In  1949  both  the  legal  position  and  the  real 
value  of  these  assets  remained  undefined.  The  bank's  liabili- 
ties to  reparation  creditors  represented  roughly  90%  of  its 
German  assets  and,  to  the  extent  of  some  55%,  were  covered 
by  its  open  reserves. 

At  the  opening  of  the  financial  year  1949-50,  Maurice. 
Frere,  governor  of  the  National  Bank  of  Belgium,  continued 
as  chairman  of  the  bank  with  Sir  Otto  Niemeyer,  a  director 
of  the  Bank  of  England,  as  vice  chairman.  Roger  Auboin 
(France)  continued  as  general  manager.  The  highly  informa- 
tive Annual  Report  of  the  bank  was  again  published  under  the 
supervision  of  Dr.  Per  Jacobsson,  economic  adviser  to  the 
bank.  (R.  p.  S.) 

BANKING.  Inflationary  stresses,  together  with  the  meas- 
ures taken  by  the  various  governments  to  contain  them, 
dominated  the  banking  scene  in  Great  Britain,  the  Common- 
wealth, Europe  and  the  middle  east  in  1949.  In  most  of 
these  areas,  internal  financial  conditions  were  more  stable 
than  in  1948,  in  large  measure  owing  to  the  widespread 
realization  that  a  more  vigorous  application  of  disinflationary 
proposals  drawn  up  in  earlier  years  was  needed  to  combat  the 
new  difficulties  that  arose  in  the  external  payments  field 


from  the  change  in  the  world  economic  climate.  The  dis- 
location of  international  trade  caused  by  the  divergence  of 
sterling  and  dollar  prices  in  the  period  before  the  world 
currency  re-alignment  had  little  direct  effect  on  banking  affairs 
in  most  countries.  After  the  currency  re-alignment  bankers  in 
many  of  the  countries  that  had  devalued  their  currencies 
were  called  upon  to  tighten  credit  restrictions.  This  was  in 
connection  with  official  programmes  to  combat  the  in- 
flationary forces  that  were  expected  to  be  released  by  the 
exchange  adjustment.  Otherwise  the  alteration  in  currency 
exchange  rates  produced  few  important  changes  in  the  bank- 
ing situation  in  these  areas  before  the  year  closed. 

Great  Britain.  The  year  opened  in  Great  Britain  with  a 
decisive  down-turn  in  the  volume  of  bank  money,  explained 
partly  by  seasonal  factors  and  partly  by  the  pressures  exerted 
by  the  government's  money  policy.  The  budget  proposals 
introduced  in  April  turned  out  to  be  less  dis-mflationary  in 
their  effect  than  Sir  Stafford  Cripps,  the  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer,  had  intended  and  bank  deposits  showed  a  ten- 
dency during  the  summer  and  autumn  months  to  climb  at  a 
pace  that  could  not  be  wholly  explained  by  seasonal  con- 
siderations. The  table  giving  the  out-turn  for  1949  up  to 
October  of  the  11  London  clearing  banks  (which  together 
accounted  for  about  95%  of  all  commercial  banking  re- 
sources in  Britain)  showed  that  at  that  time  the  total  of  bank 
deposits  was  virtually  as  high  as  a  year  before. 

ELEVEN  LONDON  CLLARING  BANKS 
(£  million) 

Oct   1947        Oct.  1948        Oct   1949 

Deposits  .  .  .  5,690  6,040  6,049  6 

"  True  "  deposits  .  5,510  5,855  5,867-9 

Cash  .  .  468  485  498  7 

Call  money        .  466  497  555-7 

Bill  holdings  .  825  802  1,162-1 

Treasury  deposit  receipts  1,147  1,313  7440 

Investments  1,500  1,475  1,516  8 

Advances        .  1.176  1,355  1,465  5 

Acceptances,  etc.          .  238  243  260  8 

Examination  of  the  banks'  asset  figures  given  in  the  table 
reveals  that  although  total  bank  resources  showed  little  net 
change  in  1949,  there  were  important  changes  in  the  way  in 
which  these  resources  were  employed.  In  the  first  place,  there 
was  a  considerable  drop  in  the  volume  of  bank  lending  to 
the  public  sector  of  the  economy  and  an  equally  large  ex- 
pansion in  lending  to  the  private  sector.  The  fact  that  cash, 
call  money,  holdings  of  bills  and  treasury  deposit  receipts 
together  snowed  a  substantial  net  decline  during  the  year  was 
due  to  a  reduction  in  the  volume  of  bank  financing  of  the 
government's  floating  debt.  The  rise  in  bank  loans  reflected 
the  provision  of  additional  finance  by  the  banks  to  industry 
and  commerce.  Further,  as  there  was  no  reason  to  suppose 
that  the  government  was  a  net  seller  of  medium  and  longer- 
dated  government  securities  during  the  year,  the  presumption 
was  that  the  increase  recorded  in  the  bank's  investments  also 
indicated  purchases  from  the  general  public  and  therefore 
an  indirect  method  of  extending  additional  finance  to  the 
private  sector  of  the  economy. 

An  original  intention  of  the  Cripps  disinflation  policy  was 
to  repay  the  government  debt  held  by  the  banks  with  the  aid 
of  a  budget  surplus  and  so  place  these  institutions  in  a  position 
to  furnish  without  increasing  total  lendings,  the  additional 
monetary  resources  needed  by  industry  to  finance  recon- 
struction and  development.  This  intention  appeared  to  have 
been  largely  realized  in  1949  so  far  as  the  "  switch  "  from 
official  to  private  lending  by  the  banks  was  concerned. 
But  in  the  event  the  contraction  in  bank  lending  to  the 
government  was  due  more  to  an  unexpected  accumulation  of 
sterling  resources  in  the  hands  of  the  government  depart- 
ments caused  by  the  development  of  a  substantial  overall 
trade  gap  in  the  middle  of  the  year  than  to  an  excess  of 
government  receipts  over  payments  on  budget  account. 


BANKING 


91 


The  second  major  change  in  the  deployment  of  British 
bank  resources  in  1949  was  the  result  of  the  official  decision 
to  reduce  the  amount  of  government  borrowing  on  the 
treasury  deposit  receipts  in  favour  of  increased  borrowing 
on  treasury  bills.  This  development  was  welcomed,  the 
banking  community  in  general  having  long  argued  that  the 
T.D.R.,  introduced  during  World  War  II  as  a  means  of 
drawing  finance  in  the  required  amounts  from  the  banking 
system  quickly  and  conveniently,  was  not  suited  to  peace- 
time conditions. 

The  increasing  difficulties  experienced  by  industry  in 
raising  capital  on  the  new  issue  market  kept  the  demand  for 
bank  finance  on  industrial  account  at  a  high  level  during  the 
year.  The  banks  continued  to  restrict  lending  in  accordance 
with  the  directive  given  to  them  by  the  government  earlier 
in  the  year.  But  despite  the  rise  in  rates  of  interest  on  govern- 
ment securities  during  the  year,  no  general  increase  was 
made  in  rates  of  interest  charged  for  bank  loans.  Small 
adjustments  were  made,  however,  in  rates  quoted  for  dis- 
counting commeicial  bills,  consequent  upon  the  increased 
risks  attaching  to  this  type  of  paper  after  the  change  from 
sellers'  to  buyers'  market  conditions  in  world  markets. 

During  the  year  it  was  announced  that  two  important 
Scottish  banks,  the  Clydesdale  bank  and  the  North  of 
Scotland  bank,  were  to  be  merged  from  1950.  The  spheres 
of  influence  of  the  two  banks,  both  of  which  had  been  owned 
by  the  Midland  bank  for  over  25  years,  were  complementary 
so  that  no  great  structural  changes  were  involved. 

The  Commonwealth.  One  of  the  most  interesting  develop- 
ments in  banking  affairs  in  the  Commonwealth  countries 
was  the  dismissal  by  the  Privy  Council  of  the  United  Kingdom 
of  the  appeals  made  by  the  Australian  government  and  several 
state  governments  of  Australia  against  an  earlier  ruling  by 
the  High  Court  of  Australia  that  vital  operative  sections  of 
the  Australian  government's  act  nationalizing  the  trading 
banks  of  that  country  were  ultra  vires.  In  the  absence  of  a 
clear  statement  by  the  Australian  government,  however,  it 
was  impossible  to  say  whether  the  threat  of  nationalization 
of  the  trading  banks  had  in  consequence  been  permanently 
or  temporarily  removed.  The  resources  of  the  Australian 
banks  continued  to  expand  during  the  year,  the  deposits 
of  the  nine  trading  banks  rising  to  £A795-0  million  in  July 
as  compared  with  £A698  6  million  a  year  before.  The  move- 
ment was  due  in  part  to  the  influx  of  capital  from  overseas 
and  in  part  to  inflationary  pressures  generated  by  the  high 
level  of  export  earnings  and  intense  activity  in  the  capital 
development  field,  the  latter  being  itself  to  some  extent  the 
result  of  the  inflow  of  overseas  capital  for  investment  pur- 
poses. Most  of  the  additional  resources  were  devoted  by 
the  banks  to  strengthening  "  special  accounts "  with  the 
Commonwealth  bank.  Loans  to  private  industry  were,  how- 
ever, increased  by  about  £A40  million  during  the  year. 

In  New  Zealand  the  exchange  revaluation  of  July  1948 
helped  to  restrain  inflation  previously  caused  by  expanding 
export  incomes  and  the  steady  rise  in  the  prices  of  imported 
goods.  But  there  was  a  further  modest  addition  to  the  volume 
of  bank  resources  in  the  year  to  mid- 1949. 

The  money-goods  gap  caused  by  the  high  level  of  capital 
development  and  the  government's  efforts  to  stimulate 
exports  to  the  United  States  produced  a  further  expansion 
in  the  volume  of  bank  activity  in  money  terms  in  Canada 
during  1949.  The  active  note  circulation  of  the  Bank  of 
Canada  in  1949  rose  up  to  August  by  2%  to  $1,085  million. 
Over  the  same  period,  the  deposits  of  the  chartered  banks 
showed  an  increase  of  $582  million  to  $8,188  million.  About 
one-half  of  these  additional  resources  were  utilized  to  expand 
the  banks'  holdings  of  government  securities.  Most  of  the 
balance  was  represented  by  increased  loans  to  industry  and 
commerce. 


The  deterioration  in  South  Africa's  payments  position  in 
progress  through  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  and  the  steps 
taken  by  the  government  to  deal  with  it,  had  sharp  reper- 
cussions on  the  country's  banking  situation.  At  the  beginning 
of  1949,  the  banks  were  asked,  as  a  matter  of  public  policy, 
to  contract  credit  facilities  for  non-productive  purposes 
generally  and  to  restrict  advances  in  the  case  of  less  essential 
or  over-developed  industries.  After  the  devaluation  of  the 
South  African  pound  in  terms  of  the  U.S.  dollar,  the  govern- 
ment embarked  on  a  positive  policy  of  "  dearer  money." 
The  bank  rate  was  raised,  causing  the  commercial  banks  to 
make  corresponding  adjustments  in  rates  for  deposits,  loans 
and  discounts.  The  drain  on  the  cash  resources  of  the  banks 
caused  mostly  by  payments  on  sterling  account  and  by  the 
deposit  of  commercial  bank  funds  with  the  National  Finance 
corporation,  set  up  during  the  year  to  channel  "  idle  funds  " 
into  desirable  capital  outlays,  caused  the  authorities  to  adjust 
the  minimum  reserve  which  the  South  African  commercial 
banks  were  required  to  maintain  with  the  Reserve  bank 
from  10  to  7%  in  the  autumn.  In  the  twelve  months  to  July 
1949,  these  reserves  dropped  by  £SA106-6  million  to  £SA44-9 
million.  Over  the  same  period,  deposits  declined  from  £SA395 
million  to  £SA310-9  million. 

A  feature  of  the  Indian  banking  year  was  the  passing  of 
new  legislation  to  bring  the  commercial  banks  under  closer 
official  supervision,  with  the  particular  object  of  limiting 
the  extent  to  which  such  banks  could  mismanage  their  affairs. 
Inflationary  forces  were  at  work  during  the  greater  part  of 
the  year,  but  owing  to  the  relief  provided  by  the  inflow  of 
unrequited  imports  from  the  United  Kingdom  the  net  ex- 
pansion in  the  volume  of  bank  money  was  relatively  moderate. 

In  Pakistan,  further  important  steps  were  taken  to  strength- 
en the  banking  structure  in  order  to  make  it  easier  to  carry 
out  the  government's  new  economic  development  programme. 

The  Ceylon  authorities  pressed  forward  with  plans  for  the 
establishment  of  a  central  bank.  In  this  connection  a  proposal 
that  the  dominion  should  retain  part  of  its  net  earning  of 
dollars,  instead  of  contributing  them  to  the  sterling  area  pool, 
for  the  purpose  of  starting  a  gold  and  dollar  reserve  was 
approved  by  the  British  authorities. 

The  Middle  East.  The  new  Israeli  government  carried  out 
a  general  overhaul  of  banking  arrangements  following  the 
decision  to  make  the  Anglo- Palestine  bank  the  central  bank 
of  the  new  state  which  had  been  taken  towards  the  close  of 
1948.  In  the  neighbouring  kingdom  of  the  Jordan  steps 
were  taken  to  establish  a  state  bank  and  to  provide  for  the 
issue  of  a  separate  Jordanian  currency. 

Europe.  The  outstanding  development  in  banking  affairs 
in  France,  Italy,  Belgium  and  Western  Germany  in  1949 
was  the  partial  relaxation  of  the  credit  restrictions  that  had 
been  imposed  in  1947  and  1948  to  counter  inflationary 
pressures.  In  all  these  countries  interest  rates  were  reduced 
and  physical  controls  on  lending  modified  with  the  deliberate 
object  of  encouraging  increased  lending  by  the  banks  to 
obtain  capital  outlays.  In  Belgium  official  steps  to  this  end 
included  a  complete  overhaul  of  the  regulations  governing 
the  cover  of  liabilities  maintained  by  the  commercial  banks, 
as  well  as  a  reduction  in  bank  rate.  In  most  of  these  countries 
the  4i  cheaper  money  "  policy  led  to  an  expansion  in  the 
advances  and  deposits  of  the  trading  banks.  In  Switzerland 
an  important  factor  in  the  banking  situation  during  1949  was 
the  renewed  influx  of  gold  from  other  countries.  However, 
steps  taken  by  the  Swiss  authorities  to  "  neutralize  "  the  gold 
inflow  proved  largely  successful,  the  volume  of  bank  money 
showing  no  substantial  change.  In  the  Netherlands  and  the 
Scandinavian  countries,  the  tendency  for  the  supply  of  savings 
to  fall  short  of  the  demand  for  investment  finance  was  the 
main  concern  of  bankers.  The  demand  for  bank  finance  on 
official  account  was,  however,  generally  much  reduced  when 


92 


BANKING 


compared  with  the  preceding  years  so  that  it  was  possible 
to  avoid  further  large  increases  in  balance-sheet  totals  of  an 
inflationary  character.  (C.  H.  G.  T.) 

United  States.  In  1949,  banking  and  monetary  develop- 
ments followed  a  pattern  first  of  moderate  contraction  of 
bank  credit  and  then  of  renewed  expansion.  Contraction  of 
bank  credit  occurred  in  the  winter  and  spring,  accompanying 
the  downward  movement  in  business.  Later  in  the  year, 
recovery  in  levels  of  economic  activity  brought  about  a 
resumption  of  bank  credit  expansion. 

A  notable  develoment  in  the  field  of  banking  which 
occurred  during  1949  was  a  comprehensive  congressional 
study  and  investigation  into  the  effectiveness  and  co-ordina- 
tion of  monetary,  credit  and  fiscal  policies.  The  Sub- 
committee on  Monetary,  Credit  and  Fiscal  Policies  of  the 
Joint  Committee  on  the  Economic  Report  received  state- 
ments on  the  issues  involved  from  the  heads  of  government 
agencies  in  the  credit  field  and  from  a  number  of  leading 
economists,  bankers  and  businessmen.  The  publication  of 
this  collection  of  statements  was  followed  by  hearings 
before  the  sub-committee  during  November  and  December, 
and  by  the  submission  of  a  report  by  the  sub-committee  in 
Jan.  1950.  Strong  differences  of  opinion  among  government 
officials,  bankers  and  economists  appeared  in  the  course  of 
the  congressional  inquiry.  In  its  report,  the  sub-committee 
recommended  **  not  only  that  an  appropriate,  vigorous,  and 
co-ordinated  monetary,  credit  and  fiscal  policy  be  employed 
to  promote  the  purposes  of  the  Employment  act,  but  also 
that  such  policies  constitute  the  government's  primary  and 
principal  method  of  promoting  those  purposes." 

In  1949  total  bank  deposits,  other  than  inter-bank  and 
United  States  government,  and  currency  outside  banks  rose 
by  $1,000  million  to  reach  a  new  record  level  of  $170,100 
million  at  the  end  of  1949.  The  decline  in  currency  outside 
banks,  of  about  $1,100  million  marked  an  acceleration  in 
the  decline  of  the  preceding  two  years.  Demand  deposits 
adjusted  rose  $1,200  million  during  the  year.  The  rise  in 
total  time  deposits  adjusted,  amounting  to  $1,000  million 
represented  a  corresponding  increase  of  time  deposits  at 
mutual  savings  banks  with  an  increase  of  $100  million  in 
time  deposits  at  commercial  banks  being  offset  by  a  decline 
of  about  the  same  amount  in  postal  savings  deposits. 

During  the  year  as  a  whole,  total  loans  of  all  commercial 
banks  increased  by  about  $800  million.  Holdings  of  govern- 
ment securities  rose  $4,700  million  and  holdings  of  other 
securities  increased  about  $1,000  million.  Total  loans  and 
investments  rose  by  about  $6,500  million  during  1949. 
These  developments  were  in  sharp  contrast  to  those  of  the 
previous  year  when  a  large  increase  in  the  total  loans  of  all 
commercial  banks  was  offset  by  a  greater  decline  in  holdings 
of  government  securities  with  total  loans  and  investments 
showing  a  decline. 

At  the  end  of  the  year,  total  loans  of  all  commercial  banks 
amounted  to  $43,300  million,  exceeding  all  previous  records. 
During  1946,  1947,  1948  and  1949,  major  changes  had  taken 
place  in  the  composition  of  loans  and  investments  of  all 
commercial  banks  Total  earning  assets  of  all  commercial 
banks  showed  some  decline  in  the  four  years  from  $124,000 
million  on  Dec.  31,  1945,  to  $120,800  million  at  the  end  of 
1949.  Total  loans  were  up  $17,200  million.  In  contrast, 
holdings  of  government  securities  declined  by  $23,300  million. 
Holdings  of  other  securities  rose  to  $3,000  million. 

On  June  30,  1949,  national  banks,  which  numbered  almost 
5,000,  held  $78,200  million  of  total  deposits.  State  banks, 
which  numbered  rather  more  than  9,000  had  total  deposits 
of  $59,300  million. 

Total  consumer  credit  outstanding  was  $18,800  million 
at  the  end  of  Dec.  1 949,  an  increase  of  1 5  %  or  $2,500  million 
during  the  year.  Almost  all  of  the  total  growth  occurred  in 


the  instalment  credit  category,  with  non-instalment  credit, 
including  charge  accounts,  single  payment  loans  and  service 
credit,  rising  only  slightly.  Apparently  in  response  to  eased 
credit  terms,  which  occurred  after  expiration  of  Regulation 
W  on  June  30,  outstanding  instalment  sale  credit  (appliances, 
furniture,  radio  and  television  sets)  was  21  %  greater  than 
at  the  end  of  1948.  Cash  instalment  loans  increased  14% 
during  1949,  evidence  of  the  gradually  weakening  liquid 
asset  position  on  the  part  of  individual  consumers. 

The  gold  stock  showed  little  change  during  the  year  as  a 
whole.  An  increase  of  almost  $400  million  in  the  gold  stock 
in  the  first  nine  months  of  the  year  was  followed  by  a  decline 
of  almost  $300  million  after  the  devaluation  of  the  British 
pound  and  other  currencies  in  September.  Just  before  the 
devaluation  of  the  pound  sterling  on  Sept.  18  and  the  sub- 
sequent changes  in  other  currency  values,  the  gold  stock 
reached  a  record  of  about  $24,700  million. 

Corporate  issues  for  new  capital  decreased  in  1949  as 
compared  with  the  preceding  year,  but  nevertheless  remained 
at  a  high  level.  New  corporate  security  financing  fell  off 
sharply  during  the  last  six  months  of  the  year,  however,  in 
large  part  as  a  result  of  a  moderate  decrease  in  business 
capital  expenditures  and  lessened  working  capital  require- 
ments. The  tendency  for  a  growing  reliance  on  internal 
sources  of  funds  continued  in  1949.  Bond  issues  comprised 
the  bulk  of  corporate  issues  for  new  capital  purposes,  although 
the  volume  of  new  stock  issues  somewhat  exceeded  the 
1948  total.  Refunding  issues  were  small  in  volume.  State 
and  local  government  issues  for  new  capital  reached  a  new 
record-breaking  total,  in  spite  of  the  reduced  contributions 
of  veterans'  bonus  bonds.  (J.  K.  L.) 

Mutual  Savings  Banks.  The  mutual  savings  banks  of  the 
United  States  ended  the  year  July  1,  1948-July  1,  1949,  with 
assets  totalling  $21,1 12,142,047,  deposits  of  $18,949,020,1 1 1, 
and  a  surplus  of  $2,062,634,259,  equivalent  to  10-9%  of 
deposits.  During  the  year  which  ended  on  July  1,  1949,  the 
net  increase  in  assets  was  $849, 1 84,942  or  4  2  %  and  the  net 
increase  in  deposits  was  $738,588,044  or  4  1  %.  These 
increases  were  less  than  those  recorded  during  the  previous 
year  of  $910,356,586  or  4-7%,  and  $793,955,422  or  4-6% 
respectively.  There  were  19,186,258  accounts  on  July  1, 
1949,  a  net  gain  of  432,579  during  the  year,  whereas  in  the 
previous  year  there  was  a  net  gain  of  566,661  accounts. 

The  average  rate  of  dividend  paid  by  all  mutual  savings 
banks  increased  from  1-73%  on  July  1,  1948,  to  1  -90%  on 
July  1,  1949.  On  Dec.  31,  1949,  there  were  531  banks  and 
1 98  branches  in  operation,  a  net  decrease  of  one  bank  and 
an  increase  of  17  branches  during  1949,  two  of  which  were 
the  result  of  mergers. 

The  annual  growth  of  the  savings  banks  had  become 
relatively  stabilized  during  the  preceding  three  years  at  under 
$1,000  million.  In  the  calendar  year  1947  the  net  increase  in 
deposits  of  mutual  savings  banks  was  $946,407,838;  in  1948 
it  was  $64 1,345,892,  and  for  the  first  half  of  1949  $547,742,152. 
In  this  same  period  the  private  share  capital  in  savings  and 
loan  associations  grew  at  the  rate  of  $1,200  million  annually, 
and  private  life  insurance  reserves  increased  $3,500  million 
annually.  In  addition  the  savings  departments  of  com- 
mercial banks,  the  post  offices  (by  means  of  postal  savings), 
the  U.S.  Treasury  Department  (by  selling  savings  bonds) 
and  open-end  investment  trusts  actively  competed  for  the 
savings  of  the  small  investor.  Since  the  portion  of  national 
income  available  for  current  savings  had  declined  sharply 
since  the  war  it  had  become  necessary  for  the  savings  banks 
to  extend  their  efforts  to  get  new  business.  More  branches, 
longer  hours  and  higher  dividend  payments  were  adopted 
by  many  banks,  and  legal  investment  provisions  of  various 
savings  bank  states  were  changed  to  enable  the  banks  to 
broaden  their  investments  and  so  to  increase  earnings. 


BANK   OF   ENGLAND-BAG   DAI 


93 


On  July  1,  1949,  the  combined  assets  of  all  mutual  savings 
banks  consisted  of  the  following:  U.S.  government  securities, 
55-22%;  other  securities,  11 -21%;  mortgage  loans,  28- 18%; 
cash  and  other  assets,  5-39%.  Mortgage  loans  amounted 
to  $5,950  million,  an  increase  of  $816  million  over  the 
amount  outstanding  July  1,  1948.  Since  July  1,  1949,  more 
than  $146  million  in  loans  were  purchased  from  the  Home 
Owners  Loan  corporation  by  savings  banks  in  Massachusetts, 
New  Jersey  and  New  York  in  addition  to  loans  made  by 
the  usual  procedure.  The  combined  portfolio  of  F.H.A.  and 
Veterans  Administration  insured  loans  was  $1,334  million,  or 
23-9%  of  all  mortgage  loans  on  Jan.  1,  1949.  (See  also 
BANK  FOR  INTERNATIONAL  SETTLEMENTS;  BANK  OF  ENGLAND; 
BANK  OF  FRANCE;  BUSINESS  REVIEW;  EXPORT-IMPORT 
BANK  OF  WASHINGTON;  FEDERAL  RESERVE  SYSTEM;  INTER- 
NATIONAL BANK  FOR  RECONSTRUCTION  AND  DEVELOPMENT; 
INTERNATIONAL  MONETARY  FUND.)  (HE.  BR.) 

BANK  OF  ENGLAND.  Developments  m  Great 
Britain's  external  affairs  were  the  main  concern  of  the  Bank 
of  England  during  1949.  The  bank  normally  acts  as  adviser 
to  the  Treasury  in  currency  matters  and  also  undertakes  main 
responsibility  for  the  operation  of  the  country's  exchange 
control  machinery.  In  consequence,  in  the  period  prior  to 
the  devaluation  of  sterling  in  September  it  was  called  upon  to 
play  a  large  part  in  devising  and  enforcing  measures  to  check 
the  growth  of  evasion  of  the  sterling  area  exchange  regulations 
stimulated  by  the  increased  profitability  of  overseas  black 
market  dealings  m  cut-price  sterling.  Such  measures  were 
designed  m  particular  to  prevent  legitimate  sterling  area 
dollar  earnings  being  tapped  by  third  countries  and  largely 
took  the  form  of  a  general  tightemng-up  of  restrictions  on 
transactions  in  sterling  between  the  non-sterling  countries. 
In  the  devaluation  period,  the  bank's  services  were  in  demand 
m  connection  with  the  determination  of  the  pound's  new 
level  and  with  preparations  for  the  execution  of  the  re-align- 
ment operation.  Subsequently  it  was  required  to  devote 
its  energies  to  an  examination  of  the  opportunities  created  by 
devaluation  for  adjustments  in  British  exchange  control 
policies  to  assist  the  flow  of  international  trade  and  payments. 

Movements  in  the  note  circulation  were  within  narrower 
limits  in  1949  than  in  the  previous  year,  there  being  no  evi- 
dence of  large  scale  hoarding  or  dis-hoarding  of  bank  notes 
by  the  public.  In  the  first  half  of  the  year,  the  amount  of 
currency  in  circulation  showed  a  tendency  to  rise  more 
rapidly  than  could  be  explained  by  seasonal  factors,  pres- 
umably owing  to  the  existence  of  inflationary  pressures  in 
the  country.  The  total  value  of  notes  was  raised  by  £50 
million  by  temporarily  increasing  the  fiduciary  issue  to  £1,350 
million  between  July  and  September  to  meet  the  summer 
holiday  demand  for  additional  currency. 


hsue  Department 
Notes  m  circulation    . 
Fiduciary  issue 
Banking  Department 
Public  deposits 
Treasury  special  account 
Bankers' deposits 
Other  deposits 
Government  securities 
Other  securities 
Reserve 


BANK  OF  ENGLAND 

Oct.  29,  1947     Oct.  27,  1948  Oct.  26,  1949 

(£  million)          (£  million)  (£  million) 

.  1,361        1,231  1,259 

1,450        1,300  1,300 


14 

289 
98 

286 
37 
91 


13 

20 

307 

93 

322 
37 

72 


17 

63 

398 

107 

403 

27 

47 


The  bank's  annual  report  to  Feb.  28,  1949,  contained  an 
analysis  of  the  note  circulation  by  denominations,  as  well  as 
other  statistical  material  relating  to  the  bank's  activities  and 
a  summary  of  external  financial  agreements  concluded  by  the 
British  authorities  in  the  previous  12  months.  (C.  H.  G.  T.) 

BANK  OF  FRANCE.  Although  steps  taken  by  the 
French  government  to  contain  inflationary  stresses  were 


relatively  successful  during  1949,  the  year  witnessed  a  con- 
siderable increase  in  the  note  circulation  of  the  Bank  of 
France.  The  movement  was  to  come  extent  explained  by 
large  scale  dis-hoarding  of  gold  and  foreign  currencies 
against  franc  notes  by  French  nationals  after  the  revival  of 
confidence  m  the  franc  in  the  first  half  of  the  year.  Efforts 
to  induce  the  French  public  to  invest  such  funds  in  govern- 
ment securities  were  largely  unsuccessful.  A  second  factor  was 
the  withdrawal  in  currency  by  the  French  government  of  the 
franc  counterpart  funds  realized  by  the  sale  of  Marshall  aid 
supplies  in  France.  Pending  the  periodic  agreements  with 
the  Economic  Co-operation  administration,  these  resources 
were  included  in  the  current  accounts  and  deposits  of  the 
bank.  The  government's  ability  to  call  upon  counterpart 
funds  to  cover  net  deficits  in  respect  of  the  nationalized 
industries,  coupled  with  the  increase  in  taxation  and  new 
efforts  at  economy,  enabled  it  to  cover  its  commitments 
without  calling  to  any  extent  on  the  bank  for  financial  aid 
during  the  year. 

In  June  the  bank  concluded  an  agreement  with  the  French 
Foreign  Exchange  Stabilization  fund  whereby  it  undertook 
to  provide  finance  for  foreign  exchange  purchases  by  the  fund. 
Previously,  such  resources  had  been  furnished  by  the  Ministry 
of  Finance.  A  condition  of  the  agreement  was  that  periodic 
sales  of  foreign  exchange  should  be  made  to  the  bank  to 
limit  such  advances. 

The  bank  continued  during  the  year  to  apply  the  "  dear 
money  "  policy  the  government  had  adopted  towards  the 
end  of  1948.  But  owing  to  the  shortage  of  funds  on  the 
money  market  caused  by  the  unwillingness  of  the  French 
public  to  make  savings  available  for  investment,  the  bank 
was  called  upon  to  expand  its  discounts  and  advances  by  a 
considerable  amount  during  the  year. 

BANK  OF  FRANCE 

Sept.  25,  1947  Sept  30,  1948  Sept  29  1949 

(Frs.  million)  (Frs  million)  (Frs.  million) 
Ax\ets 

Gold*             ..                                52,800             65,200  65,200 

Private  discounts  and  advances     143,900           257,800  442,400 

Advances  to  state  f                        694,800           711,700  715,200 
Liabilities 

Notes                                              852,200           910,600  1,210,600 

Government  deposits                            800                  800  200 

Other  deposits           .                      70,300            191,300  138,800 

•  Including  Frs  12,408  million  affected  as  guarantee  under  the  convention  of 
Nov  17  1947 

t  Including  obligations  of  the  state  relating  to  the  Bank  of  Belgium's  gold 
deposit 

In  January,  Wilfrid  Baumgartner  succeeded  Emmanuel 
Monick  as  governor  of  the  bank.  M.  Baumgartner  had  been 
chairman  and  general  manager  of  the  Credit  National. 

(C.  H.  G.  T.) 

BAO  DAI,  former  13th  emperor  of  Annam  (b.  Hue,  Oct. 
22,  1913),  succeeded  to  the  throne  at  the  age  of  12  when  his 
father,  Emperor  Khai  Dinh,  died  on  Nov.  6,  1925.  Having 
completed  his  studies  in  France,  he  assumed  power  in  Sept. 
1932  under  the  name  of  Bao  Dai  ("  he  who  maintains 
greatness").  On  March  20,  1934,  he  married  Mariette- 
Jeanne  N'Guyen  Huu  Thi  Lan,  a  Roman  Catholic  from 
Cochin-China  who  had  been  brought  up  in  a  Pans  convent; 
by  her  he  had  five  children.  Up  to  the  proclamation  of 
Annamese  independence  by  Japan  on  March  11,  1945,  his 
position  was  unaffected  by  the  world  situation.  On  June  30, 
1945,  he  renamed  his  state  Vietnam  which  suggested  an  idea 
of  re-unifying  Tongking  and  Cochin-China  with  Annam. 
Shortly  after  the  Japanese  surrender  he  abdicated  on  Aug.  24, 
becoming  citizen  N'Guyen  Vinh  Thuy,  adviser  to  Ho  Chi 
Minh,  leader  of  the  Vietminh  (Communist)  party  and 
president  of  a  republic  of  Vietnam  proclaimed  at  Hanoi 
on  Sept.  2.  In  April  1946  Bao  Dai  was  sent  to  Chungking 
as  representative  of  the  Vietnamese  republic.  When  in  Dec. 


94 


BAPTIST   CHURCH— BARBIROLL1 


1946  fighting  between  Vietnamese  and  the  French  began, 
he  took  refuge  in  Hong  Kong.  He  expressed  readiness  to 
negotiate  with  France  "  an  honourable  and  lasting  peace," 
and  to  break  with  Vietminh.  Difficult  negotiations  began  in 
Dec.  1947  and  culminated  on  June  5,  1948,  in  the  protocol 
of  the  Bay  of  Along,  by  which  France  recognized  the  indepen- 
dence of  Vietnam,  and  in  the  agreement  of  March  8,  1949, 
which  determined  the  conditions.  On  April  28  Bao  Dai 
returned  to  Vietnam  where  he  was  declared  an  outlaw  by 
Ho  Chi  Minh.  On  July  1  he  formed  a  government  with 
himself  at  the  head.  A  clever  diplomat,  Bao  Dai  took 
advantage  of  his  failure  with  the  Nationalists  to  make 
further  demands  on  France  which  became  pledged  to  a 
formula  of  increasingly  uncertain  success.  On  Dec.  30  in 
Saigon  he  signed  a  series  of  conventions  implementing  the 
March  agreement.  (C.  A.  J.) 

BAPTIST  CHURCH.  The  Northern  Baptist  con- 
vention  of  the  United  States  meeting  in  San  Francisco, 
California,  May  30  to  June  3,  1949,  registered  5,071  delegates. 
It  was  reported  that  of  the  $16,163,601  pledged  to  the  World 
Mission  crusade  in  1947,  92-9%  had  been  received.  Tt  was 
voted  to  allocate  a  larger  amount  of  the  budget  than  for- 
merly to  foreign  missions.  Negotiations  with  the  Disciples 
of  Christ  concerning  the  merger  of  the  two  bodies  were  to 
continue.  A  proposal  to  change  the  name,  Northern  Baptist 
convention,  to  American  Baptist  convention  was  approved. 
A  general  secretaryship  was  created  by  combining  the  corres- 
ponding secretaryship  and  the  recording  secretaryship,  the 
incumbent  to  serve  as  the  recognized  spokesman  for  the 
convention.  Mrs.  Howard  G.  Colwell  of  Loveland,  Colorado, 
was  chosen  president  for  the  year  1949-50,  the  third  woman 
to  hold  the  office.  The  1950  convention  was  scheduled  to 
meet  in  Boston,  Massachusetts,  May  21  to  26,  1950.  Dr.  G. 
Pitt  Beers,  executive  secretary  of  the  American  Baptist  Home 
Mission  society  of  the  Northern  convention  assured  the 
Church  World  service  that  the  denomination  would  provide 
homes  for  1 ,200  families  of  displaced  persons. 

The  Southern  Baptist  convention  met  in  Oklahoma  City, 
Oklahoma,  May  18  to  22,  1949,  registering  9,357  messengers. 
Total  gifts  for  the  year  1948-49  amounted  to  $156,605,521. 
The  Foreign  Mission  board  proposed  a  goal  of  1,750  foreign 
missionaries  and  an  annual  budget  of  $10,000,000.  The 
26,822  convention  churches  reported  312,246  baptisms, 
bringing  the  total  membership  to  6,491,981.  The  convention 
also  operated  25  hospitals  valued  at  $42,176,301.  Its  three 
theological  seminaries,  Southern,  Southwestern  and  New 
Orleans,  reported  a  total  enrolment  of  2,551  students.  The 
convention  formed  a  special  organization  through  which 
individuals  and  churches  might  become  sponsors  for  displaced 
persons.  The  1950  convention  was  expected  to  take  place 
May  7  to  12,  in  Chicago. 

A  new  Baptist  church  at  Nagyvarsany,  Hungary,  was 
consecrated  May  9,  1949,  with  1,000  Baptists  present.  The 
World  Congress  of  Baptist  Youth,  numbering  1,350  delegates 
from  23  countries,  met  Aug.  3  to  9,  1949,  in  Stockholm. 

During  the  first  week  of  Sept.  1949,  the  Baptists  of  Wales 
celebrated  the  tercentennial  of  the  founding  of  the  first 
Baptist  church  in  the  principality.  The  Ontario  and  Quebec 
Baptist  convention,  Canada,  celebrated  its  diamond  jubilee, 
June  9  to  12,  1949.  A  memorial  lectern  to  William  Carey,  the 
great  Baptist  missionary  appointed  by  English  Baptists  to 
India  in  1792,  was  dedicated  in  Westminster  Abbey,  Oct.  11, 
1949.  Dr.  S.  Pearce  Carey  presented  the  lectern  which  was 
received  and  dedicated  by  the  dean  of  the  abbey. 

During  1949  plans  were  being  consummated  for  a  Common- 
wealth and  Empire  Baptist  congress  to  be  held  in  London, 
England,  June  3  to  10,  1951.  (See  also  CHURCH  MEMBER- 
SHIP.) (R.E.E.  H.) 


BARBADOS.  British  colony  consisting  of  the  most 
easterly  of  the  Caribbean  islands.  Area:  166  sq.  mi.  Pop. 
(1948  est.):  199,012.  Governor,  A.  W.  L.  Savage. 

History.  Constitutional  changes  were  proposed  by  the 
House  of  Assembly  to  the  effect  that  it  should  have  undivided 
authority  in  matters  of  finance,  the  life  of  the  assembly  should 
be  extended  from  two  to  three  years  and  a  Parliament 
bill  should  be  introduced  to  regulate  relations  between  the 
assembly  and  the  Legislative  Council  on  the  basis  of  those 
now  existing  between  the  British  House  of  Commons  and  the 
House  of  Lords;  and  that  if  necessary  the  governor  request 
the  secretary  of  state  for  power  to  nominate  sufficient 
additional  councillors  to  secure  the  passage  of  the  bill. 

A  report  on  local  government  by  Sir  John  Maude  recom- 
mended that  the  300-year-old  system  of  11  vestries  and  32 
parochial  boards  should  be  abolished,  and  that  the  colony 
should  be  divided  up  into  three  areas  for  local  government 
purposes:  a  northern  district  and  a  southern  district  (each 
with  a  council)  and  the  town  of  Bridgetown,  which  should 
be  granted  municipal  status  with  its  local  government 
entrusted  to  a  city  council. 

Finance  and  Trade.  Currency:  West  Indian  dollar  ($4-80-£l). 
Budget  (1948-49):  revenue  £1,940,467;  expenditure  £2,051,626. 
Foreign  trade  (1948):  imports  £6,346,230;  exports  £3,048,  165. 
Principal  exports:  sugar  and  its  by-products,  molasses  and  rum. 

(J.  A.  Hu.) 

BARBIROLLI,  SIR  JOHN,  British  orchestra  con- 
ductor (b.  London,  Dec.  2,  1899),  was  educated  at  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Music,  and  made  his  first  public  appearance  as  a 
violoncellist  at  Queen's  hall  in  1911.  He  toured  the  British 
Isles  and  Europe  as  a  member  of  the  international  string 
quartet,  1920-24.  In  1925  he  founded  the  Barbirolli  chamber 
orchestra  and  in  1926  he  joined  the  British  National  Opera 
company  as  conductor.  In  1937  he  succeeded  Arturo  Tos- 
canini  as  permanent  conductor  and  music  director  of  the 


Sir  John  Barbirolli,  conductor  of  the  Halle  orchestra, 
knighted  in  June  1949. 


He  was 


BARKLEY-BECH 


95 


New  York  philharmonic  symphony  orchestra.  He  refused 
to  give  up  his  British  nationality  and,  not  being  permitted  by 
the  American  Musicians'  union  to  continue  in  his  post,  left 
the  United  States  in  1942.  In  the  following  year  he  became 
conductor  of  the  Halle  orchestra  of  Manchester.  At  that 
time  the  Halle  was  near  dissolution  because  of  wartime 
difficulties  and  Barbirolli  succeeded  in  restoring  it  to  its 
prewar  eminence.  At  the  end  of  1948  he  was  asked  to  succeed 
Sir  Adrian  Boult  as  conductor  of  the  B.fi.C.  symphony 
orchestra  but  declined,  desiring  to  remain  with  the  Halle. 
In  return  it  was  agreed  that  the  Halle  should  be  augmented 
to  full  concert  strength,  that  the  minimum  wage  for  its 
musicians  should  be  increased  and  that  the  orchestra  should 
make  one  foreign  tour  each  year.  During  1949  Barbirolli 
conducted  at  the  Belgian  international  music  festival  and 
at  the  Edinburgh  festival,  but  in  August  was  told  by  his 
doctors  that  he  should  restrict  his  activities  for  one  year 
solely  to  the  Halle.  He  was  knighted  in  the  birthday  honours, 
June  1949. 

BARKLEY,  ALBEN  WILLIAM,  United  States 
politician  (b.  Graves  county,  Kentucky,  Nov.  24,  1877), 
attended  Marvin  college,  Clinton,  Kentucky,  Emory  college, 
Oxford,  Georgia,  and  the  University  of  Virginia  law  school, 
Charlottesville.  He  was  elected  prosecuting  attorney  of 
McCracken  county,  Kentucky,  in  1905,  and  was  judge  of 
McCracken  county  court,  1909-13.  He  was  elected  to  the 
House  of  Representatives  as  a  Democrat  in  1913,  and  after 
14  years  there  was  elected  to  the  Senate.  He  was  permanent 
chairman  of  the  1940  convention  and  at  the  1944  convention 
delivered  the  speech  nominating  Franklin  D.  Roosevelt  for 
a  fourth  term.  During  World  War  II  he  was  Senate  majority 
leader  and,  as  such,  shepherded  numerous  wartime  and 
emergency  acts  through  that  body.  In  the  80th  Congress 
(elected  in  Nov.  1946)  he  was  minority  leader  in  the  Senate. 
At  the  Democratic  national  convention  in  Philadelphia, 
Pennsylvania,  in  1948,  he  was  nominated  Democratic  candi- 
date for  the  vice  presidency  and  on  Nov.  2  was  elected  with 
President  Harry  S.  Truman,  taking  office  on  Jan.  20,  1949, 
as  the  nation's  first  vice  president  since  April  12,  1945. 
On  Jan.  19,  1949,  President  Truman  signed  a  bill  to  increase 
certain  salaries  including  those  of  the  president  and  the  vice 
president  (who  is  also  president  of  the  Senate)  and  thus  when 
Barkley  took  office  the  following  day  he  started  to  draw  the 
increased  salary  of  $30,000  a  year  (as  against  $20,000  pre- 
viously). On  Nov.  18,  in  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  Barkley, 
who  had  been  a  widower  from  1947,  married  Mrs.  Carleton  S. 
Hadley,  a  widow. 

BARLEY:   see  GRAIN  CROPS. 

BASEBALL.  On  June  5,  1949,  more  than  three  years 
after  they  had  been  suspended  for  five  years  from  professional 
baseball  for  jumping  to  the  Mexican  league,  18  former  major 
league  players  were  granted  complete  amnesty  by  Com- 
missioner A.  B.  Chandler  and  invited  to  return  to  their 
former  clubs  immediately. 

The  top  player  deal  of  the  year  transferred  pitcher  Murry 
Dickson  from  the  Cardinals  to  the  Pirates  for  $125,000. 
In  other  manoeuvres,  the  Dodgers  brought  up  pitcher  Don 
Newcombe  from  their  farm  at  Montreal,  Quebec,  on  May  15, 
and  the  Negro  righthander  immediately  became  one  of  the 
aces  of  Manager  Burt  Shotton's  staff.  The  Boston  Red  Sox 
also  sought  to  strengthen  their  hill  staff  by  trading  pitcher 
Mickey  Harris  and  outfielder  Sam  Mele  to  the  Washington 
Senators  for  hurler  Walter  Masterson. 

After  more  than  two  months  on  the  side  lines  because  of  an 
injured  heel,  Joe  DiMaggio  made  his  1949  debut  at  Boston, 
Massachusetts,  on  June  28.  In  his  first  eame.  the  Yankee 


Clipper  clouted  a  two-run  homer  to  feature  a  5  to  4  victory. 
The  next  day  he  poled  two  round-trippers,  one  with  two  team 
mates  on  the  basepaths,  to  highlight  a  9  to  7  victory,  and  the 
third  day  he  rapped  a  three-run  homer  as  New  York  scored 
a  6  to  3  win. 

Major  League  Races.  In  what  were  probably  the  most 
dramatic  races  in  big  league  history,  the  New  York  Yankees 
and  Brooklyn  Dodgers  captured  the  American  and  National 
league  championships,  respectively.  Each  pennant  was 
decided  on  the  closing  day  of  the  season  with  the  Yankees 
defeating  the  Boston  Red  Sox,  5  to  3,  to  edge  out  Joe 
McCarthy's  club  by  one  game,  and  the  Dodgers  defeating 
the  Phillies,  9  to  7,  to  protect  their  one-game  margin  over 
the  St.  Louis  Cardinals,  who  beat  the  Chicago  Cubs. 

Individual  Performances.  Ted  Williams'  bid  to  win  the 
triple  crown — high-batting-average,  runs-batted-in  and  home- 
run  leadership — was  thwarted  on  the  final  day  of  the  season 
when  George  Kell,  Detroit  third  baseman,  passed  up  the 
Boston  outfielder,  posting  a  mark  of  •  3429  to  Ted's  •  3427. 
Williams  won  home-run  honours,  however,  with  43,  and  tied 
for  runs-batted-in  with  his  teammate  Vern  Stephens  at  159. 

Jackie  Robinson  won  the  National  league  batting  title  with 
•342,  out-distancing  Stan  Musial,  who  finished  second,  by 
three  points,  and  gained  the  most  valuable  laurels  in  the 
senior  circuit. 

Ail-Star  Game.  The  American  league  registered  its  12th 
victory  against  only  four  losses  in  the  midseason  classic  by 
defeating  the  senior  circuit,  11  to  7,  July  12. 

World  Series.  The  Yankees  chalked  up  their  12th  world 
championship  out  of  16  post-season  series  in  which  they 
participated,  by  defeating  the  Dodgers,  four  games  to  one. 

(A.  B.  C.) 


BASUTOLAND: 

TECTORATES. 


see  BRITISH  SOUTH  AFRICAN  PRO 


BECH,  JOSEPH,  Luxembourg  politician  (b.  Die- 
kirch,  Luxembourg,  Feb.  17,  1887),  after  qualifying  as  doctor 
of  law  in  1912  at  the  University  of  Paris,  practised  as  a  lawyer 
at  Luxembourg.  Entering  politics,  he  was  elected  to  the 


Joseph  Been,  Joreign  minister  o}  Luxembourg,   l  his  photo  was  taken 
at  the  Council  of  Europe  in  Strasbourg.  Aug.  1949. 


96 


BEEKEEPING— BELGIAN  COLONIAL  EMPIRE 


Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1914  as  a  member  of  the  Christian 
Social  party,  was  minister  of  justice  1921-25  and  prime 
minister  and  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  1926-37.  He  served 
as  foreign  minister  in  the  successive  cabinets  of  Pierre 
Dupong  (q.v.).  From  Aug.  1940  to  April  1945  he  represented 
his  government  in  London.  On  Oct.  3,  1918,  he  married 
Georgette  Delahaye,  and  had  a  son  and  daughter.  On  April  4, 
1949,  at  Washington,  he  signed  the  North  Atlantic  treaty  on 
behalf  of  the  grand  duchy  of  Luxembourg. 

BECHUANALAND:  see  BRITISH  SOUTH  AFRICAN 
PROTECTORATES. 

BEEKEEPING.  Beekeepers  in  Great  Britain  found  the 
year  1949  a  great  improvement  on  1948.  In  districts  which  had 
sufficient  rain  excellent  yields  of  surplus  honey  resulted. 
In  a  few  places  quantity  of  produce  was  disappointing;  in 
others  the  hot,  dry  weather  resulted  in  a  mixture  of  honey 
dew,  sometimes  spoiling  the  whole  take.  Reports  from 
heather  districts  showed  that  both  the  quantity  and  quality 
of  the  yield  were  good,  owing  not  so  much  to  heavy  sec- 
retion of  nectar  as  to  the  almost  unprecedented  weather 
conditions  for  foraging.  Light  coloured  varieties  were  scarce, 
as  evidenced  by  the  exhibits  on  the  show  benches,  but  the 
darker  honeys  generally  displayed  made  up  for  this  in  density 
and  flavour.  In  most  areas  there  was  satisfactory  storing 
in  brood  chambers,  and,  with  comparatively  little  feeding, 
apiarists  packed  down  for  the  winter  with  confidence. 

Probably  because  of  the  exceptional  heat  and  dryness  the 
temper  of  bees  was  a  matter  for  common  complaint,  but  where 
adequate  water  supplies  were  available  the  bees  were  quite 
normal  in  this  respect.  As  an  offset,  however,  swarms  were 
much  fewer  than  in  1948,  owing  no  doubt  to  fewer  breaks 
in  the  possibilities  of  foraging. 

Rearing  young  queens  to  head  colonies  in  1950  presented 
less  difficulty  than  usual.  Climatic  conditions  from  early 
spring  to  the  end  of  September  were  ideal  for  mating  flights. 
In  spite  of  this  an  exceptional  number  of  strong  colonies  run 
for  honey  were  queenless  when  supers  were  removed,  which 
suggested  that  bees  were  too  busy  collecting  nectar  to  attend 
adequately  to  what  should  have  been  a  matter  of  high 
priority. 

Bee  diseases  were  still  a  menace  owing  to  the  carelessness 
of  many  owners.  Acarine  disease,  for  example,  could  be 
prevented  either  by  using  the  Frow  remedy  in  early  spring 
or  by  giving  a  supply  of  wintergreen  oil  on  packing  down 
for  winter;  a  small  bottle  of  this  oil  stuffed  with  a  cotton 
wick  and  placed  on  the  floor-board  between  the  frame  ends 
and  near  the  cluster  was  found  to  be  an  almost  certain 
preventative.  Foul  brood  (American  and  European)  was  not 
being  treated  as  drastically  as  it  should  be;  still  the  only 
known  method  of  stamping  out  the  disease  was  by  burning 
and  disinfecting.  (See  also  ENTOMOLOGY.)  (W.  H.  R.) 

BEER:   see  BREWING  AND  BEER. 

BELGIAN  COLONIAL  EMPIRE.  The  Belgian 
colonial  empire  consists  of  the  colony  of  the  Congo  in 
central  Africa  and  the  adjacent  trust  territories  of  Ruanda 
and  Urundi.  The  accompanying  table  gives  material  relative 
to  all  territories  administered  by  Belgium.  Total  area:  about 
925,094  sq.  mi.  Total  population  (1949  est.):  about 
14,352,200.  Chief  towns  (white  population  only,  Dec.  1948 
est.):  Leopoldville  (c^p  ,  7,244);  Elisabethville  (6,240); 
Stanleyville  (1,517);  Costermanville  (1,511). 

History.  The  prosperity  enjoyed  by  Belgium's  African 
colony  after  World  War  II  in  1949  showed  no  signs  of 
diminishing;  the  year  was  one  of  consolidation,  though 
there  was,  to  begin  with,  a  fall  in  the  prices  of  oil-bearing 


products  and  fibres,  and  later  of  mining  products.  "  We  are 
doubly  affected  by  this  situation,"  commented  the  governor 
general,  Eugene  Jungers,  in  a  statement  to  the  council  of 
government  held  at  Leopoldville  July  18-25.  "  While  we  are 
getting  less  for  our  exports,  we  continue  to  pay  inflated 
prices  for  imported  producer  and  consumer  goods." 

With  a  view  to  adapting  the  economy  of  the  Belgian  Congo 
to  peacetime  conditions  and  to  consolidating  results  already 
achieved,  a  team  of  experts  at  Leopoldville  under  the  chair- 
manship of  the  governor  general,  and  another  in  Brussels 
under  the  chairmanship  of  Pierre  Wigny,  the  minister  for 
colonies,  drew  up  a  ten-year  plan  for  economic  and  social 
development,  allocating  Fr. 25,000  million  to  public  invest- 
ment. Published  in  June,  the  plan  amply  justified  itself  on 
various  administrative,  economic,  social  and  political  grounds, 
the  most  important  being  the  need  to  co-ordinate  efforts  and 
to  apportion  in  a  co-ordinated  programme  the  different 
projects  to  be  undertaken.  In  the  opinion  of  the  minister 
for  colonies,  the  ten-year  plan  was  not  of  a  restrictive  nature. 
Each  year  the  government  would  ask  parliament  to  vote  the 
necessary  credits  for  the  next  twelve  months  and  this,  the 
minister  pointed  out,  would  afford  the  opportunity  for 
checking  the  working  of  the  plan  and  making  any  adjustments 
which  might  be  required. 

Not  only  would  the  ten-year  plan  tend  to  improve  the 
living  standards  of  the  Belgian  Congo's  ten  million  population, 
whose  essential  needs  were  not  yet  satisfied,  but  it  would  also 
create  a  domestic  market  hitherto  lacking.  To  this  end,  the 
government  was  to  pursue  a  policy  of  wage  increases  for 
Natives  which  could  be  secured  by  developing  output, 
conservation  of  crops  and  improving  distribution  and 
transport. 

In  the  mining  sector,  since  alluvial  deposits  were  almost 
exhausted,  new  techniques  were  perfected  for  exploiting 
deep  seams.  In  the  agricultural  domain,  greater  mechaniza- 
tion, curing  processes  and  the  construction  of  silos  were 
foreshadowed. 

In  all,  the  public  authorities  were  to  devote,  for  the  welfare 
of  the  Native  population,  Fr.  1,500  million  for  the  agricultural 
programme,  Fr.2,000  million  for  housing,  Fr.  1,000  million 
for  drinking  water,  Fr.  2,000  million  for  education  and 
Fr.2,000  million  for  technical  instruction. 

Also  envisaged  in  the  ten-year  plan  was  intensive  develop- 
ment of  public  works,  including  improvement  of  the  road, 
railway  and  airway  systems,  of  navigable  waterways  and  of 
telecommunications,  modernization  of  sea  and  river  ports, 
and  the  construction  of  wharves,  hydro-electrical  works, 
refrigerating  plants,  scientific  laboratories,  etc. 

Operation  of  the  agricultural  provisions  of  the  ten-year 
plan  began  on  July  15,  1949,  with  the  passing  of  an  order 
for  organizing  Native  co-operatives.  "  If  this  programme 
succeeds,"  wrote  Pierre  Wigny,  in  his  introduction  to  the 
Plan  decennal  pour  le  developpement  economique  et  social  du 
Congo  Beige,  "  we  may  be  satisfied  that  for  millions  of  human 
beings  life  will  be  a  little  easier  and  a  little  happier." 

Ruanda  and  Urundi.  The  putting  under  trusteeship  of  the 
two  territories,  which  since  1925  had  been  administered  by 
Belgium,  was  approved  by  the  Belgian  parliament  by  the 
act  of  April  25,  1949.  On  April  11  the  Mwamis  (Native 
rulers)  of  both  Ruanda  and  Urundi  had  been  appointed,  by 
decree  of  the  regent,  ex  officio  members  of  the  vice-governor 
general's  council. 

In  order  to  encourage  greater  participation  by  the  Natives 
in  the  government  of  their  country,  the  administrative 
authorities  examined  the  question  of  creating  an  elected 
council  which  would  have  a  legislative  function. 

With  regard  to  the  wage  problem  which  had  been  raised 
at  the  fourth  session  of  the  United  Nations  general  assembly, 
it  may  be  recorded  that  in  Ruanda-Urundi  between  1938 


BELGIUM 


97 


BELGIAN  COLONIAL  EMPIRE 


Country            Population                Capital, 
and  Area            (Feb.  28,               Status  and 
(in  sq.  mi.)          1949  cst.)                Governor 

BELGIAN      Native  10,914.208    Lgopoldville; 
CONGO      White         51,639*     colony;  governor 
904,974       (Including    36,510     general:  Eugene 
Belgians)                   Jungers 

Principal  Products                   Foreign  Trade              Road,  Rail  and 
(1948)                            (Francs  '000)                 Waterways 
(Including  Ruanda             (Including  Ruanda)      Including  Ruanda) 
and  Urundi)                       and  Urundi)                and  Urundi) 
Diamonds  11,250,000  carats                 1948                  Kbads(1947) 
Gold        .          .      10,103kg.     Imports      8,383,140           100,524km. 
(in  metric  tons)               (756,253  metric  tons) 
Copper         .         .    157,397                                          Railways  (1948): 
Tin  (metal)   .         .        3,921     Exports     10,817,465           4,747km. 
Zinc  (concentrates)    11?,  822    (854,305  metric  tons) 
Manganese  ore      .      15,851                                         Waterways  (1948): 
Uranium  ore  (1946)       6,200       1949  (six  months)             25,412km. 
Palm  Oil       .          .    110,387     Imports       5,147,930     (including    12,284 
Palm  kernels          .      83,375     (443,3  10  metric  tons)     km.  for  barges  of 
Gum  Copal  ..      10,919                                             40  tons  only) 
Cotton          .         .      51,224     Exports       5,470,838 

Budget 
(Francs  '000) 

Belgian  Congo 
(1948  actual) 
Revenue     3,703,894 
Exp.            3,557,795 
(1949  est.) 
Rev,        4,562,602 
Exp.        4,460,764 
Index  number 
of  the  cost  of  living 
(July  1935-100) 
July  1949-260 

RUANDA 

(1948  esU           Nianza  (Ruanda)  Coffee           .         .      30,545     (396,677  metric  tons)        Motor  vehicles 

Ruanda-Urundi 

AND 

Native    3,386.362     Kitega  (Urundi) 

Cacao  .         .         .        2,220 

(1947): 

(1948  actual) 

URUNDI 

trust  territory 

Rubber         .         .        5,072 

Cars           .    5,389 

Revenue        200,458 

20,120 

administered 

Timber           .          .      78,099 

Lorries       .    7,733 

Expenditure  230,464 

with  Congo 

Quinine  (7  %  content)    1  ,500 

Tractors    .       167 

(1949  est.) 

Motor  cycles  1,282 

Revenue        232,062 

Bicycles     .  69,382 

Expenditure  347,504 

*  Including  Ruanda  and  Urundi. 

and  1949  wages  had  risen  in  the  proportion  of  one  to  four, 
much  more  than  the  increase  in  output. 

Steps  were  taken  towards  the  opening  at  Kisantu  (Belgian 
Congo)  in  1953  of  a  university  accessible  to  the  inhabitants 
of  the  protected  territories;  moreover,  from  1955  university 
training  was  to  be  made  available  at  Astrida,  in  the  heart  of 
Ruanda-Urundi. 

Education.  (1948)  State  schools:  elementary  5,  pupils  3,464;  technical 
3,  pupils  355;  secondary  4,  pupils  313.  Subsidized  schools:  elementary 
8,001,  pupils  406,652;  technical  36,  pupils  1,328;  teachers  training 
schools  39,  pupil*  2,471 ;  secondary  12,  pupils  959.  "  Free  "  (Catholic) 
schools:  elementary  19,072,  pupils  513,049;  secondary  58,  pupils 
1,928. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  Plan  decenna!  pour  le  devehppement  economique  et 
social  du  Congo  Beige  (Brussels,  1949);  Annuaire  Statistique  de  la 
Belgique  et  du  Congo  Beige  (Brussels,  1949).  (G.-H.  D.) 

BELGIUM.  A  kingdom  in  western  Europe  bounded 
by  France  on  the  S.W.,  the  Netherlands  on  the  N.  and  Ger- 
many and  Luxembourg  on  the  E.  Area:  11,782-5  sq.  mi.* 
Pop.  (Dec.  31,  1948,  est.):  8,602,611.  Languages  (1930): 
Dutch  42-92%,  French  37-56%,  German  0-85%,  Dutch 
and  French  1 2  •  92  %,  German  and  French  0  •  83  %.  Religion : 
mainly  Roman  Catholic;  Jewish  34,500.  Chief  towns  (pop., 
Dec.  31,  1948,  est.;  first  figure  including  suburbs,  second 
figure  commune  only):  Brussels  (cap.,  1,296,687;  185,112); 
Antwerp  (chief  port,  794,280;  266,636);  Li6ge  (573,176; 
156,664);  Charleroi  (445,229;  26,262);  Ghent  (442,792; 
166,797);  Namur  (215,069;  31,637);  Bruges  (200,850; 
52,984).  Ruler,  King  Leopold  III  (?.v.),  Prince  Charles 
(q.v.)t  regent;  prime  ministers  in  1949,  Paul-Henri  Spaak 
(q.v.)  and,  from  Aug.  11,  Gaston  Eyskens  O/.v.). 

History.  Increasing  unemployment — which  already  at  the 
end  of  1948  was  giving  cause  for  anxiety — was  the  chief 
political  and  economic  preoccupation  at  the  beginning  of 
1949.  On  March  12  the  number  of  unemployed  totalled 
261,000,  against  122,000  in  Sept.  1948.  Production,  however, 
continued  at  a  high  level  and  on  the  stock  exchange  prices 
showed  no  tendency  to  fall.  Some  proportion  of  the 
unemployment,  therefore,  apparently  was  attributable  to  a 
general  regrouping  of  manpower  necessitated  by  a  return  to 
normal  industrial  activity  dominated  by  competition.  Though 
they  agreed  on  measures  for  dealing  with  the  problem,  the 
two  parties  in  power— the  Social  Christian  party  and  the 
Belgian  Labour  (Socialist)  party — were  unable  to  agree 
over  the  question  of  unemployment  insurance  payments. 

•Including  tome  small  German  frontier  areas  north  of  Aachen  annexed  on 
April  15,  1949.  The  six-power  agreement  of  March  26,  1949,  authorized  Belgium 
to  take  over  an  area  of  about  10)  sq.  mi.  with  a  population  of  about  6,000  but  it 
renounced  its  claim  to  three  townships  and  incorporated  only  an  area  of  7|  sq. 
mi.  with  a  population  of  barely  500. 


The  primate  of  Belgium,  Cardinal  Joseph  van  Roey,  and  the  prime 
minister,  Paul- Henri  Spaak  at  a  military  fete  in  Brussels,  July  1949. 

The  Socialists  insisted  on  new  taxes;  the  finance  minister, 
Gaston  Eyskens  (Social  Christian),  opposed  this,  considering 
that  a  policy  of  economy  was  the  only  possible  course.  The 
conflict  remained  latent  for  several  weeks. 

The  Royal  Question.  Meanwhile,  in  mid-April,  a  private 
visit  to  Belgium  by  Princess  Josephine-Charlotte  brought 
again  to  the  fore  another  cause  of  contention  between  the 
two  groups,  namely,  the  royal  question.  No  official  reception 
had  been  arranged;  but  wherever  she  went  the  daughter  of 
Leopold  111  was  greeted  by  the  public  with  enthusiasm. 

On  April  25  the  king  and  the  regent  met  at  Berne,  Switzer- 
land, in  the  presence  of  Paul-Henri  Spaak,  the  premier, 
and  Henry  Moreau  de  Melen,  minister  of  justice,  to  discuss 
the  political  situation  and  the  royal  question.  On  May  3 
Leopold  sent  his  brother  a  letter  insisting  on  the  need  to  find 
a  way  out  of  the  impasse,  by  a  popular  vote  or  some  other 
constitutional  means.  "  The  country,"  he  wrote,  **  must 
return  to  constitutionalism;  the  present  abnormal  situation 
cannot  continue  indefinitely."  This  was  also  the  view  of  the 
Social  Christian  party.  Since  the  party  was  still  unable 
to  persuade  the  Socialists  to  relinquish  the  idea  of  new 
taxation  to  pay  for  unemployment  insurance,  a  crisis  was 
inevitable;  and  on  May  18  the  regent  signed  a  decree  dis- 
solving the  parliament.  In  uneventful  conditions  parliamen- 
tary and  provincial  elections  took  place  on  June  26,  when 
for  the  first  time  women  went  to  the  polls.  In  the  Chamber 


98 


BELGIUM 


Queen  Elizabeth,  mother  of  King  Leopold  and  the  regent.  Prince 

Charles,  with  Princess  Josephine-Charlotte,  King  Leopold's  daughter, 

during  the  Princess's  visit  to  Brussels  in  April  1949. 

of  Deputies  the  Social  Christian  party  out  of  212  seats 
gained  105,  the  Liberals  29,  the  Socialists  66  and  the  Com- 
munist party  12.  In  the  Senate  the  Social  Christians  secured 
an  absolute  majority  with  92  seats.  (See  also  ELECTIONS.) 

On  June  28  Spaak  presented  the  resignation  of  his  cabinet 
to  the  regent.  First  to  be  charged  with  the  task  of  forming 
a  new  cabinet  was  Paul  van  Zeeland  (Social  Christian),  who 
suggested  a  vote  by  the  two  houses  in  joint  session  to  end  the 
regency,  in  accordance  with  the  act  of  July  19,  1945;  but 
neither  the  Socialists  nor  the  Liberals  were  prepared  to 
support  him  in  this.  On  July  6  the  regent  next  entrusted 
Frans  van  Cauwelwaert  (Social  Christian),  speaker  of  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies,  with  a  mission  of  inquiry.  Though 
this  lasted  a  fortnight,  it  produced  no  concrete  result.  Finally, 
on  July  23,  the  regent  called  on  Gaston  Eyskens  (Social 
Christian),  finance  minister  in  the  outgoing  cabinet. 

As  the  crisis  threatened  to  continue,  King  Leopold  on 
July  31  and  Aug.  1  received  a  delegation  from  (he  Socialist 
party  and  on  Aug.  2  and  3  from  the  Liberal  and  Social 
Christian  parties.  At  the  close  of  these  conversations  the 
king  sent  a  message  affirming  his  determination  to  comply 
with  the  will  of  the  nation.  "  It  is  my  express  purpose,"  he 
declared,  "  to  interpret  the  result  of  a  possible  referendum 
only  in  terms  of  the  higher  interests  of  the  country.  If  I 
were  led  to  believe  that  in  re-assuming  my  constitutional 
prerogatives  I  could  not  serve  my  country,  I  would  abdicate 
in  favour  of  my  son,  the  crown  prince." 

The  political  atmosphere  having  been  thus  clarified,  the 
Liberal  party  agreed  to  take  part  in  the  government.  Formed 
on  Aug.  10,  with  nine  Social  Christians  and  eight  Liberals, 
the  Eyskens  cabinet  on  Aug.  17  received  a  vote  of  confidence 
in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  by  125  votes  to  64  with  one 
abstention,  and  in  the  Senate  on  Aug.  18  by  99  votes  to  51 


with  one  abstention.  On  Oct.  27,  by  100  votes  to  65,  the 
Senate  approved  a  bill  introduced  by  Paul  Struye  (Social 
Christian)  for  a  national  referendum  on  King  Leopold's 
return.  In  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  the  bill  was  approved 
on  Dec.  13  by  a  special  committee.  The  vote  was  12  to  8, 
with  1 1  Social  Christians  and  one  Liberal  in  favour  and  six 
Socialists  and  two  Liberals  against. 

Economic  Situation.  Far  from  worsening,  the  economic 
position  of  Belgium  was  strengthened  during  the  first  nine 
months  of  1949.  This  was  evident  from  a  rise  of  about  10% 
in  stock  exchange  quotations  and  especially  from  the  balance 
of  foreign  trade.  Imports  for  the  first  seven  months  amounted 
to  Fr.46,900  million  and  exports  to  Fr.49,000  million,  that 
is,  there  was  a  balance  of  Fr.2,100  million.  Industrial  pro- 
duction, however,  was  affected  by  the  unfavourable  economic 
conditions  in  Europe,  as  shown  by  the  index  of  industrial 
production  (1936-38-  100):  from  123  in  Jan.  1949  it  rose  to 
132  in  March  but  it  fell  to  105  in  July.  The  coal-mining  and 
metallurgical  industries  were  those  chiefly  affected. 

Tax  revenues  conformed  with  the  estimates.  Returns  for 
the  first  seven  months  of  the  year  were  Fr. 28,400  million 
against  an  estimate  of  Fr.28,500  million.  Compensation  for 
this  slight  discrepancy  was  afforded  by  special  taxes  which 
exceeded  the  estimates,  producing  Fr. 2,700  million  against 
an  estimated  Fr.2,400  million. 

The  Belgian  franc  was  monetarily  sound  when  the  devalua- 
tion of  the  pound  sterling  occurred,  followed  by  the  de- 
valuation of  other  western  currencies.  However,  the  Belgian 
government  was  obliged  on  Sept.  21  to  bring  it  into  line  and 
raise  the  official  exchange  rate  from  Fr.43  -83  to  Fr.50  to  the 
dollar,  but  lower  it  from  Fr.176-63  to  Fr.140  to  the  pound. 
An  early  effect  of  devaluation  was  a  decline  in  exports,  these 
being  in  October  only  Fr.5,920  million,  or  Fr.300  million 
less  than  in  September  and  Fr.240  million  below  the  monthly 
average  for  1948. 

Foreign  Policy.  The  replacement  of  Paul-Henri  Spaak  by 
Paul  van  Zeeland  in  no  way  modified  the  broad  lines  of 
Belgian  foreign  policy  which  continued  within  the  frame- 
work of  the  North  Atlantic  treaty  and  the  Organization  for 
European  Economic  Co-operation.  Some  check,  however, 
to  the  realization  of  Benelux  was  given  by  the  new  minister 
of  foreign  affairs.  At  the  conference  of  the  three  interested 
powers  held  at  Luxembourg  in  October,  van  Zeeland  refused 
to  ratify  several  paragraphs  which  had  been  initialled  at 
The  Hague  by  delegates  appointed  by  Spaak  and  which  were 
concerned  with  the  unlimited  acceptance  of  Dutch  florins 
by  Belgium  and  the  country's  withdrawal  of  the  gold  clause. 
The  negotiations  ended,  however,  with  the  signature  on  Oct. 
15  of  a  protocol  which,  although  not  achieving  the  union 
contemplated,  nevertheless  extended  the  list  of  articles  freed 
from  licence  and  granted  additional  credits  to  Holland. 
Van  Zeeland  was  consequently  able  to  testify  that  one  step 
forward  had  been  accomplished.  "  Being  realists,"  he  added, 
"  we  took  into  account  recent  events,  especially  the 
devaluations  which,  of  course,  must  have  some  effect.  Benelux 
will  serve  the  interests  of  the  three  countries:  for  others  it 
has  a  symbolic  significance." 

Education.  (1947-48)  Elementary:  infant  schools  4,175,  pupils 
249.023;  primary  schools  8,697,  pupils  788,514;  adult  schools  211. 
Teachers'  colleges:  elementary  120,  students  9,443;  secondary  39. 
students  1,055.  Secondary  education,  state:  lower  grade  (athenees)  121, 
pupils  52,153;  higher  grade  (ecoles  moyennes)  129,  pupils  36,545; 
"  free  "  (Catholic,  1945-46)  440,  pupils  65,918.  Technical  schools 
(1947),  pupils  226,290.  Universities  (1947-48)  4,  institutions  of  higher 
education  16,  students  17,933. 

Agriculture  and  Fisheries.  Main  crops  (in  '000  metric  tons,  1948; 
1949  in  brackets):  wheat  344  (425);  barley  172;  oats  385;  rye  184; 
potatoes  2, 133  ( 1 ,905).  Production  ('000  metric  tons) :  sugar  (raw  value) 
263;  meat  220-8;  milk  2,250;  butter  (1947)  25.  Livestock  (mid- 1949): 
cattle  1,876,876;  sheep  155,173;  pigs  1,074,228;  horses  267.373; 
poultry  8,609,135.  Fisheries:  total  catch  (1948):  weight  64,440  metric 
tens;  value  Fr.462  million. 


BENEDIKTSSON— BERLIN 


99 


Industry.  Industrial  establishments  (Jan.  1948)  248.128,  persons 
employed  1,000,010.  Fuel  and  power  (1948;  1949,  six  months,  in 
brackets),  coal  (in  '000  metric  tons)  26,678  9  (14,564  9),  gas  (in 
'000  cu.m  )  1,698,257  (880,524),  electricity  (in  million  kwh  )  7,903 
(4,100).  Raw  materials  (in  metric  tons  1948;  1949,  six  months,  in 
brackets):  pig  iron  and  ferro-alloys  3.948  (2,110);  steel  ingots  and 
castings  3,912  (2,163),  copper  132  (66),  /me  154  (92),  lead  66  (34), 
tin  12  3  (5  5),  aluminium  2  Ml  1)  Manufactured  goods  (in  '000 
metric  tons,  1948,  1949,  six  months,  in  brackets)  cotton  and  rayon 
fabrics  62,659  (29,560),  woollen  fabrics  19,386,  linen  fabrics  5,014, 
rayon  fabrics  5,166 

Foreign  Trade.  (Belgo-Luxembourg  Economic  Union;  in  million 
francs,  '000  metric  tons  in  brackets).  Imports.  (1948)  Fr  72,931 
(24,324);  (1949,  six  months)  Fr  40,441  (13,917).  Hxports  (1948) 
Fr  61,767  (12,583);  (1949,  six  month*)  hr  41,930  (7,055) 

Transport  and  Communications.  Roads  (1948).  10,717km  Licensed 
motor  vehicles  (1948).  cars  179,230,  lorries  125,739,  motor  cycles 
108,641  Railways  (1948)  4,956  km  ;  passenger  traffic  (1948  monthly 
average),  599  million  passenger-kilometres,  goods  traffic  (1948 
monthly  average),  513  million  ton-km  Shipping  (Jan  1948)  number 
of  merchant  vessels  78,  total  tonnage  248,298  Port  of  Antwerp  (goods 
traffic  in  '000  metric  tons,  1948,  1949,  six  months,  :n  brackets)' 
imports  15,857  (11,760),  exports  10,912  (6,867)  Telephones  (1948) 
subscribers  420,929  Wireless  licences  (1946)  798,023 

Finance  and  Banking.  (Million  francs)  Budget'  (1949  est  )  revenue 
69,472,  expenditure  71,584  (at  the  end  of  1949  the  est  deficit  approached 
17,500),  (1950  est)  revenue  66,736,  expenditure  83,884  National 
debt  (March  31,  1947)  258,200.  Currency  circulation  (Oct  21,  1948; 
in  brackets  Nov.  3,  1949)  81,555  (87,361).  Gold  reserve  (Oct  21, 
1948;  in  brackets  Nov  3,1949):  28,326(31,551)  Savings  and  bank 
deposits  (Dec.  1948;  in  brackets  Aug.  1949)  65.900(69,800)  Monetary 
unit.  ttclgian  franc  with  an  exchange  rate  of  Fr  140  to  the  pound 
(instead  of  Fr  176  63  before  Sept  21,  1949)  (G.-H.  D.) 

BENEDIKTSSON,  BJARNI,  Icelandic  statesman 
(b.  Reykjavik,  April  30,  1908).  In  1930  he  took  his  degree 
in  law  at  the  University  of  Reykjavik  and  later  studied  at 
the  universities  of  Berlin  and  Copenhagen.  During  1932-40 
he  was  professor  of  constitutional  law  at  the  University  of 
Reykjavik.  He  had  joined  the  Independence  (Conservative) 
party  and  from  1 936  was  a  member  of  its  executive  committee. 
A  councillor  of  Reykjavik  from  1934,  he  was  elected  major 
in  1940  and  twice  again  afterwards.  In  1942  he  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  Icelandic  Althing  (parliament)  and  was 
re-elected  in  1946,  becoming  chairman  of  the  foreign  relations 
committee  of  the  Althing.  On  Feb.  4,  1947,  he  was  appointed 
minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  the  coalition  cabinet  of  Stefan 
J.  Stefansson,  a  Social  Democrat.  On  April  4,  1949,  at 
Washington,  he  signed  the  North  Atlantic  treaty  on  behalf 
of  Iceland.  He  said  on  this  occasion :  "  We  would  all  prefer 
to  lose  our  lives  rather  than  our  freedom,  either  as  individuals 
or  nations."  On  Dec.  18,  1943,  he  married  Sigridur 
Bjornsdottir  and  they  have  two  children. 


BENELUX:  see  BELGIUM;  NLIHFRLANDS;  LUXEMBOURG. 

BEN-GURION,  DAVID,  Israeli  statesman  (b. 
Plonsk,  Poland,  Oct.  16,  1886),  became  prime  minister  and 
minister  of  defence  when  the  State  of  Israel  was  proclaimed 
on  May  14,  1948.  (For  his  early  career  see  Britannica  Book 
of  the  Year  1949). 

After  the  adoption  of  the  constitution  and  the  formal 
election  of  Dr.  Chaim  Weizmann  as  president  of  the  republic 
on  Feb.  16,  1949,  Ben-Gurion  submitted  the  cabinet's  resig- 
nation to  the  president,  who  charged  him  with  the  task  of 
forming  a  new  administration.  On  March  8  he  announced 
the  formation  of  a  coalition  cabinet  and  on  March  10 
received  in  the  Israeli  parliament  a  vote  of  conlidencc  by 
73  votes  to  45.  In  his  policy  statement  he  declared  that  Israel 
would  seek  friendship  with  all  peace-loving  nations,  par- 
ticularly the  U.S.  and  the  U.S.S.R.  In  a  speech  on  Oct.  29 
he  accused  the  Communists  of  causing  labour  unrest  in  Israel 
and  of  organizing  anti-Zionist  activities  abroad.  A  struggle, 
he  said,  was  being  waged  between  the  Socialist  Zionists  and 


the  Communist  Jews:  there  could  be  no  compromise.   Israel 
must  be  built  as  a  Jewish  state  or  act  as  a  foreign  agency. 

BEQUESTS:   see  DONATIONS  AND  BEQUESTS. 

BERIA,  LAVRENTV  PAVLOVICH,  Soviet  poli- 
tician of  Georgian  extraction  (b.  near  Sukhum,  Georgia, 
March  29,  1899).  In  1919  he  graduated  from  Baku  Higher 
Technical  college  and  from  1917  was  a  member  of  the 
Communist  party.  In  1921  he  was  appointed  head  of  the 
Caucasian  section  of  the  Cheka  (Extraordinary  Commission 
for  Repression  of  the  Counter-revolution)  and  remained  in 
this  post  for  ten  years,  although  in  1922  the  Cheka  was 
transformed  into  O.G.P.U.  (United  State  Political  depart- 
ment). In  1931  he  became  secretary  general  of  the  Georgian 
Communist  party  and  in  the  following  year  secretary  general 
of  the  Transcaucasian  regional  party  commission;  in  this 
new  post  he  continued  his  former  function  of  purging  the 
Georgian,  Armenian  and  Azerbaijanian  parties  of  nationalist 
deviation.  In  1934  the  17th  congress  of  the  All-Union 
Communist  party  elected  him  to  the  central  committee. 
On  Dec.  8,  1938,  he  was  appointed  head  of  the  N.K.V.D. 
(People's  Commissariat  of  Internal  Affairs),  into  which  the 
O.G.P.U.  had  been  transformed  in  1934.  On  Jan.  31,  1941, 
when  the  commissariat  was  divided  into  two  sections,  the 
N.K.V.D.  dealing  with  internal  affairs  and  the  N.K.G.B. 
with  state  security,  Beria  headed  the  former,  remaining  chief 
of  the  political  police.  From  March  23,  1939,  he  was  substi- 
tute member  of  the  Politburo.  On  June  30,  1941,  he  became 
a  member  of  the  State  Defence  committee.  For  organizing 
munitions  production  during  Worl^l  War  11  he  was  awarded 
in  1944  the  title  of  Hero  of  Socialist  Labour  and  the  Order 
of  Lenin.  In  1945  he  received  the  rank  of  marshal  of  the 
Soviet  Union.  He  ceased  to  be  the  formal  head  of  internal 
security  on  March  15,  1946,  but  was  appointed  deputy 
chairman  of  the  council  of  ministers  and,  four  days  later, 
was  promoted  full  member  of  the  Politburo.  On  his  50th 
birthday  he  received  the  Order  of  Lenin  for  the  second  time.  In 
September  it  became  known  that  for  four  years  he  had  been 
in  charge  of  the  Soviet  atomic  research  organization. 

BERLIN.  Capital  of  the  German  Reich  from  1871  to  1945, 
Berlin  was  still  by  1949  the  largest  city  of  Germany.  Area: 
343-6  sq.  mi.  Pop.:  (May  17,  1939,  census)  4,332,242,  (Oct. 
29,  1946,  census)  3,179,200  or  24  4%  less.  From  June  6, 
1945,  to  June  24,  1948,  Berlin  was  administered  by  an  inter- 
Alhcd  governing  authority  (in  Russian,  Kommandatura) 
consisting  of  the  commandants  of  the  four  sectors  of  Berlin. 
After  June  24,  1948,  when  the  Soviet  commandant  proclaimed 
the  dissolution  of  the  Kommandatura,  Berlin  was  in  fact 
divided  into  two  opposing  administrations.  The  three  western 
sectors  (pop  ,  mid-1949  est.,  r.  2,500,000)  were  under  the 
authority  of  the  following  Allied  commandants :  Great  Britain, 
Major  General  Geoffrey  K.  Bourne  (who  on  Jan.  22, 
1949,  succeeded  Major  General  E.  O.  Herbert);  United 
States,  Major  General  Maxwell  D.  Taylor  (who  on  Aug.  6 
succeeded  Colonel  Frank  L.  Howley);  France,  General 
Jean  Ganeval.  In  the  Soviet  sector  (pop.,  mid- 1949  est., 
900,000)  the  commandant  was  Major  General  Alexander  G. 
Kotikov  There  were  also  two  rival  German  city  governments 
and  two  lord  mayors:  Professor  Ernst  Reuter,  appointed 
on  Dec.  7,  1948,  Oberburgermcister  by  a  city  assembly 
elected  by  the  population  of  the  three  western  sectors; 
Fritz  Ebert,  appointed  on  Nov.  30,  1948,  provisional  Ober- 
bitrget  master  of  the  Soviet  sector  by  a  meeting  summoned 
by  the  S.E.D.  (Communist)  party. 

History.  After  talks  between  the  Soviet  and  U.S.  repre- 
sentatives on  the  Security  council  of  U.N.  the  Soviet  govern- 
ment agreed  on  May  4  to  re-open  land  traffic  between  the 
western  zones  and  Berlin  on  condition  that  a  four-power 


BERLIN 


The  ceremony  outside  Spandau  prison  in  Berlin  when  a  French  guard  took  over  from  British  troops,  Oct.  1949.    In  the  prison  were  housed 
the  seven  nazi  war  criminals  imprisoned  by  the  International  Military  tribunal  at  Nuremberg  on  Oct.  /,  1946. 


conference  was  held  to  discuss  the  problems  of  Germany  and 
Austria  as  a  whole.  Thus  the  Soviet  blockade  aimed  at 
wresting  the  western  sectors  of  Berlin  from  the  control  of  the 
three  western  powers  was  abandoned  after  being  maintained 
for  10^  months.  During  the  whole  period  the  2*5  million 
inhabitants  of  the  western  sectors  had  been  supplied  by  the 
Anglo-American  "  air  lift"  which  had  flown  1,583,686  tons 
of  supplies  into  Berlin  by  May  12,  the  date  when  the  land 
blockade  officially  came  to  an  end;  1,214,339  tons  had  been 
flown  in  by  U.S.  aircraft  and  369,347  tons  by  British  aircraft 
during  this  operation  which  was  described  by  the  British 
air  minister  as  "  the  most  outstanding  transport  operation  in 
the  history  of  aviation/*  The  air  lift  did  not  cease  immediately 
the  blockade  was  lifted,  but  was  allowed  to  run  down  gradu- 
ally over  a  period  of  4^  months.  By  the  time  it  ceased 
altogether  (on  Sept.  30)  2,323,738  tons  of  food,  coal,  machinery 
and  other  commodities  had  been  flown  into  Berlin  over  a 
period  of  15  months.  The  record  day  of  the  air  lift  was  April 
16,  1949,  when  12,342  tons  were  flown  into  the  city  in  1,344 
flights.  The  cost  of  the  operation  up  to  May  12  was  $170 
million.  (See  also  AIR  FORCES  OF  THE  WORLD.) 

With  the  lifting  of  the  blockade  living  conditions  in  western 
Berlin  became  once  more  relatively  normal.  The  shops  filled 
immediately  with  commodities  of  all  sorts  which  flowed  in 
chiefly  from  the  western  zones.  Rationing  of  textiles  and  many 
other  goods  was  abolished.  Prices  of  vegetables  dropped  by 
as  much  as  half.  The  supply  of  gas  and  electricity  from  the 
Soviet  sector  was  resumed.  And  yet  it  soon  became  evident 
that  western  Berlin  was  faced — despite  the  lifting  of  the  block- 
ade— with  a  major  economic  crisis:  a  crisis  of  her  producing 
industries. 

This  crisis  had  been  latent  in  the  condition  of  western 
Berlin  since  1945  and  aggravated  by  the  currency  reform  and 
the  blockade.  West  Berlin's  industries  suffered  from  a  chronic 
lack  of  capital  and  of  markets.  The  wholesale  Soviet  dis- 
mantling in  1945  had  left  the  factories  with  a  high  proportion 
of  damaged  or  out-of-date  plant;  the  confiscation  of  Rm. 
5,000  million  in  the  Berlin  banks  had  practically  deprived  the 
industries  of  capital;  stocks  of  raw  materials  were  almost 
used  up  during  the  blockade  in  the  effort  to  keep  the  factories 
producing;  and  the  lower  value  of  the  eastern  mark,  after  the 
currency  reform  in  1948,  gave  Soviet  sector  and  Soviet  zone 


industries  a  big  competitive  advantage.  In  addition  the  pre- 
carious conditions  in  Berlin,  even  after  the  lifting  of  the 
blockade,  made  west  German  buyers  reluctant  to  enter  into 
contracts  with  west  Berlin  firms. 

The  result  of  this  industrial  crisis  was  twofold:  the  admini- 
stration of  west  Berlin,  the  Magistrat,  was  faced  with  virtual 
bankruptcy  in  the  shape  of  a  budget  deficit  of  Dm.  80  million 
monthly.  Unemployment  rose  from  40,000  at  the  beginning 
of  the  blockade  (June  1948)  to  100,000  in  Oct.  1948  and 
250,000  in  Oct.  1949. 

The  western  Allies  and  western  Germany  had  sent  much 
help  to  sustain  western  Berlin  during  and  after  the  blockade, 
amounting  by  Oct.,  1949  to  Dm.  680  million  fromG. A.R.I.O.A. 
(Government  Appropriation  and  Releases  in  Aid  of  Occupied 
Areas)  and  Dm.  530  million  from  the  west  German  states. 
Nevertheless  it  was  clear  that  a  catastrophic  si*".?t«of?  would 
soon  arise  unless  a  great  effort  was  made  by  the  west  German 
republic  to  put  western  Berlin  industrially  on  its  feet  again. 
Leading  west  German  politicians  advocated  the  incorporation 
of  west  Berlin  in  the  West  German  Federal  republic  as 
twelfth  state;  but  this  proposal  already  embodied  in  article 
23  of  the  West  German  constitution  had  been  vetoed  by  the 
western  Allied  powers  because  it  would  have  entailed  widening 
the  breach  with  the  Soviet  Union. 

On  Oct.  21,  1949,  Fritz  Schaffer,  the  minister  of  finance  of 
the  newly  formed  West  German  republic,  announced  a  pro- 
gramme of  help  for  western  Berlin:  substantial  credits  and 
government  contracts  were  promised  including  the  payment 
of  the  budget  deficit  until  the  end  of  the  financial  year; 
private  firms  in  the  western  zones,  likely  to  place  orders  in 
Berlin,  were  to  be  encouraged  by  federal  government  guaran- 
tees; goods  manufactured  in  Berlin  and  sold  to  western 
zones  buyers  were  to  be  exempted  from  certain  indirect 
taxes;  the  supposedly  lost  banking  accounts,  the  so-called 
uralt  Konten,  were  to  be  revalued  at  5%;  a  common  west 
Berlin  and  western  zones  banking  system  was  to  be  intro- 
duced; and  Berlin  was  to  be  an  equal,  if  not  favoured, 
partner  with  Western  Germany  in  receiving  Marshall  aid. 
Details  in  implementation  of  these  proposals  were  to  be 
worked  out  in  Frankfurt  and  Bonn. 

The  so-called  modus  vivendi  between  east  and  west  in  Berlin, 
which  had  been  agreed  upon  by  the  Council  of  Foreign 


BERMAN— BERMUDA 


101 


Ministers  (q.v.)  in  Paris  in  May  and  June,  was  complicated 
by  a  strike  of  the  western  sector  railwaymen  who  wanted  to 
receive  their  wages  in  westmarks  (May  20).  The  Berlin 
railways  were  administered  by  the  eastern  sector  authorities 
who  paid  the  railwaymen  in  eastmarks  which  had  only  about 
one-sixth  of  the  value  of  the  western  currency.  The  strike 
developed  into  a  struggle  between  the  Independent  Trade 
Unions  (U.G.O.)  of  the  western  sectors  and  the  Communist- 
dominated  Free  German  Trade  Union  federation  (F.D.G.B.), 
in  the  course  of  which  shooting  and  casualties  occurred. 
After  intervention  by  the  three  western  commandants  the 
strike  was  brought  to  an  end  on  the  understanding  that  the 
east  sector  railway  authorities  would  pay  60%  of  the  west 
sector  railwaymen's  wages  in  westmarks  and  the  west  Berlin 
Magistral  would  exchange  the  remaining  40%  into  eastmarks 
(June  26). 

During  1949  the  Soviet  sector  of  Berlin  remained  under  the 
administration  of  the  Communist  controlled  east  sector 
Magistral.  Its  industries  were  geared  up  to  the  Soviet  zone 
and  enjoyed  also  a  certain  market  in  west  Berlin  at  the 
expense  of  western  sector  industries.  When  the  so-called 
German  democratic  republic  was  set  up  on  Oct.  1 2  no  attempt 
was  made  to  incorporate  into  it  the  eastern  sector  of  Berlin 
which — like  the  western  sectors — remained  outside  the  newly 
formed  republics.  (D.  A.  SN.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  Berlin  Air  Lift:  An  Account  of  the  British  Contribu- 
tion, prepared  by  the  Air  Ministry  and  Central  Office  of  Information 
(London,  1949). 

BERMAN,  JAKOB,  Polish  politician  (b.  Warsaw, 
Dec.  24,  1901),  of  middle  class  family,  studied  law  at  the 
University  of  Warsaw,  taking  active  part  in  leftist  students' 
clubs,  while  working  as  night  editor  in  the  Warsaw  offices  of 


the  Jewish  Telegraphic  agency.  In  his  early  thirties  he  studied 
in  Moscow  at  a  special  training  school  for  Communist 
organizers  abroad.  A  member  of  the  executive  committee 
of  the  outlawed  K.P.P.  (Komunistyczna  Partia  Polski,  or 
Communist  Party  of  Poland),  he  was  arrested  in  1937  at 
Nowy  Sa^cz  and  sentenced  in  Warsaw  to  imprisonment  for 
conspiracy  against  the  state.  In  the  meantime,  in  April  1938, 
the  Comintern  had  dissolved  the  K.P.P.  under  the  pretext 
that  it  was  ridden  with  agents  of  the  Polish  military  intelli- 
gence and  Trotskyist  **  deviationists."  Released  from  prison 
^at  the  outbreak  of  World  War  II,  Berman  went  to  Moscow 
'where  he  emerged  as  one  of  the  organizers  of  the  Union  of 
Polish  Patriots.  He  was  also  instrumental  in  creating  in 
occupied  Poland  a  new  Communist  (Workers')  party.  In  the 
provisional  government  established  at  Lublin  in  July  1944 
he  was  acting  minister  for  foreign  affairs.  In  the  government 
of  "  national  unity  "  formed  in  Warsaw  on  June  28,  1945,  he 
became  under  secretary  of  state  in  the  prime  minister's 
office.  He  was  also  a  member  of  the  Politburo  of  the  Com- 
munist party  called  after  Dec.  1948  the  P.Z.P.R.  (Polska 
Zjednoczona  Partia  Robotnicza,  or  Polish  United  Workers' 
party). 

BERMUDA.  A  British  colony  of  some  300  small 
islands  in  the  western  Atlantic.  Area:  21  scj.  mi.  Pop. 
(1947  est.):  35,560  including  13,026  white.  Governor, 
Lieutenant  General  Sir  Alexander  Hood. 

The  Defence  (Local  Forces)  act,  which  introduced  peace- 
time conscription  for  the  first  time  in  the  colony's  history, 
was  passed  by  both  houses  of  the  legislature.  Currency 
smuggling  and  a  possible  dollar  "  black  market "  aroused 
concern.  Plans  for  an  agricultural  production  and  marketing 
scheme  were  introduced  and  approved.  The  return  of  the 


Lieutenant  General  Sir  Alexander  Hood  inspecting  the  guard  of  honour  at  Hamilton,  Bermuda,  on  Oct.  24,  1949,  when  he  arn\ 
over  as  governor  and  commander  in  chief  of  the  colony.     In  the  background  is  the  "  Queen  of  Bermuda." 


102 


BETTING  AND   GAMBLING 


luxury  liner  "  Queen  of  Bermuda  "  to  its  prewar  role  of 
tourist  carrier  provided  a  fillip  to  the  tourist  industry. 

Finance  and  Trade.  Currency:  based  on  sterling.  Budget  (1948): 
revenue  £1,531,970;  expenditure  £1,531,762.  Foreign  trade  (1948): 
imports  £7,121,039;  exports  (visible)  £955,406  Lilies  form  the  only 
important  domestic  export  and  the  economy  of  the  colony  is  primarily 
dependent  on  the  tourist  industry,  estimated  to  have  been  worth  about 
£4,254,780  in  trade  to  the  colony  m  1948.  (J.  A.  Hu.) 

BETTING  AND  GAMBLING.  On  Feb.  10,  1949, 
the  prime  minister  announced  the  appointment  of  a  Royal 
Commission  on  Betting,  Lotteries  and  Gaming,  under  the 
chairmanship  of  H.  U.  Willink,  K.C.,  and  the  first  public 
meeting  was  held  in  July. 

Much  of  the  groundwork  had  already  been  covered  by  the 
previous  royal  commission  under  Mr.  Justice  Rowlatt  in 
1933,  but  gambling  is  not  static:  it  is  constantly  changing 
with  social  and  economic  trends.  The  growth  of  commercial- 
ized gambling,  particularly  on  football  pools,  since  1933  and 
the  desire  of  chancellors  of  the  exchequer  to  tap  such  a 
lucrative  source  of  revenue  had  given  a  new  interest  to  the 
problem  of  gambling.  The  commission  had  been  given 
wide  terms  of  reference:  they  would  probably  be  content 
to  discover  how  widespread  gambling  was,  whether  it  was 
harming  the  welfare  of  the  nation  and  how  the  chancellor 
might  benefit  from  more  comprehensive  taxation.  During 
the  year  evidence  was  given  by  the  Home  Office,  the  Ministry 
of  Labour,  the  Post  Office,  the  Board  of  Trade,  the  Board  of 
Customs  and  Excise,  the  Jockey  club,  Tattersall's,  the 
Racecourse  Betting  Control  board,  Tote  Investors,  the  Grey- 
hound Racing  association,  the  metropolitan  commissioner  of 
police,  the  Racecourse  association,  the  chief  metropolitan 
magistrate  and  the  British  Council  of  Churches.  More 
evidence  would  be  heard  during  1950. 

The  outstanding  fact  was  that  so  little  statistical  information 
about  gambling  could  be  obtained  or  verified.  No  one  could 
state  with  any  degree  of  accuracy  the  number  of  bookmakers, 
what  number  of  people  they  employed  or  how  large  was  their 
turnover  in  money.  The  owners  of  the  totalizators  on  race- 
courses and  dog  tracks  were  obliged  by  law  to  disclose  their 
turnover,  and  it  was  possible  to  assess  the  amount  spent  on 
football  pools.  But  nothing  was  known  of  the  business 
carried  on  by  the  bookmakers.  They  operated  in  competition 
with  the  pools  and  the  totalizators,  off  the  course  and  on 
the  course,  legally  and  illegally,  and  they  were  not  obliged 
to  publish  accounts.  The  figures  for  the  three  main  spheres 
of  betting  were : 

1948  1949 

(£  million) 

Totalizator  at  racecourses .        .        .        £26  £25  •  8 

Totalizator  at  dog  tracks    .         .         .         £99-5  £94* 

Football  pools £61*  £64* 

*Board  of  Customs  and  Excise  estimate 

Football  pools  showed  an  increase  despite  the  drop  in  pool 
firms  from  135  to  120,  and  the  totalizator  on  racecourses 
showed  a  decrease  despite  the  increased  number  of  days  of 
racing  from  645  to  685.  The  totalizator  on  the  dog  tracks, 
though  showing  a  slight  decrease  over  the  year,  was  com- 
paratively stable  after  the  marked  drop  of  some  £36  million 
on  the  1947  figures.  The  taxation  imposed  in  the  autumn 
budget  of  1947  was  the  basic  cause  and  diverted  much  of 
the  money  to  the  bookmakers.  In  addition  the  number  of 
totalizators  working  on  dog  tracks  had  now  dropped  from 
138  to  126.  In  Aug.  1948  a  graduated  tax  on  bookmakers 
operating  at  dog  tracks  came  into  operation.  In  the  two- 
thirds  of  the  year  (Aug.  1948-March  1949)  a  total  of  £1-7 
million  was  received  from  138,000  bookmakers'  licences. 
Their  total  turnover  would  not  be  less  than  £100  million 
for  the  year. 

An  accurate  figure  of  the  amount  passing  through  the 
hands  of  the  bookmakers  was  not,  of  course,  known.  In 


addition  to  the  amount  estimated  as  their  turnover  on  the 
dog  tracks  there  was  the  estimated  turnover  from  horse- 
racing  and  other  forms  of  betting.  A  voluntary  organization 
called  Everyman's  Leisure  had  been  investigating  this  question 
for  two  years  and  they  estimated  a  total  of  £300  million  as 
the  turnover  of  the  bookmakers.  It  is  important  to  remember 
that  a  large  part  of  this  turnover  does  go  back  to  the  public. 
What  proportion  stays  with  the  bookmakers  is  impossible 
to  say.  A  figure  of  between  1 5  %  and  20%  is  usually  deducted 
to  cover  expenses  and  to  give  a  reasonable  profit.  The  actual 
cost  of  the  betting  industry  to  the  public  is  between  £95-100 
million  a  year. 

In  terms  of  labour  the  evidence  given  before  the  royal 
commission  was  of  interest.  The  Ministry  of  Labour  stated 
that  40,310  men  and  women  were  employed  in  the  betting 
industry  and  were  insured  under  the  national  health  service. 
To  this  figure  had  to  be  added  5,000  employers  and  persons 
working  on  their  own  account.  The  football  pools  accounted 
for  over  23,000.  These  figures  did  not  include  the  large  number 
of  part  time  employees.  Neither  did  they  include  persons 
employed  in  racing  stables,  training,  transport  to  and  from 
racecourses  and  dog  tracks  and  breeding.  Everyman's 
Leisure  estimated  that  the  total  labour  force,  directly  and 
indirectly  connected  with  the  betting  industry,  as  not  less 
than  180,000  men  and  women.  (H.  C.  LN.) 

United  States.  Gambling  in  1949  was  marked  by  fads  and 
crazes.  Ten-cent  chain  letters,  one-dollar  **  pyramid  clubs," 
$100,000  puzzle  contests,  $1,000  merchandise  lotteries— all 
caused  brief  sensations.  The  post  office  declared  the  chain- 
letter  scheme  illegal,  and  the  pyramid  clubs  were  an  effort 
to  circumvent  government  disapproval  by  using  the  telephone 
instead.  Each  participant  paid  $1  and  was  promised  an 
income  of  $2,048  when  he  reached  the  head  of  the  list. 
Collections  were  made  at  a  party  to  be  given  by  the  person 
at  the  head  of  the  list.  The  craze  spread  throughout  the 
country.  State  gambling  laws  were  invoked  without  success, 
but  the  pyramid  clubs  soon  collapsed  under  their  own  weight. 
There  were  not  enough  people  to  go  round;  if  only  one 
pyramid  club  had  remained  intact,  at  the  end  of  24  days  it 
would  have  had  to  involve  268  million  persons. 

The  merchandise  lotteries  were  an  effort  to  promote  sales 
through  puzzle  contests  based  on  those  legitimately  conducted, 
and  approved  by  the  post  office,  to  secure  contributions  for 
charitable  organizations.  Prizes  up  to  $25,000  were  offered. 
The  postal  authorities  stopped  most  of  the  disreputable 
"  contest  "  lotteries  through  fraud  actions  that  led  to  consent 
decrees. 

Among  card  games  the  principal  craze  was  the  game 
canasta;  but  though  it  was  by  far  the  most  popular  new  game 
of  the  year  it  was  not  widely  used  for  gambling.  Gin  rummy 
remained  the  game  played  for  the  biggest  stakes. 

Betting  on  race-horses  fell  more  than  10%  from  the  1948 
levels,  so  far  as  betting  on  the  course  was  concerned.  The 
20  states  permitting  totalizator  betting  recorded  a  turnover  of 
$1,395,731,778,  the  sixth  year  in  succession  that  the  figure 
had  exceeded  $1,000  million.  An  expert  estimate  made 
toward  the  end  of  the  year  set  the  total  amount  bet  on 
running  races  at  $8,000  million,  the  majority  of  which  was 
bet  by  2  million  regular  gamblers,  though  there  were  six 
times  as  many  occasional  gamblers.  The  drop  in  totalizator 
action  might  have  been  due  to  the  fact  that  there  were  only 
2,167  racing  days  in  1949  as  against  2,457  in  1948.  Totalizator 
betting  on  harness  racing  increased  to  $205,216,832  in  1949 
from  $194,166,569  in  1948;  this  was  legal  in  12  states. 

Despite  the  efforts  of  the  Thoroughbred  Racing  Protective 
bureau  (T.R.P.B.),  there  was  proof  of  interference  at  race 
courses.  The  practice  of  running  "  ringers  "  (fast  horses 
entered  under  the  names  of  relatively  slow  ones)  was  thought 
to  have  been  eliminated  by  the  practice  of  tattooing  each 


BEVIN-BIERUT 


103 


horse,  but  a  series  of  articles  by  M.  MacDougall,  a  profes- 
sional gambling  investigator,  exposed  the  continuance  of 
such  cases  and  the  T.R.P.B.  prosecuted  and  obtained  con- 
fessions in  three  such  cases;  insiders,  however,  had  already 
made  a  fortune  by  betting  on  the  substituted  horses.  Milt 
Sosin,  a  reporter  for  the  Miami  News,  Florida,  secured 
photographic  evidence  that  a  spectator  at  the  Gulfstream 
track  was  signalling  race  results  to  confederates  who  then 
bet  with  bookmakers  who  had  not  yet  received  the  results 
by  telegraph;  the  spectator  was  not  prosecuted  but  was 
merely  barred  from  the  track. 

The  numbers  racket,  a  form  of  lottery  prevalent  in  large  ' 
cities,  flourished  despite  periodic  clean-ups  (as  in  Chicago  in 
April  and  in  New  York  in  July),  and  despite  widespread 
publicity  that  it  was  not  honestly  conducted.  Slot  machine 
gambling  decreased.  An  investigation  by  a  commission  for 
Governor  Earl  Warren  of  California  estimated  a  gross  slot 
machine  "  take  "  of  $4,000  million  throughout  the  United 
States  but  other  observers  considered  the  figure  high  and 
thought  that  the  actual  loss  of  Americans  to  slot  machines 
might  run  from  one-tenth  to  one-quarter  of  that  amount. 

(A.  H.  MD.;  M.  ML.) 

BEVIN,  ERNEST,  British  statesman  (b.  Winsford, 
Somerset,  March  9,  1881),  became  secretary  of  state  for 
foreign  affairs  in  the  Labour  government  in  July  1945,  and 
in  that  capacity  attended  every  important  international 
conference  after  World  War  IF.  (See  also  Britannica  Book 
of  the  Year,  1949). 

During  1949  Ernest  Bevin  travelled  twice  to  America: 
for  the  signing  on  April  4  of  the  North  Atlantic  treaty  and 
for  the  first  meeting  of  the  council  set  up  under  the  treaty 
which  met  in  Washington  on  Sept.  17.  After  the  signing  in 
April  he  attended  the  adjourned  United  Nations  general 
assembly  at  Lake  Success,  New  York,  and  his  visit  in  Septem- 
ber began  with  Anglo-American-Canadian  financial  dis- 
cussions in  which  he  and  Sir  Stafford  Cripps  (^.v.)  led  the 
British  delegation.  He  spoke  in  the  general  debate  of  the 
fourth  general  assembly  on  Sept.  26  and,  while  in  America 
made  a  short  visit  to  Canada.  On  May  5  he  signed  the  statute 


Ernest  aevin,  wirn  nector  /VTC/VC//,  mimsier  oj  siuit',  at  i/ie 
Nations  general  assembly,  Flushing  Meadow,  New    York,   which 
opened  on  Sept.  20,  1949. 


of  the  Council  of  Europe  and  in  August  attended  the  meetings 
of  its  committee  of  ministers  at  Strasbourg.  He  visited 
Berlin  in  May  where  he  congratulated  those  who  had  taken 
part  in  the  air  lift  during  the  Berlin  blockade  which  was  raised 
on  May  12  and  was  present  at  the  Council  of  Foreign  Ministers 
which  met  in  Paris  from  May  23  to  June  20.  He  also  attended 
meetings  of  the  consultative  council  of  the  Brussels  treaty 
powers — the  meetings  being  held  in  each  of  the  capitals  of 
Great  Britain,  Belgium,  France,  Luxembourg  and  the 
Netherlands  in  turn — and  in  November  again  visited  Paris 
for  the  committee  of  ministers  of  the  Council  of  Europe  and 
for  a  two-day  conference  on  international  affairs  with  Robert 
Schuman  (France)  and  Dean  Acheson  (United  States). 
On  Dec.  27,  he  left  London  for  Colombo  for  a  meeting  of 
the  Commonwealth  foreign  ministers. 

BHUTAN.  A  semi-independent  state  in  the  eastern 
Himalayas  lying  between  Tibet  and  India.  Area:  c.  18,000 
sq.  mi.  Pop.  (est.):  300,000.  Language:  a  dialect  of  Tibetan. 
Religion:  mainly  Buddhist.  Capital:  Punakha.  Ruler: 
Maharaja  Jigme  Wangchuk. 

History.  The  state  of  Bhutan  acquired  during  1949  some 
importance  as  a  barrier  against  Chinese  Communism.  As  a 
result  of  negotiations  started  at  Delhi  in  April  1948  between 
K.  P.  S.  Menon,  secretary  to  the  Indian  ministry  of  external 
affairs,  and  Debzunpon  S.  T.  Dorji,  head  of  the  Bhutanese 
delegation,  the  Indian  government  concluded  a  new  treaty 
with  Bhutan  which  confirmed  the  old  relationship,  India 
agreeing  to  increase  the  annual  subsidy  from  two  to  five 
lakhs  of  rupees  (£37,500).  The  Bhutanese  delegation  had 
asked  for  eight  lakhs.  (W.  BN.) 

Agriculture.  Main  crops:  rice,  musk,  Indian  corn  and  millet.  Live- 
stock: elephants  and  ponies. 

Production.    Wax,  different  kinds  of  cloth,  chowries,  guns  and  swords. 

Foreign  Trade.  Total  trade  with  India  (1948)  estimated  at  over 
£65,000.  Monetary  unit:  rupee. 

BIDAULT,  GEORGES,  French  statesman,  (b.  Mou- 
lins,  Allier,  France,  Oct.  3,  1899),  a  leader  of  the  M.R.P. 
(Mouvement  RSpublicain  Populaire,  a  French  version  of  the 
Christian  Democratic  movement).  He  was  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  from  Sept.  9,  1944,  to  July  19,  1948,  and  prime  minister 
from  June  19  to  Nov.  28,  1946.  (For  his  early  career  see 
Britannica  Book  of  the  Year  1949). 

On  Oct.  28,  1949,  he  was  invested  by  the  National  Assembly 
as  prime  minister  by  367  votes  to  183.  Immediately  after- 
wards he  announced  the  formation  of  his  coalition  cabinet 
(the  6th  of  the  Fourth  Republic  and  the  llth  since  the 
liberation),  thus  bringing  to  an  end  the  longest  cabinet  crisis 
that  post-war  France  had  known  (see  also  FRANCE). 

BIERUT,  BOLESLAW,  Polish  politician  (b.  Rury 
Jezuickie,  near  Lublin,  April  18,  1892),  provisional  president 
of  the  republic  from  June  1945,  was  elected  president  by  the 
parliament  or  Sejm  on  Feb.  5,  1947.  (For  his  early  career  see 
Britannica  Book  of  the  Year  1949). 

The  merger  congress  in  Warsaw  on  Dec.  15-22,  1948, 
elected  him  chairman  of  the  new  Polish  United  Workers' 
(Communist)  party.  On  April  19,  1949,  before  the  central 
committee  of  the  party,  he  stressed  that  its  main  task  in 
the  struggle  for  peace  was  to  fight  resolutely  against  class 
enemies  and  foreign  agents  and  the  country  must  remain  a 
faithful  ally  of  the  U.S.S.R.  On  Oct.  15,  replying  to  a  letter 
from  Wilhelm  Pieck  and  Ott6  Grotewohl  informing  him 
of  their  election  as  president  and  prime  minister  of  the 
German  Democratic  republic,  he  expressed  the  satisfaction 
of  the  Polish  people  that  this  republic  regarded  the  Oder- 
Neisse  line  as  the  "  frontier  of  peace."  On  Oct.  28,  10th 
anniversary  of  the  "  plebiscite  "  in  eastern  Poland,  he  sent 
telegrams  to  N.  S.  Khrushchev  and  N.  I.  Gusarov,  secretaries 


104 


BILLIARDS  AND  SNOOKER-BIOCHEMISTRY 


general  of  the  Ukranian  and  Byelorussian  Communist  parties, 
congratulating  them  on  the  territorial  unification  of  the 
Ukraine  and  Byelorussia  respectively. 

BILLIARDS  AND  SNOOKER.  The  premier  pro- 
fessional event  of  the  1948-49  season,  the  world's  professional 
snooker  championship  was  won,  after  a  stern  struggle  lasting 
a  fortnight,  by  Fred  Davis,  who  beat  Walter  Donaldson  by 
80  frames  to  65.  Each  of  these  players  had  won  the  champion- 
ship once  after  Joe  Davis*  victory  in  1946-47,  when  the  latter 
player  retired  from  championship  play.  The  big  tournament 
of  the  year,  the  Sunday  Empire  News  £1,000  Snooker  tourna- 
ment, was  won  by  Joe  Davis.  The  amateur  billiards  champion- 
ship was  carried  off,  after  20  years  of  effort,  by  the  popular 
Frank  Edwards  (Stourbridge),  a  player  of  exceptional  artistry. 
He  beat  Joe  Tregoning  (Neath)  in  the  final  by  4,813  points  to 
3,297.  The  snooker  championship  was  won  by  Tom  Gordon 
(London),  who  beat  Sidney  Kilbank  (Leeds)  after  winning 
no  less  than  ten  previous  matches. 

The  professional  snooker  championship  for  1949-50  would 
be  played  in  the  provinces,  instead  of  London,  to  enable 
wider  audiences  to  attend.  Willie  Smith,  the  great  veteran 
billiards  player  and  Sidney  Smith,  1946-47  winner,  were  to 
return  to  the  professional  billiards  championship,  in  which 
three  younger  players  would  compete.  Entries  to  the  amateur 
championships,  billiards  and  snooker,  had  never  been  so 
high  as  in  the  past  four  years.  (R.  N.  H.) 

United  States.  Willie  Hoppe  captured  his  fifth  world 
three-cushion  championship  in  1949.  The  other  major 
billiards  title,  the  world  pocket  championship,  was  won  by 
Jimmy  Caras  of  Upper  Darby,  Pennsylvania,  who  scored 
four  victories  and  lost  twice.  The  United  States  pocket 
billiards  title  also  went  to  Caras,  with  Crane  second  and 
Andrew  Ponzi,  of  Philadelphia,  third.  In  the  amateur  field, 
Edward  Lee  of  the  New  York  Athletic  club  retained  his 
national  three-cushion  title.  (P.  BR.) 

BIOCHEMISTRY.  Notable  progress  was  reported  in 
1949  in  determining  the  intermediates  in  the  chemical 
reactions  by  which  the  green  plant  under  the  influence  of 
sunlight  converts  CO^  and  H,2O  into  O2,  sugar  and  other 
reduced  carbon  compounds.  By  growing  plants  in  water 
which  contained  the  O18  isotope,  bio-chemists  showed  that 
the  primary  conversion  of  energy  brought  about  by  light 
involves  the  photolysis  of  water  with  the  production  of  Oa. 
The  subsequent  reduction  of  CO.2  takes  place  in  the  dark  as 
well  as  in  the  light. 

In  order  to  elucidate  the  path  of  carbon,  growing  algae 
were  allowed  to  photosynthesize  in  the  presence  of  radio- 
active C14O2  for  a  limited  time  (5  sec.  to  5  min.)  and  the 
reaction  was  stopped  by  dropping  the  plants  into  hot  alcohol. 
The  radioactive  organic  compounds  which  are  progressively 
formed  in  increasing  time  intervals  were  identified  by  the 
newly  developed  methods  of  paper  chromatography  and 
radioautography.  In  these  techniques  substances  are  identified 
in  terms  of  the  distance  which  they  migrate  on  a  sheet  of 
absorbent  paper  under  the  influence  of  a  spreading  solvent, 
and  the  positions  of  radioactive  substances  are  determined 
by  the  darkened  locations  of  an  X-ray  film  subsequently 
placed  in  contact  with  the  absorbent  paper. 

The  first  compound  into  which  the  radioactive  COa  is 
fixed  was  found  to  be  2-phosphoglycerate;  after  5  sec.  at 
room  temperature,  four  more  compounds  were  found, 
3-phosphoglycerate,  malate,  aspartate  and  phosphoyruvate. 
After  30  to  90  sec.  there  were  many  additional  compounds 
of  which  15  were  identified  including  sucrose,  the  first  free 
sugar,  several  amino  acids,  alanine,  serine  and  glycine, 
glycolate  and  the  phosphates  of  fructose  and  glucose.  These 
compounds  all  contained  2,  3,  4  or  6  carbons  in  a  chain. 


By  selective  degradation,  the  position  of  the  radioactive 
carbons  in  several  compounds  was  determined,  and  detailed 
mechanisms  were  worked  out  for  the  progressive  entrance 
of  CO2  into  increasing  fractions  of  several  molecules.  Thus 
in  sucrose,  the  radioactivity  was  found  first  in  the  middle 
carbons  3  and  4  of  the  hexose  chain,  later  in  carbons  2  and  5, 
and  finally  also  in  carbons  1  and  6. 

The  first  photosynthetic  reaction  was  thought  to  be  the 
condensation  of  CO2  with  some  reactive  2-carbon  phos- 
phorus-containing intermediate,  probably  vinyl-phosphate, 
to  form  2-phosphoglyceric  acid.  After  conversion  to  phospho- 
pyruvic  acid,  another  molecule  of  COa  is  added  to  form  the 
4-carbon  oxalacetic  acid,  from  which  other  4-carbon  com- 
pounds are  formed,  malic,  aspartic,  succinic  and  fumaric 
acids.  One  of  these  was  thought  to  be  split  to  form  two  2- 
carbon  intermediates,  from  which  the  2-carbon  vinyl- 
phosphate  was  regenerated  to  start  the  cycle  over  again. 
The  hexose  chain  is  thought  to  be  formed  by  a  reversal  of 
the  well-defined  glycolytic  cycle,  the  condensation  of  two 
triose-phosphates  to  form  fructose-diphosphate. 

Experiments  were  reported  which  showed  that  no  more 
than  four  quanta  (possibly  only  three)  of  red  light,  or  a 
maximum  of  4x44,000=176,000  calories  of  light  energy, 
were  required  to  produce  one  mole  of  oxygen  gas  equivalent 
to  about  1 12,000  calories.  This  makes  the  efficiency  of  energy 
transformation  at  least  65  %.  (For  three  quanta  the  efficiency 
would  be  85%).  This  refutes  a  prevailing  view  based  on 
numerous  experiments,  that  at  least  ten  quanta  are  required 
for  each  mole  of  Oa,  which  would  mean  an  efficiency  of  less 
than  25%,  and  confirms  a  claim  originally  made  for  the 
higher  efficiency  by  Otto  Warburg  m  1923.  The  high 
efficiencies  were  realized  by  illuminating  a  Chlorclla  suspen- 
sion with  white  light  of  such  intensity  that  photosynthesis 
just  balanced  respiration,  and  no  net  oxygen  was  evolved. 
A  measured  amount  of  red  light  was  admitted  and  the  in- 
creased oxygen  corresponding  to  this  red  light,  was  measured. 

Following  the  observation  that  the  micro-organisms 
Tetrahymena  geleii  requires  purines,  and  especially  guanine, 
it  was  found  that  a  modified  purine,  in  which  the  NCN 
sequence  of  the  5-membered  ring  of  guanine  was  replaced 
by  NNN,  was  a  powerful  competitive  inhibitor  for  guanine 
in  the  growth  of  this  micro-organism.  The  name  triazole 
was  used  to  designate  this  type  of  compound  and  the  guanine 
derivative  was  called  guanazolo.  The  inhibition  index  was 
0-075,  which  meant  that  13  to  14  molecules  of  guanine  were 
required  to  overcome  the  inhibition  of  one  molecule  of 
guanazolo.  Normal  mammalian  cells  have  the  capacity  to 
synthesize  their  own  guanine  requirement.  It  was  thought 
that  if  tumour  cells  were  deficient  in  this  capacity,  then  the 
administration  of  guanazolo,  which  emphasizes  a  guanine 
deficiency,  might  have  a  selective  action  in  inhibiting  the 
growth  of  tumour  tissue,  without  interfering  with  normal 
growth.  Repeated  administration  of  guanazolo  to  mice  over 
a  three-day  period  did  not  have  toxic  effect.  When  0-5  mg. 
of  guanazolo  was  injected  subcutaneously  twice  daily  into 
mice  with  adenocarcinoma,  a  definite  inhibition  of  the  tumour 
growth  was  observed.  Tumour  size  was  reduced  from  1 1  ml. 
size  in  the  controls  which  received  injections  of  saline,  to 
1  ml.  size  m  the  guanazolo  treated  animals,  where  it  remained 
stationary  for  20  days  while  the  guanazolo  was  continued. 
The  tumours  resumed  growth  when  injections  ceased.  Similar 
observations  were  made  on  spontaneous  mammary  cancer 
in  mice,  and  in  mouse  lymphoid  leuchaemia.  In  the  latter 
condition,  guanazolo  caused  a  definite  decrease  in  white 
blood  cell  count,  in  the  percentage  of  lymphoblasts  and  in 
the  number  of  palpable  tumour  masses,  as  compared  with 
control  untieated  mice.  Tumour  cells  probably  have  an 
altered  guanine  metabolism,  rendering  them  unable  or  less 
able  than  normal  cells  to  synthesize  this  purine.  (M.  E.  H.) 


BIRLEY-BONN 


105 


BIOLOGY:  see  BACTERIOLOGY;  BIOCHEMISTRY;  BOTAN- 
ICAL GARDENS;  BOTANY;  ENDOCRINOLOGY;  GENETICS; 
MARINE  BIOLOGY;  PALEONTOLOGY;  PHYSIOLOGY;  ZOOLOGY. 

BIRLEY,  ROBERT,  British  educationalist  (b.  India, 
July  14,  1903),  was  educated  at  Rugby  school  and  at  Balliol 
college,  Oxford,  taking  first  class  honours  in  history  and 
winning  the  Gladstone  memorial  prize  in  1924  with  an  essay 
on  the  English  Jacobins.  He  became  an  assistant  master  at 
Eton  college  in  1926;  when,  in  1935,  he  was  appointed  head- 
master of  Charterhouse  school  in  succession  to  Frank 
Fletcher,  he  was  one  of  the  youngest  men  ever  to  occupy* 
such  a  post  at  a  leading  public  school.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Fleming  committee  on  public  schools  and  from  1947  to 
1949  was  educational  adviser  to  the  Control  Commission  for 
Germany  where  he  was  responsible  for  co-ordinating  and 
supervising  the  re-education  work  in  the  British  zone  and  in 
the  British  sector  of  Berlin.  On  Dec.  18,  1948,  it  was 
announced  that  the  provost  and  fellows  of  Eton  college  had 
appointed  him  headmaster  on  the  retirement  of  C.  A.  Elliott. 
Robert  Birley  took  up  his  duties  at  Eton  in  Sept.  1949.  In 
March  1949  he  was  given  an  honorary  degree  of  doctor  of 
engineering  by  the  Technical  university  of  Berlin.  On  Oct.  23 
he  broadcast  the  first  of  the  Reith  lectures  for  1949.  His 
subject  for  the  four  talks  was  "  Britain  in  Europe:  Reflections 
on  the  Development  of  a  European  Society."  He  was  created 
a  C.M.G.  on  Jan.  1,  1950. 

BIRTH  STATISTICS:  see  VITAL  STATISTICS. 
BISMARCK  ISLANDS:    tee  TRUST  TERRITORIES. 

BOLIVIA.  A  land-locked  republic  in  central  South 
America.  Area:  416,040  sq.  mi.  Pop.  (mid- 1948  est.): 
3,922,000;  one-third  of  the  population  is  concentrated  in  the 
province  of  La  Paz  covering  one-eighth  of  the  total  area. 
The  legal  capital  is  Sucre  (pop.,  1946  est.,  32,000);  the  actual 
seat  of  government  is  La  Paz  (pop.,  1946  est.,  301,000). 
Other  chief  towns  (pop.,  1946  est.):  Cochabamba  (80,000); 
Oruro  (50,000);  Potosi  (40,000).  Estimated  racial  distribu- 
tion: Indian  52%;  mestizo  28%;  white  13%;  NegroO-2%; 
unspecified  6  8%.  Language:  Spanish,  but  the  Indians 
speak  Quechua  and  Aymara.  Religion:  predominantly 
Roman  Catholic.  President  of  the  republic  in  1949:  Enrique 
Hertzog,  until  May  7;  Mamerto  Urriolagoitia,  acting 
president  May  7-Oct.  19,  thereafter  constitutional  president. 

History.  Political  tension  and  violence,  intimately  linked 
with  mounting  labour  unrest  at  the  tin  mines,  characterized 
the  Bolivian  scene  during  1949.  The  government  was  bitterly 
opposed  by  the  leftist  Partido  de  la  Izquierda  Revolucionana 
(P.I.R.)  and  the  rightist  Movimiento  Nacionalista  Revo- 
lucionano  (M.N.R.),  both  organizations  being  engaged  in 
rivalry  for  political  leadership  of  the  miners'  unions.  President 
Hertzog  declared  a  state  of  siege  on  Feb.  20,  when  the 
government  unearthed  a  revolutionary  plot  sponsored  by  the 
M.N.R.  After  the  congressional  election  of  May  1,  which 
gave  the  administration's  Republican  Socialist  Union  party 
a  majority  of  the  seats  in  the  national  legislature,  Hertzog 
pleading  reasons  of  health,  requested  a  leave  of  absence.  He 
was  replaced  on  May  7  by  Acting  President  Urriolagoitia. 

Urriolagoitia  decided  in  May  to  deport  Senator  Juan 
Lechin  and  19  other  M.N.R.  leaders  because  of  M.N.R. -led 
agitation  among  workers  at  the  Catavi  and  Siglo  Uiente  tin 
mines.  On  May  28,  unions  at  both  mines  staged  a  strike  in 
protest  against  the  deportation  order.  The  stoppage  was 
characterized  by  violent  disorders  at  Catavi,  where  two  U.S. 
mining  engineers  and  about  50  Bolivian  miners  lost  their 
lives.  The  government  again  proclaimed  a  state  of  siege  on 
May  31,  issued  a  general  mobilization  call  and  outlawed  the 
opposition  M.N.R.  and  P.I.R.  parties  and  also  the  Communist 
party.  The  strike  became  general  on  June  1 ,  when  an  estimated 


8,000  organized  factory  and  railroad  workers  walked  out  in 
sympathy  with  the  miners,  and  grew  until  it  involved  some 
27,000  organized  workers.  At  length,  on  June  8,  representa- 
tives of  the  government  and  the  unions  agreed  to  terminate 
the  stoppage,  the  settlement  calling  for  a  reduction  in  the 
military  forces  stationed  at  the  tin  mines  and  the  repatriation 
of  Lechin  and  other  exiled  M.N.R.  leaders. 

An  uneasy  truce  was  broken  on  Aug.  27,  when  rebels  led 
by  the  M.N.R.  seized  the  cities  of  Cochabamba,  Santa  Cruz, 
Potosi,  Oruro  and  Sucre.  The  revolt  spread  until  the  insur- 
gents could  claim  on  Sept.  1  that  they  controlled  2,000  troops 
and  the  western  third  of  the  country,  embracing  approximately 
125,000  sq.mi.  and  a  population  of  about  500,000.  The  bulk 
of  the  army  remained  loyal  to  the  government,  however,  and 
by  Sept.  3  loyalist  forces  had  recaptured  all  major  rebel 
strongholds  except  Sucre,  Potosi  and  Santa  Cruz.  Sucre  and 
Potosi  fell  to  the  loyalists  on  Sept.  4  and  the  insurgents 
abandoned  Santa  Cruz  on  Sept.  13.  Acting  President 
Urriolagoitia  announced  nine  days  later  that  the  revolt  had 
been  crushed  and  that  "  the  country  has  now  returned  to 
normality."  Hertzog,  his  health  broken,  submitted  his  formal 
resignation  from  the  presidency  to  congress  on  Oct.  19.  (G.I.B.) 

Education.  (1944  est  )  Schools,  elementary  1,740,  pupils  144,060; 
secondary  55,  pupils  17,500.  Universities  5 

Agriculture.  Mam  crops  ('000  metric  tons,  1947-48).  wheat  14; 
barley  60,  maize  150;  potatoes  402.  Livestock  ('000  head)  cattle 
(1946)  3,039;  sheep  (1948)  4,289;  horses  (Jan.  1949)  442,  asses  and 
mules  (1947)  403 

Industry.  (1947)  Manufacturing  establishments  400;  persons  em- 
ployed 15,000.  Fuel  and  power:  electricity  (million  kwh.,  1947)  145; 
crude  oil  (metric  tons,  1948)  58,280  Raw  materials  (exports  in  metric 
tons  1948):  copper  6,620;  lead  25,620,  zinc  21,090;  tin  37,900. 

Foreign  Trade.  (1948)  Imports  U.S.  $67  million.  Exports  $123 
million  The  principal  export  is  tin  accounting  for  65  %  of  all  exports 
in  1948  Mam  destinations  of  exports  (1947)  United  States  60%, 
United  Kingdom  36%  Mam  sources  imports  (1947):  United  States 
49%,  Argentina  20%,  Peru  11% 

Transport  and  Communications.  Roads  (1947).  6,300  mi.  Licensed 
motor  vehicles  (Dec.  1948):  cars  3,845,  commercial  vehicles  7,845. 
Railways  (1947)-  1,454  mi.  Telephone  instruments  (1947):  7,700. 
Wireless  licences  (1944)  40,000. 

Finance  and  Banking.  Budget  (million  bolivianos)  (1948  est.) 
revenue  1,497,  expenditure  1,497;  (1949  est.)  revenue  1,795,  expenditure 
2,046.  National  domestic  debt  (Dec  1948,  in  brackets  Dec.  1947) 
1,930  (1,347)  million.  Currency  circulation  (June  1949;  in  brackets 
June  1948).  2,148  (1,782).  Gold  reserve  (June  1949;  in  brackets 
June  1948)  U  S.  $22  8  (22-7).  Bank  deposits  (June  1949;  in  brackets 
June  1948).  1,356(1,037).  Monetary  unit  boliviano  with  a  controlled 
selling  exchange  rate  (Dec.  1949;  in  brackets  Dec.  1948)  of  118-8 
(171  -0)  bolivianos  to  the  pound. 

BONAIRE:   see  NETHERLANDS  OVERSEAS  TERRITORIES. 

BONN,  a  town  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  15  mi.  south 
of  Cologne,  provisional  capital  of  the  German  federal 
republic  (Western  Germany).  Pop.:  (May  17,  1939,  census) 
101,391;  (Dec.  1949  est.)  110,000. 

When  the  Parliamentary  council  assembled  at  Bonn  on 
Sept.  1,  1948,  to  prepare  a  new  German  constitution,  it  was 
generally  assumed  that  the  provisional  capital  of  Western 
Germany  would  be  Frankfurt-on-Main,  for  long  the  place 
of  election  of  the  German  emperors  and  seat  of  the  first 
German  parliament  in  1848.  But  on  May  23  the  Western 
German  republic  was  proclaimed  at  Bonn,  and  there  also, 
on  Sept.  7,  was  convened  the  newly  elected  parliament.  On 
Sept.  30  the  Bundestag  decided,  by  196  votes  to  169  with  3 
abstentions,  to  refer  to  a  commission  of  enquiry  the  question 
whether  Bonn  or  Frankfurt  should  become  the  provisional 
capital  of  the  German  federal  republic.  Although  the  com- 
mission reported  that  the  choice  of  Frankfurt,  with  its 
greater  accommodation  facilities  both  for  government  offices 
and  private  dwellings  and  its  better  communications,  would 
result  in  economies  estimated  at  DM.100  million,  the  Bunde- 
stag decided  on  Nov.  3,  by  200  votes  to  176  with  1 1  abstentions, 
to  retain  Bonn  as  the  provisional  capital. 


106 


BOOK  COLLECTING   AND   BOOK   SALES 


m. 


&, 


m'^>fyk:,^ ! 


Bundeshaus  (parliament  building)  at  Bonn.   The  building  was  specially  extended  in  1949  to  house  the  Bundesrat  and  the  Buiukstug  of  the 

West  German  federal  government. 


The  new  sanatorium-like  Bundeshaus,  or  house  of  parlia- 
ment, was  formerly  a  modern  teachers'  college.  It  was  com- 
pletely overhauled  and  a  new  office  wing,  an  assembly  hall 
and  a  restaurant  were  added.  Dr.  Theodor  Heuss  (^.v.),  the 
president  of  the  federal  republic,  was  housed  at  Viktorshohe, 
near  Godesberg,  but  for  big  official  occasions  he  was  to  use 
the  beautiful  rococo  Schloss  Augustusburg,  near  Brlihl.  The 
question  of  Bonn's  communications  had  caused  some 
anxiety  but  by  November  the  new  bridge  spanning  the 
800-yd.  wide  Rhine  was  finished  and  the  new  capital  was 
connected  with  the  Frankfurt-Cologne  Autobahn  by  a  broad 
new  highway.  Also  an  extra  siding  was  built  at  Bonn  on  the 
Cologne-Mainz  railway  line  to  handle  the  increased  traffic. 
As  a  third  of  Bonn's  houses  had  been  destroyed  by  air  bombing 
the  housing  problem  was  acute  and  was  being  solved  by  repair- 
ing the  old  and  building  new  dwellings.  A  well  known  Berlin 
architect,  Max  Taut,  was  in  charge  of  a  settlement  for  govern- 
ment officials  on  the  Venusberg.  Altogether,  by  Nov.  1, 
about  DM.  15 -5  million  had  been  spent  by  the  government 
alone  in  building  and  other  works  in  order  to  transform  this 
quiet  university  city  into  a  German  Canberra.  Dr.  Hermann 
Wandersleb  was  the  chief  planner. 

On  Nov.  27  a  new  municipal  theatre,  in  place  of  the  one 
destroyed  in  an  air  raid  in  1944,  was  opened.  Bonn  had  many 
new  cinemas,  Konditoreien  (coffee  houses)  and  restaurants 
with  music  but  no  night  clubs  were  authorized.  The  head- 
quarters of  the  Allied  High  commission  were  on  the  2,000  ft. 
Petersberg,  in  a  former  luxury  hotel,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Rhine,  a  few  miles  to  the  southeast  of  Bonn. 

BOOK    COLLECTING   AND   BOOK   SALES. 

Most  collectors  do  most  of  their  buying  from  booksellers;  and 
the  activity  of  both  fraternities  is  geared  to  some  extent  to  the 
auction  season  which  lasts  from  early  October  to  early  July 
in  London  and  is  somewhat  shorter  in  New  York.  The  most 
distinguished  sale  held  anywhere  during  the  1948-49  season 
took  place  in  Dec.  1948,  but  the  results  of  the  most  significant 
event  of  1949 — the  devaluation  of  most  European  currencies 
in  terms  of  the  dollar — could  hardly  be  estimated  before  the 
end  of  the  1949-50  season. 

The  collection  formed  in  Paris  by  Cortlandt  Field  Bishop 
was  sold  not  in  London  or  Paris  or  Geneva,  but  in  New 
York.  It  was  full  of  beautiful  continental  books  (the  18th 


century  predominating  over  the  17th  and  16th)  of  a  kind 
and  quality  not  seen  in  such  profusion  since  the  Rahir  sales 
of  1930  and  1931,  and  the  incongruity  of  its  place  of  dispersal 
was  reflected  in  the  fact  that  about  80%  of  the  books  were 
bought  by  continental  dealers.  Other  notable  American 
sales  were  provided  by  the  libraries  of  Fritz  Kreisler  and 
Frank  Capra;  and  the  outstanding  single  object  sold  during 
the  year  (for  $54,000)  was  the  Bliss  ms.  of  Lincoln's 
Gettysburg  Address,  the  fifth  and  final  draft,  signed  in  full. 
London  auction  sales  were  steady  in  volume,  more  than 
steady  in  price  level,  but  unspectacular.  Further  instalments 
of  the  Landau  library  appeared;  a  beginning  was  made  on 
the  enormous  mass  of  Sir  Leicester  Harmsworth's  Americana; 
George  Bernard  Shaw  showed  a  shrewd  appreciation  of  the 
value  added  to  books  from  his  shelves  by  notes  and  inscrip- 
tions from  his  own  pen;  and  the  27th  portion  of  the  library 
of  Sir  Thomas  Phillipps  marked  the  end  of  the  sixth  decade 
since  dispersal  of  that  huge  hoard  began.  The  fact  that  the 
whole  remainder  of  the  Bibliotheca  Phillippica  had  been 
bought  some  years  ago  by  a  London  bookseller  was  publicly 
confirmed  by  his  issue  of  a  catalogue  6f  some  of  the  contents. 

The  normal  flow  of  rare  books  from  the  continent  to  Great 
Britain  had  been  almost  completely  dammed  from  1939  to 
1948,  though  an  increasing  traffic  direct  to  America  had  been 
operating  from  1946,  mostly  through  emigre  dealers  in  New 
York.  During  1949  British  booksellers  and  collectors  found 
things  a  little  easier;  and  some  considerable  holes  were  made 
in  the  zareba  of  exchange  control  regulations,  import  licences, 
etc.,  which  isolated  the  country  from  the  rest  of  Europe. 
Practical  and  concerted  measures  for  enlarging  these  holes 
were  among  the  agenda  at  the  first  plenary  session  of  the 
International  League  of  Antiquarian  Booksellers  held  in 
London  in  September;  and  it  was  hoped  that  London's 
once  pre-eminent  position  as  an  entrepot  of  the  antiquarian 
book  trade  might  be  at  least  partially  retrieved. 

Among  British  collectors  the  cyclic  fashion  for  "  press 
books  "  continued  to  ebb  while  the  taste  for  bird  and  flower 
books,  so  strongly  marked  after  World  War  H,  seemed  as 
vigorous  as  ever.  Really  fine  18th  century  first  editions  were 
scarce,  19th  century  scarcer,  with  fiction  most  difficult  of  all. 
The  revival  of  general  interest  in  calligraphy  noticeably 
affected  the  prices  asked  for  even  mediocre  writing  books: 
those  in  good  condition,  because  of  their  function,  are 


BOOK   PUBLISHING 


107 


naturally  always  scarce.  The  market  in  "  modern  firsts  " 
was  brisk  but  well  spread  and  showed  few  symptoms  of 
hysteria  or  speculation.  (J.  CR.) 

Europe.  Austrian  dealers  reported  that,  whereas  formerly 
it  had  been  possible  to  secure  rare  books  in  exchange  for 
black-market  staples,  such  trading  had  disappeared  as  a 
result  of  1948  monetary  reforms.  Favoured  by  the  newly 
decreed  freedom  of  trade,  the  antiquarian  book  business  in 
Western  Germany  showed  stability,  although  east-to-west 
trade  remained  difficult.  Leipzig,  traditional  book  centre  of 
Germany,  was  considered  lost  by  western  Germans  who  set^ 
out  to  establish  a  new  centre  in  the  west.  Switzerland,  which 
had  enjoyed  an  increase  in  business  representing  that  portion 
formerly  executed  by  German  dealers,  reported  a  falling  off 
as  the  German  trade  was  re-established.  In  general,  European 
dealers  discovered  that  as  living  conditions  improved  they 
were  able  to  buy  fewer  rarities  from  private  owners. 

United  States.  Sales  of  book  collections  in  1949  were  fairly 
pedestrian.  A  notable  exception  was  the  auction  in  New  York 
of  the  Fritz  Kreisler  collection  of  early  printed  books  and 
manuscripts  which  realized  $120,272. 

The  highest  auction  price  for  a  single  piece  was  $54,000 
paid  (Parke-Bernet  galleries,  Inc.,  New  York,  April  27)  for 
the  Bliss  copy  of  Lincoln's  Gettysburg  Address.  Purchaser  of 
the  manuscript  was  Oscar  B.  Cintas  of  Havana,  Cuba.  Four 
other  copies  of  the  Address  arc  known:  two  in  the  Library  of 
Congress,  one  in  the  Illinois  State  Historical  library,  one  in 
Cornell  university  library.  This  last  was  presented  to  the 
library  in  June  by  Nicholas  H.  Noyes  of  Indianapolis, 
Indiana. 

It  was  announced  that  Mark  Twain's  private  papers, 
including  unpublished  manuscripts,  would  be  given  to  the 
University  of  California  as  a  legacy  by  the  author's  only 
surviving  issue,  Mrs.  Jacques  Samossoud.  Another  important 
collection,  the  papers  of  James  Boswell,  gathered  by  Colonel 
Ralph  H.  Isham,  was  acquired  by  Yale  university  libraries 
as  a  partial  gift  and  would  serve  as  the  basis  for  the  definitive 
edition  of  Boswell's  writings.  The  Olive  Branch  Petition,  the 
appeal  addressed  to  King  George  III  by  the  American  Colonies 
in  an  effort  to  resolve  the  differences  that  brought  on  the 
American  Revolution,  was  presented  to  the  New  York 
Public  library  by  Lucius  Wilmerding. 

On  March  31  a  group  met  in  New  York  and  established 
the  Antiquarian  Booksellers*  Association  of  America. 
Regional  chapters  were  established  or  projected  in  Los 
Angeles,  New  York  city,  Philadelphia,  Chicago  and  Boston. 

Devaluation  of  the  pound  seemed  to  have  failed  to  increase 
trade  between  U.S.  and  British  dealers.  In  the  United  States 
it  was  believed  by  many  that  since  British  prices  were  based 
on  the  dollar  there  could  be  small  revisions  in  pricing.  With 
devaluation,  some  British  dealers  revised  prices  upward. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  Cambridge  Bibliographical  society.  Transactions, 
first  issue,  Cambridge,  England,  1949,  Bibliographical  society  of  the 
University  of  Virginia,  Papers,  vols  I  and  II,  Charlottesville,  Virginia, 
1949,  Brnest  J.  Haiter,  Collecting  first  Editions  of  Franklin  D. 
Roosevelt,  Chicago,  1949  (J.  BK.) 

BOOK  PUBLISHING.  In  Great  Britain  1949  was  the 
year  in  which  book  publishing,  which  had  assumed  some 
strange  patterns  during  the  preceding  ten  years,  was  restored 
to  its  normal  appearance.  On  March  6  the  rationing  of  paper 
for  books  (which  had  been  introduced  nine  years  earlier, 
on  March  3,  1940)  came  to  an  end.  This  long-awaited 
liberation  from  governmental  control  came  too  late  to  cause 
much  jubilation.  Already  by  that  date  paper  rationing  had 
ceased  to  be  a  real  problem  for  the  vast  majority  of  publishers, 
all  of  whom  were  now  more  concerned  with  steadily  mounting 
manufacturing  costs  at  a  time  when  any  proportionate  rise 
in  selling  price  to  meet  those  costs  would  be  particularly 
unwelcome.  Publishers  had  to  base  the  selling  price  of  a 


book  on  the  number  of  copies  they  could  reasonably  hope  to 
sell  in  relation  to  the  costs  of  manufacture.  During  the  years 
of  book  shortages  every  publisher  knew  that  he  would  sell 
practically  every  copy  of  every  title  he  could  manufacture 
and  he  fixed  his  prices  accordingly.  The  result  was  that 
during  those  years  such  increase  in  published  price  as  occurred 
bore  little  relation  to  the  increase  in  costs.  By  1949,  however, 
there  was  no  shortage  of  books.  Students  and  other  specialist 
users  of  books  might  still  find  difficulty  in  securing  a  particular 
book;  but  the  general  reader's  requirements  were  abundantly 
catered  for.  After  having  been  unconsidered  for  nearly  a 
decade  the  element  of  risk  once  again  re-occupied  its 
important  place  in  publishers'  calculations.  Books  that  had 
failed  to  find  a  purchaser  began  to  accumulate  in  the  book- 
shops and  the  burning  trade  question  throughout  the  year 
was  this  matter  of  "  overstocks  " 

Despite  all  this,  the  publishing  business  continued  quarter 
by  quarter  to  beat  all  previous  records.  The  amount  of  trade 
done  by  publishers  in  1948  reached  the  unprecedented  figure 
of  £33,241,431.  (The  prewar  average  annual  total  was 
approximately  £10  million.)  During  the  first  six  months  of 
1949,  publishers1  total  sales  amounted  to  £15,849,367,  an 
increase  by  over  £400,000  on  the  turnover  during  the  corres- 
ponding period  of  1948.  Since  book  trade  business  is 
invariably  greater  during  the  second  half  of  the  year  than  in 
the  first,  there  was  little  doubt  that  the  1949  total  would 
surpass  the  1948  record.  An  analysis  of  publishers'  output 
made  by  the  book  trade  paper,  the  Bookseller,  showed  the 
average  price  of  books  published  during  the  first  six  months 
of  1949  to  be  10*.  \\d.  In  the  following  six  months  the 
average  price  was  1 1  s.  4d. 

Total  turnover  figures  do  not  by  themselves  reflect  the 
prosperity  of  the  book  trade  but  must  be  considered  in 
relation  to  the  number  of  titles  over  which  the  business  is 
spread.  The  table  shows  the  turnover  figures  for  the  12  years 
1937-48  in  conjunction  with  the  total  number  of  titles 
(including  reprints  and  new  editions)  recorded  by  the 
Bookseller  for  those  years. 

BRITISH  BOOK  PUBLISHING  TURNOVER  FIGURES 
Year 

1937 

1938 

1939 

1940 

1941 

1942     . 

1943 

1944 

1945 

1946     . 

1947 

1948     . 

The  production  of  books  in  Great  Britain  during  1949 
was  17,034  titles,  of  which  5,110  were  reprints  and  new 
editions.  The  total  was  considerably  greater  than  the  output 
for  recent  years  and  was  very  little  short  of  the  figure  for  the 
record  year  1937  (17,134  titles).  The  notable  increase  in  the 
output  of  titles  was  watched  with  growing  apprehension  by 
the  book  trade,  which  painfully  recalled  that  the  worst  of 
its  misfortunes  during  the  difficult  'thirties  had  been  due  to 
over-production  of  new  titles.  On  the  other  hand,  some 
postwar  expansion  of  the  book  lists  was  inevitable  and  indeed 
desirable.  Of  the  year's  5,000  reprints  many  were  badly 
needed  to  replace  the  standard  works  which  were  casualties 
of  the  paper  shortage;  and  of  the  12,000  new  books  published 
during  1949  a  substantial  number  were  books  arranged  for 
in  previous  years,  whose  appearance  had  had  to  wait  the 
easing  of  paper,  printing  and  binding  difficulties. 

The  amount  of  export  business  done  by  British  publishers 
in  1948  was  £8,739,236,  or  26-3%  of  the  total.  The  largest 


Turnover 

Titles 

recorded 

£10,507,204 

17,137 

£10,706,018 

16,219 

£10,321,658 

14,904 

£9,953,196 

11,053 

£13,986,700 

7,581 

£16,735,900 

7.241 

£19,290,800 

6,705 

£20,500,516 

6,781 

£21,979,554 

6,747 

£26,961,622 

11,411 

£30,203,763 

13,046 

£33,241,431 

14,686 

108 


BOTANICAL  GARDENS— BOTANY 


overseas  market  for  British  publishers,  Australia,  was  worth 
well  over  £t£  million  in  1949.  Other  overseas  markets  in 
order  of  importance  were:  South  Africa,  India,  U.S.A., 
New  Zealand,  British  Africa,  Scandinavia,  Ireland,  Canada, 
middle  east,  Netherlands,  central  Europe,  France,  Malaya, 
South  America,  British  West  Indies,  Belgium,  Italy,  Switzer- 
land, Asia,  the  Balkans,  Spain,  Portugal,  Germany,  Africa 
(non-British),  central  America  and  Iceland. 

Europe.  Publishers  in  European  countries  as  well  as  in 
Great  Britain  found  themselves  enjoying  in  1949  a  relief 
from  the  shortages  of  raw  materials  that  had  restricted  their 
activities  for  so  long  and,  in  spite  of  a  shortage  of  printing 
plant  that  still  prevailed  in  a  number  of  countries,  were  able 
to  allow  their  own  tastes  and  traditions  in  style  rather  than 
considerations  of  economy  to  govern  their  book  production. 

During  the  year  official  reports  from  eastern  Europe 
claimed  that  book  production  was  flourishing  under  the 
new  regime  and  that  demand  had  never  been  higher.  The 
most  detailed  account  of  the  book  trade  in  any  of  these 
countries  was  provided  by  the  Czechoslovak  Publishing  act, 
passed  in  March  1949,  which  invested  in  the  Ministry  of 
Information  and  Public  Culture  full  powers  to  plan  and 
direct  book  publishing  and  bookselling  to  the  exclusion  of  all 
independent  production  and  distribution. 

Although  there  were  now  fewer  obstacles  to  book  pro- 
duction in  Europe,  those  which  impeded  the  free  flow  of 
books  from  country  to  country,  such  as  tax  barriers,  import 
restrictions,  etc.,  remained  formidable.  The  removal  of  some 
of  these  barriers  was  one  of  the  principal  concerns  of  the 
United  Nations  Educational,  Scientific  and  Cultural  organiza- 
tion, and  at  the  Cultural  conference  of  the  European  move- 
ment, held  at  Lausanne  in  Dec.  1949,  the  conference 
unanimously  declared  its  conviction  that  it  was  "  vital  to 
the  well-being  of  Europe  that  all  such  restrictions  should 
be  swept  away."  (E.  SE  ) 

United  States.  Title  production  in  1949  was  10,892  (9,897 
in  1948),  the  highest  total  since  1941.  The  largest  increase 
over  the  preceding  year  was  in  the  category  of  sociology  and 
economics,  followed  by  books  on  science,  business,  biography 
and  domestic  economy.  The  decreases  appeared  in  the  fields 
of  music,  and  domestic  and  military  subjects.  The  number 
of  fiction  titles  was  1,644  (1,643  in  1948),  but  there  were 
fewer  new  titles  and  more  new  editions. 

Based  on  trade  sales  alone,  the  list  of  fictional  best  sellers 
for  1949  was  headed  by  The  Egyptian,  a  novel  laid  in  ancient 
Egypt  and  translated  from  the  Finnish  of  Mika  Waltari. 
This  was  followed  by  Lloyd  C.  Douglas*  The  Big  Fisherman, 
which  moved  from  first  place  in  1948  to  second  place  in 
1949;  in  third  place  came  Sholem  Asch's  Mary.  First  on  the 
list  of  non-fiction  best  sellers,  rated  by  trade  sales  alone, 
was  White  Collar  Zoo  by  Clare  Barnes,  Jr.,  a  series  of  animal 
photographs  humorously  captioned  to  relate  them  to  familiar 
office  types  and  office  situations;  its  immediate  success 
brought  a  sequel  in  Home  Sweet  Zoo,  which  proved  another 
best  seller. 

Although  non-fiction  sales  through  the  book  stores  were 
larger  in  1949  than  fiction  sales,  five  of  the  ten  non-fiction  best 
sellers  were  not  literary  books:  two  were  picture  books  and 
three  were  instruction  on  how  to  play  canasta,  a  new  and  very 
popular  card  game. 

In  1949,  as  in  1948,  books  with  a  religious  or  biblical 
interest  accounted  for  two  of  the  fiction  and  four  of  the 
non-fiction  best  sellers. 

BORNEO:  see  BRITISH  BORNEO;  NETHERLANDS  OVER- 
SEAS TERRITORIES. 

BOTANICAL  GARDENS.  The  long  summer  drought 


of  1949  caused  some  losses  in  the  larger  gardens,  particularly 
in  the  south  of  England.  Many  bulbs  and  shrubs,  however, 
that  benefit  from  a  warm  summer,  gave  an  unusually  fine 
display. 

At  the  Royal  Botanic  gardens,  Kew,  Dr.  J.  Hutchinson 
retired  from  the  keepership  of  the  museums  after  44  years*  ser- 
vice at  Kew.  He  was  succeeded  by  Dr.  F.  N.  Howes.  The  direc- 
tor, Sir  Edward  J.  Salisbury  served  as  a  vice  president  of  the 
Royal  Society  as  well  as  being  its  senior  secretary.  Work 
in  the  Herbarium  returned  to,  or  even  exceeded,  prewar 
quantity  and  quality  and  the  Kew  Bulletin,  no.  1,  1949, 
reported  that  over  35,000  specimens  were  received  during 
1948.  Three  further  important  papers  on  the  "Classification 
of  the  Bananas  "  by  E.  E.  Cheesman  of  the  Imperial  College 
of  Tropical  Agriculture,  Trinidad,  were  published  in  the 
Kew  Bulletin,  nos.  1,  2  and  3,  1949.  Determinations  of  plants 
from  collections  by  P.  H.  Davis  in  the  Mediterranean  and 
the  near  east  as  well  as  from  the  collections  of  Christopher 
Sandeman  in  South  America  and  those  of  the  Oxford  univer- 
sity expedition  in  Sarawak  were  also  given  in  the  Kew  Bulletin. 

In  South  Africa  continued  efforts  were  made  for  the 
preservation  of  the  rarer  members  of  the  native  flora  and  a 
large  collection  of  these  were  grown  in  the  National  Botanic 
gardens  at  Kirstenbosch,  Cape  Province,  from  which  many 
South  African  plants  and  seeds  were  sent  out  to  other  insti- 
tutions during  the  year. 

A  number  of  notable  plants  flowered  during  1949  in  the 
Edinburgh  Botanic  garden  and  a  further  part  of  the  revision 
of  the  Series  of  Rhododendron  was  prepared  by  the  assistant 
keeper,  Dr.  J.  Macqucen  Cowan  and  H.  H.  Davidian  and 
published  in  the  Rhododendron  Year  Book,  no.  3,  1949,  of 
the  Royal  Horticultural  society.  This  section  dealt  with  the 
Campanulatum  and  Fulvum  scries. 

At  the  Wisley  gardens,  belonging  to  the  Royal  Horticul- 
tural society,  the  blooming  of  late  summer  South  African 
bulbous  plants  such  as  Amaryllis  Belladonna  and  Nerine 
Bowdenii  was  unusually  fine.  A  tetraploid  form  of  the  scarlet 
Salvia  splendens  was  produced  by  the  Cytological  depart- 
ment at  Wisley  and  showed  more  vigour  and  size  than  the 
diploid  plant.  This  was  shown  for  the  first  time  during  the 
year  under  the  name  Wisley  Tetraploid. 

In  Berlin,  progress  was  made  in  the  reconstruction  of  the 
botanical  garden  and  museum  at  Dahlem  under  the  director- 
ship of  Dr.  R.  Pilger,  and  a  report  on  the  portion  of  the 
scientific  collections  that  was  saved  was  published  in  the 
Kew  Bulletin,  no.  2,  1949.  (P.  M.  SE.) 

United  States.  A  new  arboretum  was  initiated  by  the 
park  department  of  Spokane,  Washington.  A  tract  of  nearly 
100  ac.  was  set  aside  for  this  purpose.  Various  organizations 
in  Denver,  Colorado,  were  working  very  hard  to  have  an 
area  of  one  of  the  city  parks  set  aside  for  an  arboretum. 
The  tract  under  consideration  included  nearly  100  ac.  of 
park  land  between  the  Museum  of  Natural  History  and  the 
Zoological  garden. 

No  major  changes  occurred  in  the  larger  arboretums 
and  botanical  gardens  of  North  America  during  the  year, 
but  the  Lexington  Botanic  garden  at  Lexington,  Massa- 
chusetts, was  being  discontinued  owing  to  lack  of  operating 
funds.  (See  also  HORTICULTURE.) 

BOTANY.  During  1949  all  branches  of  the  science 
contributed  to  an  imposing  bulk  of  published  research  in 
which  notable  advances  were  reported  in  the  study  of  anti- 
biotics, plant  diseases  and  palaeobotany.  (See  PALEONTOLOGY  .) 

The  Botanical  Society  of  the  British  Isles  commenced 
publication  of  a  new  periodical  Watsonia  for  contributions 
bearing  on  the  taxonomy  and  distribution  of  British  vascular 
plants  and  charophytes.  The  discovery  of  Myriophyllum 
verrucosum,  an  Australian  aquatic,  was  reported  from  gravel 


BOTANY 


109 


pits  in  Bedfordshire  and  it  was  suggested  that  the  plant  was 
introduced  with  wool  shoddy  which  is  extensively  used  in 
the  neighbourhood  as  manure.  Equisetum  ramosissimum,  a 
native  of  the  Mediterranean  basin  and  southern  Europe,  was 
recorded  from  a  locality  in  Lincolnshire.  The  society  also 
published  a  report  of  a  conference  on  British  flowering  plants 
and  modern  taxonomic  methods,  which  contained  observa- 
tions by  experts  on  critical  groups. 

The  Linnean  society  and  the  Systematics  association  held 
a  joint  meeting  in  London  to  discuss  cytology  in  relation  to 
botanical  and  zoological  taxonomy.  W.  B.  Turrill  definedf 
the  aim  of  the  taxonomists  and  reviewed  the  problems  raised' 
by  sterility,  apomixes  and  polypody.  F.  C.  Stern  showed  how 
the  number  and  shape  of  chromosomes  helped  to  distinguish 
critical  species  which  otherwise  were  difficult  to  distinguish. 
He  suggested  that  the  genera  Leucojum,  predominantly 
western  Mediterranean,  and  Galanthus,  predominantly  eastern 
Mediterranean,  had  diverged  from  a  common  ancestral  type 
which  had  been  driven  south  in  glacial  times. 

Professor  Lily  Newton  delivered  the  presidential  address 
to  the  Botany  section  at  the  British  Association  meeting  at 
Newcastle-on-Tyne  on  4t  The  utilization  of  the  macroscopic 
marine  algae  through  the  ages."  Seaweeds  served  as  food  in 
the  east  and  as  fodder  and  manure  in  the  west  from  very 
early  times  and  Professor  Newton  described  in  detail  the 
many  uses  to  which  they  had  been  put  in  various  parts  of 
the  world  and  the  latest  work,  particularly  in  Great  Britain, 
to  exploit  commercially  the  marine  algae  around  the  shores 
of  Britain. 

J.  Allison  and  H.  Godwin  identified  tubers  of  Arrhena- 
therum  tuberosum  and  grains  of  a  six-rowed  barley  in  a  sample 
of  carbonized  plant  material  from  an  Old  Bronze  Age  site 
in  Wiltshire.  From  a  Middle  Bronze  Age  site  in  the  same 
county  they  recorded  a  sub-fossil  seed  of  Veronica  hederai- 
folta. 

P.  W.  Brian  found  that  Gnseofulvin,  a  metabolic  product 
of  several  species  of  Pemcillium,  in  concentrations  of  0*1  — 
10-0  /Ltg./ml.,  had  a  profound  influence  in  the  morpho- 
genesis of  many  fungi.  No  effect  was  observed  in  the  treat- 
ment of  the  comycetes,  actinomycetes  and  bacteria  but  the 
product  was  found  to  be  appreciably  toxic  to  some  angio- 
spermic  seeds. 

E.  J.  H.  Corner  suggested  in  his  Durian  theory  that  it  was 
possible,  from  a  study  of  tropical  fruits,  to  trace  the  gradual 
evolution  of  the  modern  tree  form.  He  argued  that  the 
primitive  angiosperm  fruit  must  have  been  a  red  fleshly 
follicle  with  large,  black  red-arillate  seeds  suspended  on 
persistent  fumcles.  The  primitive  angiosperm  was  a  tropical 
cycad  like  mesophyte  with  large  pinnate  leaves  and  bearing 
a  cluster  of  large  anllate  follicles. 

S.  Dickinson,  investigating  the  stimuli  determining  the 
direction  of  the  growth  of  the  germ  tubes  of  rust  and  mildew 
spores,  concluded  that  three  tropisms  were  involved,  positive 
hyderotropism  and  two  types  of  growth  response  due  to 
contact.  He  also  studied  the  behaviour  of  germ  tubes  of 
certain  nests  and  found  that  the  formation  of  appressoria, 
of  substomatal  vesicles  and  of  infection  hyphae  were  induced 
by  contact  stimuli.  He  described  how  the  mycelia  of  two 
rusts  on  removal  of  their  host  epidermis  were  unable  to  grow 
out  of  the  infected  host  disease. 

D.  Doxey  studied  the  effect  of  isopropyl  phenyl  carbonate 
on  mytosis  in  rye  and  onion  and  described  the  resulting 
mitotic  irregularities.  These  included  interference  with 
centromere  action  and  spindle  suppression  resulting  in 
paired  chromosomes  and  polypoid  nuclei.  The  effects  were 
compared  with  conditions  found  in  certain  types  of  tumour. 

On  the  controversial  subject  of  per-glacial  survival  of 
certain  components  of  the  British  flora  H.  Godwin  showed 
that  new  evidence  regarding  the  former  wide  range  of  species, 


which  were  now  much  restricted,  presented  the  problem  as 
one  of  explaining  post-glacial  movements  and  adjustments 
rather  than  of  per-glacial  survival. 

J.  W.  Heslop  Harrison  recorded  Potamogeton  epihydrus 
from  the  Outer  Hebrides.  This  was  a  most  interesting 
addition  to  the  British  flora  as  it  is  one  of  the  few  species 
which  are  predominantly  north  American  in  their  distri- 
bution and  which  reach  extreme  western  Europe. 

C.  C.  Harvey  and  K.  M.  Drew  reported  the  first  occurrence 
on  the  English  coast  of  the  red  algal  genus  Falkcnbergia  as 
an  epiphyte  on  a  piece  of  Floridian  alga. 

Knud  Jsssen  published  his  studies  in  late  Quaternary 
deposits  and  flora  history  of  Ireland.  From  detailed  examina- 
tion of  the  plant  remains  in  post-glacial  deposits  in  a  number 
of  widespread  bogs  and  peat  deposits,  he  had  traced  the 
changes  in  the  flora  to  recent  times,  and  listed  the  species 
found  in  the  various  zones.  He  considered  that  certain 
constituent  elements  in  the  present  day  Irish  flora,  including 
the  Atlantic  and  Lusitanian  species,  might  have  survived  the 
last  glaciation. 

J.  A.  Macdonald  investigated  the  heather  rhizomorph 
fungus  Marasmius  androsaceus  which  grows  where  the  heather 
is  wet  and  attacks  old  plants  more  commonly  than  young 
ones.  It  was  found  that  a  burned  area  of  moor  was  unaffected 
while  the  neighbouring  unburned  area  was  severely  infected. 

P.  S.  Nutman  studied  nodule  formation  in  red  clover,  and 
suggested  that  bacteria  penetrated  the  root  and  produced 
nodules  only  within  those  zones  of  the  root  distinguished  by 
the  presence  of  growing  root  hairs  and  only  at  points  of 
incipient  meristomatic  activity. 

T.  R.  Peace  and  J.  S.  L.  Gilmour  studied  the  effect  of 
picking  on  the  flowering  of  the  bluebell  Scilla  non-scripta 
and  found  from  independent  observations  in  two  separate 
localities  that  neither  picking  nor  pulling  had  any  deleterious 
effect  on  flower  production  over  a  period  of  years. 

M.  E.  D.  Poore  and  V.  C.  Robertson  gave  an  account  of 
certain  aspects  of  the  vegetation  of  St.  Kilda  to  show  the 
changes  subsequent  to  the  evacuation  of  human  inhabitants 
in  1932. 

J.  E.  Raven,  after  visiting  the  Isle  of  Rhum,  indicated  that 
several  of  the  rare  and  interesting  plants  reported  from  the 
island  in  recent  years  had  been  introduced. 

K.  R.  Sporne,  in  a  statistical  analysis  of  floral  and  vegeta- 
tive characters  of  the  families  of  Dicotyledons,  suggested 
that  there  were  significant  correlations  in  an  assessment  of 
relative  advancement.  On  this  basis  Dipsacese,  Labiatae  and 
Valerianacese  were  shown  to  be  amongst  the  most  advanced 
families,  and  Flacourtiaceae,  Anonaceae,  Magnoliaceae  and 
Euphorbiacese  to  be  amongst  the  most  primitive. 

J.  Walton  described  the  ovuliferous  fructification  of 
Calathospermum  scoticum  and  indicated  its  significance  in  the 
interpretation  of  carpel  morphology.  He  also  described 
Alcicornopteris  Mallei  from  the  Lower  Carboniferous  of 
Dumbartonshire  and  referred  the  species  to  the  Pterido- 
sperma?.  It  was  the  first  example  known  of  a  fairly  complete 
microsporangiale  fructification  to  be  found  in  a  petrified  state. 
C.  W.  Ward  law  described  experimental  and  anatomical 
investigations  on  leaf  formation  of  phyllotaxis  of  Dryopteris 
aristata  Druce  and,  on  the  data  available,  rejected  the 
hypothesis  of  other  workers. 

S.  Williams  recorded  the  occurrence  of  a  completely 
saprophytic  liverwort,  probably  Cryptothallus  mirabilis,  from 
Dumbartonshire,  Scotland.  It  was  found  embedded  up  to 
three  inches  in  black  amorphous  peat  on  the  site  of  a  felled 
wood.  (See  also  HORTICULTURE.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — L.  H.  Bailey,  Manual  of  Cultivated  Plants  most 
commonly  grown  in  the  continental  United  States  and  Canada  (rev.  ed., 
London,  1949);  W.  J.  Dowson,  Manual  of  Bacterial  Plant  Diseases 
(London,  1949);  S.  M.  Marshall,  L.  Newton,  A.  P.  Orr  and  others, 
A  Study  of  certain  British  Seaweeds  and  their  utilization  in  the  preparation 


110 


BOWLS-BOXING 


of  Agar  (London,  1949);  K.  Mather,  Diametrical  Genetics:  the  study 
of  continuous  variations  (London,  1949);  R.  N.  Salaman,  The  History 
and  Social  Influence  of  the  Potato  (Cambridge,  1949);  A.  G.  Tansley, 
Britain's  Green  Mantle;  past,  present  and  future  (London,  1949); 
G.  Viennot-Bourgin,  Les  Champignons  parasites  des  plantes  cultivees 
(Paris,  1949).  (G.  TLR.) 


BOWLS.  In  1949,  2,026  clubs  were  affiliated  to  the 
English  Bowling  association.  The  national  championships 
held  at  Paddington,  London,  from  Aug.  15-23,  attracted 
47,108  entries.  A.  Allen  (Oxford  city  and  county)  won  the 
singles  by  21-8,  A.  Collins  (West  Ealing)  being  the  runner-up. 
Darlington  won  the  pairs,  Worthing  pavilion  the  triples, 
and  Skef  ko,  Luton,  the  rinks.  The  International  tournament, 
played  at  Preston  park,  Brighton,  on  July  6-8  for  the  News 
of  the  World  trophy  was  won  by  England  on  points  average, 
England,  Scotland  and  Ireland  each  winning  two  games  and 
losing  one.  The  London  and  Southern  Counties  Bowling 
association's  gold  badge  was  won  by  N.  Miller  (Lyons), 
and  the  Lonsdale  tournament  by  A.  C.  Thwaites  (Century). 
The  national  Welsh  B.A.  singles  was  won  by  Evan  Rees  of 
Neath,  the  pairs  by  Briton  Ferry  Steel,  and  the  rinks  by 
Victoria  park,  Cardiff.  The  Irish  B.A.  singles  was  won  by 
R.  Miller  (Bangor  B.C.). 

In  1949,  351  clubs  were  affiliated  to  the  English  Women's 
Bowling  association.  Mrs.  Chillman  won  the  national 
championship  singles,  also  the  two-woods,  Mrs.  Winslow 
and  Mrs.  Homes,  of  Wiltshire,  the  pairs,  Dorset  the  triples 
and  Warwickshire,  the  rinks.  (J.  W.  FR.) 

BOXING.  A  remarkable  feature  of  boxing  at  the  end  of 
1949  was  that  Bruce  Woodcock,  the  British  heavyweight 
champion,  despite  a  much  chequered  career  and  suspect 
nervous  reflexes,  was  regarded  by  the  authoritative  New 
York  State  Athletic  commission  as  one  of  three  contenders 
for  the  world  championship.  The  New  York  body 
declared  the  title  vacant  after  the  retirement  of  Joe  Louis 
and  refused  to  alter  their  attitude  although  the  American 
National  Boxing  association,  to  which  all  other  states  are 


affiliated,  accepted  the  Negro,  Ezzard  Charles,  as  Louis's 
successor  by  virtue  of  his  victory  over  Louis's  old  opponent, 
Joe  Walcott,  in  a  fight  Louis  himself  promoted.  The 
N.Y.S.A.C.  would  only  recognize  Charles  as  champion  if  he 
beat  the  winner  of  the  contest  Woodcock  v.  Lee  Savold, 
arranged  for  May  1950.  It  was  postponed  from  Sept.  1949 
after  Woodcock  had  been  involved  in  a  road  accident. 
This  accident  produced  a  post-concussional  condition  and, 
adding  to  the  damage  inflicted  on  him  in  a  fight  with  Joe 
Baksi  in  1947  after  which  he  suffered  from  optic  nerve  and 
visional  trouble,  gave  him  considerable  anxiety.  Woodcock 
only  came  back  to  the  ring  late  in  1948.  After  knocking  out 
the  South  African,  Johnny  Ralph,  early  in  1949,  a  conquest 
that  did  much  to  restore  his  confidence,  he  successfully 
defended  his  British  title  against  Freddie  Mills  in  June  1949. 
Mills,  who  was  the  world  champion  cruiserweight,  had 
an  inactive  year  in  1949.  His  only  important  fight  was  against 
Woodcock,  to  whom  he  conceded  more  than  a  stone  in  weight 
and  much  in  height  and  reach.  He  was  to  defend  his  world 
title  against  Joey  Maxim,  American  challenger,  early  in  1950. 
Among  young  heavyweights  were  Jack  Gardner,  Johnny 
Williams  and  Don  Cockill.  Dick  Turpin,  verging  on  30, 
withstood  the  challenge  for  the  British  middleweight  cham- 
pionship but  seemed  unable  to  make  further  headway. 
Meanwhile  his  fiery  young  brother,  Randolph,  now  of  age, 
fought  his  way  towards  the  highest  honours  in  the  middle- 
weight class.  The  spectacular  hard-hitting  conquests  of  Pete 
Mead,  the  American,  and  Cyril  Delannoite,  the  former 
European  champion,  put  Randolph  Turpin  in  line  for  a 
match  with  Dave  Sands,  of  Australia,  which  the  promoters 
tried  to  establish  as  a  final  eliminator  for  the  world  champion- 
ship held  by  Jake  la  Motta,  who  won  it  from  Marcel  Cerdan 
(see  OBITUARIES).  The  British  welterweight  championship 
changed  hands  when  Eddie  Thomas  defeated  Henry  Hall  in 
an  uneven  fight.  Billy  Thompson  who  fought  rather  unevenly, 
remained  the  British  lightweight  champion  but  lost  the 
European  title  and  failed  to  regain  the  Empire  title  in  1949. 
His  next  British  challenger  might  have  been  Tommy 
McGovern.  It  was  a  pity  that  the  best  of  the  Amateur 


Players  taking  part  in  the  national  championships  of  the  English  Bowling  association  which  were  held  at  Paddington,  London,  in  Aug.  1949. 


BOYD-ORR-BOY   SCOUTS 


111 


Lord  Boyd-Orr  (right)  with  President  Vincent  Auriol  in  the  Efysee, 
Paris,  during  a  short  visit  to  France  in  Dec.  1949. 

Boxing  champions,  Algar  Smith,  who  turned  professional, 
could  not  be  exempted  from  the  age  clause  which  forbids 
minors  to  fight  more  than  a  stipulated  number  of  rounds. 
Smith  was  fully  developed  mentally  and  physically,  a  natural 
fighter  and  a  tremendous  puncher.  He  might  have  been 
ready  to  fight  for  the  championship  within  a  year.  He  was 
just  18  and  the  enforced  three  year  wait  might  damp  his 
ardour.  Ronnie  Clayton  regained  his  best  form  towards  the 
end  of  1949  but  was  still  below  world  standard.  He  fought 
the  fight  of  his  life  in  attempting  to  regain  the  European  title 
from  the  Frenchman,  Ray  Famechon;  it  was  a  great  fight  but 
Famechon  was  too  good  for  him.  Britain's  best  prospect  was, 
perhaps,  Danny  O'Sullivan,  bantamweight  champion-elect. 
Rowan,  the  holder,  was  well  beaten  by  Vic  Toweel  in  South 
Africa  in  an  Empire  title  match.  Rinty  Monaghan  retained 
the  world  flyweight  championship  in  his  native  Belfast  by 
virtue  of  a  draw  with  Terry  Allen.  This  world  title,  which  in 
the  past  has  well-nigh  been  the  prerogative  of  British  boxers, 
was  challenged  by  Honor6  Pratesi  (France),  whom  Monaghan 
was  to  meet.  (L.  WD.) 

United  States.  On  March  1,  1949,  Joe  Louis,  undefeated 
world  heavyweight  champion,  in  a  formal  announcement  to 
the  National  Boxing  association,  gave  up  the  title  after  the 
longest  and  busiest  reign  any  champion  the  ring  had  ever 
known,  irrespective  of  weight.  For  more  than  12  years 
Louis  was  the  boxing  ring's  ruler.  He  defended  the  title 
25  times. 

Ray  Robinson,  world  welterweight  champion,  retained  his 
title  in  a  single  defence  against  Kid  Gavilan,  a  Cuban,  in 
Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania.  Ike  Williams  defended  his  light- 
weight championship  against  Enrique  Bolanos,  Mexico  city, 
Mexico,  in  Los  Angeles,  California,  and  Freddie  Dawson, 
Chicago  Negro,  in  Philadelphia.  Willie  Pep  regained  his 
world  featherweight  title  in  a  February  encounter  with 
Sandy  Saddler,  Harlem  Negro,  and  defended  the  champion- 
ship against  Eddie  Compo  at  Water  bury,  Connecticut. 
Manuel  Ortiz,  El  Centro,  California,  retained  his  world 
bantamweight  title  against  Dado  Marino,  Hawaiian,  in 
Honolulu,  Hawaii.  (J.  P.  D.) 


BOYD-ORR,  JOHN  BO  YD  ORR,  1st  Baron,  of 
Brechin  Mearn,  Angus,  British  scientist  and  authority  on 
nutrition  (b.  Kilmaurs,  Ayrshire,  Sept.  23,  1880),  became 
director  of  animal  nutrition  research  at  Aberdeen  university 
in  1914  and  in  1929  founded  and  directed  the  Imperial  Bureau 
of  Animal  Nutrition.  He  was  made  rector  of  Glasgow 
university  in  1945  and  chancellor  in  1946.  On  Oct.  27,  1945, 
he  was  unanimously  elected  director  general  of  the  Food  and 
Agriculture  organization  of  the  United  Nations  for  a  two- 
year  term  ending  Dec.  31,  1947.  In  1949  he  visited  India  at  the 
invitation  of  the  Indian  government  to  advise  on  food  prob- 
lems. His  proposals  which  were  accepted  and  implemented 
by  the  Indian  government,  were  that  the  production  and 
distribution  of  food  should  be  organized  on  a  war  basis. 
In  Oct.  1949  the  Nobel  committee  of  the  Norwegian  parlia- 
ment announced  that  he  was  to  receive  the  Nobel  peace 
prize  for  1949.  Following  the  usual  practice  the  reasons  for 
the  award  of  the  peace  prize  were  not  made  public;  but  it 
was  believed  that  it  was  given  both  for  his  work  as  director 
general  of  the  Food  and  Agriculture  organization  and  also 
as  president  of  the  world  movement  for  a  world  federal 
government.  A  barony  was  conferred  on  him  on  Jan.  1, 
1949.  (See  Britannica  Book  of  the  Year  1949.) 

BOY  SCOUTS.  Scouting  in  Great  Britain  and  the 
Commonwealth  continued  to  make  steady  progress  during 
1949.  In  Britain  membership  reached  473,216,  the  highest 
in  the  movement's  history.  An  encouraging  sign  was  an 
increase  of  4,705  on  the  previous  year  in  the  number  of 
adult  leaders. 

A  "Bob-a-Job"  week  held  in  April,  when  every  member 
of  the  movement  was  asked  to  earn  at  least  one  shilling 
towards  administration  costs  by  doing  odd  jobs,  was  an 
enormous  success  both  from  the  financial  viewpoint  and 
from  the  amount  of  goodwill  that  accrued  to  scouting. 

In  its  role  of  encouraging  international  friendship  scouting 
was  very  active.  At  the  beginning  of  the  year  a  highly 
successful  Pan-Pacific  Jamboree  was  held  in  Australia.  In 
August  nearly  three  thousand  Rover  scouts  (Aug.  1 7-25)  from 
30  countries  camped  together  at  Skjak  in  the  mountains  of 
Norway  at  the  Fourth  World  Rover  moot.  A  record  number 
of  British  scouts  camped  abroad  as  guests  of  foreign  scouts 

' 


The  new  beret  (left)  which  was  introduced  during  1949  as  an  alternative 
to  the  old  hat  for  British  Boy  Scouts  on  informal  occasions. 


112 


BRADLEY-BRAZIL 


and  many  scout  visitors  from  other  countries  camped  in 
Great  Britain. 

The  council  of  the  Boy  Scouts  association  gave  their 
sanction  to  a  few  minor  changes  in  the  scout  uniform.  Scouts 
over  1 5  and  scout  leaders  could  now  wear  berets  on  informal 
occasions  such  as  camps  and  hikes,  but  the  familiar  wide- 
brimmed  hat  introduced  by  Lord  Baden-Powell  continued 
to  be  worn  on  all  formal  occasions.  (RLN.) 

United  States.  Boy  Scout  anniversary  week  was  an  out- 
standing event  in  1949.  Twelve  scouts  visited  President 
Harry  S.  Truman  and  presented  a  "  Report  to  the  Nation  " 
on  scouting  civic-service  projects  carried  on  during  1948. 
These  scouts  later  presented  a  report  to  the  United  Nations 
at  Lake  Success,  New  York,  on  service  to  scouts  abroad. 

In  May  it  was  announced  that  age  levels  in  the  three  age 
groups  of  scouting  were  to  be  lowered  by  one  year.  Cub 
scouting  would  be  for  boys  8  to  10  years  of  age;  boy  scouting 
for  boys  11  to  13;  and  exploring,  which  would  combine  all 
the  features  of  the  previous  older  scout  programme,  involving 
air,  sea  and  land  activities,  would  be  for  those  of  14  years 
and  older. 

Membership  on  Oct.  31,  1949,  was  2,322,094  persons 
organized  in  69,185  scouting  units.  There  were  1,709,950 
boys  and  612,144  leaders. 

BRADLEY,  OMAR  NELSON,  U.S.  general  (b. 
Clark,  Missouri,  1893),  graduated  from  the  U.S.  Military 
academy  at  West  Point  in  1915  and  became  a  major  of 
infantry  in  World  War  I.  He  graduated  from  the  Infantry 
school  (1925),  the  Command  and  General  Staff  school 
(1929)  and  the  Army  War  college  (1934),  taught  at  West 
Point  until  1938  and  then  served  in  Washington  on  the 
general  staff.  During  World  War  II  he  commanded  the 
2nd  corps  in  north  Africa  and  Sicily  and  subsequently  all 
U.S.  ground  troops  for  the  invasion  of  northwestern  Europe. 
As  commander  of  the  12th  U.S.  army  group,  he  commanded 
more  than  1,300,000  combat  troops — the  largest  number 
of  U.S.  soldiers  ever  to  serve  under  a  single  field  commander. 
In  1945  he  was  promoted  full  general.  From  Aug.  1945  to 
Dec.  1947  he  was  administrator  of  veterans'  affairs  and  on 
Feb.  7,  1948  he  succeeded  General  of  the  Army  Dwight  D. 
Eisenhower  as  army  chief  of  staff.  On  Aug.  16,  1949,  he 
became  first  permanent  chairman  of  the  U.S.  joint  chiefs 
of  staff.  At  the  end  of  July  and  early  August,  Admiral 
Louis  Denfield,  Air  Force  General  Hoyt  S.  Vandenberg  and 
General  Bradley  visited  Frankfurt,  London  and  Paris  to 
"  discuss  matters  of  mutual  interest,  including  the  proposed 
military  organization  under  the  North  Atlantic  treaty,"  to 
"  acquaint  themselves  with  current  conditions  in  Europe,'* 
and  to  4t  gain  first-hand  information  of  the  state  of  the  U.S. 
forces  in  Europe."  At  the  first  session  of  the  Defence  com- 
mittee set  up  under  the  North  Atlantic  treaty  in  October 
Bradley  was  made  chairman  of  the  Military  committee  which 
would  44  commence  planning  under  a  broad  concept  for  the 
integrated  defence  of  the  North  Atlantic  area." 

BRAZIL.  The  largest  of  the  Latin  American  republics, 
the  United  States  of  Brazil  has  a  common  frontier  with  all 
South  American  countries  except  Ecuador  and  Chile.  Area: 
3,286,170  sq.  mi.  (48-3%  of  the  whole  of  South  America). 
Population:  (1940  census)  41,570,341;  (mid-1949  est.) 
49,350,000  (see  Table);  about  13%  was  classified  as  urban 
and  the  remainder  as  rural;  three-fourths  of  the  population 
is  concentrated  in  an  area  along  the  Atlantic  coast,  where  the 
principal  towns  are  located.  The  nationality  of  the  population 
as  shown  by  the  1940  census  was :  Brazilian  born  39,822,487, 
naturalized  122,735,  foreign  1,283,833,  nationality  unknown 
7,260.  Among  the  foreign-born  residents  there  were 
c.  354,300  Portuguese,  285,000  Italians,  147,900  Spaniards, 


141,600  Japanese,  71,000  Germans,  41,000  Poles  and  245,000 
citizens  of  other  countries.  Among  the  Brazilian-born 
population,  about  half  was  of  European  stock;  the  remainder 
included  8,744,400  mulattoes  (21%),  6,035,700  Negroes 
(14-6%),  5,500,000  Indians  and  mestizos  (13%),  and  250,000 
Asiatics.  Language:  Portuguese.  Religion:  predominantly 
Roman  Catholic  (94-4%),  with  over  one  million  Protestants 
of  various  denominations  and  110,800  Jews.  Capital, 
coterminous  with  the  federal  district:  Rio  de  Janeiro  (q.v) 
(1949  est.)  2,091,160,  Other  chief  towns  (pop.,  1940  census): 
Sao  Paulo  (1,253,943);  Recife  (327,753);  Salvador  or  Baia 
(293,278);  Porto  Alegre  (262,694) ;  Belo  Horizonte(  179,770); 
Belem(  166,662);  Santos  (159,648).  President  of  the  republic, 
General  Eurico  Caspar  Dutra  (q.v.). 

ARFA  AND  POPULATION  AND  TERRITORIES  OF  BRAZIL,   1949 

(Latest  estimates  available  as  published  by  the  Institute  Brasileiro  de 

Geografia  e  Estatistica) 

Area  Population 
State  or  territory                   (sq.  mi.)  (Jan.  1, 1949)       Capital 

North 

Acre  (terr.)      ....      57,153  99,554  Rio  Branco 

Amazonas       .                    .          .    595,474  502,151  Manaus 

Rio  Branco  (terr.)             .         .      97,438  14,273  Boa  Vista 

Para       .                                      .    470,752  1,094,200  Belem 

Amapd  (tcrr.)           .                         55,489  25,553  Macapa 

Guapore  (terr.)                  .         .      96,986  25,159  Porto  Velho 

Northeast 

Maranhao       .                   .          .    133,674  1,464,132  Sao  Luis 

Piaui 94,819  969,160  Teresma 

Ccara     .                    ...      57,371  2,478,647  Fortaleza 

Rio  Grande  do  Norte       .         .      20,236  910,386  Natal 

Paraiba                     .          .               41,591  1,685,930  Jodo  Pessoa 

Pernambuco             .         .         .      38,315  3,185,284  Recife 

Alagoas                               .          .      11,031  1,127,642  Maccio 

Fernando  de  Noronha  (terr  )     .               7  1,275  — 

East 

Sergipe  ....                  8,321  642,857  Aracaju 

Bahia               ....    204,393  4,644,412  Salvador 

Minas  Gerais                                  228,469  7,985,145  Belo  Honzonte 

(Serra  dos  Aimores)*                               —  79,413  - 

Esp'nto  Santo          .                          17,688  889,154  Vit6na 

Rio  de  Janeiro  (state)       .                16,372  2,190,394  Niteroi 

Distnto  Federal       .         .         .          451  2,091,160  Rio  de  Janeiro 

South 

Sao  Paulo       .          .                    .      95,459  8,522,209  Sao  Paulo 

Parana             .                                    82,741  1,465,444  Cuntiba 

Santa  Catanna         .         .                31,118  1,396,769  Flormnopohs 

Rio  Grande  do  Sul           .         .    110,150  3,936,245  P6rto  Alegre 

Central-  West 

Goias 225,266  979,606  Goiania 

Mato  Grosso            .                        485,405  496,846  Cuiaba 

*Area  in  dispute  between  the  states  of  Minas  Gerais  and  Es»pirito  Santo 

History.  Since  early  1948,  when  an  inter-party  agreement 
for  co-operation  with  the  legislative  programme  of  President 
Dutra's  administration  was  signed  by  leaders  of  the  National 
Democratic  union  (U.D.N.),  the  Social  Democratic  party 
(P.S.D.)  and  the  Republican  party  (P.R.),  the  country's 
political  life  had  been  conditioned  by  the  bickering  between 
party  leaders  over  the  selection  of  candidates  for  presidential 
elections.  The  Superior  Electoral  tribunal  announced  that 
these  were  to  be  held  on  Oct.  1,  1950.  Dutra  declared  publicly 
that  he  would  not  seek  re-election.  Aware  of  the  fact  that 
none  of  the  existing  parties  was  strong  enough  to  expect  to 
win  alone  at  the  polls,  the  president  endeavoured  to  bring 
about  a  united  front  of  the  three  principal  parties  (U.D.N., 
P.S.D.  and  P.R.)  backing  a  common  presidential  candidate. 
Leaders  of  the  three  parties  found  it  impossible  to  agree  on 
the  same  candidate.  Numerous  conferences,  interviews, 
round-table  and  private  talks  took  place  in  Rio  de  Janeiro 
and  the  various  state  capitals  but  to  no  avail. 

At  the  end  of  the  year  it  was  suggested  that  the  leaders  of 
the  P.S.D.  (Dutra's  own  party)  should  agree  on  a  list  of  four 
candidates  from  the  state  of  Minas  Gerais  whom  the  party 
would  be  willing  to  support.  The  U.D.N.  would  pick  one 
of  the  four  suggested  candidates  and  the  two  parties  would 
then  agree  to  support  the  selected  candidate  at  the  polls. 


BRAZIL 


113 


This  formula  was  rejected  by  U.D.N.  leaders  as  well  as  by 
Vice-President  Nereu  Ramos,  who  was  chairman  of  the 
P.S.D.  and  himself  an  avowed  candidate  to  the  presidency. 
Meanwhile,  Ademar  de  Barros,  the  governor  of  the  state  of 
SSo  Paulo,  announced  that  he  was  not  quite  decided  whether 
to  be  a  candidate  or  not  although  his  party,  the  Social 
Progressive,  had  set  up  a  well  organized  campaign  committee 
with  allegedly  ample  funds  to  draw  upon.  It  was  persistently 
rumoured  that  the  governor  of  SSo  Paulo,  if  he  chose  to  run, 
would  have  the  backing  of  former  dictator  Getulio  Vargas 
and  the  Brazilian  Labour  party  (P.T.B.).  At  various  places, 
including  the  federal  capital,  groups  of  students  paraded  the 
streets  loudly  proclaiming  Brigadier  Eduardo  Gomes  as 
the  only  possible  candidate  of  the  people.  Whether  Brigadier 
Gomes,  the  U.D.N.'s  defeated  candidate  in  1945,  again 
would  consent  to  become  a  presidential  candidate  was  not 
certain.  As  the  year  drew  to  a  close,  the  political  situation 
in  the  country,  could  be  classified  only  as  confused. 

Internationally,  Brazil  continued  to  pursue  its  traditional 
policy  of  friendship  towards  the  United  States,  support  for 
the  United  Nations  and  co-operation  in  the  Pan-American 
movement  through  the  Organization  of  the  American  States. 
In  May  1949  President  Dutra  journeyed  to  the  United  States 
in  response  to  an  invitation  of  President  Harry  S.  Truman. 
His  10-day  stay  was  marked  by  numerous  expressions  of 
friendship  between  the  two  peoples.  While  in  Washington 
President  Dutra  addressed  a  joint  session  of  the  U.S.  congress. 

On  March  10  it  was  announced  that  the  Joint  Brazil- 
United  States  Technical  commission  had  completed  its  task 
and  had  submitted  its  report  to  the  governments  of  Brazil 
and  the  United  States.  The  report  pointed  out  that  the  need 
for  a  broad  development  programme  in  Brazil  was  indicated 
by  the  low  productivity  and  small  income  of  the  majority 
of  its  people  and  a  serious  lack  of  balance  in  its  economic 
structure.  The  commission  unanimously  agreed  that  the 
economic  development  of  the  country  should  be  accelerated 
by  a  carefully  considered  programme  of  government  expendi- 
tures, by  policies  favouring  a  balanced  development  of  the 
country's  resources  by  private  enterprise  and  by  policies 
directed  specifically  toward  controlling  inflation  and  meeting 
the  balance  of  payments  problem.  (R.  d'E.) 

Education.  Schools  (1947):  primary  58,502,  teachers  112,412, 
pupils  4,336,437;  most  of  these  schools  were  to  be  found  in  the  states 
of  Si5o  Paulo  (10,013),  Minas  Gerais  (8,489)  and  Rio  Grande  do  Sul 
(8,127);  secondary,  approximately  1,500,  pupils  300,000;  vocational 
2,700,  pupils  200,000;  state  universities  7 ;  private  (Catholic)  universities 
3.  Illiteracy  (1947):  approximately  57%. 

Agriculture.  Main  crops  ('000  metric  tons,  1948):  coffee  945;  cotton 
308;  rice  2,150;  maize  5,511;  sugar  1,840;  cocoa  96;  tobacco  117. 
Livestock  ('000  head):  cattle  (Dec.  1947)  45,000;  sheep  (Dec.  1947) 
18,000;  horses  (Dec.  1946)  6,770;  pigs  (Dec.  1947)  5,000. 

Industry.  Persons  employed  (1941)  944,318.  Fuel  and  power:  coal 
(*000  metric  tons,  1948)  2,015;  consumption  of  gas  in  Rio  de  Janeiro 
and  Sao  Paulo  ('000  cu.ft.,  1948)  6,180,029;  consumption  of  electrical 
energy  in  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  SSo  Paulo  (million  kwh.,  1948)  2,453; 
crude  oil  output  (metric  tons,  1948)  18,750.  Raw  materials  (metric 
tons):  rubber,  export  (1948)  5,150;  manganese  ore  (1947)  451,430; 
chrome  ore,  export  (1946)  174;  pig-iron  (1948)  521,700;  steel  ingots  and 
castings  (1948)  462,000;  gold  (fine  troy  oz.,  1948)  130,000;  diamonds 
(carats,  1947)  275,000.  Manufactured  goods:  cotton  textiles  (1947) 
1,005  million  sq.  m.;  cement  (1948)  1,113,000  metric  tons. 

Foreign  Trade.  (Million  cruzeiros)  Imports:  (1948)  20,985,  (1949, 
six  months)  10,430;  exports:  (1948)  21,697,  (1949,  six  months)  8,210. 
Main  imports:  transport  and  equipment,  iron  and  steel  manufactures 
and  machinery.  Main  exports:  coffee,  cotton  manufactures,  cocoa, 
hides,  skins  and  leather.  Main  sources  of  supply  (1948):  United 
States  52%;  United  Kingdom  10%;  Argentina  7%.  Main  destinations 
of  exports:  United  States  43%;  Argentina9%;  United  Kingdom  9%. 

Transport  and  Communications.  Roads  (1949)  64,294  mi.  Licensed 
motor  vehicles  (Dec.  1948):  cars  162,776,  commercial  vehicles  155,585. 
Railways:  (1947)  22,029  mi.;  passenger-mi.  (1948)  5,791  million; 

In  May  1949  President  Eurico  Dutra  of  Brazil  paid  an  official  visit 

to  the  United  States.  This  photo  shows  him  (standing  in  first  car] 

during  a  parade  in  Pennsylvania  avenue ,  Washington* 


114 


BREAD  AND   BAKERY  PRODUCTS— BREWING 


freight  net  ton-mi.  (1948)  4,569  million  Shipping  (July  1 948)  merchant 
vessels  of  100  tons  and  upwards  342,  total  tonnage  709,012.  Air 
transport  (1948)  hours  flown  244,000,  mi  flown  37,649,000; 
passengers  flown  946,600,  cargo  earned  14,090,000  kg  ,  air  mail  carried 
712,000  kg  At  the  end  of  1948  there  were  8  foreign  and  23  domestic 
airlines  serving  157  places.  Telephones  (1948)  subscribers  468,500 
Wireless  licences  (1941)  500,000. 

Finance  and  Banking.  (Million  cruzeiros)  Budget  (1949  est  )  revenue 
18,229,  expenditure  19,370,  (1950  est)  revenue  20,186,  expenditure 
20,182  National  debt  (Dec  1946)  paper  37,966,  gold  1,124  Currency 
circulation  (July  1949,  in  brackets,  July  1948)  18,400  (17,040)  Bank 
deposits  (July  1949,  in  brackets,  July  1948)  33,610  (27,460)  Gold 
reserve  (July  1949,  m  brackets,  July  1948).  U  S.  $317  (354)  million. 
Monetary  unit  cruzeiro  (Cr.S)  with  an  official  exchange  rate  of 
£l-Cr$52  416  (before  Sept.  18,  1949  £1  -Cr  $75-44). 

BREAD  AND  BAKERY  PRODUCTS.  During 
1949  there  was  no  change  in  the  extraction  rate  of  flour  in 
Great  Britain  and  from  100  Ib.  of  wheat  the  miller  had  to 
provide  85  Ib.  in  the  form  of  flour  suitable  for  human  use 
and  thus  to  produce  only  15  Ib  of  by-products  available  for 
the  feeding  of  animals.  This  rather  dark,  long  extraction 
flour  could  not  be  expected  to  produce  the  bold  quality  loaf 
which  was  made  in  prewar  days;  but  it  was  claimed  that  the 
loaf,  although  not  so  liked  by  the  public,  was  of  good  nutritive 
value — a  claim  which  few  would  deny.  It  was  indeed  to  the 
credit  of  the  British  miller  that  from  the  restricted  wheats 
at  his  disposal — the  sources  of  supply  being  only  five  (United 
States,  Canada,  Argentine,  Australia  and  home  grown  wheat) 
as  against  40  before  1939 — he  continued  to  make,  at  this  high 
extraction,  flour  of  as  good  baking  quality  as  he  had. 

There  was  no  outstanding  change  affecting  bread  and 
confectionery  although  as  regards  the  latter  there  was  a 
tendency  for  supplies  of  sugar  etc.  to  be  rather  more  plentiful. 
Nevertheless  supplies  were  still  much  below  the  prewar 
standard.  Following  the  general  trend,  more  and  more 
bread  was  being  produced  in  the  large  fully  automatic 
bakeries  and  indeed  this  might  have  reached  in  1949  a  total 
approaching  70%  of  the  whole.  In  such  bakeries,  the  dough 
was  made  in  electrically  driven  mixers,  divided  by  machinery, 
moulded  mechanically,  given  its  final  proof  or  fermentation 
in  automatic  provers  and  finally  baked,  untouched  by  hand 
throughout,  in  a  continuous  *4  travelling  "  oven.  In  Great 
Britain  bread  wrapping  was  prohibited  during  the  war  but 
from  Nov.  1  this  was  permitted  once  again. 

In  the  United  States  great  interest  was  aroused  by  the  use 
of  "  softeners  "  to  counteract  or  delay  the  effect  of  staling 
and  enquiries  were  proceeding  to  determine  their  desirability 
in  all  respects.  In  Great  Britain  and  Australia  much  needed 
and  far  too  long  delayed  research  institutes  dealing  with 
bread  manufacture  were  formed.  (See  also  FLOUR.) 

(D.  W.  K-J.) 

BREWING  AND  BEER.  The  downward  trend  of 
beer  consumption  since  1946  was  masked  rather  than 
arrested  during  1949.  Consumption  in  terms  of  bulk  barrels 
during  the  first  three  months  amounted  to  little  more  than 
70%  of  that  during  the  corresponding  months  of  1946.  The 
revenue  from  the  beer  duty,  it  was  estimated,  must  have  been 
on  average  about  £1  million  lower  each  month  than  it  was 
in  1948.  The  time  evidently  was  ripe,  or  over-ripe,  for  a 
reduction  in  the  beer  duty  and  in  April  the  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer  announced  the  first  reduction  since  1933 — one 
of  21 5.  a  bulk  barrel.  The  price  to  the  public  was  to  be 
lowered  by  \d.  a  pint,  which  meant  that  the  brewing  industry 
was  called  upon  to  bear  a  loss  of  3s.  a  barrel. 

Almost  immediately  consumption  went  up  to  near  the 
1948  level.  May  1949  consumption  was  very  little  below  that 
in  1948;  so  was  the  June  consumption.  In  July,  output  was 
84,000  bulk  barrels  above  that  in  July  1948.  Much  the  same 
level  was  maintained  until  September.  The  chancellor's 
policy  in  reducing  the  duty  by  no  more  than  a  "  penny  off 


the  pint "  appeared  to  be  justified.  In  the  trade,  however, 
there  was  no  experienced  brewer  or  licensed  victualler  who 
would  have  ventured  an  opinion  as  to  how  far  the  improve- 
ment had  been  caused  by  the  reduction  in  price  and  how  far 
by  the  phenomenally  fine  hot  summer.  This  caution  was 
justified  by  the  October  consumption;  this  was  smaller,  in 
relation  to  1948  monthly  output,  than  that  of  any  other 
month  since  the  reduction  of  the  duty.  Later  experience 
bore  out  the  impression  that  a  more  drastic  reduction  in  the 
duty  (which  at  8c/.  a  pint  was  still  four  times  as  high  as  in 
1939  on  beer  of  average  strength  at  the  respective  times) 
would  be  necessary  if  the  decline  in  consumption  was  to  be 
permanently  arrested. 

The  Licensing  act  passed  during  1949  gave  the  home 
secretary  power  to  set  up  State  Management  areas  in  districts 
scheduled  as  new  towns  but,  in  response  to  popular  feeling 
shorn  of  the  more  far-reaching  clauses  that  would  have 
made  it  possible  to  surround  the  new  towns  with  wide  belts 
of  state-managed  areas.  Criticism  of  the  so-called  "  tied 
house  "  system  appeared  at  first  to  meet  with  some  support. 
This  criticism  dwindled  as  the  Brewers'  society  in  a  series  of 
soberly-phrased  statements  pointed  out  that  "  tied  "  houses 
were  generally  let  at  very  low,  often  nominal,  rents  and  that 
tenants  possessed  such  advantages  as  a  business  of  their  own, 
TABLL  I. — MONTHI  Y  CONSUMPTION  OF  BEER  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN  IN 


November 
December 
January 
February 
March 
April    . 
May     . 
June     . 
July      . 
August 
September 
October 


STANDARD  BARRFIS 

1948-49          %  of  1945-46 

,341,031  77   90 

,582,138  95   30 

,099,950  62   78 

,014,450  73  46 

,195.746  80  87 

,366,788  85    10 

,509,06!  80  96 

,443,043  81    53 

,639,044  87  68 

,561,259  79-85 

,425,097  82  27 

,254,880  68-87 


TABLE   II  —MONTHLY   PRODUCTION  OF   BFFR  IN   GREAT   BRITAIN   IN- 


BULK  BARRELS 


November 
December 
January 
February 
March 
April    . 
May     . 
June     . 
July      . 
August 
September 
October 


1948-49 
2,139,908 
2,554,532 
1,743,438 
1,622,948 
1.921,373 
2,235,524 
2.461,316 
2,362,481 
2,721,173 
2,571,887 
2.331,666 
2,022,178 


%  of  1945-46 

79  29 

98  08 

63  68 

75  35 

83  42 

87  47 

82  48 

83  64 
90-81 
81  96 

84  26 
70  07 


possession  at  12  months  notice,  a  high  measure  of  security 
for  widows,  in  return  for  an  undertaking  to  sell  the  brewer's 
draught  beers  and  wines  and  spirits  supplied  by  him  at 
current  market  prices.  For  practical  purposes  the  public, 
through  being  offered  national  as  well  as  local  beers  and 
different  brews  in  neighbouring  houses,  had  a  wider  choice 
than  could  otherwise  be  provided,  at  a  price  which  represented 
only  a  small  fraction  of  Id.  a  pint  profit  on  beer  for  the 
brewer. 

At  the  end  of  1948,  the  small  reserve  pool  of  barrelage  was 
thought  to  be  inadequate,  with  a  consequent  risk  of  shortage 
of  beer  in  certain  areas.  The  Ministry  of  Food  therefore 
instructed  that  the  figure  of  82%  of  the  year  1945-46  should 
cease  to  be  the  permitted  standard  barrelage  of  each  brewery 
and  that  the  new  figure  of  78%  should  run  from  Jan.  1, 
1949,  the  balance  of  4%  to  be  credited  to  the  reserve  pool. 
This  solved  the  immediate  problem  but  the  recovery  in  con- 
sumption during  the  summer  resulted  in  the  pool  again 
running  dry  at  the  end  of  August.  The  ministry  agreed 
to  the  pool  being  overdrawn  against  the  general  security  of 


BRIDGES 


115 


under-brewed  balances  by  some  breweries.  In  the  trade  the 
view  was  held  that  as  there  was  no  longer  a  shortage  of 
barley,  brewers  should  be  freed  from  the  government  restric- 
tion limiting  them  to  producing  beers  of  85%  of  the  average 
strength  of  the  beers  they  brewed  in  1939.  This  would  have 
enabled  them  to  brew  beer  to  their  customers'  tastes,  since 
beer  drinkers*  tastes  varied  widely  between  one  town  and 
district  and  another. 

By  a  "  gentleman's  agreement  "  with  the  National  Farmers1 
union,  the  brewing  industry  paid  not  less  than  10?.  a  quarter 
above  the  statutory  minimum  for  all  barley  used  for  brewing, 
both  for  the  1949  and  1950  crops 

The  provisional  receipts  from  the  beer  duty  during  the 
financial  year  1948-49  were  £295  million  and  from  the 
Liquor  Licences  duty,  £5,049,000.  Receipts  for  the  year 
1949-50  from  these  two  sources  were  estimated  at  £267 
million  and  £4,900,000  respectively  (X.) 

United  States.  Beer  and  ale  sales  for  the  fiscal  year  ending 
June  30,  1949,  totalled  85,809,068  bbl  ,  the  second  highest 
fiscal  year  figure  on  record.  Highest  figure  was  86,992,795  bbl. 
in  1948.  Bottled  and  canned  beer  accounted  for  70%  of  the 
1949  fiscal  year  sales  total. 

Consumption  of  malt  beverages  had  increased  by  about 
34  million  bbl.  since  1939.  The  entire  increase  was  accounted 
for  by  packaged  sales,  made  largely  in  food  stores  for  home 
consumption,  although  a  considerable  volume  of  packaged 
as  well  as  nearly  all  of  the  draught  beer  was  sold  through 
taverns. 

For  the  first  eight  months  of  1949,  all  indications  pointed 
to  a  record  year  for  beer  and  ale  sales.  Withdrawals  at  that 
point  totalled  58,411,593  bbl  ,  topping  by  more  than  500,000 
bbl.  the  previous  record  sales  of  57,880,644  bbl.  August 
registered  the  highest  single  month's  sale  of  beer  in  the 
nation's  history,  with  8,901,000  bbl. 

A  development  of  major  interest  to  the  industry  during 
1949  was  the  introduction  of  courses  in  brewing  sciences  in 
several  universities.  These  courses  were  similar  to  those 
offered  for  many  years  by  the  University  of  Birmingham  in 
England. 

The  U.S.  bureau  of  the  census  of  manufactures'  figures 
for  1947,  the  latest  available,  showed  that  the  industry  in  that 
year  paid  out  $292  million  in  wages  and  salaries,  as  compared 
with  $122,300,000  in  1939,  and  expended  $620  million  for 
materials,  fuel,  new  plant  and  equipment,  as  compared  with 
$182,300,000  in  1939. 

Federal  excise  and  special  taxes  on  malt  beverages  for  the 
fiscal  year  1949  totalled  $690,797,422.  Beer  and  ale  were  in 
1949  taxed  at  $8  a  barrel.  (See  also  HOPS  ) 

BRIDGES.  In  connection  with  the  hydro-electric  schemes 
of  the  North  of  Scotland  Hydro-Elect,  ic  board,  three  rein- 
forced concrete  bridges  were  completed  during  1949.  In 
Perthshire,  near  Pitlochry,  the  Aldour  bridge  was  built 
across  the  river  Tummel  to  replace  the  old  Clunie  bridge 
which  would  be  submerged  by  the  Loch  formed  by  the 
Pitlochry  dam.  Built  in  a  style  similar  to  the  Waterloo 
bridge,  London,  it  was  a  three  span,  low  arch,  reinforced 
concrete  structure  with  an  overall  length  of  301  ft.  6  in. 
The  centre  span  was  94  ft.  and  the  two  anchor  spans  77  ft. 
6  in.  The  bridge  had  an  open  railing  parapet. 

In  Dumbartonshire,  a  bridge  was  needed  to  carry  the 
trunk  road  from  Balloch  to  Crianlarich  over  the  tailrace  of 
the  Loch  Sloy  power  station.  The  bridge  had  two  spans  and 
was  built  of  reinforced  concrete.  The  parapet  walls  were  of 
rubble  masonry.  In  Ross-shire,  the  Grudie  bridge  power 
station  of  the  Loch  Fannich  project  also  involved  a  new 
bridge  to  carry  the  main  road  from  Garve  to  Gairloch. 
This  bridge  had  one  low  arch  in  reinforced  concrete  and 
solid  parapets  in  Tarradale  stone. 


Belgium.  A  contract  was  placed  in  1949  in  Belgium  for  the 
world's  first  pre-stressed  concrete  bridge  incorporating 
continuous  spans,  designed  by  Professor  Gustave  Magnel. 
Spanning  the  Meuse  river  at  Sclayn,  the  bridge  was  to  consist 
of  two  206  ft.  hollow  girder  spans  continuous  over  a  central 
pier.  A  lower  bid,  for  a  concrete  bow-string  arch,  was 
rejected  because  it  required  three  piers  in  the  river. 

Work  was  progressing  on  the  reconstruction  of  the  railway 
bridge  at  Val-Benoit.  Designed  to  carry  a  double-truck 
railway  line,  it  had  two  approach  spans  of  82  ft.  and  a 
central  structure  of  three  continuous  spans,  each  178  ft.  long. 
Construction  also  continued  during  the  year  on  a  road  bridge 
of  steel  across  the  river  Sambre  at  Marchienne-au-Pont. 

Brazil.  The  Galeao  bridge  in  the  harbour  of  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  a  15  span  pre-stressed  concrete  girder  bridge  1,215  ft. 
long,  was  opened  to  traffic  in  1949  with  only  three  of  the 
final  six  highway  lanes  completed. 

Canada.  In  Vancouver,  British  Columbia,  an  $8  million, 
eight-lane  bridge,  90  ft.  wide,  with  90  ft.  clearance  over  the 
water,  was  planned  in  1949  to  replace  the  Granville  street 
bridge.  The  latter,  a  low-level  structure  with  swing  span, 
caused  traffic  congestion  when  the  bridge  was  opened  in 
rush  hours. 

Construction  of  a  $13,500,000  low-level  bridge,  3,000ft. 
long,  over  the  Strait  of  Canso,  which  separates  Cape  Breton 
Island  from  the  mainland  of  Nova  Scotia,  was  authorized  in 
1949  by  the  Canadian  government.  Difficult  foundation 
problems  were  presented  by  strong  tidal  currents  and  the 
200  ft.  depth  of  water. 

France.  A  new  steel  road  bridge  over  the  river  Marne  was 
completed  at  the  end  of  Dec.  1948.  The  bridge  was  of  the 
bow-stnn»  type,  with  a  span  of  259  ft.  and  a  clear  width  of 
246  ft.  The  super-structure  carried  a  roadway  of  20  ft. 

Germany.  The  reinforced  concrete  arch  bridge  carrying 
the  important  Mittelland  canal  across  the  Weser  valley  near 
the  town  of  Mindcn,  destroyed  by  the  retreating  German 
army  in  1945,  was  rebuilt  in  1947-49  at  a  cost  of  $2  million. 

The  reconstructed  Autobahn  bridge  across  the  Lahn  valley 
at  Limburg,  on  the  Frankfurt-Ruhr  route,  had  spans  of  207, 
3 1 1  and  207  ft.  German  military  K-type  trusses  were  used 
as  the  bridge  was  cantilevered  across  the  river. 

Greece.  The  Brallo  bridge,  steel  deck-truss  type,  on  the 
Athens-Salonika  line  of  the  Greek  State  railroad,  was 
completed  in  1949  as  one  of  the  reconstruction  projects 
carried  out  by  the  American  Mission  for  Aid  to  Greece. 

Hungary.  All  of  the  bridges  over  the  Danube  at  Budapest 
(five  highway  and  two  railway)  were  wrecked  during  World 
War  II;  six  were  blown  up  by  the  German  troops  and  one 
(the  uncompleted  Arpad  bridge)  was  damaged  by  artillery. 
Until  1946,  when  the  Franz  Joseph  suspension  bridge  was 
reconstructed,  the  city  was  served  only  by  a  pontoon  bridge, 
which  replaced  the  famous  Elizabeth  suspension  bridge, 
and  by  a  temporary  trestle  bridge,  which  replaced  the 
Margaret  bridge.  Plans  were  made  to  rebuild  the  famous 
Clark  chain  suspension  bridge  in  1949  and  the  Miklos 
Horthy  bridge  (now  re-named  the  Boraros  bridge)  in  1950. 
In  the  meantime,  as  steel  became  available,  the  continuous 
steel  girder  Arpad  bridge,  with  a  longest  span  of  340  ft.,  was 
completed  in  1 949.  The  deck  area  of  this  bridge  was  90  ft. 
wide  and  3,000  ft.  long. 

India.  Construction  was  begun  in  1949  on  a  new  bridge 
across  the  Mahanadi  river,  near  Sambalpur.  The  bridge, 
estimated  to  cost  $3  million,  would  form  an  important  link 
on  the  national  highway  between  Bombay  and  Calcutta. 

The  foundation  stone  was  laid  of  a  new  road  bridge  across 
the  Godavari,  near  Rajahmundry.  The  bridge,  which  was 
estimated  to  cost  Rs.20  million  would  have  a  roadway 
24  ft.  wide.  It  would  form  an  important  link  in  the  system  of 
national  highways  from  Madras  to  Calcutta. 


116 


BRIDGES 


Japan.  A  1,600ft.  reinforced  concrete  bridge  over  the 
Tama  river,  on  the  modern  highway  from  Tokyo  to  Yoko- 
hama, was  completed  in  1949.  It  was  under  construction 
for  two  years  at  a  cost  of  130,000,000  yen  ($400,000  U.S.). 

Northern  Rhodesia.  On  Sept.  8,  the  Kafue  bridge  was 
opened  by  the  governor,  Sir  Gilbert  Rennie.  The  bridge  was 
420  ft.  long  and  spanned  the  river  Kafue  (a  tributary  of  the 
Zambesi)  about  30  mi.  south  of  Lusaka.  The  Beit  trustees 
had  prepared  plans  for  a  bridge  in  1939  but  World  War  II 
prevented  its  construction.  After  World  War  II  the  Beit 
trustees  purchased  from  the  London  County  council  one 
of  the  temporary  bridges  which  had  been  erected  over  the 
Thames  at  London.  This  was  dismantled  and  taken  to 
Rhodesia  and  handed  over  to  the  Northern  Rhodesian 
government.  The  new  bridge  was  the  first  permanent  road 
bridge  crossing  the  lower  reaches  of  the  Kafue. 

Nyasaland.  A  new  bridge  at  Chiromo,  to  replace  the  one 
destroyed  by  heavy  floods  in  March  1948,  neared  completion 
at  the  end  of  the  year.  The  Cleveland  Bridge  and  Engineering 
company,  of  Darlington,  started  work  on  the  bridge  in  1948 
and  it  was  planned  for  trains  to  pass  over  the  bridge  by  Jan. 
1950  and  for  the  bridge  to  be  completed  by  June  1950. 

United  States.  Progress  was  recorded  in  1949  in  securing 
official  authorization  for  the  proposed  Liberty  bridge  to 
span  the  Narrows  at  the  entrance  to  New  York  harbour 
between  Brooklyn  and  Staten  Island  with  the  unprecedented 
span  length  of  4,620  ft.  and  an  underclearance  height  of 
237  ft.,  at  an  estimated  cost  of  $78  million.  Public  hearing 
on  the  application  of  the  Triborough  Bridge  authority  of 
New  York  city  was  held  on  Jan.  12  before  a  board  of  top- 
ranking  officers  of  the  U.S.  army,  navy  and  air  force;  and 
official  war  department  approval  of  the  plans  was  signed 
by  the  U.S.  secretary  of  defence  on  May  24. 

Official  approval  by  the  governor  and  the  state  superinten- 
dent of  public  works  in  1949  paved  the  way  for  the  con- 
struction of  a  new  suspension  bridge  of  1,700ft.  main  span 
to  be  built  by  the  New  York  State  Bridge  authority  across 
the  Hudson  river  between  Kingston  and  Rhinecliff,  estimated 
to  cost  $14  million. 


Construction  progressed  through  1949  on  the  new  $13 
million  Tacoma  Narrows  bridge,  a  four-lane  suspension 
bridge  replacing  the  two-lane  structure  completed  on  July  1, 
1940,  which  was  destroyed  by  aerodynamic  oscillations  on 
Nov.  7,  1940.  The  bridge  utilized  the  original  piers,  with  a 
main  span  of  2,800  ft.,  the  third  longest  in  the  world.  Mis- 
fortune continued  to  attend  this  undertaking.  On  April  13, 
1949,  an  earthquake  hurled  a  23  ton  saddle  casting  from  the 
top  of  one  of  the  completed  towers  to  the  bottom  of  Puget 
sound,  sinking  a  work  barge  en  route;  and  on  June  8  a  fire 
at  the  base  of  the  west  tower  buckled  one  of  the  steel  plates 
and  damage  was  estimated  at  $300,000. 

Work  was  continued  during  1949  on  the  substructure  for 
the  Delaware  Memorial  bridge  (suspension  type)  over  the 
Delaware  river  near  Wilmington,  Delaware,  to  connect 
Delaware's  du  Pont  highway  with  New  Jersey's  planned 
new  turnpike.  With  a  main  span  of  2,150ft.,  the  estimated 
cost  was  $40  million.  The  project  was  3j  mi.  long. 

The  California  Toll  bridge  authority  approved  in  1949 
plans  for  a  new  bridge  Over  San  Francisco  bay  to  parallel  the 
existing  Transbay  bridge  about  300  ft.  north  of  that  structure. 

Contracts  were  let  by  the  Maryland  State  Road  commission 
in  1949  for  the  construction  of  the  Chesapeake  Bay  bridge. 
The  1948  estimate  of  $36,370,000  for  the  structure  was 
increased  to  $47  million.  The  crossing  included  a  suspension 
bridge  of  1,600ft.  main  span  and  a  cantilever  bridge  of 
780  ft.  main  span. 

A  significant  event  in  1949  was  the  casting  and  testing  of 
the  first  precast  concrete  girder  in  the  United  States.  This 
160ft.  girder  was  for  Philadelphia's  new  $700,000  Walnut 
Lane  bridge,  the  first  application  in  America  of  this  new  type 
of  bridge  construction.  The  available  400  tons  of  steel  ingots, 
added  to  the  150  ton  dead  weight  of  the  girder,  proved 
insufficient  to  produce  failure.  The  reinforcing  wires,  pre- 
stressed  to  125,000  Ib.  per  sq.  in.  had  an  ultimate  strength  of 
242,000  Ib.  per  sq.  in.  and  a  yield  strength  of  213,000  Ib.  per 
sq.  in.  (compared  with  160,000  Ib.  per  sq.  in.  specified),  and 
the  concrete  had  a  28-day  strength  of  7,200  Ib.  per  sq.  in. 
(compared  with  5,400  Ib.  per  sq.  in.  specified).  The  bridge, 


Sir  Gilbert  Rennie,  governor  of  Northern  Rhodesia,  opening  the  Kafue  bridge,  Sept.  8,  1949.    During  World  War  II  it  was  used  as  an  emer- 
gency bridge  crossing  the  river  Thames  at  London  and  was  subsequently  purchased  on  behalf  of  the  Beit  Trustees  by  Sir  Alfred  Beit  (seated 
behind  Sir  Gilbert  Rennie)  and  handed  over  to  the  Northern  Rhodesian  government). 


BRITISH   BORNEO 


117 


The  A/dour  bridge  across  the  Tummel,  near  Pitlochry,  Perthshire.   Built  for  the  North  of  Scotland  Hydro-Electric  board  in  a  style  similar 
to  Waterloo  bridge,  London,  it  was  handed  over  to  the  Perthshire  county  council  in  Oct.  1949. 


scheduled  for  completion  early  in  1950  would  have  13  pre- 
stressed  concrete  girders  160ft.  long  in  the  main  span  and 
7  girders  74  ft.  long  in  each  side  span. 

The  Lake  Washington  Floating  bridge  at  Seattle,  Washing- 
ton, completed  in  1940  at  a  cost  of  $9,860,000,  was  made 
toll-free  after  nine  years  of  collections.  The  removal  of  tolls 
increased  traffic  to  a  point  where  construction  of  a  second 
bridge  across  the  lake  was  being  considered. 

A  new  $4  million  high-level  bridge  over  the  Chesapeake 
and  Delaware  canal  at  Chesapeake  City,  Maryland,  was 
completed  in  1949  to  replace  a  lift  bridge  which  was  destroyed 
in  1942  when  a  tanker  crashed  into  the  south  pier.  The  new 
bridge  was  a  steel  tied-arch  of  540  ft.  span,  identical  in  span 
and  design  with  the  bridge  at  St.  Georges,  Delaware,  built 
in  1942  over  the  same  canal  following  a  similar  accident  in 
1939. 

Construction  also  progressed  on  the  high-level  Penrose 
Avenue  bridge,  crossing  the  Schuylkill  river  between  Phila- 
delphia and  Chester,  Pennsylvania.  The  project  was  12,378  ft. 
long,  including  approach  viaduct  spans  on  high  concrete 
piers  and  a  cantilever  bridge  of  680  ft.  main  span. 

The  famous  Pecos  viaduct  of  the  Southern  Pacific  railroad 
near  Comstock,  Texas,  for  many  years  the  highest  railroad 
bridge  in  the  United  States,  was  dismantled  in  1949  after 
replacement  by  a  new  cantilever  bridge  in  1944. 

The  high-level  bridge,  connecting  Akron  and  Cuyahoga 
Falls,  Ohio,  arching  185  ft.  above  the  Cuyahoga  river, 
completed  in  1949,  was  a  decktype  cantilever  bridge,  900  ft. 
long,  with  a  centre  span  of  480  ft. 

At  East  Fredericktown,  Pennsylvania,  a  suspension  bridge 
of  1,000ft.  span  was  built  over  the  Monongahela  river  in 
1949  to  carry  a  belt  conveyor  for  bringing  coal  across  the 
river  from  mine  to  processing  plant. 

In  South  Carolina,  a  three-span  steel  highway  bridge 
(put  out  of  service  when  the  Santee  dam  was  completed  in 
1941)  was  moved  20  mi.  downstream  in  1949,  from  Lake 
Marion  on  the  Santee  river  to  a  new  crossing  over  the 
Santee-Cooper  diversion  channel.  The  three  truss  spans 
(150,  168,  150  ft.)  were  lifted  from  their  original  piers,  towed 


downstream   on   a   wooden   barge    and    placed   on    newly 
constructed  piers  at  the  new  site. 

During  the  cantilever  erection  of  the  new  Bluestone  river 
highway  bridge  near  Hinton,  West  Virginia,  a  sudden 
collapse  of  231  ft.  of  the  278  ft.  centre  span  on  March  31, 
1949,  plunged  five  men  to  their  death  in  the  stream  150  ft. 
below  and  four  others  were  injured.  The  cause  of  the  collapse 
was  not  discovered.  (See  also  ROADS.)  (D.  B.  S.;  X.) 


BRITISH  BORNEO.  British  territories  in  Borneo 
consist  of  the  colonies  of  North  Borneo  including  the  island 
of  Labuan  (area,  29,540  sq.  mi.;  pop.  [1947  est.]  335,379); 
Sarawak  (area,  c.  50,000  sq.  mi.;  pop.  [1947  census],  546,361) 
and  the  protected  state  of  Brunei  (area,  2,226  sq.  mi.;  pop. 
[1947  census]  40,670).  Governors:  North  Borneo,  Sir  Ralph 
Hone;  Sarawak  (also  high  commissioner  for  Brunei),  Duncan 
G.  Stewart  (assassinated  in  December). 

Proposals  for  the  establishment  of  executive  and  legislative 
councils  in  North  Borneo  were  approved  and  the  necessary 
instruments  to  give  them  effect  were  in  process  of  drafting 
and  were  expected  to  be  ready  before  the  end  of  the  year. 
Under  arbitration  an  award  of  £1  -4  million  was  fixed  as  the 
sum  to  be  paid  by  the  British  crown  to  the  British  North 
Borneo  company  in  respect  of  the  transfer  to  the  crown  of 
the  company's  sovereign  rights  and  assets  in  North  Borneo 
under  the  terms  of  the  agreement  entered  into  in  June  1946. 

The  governor,  D.  G.  Stewart,  was  stabbed  on  Dec.  3,  at 
Sibu,  by  a  member  of  the  Malay  Youth  association  which 
opposed  the  cession  of  Sarawak  to  the  crown.  He  died  at 
Singapore  on  Dec.  10. 

Finance  and  Trade.   Currency:  Straits  dollar  ($1  =  25.  4</.) 


Revenue  (1948) 
Expenditure  „ 
Imports        „ 
Exports         „ 

North  Borneo 
$13,780,929 
$10,727,063 
c.  $25,419,000 
c.  $29,742,000 

*  i  f\  4e\  __»: 

Sarawak 
$14,055,045* 
$19,186,932* 
$98,769,885 
$171,250,887 

Brunei 
$6,586.299 
$3,740,254 
c.  $35,000,305 
c.  $49,000,000 

1949  estimates. 

Principal  exports:  North  Borneo,  rubber  and  timber;  Sarawak,  diesel 
oil,  crude  oil,  rubber  and  sago  flour;   Brunei,  crude  oil.    In  assessing 


118 


BRITISH  COUNCIL-BRITISH  EAST  AFRICA 


Sarawak's  import  and  export  figures  note  should  be  taken  that  all 
Brunei's  crude  oil  (to  the  value  of  $47,140,683  in  1948)  is  pumped  to 
the  refinery  at  Min  and  later  re-exported  (J.  A.  Hu.) 

BRITISH  COUNCIL.  At  the  end  of  1949  the  British 
Council  had  representatives  in  40  foreign  countries,  in 
Australia,  New  Zealand,  India  and  Pakistan  and  in  18 
British  colonies.  During  the  year  it  opened  offices  in  Fiji, 
Israel,  Mauritius  and  Uganda.  The  council  supplied  material 
and  services  to  the  United  States,  Canada,  South  Africa  and 
other  countries  in  which  it  was  not  represented.  In  the 
United  Kingdom  it  provided  services  for  people  from  over- 
seas through  34  offices  and  centres. 

The  total  of  the  grants-in-aid  voted  by  parliament  for  the 
council  for  the  financial  year  1949-50,  after  allowing  for 
estimated  receipts  of  £224,600,  was  £3,232,000,  made  up  of 
£2,551,000  for  work  in  foreign  countries  and  £681,000  for 
work  in  the  Commonwealth.  The  total  establishment  of 
staff  provided  for  was  3,471,  but  the  total  staff  actually 
employed  was  about  3,000. 

On  Jan.  1,  1950,  the  council  took  over  from  the  Colonial 
Office  responsibility  for  the  welfare  of  British  colonial  students 
in  the  United  Kingdom.  The  British  government  provided 
about  £500,000  to  finance  this  work  and  also  an  increase  in 
welfare  services  for  overseas  students  in  London,  for  five  years. 
In  1949  there  were  in  operation  cultural  conventions,  all 
entered  into  by  the  British  government  after  World  War  II, 
with  France,  Brazil,  Belgium,  the  Netherlands,  Norway 
and  Czechoslovakia.  The  council,  usually  nominated  by  the 
British  government  as  its  principal  agent  in  the  matters  under 
review,  was  represented  on,  and  provided  the  secretariat  for, 
the  British  sections  of  the  mixed  commissions  set  up.  During 
the  year  five  mixed  commissions  held  meetings  and  the 
chairman  of  the  council  met  the  Brazilian  commission  when 
he  made  a  tour  of  inspection  of  council  establishments  in 
Latin  America.  The  council  was  also  represented  on  the 
Cultural  committee  of  the  Brussels  Treaty  powers,  which, 
during  1949,  dealt  with  arrangements  for  promoting  the  free 
flow  of  cultural  material  and  the  free  movement  of  persons 
between  the  five  countries.  The  council  and  the  British 
Treasury  arranged  a  study  course  in  connection  with  the 
Brussels  treaty  in  Nov.  1949,  when  nine  senior  government 
officers  from  Belgium,  France,  Luxembourg  and  the  Nether- 
lands came  to  London  to  study  the  structure  and  organization 
of  the  British  executive  and  the  relations  between  the  central 
government  and  the  local  authorities  in  Great  Britain. 

The  annual  report  of  the  council  for  the  year  to  March  31 
1949  recorded  that  in  73  overseas  centres  maintained  or 
assisted  by  the  council  44,803  students  attended  English  and 
other  courses,  and  26,012  members  enrolled  for  extra- 
curricular activities.  In  22  countries  1,600  teachers  of  English 
attended  summer  schools  arranged  in  co-operation  with 
local  educational  organizations  or  universities.  The  overseas 
libraries  had  over  215,000  books  and  sales  of  the  council's 
brochures  totalled  140,664.  The  council  awarded  242  post- 
graduate scholarships  tenable  in  the  United  Kingdom  to 
students  from  foreign  and  Commonwealth  countries,  119 
extensions  to  scholarships  previously  awarded  and  105  short- 
term  bursaries  to  technicians  and  industrial  and  other  workers. 
Through  the  council  12  countries  offered  62  scholarships  to 
British  students  The  council  arranged  study  programmes 
for  869  professional  visitors  to  the  United  Kingdom,  and, 
in  co-operation  with  British  universities  and  other  bodies, 
short  courses  and  summer  schools  for  1,700  other  visitors 
from  57  countries.  (R.  F.  AM.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.     Annual  Report  of  the  British  Council  (London,  1949). 

BRITISH  EAST  AFRICA.  The  term  is  used  to 
cover  Kenya  (colony  and  protectorate;  area,  224,960  sq.  mi.); 
Uganda  (protectorate;  area,  93,981  sq.  mi.);  Tanganyika 


(under  United  Kingdom  trusteeship;  area,  362,688  sq.  mi.); 
Zanzibar  (protectorate;  area,  1,020  sq.  mi.);  and  the 
Somaliland  (protectorate;  area,  c.  68,000  sq.  mi.;  pop. 
[1947  est.]  c.  700,000).  Populations  (Feb.  25,  1948  census): 

European  Indian  Goan  Arab  Other        AJncan        Total 

Kenya           29,660    90,528    7,159  24,174    3,325  5,218,385     5,373,231 

Uganda          3,448    33,767    1,448  1,475       827  4,953,000*  4,993,965 

Tanganyika  10,648    44,248    2,006  11,074    2,184  7,004,000*7,074,160 

Zanzibar           308    15,812       —  43,528    3,390       202,834       265,872 
*  Provisional  figures 

In  1948  the  East  African  High  commission,  consisting  of 
the  officers  for  the  time  being  administering  the  governments 
of  Kenya,  Uganda  and  Tanganyika,  with  a  central  assembly 
(consisting  of  official  and  unofficial  members  with  an  un- 
official majority)  and  an  executive  organization  was  estab- 
lished to  co-ordinate  and  control  the  technical  services  of 
the  three  territories.  Governors:  Kenya,  Sir  Philip  Mitchell; 
Uganda,  Sir  John  Hathorn  Hall;  Tanganyika,  Sir  Fdward 
Twining;  Somaliland,  Gerald  Reece;  Zanzibar,  British 
resident,  Sir  Vincent  Glenday. 

History.  Constitutionally  there  were  no  changes  in  1949 
but  it  was  a  year  of  great  development  in  the  sphere  of  local 
government.  Kampala  was  raised  to  municipal  status  with  a 
municipal  council  exercising  considerable  local  autonomy, 
consisting  of  European,  Asian  and  African  members  and 
presided  over  by  a  non-official  (Asian)  chairman.  In  Dar  es 
Salaam  a  new  municipal  council  was  established  with  equal 
numbers  of  non-official  European,  African  and  Indian  mem- 
bers. The  raising  by  Nairobi  of  a  £1  5  million  loan  on  the 
open  market  on  its  own  assets  and  responsibility  opened  a 
new  stage  in  the  development  of  colonial  municipalities. 
In  Uganda  the  African  Local  Government  ordinance  of 
January  gave  constitutional  support  to  developments  of 
recent  years.  In  Kenya  the  text  of  a  bill  to  provide  for  local 
government  in  Native  areas  and  re-establishment  of  district 
councils  was  submitted  to  the  country  for  criticism  and  later 
was  laid  before  the  Legislative  Council.  In  Tanganyika  the 
first  provincial  council  (comprised  of  officials  and  unofficial 
members  of  the  European,  Asiatic  and  African  communities) 
was  formed  in  the  Lake  province  and  held  its  first  meeting 
in  June. 

Considerable  progress  was  made  towards  easing  the  trans- 
port bottleneck.  Some  350  mi.  of  railway  were  under  con- 
struction in  Tanganyika;  in  Kenya  re-alignment  between 
Nairobi  and  Nakuru  reduced  the  distance  and  produced  an 
easier  gradient.  At  a  conference  in  London  in  January  on 
East  African  transport  problems,  attended  by  East  African 
governors  and  by  representatives  of  both  the  British  govern- 
ment departments  concerned  and  of  the  East  African  rail- 
ways, congestion  at  Dar  es  Salaam  was  the  main  subject  of 
discussion;  immediate  steps  decided  on  were  the  extension 
of  the  present  quay  by  500  ft.,  a  large  increase  in  the  lighter 
fleet,  an  addition  of  three  cranes  and  a  steady  increase  in 
railway  rolling  stock.  A  technical  committee  of  the  East 
African  railways  reported  later  in  the  year  that  it  estimated 
Dar  cs  Salaam  could  be  developed  into  a  major  port  with 
18  deep-water  berths  and  that  with  certain  limited  improve- 
ments, cither  in  hand  or  suggested,  it  should  by  1951-52  be 
able  to  handle  nearly  twice  the  total  tonnage  of  1948.  It  was 
announced  that  to  carry  out  these  and  other  improvements 
the  East  African  Railways  and  Harbours  administration 
were  preparing  to  borrow  £23  million  in  instalments. 

In  May  agreement  with  the  Egyptian  government  was 
announced  with  regard  to  the  building  of  a  dam  and  hydro- 
electric power  station  at  Owen  falls,  Uganda.  The  Egyptian 
government  offered  to  pay  £4  •  5  million  towards  the  cost  of 
the  scheme  (estimated  to  cost  a  total  of  £12  million).  The 
contract  for  the  construction  of  the  dam  was  placed  with  an 
Anglo-Dutch  firm  and  the  work  was  expected  to  be  completed 


BRITISH   EMPIRE 


119 


The  Commonwealth  prime  ministers  at  Buckingham  palace  on  April  23,  1949.    Left  to  right,  D.  S.  Senanavakc  ((  ev/orn,  L.  11.  Pearson 
representing  Louis  St.  Laurent,  Canada),  Liaquat  All  Khan  (Pakistan),  H.M.  the  King,  C.  R.  Attlee,  J.  B.  Chifley  (Australia),  D.  F.  Malan 

(South  Africa),  Peter  Fraser  (New  Zealand)  and  Pandit  Nehru  (India). 


in  four  years.  Meanwhile  work  forged  ahead  on  certain 
preliminary  installations — the  construction  of  a  temporary 
electrical  power  plant  (diesel-driven),  railway  sidings  and 
camps  for  the  labour  force. 

The  United  Nation's  Trusteeship  committee  mission, 
which  visited  Tanganyika  in  1948,  made  a  number  of  criti- 
cisms of  the  administration  to  which  the  British  government 
published  a  vigorous  reply. 

The  much  vaunted  groundnuts  scheme  in  Tanganyika 
produced  more  controversy  than  oil.  A  very  frank  report — 
Overseas  Food  Corporation:  Report  and  Accounts  for  J 948-49 
(H.C.252) — showed  that  the  original  plan  had  been  badly 
over-optimistic  both  as  to  costs  and  possible  rate  of  progress. 
,  Not  the  least  disturbing  feature  of  the  report  was  the  comment 
of  the  auditors.  Nevertheless  the  scheme  moved  forward 
and  brought  with  it  many  indirect  benefits  to  the  territory 
as  a  whole. 

Fairly  general  rioting  broke  out  in  Uganda  on  April  25 
and  lasted  2-3  days  with  sporadic  incidents  occurring  until 
May  4.  The  riots  followed  on  an  expression  by  the  Kaboka 
of  his  inability  to  agree  to  certain  demands  put  forward  by  a 
delegation  representing  the  so-called  Bataka  party  and  the 
African  Farmer's  union.  Five  Africans  were  reported  to  have 
been  shot  and  more  than  1,300  people  were  arrested; 
numerous  cases  of  arson,  looting  and  theft  of  vehicles  oc- 
curred. The  governor  brought  into  operation  the  Emergency 
Powers  Order-in-Council  1939,  and  called  in  military  assist- 
ance from  Kenya.  On  May  4  he  announced  the  appointment 
of  a  commissioner  to  inquire  into  and  report  upon  the  origin, 
cause,  purposes  and  development  of  the  disturbances  and  the 
steps  taken  to  deal  with  them  and  to  make  recommendations. 

Principal  exports:  Kenya  -sisal,  coffee,  radium  carbonate,  hides 
and  skins,  tea;  Somaliland  hides  and  skins;  Tanganyika — sisal 
(£8,930,461  in  1948),  cotton,  diamonds,  coffee;  Uganda  raw  cotton 
(£7,457,674  in  1948),  coffee,  cigarettes,  sugar;  Zanzibar — cloves 
(£1,000,404  in  1948),  coconut  oil. 

Finance  and  Trade.  Currency  throughout  British  East  Africa  is 
controlled  by  the  East  African  Currency  board  in  London;  the  standard 
coin  is  the  shilling,  divided  into  100  cents;  circulation  (Dec.  31,  1948): 
notes  £16,857,840,  coinage  £8,655,646. 


Revenue 

Kenya  £8,956,500(«) 
Somaliland  £525,495(/>) 
Tanganyika  £6,965,058(c) 
Uganda  £6,842,07  \(a) 
Zanzibar  £901,208(c) 


Expenditure 
£8,946,740(a) 

£545,357(/>) 
£6,381,964(c) 
£6,348,304(a) 

£937,673(c) 


Imports  1 948  Exports  \  948 
£27,136.338(rf)  £19,972,227 

£22,608,564  £16,923,394 
£9,271,287(rf)  £17,197,716 
£2,699,717  £2,116,858 


(a)  1949  estimates,  (b)  Actual,  for  the  year  ended  June  30,  1948.  (r)  1948 
actual,  (d)  "Retained"  imports  only.  (J  y^  Hu.) 

BRITISH  EMPIRE.  Under  this  heading  are  grouped 
two  articles  and  a  table.  The  articles  deal  with  changes 
within  the  Commonwealth  of  Nations — previously  called 
British  Commonwealth  of  Nations — and  the  colonial  empire. 
The  table  gives  essential  data  on  the  United  Kingdom,  the 
dominions,  the  colonies,  the  protectorates  and  trust  terri- 
tories as  at  Dec.  31,  1949 

Dominions.  The  early  months  of  1949  marked  the  climax 
of  a  momentous  phase  in  the  political  and  constitutional 
evolution  of  the  Commonwealth  of  Nations.  On  March  31 
Newfoundland,  a  former  self-governing  dominion,  became, 
at  the  wish  of  its  own  people,  the  tenth  province  of  the 
Canadian  confederation;  on  April  18  Eire  formally  declared 
herself  to  be  a  republic  and  seceded  from  the  Common- 
wealth; and  on  April  27  the  prime  ministers  of  the  dominions 
assembled  in  London  resolved  that  India  upon  becoming  a 
republic  could  remain  a  full  and  equal  member  of  the 
Commonwealth. 

The  union  of  Newfoundland  with  Canada  and  Eire's 
departure  from  the  Commonwealth  had  been  decided  upon 
in  1948  but  both  required  legislation  by  the  United  Kingdom 
parliament  in  the  final  stages.  In  respect  of  Eire,  or  the 
republic  of  Ireland  as  it  was  correctly  styled  after  April  18, 
this  legislation  was  not  without  a  broad  significance  for 
Commonwealth  relations.  The  Ireland  act,  introduced  by 
the  prime  minister  in  the  House  of  Commons  on  May  3  and 
enacted  on  June  2,  recognized  that  as  from  April  18  the 
republic  of  Ireland  had  ceased  "  to  be  part  of  His  Majesty's 
dominions  "  and  as  a  result  it  gave  statutory  authority  to 
assurances,  already  given  by  the  prime  minister,  that  "  in  no 

continued  on  page  121. 


120 


BRITISH   EMPIRE 


Country 


EUROPE 

GREAT  BRITAIN  AND 
NORTHERN  IRELAND 


Area      Population a 
sq.  mi.       (ooo's 
(approx.)     omitted) 


Capital 


94,204       50,213       London 


Status  Rulers,  Governors  and  Premiers 


kingdom      .         .     George  VI,  King 

Pume  minister  of  Great  Britain,  C.  R.  Attlee. 
Governor  of  Northern  Ireland,  Earl  Granville 


CHANNEL  ISLANDS 
ISLE  OP  MAN     . 

75 
221 

92  • 

/St.  Helier      . 
\St.  Peter  Port 
Douglas  . 

runic  iimu>ici  01  rNUiuicrii  iiciaiiu,air  Dasii  DIUUKV 

part  of  the  United  \Jersey:  lieutenant  governor,  Sir  A.  E.  Grasett 
Kingdom              j  Guernsey:  lieutenant  governor,  Sir  Philip  Neame 
part  of  the  United    Lieutenant  governor,  Sir  Geoffrey  Bromet 

GIBRALTAR   .... 

2 

23  • 

Gibraltar 

Kingdom 
colony 

Governor,  Lt.  Gen.  Sir  Kenneth  Anderson 

MALTA          .... 

122 

306* 

Valletta    . 

self-governing 

Governor,  Sir  Gerald  Creasy 

colony 

Prime  minister,  Dr.  Paul  BolTa 

ASIA 

ADEN  AND  PERIM  . 
ADEN  PROTECTORATE 

80 
112,000 

81' 
650' 

/Aden    \ 

colony 
protectorate 

>  Governor,  Sir  Reginald  Champion 

BAHREIN  ISLANDS  . 

213 

125 

Manama 

protectorate 

Political  agent,  A.  C.  Galloway 

BRITISH  BORNEO: 

NORTH  BORNEO  (with  Labuan)     29,540 

335  « 

Sandakan 

colony 

Governor,  Sir  Ralph  Hone 

BRUNEI      .... 
SARAWAK  .... 

2,226 
50,000 

41  d 
546* 

Brunei 
Kuchmg  . 

protectorate 
colony 

High  commissioner  \ 
Governor                   /vacam 

CBYLON        .... 

25,332 

6,879  • 

Colombo 

dominion    . 

Governor  general,  Lord  Soulbury 

CYPRUS         .... 

3,572 

450/ 

Nicosia    . 

colony 

Prime  minister,  Don  Stephan  Senanayake 
Governor,  Sir  Andrew  Wright 

HONG  KONO 

391 

1,857 

Victoria   . 

colony 

Governor,  Sir  Alexander  Grantham 

INDIA  

1,243,886 

342,114 

Delhi 

dominion    . 

Governor  general,  Chakravarti  Raiagopalachan 

Prime  minister,  Pandit  Jawaharlal  Nehru 

MALAYA  : 

Commissioner  general   tor  S.E.   Asia,   Malcolm 

MacDonald 

FEDERATION  OF  MALAYA 

50,850 

4,867  d 

Kuala  Lumpur. 

protectorate 

High  commissioner,  Sir  Henry  Gurney 

SINGAPORE 

217 

941  d 

Singapore 

colony 

Governor,  Sir  Franklin  C   Gimson 

PAKISTAN      .... 

337,524 

73,321 

Karachi  . 

dominion    . 

Governor  general,  Khwaja  Nazimuddm 

AFRICA 

Prime  minister,  Liaquat  Ah  Khan 

ANGLO-EGYPTIAN  SUDAN        .       967,500 
BRITISH  SOUTH  AFRICAN  PROTECTORATES: 

7,547 

Khartoum 

condominium 

Governor  general,  Sir  Robert  Howe 

BASUTOLAND 

11,716 

560/ 

Maseru    . 

protectorate 

^ 

BECHUANALAND 
SWAZILAND 

275,000 
6,704 

245  / 
187/ 

Mafeking 
Mbabane 

protectorate 
protectorate 

>High  commissioner,  Sir  Evelyn  Baring 

GAMBIA        .... 
GOLD  COAST  (including  BRITISH 

4,033 
91,843 

251 
4,118* 

Bathurst  . 
Accra 

colony 
colony  and  protec- 

Governor, P.  Wyn  Harris 

TOGOLAND:   13,041  sq.mi  ). 

torate       (British 
Togoland  :    trust 

>  Governor,  Sir  Charles  Arden-CIarke 

KENYA          .... 

224,960 

5,373* 

Nairobi   . 

territory) 
colony  and  protec- 

Governor, Sir  Philip  Mitchell 

torate 

MAURITIUS  (and  Dependencies) 
NIGERIA     (including     BRITISH 

807 
372,674 

452- 
25,000 

Port  Louis 
Lagos 

colony 
colony  and  protec- 

Governor, Sir  Hilary  Blood 

CAMEROONS:  31,150  sq.  mi.) 

torate       (British 
Cameroons:  trust 

(Governor,  Sir  John  Macpherson 

NORTHERN  RHODESIA     . 

284,745 

1,684* 

Lusaka    . 

territory) 
protectorate 

Governor,  Sir  Gilbert  McCall  Rennie 

NYASALAND  .... 
ST.   HELENA,   ASCENSION   AND 

47,949 
95 

2,300* 
5/ 

Zamba     . 
Jamestown 

protectorate 
colony 

Governor,  Sir  Geoffrey  Colby 
Governor,  Sir  George  Joy 

TRISTAN  DA  CUNHA 

SEYCHELLES  .... 

156 

35* 

Victoria  . 

colony 

Governor,  Dr.  P.  S.  Selwyn  Clarke 

SIERRA  LEONE 

27,925 

1,857* 

Freetown 

colony  and  protec- 

Governor, Sir  George  Beresford  Stooke 

torate 

SOMALILAND    PROTECTORATE      . 

68,000 

700 

Berbera   . 

protectorate 

Governor,  Gerald  Recce 

SOUTHERN  RHODESIA 

150,333 

2,021 

Salisbury. 

self-governing 

Governor,  Sir  Noble  Kennedy 

SOUTH  WEST  AFRICA     . 

317,725 

321* 

Windhoek 

colony 
trust  territory 

Prime  minister,  Sir  Godfrey  Huggins 
Administrator,  Colonel  P.  1.  Hoogenhout 

(under  S.  Africa) 

TANGANYIKA 
UGANDA 
UNION  OF  SOUTH  AFRICA 

362,688 
93,981 
472,550 

7,074* 
4,994  * 
11,392" 

Dar-es-Salaam 
Entebbe  . 
Pretoria  (seat  of 

trust  territory 
protectorate 
dominion    . 

Governor,  Sir  Edward  Twining 
Governor,  Sir  John  Hathorn  Hall 
Governor  general,  Major  G.  B.  van  Zyl 

government); 

Prime  minister,  Dr.  Daniel  F.  Malan 

Capetown  (seat 

of  legislature) 

ZANZIBAR  (and  Pcmba)  . 

1,020 

266* 

Zanzibar 

colony  and  protec- 

Resident, Sir  Vincent  Glenday 

AMERICA 

torate 

BAHAMAS      .... 
BARBADOS     .... 
BERMUDA      .... 
BRITISH  GUIANA    . 
BRITISH  HONDURAS 
CANADA        .... 

4,404 
166 
21 
89,480 
8,867 
3,694,863 

77 
199 
36 
403 
59/ 
12,883 

Nassau    . 
Bridgetown 
Hamilton 
Georgetown     . 
Belize 
Ottawa    . 

colony 
colony 
colony 
colony 
colony 
dominion    . 

Governor,  Sir  George  Sandford 
Governor,  A.  W.  L.  Savage 
Governor,  Lt.  Gen.  Sir  Alexander  Hood 
Governor,  Sir  Charles  Woolley 
Governor,  Ronald  H.  Garvey 
Governor  general,  Viscount  Alexander  of  Tunis 

FALKLAND  ISLANDS 
JAMAICA  (and  Dependencies)  . 
LEEWARD  ISLANDS 
TRINIDAD  AND  TOBAGO 
WINPWARP  ISLANDS      ,        , 

4,618 
4,670 
423 
1,980 
829 

2 
1,375 
109/ 
587 
252' 

Port  Stanley     . 
Kingston 
St.  John  . 
Port  of  Spain   . 
St.  George's     . 

colony 
colony 
colony 
colony 
colony 

Prime  minister,  Louis  St.  Laurent 
Governor,  Sir  Miles  Clifford 
Governor,  Sir  John  Huggins 
Governor,  Earl  Baldwin  of  Bewdley 
Governor,  S'r  Hubert  Ranee 
Governor,  R.  D.  H.  Arundell 

BRITISH   EMPIRE 


121 


Area 

Population? 

Capital 

974,581 

7,581  < 

Canberra 

7,040 
93,000 

269 
675' 

Suva 
Port  Moresby 

4,633 

48 

Vila 

8 

1 

103,935 

1,861 

Wellington 

13 

1 

12,085 

176 

90,540 

339  < 

Port  Moresby 

1,133 

72  < 

Apia 

*  1947  est 

*  1947  census 


Country 
AUSTRALASIA 

COMMONWEALTH  OF  AUSTRALIA    2,974,581 

FIJI 

NEW  GUINEA 

NEW  HEBRIDES 

NAURU         .... 

NEW  ZEALAND 

(and  Dependencies) 
NORFOLK  ISLAND 

PACIFIC    ISLANDS-     (Solomon, 

Gilbert    and    fcllice,    Tonga 

and  Pitcairn  Islands) 
PAPUA  .... 

WFSTFRN  SAMOA    . 

«  1948  est.  if  not  otherwise  stated 
*  1948  census 

continued  from  page  119. 

event  will  Northern  Ireland  or  any  part  thereof  cease  to  be 
part  of  His  Majesty's  dominions  and  of  the  United  Kingdom 
without  the  consent  of  the  parliament  of  Northern  Ireland." 
The  act  also  provided  that,  although  the  republic  was  not 
part  of  His  Majesty's  dominions,  it  was  not  to  be  regarded 
as  a  foreign  country  nor  were  its  citizens  to  be  aliens  for  the 
purposes  of  any  law  in  force  in  the  United  Kingdom  or  its 
colonial  territories.  The  non-foreign  status  of  the  republic 
and  its  citizens  in  the  United  Kingdom  was  extended  on  a 
reciprocal  basis  by  the  separate  legislation  of  other  Common- 
wealth countries.  The  guarantee  to  Northern  Ireland, 
embodied  in  the  act,  provoked  a  storm  of  criticism  in  Dublin. 

India's  already  proclaimed  intention  of  adopting  a  repub- 
lican constitution  meant  that  the  form  of  her  existing  associa- 
tion with  the  Commonwealth  would  have  to  be  changed. 
"  In  no  way  in  our  external,  internal,  political  or  economic 
policy,"  Pandit  Nehru  told  the  Constituent  Assembly  on 
March  8,  "  do  we  propose  to  adopt  anything  which  involves 
the  slightest  degree  of  dependence  on  any  other  authority." 
But  in  terms  of  independent  nations  co-operating  together  as 
equals,  free  from  binding  commitments,  India  was  prepared 
to  consider  future  and  friendly  association  with  the  Common- 
wealth. Internally  and  externally  her  government  was  much 
concerned  with  the  advance  of  Communism  in  Asia.  The 
attitude  of  the  Communist  party  in  India  was  described  by 
its  prime  minister  on  Feb.  28  as  one  of  open  hostility 
"  bordering  on  open  revolt  "  and  it  was  felt  by  many  that  in 
such  circumstances  a  policy  of  isolation  entailed  many  risks. 

The  problem  before  the  dominion  prime  ministers,  who 
assembled  in  London  on  April  21,  was  whether  India's 
desire  to  remain  a  member  of  the  Commonwealth  could  be 
reconciled  with  her  resolve  to  become  a  republic.  The 
historic  communique  issued  on  April  27  announced  that  a 
satisfactory  solution  had  been  found  during  talks  which  had 
been  conducted  throughout  in  an  atmosphere  of  goodwill 
and  mutual  understanding.  India,  about  to  become  a 
soverign  independent  republic,  declared  her  desire  "  to 
continue  her  full  membership  of  the  Commonwealth  and  her 
acceptance  of  the  King  as  the  symbol  of  the  free  association 
of  its  independent  member  nations  and  as  such  head  of  the 
Commonwealth,"  while  the  other  countries  of  the  Common- 
wealth, the  basis  of  whose  membership  was  specifically 
declared  not  to  be  thereby  changed,  recognized  India's 
continuing  membership  on  this  basis.  All,  therefore,  remained 
united  as  free  and  equal  members  of  the  Commonwealth  of 
Nations,  **  freely  co-operating  in  the  pursuit  of  peace, 
liberty  and  progress." 

The  resolution  of  India's  constitutional   problems  was 


Status 


Rulers,  Governors  and  Premiers 


dominion 


Governor  general,  W.  J.  McKell 
Prime  minister,  Robert  Gordon  Menzies 
Governor,  Sir  Brian  Freeston 
Administrator,  Colonel  J.  K    Murray 


colony 

trust  territory 

(under  Australia) 
Franco-British        \Bntish  High  commissioner.  Sir  Brian  Freeston 

condominium       J  French  High  commissioner,  Pierre  Cournane 


trust  territory 
(under  Australia) 
dominion    . 

Australian  depen- 
dency !> 

colonies  and  pro- 
tectorate 


Administrator,  Robert  Stanley  Richards 

Goveinor  general,  Sir  Bernard  Freyberg 
Prime  minister,  Sidney  George  Holland 
Administrator,  A  Wilson 

High  commissioner,  Sir  Brian  Freeston 


wealth  of  Australia 

trust  territory  Administrator,  G   R    Powles 

(under N  Zealand) 


•  1946  est 
f  1946  census 


f  1945  census 
*  1941  esi. 


1940  est. 
1939  est. 


warmly  welcomed  by  all  parties  in  the  United  Kingdom  and 
in  most  parts  of  the  Commonwealth.  After  a  two-day  debate 
the  London  declaration  was  ratified  by  the  Constituent 
Assembly  in  New  Delhi  with  only  one  dissentient  vote. 
Pandit  Nehru,  in  an  address  to  both  houses  of  the  Canadian 
parliament  on  Oct.  24  during  his  official  visit  to  north 
America,  spoke  of  it  as  "  an  outstanding  example  of  the 
peaceful  solution  of  difficult  problems  "  to  which  the  rest 
of  the  world  might  well  pay  heed.  The  reaction  in  Pakistan 
was,  however,  reserved.  On  April  28  its  prime  minister, 
Liaquat  AH  Khan,  underlined  the  fact  that  his  country  had 
not  yet  drafted  its  constitution  nor  decided  whether  it  should 
remain  freely  associated  with  the  Commonwealth  as  a 
monarchy  or  a  republic;  or  whether  it  should  secede.  Con- 
tinuing tension  with  India  on  the  Kashmir  dispute  made  it 
clear  that  although  a  most  difficult  constitutional  question 
had  been  resolved  unity  of  outlook  on  the  Indian  sub- 
continent had  by  no  means  been  achieved. 

Dr.  Daniel  F.  Malan,  the  Nationalist  prime  minister  of 
South  Africa,  who  attended  the  London  conference, 
described  it  on  May  1 1  as  a  milestone  in  the  history  of  the 
Commonwealth.  It  had  promoted  unity  and  South  Africa, 
even  though  she  might  decide  to  become  a  republic,  was 
united  in  her  desire  to  remain  in  the  Commonwealth.  The 
South  African  government  took  the  view  that  after  the  prime 
ministers'  meeting  it  was  no  longer  constitutionally  possible 
to  talk  of  common  status  for  citizens  of  Commonwealth 
countries  and  the  South  African  Citizenship  act,  promulgated 
on  Sept.  2,  gave  this  view  legal  expression.  The  act  provoked 
much  controversy  in  the  Union  and  some  criticism  outside, 
mainly  because  it  extended  for  British  subjects  the  qualifying 
period  for  South  African  citizenship  from  two  years  to  five 
and  then  required  specific  application  to  be  made.  To  a 
greater  extent  the  racial  policies  of  the  Union  government 
continued  to  arouse  critical  comment  in  other  parts  of  the 
Commonwealth,  especially  in  the  Asian  dominions.  In 
November  Dr.  Malan  announced  that  he  proposed  to  ask 
the  United  Kingdom  to  transfer  responsibility  for  the 
administration  of  Basutoland,  Bechuanaland  and  Swaziland 
to  the  Union. 

During  the  year  the  Commonwealth  governments  co- 
operated closely  in  the  economic  field.  From  July  13-18  the 
first  meeting  ever  held  of  Commonwealth  finance  ministers 
took  place  in  London  and  reached  complete  agreement  upon 
immediate  measures  to  be  recommended  to  governments  for 
checking  the  continuing  heavy  drain  upon  the  central  reserves 
of  gold  and  dollars.  On  Sept.  18  the  United  Kingdom 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer  announced  the  devaluation  of 


122 


BRITISH  EMPIRE 


the  pound  sterling  in  relation  to  the  United  States  dollar. 
Similar  measures  were  announced  shortly  afterwards  by  the 
other  governments  of  the  Commonwealth  with  the  one 
exception  of  Pakistan  which  decided  against  alteration  in  the 
exchange  rate  of  the  rupee. 

In  both  west  and  east  the  countries  of  the  Commonwealth 
were  much  concerned  with  the  problem  of  security  in  1949. 
In  the  west  the  North  Atlantic  treaty,  signed  at  Washington 
on  April  4,  was  of  outstanding  importance.  Two  Common- 
wealth countries,  the  United  Kingdom  and  Canada,  were 
signatories  and  elsewhere  it  was  welcomed  as  reinforcing  the 
defences  of  the  peace-loving  peoples  of  the  world.  The 
treaty,  approved  on  March  28  by  149  votes  to  2  in  the 
Canadian  House  of  Commons,  marked  a  significant  develop- 
ment in  Canadian  foreign  policy  for  which  its  Liberal  prime 
minister,  Louis  S.  St.  Laurent,  whose  party  later  in  the  year 
won  a  resounding  electoral  victory,  was  in  no  small  measure 
responsible.  In  the  eastern  half  of  the  Commonwealth, 
Communist  victories  in  China  underlined  the  need  for 
adequate  security  measures  there.  New  Zealand  introduced 
compulsory  military  training  in  August  and  in  November 
consultations  were  held  in  Canberra  between  representatives 
of  the  United  Kingdom,  Australian  and  New  Zealand  govern- 
ments to  discuss  matters  relating  to  the  peace  treaty  with 
Japan  and  the  situation  in  eastern  Asia.  (N.  MGH.) 

Colonies.  It  might  be  said  that  publicity  was  the  foremost 
element  in  the  British  government's  colonial  policy  in  1949. 
The  outstanding  event  was  the  Colonial  Month  in  London 
inaugurated  by  the  King  on  June  21.  Principal  feature  of 
the  month  was  an  exhibition,  "  Focus  on  the  Colonies," 
which  proved  so  popular  that  it  was  found  necessary  to  keep 
it  open  till  mid-September;  it  had  been  visited  by  over 
500,000  people  before  it  closed.  The  British  Broadcasting 
corporation  and  many  London  organizations  and  business 
firms  with  colonial  connections  featured  the  colonies  in  an 
effort  to  make  the  imperial  metropolis  more  conscious  of 
its  colonial  responsibilities. 

The  Colonial  Loans  act,  1949,  was  enacted  to  enable  the 
Treasury  to  guarantee  certain  loans  by  the  International  Bank 
for  Reconstruction  and  Development  to  the  governments  of 


colonial  territories  up  to  a  total  of  £50  million,  subject  to 
the  purpose  of  the  loan  being  approved  by  the  secretary  of 
state  for  the  colonies,  with  the  concurrence  of  the  Treasury, 
as  likely  to  promote  the  development  of  the  resources  of  the 
colonial  territory  concerned.  Under  the  terms  of  its  charter 
the  International  Bank  could  guarantee  or  make  loans  only 
to  members  or  political  sub-divisions  of  members  and,  in 
the  case  of  the  latter,  **  the  member  or  the  central  bank  or 
some  comparable  agency  which  is  acceptable  to  the  bank  " 
had  to  guarantee  the  loan.  The  Overseas  Resources  Develop- 
ment act,  1949,  enacted  later  in  the  year,  provided  similar 
borrowing  facilities  for  the  Overseas  Food  corporation  and 
the  Colonial  Development  corporation. 

The  Colonial  Development  corporation  published  a  report 
on  the  first  year  of  its  operation  (to  Dec.  31,  1948)  showing 
the  nature  of  the  organization  it  had  established  and  the 
extent  and  nature  of  its  initial  undertakings.  These  last 
proved  to  be  nine  in  number,  ranging  from  gold  dredging  in 
British  Guiana  to  the  production  of  manila  hemp  in  British 
Borneo;  and  a  further  57  projects  were  shown  to  be  under 
active  consideration,  several  of  which  were  announced  during 
the  year  as  having  been  adopted. 

The  report  on  progress  under  the  Colonial  Development 
and  Welfare  acts  for  the  year  ended  March  31,  1949,  listed  a 
total  of  257  development  and  welfare  schemes  and  123 
research  schemes,  costing  £10,627,509  and  £1,652,169 
respectively,  which  had  been  approved  in  the  previous 
12  months,  bringing  the  total  sum  now  approved  under 
the  1940  and  1945  acts  as  the  United  Kingdom's  contribution 
to  colonial  progress  to  £63,171,574.  The  amount  actually 
issued  in  these  12  months  was  £6,354,084.  It  had,  however, 
been  realized  that  shortages  of  materials  and  manpower  in 
the  immediate  postwar  years  had  slowed  down  the  imple- 
mentation of  the  schemes;  in  order,  therefore,  to  ensure  the 
smooth  operation  of  the  plans  now  that  supplies  of  men  and 
materials  were  easier,  the  Colonial  Development  and  Welfare 
act,  1949,  was  enacted  to  raise  the  total  that  might  be  spent 
in  any  one  year  from  £17-5  million  to  £20  million,  and  to 
increase  the  maximum  sum  that  might  be  spent  on  research 
in  the  same  period  from  £1-5  million  to  £2-5  million. 

Changes  made  in  the  constitution 

and  purposes  of  the  Imperial  insti- 
tute (founded  in  1887  as  a  memorial 
of  Queen  Victoria's  golden  jubilee) 
resulted  in  its  administration  being 
transferred  from  the  Board  of  Trade 
to  the  Colonial  Office  and  the 
Ministry  of  Education.  The  Colonial 
Office  accepted  responsibility  for  its 
scientific  and  technical  activities, 
which  will  in  future  be  undertaken 
by  a  Colonial  Plant  and  Animals 
Advisory  bureau  and  by  the  Mineral 
Resources  section  of  the  Colonial 
survey.  Later  the  secretary  of  state 
appointed  an  Advisory  Committee 
on  Colonial  Geology  and  Mineral 
Resources  to  advise  him  on  matters 
relating  to  the  geological  survey 
of  the  colonial  empire. 

In  June  a  conference  of  supplies 
officers  from  the  colonies  was  held  in 
London  to  discuss,  first,  the  need  for 


Ayo  Shonekan  from  Lagos,  Nigeria, 
handing  a  bouquet  to  the  Queen  at  the 
opening  of  Colonial  Month  in  July  1949. 
On  the  King's  right  is  Arthur  Creech 
Jones >  Colonial  secretary. 


BRITISH   GUIANA-BRITISH   HONDURAS 


123 


Beef  carcases  being  haded  onto  a  Dakota  aircraft  at  Lethem,  British  Guiana,  as  part  of  an  air  lift  from  Rupununi  to  Georgetown.   Started 

in  1948  over  200,000  Ib.  of  beef  were  carried  in  one  year. 


colonies  to  have  access  to  the  supplies  required  for  their 
general  economic  stability  and  welfare  and  for  the  execution 
of  their  development  programmes  and,  secondly,  the  need  to 
ensure  not  only  that  those  supplies  were  obtained  with  as 
little  expenditure  of  hard  currency  as  possible  but  that  they 
should  make  the  maximum  contribution  towards  the  solution 
of  the  sterling  area's  dollar  problem. 

The  British  government  expressed  keen  interest  in  the  call 
of  the  president  of  the  United  States  to  congress  on  Jan.  20 
for  a  bold  new  programme  for  making  American  techno- 
logical resources  available  for  the  development  of  under- 
developed areas.  Ways  and  means  of  giving  effect  to  that 
programme — known  as  President  Truman's  "  fourth  point  " 
— had  still  to  be  worked  out,  but  meanwhile  use  was  made  of 
the  Economic  Corporation  administration's  technical  assis- 
tance programme  by  the  despatch  of  two  groups  of  American 
scientists  to  conduct  medical  and  agricultural  surveys  of 
British  colonial  Africa  and  by  American  co-operation  in  a 
preliminary  survey  in  connection  with  the  possible  con- 
struction of  a  railway  link  between  Northern  Rhodesia  and 
East  Africa. 

There  was  further  evidence  during  the  year  of  a  desire  for 
co-operation  in  the  planned  development  of  the  continent  on 
the  part  of  all  the  authorities  responsible  for  the  administra- 
tion of  African  territories,  whether  dependent  or  self- 
governing.  A  number  of  conferences  took  place  in  all  of 
which  the  British  and  British  colonial  governments  partici- 
pated. (J.  A.  Hu.) 

BRITISH  GUIANA.  British  colony  on  the  northeast 
coast  of  the  continent  of  South  America.  Area :  89,480  sq.  mi. 
Pop.  (1948  est.):  402,615.  Governor,  Sir  Charles  Woolley. 

History.  The  Legislative  Council  approved  the  colony's 
ten-year  development  plan,  which  called  for  an  expenditure 
of  $26  million.  Remarkable  progress  was  announced  in  a 
campaign  to  rid  the  colony  of  malaria  and  it  was  claimed  that 
95%  of  the  population  was  now  free  of  its  ravages.  Jn  July 
two  United  States  experts  arrived  to  study  rice  production 
methods  and  to  advise  the  local  government  on  its  proposed 
programme  for  large  scale  expansion  of  the  industry.  Food 
subsidies  were  abolished  in  the  spring  when  the  only  two 


remaining  subsidies — on  flour  and  salted  fish — which  had 
cost  nearly  $2  million  in  1948,  were  withdrawn:  but  following 
devaluation  in  September  it  was  found  necessary  to  reintro- 
duce  certain  subsidies.  The  second  goodwill  meeting  of  the 
governors  of  the  British,  French  and  Dutch  Guianas  was  held 
in  Georgetown  in  February.  U.S.A. A. F.  handed  over 
Atkinson  Field  Air  base  (one  of  its  wartime  Caribbean  bases) 
to  the  local  government,  which  agreed  to  purchase  300 
buildings  and  a  large  quantity  of  equipment  for  approxi- 
mately $1  million;  certain  buildings  remained  U.S.  property, 
but  on  loan  to  the  local  government.  The  governor  announced 
that  the  secretary  of  state  had  promised  to  appoint  a  com- 
mission on  constitutional  reform  in  1950. 

Finance  and  Trade.  Currency:  West  Indian  dollar  ($4-80=£l). 
Budget  (1948  provisional  figures):  revenue  $20,601,599;  expenditure 
$19,616,692.  Foreign  trade  (1948):  imports  $48,181,000;  exports 
$36,993,859.  Principal  exports:  sugar,  bauxite,  rum,  rice,  diamonds 
and  timber.  (J.  A.  Hu.) 

BRITISH  HONDURAS.  British  colony  in  central 
America.  Area:  8,867  sq.  mi.  Pop.  (1946  census):  59,220. 
Governor,  R.  H.  Garvey. 

History.  The  claims  of  Guatemala  to  the  territory  continued 
to  give  rise  to  some  uncertainty  as  to  its  future  status;  a 
resolution  in  the  Legislative  Council  stressed  the  people's 
loyalty  to  the  British  connection  but  at  the  same  time  urged 
upon  the  British  government  the  imperative  necessity  to 
take  all  proper  steps  to  bring  about  the  speedy  determination 
of  the  claim  made  by  the  government  of  Guatemala.  In  a 
reply  to  this  resolution  the  British  government  stated  inter 
alia  that,  while  remaining  willing  to  submit  the  legal  claim 
to  the  International  Court  of  Justice  for  adjudication,  "  it 
remained  inflexibly  determined  that,  in  the  absence  of  a  legal 
decision  by  the  International  Court  that  His  Majesty  has  no 
legal  claim  to  sovereignty  over  British  Honduras,  it  will 
not  countenance  any  change  in  the  international  status  of 
the  colony  or  any  part  of  it." 

The  Hawkesworth  bridge,  a  new  suspension  bridge  480  ft. 
long  with  a  centre  span  of  280ft.,  over  the  Lower  Belize 
river  was  opened,  thus  completing  the  all-weather  road  from 
the  capital  to  the  Guatemalan  frontier.  In  general,  the 
achievements  in  the  development  programme  were  over- 


124       BRITISH   S.A.   PROTECTORATES-BRITISH  WEST  AFRICA1 


shadowed  by  widespread  unemployment  due  to  the  collapse 
of  the  mahogany  and  chicle  industries. 

Finance  and  Trade.  Currency  dollar,  linked  in  value  to  the  U.S. 
dollar.  Budget  (1948):  revenue  $3,208,623;  expenditure  $3,394,916. 
Foreign  trade  (1948)*  imports  $8,075,460;  exports  $6,152,010. 
Principal  exports:  timber,  chicle  and  grapefruit  juice.  (J.  A.  Hu.) 

BRITISH  LEGION:  see  EX-SERVICEMEN'S  ORGANIZA- 
TIONS. 

BRITISH  PACIFIC  ISLANDS:  see  PACIFIC  ISLANDS, 
BRITISH. 

BRITISH  SOUTH  AFRICAN  PROTECTOR- 
ATES. Under  this  heading  are  grouped  the  three  British 
protectorates  of  Basutoland,  Bechuanaland  and  Swaziland, 
of  which  certain  essential  statistics  are  given  in  the  table. 
High  Commissioner,  Sir  Evelyn  Baring. 

History.  The  year  reviewed  was  one  of  continued,  progress 
with  schemes  financed  under  the  Colonial  Development  and 
Welfare  acts  and,  in  Swaziland,  of  growing  political  activity 
of  the  Native  authority.  The  economic  future  of  Swaziland 
was  also  brightened  by  the  announcement  of  an  100,000  ac. 
afforestation  scheme  to  be  started  by  the  Colonial  Develop- 
ment corporation. 

The  territories  attracted  interest  during  1949  owing  to  the 
incidence  of  ritual  murder  in  Basutoland,  a  crime  of  which 
121  Basutos  have  been  convicted  during  the  past  seven  years, 
and  the  marriage  between  Seretse  Khama,  heir  to  the  chief- 
tainship of  the  Bamangwato  tribe  in  Bechuanaland  with  an 
English  woman  named  Ruth  Williams.  This  latter  question, 
which  was  the  subject  of  a  special  government  enquiry,  had 
repercussions  in  the  Union  of  South  Africa  where,  it  was 
announced,  the  chief  designate  and  his  white  wife  had  been 
declared  **  prohibited  immigrants." 

In  October,  Dr.  D.  F.  Malan,  the  Union  prime  minister, 
said  in  a  speech  at  Bloemfontein  that  he  was  only  waiting 
for  the  appropriate  moment  to  make  representations  to  the 
British  government  for  the  incorporation  of  the  protectorates 
into  the  Union  of  South  Africa. 

Basutoland.  Progress  in  the  political  sphere  was  marked 
by  the  increase  to  24  of  the  number  of  the  elected  representa- 
tives in  the  Basutoland  council.  An  endeavour  was  made  to 
encourage  an  agricultural  co-operative  movement  by  the 
appointment  of  an  official  as  registrar  of  co-operative  societies. 
This  step  was  expected  to  help  a  territory  largely  dependent 
upon  pastoral  and  agricultural  resources. 

Education  was  remarkably  popular  with  the  Basuto  and 
75  %  of  children  attended  school.  Expenditure  on  education 
was  about  one-fifth  of  revenue.  Construction  was  started  on 
the  sixth  government  hospital.  The  number  of  patients 
attending  all  hospitals  was  double  that  of  ten  years  ago. 
Welfare  societies,  with  community  halls,  were  formed  in  each 
district.  During  1949  the  first  of  these,  with  a  library,  was 
opened. 

Bechuanaland.  Schemes  for  surface  water  conservation 
were  approved.  These  aimed  at  constructing  small  stock 
dams  and  minor  permanent  works  in  existing  waterways. 
Boring  for  water  was  also  continued.  A  teacher  training 
institute  was  planned  to  improve  the  standard  of  education 
in  the  villages.  A  secondary  school,  initiated  by  the  Bamang- 


wato tribe,  under  Chief  Tsekedi,  was  opened  in  its  reserve. 

Swaziland.  Under  a  Native  land  settlement  scheme  valuable 
work  was  done,  not  only  in  settling  landless  families,  but  also 
in  proper  methods  of  land  utilization  and  animal  husbandry. 
Over  500  families  were  settled  during  1947-49  and  settlement 
for  another  thousand  was  planned.  By  voluntary  contribution 
the  Swazi  nation  raised  funds  to  purchase  73,900  ac.  from 
European  owners. 

A  company,  named  Peak  Timbers,  Ltd.,  began  commercial 
afforestation  of  an  area  of  57,000  ac.  purchased  by  them  in 
1946  in  the  Pigg's  Peak  district.  Production  at  the  Havelock 
asbestos  mine  reached  218,608  tons  for  the  year  ending 
March  1948.  The  campaign  against  Ngana  (animal  trypano- 
somiasis)  met  with  considerable  success  through  the  help  of 
bulldozers  for  bush  clearing  and  through  aerial  spraying. 

(W.  R.  GN.) 

BRITISH  WEST  AFRICA.  The  term  includes 
the  four  British  colonial  territories  on  the  west  coast  of 
Africa,  viz.,  Nigeria,  colony  and  protectorate  with  which 
are  administered  the  Cameroons  under  United  Kingdom 
trusteeship;  the  Gold  Coast,  including  the  colony  of  that 
name,  Ashanti,  the  Northern  Territories  and  Togoland 
under  United  Kingdom  trusteeship;  Sierra  Leone,  colony 
and  protectorate;  and  Gambia,  likewise  a  colony  and 
protectorate.  Areas  and  populations  were  as  follows: 

Population 
Area 

(in  sq.  mi  ) 

Nigeria          .          .         .    372,674 
Gold  Coast  .          .      91,843 

Sierra  Leone  .          .      27,925 

Gambia         .          .          .        4,033 

*  Estimates. 

Governors:  Nigeria,  Sir  John  Macpherson;  Gold  Coast, 
Sir  Charles  Arden-Clarke;  Sierra  Leone,  Sir  G.  Beresford 
Stooke;  Gambia,  P.  Wyn  Harris. 

History.  Public  interest  in  West  Africa  in  1949  centred 
almost  exclusively  in  the  discussion  of  constitutional  changes. 
In  Nigeria  in  March  the  Legislative  Council  unanimously 
approved  the  proposals  of  a  select  committee  of  its  members 
(set  up  on  a  suggestion  made  by  the  governor  the  previous 
year  and  including  all  the  unofficial  members)  that  the  review 
of  the  present  constitution  should  consist  of  conferences  at 
three  levels:  the  provincial,  the  regional  and  at  the  centre. 
Discussions  began  immediately  and  were  continued  through- 
out the  year.  Provincial  conferences  considered  the  views  of 
village  and  divisional  meetings  and  of  representative  organiza- 
tions; the  views  formulated  at  provincial  conferences  were 
then,  in  turn,  considered  at  regional  conferences,  at  which 
level  conferences  for  Lagos  and  the  colony  were  included. 
The  views  of  these  regional  conferences  were  incorporated 
in  a  series  of  resolutions,  published  in  October,  and  were 
then  submitted  to  a  drafting  committee  to  prepare  a  state- 
ment for  consideration  by  a  general  conference  consisting 
of  all  unofficial  members  of  the  Legislative  Council  and 
representatives  of  the  regional,  Lagos  and  colony  conferences. 
Meanwhile  in  September  the  governor  announced  that, 
pending  a  decision  on  constitutional  changes,  it  had  been 
agreed  that  African  representation  on  the  Executive  Council 


1931 
Census 
20,702,756 
3,163,568 
1,768,480 
199,520 


1948 

Census 

25,000,000* 

4,118,450 

1,857,275 

251,000* 


BRITISH  SOUTH  AFRICAN  PROTECTORATES 
Trade  with    Union 
of  South  Africa 

Areadnsq.  mi.)           Population                  Capital              and  Rhodesias  Road  and  Rail 

(1946  census)                                               (1947-48)  (1947-48) 

BASUTOLAND                 560,000                   Maseru          Imports,  £1,807,246  Roads,  502  mi. 

c.  11  716                                                                              Exports,  £1,336,269  Railway,  none 

BECHUANALAND            245,000                  Mafcking        Imports,  £1,176,037  Roads,  2,048  mi. 

c.  275,000                                                                          Exports.  £753.788  Railway,  394  mi. 

SWAZILAND                   187,000                  Mbabane       (In  customs  union  Roads  1,104  mi. 

6,704                                                                               with  South  Africa)  Railway,  none 

Exports,  £1,417,629 


Budget 
(1947-48) 

Revenue,  £900,654 
Expenditure,  £886,937 
Revenue,  £483,029 
Expenditure.  £475,502 
Revenue,  £471,412 
Expenditure,  £523,335 


Education 
(1947-48) 

Native  pupils  87,038 

Europeans  96 

Native  pupils  16,346 

Europeans  195 

Native  pupils  11.012 

European  552 


BRITISH  WEST  INDIES 


125 


should  immediately  be  resumed  and  strengthened  and  he  had 
accordingly  appointed  four  Nigerians. 

In  the  Gold  Coast  in  January  the  governor  set  up  an 
all-African  committee  of  39  members  under  the  chairmanship 
of  Mr.  Justice  J.  H.  Coussey  to  examine  proposals  for 


The  Labadi  Mantse  arriving  in  his  palanquin  at  a  durbar  at  Accra 

on  Feb.  5,  7949,  when  the  Ga  Mantse  was  presented  to  the  governor, 

Sir  Gerald  Creasy. 

constitutional  and  political  reform.  Its  report,  unanimous 
on  the  majority  of  its  principal  recommendations,  was 
published  in  October.  After  declaring  that  the  whole  institu- 
tion of  chieftaincy  was  so  closely  bound  up  with  the  life  of 
the  communities  that  its  disappearance  would  spell  disaster, 
the  committee  recommended:  (1)  a  complex  system  of  local 
government,  in  part  utilizing  the  existing  Native  authorities 
but  superimposing  a  democratic  framework  by  means  of 
popular  elections;  (2)  the  establishment  of  four  regional 
councils  with  wide  powers;  (3)  that  the  Executive  Council 
should  be  entirely  remodelled  as  the  chief  instrument  of 
policy,  responsible  to  the  proposed  House  of  Assembly  and 
not  to  the  governor,  and  should  consist  of  the  governor  as 
chairman,  not  more  than  three  official  members,  and  upwards 
of  eight  unofficial  members  (one  to  be  styled  "  leader  "  and 
the  others  "  ministers  ");  and  it  expressed  a  slight  preference 
for  a  bi-cameral  legislature.  In  a  statement  published 
simultaneously  with  the  report  the  British  government  both 
welcomed  and  accepted  its  recommendations  in  general; 
but  it  favoured  a  unicameral  legislature  and  stated  its  inability 
at  this  stage  to  accept  the  suggestion,  in  the  form  proposed, 
that  the  Executive  Council  should  be  collectively  responsible 
to  the  Legislative  Assembly  and  not  to  the  governor. 

Meanwhile  on  opening  the  Gold  Coast  Legislative  Council 
on  Oct.  11  the  governor  announced  that  he  had  appointed 
E.  C.  Quist,  an  unofficial  member,  to  be  president  for  the 
remainder  of  the  life  of  the  council. 

In  Sierra  Leone  the  constitutional  changes  approved  in 
1948  were  not  in  fact  proceeded  with,  a  motion  in  the 
Legislative  Council  in  Dec.  1948  having  called  for  a  further 
review  of  the  proposals.  In  June  the  governor  published 
new  proposals  recommending  an  Executive  Council  of  four 
official  and  four  unofficial  members,  the  latter  drawn  from, 
and  appointed  by  the  governor  after  consultation  with,  the 
Legislative  Council;  the  Executive  Council  to  be  responsible, 
as  a  body,  for  advising  the  governor  on  all  major  matters  of 
policy  and  the  four  unofficial  members  each  to  take  a  special 
interest  in  a  group  of  departments  with  a  view  to  holding 
portfolios;  the  proposals  also  covered  the  development  of 
local  government,  regarding  which  the  governor  stressed  the 


need  for  a  substantial  measure  of  decentralization.  It  was 
suggested  that  a  committee  (presided  over  by  an  independent 
chairman  and  representative  of  the  colony,  the  protectorate 
and  the  executive)  should  consider  these  new  proposals. 

The  report  of  three  United  Nations  scientists  who  visited 
the  Gold  Coast  in  Nov.-Dec.  1948  was  published  in  January 
and  confirmed  that  swollen  shoot  threatened  the  very  existence 
of  the  cocoa  industry  of  the  Gold  Coast  and  that  the  cutting 
out  of  diseased  trees  was  the  only  measure  known  for  its 
control  (see  ENTOMOLOGY).  In  February  the  publication  of 
new  regulations  for  immigration  procedure  into  the  Gold 
Coast  raised  an  outcry  in  Great  Britain;  and  following 
protests  in  the  British  parliament  and  the  local  Legislative 
Council,  they  were  withdrawn  and  re-drafted. 

It  was  announced  in  July  that  the  Gold  Coast  government 
had  placed  a  contract  for  certain  improvements  and  exten- 
sions to  Takoradi  harbour  at  an  expected  cost  of  £2,250,000. 
Work  continued  on  the  construction  of  Freetown's  deep-water 
quay.  A  panel  of  experts  arrived  in  the  Gold  Coast  in 
October  to  survey  the  industrial  and  transport  potentialities 
of  the  Volta  river. 

In  Nigeria  in  August  the  unsatisfactory  labour  situation 
on  the  railways  led  to  the  appointment  of  a  commission  of 
enquiry,  which  was  boycotted  by  the  trade  unions.  In 
November  a  strike  at  the  government  colliery  at  Enugu  gave 
rise  to  serious  disturbances  in  which  a  number  of  Africans 
were  killed.  A  commission  of  enquiry  was  again  appointed, 
under  the  chairmanship  of  Sir  William  Fitzgerald,  which 
began  sitting  in  Enugu  in  mid-December. 

Finance  and  Trade.    Currency:    the  pound  at  par  with  sterling. 

Gambia  Gold  Coast  Nigeria          Sierra  Leone 

Revenue          £866,900(a)  £ll,639,324(b)  £27,940,94<Xc)  £4,260,145(d) 

Expenditure  £l,014,097(a)  £10,178,802(b)  £27,230,290(c)  £2,666,444(d) 
Imports 

(1948)  c.  £1,938,000  £29,158,749  £41,777,239  £4,979,350 
Exports 

(1948)  c.       £1,706,000  £31,615,712(e)  £38,327,220(e)  £4,164,566(0 

(a)  1948.    (b)  1948-49.     (c)  1949-50  est.     (d)  1949  est. 

(e)  The  values  of  cocoa  recorded  in  the  export  statistics  are  the  f.o.b.  cott 
prices  to  the  Gold  Coast   and   Nigerian  Cocoa   Marketing   boards  and  thus 
exclude  the  profits  realized  by  the  boards  on  sale  to  overseas  purchasers.      In 
1948  these  profits  amounted  in  the  Gold  Coast  alone  to  £20,013,017. 

(f)  The  value  of  the  diamond  exports  (461,685    carats)  was  not  quoted. 
Palm  kernels  and  palm  oil  are  quoted  at  f.o.b.  cost  prices. 

Principal  exports:  Gambia:  groundnuts  (£1,628,002  in  1948); 
Gold  Coast:  cocoa,  gold,  manganese  and  timber;  Nigeria:  cocoa, 
groundnuts,  palm  oil  and  kernels,  tin,  and  hides  and  skins;  Sierra 
Leone:  palm  kernels,  diamonds  and  iron  ore.  (J.  A.  Hu.) 

BRITISH  WEST  INDIES.  Under  this  heading  are 
treated  matters  of  common  concern  to  the  British  West 
Indian  colonies  which  comprise  Barbados,  British  Guiana, 
British  Honduras,  Jamaica,  Leeward  Islands,  Trinidad  and 
Tobago  and  Windward  Islands.  Total  area:  106,415  sq.  mi. 
Total  pop.:  c.  2,970,600.  (See  also  separate  articles  on  the 
respective  colonies.) 

Steady  progress  was  made  during  the  year  with  work  to 
give  effect  to  the  Montego  Bay  (Sept.  1 947)  recommendations 
on  closer  association.  The  Standing  Closer  Association 
committee  under  the  chairmanship  of  Major  General  Sir 
Hubert  Ranee,  having  held  its  first  session  in  Barbados  in 
Nov.  1948,  held  further  meetings  in  Trinidad  in  March,  in 
Barbados  in  June  and  in  Jamaica  in  Oct.  1949.  The  meetings 
were  held  in  private;  but  it  was  disclosed  that  the  committee 
had  reviewed  the  functions  of  a  federal  government,  the  con- 
stitution of  a  federal  legislature,  the  composition  of  a  federal 
executive  and  the  financial  basis  of  federation  including 
relations  between  a  federal  government  and  the  unit  govern- 
ments and  between  these  and  the  British  government.  It 
was  understood  that  final  proposals  were  agreed  at  the 
October  meeting.  Meanwhile  commissions  to  examine  the 
unification  of  the  public  services  in  the  British  Caribbean  area 
and  of  a  customs  union  for  the  West  Indies  commenced  work 


126 


BRITTEN-BROADCASTING 


under  the  chairmanship  of  Sir  Maurice  Holmes  and 
J.  McLogan  respectively. 

The  Earl  of  Listowel,  minister  of  state  for  colonial  affairs, 
carried  out  a  comprehensive  two-month  tour  of  the  British 
West  Indies  during  October  and  November  and  presided  over 
an  unofficial  conference  of  the  governors  at  Barbados  from 
Nov.  7-12. 

Two  sugar  deputations,  the  first  a  four-man  commission 
appointed  by  the  British  West  Indies  Sugar  association  and 
the  second  from  Jamaica  led  by  W.  A.  Bustamante,  arrived 
in  London  in  late  summer  to  press  for  better  terms  for 
West  Indian  sugar.  After  talks  the  British  government  issued 
a  statement  saying  that  it  recognized  the  vital  importance  of 
the  prosperity  "of  the  sugar  industry  to  the  West  Indies  and 
promising  to  call  a  conference  in  the  autumn  with  all  Common- 
wealth sugar  producers  to  agree  terms;  later  it  was  announced 
the  conference  would  begin  on  Nov.  21. 

The  University  college  of  the  West  Indies  was  formally 
launched  in  January  when  it  was  announced  that  the  King 
had  granted  a  royal  charter  and  that  Princess  Alice,  Countess 
of  Athlone,  was  appointed  its  first  chancellor. 

Other  events  of  common  concern  to  the  British  West  Indies 
were  talks  held  in  Barbados  in  February  between  the  United 
Kingdom,  Canadian  and  West  Indian  governments  for  a 
preliminary  and  informal  exchange  of  views  on  future 
shipping  services;  the  third  full  meeting,  also  at  Barbados,  of 
the  West  Indian  Oils  and  Fats  conference,  called  primarily  to 
fix  the  price  of  copra  for  the  coming  season;  and  the 
establishment  of  a  Federation  of  Primary  Producers  of  the 
British  Caribbean  and  British  Guiana.  (J.  A.  Hu.) 

BRITTEN,  (EDWARD)  BENJAMIN,  British 
pianist,  composer  and  conductor  (b.  Lowestoft,  Nov.  22, 
1913),  was  educated  at  Gresham's  school,  Holt,  and  at  the 
Royal  College  of  Music,  London.  He  was  with  the  post 
office  film  unit  from  1935  to  1937,  when  he  wrote  music 
for  such  documentary  films  as  Night  Mail  and  Coal  Face. 
At  the  same  time  he  composed  music  for  plays  by 
W.  H.  Auden  and  Christopher  Isherwood  and  by  J  B. 
Priestley.  In  April  1939  he  went  to  New  York  where  he 
remained  until  1942;  many  of  his  works  were  performed 
by  American  orchestras.  In  1940  he  collaborated  with  Auden 
in  adapting  his  book  Paul  Bunyan  for  choral  operetta.  In 
Nov.  1941  he  received  the  Elizabeth  Sprague  Coohdge  award 
for  "  distinguished  services  to  chamber  music/'  His  first 
full-length  opera  was  Peter  Grimes  (1944),  followed  by 
The  Rape  of  Lucre tia  (1946),  Albert  Herring  (1947)  and  by  a 
new  version  of  The  Beggar's  Opera.  Living  at  Aldeburgh, 
Suffolk,  he  helped  to  found  the  Aldeburgh  Festival  where  in 
1949  he  presented  a  children's  opera,  Let's  Make  an  Opera, 
with  Eric  Crozier.  In  1947  he  was  appointed  musical  director 
of  the  English  Opera  group  and  in  Sept.  1949  conducted 
three  performances  of  the  group  in  Oslo,  Norway.  His 
44th  composition  "  Spring  Symphony  "  was  first  performed 
at  the  music  festival  at  Amsterdam  in  1949  and  was  played 
for  the  first  time  in  the  United  States  by  the  Boston  symphony 
orchestra  at  Tanglewood  on  Aug.  13,  1949.  He  wrote  a 
wedding  anthem  Amo  Ergo  Sum  for  the  wedding  of  the 
Earl  of  Harewood  and  Miss  Marion  Stein  on  Sept.  29,  1949. 

BROADCASTING.  Once  again  the  international 
implications  of  the  medium  occupied  the  attention  of  radio 
organizations  throughout  1949.  In  the  first  place,  the 
working  out  of  the  medium  wave  allocations  agreed  upon 
at  the  Copenhagen  conference  in  1948  proved  to  be  both 
onerous  to  those  countries  who  readily  accepted  its  decisions 
and  controversial  where  its  provisions  led  to  results  not  fully 
seen  by  the  negotiators  on  the  spot.  As  late  as  December 
meetings  were  being  held  in  Washington  at  which  the  fulfil- 


ment of  the  plan  hung  in  the  balance,  and  there  was  no 
guarantee  that  the  deadline  of  March  1950  would,  in  fact, 
be  observed.  The  even  more  complex  subject  of  short  waves 
was  argued  for  months  at  Mexico  City.  Finally,  in  April 
1949,  51  delegations  accepted  a  plan,  the  first  world  plan 
of  short  wave  distribution  ever  to  be  agreed,  which  was 
based  on  what  is  known  as  "  summer  intermediate  sun 
activity."  The  adaptation  of  the  plan,  which  was  passed  to 
a  technical  committee,  although  bound  to  decrease  the 
number  of  frequency  hour  availabilities,  by  introducing 
proportionate  reductions  from  country  to  country,  would 
not  involve  the  disappearance  of  programmes  already  in 
being.  Unfortunately,  both  the  U.S.A.  and  the  U.S.S.R.  were 
included  in  the  18  delegations  which  remained  negative. 
Meanwhile  in  Europe  steps  were  taken  towards  the  formation 
of  a  European  broadcasting  organization  which  should  be 
fully  representative  of  the  democratic  powers.  In  1949 
two  organizations  existed,  the  Union  Internationale  de 
Radiodiffusion  (U.I.R.)  based  in  Switzerland  and,  during 
World  War  II,  largely  dominated  by  Germany;  and  the 
Organisation  Internationale  de  Radiodiffusion  (O.I.R.) 
based  in  Belgium  and  largely  dominated  by  east  European 
countries.  From  both  of  these  organizations  the  B.B.C  , 
largest  and  most  powerful  of  the  European  radio  bodies, 
stood  aside.  At  Stresa,  Italy,  in  the  summer  some  progress 
was  made  towards  ending  the  deadlock,  the  B.B.C  being 
represented  in  unofficial  discussions  with  members  of  the 
U.I.R.  At  Brussels,  Belgium,  in  the  autumn,  some  significant 
resignations  from  O.I.R  took  place.  It  was  possible  that 
1950  would  see  "  western  union "  accomplished  in  this 
field.  Already,  on  the  cultural  side,  there  was  good  progress 
to  record  with  the  award  of  the  first  Italia  prize,  a  competition 
for  an  original  work  for  radio  to  which  12  countries  contri- 
buted, including  Czechoslovakia,  Finland  and  Monaco.  An 
international  jury  made  the  first  award  to  France,  for  a 
musical  farce  entitled  Frederick  the  General,  the  second  to 
Great  Britain  for  a  radio  reconstruction  of  The  old  and  true 
story  of  Rumpelstiltskin  and  the  third  to  Monaco  for  Lost 
Song,  a  radio  film.  The  Italia  prize  was  created  a  foundation, 
and  would  be  given,  in  alternate  years,  for  musical  and 
literary  works.  Further  evidence  of  international  co-operation 
came  from  the  northern  European  states.  In  June,  Danish, 
Finnish,  Icelandic,  Norwegian  and  Swedish  representatives 
met  in  Stockholm,  Sweden,  and  decided  to  embark  on  an 
ambitious  series  of  relays,  involving  concerts,  Nordic  art, 
drama  and  literary  chronicles.  Continuous  exchange  of 
technical  data  was  also  agreed  upon.  The  Swedish  programmes 
for  the  autumn  showed  that  Radiotjanst  at  least  had  been 
practically  and  fully  influenced  in  its  planning  by  the  decisions 
of  this  conference.  Finally,  on  the  international  theme,  it 
should  be  recorded  that  the  number  of  services  to  foreign 
countries  and  audiences  overseas  increased  considerably  in 
1949  (the  majority  of  these  being  on  short  wave  was  likely 
to  be  affected  by  the  Mexico  City  decisions);  it  was  possible 
to  listen,  for  instance,  to  Danish  broadcasts  to  South  Africa, 
Polish  broadcasts  to  Yugoslavia,  Italian  broadcasts  to 
Somaliland  and  Rumania,  Norwegian  broadcasts  to  seamen 
all  over  the  world  and  even  Albanian  broadcasts  to  Britain. 
Great  Britain.  A  considerable  amount  of  time  and  energy 
was  expended  on  activity  which  was  the  reverse  of  inter- 
national. As  a  result  of  intensive  Russian  jamming  of  B.B.C. 
broadcasts,  the  B.B.C.  in  collaboration  with  stations  in  the 
U.S.  zone  of  Germany,  retaliated  by  bringing  an  unparalleled 
transmitter  strength  to  bear  on  the  U.S.S.R.  More  construc- 
tively, perhaps,  the  B.B.C.  increased  its  listeners  to  English  by 
Radio  courses  not  only  in  western  Europe  but  also  in  some 
east  European  states.  Over  1,000  Bulgarian  listeners,  for 
instance,  wrote  to  London  for  texts  of  a  progressive  course 
of  lessons.  From  eastern  Germany,  too,  came  a  heavy  mail 


BROADCASTING 


127 


as  the  result  of  a  new  programme  intended  to  keep  the  popula- 
tion in  touch  with  the  outside  world.  Outside  Europe,  a 
new  B.B.C.  service  was  inaugurated  in  the  autumn  to  Israel, 
in  Hebrew,  the  first  of  its  kind  in  the  world.  Within  the 
Commonwealth,  separate  transmissions  were  begun  for 
India  and  Pakistan  in  place  of  the  previous  combined 
Hindustani  service.  Arrangements  between  the  governments 
of  the  United  Kingdom  and  Ceylon  allowed  for  the  use 
during  eight-and-a-half  hours  every  day  of  Radio  Ceylon 
(formerly  Radio  S.E.A.C.)  for  transmitting  B.B.C.  pro- 
grammes to  the  far  east.  Re-broadcasting  on  the  other  side 
of  the  world  was  not  seriously  affected  by  television,  a  record 
number  of  stations  in  the  U.S.A.  and  Canada  carrying  B.B.C. 
material.  At  home,  however,  public  interest  in  the  spread 
of  television  to  the  midlands  outshone  other  developments 
(sec  TELEVISION).  However,  an  even  vaster  public  than 
in  previous  years  became  addicted  to  radio  drama  (in  the 
"  blind  "  medium,  as  it  was  now  popularly  known),  and 
there  were  few  listeners  who  did  not  genuinely  mourn  the 
death  of  Tommy  Handley  (see  OBITUARIES),  the  chief  comedian 
of  ltma>  a  programme  whose  absurdities  had  enlivened  the 
public  throughout  and  after  World  War  H.  Various  experi- 
ments were  made  in  the  talks  and  discussion  programmes 
for  home  listeners,  including  the  examination  before  the 
microphone,  by  a  variety  of  witnesses,  of  such  public  figures 
as  Sir  Stafford  Cripps,  and  the  presentation  before  a  studio 
audience  of  lectures  previously  delivered  by  a  regius  professor 
within  the  precincts  of  Cambridge.  During  the  year,  the 
studios  in  Edinburgh,  Plymouth  and  Belfast  celebrated  their 
silver  jubilee,  A  government  committee  under  Lord  Beveridge 
began  its  enquiries  into  the  future  of  British  broadcasting 
and  television. 

Europe.  German  developments  were  the  most  spectacular. 
In  the  American  and  British  zones  it  was  decided  that  the 
only  satisfactory  coverage,  after  the  Copenhagen  plan  came 
into  operation,  would  be  by  frequency-modulation  trans- 
mission on  ultra-short  waves.  The  industry  was  accordingly 
requested  to  produce  receivers.  If  the  plan  went  through, 
which  seemed  probable,  Germany  would  be  the  first  European 
country  to  introduce  ultra-short  wave  broadcasting  on  a 
large  scale.  In  the  meantime,  the  Bavarian  radio,  with 
American  permission,  became  commercial;  and  in  Berlin 
the  U.S.-controlled  R.l.A.S.  instituted  a  system  unique  in 
Europe,  whereby  telephone  subscribers  by  dialling  a  certain 
number  were  connected  to  a  non-stop  news  service,  recorded 
on  magnetic  tape,  and  changed  three  times  daily.  The  Italian 
and  Austrian  broadcasting  organizations  celebrated  their 
25th  anniversaries;  whereas  the  latter  signalized  the  occasion 
by  arranging  for  better  concerts  (including  those  of  the 
Vienna  Philharmonic  orchestra),  than  had  ever  hitherto 
been  heard,  the  former,  eager  to  attract  more  listeners,  and 
especially  those  who  paid  licence  fees,  arranged  lotteries, 
prize-winning  tickets  from  which  carried  the  numbers  of 
licences  already  issued.  Cars,  bicycles,  pleasure  tours  and 
watches  were  among  the  prizes,  and  the  number  of  paid-up 
listeners  was  higher  than  ever  before  in  the  quarter  century 
of  R.A.I.  On  the  other  side  of  the  "  iron  curtain,*'  more 
and  more  attention  was  paid  to  education,  which,  whether 
for  the  young  or  for  adults,  was  made  the  vehicle  of  much 
party  propaganda.  In  Poland,  however,  and  to  a  certain 
extent  in  Czechoslovakia,  this  increasing  use  of  the  radio 
for  political  propaganda  did  not  prevent  the  emergence  of 
programmes  of  good  music.  The  French  radio  gave  some 
time  to  the  project  of  a  radio  university,  while  in  Switzerland 
the  chief  developments  were  in  discussions  with  listeners 
taking  part  and  in  plays  specially  written  or  adapted  for 
the  medium. 

Commonwealth.      As  in  Great  Britain,  broadcasting  in 
Australia  and  Canada  came  under  enquiry  during  the  year. 


Mrs.  Lesley  Piddington,  who  with  her  husband*  Sydney^  gave  a 

series  of  broadcasts  in  1949  in  which  they  demonstrated  thought 

transference.     She  is  seen  here  in  the  Tower  of  London  while  her 

husband  was  in  a  B.B.C.  studio. 

A  new  control  board  in  Australia,  while  approving  the  basic 
system,  in  which  public  service  and  commercial  broad- 
casting services  existed  side  by  side,  declared  that  many 
improvements  were  necessary  to  supply  listeners  with  an 
adequate  broadcasting  service.  The  board  intended  to 
enforce  standards  governing  the  quality  of  programmes  and 
advertising  if  necessary,  and  to  reduce  the  amount  of  the 
latter.  In  Canada  a  Royal  Commission  on  Arts,  Letters 
and  Sciences  was  still  sitting  at  the  end  of  the  year.  To  it 
both  private  broadcasters  and  the  Canadian  Broadcasting 
commission  had  submitted  evidence,  the  former  asking  for 
equal  rights  with  the  C.B.C.,  the  latter  declaring  that 
judgment  in  broadcasting  matters  should  be  based  solely 
on  public  interest  and  calling  for  a  fully  national  radio  system, 
owned  and  supported  by  the  public.  South  Africa's  earlier 
declared  intention  to  pursue  commercial  broadcasting  as  a 
new  policy  was  now  understood  to  involve  no  separate 
organization.  The  S.A.B.C.  would  remain  in  charge  of  three 
programmes,  of  which  the  third  would  be  commercial. 
India  announced  an  eight-year  plan  for  extending  radio 
throughout  India,  serving  ten  times  the  former  area  and 
reaching  80,000  villages  instead  of  the  then  5,000.  The 
government  were  to  provide  receiving  sets  and  loudspeakers. 
In  the  colonies,  interest  in  broadcasting  was  growing  apace. 
It  was  understood  that  certain  funds  might  shortly  be  made 
available  for  erecting  new  stations,  especially  in  British  West 
Africa  and  the  West  Indies.  The  B.B.C.  was  called  into 
consultation  by  the  Colonial  Office  and  undertook  service 
surveys  for  the  government  at  home.  The  public  service 
system,  of  which  the  B.B.C.  was  the  outstanding  example,  was 
likely  to  be  adopted  in  these  areas,  and  the  B.B.C.  was 
expected  to  be  called  upon  to  play  a  large  part  in  all  colonial 
broadcasting  plans.  (X.) 

United  States.  According  to  figures  compiled  by  O.  H. 
Caldwell,  editor  of  Tele-Tech  magazine,  the  number  of  radio 
receiving  sets  in  use  in  the  U.S.  in  1949  was  81  million  com- 
pared with  74  million  in  1948. 


128 


BROOKE 


A  Federal  Communication  commission  report,  issued  in 
Dec.  1949,  reflecting  1948  conditions,  showed  A.M.  (ampli- 
tude modulation)  broadcast  revenues  of  $406,995,414; 
broadcast  expenses  of  $342,903,730,  and  broadcast  income 
of  $64,091,684  before  payment  of  federal  income  taxes. 
Despite  an  11-9%  gain  in  revenues  net  income  fell  10-73% 
below  the  1947  level,  owing  to  a  17-5%  rise  in  operating 
costs.  The  figures  were  based  on  reports  from  seven  A.M. 
networks  and  1,797  other  A.M.  stations. 

Sales  of  advertising  time,  the  financial  backbone  of  broad- 
casting, totalled  $416,720,279  during  1948. 

In  August,  the  Federal  Communications  commission 
made  final  its  proposal  to  ban,  from  Oct.  1,  programmes 
which  offered  prizes  of  money,  merchandise  and  services, 
by  classifying  them  as  lotteries.  At  the  time,  the  four  major 
networks  were  carrying  38  **  give-away  "  programmes  which, 
according  to  the  estimates  by  Broadcasting  magazine,  offered 
$185,000  worth  of  money  and  merchandise  in  prizes  each 
week.  Before  the  effective  date,  the  F.C.C.  suspended  its 
rules  pending  court  tests  of  their  legality.  By  the  end  of  the 
year,  however,  "  give-away "  programmes  were  already 
beginning  to  decline  in  popularity.  "  Mystery  "  features 
began  to  replace  variety  shows  as  the  dominant  type  of 
commercial  evening  programme. 

The  table  below,  prepared  from  information  by  C.  E. 
Hooper,  Inc.,  shows  the  general  composition  of  commercial 
evening  programmes  broadcast  on  the  four  national  net- 
works during  the  week  of  Nov.  1-7,  1949,  compared  with 
the  same  week  of  1948. 

TABLE. — GENERAL  COMPOSITION  OF  NETWORK  COMMERCIAL  EVENING 
PROGRAMMES,  Nov.  1-7,  1949  AND  1948. 

Percent  of  time 

on  the  air 

Type  of  Programme 
Mystery 

News  and  commentators 
Variety 

Situation  comedy  . 
Popular  music 
Audience  participation 
Plays    . 
Concert  music 
Radio  columnists  . 
Miscellaneous 

The  inauguration  of  President  Harry  S.  Truman  for  a 
second  term  and  Alben  W.  Barkley  as  vice-president  was 
taken  by  radio  and  television  to  more  viewers  and  listeners 
than  ever  before.  In  addition  to  domestic  coverage,  the 
State  Department's  *'  Voice  of  America,"  the  B.B.C  and 
Radiodiffusion  Francaise  relayed  shortwave  accounts  over- 
seas. Vice  president  Barkley 's  marriage  to  Mrs.  Carleton  S. 
Hadley  on  Nov.  18  was  also  widely  followed  by  listeners. 

In  April  1949,  the  board  of  directors  of  the  National 
Association  of  Broadcasters  approved  a  $75,000  loan  to 
the  Broadcast  Measurement  bureau,  an  audience  measure- 
ment organization  sponsored  by  the  N.A.B.,  the  American 
Association  of  Advertising  Agencies  and  the  Association  of 
National  Advertisers.  The  loan  was  to  finance  the  completion 
of  the  bureau's  second  national  audience  survey,  in  progress 
in  1949. 

The  Federal  Communications  commission  handed  down 
several  policy-making  decisions  in  1949,  one  of  which 
reversed  the  long-standing  "  Mayflower  decision  "  forbidding 
radio  station  owners  to  "  editorialize  "  on  the  air.  Hence- 
forth, the  F.C.C.  said  in  a  new  decision  issued  on  June  2, 
broadcasters  might  air  their  own  views  on  controversial 
and  other  issues,  provided  they  treated  with  "  fairness " 
those  who  wished  to  present  opposing  viewpoints. 

In  congress,  the  senate  passed  a  bill  introduced  by  Senator 
E.  W.  McFarland  (Democrat,  Arizona)  to  reorganize  the 
F.C.C. 's  staff  and  procedures.  The  house  of  representatives 
failed  to  act,  but  leaders  said  it  might  do  so  in  1950. 


1949 

1948 

16'0 

13-2 

15-7 

15-4 

12-6 

16-9 

12-6 

9-1 

11-8 

11-9 

11-8 

9-4 

9.9 

12-5 

2-3 

3-1 

1-9 

3-5 

5-4 

5-0 

The  North  American  Regional  Broadcasting  agreement 
which  had  governed  allocations  among  North  American 
nations  since  1941,  expired  on  March  29,  1949.  Conferences 
to  negotiate  a  new  agreement  were  commenced  in  Montreal 
in  September  under  a  schedule  set  up  prior  to  N.A.R.B.A.'s 
expiration;  in  December  they  were  adjourned,  stalemated 
by  the  U.S.  refusal  to  accept  Cuban  demands  for  rights  on 
scores  of  channels  previously  within  U.S.  priority.  The 
U.S.  and  Cuban  delegations  were  scheduled  to  confer  in 
Havana  from  Feb.  1,  1950  onwards,  in  an  effort  to  smooth 
out  their  differences,  and  the  full  N.A.R.B.A.  conference 
was  then  scheduled  to  resume  in  the  U.S.  on  about  April  1, 
1950.  Nations  involved  were  the  Bahamas,  Canada,  Cuba, 
the  Dominican  republic,  Haiti,  Mexico  and  the  U.S.  (See 
also  RADIO,  SCIENTIFIC  DEVELOPMENTS  IN;  TELEVISION.) 

(R.W.  CR.;  S.TF.) 

BROOKE,  SIR  BASIL  STANLAKE,  Northern 
Ireland  statesman  (b.  Colebrooke,  county  Fermanagh,  June 
9,  1888),  became  prime  minister  on  May  1,  1943.  (For  his 
early  career  see  Britannica  Book  of  the  Year  1949). 

The  action  of  the  government  in  Ireland  in  severing  the  last 
link  with  the  Commonwealth  caused  Sir  Basil  Brooke  to  obtain 
assurances  from  the  British  government  that  the  status  of 
Northern  Ireland  would  not  be  changed  without  the  consent 
of  its  people.  He  visited  London  in  Jan.  1949  and  on  his 
return  to  Belfast  announced  the  dissolution  of  parliament. 
In  the  general  election,  held  on  Feb,  10,  the  Unionist  party 
was  again  returned  to  power.  During  a  visit  to  Britain  in 
May  he  addressed  the  Empire  Industries  association  and  the 
British  Empire  league  and  visited  the  British  Industries  fair. 
In  August  he  was  appointed  honorary  air  commodore  of 
three  squadrons  of  the  R.A.A.F.  In  October  he  attended 
the  annual  meeting  of  the  Ulster  associations  at  Manchester 
and  afterwards  toured  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire.  He 
visited  London  in  November  for  talks  with  British  ministers 
and  representatives  of  the  E.C.A. 


Louise  Brough  seen  here  winning  the  1949  women's  singles  champion- 
ship at  Wimbledon  against  Mrs.  Margaret  duPont. 


BROUGH-BUDGET 


129 


BROUGH,  ALTHEA  LOUISE,  U.S.  lawn  tennis 
player  (b.  Oklahoma  city,  Oklahoma,  March  11,  1923), 
moved  with  her  family  in  1936  to  Beverly  Hills,  California, 
where  she  began  studying  tennis  under  Dick  Sleen.  By  1941 
she  had  won  the  southern  California  junior  championship. 
She  began  studying  at  the  University  of  Southern  California, 
Los  Angeles,  and  in  the  national  championship  matches  in 
1943,  when  she  was  a  junior  at  the  university,  lost  to  Pauline 
Betz  for  the  women's  singles  title.  In  1946  she  was  beaten 
by  Miss  Betz  in  the  All-England  tennis  championships 
singles  at  Wimbledon,  but,  paired  with  Margaret  Osborne, 
defeated  Miss  Betz  and  Dons  Hart  to  win  the  doubles  title. 
In  1947  she  took  four  important  championships:  the  U.S. 
women's  singles  and  the  mixed  doubles  (with  John  Bromwich, 
Australia)  at  Forest  Hills,  New  York;  the  Wimbledon 
mixed  doubles  (with  Bromwich);  and  the  national  women's 
doubles  (with  Miss  Osborne).  In  July  1948  she  matched 
the  feats  of  Alice  Marble  and  Suzanne  Lenglen  by  winning 
three  Wimbledon  titles:  the  singles,  the  women's  double  (with 
Mrs.  Margaret  Osborne  duPont)  and  the  mixed  doubles 
with  Bromwich.  In  Aug.  1948  she  won  the  eastern  women's 
singles  championship  for  the  third  time,  taking  permanent 
possession  of  the  Schweikhardt  Challenge  cup,  and  for 
the  seventh  time  (with  Mrs.  duPont)  won  the  women's 
national  doubles.  At  Wimbledon  in  July  1949  she  took  the 
singles  title  by  defeating  Mrs.  duPont ;  was  beaten  in  the 
final  of  the  mixed  doubles  (again  partnered  by  Bromwich) 
and  with  Mrs.  duPont  took  the  women's  doubles.  At  Brook- 
line,  Massachusetts,  on  Aug.  21,  she  and  Mrs.  duPont 
defeated  Doris  Hart  and  Shirley  Fry  in  the  U.S.  doubles. 
She  again  won  the  mixed  doubles  at  Forest  Hills  on  Sept.  6. 

BROWN,  DOUGLAS  CLIFTON,  British  parlia- 
mentarian (b.  London,  Aug.  16,  1879),  was  educated  at  Eton 
and  at  Trinity  college,  Cambndge.  He  served  in  the  Dragoon 
Guards  in  the  South  African  War  and  in  World  War  I.  In 
1918  he  was  elected  Conservative  member  of  parliament  for 
Hexham  and  except  for  the  years  1923-24  continued  to  sit 
in  the  House  of  Commons.  He  became  deputy  chairman  of 
ways  and  means  in  1938  and  in  Jan  1943  succeeded  Sir 
Dennis  Herbert  (later  Lord  Hemingford)  as  chairman  of 
ways  and  means  and  deputy  speaker.  After  the  sudden  death 
of  Captain  E.  A.  Fitzroy  on  March  3,  1943,  Colonel  Clifton 
Brown  was  unanimously  elected  speaker.  Despite  a  Labour 
majority  after  the  general  election  in  July  1945  he  was  again 
elected  speaker  without  opposition.  In  Jan.  1949  he  accom- 
panied an  all-party  parliamentary  delegation  to  Italy  where 
he  addressed  Italian  deputies  and  senators  on  British  parlia- 
mentary practice.  It  was  the  first  time  a  speaker  of  the 
House  of  Commons  had  visited  another  parliament.  In 
June  he  visited  Copenhagen  to  take  part  in  the  celebrations 
of  the  centenary  of  the  Danish  constitution. 

'  BROZ  (TITO),  JOSIP,  Yugoslav  statesman  and 
soldier  (b.  Kumrovec,  Croatia,  May  25,  1892),  prime  minister 
of  the  federal  people's  republic  of  Yugoslavia  and  commander 
in  chief,  as  marshal,  of  its  armed  forces.  (For  his  early  career 
see  Britannica  Book  of  the  Year  1949}. 

As  the  propaganda  campaign  of  all  Communist-controlled 
countries  against  Tito  continued  during  1949  to  increase  in 
violence,  the  Yugoslav  leader  was  forced  to  make  many 
public  replies.  On  Jan.  21,  addressing  the  congress  of  the 
Serbian  Communist  party  in  Belgrade,  he  complained 
against  "  the  false  propaganda  directed  against  a  Socialist 
country."  On  April  9,  at  the  congress  of  the  Yugoslav 
People's  front  in  Belgrade,  he  called  for  resistance  to  the 
Cominform  appeal  for  forcible  removal  of  the  existing  leader- 
ship of  Yugoslavia;  he  also  announced  that  Yugoslavia 
would  not  hesitate  to  trade  with  the  west  on  equal  terms  in 

B.B.Y.—10 


order  to  obtain  equipment  vital  for  industrialization.  At 
Pola,  on  July  10,  he  announced  that  Yugoslavia  must  gradu- 
ally close  her  frontier  with  Greece.  In  a  speech  to  shop- 
workers  at  Belgrade  on  Sept.  12,  he  challenged  the  Soviet 
theory  of  the  exclusive  revolutionary  role  of  the  Soviet 
army,  and  maintained  that  progressive  ideas  could  never  be 
propagated  by  bayonets.  Widening  the  ideological  rift 
between  Yugoslavia  and  the  U.S.S.R.,  he  said  at  Stolice, 
Serbia,  on  Sept.  27,  that  great  powers  must  understand  that 
they  could  not  buy  or  sell  the  freedom  of  small  nations. 
Addressing  600  Yugoslav  generals  and  other  officers  at 
Belgrade  on  Oct.  2,  Tito  proclaimed  that  the  army  was 
prepared  to  defend  Yugoslavia  until  the  last  breath  and 
regardless  whence  the  attack  came.  In  an  interview  with  a 
U  S.  Progressive  party  member,  Tito  asserted  on  Oct.  17 
that  if  war  came  to  the  soil  of  Yugoslavia  "  it  would  be  no 
isolated  situation  but  a  world  war." 

BRUNEI:    see  BRITISH  BORNEO. 

BRUSSELS,  TREATY  OF:   see  WESTERN  UNION. 

BUDGET,  NATIONAL.  The  year  1949  witnessed 
considerable  progress  towards  the  consolidation  of  the 
budgetary  situation  in  Europe.  Until  about  1947-48  postwar 
inflation  was  proceeding  in  most  countries.  There  were 
large  budgetary  deficits  and  the  purchasing  power  created 
through  an  excess  of  government  spending  over  receipts 
sent  up  prices.  Higher  prices  affected  expenditure  within 
a  very  short  time,  while  there  was  usually  a  longer  time-lag 
before  revenue  adapted  itself  to  the  higher  price  level. 
Consequently,  budgetary  deficits  and  price  levels  tended  to 
stimulate  each  other's  rise  in  a  vicious  spiral  In  order  to 
arrest  this  process,  a  series  of  drastic  monetary  and  financial  re- 
forms were  carried  out  on  the  continent  during  1947  and  1948 
as  a  result  of  which  it  became  possible  to  check  inflation.  Even 
if  budgetary  equilibrium  was  not  reached  in  many  countries, 
the  size  of  the  deficits  was  reduced  to  controllable  dimensions. 
A  number  of  countries  even  succeeded  in  balancing  their 
budgets.  Nevertheless,  conditions  remained  inflationary,  no 
longer  on  account  of  budgetary  deficits  but  through  rising 
wages  and  the  inadequacy  of  supplies  of  consumer  goods 
to  meet  demand.  To  correct  the  situation,  a  "  disinflationary  " 
budgetary  policy  was  adopted  in  Great  Britain  and  other 
countries,  which  aimed  at  mopping  up  excessive  purchasing 
power  through  revenue  surpluses. 

The  basic  principle  of  such  disinflationary  budgetary 
policy  was  that  it  was  directed  both  against  purchasing  power 
created  through  excessive  government  spending  and  against 
demand  for  goods  through  rising  personal  earnings.  It 
differed  from  a  deflationary  budgetary  policy  in  that  it  did 
not  aim  at  causing  a  fall  of  prices  and  wages.  The  difference 
was  one  of  degree  but,  although  disinflationary  budgetary 
policy  was  compatible  with  a  policy  of  full  employment,  a 
deflationary  policy  was  not. 

During  1949  anti-inflationary  efforts  dominated  budgetary 
trends  in  Europe.  Non-stop  inflation  came  to  an  end  every- 
where, with  the  exception  of  Greece  where  the  conditions 
created  by  the  civil  war  made  it  impossible  to  deal  adequately 
with  budgetary  and  monetary  problems.  The  reforms  carried 
out  in  1947  and  1948  in  Germany,  Italy,  Rumania  and  Hun- 
gary resulted  in  progress  towards  budgetary  equilibrium. 
Most  countries  sought  to  stabilize  their  budgets  around 
their  high  postwar  level:  no  substantial  attempts  were  made 
towards  budgetary  deflation.  The  governments  concluded 
that  it  was  easier  to  maintain  taxation  at  a  high  level  than  to 
carry  out  drastic  cuts  in  expenditure.  This  attitude  was  in 
keeping  with  the  change  in  the  balance  of  power  in  domestic 
policies  that  took  place  in  Europe  after  World  War  II  in 
favour  of  socialism.  Even  in  countries  where  socialists  did 


130 


BUDGET 


not  actually  control  the  government,  their  influence  was 
strong  enough  to  enforce  budgetary  policies  favouring  a 
process  of  levelling  down  incomes  and  fortunes  by  means  of 
high  taxation  rather  than  a  reduction  of  expenditure  through 
curtailing  social  service  charges  (which  rose  considerably 
everywhere  after  World  War  II)  for  the  sake  of  granting 
taxation  reliefs.  Moreover  any  large  cuts  in  expenditure 
would  have  caused  unemployment,  directly  or  indirectly. 
With  the  exception  of  Belgium  and  Italy,  none  of  the  European 
countries  ventured  on  such  an  unpopular  course  because, 
apart  from  any  other  reasons,  it  was  feared  that  the  dis- 
content aroused  by  such  a  budgetary  policy  would  allow 
Communists  to  strengthen  their  influence  among  industrial 
workers. 

Precautionary  national  defence  expenditure  in  western 
Europe  rose.  Although  the  United  States  agreed  in  1949  to 
provide  assistance  for  countries  of  the  North  Atlantic  treaty 
in  the  form  of  arms  delivery  free  of  charge,  the  countries 
concerned  had  to  undertake  to  strengthen  their  defences. 
Fortunately  this  happened  after  most  countries  had  generally 
succeeded  in  restoring  their  systems  of  production  and  clarify- 
ing their  monetary  and  budgetary  situation.  Had  it  become 
necessary  to  embark  on  rearmament  a  year  or  two  earlier 
it  might  easily  have  aggravated  the  budgetary  problem  and 
led  to  chaotic  monetary  and  economic  conditions.  Even  so, 
military  requirements  went  a  long  way  towards  neutralizing 
disinflationary  policies  in  some  countries  and  materially 
increased  the  difficulty  of  achieving  equilibrium. 

Expenditure  on  social  services  tended  to  rise  in  Great 
Britain,  France  and  other  countries  where  various  postwar 
measures  were  beginning  to  produce  their  full  effects  by  1949. 
In  particular  the  item  of  subsidies  weighed  heavily  in  the 
budgetary  situation.  In  France  they  cost  twice  as  much  as 
other  social  service  charges.  Food  subsidies  adopted  in 
Great  Britain  in  1940  as  a  temporary  palliative  had  come  in 
recent  years  to  be  regarded  as  an  instrument  of  economic 
and  social  policy,  aiming  at  reducing  the  cost  of  production 
by  keeping  down  the  cost  of  living.  They  were,  too,  intended 


to  ensure  that  the  poorest  classes  would  be  able  to  buy  primary 
necessities  at  low  prices. 

European  postwar  budgets  thus  departed  considerably 
from  the  conception  that  budgetary  policy  must  be  a  fiscal 
instrument  with  the  sole  aim  of  collecting  necessary  revenue 
for  covering  indispensable  government  expenditure.  Apart 
from  control  by  taxation,  the  new  social  principles  that 
guided  public  expenditure  also  constituted  powerful  weapons 
in  the  armoury  of  economic  policies.  They  resulted  in  the 
employment  of  an  increased  amount  of  public  funds  on  social 
services  and  the  devotion  of  a  larger  proportion  of  national 
resources  than  before  World  War  II  to  capital  expenditure. 

Reconstruction  expenditure  in  former  belligerent  countries 
of  Europe  continued  to  absorb  substantial  amounts.  Pro- 
gress was  made  everywhere,  even  in  Germany,  towards  the 
rebuilding  of  houses  and  industrial  plants  destroyed  during 
World  War  II.  Nor  was  this  the  only  form  of  capital  expendi- 
ture calling  for  large  resources.  Most  European  countries 
were  proceeding  with  ambitious  schemes  of  public  works, 
modernization  of  industry,  improvement  of  transport  systems 
and  housing  programmes.  Although  these  capital  expenditure 
items  were  segregated  in  most  budgets  from  current  expendi- 
ture, they  remained  none  the  less  part  of  the  budgetary 
burden. 

Although  such  capital  expenditure  chiefly  aimed  at  a  rapid 
increase  in  productivity,  a  considerable  proportion  could 
not  produce  higher  output  except  indirectly  or  over  a  long 
period.  Some  of  it,  however,  was  directed  towards  im- 
provement of  living  conditions  rather  than  to  an  increase  of 
productivity,  or  pursued  educational  or  cultural  aims.  In 
Great  Britain  the  application  of  the  Education  act  of  1944, 
which  raised  the  school  leaving  age,  necessitated  substantial 
capital  expenditure  in  1949,  in  the  form  of  an  ambitious 
programme  of  school  building. 

Public  administration  expenditure  continued  on  a  very  high 
level  in  most  European  countries,  owing  to  an  increase  in  the 
number  of  government  officials  compared  with  prewar 
figures.  The  extent  to  which  de-rationing  and  de-control 


£  million 


6000 


5000 


4000 


3000 


20OO 


1000  r 


d£  million 


6000 


5000 


4000 


REVENUE   AND   EXPENDITURE 
IN  THE   UNITED   KINGDOM 


Interest  and  manage- 
ment of  Nat  Debt 


L  .]  Total  Inland  Revenue 
Customs  and 
Excise  etc. 


[Ill  Other  expenditure 
Surplus 


Non-tax  Revenue 
Deficit 


h-3000 


-20OO 


-1000 


1913-14        1938-39        1944-45       1947-48        1948-49        1949-50 


DISTRIBUTION  OF 

REVENUE 

AND   EXPENDITURE 
IN  THE  U  K 


Income  tax 

Other  Inland 
Revenue 

is  ood 


Other  Revenue 


(FOR  1949-50  BUDGET) 


Int.  and  manage- 
ment of  Nat  Debt 

Defence 


and  Nat  Insurance 
Education  and 

Q ff^njtnn j.  « t-j. 

Di  uuuCOS  Tiny 


P"!  Other  expenditure 


BUDGET 


131 


NATIONAL  BUDGBTS  (000,000's  omitted) 


AUSTRALIA*  f(Austr.  pound) 
DENMARK*  (kroner)  . 
FINLAND*  (marrka)  . 
FRANCE  (franc) 
NETHERLANDS*  (guilder) 
POLAND  (zloty) 
PORTUGAL  (escudo)   . 
SOUTH  AFRICA*  (pound) 
SWEDRN*  (kroner)     . 
TURKEY  (Turkish  pound) 
U.SS.R.  (rouble)      . 
UNITED  KINGDOM*  (pound) 


1946 

1947 

1948 

1949f 

Revenue 

Expenditure 

Revenue 

Expenditure 

Revenue 

Expenditure 

Revenue 

Expenditure 

391 

551 

431 

480 

464 

478 

510 

328 

1,291 

1,503 

1,900 

1,883 

1,712 

1.726 

1,772 

1,772 

104,348 

100.106 

62,558 

62,532 

72,494f 

72,445| 

98,5  H 

98,506 

463,000 

943,000 

625,000 

825,000 

924.000 

1,039,000 

1,250,000 

1,250,000 

3,142 

5,368 

2,599 

4,391 

5.842 

6,990 

4,004 

4,299 

35,868 

39,327 

228,400 

207,700 

325,444 

325,249 

612,058 

612,058 

4,683 

4,630 

5,747 

5,694 

5,551f 

5,549f 

5.667 

5,666 

125 

128 

138 

123 

143 

114 

143 

136 

3,528 

3,329 

3,606 

3,155 

4  175f 

4,195f 

5,015 

4,426 

895 

991 

1,021 

1,136 

1.116 

1,244 

1,252 

1.372 

322,700 

304,100 

394,200f 

374,1001 

428,400t 

368,8001 

446,000 

415.400 

3,284 

5,855 

3,341 

4,102 

3,845 

3,187 

4,007 

3,176 

*  Fiscal  years  1945-46.  1946-47,  1947-48  and  1948-49.        t  Estimates. 


made  it  possible  to  reduce  their  number  was  small.  It  was  not 
until  towards  the  end  of  1949  that  Great  Britain  embarked 
on  an  economy  drive  aimed  mainly  at  reducing  administrative 
expenditure  and  even  this  effort  was  modest. 

In  1949  government  expenditure  generally  was  more 
carefully  scrutinized.  In  Great  Britain,  Sir  Stafford  Cripps 
fy.v.)  as  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  introduced  a  more 
austere  policy  than  his  predecessor  had  followed  and 
declared  that  in  future  no  supplementary  estimates  should 
be  submitted  by  government  departments  unless  they  arose 
from  changes  of  policy.  Notwithstanding  this  principle,  he 
later  found  it  necessary  to  yield  to  demands  for  supplementary 
allocations  of  funds  through  the  unexpected  increase  in  the 
cost  of  the  national  health  service  and  national  defence. 
As  a  result,  expenditure  exceeded  revenue  by  some  £20 
million  during  the  first  two  quarters  of  the  fiscal  1949-50, 
compared  with  a  large  surplus  of  revenue  during  the 
corresponding  period  of  the  previous  fiscal  year. 

In  continental  countries  where  the  budget  deficit  was  large 
it  was  difficult  to  enforce  rigid  economies  precisely  because 
of  the  psychological  effect  of  the  large  size  of  the  deficit. 
For  example:    if  the  revenue  was  within  5%  of  that  of  the 
expenditure  it  would  be  comparatively  easy  to  overcome 
resistance  to  a  final  effort  to  bridge  the  narrow  gap,  for  the 
nearness  of  the  goal  would  strengthen  the  government's 
determination  to  achieve  a  slight  reduction  of  expenditure 
or  a  slight  increase  in  revenue.   If,  however,  the  gap  represen- 
ted 25%  of  the  expenditure,  then  there  was  little  inducement 
to  face  unpopularity  for  the  sake  of  reducing  it  to  20%. 
Indeed  there  was  a  strong  temptation  to  add  to  the  deficit 
for  the  sake  of  incurring  useful  or  popular  additional  expendi- 
ture.    Nevertheless  most  continental  governments  made  a 
praiseworthy  effort  to  resist  the  temptation  and  to  embark 
on  the  unpopular  task  of  reducing   expenditure    although 
in  some  instances  the  goal  of  eliminating  it  remained  remote. 
The  amount  of  the  public  debt  continued  to  increase  in  a 
number  of  countries,  as  a  result  of  budgetary  deficits,  capital 
expenditure  programmes  or  nationalization  schemes  with 
compensation.    There  was  no  possibility  in  any  country  of 
saving  much  expenditure  on   interest   through  conversion 
operations.     In  fact  interest  rates  tended  to  increase.     In 
countries  where  devaluation  of  the  national  currency  was 
followed   by  an  all-round  upward  adjustment  of  taxable 
capacity,  the  relative  real  burden  of  the  public  debt  declined 
in  spite  of  an  increase  in  its  nominal  amount.  It  was  for  this 
reason  that  devaluation  on  the  continent  tended  to  facilitate 
the    solution    of   budgetary    problems,    by    reducing    the 
proportion  of  revenue  that  had  to  be  earmarked  for  the 
service  of  the  public  debt.   Although  as  the  immediate  result 
of  currency  depreciations  budgetary  difficulties  were  aggra- 
vated through  the  more  rapid  increase  of  public  expenditure, 
during  a  long  spell  of  monetary  stability,  which  followed 
depreciation,  the  increase  of  revenue  was  able  to  catch  up 
and  exceed  the  increase  of  expenditure.   Hence  in  1949  came 


the  improvement  of  the  budgetary  situations  in  various 
European  countries  which  had  devalued  their  currencies 
during  previous  years. 

The  budgetary  problem  remained  one  of  the  causes  of 
political  instability  in  France  where  the  peculiar  character 
of  the  balance  of  power  between  the  political  parties  made  it 
particularly  difficult  for  any  government  to  adopt  unpopular 
cuts  of  expenditure  or  to  increase  revenue.  The  effort  of 
the  government  of  Georges  Bidault  to  balance  the  budget 
for  1950  through  the  adoption  of  new  taxes  in  Dec.  1949 
nearly  caused  a  cabinet  crisis. 

The  "  dollar  crisis  "  that  developed  during  the  summer  of 
1949  made  it  necessary  for  Great  Britain  and  other  countries 
suffering  from  a  scarcity  of  dollars  to  make  an  additional 
effort  to  cut  expenditure.  Realization  of  the  need  for  this 
constituted  a  departure  from  the  postwar  conception  under 
which  it  was  believed  that,  as  a  result  of  practically  water- 
tight exchange  control  and  other  restrictions,  a  country  was 
in  a  position  to  isolate  its  internal  economy  from  inter- 
national influences.  Under  this  conception  it  was  considered 
possible  to  distribute  purchasing  power  through  high  public 
expenditure  without  thereby  causing  a  deterioration  of  the 
balance  of  payment  through  smaller  exports  and  far  larger 
imports.  The  experience  of  1949  made  many  governments 
realize,  however,  the  existence  of  the  close  connection  between 
budgetary  policy  and  trade  balance.  The  postwar  conception 
of  "  spending  our  way  into  prosperity "  and  letting  the 
balance  of  payments  take  care  of  itself  gave  way  to  more 
prudent  conceptions  even  though  the  extent  to  which  the 
latter  were  actually  put  into  operation  varied  from  country 
to  country. 

The  devaluation  of  the  pound  and  other  currencies  in  Septem- 
ber was  effected  too  late  to  produce  any  visible  effects  on 
the  budgetary  situation  during  the  calendar  year  1949. 
In  Great  Britain  the  government  endeavoured  to  reduce  to 
a  minimum  the  effect  on  public  expenditure.  Indeed  efforts 
were  made  to  carry  out  cuts  in  spite  of  the  natural  rising 
trend  of  expenditure  that,  in  the  experience  of  France,  Italy 
and  other  continental  countries,  accompanied  devaluation. 

The  moderate  extent  to  which  devaluation  in  Great  Britain 
was  followed  by  a  rise  in  prices  contrasted  sharply  with 
earlier  continental  experience.  The  difference  was  due  to 
the  fact  that,  although  continental  countries  had  been  forced 
to  devalue  repeatedly  by  rising  prices  caused  by  their  budget- 
ary deficits,  the  British  budget  was  balanced  at  the  time  of 
the  devaluation  of  sterling.  Several  continental  countries 
were  in  a  less  favourable  position  in  this  respect.  Neverthe- 
less, by  1949  their  budgets  were  more  under  control  than  on 
the  occasion  of  previous  devaluations  and  such  deficits  as 
persisted  were  not  of  an  extent  to  cause  non-stop  inflation. 
For  this  reason,  even  on  the  continent  the  devaluation  of 
national  currencies  did  not  set  into  motion  on  this  occasion 
a  vicious  spiral  in  which  an  uncontrolled  rise  in  prices 
caused  a  widening  of  the  budgetary  deficit. 


132 


BUENOS   AIRES-BUILDING 


Entitled  "  But  this  little  piggy  gets  none  "  this  cartoon  by  Illingworth 

was  published  in  the  "  Daily  Mail "  (London)  in  Feb.  1949,  at  the 

time  of  the  government's  supplementary  estimates. 

A  favourable  change  in  the  budgetary  sphere  on  the  con- 
tinent during  1949  was  the  reduction  of  the  formerly  very 
wide  discrepancies  between  budgetary  estimates  and  actual 
results.  During  earlier  postwar  years  many  governments 
yielded  to  the  temptation  of  producing  unduly  optimistic 
budgets;  and  the  result  was  that,  although  on  paper  the 
deficit  was  eliminated  or  reduced,  in  reality  expenditure 
exceeded  estimates  while  revenue  fell  short  of  estimates. 
In  1949  the  French  government  and  other  governments 
mustered  up  sufficient  political  courage  to  face  realities  in 
their  budgetary  estimates. 

Most  countries  of  the  Commonwealth  succeeded  in  achiev- 
ing budgetary  equilibrium  in  1949;  or  at  least  their  deficits 
were  not  of  a  nature  to  cause  inflation.  The  new  dominions, 
India,  Pakistan  and  Ceylon,  had  to  continue  to  contend  with 
budgetary  problems  arising  from  the  recent  change  in  their  poli- 
tical status  and  from  the  lack  of  trained  civil  servants.  (P.  Eo.) 

United  States.  The  U.S.  budget  submitted  to  the  congress 
by  President  Truman  on  Jan.  9,  1950,  recommended  expendi- 
tures of  $42,439  million  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30, 
1951.  This  total  was  $858  million  less  than  estimated 
expenditures  for  1949-50.  Revenues  amounting  to  $37,306 
million  were  expected  for  1950-51,  $457  million  less  than  in 
the  previous  year.  Expenditures  and  revenues  for  the  fiscal 
year  1951  as  presented  in  the  budget  would  result  in  a  deficit 
of  $5,133  million  compared  with  an  anticipated  deficit  of 
$5,534  million  for  fiscal  1950. 

Expenditures  for  national  defence,  international  affairs 
and  finance,  veterans'  services  and  benefits  and  interest  on 
the  public  debt  were  estimated  at  a  total  of  about  $30,000 
million,  or  71  %  of  the  total  budget.  This  represented  a 
reduction  of  about  $1,800  million  from  the  estimated  total 
outlay  for  these  four  categories  in  fiscal  year  1950. 

The  federal  government's  two  largest  sources  of  revenue — 
income  taxes  on  individuals  and  on  corporations — were 
expected  under  existing  law  to  provide  revenues  of  $28,704 
million  in  1950-51,  comprising  three-fourths  of  the  estimated 
total  of  all  budget  receipts.  Individual  income  taxes  were 
estimated  at  $18,246  million,  as  compared  with  $17,971 
million  in  the  preceding  year. 

The  estimate  of  $13,545  million  presented  for  outlays  on 
national  defence  comprised  one-third  of  all  federal  budget 
expenditures.  This  was  about  $400  million  higher  than 
national  defence  expenditures  in  1949-50.  The  largest 
increase  was  for  outlay  on  aircraft. 


Expenditure  on  international  activities  was  placed  at 
$4,711  million  in  the  1950-51  budget.  This  was  about 
$1,300  million  less  than  estimated  expenditure  in  1949-50. 
The  reduction  reflected  chiefly  the  declining  costs  of  the 
European  Recovery,  and  other  recovery  and  relief  pro- 
grammes. The  president  noted  that  recovery  and  relief  costs, 
which  in  1950-51  estimates  formed  three-fourths  of  inter- 
national expenditures,  would  diminish  rapidly,  but  that 
programmes  for  stimulating  foreign  economic  development 
would  assume  increased  importance  and  that  expenditures 
for  foreign  military  assistance  would  remain  substantial  for 
several  years.  The  budget  included,  as  proposed  legislation, 
an  initial  outlay  of  $25  million  for  furnishing  technical 
assistance  to  economically  undeveloped  areas  (the  Point 
Four  programme).  Expenditures  under  the  Mutual  Defence 
Assistance  pact  of  1949  for  supplying  arms  to  the  North 
Atlantic  treaty  nations  and  for  rendering  military  assistance 
to  Greece,  Turkey  and  certain  other  areas  in  the  middle  and 
far  east  were  estimated  to  require  $645  million  in  1950-51. 

BUENOS  AIRES.  Capital  of  the  republic  of  Argentina, 
the  largest  city  in  the  southern  hemisphere  and  of  Latin 
America,  and  the  largest  Spanish-speaking  city  of  the  world. 
Area  (federal  district):  71  sq.  mi.;  pop.:  (1914  census) 
1,576,597,  (1947  census)  3,000,371. 

Beneath  the  appearance  of  extreme  prosperity,  the  effects 
of  inflation  were  increasingly  felt.  Workers  demanded  higher 
wages,  which  in  most  cases  were  granted  in  accordance  with 
government  policy.  Among  several  mass  manifestations  of 
discontent,  the  most  spectacular  was  the  strike  of  printers 
which  deprived  Buenos  Aires  of  newspapers  for  17  days 
during  February.  The  official  ceiling  prices  for  cooking  oil, 
soap,  milk  and  sugar  were  raised,  and  the  government's 
subsidy  of  meat  for  the  capital  was  cancelled.  The  continued 
freezing  of  rents  encouraged  landlords  to  demolish  old  pro- 
perties and  construct  new  blocks  of  flats,  whose  rents  were 
not  subject  to  the  same  restrictions.  The  influx  of  workers 
from  the  agricultural  districts  into  the  capital  did  not  dim- 
inish. The  radio  stations  and  nearly  all  the  newspapers  of 
Buenos  Aires  were  by  1 949  under  the  control  of  Senora  Eva 
Peron,  wife  of  the  president;  but  the  wealthy,  privately  owned 
La  Prensa  remained  independent  in  its  opinions.  The  port 
of  Buenos  Aires  welcomed  the  arrival  of  Argentina's  new 
liner,  the  "  Presidente  Peron  "  (14,000  tons)  constructed  at 
Barrow-in-Furness. 

Although  1949  was  a  year  of  economic  disturbance  and 
political  rumours,  the  Portehos  (citizens  of  Buenos  Aires) 
were  aware  that  the  natural  wealth  of  their  country  was  un- 
affected by  the  transient  crisis,  and  were  confident  that  the 
fertile  hinterland  of  the  republic  could  well  sustain  the  capital's 
extravagances.  (G.  P.) 

BUILDING  AND  CONSTRUCTION  IN- 
DUSTRY. The  principal  subjects  under  discussion  during 
1949  in  the  building  industry  of  Great  Britain  were  the 
introduction  of  schemes  of  incentive  payments  and  the 
continuation  of  the  system  of  licences. 

Operatives'  output  which  was  considerably  below  the 
1939  level  was  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  the  rising  cost  of 
building  and  it  was  suggested  that  it  could  only  be  raised 
by  incentive  payments.  The  wage  arbitration  of  1947  gave 
half  the  additional  sixpence  an  hour  that  had  been  claimed 
but  included  provision  for  incentive  schemes  in  order  to 
allow  the  earning  of  wages  above  the  basic  rates.  Employers 
were  slow  to  operate  such  schemes  on  an  extensive  scale  in 
spite  of  official  encouragement  from  the  National  Federation 
of  Building  Trades  Employers  and  the  Ministry  of  Works, 
both  of  which  published  booklets  giving  guidance  on  their 
running.  Some  progress,  however,  was  made  in  1949  though 


BUILDING 


133 


there  were  many  kinds  of  work  which  did  not  lend  themselves 
to  organization  in  this  way.  Trade  union  leaders  complained 
that  far  too  few  men  were  being  given  the  chance  to  supple- 
ment their  wages  and  that  basic  wages  must  be  raised  if 
employers  were  not  prepared  to  operate  bonus  schemes 
more  widely. 

Official  control  of  the  licensing  of  work  and  of  the  supply  of 
certain  materials  was  continued  throughout  1949  though 
there  had  been  considerable  relaxation  of  these  controls  in 
Nov.  1948.  The  changes  did  not  affect  housing  work  or  the 
supply  of  steel  or  timber  and  builders  complained  that  such 
hand-to-mouth  procedures  made  it  impossible  to  balance 
future  programmes  of  work  satisfactorily  and  thus  increased 
operating  costs. 

The  volume  of  maintenance  and  repair  work  which  needed 
to  be  undertaken  in  consequence  of  the  neglect  of  property 
during  World  War  II  resulted  in  a  considerable  increase 
after  the  war  in  the  number  of  very  small  firms,  a  category 
already  over-large.  This  trend  seemed  to  be  arrested  during 
1949  partly  because  of  financial  difficulties.  On  the  other 
hand  the  size  of  certain  larger  units  was  increased  by  the 
amalgamation  of  firms.  The  working  party  set  up  by  the 
Ministry  of  Works  in  1948  to  enquire  into  the  operation  of 
the  building  industry  continued  to  take  evidence  from  a 
wide  variety  of  sources.  A  productivity  team  also  visited 
the  United  States  for  six  weeks  during  July  and  August  to 
study  building  methods.  Although  representing  a  variety  of 
interests  the  members  of  the  team  agreed  that  production 
per  man-hour  in  the  United  States  was  half  as  great  again 
as  in  Great  Britain  though  opinions  differed  as  to  the  extent 
to  which  this  was  due  to  higher  wages,  better  diet,  the  spur 
of  unemployment,  or  to  there  being  no  shortages  to  upset 
planning  and  cause  frustration. 

Both  the  Ministry  of  Works  and  the  Building  Research 
station  issued  publications  on  the  progress  of  research  and 
on  the  development  of  constructional  techniques  which  were 
well  received  in  responsible  quarters.  But  although  there 
was  appreciation  of  the  quality  and  value  of  the  work  being 
done,  distrust  of  experiments  in  new  structural  techniques 
was  also  widely  expressed  and  a  return  to  traditional  methods 
of  house  building  advocated.  The  fact,  however,  that  this 
suggestion  was  frequently  associated  with  the  demand  for 
the  removal  of  restrictions  on  the  speculative  building  of 
houses  for  sale  caused  the  motives  behind  it  to  be  questioned, 
the  more  so  since  it  was  admitted  that  the  new  techniques 
were  essential  if  the  school  building  programme  was  to  be 
adequate. 

Owing  to  the  shortage  of  steel  and  timber  reinforced 
concrete  construction  was  used  a  great  deal  for  large  buildings 
in  place  of  structural  steelwork  and  new  British  Standards 
and  Codes  of  Practice  permitted  more  economy  in  both 
techniques.  An  outstanding  result  of  the  steel  shortage  was 
the  widespread  interest  in  design  and  construction  of  pre- 
stressed  concrete  structures.  During  1949  both  bridges  and 
buildings  were  completed  using  this  method  of  construction 
and  small  section  floor  joists  were  being  mass  produced  to 
take  the  place  of  timber.  Hardwood  was  freed  from  control 
in  April  but  supplies  of  softwood  were  further  threatened 
by  import  cuts  and  devaluation.  The  Timber  Development 
association  suggested  that  it  would  be  sound  economy  to 
export  more  steel  and  import  more  timber  but  there  was  no 
indication  that  official  policy  was  influenced. 

Recruitment  to  the  building  industry  caused  some  anxiety, 
the  intake  of  apprentices  to  the  skilled  trades  being  less  than 
that  required  to  maintain  its  strength.  Many  reasons  were 
advanced  for  the  deficiency.  Employers  complained  that 
there  was  insufficient  licensing  of  work  suitable  for  the 
training  of  apprentices  and  that  the  outlook  was  too  un- 
stable for  them  to  be  able  to  bind  themselves  as  parties  to  a 


five-year  apprenticeship.  On  the  other  side  it  was  stated 
that  a  building  trade  apprenticeship  compared  unfavourably 
both  financially  and  socially  with  other  occupations  open  to 
youths  of  1 5  or  1 6  years  of  age.  A  leading  employer  empha- 
sized that  adequate  recruitment  was  essential  to  the  future 
health  of  the  industry  and  asked  whether  a  five-year  ap- 
prenticeship was  necessary  for  all  the  building  trades.  There 
was,  at  the  same  time,  a  growing  interest  in  schemes  for 
training  future  executives  and  for  attracting  university  men 
to  the  industry. 

After  1939  few  outstanding  buildings  had  been  put  up  in 
London  and*it  was,  therefore,  something  of  an  occasion  when 
work  commenced  on  the  new  concert  hall  on  the  south  bank 
of  the  Thames  in  preparation  for  the  Festival  of  Britain,  1951. 

(D.  A.  G.  R.) 

United  States.  Total  expenditures  for  new  construction 
in  the  United  States  during  1949  reached  a  new  record  of 
$19,329  million  which  exceeded  by  more  than  $500  million 
the  1948  record  of  $18,775  million.  Building  of  new  homes 
passed  the  million  mark  for  the  first  time  in  the  nation's 
history.  The  physical  volume  of  new  construction  in  1949 
was  probably  even  greater  than  the  $500  million  increase  in 
expenditure  would  indicate  since  unit  costs  were  somewhat 
lower  than  in  the  previous  year. 

That  new  building  reached  record  levels  in  1949  was  due 
to  a  $1,000  million  increase  in  public  construction  of  all  types 
by  federal,  state  and  local  governments.  Private  construction 
amounted  to  $14,000  million  which  was  $500  million  lower 
than  in  the  preceding  year.  The  drop  was  more  than  offset 
by  the  increase  in  public  building  to  $5,300  million  which  was 
25  %  more  than  had  been  expended  during  the  previous  year. 
More  than  half  of  this  increase  resulted  from  expanded 
programmes  of  school  and  hospital  construction. 

Although  1949  home  building  achieved  a  record  in  number 
of  new  units,  total  expenditure  amounted  to  $7,000  million, 
approximately  3%  below  the  1948  figure.  This  fact  was 
accounted  for  by  somewhat  lower  construction  costs,  the 
building  of  a  larger  proportion  of  less  expensive  dwellings 
and  work  remaining  to  be  completed  at  the  end  of  the  year 
on  the  large  volume  of  home  building  which  was  started  late. 
Expenditures  for  public  housing  (homes  for  families  with 
small  incomes,  financed  and  subsidized  by  federal,  state  or 
local  government  agencies)  more  than  doubled  in  the  year 
although  the  volume  of  such  construction  was  still  relatively 
small.  The  large  scale  public  housing  programme  authorized 
by  the  Housing  act  of  1 949  did  not  begin  to  make  itself  felt. 

Increased  construction  was  also  marked  in  the  field  of 
institutional  buildings  such  as  churches,  privately  supported 
hospitals,  recreational  buildings  and  private  (including 
parochial)  schools.  Privately  owned  electric  and  gas  com- 
panies also  substantially  increased  their  construction  activities. 

Material  costs  had  begun  to  drop  in  Nov.  1948  and  con- 
tinued to  ease  downward  through  the  first  half  of  1949. 
Actual  price  reductions  for  major  components,  except 
lumber,  were  modest.  Lumber,  which  had  shown  the  biggest 
postwar  increase,  was  freely  available  at  substantially  lower 
prices.  In  the  Bureau  of  Labour  Statistics  index  of  wholesale 
prices,  lumber,  which  in  Aug.  1948  reached  a  peak  of  319-9 
(1926-100),  had  dropped  to  277-4  by  July  1949,  but  then 
moved  up  to  279-6  in  September. 

Equally  as  important  as  price  reductions  for  materials 
were  the  return  of  competitive  bidding  for  construction 
contracts  on  a  fixed  price  basis,  an  ample  supply  and  ready 
flow  of  materials  which  made  for  more  efficient  and  speedier 
construction  and  increased  labour  productivity  with  fewer 
premium  payments  above  the  union  wage  scale. 

In  May  1949  construction  contractors  had  2,010,000 
employees  at  work  which  represented  a  gain  of  75,000  over 
the  preceding  month  but  was  still  42,000  under  the  figure  for 


134 


BULGARIA 


May  1948.  By  December,  however,  employment  was 
2,109,000— the  highest  level  for  that  month  in  the  10  years 
for  which  Bureau  of  Labour  Statistics  records  were  available. 
Although  building  and  construction  ended  1949  on  a  far 
stronger  note  that  it  did  the  preceding  year,  forecasts  for  1950 
were  still  on  the  cautious  side.  The  joint  estimate  of  the 
Department  of  Commerce  and  the  Department  of  Labour's 
Bureau  of  Labour  Statistics  foresaw  another  year  ahead  in 
which  $19,000  million  would  be  spent  on  construction  but 
with  expenditure  on  private  building  $925  million  less  than 
in  1949  and  a  further  increase  in  public  construction  to  make 
up  the  difference.  Private  home  building  and  most  other 
types  of  private  construction  were  expected  to  slacken. 
Employment,  it  was  thought,  would  equal  1949  levels  and 
there  would  be  no  substantial  change  in  construction  costs. 
(See  also  HOUSING.)  (H.  M.  P.) 

BULGARIA.  A  people's  republic  in  the  eastern  part 
of  the  Balkan  peninsula,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Rumania, 
on  the  west  by  Yugoslavia,  on  the  south  by  Greece  and  on 
the  east  by  Turkey  and  the  Black  sea.  Area  (including 
southern  Dobruja):  42,796  sq.  mi.  Pop.  (Dec.  31,  1946, 
census):  7,022,206  of  whom  1,662,255  were  urban  and  the 
remainder  rural.  Languages  (1947  est.):  Bulgarian  88%, 
Turkish,  9-8%.  Religions  (1947  est.):  Greek  Orthodox  84 %, 
Moslem  11-5%  (one-sixth  of  them  being  Pomaks,  or  Moslem 
Bulgars,  the  remainder  being  Turks) ;  Roman  Catholic  0  •  9  %; 
Gregorian  Armenian 0-4%;  Jewish  0-3%;  Protestant 0 •  2 %. 
Chief  towns  (pop.,  1947  est.):  Sofia  (cap.,  434,888);  Plovdiv 
(125,440);  Varna  (77,792);  Russe  (53,420).  Chairman  of 
the  presidium  of  the  National  Assembly  (Sobranye),  Dr. 
Mincho  Neychev;  prime  ministers  in  1949,  Gheorghi 
Dimitrov  (see  OBITUARIES)  and  (from  July  20)  Vasil  Kolarov 


(</.v.);  minister  of  foreign  affairs  (from  Aug.  6),  Vladimir 
Poptomov. 

History.  There  was  no  significant  change  in  the  political 
structure  of  Bulgaria,  which  had  been  politically  sovietized 
already  in  1948.  In  Feb.  1949  it  was  announced  that  two 
small  parties  belonging  to  the  governmental  Fatherland 
(Otechestven)  front,  Zveno  and  the  Radicals,  had  decided  to 
dissolve  themselves  and  to  merge  into  the  front.  Zveno  was 
originally  a  moderate  republican  party,  based  on  the  middle 
class  and  appealing  especially  to  army  reserve  officers,  which 
had  taken  part  in  the  1944  revolution  but  had  lost  its  most 
active  members  by  purges  in  1946-48.  The  Radical  party, 
founded  at  the  beginning  of  the  century,  was  a  weak  middle- 
class  party.  With  their  disappearance,  the  Fatherland  front 
consisted  only  of  Communists  and  rump  Agrarians,  the 
latter  having  in  fact  no  independent  influence.  But  in  prac- 
tice the  front  had  been  rigidly  controlled  by  Communists 
ever  since  the  summer  of  1945. 

In  July  the  leader  of  the  Communist  party,  Gheorghi 
Dimitrov,  died  in  the  Soviet  Union.  Having  lain  in  state  in 
Moscow,  his  corpse  was  brought  back  to  Sofia,  where  a 
state  funeral  was  staged,  closely  modelled  on  that  of  Lenin. 
Like  Lenin,  Dimitrov's  corpse  was  to  be  embalmed  and  placed 
on  view  in  Sofia.  As  in  the  case  of  Lenin,  Dimitrov's  successor 
as  party  leader,  his  brother-in-law  Vlko  Chervenkov,  made  an 
oration  over  his  body  consisting  of  a  series  of  "  command- 
ments "  and  "  oaths,"  exactly  copied  from  the  oration  of 
Stalin  over  Lenin's  body  in  1924  and  imitating  even  the 
litanical  style  of  the  ex-seminarist. 

The  new  prime  minister  was  Vasil  Kolarov,  like  Dimitrov 
a  former  secretary  of  the  Comintern.  Under  him  were  five 
deputy  prime  ministers  forming,  as  in  the  government  of  the 
U.S.S.R.,  an  inner  cabinet.  The  five  men  chosen  were 


The  body  of  Gheorghi  Dimitrov,  who  died  on  July  2,  1949,  at  the  temporary  mausoleum  in  Sofia  where  he  was  buried  on  July  10.  Above  h 
Marshal  Klirnenti  Voroshilov  (in  uniform).    The  mausoleum  was  opened  to  the  public  on  Dec.  10. 


BUNCHE 


135 


Chervenkov  himself,  Dobri  Tarpeshev,  Anton  Yugov  (all 
three  Communists),  Gheorghi  Traikov  (rump  Agrarian)  and 
Kimon  Gheorghiev  (former  Zveno).  Chervenkov,  most  of 
whose  political  life  had  been  spent  in  exile  in  Moscow,  was 
the  most  powerful  man  in  the  country.  The  new  minister  of 
foreign  affairs,  Vladimir  Poptomov,  was  also  a  "Muscovite." 
Yugov  and  Tarpeshev  on  the  other  hand  had  spent  their 
time  either  in  prisons  or  in  underground  activity  in  Bulgaria. 

The  biggest  political  event  of  1949  in  Bulgaria  was  the 
"  unmasking  "  of  Traicho  Kostov  (q.v.\  second  secretary  of 
the  Communist  party  under  Dimitrov.  On  March  26-27  a 
special  session  of  the  party's  central  committee  decided  to 
remove  him  from  the  Politburo.  His  crime  was  an  "  insincere 
attitude "  to  the  Soviet  Union,  and  "  insincerity  in  self- 
criticism  "  after  his  error  had  been  pointed  out  to  him  by 
his  comrades.  As  one  of  the  chief  organizers  of  the  Bulgarian 
economic  plan,  he  had  applied  the  existing  rules  about 
commercial  and  industrial  secrets  to  Soviet  citizens  as  to  the 
citizens  of  other  foreign  states.  By  so  doing  he  had  proved 
guilty,  in  the  words  of  Dimitrov,  of  "  the  shameful  assump- 
tion "  that  the  state  interests  of  the  Soviet  Union  could  ever 
be  contrary  to  those  of  Bulgaria.  Kostov  was  later  expelled 
from  the  party  itself  and  in  July  his  parliamentary  immunity 
was  cancelled  and  he  was  arrested.  On  Nov.  29  it  was 
announced  that  he  would  be  tried  for  conspiracy,  espionage 
and  high  treason.  The  Yugoslav  Communist  leader  Moshe 
Pijade  grimly  commented  on  this  that  Kostov  had  evidently 
required  a  great  deal  of  "  preparation  "  and  rehearsal  in  the 
role  he  was  to  play  at  the  trial. 

"  Kostovism  "  proved  a  useful  label  for  economic  failures. 
In  the  Five- Year  plan  which  began  in  1949,  Bulgaria  was  to 
convert  60%  of  agricultural  output  to  collective  ownership. 
In  practice  it  seemed  that  party  officials  pressed  too  fast  ahead 
with  collectivization.  In  June  a  party  statement  denounced 
**  left-wing  sectarianism  "  in  agriculture,  and  attributed  the 
wrongful  use  of  force  against  peasants  to  the  influence  of 
the  disgraced  Kostov.  In  October  the  ministers  of  finance 
and  railways,  Petko  Kunin  and  Stefan  Tonchev,  were  dis- 
missed. Throughout  the  year  there  were  complaints  of  low 
productivity  and  swift  changes  of  employment  among  the 
workers. 

A  new  Church  law  was  introduced  on  Feb.  24.  Under 
article  12  of  this  law,  any  minister  or  religious  officer  who 
"  offends  against  public  order  or  morality "  or  "  works 
against  the  democratic  institutions  of  the  state  "  might  be 
temporarily  suspended  or  dismissed  from  his  office  by  the 
Ministry  of  Foreign  Affairs.  In  this  case,  the  minister  of 
foreign  affairs  would  inform  the  leaders  of  the  religious 
community  concerned.  If  they  did  not  take  action  against 
the  guilty  person,  he  would  be  '*  suspended  by  administrative 
order."  These  phrases  were  of  course  capable  of  wide 
interpretation  by  the  Bulgarian  secret  police  and  Communist 
party  officials,  whose  views  the  minister  of  foreign  affairs  was 
certain  to  carry  out. 

From  Feb.  25  to  March  6, 15  Bulgarian  Protestant  pastors 
were  tried  for  espionage  and  subversive  activities  against  the 
government  in  the  interest  of  the  "  western  imperialists."  It 
was  clear  from  the  proceedings  of  the  trial  that  the  crime 
of  these  men  was  that  they  had  had  American  or  British  friends, 
with  whom  they  had  spoken  freely  and  critically  of  Bulgarian 
politics.  Protestantism  had  few  followers  in  Bulgaria,  but 
as  one  of  the  communities  which  had  long  established 
connections  with  the  Anglo-Saxon  world,  it  was  an  inevitable 
target  of  official  repression.  (H.  S.-W.) 

Education.  (1947-48)  Elementary  schools  9,238,  pupils  889,854, 
teachers  28,957;  secondary  schools  258,  pupils  152,661,  teachers 
5,229;  technical  schools  207,  pupils  32,968,  teachers  1,051 ;  universities 
and  colleges  9,  students  49,800,  professors  and  lecturers  1,283. 

Agriculture.  Main  crops  (1948,  in  '000  metric  tons)  wheat  1,470; 
maize  890;  barley  250;  oats  105;  tobacco  68.  Livestock  (in  '000  head): 


cattle  (July  1947)  1,711;  sheep  (Dec.  1947)  9,000;  pigs  (July  1947) 
1,028;  horses  (Dec.  1946)  549;  poultry  (Sept.  1947)  10,293. 

Industry.  Fuel  and  power:  lignite  (1947,  in  '000  metric  tons)  4,044; 
electricity  (1948,  in  million  kwh)  553. 

Foreign  Trade.  (1947,  in  million  leva)  Imports  21,420;  exports 
24,530.  Main  imports:  metal  and  metal  products,  machinery,  textiles, 
rolling  stock  and  vehicles.  Main  exports:  tobacco,  wines  and  attar. 

Transport  and  Communications.  Roads  (1945)  13,870  mi.  Licensed 
motor  vehicles  (Dec.  1948):  cars  4,350,  commercial  vehicles  4,230. 
Railways:  (1946)  2,072  mi.;  passengers  carried  (1946)  34  million; 
goods  traffic  (1948)  10  million  tons.  Telephones  (1948)  54,300. 

Finance  and  Banking.  (In  million  leva)  (Budget  1949  est):  revenue 
151,980  ;  expenditure  151,980.  National  debt  (June  1942)  33,708. 
Currency  circulation  (March  1947)  35,000.  Monetary  unit:  lev  (pi.  leva) 
with  an  exchange  rate  (Dec.  1949;  in  brackets  Dec.  1948)  of  806 
(1,160)  leva  to  the  pound. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  G.  C.  Logio,  "  Bulgaria  in  Fetters,"  Contemporary 
Review,  July  1949  ;  M.  Padev,  M  A  Bulgarian  Dictator,"  ibid,  Oct.  1949. 

BUNCHE,  RALPH  JOHNSON,  United  Nations 
official  (b.  Detroit,  Aug.  7,  1904),  graduated  from  the  Univer- 
sity of  California,  Los  Angeles,  California  in  1927  and 
received  a  master's  degree  at  Harvard  university  in  1928  and 
a  Ph.D.  in  1934.  He  taught  political  science  at  Howard 
university,  Washington,  D.C.,  becoming  a  full  professor  in 
1938.  In  the  meantime,  he  travelled  through  French  West 
Africa  on  a  Rosenwald  field  fellowship,  studying  and  com- 
paring the  administrations  of  French  Togoland,  a  mandated 
territory,  and  Dahomey,  a  colony.  He  was  later  awarded  a 
post-doctoral  fellowship  from  the  Social  Science  Research 
council  and  studied  at  Northwestern  university,  Evanston, 
Illinois,  and  the  London  School  of  Economics  in  1936  and 
1937  before  returning  to  Africa  for  further  studies  of  colonial 
policy.  During  World  War  II  he  served  in  the  Office  of 
Strategic  Services,  being  the  head  of  its  Africa  section,  1943- 
44,  and  in  the  Department  of  State  from  1944.  He  joined  the 
United  Nations  secretariat  as  director  of  the  division  of 
trusteeship  in  June  1946.  In  1948  he  was  appointed  to  assist 
Count  Folke  Bernadotte  of  Sweden  as  mediator  between  the 
Arabs  and  Jews  in  Palestine  and  when  Bernadotte  was 
assassinated  on  Sept.  17,  1948,  he  became  acting  mediator  and 
supervised  the  truce  and  armistic  agreements.  In  May  1949  he 
rejected  an  offer  for  an  appointment  as  U.S.  assistant  secretary 
of  state  for  near  east  and  African  affairs.  In  August  Bunche 
was  relieved  of  his  mission  as  acting  mediator  for  Palestine  to 
resume  his  post  as  director  of  the  U.N.  division  of  trusteeship. 


Dr.  Ralph  J.  Bunche  receiving  the  Spingarn  medal  from  Mrs. 
Vijayalakshmi  Pandit,  Indian  ambassador  to  the  United  States,  on 
July  17,  1949,  for  his  work  as  U.N.  acting  mediator  in  Palestine. 


136 


BURMA,  UNION   OF 


In  July  1949  he  was  awarded  the  Spingarn  medal, 
awarded  annually  by  the  National  Association  for  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Coloured  People,  and  in  October  received  the 
degree  of  doctor  of  humane  letters  from  the  Jewish  Theo- 
logical seminary. 

BURMA,  UNION  OF.  An  independent  federal 
republic  lying  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal, 
between  Pakistan  and  India  on  the  northwest,  Tibet  on  the 
north  and  China,  Indo-China  and  Thailand  (Siam)  on  the 
east.  The  republic  comprises  Burma  proper,  the  Shan  state, 
the  Kachin  state,  the  Chin  special  division  and  the  Karen 
state1) — this  last  to  include,  as  well  as  the  hill  Karens,  the 
Karens  of  the  plains,  who  had  yet  to  resolve  their  internal 
differences.  Area:  261,749  sq.  mi.;  pop.  (1941  census): 
16,823,798.  Racially,  the  peoples  of  Burma  are  Mongoloid. 
About  90%  are  Buddhist  by  religion,  and  about  70%  use 
the  Burmese  language.  The  largest  indigenous  minorities 
were:  the  Karens  who  numbered  1,367,673  in  1931  (of  whom 
218,790  were  Christians),  the  Shans  (1,057,406  in  1931)  and 
the  Chin-Kachin  group  (c.  750,000).  The  largest  immigrant 
minorities  were:  the  Indian  population  numbering  1,017,825 
in  1931,  divided  equally  between  Moslems  and  Hindus,  and 
the  Chinese  who  by  1941  were  about  380,000.  Chief  towns: 
Rangoon,  capital  and  main  port  (pop.  1941,  501,291); 
Mandalay  (pop.  1941,  163,537);  Moulmein  (pop.  1931, 
65,506);  Bassem  (pop.  1941,  c.  50,000)  and  Akyab  (pop. 
1931,  38,094).  President  of  the  republic:  Sao  Shwe  Thaik 
(q.v.);  prime  minister:  Thakin  Nu  (^.v.);  minister  of  foreign 
affairs:  U  Maung. 

History.  The  year  1949  opened  disastrously  for  Burma. 
As  1948  drew  to  a  close,  all  hope  of  early  recovery  dwindled 
away.  Negotiations  with  the  Karens  broke  down  and  Karen 
bands  overran  more  and  more  areas,  even  to  Insein,  at  the 
very  gates  of  Rangoon.  The  "  White  Band  "  section  of  the 
People's  Volunteer  organization  (P.Y.A.  in  Burmese)  con- 
tinued to  defy  the  government,  despite  the  efforts  of  a  peace 
mission  under  U  Thwin;  and  Communist  hostility  remained 
as  implacable  as  ever.  Essential  goods  fell  into  short  supply, 
and  prices  rose  steeply.  Timber,  rubber  and  mineral  pro- 
duction was  interrupted,  with  great  loss  to  the  national  in- 
come and  the  state  revenue.  The  budget  for  1948-49,  intro- 
duced in  Sept.  1948,  was  already  falsified  by  Jan.  1949. 

The  government,  however,  still  had  some  degree  of  control. 
The  administration,  though  damaged,  was  substantially 
intact;  communications,  though  often  cut,  were  generally 
open;  in  particular,  the  Rangoon- Mandalay  railway  ran 
regularly  from  mid-December.  The  1948  rice  crop  was 
successfully  garnered. 

At  this  stage,  the  government  made  a  serious  miscalculation. 
An  attempt  to  disarm  the  Karens  was  resisted,  and  sent  the 
3rd  Karen  Rifles  at  Prome  into  revolt.  On  Jan.  31  an  attack 
launched  on  the  Karens  at  Insein  was  repulsed,  and  settled 
down  to  a  long  siege,  with  much  destruction  of  property. 
A  rifle  attack  on  the  same  day  against  the  Karen  settlement 
in  west  Rangoon  caused  much  damage  by  fire,  and  some  loss 
of  life.  The  rift  between  the  two  communities  was  almost 
complete. 

The  Karens  now  took  the  offensive.  By  April  they  con- 
trolled the  railway  area  from  north  of  Pegu  to  Mandalay 
and  Maymyo,  and  westwards  to  Mymgyan  on  the  Irrawaddy. 
South  oi  Rangoon,  they  held  Thaton,  dominated  Mouimein 
and  threatened  Tavoy  and  Mergui.  Karen  and  government 
control  alternated  in  Bassem  and  some  other  delta  areas,  and 
Karens  held  the  Twante  canal. 

Other  insurgent  forces  were  in  the  field.  White  P.Y.A. 
held  Dala  (opposite  Rangoon),  Pegu,  and  some  delta  towns. 
Allied  in  an  uneasy  Democratic  front  with  the  Communists, 

1  The  Karen  state  had  not  been  set  up  by  the  end  of  1949  The  old  Karenni 
states,  however,  were  understood  to  have  adhered  to  the  union. 


they  also  controlled  most  of  the  riverine  districts  from  Prome 
to  just  south  of  Magwe.  They  were  strong  enough  to  threaten 
Tavoy  in  the  south.  Communists  held  Pyapon  and  some  other 
delta  towns  and  had  centres  in  many  other  areas.  Arakan 
was  almost  completely  out  of  control. 

In  fact,  the  government's  writ  ran  only  in  Rangoon,  a  few 
headquarter  towns  and  in  the  backward  areas  comprising 
the  Shan  states  and  the  northern  districts,  where  control  was 
at  all  times  of  the  lightest.  Communications  were  completely 
disrupted  and  the  administration  was  thoroughly  disorganized. 
Timber  extraction  ceased  and  reconstruction  in  the  Yenangy- 
aung  oilfield  ended.  This  point  marked  the  peak  of  the 
rebels*  success.  With  the  rains  in  the  offing,  their  men  began 
to  melt  away  to  their  homes;  and  by  June  the  government 
had  re-occupied  Meiktila,  Mandalay,  Maymyo,  Yenangyaung 
and  Kyaukse  in  upper  Burma,  and  Moulmein,  Thaton, 
Insein  and  Twante  in  lower  Burma.  Twante  was  important. 
Its  recapture  released  large  rice  supplies  and  a  total  export 
for  1949  of  1,300,000  metric  tons  was  in  sight. 

Thus,  by  the  middle  of  the  rains,  the  government  faction 
was  still  the  strongest  in  the  field,  except  in  Arakan,  the 
Toungoo-Karenni  area  and  parts  of  the  southern  Shan  states, 
where  the  Karens  made  an  incursion  and  firmly  held  Taunggyi. 
The  country,  however,  was  exhausted,  devastated  and 
terrorized  by  rival  gangs  and  was  in  no  mood  to  hold  elections 
or  plant  wide  areas  for  next  year's  export  market.  The 
district  administration,  of  fundamental  importance  in  Burma, 
was  broken  in  pieces,  and  the  treasury  was  bankrupt.  The 
outlook  for  1949-50  was  thus  ominous. 

In  the  political  field,  12  months  had  seen  a  great  change. 
On  Sept.  14, 1948,  the  cabinet  was  increased  to  21  members,  as 
a  bid,  doubtless,  for  wider  support.  This,  however,  was  not 
forthcoming,  and  splinter  groups  and  new  parties  began  to 
form.  The  Anti-Fascist  People's  Freedom  league  began  to 
disintegrate  rapidly,  and  soon  the  Socialists  were  left  as  the 
dominant  party.  In  the  country,  however,  they  were  un- 
popular and  Thakin  Nu,  as  the  one  man  who  could  steer 
a  middle  course,  was  indispensible  to  all  parties  as  premier. 
Early  in  the  new  year  he  was  able  to  force  the  resignation  of 
the  Socialist  ministers;  the  cabinet  was  cut  down  to  12  and 
most  of  the  seats  were  filled  with  non-Socialist  supporters 
of  government.  The  Socialists,  however,  still  controlled  the 
Assembly,  and  so  could  cause  the  government  much  em- 
barrassment. No  election  had  been  held  after  the  declaration 
of  independence,  and  existing  conditions  scarcely  permitted 
the  holding  of  one. 

These  events  and  the  Communist  success  in  China  turned 
the  thoughts  of  Burma  increasingly  towards  the  west.  India 
called  an  informal  conference  in  February  at  Delhi  of  Pakis- 
tan, Ceylon,  Australia  and  the  United  Kingdom  to  suggest 
mediation  in  Burma,  but  this  was  precipitate  and  mediation 
was  rejected.  Desultory  discussions,  however,  between 
Burma  and  the  Commonwealth  continued  but  led  to  no- 
definite  result.  Discussions  with  the  United  States  and  the 
international  monetary  authorities  were  equally  inconclusive. 

The  rains  damped  down  military  operations  and  so  re- 
vived discussions  of  ways  to  procure  a  settlement.  After 
some  consideration,  the  government  in  mid-September 
launched  a  "  peace  in  one  year  "  campaign.  They  rightly 
thought  that  civil  war  a  on  trance  would  cause  irreparable 
damage  and  seemed  ready  to  consider  all  means  of  reaching 
a  peaceful  settlement.  In  this,  a  major  factor  would  be  an 
agreement  with  the  Karens.  As  the  rains  drew  to  a  close, 
signs  of  increasing  rebel  activity  gave  point  to  the  necessity 
for  early  action.  The  need  for  more  regular  troops,  and  the 
disarming  of  undisciplined  units  with  no  reliable  allegiance, 
already  obvious,  became  imperative. 

The  widespread  disorders  further  impaired  the  country's 
finances,  already  precarious.  The  first  accounts  figures  for 


BUSINESS   REVIEW 


137 


1948-49  showed  a  deficit  of  Rs.  74  million  and  even  this 
figure  was  of  doubtful  validity.  The  budget  for  1949-50 
envisaged  a  deficit  of  Rs.  17  million  but  this  was  based  on  an 
unrealistic  revenue  figure,  and  included  transfers  from  the 
development  fund,  which  were  not  revenue  at  all  A  new 
factor  was  the  government's  new  economic  policy.  This 
divided  industry  into  three  groups:  (a)  national  industries, 

(b)  private  enterprise  industries  to  be  nationalized  later  and 

(c)  industries  open  to  private  enterprise  without  restriction. 
It  was  too  early  to  say  if  this  would  attract  much- needed 
foreign  capital.      As,  however,  there  was  no  provision  for 
paying  for  industries  already  nationalized,  the  outlook  in 
this  respect  was  not  hopeful.  (R.  M.  MACD.) 

Education  (1945-46)  Schools:  state  and  recognized  2,781,  pupils 
229,300;  private  2,153,  pupils  70,180.  University  (Rangoon,  1948) 
students  2,742. 

Agriculture.  Main  crops  ('000  metric  tons,  1948)  rice  5,287,  ground- 
nuts 142;  cottonseed  14;  sesame  (1947)  43  6,  cotton  3;  tobacco 
(1945-46)  32-7.  Livestock  ('000  head,  1948)'  cattle  5,207;  sheep  21; 
pigs  402;  oxen  5,207;  buffaloes  721 ,  horses  12,  hogs  394,  goats 
172  Fisheries:  total  catch  estimated  at  500  000  tons  annually 

Industry.  (1947)  Factories  473,  persons  employed  4b,480  Raw 
materials  (metric  tons,  1948):  natural  rubber  (net  exports)  9,204, 
timber,  teak  round  log  (target  production  1948-49)  230,000,  tm  con- 
centrates 1,181;  lead  on  smelter  basis  7,568;  zinc  ore  5,586;  silver 
(fine  ounces)  450,000. 

Foreign  Trade.  Imports-  (1948)  Rs  797  million,  (1949,  six  months) 
Rs.155  million;  exports  (1948)-  Rs  593  million,  (1949,  six  months) 
Rs  294  million. 

Transport  and  Communications.  Roads  (1949)  12,472  mi  Licensed 
motor  vehicles  (Dec.  1948)-  cars  10,706,  commercial  vehicles  19,399. 
Railways  (Aug.  1948).  1,786  mi  ;  passenger-mi.  (1946-47)  205  million, 
net  ton  freight-mi  298  million 

Finance  and  Banking.  Budget  (in  '000  rupees)-  (1947-48  est  )  revenue 
674,190,  expenditure  723,711;  (1948-49  cst.)  revenue  520,784,expendi- 
ture  621,698.  External  debt  (Sept.  30,  1949).  Rs  867  million  Note 
issue  (Dec.  1948)  Rs.  400  million.  Monetary  unit  rupee  with  an 
exchange  rate  of  Rs.13  '37  to  the  pound 


BUSINESS  REVIEW.  During  1949  business  con- 
ditions continued  to  be  affected  by  the  deferred  effects  of 
wartime  abnormalities.  Generally  speaking,  however,  busi- 
ness activity  was  determined  to  an  increasing  extent  by 
peacetime  factors.  This  did  not  necessarily  mean  that 
conditions  improved  in  the  same  proportion  as  wartime 
abnormalities  gave  way  to  influences  of  peacetime  economy. 
For  the  latter,  too,  was  far  from  normal.  The  two  principal 
disturbing  factors  were  the  trade  recession  in  the  United 
States  during  the  first  half  of  the  year  and  the  devaluation 
of  sterling  and  a  number  of  other  currencies  in  Sept.  1949. 
Although  it  was  possible  to  regard  both  factors  as  originating 
indirectly  from  the  aftermath  of  World  War  II,  in  reality 
they  were  due  to  disequihbna  which  form  part  of  peacetime 
economy. 

The  factors  which  dominated  business  conditions  during 
previous  postwar  years  were  the  scarcity  of  goods,  a  disability 
inherited  from  the  war,  and  the  inadequacy  of  the  productive 
capacity  of  the  European  late-belligerent  countries.  During 
1949  both  these  factors  continued  to  subside.  Industries 
rebuilt  their  stocks  of  raw  materials,  except  in  goods  imported 
from  hard  currency  countries.  Wholesale  and  retail  merchants, 
whose  stocks  were  nearly  exhausted  by  the  end  of  the  war,  had 
replenished  their  supplies.  Indeed  in  many  instances  they 
came  to  carry  rather  more  than  they  wanted  to,  owing  to  a 
fall  in  demand  in  many  lines.  The  range  of  goods  available 
to  the  consumer  widened  considerably  during  1949.  This  was 
not  an  entirely  healthy  symptom,  however,  as  it  was  the 
result  of  the  partial  failure  of  the  attempt  by  various  govern- 
ments to  reserve  for  foreign  markets  the  best  of  the  national 
output.  The  impossibility  of  selling  all  such  goods  abroad 
compelled  the  governments  concerned  to  release  them  for  sale 
on  the  domestic  markets  and  these  "  frustrated  exports  " 
added  to  the  domestic  consumers'  freedom  of  choice. 


Industrial  production  continued  to  increase  in  Europe 
and  also  in  the  countries  of  the  Commonwealth,  with  the 
exception  of  Canada  where  it  declined  during  the  first  half 
of  1949  in  sympathy  with  the  trend  in  the  United  States. 
Among  European  countries,  those  which  had  been  affected 
most  by  World  War  It  showed  the  greatest  recoveries.  In 
particular  the  index  of  the  industrial  production  of  western 
Germany  showed  a  gratifying  progress  towards  prewar  level. 
The  manufacture  output  of  Great  Britain  and  most  western 
European  countries  had  long  passed  that  mark  and  in  1949 
they  showed  further  noteworthy  gains.  British  dominions 
which  during  the  war  made  considerable  progress  towards 
industrialization  succeeded  in  consolidating  their  advance 
and  even  added  to  it. 

With  the  disappearance  of  the  sellers'  market  in  most  kinds 
of  consumers'  goods,  the  possibility  of  difficulties  through 
industrial  overproduction  was  continually  being  considered 
by  governments  and  business  firms.  The  difficulty  of  exchang- 
ing the  manufacture  surpluses  of  western  Europe  for  the 
food  and  raw  material  surpluses  of  eastern  Europe  became 
more  evident  as  a  result  of  the  spectacular  recovery  of 
industrial  production  in  Western  Germany;  but  fears  that  a 
revival  of  German  competition  might  lead  to  unemployment 
or  a  fall  in  wages  in  Great  Britain  and  the  industrial  countries 
did  not  yet  materialize. 

The  setback  in  business  in  the  United  States  affected 
Europe  and  the  Commonwealth  partly  through  a  decline  in 
American  prices  of  raw  materials  and  manufactures  and 
partly  through  a  decline  in  American  imports.  Since,  notwith- 
standing the  European  Recovery  programme,  the  dollar 
reserve  of  most  countries  remained  uncomfortably  low,  this 
decline  of  dollar-earning  exports  of  European  manufactures 
and  of  Commonwealth  raw  materials  considerably  aggravated 
the  situation.  Moreover,  as  there  was  no  decline  in  the  prices 
of  European  industrial  products,  the  cuts  in  American  manu- 
facture prices  threatened  the  markets  for  British  and  western 
European  exports  in  Latin  America  and  elsewhere.  So  far 
from  trying  to  compete  with  lower  American  prices,  the 
prices  in  most  European  countries  continued  to  increase 
during  the  second  half  of  1948  and  showed  no  material  fall 
during  the  first  three  quarters  of  1949.  Even  though  the 
British  government  and  other  governments  adopted  dis- 
inflationary devices  they  were  unable  to  arrest  altogether  the 
rise  in  wages  and  prices.  In  France  the  devaluation  of  the 
franc  in  1948  produced  its  full  effect  on  prices  by  the  end  of 
that  year,  and  the  reaction  during  the  first  half  of  1949  was 
moderate.  Even  in  Italy,  which  was  the  only  European 
country  to  adopt  deflation  on  orthodox  lines,  prices  con- 
tinued to  rise  at  the  beginning  of  1949,  although  subsequently 
they  showed  a  marked  decline  accompanied  by  unemploy- 
ment on  a  fairly  large  scale.  In  Belgium,  too,  there  was  a 
fair  amount  of  industrial  unemployment. 

On  the  other  hand,  Great  Britain  and  most  other  western 
European  countries  continued  to  pursue  their  policies  of  full 
employment  and,  as  a  result,  the  purchasing  power  of  con- 
sumers was  fully  maintained. 

The  devaluation  of  sterling  and  many  other  European  and 
Commonwealth  currencies  towards  the  end  of  the  third 
quarter  of  1949  constituted  an  important  landmark  in  the 
business  history  of  the  year  and,  indeed,  of  the  postwar 
period.  Anticipation  of  this  step  during  the  preceding  months 
influenced  business  conditions  to  no  slight  extent.  There  was 
a  decline  in  the  demand  for  British  and  sterling  area  goods, 
in  the  hope  of  being  able  to  buy  them  cheaper  after  devaluation. 
When  on  Sept.  1 8  sterling  was  devalued  by  30  %,  an  example 
followed  by  the  entire  sterling  area  (with  the  exception  of 
Pakistan)  and  by  many  other  countries  besides,  the  fear  of 
large-scale  deflation  was  removed.  Previously  there  had  been 
the  possibility  that  the  declining  trend  in  the  United  States- 


138 


BUSINESS   REVIEW 


might  force  Great  Britain  and  other  countries  sooner  or  later 
to  follow  the  American  example.  There  was,  indeed,  a  growing 
fear  of  a  postwar  slump  during  the  second  quarter  of  1949. 
From  the  point  of  view  of  business  activity  the  British 
decision  to  take  the  line  of  least  resistance  by  devaluing  instead 
of  deflating  was  greeted  with  relief,  all  the  more  so  since  the 
rigidity  of  wages  under  full  employment  would  have  made 
deflation  impossible  beyond  a  certain  point.  Moreover,  the 
substantial  extent  of  the  cut  in  the  dollar  value  of  the  pound 
and  other  currencies  provided  the  countries  concerned  with 
a  fairly  wide  safety  margin.  They  were  placed  in  a  position 
to  allow  their  wages  and  prices  to  rise  a  little  without  thereby 
relapsing  into  the  state  of  disequilibrium  from  which  they 
had  escaped  through  devaluation.  This  meant  that  they  were 
able  to  meet  the  most  insistent  wages  demands  instead  of 
provoking  an  epidemic  of  strikes  by  rigidly  resisting  them. 

During  1949  business  activity  in  Great  Britain,  France, 
Italy,  Australia  and  other  countries  was  often  disturbed  by 
strikes  over  wages  or  working  conditions.  A  large  proportion 
of  these  disputes  were  believed  to  have  been  engineered  by 
Communists  for  political  purposes  by  stimulating  and 
exploiting  discontent  among  dock  labourers,  miners  and  other 
workers.  The  extent  of  these  strikes  was  not  such  as  to  check 
progress  towards  industrial  reconstruction.  On  balance, 
business  conditions  continued  to  improve,  a  fact  which  was 
largely  due  to  the  ability  of  western  European  countries  to 
maintain  their  essential  imports  through  the  European 
Recovery  programme. 

In  eastern  European  countries  the  process  of  postwar 
consolidation  continued.  The  currency  reforms  carried  out  in 
various  eastern  European  countries  during  the  previous  two 
years  consolidated  monetary  conditions  and  the  non-stop 
inflation  in  Hungary  and  Rumania  gave  way  to  a  period  of 
comparative  stability.  The  effect  of  the  nationalization  of 
most  industries  on  the  output  in  countries  under  the  Soviet 
sphere  of  influence  could  not  be  judged  clearly  from  the 
conflicting  reports  received.  Most  of  their  business  activities 
were  conducted  by  government  organizations. 

In  western  Europe  the  setback  in  business  profits  recorded 
in  1948  continued  in  1949,  although  in  many  lines  the  post- 
war boom  continued  unabated.  There  were  signs  of  greater 
selectivity,  owing  to  the  disappearance  of  the  virtual  certainty 
that  prevailed  during  earlier  postwar  years  that  it  was 
possible  to  sell  at  a  profit  anything  produced,  regardless  of 
cost  or  quality.  With  the  increase  of  competition  at  home  and 
abroad  the  industries  concerned  had  to  make  an  effort  to 
cut  down  superfluous  expenditure.  The  strong  political  and 
economic  position  occupied  by  labour,  especially  in  Great 
Britain  and  France,  made  this  process  often  very  difficult,  for 
dismissals  for  redundancy  might  be  accompanied  by  strikes. 
In  particular  in  the  nationalized  industries  the  closing  down  of 
uneconomical  pits  or  works  encountered  strong  resistance. 
Nevertheless  it  was  impossible  to  avoid  local  and  temporary 
unemployment  in  some  industries  such  as  shipbuilding;  but 
many  industries  engaged  in  the  production  of  heavy  capital 
equipment  continued  to  work  to  capacity  and  remained 
fully  booked  for  years  ahead.  Demand  for  electric  power 
stations  and  for  new  machine  tools  continued  unabated  both 
within  the  countries  producing  such  equipment — Great 
Britain,  Belgium,  western  Germany,  France,  Italy  and 
Sweden — and  elsewhere. 

Mechanization  and  modernization  continued  to  make 
progress  but  were  handicapped  by  lack  of  exchange  to  import 
the  necessary  equipment  or  by  the  need  for  exporting  much 
of  the  equipment  produced  within  the  countries,  in  order  to 
obtain  the  means  to  pay  for  essential  imports.  The  increase 
in  output  was  the  result  of  mechanization  rather  than  of  an 
increased  exertion  on  the  part  of  the  manpower  employed. 
In  Great  Britain  and  other  industrial  countries  the  limited 


supply  of  electric  power  set  a  limit  to  further  mechanization 
pending  the  construction  of  additional  power  stations.  India 
and  other  agricultural  countries  made  efforts  to  secure  the 
capital  equipment  needed  for  their  industrialization. 

During  the  first  half  of  1949  there  was  a  reduction  of 
government  controls  but  the  scarcity  of  dollars  that  developed 
during  the  summer  made  it  sometimes  necessary  to  arrest 
and  even  reverse  this  tendency.  In  Great  Britain  the  policy 
of  nationalization  continued.  Budgetary  deficits  and  dis- 
inflationary policies  were  responsible  for  further  minor 
increases  in  taxation. 

Dominions  producing  raw  materials  continued  to  enjoy 
prosperity  owing  to  the  demand  for  their  products.  The  tem- 
porary setback  in  the  prices  of  their  staple  exports  through 
the  business  recession  in  the  United  States  during  the  first 
half  of  the  year  became  reversed  as  a  result  of  the  devaluation 
of  the  pound,  which  resulted  in  a  sharp  recovery  in  the  prices 
of  these  raw  materials.  Disturbances  in  southeastern  Asia 
handicapped  economic  activity,  though  order  was  largely 
restored  in  Malaya,  Indonesia  and  French  Indo-China.  War 
fears  in  Europe  were  generally  less  acute  than  in  1948  and 
consequently  this  source  of  uncertainty  was  no  longer  such  a 
strong  handicap  to  business  expansion  on  the  continent. 

The  increase  of  the  general  price  levels  in  Europe  following 
upon  devaluation  was  moderate  during  the  last  quarter  of  1 949. 
Nor  was  there  any  immediate  sharp  recovery  in  business 
activity  comparable  with  that  witnessed  in  many  European 
countries  after  the  depreciation  of  sterling  and  a  number  of 
continental  currencies  in  1931.  On  the  other  hand,  since  on 
this  occasion  most  countries  west  of  the  "  iron  curtain  " 
immediately  followed  Great  Britain  in  devaluing  their  cur- 
rencies, there  was  no  repetition  of  the  experience  of  the  1930s 
when  resistance  to  devaluation  forced  Germany,  France, 
Italy  and  other  countries  into  deflation  which  tended  to 
aggravate  their  business  depression.  After  the  devaluation 
of  1949  there  was  an  all-round  moderate  improvement  of 
business  conditions  in  western  Europe,  through  the  stimulus 
to  exports  to  the  dollar  area  and  the  removal  of  fears  that 
Europe  might  have  to  follow  the  United  States  in  the  latter's 
business  recession.  The  actual  increase  of  production 
stimulated  by  the  devaluation  was  moderated  by  the  existence 
of  full  or  near-full  employment  already  in  most  western 
European  countries. 

At  the  end  of  1949  business  conditions  in  Europe  presented 
a  totally  different  picture  from  that  of  a  year  earlier.  The 
abnormal  postwar  buying  of  consumers'  goods  to  replace 
those  used  up  or  destroyed  during  World  War  II,  which  was  a 
prominent  feature  of  the  previous  postwar  years,  came  to 
an  end.  On  the  other  hand,  normal  current  purchases  were 
running  at  a  sufficiently  high  level  to  keep  industry  fully 
engaged.  (P.  Eo.) 

United  States.  In  the  United  States  1949  was  characterized 
by  some  downward  adjustment  from  the  record  business 
activity  and  the  near-capacity  utilization  of  plants  and 
facilities  of  1948.  The  buyers'  strike,  chiefly  by  business  men, 
which  struck  a  whole  series  of  industries  in  the  last  quarter 
of  1948  as  prices  dropped,  spread  during  the  first  half  of 
1949.  Business  buyers,  fearful  that  prices  would  drop 
drastically,  reduced  orders  and  scrambled  to  get  rid  of 
inventories.  This  cautious  policy  was  reflected  in  a  sub- 
stantial drop  in  industrial  production  and  employment  and 
both  reflected  and  contributed  to  the  continued  decline  in 
wholesale  and  retail  prices.  By  mid- 1949  production  was 
down  by  30  to  50%  in  some  plants.  Heavy  unemployment 
appeared  in  mill  towns  of  New  England  and  the  south,  in 
shoe  centres,  and  in  areas  where  furniture  and  metal  products 
were  made. 

Reduction  in  spending  by  business  firms  and  other  pro- 
ducers resulted  in  lower  sales  and  output  of  heavy  equipment. 


BUSINESS   REVIEW 


139 


Heavy  industries  in  1949,  however,  did  almost  twice  the 
prewar  volume  of  business. 

In  response  to  the  impact  of  deflationary  forces  and  the 
general  business  uncertainty  which  prevailed  during  the 
first  half  of  the  year,  the  board  of  governors  of  the  Federal 
Reserve  system  reduced  reserve  requirements  of  member 
banks  twice  during  the  first  six  months  of  the  year — first 
early  in  May  and  again  at  the  end  of  June. 

On  the  whole,  consumer  demand  through  the  first  half  of 
1949  continued  high.  The  dollar  volume  of  retail  sales 
during  the  first  quarter  of  the  year  was  greater  than  in  1948 
and  was  only  slightly  below  1948  during  the  second  quarter. 
Steady  consumer  buying  ended  the  hesitant  business  buying 
by  early  autumn  and  industrial  activity  expanded  in  spite  of 
the  coal  and  steel  strikes,  although  production  of  soft  goods 
and  even  of  metal  products  continued  to  rise. 

Personal  Income  and  Expenditures.  Total  personal  income 
in  1949  at  $211,700  million  was  only  0-3  of  1  %  below  1948; 
salaries  and  wages  income  at  $134,900  million  was  1-5% 
greater  than  in  1948.  Thus,  the  7*2%  drop  in  manufacturing 
pay  rolls  was  more  than  offset  by  increases  in  the  distribution 
and  service  industries  and  in  government  payments.  According 
to  the  estimates  of  the  Department  of  Commerce,  the 
increase  in  total  non-agricultural  income  just  offset  the  drop 
in  agricultural  income  resulting  from  sharp  declines  in  prices 
of  farm  products.  Personal  consumption  expenditures  at 
the  annual  rate  of  around  $178,700  million  during  the  first 
half  of  the  year,  were  slightly  greater  than  during  the  first 
half  of  1948.  During  the  the  third  quarter  of  the  year  they 
showed  an  annual  rate  of  $178,500  million,  only  slightly 
below  the  same  period  in  1948. 

Employment.  Total  civilian  employment  for  the  first  ten 
months  of  the  year,  as  estimated  by  the  Bureau  of  Labour 
Statistics,  averaged  58-6  million  out  of  a  total  estimated 
labour  force  of  63  •  5  million.  Unemployment  for  this  period 
averaged  only  3-4  million,  slightly  above  the  normal 
frictional  unemployment  of  about  3  million.  The  average 
employment  of  58  •  6  million  was  only  1  •  1  %  below 
employment  during  the  same  period  of  1948.  Manufacturing 
employment  for  the  year  1949  was  8-5%  below  1948  and 
manufacturing  pay  rolls  were  down  7-2%. 

Production.  Industrial  production,  as  measured  by  the 
Federal  Reserve  board  index,  dropped  steadily  from  January 
to  July,  falling  from  191  in  January  to  161  in  July,  a  loss  of 
15-7%.  After  July,  the  index  rose  fairly  steadily  to  an 
estimated  174  for  December,  but  total  industrial  production 
for  1949  was  almost  9%  (8-9%)  below  1948. 

Steel  production  continued  to  expand  through  the  first 
quarter  of  the  year,  dropped  rapidly  from  April  to  July, 
rose  substantially  in  August  and  September  and  dropped  to 
the  low  point  for  the  year  in  October  when  the  steel  strike 
closed  many  of  the  major  plants.  Total  production  for  the 
year,  however,  was  only  8-7%  below  1948. 

Prices.  Although  price  movements  during  the  first  half  of 
the  year  varied  greatly  by  commodity  and  by  marker,  the 
general  movement  was  clearly  downward.  At  retail,  food 
prices  moved  higher  during  the  second  quarter  but  prices  of 
apparel,  house  furnishings  and  domestic  fuels  moved  steadily 
lower.  Primary  market  prices  weakened  further  during  the 
second  quarter.  Prices  of  non-ferrous  metals  broke  drastically 
in  May  and  June.  In  less  than  90  days  zinc  prices  dropped 
47%;  lead,  44%;  and  copper,  33 %  from  their  peaks.  Prices 
of  scrap  steel  dropped  from  $3 1  •  50  a  ton  at  the  end  of 
March  to  $19-50  at  the  end  of  June.  Textile  prices  declined 
more  than  3%  during  the  second  quarter.  On  June  30,  the 
prices  of  28  commodities  traded  on  organized  exchanges  and 
spot  markets  averaged  31%  below  the  level  of  June  1948 
and  37%  below  the  wartime  peak  in  1947. 

For  the  year  1949,  wholesale  prices  of  commodities  other 


than  farm  and  food  dropped  2-5%  below  1948.  Prices 
received  by  farmers  in  1949  were  on  the  average  12-2% 
lower  than  in  1948.  Wholesale  prices,  in  general,  for  the 
year  were  6- 1  %  below  1948.  Retail  food  prices  for  the  year 
were  down  3-8%  from  1948  and  the  cost  of  living,  1-2%. 

Agricultural  Income.  Prices  of  farm  products  in  1949, 
according  to  estimates  of  the  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 
were  down  12-2%  from  1948.  However,  receipts  from  farm 
marketings  were  down  only  about  10%  for  the  year,  because 
of  the  disposal  of  a  slightly  larger  volume  of  products. 

Construction.  Construction  activity  in  1949,  as  measured 
by  the  value  tof  contracts  awarded  and  reported  by  the 
F.  W.  Dodge  corporation,  was  up  7-8%  from  1948  with  all 
types  of  construction  contributing  to  the  increase.  Residential 
and  public  works  and  utilities  contracts  were  each  up  slightly 
more  than  12%  from  1948.  Non-residential  contracts  were 
up  slightly  less  than  I  %  reflecting  the  decline  in  the  expansion 
of  industrial  and  commercial  building. 

During  the  first  five  months  of  the  year  the  number  of  new 
houses  (excluding  farms)  whose  construction  was  begun 
each  month  was  above  that  of  the  corresponding  month  in  1 947 
and  in  June,  July  and  August  was  substantially  greater  than 
in  the  same  months  of  1948.  The  98,000  houses  that  were 
begun  showed  an  increase  in  August  of  12%  above  Aug.  1948. 

Business  Profits.  Business  profits,  after  deduction  of  taxes, 
dropped  from  the  high  level  of  1948,  but  were  still  consider- 
ably higher  than  in  any  previous  years  except  1947  and  1948. 
Profits  after  tax  deduction  for  the  first  quarter  of  the  year 
were  at  an  annual  rate  of  $17,300  million,  but  had  dropped 
to  $14,700  million  in  the  third  quarter.  Dividend  payments, 
however,  were  substantially  greater  in  each  of  the  first  three 
quarters  of  1949  than  in  the  corresponding  quarters  of  1948, 
reflecting  a  more  liberal  dividend  policy  on  the  part  of  business 
men  as  the  need  for  re-investment  funds  for  expansion 
tapered  off.  Undistributed  profits  were  reduced  about  50% 
as  compared  with  1948.  Corporate  tax  liability  dropped  with 
the  decline  in  profits,  being  at  the  annual  rate  of  about 
$9,500  million.  Corporate  profits  after  deduction  of  taxes 
were  23-6%  below  1948  according  to  reports  of  the  Federal 
Reserve  board. 

Banking.  Of  importance  to  domestic  economy  in  1949 
were  the  continued  large  deposits  and  currency  held  by 
individuals.  In  January,  the  amount  of  such  deposits  and 
currency  amounted  to  $168,200  million,  only  $2,000  million 
below  Jan.  1948.  By  August  the  amount  had  dropped  to 
$166,900  million,  $200  million  more  than  in  Aug.  1948. 
During  the  first  seven  months  of  the  year,  currency  outside 
banks  remained  substantially  unchanged  at  about  $25,000 
million;  adjusted  demand  deposits  fluctuated  between 
$81,000  million  and  $85,000  million;  and  time  deposits 
between  $57,600  million  and  $58,400  million.  Loans  of  all 
banks  on  March  30,  1949  had  risen  to  $48,220  million,  an 
increase  of  $50  million  from  the  amount  outstanding  on 
Dec.  31,  1948,  and  on  Sept.  28  the  amount  stood  at  $48,050 
million.  Commercial  bank  loans  reached  $42,370  million  on 
March  30  and  stood  at  $41,780  million  on  Sept.  28,  according 
to  reports  of  the  board  of  governors  of  the  Federal  Reserve 
system.  The  use  of  bank  credit  by  business  continued  to 
expand  throughout  1949. 

Exports  anJ  Imports.  Merchandise  exports,  including 
re-exports  and  civilian  supplies  for  occupied  areas,  increased 
during  April  and  May  after  a  sharp  fall  in  February,  but 
dropped  sharply  in  July  and  eased  further  in  August.  Imports 
during  the  first  eight  months  of  the  year  dropped  continuously 
with  the  exception  of  a  slight  rise  in  March.  For  the  year 
1949  exports  were  down  6  •  1  %  from  1948  and  imports  7  •  5  %. 

Labour  Relations.  During  the  first  half  of  1949  there  were 
about  2,000  work  stoppages  due  to  labour-management 
disputes,  a  10%  increase  over  the  Jan.-June  1948  period. 


140 


CABINET  MEMBERS 


In  terms  of  idleness,  however,  the  estimated  total  for  the 
first  six  months  of  1949  was  only  about  two-thirds  as  great 
as  in  the  comparable  periods  of  the  two  preceding  years. 
Only  13  stoppages  during  this  six-months  period  involved 
10,000  or  more  workers.  The  fourth  round  of  wage  increases 
tended  to  be  smaller  than  in  previous  years.  Negotiations 
during  the  year  resulted  in  an  increase  of  1  4%  in  the  weekly 
earning  of  production  workers  in  spite  of  a  drop  of  2-2% 
in  hours  worked  per  week.  (See  also  BANKING;  EMPLOY- 
MENT; NATIONALIZATION;  STOCKS  AND  SHARES;  STRIKES 
AND  LOCKOUTS;  TAXATION.)  (V.  B.  B.) 

CABINET  MEMBERS.  The  following  is  a  list  of 
cabinet  members  of  Great  Britain  and  the  dominions  on 
Dec.  31,  1949. 

Great  Britain 

Post 
Prime  Minister  and  First  Lord  of  the 

Treasury    ..... 
Lord  President  of  the  Council 
Secretary  of  State  for  Foreign  Affairs 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  . 
Minister  of  Defence 
Chancellor  of  the  Duchy  of  Lancaster 
Lord  Privy  Seal     .... 
Lord  Chancellor    .... 
Secretary   of  State   for   the   Home 

Department  .... 
Secretary  of  State  for  the  Colonies  . 
Secretary  of  State  for  Commonwealth 

Relations 

Secretary  of  State  for  Scotland 
Minister  of  Labour  and   National 

Service       ..... 
Minister  of  Health 
Minister  of  Agriculture  and  Fisheries 
Minister  of  Education    . 
President  of  the  Board  of  Trade 


Name 

'Clement  Richard  Attlee 

Herbert  Stanley  Morrison 
*  Ernest  Bevin 
*Sir  Stafford  Cnpps 

Albert  Victor  Alexander 

Hugh  Dalton 

Viscount  Addison 

Viscount  Jowitt 

James  Chuter  Ede 
Arthur  Creech  Jones 

Philip  John  Noel-Baker 
Arthur  Woodburn 

George  Alfred  Isaacs 
Aneurm  Bevan 
Tom  Williams 
George  Tomhnson 
James  Harold  Wilson 


Australia 


Prime  Minister      .... 

Treasurer      ... 

Minister  for  Defence  and  Postwar 
Reconstruction  .... 

Minister  for  Labour  and  National 
Service  and  for  Immigration 

Minister  for  Commerce  and  Agricul- 
ture ...... 

Minister  for  External  Affairs  and 
External  Territories  . 

Minister  for  Supply,  Development, 
Works  and  Housing  . 

Minister  for  the  Interior 

Minister  for  Health 

Minister  for  Fuel  and  Shipping 

Minister  for  Trade  and  Customs 

Minister  for  Air  and  Civil  Aviation   . 

Postmaster  General 

Minister  for  the  Army  and  for  the 
Navy  .... 

Attorney  General 

Vice  President  of  the  Executive 
Council 

Minister  for  Repatriation 

Minister  for  Social  Services     . 

Minister  for  Information  and  Trans- 
port ..... 


*  Robert  Gordon  Menzies 
Arthur  William.  Fadden 

Eric  John  Harrison 
Harold  Edward  Holt 
John  Me  E wen 
Percy  Claude  Spender 

Richard  Gardiner  Casey 
Philip  Albert  Martin  McBride 
Sir  Earle  Page 
George  McLeay 
Neil  O'Sulhvan 
Thomas  Walter  White 
Hubert  Lawrence  Anthony 

Josiah  Francis 

John  Armstrong  Spicer 

Dame  Enid  Lyons 
Walter  Jackson  Cooper 
William  Henry  Spooner 


Oliver  Howard  Beale 


Canada 

Prime  Minister  and  President  of  the 

Privy  Council 

Minister  of  Trade  and  Commerce    . 
Minister  of  Agriculture  . 
Minister  of  Mines  and  Resources     . 
Minister  of  Labour 
Minister  of  Public  Works 
Postmaster  General 
Minister  of  National  Defence 
Solicitor  General   .... 
Minister  of  Transport    . 


*Louis  Stephen  St.  Laurent 
Clarence  Decatur  Howe 
James  Garfield  Gardiner 
Colin  Gibson 
Humphrey  Mitchell 
Alphonse  Fournier 
Edouard  Rinfret 
Brooke  Claxton 
Hughes  Lapointe 
Lionel  Chevrier 


Post 

Minister  of  National  Health  and 
Welfare 

Minister  of  Finance 

Minister  of  National  Revenue 

Minister  without  Portfolio 

Minister  without  Portfolio 

Minister  of  Veterans  Affairs    . 

Minister  of  Fisheries 

Secretary  of  State  for  External  Affairs 

Minister  of  Justice  and  Attorney 
General  .  ... 

Minister  of  Reconstruction  and  Sup- 
ply ...  .  . 

Secretary  of  State  and  Minister  for 
Newfoundland  .... 

Ceylon 

Prime  Minister  and  Minister  of 
Defence  and  External  Affairs 

Minister  of  Commerce  and  Trade    . 

Minister  of  Health  and  Local  Gov- 
ernment 

Minister  without  Portfolio 

Minister  of  Labour  and  Social  Ser- 
vices 

Minister  of  Finance 

Minister  of  Transport  and  Works    . 

Minister  of  Education    . 

Minister  of  Industries,  Industrial 
Research  and  Fisheries 

Minister  of  Justice 
Minister  of  Food  and  Co-operative 
Undertakings 

Minister  of  Agriculture  and  Lands    . 

Minister  of  Posts  and  Telecommuni- 
cations 

Minister  of  Home  Affairs  and  Rural 
Development  .... 


Name 

Paul  Joseph  James  Martin 
Douglas  Charles  Abbott 
James  Joseph  McCann 
Wishart  McLea  Robertson 
James  Angus  MacKinnon 
Milton  Fowler  Gregg 
Robert  Wellington  Mayhew 
"Lester  Bowles  Pearson 

Stuart  Sinclair  Garson 
Robert  Henry  Winters 
Gordon  Bradley 


*Don  Stephan  Senanayake 
Henry  Woodward  Amarasuriya 

Solomon  West  Ridgeway  Dias 

Bandaranaike 
Alexander  Ekanayake  Goone- 

sinha 

Tuan  Brahanudecn  Jayah 
Jumus  Richard  Jayewardcnc 
Sir  John  Kotelawala 
Edward  Alexander  Nugawela 

Ganapathipillai  Gangesar 

Ponnambalam 
Lahta  Abhaya  Rajapaksc 

Ratnayake  Mudiyanselegedera 

Abeyratne  Ratnayake 
Dudley  Shelton  Senanayake 

Cathiravclu  Sittampalam 

Edwin  Aloysius  Perera 
Wijeyeratne 


India 

Prime  Minister  and  Minister  of  Ex- 
ternal Affairs  .... 

Deputy  Prime  Minister,  Minister  for 
States,  Home,  Information  and 
Broadcasting  .... 

Minister  for  Education  and  Arts 

Minister  for  Finance 

Minister  for  Defence 

Minister  for  Labour 

Minister  for  Communications. 

Minister  for  Health 

Minister  for  Law  .... 

Minister  for  Industry  and  Supply     . 

Minister  for  Works,  Mines  and 
Power  ..... 

Minister  for  Commerce  . 

Minister  for  Railways  and  Transport 

Minister  for  Food  and  Agriculture    . 


*Pandit  Jawaharlal  Nehru 


*Sardar  Vallabhbhai  Patel 
Maulana  Abul  Kalam  Azad 
John  Matthai 
Sardar  Baldev  Singh 
Jagjivan  Ram 
Rafi  Ahmed  Kidwai 
Rajkuman  Amrit  Kaur 
Bhimrao  Ramji  Ambcdkar 
Syama  Prasad  Mookerjee 

Narhar  Vishnoo  Gadgil 
Kshitish  Chandra  Neogy 
N.  Gopalaswami  Ayyangar 
Jairamadas  Daulatram 


New  Zealand 
Prime    Minister    and    Minister    of 

Finance     ..... 
Deputy  Prime  Minister,  Minister  of 

Agriculture  and  Marketing,  Scien- 
tific and  Industrial  Research 
Minister   of  Labour,   Employment, 

Mines  and  Immigration 
Attorney   General   and   Minister  of 

Justice 

Minister  of  Education    . 
Minister  of  Internal  Affairs 
Minister  of  Customs,  Industries  and 

Commerce,  and  Associate  Minister 

of  Finance 
Postmaster  General 
Minister  of  Lands,  Forests  and  Maori 

Affairs 
Minister  of  External  Affairs,  Island 

Territories,    Broadcasting    and 

Tourist  and  Health  Resorts. 


*Sidney  George  Holland 


Keith  Jacka  Holyoake 
William  Sullivan 

Thomas  Clifton  Webb 
Ronald  Macmillan  Algie 
William  Alexander  Bodkm 

Charles  Moore  Bowden 
Walter  James  Broadfoot 

Ernest  Bowyer  Corbett 
Frederick  Widdowson  Doidge 


CAIRO- CAMBRIDGE  UNIVERSITY 


141 


Post 

Minister  of  Works,  Housing,  State 
Hydro-electric,  Transport  and 
Railways,  Civil  Aviation  and 
Marine 

Minister  of  Defence  (Navy,  Army, 
Air)  and  Rehabilitation  and  War 
Pensions 

Minister  of  Social  Security  and  Health 

Minister  without  Portfolio,  and 
Minister  for  the  Welfare  of  Women 
and  Children  .... 

Minister  without  Portfolio,  Assistant 
to  Prime  Minister  and  State  Ad- 
vances Census  and  Statistics  and 
Public  Trust  Office 

Minister  withour  Portfolio,  Assistant 
to  Prime  Minister,  State  FireOffice, 
Government  Life  Insurance  De- 
partment and  Government  Super- 
annuation Fund 


Name 


William  Stanley  Goosman 


Thomas  Lachlan  MacDonald 
Jack  Thomas  Watts 


Mrs  Grace  Hilda  Ross 


John  Ross  Marshall 


William  Henry  Fortune 


Pakistan 


Prime  Minister  and  Minister  for 
Defence,  States  and  Frontier 
Regions 

Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs  and 
Commonwealth  Relations 

Minister  for  Finance  and  Economic 
Affairs  ... 

Minister  for  Law  and  Labour  . 

Minister  for  bducation  and  Com- 
merce 

Minister  for  Food  and  Agriculture 

Minister  for  the  Interior,  Informa- 
tion and  Broadcasting,  and  Refu- 
gees and  Rehabilitation 

Minister  for  Kashmir  Affairs 

Minister  for  Industries     . 

Minister  for  Communications 

Minister  for  Works  and  Health 


*Liaquat  All  Khan 

*S»r  Mohammad  Zafrullah  Khan 

Ghulam  Mohammad 
Jogendra  Nath  Mandal 

Fazlur  Rehman 
Pirzada  Abdus  Sattar 


Khwaja  Shahabuddin 
Mushtaq  Ahmad  Gurmam 
Chaudhry  Nazir  Admad 
Sarddi  Bahadur  Khan 
A  M.  Mahk 


South  Africa 


Prime  Minister  and  Minister  of  Ex- 
ternal Affairs 

Minister  for  Finance 

Minister  for  Native  Affairs 

Minister  for  Lands,  Irrigation  and 
Forestry 

Minister  of  Justice,  Education,  Arts 
and  Science  .... 

Minister  for  Transport 

Minister  for  the  Interior  and  Mines  . 

Minister  for  Defence,  Posts  and 
Telegraphs 

Minister  for  Economic  Affairs 

Minister  for  Public  Health  and 
Social  Welfare  .... 

Minister  for  Labour  and  Public 
Works  .  ... 

Minister  of  Agriculture   . 


*Damel  Francois  Malan 
Nicolaas  Chnstiaan  Havenga 
Ernest  George  Jansen 

Johannes  Gcrhardus  Strydom 

Charles  R.  Swart 

Paul  Sauer 

Theophilus  Ebenhaezer  Donges 

hrancois  Chnstiaan  Erasmus 
hnc  Hendnk  Louw 

A  J  Stals 

Barend  Jacobus  Schocman 
S.  P.  le  Roux 


•  See  separate  article     (See  also  GOVERNMENT  DEPARTMENTS) 

CAIRO,  the  capital  of  Egypt,  lying  across  the  Nile  north 
and  west  of  the  Mokattam  hills;  the  largest  city  in  Africa, 
the  largest  Arab-speaking  city  in  the  world  and  the  greatest 
cultural  centre  of  Islam.  Area:  c.  8  sq.  mi.  Pop.  (1947  est.): 
2,100,500. 

On  May  31,  1949,  a  bill  establishing  a  Cairo  municipality 
was  passed  by  the  Egyptian  Chamber  of  Deputies.  By  it  a 
municipal  council  was  set  up  consisting  of  the  governor  of 
Cairo  as  president,  one  elected  member  for  each  two  of  the 
Cairo  constituencies  represented  in  the  Chamber,  four 
members  appointed  by  the  council  of  ministers  and  a  number 
of  ex-officio  members.  Residence  and  other  qualifications 
for  electors  were  such  as  to  exclude  foreigners.  The  council  is 
responsible  for  controlling  the  execution  of  the  Cairo  Munici- 
pality law,  as  well  as  the  laws  concerning  hygiene,  public 
order,  buildings  and  public  institutions,  for  discussing  and 
approving  the  city  budget,  controlling  the  municipal  revenues 
and  operating  the  public  services.  The  revenues  of  the 


municipality  consist  of  taxes  on  buildings  and  certain  other 
taxes.  The  municipality  is  under  the  supervision  of  the 
minister  of  public  works,  and  the  government  is  entitled  in 
special  circumstances  to  dissolve  it  and  replace  it  by  an 
administrative  body  formed  by  the  minister. 

There  was  a  further  increase  in  building  during  the  year. 
Political  conditions  proved  a  deterrent  to  tourists;  but  an 
international  tennis  tournament  was  held  in  the  spring  and  an 
Agricultural  and  Industrial  exhibition  in  April  attracted  tens 
of  thousands  of  visitors  from  all  over  Egypt.  There  were 
seasons  of  French  drama  and  Italian  opera  at  the  Royal 
Opera  house.;  Overcrowding  of  Cairo  university,  which  had 
17,000  students,  was  stated  by  a  spokesman  in  August  to  be  a 
cause  of  poor  examination  results.  A  plan  for  a  second 
Cairo  university  was  being  studied  by  the  government. 

(C.  Ho.) 

CALCUTTA,  the  largest  city  of  India  and  until  1912 
the  seat  of  the  government  of  British  India,  extends  over  an 
area  of  32  sq.  mi.  Pop.  (1941  census):  2,108,891;  with  the 
suburb  of  Howrah,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Hooghly  (Hugli) 
river,  2,488,183. 

Depression  in  the  important  jute  industry  and  a  continued 
rise  m  the  cost  of  living  marked  the  economic  life  of  Calcutta 
in  1949.  Nevertheless,  industrial  unrest  was  not  so  prevalent 
as  in  the  previous  year.  Political  anxiety  derived  from 
evidence  that  the  provincial  government  in  office  was  losing 
some  of  its  support,  a  portent  being  the  defeat  of  the  govern- 
ment candidate  in  the  south  Calcutta  by-election.  After  a 
visit  in  August  of  Pandit  Nehru,  whose  presence  did  much 
to  improve  people's  spirits,  it  was  decided  that  a  provincial 
election  should  be  held  in  the  spring  of  1950  and  that  mean- 
time the  government  of  Dr.  B.  C.  Roy  would  remain  in  office. 

In  municipal  affairs,  Calcutta  was  fortunate  since  the 
administrative  officer,  S.  N.  Ray,  effected  reforms  which 
greatly  heartened  those  who  were  jealous  for  the  good  name 
of  Calcutta's  civic  life.  The  police,  too,  under  S.  N.  Chatterjee, 
maintained  law  and  order  to  general  satisfaction.  Relations 
between  all  communities  were  good  and  in  particular  British 
residents  enjoyed  a  goodwill  which  had  not  been  displayed 
to  them  for  a  long  time. 

Plans  for  the  future  included  a  scheme  for  an  electric 
underground  railway  and  also  the  construction  of  a  ship 
canal  from  Diamond  harbour  to  Kidderpore  docks  to 
eliminate  the  42  mi.  of  dangerous  and  difficult  river  navigation 
on  that  stretch  of  the  Hooghly  and  to  provide  a  deep  water 
approach  to  Calcutta.  The  port  reached  the  record  figure  of 
760,000  D.W.  tons  in  April  as  against  the  normal  monthly 
average  of  from  550,000  to  600,000  D.W.  tons.  (E.  HD.) 

CAMBODIA:    see  FRENCH  UNION. 

CAMBRIDGE  UNIVERSITY.  The  academic  year 
1948-49  opened  with  the  following  numbers,  the  figures  in 
parentheses  showing  the  corresponding  totals  for  1938. 
The  men's  colleges  had  5,504  (4,849)  undergraduates,  1,206 
(483)  B.A.s,  376  (159)  research  students,  and  1,551  (1,392) 
M.A.s.  In  the  women's  colleges  there  were  535  undergradu- 
ates, 100  fourth  year  and  research  students,  and  309  M.A.s. 

During  1949  the  colleges  were  able  to  accept  only  one- 
twelfth  of  the  applicants  for  admission.  Most  sets  of 
rooms  held  two  occupants  but  despite  this,  lodgings  in  the 
town  were  still  difficult  to  obtain.  The  university  authorities 
anticipated  that  this  difficulty  would  be  more  serious  in 
future,  and  to  meet  the  situation,  Christ's,  King's,  St.  Cath- 
arine's and  Newnham  colleges  started  erecting  new  buildings, 
which  rapidly  neared  completion. 

H.M.  the  Queen  inaugurated  the  new  status  of  the  women's 
colleges  and  was  given  an  honorary  degree,  thus  becoming 


142 


CANADA 


the  first  woman  graduate.  The  Cambridge  Training  college 
for  women  received  full  university  status,  becoming  as 
Hughe's  Hall  a  recognized  institution  for  women,  with  70 
students  in  statu  pupillari. 

New  engineering  laboratories  on  Coe  Fen  were  formally 
opened  by  the  chancellor.  A  farm  was  acquired  for  the  new 
veterinary  school,  and  also  a  site  for  a  new  building  for 
nuclear  physics  in  Madingley  road.  In  his  annual  address 
the  vice  chancellor  stated  that  sufficient  land  now  belonged 
to  the  university  and  colleges  to  supply  all  foreseeable  needs 
for  many  generations. 

The  following  received  honorary  doctorates  during  1949: 
C.  H.  Dodd,  emeritus  professor  of  divinity;  J.  de  la  Moran- 
diere,  doyen  de  la  faculte  de  droit  de  Pans;  Lillian  Margery 
Penson,  vice  chancellor  of  London  university;  N.  H.  Baynes, 
emeritus  professor  of  Byzantine  history,  London;  G.  Miiller, 
professor  of  modern  German,  Bonn;  Dame  Myra  Hess. 

The  following  resignations  occurred  during  the  year: 
Miss  K.  T.  Butler  (mistress  of  Girton);  A.  F.  Scholfield 
(university  librarian);  Professor  F.  Debenham  (geography); 
Professor  C.  H.  Dodd  (divinity);  Professor  A.  C.  Chibnall 
(biochemistry);  and  Professor  G.  F.  Webb  (fine  art). 

Amongst  the  losses  by  death  were:  T.  Thornely  (Trinity 
Hall),  the  oldest  Cambridge  resident;  W.  F.  Reddaway 
(King's),  late  censor  of  Fitzwilliam  Hall,  an  authority  on 
Scandinavian  and  Polish  history;  Dr.  F.  H.  A.  Marshall 
(Christ's),  author  of  Physiology  of  Reproduction,  who  left 
funds  to  found  a  chair  on  the  subject;  Sir  Rowland  BifTen 
(Emmanuel),  the  agricultural  botanist,  who  left  funds  to 
Fitzwilliam  museum  for  water  colours;  G.  T.  Lapsley, 
formerly  lecturer  on  constitutional  history;  S.  A.  Cook 
(Caius),  emeritus  professor  of  Hebrew  and  author  of  many 
biblical  books. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  Cambridge  University  Reporter,  vol.  80,  Cambridge 
Review,  vol.  70  (CH.  F.) 

CAMEROONS:  see  BRITISH  WEST  AFRICA;  FRENCH 
UNION;  TRUST  TERRITORIES. 

CANADA,  DOMINION  OF.  A  self-governing 
member  of  the  Commonwealth  of  Nations  covering  all 
North  America  north  of  the  United  States  except  Alaska. 
Canada  is  a  federal  union  under  the  terms  of  the  British 
North  American  act  (1867).  The  original  provinces  were: 

Area  Population 

(msq  mi)  (1941  census) 

Nova  Scotia 21,068  577,962 

New  Brunswick          ....                  27,985  457,401 

Quebec 594,860  3,331,882 

Ontario 412,582  3,787,655 

To  these  were  added : 

Manitoba  (1870)         .          .  246,512 

British  Columbia  (1871)               .  .  366,255 

Pnnce  Edward  Island  (1873)        .  .  2,184 

Alberta  (1905)  ....  255,285 

Saskatchewan  (1905).         .         .  .  251,700 

Newfoundland  and  Labrador  (1949)  .  152,734 

There  are  also  two  territories: 

Northwest  Territories 

(Franklin,  ICeewatin  and  Mackenzie)  1,304,903 

Yukon      ...  .  207,076 

Total    .... 


729,744 

817,861 

95,047 

796,169 

895,992 

*295,440 


12,028 
4,914 


3,843,144| 

•  1938  est.       f  Including  228,307  sq  mi  of  fresh  water 
SOURCF:  The  Canada  Year  Rook  1948-49 ',  Ottawa. 


11,802,095 


The  population  of  Canada  was  estimated  in  mid- 1949  at 
13,636,000  and  that  of  Newfoundland  and  Labrador  (1947) 
at  315,643;  the  total  population  of  the  dominion,  after  the 
incorporation  of  Newfoundland  was  estimated  in  mid- 1949 
at  13,545,000.  Over  two-thirds  of  this  population  is  con- 


centrated in  one- tenth  of  the  total  area  of  the  dominion 
(southern  parts  of  Ontario  and  Quebec,  New  Brunswick, 
Nova  Scotia  and  Prince  Edward  Island).  Canada's  births 
in  1948  totalled  347,222,  according  to  preliminary  figures, 
which  was  equivalent  to  a  birth  rate  of  27-0  as  compared 
with  28*6  in  1947.  The  natural  increase  in  1948  was  227,870. 
Languages  (1941):  English  (49-7%),  French  (30-  3  %),  German 
(4%),  Ukranian  (2 -6%),  Scandinavian  (2-1%),  Dutch  (1-9%), 
Hebrew  or  Yiddish  (1-5%),  Polish  (1-5%),  others  (6-2%). 
Religions  (1941):  Roman  Catholic  4,800,895;  United  Church 
of  Canada  2,204,875;  Church  of  England,  1,751,188;  Presby- 
terian, 829,147;  Baptist,  483,592;  Lutheran,  401,153;  Greek 
Catholic,  185,657;  Greek  Orthodox,  139,629;  Jewish,  168,367; 
others,  542,152.  Chief  towns:  Ottawa  (q.v.)  (cap.,  pop., 
1948  est.,  190,465);  Montreal  (pop.,  1948  est.,  1,096,060); 
Toronto  (pop.,  1947  est.,  695,302);  Vancouver  (pop.,  1947 
est.,  354,150);  Winnipeg  (pop.,  1947  est,  234,201);  Quebec 
(pop.,  1947  est.,  194,639).  Governor-general,  Viscount 
Alexander  of  Tunis;  prime  minister,  Louis  Stephen  St. 
Laurent  (</.v.);  secretary  of  state  for  external  affairs,  Lester 
Bowles  Pearson  (</.v.). 

History.  In  1949  Canada  welcomed  Newfoundland  into 
confederation,  as  her  tenth  province.  The  union,  agreed  on 
Dec.  11,  1948,  was  effected  on  March  31,  1949,  to  the  accom- 
paniment of  greater  enthusiasm  in  Ottawa  than  in  St.  John's. 
Although  some  Newfoundlanders  conceded  that  confedera- 
tion had  brought  benefits  to  their  island  in  the  way  of  social 
services,  dissatisfaction  with  the  economic  terms  of  union 
was  expressed  by  W.  J.  Browne,  Progressive-Conservative 
member  for  St.  John's  West,  on  Sept.  21,  in  the  first  formal 
address  to  be  made  by  a  Newfoundland  member  in  the 
Canadian  House  of  Commons. 

The  Liberal  party,  which  had  governed  Canada  since  1935, 
was  returned  to  power  with  the  largest  majority  in  its  history, 
in  the  federal  general  election  on  June  27,  under  the  leadership 
of  Louis  S.  St.  Laurent,  a  distinguished  French-Canadian 
barrister,  who  had  succeeded  W.  L.  Mackenzie  King  as  prime 
minister  seven  months  before.  (See  ELECTIONS.) 

It  was  natural  that  St.  Laurent  should  seek  to  remove  what 
some  had  felt  were  legal  ambiguities  surrounding  the  Canadian 
constitution.  Under  his  leadership,  the  House  of  Commons 
adopted  two  important  constitutional  changes.  First,  it 
voted  to  abolish  Canadian  appeals  to  the  judicial  committee 
of  the  Privy  Council  in  London,  thereby  constituting  the 
Supreme  Court  of  Canada  as  the  court  of  last  resort  in  the 
dominion.  Secondly,  the  Canadian  parliament  voted  itself 
powers  to  amend  the  dominion's  constitution  in  respect  of 
matters  within  federal  jurisdiction.  Both  measures  were 
supported  by  that  influential  Canadian  school  of  thought 
which  favoured  a  strong  centralized  federal  government  at 
Ottawa.  They  were  opposed  by  George  Drew,  a  Canadian 
air  ace  of  World  War  I  and  a  former  Progressive-Conservative 
premier  of  Ontario,  leader  of  the  opposition.  Drew  cham- 
pioned the  rights  of  the  provinces  in  the  Canadian  constitu- 
tion, as  being  a  guarantee  of  protection  for  the  individual 
citizen  against  a  too  powerful  federal  authority.  The  third 
party  in  the  House  of  Commons  —the  Co-operative  Com- 
monwealth (Labour)  federation — secured  the  adoption  of 
a  provision  that  there  should  be  a  session  of  the  parliament 
at  least  once  each  year  and  that  no  House  of  Commons 
should  continue  for  more  than  five  years.  St.  Laurent  accepted 
this,  with  the  reservation  that *'  in  time  of  real  or  apprehended 
war,  invasion  or  insurrection"  a  House  of  Commons  might 
be  prolonged. 

Canada  moved  towards  closer  integration  of  her  defence 
preparations  with  those  of  the  United  States.  It  was  revealed 
that  the  two  countries  had  adopted  the  same  communications 
systems,  battle  procedure  and  battle  orders  and  were 
working  towards  full  standardization  of  weapons.  They  were 


CANADA 


143 


On  April  /,  1949,  ceremonies  were  held  to  mark  the  entry  of  Newfoundland  into  the  Canadian  confederation.  Photo  shows  Louis  St.  Laurent , 
prime  minister,  making  the  first  chisel  mark  in   the  blank  shield  at  the  entrance  to  the  parliament  buildings  at  Ottawa.    The  shield 

would  eventually  bear  the  arms  of  Newfoundland. 


co-operating  in  military  research.  The  prime  minister  indicated 
on  Oct.  20  that  his  government  saw  little  immediate  danger 
of  war. 

An  important  development  in  Canadian  labour  history 
was  the  expulsion  of  Communist  elements  from  national 
labour  organizations.  The  Trades  and  Labour  Congress  of 
Canada,  convened  in  Calgary  on  Sept.  15,  adopted  reso- 
lutions recommending  that  affiliates  should  expel  all  known 
Communists  by  constitutional  procedure.  The  Canadian 
Congress  of  Labour,  meeting  in  Ottawa  on  Oct.  3,  sustained 
by  an  overwhelming  vote  the  suspension  by  their  executive 
of  five  officers  of  the  Communist-tinged  United  Electrical 
Workers*  union. 

Although  the  average  Canadian  experienced  a  sharp 
increase  in  the  cost  of  living  during  the  year,  employment 
was,  generally  speaking,  maintained  at  a  high  level.  In  the 
weekending  June  4  total  employment  in  Canada  was  5,018,000, 
comprising  3,918,000  males  and  1,100,000  females.  Total 
Canadian  labour  income  for  the  first  six  months  of  1949  was 
$3,687  million,  which  represented  an  increase  of  approxi- 
mately 10%  over  1948. 

Devaluation  and  Trade.  Canada's  dollar  was  often  described 
as  a  sort  of  half-way  house  between  the  pound  sterling  and 
the  American  dollar.  It  was  only  to  be  expected  that  a  major 
change  in  the  value  of  sterling  would  be  followed  by  some 
sympathetic  adjustment  of  the  Canadian  exchange  rate. 
Sir  Stafford  Cripps  announced  devaluation  of  the  pound 
sterling  in  a  broadcast  on  the  evening  of  Sunday,  Sept.  18. 


On  the  following  night  Canada  devalued  her  dollar  by  10%. 
Commenting  on  Britain's  action,  Douglas  Abbott,  Canadian 
minister  of  finance,  said :  "  The  action  which  the  United 
Kingdom  has  taken  constitutes  a  courageous  and  positive 
effort  by  the  British  people  to  do  their  part  in  the  common 
endeavours  that  are  necessary  to  provide  a  basis  for  a  real 
and  enduring  recovery  of  world  trade." 

Canada's  dollar  position  vis-a-vis  the  United  States  showed 
some  improvement  during  the  year  but  the  contraction  of  her 
traditional  British  market  for  foodstuffs  and  raw  materials 
threatened  to  precipitate  a  grave  situation.  Under  these 
circumstances,  the  Canadian  government  took  measures 
designed  to  provide  Britain  with  the  means  of  payment  for 
Canadian  goods  through  increasing  Canada's  purchases  of 
British  products.  Speaking  in  Montreal,  on  Oct.  20,  C.  D. 
Howe,  minister  of  trade,  said  that  Canada's  chief  difficulty 
was  that  she  bought  more  from  the  United  States  than  she 
sold  to  that  country,  and  bought  less  from  Britain  than  she 
sold  to  her.  If  Canada  could  somehow  divert  about  $400> 
million  worth  of  annual  imports  from  the  United  States  to 
the  United  Kingdom,  her  trade  problem  would  be  solved. 

To  help  increase  the  sale  of  British  goods  in  the  dominion, 
a  Canadian  Dollar-Sterling  Trade  board  was  formed  h> 
October,  being  an  advisory  committee  of  Canadian  indus- 
trialists, designed  to  work  in  close  co-operation  with  the 
United  Kingdom  Dollar  Exports  board.  James  S.  Duncan, 
chairman  of  the  Canadian  board,  stated  at  a  press  conference 
in  London  on  Nov.  4  that  Canadian  business  men  considered 


144 


CANADIAN  LITERATURE 


it  "not  easy  but  not  hopeless"  to  bridge  the  dollar  gap 
between  Britain  and  Canada  by  increased  British  exports. 

Even  as  she  faced  these  trading  difficulties,  Canada  became 
aware  of  new  potentialities  of  mineral  wealth  within  her  own 
borders.  There  were  tremendous  deposits  of  high-grade  iron 
ore  in  Labrador.  There  was  the  rapidly-expanding  oil 
development  in  Alberta,  already  producing  enough  petroleum 
to  supply  the  needs  of  the  three  prairie  provinces,  with  proved 
reserves  standing  at  1,000  million  barrels.  There  were  sup- 
plies of  uranium,  titanium  and  base  metals.  Such  resources, 
it  was  confidently  predicted,  would  reinforce  Canada's 
economy  during  the  next  few  critical  years. 

Miscellaneous.  It  was  announced  that  Donald  Gordon, 
a  member  of  the  Canadian  government's  financial  brains 
trust  and  deputy  governor  of  the  Bank  of  Canada,  would 
become  chairman  and  president  of  the  nationally-owned 
railway  system,  the  Canadian  National  railways,  as  from 
Jan.  1,  1950.  It  was  the  first  time  in  16  years  that  the  govern- 
ment had  reached  outside  railway  ranks  for  a  C.N.R.  chief. 
With  regular  flights  linking  her  with  Britain  and  Australia, 
Canada  emerged  as  an  important  air  traffic  centre.  It  was 
recognized  that  it  would  probably  be  several  years  before  a 
British  air  line  operated  from  London  to  the  far  east  through 
northern  Canada  but  in  the  new  air  agreement  with  Great 
Britain,  initialled  on  Aug.  2,  the  dominion  conceded  the 
right  to  use  an  airport  in  northern  Manitoba.  The  first  jet- 
propelled  airliner  produced  on  the  North  American  continent, 
the  Canadian-designed  Avro  passed  successfully  through 
initial  flight  tests  over  Ontario  on  Aug.  10. 

Examining  cultural  facilities,  Canada's  Royal  Commission 
on  National  Development  in  the  Arts,  Letters  and  Sciences 
held  public  hearings  in  a  number  of  cities.  (L.  BP.) 

Education.  With  the  exception  of  French-speaking  and  Roman 
Catholic  Quebec,  elementary  and  secondary  education  is  almost 
entirely  state-controlled.  (1946)  State-controlled  schools  in  Canada, 
including  primary  schools  in  Quebec,  31,130,  pupils  2,039,280.  teachers 
75,932  Universities  (18)  and  a  number  of  other  institutions  of  higher 
education,  students  157,120  Illiteracy  (1931)  3-8%. 

Agriculture  and  Fisheries.  Mam  crops  ('000  metric  tons,  1948; 
1949  est.  in  brackets):  wheat  10,705  (10,113);  oats  5,207  (4,673); 
barley  3,375  (2,724);  rye  644  (251);  maize  315;  potatoes  2,800  (2,400); 
tobacco  57.  Livestock  (in  '000  head):  cattle  (Dec.  1947)  8,943;  sheep 
(Dec.  1947)  1,558;  pigs  (Dec.  1948)  5,381;  horses  (June  1948)  1,905; 
chickens  (June  1948)  69,678.  Fisheries,  total  catch  (1948).  weight 
1,270  million  Ib  ;  value  $59-8  million. 

Cash  income  from  the  sale  of  farm  products  (million  dollars,  1948): 
total  2,450;  wheat,  including  participation  payments  560,  other 
grains  213;  potatoes  51;  tobacco  38,  fruits  and  vegetables  99;  forest 
products  63;  cattle  and  calves  434;  hogs  301;  dairy  products  389; 
poultry  and  eggs  181;  all  other  products  120.  Agricultural  labour 
force  (June  1949):  total  1,123,000;  farm  operators  667,000;  paid 
workers  154,000;  unpaid  family  workers  302,000. 

Food  production  ('000  metric  tons,  1948;  1949,  six  months,  in 
brackets):  butter  129  (56);  cheese  39-2  (18-9);  meat  637  (266)  of 
which  beef  340  (148)  and  pork  272  (116);  wheat  flour  1,987  (843). 

Industry.  (1946)  Industrial  establishments  31,249;  persons  employed 
1,058,156,  gross  value  of  production  58,036  million,  net  value  $3,467 
million.  Fuel  and  power  (1948;  1949,  six  months,  in  brackets):  coal 
('000  metric  tons)  15,244  (7,525),  lignite  1,440  (741);  natural  gas 
(million  cu  ft)  43,800  (27,585);  electricity  (million  kwh.)  44,569 
(23,462),  crude  oil  ('000  metric  tons)  1,591  (1,262).  Raw  materials 
('000  metric  tons  1948;  1949,  six  months,  in  brackets),  iron  ore, 
metal  content  1,188  (851);  pig  iron  2,096  (1,148);  steel  ingots  and 
castings  2,904  (1,520);  copper  219  (117);  lead  149  (68);  zinc  211  (120); 
nickel  120  (61);  synthetic  rubber  41  2  (25-2);  gypsum  3,216  (1,089); 
asbestos  654  (141),  gold  ('000  fine  oz  )  3,528  (1,963);  silver  ('000  fine 
oz.)  16,1 10  (8,186).  Manufactured  goods  ('000  metric  tons  1948;  1949, 
six  months,  in  brackets),  wood  pulp  7,687  (3,853);  newsprint  4,664 
(2,496);  cement  2,244  (1,201);  cotton  yarn  80  6  (41  -9);  wool  yarn 
7-8(3  5)*  woven  cotton  fabrics  (million  m.)  245  (127);  timber  (million 
ft.  board  measure)  2,658  (1,366);  automobiles  (in  thousands)  264  (140). 
Index  of  industrial  production  (1935-39-100,  1948,  1949,  six 
months,  m  brackets)  total  production  181-5  (184-6);  gold  83-9 
(93-9);  copper  946  (101-9);  nickel  134-6  (139-4);  coal  122-5 
(120-0);  meat  products  142-5  (130-9);  dairy  products  125-4  (126-3); 
flour  and  feed  155-8  (133-7);  sugar  154-6  (157-8);  beverages  255-8 
(250-0);  tobacco  products  204  2  (219-4);  rubber  products  239-8 
(239-3);  leather  products  138-0  (141-4);  textiles  167-8  (172-4); 


clothing  139-2  (145-9);  paper  products  184-7  (182-6);  printing  and 
publishing  1 63  •  8  ( 1 66  •  7) ;  petroleum  and  coal  products  1 93  •  1  ( 1 94  •  0) ; 
chemical  products  182-2  (187-0);  wood  products  155-2  (157-7); 
iron  and  steel  products  221-2  (232-5);  transportation  equipment 
236-4  (246-1);  non-ferrous  metals  and  products  205-0  (213-7); 
electrical  apparatus  260-8  (277-3);  non-metallic  mineral  products 
233-7(220-0). 

Canadian  labour  income  (million  dollars,  1948):  total  7,128; 
agriculture,  logging,  fishing,  trapping  and  mining  644;  manufacturing 
2,426;  construction  476;  public  utilities,  transportation,  communica- 
tions, storage,  trade  1,853;  finance,  services  (including  government) 
1,509;  supplementary  labour  income  220.  Average  weekly  salaries 
and  wages  in  manufacturing  (1948):  $40-91. 

Foreign  Trade.  Imports:  (1948)  $2,637  million;  (1949,  six  months) 
$1,410  million.  Exports:  (1948)  $3,110  million;  (1949,  six  months) 
$1,438  million.  Mam  sources  of  imports  (1948;  in  brackets,  1938): 
United  States  68%  (63%);  United  Kingdom  11%  (18%).  Mam 
destinations  of  exports  (1948;  m  brackets,  1938):  United  States  49% 
(32%);  United  Kingdom  22%  (41%).  Main  commodities  imported 
(1948;  in  brackets,  1938)  machinery  and  vehicles  20%  (15%); 
petroleum  and  products  11%  (8%);  iron,  steel  and  manufactures 
9%  (9%);  coal  and  products  8%  (6%);  cotton  and  manufactures  5% 
(4%);  wool  and  manufactures  4%  (4%):  chemicals  and  allied 
products  5%  (5%).  Main  commodities  exported  (1948;  in  brackets, 
1938).  newsprint  12%  (12%);  wheat  and  wheat  flour  12%  (13%); 
wood  and  manufactures  10%  (8%);  woodpulp  7%  (3%);  grains  other 
than  wheat  3%  (3%);  copper  and  manufactures  3%  (6%);  nickel 
2%  (6%) 

Transport  and  Communications.  Roads  (1946):  surfaced  140,049  mi , 
non-surfaced  412,914  mi.  Licensed  motor  vehicles  (Dec.  1948):  cars 
1,473,000,  commercial  vehicles  475,000.  Railways-  steam  lines  (1947) 
42,322  mi.,  passenger-mi.  (1948)  3,444  million;  freight  net  ton-mi. 
(1948)  53,278  million.  Shipping  (Dec.  1947)  merchant  vessels,  including 
vessels  for  inland  navigation,  10,931,  total  net  tonnage  1,710,031. 
Air  transport  (1948):  passenger-mi.  390  million,  cargo  net  ton-mi. 
6  million.  Telephones  (1946)  2,026,118.  Wireless  licences  (1947) 
1,816,840. 

Finance  and  Banking.  (Million  Canadian  dollars)  Budget-  (1948-49) 
revenue  2,768,  expenditure  2,193;  (1949-50  est.)  revenue  2,477,  expendi- 
ture 2,390.  National  debt  (Dec.  1948;  m  brackets  Dec.  1947):  $15,758 
(15,558)  of  which  $309  (210)  was  foreign  debt.  Currency  circulation 
(Sept.  1949;  m  brackets,  Sept.  1948):  $1,176  (1,180).  Gold  reserve 
(Sept.  1949;  m  brackets,  Sept.  1948):  460  (378)  million  U.S.  dollars. 
Foreign  exchange  reserve  (Sept.  1949;  m  brackets,  Sept.  1948)-  535 
(484)  million  U.S.  dollars.  Bank  deposits  (Aug.  1949;  in  brackets, 
Aug.  1948):  $3,033  (2,914).  Monetary  unit:  Canadian  dollar  with  an 
exchange  rate  (Dec.  1949;  in  brackets,  Dec.  1948)  of  3-08  (4-03) 
dollars  to  the  pound.  The  restoration  of  the  discount  of  nearly  10% 
on  the  Canadian  dollar  in  terms  of  the  U.S  dollar  followed  the 
devaluation  of  sterling  on  Sept  18,  1949 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  D.  G.  Creighton,  Dominion  of  the  North  (Boston, 
1949);  J.  Douglas  Gibson,  ed.,  Canada's  Economy  in  a  Changing 
World  (Toronto,  1949);  A.  R.  M.  Lower,  Colony  to  Nation  (Toronto, 
1949);  G.  M.  Wrong,  C.  Martin  and  W.  N  Sage,  The  Story  of  Canada 
(Toronto,  1949). 

CANADIAN  LITERATURE.  Contemporary  themes 
predominated  in  the  Canadian  novels  of  1949.  Constance 
Beresford-Howe's  The  Invisible  Gate  portrayed  family  life  in 
Montreal;  Isabelle  Hughes'  Time  in  Ambush  did  the  same 
for  Toronto.  Len  Peterson's  Chipmunk,  a  study  of  maladjust- 
ment, and  Sol.  Allen's  Toronto  Doctor  also  used  Toronto 
settings.  Leo  P.  Walsh  discussed  the  contemporary  Canadian 
attitude  to  illegitimacy  in  The  Sinful  Town. 

Other  1949  English-Canadian  novels  went  into  the  past 
for  their  themes  and  settings.  Ethel  Wilson's  chief  character 
in  Innocent  Traveller  spanned  100  years,  from  Victorian 
England  to  modern  Vancouver;  Kathleen  Coburn's  The 
Grandmothers  covered  nearly  the  same  period,  with  one 
lively  grandmother  in  Ontario  and  the  other  in  Czechoslo- 
vakia; Mazo  de  la  Roche's  sentimental  Mary  Wakefidd 
covered  the  1890s  in  her  famous  Jalna  saga.  Other  periods 
appealed  to  other  authors:  Charles  Terrot  went  to  Nova 
Scotia  in  1755  for  his  robust  Passionate  Pilgrim;  Harry 
Symons  to  the  voyage  of  Columbus  for  his  realistic  Three 
Ships  West;  Bertram  Brooker  to  Jerusalem  for  his  vigorous 
portrait  of  Barrabbas,  The  Robber. 

Biography  continued  to  attract  writers  and  there  appeared: 
Tom  Cullen  of  Baltimore,  Judith  Robinson;  Bride,  Immortal 
Scoundrel,  J.  H.  Cranston;  Link  to  the  North  (Mickey  Ryan 


CANALS   AND   INLAND   WATERWAYS 


145 


of  Arctic  fame),  G.  J.  Tranter;  Mackenzie  King  of  Canada, 
H.  Reginald  Hardy.  Personal  memoirs  prompted  three: 
Nancy  Jones,  a  preacher's  wife,  wrote  of  her  life  in  For 
Goodness*  Sake;  W.  T.  Allison  recalled  a  professor's  life  in 
This  for  Rembrance;  Ruth  Harvey  recalled  memories  of 
the  old-time  theatre  in  Curtain  Time. 

The  rest  of  the  1949  non-fiction  was  extremely  varied. 
A  number  of  personal  commentaries  were  compelling: 
Robertson  Davies  was  by  turns  witty  and  caustic  with  The 
Table  Talk  of  Samuel  Marchbanks;  Hugh  MacLennan 
searchingly  examined  the  Canadian  personality  in  Cross 
Country;  Arthur  Meighen  restated  his  political  and  other 
speeches  in  Unrevised  and  Unrepented;  the  material  for 
John  Fisher  Reports  and  Andy  Clark  and  His  Neighbourly 
News  was  previously  broadcast  as  15-min.  talks. 

French-Canadian.  Critics  hailed  Ringuet's  (the  pseudo- 
nym of  Phillips  Panneton)  Le  poids  du  jour  as  his  best  novel 
and  the  leading  book  of  1949.  It  covered  50  years  of  small- 
town and  Montreal  city  life  before  and  after  World  War  I 
with  lively  fidelity.  Jean  Simard's  Hotel  de  la  reine  was  a 
psychological  story  with  divertingly  humorous  overtones. 
Germaine  Guevremont's  Marie-Didace  was  a  poetic  treat- 
ment of  typical  French-Canadian  rural  life.  Claude  Vela 
portrayed  family  conflicts  solved  by  faith  in  Derive  and 
Claude  Surlands  went  to  an  old  chateau  in  the  Carpathian 
mountains  for  love  and  adventure  in  La  Campanule  des 
Karpathes.  Other  outstanding  novels  of  the  year  included 
Andre  Giroux's  Au  dela  des  visages  and  G.  Moberley's  Diana. 

The  most  significant  nonfiction  works  were  Robert 
Rumilly's  Vautonomie  provinciate,  a  well  documented  study 
of  provincial  rights  and  autonomy,  and  Dostaler  O'Leary's 
Introduction  a  rhistoire  de  rAmerique  latine.  (See  also 
LITERARY  PRIZES.)  (C.  CY.) 

CANALS  AND  INLAND  WATERWAYS. 

During  1949  the  Transport  commission  published  its  first 
report  and  accounts  covering  the  year  1948.  Results  were 
better  than  anticipated;  but  operations  of  the  Docks  and 
Inland  Waterways  executive  showed  deficits  for  canal  tolls 
and  carrying  receipts,  although  the  total  traffic  was  higher 
than  in  1947.  Acquisition  of  the  remaining  railway-owned 
canals  was  continued.  Improvements,  including  the 
modernization  of  carrying  craft,  were  carried  out.  Dredging 
plant  was  transferred  to  deepen  canals  at  shallow  points  and 
banks  and  tow-paths  were  restored  to  enable  full  loads  to 
be  carried.  The  pooling  of  resources  speeded  up  the  turn- 
round  of  craft. 

Additional  warehouses  were  acquired  at  Worcester  and 
Stourport,  but  because  of  the  national  necessity  of  restricting 
capital  expenditure  and  the  shortage  of  labour  and  materials 
no  major  schemes  of  improvement  were  started.  Authoriza- 
tion was  obtained  for  improvements  on  the  river  Severn, 
and  for  wall  repairs  on  the  river  Lee.  Disused  waterways 
were  surveyed  for  alternative  uses.  In  March  a  local  com- 
mittee bought  the  abandoned  Basingstoke  canal  at  a  public 
auction  for  £6,000.  Others  were  taken  over  by  local  bodies, 
but  conversely  a  narrow  boat  reached  New  bury  via  the 
Kennett  and  Avon  canal — the  canal's  first  use  since  1927. 

The  commission  owned  or  controlled  1,149  carrying  craft 
(about  one-sixth  of  the  total  operating  on  British  canals)  and 
2,050  mi.  of  waterways,  1,000  mi.  of  which  were  broad  gauge 
canals  and  canalized  rivers.  Through  tolls  were  introduced, 
but  only  for  each  waterway  division.  Negotiation  machinery 
was  reviewed  with  trades  unions,  and  the  constitution  of 
the  Joint  Industrial  council  was  revised.  Arrangements  were 
made  with  Ministry  of  Education  for  a  residential  hostel 
at  Birmingham  for  the  children  of  canal  boatmen. 

The  Port  of  London  authority,  concerned  at  rising  dredging 
costs,  set  up  a  pilot  model  of  the  Thames  estuary.  The  model 

B.B.Y.— 11 


was  to  be  used  experimentally  to  discover  conditions  likely 
to  arise  in  a  larger  model  to  be  built  later  embodying  the 
knowledge  gained.  The  larger  model,  it  was  hoped,  would 
yield  reliable  data  for  practical  application. 

Internationally  inland  water  transport  was  studied  by  an 
ad  hoc  working  party  at  Geneva  and  by  the  International 
Chamber  of  Commerce.  They  compared  the  economic 
factors  of  the  problem  of  transport  co-ordination  and  recom- 
mended a  study  of  true  costs,  rate  structures,  potential  needs, 
quality  of  service,  organization  and  conditions  of  employment. 

Belgium.  Plans  were  drawn  up  to  enable  large  Rhine-going 
lighters  to  proofed  in  the  northern  and  eastern  districts  above 
Ghent,  near  Antwerp,  and  in  the  Brussels  district  to  Clabecq 
and  Lie*ge,  financed  by  the  European  Recovery  programme. 
Mons,  Charleroi,  Tournai  and  La  Louviere  could  only  take 
craft  up  to  300  tons. 

Danube.  The  first  meeting  of  the  International  Danube 
commission,  which  was  set  up  at  the  conference  in  Belgrade, 
Aug.  1948,  was  held  in  Galatz,  Rumania,  in  Nov.  1949. 
F.  Rudenco,  Rumania,  was  elected  chairman,  and  Mr. 
Linhart  (Czechoslovakia),  deputy  chairman.  Mr.  Morozov, 
Soviet  Union,  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  commission. 
The  Rumanian  government  announced  its  decision  to  dis- 
solve the  Rumanian  Danube  Steamship  company  and  to 
transfer  its  fleet  and  property  to  the  joint  Russian-Rumanian 
transport  undertaking.  Great  Britain,  France  and  the  United 
States  did  not  attend  the  meeting.  On  Nov.  15,  they  sent 
notes  to  the  participating  nations  stating  that  they  did  not 
recognize  the  commission.  The  Lanchid,  a  new  chain  bridge 
over  the  Danube  to  replace  one  destroyed  in  World  War  II, 
at  Budapest,  was  re-opened  on  Nov.  20. 

Ireland.  The  Milne  report  recommended  re-organization 
of  Irish  transport  with  immediate  acquisition  of  the  public 
transport  systems  including  the  Grand  canal  company. 
Coras  lompair  feireann  would  be  reconstituted  and  would 
bear  administrative  responsibility.  A  bill  to  give  effect  to 
these  recommendations  was  published  in  October. 

Netherlands.  The  Dutch  inland  water  fleet  numbered 
17,100  vessels  totalling  5  million  tons — its  prewar  level. 
Work  proceeded  on  the  Amsterdam-Rhine  canal  for  2,000- 
ton  ships. 

Rhine.  Navigation  was  greatly  improved  during  1949. 
Craft  were  able  to  pass  in  a  two-way  direction  except  in  the 
Cologne  area,  where  only  one  direction  at  a  time  was 


An  elevator  for  barges  on  a  canal  in  Belgium.    The  elevator,  which 
was  installed  in  1949,  raised  or  lowered  barges  48  ft. 


The  first  vessel  crossing  the  reconstructed  Mittelland  aqueduct  over  the  river  Weser,  near  Minden,  Germany,  Feb.  18, 


permitted.  The  normal  channel  depth  of  2^  m.  between  Emme- 
rich and  Ruhrort  was  re-established  as  was  the  buoyage  to 
enable  night  navigation.  The  harbours  at  Duisburg-Ruhrort 
were  cleared  almost  to  their  prewar  capacity  and  much  new 
equipment,  including  four  200-ton  lift  floating  cranes  and 
nine  heavy  lift  portal  cranes  of  200-600  tons  capacity,  was 
provided.  Work  on  the  Rhine- Main-Danube  was  continued. 
The  Mittelland  aqueduct  over  the  river  Weser  was  re-opened 
on  Feb.  18. 

Sweden.  The  Roads  and  Waterways  administration 
reported  on  the  need  in  peacetime  of  the  Falsterbo  Ship 
canal,  which  had  been  cut  across  the  peninsula  of  that  name 
during  World  War  II,  to  pass  ships  into  and  out  of  the 
Baltic  without  crossing  German  minefields.  (W.  A.  F.) 

United  States.  Of  the  estimated  65,000  mi.  of  potential 
inland  waterways  in  the  United  States,  approximately 
30,000  mi.  had  been  improved  for  navigation  by  commercial 
and  pleasure  craft  by  the  end  of  1949.  All  operations  and 
maintenance  of  the  system,  which  includes  185  harbours  and 
400  locks,  remained  the  responsibility  of  the  Corps  of  Engin- 
eers, Department  of  the  Army,  under  the  direction  of  congress. 

The  River  and  Harbour  act  approved  on  Oct.  13,  1949, 
provided  $1,1 14,145,690  for  the  construction  of  92  authorized 
projects  in  37  states,  including  about  $995  million  for 
flood  control  and  $119,500,000  for  river  and  harbour 
projects.  An  additional  $75  million  was  appropriated  for 
maintenance,  operation  and  care  of  the  nation's  vast  network 
of  ports  and  inland  waterways,  and  $3,200,000  for  planning, 
preliminary  examinations  and  surveys  of  new  projects.  In 
addition,  the  lower  Mississippi  river  and  the  Sacramento 
river  in  California  received  separate  appropriations  of 
$67  million  and  $3,600,000  respectively  for  construction, 
maintenance  and  operations. 

Among  the  principal  projects  on  which  construction  was 
begun  or  continued  during  the  year  were  the  McNary  lock 
and  dam  and  the  Chief  Joseph  dam  on  the  Columbia  river 
in  the  interest  of  navigation,  power  development  and  irriga- 
tion; the  New  York  and  New  Jersey  channels;  Dempoliso 
lock  and  dam,  on  Warrior  river,  Alabama;  Houston  ship 
channel,  Texas;  the  Neches  and  Angelina  rivers  and  the 
Sabine-Neches  waterway,  in  Texas;  lateral  canal  and  lock 
project  on  the  Mississippi  river  at  Chain  of  Rocks,  near 
St.  Louis,  Missouri;  Morgantown  dam  and  lock  no.  2,  on 
Monongahela  river;  Cleveland  harbour;  Missouri  river 
between  its  mouth  and  Sioux  City,  Iowa;  Pearl  river,  Missis- 


sippi and  Louisiana;  San  Diego  river  and  Mission  bay, 
California;  New  Haven  harbour,  Conn*  cticut;  Jim  Wood- 
ruff  lock  and  dam,  Apalachicola  river,  Florida. 

According  to  preliminary  estimates,  the  total  net  water- 
borne  commerce  of  the  United  States,  eliminating  all  known 
duplications  of  traffic  between  rivers  and  ports,  reached  the 
record  level  of  794,772,987  short  tons  in  the  calendar  year 
1948.  Ocean  traffic,  foreign  and  coastwise,  aggregated 
335,253,737  tons. 

United  States  water-borne  commerce  on  the  Great  Lakes 
aggregated  118,000  million  ton-miles.  Inland  waterway 
commerce,  excluding  the  Great  Lakes,  totalled  40,276,403,000- 
ton-miles,  including  the  deep  sea  traffic  on  the  Mississippi 
river  below  Baton  Rouge,  Louisiana.  Of  this  total,  the 
Mississippi  river  system  accounted  for  27,859,246,000  ton- 
miles  while  the  Gulf  Intracoastal  waterway  carried 
5,903,341,811  ton-miles.  (See  also  DOCKS  AND  HARBOURS; 
FLOODS  AND  FLOOD  CONTROL;  PANAMA  CANAL  ZONE;  SUEZ 
CANAL.)  (G.  HB.) 

CANCER.  The  cause  of  cancer  continued  to  be  intensively 
studied  in  1949.  As  far  as  can  be  judged,  it  arose  from  an 
alteration  in  the  cell,  a  so-called  mutation,  which  may  take 
place  under  a  variety  of  conditions,  including  exposure  of 
the  cells  to  injury  or  infection,  which  causes  them  to  grow. 
W.  R.  Earle  showed  that  if  the  cells  of  normal  tissue  are 
cultivated  for  a  long  time  in  an  artificial  culture  medium 
their  biological  qualities  may  be  altered  so  that  they  can  on 
inoculation  produce  a  malignant  growth.  His  experiments 
were  carried  out  with  animal  tissues  and  with  standard 
methods  of  tissue  culture.  Slight  irritations  produced  by 
exposure  to  physical  agents,  such  as  X-ray  or  radium,  will 
change  the  individual  cells  into  a  new  type  of  cell  which  is 
more  or  less  permanent  and  ultimately  is  recognizable  as 
a  malignant  growth.  In  other  words,  the  cancer  cell  is  simply 
a  normal  cell  which  under  various  conditions  is  so  altered  in 
the  course  of  time  that  it  is  capable  of  extending  into  normal 
structures  and  ultimately  causing  the  death  of  such  structures. 
In  animals  there  are  certain  types  of  tumours  which  differ 
somewhat  from  those  in  human  beings  and  are  apparently 
due  to  a  mutation  occurring  in  the  tissues  of  the  breast. 
John  J.  Bittner  studied  cancer  of  the  breast  in  a  strain  of 
mice  which  was  probably  caused  by  the  presence  of  a  virus- 
in  the  tissues.  The  virus  was  apparently  transmitted  by 
nursing  and  gave  rise  to  a  large  number  of  cases  of  malignant 


CANNING  INDUSTRY-CANTERBURY,   ARCHBISHOP 


147 


breast  tumours  among  healthy  animals  that  were  permitted 
to  nurse  from  an  infected  strain.  The  breast  tumour  tissue 
contains  minute  particles  which  could  be  demonstrated  only 
under  special  conditions.  These  small  particles  were  believed 
to  be  a  type  of  virus,  as  they  could  be  obtained  in  quantity 
only  by  centrifuging  at  a  high  speed  the  fluid  obtained  from 
extracts  of  these  breast  cancers.  The  demonstration  of  these 
particles  was  first  made  by  R.  D.  Pasey  and  his  colleagues 
in  the  department  of  experimental  pathology  of  the 
University  of  Leeds,  England.  The  suggestion  that  human 
breast  cancer  may  be  due  to  the  same  organism  was  much 
discussed  in  popular  magazines  during  1949,  but  there  was 
no  evidence  of  any  such  transmission  of  tumours  in  human 
beings. 

The  treatment  of  cancer  with  isotopes  produced  by  the 
cyclotron  was  being  carried  out  on  a  large  scale  in  1949, 
chiefly  with  iodine  (I103)  and  phosphorus  (P32)  with  or  without 
radiation  as  an  adjuvant.  The  radioactive  iodine  was  used 
largely  in  the  treatment  of  thyroid  conditions,  either  without 
the  application  of  surgery,  or  as  part  of  a  course  of  treatment 
which  included  surgery.  Some  clinics  gave  thiouracil  at 
first,  followed  by  radioactive  iodine,  to  reduce  the  activity 
of  the  gland,  followed  by  excision.  Others  simply  gave  the 
radioactive  iodine  followed  by  surgery.  Mild  cases  might  be 
sufficiently  benefited  by  the  radioactive  iodine  alone. 

Of  the  blood  diseases  the  only  one  which  seems  to  be 
effectively  treated  is  polycythaemia  (excess  in  the  number  of 
red  corpuscles  in  the  blood).  In  the  leuchacmias  (diseases 
characterized  by  excessive  production  of  white  corpuscles) 
reduction  of  the  cells  by  the  administration  of  radioactive 
substances  was  accomplished,  but  dosage  had  to  be  carefully 
limited  because  of  the  destruction  of  the  normal  cells  of  the 
bone  marrow  as  well  as  the  pathological  types.  As  a  rule 
X-ray  was  a  safer  method  of  treatment  of  the  leuchaemias, 
though  in  expert  hands  a  combination  of  radioactive  material 
and  X-ray  seemed  to  be  of  benefit. 

The  use  of  high  voltage  X-ray  was  being  studied  in  1949, 
using  anode  potentials  of  1,000,000  volts  or  more,  but,  as 
might  be  expected,  no  great  biological  differences  could  be 
detected  between  the  high  voltages  and  the  ordinary  200  or 
300-kv.  X-ray  which  had  become  fairly  standardized.  This 
was  to  be  expected  from  the  results  published  by  Charles 
Packard  who  showed  by  using  a  biological  object  and 
measuring  the  output  of  the  machine  in  an  ionization  chamber 
that  there  were  no  differences  in  the  lethal  effect  of  radiation 
produced  by  potentials  from  150-kv.  to  1,000,000-kv.  The 
only  advantage  of  the  higher  voltage  is  that  the  penetration 
is  somewhat  greater  and  hence  can  influence  deeper  tissues, 
but  there  was  always  the  danger  with  such  high  voltage 
treatment  of  excessive  damage  unless  measurements  were 
carefully  made.  Also  the  cost  of  high-energy  treatment 
made  it  impossible  for  all  but  a  few  research  institutes  to 
use  it  and  the  tendency  was  to  use  radium  or  one  of  the 
radioactive  isotopes  for  local  treatment  and  moderate- 
voltage  X-ray  equipment  for  general  therapy,  especially  of 
internal  cancer.  (See  also  CHEMOTHERAPY;  MEDICINE; 
SURGERY;  X-RAY  AND  RADIOLOGY.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  W.  R.  Earle,  **  Production  of  Malignancy  in  Vitro: 
Mouse  Fibroblast  Cultures  and  Changes  Seen  in  Living  Cells,"  /.  Nat. 
Cancer  Inst.,  4.  165-212,  Washington,  D.C  ,  Oct.  1943;  W.  R.  Earle 
and  A.  Nettleship,  **  Production  of  Malignancy  in  Vitro:  Results  of 
Injections  of  Cultures  into  Mice,"  ibid.,  4:  213-227,  Oct.  1943;  John  J. 
Bittner,  "  Mammary  Cancer  in  Fostered  and  Unfostered  C3H  Breeding 
Females  and  Their  Hybrids,"  Cancer  Research,  3:  441-447,  Baltimore, 
Maryland,  July  1943;  R.  D.  Passey,  L.  Dmochowski,  W.  T.  Astbury 
and  R.  Reed,  "  Electron  Microscope  Studies  of  Normal  and  Malignant 
Tissues  of  High-  and  Low-Breast-Cancer  Strains  of  Mice,  Nature, 
160:  565,  London,  Oct.  25,  1947;  Charles  Packard,  "Biological 
Effectiveness  of  High-Voltage  and  Low-Voltage  X-rays/'  Am.  J. 
Cancer,  16:  1257-1274,  Columbia  university,  New  York,  Nov.  1932. 

(F.  C.  W.) 


CANNING  INDUSTRY.  Expansion  of  the  can- 
ning  industry  throughout  the  world  was  again  limited  in  1949 
by  shortage  of  tinplate,  which  would  not  be  alleviated  until 
new  plants  came  into  operation.  Nevertheless,  some  im- 
portant commercial  and  technical  developments  took  place. 
Several  leading  British  canners  established  new  factories 
abroad.  A  former  automobile  factory  at  Port  Elizabeth, 
South  Africa,  converted  into  a  modern  cannery  for  fruits, 
vegetables,  soups,  etc.,  came  into  operation.  Another  new 
cannery  was  erected  in  the  Paarl  area.  A  meat  cannery — the 
biggest  in  East  Africa — was  established  in  Tanganyika  by  a 
large  meat  extract  firm,  which  also  obtained  approval  of 
the  Sudan  government  for  the  erection  of  a  cannery  at  Kosti 
to  handle,  when  completed,  100,000  cattle  annually. 

There  was  a  continued  expansion  of  fish  canning,  notably 
in  Australia  and  South  Africa.  Moves  were  made  in  South 
Africa  to  bring  the  fish  canning  concerns  under  unified 
control  in  order  that  the  industry  could  develop  along 
economic  lines.  A  new  cannery  was  built  on  Tristan  da  Cunha 
to  pack  crawfish  tails  for  export  to  America. 

Production  began  at  the  first  fruit  cannery  to  be  set  up  in 
the  Dominican  Republic,  West  Indies.  Locally  owned,  the 
cannery  had  a  capacity  of  20,000  Ib.  a  day.  Several  canneries 
in  Norway  started  to  pack  chickens  for  export. 

With  regard  to  technical  developments  during  1949,  it 
was  announced  that  the  New  South  Wales  Department  of 
Agriculture  and  the  Commonwealth  Scientific  and  Industrial 
Research  organization  had  canned  cantaloupes  for  the  first 
time.  The  Committee  of  Direction  of  Fruit  Marketing  in 
Queensland  developed  a  process  for  canning  bananas  and 
made  an  experimental  pack  to  test  public  reaction.  An 
American  development  was  a  special  can,containingcreamand 
gas  under  pressure,  to  deliver  whipped  cream  as  required  on 
pressing  a  knob.  The  Food  Machinery  Corporation  of 
America  developed  a  robot  canning  machine,  handling 
fruit  automatically  from  its  arrival  at  the  factory  to  the 
labelling  and  packaging  of  the  cans.  In  Scotland,  a  process 
for  canning  haggis  was  developed  to  overcome  the  difficulty 
of  exporting  that  delicacy. 

Research  organizations  in  Australia  and  South  Africa 
investigated  improved  varieties  of  fruits  and  vegetables  for 
canning;  and  efforts  were  made  in  those  countries  to  esta- 
blish standards  for  canned  foods  to  enhance  the  prestige  of 
the  products  abroad.  Several  countries  sent  factory  ships 
and  floating  canneries  to  the  Antarctic  for  the  whaling  season, 
which  started  in  December.  (G.  H.  M.  F.) 

United  States.  Canned  fruits,  juices,  vegetables,  fish,  milk, 
and  fruit  and  vegetable  specialities  in  1949  totalled  approxi- 
mately 533  million  standard  cases  (preliminary  estimate) 
compared  with  552  million  standard  cases  in  1948.  These 
figures  do  not  include  poultry  and  other  unclassified  speciality 
products  packed  by  the  canning  industry.  Supplies  of  canned 
foods  generally  for  1949  were  about  equal  to  those  of  the 
previous  season.  There  was  a  moderate  increase  in  canned 
vegetables  carried  over  from  the  previous  year  which,  coupled 
with  the  slightly  reduced  total  output,  was  expected  to  make 
for  an  even  supply  in  the  1949-50  distribution.  As  in  1948, 
retail  prices  of  canned  fruits  and  vegetables,  according  to 
statistics  from  the  U.S.  Bureau  of  Labour  Statistics,  remained 
closer  to  pre-war  levels  than  other  foods,  showing  an  increase 
from  the  period  1935-39  of  about  54%  as  against  more  than 
100%  for  all  foods.  The  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture 
estimated  that  the  consumption  of  canned  fruits  and  vege- 
tables per  head  in  1949  was  122%  of  the  1935-39  average. 

(E.  J.  C.) 

CANTERBURY,  ARCHBISHOP  OF  (FISHER, 
GEOFFREY  FRANCIS),  100th  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  primate  of  all  England  (b.  May  5,  1887). 


148 


CAPETOWN-CARIBBEAN   COMMISSION 


(For   his  early  life  see  Britannica  Book  of  the   Year  1949.) 
On  Dec.  15,  1948,  the  archbishop  baptised  Prince  Charles- 
Philip-Arthur-George,   son   of  Princess   Elizabeth   and   the 
Duke  of  Edinburgh,  at  Buckingham  palace. 

In  July  1949  in  the  Church  assembly  he  deprecated  the 
disestablishment  of  the  Church  of  England,  especially  during 
the  present  period  of  industrial  and  social  re-organization. 
He  entertained  at  Lambeth  300  overseas  missionaries.  In 
March,  in  the  House  of  Lords,  he  demanded  an  enquiry  on 
artificial  insemination.  Although  cautiously  approving  the 
practice  where  the  husband  was  the  donor,  he  condemned  it 
where  this  was  not  the  case.  He  publicly  dissociated  himself 
from  the  political  views  expressed  by  the  dean  of  Canterbury. 
Jn  the  autumn  he  condemned  the  sale  of  contraceptives  by 
means  of  slot  machines  and  announced  plans  for  the  support 
of  Church  schools  in  the  diocese  of  Canterbury.  In  December 
he  visited  Malta  for  the  dedication  of  the  Allied  war  shrine 
in  the  Anglican  pro-cathedral.  (A.  J.  MAC.) 


The  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  Geoffrey  Fisher  (left),  with  the  Rev. 

W.  L.  Scott  Fleming,  who  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Portsmouth, 

at  Southwark  cathedral,  Oct.  18,  1949. 

CAPETOWN,  the  "  mother  city,"  one  of  the  largest 
ports  and  the  legislative  capital  of  the  Union  of  South 
Africa.  Area:  79  sq.  mi.  Pop.  (Dec.  31,  1948  est.):  402,850 
including  194,050  Europeans.  Inside  the  municipal  boun- 
daries there  were,  in  1949,  609  mi.  of  constructed  roads  and 
six  independent  sewage  schemes. 

Little  was  achieved  during  1949  with  the  development  of 
the  large  area  (480  ac.)  of  reclaimed  foreshore.  The  total 
cost  of  this  scheme  was  estimated  at  £13  million  and  a 
committee'  was  investigating  how  this  sum  could  be  raised 
and  apportioned  between  the  government,  the  South  African 
railways  and  the  city  council.  When  completed,  this  reclaimed 
area  would  contain  a  new  maritime  terminal,  railway  station 


and  administrative  offices,  hotel  and  goods  depot,  a  civic 
centre  and  extensions  to  business  and  shopping  districts. 

The  Table  Bay  power  station  was  enlarged  during  1949  to 
a  capacity  of  160,000  kw.  Extensions  in  progress  would 
increase  this  figure  by  another  40,000  kw.  New  industrial 
areas  were  developed.  On  the  N'dabeni  industrial  township 
12  new  factories  were  erected  and  brought  into  commission. 
Two  other  factories  neared  completion  towards  the  end  of 
the  year.  At  Epping  60  out  of  130  ac.  were  allotted  for 
industrial  sites. 

Lack  of  money  meant  little  progress  on  housing  schemes 
for  Europeans,  Eurafricans  or  Natives.  (W.  R.  GN.) 

CAPE  VERDE  ISLANDS:  see  PORTUGUESE 
COLONIAL  EMPIRE. 

CARIBBEAN  COMMISSION.  This  is  an  ad- 
visory  body  set  up  by  an  agreement  in  Oct.  1946  between  the 
four  countries  (France,  the  Netherlands,  the  United  Kingdom 
and  the  United  States)  responsible  for  the  administration  of 
non-self  governing  territories  in  the  Caribbean  area.  Its  object 
is  to  promote  and  extend  co-operation  between  these  countries 
and  their  dependencies  in  the  region  in  order  to  promote 
the  social  and  economic  welfare  of  the  inhabitants,  to 
encourage  scientific  and  economic  development,  to  facilitate 
the  utilization  of  resources  and  to  co-ordinate  and  facilitate 
research.  The  commission  is  chiefly  concerned  with  directing 
and  co-ordinating  the  activities  of  its  two  auxiliary  bodies, 
the  Caribbean  Research  council  and  the  West  Indies  con- 
ference. It  consists  of  16  commissioners,  four  appointed  by 
each  of  the  member  governments.  It  maintains  a  central 
secretariat  at  Port  of  Spain,  Trinidad  (secretary  general: 
Lawrence  W.  Cramer).  It  meets  twice  yearly,  meetings 
normally  being  held  in  rotation  in  the  territories  of  the  four 
metropolitan  governments.  The  8th  session  of  the  commission 
was  held  in  Trinidad  in  June  1949  and  the  9th  session  was 
held  in  the  Virgin  Islands  in  December.  There  was  also  a 
working  committee  which  met  in  Washington  in  Feb.  and 
Sept.  1949. 

The  Research  council  consists  of  from  7  to  15  members 
selected  by  the  commission  for  their  special  qualifications. 
In  1949  the  commission  formed  six  research  committees: 
agriculture,  fish,  wildlife  and  forestry;  medicine,  public 
health  and  nutrition;  sociology  and  education;  economics 
and  statistics;  engineering;  industrial  development.  The 
council  met  in  Trinidad  in  May  1949;  42  recommendations 
were  submitted  for  the  consideration  of  the  commission: 
these  covered  all  aspects  of  the  research  work  carried  out  by 
the  council,  more  particularly  the  publication  of  the  Yearbook 
of  Caribbean  Research  (1949),  for  which  improvements  and 
modifications  in  future  editions  were  suggested.  The  research 
committee  on  agriculture,  fish,  wildlife  and  forestry  held  its 
inaugural  meeting  in  Trinidad  in  July.  Other  publications 
were  The  Tobacco  Trade  of  the  Caribbean,  The  Dairy  Products 
Trade  of  the  Caribbean,  and  the  Report  of  the  Third  Session 
of  the  West  Indian  Conference. 

The  commission  continued  the  publication  (in  English, 
French,  Dutch  and  Spanish)  of  the  monthly  bulletin  contain- 
ing reports  of  its  activities,  news  of  important  developments 
in  the  dependent  territories  of  the  Caribbean,  notes  of 
Caribbean  interest  and  articles.  It  inaugurated  the  publica- 
tion of  Economic  Information  leaflets,  the  initial  issues  being 
devoted  to  information  on  potential  and  existing  sources  of 
capital  for  Caribbean  economic  development.  Plans  were 
also  made  for  the  publication  of  a  Caribbean  Review. 

Among  other  activities  in  1949  for  which  the  commission 
was  responsible  or  which  it  sponsored  were:  the  inaugura- 
tion in  January,  in  collaboration  with  the  agricultural  depart- 
ments of  the  various  territorial  governments,  of  a  Plant  and 
Animal  Quarantine  Reporting  service  ;  the  collection  and 


C  A  RMON  A— CENTENARIES 


149 


analysis  of  Caribbean  legislation  and  the  preparation  of 
summaries  in  non-legal  terms;  a  meeting  in  Trinidad  in 
August  of  the  Caribbean  Interim  Tourism  committee,  on 
which  the  independent  republics  of  the  Caribbean,  as  well  as 
the  dependent  territories,  were  represented;  and  an  informal 
meeting  of  meteorological  and  telecommunications  experts 
in  Barbados  in  August  to  discuss  improvement  and 
co-ordination  of  hurricane  warnings  in  the  east  Caribbean. 

(J.A.  Hu.) 

CARMONA,  ANTONIO  OSCAR  DE  FRA- 
GOSO,  Portuguese  army  officer  and  statesman  (b.  Lisbon, 
Nov.  24,  1869).  He  followed  an  army  career  as  a  cavalry 
officer  and  was  a  general  when  first  brought  into  contact 
with  politics  as  a  member  of  the  non-party  cabinet  of  Antonio 
Maria  da  Silva,  that  held  office  for  five  weeks  in  Nov.-Dec. 
1923.  He  was  state  prosecutor  (da  Silva  being  again  premier) 
in  the  famous  trial  in  Sept.  1925  of  officers  that  were  respon- 
sible for  the  abortive  risings  in  April  and  July  of  that  year 
and  had  turned  it  instead  into  an  effective  indictment  of 
the  parliamentary  regime.  Their  acquittal  preluded  the 
events  of  the  following  year.  After  the  military  coup  d'etat 
of  May  28, 1926,  Carmona  became  a  member  of  the  governing 
triumvirate  and  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  then  premier  and 
minister  of  war  after  which — still  in  1926 — he  assumed 
interim  presidency  by  decree,  continuing  to  hold  the  premier- 
ship till  Aug.  27.  Confirmed  as  president  by  the  plebiscite  of 
March  25,  1928,  for  five  years  (prolonged  to  seven  in  1933  in 
accordance  with  constitution  of  that  year),  he  was  re-elected 
in  1935,  1942  (having  first  announced  his  intention  of  with- 
drawing from  public  life)  and  on  Feb.  13,  1949,  when  he 
obtained  941,863  votes  against  General  Norton  de  Mattos's 
4,789.  He  paid  a  state  visit  in  1929  to  Spain,  in  1938  to  Sao 
Thome,  Principe  and  Angola  (first  ever  paid  by  a  head  of  the 
Portuguese  state  to  any  part  of  the  empire)  and  in  1939, 
shortly  before  the  outbreak  of  World  War  11,  to  Mozambique 
and  the  Union  of  South  Africa  (first  ever  paid  to  the  Union  by 
the  head  of  any  European  state).  On  May  28,  1947,  he  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  first  Marshal  of  Portugal.  He  was 
created  a  Lieutenant  General  of  the  Spanish  army  by  General 
Franco  in  Oct.  1949.  (W.  C.  AN.) 

CAROLINE  ISLANDS:    see  TRUST  TERRITORIES. 

CATTLE:  see  LIVESTOCK. 

CELEBES:     see  NETHERLANDS  OVERSEAS  TERRITORIES. 

CELLULOSE  PRODUCTS:  see  PLASTICS  INDUS- 
TRY: RAYON  AND  OTHER  SYNTHETIC  FIBRES. 

CENSUS  DATA:    see  VITAL  STATISTICS. 

CENTENARIES.  The  year  1949  saw  the  centenaries 
of  many  events  in  English  history.  Thirty-two  Danes  rowed 
from  Frederikssund  in  a  reconstructed  Viking  ship  "  Hugin  " 
and  landed  at  Broadstairs  on  July  28,  1949,  near  the  place  of 
the  landing  of  Hengist  and  Horsa  in  449.  The  "  Hugin  "  was 
rowed  to  London  where  the  Vikings  were  accorded  civic 
welcomes,  and  later  the  boat  was  purchased  by  the  Daily  Mail 
(London)  and  toured  many  seaside  resorts. 

The  300th  anniversary  of  the  execution  of  King  Charles  I  on 
Jan.  30,  1649,  was  kept  by  the  Royal  Stuart  society.  The 
Roman  Catholic  diocese  of  Plymouth  held  a  three-week 
commemorative  period  in  June  1949  to  recall  the  rising  in 
Devon  and  Cornwall  in  1549  against  the  reform  of  the  church 
services.  Robert  Kett's  rebellion  of  1549  was  recorded  by  an 
exhibition  held  in  the  Castle  museum,  Norwich. 

The  400th  anniversary  of  the  first  authorization  of  the 
English  Book  of  Common  Prayer  was  celebrated  on  June  19  in 
parish  churches  throughout  the  country.  An  exhibition  was 
held  in  the  bible  room  at  the  British  museum.  The  earliest 


The  "  Hugin "  arriving  at  Broadstairs,  Kent,  on  July  28,  1949. 
edition  of  the  book  was  dated  March  7,  1549,  and  it  was 
ordered  to  be  used  exclusively  in  churches  on  and  after 
Whitsunday,  June  9,  of  the  same  year.  Other  ecclesiastical 
centenaries  included  the  founding  in  1249  of  St.  Augustine's 
church,  Brookland,  Kent. 

The  market  town  of  Tenterden,  Kent,  was  annexed  to  Rye 
and  added  to  the  Cinque  Ports  as  a  corporate  body 
in  1449.  On  June  28,  the  same  year,  the  first  civic  charter  was 
granted  to  Nottingham.  Both  towns  held  celebrations  to  mark 
their  quincentenaries,  and  Nottingham  published  a  short 
history  Nottingham  Through  Five  Hundred  Years.  Maidstone, 
20  mi.  distant  from  Tenterden,  held  a  week  of  civic  pageantry 
from  July  2  to  9  to  celebrate  the  granting  of  the  town's  first 
charter  of  incorporation  by  King  Edward  VI  on  July  4,  1 549. 
Oldham,  Lancashire,  and  Tynemouth,  Northumberland, 
both  celebrated  the  100th  anniversaries  of  their  charters. 

University  college,  Oxford,  on  July  1,  1949,  celebrated 
the  septingenary  of  the  death  of  its  founder,  William  of 
Durham,  whose  bequest  of  310  marks  to  the  university  for 
the  maintenance  of  10,  11  or  12  masters  was  the  origin  of 
the  college's  continuous  history.  St.  Columba's  college,  Rath- 
farnham,  county  Durham,  celebrated  its  centenary  on  its 
present  site.  The  school  was  founded  in  1843  by  William 
Sewell  and  in  1849  was  moved  from  its  home  beside  the 
river  Boyne.  St.  John's  college,  Hurstpierpoint,  was  also 
founded  in  1849— by  Nathaniel  Woodard. 

Queen's  university,  Belfast,  celebrated  the  centenary  of  its 
opening  when,  in  Nov.  1849,  90  matriculated  students 


150 


CfcYLUN 


attended  the  first  lectures  of  Queen's  college.  A  procession 
and  special  exhibition  were  held  in  Oxford  on  April  20  to 
mark  the  bicentenary  of  the  opening  of  the  RadclifTe  Camera, 
which  had  been  built  after  a  gift  of  £40,000  by  Dr.  John 
Radcliffe. 

The  founding  of  Bedford  college  for  women,  London,  by 
Elisabeth  Jesser  Reid  in  1849  was  commemorated  in  May  1949 
by  celebrations  which  included  a  visit  by  Queen  Mary. 

The  centenary  of  the  death  of  Fryderyk  Chopin  on  Oct.  17, 
1849,  was  recalled  by  many  memorial  lectures  and  concerts. 
Other  centenaries  were  Johan  August  Strindberg  (b.  Jan.  22, 
1849),  Ivan  Petrovich  Pavlov  (b.  Sept.  26,  1849)  and  Edgar 
Allan  Poe  (d.  Oct.  7,  1849). 

Celebrations  were  held  in  university  towns  in  Germany  on 
Aug.  28,  1949,  to  mark  the  bicentenary  of  the  birth  of 
Johann  Wolfgang  von  Goethe.  At  Frankfurt,  his  birthplace, 
and  at  Weimar,  in  the  Soviet  zone,  the  celebrations  were  on 
a  large  scale. 

Whitsunday,  June  3,  1949,  was  the  occasion  of  the  cele- 
brations of  the  centenary  of  Denmark's  parliamentary 
constitution  granted  by  Frederik  VII.  The  day  closed  with 
thousands  of  students  carrying  flaming  torches  outside 
Christiansborg  castle,  the  official  residence  of  the  King  and 
the  seat  of  the  Danish  houses  of  parliament.  Spokesmen 
from  Greenland,  Faeroe  Islands,  Norway,  Sweden,  Finland, 
Iceland  and  Great  Britain  brought  greetings. 

Although  the  actual  date  of  the  birth  of  Confucius  has 
always  been  in  doubt,  the  Chinese  Nationalist  government 
decreed  that  the  2,000th  anniversary  of  his  birth  should  be 
celebrated  on  Aug.  28,  1949. 

Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  celebrated  its  bicentenary  in  Sep- 
tember, and  La  Paz,  Bolivia,  its  quadricentenary.  (X.) 

CEREALS:   see  GRAIN  CROPS. 

CEYLON,  DOMINION  OF.  A  self  governing 
member  of  the  Commonwealth  of  Nations,  lying  off  the 
southern  extremity  of  India  and  approaching  to  within  6° 
of  the  equator.  Area:  25,322  sq.  mi.  Pop.:  (March  19,  1946 
census)  6,693,945,  (mid-1949  est.)  7,288,000.  Languages: 
mainly  Sinhalese  (69%)  and  Tamil  (21  %).  Religions:  Budd- 
hist (61%);  Hindu  (22%);  Moslem  (9%)  and  Christian, 
mainly  Roman  Catholic  (7%).  Chief  towns  (1946  census): 
Colombo  (cap.,  362,000);  Jaffna  (63,000);  Dehiwala-Mt. 
Lavinia  (56,000);  Kandy  (52,000).  Governor-general,  Sir 
Henry  Monck-Mason  Moore  and,  from  July  6,  Lord  Soul- 
bury;  prime  minister  and  minister  of  defence,  Don  Stephan 
Senanayake  (^.v.). 

History.  The  prime  minister  received  many  congratulations 
on  Feb.  4, 1949,  the  first  anniversary  of  Ceylon's  independence. 
Internationally  Ceylon  was  set  back  by  the  Soviet  veto  of  its 
claim  to  membership  of  the  United  Nations.  Its  government 
on  Dec.  23,  1948,  announced  their  refusal  of  harbour  or 
airport  facilities  to  Dutch  ships  or  aircraft  carrying  troops 
or  war  materials  to  Indonesia;  the  ban  was  lifted  on  July  19. 
Early  in  the  year  S.  W.  R.  D.  Bandaranaike,  on  a  visit  to 
New  Delhi,  suggested  that  India,  Pakistan,  Burma  and 
Malaya  should  make  regional  arrangements  for  mutual 
defence  under  the  United  Nations  charter.  In  April,  D.  S. 
Senanayake  attended  a  meeting  of  Commonwealth  prime 
ministers  in  London.  On  his  return  he  revealed  that  the 
British  government  agreed  to  help  in  the  organization  of 
Ceylon's  defence  forces.  In  September  the  Earl  of  Caithness, 
who  on  May  10  had  been  appointed  military  adviser,  became 
the  first  commander  in  chief  of  Ceylon's  forces.  Lord  Soul- 
bury  assumed  the  governor-generalship  on  July  6  in  succession 
to  Sir  Henry  Monck-Mason  Moore  who  had  departed  a  few 
weeks  earlier,  the  administration  in  the  interim  being  in  the 
hands  of  the  chief  justice,  Sir  Arthur  Wijayewardene. 


Ceylon  kept  in  step  with  India  in  devaluing  her  rupee  so 
as  to  maintain  the  sterling  parity  of  Is.  6d.  The  relationship 
between  the  Ceylon  and  the  Indian  rupee,  however,  was 
severed  by  the  parliament  at  Colombo  on  Sept.  20.  A  new 
agreement  was  made  between  the  British  government  and  the 
government  of  Ceylon  on  the  use  of  Ceylon's  sterling  balances 
for  a  further  year  to  June  30,  1950.  The  agreement  sanctioned 
the  release  of  sterling  to  the  extent  of  £7  million  and  at  the 
same  time  Ceylon  was  able  to  retain,  from  her  surplus 
dollar  earnings,  an  independent  reserve  to  be  held  by  the 
Reserve  Bank  of  Ceylon  when  created.  This  agreement  was 
recognized  in  Ceylon  as  generous;  indeed  it  involved  the 
doubling  of  the  release  of  sterling  allowed  in  the  previous 
agreement.  In  order  to  control  Ceylon's  foreign  expenditure 
and  increase  home  production,  a  cabinet  committee  was 
appointed  on  Aug.  22  to  draw  up  a  programme  to  keep 
imports  within  available  exchange  resources  and  implement 
the  decisions  to  save  dollars  taken  at  the  conference  of 
Commonwealth  finance  ministers  in  London. 

The  budget  presented  on  July  14  provided  for  i educed 
customs  duties  on  a  wide  variety  of  articles  and  reduced 
income  tax  in  the  lower  group  of  incomes.  The  minister  of 
finance,  J.  R.  Jayawardene,  forecast  an  adverse  balance  of 
Rs.190  million  (£14,250,000)  and  consequently  measures  of 
control  to  reduce  the  gap.  A  local  loan  of  Rs.400  million  was 
to  be  raised;  but  considerable  foreign  capital  would  be 
required  for  productive  development.  There  was  no  intention 
of  placing  restrictions  on  the  withdrawal  of  foreign  capital 
investments;  and  profits  earned  by  such  investments  could  be 
remitted  to  the  country  of  origin. 

The  contract  for  the  construction  of  an  irrigation  project 
in  the  Galoya  area  designed  to  irrigate  about  100,000  ac.  of 
land  in  the  eastern  province  was  given  to  a  U.S.  firm  by  the 
government,  the  engineer  in  charge  being  a  former  member 
of  the  constructional  staff  of  the  Boulder  Dam.  The  former 
financial  secretary  of  Ceylon,  H.  J.  Huxham,  came  out  of 
retirement  in  England  to  become  chairman  of  the  Galoya 
Development  board,  under  the  authority  of  which  the 
project  would  be  carried  out. 

During  the  year  Ceylon  expanded  her  diplomatic  relations 
with  neighbouring  countries,  particularly  Burma  with  which 
an  interchange  of  ambassadors  took  place  in  acknowledgment 
of  the  close  religious  ties  existing  between  the  two  countries 
as  staunch  adherents  of  Buddhism.  Ceylon  established 
relationships  also  with  India,  Pakistan  and  Japan.  The 
British  Ministry  of  Health  granted  20  scholarships  to  Ceylon 
doctors  to  enable  them  to  go  to  Britain  for  specialized  study 
and  training.  The  Sinhalese  already  had  a  high  reputation 
in  the  medical  profession  and  supplied  doctors  to  such 
neighbouring  countries  as  Malaya  and  India. 

After  an  interval  of  1 1  years,  pearl  fishing  was  resumed  in 
Tambelegam  bay,  Trincomalee.  Pearl  fishing  had  been  at 
one  time  an  important  industry  in  Ceylon  but  had  dwindled 
away.  A  sugar  expert  was  lent  to  the  government  of  Ceylon 
by  the  government  of  India  to  advise  on  the  proposed 
establishment  of  a  sugar  factory  at  Galoya  where  about 
36,000  ac.  had  been  earmarked  to  grow  sugar  cane.  An 
ilmenite  factory  was  to  be  set  up  at  Pulmoddai,  40  mi.  north 
of  Trincomalee,  at  a  site  said  to  be  one  of  the  best  in  the 
world  for  ilmenite  sands. 

Work  was  begun  on  the  restoration  of  the  historic  2,000- 
year-old  stupa,  built  on  the  spot  from  which  Buddha  is  said 
to  have  preached  on  his  visit  to  Ceylon  2,500  years  ago. 
A  new  protective  shelter  for  the  colossal  image  of  the  Buddha 
at  Avukana,  among  the  finest  of  its  kind  in  Asia,  was  to  be 
provided  by  the  Archaeological  department.  The  Colombo 
museum  received  from  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  the  skull 
of  Kappetipola  Dissawa,  the  leader  of  the  Kandyan  rebellion 
of  1818,  who  was  executed  after  capture  by  the  British  forces 


CHAMBERS  OF  COMMERCE 


151 


in  that  year.  His  skull  had  been  removed  to  Britain  and 
deposited  in  the  anatomy  department  of  Edinburgh  uni- 
versity. (E.  HD.) 

Education.  (1947)  Schools:  government  and  assisted  5,436,  pupils 
843,037;  English  461,  pupils  182,872;  industrial  666.  Institutions  of 
higher  education  2,  students  2,969.  Illiteracy  (1948)  35%. 

Agriculture.  Main  crops  ('000  metric  tons,  1948;  1949,  six  months, 
in  brackets):  tea  136  (70);  rubber  96  (42),  rice  251.  Fresh  coconuts 
(exports  in  thousands,  1948)  9,387.  Livestock  (in  '000  head,  1946-47). 
cattle  1,116;  sheep  55;  pigs  85;  goats  326;  buffaloes  624.  Fisheries: 
total  catch  (1946):  22,000  tons 

Industry.  Chief  mineral  product  is  graphite;  exports  ('000  metric 
tons,  1948)  14,000.  Salt  production  amounts  to  about  30,000  tons 
a  year. 

Foreign  Trade.  (Million  rupees)  Imports-  (1948)  994,  (1949,  six 
months)  566.  Exports  (1948)  1,011,  (1949,  six  months)  493 

Transport  and  Communications.  Roads  (1948):  10,242  mi.  Licensed 
motor  vehicles  (Dec.  1948)  cars  27,594,  commercial  vehicles  11,887. 
Railways  (1948):  912  mi;  freight  tons  carried  1,270,800  Airtransport 
(1948):  passenger-mi  2,670,000;  cargo,  including  mail,  net  ton-mi. 
12,130.  Wireless  licences  (1948)  24,616 

Finance  and  Banking.  (Million  rupees)  Budget-  (1948-49  est ) 
revenue  565  0,  expenditure  532-6;  (1949-50  est)  revenue  563-7, 
expenditure  563-5.  National  debt  (Sept.  30,  1947):  469.  Note  circula- 
tion (July  1949;  in  brackets,  July  1948)-  gross  301-5  (376-2),  active 
220-2  (217-6).  Bank  deposits  (June  1949;  in  brackets,  June  1948) 
581-2(612-1).  Monetary  unit:  rupee  with  an  exchange  rate  of  13-372 
rupees  to  the  pound. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  B.  B  Das  Gupta,  A  Short  Economic  Survey  of 
Ceylon  (Colombo,  1949);  Independent  Ceylon  The  First  Year  ( Depart- 
ment of  Information,  Colombo,  1949) 

CHAD:    see  FRENCH  UNION. 

CHAMBERS  OF  COMMERCE.  The  vital  problem 
of  balancing  the  external  trade  account  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  and  of  closing  its  dollar  deficit  in  particular,  caused 
considerable  attention  to  be  given  in  1949  by  chambers  of 
commerce  to  export  trade  problems.  The  Association  of 
British  Chambers  of  Commerce  and  its  constituent  chambers 
assisted  in  meeting  the  problems  of  overseas  trade;  in  so 
doing  they  dealt  with  subjects  involving  national  policy; 
e.g.,  the  liberalization  of  intra-European  trade,  the  European 
Recovery  programme  and  the  international  tariff  negotiations 
conducted  at  Annecy,  France,  as  well  as  with  the  difficulties 
of  individual  exporters  and  would-be  exporters.  The  problem 
of  trade  with  North  America  gave  birth  to  two  new  organiza- 
tions of  business  men,  in  both  of  which  the  Association  of 
British  Chambers  of  Commerce  played  a  leading  part. 
Discussions  with  the  Canadian  Chamber  of  Commerce  led 
to  the  formation  of  the  United  Kingdom-Canada  Trade 
committee.  This  body,  sponsored  by  the  Canadian  Chamber 
and  by  the  A.B.C.C.,  Federation  of  British  Industries, 
National  Union  of  Manufacturers  and  National  Farmers' 
union,  arranged  to  meet  twice  each  year  to  review  trade 
problems  at  the  business  level,  concerning  itself  with  United 
Kingdom  imports  from  Canada  as  well  as  exports  to  that 
dominion.  The  second  new  body,  the  Dollar  Exports  board, 
was  formed  in  May;  the  problem  of  increasing  sales  to  dollar 
markets  represented  its  broad  terms  of  reference.  The 
president  of  the  A.B.C.C.,  John  McLean,  was  appointed 
chairman  of  the  United  Kingdom  section  of  the  committee 
working  with  the  Canadians;  he  was  also  appointed  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Dollar  Exports  board. 

During  1949  the  A.B.C.C.  again  advised  the  Board  of 
Trade  on  the  problem  of  frustrated  exports.  By  the  end  of  the 
year  advice  had  been  given  on  more  than  4,000  applications, 
mostly  concerning  textiles,  from  firms  wishing  to  sell  on  the 
home  market  goods  originally  made  for  overseas  but  for  which 
a  market  had  not  been  found. 

Jointly  with  the  F.B.I,  and  the  N.U.M.,  the  A.B.C.C.  had 
new  talks  with  the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  prior  to  the 
expiry  on  March  11  of  the  undertaking  made  in  1948  respect- 
ing the  limitation  of  dividends.  The  chancellor  accepted 
assurances  given  and  did  not  introduce  proposals  to  limit 


dividend  distribution  by  statute.  With  regard  to  taxation 
the  A.B.C.C.  submitted  recommendations  to  the  chancellor 
for  consideration  before  the  budget. 

The  association  considered  that  the  chamber  of  commerce 
organization  ought  to  issue  its  views  on  Britain's  economic 
position  and  policy.  Its  statement  dealt  with  the  salient 
features  in  national  policy;  e.g.,  high  government  expendi- 
ture and  taxation  and  the  need  for  incentives,  and  was 
submitted  to  the  government.  In  the  autumn  the  depreciation 
of  the  exchange  rate  of  the  pound  created  many  new  prob- 
lems to  be  studied  by  chambers  of  commerce. 

The  association  convened  a  conference  of  representatives 
from  many  blitzed  cities  and  towns  with  reconstruction  prob- 
lems; this  led  to  representations  to  the  government  on  several 
impoi  tant  points  and  a  committee  was  formed  to  keep  matters 
under  constant  review.  Recognizing  the  value  to  business 
men  of  expert  guidance  on  the  far-reaching  and  complex 
Town  and  Country  Planning  act,  the  association  published 
a  book  on  the  act,  entitled  Development  and  Compensation. 
The  association  and  its  100  chambers  examined  carefully 
all  new  parliamentary  bills  of  interest  to  their  members, 
and  took  steps  to  secure  desirable  changes.  The  Iron  and 
Steel  bill  received  meticulous  examination  from  the  point  of 
view  of  manufacturers  using  steel. 

The  membership  of  chambers  of  commerce  affiliated  to 
the  A.B  C.C.  again  rose  appreciably.  Membership  of  home 
chambers  passed  the  60,000  mark  and  that  of  affiliated 
chambers  in  foreign  countries  exceeded  8,000.  (A.  R.  K.) 

International.  The  International  Chamber  of  Commerce 
held  its  biennial  congress,  attended  by  more  than  500  dele- 
gates, in  June  1949  in  Quebec,  Canada.  The  Quebec  congress 
reviewed  work  done  during  the  preceding  two  years  by 
national  committees  working  in  conjunction  with  working 
committees  of  the  chamber.  Among  the  subjects  to  which  the 
chamber  had  recently  given  special  attention  was  the  forma- 
tion of  a  Code  of  Fair  Treatment  for  Foreign  Investments. 
The  problem  of  foreign  investments,  especially  in  under- 
developed countries  had  received  special  attention  after 
World  War  II  and  early  in  1949  was  emphasized  in  President 
Truman's  Fourth  Point,  which  was  to  encourage  the  invest- 
ment of  American  capital  in  other  countries,  partly  for  world 
development  and  the  general  raising  of  standards  of  living 
and  partly  to  counterbalance  to  some  extent  the  American 
export  surplus.  On  the  basis  that  the  first  essential  for  the 
encouragement  of  foreign  investments  was  to  built  assurances 
for  security,  for  the  unrestricted  repatriation  of  dividends, 
for  reasonable  scope  for  development  of  the  project  and  for 
the  ultimate  return  of  the  capital  in  the  currency  of  the  lender, 
the  International  chamber's  Code  of  Fair  Treatment  was 
drawn  up,  and  it  received  much  attention  in  the  United 
Nations  Economic  and  Social  council  and  in  the  treasuries 
of  a  number  of  leading  governments. 

An  important  branch  of  the  chamber's  work  was  the 
furtherance  of  double  taxation  agreements,  and  a  number  of 
new  agreements  were  concluded  during  1949. 

A  part  of  the  chamber's  activity  which  attracted  much 
attention  was  its  work  for  the  removal  of  barriers  to  trade 
and  travel.  Special  study  was  given  to  this  subject,  which 
had  great,  though  indirect,  influence  on  the  development  of 
foreign  trade.  The  chamber  issued  three  brochures,  one 
dealing  with  barriers  to  international  travel,  especially  the 
simplification  of  arrangements  for  passports  and  visas  and 
frontier  formalities;  another  dealing  with  barriers  to  the 
transport  of  goods,  covering  consular  invoices,  transit  mani- 
fests and  the  like  and  pressing  for  a  reduction  of  the  large 
number  of  documents  required;  and  a  third  on  invisible 
barriers  to  trade,  dealing  with  standardization  and  simplifi- 
cation of  customs  procedure,  agreed  bases  of  ad  valorem 
valuations,  marks  of  origin  and  so  on.  (C.  G.  FE.) 


152 


CHANNEL  ISLANDS-CHEMISTRY 


CHANNEL  ISLANDS.  A  group  of  islands  in  the 
English  channel,  of  which  the  largest  are  Jersey,  Guernsey, 
Alderney  and  Sark,  forming  part  of  the  United  Kingdom, 
but  administered  independently.  Area:  75  sq.  mi.  Pop. 
(1946)  92,467.  Capitals:  Guernsey,  St.  Peter  Port;  Jersey, 
St.  Helier.  Lieutenant  governor  of  Jersey,  Lieutenant  General 
Sir  Arthur  Grasett;  lieutenant  governor  of  Guernsey,  Lieu- 
tenant General  Sir  Philip  Neame. 

In  June  1949  the  Duke  and  Duchess  of  Edinburgh,  accom- 
panied by  the  home  secretary,  James  Chuter  Ede,  visited 
Alderney,  Guernsey,  Sark,  where  the  Duke  opened  a  new 
harbour,  and  Jersey. 


Princess  Elizabeth  and  Prince  Philip,  Duke  of  Edinburgh,  at  Sark, 
June  1949. 

The  600  yr.  old  dispute  between  Great  Britain  and  France 
concerning  the  Minquiers  and  the  Ecrehos  islands  was 
considered  in  the  Jersey  States  in  March,  and  it  was  proposed 
that  the  dispute  be  referred  to  the  International  Court  of 
Justice.  Fear  of  the  Colorado  beetle  caused  the  international 
executive  committee  on  the  Colorado  beetle  to  visit  Jersey. 

During  1949  the  Guernsey  States  and  the  Jersey  States 
agreed  to  introduce  national  service  for  18-year-old  youths. 
The  first  States  of  Alderney  was  opened  on  Feb.  18  by  the 
home  secretary.  In  May  it  was  decided  to  impose  a  landing 
tax  on  visitors,  and  on  May  1 8  the  first  telephone  exchange 
was  opened.  The  meeting  of  the  Sark  Chief  Pleas  on  Sept. 
13  was  notable  when  all  elections  for  people's  deputies 
since  1925  were  declared  to  have  been  illegal.  Alterations 
to  the  regulations  were  made  in  1925,  but  under  an  Order  in 
Council  of  June  20,  1922,  these  should  have  been  submitted 
to  the  Privy  Council.  Elections  for  new  deputies  were  held 
on  Oct.  1.  The  committee  of  the  Privy  Council  on  the  island 
of  Alderney,  which  had  been  appointed  in  1947,  published 
its  report  in  November.  (X.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  V.  V.  Cortvriend,  Isolated  Islands  (Si.  Peter  Port  1948). 

CHARLES  (CHARLES  -  THEODORE  -  HENRI  -  ANTOINE  - 
MEINRAD  DE  SAXE-COBURG,  COUNT  OF  FLANDERS),  prince  of 
Belgium  (b.  Brussels,  Oct.  10,  1903),  younger  brother  of 


King  Leopold  III  O/.v.),  was  appointed  regent  by  a  joint 
vote  of  the  parliamentary  chambers  on  Sept.  20,  1944. 
(For  his  early  life  see  Britannlca  Book  of  the  Year  1949.) 

In  1949,  as  in  previous  years,  he  was  not  often  seen  in 
public  and  his  role  was  limited  to  helping  in  the  formation  of 
successive  governments.  On  April  25,  in  Berne,  King  Leopold 
met  his  brother  in  the  presence  of  Paul-Henri  Spaak,  the 
prime  minister,  and  Henry  Moreau  de  Melen,  minister  of 
justice,  with  a  view  to  examining  the  "  royal  question." 

CHARLOTTE  (CHARLOTTE-ALDEGONDE-ELISE-MARIE- 
WILHELMINE),  Grand  Duchess  of  Luxembourg,  Duchess  of 
Nassau,  princess  of  Bourbon-Parma,  etc.  (b.  Berg  castle, 
Luxembourg,  Jan.  23,  1896),  succeeded  her  sister  Marie- 
Adelaide  after  her  abdication  on  Jan.  15,  1919.  On  Nov.  6, 
1919,  the  grand  duchess  married  Prince  Felix-Marie-Vincent 
of  Bourbon-Parma.  They  had  six  children,  the  eldest  being 
Grand  Duke  Jean  (b.  Berg  castle,  Jan.  5,  1921).  On  the 
invasion  of  Luxembourg  by  Germany  on  May  10,  1940,  the 
grand  duchess  and  her  family  moved  with  the  government 
first  to  Paris  and  then  to  Lisbon.  In  August  the  grand  duchess 
followed  Joseph  Bech  (q.v.),  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  to 
London,  sending  her  family  to  Montreal.  Grand  Duke  Jean, 
the  heir  apparent,  joined  the  Irish  Guards  and  landed  in 
France  with  the  Allied  armies;  and  the  prince  consort 
became  a  brigadier  in  the  British  army.  After  the  liberation 
of  Luxembourg  the  grand  duchess  returned  to  the  capital 
on  April  14,  1945.  The  30th  anniversary  of  her  reign  was 
celebrated  on  Jan.  23,  1949,  her  birthday. 

CHEESE:  see  DAIRY  FARMING. 

CHEMISTRY.  Names  of  Elements.  The  International 
Union  of  Pure  and  Applied  Chemistry,  at  its  meeting  in 
Amsterdam  in  Sept.  1949,  recommended  these  names  of 
elements : 


Atomic 

Atomic 

Name 
Beryllium 
Niobium 

Symbol 
Be 

Nb 

Number 
4 
41 

Name 
Astatine 
Francium 

Symbol 
At 
Fr 

Number 
85 
87 

Technetium 

Tc 

43 

Protactinium 

Pa 

91 

Promethium 
Lutetium 

Pm 
Lu 

61 

71 

Neptunium  . 
Plutonium 

Np 
Pu 

93 
94 

Hafnium 

Hf 

72 

Americum 

Am 

95 

Wolfram 

W 

74 

Curium 

Cm 

96 

Astatine  is  the  halogen  beyond  iodine,  francium  the  alkali 
metal  beyond  caesium,  and  promethium  is  the  element  in 
the  group  of  rare  earths  which  was  originally  called  illinium. 
The  recommendation  of  niobium  to  replace  columbium  and 
wolfram  to  replace  tungsten  represented  the  widest  divergence 
from  American  usage,  although  the  symbol  W  for  tungsten 
had  always  been  used. 

Uranium.  During  1949,  work  by  Kurt  Kraus,  Frederick 
Nelson  and  Gordon  Johnson  of  Oak  Ridge  National 
laboratory,  Tennessee,  dealt  with  the  chemistry  of  penta- 
valent  uranium  (or  uranium  (II))  solutions.  I.  M.  Kolthoff 
showed  in  1945  that  solutions  of  ordinary  uranium  (III) 
compounds  could  be  reduced  to  uranium  (II)  at  the  dropping 
mercury  electrode  but  he  regarded  the  latter  as  a  transient 
species  which  rapidly  underwent  disproportionation  into 
the  +4  and  +6  oxidation  states. 

The  Oak  Ridge  investigators  found  that  solutions  of 
uranium  (II)  compounds  could  be  preserved  without  appreci- 
able decomposition  for  considerable  periods  of  time  if 
maintained  in  the  optimum  stability  range  between  pH  2  to  4 
(mild  acidic  conditions).  Electrolytic  reduction  of  uranium 
(III)  solutions  was  one  method  of  obtaining  uranium  (II): 
UOa+ +  ~fe""~  — vUOa+.  Chemical  reducing  agents  were 
successful  also.  Zinc  amalgam,  for  example,  was  found  to 


CHEMISTRY 


153 


effect  a  rapid  conversion  of  dilute  uranyl  chloride  solution 
(UOaCl2)  into  uranium  (II),  or  UOaClf  in  better  than  50% 
yield.  It  was  noted  that  with  all  methods  of  preparation, 
'solutions  of  uranium  (II)  were  frequently  prepared  which 
resisted  disproportionation — into  U  (III)-}~U(I) — for  a  long 
time,  then  suddenly  began  to  disporportionate  rapidly. 
No  conditions  were  found  for  the  direct  oxidation  from  the 
tetravalent  to  the  pentavalent  state.  Oxidation  of  the  penta- 
valent  to  the  hexavalcnt  state,  however,  occurred  readily 
with  a  number  of  oxidizing  agents,  including  atmospheric 
oxygen,  ferric  salts  and  eerie  salts. 

Instead  of  giving  rise  to  uranium  (II)  on  hydrolysis, 
uranium  pentachlonde  initially  yielded  the  I  and  III  oxidation 
states;  but  at  an  acidity  near  pH  2  uranium  (I)  and  uranium 
(III)  reacted  rapidly  to  yield  appreciable  concentrations  of 
uranium  (II). 

Radioactive  Carbon  Compounds.  Ordinary  carbon  is  of 
atomic  weight  12.  Of  the  two  isotopes  C13  and  C14  the  latter 
is  radioactive.  In  the  past  its  availability  had  stimulated 
studies  on  the  preparation  of  organic  compounds  containing 
it  because  tracer  techniques  had  made  it  possible  to  follow 
the  fate  of  radioactive  compounds  in  chemical  or  metabolic 
processes. 

In  reporting  a  few  syntheses  involving  radioactive  carbon, 
radioactive  barium  carbonate,  BaC14O3,  is  a  convenient 
starting  compound.  Richard  Abrams  of  the  University  of 
Chicago  developed  a  method  of  converting  it  into  hydrogen 
cyanide,  HC14N.  The  carbonate  was  mixed  with  lead 
chloride,  from  which  carbon  dioxide,  CnO2,  was  readily 
liberated  by  direct  heating,  since  the  intermediate  lead 
carbonate  PbC14O,,  decomposes  at  the  low  temperature  of 
315°C.  The  carbon  dioxide  was  reduced  to  carbon  (C14) 
by  reaction  with  red  hot  magnesium  powder.  After  separation 
of  magnesium  compounds  by  means  of  hydrochloric  acid, 
the  carbon  was  then  heated  to  1000°C.  in  a  quartz  tube  in  a 
stream  of  ammonia  gas,  thereby  producing  radioactive 
hydrogen  cyanide,  which  was  collected  m  alkaline  solution. 

Toluene,  with  C14  atoms  in  position  1,  3,  5  of  the  benzene 
ring  (i.e.,  toluene- 1,  3,  5-C314),  was  synthesized  in  62%  yield 
by  Dorothy  Hughes  and  James  Reid  of  the  University  of 
California,  Berkeley,  starting  with  radioactive  pyruvic  acid, 
CH3C14OCOOH,  which  was  available.  This  acid  was  con- 
densed, in  the  presence  of  alkali,  to  the  tncarboxylic  acid  (I), 
and  it  in  turn  was  dehydrogenated  to  toluenctncarboxyhc  acid 
uvitic  acid),  II,  by  hot  sulphuric  acid.  Decarboxylation  of 
II  into  the  radioactive  toluene  (III) 


CH.<    COOH 


CHi 

A 

HC        CH 


CH, 
C* 


HOOC 


CH*    CH  HC        CH  HC        CH 

I  II  I          II  'II 

:-C*       C*-COOH  HOOC-C*     "C-COOH  HC*     *CH 


(I) 


(H)  (I") 


specific  activities  of  the  carbon  obtained  from  samples  of 
wood  of  known  age  were  remarkably  close  to  the  values 
obtained  from  the  half-life  curve  for  radioactive  carbon. 

Cracking  Catalysts.  Catalytic  cracking  of  petroleum 
hydro-carbons  had  assumed  major  industrial  importance. 
Charles  L.  Thomas  of  Universal  Oil  Products  company, 
Chicago,  Illinois,  presented  the  existing  knowledge 
regarding  this  process,  especially  with  regard  to  silica- 
alumina  catalysts. 

Silica  alone  is  either  inactive  or  only  faintly  catalytic. 
Alumina  by  itself  is  better  than  silica  but  is  a  poor  cracking 
catalyst.  The  proper  combination  of  silica  and  alumina 
gives  rise  to  a  superior  cracking  catalyst;  but  to  make  such  a 
catalyst,  it  is  necessary  to  start  with  the  hydrogels  or  hydrous 
oxides  of  both  silica  and  alumina.  Mixtures  of  the  anhydrous 
oxides  are  not  catalytic  nor  are  mixtures  of  one  anhydrous 
oxide  with  one  hydrous  oxide.  The  silica-alumina  catalyst 
apparently  has  certain  acidic  properties,  and  Thomas 
believed  that  it  was  this  acidity  that  is  responsible  in  large 
measure  for  the  effective  catalytic  activity. 

To  assure  the  absence  of  inorganic  materials  other  than 
silicon  and  aluminium,  Thomas  used  ethyl  orthosilicate  and 
aluminium  isopropoxide  as  sources  of  silica  and  alumina, 
respectively.  Mixtures  of  these  two  substances  in  varying 
ratios  were  hydrolyzed  by  use  of  distilled  water  and  alcohol. 
Acidity  of  the  silica-alumina  catalyst  was  determined  by 
leaching  it  with  an  excess  of  dilute  potassium  hydroxide 
solution  for  one-half  hour,  then  back-titrating  the  unused 
hydroxide  with  hydrochloric  acid  to  a  phenolphthalein  end 
point.  The  maximum  acidity  was  found  for  catalysts  wherein 
the  ratio  of  aluminium  to  silicon  was  1,  but  high  acidities 
persisted  at  a  ratio  of  2. 

The  maximum  catalytic  activity,  as  determined  by  passing 
Pennsylvania  gas  oil  over  the  catalyst  at  500°C.  to  obtain 
both  gas  and  gasoline,  was  also  at  an  Al  to  Si  ratio  of  1  to  2, 
but  closer  to  2.  This  proved  that  catalyst  activity,  acidity 
and  composition  were  related  in  the  silica-alumina  catalysts, 
especially  since  they  were  prepared  in  such  a  way  as  to  exclude 
the  use  of  mineral  acids. 

It  was  suggested  that  the  active  constituent  of  this  catalyst 
is  (HAJSiOJx.  Since  maximum  activity  was  obtained  at  an 
Al  :Si  ratio  of  2  whereas  maximum  acidity  was  reached  at  a 
ratio  of  1,  Thomas  suggested  that  the  catalyst  mass  behavecj 
as  if  it  were  made  up  of  an  active  part  having  an  Al  :Si  ratio 
of  1  plus  an  inert  silica  support. 

Silica-magnesia,  silica-zirconia,  alumina-boria  and  titania- 
bona  catalysts  were  considered  from  the  same  viewpoint 
with  the  conclusions  that  (HaMgSiO4)x,  (H4ZrSiaOs)x, 
(H.,A1B.2O0)X  and  (HoTiB/)0)  should  represent  the  formulas, 
respectively,  for  the  catalytic  parts  of  these  combinations. 

To  illustrate  the  mechanism  of  catalytic  cracking,  one  set 
of  equations  will  be  presented  making  use  of  di-isobutylene 
and  the  silica-alumina  catalyst. 


was  accomplished  by  heating  with  copper  oxide  in  the  presence 
of  quinoline.  C14  atoms  in  formulas  MI  I  are  designated  with 
asterisks. 

Radioactive  carbon  has  a  half-life  of  5,673  to  5,767  years 
and  by  measuring  the  disintegrations  per  minute  per  gram 
(the  "  specific  activity*')  of  carbon  obtained  from  very  old 
samples  of  wood,  W.  F.  Libby  and  his  co-workers  at  the 
University  of  Chicago  showed  that  this  method  was  capable 
of  establishing  the  age  of  such  samples.  Libby  experimented 
with  redwood  whose  tree  rings  dated  it  to  between  1031  and 
928  B.C.  and  with  wood  from  the  tomb  of  Zoser  at  Sakkara 
which  dated  back  to  between  2575-2725  B.C.  The  observed 


iJ-CH.,  -f   HAlSi04 >  (CHH),CCHaC 

(CH3),  (A)  +  (AlSiOJ-  (A)       -+   (CH3).C  (B)  +  CH.2- 

C(CH,)2  (D) 

Then  the  fcrf-butylion,  (B),  may  react  with  di-isobutylene 
to  form  (A)  and  (D),  thus  causing  a  chain  reaction,  since  (B) 
will  be  regenerated  in  the  process;  or  (B)  may  react  with 
(AlSiO4)~~  to  yield  (D)  plus  the  original  catalyst. 

B.  S.  Greensfelder,  H.  H.  Voge  and  G.  M.  Good  of  Shell 
Development  company,  Emeryville,  California,  investigated 
the  cracking  of  pure  hydrocarbons  both  with  and  without 
catalysts.  The  ionic  mechanism  developed  by  Thomas  was 
confirmed  when  acid-treated  clays  or  silica-alumina  catalysts 
were  taken.  When  no  catalysts  were  present,  or  when  neutral 


154 


CHEMISTRY 


substances  were  present,  a  free  radical  mechanism  was  called 
for  to  explain  the  results.  Activated  carbon,  a  non-acidic 
catalyst,  gave  a  unique  product  distribution  which  was 
explained  as  a  quenched  free  radical  type  of  pyrolysis. 
Activated  pure  alumina,  with  only  weakly  acidic  properties, 
was  found  to  induce  primary  pyrolysis  corresponding  to 
the  free  radical  mechanism  and  secondary  cracking  in 
conformity  with  an  ionic  mechanism, 

Oxidation  of  Hydrocarbons.  Attention  was  also  given  in 
1949  to  the  homogeneous,  gas  phase  oxidation  of  lower 
hydrocarbons  such  as  ethane,  propane  and  isobutane  by 
oxygen  gas.  This  was  the  work  of  Frederick  Rust,  William 
Vaughn  and  others  of  Shell  Development  company.  The 
reaction  at  160°C.  was  found  to  be  greatly  modified  by  the 
presence  of  hydrogen  bromide.  Ethane  chiefly  gave  rise  to 
acetic  acid,  propane  to  acetone,  and  isobutane  or  other 
branched  alkanes  to  stable  peroxides. 

Oxygen  was  believed  to  react  first  with  the  hydrogen 
bromide  present  to  liberate  a  bromine  atom,  which  then 
reacted  with  the  hydrocarbon  to  form  a  radical:  R3CH-f- 
Br — >  R3C-|  HBr.  Oxygen  than  attached  itself  to  the 
radical  to  form  R3C-O-O-,  and  this  in  turn  reacted  with 
hydrogen  bromide  to  form  the  peroxide  and  bromine  atom 

which  perpetuated  the  operation:  R3COO~|  HBr > 

R8C-O-O-H-fBr.  The  peroxide  radical  combines  simul- 
taneously with  the  alkyl  radical,  R3C,  to  yield  the  symmetrical 
alkyl  peroxide,  R3C-O-O-CR3.  The  yields  of  organic  per- 
oxides in  these  experiments  were  high.  Thus  for  every  100 
moles  of  isobutane  consumed,  there  were  formed  14  moles 
of  /-butyl  hydrogen  peroxide,  20  moles  of  di-/-butyl  peroxide, 
and  31  moles  of /-butyl  alcohol.  Between  64  and  73  moles 
of  acetic  acid  were  formed  per  100  moles  of  ethane  consumed 
in  similar  experiments  with  ethane  conducted  at  210-220°C. 

Aldehydes.  Studies  on  the  conversion  of  thiophene  into  its 
aldehyde,  2-thenoic  aldehyde,  were  carried  on  by  two  groups, 
namely,  W.  J.  King  and  F.  F.  Nord  of  Fordham  university  and 
W.  S.  Emerson  and  T.  M.  Patrick,  Jr.,  of  Monsanto  Chemical 
company,  Dayton,  Ohio.  It  will  be  recalled  that  thiophene 
became  available  by  way  of  the  high  temperature  reaction 
of  butane  and  sulphur.  One  approach  to  the  aldehyde  was 
the  reaction  of  thiophene,  N-methyl-formanilide  and  phos- 
phorus oxychloride.  In  another  method,  thiophene  was  first 
converted  into  2-thenyl  chloride  by  reaction  with  formalde- 
hyde and  hydrogen  chloride.  Hydrolysis  to  thenyl  alcohol 
and  oxidation  with  chromic  acid  at  ice  temperature  com- 
pleted the  synthesis.  The  reactions  of  thenoic  aldehyde 
greatly  resembled  those  of  benzaldehyde. 

A  related  study  was  made  by  H.  D.  Hartough  and  J.  J. 
Dickert,  Jr.,  of  Socony-Vacuum  laboratories,  Paulsboro, 
New  Jersey,  who  used  ammomethylation  (with  formaldehyde 
and  ammonia)  of  thiophene  as  the  approach  to  2-thenoic 
aldehyde.  The  first  substance  formed  is  N-thenylformaldi- 
mine,  (C4H3S) — CH,2 — N  -=  CH2,  or  its  dimer.  It  tautomerizes 
and  hydro lyzes  under  conditions  of  mild  acidity  giving  rise 
to  2-thenoic  aldehyde  in  high  yield. 

V.  Deulofeu  and  A.  E.  A.  Mitta  of  Buenos  Aires,  prepared 
4-imidazolecarbonal  by  direct  oxidation  of  imidazolyl- 
carbinol,  the  latter  being  made  from  fructose  in  the  presence 
of  ammoniacal  cupric  acetate  and  formaldehyde.  Perhaps 
the  most  interesting  reaction  studied  by  these  investigators, 
was  the  condensation  with  hydantoin  leading,  after  hydrolysis 
to  histidine,  one  of  the  essential  amino  acids  in  nutrition, 
formed  on  hydrolysis  of  proteins. 

An  ingenious  synthesis  of  cyclopentenecarbonal  was 
reported  by  James  English,  Jr.,  and  G.  W.  Barber  of  Yale 
university.  Catechol  (or  homologues  of  catechol)  was 
hydrogenated  to  1,  2-cyclo-hexanediol.  Being  a  glycol,  the 
the  latter  was  cleaved  by  lead  tetra-acetate  to  yield  adipalde- 
hyde.  The  best  conditions  found  for  the  self-condensation 


of  this  dialdehyde  were  heating  at  110°C.  with  water  in  a 
sealed  tube  for  five  hours.  A  60%  yield  of  1-cyclohexene- 
carbonal  was  obtained. 

Stereochemistry.  Most  naturally  occurring  carbohydrates 
and  alpha  amino  acids  are  capable  of  turning  the  plane  of 
polarized  light  when  such  light  is  passed  through  a  solution 
of  the  substance.  This  is  caused  by  the  presence  of  one  or 
more  asymmetric  atoms  in  the  molecule.  A  carbon  atom  is 
asymmetric  if  it  holds  four  different  atoms  or  groups. 
Obviously,  if  one  of  the  four  groups  is  fixed  for  reference,  the 
other  three  groups  are  arranged  either  in  clockwise  or 
counterclockwise  fashion.  Both  of  these  arrangements  are 
realizable  in  practice.  One  of  the  isomers  is  called  "  D  "  and 
the  other  "  L." 

It  was  not  a  simple  matter  to  relate  the  clockwise  direction 
of  different  compounds  but  precise  information  was  accumu- 
lated regarding  most  of  the  carbohydrates.  Thus  in  D- 
glycerose  (IV),  o-glucose  (V),  o-glucosamine  (VI),  all  showing 
(+)  rotation  of  polarized  light,  and  D-fructose  (VII),  of  (— ) 


CHO 


HCOH 


CHO 


HCOH 


CH2OH       HOCH 


HCOH 

!  _ 

HCOH 


(IV) 


(V) 


CHO 

i 

CH2OH 

I 

HCNH2 

i 

1 
CO 

1 

HOCH 

i 

HOCH 

i 

1 
HCOH 

i 

1 
HCOH 

i 

1 
HCOH 

| 

HCOH 

i 

CHaOH 

CHaOH 

(VI) 

(VII) 

rotation,  the  atoms  set  off  in  a  rectangle  all  show  the  same 
clockwise  arrangement  of  H  to  OH  to  CHaOH  (if  viewed  from 
below).  The  term  "  D  "  refers  to  this  structural  feature. 

D-glycerose  is  readily  converted  into  n-glycenc  acid  of 
known  structure  (VIII).     Natural  (-h)-rotatory  alanine,  being 


COOH 


HCOH 


CH2OH 


(VIII) 


COOH 


HCNHQ 


CH3 

(IX) 


COOH 


HaN.CH 

I 
CH3 

(X) 


2-aminopropionic  acid,  could  be  either  IX  or  X.  M.  L. 
Wolfrom,  R.  U.  Lemieux  and  S.  M.  Olin  of  Ohio  State 
university,  presented  a  series  of  reactions  correlating  the 
structures  of  the  hydroxy  acid  (VIII)  and  the  amino  acid  (X). 

The  starting  point  was  natural  D-glucosamine  (VI), 
obtained  from  chitin  (in  oyster  shells)  by  hydrolysis.  The  top 
CHO  group  was  converted  to  CH3  by  mercaptalation, 
acetylation  and  reduction  with  Raney  nickel.  Then,  while 
the  NHa  group  alone  was  acetylated  (i.e.,  NHCOCH,), 
the  bottom  three  carbons  of  the  chain  were  cut  off  by  means 
of  lead  tetra-acetate.  Thus,  VI  changed  to  XI. 

Oxidation  of  the  aldehyde  group  to  carboxyl  and  hydro- 
lysis of  the  acetyl  group  yielded  an  alanine  of  structure  XII. 


CH3 

I 
(XI)  HCNHCOCH, 


CHO 


CH3 

(XII)  HCNH. 
COOH 


If  this  is  turned  through  an  angle  of  180°,  it  is  obvious  that  it 
is  the  same  as  X.  The  compound  was  (+)  rotatory,  the  same  as 
the  L-alanine  obtained  from  the  hydrolysis  of  proteins. 


CHEMISTRY 


155 


The  new  Shell  chemical  plant  at  Stanlow,  near  Chester,   which  was  opened  in   1949.    The  plant   cost  £4  million  and  the  photograph 

shows  the  distillation,  butadiene  hydrogenation  and  polymerisation  units. 


Using  a  related  experimental  approach,  Wolfrom,  Lemieux 
and  Olin  started  with  the  tetra-acetate  of  2-methyl-D-glucose 
diethyl  mercaptal  (XIII),  reduced  the  top  CH(SEt)2  group  with 


(XIII) 


CH(SEt), 

HCOCHS 

I 
HOCH 

HCOH 

I 
HCOH 

I 
CH2OH 


(XIV) 


CH3 

I 
HCOCH3 

COOH 

COOH 

I 
(XV)  HOCH 

CH3. 


Raney  nickel  to  a  CHS  group,  then  removed  the  bottom  three 
carbons  with  lead  tetra-acetate  and  oxidized  the  resulting 
aldehyde  to  acid  (XIV),  which  was  the  same  compound  as 
that  produced  by  methylation  of  (-f  )-rotatory  t-lactic  acid  (XV). 
It  so  happened  that  the  configurations  of  both  these  com- 
pounds (glucose  and  lactic  acid)  were  already  established, 
but  this  new  chemical  method  provided  an  added  con- 
firmation. 

Synthesis  of  a  Pyrethrum  Insecticide.  M.  S.  Schechter, 
N.  Green  and  F.  B.  LaForge  of  the  U.S.  Bureau  of  Entomo- 
logy and  Plant  Quarantine  announced  the  successful  synthesis 
of  an  active  principle  of  pyrethrum.  The  natural  source  of 
this  insecticide  is  the  flower  of  pyrethrum  (Chrysanthemum 
cineraria: folium),  mostly  imported  from  Japan  before  1940, 
but  later  chiefly  from  Kenya  and  the  Belgian  Congo. 


H.  Staudinger  and  L.  Ruzicka  studied  the  active  com- 
ponent "  pyrethrolone  "  in  1924.  Twenty  years  later  LaForge 
and  W.  F.  Barthel  established  the  fact  that  this  supposedly 
homogeneous  material  was  a  mixture  of  two  related  hydroxy 
cyclopentenones.  The  name  pyrethrolone  was  retained  for 
the  major  component,  and  "  cinerolone  "  was  suggested  as  a 
name  for  the  other.  Pyrethrolone  possesses  a  2,4-pentadienyl 
side  chain  and  cinerolone  has  an  analogous  2-butenyl  group. 

The  1949  contribution  of  Schechter  et  al.  was  the  synthesis 
of  cinerolone  from  pyruvic  aldehyde,  CHSCOCHO  (A),  and 
a  beta  keto  salt,  RCHuCOCH2COONa  (B),  in  such  a  way 
as  to  establish  the  structure  as  4-hydroxy-3-methyl-2-/J- 
butenyl-2-cyclopentenine.  It  had  been  assumed  earlier  that 
the  hydroxy  group  was  at  position  5.  This  synthesis  may 
be  followed  from  A+B  in  these  steps: 

CH8-CO         H2CR 


HOCH-CH— CO- 

I 

I 
COONa 


CH3CO         HaCR   CH3C 

+         I  I      ->     I 

HOCH-CHa-CO     HOCH 

\ 


io 


CHa 


This   condensation   proceeds   in   the   presence   of  sodium 
hydroxide,  the  group  R  being  — CHaCH-CHCH3. 

The  toxicity  of  the  synthetic  compound  proved  to  be  equal 
to  that  of  the  natural  product.  Also,  the  "  knock-down  " 
action  was  the  same.  It  was  believed  that  the  commercial 
synthesis  of  this  material  might  be  anticipated,  in  view  of  the 
availability  of  the  necessary  basic  materials,  especially 
since  the  future  of  DDT  for  use  on  dairy  cows  was  being 
questioned. 


156 


CHEMOTHERAPY 


Chloromycetin.  This  compound,  also  called  chloram- 
phenicol,  was  isolated  in  1948  from  a  soil  organism,  Strepto- 
myces  Venezuela.  It  is  an  antibiotic  which  was  shown  to 
have  a  considerable  spectrum  of  therapeutic  activity  against 
many  pathogenic  organisms. 

Chemists  at  Parke,  Davis  and  company  (Mildred  Reb- 
stock,  Harry  Crooks,  Jr.,  John  Controulis)  were  successful 
not  only  in  elucidating  many  of  its  chemical  properties  but 
also  in  developing  a  method  of  synthesis. 

The  empirical  formula  of  chloromycetin  is  CnH^ClaNyOg 
It  is  relatively  stable,  neutral,  optically  active,  and  melts  at 
150°C.  It  possesses  a  benzene  ring,  a  nitro  group  and  an 
amide  function.  The  nitro  group  is  most  unusual,  since  in  no 
other  known  natural  product  does  such  a  group  occur. 
The  complete  structure  proved  to  be  : 

Cl  ,CHCONH-CH-CHOH-CGH4NO,. 

I 
CH.OH 

In  conformity  with  this  structure,  the  compound  hydrolyzes 
to  yield  dichloroacetic  acid  and  an  amine,  HOCH2-CHNH2- 
CHOH-QH4NO,.  Periodic  acid  cleaves  this  amine  (but 
not  the  original  chloromycetin)  to  yield  /?-mtrobenzaldehyde, 
as  would  be  predicted  from  the  structure  assigned. 

To  synthesize  the  compound,  the  investigators  started  with 
benzaldehyde  and  2-mtro-l-ethanol.  The  nitro  group  of  the 
l-phenyl-2-nitro-l ,  3-propanediol,  C6H5CHOH  -  CHNO2  - 
CH2OH,  thus  produced,  was  hydrogenated  to  an  amino 
group.  By  reaction  with  methyl  dichloroacetate  the  amino 
group  was  converted  to  the  desired  amide.  Then,  after 
protecting  the  hydroxyl  groups  by  acetylation,  the  benzene 
ring  was  nitrated.  Deacetylation  by  mild  alkaline  conditions 
completed  the  synthesis.  The  compound  was  also  synthesized 
differently,  starting  with  /7-nitroacetophenone. 

Patulin.  Patulin  is  a  mould  metabolite  and  antibiotic. 
Until  recently,  its  structure  was  thought  to  be  XVI.  New 


O  — CO 


CO      CH 


CO      CH 


CH;      C 

1             I 
CHaHC- 

V 

0 

.A, 

CH*     C 

CHa  HC 

\    / 

CO 

-i 

CH      C 

I  I 

CH*    CH 


(XVI) 


(XVII) 


(XVIII) 


evidence  caused  P.  A.  Plattner  of  Switzerland  to  reject  this 
structure  in  favour  of  XVII.  A  still  different  structure,  how- 
ever, was  proposed  (XV 1 1 1)  by  R.  B.  Woodward  and  G.  Singh 
of  Harvard  university  and  by  H.  J.  Dauben,  Jr.,  and  F.  L. 
Weisenborn  of  the  University  of  Washington,  Seattle.  Infra- 
red and  ultra-violet  spectra  of  patulin  and  its  derivatives 
supported  XVIII,  as  did  the  reaction  of  patulin  with  thionyl 
chloride.  This  is  a  reagent  for  the  hydroxyl  group,  and  the 
reaction  did  give  rise  to  patulyl  chloride  wherein  the  OH 
group  of  XVIII  was  replaced  by  chlorine.  (See  also  ATOMIC 
ENERGY;  BIOCHEMISTRY;  CHEMOTHERAPY;  CHEMUROY; 
ELECTRONICS;  FOOD  RESEARCH.)  (C.  D.  Hu.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.    Chemical  Abstracts,  vol.  43 


CHEMOTHERAPY.  Among  the  more  startling  reports 
on  medical  advancements  in  1949  were  announcements  that 
Compound  E  (cortisone),  from  the  adrenal  gland,  and 
ACTH,  from  the  pituitary  gland,  produced  dramatic  relief 
in  some  instances  for  people  with  rheumatoid  arthritis.  These 
substances  also  showed  promise  in  the  experimental  control 


of  rheumatic  fever,  allergies  and  even  cancer.  Only  small 
amounts  of  the  drugs  could  be  obtained.  Pituitary  glands 
from  400,000  pigs  were  required  to  make  one  pound  of 
ACTH.  This  was  such  an  expensive  process  that  the  drug 
at  one  time,  if  sold,  would  have  cost  approximately 
$4,500,000  a  pound.  It  seemed  unlikely  that  unlimited  quan- 
tities would  be  available  for  a  long  time;  newer  methods  of 
production  and  synthetic  substitutes  were  needed  to  provide 
a  solution  to  the  problem.  The  drugs  could  not  be  used 
carelessly.  Undesirable  reactions,  for  example  mental 
changes,  were  produced  at  times,  even  when  the  drug  was 
carefully  administered.  Other  unwanted  effects  included  the 
development  of  growth  of  hair  and  masculine  features  in 
women  who  were  being  treated. 

Another  new  cure  was  widely  promoted  for  the  common 
cold.  This  treatment  consisted  of  the  administration  of 
anti-histaminic  substances — chemical  compounds  used  for 
the  control  of  certain  allergic  phenomena.  While  certain 
research  findings  offered  sufficient  promise  to  justify  further 
trial  of  these  drugs,  the  Council  on  Pharmacy  and  Chemistry 
of  the  American  Medical  association  in  view  of  the  flam- 
boyant wave  of  advertising  in  the  U.S.  that  followed  the 
announcement  of  these  reports,  issued  a  warning  against 
expecting  too  much  from  the  use  of  the  substances  and 
against  the  harmful  possibilities  that  could  follow  their  use. 
The  council  warned  that  instances  had  been  reported  of 
users  of  these  drugs  becoming  drowsy  and  even  falling 
asleep  while  at  work  and,  in  occasional  cases,  while  driving 
cars  or  operating  machinery.  The  council  also  warned  that 
experience  with  these  substances  so  far  was  insufficient  to 
permit  knowledge  of  whether  they  are  harmless  when  used 
over  long  periods  of  time  and  that  the  amounts  taken  in 
persistent  colds  might  exceed  what  had  been  established  as 
normally  safe. 

A  chemical  related  to  the  anti-histaminics  was  dramamme, 
which  when  tried  as  an  anti-histaminic  for  allergy,  was  found 
to  have  far  more  therapeutic  effectiveness  when  administered 
for  motion  sickness.  After  extensive  trials,  particularly  on 
the  U.S.  army  transport  "  General  C.  C.  Ballou  "  in  Nov. 
and  Dec.  1948,  dramamine  was  shown  to  be  effective  for 
the  control,  in  the  majority  of  instances,  of  motion  sickness, 
on  boats,  in  aircraft  and  in  cars.  Subsequent  investigations 
during  1949  also  revealed  promise  for  the  use  of  this  drug 
in  irradiation  sickness,  migraine  headaches  and  nausea  and 
vomiting  in  expectant  mothers. 

The  usefulness  of  chloramphenicol  (chloromycetin)  for 
virus,  rickettsial  and  other  diseases  was  extended.  Of  import- 
ance, however,  was  its  synthesis,  which  did  not  result  in  the 
development  of  a  cheaper  commercial  method  of  production 
but  did  contribute  to  the  knowledge  necessary  for  the 
synthetic  development  of  antibiotics.  Another  antibiotic, 
aureomycin,  was  reported  effective  against  several  diseases 
such  as  amoebic  dysentery,  shingles,  whooping  cough  and, 
particularly,  undulant  fever. 

The  drug  treatment  of  tuberculosis  was  advanced  by 
further  studies  on  para-aminosahcylic  acid  (PAS)  and  a 
new  chemical  from  Germany  known  as  tibione.  Experimen- 
tally, a  mould  derived  from  hops  was  also  shown  to  be 
active  against  typical  germs  in  mice,  but,  unfortunately, 
caused  damage  to  the  kidneys. 

The  results  of  an  extensive  survey  in  the  U.S.  by  the 
Therapeutic  Trials  committee  of  the  Council  on  Pharmacy 
and  Chemistry  revealed  that  hormones  in  some  instances 
might  be  used  for  the  palliative  treatment  of  patients  with 
cancer,  but  these  substances  could  not  be  regarded  as  cures. 
In  some  patients  cancer  progresses  so  far  before  it  is  detected 
that  operation  or  irradiation  with  radium  or  X-rays  is 
impracticable.  In  such  instances,  administration  of  hormones, 
androgens  or  estrogens  (the  so-called  male  and  female  sex 


CHEMURGY-CHESS 


157 


hormones)  resulted  in  prolonging  the  lives  of  many  of  the 
patients  treated  and  lessening  pain.  Sooner  or  later,  however, 
the  patients  died;  a  drug  cure  for  cancer  still  did  not  exist. 
Of  related  interest  were  further  explorations  on  aminopterin 
for  lymphatic  leuchaemia,  urethane  for  myeloid  leuchaemia 
and  nitrogen  mustard  for  monocytic  leuchaemia.  These 
drugs  also  failed  as  cures  but,  on  the  other  hand,  when 
given  to  carefully  selected  patients,  effected  relief  from  symp- 
toms and  caused  general  improvement. 

Antabuse  (tetraethylthiuram  disulphide)  was  reported  to 
be  an  aid  in  the  treatment  of  alcoholics.  This  chemical, 
long  used  in  the  rubber  industry,  produces  intense  vomiting 
when  administered  prior  to  the  drinking  of  alcoholic  bever- 
ages but  does  not  seem  to  have  any  effect  when  alcohol  is 
not  taken.  Apparently  the  vomiting  is  caused  by  the  drugs 
interfering  with  an  enzyme  system  which  is  concerned  with 
the  metabolism  of  alcohol.  Use  of  this  chemical  for  the 
treatment  of  alcoholics  was  first  reported  from  Copenhagen, 
Denmark;  it  was  being  investigated  in  other  countries 
during  1949.  Its  true  role  as  a  therapeutic  agent  awaited 
further  evidence.  It  could  produce  dangerous  effects  if  given 
carelessly  and  was  never  to  be  administered  except  when  the 
receiver  was  under  close  medical  supervision. 

Myanesin  (tolserol)  was  used  to  obtain  relaxation  of 
muscles  and  was  also  used  in  the  treatment  of  alcoholic 
intoxication  and  anxiety  states.  Another  treatment  of 
alcoholics  consisted  of  the  use  of  pentothal,  which  produces 
a  drugged  state  in  which  the  patient  can  be  questioned  for 
the  cause  of  his  drinking. 

Vitamin  B ,  2 ,  a  member  of  the  B  complex  group,  had  been 
found  useful  in  combating  certain  anaemias.  It  was  also 
reported  to  influence  favourably  school  children  who  appear 
to  exhibit  growth  failure.  When  administered  by  mouth  to 
these  children,  it  was  reported  to  effect  such  a  favourable 
response  that  one  group  of  researchers  suggested  there 
might  be  a  B , .,  functional  deficiency.  (See  also  PHARMACY.) 

(A.  E.  SH.) 

CHEMURGY  (chemical  utilization  of  farm  products 
in  industry).  A  compilation  made  during  1949  revealed  that 
industrial  utilization  of  agricultural  materials  in  the  United 
States  had  increased  until  the  total  value  of  farm  products 
going  into  chemurgic  uses  considerably  exceeded  $1,000 
million  annually.  A  study  released  early  in  the  year  indicated 
that  the  total  for  the  last  year  for  which  complete  figures 
were  available,  1947,  had  reached  $1,187,525,000,  and  it 
was  believed  that,  as  a  result  of  further  expansion  during  the 
two  subsequent  years,  the  annual  rate  had  probably  exceeded 
$1,250  million. 

Among  the  items  included  were  oils  and  fats,  $700  million; 
corn  and  other  grains  for  wet  milling  and  distillation, 
$219,600,000;  wood  pulp,  $40  million,  and  cotton  hnters, 
$15,125,000,  for  making  chemical  grade  cellulose;  tobacco 
used  for  producing  nicotine  and  salts,  $2,500,000;  dairy 
products  for  lactic  acid,  $15  million,  for  casein,  $8  million, 
for  lactose,  $5  million,  and  other  items;  sugar-cane  bagasse 
and  molasses,  $3,500,000;  naval  stores,  $103  million, 
Other  chemurgic  products  on  the  list  were  glycerol,  $40 
million;  furfural,  $4,500,000;  lecithin  (from  soybeans), 
$1  million;  sodium  glutamate,  $8  million;  tanning  extracts, 
$12  million;  and  about  $10  million  worth  of  other  materials 
such  as  products  from  flax  straw,  wheat  straw,  corncobs, 
biological  materials  and  numerous  agricultural  residues. 

The  Corn  Products  Refining  company  completed  and 
began  operating  a  135ac.  plant  during  1949  at  Corpus 
Christi,  Texas.  When  operating  at  capacity  the  factory 
would  produce  annually  100  million  Ib.  of  dextrose  from 
milo,  which  is  grown  extensively  in  Texas,  besides  starch, 
oils,  and  50,000  tons  of  livestock  feed.  Demand  for  dextrose 


was  substantially  increased  during  the  year  as  the  tyre 
manufacturers  converted  to  the  new  cold  rubber  process, 
which  utilized  the  corn  sugar  in  large  volume. 

A  new  market  for  casein  opened  during  1949  which,  it  was 
thought,  might  consume  more  than  $2  million  worth  annually. 
The  casein  was  used  in  the  production  of  curled  casein,  a  synth- 
etic fibre  so  treated  as  to  possess  the  resiliency  of  horsehair. 
As  casein  sold  at  94  cents  a  pound  as  compared  with  $1-25 
and  more  a  pound  for  Argentine  horsehair,  curled  casein 
started  in  a  favourable  economic  position.  Its  manufacturer, 
the  Rubber-Set  company,  found  an  early  market  in  an  auto- 
motive air  filter,  a  use  involving  a  potential  demand  for 
1  million  Ib.  a  year.  Mattress  and  furniture  manufacturers 
were  expected  to  adopt  the  product,  especially  since  the 
casern  fibre  was  dependably  clean  and  uniform. 

Interest  in  the  new  crop  field  was  greatly  heightened  during 
1949  by  the  announcement  that  a  cure  for  arthritis  had  been 
derived  from  an  African  plant  of  the  Strophanthns  species. 
The  curative  agent,  known  generally  as  cortisone,  had  first 
been  extracted  from  ox  bile.  The  process  proved  almost 
prohibitively  expensive;  and  calculations  indicated  that  all 
the  cattle  annually  slaughtered  could  not  provide  enough 
of  the  raw  material  to  treat  the  victims  of  rheumatic  diseases. 
Discovery  of  the  plant  source  resulted  immediately  in 
expeditions  being  dispatched,  one  by  the  U.S.  government 
and  one  by  private  interests,  to  obtain  seeds  and  cuttings  of 
Strophanthus  for  study  and  for  reproduction.  Following  the 
announcement,  it  was  also  revealed  that  closely  similar 
compounds  were  obtainable  from  the  Mexican  yam  and 
from  the  soybean.  (See  MEDICINE). 

The  exceptional  interest  created  by  the  cure  for  arthritis 
stimulated  curiosity  as  to  the  values  which  may  be  concealed 
in  many  other  species  of  wild  plants.  It  was  pointed  out  that 
while  the  earth's  flora  includes  about  300,000  species,  only 
about  1,500  kinds  had  been  put  to  human  use.  It  was  believed 
that  vigorous  plant  exploration,  coupled  with  the  application 
of  such  new  tools  as  organic  chemistry,  plant  genetics  and 
power  equipment,  might  discover  that  many  neglected 
species  in  the  vegetable  kingdom  could  be  made  valuable  to 
man  and  could  be  made  profitable  agricultural  commodities. 
Fewer  than  200  species  are  cultivated  commercially  in  the  U.S. 

Aromatic  tobaccos  of  the  Turkish  types  were  grown 
extensively  in  the  U.S.  for  the  first  time  in  1949.  More  than 
1,500  ac.  were  reported  harvested  in  16  mountainous  counties 
in  the  western  areas  of  the  Carolmas  and  Virginia.  This 
was  a  new  crop,  being  a  type  of  tobacco  formerly  imported, 
and  only  adapted  to  areas  which  up  to  1949  grew  no  other 
kinds  of  tobacco.  The  crop  returned  a  gross  of  $750  to 
$1,000  an  acre  to  the  farmer.  The  research  was  headed  by 
F.  R.  Darkis  of  Duke  university. 

Although  chemurgic  studies  have  usually  been  undertaken 
to  increase  the  nonfood  markets  of  agriculture,  the  research 
programmes  have  led  to  new  discoveries  in  the  food  field. 
One  new  principle  of  food  preservation  resulted  in  frozen 
concentrated  orange  juice,  which  during  1949  consumed 
about  10%  of  the  Florida  orange  crop.  A  process  called 
dehydrofreezing,  which  partially  dried  and  then  froze, 
promised  to  save  space  and  weight  in  the  storage  and  trans- 
portation of  several  kinds  of  fruits  and  vegetables. 

(W.  MCM.) 

CHESS.  The  24th  congress  at  Hastings,  Sussex,  ended 
on  Jan.  7,  1949.  N.  Rossolimo  (France)  won  with  6£  points; 
1.  Konig  (Yugoslavia)  was  second  with  6  points  and  W.  J. 
Miihnng  (Netherlands)  third  with  5^  points.  Two  British 
players,  B.  H.  Wood  and  W.  A.  Fairhurst  were  equal  fourth. 
At  the  international  congress  at  Southsea,  Hampshire,  in 
April,  the  "  Swiss  "  system  was  used  in  a  tournament  in 
England  for  the  first  time.  Except  for  the  first  round  the 


158 


CHIANG    KAI-SHEK-CHIFLEY 


The  1949  German  champion  V.  Bogoljubow  playing  simultaneously 
against  40  opponents  at  Darmstadt  on  Nov.  5,  1949. 

pairing  was  not  arranged;  instead  the  leaders  after  each 
round  were  drawn  together  in  the  next  round,  with  the  proviso 
that  no  contestant  should  play  another  more  than  once.  The 
contest  was  also  won  by  Rossolimo  with  9  points;  second 
was  L.  Pachman  (Czechoslovakia)  with  8J  points. 

The  British  championship  at  Felixstowe,  Suffolk,  was  won 
by  H.  Golombek,  and  Eileen  Tranmer  won  the  ladies' 
championship.  A  radio  match  between  London  and  Sydney 
resulted  in  a  win  for  London  with  6^  points  to  3^.  Oxford 
defeated  Cambridge  by  6  games  to  1  and,  having  previously 
beaten  London  university  by  7  games  to  3,  thus  retained  the 
championship  of  the  Southern  Universities'  association. 

The  Soviet  championship  resulted  in  a  tie  between  David 
Bronstein  and  Vasili  Smyslov,  each  with  13  points  out  of  19. 
A  match  of  six  games  started  on  Dec.  19  to  decide  the 
championship.  A  tournament  for  the  women's  championship 
of  the  world  began  in  Moscow  in  December. 

S.  Tartakower  (France)  won  the  tournament  at  Beverwijk, 
Netherlands,  in  January.  In  Vienna  the  Schlechter  Memorial 
tournament  resulted  in  a  tie  between  Jan  Foltys  (Czecho- 
slovakia) and  Stojan  Puc  (Yugoslavia).  A  match  was  played 
between  teams  of  eight  players  representing  Budapest  and 
Moscow.  The  Moscow  team  won  in  Budapest  by  38  points 
to  28,  and  in  Moscow  by  48^  points  to  15^. 

The  German  championship  at  Bad  Pyrmont,  Hanover,  was 
won  by  V.  Bogoljubow.  W.  Unzicker,  German  champion 
in  1948,  won  a  tournament  at  Heidelberg.  G.  Stahlberg 
(Sweden)  won  a  tournament  at  Trencianske  Teplice, 
Czechoslovakia,  and  at  Venice  L.  Szabo  won  with  1 1J  points 
out  of  15. 

CHIANG  KAI-SHEK,  Chinese  army  officer  and 
statesman  (b.  Fenghwa,  Chekiang,  Oct.  31,  1887),  was 
president  of  the  republic  from  1928  to  1931,  several  times 
prime  minister,  generalissimo  of  the  Chinese  forces  after  the 
Japanese  aggression  (July  7,  1937)  and  again  president  of 
the  republic  from  Sept.  1943.  (For  his  career  see  Encyclo- 
paedia Britannica  and  Britannica  Book  of  the  Year  1949). 

He  "retired"  on  Jan.  21,  1949,  from  active  service  as 
president  of  China  with  the  hope  of  ending  the  civil  war. 
However,  the  Communists  named  him  as  the  chief  war 
criminal  and  principal  tool  of  "  American  imperialism,"  and 
regarded  his  move  as  a  trick.  Despite  Chiang's  retirement  his 


position  as  director-general  of  the  Kuomintang  and  his 
personal  influence  over  many  of  the  Nationalist  generals 
made  him  the  authority  behind  the  scenes.  After  the  Com- 
munists had  taken  Nanking,  Chiang  appeared  in  threatened 
Shanghai  on  April  27  and  again  took  an  active  part  in  the 
struggle.  As  the  Nationalist  capital  moved  from  Nanking 
to  Canton,  Chungking,  Chengtu  and  Taipei,  Formosa, 
Chiang  hurried  between  these  points  to  rally  anti-Communist 
forces.  On  July  16  a  Supreme  Policy  council  with  Chiang 
as  chairman  and  acting  president  Li  Tsung-jen  as  deputy 
chairman  was  formed  in  Canton  to  direct  the  fight  against 
the  Communists.  Chiang  visited  President  Elpidio  Quirino 
of  the  Philippines  on  July  10-11  and  President  Rhee 
Syngman  67.  v.)  of  Korea  on  Aug.  6-7  in  an  attempt  to  form 
a  Pacific  union  against  communism.  These  efforts  and  his 
repeated  bid  for  U.S.  aid  brought  no  favourable  response 
from  Washington.  With  acting  president  Li's  departure  for 
the  United  States  late  in  the  year,  Chiang  virtually  exercised 
the  authority  of  the  presidency  of  the  tottering  National 
government. 

CHICAGO.  Second  largest  U.S.  city,  at  the  southwest 
corner  of  Lake  Michigan,  Chicago  is  the  largest  centre  of 
U.S.  rail  and  air  traffic.  Population  of  the  city  proper  (1940 
census):  3,396,808.  The  U.S.  census  bureau  estimated  the 
population  of  the  city  in  May  1949  at  3,632,808  and  the 
population  of  the  entire  metropolitan  district  at  5,395,524. 
Mayor,  Martin  H.  Kennelly. 

Chicago  enjoyed  a  comparatively  tranquil  year  in  1949 
with  business  activity  slowly  declining.  Bank  clearings  for 
the  year  dropped  to  $35,807  million  from  $38,886  million  in 
1948.  Retail  sales  for  1949  were  estimated  at  $4-200  million, 
or  almost  the  same  as  in  1948.  Except  for  the  steel  strike 
there  was  a  marked  decline  in  the  number  of  industrial 
disputes  and  the  number  of  workers  involved.  They  were 
respectively  70  and  64,887  in  1949,  compared  with  506  and 
218,948  in  1948.  Passengers  carried  in  the  lines  of  the  Chicago 
Transit  authority  declined,  but  the  C.T.A.  also  ended  its 
monthly  deficits  because  of  an  increase  in  fares. 

A  modernized  building  code  was  adopted  by  the  city  council 
on  Dec.  30  in  the  hope  of  stimulating  private  home  building, 
in  which  Chicago  had  lagged  far  behind  the  country  at  large 
and  far  behind  its  own  suburbs. 

The  1950  budgets  of  the  six  governments  that  cover 
Chicago  in  the  whole  or  in  part  were  as  follows:  city  of 
Chicago  corporate  fund,  operating  expenses  only  (excluding 
bond  interest,  pension  fund,  etc.)  $81,337,584;  Cook  county 
$37,346,364;  Chicago  School  board  $111,784,314;  Chicago 
Sanitary  district  $29,533,913;  Chicago  Park  board 
$19,188,717;  Cook  County  Forest  preserve  district, 
approximately  $3,500,000.  (L.  H.  L.) 

CHIFLEY,  JOSEPH  BENEDICT,  Australian  states- 
man (b.  Bathurst,  New  South  Wales,  Sept.  22,  1885), 
became  prime  minister  and  treasurer  on  July  13,  1945. 
(For  his  early  career  see  Britannica  Book  of  the  Year  1949.) 

In  April  1949  he  attended  the  Commonwealth  prime 
ministers'  conference  in  London  where  a  formula  was  found 
whereby  India  could  become  a  republic  yet  remain  in  the 
Commonwealth.  He  visited  Paris  on  April  24  for  talks  with 
H.  V.  Evatt  (^.v.),  who  was  in  Europe  in  connection  with 
Australia's  appeal  to  the  Privy  Council.  He  returned  to 
Canberra  on  May  3  and  a  week  later  it  was  announced  he 
was  under  observation  for  suspected  smallpox.  In  June  and 
August  he  presided  over  meetings  of  the  state  premiers. 
On  Sept.  7  he  presented  his  budget  to  the  House  of  Represen- 
tatives and  announced  that  Australia  would  make  a  further 
gift  of  £A10  million  to  Britain.  In  August  he  visited  South 
Australia  and  Western  Australia  and,  before  the  general 


CHILDREN'S   BOOKS 


159 


election  on  Dec.  10,  he  undertook  a  nation-wide  campaign 
tour.  During  the  year  he  re-established  a  record  of  con- 
tinuous service  as  a  Labour  prime  minister,  exceeding  the 
period  of  service  of  John  Curtin  of  3  years  9  months.  The 
general  election  on  Dec.  10  resulted  in  a  defeat  for  the  Labour 
government  and  he  was  succeeded  as  prime  minister  by 
R.  G.  Menzies  (q.v.)  on  Dec.  19. 


CHILD  LABOUR:   see  JUVENILE  EMPLOYMENT. 


CHILDREN'S  BOOKS.  The  abolition  of  restrictions 
on  the  use  of  paper  for  books  led  to  an  increased  output  and 
an  improvement  in  physical  quality  in  Great  Britain  although 
some  volumes  fell  short  of  a  desired  minimum  standard  in 
appearance,  durability  and  content.  Geoffrey  Trease's 
Tales  out  of  School,  a  critical  appraisal  of  children's  literature, 
stimulated  interest  in  children's  reading.  The  Times  Literary 
Supplement  devoted  two  sections  exclusively  to  children's 
book  reviews  (July  15  and  Oct.  21).  The  Library  association 
Carnegie  medal  was  awarded  to  Richard  Armstrong  for  his 
Sea  Change. 

Several  biographical  works  were  issued,  including  Swan  of 
Denmark,  a  sensitive  study  of  Hans  Anderson  by  Ruth 
Manning-Sanders;  Fortune  my  Foe,  a  readable  account  of 
Raleigh  by  Geoffrey  Trease  and  Nelson  the  Sailor,  a  critical 
portrait  for  older  boys  by  Russell  Grenfell.  Evelyn  Cheesman 
recounted  her  own  experiences  in  Camping  Adventures  in 
Cannibal  Islands  and  imaginary  adventures  of  young  cast- 
aways in  Marooned  in  Du-Bu  Cove.  The  Story  of  Art  by  E.  H. 
Gombrich  and  Our  Bird  Book  by  Sidney  Rogerson  and 
Charles  Tunmcliffe  were  amply  illustrated.  Practical  advice 
was  given  in  H.  L.  Heys'  Chemistry  Experiments  at  Home. 
The  Story  of  your  Home  by  Agnes  Allen  and  The  Young 
Traveller  in  India  and  Pakistan  by  Geoffrey  Trease  were 
pleasantly  informative.  The  Children's  Theatre  Book  by 
Cecile  Walton  was  a  vivacious  introduction  to  stage  technique. 
Arthur  Stanley  edited  The  Bedside  Book  for  Children,  a  wide 
ranging  anthology. 

Additions  to  folklore  included  The  Essential  Uncle  Remus, 
a  wise  selection  of  Brer  Rabbit  tales  with  the  original  illustra- 
tions; African  stories  in  Where  the  Leopard  passes  by 
Geraldine  Elliot  and  Legends  of  the  United  Nations  by 
Frances  Frost.  The  Cat  who  went  to  Heaven  was  a  Chinese 
legend  of  unusual  delicacy  and  charm  by  Elizabeth  Coats- 
worth.  H.  M.  McGill  retold  Perrault's  Tales  of  Long  Ago; 
Robert  Lawson  based  his  admirably  illustrated  Robbut  on  a 
well  known  legend  and  Eleanor  Farjeon  contributed  original 
fairy  stories  in  The  Old  Nurse's  Stocking  Basket. 

There  was  rollicking  fun  and  fantasy  in  Eric  Linklater's 
The  Pirates  in  the  Deep  Green  Sea  and  Ian  Serrailher's 
Captain  Bounsaboard  and  the  Pirates;  sly  humour  and  magic 
in  J.  R.  R.  Tolkein's  Farmer  Giles  of  Ham  and  animal 
characters  in  Hugh  Lofting' s  Doctor  Dolittle  and  the  Secret 
Lake. 

Among  picture  books  of  distinction  were  Edward  Ardiz- 
zone's  virile  77m  to  the  Rescue,  Kathleen  Hale's  gay  and 
detailed  Orlando  keeps  a  Dog  and  The  Story  of  Noah,  told 
and  drawn  with  deceptive  simplicity  by  Clifford  Webb. 

Books  for  boys  included  P.  H.  Newby's  The  Loot  Runners, 
an  exceptionally  polished  tale  of  modern  smugglers,  and  John 
Connell's  The  Return  of  Long  John  Silver,  a  worthy  continua- 
tion of  Treasure  Island.  David  Severn  introduced  a  super- 
natural element  in  Dream  Gold.  Snow  Dog  by  Jim  Elgard 
and  Saltwater  Summer  by  Roderick  Haig-Brown  were 
vigorous  tales  of  North  America. 

Girls  read  Noel  Streatfeild's  portrayal  of  Hollywood  in 
The  Painted  Garden,  Dust/s  Windmill  by  Kitty  Barne, 


Elizabeth  Goudge's  lively  and  fanciful  Make  Believe  and 
Kathleen  Wallace's  happy  glimpse  of  a  Chinese  family  in 
Craw  the  Bridge  and  See. 

Modern  social  problems  determined  the  plot  of  A  House 
of  Their  Own,  a  convincing  story  by  Martha  Robinson  and 
Tasmania  formed  the  background  to  They  found  a  Cave,  an 
effective  camping-out  adventure  by  Nan  Chauncy.  Amateur 
sleuths  were  busy  in  The  tk  Polly  Harris  "  by  Mary  Treadgold 
and  The  House  on  the  Hill  by  Elisabeth  Kyle.  Sailing  was  the 
main  theme  of  Kestrel  by  Aubrey  de  Selincourt  and  there  was 
originality  in  The  Voyage  of  the  Indian  Brig  by  Winifred 
Holmes.  Cojntry  life  was  depicted  in  Winter  at  Pikers 
Steep  by  C.  E.  Roberts  and  The  Further  Adventures  of  Farmer 
Jim  by  C'  H.  Chapman,  who  also  wrote  King  Cuckoo,  an 
imaginative  story  of  bird  life. 

Ancient  Britain  was  the  scene  of  exciting  and  sometimes 
violent  adventures  in  Kenn  the  Watcher  by  Dorothy  Severn 
and  Boadicea  by  C.  H.  Abrahalt  and  there  was  stirring 
intrigue  in  The  Young  Jacobites  by  Kenneth  MacFarlane. 
In  quieter  vein,  The  Great  House  by  Cynthia  Harnett  was  a 
painstaking  and  satisfying  story  of  life  in  the  year  1690. 
Life  in  other  countries  was  skilfully  blended  into  several 
stories  for  the  under  tens.  New  Zealand  was  pictured  in 
The  Book  of  Wiremu  by  Stella  Morice;  Lapland  in  Soml 
builds  a  Church  by  R.  Busoni;  Africa  in  Blue  Smoke  by 
Y.  M.  Robinson  and  French  Martinique  in  Simone  and  the 
Lily  whites  by  Marie-Louise  Ventteclaye.  Mimff  in  Charge 
by  H.  J.  Kaeser  continued  the  adventures  of  a  heroic  small 
boy  and  there  was  irresistible  humour  in  My  Friends  the 
Beasts  by  Allan  K.  Taylor.  (D.  D.  C.) 

United  States.  A  distinctive  contribution  to  folk  literature 
was  A  Harvest  of  World  Folk  Tales  edited  by  Milton  Rugoff, 
while  an  unusual  anthology  was  My  American  Heritage 
compiled  by  Ralph  Henry  and  Lucile  Pannell.  Picture  books 
gay  with  bright  wash  drawings  were  Cocolo  Comes  to 
America  by  Bettina  and  Tim  to  the  Rescue  by  Edward  Ardiz- 
zone.  Two  unusual  picture  books  were  Little  Boy  Brown, 
by  Isobel  Harris  with  drawings  by  Andre  Francois,  and 
Henry — Fisherman  by  Marcia  Brown,  a  story  of  the  Virgin 
Islands. 

The  mechanically  minded  read  Pago's  Sea  Trip  by  Josephine 
Nor  ling,  The  Truck  Book  by  Margaret  and  Stuart  Otto  and 
The  First  Book  of  Automobiles  by  Campbell  Tatham;  while 
The  First  Book  of  Bugs  by  Margaret  Williamson  also  proved 
interesting. 

Animal  stories  ran  the  gamut  from  A  Horse  to  Ride  by 
Grace  Paull  to  Vison  the  Mink  by  John  and  Jean  George; 
a  story  about  turf  racing  was  Bobcat  by  C.  W.  Anderson, 
while  Kalak  of  the  Ice  (about  bears)  by  Jim  Kjelgaard  was 
for  junior  high  age. 

For  the  middle  group,  Treasure  Mountain  (Oregon)  by 
Evelyn  Lampman  and  Peter's  Pinto  (Utah)  by  Mary  and 
Conrad  Buff  proved  interesting  in  their  depiction  of  Indians 
and  Mormons.  Two  stories  laid  in  North  Carolina  were 
Ellis  Credle's  Here  Comes  the  Showboat  and  Mebane 
Burgwyn's  Lucky  Mischief;  Frieda  Friedman  in  A  Sundae 
with  Judy  wrote  of  New  York  city  while  Rene  Prud'hommeaux 
dealt  with  adventure  in  the  Sunken  Forest.  Historical  stories 
were  Frank  Andrews'  For  Charlemagne!  and  Two  for  the 
Show  (Shakespeare's  England)  by  Isabelle  Lawrence;  Rebecca 
Caudill  wrote  of  18th  century  Kentucky  in  Tree  of  Freedom, 
while  in  Midnight  Patriot  Emma  Patterson  told  of  Revolu- 
tionary New  York.  The  Fugitive  Slave  act  was  featured  in 
North  Winds  Blow  Free  by  Elizabeth  Howard  and  the  Civil 
War  was  the  theme  of  Walter  Edmonds'  Cadmus  Henry. 

Stories  of  other  countries  were  Golden  North  (Canada)  by 
Marie  McPhedran,  Ali  of  Baku  (near  east)  by  Judith  Shouisky 
and  Ruth  McGibeny,  Bush  Holiday  (Australia)  by  Stephen 
Fennimore,  At  the  Palace  Gates  (Peru)  by  Helen  Parish  and 


160 


CHILD  WELFARE 


The  Runaway  Apprentice  (China)  by  Margery  Evernden. 
Books  about  minority  groups  were  Florence  Means's  The 
House  Under  the  Hill  (New  Mexico)  and  Chesley  Kahmann's 
Gypsy  Melody.  Older  boys  enjoyed  a  powerful  story  of  big 
league  baseball,  Hit  and  Run,  by  Duane  Decker;  Mt.  Rainier 
was  the  setting  for  Escape  on  Skis  by  Arthur  Stapp,  and 
Mars  for  Robert  Heinlein's  Red  Planet. 

The  non-fiction  harvest  was  rich.  A  beginning  book  on 
plant  reproduction  was  Bits  that  Grow  Big  by  Jrma  Webber. 
Electrical  energy  from  earliest  times  was  discussed  in  The 
Bright  Design  by  Katherine  Shippen  and  Television  Works 
Like  This  by  Jeanne  and  Robert  Bendick  answered  many 
questions.  Biography  ranged  from  George  Washington  by 
Genevieve  Foster  to  The  Youngest  General  (Lafayette)  by 
Fruma  Gottschalk  and  the  unbiased  The  Story  of  Franklin 
D.  Roosevelt  by  Marcus  Rosenblum.  In  poetry  there  was 
Bridled  with  Rainbows,  edited  by  Sara  and  John  Brewton, 
and  The  Little  Whistler  by  Frances  Frost.  The  Bible  inspired 
The  Christmas  Story  edited  by  Elizabeth  Yates  and 
The  Lord  is  my  Shepherd  arranged  by  Nancy  Barnhart. 

(E.  A.  Gs.) 

CHILD  WELFARE.  An  encouraging  beginning  was 
made  in  Great  Britain  during  1949  to  carry  into  effect  some 
of  the  more  urgent  reforms  for  the  care  of  deprived  children, 
made  possible  by  the  passing  of  the  Children  act  in  1948. 
Under  this  act  an  obligation  was  placed  on  local  authorities 
to  board  out  as  many  as  possible  of  the  children  they  had 
under  their  care  unless  not  practicable  or  desirable  to  do  so. 
They  were  also  requested  by  the  Home  Office  to  place  other 
children  in  small  family  groups  and  to  use  large  institutions 
only  for  reception  purposes  or  for  short  stay  children  who  had 
a  reasonable  chance  of  returning  to  their  parents  or  guardians. 
These  suggestions  led  the  local  authorities  to  sort  out,  some 
for  the  first  time,  the  long  and  short  stay  children  and  to 
give  careful  consideration  to  the  needs  of  the  individual 
child.  Boarding  out  as  a  method  of  care,  in  spite  of  the  great 
difficulty  of  finding  suitable  foster  parents,  was  greatly  ex- 
tended and  in  some  counties  was  doubled.  Much  progress 
was  also  made  in  securing  properties  suitable  for  small  family 
groups  of  mixed  ages  and  sex  under  the  care  of  a  house 
mother  and  father.  About  100  new  properties  were  bought 
and  adapted  as  new  children's  homes  in  England  and  Wales. 

An  important  requirement  in  the  act  was  the  appointment 
by  each  county  council  and  county  borough  council  of  a 
children's  officer  of  suitable  qualifications  and  experience  to 
be  responsible  for  the  happiness  and  welfare  of  each  child 
under  its  care.  One  hundred  and  forty-one  out  of  146 
authorities  in  England  and  Wales  appointed  these  officers 
who  included  89  women  and  43  men  and  all  the  children's 
committees  were  set  up.  In  Scotland  31  children's  officers 
were  appointed  out  of  a  total  of  40-45  required. 

During  1949  there  was  a  satisfactory  removal  of  large 
numbers  of  children  from  national  assistance  institutions  to 
nurseries  and  children's  homes  in  new  premises  or  adapted 
houses.  The  Care  of  Children  committee  report  estimated  that 
there  were  6,500  children  living  in  public  assistance  institu- 
tions in  England  and  Wales,  but  before  and  during  1949  this 
number  was  reduced  to  1 ,000,  priority  being  given  to  removing 
the  nursery  age  child.  In  Scotland  the  number  was  reduced 
from  115  to  60. 

Even  before  the  act  was  finally  passed  it  was  realized  that 
there  would  be  a  great  need  for  trained  staff,  and  urgent 
consideration  was  given  by  the  Central  Training  council  to 
the  training  of  house  mothers  and  fathers  and  boarding-out 
officers  and  to  organizing  refresher  courses  for  the  staff  al- 
ready working  in  local  authority  and  voluntary  residential 
homes  for  children.  From  the  beginning  of  these  courses 
138  house  mothers  and  fathers  received  a  practical  and 


theoretical  training  of  14  months  and  a  similar  number  were  in 
training:  160  boarding-out  officers  were  also  trained,  and 
altogether  20  courses  of  different  kinds  were  organized. 
Perhaps  the  most  important  were  the  refresher  courses  and 
the  opportunity  they  offered  to  men  and  women  from 
residential  homes  often  working  in  remote  parts  of  the  coun- 
try to  come  together  to  share  experiences  and  to  make  friends, 
thereby  losing  the  feeling  of  isolation.  Apart  from  courses 
organized  by  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  universities  in  con- 
nection with  the  social  science  diploma  or  certificate,  no 
training  in  child  care  was  started  in  Scotland  during  1949. 

The  act  required  every  county  authority  to  provide 
a  temporary  reception  home  for  children  with  the  necessary 
facilities  for  observation  of  their  physical  and  mental  con- 
dition. This  observation  and  assessment  of  the  needs  of 
each  child  before  permanent  placement  was  vital,  if  each 
individual  child  was  to  have  the  opportunity  to  make  a  happy 
adjustment  to  life.  The  Home  Office,  guided  by  the  advice 
of  the  Advisory  Council  on  Child  Care,  sent  a  memorandum 
on  this  work  to  all  local  authorities  during  1949.  The  ex- 
perience gained  in  a  pilot  experimental  reception  centre  in 
Kent  demonstrated  that  these  centres  were  an  essential 
preliminary  to  a  wise  understanding  of  the  needs  of  the 
children.  This  type  of  work  makes  heavy  demands  on  the 
staff  and  it  was  found  necessary  in  the  Kent  centre  to  appoint 
one  resident  adult  to  every  three  children.  The  visiting 
psychiatric  team  consisted  of  1  psychiatrist,  2  part  time 
psychologists,  1  full  time  psychiatric  social  worker  and  1 
full  time  secretary  for  a  group  of  25  children. 

The  voluntary  homes  and  organizations  which  cared  for  a 
substantial  number  of  deprived  children  showed  their 
willingness  to  co-operate,  although  owing  to  restrictions  in 
materials  and  staff  much  remained  to  be  done  to  bring  the 
standard  up  to  that  required  by  the  act.  Nine  hundred  and 
six  voluntary  homes  were  registered;  one  was  closed  by 
compulsory  power  and  two  were  closed  after  the  exercise  of 
some  persuasion. 

The  stubborn  problem  of  juvenile  delinquency  (q.v.) 
engaged  the  attention  of  the  country  during  1949.  Confer- 
ences organized  by  the  government  and  many  organizations 
failed  to  determine  the  root  causes  of  this  social  unhappiness 
and  strong  pressure  was  brought,  without  success,  to  set 
up  a  special  scientific  commission.  It  was  generally  felt  that 
greater  effort  should  be  made  to  provide  more  and  better 
playgrounds  for  the  school  age  child.  The  typical  municipal 
playground  of  barren  asphalt  and  costly  apparatus  failed  to 
engage  the  enthusiasm  of  these  high  spirited  and  adventurous 
children,  and  strong  arguments  were  advanced  for  providing 
playgrounds  more  suited  to  their  needs  where  they  could  find 
materials  such  as  earth,  water,  bricks,  timber,  and  facilities 
for  constructive  play  and  real  adventure.  The  government 
embargo  on  the  development  of  new  nursery  schools  (except 
for  the  children  of  mothers  needed  in  industry)  was  also  felt 
to  be  a  short  sighted  policy  for  it  was  during  the  earliest 
years  that  foundations  of  good  health  and  emotional  stability 
were  laid.  (M.  AN.) 

International  Services.  In  the  Universal  Declaration  of 
Human  Rights,  approved  Dec.  10,  1948,  by  the  general 
assembly  of  the  United  Nations  children  as  well  as  adults 
were  usually  included  under  the  term  "  everyone,"  in  the 
opening  words  of  most  of  the  30  articles  of  the  declaration. 
The  interests  of  children  were  especially  stressed  in :  "  The 
family  is  the  natural  and  fundamental  group  unit  of  society 
and  is  entitled  to  protection  by  society  and  the  State." 
(Art.  16,  Sec.  3)  and  "  Motherhood  and  childhood  are 
entitled  to  special  care  and  assistance."  (Art.  25,  Sec.  2). 

Material  contributions  to  child  health  in  many  parts  of 
the  world  were  made  in  1949  by  the  United  Nations  Inter- 
national Children's  Emergency  fund  (U.N.I.C.E.F.),  the 


CHILE 


161 


World  Health  organization  (W.H.O.)  and  by  various 
voluntary  agencies  such  as  the  Red  Cross  in  Scandinavian 
countries,  the  Co-operative  for  American  Remittances  to 
Europe,  Incorporated,  (C.A.R.E.)  and  the  American  Friends 
Service  committee.  Children  in  western  Europe  were  helped 
by  the  European  Recovery  programme. 

As  in  previous  years  the  U.N.I.C.E.F.  received  some  of  its 
most  generous  support  from  small  countries,  both  in  govern- 
ment appropriations  and  in  contributions  from  individuals. 
About  two-thirds  of  the  total  of  more  than  $141  million 
received  during  the  two  years,  1948  and  1949,  in  cash  or 
pledges  came  from  36  governments,  of  which  more  than 
$70  million  was  from  the  U.S.  on  an  equivalent  basis.  The 
U.S.  provided  72  %  compared  with  28  %  from  other  countries. 
The  equivalent  of  $32  million  of  the  United  Nations  Relief 
and  Rehabilitation  Administration  fund's  resources.  The 
balance  of  more  than  $10  million  was  obtained  from  popular 
appeals  in  40  countries.  The  work  of  the  U.N.I.C.E.F.  was 
not  restricted  by  national  boundaries  as  were  many  inter- 
national services.  It  maintained  programmes  on  both  sides 
in  China,  and  in  1949  operated  freely  in  the  four  zones  in 
Germany  and  Austria,  and  in  the  countries  of  central  and 
eastern  Europe. 

The  U.N.I.C.E.F.  recognized  that  in  parts  of  Asia  tubercu- 
losis among  children  was  more  than  twice  as  prevalent  as  in 
western  countries  and  that  malaria,  syphilis  and  yaws  presen- 
ted acute  health  problems.  Consequently  the  programme  in 
the  east  consisted  mostly  of  supplying  medicines  and  equip- 
ment and  training  local  personnel  in  the  control  of  specific 
child  welfare  problems.  In  Europe  and  north  Africa  much 
progress  was  made  in  the  world-wide  campaign  to  test  100 
million  children  for  tuberculosis.  In  those  areas  the  work 
was  sponsored  also  by  the  W.H.O.  and  the  Red  Cross  from 
Scandinavian  countries.  In  three  years  18,500,000  children 
and  young  adults  were  tested  for  tuberculosis  and  8,500,000 
whose  tests  were  positive  were  vaccinated  against  this  disease 
with  Bacillus-Calmette  Guenn  (BCG)  serum.  U.N.I.C.E.F. 
programmes  were  approved  in  16  of  the  smaller  countries  in 
Central  and  South  America. 

Conferences  which  continued  international  consideration 
of  child  welfare  problems  begun  since  World  War  II  included 
the  second  Pan  American  Congress  of  Social  Work,  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  Brazil,  July  2-9;  the  second  Pan  American  Congress 
on  Pediatrics,  Mexico  City,  Mexico,  Nov.  2-5;  and  the 
second  International  Congress  for  the  Education  of  Mal- 
adjusted Children,  Amsterdam,  Netherlands,  July  18-22. 

National  Developments.  Activities  sponsored  by  the  govern- 
ment of  India  on  behalf  of  children  included  a  continuation 
of  the  All  India  Conference  of  Social  Work,  with  its  second 
annual  session  in  Madras,  Dec.  18-22,  1948.  The  Indian 
Parliament  enacted  laws  raising  the  marriageable  age  of 
girls  from  14  to  15  years. 

Poland,  like  most  of  the  other  countries  of  Europe,  made 
marked  progress  in  services  affecting  child  health.  The 
Ministry  of  Health  reported  a  decrease  in  infant  mortality 
from  26-9%  in  1945  to  13-3%  in  1946  and  9-7%  in  1947. 

Uruguay  developed  a  unified  health  and  welfare  service, 
the  Council  of  the  Child,  a  branch  of  a  children's  code 
enacted  in  1934.  The  importance  of  keeping  mother  and 
child  together  and  of  allowing  aid  to  the  mother  who  had 
difficulty  in  supporting  her  child  was  emphasized;  this 
help  was  also  available  to  unmarried  mothers.  The  care  of 
dependent  children  in  foster  homes  was  also  extended  under 
the  new  services. 

In  the  United  States  recent  population  increases  led  to  the 
overtaxing  of  schools,  hospitals  and  other  facilities  essential 
to  the  welfare  of  children  and  increased  the  need  for  nurses, 
physicians,  social  workers  and  teachers.  Tlr  ^ortage  of  nurses 
was  apparent,  when  many  hospitals  rerfW  ed  inadequately 

1.B.Y.—12 


staffed  during  the  severe  epidemic  of  poliomyelitis* 
A  three-year  nation-wide  study  of  child  health  services, 
completed  in  1949  by  the  American  Academy  of  Pediatrics, 
was  made  with  the  assistance  of  other  agencies,  notably  the 
Children's  bureau  and  the  Public  Health  service  of  the 
Federal  Security  agency.  A  two-volume  report  of  this 
study,  published  by  the  Commonwealth  fund,  gave  a  comprr- 
hensive  appraisal  of  health  services,  stressing  two  over-all 
needs :  the  inadequacy  of  the  general  practitioner's  training 
in  pediatrics  and  the  scarcity  of  health  services  for  children 
in  rural  areas. 

There  was  little  change  in  the  child  labour  situation,  and 
more  than  2  million  young  people  of  14  to  17  years  of  age 
were  being  employed.  Federal  regulation  of  child  labour,  in 
effect  for  ten  years  under  the  Fair  Labour  Standards  act, 
had  resulted  in  the  reduction  of  much  harmful  employment 
of  children.  Inadequate  state  laws  still  allowed  the  employ- 
ment of  many  who  should  be  attending  elementary  schools. 
(See  also  JUVENILE  DELINQUENCY;  JUVENILE  EMPLOYMENT.) 

(H.  W.  HK.) 

CHILE.  A  republic  occupying  the  Pacific  coast  of 
South  America  for  about  2,600  mi.  and  having  an  average 
width  of  only  110  mi.  Area,  286,323  sq.  mi.  Pop.  (mid-1949 
est):  5,709,000.  Out  of  25  provinces  the  most  populated 
are  the  four  central  ones  (Valparaiso,  Santiago,  Colchagua  and 
O'Higgins) :  covering  only  under  one-twentieth  of  the  country 
area  they  have  more  than  one-third  of  its  total  population. 
The  racial  composition,  largely  of  European  origin,  includes 
mestizos  (15%)  and  Indians  (4  2%).  The  latter,  numbering 
231,700,  are  of  three  branches:  the  Fuegians,  who  live  in  or 
near  Tierra  del  Fuego;  the  Araucanans  in  the  valleys  or 
on  the  western  slopes  of  the  Andes;  and  the  Changes,  who 
inhabit  the  northern  coastal  region.  The  capital  is  Santiago 
(pop,  including  suburbs,  Dec.  1946  est.,  1,046,857).  Other 
major  towns  (pop.,  1946  est.):  Valparaiso  (198,068);  Vina 
del  Mar  (85,725);  Conception  (84,953);  Antofagasta 
(47,326);  Talca  (44,859).  Language;  Spanish.  Roman 
Catholicism  is  the  dominant  religion.  President:  Gabriel 
Gonzalez  Videla  (q.v.). 

History.  During  1949  Chile  re-affirmed  its  belief  in  demo- 
cratic principles,  made  efficient  attempts  to  solve  its  economic 
crisis  and  resisted  Communist  encroachments.  Early  in  the 
year  its  relations  with  Venezuela  became  strained  because 
it  brought  before  the  consideration  of  the  Organization  of 
American  States  the  unwillingness  of  the  military  junta  to 
allow  ex-president  Romulo  Betancourt,  who  had  taken 
refuge  in  the  Colombian  embassy,  to  leave  the  country. 

Late  in  January  the  government  gave  up  its  power  to  dis- 
charge Communists  from  public  office  and  freed  more  than 
700  imprisoned  Communists.  In  the  elections  held  in  March, 
the  first  in  which  women  voted,  Gonzalez  Videla  won  a 
two-thirds  majority  in  both  houses  of  congress.  Communist 
deputies  were  reduced  from  15  to  6,  and  out  of  their  5 
senators  they  retained  2  not  yet  due  for  re-election. 

In  his  message  to  congress  in  May,  President  Gonzalez 
announced  that  technicians  were  working  on  data  for  a  vast 
irrigation  project  for  the  semi-arid  valley  between  rich  agri- 
cultural central  Chile  and  the  northern  nitrate  desert.  He 
also  announced  that  the  year  1948  ended  with  a  budget 
surplus  of  more  than  $18  million  and  that  the  Anaconda 
Copper  corporation  would  spend  more  than  $130  million  in 
new  processing  and  mining  facilities. 

The  drop  in  price  of  copper,  however,  from  23  to  16  cents 
a  pound  about  three  years  before  the  government  had 
anticipated  it  and  had  been  able  to  finish  its  industrialization 
and  development  plans,  plus  a  proposed  two  cents  tax  by  the 
U.S.  on  copper  imports,  seriously  affected  the  country*! 
economy.  The  current  price  was  four  cents  less  than  was 


162 


CHINA 


required  to  cover  costs  and  the  creation  of  a  government 
corporation  to  sell  copper  was  advocated.  Small  Chilean- 
owned  mines  wanted  to  close  down,  but  96%  of  the  copper- 
production  industry  was  American-controlled  and  some  other 
solution  was  needed.  Alberto  Baltra,  minister  of  economy 
and  commerce,  visited  the  U.S.  to  seek  a  solution  and  urged 
TVygve  Lie  that  a  United  Nations  economic  commission  for 
Latin  America  be  set  up  to  make  studies  to  carry  out  President 
Harry  S.  Truman's  Point-Four  programme  in  Chile. 

Demonstrations  in  the  copper  mines,  which  Gonzalez 
Videla  said  had  been  "  synchronized "  to  the  Bolivian 
unrest  by  anti-democratic  forces,  caused  the  death  of  1  soldier 
and  the  wounding  of  26  other  persons. 

In  mid-August  martial  law  was  declared  to  cope  with  the 
widespread  disorders  into  which  the  Communists  had  turned 
the  rioting  initiated  by  university  students  protesting  against 
a  small  increase  in  bus  fares  in  Santiago.  The  transport 
strike  was  followed  by  disorders  in  the  mining  areas  and  a 
railway  and  bank  strike.  The  navy  was  sent  to  protect  the 
mines  and  the  airest  of  Communist  leaders,  including 
Humberto  Abarca,  former  member  of  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies,  ended  the  disorder.  Three  hundred  and  twenty- 
eight  government  employees  were  dropped  as  Communist 
sympathizers.  After  the  disorders,  foreign  minister  German 
Riesco  Errazuriz,  agriculture  minister  Victor  Opaso  Cousino, 
public  health  minister  Guillermo  Varas  Contreras  and  labour 
minister  Luis  Felipe  Letelier  resigned,  but  Gonzalez  Videla, 
who  had  emerged  from  the  crisis  with  great  prestige,  refused 
to  accept  their  resignations. 

To  meet  the  economic  crisis  the  government  decreed  strict 
budget  economy,  obtained  a  $25  million  Export-Import 
Bank  loan  and,  as  from  Oct.  1,  upon  the  recommendation  of 
the  International  Monetary  fund,  proposed  to  devalue  the 
peso  from  about  43  to  65  to  the  dollar.  (On  Jan.  10,  1950, 
the  I.M.F.  approved  a  rate  of  60  pesos  to  the  dollar).  The 
dollar  shortage  and  inflation  still  constituted  serious  prob- 
lems, and  finance  minister  Jorge  Alessandri  expressed  grave 
concern  over  their  solution.  (J.  Me  A.) 

Education.  Schools  (1945):  public  primary,  pupils  452,826,  teachers 
14,269,  private  primary,  pupils  93,185;  secondary,  pupils  55,000. 
There  are  three  universities,  including  the  Catholic  university  of 
Santiago.  Illiteracy  (1940):  28-2%. 

Agriculture.  Mam  crops  ('000  metric  tons,  1948):  wheat  1,041; 
barley  86;  oats  81,  rye  5;  maize  71;  nee  83;  hemp  fibre  4  9;  potatoes 
519;  sunflower  seed  50.  Livestock  ('000  head),  cattle  (April  1948) 
2,310;  sheep  (June  1948)  6,432;  pigs  (June  1948)  585,  horses  (June 
1948)  523,  chickens  (1946-47)  2,200  Fisheries-  total  catch  (1946). 
61,000  metric  tons.  Production  of  wool  (1948-49,  greasy  basis): 
16,000  metric  tons. 

Industry.  Fuel  and  power  (1948,  1949,  six  months,  in  brackets): 
coal  ('000  metric  tons)  2,234  (992),  manufactured  gas  (million  cu 
metres)  142  8  (66-1);  electricity  (million  kwh.)  1,167  (622).  Raw 
materials  ('000  metric  tons  1948;  1949,  six  months,  in  brackets): 
pig  iron  14  4  (9-7);  copper  425  (201),  iron  ore  (60%  metal  content) 
2,712  (1,487);  nitrate  of  soda  1,754;  gold  (fine  ounces)  164,254; 
silver  (fine  ounces)  861,942.  Chile  is  the  leading  mineral-producing 
country  in  South  America. 

Foreign  Trade.  (Million  pesos)  Imports  (1948)  1,303,  (1949,  six 
months)  686;  exports  (1948)  1,596,  (1949,  six  months)  828.  Leading 
customers  (1948)  U.S.  (53%).  UK  (8%).  Leading  suppliers:  U.S. 
(42%),  Peru  (13%),  Argentina  (10%) 

Transport  and  Communications  Roads  (1945)  29,921  mi.  Licensed 
motor  vehicles  (Dec.  1948):  cars  36,770,  buses  4,132,  lorries  27,580. 
Railways  (1948)'  5,200  mi  ;  passenger-mi.,  938  million;  gross  freight 
ton-mi.,  1,432  million.  Shipping  (July  1948)  vessels  (of  100  tons  and 
upwards)  97,  total  tonnage  190,313.  Air  transport  (1948):  passenger-mi, 
flown  37-6  million;  freight  net  ton-mi,  flown  513,000.  Telephones 
(1948):  in  use  119,500. 

Finance  and  Banking.  (Million  pesos)  Budget-  (1949)  revenue 
13,952-2,  expenditure  13,035  4;  (1950  est )  revenue  14,264-6,  expendi- 
ture 14,264-5.  Total  direct  debt  (Dec.  31,  1947)  7,661  plus  guarantees 
of  1,767.  Currency  circulation  (Sept.  1949;  in  brackets  Sept.  194$)- 
4,633  (3,843).  Bank  deposits  (Aug.  1949;  in  brackets  Aug.  1948): 
10,175  (9,089).  Gold  reserve  (Sept.  1949)  U.S.  $43-3  million.  Monetary 
unit:  peso  with  exchange  rates:  before  the  British  devaluation, 
£l«=124-93  pesos;  after  Sept.  18,  1949,  £1  =  86-80. 


CHINA.  The  most  populated  and  second  largest  country 
of  the  world,  China  is  a  republic  in  Asia  bounded  on  the 
N.E.,  N.  and  N.W.  by  the  U.S.S.R.,  on  the  W.  by  Afghani- 
stan, on  the  S.W.  and  S.  by  India,  and  on  the  S.  by  Nepal, 
Bhutan,  Burma  and  Indo-China.  The  table  below  shows 
how  the  total  area  of  3,876,956  sq.  mi.  is  composed,  and 
the  distribution  of  population: 


China  proper  (18  provinces) 
Western  China  (Sinkiang, 

Chinghai  and  Sikang)  . 
Inner  Mongolia 
Manchuria  (Manchukuo). 
Formosa  (Taiwan)  (q.v.)  . 
Kwantung  (including  Port 

Arthur) 
Tibet  (tf.v.)      . 

Totals 


Area 

(insq.mi.) 
1,444,626 

1,118,323 

326,285 

503,127 

13,857 

1,444 
469,294 


Population 

409,136,900  (1936  est.) 

6,524,300  (1936  est.) 

5,142,800  (1936  est.) 

43,234,000  (1940  census) 

5,872,000  (1940  census) 

1,750,000  (1938  est.) 

3,000,000  (1948  est.) 


3,876,956        474,660,000 


According  to  the  official  figures  of  June  1948  the  total 
population  of  China  was  estimated  at  463,493,000;  the 
difference  being  accounted  for  by  war  losses  among  the  civil 
population.  Language:  Chinese,  with  a  number  of  dialects, 
the  most  important  being  the  Mandarin  (or  Kuanhua)  which 
dominates  nearly  four-fifths  of  China  proper.  Religions: 
Confucianism,  Taoism  and  Buddhism;  about  10%  of  the 
population  is  Moslem;  there  are  also  Chinese  Christians  of 
various  denominations.  Chief  towns  (pop.,  1948  est.): 
Shanghai  (4,630,385);  Tientsin  (1,772,840);  Peiping  or 
Peking  (1,72 1, 546);  Canton  (1,128,165);  Nanking  (1,1 13,972); 
Mukden  (1,021,057);  Chungking  (985,673);  Tsmgtao 
(850,308);  Harbin  (760,000);  Hankow  (721,598);  Sian 
(628,449);  Dairen,  under  Soviet  occupation  (543,690). 
During  the  year  China  had  two  governments:  (1)  the 
Nationalist,  headed  by  Chiang  Kai-Shek  (^.v.),  which  in 
1949  sat  respectively  in  five  capitals  (Nanking,  Canton, 
Chungking,  Chengtu  and  Taipei)  and  had  three  prime 
ministers:  Dr.  Sun  Fo,  General  Ho  Ying-chin  (from  March 
12)  and  Marshal  Yen  Hsi-shan  (from  June  3);  (2)  the 
Communist,  formed  in  Peking  on  Oct.  1,  with  Mao  Tse-tung 
(q.v.)  as  president  of  the  republic  (chairman  of  the  central 
people's  government  council)  and  Chou  En-lai  (q.v.)  as 
prime  minister  (chairman  of  the  state  administrative  council) 
and  minister  of  foreign  affairs. 

History.  The  year  1949  saw  the  complete  collapse  of  the 
Kuomintang  government  and  the  Communists  virtually  in 
control  of  all  China.  Between  January  and  November  their 
captures  ranged  from  Tientsin  and  Peking  to  Canton  and, 
by  early  December,  had  entered  the  Kuomintang's  last 
capital,  Chungking.  This  amazing  success  was  due  less  to 
the  admittedly  high  ability  of  the  Communist  generals  and 
troops  than  to  China's  weariness  of  Kuomintang  misrule. 
General  after  general  with  hundreds  of  thousands  of  troops 
went  over  to  the  Communists.  Fu  Tso-yi,  the  best  Nationalist 
general,  surrendered  Tientsin  and  Peking  without  firing  a 
shot,  and  on  Oct.  20  he  was  appointed  minister  of  water 
economy  in  the  Communist  government. 

On  Jan.  21  Generalissimo  Chiang  Kai-shek  announced  his 
withdrawal  from  the  Nanking  government,  in  order  to 
facilitate  peace  negotiations,  and  General  Li  Tsung-jen(^.v.),  a 
well  known  Liberal,  became  acting  president.  A  peace  dele- 
gation was  sent  to  Peking  early  in  April,  but  the  discussions 
were  cut  off  on  the  1 7th  by  a  Communist  ultimatum  demanding 
virtual  unconditional  surrender  within  three  days.  The  last 
remnants  of  the  Nationalist  government  fled  to  Canton  on 
April  23  and  next  day  the  Communists  entered  Nanking. 

This  stage  was  marked  by  an  unfortunate  clash  with  Great 
Britain  when,  on  April  20,  H.M.S.  "  Amethyst,"  en  route 
to  Nanking  with  supplies,  was  heavily  fired  on  and  disabled 


CHINA 


163 


DECEMBER  1948 


™  r": 


by  Communist  batteries:  13  officers,  including  her  captain 
Lieutenant  Commander  B.  M.  Skinner,  were  killed  and 
15  wounded.  Medical  relief  was  sent  by  air  but  attempts 
by  H.M.S.  **  London,"  "  Black  Swan  "  and  "  Consort  "  to 
tow  her  out  failed,  the  ships  being  badly  damaged.  The  total 
casualties  in  the  four  ships  were  44  dead  and  more  than  80 
wounded.  All  attempts  to  negotiate  the  "  Amethyst's " 
release  failed.  Finally  on  the  night  of  July  30,  repairs  having 
been  improvised  by  the  crew,  Lieutenant  Commander 
J.  S.  Kerans,  who  had  been  put  in  command,  decided  to  make 
a  dash  for  it,  and  in  pitch  darkness  brought  her  140  mi. 
down  the  river  to  the  open  sea  and  eventually  to  Hongkong. 
The  exploit  by  all  concerned  was  in  accord  with  the  highest 
traditions  of  the  Navy. 

After  Nanking  the  Communists  advanced  in  a  double 
sweep  by  Hangchow  and  Soochow  upon  Shanghai  which 
they  entered  on  May  25.  Another  army  captured  Hankow 
on  May  16.  The  provinces  of  Kiangsi  and  Hunan  were 
occupied  by  early  in  August;  on  the  coast  Foochow  fell  on 
Aug.  17  (a  day  after  the  surrender  of  Canton),  Amoy  on 
Oct.  17,  Swatow  on  Oct.  21.  The  last  good  Nationalist  army 
under  Pai  Chung-hsi,  the  minister  of  defence,  which  had 
been  expected  to  hold  the  border  of  Kwangtung,  retired  into 
Kwangsi  and  the  Kuomintang  government  fled  to  Chungking. 
Meanwhile  other  Communist  armies,  between  Aug.  26  and 
Sept.  23,  successfully  overran  the  vast  northwestern  provinces 
of  Kansu,  Ninghsia  and  Chinghai,  the  local  Moslems,  who 
had  been  expected  to  fight,  making  no  resistance. 

After  the  fall  of  Nanking  it  became  clear  that  Chiang 
Kai-shek's  retirement  in  January  was  more  one  of  form 
than  reality.  He  had  withdrawn  the  government's  treasure, 
troops  believed  to  number  400,000,  and  the  bulk  of  the  navy 
and  air  force  to  Formosa  as  a  base  to  carry  on  the  war  and 
in  June  the  government  at  Canton  announced  a  blockade  of 
the  China  coast  to  begin  on  the  25th.  The  Blue  Funnel  liner 
"  Anchises  "  at  Shanghai  had  already  thrice  been  bombed 
and  had  to  be  beached  though  she  was  eventually  got  away 
to  Japan.  The  British  and  U.S.  governments  refused  to 
recognize  the  blockade;  but  nothing  was  done  to  protect 
ships  going  to  or  from  Shanghai  except  outside  territorial 
waters.  Several  ships  were  fired  on  or  taken  to  the  Chusan 
islands  and  held  for  varying  periods.  An  attempt  to  blockade 
Tientsin  was  defeated  by  the  Communists  seizing  the 
Nationalists'  island  bases  in  the  gulf  of  Chihli.  But  at 


Shanghai  the  foreign  merchants,  already  badly  hit  by  the 
Communists'  taxation,  suffered  enormous  losses. 

In  July  Chiang  visited  President  E.  Quirino  of  the  Philip- 
pines and  in  August  President  Syngman  Rhee  of  Korea 
in  a  fruitless  effort  to  work  up  a  defensive  Pacific  pact  against 
the  Communists;  and  during  the  autumn  he  was  ceaselessly 
on  the  move  between  Formosa,  Canton  and  Chungking. 
Relations  between  him  and  acting  president  Li  Tsung-j^n 
had  always  been  bad  and  on  Oct.  21  Li  retired  to  Hongkong, 
Chiang  apparently  resuming  the  presidency. 

On  Oct.  1  the  People's  Republic  of  China  was  proclaimed 
at  Peking  (which  under  its  old  name  again  became  the  capital) 
with  an  elaborate  constitution  adopted  by  the  People's 
Political  Consultative  conference  of  636  delegates  from  45 
associations.  Several  of  these  were  not  Communist,  a  fact 
stressed  by  the  Communists  as  evidence  of  the  new  govern- 
ment's truly  democratic  nature.  At  the  head  of  this  organiza- 
tion was  the  central  people's  government  council  with  Mao 
Tse-tung  as  chairman  and  General  Chu  Teh  (<y.v.)  as  one  of 
the  six  deputy  chairmen;  then  the  state  administrative 
council  with  Chou  En-lai  as  prime  minister  and  minister  of 
foreign  affairs;  then  the  People's  Political  Consultative 
conference  to  act  as  a  consultative  body  until  a  National 
Congress  could  be  elected  by  universal  suffrage.  The  U.S.S.R. 
instantly  recognized  the  new  government  (as  did  all  her  eight 
satellites),  and  exchanged  ambassadors  with  it  besides 
sending  200  technical  experts  for  its  assistance.  A  conference 
of  Asian  and  Australasian  trade  unions,  assembled  in  Peking 
in  November,  under  the  chairmanship  of  Liu  Shao-chi, 
member  of  the  Politburo  of  the  Chinese  Communist  party, 
indicated  that  Communist  China  would  throw  all  her 
weight,  morally  at  least,  behind  the  Communist  movement 
in  southeast  Asia. 

On  Oct.  2  Chou  En-lai  issued  a  general  invitation  to  the 
powers  to  recognize  Communist  China  "  on  equal  terms." 
This  question  was  keenly  discussed  in  the  autumn.  It  was 
agreed  by  all  that  the  good  behaviour  of  the  Red  troops 
could  not  be  bettered,  that  the  Communists'  administration 
was  clean  and  more  capable  than  the  Kuomintang's,  and 
they  had  repeatedly  promised  full  respect  for  foreign  rights. 

An  interesting  feature  of  their  proclamations  was  that 
whenever  necessary  and  possible  "  patriotic  capitalists " 
should  be  tolerated  and  allowed  their  profits  to  encourage 
them  to  use  their  brains  for  China's  benefit. 


164 


CHINA 


The  main  entrance  to  the  city  of  Peking  decorated  with  portraits  of  Mao  Tse-tung  (right)  and  General  Chu  Teh,  at  the  time  of  the  Chinese 

people's  political  consultative  conference  which  met  in  Peking,  Sept.  1949. 


Foreign  business-men  in  China  and  missionaries  were  urgent 
for  early  recognition  in  order  to  keep  touch  with  the  Chinese 
people  and  not  to  drive  them  deeper  into  Soviet  arms.  But 
on  Nov.  1 6  Ernest  Bevin  indicated  in  the  House  of  Commons 
his  preference  for  "  acting  together  with  the  Commonwealth 
and  other  friendly  governments.'*  No  British  consuls,  how- 
ever, were  withdrawn  from  China  ana1  the  ambassador 
himself  only  left  t4  on  home  leave  "  at  the  end  of  October, 
while  British  merchants  were  encouraged  to  stay  for  the 
maintenance  of  Britain's  large  interests  in  China. 

After  the  publication  on  Aug.  5  of  Dean  Acheson's  white 
paper  on  the  United  States'  failure  either  to  support  the 
Kuomintang  or  bring  about  peace,  U.S.  policy  in  China 
seemed  to  be  in  a  vacuum.  All  its  representatives  were  with- 
drawn; the  last  of  them,  A.  Ward  consul  at  Mukden,  was 
arrested  on  Oct.  29  on  a  charge  of  beating  a  coolie. 

On  Nov.  28  the  Chinese  delegate  in  the  United  Nations 
general  assembly  moved  for  non-recognition  of  Peking  and 
condemnation  of  Soviet  interference.  The  assembly,  however, 
adopted  for  discussion  a  much  more  non-committal  reso- 
lution. 

Early  in  the  year  the  British  government  devoted  itself  to 
building  up  Hongkong's  defences  against  possible  attack  and 
by  the  autumn  these  had  been  raised  to  25,000  troops  and  a 
considerable  fleet  and  air  force.  The  ancient  Portuguese 
colony  of  Macao  increased  its  garrison  to  6,000.  No  incidents, 
however,  were  reported  at  the  end  of  the  year,  during  which 
Hongkong  had  developed  a  considerable  barter  trade  with 
the  Communist  areas. 

On  Dec.  8  the  Chinese  government,  by  now  consisting  of 
only  three  or  four  ministers,  announced  its  removal  from 
Chengtu  in  Szechuan  (to  which  it  had  retreated  from  Chung- 
king) to  Taipei  in  Formosa.  On  Dec.  1 1  General  Lu  Han, 
governor  of  Yunnan,  joined  the  Communists,  thus  opening 


the  way  for  them,  via  the  famous  Burma  road,  to  the  centre 
of  the  Burmese  Communist  rebels.  The  island  of  Hainan 
in  the  Gulf  of  Tongking  was  still  held,  but  in  China  no  vestige 
of  Nationalist  government  remained.  On  Dec.  19  the  Formosa 
government  announced  that  the  mouth  of  the  Yangtze  was 
being  mined  and  ships  were  warned  against  trying  to  break 
the  blockade  of  Shanghai.  The  "  Flying  Arrow,"  a  U.S. 
ship,  in  trying  to  do  so  was  heavily  shelled  and  rendered 
incapable. 

On  Dec.  29  President  Truman  was  reported  to  have  decided 
to  send  military  advisers  to  stiffen  the  morale  of  the  troops 
in  Formosa  and  save  it  from  the  Communists.  This  unexpec- 
ted departure  from  the  general  policy  agreed  upon  between 
Acheson  and  Bevin  in  September  was  apparently  due  to 
pressure  by  the  Republican  leaders  and  the  effect  on  the 
strongly  anti-Communist  feeling  in  the  United  States  if 
Chiang  Kai-shek  were  not  helped.  But  the  Republicans  over- 
played their  hand  and  a  week  later  Truman  stated  positively 
that  no  advisers  were  to  be  sent.  At  the  same  time,  however, 
some  joint  Anglo-American  plan  for  building  up  southeast 
Asia  as  a  stronghold  against  Communism  was  forecast  and 
Acheson  stated  that  the  U.S.  had  no  intention  of  recognizing 
the  Chinese  Communists  for  the  present. 

These  uncertainties  of  American  policy  in  Formosa  (which 
naturally  drew  a  blast  of  vituperation  from  Peking)  caused 
some  confusion  in  London,  the  British  government  having 
eventually  decided,  before  Christmas,  to  recognize  the 
Communists.  The  unanimous  recommendation  of  British  far 
eastern  ambassadors  and  administrators  at  the  Singapore 
conference  clinched  the  matter.  The  recognition  was  announced 
on  Jan.  6,  1950,  and  India,  Pakistan  and  Ceylon 
recognized  the  Chinese  government  about  the  same  time. 
The  Commonwealth  was  thus  split  on  the  subject,  as 
Canada,  Australia  and  New  Zealand  decided  to  wait.  The 


CHOU    EN-LAI—CHRISTIAN   DEMOCRATIC  MOVEMENT 


165 


Communists*  reply  was  far  from  gracious  and  was  accom- 
panied in  each  case  by  an  invitation  to  "  send  a  representative 
to  Peking  to  conduct  talks  on  the  whole  matter/'  The  mean- 
ing of  this  phrase  excited  a  good  deal  of  speculation  as  to 
what  conditions  the  Communists  might  try  to  impose  for 
exchanging  diplomatic  representatives. 

That  the  fanatical  pro-Soviet  group  was  predominant  in 
Peking  was  clear.  Mao  Tse-tung  visited  Moscow  for  Stalin's 
birthday  on  Dec.  21  and  was  to  stay  there  for  some  weeks, 
presumably  to  discuss  the  Soviet  Union's  position  in  Man- 
churia on  which  its  recovery  of  the  railway  and  chief  ports 
through  the  Yalta  agreement  had  given  it  a  powerful  grip. 

There  were,  however,  signs  that  the  Communists  were  not 
free  from  trouble.  The  autumn  harvests  in  north  China  were 
bad  and  shortage  of  food  was  accentuated  by  the  Soviet 
Union's  demand  for  grain  in  payment  for  various  supplies 
it  had  promised  to  Manchuria.  Peasant  risings  against  high 
taxation  and  living  costs  and  shortage  of  consumer  goods 
in  Anhui  and  south  Manchuria  had,  on  the  Communists' 
admission,  given  some  trouble.  Serious  inflation  had  set 
in:  the  People's  bank  dollar,  fixed  at  900  to  the  £  when 
the  Communists  took  Shanghai,  had  fallen  to  24,000  by 
December.  In  south  China  all  business  was  done  in  Hongkong 
dollars,  the  market  rate  for  which  was  about  PB$8,000  to 
HK$1,  against  the  official  rate  of  PBS600.  These  facts 
indicated  the  Communists'  want  both  of  treasure  and  foreign 
exchange.  (O.  M.  G.) 

Education.  Primary  schools  (1946):  pupils  23,913,705.  Secondary 
schools  (1947).  6,346,  pupils  2,055,441.  Institutions  of  higher 
education  (1947)  207,  students  148,844.  Illiteracy  (1945)  51  •  1  % 

Agriculture.  (China  proper)  Main  crops  (1948,  in  '000  metric  ton*): 
wheat  25,582;  barley  7,428;  oats  795;  maize  7,467;  potatoes  1,952; 
nee  (1948-49)  46,524;  cotton  (ginned)  4^9,  tobacco  659,  kaoliang 
6,101;  millet  6,156;  sugar  (raw  value)  360,  cottonseed  1,020;  rape- 
seed  3,704;  groundnuts  3,004,  dry  peas  2,992,  soya  beans  6,043; 
tea  about  300  million  Ib.  Livestock  (1948,  in  '000  head)-  cattle  18,200; 
sheep  10,450;  pigs  59,510,  horses  2,023;  chickens  209,335;  goats 
13,976;  ducks  44,106;  oxen  18,200;  buffaloes  9,460  Oil  production 
from  vegetable  oilseeds  (1948).  3,202,354  metric  tons. 

Industry.  Fuel  and  power  (1948)-  coal  (in  '000  metric  tons)  13,800; 
natural  gas  (in  '000  cu  f t ,  1 1  months  only)  1,344,068,  electricity  (in 
million  kwh  )  2,860.  Raw  materials  (1948,  in  '000  metric  tons),  iron 
ore  158;  lin-m-ore  4  9,  pig  iron  11,  steel  (ingot  and  crude)  44. 
Manufactured  goods  (1948,  in  '000  metric  tons):  cotton  yarn  336; 
cotton  fabrics  860;  cement  550. 

Foreign  Trade.  (1948)  imports  1.193  million  yuan;  exports  1,399 
million  yuan. 

Transport  and  Communications.  Roads  (June  1948)  81,970  mi 
Licensed  motor  vehicles  (1947)  cars  20,374,  commercial  vehicles 
35,650.  Railways  (1947-48)  5,286  mi.  Shipping  (July  1948):  number  of 
merchant  vessels  of  100  tons  and  upwards  371,  total  tonnage  809,114 

Finance  and  Banking.  Budget  (million  C.N.S):  (1947)  revenue 
12,135,000.  expenditure  46,004,100;  (1948,  six  months)  revenue 
56,280,900,  expenditure  96,276,600  Monetary  unit  (from  Aug  19, 
1948)'  gold  vuan  (  =  National  Chinese  $3  million)  with  an  official 
exchange  rate  of  four  gold  yuan  to  the  U  S  dollar  At  the  end  of 
1948,  however,  the  official  exchange  rate  was  20  gold  yuan  to  1  U  S 
dollar.  In  Dec.  1949  the  paper  gold  yuan  became  worthless.  The 
exchange  rate  of  silver  yuan  was  64-5  US.  cents. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  G.  W.  Kceton,  "  Chinese  Nationalism  in  Eclipse," 
World  Affair?  (London,  July  1949);  U  S  Department  of  Stale,  U  S 
Relations  with  China  (Washington,  Aug.  1949) 

CHOU  EN-LAI,  Chinese  politician  (b.  Huaian, 
Kiangsu,  1898),  descended  from  an  old  mandarin  family. 
Educated  at  a  secondary  school  in  Tientsin,  he  went  to  Japan 
in  1917  and  studied  at  Waseda  university  for  a  year  and  a  half. 
He  returned  to  China  in  1919,  but  the  next  year  went  to 
France  under  the  Mao  Tse-tung  worker-student  plan.  Having 
spent  some  time  in  Great  Britain  and  a  year  in  Germany  he 
returned  to  China  in  1924  and  joined  the  Chinese  Com- 
munist party  as  secretary  of  the  Kwantung  provincial  com- 
mittee. He  took  part  in  the  Nanchang  uprising  (1927),  was 
captured  there  by  the  Nationalists  but  escaped.  He  went  to 
Moscow  as  a  delegate  to  the  1928  congress  of  the  Comintern 
and  remained  there  until  1931  studying  at  the  Chungshan 


university.  Back  in  China,  he  joined  the  Kiangsi  Com- 
munist republic  and  in  1934-35  tock  part  in  the  *4  long 
march  "  to  Yenan.  He  revisited  Moscow  in  1935  as  delegate 
to  the  Comintern  congress.  In  Dec.  1936,  when  Chiang 
Kai-shek  was  kidnapped  at  Sian,  Chou  was  largely  responsible 
for  his  release.  During  World  War  II  he  served  as  minister 
of  foreign  affairs  of  the  Yenan  government  and  from  May 
1944  to  early  1945  took  part  in  negotiations  with  Chiang, 
but  no  agreement  could  be  reached.  Chou  was  again  the 
Communist  representative  at  talks  in  1946  with  General 
Cjeorge  C.  Marshall  who,  as  President  ^Truman's  special 
envoy,  sought*  to  establish  peace  between  the  two  Chinas. 
When  in  1949  the  Communists  extended  their  control  over 
most  of  China,  on  Oct.  1  Chou  was  appointed  in  Peking 
as  chairman  of  the  state  administrative  council  (prime 
minister)  and  foreign  minister  of  the  new  Chinese  people's 
republic.  On  Jan.  20,  1950,  he  joined  Mao  Tse-tung  in 
Moscow  for  the  final  stage  of  negotiations  which  ended  on 
Feb.  14  with  the  signature  of  a  30-year  treaty  of  friendship, 
alliance  and  mutual  assistance  between  China  and  the  Soviet 
Union. 

CHRISTIAN     DEMOCRATIC     MOVEMENT. 

There  was  little  sign  during  1949  of  any  attempt  among 
the  parties  in  the  different  countries  of  western  Hurope  that 
are  loosely  classed  together  as  Christian  Democratic  to 
associate  themselves  more  formally  in  an  international  move- 
ment. Indeed,  those  working  in  this  sense  were  on  the  whole 
less  active  than  in  the  year  before;  less  was  heard,  for  in- 
stance, of  the  Nouvelles  Equipes  Internationales,  which  held 
two  international  conferences  during  1948  and  none  during 
1949.  The  reasons  for  this  were  two-fold.  In  the  first  place, 
members  of  the  Christian  Democratic  parties  are  in  most  cases 
(although  not  necessarily)  practising  Christians  and  usually 
Catholics,  linked  together  by  the  supra-national  nature  of 
institutional  religion  and  correspondingly  less  in  need  of  an 
international  machinery  for  their  contacts  than  are  the 
members  of  the  secular  parties.  And  in  the  second  place  the 
year  1949  saw  great  progress  towards  the  political  and  econo- 
mic integration  of  western  Europe  as  a  whole,  with  a  leading 
part  being  played  by  members  of  the  Christian  Democratic 
parties,  partly  because  in  so  many  cases  theirs  were  the  major- 
ity parties  and  in  governmental  office  and  partly  because  the 
idea  of  Western  Union  is  more  familiar  and  congenial  a  priori 
to  Catholic  and  Christian  minds  than  to  others.  So  it  was 
that  at  the  Council  of  Europe  (^.v.)  at  Strasbourg  in  August 
men  like  Georges  Bidault,  newly  elected  chairman  of  the 
French  M.R.P.  (Mouvement  Republicain  Populaire),  and 
Maurice  Schuman,  also  of  the  M.R.P.,  or  like  Ludovico 
Montini  and  Stefano  Jaccini  of  the  Italian  Democristiani, 
not  only  took  a  prominent  part  but  were  constantly  in 
consultation  together,  as  members  in  a  de  facto  international 
movement,  bringing  their  combined  influence  to  bear  more 
effectively  than  did,  for  other  instances,  the  Socialists  and  the 
Liberals. 

Bidault  became  prime  minister  of  France  in  October,  and 
at  that  time,  when  Dr.  Konrad  Adenauer,  of  the  Christlich- 
Demokratische  Union,  had  become  chancellor  of  the  new 
federal  German  republic  and  Gaston  Eyskens  had  become 
prime  minister  of  Belgium  as  a  result  of  the  summer's  elec- 
tions, it  was  easy  to  see  that,  over  the  western  continent  as  a 
whole,  the  Christian  influence  in  public  life  had  continued 
to  increase.  In  Belgium,  on  June  26,  when  the  Parti  Social 
Chretien  confirmed  its  position  as  easily  the  strongest  party 
in  the  country,  the  "  royal  question  "  overrode,  however, 
the  larger  issue  of  ideology.  That  larger  issue  was  best 
reflected,  so  far  as  the  elections  of  1949  were  concerned,  in 
Germany  and  Austria.  When  the  western  zones  of  Germany 
went  to  the  polls  on  Aug.  14  to  elect  a  parliament  for  the  new 


166 


CHRISTIAN    SCIENCE— CHURCHILL 


CHRISTIAN  DEMOCRATIC 
Party  corresponding  to 
Country  Christian  Democratic 

AUSTRIA  Osterrelchische  Volkspartei 

BELGIUM  Parti  Social  Chretien 

FRANCE  Mouvement  Republicain  Populaire     . 

/  Christlich-Demokratische  Union 
GERMANY          \ZfMrum  (Roman  Catholics) 
NETHERLANDS       Catholic  People's  Party 
ITALY  Democrazia  Cristiana 

SWITZERLAND       Catholic  Conservative  Party    . 


PARLIAMENTARY  REPRESENTATION 

Total  No. 

Date  of  last  Elections      of  Seats 
Oct.     9,  1949  165 

June  26.  1949  212 

Nov.  10,  1946  611 


Aug.  14,  1949 

July  7.  1948 
April  18,  1948 
Oct.  26,  1947 


402 

100 
574 
194 


Seats  obtained 
by  C.D.s 

77 
105 
164 
139\ 

10/ 

32 
307 

44 


%  of  Total 
46-6 
49-5 
26-8 

7-1 

32-0 
53-4 

25-3 


federal  German  republic,  the  Christian  Democrats  again 
showed  themselves  to  be  the  largest  and  strongest  party  in  a 
contest  with  the  Social  Democrats.  And  in  Austria,  on  Oct. 
9,  the  Volkspartei,  although  losing  some  seats  to  new  group- 
ings, remained  comfortably  the  strongest  party.  (See  also 
ELECTIONS.) 

The  year  was  marked  by  a  number  of  international  con- 
ferences on  social  matters,  as  distinct  from  political  matters 
in  the  party  sense,  under  the  auspices  of  Christians  of  whom 
many  had  become  associated  with  the  Christian  Democratic 
parties.  Of  these  may  be  mentioned  in  particular  the  Inter- 
national Christian  Social  association,  which  during  1949  set 
up  an  international  secretariat  in  Brussels  and  held  a  highly 
successful  conference,  the  third  in  annual  succession,  in  that 
city  in  October,  both  outcomes  of  the  meeting  at  St.  Gall, 
Switzerland,  in  Feb.  1947.  It  is  relevant  also  to  note  the  grow- 
ing strength  of  the  Young  Christian  Workers  (Jeunesse 
Ouvriere  Chretienne;  Christliche  Arbeiterjugend)  for  whom 
1949  was  a  silver  jubilee  year.  The  international  Catholic 
university  movement,  Pax  Romana,  again,  also  outside  the 
field  of  party  politics,  had  a  successful  year,  with  a  large 
international  conference  of  students,  the  first  of  an  annual 
series,  held  at  Fribourg,  Switzerland,  in  August.  It  should  be 
stated  in  connection  with  all  such  activities  that,  although 
they  were  Christian  and  non-political,  yet  they  were  bound  to 
be  to  some  extent  concerned  in  politics,  and  were  bound  in 
doing  so  to  come  into  close  relationship  with  the  Christian 
Democratic  parties,  whenever  ideological  elements  were 
found  in  political  life;  and  it  was  precisely  because  of  the 
existence  of  a  wide  range  of  such  flourishing  international 
movements  that  there  was  no  need  for  any  international 
cultural  organization  to  be  specifically  associated  with  the 
Christian  Democratic  parties  as  such.  (M.  DK.) 

CHRISTIAN  SCIENCE.  Christian  Science  is  a 
religion  founded  by  Mary  Baker  Eddy  and  represented  by  the 
Church  of  Christ,  Scientist,  made  up  of  the  First  Church  of 
Christ,  Scientist,  in  Boston,  Massachusetts,  known  as  the 
Mother  Church,  and  approximately  3,000  branches  located 
throughout  the  world.  There  were  also  in  1949  more  than  100 
college  and  university  Christian  Science  organizations  formed 
in  accordance  with  the  by-laws  of  the  Mother  Church. 

The  Christian  Science  Church,  which  in  1948  purchased  a 
large  building  in  Washington,  D.C.,  for  the  use  of  its 
Committee  on  Publication,  opened  in  the  building  an  exhibit 
officially  called  Christian  Science  World  Activities  on  Display. 
The  exhibit  unfolded  in  chronological  sequence  the  history 
of  the  Christian  Science  movement  and  included  many 
unique  features  of  architecture  and  display. 

The  Wartime  Activities  committee  of  the  Mother  Church 
continued  in  1949  to  help  those  facing  the  aftermath  of 
World  War  II.  Substantial  quantities  of  food  and  clothing 
were  supplied  for  distribution  in  Europe  and  elsewhere. 
Christian  Scientists  in  the  United  States,  Canada  and  England, 
interested  in  helping  displaced  persons  to  leave  Europe  and 
make  new  homes  for  themselves  in  other  parts  of  the  world, 
were  aided  by  the  Wartime  Activities  committee. 

The  work  of  the  Christian  Science  Camp  Welfare  Activities 
at  military  and  naval  stations  doubled  during  1949.  The 


Mother  Church  maintained  56  paid  camp  and  hospital 
workers.  In  addition  there  were  214  volunteer  workers  who 
donated  their  services.  Four  Christian  Science  chaplains 
were  assigned  to  stations  with  U.S.  forces  in  Germany.  Full 
legal  recognition  for  Christian  Scientists  to  practise 
Christian  Science  and  charge  for  their  services  was  granted 
through  legislation  enacted  in  1949  in  Ohio,  the  last  state 
in  the  U.S.  to  pass  such  a  law.  Publications  of  the  church, 
which  are  issued  by  the  Christian  Science  Publishing  society, 
include  the  Christian  Science  Journal;  Christian  Science 
Sentinel;  Christian  Science  Quarterly;  the  Herald  of  Christian 
Science,  published  in  seven  languages  and  in  Braille  in 
English;  and  the  Christian  Science  Monitor. 

Transcribed  radio  programmes,  originating  in  the  Mother 
Church,  were  broadcast  over  more  than  450  stations  in  the 
United  States  and  territories,  Canada,  Panama,  Cuba, 
Bermuda,  New  Zealand  and  Australia.  It  was  estimated  that 
there  were  10  million  listeners  to  these  programmes  each 
week.  (W.  D.  K.) 

CHURCHILL,  WINSTON  LEONARD  SPEN- 
CER, British  statesman  (b.  Blenheim  palace,  Oxfordshire, 
Nov.  30,  1874).  For  his  career  see  Encyclopedia  Britannica 
and  Britannica  Book  of  the  Year  1949.  After  the  defeat  of 
his  government  in  the  general  election  of  July  1,  1945,  he 
led  the  Conservative  opposition  in  the  House  of  Commons. 

He  attended  the  European  Movement  congress  in  Brussels 
in  Feb.  1949  and  on  March  31  he  spoke  at  the  mid-century 
convention  of  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology. 


Winston  Churchill  (right)  receiving  the  "  Sunday  Times  "  book  prize 
from  Lord  Kemsley^  Nov.  1949. 

His  survey  of  technological  and  political  developments  in  the 
first  half  of  the  20th  century  was  considered  by  some  to  have 
been  as  important  as  his  speech  at  Fulton  on  March  5,  1946. 
From  that  speech  the  movement  for  European  unity  and  the 
Council  of  Europe  grew,  and  in  August  he  led  the  Conserva- 
tive members  of  the  British  delegation  at  the  first  European 
assembly  at  Strasbourg.  On  Aug.  12  he  addressed  a  large 
crowd  in  the  Place  Kleber,  where  he  was  received  with  tremen- 
dous applause,  and  three  days  later  was  presented  with  the 
honorary  citizenship  of  Strasbourg.  After  the  announcement 


CHURCH  MEMBERSHIP— CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND 


167 


of  the  devaluation  of  the  pound  on  Sept.  18  he  called 
for  the  summoning  of  parliament,  and  in  the  special  debate 
that  followed  he  moved  a  motion  of  no  confidence  in  the 
government  and  again  demanded  a  general  election.  On  Feb.  3 
he  received  in  the  Guildhall,  London,  the  Grotius  medal,  a 
Dutch  award  for  distinguished  services  rendered  in  the  cause 
of  international  peace  or  international  law.  He  received  the 
freedom  of  the  royal  borough  of  Kensington  on  June  1  and 
on  Sept.  29  the  municipal  council  of  Cannes  elected  him  an 
honorary  citizen.  In  May  he  received  the  honorary  degree  of 
doctor  of  law  from  Liverpool  university.  On  June  27  the 
second  volume  of  his  memoirs  of  World  War  II  was  pub- 
lished— for  this  and  the  first  volume  he  was  awarded  the 
Sunday  Times  £1,000  prize  for  literature  for  1948-49. 

CHURCH  MEMBERSHIP.  No  accurate  compara- 
tive figures  can  be  given  because  no  common  basis  of 
calculation  is  observed  by  the  Churches.  The  figures  for 
the  Church  of  England  and  Church  of  Scotland  included  the 
returns  for  electoral  rolls,  Sunday  schools  and  infant  bap- 
tisms; in  addition  the  nominal  adherents  of  the  Church  of 
England  amounted  to  at  least  three  times  this  figure.  Sunday 
school  membership  was  included  for  all  the  other  churches 
with  a  few  exceptions  which  are  noticed. 

ENGLAND  AND  WALES 

Church  of  England  (effective)  5,469,629 

„      „          „        (nominal)  15,000,000 

Church  in  Wales  (estimated)      .                                   *  250,000 

Roman  Catholics            .           .  2,648,900 

Methodists           .           .           .  1,506,053 

Independent  Methodists            .  22,095 

Wesleyan  Reform  Union           .  18,018 

Congregationalists           .           .  623,713 

Baptists  ....  610,958 
Presbyterian  Church  in  Wales  (including  Calvinistic 

Methodists)              .           .  311,815 

Presbyterian  Church  in  England  102,802 

Brethren  (adults)             .           .  80,000 

Unitarian  Free  Christians  (adults)  24,000 

Society  of  Friends  (adults)        .  20,730 

Moravians            .           .           .  10,700 

Churches  of  Christ         .           .  9,332 

Nine  other  sects  had  a  total  membership  of  about  60,000. 
No  figures  were  supplied  by  the  Catholic  Apostolic  Church, 
the  Christian  Scientists  and  about  15  other  sects. 


SCOTLAND 
Church  of  Scotland 
Roman  Catholics 
Episcopal  Church  in  Scotland 
United  Free  Church  of  Scotland 
Congregationalists 
Baptists 
Presbyterians  (three  groups) 

IRELAND 
Roman  Catholics  (Republic  of  Ireland) 

„  „          (Northern  Ireland) 

Church  of  Ireland 
Presbyterians 
Methodists 
Baptists     . 
Congregationalists 
Friends  (adults) 


1,579.594 
621,400 
109,984 
33,238 
48,887 
34,675 
3,457 

2,773,920 
428,290 
490,504 
390,931 
45,903 
8,852 
4,151 
1,968 

(A.  J  MAC.) 

CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND.  The  most  striking  event 
during  1949  was  the  mission  in  the  diocese  of  London  (May). 
No  previous  home  mission  had  ever  been  so  carefully 
organized,  not  only  amongst  the  clergy  and  parishes  of  the 
diocese,  but  by  means  of  the  press  and  radio.  A  remarkable 
feature  was  the  widespread  use  of  lay  missioners  who  sup- 
ported some  150  clerical  missioners  commissioned  by  the 
bishop  in  St.  Paul's  cathedral  on  May  14,  when  three  pro- 
cessions of  the  robed  clergy  of  the  diocese  marched  to  the 
cathedral  from  three  city  churches.  In  the  city  itself  the 
mission  began  on  May  11  with  a  great  meeting  in  Guild 


Princess  Elizabeth  receiving  the  key  of  the  door  of  Liverpool  Cathe- 
dral which  she  opened  during  a  visit  to  Liverpool  on  March  29,  1949. 

Hall  with  the  bishop  in  the  chair.  Some  600,000  people 
attended  services  and  meetings  in  churches,  halls,  factories 
and  on  open-air  pitches  all  over  the  diocese,  and  also  lunch- 
hour  services  in  the  city.  The  Queen  was  present  at  the  first 
evening  meeting  at  St.  Paul's.  Great  services  of  thanks- 
giving were  held  at  St.  Paul's,  Westminster  abbey  and  South- 
wark  cathedral.  In  October  a  two-day  conference  was  held 
at  Ashridge  to  arrange  for  a  follow-up. 

On  June  19  the  fourth  centenary  of  the  publication  of  the 
Book  of  Common  Prayer  was  celebrated  in  cathedrals  and 
churches  throughout  the  land.  A  picture  paper,  entitled 
Your  Prayer  Book,  was  issued  by  the  Society  for  Promoting 
Christian  Knowledge  in  an  edition  of  150,000  copies.  The 
great  door  of  Liverpool  cathedral  was  opened  by  Princess 
Elizabeth,  accompanied  by  the  Duke  of  Edinburgh,  on 
March  19.  It  is  at  the  south  side  under  the  great  central 
tower  and  is  approached  by  32  steps.  The  work  on  the 
building  of  Guildford  cathedral  also  continued.  The  Interim 
report  of  conversations  between  representatives  of  the 
archbishop  of  Canterbury  and  of  the  Free  Churches  was 
published  on  March  31,  signed  by  A.  E.  J.  Rawlinson, 
bishop  of  Derby,  and  Dr.  Nathaniel  Micklem.  It  recorded 
complete  agreement  on  the  apostolic  faith  contained  in  the 
scripture  and  the  creeds,  and  substantial  agreement  on  the 
doctrine  of  the  church  and  the  function  of  the  ministry. 
The  function  of  the  episcopate  and  other  questions  remained 
to  be  discussed.  Further  conversations  took  place  at  Oxford 
in  September.  A  scheme  for  the  re-organization  and  amal- 
gamation of  the  city  churches  was  published  in  July.  It  allowed 
for  the  retention  of  15  of  the  churches  as  parish  churches, 
to  be  open  for  Sunday  services,  and  for  pastoral  work  among 
the  resident  population  in  the  city  as  well  as  for  existing 
lunch-time  activities;  and  21  "  ward  "  churches  were  also 


168 


CHURCH   OF   SCOTLAND 


retained,  mainly  for  lunch-time  work,  thus  leaving  the  in- 
cumbents free  for  Sunday  duty  and  specialized  evening  work 
elsewhere  in  the  diocese.  The  revenues  of  the  benefices  were 
to  be  centralized  in  a  common  fund  and  fixed  stipends  were 
to  be  paid  to  the  rectors  and  vicars  of  ward  churches. 
A  single  board  of  patronage  for  the  city  churches  was 
suggested. 

Convocation.  The  archbishop  announced  that  subsequent 
editions  of  the  Shorter  Prayer  Book  would  be  issued  with 
the  title  **  The  Shorter  Prayer  Book"  being  an  abbreviated 
form  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  with  some  additional 
matter.  No  constitutional  question  had  been  raised  by  the 


The  bishop  of  London,  Dr.  J.  W.  C.  Wand,  (right}  leaving  Tower  pier 

after  travelling  bv  boat  from  Putney  for  the  opening  of  the  north 

aisle  of  All  Hallows-by-the-Tower,  July    14,    1949.     Left  is  the 

Rev.  P.  B.  Clayton,  vicar  of  All  Hallows. 

publication  of  this  book  and  there  was  no  constitutional 
obligation  on  the  part  of  the  bishops  to  consult  convocation 
about  its  issue.  A  committee  was  appointed  to  consider  the 
Lambeth  resolutions  concerning  the  Church  of  South  India. 
Three  clergy  were  appointed  to  serve  on  the  Provincial 
Appellate  court  set  up  by  the  Incumbents  (Discipline) 
measure,  1947.  Revision  of  the  canon  law  was  continued 
by  both  the  convocations  of  Canterbury  and  York.  The 
subjects  dealt  with  in  1949  were:  church  festivals;  the 
vesture  of  the  clergy;  the  conduct  of  divine  service  and  time 
of  service  in  cathedrals  and  parish  churches;  the  Holy 
Communion;  sermons,  the  bidding  prayer,  hymns,  anthems 
and  church  music;  Holy  Baptism.  The  York  convocation 
also  considered  the  canons  on  the  marriage  service;  com- 
munion and  unction  of  the  sick;  burial  of  the  dead;  regis- 
tration of  baptism,  confirmation,  marriage  and  burials; 
and  divine  service  in  places  outside  the  church.  In  Oct.  1949 
the  archbishop  of  Canterbury  addressed  convocation  on 
the  welfare  state;  and  discussion  took  place  on  the  second 
Interim  report  on  baptism,  confirmation  and  Holy  Com- 
munion, and  also  on  a  set  of  rules  to  be  observed  by  lay 
members  of  the  church. 

The  Church  Assembly.  The  Benefices  (Suspension  of 
Presentation)  measure,  1946,  (Amendment)  received  final 
approval  by  the  Church  assembly.  The  Re-organization  of 
Areas  measure,  1944,  (Amendment),  restricting  the  rights 
of  patrons  in  certain  areas,  was  extended  until  1954.  Some 
other  measures  received  general  approval;  and  it  was  agreed 
to  drop  from  the  Bishops  Retirement  measure  certain  clauses 


concerning  doctrine,  ritual  and  ceremonial,  leaving  these 
matters  to  be  dealt  with  by  the  convocations  in  the  revision 
of  the  canons.  The  reports  of  several  committees  were  re- 
ceived. It  was  agreed  that  the  Report  on  Lay  Evangelism 
be  referred  to  the  convocations,  diocesan  and  ruri-decanal 
conferences  and  parochial  church  councils;  the  two  arch- 
bishops were  asked  to  invite  the  diocesan  bishops  to  appoint 
a  Sunday  on  which  to  collect  the  £40,000  required  to  train 
candidates  for  the  ministry  accepted  in  1949;  the  diocesan 
boards  were  to  be  asked  to  raise  £450,000  for  church  training 
colleges  for  teachers.  The  Church  commissioners  reported 
that  since  they  administered  800,000  ac.  of  glebe  they  could 
not  take  over  glebe  distributed  in  small  parishes  all  over  the 
country  and  they  advised  the  sale  of  glebe  where  its  retention 
was  no  longer  economical.  The  suggestion  was  made  that 
the  Ministry  of  Works  should  take  over  disused  churches 
of  historical  interest.  The  suggested  rules  for  observance 
by  the  laity  were  welcomed  by  Sir  Eric  Maclagan,  especially 
that  which  urges  regular  church  attendance  on  Sundays.  A 
commission  was  appointed  under  Sir  Walter  Moberly  to 
draw  up  resolutions  on  the  relations  between  church  and 
state,  and  a  council  on  Oecumenical  Co-operation  was 
appointed  to  maintain  relations  with  the  World  Council  of 
Churches  (q.v.)  and  the  British  Council  of  Churches. 

No  less  than  seven  new  appointments  were  made  to  the 
episcopate.  Two  notable  biographies  appeared,  that  of 
Cosmo  Cordon  Lang,  by  J.  G.  Lockhart,  and  of  Winnington- 
Ingram  by  the  dean  of  Exeter.  (See  also  ANGLICAN  COM- 
MUNION; CHURCH  MEMBERSHIP;  MISSIONS,  FOREIGN  RELI- 
GIOUS.) (A.  J.  MAC.) 

CHURCH  OF  SCOTLAND.  Through  its  com- 
municant membership  of  1,263,423  and  its  ministerial  charges 
numbering  2,377,  the  Church  of  Scotland  in  1949  continued 
to  influence  the  life  and  affairs  of  the  Scottish  people.  It 
again  authorized  the  maintenance  of  its  foreign  mission  work 
in  all  existing  fields  and  appealed  confidently  for  an  increase 
in  donations  to  realize  the  sum  of  £240,000  during  the  year 
for  this  work.  Through  its  Churches  Overseas  department  it 
expanded  its  work  in  the  Commonwealth  and  at  its  contin- 
ental stations  and  gave  considerable  aid  to  the  scheme  for  the 
reconstruction  of  the  evangelical  churches  in  Europe.  Its 
Jewish  Mission  committee  intimated  that  the  work  of  the 
Church  of  Scotland  would  be  resumed  forthwith  throughout 
Palestine,  the  Israeli  authorities  having  given  every  facility 
for  the  restoration  of  properties  and  the  resumption  of  work. 

The  general  assembly  of  May  1949  heard  with  appreciation 
a  report  on  the  first  assembly  of  the  World  Council  of 
Churches  (q.v.),  held  at  Amsterdam  the  previous  year,  at 
which  the  Church  of  Scotland  was  strongly  represented; 
and  steps  were  taken  to  raise  increased  funds  in  support  of 
the  oecumenical  movement  through  a  Scottish  Churches* 
oecumenical  council.  On  the  invitation  of  the  archbishop  of 
Canterbury  informal  discussions  were  initiated  with  regard 
to  inter-communion  and  interchange  of  pulpits  between  the 
Church  of  Scotland  and  the  Church  of  England. 

During  1949  the  Committee  on  Church  and  Nation  took 
cognizance  of  problems  arising  in  the  life  of  the  nation,  and 
out  of  this  concern  for  public  questions  there  was  submitted 
to  the  general  assembly  the  report  of  the  Special  Committee 
on  Re-Marriage  of  Divorced  Persons,  an  important  docu- 
ment which  was  to  be  considered  by  the  Presbyteries  of  the 
Church  and  by  the  general  assembly  in  May  1950. 

Among  other  questions  brought  to  the  notice  of  the  general 
assembly  was  that  of  the  Christian  doctrine  of  the  "  just  war11 
and  its  bearing  on  the  attitude  of  the  church  to  war  in  the 
atomic  age.  Always  mindful  of  the  care  of  its  youth,  the 
Church  of  Scotland  appointed  a  special  committee  on 
Christian  action,  charged  with  informing  the  minds  of  young 


CHU   TEH— CINEMA 


169 


people  in  order  that  materialistic  ideologies  might  be  effec- 
tively combated.  In  Scotland  itself  the  work  of  the  Committee 
on  Social  Service,  which  had  now  no  less  than  12  "  homes 
for  the  aged  "  under  its  supervision,  and  of  the  Home  board 
engaged  in  the  urgent  task  of  church  extension  into  new 
building  areas  was  well  done. 

The  moderator  of  the  general  assembly  of  1949  was  the 
Right  Rev.  George  S.  Duncan,  St.  Mary's  college,  St.  And- 
rews'. The  lord  high  commissioner  during  the  assembly  was 
the  Duke  of  Gloucester.  During  the  year  the  moderator  of 
the  general  assembly  of  1948,  the  Right  Rev.  Dr.  Alexander 
Macdonald,  visited  various  units  of  the  British  armed  forces 
including  the  Scottish  troops  in  the  British  army  of  the 
Rhine.  (T.  C) 

CHU  TEH,  Chinese  Communist  army  officer 
(b.  Maanchuang,  Szechuan,  1886),  son  of  a  peasant.  In  1909 
he  entered  the  Yunnan  military  academy  and  led  a  company 
in  the  1911  republican  revolution.  Five  years  later  he  was  a 
brigadier  general  in  the  army  of  the  Yunnan  war  lord  Tang 
Chi-yao,  who  made  him  provincial  commissioner  of  finance. 
In  1920,  however,  Chu  abandoned  his  house  and  his  family 
and  joined  the  Kuomintang  at  Shanghai.  Two  years  later, 
in  Berlin,  he  met  Chou  En-lai  (q.v.)  and  joined  the  Chinese 
Communist  party.  He  studied  at  the  Eastern  Toilers*  uni- 
versity in  Moscow  and  returned  to  China  in  1926,  where  a 
year  later  he  directed  an  officers'  training  school  at  Nanchang. 
He  led  a  revolt  against  Chiang  Kai-shek  (q.v.)  who,  in  May 
1927,  broke  with  the  Communists.  Defeated,  he  fled  to  the 
mountains  of  the  Fukien-Kiangsi  border  where,  in  May  1928, 
he  joined  forces  with  Mao  Tse-tung  (q.v.).  A  communist 
state  was  organized  with  Chu  as  commander-in-chief;  but 
in  1934-35  came  the  "  long  march  "  to  Yenan.  Chu  remained 
there  for  12  years  as  c.-in-c.  of  the  Chinese  Communist  army. 
On  Aug.  10,  1945,  he  ordered  the  army  to  move  into  Man- 
churia **  to  accept  the  surrender  "  of  the  Japanese  and  co- 
operate with  the  armies  of  the  U.S.S.R.  which  had  declared 
war  on  Japan  two  days  previously.  With  Soviet  support, 
Chu's  forces  expanded  and,  three  years  later,  were  able  to 
start  a  big  southern  offensive.  At  Peking  on  July  17,  1949, 
Chu  expressed  satisfaction  at  being  successful  against  "Ameri- 
can imperialism  and  its  watch-dog  in  China,  the  reactionary 
clique  of  Chiang;"  new  China,  he  said,  would  march  forward 
with  the  Soviet  Union.  On  Oct.  1,  he  was  appointed  one  of 
the  six  deputy  chairmen  of  the  new  government  of  the  Chinese 
people's  republic  and  commander-in-chief  of  its  armed  forces. 


General   Vastly  I.  Chuykov  (centre),  military  governor  and  com- 
mander in  chief  of  the  Soviet  zone  of  Germany,  at  a  reception  in 
Berlin  to  celebrate  Poland's  national  dayt  July  22,  1949. 


CHUYKOV,  VASILY  IVANOVICH,  Soviet  army 
officer  (b.  Serebryaniye  Prudy,  Tula  province,  1900).  At  the 
age  of  12  he  went  to  St.  Petersburg  (Leningrad)  where  he 
worked  as  errand  boy  at  a  bath-house  and  later  at  a  saddler's 
shop.  He  joined  the  Red  army  after  the  October  Revolution 
and  after  the  civil  war  was  sent  to  Frunze  Military  academy, 
Moscow.  In  1941  he  was  Soviet  military  adviser  in  Communist 
China.  As  commander  of  the  62nd  army  he  distinguished 
himself  at  the  end  of  1942  in  the  battle  of  Stalingrad.  In  1943 
he  was  promoted  colonel  general;  two  years  later  he  was 
one  of  the  first  Soviet  commanders  to  enter  Berlin.  After 
the  capitulatior)  of  Germany  he  was  appointed  chief  of  the 
Soviet  military  administration  in  the  Land  of  Thuringia.  On 
March  30,  1949,  he  succeeded  Marshal  Vasily  D.  Sokolovsky 
as  military  governor  and  commander  in  chief  of  the  Soviet 
zone  of  Germany. 

CIGARS  AND  CIGARETTES:  see  TOBACCO. 

CINEMA.  The  dollar  shortage  of  most  European 
countries  during  1949  led  to  an  uneasy  situation  in  the  film 
industry.  Though  it  was  natural  that  Hollywood  desired  to 
rebuild  the  lucrative  markets  in  Europe  which  were  tempo- 
rarily lost  during  World  War  II  it  was  equally  natural  that, 
in  the  difficult  economic  situation  in  Europe,  any  threat  to 
home  production  resulting  from  an  economic  agreement 
which  seemed  to  favour  unreasonably  the  importation  of 
films  whose  costs  had  already  been  met  in  America  itself 
was  keenly  resented.  Again,  it  was  more  expensive  for  the 
exhibitor  to  hire  a  British  or  a  French  film  than  to  hire  its 
American  equivalent  from  the  point  of  view  of  audience- 
appeal  since  the  home-product  had  the  whole  of  its  costs 
to  recoup. 

The  situation  in  France  during  1949  was  that  French  films 
must  be  shown  5  weeks  out  of  the  quarterly  13  and  that 
American  and  British  films  must  be  "  doubled  ";  i.e.,  have 
a  new  French  sound-track  synchronized,  thus  giving  employ- 
ment to  French  technicians.  The  Italians,  too,  were  extremely 
skilful  in  dubbing  foreign  language  films.  In  Western 
Germany,  to  take  another  example,  the  market  was  free  and 
exhibitors  chose  as  they  pleased ;  there  was  always  a  demand 
for  the  few  home-produced  German  films  being  made.  In 
Great  Britain,  however,  the  economic  situation  reached  the 
point  of  a  major  industrial  crisis  in  1949. 

Against  the  background  of  these  difficulties,  since  the  film 
persistently  remained  a  two-headed  Janus  looking  alike 
towards  the  mountain-heights  of  art  and  the  heavy  seas  of 
industry,  production  developed  along  many  divergent  lines. 
The  eastern  European  countries  maintained  a  solid  front  of 
production,  sometimes  of  a  distinguished  nature.  Soviet 
films,  slow,  dignified  and  strictly  orthodox  in  their  ideological 
structure,  led  the  field  to  which  Poland,  Czechoslovakia  and 
Hungary  added  proficient  work.  Yugoslavia,  cut  off  from 
these  former  partners,  was  developing  a  new  industry  of  its 
own.  The  work  of  these  and  the  western  European  countries 
was  very  fully — many  said  far  too  fully — represented  at  the 
innumerable  film  festivals  organized  by  several  European 
countries.  The  eastern  European  countries  held  their  festival 
in  Marianske  LaznS  in  Czechoslovakia.  The  western 
European  countries  held  festivals  in  Belgium  (Knocke), 
Switzerland  (Locarno),  Italy  (Venice)  and  France  (Cannes). 
Two  special  non-competitive  festivals  of  films  in  the  docu- 
mentary style  were  held  in  Hamburg,  Germany,  and,  as 
usual,  in  Edinburgh.  It  was  generally  agreed  that  the 
increase  in  the  number  of  competitive  festivals,  with  their 
universal  rule  that  different  films  must  be  presented  at  each, 
merely  reduced  the  standard  of  the  films  which  producers 
were  able  to  submit.  The  winners  of  the  Grands  Prix  were 
the  British  film  The  Third  Man  (at  Cannes),  the  Italian  film 


170 


CINEMA 


Orson  Welles  as  Harry  Lime  in  the  sewers  of  Vienna  in  "  The  Third 

Man,"  a  London  Jilm  production,  produced  and  directed  by  Carol 

Reed. 

Bicycle  Thieves  (at  Knocke),  the  French  films  Manon  (at 
Venice)  and  La  Ferme  des  Sept  Peches  (at  Locarno),  and  the 
Soviet  production  The  Battle  of  Stalingrad  (at  Marianske 
Lazne).  Conferences  of  importance  were  also  held  during 
1949  including  those  convened  by  the  international  Scientific 
Film  association  in  Brussels,  the  international  Federation  of 
Film  Archives  at  Rome  and  the  International  Federation  of 
Film  Critics  at  Cannes. 

Great  Britain.  During  1948  the  quota  for  British  produc- 
tions which  must  be  shown  in  British  cinemas  was  fixed  by 
the  president  of  the  Board  of  Trade  at  45  %.  This  high  quota, 
double  that  which  had  ever  been  in  operation  since  the 
British  quota  was  first  instituted  by  law  in  1928,  was  intro- 
duced more  to  save  Britain's  dwindling  dollar  reserves  for 
such  luxuries  as  film  entertainment  than  to  protect  her  film 
industry.  The  quota,  which  was  reduced  in  March  1949  to 
40%  for  the  year  1949-50,  was  bitterly  resented  alike  by  the 
American  producers  and  the  British  exhibitors.  A  further 
complication  began  to  show  itself  during  1949.  The  supply 
of  British  films  began  to  fail,  for  producers  found  that  it  was 
difficult  to  finance  films  which,  although  protected  as  far  as 
exhibition  was  concerned  by  an  artificially  high  quota,  did 
not  cover  their  costs  even  when  they  were  reasonably  success- 
ful with  the  public.  Producers  hastened  to  point  out  that, 


Anton  Walbrook  playing  the  part  of  Herman  Suverin  in  Anatole  de 
Grunwald's  production,  "  The  Queen  of  Spades  " 


although  they  were  the  people  who  took  the  grbatest  financial 
risk  in  the  making  of  the  film,  out  of  every  £100  their  work 
earned  at  the  box  office  entertainments  tax  took  about  £40, 
the  exhibitors  another  £40  and  the  distributors  a  further  £10. 
Eventually  therefore,  the  producer  got  some  £10  for  every 
£100  taken  at  the  box  office.  His  costs  meanwhile  remained 
very  high  and  films  costing  from  £200,000  to  £500,000  were 
bringing  back  only  £150,000  to  £250,000  after  an  interval 
of  one  or  two  years.  The  studios  began  to  close;  and  to 
assist  the  industry,  the  government  created  in  Oct.  1948  a 
Film  bank  with  a  capital  sum  of  £5  million  from  the  Treasury 
to  make  loans,  in  most  cases  on  a  distributor's  guarantee, 
to  producers  who  could  not  otherwise  finance  their  films 
privately.  In  April  1949,  Lord  Reith,  well-known  as  the 
director-general  of  the  B.B.C.  from  1927  to  1938,  was 
appointed  chairman  of  this  Film  Finance  corporation. 
Meanwhile  the  government  set  up  a  committee  initially 
presided  over  by  the  late  Lord  Portal  "  to  consider,  against 
the  background  of  the  general  economic  situation  in  the 
film  industry,  the  arrangements  at  present  in  operation  for 
the  distribution  of  films  to  exhibitors  and  their  exhibition  to 
the  public  in  commercial  cinemas,  and  to  make  recommenda- 
tions " ;  and  a  second  committee,  with  Sir  George  Gater  as 
chairman,  to  investigate  costs  of  British  production.  In 
November  J.  Arthur  Rank,  Great  Britain's  senior  producer 
and  studio-owner,  declared  he  had  lost  £3,500,000  in 
production  ventures.  He  declared  that  Henry  Vt  made  in 
1943  and  first  released  in  London  in  1944,  had  only  four 
weeks  earlier  succeeded  in  recovering  the  costs  of  its  negative 
— that  is,  nearly  five  years  after  its  initial  release.  In  the  same 
period  it  had  contributed  more  than  £400,000  in  entertain- 
ments tax. 

The  situation  at  the  close  of  the  year,  with  the  publication 
of  the  Gater  committee's  report  as  a  government  white  paper 
in  which  past  production  extravagances  were  castigated, 
called  for  considerable  retrenchment  on  costs  among  com- 
panies still  at  work.  There  was  a  general  sense  of  grievance 
against  the  high  levy  of  entertainments  tax  and  some  anticipa- 
tion of  government  action  to  alleviate  the  problems  of  this 
small  but  troubled  industry. 

In  spite  of  these  economic  difficulties  Great  Britain  managed 
to  produce  during  1949  some  films  worth  attention  in  any 
year.  There  was  no  British  school,  in  the  sense  that  the  new 
Italian  realist  films  could  be  said  to  constitute  a  school  or 
genre  of  film-making.  At  one  time,  during  the  middle  years 
of  World  War  II,  it  seemed  likely  that  there  would  be  a 
realist  school  in  Great  Britain  but,  apart  from  certain  films 
made  at  Haling  Studios,  the  virtues  of  British  production 
could  be  seen  to  lie  in  the  highly  individualistic  styles  of 
film-makers  like  Carol  Reed,  Thorold  Dickinson  or  David 
Lean,  working  on  films  of  a  very  different  kind  in  each  case. 
Haling  Studios,  under  the  supervision  of  Sir  Michael  Balcon, 
produced  a  new  series  of  comedies  which  certainly  had  some- 
thing of  a  common  style — including  Kind  Hearts  and  Coronets 
(Robert  Hamer),  Whisky  Galore  (Alexander  MacKendrick) 
and  Passport  to  Pimlico  (Henry  Cornelius).  Charles  Frend's 
Scott  of  the  Antarctic  in  colour  was  a  great  prestige  success, 
but  Harry  Watt's  second  Australian  film,  the  historical 
Eureka  Stockade,  was  something  of  a  disappointment,  largely 
because  of  its  poor  acting. 

Another  well  intentioned  realistic  film  which  failed  in  part 
to  survive  the  test  of  scripting  and  acting  was  Blue  Scar 
(Jill  Craigie),  a  film  set  and  produced  in  a  Welsh  mining 
village.  Two  other  films  also  in  the  realistic  style  were  Give 
us  this  Day  (Edward  Dmytryk),  remarkable  for  its  recon- 
struction of  Italian  life  in  New  York,  and  The  Small  Back 
Room  (Michael  Powell  and  Emeric  Pressburger)  based  on 
Nigel  Balchin's  novel  of  civil  service  research  work  during 
World  War  II.  Films  which  had  success  during  the  year 


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171 


and  which  were  based  on  novels  and  plays  included  The 
Guinea  Pig  (John  and  Roy  Boulting),  The  History  of  Mr.  Polly 
(John  Mills),  The  Passionate  Friends  (David  Lean)— both  the 
latter  derived  from  novels  by  H.  G.  Wells — and  Quartet, 
based  on  four  stories  by  Somerset  Maughan.  The  most 
discussed  films  of  the  year  were  Thorold  Dickinson's  period 
piece  The  Queen  of  Spades  and  Carol  Reed's  The  Third  Man, 
which  gained  the  Grand  Prix  at  the  Cannes  Film  festival. 

These  films,  produced  during  the  past  two  years  but  shown 
mainly  during  1949,  proved  that  Great  Britain  was  capable 
of  producing  a  small  output  of  important  pictures  each  year. 
Unfortunately  a  far  greater  number  of  poor  quality  films  were 
also  released  and  the  result  was  that  the  box  office  demand  for 
British,  as  distinct  from  American,  films  tended  to  decline. 
This  could  only  be  rectified  by  a  revival  in  quality  as  distinct 
from  quantity  in  British  production.  In  the  branch  of 
documentary  production,  more  particularly  in  the  specialized 
technical  and  scientific  films,  Great  Britain  remained  out- 
standing, as  was  shown  by  the  many  awards  to  British 
productions  given  at  the  Venice  festival.  Many  films,  notably 
Daybreak  in  Udi,  Atomisation,  Cornish  Engine,  Turbo-jet 
propulsion,  Digestion,  Growing  Girls  and  the  historical 
compilation  The  Peaceful  Years,  kept  the  standard  of  factual 
film  production  high. 

Commonwealth.  Apart  from  the  large  output  of  commercial 
feature  films  in  India,  documentary  production  was  the  most 
important  work  done  in  films  in  the  Commonwealth.  India, 
Australia,  New  Zealand  and  especially  Canada  were  all 
consistently  producing  factual  films  under  government 
sponsorship.  Outstanding  Canadian  documentaries  dealt 
with  psychology  and  health;  Drug  Addict  and  Over- Depen- 
dency were  particularly  good;  others  dealt  with  education, 
notably  Children's  Concerts  on  the  teaching  of  musical 
appreciation.  Norman  McLaren  continued  his  gay  experi- 
ments in  abstract  animated  films  in  colour  painted  straight 
onto  the  celluloid  and  set  to  jazz  music.  The  Australian 
National  Film  board's  chief  contribution  during  1949  was 
the  over-long  but  excellently  shot  The  Valley  is  Ours,  a  film 
about  the  Murray  valley  and  its  economic  and  agricultural 
problems.  An  important  fact  was  that  during  1949  the  Shell 
Film  unit  established  a  branch  production  unit  in  Australia 
to  produce  technical  and  scientific  films  in  the  Pacific. 

In  India  the  government-sponsored  organization,  Informa- 
tion Films  of  India,  which  had  been  disbanded  in  1946,  was 
revived  and  extended  in  1947  as  the  Films  division  of  the 
government  of  India.  This  organization  produced  newsreels 
and  documentaries  for  both  theatrical  and  non-theatrical 
exhibition;  the  languages  used  were  English,  Hindustani, 
Tamil,  Telugu  and  Bengali,  and  the  subjects  were  political, 
social  and  cultural. 

Czechoslovakia.  After  the  success  of  the  Czech  war  films 
in  1946-47,  the  unique  work  of  her  cartoon  and  in  particular 
her  puppet  films  attracted  international  attention.  The  chief 
technicians  of  the  puppet  films  were  Jifi  Trnka  and  Bo&voj 
Zeman;  some  of  the  latter's  recent  films  used  examples  of 
the  glass  figures  for  which  another  industry  in  Czechoslovakia 
is  famous.  Among  recent  feature  films  were  the  war  subjects 
The  Ghetto  Terezin  (Jifi  Weiss)  and  The  Silent  Barricade 
(Otakar  Vavra).  The  large  studios  of  Barrandov  near  Prague 
were  being  enlarged  so  that  the  objective  of  the  production 
of  over  50  feature  films  a  year  could  be  realized  by  1953, 
together  with  regional  productions  emanating  from  Slovakia. 

France.  French  producers  were  faced  with  similar  economic 
disadvantages  as  their  British  colleagues,  though  they  never 
allowed  their  costs  to  rise  to  a  level  equal  to  the  costs  of 
British  productions.  They  had,  therefore,  been  able  to 
continue  production  on  the  same  scale  as  in  1948,  that  is, 
at  a  level  about  two-thirds  that  of  the  prewar  output.  Artisti- 
cally speaking,  it  could  not  be  said  that  France  occupied  the 


position  she  did  before  World  War  II  as  the  leading  European 
centre  for  the  production  of  remarkable  films.  As  in  Great 
Britain,  there  was  no  longer  a  school  of  French  production 
like  the  work  of  the  contemporary  Italian  realists.  Each 
director  of  importance,  Marcel  Carne,  Jean  Cocteau,  H.  G. 
Clouzot,  Jacques  Becker,  Claude  Autant-Lara,  Julien 
Duvivier  or  Yves  Allegret  went  his  own  way;  perhaps  all 
they  had  in  common  to  a  certain  extent  was  a  taste  for  bitter- 
ness and  disillusion,  as  if  they  were  at  war  with  life  rather 
than  fulfilling  it  through  their  art.  Some  new  or  less  well 
known  directors  came  forward  during  the  year.  Jacques  Tati, 
in  a  simple  burlesque  called  Jour  dc  Fete  which  he  produced 
and  in  which  he  starred,  gained  the  distinction  of  being 
compared  with  Charles  Chaplin.  Yves  Allegret  made  a 
controversial  and  bitter  film,  Maneges,  in  which  a  man  is 
exploited  by  his  wife  and  mother-in-law  to  a  final  pitch  of 


A  scene  from  Vittorio  De  Sica's  "  Bicycle  Thieves,"  an  Italian  film 
widely  acclaimed  in  1949. 

inevitable  resentment.  Jean  Devaivre  made  a  technically 
interesting  mystery  film,  La  Ferme  des  Sept  Peches,  and 
Louis  Daquin  produced  a  socially  healthier  film  called 
Le  Point  du  Jour,  photographed  in  the  realistic  setting  of  the 
French  LieVin  mining  area.  The  most  controversial  film  of 
the  year  was  H.  G.  Clouzot's  Manon,  which,  in  spite  of 
winning  the  Grand  Prix  at  Venice,  met  with  considerable 
censorship  difficulties  in  several  countries  through  its  handling 
of  a  modernized  version  of  the  Abbe  Prevost's  story.  Other 
films  of  interest  included  Les  Parents  Terribles  (Cocteau), 
Rendez-vous  de  Juillet  (Becker)  and  Au  Royaume  des  Cieux 
(Duvivier). 

Germany.  In  1949,  Germany  was  reviving  its  film  pro- 
duction under  the  complex  and  varying  administrations 
imposed  by  the  different  occupying  powers.  The  cinemas 
were  well  attended  and  on  the  free  market  of  Western 
Germany  British  and  American  films  were  popular  with 
exhibitors  and  audiences.  The  best  facilities  for  film-making 
were  in  the  Russian  and  American  zones.  The  films  most 
popular  with  audiences  were  understandably  films  of  escape 
and  the  more  recent  examples  of  subjects  which  still  reflected 
a  wartime  or  postwar  consciousness  of  defeat  did  not 
draw  audiences.  Berliner  Ballade  (R.  A.  Stemmle  and 
Gunther  Neumann)  satirized  German  self-pity  to  some 
extent,  while  Liebe  '47  (Wolfgang  Liebeneiner)  stressed  it. 
Other  films  dealing  in  various  ways  with  social  themes  were 
Die  Buntkarierten  (Kurt  Maetzig),  Pit  "  Aurora  "  (W.  Schleif 


i  /  L 


CINEMA 


and  E.  Freund).  The  Blitm  Affair  (Erich  Engel)  and  The 
Call  (Josef  von  Baky). 

Italy.  For  how  long  Italy,  with  the  advantage  of  her 
comparatively  low  production  costs,  would  be  able  to  con- 
tinue to  give  directors  such  as  Roberto  Rossellini  O/.v.), 
Vittorio  de  Sica,  Alberto  Lattuada  and  Luigi  Zampa  freedom 
of  subject  and  style  was  debatable.  Italian  audiences,  like 
those  elsewhere,  preferred  romantic  films  to  those  realistic 
subjects  which  gave  Italy  a  world-wide  reputation  after 
World  War  II.  Many  of  these  now  well-known  films  were 
produced  at  a  cost  of  little  more  than  £20,000  to  £30,000; 
i.e.,  at  a  rate  less  than  one-sixth  what  their  production  cost 
would  have  been  in  Great  Britain  or  America.  There  was  no 
doubt  that  freedom  of  subject  and  treatment  as  exemplified 
by  the  Italian  cinema  was  closely  related  to  this  low  produc- 
tion cost;  were  this  condition  to  disappear  these  films  could 
probably  not  be  made.  In  the  same  way,  the  fine  films  on 
Italian  art  made  by  Luciano  Emmer  could  be  made  because 
the  overhead  expenses  involved  were  small. 

Vittorio  De  Sica's  simple  and  beautiful  film,  Bicycle 
Thieves,  the  story  of  a  day  in  the  life  of  an  unemployed  man 
and  his  son,  led  Italian  realist  production  for  1949.  Lattuada's 
Mill  on  the  Po ,  dealing  with  the  Italian  agrarian  labour  trouble 
of  the  19th  century,  was  also  important.  Roberto  Rossellini 
worked  during  the  year  on  two  films,  Terra  di  Dio  with 
Ingrid  Bergman  and  La  Macc/una  Ammazzacattivi,  a  satiric 
fantasy  set  in  Amalfi.  M.  Camerini's  Molti  Sogni  per  le  Strade, 
with  Anna  Magnani  (</.v.),  was  in  a  lighter  style  and  two 
good  melodramas  were  Giuseppe  de  Santis's  Bitter  Rice  and 
Pietro  Gerrm's  In  the  Name  of  the  Law. 

Poland.  Poland  had  been  building  up  her  film  industry 
since  1944.  By  1949  she  had  already  achieved  a  fine  school 
of  documentary  films  as  a  part  of  her  nationalized  industry, 
but  her  ability  to  make  important  feature  films  was  now  also 
established.  The  Last  Stage  was  a  completely  convincing 
reconstruction  of  life  in  the  women's  concentration  camp  of 
Auschwitz,  Poland,  directed  by  Wanda  Jakubowska ;  Robinson 
Warsaw  (Jerzy  Zarzycki)  dealt  with  the  lives  of  a  number  of 
Warsaw  citizens  during  the  destruction  of  the  city  by  the 
Germans;  while  Truth  Knows  no  Frontiers  showed  the 
martyrdom  of  the  Polish  Jews  in  the  Warsaw  ghetto. 

Scandinavia.  As  film-producing  countries,  Denmark  and 
Sweden  were  far  ahead  of  Norway,  which  had  only  the 
smallest  output  of  films  in  the  documentary  style.  Whereas 
Denmark  specialized  in  documentary  production  under  state 
subsidy  similar  to  that  of  Great  Britain,  Sweden  concentrated 
mainly  on  commercial  feature  films,  a  few  of  which  were 
shown  widely  in  other  countries.  The  new  directors  of 
importance  who  emerged  from  these  countries  were  Bjarne 
Henning-Jensen  of  Denmark  and  Arne  Sucksdorf  of  Sweden. 
The  former  was  noticeable  for  his  handling  of  children  and 
adolescents  in  his  sensitively  photographed  films;  the  latter 
was  an  experimentalist  in  subjects  involving  location  work 
and  carefully  contrived  rhythms. 

U.S.S.R.  Production  in  the  U.S.S.R.  had  still  not  fully 
recovered  from  World  War  II  and  the  number  of  feature- 
length  films  produced  remained  comparatively  small.  Among 
recent  films  of  merit  were,  Academician  Pavlov  (G.  Roshal), 
Lenin  (M.  Romm),  The  Battle  of  Stalingrad  (V.  Petrov), 
Young  Guard  (S.  Gherasimov)  and  The  Village  Teacher 
(M.  Donskoy).  Lenin  was  a  well-made  historical  compilation 
including  a  number  of  extracts  from  the  "  classical "  silent 
films  of  the  'twenties.  The  others  included  well  acted,  realistic 
reconstructions  of  the  life  and  work  of  famous  Soviet  scientists 
and  of  Joseph  Stalin's  conduct  of  the  defence  of  Stalingrad. 
Soviet  animated  films,  notably  The  Little  Hunchback  Horse 
and  A  Tale  about  a  Soldier,  were  shown  at  the  Edinburgh 
festival  with  great  success:  both  had  a  distinct  style  and 
sense  of  design. 


Yugoslavia.  Yugoslavia  was  determined  to  establish  an 
important  film-industry  representing  her  six  republics: 
Slovenia,  Serbia,  Croatia,  Bosnia  and  Hercegovina,  Mace- 
donia and  Montenegro.  Work  started  on  an  organized 
basis  in  1945  when  a  Federal  Film  commission  was  founded 
and  1947  saw  the  establishment  of  a  training  school  for 
film  technicians,  the  full  course  taking  three  years.  The 
three  branches  of  film-making,  newsreel,  documentary  and 
educational  films,  and  feature  films,  were  all  well  developed; 
by  the  end  of  1948,  200  newsreels,  120  documentaries  and  14 
feature  films  had  been  completed.  The  enthusiasm  of  these 
new  film-makers  overshadowed  their  early  technical  inade- 
quacy, and  more  recent  films  such  as  Sofka,  which  was  shown 
with  success  at  the  1949  Edinburgh  Film  festival,  indicated, 
in  spite  of  some  slowness,  a  fine  feeling  for  period  and 
regional  custom.  Most  Yugoslav  film  subjects,  however, 
were  still  concerned  with  World  War  II  as  it  affected  Yugo- 
slavia; and  the  documentary  film-makers  were  closely 
concerned  with  using  the  cinema  to  develop  educational 
work  among  the  more  illiterate  sections  of  the  country. 

(R   MAN.) 

United  States.  In  1949  the  outlook  of  the  U.S.  motion 
picture  industry  brightened  perceptibly  both  at  home  and 
abroad.  In  neither  instance  were  the  results  immediately 
convertible  into  cash  profits,  their  chief  value  lying  in  the 
industry's  psychological  reactions. 

One  factor  was  especially  responsible  for  the  improved 
outlook:  the  success  of  the  effort  to  decrease  production 
costs  without  sacrificing  the  quality  of  the  product. 

The  industry's  morale  may  be  said  to  have  reached  its 
lowest  point  in  Feb.  1949,  when  only  22  pictures  were  under 
production  in  Hollywood,  compared  with  a  normal  figure 
of  nearly  twice  that  number.  Then  a  reaction  set  in,  which 
was  reflected  both  in  the  statements  of  industry  leaders  and 
in  studio  announcements  of  future  productions.  In  terms  of 
employment,  the  swing  to  a  more  optimistic  viewpoint  may 
be  measured  by  the  number  of  employees  in  the  industry — 
12,000  in  February,  increasing  to  nearly  15,000  at  the  end 
of  1949. 

The  industry  had  settled  down  to  the  task  of  reducing 
production  expenditure.  Under  the  sponsorship  of  the  major 
studios,  the  Motion  Picture  Research  council  undertook 
continuous  laboratory  and  experimental  work.  One  develop- 
ment, a  strippable  adhesive  for  wallpaper  used  on  film  sets, 
resulted  in  a  yearly  saving  of  $40,000  per  studio.  Reduction 
in  production  costs  generally  was  estimated  at  20% 
to  25%. 

Box-office  returns  for  1949  were  estimated  at  $1,375  million. 
The  net  profit  estimate  for  seven  major  companies  was 
$55  million,  about  the  same  as  in  1948.  Studio  financial 
reports  generally  showed  profits,  though  not  always  equal 
to  those  of  1948. 

In  the  world  market  situation,  the  U.S.  industry  was  still 
beset  by  restrictive  regulations  and  dollar  shortage.  Predic- 
tions of  a  drastic  cut  in  returns  from  abroad  did  not  come 
true,  however,  and  the  1949  foreign  revenue  of  the  distributing 
companies  was  estimated  at  38  %  of  gross  film  rentals,  only 
a  slight  reduction  from  1948.  As  their  principal  method  of 
obtaining  value  from  frozen  funds,  U.S.  companies  greatly 
expanded  their  foreign  production  activities.  Italy,  in  particu- 
lar, became  a  focal  point  for  such  operations,  though  England 
continued  to  get  its  share  of  attention  from  U.S.  producers. 
Several  important  pictures,  such  as  Stromboli  and  Deported9 
were  filmed  in  Italy  during  the  year. 

The  devaluation  of  the  pound,  followed  by  similar  currency 
action  by  countries  in  the  British  economic  orbit,  decreased 
the  value  of  blocked  funds  of  U.S.  film  companies  and  of 
their  potential  future  earnings. 

At  the  end  of  1949  the  long  U.S.  government  anti-trust 


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173 


action  which  sought  to  divide  exhibition  from  producer- 
distributor  interests  had  not  reached  a  final  settlement. 
However,  Paramount  followed  RKO  in  arriving  at  a  consent 
decree  embracing  such  terms.  Warner  Bros.,  Loew's  (Metro- 
Goldwyn-Mayer)  and  20th  Century-Fox  continued  to  seek 
some  mitigation  of  the  demand  for  independent  ownership 
of  production-distribution  interests  and  the  exhibiting 
cinemas. 

Two  producing  companies  fell  by  the  wayside  during  the 
year.  Beset  by  financial  difficulties,  Eagle-Lion  Films 
suspended  production  indefinitely  at  its  Hollywood  studios 
after  about  four  years  of  operation.  The  company,  officials 
said,  would  continue  in  business  but  only  as  a  distributor  of 
films  made  by  foreign  or  independent  producers. 

At  about  the  same  time,  David  O.  Selznick,  one  of  the 
industry's  leaders  for  many  years  and  generally  regarded  as 
one  of  its  most  distinguished  producers,  closed  his  studio 
and  disbanded  his  producing  organization. 

Some  competition  was  felt  by  film  theatres  in  television 
centres,  but  not  enough  to  register  on  a  national  scale.  Film 
companies  conducted  experiments  with  large-screen  theatre 
television.  Late  in  1949  Columbia  announced  a  programme 
of  short  subjects  for  television. 

The  outstanding  development  in  production  trend  in  1949 
was  concern  with  racial  questions,  following  previous 
emphasis  upon  anti-Semitism.  The  situation  of  the  Negro 
in  the  U.S.  was  dealt  with  in  such  films  as  Pinky,  Intruder  in 
the  Dust,  Lost  Boundaries  and  The  Home  of  the  Brave. 

A  number  of  the  year's  pictures  dealt  with  the  war — Battle- 
ground, Twelve  O'Clock  High,  The  Hasty  Heart,  Task  Force 
and  Sands  of  Iwo  Jima.  Even  the  two  highly  successful 
comedies,  /  Was  a  Male  War  Bride  and  Francis,  had  war 
backgrounds. 

Other  outstanding  productions  were  Jolson  Sings  Again, 
The  Heiress,  All  the  King's  Men,  Champion,  They  Live  by 
Night,  Samson  and  Delilah  and  The  Stratton  Story.  Some  of 
the  outstanding  musical  productions  were  The  Barkleys  of 
Broadway,  Dancing  in  the  Dark  and  On  the  Town. 

New  faces  which  attracted  the  most  attention  on  the 
screen  in  1949  were  Kirk  Douglas  in  Champion  (which  also 
introduced  a  new  independent  producer,  Stanley  Kramer), 
John  Derek,  Mercedes  McCambridge,  Keefe  Brasselle  and 
Richard  Todd.  Broderick  Crawford,  while  not  a  newcomer, 
was  acclaimed  for  his  work  in  All  the  King's  Men. 

The  New  York  film  critics  made  the  following  selections 
for  1949:  best  picture  of  the  year,  All  the  King's  Men;  best 
foreign-language  picture,  The  Bicycle  Thieves  (Italian);  best 
actress,  Olivia  de  Havilland;  best  actor,  Broderick  Crawford; 
best  director,  Carol  Reed,  for  The  Fallen  Idol  (British). 

Leading  box-office  stars  of  1949,  according  to  the  annual 
poll  of  Motion  Picture  Herald,  were  Bob  Hope,  Bing  Crosby 
(who  had  been  first  in  the  five  preceding  polls),  Bud  Abbott 
and  Lew  Costello,  John  Wayne,  Gary  Cooper,  Cary  Grant, 
Betty  Grable,  Esther  Williams,  Humphrey  Bogart  and 
Clark  Gable.  (L.  O.  P.) 

Technical  Developments.  Colour.  Several  new  colour  films 
were  introduced  in  1949.  The  Ansco  process  was  further 
developed  and  received  additional  commercial  use.  A  complete 
line  of  film  types  was  now  available  for  all  the  necessary  steps 
from  the  original  taking  film  up  till  the  4t  duping  "  and  special 
effects  steps  to  release  prints. 

Du  Pont  introduced  a  positive  film  for  making  three-colour 
prints  from  separation  negatives.  This  film  was  notable  for 
employing  a  synthetic  polymer  which  combined  the  functions 
of  the  gelatine  and  the  colour  former  usually  employed. 

Eastman  introduced,  on  an  experimental  basis,  a  three- 
colour  negative  and  positive  film  of  the  single  film,  triple 
emulsion  type.  Tests  on  these  films  were  in  progress  in  Holly- 
wood at  the  close  of  the  year.  Both  Eastman  and  du  Pont 


Jeanne  Crain  (right)  in  the  part  of  the  negro  girl  who  passed  as  white 
in  the  Twentieth  Century-Fox  production  **  Pinky.'" 

continued  experimenting  with  a  negative  film  involving  the 
use  of  three  emulsions,  two  of  which  were  subsequently 
stripped  from  the  original  base  and  mounted  on  new  film 
bases  in  the  laboratory  before  development. 

Polacolor  corporation  introduced  and  employed  commer- 
cially for  a  limited  number  of  three-colour  cartoons  a 
process  using  a  standard  single  emulsion  black-and-white 
positive  film.  It  had  to  be  printed  in  successive  printing  and 
developing  processes  from  three-colour  separation  negatives, 
and  resulted  in  a  three-colour  subtractive  print. 

Photography.  Latensification,  a  system  for  increasing 
effective  film  speed  involving  a  low  intensity  and  a  relatively 
long  general  exposure  of  the  film  immediately  before  develop- 
ment, was  used  considerably  in  1 949  as  a  means  of  reducing 
the  cost  of  producing  motion  pictures. 

A  new  portable  camera,  the  Camerette,  manufactured  by 
Etablissements  Cinematographiques  Eclair  of  France,  was 
introduced  in  Great  Britain  and  Europe  in  1948  and  in  the 
United  States  during  1949.  This  camera  had  some  excellent 
operating  features  and  was  well  received  in  Hollywood. 

Sound.  Magnetic  recording  was  gradually  being  integrated 
into  the  production  of  motion  pictures  in  Great  Britain, 
Europe  and  the  U.S.  Its  freedom  from  photographic  printing 
and  developing  distortions,  the  possibility  for  somewhat 
smaller  and  lighter  recording  equipment  and  operating 
economies  were  factors  stimulating  its  use. 

A  new  miniature,  non-directional  condenser  microphone 
and  associated  amplifier  was  introduced  in  Hollywood  by 
the  Altec  Lansing  corporation. 

Safety  Film.  In  the  United  States  the  low  shrinkage  safety 
base  film  of  the  tri-acetate  type,  introduced  by  Eastman 
Kodak,  was  received  with  considerable  favour.  It  was 
currently  used  for  release  prints  and  studio  work  prints. 
There  was  some  application  as  a  sound  recording  negative 
and  experiments  were  in  progress  to  determine  its  adaptability 
to  picture  negative  films.  The  Eastman  Kodak  company 
was  said  to  be  planning  to  discontinue  the  manufacture  of 
all  nitrate  based  films  in  favour  of  this  new  base. 

Set  Construction.  There  was  considerable  activity  in  the 
application  of  new  plastic  materials  to  various  phases  of  set 
construction.  These  included  breakaway  glass,  combinations 
of  plaster  and  plastic,  low-temperature  thermosetting  plastics 
for  casting  in  ornamental  objects  of  various  types,  lightweight 
tree  trunks,  building  columns  and  many  other  similar  applica- 
tions. Strippable  adhesive  was  used  with  wallpaper  and 
temporary  flooring  such  as  linoleum  or  asphalt  tile.  In  both 


174 


CIVIL  LIST  PENSIONS— CIVIL  SERVICE 


applications,  this  adhesive  afforded  the  easy  removal  of  the 
surface  material. 

A  new  photographic  backing  was  introduced  and  was 
available  in  fairly  large  sizes,  either  black-and-white  or  in 
full  colour.  Its  translucence  permitted  novel  and  realistic 
effects  to  be  obtained  by  lighting  from  the  back. 

Theatre  Television.  Two  systems  of  theatre  television  were 
being  developed  and  were  in  limited  commercial  use — the 
instantaneous  projection  system  and  the  film  storage  system. 
In  the  former,  the  television  picture  was  projected  from  a 
special  television  receiving  equipment  directly  on  the  motion 
picture  screen.  Installations  of  this  type  were  made  in 
theatres  in  Boston,  New  York  and. Philadelphia. 

In  the  film  storage  system,  the  television  picture  was 
photographed  on  35-mm.  film  from  a  special  television 
receiving  equipment  located  in  the  theatre.  The  film  was 
processed  on  a  high  speed  basis  and  could  be  projected 
through  the  standard  theatre  projection  equipment  a  few 
minutes  after  the  reception  of  the  television  picture.  Installa- 
tions of  this  type  were  made  in  New  York  city  and  Chicago, 
Illinois. 

The  U.S.  Federal  Communications  commission  conducted 
hearings  on  theatre  television  at  which  the  Society  of  Motion 
Picture  Engineers  and  two  theatre  chains  were  requested  to 
present  briefs.  One  of  the  chains  presented  a  detailed  plan 
for  a  network  of  approximately  25  theatres  located  in  nine 
different  cities.  The  proposal  contemplated  a  special  television 
network  distributing  special  programmes  staged  for  the 
purpose,  public  events  of  common  interest  and  selected 
programmes  also  being  televised  for  home  reception. 

(W.  V.  W.) 

CIVIL  LIST  PENSIONS.  Under  the  Civil  List 
act,  1937,  the  amount  allowed  to  be  granted  in  any  one  year 
was  raised  from  £1,250  to  £2,500,  of  which  £1,600  was 
expended  in  the  year  to  March  1949  on  new  pensions  and 
£900  on  increases  to  existing  pensions. 

New  pensions  were  granted  to:  Mrs.  Ruby  Austen  in 
recognition  of  the  services  rendered  by  her  husband,  the  late 
John  Austen,  to  art  and  literature  (£200);  Mrs.  Ada  Chester- 
ton for  services  rendered  by  herself  and  her  husband,  the 
late  Cecil  Edward  Chesterton,  to  literature  (£250);  Mrs. 
Constance  Hassall  for  services  rendered  by  her  husband,  the 
late  John  Hassall,  to  poster  art  (£100);  Thomas  Rowland 
Hughes  for  his  services  to  literature  (£200);  Miss  Marion 
McDonald  for  services  rendered  by  her  father,  the  late 
Rev.  Dr.  Archibald  McDonald,  to  the  history  and  literature 
of  the  Scottish  Highlands  (£150);  Miss  Nancy  Price  for  her 
services  to  drama  (£150);  Mrs.  Lilias  Helen  Morley  for 
services  rendered  by  her  husband,  the  late  Harry  Morley, 
to  art  (£100);  Miss  Cicely  Fox  Smith,  for  her  services  to 
literature  (£150);  Mrs.  Agnes  Louise  Stenhouse  for  services 
rendered  by  her  husband,  the  late  Ernest  Stenhouse,  to 
scientific  research  (£150);  and  Miss  Ruby  Wyld  for  services 
rendered  by  her  father,  the  late  Professor  H.  C.  K.  Wyld, 
to  scholarship  (£150). 

CIVIL  SERVICE.  The  twelve  months  to  Oct.  1949 
saw  no  important  change  in  the  main  organization  of  the 
civil  service  in  Great  Britain.  During  the  latter  part  of 
1948  the  development  of  the  social  insurance  schemes  resulted 
in  further  additions  being  made  to  the  staff  of  the  Ministry 
of  National  Insurance.  At  the  same  time  responsibility  for 
domiciliary  assistance  was  transferred  from  local  authorities 
to  the  National  Assistance  board  which  took  over  some  1,700 
staff  with  the  work.  These  measures  were,  however,  more  than 
counterbalanced  by  reductions  over  a  large  part  of  the  civil 
service.  The  major  contributions  came  from  the  trade  and 
industrial  departments  which  were  able  to  make  relaxations 


on  controls  and  rationing.  The  Ministry  of  Labour  was  also 
able  to  reduce  its  numbers  consequent  upon  a  diminution 
in  the  work  of  resettling  demobilized  ex-service  men.  The 
net  result  of  these  changes  was  that  the  number  of  non-indus- 
trial staff  employed  in  the  civil  service  fell  from  715,000  in 
July  1948  to  697,000  in  Oct.  1949. 

Recruitment.  The  Reconstruction  competitions,  designed 
to  restore  opportunities  lost  on  account  of  World  War  II, 
came  to  an  end  and  normal  competitions,  suitably  modified 
to  fit  postwar  conditions,  were  fully  resumed.  Besides  the 
normal  competitions  to  the  administrative  class  by  the  two 
methods  used  in  1948,  about  50  direct  entrants  were  recruited 
to  the  Principal  grade  by  means  of  a  special  open  competition. 

Recruitment  to  the  executive  and  clerical  classes  from 
among  those  leaving  school  improved;  and  the  first  com- 
petition was  held  for  university  graduates  to  enter  the  execu- 
tive class.  The  executive  class  competition  for  young  men 
who  had  just  completed  their  compulsory  national  service 
and  the  executive  and  clerical  classes  competitions  for  men  and 
women  who  had  served  on  regular  engagements  in  the  forces 
were  also  continued. 

Establishment  of  Temporary  Staff.  Further  progress  was 
made  with  the  process  of  establishing  posts  previously 
regarded  as  temporary.  Under  these  arrangements  750  tempo- 
rary executive  staff  became  established  and  departments 
carried  out  the  first  part,  covering  15,000  posts,  of  a  scheme 
intended  eventually  to  establish  34,000  temporary  clerical 
posts. 

Questions  of  Organization.  Treasury  Control  of  Civil 
Service  Establishments.  During  1949  the  functions  of  the 
Treasury  in  relation  to  the  control  of  numbers  and  grading 
in  the  civil  service  were  re-defined.  It  was  recognized  that  such 
control  could  be  carried  out  with  full  efficiency  only  by  the 
principal  establishment  and  organization  officers  of  each 
department  (whose  appointment  and  removal  were  subject 
to  the  approval  of  the  prime  minister)  acting  on  behalf  of 
the  permanent  secretary  and  accounting  officer  of  that 
department.  The  responsibility  and  powers  of  such  officers 
were  accordingly  increased  and  widened,  notably  by  the 
delegation  of  greater  powers  to  vary  complements  within 
maxima  agreed  with  the  Treasury  at  half-yearly  intervals. 

As  a  corollary  the  Treasury  would  now  direct  its  attention 
primarily  to  the  central  control  and  scrutiny  of  the  exercise 
by  departments  of  their  responsibilities  in  regard  to  numbers 
of  staff  and  grading.  The  Treasury  aim  was  to  carry  out  once 
a  year  a  comprehensive  review  of  the  numbers  employed  in 
each  department.  To  this  end  Treasury  officers,  including 
specially  selected  staff  inspectors,  would  make  frequent 
visits  to  the  departments,  paying  particular  attention  to  the 
arrangements  in  force  for  control  of  complements  and  for 
staff  inspection. 

Organization  and  Methods.  Increasing  use  was  made  of 
staffs  engaged  whole  time  in  the  investigation  of  problems  of 
organization  and  methods.  The  18  largest  departments 
continued  to  employ  such  staffs  directly  and  the  rest  drew  on 
a  common  pool  in  the  Treasury.  By  the  end  of  1949  most 
departments  had  embarked  on  a  planned  review,  that  is  the 
systematic  overhaul  of  the  department  as  a  whole.  The 
reviews  were  being  undertaken  in  various  ways.  In  some 
departments  they  were  entrusted  wholly  to  the  organization 
and  methods  staffs;  in  others  the  direction  of  the  review 
was  in  the  hands  of  a  committee  which  might  include  senior 
officials  from  other  departments  and  personnel  from  outside 
the  civil  service  with  special  experience  in  questions  of 
organization. 

Training.  Much  had  been  done  since  World  War  II  to  im- 
prove the  arrangements  for  training  staff.  Training  officers 
had  been  appointed  in  all  departments  and  training  was 
carried  out  both  on  the  job  and  at  organized  courses  which 


CLASSICAL  STUDIES— CLOTHING  INDUSTRY 


175 


included  reception  courses  for  new  entrants  and  courses  in 
the  principles  of  staff  management  for  those  in  charge  of 
groups  of  staff.  The  Treasury  exercised  general  control, 
gave  guidance  to  departments  on  training  and  held  central 
courses  for  certain  kinds  of  staff. 

Senior  staff  were  selected  for  attendance  at  the  Imperial 
Defence  college  and  the  Administrative  Staff  college  and  for 
paid  leave  of  absence  to  study  and  travel.  Programmes  of 
study  were  also  arranged  for  foreign  officials  visiting  the 
United  Kingdom. 

Professional  and  Technical  Classes.  Considerable  progress 
was  made  in  carrying  out  in  detail  the  broad  plans  of  re- 
organization made  during  the  years  immediately  after  World 
War  II,  but  the  task  was  by  no  means  finished;  the  scarcity 
of  qualified  people  made  recruitment  difficult  and  delayed 
the  work  of  reorganization.  Two  new  classes  were  formally 
instituted:  one,  of  psychologists,  employed  to  classify  the 
abilities  of  recruits  to  the  civil  service,  of  members  of  H.M. 
forces  and,  by  the  Prison  commission,  of  certain  convicted 
persons;  the  other,  of  information  officers,  whether  employed 
as  public  relations  officers  and  in  the  press  offices  of  depart- 
ments, or  in  the  technical  and  creative  divisions  of  the 
Central  Office  of  Information. 

Miscellaneous.  Superannuation.  The  Superannuation  act, 
1949,  made  some  important  changes.  The  civil  service 
secured  a  pension  scheme  for  widows  and  orphans  and 
certain  dependants.  The  act  provided  for  the  widow  or  adult 
dependant  to  receive  a  pension  of  one-third  of  the  civil 
servant's  pension  should  he  die  after  retirement  or  one-third 
of  his  accrued  pension  should  he  die  in  service;  this  pension 
being  augmented  by  one-quarter  for  each  orphaned  child 
up  to  four.  If  there  was  no  eligible  widow  or  adult  dependant, 
a  proportion  of  the  sum  which  would  have  been  payable  to 
the  widow  was  paid  to  any  orphan  or  dependent  child,  the 
proportion  ranging  from  one-half  for  one  child  to  the  whole 
pension  for  three  or  more.  The  pension  scheme  for  widows 
and  dependants  was  contributory,  the  civil  servant's  contri- 
bution being  estimated  to  pay  approximately  half  the  cost  of 
the  benefits.  The  widows*  scheme  was  optional  for  existing 
civil  servants  but  compulsory  for  future  civil  servants;  the 
dependants'  scheme  was  optional  for  both  existing  and  future 
civil  servants. 

The  act  also  enabled  civil  servants  to  retire  after  the  age  of 
50  with  a  right  to  draw  deferred  pension  on  reaching  the 
normal  retiring  age  of  60;  and  to  earn  additional  pension 
should  they  continue  to  serve  after  reaching  the  age  of  60. 

The  Chorley  Report.  The  government  accepted  the  recom- 
mendation of  the  Committee  on  Higher  Civil  Service  Re- 
muneration (Cmd.  7655,  H.M.S.O.,  London).  The  com- 
mittee recommended  substantial  increases  in  the  salaries 
attaching  to  the  senior  posts  in  the  service — an  increase, 
for  instance,  of  £1,000  on  the  salary  of  £3,500  then  paid  to 
the  permanent  heads  of  major  departments.  They  based  their 
findings  on  the  long-standing  under-paymcnt  of  senior  civil 
servants  which  in  their  view  had  existed  since  the  early  1920s 
and  had  been  accentuated  since  World  War  II  by  the  salaries 
paid  in  the  new  nationalized  industries.  The  actual  intro- 
duction of  the  new  salaries,  originally  due  to  begin  in  Oct. 
1949,  was  deferred  owing  to  the  worsening  of  the  economic 
situation  and  the  need  for  stabilizing  wages  and  salaries 
generally. 

The  Masterman  Report.  The  year  1949  also  saw  the  publi- 
cation of  the  report  of  the  Masterman  committee  on  the 
Political  Activities  of  Civil  Servants  (Cmd.  7718,  H.M.S.O., 
London).  The  fundamental  problem  before  this  committee 
was  to  reconcile  the  claims  of  civil  servants  to  the  right  to 
participate  in  politics  and  to  exercise  in  as  full  a  manner  as 
possible  the  rights  and  duties  of  citizenship  with  the  desir- 
ability of  maintaining  the  traditional  political  impartiality 


of  the  civil  service.  The  broad  effect  of  the  committee's 
recommendation  was  to  grant  complete  political  freedom 
for  the  first  time  to  some  450,000  members  of  the  industrial 
classes  and  of  the  minor  and  manipulative  grades  (mainly 
in  the  post  office)  while  leaving  some  450,000  members  of 
the  office  grades  from  typists  to  senior  administratives 
subject  to  the  existing  limitations.  The  government  accepted 
the  report  but  for  the  time  being  it  was  only  being  put  into 
effect  to  the  extent  to  which  its  recommendations  conferred 
freedom  from  restrictions  on  the  industrial  classes  and  minor 
and  manipulative  grades.  (E.  E.  Bs.) 

CLASSICAL  STUDIES.  It  was  still  too  soon  to 
estimate  the  effect  on  classical  studies  in  Great  Britain  of  the 
new  regulations  for  school  and  matriculation  examinations; 
but  the  position  of  Latin  seemed  to  be  fairly  secure,  especially 
in  view  of  the  requirements  in  Latin  still  demanded  by  Oxford, 
Cambridge  and  some  other  universities.  An  inquiry  made  by 
the  Classical  association  also  showed  that  there  was  a  small 
increase  in  the  number  of  pupils  taking  Greek  at  the  school 
certificate  examinations.  The  Classical  association  held  an 
unusually  successful  meeting  at  Manchester,  extending  over 
five  days,  at  which  the  presidential  address  was  delivered  by 
Lord  Soulbury  on  "  Classics  and  Politics."  The  23  local 
branches  of  the  association  continued  to  organize  lectures 
in  their  areas,  sometimes  at  schools  for  young  audiences, 
and  11  branches  held  inter-school  prize  competitions  in  the 
reading  of  Latin  aloud.  The  Society  for  the  Promotion  of 
Hellenic  Studies  followed  the  lead  of  the  Classical  association 
and  the  Roman  society  in  arranging  provincial  meetings. 

These  societies  were  all  represented  at  the  first  annual 
meeting  in  Paris  of  the  Bureau  of  the  International  Federation 
of  Classical  societies  Important  decisions  were  taken, 
including  arrangements  for  the  first  general  congress  of  the 
federation  to  be  held  in  Pans  in  Aug -Sept.  1950  and  the 
allocation  of  the  U.N.E.S.C  O.  grant  of  $5,000  to  assist  the 
publication  of  further  instalments  of  the  Thesaurus  Lingute 
Latino?  (Munich),  Oxyrhvnchus  Papyri  (Part  19,  London, 
1948),  the  Bude  Corpus  Uermeticum  (Pans),  and  archaeo- 
logical work  by  Professor  G.  Lugli. 

The  Year's  Work  in  Classical  Studies  (Bristol),  which  had 
been  published  annually  until  its  interruption  in  1939,  ap- 
peared again  during  1949  as  a  large  volume  giving  summaries 
of  research  work  in  various  classical  fields  published  during 
the  period  1940  to  June  30,  1945.  The  succeeding  volume, 
to  cover  the  period  July  1,  1945  to  1948  was  sent  to  the 
press  and  would  appear  early  in  1950.  In  view  of  altered 
circumstances,  it  was  decided  that  with  this,  the  34th  issue 
in  the  series,  the  publication  of  The  Year*s  Work  would  be 
discontinued. 

Among  important  books  of  1949  were:  from  the  Clarendon 
Press,  The  Oxford  Classical  Dictionary^  Some  Oxford  Com- 
positions,  R.  Pfeiffer's  Callimachus,  M.  Cary's  The  Geo- 
graphical Background  of  Greek  and  Roman  History  and 
Sir  T.  Heath's  Mathematics  in  Aristotle ,  from  the  Cambridge 
University  Press,  J.  O.  Thomson's  History  of  Ancient  Geog- 
raphy and  J.  E.  Raven's  Pythagoreans  and  Eleatics;  and  from 
Macmillan,  London,  R.  E.  Wycherley's  How  the  Greeks 
built  Cities.  E.  V.  Rieu  added  a  new  translation  of  Virgil's 
Eclogues  to  his  Odyssey  in  the  popular  "  Penguin  "  books 
(London),  while  B.  Farrington  produced  his  second 
"  Pelican "  (London)  volume  on  Greek  Science  (Theo- 
phrastus  to  Galen).  (L.  J.  D.  R.) 

CLOTHING  INDUSTRY.  A  draft  order  providing 
for  the  setting  up  of  a  development  council  for  the  clothing 
industry  was  approved  in  the  House  of  Commons  on  Nov.  1 , 
1949,  by  196  votes  to  77.  This  was  the  outstanding  event  of 
the  year  for  an  industry  which  had  never  previously  had  a 


176 


COAL 


central  body  but  had  expressed  itself  through  some  25 
different  trade  associations.  Organized  employers  were 
strongly  opposed  to  the  creation  of  a  council  and  claimed  that 
the  support  for  it,  as  required  by  the  order,  did  not  exist. 
To  this  the  president  of  the  Board  of  Trade  replied  that  the 
council  was  supported  by  the  organized  workers,  by  1,000  of 
the  industry's  6,000  organized  firms  and  by  prominent 
individual  manufacturers.  He  pointed  out  that  three  Working 
parties,  after  examining  the  heavy,  light  and  proofed  clothing 
sections  of  the  industry,  had  recommended  a  central  body, 
two  of  them  suggesting  a  development  council.  The  council 
was  to  consist  of  18  members,  six  representing  the  employers, 
one  representing  managers  or  technicians,  six  representing 
other  employees,  one  having  special  knowledge  of  distribution 
and  four  independent  members.  The  draft  order  also  pro- 
vided for  the  setting  up  by  the  council  of  three  committees 
to  advise  on  the  heavy,  light  and  proofed  clothing  sections 
and  other  committees  to  deal  with  special  problems. 

Clothes  rationing  came  to  an  end  in  1949.  Measures  to 
control  the  allocation  of  textiles  remained,  to  ensure  that 
supplies  of  clothing  to  the  home  market  were  not  increased 
at  the  expense  of  exports.  The  "  utility "  scheme  was 
continued  and,  in  some  sections,  extended. 

In  July,  as  part  of  the  government's  plan  to  force  down  the 
cost  of  living,  a  5  %  cut  in  the  retail  price  of  "  utility  "  clothing 
was  announced.  All  sections  of  the  trade,  including  the 
manufacturers,  joined  in  protesting  against  the  cut  but  it  was 
retained.  The  least  part  of  the  burden  was  allotted  to  the 
manufacturers,  in  anticipation  of  devaluation  and  the 
consequent  rise  in  the  cost  of  raw  materials  to  the  clothing 
industry. 

Efforts  to  expand  exports  of  British-made  clothing  went 
forward  during  the  year,  in  spite  of  a  falling  demand  for  some 
kinds.  On  March  2  a  United  Kingdom  Clothing  Trade 
mission  sailed  for  Canada  to  survey  the  market  for  all  types 
of  men's,  women's  and  children's  outerwear.  Among  its 
recommendations  was  one  that  the  industry  should  consider 
the  possibility  of  group  representation  and/or  the  setting  up 
of  a  central  marketing  organization.  It  was  also  urged  that 
greater  use  should  be  made  of  air  transport,  especially  for 
fashions,  and  that  greater  freedom  should  be  given  to  manu- 
facturers to  import  the  latest  types  of  machinery.  Towards  the 
end  of  the  year  these  ideas  were  still  being  considered,  in 
consultation  with  the  Board  of  Trade. 

In  general,  the  export  trade  in  clothing  was  adversely 
affected  by  the  growth  of  home  industries  in  foreign  countries, 
notably  in  Canada.  Import  restrictions  also  operated 
against  Great  Britain's  industry.  In  March  South  Africa 
imposed  a  complete  ban  on  most  types  of  imported  clothing. 

The  export  target  set  at  the  end  of  1949  for  all  clothing, 
including  knitted  wear,  was  a  monthly  average  of  £3  70 
million.  In  the  first  quarter  of  the  year  the  average  was  £2  •  70 
million;  in  the  second,  £2-19;  and  in  the  third,  £2-39. 

Exports  represented  only  a  small  part  of  the  industry's 
total  output.  Their  trend  is  indicated  in  the  table. 

TABLE  —  VALUE  OF  CLOTHING  EXPORTS,  GREAT  BRITAIN 

Jan  -June 

1947 

Men's  and  boys'  clothing  .  £2,766,043 
Women's  and  girls'  clothing  .  £1,954,205 
Rainwear  .  .  .  £1.795,028 

At  home  the  industry  continued  its  unsuccessful  efforts  to 
get  purchase  tax  reduced  or  abolished.  A  rebate  scheme, 
enabling  retailers  to  recover,  in  the  event  of  a  reduction, 
tax  already  paid  was  worked  out  and  sent  to  the  chancellor 
of  the  exchequer.  In  the  labour  field,  the  industry  granted, 
as  from  May  1,  a  fortnight's  holiday  with  pay.  At  the  same 
time  it  was  agreed  that  wages  should  remain  stabilized  until 
March  1,  1950.  (C.  F.  DN.) 


Jan  -June  Jan  -June 

1948  1949 

£2,161,535  £1,885,560 

£1,141,025  £1,693,081 

£811,988  £1,085,499 


United  States.  Clothing  stocks  fell  in  retail  establishments 
as  continued  high  prices  made  large  reserves  unduly  specu- 
lative. Based  on  dollar  volume,  sales  were  about  the  same 
as  in  1948,  while  unit  sales  were  down.  All  piece  goods' 
prices  fell  slightly. 

An  important  factor  was  the  increasing  importance  of 
synthetics  in  men's-wear.  Rayon  suitings  increased  in 
usage  because  of  their  lower  price.  Technical  difficulties  in 
cutting,  sewing  and  pressing  were  almost  entirely  resolved 
by  the  end  of  the  year.  Blends  of  nylon  and  wool  became  of 
increasing  importance. 

The  woollen  industry  was  alive  to  the  competition  of 
synthetic  materials;  despite  a  universal  lack  of  wool 
approaching  a  shortage,  the  Wool  bureau  was  formed  to 
publicize  the  benefits  of  woollen  fabrics  for  apparel.  The 
woollen  and  cotton  industries  seemed  to  be  pulling  together 
to  meet  a  common  threat.  (S.  L.  S.) 

COAL.  During  its  first  year  of  operation  the  National 
Coal  board  accounts  showed  a  deficiency  of  £23,255,586  but 
during  1948  this  was  improved  to  a  surplus  of  £1,651,965. 
The  figures  for  1949  were  expected  to  show  an  increased 
surplus  when  they  became  available. 

The  forecasts  made  for  coal  production  in  1949  were  202 
million  to  207  million  tons  of  deep  mined  coal  and  13  million 
tons  of  opencast  coal.  Actual  production  reached  215,11 3,800 
tons,  made  up  of  202,674,100  tons  of  deep  mined  and 
12,439,700  tons  of  opencast  coal.  This  compared  with 
production  in  1948  of  208-4  million  tons,  made  up  of  196-7 
million  tons  deep  mined  and  11-7  million  tons  opencast. 
Exports  averaged  14  million  tons  a  week  in  1949  compared 
with  10-7  million  tons  a  week  in  1948. 

Early  in  1949  a  special  committee  under  the  chairmanship 
of  Sir  Eric  Young,  the  production  member  of  the  board, 
was  formed  to  tour  the  coalfields  and  suggest  ways  of  raising 
TABLE  I. — LABOUR  PRODUCTIVITY  IN  COAL  MINES  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


1948 
294,100 
725,100 

4  93 


1949 
293,700 
708600 

4  79 


\14  13 

4  83 
6  64 


3  00 
1  15 


6  61 

7  50 

5  01 

6  61 

3  11 
1  21 


Face  workers,  end  of  year    . 

All  workers,  end  of  year 

Shifts  worked  (average  per  week)  . 

Absenteeism' 

Face  (voluntary)  .... 

„     (mvolutary) 
All  workers  (voluntary) 
„        „        (involuntary)     . 
Output 

Output  man/shift/tons  at  the  face 
Overall  output    . 

production  and  lowering  costs.  This  committee  published 
no  report  but  it  was  interesting  to  note  that  the  output  of 
deep-mined  coal  increased  by  3%  over  1948  figures  in  spite 
of  a  drop  of  1 6,000  men  employed  in  or  about  the  mines. 

Before  nationalization  a  mine  which  showed  repeated 
losses  over  a  period  was  closed  regardless  of  social  obligations 
and  the  loss  of  capital.  Under  nationalization  the  problem 
acquired  a  new  aspect.  The  unprofitable  mines  must  be 
closed  but  equally  the  mining  personnel  must  be  preserved. 
To  achieve  this  object  a  plan  was  being  operated  successfully 
in  Scotland  where  some  8,000  to  9,000  miners  with  their 
families  were  being  transferred  from  the  nearly  exhausted 
coalfields  of  central  Lanarkshire  to  the  richer  coalfields  of 
Ayrshire  and  the  Forth  basin.  The  completion  of  the  whole 
scheme  would  take  15  to  20  years  but  already  1,200  miners 
from  eight  abandoned  collieries  in  Lanarkshire  were  working 
in  the  more  profitable  areas  of  Fife,  Stirling  and  the  Lothians 
of  Scotland.  To  encourage  migration  the  National  Coal 
board  guaranteed  a  house  to  every  married  man  who  was 
transferred  and  paid  the  fares  and  household  removal 
expenses  for  him  and  his  dependents. 

When  coal  mines  were  nationalized  £1,642  million  was 
allocated  for  division  among  21  coal  mining  districts  as 


COAL 


P77 


compensation  for  loss  of  prop- 
erty. The  district  allocations 
from  this  total  were  announced 
during  the  year  and  steps 
were  taken  to  divide  these 
sums  between  the  various  col- 
liery companies  in  each  dis- 
trict. Considerable  difficulty 
was  likely  to  arise  in  view  of  the 
fact  that  the  owners'  total 
claims  were  said  to  amount  to 
50%  more  than  the  sum 
allocated. 

Prices.  In  July  1948  the  Na- 
tional Coal  board  adjusted  the 
price  of  a  number  of  coals  in  an 
endeavour  to  remove  some  The  official  crest  of  the 

of  the  more  glaring  anomalies  created  by  the  flat-rate  increases 
imposed  during  and  after  World  War  II.  These  adjustments 
did  no  more  than  reduce  the  price  of  some  of  the  poorer 
qualities  with  compensating  increases  in  the  prices  of  some 
of  the  better  qualities.  Further  adjustments  of  a  similar 
nature  were  made  during  1949  as  part  of  a  long  term  national 
price  structure  scheme  in  which  the  quality  of  the  different 
coals  would  be  as  far  as  possible  reflected  in  their  relative 
prices.  It  was  not  intended  that  the  price  revision  should 
increase  the  board's  revenue  and  increases  in  price  would, 
as  near  as  possible,  be  balanced  by  decreases.  Generally  the 
changes  in  the  prices  of  coal  for  different  categories  of 
consumers  were  not  substantial.  There  were,  however,  large 
variations,  up  and  down,  in  the  price  of  individual  coal, 
increases  on  the  one  hand  ranging  from  a  few  pence  to  1 3s.  a 
ton  and  decreases  from  a  few  pence  to  155.  a  ton. 

Mechanization.  During  the  year  mechanization  made 
further  strides  and  the  bulk  of  the  deep-mined  coal  was  now 
undercut  by  machines  and  transported  part  of  its  journey 
to  the  pit-head  by  conveyors. 

During  the  year  great  progress  was  made  in  internal 
re-organization  of  the  industry.  Neighbouring  pits  were 
closed  and  the  workmen  concentrated  at  the  more  economic 
units  without  involving  a  mass  migration  of  workers.  New 


haulage  roads  were  driven  or 
existing  ones  improved  so  that 
locomotives  could  be  substi- 
tuted for  rope  haulages.  Col- 
liery boundaries  were  re-adjus- 
ted and  many  local  re-organiza- 
tions effected.  In  addition  a 
number  of  new  collieries  were 
planned  and  a  start  was  made 
on  some  of  the  projects. 
Twenty-two  major  schemes 
covering  various  parts  of  the 
country  and  involving  a  capital 
expenditure  of  more  than 
£29  million  were  initiated. 
They  covered  projects  involving 
National  Coal  Board.  concrete-lined  shafts  24  ft.  in 

diameter  sunk  to  a  depth  of  1,000  yd.;  complete  re-organi- 
zation of  underground  haulage  by  driving  stone  drifts  over 
1,000  yd.  in  length;  the  introduction  of  skip  winding;  the 
use  of  underground  conveyors  1,300  yd.  in  length;  the  use 
of  large  size  underground  trams  in  conjunction  with  skip 
winding;  and  coal  preparation  plants  capable  of  cleaning 
3,000  tons  of  coal  a  day. 

Substantial  steps  were  taken  towards  standardization  of 
mining  equipment  and  stores.  Before  nationalization  every 
mining  company  and  even  individual  mines  ordered  their 
own  supplies  and  this  naturally  led  to  a  multitude  of  sizes, 
varieties,  etc.  In  1949  with  central  direction  the  purchase  of 
supplies  was  organized  and  a  degree  of  standardization 
achieved  which  was  expected  to  reduce  the  cost  of  stores. 

Underground  Gasification.  The  possibility  of  gasifying  coal 
i/i  situ  underground  had  been  discussed  since  the  beginning 
of  the  century  and  experiments  were  carried  out  in  Russia, 
the  U.S.,  Italy  and  Belgium  which,  though  inconclusive, 
were  not  without  some  promise.  In  1949  in  Great  Britain 
the  test  was  made  in  a  portion  of  a  seam  exposed  in  an  open- 
cast working.  No  extravagant  claims  were  made  by  the 
experimenters  in  regard  to  its  success. 

During  the  year  the  organization  of  the  National  Coal 
board  was  subjected  to  criticism  by  Sir  Charles  Reid,  the 


. 


A  model  of  the  new  Rothes  Colliery  at  Thornton,  Fifeshire,  where  lawns  ami  shrubs  will  surround  the  pithead  buildings.    The  cage  gear  will 

be  enclosed  in  concrete  towers. 


E.B.Y.-13 


178 


COAL 


300 


Million  tons 


Million  tons 


250   - 


200 


150 


100 


50 


COAL   PRODUCTION 

IN 
GREAT    BRITAIN 


j     PRODUCTION 
JFOR    HOME 


USE 


-SHIPMENTS   AND-X 
<# BUNKERS  <^V 


300 


250 


200 


150 


100 


50 


1935  36    37     38    39    40    41     42    43    44    45    46    47    48    49 


chairman  of  the  Reid  Report  committee  and  an  ex-member 
of  the  board  itself.  His  main  points  were:  (1)  the  National 
Coal  board  should  confine  its  activities  to  matters  of  policy 
and  give  the  local  directors  full  executive  control  in  their 
own  areas;  (ii)  in  spite  of  80%  mechanization,  the  output 
at  the  coal  face  was  still  about  three  tons  a  manshift,  about 
the  same  as  in  1939  when  only  56%  of  the  faces  were 
mechanized;  (iii)  nationalization  had  not  drawn  from  the 
men  any  greater  effort  than  did  the  system  of  free  enterprise; 
(iv)  the  present  impersonal  system  of  administration  did  not 
satisfy  the  workmen.  Similar  criticism  was  made  by  the 
opposition  in  parliament. 

Opencast  Mining.  Opencast  mining  continued  to  fill  the 
gap  between  deep  mined  coal  production  and  the  demands 
of  consumers  including  export.  The  average  calorific  value 
of  opencast  coal  is  less  than  that  of  deep  mined  coal,  never- 
theless 99%  of  the  output  was  sold  and  consumed.  There 
was  no  doubt  that  opencast  mining  had  saved  the  country 
from  a  chronic  fuel  crisis  during  postwar  years.  It  was 
believed  that  opencast  activities,  which  should  reach  their 
peak  in  1950,  would  gradually  decrease  over  the  following 


BRITAIN 


Coal  cutters        .... 
Power  loaders    .... 
Conveyors          .... 
Conveyor  belting  (in  thousand  feet) 
Underground  locomotives   . 

•  Estimated  figure. 


1948 

78 

10 

299 

950 

6 


1949* 
64 
6 
248 


ten  years.  The  cost  was  reduced  from  52s.  lid.  a  ton  in  1945 
to  43 s.  1  Id.  in  1949  and  the  loss  in  sale  from  17 s.  8d.  to  Is.  Sd. 

The  greatest  evil  from  opencast  operations  is  the  despolia- 
tion of  good  agricultural  land.  Efforts  were  being  made  to 
restore  the  land  to  its  former  uses  but  no  final  verdict  about 
the  permanent  effect  could  be  made  for  25  years.  In  1949 
some  36,000  ac.  of  land  had  been  requisitioned  for  opencast 
operations. 

Australia.  Production  of  hard  coal  in  Australia  in  1948 
amounted  to  15,060,000  metric  tons,  or  an  average  output 
of  1,255,000  tons  a  month.  The  year  1949  started  badly  with 
th£  output  down  to  770,000  tons  in  January  but  by  May  it 
had  risen  to  1,489,000  tons.  The  effects  of  the  disastrous 


coal  strike  remained  to  be  assessed.  This  strike  led  to  further 
important  developments  in  the  mining  of  brown  coal  and 
lignite  in  opencast  workings  and  these  fuels  played  an 
increasingly  important  part  in  the  internal  economy  of  the 
Commonwealth. 

Canada.  The  average  monthly  output  of  coal  in  Canada 
during  1948  was  1,274,000  metric  tons.  In  1949  it  declined 
to  995,000  tons  in  August  but  went  up  again  in  September 
to  1,088,000  tons.  New  hydro-electric  power  schemes  were 
being  developed  in  the  eastern  and  western  provinces  but 
these  were  necessarily  long  term  projects.  In  the  meantime 
two  large  steam  power  stations  were  being  built  in  Ontario 
to  meet  the  rapidly  growing  demand  for  power  in  industrial 
areas. 

India.  The  total  output  of  coal  in  1948  was  15,060,000 
metric  tons  (including  240,000  tons  from  Pakistan).  Produc- 
tion had  remained  at  a  nearly  steady  level  after  1939  but 
during  the  period  from  January  to  May,  1949,  there  was  a 
small  increase;  the  average  monthly  output  being  2,718,600 
tons  compared  with  2,525,000  tons  during  the  corresponding 
period  in  1948. 

Northern  Rhodesia.  Joint  exploration  of  this  territory  by 
the  government,  the  British  South  Africa  company  and  the 
copper  companies  of  Northern  Rhodesia  was  being  carried 
out  with  the  view  to  developing  any  suitable  coal  deposits 
that  might  be  found. 

Southern  Rhodesia.  There  had  been  a  steady  increase  in 
the  coal  output  for  many  years  to  meet  the  industrial  and 
domestic  needs  of  a  growing  population.  In  1948  the  total 
output  was  1,704,000  metric  tons  or  an  average  of  142,000 
tons  a  month.  It  was  still  going  up  and  in  Aug.  1949  amounted 
to  164,800  tons.  This  was  not  enough  to  meet  the  rapidly 
rising  demands  of  the  two  Rhodesias.  Wankie  colliery  was 
expected  soon  to  increase  output  materially. 

Union  of  South  Africa.  Production  remained  practically 
constant  during  the  last  four  or  five  years  in  the  Union.  The 
total  output  in  1948  was  24,024,000  metric  tons  and  during 
the  first  seven  months  of  1949  it  remained  at  practically  the 
same  level.  (J.  A  S  R  ) 

United  States.  The  salient  features  of  the  coal  industry 
in  the  United  States  are  presented  in  Table  IV. 

The  1947  coal  output  surpassed  that  of  all  previous  years, 
even  the  war  peak  of  1944,  but  the  1948  output  was  reduced 


Million  m«tnc  tons 
20 


TABLE  II. — DELIVERIES  OF  MACHINERY  TO  COAL  MINES  IN  GREAT      l8  ~~ 


COAL  PRODUCTION  IN  THE 
CHIEF  EUROPEAN 


PRODUCING  COUNTRIES 


GT  BRITAIN 


POLAND          FRANCE  BELGIUM 

(including  Sow 
production) 


COCOA 


179 


TABLE  III. — PRODUCTION  OF  HARD  COAL  AND  COKE  IN  EUROPE* 


Country 

Output  of  hard  coal 

in  Metric  Tons 

Percentage  increase 

Percentage  of 

1948 

1949  (estimated) 

over  1948 

1938  output 

Austria 

177,600 

190,000 

7 

83 

Belgium 

26,676,000 

26,000,000 

2  5 

90 

Czechoslovakia 

17,748,000 

16,800,000 

—5-3 

106 

France 

43,296,000 

50,400  000 

16 

108 

Ireland 

180,000 

120,000 

—33 

100 

Italy     . 

972,000 

1  056,000 

8-6 

170 

Netherlands 

11,028,000 

11,640.000 

5-5 

90 

Norway! 

436,800 

435,000 

0 

140 

Poland 

70,260,000 

73,200,000 

4 

105 

Portugal 

385,200 

444,000 

1* 

140 

Saar     . 

12,564,000 

14,400,000 

14  6 

107 

Spain   . 

10,404,000 

10,680,000 

2  6 

190 

Sweden 

264,000 

200,000 

—24 

70 

Turkey 

4,020,000 

4.140,000 

3 

155 

United  Kingdom    . 

197,000,000 

202,000,000 

2  ? 

87 

Western  Germany 

87,030,000 

102,000,000 

17 

80 

Yugoslavia    . 

— 

1  200,000 

7 

270 

Output  of  coke  in  metric  tons 
1949  (estimated) 


Coke  ovens 

988,400 
5.508,000 
4,658,400 
6,972,000 

1  216,800 
2,376,000 

5,198,400 

3,360,000 

81,600 

15,683,200 
24,192,000 


Gas  works 
427,200 
38,400 

3,312,000 
172,800 
952,800 

1,065,600 

55,200 

417,600 

6,000 

636,000 

14,008,000 


Totals 


482,441,600 


514,905,000 


6-7 


91 


•  Based  on  data  supplied  by  the  Statistics  Branch  of  the  Ministry  oi  Fuel  and  Power    The  estimated  outputs  for  1949  are  based  on  results  obtained  during 
the  first  six  to  nine  months.  t  Spitsbergen 


nearly  5%  by  a  strike  over  the  unsettled  work  contract  in 
the  bituminous  fields.  The  reduced  output  was  offset  by  a 
sharp  decline  in  exports  in  the  second  half  of  the  year,  and 
by  a  cut  of  4  %  in  consumption. 

Work  stoppages  or  restrictions  were  widespread  in  the 
industry  in  1949,  and  production  suffered  accordingly.  Up 
to  Dec.  3,  1949,  the  bituminous  output  totalled  394,988,000 
tons  and  the  anthracite  output  40,386,000  tons,  a  total  of 
435,374,000  tons— 29%  less  than  the  total  for  the  corres- 
ponding period  of  1948. 


TABLE  IV.- 


-DATA  OF  THE  COAL  INDUSTRY  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 
1944-48  (In  thousands  of  short  tons) 


1944 

1945 

1946 

1947 

1948 

Production,  total 

.    683,278 

632,551 

594,429 

687,814 

656,658 

Anthracite 

.      63,701 

54,934 

60,507 

57,190 

57,140 

Soft  coals 

619,576 

577,617 

533,922 

630,624 

599,518 

Bituminous. 

.    617,022 

574,949 

536,254 

627,750 

596.432 

Lignite 

2,554 

2,668 

2,668 

2,874 

3,086 

Canada.  Coal  production  in  Canada  increased  from 
15,868,866  short  tons  in  1947  to  18,435,799  tons  in  1948, 
and  to  1 5, 1 83,584  tons  up  to  the  end  of  Oct.  1 949,  as  compared 
with  14,717,487  tons  in  the  corresponding  period  of  1948. 
Imports  rose  from  30,564,129  tons  in  1947  to  31,049,632 
tons  in  1948,  but  dropped  sharply  in  1949,  the  total  up  to 
the  end  of  October  being  only  17,036,638  tons. 

World  Production.  The  production  of  coal  in  1947  surpassed 
the  1939  level  and  followed  with  a  2%  increase  in  1948. 
Table  V  shows  the  outputs  of  countries  normally  producing 
tonnages  in  excess  of  the  world  total,  along  with  the  estimated 
world  production.  (G.  A.  Ro.) 


TABLE  V.—  COAL  PRODUCTION  OF  THE  WORLD  1944-48 

(In  millions  of  short  tons  —  all  grades) 

1944 

1945 

1946 

1947 

1948 

Canada            .                 17-03 

16-51 

17-81 

15-87 

18-44 

United  States  . 

683-27 

630-93 

592  51 

687-81 

656  66 

Belgium 

14-91 

17-45 

25   11 

26-89 

29-41 

Czechoslovakia 

54-31 

29-84 

37  01 

42-53 

45-56 

France  . 

29-30 

38-60 

54-34 

52-16 

49-75 

Saar 

1 

? 

8  69 

11-56 

13-85 

Germany 

403-60 

164  22 

251   95 

271-49 

294-41 

Hungary 

10-42 

4-73 

7-00 

9  71 

11-68 

Italy 

1-22 

1-68 

2-98 

3-54 

2-16 

Netherlands    . 

9-48 

5-80 

9-77 

11-66 

12-47 

Poland  . 

96-33 

30-17 

53-07 

70-43 

82-98 

Spain 

12-88 

13-32 

13-33 

13-08 

12-81 

United  Kingdom 

215-88 

204-71 

214-81 

221-14 

233-44 

U.S.S.R. 

130? 

160? 

178? 

193? 

220? 

China    . 

69? 

18? 

17? 

22? 

10? 

India 

29-26 

32-67 

33-27 

32-45 

33-94 

South  Africa  . 

24-91 

25-47 

25-63 

26-25 

25-97 

Australia 

20-99 

20-93 

21-96 

23-48 

24-71 

Total  World 


.      1,935         1,487         1,629         1,821 


1,862 


COCHIN-CHINA:    see  FRENCH  UNION. 

COCOA.  British  West  Africa  was  easily  the  world's 
chief  producer  of  cocoa,  the  crop  for  1948-49  being  278,000 
tons  in  the  Gold  Coast  and  109,000  tons  in  Nigeria,  as  against 
208,000  and  75,000  tons  respectively  in  1947-48;  the  1949-50 
crops  in  both  territories  were  forecast  at  about  midway 
between  the  two  previous  crops.  Despite  the  exceptionally 
favourable  crop  in  1948-49,  which  was  well  above  the  pre- 
war average,  the  spread  of  swollen  shoot  disease  continued 
to  threaten  both  the  whole  of  the  Gold  Coast  economy  and 
the  world's  cocoa  supplies.  Destruction  of  infected  trees 
offers  the  only  known  means  of  halting  the  disease,  but 
some  opposition  by  growers  resulted  in  a  suspension  of  the 
tree-cutting  campaign  in  1948;  intensive  propaganda  and  an 
increase  in  compensation  payments,  however,  reduced  this 
opposition  so  that  cutting  could  be  resumed  under  more 
favourable  conditions.  Jn  Nigeria  the  disease  was  not  yet 
widespread.  All  cocoa  in  the  two  colonies  was  purchased 
by  the  Gold  Coast  Cocoa  Marketing  board  and  the  Nigerian 
Marketing  board.  The  prices  paid  by  the  two  boards  declined 
in  1949-50,  falling  from  about  £120  a  ton  in  both  territories 
in  1948-49  to  £84  in  the  Gold  Coast  and  £100  in  Nigeria. 

Outside  the  Commonwealth,  Brazil's  crop  for  1948-49 
amounted  to  some  107,000  tons  as  against  85,000  tons  in 
1947-48,  while  in  1948-49  French  West  Africa  and  the 
Camerouns  together  provided  some  90,000  tons. 

The  International  Emergency  Food  committee  fixed  the 
distribution  of  cocoa  exports  for  1948-49  as  follows:  British 
West  Africa,  387,800  tons;  French  West  Africa,  78,000  tons; 
Brazil,  120,500  tons;  and  other  Latin  American  states, 
75,700  tons.  Import  quotas  were  fixed  at  287,700  tons  for 
the  United  States;  128,200  tons  for  the  United  Kingdom  and 
48,300  tons  for  France  and  French  North  Africa.  As  from 
June  9,  1949,  however,  allocation  of  cocoa  beans  by  the 
I.E.F.C.  ceased,  current  supply  being  considered  adequate 
to  meet  effective  demand. 

British  West  Africa's  cocoa  exports  were  particularly 
important  as  a  dollar  earner,  being  second  only  to  Malaya's 
rubber  in  this  respect.  Exports  from  the  Gold  Coast  in  1948- 
49  reached  243,300  tons  as  against  191,400  tons  in  1947-48; 
and  shipments  from  Nigeria  in  the  1948-49  season  totalled 
107,200  tons  as  compared  with  83,100  tons  in  the  preceding 
season.  Brazil's  exports  in  the  first  six  months  of  1949 
amounted  to  39,800  tons,  while  those  from  the  Dominican 
Republic  for  Jan.-Nov.  1949  were  19,100  tons.  Imports 
into  the  United  States,  the  world's  chief  consumer  of  cocoa, 
in  the  first  ten  months  of  1949  amounted  to  229,400  tons 


180 


COFFEE— COLOMBIA 


as  against  249,200  tons  in  the  full  year  1948.  The  United 
Kingdom  took  108,000  and  147,000  tons  in  1948  and  1949 
respectively;  the  Ministry  of  Food  was  still  the  sole  importer. 
Imports  into  other  countries  continued  on  a  much  smaller 
scale.  (E.  O.  G.) 

COFFEE.  World  exportable  production  of  coffee  in 
1948-49  at  36  million  cwt.  was  about  3  million  cwt.  above  the 
estimate  for  1947-48  but  some  1 5  %  below  the  1935-40  average. 
Latin  America's  output  was  estimated  at  31,400,000  cwt.  as 
against  28,250,000  cwt.  in  1947  and  a  prewar  average  of 
37,400,000  cwt.  The  main  decline  was  in  Brazil,  which  in 
prewar  years  produced  on  the  average  26,700,000  cwt  ,  but  in 
1948-49  only  19,400,000  cwt,  and  in  Indonesia  which  pro- 
duced only  a  fraction  of  its  prewar  output.  Expansion  of 
output  was  most  marked  in  Colombia  (6,700,000  cwt  in 
1948-49  as  against  a  prewar  average  of  4,800,000  cwt.)  and 
in  the  African  colonial  territories;  the  latter  in  1948-49  were 
estimated  to  have  produced  3,900,000  cwt.,  about  one  quarter 
of  which  was  provided  by  British  East  Africa. 

Total  exports  from  Latin  American  countries  (principally 
Brazil)  in  1948  were  about  32,500,000  cwt.,  as  against 
28,800,000  cwt.  in  1947;  about  three  quarters  of  the  quantity 
in  both  years  went  to  the  United  States.  Exports  being  at  a 
satisfactory  level,  quota  restrictions  under  the  Inter- American 
Coffee  agreement  continued  inoperative.  Total  imports  of 
coffee  into  the  United  States  in  1948  amounted  to  24,750,000 
cwt.  in  1948  as  against  22,350,000  cwt.  in  1947;  the  prewar 
average  annual  import  was  about  15,500,000  cwt.  Europe's 
imports  in  1948  hardly  exceeded  8,500,000  cwt.,  or  a  little 
above  half  of  the  prewar  average,  dollar  difficulties  sub- 
stantially restricting  purchases  from  the  Latin  American 
countries. 

The  Ministry  of  Food  was  again  the  sole  buyer  for  the 
United  Kingdom.  Imports  in  1949  amounted  to  880,000 
cwt.  as  against  1,047,000  cwt.  in  1948  and  401,000  cwt.  in 
1938,  the  increase  being  the  result  of  the  rationing  of  tea  and 
increased  purchasing  power.  The  chief  sources  of  supply 
in  1948  and  1949  were  British  East  Africa  and  Brazil.  Kenya's 
and  Uganda's  exports  to  all  destinations  in  1948  amounted 
to  286,000  cwt.  and  756,000  cwt.  respectively;  the  corres- 
ponding figures  for  1949  were  143,000  cwt.  and  433,000  cwt. 
respectively.  Tanganyika's  coffee  exports  in  1948  amounted 
to  225,000  cwt.,  and  in  1949  to  373,000  cwt.  (E.  O.  G.) 

COKE:    see  COAL. 


COLD,  COMMON.  No  fundamental  information 
was  added  to  knowledge  of  the  common  cold  in  1949,  although 
intensive  research  was  in  progress  at  the  National  Institute 
of  Health  and  at  the  Western  Reserve  Medical  school  in 
the  United  States  and  at  the  National  Institute  for  Medical 
Research  in  England.  C.  H.  Andrewes,  director  of  studies 
at  the  last  named  laboratory,  restated  the  problems  involved 
in  a  series  of  questions:  Is  the  common  cold  caused  by 
viruses,  by  bacteria  or  neither?  Is  it  an  entity  or  a  group  of 
diseases?  Can  it  be  "  caught  "  from  a  patient  with  a  cold 
or  activated  in  a  person  who  harbours  the  causative  agent 
or  both?  If  it  can  be  activated,  how?  What  determines  its 
seasonal  incidence  and  why  does  resistance  to  it  vary  from 
person  to  person  or  in  one  person  at  different  times? 
Andrewes  succeeded  in  transmitting  colds  to  volunteers  by 
means  of  filtered  exudates  obtained  from  patients  with  colds, 
but  was  unable  to  confirm  the  work  of  U.S.  investigators  who 
reported  the  artificial  cultivation  of  the  filtrable  agent.  None 
of  a  large  variety  of  animals  could  be  infected.  From  his 
experiments  on  volunteers  Andrewes  concluded  that  colds 
are  probably  caused  by  viruses  which  constantly  pass  from 


one  person  to  another,  usually  without  causing  symptoms, 
or  only  mild  ones.  A  cold  develops  only  in  a  person  whose 
resistance  is  temporarily  low.  From  such  a  person,  virus  is 
disseminated  in  large  amounts,  but  few  persons  harbour  it 
long  and  it  probably  dies  out  soon. 

A  report  was  made  on  the  beneficial  effects  of  anti-hista- 
minic  agents  on  the  symptoms  of  the  cold  when  given  early 
in  the  course  of  the  disease.  It  was  assumed  that  the  symptoms 
were  caused  by  an  allergic  response  of  the  mucous  mem- 
branes to  the  protein  of  the  cold  virus  or  to  other  proteins. 
There  was  tittle  doubt  of  the  effectiveness  of  anti-histaminic 
agents  for  allergic  rhinitis,  but  their  value  in  preventing  or 
treating  the  infectious  cold  was  not  positively  established. 

Clifford  Kuh  and  M.  F.  Collen  gave  penicillin  by  mouth 
regularly  to  a  large  number  of  persons  for  a  year  and  ob- 
served an  equal  number  of  untreated  persons  to  see  if  peni- 
cillin had  any  value  in  the  prevention  of  respiratory  tract 
infections.  Evidence  was  lacking  that  penicillin  had  any 
effect  on  the  incidence  of  colds  in  the  treated  group.  (See 
also  EAR,  NOSH  AND  THROAT,  DISFASES  OF.)  (HA  RN.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  C  H  Andrewes,  "  The  Natural  History  of  the 
Common  Cold,"  Lancet,  1  71-73,  London,  Jan  8,  1949,  J.  M. 
Brewster,  "Anti-histaminic  Drugs  in  the  Therapy  of  the  Common  Cold," 
US  Nav  Med  Bull ,  49  1-1 1,  Jan  -heb  ,  1949,  N  Fox  and  G  Living- 
ston, "  Role  of  Allergy  in  the  Epidemiology  of  the  Common  Cold,'* 
Arch  Otolarvng  ,  49  575-586,  June  1949,  C  Kuh  and  M  F  Collen, 
"  Mass  Penicillin  Prophylaxis.  An  Experiment  with  Negative  Results," 
J.  Am.  Med  Aswc ,  140  1324-28,  Chicago,  Aug  27,  1949 

COLLEGES:    see  UNIVFRSITIES  AND  COLLEGES. 

COLOMBIA.  A  republic  situated  in  northwestern 
South  America  adjoining  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  It  is  the 
only  South  American  country  with  both  Caribbean  and 
Pacific  coastlines.  Area:  439,714sq.  mi.  Pop.  (mid- 1948 est.): 
10,777,000.  Approximately  68%  of  the  population  is  classi- 
fied as  mixed  blood,  20%  as  white,  7%  as  Indian  and  5% 
as  Negro.  Most  of  the  inhabitants  live  in  the  highlands  and 
mountain  valleys  of  the  interior.  Language:  Spanish. 
Religion:  predominantly  Roman  Catholic.  Chief  towns 
(pop.,  1945  est.):  Bogota  (cap.,  443,520);  Medellin  (219,790); 
Barranquilla  (206,630);  Cali  (135,610);  Man izales  (109,820); 
Cartagena  (101,520).  President,  Mariano  Ospina  Perez. 

History.  The  political  situation  in  Colombia,  acute  since 
the  assassination  of  the  Liberal  leader  Hliecer  Gaitan  in  April 
1948,  reached  a  new  crisis  in  1949  when  the  Liberals  boy- 
cotted the  presidential  election  and  allowed  the  Conservative 
candidate  to  win  virtually  unopposed. 

Frequent  armed  clashes  between  Liberal  and  Conservative 
partisans  throughout  the  country  caused  about  40  deaths  in 
the  first  three  months  of  the  year  and  induced  Ospina  Perez 
to  form  a  coalition  cabinet  in  May.  The  Liberal  ministers, 
however,  resigned  from  it  during  the  same  month,  charging 
the  administration  with  restricting  their  party's  activities  in 
the  congressional  election  campaign.  The  new  cabinet, 
formed  on  May  22  and  composed  of  10  Conservatives  and 
3  army  officers,  decreed  the  suspension  of  all  political 
gatherings,  demonstrations  and  radio  broadcasts  from  May  25 
until  three  days  after  the  congressional  elections. 

In  the  relatively  quiet  elections,  June  5,  the  Liberal  majority 
in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  was  cut  in  half.  The  presidential 
election,  originally  scheduled  for  June  5,  1950,  was  advanced 
to  Nov.  27,  1949,  by  a  bill  sponsored  by  the  Liberals  and 
approved  reluctantly  by  the  president  in  October.  The  major 
candidates  were  the  Conservative,  Laureano  Gomez,  former 
foreign  minister,  who  returned  in  June  from  Spain  where  he 
had  resided  since  the  April  1948  riots  in  Bogota,  and  the 
Liberal  Dado  Echandia,  former  minister  of  the  interior. 

Political  clashes,  killing  hundreds  and  causing  thousands 
to  flee,  continued  throughout  the  country  as  the  presidential 


COMMUNIST  MOVEMENT 


181 


election  neared.  In  October  the  Liberals,  accusing  the 
administration  party  of  resorting  to  violence  and  impeding 
the  registration  of  their  partisans,  withdrew  their  candidate 
and  prepared  to  boycott  the  election.  Meanwhile  Ospina 
Perez,  declaring  a  nation-wide  state  of  siege,  dissolved  the 
Liberal-dominated  congress,  imposed  press  and  radio 
censorship,  established  an  evening  curfew,  banned  all  public 
meetings,  suspended  all  state  legislature  sessions  and  neutral- 
ized the  Liberal  majority  in  the  supreme  court  by  decreeing  a 
three-fourths  majority  necessary  to  nullify  presidential  edicts. 
Troops  were  called  out  to  patrol  Bogota. 

Under  these  conditions  the  election  was  held  Nov.  27,  and 
the  boycott  of  the  Liberals,  though  not  complete,  gave  the 
Conservative  candidate  an  adequate  majority.  No  significant 
violence  occurred,  although  the  brother  of  the  Liberal 
candidate  was  assassinated  two  days  previously.  The  Liberals 
observed  election  day  as  one  of  mourning.  President-elect 
Gomez  was  scheduled  to  take  office  Aug.  7,  1950. 

On  the  economic  front  Colombia's  commercial  indebtedness 
($23  million  for  the  first  three  months)  was  gradually  reduced 
and  was  completely  wiped  out  by  November.  A  movement 
in  October  to  devalue  the  peso  by  15  to  20%  was  abandoned 
shortly  when  rising  coffee  prices  promised  substantial 
increases  in  the  country's  dollar  income.  Agricultural  and 
industrial  expansion  continued  throughout  the  year,  financed 
in  part  by  an  Export-Import  Bank  loan  of  $10  million  and 
a  grant  of  $5  million  from  the  International  Bank  for  Recon- 
struction and  Development.  On  the  darker  side,  petroleum 
exploration  declined  in  the  face  of  new  nationalization 
legislation  for  the  industry.  Meanwhile  the  cost  of  living 
continued  at  a  high  level,  the  woikmg  class  index  rising  from 
256  in  March  to  305  in  August  (Feb.  1937  100).  In  Decem- 
ber the  government  ordered  the  establishment  of  a  national 
minimum  wage  of  two  pesos  a  day,  from  Jan.  1,1 950.  (M.L.  M.) 

Education.  Schools  (1945)  primary  12,147,  pupils  788,143,  teachers 
23,432,  secondary  and  vocational  1,830,  pupils  94,669,  teachers  7,825 
(1,421  primary  and  606  other  schools  not  reporting)  There  were  six 
public  and  two  private  universities  Approximately  7  4%  of  the  1945 
national  budget  was  allocated  to  public  education.  Illiteracy  (1938). 
44  2/0,  excluding  aborigines 

Agriculture.  Mam  crops  ('000  metric  tons,  1948)'  coffee  (1947)  296, 
mai/e  700;  rice  120,  wheat  117,  sugar  cane,  raw  value,  80,  potatoes 
500;  tobacco  21;  cotton  5  5  Livestock  ('000  head,  Dec  1947): 
cattle  13,902,  pigs  2,070,  horses  1,142,  sheep  1,022. 

Industry.  (1945)  Industrial  establishments  7,853,  persons  employed 
135,400  1-ucl  and  power  coal  ('000  metric  tons,  1942)  578;  electricity 
(million  kwh.,  1948)  544  5,  crude  oil  ('000  metric  tons,  1948;  1949, 
six  months,  in  brackets)  3,376  (2,065).  Raw  materials  (1948)  gold 
335,260  line  oz  ,  silver  108,716  oz  ,  platimun  40,047  oz  ,  salt  124,081 
metric  tons  Manufactured  goods  (1948,  six  months)  rayon  yarn 
3-5  million  Ib  ,  cotton  cloth  85  million  yd  ;  woollen  cloth  995,000  yd.; 
cement  175,000  metric  tons. 

Foreign  Trade.  (Million  pesos)  Imports  (1948)  588,  (1949,  six  months) 
295,  exports  (1948)  507,  (1949,  six  months)  264.  Chief  imports,  motor 
vehicles,  raw  cotton,  textile  machinery,  chief  exports  coffee,  bananas, 
crude  oil,  gold,  silver,  platinum  The  U  S.  took  81  %  of  the  exports 
and  supplied  59%  of  the  imports  m  1948. 

Transport  and  Communications.  Roads  maintained  by  the  govern- 
ment (1948)4  7,200  mi  Licensed  motor  vehicles  (Dec  1948)'  cars 
26,700,  commercial  vehicles  21,000  Railways  (1946)  2,100  mi  ; 
passenger-mi  (1948)  540  million,  freight  net  ton-mi  (1948)  379 
million.  Air  transport  (1947)  hours  flown  78,148;  miles  flown 
12,553,400,  passengers  flown  522,673,  cargo  carried  92,526  metric  tons. 
Telephones  (Jan.  1948).  subscribers  57,300 

Finance  and  Banking.  (Million  pesos)  Budget  (1949  est.)  revenue 
390,  expenditure  390;  national  debt  (Dec.  1948)  512;  currency  circula- 
tion (Sept  1949;  in  brackets,  Sept  1948)370-1(300  1),  bank  deposits 
(Aug.  1949)489-8.  Gold  and  foreign  exchange  (Sept.  1949;  in  brackets, 
Sept.  1948).  US.  $  92  (78)  million.  Monetary  umf  peso  with  an 
official  exchange  rate  of  £1=7-86  pesos  before  Sept.  18,  1949,  and  of 
£1^5-46  pesos  since. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  William  Russell,  The  Bolivar  Countries:  Colombia, 
Ecuador,  Venezuela  (New  York,  1949). 

COLUMBIA,  DISTRICT  OF:  see  WASHINGTON,  D.C. 
COMMERCE:   see  BUSINESS  REVIEW;   INTERNATIONAL 
TRADE. 


COMMONS,  HOUSE  OF:  see  PARLIAMENT,  HOUSES 

OF. 

COMMUNIST  MOVEMENT.  The  history  of 
communism  in  1949  was  characterized  by  the  growing 
emphasis  on  Russia's  undisputable  precedence  in  world 
communism  and  on  Joseph  Stalin's  (cj.v.}  "  infallibility  "  in 
the  political,  economic,  scientific  and  artistic  fields.  Stalin's 
70th  birthday  on  Dec.  21  was  celebrated  with  unprecedented 
solemnity  throughout  the  Soviet  Union,  Communist  China 
and  the  Soviet  satellite  countries  of  eastern  Europe.  On  the 
occasion  of  this  celebration  Stalin  could  look  with  satis- 
faction on  the  irtimense  expansion  of  his  power  after  World 
War  II.  It  was  true  that  during  1949  the  expansion  of 
communism  had  been  checked  in  Europe.  Not  only  had 
there  been  a  re-invigoration  of  democracy  m  all  non-Soviet 
controlled  European  countries,  but  Communist  Yugoslavia 
had  successfully  challenged  the  unlimited  Soviet  control  over 
all  Communist  lands.  But  this  relative  setback  in  Europe 
had  been  more  than  outweighed  by  the  great  advance  of 
Communist  control  in  eastern  Asia,  where  Communists 
occupied  almost  the  whole  extent  of  the  Chinese  republic 
and  found  themselves  at  the  gates  of  Vietnam  (Indo-China) 
and  of  Burma.  Thus  communism,  at  the  end  of  1949, 
controlled  an  area  inhabited  by  about  700  million  people 
and  containing,  in  addition  to  the  resources  of  the  greatly 
expanded  Soviet  Union,  those  of  Poland,  Czechoslovakia, 
Eastern  Germany,  Rumania,  Hungary  and  Bulgaria. 

During  1949  Communist  policy  deepened  its  anti-western 
stand,  especially  in  all  fields  of  culture,  science  and  the  arts. 
The  Communist  central  organ,  Pravda^  carried  on  Jan.  28 
a  violent  article  against  six  "  anti-patriotic  "  theatre  critics 
which  was  followed  by  a  similar  article  in  the  weekly  Culture 
and  Life  on  Jan.  30.  "  Once  and  for  all,"  Pravda  declared, 
44  we  must  decidedly  put  an  end  to  the  liberal  tolerance  of  all 
these  aesthetic  nonentities  who  lack  the  healthy  feeling  of 
love  of  country  and  the  people."  The  year  1949  was  largely 
devoted  to  a  programme  of  doing  away  with  "  this  aesthetic 
drivel  decisively,  once  and  for  ever."  Similar  constructive 
energy  as  to  the  fight  against  4t  decadent  bourgeois  art "  was 
devoted  in  the  Soviet  Union  and  in  its  satellites  to  depict  in 
films,  plays  and  novels  the  moral  decadence  and  the  economic 
oppression  prevailing  in  the  United  States  and  to  denounce 
the  warlike  intentions  of  the  U.S.  and  Great  Britain.  Vocal 
support  for  the  '*  peace  loving  "  Soviet  policy  against  the 
44  war  mongenng  "  of  the  western  democracies  was  organized 
among  non-Russian  intellectuals  through  the  various  Com- 
munist-sponsored "  peace  "  congresses.  The  most  violent 
attacks,  however,  were  reserved  in  the  domestic  field  for  what 
was  called  "  homeless  cosmopolitanism  "  and  "  belittling  "  of 
the  leadership  of  Russia  in  all  fields  of  culture.  Russian 
priority  was  claimed  for  many  scientific  inventions. 

This  policy  within  the  Soviet  Union  went  hand  in  hand  with 
an  attempt  to  tighten  Communist  control  over  the  satellite 
states.  The  main  instrument  of  this  policy  was  the  Communist 
Information  bureau,  or  the  Cominform.  It  was  established 
on  Sept.  22-23,  1947,  in  the  former  hunting  lodge  of  Hermann 
Goring,  at  Wilcza  Gora  (Wolves*  Hill),  on  the  northern 
slopes  of  the  Giant  mountains,  Poland.  The  second  plenary 
meeting  of  the  Cominform  took  place  in  June  1948  at  Sinaia, 
Rumania,  and  it  was  there  that  an  attack  against  the  Yugoslav 
Communist  government  was  launched.  In  Nov.  1949  the 
Cominform  met  at  a  luxury  hotel  in  the  Matra  mountain 
area,  in  Hungary,  and  adopted  a  number  of  resolutions 
directed  against  *'  Anglo-American  imperialism,"  the  *'  enslav- 
ing Marshall  plan,"  the  **  reactionary  trade  union  leaders, 
the  accomplices  of  the  warmongers,  who  conceal  their 
betrayal  in  pseudo-Socialist  cosmopolitan  phraseology,"  and 
the  "  traitorous  Tito-Rankovic  clique,"  the  Yugoslav 


182 


COMMUNIST  MOVEMENT 


Communist  government  which  was  accused  of  conducting 
a  provocative  campaign  against  the  U.S.S.R.,  "  using  the 
foulest  provocations,  borrowed  from  the  arsenal  of  Hitler." 
There  could  be  no  doubt  that  the  long  and  successful  resistance 
of  Marshal  Tito  and  his  fully  Communist  government  to  the 
"  cold  war  *'  waged  against  them  by  the  Soviet  Union  and 
the  Cominform  did  much  to  weaken  the  influence  of  Moscow 
among  Communists  and  fellow  travellers. 

The  actions  of  the  Cominform  and  the  unquestioning 
loyalty  which  Moscow  demanded  from  Communists  every- 
where made  it  clear  that  the  Communist  International, 
though  officially  disbanded  in  1943,  was  stronger  than  ever. 
In  that  sense  Gheorghi  Dimitrov  (see  OBITUARIES),  the 
Bulgarian  Communist  leader,  wrote  on  Dec.  18,  1948:  "It 
should  not  be  forgotten  that — in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the 
Communist  International  does  not  exist — all  Communist 
parties  in  the  world  form  one  single  Communist  front,  under 
the  direction  of  the  most  powerful  and  most  experienced 
Communist  party,  the  party  of  Lenin  and  Stalin;  that  all 
Communist  parties  have  one  common  scientific  theory  as  a 
guide  to  their  actions — Marxist-Leninism;  and  that  all 
Communist  parties  have  one  leader  and  teacher,  recognized 
by  all — Comrade  Stalin."  In  that  connection  the  leaders  of 
the  French  and  Italian  Communist  parties,  Maurice  Thorez 
and  Palmiro  Togliatti  fy.v.),  declared  on  Feb.  22  and  26 
respectively,  that  in  case  of  a  war  with  the  Soviet  Union  the 
workers  of  France  and  Italy  would  show  the  same  attitude 
towards  the  Soviet  army  as  did  the  people  of  Poland, 
Rumania  and  Yugoslavia.  Harry  Pollitt,  secretary  general 
of  the  British  Communist  party,  stated  on  Feb.  28  that  in 
the  event  of  an  aggressive  war  against  the  U.S.S.R.,  the 
party  would  organize  strikes  to  prevent  that  war  from  being 
carried  through.  William  Z.  Foster  and  Eugene  Dennis, 
respectively  national  chairman  and  secretary  general  of  the 
U.S.  Communist  party,  on  March  2  backed  these  declarations 
of  loyalty  to  the  Soviet  Union. 

The  Moscow  leadership  took  strong  measures  in  all 
European  satellite  countries  to  assure  an  unswerving  loyalty 
to  its  commands  on  the  part  of  the  local  Communists. 
Purges  were  conducted  in  all  the  Communist  parties,  and 
even  some  of  the  most  prominent  Communist  leaders  became 
their  victims.1  Among  them  were  Laszlo  Rajk  in  Hungary, 
Traicho  Kostov  in  Bulgaria,  and  Koci  Xoxe  in  Albania,  who 
were  executed  (see  OBITUARIES),  while  the  Greek  Communist 
leader,  Markos  Vafiades,  and  the  Polish  Communist  leader, 
Wladyslaw  Gomblka  (see  POLAND),  were  disgraced.  No  such 
measures  were  necessary  in  China,  where  the  Communist 
party,  under  the  leadership  of  Mao  Tse-tung,  Chou  En-lai 
(qq.v.)  and  Liu  Shao-chi,  followed  faithfully  the  Moscow  line 
and  repeated  wholeheartedly  the  sharp  Communist  attacks 
against  the  United  States  and  the  democratic  countries.  The 
establishment  of  the  Communist  People's  Republic  of  China 
on  Oct.  1  was  hailed  by  the  Soviet  historian,  Evgheny  Tarle, 
in  Izvestia  as  one  of  the  two  "  stupendous  events  "  of  the 
year,  the  other  being  the  end  of  the  U.S.  monopoly  of  atomic 
bombs. 

The  Communist  victories  in  Asia  had  no  counterpart  in 
Europe,  There,  even  in  countries  bordering  on  the  Soviet 
Union  or  partly  under  soviet  influence,  such  as  Norway, 
Finland  and  Austria,  communism  was  fast  losing  whatever 
hold  it  had  on  the  working  masses.  The  Communist-led 
strikes  in  Finland,  which  started  in  August,  ended  within 
four  weeks  with  a  complete  victory  of  the  anti-Communist 

1  According  to  Partlinava  /.hlzn  (Oct  1947),  the  official  periodical  of  the 
Soviet  All-Union  Communist  party,  there  were  6  million  party  members  in  the 
U  S  S  R  ,  2J  million  in  Italy,  2  million  in  China,  1J  million  in  C/.echoslavakia. 
1  million  in  France.  800.000  in  Poland,  700.000  in  Rumania,  500,000  in  Bul- 
garia, 400,000  in  Yugoslavia,  100,000  in  Belgium,  50,000  in  Holland.  48,000  in 
Sweden  and  43,000  in  Great  Britain  The  estimated  circulation  of  three  of  the 
Communist  daily  newspapers,  which  gives  an  indication  of  the  party's  influence, 
was  •  L'Umtu,  (Italy)  weekdays  485.000,  Sundays  850.000  .  L'Humamte  (France) 
450.000:  Daily  Worker  (Great  Britain)  110,000. 


government;  in  the  elections  to  the  Norwegian  parliament 
(Oct.  10)  no  Communist  candidate  was  elected;  and  at  the 
elections  in  Belgium  (June  26)  the  Communist  vote  was 
?•  5%  instead  of  12-7%  as  in  1946  (see  ELECTIONS).  In  Italy, 
Togliatti  himself  announced  on  March  25,  1949,  that  the 
party's  membership  was  1,896,634  as  compared  with 
2,283,000  in  Sept.  1948.  At  its  annual  conference  at  Brid- 
lington,  Yorkshire,  the  British  Trade  Union  congress  on 
Sept.  6  endorsed  by  6,746,000  to  760,000  votes  a  report, 
moved  by  Vincent  Tewson  for  the  general  council,  drawing 
attention  to  the  necessity  of  combating  Communist  inter- 
ference in  the  trade  unions.  Similarly  the  Communists  lost 
much  of  the  influence  which  they  had  gained  in  the  last  20 
years  in  the  U.S.  labour  movement.  The  Congress  of  Industrial 
Organizations  withdrew  from  the  Communist-controlled 
World  Federation  of  Trade  Unions  and  was  responsible, 
together  with  the  American  Federation  of  Labour,  for  the 
creation  of  an  anti-Communist  International  Confederation 
of  Free  Trade  Unions  (see  TRADE  UNIONS).  The  C.I.O. 
convention  in  Cleveland,  Ohio,  at  the  beginning  of  November 
expelled  two  affiliates,  the  United  Electrical,  Radio  and 
Machine  Workers  of  America  and  the  United  Farm  Equip- 
ment and  Metal  Workers  of  America,  accusing  them  of  being 
creatures  of  the  Communist  party,  masquerading  as  trade 
unions.  Similarly,  Great  Britain's  largest  trade  union,  the 
Transport  and  General  Workers'  union,  voted  to  bar  Com- 
munists and  members  of  the  British  Fascist  union  from 
holding  office  in  the  union. 


COMMUNIST  PARTY  PARLIAMENIARY  REPRESENTATION 

IN  EUROPE* 

Last 

Votes 

%of 

Total 

CP. 

election 

obtained 

total 

seats 

Seats 

votes 

Austria 

Oct.  9,  1949 

212,651 

5-0 

165 

5 

Belgium 

June  26,  1949 

376,876 

7-5 

212 

12 

Denmark     . 

Oct.  28,  1947 

141,094 

6  8 

149 

9 

Finland 

July  1-2,  1948 

— 

— 

200 

33 

France 

Nov.  10,  1946 

5,475,955 

28-2 

619 

182 

Germany,  Western 

Aug.  14,  1949 

1,360,443 

5  6 

402 

15 

Great  Britain 

July  5,  1945 

102,780 

0  4 

640 

2 

Iceland 

Oct   23,  1949 

14,077 

19  5 

52 

9 

Ireland 

Fcb   4,  1948 

nil 

— 

147 

0 

Italy  . 

Apr  18-19,1948 

8,025,9901 

30  7 

574 

132 

Luxembourg 

June  6,  1948 

-- 

16-9 

51 

5 

Netherlands 

July  7,  1948 

381,953 

7-9 

100 

8 

Norway 

Oct.  10,  1949 

101,666 

5  8 

150 

0 

Sweden 

Sept.  19,  1948 

241,812 

6  4 

230 

9 

Switzerland 

Oct   27,  1947 

- 

— 

194 

7 

*  Only  European  countries  having  a  parliamentary  system  and  free  elections 
are  included 

t  This  represents  the  number  of  votes  obtained  by  the  Democratic  Popular 
front,  that  is,  the  Communist  and  the  left-wing  Socialist  party  led  by  Pietro 
Nenni  But  out  of  183  deputies  elected  under  the  front's  banner  132  were 
Communists 

The  12  top  leaders  of  the  Communist  party  of  the  United 
States  who  were  indicted  by  a  special  federal  grand  jury  on 
July  20,  1948,  were  tried  (with  the  exception  of  W.  Z.  Foster 
who  was  ill)  before  Federal  Judge  Harold  R.  Medina  from 
Jan.  17  to  Oct.  14,  1949,  when  they  were  found  guilty  by  the 
jury  of  secretly  teaching  and  advocating  on  secret  orders 
from  Moscow,  the  overthrow  of  the  U.S.  government  and 
the  destruction  of  American  democracy  by  violent  means. 
Ten  of  them  were  sentenced  to  five  years*  and  one  to  three 
years*  imprisonment  and  all  were  fined  $10,000  each,  but 
an  appeal  was  made  against  the  verdict.  The  small  vote  which 
the  American  Labour  party  cast  at  the  mayoralty  elections 
in  New  York  city  in  Nov.  1949,  the  dissolution  of  the 
American  Youth  for  Democracy,  a  Communist-front 
organization  on  college  campuses,  and  the  decline  of  the 
influence  of  the  American  Slav  congress,  a  Communist-front 
organization  among  the  U.S.  citizens  of  Slav  descent,  all 
pointed  in  the  same  direction.  A  similar  weakening  of 
Communist  influence,  especially  in  the  labour  movements, 
became  visible  in  Canada,  Australia  and  New  Zealand. 


CONGREGATIONAL  CHURCHES— CONGRESS 


183 


BIBLIOGRAPHY.  Margarete  Buber,  Under  Two  Dictators  (London, 
1949);  R.  N.  Carew  Hunt,  The  Theory  and  Practice  of  Communism 
(London,  1950);  Isaac  Deutscher,  Stalin:  A  Political  Biography 
(London,  1949);  Charlotte  Haldanc,  Truth  mil  Out  (London,  1949); 
Douglas  Hyde,  The  Answer  to  Communism  (London,  1949);  Hans 
Kohn,  The  Twentieth  Century  (New  York,  1949);  A.  Rossi,  A  Com- 
munist Party  in  Action  (New  Haven,  Connecticut,  1949).  (H.  Ko.) 

CONGO,  BELGIAN:  see  BELGIAN  COLONIAL  EMPIRE. 

CONGREGATIONAL  CHURCHES.  The  sixth 
International  Congregational  council  met  at  Wellesley 
college,  Massachusetts,  in  June  1949,  and  comprised  225 
delegates  from  every  continent  in  the  world  including  75 
from  the  British  Isles.  There  were  no  representatives  from 
Czechoslovakia  or  Bulgaria;  in  the  latter  country  Congrega- 
tional ministers  were  among  those  charged  by  the  govern- 
ment with  offences  against  the  state  and  were  sentenced  to 
long  terms  of  imprisonment.  At  the  International  Congrega- 
tional council  Dr.  Douglas  Horton  of  New  York  was  elected 
moderator  for  the  next  five  years. 

In  England  the  Congregational  Union  of  England  and 
Wales  considered  the  replies  of  the  churches  to  the  scheme  of 
union  with  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  England.  Compara~ 
tively  small  groups  were  in  favour  of  the  scheme  or  totally 
opposed  it;  a  large  majority  deemed  organic  union  either 
unwise  or  inopportune,  but  declared  themselves  strongly  in 
favour  of  closer  co-operation  between  the  two  denominations. 
The  congregation  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  having  expressed 
similar  views,  the  assemblies  of  the  two  denominations 
agreed  that  action  on  the  lines  of  the  scheme  of  union  was 
impossible,  but  decided  on  a  joint  assembly  in  1950  to 
covenant  together  with  the  object  of  co-operating  in  all 
possible  ways. 

The  Home  Churches  fund  of  the  Congregational  Union  of 
England  and  Wales  had  its  first  full  year  in  operation,  and  a 
minimum  stipend  of  £290  plus  manse  (or  equivalent)  free  of 
rent  and  rates  was  paid.  It  was  ruled  that  Congregational 
ministers  ranked  as  self-employed  persons  under  the  National 
Health  act. 

The  Rev.  A.  M.  Chirgwin,  the  general  secretary  of  the 
London  Missionary  society  (the  missionary  agent  of  the 
Congregational  Churches),  was  due  to  retire,  and  the  Rev. 
Maxwell  O.  Janes,  southern  moderator  of  the  Congregational 
Union  of  England  and  Wales,  was  appointed  to  succeed  him. 
The  international  situation  presented  the  society  with  difficult 
problems  in  China,  India  and  Madagascar. 

The  colleges  of  the  denomination  were  faced  with  a  critical 
situation  as  the  ex-servicemen  with  government  grants  began 
to  leave.  The  problem  was  twofold — to  secure  on  the  one 
hand  sufficient  candidates  for  the  ministry  and  on  the  other 
to  maintain  income  at  a  time  when  the  resources  of  the 
churches  were  falling  and  investment  income  had  seriously 
diminished.  The  principal  of  one  of  the  colleges,  Dr.  H.  F. 
Lovell  Cocks,  of  Western  college,  Bristol,  was  elected  chair- 
man of  the  Congregational  Union  for  1950-51.  (A.  PE.) 

United  States.  The  Congregational  Churches  of  the  United 
States,  established  at  Plymouth,  Massachusetts,  in  1620,  had 
5,715  churches  in  1949.  The  denomination  reported  1,184,661 
members  for  the  year,  534,118  church^  school  members  and 
5,839  pastors.  Total  contributions  received  for  home 
expenses  were  $27,477,429;  for  benevolences,  $5,596,949; 
value  of  church  property  was  $241,351,575. 

The  Congregational  Christian  Churches  were  planning  a 
merger  with  the  Evangelical  and  Reformed  Church  to  be 
consummated  at  Cleveland,  Ohio,  in  June  1950.  This  would 
unite  two  church  bodies,  one  of  English  ancestry,  the  other 
with  German  and  Swiss  background,  and  would  involve 
uniting  the  educational,  missionary  and  publishing  agencies 
of  the  two  church  bodies.  (See  also  CHURCH  MEMBERSHIP.) 


CONGRESS,  U.S.  The  first  session  of  the  81st 
congress,  meeting  in  regular  session  from  Jan.  3  to  Oct.  19, 
1949,  added  a  total  of  793  laws  to  the  statute  books,  of  which 
440  were  public  and  353  private.  During  the  session,  the 
longest  in  peacetime  since  1922,  3,160  measures  were  intro- 
duced in  the  Senate  and  7,467  in  the  House  of  Representatives. 
President  Harry  S.  Truman  vetoed  32  bills;  not  one  of  his 
vetoes  was  overridden. 

The  Democratic  party  had  a  safe  numerical  majority  in 
both  the  Senate  and  the  House,  but  the  effectiveness  of  its 
control  was  lessened  on  many  domestic  issues  by  the  coalition 
of  southern  Democratic  members  with  the  Republican 
minority.  At  the  siart  of  the  session  there  were  54  Democrats 
and  42  Republicans  in  the  Senate  and  263  Democrats,  171 
Republicans  and  1  American  Labour  party  in  the  House  of 
Representatives.  Representative  Sam  Ray  burn  (Texas)  was 
elected  speaker  of  the  House,  the  post  which  he  held  in  the 
76tl?-79th  congresses,  and  Senator  Kenneth  D.  McKellar 
(Tennessee)  was  elected  president  pro  tempore  of  the  Senate 
pending  the  inauguration  of  Alben  W.  Barkley  (^.v.)  as  vice 
president  on  Jan.  20,  1949. 

On  June  28,  Senator  Robert  F.  Wagner  (Democrat,  New 
York)  resigned  because  of  ill-health.  Under  a  state  law  of 
1947,  the  governor  of  New  York,  Thomas  E.  Dewey,  appointed 
John  Foster  Dulles  (Republican)  to  fill  the  vacancy  until 
Jan.  1950.  In  an  election  on  Nov.  7  Herbert  Lehmann 
(Democrat)  received  2,573,934  votes  and  Dulles  2,377,641. 
Also  on  Nov.  7,  elections  were  held  for  seats  in  the  House  of 
Representatives  for  New  York  (Brooklyn)  and  California 
(5th  district).  Mrs.  Edna  Kelly  (Democrat)  was  elected  for 
Brooklyn  and  John  F.  Shelley  (Democrat)  won  the  California 
seat  from  the  Republicans. 

In  November  William  Benton  was  appointed  by  the 
governor  of  Connecticut,  Chester  Bowles,  to  fill  the  vacancy 
in  the  Senate  caused  by  the  appointment  of  Raymond  E. 
Baldwin  (Republican)  to  the  Connecticut  supreme  court. 

In  his  annual  state  of  the  union  message  to  congress  on 
Jan.  5,  President  Truman  called  for  extensive  social  legislation 
and  measures  to  combat  inflation  along  the  lines  of  the 
programme  on  which  he  had  fought  the  1948  presidential 
election.  The  keynote  of  his  programme  was  that  "  every 
individual  has  a  right  to  expect  from  his  government  a  fair 
deal,"  and  it  was  immediately  characterized  in  the  press  and 
elsewhere  as  the  Fair  Deal. 

The  administration's  domestic  programme  made  slow 
headway,  and  most  of  its  "  must "  measures  were  still  to  be 
acted  upon  by  one  or  both  houses  of  congress  at  the  end  of 
the  session.  Prominent  among  them  were  the  compulsory 
health  insurance  programme,  universal  military  training,  the 
federal  civil  rights  programme,  liberalization  of  the  Displaced 
Persons  act  of  1948,  expansion  and  liberalization  of  the  federal 
social  security  programme  and  imposition  of  $4,000  million 
of  additional  personal  and  corporate  taxes.  The  administra- 
tion suffered  perhaps  its  most  resounding  defeat  in  the 
rejection  by  both  houses  of  congress  of  proposals  for  outright 
repeal  of  the  Taft-Hartley  labour  act  and  re-enactment  of  the 
Wagner  act  of  1935  with  a  few  amendments. 

On  the  positive  side,  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  adminis- 
tration, congress  approved  the  Fair  Labour  Standards  act 
amendments  of  1949,  the  Housing  and  Rent  act  of  1949, 
which  extended  federal  rent  controls  to  June  30,  1950,  but 
made  provision  for  local  decontrol,  the  Housing  act  of  1949, 
which  authorized  a  long-range  public  housing,  slum  clearance 
and  rural  housing  aid  programme  and  the  National  Security 
act  amendments  of  1949,  which  placed  the  defence  establish- 
ment under  the  executive  control  of  the  secretary  of  defence. 

With  the  exception  of  the  Point  Four  programme  for  the 
development  of  backward  areas,  the  administration's  foreign 
programme  was  enacted  with  the  support  of  both  Democrats 


184 


CONNALLY— CONSUMER  CREDIT 


and  Republicans.  The  Senate  rejected  all  efforts  to  qualify 
the  North  Atlantic  treaty  and  consented  to  its  ratification 
on  July  21  by  a  vote  of  82  to  13.  The  Mutual  Defence 
Assistance  act,  which  authorized  the  appropriation  of 
$1,314  million  for  arms  for  friendly  foreign  nations,  was 
passed  by  both  houses  on  Sept.  28.  On  April  14,  both  houses 
approved  a  bill  authorizing  the  appropriation  of  $5,430 
million  for  the  period  April  1,  1949-June  30,  1950,  and  on 
Sept.  29  they  approved  a  bill  appropriating  $5,659,990,000 
for  foreign  economic  aid,  of  which  $4,702,380,000  was 
for  the  European  Recovery  programme.  (J.  W.  Mw.) 

CONGRESS  OF  INDUSTRIAL  ORGANIZA- 
TIONS: see  TRADE  UNIONS. 

CONNALLY,  TOM  (THOMAS   TERRY),    US. 

senator  (b.  McLennan  county,  Texas,  Aug.  19,  1877),  gradua- 
ted from  Baylor  university,  Waco,  Texas,  and  from  the 
University  of  Texas,  Austin,  Texas.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Texas  House  of  Representatives  in  1900  and  again  in  1902. 
In  1916  he  was  elected  to  the  U.S.  House  of  Representatives, 
where  he  served  for  six  successive  terms.  He  was  elected  to 
the  U.S.  Senate  in  1928  and  was  re-elected  in  1934,  1940  and 
1946.  At  the  close  of  World  War  II,  during  most  of  which 
he  served  as  chairman  of  the  Senate  foreign  relations  com- 
mittee, he  attended  the  United  Nations  Conference  on  Inter- 
national Organization  at  San  Francisco,  as  vice  chairman  of 
the  U.S.  delegation  and  was  also  a  delegate  to  the  first  U.N. 
general  assembly  in  London  and  New  York  in  1946.  He 
attended  the  Council  of  Foreign  Ministers  sessions  in  Paris 
and  New  York  in  1946  and  the  peace  conference  in  Paris 
the  same  year.  When  the  Republican  party  gained  control 
of  the  80th  congress,  Connally,  a  Democrat,  relinquished 
the  chairmanship  of  the  Senate  foreign  relations  committee, 
but  during  that  time  worked  with  Republican  Senator 
Arthur  H.  Vandenberg  on  a  bipartisan  approach  to  foreign 
policies.  In  1949  he  resumed  the  chairmanship  and  steered 
the  North  Atlantic  treaty  through  the  Senate  in  addition  to 
the  European  aid  bill  and  the  Military  Assistance  programme 
supplement  the  Atlantic  treaty. 

CONSERVATIVE  PARTY:  see  POLITICAL  PARTIES, 
BRITISH. 

CONSUMER  CREDIT,  During  1949  traders  in  all 
parts  of  Great  Britain  reported  a  substantial  increase  in  the 
demands  that  were  being  made  upon  them  for  credit  facilities 
for  the  purchase  of  consumer  goods.  The  tendency  for  the 
situation  to  change  in  this  way  had  become  apparent  in  1948, 
but  during  1949  it  became  much  more  marked.  Not  only 
had  the  surplus  of  ready  money  in  the  hands  of  the  purchasing 
public,  which  had  accumulated  by  reason  of  savings  during 
the  war  years  and  by  the  payment  of  service  gratuities, 
become  exhausted,  but  there  was  a  very  much  larger  variety 
of  goods  on  the  market  competing  for  such  cash  as  was  still 
available.  The  cost  of  living  still  remained  high,  and  with  these 
various  influences  at  work  an  increase  in  the  amount  of 
consumer  credit  that  had  come  to  be  granted  was  hardly 
surprising. 

Although  the  increase  was  not  confined  to  any  one  particu- 
lar type  or  method  of  consumer  credit  granting,  it  was  prob- 
ably most  marked  in  the  hire  purchase  field.  Such  items  as 
furniture,  domestic  appliances,  radios,  refrigerators,  cycles 
and  motor  cycles  were  largely  sold  on  this  system,  and  traders 
handling  the^e  lines  in  some  districts  reported  that,  unless 
they  could  extend  credit  to  their  customers,  they  would  be 
unable  to  keep  their  stocks  turned  over. 

In  August,  and  again  in  September,  restrictions  were  re- 
laxed on  a  considerable  number  of  articles  which,  until  then, 
had  prevented  the  making  of  a  service  charge  for  hire  pur- 


chase or  credit  sale  transactions.  For  example,  until  these 
restrictions  were  lifted,  it  was  not  possible  to  sell  a  camera 
on  hire  purchase  terms  and  to  add  a  service  charge  to  cover 
the  additional  cost  of  the  credit  to  the  retailer.  The  easing 
of  this  control  enabling  a  further  range  of  goods  to  be  sold 
on  hire  purchase  terms  also  contributed  to  the  increase  in  the 
amount  of  consumer  credit  that  was  granted  during  the  year. 

The  increase,  large  as  it  was,  would  probably  have  been 
even  greater  had  it  not  been  for  the  continuation  of  the  policy 
laid  down  by  the  Treasury  some  years  previously  restricting 
the  amount  of  finance  which  could  be  made  available  for 
hire  purchase  transactions  on  consumer  goods.  Before 
World  War  II  a  high  percentage  of  such  transactions  had  been 
financed  not  by  the  retailer  himself  but  by  the  banks  or  by 
the  specialized  finance  houses.  The  effect  of  the  Treasury 
restriction  made  it  impossible  for  these  sources  to  accept  all 
the  increased  business  offered  to  them,  and  some  retailers 
reported  that  they  were  unable  to  grant  any  further  hire 
purchase  credit  owing  to  the  fact  that  they  themselves  were 
unable  to  obtain  the  additional  financial  backing  they 
required. 

An  increase  was  also  noticed  in  the  length  of  credit  being 
granted.  On  open  credit  accounts,  longer  time  was  required 
before  the  account  was  to  become  due  for  payment,  and 
those  customers  who  were  discussing  hire  purchase  agree- 
ments were  found,  in  a  high  percentage  of  cases,  to  ask  for 
the  agreement  to  be  drawn  so  as  to  cover  a  longer  period 
than  would  have  been  the  case  a  year  or  so  previously. 

During  the  year,  collections  on  amounts  outstanding 
appeared  on  the  whole  to  be  satisfactory,  although  in  one  or 
two  quarters  a  tendency  to  slowness  was  reported.  The  full 
employment  of  the  community,  which  had  continued  through- 
out the  year,  was  obviously  an  important  factor  in  bringing 
this  about  and,  where  proper  care  had  been  exercised  in 
checking  the  credit  standing  of  the  customer  prior  to  the 
opening  of  the  account,  ovcrducs  were  not  high.  (C.  C.  Ws.) 

United  States.  Consumer  credit,  as  reflected  by  consumer 
debt  statistics  published  by  the  board  of  governors  of  the 
federal  reserve  system,  reached  an  unprecedented  high  level 
in  the  United  States  during  1949,  when  more  than  $17,000 
million  receivables  were  reported  held  by  retail  and  service 
establishments  and  by  consumer  cash  loan  agencies.  Not 
only  was  the  amount  of  such  debt  unequalled,  but  the  rate 
of  its  growth  was  also  notable,  for  during  the  past  decade 
this  type  of  consumer  debt  had  doubled,  and  since  1943,  a 
wartime  year  when  it  was  abnormally  low,  had  increased 
threefold. 

The  increase  of  total  consumer  debt  since  World  War  II 
was  attributable  almost  entirely  to  the  increase  of  instalment 
debt,  particularly  that  arising  from  the  sale  of  automobiles. 

Notwithstanding  the  marked  growth  of  consumer  debt  in 
absolute  amount,  its  increase  was  relatively  less  than  the 
over-all  growth  of  the  entire  economy  since  1 939.  Consumer 
debt  increased,  but  so  also  did  the  means  of  paying  debt  and 
the  general  setting  in  which  the  debt  arose.  It  was  true  that 
whereas  consumer  debt  in  1939  was  $7,000  million,  in  1949 
it  was  $17,000  million.  Nevertheless,  while  such  debt  increased 
to  2-42  times  what  it  had  been  a  decade  before,  personal 
disposable  income  remaining  after  payment  of  taxes  was,  in 
1949,  2  •  75  times  what  it  had  been  in  1939.  Similarly,  personal 
savings  made  during  1949  were  more  than  six  times  as  much 
as  in  1939. 

The  quantity  of  consumer  debt  outstanding  was  no  more 
significant  than  its  qualitative  aspects,  and  in  1949,  besides 
attaining  unprecedented  volume,  consumer  credit  also 
showed  certain  characteristics  attributable  to  circumstances 
peculiar  to  that  year.  During  1949  consumer  credit  terms 
were  made  easier  and  collections  were  retarded  as  a  result  of 
increased  competition  among  sellers  for  consumer  purchases 


CONTRACT  BRIDGE— CO-OPERATIVE  MOVEMENT 


185 


and  the  expiration  of  legal  restraints  imposed  by  the  Federal 
government  upon  instalment  sales.  On  the  one  hand,  terms 
were  affected  by  increased  competition  which  reflected  the 
growing  availability  of  consumer  durable  goods  following 
World  War  II  and  the  curtailed  demand  resulting  from 
reductions  in  employment  and  in  factory  pay  rolls.  Pressures 
upon  sellers  also  arose  from  threats  of  economic  instability 
hinted  at  by  a  declining  rate  of  physical  production  and  by 
a  drop  in  many  wholesale  and  retail  prices.  In  order  to  open 
broader  markets  and  to  appeal  more  effectively  to  marginal 
income  groups,  easy  credit  terms  were  offered  widely.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  expiration  of  regulation  W,  providing 
through  federal  authority  for  minimum  down  payments  and 
maximum  credit  periods,  accentuated  the  trend  towards 
competition  in  credit  terms.  Reinstated  on  Sept.  20,  1948, 
following  a  brief  lapse,  regulation  W  was  partially  relaxed  on 
March  7,  1949,  when  the  maximum  maturity  on  all  consumer 
instalment  contracts  was  made  uniformly  21  months,  instead 
of  15  to  18  months,  and  the  required  down  payment  was 
reduced  from  20%  to  15%,  except  in  the  case  of  automobiles, 
where  the  down  payment  remained  at  33  \  %.  The  regulation 
was  further  relaxed  on  April  27,  1949,  when  down  payments 
for  articles  other  than  automobiles  were  further  reduced  to 
10%  and  all  maximum  maturities  were  increased  to  24  months. 
At  the  same  time,  all  sales  amounting  to  less  than  $100  were 
thereafter  exempted  from  regulation.  Finally,  on  June  30, 
the  authority  of  the  federal  reserve  board  to  regulate  consumer 
credit  expired. 

The  predictable  effect  of  the  passing  of  legal  restraints  upon 
consumer  credit,  especially  in  the  face  of  tightening  sales 
conditions,  was  a  noticeable  breaking  away  from  prevailing 
terms.  This  was  the  case  mainly  in  instalment  credit,  for 
charge  account  regulation  expired  in  1948  with  little  evident 
effect  upon  that  form  of  credit.  In  the  instalment  field, 
however,  the  termination  of  regulation  was  accompanied  by 
general  elimination  of  down  payments  on  radios,  television 
sets,  refrigerators,  furniture  and  the  like,  and  by  the  common 
extension  of  the  payment  period  up  to  24  months.  Terms 
on  automobile  credit  were  made  easier  than  for  most  other 
commodities.  In  the  case  of  soft  goods,  too,  credit  terms  were 
made  easier  by  the  elimination  of  the  down  payment  and  the 
extension  of  time  to  from  6  to  12  months. 

Another  development  in  consumer  credit  was  the  slowing 
down  of  the  rate  of  collections,  particularly  characteristic 
where  sales  were  in  large  measure  made  on  instalment  credit. 
Within  a  12-month  period,  for  example,  monthly  ratios  of 
collections  to  beginmng-of-month  outstandings  dropped  22  % 
in  furniture  stores,  24%  in  household  appliance  stores  and 
19%  in  jewellery  stores.  Department  stores,  on  the  other 
hand,  fared  better,  for  there  appeared  to  be  no  appreciable 
change  in  the  collection  of  either  their  instalment  or  charge 
accounts  during  the  same  period  of  1949.  (R.  BA.) 

CONTRACT  BRIDGE.  For  the  second  year  in 
succession  the  winners  and  runners-up  in  the  European 
championship  of  1949  were  respectively  Great  Britain  and 
Sweden;  Denmark  finished  third.  The  contest  was  played  in 
Paris  from  July  4-10,  11  countries  taking  part.  The  British 
team  was  M.  Harrison-Gray,  K.  W.  Konstam,  L.  Dodds, 
E.  Rayne,  B.  Shapiro,  T.  Reese  and  A.  Meredith.  The 
women's  event  was  won  by  Denmark  (winners  in  1948  also) 
with  France  second  and  Italy  third.  Great  Britain,  whose 
team  was  Mrs.  A.  L.  Fleming,  Mrs.  F.  Gordon,  Lady  Rhodes, 
Mrs.  L.  Litante,  Mrs.  P.  Williams  and  Mrs.  M.  Lester, 
finished  fourth. 

The  champion  team  of  America,  S.  Stayman,  G  Rapee, 
J.  Crawford  and  P.  Leventritt,  played  a  match  in  London 
during  May  for  the  Crowninshield  cup,  presented  by  an 
American  for  a  contest  between  the  leading  English  and 


American  players.  The  English  players,  who  won  by  a 
narrow  margin,  were  M.  Harrison-Gray,  K.  Konstam, 
B.  Shapiro,  T.  Reese,  Ewart  Kempson,  L.  Dodds,  E  Rayne, 
J.  Pavhdes,  G.  Mathieson  and  Mrs.  R.  Markus.  The  first 
four,  who  represented  Crockford's  club,  gained  a  lead  of 
2,950  in  the  first  half  of  the  match.  The  American  team  also 
lost  to  the  Lyndhurst  club,  whose  team  was,  L.  Tario,  H. 
Franklin,  Dr.  H.  Leist,  A.  Meredith,  Dr.  M.  Rockfelt  and 
A.  Rose. 

For  the  first  time  in  the  history  of  the  Gold  cup,  Britain's 
premier  team  contest,  a  Scottish  side  reached  the  final. 
The  cup  was,  however,  won  by  Graham  Mathieson's  London 
team.  The  anriual  North-South  contest  was  won  by  the 
South  who  now  led  7-6  in  the  series.  The  international 
contest  between  England,  Scotland,  Wales,  Northern  Ireland 
and  the  Bridge  association  of  Ireland,  was  won  by  England. 

The  most  successful  tournament  player  during  the  year  was 
Graham  Mathieson  of  London  who  won  six  major  events. 

A  regular  bridge  feature  was  carried  by  each  of  the  following 
London  newspapers:  The  Times,  Daily  Telegraph,  Star, 
Evening  News  and  Evening  Standard.  The  Bridge  Magazine 
and  the  Contract  Bridge  Journal,  two  magazines  entirely 
devoted  to  bridge,  were  published  every  month.  Bridge  was 
also  a  comparatively  regular  feature  in  the  B.B.C.  light 
programme.  (E  KM.) 

United  States.  In  January  new  laws  for  duplicate  bridge 
were  released.  For  the  first  time,  these  laws  were  an  inter- 
national code,  adopted  by  the  European  Bridge  league's 
members  as  well  as  in  the  western  hemisphere. 

In  bidding,  the  principal  development  was  the  adoption  of 
point-count  valuation  by  Charles  Goren  of  Philadelphia, 
Pennsylvania,  one  of  the  principal  authorities.  Under  this 
method,  based  on  calculations  originally  made  by  W.  M. 
Anderson  of  Toronto,  Canada,  each  ace  is  counted  as  4 
points,  king  3,  queen  2,  knave  1 ;  1  point  is  added  for  each 
doubleton  in  the  hand,  2  for  each  singleton,  3  for  each  void. 
A  hand  of  14  points  or  slightly  less  is  considered  biddable, 
and  a  combined  partnership  count  of  26  or  more  justifies 
bidding  game. 

In  November  the  New  York  metropolitan  women's  pair 
championship  was  won  by  a  Negro  pair,  Dons  Brooks  and 
Geralding  Gibson,  and  Mrs.  Brooks  also  won  the  mixed-pair 
contest,  paired  with  a  white  partner,  M.  C.  Keller.  G.  Rapee, 
New  York,  won  the  individual  Master's  championship  for 
1949.  (E.  CUL.;  A.  H.  MD.) 

CO-OPERATIVE  MOVEMENT.  In  1948  retail 
sales  amounted  to  £490  million,  as  compared  with  £434 
million  in  1947.  Trading  surplus,  at  £45,921,000,  was  a 
little  lower  than  in  1947,  despite  increased  sales,  because  of 
price-cutting  at  the  government's  request,  a  policy  which 
could  not  be  sustained  when  it  threatened  seriously  to  affect 
dividends  on  purchases  without  leading  to  any  large  increases 
in  membership.  Dividends  on  purchases,  at  £35,461,000, 
were  nearly  the  same  as  in  1947,  but  at  a  reduced  rate  on  the 
£1  of  sales.  Share  capital  fell  from  £247  million  to  £243 
million.  Wages  and  salaries  advanced  from  £57,453,000  to 
£63,549,000.  The  co-operative  wholesale  societies  of  all 
types  increased  sales  from  £293  million  to  £331  million,  but 
trading  surpluses  fell  from  £14  million  to  £12  million.  The 
total  production  value  of  all  co-operative  productive  agencies 
was  £181,586,000,  as  against  £157,569,000  in  1947.  Of  the 

1948  total,  £103  million  was  accounted  for  by  the  two  major 
wholesale  societies,   English  and  Scottish,   £60  million  by 
retail   societies  and   £18  million  by  others,   including  the 
producers'  societies  (about  £5,500,000). 

The  principal  development  in  British  co-operation  during 

1949  was  the  inauguration  of  "national  membership,"  to 
which  most  of  1,000  retail  societies  were  parties.   This  system 


186 


COSTA  RICA 


was  designed  to  enable  any  member  of  a  participating  society 
to  receive  dividend  on  purchases  made  at  any  such  society's 
shops.  It  is  still  too  soon  to  judge  the  effects  of  national 
membership:  the  chief  complaint  against  it  was  the  heavy 
book-keeping  involved,  as  each  society  had  its  own  rate  of 
dividend  on  purchases.  There  were  proposals  to  simplify 
the  scheme  by  making  dividends  on  purchases  payable  at  a 
uniform  rate. 

In  1949  the  figures  of  co-operative  registrations  under  food 
rationing  showed  few  changes  as  compared  with  1948.  The 
co-operative  societies  held  over  13  million  registrations  for 
sugar  and  for  milk,  and  nearly  the  same  number  for  butter  and 
fats  and  also  for  cheese.  For  bacon  they  held  11,732,000; 
for  eggs  10,029,000,  and  for  other  meat  7,236,000.  For  coal, 
registration  was  on  a  household  basis  and  the  co-operative 
total  of  2,653,833  was  well  over  one-fifth  of  the  total.  In 
other  branches  of  trade,  co-operative  trade  accounted  for 
about  the  following  proportions  of  national  trade:  dairy 
products  32%;  bread  and  grocery  16%:  meat  12%;  boots 
and  shoes  10%;  tobacco  8%;  clothing,  furnishings  and 
hardware  6-7%;  pharmacy  6%.  In  other  commodities  the 
co-operative  share  in  retail  trade  was  relatively  small.  These 
figures  indicated  that  the  co-operative  societies  were  barely 
holding  their  own  in  competition  with  other  trading  agencies. 
Expansion  was  limited  because  of  restrictions  on  building  and 
difficulties  in  getting  permits  from  local  authorities  to  open 
new  shops.  There  was  some  buying  up  of  private  businesses 
and  development  of  self-service  stores  and  travelling  shops. 

During  1949  there  was  much  discussion  between  the 
Labour  party  and  the  co-operatives  in  an  endeavour  to  arrive 
at  a  clearer  line  of  demarcation  between  spheres  of  public 
ownership  and  co-operative  enterprise.  The  question  was 
brought  to  a  head  by  the  Labour  party's  proposal  in  its  draft 
election  programme  for  1950  to  nationalize  industrial 
insurance.  This  would  have  involved  taking  over  the 
co-operative  insurance  society;  and  strong  protests  by  the 
co-operative  leaders  led  to  a  change  in  the  government's 
plans.  The  Labour  party  now  proposed  to  leave  in  being  all 
insurance  societies  run  on  a  "  mutual "  basis  and  to  convert 
the  profit-making  insurance  companies  into  mutual  societies. 
The  Co-operative-Labour  discussions  also  ranged  over  a 
wider  field,  including  the  marketing  of  agricultural  produce 
and  of  coal  and  the  entire  future  organization  of  retail 
distribution.  They  were  still  unfinished  in  December;  but 
it  had  become  clear  that  co-operators  were  insisting  on 
having  more  account  taken  of  co-operative  aspirations  in 
the  framing  of  Labour  policy. 

No  conference  of  the  International  Co-operative  alliance, 
which  still  included  countries  of  eastern  Europe  as  well  as 
of  the  west,  was  held  during  1949.  In  the  international  field 
the  main  events  were  a  considerable  expansion  of  the  revived 
co-operative  movement  in  Western  Germany,  a  further 
growth  of  co-operatives  in  the  British  colonies,  especially  in 
West  Africa,  and  an  increase  in  educational  work,  especially 
in  training  co-operative  leaders  for  work  in  the  less  advanced 
areas.  East  of  the  "  iron  curtain,"  there  was  a  further  rapid 
growth  of  state-controlled  agricultural  co-operatives  in  the 
satellite  states  and  also  in  Yugoslavia.  In  Palestine  the  Israeli 
government  continued  to  promote  co-operative  enterprise. 
The  International  Co-operative  alliance,  with  headquarters 
in  London,  increased  its  activities  after  the  Prague  conference 
of  1948  and  avoided  a  doctrinal  split.  It  collaborated  actively 
with  economic  agencies  attached  to  the  United  Nations  and 
with  the  International  Labour  organization.  (G.  D.  H.  C.) 

United  States.  In  1949  there  were  about  10  million  members 
of  various  types  of  U.S.  co-operatives  including  agricultural 
marketing  associations,  credit  co-operatives  or  credit  unions, 
consumer  co-operatives,  insurance,  housing,  health  and  medical 
care,  publication  and  broadcasting  and  other  enterprises. 


The  outstanding  development  of  co-operatives  in  1949 
was  an  increase  in  co-operative  housing  and  a  drive  for 
legislation  in  middle  income  housing.  At  the  close  of  1949 
more  than  100  co-operative  housing  projects  were  in  operation 
serving  over  30,0(X)  families.  These  projects  included  all 
types  of  homes  from  city  apartment  houses  in  New  York 
to  small  10-family  projects  of  individual  homes  in  rural  and 
suburban  areas. 

In  the  field  of  medical  co-operatives,  the  Co-operative 
Health  Federation  of  America  and  the  American  Medical 
association  reached  a  working  agreement  on  the  role  of 
co-operative  and  pre-payment  medical  care  in  the  U.S. 
economy  and  a  number  of  new  co-operative  health  associa- 
tions were  established.  Membership  continued  to  increase 
in  prepaid  medical  care  plans  and  co-operative  hospitals. 

In  retail  food  distribution  about  1,000  co-operative  food 
stores  handled  a  volume  of  business  estimated  at  about 
$100  million  retail,  with  branches  from  Massachusetts  to 
California. 

Farm  supply  co-operatives  continued  to  be  the  largest 
single  volume  business  in  the  consumer  co-operative  field, 
with  sales  of  nearly  $1,000  million  in  seed,  feed,  fertilizer, 
farm  machinery  and  other  farm  supplies. 

Marketing  co-operatives  represented  more  than  half  of 
the  U.S.  families  with  a  volume  of  business  of  over  $3,000 
million.  There  were  1 3  major  fields  of  marketing,  including 
dairy  products,  grain,  citrus  fruits,  wool,  poultry  products 
and  so  forth. 

Internationally  the  co-operatives  continued  to  make  head- 
way. The  largest  Co-operative  for  American  Remittances  to 
Europe,  better  known  as  C.A.R.E.,  had  distributed  nearly 
$100  million  worth  of  relief  packages  (food  and  textiles) 
abroad  since  it  was  established  late  in  1945.  Another,  the 
International  Co-operative  Petroleum  association,  was  com- 
pleting its  second  year  of  operation  and  was  shipping  petrol- 
eum products  from  the  co-operatives  in  America  to  co- 
operatives in  South  Africa,  Australia,  New  Zealand,  France, 
Scotland,  Yugoslavia  and  other  countries.  (W.  J.  CL.) 

CORN:   see  GRAIN  CROPS. 

COSMETICS  :    see  SOAP,  PERFUMERY  AND  COSMETICS. 

COSTA  RICA.  A  Central  American  republic,  located 
between  Nicaragua  and  Panama.  Area:  19,238  sq.  mi. 
Pop.  (mid- 1949  est.)  837,000,  classified  as  about  80% 
white,  16%  mixed,  3%  Negro,  less  than  1%  Indian.  Chief 
towns  (pop.,  1948  est.):  San  Jose  (cap.,  90,615);  Heredia 
(12,038);  Alajuela  (11,663);  Cartago  (11,505).  Language: 
Spanish.  Religion:  predominantly  Roman  Catholic.  Presi- 
dents in  1949,  Colonel  Jos6  Figueres  Ferrer  (provisional)  and 
Otilio  Ulate  Blanco. 

History.  The  year  brought  a  restoration  of  constitutional 
government  after  a  previous  year  of  revolt  and  dictatorship. 
The  Constituent  Assembly  met  on  Jan.  16,  restored  political 
liberties,  drew  up  a  new  constitution  and  retired,  Nov.  8,  in 
favour  of  a  Legislative  Assembly.  On  the  same  date  Colonel 
Jose"  Figueres  and  his  revolutionary  junta  resigned  and 
president-elect  Otilio  Ulate  Blanco  was  inaugurated. 

The  return  to  democratic  government  was  interrupted  on 
April  2  by  a  military  revolt  fomented  by  the  minister  of 
national  defence,  Colonel  Edgardo  Cardona,  but  the  uprising 
was  crushed  within  24  hours.  Six  were  killed  and  24  were 
injured  in  the  fighting.  Those  arrested  in  connection  with 
the  revolt  were  granted  complete  amnesty  in  June  by  Figueres. 

Notwithstanding  the  attempted  coup,  the  junta  agreed  in 
April  to  resign  on  May  8  and  turn  the  government  over  to 
Ulate,  but  the  president-elect  refused  to  take  office  until  the 
new  constitution  was  promulgated  and  a  Legislative  Assembly 


COTTON 


187 


elected.  In  the  congressional  elections,  Oct.  2,  Ulate's  party, 
the  National  Union,  won  a  majority  of  the  seats  (33  out  of 
45)  and  also  elected  both  of  the  vice-presidents.  The  remaining 
seats  in  the  assembly  were  distributed  among  five  other  parties. 
On  his  inauguration,  Nov.  8,  Ulate  pledged  particular  support 
to  new  social  security  legislation,  public  health,  education 
and  a  higher  standard  of  living  for  the  people. 

The  critical  relations  between  Costa  Rica  and  Nicaragua 
arising  from  the  so-called  *'  invasion "  of  exiled  former 
President  Rafael  Calderon  Guardia's  sympathizers  in  Dec. 
1948,  were  smoothed  in  January  through  the  offices  of  the 
Organization  of  American  States  (^.v.).  The  dispute  was 
settled  completely  in  February  by  a  friendship  pact  signed  by 
the  two  countries  in  Washington. 

On  the  economic  front,  rising  coffee  prices  in  the  world 
market  were  offset  during  1949  by  previous  commitments 
to  sell  the  current  crop  at  lower  prices.  The  general  cost  of 
living  index  figure  rose  from  241  in  March  (1936—100)  to 
250  in  August.  In  July,  however,  a  series  of  government 
decrees  established  new  minimum  wage  rates  affecting  almost 
every  employee  in  the  country  and  calling  for  wage  increases 
from  15%  for  peons  in  the  central  plateau  to  as  much  as 
250%  for  some  white-collar  workers. 

Education.  Schools  (1948):  primary  919,  pupils  99,550;  secondary 
44,  pupils  10,955  The  National  university  had  907  students  with  180 
professors  in  1945 

Agriculture.  The  1949-50  coftee  crop  was  forecast  to  reach  a  record 
475,000  bags  of  132  Ib.  each  Other  major  crops  (1948,  in  '000  Ib.)- 
corn  46,847;  rice  28,209,  potatoes  27,646,  beans  22,338.  Jn  1949 
there  were  492,048  head  of  cattle  in  the  country 

Foreign  Trade.  Exports  in  1948  were  valued  at  U  S  $31,839,900; 
imports  amounted  to  S42,344,379.  The  U  S  took  72%  of  the  exports 
and  supplied  78  %  of  the  imports  The  main  imports  were  wheat  flour, 
sulphate  of  soda  and  cotton  textiles  The  chief  exports  were  coffee, 
bananas,  cacao  and  abaca  fibre. 

Communications.  At  the  end  of  1947  there  were  414  mi  of  public 
and  255  mi.  of  private  railways  and  1,015  mi.  of  improved  highways. 
At  the  end  of  1946  there  were  2,800  automobiles,  600  buses  and  1,300 
commercial  vehicles  registered 

Finance.  ('000  colones)  Budget  (1949  est.)  ordinary  expenditure 
110,762,  extraordinary  expenditure  106,968,  (1948,  actual)  expenditure 
114,797;  revenue  90,080.  Public  debt  (end  1948)'  external  169,136; 
internal  147,961.  At  the  end  of  June  1949,  the  Central  bank  had  gold 
reserves  totalling  11,547  and  currency  circulation  amounted  to  103,410 
The  monetary  unit  is  the  colon*  valued  officially  at  17-6  U  S  cents  on 
July  31,  1949,  but  with  street-market  quotations  as  low  as  11-11  cents 
on  Oct.  22.  (M.  L.  M.) 

COTTON.  Progress  continued  to  be  made  in  the  cotton 
industry  in  Great  Britain  throughout  1949,  although  the 
recovery  towards  prewar  performances  was  not  swift.  Yarn 
production  in  the  closing  months  of  the  year  was  the  highest 
after  World  War  II  and  the  number  of  workers  employed 
in  spinning  and  weaving  exceeded  300,000,  compared  with 
360,000  in  1937.  Further  recruitment  gains  took  place, 
stimulated  by  better  amenities  in  the  mills,  the  use  of  part- 
time  labour  and  foreign  trainees  from  Europe.  In  the  first 
half  of  the  year  both  spinning  and  weaving  operatives 
obtained  wage  increases;  and  the  new  list  for  mule  spinners 
based  on  the  recommendations  of  the  Evershed  report  was 
adopted.  The  final  report  of  the  Cotton  Manufacturing 
commission  urged  the  importance  of  introducing  its  earlier 
proposals  for  a  new  alternative  wage  system.  Agreement 
on  this  voluntary  plan  was  reached  at  the  end  of  the  year. 

The  Raw  Cotton  commission  continued  its  policy  of 
revising  selling  rates  to  British  spinners  in  accordance  with 
changes  in  world  values.  The  price  of  American  cotton 
remained  relatively  stable,  rising  from  23  •  00<1  per  Ib.  at  the 
beginning  of  the  year  to  23  •  5§d.  before  devaluation.  The 
currency  changes  resulted  in  a  sharp  advance  to  28  •  1 5d.  per 
Ib.,  the  price  at  the  end  of  December  being  29-65d.  Long 
staple  Egyptian  Karnak  cotton  fell  in  price  from  52  •  QQd.  per 
Ib.  in  January  to  40-OOc/.  in  mid-April.  In  November  the 


selling  quotation  had  recovered  to  44  •  5Qd.  per  Ib.  Egyptian 
Ashmouni  cotton,  valued  at  30-  \5d.  per  Ib.  at  the  beginning 
of  the  year,  declined  to  25  -65d.  in  June  but  was  raised  after 
devaluation  until  the  price  in  December  was  38  •  85</.  A  new 
cover  scheme  was  generally  adopted  from  the  beginning  of 
December,  enabling  mill-owners  to  buy  raw  cotton  on 
forward  delivery  terms  with  adequate  cover  facilities. 

Statutory  price  control  was  lifted  from  yarn  and  cloth  in 
April  but  the  existing  level  of  values  was  fully  maintained 
by  the  trade  itself.  Further  freedom  was  given  to  exporters 
by  the  abolition  of  the  market  grouping  and  symbol  systems, 
enabling  shippers  to  send  yarn  and  cloth  to  destinations  of 
their  own  choicf.  The  national  economic  need  to  increase 
exports  to  hard  currency  markets  was  continually  stressed. 
Exports  of  cotton  piece  goods  for  the  first  1 1  months  of  the 
year  totalled  838,379,000  sq.  yd.,  a  substantial  advance  on 
shipments  for  the  whole  of  1948.  Main  customers  were 
British  West  Africa,  Australia,  South  Africa,  Pakistan  and 
India.  The  import  ban  imposed  by  South  Africa  and  India 
hampered  trading  in  the  second  half  of  the  year.  Yarn 
exports  for  the  first  1 1  months  of  the  year  amounted  to 
76,530,400  Ib.,  much  larger  than  the  aggregate  for  1948. 
Leading  consumers  were  Pakistan,  India,  the  Netherlands, 
Australia  and  Hong  Kong.  After  devaluation  a  rush  of 
business  from  soft  currency  markets,  chiefly  in  Europe, 
caused  the  Board  of  Trade  to  issue  a  warning  that  further 
applications  for  export  licences  to  such  areas  would  be  very 
closely  watched. 

Grouping  of  milk  under  the  government's  modernization 
programme  made  better  progress,  28  spinning  amalgama- 
tions being  approved  by  the  Board  of  Trade,  representing 
59%  of  the  total  spindles  installed.  Re-equipment  proposals 
were  submitted  for  60  mills,  the  time  for  booking  new 
machinery  under  the  act  being  extended  to  April,  1950. 

Clothes  rationing  ended  in  Great  Britain  in  March  but 
little  difficulty  was  experienced  in  meeting  the  demand  of  the 
home  trade.  Extensive  revisions  in  maximum  utility  cloth 
prices  were  enforced.  Owners  of  textile  bleaching  and 
printing  plant  agreed  to  enter  into  arrangements  to  reduce 
surplus  machinery.  It  was  proposed  that  re-organization 
boards  should  be  set  up  to  accept  redundant  plant  offered 
voluntarily,  and  that  financial  support  should  be  given  by 
those  firms  which  remained  in  the  trade. 

Cotton  textile  producing  countries  in  Europe  generally 
made  steady  progress  and  several  nations  were  able  to  export 
goods  in  larger  quantities  than  before  World  War  II.  British 
spinners  and  manufacturers  found  little  evidence  of  a  return 
to  a  buyer's  market.  Supplies  were  again  supplemented  by 
imports  of  grey  cloth,  chiefly  from  Japan,  for  finishing  and 
re-export.  Demand  generally  continued  to  exceed  supply 
but  the  industry  remained,  both  financially  and  organically, 
much  stronger  than  at  any  time  after  1920.  (F.  W.  TA.) 

United  States.  Manufacture.  The  decline  in  the  U.S.  cotton 
industry  continued  throughout  the  first  half  of  1949,  but  there 
was  an  appreciable  improvement  after  June.  By  the  end  of 
the  year  there  was  an  active  demand  and  a  rising  trend  of 
production  and  prices. 

However,  the  production  for  the  year  was  expected  to 
show  a  minimum  drop  of  13%  compared  with  1948.  On  a 
yardage  basis,  1949  production  was  down  at  least  1,200 
million  yd.  Production  during  the  first  nine  months  of  the 
year  was  6,197  million  yd.,  compared  with  7,377  million  yd. 
in  the  corresponding  period  of  1948.  Spindle  activity  in 
September  was  115%  of  80-hr,  capacity  as  compared  with 
103%  for  the  first  six  months  of  the  year.  Some  prices  had 
advanced  as  much  as  25%  above  the  low  July  level — the 
average  increase  was  nearer  10  than  15%. 

Production.  The  U.S.  cotton  crop  of  1949  of  16,034,000 
bales  (of  500  Ib.  gross  weight)  was  the  sixth  largest  on  record, 


188 


COUNCIL  OF  EUROPE 


comparable  with  14,877,000  bales  in  1948,  and  an  average 
for  1938-47  of  only  11,306,000  bales.  It  was  valued  at 
approximately  $2,300  million.  The  estimated  lint  yield  per 
harvested  acre  in  1 949  was  285  •  8  lb.,  compared  with  3 1 2  •  6  Ib. 
in  1948  but  the  third  highest  on  record  and  comparable  to 
the  254  lb.  average  during  1938-47.  Acreage  harvested  in 
1949  was  26,898,000,  or  18%  more  than  the  22,821,000  ac. 
harvested  in  1948  and  even  larger  in  comparison  with  the 
21,396,000  ac.  average  of  the  previous  decade.  This  large 
acreage  was  in  spite  of  a  government  request  that  an  acreage 
goal  of  21,894,000  ac.  be  observed.  Texas,  California, 
Arizona  and  New  Mexico  produced  50%  of  the  1949  crop. 
The  1949  crop  of  American-Egyptian  cotton  was  4,300  bales, 
whereas  only  3,600  bales  were  produced  in  1948;  the 
average  for  1938-47  was  29,500  bales. 

Cotton  prices  for  growers  reached  a  peak  of  30  •  1 3  cents 
per  lb.  in  June,  before  the  condition  and  probable  size  of 
the  1949  crop  were  adequately  indicated,  but  declined  to 
27  •  76  cents  per  lb.  in  November.  The  probable  average  price 
for  the  1949  crop  was  indicated  at  28-60  cents  per  lb., 
compared  with  30-41  cents  average  for  the  1948  crop. 

Exports  of  cotton  from  the  United  States  during  1949-50 
were  expected  to  decrease  moderately  from  the  4,747,600 
bales  in  1948-49,  but  to  continue  below  the  prewar  rate. 

The  1949  crop  of  16,034,000  bales,  plus  a  reserve  of 
5,283,000  bales,  provided  a  total  U.S.  supply  of  21,317,000 
bales  against  a  probable  domestic  consumption  of  8  million 
bales  and  an  export  of  a  possible  4-5  million  bales,  thus 
leaving  a  probable  reserve  of  over  8  •  5  million  bales  in 
Aug.  1950,  much  of  it  in  the  hands  of  the  Commodity  Credit 
corporation.  This  mounting  surplus  resulted  in  an  order 
from  the  Department  of  Agriculture  that  plantings  in  1950 
be  allocated  to  producing  areas  on  the  basis  of  a  national  goal 
of  21  million  ac.— 21  %  less  than  in  1949.  In  December 
growers  approved  by  a  9  to  1  ratio  that  marketing  quotas 
be  established  on  the  1950  crop,  thus  loans  would  continue 
to  be  available  to  co-operating  growers  at  90%  of  parity. 

World  Production.  World  cotton  production  continued  its 
upward  trend  in  1949.  The  preliminary  estimate  for  the  crop 
for  1949-50  indicated  30  4  million  bales,  an  increase  of  4  •  5  % 
compared  with  the  29-1  million  bales  in  1948.  Acreage 
increased  sharply  to  68,640,000  from  63,840,000  in  1948, 
but  was  substantially  below  the  81,142,000  ac.  of  prewar. 
Mexico  harvested  1,334,000  ac.  as  against  1,050,000  ac.  in 
1948,  producing  a  record  crop  of  896,000  bales — more  than 
double  the  1940-44  average.  Indian  production  increased  to 
2-4  million  bales  from  1,960,000  bales  the  previous  year. 
Egypt  reported  a  crop  of  1,616,000  bales,  a  12%  smaller 
crop  from  an  acreage  17%  larger  than  in  1948,  a  result  of  a 
25%  reduction  in  yields  following  insect  damage.  Brazil's 
crop  was  expected  to  be  smaller  than  the  1  •  5  million  bales 
produced  in  1948. 

World  reserves  of  cotton  from  previous  crops  increased 
to  14,768,000  bales  from  13,907,000  bales  in  1948,  but  were 
low  compared  with  the  1935-39  average  of  17,352,000  bales. 
The  reserve  was  expected  to  increase  to  about  17,000,000 
bales  by  the  end  of  the  crop  year,  Aug.  1950.  Total  world 
consumption  was  expected  to  decline  about  600,000  bales, 
the  decrease  being  largely  in  China;  Great  Britain,  Japan, 
Germany  and  France  were  expected  to  show  increases. 
(See  also  TEXTILE  INDUSTRY.)  (J.  K.  R.) 

COUNCIL  OF  EUROPE.  The  year  1948  had  seen 
considerable  progress  in  the  unification  of  Europe.  The 
Brussels  treaty  marked  the  first  big  step.  It  was  followed  by 
the  creation  of  a  defence  organization  under  the  command  of 
Field  Marshal  Viscount  Montgomery  of  Alamein  with  its 
headquarters  at  Fontainebleau,  France.  Meanwhile  the 
European  movement,  a  private  organization  under  the  joint 


presidency  of  Leon  Blum,  Winston  Churchill,  Alcide  De 
Gasperi  and  Paul-Henri  Spaak,  had  held  a  remarkable 
congress  at  The  Hague,  Netherlands,  which  brought  together 
nearly  1,000  delegates  from  all  over  Europe.  Its  most 
important  resolution  demanded  the  creation  of  a  European 
assembly.  Finally  throughout  1948  the  Organization  for 
European  Economic  Co-operation  had  continued  its  work 
of  drawing  western  Europe  together  economically.  The 
ground  had  thus  been  prepared  for  a  further  advance,  but 
when  on  Feb.  7,  1949,  the  Brussels  powers — Belgium,  France, 
Great  Britain,  Luxembourg  and  the  Netherlands — announced 
their  intention  to  promote  the  establishment  of  a  Council 
of  Europe  consisting  of  a  committee  of  ministers  and  a 
consultative  assembly,  the  announcement  came  as  a  surprise. 
Few  people  had  expected  such  an  early  fruition. 

A  number  of  reasons  might  be  suggested  for  the  rapid 
growth  of  opinion  in  favour  of  greater  European  unity. 
The  failure  of  the  United  Nations  to  create  a  condition  of 
general  security  had  convinced  large  numbers  of  Europeans 
that  they  must  provide  for  their  own  security  by  some 
regional  organization.  This  feeling  was  sharpened  by  the 
fear  of  communist  infiltration,  possibly  culminating  in  a 
Russian  sweep  over  western  Europe.  The  successful  main- 
tenance of  the  position  of  the  western  powers  in  Berlin  by 
means  of  the  air-lift  and  the  recession  of  the  communist 
parties  in  France  and  Italy  had  done  something  to  allay  these 
apprehensions,  but  had  by  no  means  removed  them.  At  the 
same  time,  in  spite  of  the  gradual  economic  recovery  which 
was  taking  place  in  western  Europe,  there  was  a  growing 
realization  of  the  need  for  pooling  its  agricultural  and 
industrial  resources,  to  avoid  a  serious  relapse  when  Marshall 
aid  came  to  an  end  in  1952.  It  was  also  becoming  clear  that 
the  defence  and  the  economic  restoration  of  Europe  required 
a  solution  of  the  German  problem,  which  could  only  be 
solved  by  bringing  Germany  into  the  framework  of  a  united 
Europe.  Moreover,  apart  from  these  immediate  considera- 
tions, there  was  a  nascent  belief  that  hurope  could  not 
maintain  its  traditional  liberties  against  the  assault  of 
totalitarian  ideas,  unless  it  reaffirmed  its  faith  and  undertook 
its  collective  defence.  The  impulse  generated  by  all  these 
convictions  and  sentiments  was  reinforced  by  the  encourage- 
ment of  the  American  government  and  by  the  pressure  of 
congress. 

At  the  beginning  of  May  the  foreign  ministers  of  ten 
countries — Belgium,  Denmark,  France,  Ireland,  Italy,  Luxem- 
bourg, the  Netherlands,  Norway,  Sweden  and  the  United 
Kingdom — met  at  St.  James's  palace,  London,  under  the 
chairmanship  of  Ernest  Bevm,  and  there  drew  up  the  statute 
of  the  Council  of  Europe.  It  was  to  consist  of  a  committee 
of  ministers  and  a  consultative  assembly,  the  former  to 
"  provide  for  the  development  of  co-operation  between 
governments,'*  the  latter  to  "  provide  a  means  through 
which  the  aspirations  of  the  European  peoples  may  be  for- 
mulated and  expressed/*  Every  member  of  the  council  was 
to  "  accept  the  principles  of  the  rule  of  law  and  of  the  enjoy- 
ment by  all  persons  within  its  jurisdiction  of  human  rights 
and  fundamental  freedoms/*  The  committee  of  ministers 
might  invite  other  countries  to  join  the  council,  either  as  full 
or  associate  members,  the  latter  being  entitled  to  representa- 
tion in  the  assembly,  but  not  in  the  committee  of  ministers. 
The  control  of  the  organization  and  the  agenda  of  the 
assembly  rested  with  the  ministers,  to  whom  its  recommen- 
dations would  be  addressed  and  with  whom  any  action  to 
be  taken  on  them  or  on  behalf  of  the  council  generally 
would  he.  Subject  to  these  limitations,  the  assembly  might 
discuss  any  matter  within  the  scope  of  the  council,  that  is 
to  say,  the  promotion  of  greater  unity  of  its  members  "  for 
the  purpose  of  safeguarding  and  realizing  the  ideals  and 
principles  which  are  their  common  heritage  and  facilitating 


COUNCIL   OF   EUROPE 


189 


Paul-Henri  Spaak  (Belgium)  presiding  over  the  consultative  assembly  of  the  Council  of  Europe  at  Strasbourg,  Aug.  1949.    M  Spaak  was 

unanimously  elected  first  president  of  the  assembly  on  Aug.  11 
their  economic   and   social     roress. "      The  only  subject 


progress _.v  a»VJ^ 

specifically  excluded  from  the  consideration  of  the  council 
was  defence.  Each  country  was  allotted  a  number  of  rep- 
resentatives in  the  assembly  proportionate  to  its  population, 
ranging  from  18  for  France,  Italy  and  the  United  Kingdom 
to  4  for  Denmark,  Ireland  and  Norway. 

The  first  meeting  of  the  council  was  fixed  to  take  place  at 
Strasbourg  in  August.  In  the  meantime,  delegates  to  the 
assembly  had  to  be  nominated  by  whatever  method  the 
government  of  each  country  might  choose.  In  Great  Britain 
it  was  decided  to  appoint  a  delegation  drawn  from  all  three 
parties  in  proportion  to  their  strength.  Herbert  Morrison 
and  Hugh  Dalton  for  the  Labour  party,  Winston  Churchill, 
Harold  Macmillan  and  Sir  David  Maxwell  Fyfe  for  the 
Conservatives,  and  Lord  Lay  ton  for  the  Liberals  were  the 
principal  nominees.  In  other  countries  a  similar  practice 
was  usually  followed,  so  that,  on  meeting,  the  assembly 
was  found  to  consist  entirely  of  members  of  parliament 
representing  a  wide  variety  of  political  opinion.  Their 
domestic  differences  were  to  some  extent  attenuated,  however, 
by  the  seating  arrangement  adopted  at  Strasbourg.  Instead 
of  each  national  delegation  being  grouped  as  a  unit,  the 
delegates  were  seated  in  alphabetical  order.  Being  thus  mixed 
up  together  without  any  national  labels,  they  were  invited 
to  look  upon  themselves  as  representatives  of  western  Europe 
rather  than  of  their  respective  countries,  a  suggestion  which 
had  a  perceptible  psychological  influence  on  the  assembly. 

When  its  first  session  was  inaugurated  by  Edouard  Herriot 
in  the  hall  of  the  University  of  Strasbourg  on  Aug.  10, 
12  countries  were  represented  by  102  delegates,  including 
delegates  from  Greece  and  Turkey,  whose  application  for 
membership  had  been  accepted  by  the  committee  of  ministers. 


Under  the  presidency  of  Paul-Henri  Spaak  the  assembly  sat 
continuously  for  a  month.  Its  debates  in  full  sitting  and  in 
the  six  committees — political,  economic,  social,  cultural, 
legal  and  privileges— covered  most  of  the  problems  affecting 
the  unity  of  Europe.  As  they  proceeded,  a  sense  of  common 
purpose  developed  and  with  it  a  corporate  consciousness. 
At  the  close  of  its  session  the  assembly  had  appointed  a 
permanent  committee  to  ensure  its  continuous  existence 
between  sessions  and  had  decided  to  maintain  its  six  com- 
mittees in  being  with  the  same  object  in  view.  The  assembly 
claimed,  in  fact,  to  be  regarded  as  a  regular  parliamentary 
institution. 

The  working  committees  of  the  assembly  produced  a  large 
body  of  recommendations  for  transmission  to  the  committee 
of  ministers.  Not  least  important  was  its  code  of  human 
rights  with  a  European  commission  and  a  European  court 
to  enforce  it.  Once  this  basic  charter  of  European  liberties 
was  adopted,  it  would  become  binding  on  every  member 
state,  which  meant  that  the  preservation  of  individual  free- 
dom and  resistance  to  dictatorship  would  be  not  only  a 
national  affair  but  the  concern  of  the  whole  European 
community— a  powerful  safeguard  for  democracy. 

On  the  economic  side  the  assembly  recommended  that 
European  trade  should  be  progressively  freed  from  restrictions 
and  that  European  currencies  should  be  made  interchange- 
able. It  further  declared  that  existing  economic  ties  between 
Europe  and  its  associated  countries  and  territories  overseas 
should  be  preserved  and  extended.  For  this  purpose  an 
economic  conference  between  them  should  be  convened,  in 
order  to  work  out  common  policies  as  regards  trade  preferen- 
ces, foreign  investment  and  the  development  of  natural 
resources.  As  a  final  stage  in  its  economic  programme,  the 


190 


COUNCIL  OF   FOREIGN  MINISTERS 


assembly  suggested  negotiation  between  the  Council  of 
Europe  and  the  United  States,  in  order  to  reach  agreement 
for  the  modification  of  existing  treaties  hampering  intra- 
European  trade  and  for  stimulating  a  larger  flow  of  exports 
from  Europe  to  America. 

Lastly  a  vigorous  attempt  was  made  to  tackle  the  political 
difficulties  in  the  way  of  uniting  Europe.  By  April  30,  1950, 
the  political  committee  was  instructed  to  report  on  the 
"  modification  desirable  in  the  political  structure  of  the 
members  of  the  council  with  a  view  to  a  closer  unity  between 
them.'*  An  indication  of  the  lines  on  which  it  should  go  was 
given  by  the  resolution  declaring  that  the  aim  of  the  council 
was  "  the  creation  of  a  European  political  authority  with 
limited  functions  but  real  powers  "  and  by  a  series  of  amend- 
ments to  the  statute  giving  greater  latitude  to  the  assembly, 
including  the  right  of  approving  or  disapproving  the  admission 
of  new  members.  A  great  deal  of  consideration  had  been 
given  to  the  admission  of  Germany  as  an  associate  member, 
for  it  was  recognized  that  the  solution  of  the  German  problem 
was  essential  to  the  reconstruction  of  Europe.  The  assembly 
therefore  requested  that  the  question  of  new  entrants  should 
be  urgently  considered  by  the  committee  of  ministers  and 
should  be  placed  on  the  agenda  of  an  extraordinary  session 
early  in  1950. 

The  committee  of  ministers  met  in  Paris  on  Nov.  3.  It 
regarded  any  revision  of  the  terms  of  the  statute  as  pre- 
mature but  agreed  that  in  practice  the  assembly  should  be 
free  to  determine  its  own  agenda  within  the  limits  of  the 
statute  and  should  be  consulted  before  the  admission  of  new 
members.  As  the  German  Federal  republic  had  notified  its 
desire  to  be  admitted  to  associate  membership,  the  ministers 
referred  this  request  to  the  permanent  committee  of  the 
assembly.  That  body  met  on  Nov.  7  and  approved  the 
German  application  on  condition  that  the  republic  affirmed 
its  determination  to  comply  with  the  statute  and  expressed 
clearly  its  will  to  abide  by  it.  The  committee  protested 
vigorously  against  the  decision  of  the  ministers  to  provide 
no  funds  for  the  meeting  of  the  committees  of  the  assembly 
between  sessions,  and  demanded  that  the  experts  appointed 
by  the  ministers  to  frame  a  convention  on  human  rights 
should  take  the  assembly's  draft  as  a  basis.  It  decided  that 
the  committees  should  meet  as  intended  by  the  assembly. 

The  Council  of  Europe  had  thus  become  an  established 
institution,  and  had  begun  to  exert  its  influence  on  the 
political  and  economic  development  of  Europe.  Though 
constitutional  and  other  questions  remained  to  be  solved, 
its  first  meetings  marked  an  important  step  in  the  direction 
of  uniting  Europe.  (H.  BTR.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  Europe  Unite:  The  Story  of  the  Campaign  for  European 
Unity  (London,  1949) 

COUNCIL   OF   FOREIGN   MINISTERS.    The 

sixth  session  of  the  Council  of  Foreign  Ministers,  the  first 
to  be  held  since  the  fifth  session  had  adjourned  sine  die  at 
London  on  Dec.  15,  1947,  met  at  Paris  from  May  23  to 
June  20,  1949,  to  consider  the  basic  problems  of  Allied  policy 
toward  Germany  and  Austria.  The  session  left  the  three 
western  powers  and  the  Moscow  government  as  far  apart 
as  before  on  the  question  of  Germany  but  recorded  some 
progress  towards  agreement  on  Austria. 

The  holding  of  the  session  was  arranged  as  one  part  of 
a  four-power  agreement,  reached  on  May  4,  for  the  lifting 
of  the  Soviet  blockade  of  the  western  sectors  of  Berlin  and 
for  the  removal  of  Allied  counter-measures  against  trade  with 
eastern  Germany.  The  blockade  of  western  Berlin  had  been 
strongly  countered  by  the  United  States  and  British  airlift, 
with  the  support  of  most  of  the  people  of  Berlin.  Between 
Feb.  15  and  May  4  the  U.S.  government,  with  the  approval 
of  the  British  and  French  governments,  had  negotiated  with 


the  Soviet  government,  through  ambassadors  Philip  Jessup 
and  Yakov  A.  Malik,  in  the  search  for  a  way  out  of  this 
dangerous  impasse. 

First  official  information  concerning  the  negotiations  came 
from  the  Soviet  Tass  agency  on  April  26,  followed  by  a  fuller 
State  Department  release  of  the  same  day.  The  Soviet 
decision  to  abandon  the  blockade  in  return  for  a  revival  of 
negotiations  on  Germany  marked  a  definite  relaxation  of 
international  tension,  for  the  Soviet  government  thereby 
acknowledged  the  right,  denied  in  the  negotiations  of  1948, 
of  the  Allies  to  occupy  Berlin  and  gave  up  its  claim  that  all 
Berlin  constituted  part  of  the  Soviet  zone  of  occupation. 
Later  difficulties  over  transportation  and  currency  matters 
in  Berlin,  culminating  in  a  new  breakdown  of  four-power 
negotiations  in  late  September,  failed  to  detract  from  the 
basic  success  of  the  western  powers  in  asserting  their  right 
to  remain  in  control  of  their  sectors  of  Berlin  (see  BERLIN). 

The  German  Problem.  From  May  23  to  31  the  four  foreign 
ministers — Dean  G.  Acheson,  Ernest  Bevin,  Robert  Schuman 
and  Andrey  Y.  Vyshinsky,  debated  the  problem  of  German 
unity  and  Allied  control.  Vyshinsky  urged  the  re-instatement 
of  the  four-power  Allied  Control  council,  together  with  the 
formation  of  a  German  state  council,  based  upon  the 
economic  organs  already  functioning  in  eastern  and  western 
Germany  respectively.  He  again  argued  for  separate  four- 
power  control  of  the  Ruhr,  with  direct  Soviet  participation, 
and  for  large-scale  German  deliveries  of  reparations  to  the 
Soviet  Union.  He  refused  all  requests  for  information 
concerning  the  economic  condition  of  the  Soviet  zone, 
including  the  status  of  Soviet-owned  industries,  which  were 
estimated  to  constitute  about  one-third  of  the  industrial 
assets  of  that  zone. 

Vyshinsky 's  proposals  were  met  by  a  western  proposal  of 
May  28  for  extending  to  all  of  Germany  the  fundamental 
law,  drafted  for  the  Western  German  state,  by  holding  free 
elections  in  the  Soviet  zone  and  by  guaranteeing  personal 
and  political  freedom  there.  The  four  Allies  could  then 
enact  a  new  occupation  statute,  regulating  their  relations 
with  the  unified  German  state  and  reserving  only  limited 
powers  to  themselves,  with  most  decisions  of  the  Allied 
commission  being  taken  henceforth  by  majority  rather  than 
unanimous  vote.  Germany  would  make  no  reparations 
deliveries  from  current  production  or  stocks  and  Germany 
would  recover  ownership  of  all  industrial  enterprises  taken 
over  by  a  foreign  power  since  the  surrender  of  May  8,  1945. 
These  proposals  were  rejected  by  the  Soviet  government,  and 
the  three  western  representatives  also  declined  the  Soviet 
proposal  that  the  council  receive  a  delegation  of  the  Soviet- 
dominated  People's  congress. 

From  June  1  to  10  the  foreign  ministers  discussed  the 
problem  of  restoring  a  unified  administration  and  currency 
in  Berlin.  Again  the  western  members  proposed  that  broad 
powers  be  granted  to  the  municipal  administration,  based  on 
free  elections,  with  its  decisions  subject  to  disapproval  by 
the  four-power  Kommandatura,  normally  by  unanimous 
vote.  Three  secret  meetings  failed  to  reconcile  the  widely 
divergent  viewpoints,  as  the  Soviet  counter-proposals  would 
have  subjected  the  Berlin  administration  closely  to  the 
Allied  Kommandatura,  which,  in  turn,  would  be  able  to 
act  only  through  unanimous  decisions.  After  extensive 
discussion  of  the  economic  problems  of  Berlin  and  its  relations 
to  the  Soviet  zone  and  of  relations  between  the  Soviet  and 
western  zones,  the  foreign  ministers  were  unable  to  reach 
any  definite  agreements  and  merely  instructed  their  authori- 
ties in  Berlin  to  consult  concerning  the  expansion  of  trade 
and  other  questions  of  common  interest  in  Berlin.  The 
council  re-affirmed  the  May  4  agreement  which  removed  the 
Soviet  blockade  of  Berlin. 

The  discussion  of  how  and  when  to  draft  a  peace  treaty 


COUNCIL   OF   FOREIGN    MINISTERS 


191 


for  Germany  was  also  fruitless.  The  Soviet  proposals  that 
the  four  governments  prepare  a  draft  treaty  within  three 
months  and  that  all  occupation  forces  be  withdrawn  from 
Germany  one  year  after  conclusion  of  the  treaty  seemed 
designed  to  win  support  in  Germany.  The  western  negotiators 
objected  that  there  was  little  point  in  promising  to  prepare  a 
treaty  unless  the  four  governments  agreed  first  to  re-establish 
the  political  and  economic  unity  of  Germany,  to  determine 
its  boundaries,  and  to  decide  the  questions  of  reparations 
and  the  future  status  of  Soviet-owned  properties.  The  final 
communique,  June  20,  recorded  the  failure  of  the  foreign 
ministers  to  find  any  common  meeting  ground  for  the 
restoration  of  joint  control  over  Germany  as  a  whole  or  for 
the  economic  and  political  unity  of  Germany.  Despite  the 
statement  that  the  ministers  would,  during  the  next  session  of 
the  general  assembly  of  the  United  Nations,  "  exchange 
views  regarding  the  date  and  other  arrangements  for  the 
next  session  "  of  the  council  to  deal  with  the  German  question, 
no  such  arrangements  were  made  during  the  informal  meetings 
of  the  four  ministers  at  New  York  in  late  September  and  early 
October.  (See  also  GERMANY.) 

The  Austrian  Problem.  The  Paris  session  succeeded,  how- 
ever, in  removing  several  obstacles  which  had  blocked  for 
many  months  the  completion  of  a  four-power  treaty  re-estab- 
lishing Austria  as  a  free  and  independent  state,  as  promised 
in  the  Moscow  declaration  of  Nov.  1,  1943.  Negotiations, 
begun  in  London  in  Jan.  1947,  transferred  to  Moscow,  then 
to  Vienna  and  back  to  London  and  broken  off  in  May  1948, 
had  been  resumed  by  the  foreign  ministers'  deputies  in 
London  on  Feb.  9,  1949,  but  were  still  deadlocked  in  May 
by  continuing  disputes  over  Yugoslav  claims  to  Austrian 
territory  and  to  reparations,  as  well  as  over  Soviet  claims  to 
German  assets  in  eastern  Austria. 


In  the  last  days  of  the  Paris  session  the  Soviet  government 
abandoned  the  Yugoslav  claims;  it  had  previously  upheld 
them,  despite  the  increasingly  bitter  controversy  between  the 
Soviet  and  Yugoslav  Communist  parties,  beginning  in 
June  1948.  In  the  final  communique  of  June  20  the  four 
ministers  announced  their  agreement  to  re-establish  Austria 
within  its  prs-Anschluss  boundaries,  with  cultural  and 
administrative  protection  for  the  Slovene  and  Croat  minorities. 
Vyshinsky  also  abandoned  the  Yugoslav  claim  for  $150 
million  in  reparations  from  Austria,  while  agreeing  that 
Yugoslavia  should  retain  or  liquidate  Austrian  properties 
within  its  own  territory. 

In  return  for  these  concessions  the  western  powers  made 
several  concessions  to  Soviet  economic  interests.  Of  the 
German  **  assets  "  which  had  been  assigned  to  Soviet  owner- 
ship by  the  Potsdam  protocol,  certain  important  items, 
especially  in  the  fields  of  oil  and  Danubian  shipping,  were 
now  to  be  assigned  to  the  Soviet  Union  and,  in  return  for  its 
renunciation  of  all  other  claims  to  German  assets,  Austria 
was  obligated  to  pay  $150  million  over  a  six-year  period. 
Details  of  the  settlement  were  referred  to  the  deputies,  who 
were  instructed  to  complete  the  draft  treaty  by  Sept.  1. 

After  the  agreed  protocol  had  already  been  issued  to  the 
press,  Vyshinsky  attempted  to  recall  it,  in  order  to  insert 
into  the  agreed  statement  a  provision  assuring  the  free  export 
of  profits  of  the  Soviet  enterprises  in  Austria;  this  matter 
was  finally  left  to  later  settlement.  The  Yugoslav  government 
denounced  the  Paris  settlement  declaring  that  it  would  never 
abandon  its  claims  against  Austria  and  attacking  the  four 
governments  for  again  sanctioning  the  injustice  of  "  the 
imperialist  peace  of  Versailles."  New  rancour  was  added 
to  the  Soviet- Yugoslav  dispute  when  the  Soviet  government 
asserted,  and  Belgrade  denied,  that  the  Tito  government  had 


The  four  ministers  at  the  Council  of  Foreign  Ministers  held  in  Paris,  May-June  1949.  Left  to  right,  Dean  G.  Acheson  (United  States)  Andrey 
Y.  Vyshinsky  (Soviet  Union),  Robert  Schuman  (France),  and  Ernest  Bevm  (Great  Britain). 


192 


COUNTRY   LIFE 


negotiated  with  the  British  government  as  early  as  March 
1948  about  the  renunciation  of  its  claims  to  Carinthia,  without 
informing  the  Soviet  government. 

The  final  negotiations  for  the  Austrian  treaty  were  not 
completed  by  Sept.  1,  and  the  deputies  were  directed  to 
resume  their  work  on  Sept.  22  at  New  York,  where  the 
general  assembly  of  the  United  Nations  was  in  session.  The 
foreign  ministers  also  met  informally,  on  Sept.  26  and  29 
and  again  on  Oct.  6,  to  settle  some  of  the  disputed  points. 
On  Dec.  14,  after  246  meetings,  the  deputies  suspended  their 
negotiations,  to  resume  them  in  London  on  Jan.  9,  1950. 

During  their  New  York  sessions  the  deputies  completed 
many  of  the  unresolved  provisions  of  the  treaty.  They 
elaborated  detailed  arrangements  for  the  protection  of  the 
cultural  and  educational  rights  of  the  Slovene  and  Croat 
minorities  in  Austria  and  the  use  of  their  languages  regionally 
for  administrative  purposes.  They  rejected,  however,  the 
Yugoslav  demand  for  full  political  autonomy  for  the  Slav 
minority  in  Austria. 

Original  Soviet  demands  for  full  ownership  of  German 
"  assets  "  in  eastern  Austria  would  have  left  the  Austrian 
economy  bound  hand  and  foot.  Over  many  months  of 
relentless  bargaining  the  extent  of  Soviet  claims  had  been 
considerably  reduced,  and  the  Soviet  negotiators  had  also 
abandoned  the  demand  of  extra-territorial  status  for  their 
enterprises.  In  the  spring  of  1949  the  deputies  agreed  to 
assign  to  the  Soviet  Union  oil-refining  equipment  with  a 
capacity  of  420,000  tons  of  crude  oil  and  to  transfer  to  its 
possession  certain  physical  assets  of  the  Danubian  Steamship 
company  located  in  eastern  Austria,  as  well  as  in  Hungary, 
Rumania  and  Bulgaria;  by  giving  up  its  long-maintained 
claim  to  share  in  the  control  of  the  Austrian  steamship 
company  the  new  Soviet  position  left  Austria  free  to  develop 
its  own  navigation  facilities  independently. 

At  their  Paris  session  the  foreign  ministers  agreed  that 
Austria  should  be  denied  the  right  to  nationalize  the  Soviet 
enterprises  except  with  Soviet  consent.  The  Paris  bargain 
also  assigned  to  Soviet  control  60%  of  Austria's  oil-producing 
areas,  at  the  1947  level,  under  30-year  concessions.  In 
addition  the  deputies  were  directed  to  elaborate  a  list  of 
oil-exploration  regions,  exactly  specified,  in  which  the  Soviet 
government  would  be  free,  during  eight  years,  to  conduct 
explorations  and  to  receive  further  30-year  concessions  for 
those  areas  which  proved  oil.  Untapped  areas  would  revert 
to  Austrian  control  in  eight  years. 

When  the  negotiations  were  suspended  in  December,  the 
main  disagreements  concerned  the  method  of  settling  disputes 
over  the  interpretation  of  the  treaty;  the  support  of  displaced 
persons  located  in  Austria;  and  the  employment  by  Austria 
of  foreign  technicians.  None  of  these  questions  had  sufficient 
intrinsic  importance  to  prevent  conclusion  of  the  treaty  if 
the  four  powers  could  now  agree,  politically,  to  recognize 
Austria's  independence  and  to  withdraw  their  forces  of 
occupation.  It  was,  however,  widely  believed  that  Soviet 
reluctance  to  complete  the  final  drafting  of  the  treaty  was  due 
to  the  hostile  pressure  which  it  was  exerting  upon  Yugoslavia; 
as  long  as  Soviet  troops  occupied  eastern  Austria  the  Soviet 
government  had  the  right  to  maintain  "  lines  of  communi- 
cations "  troops  in  Hungary  and  Rumania,  from  whose 
territory  the  chief  centres  of  Yugoslavia  could  be  threatened. 
(See  also  AUSTRIA.)  (P.  E.  M.) 

COUNTRIES  OF  THE  WORLD,  AREAS  AND 
POPULATIONS  OF  THE:  see  AREAS  AND  POPULA- 
TIONS OF  THE  COUNTRIES  OF  THE  WORLD. 

COUNTRY  LIFE.  Looking  back  on  1949  the  country- 
man  who  has  no  commitments  and  limited  needs  should 
be  hard  put  to  name  a  year  more  to  his  liking.  ^The  winter 


carried  over  from  the  last  month  of  1948  was  mild  beyond 
hope  or  imagining;  set  to  music  in  the  earliest  days  of  January 
by  thrushes,  robins  and  wrens.  The  return  of  the  song  thrushes 
was  the  more  welcome  for  they  had  paid  heavy  toll  to  the 
harsh  winter  of  1947.  Blackbirds  seemed  a  little  late  and  un- 
certain but  above  the  garden  a  skylark  sang  a  New  Year  greet- 
ing again  and  again  and,  although  the  woodland  mosses  and 
lichens  were  not  as  brilliant  as  in  hard  seasons,  hazels  were 
hanging  out  their  catkins  and  gorse  flamed.  February  gave  a 
long  lease  to  her  "  fair  maids,"  winter  aconite  and  elm 
blossomed  early,  gold  crests  were  singing,  bees  were  spring- 
cleaning  hives  and  workers  foraging.  Brown  owls  were  very 
vocal  and  blackthorn  was  breaking  into  bloom.  Everything 
was  a  little  before  its  time,  or  so  it  seemed.  A  sign  of  the 
mildness  of  winter  was  provided  by  the  holly  berries  which 
remained  untouched;  in  March  the  nests  of  blackbird  and 
thrush  had  more  than  their  usual  cover,  and  lambs  and 
plover  alike  contributed  to  the  music  of  the  hours.  April 
called  the  swallows  early  and  the  house  martins  followed 
closely;  both  stayed  rather  later  than  usual.  The  one  matter 
for  concern  was  the  absence  from  winter  of  snow  and  heavy 
rains.  Where  was  the  moisture  on  which  so  much  depends? 
The  farmer  looks  to  the  snow,  though  it  holds  up  work  and 
adds  to  labour. 

On  one  of  the  few  cross  country  journeys  that  can  be  taken 
nowadays  it  was  possible  to  note  the  rapid  advance  of  the 
machine,  invading  fields  for  the  first  time  in  their  long  life 
as  cultivable  land.  Many  resent  their  coming  because  they  are 
sending  so  many  horses  to  slaughter;  others  are  seriously 
perturbed  by  their  effect  upon  employment.  Mechanized 
farms  that  employed  three  men  to  the  hundred  acre  can  now 
carry  on  with  one  and,  be  it  remembered,  most  of  our  rural 
industries  are  things  of  the  past;  you  must  travel  far  to  find 
a  blacksmith;  thatchers,  hurdle-makers  and  handy  men  are 
disappearing. 

With  the  demand  for  more  machinery  has  come  the  removal 
of  hedges  together  with  great  trees  that  decorated  so  many 
of  them,  but  our  insectivorous  birds  still  look  for  bushes. 
Even  if  they  had  been  preserved  the  plight  of  insect  eaters, 
native  and  migrant  alike,  would  have  been  perilous,  for  mag- 
pies, jays  and  sparrow-hawks  are  greatly  on  the  increase. 
In  a  certain  garden  every  nest  was  robbed;  they  included  those 
of  wren,  flycatcher,  long-tailed  tit  and,  of  course,  the  wood 
pigeon  whose  eggs  were  taken  regularly  by  the  red  squirrels. 
It  was  a  relief  to  see  young  thrushes  and  blackbirds  ranging 
the  garden  as  summer  ripened,  their  attacks  on  all  bush  fruit 
that  netting  could  not  reach  were  ignored.  Water  bowls  were 
replenished  regularly  but  the  birds  preferred  the  fruit — clear 
sign  of  avian  intelligence. 

Some  March  fogs  appeared  and  old  countrymen  prophesied 
May  frosts;  sufficient  came  to  sweep  the  blossom  from  low 
lying  fruit  trees.  One  frost  actually  slipped  into  June.  Then 
came  drought;  land  baked  and  market  gardens  wilted,  but 
if  cold,  wet  weather  had  been  sent  in  place  of  hard  sunshine 
complaints  must  have  been  more  widespread.  Certainly 
the  hay  crop  was  exceptional  and  when  a  break  came  in  the 
dry  spell  damage  was  negligible.  Wheat  stood  up,  barley 
and  oats  followed  its  example,  roots  improved  and  the 
countryside  moved  to  an  early  and  smiling  harvest  while  the 
minister  of  agriculture  sought  quite  needlessly  to  emulate 
Cassandra.  Surely  few  can  have  seen  more  corn  fields  cleared 
in  August.  Straw  left  by  the  harvester  combines  and  not 
worth  keeping  was  being  burned  on  the  stubble,  and  before 
September  was  well  on  her  road  many  tractors  were  out. 
Against  the  prosperous  career  of  corn  and  hay  must  be 
set  a  seasonal  glut  of  vegetables  that  involved  many  market 
gardeners  in  heavy  loss  without  reducing  shop  prices.  Winter 
cabbages  had  been  ploughed  in  during  January,  savoys  in 
March,  leeks  in  March  and  April,  parsnips  in  April,  green 


CRICKET 


193 


onions  and  spring  cauliflowers  in  June.  Between  April, 
when  the  first  tomatoes  from  heated  houses  were  on  sale, 
and  early  September,  when  the  outdoor  fruit  was  in  full 
supply,  the  "price  dropped  from  four  shillings  a  pound  to  five 
pounds  for  a  shilling.  Victoria  plums,  complete  with 
maggots,  were  on  offer  in  September  at  twopence  while 
early  cooking  apples  of  indifferent  quality  glutted  a  reluctant 
market. 

Insect  pests,  wasps  in  the  van,  damaged  many  orchards. 
It  was  possible  to  pass  hundreds  of  trees,  whose  spring 
loveliness  had  been  a  delight,  shedding  useless  fruit,  brown 
rot  of  apples  being  one  of  the  worst  troubles. 

Root  crops  seen  half-way  through  September  were  in 
bad  plight,  rain  came  too  late,  but  the  bountiful  hay  harvest 
and  abundant  oats  helped  stock-keepers  instead.  The  house- 
wife might  find  potatoes  in  short  supply,  and  the  drought 
destroyed  many  vegetables  that  the  ploughs  spared.  In 
short,  the  pendulum  swung  between  glut  and  scarcity  but 
the  country  lover,  looking  back  over  the  spring,  summer  and 
autumn  of  1949,  had  to  search  his  memory  to  find  their 
parallel.  (S.  L.  BN.) 

CRICKET.  The  winter  of  1948-49  saw  two  overseas 
cricket  tours.  An  M.C.C.  side  visited  South  Africa  and  a 
West  Indies  team  went  to  the  Indian  peninsular.  A  third 
of  the  former  team,  captained  by  F.  G.  Mann,  was  composed 
of  leading  prewar  cricketers.  Unbeaten  throughout  their 
programme  and  winning  the  only  two  finished  games  out  of 
the  five  four-day  tests  that  were  played,  the  English  team 
owed  much  to  the  enthusiasm  and  personality  of  their 
captain  who  animated  their  fielding  into  a  powerful  rein- 
forcement of  bowling  which  of  itself  fell  some  way  short  of 
prewar  test  standard,  though  R.  Jenkins  did  well  with  his 
flighted  leg-breaks  and  A.  V.  Bedser  and  C.  Gladwin  were 
reliable.  The  leading  batsmen,  L.  Hutton,  C.  Washbrook 
and  D.  Compton  all  had  very  fine  figures,  Compton  in 
particular  achieving  records  in  his  eight  centuries,  his  aggre- 
gate of  1,781  and  an  astonishing  innings  of  300  against 
N.E.  Transvaal  made  in  181  min.,  but  the  rest  of  the  batting 
rather  lacked  backbone.  South  Africa,  led  by  A.  D.  Nourse, 
just  lacked  the  quality  to  present  a  serious  challenge.  The 
captain  himself  and  B.  Mitchell  had  fine  batting  records, 
but  especially  in  Mitchell's  case  the  tempo  was  often  so  slow 
as  virtually  to  preclude  a  win  in  four  days.  A.  Melville  only 
played  in  one  test  and  of  the  other  batsmen  only  W.  W.  Wade 
and  E.  Rowan  were  of  full  test  match  class.  Of  their  bowlers 
N.  Mann  and  A.  Rowan  were  very  steady  and  the  young 
fast  bowler  C.  McCarthy  did  very  well  in  his  first  full  season; 
but  there  the  attack  virtually  ceased. 

The  first  test  match,  at  Durban,  was  played  on  a  rain- 
affected  wicket  and  in  the  last  innings  England  had  to  make 
128  runs  in  135  min.;  they  got  home,  amid  intense  excite- 
ment, with  a  margin  of  two  wickets  by  a  leg-bye  off  the  last 
ball  of  the  match,  after  owin£  almost  everything  to  Hutton's 
83  in  the  first  innings  and  Compton's  aggregate  of  100  for 
the  match.  McCarthy's  6  for  43  in  the  first  innings  was 
outstanding.  In  the  second  test  on  the  new  ground  at 
Johannesburg  Hutton  and  Washbrook  with  an  opening 
partnership  of  359  beat  the  previous  test  match  record, 
Compton  made  a  century  and  the  total  reached  608.  South 
Africa  replied  with  315  and  276  for  2  (E.  A.  R.  Rowan  157 
not  out).  The  third  game,  at  Capetown,  was  funereal  and 
in  its  last  stage  South  Africa  made  no  attempt  to  meet  Mann's 
gesture  of  leaving  them  125  min.  in  which  to  make  229  runs. 
In  the  fourth,  again  at  Johannesburg,  Washbrook  (97)  and 
A.  Watkins  (111)  were  almost  entirely  responsible  for  Eng- 
land's total  of  379,  and  Nourse  with  126  not  out  carried 
South  Africa  who  were  still  122  behind.  A  century.by  Hutton 
enabled  Mann  to  declare,  but  South  Africa,  without  pursuing 

I.B.Y.— 14 


victory,  easily  batted  out  the  3|  hr.  left  to  them.  The  final 
game  at  Port  Elizabeth  provided  something  of  an  enigma: 
South  Africa,  to  save  the  rubber,  had  to  force  a  win,  but 
batted  all  the  first  day  for  219  and  the  loss  of  three  wickets 
and  their  total  of  379  (Wade  125,  Mitchell  99)  occupied 
nine  hours.  England,  thanks  to  a  dashing  136  by  their 
captain,  headed  them  by  16,  and  then  on  the  last  day  Nourse 
declared  leaving  them  95  min.  in  which  to  get  172  runs  and 
himself  little  prospect  of  victory;  this  task  England  achieved 
with  a  margin  of  three  wickets  just  before  rain  set  in  for 
the  night. 

Ttye  West  Indies  team  that  visited  India  in  the  same  winter 
could  look  back  6n  their  tour  with  great  satisfaction,  tem- 
pered, it  may  be,  by  the  recollection  of  much  travelling  in 
great  heat  and  pitches  so  easy  as  to  make  the  life  of  a  bowler 
a  nightmare.    Of  their  19  matches  they  only  lost  one  against 
six  wins  including  the  only  test  match  that  was  finished. 
In  one  of  the  drawn  games  Pakistan  put  up  an  impressive 
performance.    For  their  general  success  the  great  strength 
of  the  West  Indies'  batting  was  clearly  responsible;  indeed 
some  judges  rated  it  virtually  on  a  level  with  that  of  the 
famous  Australian  team  of  1948.    In  spite  of  an  accident  to 
their  brilliant  and  experienced  player  G.  Headley  early  in 
the  tour,  they  completely  mastered  the  Indian  bowling  and 
even  V.  Mankad,  probably  as  good  a  left-hand  bowler  as 
any  contemporary,  found  his  17  test  wickets  costing  him 
43  apiece.    Head  and  shoulders  over  all  their  batsmen  stood 
E.  Weekes  with  a  test  match  average  of  1 1 1  for  an  aggregate 
of  779;  after  scoring  a  century  in  his  last  test  match  innings 
against  the  1948  M.C.C.  touring  side,  he  proceeded  to  make 
further  centuries  in  each  of  his  first  four  test  innings  in 
India,  thus  establishing  a  world  record.    C.  L.  Walcott,  a 
magnificent  driver,  J.  B.  Stollmeyer  and  A.  Rae  also  had 
splendid  figures;  indeed  nearly  all  the  side  could  make  runs. 
India  too  had  strong  batting  in  spite  of  the  absence  of 
V.  M.  Merchant,  their  most  experienced  and  accomplished 
player;  though  V.  S.  Hazare  headed  the  averages,  R.  S.  Modi 
was  really  the  most  consistent  batsman,  and  D.  G.  Phadkar 
proved  himself  the  leading  all-rounder  on  the  side.    Against 
scores  of  63 1  and  639  in  the  first  two  test  games  India  in  each  - 
case  followed  on  but  had  no  difficulty  in  saving  the  match. 
In  the  third,  which  broke  all  attendance  records  at  Calcutta, 
India,  set  431  to  win  in  the  last  innings,  reached  325  for  3 
but  at  no  time  showed  any  disposition  to  risk  wickets  for 
runs.    In  the  fourth  match  their  batting  broke  down  badly 
and  they  lost  by  an  innings  and  193  runs,  but  the  last  game 
produced  exciting  cricket  and  was  only  drawn  after  the  last 
over  had  seen  India  with  two  wickets  in  hand,  needing  only 
six  runs  to  win.  The  West  Indian  bowlers  on  the  phenomen- 
ally easy  wickets  that  prevailed  were  not  impressive,  though 
P.  Jones  and  J.  Trim  had  pace  and  G.  Gomez  consistency. 

In  the  domestic  season  in  Australia,  New  South  Wales 
won  the  Sheffield  Shield  competition  and  Sir  Donald  Bradman 
typically  celebrated  his  knighthood  by  scoring  yet  another 
century  in  his  testimonial  match.  A.  R.  Morris  and  A.  L. 
Hassett  were  outstanding  as  batsmen  and  a  new  and  formidable 
fast  bowler  seemed  to  have  been  discovered  in  A.  Walker. 
A  team  of  English  women  cricketers,  captained  by  Miss 
Molly  Hide,  had  a  very  successful  tour  of  Australia  and 
New  Zealand,  losing  only  one  of  their  28  fixtures  but  that 
one  the  only  finished  test  match  in  Australia.  Miss  Hide 
made  over  1,000  runs  and  five  centuries. 

The  English  season  of  1949  recalled  in  its  continual  sun- 
shine and  hard  wickets  the  years  1911  and  1921.  Long  before 
it  was  over  the  county  players,  especially  the  bowlers,  were 
feeling  the  strain  and  it  served  to  underline  the  predominant 
problem  of  English  cricket — how  to  satisfy  the  economic 
needs  of  the  counties  with  a  full  championship  programme 
and  at  the  same  time  conserve  the  energies,  talent  and  zest 


194 


CRICKET 


W.  A.  Hadlee,  captain  of  the  New  Zealand  touring  team  in  Britain 

in  1949,  being  caught  by  W.  J.  Edrich  in  the  final  test  match  at  the 

Oval;  keeping  wicket  is  T,  G.  Evans. 

of  her  leading  candidates  for  international  matches.  Chief 
interest  centred  in  the  visit  of  a  New  Zealand  team,  the  first 
to  come  to  England  for  12  years.  Admirably  captained  by 
W.  A.  Hadlee  and  fortunate  indeed  in  their  manager  J.  H. 
Phillips,  the  tourists  made  friends  wherever  they  went  and 
no  doubt  surpassed  their  own  expectations  in  going  through 
the  summer  with  but  a  single  defeat — at  the  hands  of  Oxford 
university — and  in  holding  England  to  a  draw  in  all  four 
test  matches.  For  these  only  three  days  had  been  allotted 
and  at  the  end  of  the  season  it  had  become  clear  that  with 
the  present  psychological  approach  to  test  cricket  and  in  the 
absence  on  either  side  of  bowling  of  the  highest  class,  no 
results  could  be  looked  for  within  these  limits.  The  New 
Zealand  attack  was  virtually  sustained  by  three  men, 
J.  Cowie,  a  fast-medium  bowler  of  great  persistency  and 
stamina,  G.  F.  Creswell,  an  accurate  slow-medium  bowler 
with  the  fashionable  "  in-swing,"  and  above  all  T.  B.  Burtt, 
who  in  match  after  match  kept  an  immaculate  length  with 
his  left  hand  slows  and  was  never  really  collared,  hardly 
ever  seriously  counter-attacked.  Supported  by  splendidly 
enthusiastic  fielding  ably  disposed  by  Hadlee,  the  New 
Zealand  out-cricket  made  the  utmost  of  its  resources,  but 
it  was  the  strength  of  the  batting  that  really  carried  the  side. 
In  M.  P.  Donnelly  and  B.  Sutcliffe  they  had  two  of  the  best 
left-handers  of  cricket  history;  V.  Scott  was  an  angular  but 
effective  opening  batsman  and  W.  M.  Wallace  and  the 
captain  himself  players  of  real  experience  and  tenacity;  and 
J.  R.  Reid,  F.  B.  Smith  and  G.  A.  Rabone  all  made  runs 
at  need.  Against  them  the  English  team,  captained  in  the 
first  two  games  by  F.  G.  Mann  and  in  the  latter  two  by 
F.  R.  Brown,  could  never  marshal  the  bowling  penetration 
or  the  batting  aggression  to  force  a  win  out  of  what  were 
potentially  superior  resources,  even  when  the  selectors 
challenged  all  precedent  and  logic  by  picking  eight  bowlers 
for  the  final  test  match.  In  the  first  test  match  at  Leeds 
neither  the  centuries  of'Hutton  and  Compton  in  the  first 
innings  and  of  Washbrook  in  the  second  nor  the  encoura- 


gingly hostile  bowling  of  T.  E.  Bailey  could  seriously  endanger 
New  Zealand  for  whom  F.  B.  Smith  did  best  with  96  and 
54  not  out.  In  the  second  test  at  Lord's  Compton  made 
another  hundred,  but  a  superb  206  by  Donnelly  gave  his 
side  a  lead  of  171 ;  even  so  England  were  never  in  danger  and 
J.  Robertson  in  his  first  and  last  appearance  in  the  series 
made  121.  Two  young  amateurs  stole  most  of  the  limelight 
in  the  third  test  at  Old  Trafford,  Manchester,  R.  T.  Simpson 
hitting  brilliantly  in  the  last  stages  of  his  103,  after  England 
had  opened  funereally,  and  Bailey  achieving  a  fine  "  double  " 
with  6  for  84  and  72  not  out.  For  New  Zealand  Donnelly 
was  again  in  form  with  75  and  80,  Sutcliffe,  for  the  first  time 
in  the  series,  really  asserted  himself  to  the  tune  of  101,  and 
Burtt  worked  indefatigably  to  take  6  wickets  in  45  overs. 

When  at  the  end  of  the  second  day's  play  in  the  fourth 
test  match  at  the  Oval,  England  had  scored  432  for  4  in 
response  to  a  total  of  345,  there  seemed  a  prospect  that 
Mutton's  206,  an  exhibition  of  classic  off-side  play,  Simpson's 
68  and  a  competent  century  by  W.  Edrich  had  paved  the 
way  for  a  win,  but  next  day  the  remaining  wickets  fell 
cheaply  and  the  New  Zealanders  quietly  batted  out  the  match 
with  determined  and  collective  consistency  typical  of  a  team 
in  which  every  player  had  throughout  the  tour  set  the  cause 
above  personal  honour.  When  late  in  September  they  sailed 
for  home,  they  took  with  them  the  friendship  and  good  will 
of  all  English  cricketers. 

The  county  championship  of  1949  provided  the  most  open 
and  prolonged  struggle  within  living  memory.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  August  five  counties  had  some  chance  of  finishing  on 
top.  In  a  desperate  match  with  Derbyshire  at  Lord's  a 
wonderful  innings  by  Compton,  when  all  seemed  lost,  carried 
Middlesex  into  security,  but  Yorkshire,  playing  with  some- 
thing of  the  ruthless  elan  of  the  county's  great  days,  came 
with  a  rush  at  the  finish  to  tie  for  first  place.  Hutton  with 
an  aggregate  of  3,429,  only  surpassed  three  times  in  cricket 
history,  was  supported  by  an  impressive  reinforcement  of 
young  players  of  whom  Brian  Close's  record  of  1,000  runs 
and  100  wickets  in  the  first  full  season  rivalled  that  of 
J.  N.  Crawford  in  1906.  Surrey,  long  fancied,  fell  away  in 

1949  COUNTY  CHAMPIONSHIP  FINAL  PLACINGS 

First  Innings 
lead  in  match 


Points  Awarded 
MIDDLESEX     . 
YORKSHIRE 
WORCESTERSHIRE 
WARWICKSHIRE 
SURREY  . 

NORTHAMPTONSHIRE 
GLOUCESTER  . 
GLAMORGAN  . 
ESSEX     . 
SOMERSET 
LANCASHIRE    . 
NOTTINGHAMSHIRE 
KENT     . 
SUSSEX  . 
DERBYSHIRE    . 
HAMPSHIRE     . 
LEICESTERSHIRE 

the  last  matches,  but  among  the  lesser  counties  Worcester- 
shire and  Warwickshire  had  fine  records,  and  Northampton- 
shire under  their  new  captain  F.  R.  Brown,  enjoyed  a  great 
revival. 

There  was  a  fine  Gentlemen  v.  Players  match  in  which 
runs  were  always  hard  to  come  by;  at  one  time  the  Players, 
set  139  to  win,  had  lost  6  wickets  for  60,  but  spirited  batting 
by  T.  Evans  and  Jenkins  won  the  day.  The  university  match 
provided  the  surprise  of  the  season.  Oxford  had  had  a 
notable  record  at  home,  defeating  both  the  New  Zealanders 
and  Yorkshire,  but  Cambridge,  well  led  by  D.  J.  Insole  and 


P. 

W. 

L. 

D. 

n^\j. 
Dec. 

L. 

D. 

Pts. 

12 

— 

— 

— 

4 

4 



26 

14 

3 

9 

0 

1 

5 

192 

26 

14 

2 

10 

0 

0 

6 

192 

26 

12 

7 

7 

0 

2 

5 

172 

26 

12 

5 

8 

1 

0 

6 

168 

26 

11 

8 

6 

1 

2 

4 

156 

26 

10 

7 

9 

0 

2 

3 

140 

26 

10 

7 

7 

2 

0 

3 

132 

26 

7 

6 

12 

1 

2 

7 

120 

26 

7 

9 

10 

0 

0 

6 

108 

26 

8 

15 

3 

0 

2 

1 

108 

26 

6 

7 

13 

0 

0 

7 

100 

26 

6 

5 

13 

2 

0 

7 

100 

26 

7 

15 

4 

0 

1 

2 

96 

26 

7 

10 

7 

2 

1 

2 

96 

26 

6 

13 

6 

1 

2 

2 

88 

26 

6 

13 

6 

1 

2 

1 

84 

26 

3 

14 

8 

1 

3 

2 

56 

CRIME 


195 


with  two  fine  batsmen  in  G.  H.  G.  Doggart  and  J.  G.  Dewes, 
consolidated  notably  on  their  tour  and  at  Lord's  fairly  out- 
played Oxford  to  win  by  seven  wickets.  Statistically,  the  out- 
standing feature  of  the  university  season  was  the  partnership 
of  429  by  Doggart  and  Dewes  against  Essex,  a  record  for 
the  second  wicket  in  English  cricket.  Eton,  a  strong  side, 
were  too  good  for  Harrow,  and  there  were  some  signs  of  a 
general  revival  in  school  cricket.  For  the  first  time  repre- 
sentative sides  picked  from  the  grammar  and  secondary 
schools  of  England  and  Wales  met  in  an  international  match. 
Lancashire  second  XI  won  the  minor  counties'  championship. 
Other  features  of  the  cricket  year  were  the  nomination  of  the 
Duke  of  Edinburgh  to  the  presidency  of  the  M.C.C.,  and 
the  appointment  by  the  M.C.C.  of  a  special  committee  to 
enquire  into  the  problem  of  bringing  more  and  better 
cricket  into  the  lives  of  the  boys  of  England  from  secondary 
school  age  until  the  time  of  their  call-up  for  national  service. 

(H.  S.  A.) 

CRIME.  In  1948  the  number  of  persons  in  Great  Britain 
found  guilty  of  offences  other  than  against  defence  regulations 
was  656,950,  of  whom  129,384  had  committed  indictable 
offences  and  527,566  non-indictable  offences,  a  rise  of 
11-9%  compared  with  1947  for  indictable  and  of  5-8%  for 
non-indictable  offences.  In  addition,  20,163  persons  were 
found  guilty  of  offences  against  defence  regulations,  against 
18,863  in  1947.  Of  these,  89%  had  committed  black  market, 
especially  rationing,  offences,  compared  with  83%  in  1947. 
About  half  the  total  of  persons  found  guilty  had  committed 
traffic  offences;  viz.,  49-6%  against  52-8%  in  1947.  The 
number  of  those  guilty  of  larcenies  remained  fairly  constant 
at  slightly  over  12%  and  that  of  sex  offenders  at  0-6%. 
Excluding  certain  categories  of  indictable  offences  which  are 
considered  separately,  the  highest  increase;  i.e.,  27%,  was 
found  among  offenders  guilty  of  violence  against  the  person. 
The  highest  increases  in  non-indictable  offences  referred  to 
drunkenness  (31,260  as  against  23,762)  and  prostitution 
(5,647  against  5,041).  The  figures  quoted,  however,  referred 
to  court  appearances  only  and  did  not  necessarily  mean  as 
many  different  individuals. 

Indictable  offences  known  to  the  police  increased  from 
498,576  in  1947  to  522,684,  as  against  283,220  in  1938.  Of 
them.  216,942  were  cleared  up  during  the  year.  Of  147  cases 
of  murder  of  persons  aged  one  year  and  over,  130  were  cleared 
up  during  the  year  and  109  persons  were  charged.  In  34  cases 
the  murderer  or  suspect  committed  suicide;  in  43  cases  he 
was  found  insane.  With  regard  to  age,  the  increase  over  1947 
was  highest  for  offenders  under  17,  i.e.,  24%,  and  only  6% 
for  those  over  17  (indictable  offences).  With  regard  to  sex, 
the  increase  was  smaller  for  females  than  for  males. 

Probably  the  most  sensational  murder  trials  of  the  year 
were  those  of  John  George  Haigh,  sentenced  to  death  for 
the  murder  of  a  widow  aged  69,  whose  body  he  was  stated 
to  have  dissolved  in  an  acid  bath  after  the  murder,  and  of 
Daniel  Raven,  sentenced  to  death  for  the  murder  of  his 
parents-in-law. 

Methods  of  dealing  with  offenders  changed  but  little 
compared  with  1947.  There  were  ten  executions  for  murder. 
Imprisonment  was  used  for  adults  in  22%  of  all  indictable 
cases  by  magistrates'  courts  and  in  71%  by  assizes  and 
quarter  sessions.  For  those  between  17  and  21,  imprisonment 
was  slightly  less  frequently  used  than  before.  The  daily  average 
prison  population  showed  a  considerable  increase,  from  over 
17,000  in  1947  to  20,000  in  1948,  whereas  receptions  over 
the  whole  year  went  up  from  44,390  to  48,827.  This  was  due 
in  part  to  the  fact  that,  although  no  greater  proportionate 
use  was  made  of  prison  than  previously,  the  absolute  figures 
of  offenders  were  higher;  in  part,  however,  it  was  due  to  a 
general  lengthening  of  prison  sentences.  Fines  maintained 


their  record  figures  (52%  for  adults,  36%  for  the  17  to  21 
group,  16%  for  adolescents  and  12%  for  children).  Perhaps 
the  most  interesting  feature  was  that  the  downward  trend  in 
the  application  of  probation,  noticeable  in  postwar  years,  was 
halted.  After  declining  from  32%  in  1938  to  20%  in  1937 
(males  of  all  age  groups),  it  rose  to  22%  in  1948  and  the  abso- 
lute figures  of  persons  placed  on  probation  rose  from  19,937 
in  1947  to  24,386. 

In  Scotland  the  total  of  persons  convicted  or  found  guilty 
in  1948  was  89,459,  which  was  1,335  more  than  in  1947. 
81,182  of  them  were  male,  which  constituted  an  increase  of 
2,032,  and  8,277  female,  which  showed  a  decrease  of  697. 
Persons  under*  1 7  numbered  1 9,8 12;  i.e.,  an  increase  of  1 5  •  6  % 
over  1947.  The  total  number  of  crimes  and  offences  known 
to  the  police  was  172,129,  or  2-6%  more  than  in  the  previous 
year.  The  average  prison  population  showed  only  a  slight 
increase  from  1,889  to  1,902  and  receptions  went  up  from 
14,126  to  14,460.  Three  persons  were  sentenced  to  death 
but  there  were  no  executions.  The  use  of  probation  increased 
from  4,270  to  5,572. 

Europe.  Reliable  and  comprehensive  statistical  information 
was  unobtainable  for  most  eastern  European  countries  and 
for  Germany  where  criminal  statistics  were  still  not 
re-organized  after  World  War  IF.  However,  figures  available 
for  a  few  western  and  northern  European  countries  indicated 
certain  trends. 

Belgium.  The  prison  population  declined  from  21,891  in 
1947  to  15,746  in  1948. 

77??  Netherlands.  Crimes  known  to  the  police  numbered 
49,061  in  the  second  half  of  1948  and  41,853  in  the  first  half 
of  1949.  Of  this  total,  slightly  more  than  70%  were  crimes 
against  property,  whereas  sexual  offences  numbered  about 
7  %  and  offences  against  the  person  about  13%.  The  number 
of  prison  inmates  present  in  the  course  of  the  year  increased 
from  37,330  ordinary  and  10,390  political  prisoners  in  1946 
to  43,754  ordinary  and  18,479  political  prisoners  in  1948, 
the  increase  in  the  latter  category  being  due  to  technical 
factors  related  to  the  administration  of  criminal  justice  rather 
than  to  an  actual  rise  in  political  crime. 

Scandinavian  Countries.  In  Sweden,  the  total  of  crimes  per 
100,000  of  the  population  was  341  -4  in  1947  against  349-6 
in  1946  and  225-5  in  1940.  In  Norway,  the  absolute  figures 
were  5,731,  or  186  per  100,000,  for  1946  (published  in  1948), 
against  4,698,  or  154  per  100,000  in  1945;  about  three- 
quarters  of  them  were  crimes  against  property. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  Criminal  Statistics  England  and  Wales  1948;  Annual 
Report  of  the  Commissioners  of  Prisons  1948;  Criminal  Statistics 
Scotland  1948;  Report  on  Prisons  in  Scotland  1939-48;  (Belgian) 
Bulletin  de  V  Administration  des  Prisons,  Feb  1949,  (Swedish)  Statis- 
tiska  Centralbyran,  ser.  A,  vol  VI,  Norges  Officielle  Stattstik,  X,  1945-46 
(1948).  (H.  MM.) 

United  States.  The  number  of  crimes  committed  in  urban 
areas  rose  in  1949,  thus  reversing  the  downward  tendencies 
noted  in  1948;  the  rise  in  rural  robberies  cancelled  out  the 

TABLE  I  — CRIME  IN  1948  AND  1949  IN  U.S.  CIFILS  AND  RURAL  AREAS 

JANUARY  TO  JUNE,  1948  AND  1949 

Per  Cent.  Change  in  1949 

Cities  Rural  Areas 

Murder  and  non-negligent  manslaughter                  —  6-6  —  7-1 

Negligent  manslaughter                   .                           —155  — -4-9 

Rape                                                                                I     1   3  0-0 

Robbery                                                                         t-  0-5  4-8-0 

Aggravated  assault                                     .                 H-  4  •  1  -f  3  •  8 

Burglary -f-  4-4  +13-1 

Larceny                 .          .                    .                    .        |-   3  •  3  +8-8 

Car  theit               .          .          .                    .          .—3-7  —  5-8 

Total +27  1-7-6 

decline  recorded  in  the  preceding  year  and  rural  burglaries 
and  larcenies  played  their  part  in  the  rising  crime  wave. 
Car  thefts  in  both  city  and  country  continued  to  decline  as 
did  the  number  of  homicides. 


196 


CRIPPS— CYCLING 


Table  I  includes  crimes  committed  in  2,081  cities  and 
towns  having  a  total  population  of  58  million,  and  rural 
areas  comprising  39  million  inhabitants.  Based  upon  these 
figures,  the  total  number  of  offences  of  the  types  listed  in 
Table  I  committed  in  the  United  States  during  1948  was 
estimated  at  1,686,670.  Reduced  to  daily  averages,  36 
persons  were  slain  feloniously,  255  were  victims  of  rape  or 
assault  with  a  lethal  weapon  and  150  persons  were  robbed 
by  means  of  personal  force  or  threats.  In  an  average  day, 
there  were  also  1,032  burglaries,  463  car  thefts  and  2,672 
miscellaneous  larcenies.  (BR.  S.) 

TABLE  II. — URBAN  AND   RURAL  CRIMES  PER   100,000  POPULATION, 
U.S.,  1948 

Urban  Rural 

Murder  and  non-negligent  manslaughter  5-99  6-15 

Negligent  manslaughter         .  3-96  4-26 

Rape 12-3  12-23 

Robbery      .                   .         .  56-2  18-4 

Aggravated  assault       .  75-8  36-5 

Burglary  (breaking  and  entering)  392-2  1498 

Larceny  (theft)     ...  975-2  220-3 

Car  theft     ....  165-5  54  0 

CRIPPS,  SIR  (RICHARD)  STAFFORD,  British 
statesman  and  lawyer  (b.  London,  April  24,  1889),  was 
appointed  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  on  Nov.  13,  1947, 
after  the  resignation  of  Hugh  Dalton.  (See  Britannica  Book 
of  the  Year  1949). 

The  heavy  strain  of  his  work  as  chancellor,  with  responsi- 
bility for  both  financial  and  economic  affairs,  caused  him  in 
July  1949  to  visit  Switzerland  where  he  stayed  a  few  weeks 
undergoing  treatment  for  a  digestive  complaint.  On  April  6 
he  presented  his  budget  to  the  House  of  Commons  and,  be- 
cause of  the  continued  rapid  drain  on  Britain's  dollar  reserves, 
he  presided  over  a  meeting  of  the  Commonwealth  finance 
ministers  in  London  in  July.  This  was  preceded  by  talks  with 
John  Snyder,  United  States,  and  Douglas  Abbot,  Canada. 
In  September  Sir  Stafford  visited  Washington  for  further 
financial  talks  between  the  three  countries;  and  he  also 
represented  Great  Britain  at  the  annual  meetings  of  the 
International  Bank  for  Reconstruction  and  Development  and 
the  International  Monetary  fund.  He  returned  to  Great 
Britain  on  Sept.  17  and  the  following  evening  announced 
in  a  broadcast  that  the  government  had  decided  to  devalue 
the  pound.  He  visited  Brussels  and  Paris  many  times  during 
the  year  for  meetings  of  the  Organization  for  European 
Economic  Co-operation  and  of  the  finance  ministers  of  the 
Brussels  treaty  powers.  In  April  he  visited  Italy  where  he 
had  talks  with  Italian  ministers. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.     Eric  Estonck,  Sir  Stafford  Cripps  (London,  1949). 

CUBA.  An  island  republic  in  the  Caribbean  sea,  including 
the  island  of  Cuba,  the  Isle  of  Pines,  and  other  minor  islands 
and  keys.  Area  of  the  main  island:  44,217  sq.  mi.  (Isle  of 
Pines,  1,180  sq.  mi.).  Pop.  (Dec.  1947  est.):  5,295,000. 
Racial  distribution  is  officially  calculated  at  75%  white 
(about  one-third  of  this  group  is  mulatto),  24%  Negro  and 
1  %  Asiatic  (largely  Chinese).  An  estimated  200,000  Spaniards 
live  in  Cuba.  Havana  (pop.,  1949  est.,  800,000)  is  the  capital 
and  chief  port.  Other  chief  towns  (pop.,  1946  est.):  Santiago 
de  Cuba  (152,000);  Camaguey  (87,000);  Matanzas  (55,000). 
Language:  Spanish.  Religion:  predominantly  Roman 
Catholic.  President  of  the  republic,  Dr.  Carlos  Prio  Socarras; 
prime  minister,  Dr.  Manuel  A.  de  Varona. 

History.  The  development  of  Cuban  affairs  during  1949 
was  uneventful.  Public  discussion  was  chiefly  focussed  upon 
economic  and  financial  position.  The  outlook  for  the 
marketing  of  sugar  was  clouded  early  in  the  year;  but  gradu- 
ally the  entire  surplus  was  disposed  of  and  the  year  ended 
with  a  prospect  of  marketing  the  larger  crop  which  favourable 
weather  was  foreshadowing  for  the  season  1949-50. 


During  1949  the  volume  of  imports  declined  by  10%; 
bank  clearings  were  down  slightly  more  than  seasonally 
through  the  year  and  both  price  and  wage  levels  rose.  Some 
industrial  expansion,  however,  took  place;  and  there  were 
indications  of  renewed  mining  activities.  The  search  for  oil, 
sporadically  promoted  in  former  years,  became  more  intense. 
The  construction  of  an  oil  refinery  was  carried  forward. 
Road  building  progressed  and  some  steps  were  taken  toward 
the  rehabilitation  of  railway  rolling  stock  and  railway  bed. 
The  availability  of  construction  materials  from  the  United 
States  spurred  the  construction  of  new  housing  (chiefly 
multiple)  in  the  capital  and  provincial  towns. 

There  was  a  perceptible  increase  in  apprehension  over  the 
stability  of  various  trust  funds  established  to  support  indus- 
trial pensions  and  the  government  disability  system.  On 
Oct.  11  the  president  announced  a  comprehensive  financial 
programme,  seeking  congressional  authorization  to  contract 
a  long  term  loan  for  as  much  as  200  million  pesos.  This 
borrowing  would  involve  refunding  only  in  insignificant 
measure,  as  initially  projected,  and  would  envisage  a  pro- 
gramme of  extensive  public  works  of  new  highways,  new 
housing  for  urban  and  agricultural  workers,  port  improve- 
ments, aqueducts  and  irrigation  and  an  intensive  cultivation 
of  the  tourist  business.  The  debates  brought  little  to  light 
as  to  the  practical  aspects  of  the  programme;  on  Nov.  17 
the  borrowing  was  authorized.  Discussions  with  financial 
groups  in  the  United  States  began  before  the  end  of  the 
year.  Progress  was  made  toward  a  treaty  with  the  United 
States  for  the  elimination  of  the  double  taxation  of  income. 

The  closing  months  of  1949  were  overshadowed  by  serious 
difficulties  with  the  Dominican  Republic  (q.v.).  The  govern- 
ment of  the  latter  alleged  that  Havana  was  the  centre  of 
conspiracies  to  organize  expeditions  to  overthrow  the 
Dominican  regime.  The  Cuban  congress  met  in  special 
session  at  the  end  of  December  to  confer  emergency  powers 
upon  the  executive  in  the  event  of  attack.  The  Organization 
of  American  States  was  officially  requested  to  investigate 
the  charges.  (C.  McG.) 

Education.  Schools  (1945)  elementary  and  secondary:  state,  pupils 
498,286;  private,  pupils  72,000.  There  were  21  institutions  for  advanced 
education  and  the  University  of  Havana. 

Agriculture.  Cuba  is  the  world's  chief  exporter  of  sugar.  Production 
in  1948  was  6,675,000  short  tons  of  raw  sugar  (17%  of  world's  pro- 
duction) and  340-8  million  gal.  of  strap  molasses.  Other  mam  crops 
(short  tons,  1948)'  leaf  tobacco  28,000;  coffee  36,440;  pineapples 
186,000;  rice  (milled)  44,000.  Livestock  ('000  head;  July  1,  1946): 
cattle  4,136;  pigs  1,338;  sheep  154;  goats  141. 

Industry.  There  are  160  sugar  mills  throughout  the  island.  Other 
production  in  1948  included:  cigars  620  million;  cigarettes  7,691 
million;  cement  1,676,200  barrels;  cotton  piece  goods  38 '9  million  yd. 
Refractory  chromite  (1948):  109,612  long  tons.  Other  minerals 
include  copper,  gold,  /me  and  iron  ore. 

Foreign  Trade.  (Million  pesos,  1948)  Export  $709-8,  import  $527-8. 
Chief  exports:  sugar  (82%),  molasses  (5%)  and  tobacco  (4%).  Chief 
imports:  rice,  butter,  flour.  The  U.S.  supplied  79-7%  of  the  total 
imports  and  absorbed  51  6%  of  the  exports. 

Transport  and  Communications.  Railways  (1949):  state  3,017  mi.; 
private  (mainly  sugar  companies)  7,870  mi.  Roads  (1949)  included 
1,720  mi.  of  paved  highways  and  600  mi.  of  improved  highways. 
Licensed  motor  vehicles  (Dec.  31,  1948):  cars  40,878,  lorries  24,634, 
lorry-trailers  320,  buses  4,118.  Shipping  (June  30,  1948):  merchant 
vessels  (more  than  100  gross  tons)  34,  tonnage  34,684.  Telephone 
(Dec.  31,  1948):  subscribers  93,426. 

Finance  and  Banking.  (Million  pesos)  Ordinary  budget  (1949-50 
est.)  revenue  97-7,  expenditure  97-5;  extraordinary  budget  (1949-50 
est.)  balanced  at  134-5.  National  debt  (June  30,  1949):  107-3  of 
which  75  •  3  was  foreign  Notes  in  circulation,  including  U.S.  currency 
(June  30,  1949):  644-1.  Gold  reserve  (June  30,  1949):  301.  The 
monetary  unit  is  the  peso  (written  $)  officially  pegged  at  par  with  the 
U.S.  dollar. 

CURASAO:  see  NETHERLANDS  OVERSEAS  TERRITORIES. 

CYCLING.  In  1949  for  the  first  time  a  British  rider  won 
the  world  professional  sprint  championship.      The  races 


CYPRUS 


197 


R.  H.  Harris,  Great  Britain,  setting  up  a  1,000  m.  standing  start 

world  record  at  Milan,  Oct.  23,  1949.    His  time  for  the  distance 

was  1  min.  9  4/5  sec. 

were  held  in  August  in  Copenhagen,  Denmark.  R.  Harris 
beat  J.  Derksen  (Netherlands)  in  the  final  of  the  professional 
sprint.  The  amateur  sprint  was  won  by  S.  Patterson  (Aus- 
tralia) who  beat  J.  Bellenger  (France).  K.  E.  Anderson 
(Denmark)  beat  C.  Cartwright  (Great  Britain)  in  the  amateur 
pursuit. 

The  outstanding  rider  of  the  year  was  Fausto  Coppi 
(Italy),  who  in  1949  won  the  Giro  d'ltalia,  the  Tour  de  France, 
the  professional  pursuit  championship  and  finished  third  to 
H.  Van  Steenbergen  (Belgium) 
and  F.  Kubler  (Switzerland)  in 
the  professional  road  race.  Other 
world  champions  were: — 
H.  Faanhof  (Netherlands),  who 
won  the  amateur  road  race,  and 
E.  Frosio  (Italy)  who  won  the 
professional  motor-paced  event. 

The  winner  of  the  British  best 
all-rounder  competition  was  Ken- 
neth Joy  (Medway  wheelers). 
He  achieved  an  average  speed  of 
22  •  808  m.p.h.  for  events  at  50  mi., 
100  mi.  and  12  hr.,  to  beat  K.  R. 
Whitmarsh  (Southampton 
wheelers)  by  -096  m.p.h.  The 
Medway  wheelers  for  the  second 
successive  year  won  the  team 
championship.  JThe  ladies'  com- 
petition, at  25  mi.,  50  mi.  and 
100  mi.,  was  won  by  Eileen 
Sheridan  (Coventry  cycling  club) 
with  an  average  of  21  •  827  m.p.h. 

Remembrance   day   ceremony   being 

held  in  Nicosia,  Cyprus,  Nov.  1949. 

On  left  is  the  governor,  Sir  Andrew 

Wright. 


The  Isle  of  Man  75  mi.  road  race  in  June  was  won  by 
Desmond  Robinson  (Huddersfield).  The  national  massed 
start  championship  in  September  was  won  by  A.  D.  Newman 
(Concorde  R.C.C.),  second  in  the  race  in  June. 

Peter  Beardsmore  (Medway  wheelers)  broke  the  London  to 
Brighton  and  back  record,  when,  on  Oct.  2,  he  covered  the 
104  mi.  in  4  hr.  36  min.  8  sec.  Two  weeks  later  Kenneth 
Joy  reduced  the  time  to  4  hr.  34  min.  1 3  sec. 

In  June,  H.  Parkes  (Medway  road  club)  set  up  new  figures 
for  the  Land's  End  to  John  O'Groats  tricycle  record  when  he 
covered  the  872  mi.  in  3  days  13  hr.  3  min.  A  month  later 
J.  K.  Letts  (Ealing  Paragon)  recorded  a  time  of  3  days  9  hr. 
27  min.  Duf£ng  the  year  Albert  Crimes  (Crewe  wheelers) 
established  new  tricycle  competition  record  figures  tor  events 
at  50  mi.,  100  mi.,  12  and  24  hr. 

C.  G.  Baxter  and  R.  T.  Coleman  (South  Lancashire  R.C) 
established  new  figures  of  9  hr.  22  min.  for  the  Liverpool — 
Edinburgh  tandem  record.  (X.) 

CYPRUS.  British  colony  and  island  in  the  eastern 
Mediterranean  lying  south  of  Turkey  and  west  of  Syria  and 
Lebanon.  Area:  3,572  sq.  mi.;  pop.  (1946  census):  450,114. 
Chief  towns:  Nicosia  (cap.,  34,463);  Larnaca  (14,746); 
Limassol  (22,693);  Famagusta  (15,912).  Languages:  Greek 
80%,  Turkish  20%;  English  also  is  spoken  by  some  10%. 
Religions:  Greek  Orthodox  80%,  Moslem  20%.  Governor, 
Sir  Andrew  Wright. 

History.  A  report  published  during  the  year  on  the  progress 
of  the  ten-year  development  plan  showed  an  expenditure  of 
£1,178,036  on  various  projects  in  the  2  years  and  9  months 
since  its  inception;  irrigation,  at  a  cost  of  £313,915,  was  the 
largest  single  item.  Formal  announcement  of  the  success  of 
the  anti-malarial  campaign  was  made  on  April  4,  when  it 
was  claimed  the  island  had  been  cleared  of  the  malarial 
mosquito  at  a  cost  of  £220,000,  or  approximately  95.  per 
head  of  population. 

Municipal  elections  were  held  during  May  and  resulted  in 
slight  gains  for  the  right-wing  parties  which  gained  control 
of  three  main  towns  and  seven  rural  centres  or  municipalities. 
But  political  agitation  for  enosis,  or  union  with  Greece,  now 
supported  equally  by  both  right-  and  left-wing  parties  of  the 


198 


CYRANKIEWICZ— CZECHOSLOVAKIA 


Greek-speaking  community,  continued  to  bedevil  the  political 
Hfe  of  the  island  and  prevent  any  constitutional  advance. 

The  island's  economic  position,  with  a  very  large  adverse 
trade  balance,  gave  rise  to  serious  concern,  especially  as  the 
cessation  began  to  be  felt  of  those  wartime  and  immediate 
postwar  circumstances  which  had  favoured  certain  of  its 
products;  e.g.,  wine,  and  the  government  took  various  steps 
to  secure  new  markets  abroad  and  to  aid  threatened  industries; 
a  trade  delegation  was  sent  to  London  in  July  and  later  a 
scheme  was  published  for  the  purchase  by  the  Government 
of  the  season's  entire  acceptable  production  of  raisins  and 
zivania. 

The  interim  report  was  published  of  the  committee  on 
Turkish  affairs  which  had  been  carrying  out  an  investigation 
into  matters  concerning  and  affecting  the  Turkish  community 
in  Cyprus.  It  was  an  all-Turkish  committee  and,  bearing  in 
mind  that  it  dealt  with  an  all-Moslem  community,  it  recom- 
mended certain  far-reaching  reforms  including  the  abolition 
of  polygamy,  the  discontinuance  of  the  dowry  system, 
restricted  divorce  subject  to  a  judicial  decision  and  reconsti- 
tution  of  the  Sheri  courts  under  a  modern  name  and  modern 
laws:  there  were  numerous  other  recommendations  dealing 
with  pious  foundations  (evkaf),  the  muftiship  and  education 
more  peculiar  to  existing  conditions  in  Cyprus  than  to  the 
advocacy  of  changes  in  popular  Moslem  custom. 

Finance  and  Trade.  Currency:  the  Cyprus  pound,  at  par  with  sterling 
and  divided  into  180  piastres.  Budget  (1948)-  revenue  £5,915,985; 
expenditure  £5,812,952.  Foreign  trade  (1948):  imports  £15,422,091; 
exports  £5,678,617.  Principal  exports,  minerals  (cuprous  concentrates, 
iron  pyrites  and  asbestos)  and  agricultural  products.  (J.  A.  Hu). 

CYRANKIEWICZ,  J6ZEF,  Polish  politician  (b. 
Tarn6w,  1911),  appointed  prime  minister  on  Feb.  5,  1947. 
(For  his  early  career  see  Britannica  Book  of  the  Year  1949). 

On  Dec.  21,  1948,  after  the  merger  of  the  Socialist  and 
Communist  parties,  he  was  elected  one  of  the  three  secretaries 
general  of  the  new  Polish  United  Workers'  party.  On  Jan.  10, 
1949,  in  the  Polish  parliament  or  Sejm,  he  said  that  the  main 
object  of  U.S.  aid  to  Europe  was  to  restore  aggressive  German 
imperialism.  On  Sept.  1 ,  in  opening  the  Warsaw  congress  of 
the  Fighters  for  Freedom,  he  attempted  to  present  a  synthesis 
of  recent  Polish  history:  from  1919  to  1926  Poland  was  a 
pseudo-democracy,  from  1926  to  1939  a  fascist  dictatorship 
andjrom  1945  it  was,  he  said,  a  true  democracy.  Speaking 
in  November  before  the  central  committee  of  the  United 
Workers'  party,  he  bitterly  criticized  the  opportunism  and 
nationalism  of  his  former  Socialist  party  and  alleged  that 
many  of  its  leaders  were  spies  and  agents  provocateurs. 

CYRENAICA:   see  ITALIAN  COLONIAL  EMPIRE. 

CZECH  LITERATURE.  Under  the  Communist 
regime  Czech  literature  left  the  well  trodden  paths  of  the 
fashionable  "  isms  "  and  was  clearing  the  ground  to  elucidate 
the  principles  of  socialist  realism  and  to  make  "  art  a  reflection 
of  reality,"  as  defined  by  Lenin.  However,  there  had  always 
been  Czech  novelists  who  were  more  interested  in  social 
background  than  in  personal  fate,  though  they  did  not  make 
this  leaning  towards  the  description  of  environment  a  strict 
rule:  for  example,  Karel  Capek's  posthumously  published 
unfinished  novel  Life  and  Work  of  the  Composer  Foltyn  is  a 
fictional  biography  of  a  quite  untypical  swindler. 

A  somewhat  wider  background  was  given  by  Dominik 
Tatarka,  a  Slovak,  to  his  novel  Parochial  Republic  describing 
community  life  in  Slovakia  during  World  War  II;  but 
socialist  realism  was  still  in  a  theoretical  and  transitional 
stage.  Adolf  Branald's  first  novel  North  Station  showed 
how  passionately  Czech  railwaymen  opposed  the  German 
invaders.  The  leader  of  these  fighters,  however,  was  a 
crankish  stationmaster  who  regarded  sabotage  as  the  ruin 


of  railway  property  and  longed  for  nothing  more  than  the 
return  of  bygone  times  with  their  forms  and  circular  letters. 
Branald's  second  novel,  Hospital  Train,  another  picture  of 
the  occupation  years,  was  set  against  the  brutality  of  Nazi 
officers.  The  literary  solution  of  topical  problems  was 
attempted  by  Jiri  Mucha  in  The  War  Continues,  a  chronicle 
of  the  after  effects  of  war  on  men's  minds  as  a  result  of 
changed  political  conditions,  by  contrasting  the  character  of 
a  "  builder  "  with  that  of  a  man  who  flees  abroad. 

The  one  really  outstanding  volume  of  poetry  published  in 
1949  was  FrantiSek  Hrubin's  Hiroshima.  It  met  with  an 
unfavourable  reception  because  of  the  poet's  sense  of  resigna- 
tion, his  lack  of  optimism  and  his  vision  of  the  world  as 
reflected  in  the  fate  of  Hiroshima.  FrantiSek  Halas  whose 
last  volume  of  poems  professed  itself,  as  its  title  read,  In 
Line,  died  in  October. 

The  new  tendencies  were  strongest  in  drama.  A  two-year 
plan  of  sorts,  which  began  on  July  1,  1949,  now  existed  to 
make  scenic  art  a  national  affair  in  which  all  theatres  and 
playwrights  would  collaborate.  The  latter  were  to  write 
according  to  local  needs.  Metropolitan  theatres  would  be 
expected  to  produce  plays  about  the  fight  for  peace  or  the 
birth  of  a  new  intelligentsia  and  theatres  m  industrial  centres 
to  stage  plays  on  shock  workers  or  the  fight  for  production. 
Among  original  new  plays,  about  20  in  all,  Polisher  Karban's 
Gang  by  VaSek  Karta  might  serve  as  an  indication  of  present 
trends  in  Czech  drama.  It  was  an  authentic  play  in  racy 
language  about  metal  factory  workers  with  well  drawn 
characters  typifying  both  the  positive  and  negative  aspects 
of  one  sector  of  Czechoslovakia's  everyday  life.  Among 
miners'  plays  there  was  Vaclav  Jelinek's  comedy  And  Who 
Is  More  Important  ?,  the  hero  of  which,  an  old  miner,  has 
only  one  ambition — to  find  someone  to  replace  him  in  the 
pit.  In  November  a  first  play  New  Fighters  Will  Come  by 
Antonin  Zapotocky,  the  prime  minister,  was  performed  in 
Prague.  (J.  KR.) 

CZECHOSLOVAKIA.  A  people's  republic  of 
central  Europe,  bounded  on  the  west  and  northwest  by 
Germany,  on  the  north  and  northeast  by  Poland,  on  the 
east  by  the  U.S.S.R.  and  on  the  south  by  Hungary  and 
Austria.  Area:  (before  Sept.  28,  1938)  54,244  sq.  mi.;  after 
annexation  of  Subcarpathian  Ruthenia  by  the  U.S.S.R. 
(June  29,  1945):  49,330*  sq.  mi.  Pop.:  (June  1937  cst.) 
15,239,000;  (May  22,  1947,  census)  12,164,631;  (Dec.  31, 
1948,  est.)  12,408,982.*  The  population  of  Subcarpathian 
Ruthenia  was  estimated  in  1938  at  c.  725,000;  after  the 
liberation  over  three  million  Germans  left  the  country,  but 
about  434,000  remained.  Languages  (official  1948  est.): 
Czech  67%,  Slovak  25%,  German  3-5%,  Hungarian  3-5%, 
Polish  0-7%.  Religions  (1930  census):  Roman  Catholic 
77%,  Protestant  (all  denominations)  7-5%,  Czechoslovak 
Church  5-6%,  Greek  Catholic  1-6%,  Jewish  1-9%,  atheist 
6%.  Chief  towns  (pop.  1947  census):  Prague  (cap.,  921,416); 
Brno  (272,760);  Moravska  Ostrava  (181,181);  Bratislava 
(172,664);  Plzeri  (118,152).  President  of  the  republic, 
Klement  Gottwald  (<y.v.);  prime  minister,  Antonin  Zapotocky 
(^.v.);  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  Dr.  Vladimir  dementis. 

History.  The  main  political  event  in  1949  was  the  conflict 
between  government  and  Roman  Catholic  Church.  The 
hostility  of  the  hierarchy  to  the  rump  People's  party,  the 
purged  remnant  of  the  formerly  strong  party  of  Czech 
Catholic  democrats,  and  to  the  person  of  its  leader,  the 
suspended  Catholic  priest  Josef  Plojhar,  a  member  of  the 
Zapotocky  cabinet,  had  caused  serious  friction  in  1948, 
Discussion  between  government  and  hierarchy  for  the  settle- 
ment of  outstanding  problems  began  in  Feb.  1949  but  broke 

•Including  the  so-called  Bratislava  bridgehead  ceded  to  Czechoslovakia  by 
Hungary  under  the  Pans  treaty  of  peace  of  Feb.  10,  1947.  It  comprises  three 
villages  with  a  total  area  of  9  sq.  mi.  and  a  population  of  3,146  (Oct  15,  1947). 


CZECHOSLOVAKIA 


The  rostrum  of  the  Czechoslovak  National  Assembly  during  the  debate  on  the  Church  bill  in  Oct.  1949. 

on  Oct.  14  and  came  into  operation  on  Nov.  1. 


The  bill  was  passed  by  the  assembly 


down  without  agreement.  The  failure  was  attributed  by  the 
government  to  Vatican  intervention,  by  the  hierarchy  to 
unacceptable  interference  by  the  government  with  church 
affairs.  On  June  9  the  government  set  up  a  body  called  the 
Catholic  Action  committee.  It  had  nothing  to  do  with  the 
Catholic  Action  organization,  but  was  a  Communist-con- 
trolled "  action  committee  "  similar  to  those  which  had  been 
set  up  at  the  time  of  the  Feb.  1948  "  revolution."  It  included 
a  number  of  lay  Catholics  and  some  priests,  and  issued  a 
newspaper  called  Catholic  News.  Its  purpose  was  to  persuade 
Czech  Catholics  that  the  government  wished  to  respect  and 
protect  their  religion  but  that  the  reactionary  bishops  and 
the  Vatican  "  in  the  service  of  western  imperialism  "  were 
out  to  prevent  agreement.  Archbishop  Josef  Beran  of  Prague 
denounced  the  committee,  and  threatened  all  who  supported 
it  with  **  ecclesiastical  sanctions."  The  archbishop's  sermon 
in  Prague  cathedral  was  interrupted  by  Communists  on 
June  19;  and  he  became  a  prisoner  in  his  own  palace.  On 
July  15  a  draft  law  was  published,  which  provided  for  the 
payment  of  priests'  salaries  by  the  state,  on  comparatively 
generous  terms,  but  gave  the  government  power  to  interfere 
in  the  church  appointments  and  to  take  action  against  priests 
considered  hostile  to  the  "  popular  democratic  regime."  The 
law  was  passed  in  October  and  the  hierarchy  permitted 
priests  to  accept  salaries  under  it  as  they  would  otherwise  be 
unable  to  keep  alive.  The  conflict  between  church  and 
government  was,  however,  in  no  way  solved.  The  government 
controlled  the  schools  and  avowedly  intended  to  use  them  to 
propagate  among  the  young  the  "  scientific  doctrine  of 
Marxism-Leninism."  At  the  same  time  the  government 
clearly  intended  to  separate  at  least  a  part  of  the  Czech 
Catholic  Church  from  the  Vatican.  A  "  national "  Czech 
church  could  receive  sole  recognition  and,  isolated  from  the 
outer  world,  would  be  as  much  at  the  mercy  of  the  state  as 
was  the  Orthodox  Church  in  the  U.S.S.R.  Hitherto,  with 
very  few  exceptions,  the  Czech  and  Slovak  priests  remained 
loyal  to  their  bishops,  and  the  people  to  their  priests. 

The  year  was  marked  by  a  series  of  conspiracy  trials.  On 
Jan.  28  General  Heliodor  Pika,  former  head  of  the  Czecho- 
slovak military  mission  in  Moscow  and  later  assistant  chief 
of  staff,  was  condemned  to  death  for  espionage.  One  of  the 
accusations  against  him  was  that  in  1940  he  had  passed  to 
the  British  information  about  the  Red  army.  At  that  time 
Britain  was  the  only  fighting  ally  of  his  conquered  country, 
while  the  U.S.S.R.  was  the  ally  of  its  oppressor.  If  the 
general  did  in  fact  pass  information  to  the  British,  then  he 


was  condemned  for  treason  against  Hitler's  protectorate.  The 
sentence  of  death  was  carried  out  on  June  21.  Another  war 
hero,  General  Karel  KutlvaSr,  organizer  of  the  1945  rising 
of  Prague  against  the  Germans,  was  sentenced  to  life  imprison- 
ment on  May  16  for  espionage  on  behalf  of  foreign  powers. 
On  Aug.  30  it  was  announced  that  another  insurrectionary 
plot  had  been  unmasked;  six  persons  were  executed  and  ten 
sentenced  to  life  imprisonment.  In  March,  Captain  Philip 
Wildash,  British  military  permit  officer  for  the  western  zones 
of  Germany,  was  arrested  by  Czech  police  on  a  charge  of 
espionage.  A  number  of  Czech  subjects  were  subsequently 
condemned  to  various  prison  sentences  for  providing  him 
with  information.  In  October  a  member  of  the  U.S.  embassy, 
Samuel  Meryn,  was  also  arrested  on  espionage  charges. 

The  9th  congress  of  the  Czechoslovak  Communist  party 
was  held  in  May.  After  its  last  congress  in  1946,  the  party's 
membership  had  risen  from  1,159,164  to  2,311,060.  The 
increase  was  due  mainly  to  the  recruiting  campaign  before 
and  after  the  Feb.  1948  "  revolution  "  and  obviously  consisted 
to  a  large  extent  of  unreliable  careerists  whose  devotion  to 
Communism  was  hardly  even  skin-deep.  In  the  first  months 
of  1949  a  "  verification  "  of  members  was.  carried  out.  But 
at  the  time  of  the  congress,  though  more  than  500,000  had 
been  reduced  to  "  candidate  "  status,  only  100,000  had  been 
expelled.  Clearly  this  purge  was  inadequate  and  more 
drastic  action  was  bound  to  follow.  The  Rajk  trial  in  Sep- 
tember (see  HUNGARY)  "  revealed  "  that  nationalistic  devia- 
tionism  and  Titoism  were  rife  in  the  Czech  party.  During 
October  large  numbers  of  arrests  were  carried  out,  including 
those  of  many  party  members  but  no  prominent  leaders. 

Perhaps  the  most  significant  change  in  Czechoslovakia's 
foreign  relations  during  1949  was  the  adoption  in  official 
circles  of  a  new  attitude  to  Germany.  As  Soviet  policy 
increasingly  organized  eastern  Germany  into  a  centralized 
Communist  state  and  gave  more  support  to  German 
nationalism — directed  of  course  against  the  western  powers — 
the  old  negative  attitude  of  the  Soviet  satellites  to  Germany 
became  impossible.  Already  in  February  Zdenek  Fierlinger, 
who  had  attended  a  congress  of  the  S.E.D.  (Communist) 
party  in  the  Soviet  zone,  urged  a  friendly  attitude  to  the  new 
true  democracy  which  was  arising  in  Soviet  Germany.  At 
the  party  congress  in  May,  Vaclav  Kopecky,  minister  of 
information,  stated  that  the  test  of  the  "  true  proletarian 
internationalism"  of  Czech  Communists  would  be  their 
relations  with  the  "  democratic  and  progressive  elements  and 
popular  sections  "  of  Germany  whose  spokesman  was  S.E.D. 


200 


DAIRY  FARMING— DANCE 


The  Czechoslovak-Hungarian  quarrel,  fostered  by  Czech 
and  Slovak  Communists  in  1945-47  in  the  tactical  interests  of 
Soviet  policy,  was  buried  in  those  same  tactical  interests  in 
1949.  Agreement  was  reached  on  the  position  of  the  Hungarian 
minority  in  Czechoslovakia  and  a  Czechoslovak-Hungarian 
treaty  of  friendship  and  mutual  assistance  was  signed  in 
Budapest  on  April  16,  1949,  by  the  two  prime  ministers, 
Istvan  Dobi  and  Antonin  Zapotocky,  and  ministers  of  foreign 
affairs,  Vladimir  Clementis  and  Laszlo  Rajk.  (H.  S.-W.) 

Education.  (1947)  Elementary  schools  11,836,  pupils  998,177; 
higher  grade  schools  2,122,  pupils  398,721;  secondary  schools  335, 
pupils  119,093;  technical  schools  700,  pupils  99,781;  universities  7, 
Students  52,456;  other  institutions  of  higher  education  9,  students 
5,549. 

Agriculture.  Main  crops  (1948,  in  '000  metric  tons):  wheat,  1,398; 
rye  1,124;  barley  925;  oats  908;  maize  252;  potatoes  6,578;  sugar 
(raw  value)  629.  Livestock  (in  fOOO  head)-  cattle  (Jan.  1948)  3,275; 
pigs  (Jan.  1948)  2,566;  horses  (Jan.  1949)  640;  sheep  (Jan.  1948) 
386;  chickens  (Jan.  1948)  10,976.  Food  production  (1948,  in  '000 
metric  tons) :  milk  2,258;  butter  22-8;  meat  264  (beef  118-8). 

Industry.  Persons  employed  in  industry,  excluding  building  (June 
1949):  1,395,000.  Fuel  and  power  (1948;  1949,  six  months,  in  brackets): 
coal  (in  '000  metric  tons)  17.746  (8,648),  lignite  (in  '000  metric  tons) 
23,591  (13,137);  manufactured  gas  (in  million  cu.  ft.)  72,818  (39,128); 
electricity  (in  million  kwh.)  7,514  (4,044).  Raw  materials  (in  *000 
metric  tons):  iron  ore,  metal  content  (1948)  1,429;  pig-iron  (Jan.  to 
Nov.  1948)  1,515;  steel  ingots  and  castings  (Jan.  to  Nov.  1948)  2,425; 
lead  (1948)  8.  Manufactured  goods  (1948;  1949,  six  months,  in 
brackets):  plate  glass  (in  '000  metric  tons)  131  (62),  rayon  (in  '000 
metric  tons)  18  (11);  footwear  (in  million  pairs)  63  (34);  railway 
trucks,  coaches  and  motor  trains  (in  thousands)  11  (9);  commercial 
vehicles  (in  thousands)  13  (14);  cement  (in  '000  metric  tons)  1,657  (823). 

Foreign  Trade.  (In  million  korunas)  Imports  (1948)  37,716,  (1949, 
•ix  months)  20,280;  exports  (1948)  37,648,  (1949,  six  months)  20,060. 
Main  sources  of  supply  (1948):  U.S.S.R.  16%  United  Kingdom  10% 
and  Yugoslavia  6%.  Main  destinations  of  exports  (1948):  U.S.S.R. 
16%,  Poland  7%  and  Yugoslavia  7%. 

Transport  and  Communications.  Roads  (1946),  43,969  mi.  Licensed 
motor  vehicles  (Dec.  1948):  cars  155,000,  commercial  vehicles  54,000. 
Railways  (1947),  8,161  mi.;  passenger-mi.  (1948)  11,282  million; 
freight  net  ton-mi.  (1948)  7,874  million.  Air  transport  (1948),  flights 
18,144,  miles  flown  5,995,000,  passenger-mi,  flown  33,559  million. 
Telephones  (1947),  subscribers  350,108. 

Finance  and  Banking.  (In  million  korunas)  Budget  estimates  (1948): 
revenue  56,896,  expenditure  67,056;  (1949)  revenue  89,320,  expenditure 
89,278.  National  debt  (Dec.  1948;  in  brackets,  Dec.  1947)  141  891 
(135,425).  Currency  circulation  (Sept.  1949;  in  brackets,  Sept.  1948) 
69,200  (68,600).  Monetary  unit:  koruna  with  an  exchange  rate  (Dec. 
1949;  in  brackets,  Dec.  1948)  of  140-0  (201  -5)  korunas  to  the  pound. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  J.  Josten,  Oh  My  Country  (London,  1949);  Hubert 
Ripka,  Czechoslovakia  Enslaved  (London,  1950);  Jan  Stransky,  East 
Wind  Over  Prague  (London,  1950);  Edvard  Taborsky,  **  BeneS  and 
the  Soviets/*  Foreign  Affairs  (New  York,  Jan.  1949). 

DAHOMEY:  see  FRENCH  UNION. 

DAIRY  FARMING.  There  were  3,685,000  cows  on 
farms  in  the  United  Kingdom  in  June  1949,  101,000  (2-7%) 
more  than  in  June  1948.  The  number  in  milk  increased  by 
4%  so  that,  in  spite  of  poor  pasture  conditions,  sales  of  milk 
through  Milk  Marketing  boards  during  the  period  April  to 
Sept.  1949  were  maintained  at  2%  above  those  in  the  corres- 
ponding period  of  1948.  Sales  in  the  period  Oct.  1948  to 
Sept.  1949  were  1,711  million  gal.,  10%  more  than  in  the 
period  Oct.  1947  to  Sept.  1948  and  42%  more  than  the 
prewar  average. 

Some  10%  more  cows  were  dry,  ready  for  calving,  in 
Sept.  1949  than  in  Sept.  1948,  indicating  that  the  trend 
towards  increased  autumn  calving  fostered  since  the  early 
days  of  World  War  II  was  continuing.  The  dry  summer 
greatly  reduced  supplies  of  grass  and  other  forage  crops, 
making  it  difficult  to  feed  autumn  calvers  satisfactorily.  To 
help  producers  to  prepare  these  cows  and  heifers  for  calving 
a  special  allowance  of  concentrated  feedingstuffs  was  made 
for  them  through  the  feedingstuffs  rationing  scheme.  Pro- 
ducers were  warned,  however,  that  they  must  plan  to  grow 
an  even  bigger  proportion  of  the  feed  for  their  cows  than 
they  had  in  the  past. 


The  price  of  milk  in  the  year  Oct.  1948  to  Sept.  1949  was 
238%  of  the  average  for  the  years  1936-38.  The  price  in 
December  was  182%  of  that  in  May  compared  with  166% 
prewar,  reflecting  the  emphasis  in  recent  years  on  winter 
production. 

Though  the  large  supply  of  milk  in  1948-49  was  to  some 
extent  the  result  of  a  very  favourable  season,  it  turned 
producers'  attention  to  the  prospective  outlets  for  their 
production  in  the  future.  Consumption  of  liquid  milk  per 
head  of  the  population  in  the  United  Kingdom  was  smaller 
than  in  several  countries  in  continental  Europe  but  total 
consumption  had,  nevertheless,  increased  by  75%  over 
prewar.  Towards  the  end  of  the  summer  of  1949  it  became 
very  difficult  to  meet  demands  for  liquid  consumption,  but 
this  extreme  stringency  was  temporary  and  did  not  change 
the  general  view  that  production  was  expanding  steadily. 
This  prospect,  together  with  the  need  to  expand  meat  pro- 
duction, led  to  official  approval  for  the  return  to  calf-rearing 
of  relatively  inaccessible  farms  which  had  changed  to  milk 
selling  only  since  1939;  the  regular  cash  return  from  milk 
was,  however,  a  strong  attraction  to  these  farmers  and  there 
was  little  evidence  of  reversion.  (K.  E.  H.) 

United  States.  Production  of  milk  in  1949  was  estimated 
at  nearly  118,000  million  lb.,  compared  with  115,500  million 
Ib.  in  1948.  The  number  of  milch  cows  at  the  beginning  of 
the  year  was  24,450,000,  compared  with  25,039,000  in  the 
previous  year.  A  general  decline  in  the  price  to  the  farmer 
for  milk  and  milk  products  was  in  evidence;  prices  per  cwt. 
were  nearly  20%  below  those  of  1948.  Retail  prices  averaged 
about  1  cent  a  quart  lower  than  in  the  previous  year.  Con- 
sumption per  person  of  milk  in  all  forms  dropped  to  742  lb., 
almost  the  lowest  recorded.  The  Agricultural  act  of  1949 
provided  for  the  subsidy  of  milk  and  butter  fat  prices,  but 
the  prices  fixed  were  below  those  actually  received  by  fanners 
in  Dec.  1949. 

Consumption  of  butter  increased  by  about  3%  in  1949, 
but  the  10-3  lb.  used  per  head  was  only  62%  of  prewar 
consumption.  Production  was  estimated  at  1,675  million  lb., 
compared  with  1,513  million  lb.  in  1948,  The  U.S.  production 
of  cheese  in  1949  was  estimated  at  1,190  million  lb.,  as 
compared  with  1,097  million  lb.  in  1948  and  an  average  of 
669  million  lb.  in  1935-39.  Production  per  head  was  7-9  lb. 
compared  with  7  -4  lb.  in  1948  but  consumption  was  estimated 
only  at  7- 1  lb.  per  head  in  1949.  Prices  were  comparatively 
stable  near  the  government  subsidized  price  and  ranged  from 
37  •  1  cents  per  lb.  wholesale  at  Chicago  in  January  to  33  cents 
per  lb.  in  July,  compared  with  an  average  of  45-5  cents 
per  lb.  in  1948. 

Production  of  non-fat  dried  milk  solids  in  1949  was  a 
record  of  885  million  lb.,  compared  with  659  million  lb.  in 
1948  and  243  million  lb.  before  World  War  II.  Domestic 
requirements  were  only  a  little  more  than  50  %  of  production, 
so  40  to  50%  of  the  output  in  1949  was  purchased  by  the 
government  as  a  price  support  measure  for  manufacturing 
milk.  Production  of  dried  whole  milk  was  130  million  lb. 
in  1949  compared  with  a  peak  of  217  million  lb.  in  1945  and 
a  prewar  level  of  production  of  only  19  million  lb.  Domestic 
consumption  accounted  for  less  than  half  the  total.  Produc- 
tion of  evaporated  milk  amounted  to  3,295  million  lb., 
compared  with  3,831  million  lb.  in  1948.  (J.  K.  R.) 

DAKAR:    see  FRENCH  UNION. 

DANCE.  The  year  1949  was  an  important  one  in  ballet 
not  only  from  the  point  of  view  of  quantity  but  especially 
for  a  definite  trend  that  was  beginning  to  show  itself.  As 
usual  the  bulk  of  the  work  came  from  France  and  Great 
Britain. 

The  ballet  of  the  year  was  beyond  a  doubt  Carmen  produced 


DANCE 


201 


Margot  Fonteyn  as  Cinderella.  She  was  a  member  of  the  Sadler's 
Wells  Ballet  company  which  appeared  in  New  York  late  in  1949. 

by  Roland  Petit  for  his  own  Ballets  de  Paris.  This  work  which 
had  its  world  premiere  at  the  Princes  theatre,  London,  on 
Feb.  21  ran  nightly  all  through  the  summer  at  the  Marigny 
theatre  in  Paris,  breaking  every  previous  record.  The  com- 
pany left  for  New  York  in  October.  Its  basic  weakness  was 
the  adaptation  of  Georges  Bizet's  score  but,  that  accepted, 
the  result  was  first  class  theatre  and  very  nearly  first  class 
choreography.  Petit  told  Prosper  Merimee's  famous  story 
in  five  scenes  with  a  realism  hitherto  unknown  in  the  ballet 
medium;  the  characters  of  Carmen  and  Don  Jos6  were  well 
brought  out  and  there  was  an  amusing  sketch  of  Escamillo  in 
the  background.  The  scenery  and  costumes  by  the  Spanish 
painter  A.  Clave  were  outstanding,  a  part  of  the  dramatic 
entity  as  they  so  rarely  had  been  since  the  time  of  Serghey 
Diaghilev.  Renee  Jeanmaire,  always  an  admirable  dancer, 
became  so  closely  identified  with  this  role  that  she  ran  the 
danger  of  playing  a  whole  series  of  femmes  fatales.  Petit's 
other  creations  were  commonplace  and  showed  the  weakness 
inherent  in  his  tendency  for  improvisation. 

The  other  ballet  of  major  importance  was  Frederick 
Ashton's  Cinderella,  put  on  by  the  Sadler's  Wells  ballet  at 
the  Royal  Opera  house,  Covent  Garden,  on  Dec.  23,  1948, 
and  played  to  capacity  at  each  performance.  This  was  the 
first  full  length  ballet  created  by  a  British  choreographer. 
The  problems  involved  were  many,  the  most  complex  of  all 
being  the  telling  of  the  story  without  the  conventional  mime 
used  in  the  19th  century  which  would  irritate  a  modern 
audience.  The  music  was  by  Serghey  Prokofiev;  another 
version  had  already  been  produced  in  Moscow.  Ashton  told 
his  story  in  a  straightforward  manner  adopting  a  neo-classical 
technique  that  suited  both  the  music  and  the  times.  Originality 
was  shown  in  the  variations  of  the  four  seasons  and  in  a 
simple  and  moving  dance  for  Cinderella  with  her  broom.  A 
feature  of  the  production  was  the  heavy  character  comedy  of 


the  ugly  sisters  danced  by  Ashton  himself  with  Robert 
Helpmann.  This  knockabout  type  of  British  pantomime,  so 
foreign  to  the  average  European,  finds  an  echo  in  Russia  and 
the  music  allowed  Ashton  to  make  the  most  of  it.  It  did, 
However,  overweigh  the  dancing  especially  when,  with 
repeated  performances,  the  comedy  broadened.  The  scenery 
and  costumes  were  by  the  Parisian  designer  Jean-Denis 
Malcles.  The  role  of  Cinderella  was  created  by  Moira  Shearer 
during  Margot  Fonteyn's  illness;  it  was  also  danced  by 
Violetta  Elvin  and  finally  by  Margot  Fonteyn  herself  for 
whom  it  had  been  originally  created.  This  ballet  was  chosen 
for  the  Ballet  Benevolent  Fund  Gala  performance  at  Covent 
Garden  on  Arjril  25  at  which  the  Queen  was  present. 

Sadler's  Wells  revived  Frederick  Ashton's  Wedding  Bouquet, 
Apparitions  and  Facade.  The  first  two  works  survived  their 
transfer  to  a  larger  stage  and  their  quality  ensured  them  a 
long  life  in  the  repertoire. 

In  October  the  company  made  its  American  d£but  at  the 
Metropolitan  Opera  house,  New  York,  and  played  to  full 
houses.  It  received  unanimous  praise  from  the  critics. 

Alexandra  Danilova  returned  to  the  London  stage  for  the 
first  time  since  1939  as  guest  artist  at  Covent  Garden  in 
Coppelia,  La  Boutique  Fantasque,  Giselle  and  Swan  Lake,  an 
event  of  considerable  importance  for  the  young  dancers  with 
whom  she  appeared. 

The  Sadler's  Wells  theatre  ballet,  nursery  of  the  Covent 
Garden  company,  continued  its  search  for  fresh  talent.  Its 
best  production  in  1949  was  Sea  Change  by  John  Cranko  to 
Sibelius'  En  Saga  with  costumes  and  scenery  by  John  Piper. 
This  ballet,  in  spite  of  grave  weaknesses  such  as  the  placing 
of  the  inhabitants  of  a  fishing  village  on  their  points,  showed 
that  Cranko  was  a  choreographer  with  musical  sensitivity 
who  could  tell  a  dramatic  story  with  clarity  and  coherence. 

In  Paris  the  ballet  at  the  Op£ra  marked  time  with  certain 
lavish  productions  by  Serge  Lifar  which  failed  to  attract  much 
critical  appreciation.  The  most  charming  revival  was  Entre 
Deux  Rondes  in  which  Lifar  gave  the  leading  role  to  a  young 
dancer,  Josette  Clavier  which  resulted  in  a  heated  contro- 
versy since  she  was  promoted  for  the  purpose  above  the  heads, 
of  the  established  premieres  danseuses  and  etc  ties.  It  was  a 
healthy  sign  that  Lifar  should  be  making  a  breach  in  a  hier- 
archical system  that  had  stultified  so  much  of  the  work  of  a 
very  strong  company.  Lifar  himself  danced  once  again  in 
certain  ballets  from  his  own  repertoire,  the  outstanding  being 
Icare.  In  October  it  was  officially  announced  that  the 
premiere  danseuse  etoile,  Yvette  Chauvire,  France's  out- 
standing dancer,  had  been  suspended  for  a  breach  of  disci- 
pline  in  accepting  outside  engagements.  A  week  later  the 
announcement  appeared  that  Nina  Vyroubova,  formerly  of 
the  Ballets  des  Champs  Elysees,  had  been  engaged  as  an 
etoile. 

The  other  important  French  company,  the  highly  creative 
Ballets  des  Champs  Elysees,  toured  South  America  and 
Europe,  spending  three  weeks  in  Edinburgh  for  the  festival. 
For  Edinburgh  and  London  it  had  greatly  increased  its 
strength  by  the  return  of  Nina  Vyroubova.  With  Irene 
Skorik  who  had  led  the  company  from  its  inception,  this 
gave  it  two  of  the  outstanding  contemporary  ballerinas 
of  the  day  and  the  public  a  chance  of  discussing  their  respec- 
tive interpretations  of  La  Sylphide. 

The  Grand  Ballet  de  Monte  Carlo,  after  its  spring  season 
in  Monaco,  toured  in  Spain,  gave  a  season  in  London  and 
two  in  Paris.  This  company  had  a  number  of  star  dancers 
but  its  creations  were,  without  exception,  disappointing  and 
added  nothing  to  the  art.  The  most  interesting  performances 
were  those  given  by  Tamara  Toumanova  in  Giselle,  by 
Rosella  Hightower  in  The  Black  Swan  and  by  Andre  Eglevsky 
in  David  Lichine's  ballet  The  Enchanted  Mill.  This  company 
also  showed  a  high  level  of  male  dancing,  Leonide  Massine 


202 


DANCE 


appearing  as  guest  artist  with  George  Skibine  and  Andre 
Eglevsky  in  his  revivals  of  Lc  Beau  Danube,  Le  Tricorne  and 
The  Good  Humoured  Ladies.  The  Salvador  Dali  surrealist 
ballet  Tristan  Fou  with  choreography  by  Massine  and  music 
arranged  from  Wagner's  opera  fell  distinctly  flat  save  in 
Spain  where  it  had  some  success.  It  was  felt  that  such  shock 
tactics  were  dated,  that  the  striking  scenery  dwarfed  the 
action  and  that  the  maltreatment  of  Wagner's  score  was 
in  no  sense  justified. 

The  International  ballet  continued  to  cater  to  the  insatiable 
English  provincial  demand  with  its  ever  popular  versions  of 
the  classical  ballets. 

Apart  from  ballet  London,  Paris  and  other  European 
capitals  saw  much  work  of  high  quality.  Katherinc  Dunham 
and  her  Caribbean-inspired  dancers  continued  their  well 
deserved  success.  Dunham  had  succeeded  in  finding  a 
technique,  half  ballet  dancing  and  half  folk  dancing,  that 
suited  the  coloured  physique  and  temperament  and  that  had 
its  basis  in  discipline  rather  than  in  improvisation.  Mrinalini 
Sarabhai  brought  the  Indian  dance  to  Europe  in  its  purest 
and  most  classical  form.  Her  choreographic  adaptations  of 
this  technique  in  Man  and  Buddha's  Disciple  showed  the 
Indian  dance  with  integrity  and  yet  in  a  form  that  Europe 
could  appreciate.  Ram  Gopal,  essentially  a  virtuoso  perfor- 
mer, toured  the  Scandinavian  countries  and  Holland  with 
great  success.  Theophile  Gautier  once  wrote  that  the  Spanish 
dance  was  a  Parisian  invention.  Certainly  during  1949  Paris 
had  almost  a  surfeit  of  the  Spanish  form  with  Antonia  and 
Rosario  who  were  applauded  both  by  the  public  and  by  the 
critics,  Jose  Greco  with  his  company  and  the  more  classical 
Mariemma,  Argentina's  heiress,  who  also  gave  a  season  in 
London.  Mariemma's  style  emphasized  the  sharp  division 
between  Flamenco  (gipsy)  dancing  and  true  Spanish  dancing; 
she  gained  high  praise  for  the  exceptionally  disciplined  and 
musical  nature  of  her  art.  Esmeralda,  a  young  Flamenco 
dancer  from  Spanish  Morocco,  made  her  English  debut  and 
created  an  impression  through  her  vitality  and  striking 
physical  beauty. 

Apart  from  this  quantity  of  dancing  events  of  which  few 
were  of  high  quality,  the  important  feature  of  1949  was  the 
marked  tendency,  especially  evident  in  Great  Britain,  to 
bring  ballet  to  the  masses.  This  manifested  itself  in  two  direc- 
tions, through  performances  in  vast  sports  arenas  and  through 
the  medium  of  television.  There  were  four  sets  of  arena  per- 
formances in  London,  three  at  the  Empress  hall,  Earls  Court, 
and  one  at  Harringay  arena.  All  met  with  great  popular 
success.  These  galas  or  festivals  as  they  were  described  were 
inaugurated  by  Alicia  Markova  and  Anton  Dolin  with  a 
corps  de  ballet  assembled  for  the  occasion.  This  first  series 
of  five  performances  was  a  greatly  magnified  dance  recital 
in  which  Markova  excelled  herself  by  the  quality  of  her 
dancing  in  spite  of  the  incongruous  surroundings  and  the 
fact  that  the  conductor  was  forced  to  turn  his  back  on  the 
dancers.  For  the  second  set  of  performances  the  promoter 
engaged  Damlova,  Massine,  Frederick  Franklin  and  the 
Metropolitan  company  and  presented  orthodox  ballets  such 
as  Les  Sylphides,  Le  Beau  Danube  and  Prince  Igor.  These 
were  completely  lost  in  their  mock  rustic  surroundings  that 
included  a  lake  separating  orchestra  and  stage.  For  the 
Harringay  performances  of  Markova,  Dolin  and  the  Ballet 
Rambert  the  stadium  was  partially  transformed  into  a  theatre 
with  a  certain  gain  in  perspective.  The  last  of  these  per- 
formances, three  Nijinsky  galas  at  the  Empress  hall  presented 
a  record  number  of  stars,  Toumanova,  Chauvire,  Marjorie 
Tallchief,  Massine,  Jean  Babille,  Skibine  and  Skourakoff 
together  with  the  Rambert  company.  Such  stadium  ballet 
had  clearly  come  to  stay  but  it  was  already  evident  that  the 
type  of  ballet  designed  for  the  stage  and  an  audience  of  some 
1,500  was  not  artistically  suitable  for  performance  in  a  stadium 


accommodating  8,000  to  10,000  people.  Stadium  ballet  would 
only  succeed  if  it  was  conceived  in  terms  of  the  locale  which 
would  mean  the  birth  of  a  new  type  of  choreography. 

British  television  produced  four  ambitious  programmes 
entitled  Grand  Ballet,  showing  the  Paris  Opera  company 
twice,  the  Ballets  des  Champs  Elysees  and  the  Ballets  de 
Paris.  In  view  of  the  technical  difficulties  involved  these 
performances  had  great  quality.  But  here  again  a  problem 
arose  over  the  inevitable  tug  between  what  was  good  ballet 
and  good  television  and  once  again,  as  with  stadium  ballet, 
the  answer  seemed  to  lie  in  a  new  type  of  choreography  that 
would  combine  the  media.  It  was  certain  that  1949  fore- 
shadowed as  intimate  a  connection  between  ballet  and  tele- 
vision as  between  broadcasting  and  the  orchestra.  Since  there 
was  too  little  talent  for  the  multiplication  of  touring  com- 
panies television  might  well  be  the  only  manner  in  which 
the  demand  could  be  fulfilled.  (A.  L.  HL.) 

United  States.  The  Sadlers'  Wells  ballet  of  London  made 
its  American  debut,  enjoying  a  success  which  stimulated 
interest  in  the  ballet  throughout  the  country.  The  company 
opened  at  the  Metropolitan  opera  house  on  Oct.  9  in  a  full- 
length  version  of  Tchaikovsky's  Sleeping  Beauty,  with  Margot 
Fonteyn  in  the  title  role.  Later  productions  included  a  com- 
plete Swan  Lake  and  ballets  choreographed  by  Ninette 
de  Valois,  Frederick  Ashton,  and  Robert  Helpmann.  Leading 
dancers  were  Fonteyn,  Ashton,  Helpmann,  Moira  Shearer, 
Beryl  Grey,  Pamela  May,  Violetta  Elvin  and  Harold  Turner. 

The  New  York  city  ballet,  directed  by  Lincoln  Kirstein, 
named  Jerome  Robbins  as  associate  artistic  director  to 
George  Balanchine.  It  produced  Robbins'  ballet  Guests, 
with  music  by  Marc  Blitztein.  Balanchine  choreographed  a 
brilliant  new  version  of  Igor  Stravinsky's  Firebird,  with 
Maria  Tallchief  in  the  title  role,  and  decor  by  Marc  Chagall. 
Other  new  productions  were  Bourree  Fantasque  choreographed 
by  Balanchine  and  music  by  Emanuel  Chabrier;  William 
Dollar's  direction  of  Ondine,  (Antonio  Vivaldi's  music  with 
decor  by  Horace  Armistead). 

Ballet  Theatre  was  re-organized  after  a  period  of  inactivity 
which  had  lasted  since  the  spring  of  1948.  Directed  by  Lucia 
Chase  and  Oliver  Smith,  with  the  collaboration  of  Antony 
Tudor,  it  opened  in  New  York  on  April  17.  Principal  dancers 
were  Nora  Kaye,  who  danced  her  first  Giselle,  Igor  Youske- 
vitch,  Hugh  Laing,  Janet  Reed,  Paul  Godkin,  Diana  Adams, 
and  Bambi  Linn,  with  Nana  Gollner,  Maria  Tallchief  and 
Jerome  Robbins  as  guest  artists.  La  Fille  Mai  Gardee  was 
revived.  During  the  summer  Ballet  theatre  appeared  at 
Jacob's  Pillow,  Lee,  Massachusetts. 

The  Ballet  Russe  de  Monte  Carlo  toured  extensively,  and 
had  spring  and  autumn  seasons  in  New  York.  Ruth  Page's 
Love  Song  with  Schubert's  music  was  presented  on  March  1, 
and  there  was  a  revival  of  Michel  Fokine's  CarnavaL  New 
autumn  productions  included  a  one-act  version  of  Paquita 
by  Alexandra  Danilova,  with  music  by  Deldevez,  Birthday, 
choreographed  by  Tatiana  Chamie  to  music  by  Gioachino 
Rossini,  and  revivals  of  The  Mute  Wife,  Jgrushki,  and 
Graduation  Ball. 

The  New  York  City  Dance  theatre  was  organized  under 
the  auspices  of  the  City  Centre  of  Music  and  Drama,  and 
held  its  first  season  of  modern  dance  in  December.  The 
dancers  included  Charles  Weidman,  Jose  Limon,  Valerie 
Bettis,  Pauline  Koner,  Nina  Fonaroff  and  Letitia  Ide. 

Summer  dance  festivals  were  held  at  Jacob's  Pillow  and 
at  Connecticut  college,  New  London.  Jacob's  Pillow  saw 
the  premieres  of  Ted  Shawn's  The  Dreams  of  Jacob',  Ruth 
Page's  Harlequinade  and  Bentley  Stone's  Reunion. 

A  complete  production  of  Tschaikovsky's  Nutcracker, 
choreographed  by  William  Christensen,  was  presented  by 
the  San  Francisco  ballet,  which  also  gave  his  Parranda, 
with  a  score  by  Morton  Gould,  and  Lew  Christensen's 


DAVIES-DENMARK 


203 


Vivaldi  Concerto.  The  Pacific  Dance  theatre  presented  new 
ballets  by  Serge  Temoflf  and  Walton  Biggerstaff.  (L.  MRE.) 

Ballroom  Dancing.  During  1949  there  were  two  marked, 
completely  different  influences  in  ballroom  dancing.  One 
widespread  interest  was  in  square  dancing  and  the  other  in 
Cuban  rumba.  Designers  promoted  square  dance  fashions; 
the  dance  was  seen  on  television,  in  newsreels  and  magazines. 
The  Rumba  had  become  second  in  popularity  to  the  fox 
trot.  The  mambo,  with  its  new  syncopated  rhythm,  was 
the  most  popular  rumba  with  expert  dancers. 

There  was  a  decreased  interest  in  jitterbug,  and  the  tango 
was  danced  only  in  cosmopolitan  centres.  The  samba  grew 
in  popularity,  as  was  evidenced  by  the  great  number  of 
new  compositions.  The  waltz  gained  in  popularity  from  the 
appearance  of  new  song  hits.  (A.  Mu.) 

DAVIES,  CLEMENT,  British  politician  (b.  Feb.  19, 
1884),  was  educated  at  Llanfyllm,  Montgomeryshire,  and  at 
Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge.  He  was  a  law  lecturer  at  the 
University  College  of  Wales,  Aberystwyth,  1908-9,  when  he 
was  called  to  the  bar.  From  1919  to  1925  he  was  a  junior 
counsel  to  the  treasury  and  in  1926  was  made  a  K.C.  He  was 
elected  to  the  House  of  Commons  as  Liberal  member  for  Mont- 
gomeryshire in  1929  and  was  re-elected  in  1931,  1935,  and 
1945.  The  election  of  1945  left  the  Liberal  party  in  the  House 
of  Commons  without  a  leader  owing  to  the  defeat  of  Sir  Archi- 
bald Sinclair  at  Caithness  and  Sutherland,  and  Clement 
Davies  was  elected  to  lead  the  parliamentary  party.  His 
active  leadership  gave  purpose  to  the  small  group  of  Liberals 
in  the  House  of  Commons.  On  Feb.  12,  1949,  he  broadcast 
on  behalf  of  the  Liberal  party  in  the  series  of  political  broad- 
casts. In  Sept.  1949  he  led  the  British  delegation  to  the 
Inter-Parliamentary  union  conference  at  Stockholm. 

DEATH  STATISTICS:   see  VITAL  STATISTICS. 

DECORATIONS  AND  MEDALS.  In  Nov.  1949 
the  King  approved  the  award  of  the  Naval  General  Service 
Medal,  first  established  in  1915  to  recognize  minor  naval 
operations  of  sufficient  importance  to  justify  the  award  of  a 
medal,  with  a  clasp  bearing  the  inscription  "  Yangtze  1949." 
The  award  would  be  granted  to  all  on  board  H.M.  Ships 
'*  Amethyst  "  and  "  Consort  "  on  April  20,  1949,  when  those 
ships  were  first  attacked  by  the  Chinese,  to  those  in  H.M. 
Ships  "  London  "  and  "  Black  Swan  "  which  attempted  a 
rescue  on  April  21;  and  to  those  in  the  Royal  Air  Force 
Sunderland  aircraft  which  flew  to  the  "Amethyst "  on  April 
21  and  22.  The  grant  to  the  "  Amethyst  "  covered  the  period 
up  till  July  31,  1949,  the  date  she  escaped  from  the  Yangtze 
and  regained  the  open  sea.  Army  personnel  earned  in  the 
"  Amethyst "  were  also  eligible  for  the  decoration. 

The  award  of  the  Naval  General  Service  Medal  and  the 
General  Service  Medal  (Army  and  Royal  Air  Force),  with  an 
appropriate  clasp  for  service  in  Palestine  after  World  War  II, 
was  announced  in  Nov.  1947.  In  July  1949  details  were 
published  of  those  eligible  for  the  decoration.  The  clasp 
would  be  inscribed  "  Palestine  1945-48,"  and  would  be  given 
for  service  from  Sept.  27,  1945,  to  June  30,  1948.  The 
decoration  would  be  granted  not  only  to  certain  persons  in 
the  Royal  navy  and  the  army,  but  also  to  members  of  the 
merchant  navy  and  to  civilians. 

Bulgaria.  Shortly  after  the  death  on  July  2  of  Gheorghi 
Dimitrov,  prime  minister  of  Bulgaria  from  1946,  the  Bul- 
garian government  announced  the  creation  of  the  Order  of 
Dimitrov.  It  would  be  the  highest  order  Bulgaria  could  confer. 

India.  Details  were  made  available  of  the  military  decora- 
tions of  the  Union  of  India.  The  highest  decoration  for 
gallantry,  Paran  Vir  Chakra,  would  rank  second  only  to  the 
Victoria  Cross  and  would  be  awarded  for  the  highest  form  of 


bravery  in  the  presence  of  the  enemy.  It  would  be  a  replica 
of  Asoka's  wheel  made  of  brown  gun-steel  with  a  ribbon  of 
plain  saffron. 

The  second  and  third  awards,  Mahavir  Chakra  and  Vir 
Chakra,  would  rank  next  to  the  Distinguished  Service  Order 
and  the  Military  Cross.  Mahavir  Chakra  would  be  a  five- 
pointed  heraldic  star  with  a  surrounding  silver  ring  and  an 
enamelled  gold  replica  of  Asoka's  lions  superimposed  at  the 
centre.  Vir  Chakra  would  also  be  a  five-pointed  heraldic 
star  with  a  similar  ring  and  a  replica  of  Asoka's  wheel. 

Netherlands.  A  new  decoration  Resistance  Star  for  East 
Ana,  1942-45  was  created.  It  was  to  be  awarded  to  men  or 
women,  who,  by  their  eneigy,  firmness  or  public  spirit 
rendered  particular  services  in  Japanese  or  Japanese-held 
territory  in  east  \sia  to  Netherlands  subjects  in  enemy 
captivity  or  distinguished  themselves  in  resisting  the  enemy 
in  that  territory  during  the  years  1942-45.  The  award  could 
be  made  posthumously.  (X.) 

DE  GASPERI,  ALCIDE,  Italian  statesman  (b.  Pieve 
Tesmo,  Trentino,  April  3,  1881).  Appointed  prime  minister 
on  Dec.  9,  1945,  he  five  times  reconstructed  his  cabinet. 
(For  his  early  career  see  Britannica  Book  of  the  Year  1949.) 

On  Feb.  11,  1949,  the  20th  anniversary  of  the  signing  of 
the  Lateran  treaty  between  Italy  and  the  papacy,  he  made 
his  first  official  call  on  Pope  Pius  XII.  On  March  11  he 
informed  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  that  the  cabinet  was 
unanimous  that  Italy  should  join  the  North  Atlantic  treaty. 
On  April  17,  in  a  press  interview,  he  announced  the  govern- 
ment's plan  for  land  reform.  He  visited  Trieste  (q.v.)  on 
June  10  and  pledged  the  Italian  government  to  continue  to 
work  for  the  return  of  the  territory  to  Italy.  On  Aug.  29  he 
left  for  Austria  where  he  spent  a  few  days  on  a  private  visit. 


DEMOCRATIC    PARTY,    U.S.: 

PARTIES,  U.S. 


see    POLITICAL 


DENMARK.  A  constitutional  monarchy  of  north 
central  Europe  composed  of  the  peninsula  of  Jutland  and 
100  inhabited  islands,  the  largest  being  Zealand  (Sjalland)  and 
Fyn  (Funen).  Denmark  controls  the  three  straits  between 
Kattegat  and  the  Baltic  sea:  the  Oresund  (between  Sweden 
and  Zealand),  the  Great  Belt  (between  Zealand  and  Fyn) 
and  the  Small  Belt  (between  Fyn  and  the  Jutland  peninsula). 
Area,  excluding  Faeroe  Islands  (</.v.):  16,573  sq.  mi. 
(Peninsula  of  Jutland:  11,411  sq.  mi.).  Pop.:  (June  15, 
1945,  census)  4,045,232,  (1949  est.)  4,200,000.  Chief  towns 
(pop.,  1945  census):  Copenhagen  (cap.,  927,404);  Arhus 
(107,393);  Odense  (92,436);  Alborg  (60,880);  Esbjerg 
(43,241).  Language:  Danish,  with  small  admixture  of 
German.  Religion:  Lutheran,  with  small  Roman  Catholic 
and  Jewish  minorities.  Ruler,  King  Frcderik  IX  (^.v.); 
prime  minister,  Hans  Hedtoft;  minister  of  foreign  affairs, 
Gustav  Rasmussen  (q.v.). 

History.  The  year  1949  brought  Denmark,  with  unexpected 
swiftness,  into  the  North  Atlantic  treaty  and  saw  stable 
conditions  maintained  in  most  fields;  but  anxiety  for  the 
"  pro-Danish  "  minority  in  South  Schleswig  caused  some 
political  unrest. 

The  Scandinavian  defence  talks  of  1948  were  continued 
by  the  prime  ministers  and  foreign  and  defence  ministers  of 
Denmark,  Norway  and  Sweden  at  Karlstad,  Sweden  (Jan. 
5-6,  1949),  Copenhagen  (Jan.  23-24)  and  Oslo  (Jan.  29-30), 
the  Scandinavian  ambassadors  to  Britain,  U.S.,  France  and 
the  Soviet  Union  attending  the  third  meeting.  Rasmussen 
told  parliament  (Feb.  9)  that  the  government  had  supported 
the  plan  for  a  Nordic  defence  alliance  and  that  the  idea  had 
not  been  abandoned,  and  the  spokesman  of  his  party  (the 
Social  Democrats)  expressed  unreserved  support  for  a  Nordic 


204 


DENMARK 


pact.  After  attending  the  Labour  party  congress  in  Oslo, 
however,  Hedtoft  announced  (Feb.  20)  that  the  Norwegian 
Labour  party's  decision  in  favour  of  the  North  Atlantic 
treaty  created  a  new  situation;  and  when  the  tentative 
suggestion  of  a  Dano-Swedish  alliance  had  been  rebuffed  by 
Sweden,  the  U.S.  was  informed  that  the  Danish  government 
had  reviewed  the  country's  position  in  relation  to  the  treaty. 
Rasmussen  flew  to  Washington  (March  9)  and  was  there 
assured  that  Greenland  (q.  v.)  would  not  be  used  for  aggression, 
while  Hedtoft  reminded  the  people  of  the  fate  of  isolated 
small  nations  when  Hitler  was  expanding  Germany's  Lebens- 
raum;  he  complained  nevertheless  of  44  gross  errors " 
committed  by  the  U.S.  and  the  western  European  great 
powers  and  said  that  the  U.S.S.R.  had  sacrificed  more  than 
any  other  state  in  World  War  II.  When  Denmark  was 
formally  invited  by  the  eight  negotiating  nations  to  join  the 
-  North  Atlantic  treaty  (March  16),  the  Lower  House  voted 
in  favour  by  119  votes  to  23  (Radicals  and  Communists) 
and  the  Upper  House  by  64  votes  to  8,  a  proposed  plebiscite 
being  turned  down,  and  Rasmussen  joined  eleven  other 
foreign  ministers  in  signing  the  treaty  in  Washington  (April  4). 
Through  a  note  delivered  in  Copenhagen,  the  U.S.S.R.  had 
protested  in  vain. 

Rasmussen  had  already  (March  14)  given  the  State  Depart- 
ment a  list  of  the  arms  most  urgently  needed,  which  was  to 
form  the  basis  of  a  recommendation  to  congress,  and  the 
Danish  ambassador  had  in  turn  confirmed  that  the  North 
Atlantic  treaty  principle  of  self-help  and  mutual  help  was  well 
understood,  within  the  limits  set  by  Denmark's  internal 
recovery  programme;  dollar  costs  of  increased  arms  produc- 
tion must,  however,  be  met  from  outside.  The  availability 
of  American  machine  tools  and  materials  for  this  purpose 
was  under  discussion  by  members  of  the  M.D.A.P.  (Mutual 
Defence  Aid  programme)  survey  team  and  a  Danish  group 
at  the  U.S.  embassy  in  London  during  November.  The 
Defence  commission  reported  in  favour  of  a  united  command 
for  the  services,  with  a  single  defence  minister  (June  29).  The 
Danish  forces  would  continue  their  contribution  towards  the 
occupation  of  the  British  zone  of  Germany  for  two  years 
from  May  15,  1949. 

Denmark  also  accepted  an  invitation  to  join  the  Council 
of  Europe  (May  5)  and  was  allotted  four  seats  in  the  consulta- 
tive assembly.  In  the  delegation  attending  the  first  meeting, 
at  Strasbourg  (Aug.),  were  Ole  Bjorn  Kraft,  Conservative 
leader,  and  Thorkild  Christensen,  economist  and  former 
minister  of  finance.  The  Scandinavian  delegations  adhered 
rather  to  the  British  "  functional "  approach  to  the  new 
European  structure  than  to  the  continental  tendency  towards 
**  constitutional "  changes. 

These  developments  had  proceeded  smoothly;  but  disquiet 
over  South  Schleswig  nearly  unseated  the  government,  whose 
policy  was  widely  decried  as  over-cautious.  The  last  German 
refugees  left  Denmark  on  Feb.  15,  but  in  South  Schleswig 
those  who  had  entered  the  territory  after  Sept.  1,  1939,  were 
estimated  at  350,000  as  against  340,000  "  natives  "  (Danish 
and  German).  Despite  earlier  Danish  requests  and  protests, 
little  alleviation  was  in  sight  and  on  Nov.  2  the  Swedish  and 
Norwegian  ambassadors  and  the  Icelandic  minister  in 
London  delivered  a  memorandum  to  the  Foreign  Office 
expressing  the  general  Scandinavian  concern  at  this  refugee 
concentration.  On  July  8  the  representatives  of  five  Danish 
parliamentary  parties  had  finally  agreed  to  a  statement 
affirming  the  South  Schleswigers'  "  right  of  self-determina- 
tion "  and  of  free  national,  cultural  and  political  activity, 
but  the  Liberal  party  recorded  its  regret  at  the  failure  to 
demand  a  plebiscite  guaranteed  in  a  treaty  with  Germany. 
An  electoral  set-back  for  the  South  Schleswig  Electoral 
association  in  August  (75,387  votes,  compared  with  91,631 
in  1947)  was,  however,  followed  by  the  so-called  Kiel 


Gustav    Rasmussen   (left),    Danish  foreign   minister,    with    Count 

Eduard  Reventhw,  Danish  ambassador  to  Great  Britain,  in  London, 

Oct.  5,  7949. 

declaration,  approved  by  the  Schleswig-Holstein  Landdag 
(Sept.  26),  entitling  a  South  Schleswiger,  in  whatever  position, 
to  express  his  "  Danishness  "  without  fear  of  discrimination. 
Christopher  Mayhew  subsequently  informed  the  House  of 
Commons  (Nov.  4)  that  it  was  largely  due  to  the  direct 
intervention  of  the  British  government  and  the  advice  which 
they  had  given  to  the  German  authorities  that  very  consider- 
able rights  and  privileges  belonged  to  the  Danish-minded 
minority,  and  he  declared  that  the  Danish  government  were 
not  concerned  with  frontier  rectification  and  did  not  claim 
a  plebiscite. 

By  a  new  agreement  (May  27),  75  %  of  the  whole  Danish 
butter  export,  up  to  a  maximum  of  115,000  tons,  would  be 
bought  by  Britain  until  Sept.  30,  1955,  and  a  dollar  saving 
of  Kr.  30  to  40  million  would  be  effected  by  buying  from 
Britain,  for  a  year,  heavy  fuel  oils  hitherto  purchased  from 
the  U.S.  New  trade  talks  were,  however,  postponed  from 
Oct.  21  to  December,  because  of  devaluation  problems,  and  on 
Nov.  4  the  British  ambassador  was  handed  an  aide  memoire 
expressing  the  Danish  government's  concern  at  the  rise  in  price 
of  British  coal,  which  would  hamper  Danish  industry. 

Both  a  congressional  committee  and  W.  A.  Harriman 
expressed  approval  (April)  of  Denmark's  progress  under  the 
European  Recovery  programme,  although  details  of  Den- 
mark's long-term  plans  were  criticized  (May  3).  Of 
Kr.  528  million  credits,  by  May  1949  the  country  had  used 
only  Kr.  250  million  for  imported  goods.  But  though  the 
inflation  danger  was  said  by  the  director  of  the  National  bank 
to  have  passed,  the  minister  of  trade,  Jens  Krag,  declared 
(June  4)  that  Denmark  faced  a  serious  financial  crisis:  the 
dollar  income  had  almost  dried  up,  the  sterling  debt  had 
increased  and  unemployment  among  skilled  workers  was 
growing.  On  Oct.  20  the  government  won  a  vote  of  confidence 
on  its  economic  policy  (64  to  35,  with  39  abstentions),  which 
included  the  decision  to  devalue  the  krone  with  the  pound 
sterling,  but  opinions  remained  much  divided  on  the  right 
course  to  pursue.  Seeking  a  regional  currency  and  trade 
agreement  of  the  type  recommended  by  the  Organization  for 
European  Economic  Co-operation  (q.v.\  Great  Britain 
approached  Denmark,  Norway  and  Sweden;  but  the  first 


DENTISTRY— DERMATOLOGY 


205 


talks  (Dec.  15-17)  revealed  chiefly  the  difficulties  in  the  way 
of  early  action.  Textile  rationing  was  abolished,  except  for 
cotton  goods,  on  April  5,  and  nearly  ten  years  of  meat 
rationing  ended  Nov.  21,  meat  prices  simultaneously  rising 
50%.  A  wage  increase  of  Kr.  15  monthly,  with  a  larger 
holiday  bonus,  was  agreed  between  the  seamen's  representa- 
tives and  the  shipping  companies  (April  1).  The  cost  of  living 
index  in  October  was  179  (1935 -=100),  the  same  as  a 
year  before. 

Four  hundred  persons  condemned  to  less  than  10  years' 
imprisonment  for  collaboration  with  the  Germans  were 
amnestied  on  June  5,  the  centenary  of  the  Danish  constitu- 
tion; altogether  20,661  had  been  tried  for  treason, 
collaboration  of  war  profiteering  since  1945,  and  about 
Kr.  120  million  had  been  paid  in  compensation  or  fines. 

Education.  (1946-47)  Schools  elementary  4,163,  pupilb  481,395, 
teachers  18,517;  middle  and  secondary,  pupils  73,437,  technical  362 
pupils  50,752;  two  universities  and  six  institutions  of  higher  education, 
with  13,166  students  and  416  professors  and  lecturers  No  illiteracy. 

Agriculture.  Main  crops  ('000  metric  tons,  1948;  1949  est.  in  brac- 
kets): wheat  254  (295);  barley  1,459  (1,565);  oats  988  (945),  rye  400 
(450);  potatoes  2,937  (1,900).  Livestock  (July  16,  1949).  cattle 
2,962,000;  sheep  67,000;  horses  528,000,  poultry  25,199,000;  (Get  8, 
1949)  pigs  3,029,000  (only  154,000  less  than  prewar).  Supplies  of 
butter  for  export  were  33%  larger  than  in  1948,  and  egg  production 
was  40%  higher.  Index  for  animal  agricultural  production  was  97  in 
Sept.  1949  (1935-100)  Fisheries  (1948)  total  catch  215,053  metric 
tons  valued  at  Kr.  179  8  million 

Industry.  Industrial  establishments  (1948)  109,288;  persons  employed 
641,379.  Fuel  and  power:  coal,  imported  ('000  metric  tons,  1948; 
1949,  six  months,  in  brackets)  2,728  3  (1,607  0);  gas  produced  ('000 
cubic  m.,  1947-48)  306,000;  electricity  (1947)  1,068  million  kwh  ; 
crude  oil,  imported  (metric  tons  1948;  1949  in  brackets)  19-6  (20-1) 
Manufactures  (1948,  output  in  million  kroner)  food  and  drinks 
1,683  7;  iron  and  metal  working  1,052-1;  chemicals  786  6;  textiles 
739 '9,  clothing  and  footwear  623  4,  cement,  porcelain,  glass,  tiles 
339-2;  wood-working  220  1. 

Foreign  Trade.  (Million  kroner,  1948;  1949,  six  months,  in  brackets) 
Imports  3,418  6  (2,159-3);  exports  2,730  5  (1,609  9). 

Transport  and  Communications.  Roads  (1949)  56,300  km.  Licensed 
motor  vehicles  (Jan  1949).  cars  110,545,  lorries  54,857.  Railways 
(1949)  4,726km.,  traffic  (2nd  quarte/,  1949)  43  9  million  passenger- 
km  ,  259  5  million  ton-km.  of  goods  Shipping  (Jan  1949).  vessels 
2,297,  tonnage  1,200,000.  Telephone  subscribers  (Dec  31,  1947): 
493,147.  Wireless  licences  (Sept  1,  1949)  1,201,639. 

Finance  and  Banking.  (Million  kroner)  Budget  (1948-49  actual) 
revenue  1,771  6,  expenditure  1,771  -7;  (1949-50  est )  revenue  2,073-0, 
expenditure  2,065-9.  National  debt  (March  31,  1949;  in  brackets 
March  31,  1948):  4,766-8(4,529  4)  Currency  circulation  (Aug  1949; 
in  brackets  Dec.  1948)-  1,4324(1,6190).  Gold  reserve  (Aug  1949). 
U.S.  $32  million.  Savings  and  bank  deposits  (Aug  1949;  in  brackets 
Dec.  1948):  4,074-7  (3,909  1).  Monetary  umf  krone  (pi  kroner), 
with  an  exchange  rate  of  £l  =  Kr.  19-34;  Krl  =  US  cents  20  •  79,  (from 
Sept.  19)  14-45 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  Monica  Redlich,  Denmark-  Placet  and  People 
(Copenhagen,  1948);  Orla  Jensen,  Social  Services  in  Denmark  (Copen- 
hagen, 1948).  (E.  J.  L.) 

DENTISTRY.  During  1949  the  demand  for  dental  treat- 
ment under  the  British  national  health  service  continued  on 
the  same  unexpectedly  high  level  as  obtained  during  1948 
and  dentists  were  subjected  to  heavy  and  continuous  strain. 
The  Penman  committee,  set  up  by  the  minister  of  health  to 
conduct  an  investigation  into  the  average  time  taken  by 
dentists  to  perform  certain  operations,  concluded  that  64% 
of  the  dentists  were,  on  an  average,  working  rather  longer 
than  nine  hours  a  day  for  a  five  and  a  half  day  week,  and  went 
on  to  say,  "  As  a  body,  they  have  been  trying  to  cope  with  the 
difficult  problem  of  keeping  pace  with  demand  without  loss 
of  efficiency  and,  as  a  body,  the  working  party  thinks  they 
should  have  received  more  gratitude  and  less  adverse  criticism 
than  has  actually  been  the  case."  The  criticism  referred  to 
arose  mainly  in  respect  of  the  high  earnings  of  a  few  practi- 
tioners who  had  worked  excessively  long  hours.  These  long 
hours  of  work  raised  the  remuneration  of  dentists  as  a  whole 
to  a  figure  above  that  which  had  been  anticipated  and  led  to 
a  substantial  increase  in  the  cost  of  the  service.  To  meet  this 


position  the  minister  of  health,  without  consulting  the  pro- 
fession, reduced  the  scale  of  fees  by  approximately  20%. 
This  action  and  a  gradual  tightening  of  the  control  over  the 
treatment  given  by  dentists  caused  widespread  dissatisfac- 
tion in  the  profession.  On  the  other  hand,  the  removal  of 
economic  barriers  enabled  a  large  number  of  persons  to  re- 
ceive dental  treatment  of  which  they  were  in  need  but  for 
which  they  could  not  pay.  Nevertheless  the  dental  services 
provided  by  local  education  authorities  for  school  children 
were  drastically  curtailed  because  dental  officers  under  these 
authorities  considered  they  had  not  been  offered  adequate 
salaries  and  many  resigned  to  enter  private  practice. 

On  the  scientific  side  the  year  was  marked  by  an  increasing 
interest  m  research  directed  towards  the  discovery  of  the 
causes  of  dental  caries  and  a  growing  disposition  to  question 
the  validity  of  some  of  the  accepted  theories.  New  ground 
was  broken  in  a  paper  by  H.  F.  Atkinson  and  Professor  E. 
Matthews,  "  An  investigation  into  the  Organic  Components 
of  the  Human  Tooth:  A  study  of  Sound  and  Carious  Den- 
tine," British  Dental  Journal*  vol.  86,  no.  7,  April  1,  1949. 
This  carried  the  work  of  other  investigators  a  stage  further 
and  strengthened  the  belief  that  a  breakdown  of  the  organic 
components  of  the  enamel  constituted  the  first  stage  of  caries. 

The  annual  meeting  of  the  British  Dental  association  heard 
a  paper  by  Gilbert  J.  Parfitt,  "  Topical  Application  of  Solu- 
tions of  Fluorides  to  the  Teeth,"  British  Dental  Journal, 
vol.  87,  no.  3,  Aug.  5,  1949.  The  author  reviewed  the  work 
that  had  been  carried  out  in  America  and  elsewhere  on  the 
effect  of  painting  the  teeth  of  children  with  solutions  of 
fluorides.  H.  H.  Stones,  F.  E.  Lawton,  E.  R.  Bransby  and 
H.  O.  Hartley  in  4t  The  Effect  of  Topical  Applications  of 
Potassium  Fluoride  and  of  the  Ingestion  of  Tablets  containing 
Sodium  Fluoride  on  the  Incidence  of  Dental  Caries,"  British 
Dental  Journal,  vol.  86,  no.  11,  June  3,  1949,  reported  that 
they  were  unable  to  confirm  the  results  obtained  in  America. 
However,  later  in  the  year  a  working  party  was  appointed  to 
organize  a  large  scale  investigation  into  the  possibilities  of 
preventing  dental  caries  in  children  by  this  method.  Ample 
material  was  available  in  the  school  dental  service  of  Great 
Britain  for  such  an  investigation  and,  although  the  results 
cannot  be  available  for  some  time,  its  inauguration  constituted 
one  of  the  major  advances  achieved  in  the  year.  (B.  J.  W.) 

DERMATOLOGY.  Aureomycin  continued  to  exhibit 
remarkable  versatility  as  an  antibiotic.  Research  showed  that 
it  exerted  bacteriostatic  or  bactericidal  activity  against  a  wide 
range  of  both  gram-negative  and  gram-positive  bacteria, 
including  penicillin-resistant  and  streptomycin-resistant  organ- 
isms. It  proved  highly  effective  against  most  strains  of 
Rickettsia,  as  well  as  viruses  of  psittacosis  and  lympho- 
granuloma  venereum. 

In  most  of  the  groups  of  cases  of  rickettsial  infections  that 
were  reported,  the  outstanding  feature  was  the  uniformity 
with  which  the  fever  and  symptoms  subsided  in  relation  to 
the  treatment,  irrespective  of  the  time  when  treatment  was 
begun.  Where  similar  cases,  treated  symptomatically,  were 
available  for  comparison,  a  considerable  reduction  of  the 
period  of  acute  symptoms,  fever  and  rash  and  a  decided 
shortening  of  the  convalescent  period  were  noted  in  the 
aureomycin-treated  cases.  There  were  no  complications  and 
no  deaths  in  these  cases. 

Clinical  improvements  in  symptoms  of  the  acute  illness 
usually  occurred  within  24  hr.  after  oral  therapy  with  aureo- 
mycin  had  been  started.  The  temperature  returned  to  normal, 
either  during  or  before  the  third  day  of  treatment,  and  the 
rash  in  the  cases  of  typhus  or  spotted  fever  usually  faded  at 
about  this  time. 

Experience  with  the  use  of  aureomycin  in  the  treatment  of 
lymphogranuloma  venereum  showed  that  it  had  a  definit 


206 


DIABETES 


effect  in  the  acute  cases  and  some  benefit,  particularly  as  an 
adjunct  to  surgical  and  other  measures,  in  the  management  of 
chronic  cases.  Some  of  the  chronic  cases  relapsed  after 
cessation  of  treatment. 

A  number  of  cases  of  pyoderma  of  various  types,  some  in 
newborn  infants  and  in  patients  with  other  severe  systemic 
diseases,  showed  improvement  in  varying  degrees  and  for 
varying  periods  under  treatment  with  aureomycin,  after 
failure  to  obtain  benefit  from  penicillin  and  streptomycin. 
Many  of  the  lesions  yielded  penicillin  and  streptomycin- 
resistant  staphylococci.  In  some  cases  of  herpes  zoster  in 
which  treatment  was  undertaken  early  the  lesions  failed  to 
progress,  the  pain  subsided,  new  lesions  failed  to  appear  and 
old  lesions  began  to  dry  up  and  healed  promptly  after  treat- 
ment with  oral  aureomycin  was  instituted.  This  antibiotic 
drug  proved  particularly  useful  in  cases  with  aphthalmic 
distribution  of  the  lesions.  Relapses  in  herpes  zoster  occurred 
with  new  lesions  reappearing,  after  treatment  was  discontinued 
prematurely,  but  aureomycin  was  again  given  with  good 
results  in  some  of  these  cases. 

One  hundred  unselected  patients  with  scabies  were  treated 
with  a  new  preparation  of  the  gamma  isomer  of  hexa- 
chlorocyclohexane  in  a  vanishing  cream  base,  with  which 
A.  B.  Cannon  and  M.  E.  McRae  had  obtained  100%  cures. 
Complete  relief  from  pruritus  within  24  to  48  hr.  was  reported 
by  about  half  the  patients  and  many  observed  that  itching 
ceased  within  two  to  three  hours.  Pronounced  clinical 
improvement  was  seen  in  all  cases  after  one  application. 
Sixty-one,  or  nearly  two-thirds  of  those  under  observation, 
showed  no  signs  of  activity  after  a  single  treatment.  Thirty- 
six  were  given  two  treatments  and  three  patients  received 
three.  All  were  cured  and  in  no  case  could  the  acarus  be 
demonstrated  after  the  first  application  of  the  cream.  This 
remedy  was  found  to  be  effective  in  cases  in  which  other 
preparations  had  failed.  No  cases  of  irritation  or  sensitivity 
occurred,  either  as  primary  or  late  manifestations,  and  there 
were  no  centra-indications  even  in  the  presence  of  severe 
secondary  dermatitis.  This  preparation  was  also  successful 
in  the  treatment  of  all  types  of  pediculosis. 

Increased  use  of  beryllium  in  industry  brought  to  light 
several  new  pathologic  reactions  among  workers  handling  it; 
and  beryllium  was  added  to  the  ever  expanding  group  of 
serious  industrial  intoxicants.  In  the  beryllium  refining 
industry,  cases  of  acute  dermatitis  occurred  from  contact  with 
the  soluble  salts.  Crystals  imbedded  under  the  skin  produced 
foreign  body  reactions  with  ulceration.  Extensively  prolifera- 
ting granulomas  necessitating  wide  excisions  developed 
following  cuts  from  glass  fragments  in  which  particles  of 
beryllium  phosphor  remained.  (See  INDUSTRIAL  HEALTH.) 

Bacitracin,  another  antibiotic  drug,  was  used  with  success 
in  some  superficial  pyogenic  diseases  of  the  skin.  J.  L.  Miller, 
M.  H.  Slatkin  and  B.  A.  Johnson  found  it  effective  in  impetigo 
contagiosa,  folliculitis,  infectious  eczematoid  dermatitis, 
ecthyma  and  dermatitis  rcpens,  but  of  only  limited  value  in 
sycosis  vulgaris.  Their  results  were  best  with  bacitracin  in  a 
concentration  of  500  units  per  gram  and  an  oil  and  water  or 
greaseless  carbowax  base. 

Excellent  results  were  reported  by  W.  E.  Wooldridge  and 
H.  L.  Joseph  in  the  treatment  of  circumscribed  and  dissemina- 
ted neurodermatitis  and  other  itching  dermatoses  by  the 
local  application  of  phenindaminc  (thephorin)  ointment.  In 
the  cases  that  responded  to  this  drug,  improvement  in  the 
eruption  was  noted  in  a  week  and  once  improvement  became 
evident,  it  was  progressive  and  usually  reached  a  peak  within 
four  weeks.  Even  though  no  more  improvement  occurred  in 
most  patients  after  that  time,  they  could  be  maintained  in  an 
improved  condition. 

Since  the  advent  of  streptomycin  and  its  proved  effectiveness 
in  the  treatment  of  granuloma  inguinale,  many  trial  dosage 


schedules  had  been  used  to  attempt  to  standardize  a  regimen 
of  therapy.  M.  H.  Samitz,  P.  N.  Horvath,  P.  P.  Mari  and 
H.  Berman  reported  1 9  cases  of  chronic  granuloma  inguinale 
treated  with  a  uniform  total  dosage  of  20  grams  of  strepto- 
mycin administered  in  fractions  of  0-5  grams  every  three 
hours  for  five  days.  All  patients  responded  rapidly  and  there 
were  no  recurrences  during  an  observation  period  of  6  to  1 5 
months.  (H.  Fx.) 

DIABETES.  The  first  international  conference  of 
Diabetes  associations  was  held  in  Brussels,  June  9,  1949, 
under  the  leadership  of  Professor  J.  P.  Hoet  of  Louvain, 
Belgium.  Papers  were  read  upon  heredity,  social  relation- 
ships, the  diabetes  detection  drive  in  the  United  States,  life 
insurance  and  the  employment  of  diabetics  in  government 
and  private  agencies.  Representatives  were  present  from 
12  or  more  countries.  The  American  Diabetes  association 
expanded  its  efforts  during  1949,  concentrating  upon  a 
diabetes  detection  drive  for  the  second  year.  The  drive 
attracted  much  attention  in  the  press,  radio  and  from  medical 
bodies;  industrial  organizations  participated  more  freely 
than  in  the  past.  There  were  now  20  affiliated  societies  of 
the  American  Diabetes  association  in  the  U.S.  and  Canada. 
Many  of  these  had  two  sections,  one  for  physicians  and  the 
other  for  the  lay  public.  The  diabetes  branch  of  the  United 
States  Public  Health  service  conducted  large  scale  demon- 
stration activities  in  co-operation  with  local  medical  societies 
and  health  departments  in  Brookhne,  Massachusetts,  Jackson- 
ville, Florida,  and  it  began  similar  surveys  in  Milwaukee, 
Wisconsin,  and  Dallas,  Texas.  The  Oxford,  Massachusetts, 
and  Jacksonville  surveys  were  not  entirely  comparable  but 
for  new  cases  were  not  significantly  different,  being  1  %  and 
0-9%  respectively.  To  facilitate  the  detection  of  probable 
diabetics,  the  Wilkerson  Heftmann  blood  sugar  five  minute 
screening  test  was  devised;  with  this  and  the  Hewson 
clinitron,  more  than  100  blood  sugar  tests  could  be  performed 
hourly. 

The  number  of  diabetes  homes  and  camps  for  children 
continued  to  grow.  In  the  summer  of  1949  there  were  at 
least  1 1  such  camps  in  the  U.S.  and  Canada.  In  England  many 
diabetic  children  with  unsatisfactory  home  surroundings  were 
placed  in  various  publicly  and  privately  supported  homes  for 
complete  treatment  and  education.  The  Clara  Barton  Birth- 
place camp  in  North  Oxford,  Massachusetts,  was  extended 
to  include  older  girls. 

The  steadily  increasing  duration  of  life  of  diabetics  was 
shown  in  a  compilation  of  fatal  cases  by  the  George  F. 
Baker  clinic.  Beginning  about  1900  steady  progress  was  noted 
in  each  age  group  of  patients.  Those  who  developed  the 
disease  between  10  and  19  years  of  age  had  the  shortest 
duration  of  life,  if  one  allowed  for  a  normal  reduction  of 
expectancy  due  to  age;  adolescents  were  the  most  difficult 
to  control.  The  percentage  of  fatal  cases  surviving  20  years 
of  diabetes  in  1949  was  24-1%  for  all  diabetics  in  contrast 
to  1  -8%  between  1897  and  1914.  A  hopeful  sign  was  the  fall 
in  morbidity  and  mortality  of  diabetic  coma,  once  the  scourge 
of  the  diabetic.  It  reached  its  lowest  level,  1  •  9  %  among 
2,299  cases  discharged  from  one  clinic.  No  deaths  occurred 
in  92  successive  coma  cases  in  one  hospital,  none  for  two 
and  a  half  years  in  another  large  hospital  and  only  one  in 
two  years  among  cases  in  a  third  institution. 

A  pessimistic  view  of  the  diabetic  child's  expectation  of 
life  was  taken  by  G.  Fanconi  of  Zurich,  Switzerland,  reporting 
136  cases  in  which  none  of  the  87  traced  lived  more  than 
21  years.  This  was  in  contrast  to  the  experience  of  the 
George  F.  Baker  clinic,  in  which  24%  of  2,145  living  patients 
who  developed  diabetes  at  under  1 5  years  of  age  had  already 
reached  25  years  of  age  while  12%  had  survived  the  disease 
25  years  and  smaller  groups  30  and  even  35  years. 


DIAMONDS— DISASTERS 


207 


The  importance  of  duration  of  the  diabetes  in  the  develop- 
ment of  arteriosclerosis  became  evident  in  Howard  F.  Root's 
study  of  202  diabetics  with  onset  between  the  ages  of  1 5  and 
30,  although  it  was  shown  that  control  of  the  disease  was  also 
a  major  factor.  High  blood  pressure  rose  from  2%  to  33%, 
calcified  arteries  from  21%  to  88%,  retinitis  from  4%  to 
60%  and  protcinuria  from  3%  to  10%,  as  the  average  length 
of  the  disease  advanced  from  the  first  to  the  third  10-year 
period. 

Continued  research  emphasized  the  experimental  work 
dealing  with  adrenocorticotropic  hormone  (ACTH)  and  its 
diabetogenic  action  as  well  as  the  protective  action  of 
glutathione  even  in  humans.  Jerome  W.  Conn  found  in  his 
experimental  subjects  (temporarily  diabetic  by  injections  of 
adrenocorticotropic  hormone)  that  the  hyperglycaemia  fell  to 
normal  by  intravenous  injections  of  glutathione.  Moreover, 
in  a  patient  with  Gushing' s  syndrome  with  pituitary  diabetes 
of  long  standing,  the  intravenous  injection  of  glutathione 
brought  about  an  immediate,  if  brief,  fall  to  normal  of  the 
blood  sugar.  A  hint  of  the  connection  of  carbo-hydrate  and 
purin  metabolism  was  evidenced  in  patients  with  gout  by  the 
production  of  typical  attacks  by  an  injection  of  ACTH. 
Other  observations  pointed  to  the  close  relation  of  carbo- 
hydrate and  protein  in  the  promotion  of  synthesis  of  muscle 
protein  from  animo  acids  in  the  blood.  (See  also  ENDO- 
CRINOLOGY.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY     Metropolitan  Life  Insurance  Company  and  George 

F.  Baker    Clinic,   Progress    in    Diabetes,    New    York,    Sept.    1949; 
Joseph  H.  Barach,  Diabetes  and  Its  Treatment,  New  York,  1949; 

G.  Fancom,  A    Botsztejn   and   C.   Kousmme,   "  Die   Nephropathic 
beim     kmdhchen     Diabetes     melhtus,"     Helvet.    paediat.     acta,    3. 
341-379,  Switzerland,  Nov.  1948;    Albert  E.  Renold  and  Alexander 
Marble,   **  Emcgc   Gesichtspunkte    der    neueren    Diabetes-Forschung 
in    den    U.S.A  ,"   Schwetze.  Med.   Wech.,  79.     565-572,  Switzerland, 
June  25,  1949.  (E.  P.  Jo). 

DIAMONDS.  The  trend  of  diamond  sales  since  the 
beginning  of  1944  is  given  in  Table  I. 

TABLE  1.— DIAMOND  SALES,  1944— Sept.  1949 

(£  million) 

1944  1945  1946  1947  1948  1949 
Gem  .  .  .  H-2  21-0  26-1  20  1  26-8  19  9 
Industrial  .  .  3-8  3-5  3-5  4-4  11-3  8-5 


TABLE  III. —WORLD  PRODUCTION  OF  DIAMONDS  1944-47 
(Thousands  of  carats) 


Total 


17-0        24-5        29-6        24-5        38-1        28-4 


The  unprecedented  figure  of  £38,100,000  for  1948  was 
chiefly  accounted  for  by  the  United  States  taking  80%  of 
the  world's  production  of  industrial  diamonds,  partly  for 
stockpiling  purposes ;  the  weight  of  industrial  stones  exceeded 
that  of  gem  diamonds,  although  the  value  was  lower. 


TABLE  II.— U.S.  DIAMOND  IMPORTS,  1948* 

carats 


value 

$44,460,365 
$56,244,934 
$32,184,225 


Uncut  gems 912,762 

Cut  gems 389,314 

Industrial 10,418,058 

Total  ....  11,720,134          $132,889,524 

*  SOURCE:    National  Jeweler,  Chicago. 

U.S.  diamonds  imports  in  1948  (Table  II)  compared  with 
5,458,292  carats  for  a  total  value  of  $109,689,729  in  1947. 

The  devaluation  of  the  pound  sterling  had  the  effect  of 
raising  the  prices  of  diamonds. 

The  Dutoitspan  mine,  in  South  Africa,  which  produces  a 
large  number  of  Cape  (or  yellow)  diamonds  and  the  Jagers- 
fontein  mine  were  re-opened  in  Dec.  1 949.  A  large  diamond, 
weighing  211-5  carats,  which  was  discovered  in  South 
Africa  in  1945  and  therefore  named  "  The  Victory,"  was  on 
display  at  the  Diamond  exhibition  in  Amsterdam  during 
June  and  July  1949.  One  of  the  most  famous  and  legendary 
diamonds  in  history,  the  "  Hope  "  blue,  which  for  many 
years  was  in  the  possession  of  the  late  Mrs.  Walsh  McLean, 


1944 

1945 

1946 

1947 

1948 

Angola  . 

799 

804 

808* 

799 

800 

Belgian  Congo 

7,533 

10,386 

6,033 

5,474 

6,500 

French  Africa 

130 

163 

139 

180 

140 

Gold  Coast     . 

1,166 

812 

653 

852 

850 

Sierra  Leone   . 

609 

504 

559 

606 

500 

South  Africa  . 

934 

1,141 

1,282 

1,205 

1,200 

South  West  Africa 

154 

153 

164 

181 

185 

Tanganyika     . 

91 

116 

119* 

92 

139 

Brazil     . 

310* 

275* 

325* 

275* 

250 

Others    . 

48* 

30* 

45* 

90* 

95 

Total  (world) 

11,774 

14,384 

10,127 

9,754 

10,659 

*  Estimated.        f 

was  sold  at  the  beginning  of  1949  to  a  New  York  diamond 
merchant.  (See  also  GEMS;  MINERAL  AND  METAL  PRODUC- 
TION AND  PRICES.)  (X.) 

DIETETICS:   see  FOOD  RESEARCH. 

DIOMIDIS,  ALEXANDROS,  Greek  economist  and 
statesman  (b.  Athens,  1875),  was  a  friend  of  Eleftherios 
Venizelos  whose  Liberal  government  he  joined  as  minister 
of  finance  (1912-14).  After  World  War  I  he  retired  from 
politics  and  in  1923  was  elected  governor  of  the  National 
bank,  at  that  time  still  the  bank  of  issue.  In  this  capacity  he 
negotiated  the  refugee  loan  of  1924  and  the  stabilization  and 
public  works  loan  of  1928,  besides  conducting  negotiations 
which  led  to  the  creation  of  the  Bank  of  Greece  as  the  bank 
of  issue  (1928).  Retiring  from  public  life  in  1930  he  studied 
the  economics  of  the  Byzantine  empire  and  in  1943  published 
a  two-volume  work  on  the  land  policy  of  the  Macedonian  and 
Comnene  emperors.  Before  World  War  II  he  was  honorary 
president  of  the  Supreme  Economic  council  and  from  1945 
president  of  the  Supreme  Reconstruction  board,  and  chairman 
of  the  board  of  the  National  bank.  On  Jan.  20,  1949,  he 
joined  the  coalition  government  of  Themistocles  Sophoulis 
as  a  non-party  deputy  premier;  and  after  Sophoulis's  death 
(see  OBITUARIES)  he  succeeded  him  on  June  30  as  prime 
minister  of  a  Populist-Liberal  coalition  cabinet.  He  resigned 
on  Jan.  5,  1950. 

DISASTERS.  During  1949  loss  of  life  and  property 
occurred  in  the  following  disasters: 

Aviation 

Jan.  16  Bel  ween  Bermuda  and  Jamaica.  A  British  four-engine  trans- 
port plane,  flying  from  London  to  Santiago,  Chile,  was  lost 
at  sea,  and  1 3  passengers  and  a  crew  of  7  were  presumed  dead. 

Jan.  27  Near  the  Canary  Islands.  A  U  S.  B-29  bomber  disappeared 
while  flying  from  Dakar,  French  West  Africa,  to  Marham, 
Norfolk,  and  the  crew  of  15  were  given  up  for  lost. 

Fcb  8  Oresund,  off  the  Swedish  coast.  Twenty-eight  persons  aboard 
a  Scandinavian  air  liner  lost  their  lives  when  their  plane 
crashed  into  the  water 

Feb.  19  Exhall,  Warwickshire.  Fourteen  persons  were  killed  when  a 
London-Glasgow  British  European  Airways  plane  collided 
in  mid-air  with  a  Royal  Air  Force  training  plane 

Feb.  24  Cuzco,  Peru.  Twenty-two  persons  died  when  a  Peruvian  air 
force  transport  plane  crashed  on  a  take-off 

May  4  Turin,  Italy.  Thirty-one  persons,  including  18  members  of 
Turin's  championship  football  team,  died  when  an  Italian 
air  liner  crashed  into  the  courtyard  of  the  Superga  cathedral. 

May  6  Off  Portland  Bill,  Dorset  All  7  occupants  of  a  two-engined 
freighter  aeroplane  died  when  it  crashed  on  a  test  flight. 

June  7  Near  San  Juan,  Puerto  Rico  Fifty-three  persons  lost  their 
lives  when  a  twin-engined  transport  plane  carrying  81  persons, 
crashed  in  Caribbean  waters 

June  23  Off  Ban.  A  K  L  M  Constellation  plane,  bound  for  Amster- 
dam from  Batavia,  broke  in  mid-air  and  crashed  in  flames. 
All  33  occupants  were  killed. 

July  12  Near  Bombay,  India.  Forty-five  persons,  including  13  well 
known  U  S  journalists,  were  killed  when  a  Dutch  transport 
plane  crashed. 

Aug.  14  Between  Ankara  and  Izmir,  Turkey.  Seven  British,  including 
the  air  attache  at  Ankara,  and  Turkish  air  force  personnel 
were  killed  when  their  transport  crashed. 


208 


DISASTERS 


Aug.  19  Greenfield,  near  Oldham,  Lanes.  Twenty-four  persons  died 
when  a  British  air  liner  approaching  Manchester  from  Belfast 
crashed  into  a  peak  in  the  Pennines. 

Aug.  21  Northern  Manitoba,  Canada.  A  twin-engined  plane  crashed 
about  midway  between  Churchill  and  Winnipeg,  killing  the 
21  persons  on  board,  including  8  Eskimos. 

Sept.  9  Near  St.  Joachim,  Quebec.  Twenty-three  persons  aboard  a 
Quebec  Airways  plane  were  killed  when  the  aircraft  crashed 
and  caught  fire  on  a  mountainside.  It  was  later  reported  that 
explosives  had  been  placed  on  board  the  plane,  and  a  Quebec 
woman  and  a  man,  whose  wife  was  on  the  plane,  were  held. 

Sept.  17  London.  Nine  aircrew  of  various  British  planes  died  in  the 
annual  commemoration  of  the  Battle  of  Britain. 

Sept.  26  Near  Newark,  Notts.  Two  four-engined  R.A.F.  Lincoln 
bombers  collided,  12  of  the  crew  were  killed  and  2  reported 
missing,  during  "  Exercise  Bulldog,"  testing  western  allied 
air  strength. 

Oct.  28  The  Azores.  An  Air  France  Constellation  plane,  flying  from 
Paris  to  New  York,  crashed  in  flames  into  a  mountain,  killing 
all  the  48  people  on  board,  who  included  Ginette  Neveu  the 
violinist  and  Marcel  Cerdan  the  boxer. 

Nov.  1  Washington,  D.C.  The  worst  civil  aviation  disaster  in  U.S. 
history  occurred  when  55  men,  women  and  children  died  in  an 
Eastern  Airlines  Douglas  plane  which  was  rammed  by  a  JP-38 
fighter  plane. 

Nov.  16  Stockton,  California.  Two  B-29  planes  on  a  mass  training 
flight  collided  at  27,000ft..  18  of  the  crew  of  21  were  killed. 

Nov.  20  Near  Oslo,  Norway.  Thirty-four  persons  were  killed,  among 
them  27  children,  mostly  orphans  travelling  from  Tunisia  to  a 
rehabilitation  centre  in  Norway,  when  their  plane  crashed. 

Dec.  1  Near  Jacarezinho,  Brazil.  Seventeen  passengers  and  four 
crew  members  died  when  a  Brazilian  transport  plane  crashed 
into  an  isolated  mountainside. 

"  Fires  and  Explosions 

Jan.    12  A  fire  broke  out  in  a  home  for  children  at  Chateau  d'Oex, 

Switzerland,    Eleven  Swiss  children  and  two  nurses  died. 
Feb.  12  Moravska  Ostrava,  Czechoslovakia.    Nineteen  miners  were 

reported  missing  and  nine  others  were  injured  when  methane 

gas  in  a  coal  mine  caught  fire. 
Feb.  15  Near  Bautzen,  Saxony,  Soviet  zone  of  Germany.     Reports 

circulated  that  41  persons  were  killed  in  the  explosion  of  a 

gunpowder  factory. 
Feb.  27  Gambier,  Ohio.   Nine  students  died  in  a  fire  that  destroyed  a 

dormitory  of  Kcnyon  college  and  24  others  were  injured. 
Mar.  3     Muskegon,  Michigan.   A  mother  and  nine  children,  from  4  to 

21  years  old,  died  when  fire  destroyed  their  cottage. 
Mar.  1 1  Brunswick,  Germany.   An  explosion  in  a  dump  in  the  British 

zone  of  Germany  killed  13  workers  and  injured  68. 
Mar.  30  Nadachi,  Japan.     Fifty-seven  Japanese  were  killed  and  16 

injured  when  a  mine  drifted  ashore  and  exploded. 
April5    Effingham,  Illinois.     Sixty-six  persons,  including  13  infants, 

were  killed  when  fire  blazed  swiftly  through  St.  Anthony's 

hospital,  in  the  second  most  tragic  hospital  fire  in  U.S.  history. 
May  4    Glasgow,  Scotland.   Thirteen  salesgirls  were  trapped  and  died 

and  24  persons  were  injured  in  a  clothing  store  fire. 
May  12  Eleven  Russians  and  eight  Germans  were  killed  when  a  train 

carrying  condemned  ammunition  exploded  near  Magdeburg 

in  the  Soviet  zone  of  Germany.    Sabotage  was  suspected. 
July    16  Priim,  Germany.      At  least  14  persons  were  killed,  10  were 

missing,  77  were  injured  and  700  made  homeless  after  a  cache 

of  dynamite  exploded. 
July   21  Canton,   China.      One  hundred  and  twenty  persons  were 

reported  killed  or  injured  in  the  explosion  of  a  Nationalist 

ammunition  dump. 
July   26  Tarancon,  Spain.  At  least  33  persons  were  killed  and  105  were 

injured  in  the  explosion  of  a  military  arsenal. 
Aug.  20-22     Gironde  departement,   France.      More  than  80  persons 

died  in  fires  that  burned  about  125,000  ac.  of  woodland  in  the 

Landes  departement. 
Sept.  2-3    Chungking,  China.     At  least   1,700  persons  were  killed, 

100,000  were  left  homeless  and  more  than  10,000  buildings 

were  destroyed  or  seriously  damaged  in  an  18-hr,  fire. 
Nov.  6     Near  Zwickau,  Germany.     An  explosion  in  a  soviet  zone 

uranium  mine  killed   170  German  miners,   according  to  a 

report  published  on  that  date  by  the  western  zone  newspaper 

Sozialdemokrat. 

Marine 

Jan.  3  Near  Lorient,  Brittany,  France.  Eleven  sailors  were  drowned 
during  storms  accompanied  by  heavy  gales,  when  the  French 
trawler  "  Robert-Marie  "  sank. 

Ian.  28  Southeast  of  Shanghai.  More  than  600  Chinese  were  missing 
and  presumed  dead  after  a  collier  and  a  freight  and  passenger 
liner,  carrying  war  refugees,  collided  and  sank. 


The  wreck  of  the  cross-channel  steamer  **  Primes  As t rid  "  (2,950 
tons)  which  struck  a  mine  off  Dunkirk,  France,  June  21 ,  1949. 

April  18  Guayaquil,  Ecuador.  Most  of  the  89  passengers  were  drowned 
or  burnt  when  the  ship  **  Farahon  "  caught  fire  and  sank. 

April  25  Coast  of  Brazil.  The  Royal  Mail  liner  "  Magdalena,"  17,500 
tons,  ran  aground  near  Tijurca  Islands  20  mi.  south  of  Rio  de 
Janeiro.  All  the  passengers  were  saved,  but  the  ship,  which 
was  insured  for  £3  million  including  cargo,  proved  a  total  loss. 

June  21  English  channel,  near  Dunkirk.  Five  seamen  were  killed 
when  the  Ostend- Dover  steamer  "  Prinses  Astrid  "  struck 
a  mine.  All  the  passengers  were  safely  rescued. 

July  26  Near  Indore,  India.  One  hundred  and  forty  Hindus  returning 
from  a  pilgrimage  were  drowned  when  a  ferryboat  capsized 
in  the  Narbada  river. 

Aug.  26  Arctic  waters  near  Norway.  Eight  persons  perished  when  the 
U.S.  submarine  "  Cochino  "  exploded,  was  set  on  fire  and 
sank;  while  77  of  the  submarine's  personnel  were  saved. 
An  officer  and  five  ratings  from  the  sister  craft  "  Tusk  "  were 
swept  overboard  and  lost  during  rescue  operations. 

Sept.  17  Toronto,  Canada.  A  total  of  120  persons  lost  their  lives 
when  fire  destroyed  the  Great  Lakes  passenger  steamer 
**  Noronic  "  at  its  berth. 

Sept.  22  Magellan  straits.  Seventy-seven  Argentine  navy  officers  and 
men  perished  aboard  the  minesweeper  **  Fournier "  when 
the  ship  struck  a  submerged  rock  and  sank. 

Oct.  18  Off  Berwick,  Scotland.  Twenty  British  seamen  perished  aboard 
the  freighter  "  Maystone  "  when  it  sank  during  a  gale  after 
colliding  with  the  unfinished  aircraft  carrier  '*  Albion,"  an 
18,300-ton  ship. 

Dec.  5  Off  Korea.  A  typhoon  that  swept  the  east  coast  of  Korea 
dispersed  a  vast  fishing  fleet  and  drowned  the  crews  of  more 
than  130  boats,  totalling  several  thousand  men. 

Dec.  13  OfT  the  coast  of  Spanish  Morocco.  Sixty-four  fishermen  were 
drowned  in  the  sinking  of  three  fishing  boats  during  a  storm. 

Miscellaneous 

Jan.  4  Glasgow.  Altogether  nine  people  died  as  the  result  of  drinking 
methyl  alcohol  at  two  parties.  Sixteen  more  recovered  after 
receiving  hospital  treatment. 

Feb.  12  Quito,  Ecuador.  Twenty  persons  were  killed  and  many  more 
were  injured  when  crowds,  angered  by  the  disclosure  that  a 
radio  dramatization  of  the  H.  G.  Wells  novel  War  of  the 
Worlds  was  fictional  and  not  a  real  invasion,  rioted  and  burned 
the  building  housing  the  radio  station. 


DISASTERS 


209 


Sept.  6     Camden,  New  Jersey.     A  war  veteran  with  a  passion  for 

collecting  weapons  shot  and  killed  13  persons  before  running 

out  of  ammunition. 
Sept.  16  Southern  Korea.    It  was  announced  that  at  least  95  prisoners 

who  participated  in  a  mass  gaol  break  were  killed,  and  at 

least  5  guards.    430  convicts  escaped. 
Oct.   29  Near  Lucknow,  India.     Packs  of  hyenas  killed  and  ate  97 

children  in  villages  during  the  preceding  months. 
Dec.  1     Burma.    Clashes  between  government  and  rebel  forces  were 

estimated  to  have  accounted  for  the  deaths  of  360  persons. 
Dec.  15  Sulu  province,  Philippines  republic.     Mohammedan   Moro 

rebels   ambushed    a   constabulary   combat   unit   and   killed 

71  officers  and  men. 

Natural 

Jan.    3     Louisiana  and  Arkansas.    Fifty-nine  persons  were  killed  and 
more  than  250  were  injured  when  tornadoes  lashed  a  dozen 
communities. 
Feb.   11  Libya.  Ninety-five  people  died  of  cold  and  many  were  missing 

after  violent  sandstorms  in  the  northwest  deserts  of  Libya. 
Feb.  20  Praia,  Cape  Verde  Islands.    At  least  360  persons,  queuing  up 
for  government  famine  relief,  were  crushed  to  death  and 
50  others  were  injured  when  a  wall  collapsed  on  them. 
Mar.  1     Germany.   At  least  30  persons  died  as  the  result  of  gales  that 

struck  Germany,   near  Essen  and  Diisseldorf,  for  24  hr. 
April  20  Central  Chile.    Fifty-seven  persons  were  killed  and  89  injured 
when  an  earthquake,  causing  heavy  damage,  shook  several 
cities. 

April  30-May  1  Oklahoma,  Kansas,  Texas  and  Louisiana.  A  succession 
of  tornadoes,  including  16  in  Oklahoma  alone,  caused  9  deaths 
and  injuries  to  85  persons. 
May  20  Maceio  and  vicinity,  Brazil.    More  than  100  persons  died  and 

more  than  200  were  injured  after  a  60  hr.  torrential  rain. 
July  14-17   Yangtze  and  Yellow  river  valleys,  China.   The  worst  floods 
in  half  a  century  were  reported  to  have  made  20  million  people 
homeless.     In  Hunan  province  alone,  57,000  persons  were 
reported  drowned,  and  5  million  ac.  of  rice  was  destroyed. 
July    23  Okinawa.     Thirty-eight  persons  died  and  252  were  injured, 
while  40,000  buildings  were  damaged  or  destroyed  when  a 
typhoon  struck  this  U.S.  naval  base. 

Aug.  5-7    Central  Ecuador.    An  earthquake  that  virtually  demolished 

four  towns  and  laid  waste  sections  of  many  others  killed  more 

than  8,000  persons  and  left  an  estimated  100,000  homeless. 

Aug.  16-17    Prague,  Czechoslovakia.    Two  days  of  rain  caused  floods 

that  took  at  least  16  lives  and  did  extensive  property  damage. 

Aug.  18  Erzurum,  Anatolia,  Turkey.      Forty-five  villages,   including 

1,565  houses,  were  destroyed,  437  were  killed  and  355  gravely 

injured  as  the  result  of  an  earthquake. 

Aug.  31  New  South  Wales,  Australia.  Seven  persons  died,  thousands 
were  left  homeless  and  much  property  was  damaged  as  the 
result  of  a  flood. 

Sept.  1     Japan.    One  hundred  and  twenty-three  persons  died,  51  were 
missing,  419  injured  and  approximately  150,000  left  homeless 
as  the  result  of  a  typhoon,  followed  by  landslides  and  floods. 
Oct.   4    Naples,  Italy.   Forty  persons  died  and  about  300  were  missing 

as  the  result  of  floods  that  followed  a  storm. 
Oct.   8    Oberschlema,  Thuringia,  Soviet  zone  of  Germany,  100  German 

miners  were  reported  killed  in  a  flood  in  a  mine. 
Oct.   27  Southeastern  India.     Nearly  1,000  persons  were  killed  in  a 
cyclone  that  also  caused  the  loss  of  many  cattle  and  much 
property  damage. 

Oct.  31 -Nov.  2  Philippines  republic.  The  central  Philippines'  worst 
typhoon  in  12  years  left  a  total  of  975  persons  dead  or  missing 
and  presumed  dead,  besides  20,000  homeless. 

Nov.  28  Northwest  United  States  and  southwest  Canada.  Thirty-four 
persons  lost  their  lives  as  the  result  of  storms  that  swept 
across  a  1,000-mi.  front. 

Railways 
Jan.    15  Yugoslavia,  near  Trieste.     Ten  persons  were  killed  and  12 

were  inj  urcd  in  the  wreck  of  an  oil  train. 
Feb.   12  Near  Tarragona,  Spain.    Thirty  persons  were  killed  and  40 

injured  when  the  Madrid-Barcelona  express  was  derailed. 
Feb.    18   Port    d' Atelier,  Haute-Sa6ne,  France;     43    persons    were 

killed  when  a  locomotive  ran  into  the  Nancy-Dijon  express. 
April  28  Near  Johannesburg,  Transvaal,  South  Africa.    Three  electric 

trains,  all  headed  in  the  same  direction,  were  involved  in  the 

Union  of  South  Africa's  worst  rail  disaster,  resulting  in  the 

death  of  74  persons  and  injury  to  more  than  90  others. 
July    4    Between  Strasbourg  and  Paris,  France.     Five  and  possibly 

six  persons  died  and  more  than  50  others  were  injured  when 

heat-expanded  rails  derailed  the  Strasbourg-Paris  express. 
Oct.    11  Buenos  Aires,  Argentina.     At  least  25  persons  were  killed 

and  75  injured  when  a  suburban  train  ran  into  a  goods  train. 
Oct.  21  Nowy  Dw6r,  Poland.     More  than  200  persons  were  killed 

when  the  Danzig- Warsaw  express  left  the  rails  on  a  curve. 

B.B.Y.— 15 


Nov.  7    Near  Madrid.  Spain.    At  least  14  were  killed  and  30  injured 

when  two  trains  collided  between  Las  Matas  and  Las  Rozas. 
Nov.  15  Near  Waterval  Bovcn,  Transvaal,  South  Africa.  At  least  56  per- 
sons were  killed  and  105  injured  when  a  train  filled  with  natives 

returning  to  Mozambique  plunged  off  a  70-ft.  bridge. 

Road 
Jan.    3     Martigne-Fcrchaud,  near  Rennes,  France.   Seventeen  football 

players  were  drowned  when  their  bus  skidded  into  a  pond. 
April  19  Near  Cabanillas,  Peru.    Eighteen  passengers  were  killed  and 

16  others  injured  when  a  train  struck  a  crowded  bus  at  a 

crossing. 
June  26  Madera,  California.     Seven  persons,  including  two  infants, 

were  killed  and  two  others  were  critically  injured  when  the 

car  in  which  they  were  travelling  crashed  into  a  lorry. 
July    19  Bogota,  Colombia.      Fourteen  persons  were  killed  and   15 

injured  When  a  bus  plunged  down  an  embankment. 
Aug.  3    Near  Marrakesh,  Morocco.   Eighteen  persons  were  killed  and 

25  were  injured  when  a  bus  fell  into  a  ravine. 
Aug.  8     Opladen,  Westphalia,  Germany.     Eighteen  schoolboys  were 

killed  and  14  others  injured  when  a  bus,  bringing  them  home 

from  a  summer  camp,  was  struck  by  a  train. 
Aug.  10  Near  Bloomington,  Indiana.  Sixteen  persons  were  killed  when 

a  bus  travelling  from  Indianapolis  to  Evansville  struck  a 

bridge    abutment,    skidded    and    rolled    over,    blocking    an 

emergency  exit  door  and  catching  fire. 
Aug.  16  Near  Fulton,  Missouri.    Six  persons  were  killed  and  22  were 

injured  in  the  collision  of  a  timber  lorry  and  an  open  van 

carrying  a  crowd  of  churchgoers. 
Aug.  22  Near  Moorhcad  city,  North  Carolina.     Seven  persons  were 

drowned  when  their  car  plunged  from  the  end  of  an  open 

drawbridge  mto  14  ft.  of  water. 
Sept.  19  Newaygo,    Michigan.      A  lorry  carrying   19  itinerant  farm 

workers  plunged  through  the  guard   rail  of  a  bridge  and 

dropped  25  ft.  into  the  Muskegon  river.    Six  of  those  in  the 

vehicle  died,  while  the  others  made  their  way  to  shore. 
Sept.  24  Brno,    Czechoslovakia.       Forty-two    persons   were   reported 

killed  when  a  bus  carrying  70  passengers  left  the  road  and 

rolled  down  a  steep  hill. 
Oct.   2     Ontario,   California.      Sixteen   persons   were  killed   and   24 

injured  when  a  Union  Pacific  passenger  train  ran  into  a  March 

air  base  passenger  bus. 
Oct.   6    Near  Middlesex,  North  Carolina.  Seven  school  children  were 

killed  and  20  were  injured  when  a  school  bus  struck  a  lorry 

on  a  narrow  bridge. 
Nov.  23  Near  Lubbock,  Texas.  Seven  persons  were  killed  and  10  others 

injured  when  a  freight  train  struck  a  lorry  loaded  with  cotton 
ickers. 


The  steamer  Noronic  (6,905  tons)  after  a  fire  had  gutted  the  vessel 
at  Toronto  in  Sept.  1949;    132  passengers  and  crew  lost  their  lives. 


210 


DOBI— DOCKS   AND   HARBOURS 


DISPLACED  PERSONS:    see  PRISONERS  OF  WAR; 
REFUGEES. 

DISTILLING:    see  SPIRITS. 

DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA:  see  WASHINGTON,  D.C. 
DIVORCE:  see  MARRIAGE  AND  DIVORCE. 

DOBI,  ISTVAN,  Hungarian  politician  (b.  Szony, 
Hungary,  1898).  Son  of  an  agricultural  labourer,  he  worked 
as  one  himself  and,  having  become  interested  in  social 
movements,  at  the  end  of  World  War  I  was  active  as  organizer 
of  agricultural  labourers.  In  1935  he  joined  the  Independent 
Smallholders*  party,  founded  five  years  earlier  by  Tibor 
Eckhardt,  Zoltan  Tildy  and  other  leaders  of  the  Hungarian 
Peasant  movement.  He  was  elected  deputy  to  the  Constituent 
Assembly  on  Nov.  4,  1945,  and  was  minister  of  state  in  the 
cabinets  formed  by  Tildy  (Nov.  1945-Feb.  1946)  and  Ferenc 
Nagy  (Feb.  1946-May  1947).  During  this  later  period  he 
became  pro-Communist.  He  succeeded  Nagy  as  leader  of 
the  Smallholders'  party  after  the  latter's  forced  resignation 
from  premiership  but  was  unable  to  save  the  party  from  a 
heavy  electoral  defeat  on  Aug.  31,  1947.  He  was  elected 
speaker  of  the  new  National  Assembly  and,  on  Dec.  10,  1948, 
on  the  resignation  of  Lajos  Dinnycs,  became  prime  minister 
and  announced  the  total  liquidation  of  capitalism  among  the 
peasantry.  At  the  reorganization  of  the  People's  Indepen- 
dence front  on  Feb.  1,  1949,  under  the  chairmanship  of 
Matyas  Rakosi  (q.v.),  Dobi  was  appointed  one  of  the  two 
deputy  chairmen.  On  June  10  he  was  re-appointed  prime 
minister. 

DOCKS  AND  HARBOURS.  In  1949  the  first  year's 
working  of  the  nationalized  dock  undertakings  in  Great 
Britain  showed  a  deficit  in  operation  of  docks,  harbours  and 
wharves  vested  in  the  British  Transport  commission.  The 
undertakings  showed  losses  in  all  but  two  groups,  although 
gross  receipts  were  25%  above  those  for  1947.  The  total 
deficit  for  1948  was  £1,329,484.  The  annual  report  stated 
that  notwithstanding  the  existing  volume  of  traffic  and  in- 
creases authorized  in  1947,  present  charges  levels  would  not 
enable  the  commission  to  comply  with  the  requirement  that 
revenue  should  be  sufficient  to  cover  all  properly  chargeable 
costs.  It  was  agreed  that  transfers  to  the  commission  should 
be  effected  by  stages  beginning  with  the  south  Wales  docks 
and  those  at  Kings  Lynn,  Norfolk.  The  docks  at  Hull, 
Yorkshire,  Grimsby  and  Immingham,  Lincolnshire,  were 
transferred  on  Jan.  1,  1949,  all  being  treated  as  one  entity 
based  on  the  H umber. 

The  final  report  of  the  working  party  on  the  turn-round  of 
shipping  was  given  special  attention  and  measures  were  taken 
to  carry  out  its  recommendations.  A  joint  consultative 
council  was  established.  Its  meetings  provided  opportunities 
for  the  exchange  of  views  on  the  whole  of  inland  transport. 
Wages  questions,  conditions  of  service  or  statutory  com- 
mittee matters  were  excluded. 

National  Dock  Labour  Board.  In  1 949  the  board  published 
its  first  annual  report  covering  the  period  June  28,  1947,  when 
the  minister  of  labour's  scheme  commenced,  to  Jan.  3,  1948. 
The  chief  difficulty  arose  from  the  lack  of  proper  information 
about  future  labour  needs.  Planning  on  past  experience 
proved  unreliable  in  changing  conditions  and  forecasts  on 
trade  developments  were  requested  from  government  depart- 
ments and  industrialists.  Port  registers  showed  an  average 
of  74,585  men,  91-7%  available,  for  the  half-year  to  Jan. 
3,  1948.  Certain  local  boards  faced  labour  shortages  and 
3,000  men  were  recruited.  Use  of  the  scheme's  provisions 
was  urged  by  transfers  from  other  ports.  The  number  of 
men  working  away  from  their  home  ports  daily  during  six 
months  averaged  520. 


Clyde.  The  reconstruction  of  Queen's  dock  was  abandoned 
in  favour  of  a  second  basin  at  Shieldhall.  The  widening  of 
Queen's  dock  entrance  was  to  proceed  later.  The  Ministry 
of  Civil  Aviation  height  restrictions  for  buildings  near 
Renfrew  airport  hampered  the  design  of  new  warehouse 
accommodation. 

Hull.  The  first  nationalized  port  advisory  committee  was 
formed  with  representatives  of  shipping,  trading  and  trade 
union  interests.  Co-operating  with  the  Humber  port  execu- 
tive officials,  the  chief  docks  manager  being  chairman,  it 
dealt  with  trade  and  facilities  not  dealt  with  by  the  joint 
industrial  council. 

Lcith.  Improvements  authorized  included  the  completion 
of  new  quays  and  lighthouses  at  the  new  entrance  to  the  port 
and  in  Edinburgh  dock. 

Liverpool.  The  radar  station  was  used  by  nearly  250  vessels 
entering  or  leaving  the  port.  Its  value  during  foggy  weather 
was  proved,  continuous  position  information  being  supplied 
to  vessels.  The  war-damaged  Gladstone-Hornby  lock  was 
repaired  and  put  in  commission  in  March.  Princess  Elizabeth 
opened  the  new  entrance  to  Waterloo  dock,  thus  marking 
the  completion  of  the  board's  £1,200,000  improvement 
scheme.  The  dock  board  approved  a  £10  million  recon- 
struction scheme  for  Langton  Brocklebank  and  Canada 
docks.  A  new  entrance  lock  into  Langton  dock  825  ft.  long 
and  130ft.  wide  would  abolish  the  existing  entrance. 

London.  The  Port  of  London  authority  celebrated  its  40th 
birthday.  An  unofficial  strike  of  dockers,  from  early  May  to 
July  11,  cost  the  country  a  loss  of  2,300  operating  days  and 
held  more  than  100  ships  idle.  A  state  of  emergency  was 
proclaimed,  a  port  emergency  committee  was  set  up  at  the 
port  and  troops  were  employed  to  discharge  food  cargoes 
and  load  exports.  A  political  issue  developed  owing  to  a 
warning  of  dismissal  to  strikers  by  the  National  Dock  Labour 
board  being  publicly  repudiated  by  the  prime  minister. 
The  chairman,  Lord  Ammon,  resigned  his  ministerial  ap- 
pointment as  a  government  whip  but  retained  the  chairman- 
ship of  the  National  Dock  Labour  board.  Bow  Creek  wharf, 
rebuilt  after  bomb  damage,  re-opened  as  one  of  the  two  main 
Thames  iron  and  steel  discharging  points.  Designs  for  a 
false  quay  1,320  ft.  long,  29  ft.  deep  alongside  north  quay, 
West  India  dock,  were  prepared  and  two  diesel-driven 
floating  grain  elevators  were  ordered. 

Manchester.  Work  on  the  Manchester  Ship  Canal  com- 
pany's £4  million  new  oil  dock  for  30,000  ton  tankers  began 
at  Eastham,  near  the  entrance  to  the  ship  canal.  The  dock 
entrance  lock  was  planned  to  be  800ft.  long  and  100ft. 
wide.  A  wet  dock  would  have  40  ft.  depth  of  water  and 
berths  equipped  with  modern  facilities  for  discharging  oil. 

South  Wales.  There  was  increased  traffic  of  nearly  2  million 
tons,  principally  at  Swansea;  but  considerable  unemploy- 
ment occurred  at  Cardiff.  Coal  exports  from  all  ports  in 
south  Wales  were  only  27%  of  the  total  throughout  the 
country  (excluding  coastwise)  as  compared  with  40%  before 
World  War  II. 

Southampton.  At  Fawley  work  started  on  Europe's  largest 
oil  refinery  (annual  output  5  million  tons).  Four  or  five 
berths  to  deal  with  about  350  tankers  annually  were  planned 
to  accommodate  the  largest  tankers  foreseen.  A  new  two- 
storey  terminal  building  and  a  new  "  berth  44  "  for  passengers 
for  the  "  Queen  Mary  "  and  "  Queen  Elizabeth  "  were  begun. 

Sunderland.  Improvement  schemes  at  Hendon  dock, 
provision  of  space  by  reclamation  for  storage  and  straighten- 
ing and  deepening  of  the  harbour  entrance  channel  were 
proceeded  with;  a  new  south  pier  was  completed.  A  tidal 
model  of  harbour  entrance  was  set  up  to  obtain  design  data. 
Tees.  Local  interests  favoured  an  estuarial  port  authority, 
rather  than  regional  control,  with  the  merging  of  the  Hartle- 
pools  Harbour  commission,  the  Tees  conservancy,  the 


DOCKS   AND   HARBOURS 


211 


A  German  float  ing  dock  which  was  towed  from  Lubeck  to  balmouth%  Cornwall,  in  Aug.  1949,  by  two  deep-sea  tugs  **  Turmoil  **  and  "  Marina.* 


Transport  commission's  docks  at  Middlesbrough  and  Hartle- 
pools,  the  Stockton  corporation  quay  and  private  wharfing 
installations. 

Tyne.  Two  committees  of  Newcastle  city  council  advo- 
cated that  all  the  facilities  at  Tyne  port  should  be  unified. 

Australia.  Legislation  was  adopted  reconstituting  the 
Stevedoring  Industry  commission  which  controlled  port 
waterfront  operations.  The  reclamation  for  the  new  Appleton 
dock,  west  of  the  Yarra,  proceeded. 

British  East  Africa.  Dar  es  Salaam,  Tanganyika,  progressed 
towards  becoming  a  major  port  capable  of  accommodating 
600  ft.  ships  of  30  ft.  draft.  Improvements  to  the  entrance 
channel,  increase  of  the  lighter  fleet,  additional  deep  water 
berths,  cranes  and  rolling  stock  should,  by  1951-52, 
enable  the  port  to  handle  850,000  tons  of  cargo  annually, 
nearly  twice  the  total  for  1948.  Construction  proceeded 
of  Mtwara  port  (late  Mikindani). 

British  West  Africa.  Work  was  commenced  on  the  extension 
and  development  of  the  harbour  at  Takoradi,  Gold  Coast. 
The  new  work,  which  was  expected  to  cost  £2,250,000  and 
was  planned  to  be  completed  by  1953,  included  the  lengthening 
of  the  quay  on  the  north  side  of  the  harbour  to  accommodate 
six  ships  instead  of  three;  the  construction  of  new  docks  in 
the  southwest  corner  of  the  harbour;  the  removal  of  Cox 
Fort  hill  and  the  building  of  sidings,  cargo  platforms  and  a 
cement  dump  on  the  site;  and  the  construction  of  a  railway 
maintenance  centre. 

Canada.  The  National  Harbours  board  engaged  in  large 
constructional  works  at  Montreal,  Halifax  and  St.  John, 
New  Brunswick.  At  Montreal,  the  Jacques  Cartier  pier  was 
under  reconstruction.  Seventy  ft.  long  precast  concrete 
cylinders  were  being  used  to  carry  a  concrete  deck. 

Ceylon.  Work  at  Colombo  port  included  the  construction 
of  an  oil  jetty  and  two  alongside  quay  berths,  enabling  direct 
discharge  to  road  transport. 

France.  Works  completed  included  repairs  at  Le  Havre 
and  reconstruction  at  Marseilles  and  Port  du  Bouc  oil  port 
(Marseilles). 

India.  The  ports  at  Bombay,  Madras,  Calcutta  and  Cochin 
were  given  development  priority.  French  experts  visited 


India  and  surveyed  many  ports  and  planned  new  shipyards. 
Kandla  was  being  developed  into  a  major  port,  capable  of 
handling  3  million  tons  annually.  In  Calcutta  model  experi- 
ments were  conducted  for  the  improvement  of  the  river 
Hooghly. 

Ireland.  Work  began  on  Sligo's  Irish-American  Oil  depot 
to  store  the  oil  demand  of  northwest  Ireland  and  Donegal. 
The  Dublin  Port  Works  board  began  work  on  a  scheme  to 
provide  additional  berthage,  shed  accommodation  and  a 
graving  dock. 

Israel.  Constructional  work  proceeded  at  Haifa,  and  a 
£15  million  scheme  was  planned  for  Jaffa-Tel  Aviv. 

Netherlands.  A  new  industrial  harbour  of  Maastricht  was 
begun.  The  new  inland  port  at  Nijmegen,  at  the  confluence 
of  the  new  Maas-Waal  canal  with  the  Waal  (Rhine),  was 
taken  into  operation. 

Pakistan.  The  development  of  Chittagong  into  a  major 
eastern  port  proceeded.  The  programme  provided  for  14 
additional  berths. 

Portuguese  East  Africa.  The  Portuguese  government  took 
over  control  of  the  port  of  Beira  and  improvements  pro- 
ceeded. A  port  at  Nacale,  north  of  Mozambique,  was  under 
construction. 

Singapore.  Rehabilitation  and  wharf  dredging  was  com- 
pleted and  re-equipment  proceeded. 

Sweden.  The  largest  dry  dock  for  use  in  the  Baltic  was 
towed  in  seven  sections  from  Britain  to  Stockholm  for 
Finnboda  shipyard.  (W.  A.  F.) 

United  States.  In  1949,  construction  work  was  carried  out 
on  81  regular  river  and  harbour  projects  by  the  Corps  of 
Engineers;  of  this  number,  23  were  completed.  Maintenance 
work  was  performed  on  336  projects,  including  the  extensive 
intercoastal  waterways  and  Mississippi  river  system,  the 
connecting  channels  on  the  Great  Lakes,  the  490  navigation 
locks  and  dams  and  270  harbours.  During  the  fiscal  year 
which  ended  June  30,  1949,  $178,301,100  was  expended  on 
new  work  and  on  the  maintenance  of  river  and  navigation 
projects  and  inland  and  coastal  harbours. 

The  Rivers  and  Harbours  act  of  1949  provided  $197,985,690 
for  maintenance  and  improvement  of  the  nation's  rivers  and 


212 


DOMINICAN   REPUBLIC-DONATIONS 


harbours.  Of  this  total  $1 14,145,690  was  designated  for  new 
construction  work  on  92  projects  in  34  states,  the  District 
of  Columbia  and  Alaska.  Maintenance,  operation  and  care 
were  allotted  $77  million;  advance  planning,  $2  million; 
preliminary  examinations  and  surveys,  $1,200,000;  and 
miscellaneous  items,  $5,640,000. 

Advance  planning  was  executed  during  1949  on  16  river 
and  harbour  projects  in  ten  states.  At  the  end  of  1949  there 
were  1,036  authorized  investigations  in  advance  stages  of 
completion.  Included  in  the  studies  were  the  coast  of 
California,  to  determine  the  advisability  of  providing  harbours 
of  refuge  for  small  craft;  major  coastal  harbours  to  determine 
the  advisability  of  increasing  harbour  depths  to  accommodate 
the  new  types  of  deep-draught  tankers  and  cargo  ships; 
and  beach  erosion  control  studies  of  the  Connecticut  coast 
and  of  the  Illinois  coast  of  Lake  Michigan.  (See  also  CANALS 
AND  INLAND  WATERWAYS;  STRIKES  AND  LOCKOUTS.) 

(G.  HB.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Frank  C.  Bowen,  Port  of  London  (London,  1949); 
Sir  Archibald  Hurd  (cd.),  Porti  of  the  World  (London.  1949);  D.  J. 
Owen,  Origin  and  Development  of  the  Porn  of  the  United  Kingdom 
(London,  1949);  British  Transport  Commission  Report  and  Accounts 
for  1948  (London,  1949). 

DOMINICA:    see  WINDWARD  ISLANDS 

DOMINICAN  REPUBLIC.  A  West  Indian  republic 
covering  the  eastern  two-thirds  of  the  island  of  Hispaniola 
or  Haiti.  Area:  19,129sq.mi.  Pop.  (mid- 1 949  cst):  2,277,000. 
Racial  distribution  is  estimated  at  13%  white,  68%  mestizo 
and  mulatto  and  19%  Negro.  Ciudad  Trujillo  (known  as 
Santo  Domingo  from  the  time  of  Christopher  Columbus 
until  1936)  is  the  capital,  with  a  population  (1949  est.)  of 
165,000.  Other  chief  towns  (pop.,  1948  est.):  Santiago 
(62,520);  San  Pedro  de  Macoris  (24,200).  Spanish  is  the 
language,  and  the  predominant  religion  is  Roman  Catholic. 
President  (in  1930-38  and  from  1942):  Generalissimo  Rafael 
Leonidas  Trujillo  y  Molina. 

History.  The  commercial  and  industrial  activities  of  the 
Dominican  republic  in  1949  were  moderately  stimulated  by 
the  firm  markets  for  sugar  and  coffee.  By  the  late  summer, 
virtually  all  marketable  supplies  had  been  shipped  abroad; 
and  at  the  end  of  the  year  a  genuine  coffee  shortage  existed 
as  in  almost  all  the  other  coffee  producing  areas  in  the 
western  hemisphere  in  late  1949,  with  famine  prices  being 
paid  for  inferior  qualities.  Nevertheless,  the  inflow  of  imports 
did  not  at  once  reflect  this  brisk  activity,  since  the  great  bulk 
of  goods  imported  comes  from  the  United  States  and  coffee 
and  sugar  generally  are  sold  in  Europe.  A  slight  increase  in 
European  exports  to  the  Dominican  Republic  was  noted  late 
in  the  year.  Banking  activities  reflected  the  same  trends  of 
slightly  slower  import  movement  and  accelerated  exports. 
There  was  some  expansion  of  housing  construction  and 
improvement  in  transport  and  in  the  hardwood  timber  trade. 

President  Trujillo  continued  to  acquire,  for  cash,  extensive 
armaments,  from  whatever  source  available.  His  govern- 
ment, which  had  been  intermittently  upon  bad  terms  with 
Haiti  for  some  years,  became  particularly  aroused  in  late 
1949  by  the  alleged  existence  of  conspiracies  in  both  Haiti 
and  Cuba  to  overturn  by  violence  the  Dominican  regime. 
Returning  from  a  cruise  in  U.S.  waters,  the  president  called 
the  National  Congress  in  extraordinary  session  for  the 
purpose  of  securing  extensive  war  powers.  The  Dominican 
charg6  d'affaires  at  Port-au-Prince,  Haiti,  was  withdrawn, 
after  he  had  been  held  incommunicado  for  a  week,  as  he 
alleged.  Sporadic  reports  of  expeditions  of  exiles,  starting 
from  Cuban  soil,  continued  to  circulate  through  the  year, 
after  one  such  diminutive  expedition  ended  in  failure. 

Relations  with  the  rest  of  Latin  America  were  uneventful. 
The  interest  of  the  Dominican  regime  in  European  displaced 


persons  continued  to  attract  relatively  large  numbers  of 
such  immigrants,  who  received  extensive  governmental 
assistance.  (C.  McG.) 

Education.  (1948)  Schools,  elementary  and  secondary  .  state  2,756, 
state-aided  53,  private  136;  total  number  of  pupils  242545.  There 
was  also  a  state  university  at  Ciudad  Trujillo. 

Agriculture.  Sugar  cane  is  the  chief  crop.  In  the  1948-49  season 
525,130  short  tons  of  raw  and  refined  sugar  were  produced.  Other 
crops  (short  tons),  cocoa  (1947-48)  31,000;  tobacco  (1948-49)  24,800. 
Livestock  ('000  head,  1946):  cattle  597,  pigs  547,  sheep  and  goats 
346,  poultry  1,988. 

Industry.  Industrial  establishments  (1948):  4,200  including  14  sugar 
mills,  a  large  chocolate  plant  (completed  in  1948),  2  breweries  and  a 
cement  plant. 

Foreign  Trade.  (RD$,  1948)  Export  82,296,399;  import  65,329,183. 
Chief  exports:  sugar  (51  %),  cocoa  (20%),  coffee  (8%),  molasses  (5%) 
and  leaf  tobacco  (4%)  Principal  imports:  machinery  and  equipment 
(14%);  foodstuffs  (12%);  iron  and  steel  manufactures  (11  %),  cotton 
and  cotton  manufactures  (11%),  motor  vehicles  (8%)  Principal 
sources  of  imports:  the  U  S.  (including  Puerto  Rico)  79%;  Nether- 
lands West  Indies  4%;  Canada  3-4%;  India  3  4%;  United  Kingdom 
2%.  Leading  customers*  the  U.S.  (incl  Puerto  Rico)  37%;  the  United 
Kingdom  26%;  Canada  20%.  For  the  previous  ten  years  the  balance 
of  trade  was  constantly  favourable  to  the  Dominican  Republic. 

Transport  and  Communications.  Railways  (1948):  state  170  mi.; 
private  (mainly  sugar  companies)  1,650  mi  Roads  (1948)  about 
3.000  mi.,  including  500  mi.  of  surfaced  highways.  Licensed  motor 
vehicles  (Dec  1948).  private  cars  1,930,  taxi-cabs  1,194;  lorries 
2,389;  lorry-trailers  44,  buses  537  Telephone  (1948)  subscribers 
2,408.  Wireless  licences  (1948)-  about  20,000. 

Finance  and  Banking.  (RD$)  Budget  (1949  est.)  revenue  66,735,260, 
expenditure  66,719,649.  From  July  21,  1947,  there  was  external  debt. 
Short  and  long  term  internal  obligations  (Dec.  31, 1948).  RDS  25,302,544. 
Notes  in  circulation  (Nov  30,1949)-  RDS  20,690,000.  The  monetary 
unit  is  the  peso  (written  RDS),  officially  pegged  at  par  with  the  U  S. 
dollar. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  Dominican  Republic  Review  of  Commercial 
Conditions  (London,  H.M.S  O.,  1949). 

DONATIONS  AND  BEQUESTS.  The  already 
high  rate  of  death  duties  which  was  raised  in  the  1949  Finance 
act  severely  curtailed  large  bequests.  The  second  Viscount 
Leverhulme,  who  died  on  May  26,  left  "  as  far  as  at  present 
ascertained  "  (Aug.  1949)  £2,357,039.  Death  duties  amounted 
to  £1,656,475.  He  made  only  nominal  charitable  bequests, 
the  largest  being  £1,000.  The  Liverpool  (Church  of  England) 
Cathedral  Building  fund,  the  Congregational  Union  of 
England  and  Wales  and  the  Merseyside  Hospitals  council 
each  received  £1,000. 

Other  wills  of  over  £2,000,000  proved  in  1949  included 
those  of  Viscount  Portman,  £4,493,000;  Dowager  Lady  Peel, 
£4,274,902;  Arthur  Guinness,  £3,182,427;  Viscount  Trede- 
gar,  £2,357,000;  Lord  Gretton,  £2,302,972;  Viscount 
Portal,  £2,122,380. 

During  the  year  a  personal  bill  was  presented  to  the  House 
of  Lords  by  Countess  Mountbatten  of  Burma.  She  wished 
to  obtain  greater  control  over  her  inheritance  under  the  will 
of  her  grandfather,  Sir  Ernest  Cassel.  The  bequest  was 
subject  to  restrictions  which  prevented  her  dealing  with  the 
capital  of  over  £1,400,000.  It  was  stated  that  her  income, 
after  taxation,  was  about  £4,500  a  year  and  that  the  joint 
income  of  Earl  and  Countess  Mountbatten  was  only  one- 
ninth  of  what  it  had  been  in  1922.  The  bill  was  passed 
unanimously  by  the  House  of  Lords  but,  because  of  opposition 
by  Conservative  members  in  the  House  of  Commons,  was 
withdrawn  after  a  government  assurance  to  introduce  a  bill 
to  free  from  similar  restrictions  all  persons  affected  by  such 
bequests.  The  Married  Women  (Restraint  upon  Anticipation) 
bill  was  introduced  by  the  government.  It  was  given  a  second 
reading  in  the  House  of  Lords  on  July  5  and  in  the  House  of 
Commons  on  Nov.  7.  The  attorney  general  estimated  that 
the  number  of  married  women  affected  was  "  thousands, 
but  not  tens  of  thousands."  An  amendment  to  reject  the  bid 
was  defeated  in  the  House  of  Commons  by  47  votes  to  180. 

Doubts  were  expressed  as  to  whether  hospitals  under  state 
control  in  Great  Britain  could  still  be  considered  charities. 


DRAWING-DUCLOS 


213 


In  the  United  States,  the  First  National  Bank  of  Chicago 
applied  to  a  court  to  decide  whether  payments  from  the 
estate  of  E.  Stanley  Holland,  who  died  in  1936  leaving 
$1,500,000,  should  be  continued  to  four  hospitals  in  Britain. 
At  the  end  of  1949  the  application  had  not  been  decided. 

Solomon  R.  Guggenheim,  American  industrialist  and  art 
patron,  who  died  on  Nov.  3,  left  $8  million  to  the  foundation 
bearing  his  name.  In  his  will  he  suggested  that  $2  million 
of  the  bequest  should  be  used  to  build  a  museum  in  New 
York.  He  left  to  the  foundation  the  land  on  which  the 
museum  was  to  be  built.  He  also  bequeathed  his  large 
collection  of  non-objective  and  other  paintings,  with  the 
provision  that  his  widow  should  have  their  use  during  her 
lifetime. 

Sir  Robert  Ho-tung,  a  wealthy  Chinese  merchant,  revealed 
that  he  would  leave  a  portion  of  his  fortune  for  a  special 
trust.  He  stated  that,  although  not  as  large  as  the  Carnegie 
and  Rockefeller  trusts,  it  would  be  considered  large  in  China 
though  developments  in  1949  had  diminished  it  greatly. 

During  the  year  Nottingham  university  appealed  for  a 
£1  million  endowment  fund.  Within  five  months  £250,000 
was  received.  The  appeal  was  to  be  open  for  three  years. 
James  P.  R.  Lyell,  a  solicitor,  bequeathed  the  bulk  of  his 
£39,250  estate  to  Oxford  university,  the  income  to  endow  a 
readership  in  bibliography.  He  gave  to  the  Bodleian  library 
100  rare  mediaeval  manuscripts. 

The  Jefferson  Military  college,  Mississippi,  was  offered  an 
endowment  estimated  at  $50  million  by  Judge  George  W. 
Armstrong,  an  oil  millionaire  on  condition  that  it  should 
teach  supremacy  of  the  white  race  and  should  exclude  all 
persons  of  African  or  Asiatic  birth  or  descent.  The  college 
refused  the  offer  stating  that  the  policies  of  Judge  Armstrong 
"  are  not,  never  have  been  and  never  will  be  the  policies  of 
the  college."  (See  also  UNIVERSITIES  AND  COLLEGES.)  (X.) 

DRAMA:  see  THEATRE. 

DRAWING  AND  ENGRAVING.  Drawing,  the 
most  direct  and  spontaneous  expression  of  the  artist,  has 
always  tended  to  be  a  private  exercise  or  a  starting  point 
for  further  work,  rather  than  an  end  in  itself.  The  print 
on  the  other  hand,  intended  for  general  distribution,  is  as 
varied  in  its  idiom  as  are  the  current  trends  in  painting. 
In  examining  contemporary  drawing  it  is  possible  to  be 
baulked  by  the  unrepresentative  nature  of  the  best  work 
exhibited  and  to  turn  to  the  careful  and  commonplace 
recordings  shown  by  academic  groups.  The  strongest  work 
seen  with  the  British  exhibiting  societies  during  1949  not 
infrequently  came  from  sculptors.  Among  the  more  expressive 
offerings  of  the  commercial  galleries  in  London  were  some 
incisive  pen  studies  by  Sigmund  Pollitzer;  a  group  of  William 
Roberts*  mechanistic  but  delicately  balanced  compositions; 
some  slight  but  admirable  designs  by  Leonard  Rosoman; 
charming  recollections  of  Italian  architecture  by  Katerina 
Wilczynski;  and  an  impressive  selection  of  portraits  by 
Wyndham  Lewis  as  part  of  a  retrospective  exhibition.  Lewis, 
one  of  the  most  able  portraitists  of  his  generation,  continued 
through  his  curved  metallic  forms  to  influence  several  of  the 
younger  generation.  Little  was  seen  by  the  more  radical 
British  artists  but  recent  drawings  were  shown  by  Pavel 
Tchelitchew,  at  his  best  one  of  the  finest  of  living  draughtsmen. 

Engraving,  etching  and  drypoint  continued  to  suffer  an 
eclipse  in  Britain,  though  the  work  of  William  Hayter  and 
others  suggested  a  slight  revival  of  aquatint.  Generally,  to 
find  stimulating  examples  of  these  processes,  it  was  necessary 
to  turn  to  Switzerland  (Hans  Erm),  Czechoslovakia  (the 
Hollar  society)  and,  pre-eminently,  France  (where  book- 
production  provided  a  steady  stimulus).  Without  doubt 
lithography  and  the  monotype  were  the  most  popular  and 


successful  means  of  auto-production,  and  here  it  was  possible 
to  note  the  emergence  of  a  British  school  of  peintres-graveurs 
capable  of  holding  its  own  with  any  country.  A  high  standard 
was  shown  in  exhibitions  at  the  Royal  Society  of  British 
Artists  and  at  the  Rcdfern  gallery,  where  among  the  names 
that  stood  out  were  Robert  Colquhoun,  Edwin  La  Dell, 
Ceri  Richards  and  Humphrey  Spender.  Non-figurative 
themes  were  less  frequent  than  in  Paris,  where  they  often 
took  precedence  over  the  manner  derived  from  P.  Bonnard 
and  J.  E.  Vuillard.  British  lithographs  were  seen  in  Austria, 
and  throughout  France  and  Germany.  In  London  recent 
lithographs  by  Massimo  Campigli  and  Pablo  Picasso  were 
shown,  in  addition  to  interesting  collections  of  French  prints 
by  all  processes.  Leaders  of  the  school  of  Paris  contributed 
to  a  noteworthy  set  of  cheap  lithographs  for  distribution  to 
schools  in  Britain. 

The  Society  of  Wood  Engravers  held  its  first  London 
exhibition  after  the  war.  Notwithstanding  names  like  John 
Farleigh,  Robert  Gibbings,  Gertrude  Hermes,  Blair  Hughes- 
Stanton  and  Leon  Underwood,  however,  it  would  probably 
be  true  to  say  that  the  use  of  the  wood  block  was  less  wide- 
spread than  in  northern  and  central-eastern  Europe  (it  may 
be  noted  that  the  medium  was  particularly  suited  to  the  kind 
of  genre  treatment  demanded  by  "  socialist  realism  ").  Sofia 
went  so  far  as  to  open  a  permanent  exhibition  of  contemporary 
graphic  art.  Elsewhere  some  lively  book  illustration  was 
evident  in  Italy.  (M.  H.  MN.) 

Canada.  The  Society  of  Canadian  Painter-Etchers  and 
Engravers  held  its  usual  annual  exhibition,  which  was 
supplemented  by  numerous  others  throughout  the  country. 
Prominent  among  the  artists  working  in  etching  and  dry 
point  were  David  J.  L.  Anderson,  Robert  W.  Annand, 
R.  F.  Darby,  I.  Mackinnon-Pearson,  Wilbur  K.  Peacock, 
E.  B.  Sisley,  J.  R.  Tate,  Fred  B.  Taylor,  Harry  D.  Wallace 
and  W.  J.  Wood. 

United  States.  During  1949  the  regular  large  national  annual 
exhibitions  took  place,  of  which  the  two  most  comprehensive 
and  representative  as  cross  sections  of  American  etching  were 
that  conducted  by  the  Library  of  Congress  and  the  annual 
exhibition  of  the  Society  of  American  Etchers,  Gravers, 
Lithographers  and  Woodcutters.  Smaller  exhibitions,  along 
both  national  and  regional  lines,  were  held  by  such  other 
long  established  print  organizations  as  the  Chicago  Society 
of  Etchers,  the  Print  Makers'  Society  of  California,  the 
Prairie  Print  Makers,  the  Northwest  Printmakers  and  the 
Print  clubs  of  Philadelphia  and  Albany,  while  print  dealers 
all  over  the  country,  as  well  as  museums  and  libraries  main- 
taining print  rooms,  held  exhibitions  covering  all  phases  of 
etching  and  the  allied  arts. 

The  names  of  noteworthy  practising  etchers  in  the  United 
States  during  the  year  were  too  numerous  to  mention  at 
length.  Best  known  among  them,  however,  were  Niels  Y. 
Andersen,  Will  Barnet,  Isabel  Bishop,  Cornelis  Botke, 
Federico  Castellon,  John  E.  Costigan,  Stephen  Csoka, 
Ralph  Fabri,  Isac  Friedlander,  Sue  Fuller,  Arthur  W.  Hall, 
Eugene  Higgins,  Morris  Henry  Hobbs,  Alfred  Hutty,  Philip 
Kappel,  Gene  Kloss,  Armin  Landeck,  Jeannette  M.  Lewis, 
Martin  Lewis,  Helen  A.  Loggie,  Luigi  Lucioni,  William 
Meyerowitz,  Helen  Miller,  Roi  Partridge,  Margaret  Philbrick, 
Carl  M.  Schultheiss,  Reynold  H.  Weidenaar,  R.  W.  Woiceske 
and  George  H.  Wright.  (See  also  ART  EXHIBITIONS;  ART 
SALES.)  (J.  T.  As.) 

DRESS:  see  FASHION  AND  DRESS. 

DRUGS  AND  DRUG  TRAFFIC:   see  NARCOTICS. 

DUCLOS,  JACQUES,   French  politician  (b.  Louey, 
Hautes  Pyrenees,  Oct.  2,  1896).   A  pastry  cook  by  trade,  he 


214 


DUTCH   LITERATURE-DYESTUFFS 


joined  the  French  Communist  party  in  1920.  Six  years  later 
he  was  elected  member  of  the  central  committee  of  the  party 
and,  in  1931,  its  secretary  general  and  member  of  the  Politburo. 
In  1935  the  7th  congress  of  the  Comintern  elected  him 
member  of  its  executive  committee.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  French  Chamber  of  Deputies  1924-32  and  1936-40.  After 
the  German  attack  on  the  U.S.S.R.  he  directed  the  resistance 
activities  of  the  party.  In  1944  he  was  delegate  to  the  Con- 
sultative Assembly,  and  was  elected  deputy  to  the  first  (Oct.  21, 
1945)  and  second  (June  2,  1946)  Constituent  assemblies  and 
also  to  the  National  Assembly  (Nov.  10,  1946).  After  the 
liberation  he  presided  over  the  Communist  parliamentary 
group  and  made  aggressive  attacks  on  the  successive  govern- 
ments after  the  Communist  party  had  abandoned  its  policy 
of  participation  on  May  4,  1947.  He  represented  the  French 
Communist  party  at  the  conference  of  Wile/a  Gora  in  Poland, 
at  the  end  of  Sept.  1947,  when  the  Commform  was  founded. 
On  Nov.  19,  1948,  in  the  National  Assembly,  he  denied  the 
charge  of  Jules  Moch,  minister  of  the  interior,  that  the  French 
Communist  party  was  financed  by  Moscow  through  the 
Cominform.  On  Oct.  13,  1949,  when  Moch  as  premier- 
designate  was  putting  forward  his  proposed  policy  in  the 
National  Assembly,  Duclos  made  a  violent  personal  attack 
on  him  and  accused  him  of  responsibility  for  the  death  of 
workers  in  clashes  with  the  police. 

DUTCH  LITERATURE.  In  the  course  of  1949 
Dutch  letters  suffered  a  severe  loss  through  the  death  of  that 
versatile  man  of  letters,  philosopher  and  novelist  Nico  van 
Suchtelen  (1878-1949),  and  of  the  calvimstic  poet  W.  Hesscls 
(alias  H.  Mulder,  1906-49),  who,  although  he  had  lived  in 
South  Africa  for  a  long  time,  still  belonged  to  Dutch  literature 
because  of  his  poetry.  He  did  not  live  to  see  the  publication 
of  his  impressive  collected  poems  under  the  title  of  Con  Sordino. 

Prose  literature  still  lacked  a  definite  trend  and  style,  and 
actually  existed  only  by  virtue  of  the  talent  of  a  few  indepen- 
dent authors.  There  appeared  a  remarkable  collection  of 
short  stories  by  F.  Bordewijk  dealing  with  the  city  of  The 
Hague,  The  Stork's  Escutcheon.  That  unusually  prolific 
author,  S.  Vestdijk,  published  among  other  books,  The  Feast 
of  Liberation;  m  collaboration  with  Hennettc  van  Eyk  he 
wrote  a  novel  in  the  foim  of  letters:  Adventure  with  Titia. 

With  a  captivating,  if  slightly  improbable  novel  Head  or 
Tail,  Jo  Boer  won  The  Hague  prize.  The  most  successful 
book,  however,  proved  to  be  Anna  Blaman's  Solitary 
Adventure,  published  towards  the  close  of  1948,  but  twice 
reprinted  in  1949.  The  discussion  on  immorality  in  art 
which  arose  as  a  result  of  this  publication  extended  to  the 
cleverly  written  novel  The  Tears  of  the  Acacias  by  the  young 
writer  W.  F.  Hermans,  which,  however,  lacked  perspective. 

In  1949  Holland  commemorated  the  death  of  the  famous 
dramatist  Herman  Heycrmans  who  died  in  1924;  and 
dramatic  literature  was  enriched  by  an  important  play  by 
Maurits  Dekker,  The  World  has  no  Waiting-room,  dealing 
with  the  atomic  scientists'  responsibility  to  mankind. 

The  greatest  woman  poet  of  the  Netherlands,  Henriette 
Roland  Hoist,  who  celebrated  her  80th  birthday  on  Dec.  24, 
published  besides  an  interesting  autobiography  The  Fire 
Burned  on  her  new  lyric  poetry  in  an  extensive  collection, 
Genesis.  Victor  van  Vncsland's  collected  poems  appeared 
under  the  title  Triple  Defence;  and  Gernt  Achterberg  added 
two  new  books  of  poetry,  Hoontc  and  Snow-white,  to  the 
already  large  number  of  his  poetical  works. 

By  far  the  most  important  publication  was  the  poem 
In  the  Beginning  by  Bertus  Aafjes,  a  fantasy  on  the  creative 
poet  who  pictures  himself  as  Adam,  giving  names  to  animals 
and  things  and  tragical  in  its  efforts  to  attain  an  impossible 
unity  of  word  and  object. 

The  poet,  J.  C.  Bloem,  published  a  book  containing  his 


reviews  and  essays,  which  till  then  were  to  be  found  only  in 
periodicals.  S.  Dresden,  professor  of  French  literature  at 
Leyden,  and  H.  A.  Gomperts  also  published  important 
collections  of  essays.  Herman  Gortcr's  penetrating  socio- 
logical and  literary  studies  on  the  movement  of  the  '80s 
were  collected  in  a  book,  50  years  after  their  original  publi- 
cation in  a  socialist  periodical.  (G.  So.) 

DUTRA,  EURICO  CASPAR,  Brazilian  army 
officer  and  statesman  (b.  Cuiaba,  Brazil,  May  18,  1885), 
was  elected  president  of  Brazil  on  Dec.  2,  1945,  and  took 
office  on  Jan.  31,  1946.  (For  his  early  career  see  Britannica 
Book  of  the  Year  1949.} 

In  May  1949  President  Dutra  made  the  first  visit  to  the 
United  States  that  had  been  paid  by  any  Brazilian  chief  of 
state  since  that  of  Emperor  Dom  Pedro  II  in  1876.  He  was 
greeted  by  President  Harry  S.  Truman;  and  on  May  21  the 
White  House  announced  that  the  two  chiefs  of  state  had 
reached  an  agreement  to  work  out  a  programme  for  economic 
development  and  social  progress.  The  negotiation  of  a 
cultural  treaty  between  the  two  nations  was  also  approved. 

DYESTUFFS.  It  became  evident  in  1949  that 
European  output  of  dyestuffs  was  keeping  pace  with  con- 
sumption. The  demand  by  the  textile,  leather  and  paper 
industries  remained  high  but  there  were  signs  of  less  easy 
trading  conditions  and  the  directors  of  one  large  Swiss 
dyestuff  concern  went  so  far  as  to  state  that  the  postwar  boom 
of  those  industries  had  passed  its  peak,  at  least  in  Europe  and 
the  United  States.  Even  if -this  were  not  so,  the  principal 
dyestuff  exporting  countries  of  Europe  would  still  have  to 
realize  that  competing  countries  had  increased  their  produc- 
tive capacity  after  World  War  11  and  frequently  enjoyed  the 
advantage  of  lower  production  costs.  Moreover,  some 
countries  were  beginning  to  manufacture  some  of  their  own. 

It  was  with  the  possible  danger  of  overproduction  of 
dyestuffs  in  mind,  as  well  as  to  see  what  reductions  in  dollar 
expenditure  might  be  possible,  that  the  Chemical  Products 
committee  of  the  Organization  for  European  Economic 
Co-operation  undertook  a  study  of  seven  major  chemical 
products,  one  of  which  was  dyestuffs. 

Replies  to  a  questionnaire  by  the  committee  to  the  various 
countries  revealed  that  a  considerable  increase  in  production 
was  anticipated: 

FUROPKAN  PRODUCTION  OF  DYFSTUFFS 

in  metric  tons  of  commercial  product 
Production  Anticipated 
Country  ~      "  ~ 

Benelux 

France 

Italy 

United  Kingdom 

Swit/erland 

Germany  (Bizone) 

French  Zone  of  Germany   , 

TOTAL      84,100  162,700  80,000 

A  working  party,  consisting  of  representatives  of  the 
western  European  countries,  was  formed  to  make  a  critical 
study  of  consumption  and  foreign  outlets,  but  had  not  yet 
published  its  report. 

Dyestuff  manufacturers  reported  a  widening  of  interest  in 
fast  colours  and  specialities.  There  was  also  an  increasing 
demand  for  special  colours  for  mixed  fibres. 

Some  light  on  Russian  dye  production  was  thrown  by  Dr. 
Herbert  Levinstein,  during  an  address  at  Bradford  in  1949. 
The  industry  formed  an  important  part  of  the  latest  five-year 
plan  and  was  scheduled  to  produce  by  1950  one-and-a-half 
times  as  much  as  before  World  War  II.  The  target  was  43,000 
tons,  with  special  emphasis  on  fast  colours. 


Production    programme 

Exports 

1947             1952-53 

1952-53 

1,900               6,400 

4,500 

16,000              27,000 

10,000 

8,900              20,000 

8,000 

34,000             52,000 

20,000 

15,000              20,000 

18,500 

4,300              33,000 

18,000 

4,000                4,300 

1,000 

EAR,  NOSE  AND  THROAT-EASTERN  ORTHODOX  CHURCHES  215 


In  Great  Britain,  where  dyestuffs  production  was  running 
at  some  30%  above  1948  output,  proposals  were  made  for 
the  nationalization  of  the  chemical  industry  and  James  Ewing, 
chairman  of  a  large  dyeing  combine,  expressed  concern  at 
the  prospect  of  disruption  of  the  dye  manufacturing  industry 
which,  he  thought,  would  inevitably  occur.  The  government 
stated  that  the  chemical  industry  would  be  carefully  examined 
before  it  was  decided  to  transfer  any  appropriate  sections  of 
the  industry  to  public  ownership.  (L.E.Ms.) 

United  States.  The  volume  of  dyes  sold  during  the  first 
seven  months  of  1949  was  approximately  15%  lower  than 
for  the  same  period  in  1948.  The  tightening  of  consumer 
buying  forced  reductions  in  the  textile,  paper,  leather  and 
other  colour-consuming  industries  with  a  resultant  decrease 
in  the  consumption  of  dyes.  The  situation  changed  materially 
in  August  with  renewed  industrial  activity  and  the  demand 
for  dyes  continued  strong  throughout  the  rest  of  the  year. 
Export  requirements  remained  fairly  stable  despite  the 
uncertainty  of  dollar  exchange  in  many  foreign  countries. 
Little  change  occurred  in  the  weighted  average  domestic 
price  of  dyes.  A  reduction  of  4  %  was  made  on  a  few  products 
but  the  unit  value  per  pound  was  comparable  to  the  previous 
year's  figure. 

Dyestuff  research  resulted  in  the  marketing  of  a  number  of 
new  products  possessing  better  fastness  and  improved 
dyeing  properties.  The  use  of  fast  vat  colours  was  extended 
to  a  broader  variety  of  fabrics  designed  for  various  ultimate 
uses,  which  gave  the  consumer  a  high  degree  of  colour 
durability.  New  hydrophobic  and  other  types  of  synthetic 
fibres  presented  complex  colouration  problems  but  it  was 
generally  possible  to  provide  colours  and  formulas  adapted 
to  the  chemical  characteristics  of  any  given  fibre.  (A.  G.  B.) 

EAR,  NOSE  AND  THROAT,  DISEASES  OF. 

Hemorrhage  occurs  in  all  surgery  of  the  ear,  nose  and 
throat  and  is  often  difficult  to  stop.  B.  H.  Senturia,  J.  H. 
Ogura  and  T.  E.  Walsh  found  that  thrombm  was  useful  in 
controlling  veno-capillary  oozing  after  removal  of  tonsils  or 
adenoids.  Brisk  bleeding  from  Little's  area  (front  of  the 
central  partition  of  the  nose)  or  from  the  lateral  nasal  wall 
was  not  controlled.  Bovine  thrombin,  as  a  sterile  white 
powder,  was  used  in  the  middle  ear  following  radical  mastoid- 
ectomy  and  provided  a  dry  bed  for  skin  grafting.  It  was  also 
effective  in  cases  of  bone  and  soft  tissue  oozing,  dural  and 
lateral  sinus  bleeding  where  epinephrine  adrenalin  failed  and 
where  hot  wire  cautery  was  deemed  inadvisable.  Using 
absorbable  sponge  saturated  with  thrombin  good  results  were 
obtained,  during  radical  mastoidectomy,  in  the  obliteration 
of  inaccessible  parts  of  the  mastoid  cavity  prior  to  skin 
grafting.  Thrombin-saturated  sponge  was  found  useful  to 
patch  lacerations  and  incisions  of  the  dura  (covering  of  the 
brain)  jugular  bulb  and  lateral  sinus.  It  was  used  successfully 
as  an  innocuous  haemostatic  agent  as  well  as  a  protective 
cushion  over  the  exposed  facial  nerve.  The  sponge  was  used 
to  protect  linear  tears  in  the  membranous  flap  during  the 
fenestration  operation  (window  operation  on  the  inner  ear) 
for  a  certain  type  of  conduction  deafness.  Good  results  were 
obtained  in  radical  neck  dissection  where  unusual  bleeding 
followed  X-ray  therapy.  Promising  results  were  obtained  in 
the  use  of  a  thin  sheet  of  sponge  as  an  "  interseptal  bridge  " 
in  cases  of  post-operative  perforations  of  the  nasal  septum. 
Unsatisfactory  results  were  obtained  when  the  sponge  was 
used  to  control  brisk  bleeding  from  the  lateral  nasal  wall. 
No  methods  could  be  devised  for  the  safe  use  of  absorbable 
sponge  in  the  oral  or  nasal  passages. 

Antibiotics.  A.  C.  Furstenberg  concluded  that  nearly  all 
acute  infections  of  the  ear,  nose,  sinuses  and  throat  respond 
successfully  to  the  intramuscular  administration  of  penicillin. 
Penicillin,  to  be  effective,  must  come  into  actual  contact 


with  the  affected  organism  and  maintain  a  sustained  contact. 
The  difficulty  of  applying  this  principle  to  the  upper  air 
passages  probably  accounts  for  the  disappointing  results 
observed  from  the  popular  methods  of  local  administration. 
Penicillin  spray  is  of  little  value  in  the  treatment  of  dilatation 
of  the  bronchial  tubes  although  direct  application  through 
the  bronchoscope  of  concentrated  penicillin  solutions  to 
the  cavities  formed  in  this  disease  produced  encouraging 
results.  A  dense  capsule  surrounding  a  chronic  abscess  in 
the  neck,  or  dead  tissue,  or  a  foreign  body  within  the  abscess 
all  formed  a  barrier  to  antibiotic  therapy.  Similar  difficulties 
in  the  use  of  penicillin  were  found  in  chronic  pus-forming 
middle  ear  inflammation,  in  mastoiditis  and  in  chronic  nasal 
accessory  sinus  diseases.  No  antibiotic  known  in  1949  could 
cure  these  pathological  entities  when  used  systemically, 
locally  or  by  both  methods. 

The  possible  injurious  effects  of  penicillin  in  the  absence 
of  infection  were  pointed  out.  The  normal  basic  flora  of  the 
throat  may  be  altered  to  include  harmful  organisms.  It 
could  be  argued  that  the  prolonged  administration  of  the 
antibiotic  might  produce  resistant  organisms,  which  would 
not  respond  in  the  future  to  a  sorely  needed  antibiotic. 

Streptomycin  was  found  to  be  particularly  effective  in 
tuberculosis  cervical  gland  inflammation  and  in  tuberculous 
mucous  membrane  lesions.  Its  allied  agent  dihydrostrepto- 
mycm,  comparatively  free  from  nerve  injury  effects,  gave 
promise  of  replacing  the  original  antibiotic  in  the  treatment 
of  these  conditions. 

Nasal  Surgery  and  Rhinoplasty.  The  most  significant 
advances  in  nasal  surgery  were  brought  to  the  fore  by  Armand 
Carron,  Samuel  Fomon  and  by  Dean  M.  Lierle  and  W.  C. 
Hoffman.  There  were  changing  concepts  in  the  structural 
anatomy  and  surgery  of  the  obstructing  septum.  As  Carron 
pointed  out,  a  closer  liaison  had  been  effected  between 
physiology  and  nasal  surgery.  Both  upper  and  lower  external 
nasal  cartilages  are  tremendously  important  in  the  ventilation 
of  the  lung  and  help  to  regulate  the  minute  volume  of 
inspired  air.  Detailed  diagnoses  of  causes  of  collapsing  alae 
(lower  cartilages  and  flare  of  nose)  and  their  surgical  cor- 
rection were  clearly  presented  by  Carron.  One  of  the 
significant  trends  in  otolaryngology  in  1949  was  the  formal 
incorporation  of  rhinoplastic  surgery  in  the  training  of  all 
those  interested  in  diseases  of  the  ear,  nose  and  throat. 
(Sec  also  COLD,  COMMON.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  William  J.  Hitschler,  "  Relationship  of  Swimming 
and  Diving  to  Sinusitis  and  Hearing  Loss,"  Laryngoscope,  59  799-819, 
St.  Louis,  Missouri,  July  1949,  B  H  Senturia,  J  H.  Ogura  and  C.  E. 
Walsh, "The  Use  of  Thrombin  and  Absorbable  Sponge  for  Hemostasis 
in  Otolaryngology,"  Laryngoscope,  59  1068-1083,  St.  Louis,  Oct. 
1949,  A.  C.  Furstenberg,  **  Antibiotics  in  the  Treatment  of  Diseases 
of  the  Ear,  Nose,  and  Throat,"  Ann  Otol ,  Rhin  and  Laryng.,  58.1-18, 
St.  Louis,  March  1949,  Armand  Carron,  "  Physiology  and  Surgery 
of  Collapsing  Alae,"  read  at  the  meeting  of  the  American  Academy  of 
Ophth  and  Otol,  Chicago,  Oct  1949  (G.  M.  C.;  G.  E.  L.) 

EAST  AFRICA,  BRITISH:  see  BRITISH  EAST  AFRICA. 

EASTERN    ORTHODOX    CHURCHES.     The 

new  Oecumenical  Patriarch,  Athinagoras  I  (q.v.)  was  solemnly 
enthroned  in  Istanbul  on  Jan.  27,  1949,  and  the  year  which 
elapsed  saw  a  continual  sharpening  of  the  division  within 
the  Orthodox  body,  between  Phanar  and  Kremlin,  Byzantium 
and  Moscow,  the  Second  Rome  and  the  Third.  Four  days 
after  his  enthronement,  Athinagoras,  who  had  only  lately 
relinquished  his  U.S.  citizenship,  went  to  Ankara  to  deliver 
a  personal  message  from  President  Harry  S.  Truman  to 
President  Ismet  Tnonii.  As  a  gesture  of  satisfaction  at  his 
election  the  Turkish  government  gave  him  formal  permission 
to  appear  publicly  in  his  robqs  of  office.  And  not  only  with 
the  Americans  and  with  the  Turkish  state,  but — what  on  an 
historical  view  is  more  significant — with  the  papacy  and  the 


216 


ECUADOR 


Roman  Catholic  Church,  the  new  Oecumenical  Patriarch 
developed  a  cordiality  that  his  predecessors  had  not  found  it 
possible  to  achieve.  In  his  first  allocution  after  his  election 
Athinagoras  called  on  the  Orthodox  to  co-operate  with  all 
Christian  Churches,  including  the  Roman  Catholic  Church; 
in  March  he  called  on  Mgr.  Andrea  Cassulo,  Apostolic 
delegate  to  Turkey,  to  offer  his  congratulations  on  the  tenth 
anniversary  of  the  coronation  of  Pope  Pius  XII;  and  on 
Greek  Independence  day  it  was  at  his  special  invitation  that 
Mgr.  Cassulo  came  to  hold  a  Roman  Catholic  religious 
service  on  the  premises  of  the  Greek  consulate  in  Istanbul — 
these  were  illustrations  of  the  greatly  changed  atmosphere 
that  the  new  Oecumenical  Patriarch  introduced. 

The  Patriarchate  of  Moscow,  on  the  other  hand,  continued 
to  identify  itself  more  and  more  intimately  with  the  policies 
of  the  U.S.S.R.,  thus  lamentably  accentuating  its  separation 
from  most  of  the  rest  of  the  Orthodox  world.  The  Moscow 
theologian  A.  Krachenninikov,  in  the  Journal  of  the  Moscow 
Patriarchate  in  the  autumn,  went  as  far  as  anyone  yet  had 
done,  when  he  declared  that  the  Russian  Church,  in  support- 
ing the  foreign  policy  of  the  Soviet  government,  had  fulfilled 
"  a  holy  duty  of  the  religion  of  love  "  and  that  the  position 
of  the  Russian  Church  had  not  varied  "  in  the  face  of  the 
current  forces  in  the  world  today — those  of  progress  and 
those  of  reaction."  He  went  on  to  make  a  violent  and 
characteristic  attack  on  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  and  the 
World  Council  of  Churches,  and  to  say  that  there  was  an 
44  irreconcilable  opposition  "  between  the  Orthodox  east  and 
the  rest  of  Christendom.  Patriarch  Alexey  of  Moscow 
made  a  typical  comment  in  August,  when  he  replied  to  a 
series  of  questions  from  Reuter's  agency  on  the  papal 
ex-communication  of  Communists;  Athinagoras  on  the  other 
hand,  had  expressed  himself  in  sympathy  with  that  Roman 
decree. 

The  division  among  the  Orthodox  reflected  itself  in  various 
areas:  the  Patriarch  of  Alexandria  had  the  reputation  of 
feeling  some  sympathy  with  Moscow;  and  there  were  many 
misgivings  among  the  Orthodox  in  Palestine  when  the 
Israeli  parliament  decided  to  acknowledge  the  claims  of  the 
Moscow  patriarchate  to  Russian  Orthodox  property  and 
institutions  in  Israel.  In  Yugoslavia  Patriarch  Gavrilo  found 
some  relief  in  Marshal  Tito's  quarrel  with  the  Cominform; 
and  other  Balkan  prelates,  like  the  Metropolitan  Josip  of 
Skoplje  and  Bishop  Varnava  of  Sarajevo,  could  even  be 
described  as  anti-Russian.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Patriarch 
Justinian  of  Rumania  showed  himself  more  and  more  the 
extreme  example  of  a  prelate  committed  to  the  Communist 
revolution. 

In  Greece,  Archbishop  Damaskinos  (see  OBITUARIES)  of 
Athens,  the  former  regent,  died  on  May  20,  and  on  June  4 
the  Holy  Synod  elected  as  his  successor  the  Metropolitan 
Spiridon  Vlachos  of  Janina.  On  Sept.  28  Mgr.  Chrysanthos 
Philippidis,  archbishop  of  Athens  from  1938-41,  died.  During 
World  War  I  he  was  Metropolitan  of  Trapzon  (Trebizond), 
Turkey.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  he  associated  himself  with 
the  Free  Pontus  movement,  he  was  tried  in  absentia  by  a 
Turkish  court  in  1922  and  sentenced  to  death.  (M.  DK.) 

ECONOMIC  CO-OPERATION  ADMINIS- 
TRATION, U.S.  (E.C.A.):  see  EUROPEAN  RECOVERY 
PROGRAMME. 

ECUADOR.  A  republic  on  the  west  coast  of  South 
America,  straddling  the  equator,  bounded  on  the  north  and 
east  by  Colombia  and  on  the  east  and  south  by  Peru.  Area : 
104,510  sq.  mi.  (including  the  Galapagos  Islands,  3,029 
sq.  mi.).  Pop.  (1948  est.):  3,362,000  of  which  c.  60%  Indians, 
30%  mestizos,  9%  whites,  and  1%  Negroes.  Religion: 
mainly  Roman  Catholic.  Language:  Spanish,  but  Indians 


speak  Quechua  and  Jibaro.  Chief  towns:  Quito  (cap. 
pop.,  1947  census,  200,185);  Guayaquil,  the  main  port 
(235,000);  Cuenca  (53,520).  President  of  the  republic,  Galo 
Plaza  Lasso. 

History.  Although  political  opposition  began  to  coalesce 
in  1949,  the  Plaza  administration  remained  fundamentally 
stable.  The  government  pushed  forward  with  sweeping 
programmes  calling  for  land  distribution  and  resettlement, 
irrigation,  selective  credits  to  farmers  and  other  producers, 
and  servicing  of  the  external  debt.  The  administration  was 


The  ruins  of  the  town  of  Pelileo  which  was  completely  obliterated 
in  the  severe  earthquakes  which  shook  Ecuador  in  Aug.  1949. 

somewhat  hampered  by  the  gradual  disintegration  of  the 
National  Civic  Democratic  movement,  the  hybrid  organiza- 
tion chiefly  responsible  for  President  Plaza's  election  in  1948; 
and  on  June  27  the  Socialist  party  proclaimed  its  "  revolu- 
tionary opposition  "  to  the  government.  A  subversive  plot 
was  broken  up  on  July  4,  when  Julio  Moreno  Espinosa  of 
the  Liberal-Radical  party,  Juan  Manosalvas  of  the  Federation 
of  University  Students  and  five  army  majors  were  imprisoned. 
South  America's  most  catastrophic  earthquake  in  ten 
years  struck  Ecuador  in  a  series  of  15  tremors  occurring 
between  Aug.  5  and  7.  The  centre  of  destruction  lay  about 
50  mi.  south  of  Quito,  and  the  affected  area  embraced  about 
1,500  sq.  mi.  and  a  population  of  approximately  300,000,  of 
whom  100,000  were  left  homeless,  The  death  roll,  at  first 
placed  at  4,600,  was  eventually  estimated  to  be  more  than 
8,000,  and  the  property  damage  was  calculated  at  more  than 
£30  million.  The  village  of  La  Libertad  (pop.,  600)  was 
completely  buried  in  a  mile-wide  pit  more  than  1,500  ft.  deep. 
Between  400  and  500  people  died  at  Ambato,  where  70%  of 
the  houses  were  reported  to  be  uninhabitable.  President 
Plaza  hastened  to  the  stricken  area  to  learn  the  extent  of  the 
disaster,  and  reported  in  a  radio  address  on  Aug.  7  that  in 


EDEN-EDUCATION 


217 


one  town  of  about  3,500  residents  (Pelileo),  about  300 
survived. 

Relief  activities,  jointly  undertaken  by  the  U.S.  and  other 
American  republics,  were  organized  within  a  few  hours. 
A  "  mercy  airlift,**  grouped  around  about  20  aeroplanes 
based  at  the  Panama  Canal  Zone,  was  in  operation  by 
Aug.  7,  conveying  doctors,  nurses  and  supplies  to  the  stricken 
area  and  evacuating  refugees  and  injured  persons. 

In  balloting  at  Flushing  Meadow,  New  York,  on  Oct.  20, 
Ecuador  received  a  non-permanent  seat  on  the  United 
Nations  Security  council. 

On  Feb.  12  a  realistic  radio  dramatization  of  H.  G.  Wells's 
The  War  of  the  Worlds  so  terrified  residents  of  Quito  that  a 
mob  attacked  and  burned  the  building  which  housed  both 
the  radio  station  and  the  offices  of  El  Comercio^  the  capital's 
leading  newspaper.  Twenty  persons  were  killed  in  the  rioting, 
and  the  property  damage  was  estimated  at  £125,000.  Three 
officials  charged  with  responsibility  for  the  broadcast  were 
arrested  on  Feb.  15.  (G.  I.  B.) 

Education  (1941)  Schools:  elementary  2,710,  pupils  316,749; 
secondary  36,  pupils  8,957;  universities  3,  students  1,755. 

Agriculture.  Main  crops  ('000  metric  tons,  1948;  1949  estimates  in 
brackets):  rice  113  (91);  cocoa  16  (21);  cottonseed  5;  coffee  (1947)  9; 
sugar,  raw  value,  (1947)  36;  castor  beans  (1947)  5  8.  Exports  of  balsa 
wood  (1947)  1,130  metric  tons. 

Industry.  Crude  oil  ('000  metric  tons,  1948)  338.  Cement  ('000 
metric  tons,  1948)  40. 

Foreign  Trade.  (Million  sucres)  Imports:  (1947)  604,  (1948)  568; 
exports.  (1947)  618,  (1948)  493.  Mam  sources  of  imports  (1948): 
United  States  73  %,  United  Kingdom  6%.  Mam  destinations  of  exports 
(1948):  United  States  35%,  Philippines  13%. 

Transport  and  Communications.  Roads  (1948)*  500  mi.  suitable  for 
motor  traffic.  Licensed  motor  vehicles  (Dec.  1948):  cars  2.780,  com- 
mercial vehicles  5,470.  Railways  (1948).  687  mi.;  passenger-mi. 
(1948)  85  million,  freight  net  ton-mi.  (1948)  65  million.  Telephones 
(1948)'  10,000. 

Finance  and  Banking.  (Million  sucres)  Budget:  (1948  est.)  revenue 
385,  expenditure  385,  ( 1 949  cst.)  revenue  436,  expenditure  436.  National 
debt  (Dec.  1946):  224  Currency  circulation  (Sept.  1949;  in  brackets 
Sept.  1948):  336  (339)  Gold  reserve  (Sept  1949;  m  brackets  Sept. 
1948):  US.  $20  6  (20-5)  million.  Bank  deposits  (Aug  1949;  in 
brackets  Aug.  1948)  368  (305)  Monetary  unit:  sucre  with  an  official 
selling  exchange  rate  (Dec.  1949;  Dec.  1948  in  brackets)  of  $37  80 
(54  40)  to  the  £. 

EDEN,  ROBERT  ANTHONY,  British  statesman 
(b.  Windlestone  hall,  County  Durham,  June  12,  1897),  was 
educated  at  Eton  and  at  Christchurch,  Oxford,  and  served 
in  World  War  J.  In  1922  he  stood  as  Conservative  candidate 
at  Spennymoor,  Durham,  and  in  1923  was  elected  M.P.  for 
Warwick  and  Leamington.  He  was  parliamentary  private 
secretary  to  Sir  Austen  Chamberlain,  1926-29;  parliamentary 
under  secretary,  Foreign  Office,  1931-33;  lord  privy  seal, 
1934-35;  and  was  then  appointed  minister  for  League  of 
Nations  affairs.  In  Dec.  1935  he  succeeded  Sir  Samuel 
Hoare  (later  Lord  Templewood)  as  foreign  secretary  but  in 
Feb.  1938  resigned  because  of  the  government's  policy  of 
appeasement.  He  returned  to  the  government  in  Sept.  1939 
as  dominions  secretary,  and  after  a  few  months  became 
secretary  of  state  for  war.  He  returned  to  the  Foreign 
Office  on  Dec.  23,  1940,  and  remained  in  office  until  the 
general  election  in  July  1945.  He  then  acted  as  deputy  leader 
of  the  opposition  under  Winston  Churchill,  handling  the 
day-to-day  activities  of  the  Conservative  party  m  the  House 
of  Commons.  In  the  early  months  of  1949,  accompanied  by 
Commander  Allan  Noble,  M.P.,  he  undertook  a  tour  of  the 
Commonwealth,  visiting  Canada,  New  Zealand,  Australia, 
Malaya,  India  and  Pakistan.  He  returned  via  Italy  where 
he  was  received  by  the  Pope  and  Alcidc  De  Gaspen,  the 
prime  minister. 

EDUCATION.  International.  On  Dec.  10,  1948,  the 
United  Nations  general  assembly  in  Paris  approved  a 
Declaration  of  Human  Rights  which  included  the  following: — 


Article  26. — 1.  Everyone  has  the  right  to  education.  Education 
shall  be  free,  at  least  in  the  elementary  and  fundamental  stages. 
Elementary  education  shall  be  compulsory.  Technical  and 
professional  education  shall  be  made  generally  available,  and 
higher  education  <hall  be  equally  accessible  to  all  on  the  basis 
of  merit. 

2.  Education  shall  be  directed  to  the  full  development  of 
the  human  personality  and  to  the  strengthening  of  respect  for 
human  rights  and  fundamental  freedoms.  It  shall  promote 
understanding,  tolerance  and  friendship  among  alt  nations, 
racial  or  religious  groups  and  shall  further  the  activities  of  the 
United  Nations  for  the  maintenance  of  peace. 

3  Parents  have  a  prior  right  to  choose  the  kind  of  education 
that  shall  be  given  to  their  children. 

In  1949  U.N.F.S.C.O.  published  a  volume  entitled  Human 
Rights  resulting  from  a  world-wide  inquiry  it  had  made. 
It  contained  the  questionnaire  it  had  issued,  a  selection  from 
the  icplies  and  a  report  by  the  committee  that  edited  the 
contributions. 

The  year  1949  saw  steady  growth  in  making  and  developing 
international  contacts  of  most  various  kinds  at  all  levels. 
In  stimulating  this  growth  U.N.E.S.C.O.  played  a  consider- 
able part. 

The  fourth  session  of  the  general  conference  of 
U.N.E.S.C.O.,  held  at  Pans  from  Sept.  19  to  Oct.  5  and 
attended  by  delegates  from  50  countries,  was  intended  to  be  a 
short  business  meeting  devoted  to  amending  in  detail  the 
two-year  programme  agreed  at  Beirut  in  1948  and  approving 
the  budget  for  1950.  Actually,  keen  debate  ensued  on  three 
matters  of  crucial  importance:  the  size  of  the  budget,  the 
range  and  nature  of  projects  and  the  extension  of 
U.N.E.S.C.O.'s  activities  in  Germany.  On  all  these  antagon- 
istic blocs  of  opinion  revealed  themselves. 

A  compromise  fixed  the  1950  budget  at  $8,000,000  of 
which  $1,055,815  went  to  the  education  programme.  Two 
international  seminars  prepared  in  1949  on  geography 
teaching  and  the  improvement  of  text-books  were  fixed  for 
1950.  A  third,  on  illiteracy,  was  deferred  until  1951.  A 
majority  vote  carried  the  proposal  to  establish  a  training 
centre  for  teachers  of  fundamental  education.  The  decision 
was  taken  "  to  study  in  1950  jointly  with  the  International 
Bureau  of  Education  the  problems  involved  in  making  free 
compulsory  primary  education  more  nearly  universal  and 
of  longer  duration."  It  was  agreed  to  assist  the  interim 


PUBLIC    EXPENDITURE 

ON 
EDUCATION 


IN    ENGLAND   AND    WALES 


150 


Million  School  Children 


50 


Million  School  Children 


1946     194?     1948     1949 


•  Total  child  population  aged  5  and  under  14  for  1939-47;  aged  5  and  under  15 
or  1948-49. 


218 


EDUCATION 


George  Tomlinson,  minister  of  education,  (right)  with  Dr.  Jaime 

Torres   Bodct,  director  general  of  U.N.E.S.C.O.,  outside  Church 

house,  Westminster,  April  //,  7949. 

committee  of  the  International  Universities  bureau  to  con- 
vene a  full  conference  in  1950.  In  accordance  with  a  recom- 
mendation of  U.N.E.S.C.O.'s  International  Conference 
on  Adult  Education  held  in  June  an  International  Advisory 
Council  on  Adult  Education  was  set  up.  Greek  children  who 
were  victims  of  the  civil  war,  Arab  refugee  children  of 
Palestine  and  Ecuadorian  child  victims  of  the  August 
earthquake  were  taken  under  U.N.E.S.CO.'s  wing  and, 
despite  a  "  walk-out "  by  the  Czech,  Hungarian  and  Polish 
delegations,  it  was  decided  to  extend  U.N.E.S.CO.'s  work 
to  Germany.  The  conference  discussed  U.N.E.S.C.O.'s  part 
in  the  scheme  of  technical  assistance  for  economic  develop- 
ment to  under-developed  countries  proposed  by  the  Econo- 
mic and  Social  council  of  U.N.  and  agreed  a  programme. 

During  1949  U.N.E.S.C.O.  despatched  its  first  three 
educational  advisory  missions  to  member  states— Afghanistan, 
the  Philippines  and  Siam.  (For  its  international  conference 
in  Denmark  and  seminar  in  India  on  adult  education  see 
ADULT  EDUCATION.) 

Dr.  C.  E,  Beeby,  head  of  the  Education  department, 
resigned  on  completion  of  the  period  for  which  he  was 
seconded  to  U.N.E.S.CO.  by  the  New  Zealand  government 
— a  great  loss  to  the  organization. 

In  the  autumn  of  1948  the  United  Nations  assembly  voted 
$32  million  in  aid  of  Arab  refugees  from  Palestine,  and 
devised  a  scheme  of  assistance  along  with  international 
voluntary  bodies  already  in  the  field.  Early  in  1949,  as  soon 
as  minimum  daily  rations  had  been  assured  in  the  refugee 
camps,  the  organization  of  schools  for  the  children  began. 
By  mid-1949  U.N.E.S.CO.  was  sponsoring  31  schools  with 
over  11, 000  pupils,  the  funds  coming  from  the  U.N.E.S.CO. 
Reconstruction  Emergency  fund,  the  Lord  Mayor  of  Lon- 
don's Appeal  for  Children,  and  the  Norwegian  United 
Nations  Appeal  for  Children  committee.  The  schools  pro- 
gramme was  planned  to  end  on  Aug.  31  but,  as  it  became 
clear  that  the  need  would  continue,  the  U.N.E.S.C.O.  execu- 


tive board  in  June  appealed  successfully  for  sufficient  funds 
to  maintain  the  schools  till  the  end  of  1949.  The  schools  gave 
basic  education  only,  and  preference  was  given  to  children 
aged  10-12  years.  All  the  teachers  were  refugees. 

In  October  U.N.E.S.C.O.  organized  an  international 
conference  at  Charleroi,  Belgium,  on  the  rehabilitation  and 
education  of  vagabond  children  in  Europe.  Recommendations 
were  framed  for  submission  to  U.N.  The  conference  was 
immediately  followed  by  one  organized  by  the  International 
Federation  of  Children's  Communities.  Proposals  for 
research  projects  and  a  plan  for  an  international  research 
centre  for  deprived  and  handicapped  children  were  drawn  up. 

In  January  the  foreign  ministers  of  the  Brussels  treaty 
powers  (Belgium,  France,  Great  Britain,  the  Netherlands, 
Luxembourg)  announced  proposals  for  closer  association  in 
educational  and  cultural  matters:  exchange  visits  by  school 
inspectors;  teachers'  courses  about  Western  Union,  each 
country  in  turn  being  host;  national  exhibitions  of  educa- 
tional material  for  circulation  in  the  other  countries;  national 
lists  of  travel  and  lodging  facilities  for  school  children  and 
students;  lists  of  forthcoming  important  educational,  cultural 
and  social  congresses  in  all  five  countries. 

In  April  and  May  school  inspectors  from  the  other  four 
countries  spent  a  month  in  Great  Britain  and  in  May-June, 
in  view  of  the  probability  that  Germany  would  later  be 
invited  to  join  the  Western  Union,  British  inspectors  spent 
a  month  there.  The  first  teachers*  course  was  held  in  England 
in  August. 

In  Sept.-Oct.  the  European  movement  organized  at  Bruges, 
Belgium,  an  experimental  three  weeks'  session  of  a  "College 
of  Europe  "  designed  to  give  selected  graduate  students  a 
wider  European  education.  (See  UNIVERSITIES  AND  COLLEGES.) 

International  conferences,  courses,  summer  schools  and 
other  educational  exchanges  were  numerous.  In  August 
the  Federation  Internationale  Syndicale  de  1'Enseignement 
(F.I.S.E.),  founded  in  1946  as  the  teachers'  branch  of  the 
World  Federation  of  Trade  Unions,  held  at  Warsaw  its  first 
full  conference.  It  claimed  to  be  the  largest  international 
organization  of  teachers,  with  3  million  members.  The  first 
international  congress  of  biochemistry,  held  at  Cambridge, 
England,  in  August,  drew  delegates  from  42  countries.  In 
Aug.-Sept.  a  conference  at  New  York  on  educational  prob- 
lems of  cultural  groups  organized  jointly  by  Teachers' 
college,  Columbia  university,  and  London  university  Institute 
of  Education,  included  coloured  delegates.  In  July  the 
Royal  India  and  Pakistan  society  held  at  Oxford,  England, 
a  summer  school  to  discuss  the  development  of  cultural  links 
between  east  and  west.  The  summer  schools  promoted  by 
British  universities  attracted  hundreds  of  Americans  and 
students  from  over  20  other  countries.  In  April,  history 
teachers  from  western  Europe  and  the  United  States  met  in 
Germany  to  discuss  the  political,  social  and  educational 
problems  of  history  teaching.  In  August  educators  from  20 
countries  gathered  in  Spain  to  discuss  educational  problems 
ranging  from  teacher  training  to  the  teaching  of  philosophy 
and  theology. 

One-year  teacher  exchanges  increased  in  number  between 
the  United  Kingdom  and  the  United  States;  France  and  the 
United  States;  the  United  Kingdom  and  the  Common- 
wealth; and  the  United  Kingdom  and  European  countries. 
Two  small  new  schemes  were  started  between  England  and 
Europe:  for  modern  language  teachers  (England,  France, 
Austria)  and  for  highly  qualified  teachers  who  were  not 
modern  language  specialists  (England,  Denmark,  Nether- 
lands, Norway,  Sweden).  In  August  began  the  first  great 
series  of  exchanges  under  the  United  States  Fulbright  act 
(see  UNIVERSITIES  AND  COLLEGES). 

Typical  of  student  and  school  child  exchanges  were  mutual 
visits  of  university  drama  societies  between  London  and 


EDUCATION 


219 


Paris;  visits  by  English  secondary  school  drama  societies, 
to  present  Shakespearian  plays  in  Denmark  and  Norway;  a 
tour  of  France,  Great  Britain  and  Switzerland  by  South 
African  schoolboys;  and  the  exchange  for  a  whole  term  of 
entire  school  classes  between  Liverpool,  and  Poitiers,  France. 
All  were  said  to  be  the  first  of  their  kind. 

Great  Britain.  In  June  the  minister  of  education  for 
England  and  Wales  publicly  expressed  his  belief  that  "  in 
the  perspective  of  educational  history  1949  will  be  regarded  as 
the  end  of  one  period  (i.e.,  the  transition  from  war  to  peace 
conditions)  and  the  beginning  of  another."  High  standards 
had  been  restored  in  the  schools,  sufficient  teachers  were 
being  trained,  school  building  was  rapidly  increasing  and  the 
Further  Education  and  Training  scheme  had  fed  industry, 
commerce  and  the  professions  with  75,000  well  qualified 
young  men  and  women. 

In  November,  as  part  of  the  national  economy  drive,  he 
announced  cuts  in  capital  and  current  expenditure  on  educa- 
tion. These  were  surprisingly  slight,  and  for  the  most  part 
to  be  effected  by  more  economical  planning,  administration 
and  construction.  While  10%  economy  in  school  building 
had  to  be  effected  in  1950,  and  20%  thereafter,  the  govern- 
ment guaranteed  that  no  fewer  new  school  places  would  be 
provided  than  originally  planned  and  that  the  teacher  training 
programme  would  not  be  impaired. 

In  July  the  Burnham  committee,  negotiating  body  for 
teachers'  salaries  in  England  and  Wales,  agreed  to  discuss 
a  proposed  increase  of  £150  a  year  to  the  basic  salary  for 
primary  and  secondary  school  teachers.  Because  of  the 
government's  appeal  for  a  general  halt  of  increased  pay 
demands,  the  local  authorities'  panel  in  October  broke  off 
discussions 

Two  inquiries  by  teachers'  associations  increased  the  grave 
fears  already  felt  in  grammar  secondary  schools  about  the 
acute  shortage  of  well  qualified  teachers  of  science  and 
mathematics. 

In  February  the  Central  Advisory  Council  for  Education 
(Wales)  issued  its  first  full  report,  The  Future  of  Secondary 
Education  in  Wales  (H.M.S.O.).  This  proposed  two  types  of 
organization :  single  multilateral  schools  covering  a  wide  range 
of  ability,  and  a  dual  system  of  grammar-technical  schools 
for  more  intelligent  pupils  and  modern-technical  schools  for 
the  less  intelligent. 

In  January  the  Scottish  Education  department  announced 
that  after  1949  the  Senior  Leaving  certificate  (taken  normally 
at  the  end  of  a  five-year  secondary  school  course)  would  be 
awarded  on  a  subject  and  no  longei  on  a  group  basis.  From 
1950  candidates  would  be  required  to  follow  a  course  of 
study  approved  by  the  department  but  the  school  would 
decide  how  many  subjects  each  took. 

In  October  new  regulations  for  entrance  to  the  teaching 
profession  ended  the  system  whereby  intending  women 
teachers  could  do  the  first  of  three  years'  training  in  a  secon- 
dary school.  For  entrance  as  a  non-graduate  any  candidate 
must  in  future  have  a  Leaving  certificate  showing  five  passes, 
including  English  and  one  other  subject  at  the  higher  grade. 
In  June  died  Sir  Frederick  Ogilvie,  principal  of  Jesus 
college,  Oxford,  a  former  director  general  of  the  B.B.C.,  and 
Professor  H.  R.  Hamley,  London  university,  internationally 
known  as  a  psychologist. 

Australia.  The  large  scale  immigration  by  which  250,000 
people  were  expected  to  arrive  in  Australia  from  the  United 
Kingdom  and  Europe  between  Jan.  1949  and  June  1950  faced 
the  education  authorities  with  many  problems  including  that 
of  teaching  English  to  foreigners.  Schools  were  established 
for  children  and  adults  at  all  the  numerous  immigrant 
reception  centres  and  ingenious  methods  devised  for  English 
teaching  to  foreign  immigrants,  especially  Russians  and  Baits, 
whose  languages  were  virtually  unknown  in  Australia. 


Normally,  immigrants  received  a  month's  intensive  training 
at  the  reception  centre,  accurate  English  speech  being  the 
primary  objective.  Visual  aids  and  the  memorising  of  songs 
were  largely  used.  Correspondence  courses  were  arranged 
for  settlers  in  isolated  districts 

At  the  beginning  of  1949  Queensland,  like  New  South 
Wales  in  1948,  adopted  a  policy  of  decentralization  of 
educational  administration.  Five  regions  were  set  up, 
including  one  administered  from  the  capital,  Brisbane.  The 
largest  had  about  230  schools,  the  smallest  33.  In  the  latter 
the  chief  education  officer  also  acted  as  inspector  of  schools. 

Canada.  In  February  the  Canadian  Education  association 
reported  that  the  schools  were  short  of  7,039  qualified  teachers 
as  compared  \\ith  7,276  in  1948.  In  the  rural  areas  6,440 
schools  were  in  charge  of  unqualified  teachers  or  closed. 
Teacher  training  colleges,  however,  showed  largely  increased 
enrolments,  especially  m  Quebec;  altogether  there  were 
10,761  teachers  in  training  as  against  7,833  in  1948. 

The  School  Health  Research  committee  published 
Absenteeism  in  Canadian  Schools  (Toronto,  1948),  a  study  by 
Dr.  A.  J  Phillips  of  the  absences  over  one  year  of  15,000 
children  in  representative  schools.  It  showed  relationships 
between  extent  of  absence  and  economic  status,  father's 
occupation  size  of  family,  racial  groups  and  school  progress. 

South  Africa.  In  March  the  government  appointed  a 
commission  "  to  formulate  the  principles  and  purposes  of 
education  for  natives  as  an  independent  race  ....  examine 
means  by  which  all  educational  processes  for  natives  .  .  . 
need  to  be  changed  ....  to  fit  in  with  the  aforementioned  basic 
principles  .  .  .  suggest  methods  of  organization  and  admini- 
stration for  ....  native  education,  and  recommend  the  basis 
on  which  the  system  should  be  financed." 

Czechoslovakia.  In  September  lay  teachers  of  religion,  now 
civil  servants  appointed  and  paid  by  the  state,  issued  a 
statement  of  agreed  policy  which  insisted  that  religious 
teaching  remained  within  the  competence  of  the  church  and 
that  all  instructions  about  programmes  of  studies  and  the 
manner  and  spirit  of  the  teaching  must  come  from  the  church 
authorities.  They  regarded  the  school  inspectors'  role  as 
confined  to  supervision  of  discipline.  Any  lay  teacher 

TEACHER  TRAINING  IN  ENGLAND  AND  WALES 

Thou sends  ,  Thousond« 


??       ADMITTED    INTO    TRAINING COMPLETED    TRAINING  —  -   22 


1936    1949    1947    1948 


1938    1945    1947    1948 


220 


EDUCATION 


accepting  an  appointment  without  Church  approval  would  be 
liable  to  punishment  by  the  Church,  and  Roman  Catholic 
parents  were  advised  to  withdraw  their  children's  names  from 
the  register  for  religious  teaching  where  teachers  not  approved 
by  the  Church  were  appointed. 

In  November  the  government  announced  the  formation  of 
19  regional  commissions  to  control  religious  education, 
supervise  the  political  and  professional  education  of  priests 
and  administer  the  property  of  religious  organizations. 

France.  Once  again  public  opinion  was  troubled  on  learn- 
ing of  the  high  proportion  of  failures  in  the  baccalaur&at 
examination — 61  %  in  1949.  There  was  nothing  new  in  this— 
the  trouble  had  been  endemic  for  over  40  years — but 
comment  revealed  a  growing  feeling  that  this  examination, 
originally  intended  for  purposes  of  university  entry  only, 
was  being  increasingly  regarded,  in  the  words  of  one  critic 
as  "  a  snobbish  social  rite  of  admittance  to  the  palace  of 
culture.'*  The  trouble  was  regarded  as  the  more  serious 
because  of  the  narrow,  intensive  nature  of  the  baccalaureat 
course.  To  counteract  this  for  would-be  university  students 
the  annee  propedeutique  (see  UNIVERSITIES  AND  COLLEGES) 
was  imposed  in  1948,  but  this  did  not  benefit  the  large  number 
of  candidates  not  intending  to  go  to  a  university. 

Germany.  With  the  transfer  of  powers  to  the  German 
Federal  republic  control  of  public  education  in  the  western 
zones  passed  to  the  German  government.  In  February 
General  B.  Robertson,  high  commissioner-elect  for  the 
British  zone,  announced  the  formation  of  a  British  Relations 
board  whose  function  would  be  to  offer  advice  and  assistance 
on  educational  and  cultural  matters  in  the  British  zone. 
This  board,  directed  by  the  high  commissioner  with  his 
political  adviser  as  chairman,  replaced  the  Education  branch 
of  the  Control  Commission  for  Germany  (British  element). 

In  July  Robert  Birley,  (q.v.)  educational  adviser  to  the 
British  high  commissioner,  resigned  on  becoming  headmaster 
of  Eton  college.  He  was  succeeded  by  Professor  T.  H. 
Marshall,  head  of  the  Social  Science  department,  London 
School  of  Economics. 

In  October  Dr.  Alonzo  G.  Grace,  head  of  the  Education 
and  Cultural  Relations  branch,  United  States  zone,  resigned 
on  becoming  professor  of  education  at  the  University  of 
Chicago. 

To  meet  the  grave  shortage  of  teachers  in  the  eastern 
zone,  36,000  men  and  women  had,  by  the  beginning  of  1949 


been  given  emergency  courses  and  sent  into  the  schools.  Of 
these,  28,000  had  received  a  one-year  course  and  the  other 
8,000  only  a  few  weeks.  The  latter  worked  in  the  schools  under 
the  direction  of  trained  teachers. 

Politics  was  introduced  for  the  first  time  as  a  regular 
subject  into  the  curriculum  of  Land  Hesse. 

By  Jan.  1949  there  were  in  South  Schleswig  64  Danish  schools 
with  15,692  pupils— greater  numbers  than  ever  before.  This  had 
resulted  from  resumption  after  the  war,  first  by  the  British 
military  government  and  later  by  the  Schleswig-Holstein 
government,  of  the  policy  of  permitting  Danish  parents  to 
decide  whether  their  children  should  attend  a  Danish  or  a 
German  school.  Most  of  the  64  were  private  schools,  and  in 
April  the  Schleswig-Holstein  government  gave  the  few 
Danish  council  schools  the  status  of  private  school. 

In  the  spring  a  series  of  seven  Anglo-German  teachers* 
conferences,  sponsored  by  the  British  Foreign  Office  and 
organized  in  the  British  zone  and  Berlin  by  the  German 
education  authorities,  enabled  35  secondary  school  teachers 
from  England  and  Wales  to  discuss  with  over  200  German 
teachers  and  educational  administrators  problems  ranging 
from  fundamental  aims  to  history  teaching. 

In  April  the  Education  and  Cultural  Relations  division  of 
the  United  States  military  government  organized  at  Chiemsee, 
Bavaria,  an  international  conference  on  comparative  educa- 
tion at  which  some  75  Germans  discussed  with  75  Americans 
and  representatives  of  13  European  nations  the  social, 
economic  and  spiritual  background  to  education. 

Greece.  In  March  the  Vocational  School  for  Youths  was 
founded,  which  was  designed  to  train  as  normal  citizens 
adolescent  boys  who  had  served  with  rebel  forces  or  been  in 
suspicious  contact  with  them.  Suggested  by  King  Paul,  it  was 
situated  on  the  island  of  Leros  and,  apart  from  government 
help  with  materials  and  equipment  under  its  reconstruction 
programme,  was  supported  by  voluntary  contributions.  It 
was  sponsored  by  the  National  foundation,  created  in  1947 
to  establish  technical  and  vocational  schools. 

By  November  the  school  housed  1,200  boys,  mostly  between 
the  ages  of  14  and  20.  Illiterates  were  being  given  elementary 
education  and  secondary  education  was  provided  for  older 
boys.  There  was  a  choice  of  22  trades  and  pupils  had  complete 
freedom  to  decide  which  they  would  learn  except  that  illi- 
terates were  debarred  from  technical  trades.  The  normal 
period  of  training  was  12  months.  Though  the  primary  aim 


The  back  elevation  of  a  block  of  prefabricated  aluminium  classrooms  at  the  Locklcaze  primary  school,  Bristol.    The  school  was  opened  by 

the  minister  of  education,  George  Tomlinson,  on  March  9,  7949. 


EDUCATION 


221 


of  the  school  was  to  wean  youths  from  Communism  no 
political  instruction  was  given,  reliance  being  placed  on  good 
treatment  and  trade  training. 

Greenland.  The  Junior  Red  Cross  movement  was  intro- 
duced into  all  schools.  In  addition  to  the  teaching  of  health 
one  of  its  first  tasks  was  to  establish  correspondence  with 
schools  in  other  countries. 

Hungary.  In  September  the  government  abolished  the 
compulsory  teaching  of  religion  in  schools  and  with  it  the 
traditional  ceremony  of  singing  a  Te  Dcum  at  the  opening 
of  the  school  term.  Parents  could  apply  to  have  religious 
teaching  for  their  children  and  this  would  be  paid  for  by 
the  state.  Since  the  nationalization  of  schools  in  1948  religious 
teaching  had  been  compulsory  for  two  hours  a  week. 

Ireland.  In  January  the  government  of  the  republic  of 
Ireland  appointed  a  Committee  on  National  Teachers1 
Salaries.  This  produced  in  October  a  majority  and  a  minority 
report.  The  main  recommendations  in  the  majority  report, 
accepted  by  the  government,  were  a  common  salary  scale 
for  women  and  single  men  beginning  at  £250  and  rising  to 
£525  a  year  and  a  married  man's  scale  from  £300  to  £650, 
additional  allowances  for  honours  graduate  qualifications 
and  pensions  on  the  same  basis  as  civil  servants.  The  changes 
were  to  come  into  effect  on  April  1,  1950.  The  minority 
report  recommended  that  any  new  salary  scales  should 
approach  those  obtaining  in  Great  Britain  and  Northern 
Ireland.  The  Irish  National  Teachers'  organization  charac- 
terized the  new  scales  as  "  deplorable.'* 

Luxembourg.  In  October  an  educational  conference, 
believed  to  be  unprecedented  in  that  it  was  both  international 
and  a  co-operative  effort  by  primary  and  secondary  school 
teachers,  discussed  means  of  easing  racial,  linguistic,  religious 
and  social  tensions  within  a  country. 

It  was  announced  that  an  institute  of  university  status  was 
to  be  founded  by  private  enterprise  in  Luxembourg  to  study 
means  of  bringing  about  understanding  between  nations. 

Poland.  At  the  opening  of  the  school  year  1949-50  the 
Ministry  of  Education  claimed  that  elementary  education 
(7-14  years)  had  at  last  been  made  everywhere  compulsory. 
It  was  supposed  to  be  compulsory  before  World  War  II  but 
in  fact  500,000  children  then  received  no  schooling. 

To  make  universal  compulsion  possible,  4,500  basic  schools 
had  been  built  between  1945  and  1949  and  5,000  teachers 
added  to  the  establishment  although  there  were  1,500,000 
fewer  children.  In  addition  6,000  nursery  schools  had  been 
set  up  in  which  there  were  in  1949  264,000  children  between 
the  ages  of  three  and  six  years.  It  was  aimed  to  treble  this 
number  by  1952.  In  1949  2,500  nursery  school  teachers  were 
being  trained. 

The  basic  school  covered  the  first  seven  years  of  the  1 1-year 
course  which  the  authorities  aimed  to  provide  for  every  child. 
There  were  two  kinds  of  secondary  school,  academic,  or 
"  general  knowledge,'*  and  technical,  both  entered  at  the  age 
of  14.  In  1949  10-3  pupils  in  every  1,000  of  the  population 
entered  the  academic  schools  and  36  the  technical — as  against 
6-4  and  6  respectively  in  1939. 

Higher  education  was  being  rapidly  expanded  and  the 
campaign  against  adult  illiteracy  vigorously  prosecuted;  in 
July  a  census  was  taken  with  a  view  to  organizing  in  1949-50 
compulsory  courses  for  all  illiterates  under  the  age  of  55. 

Structural  reorganization  was  being  accompanied  by  the 
building  of  new  curricula  to  match  the  new  social  order. 
History  was  being  given  a  materialist  interpretation,  biology 
based  on  Michurin  principles.  Religious  education,  given 
by  priests  or  laymen  approved  by  the  Church,  was  compulsory 
for  two  hours  a  week  in  all  basic  and  academic  schools  and 
for  one  hour  in  technical  schools  with  the  reservation  that 
parents  could  withdraw  children  from  it.  In  1949  the  educa- 
tional budget  was  25  times  as  great  as  in  1945. 


Sweden.  In  February  the  government  decided  to  postpone 
parliamentary  discussion  of  the  report  on  the  public  school 
system  issued  by  the  1946  School  committee  which  advocated 
far  reaching  reforms  because  of  the  volume  of  criticism  and 
alternative  proposals  received. 

Turkey.  Proposals  were  made  by  the  fourth  annual 
conference  of  Turkish  teachers  and  accepted  by  the  minister 
of  education  which  should  in  time  have  the  effect  of  lessening 
the  specialization  in  middle  schools  and  Ivceei  and  of  raising 
educational  opportunity  in  the  smaller  towns  and  rural  areas 
nearer  to  that  in  the  large  cities.  The  proposals  included 
extension  of  the  lycte  course  from  three  to  four  years,  the 
training  of  specialist  teachers  lor  languages  only  (and  not, 
as  previously,  for  music,  art,  handwork  and  physical  education 
as  well)  and  the  transfer  of  non-specialist  teachers  from 
Istanbul  and  Ankara  to  the  provinces.  The  universities  altered 
their  certificate  system  to  allow  teachers  in  training  to  take 
two  or  three  subsidiary  subjects  as  well  as  their  specialized 
subject. 

LJ.S.S.R.  In  the  spring  Professor  Ivan  Kairov,  head  of  the 
Academy  of  Educational  Science,  Moscow,  became  minister 
of  education  for  the  R.S.F.S.R.  Outlining  his  policy  in  the 
autumn  he  said  that  the  paramount  task  for  the  year  1949-50 
was  to  raise  the  standard  of  attainment.  Formal  teaching  was 
to  be  reduced  to  a  minimum  in  language,  literature  and 
mathematics,  and  the  greatest  use  made  in  all  lessons  of 
individual  work  and  activity.  In  biology  the  change  over  to 
Michurin  principles  was  to  be  completed.  History  teaching 
must  "  treat  more  deeply  of  Soviet  history  and  show  the 
leading  role  of  the  Communist  party  and  its  great  leaders 
Lenin  and  Stalin."  Attention  to  the  "  politico-philosophic 
content  of  education  "  leading  to  "  a  Communist  outlook  " 
was  to  be  "  implicit  in  all  teaching  and  training.*'  (H.  C.  D.) 

United  States.  Educational  activity  in  the  United  States 
during  1949  was  marked  by  an  energetic  campaign  to  secure 
a  federal  law  which  would  bring  the  level  of  education  in 
the  poorer  states  up  to  that  of  the  more  fortunate  ones. 
There  was  a  rise  of  religious  tempers,  especially  between 
Roman  Catholics  and  Protestants,  over  the  issue  of  federal 
aid  to  education.  Public  interest  in  the  improvement  of 
material  and  pedagogical  conditions  increased,  particularly 
in  the  south  and  west.  The  shortage  of  suitable  buildings 
and  of  qualified  teachers  in  the  elementary  schools  con- 
tinued. Efforts  were  intensified  to  reduce  discrimination 
against  minorities  and  to  grant  the  Negroes  equal  educational 
rights  all  over  the  country.  Discussion  increased  concerning 
the  place  of  communists  and  communism  in  the  schools; 
there  was  an  increase  in  enrolments  at  all  scholastic  levels, 
but  a  decrease  in  the  number  of  ex-service  college  students. 
The  number  of  foreign  students  attending  U.S.  colleges  and 
universities  increased  steadily  and  there  was  continued 
interest  in  international  educational  co-operation  and  in 
the  work  of  U.N.E.S.C.O. 

According  to  the  United  States  office  of  education,  the 
school  year  1949-50  would  be  marked  by  the  following  atten- 
dance figures:  elementary  schools,  23,377,500;  high  schools, 
6,533,000;  institutions  of  higher  education,  2,400,000; 
private  commercial  and  nursing  schools,  361,000;  grand 
total  32,671,500.  The  actual  number  of  persons  at  educational 
institutions  of  all  kinds  during  1948  was  31,880,000.  With 
the  birth  rate  still  climbing,  educational  leaders  predicted 
a  rise  in  enrolment  in  elementary  and  high  schools  for 
several  more  years. 

Legislation  enacted  by  the  U.S.  congress  during  1949 
included  a  grant  of  $7-5  million  to  local  school  agencies 
for  educational  services  to  children  on  federal  reservations 
or  in  defence  areas;  a  fund  for  the  construction  of  public 
schools  and  colleges  in  time  of  depression ;  the  continuation  of 
gifts  of  surplus  property  to  schools ;  the  restriction  of  federal 


222 


EGYPT 


funds  to  ex-servicemen's  courses  which  were  not  of  an 
avocational  or  recreational  nature,  and  the  withholding  of 
scholarships  under  the  Atomic  Energy  commission  pro- 
gramme from  persons  who  advocated  the  violent  overthrow 
of  the  U.S.  government;  and  money  for  the  instruction  of 
Finnish  and  Chinese  students  in  U.S.  colleges  and  universities. 
An  attempt  to  raise  the  Federal  Security  agency  to  cabinet 
status  was  defeated.  Some  educators  felt  that  the  U.S. 
Office  of  Education,  under  this  plan,  would  fall  under  political 
control. 

As  in  previous  years,  the  shortage  of  teachers  continued 
to  be  a  vexing  problem.  This  was  particularly  true  with 
respect  to  elementary  schools.  Dr.  Ray  C.  Maul's  study 
for  the  National  Education  association  revealed  that  there 
were  260,000  elementary  school  teachers  who  lacked  proper 
qualifications  for  their  duties;  that  only  28,000  qualified 
teachers  were  being  made  available  by  the  teachers  colleges 
for  elementary  school  service  in  Sept.  1949,  whereas  there 
existed  a  need  for  150,000  elementary  teachers;  and  that 
there  were  65,000  college  graduates  prepared  to  teach  in 
the  high  schools,  with  only  30,000  positions  available. 
Enrolment  in  the  teachers  colleges  showed  an  increase  in 
1949,  according  to  the  annual  surveys  of  the  Office  of  Educa- 
tion and  of  President  Raymond  Walters  of  the  University  of 
Cincinnati.  The  latter  reported  an  overall  total  of  153,099 
full  time  and  part  time  students  in  104  accredited  teachers 
colleges,  a  rise  of  14%  over  the  enrolment  in  1948.  The 
annual  report  by  the  National  Education  association, 
released  toward  the  end  of  1949,  contained  important  data 
about  the  teacher  problem.  This  document  stated  that 
36,000  more  teachers  were  needed  for  the  nation's  schools, 
at  least  28,800  of  whom  were  urgently  required  for  the 
elementary  classes.  In  addition,  the  report  pointed  out  that 
the  increase  of  20,000  teachers  was  insufficient  to  meet  the 
demand;  that,  on  account  of  the  deplorable  school  con- 
ditions, a  total  of  250,000  children  were  attending  half 
sessions  in  many  school  systems;  and  that  at  least  four 
million  more  pupils  were  receiving  poor  educational  service. 

There  was  evidence  in  1949  that  a  concerted  effort  was 
being  made  to  obtain  equal  rights  in  education  for  all  citizens. 
Special  attention  was  given  to  the  problem  of  improving 
the  Negro's  educational  status  in  the  south.  There  was  little 
doubt  that  the  Negro  schools  had  a  long  way  to  go  to  catch 
up  with  those  of  the  rest  of  the  population.  The  southern 
regional  council  revealed  in  January  that  a  sum  of  $545 
million  was  necessary  to  improve  Negro  school  buildings 
to  the  level  of  the  "  white  "  schools. 

The  most  important  incident  involving  Roman  Catholics 
grew  out  of  the  denunciation  in  June  by  Cardinal  Spellman 
of  the  Harden  bill.  This  bill,  which  was  held  up  in  the  house 
of  representatives,  would  allot  $300  million  annually  to  the 
states,  but  would  restrict  the  grants  to  public,  tax-supported 
schools  and  ban  the  extension  of  auxiliary  school  services 
to  the  non-public  schools.  After  criticism  of  the  principle 
of  federal  aid  to  sectarian  schools  had  been  expressed  by 
Mrs.  Franklin  D.  Roosevelt  in  her  newspaper  column, 
the  cardinal  published  a  letter  sent  to  Mrs.  Roosevelt  in 
which  he  disagreed  sharply  with  her  point  of  view.  His  use 
of  uncomplimentary  terms  towards  Mrs.  Roosevelt  led  to  a 
lively  exchange  of  opinion  in  the  press  by  supporters — 
leading  clergymen,  educationalists,  legislators  and  citizens 
of  all  faiths — of  the  two  disputants.  In  spite  of  the  later 
reconciliation  of  the  overt  differences  between  the  cardinal 
and  Mrs.  Roosevelt,  it  was  evident  to  objective  observers 
that  both  federal  aid  to  education  and  relations  between  the 
faiths  suffered  damage  during  this  debate. 

According  to  a  census  by  the  Institute  of  International 
Education  in  April,  there  was  a  total  of  26,759  foreign 
students,  representing  151  nations  and  152  religions,  in 


1,115  colleges  and  technical  schools  in  the  United  States. 
The  Department  of  the  Army  brought  193  students  from 
occupied  countries,  115  of  whom  came  from  Germany, 
in  accordance  with  its  democratic  re-education  programme. 
A  public  law  passed  by  congress  in  August  provided  that 
Finland's  future  payment  on  its  debt  incurred  during  World 
War  I  should  be  applied  for  educational  and  technical 
instruction  in  the  United  States  for  citizens  of  Finland  and  for 
similar  purposes.  A  public  law  passed  in  October  set  aside 
$4  million  for  the  tuition  and  expenses  of  Chinese  students 
stranded  in  the  U.S.  because  of  the  civil  war  in  China. 
Changes  were  made  in  the  administration  of  the  programme 
of  graduate  scholarships  under  the  Fulbright  act.  Hence- 
forth American  applicants  were  to  be  chosen  by  a 
decentralized  procedure,  the  initial  screening  to  be  performed 
by  the  individual  colleges.  In  all,  614  U.S.  graduate  students 
obtained  grants  to  study  in  foreign  countries  under  the 
Fulbright  programme  during  1949-50.  Of  those  receiving 
grants,  267  students  went  to  France,  140  to  Italy,  122  to 
Great  Britain  and  the  remainder  to  seven  other  countries. 
Luxembourg  and  Persia  were  also  named  as  eligible  to  receive 
Fulbright  scholars  during  1950-51.  (See  also  ADULT  EDU- 
CATION; CAMBRIDGE  UNIVERSITY;  LIBRARIES;  LONDON 
UNIVERSITY;  OXFORD  UNIVERSITY;  TEACHERS,  TRAINING; 
TECHNICAL  EDUCATION;  UNIVERSITIES  AND  COLLEGES.) 

(W.  W.  BN.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  G.  W.  Parkyn,  Children  of  High  Intelligence  (New 
Zealand  Council  for  Educational  Research,  Wellington,  1948); 
H.  C.  Dent,  Secondary  Education  for  All  (London,  1949);  W.  O.  Lester 
Smith,  Education  in  Great  Britain  (Oxford,  1949);  T/ie  Transfer  from 
Primary  to  Secondary  Schools,  report  by  the  National  Union  of  Teachers 
(London,  1949). 

EGYPT.  An  independent  kingdom  of  northeast 
Africa,  bounded  N.  by  the  Mediterranean,  S.  by  the  Anglo- 
Egyptian  Sudan,  E.  by  Israel  and  the  Red  sea,  W.  by  Cyrenaica 
and  the  Sahara.  Area:  386,110  sq.  mi.,  but  the  cultivated 
and  settled  area  (the  Nile  valley,  delta  and  oases)  covers  only 
13,496  sq.  mi.  Pop.:  (March  26-27, 1947,  census)  19,087,304; 
(mid-1948  est.)  19,528,000.  Language:  mainly  Arabic  (97  %), 
but  there  are  minorities  speaking  Greek,  Italian,  Armenian, 
French,  Turkish  etc.  Religions:  Moslem  (mainly  Sunnites) 
91-4%;  Christian  (mainly  Copts)  8-19%;  Jewish  0-4%; 
among  the  non-Coptic  Christians  there  were  (1937  census): 


The  Holy  Carpet  leaving  Cairo  for  Mecca  in  Sept.  1949.   In  Mecca 
the  carpet  is  placed  in  the  Ktfba. 


EGYPT 


223 


Roman  Catholics  (all  rites)  126,500,  Greek  Orthodox  105,000, 
Protestants  78,200,  Gregorian  Armenians  17,200,  etc.  Chief 
towns  (pop.,  1947  census):  Cairo  (</.v.)  (cap.,  2,100,506); 
Alexandria  (925,081);  Port  Said  (178,432);  Tanta  (139,965); 
Mahalla  el  Kubra  (115,509);  Suez  (108,250);  Mansura 
(102,709).  Ruler:  King  Farouk  T  (q.v.)\  prime  ministers  in 
1949,  Ibrahim  Abdulhadi  Pasha  and  (from  July  25)  Hussein 
Sirry  Pasha  (?.v.),  who  was  also  minister  of  foreign  affairs. 

History.  The  year  began  ominously  under  the  shadow  of 
the  assassination  on  Dec.  28,  1948,  of  Mahmud  Fahmy  el 
Nokrashy  Pasha,  the  prime  minister.  The  murderer  claimed 
to  be  a  member  of  the  increasingly  fanatical  Moslem  Brother- 
hood, whose  leader,  Sheikh  Hassan  el  Banna,  was  himself 
assassinated  on  Feb.  13,  1949. 

The  king  appointed  Ibrahim  Abdulhadi  Pasha,  an 
experienced  politician  who  was  then  holding  the  office  of 
minister  of  finance,  to  be  prime  minister.  The  new  premier, 
an  independent  in  politics,  added  several  Independents  to  the 
existing  cabinet  of  Liberals  and  Saadists.  On  Feb.  27  Ahmed 
Mohamed  Khashaba  Pasha  became  minister  of  foreign 
affairs. 

The  government's  first  task  was  to  restore  the  situation 
which  had  arisen  from  Egypt's  participation  in  the  unsuc- 
cessful intervention  of  the  Arab  league  in  the  affairs  of  Pales- 
tine. Already  the  state  of  Israel  was  recognized  de  facto  by 
the  most  powerful  states  in  the  world — although  not  by  any 
important  oriental  power.  On  Feb.  3,  Egypt,  following  a 
Pakistani  example,  denounced  these  recognitions  which,  it 
was  claimed,  implied  the  acceptance  of  the  rule  of  force. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  year,  Egyptian  military  and  naval 
forces  were  still  in  contact  with  the  Israelis  and,  on  Jan.  5, 
the  latter  achieved  several  penetrations  into  Egyptian  terri- 
tory, drawing  an  expression  of  concern  from  the  British 
Foreign  Office.  However,  the  acting  mediator,  Dr.  R.  J. 
Bunche  (q.v.)  announced  a  cease  fire  as  from  Jan.  7,  which  was 
followed  by  armistice  negotiations  under  his  chairmanship. 
These  were  successfully  concluded  by  an  agreement  signed 
on  Feb.  24.  This  provided  for  the  evacuation  of  Faluja,  by 
Egyptian,  and  of  Bir  Asluj,  by  Israeli  forces,  with  a  demar- 
cation line  between  the  two  rival  armies  in  the  Negev,  which, 
running  some  20  mi.  south  of  Tel  Aviv,  left  Gaza  in  Egyptian 
and  Beersheba  in  Israeli  hands.  Provision  was  also  made  for 
the  limitation  of  the  armed  forces  to  be  maintained  by  either 
party  in  the  area. 

In  April,  Colonel  Husni  ez-Zaim  (see  OBITUARIES)  flew  to 
Cairo  for  talks  with  King  Farouk,  which  were  followed,  on 
his  part,  by  the  declaration,  satisfactory  to  Egyptian  leaders, 
that  he  was  opposed  to  any  plan  for  a  Greater  Syria,  and,  on 
the  part  of  the  Egyptian  government,  by  the  recognition  of 
his  regime  on  April  23. 

There  was  less  interest  in,  and  less  public  recrimination 
about,  the  relations  between  Egypt  and  the  United  Kingdom 
than  there  had  been  for  several  years,  although  echoes  of  old 
and  still  unresolved  disputes  were  to  be  heard  pretty  generally 
in  the  clamour  of  Egyptian  internal  politics.  The  United 
Kingdom  expressed  concern  at  the  invasion  of  Egyptian 
territory  by  Israeli  forces  early  in  the  year.  On  May  30  it 
protested  to  the  Egyptian  government  against  the  excessive 
delays  to  which  United  Kingdom  shipping  was  being  sub- 
jected in  the  Suez  canal,  as  a  result  of  Egyptian  contraband 
control  measures.  In  this  it  was  followed  in  November  by 
both  Italy  and  the  U.S.S.R.  Meanwhile  the  British  under 
secretary  of  state  announced  "partial  satisfaction"  to  the 
House  of  Commons. 

A  very  important  event  of  the  year  was  the  conclusion,  on 
March  7,  after  long  negotiations,  of  a  new  agreement  between 
the  Egyptian  government  and  the  Suez  Canal  company  (q.v.). 
By  this,  Egypt  was  to  receive  a  -much  increased  share  in  the 
profits  of  the  company  and  to  acquire,  by  1964,  five  additional 


A  cavalry  band  in  the  uniform  of  the  time  of  Mohammed  AH  Pasha 

during  a  parade  in  Cairo>  Nov.  1949,  to  commemorate  the  100th 

anniversary  of  his  death. 

seats  on  the  board  of  directors,  bringing  her  total  representa- 
tion up  to  seven.  There  was  to  be  a  big  increase  in  the  num- 
bers of  Egyptians  employed  by  the  company  and  large  con- 
structional works  were  to  be  undertaken  which  would 
eventually  allow  the  passage  of  60,  instead  of  the  present  35, 
ships  a  day  through  the  canal.  The  free  passage  of  ships 
under  300  tons  would  chiefly  benefit  Egyptian  coastal  ship- 
ping. This  agreement  was  to  hold  good  until  the  expiry  of 
the  existing  concession,  in  Nov.  1968,  which,  it  was  stated, 
the  Egyptian  government  did  not  propose  to  renew.  On 
March  3 1  an  agreement,  covering  sterling  balances  and  dollar 
releases  for  the  year,  was  arrived  at. 

Of  greater  importance  for  the  future,  perhaps,  was  an 
agreement  announced  by  the  British  foreign  secretary  in  May, 
whereby  Egypt  was  to  participate  (sharing  on  the  basis  of 
£4*5  million  and  £7-5  million  respectively  with  Uganda)  in 
the  cost  of  a  project  to  raise  the  level  of  Lake  Victoria,  at 
the  head  waters  of  the  White  Nile,  thereby  providing  power 
for  the  industrialization  of  Uganda  and  a  greatly  increased 
flow  of  water  to  Egypt.  An  announcement  on  July  6  made  it 
known  that  the  government  had  decided  upon  the  erection 
of  a  factory  in  Egypt  for  the  manufacture  of  fighter  aircraft. 
A  credit  of  £E  400,000  for  this  purpose  was  agreed  to  without 
opposition. 

In  June  Egyptians  celebrated  the  closing,  in  accordance 
with  the  terms  of  the  Montreux  convention,  of  the  mixed 
courts,  the  last  vestige  of  the  Ottoman  regime  of  "capitula- 
tions" which  had  long  been  regarded  as  a  privilege  allowing 
Europeans  to  evade  effective  subjection  to  Egyptian  justice. 
Similarly  the  foreign  consular  courts  closed  down  on  Oct.  14. 

Meanwhile,  political  life  was  dominated  by  internal 
struggles  and  the  prospect  of  an  election,  which  must  be  held 
when  parliament  should  have  served  its  full  term  of  five  years, 
early  in  1950.  On  July  26  the  government  of  Ibrahim  Abdul- 
hadi Pasha  resigned,  chiefly,  *it  was  understood,  owing  to  a 
dispute  between  the  Saadist  and  Liberal  parties  as  to  the 


224 


BIN  AUDI— ELECTIONS 


distribution  of  seats  at  the  forthcoming  election.  Because  of 
the  refusal  of  the  Wafd  to  participate  in  the  1945  election, 
these  two  parties  held  by  far  the  greater  number  of  seats  in 
the  house;  but  the  Wafd  announced  its  intention  of  taking 
a  full  part  in  the  new  election.  On  July  26  King  Farouk 
appointed  Hussein  Sirry  Pasha  to  form  an  all-party  "care- 
taker" coalition  government.  It  was  then  announced  that 
elections  would  take  place  in  October  and  that  they  would 
be  held  under  full  constitutional  guarantees.  Circumstances, 
however,  necessitated  a  change  in  this  plan. 

On  Nov.  3,  unable  to  obtain  agreement  of  the  political 
parties  to  the  draft  scheme  for  the  redistribution  of  con- 
stituencies, Sirry  Pasha  resigned.  Entrusted  at  once  by  the 
king  with  the  formation  of  a  new  government,  he  accomplished 
this  task  on  the  same  day.  His  new  cabinet  was  composed  of 
non-party  men  whose  tasks  were  clearly  those  of  routine 
administration,  the  delimitation  of  constituencies  and  the 
conduct  of  elections  to  be  held  in  Jan.  1950.  (H.  S.  D.) 

Education.  (1945-46)  Schopls:  primary  425,  pupils  82,161;  elemen- 
tary 4,035,  pupils  730,039;  secondary  141,  pupils  62,445;  technical  47, 
pupils  12,464.  Universities  (1948-49)  5,  students  12,540  (excluding 
Farouk  university,  Alexandria,  and  el-Azhar  university,  Cairo), 
professors  and  lecturers  719  (excluding  el-Azhar  university);  other 
institutions  of  higher  education  8.  Illiteracy  (1937):  85  -2  %  (excluding 
nomadic  population). 

Agriculture.  Mam  crops  (in  '000  metric. tons,  1948)  cotton,  ginned, 
386;  maize  1,409;  wheat  1,080;  rice  1,308;  onions  195;  sugar, 
raw,  200.  Livestock  (in  '000  head):  sheep  (July  1947)  1,868;  goats 
(July  1947)  1.474;  cattle  (July  1947)  1,318;  buffaloes  (July  1947)  1,239; 
asses  (July  1947)  1,125;  camels  (Jan.  1945)  162;  horses  (July  1947)  25; 
chickens  (July  1947)  16,294.  Fisheries,  approximate  annual  catch 
53,000  metric  tons;  value  £E2  million. 

Industry.  (1945)  Industrial  establishments  129,231,  persons  employed 
458,000.  Crude  oil  (in  '000  metric  tons,  1948):  1,887.  Raw  materials 
('000  metric  tons,  1948):  phosphate  rock  377,  manganese  ore  60. 
Manufactured  goods:  cotton  yarn  (metric  tons,  1948)  32,970;  cotton 
piece-goods  (million  sq.  m.,  1948)  154-8;  cement  ('000  metric  tons, 
1948)  768. 

Foreign  Trade.  Imports:  (1948)  £E1 60 -3  million;  (1949,  six  months) 
£E88- 1  million.  Exports:  (1948)  £E  143  1  million;  (1949,  six  months) 
£E73«  6  million. 

Transport  and  Communications.  Roads  (1947):  8,874  mi.  Licensed 
motor  vehicles  (Dec.  1948):  cars  37,890,  commercial  vehicles  11,800. 
State  railways  (1948):  3, 109  mi.;  passengers  earned  51,052,000;  goods 
traffic  8,345,000  tons.  Shipping  (July  1948):  merchant  vessels  50, 
total  tonnage  83,073.  Misr  Air  transport  (1945)'  miles  flown  1,184,723, 
passenger-mi.  6,448,157,  freight  net  ton-mi.  90,046,  air  mail  carried 
27-7  metric  tons.  Telephones  (1947):  subscribers  99,814. 

Finance  and  Banking.  (Million  £E)  Budget:  (1948-49  est.)  revenue 
141-5,  expenditure  183-4;  (1949-50  est.)  revenue  147-1,  expenditure 
188.  National  debt  (Nov.  1949;  in  brackets,  Nov.  1948):  116  (113). 
Currency  circulation  (July  1949;  in  brackets,  July  1948):  141  (131). 
Gold  reserve  (July  1949;  in  brackets,  July  1948):  53  (53)  million  U  S. 
dollars.  Bank  deposits  (May  1949;  in  brackets.  May  1948).  224  (211). 
Monetary  unit:  Egyptian  pound  with  an  exchange  rate  of  £EO-975  to 
the  pound. 

EINAUDI,  LUIGI,  Italian  economist  and  statesman 
(b.  Carru,  Piedmont,  March  24,  1874).  For  his  early  career 
see  Britannica  Book  of  the  Year  1949. 

After  the  liberation  of  Italy,  Einaudi,  on  Jan.  4,  1945,  was 
appointed  governor  of  the  Bank  of  Italy.  On  June  1,  1947, 
he  joined  the  De  Gasperi  (^.v.)  cabinet  as  deputy  prime 
minister  and  minister  of  the  budget.  On  May  11,  1948,  he  was 
elected  second  president  of  the  Italian  republic.  On  Dec.  15, 
1948,  he  paid  an  official  visit  to  Pope  Pius  XII  in  the  Vatican 
city.  On  Nov.  9,  1949,  he  received  a  gold  medal  from  the 
University  pf  Turin  to  mark  his  formal  retirement  from 
teaching. 

EIRE:   see  IRELAND,  REPUBLIC  OF. 

ELECTIONS.  Commonwealth.  During  1949  general 
elections  took  place  in  three  British  dominions:  Australia, 
Canada  and  New  Zealand. 

Australia.    At  the  time  of  the  elections  held  on  Dec.  10 


out  of  a  population  of  7,581,000  over  5,000,000  men  and 
women  were  on  the  electoral  register.  As  voting  in  Australia 
was  compulsory,  over  91%  voted  to  elect  a  new  House  of 
Representatives  of  123  members  (instead  of  75)  and  a  new 
Senate  of  60  members  (instead  of  36).  The  results  of  the 
voting  for  the  House  of  Representatives,  as  compared  with 
four  previous  elections,  were  as  follows  : 

Oct.  23,  Sept.  21,  Aug.  21,  Sept.  28,  Dec.  10, 
Parties  1937  1940  1943  1946  1949 
United    Country   (Con- 
servative) party  17  14  9  11  20 
United    Australia   (Lib- 
eral) party  28  23  14  17  54 
Federal  Labour  party    .  20  32  49  43  48 
Independents  10  6  3  4  1 

Of  4,620,759  votes  recorded,  the  Country  party  polled 
500,349  (10-9%),  the  Liberal  party  1,816,292  (39-5%),  the 
Labour  party  2,124,214  (46-2%),  the  Communist  party 
40,941  (0-8%)  and  other  parties  138,963  (2-6%).  The 
Labour  party,  in  power  from  1941,  suffered  defeat  on  the 
straight  issue  of  Socialism  but  the  Liberal  and  Country 
parties  coalition  polled  only  50  •  4  %  of  the  total  Common- 
wealth vote. 

With  the  exception  of  Tasmania,  where  proportional 
representation  with  single  transferable  vote  was  used,  the 
Australian  states  elected  their  legislatures  and  their  federal 
parliament  by  majority  system  with  alternative  vote.  On 
Dec.  10,  however,  for  the  first  time  proportional  representa- 
tion with  single  transferable  vote  was  used  throughout  the 
Commonwealth  to  elect  42  new  members  of  the  Senate 
(seven  from  each  state),  since  18  members  of  the  old  Senate 
were  not  due  to  retire  until  1952.  As  15  of  these  were  Labour 
members,  the  Labour  party  retained  a  small  majority  in  the 
Senate  which  was  composed  as  follows  (previous  party 
strength  in  brackets):  United  Country  and  United  Australia 
parties  26  (3),  Labour  party  34  (33). 

Canada.  On  June  27  the  Liberal  party  was  returned  to 
office  by  a  vote  which  gave  it  the  largest  majority  in  the 
history  of  the  House  of  Commons.  The  distribution  of 
seats — compared  with  those  of  Oct.  14,  1935,  of  March  26, 
1940,  and  of  June  11,  1945— was  as  follows: 


Progressive  Conservative  party 
Liberal  party        .  . 

Co-operative  Commonwealth  federation 
(Labour)  ..... 

Social  Credit  party        .... 
Labour  Progressive  (Communist)  party 
Independents        ..... 


1935     1940     1945     1949 


39 
171 


38 
178 


67 
125 


7           8  28 

17         10  13 

_  1 

11          11  11 


42 
192 


13 
10 


245       245       245       262 

Except  for  Alberta,  which  remained  faithful  to  its  Social 
Credit  party,  the  Liberals  carried  every  province.  In  French- 
speaking  Quebec  they  won  68  out  of  73  seats.  It  was  generally 
considered  that  the  electoral  alliance  concluded  by  the 
Progressive  Conservative  party  with  the  Quebec  isolationist 
Union  Nationale  had  been  a  tactical  error. 

New  Zealand.  On  Nov.  30  the  14  years'  rule  of  the  Labour 
party  which  had  been  in  gradual  decline  since  coming  some- 
what unexpectedly  to  power  in  1935  was  broken  by  decisive 
defeat  at  the  polls.  From  1946  the  European  seats  were 
equally  divided  between  the  Labour  party  and  National 
opposition  and  the  government  relied  only  on  the  four 
Maori  members  to  keep  them  in  office.  The  results  of  the 
elections  (by  majority  system),  as  compared  with  the  four 
previous  ones,  were  as  follows  : 

Nov.  27,  Oct.  15,  Sept.  25,  Nov.  27,  Nov.  30, 

Parties           .          .        1935  1938         1943         1946           1949 
National  (Conservative) 

party        ...         20  24            34            38                46 

Labour  party                          53  54            45            42                34 

Independents                           7  2              1            —               — 


ELECTIONS 


225 


In  the  House  of  Representatives  elected  on  Nov.  30  the 
Labour  party  retained  the  four  Maori  seats  in  a  poll  which 
took  place  one  day  before  polling  in  the  European  constitu- 
encies. Of  1,041,772  votes  recorded,  the  National  party 
polled  544,682  (52  •  63  %),  the  Labour  party  48 1 ,606  (46  •  54  %) 
and  other  candidates  8,588  (0-83%);  93-54%  of  the  elec- 
torate went  to  the  polls — the  highest  percentage  in  the  history 
of  the  dominion. 

Europe.  Among  16  European  democracies  Great  Britain 
was  the  only  country  to  have  a  lower  house  elected  by  a 
simple  majority  system;  13  countries  adopted  proportional 
representation  with  a  party  list;  the  republic  of  Ireland 
retained  the  so-called  single  transferable  vote  system  and 
Western  Germany  combined  the  majority  system  with 
proportional  representation.  During  1949  general  elections 
were  held  in  Austria,  Belgium,  Bulgaria,  Germany,  Hungary, 
Iceland,  Norway  and  Portugal. 

Austria.  Elections  for  the  National  Assembly  of  165 
members  were  held  on  Oct.  9  and  the  Austrian  voters  went 
to  the  polls  for  the  second  time  after  the  end  of  World  War  II. 
Before  the  elections  of  Nov.  25,  1945,  there  were  in  Austria 
3,419,605  electors  on  the  voting  register.  In  Oct.  1949 
4,391,815  persons  were  entitled  to  vote.  The  bulk  of  the  new 
voters  were  former  nazis  or  nazi  sympathizers  who  had 
been  disfranchized  in  the  1945  elections;  there  were  also 
about  280,000  prisoners  of  war  who  had  returned  home 
and  some  180,000  newly  naturalized  Volksdeutsche.  The 
results  of  the  elections  compared  with  those  of  1945,  were 
as  follows: 

1945  1949 

Votes       %       Scats  Votes           %   Seats 

People's  party         .        1,602,244     49-9       85  1,844,850       44-2       77 

Social  Democrats  .       1,434,898     45-1       76  1,621,275       38-6      67 

Communists           .          174,237       40        4  212,651         50         5 

Independents                             _____  489,132       11-7       16 

An  estimated  94%  of  registered  voters  went  to  the  polls. 
There  were  indications  that  the  Independents  (Wahlpartei 
der  Unabhangigen)  owed  their  comparative  success  to  the 
votes  for  re-enfranchized  ex-nazis. 

Belgium.  In  accordance  with  the  census  of  Dec.  31,  1947, 
the  distribution  of  seats  in  the  parliament  was  modified. 
There  were  212  seats  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  instead  of 
202.  A  compromise  left  unaltered  the  number  of  Walloon 
seats,  and  allowed  eight  more  seats  to  the  Flemish  region 
and  two  more  to  the  bilingual  Greater  Brussels  area,  so  that 
the  proportion  was  104  Flemish,  76  Walloon  and  32  Brussels 
representatives.  In  the  Senate  the  division  was  not  so 
apparent,  as  its  composition  was  more  complex:  106  senators 
(101  in  1946)  were  returned  by  the  same  electorate  as  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies,  46  were  chosen  by  the  councils  of  the 
nine  provinces  and  23  were  co-opted  by  senators  already 
elected.  For  the  first  time  women  went  to  the  polls.  Before 
the  elections  of  Feb.  17,  1946,  the  total  of  registered  electors 
was  2,724,796,  but  in  the  elections  of  June  26,  1949,  2,930,270 
women  were  entitled  to  take  part  as  well  as  2,705,182  men. 
The  votes  cast  for  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  compared  with 
those  of  1946,  were  as  follows: 

1946  1949 

%  of  votes  Seats  Votes  %    Seats 

Social  Christian  party     .             42-5  92  2,187,310  43-5  105 

Liberal  party          .          .               8-9  17  766,655  15-3  29 

Belgian  Labour  party      .             31-6  69  1,496,890  28  8  66 

Communists            .          .              12-7  23  376,876  7-5  12 

Independents          .         .               4-3  1  198,567  3-9  — 

Although  in  Belgium  voting  is  compulsory  10-7%  of  the 
registered  voters  did  not  present  themselves  at  the  polls. 
The  "  royal  question "  played  a  prominent  part  in  the 
elections.  The  Social  Christian  party,  which  advocated  the 
abolition  of  the  regency  and  the  return  of  King  Leopold  III 
(q.v.)  from  exile,  failed  to  gain  an  absolute  majority  in  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies,  but  achieved  a  small  one  in  the  Senate. 

E.B.Y.— 16 


The  elections  were  a  relative  success  for  the  Liberals  and  a 
defeat  for  the  Communists. 

Bulgaria.  The  elections  held  on  Dec.  18  were  in  effect  a 
plebiscite  for  single  lists  of  candidates  of  the  Fatherland 
front  comprising  only  the  Communist  party  and  the  rump 
Agrarian  union.  It  was  officially  announced  that  out  of  the 
electorate  of  4,751,849  the  total  votes  cast  numbered 
4,698,979  (98-9%)  and  that  4,588,996  (97-6%)  votes  were 
cast  for  the  Fatherland  front.  There  were  110,080  blank  or 
spoiled  papers.  In  the  elections  held  on  Oct.  27,  1946,  the 
opposition  polled  1,214,480  (30%)  of  the  total  votes  cast  and 
obtained  101  seats  out  of  465.  In  1949  opposition  could  be 
expressed  only  by  abstaining  or  by  putting  a  blank  sheet  in 
the  ballot  envelope.  The  number  of  seats  of  the  Assembly 
was  reduced  from  465  to  239. 

Germany.  For  the  first  time  for  17  years  the  people  of 
Western  Germany  took  part  in  free  and  democratic  elections 
for  a  central  parliament.  No  comparison  was  possible 
between  the  last  free  Reichstag  elections  of  Nov.  1932  and 
the  Bundestag  elections  of  Aug.  14,  1949,  as  the  latter  were 
limited  to  the  three  western  zones  and  the  Bundestag  repre- 
sented only  42  million  out  of  67  million  Germans.  Between 
June  1946  and  May  1947,  however,  nine  Lander  and  two  free 
cities  of  Western  Germany  elected  their  Landtage  and  it  was 
possible  to  compare  the  percentages  of  seats  gained  by  parties 
in  the  provincial  Landtage  counted  together  and  the  Bonn 
parliament  respectively.  The  results  of  the  August  elections, 
arranged  from  the  Right  to  the  Left,  were  as  follows: 


Parties 


Votes  Scats 

Hlected  Elected  Total 
directly  by  P  R. 


Percentages 
1949  1946-47 


D  R  P.     (German 

Right  party)          .        428,949       —  5 

D  P.  (German  party)       940,088         5         12 

WAV    (Economic 

Reconstruction)    .        681,981         -         12 

B.P  (Bavarian  party)       986,606       11  6 

C  D  U.    (Christian 

Democrats)  .     7,357,579     115 

Zentrum    (Roman 

Catholics)    .  727,343       — 

F  D  P.  (Eree  Demo- 
crats) .          .     2,788,653       12 

S  P.D.  (Social  Demo- 
crats) .     6,932,272       96 

K.PD  (Communists)  1,360,443      — 

S.S.W  (South  Schles- 

wigcrs)         .          .          75,387       —  I 

Independents  .         .     1,134,466        3        — 


5 
17 


12 
17 


1-2 

4-2 


3-0 

4-2 


2-7 


24 

139 

34-6 

40-2 

10 

10 

2-5 

2-5 

40 

52 

12  9 

8-2 

35 
15 

131 

15 

32-6 
3-7 

37-5 
8-4 

0-3 
0-8 


0-5 


Of  31,179,422  voters  78-5%  went  to  the  polls.  About 
6  •  7  million  did  not  vote.  Out  of  402  members  of  the  Bunde- 
stag 242  were  elected  directly,  that  is,  in  one-member  con- 
stituencies by  simple  majority,  and  160  scats  were  allotted 
to  the  parties  according  to  their  voting  strength.  As  the 
table  shows,  the  proportional  representation  for  40  %  of  the 
seats  favoured  mainly  small  parties:  without  it  the  German 
Right  party  and  Loritz's  W.A.V.,  as  well  as  the  Zentrum  and 
the  Communists,  would  not  have  been  represented  at  all. 

On  May  15  and  16  elections  took  place  for  the  People's 
Congress  in  the  Soviet  zone.  In  spite  of  strong  pressure  to 
vote  for  a  single  list  of  Communist-sponsored  candidates 
one-third  of  the  electors  voted  against  the  Communist 
nominees.  According  to  the  published  figures,  of  the 
12,887,234  who  went  to  the  polls,  4,080,272  voted  against 
the  Volksrat's  list  of  candidates. 

Hungary.  The  elections  took  place  on  May  1 5,  the  Ministry 
of  the  Interior  announcing  three  days  later  that  out  of  the 
electorate  of  6,053,972  the  total  votes  cast  numbered  5,730,519 
(94-6%)  and  that  5,478,515  (95-6%)  votes  were  cast  for  the 
People's  Independence  front  and  165,283  against,  with 
86,721  spoiled  papers.  No  opposition  candidates  were 
tolerated.  In  the  pre-arranged  composition  of  the  new 


226 


ELECTRICAL  INDUSTRIES 


National  Assembly  270  seats  out  of  395  were  allocated  to 
the  United  Workers'  (Communist)  party.  In  the  Assembly 
elected  on  Aug.  31,  1947,  the  Communists  won  100  seats 
out  of  411  and  in  that  elected  on  Nov.  4,  1945,  69  seats 
out  of  409. 

Iceland.  Elections  for  the  Althing  of  52  members  were 
held  on  Oct.  23,  The  political  composition  of  the  new 
parliament  compared  with  that  elected  on  June  30,  1946, 
was  as  follows: 


Independence  (Conservative)  party 
Progressive  (Farmers')  party    . 
Labour  (Social  Democratic)  party  . 
United  Socialist  (Communist)  party 


Seats 
1946 

19 

14 
9 

10 


Seats 
1949 
19 

17 
7 
9 


Votes 
1949 
28,547 
17,659 
11,938 
14,077 


39-5 
24-5 
16-5 
19-5 


The  total  number  of  registered  voters  was  83,400,  of  whom 
over  33,000  were  resident  in  Reykjavik. 

Norway.  On  Oct.  10  the  Norwegian  people  renewed  their 
Storting  of  150  members  for  the  second  time  after  the  libera- 
tion. The  results  of  the  general  elections,  compared  with 
those  of  Oct.  8,  1945,  were  as  follows: 


1945 


1949 


Votes 


Seats 


Votes 


%   Seats 


Joint     Right-wing 

lists 

87,797 

5-9 

— 

106,959 

6-1 

— 

Conservative  party 

225,280 

15-2 

25 

277.913 

15-9 

23 

Agrarian  party     . 

73,537 

4.9 

10 

85,008 

4.9 

12 

Christian  People's 

party 

117,579 

7-9 

8 

146.413 

8-4 

9 

Liberal  party 

189,591 

12-8 

20 

216,581 

12-4 

21 

Labour  party 

609,255 

41-2 

76 

800,792 

45-8 

85 

Communist  party 

176,491 

11-9 

11 

101,666 

5-8 

—  - 

The  total  poll,  a  record  for  Norway,  was  87%  as  against 
76%  in  1945,  the  total  number  of  valid  votes  being  1,748,246 
as  against  1,484,185  in  1945.  The  Labour  party,  which  in 
1945  had  secured  for  the  first  time  a  clear  majority  in  the 
Storting,  improved  its  position  considerably  although  it  did 
not  obtain  an  absolute  majority  of  votes.  The  Communists, 
who  before  World  War  JI  had  no  representation  in  the 
Storting,  lost  the  11  seats  gained  in  1945. 

Portugal.  Elections  for  the  National  Assembly  of  120 
members  were  held  on  Nov.  13.  In  the  four  elections  already 
held  under  the  constitution  of  1933  the  only  list  presented 
was  that  of  the  Uniao  Nacional.  In  Nov.  1945  a  Democratic 
opposition  had  been  formed  but  boycotted  the  election. 
The  boycott  was  renewed  in  Nov.  1949  but  in  two  con- 
stituencies there  were  two  opposition  lists,  with  a  total  of 
eight  candidates:  at  Castelo  Branco  a  list  of  Constitutional 
Republicans  and  young  Monarchists  was  led  by  Dr.  Cunha 
Leal;  at  Portalegre  the  list  was  headed  by  a  Monarchist, 
Pequito  Rebelo.  Both  the  opposition  lists  were  defeated 
and  all  the  candidates  of  the  government  party,  half  of  them 
civil  servants,  were  elected. 

Other  Countries.  Israel.  Eight  months  after  coming  into 
being  as  an  independent  state,  Israel  held  elections  on 
Jan.  25.  A  total  of  440,095  people,  over  90  %  of  the  electorate, 
went  to  the  polls.  The  results  were  as  follows : 

Parties 

L.H.Y.,  or  Fighters  for  Freedom  (N.  F  Yellm) 
Herut,  or  Freedom  party  (Menahem  Bcyghm) 
United  Religious  Front  (Ashkenazim) 
Sephardi  group  . 
Progressive  front 
Genera)  Zionists 
Israeli  Labour  party*. 
United  Workers'  party! 
Israeli  Communist  party 
Women's  Zionist  organization 
Yemenite  Jews  . 
Nazareth  Democrats  (Arabs) 

•Mapai  or  Mtftget  Poalel  Eretz  Israel. 
tMapam  or  Miflegtt  Poalel  Menoukhedet. 


Votes 

eats 

)     5,363 

1-2 

1 

)    49,782 

11-3 

14 

52,982 

12  0 

16 

15,287 

3-5 

4 

17,786 

4-0 

5 

22,661 

5-2 

7 

155,274 

35-3 

46 

64,018 

14-5 

19 

15,148 

3-4 

4 

5,173 

1-2 

1 

4,399 

0-9 

1 

7,387 

1-7 

2 

The  party  list  method  was  used  with  proportional  repre- 
sentation applied  to  the  whole  country  as  one  constituency. 
As  3,500  votes  were  needed  to  obtain  one  seat,  nine  splinter 
parties  were  eliminated. 

Japan.  Elections  of  a  new  Diet  of  466  members  took  place 
on  Jan.  23.  The  distribution  of  seats — compared  with  that 
of  April  10,  1946,  and  of  April  25,  1947— was  as  follows: 

1946  1947  1949 

Liberal  (Conservative)  party  .  143  131  264 

Democratic  (Progressive)  party  .  94  128  68 

Co-operative  party      .  .  16  31  14 

Social  Democratic  party       .  92  144  49 

Workers'  and  Peasants'  party  .  10  7  7 

Communist  party        .  5  4  35 

Minor  parties  and  Independents  .  106  21  29 

There  were  30-5  million  votes  cast  which  represented  70% 
of  the  registered  voters.  The  Liberal  (Conservative)  party 
obtained  13-4  million  votes  (43-8%)  and  gained  an  absolute 
majority  in  the  Diet.  The  Social  Democrats  lost  two-thirds 
of  their  seats.  The  elections  also  marked  some  success  for 
the  Communists  who  received  2,900,000  votes  (9-6%). 

(K.  SM.) 

ELECTRICAL  INDUSTRIES.  During  1949  elec- 
trical manufacturing  continued  to  be  influenced  very  stongly 
by  the  urgent  need  for  generating  plant  and  for  high-tension 
transmission  equipment  by  which  power  could  be  transported 
from  distant  generating  points  to  load  centres.  There  was 
evidence,  also,  of  efforts  to  overcome  currency  difficulties  by 
substitution  of  readily  available  raw  materials  for  those  which 
had  to  be  imported.  In  European  countries  the  emphasis 
was  upon  exports,  particularly  to  dollar  areas,  even  to  the 
possible  detriment  of  their  internal  supply  of  electrical 
equipment.  Currency  devaluations  in  Sept.  1949  helped  in 
this  direction. 

The  British  Electrical  and  Allied  Manufacturers'  association 
issued  the  first  edition  of  a  most  comprehensive  catalogue  of 
British  electrical  products,  from  heavy  power  plant  to  domes- 
tic appliances,  to  assist  the  export  drive  by  providing 
authoritative  information  to  overseas  buyers. 

Further  measures  were  taken  to  assist  development  of 
transmission  and  distribution  equipment  by  increased 
standardization.  The  council  of  the  International  Electro- 
technical  commission  met  at  Stresa,  Italy,  in  June.  One  of  its 
committees  reviewed  the  list  of  standard  voltages  for  A.C. 
systems  and  extended  it  up  to  400  kilovolts.  Others  con- 
sidered a  draft  international  specification  for  porcelain 
insulators,  tests  upon  transformer  oils,  specifications  for  oil 
circuit  breakers  and  for  ionic  converters. 

Research.  Atomic  energy  research  in  the  United  Kingdom, 
the  Commonwealth  and  the  United  States  continued  very 
actively;  new  establishments  were  planned  and  their  con- 
struction commenced,  but  doubts  continued  to  be  expressed 
concerning  the  ultimate  economy  of  that  source  of  energy 
for  electricity  generation.  Further  study  of  tidal  power 
schemes  was  carried  out  and  the  construction  of  a  model  of 
the  Severn  estuary  for  experimental  research  was  planned. 

Investigations  on  the  possibilities  of  wind  power  for 
electricity  generation  on  a  large  scale  made  good  progress, 
and  preparations  were  made  to  instal  two  100  kilowatt  wind- 
driven  generators,  one  in  Orkney  by  the  North  of  Scotland 
Hydro-Electric  board  and  one  by  the  British  Electricity 
authority,  to  gain  operating  experience.  The  Hydro-Electric 
board,  and  also  the  Ministry  of  Fuel  and  Power  sponsored 
research  on  the  burning  of  peat  in  gas  turbines  for  electricity 
generation. 

An  Electricity  Supply  Research  council  was  set  up  by  the 
British  Electricity  authority  to  keep  under  review  questions 
affecting  electricity  supply;  to  advise  on  specific  supply 
problems  and  to  make  recommendations  on  research  which 


ELECTRICAL  INDUSTRIES 


227 


should  be  initiated.  In  the  industrial  field  research  followed 
the  prevailing  trend  of  emphasis  on  large  generating  plant 
and  super-tension  transmission,  although  important  work 
was  also  done  on  the  development  of  new  manufacturing 
materials,  on  public  and  industrial  lighting  and  heating  and 
on  the  utilization  of  electricity  for  industrial  and  agricultural 
power  purposes. 

Cable  research  was  very  active,  particularly  in  the  direction 
of  developing  cables  to  work  at  A.C.  voltages  of  up  to  300 
kilovolts,  for  B.C.  voltages  of  the  order  of  500  to  1,000  kv. 
and  for  submarine  transmission  of  power  over  long  distances. 
Arrangements  were  made  to  test  a  British  220-kv.  cable 
connected  to  the  French  220-kv.  network  over  a  long  period. 
In  switchgear  for  200  kv.  and  above,  a  breaking  capacity  of 
2,500  megavolt-amperes  or  5,000  Mva.  may  be  needed ;  research 
and  development  work  on  such  gear  was  proceeding.  For 
economy  when  transmission  voltages  of  300  to  400  kv.  are 
used,  the  largest  transformers  which  can  be  transported  will 
be  needed,  so  that  means  of  reducing  transformer  weight 
were  being  investigated.  There  was  a  tendency  towards  the 
adoption  of  groups  of  single-phase  units  for  very  high 
voltages  and  outputs  because  of  transport  limitations. 

A  short  length  of  275-kv.  line  was  erected  by  the  British 
Electricity  authority.  On  this  4-unit  strings  of  insulators  were 
to  be  used,  the  units  having  a  semi-conducting  glaze.  The 
technique  of  manufacturing  porcelain  insulators  with  semi- 
conducting ceramic  glazes  was  a  significant  development; 
such  insulators  gave  a  remarkably  good  performance  in 
humid  and  polluted  atmospheres.  These  glazes  were  especially 
useful  in  controlling  voltage  distribution  on  high-voltage 
air-break  switchgear  and  they  were  used  on  132-kv.  cable 
sealing  ends. 

Information  was  published  on  research  on  magnetic 
materials  and  on  the  remarkable  improvements  made  during 
and  after  World  War  II  in  the  characteristics  of  electrical 
steels  and  other  ferro-magnetic  materials  used  in  radar  and 
nuclear  physics. 

Generating  Plant.  In  Great  Britain  steam  turbo-generators 
for  public  supply  power  stations  were  standardized  at  30 
or  60  Mw.  and  the  former  was  approximately  the  average 
size  of  set  in  use.  In  view  of  the  need  to  increase  generating 
capacity  as  quickly  as  possible  the  installation  of  larger  sets 
was  becoming  more  common  and  this  average  appeared 
likely  to  rise  during  the  next  few  years  to  between  40  and 
50  kw.  In  the  United  States  a  single-shaft  set  of  161,760 
kilo  volts-amperes  was  being  designed  to  operate  at  a  steam 
pressure  of  l,2501b.  per  sq.  in.  and  950°F.  The  generator 
was  to  be  hydrogen  cooled. 

Walsall  power  station,  the  second  of  the  38  new  stations 
inaugurated  since  nationalization  in  Great  Britain  was 
officially  opened  on  Sept.  30.  It  had  then  in  operation  two 
30  Mw.  sets  but  would  have  a  total  capacity  of  180  Mw. 
by  1952.  In  the  same  B.E.A.  division  two  further  new 
stations,  one  of  210  Mw.  and  the  other  120  Mw.  were  under 
construction.  In  addition  to  large  gas  turbines  being  con- 
structed for  the  B.E.A.  and  North  of  Scotland  Hydro- 
Electric  board,  a  simple  open-cycle  gas  turbine  unit  to  drive 
a  750-kw.  alternator  was  developed  as  a  private  venture  by  an 
English  manufacturer.  It  was  intended  to  be  a  general 
purpose,  long-life  prime  mover.  Another  type  of  1,000  kw. 
gas  turbine  and  generator  for  base  load  operation  was  under 
construction  for  the  Admiralty. 

Transmission  and  Distribution.  As  an  extension  of  the  grid 
system  of  the  B.E.A.,  a  33-kv.  submarine  cable,  the  largest 
cable  of  this  voltage  ever  installed  in  Great  Britain,  was  laid 
across  the  Solent  from  Gurnard,  Isle  of  Wight,  to  Lepe  in 
Hampshire.  Of  total  length  2-9  mi.,  it  was  approximately 
6  in.  diameter  and  weighed  1321b.  a  yard.  Another  sub- 
marine cable  (for  telephone  circuits)  80  mi.  long  was  laid 


between  eastern  England  and  Holland.  Its  main  insulation 
was  of  telecothene,  a  new  polythene-base  insulating  material. 
Up  to  June,  1949,  the  total  of  orders  placed  with  British 
transformer  manufacturers  during  the  past  few  years  for 
transformers  to  operate  at  200  kv.  and  over  was  1,187,000 
kva.  in  18  installations.  These  included  120,000  kva.  at 
242  kv.  for  the  U.S.S.R.  in  1942  and  other  groups  at  220  kv. 
for  Holland  and  Finland. 

The  cuts  in  capital  expenditure  announced  by  Sir  Stafford 
Cripps  in  October  included  one  for  electricity  distribution 
which  was  expected  to  cause  some  check  to  rural  electrification 
during  1950.  This  was  unfortunate  in  view  of  the  excellent 
work  done  by  the  area  boards  and  Electrical  Development 
association,  at  agricultural  shows  throughout  the  country, 
to  inform  farmers  on  the  uses  of  electricity  in  agriculture. 

Utilization.  An  important  event  was  the  official  opening 
by  the  minister  of  transport  on  Sept.  26  of  the  electrified 
railway  service  between  Liverpool  Street  station,  London, 
and  Shenfield.  The  work  was  started  in  1939  but  was  sus- 
pended during  the  war.  An  overhead  system  operated  at 
1,500  volts  D.C.  was  used,  the  power  supply  being  at  33  kv. 
from  the  grid.  Rectification  was  by  twin,  1,000-kw.,  six- 
anode,  pumpless,  steel  tank  rectifiers.  The  rolling  stock 
comprised  92  three-coach  sets,  the  motor  coaches  each  having 
four  210-h.p.  motors.  Another  railway  electrification  scheme 
— for  Brazil — involved  the  manufacture  by  a  British  firm  of 
15  3,000-h.p.,  3,000-volt  D.C.  mixed  traffic  locomotives. 
These  were  the  largest  type  ever  manufactured  in  Britain  and 
would  be  used  on  a  64-km.  length  of  main  line  then  being 
electrified.  One  locomotive  could  haul  a  load  of  600  tons  at 
45  m.p.h.  on  the  level  or  at  20  m.p.h.  up  a  2-5%  gradient. 
Electric  vehicles  gained  further  in  popularity.  At  the  Dairy 
show,  at  Olympia,  London,  in  October,  nine  manufacturers 
showed  various  types.  Almost  three-quarters  of  all  the 
machinery  and  appliances  exhibited  at  this  show  was  electric- 
ally operated.  Two  makes  of  dairy  sterilizer  were  of  the 
thermal  storage  type,  which  thus  followed  the  general  trend 
of  agricultural  electrical  equipment  towards  low  electric 
loading  and  oft-peak  operation.  Barn  hay-drying  by  cold 
air  blowing  and  electric  soil  warming  in  glasshouses  was 
being  adopted.  Electric  hoists  were  prominent  and  included 
one  with  stable  creep  control  specially  suited  to  cranes. 

Owing  to  their  simplicity  in  installation,  ease  of  control 
and  clean  melting,  induction  furnaces  continued  to  gain  in 
popularity.  A  new  25-kw.  radio  frequency  unit  was  built 
which  was  capable  of  melting  201b.  of  ferrous  metal  in  20 
to  30  min.  Its  operating  frequency  was  600  kilocycles  per  sec. 

Interest  in  the  possibilities  of  residential  heat  pumps,  of 
a  few  kilowatts  capacity,  was  strong  and  increasing.  Unfor- 
tunately their  capital  cost  was  high.  For  economy  in  use 
they  were  to  be  applied  to  summer  cooling  as  well  as  to  winter 
heating.  Research  and  development  were  devoted  to  investi- 
gation of  heat  sources  and  their  economic  utilization  and 
towards  reducing  the  cost  of  construction. 

In  Great  Britain  in  April  the  restriction  on  electric  lighting 
for  display  purposes  was  removed  until  October.  This 
focussed  attention  on  display  lighting,  and  the  Silver  Jubilee 
meeting  of  the  Association  of  Public  Lighting  Engineers  in 
London  in  September  provided  the  occasion  for  a  full 
discussion  of  all  aspects  of  public  lighting.  Fluorescent 
lighting  made  further  strides  and  was  being  extended  to 
underground  railway  trains.  An  important  development  was 
the  colour  matching  fluorescent  tube.  The  specially  developed 
lighting  equipment  for  the  huge  assembly  hall,  7^  ac.  in  floor 
area,  at  Bristol  in  which  the  Brabazon  1  was  built  created 
much  interest.  At  the  mounting  height  of  75  ft.  above  the 
floor  high  efficiency  lamps  could  be  used  without  risk  of 
glare.  A  combination  of  1,500-w.  tungsten  filament  and 
400-w.  mercury  vapour  discharge  lamps  was  installed. 


228 


ELECTRIC   POWER 


Materials.  Advances  in  insulating  materials  included  the 
application  of  asbestos  paper  impregnated,  with  a  heat- 
resisting  varnish  for  high  temperature  uses,  and  a  new  fabric 
"  Terylene  **  which  had  very  low  moisture  absorption  and 
could  withstand  180°C.  Improved  methods  of  manufacture 
for  electrical  sheet  steel  led  to  a  much  lower  iron  loss,  higher 
permeability  and  greater  mechanical  strength.  Much  interest 
was  shown  in  the  new  "  ferntes " — developed  through 
research  in  Holland  during  the  war.  Non-metallic  magnetic 
materials  having  high  permeability  and  very  high  resistivity 
resulted  from  the  mixture  of  certain  oxides  (ferntes)  by  a 
sintering  process. 

Aluminium  and  light  metal  alloys  were  put  to  new  uses. 

Aluminium    alloy   conduits    and    zinc   alloy   fittings    were 

employed  for  wiring  circuits  and  a  series  of  notes  on  the  subject 

was  published  by  the  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers'  Wiring 

Regulations  committee.  In  Norway,  which  had  an  increasing 

output  of  aluminium,  its  use  for  overhead  line  pylons  was 

under  consideration.    Again,  the  world  shortage  of  lead,  as 

well  as  its  poor  mechanical  properties  and  high  weight,  Jed 

to  the  introduction  of  aluminium  sheathing  for  cables  of 

all  types. 

Electrical  Exports.  The  need  to  export  from  Great  Britain 
electrical  machinery  and  equipment  for  which  there  was  a 
good  overseas  market  became  even  more  urgent  than  in  1948. 
Although  in  the  earlier  months  there  was  some  reduction  in 
the  value  of  such  exports,  the  Board  of  Trade  figure  for  the 
value  of  exports  of  electrical  goods  and  apparatus  in  the  first 
10  months  of  1949  was  £66,595,797  which  compared  with 
£59,701,393  for  the  same  period  in  1948.  (E.  W.  G.) 

United  States.  Electric  utility  customers  bought  248,750 
million  kwh.  of  energy  in  1949,  an  increase  of  8,010  million 
kwh.  on  1948.  Sales  to  residential  and  rural  customers 
continued  to  grow  and  were  65,925  million  kwh.,  about 
8,600  million  more  than  in  1948.  Average  annual  residential 
use  of  electricity  rose  from  1,563  kwh.  in  1948  to  1,685 
kwh.  in  1949.  Customers  paid  the  electric  utilities  $4,611 
million  in  1949,  about  $298  million  more  than  in  1948,  a 
6-9%  increase.  The  average  revenue  from  all  customers 
in  1949  was  1  -85  cents  per  kwh.  as  against  1  -79  cents  in  1948. 
The  number  of  customers  served  in  1949  grew  to  a  total 
of  42,836,000,  an  increase  of  2,114,000  over  1948.  The 
largest  increase  was  in  the  residential  class.  The  number  of 
people  in  homes  served  by  electricity  in  1949  was  about 
137-5  million  or  approximately  95  %  of  the  total  population. 

New  capital  entering  the  business  in  1949  was  $1,445 
million  as  compared  with  $1,314  million  in  1948,  and  $576 
million  in  1947.  The  total  financing  in  1949  was  thus  $1,793 
million.  The  share  of  the  revenue  available  for  dividends  and 
surplus  rose  in  1949,  due  to  increased  revenues  and  higher 
operating  efficiency.  In  1947,  the  proportion  was  18-2  cents; 
in  1948  it  fell  to  16-7  cents;  in  1949  it  increased  to  18-2 
cents.  The  gross  operating  revenue  of  power  companies  rose 
from  $3,903  million  in  1948  to  $4,150  million  in  1949.  Money 
left  for  net  income  in  1949  was  $778  million,  $108  million 
greater  than  the  net  income  reported  in  1948. 

In  1949,  the  Federal  Reserve  board  index  of  general 
industrial  production  dropped  to  203,  8  points  below  1948. 
The  electrical  production  index  dropped  to  429,  48  points 
below  1948  and  only  14  points  above  1947.  Following  a 
distinct  slowing-up  of  production  in  1948,  electrical  goods  for 
industrial  installation  continued  to  decline  in  1949.  (See  also 
BROADCASTING;  RADIO,  SCIENTIFIC  DEVELOPMENTS  IN; 
TELEVISION.)  (F.  J.  K.) 


ELECTRIC  POWER.  In  spite  of  political  and 
economic  difficulties  resulting  in  some  curtailment  of  capital 
expenditure  on  generation  and  transmission  plant,  the  efforts 


to  rectify  the  widespread  deficit  in  electric  power  plant 
continued  in  1949.  The  position  of  power  capacity  and 
energy  production  in  western  Europe  was  clearly  set  out  in  a 
report  of  the  Electricity  committee  of  the  Organization  for 
European  Economic  Co-operation  issued  during  the  year. 
This  showed  that  an  estimated  deficit  of  8  •  5  million  kilowatts 
in  1949  would  be  likely  to  rise,  through  increasing  demand, 
to  a  deficit  of  20  million  kw.  by  June  1952  and  that  the  new 
construction  planned  would  still  leave  a  gap  of  4  to  5  million 
kw.  or  16,000  million  kwh.  a  year. 

Conditions  in  the  electrical  manufacturing  industry  showed 
improvement  and  this  assisted  the  effort  to  provide  the  much 
needed  generating  equipment.    The  difficulties  of  the  inter- 
national monetary  position,  particularly  of  dollar  shortages, 
were  a  handicap  which  might  however  disappear  under  the 
arrangements  being  made  for  economic  co-operation.  Develop- 
ments  in   new  forms   of  generating  plant  made  progress. 
Several  large  gas-turbine  sets  were  neanng  completion  in 
readiness  for  being  put  into  service  in  1950  or  1951.    The 
application  of  atomic  energy  to  electricity  generation  was 
brought  nearer  to  fulfilment  by  much  active  research  and  by 
the  decision  to  establish  in  Great  Britain  a  new  experimental 
station;  but  the  practical  realization  of  atomic  power  stations 
remained  a  comparatively  long-term  project.  The  possibilities 
of  tidal  power,  particularly  from  the  Severn  barrage,  continued 
to  receive  attention,   but  its  development  was  postponed 
mainly  because  of  the  veiy  high  capital  cost — around  £60 
million  for  the  800  megawatts  of  generating  capacity. 

Interest  in  the  practicability  of  large  scale  generation  of 
electricity  by  wind  power  was  increased  by  encouraging 
results  from  research  work  in  both  Great  Britain  and  France. 
The  North  of  Scotland  Hydro-Electric  board  placed  a  contract 
for  a  100  kw.  experimental  wind-driven  generator  to  be 
erected  on  Orkney  in  1950,  and  the  British  Electricity  authority 
also  invited  tenders  for  a  similar  plant. 

The  utilization  of  water  power  resources  often  involves  the 
transmission  of  power  over  several  hundred  miles  to  the 
centre  of  the  load.  Hence  much  attention  continued  to  be 
given  to  extra-high-tension  tiansmission  at  voltages  up  to 
400  kilovolts.  Sweden's  decision  to  harness  the  largest 
waterfall  in  the  country,  at  Harspranget,  600  mi.  north  of  the 
industrial  districts,  led  to  the  planning  of  a  380  kv.  alternating 
current  transmission  system.  This  was  under  construction 
and  was  designed  so  that  it  could  later  operate  at  400  kv. 
connected  to  a  European  network  of  that  voltage  linking  the 
Ruhr  and  other  industrial  areas  with  Austrian  and  Swiss 
water  power  stations.  The  possibilities  of  high-tension 
direct-current  transmission  for  large  blocks  of  power  to  be 
carried  over  long  distances — 300  mi.  and  over — were  discussed 
particularly  in  connection  with  such  projects  as  transmission 
by  under-water  cables  from  Norway  to  Denmark  or  Great 
Britain. 

Great  Britain.  After  its  first  year  of  operation,  beginning  on 
April  1,  1948,  the  British  Electricity  authority  had  completed 
its  organization.  Good  progress  was  made  both  in  its  power 
production  programme  and  with  distribution,  though  that  in 
rural  electrification  was  likely  to  be  retarded  by  the  govern- 
ment's autumn  cuts  in  capital  expenditure. 

The  total  installed  generating  capacity  (at  the  end  of 
September)  of  the  B.E.A.  and  North  of  Scotland  Hydro- 
Electric  board  together  was  13,564  megawatts,  and  the  peak 
load  carried  during  the  winter  1948-49  was  10,163  Mw. 
During  the  first  year  of  operation  (April  1948  to  March  1949) 
the  number  of  units  sent  out  was  44,784  million,  an  increase 
of  10  •  5  %  on  the  total  for  the  preceding  year.  The  number  of 
consumers  was  estimated  to  be  12,300,000.  Plans  for  new 
generating  capacity  to  be  installed  by  the  B.E.A.,  up  to  and 
including  1952,  covered  a  total  of  5,518  Mw.  Hydro-electric 
development  in  north  Wales,  including  six  major  schemes  to 


ELECTRIC  POWER 


229 


The  Clark  dam  at  Butler's  Gorge,  Tasmania  being  built  in  1949 
to  supply  water  to  the  Tarraleah  power  station. 

cost  approximately  £20  million  and  with  an  estimated  annual 
production  of  some  500  million  units,  were  approved  in 
principle. 

The  annual  report  of  the  Electricity  board  for  Northern 
Ireland  showed  that  in  1 948  the  number  of  units  sold  rose  to 
179,830,000,  an  increase  of  28%  over  the  preceding  year,  and 
the  number  of  consumers  to  83,066,  an  increase  of  6,690. 

North  of  Scotland  Hydro-Electric  Board.  In  Dec.  1948,  the 
first  two  hydro-electric  schemes  of  the  board,  one  at  Morar, 
Inverness-shire,  and  the  other  at  Lochalsh,  Ross-shire,  were 
brought  into  operation.  Twelve  hydro-electric  stations,  to 
have  a  total  capacity  of  423,000  kw.,  were  under  construction. 
Nineteen  projects  totalling  630,000  kw.  capacity  and  with  an 
annual  output  of  nearly  1,700  million  units,  published  in 
1948,  were  confirmed.  The  aggregate  capacity  of  hydro- 
electric schemes  being  surveyed,  promoted  or  constructed 
was  800,000  kw.  with  an  estimated  annual  output  of  2,200 
million  units. 

A  population  of  45,000  was  given  electricity  supplies  for 
the  first  time  during  1948,  and  the  total  population  being 
supplied  was  approximately  700,000.  The  capacity  of  installed 
plant  being  operated  by  the  board  at  the  beginning  of  1949 
was  250,548  kw.,  which  included  hydro,  steam  and  diesel 
plant.  A  "  highland  grid  "  was  to  be  constructed  to  inter- 
connect the  main  generating  stations.  This  would  require 
about  1,000  mi.  of  132,000  volt  transmission  lines.  Between 
April  1  and  Dec.  31,  1948  electrical  energy  amounting  to 
79,085,200  units  was  exported  to  the  British  Electricity 
authority's  grid  in  central  Scotland.  The  board  sponsored,  or 
co-operated  in,  research  on  the  design  of  dams,  on  wind  power 
for  electricity  generation  and  on  control  of  the  growth  factors 
of  brown  trout.  The  last  research,  in  conjunction  with  the 
Department  of  the  Secretary  of  State  for  Scotland,  was  aimed 
at  improvement  of  angling  in  Scottish  waters. 

Commonwealth.  The  Hydro-Electric  Power  commission  of 
Ontario  completed  27,000  h.p.  emergency  steam  plant  at 
Toronto  and  erected  some  5,000  mi.  of  new  rural  lines  with 
connection  of  about  40,000  new  consumers.  Co-operation, 


through  a  joint  Power  board,  between  Ontario  and  Manitoba 
had  been  planned  to  facilitate  future  exchanges  of  power 
between  the  two  provinces.  The  Pine  Portage  scheme  on 
the  Nipigon  river  was  being  completed  at  80,000  h.p.  with 
provisions  for  further  development  to  double  this  amount., 
The  Spray  lakes  hydro-electric  project  near  Calgary  having 
a  capacity  of  1 60,000  kw.  was  expected  to  be  in  operation  in 
the  autumn  of  1950. 

In  Australia,  work  on  the  first  dam  of  the  largest  hydro- 
electric project  in  the  country — the  Snowy  river  scheme — 
was  inaugurated  on  Oct.  17.  Two  major  schemes  in  Victoria, 
the,Kiewa  hydro-electric  scheme  and  the  Yallourn  brown  coal 
project,  made  progress.  The  possibility  of  the  development 
and  transmission  of  up  to  one  million  h.p.  from  the  water 
power  resources  of  Tasmania  to  supply  the  mainland  was 
under  consideration. 

In  spite  of  great  progress  in  hydro-electric  development, 
New  Zealand  was  experiencing  a  serious  shortage  of  power. 
Some  92%  of  the  homes  in  the  country  were  being  supplied, 
and  the  unchecked  natural  increase  in  demand  would  be 
9%  a  year.  New  piojects  under  construction  would  add 
650,000  kw.  of  capacity. 

The  South  African  Electricity  Supply  commission  faced 
heavy  demands  by  the  gold  mining  industry.  The  total 
capacity  of  plant  being  installed  or  on  order  was  487,000  kw. 
A  contract  for  the  Owen  falls  project  on  Lake  Victoria  was 
placed  by  the  Uganda  Electricity  board.  It  would  have  an 
ultimate  capacity  of  150,000  kw.,  costing  £67  per  kw.  and 
would  form  a  basis  for  great  industrial  development  in 
Uganda. 

Total  public  supply  generating  capacity  in  India  was  1  •  4 
million  kw.,  which  produced  4,575  million  units  in  1948. 
The  construction  of  several  additional  large  steam-driven 
power  stations  and  hydro  schemes  was  planned. 

The  Federation  government,  Malaya,  passed  an  Electricity 
bill  establishing  a  Central  Electricity  board  but  it  was  decided 
that  existing  commercial  supply  undertakings  should  not  be 
compulsorily  acquired. 

Europe.  Under  the  European  Recovery  programme  an 
international  programme  of  power  station  construction  and 
interconnection  had  been  planned  for  western  European 
countries.  This  covered  the  building  of  a  total  capacity  of 
2,800  Mw.  to  produce  7,700  million  units  annually,  including 
13  hydro-electric  projects  in  Austria,  France,  Italy,  Switzer- 
land and  the  Benelux  countries.  A  complementary  programme 
included  national  projects  requiring  external  financial  assis- 
tance. The  total  planned  capacity  under  the  two  programmes 
was  7,800  Mw.,  which  was  in  addition  to  the  national  projects 
for  15,000  Mw.  The  largest  increases  in  net  generating 
capacity  during  the  next  five  years  were  to  be:  Great  Britain 
(6,600  Mw.);  France  (2,690  Mw.);  Italy  (2,971  Mw.);  and 
the  bizone  of  Western  Germany  (3,000  Mw.).  The  greatest 
percentage  increase  was  for  Greece,  where  the  capacity  was 
to  rise  from  156  Mw.  in  1948  to  619  Mw.  in  1953. 

Before  World  War  II,  220-kv,  lines  running  from  eastern 
Germany  to  Austria  and  Italy  allowed  power  to  pass  north- 
wards when  there  was  ample  hydro  power  in  the  south  and 
southwards  from  German  thermal  plant  during  the  winter, 
when  the  water  flow  was  small.  Removal  of  generating  plant 
in  eastern  Germany  after  the  war  upset  this  transfer,  but  it 
was  to  be  re-established  by  the  construction  of  an  east-west 
line  in  western  Germany.  The  220-kv.  lines  would  later  be 
converted  to  an  operating  voltage  of  400  kilovolts. 

Developments  planned  for  Italy  included  the  construction 
of  a  transmission  line  1,200  km.  long  from  the  Alps  to  Sicily 
and  an  increase  in  geo-thermic  generating  capacity  from 
125  Mw.  to  375  Mw.  by  1953. 

Finland,  which  in  the  peace  treaties  had  to  cede  about  a 
quarter  of  her  established  water  power,  was  making  great 


230 


ELECTRIC  TRANSPORT 


efforts  towards  postwar  recovery  by  completing  several 
stations  under  construction  and  by  building  11  new  hydro- 
electric stations.  The  first  of  these  went  into  operation  in 
1948,  and  by  1952  all  of  them  would  be  completed,  raising 
the  hydro-electric  generating  capacity  from  440  Mw.  to 
800  Mw.  All  the  economically  usable  main  water-power 
resources  of  Finland,  which  could  provide  10,000  million 
units  annually,  would  be  utilized  within  the  next  20  years. 

The  potential  water  power  resources  capable  of  develop- 
ment in  the  Scandinavian  countries  was  recently  estimated, 
in  terms  of  annual  energy  production,  as  follows:  Norway 
120,000  million  units  a  year;  Sweden  50,000  million;  Fin- 
land 10,000  million.  It  was  probable  that  Norway  would 
be  able  in  future  to  export  power,  particularly  to  Denmark 
and  Finland,  when  high-tension  direct-current  transmission 
would  have  become  further  developed.  (E.  W.  G.) 

United  States.  The  U.S.  electrical  industry  was  nearing  or 
had  passed  its  peak  in  1949.  Energy  produced  for  the  public 
supply  exceeded  the  output  for  1948  by  only  2-9%  as  com- 
pared with  a  10*1%  increase  the  previous  year.  Total  output 
was  290,783  million  kwh.,  as  compared  with  282,698  million 
kwh.  in  1948.  To  generate  this  output  in  1949,  the  average 
kilowatt  of  hydro  capacity  produced  at  maximum  capacity 
for  more  than  63  hr.  out  of  every  100,  while  steam  capacity 
produced  for  about  54  hr.  out  of  every  100.  Of  the  output 
increase  of  8,085  million  kwh.  in  1949,  6,815  million  kwh. 
were  furnished  by  hydro  power  plants. 

The  net  increase  in  generating  capacity  in  1949  up  to  Nov.  1 
was  4,606,000  kw.  bringing  the  total  capacity  up  to 
61,166,000  kw.  The  reported  new  capacity  installed  in  1949 
was  6,750,000  kw.  Preliminary  figures  set  the  peak  load  at 
54,300,000  kw.  and  indicated  that  the  margin  of  safety  would 
be  about  12%  or  double  that  of  1948.  (F.  J.  K.) 

ELECTRIC  TRANSPORT.  Despite  considerable 
financial  difficulties  in  many  European  countries  railway 
electrification  made  headway  in  1949.  Fresh  impetus  was 
being  given  by  Marshall  aid  to  restoration  and  to  new  conver- 
sions, especially  in  Austria  and  in  Italy.  Considered  individu- 
ally the  contribution  of  each  country  might  be  small  but  a 
review  of  the  year's  achievements  was  not  unimpressive. 
Electric  working  must  be  justified  for  the  most  part  by  its 
economy,  rather  than  by  the  improved  facilities  it  can  offer 
and  in  practically  all  countries  electrification  was  regarded 
as  a  contribution  to  the  development  of  national  resources. 

Wholesale  destruction  during  World  War  II  and  intensive 
use  of  transport  equipment  under  poor  maintenance  presented 
an  opportunity  for  re-equipment  on  a  large  scale,  and  forced 
consideration  of  a  motive  power  policy  for  some  30  years 
ahead.  Alternative  forms  of  traction  were  closely  examined 
and  the  selection  of  previously  accepted  standard  systems  of 
electrification  reviewed.  The  French  railway  administration 
held  the  view  that  despite  adherence  to  the  standard  1,500 
volts  D.C.  for  main  line  electrification  a  50-cycle  single-phase 
system  would  be  preferable  on  economic  grounds  for  the 
conversion  of  secondary  lines.  In  Great  Britain  a  committee 
was  also  reconsidering,  in  the  light  of  modern  developments, 
the  selection,  made  some  20  years  earlier,  of  1,500  volts  D.C. 
as  the  standard  system. 

Great  Britain.  In  Sept.  1949,  the  Central  line  of  the  London 
Transport  executive  was  extended  from  Loughton  to  Epping 
(five  mi.).  This  administration  placed  orders  for  90  surface 
line  cars  of  aluminium  alloy  in  order  to  obtain  comparative 
data  of  cost  and  performance  and  to  secure  a  saving  in  energy 
consumption.  A  weight  reduction  of  3-1  tons  a  car  was 
anticipated.  In  September,  also,  the  Eastern  region's  1,500 
volt  D.C.  suburban  electrification  from  London  (Liverpool 
Street)  to  Shenfield  was  begun.  Ninety-two  three-car  multiple 
unit  sets  were  provided  to  operate  over  23  route  and  110 


single  track  mi.  An  eight-car  experimental  double  decker 
multiple-unit  train  was  put  into  service  on  the  Southern 
region  in  November. 

The  working  party  appointed  to  review  proposals  for 
railway  improvement  put  forward  by  the  Railway  (London 
Plan)  committee  published  its  report  on  railway  construction 
and  development  advocated  in  Greater  London.  The  electrifi- 
cation of  all  remaining  steam-operated  suburban  services 
radiating  from  London,  except  on  the  Western  region,  was 
proposed  as  far  as  High  Wycombe,  Tring,  Luton,  Hitchin, 
Bishops  Stortford  and  Shoeburyness.  Such  services  were  to 
be  continued  diametrically  across  London  in  tubes  taking 
full  sized  rolling  stock.  An  under  river  freight  route  via 
Greenwich  of  5£  mi.  was  also  included.  Additional  normal 
sized  tubes  (12  ft.  in  diameter)  would  be  constructed  both  on 
new  routes  and  extensions  to  existing  routes.  The  Bakerloo 
line  extension  to  Camberwell  Green  was  already  authorized. 
The  total  route  miles  in  the  tube  would  be  103  mi.  and  the 
estimated  cost  of  £238  million  was  for  constructing  and 
equipping  the  tube  lines  only,  excluding  the  electrification  of 
the  surface  lines. 

Austria.  Electrification  in  Austria  benefited  from  Marshall 
aid.  Electric  working  was  introduced  in  May  1949  on  the 
Attnang-Putchheim-Linz  section  (34  mi.),  bringing  the  total 
electrified  mileage  on  the  main  line  between  Vienna  and  Buchs 
on  the  Swiss  frontier  up  to  342  mi.  The  Vienna-Linz  section 
(117  mi.)  was  still  to  be  converted,  though  the  Salza  hydro- 
electric station,  which  would  eventually  supply  power  to  this 
section,  was  commissioned  during  the  year.  Another  hydro 
station  was  under  construction  at  Kaprun  to  supply  power 
for  the  existing  Innsbruck-Bregenz  line. 

Belgium.  The  conversion  of  the  Brussels  Midi-Linkebeek- 
Charleroi  (35  mi.)  route  was  completed  in  October.  The 
second  Brussels  Nord-Schaerbeek-Antwerp  line  (27  mi.)  and 
the  connecting  loop  Linkebeek-Schaerbeek  was  in  hand. 
These  schemes  were  allied  with  the  junction  railway  between 
Brussels  Midi  and  Brussels  Nord  on  which  steady  progress 
was  made  during  the  year.  Plans  provided  for  through 
freight  working  between  Antwerp  Nord  and  Monceau,  near 


One  of  the  new  electric  trains  brought  into  use  on  April  13,  1949, 
for  service  on  Southend  pier — over  a  mile  in  length* 


ELECTRIC  TRANSPORT 


231 


Charleroi,  as  soon  as  work  in  the  Brussels  area  allowed. 

Bulgaria.  One  hundred  and  eighty-six  route  mi.  of  line 
radiating  from  Sofia  were  included  for  electrification  in  the 
five  years  1949-53.  The  first  two  for  conversion  were  Sofia- 
Plovdiv  (107  mi.)  and  Sofia-Mezdra  (55  mi.)  with  an  estimated 
annual  consumption  of  150  million  units. 

France.  Despite  financial  difficulties  work  on  the  Paris- 
Lyons  (318  mi.)  electrification  was  proceeding  steadily.  This 
was  one  of  the  most  heavily  loaded  sections  of  the  French 
railways  and  the  annual  consumption  between  Paris-Dijon 
would  be  250  million  units,  with  a  further  150  million  units 
from  Dijon  to  Lyons.  The  bulk  of  this  power  would  be 
produced  in  the  G6nissiat  hydro-electric  plant.  Tests  of  a 
new  C0-C0  4,000-h.p.  express  locomotive  were  remarkably 
successful.  It  was  the  first  French  locomotive  with  total 
adhesion  having  two  three-axle  motor  bogies.  The  traction 
motors  were  entirely  suspended  from  each  bogie  frame  and 
drove  the  wheels  through  hollow  shafts.  On  a  test  run 
between  Paris  and  Bordeaux  (362  mi.)  a  maximum  speed  of 
105  «6  m.p.h.  was  reached  with  an  average  of  81-4  m.p.h. 
Until  the  Lyons  route  was  opened  locomotives  of  this  type 
were  to  be  employed  on  the  Paris-Hendaye  and  Paris- 
Toulouse  routes. 

Further  progress  was  made  during  the  year  on  the  possi- 
bility of  extending  electric  traction  on  branch  lines  on  the 
A.C.  single  phase  system  taking  power  from  the  industrial 
network  at  50  cycles.  Two  problems  required  solution,  the 
development  of  a  satisfactory  50-cycle  A.C.  traction  motor 
and  the  avoidance  of  disturbance  to  other  loads  on  the 
industrial  distribution  system.  Orders  were  placed  for  three 
experimental  locomotives  which  would  operate  either  from 
A.C.  or  D.C.  Two  of  them  would  have  50-cycle  traction  motors 
fed  directly  from  the  line  on  A.C.  sections  and  through  a 
converter,  with  a  reduced  output  adequate  for  station  duties 
when  operating  on  1,500  volts  D.C.  at  an  interchange  point. 
The  third  locomotive  would  have  1,500-volt  D.C.  traction 
motors  supplied  either  direct  from  the  line  on  D.C.  or  through 
an  A.C./D.C.  motor  generator  when  working  on  the  single- 
phase  routes.  Running  trials  would  be  made  on  the  line 
from  Aix-les-Bains  via  Annecy  to  La  Roche-sur-Furon. 

Germany.  Preliminary  studies  were  made  of  the  heavily 
loaded  railway  network  in  the  Ruhr  zone  and  the  adjoining 
Rhine  province  with  a  view  to  electrification.  The  financial 
position  was  probably  against  any  extensive  electrification 
scheme  but  a  start  was  contemplated  on  the  Rhine-Ruhr 
express  route  between  Cologne,  Dusseldorf,  Hagen  and 
Hamm.  To  ease  traffic  working  the  conversion  of  the  link 
between  Stuttgart  and  Waiblingen  was  undertaken.  This 
connected  the  main  electrified  Stuttgart-Ulm-Munich  line 
with  the  Stuttgart- Nuremberg  and  the  Aalen  routes. 

Hungary.  Electric  working  was  restored  on  the  Budapest- 
Hegyeshalom  main  line  between  Budapest  and  Gyor  (93  mi.). 
The  locomotives  on  this  line  operated  on  the  Kando  system 
in  which  50-cycle  single-phase  current  was  taken  from  the 
industrial  network  and  converted  to  three-phase  variable 
frequency  on  the  locomotive  by  rotating  machinery.  New 
3,200-h.p.  locomotives  were  delivered  by  the  Ganz  works. 
These  had  one  three-axle  and  one  two-axle  bogie,  on  each 
axle  of  which  an  induction  motor  was  mounted.  Five 
economical  running  speeds  with  automatic  regeneration  on 
down  grades  were  available.  The  electrification  of  the 
Budapest- Hatvan- Miskolc  main  line  (115  mi.)  was  planned 
as  part  of  a  five-year  programme  in  which  was  included  an 
underground  railway  for  Budapest,  the  first  four-mile  section 
to  be  completed  within  the  five  years. 

Italy.  Marshall  aid  funds  were  used  to  extend  the  3,000 
volts  D.C.  system  to  Genoa  Brignole  on  the  Genoa-Rome 
route.  The  possibility  of  converting  to  D.C.  the  three-phase 
line  between  Genoa  and  Ventimiglia  was  also  under  review. 


A  short  connecting  link  was  to  be  built  between  Avellino 
and  Palma-San  Gennaro.  This  would  shorten  the  distance 
between  Naples  and  Avellino  by  nine  mi.  The  old  route, 
Poretta-Pistoia,  61  mi.  of  single  track  on  the  Milan-Bologna- 
Rome  line,  was  re-opened  for  electric  working.  As  the 
intermediate  sub-stations  were  not  finished,  power  was 
supplied  from  Bologna  and  Florence  and  the  resultant 
voltage  drop  was  compensated  for  by  special  equipment  on 
the  electric  locomotives  and  at  certain  points  along  the  line. 
The  experiment  was  of  interest  in  its  possible  application  to 
other  secondary  lines  planned  for  electrification. 

Netherlands.  During  May  1949  the  electrification  of  the 
Netherlands  railways  from  Eindhoven  to  Maastricht  and 
Heerlen  was  opened.  This  section  comprised  90  route  and 
230  track  mi.  and  included  the  large  coal  marshalling  yard 
at  Susteren.  The  work  was  estimated  to  save  about  30%  in 
coal  amounting  to  over  300,000  tons  a  year  and  would 
facilitate  the  distribution  of  coal  from  the  Limburg  coalfield. 

Norway,  The  abundance  of  hydro-electric  power  and  the 
difficult  coal  problems  during  the  war  gave  fresh  stimulus 
to  electrification  and  it  was  planned  to  convert  by  steps  all 
steam-worked  lines.  Approximately  550  mi.  were  now 
electrified  and  further  conversions  made  progress.  Electric 
working  on  the  line  between  Oslo  and  Stavanger  was  to  be 
finished  in  1950. 

Sweden.  The  lines  from  Landskrona  to  Billberga  and 
Warberg  to  Boras,  a  total  of  80  mi.,  were  converted  during 
the  year.  The  total  length  of  electrified  lines  was  now  3,500  mi. 
including  430  mi.  of  the  Goteborg-Gavle  railway.  These 
lines  carried  85%  of  the  total  traffic. 

Switzerland.  The  power  supply  for  the  Swiss  federal  rail- 
ways was  investigated  and  a  scheme  was  developed  to  meet 
the  requirements  necessitated  by  new  conversion  and  increased 
services  over  the  next  10  to  15  years,  when  complete  electrifi- 
cation would  be  established.  Provision  would  be  made  for  an 
estimated  annual  consumption  of  970  million  units  a  year. 
The  federal  railways'  own  power  stations  provided  a  total  of 
782  million  and  private  stations  99  million  units  annually. 
Prolonged  droughts  and  dry  winters  had  periodically  resulted 
in  a  shortage  of  power.  Extensions  both  to  railway-owned 
and  private  stations  were  in  hand  and  closer  attention  was 
being  given  to  the  power  supply  of  the  country  as  a  whole. 

U.S.S.R.  The  electrification  of  the  line  between  Doighin- 
tsevo  and  Nikopol  (74-5  mi.)  in  the  coalfields  of  southern 
Russia  was  completed  in  Nov.  1948,  and  would  now  be 
extended  from  Nikopol  to  Zaporozhe.  Conversion  of  the 
Sukhum-Sochi  line  (70  mi.)  on  the  northeast  coast  of  the 
Black  sea  was  proposed  and  power  would  be  supplied  from 
the  large  hydro-electric  station  in  the  Caucasian  mountains 
near  Sukhum.  A  recent  conversion  in  this  area  was  that  of 
the  line  between  the  Black  sea  port  of  Poti  and  Samtredy 
(28  mi.)  which  was  the  junction  between  the  Batum  line  and 
the  coast  line  from  Tiflis  to  Tuapse. 

Yugoslavia.  The  narrow  gauge  line  between  Sarajevo  and 
the  Adriatic  port  of  Ploce  (124  mi.)  was  being  converted  to 
standard  gauge.  Its  electrification  was  projected  and  power 
would  be  taken  from  the  hydro-electric  station  under 
construction  at  Jablanica.  Good  progress  was  also  made 
with  the  building  of  the  Vinodol  power  station  designed  to 
supply  current  for  the  electrification  of  the  Rijeka-Zagreb 
main  line. 

India.  Additional  sets  of  motor  car  and  trailer  equipment 
were  under  construction  in  Great  Britain  for  the  Bombay 
suburban  lines  of  the  Great  Indian  Peninsular  and  the 
Bombay  Baroda  and  Central  Indian  railways.  There  was 
considerable  French  activity  in  seeking  building  and  operating 
concessions  for  underground  railways  in  cities  abroad.  Such 
a  project  for  Calcutta  was  approved  and  the  first  11  mi. 
were  scheduled  to  be  completed  in  1952.  The  electrification 


232 


ELECTRONICS 


of  the  South  Indian  railway  Shoranur-Cochin  (80  mi.)  was 
contemplated  with  the  completion  of  the  Cochin  state  hydro- 
electric development. 

South  Africa.  Work  was  in  progress  on  the  electrification 
between  Bellville-Touws  River  and  Capetown- Woltemade 
together  with  the  conversion  of  the  Cape  suburban  lines 
from  1,500  to  3,000  volts  D.C.  Multiple  unit  stock  built  in 
Great  Britain  was  delivered  for  the  Reef  suburban  electrifi- 
cation, Johannesburg.  Electric  shunting  locomotives  were 
also  on 'order  for  use  there  and  in  Capetown  and  Durban  to 
reduce  the  smoke  nuisance.  (J.  W.  GE.) 

United  States.  In  the  United  States  electric  transport  is 
of  two  main  types;  transit  service  and  heavy  electric  traction. 
The  first  consists  of  various  types  of  electric  railway  and 
trolley  buses  serving  urban  and  suburban  areas.  The  second 
provides  transport  on  electrified  sections  of  main  lines  with 
electric  locomotives. 

Urban  Transit.  At  the  beginning  of  1949  about  75%  of 
all  urban  electric  passenger  transport  vehicles  operated  in 
the  United  States  were  in  the  cities  of  more  than  500,000 
population.  Of  the  total  number  of  passengers  carried  in 
the  large  cities,  about  70%  were  being  handled  by  electric 
vehicles  and  30%  by  motor  buses.  In  the  smaller  communities 
the  situation  was  almost  exactly  the  reverse,  electric  transport 
carrying  28  %  of  the  number  and  motor  buses  72  %.  Additions 
of  equipment  during  1949  emphasized  this  trend  towards 
the  concentration  of  electric  transport  in  the  large  cities.  No 
new  electric  rail  cars  were  ordered  for  operation  in  the 
smaller  cities.  About  700  new  rapid  transit  cars  put  in 
service  in  New  York  city  represented  an  important  step  in 
modernization.  Electric  trolley  coach  operations  were 
substantially  expanded  during  1949,  the  total  number  of 
such  vehicles  in  service  increasing  to  approximately  6,000. 
For  the  most  part  the  new  trolley  coach  operations  inaugu- 
rated in  1949  were  replacements  of  streetcar  lines.  The  total 
number  of  passengers  carried  by  electric  transportation  in 
1949  showed  a  decline  of  about  10%  from  the  previous 
year's  total  of  10,600  million. 

Figures  issued  by  the  management  of  the  rapid  transit 
street  railway  lines  in  New  York  city  indicated  an  increase 
in  the  average  fare  paid  from  5  cents  to  8-73  cents,  which 
produced  an  increase  of  55  %  in  gross  revenue  accompanied 
by  an  1 1  %  decrease  in  the  number  of  passengers  carried. 
Although  part  of  this  decrease  was  the  result  of  general 
business  conditions,  the  higher  fare  was  undoubtedly  a 
factor.  Trolley  coach  operation  was  the  only  type  of  electric 
transportation  which  registered  a  gain  in  patronage  during 
1949,  reaching  an  all-time  peak  of  .about  1,750  million 
passengers  carried.  Because  of  the  co-ordinated  operation 
of  trolley  and  motor  bus  services  by  a  large  number  of  com- 
panies it  was  impracticable  to  attempt  to  divide  their  budgets. 
In  a  general  way,  however,  fare  increases  in  recent  years 
enabled  the  electric  transport  industry  to  keep  gross  operating 
revenue  fairly  stable  despite  some  decline  in  the  volume 
of  business.  Operating  expenses,  however,  had  mounted 
steadily  so  that  there  was  a  drop  in  net  revenue  over  a 
period  of  years. 

Heavy  Electric  Traction.  Modernization  of  equipment  for 
suburban  services  was  the  outstanding  development  of  1949 
in  the  field  of  heavy  electric  traction.  Orders  were  placed  by 
the  New  York  Central  railroad  for  100  new  four-motor 
multiple-unit  cars  for  operation  on  its  600-v.  direct-current 
electrified  line  between  Harmon  and  Grand  Central  terminus. 
These  new  cars  were  to  have  tight  lock  couplers  and  electro- 
magnetic brakes,  wide  windows,  a  three-iwo  seat  arrange- 
ment and  were  to  be  air-conditioned.  They  were  designed 
for  speeds  up  to  75  m.p.h.  The  Pennsylvania  railroad  also 
ordered  100  new  four-motor  multiple-unit  cars.  These  were 
to  be  used  on  its  suburban  11,000-v.  alternating-current 


electrified  lines  operating  from  Philadelphia.    The  Reading 
railroad  ordered  10  cars  for  its  Philadelphia  electrified  lines 
and    the    Long    Island    railroad    ordered    50    double-deck  ~ 
multiple-unit  cars. 

Another  significant  development  in  heavy  electric  traction 
was  signalized  by  the  Pennsylvania  railroad's  order  for  four 
5,000  h.p.  straight  electric  locomotives  operating  from 
an  11,000-v.  single-phase  A.C.  trolley  wire.  Each  of  these 
four  new  locomotives  was  to  have  two  cabs.  Various 
running  gear  arrangements  were  to  be  employed.  Two  of 
the  locomotives  were  to  be  equipped  with  four  simple, 
swing-bolster,  two-axle  swivel  trucks  having  48-in.  wheels  and 
a  loading  of  60,000  Ib.  per  axle.  One  locomotive  was  to  be 
equipped  with  six  two-axle  swivel  trucks  having  42-in.  wheels 
and  a  loading  of  45,000  Ib.  per  axle.  The  fourth  locomotive 
was  to  be  equipped  with  four  three-axle  swivel  trucks  having 
42-in.  wheels  and  a  loading  of  45,000  Ib.  per  axle.  In  each 
case,  all  axles  were  to  be  motor-driven.  (See  also  RAILWAYS.) 

(J.  A.  Mi.) 

ELECTRONICS.  The  science  and  practice  of  elec- 
tronics had  become  an  established  part  of  the  lield  of  electrical 
physics  and  engineering,  and  it  was  therefore  to  be  expected 
that  it  was  the  application  and  development  of  existing 
knowledge  rather  than  any  startling  new  discoveries  that 
characterized  progress  in  1949.  An  indication  of  the  wide- 
spread interest  and  development  in  this  field  was  given  by 
the  number  of  exhibitions  and  conferences  that  were  held  at 
which  electronic  operating  and  measuring  apparatus  was 
demonstrated  and  discussed.  There  was  also  a  noteworthy 
number  of  monographs  and  textbooks  published  describing 
various  phases  of  the  subject.  On  the  fundamental  scientific 
side,  steady  research  was  m  progress  with  a  view  to  obtaining 
a  better  understanding  of  the  structure  of  materials  which 
might  be  used  for  a  variety  of  purposes.  The  investigation 
of  the  properties  of  various  synthetic  ferro-magnetic  materials 
was  already  producing  noteworthy  economies  in  the  use  of 
cores  for  coils  and  transformers  for  certain  purposes;  and 
corresponding  research  on  the  properties  of  semi-conductors 
was  being  pursued  with  great  interest. 

Other  work  was  concerned  with  the  properties  of 
phosphors  and  photo-electncally  sensitive  materials. 
Some  of  these  resulted  in  the  development  of  the 
infra-red  image  converter  tube,  by  the  aid  of  which  an 
object  which  emits  or  reflects  invisible  infra-red  radiation  can 
be  seen  with  the  naked  eye  by  the  image  formed  on  a  fluores- 
cent screen.  Such  devices  were  used  during  World  War  II 
for  detecting  fixed  or  moving  objects  which  were  flood-lit  by  a 
source  of  infra-red  radiation;  but  they  were  also  used  for 
observing  objects  which  are  themselves  sources  of  the 
requisite  invisible  radiation.  The  use  of  optical  pyrometric 
methods  at  temperatures  below  visible  red  heat  was  made 
possible  with  the  aid  of  the  image  converter  tube;  and  in 
another  sphere,  these  instruments  were  used  for  observing 
rats  in  the  dark  in  the  course  of  an  investigation  of  the  spread 
of  typhus,  and  also  for  studying  the  behaviour  of  malaria- 
bearing  mosquitoes  in  the  dark  or  over  water.  More  elaborate 
equipment  comprising  a  lead-suphide  cell  at  the  focus  of  a 
parabolic  mirror  was  used  for  detecting  ships  and  aircraft  at 
ranges  up  to  12  mi.  with  an  accuracy  of  location  better  than 
one-tenth  of  a  degree. 

There  was  much  interest  in  both  scientific  and  industrial 
fields  in  the  application  of  electronic  methods  to  automatic 
computing  machines.  These  were  in  general  of  two  types, 
for  analogue  and  digital  computing  respectively,  and  each 
had  its  own  sphere  of  usefulness.  The  digital  principle  with 
its  capacious  "  memory  "  based  on  supersonic  delay  lines, 
storage  on  the  screen  of  a  cathode  ray  tube,  or  on  a  magnetic 
drum,  had  a  very  wide  range  of  application,  very  great  speed 


ELECTRONICS 


233 


and  could  give  any  desired  accuracy.  Use  of  the  analogue 
principle  resulted  in  somewhat  lower  accuracy  and  a  lower 
degree  of  flexibility;  but  its  economy  and  the  relative  small 
size  and  weight  were  of  value  in  some  fields  of  application. 
Although  it  remained  to  be  seen  which  of  the  various  forms 
of  each  type  undergoing  development  would  prove  to  be  the 
best,  it  was  clear  that  the  larger  types  of  electronic  digital 
computer  would  open  up  new  fields  of  pure  and  applied 
science;  foi  they  would,  for  the  first  time,  make  practicable 
the  solution  of  problems  that  would  otherwise  need  a 
prohibitive  time  for  their  calculation. 

The  high  speed  and  low  inertia  of  an  electron  stream  made 
the  modern  electronic  valve  very  suitable  for  measuring  and 
recording  short  periods  of  time,  and  several  instruments 
were  developed  which  combined  robustness  with  reliability 
and  accuracy  of  operation.  One  such  instrument,  described 
as  an  electronic  stop-clock,  was  capable  of  timing  intervals 
up  to  12  sec.  to  an  accuracy  of  better  than  one-hundredth 
of  a  second.  It  was  in  effect  a  combination  of  a  high-speed 
mechanical  counter  and  thyratron  trigger  circuits,  a  valve 
oscillator  being  used  as  a  frequency  or  time  standard.  A 
similar  instrument,  termed  a  microsecond  counter  chrono- 
meter, was  used  for  the  accurate  measurement  of  speeds 
such  as  those  of  projectiles  or  aircraft.  It  consisted  essentially 
of  an  oscillator  whose  frequency  was  accurately  controlled, 
an  electronic  gate  and  six  electronic  decade  counters.  To  use 
the  instrument  the  gate  is  shut  and  all  the  decades  arc  set 
to  zero.  On  receipt  of  a  starting  pulse,  the  gate  opens  and 
the  decades  begin  to  count  individual  cycles  of  the  oscillator. 
When  a  stop  pulse  is  received,  the  gate  shuts  leaving  an  indi- 
cation on  the  counters  of  the  time  that  elapsed  between  the 
pulses.  With  a  standard  frequency  of  one  megacycle  per 
second,  time  intervals  from  one  microsecond  to  one  second 
could  be  measured  to  within  one  part  in  ten  thousand;  and 
by  using  lower  oscillator  frequencies,  the  timing  range  might 
be  extended  as  required. 

Another  instrument  using  a  quartz  crystal  oscillator  as 
its  source  was  developed  and  used  for  rating  watches,  a 
microphone  being  used  to  pick  up  the  ticks  of  the  watch  and 
record  these  together  with  impulses  from  the  standard  oscil- 
lator on  a  paper  chart  driven  at  a  known  constant  rate  from 
the  same  oscillator.  One  of  the  interesting  features  of  this 
instrument  was  that  it  not  only  recorded  the  number  of 
seconds  per  day  the  watch  was  gaming  or  losing,  but  it  also 
indicated  faults  such  as  an  irregularity  in  the  beat  or  a 
damaged  tooth  on  the  escapement  wheel. 

Various  instruments  for  measuring  the  moisture  content  of 
loose  samples  such  as  grain  were  available,  as  was  also  one 
for  checking  the  moisture  content  in  timber,  which  might  be 
undergoing  drying  or  rapid  seasoning  by  an  electronic  method. 
A  novel  application  of  the  latter  technique  was  the  production 
of  a  high-frequency  heater  for  drying  and  treating  grass  in  a 
form  most  suitable  for  livestock  consumption.  The  use  of 
dielectric  heating  ensured  that  the  full  nutritive  value  of  the 
grass  was  maintained,  for  it  was  kept  considerably  higher  in 
protein  and  carotin  content  than  grass  treated  by  any  other 
process.  Another  type  of  instrument  which  passed  from  the 
stage  of  experiment  to  that  of  industrial  use  was  concerned 
with  such  applications  as  the  location  of  metal  in  timber  for 
use  in  saw  mills,  or  the  detection  of  metal  particles  in  food- 
stuffs and  pharmaceutical  products.  (R.  L.  S-R.) 

United  States.  A  number  of  developments  in  the  field  of 
electronics,  employing  adaptations  of  techniques  devised 
during  World  War  II,  were  announced  in  1949.  One  of  these 
was  an  "  atomic  clock/'  of  which  details  were  published  by 
the  National  Bureau  of  Standards,  where  the  new  instrument 
was  constructed. 

The  rotating  Earth  provides  the  basic  time  standard,  but 
from  the  time  of  Christiaan  Huygens,  who  first  applied  it 


to  a  practical  clock  about  1670,  the  pendulum  has  been  the 
principal  secondary  standard  of  timekeeping.  In  recent 
years,  however,  oscillating  crystals  of  quartz  had  provided 
an  accurate  constant  frequency  of  vibration  that  might  be 
used  to  control  the  operation  of  clocks.  The  new  device 
utilized  vibrations  of  atoms  in  the  ammonia  molecule.  It 
promised  to  surpass  by  one  or  two  orders  of  magnitude  the 
accuracy  of  the  Earth  itself,  which  is  subject  to  a  gradual 
slowing  down  from  tidal  friction  as  well  as  sudden  irregular 
variations  due  to  causes  that  had  not  been  fully  explained. 

The  atomic  clock  was  said  to  provide  a  time  constancy  of 
1  part  in  10  mijlion  (equivalent  to  about  three  seconds  per 
year),  while  it  was  theoretically  capable  of  1  part  in  1,000 
million  or  even  10,000  million. 

A  physicist  at  the  Bell  Telephone  laboratories,  Dr.  A.  V. 
Hollenberg,  described  a  new  method  of  amplifying  radio- 
frequency  signals  in  a  vacuum  tube.  The  experimental 
device  which  employed  this  method  was  called  a  4t  double- 
stream  amplifier."  A  cylindrical  stream  of  electrons  travelled 
down  a  tube  more  than  a  foot  long.  This  stream  was  enveloped 
by  another  slightly  larger  stream,  travelling  in  the  same 
direction  but  more  slowly.  The  two  streams  passed  through 
a  wire  helix  from  which  the  signal  to  be  amplified  was 
impressed  upon  them.  As  they  progressed  there  was  inter- 
action between  them,  causing  amplification  of  the  signal, 
which  was  taken  out  as  they  passed  through  another  helix 
at  the  other  end  of  the  tube.  Another  helical  coil,  surrounding 
the  tube,  guided  the  two  electron  streams.  The  method  was 
particularly  suitable  for  amplifying  signals  of  high  frequency, 
i.e.,  of  short  wavelength.  The  more  wavelengths  there  were 
in  the  amplifying  region,  the  greater  was  the  gain. 

A  method  analogous  to  radar,  using  reflections  of  high- 
frequency  sound  waves  (above  the  audible  range)  rather  than 
radio  pulses,  showed  promise  of  helping  surgeons  to  locate 
gallstones,  or  foreign  matter  such  as  bullets,  shell  fragments 
and  glass  or  wooden  splinters  in  the  body,  it  was  announced 
by  Dr.  George  D.  Ludwig  of  the  Naval  Research  Medical 
institute  in  Washington,  D.C.  He  developed  the  new  tech- 
nique on  an  experimental  basis  in  collaboration  with  the 
Harrison  Department  of  Research  Surgery,  at  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania. 

In  recent  years  there  had  been  great  interest  in  methods 
of  recording  sound  magnetically  on  wires,  tapes r  and  discs, 
though  its  applications  seemed  limited  because  the  only 
method  of  making  duplicates  was  by  playing  back  one  tape 
or  wire,  and  re-recording  it  on  another.  Marvin  Camras, 
physicist  of  the  Armour  Research  foundation  of  the  Illinois 
Institute  of  Technology,  announced  to  the  National  Elec- 
tronics conference  a  duplicating  method  which  was  analogous 
to  contact  printing  in  photography.  It  worked  most  satis- 
factorily, he  said,  with  records  on  magnetic  tape,  though 
satisfactory  duplications  of  wire  recordings  had  been  made 
in  his  laboratory. 

He  explained  that  the  master  record  was  made  on  a  tape 
of  high  coercive  force,  that  is,  one  that  was  not  easily  harmed 
by  passage  through  another  magnetic  field.  The  blank  copy 
tape,  placed  in  contact  with  the  master,  was  passed  through 
a  high  frequency  magnetic  field,  where  it  became  magnetized 
itself.  This  was  in  exact  correspondence  with  the  master, 
which  retained  its  own  record.  Copying  might  be  done  at 
many  times  the  speed  at  which  the  tape  was  played,  and  the 
copy  had  negligible  loss  of  fidelity.  With  a  tape  on  which 
several  records  were  made  side  by  side  in  parallel  lines  of 
magnetization,  all  channels  might  be  copied  at  once. 

Dr.  James  D.  Cobme,  of  the  General  Electric  Research 
laboratory,  told  a  Conference  on  Gaseous  Electronic  held  in 
Pittsburgh  of  an  "  electronic  torch  "  hot  enough  to  melt 
tungsten,  most  refractory  of  the  elements,  with  a  melting 
point  of  3,370°C.  By  means  of  a  magnetron  oscillator,  radio 


234 


ELIZABETH-EMPLOYMENT 


waves  with  a  frequency  of  1,000  million  cycles  per  second  were 
produced.  These  were  fed  to  an  antenna,  consisting  of  two 
concentric  metal  cylinders,  at  the  end  of  which  a  high- 
frequency  arc  could  be  formed.  As  various  gases  were  fed 
past  the  arc,  a  long  jet  of  flame  was  produced.  Some  of  these 
were  extremely  hot,  while  others  were  so  cool  that  the  finger 
was  not  burned  if  held  in  the  flame. 

Hot  flames  were  produced  with  a  gas  like  nitrogen,  which 
consisted  of  molecules  made  of  two  atoms.  The  arc  broke 
them  into  their  constituent  atoms,  but  when  they  struck  a 
surface  they  recombined,  giving  off  heat.  Helium  and  argon, 
however,  normally  consist  only  of  single  atoms.  Since  they 
could  not  be  broken  and  reunited,  they  yielded  a  relatively 
cool  flame.  The  electronic  torch  was  still  in  the  experimental 
stage,  and  its  commercial  possibilities  had  not  been  explored. 

(J.  STO.) 

ELIZABETH,  PRINCESS,  DUCHESS  OF 
EDINBURGH,  the  heiress-presumptive  to  the  British 
throne  (b.  London,  April  21,  1926),  accompanied  the  King, 
Queen  and  Princess  Margaret  on  a  state  visit  to  the  Union 
of  South  Africa  in  the  early  months  of  1947.  She  married 
Prince  Philip,  Duke  of  Edinburgh,  on  Nov.  20,  1947,  and 
on  Nov.  14,  1948,  gave  birth  to  a  son,  Prince  Charles  Philip 
Arthur  Geor 


Princess  Elizabeth,  followed  by  Prince  Philip,  arriving  at  the  recep- 
tion at  County  hall,  Westminster,  July  14,  1949,  to  commemorate 
the  golden  jubilee  of  the  London  County  council. 

In  March  1949  she  visited  Edinburgh  where  Lord  Linlith- 
gow,  chancellor  of  the  university,  bestowed  on  her  the  hono- 
rary degree  of  doctor  of  laws.  During  the  same  visit  Prince 
Philip  received  the  freedom  of  Edinburgh.  At  the  end  cf 
April  Prince  Philip  was  installed  as  chancellor  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Wales,  and  Princess  Elizabeth  received  from  him  the 
honorary  degree  of  doctor  of  music.  They  afterwards  toured 
Merionethshire,  the  county  of  the  Duke's  second  title.  In 
May  they  visited  Birmingham.  With  Prince  Philip  she  paid 
an  official  visit  to  Northern  Ireland  in  May  and  at  Belfast 
was  given  the  freedom  of  the  city.  From  June  21  to  24  they 
visited  the  Islands  of  Alderney,  Guernsey,  Sark  and  Jersey 
and  in  the  following  week  the  midlands.  At  Nottingham 


they  were  present  at  the  celebration  of  the  500th  anniversary 
of  the  granting  of  the  city's  first  civic  charter  by  Henry  VI 
and  on  June  29  the  Princess  laid  the  foundation  stone  of  the 
Portland  training  college  for  the  disabled,  Mansfield.  From 
July  26  to  28  they  visited  many  towns  in  the  west  riding  of 
Yorkshire.  Princess  Elizabeth  visited  Devon  and  Cornwall 
in  October  and  in  Plymouth  unveiled  a  stone  to  mark  the 
beginning  of  the  restoration  of  St.  Andrew's  church.  On 
Nov.  20  she  flew  to  Malta  where  Prince  Philip  was  based 
while  serving  in  H.MLS.  **  Chequers."  In  Malta  she  attended 
the  re-hallowing  service  at  St.  Paul's  Anglican  cathedral  and 
unveiled  new  panels  on  the  Malta  war  memorial. 

EL  SALVADOR:  see  SALVADOR,  EL. 

EMPLOYMENT.  At  the  end  of  Sept.  1949  the  number 
of  persons  in  civil  employment  in  Great  Britain  (excluding 
Northern  Ireland)  was  22,230,000,  as  compared  with 
22,011,000  in  January.  The  number  in  the  armed  forces 
was  746,000,  as  compared  with  808,000.  Those  in  civil 
employment  included  15,122,000  males  and  7,108,000  females, 
as  against  15,019,000  and  6,992,000  at  the  beginning  of  the 
year.  The  numbers  unemployed,  including  those  temporarily 
stopped,  were  375,713  in  January  and  300,255  in  Oct.  1949. 
The  great  majority  of  these  were  not  on  any  firm's  books  or 
were  only  casually  employed :  few  regularly  employed  workers 
were  temporarily  stopped.  The  amount  of  unemployment 
was  low  in  all  cases:  it  was  highest  in  Wales  (3-9%)  and 
Scotland  (2-8%)  and  lowest  in  the  north  midland  (0-4%) 
and  midland  (0  •  6  %)  regions.  In  London  it  was  about  1  %. 
Of  the  total,  only  121,582  had  been  unemployed  for  more 
than  eight  weeks  and  of  these  20,000  were  in  Wales  and 
nearly  29,000  in  Scotland.  The  unemployed  total  was  made 
up  of  220,000  males  and  80,000  females.  The  towns  outside 
London  with  the  most  unemployment  were  Liverpool  and 
Glasgow.  These  figures  indicated  a  continuing  situation  of 
full  employment  except  for  a  few  areas  in  which  exceptional 
unemployment  existed  on  a  small  scale.  These  were  certain 
ports  and  shipbuilding  centres  and  some  regions  in  which 
the  openings  for  employment  were  ill-balanced  in  relation 
to  the  available  supplies  of  workers;  e.g.,  coalfields  and 
heavy  industry  areas  with  a  deficiency  of  lighter  trades. 
There  were  indeed  a  number  of  industries  which  were  still 
markedly  short  of  labour,  notably  coal-mining  and  textiles. 

Shifts  of  manpower  from  industry  to  industry  were  small. 
Table  I  shows  employment  in  the  main  groups  in  June  1948 
(the  earliest  date  for  which  figures  were  available  on  the  revised 
basis  which  precluded  comparison  with  earlier  periods)  and 
in  Sept.  1949.  Table  II  shows  the  break-up  for  a  number  of 
the  most  important  industries  grouped  under  **  Manufac- 
turing "  in  Table  I.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  only  big  shift 
was  towards  distribution,  which  had  not  yet  regained  its 
prewar  manpower.  Among  manufacturing  industries,  there 


TABLE  I.— DISTRIBUTION  OF  MANPOWER  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 
(in  thousands) 


His  Majesty's  forces 
„         „             „      (on  release  leave) 
Agriculture,  forestry  and  fishing. 
Mining  and  quarrying 
Manufacturing. 
Building  and  contracting    . 
Gas,  electricity  and  water  . 
Transport  and  communication    . 
Distribution      ..... 
Professional,  financial  and  other  services 
National  government  administration  . 
Local  government  administration 
Unemployed 


June 

1948 

846 

92 

1,268 

869 

8,114 

1,497 

296 

1,814 

2,689 

3,925 

688 

766 

282 


Sept. 

1949 

746 

2t 

1,276 

857 

8,311 

1,497 

312 

1,815 

2,788 

3,915 

677 

782 

281 


Total 


21,926         22,230 


EMPLOYMENT 


235 


was  a  decline  in  shipbuilding,  whereas  there  were  significant 
increases  in  cotton,  boots,  other  clothing,  food,  printing, 
chemicals  and  the  vehicle  trades.  These  changes  did  not 
reflect  the  efforts  to  shift  more  manpower  into  the  export 
trades  after  the  devaluation  of  sterling. 


TABLE    II.  —  EMPLOYMENT  IN   CERTAIN    MANUFACTURING 

INDUSTRIES 

(in  thousands) 

June 

Sept. 

1948 

1949 

Metal  manufacture   .         .                                             496 

494 

Shipbuilding     . 

226 

210 

General  engineering  . 

665 

669 

Electrical  trades 

514 

505 

Vehicles  .... 

879 

900 

Cotton     .... 

309 

323 

Woollen  and  worsted 

205 

214 

Boots  and  shoes 

138 

155 

Other  clothing  . 

484 

517 

Food  and  drink 

644 

686 

Printing  and  paper     . 

464 

488 

Chemicals 

421 

441 

us 
no 

10-5 

10-0 

9-5 

90 


Percentage 


In  a  situation  of  full  employment,  with  many  trades  in 
search  of  additional  supplies  of  suitable  labour,  mobility 
was  bound  to  be  low;  and  mobility  involving  geographical 
shifting  was  seriously  reduced  by  the  universal  housing 
shortage.  In  a  few  industries  (coal-mining  and  agriculture), 
workers,  though  free  to  change  jobs  within  the  industry, 
were  prevented  from  leaving  it  until  the  Control  of  Engage- 
ment order  was  relaxed  on  Jan.  1,  1950.  Elsewhere,  move- 
ment was  practically  free,  and  the  government  made  little 
use  of  its  power  to  direct  labour  into  jobs  in  which  it 
was  urgently  needed.  The  employment  exchanges  attempted  to 
induce  workers  to  go  into  under-manned  occupations ;  and  after 
devaluation  control  was  strengthened  by  offering  applicants 
a  narrower  choice  of  jobs  than  previously.  There  was  strong 
feeling  against  compulsion  except  in  the  last  resort;  but 
attention  was  paid  to  increasing  the  inducements  to  move- 
ment by  offering  improved  allowances  to  meet  the  costs  of 
moving  homes  as  well  as  by  improved  facilities  for  training 
in  alternative  trades. 

There  were  many  statements  by  certain  economists  that 
Great  Britain  was  in  a  state  of  **  overfull  "  employment  and 
that  the  only  way  of  restoring  adequate  mobility  was  to 
reduce  the  number  of  available  jobs  by  deflationary  pressure. 
This  view  was  strongly  combated  by  the  government  and  by 
the  trade  unions,  who  contended  that  the  shifts  required 
were  small  and  were  being  brought  about  at  a  reasonably 
satisfactory  rate  by  existing  methods.  In  coal-mining,  for 
example,  though  the  intake  of  juveniles  was  admittedly  too 
small,  much  was  done  by  upgrading  of  workers  to  the  face 
to  make  better  use  of  a  reduced  labour  force;  and  in  both 
mining  and  cotton  it  was  difficult  to  induce  a  large  flow  of 
new  entrants  in  face  of  the  knowledge  that  within  a  few 
years  higher  mechanization  might  considerably  reduce 
demand  for  labour. 

Although  total  shifts  between  industries  were  generally 
fairly  small,  there  was  in  many  occupations  a  rather  high 
rate  of  turnover.  Where  this  was  analysed,  it  appeared  to 
be  due  largely  to  a  "  floating"  section  of  about  10  or  15% 
of  the  employed  labour  force,  mostly  less  skilled  workers, 
who  moved  rapidly  from  one  job  to  another,  often  within  an 
industry,  whereas  the  main  body  of  employment  was  fairly 
stable.  There  was  naturally  a  higher  rate  of  turnover  among 
women  than  among  men,  largely  because  more  married 
women  continued  at  work  than  before  but  were  less  regularly 
available  than  other  workers,  and  in  many  instances  would 
accept  only  part-time  employment. 

The  total  working  force  of  Great  Britain  was  fairly  stable 
in  1949.  There  was  a  shortage  of  juveniles,  owing  to  the 
raising  of  the  school-leaving  age  to  15  and  to  increased 
higher  education;  but  this  was  met  by  adjustments  of  work. 


Parentage  . 


UNEMPLOYMENT 

AS    PERCENTAGE   OF 

TOTAL    WORKING 

POPULATION 


1-5 


10 
05 
K>O 


holf) 


The  average  age  of  the  labour  force  was  rising,  and  would 
continue  to  rise;  and  the  shortage  of  workers  encouraged 
many  old-age  pensioners  to  remain  in  employment.  The 
older  workers  did  not  appear  to  be  more  prone  than  others 
to  lose  their  jobs  but,  when  they  did,  found  it  harder  to  enter 
new  employment,  especially  where  a  shift  of  home  or  trade 
was  involved. 

Full  employment  naturally  puts  the  worker  in  a  strong 
position,  not  so  much  in  wage-bargaining  through  the  trade 
unions  (which  for  national  reasons  refrain  from  pressing 
their  advantage)  but  for  picking  jobs  and  standing  out 
against  any  discipline  felt  to  be  unduly  hard.  One  effect  of 
this  was  a  steady,  though  not  very  rapid  growth  of  schemes 
of  joint  consultation  in  factories:  another  was  a  change  in 
the  attitude  of  foremen  and  supervisors  and  in  the  qualities 
and  training  considered  needful  for  supervisory  posts. 
There  was  also  more  emphasis  on  human  aspects  of  manage- 
ment and  more  recognition  of  the  need  for  personnel  officers 
and  for  the  training  of  higher  management  in  the  problems 
of  "  human  relations."  In  general,  however,  workers  in 
the  factories,  as  well  as  the  trade  unions  at  higher  levels, 
refrained  from  pushing  their  advantages  to  the  full,  and  loss 
of  production  through  stoppages  of  work,  official  or 
unofficial,  was  remarkably  small.  (See  TRADE  UNIONS  and 
WAGES  AND  HOURS.) 

So  far,  it  had  been  unnecessary,  except  in  a  few  areas, 
for  the  government  to  take  special  measures  for  the  preven- 
tion of  either  unemployment  or  under-employment,  except 
by  ensuring  an  absence  of  deflationary  pressures  that  would 
satisfy  the  demands  of  right-wing  economists.  The  recession 
in  the  United  States  early  in  1949  caused  some  pockets  of 
unemployment  to  appear  in  Great  Britain;  but  not  on  a 
large  scale  because  there  was  enough  unsatisfied  demand  in 
the  home  and  soft  currency  markets  to  take  up  the  slack. 


236 


ENDOCRINOLOGY 


A  serious  American  depression  would,  however,  seriously 
react  on  the  level  of  British  employment  because  a  fall  of 
exports  (or  a  decrease  in  Marshall  Aid)  would  make  it 
difficult  to  import  the  materials  on  which  employment 
depends.  (G.  D.  H.  C) 

United  States.  The  civilian  labour  force  (persons  not  in 
the  armed  forces  and  available  for  employment)  numbered 
63,637,000  in  Aug.  1949,  a  gain  of  451,000  over  Aug.  1948. 
The  labour  force  reached  its  maximum,  for  the  first  eight 
months  of  1949,  during  July,  when  63,815,000  workers  were 
available.  The  unemployment  figure  in  Aug.  1949  was 
3,689,000  as  compared  with  1,941,000  in  Aug.  1948. 

Males  in  the  civilian  labour  force  numbered  45,163,000  in 
Aug.  1949  as  against  45,215,000  in  the  same  month  of  1948. 
Females  numbered  18,474,000  as  compared  with  17,971,000 
m  Aug.  1948. 

Employees  in  non-agricultural  establishments  numbered 
43,027,000  in  Aug.  1949,  a  decrease  of  1,467,000  from  Aug. 
1948.  During  the  year  there  were  decreases  in  every  area  of 
non-agricultural  employment  except  finance  and  government 
(Table  III).  In  these  latter  areas  there  was  an  increase  from 
7,275,000  workers  to  7,595,000  during  the  period.  The  largest 
decrease  occurred  in  manufacturing,  where  employment  in 
Aug.  1949  fell  to  the  level  of  14,088,000  workers  as  compared 
with  15,400,000  m  Aug.  1948. 

TABIF.  111. — NUMBFR  OP  EMPLOYEES*  IN  NON-AGRICULTURAL  ESTAB- 
LISHMENTS,  BY    INDUSTRY   DIVISION,    UNIIFD   STATFS   (estimated) 
(In  thousands) 

Industry  division 

Total  estimated  employment 

Mining 

Contract  construction 

Manufacturing. 

Transportation  and  public  utilities 

Trade      

Finance   ..... 
Service  .... 

Government      .... 

*  Estimates  include  all  full-  and  part-time  wage  and  salaried  workers  m  non- 
agricultural  establishments  who  worked  or  received  pay  during  the  period 
ending  nearest  the  15th  of  the  month  Proprietors,  self-employed  persons, 
domestic  servants  and  personnel  of  the  armed  forces  arc  excluded  These 
estimates  have  been  carried  forward  from  1947  bench-mark  levels. 

SOURCF      United  States  Bureau  of  Statistics,  Monthly  Labour  Review 

Production  worker  employment  decreased  in  every  one 
of  the  major  manufacturing  industries  m  the  United  States 
during  the  period  July  1948  to  July  1949. 

Pay  roll  indexes  of  production  workers  showed  a  decrease 
from  July  1949  to  May  1949  in  all  areas  except  two.  They 
increased  in  both  transportation  equipment  (except  auto- 
mobiles) and  in  printing,  publishing  and  allied  industries. 
The  figures  beyond  May  1949  were  not  available  at  the  close 
of  1949,  because  of  extensive  revisions  being  undertaken  by 
the  bureau  of  labour  statistics. 

The  durable  goods  index  of  production  worker  employment 
fell  from  185-0  in  July  1948  to  162-4  m  July  1949;  the 
non-durable  goods  index  fell  from  137-7  to  128-6  in  the 
same  period  (1939-100). 

Australia.  The  Australian  general  employment  index 
(1939-100)  averaged  137-0  for  1948  and  140-0  for  the 
first  quarter  of  1949.  The  industrial  employment  index 
averaged  157-9  for  1948  (1937-100)  and  160-5  for  the 
first  quarter  of  1949. 

Canada.  The  general  employment  index  (1937^100) 
averaged  171-6  for  1948  and  163-6  for  the  first  quarter  of 
1949.  The  Canadian  industrial  employment  index  averaged 
179-2  in  1948  (1937-100)  compared  with  177-3  for  the 
first  quarter  of  1949. 

France.  The  French  industrial  employment  index  averaged 
110-3  in  1948  (1937=100).  The  general  employment  index 
averaged  107-7  (1937-^100)  in  the  same  year. 


Aug 

July 

June 

Aug. 

1949 

1949 

1949 

1948 

43,027 

42,535 

42,792 

44,494 

968 

494 

970 

1,006 

2,333 

2,279 

2,205 

2,384 

14,088 

13,755 

13,885 

15,400 

4,000 

4,014 

4,030 

4,213 

9,212 

9,205 

9,327 

9,366 

1,780 

1,782 

1,774 

1,742 

4,831 

4,845 

4,829 

4,850 

5,815 

5,707 

5,772 

5,533 

TABLE  IV. — NUMBER  OF  PRODUCTION  WORKERS  AND  INDEXES  OF 
PRODUCTION- WORKER  EMPLOYMENT  AND  PAY  ROLLS  IN  MANUFAC- 
TURING INDUSTRIES,  BY  MAJOR  INDUSTRY  GROUP,  UNITED  STATES* 

(Aug    1949  and  Aug.  1948) 

Number  of          Production  Pay  Roll 

production  workers  worker  Indexes      Indexes 


Industry  group 

All  manufacturing   . 
Durable  goods 
Non-durable  goods 

Iron,  steel,  their  pro- 
ducts 

Electrical  machinery 

Machinery,  except 
electrical 

Transportation  equip- 
ment, except  auto- 
mobiles 

Automobiles  . 

Non-ferrous  metais 
and  products 

Lumber  and  timber 
basic  products 

Furniture  and  finished 
lumber  products  . 

Stone,  clay  and  clay 
products 

Textile-mill  products 
and  other  fibre 
manufactures 

Apparel  and  other 
finished  textile  pro- 
ducts 

Leather  and  leather 
products 

Food 

Tobacco  manufactures 

Paper  and  allied  pro- 
ducts . 

Printing,  publishing 
and  allied  industries 

Chemicals  and  allied 
products 

Products  of  petroleum 
and  coal 

Rubber  products 

Miscellaneous  indus- 
tries . 


(000  estimated) 
July    July 
1949    1948 
11,754   12,987 
5,864   6,681 
5,890   6,306 

(1939= 
July 
1949 
143-5 
162-4 
128  -6 

-100) 
July 
1948 
158-5 
185-0 
137-7 

(1939: 
May* 
1949 
329  4 
367  2 
292-4 

=  100) 
July 
1948 
360-0 
403-0 
318-0 

1 

,380 
451 

1,601 

535 

139- 
173 

1 

9 

161- 
206- 

4 

6 

306' 
386 

•6 
0 

336- 
436- 

9 
3 

970 

1,209 

183 

•5 

228- 

8 

406 

8 

473- 

6 

412 
778 

430 
787 

259 
193 

6 

•5 

270-6 
195-5 

570 
394 

•2 
•5 

552- 
423 

4 
3 

325 

388 

141 

•7 

169- 

2 

316 

•1 

360' 

6 

734 

829 

174 

•5 

197- 

3 

452 

•3 

502- 

•9 

406 

452 

123 

•9 

137- 

8 

296 

•1 

320-4 

408 

450 

139 

•2 

153- 

2 

321 

5 

334 

•2 

1 

,044 

1,243 

91 

•3 

108- 

7 

233 

•6 

285' 

•4 

1 

,062 

1,070 

134-5 

135- 

6 

283 

3 

303 

•6 

I 

356 
,319 
82 

375 
1,364 
83 

102 
154 

87 

•6 
4 
•9 

108 
159- 

88- 

1 
7 
8 

209 
316 
196 

•6 
•5 
•0 

236 
352 
205 

•5 
•2 
•5 

366 

388 

138 

•1 

146- 

1 

316 

•3 

341 

•7 

427 

430 

130 

•1 

131- 

1 

277 

•3 

260 

•1 

522 

567 

181 

•0 

196- 

6 

425 

•9 

432 

•7 

163 
169 

170 
191 

154 
140 

•2 
•0 

160-7 
157  7 

343 
294 

•8 
•5 

353 
329 

•4 
•7 

380 


425  155-3  173-9  350-9  375-0 


*  The  figures  beyond  May  1949  were  unavailable  at  the  close  of  the  year, 
because  of  extensive  revisions  being  undertaken  by  the  bureau  of  labour 
statistics 

SOURCL.  United  States  Bureau  of  Labour  Statistics,  Monthly  Labour  Review. 

Norway.  The  industrial  employment  index  for  1948 
(1937-100)  averaged  133-3  and  averaged  138-1  for  the 
first  quarter  of  1949.  The  general  employment  index  was 
106-9  on  the  average  in  1948  and  108-5  for  the  first  quarter 
of  1949. 

South  Africa,  Union  of.  The  general  employment  index 
(1937  ^100)  averaged  128-6  for  1948  and  130-7  for  the  first 
quarter  of  1949.  The  industrial  employment  index  averaged 
156-1  for  1948  (1937-100)  and  160-9  for  the  first  quarter 
of  1949. 

South  America.  Argentina's  index  of  industrial,  employ- 
ment (1937-100)  averaged  146-9  for  1947,  which  was  the 
latest  available  figure  at  the  close  of  1949.  The  Chilean 
industrial  employment  index  (1937=100)  averaged  134-0 
for  1948. 

Sweden.  The  Swedish  industrial  employment  index  for 
1948  (1937-100)  averaged  125-5  and  averaged  126-2  for 
the  first  quarter  of  1949. 

Switzerland.     The  industrial  employment  index  for  1948 
averaged  135-0  (1937 -- 100). 
(See  also  BUSINESS  REVIEW.)  (P.  TA.) 

ENDOCRINOLOGY.  By  far  the  most  notable 
advance  in  endocrinology  during  1949  was  the  discovery  that 
rheumatoid  arthritis  and  certain  other  chronic  diseases  of 


ENGLISH   LITERATURE 


237 


obscure  aetiology  could  be  controlled  by  the  administration 
of  one  of  the  steroid  hormones  of  the  adrenal  cortex  or  by 
stimulating  the  gland  to  secrete  that  hormone. 

It  was  known,  from  previous  work  with  animals,  that  many 
types  of  stress  (e.g.,  cold  and  heat,  noxious  drugs  and  infec- 
tions, overwork  and  anoxia)  are  followed  by  adrenal  cortical 
hypertrophy  and  evidences  of  an  increased  production  of 
adrenal  hormones.  This  reaction  is  brought  about  by  the 
stress  stimulus  acting  in  an  unknown  manner  to  signal  the 
central  nervous  system.  The  signal  is  then  relayed  to  the 
anterior  pituitary  gland  causing  a  release  of  adrenocortico- 
trophic  hormone  (ACTH),  which  is  the  specific  stimulator  of 
the  adrenal  cortex.  Under  the  influence  of  a  sudden  out- 
pouring of  ACTH,  morphological  and  chemical  changes 
occur  in  the  adrenal  cortex,  leading  to  an  increased  production 
of  the  adrenal  steroid  hormones.  These  steroids  enable  the 
organism  to  combat  or  adjust  itself  to  the  stress  and  to 
survive.  The  adrenalectomized  animal,  which  is  unable  to 
carry  through  the  described  mechanism,  succumbs  to  environ- 
mental or  internal  stresses  which  the  normal  animal  can 
withstand.  Hence,  this  complex  system  consisting  of  neuro- 
logical pathways  and  hormonal  relays  seems  to  constitute  a 
vital  self-corrective  or  homeostatic  mechanism  for  the 
adaptation  of  the  living  organism  to  threatening  environ- 
mental or  internal  influences,  which  may  otherwise  have 
catastrophic  consequences. 

The  adrenal  cortical  steroids  which  are  effective  against 
stress  are  the  group  of  CH  oxysteroids  (Compounds  A,  B, 
E  and  F  of  E.  C.  Kendall).  Because  of  their  important  effects 
on  certain  aspects  of  carbohydrate  metabolism,  they  were 
sometimes  called  glucocorticoids.  But  their  precise  mode  of 
action  in  facilitating  adaptation  to  stress  was  not  known 
at  the  end  of  1949.  However,  H  Selye  and  others  who  contri- 
buted much  of  the  above  knowledge  studied  the  phenomenon 
of  adaptation  and  reported  certain  evidence  which  might 
indicate  the  role  of  the  various  adrenal  cortical  steroids. 
It  was  postulated  that  some  chronic  disorders  might  be 
expressions  of  an  inadequate  or  unbalanced  reaction  of  the 
adrenal  cortex  to  past  or  continuing  stresses  and  that  certain 
types  of  hypertension,  vascular  disorders  and  arthritis  might 
be  considered  to  be  "  diseases  of  adaptation." 

During  1949  it  was  shown  that  Compound  E  or  Cortisone 
and  ACTH  administration  was  equally  efficacious  in  suppres- 
sing the  symptoms  and  signs  of  rheumatoid  arthritis.  ACTH 
or  Cortisone,  or  both,  were  also  tested  m  many  other  acute 
and  chronic  disorders  such  as  rheumatic  fever,  psoriasis, 
lupus,  various  allergies,  etc.  While  it  was  too  early  to  judge 
accurately,  it  would  seem  that  the  Cn  steroids  are  able  to 
suppress  the  overt  manifestations  of  many  seemingly  unrelated 
diseases.  It  also  appeared  that,  with  the  aid  of  these  steroids, 
the  tissues  of  the  body  acquire  an  increased  capacity  to 
"resist"  pathological  changes.  (See  ARTHRITIS.) 

Pituitary.  The  supply  of  the  protein  hormones  for  experi- 
mental and  clinical  purposes  continued  to  be  limited  by  the 
fact  that  they  had  to  be  prepared  by  extraction  and  purifi- 
cation, from  the  respective  glands  removed  from  the  meat- 
producting  animals  (bulls,  sheep,  pigs,  etc.).  The  precise 
structure  of  any  protein  was  still  almost  completely  unknown. 
Synthesis  from  constituent  ammo  acids  seemed  beyond 
immediate  possibility.  With  the  exception  of  thyroxine,  the 
protein  hormones  do  not  seem  to  possess  an  "  active " 
non-protein  group.  However,  C.  H.  Li  and  H.  M.  Evans 
showed  that  a  reasonably  small  peptide,  which  resulted 
from  enzymatic  hydrolysis  of  purified  ACTH,  has  the  full 
physiological  activity  of  the  complete  protein.  This  peptide 
consists  most  probably  of  6-7  animo  acids.  If  the  structural 
pattern  could  be  determined,  it  would  open  up  the  possibility 
of  a  partial  synthesis  of  an  ACTH-like  substance.  The 
significance  of  such  an  event  would  be  great,  both  from  its 


practical  aspect  and  from  its  bearing  on  the  relation  between 
chemical  structure  and  physiological  function  of  the  other 
protein  hormones. 

Pancreas.  The  intense  development  of  tissue  enzyme 
chemistry  had  led  to  the  general  expectation  that  hormones 
which  affect  the  metabolism  of  foodstuffs  would  be  found 
to  do  so  by  increasing  or  decreasing  rates  of  particular  inter- 
mediary reactions.  For  this  reason  the  location  of  the  action 
of  insulin  was  looked  for  in  some  known  enzymatic  reaction 
concerned  with  glucose  phosphorylation  or  its  deposition  as 
glycogen.  Despite  intensive  research  in  this  direction  the 
results  were  not  rewarding  in  1949.  A  somewhat  different 
approach  was  suggested  by  the  work  of  R.  Levine  and  others. 
They  observed  that  insulin  lowered  the  level  of  galactose  in 
the  body  fluids  when  this  sugar  was  given  to  eviscerated 
animals  from  which  the  kidneys  were  also  removed.  Such 
experimental  preparations  cannot  metabolize  galactose,  for 
their  tissues  do  not  possess  the  necessary  enzymes.  The  effect 
of  insulin  was,  thcrefoie,  interpreted  to  mean  that  this 
hormone  in  some  way  increased  the  rate  at  which  galactose 
entered  the  cell  interior  through  the  cell  membrane.  It 
seemed  reasonable  to  assume  that  the  action  of  insulin  on 
glucose  is  of  the  same  nature.  If  this  is  so,  the  hormone  does 
not  exert  an  action  on  any  of  the  enzymes  of  glucose 
metabolism  but  makes  glucose  more  freely  available  to  them. 
(See  also  DiABETts;  PHYSIOLOGY.)  (RA.  L.;  S.  So.) 

ENGINEERING:  see  AIRCRAFT  MANUFACTURE; 
BRIDGES;  BUILDING  AND  CONSTRUCTION  INDUSTRY;  CANALS 
AND  INLAND  WATERWAYS;  COAL;  DOCKS  AND  HARBOURS; 
ELECTRICAL  INDUSTRIES;  ELECTRIC  POWER;  ELECTRIC 
TRANSPORT;  ELECTRONICS;  FLOODS  AND  FLOOD  CONTROL; 
GAS;  IRON  AND  STFEL;  JET  PROPULSION  AND  GAS  TURBINES; 
MACHINERY  AND  MACHINE  TOOLS;  MOTOR  CYCLE  AND 
CYCLE  INDUSTRY;  MOTOR  INDUSTRY;  RADIO,  SCIENTIFIC 
DEVELOPMENTS  IN;  RAILWAYS;  ROADS;  SEWERAGE;  SHIP- 
BUILDING; TELEGRAPHY;  TELEPHONE;  TELEVISION;  TEXTILE 
INDUSTRY;  TUNNELS;  WATER  SUPPLY. 

ENGLAND:  see  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  NORTHERN 
IRELAND,  UNITED  KINGDOM  OF. 

ENGLISH  LITERATURE.  In  English  literature 
during  1949  Winston  Churchill  loomed  large,  partly  because 
his  spell-binding  qualities  brought  new  lustre  to  events  still 
fresh  in  most  readers'  memories.  His  concise,  forcible 
English,  his  feeling  for  words  and  his  mastery  of  narration 
spoke  their  own  eloquent  testimony  in  the  second  volume 
of  his  memoirs  of  World  War  11,  Their  Finest  Hour,  which 
was  as  much  a  self-portrait  as  a  history  of  the  "  blood,  toil, 
tears  and  sweat  "  phase  of  the  war.  If  Winston  Churchill  was 
the  outstanding  natural  example  of  the  man  of  action  who 
was  also  a  man  of  letters,  the  experience  of  war  sharpened 
the  perception  and  descriptive  gifts  of  some  younger  men 
called  from  peaceful  pursuits  to  battle  in  remote  places. 
Colonel  Spencer  Chapman  had  certain  advantages  in  his 
fight  to  organize  resistance  in  Japanese-occupied  Malaya. 
He  had  been  exploring  with  Gino  Watkins  and  had  had  some 
opportunity  to  measure  his  strength  and  endurance  away  from 
civilization.  These  resources  were  taxed  hard  in  the  Malayan 
interior,  but  The  Jungle  is  Neutral,  one  of  the  best  of  all 
war  books,  made  plain  the  recuperative  powers  of  the  human 
spirit  in  times  of  stress.  Eric  Williams  was  another  who  did 
not  lack  resource  in  unfamiliar  surroundings,  and  The  Wooden 
Horse,  the  story  of  his  escape  from  Stalag  Luft  III,  by  means 
of  a  tunnel  scraped  from  the  earth  under  the  cover  of  a  wooden 
vaulting  horse,  caught  the  peacetime  imagination  because  it 
was  an  astonishingly  spectacular  story,  superbly  told.  In  1943, 
Brigadier  Fitzroy  Maclean  was  appointed  Churchill's  "  daring 
ambassador-leader "  to  the  guerillas  of  Yugoslavia,  and 


238 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE 


Eastern  Approaches,  his  remarkable  record  of  personal 
achievement,  included  accounts  of  his  diplomatic  stay  and 
wanderings  in  prewar  Russia  as  well  as  of  his  mission  to 
Yugoslavia. 

The  first  volume  of  The  Oxford  History  of  English  Art, 
a  survey  to  be  issued  in  1 1  volumes  under  the  editorship  of 
T.  S.  R.  Boase,  president  of  Magdalen,  made  a  welcome 
appearance.  This  volume  (V),  which  appeared  out  of 
chronological  sequence,  was  written  by  Dr.  Joan  Evans  and 
was  devoted  to  the  years  1307-1461.  Lectures  given  during 
his  first  year  as  Slade  Professor  to  the  University  of  Oxford 
formed  the  basis  of  Sir  Kenneth  Clark's  Landscape  into  Art, 
which  was  concerned  with  the  development  of  landscape 
painting  as  "  the  chief  artistic  creation  of  the  19th  century." 
Arthur  M.  Hind  issued  the  second  part  of  his  great  critical 
catalogue  of  Early  Italian  Engraving  (the  earlier  part  was 
published  in  1938)  and  thus  completed  a  task  that  occupied 
some  40  years  of  his  life  and  one  that  would  earn  the  gratitude 
of  all  students  of  Italian  art;  and  with  Late  Saxon  and  Viking 
Art,  T.  D.  Kendrick  completed  his  informative  and  scholarly 
two-volume  survey  of  the  art  of  the  Anglo-Saxons. 

Other  learned  minds,  too,  were  engaged  in  revealing  the 
past.  O.  G.  S.  Crawford  explored  the  Topography  of  Roman 
Scotland;  North  of  the  Antonine  Wall  with  an  observant  eye 
for  country  and  for  history.  Early  Scottish  history  in  the 
light  of  added  knowledge  during  the  past  60  years  was  the 
subject  of  a  number  of  essays  written  by  the  late  Professor 
H.  M.  Chadwick,  which,  prepared  and  edited  by  his  wife, 
were  published  as  Early  Scotland;  and  Dr.  M.  Cary  surveyed 
the  geography  of  the  Mediterranean  lands  in  relation  to 
ancient  history  in  The  Geographic  Background  of  Greek  and 
Roman  History. 

Advances  in  English  historical  scholarship  induced  more 
and  more  specialization,  so  that  books  tended  to  concentrate 
on  briefer  periods  or  certain  aspects  of  short  periods.  But 
Douglas  Jerrold,  undeterred  by  a  formidable  task  and 
fortified  by  some  years  of  preparation,  produced  a  one- 
volume  Introduction  to  the  History  of  England,  which  began 
with  prehistoric  man  and  went  down  to  the  loss  of  Normandy 
in  1204.  Among  the  specialists,  Professor  J.  E.  Neale 
devoted  his  great  knowledge  of  the  Elizabethan  period  to  a 
study  of  The  Elizabethan  House  of  Commons.  Professor 
Herbert  Butterfield,  who  also  published  two  other  important 
books — one  on  the  relationship  of  Christianity  and  history, 
the  other  on  the  origins  of  science— described  in  George  HI, 
Lord  North  and  the  People  how  Lord  North's  ministry,  then 
struggling  with  the  American  colonies,  reached  a  particularly 
critical  phase  in  1779;  and  Professor  B.  Wilkinson  issued  the 
first  volume  of  his  new  documentary  Constitutional  History 
of  England,  1216-1399  which  went  up  to  the  year  1307. 

Two  other  eminent  historians  gathered  together  some 
important  papers.  Dr.  G.  M.  Trevelyan  issued  his  Auto- 
biography and  Other  Essays,  and  Dr.  G.  P.  Gooch's  Studies  in 
German  History  collected  12  papers,  separate  in  period  and 
subject,  but  unified  inasmuch  as  they  illustrated  the  various 
phases  of  German  history  through  more  than  four  centuries 
— from  the  Reformation  to  the  eve  of  World  War  II.  Events 
leading  up  to  the  catastrophe  were  clarified  by  the  publication 
of  several  volumes  of  Documents  on  British  Foreign  Policy, 
1919-39,  edited  by  Professor  E.  L.  Woodward  and  Rohan 
Butler,  and  by  Elizabeth  Wiskemann's  history  of  the  relations 
between  Hitler  and  Mussolini,  Rome-Berlin  Axis. 

An  earlier  episode  in  German  affairs  was  recalled  by  the 
posthumous  publication  of  Two  Memoirs  by  Lord  Keynes, 
for  the  first  of  these  essays  (the  other  was  concerned  with 
beliefs  held  by  himself  and  some  of  his  friends  at  the  beginning 
of  the  century)  told  the  story  of  Keynes's  attempts  to  persuade 
the  Allied  Powers  to  lift  the  food  blockade  on  Germany  and 
central  Europe  which  had  been  prolonged  after  the  Armistice. 


Dr.  Chaim  Weizmann,  Israel's  first  president,  also  had  his 
share  in  great  and  sometimes  tragic  events.  His  autobiography, 
Trial  and  Error,  was  as  much  the  story  of  Zionism  as  of  his 
own  life. 

Laughter  in  the  Next  Room,  the  fourth  volume  of  Sir  Osbert 
Sitwell'c  delightful  autobiographical  sequence,  Left  Hand, 
Right  Hand!  opened  with  a  picture  of  Armistice  night  in 
London  in  1918  and  then  roved  over  the  after- war  years, 
again  giving  due  attention  to  the  diverting  oddities  of  his 
father's  character. 

The  quirks,  oddities  and  reputations  of  some  of  the 
Victorians  received  their  share  of  attention  from  the 
biographers.  There  were  two  interesting  portraits  of  Ruskin 
— the  late  Derrick  Leon's  studious  Ruskin:  the  Great  Vic- 
torian (written  before  the  publication  in  1948  of  Admiral 
Sir  William  James's  book  on  the  correspondence  relating  to 
the  marriage  with  Effie  Gray),  and  Peter  Quennell's  admirably 
lucid  and  objective  John  Ruskin,  1819-1900.  Rossetti,  too, 
was  twice  presented.  Helen  Rossetti  Angeli's  Dante  Gabriel 
Rossetti  was  written  in  order  to  remove  some  misconceptions 
concerning  Rossetti's  life  and  character  and  his  relations  with 
his  friends  and  fellow  artists;  Professor  Oswald  Dough ty's 
A  Victorian  Romantic:  Dante  Gabriel  Rossetti  was  a  pains- 
taking study  which  made  plain  the  complex  personality  of 
the  poet  and  artist. 

Sir  Charles  Tennyson  used  family  letters  and  papers  to 
illumine  some  obscurities  and  personal  problems  m  the  life 
of  his  illustrious  grandfather,  Alfred  Tennyson;  Hesketh 
Pearson,  encouraged  by  Bernard  Shaw,  turned  to  the  character 
and  career  of  Dickens,  examining  the  books  and  noting  what 
was  biographically  revealing;  Christabel  Maxwell,  grand- 
daughter of  Mrs.  Margaret  Gatty  and  niece  of  Mrs.  Juliana 
Ewing,  charmingly  portrayed  those  gifted  writers  for  children 
against  their  family  background  m  Mrs.  Gatty  and  Mrs. 
Ewing;  and  Roger  Fulford's  The  Prince  Consort  emphasized 
Albert's  personal  contribution  to  the  increase  in  the  political 
powers  of  the  crown  during  the  middle  years  of  the  19th 
century,  as  well  as  his  interest  in  his  family  affairs. 

Some  of  these  biographers  had  access  to  hitherto  unpub- 
lished material  but  few  had  at  their  disposal  so  rich  and 
exciting  a  hoard  as  that  made  available  to  the  Marchesa 
Origo  for  her  absorbing  account  of  Byron's  love  affair  with 
Teresa  Guiccioh — The  Last  Attachment.  These  papers  included 
149  of  Byron's  love  letters,  mostly  in  Italian,  to  Teresa,  some 
of  her  answers,  her  unpublished  account  of  his  life  in  Italy — • 
Vie  de  Lord  Byron — and  other  relevant  documents.  In  con- 
trast Harold  Nicolson  acknowledged  that  his  life  of  Benjamin 
Constant,  the  author  of  Adolphe  and  lover  of  Madame  de 
Stael,  contained  scarcely  any  material  which  had  not  been 
published  previously,  but  it  was,  nevertheless,  a  balanced, 
lively  portrait  which  most  successfully  related  the  man  to 
his  times.  Achievement  in  the  political  sphere  was  the  central 
theme  of  I.  Deutscher's  documented  and  balanced  biography  of 
Stalin,  which  approached  the  Russian  leader  as  an  out- 
standing figure  in  contemporary  world  history,  and  carefully 
analysed  the  nature  of  his  achievement  and  his  place  in  the 
history  of  the  revolution.  A  new  volume  brought  that 
invaluable  work  of  reference  the  Dictionary  of  National 
Biography  up  to  1940. 

Few  Englishmen  had  greater  opportunity  to  know  the 
innermost  problems  facing  Britain's  universities  than  Sir 
Walter  Moberly  who,  since  1935,  was  chairman  of  the 
University  Grants  committee.  Faced  with  a  breakdown  of 
western  values,  he  claimed  in  The  Crisis  in  the  University 
that  it  was  the  responsibility  of  the  universities  to  give  their 
students  a  philosophy  of  life  and  that,  unless  our  culture 
was  to  become  wholly  secular,  that  philosophy  must  be 
founded  on  Christian  values. 

Lord  Russell  formulated  his  own  philosophy  of  politics  in 


ENGLISH   LITERATURE 


339 


the  first  series  of  Reith  lectures  broadcast  by  the  B.B.C.  and 
subsequently  issued  in  book  form  under  the  title  Authority  and 
the  Individual.  Dr.  A.  A.  Luce  compiled  a  Life  of  George 
Berkeley,  Bishop  of  Cloyne,  and  in  addition,  edited,  in 
collaboration  with  Professor  T.  E.  Jessop,  the  first  volume 
of  a  series  of  that  genial  18th  century  philosopher's  Works 
which  included  his  Philosophical  Commentaries,  Essay 
Towards  a  New  Theory  of  Vision  and  Theory  of  Vision  Vindi- 
cated. Another  important  philosophical  work  was  M.  H. 
Carr6's  Phases  of  Thought  in  England  from  the  days  of  Bede 
to  the  Oxford  Hegelians  at  the  end  of  the  19th  century. 

The  assessment  of  some  familiar  literary  persons  was 
continued  by  a  band  of  scholarly  critics  and  essayists. 
Dr.  R.  W.  Chapman  is  one  of  Great  Britain's  leading 
authorities  on  Jane  Austen,  and  his  Jane  Austen:  Facts 
and  Problems  brought  together  some  researches  into  various 
aspects  of  this  peculiarly  English  novelist's  life  and  work  and 
her  method  of  writing.  Jane  Austen  also  figured  in  Poets  and 
Story-Tellers,  a  book  of  essays  in  which  Lord  David  Cecil 
also  gracefully  and  learnedly  discoursed  on  John  Webster, 
Fanny  Burney,  Ivan  Turgenev,  Virginia  Woolf  and  others. 
Virginia  Woolf  found  another  admirable  commentator  in 
Dr.  Bernard  Blackstone,  whose  Virginia  Woolf  was  an 
illuminating  interpretation  of  her  method  as  novelist  and 
critic.  Edwin  Muir's  diverse  and  discriminating  critical  gifts 
were  displayed  to  some  purpose  in  Essays  on  Literature  and 
Society,  which  ranged  from  a  study  of  the  politics  of  King 
Lear  to  discussions  of  Fnedrich  Holderlin,  Thomas  Hardy 
and  Franz  Kafka;  and  Norman  Ault  shed  some  New  Light 
on  Pope  with  additional  biographical  material,  facts  about 
his  quarrels  and  much  bibliographical  information.  In  The 
Common  Asphodel  Robert  Graves  collected  his  essays  on 
poetry  compiled  between  1922  and  1949  and  allowed  the 
reader  a  view  into  the  poet's  workshop;  and  the  story-teller's 
and  playwright's  workshop  was  partially  illumined  by 
Somerset  Maugham's  A  Writer's  Notebook,  a  book  of 
jottings— plots  for  stones,  anecdotes,  impressions  of  people 
and  places— culled  from  15  stoutish  notebooks  which  he 
kept  over  a  period  of  some  50  years. 

Novels.  Although  more  than  200  new  novels  were  issued 
each  month,  few  indeed  were  works  of  distinct  imagination 
or  deserved  to  remain  long  in  the  memory.  Aldous  Huxley 
and  George  Orwell  used  their  considerable  talents  to  depict 
a  scarifying  future.  Aldous  Huxley's  Ape  and  Essence 
pessimistically  portrayed  human  society  after  a  third  world 
war  had  wrecked  20th  century  civilization;  George  Orwell's 
vision  of  society  34  years  hence,  Nineteen  Eighty-Four,  when 
Britain  had  become  Airstrip  One  and  the  world  was  imagined 
as  divided  into  three  great  states — Oceania,  Eurasia  and 
Eastasia  —was  scarcely  more  reassuring.  Joyce  Cary  was  more 
concerned  with  character  and  emotion  in  his  A  Fearful  Joy, 
a  swiftly  paced  narrative  of  a  woman's  eventful  life  which 
again  exhibited  the  author's  individual  talent  for  depicting 
the  exuberant  and  diverting  sides  of  shady  characters. 
H.  E.  Bates,  Charles  Morgan,  Compton  Mackenzie  and  Eric 
Linklater  were  seasoned  novelists  who  chose,  with  varying 
degcees  of  success,  to  stay  on  more  or  less  familiar  ground. 
H.  E.  Bates's  The  Jacaranda  Tree  told  of  the  reactions  of  a 
group  of  characters  thrown  together  by  circumstances — a  car 
journey  across  Burma  necessitated  by  the  Japannes  invasion 
of  the  country;  in  The  River  Line,  in  which  an  American 
visiting  a  former  English  companion  on  an  escape  journey 
during  the  war  reconstructed  his  experience,  Charles  Morgan 
seemed  overmuch  concerned  with  the  sensibilities  of  his 
characters;  Compton  Mackenzie  returned  to  the  Highlands, 
lairds,  ladies  and  local  colour  with  Hunting  the  Fairies;  and 
Eric  Linklater  went  back  to  Scotland's  early  days  for  a  good- 
humoured  frolic  about  giants,  a  poet  and  a  princess — A  Spell 
for  Old  Bones. 


Rex  Warner's  allegory,  Men  of  Stones,  was  concerned  with 
the  conflict  between  authority  and  freedom,  and  if  his 
presentation  of  philosophic  ideas  was  more  successful  than 
his  portrayal  of  characters  or  emotions,  his  study  was  on 
the  whole  convincing  enough.  Tom  Hopkinson  chose  another 
familiar  theme— political  escape  from  a  totalitarian  country — 
for  his  tale,  The  Long  Slide;  Malcolm  Muggeridge's  Affairs 
of  the  Heart  made  a  deft  and  high-spirited  affair  of  one 
literary  man's  investigations  into  the  emotional  entangle- 
ments of  another  (deceased);  William  Sansom  turned  from 
the  short  story  to  an  impressive  full-length  study  in  jealousy, 
Tht  Body,  Nigel  Balchm's  A  Sort  of  Traitors  had  a  scientific 
background,  but*  fell  below,  in  interest  and  characterization, 
the  standard  of  his  Small  Back  Room;  and  Jocelyn  Brooke's 
blend  of  reminiscence  and  reflection  made  A  Mine  of  Serpents 
an  agreeable  and  realistic  account  of  a  man's  life. 

Among  the  women,  Elizabeth  Bowen  and  Ivy  Compton- 
Burnett  are  both  the  possessors  of  individual  styles  and 
talents.  Elizabeth  Bowen's  The  Heat  of  the  Day  was  a  story 
of  a  wartime  love  affair,  with  treason  in  the  background, 
which  brilliantly  recreated  the  atmosphere  of  London  in 
1942;  and  the  setting  of  Ivy  Compton-Burnett's  Two  Worlds 
and  Their  Ways  was  a  ramshackle  country  house  some  50 
years  ago,  and  the  mam  theme  the  sending  to  school  of  two 
children.  Nancy  Mitford's  fx)ve  in  a  Cold  Climate  was  a 
diverting  portrayal  of  life  and  behaviour  in  high  society. 
Emma  Smith's  The  Far  Cry,  which  was  partly  a  keenly 
observed  record  of  a  14-year-old  child's  travels  in  India  with 
a  pompous  parent,  suggested  that  when  her  natural  gifts  and 
ideas  were  fully  integrated,  she  would  produce  a  really 
interesting  novel. 

Among  the  short  story  writers  Rhys  Davies,  in  the  title- 
piece  to  a  collection  called  Boy  with  a  Trumpet,  showed  that 
his  gifts  were  not  confined  to  tales  about  Wales  and  Welsh- 
men; and  William  Plomer's  Four  Countries  was  a  volume 
worthy  of  one  who  confessed  the  debt  that  he  owed  to 
Guy  de  Maupassant.  (A  CK.) 

Poetry.  In  spite  of  economic  difficulties,  1949  was  a  year 
rich  in  poetry,  for  it  saw  the  publication  of  collected  poems 
of  several  established  poets  working  in  full  maturity.  The 
position,  meanwhile,  grew  increasingly  exacting  for  young  and 
new  poets,  for  the  public  refused,  one  might  say  almost 
absolutely,  to  buy  their  work.  The  Arts  Council  of  Great 
Britain,  to  whose  notice  this  situation  had  been  brought,  was 
trying  to  find  a  way  in  which  it  could  help,  without  incurring 
the  accusation  of  partisanship  or  selectiveness.  Although 
many  publishing  houses  preferred  to  put  out  an  infrequent 
book  of  verse  at  a  loss  rather  than  be  subsidized  from  official 
sources,  it  was  agreed  amongst  all  concerned  that  the  public 
could  be  made  more  conscious  of  what  poetry  was  being 
written  today;  and  steps  were  taken  to  promote  public 
readings,  radio  readings  and  other  means  towards  the 
encouragement  of  poets. 

In  spite  of  these  adverse  conditions,  the  poets  continued 
to  produce  good  work.  The  general  impression  was  that  the 
younger  generation,  those  who  began  to  write  during  and 
after  World  War  II,  shared  in  common  an  outlook  and 
philosophy  that  turned  away  from  cynicism,  the  political 
pre-occupation,  the  class-bitterness  of  the  1930s.  It  was  no 
exaggeration  to  suggest  that  a  wave  of  new  romanticism  was 
rolling  in,  carrying  hopes,  simplicities,  revivals  of  faith  in 
individual  effort  and  personality.  It  was  significant  that  a 
first  book  by  a  newcomer,  A.  J.  McGeoch,  should  be  called 
Annus  Mirabilis.  From  the  poetic  point  of  view,  that  truly 
describes  the  year  which  saw  the  appearance  of  Edith  Sitwell's 
own  selection  of  her  poetry,  including  the  marvellous, 
Cassandra-like  war  poetry  that  carried  her  name  and  fame 
throughout  the  English-speaking  world.  She  spoke  for  the 
whole  womanhood  of  Great  Britain,  indeed  of  the  human 


240 


ENTOMOLOGY 


race,  in  those  superb,  desperate  lyrics.  Two  other  women 
poets  produced  notable  books;  Kathleen  Raine,  in  The 
Pythoness,  revealing  in  maturity  of  style  her  religious  happi- 
ness in  the  face  of  today's  social  and  moral  problems,  and 
Dorothy  Una  Ratcliffe  in  Until  the  Dawn,  adding  a  most 
musical  collection  of  Yorkshire  songs  to  the  wealth  of 
English  dialect  poetry. 

The  outstanding  collection  of  new  poems  was  The  Laby- 
rinth, by  Edwin  Muir.  Here  was  major  poetry,  simple,  subtle, 
passionate  and  direct,  like  that  of  Edith  Sitwell.  Muir's 
former  struggle  with  the  time-spirit,  once  so  interruptive  of 
his  music,  was  now  resolved,  and  his  new  verse  was  full  of 
serene  beauty  and  charged  with  all  the  sadness  and  clarity 
which  beauty  conjures  out  of  the  confusions  of  everyday  life. 
Another  collection  of  new  work  from  the  poet  laureate,  John 
Masefield,  added  a  characteristic  chapter  to  his  famous 
Collected  Poems;  On  the  Hill  is  the  vision  of  a  veteran, 
looking  back  over  the  landscape  of  his  life.  Darkness  is 
coming  down:  but  the  air  is  clear  and  the  night  promises  to 
be  full  of  revelation.  Another  elder  poet,  too,  was  Herbert 
Palmer,  whose  Old  Knight  "  a  poem  sequence  for  the  present 
time,"  was  a  title  which  spoke  for  itself.  His  prophetic  strain 
was  still  unimpaired.  Edmund  Blunden's  quiet  voice  was 
heard  again  in  After  the  Bombing  whose  grave  and  lyrical 
poems  were  full  of  exquisite  observation  of  a  timeless  country- 
side. Ronald  Boltrall  published  his  fifth  book  of  verses, 
The  Palisades  of  Fear. 

Amongst  the  poets  putting  out  Collected  Poems,  were 
Louis  MacNeice  and  Laurence  Whistler.  MacNeice  had 
grown  in  stature  with  time,  as  had  Cecil  Day  Lewis.  Here 
were  two  poets  likely  to  survive  the  criticism  of  succeeding 
generations.  Their  work  was  the  direct  statement  of  distinctive 
personalities,  artists  who  had  found  the  way  to  a  statement  in 
song  of  the  problems  of  our  time,  giving  universality  to  their 
individual  reactions.  Laurence  Whistler  was  more  intimate, 
more  a  poet  of  solitude;  but  his  idiom  was  one  that  every- 
body could  recognize.  Comparable  with  him  was  Clifford 
Dyment,  whose  work,  now  collected,  showed  a  lyric  poet  of 
a  Heine-like  keenness  of  touch.  Finally,  mention  must  be 
made  of  the  translation  of  Dante's  Inferno  by  Dorothy  L. 
Sayers.  It  was  remarkable  for  the  way  in  which  it  used  the 
original  terzarima  and  caught  the  speed  and  single- wave  sweep, 
canto  by  canto,  of  the  original.  It  would  introduce  Dante  and 
the  whole  mediaeval  philosophy  of  life  to  a  wide  circle  of 
readers.  (See  also  CHILDREN'S  BOOKS;  LITERARY  PRIZES.) 

(R.  CCH.) 

ENGRAVING:  see  DRAWING  AND  ENGRAVING. 

ENTOMOLOGY.  Bee  Language.  During  1949  a 
further  remarkable  chapter  was  added  by  Professor 
K.  von  Frisch  to  his  account  of  the  bee  language. 
When  in  1946  he  published  the  result  of  his  invest- 
igations on  the  means  of  communication  in  the  honey 
bee,  he  described  how  foraging  bees,  after  discovering  a  rich 
source  of  nectar,  inform  and  recruit  other  workers  by  dancing 
on  the  sides  of  the  vertical  comb.  There  were  two  kinds  of 
dance.  The  "  round  dance  "  indicated  that  the  source  was 
within  100  metres  of  the  hive  but  gave  no  hint  of  its  direction. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  "  tail-wagging  "  dance,  performed 
when  the  source  was  further  afield,  conveyed  accurately  both 
the  distance  and  direction  of  the  food.  Distance  was  indi- 
cated by  the  tempo  of  the  dance.  Direction-giving  was 
rather  more  complex.  There  was  a  passage  in  the  dance 
when  the  bee  momentarily  pursued  a  straight  course  (the 
"  straight  run  ").  Direction  of  the  food,  with  reference  to 
the  sun  was  found  to  correspond  perfectly  with  the  angular 
deviation  of  the  straight  run  from  the  vertical.  The  reason 
for  this  is  that  outside  the  hive  the  bee  uses  the  sun  as  a 


point  of  reference;  but  in  the  darkened  hive  the  light  symbol 
is  replaced  by  gravity  which  has  a  similar  directional  quality. 

Further  observations  led  von  Frisch  to  discover  that  the 
tail-wagging  dance,  mentioned  above,  is  also  occasionally 
performed  on  a  horizontal  surface,  such  as  the  alighting 
board  of  the  hive,  and  although  the  sun  is  still  the  reference 
point,  the  straight  run  is  made  in  the  direction  in  which  the 
food  lies.  But  he  noticed  that  direction-giving  remained 
accurate  even  if  the  sun  was  invisible  to  the  bee.  All  that  was 
needed  was  a  small  area  of  blue  sky.  Now  light  from  blue 
sky  is  known  to  be  polarized  according  to  a  definite  pattern. 
Could  the  bee  make  use  of  this  kind  of  "  map  "  ?  Von 
Frisch's  work  left  little  doubt  that  it  could.  In  his  most 
striking  experiment  a  polarizing  screen  was  rotated  above 
the  dancing  bees.  The  direction  of  the  straight  run  immedia- 
tely changed  in  accordance  with  the  angle  of  rotation. 

Insect  Fuel.  All  insects  store  reserve  substances  which  are 
drawn  upon  during  periods  of  intense  muscular  activity. 
Using  the  fruit-fly  Drosophila  melanogaster  V.  B.  Wiggles- 
worth  made  a  detailed  study  of  the  reserves,  their  distribution 
and  utilization  during  flight.  The  principal  reserve  substance 
was  glycogen  which  was  distributed  in  the  fat  body,  haltere 
knobs  and  among  the  indirect  flight  muscles.  Smaller  deposits 
of  fat  were  also  present  in  the  fat  body  When  suspended 
with  their  legs  out  of  contact  with  the  substratum  the  insects 
could  be  stimulated  to  "  fly  "  until  they  were  exhausted — a 
process  taking  4-5  hr.  in  the  mature  fly.  After  a  single  "  flight 
to  exhaustion  "  all  traces  of  glycogen  had  disappeared,  a 
total  equal  to  some  8%  of  the  body  weight  being  consumed. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  fat  deposits  were  intact.  During  star- 
vation the  picture  was  otherwise  for  glycogen  and  fat  were 
used  concurrently.  The  probable  explanation  was  that  during 
flight  fat  could  not  be  mobilized  with  sufficient  rapidity  to 
be  used  as  fuel. 

The  efficiency  of  different  substances  as  sources  of  energy 
was  also  tested  by  feeding  them  to  exhausted  flies  at  the  tip 
of  a  waxed  pipette.  Glucose  completely  restored  the  capacity 
for  sustained  flight  within  the  remarkably  short  time  of 
30-45  sec.  One  millionth  of  a  gramme  provided  fuel  for  a 
flight  of  6  min.  Sucrose  and  maltose  restored  flight  in 
1-1^  min.;  other,  less  efficient,  substrates  restored  flight  but 
could  not  support  it  continuously. 

Hawaian  Insects.  The  indigenous  fauna  of  the  Hawaian 
archipelago  provided  many  fascinating  problems  for  the 
student  of  evolution.  As  it  was  fast  changing  or  becoming 
extinct  under  the  impact  of  new  continental  species  intro- 
duced by  man,  the  publication  of  E.  C.  Zimmerman's  Insects 
of  Hawaii  was  particularly  welcome.  These  volcanic  islands, 
of  early  Pleistocene  origin,  are  so  isolated  geographically 
that  immigration  must  have  been  exceedingly  rare.  This  is 
reflected  in  the  fauna,  for  out  of  33  orders  21  are  unrepre- 
sented; among  the  absentees  are  some  parasites  (the  sucking 
lice),  most  insects  with  aquatic  larvae  (stoneflies,  mayflies)  and 
several  orders  containing  small,  fragile  insects. 

Many  insect  immigrants  which  became  established  evi- 
dently found  little  or  no  competition  from  predators  and 
parasites.  Thus  the  large  number  of  flightless  insects  have 
clearly  been  evolved  in  an  environment  where  flightlessness 
was  not  necessarily  a  disadvantage.  With  the  very  small 
breeding  populations  favouring  the  spread  of  new  inheritable 
characters,  many  groups  have  undergone  an  astonishing 
radiation.  For  example,  the  cosmopolitan  genus  of  plant- 
feeding  bugs  Nysius  contained  "  a  variety  of  endemic  species 
more  widely  diverse  than  the  entire  Nysius  fauna  of  the  rest 
of  the  world."  With  many  ecological  niches  untenanted,  new 
habits  had  been  evolved.  An  example  was  the  nymph  of  the 
unique  dragonfly  Megalagrion  which  had  forsaken  the 
aquatic  for  a  terrestiai  environment. 

The  Mating  Behaviour  of  Mosquitoes.      In   1876,  while 


EPIDEMICS 


241 


erecting  a  lighting  system  in  New  York,  Sir  Hiram  Maxim 
noticed  that  one  of  his  dynamos,  which  was  emitting  a  con- 
stant note,  was  attracting  male  mosquitoes  in  considerable 
numbers.  In  1948  L.  M.  Roth  demonstrated  that  the  male  is 
attracted  by  the  high-pitched  hum  of  the  female's  wing  beat, 
mating  usually  taking  place  in  flight.  Males  of  /Edcs  &gypti 
attempted  to  *'  mate  "  with  tuning  forks  vibrating  at  fre- 
quencies ranging  from  100  to  800  cycles  per  sec.  The  plumose 
antenna:  are  the  "  direction  finders."  An  interesting  feature 
is  that  at  emergence  the  antennal  fibrillae  lie  recumbent  along 
the  shaft  of  the  organ  and  sounds  were  not  perceived  until 
they  were  erected  several  hours  later.  In  other  species  the 
fibnllae  are  only  held  erect  during  the  mating  periods.  At  such 
times  the  males  often  swarm.  During  the  intervening  periods 
of  sexual  inactivity  the  note  of  the  female  wing  beat  is  ignored. 

The  Arthropod  Fauna  of  Soil.  During  World  War  II,  G.  Salt 
and  F.  S  J.  Hollick  devised  a  method  for  rapidly  estimating 
the  wireworm  populations  of  pasture  land  scheduled  for 
ploughing  up.  Using  this  technique  a  census  of  the  arthropod 
population  in  a  Cambridgeshire  meadow  yielded  numbers 
equivalent  to  1,069  million  an  acre.  In  this  enormous  popula- 
tion minute  Collembola  and  mites  were  particularly  numerous. 
These  authors  estimated  that  the  fauna  of  soil  may  actually 
occupy  a  higher  proportion  of  their  total  "  living  space  " 
than  do  marine  organisms— a  rather  surprising  conclusion. 

Insect  Egg-Shells.  Spraying  schedules  take  advantage  of 
the  fact  that  many  important  orchard  pests  spend  the  winter 
on  the  trees  as  eggs.  Yet  surprisingly  little  was  known  about 
the  penetration  of  spray  materials  into  eggs,  or  about  the 
causes  underlying  the  resistance  or  susceptibility  of  different 
eggs.  With  these  problems  in  view  J.  W.  L.  Beament  made  a 
detailed  study  of  the  relatively  large  egg  of  the  blood-sucking 
bug  Rhodnius.  The  egg-shell  proved  to  be  of  great  morpho- 
logical complexity,  consisting  of  some  seven  layers  of  differing 
chemical  composition.  The  innermost  layer,  a  thin  film  of 
wax,  is  responsible  for  rendering  the  egg  waterproof;  but  it 
is  also  one  of  the  important  barriers  to  substances  diffusing 
inwards.  The  micropyles,  through  which  the  sperms  enter 
at  fertilization,  are  the  most  vulnerable  regions;  the  properties 
of  the  materials  lining  the  micropyles  determine  what  classes 
of  liquids  can  penetrate.  Similar  problems  were  examined 
in  North  America  by  E.  H.  Slifer  who  used  the  grasshopper 
Melanoplus.  Water  exchanges,  which  are  particularly  im- 
portant in  the  egg  of  this  insect,  take  place  through  a  further 
specialized  region,  the  hydropyle.  During  arrested  develop- 
ment (diapause)  a  wax  is  laid  down  at  the  hydropyle;  when 
diapause  is  terminated  the  wax  is  in  some  way  broken  down 
and  development  resumed. 

The  Transmission  of  Swollen  Shoot  Disease  of  Cacao.  The 
alarming  spread  of  this  disease  during  the  past  few  years  was 
threatening  the  whole  economy  of  the  Gold  Coast.  It  was 
established  that  the  virus  is  transmitted  by  mealybugs 
(Coccoidea),  and  is  in  this  respect  unique.  The  mealybug 
population  is  comparatively  free  from  indigenous  parasites. 
The  possibilities  of  biological  control — in  this  case  the  intro- 
duction of  a  more  efficient  hymenopterous  parasite,  that  of 
the  coffee  mealybug  in  Kenya — therefore  began  to  be  explored. 
There  was  a  further  interesting  possibility.  The  Gold  Coast 
climate  did  not  appear  to  be  ideally  suited  to  the  mealybugs 
which  existed  there  in  comparatively  small  numbers.  And 
even  these  small  populations  might  perhaps  only  be  main- 
tained through  the  constant  attentions  of  ants  (Crcmatogaster) 
which  protect  and  "  farm  "  the  mealybugs  for  their  honeydew. 
Whether  adequate  control  of  the  ants  would  result  in  an 
indirect  control  of  the  mealybugs  was  for  the  future  to  decide. 

Organo-Phosphorus  Insecticides.  A  discussion  on  this 
rapidly  developing  subject  was  held  in  London  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Association  of  Applied  Biologists.  The  insecti- 
cidal  properties  of  certain  organo-phosphorus  compounds 

I.B.Y.— 17 


were  discovered  by  Gerhard  Schrader  in  Germany  during 
World  War  II.  One  of  his  materials,  tetraethyl  pyrophosphatc 
(TEPP)  was  developed  commercially  in  the  United  States  and 
Great  Britain  as  a  cheap  substitute  for  nicotene  in  controlling 
aphids  and  thrips.  Other  of  Schrader's  compounds  showed 
considerable  systematic  effect;  that  is,  when  watered  round 
the  roots  of  plants,  these  substances  were  absorbed  and 
translocated  to  the  leaves,  where  they  were  capable  of  killing 
sucking  insects.  Knowledge  of  their  mode  of  action  was 
increasing;  a  recent  discovery  was  that  leaves  containing 
absorbed  systematic  insecticides  could  kill  insects  in  close 
contact  with  them  by  fumigant  action  alone.  (See  also 
CHEMISTRY.) 

BiHUociRAPHY  J  W  L  Beament,  "  The  penetration  of  insect 
egg  shells,"  Bull  Ent  Res  ,  39.  467,  London,  1949,  K.  v.  Frisch,  "  Die 
Polarisation  des  Himmelshchtes  als  orientierender  Faktor  bci  den 
Tanzen  der  Bienen,"  E\petientia,  5,  142,  Basle,  1949,  H  Martin  et 
at,  "  Insecticidal  properties  of  certain  organo-phosphorus  com- 
pounds," Ann  Appl  Dial ,  36t  153,  London,  1949,  A.  F.  Posnctte  and 
A  H  Strickland,  "  Parasitism  of  the  mealybug  vectors  of  swollen 
shoot  of  cacao,"  Nature,  163,  105,  London,  1949;  G.  Salt  c t  al ,  "  The 
arthropod  population  of  pasture  soil,"  /  of  Am  in  Ecology,  17,  139, 
Cambridge,  1949,  I  H  Slifer,  "  Changes  in  certain  of  the  grasshopper 
egg  coverings  during  development,"  /.  of  E\p.  Zool ,  110,  183,  Phila- 
delphia, 1949;  L  M  Roth,  "  A  study  of  mosquito  behaviour,"  Amer. 
Midland  Naturalnf,  40,  265,  Indiana,  1948,  V  B  Wigglesworth,  "  The 
utih/ation  of  reserve  substances  in  Drosophila  during  flight,"  /.  Exp. 
ttiol ,  26,  150,  London,  1949,  h  C  Zimmerman,  Insect?  of  Hawaii , 
5  vols  ,  Hawaii,  1948.  (A.  D.  Ls.) 

ENVOYS:    see  AMBASSADORS  AND  ENVOYS. 

EPIDEMICS.  No  serious  disease  pandemics  occurred 
in  1949.  In  the  United  States  there  were  fewer  recorded 
cases  of  pertussis  (whooping-cough),  streptococcal  infections, 
syphilis,  bacillary  dysentery,  salmonellosis,  meningococcus 
meningitis  and  pneumonia.  The  rabies  epizootic  continued 
to  spread  in  the  U.S.  but  intensive  dog  vaccination  programmes 
reduced  the  amount  of  rabies  in  dogs  and  humans,  though 
other  animals,  particularly  foxes,  were  now  becoming  largely 
responsible  for  the  spread  of  the  disease. 

At  the  close  of  1948  and  extending  well  into  1949  there 
was  an  epidemic  of  jungle  yellow  fever  in  Panama,  an  area 
from  which  no  human  cases  of  the  disease  had  been  reported 
since  1907.  Heroic  measures  of  AZdes  trgypti  irradication 
and  mass  immunization  of  the  population  resulted  in  the 
effective  control  of  the  outbreak.  The  epidemic  recurrence 
of  this  disease  in  Panama  served  as  a  warning  that  epidemiolo- 
gists should  remain  alert  to  the  danger  of  the  reintroduction 
of  yellow  fever  into  many  areas  long  free  of  recognized 
human  infection. 

Influenza  which  appeared  in  Sardinia  in  Oct.  1948  spread 
to  Italy,  France,  Austria,  Bulgaria  and  the  Netherlands  by 
Jan.  1949,  and  later  to  the  U.S.  This  outbreak  provided  the 
first  test  of  the  World  Health  organization's  Influenza  centre, 
established  at  London  in  1948,  and  the  "listening  posts*' 
scattered  in  laboratories  throughout  the  world.  The  centre 
recommended  that  throat  washings  and  acute  and  convales- 
cent phase  serum  from  influenza  cases  be  submitted  to 
approved  laboratories  for  determination  of  the  strain  of 
virus  involved.  On  Jan.  12,  the  centre  announced  identifica- 
tion by  the  Institut  Pasteur  of  a  virus  belonging  to  the 
A  Group  as  the  cause  of  half  of  the  cases  in  France.  The 
centre  was  informed  of  the  isolation  of  a  similar  virus  from 
the  southern  area  of  the  Netherlands  and  later  the  strain 
was  discovered  in  the  United  States.  The  virus  was  shown 
to  be  related  to  the  A  prime  or  FM1  strain  epidemic  in 
Europe  and  the  United  States  during  1947. 

During  the  1947  pandemic,  it  became  apparent  that  the 
stock  vaccines  then  available,  containing  influenza  virus  A 
and  B,  failed  to  be  protective.  Subsequently,  the  FM1  strain 
was  added  to  all  influenza  vaccines;  however,  it  was  realized 
that  antigenically  different  strains  might  appear  from  time 


242 


ESTONIA— ETHIOPIA 


to  time,  so  that  ideally  it  would  be  best  to  immunize  the 
threatened  population  with  the  current  epidemic  strains. 
This  was  done  in  at  least  one  area  in  1949.  In  this  episode, 
only  ten  days  were  required  for  the  production  of  vaccine 
following  the  receipt  by  the  laboratory  of  the  throat  washing 
containing  the  epidemic  strain.  During  the  pandemic  of  1949, 
the  prevalent  influenza  disease  was  mild,  with  few  casualties. 
The  success  in  securing  speedy  notification  of  the  strain 
organized  by  the  World  Health  organization  was  encouraging. 
(See  also  BACTERIOLOGY;  ENTOMOLOGY.)  (H.  E.  Hi.) 

ERITREA:  see  ITALIAN  COLONIAL  EMPIRE. 

ESTONIA.  From  Feb.  24,  1918,  to  Aug.  6, 1940,  when  it 
was  annexed  by  the  U.S.S.R.,  Estonia  was  an  independent 
republic.  The  British,  U.S.  and  many  other  governments, 
however,  had  not  granted  de  jure  recognition  to  this  annexa- 
tion. Area:  18,357  sq.  mi.  Pop.:  (Jan.  1939  est.)  1,134,000, 
(Jan.  1946  est.)  854,000.  The  reduction  is  explained  by  the 
evacuation  of  17,000  Germans  in  1939-40,  by  the  Soviet 
deportation  in  1940-41  of  62,000  people,  by  the  fact  that 
about  50,000  Estonians  fled  to  Germany  and  30,000  took 
refuge  in  Sweden  when  the  Soviet  armies  returned,  and  by  a 
second  wave  of  Soviet  deportations  begun  in  1944  (about 
121,000  deported  up  to  the  end  of  1945).  Chief  towns  (1939 
est.):  Tallinn  (cap.,  pop.,  146,400);  Tartu  (60,100).  Chairman 
of  the  Supreme  Soviet  of  the  Estonian  S.S.R.,  Edvard  N. 
Pall;  chairman  of  the  Council  of  Ministers,  Arnold  T. 
Veimer. 

History.  During  1949  the  country  came  still  further  under 
Russian  domination  and  state  administration,  the  Estonian 
Communist  party  being  permeated  by  Russians.  The  party 
purge  begun  in  1948  continued.  Two  deputy  prime  ministers, 
Oskar  Sepre,  ex-chairman  of  the  State  Planning  commission, 
and  Nigol  Andresen  were  dismissed,  the  former's  place 
being  taken  by  a  Russian,  Arseny  Leonov.  Russians  in  key 
positions  were  Evgheny  Radulov,  minister  of  oil-shale 
industry,  A.  Sokolov,  in  charge  of  collectivization,  and  A.  N. 
Bezkrovny,  in  charge  of  agricultural  production.  N.  G. 
Karotamm,  first  secretary  general  of  the  Estonian  Communist 
party,  was  a  Russified  Estonian,  but  the  second  secretary, 
V.  Kedrov,  was  a  Russian. 

The  total  population  of  Estonia  was  estimated  by  mid- 1949 
at  1  •  3  million.  This  increase,  however,  meant  both  an 
absolute  and  a  relative  decrease  of  the  native  population. 
The  influx  of  Russians  was  particularly  important  in  owns. 
For  instance,  in  Tallinn  a  total  population  of  165,000  included 
70,000  Russians.  A  new  mass  deportation  of  about  40,000 
people  took  place  in  the  first  half  of  1949.  In  August  Major 
General  Boris  G.  Kumm,  minister  of  state  security,  and 
Major  General  Alexander  J  Rezev,  minister  of  home  affairs, 
were  awarded  the  Order  of  the  Red  Banner  "  for  the  success- 
ful execution  of  a  special  assignment  of  the  government  of 
the  U.S.S.R."  (see  also  LATVIA;  LITHUANIA). 

At  the  beginning  of  1949  about  88%  of  the  party  members 
were  civil  servants,  8%  workers  and  4%  peasants,  but  as  the 
forcible  collectivization,  which  had  been  inaugurated  in 
Aug.  1947,  increased  the  grip  of  the  party  on  the  countryside, 
this  disproportion  was  possibly  reduced.  In  July  1948  there 
were  only  58  collective  farms  in  Estonia;  on  Sept.  16,  1946, 
A.  T.  Veimer  announced  in  Izvestia  that  their  number  was 
2,975  embracing  four-fifths  of  the  arable  land. 

Pall  proclaimed  on  July  21,  1949,  that  industrial  production 
was  double  what  it  had  been  in  1939— no  small  achievement 
in  a  country  where  by  1944  war  destruction  had  reduced  the 
industrial  production  capacity  to  one-seventh.  It  had  also 
been  earlier  announced  that  the  volume  of  oil-shale  production 
in  1948  was  double  the  prewar  yield.  That  would  bring  the 
production  of  oil-shale  to  3  -4  million  and  of  oil  to  358,000 


metric  tons:  the  respective  targets  for  1950,  however,  were 
8-4  and  1  million  tons. 

According  to  N.  G.  Karotamm,  1-8  million  sq.  m.,  or 
48%  of  the  total  housing  space,  had  been  destroyed 
during  World  War  II.  The  construction  target  for  1950  was 
1  •  1  million  scj.  m.,  which  meant  that  a  population  increased 
by  one-seventh  was  to  be  housed  in  a  space  reduced  to  four- 
fifths  of  that  of  1939. 

By  mid- 1949  the  number  of  Lutheran  clergymen  had  been 
reduced  from  170  (in  1939)  to  40.  The  Lutheran  bishop 
August  Pahn  was  deported. 

Education.  Total  number  of  pupils  in  elementary  and  secondary 
schools  in  1949  was  156,000,  including  24,543  members  of  the  A1I- 
Union  League  of  Communist  Youth  (Komsomol).  The  University  of 
Tartu  had  in  1949  a  staff  of  450  professors  and  lecturers,  while  the 
students,  more  than  half  of  whom  were  women,  numbered  2,700. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  E.  Howard  Harris,  Estonian  Literature  in  Exile 
(London,  1949);  E  Kareda,  Estonia  in  Soviet  Grip  (London,  1949). 
Ants  Oras,  **  Soviet  Policy  in  Estonia,"  The  Eastern  Quarterly  (London, 
June,  1949).  (K.  SM.) 

ETCHING:  see  DRAWING  AND  ENGRAVING. 

ETHIOPIA.  An  independent  empire  of  northeastern 
Africa  bounded  on  the  north  by  Italian  Eritrea  (from  1941 
under  British  military  administration),  on  the  west  by  the 
Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan,  on  the  south  by  Kenya,  on  the 
southeast  by  Italian  Somahland  (from  1941  under  British 
military  administration),  and  on  the  east  by  British  and 
French  Somahland.  Area:  c.  350,000  sq.  mi.  Pop.  (est. 
Dec.  1948):  8  million,  but  the  ruling  race,  the  Amhara, 
numbers  about  2  million.  Languages:  Amharic,  the  official 
language;  also  Tigrinya,  Tigre,  Galla,  Somali,  etc.;  per- 
centages uncertain.  Religions:  Christian  (Alexandrine) 
57%;  Moslem  17%;  pagan,  etc.,  26%.  Chief  towns:  Addis 
Ababa  (cap.,  c.  250,000);  Harar  (c.  45,000);  Dessie  (c. 
35,000);  Dire-Dawa  (c.  30,000).  Ruler,  Emperor  Haile 
Selassie  I  Gy.v.);  prime  minister,  Bitwadded  Makonnen 
Endalkachaw  (q.v.);  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  Abte  Wold 
Aklilou. 

History.  Throughout  1949  the  political  atmosphere  was 
clouded  by  the  continued  failure  of  the  United  Nations  to 
effect  disposal  of  the  ex-Italian  colonies:  postponement  of 
the  Eritrean  question  at  both  the  spring  and  autumn  sessions 
was  received  with  a  somewhat  cynical  resignation — the 
similarity  of  Lake  Success  to  the  Amharic  word  lekeskes, 
meaning  "  confusion/1  was  remarked.  Ethiopia's  claim  for 
the  surrender  as  war  criminals  of  Marshal  Pietro  Badoglio 
and  Rodolfo  Graziani  also  proved  abortive,  since  Italy 
rejected  its  note  and  no  other  powers  were  disposed  to  press 
the  matter,  despite  the  publication  of  impressive  evidence 
in  the  form  of  Italian  orders  and  telegrams  dating  from  the 
period  of  war  and  occupation.  Ethiopia  continued  partici- 
pation in  other  U.N.  activities  and  was  the  first  state  to 
ratify  the  Genocide  convention. 

Individual  foreign  relations  were  developed  by  the  raising 
to  embassy  status  of  three  Addis  Ababa  legations — those  of 
Great  Britain,  U.S.  and  France — with  reciprocal  action  by 
Ethiopia  in  the  three  capitals  concerned.  In  May  Ethiopian 
ministers  were  accredited  to  India  and  to  Norway;  and 
diplomatic  exchanges  with  certain  South  American  states 
were  foreshadowed.  Delegates  from  the  Imam  of  Yemen 
were  received  during  the  year. 

Internal  politics  were  strengthened  in  two  directions:  in 
January  the  marriage  took  place  between  Princess  Aida, 
grand-daughter  of  the  Emperor,  and  Dejazmach  Mangasha, 
son  of  Ras  Siyum,  hereditary  prince  of  Tigre,  two  royal 
houses  being  thus  united;  and  in  July  there  was  a  con- 
siderable re-shuffle  of  ministerial  posts,  most  of  the  ministries 
being  now  provided  with  both  a  minister  and  a  deputy 
minister.  Public  security  remained  good;  foreign  reports  of 


EUROPEAN  RECOVERY   PROGRAMME 


243 


Halle  Selassie  starting  drilling  operations  in  search  of  oil  in  Ogaden 
in  May  1949. 

a  '*  revolt "  during  the  summer,  including  an  alleged  attack 
on  the  Crown  Prince,  were  tendentious  exaggerations  of  an 
insignificant  local  disturbance. 

Events  of  economic  importance — though  potential  rather 
than  actual — were  the  "  spudding-in  "  of  the  first  oil  well  in 
Ogaden  in  May;  preparations  for  extensive  cotton-growing, 
in  an  attempt  to  reduce  imports  of  cotton  goods,  always  a 
heavy  drain  on  Ethiopian  economy;  and  the  start  of  inocula- 
tion of  stock,  on  a  large  scale,  against  rinderpest  and  other 
cattle  diseases,  this  with  the  assistance  of  F.A.O.  experts. 
In  the  financial  sphere,  a  settlement  of  outstanding  Lend-lease 
accounts  was  announced  in  May.  The  Ethiopian  dollar  was 
not  devalued  in  line  with  sterling;  some  concern  was  felt  in 
commercial  circles  but  the  economic  reaction  could  not  yet 
be  judged. 

Communications  were  furthered  by  the  opening  in  April 
of  the  rebuilt  bridge  over  the  Gibbe  on  the  Jimma  road; 
and  in  June  the  foundations  were  laid  of  a  new  bridge  over 
the  Blue  Nile,  on  the  road  connecting  Addis  Ababa  with 
Gojjam.  The  railway  suffered  interruption  for  several  weeks 
in  the  summer  through  a  strike  of  workers  at  Di  re-Da  wa. 
Ethiopian  Air  Lines,  besides  maintaining  all  their  regular 
services,  inaugurated  some  new  ones  to  provincial  towns  in 
the  south.  Interest  was  aroused  by  visits  from  foreign  air- 
craft— a  Bristol  freighter,  the  new  "  Scandia  "  model,  and  a 
Dutch-American  Convair  liner. 

In  education  progress  was  normal.  Of  26  candidates  for 
London  matriculation,  13  passed  and  were  sent  abroad  for 
higher  studies,  most  as  usual  to  England,  where  a  society  of 
Ethiopian  students  published  its  first  magazine.  The  founda- 
tion stone  of  a  University  of  Addis  Ababa  was  laid  in 
November;  but  immediate  developments  were  not  anticipated. 
Books  published  in  Amharic  included  first  instalments  of  a 
revised  translation  of  the  Bible;  a  world  history;  and 
Ethiopia  and  Western  Civilization  by  Kabbada  Mika'el, 
director  of  the  National  library.  Several  new  Amharic  plays 
were  produced,  notably  a  modern  social  drama  in  verse  by 
Kabbada  Mika'el  and  a  historical  play  on  the  Emperor 
Theodore  by  Girmachaw  Takla-Hawaryat.  A  visiting  Greek 
company  played  Antigone;  and  scenes  from  Shakespeare 


were  given  at  the  British  institute  in  English  by  Ethiopian 
schoolboys.  (X.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  David  Buxton,  Travels  in  Ethiopia  (London  1949); 
K.  C.  Gandar  Dower,  Abyssinian  Patchwork  (London,  1949). 

Education.  (Est.  1948)  Elementary  schools  390,  pupils  35,000, 
teachers  1,350;  secondary  schools  3,  pupils  450,  teachers  30;  technical 
schools  2,  students  250.  teachers  15.  Illiteracy:  60-65%. 

Foreign  Trade.  (1947)  Imports  E. $69,03 5,000;  exports  £.$89,430,000. 

Transport  and  Communications*  Roads  1947,  (asphalted  and  macad- 
amized). 1 5, 500  km.  Railway:  406  mi.  of  the  Franco-Ethiopian  Addis 
Ababa-Jibuti  narrow  gauge  liiie  run  through  Ethiopian  territory. 
Motor  vehicles  in  use  (Dec.  1947):  cars  3,040*  commercial  vehicles 
2.823.  Telephones  in  Addis  Ababa  (1947):  c.  2,000. 

Finance  and  Backing,  Budget  (1947):  revenue  E. $58,000.000; 
expenditure  E.$ 58,000,000.  Monetary  unit:  Ethiopian  dollar**  100 
cents.  Exchange  rate  (Dec.  1949):  £1-7  E.$  (official),  9  E.$  (free 
market). 

EUROPE,  COUNCIL  OF:    see  COUNCIL  OF  EUROPE. 

EUROPEAN  RECOVERY  PROGRAMME 

(E.R.P.),  popularly  known  as  the  Marshal  plan  after  the 
former  U.S.  secretary  of  state  who  suggested  it,  was  a  scheme 
whereby  the  United  States,  through  government  grants  and 
loans,  assisted  a  co-operative  effort  of  18  European  states  to 
achieve  independence  from  outside  economic  aid  by  1952. 

The  programme  was  inaugurated  on  July  1,  1948,  and 
1949  was  its  first  full  year.  During  this  year,  physical  recovery 
in  Europe,  which  had  begun  in  1948,  continued  to  make 
satisfactory  progress.  At  the  same  time,  it  became  increasingly 
doubtful  whether  the  aim  of  the  E.R.P. — independence  of 
western  Europe  from  further  assistance  by  1952 — could  be 
reached  by  the  methods  adopted. 

The  participants  in  the  E.R.P.  were  Austria,  Belgium, 
Denmark,  France,  Greece,  Iceland,  Ireland,  Italy,  Luxem- 
bourg, the  Netherlands,  Norway,  Portugal,  Sweden,  Switzer- 
land, Turkey,  the  United  Kingdom  and  the  free  territory  of 
Trieste,  as  well  as,  originally,  the  British-American  and 
French  occupation  zones  of  Germany,  represented  by  the 
respective  occupation  authorities.  The  place  of  these  was  in 
the  closing  months  of  1949  taken  by  the  German  federal 
republic  (Western  Germany)  so  that  the  total  number  of 
E.R.P.  countries  was  18. 

These  18  countries  were  individually  linked  with  the  U.S. 
through  bilateral  treaties,  in  which  the  U.S.  undertook  to 
provide  assistance  in  accordance  with  the  Foreign  Assistance 
act  of  April  3,  1948,  and  the  European  countries  promised 
to  make  an  effort  to  attain  independence  from  outside 
assistance  within  four  years  by  self-help  and  mutual  help. 

American  aid  was  administered  by  the  Economic  Co-opera- 
tion administration  (E.C.A.),  a  U.S.  government  agency 
headed,  under  the  president,  by  an  administrator,  who 
throughout  1949  was  Paul  Gray  Hoffman.  Division  of 
American  aid,  as  well  as  the  stimulation  of  European  mutual 
help  and  co-operation,  was  the  task  of  the  Organization  for 
European  Economic  Co-operation  (O.E.E.C.),  an  inter- 
national body  with  its  seat  in  Paris,  on  whose  policy-deciding 
council  all  18  participating  countries  were  represented.  In 
addition,  to  speed  its  business,  the  O.E.E.C  established  in 
Feb.  1949  a  ministerial  committee  of  eight  member  states, 
which  was  to  act  as  an  "  inner  cabinet." 

For  the  year  July  I,  1948,  to  June  30,  1949,  the  U.S.  had 
made  available  $4,875  million  in  grants  and  loans  for  purposes 
of  the  E.R.P.  In  addition,  the  European  participants  had 
agreed  on  an  intra-European  payments  scheme,  by  which 
European  creditor  countries  passed  on  part  of  the  dollar  aid 
they  received  to  their  debtors  in  the  form  of  grants  (drawing 
rights)  in  their  own  currencies  to  an  extent  of  $564  •  7  million 
altogether,  in  order  to  free  the  flow  of  intra-European  trade. 

As  a  result  of  all  this,  the  O.E.E.C.  was  able,  in  its  first 
annual  report  on  April  16,  1949,  to  state  that  "  Europe  can 


244 


EUROPEAN   RECOVERY  PROGRAMME 


PATTERN  OF  EUROPEAN  TRADE 


(»    BILLION    IN   CUHHENT    FOB    PRICES) 

I  WORLD 
TOTAL 


Cftjntriet 

of 
OXEC 

TOTAL 
EUROPE       I  GERMANY 

'  and 

AUSTRIA 

I  E.EUROPE    I 
and          I 

^ie 


I  U  IMC  I 

:UROPE    J^ 

il 


look  back  on  a  year  of  progress  which  could  never  have  been 
achieved  by  the  efforts  of  the  individual  countries  alone  " 
Production  had  generally  reached  prewar  levels  (with 
increases  of  about  10  million  tons  in  steel  production, 
31  million  tons  in  coal  production  and  11  million  tons  in 
bread  grain  production,  from  the  end  of  1947  to  the  end 
of  1948),  and  the  trade  deficit  of  the  18  countries  with  the 
outside  world  as  a  whole  had  been  reduced  from  more  than 
$7,000  million  in  1947  to  about  $5,000  million  in  1948. 
Much  of  this  progress  was  maintained  during  1949. 

For  the  year  from  July  1,  1949,  to  June  30,  1950,  the  U.S. 
appropriated  for  B.R.P.  purposes  $3,628,380,000,  as  well  as 
a  special  fund  of  $150  million  which  was  not  to  be  distributed 
among  the  individual  participants,  but  held  at  the  disposition 
of  the  E.C.A.  administrator  to  serve  as  a  strategic  reserve 
for  the  purpose  of  furthering  European  economic  integration. 
The  sum  of  $3,628,380,000  was  distributed  among  the  18 
participating  nations  by  the  O.E.E.C.  as  follows,  1948-49 
figures  being  shown  in  comparison: 


Austria 

Belgium-Luxembourg 

Denmark 

France 

Greece 

Iceland 

Ireland 

Italy 

Netherlands 

Norway 

Portugal 

Sweden 

Switzerland 

Trieste 

Turkey 

United  Kingdom 

Western  Germany 


1949-50 

$166,400,000 

312,500,000 

87,000,000 

673,100,000 

156,300,000 

7,000,000 

44,900,000 

389,100,000 

295,600,000* 

90,000,000 

31,500,000 

48,000,000 

Nil 

13,400,000 

59,000,000 

919,800,000 

332,900,000 


1948-49 

$215,200,000 

247,900,000 

109,100,000 

980,900,000 

144,800,000 

5,200,000 

78,300,000 

555,500,000 

469,600,000 

83,000,000 

Nil 
46,600,000 

Nil 

17,800,000 

39,700,000 

1,239,000,000 

509,800,000 


•  Including  $37,500,000  for  Indonesia 


This  distribution,  based  on  a  report  submitted  jointly  by 
the  chairman  of  the  council  of  the  O.E.E.C,,  Baron  Snoy 
(Belgium),  and  the  secretary  general,  Robert  Marjolin 
(France),  was  accepted  unanimously  by  the  council  of  the 
O.E.E.C;  the  distribution  problem,  in  fact,  proved  far  less 
difficult  than  in  the  preceding  year.  At  its  meeting  on  Oct.  30, 
1949,  the  council  further  decided  that  Marshall  aid  for 
1950-51,  whatever  its  amount,  should  be  divided  among 
member  countries  in  the  same  ratio  as  that  for  1949-50.  It 
warned  member  countries  to  prepare  their  programmes  on 
the  assumption  that  Marshal  aid  in  1950-51  would  amount 
to  at  most  75%  and  that  in  1951-52  it  would  only  be  50% 
of  the  1949-50  sum.  The  only  exception  to  this  reduction 


would  be  Greece  who  could  count  on  the  same  amount  for 
1950-51  as  for  1949-50  because  of  the  delay  inflicted  on  her 
recovery  by  the  Communist  rebellion. 

Far  more  difficult  than  the  division  of  Marshall  aid  was 
the  renewal  and  modification  of  the  intra-European  payments 
scheme.  It  was  generally  recognized  that  the  payments 
scheme  in  its  1948-49  shape  was  a  clumsy  and  unsatisfactory 
way  of  deahng  with  the  disequilibrium  of  trade  inside 
Europe:  it  put  a  premium  on  running  trade  deficits,  was  based 
on  speculative  advance  estimates  of  future  deficits,  and  kept 
trade  rigidly  in  bilateral  channels.  There  was  agreement 
that  the  system  had  to  be  made  more  flexible.  But  there  was 
disagreement  on  how  that  flexibility  was  to  be  brought  about. 

Belgium  suggested  a  scheme  by  which  drawing  rights 
granted  by  one  member  country  could  be  used  in  any  member 
country.  To  this  Great  Britain  objected  that  Belgium,  whose 
trade  surplus  with  other  member  countries  was  greater  than 
her  dollar  deficit,  would  in  this  way  attract  most  of  the 
drawing  rights  granted  by  other  member  countries,  and  that 
in  consequence  these  would  lose  dollars  to  her.  Britain 
suggested  that  while  drawing  rights  might  be  switched  by 
bilateral  arrangements  from  one  debtor  country  to  another, 
the  creditor  country  in  which  they  could  be  used  should 
remain  unalterable.  Liberalization  of  intra-European  trade 
should  be  sought  rather  by  a  reduction  of  quantitative 
import  restrictions. 

Nearly  the  whole  month  of  June  was  spent  in  negotiations 
about  this  question;  and  a  compromise  was  only  reached  in 
the  early  hours  of  July  1,  the  date  when  the  old  payments 
agreement  expired.  This  compromise  agreement  accepted 
convertibility  of  drawing  rights  in  principle  but  limited  it  for 
the  year  1949-50  to  25%  of  the  total  within  an  absolute 
ceiling  of  $40  million.  The  particular  position  of  Belgium 
was,  moreover,  covered  by  a  complicated  special  arrange- 
ment of  which  the  upshot  was  that  Belgium's  trade  surplus 
with  the  other  member  countries,  estimated  at  $400  million 
in  the  year  1949-50,  was  to  be  covered  by  drawing  rights  and 
conditional  dollar  aid  to  the  amount  of  $312  5  million, 
while  for  the  remaining  $87-5  million  Belgium  was  to  grant 
long  term  loans  to  her  debtors. 

On  the  basis  of  this  agreement,  the  intra-European  pay- 
ments scheme  for  1949-50  was  agreed  by  the  council  of  the 
O.E.E.C.  two  months  later.  The  following  creditor  countries 
granted  drawing  rights  to  their  debtors  (1949-50,  together 


EUROPEAN  RECOVERY 
PROGRAMME 

APRIL    1948  TO   OCTOBER   1949 


The  above  chart  show*  by  value  the  amounts  of  the  main  commodities  made 
available  under  the  E.R.P  ,  April  1948— Oct  1949  These  amounts  are  shown  in 
two  forms — authon/ations  and  paid  shipments.  The  authorizations,  which  are 
issued  by  the  EGA,  permit  the  E  R.P.  countries  to  purchase  in  dollars  the  speci- 
fied values  of  different  goods;  the  paid  shipments  are  the  actual  receipts  in 
payment  for  these  goods. 


EUROPEAN   RECOVERY   PROGRAMME 


245 


with  comparative  figures  for  1948-49,  both  figures  in  dollar 
equivalents  of  amounts  granted  in  the  respective  national 
currencies) : 


1949-50 

1948-49 

Belgium-Luxembourg                           $400,000,000 

$207,500,000 

Italy.         .         .                                       24,500,000 

20,300,000 

Sweden      .         .                                       48,000,000 

25,000,000 

Turkey       .                                                     Nil 

19,700,000 

United  Kingdom                                        69,000,000 

282,000,000 

Western  Germany                                     163,000,000 

9,400,000 

The  following  debtor  countries  received 
from  their  creditors: 

drawing  rights 

1949-50 

1948-49 

Austria      .                                             $83,100,000 

$63,500,000 

Denmark 

14,900,000 

6,800,000 

France 

223,600,000 

323,300,000 

Greece 

104,300,000 

66,800,000 

Netherlands 

136,200,000 

71,700,000 

Norway 

71,800,000 

31,800,000 

Portugal 

26,200,000 

Nil 

Turkey 

45,300,000 

Nil 

Dissatisfaction  with  the  whole  conception  of  the  European 
payments  scheme,  however,  continued  and  in  Dec.  1949  a 
special  working  party  was  set  up  by  the  O.E.E.C.  to  work 
out  a  different  and  more  flexible  method  of  dealing  with 
intra-European  trade  deficits.  In  the  closing  days  of  the  year 
this  working  group  produced  the  proposal  of  a  European 
clearing  union,  to  be  financed  by  contributions  from  the 
central  banks  of  member  countries  in  their  own  currencies  as 
well  as  by  the  150  million  undistributed  dollar  pool  held  by 
the  E.C.A.  for  E.R.P.  purposes.  From  this  fund,  credits 
were  to  be  extended  to  European  debtor  countries,  allowing 
them,  up  to  a  certain  limit,  to  settle  trade  deficits  arising  with 
other  member  countries  of  the  O.E.E.C.  Beyond  that  limit, 
deficits  would  have  to  be  paid  in  increasing  proportion,  and 
finally  to  100%,  in  gold  or  dollars.  The  scheme,  from  which 
its  originators  expected  a  gradual  restoration  of  multilateral 
trade  and  currency  convertibility  among  the  member  count- 
ries of  the  O.E.E.C.,  awaited  the  agreement  of  the  govern- 
ments concerned  at  the  end  of  the  year. 

Meanwhile  the  British  proposal  to  liberalize  intra-European 
trade  by  the  reduction  of  quota  restrictions  on  imports, 
made  during  the  critical  negotiations  about  convertibility  of 
drawing  rights  in  June,  had  borne  fruit  in  a  resolution  by  the 
council  of  the  O.E.E.C.  of  Nov.  2,  calling  on  all  member 
countries  to  remove  50%  of  their  quantitative  import  restric- 
tions against  one  another  in  the  fields  of  food  and  feeding 
stuffs,  raw  materials  and  manufactured  goods,  counted 
separately,  by  Dec.  15. 

Altogether,  the  progress  made  by  the  E.R.P.  countries 
during  1949  both  in  physical  recovery  and  in  economic 
co-operation  was  considerable.  Nevertheless,  doubts  about 
the  possibility  of  achieving  economic  equilibrium  between 
western  Europe  and  the  U.S.  at  a  tolerable  level  by  1952 
deepened  during  the  year;  and  the  outlook  at  the  end  of  the 
year  remained  uncertain  and  troubled. 

In  the  opening  days  of  1949,  the  O.E.E.C.,  in  a  review  of 
the  individual  four-year  programmes  of  the  member  countries, 
was  forced  to  the  conclusion  that  they  did  not  add  up  to  one 
integrated  programme;  that  the  member  countries  all 
planned  to  export  more  to  one  another  than  they  were 
prepared  to  import  from  one  another;  that  many  of  their 
estimates  were  over-optimistic;  and  that,  even  so,  they  added 
up  to  a  remaining  over-all  deficit  of  $1,500  million  by 
June  30,  1952,  which,  on  a  realistic  estimate  of  probable 
dollar  earnings,  was  more  likely  to  amount  to  $2,500  million. 

It  was  hoped  early  in  1949  to  modify  and  integrate  the 
individual  programmes  of  member  countries  in  response  to 
this  criticism  and  a  "  plan  of  action  "  for  1949-50,  adopted 
by  the  council  of  the  O.E.E.C.  in  March  1949,  called  for 
measures  to  this  effect.  However,  pressure  of  current  business 


Paul  Gray  Hoffman,  United  States  Economic  Co-operation  adminis- 
trator, addressing  a  press  conference  in  London,  Aug.  1949.    Behind 
is  Lewis  Douglas,  U.S.  ambassador  to  Britain,  whose  left  eye  was 
injured  in  a  fishing  accident  in  April  1949. 

and  the  impact  of  new  difficulties  prevented  progress  in  this 
direction  during  1949. 

The  new  difficulties  arose  mainly  from  the  American 
business  recession,  which  made  itself  felt  early  in  the  year 
and  reached  its  peak  in  the  summer  months  of  1949.  Defended 
by  the  U.S.  politicians  as  a  healthy  re-adjustment,  this 
recession  nevertheless  resulted  in  a  fall  in  U.S.  imports  from 
Europe  and  European  dependencies  (and  consequently,  a 
fall  in  European  dollar  earnings)  which  was  estimated  in  the 
Snoy-Marjolin  report  of  Aug.  29  as  between  $500  million 
and  $600  million  during  the  year.  According  to  the  report, 
this  represented  about  30%  of  the  estimated  dollar  earnings 
of  the  E.R.P.  countries  as  a  whole.  "  In  some  cases,  there 
was  a  decline  of  40,  50  and  even  60%,"  the  report  said. 
The  resulting  unforeseen  new  dollar  stringency,  which  to  a 
noticeable  extent  nullified  the  dollar  aid  received  under  the 
E.R.P.,  made  all  the  E.R.P.  countries  acutely  dollar-conscious 
and  hampered  generous  schemes  for  greater  integration, 
which  might  have  implied  initial  dollar  sacrifices  for  one  or 
the  other  member  country. 

Slow  progress  of  European  integration  in  turn  provoked 
an  unfavourable  political  reaction  in  the  United  States, 
where  the  impression  gained  ground  that  Europe  was  taking 
the  dollars  provided  under  the  E.R.P.  without  taking  her 
obligations  of  self-help  and  mutual  help  sufficiently  seriously. 
At  an  O.E.E.C.  council  meeting  on  Oct.  31,  Paul  Hoffman 
called  for  a  "  dramatic  "  rise  in  European  dollar  earnings 
and,  simultaneously,  for  the  formation  in  western  Europe 
"  of  a  single  large  market  within  which  quantitative  restric- 
tions on  the  movement  of  goods,  monetary  barriers  to  the 
flow  of  payments  and,  eventually,  all  tariffs  are  permanently 
swept  away." 

A  partial  response  to  this  speech  were  the  approaches  to 
regional  economic  unions  made  in  the  closing  months  of 
the  year  by  France,  Italy  and  Benelux  ('*  Fritalux "  or 
"  Finebel "),  and  by  Britain  and  the  three  Scandinavian 
countries  ("  Uniscan  ").  In  every  case,  however,  the  fact 


246 


EVANS-EXCHANGE  CONTROL 


that  the  economies  of  the  countries  concerned  (like  those 
of  the  18  E.R.P.  nations  as  a  whole)  were  competitive  rather 
than  complementary  made  practical  progress  exceedingly 
difficult  and  it  was  doubtful  at  the  end  of  the  year  whether 
the  attempts  to  form  regional  economic  unions  in  western 
Europe  would  produce  more  than  some  remarkable  new 
essays  in  nomenclature. 

Among  those  most  closely  concerned  with  E.R.P.  there 
were,  at  the  close  of  1949,  increasing  doubts  whether  the 
scheme,  for  all  its  generosity  and  its  great  success  in  its  first 
year  and  a  half,  was  not  planned  on  too  narrow  a  basis  of 
time  and  space  to  succeed  in  its  aim  of  re-establishing  a 
permanent  equilibrium  of  international  trade.  Many  Euro- 
pean and  American  economists  tended  to  agree  that  this 
aim  could  only  be  achieved  by  extending  U.S.  foreign  aid 
both  beyond  1952  and  beyond  western  Europe,  and  in  parti- 
cular by  making  it  possible  for  western  Europe  to  earn  dollars 
through  the  development  of  underdeveloped  countries. 

(S.  HR.) 

EVANS,  DAME  EDITH,  English  actress  (b.  London, 
Feb.  8,  1888),  made  her  first  stage  appearance  in  Dec.  1912  as 
Cressida  in  Troilus  and  Cressida.  In  1914  she  became  a 
member  of  the  Vedrenne  and  Edie  company  at  the  Royalty 
theatre,  London,  and  in  1918  toured  with  Ellen  Terry  in 
variety  theatres.  She  continued  on  the  London  stage  and  in 
1925-26  was  with  the  Old  Vic  company;  in  1931  and  1934 
she  acted  in  New  York.  She  also  appeared  at  the  Malvern 
festival.  In  1927  she  went  into  joint  management  with  Leon 
M.  Lion  at  Wyndham's  theatre.  In  plays  of  William  Shakes- 
peare her  parts  included  Nerissa  in  The  Merchant  of  Venice, 
Mistress  Page  in  The  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor,  Helena  in 
A  Midsummer  Night's  Dream  and  Nurse  in  Romeo  and 
Juliet;  and  in  plays  of  George  Bernard  Shaw  she  appeared 
as  Lady  Utterwood  in  Heartbreak  House,  Serpent  and  She- 
Ancient  in  Back  to  Methuselah  and  Orinthia  in  The  Apple 
Cart.  In  Restoration  and  18th  century  comedy  her  outstanding 
parts  have  been  Millament,  Lady  Fidget,  Mrs.  Sullen,  Lady 
Wishfort  and  Mrs.  Maiaprop;  and  she  played  Anton  Chekhov 
and  Henrik  Ibsen.  Later  appearances  were  Katerina  Ivanovna 


Dame  Et/ifh 
Pitts  in  " 


With  Evans  as  Lady  Pitts,  and  Felix  Aylmer  as  Sir  Joseph 
"  Daphne  Laureola  "  by  James  Bridie  at  Wyndham's  theatre ; 


London. 


in  Crime  and  Punishment,  Cleopatra  in  Anthony  and  Cleopatra 
and  Lady  Wishfort  in  The  Way  of  the  World.  On  March  23, 
1949,  she  opened  at  Wyndham's  theatre  as  Lady  Pitts  in 
Daphne  Laureola  by  James  Bridie.  In  1948  she  acted  for  the 
first  time  in  films;  first  in  The  Queen  of  Spades,  followed  by 
The  Last  Days  of  Dolwyn.  In  May  1948  she  visited  Moscow 
in  connection  with  Moscow's  tenth  Shakespeare  conference 
and  opened  an  exhibition  "Shakespeare  on  the  English 


Stage."  In  1925  she  married  George  Booth  (d.  1935)  and  was 
created  a  dame  of  the  British  Empire  on  Jan.  1,  1946. 

EVATT,  HERBERT  VERB,  Australian  statesman 
(b.  East  Maitland,  New  South  Wales,  April  30,  1894),  was 
appointed  attorney  general  and  minister  for  external  affairs 
in  1941  and,  in  1946,  deputy  prime  minister  as  well.  (For  his 
early  career  see  Britannica  Book  of  the  Year  1949.) 

In  Sept.  1948  Evatt  was  elected  president  of  the  United 
Nations  general  assembly.  In  March  1949  he  presented  his 
government's  case  in  the  banking  dispute  before  the  privy 
council  in  London  (see  AUSTRALIA),  and  in  April  continued 
as  president  of  the  United  Nations  general  assembly  at  its 
resumed  meetings  at  Lake  Success.  Before  returning  to 
Australia  he  visited  Berlin  where  he  saw  the  airlift  in  operation. 
In  March  the  French  government  presented  him  with  the 
grand  cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honour  for  outstanding  work  in 
the  interests  of  peace  as  president  of  the  United  Nations 
general  assembly.  The  general  election  held  on  Dec.  10 
resulted  in  a  defeat  for  the  Labour  government,  and  he  was 
succeeded  as  minister  for  external  affairs  by  P.  C.  Spender 
on  Dec.  19. 

EXCHANGE  CONTROL  AND  EXCHANGE 
RATES.  In  1 948  the  wor  Id  shortage  of  dollar  exchange  had 
been  progressively  reduced  by  rising  production  and  exports 
outside  the  U.S.  as  well  as  by  more  stringent  control  of 
imports,  but  this  trend  was  sharply  reversed  in  the  second 
quarter  of  1949.  The  causes  of  this  change  were  many  and 
ranged  from  the  reappearance,  for  the  first  time  since  World 
War  II,  of  a  buyers'  market  for  many  commodities  to  the 
abatement  of  inflation  in  the  U.S.  at  a  time  when  significant 
inflationary  pressure  still  persisted  in  various  other  parts 
of  the  world.  The  strain  on  the  gold  and  dollar  resources  of 
the  sterling  area  in  particular  became  acute  and  on  Sept.  18, 
with  the  approval  of  the  International  Monetary  fund,  the 
pound  was  devalued  by  30-52%  from  4-03  to  2-80  U.S. 
dollars. 

Changes  in  the  exchange  rates  of  many  other  currencies 
followed  quickly  and  by  Nov.  15  the  International  Monetary 
fund  had  approved  new  par  values  for  14  of  its  48  members. 
Of  the  others,  eight,  Austria,  China,  Finland,  Greece,  Italy, 
Poland,  Thailand  and  Uruguay,  had  not  yet  established  the 
initial  par  value  of  their  currencies,  while  France  continued, 
as  in  1948,  to  be  without  an  agreed  par  value  with  the  fund. 
In  all  these  countries  except  China  and  Poland,  currency 
adjustments  amounting  to  depreciation  against  the  dollar 
were  undertaken.  Similar  changes  were  also  made  in  Argen- 
tina, Burma,  Ceylon,  Ireland,  Israel,  New  Zealand,  Portugal, 
Sweden  and  Western  Germany,  which  were  not  members  of 
the  International  Monetary  fund.  On  the  other  hand, 
Switzerland,  most  of  the  countries  of  eastern  Europe,  central 
and  northern  Latin  America  and  several  countries  of  the 
middle  and  far  east,  such  as  Persia,  Pakistan  and  the  Philippine 
republic,  did  not  allow  their  currencies  to  depreciate  against 
the  U.S.  dollar. 

Exchange  and  import  restrictions  however,  were  main- 
tained throughout  the  year  in  most  countries,  with  the 
exception  of  the  U.S.,  Switzerland  and  some  central  American 
countries.  Furthermore,  many  nations,  especially  in  Latin 
America,  continued  to  operate  multiple  exchange  rates  to 
control  imports  and  exports.  Nevertheless,  some  progress 
towards  freedom  of  the  exchanges  was  made,  especially  in 
Belgium  where  the  franc  was  made  freely  convertible  on 
Nov.  14.  In  France  and  Italy  the  September  currency 
depreciations  were  accompanied  by  a  substantial  unification 
of  the  exchange  rate  structures. 

North  America.  United  States.  The  relatively  strong 
position  of  the  U.S.  dollar — and  the  growing  difficulties  of 


EXCHANGE  CONTROL 


247 


other  countries  in  meeting  their  dollar  requirements — clearly 
affected  the  U.S.  balance  of  payments.  In  the  spring  of  1949 
the  rising  trend  of  U.S.  imports  of  goods  and  services  was 
reversed,  as  a  result  both  of  reduced  volume  and  declining 
prices.  The  U.S.  surplus  on  current  account  (goods  and 
services),  which  had  fallen  to  $1,205  million  in  the  third 
quarter  of  1948,  rose  to  $1,990  million  in  the  second  quarter 
of  1949.  In  the  third  quarter  of  the  year,  largely  as  a  result 
of  more  stringent  restrictions  imposed  on  imports  from  the 
U.S.  by  many  countries  suffering  from  a  shortage  of  hard 
currencies,  the  surplus  was  reduced  to  $1,161  million.  In 
the  first  nine  months  of  the  year,  the  U.S.  current  account 
surplus  totalled  $4,811  million  and  despite  U.S.  government 
grants  and  loans  of  $3,978  million  and  $563  million  respec- 
tively, foreign  countries  had  to  draw  upon  gold  and  short-term 
dollar  assets  to  the  extent  of  $591  million  to  finance  imports 
of  goods  and  services  from  the  U.S.  This  was  partly  offset, 
however,  by  a  net  inflow  of  foreign  long  term  capital  into  the 
U.S.  amounting  to  $122  million.  Both  these  figures  included 
net  dollar  disbursements  by  the  International  Monetary  fund 
and  the  International  bank.  The  remainder  of  the  U.S.  surplus 
was  financed  by  net  U.S.  private  remittances  of  $412  million 
and  by  a  net  outflow  of  U.S.  private  long  and  short  term 
capital,  amounting  to  $278  million.  The  means  of  financing 
thus  exceeded  the  current  account  surplus,  leaving  unidentified 
transactions  of  $889  million. 

The  upward  trend  of  the  U.S.  gold  reserves  continued, 
from  $24,398  million  at  the  end  of  1948  to  $24,771  million 
at  the  end  of  Aug.  1 949.  After  the  currency  devaluations  of 
September,  however,  fears  of  an  eventual  rise  in  the  price 
of  gold — labelled  groundless  by  U.S.  official  spokesmen — led 
some  countries  to  prefer  gold  to  dollar  balances  and  foreign 
purchases  of  gold,  for  example  by  Italy  and  the  Netherlands, 
brought  the  U.S.  reserves  down  to  $24,688  million  at  the 
end  of  October. 

Canada.  On  Sept.  20,  two  days  after  the  devaluation  of 
sterling,  the  Canadian  dollar,  which  had  been  at  par  with 
the  U.S.  dollar  since  July  1946,  was  devalued  by  9- 1  %.  The 
unofficial  buying  rate  in  New  York  improved  from  an  average 
of  1  -082  per  U.S.  dollar  in  January  to  an  average  of  1-051 
in  the  two  weeks  preceding  the  devaluation  of  sterling. 
Thereafter  the  disparity  was  practically  wiped  out  for  a  time, 
but  at  the  end  of  the  year  the  free  rate  was  again  quoted  at 
a  small  discount. 

The  over-riding  problem  of  Canadian  trade  and  payments 
in  the  postwar  years  was  to  make  the  traditional  surplus 
with  Europe  convertible  to  meet  the  payments  deficit  with 
the  U.S.  Payment  of  U.S.  dollars  by  the  Economic  Co-opera- 
tion administration  for  goods  shipped  to  Europe  under  the 
European  Recovery  programme  eased  the  strain;  but  the 
vulnerability  of  Canada's  position  was  clearly  shown  in  the 
spring  of  1949,  when  a  cessation  of  these  "  offshore  pur- 
chases '*  produced  a  crisis  in  Canadian  trade.  Between  the 
end  of  March  and  the  end  of  June  the  Canadian  reserves  of 
gold  and  U.S.  dollars  fell  from  U.S.  $1,076  million  to 
$977  million. 

Latin  America.  Although  monetary  conditions  were  rather 
more  stable  in  most  Latin  American  countries  than  in  1948, 
a  considerable  degree  of  inflationary  pressure  still  persisted. 
Gold  and  foreign  exchange  holdings  remained  fairly  steady 
for  the  area  as  a  whole  and,  unlike  most  other  parts  of  the 
world,  there  were  fewer  exchange  rate  adjustments  than  in 
1948;  but,  whereas  some  of  these  countries,  however, 
increased  their  holdings  of  gold  and  foreign  exchange,  the 
monetary  reserves  of  others  declined  or  were  maintained  at 
about  the  same  level  only  with  the  aid  of  various  import  and 
exchange  controls.  Only  Cuba,  the  Dominican  Republic, 
El  Salvador,  Guatemala,  Haiti,  Mexico  and  Panama  operated 
without  exchange  controls. 


Mexico,  after  maintaining  the  rate  at  between  6 '85  and 
6-95  pesos  per  U.S.  dollar  from  Sept.  1948  up  till  Jan.  1949, 
allowed  it  to  depreciate  gradually  in  free  market  operations 
to  about  8  •  22,  and  on  June  1 7  a  new  par  value  of  8  •  65  pesos 
to  the  U.S.  dollar  was  announced  with  the  approval  of  the 
International  Monetary  fund. 

Following  the  devaluation  of  sterling  four  countries  made 
important  rate  changes.  Argentina  readjusted  her  multiple 
rate  structure  as  from  Oct.  3.  The  preferential  selling  rate 
of  3  •  73  pesos  to  the  U.S.  dollar,  used  for  essential  imports, 
was  retained  but  an  additional  preferential  rate  of  5  •  37  was 
introduced.  The  basic  selling  rate,  applicable  to  imports  of 
semi-essentials,  was  devalued  from  4-23  to  6-09  and  the 
free  selling  rate,  for  authorized  non-trade  remittances,  from 
4-81  to  9-00  pesos  to  the  dollar.  Similarly  the  basic  buying 
rate  of  3  •  35,  applicable  to  important  exports,  was  retained, 
while  new  preferential  buying  rates  for  "  non-regular " 
exports  of  4  83  and  5  •  73  pesos  to  the  dollar  replaced  the 
old  preferential  rate  of  3-98  and  a  new  special  buying  rate 
of  7-20  for  exports  of  certain  industrial  goods  replaced  the 
old  rate  of  5  •  00.  Apart  from  the  new  free  rate  which  represen- 
ted a  depreciation  of  47%  against  the  dollar,  the  effect  of 
these  changes  was  in  general  to  devalue  the  peso  by  30  •  5  % 
against  the  dollar  and,  with  some  significant  exceptions,  to 
maintain  the  old  sterling/peso  relationship. 

In  Paraguay  new  rates  established  in  November  effected  a 
substantial  devaluation  of  the  guarani  against  the  dollar  for 
most  transactions  and  a  considerable  simplification  of  the 
rate  structure.  The  old  official  rate  of  3-12  guaranies  per 
U.S.  dollar  was  retained  for  essential  imports  and  three  new 
import  and  export  rates  were  set  up,  ranging  from  4-92  to 
8  •  05  guaranies  to  the  dollar. 

On  Nov.  14  Peru  announced  a  new  exchange  rate  system 
involving  the  temporary  abandonment  of  the  old  parity,  the 
adoption  of  a  fluctuating  rate  and  a  simplification  of  the  rate 
structure.  Under  the  new  system  all  trade  transactions  were 
conducted  at  the  free  certificate  rate  (which  had  stood  at 
16-18  soles  per  U.S.  dollar  on  Nov.  5),  and  a  free  rate  without 
certificates  was  applicable  to  non-trade  transactions.  The 
system  prevailing  before  Nov.  14  resulted  in  certificate  dollar/ 
sterling  cross  rates  as  low  as  $3-03  in  April  but  after  the 
devaluation  of  sterling  this  disparity  practically  disappeared. 

On  Oct.  6  Uruguay  introduced  a  new  series  of  rates.  The 
new  system  retained  the  old  basic  buying  and  selling  rates 
of  1  •  52  and  1  •  90  pesos  to  the  dollar  respectively,  the  former 
applicable  to  wool,  wheat,  meat,  and  linseed,  the  latter  to 
general  imports  amounting  to  about  75%  of  the  total. 
Two  new  buying  rates  of  1-78  and  2-35  pesos  were  estab- 
lished for  other  exports  and  an  additional  selling  rate  of 
2-45  for  luxury  imports. 

The  Sterling  Area.  Great  Britain.  The  exchange  control 
system  instituted  at  the  outbreak  of  World  War  II  and  placed 
on  a  more  permanent  basis  in  Great  Britain  by  the  Exchange 
Control  act  of  1947  was  maintained  practically  unchanged 
throughout  the  year.  Furthermore,  no  country  entered  or 
left  the  sterling  area  in  1949. 

In  the  latter  half  of  1948,  the  dollar  deficit  of  the  sterling 
area  had  been  more  than  covered  by  .E.C.A.  assistance  and 
the  central  reserves  of  gold  and  dollars  increased  from 
$1,733  million  at  the  end  of  Sept.  1948  to  $1,874  million  at 
the  end  of  March  1949.  Nevertheless,  the  international 
economic  position  of  Great  Britain  remained  extremely 
vulnerable.  The  large  prewar  net  income  from  investments 
abroad  had  not  been  restored,  and  government  expenditure 
overseas  was  still  a  heavy  burden.  Various  other  factors  also 
contributed.  The  price  of  gold,  an  important  dollar  earner 
for  the  overseas  sterling  area,  had  remained  unchanged  in 
the  face  of  a  rise  of  about  100%  in  the  prices  of  exports  from 
the  dollar  area.  Furthermore,  apart  from  the  South  African 


248 


EXCHANGE  CONTROL 


Vicky' 's  comment  in  the  **  New?  Chronicle  **  (London)  on  the  de- 
valuation of  the  pound  by  Sir  Stafford  Crtpps  on  Sept.  18,  1949. 

gold  loan  of  £80  million  to  Great  Britain  in  1948,  which  was 
repaid  in  sterling  in  1949,  the  gold  production  of  the  overseas 
sterling  countries  and  the  proceeds  of  their  exports  to  the 
dollar  area  did  not,  as  in  prewar  years,  yield  a  net  surplus 
with  which  Great  Britain  could  cover  its  deficit  with  the 
western  hemisphere.  Instead,  these  countries,  taken  as  a 
group,  were  now  net  claimants  on  the  central  hard  currency 
reserves  rather  than  net  dollar  earners,  and  the  surplus  Great 
Britain  had  with  them  was  largely  made  up  of  "  unrequited 
exports "  financed  by  releases  from  accumulated  sterling 
balances  and  other  capital  transfers.  In  the  first  nine  months 
sterling  releases  totalled  the  equivalent  of  $830  million  and 
were  equal  to  one-seventh  of  all  Great  Britain's  exports. 

In  the  second  quarter  of  1949,  while  imports  of  sterling 
area  countries  from  the  dollar  area  increased,  their  exports 
to  that  area  fell  both  in  price  and  in  volume,  and  the  drain 
on  the  central  reserves  reappeared.  The  position  of  sterling 
was  further  weakened  by  the  spread  of  *'  cheap  "  sterling 
transactions  in  which  the  pound  was  traded  at  rates  below  $3. 
In  the  first  half  of  1949  the  total  gold  and  dollar  deficit  of 
the  sterling  area  amounted  to  $963  million,  of  which  $617 
million  was  on  Great  Britain's  account  and  $173  million  on 
the  account  of  the  rest  of  the  sterling  area.  The  remaining 
$173  million,  icpresenting  payments  in  gold  and  dollars  to 
countries  outside  the  dollar  area,  notably  Belgium,  Switzer- 
land, Western  Germany  and  Iran,  could  not  be  allocated 
between  Great  Britain  and  the  other  sterling  area  countries. 
Since  E.G. A.  aid  ($669  million),  drawings  by  Great  Britain 
on  the  Canadian  credit  ($56  million)  and  by  India  on  the 
International  Monetary  fund  ($31-7  million)  were  insufficient 
to  cover  the  deficit,  the  central  reserve  declined  by  $206 
million. 

British  Commonwealth.  A  conference  of  Commonwealth 
finance  ministers  on  the  subject  of  the  dollar  drain  was  held 
in  July  and  it  was  agreed  that  the  necessary  steps  should  be 
taken  to  cut  imports  from  the  dollar  area  by  25  %.  Further 
measures  to  alleviate  the  position  of  sterling,  notably  by 


increased  U.S.  and  Canadian  purchases  from  the  British 
Commonwealth  of  strategic  materials  such  as  tin  and  rubber 
and  by  the  broader  use  of  E.C.A.  funds  for  purchases  in 
Canada,  were  announced  after  the  U.S. -Canadian-British 
talks  held  in  Washington,  D.C.,  at  the  beginning  of  September. 
The  growing  opinion  that  devaluation  was  imminent,  how- 
ever, led  importers  in  the  dollar  area  both  to  delay  payments 
and  withhold  new  orders  for  sterling  area  products.  Finally, 
with  the  reserves  dropping  below  $1,400  million,  the  exchange 
rate  of  the  pound  was  reduced  by  30-52%  from  $4-03  to 
$2  80  on  Sept.  18.  The  new  rate  was  effective  in  all  the 
British  dependent  overseas  territories  except  British  Honduras. 
Similar  readjustments  were  made,  either  simultaneously  or 
in  the  following  days,  in  the  exchange  rates  of  all  the  other 
currencies  of  the  sterling  area  with  the  exception  of  Pakistan, 
which,  thanks  largely  to  its  exports  of  jute,  maintained  a 
comparatively  strong  position  vis-a-vis  the  dollar  area.  On 
Dec.  31  a  new  par  value  of  four  British  Honduras  dollars  to 
one  British  pound  was  announced  with  the  approval  of  the 
International  Monetary  fund  and  the  previous  relationship 
between  the  two  currencies  restored. 

Prior  to  devaluation  sterling  had  been  quoted  in  various 
financial  centres  at  "  free  "  rates  equivalent  to  substantially 
less  than  $3-00.  The  disparity  disappeared  with  devaluation, 
but  by  the  end  of  the  year  free  sterling  was  again  being  quoted 
at  discounts  exceeding  10%. 

Europe.  The  dollar  shortage  persisted  in  most  European 
countries  except  Switzerland,  which  continued  without 
foreign  exchange  control.  Thanks  to  E  C.A.  aid  and  receipts 
of  gold  and  convertible  exchange  from  countries  outside 
North  America,  Belgium  and  Italy,  for  example,  were  able 
to  add  to  their  gold  and  foreign  exchange  holdings.  There 
was  a  striking  improvement  in  the  monetary  position  of 
France  and  a  reappearance  of  substantial  exports  from 
Western  Germany. 

Within  Europe  the  unbalanced  economy  of  some  countries 
continued  to  cause  difficulties  which  were,  however,  mitigated 
by  the  European  Payments  scheme  organized  in  1948  within 
the  framework  of  E.R.P.  In  Sept.  1949  the  scheme  was 
renewed  with  some  modifications  but  it  soon  appeared  likely 
that  the  distribution  of  established  drawing  rights  would  have 
to  be  revised,  since  the  varying  degrees  of  devaluation  appeared 
likely  to  improve  the  balance  of  trade  among  the  E.R.P. 
countries  and  change  the  net  creditor  and  debtor  positions 
of  different  countries. 

A  significant  step  towards  the  removal  of  exchange  restric- 
tions was  taken  in  November,  when  the  Belgian  franc  was 
made  freely  convertible  into  Swiss  francs  and  U.S.  dollars. 
Discussions  also  took  place  concerning  the  easing  of  transfer 
restrictions  among  various  groups  of  countries,  notably 
France,  Italy,  and  Benelux  (Belgium,  the  Netherlands  and 
Luxembourg),  but  by  the  end  of  the  year  little  had  been 
achieved  save  some  reductions  of  import  quotas. 

Austria  and  Western  Germany.  The  currencies  of  both 
occupied  countries,  Austria  and  Western  Germany,  were 
reduced  by  a  smaller  percentage  than  sterling.  On  Sept.  19 
the  West  German  Deutsche  mark  was  devalued  by  20-6% 
from  DM.3 -33  to  DM.4 -2  to  the  U.S.  dollar.  Although  the 
official  rate  of  10  Austrian  schillings  to  the  dollar  had  been 
in  effect  since  the  end  of  the  war,  most  commercial  transactions 
with  Austria  had  been  carried  out  at  premium  rates,  the 
premiums  varying  widely  according  to  the  commodities  and 
currencies  involved.  The  official  rate  was  reduced  to  Sch.  14  •  40 
to  the  U.S.  dollar  as  from  Nov.  22,  and  the  system  was 
considerably  simplified.  All  export  transactions  were  to  be 
conducted  at  an  effective  export  rate  of  Sch.2l-36  to  the 
dollar  applicable  to  luxury  imports  and  non-commercial 
transactions  and  the  effective  export  rate  applicable  to  all 
other  imports. 


EXCHANGE  CONTROL 


249 


THANGFS  IN  WORLD  EXCHANGE  RATES,  DFCEMBER  1949 

Percentage  Percentage  Percentage  Percentage 

Currency     Old  rate    New  rate    Old  rate    New  rate 
Country 

A.  United  States 

Brazil 

British  Honduras 

Chile 

Colombia 

Czechoslovakia 

Ethiopia 

Hungary       ... 

Japan 

Lebanon 

Netherlands  West  Indies 

Pakistan 

Persia 

Philippines 

Poland 

Spam 

Switzerland  . 

Syria    . 

Turkey 

USSR 

Yugoslavia 

B.  Belgium 
Canada 
Prance. 

Germany  (Western) 
Greece 

Italy  .... 

Portugal 

1  hailand 

C.  United  Kingdom 
Australia 
Austria 
Burma 

Ceylon 

Denmark 

Egypt 

Hnland 

Hong  Kong  . 

Iceland 

India 

Iraq       ...... 

Irish  Republic 

Israel 

Jordan 

Netherlands   and   Netherlands   East 

Indies 

New  Zealand 
Norway 
Singapore 
South  Africa 
Sweden 

The  table  shows  official  parities  and  rates  quoted  in  foreign  centres  for  sterling  and  United  States  dollars  immediately  before  Sept    18  and  on 
Dec.  28,  1949.   Currencies  have  been  classified  in  three  broad  groups     A,  those  which  did  not  depreciate  with  respect  to  the  dollar,   B,  those 
which  depieciated  but  to  a  lesser  extent  than  sterling,    C,  those  which  depreciated  to  approximately  the  same  extent  as  sterling 
Table  based  upon  Board  of  Trade  Journal.    Reproduced  by  permission  of  the  Controller  of  H.M.  Stationery  Office. 


Currency 

Old  rate 

New  rate 

Old  rate 

New  rate 

against 

in  local 

against 

in    local 

unit 

per  £ 

per  £ 

per  US   $ 

per  U  S   $ 

sterling 

price  of 

US   $ 

price   of 

sterling 

sterling 

sterling 

US   S 

US.  $ 

4  03 

2  80 

1  00 

1   00 

43  93 

30  52 



cruzeiro 

75  44 

52  416 

18  72 

18  72 

43  91 

30  51 

_ 

. 

BH    $ 

4  03 

2  80 

1  00 

1   00 

43  93 

30  52 





peso 

124  9 

86  8 

31  00 

31   00 

43  9 

30  5 





peso 

7-86 

5  46 

1   95 

1   95 

43  9 

30  5 



_ 

<*s  koruna 

201-5 

140 

50  15 

50  15 

43  93 

30  52 

._ 



fcS 

10  0 

7  0 

2  484 

2  484 

43  9 

30  5 



_, 

fonnt 

47-31 

32  87 

11   827 

11-827 

43  93 

30  52 



yen 

1,450  8 

1,008  0 

360  0 

360-0 

43  •  93 

30  52 

— 

— 

£L 

8  83 

6-13 

2   191 

2   191 

43  9 

30  5 

_ 

.  

florin 

7  60 

5-28 

1   89 

1    89 

43  93 

30  52 

_ 

_„. 

P.  rupee 

13  372 

9  290 

3  318 

3   318 

43  94 

30  53 





rial 

129  0 

90  20 

^2  25 

32  25 

43  02 

30  08 

peso 

8   10 

5  63 

2  00 

2-00 

43  87 

30  49 

— 

— 

zloty 

1,612 

1,120 

402 

402 

43  93 

30  52 

— 

peseta 

44  n 

30  66 

H)  95 

'0  95 

43  93 

30  52 

- 

-  - 

Sw   Iranc 

17  35 

12  2439 

4  31 

4  37282 

41-74 

29-45 

~. 

£S 

8-81 

6-13 

2-19; 

2  191 

43-9 

30  5 

lira 

11-334 

7-875 

2  825 

2  825 

43  93 

30  5 





rouble 

21-35 

14  84 

5   30 

5   30 

43  87 

30  49 

-__ 

dinar 

201   5 

140  0 

50  00 

50  00 

43  9 

30  5 

— 

— 

B   fianc 

176  625 

140 

43  83 

50  0 

26  16 

20  74 

12  34 

14  08 

Can    $ 

4-03 

3  08 

1   00 

1    10 

30  84 

23  57 

9  09 

10  00 

franc 

1,097 

980 

272  2 

350 

11   94 

10  67 

21    96 

28-14 

D    mark 

H  43 

11    76 

3  33 

4  20 

14  20 

12  41 

20  66 

26  10 

diachma 

32,000 

42,000 

12,000 

15,000 

—23  80 

—31   25 

26  00 

25  00 

lira 

2,317 

1,748  4 

575-0 

624  4 

32  52 

24  54 

7  91 

8-59 

escudo 

100  75 

80  50 

25 

28  75 

25   16 

20   10 

13  04 

15  00 

baht 

40  0 

35  0 

10  0 

12  5 

14  3 

12  5 

20  00 

25  00 

£ 

1    00 

1   00 

0  2481 

0  3571 



30  52 

43  93 

£A 

1   25 

1   25 

0  3102 

0  4464 

— 

30  51 

43  91 

schilling 

40  30 

40  32 

10-14 

14  40 

—  - 

. 

29  58 

42  01 

rupee 

13  372 

13  372 

3  318 

4  762 

— 

30  32 

43  •  52 

rupee 

13-372 

13  372 

3  318 

4  762 

— 

30  32 

43  52 

krone 

19  34 

19  34 

4  80 

6  91 

- 

_ 

30  54 

43-96 

£h 

0-975 

0  975 

0  242 

0  348 

— 

30  46 

43  80 

markka 

643 

64} 

160 

230   17 





30  49 

43  86 

H  K    $ 

16   134 

16   134 

4  00 

5  76 

— 

30  56 

44  00 

krona 

26   155 

26   155 

6  505 

9-36 

— 

- 

30-50 

43-89 

rupee 

13   372 

13   372 

3  318 

4  762 

— 

- 

30-32 

43   52 

dinar 

1   00 

1   00 

0  2481 

0  3571 

— 

30  52 

43-93 

£ 

1   00 

1   00 

0  2481 

0  3571 

— 

30  52 

43  93 

£1 

1   00 

1   00 

0  2481 

0  3571 

—  - 

30  52 

43  93 

£T 

1-00 

1   00 

0  2481 

0  3572 

•— 

30  5 

43  9 

florin 

10  691 

10  64 

2  65 

3   80 

__ 

30  26 

43  39 

£NZ 

1   00 

1    00 

0  2481 

0  3571 

— 

30  52 

43  93 

krone 

20  00 

20  00 

4  96 

7   14 



30  53 

43-95 

S  $ 

8   57 

8   57 

2   13 

3  06 

—  - 

30  39 

43  66 

£SA 

I   00 

1   00 

0  2481 

0  3571 

- 

_ 

30-52 

43  93 

krona 

14  485 

14  485 

3  60 

5    18 

- 

—  . 

30-50 

43  89 

Benelux.  The  par  value  of  Dutch  currency  was  reduced 
by  30  2%  to  3  80  florins,  or  guilders,  to  the  U.S.  dollar. 
In  an  effort  to  stimulate  exports  to  the  western  hemisphere 
the  Netherlands  allowed  Dutch  exporters  to  retain  10%  of 
their  dollar  earnings.  The  Belgian  franc,  on  the  other  hand, 
which  had  been  in  a  relatively  strong  technical  position  since 
the  war,  mainly  as  a  result  of  Belgium-Luxembourg's  con- 
tinued favourable  balance  of  payments  position  in  relation 
to  other  European  countries,  was  devalued  by  only  12-3%. 

France.  Preliminary  estimates  of  the  French  balance  of 
payments  during  the  first  half  of  1949  calculated  that  the 
French  Union  deficit  with  the  rest  of  the  world  was  at  an 
annual  rate  of  roughly  $900  million  compared  with  about 
$1,700  million  m  1948.  The  deficit  with  the  dollar  area  was 
probably  at  an  annual  rate  of  about  $800  million  compared 
with  over  $1,000  million  in  the  previous  year.  Internally, 
prices  were  stable  or  declining  until  August.  The  growing 


strength  of  the  franc  reflected  this  improvement  in  the  internal 
and  external  financial  position  of  the  country.  By  April 
the  black  market  dollar  rate  had  dropped  from  above 
Fr.500  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  to  about  Fr.350.  The 
revision  of  the  exchange  rate  system  of  Oct.  1 948  was  main- 
tained, with  minor  modifications,  up  till  Sept.  19,  1949.  On 
the  basis  of  this  system,  non-commercial  transactions  in 
U  S.  dollars,  Swiss  francs,  Portuguese  escudos  and,  from 
June  10,  1949,  Belgian  francs  were  carried  out  at  the  free 
market  exchange  rate  (which  moved  slowly  upwaid  from 
Fr.314  •  80  to  the  dollar  in  January  to  Fr.330  •  60  in  September), 
while  commercial  transactions  in  these  currencies  and  all 
transactions  in  other  currencies  took  place  at  the  average 
of  the  free  market  and  the  ollicial  rate  (Fr.214-71  to  the 
dollar). 

Following  the  devaluation  of  sterling  the  franc  was  devalued 
on  Sept.   20  and  the  exchange  rate  system  unified.     This 


250 


EXCHANGE  CONTROL 


adjustment  came  at  a  particularly  inopportune  moment  since 
prices  had  begun  to  rise  again  in  August  as  a  result  mainly 
of  the  summer  drought,  and  concurrently  union  demands  for 
wages  grew.  From  Sept.  20  all  transactions  were  conducted 
at  the  equivalent  of  the  free  market  rate  for  the  dollar  which 
was  initially  at  Fr.350  but  thereafter  appreciated  slightly. 
Thus  for  non-commercial  transactions  in  hard  currencies  the 
franc  depreciated  by  only  5  •  7  %  in  terms  of  the  dollar,  while 
for  all  other  transactions  it  depreciated  by  22  •  3  %  in  terms 
of  the  dollar  and  appreciated  by  1 1  •  9  %  in  terms  of  sterling. 
The  free  market  rate  continued  to  be  controlled  by  the  French 
monetary  authorities. 

Greece.  In  Greece  the  official  rate  for  the  drachma  of 
5,020  to  the  dollar  and  the  certificate  system  of  exchange 
rates  under  which  exporters  sold  foreign  exchange  certificates 
to  importers  in  the  open  market  remained  in  effect.  Before 
the  devaluation  of  the  pound  sterling  exchange  certificates 
were  quoted  at  a  level  which  gave  an  effective  sterling/dollar 
cross  rate  of  about  $3-20  or  79%  of  the  official  parity. 
However,  the  Bank  of  Greece  announced  new  certificate 
rates,  to  be  effective  from  Sept.  22,  (which  could  be  controlled 
through  the  issuance  of  permits  for  the  purchase  of  foreign 
exchange)  giving  effective  exchange  rates  of  15,000  drachmas 
to  the  dollar  and  42,000  to  the  pound. 

Italy.  In  Italy  the  system  of  exchange  rates  introduced  in 
1947,  and  modified  on  Nov.  26,  1948,  to  peg  sterling  quota- 
tions to  the  dollar  at  the  cross  rate  of  $4-03  to  the  pound 
sterling  continued  in  effect  until  the  devaluation  of  sterling. 
Thereafter  the  procedure  by  which  exporters  sold  half  their 
foreign  exchange  proceeds  at  the  official  rate  and  half  at  the 
free  rate,  while  importers  carried  out  all  transactions  at  the 
free  rate,  was  continued.  The  official  rate  was  now  determined 
daily,  however,  by  the  average  of  the  closing  free  market 
quotation  in  Rome  and  Milan  rather  than  monthly  by  the 
average  free  rate  in  these  markets  for  the  previous  month. 
Thus  a  wide  differentiation  between  the  official  and  free  rates 
was  hardly  possible  any  more.  The  lira  was  then  allowed  to 
depreciate  from  L.575  to  about  L.628  to  the  dollar  in  the 
free  market — which  the  monetary  authorities  controlled  in 
much  the  same  way  as  in  France.  Thus  the  lira  depreciated 
by  about  8%  in  relation  to  the  dollar  and  appreciated  by 
about  32%  in  relation  to  sterling. 

Portugal.  On  Sept.  22  Portugal  devalued  the  escudo  by 
13  •  1  %  with  respect  to  the  dollar  so  that  its  currency  appre- 
ciated by  25%  with  respect  to  sterling. 

Scandinavia.  Denmark,  Finland,  Norway  and  Sweden 
followed  sterling  and  devalued  their  currencies  by  30-5%. 
Finland  was  in  a  somewhat  special  position.  Faced  with 
high  domestic  costs  and  declining  export  prices  for  pulp 
and  other  wood  products,  its  principal  exports,  it  had 
previously  devalued  its  currency  by  15%  on  July  5.  Thus  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  year  the  markka  lost  41  %  of  its  dollar 
exchange  value,  falling  from  136  to  231  to  the  dollar. 

Spain.  After  the  devaluation  of  sterling  Spain  retained  its 
basic  buying  and  selling  rates  of  10-95  and  11-22  pesetas 
to  the  dollar  respectively,  but  altered  its  various  special 
import  rates  by  30  •  5  %  and  its  special  export  rates  by  amounts 
varying  from  7  to  42%. 

Switzerland.  The  Swiss  franc,  alone  among  western 
European  currencies,  was  not  devalued.  With  gold  and 
dollar  assets  exceeding  $2,000  million  at  the  end  of  August, 
and  increasing  to  such  an  extent  that  the  monetary  authorities 
had  refused  to  convert  dollar  assets  and  adopted  a  gold 
sterilization  policy  to  control  the  inflationary  effect  of  an 
inflow  of  foreign  exchange,  there  was  no  need  to  change  the 
official  parity.  However,  shortly  after  sterling  devaluation 
the  central  bank  decided  to  buy  all  dollars  at  the  official  rate, 
and  the  "  finance  dollar  "  market,  in  which  the  dollar  had 
been  quoted  at  a  discount  of  about  8  %,  disappeared. 


1929       1931       1933       1935     1937      1939       1941       1943       1945      1947      1949 
1930      1932      1934      1936      1938      1940       1942      1944       1946      1948 


A  chart  showing  the  value  of  the  British  pound  for  the  year?  1929- 
1949  as  compared  with  the  United  States  dollar  and  the  Swiss  franc. 

Eastern  Europe.  The  exchange  rates  of  Albania,  Bulgaria, 
Czechoslovakia,  Hungary,  Poland,  Rumania,  and  Yugo- 
slavia, like  that  of  the  U.S.S.R.,  remained  unchanged 
throughout  the  year.  On  May  24  the  existing  exchange  rate 
of  50  Yugoslav  dinars  to  the  U.S.  dollar  was  approved  by 
the  International  Monetary  fund. 

Middle  East.  There  was  little  change  in  exchange  control 
regulations  in  the  middle  east  in  1949.  Besides  Iraq — which 
remained  within  the  sterling  area — two  former  members  of 
that  group,  Egypt  and  Israel,  followed  the  British  example  and 
devalued  their  currencies  by  30  •  5  %.  In  both  cases  the  prime 
motivation  for  the  action  lay  in  the  importance  of  sterling  in 
their  foreign  exchange  assets  and  in  their  dependence  on  the 
sterling  area  as  a  market  for  their  exports.  As  regards  Israel, 
the  devaluation  hardly  affected  imports  and  financial  tran- 
sactions with  hard  currency  countries  since  these  had  been 
conducted  at  buying  and  selling  rates  of  U.S.  $3-015  and 
U.S.  $2-986  to  the  Israeli  pound  ever  since  the  new  state 
had  been  established.  The  other  middle  eastern  countries, 
Persia,  Lebanon,  Syria  and  Turkey,  did  not  change  the  par 
values  of  their  currencies  despite  the  close  relations  (especially 
of  Persia  and  Turkey)  with  sterling  and  the  orientation  of 
much  of  their  trade  to  countries  which  did  devalue. 

Persia  made  some  changes  in  its  certificate  exchange  rate 
system.  From  Jan.  16,  1949,  three  rates  were  in  use.  The 
official  rate,  32-50  rials  to  the  U.S.  dollar,  was  applicable 
to  government  requirements,  imports  of  sugar,  and,  from 
Feb.  13,  to  non-trade  receipts.  The  Anglo-Iranian  Oil  com- 
pany purchased  rials  for  local  expenditure  at  the  buying  rate 
of  32  00  to  the  U.S.  dollar.  The  official  plus  certificate  rate, 
which  declined  from  53  88  rials  to  the  dollar  in  January  to 
46-19  in  October,  was  used  for  all  other  imports  except 
machinery  and  essential  consumers'  goods.  In  addition  to 
rials  at  the  official  rate,  certificates  were  issued  to  exporters 
and  could  be  sold  in  the  free  market  to  importers  or  others 
authorized  to  buy  foreign  exchange.  After  the  devaluation 
of  sterling,  the  certificate  rate  for  the  pound  dropped  to  about 
112  rials  to  the  pound,  giving  a  dollar/sterling  cross  rate  of 
U.S.  $2-44. 

Syria  and  Lebanon,  with  identical  monetary  units  and  a 
common  bank  of  issue,  also  maintained  the  existing  official 
par  values  of  their  currencies.  To  encourage  exports  a  regula- 
tion was  issued,  taking  effect  from  Sept.  26,  restricting  the 
use  of  the  official  rate  to  10%  of  the  proceeds  of  non-trade 
transactions. 

The  decision  of  Turkey  not  to  devalue  was  probably  influ- 
enced by  several  factors.  The  devaluation  of  sterling 
considerably  reduced  the  burden  of  its  foreign  debt. 

Far  East.  China.  In  May  the  exchange  clearance  certificate 


EXPLORATION   AND   DISCOVERY 


251 


system  was  abolished  and  an  exchange  deposit  certificate 
system  introduced,  under  which  deposit  certificates  were 
issued,  amounting  to  80%  of  the  foreign  exchange  deposited 
with  the  Central  bank  or  appointed  banks.  These  certificates, 
which  also  served  as  import  licences,  were  sold  in  the  open 
market  to  those  desiring  exchange.  In  a  further  effort  to 
halt  the  runaway  inflation  a  new  currency  unit,  the  silver  yuan, 
was  established.  Its  exchange  value  was  set  at  1-55  to  the 
dollar  but  was  subsequently  reduced  to  1  -45.  However,  the 
rapidly  deteriorating  political  and  military  situation  rendered 
all  attempts  at  monetary  and  financial  stabilization  futile. 

Thailand.  In  September  a  new  official  rate  of  12-5  baht  to 
the  dollar  and  35  to  the  pound  was  established,  representing 
a  depreciation  of  20-6%  against  the  dollar  and  an  apprecia- 
tion of  14%  in  relation  to  sterling.  Exporters  of  rice,  rubber, 
and  tin  were  required  to  sell  varying  portions  of  their 
exchange  proceeds  at  the  official  rate  and  were  allowed  to 
dispose  of  the  remainder  in  the  free  market.  As  regards 
imports  the  official  rate  was  applicable  almost  exclusively 
to  fuel  oil.  Other  payments  were  made  through  the  free 
market  at  21-22  baht  to  the  dollar.  Before  the  devaluation 
of  the  pound  free  market  sterling  was  quoted  at  62  to  66 
baht,  giving  a  dollar/sterling  cross  rate  of  $2-81  to  $3-06. 
Thereafter,  however,  the  disparity  narrowed,  the  free  rate 
dropping  to  57  baht,  giving  a  cross  rate  of  $2  •  64. 

Philippines.  The  import  restrictions  imposed  toward  the 
end  of  1948  did  not  have  the  desired  effect  and,  despite  U.S. 
aid  estimated  at  about  $200  million,  excluding  U.S.  army 
and  navy  expenditures,  foreign  exchange  reserves  declined 
from  $400  million  at  the  end  of  1948  to  $279  million  at  the 
end  of  Sept.  1949.  To  stop  this  drain  more  drastic  import 
controls  were  introduced  at  the  end  of  November,  and  as 
from  Dec.  9  a  licence  from  the  Central  bank  was  required 
for  all  transactions  in  gold  and  foreign  exchange. 

Japan.  On  April  25  an  official  exchange  rate  of  360  yen 
to  the  U.S.  dollar  was  established  for  all  foreign  exchange 
transactions  permitted.  For  important  export  products  such 
as  textiles,  this  had  the  effect  of  devaluing  the  yen.  (See  also 
INTERNATIONAL  MONETARY  FUND.)  (A.  STN.) 

EXHIBITIONS:   see  FAIRS,  SHOWS  AND  EXHIBITIONS. 

EXPLORATION  AND  DISCOVERY.  The  Antarc- 
tic continent,  still  so  largely  unknown,  continued  to  be  the 
premier  field  of  exploration  (see  ANTARCTICA).  Ice  conditions 
in  the  southern  summer  of  1948-49  were  responsible  for  two 
major  set-backs:  the  French  expedition  to  Addlie  Land, 
delayed  on  its  voyage  south,  was  unable  to  effect  a  landing 
and  returned  to  Europe — to  sail  again  later  in  1949;  in 
Graham  Land  the  leader  of  the  Falkland  Islands  Depen- 
dencies surveys  and  a  sledge  party,  who  were  to  have  returned 
to  Europe  from  Stonington  Island  in  Jan.  1949,  were  obliged  to 
winter  there  another  year  as  their  ship  was  unable  to  proceed 
so  far  south.  The  Norwegian-British-Swedish  expedition 
sailed  for  Queen  Maud  Land  in  the  "  Norsel  "  on  Nov.  23. 

In  Greenland,  the  Danish  Peary  Land  expedition  under 
Count  Eigil  Knuth  continued  its  work  in  the  far  north.  The 
expedition  ship  again  sailed  from  Denmark  with  supplies, 
and  the  parties  in  the  field  were  maintained  by  means  of 
flying  boats,  as  in  previous  years.  The  French  expedition  to 
west  Greenland  under  Paul-Emil  Victor,  sent  out  in  1948 
by  the  Expeditions  Polaires  Francaises  organization,  had  a 
very  successful  year.  In  1948  they  had  assembled  at  the 
edge  of  the  inland  ice  above  Disko  sound  a  considerable 
concentration  of  equipment  and  supplies,  including  the 
tracked  snow- vehicles  "  weasels  "  on  which  the  expedition 
relied  for  its  ground  transport.  This  operation  had  involved 
a  formidable  programme  of  road-making  and  the  construction 
of  a  telpher  cable-way.  The  members  of  the  expedition, 
who  had  returned  to  France  when  that  task  was  complete, 


-jne  Aniarciic  exploration  $mp^  ^idnn  Jaiscoe^    in  Admiralty  ~ oay 

with  members  of  the  crew  of  H.M.S.  "  Sparrow  "  on  board.    She 

returned  to  England  during  1949  ^  and  left  for  the  Antarctic  on  Oct.  119 

reaching  Port  Stanley,  Nov.  14,  and  Deception  Island  on  Dec.  2. 

were  back  in  Greenland  early  in  the  summer  of  1949  and, 
finding  their  equipment  intact,  set  out  for  the  interior  of  the 
ice  cap,  their  destination  being  the  central  station  occupied 
for  a  year  by  Alfred  Wegener's  German  expedition  of  1930- 
31.  This  they  reached  in  the  middle  of  July,  assisted  by 
supplementary  supplies  and  spare  tracks  for  the  weasels, 
which  were  parachuted  to  them  from  aircraft  based  on 
Iceland  according  to  a  pre-arranged  programme.  A  new 
central  station  was  established  and  a  party  of  eight  men 
remained  to  winter  there  and  maintain  meteorological  and 
glaciological  observations.  They  were  to  be  relieved  in  the 
summer  of  1950. 

The  British  university  expeditions  which  visited  the  Arctic 
in  1949  are  mentioned  elsewhere  in  this  article.  Peter  Scott 
led  a  small  expedition  to  the  Perry  river  in  northern  Canada 
primarily  to  study  the  breeding  and  migration  of  birds  and 
discovered  the  only  known  nesting  place  of  Ross's  Snow 
Goose.  The  party  travelled  from  Winnipeg  by  air  and 
returned  in  the  same  way,  demonstrating  again  that  much 
of  the  Arctic  and  its  fascinating  problems  are  not  beyond 
the  reach  of  those  who  dwell  in  the  world  outside.  The  same 
means  of  access  was  adopted  on  an  expedition  to  the  coast 
range  of  British  Columbia  led  by  C.  H.  Pelham-Burn.  He  had 
intended  to  alight  by  amphibian  plane  on  Tide  lake  in  this 
little  known  mountain  land  but  found  that,  impounded  by  a 
glacier  dam,  it  had  largely  drained  away;  and  he  was  obliged 
to  use  Bowser  lake  nearby  as  his  base.  The  party  included  a 
botanist  and  a  surveyor  and  much  new  ground  was  mapped 
by  plane-table  and  biological  collections  were  obtained. 

The  year  1949  witnessed  a  renewed  interest  in  Himalayan 
travel.  An  expedition  led  by  Dr.  Dillon  Ripley  and  sponsored 
jointly  by  the  National  Geographic  society,  Yale  university 
and  the  Smithsonian  institute,  returned  in  March  1949  from 
four  months'  travel  among  the  Nepal  foothills  of  the  Everest 
range.  They  had  made  extensive  biological  collections  and 


252    EXPORT-IMPORT  BANK-EX-SERVICEMEN'S  ORGANIZATIONS 


secured  some  remarkable  photographs  of  the  Everest  group 
from  the  southeast,  revealing  a  panorama  that  had  certainly 
not  been  photographed  before  except  from  the  air.  Later 
in  the  summer  H.  W.  Tilman  led  an  expedition  to  Nepal. 
His  main  object  was  to  climb,  but  at  the  instance  of  the  Nepal 
government  the  party  included  a  botanist  and  a  geologist 
and  was  equipped  to  make  photogrammetric  surveys.  It 
had  been  hoped  that  by  ascending  the  frontier  range  the 
survey  photographs  would  cover  a  hitherto  unmapped  region 
of  Tibet.  Intervening  ridges  curtailed  the  view  but  material 
was  obtained  for  extensive  revisions  to  the  existing  sketch- 
maps  of  the  Langtang  Himal  range  in  Nepal.  Bad  weather 
greatly  interfered  with  the  climbing  programme  but  two 
peaks  were  conquered,  the  higher,  Paldor,  being  19,450  ft. 
high.  Extensive  biological  and  geological  collections  were 
obtained.  There  was  every  reason  to  hope  that  the  welcome 
extended  to  these  two  expeditions  by  the  Nepalese  authorities 
would  encourage  further  scientific  work  in  the  area. 

Wilfred  Thesiger  made  a  further  notable  journey  in  southern 
Arabia  in  1949,  through  the  barren  steppes  and  deserts  that 
lie  inland  of  the  Oman  mountains.  The  interior  of  Oman 
had  remained  unvisited  by  Europeans  from  1901  until 
Thesiger  himself  crossed  a  part  of  the  area  in  1946  and  the 
prevailing  disorder  in  this  part  of  Arabia  had  greatly  increased 
the  difficulties  of  travel.  Leaving  the  oasis  of  Buraimi  in  the 
north  of  Oman  in  Nov.  1948  with  his  Arab  travelling  com- 
panions of  former  years,  he  was  intending  to  visit  the  great 
quicksands  of  Ummal  Samim.  In  this  endeavour  the  prevailing 
state  of  suspicion  and  disorder  served  his  turn;  for  the 
bedawin  forbade  his  party  to  travel  through  their  territories 
nearer  the  mountains  and  insisted  that  he  should  skirt  the 
very  quicksands  that  he  wished  to  see.  The  Ummal  Samim 
is  a  depression  which  retains  the  infrequent  run-off  of  the 
Oman  mountains,  extending  from  northwest  to  southeast  a 
distance  of  95  mi.,  and  is  undoubtedly  capable  of  engulfing 
man  and  beast,  particularly  when  the  water  table  beneath 
the  treacherous  surface  has  been  raised  by  recent  rain  in  the 
mountains.  From  the  Ummal  Samim  he  continued  his  journey 
to  the  southeastern  coast  of  Arabia  and  returned  to  Buraimi 
along  the  western  flank  of  the  Oman  mountains.  He  also 
traversed  the  Liwa  oasis  to  the  west  of  Buraimi,  unvisited 
by  a  European  until  Thesiger  had  himself  passed  through  it 
in  1948.  He  left  England  for  a  further  journey  in  Oman  at 
the  end  of  1949. 

Other  expeditions  to  Arabia  were  the  University  of 
California  expedition  which  was  to  work  in  the  Hadramaut, 
Dhofar  and  possibly  in  Oman  also,  its  interests  being  chiefly 
archaeological ;  and  a  British  party  which  was  to  study  the 
breeding  places  of  the  locust  in  northern  Oman.  Unlike 
Thesiger  these  parties  were  to  depend  on  modern  mechanical 
transport  and  not  on  the  camel,  though  this  might  well 
limit  their  radius  of  action. 

As  is  now  usual,  a  number  of  summer  expeditions  from 
British  universities  were  in  the  field.  The  Arctic,  relatively 
accessible  from  Europe  and  offering  a  still  unexhausted  field 
for  geographical  research,  attracted  most  of  the  attention. 
A  Cambridge  geological  expedition  worked  in  Spitsbergen, 
an  Oxford  expedition  in  North  East  Land  and  a  Durham 
university  expedition  in  Iceland  where  the  unusually  wet 
summer  greatly  hampered  their  movements.  W.  R.  B. 
Battle  returned  to  northeast  Greenland,  a  passenger  in  the 
Danish  Peary  Land  expedition's  ship,  to  continue  his  glacio- 
logical  work  of  1948,  and  succeeded  in  penetrating  to  a 
distance  of  500  mi.  beneath  a  glacier,  along  the  bed  of  a 
sub-glacial  stream,  to  study  the  crystalline  structure  of  the 
ice,  A  party  from  Birmingham  university  worked  in  northern 
Norway.  Outside  the  Arctic,  two  Oxford  expeditions  went 
to  Africa:  one  to  Mount  Kenya  principally  to  study  the 
forest  botany  of  that  mountain,  and  one  to  Portuguese 


Guinea  to  make  biological  collections.  Cambridge  parties 
worked  in  Algeria  and  in  Spain.  A  party  of  over  60  school- 
boys made  maps  in  northern  Norway. 

Noah's  Ark,  though  fast  aground  these  many  years, 
continued  as  elusive  a  ship  as  the  Flying  Dutchman  and 
more  than  one  party  set  out  in  1949  to  look  for  her  on  Mount 
Ararat.  (F.  GE.) 

EXPORT-IMPORT  BANK  OF  WASHINGTON. 

Created  in  1934,  the  bank  was  made  a  permanent  independent 
agency  of  the  U.S.  government  by  the  Export-Import  Bank 
act  of  1945,  approved  July  31,  1945. 

Its  purpose  is  not  only  to  facilitate  the  financing  of  U.S. 
exports  but  to  assist  in  the  financing  of  development  projects 
in  foreign  countries  which  will  increase  their  productive 
capacity  and  step  up  their  exports,  thereby  improving  their 
foreign  exchange  situation  and  making  them  better  suppliers 
of  those  materials  and  goods  needed  for  import  into  the  U.S. 
Its  financing  is  generally  limited  to  the  dollar  cost  of  U.S. 
materials,  equipment  and  services  required  for  development 
projects  in  foreign  countries. 

The  bank  is  empowered  to  lend  to  U.S.  exporters  and 
importers  and  to  private  entities  in  other  countries  as  well 
as  to  foreign  governments.  It  finances  specific  export  and 
import  transactions  on  application  of  U.S.  exporters  and 
importers  where  the  nature  of  the  risk  involved  is  such  that 
private  credit  cannot  be  obtained  and  when,  in  the  opinion 
of  its  board  of  directors,  there  exists  reasonable  assurance 
of  repayment.  It  also  arranges,  in  favour  of  foreign  purchasers, 
credits  which  are  available  on  equal  terms  to  all  qualified 
U.S.  exporters  for  financing  the  sale  of  U.S.  export  staples 
such  as  raw  cotton. 

The  total  amount  of  loans  authorized  by  the  bank  from  the 
time  of  its  establishment  in  1934  approximated  $4,513 
million  at  the  end  of  1949.  Disbursements  during  1949  were 
approximately  $185  million  and  repayments  during  1949 
were  approximately  $144  million.  Outstanding  loans  of  the 
bank  totalled  $2,179,585,274  at  the  end  of  1949.  (S.  So.) 

EX-SERVICEMEN'S     ORGANIZATIONS.     In 

most  countries  ex-servicemen's  associations  continued  to 
work  for  better  pensions  for  the  disabled  and  dependants  of 
the  fallen;  but  in  countries  under  Soviet  domination  the 
process  of  abolishing  existing  unions  by  absorbing  them  in 
single  Communist-led  organizations  was  practically  concluded. 

Great  Britain.  British  Leg  ion.  In  Sept.  1949  the  membership 
of  the  British  legion  was  over  a  million;  there  were  5,500 
branches,  some  of  them  in  the  British  communities  abroad, 
and  3,000  branches  of  the  women's  section.  The  welfare  work 
of  the  legion  was  effected  through  the  4,800  service  commit- 
tees composed  of  members  of  the  legion,  and  representatives 
of  kindred  bodies,  such  as  S.S.A.F.A  (Soldiers',  Sailors'  and 
Airmen's  Families  association),  the  Forces  Help  society,  the 
Red  Cross  and  regimental  associations. 

These  committees  dealt  with  the  problems  of  ex-service 
men  and  women,  concerning  pensions,  employment  and 
rehabilitation  generally,  and  some  idea  of  the  extent  of  their 
work  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that  in  1949  they  gave 
advice  and  assistance  on  an  average  to  3,000  men  and  women 
every  day. 

The  legion's  main  source  of  income  was  derived  from 
Poppy  day  and  it  acted  as  a  trustee  for  the  Farl  Haig  fund, 
which  it  administered  and  applied  generally  for  the  benefit 
of  all  ex-service  men  and  women,  whether  they  were  members 
of  the  legion  or  not.  Apart  from  the  individual  welfare  work 
of  the  legion,  it  brought  its  influence  to  bear  on  behalf  of  all 
ex-servicemen,  wherever  their  interests  might  be  affected,  and 
its  authority  to  speak  on  their  behalf  was  clearly  recognized 
by  the  fact  that  it  was  represented  on  all  important  advisory 


EX-SERVICEMEN'S   ORGANIZATIONS 


253 


bodies  concerned  with  welfare  and  rehabilitation.  It  brought 
constant  pressure  to  bear  upon  the  Ministry  of  Pensions  in 
the  interests  of  widows  and  dependants  and  those  disabled  in 
war,  and  was  successful  in  obtaining  a  revision  of  a  number 
of  pension  regulations.  In  the  year  1948-49,  headquarters  and 
area  offices  dealt  with  28,334  new  cases  which  required  negotia- 
tion with  the  Ministry  of  Pensions,  and  at  appeals  tribunals  and 
special  courts  the  legion  represented  21,145  cases  which  had 
previously  been  disallowed  by  the  ministry. 

The  total  cost  of  legion  welfare  and  benevolent  services  in 
the  year  1948-49  amounted  to  £1,135,197.  Some  of  the 
principal  items  which  were  included  in  this  expenditure  were, 
relief  of  temporary  needs,  help  to  the  permanently  incapaci- 
tated, maintenance  of  six  country  and  convalescent  homes, 
weekly  allowances  for  special  foods,  etc.,  for  those  suffering 
from  chronic  illness.  Money  was  also  spent  on  assisting 
ex-servicemen  to  purchase  homes  and  to  start  businesses. 
The  Ministry  of  Health  had  already  taken  over  the  three 
legion  sanatoria,  but  the  village  and  rehabilitation  centre  at 
Preston  hall  m  Kent  remained  the  property  and  responsibility 
of  the  legion.  Although  the  state  had  instituted  many  welfare 
schemes,  there  were  still  many  anomalies  and  cases  which  no 
government  department  had  the  machinery  to  handle  and 
it  was  in  this  respect  that  the  legion  was  able  to  help  so  many 
ex-service  men  and  women.  The  operation  of  these  state 
schemes  enabled  the  legion  to  concentrate  on  the  more 
permanent  forms  of  rehabilitation. 

Sir  Ian  Fraser,  M  P.,  and  Lieutenant  Colonel  C.  Gordon 
Larking  were  re-elected  president  and  national  chairman 
respectively  at  the  British  legion  annual  conference  held  in 
May  at  Yarmouth,  (J.  C.  As  ) 

The  Commonwealth.  The  British  Empire  Service  league, 
representing  over  two  million  ex-servicemen  and  women 
throughout  the  Commonwealth,  held  its  10th  biennial 
conference  at  Ottawa,  Sept.  11-17.  Ex-servicemen  organiza- 
tions, usually  called  legions,  not  only  from  all  members  of 
the  Commonwealth  of  Nations  and  crown  colonies  but  also 
from  the  independent  republics  of  Ireland  and  Burma  were 
represented  at  the  conference  which  was  opened  by  Field 
Marshal  Viscount  Alexander  of  Tunis,  grand  patron  of  the 
Canadian  legion.  He  emphasized  the  need  for  the  closest 
possible  co-operation  not  only  between  the  nations  of  the 
Commonwealth  but  also  with  the  United  States  of  America 
and  other  people  of  good  will.  He  welcomed  the  presence 
of  representatives  of  the  American  legion  and  the  Veterans 
of  Foreign  Wars  of  the  United  States.  In  a  message  to  the 
conference,  Earl  Mountbattcn  of  Burma,  the  grand  president, 
who  was  unable  to  attend  because  of  his  duties,  said  that  a 
sense  of  strength,  through  a  real  desire  for  unity,  was 
reflected  in  the  recent  adherence  to  the  league  of  new  consti- 
tuent associations  in  West  Africa  and  the  West  Indies. 

In  a  discussion  on  the  attitude  of  ex-servicemen  towards 
Communism  Milton  F.  Gregg,  Canadian  minister  for  veterans' 
affairs,  said  that  ex-servicemen  might  be  able  to  produce  the 
greatest  bulwark  against  the  inroads  of  Moscow-inspired 
unrest  in  the  countries  of  the  Commonwealth.  The  representa- 
tives of  the  Australian  legion  submitted  a  resolution  seeking 
to  get  all  league  member-organizations  to  ask  their  govern- 
ments to  declare  Communist  parties  illegal.  Delegates  from 
British,  Canadian,  New  Zealand  and  South  African  legions, 
while  approving  the  resolution  in  principle,  did  not  think 
such  representations  would  serve  any  useful  purpose.  The 
resolution  was  defeated. 

During  a  debate  on  migration  the  conference  approved  a 
resolution  proposed  by  the  British  legion  delegation  (headed 
by  Lieut.  Colonel  C.  Gordon  Larking,  chairman,  and  Lord 
Cromwell,  honorary  treasurer)  that  everything  possible  should 
be  done  to  maintain  a  constant  flow  of  emigrants  from  the 
United  Kingdom  to  the  various  parts  of  the  Commonwealth. 


Lieutenant  General  Sir  John  Brown  was  elected  chairman 
of  the  empire  council  and  Major  E.  S.  Harston  re-elected 
honorary  secretary. 

Europe.  The  most  active  European  movement  of  ex-service- 
men and  that  with  the  largest  membership  continued  to 
be  that  of  France.  The  Union  Francaise  des  Associations  des 
Combattants  (U.F.A.C.)  held  its  general  annual  assembly  in 
Paris  on  Feb.  5-6,  1949.  It  consisted  of  48  large  and  small 
associations  with  a  total  membership  of  2,088,889,  the  largest 
being  the  three  traditional  organizations  founded  at  the  end 
of  World  War  I,  the  Union  Federate  (391,334  members), 
the  Union  Nationale  des  Combattants  (296,007)  and  the 
Communist-controlled  Association  Repubhcaine  des  Anciens 
Combattants  (165,385),  and  the  two  offshoots  of  World 
War  II:  the  Anciens  Combattants  des  Forces  Frangaises  de 
ITnterieur  (146,779)  and  the  Federation  Nationale  des 
Deportes  et  Internes  (109,376).  There  were  only  two  important 
organizations  outside  the  U.F.A.C.:  the  Association  "  Rhin 
et  Danube"  grouping  the  ex-servicemen  of  the  1st  French 
army  which  landed  in  the  south  of  France  in  Aug.  1944, 
and  the  Federation  Nationale  des  Pnsonniers  de  Guerre 
1939-45.  Between  the  latter  and  the  U.F.A  C.  a  difference 
arose  over  the  conditions  under  which  a  carte  du  combattant 
should  be  accorded  to  ex-servicemen  of  World  War  II.  The 
U.F.A.C.  protested  against  the  decree  of  May  4,  1948,  fixing 
the  conditions  under  which  a  former  prisoner  of  war  would 
qualify  for  an  ex-servicemen's  card.  The  U.F.A.C.  held  that 
no  one  should  be  accorded  a  card  who  did  not  actually  fight 
at  the  front  for  at  least  45  days.  The  government  partially 
yielded  to  the  pressure  of  the  U.F.A.C.  and  on  Dec.  24,  1949, 
a  new  decree  was  published  stipulating  that  a  prisoner  of  war 
could  apply  for  an  ex-serviceman's  card  if  he  belonged  to  a 
combat  unit  before  or  after  his  capture  and  if  he  was  detained 
for  a  minimum  of  six  months  in  enemy-occupied  territory 
or  90  days  in  enemy  territory.  The  point  in  dispute  was  both 
moral  and  material  because  only  an  ex-serviceman  with  a 
card  was  entitled  to  the  retraite  du  combattant  or  ex-service- 
man's gratuity  (see  WAR  PENSIONS).  Leon  Viala  was 
re-elected  chairman  of  the  U.F.A.C.;  Maurice  de  Barral, 
former  secretary  general,  became  one  of  the  four  vice- 
chairmen,  and  the  new  secretary  general  was  Albert  Morel. 

In  Poland  three  Communist-led  ex-servicemen's  organiza- 
tions were  merged  in  Warsaw  on  Sept.  1-2,  1949,  in  a  single 
Union  of  Fighters  for  Freedom  and  Democracy  (Zwi^zek 
Bojownikow  o  Wolno$£  i  Demokracjq)  of  which  the  premier, 
Jozef  Cyrankiewicz,  became  president  and  General  Franciszek 
Jozwiak  chairman,  both  being  members  of  the  Politburo  of 
the  United  Workers'  (Communist)  party.  The  merger  con- 
vention was  considered  important  enough  to  invite  from 
Germany  Wilhelm  Pieck  who  declared  that  the  Oder-Neisse 
line  was  the  frontier  of  peace  and  collaboration  between 
Poland  and  the  new  Germany.  Another  speaker  was  Colonel 
Henri  Manhes,  a  French  Communist  and  chairman  of  the 
Federation  Internationale  des  Anciens  Prisonniers  Politiques 
(F.I. A. P. P.),  who  alleged  that  the  French  government  were 
betraying  the  ideals  of  the  wartime  resistance  movement.  From 
June  23  the  Polish  War  Disabled  union  (Zwiejzek  Inwalidow) 
had  a  new  president,  Tadeusz  Cwik,  a  Communist  trade  union 
leader;  Colonel  Leon  Lustacz  was  re-elected  chairman. 

In  Western  Germany  an  Interessen-Gemeinschaft  Ehemal- 
iger  Soldatcn  was  created  in  the  autumn.  (X.) 

United  States.  During  1949  there  was  a  continued  drop  in 
the  over-all  membership  of  veterans'  organizations  in  the 
United  States.  Approximately  5  million  veterans  were 
organized,  a  drop  of  3  million  from  the  1946  peak.  Four- 
fifths  of  this  membership  was  in  the  American  legion  and 
Veterans  of  Foreign  Wars. 

American  Legion.  The  American  Legion  had  in  1949 
about  3  million  members.  During  the  year  it  emphasized 


254 


EYE,   DISEASES  OF  THE-EYSKENS 


strong  support  of  a  broad  housing  programme  aimed  at 
getting  more  homes  at  better  prices  for  veterans;  continued 
its  drive  against  Communism  by  urging  repressive  legislation 
and  holding  seminars  for  its  members  concerning  the  nature 
of  Communism.  At  its  1949  convention  held  in  Philadelphia, 
the  legion  for  the  first  time  elected  a  World  War  II  veteran 
as  National  commander,  George  N.  Craig  of  Brazil,  Indiana. 
The  convention  adopted  resolutions  supporting  the  United 
Nations,  the  European  Recovery  programme  and  the  North 
Atlantic  treaty  and  advocating  a  Pacific  pact,  aid  to  Nationalist 
China,  universal  military  training  and  civil  control  of  atomic 
energy. 

Veterans  of  Foreign  Wars.  This  organization  of  1,130,000 
members  also  elected  in  1949  for  the  first  time  as  its  national 
commander  a  World  War  II  veteran,  Clyde  Lewis  of  Platts- 
burg,  New  York.  The  1949  programme  of  the  V.F.W.  again 
emphasized  support  of  a  federal  bonus  with  a  maximum  of 
$4,000. 

Disabled  American  Veterans.  Under  the  leadership  of  its 
national  commander,  General  Jonathan  Wainwright,  the 
D.A.V.  in  1949  increased  its  membership  to  141,361,  the 
largest  in  its  history.  Its  1949  convention,  held  at  Cleveland, 
Ohio,  elected  David  M.  Brown  of  Akron,  Ohio,  as  national 
commander  and  once  again  emphasized  the  D.A.V.  pro- 
gramme of  increased  aid  to  disabled  veterans  and  their 
families. 

American  Veterans  of  World  War  II.  The  "  Amvets  "  at 
its  1949  convention  held  at  Des  Moines,  Iowa,  elected  as  its 
new  national  commander  Harold  Russell,  handless  star  of 
the  film  The  Best  Years  of  Our  Lives.  The  two  big  issues 
facing  the  organization  during  1949  were  a  proposed  merger 
between  "  Amvets  "  and  the  other  World  War  II  veterans' 
organization,  the  American  Veterans*  committee,  and  a 
federal  bonus  for  World  War  II  veterans.  While  a  majority 
of  the  national  leadership  were  for  a  merger  and  against 
the  bonus,  rank  and  file  delegates  to  the  convention  defeated 
both  proposals. 

American  Veterans  Committee.  The  membership  of  this 
organization  dropped  to  about  30,000  in  1949,  but  through 
modified  organizational  policies  it  improved  its  financial 
position.  It  again  called  for  a  full  civil  rights  programme, 
support  of  the  European  Recovery  programme  and  the  North 
Atlantic  treaty  and  increased  housing  and  health  legislation. 
It  opposed  a  federal  bonus. 

In  addition  to  the  above  organizations,  numerous  other 
groups  were  active.  Most  important  of  these  were  the  Air 
Forces  association,  Army  and  Navy  union,  Jewish  War 
Veterans,  Catholic  War  Veterans,  Regular  Veterans  associa- 
tion and  Military  Order  of  the  Purple  Heart.  (R.  A.  B.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  Why  the  British  Legion  is  Necessary  (London,  1949); 
L.  Viala,  Rapport  Moral  present^  au  nom  du  Bureau  de  rU.F.A.C.  a 
F Assemble  Venerate  du  5  Fevner  1949  (Pans,  1949). 

EYE,  DISEASES  OF  THE.  Sulphonamides  con- 
tinued to  be  employed  in  the  treatment  of  local  and  systemic 
eye  infections  with  few  serious  secondary  reactions.  That  the 
use  of  sulphonamides  could  produce  changes  in  the  eye  had 
been  demonstrated  by  the  production  of  slight  cloudiness 
of  the  aqueous  humour  and  transient  myopia.  Objective 
stigma toscopy  showed  that  in  many  cases  refractive  changes 
toward  myopia  occurred  axially.  Since  the  myopia  must 
depend  on  a  change  in  the  lens  it  seemed  probable— as  in 
diabetic  changes  of  refraction— that  this  is  localized  in  the 
nucleus  of  the  lens.  The  actual  pathogenetic  mechanism, 
however,  remained  obscure;  probably  the  change  is  in  some 
way  allergic. 

The  increase  in  the  number  of  diabetics  continued,  and 
the  number  suffering  from  diabetic  retinopathy  further 
increased  in  comparison.  The  increase  in  proliferative 


retinopathy  was  particularly  pronounced.  One-third  of  the 
patients  with  diabetic  retinopathy  had  normal  blood  pressure 
(that  is,  less  than  130mm.  of  mercury  systolic);  these  were 
to  be  found  among  the  younger  patients.  More  than  one- 
fourth  of  the  patients  with  retinopathy  were  affected  by  this 
before  five  years  had  elapsed  from  the  time  when  the  diabetes 
started.  Patients  less  than  50  years  of  age  when  their  retino- 
pathy was  diagnosed  had  been  affected  with  diabetes  only 
for  a  short  time;  they  seemed  to  be  particularly  susceptible 
to  retinopathy.  The  proliferative  retinopathy  takes  longer 
to  develop  than  the  common  retinopathy,  probably  because 
some  of  them  pass  through  a  non-prolifcrative  preliminary 
state.  Possible  reasons  for  the  increasing  frequency  of  dia- 
betic retinopathy  are  insufficient  insulin  treatment  and  the 
introduction  in  the  1930s  of  the  free  diet. 

By  the  use  of  a  new  staining  technique  (fuchsin-sulphite 
reagent  of  Fuelgen)  which  had  become  available  for  the 
visualization  of  the  blood  vessel  walls  in  preparations  of  the 
whole  unsectioned  retina,  it  was  possible  to  see  and  determine 
the  nature  of  small  haemorrhagic  spots  in  the  retina,  seen 
particularly  in  diabetes  by  use  of  the  ophthalmoscope. 
Flat  preparations  of  the  retina  in  cases  of  diabetic  retmitis 
showed  great  numbers  of  capillary  aneurysms.  The  aneurysms 
always  have  both  an  afferent  and  an  efferent  connection 
and  are  therefore  true  aneurysmal  dilatations,  not  endothelia- 
lized  petechias  which  would  be  connected  to  the  vascular 
tree  by  a  single  channel.  In  some  capillaries  tiny  knuckles 
can  be  seen  in  the  walls,  possibly  representing  the  first  stage 
of  aneurysm  formation.  The  aneurysms  are  most  frequent 
in  the  central  retinal  region  but  occasionally  can  be  found 
quite  far  out  in  the  periphery.  Similar  capillary  aneurysms 
occasionally  are  seen  in  cases  of  retinal  disease  in  non- 
diabetics,  but  they  are  quite  rare.  By  the  technique  applied, 
any  cellular  component  that  contains  carbohydrate  is  stained 
red.  By  this  preparation  the  internal  limiting  membrane 
stains  brilliantly,  showing  that  this  structure  is  a  definite 
entity  and  not  a  condensation  of  the  vitreous  surface,  as 
had  sometimes  been  supposed. 

The  use  of  tracer  elements  in  the  treatment  of  diseases 
of  the  eye  had  been  proposed  since  the  discovery,  by  the 
means  of  radio-autographs,  that  the  concentration  of  these 
elements  can  be  estimated.  A  series  of  radio-autographs 
was  made  in  connection  with  a  comprehensive  study  of 
the  exchange  of  phosphate  between  the  blood  and  the  eye. 
Radioactive  phosphorus  (Psa)  was  injected  intra-peritoneally 
into  guinea  pigs.  The  animals  were  killed  after  an  experi- 
mental period  of  one  to  one  and  a  half  hours,  whereafter 
the  eyes  were  frozen  and  sectioned.  The  sections  were 
placed  in  contact  with  photographic  film  which  was  darkened 
by  the  radioactive  material.  The  pictures  obtained  in  this 
manner  gave  a  direct  indication  of  the  newly  introduced 
phosphate  in  the  eye  at  the  moment  of  death. 

Granulomatous  diseases  of  the  eye,  such  as  brucellosis, 
syphilis  and  tuberculosis  were  treated  with  doses  of  man- 
ganese, copper,  cobalt,  zinc,  magnesium  and  iodine  with 
encouraging  results.  (W.  L.  BE.) 

EYSKENS,  GASTON,  Belgian  statesman  (b.  Lierre, 
April  1,  1905).  After  qualifying  in  political  and  social  service 
at  the  University  of  Louvain  and  Columbia  university,  New 
York,  he  was  appointed  in  1931  professor  of  economics  and 
public  finance  at  the  former.  He  entered  politics  as  a  Christian 
Democrat  and  on  April  2,  1939,  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies;  after  the  liberation  he  was  re- 
elected  on  Feb.  17,  1946,  and  on  June  26,  1949,  his  name 
was  included  in  the  Christian  Social  party  list.  He  was 
appointed  minister  of  finance  in  the  first  Achille  Van  Acker 
cabinet  (Feb.  1945-March  1946),  and  in  the  two  successive 
Paul-Henri  Spaak  cabinets  (March  1947-Nov.  1948  and 


FAEROE  ISLANDS-FAIRBANKS 


255 


Nov.  1948-Aug.  9,  1949).  On  Aug.  10,  1949,  he  formed  a 
coalition  government  of  nine  members  of  the  Christian 
Social  party  and  eight  Liberals  (see  BELGIUM). 

FAEROE  ISLANDS  (FAEROERNE),  a  self-governing 
part  of  the  kingdom  of  Denmark  in  the  north  Atlantic 
situated  between  Iceland  and  the  Shetland  Islands,  about 
200  mi.  N.W.  of  the  latter.  Area:  540  sq.  mi.;  there  are  21 
islands,  excluding  small  rocks  and  reefs,  of  which  18  are 
inhabited.  Population:  (Nov.  5,  1935  census)  25,744; 
(Dec.  31,  1945  census)  29,198.  The  capital  is  Thorshavn, 
on  the  island  of  Stromo  (pop.,  1945,  4,390).  Language: 
Faeroese,  akin  to  Icelandic  rather  than  to  Danish.  Religion: 
Lutheran. 

History.  The  King  and  Queen  of  Denmark  visited  the 
Faeroes,  July  20-24.  After  the  new  constitution  was  brought 
into  force  (April  1,  1948)  the  islands,  formerly  an  amt 
(county)  of  Denmark,  began  to  enjoy  a  large  measure  of 
home  rule,  and  a  Faero  flag  was  adopted.  A  member  of 
the  Danish  Finance  committee  which  visited  the  Faeroes 
in  Aug.  1949  reported  that  the  Independence  party 
(Sjalvstyrisflokkur)  was  now  more  friendly  towards  Denmark. 
The  islands  could  not,  in  fact,  support  out  of  their  own 
reserves  the  Danish  system  of  education,  social  security  and 
state  health  service  to  which  they  had  become  accustomed 
as  a  Danish  province. 

The  population  continued  to  increase  and  living  standards 
were  comparatively  good,  but  by  Feb.  1949  the  cost  of 
living  index  (269)  dropped  a  little  from  its  high  point  (283) 
in  April  1945  (July  1939  ==  100).  High  costs,  especially  in  wages, 
and  the  import  levy  of  10%  on  fresh  fish  landings  in  the 
United  Kingdom  put  many  trawlers  in  a  difficult  position 
and  spurred  on  attempts  to  shift  the  emphasis  from  a  simple 
fishing  economy  to  a  more  industrialized  state,  based  on  sea 
fisheries  and  coal. 

Meanwhile,  a  marked  cultural  renaissance  expressed  in 
poetry  and  music  continued  to  accompany  the  movement 
towards  autonomy.  The  late  Petur  Alberg's  setting  of 
Simun  av  Skardi's  Tu  alfagra  land  was  adopted  as  the  national 
anthem. 

Education.  The  Faeroes  are  included  in  the  educational  system  of 
Denmark  (</.v.),  but  whereas  Danish  was  formerly  the  language  of 
school,  church  and  law,  from  1948  teaching  was  carried  on  in  Faeroese, 
and  the  whole  bible  was  made  available  in  the  native  language,  in  which 
literature  was  reviving  on  a  basis  of  folk  ballads. 

Agriculture  and  Fisheries  On  the  2-5%  of  the  land  considered 
cultivable  barley,  oats  and  potatoes  were  grown  for  the  islanders* 


King  Frederik  and  Queen  Ingrid  leaving  Copenhagen  on  a  visit  to 
the  Faeroe  Islands,  July  1949. 


own  use,  while  plentiful  grass  and  hay  supported  about  80,000  sheep 
and  5,000  cattle  (1949).  In  1930,  7,238  Faeroese  were  independent 
fishermen,  654  combining  fishing  with  agriculture  or  industry.  In  1944, 
44,484  metric  tons  of  fish  were  caught  worth  Kr.45, 5  76,000.  Whale- 
fishing  was  growing  in  importance,  at  the  expense  of  feather-collecting, 
and,  in  1947,  218  finwhales  and  1,798  caaing-whales  wsre  caught. 

Industry.  Brown  coal  mined  on  the  mountain  slopes  of  Rangabotn 
and  Kvalbo  provided  for  the  islands'  own  needs  in  fuel;  but  deposits 
on  Siidero,  estimated  at  about  100  million  tons,  remained  unexploited 
through  lack  of  modern  machinery.  In  addition  to  the  existing  small 
shipyard,  wool  mills,  whale  oil  and  herring  factories,  a  new  canning 
industry  had  been  started  in  Klakkavik. 

Foreign  Trade.  On  the  exhaustion  of  the  Faeroes*  sterling  balances 
(April  1948),  sterling  imports  were  restricted  to  essential  goods  and  the 
islands  returned  tojtheir  traditional  markets,  selling  salt  cod  and  other 
fish  products  at  high  prices  to  Italy  and  Spain  via  Denmark,  and 
buying  consumer  goods  from  Italy  instead  of  the  U.K.  In  1947  exports 
were  (in  metric  tons):  salt  fish  21,685  (worth  Kr.34,695,000)  and  dried 
fish  717  (Kr.  2,152,000),  both  going  largely  to  Italy;  liver  oil  953 
(Kr.  2,950,000)  and  woollen  products  54-4  (Kr.2,041,000),  all  to 
Denmark;  fresh  fish  26,743  (Kr.23  million),  all  to  Great  Britain. 
Imports  (1947)  were  :  machines,  apparatus  and  transport  material 
(Kr.5,950,000),  more  from  Denmark  than  from  the  U.K.;  clothing, 
hats,  shoes,  textiles  generally  (Kr.  12,670,000),  largely  from  the  U.K.; 
metal  manufactures  (Kr.2,587,000),  about  equally  from  both  countries; 
dairy  products  and  eggs  (Kr.2,275,000),  all  from  Denmark. 

Transport  and  Communications.  By  1949  there  were  38  Faeroese- 
owncd  trawlers  (not  long  before  World  War  II,  only  one).  In  1945, 
61  ships  (totalling  24,212  NRT)  called  at  the  Faeroes,  including  32 
British.  In  addition,  455  non-Faeroese  fishing-boats  put  in  at  Faeroese 
ports  in  1945,  including  412  British.  During  World  War  II,  one-third 
of  the  Faerocse  fishing  fleet  was  destroyed  by  enemy  action  but  it  was 
fully  re-habilitated,  indeed  expanded,  by  1949. 

Finance  and  Banking.  Soon  after  the  occupation  of  the  islands  by 
British  forces  in  May  1940,  the  Faeroes  became  part  of  the  sterling  area. 
When  the  £3  million  wartime  accumulation  (from  sales  of  fish  to  the 
U.K.)  had  been  spent  on  fishing  fleet  reconstruction,  the  islands 
rejoined  the  Danish  monetary  area  (Nov.  1948),  an  Anglo- Danish 
agreement  leaving  the  Faeroes  control  over  their  own  sterling  earnings, 
Denmark  making  sterling  available  to  cover  the  islands*  outstanding 
debts  and  direct  trade  between  the  Faeroes  and  the  U.K.  being  per- 
mitted to  continue.  During  1949  it  was  announced  that  the  Danish 
National  bank  would  issue  special  Faeroese  currency,  the  Faeroese 
krona  (at  par  with  the  Danish  krone)  to  be  covered  by  Danish  kroner 
deposited  in  the  Danish  National  bank. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  Kenneth  Williamson,  The  Atlantic  Islands:  A  Study 
of  the  Faroe  Life  and  Scene  (London,  1948).  (£.  J.  L.) 

FAGERHOLM,  KARL  AUGUST,  Finnish  states- 
man (b.  Sjundea,  Finland,  Dec.  12,  1901),  was  appointed 
prime  minister  of  a  Social  Democratic  cabinet  on  July  29, 
1948.  (For  his  career  see  Britannica  Book  of  the  Year  1949.) 

Replying  to  an  accusation  in  a  Moscow  newspaper,  he 
denied  at  Tampere,  on  March  6,  that  there  had  been  any 
discussion  of  Finland's  engaging  in  either  the  North  Atlantic 
treaty  or  the  suggested  Scandinavian  defence  pact.  On  June 
15  the  parliament  renewed  its  confidence  in  his  government 
by  a  majority  of  two  votes.  This  was  the  outcome  of  the  fifth 
parliamentary  attack  against  Fagerholm  staged  by  the 
Communist  party.  On  Aug.  22  he  said  that  the  series  of 
strikes  started  by  the  Communists  three  days  before  were 
the  largest  and  best  prepared  attack  against  the  community 
in  Finnish  history. 

FAIRBANKS,  DOUGLAS  ELTON,  JR.,  U.S. 
actor  and  producer  (b.  New  York  city,  Dec.  9,  1909),  was 
educated  in  Pasadena  and  Los  Angeles,  California,  and  New 
York  city,  then  studied  painting  and  sculpture  in  New 
York  city.  In  1929  he  married  the  actress  Joan  Crawford, 
but  they  were  divorced  in  1933.  In  1939  he  married  Mary 
Lee  Epling  Hartford.  A  stage  and  screen  actor  since  1923, 
Fairbanks  eventually  took  on  some  of  the  swashbuckling 
roles  that  had  made  his  father,  Douglas  Fairbanks,  Sr., 
famous.  Among  his  more  famous  films  were  Stella  Dallas, 
Outward  Bound,  Morning  Glory,  Angels  Over  Broadway, 
Dawn  Patrol,  Little  Caesar  and  many  others.  He  had  appeared 
on  the  stage  and  screen  in  Great  Britain  as  well  as  in  the 
U.S.,  and  frequently  spent  much  time  in  the  British  Isles. 


256 


FAIRS,   SHOWS   ANt>   EXHIBITIONS 


The  prime  minister.  Clement  Alt  Ice  (right)  iM/wiing  a  model  of  a  tin  dredger  at  the  British  Industries  Fair,  at  Earls  Court,  London,  May 
J94V.   On  left  is  the  president  of  the  Board  oj 'Trade,  Harold  Wilson,  and  in  centre  is  the  agent  for  Malaya,  W.  A.  Ward. 


Early  in  World  War  II  he  became  national  vice-chairman  of 
the  Committee  to  Defend  America  by  Aiding  the  Allies.  He 
was  active  in  the  British  War  Relief  association,  1939-41. 
Later  in  1941  he  went  to  South  America  as  a  special  envoy 
of  President  F.  D.  Roosevelt,  and  on  returning  received  a 
commission  in  the  United  States  naval  reserve.  He  served  in 
many  areas  and  several  engagements  and  ended  the  war  as  a 
commander  in  the  naval  reserve.  In  March  1949,  the  British 
Consulate  in  Los  Angeles  announced  that  the  King  had 
appointed  Fairbanks  an  honorary  K.B.E.  largely  in  recog- 
nition of  his  work  on  behalf  of  Anglo-American  friendship 
and  especially  as  chairman  of  Co-operative  for  American 
Remittances  to  Europe  (C.A.R.E.).  Fairbanks  was  invested 
by  the  King  on  July  12  at  Buckingham  Palace. 


FAIRS,  SHOWS  AND  EXHIBITIONS.  During 
1949  trade  fairs  and  exhibitions  in  Great  Britain  attracted 
more  exhibitors,  buyers  and  members  of  the  public  than  in 
previous  years.  The  most  important  of  all— the  28th  British 
Industries  fair— which  as  before  was  held  at  Olympia  and 
Earls  Court,  London,  and  Castle  Bromwich,  Birmingham — 
had  3,200  exhibitors.  There  were  17,061  overseas  buyers, 
124,555  home  buyers  and  111,388  public  visitors. 

British  traders  supported  many  trade  fairs  in  Europe. 
The  53rd  Utrecht  autumn  industrial  and  agricultural  fair  had 
3,056  exhibitors,  of  which  324  were  British,  heading  the  list 
of  foreign  countries.  More  than  150  manufacturers  were 
represented  in  the  British  pavilion  at  the  international  fair 
at  Izmir  (Smyrna),  Turkey.  This  was  the  first  time  the 
pavilion  had  been  organized  by  the  British  chamber  of 
commerce  in  Turkey.  The  Board  of  Trade  officially  partici- 
pated in  the  trade  fair  at  Poznan,  Poland,  the  St.  Eriks  fair 
in  Stockholm,  and  at  Utrecht. 

British  trade  exhibitions  which  were  held  for  the  first 
time  after  World  War  II  included  the  shoe  and  leather  fair 
at  Olympia;  the  Smithfield  fatstock  show,  which  was  organized 
in  conjunction  with  the  agricultural  machinery  exhibition  at 


Earls  Court  in  December,  and  the  Sunday  Times  national  book 
exhibition  at  Grosvenor  house,  London. 

The  25th  international  cycle  and  motor  cycle  show  was 
held  at  Earls  Court  in  October.  The  world's  largest  cycle 
show,  it  attracted  177  exhibitors  and  189,671  visitors.  The 
international  motor  exhibition  at  Earls  Court,  and  "  Radio- 
lympia "  were  held  at  the  same  time — "  Radiolympia  " 
opening  on  Sept.  27  and  the  motor  show  the  following  day. 
An  exhibition  of  underground  mining  machinery — a  new 
trade  show — was  held  in  July,  and  a  business  efficiency 
exhibition  in  November. 

The  Scottish  industries  exhibition  was  opened  at  Kelvin 
hall,  Glasgow,  on  Sept.  1,  by  the  Queen.  More  than  300 
Scottish  manufacturers  exhibited  in  the  largest  trade  fair  ever 
held  in  Scotland.  The  fair  was  an  outstanding  success — 
544,867  people  visited  it,  including  1,100  overseas  buyers. 
The  second  international  trade  fair  was  opened  in  Toronto 
on  May  30.  There  were  exhibitors  from  32  countries:  130 
British  firms  were  represented. 

It  was  noticeable  at  the  trade  fairs  of  Frankfurt  and 
Leipzig  that  Germany  was  divided.  Of  2,634  exhibits  at 
Frankfurt  spring  fair  in  April,  only  33  were  from  Berlin  and 
1 1  from  the  Soviet  zone.  The  Leipzig  spring  fair  in  March 
attracted  about  6,000  exhibitors;  only  300  were  from  west 
Berlin,  and  under  300  from  west  Germany.  Czechoslovak, 
Polish  and  Hungarian  industrial  exhibitions  were  held  at  the 
Gorky  central  park  of  culture  and  rest  in  Moscow.  Unlike 
1948,  when  only  consumer  goods  were  displayed,  there  were 
also  products  of  heavy  industry  in  the  Czechoslovak  exhi- 
bition of  July  1949. 

The  Zagreb  international  fair,  which  opened  on  Sept.  17, 
had  exhibitors  from  many  west  European  countries,  but  in 
August  the  Soviet  all-union  chamber  of  commerce  was 
instructed  by  the  Soviet  government  to  refuse  to  participate. 
The  reason  stated  was  "  the  recent  disclosed  facts  of  brutal 
treatment  by  Yugoslav  authorities  of  Societ  citizens." 

The  annual  show  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of 
England  was  held  at  Sundorne,  Shrewsbury,  under  the 


FALKLAND  ISLANDS-FASHION  AND  DRESS 


257 


presidency  of  Princess  Elizabeth.  Previous  shows  at  Shrews- 
bury were  in  1845,  1884  and  1914.  The  showground,  which 
extended  to  115  ac.,  was  not  big  enough  for  all  the  livestock 
entries  that  were  offered.  The  total  number  of  entries 
accepted  was  4,679.  The  Great  Yorkshire  show  was  held  at 
Wakefield— the  first  show  of  the  society  since  1939.  The 
Royal  Lancashire  show  was  at  Stanley  park,  Blackpool, 
only  the  third  time  since  1768  that  the  county  show  had  been 
staged  in  Blackpool.  There  were  6,983  entries,  over  2,000 
more  than  in  1948. 

More  than  102,000  persons  attended  the  Royal  Welsh 
Agricultural  society's  show  at  Swansea,  23,000  more  than 
the  previous  record  at  Carmarthen  in  1947.  At  the  Bath  and 
West  show  at  Long  Ashton,  Bristol,  there  were  525  trade 
stands  offering  evidence  of  the  progress  of  mechanization  in 
agriculture.  The  63rd  show  of  the  British  Dairy  Farmers' 
association,  at  Olympia  in  October,  attracted  102,097  visitors 
— the  first  time  more  than  100,000  persons  had  attended. 

The  Irish  society  held  its  first  large  postwar  show  in  the 
Horticultural  hall,  Westminster,  in  June.  Other  shows  there 
included  those  of  the  Royal  Horticultural  society  and  the 
National  Rose  society.  The  Chelsea  flower  show  was  again 
held  in  May. 

A  special  exhibition  was  held  in  London  as  part  of  the 
Colonial  month.  Described  by  the  King  as  4i  a  vivid  and 
convincing  portrait  of  the  colonies,  their  peoples  and  their 
problems,"  the  exhibition  provided  an  opportunity  for  people 
in  Britain  to  acquire  up-to-date  information  about  the 
colonies  with  the  minimum  of  effort  and  study.  Because  of 
its  popularity— 528,433  visitors  attended — the  exhibition 
remained  open  for  more  than  three  months,  and  the  Colonial 
Office  considered  proposals  for  arranging  similar  displays  in 
provincial  centres.  (X.) 

FALKLAND  ISLANDS.  British  colony  consisting 
of  two  main  islands  and  about  200  smaller  islands  in  south 
Atlantic.  Area:  4,618  sq.  mi.  Pop.  (1947  est.):  2,272. 
Dependencies:  large  areas  in  the  Antarctic.  Governor,  Sir 
Miles  ClifTord. 

History.  A  new  constitution,  granted  at  the  end  of  1948, 
came  into  force  on  Jan.  1,  1949.  It  provided  for  a  Legislative 
Council  consisting  of  the  governor  as  president  (with  a 
casting  vote  only),  three  ex-officio,  three  official  and  two 
nominated  and  four  elected  unofficial  members;  the  council 
held  its  inaugural  meeting  on  March  4.  The  Colonial  Develop- 
ment corporation  announced  that  under  its  auspices  a  sealing 
venture  had  been  launched.  The  Falkland  Islands  Depen- 
dencies' survey  ship,  "  John  Biscoe,"  returned  to  Britain  on 
July  14  after  a  successful  voyage,  marred  only  by  the  inability 
to  relieve  the  post  at  Marguerite  bay;  it  again  sailed  for  the 
Antarctic  on  Oct.  1 1  and  reached  Deception  island  on  Dec.  2. 
(Sec  also  ANTARCTICA;  EXPLORATION  AND  DISCOVERY.) 


FINANCE  AND  TRADE:  Currency:  pound  sterling 


Colony 
Dependencies 


Budget  (1949  cst.) 
Revenue      Expenditure 
£127,555          £151,698 
£114,330         £103,567 


Foreign  Trade  (1948) 
Imports          Exports 
£293,212          £321,384 
£2,043,335      £3,900,203 
(J.  A.  Hu.) 

FAROUK  I,  King  of  Egypt  (b.  Cairo,  Feb.  11,  1920), 
the  only  son  of  King  Fuad  I,  invested  on  July  29,  1937. 
(For  his  early  life  see  Britannica  Book  of  the  Year  1949). 

During  1949  rivalry  between  the  palace  and  the  Wafd 
party,  led  by  Nahas  Pasha,  continued.  On  April  21,  King 
Farouk  received  Husni  el-Zaim  (see  OBITUARIES),  the  dictator 
of  Syria.  On  Oct.  6  he  solemnly  exhorted  the  country  to 
ensure  the  preservation  and  success  of  the  coalition;  but  it 
was  not  long  before  party  polemics  destroyed  the  coalition 
cabinet  (see  EGYPT).  Addressing  the  Arab  League  council 
on  Oct.  30,  he  pointed  out  that  there  was  still  an  empty  seat 

E.B.Y.— 18 


at  their  table — that  of  Palestine.  On  Nov.  19,  in  connection 
with  the  celebrations  of  the  centenary  of  the  death  of 
Mohammed  Alim  founder  of  the  Egyptian  royal  house,  the 
army  presented  to  King  Farouk  a  field  marshal's  baton. 

FASHION  AND  DRESS.  Spring  of  1949  went  down 
in  fashion  history  as  the  flying  panel  period.  In  the  previous 
autumn  Balenciaga  had  shown  a  fitted  suit  with  narrow 
skirt,  and  a  wide  separate  back  panel.  This  original  method 
of  achieving  a  slim  look  combined  with  becoming  movement 
made  such  an  impression  that  the  Paris  spring  collections 
were  full  of  developments  of  this  flying  panel  theme.  There 
were  side  panels,  back  and  front  panels,  all-round  strip  panels 
like  maypole  ribbons.  Sometimes  a  three-step  hem  level  was 
given  by  panels  both  longer  and  shorter  than  the  skirt. 
Always  the  skirt  itself  was  skin-tight. 

Another  fashion  detail  which  grew  to  such  proportions 
as  to  affect  the  silhouette  was  the  pocket.  Breast-high  pockets, 
funnel-shaped,  had  flaps  pointed  and  stiffened  like  calla 
lily  petals  to  stand  up  above  shoulder  level.  In  some  evening 
dresses  the  entire  bodice  consisted  of  twin  pockets.  Pouch 
pockets  and  huge  flap  pockets,  placed  far  to  the  side,  widened 
the  hips. 

The  spring  and  summer  also  saw  a  new  low  level  in  daytime 
necklines.  Even  simple  day  dresses  had  necklines  which 
plunged  narrowly  almost  to  the  waist.  Late-day  dresses 
were  apt  to  have  immensely  wide  deep  necklines. 

Coats  grew  collars  which  rose  high  at  the  back,  then  turned 
down  in  a  sloping  line  to  become  miniature  capes.  There 
were  some  fitted,  bell-skirted  coats,  but  the  pyramid  coat, 
sloping  out  from  neck  to  hem,  was  the  prevailing  line. 

Christian  Dior  showed  the  first  short-and-long  evening 
dress,  spiralling  from  above  the  knee  to  train  length.  This 


1949  fashion  trend  is  shown  in  this  illustration  of  a  sheath  evening 
dress  in  black  wool,  slit  above  knee  at  back  and  with  grosgrain 
panels  trailing  to  the  ground. 


25* 


FASHION   AND   DRESS 


The  urchin  hair  cut  and  lutm  petulant  ear-rings— a  distinctive  fashion 
style  in  1949. 

and  the  three-step  hem  levels  caused  by  varied  length  panels 
were  the  forerunners  of  a  whole  crop  of  uneven  hems  in 
the  autumn  collections.  Peter  Russell  christened  them 
*'  disturbed  hemlines  " :  and  since  the  close  affinity  between 
fashion  and  the  feeling  of  the  times  was  now  generally  con- 
ceded, it  was  hardly  surprising  that  a  period  of  such  political 
and  economic  uncertainty  should  be  reflected  in  fashion 
uncertainties  of  this  kind. 

The  later  the  hour,  the  more  skirt  lengths  wavered.  By  day 
the  general  level  had  risen  again  to  14  or  15  in.  from  the 
ground,  sometimes  rising  further  at  a  wrap-around  point, 
or  slit  for  walking  freedom.  Late-day  and  evening  skirt 
lengths  were  extremely  erratic.  The  floor-length  crinoline 
skirts,  which  had  had  such  a  long  innings,  were  kept  for 
debutante  and  ball  dresses.  A  new  evening  dress  line  was 
widely  draped  at  the  hips,  narrowed  to  the  ankle  and  then 
considerably  slit.  Newest  of  all  for  Europe  (but  already 
familiar  to  America)  were  the  strapless  evening  dresses  in 
rich  fabrics  with  street-length  skirts:  a  few  full,  but  the 
majority  slim  sheaths— the  1920's  all  over  again,  except  that 
these  dresses  were  invariably  belted,  in  contrast  to  the  un- 
broken line  of  that  earlier  period.  Dior's  ultra-short  sheath, 
with  a  huge  hip-swathe  trailing  the  floor,  was  the  most 
dramatic  of  a  whole  range  of  models  which  achieved  short- 
and-long  hemlines  by  panels,  wrap-around  swathing  or 
slanting  overskirts.  Kerchief-pointed  skirts,  wavering  between 
knee  and  ballet  length,  were  another  aspect  of  hem-line  un- 
certainty and  another  reminder  of  the  '20s — also  recalled  by 
the  ever  receding  length  of  hair. 

The  short  hair  of  late  1948  was  still  long  enough  to  curl  out 
like  a  drake's  tail  at  the  nape  but  late  1949  saw  actually 
shingled  heads  and  that  variant,  ihe  gamine  hair  cut,  reputedly 
begun  by  mannequins  fretting  their  short  hair  unevenly  with 
razor  blades  but  soon  developed  through  more  orthodox 
means  by  the  hairdressers. 

Of  course,  this  short  hair  went  along  with  head-clasping 


hats.  Most  of  these  were  small  skull-caps,  **  beanies," 
cloches,  berets,  miniature  toques  and  helmets.  There  were 
however,  a  few  large  hats,  still  with  nothing  at  the  back  to 
impede  the  high  collars  but  with  wide  side-to-side  brims  or 
jutting  shovel  brims — heralding,  perhaps,  a  forward  movement 
in  hats  to  come. 

The  last  months  of  1949  saw  the  beginning  of  several 
important  trends.  One  was  again  due  to  Dior:  a  dropped, 
markedly  extended  shoulder  line— the  first  sign  of  an  im- 
portant shoulder  treatment  since  the  removal  of  square 
padding  left  shoulders  naturally  rounded.  These  new  shoul- 
ders were  still  sloped  and  unpadded  but  half-way  between 
shoulder  and  elbow  Dior  attached  a  gathered  flounce,  often 
buttoned,  sometimes  lined  with  fur,  so  that  it  stood  out. 

Another  trend  was  the  moulded  body-line,  interrupted  by 
sharp-angled  shapes  in  collars,  cuffs  and  stiffened  hip  dra- 
peries. This  contrast  of  soft  and  sharp  was  achieved  by  using 
soft  fabrics  and  stiffening  them  with  a  crisp  lining  at  strategic 
points. 

Another  new  line,  likely  to  develop,  was  the  bloused  back, 
above  a  sharply  belted  waist  and  tube  skirt.  Skirts  in  general 
narrowed  as  the  year  went  on. 

There  was  a  marked  tendency  towards  asymmetry  in  clothes 
of  all  types.  One  rever  would  be  longer  than  the  other;  a 
peplum  would  spring  from  the  hip  at  one  side  only;  a  line  of 
buttons  (and  buttons  were  everywhere)  would  march  down 
one  side  of  a  bodice  or  skirt;  necklines  were  cut  to  one  side; 
evening  dresses  had  one  shoulder  strap. 

Colours  continued  dark  or  neutral.  A  whole  range  of 
"  charcoal "  colours,  as  if  black  had  been  mixed  with  them, 
appeared.  There  was  much  beige  and  grey.  Blue,  petrol  and 
thunder  blue  and  royal  blue,  returned,  especially  with  black. 
Navy  blue  was  chosen  for  winter  and  for  evening,  and  other 
colours  particularly  favoured  were  dark  greens,  many  browns 
and  clear  geranium  reds. 

Fabrics  showed  a  new  feeling  for  nobbly  boucle,  fleecy 
woollens.  Prodigiously  heavy  coatings,  with  reversible  plaid 
and  plain  were  a  first  favourite.  Stiff  silks  and  rayons — 
taffeta,  brocade,  moire,  satin — were  still  universal  for  after- 
noon and  evenings.  There  was  much  velvet,  used  alone  and 
combined  with  wool. 

Long  gloves  went  out  to  meet  the  three-quarter  and  elbow- 
length  sleeves.  In  the  evening  they  rose  to  shoulder  level; 
were  smartest  in  black  glace  kid.  Leather  belts  pulled  in 
every  waist — on  suits,  day  dresses,  evening  dresses.  Court 
shoes  and  naked  sandals  (with  covered  toes  and  heels)  divided 
the  honours.  Coloured  shoes  were  seen  in  shades  of  ivy  leaf 
green,  pewter,  blonde,  bronze  and  dark  red.  Yards  of  pearls 
circled  necks  and  dropped  into  deep  necklines.  Huge  chande- 
lier earrings  swung  to  the  shoulders — piquant  contrast  to 
the  ragged  gamine  hair  cut. 

Nylon  lingerie  appeared  in  sufficient  quantities  to  be  on 
display  instead  of  only  under  the  counter.  Corsets  in  deep 
blue  and  other  unconventional  colours  were  a  welcome  proof 
that  better  supplies  were  making  fashion  experiments  possible. 

Realistically — to  meet  their  customers'  shrinking  budgets — 
a  number  of  couture  houses  in  Paris  and  London  launched  or 
expanded  boutiques,  little  shops  selling  accessories  and 
more  moderately  priced  simple  clothes,  ready-to-wear,  or 
needing  only  one  fitting.  (A.  Ws.) 

Men's  Fashions.  In  the  men's  fashion  field,  1949  saw  the 
death  of  the  exaggerated  drape  jacket,  which  hung  loosely 
from  the  shoulders  with  hardly  any  indentation  at  the  waist- 
line. *'  Drape  "  was  a  style  which  originated  in  England  at 
the  end  of  the  19th  century  and  gave  an  illusion  of  broader 
shoulders  and  deeper  chest.  After  World  War  II  it  returned 
to  England  from  America  in  such  exaggerated  forms  that  the 
style  leaders  at  last  decided  that  it  no  longer  had  a  place  in 
men's  fashions. 


FEDERAL   RESERVE   SYSTEM-FENCING' 


259 


The  evolution  of  men's  clothes,  however,  was  a  very  slow 
process  and  each  succeeding  style  had  necessarily  to  be  in 
the  nature  of  a  modification  of  its  predecessor.  Consequently 
1949  saw  the  introduction  of  jackets  concentrating  on  softer 
lines  but  still  retaining  a  moderate  drape  over  the  chest  and 
natural  rounded  shoulders.  A  style  reminiscent  of  Edwardian 
days,  it  was  completely  opposed  to  the  padded  square  shoulder 
effect  of  former  years.  Lower  placing  of  the  waistline  and 
pockets  gave  an  illusion  of  increased  length.  Trousers  were 
narrower  and  the  effect  of  the  style  was  to  give  a  neat  tapering 
line  with  smallness  at  the  bottom. 

In  men's  sports  clothes  the  trend  veered  away  from  the 
separate  jacket  and  flannel  trousers.  The  well  dressed  man 
chose  a  sports  ensemble  designed  expressly  for  his  particular 
purpose — golf,  walking,  riding,  etc.  For  general  week-end 
wear  the  two-piece  country  suit,  correct  in  the  open  as  well 
as  at  the  house  party,  became  the  accepted  garb. 

The  return  to  favour  of  tails  after  a  long  absence  enforced 
by  austerity  conditions  and  the  increasing  popularity  of  the 
two-piece  double-breasted  dinner  suit  were  other  highlights. 
Midnight  blue  was  replacing  black  for  these  formal  clothes; 
under  artificial  light  it  appeared  richer  and  blacker  than 
black  itself.  (R.  J.  MY.) 


FEDERAL  RESERVE  SYSTEM.  In  view  of  the 
changing  credit  situation  and  the  downward  readjustment  in 
business,  the  Federal  Reserve  system  took  steps  during  1949 
to  relax  measures  of  monetary  and  credit  restraint  adopted 
earlier  to  combat  inflation. 


During  the  year,  Federal  Reserve  holdings  of  government 
securities  declined  $4,400  million,  of  which  $3,800  million 
took  the  form  of  a  reduction  in  holdings  of  marketable  bonds. 
The  Federal  Reserve  banks  sold  long-term  restricted  issues  to 
savings  banks  and  private  pension  and  trust  funds.  The 
liquidity  position  of  commercial  banks  was  increased  through 
their  acquisition  of  short-term  government  securities  with 
funds  released  by  reductions  in  reserve  requirements. 

Reserve  requirements  for  member  banks  were  reduced 
substantially  during  1949.  At  the  beginning  of  the  year, 
reserve  requirements  against  net  demand  deposits  were 
26%  for  central  reserve  city  member  banks,  22%  for  reserve 
city  member ? banks  and  16%  for  country  member  banks, 
while  reserve  requirements  against  time  deposits  at  all  member 
banks  were  7£%.  At  the  end  of  the  year,  reserve  require- 
ments in  effect  were  22%  against  net  demand  deposits  for 
central  reserve  city  member  banks,  18%  for  reserve  city 
member  banks  and  12%  for  country  member  banks,  with  a 
reserve  requirement  of  5%  against  time  deposits  at  all 
member  banks. 

Regulation  W,.  relating  to  consumer  instalment  credit, 
was  twice  eased  by  the  board  of  governors  in  the  first  part  of 
1949.  From  March  7,  the  standard  maximum  maturity 
period  on  all  extensions  of  consumer  instalment  credit  was 
made  uniformly  21  months  instead  of  15  to  18  months,  and 
minimum  down  payments  on  furniture,  appliances,  etc., . 
were  reduced  from  20%  to  15%.  From  April  27,  the  maxi- 
mum maturity  period  on  consumer  instalment  credit  was 
further  increased  to  24  months  and  the  minimum  down- 
payment  requirement  on  furniture,  appliances,  etc.,  was 
further  reduced  to  10%.  In  both  revisions  the  33  j  %  minimum 
down  payment  on  cars  was  retained.  On  June  30,  the  tempo- 
rary authority  granted  by  congress,  under  which  the  board  of 
governors  issued  Regulation  W,  expired. 

From  March  30,  the  board  of  governors  amended  the 
supplements  to  Regulations  T  and  U  so  as  to  reduce  the 
margin  requirements  for  purchasing  registered  securities 
from  75%  to  50%.  Other  amendments  to  Regulations  T  and 
U,  effective  from  May  16  and  July  20  respectively,  increased 
the  loan  value  for  securities  acquired  through  the  exercise 
of  subscription  rights  and  removed  margin  requirements 
applicable  to  credit  for  financing  the  functions  of  specialists 
on  the  New  York  stock  exchange.  (J.  K.  L.) 

FENCING.  The  world  championships  held  at  Cairo  in 
April  were  the  outstanding  fencing  event  of  1949.  At  foil 
and  epee  the  Italians  showed  marked  superiority  over  their 
French  rivals,  while  at  sabre,  the  Hungarians  being  absent, 
they  swept  the  board.  Christian  d'Oriola  scored  the  only 
French  success  in  the  men's  foil  individual,  and  Ellen  Prciss- 
Muller  of  Austria  retained  the  ladies'  title  she  won  in  1947 
at  Lisbon.  These  championships  were  memorable  for  experi- 
ments with  a  system  of  direct  elimination  and  the  annul- 
ment of  the  double  hit  at  epee.  Both  innovations  were 
generally  disliked,  and  the  congress  of  the  Federation  Inter- 
nationale d'Escrimc  decided  in  June  to  revert  to  the  normal 
rules,  including  the  pool  system. 

In  other  major  events,  the  amateur  and  professional 
competition  in  Paris  for  the  Coupe  Mabileau  at  foil  was  won 
by  Maitre  Battesti  of  France  and  the  Coupe  Monal  at  epcc 
by  Edouardo  Mangiarotti  of  Italy.  In  Britain,  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  national  fencing  coach  and  the  inauguration  of 
national  and  junior  coaching  schemes  marked  the  notable 
development  of  the  sport  since  World  War  II.  In  Great 
Britain  the  ladies*  foil  championship  was  won  by  Miss 
Gillian  Sheen.  Champions  in  the  men's  events  were  Rene 
Paul  (foil),  Peter  Dix  (6pee)  and  R.  F.  Tredgold  (sabre). 
St.  Paul's  won  the  public  schools'  championship. 

(C.  L.  de  B.) 


260 


FERTILIZERS-  FIELD   SPORTS 


United  States.  The  number  of  entries  in  the  1949  national 
championships  was  the  largest  in  the  history  of  fencing 
in  the  United  States.  In  the  team  events,  the  Fencers  club 
of  New  York  won  the  foil  team  championship  for  the  first 
time  since  1936  with  the  Salle  Santelli  of  New  York  second. 
The  Salle  Santelli  retained  its  three  team  titles,  sabre,  epee 
and  three-  weapon. 

For  the  first  time  a  foreign  visitor  won  the  national  fencing 
championship  when  Umberto  Martino  (Italy)  defeated  George 
Worth  of  the  Salle  Santelli  10-8  in  the  sabre  championship. 
In  the  Pacific  coast  championships,  Alfred  Snyder  of  the 
Olympic  club  of  San  Francisco  won  the  men's  foil;  Bruce 
McBirney  of  the  Faulkner  School  of  Fencing  of  Los  Angeles 
won  the  epee.  (W.  A.  Dw.) 

FERTILIZERS.  The  consumption  of  fertilizers  in  the 
United  Kingdom  increased  in  1948-49  to  a  new  record 
level.  The  amount  of  phosphate  used  was  about  12?0  above 
that  in  1947-48;  there  were  only  small  changes  in  the  amounts 
of  nitrogen  and  potassium. 


CONSUMPTION    OF    FTRIILIZLRS    IN 

Thousand  tons  plant  food 

Phosphoric 
Nitrogen  acid 

1938-39  .  .          60  170 

I947-4S  .  .         186  372 

ls>4K-49  .  1«<5  416 


BKIIAIN 

Calcium 
o  \i  tic  in 
liming 

Potash          materials 

75  1,U)() 

190  2,260 

196  2,650 


It  was  not  certain  that  progress  in  the  use  of  fcrtili/ers  would 
be  maintained  during  the  early  1950s.  Since  Oct.  1940 
fertilizer  prices  had  been  stabili/ed  by  means  of  subsidies 
and,  as  the  costs  of  labour,  agricultural  raw  materials  and 
farm  products  rose,  fertilizers  became  steadily  more  profitable. 
It  was  now  proposed  to  withdraw  this  subsidy  in  two  approxi- 
mately equal  stages  during  the  fertilizer  years  1950-51  and 
1951-52,  the  increased  cost  being  taken  into  account  at  the 
annual  pi  ice  review  of  agricultural  products.  The  price 
increases  were  likely  to  be  particularly  high  for  materials 
obtained  from  countries  with  hard  currencies,  and  if  as  a 
result  farmers  on  the  pooier  and  therefore  more  responsive 
soils  were  led  to  cut  down  their  outlay  on  fertilizers  the 
agricultural  expansion  programme  might  be  jeopardized 

The  world  reserves  of  raw  materials  for  fertilizers  were 
reviewed  in  several  papers  presented  to  the  United  Nations 
Scientific  Conference  on  the  Conservation  and  Utilization 
of  Resources  held  at  Lake  Success,  New  York,  rn  the  summer 
of  1949.  At  anything  like  current  rates  of  consumption 
problems  of  reserves  of  phosphate  and  potassium  would  not 
arise  for  a  thousand  >ears  or  more.  The  known  reserves  of 
phosphate  rock  \veie  estimated  at  26,000  million  tons, 
there  \veie  also  huge  additional  quantities  in  deposits  for 
which  little  technical  data  were  available.  Reserves  of  the 
high-grade  phosphate  rock  were,  however,  limited  and  might 
need  to  be  husbanded.  I  he  reserves  of  potash  in  lake  brines 
and  soluble  minerals  amounted  to  5,000  million  tons  K,O 
but  they  were  very  unequally  distributed.  In  addition  there 
were  vast  potential  sources  m  the  ocean  and  rock  but  potas- 
sium from  these  sources  had  not  hitherto  been  used  beyond 
the  experimental  scale.  The  rcscivcs  of  nitrogen  in  coal 
amounted  to  8,700  million  tons  and  in  nitrate  of  soda  to 
1,000  million  tons.  The  world  supply  of  nitrogen  fertilizers 
depended  mainly  on  the  synthesis  of  ammonia  from  atmo- 
spheric nitrogen  which  already  consumed  the  equivalent  in 
power  of  20  million  tons  of  coal  annually.  Should  the  world 
supplies  of  sulphur  become  exhausted  the  phosphate  fertilizer 
industry  would  require  about  the  same  quantity  of  power  to 
produce  alternative  fertilizers  to  superphosphate. 

The  efficient  use  of  fertilizers  depends  on  a  sound  judgment 
of  the  special  needs  of  individual  soils  and  crops.  The  various 
chemical  and  biological  methods  of  diagnosing  nutrient 


deficiencies  and  estimating  fertilizer  requirements  were  well 
reviewed  in  Diagnostic  Techniques  for  Sods  and  Ciops.  The 
problem  of  phosphorus  utilization  by  crops  under  a  range 
of  agricultural  conditions  was  studied  by  field  experiments  on 
various  fertilizers  and  organic  manures  containing  radio- 
phosphorus  (P:w).  When  the  technique  has  been  critically 
studied  and  developed  it  should  become  possible  in  this  way 
to  determine  what  proportion  of  the  phosphorus  comes  from 
the  added  fertilizer  and  what  from  the  soil.  (X.) 

World.  In  the  year  ended  June  30,  1949,  world  consumption 
of  commercial  fertilizers  and  fertilizer  materials  (exclusive 
of  U.S.S.R.)  included  3,292,000  tons  of  nitrogen,  4,966,000 
tons  of  phosphoric  acid  and  3,220,000  tons  of  potash, 
increases  respectively  of  44%,  42 °0  and  37%  above  the 
prewar  average.  During  the  year  Hurope  continued  as  a 
net  exporter  continent  to  the  extent  of  166,000  tons  of  the 
combined  nutrients;  South  America  remained  a  net  exporter 
of  205,000  tons,  while  North  America  changed  to  a  net 
exporter  of  279,000  tons.  Afrrca  was  a  net  rmporler  of 
1 65,000  tons,  Asia  of  445,000  tons  and  Oceania  of  1 1 ,000  tons. 
North  America  shipped  large  quantities  of  fertilizer  from 
Canada  and  the  United  States  to  occupied  areas  in  Germany, 
Japan  and  Korea.  Large  shipments  also  went  to  China 

Total  world  production  (including  U  S  S.R  )  of  phosphate 
rock  in  1948-49  reached  1 8,082,000' metric  tons  of  material 
averaging  about  32%  PXJ^;  about  one-half  came  from  the 
United  States,  one-third  from  North  Afuca,  one-eighth 
from  U.S.S.R.  and  one-twentieth  from  the  Pacific  islands. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  J  Le  Carnec,  Supplies  of  die  Pnnnpal  ly'ant  /\'ufri(iii\ 
hv  d  o\t  Range  and  K  O  lacob.  If  orld  Kt">onne^  o/  FiiriLipal  Inotizann 
Plant  /\'M/M«'///\,  United  Nations  Scientific  Con  Terence  on  the  Con- 
servation and  Utili/ation  of  Resources,  Section  Meeting,  Mineral 
Resources  8(d)  (New  Yoik,  1049),  \arious  authors,  l)uit;nfi\tic 
Tei  hint/Hfi  for  Soi/\  and  Crop\  (New  \oik,  1949),  \  inous  authors  in 
SoiJSuctue.vol  68,  no  2  ( Baltimore,  Aug  1949)  (KM  C  ;  X.) 

FIELD  SPORTS.  The  most  important  event  of  the 
year  was  the  defeat  in  the  House  of  Commons  of  the  Piotcc- 
tion  of  Animals  (Hunting  and  Coursing  Prohibition)  bill, 
which  was  introduced  by  a  pnvate  member  and  rejected  by 
214  votes  to  101  A  further  pnvate  member's  bill  to 
prohibit  foxhunting  was  then  withdrawn  The  government 
subsequently  set  up  a  committee  to  consider  the  question  of 
cruelty  to  vvrld  British  mammals 

The  hunting  season  was  remarkable  for  the  unusually  diy 
weather  and  many  packs  suffered  from  lack  of  scent  F:ew 
hunts  enjoyed  consistently  good  sport,  yet  many  had  occasional 
brilliant  days.  There  was  little  foot  and  mouth  disease 
but,  especially  in  the  home  counties,  a  certain  number  of 
hounds  suffered  fiom  foot  infection.  The  spoil  enjoyed  by 
beagles  and  harriers  was  comparable  to  that  of  the  foxhounds. 
The  dry  weather  developed  into  the  severe  drought  which 
lasted  through  the  summer  of  1949.  Rivers  fell  below  their 
normal  levels  and  this  affected  otterhuntrng  But  the 
condition  of  this  sport  was  improving  every  year  The  banks  of 
rivers  which  were  damaged  during  World  Wai  II  were 
returning  to  normal— as  in  the  Crowhurst  country  -  and 
packs,  such  as  the  Pembrokeshire  and  Carmarthenshire, 
which  were  resuscitated  after  the  war,  went  from  strength  to 
strength.  Cub-hunting  began  in  the  middle  of  August  and 
a  generally  successful  season  was  enjoyed.  The  dry  weather 
had  been  followed  by  widespread  and  heavy  rain  by  the  time 
of  the  opening  meets. 

The  recovery  in  grouse  stocks  noted  in  1948  was  maintained 
and,  except  in  a  few  localities,  the  ik  Twelfth  "  began  a  very 
successful  season.  In  Yorkshire  particularly  theie  were  a 
number  of  good  bags  with  many  three-figure  days.  The 
good  results  may  be  attributed  largely  to  the  open  wintei 
of  1948-49  and  to  suitable  conditions  at  nesting  time,  which 
resulted  in  early  broods  of  strong  birds.  No  reports  of  grouse 


FIGL— FINLAND 


261 


**  Hallo,  this  is  the  secretary  of  the 
Anti-Blood  Sports  society  speaking  " — 
a  comment  by  Giles  in  the  **  Daily 
Express  "  (London)  in  Feb.  1949,  when 
a  bill  to  prevent  blood  sports  was  before 
parliament. 

disease  were  noted  and  heather  was 
generally  in  excellent  condition. 
There  was  some  indication  that  high 
costs  and  the  difficulties  of  obtaining 
staff  reduced  the  number  of  lettings 
of  moors,  especially  of  those  with 
lodges.  Wild  pheasants  again  showed 
their  ability  to  thrive  in  an  average 
season  with  little  artificial  aid;  and 
there  was  a  fairly  general  improve- 
ment in  partridge  stocks.  As  with 
grouse,  low-ground  game  benefited 
by  an  open  winter  and  a  fine  spring 
and  summer. 

Anglers  would  long  remember 
1949  for  the  drought  which  brought 
the  water  too  low  and  made  it  too  hot  for  salmon  to  run  after 
May,  except  in  a  few  rivers  mainly  in  Scotland;  but 
there  was  a  magnificent  run  of  spring  fish  which  went  up  the 
rivers  very  early,  often  before  the  season  opened  so  that 
on  many  of  the  lower  beats  which  usually  fish  well  early  in 
the  season,  the  fishing  was  poor  while  the  up-stream  beats 
(usually  deserted)  returned  good  catches.  Rivers  showed 
great  contrasts,  some  reporting  the  best  season  they  had  had 
for  years  while  others  got  practically  no  fish  at  all.  The 
netting  season  on  the  coast  was  everywhere  first  class.  Trout 
rose  poorly  in  general,  but  there  was  almost  the  finest  mayfly 
season  within  living  memory.  (L.  V.  D.) 

FIGL,  LEOPOLD,  Austrian  statesman  (b.  Rust, 
Lower  Austria,  Oct.  2,  1902),  chairman  of  the  Austrian 
People's  party  (Osterreichische  Volkspartei)  and  from 
Dec.  19,  1945,  chancellor  (prime  minister)  of  Austria.  (For 
his  early  career  see  Britannica  Book  of  the  Year  1949). 

On  the  eve  of  the  elections  of  Oct.  9,  1949,  he  demanded 
that  the  evacuation  of  Austria  be  placed  on  the  agenda  of 
high  policy  discussions,  irrespective  of  whether  a  peace  treaty 
would  be  coming  into  existence  or  not.  After  the  elections 
it  took  him  four  weeks  of  strenuous  bargaining  to  reform 
his  coalition  cabinet  composed  of  representatives  of  People's 
and  Social  Democratic  parties. 

FIJI:  see  PACIFIC  ISLANDS,  BRITISH. 

FINLAND.  A  republic  of  northeastern  Europe.  Area: 
130,165  sq.  mi.,  including  inland  waters  (20,190  sq.  mi.)  but 
excluding  17,596  sq.  mi.  annexed  by  the  U.S.S.R.  in  1944. 
Pop.:  (Dec.  31,  1940,  census)  3,887,217;  (mid-1948  est.) 
3,958,000.  The  density  of  population  varies  from  20  per 
sq.  mi.  in  the  south  to  0- 8  per  sq.  mi.  in  the  north.  Languages: 
(1940  census):  Finnish  3,327,534  (87-5%),  Swedish  353,985 
(9-3%),  Russian  7,210,  Lappish  2,345.  Religions:  Lutheran 
with  a  small  admixture  of  Greek  Orthodox,  Raskolniks  (a 
Russian  sect),  Roman  Catholics,  Jews,  etc.  Chief  towns 
(Dec.  31,  1946,  est.):  Helsinki  or  Helsingfors  (cap.,  371,662); 
Turku  or  Abo  (96,470);  Tampere  or  Tammerfors  (89,071). 
President  of  the  republic,  Juho  Kusti  Paasikivi;  prime 
minister,  Karl  August  Fagerholm  (^.v.);  minister  of  foreign 
affairs,  Carl  Enckell. 

History.  For  the  Finnish  population  as  a  whole,  1949 
was  a  good  year.  After  a  decade  of  hardship  and  privation, 
food  and  clothing  and  consumer  goods  in  general  at  last 
became  available  in  abundance.  All  foodstuffs  were  off  the 
ration  except  coffee  and  sugar,  and  the  supply  of  those  was 


adequate.  The  housing  shortage  was  still  a  severe  incon- 
venience but  new  buildings  were  being  put  up  at  an  increasing 
rate  and  there  was  some  relaxation  in  the  restriction  to  one- 
room-per-person . 

While  consumers  were  having  a  good  year,  the  producers 
concerned  in  the  export  trade  were  meeting  serious  difficulties. 
The  recession  in  world  trade  involved  a  fall  in  the  prices 
offered  for  timber  and  timber  products,  including  paper, 
which  make  up  over  90%  of  Finland's  total  exports.  Stocks 
began  to  pile  up  in  the  paper  and  cardboard  mills,  and  at 
the  end  of  March  50,000  men  were  unemployed.  The  most 
obvious  way  of  reducing  costs — a  cut  in  wages — was  barred 
while  Finland  was  under  a  Social  Democratic  government. 
The  only  way  of  increasing  exports  that  the  government 
could  see  was  to  devalue  the  currency  and  to  find  a  way  of 
buying  American  machinery  quickly  for  the  mechanization 
of  the  forest  industry. 

On  July  5  the  Finnish  mark  was  devalued  (from  547  to 
643-8  to  the  £)  and  on  Aug.  1  the  International  Bank  for 
Reconstruction  granted  Finland  a  loan  of  $12  million.  Of 
this  loan,  $10  million  were  to  be  spent  on  machinery  for  the 
forest  industry  and  $2  million  for  equipment  for  hydro- 
electric stations. 

The  Finnish  Communist  party  raised  an  outcry  against 
both  these  measures.  The  loan  was  decried  as  "  binding 
Finland  to  Washington  capitalism  "  and  the  devaluation  was 
condemned  as  bound  to  lead  to  an  increase  in  the  cost  of 
imports  and  hence  in  the  cost  of  living.  The  Communists 
still  had  enough  influence  in  the  trade  unions  to  induce  a 
number  of  them  to  demand  a  rise  in  wages  and,  when  this 
was  refused,  to  launch  a  wave  of  strikes.  The  strikes  began 
among  the  timber  sorters  in  Kemi  and  spread  down  the 
Ostrobothnian  coast  until  15  harbours  were  closed  by  Aug.  19 
and  the  export  trade  was  paralysed.  But  the  Federation  of 
Trade  Unions  took  the  view  that  there  was  no  case  for  a 
general  increase  in  wages  because  the  cost  of  living  index  had 
not  risen  and  by  an  agreement  of  Oct.  1947  wages  had  been 
pegged  to  that  index-figure;  the  federation  therefore  refused 
to  countenance  the  strikes  and  expelled  the  seven  unions 
whose  members  were  taking  part  in  them.  The  strikes  then 
collapsed,  and  the  seven  unions  begged  for  re-admission  to 
the  federation,  which  was  granted  only  to  those  which 
accepted  stringent  conditions  of  membership.  The  August 
strike  wave  and  its  outcome  did  much  to  discredit  the 
Communists  throughout  the  country  and  added  to  the 
prestige  of  the  government,  which  had  handled  the  crisis 
with  laudable  firmness  and  discretion. 


262 


FINLAND 


3,000  in  the  Hakaniemi  square,  Helsinki,  listening  to  Communist  speakers  at 


The  government  came  through  the  year  with  success  but 
not  without  difficulty.  The  Social  Democrats  had  only  54 
of  the  200  seats  in  parliament  and,  although  they  could 
usually  count  on  the  support  of  the  Conservatives,  the  Swedish 
party  and  the  Liberals,  they  had  to  face  the  opposition  of  the 
38  members  of  the  S.K.D.L.  (the  Finnish  People's  Democratic 
League,  which  was  the  name  by  which  the  Communists  and 
their  fellow-travellers  chose  to  be  known)  and  also  on  many 
occasions  of  the  Agrarian  party  which  held  56  seats.  Under 
the  leadership  of  Dr.  Urho  Kekkonen,  the  Agrarians  in 
parliament  grew  increasingly  restive  during  the  year  and  on 
one  occasion  when  they  made  an  unnatural  alliance  with 
the  S.K.D.L.  the  government  was  able  to  survive  what 
amounted  to  a  vote  of  no-confidence  by  only  the  narrowest 
margin  of  votes. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  year  thoughts  of  the  coming 
presidential  election  tended  to  swamp  other  political  con- 
siderations. Under  the  Finnish  constitution  the  election  was 
due  to  be  held  in  mid- Jan.  1950.  The  government  wanted  to 
pass  a  constitutional  law  to  prolong  the  mandate  of  the 
present  president,  Dr.  Paasikivi,  for  a  further  two  years, 
and  there  is  no  doubt  that  most  of  the  citizens  were  in  favour 
of  this;  but  such  a  law  would  have  needed  the  agreement  of 
a  five-sixths  majority  and  the  S.K.D.L.  refused  its  assent; 
and  the  Agrarians,  whose  leader  had  ambitions  for  the 
presidency,  were  glad  to  see  it  dropped. 

The  economic  situation  looked  happier  as  the  year  went 
on.  The  harvest  turned  out  to  be  fairly  good:  the  hay  crop 
was  above  the  average,  the  yield  of  wheat,  rye,  oats  and 
barley  was  medium  and  only  the  potato  crop  was  poor. 
When  Great  Britain  devalued  its  currency  in  September, 
Finland  was  obliged  to  take  the  same  course,  raising  the 
exchange  rate  of  the  U.S.  dollar  from  160  to  231  Finnish 
marks.  This  was  followed  in  November  by  a  loan  of  $2-3 
million  from  the  International  Bank,  to  enable  Finland  to  buy 
dollar  equipment  with  which  to  expand  timber  exports  to 
Great  Britain,  Denmark  and  Belgium. 


Throughout  the  year  Finland's  foreign  relations  were 
harmonious.  The  U.S.S.R.  waived  its  claim  to  441,000  gold 
dollars  due  as  a  fine  for  late  delivery  of  certain  articles 
included  in  the  war  indemnity.  When  the  sixth  year  of 
indemnity  payments  began  on  July  1,  Finland's  debt  was, 
generally  speaking,  confined  to  deliveries  of  electrical  equip- 
ment, machinery  and  ships.  To  the  relief  of  everyone  in 
Finland,  the  Soviet  Union  made  no  untoward  difficulties 
about  the  indemnity  programme.  (J.  H.  JN.) 

Education.  (1947)  Schools:  elementary  6,036,  pupils  463,400; 
secondary  299,  pupils  81,160;  training  colleges  8,  students  1,341; 
high  schools  for  adults  71,  pupils  4,400;  technical  schools  444,  pupils 
35,480.  Universities  (1948)  3,  and  institutions  of  higher  education 
(1948)  4,  students  13,500,  professors  and  lecturers  936.  Illiteracy 
(1930)  0-9%. 

Agriculture.  Main  crops  ('000  metric  tons,  1948):  wheat  265;  barley 
214;  oats  640;  rye  199;  potatoes  1,950;  root  vegetables  837;  cultivated 
hay  2,425;  hemp  and  flax  (1946)  2-7.  Livestock  ('000  head,  March 
1948):  cattle  1,452;  sheep  999;  pigs  304;  horses  (March  1949)  395; 
chickens  1,918.  Production  ('000  metric  tons,  1948):  milk  1,750; 
butter  30;  cheese  7;  meat  (including  offal)  110.  Fisheries:  total  catch 
(1947)  46,000  metric  tons. 

Industry.  (1946)  Industrial  concerns  5,691;  persons  employed 
236,723.  Fuel  and  power:  electricity  (million  kwh,  1948;  1949,  six 
months  in  brackets)  2,780  (1,707).  Raw  materials  (in  metric  tons, 
1947):  pig  iron  70,182;  ferro  alloys  455;  steel  ingots  71,459;  steel 
castings  5,216;  copper  (mine  production,  1948)  23,322;  cobalt  50; 
nickel  82;  selenium  617;  gold  (fine  troy  ounces)  10,642;  silver  (fine 
troy  ounces)  188,821.  Forest  products  (1948):  sawn  goods  ('000 
standards)  815;  cellulose  ('000  metric  tons)  1,080;  mechanical  pulp 
('000  metric  tons)  138;  newsprint  ('000  metric  tons)  328;  other  paper 
('000  metric  tons)  233;  board  and  cardboards  ('000  metric  tons)  139; 
plywood  ('000  cu.  m.)  210. 

Foreign  Trade.  Imports:  (1948)  Fmk.  66,  440  million,  (1949,  six 
months)  Fmk.  27,630  million;  exports:  (1948)  Fmk.  68,050  million 
(excluding  11,550  million  reparations  to  the  U.S.S.R.),  (1949,  six 
months)  Fmk.  28,540  million  mks.  (excluding  5,870  million  reparations). 
Transport  and  Communications.  Roads  (1946)  37,242  mi.  Licensed 
motor  vehicles  (June  1949):  cars  19,900;  commercial  vehicles  33,237. 
Railways  (1948):  3,084  mi.;  passenger-journeys  44  million;  goods 
traffic  15  million  tons.  Shipping  (July  1948):  merchant  vessels  297, 
total  tonnage  457,437.  Wireless  licences  (1948):  680,000.  Telephones 
(1947):  264,231. 


FINLAY— FISHERIES 


263 


Finance  and  Banking.  Budget  (million  Fmk.):  (1948)  revenue  72,494, 
expenditure  72,445;  (1949  est.)  revenue  98,531,  expenditure  98,506. 
National  debt  (Dec.  1948;  in  brackets  Dec.  1947):  Fmk.  121,617 
(118,100)  million.  Currency  circulation  (July  1949;  in  brackets  July 
1948):  Fmk.  28,252  (27,371)  million.  Gold  reserve  (Aug.  1949):  6 
million  U.S.  dollars.  Bank  deposits  (Sept.  1949;  in  brackets  Sept. 
1948):  Fmk.  23,100  (21,800)  million.  Monetary  unit:  markka  with 
an  exchange  rate  of  Fmk.  643  to  the  pound. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  W.  J.  Scott  Laing,  Finland:  Economic  and  Commercial 
Conditions  (London,  H.M.S.O.,  1949). 

FINLAY,  DONALD,  British  air  force  officer  and 
athlete  (b.  May  27,  1909),  joined  the  Royal  Air  Force  as  an 
aero-engine  fitter  in  1925  and  was  commissioned  ten  years 
later.  During  World  War  II  he  served  in  the  R.A.F.  fighter 
command  and  was  awarded  the  Distinguished  Flying  cross. 
He  also  holds  the  Air  Force  cross.  He  first  represented  Great 
Britain  in  the  110  m.  hurdles  in  the  Olympic  Games  in  Los 
Angeles  in  1932.  He  reached  the  final,  as  he  did  again  in 
Berlin  in  1936.  The  games  in  London  in  1948  again  saw  him 
in  the  British  team:  as  the  oldest  British  competitor,  he  was 
given  the  honour  of  pronouncing  the  Olympic  oath  on  behalf 
of  the  entrants  from  59  nations.  He  fell  when  leading  in  his 
heat:  but  for  this  misfortune  he  might  have  reached  his 
third  Olympic  final.  In  1937  during  a  tour  of  Scandinavia  by 
a  team  of  British  athletes  he  recorded  a  time  of  14-1  sec. 
for  the  110  m.  hurdles.  In  1949,  at  the  age  of  40,  he  sur- 
passed his  previous  efforts  when  in  an  international  match 
between  Britain  and  France  at  White  City,  London,  on 
Aug.  1,  he  broke  his  own  12-year-old  British  national  120  yd. 
hurdles  record  by  ^  sec.,  with  a  time  of  14-4  sec.  A  week 
later  at  Ibrox  park,  Glasgow,  he  returned  14-5  sec.,  one-fijth 
of  a  second  faster  than  his  own  Scottish  all-comers'  record. 
He  was  A. A. A.  champion  for  the  120  yd.  hurdles  for  seven 
consecutive  years,  1932-38,  and  for  the  eighth  time  11  years 
later  in  1949.  In  July  he  announced  that  he  would  not  race 
again  in  the  A. A. A.  championships.  (See  also  ATHLETICS.) 

FISHERIES.  Great  Britain.  An  increased  interest  in 
fisheries  was  part  of  the  world-wide  search  for  further  food 
resources  for  populations  in  danger  of  outgrowing  the  capacity 
of  over-taxed  land.  In  European  waters  only  two  sources  of 
fish  supply  could  be  contemplated  with  equanimity,  the  cod 
fisheries  and  the  herring  fisheries.  Both  these  were  subject  to 


local  fluctuations  but  so  far  they  showed  no  signs  of  exhaus- 
tion. In  the  fisheries  for  the  various  kinds  of  flat  fish  and  hake, 
there  was  a  marked  decline,  which  might  have  been  arrested 
had  the  conventions  of  1938  to  1946  been  strictly  observed. 
The  statistics  of  Great  Britain  showed  a  marked  decline  in 
the  landings  from  the  North  sea  and  other  home  or  nearby 
waters  and  a  steady  increase  of  landings  from  distant  waters, 
Bear  island,  Barentz  sea,  coast  of  Norway,  Iceland  and 
Greenland.  The  output  of  the  herring  fisheries  was  on  the 
whole  steady.  The  popularity  of  the  herring  endured  and 
seemed  likely  to  endure,  but  there  were  clear  signs  that  cod 
was  rapidly  losing  public  favour.  The  increased  demand  for 
fish  resulted  from  shortage  of  other  foods.  The  popularity 
of  fish,  in  Great  Britain  at  least,  always  rested  mainly  on  the 
"  prime  fish  ":  turbots,  brill,  soles,  etc.,  which  the  North  sea 
and  other  home  waters  produced  so  abundantly  but  within 
a  restricted  area.  The  decline  of  the  **  prime  "  fish  and  of 
hake  (which  had  also  come  to  achieve  popularity)  seemed  to 
bring  the  fish  supply  into  disrepute  and  the  market  for  cod 
and  most  of  the  gadoid  fishes  was  dull  in  spite  of  the  general 
scarcity  of  other  foods.  Nevertheless,  new  building  proceeded. 
Eighteen  large  trawlers  were  added  to  the  British  distant 
water  fleet  in  1948  and  a  further  40  were  added  in  1949. 
There  should,  therefore,  have  been  no  lack  of  fish,  if  the 
fish  were  there.  In  the  near  or  middle  waters  fleet  an  increase 
of  14  new  vessels  was  expected. 

A  Sea  Fish  Industry  bill  before  parliament  in  1949  provided 
for  state  loans  towards  new  building  and  reconstruction  in 
the  near  and  middle  waters  fleet  and  would  have  enabled 
orders  to  be  made  and  enforced  to  prohibit  the  sale  of  under- 
sized fish  as  was  proposed  in  the  convention  of  1946,  besides 
conferring  statutory  powers  to  limit  the  British  North  sea 
fleet  to  85  %  of  the  fishing  power  available  in  1938,  a  difficult 
step  to  take  in  the  absence  of  reciprocity  in  other  countries. 
The  same  bill  would  enable  various  regulations  to  be  enforced 
for  the  more  efficient  handling  of  fish  supplies,  including  the 
licensing  of  boats,  of  wholesale  fish  businesses  and  processing 
establishments  as  a  means  of  enforcing  such  regulations. 

British  Colonies.  First  place  in  1949  may  justifiably  be 
given  to  a  valuable  and  most  interesting  British  report  The 
Production  of  Fish  in  the  Colonial  Empire  by  C.  F.  Hickling, 
fisheries  adviser  to  the  secretary  of  state  for  the  colonies 


Donald  Finlay  (centre)  taking  the  first  hurdle  in  the  120  yd.  hurdles  event  in  the  international  match  between  Great  Britain  and  France,  Aug* 
1949.  Finlay  won  the  event  in  14-4  sec.,  setting  up  a  new  English  native  record. 


264 


FISHERIES 


(H.M.S.O.,  London,  Dec.  1948).  In  general,  accurate  figures 
of  colonial  fish  production  were  available  in  none  of  the 
colonies  except  Malaya,  the  only  colony  which  had,  before 
1939,  a  staff  exclusively  devoted  to  the  care  and  improvement 
of  the  local  fishing  industries.  Malaya  had  always  produced 
large  quantities  offish,  and  in  1939  had  an  exportable  surplus 
of  over  11,000  tons  of  salt  fish.  By  1949  the  prewar  level  of 
production  in  Malaya  had  already  been  achieved  and  its 
long-established  and  most  efficient  fisheries  department  was 
increasing  its  staff  of  trained  fishery  officers  with  a  view  to 
the  expansion  of  the  industry.  An  important  part  of  the 
scheme  of  expansion  was  the  establishment,  or  re-establish- 
ment, of  a  school  for  fishermen  with  power  craft,  which  would 
carry  out  experimental  fishing  and  tuition  simultaneously; 
Malaya  might  be  said  to  have  stood  by  itself  among  the 
colonies  in  the  matter  of  technical  service. 

Fisheries  play  a  considerable  part  in  the  economy  of  many, 
if  not  most,  of  the  British  colonies  and  there  were  many 
indications  that  with  training  in  improved  methods  of  fishing 
and  the  handling  of  fish  products  most  of  the  colonial 
fisheries  could  be  widely  developed.  But  for  this  purpose 
trained  technical  staffs  were  needed  and  there  was  a  serious 
lack  of  specialist  staff  of  all  types.  It  was  therefore 
necessary  to  begin  at  the  beginning.  The  rapid  training  of 
staff  began  with  a  preliminary  course,  which  was  constantly 
varied  in  the  light  of  experience  gained,  and  endeavoured  to 
fit  into  nine  months  a  grounding  in  the  technique  of  fishing, 
preservation  and  distribution,  net  making  and  scientific 
research.  The  emphasis  of  the  course  was  on  the  word 
preliminary.  At  its  conclusion  officers  under  training  were 
sent  on  a  term  of  duty  which  would  be  followed  by  further 
instruction  following  practical  experience.  The  underlying 
purpose  was  to  increase  fish  production  within  the  limits  of 
rational  fishing. 

The  primary  aim  of  all  development  of  colonial  fisheries 
was  the  satisfaction  of  local  needs.  But  frequently  there  was 
or  could  be  a  surplus  for  export  and  it  was  intended  that 
advantage  should  be  taken  of  this  possibility  where  it  existed. 
For  example  a  survey,  begun  in  Jan.  1948,  of  the  Mauritius 
and  Seychelles  area,  with  the  dependent  islands,  where  the 
output  of  fish  was  proving  abundant,  aimed  especially  at  a 
trade  in  frozen  fillets  with  south  and  east  Africa,  Samples, 
however,  were  sent  to  Great  Britain  and  elsewhere.  A  large 
private  venture,  which  looked  to  the  survey  for  guidance, 
was  designed  to  satisfy  the  fish  requirements  of  Mauritius, 
ship  the  surplus  to  Madagascar  and  return  the  ships  to 
Mauritius  with  cargoes  of  meat. 

Nigeria  was  always  a  considerable  fish  consumer  and  a 
regular  importer  of  dried  fish  from  Norway,  as  well  as  from 
the  upper  waters  of  the  Niger  in  French  West  Africa.  The 
colony  possessed  a  small  fisheries  department  which  was 
investigating  the  creeks  and  lagoons  of  the  delta.  Results 
suggested  that  these  waters  were  already  fished  to  the  limit 
by  native  methods;  but  the  department  was  preparing  to 
investigate  the  possibilities  of  the  adjacent  sea-fisheries, 
which  had  not  been  exploited  by  the  local  fishermen. 

Great  possibilities  for  development  in  Sierra  Leone  were 
revealed  by  experiments  with  a  70  ft.  Bnxham  trawler  fitted 
with  a  diesel  engine.  This  vessel  was  to  be  replaced  by  a 
modern  diesel  trawler  which,  it  was  anticipated,  would 
become  the  nucleus  of  a  considerable  fleet  to  catch  fish  for 
local  needs  and  for  distribution  elsewhere.  The  prospects 
of  the  Gambia  were  also  good.  Meanwhile  fishery  research 
was  being  organized  on  a  regional  basis  through  a  West 
African  Fisheries  Research  institute  established  in  Sierra 
Leone. 

In  east  Africa  lake  and  river  fisheries  greatly  predominate. 
Uganda  has  great  fishing  resources  in  lakes  and  rivers, 
effectively  exploited  by  native  fishermen,  but  it  was  thought 


that  production  from  these  sources  could  be  multiplied.  In 
Kenya  trout  fisheries  had  for  some  time  past  been  developed 
with  striking  success  and  experiments  in  stocking  some  of 
the  smaller  lakes  had  been  successful.  In  addition  an  extensive 
survey  of  the  sea  fisheries  was  to  be  carried  out  off  Kenya, 
Tanganyika  and  Zanzibar,  where  it  seemed  probable  that 
there  were  considerable  untapped  resources.  Tanganyika 
also  had  fisheries  on  Lakes  Victoria,  Tanganyika  and  Ruhwa; 
and  a  Lake  Victoria  Fishery  board  was  established  under  the 
British  East  Africa  high  commissioner's  office  to  survey  the 
fisheries  of  that  lake  and  experiment  in  the  use  of  more 
efficient  methods  of  fishing.  Research  was  provided  for  by 
a  fisheries  research  station  at  Jinja  in  Uganda.  A  qualified 
biologist  surveyed  the  fisheries  of  Lake  Nyasa  and  recom- 
mended an  increase  in  the  supply  from  the  lake,  whilst 
avoiding  over-fishing.  His  report  was  being  considered  by 
the  Nyasaland  government. 

In  Northern  Rhodesia,  the  chief  fish  resource  of  which  is 
Lake  Bangweulu,  a  fisheries  officer  was  appointed ;  he  began 
work  there  and  in  the  Luapala  river,  where  there  were  good 
prospects  of  development  and  where  a  fisheries  research 
station  was  being  planned.  Taking  east  Africa  as  a  whole, 
the  inland  water  fisheries  were  much  more  important  than 
the  sea  fisheries  and  there  was  a  keen  demand  for  fish.  The 
development  of  fisheries  in  the  Gulf  of  Aden  was  handicapped 
by  lack  of  harbours,  poor  communications  and  the  general 
backwardness  of  the  country;  but  a  survey  of  the  fisheries 
begun  in  Jan.  1948  suggested  considerable  possibilities  for 
development  especially  in  the  export  of  canned  products. 

In  the  far  cast,  apart  from  Malaya  and  fishing  carried  out 
in  Fiji,  Sarawak  and  British  North  Borneo,  Hongkong 
amongst  British  colonies  possessed  a  flourishing  fishery 
which  was  hampered  by  economic  chaos  in  China,  its  principal 
market,  and  plans  for  a  fisheries  research  station  at  Hongkong 
were  approved.  The  West  Indian  waters  were  poor  in  fish 
because  the  sea  in  those  regions  mostly  lacks  the  nutrient 
salts  upon  which  a  healthy  fish  population  depends. 

The  productivity  of  the  British  colonial  fisheries,  sea  and 
inland,  was  much  greater  than  was  generally  realized  and 
there  were  great  possibilities  of  important  additions  from  this 
source  to  the  available  supplies  of  protein  food,  as  Hickling's 
Survey  made  clear. 

India.  The  government  of  India  embarked  upon  a  five-year 
plan  for  the  development  of  Indian  fisheries  along  the  lines 
of  modern  methods  employed  in  Europe  and  Japan.  As  a 
contribution  to  this  plan  they  imported  machinery  for  a 
fish-freezing  plant  from  the  United  States,  negotiated  with 
Japan  for  the  purchase  of  deep-sea  fishing  vessels  and 
considered  the  purchase  of  trawlers  from  Scotland  and 
Holland. 

Their  preliminary  target  was  10,000  tons  of  fish  daily. 
With  this  in  view  they  were  carrying  out  an  exhaustive 
survey  of  their  coastline  of  some  3,200  mi.  and  establishing 
"  pilot "  fishing  stations  based  upon  seven  ports.  Each  of 
these  stations  was  to  be  equipped  with  cold  storage  for 
4,000  tons  of  fish.  They  also  proposed  establishing  a  fisheries 
research  station  in  the  port  of  Bombay  where  all  research  on 
the  subject  was  to  be  co-ordinated. 

Their  plan  further  included  the  protection  and  cultivation 
of  fresh-water  fishes,  which  would  begin  with  the  establish- 
ment of  stocks  in  some  340  villages  in  the  province  of  Delhi 
and  could  be  extended  in  time  to  all  inland  waters. 

International  Co-operation.  There  was  marked  progress, 
largely  through  the  encouragement  of  the  U.N.  Food  and 
Agriculture  Organization,  in  the  development  of  international 
co-operation  in  the  scientific,  technical  and  economic  study 
of  fisheries  for  the  rational  exploitation  and  utilization  of 
their  products.  It  was  in  this  field  that  F.A.O.  seemed  most 
likely  to  achieve  success,  and  it  owed  not  a  little  to  the 


FISHERIES 


265 


excellent  example  set  during  some  47  years  by  the  Inter- 
national Council  for  the  Exploration  of  the  Sea.  The  question 
of  reviving  the  International  Commission  for  the  Scientific 
Study  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea  was  fully  discussed  at  a 
meeting  held  under  the  auspices  of  F.A.O.  in  Rome  from 
Sept.  19-24.  The  meeting  was  attended  by  delegates  from 
France,  Greece,  Italy,  the  Lebanon,  Turkey,  the  United 
Kingdom  and  Yugoslavia.  With  the  exception  of  the  French 
delegate,  all  those  present  supported  the  proposal  to  set  up 
a  Mediterranean  Fisheries  council  to  organize  studies  of 
marine  biology  and  the  technical  and  economic  problems  of 
fisheries.  The  F.A.O.,  however,  although  it  recognized  the 
importance  of  marine  biology  as  the  foundation  of  rational 
exploitation,  was  most  directly  concerned  with  the  availability 
of  fish  for  food.  Agreement  was  eventually  reached  to  set 
up  a  General  Fisheries  Council  for  the  Mediterranean  with 
functions  covering  all  fishing  problems  in  very  wide  terms 
and  with  instructions  to  co-operate  closely  with  other  inter- 
national bodies  in  matters  of  mutual  interest.  F.A.O.  under- 
took to  provide  the  secretariat  of  the  council  if  the  report 
were  accepted.  These  proposals  were  to  come  up  for  discussion 
at  the  fifth  session  of  the  conference  of  F.A.O. 

A  more  ambitious  project  was  embodied  in  the  Convention 
for  the  Conservation  of  the  Northwest  Atlantic  Ocean, 
signed  at  Washington,  D  C  ,  on  Feb.  8,  1949,  "  in  order  to 
make  possible  the  maintenance  of  a  maximum  sustained 
catch  from  those  fisheries."  The  terms  of  the  convention 
were  signed  on  behalf  of  the  governments  of  Canada,  Den- 
mark, France,  Iceland,  Italy,  Newfoundland,  Norway, 
Portugal,  Spain,  the  United  Kingdom  and  the  United  States. 

The  area  covered  by  the  convention  was  wide  and 
elaborately  defined,  extending  as  far  east  as  the  west  coast 
of  Greenland,  and  was  to  be  divided  into  five  sub-areas, 
for  which  an  equivalent  number  of  **  panels  "  were  to  be 
appointed,  like  the  commission,  by  the  contracting  govern- 
ments. Each  panel  was  to  be  free  to  adopt  rules  of  procedure 
and  by-laws  for  the  exercise  of  its  functions.  The  machinery 
and  procedure  of  the  convention  were  elaborate.  The  over-all 
duty  of  the  commission,  working  through  the  panels,  was  to 
organize  scientific  investigation,  "  for  obtaining  and  collecting 
the  information  necessary  for  maintaining  those  stocks  of 
fish  which  support  international  fisheries  in  the  convention 
area/'  Measures  contemplated  were  open  and  closed  seasons, 
closed  areas,  size  limits  for  any  species  of  fish,  regulation  of 
fishing  gear  and  a  prescribed  over-all  limit  of  the  catch 
of  any  species  of  fish.  The  convention  would  become 
operative  when  ratified  by  four  contracting  governments.  It 
was  to  come  into  force  with  regard  to  other  governments 
as  they  ratified  and  non-contracting  governments  might 
adhere. 

Meanwhile  the  International  Council  for  the  Exploration 
of  the  Sea,  whose  activities  covered  the  fisheries  of  the 
northeastern  Atlantic,  carried  on  its  good  work.  It  was 
represented  at  the  Northwest  Atlantic  conference  by  two  of 
its  vice  presidents  as  observers.  The  annual  meeting  of  the 
International  council  was  held  at  Edinburgh.  According  to 
practice  two  special  scientific  meetings  were  held  at  which 
lectures  were  delivered  on  selected  subjects,  on  this  occasion 
fishing  gears  and  their  effects,  and  shell-fish.  Those  affecting 
shell-fish  fisheries  were  largely  based  on  British  experience 
and  dealt  with  many  problems,  especially  the  control  of  the 
menaces  of  pollution  and  exotic  pests,  and  the  elucidation  of 
failures  of  spat-fall.  The  English  fisheries  department  embarked 
on  a  vigorous  expansion  of  its  programme  of  research.  Mean- 
while there  was  a  marked  drift  of  the  English  oyster  fisheries 
from  east  to  west,  from  the  Thames  estuary  to  the  Fal  and 
Helford  rivers  in  particular.  This  was  largely  due  to  the 
comparative  cleanness  of  the  western  waters  and  absence  of 
such  imported  pests  as  the  slipper  limpet.  Also  there  was 


greater  freedom  here  from  severe  frost.  The  aim  of  the 
department's  activities  in  the  field  was  to  arrest  the  rapid 
decline  of  production  which  had  marked  the  oyster  fisheries 
in  recent  years  and  to  promote  large  scale  development. 

International  Differences.  It  was  unfortunately  easier  to 
secure  international  co-operation  in  scientific  and  technical 
research  into  fishery  matters  than  to  achieve  co-operation  in 
applying  the  results  of  research.  The  whole  question  of 
international  rules  governing  sea  fishing  was  complicated 
by  a  number  of  considerations  which,  through  their  very 
nature,  were  difficult  to  bring  into  harmony.  Broadly  speaking, 
the  conflict  wa^  between  the  maintenance  of  national  interests 
and  the  acceptance  of  international  community  of  interests. 
Every  country  with  a  coast-line  had  of  necessity  to  exercise 
some  dominion  over  the  waters  adjoining  its  coasts.  Great 
Britain  had  long  claimed  jurisdiction  up  to  three  miles 
seaward  and  firmly  refused  to  accept  any  other  claim  for  more 
extended  jurisdiction.  In  general  this  line  was  followed  by 
actively  maritime  nations.  The  question  of  territorial  waters 
was  closely  connected  with  fisheries  because  fishing  operations 
were  in  the  main  limited  to  waters  adjacent  to  the  coast  and, 
with  rare  exceptions,  fishermen  regarded  themselves  as 
entitled  to  go  where  the  fish  were,  though  most  were  prepared 
to  respect  the  three-mile  limit.  This  limit  was  the  one  most 
widely  and  influentially  supported;  but  claims  of  jurisdiction 
up  to  various  longer  distances  were  advanced  by  individual 
countries.  Such  claims  were  an  obstacle  to  fishing  conven- 
tions because  of  the  difficulty  of  agreement  over  areas 
involved.  They  obviously  would  not  apply  to  waters  within 
the  exclusive  jurisdiction  of  a  particular  country,  though,  as 
was  pertinently  remarked,  fishes  are  no  respecters  of  territorial 
limits.  Hitherto,  conflicting  claims  in  respect  of  territorial 
waters  had  not  led  to  open  conflict  between  nations.  As 
regards  fisheries  the  Norwegian  claim  to  territorial  jurisdiction 
up  to  four  miles  was  a  matter  for  argument  with  Great 
Britain  for  many  years  as  the  cod  fisheries  off  Norway  are 
very  prolific,  and  many  attempts  were  made  to  reach  agree- 
ment by  negotiation.  The  last  attempt  to  agree  ended  in 
failure;  there  were  several  untoward  incidents  at  sea; 
British  vessels  were  interfered  with  and,  in  the  last  resort, 
this  long-standing  dispute  was  referred  to  the  International 
Court  at  The  Hague. 

The  extravagant  territorial  claims  in  the  sea  advanced 
after  World  War  II  by  various  powers  in  the  American 
continent  did  not  cause  any  international  incidents;  but  a 
good  deal  of  uneasiness  was  caused  by  what  seemed  to  be 
an  attempt  by  a  Scandinavian  bloc  to  oust  British  fishing 
vessels  from  the  rich  fishing  waters  west  of  Greenland  by 
denying  them  the  use  of  port  facilities.  Iceland  made  or 
threatened  to  make  extensive  claims  of  jurisdiction.  But 
competition  for  fish  became  an  obstacle  to  agreement  about 
regulations  for  the  benefit  of  all  parties.  There  were  of  course 
other  contributing  factors,  from  local  prejudice  to  naval 
competition — for  a  prosperous  fishing  industry  is  a  valuable 
contribution  to  naval  power.  Hence,  though  conventions 
were  agreed,  they  were  not  fully  ratified.  The  Washington 
convention  of  1946,  intended  to  extend  and  strengthen  the 
preceding  conventions,  beginning  with  that  signed  in  London 
in  1938,  was  not  yet  fully  ratified  and  the  Northwestern 
Atlantic  convention  signed  in  1949  seemed  unlikely  to  become 
operative  for  some  time. 

The  difficulty  attending  conventional  agreements  of  this 
character  was  sharply  revealed  on  consideration  of  the  subject 
of  naval  defence.  In  proportion  as  a  strong  fishing  fleet 
contributed  to  the  naval  strength  of  a  maritime  country  it 
was  difficult  for  that  country  to  enforce  limiting  regulations 
tending  to  weaken  its  defence.  There  were  naturally  many 
other  difficulties.  No  nation  liked  to  restrict  the  profitable 
activities  of  its  nationals.  It  remained  to  persuade  them  all 


266 


FIVES-FLOODS  AND   FLOOD   CONTROL 


that  control  would  in  the  long  run  provide  greater  and  more 
enduring  prosperity.  (See  also  MARINE  BIOLOGY;  ZOOLOGY.) 

(H.  G.  M.) 


The  Rugby  fives  amateur  doubles  champions  B.  M.   W.  Trapnell 

(right  background)  and  E.  S.  Isaacs  (right  foreground)  playing  in  the 

Jesters  club's  21st  birthday  match  at  Windsor. 

FIVES.  Rugby  Fives.  For  the  first  time  in  Rugby  fives 
championships  the  winner  of  the  singles  title,  B.  M.  W. 
Trapnell,  was  also  a  winner  of  the  doubles.  Trapnell  beat 
E.  LI  Bailey  in  the  singles  final,  and  playing  with  E.  S.  Isaacs, 
beat  P.  A.  Deane  and  A.  C.  W.  Abrahams  in  the  doubles. 
Oundle  (J.  R.  Nicol  and  S.  M.  Pickard)  was  again  successful 
in  the  schools  doubles  competition,  and  A.  D.  R.  Dawes 
(Bedford)  won  the  singles  for  the  second  time.  Oxford  won 
the  university  match. 

During  the  year  the  Rugby  Fives  association  appointed  a 
sub-committee  to  consider  the  rules  of  the  game.  On  its 
advice  minor  amendments  to  the  rules  were  made  and  some 
rules  for  match  play  added.  The  association  gave  a  dinner 
in  April  to  Dr.  E.  F.  Cyriax,  its  president,  to  mark  the  occasion 
of  his  75th  birthday.  The  Jesters  club  celebrated  its  21st 
birthday  on  Dec.  31  with  matches  against  the  Rugby  and 
Eton  Fives  associations  at  Windsor.  (G.  R.  RR.) 

Eton  Fives.  Still  without  the  war-damaged  Queen's  club 
court,  the  Eton  Fives  association  was  much  handicapped. 
A.  G.  Wreford-Brown  and  T.  R.  Garnett  beat  A.  H.  Fabian 
and  M.  W.  G.  Pryke  in  the  final  of  the  amateur  championship 
(Kinnaird  cup)  and  Charterhouse  (M.  J.  Perkins  and  J.  W.  H. 
May)  won  the  schools'  handicap  competition.  Oxford 
defeated  Cambridge  by  two  matches  to  one  in  the  university 
match.  (H.  L.  B.) 

FLAX:   see  LINEN  AND  FLAX. 

FLOODS    AND    FLOOD    CONTROL.     Great 

Britain.  The  summer  of  1949  and  the  previous  winter  were 
both  dry  seasons  and  serious  and  prolonged  floods  were  few; 
but  local  authorities  and  catchment  boards  carried  out  flood 


control  work  planned  as  a  result  of  the  serious  floods  of 
1947  and  1948.  Many  railway  bridges  in  Scotland  and  nor- 
thern England  damaged  in  Aug.  1948  were  repaired  and  lines 
fully  re-opened  to  traffic.  The  River  Trent  Catchment  board 
considered  a  scheme,  estimated  to  cost  £2,323,700,  for  major 
protection  works  in  the  Trent  valley,  which  included  the 
widening  of  certain  river  stretches  and  the  construction  of 
liver  barriers  at  Gainsborough,  Lincolnshire.  The  River 
Wye  Catchment  board  approved  proposals  for  the  second 
stage  of  the  Monmouth  flood  relief  scheme;  and  flood  relief 
sewers  were  constructed  in  Hampstead,  London,  and  in 
Salford,  Lancashire. 

Jn  October  the  first  instalment,  costing  about  £750,000, 
of  the  Rimrose  brook  main  drainage  scheme  was  put  into 
operation.  Its  object  was  to  provide  drainage  facilities  for 
undeveloped  lands  in  the  catchment  area,  where  considerable 
housing  development  was  proposed  by  the  Bootle  corporation 
and  the  Litherland  Urban  District  council,  and  also  to 
prevent  serious  flooding  which  had  taken  place  periodically 
in  Bootle,  Litherland  and  Seaforth,  Lancashire. 

Coast  Erosion  and  Protection.  The  Coast  Protection  act 
received  the  royal  assent  in  1949  and  provided  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  both  national  and  local  responsibility  for  coast 
protection  in  Great  Britain  by  setting  up  local  coast  authori- 
ties of  two  different  types  to  deal  with  the  problems  of  their 
areas.  It  gave  wider  powers  to  county  district  councils  or 
borough  councils  on  the  coast,  enabling  them  to  carry  out 
works  to  protect  their  lands  and  coastlines.  Under  these, 
the  minister  of  health  (for  areas  in  England  and  Wales)  or 
the  secretary  of  state  for  Scotland  could,  where  many  interests 
were  involved,  set  up  coast  protection  boards,  ensuring  that 
the  danger  of  lack  of  co-ordination  evident  in  the  past  would 
be  overcome.  The  bill  also  provided  for  financial  assistance 
to  the  authorities  concerned. 

Many  authorities  carried  out  work  in  repairing  and  extending 
sea  defence  works.  At  Seaford,  Sussex,  the  strengthening 
of  the  sea  wall  was  continued  and  new  groynes  were  built. 
The  construction  of  a  sea  defence  wall  at  Rhyl,  Flintshire, 
began  in  November,  with  the  object  of  checking  a  flood-high 
water  mark  which  had  advanced  more  than  1 ,500  ft.  between 
1871  and  1949.  Prestatyn,  adjacent  to  Rhyl,  approved  a 
scheme  costing  £235,000.  At  Lowestoft,  Suffolk,  work  on 
sea  defence  estimated  to  cost  £130,000  in  the  next  five  years 
was  approved.  The  Essex  Rivers  Catchment  board  proceeded 
with  plans  to  improve  existing  sea  walls  at  an  estimated  cost 
of  over  £500,000,  including  work  to  be  undertaken  in  conse- 
quence of  abnormal  tides  during  March. 

Australia.  The  bill  authorizing  the  Snowy  River  scheme 
consisting  of  a  vast  hydro-electric  and  irrigation  project, 
including  measures  for  retaining  the  flood  waters  for  irri- 
gation purposes  and  estimated  to  cost  £200  million,  passed 
all  stages  in  the  House  of  Representatives  in  June.  The 
work  was  officially  begun  on  Oct.  17  by  the  first  blasting  at 
one  of  the  dam  sites.  In  June,  following  heavy  rain,  the 
Hunter  river  burst  its  banks  and  caused  an  area  of  200  sq.  mi. 
around  Maitland  and  Kempsey,  New  South  Wales,  to  be 
submerged.  Some  streets  in  Sydney  were  also  flooded  to 
depths  of  5  ft.  In  order  to  minimize  the  dangers  of  floods  in 
the  future  the  New  South  Wales  government  adopted  a 
flood  control  for  the  Hunter  valley  to  cost  over  £10  million. 
The  scheme  comprised  the  construction  of  three  reservoirs 
to  be  operated  solely  for  flood  control,  while  five  other 
reservoirs  were  to  be  primarily  used  for  irrigation. 

Austria.  A  week  of  continuous  rain  in  August  caused  the 
biggest  summer  floods  for  several  years  in  many  alpine 
rivers.  The  Danube  rose  18  ft.  in  36  hr.  near  Vienna. 

Guatemala.  In  October,  following  several  days  of  torrential 
rains,  disastrous  floods  occurred  causing  the  death  of  4,000 
people,  and  rendering  70,000  persons  homeless.  The  value 


FLOODS  AND  FLOOD  CONTROL 


267 


of  damage  was  over  £17  million  including  the  loss  of  nearly 
half  of  the  country's  coffee  crop. 

India.  Among  the  irrigation  and  flood  control  projects 
under  construction  was  Bhavani  dam  in  Madras  consisting  of 
an  earth  structure  below  the  junction  of  the  Moyar  and 
Bhavani  rivers,  where  much  excavation  was  done  during 
World  War  II. 

Italy.  Floods  occurred  in  the  provinces  of  Benevento, 
Avellino  and  Salerno  at  the  beginning  of  October  as  a  result 
of  torrential  storms.  An  area  of  1,000  sq.  mi.  was  devastated 
and  more  than  30  people  lost  their  lives.  In  November  the 
river  Reno  broke  its  banks  and  flooded  more  than  30,000  ac. 
of  farmland  near  Bologna. 

Pakistan.  The  Lloyd  barrage,  on  the  river  Indus  and  form- 
ing part  of  the  world's  greatest  irrigation  scheme,  was  the 
subject  of  grave  concern  when  investigation  showed  serious 
cracks  in  the  ashlar  masonry  of  the  piers,  and  remedial  work 
was  undertaken. 

Uganda.  Construction  of  the  Owen  Falls  dam  on  the  river 
Nile  was  commenced  in  the  autumn  of  1949.  The  scheme 
was  for  hydro-electricity  in  addition  to  irrigation  and  flood 
control  and  would  enable  abnormally  high  flood  waters  to 
be  conserved  as  "  century  storage  "  or  continuous  storage 
over  several  years  in  conjunction  with  existing  dams  on  the 
lower  course  of  the  river  where  water  is  stored  during  floods, 
to  be  used  during  the  same  year.  (J.  KD.) 

United  States.  The  U.S.  flood  control  act  approved  Oct.  13, 
1949,  provided  $437,430,400  for  flood  control  work  during 
the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1950.  The  funds  were  classified 
as  follows  :  general  flood  control,  $366,330,400;  emergency 
fund,  $2  million;  lower  Mississippi  river,  $67  million; 
Sacramento  river,  $3,600,000;  Mississippi  river  emergency 
fund,  $500,000.  Of  the  flood  control  general  fund, 
$518,381,090  was  specified  for  new  construction;  $3,210,000 
for  advance  planning;  and  $5  million  for  preliminary 
examinations,  surveys  and  contingencies.  Exclusive  of  the 
lower  Mississippi  river  and  the  Sacramento  river,  flood  control 
construction  was  continued  or  begun  on  165  projects  in  37 
states  and  in  Alaska.  The  $67  million  allotted  the  lower 
Mississippi  river  project  was  designated  for  work  in  seven 
states:  Kentucky,  Illinois,  Tennessee,  Louisiana,  Missouri, 
Arkansas  and  Mississippi. 


Kempsey,  New  South  Wales,  during  the  floods  in  the  summer  of 
1949  when  the  Hunter  river  burst  its  banks. 


At  the  end  of  June  1949,  a  total  of  256  flood  control 
projects  was  in  operation;  30  were  new.  Construction  was 
continued  on  98  projects,  of  which  43  were  reservoirs  and 
55  were  of  a  local  character,  such  as  levees,  flood  walls, 
channel  improvements,  etc.  Construction  was  begun  on 
34  new  projects,  9  of  which  were  clams  and  reservoirs. 

Reservoirs  placed  in  operation  during  the  fiscal  year 
included  the  Union  Village  reservoir,  Vermont;  the  Tully 
reservoir,  Massachusetts;  the  Addicks  reservoir,  Texas; 
the  Hords  Creek  reservoir,  Texas;  and  the  Wister  reservoir 
in  Oklahoma.  Local  protection  projects  placed  in  operation 
included  projects  at  Nashua,  New  Hampshire;  Holyoke, 
Massachusetts;  Springdale,  Massachusetts;  the  Conway 
county  levee  districts  numbers  1,  2  and  8,  Arkansas;  the 
McLean  Bottom  levee  district  number  3,  Arkansas;  the 
Henderson  county  drainage  district  number  3,  Illinois; 
projects  at  Tucker  Lake,  Arkansas;  Cincinnati,  Ohio;  A  ten, 
Nebraska;  Hot  Springs,  South  Dakota;  the  project  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Sangamon  river,  Illinois;  the  projects  for  the 
Owasco  inlet  and  outlet,  New  York;  Lancaster,  New  York; 
Pajaro  river,  California;  the  Mill  Four  drainage  district, 
Oregon;  and  projects  at  Indianola,  Nebraska;  Elkins,  West 
Virginia;  Tacoma,  Washington;  and  Taylorsville,  Kentucky. 
Congress  in  the  first  deficiency  appropriation  act  of  1949, 
enacted  on  May  24,  provided  funds  of  $14  million  for  general 
flood  control  projects.  In  the  second  deficiency  appropriation 
act  of  1949,  approved  on  June  23,  1949,  $500,000  was  made 
available  for  prosecution  of  the  work  on  the  Fort  Worth 
floodway  on  the  Trinity  river  in  Texas.  On  Oct.  10,  1949, 
the  president  signed  another  appropriation,  which  provided, 
among  other  things,  $76,000  for  the  modification  of  the 
project  at  Mandan,  North  Dakota. 

Channel  improvement  of  the  Mississippi  river  proper  was 
continued  during  1949  at  a  number  of  places  below  Cairo, 
Illinois.  Completed  levee  construction  totalled  approximately 
1,500  mi.  of  main  stem  levees,  extending  from  near  Head  of 
Passes,  Louisiana,  to  Rock  Island,  Illinois.  Co-ordinated 
with  the  main  stem  levees  were  1,000  mi.  of  tributary  levees, 
practically  completed  in  1949.  Below  Cairo,  work  continued 
on  river  bank  protection.  Revetment  was  carried  out  on 
more  than  100  mi.  of  river  bank;  in  addition,  many  miles 
of  permeable  dykes  were  in  place  for  bank  stabilization  and 
channel  regulation.  The  substantially  completed  2,500-mi. 
levee  system  now  contained  more  than  1,200  million  cu.yd. 
of  earth;  it  was  called  the  largest  earth-moving  project 
in  history. 

Damaging  floods  occurred  in  New  England  in  the  Connecti- 
cut river  valley  during  the  closing  days  of  Dec.  1948,  causing 
damages  running  as  high  as  $7  million  and  claiming  the  lives 
of  five  persons.  Disastrous  as  the  floods  were,  however,  the 
flood  control  works  that  had  been  completed  and  were  in 
operation  prevented  damages  estimated  at  $11  million. 

Damaging  floods  also  occurred  along  the  Potomac  river 
in  Virginia  and  West  Virginia  during  June  1949.  Rain  fell 
with  such  intensity  that  communications  were  disrupted 
before  warnings  could  be  sent.  Eleven  lives  were  lost  and  the 
total  damage  in  Virginia  was  estimated  at  more  than 
$3  million  and  in  West  Virginia  at  $6  million. 

In  Jan.  1949,  minor  flooding  occurred  on  the  Grand 
(Neosho)  river  from  Oswego,  Kansas,  to  Pensacola  reservoir 
and  on  the  Verdigris  river  from  Inola,  Oklahoma,  to  the 
mouth.  Major  flooding  occurred  on  the  Poteau  river  from 
Cauthron,  Arkansas,  to  Wister  reservoir,  with  minor  flooding 
from  Poteau,  Oklahoma,  to  the  mouth.  Major  flooding 
occurred  on  the  Kiamichi  river  and  on  the  Little  river  and 
its  tributaries,  while  moderate  floods  were  experienced  on  the 
Red  river  at  Fulton,  Arkansas. 

During  the  early  months  of  1949,  a  great  amount  of  snow 
covered  the  Missouri  river  basin,  causing  some  flooding  of 


268 


FLOUR— FOOD   RESEARCH 


major  streams  and  their  tributaries.  However,  if  the  plains 
states  had  experienced  flood-producing  weather  in  the  spring, 
record  flooding  might  easily  have  occurred.  Fortunately, 
rapid  thawing  and  heavy  rainfall  did  not  occur  to  make  the 
threat  a  reality.  (G.  HB.) 

FLOUR.  In  1949  there  was  a  tendency  in  most  countries 
for  the  flour  extraction  rate  to  be  lowered  and  hence  for  the 
public  to  have  a  whiter  and  generally  more  appetizing  flour. 
Although  in  Great  Britain  the  extraction  rate  remained  at 
85%  Table  I  indicates  the  general  world  trend  and  also 
gives  information  on  the  quantities  of  bread  grains  used  per 
person  in  the  principal  countries. 

TABLE  I — WHEAT  FLOUR  IN  THE  WORLD 


Extraction  rate  % 


1947-48 


1948-49 


Eastern  Hemisphere 

Australia  . 

Belgium 

Bulgaria    . 

Czechoslovakia 

Denmark 

Egypt 

Finland 

France 

Germany  (Bizonei 

Greece 

Italy 

Netherlands 

New  Zealand 

Norway     . 

Portugal    . 

South  Africa 

Spam 

Sweden 

Switzerland 

Turkey 

Western  Hemhph 

Argentina 

Brazil 

Canada 

Chile 

United  States 

Uruguay 


70 

70 

83 

78 

(a) 

80 

(a) 

80 

80 

80 

80 

80 

95 

80 

95 

88 

88 

88 

85 

80 

85 

80 

78 

(a) 

87 

87 

90 

(a) 

(a) 

80 

90 

(a) 

80 

(a) 

88 

78 

72 
80 
73 
75 
72 
72 


72 
(a) 
73 
(a) 
72 
(a) 


Supplies  per 
capita  (in  kg  ) 
1947-48 

98-3 

97-9 
127  8 
126-4 

70  0 
177  8 
118  6 

93-7 
116-8 
109-7 
113  3 

93-1 
102-9 
107-9 

71-5 
170-0 

94  0 

76-8 
108-5 
155-3 

118-7 

83-6 

86  4 
132-2 

84-2 

92-5 


(a)  Unreported,  but  for  1948-49  blanks  would  probably  be  as  for  1947-48 
and  for  1947-48  blanks  would  not  likely  be  less  than  for  1948-49. 

Actual  consumption  figures  of  flour  or  bread  per  person 
were  not  available  but  were  substantially  controlled  by  the 
prevailing  extraction  rate. 

In  Great  Britain  in  the  first  six  months  of  1949,  the  flour 
sold  was  1,579,300  tons  for  manufacture  (corresponding  to 
2,143,300  tons  bread)  together  with  253,700  tons  of  flour 
sold  for  household  requirements.  The  miller's  grist  naturally 
varied  throughout  the  year  but  always  contained  an  appreci- 
able proportion  of  strong  Manitoba  wheat  together  with 
nearly  as  much  home-grown  wheat,  the  whole  being  supple- 
mented with  some  Argentine  and  Australian  wheat. 

The  principal  exporting  countries  were  the  United  States, 
Canada,  Argentina  and  Australia  and  besides  the  usual 
channels  there  were  heavy  clearances  of  the  surpluses  to 
Germany,  Italy  and  India.  In  April  1949  an  international 
meeting  agreed  export  quotas.  Allowing  for  the  amount 
of  home-grown  wheat,  the  1949-50  season  for  international 
trade  in  wheat  and  flour  was  likely  to  take  place  within 
the  framework  indicated  in  Table  II. 

TABLF  II. — WORLD  WHEAT  SURPLUSES 
(In  quarters  of  480  Ib  ,  '000  omitted) 


United  States 
Canada 
Argentina     . 
Australia 
U.S.S.R. 


Total 

Probable 

Excess 

Surplus 

Shipments 

of  Supply 

90,250 

50,000 

40,250 

43,920 

30,000 

13,920 

17,625 

11,500 

6,125 

19,500 

12,000 

7,500 

5,000 

5,000 

— 

176,295 


108,500 


67,795 


Feeding  tests  made  on  German  girls  produced  rather 
surprising  results.  Groups  of  girls  had  their  rather  inadequate 
diet  supplemented  with  bread  made  from  various  types  of 
flour  such  as  short  extraction  (72%)  white  flour,  85%  flour 
and  wholemeal,  but  all  the  breads  were  equally  efficacious  in 
bringing  about  satisfactory  growth  and  health.  (D.  W.  K-J.) 

United  States.  For  the  first  eight  months  of  1949,  wheat 
flour  production  amounted  to  155,500,000  cwt.,  compared 
with  185,300,000  cwt.  for  the  corresponding  period  of  1948. 
The  peak  production  month  for  this  period  was  January, 
with  22,380,000  cwt.  compared  with  24,400,000  and 
28,190,000  cwt.,  respectively  for  the  corresponding  months 
of  1948  and  1947. 

Net  exports  of  wheat  flour  for  1948  amounted  to  55,300,000 
cwt.,  a  decrease  of  29,740,000  cwt.  or  35%  from  1947. 
The  flour  available  for  domestic  consumption  during  1948 
was  201,700,000  cwt.,  an  increase  of  only  4  million  over 
1947.  This  increase  was  a  consequence  of  sharply  reduced 
exports,  which  dropped  53-8%  from  1947,  rather  than  a 
result  of  flour  production.  (See  WHEAT.) 

Investigation  and  tests  conducted  by  the  flour  industry 
during  1949  revealed  that  no  effect,  toxic  or  otherwise,  was 
obtained  by  the  use  of  oxidizing  agents,  bleaches  and  related 
materials  which  were  commonly  used  to  improve  the  baking 
properties  of  flour. 

The  flour  and  cereal  enrichment  programme,  widely 
accepted  in  Great  Britain  and  continental  U.S.,  was  intro- 
duced in  the  Philippines,  Cuba  arjd  Puerto  Rico.  In  the 
latter  country  the  enrichment  of  all  white  floui  was  made 
a  legal  requirement,  (See  also  BREAD  AND  BAKERY  PRODUCTS; 
WHEAT.)  (H.  BD  ) 

FLOWERS    AND    FLOWER    FARMING:    see 

HORTICULTURE. 

FOOD  RESEARCH.  A  clear  illustration  of  the 
experimental  production  of  hypertension  and  its  relation  to 
nutrition  was  given  in  1949  by  Drs.  W.  S.  Hartroft  and 
C.  H.  Best  of  Toronto.  These  investigators  placed  weanling 
albino  rats  on  a  diet  low  in  choline,  a  member  of  the  vitamin 
B  complex,  for  periods  of  five  or  six  days.  Such  brief  periods 
of  choline  deficiency  were  sufficient  to  produce  the  typical 
"  haemorrhagic  kidney  "  in  the  young  growing  albino  rat. 
Blood  pressure  determinations  were  made  at  intervals,  and 
at  the  end  of  the  experiment,  histologic  studies  were  made  of 
both  kidneys.  The  amount  of  kidney  damage  observed  was 
classified  as  severe,  moderate,  slight  or  none.  Ten  of  the 
survivors  of  the  haemorrhagic  kidney  syndrome  exhibited 
severe  persistent  kidney  damage.  All  of  these  animals  had 
definite  arterial  hypertension,  the  average  blood  pressure 
being  195  mm.  of  mercury.  Thirteen  of  the  survivors  showed 
moderate  residual  kidney  damage,  with  a  mean  blood 
pressure  of  165  mm.  Thirty-nine  of  the  survivors  showed  only 
slight  kidney  damage  and  exhibited  a  mean  blood  pressure 
of  136  mm.  For  the  36  control  animals,  the  mean  blood 
pressure  was  118  mm.  In  a  study  of  agents  which  influence 
experimental  radiation  injury,  A.  Goldfeder,  L.  Cohen, 
C.  Miller  and  M.  Singer  investigated  the  effects  of  dietary 
supplements  of  folic  acid  and  of  pyridoxine  on  the  suscepti- 
bility of  mice  to  radiation  injury.  These  two  vitamins  were 
selected  for  investigation  because  the  former  was  reported  to 
be  of  clinical  value  in  preventing  nausea  in  X-ray-treated 
cases,  whereas  the  latter  had  been  of  value  in  sprue  and  in 
the  treatment  of  leucopenia,  which  suggested  its  application 
in  relief  of  the  diarrhoea  and  leucopenia  accompanying 
radiation  sickness.  The  experimental  studies  with  mice 
indicated  that  deficiencies  of  these  two  B-complex  vitamins 
markedly  increased  susceptibility  to  irradiation  injury. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  W.  S.  Hartroft  and  C.  H.  Best,  "  Hypertension  of 
Renal  Origin  in  Rats  Following  Less  Than  One  Week  of  Choline 


FOOD   SUPPLY  OF  THE  WORLD 


269 


Deficiency  in  Early  Life,"  Brit.  Med.  J,  1:423-426,  London,  March 
12,  1949.  J.  B.  Field  and  P.  E  Rekers,  "Studies  of  the  Effects  of 
Flavonoids  on  Roentgen  Irradiation  Disease:  II.  Comparisons  of  the 
Protective  Influence  of  Some  Flavonoids  and  Vitamin  C  in  Dot»s," 
J  Clin.  Invent,  28.  746-751,  July,  1949.  (F.  J.  SE.) 

Vitamin  Bvl.  Among  the  important  accomplishments  in 
nutrition  research  is  the  isolation  of  vitamin  B12,  the  recog- 
nition of  its  relation  to  pernicious  anaemia  and  the  discovery 
of  new  uses  for  it.  Dr.  Randolph  West,  along  with  many 
others,  embarked  upon  an  attempt  to  concentrate  the  active 
principle  from  liver.  After  more  than  20  years  of  search, 
in  April  1948  the  concentration  of  a  reddish  crystalline 
substance  from  liver  was  finally  reported  by  an  English  worker 
named  E.  L.  Smith.  In  the  same  month  a  group  of  American 
research  workers  headed  by  Dr.  E.  L.  Rickes  of  the  Merck 
Research  laboratory  also  reported  the  isolation  of  a  reddish 
crystalline  compound  which  they  called  vitamin  B12.  Both 
were  found  to  be  effective  in  the  treatment  of  pernicious 
anaemia.  Simultaneously,  Dr.  West  published  observations 
demonstrating  that  exceedingly  small  doses  of  this  newly 
isolated  vitamin  BJ3  were  effective  in  the  treatment  of  an&mia. 
Dr.  Mary  Shorb  also  reported  that  the  material  isolated  by 
the  Merck  workers  was  an  essential  growth  factor  for 
Lactohacillus  Lactis  Dorncr.  Earlier  she  had  shown  that  an 
"  LLD  factor  "  in  refined  liver  extract  bore  a  significant 
relationship  to  the  effectiveness  of  extracts  used  m  the  treat- 
ment of  pernicious  anaemia.  The  early  clinical  investigations 
of  Dr.  West  with  vitamin  B,.,  were  confirmed  by  otheis  and 
its  usefulness  in  the  treatment  of  other  forms  of  macrocytic 
anaemia  was  demonstrated  in  1949. 

Vitamin  B,.2  is  a  red  crystalline  compound.  Its  precise 
chemical  structure  was  as  yet  unknown,  but  it  was  described 
as  an  organic  cobalt-complex  containing  small  amounts  of 
nitrogen  and  phosphorus.  It  was  presumed  to  have  a 
molecular  weight  of  about  1 ,500.  Of  interest  was  the  fact  that 
cobalt  had  been  regarded,  for  some  time,  as  an  essential  trace 
element  in  human  nutrition.  However,  prior  to  the  discovery 
of  vitamin  B,.2  it  was  not  demonstrated  to  be  a  constituent  of 
any  known  nutrient.  Vitamin  Bla  was  effective  in  the  treat- 
ment of  anaemia  in  exceedingly  small  doses.  Jones,  Darby 
and  Totter  currently  reported  that  as  little  as  1  •  5  micrograms 
(0-0000015  grams)  given  parenterally  could  be  effective.  In 
view  of  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  vitamin  Bia  from  liver,  it 
was  fortunate  that  there  were  other  sources  including  the 
Streptomyces  griseus,  from  which  streptomycin  could  be 
obtained. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  h  L  Smith,  "  Purification  of  Anti-Pernicious 
Anaemia  Factors  from  Liver,"  Nature,  161  638,  London,  1948. 
E.  L  Rickes,  N  C  Brink,  F.  R.  Komouszy,  T.  R.  Wood  and  K  Folkers, 
44  Crystalline  Vitamin  Bia,if  Science,  107  396,  Washington,  April  16, 
1948.  R.  West,  **  Activity  of  Vitamin  Bia  in  Addisoman  Pernicious 
Anzemia,"  Science,  107  396,  Washington,  April  16,  1948  ,  M.  S.  Shorb, 
44  Activity  of  Vitamin  Bia  for  the  Growth  of  Lactobacillus  Lactis," 
Science,  107.397,  Washington,  April  16,  1948.  (J.  R.  W.) 

FOOD  SUPPLY  OF  THE  WORLD.  The  world 
food  situation  became  increasingly  easier  during  1949  and 
in  a  few  sectors  burdensome  surpluses  were  emerging.  In 
great  contrast  with  the  uneasy,  if  not  actually  dangerous, 
food  situation  of  the  world  in  the  early  part  of  1948,  the 
almost  universally  good  harvests  of  that  year  were  followed 
by  increased  food  supplies  in  1949  in  all  major  regions 
except  the  United  States  and  Canada.  Prospects  for  meeting 
the  effective  demand  for  food  in  the  1949-50  consumption 
year  were  brighter  than  in  any  of  the  preceding  postwar 
years,  although  a  large  proportion  of  the  world's  population 
nevertheless  would  not  be  and  had  not  been  adequately 
nourished  by  some  standards.  Food  rationing  and  other 
restrictions  were  widely  relaxed  or  abandoned.  The  improved 
situation  was  not  so  much  the  result  of  extremely  large  crops 
in  one  or  two  areas  (as  had  previously  been  true  as  regards 


the  U  S.)  nor  of  the  enormous  output  of  one  major  crop, 
but  rather  a  general  improvement  in  the  output  of  many 
categories,  but  particularly  of  bread  grains,  feed  grains, 
fats  and  oils,  and  fruit  and  vegetables.  Reserves  of  grain 
stocks  in  the  four  principal  exporting  countries  on  July  1, 
1949,  were  72-8  million  tons,  about  68%  larger  than  the 
small  stocks  of  the  previous  year.  Livestock  in  Europe 
showed  much  improvement  after  the  large  harvests  of  1948 
and  the  increased  abundance  of  coarse  grains  for  import. 
Essentially  1949  was  a  year  without  famine;  crops  were  not 
very  poor  in  any  large  area;  malnutrition  was  endemic 
but  not  epidemic. 

In  some  exporting  countries,  particularly  the  U.S.,  there 
was  some  concern  about  the  possibility  of  agricultural 
surpluses.  Substantial  reduction  in  planted  acreage  of 
wheat  and  corn  crops  to  be  harvested  in  1950  were  ordered 
in  the  U  S.  Government  storage  programmes  were  expanded 
and  exports  subsidized. 


TAHLL  I 


WORLD  I  OOD  PRODUCTION  BY  CUMMODITIFS  AND  BY  ARFAS 
COMPARED  WITH  PREWAR 
( °/(,  of  prewar) 


Food  commodity 

1946-47 

Bread  grains 

94 

Rice 

92 

Coarse  grains 

104 

}  ats  and  oils 

85 

Sugar     . 

90 

Meat 

94 

Dairy  products 

88 

Potatoes 

84 

Area 

Par  Hast 

90 

Europe    (excluding    the 

U.S  S  R  ) 

76 

U  S   and  Canada     . 

135 

Latin  America 

114 

Australia    and    New 

Zealand 

96 

Africa  and  near  cast 

— 

World  average  (excluding 

the  USSR) 

95 

*  Preliminary  estimate 

1946-47 

1947-48 

1948-49 

1949-50 

94 

96 

102 

101 

92 

93 

97 

99 

104 

97 

110 

104 

85 

88 

94 

100 

90 

92 

108 

106 

94 

93 

94 

97 

88 

87 

90 

95 

84 

83 

105 

96 

92 

79 
128 
114 

109 
101 

97 


95 

89 
138 
118 

106 
116 

104 


96 

93 
135 
120 

107 
118 

105 


Bread  Grains,  Wheat  and  Rye.  World  bread  grain  pro- 
duction estimates  for  1949  were  lowered  during  the  year  as 
additional  information  became  available;  near  the  end  of 
the  year  they  were  estimated  at  233  million  short  tons, 
slightly  less  than  the  238  million  tons  of  1948  but  a  little 
above  the  average  229  million  tons  of  1935-39.  The  world 
wheat  crop  was  finally  placed  at  6,185  million  bu.,  a  figure 
somewhat  below  the  6,385  million  bu.  of  1948  and  moderately 
in  excess  of  the  6,010  million  bu.  average  for  1935-39.  The 
decrease  was  primarily  the  result  of  decline  in  North  American 
production,  the  U.S.  producing  1,176,463,000  bu.  in  1949, 
compared  with  1,313,534,000  bu.  in  1948.  The  Canadian 
crop  was  about  25  million  bu.  smaller  than  the  1948  harvest 
but  approximately  50  million  bu.  in  excess  of  the  prewar 
average.  The  U.S.  crop  was  the  sixth  consecutive  crop  of 
more  than  1,000  million  bu.  but  almost  250  million  bu. 
below  the  record,  although  about  400  million  bu.  more  than 
the  prewar  average. 

The  world  rye  crop  of  1949  totalled  1,655  million  bu.,  as 
against  1,665  million  bu.  in  1948  and  1,730  million  bu. 
prewar  average  (1935-39).  The  increase  was  largely  in  Europe, 
which  produced  705  million  bu.  in  1949,  compared  with 
660  million  bu.  in  1948,  but  765  million  bu.  average  prewar. 
North  America  produced  only  about  half  as  much  as  in  1948. 

The  abundant  bread  grain  crops  of  1949  were  particularly 
important  in  assuring  the  continuation,  if  not  the  improve- 
ment, of  the  diet  of  western  Europe  and  in  providing  stocks 
for  export  from  the  chief  exporting  countries  to  the  densely 
populated  deficit  areas  of  Europe  and  Asia.  But  as  reserve 
stocks  became  more  abundant  fears  of  an  unmanageable 
surplus  began  to  grow  in  exporting  countries.  Although 


270 


FOOD   SUPPLY  OF  THE  WORLD 


winter  wheat  sowings  in  the  U.S.  were,  by  official  order, 
only  85%  of  the  record  acreage  seeded  in  the  autumn  of 
1948,  the  condition  of  the  new  crop  was  excellent  and  initial 
indications  were  that  the  prospective  harvest  might  be  nearly 
as  large  as  in  1 949.  Rye  acreage  was  expanded  1 2  %  and  the 
condition  was  excellent.  Reports  on  the  new  crop  in  Europe 
were  favourable. 

Other  Grains.  A  major  difference  in  the  world  food  supply 
in  1949,  in  contrast  to  the  immediate  postwar  years,  was  the 
relative  abundance  of  grains  for  cattle  feeding,  a  situation 
largely  accounted  for  by  the  record  corn  (maize)  crop  of  the 
U.S.  in  1948,  from  which  there  was  a  record  reserve  after 
the  large  1949  crop.  The  1949  crop  of  3,377,790,000  bu. 
plus  a  reserve  of  815,376,000  bu.  gave  a  new  record  total 
supply.  The  corn  (maize)  crop  for  the  world  amounted  to 
about  5,680  million  bu.,  second  only  to  the  record  crop  of 
5,990  million  bu.  in  1948-49  and  much  in  excess  of  the  pre- 
war average  of  4,750  million  bu. 

Other  feed  grains,  oats,  barley  and  grain  sorghums, 
yielded  abundantly  in  1949,  although  not  up  to  the  1948 
level.  The  world  oat  crop  was  estimated  at  3,980  million  bu., 
as  compared  with  4,200  million  bu.  in  1948.  Europe's  1,375 
million  bu.  was  slightly  more  than  in  1948,  but  nearly  one- 
fifth  less  than  the  prewar  average.  The  world  barley  crop 
was  estimated  at  2,250  million  bu.,  compared  with  2,380 
million  bu.  in  1948  and  about  100  million  bu.  less  than  the 
prewar  average. 

The  significance  of  these  cereals  which  are  not  widely 
use  for  bread  lies  partly  in  their  service  as  reserve  stocks 
against  human  starvation  but  more  especially  in  their 
indirect  use  as  concentrated  livestock  food  in  the  continuing 
expansion  of  meat  and  livestock  production.  Whereas  in 
1947-48  imports  of  feed  grains  into  western  Europe  were 
very  modest  because  of  short  supplies  in  exporting  countries, 
exports  from  the  U.S.,  mostly  to  western  Europe,  during 
1948-49  of  feed  grains  were  large  and  expected  to  be  still 
larger  in  1949-50. 

Rice.  The  world's  greatest  food  crop  for  direct  human 
consumption,  in  terms  of  the  number  of  people  preferring 
that  crop,  is  rice.  In  terms  of  total  world  production,  it 
had  not  regained  its  prewar  level;  the  estimated  crop  was 
144-2  million  metric  tons  (paddy)  in  1948-49,  compared 
with  142-5  million  tons  in  the  previous  year  and  approxi- 
mately 147  million  tons  in  the  prewar  period.  Nearly  95% 
of  production  was  in  Asia.  The  U.S.  crop  of  89,141,000  bu. 
was  a  record  one  and  acreage  was  to  be  reduced  in  1950. 
The  distribution  of  production  of  rice  in  relation  to  consump- 
tion was  very  different  from  the  prewar  period  and  world 
trade  in  rice  was  only  about  40%  as  large.  In  particular, 
the  major  exporting  areas  of  southeast  Asia,  partly  because 
of  somewhat  smaller  production  but  mainly  because  of 
political  disturbances,  transportation  difficulties  and  increased 
consumption  by  the  producers,  did  not  provide  the  usual 
export  quantities  for  the  densely  populated  deficit  rice- 
consuming  areas  of  the  far  cast.  To  some  extent  this  gap  was 
filled  by  wheat  and  other  grains  from  Australia  and  the 
Americas;  the  U.S.  exported  64-2  million  bu.  of  wheat  to 
Japan  and  Korea  in  1948-49  The  suggested  allocation  of 
rice  under  the  International  Emergency  Food  council  in 
1949  amounted  to  only  3,813,000  metric  tons.  Nevertheless, 
the  situation  was  more  favourable:  Japan  harvested  an 
estimated  599,105,000  bu.  crop,  compared  with  586,004,000 
bu.  in  1948;  production  and  export  from  the  surplus  areas  of 
southeast  Asia  seemed  to  be  rising  and  prices  appeared  to 
have  stabilized. 

Potatoes.  The  1949-50  crop  was  about  8,000  million  bu., 
compared  with  8,764  million  bu.  in  1948-49  and  8,300 
million  bu.  average  in  the  prewar  years  1935-39.  The  Euro- 
pean crop  (excluding  the  U.S.S.R.),  m  particular,  declined 


sharply  to  4,414,363,000  bu.,  compared  with  5,054,390,000 
bu.  in  1948,  and  was  about  10%  below  prewar.  The  U.S.S.R. 
crop  was  indicated  at  2,800  million  bu.,  a  little  below  1948 
but  slightly  above  prewar.  The  Canadian  crop,  as  well  as 
that  of  the  U  S.,  was  smaller,  although  still  abundant  in 
relation  to  demand.  Acreage  was  increased  in  Europe,  but 
yields  per  acre  declined  to  180  bu.,  compared  with  210  bu. 
in  1948  and  200  bu.  prewar.  In  spite  of  lower  acreage  and 
smaller  crops  in  the  U.S.,  the  1949  crop  nevertheless  was 
excessive  and  the  government  subsidy  programme  involved 
$50  million  to  $60  million.  Although  this  was  much  reduced 
from  the  1948  crop,  the  official  goal,  for  the  1950  crop  was 
set  still  lower  at  335  million  bu. 

Sugar.  World  production  of  beet  and  cane-sugar  for  the 
1949-50  season  was  estimated  at  36,646,000  short  tons,  raw 
value,  2%  less  than  the  record  crop  of  1948-49  of  37,249,000 
tons,  but  about  6%  more  than  the  prewar  (1935-39)  average 
of  34,718,000  short  tons.  World  beet  sugar  production, 
largely  in  Europe,  increased  to  11,362,000  tons,  compared 
with  11,071,000  tons  in  1948,  but  continued  below  the 
12,025,000  tons  of  prewar.  Meanwhile,  world  cane  sugar 
production  of  25,284,000  short  tons  was  about  900,000  tons 
less  than  the  record  large  crop  of  the  previous  year.  Increases 
in  the  Philippines,  the  U  S  S.R.,  the  U.S.,  Argentina  and 
several  European  countries  failed  to  offset  the  decrease  in 
Cuba  and  some  other  areas;  Cuba  declined  to  5  3  million 
tons  from  a  record  of  6,675,000  tons  in  1947  Consumption 
continued  to  vary  very  much  in  the  different  countries, 
ranging  from  93  3  Ib.  per  capita  in  the  U.S  in  1949  to  only 
a  very  few  Ib.  per  person  for  more  than  one-half  the  world's 
population. 

Meat.  The  meat  supply  situation  was  generally  easier  in 
1949.  Pork,  poultry,  and  fish  were  in  more  abundant  supply 
and  prices  were  lower,  whereas  high  quality  beef  and  lamb 
were  relatively  scarce  and  prices  continued  high.  Total  meat 
consumption  per  person  in  the  U.S.  was  expected  to  be 
about  150  Ib.,  compared  with  147  Ib.  in  1948,  a  record  of 
155  Ib.  in  1947  and  a  prewar  average  of  126  Ib.  Lamb 
consumption,  however,  was  only  90%  of  1948,  whereas 
10%  more  chickens  and  turkeys  were  consumed  than  in  1948. 

Due  to  improved  feed  conditions  m  1948  and  continuing 
favourable  production  in  1949,  output  of  meat  increased  in 
1949  in  all  major  producing  areas,  although  in  Europe  it 
was  only  about  75%  of  prewar;  in  spite  of  large  increases 
in  some  areas,  the  world  total  was  still  below  prewar.  Milch 
cows,  however,  were  given  special  consideration  and  world 
cattle  numbers,  for  beef  as  well  as  milk,  were  placed  at  a 
record  of  761  million  head  at  the  beginning  of  1949.  Meat 
exports  from  Argentina,  Canada,  Australia  and  New  Zealand 
continued  in  fair  volume  to  western  Europe,  particularly  to 
the  United  Kingdom. 

Fats  and  Oils.  Expansion  in  the  production  of  most  kinds 
of  fats  and  oils  continued  in  1949,  with  a  consequent  easing 
of  the  supply  situation  and  the  price  level.  Although  signifi- 
cant differences  existed  among  areas  and  types,  the  over- 
all supply  approximated  to  the  prewar  level.  On  a  population 
basis  the  supply  continued  below  prewar,  Germany  and 
Japan  being  especially  low  at  a  consumption  level  of  about 
half  that  of  prewar.  Production  of  fats  and  oils  in  the  U.S. 
set  up  a  new  record  of  about  12,010  million  Ib.  as  a  result 
of  the  large  1949  crops  of  soybeans  and  cotton  as  well  as  a 
large  pig  crop.  Palm  oil  and  coconut  oil  also  became  avail- 
able in  larger  amounts  from  tropical  areas.  The  olive  oil 
crop  of  the  Mediterranean  basin  was  abundant.  As  a  result, 
world  exports  of  this  composite  food  item  were  expected  to 
be  as  much  as  10%  larger  than  in  1948.  Exports  from  the 
U.S.  were  especially  large,  reaching  a  record  of  2,100  million 
Ib.  in  1948-49. 


FOOTBALL 


271 


Food  Prices  and  Trade.  The  decline  in  food  prices  con- 
tinued in  1949.  Food  prices,  particularly  those  of  food  raw 
materials  such  as  grains  and  fats  and  oils,  which  reached 
their  postwar  peaks  in  the  free  markets  of  the  world  early  in 
1948,  subsequently  declined  sharply  but  irregularly.  Prices 
of  meat  and  livestock  products  resisted  the  decline  to  a 
certain  extent.  The  over-all  decline  amounted  to  10%- 
20%  with  a  few  items  showing  extreme  declines  of  one-third 
to  one-half  of  their  former  peak  levels.  As  a  result,  although 
declines  on  the  retail  level  were  much  less  abrupt  and  were 
smaller,  black  markets  in  food  practically  disappeared, 
rationing  and  other  restrictions  were  removed  in  most 
countries  and  a  buyer's  market  began  to  appear. 

Because  of  their  cheapness,  easy  storage,  availability  and 
widespread  acceptance,  grams  continued  to  be  the  main 
food  import  and  export  in  world  trade.  In  1948-49,  world 
exports  of  gram  and  grain  products  reached  36  2  million 
metric  tons,  compared  with  35-6  million  tons  in  1947-48, 
and  the  largest  since  1931-32,  but  still  less  than  the  record  40  •  6 
million  tons  moved  in  1928-29.  Of  the  1948-49  total,  26  6 
million  tons  were  bread  grains,  and  9-6  million  tons  were 
feed  grains.  In  1948-49  (mostly  from  1948  crops),  grain 
supplies  still  in  hand  at  the  end  of  the  period  in  the  four 
principal  exporting  countries  increased  68%,  as  compared 
with  1947-48.  For  the  first  time  since  before  World  War  II, 
exportable  supplies  were  in  excess  of  the  provisional  import 
programmes.  In  fact,  there  were  signs  of  trouble  ahead  in 
the  efforts  of  most  countries  to  restore  or  exceed  prewar 
production  and  to  reduce  imports,  particularly  from  hard 
currency  areas. 

Estimated  exports  in  1949  included  sugar  to  about  10 
million  short  tons,  of  which  more  than  80%,  came  from  the 
western  hemisphere,  compared  with  less  than  50%  before 
the  war.  World  supply  and  demand  continued  to  balance. 
Prices  were  sluggish  and  slightly  down  compared  with  1947. 

TABLE  II. — SUPPIIES  OF  MAJOR  FOODSTUFFS  LNIFRING  WORLD  TRADE 
(In  millions  of  metric  tons) 

Commodity  Prewar      1946-47      1947-48      1948-49      1949-50* 

Cereals    (excluding 

nee)  .  29-4  28-7  35-0  36-2  35-0 

Rice  (milled)  .78  2-7  38  4-3  45 

Fats    and    oilseeds 

(fat  content)  5-9  3   2  4-0  4-8  5  2 

Sugar  (raw  basis)          11-5  8-0  9-0  10-7  10-0 

Meat    .  19192-0  1-9  2-0 

*  Preliminary  estimate 

Food  Situation  by  Areas.  European  food  production  in 
1949  was  not  quite  so  large  as  in  1948.  In  Europe  the  1949 
cereal  harvests  averaged  some  5%  below  the  previous  year, 
the  western  and  southern  portions  in  particular  dropping 
below  the  previous  year.  Potatoes  were  lower,  but  sugar 
increased,  as  did  fats  and  oils  and  livestock  and  dairy 
products.  However,  the  domestic  food  supply  of  Europe 
in  1949  was  still  somewhat  lower  than  the  prewar  level,  and 
population  had  increased.  The  major  food  item,  bread 
grains,  was  about  92%  of  the  prewar  average.  Domestic 
supplies  of  meat,  dairy  products  and  poultry  were  still  low 
compared  with  prewar.  Nevertheless,  the  situation  had 
relaxed  sufficiently  to  allow  the  derationing  of  bread,  lowering 
of  the  flour  extraction  rate  and  reduction  or  discontinuing 
of  the  mixing  of  coarse  grains  in  bread  flour.  Stock-piles 
of  grains  were  increased.  A  disturbing  feature  was  the  extent 
to  which  the  world  import  requirements  of  food,  particularly 
into  Europe,  had  come  to  depend  so  overwhelmingly  on  the 
vast  but  unstable  production  of  North  America.  The  occupied 
area  of  Western  Germany  was  reported  to  have  a  volume  of 
food  production  in  1949  some  29%  larger  than  in  1948. 

The  food  situation  in  the  U.S.S.R.  appeared  to  be 
more  favourable  than  at  any  time  since  the  war,  whether 
judged  by  exports,  observers'  reports  or  rationing, 
but  there  were  reports  of  delays  in  harvesting  due 


to   excessive    rains    and    delays    in    compulsory    deliveries. 

The  1949  grain  crops  of  India  and  Japan  were  slightly 
better  than  in  1948.  The  situation  in  China  was  less  clear 
because  of  the  civil  war.  Natural  conditions  for  the  rice  crop, 
the  major  cereal  item  of  the  diet,  were  at  least  as  favourable 
as  in  1948.  Civil  disturbances  in  Burma  continued  to  restrict 
the  movement  of  the  1948  rice  crop  and  the  production  of 
the  1949  crop.  Supplies  available  for  export  from  French 
Indo-Chma  continued  to  be  small,  although  some  increase 
occurred  in  the  Siamese  crop.  Japan  made  further  progress 
in  agricultural  rehabilitation,  and  in  the  rice  collections. 

Food  crops  in  the  southern  hemisphere  harvested  during 
1948-49  were  more  than  average,  particularly  in  Australia 
and  Argentina;  reports  of  a  serious  drought  in  South  Africa 
indicated  probably  less  favourable  results  there.  Exportable 
supplies  of  dairy  products  had  increased  in  Australia  and 
New  Zealand,  and  there  were  also  moderate  increases  in 
meat  supplies  from  some  countries  in  the  southern  hemisphere, 
Inadequate  incentives,  in  terms  of  prices  paid,  apparently 
continued  to  be  a  drag  on  production  in  some  areas,  especially 
in  Argentina,  and  late  m  1949  the  government  announced 
higher  gram  prices. 

7'he  food  situation,  both  as  to  production  and  consumption, 
was  excellent  in  North  America  in  1949,  partly  because  of 
the  nearly  record  crops  but  also  because  of  an  increase  in 
livestock  and  their  products.  Crops  in  the  U  S.  yielded 
148%  of  prewar  (as  compared  with  154%  in  1948),  and  live- 
stock production  was  133%  of  prewar.  Canadian  crops  also 
were  less  than  in  1948;  and  Canada  began  to  search  for 
wider  markets  for  its  exportable  foods,  even  in  the  U.S., 
in  the  face  of  a  drop  in  its  contracts  with  the  United  Kingdom. 

World  Food  Organization.  The  United  Nations  Food  and 
Agriculture  organization  (F.A.O.)  continued  to  occupy  the 
centre  of  the  international  agricultural  stage  during  1949. 
Its  fifth  annual  conference  of  the  62  member  countries  was 
held  in  Washington,  D.C ,  during  Nov.  and  Dec.  1949. 
During  the  year,  Norris  E.  Dodd  of  the  U.S.  continued  as 
director  general  Lord  Boyd-Orr,  (^.v.),  the  former  director 
general,  was  the  1949  recipient  of  the  Nobel  Pn/e  for  Peace. 
A  decision  was  taken  to  move  the  permanent  headquarters 
to  Rome,  Italy.  Two  other  major  matters  were  considered. 
As  regards  technical  assistance  on  agricultural  matters  to 
those  nations  requesting  such  help,  the  importance  of  pro- 
viding technical  advisors  and  extension  services  was  emphas- 
i/ed,  and  priority  on  proposed  projects  was  to  be  given  to 
measures  likely  to  secure  an  early  increase  in  production  of 
food  and  other  requirements  of  local  populations.  The  other 
matter  was  the  consideration  of  the  report  on  world  com- 
modity problems  proposing  an  International  Commodity 
Clearing  house,  which  would  purchase  surplus  supplies  of 
food  in  exporting  countries  and  dispose  of  them  among 
under-supplied  countries  having  inconvertible  currency 
difficulties.  Instead,  a  Committee  on  Commodity  Problems 
was  set  up  with  recommendations  to  act  on  an  individual 
commodity  basis. 

Among  other  international  food  activities  during  1 949  was  the 
ratification  of  the  International  Wheat  agreement  which  might 
be  the  forerunner  of  other  commodity  agreements.  (J.  K.  R.) 

FOOTBALL.  Rugby  Union.  For  the  second  year  in 
succession  Ireland  in  1949  carried  oiT  the  international 
honours,  though  their  display  in  the  opening  match  against 
France  in  no  way  suggested  that  they  would.  But  after  that 
initial  defeat  by  a  French  side  at  the  top  of  their  form,  the 
Irishmen  pulled  themselves  together  and  beat  all  their 
"  home  "  opponents.  The  strength  of  the  champions  lay  in 
their  splendid  team  work,  the  continued  brilliance  of 
J.  W.  Kyle  (Queen's  university),  the  outside  half,  and  the 
discovery  of  a  new  fullback  m  G.  W.  Norton  (Bective 


272 


FOOTBALL 


Rangers).  Of  the  41  points  that  Ireland  scored  in  the 
championship  matches,  Norton's  place-kicking  provided  26. 
He  was  an  experienced  footballer,  though  this  was  his  first 
appearance  in  International  games. 

Next  in  the  championship  table  came  England,  France 
and  Scotland,  with  two  wins  out  of  four  games,  and  Wales 
figured  at  the  bottom.  Anything  more  topsy  turvy  than  these 
final  placings  could  not  be  recalled  for  a  long  time:  Wales 
opened  the  internationals  with  a  magnificent  win  over 
England  at  Cardiff,  and  the  whole  side  played  really  sparkling 
football.  From  then  on  they  went  from  bad  to  worse,  their 
poorest  game  being  that  against  Scotland  at  Murrayfield, 
Edinburgh.  Here  Wales  had  the  ball  four  times  out  of  five 
throughout  the  whole  of  the  match,  were  continuously 
attacking  and  yet  lost.  Much  credit  was  due  to  W.  I.  D. 
Elliott  and  D.  H.  Keller,  an  Australian  player  in  the  previous 
season's  touring  side,  who  actually  captained  Scotland 
throughout  the  1948-49  season  and  whose  marking  from  the 
back  row  of  the  scrum  was  superb.  But  the  faulty  tactics 
of  the  Welshmen  made  it  all  much  easier  than  it  should  have 
been.  Scotland  had  unexpectedly  beaten  France  in  Paris 
in  the  opening  match.  But  their  attack  was  never  so  good 
again;  and,  though  they  beat  Wales  at  Edinburgh,  they 
looked  only  a  moderate  side.  England  were  surprising  the 
other  way  round.  They  lost  the  two  opening  matches  against 
Wales  and  Ireland,  both  away,  though  the  side  fought 
pluckily.  Then  with  some  delightful  football  England  pro- 
ceeded to  win  both  the  games  at  Twickenham,  France  being 
beaten  by  8  points  to  3  and  Scotland  by  19  points  to  3. 
Much  of  the  credit  for  this  improvement  must  be  given  to 
Ivor  Preece  (Coventry),  who  took  N.  M.  Hall's  place  at 
outside  half  after  the  first  two  matches.  Preece  inspired  the 
side  with  his  vigour  and  enthusiasm  and  was  greatly  assisted 
by  his  two  centres,  C.  B.  Van  Ryneveld  (South  Africa  and 
Oxford  university)  and  L.  B.  Cannell  (Northampton  and 
Oxford  university).  Cannell's  try  against  France  in  the  first 
two  minutes  of  the  game  was  one  of  the  season's  greatest 
thrills,  and  Van  Ryneveld's  consistently  good  form,  his  try 
against  Ireland  and  his  two  tries  against  Scotland  were  great 
helps  to  his  side. 


TABLE  I — RUGBY  UNION  INTERNATIONAL  MATCHES,  1949 


Points 

Played 
4 

Won 

3 

Lost 
1 

For  Against 
41         24 

Points 
6 

.       4 

2 

2 

35 

29 

4 

4 

2 

2 

24 

28 

4 

.       4 

2 

2 

20 

37 

4 

4 

1 

3 

17 

19 

2 

Ireland 

England 

France 

Scotland 

Wales 


A  great  international  figure  disappeared  from  the  game 
at  the  end  of  the  season— Haydn  Tanner,  a  scrum  half-back 
who  began  playing  with  the  famous  Swansea  club  in  1935 
and  joined  Cardiff  after  World  War  II.  He  had  25  full 
Welsh  caps,  to  say  nothing  of  dozens  of  other  representative 
caps  in  and  soon  after  wartime,  and  was  undoubtedly  the 
outstanding  Rugby  player  of  the  late  1930's  onwards. 

Taking  the  game  as  a  whole,  the  standard  was  not  particu- 
larly high,  much  of  it  being  marred  by  an  excess  of  '"  spoil- 
ing "  tactics  by  wing  forwards,  by  poor  passing  and  by  a 
tendency  on  the  part  of  midficld  players  to  kick  too  much, 

Lancashire  won  the  county  championship  for  the  third 
time  running,  Gloucestershire  once  again  being  runners  up. 
The  champions  were  led  by  their  famous  captain,  J.  Heaton, 
up  to  the  semi-final  and  the  final.  But  in  those  two  matches 
injuries  kept  him  out  of  the  game,  and  afterwards  no  more 
was  seen  of  one  of  the  finest  centres  Lancashire  (or  any  other 
county)  had  ever  had.  The  winning  county  owed  a  lot  to 
G.  Rimmer,  their  scrum  half,  the  embodiment  of  pluck  and 
persistence.  He  played  for  England  in  the  first  two  matches 
of  the  season.  The  Oxford  v.  Cambridge  match  in  Dec. 


1949  was  won  by  Oxford  3 — 0.  Other  competition  winners 
in  1949  were:  Services  tournament,  Army  and  R.A.F.  tied, 
the  Navy  losing  both  their  matches;  Hospitals  cup,  St.  Mary's 
beat  Guy's;  Middlesex  seven-a-side,  Heriot's  beat  London 
Scottish;  Rosslyn  Park  public  schools  seven-a-side,  Stony- 
hurst  beat  Taunton;  Hawick  won  the  Border  League 
championship  and  headed  Scottish  club  records  with  three 
defeats  only. 

Rugby  League.  In  international  Rugby  League  football, 
a  young  Australian  side  came  in  1948  for  the  first  half  of  the 
season,  the  last  test  being  played  in  Jan.  1949.  The  visitors 
lost  all  three,  and  except  in  the  first  match,  which  they  lost 
by  21  points  to  23  at  Leeds,  they  were  outplayed  as  well. 
The  "  home  "  international  championship  is  played  between 
England,  Wales  and  France,  each  country  playing  the  other 
two  home  and  away.  For  1948-49  France  headed  the  list, 
losing  only  to  England  at  Bordeaux.  Many  of  the  well  known 
players  continued  to  hold  their  places  in  the  English  side, 
and  it  was  interesting  to  see  that  the  four  threequarters  for 
Great  Britain  against  Australia  were  the  same  in  all  three 
matches— J.  Lawrenson  (Wigan),  H.  Pimblett  (Warrington), 
E.  Ward  (Bradford  Northern,  captain)  and  S.  McCormick 
(St.  Helens).  G.  Helme  (Warrington),  scrum  half,  played  in 
all  the  matches,  as  did  K.  Gee  (Wigan),  J.  Egan  (Wigan), 
G.  Curran  (Salford),  R.  Nicholson  (Huddcrsfield)  and 

D.  Valentine  (Huddersficld)  among  the  forwards. 

Never  was  so  much  interest  taken  in  the  game.  Attendances 
in  1949  beat  all  records  with  95,000  at  Wembley  for  the  chal- 
lenge cup  final,  64,000  for  the  semi-final  at  Bradford  and 
75,000  for  the  league  club  championship  at  Manchester. 
At  Wembley,  the  finalists  were  Bradford  Northern  and 
Halifax,  and  the  play  was  most  disappointing.  It  was  a  good 
back  division  side  (Bradford)  against  a  good  forward  side. 
But  it  was  all  very  dull  until  the  Bradford  backs  did  get  going 
late  in  the  game  and  scored  three  goals  and  two  tries  to  nil. 

E.  Batten  and  T.  Foster  scored  the  tries  and  Ernest  Ward, 
the  captain,  kicked  all  the  goals.     The  club  championship 
was  much  more  worthy  of  the  game.    Here  two  of  the  most 
consistent  teams  of  the  year,  Warnngton  and  Huddersfield, 
were  pitted  against  each  other  at  Manchester.    The  football 
was  of  the  highest  class  and  the  enthusiasm  tremendous. 
Warrington,  the  leaders  of  the  league  table,  were  expected 
to  win  but  they  lost  by  a  single  point— 12  points  to  13. 
Huddersfield  scored  tries  through  J.  Daly,  L.  W.  Cooper 
and  P.  C.  Devery  (captain)  who  kicked  two  goals  as  well, 
and  H.  Palin,  the  captain,  and  Jackson  (tries)  and  Palin  and 
H.  Bath  (goals)  scored  for  the  losers. 

Association.  Though  the  attendances  at  matches  were 
greater  than  ever  and  the  transfer  prices  for  players  were  of 
record  dimensions  (Derby  County  paid  £24,000  to  Manchester 
United  for  J.  Morris),  the  standard  of  English  international 
football  was  disappointing.  In  the  great  game  of  the  year, 
that  between  England  and  Scotland,  England  were  well 
beaten  at  Wembley.  That  was,  as  usual,  in  March.  Two 
months  later  when  the  England  side  went  on  their  customary 
continental  tour,  they  were  again  outplayed,  this  time  by 
Sweden  at  Stockholm.  In  a  way  this  was  ignominious,  for 
for  there  is  nothing  like  so  much  football  played  in  Sweden 
as  in  Great  Britain  and  it  is  all  amateur.  In  the  game  against 
Scotland  at  Wembley,  the  visitors  gave  a  brilliant  display 
in  the  second  half,  after  a  first  half  in  which  the  goalkeeper, 
Cowan  (Morton),  had  saved  his  side  time  and  time  again. 
Then,  with  that  great  player  Young  (Glasgow  Rangers) 

TABLE  11 — ASSOCIATION  INTERNATIONAL  MATCHES,  1948-49 


Scotland 
Hngland  . 
Wales 
Ireland 


Played 
.     3 

.  3 
.  3 
.  3 


Won 
3 
2 
1 


Drawn    Lost 


Goals 
For     Against  Points 
946 
854 

3  4  2 

4  11  0 


FOOTBALL 


273 


Scotland's  goal-keeper,  J.  Cowan,  jumping  to  clear  from  a  corner 

in  the  game  between  England  and  Scotland  at  Wembley,  April  9, 

1949.  Scotland  won  by  3  goals  to  1. 

dominating  his  side's  defence  and  W.  Waddell  (Rangers) 
and  W.  Steel  (Derby  County)  indulging  in  skilful  and  per- 
sistent attacking,  Scotland  deservedly  won  by  3 — 1,  thus 
taking  revenge  for  England's  victory  at  Glasgow  the  year 
before.  Scotland  were  undisputed  champions,  for  they  won 
all  three  matches,  beating  Wales  at  Cardiff  3 — 1  and  Ireland 
at  Glasgow  3 — 2. 

F.  Swift  was  still  in  goal  for  England,  W.  Wright  and 
N.  Franklin  in  the  half-back  line  and  S.  Matthews,  S.  Morten- 
sen  and  J.  Milburn  among  the  forwards.  But  in  one  or  two 
cases,  Swift  and  Matthews  for  example,  there  were  signs 
that  their  best  days  were  over. 

The  Football  Association  cup  final  at  Wembley  was  played 
between  Wolverhampton  Wanderers  and  Leicester  City. 
The  Wolves  looked  like  getting  there  from  the  very  start; 
for  here  was  a  beautifully  balanced  side,  playing  with  skill 
and  vigour  and  including  in  Wright,  J.  Pye  and  J.  Hancocks 
some  of  the  best  players  in  the  country  and  in  S.  Cullis,  a 
former  great  player  and  now  a  great  manager.  Leicester 
City  did  wonderfully  well  to  beat  Portsmouth,  one  of  the 
teams  of  the  year,  in  the  semi-final,  and  actually  put  up  a 
better  fight  in  the  final  than  was  expected.  In  the  end,  how- 
ever, they  were  beaten  3 — 1.  The  Duke  of  Gloucester  was 
present  and  handed  the  cup  to  the  Wolverhampton  captain. 
The  Scottish  cup  was  won  by  Glasgow  Rangers  who  beat 
Clyde  4 — 1.  The  English  league  championship  was  won  by 
Portsmouth,  and  their  form  all  through  the  season  had  been 
consistently  splendid.  It  looked  at  one  time  as  though  they 
would  carry  off  the  cup  and  the  championship,  a  feat  that 
had  only  been  performed  twice:  by  Preston  North  End  in 

B.B.Y. — 19 


1889  and  by  Aston  Villa  in  1897.  But  Leicester  City  most 
unexpectedly  won  the  semi-final  against  them.  Local  en- 
thusiasm, excellent  team  spirit  and  much  skill  carried  Ports- 
mouth to  the  top,  where  they  finished  5  points  ahead  of 
Manchester  United,  after  having  maintained  an  unbeaten 
home  record.  The  other  division  leaders  were  Fulham, 
after  a  terrific  fight  with  West  Bromwich  one  point  behind 
and  Southampton  one  point  behind  the  Albion,  in  the  second 
division;  Hull  City  were  clear  away  in  division  3  (North), 
and  Swansea  Town  7  points  ahead  of  their  nearest  rivals 
in  division  3  (South).  Thus,  in  the  always  interesting  re- 
shuffle at  the  end  ,of  the  season,  Preston  and  Sheffield  United 
went  down  to  division  2  and  Fulham  and  W.B.  Albion  took 
their  places.  Notts  Forest  and  Lincoln  City  went  down  from 
division  2  to  division  3.  The  Scottish  league  championship 
was  won  by  Glasgow  Rangers  with  Dundee  as  runners-up. 

Once  more  J.  Carey,  the  Manchester  United  and  Ireland 
captain,  was  a  dominating  figure  in  the  game,  and  had  the 
tremendous  pleasure  of  leading  an  Eire  side  against  England 
at  Everton  early  in  the  1949-50  season  and  beating  this 
team  of  all  the  talents  fairly  and  squarely,  to  most  people's 
consternation.  Dickinson  was  one  of  England's  most 
promising  players.  He  was  a  left  half  and  helped  as  much  as 
anybody  to  get  Portsmouth  to  the  top  of  the  tree.  Steel 
maintained  his  form  and  was  one  of  the  game's  greatest 
inside  forwards.  In  the  amateur  world,  amongst  the  inter- 
national matches  honours  were  fairly  even.  The  university 
match  was  one  of  the  very  best  ever  played  between  Oxford 
and  Cambridge.  In  the  end  Oxford  won  by  five  goals  to  four. 
The  F.A.  amateur  cup  final  was  played  at  Wembley  for  the 
first  time  in  the  history  of  the  tournament  and  there  were 
95,000  people  present,  which  meant  that  the  match  would 
probably  now  always  be  played  at  Wembley.  It  was  a  dour 
game,  with  little  in  it  between  the  sides.  But  what  little  there 
was  was  undoubtedly  in  Bromley's  favour,  and  they  beat 
Romford  1— O.  (D.  R.  G.) 

United  States.  Notre  Dame,  Oklahoma,  California  and 
Army  were  ranked  as  the  four  top  college  football  teams  of 
the  United  States  in  1949.  Behind  these  four  teams  in  the 
nation-wide  poll  were  Rice,  Ohio  State,  Michigan,  (the  1948 
leader),  Minnesota,  Louisiana  State  and  College  of  the  Pacific. 

College  football  enjoyed  its  customary  popularity  while 
professional  football  was  suffering  a  marked  drop  in  attend- 
ance. Although  there  was  a  slight  drop  in  the  east  and  on 
the  Pacific  coast,  attributed  to  the  televising  of  games,  the 
college  figures  for  the  country  as  a  whole  were  even  higher 
than  in  1948. 

Controversy  over  the  use  of  the  "  platoon "  system, 
which  many  of  the  leading  teams  used,  continued  throughout 
the  season.  The  employment  of  separate  offensive  and  defen- 
sive units  was  decried  by  some  of  the  coaches  and  there  was 
considerable  criticism  of  it  in  the  press.  It  was  argued  that 
teams  with  large  squads  had  an  unfair  advantage  in  their 
ability  to  make  wholesale  substitutions  against  opponents 
who  lacked  the  manpower  to  do  so.  The  majority  of  the 
coaches,  however,  appeared  to  be  against  any  change  in  the 
rules  that  would  restrict  substitutions. 

In  professional  football  the  expensive  four-year  war 
between  the  National  league  and  the  All-America  conference 
came  to  a  sudden  end  shortly  before  the  Philadelphia  Eagles 
and  the  Cleveland  Browns  were  again  established  as  the 
champions  of  the  two  leagues.  Ever  since  the  conference  had 
started  operations  in  1946  to  compete  with  the  older  organiza- 
tion for  the  public's  support,  the  two  leagues  had  gone  their 
separate  ways,  refusing  to  get  together  on  schedules.  As  a 
consequence  professional  football  became  an  increasingly 
losing  proposition  for  all  but  a  few  clubs. 

The  settlement  of  the  two  leagues'  differences  called  for 
the  formation  of  a  new  13-club  league,  to  be  known  as  the 


274 


FORAGE  CROPS— FORESTRY 


National-American  Football  league.  All  ten  clubs  operating 
in  the  National  league  and  three  from  the  conference  were 
to  be  included.  The  new  league  was  to  be  divided  into 
divisions,  National  and  American,  and  the  winners  in  each 
were  to  meet  in  a  play-off  for  the  world  championship, 
comparable  to  the  world  series  in  baseball. 

Canada.  The  Grey  cup,  emblematic  of  the  dominion 
football  championship,  returned  to  Montreal  for  the  first 
time  in  18  years  as  the  Alouettes  of  that  city  defeated  the 
Calgary  Stampeders,  28-15,  before  a  capacity  crowd  of 
20,100  at  Varsity  Stadium  in  Montreal.  The  University  of 
Western  Ontario  defeated  McGill  university,  12-9,  to  win 
the  championship  of  the  Intercollegiate  Rugby  Football 
union.  (A.  DA.) 

FORAGE  CROPS.  The  1949  season  was  poor  for 
all  forage  crops  except  hay.  Grassland  was  affected  in  two 
ways.  With  so  little  rain,  pastures  dried  out  rapidly  and  by 
June  farmers  were  reporting  shortage  of  grazing.  Pastures 
were  stocked  much  more  heavily  than  before  World  War  11 
and  this  loss  of  grazing  caused  great  difficulty,  especially  to 
dairy  farmers.  The  season  continued  dry  through  September 
but  with  rain  and  mild  weather  in  October  pastures  rapidly 
made  some  growth  and  stock  improved  in  condition.  Grasses 
undersown  in  a  cereal  crop  in  spring  1949  suffered  severely 
and  even  in  early  October  it  was  difficult  on  many  fields  to 
decide  whether  sufficient  plants  of  sown  grasses  and  clovers  had 
survived  to  make  a  successful  pasture.  Farmers  were  conse- 
quently reluctant  to  plough  up  established  pastures  which 
might  produce  an  adverse  effect  on  the  area  of  those  crops, 
especially  wheat,  which  normally  follows  ploughed  pasture. 
Farmers  who  had  established  lucerne  found  it  very  valuable 
since  its  production  was  much  less  affected  by  the  drought 
than  that  of  pasture. 

FORAGE  CROPS  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 

Acreage  Production 

(thousand  acres)  (thousand  tons) 

1936-38     1948       1949f    1936-38     1948       1949| 
(average) 

Turnips  and  swedes 
Mangels 
Grassland  for  hay  • 

permanent 

rotational^  . 
Grassland  for  grazing: 

permanent 

rotational  J 
Rough  grazings 

tSubjcct  to  revision 

Source     Ministry  of  Agriculture. 

Feeding  stuff  for  winter  feeding  continued  to  limit  livestock 
production.  Conservation  of  grass  consequently  received 
increasing  attention,  and  the  possibilities  of  reducing  the 
cost  of  grass  drying  and  the  cost  and  reliability  of  silage- 
making  received  close  study.  Grass  drying  was  not  primarily 
carried  out  by  producers  for  their  own  use;  it  was  estimated 
that  in  1948  about  two-thirds  of  the  production  of  dried 
grass  was  sold  by  the  driers.  The  experiment  in  co-operative 
grass  drying  begun  by  the  Milk  Marketing  board  in  1948, 
with  12  centres  which  ranged  in  output  from  540  to  1,200 
tons,  was  continued  in  1949.  The  form  of  contract  with 
farmers  was,  however,  modified  to  secure  more  efficient 
management,  and  attempts  were  made  to  retain  a  nucleus  of 
trained  staff  through  the  winter. 

The  Committee  on  Industrial  Productivity,  in  their  first 
report  (Cmd.  7665,  H.M.S.O.,  London,  1949),  placed  great 
emphasis  on  the  improvement  of  grassland  as  a  means  of 
reducing  national  reliance  on  imported  feedingstuffs  and 
proposed  a  target  of  20  %  increase  in  output  from  grassland 
within  four  years.  They  stressed  the  great  response  made  by 
grassland  to  nitrogenous  fertilizer  in  relation  to  the  estimate 
that  not  more  than  one-quarter  of  the  grassland  in  the 
United  Kingdom  received  it.  (K.  E.  H.) 


(average) 
782 

666 

(average) 
645   10,985 

9,778 

9,094 

227 

281 

275 

4,082 

5,918 

4,735 

4,916 

2,962 

2,936 

4,997 

3,251 

3,143 

1,974 

2,724 

2,932 

2,780 

3,976 

4,444 

8: 
13,834 

9,436 

9,774 

2,206 

2,760 

2,789 

16,476 

17,211 

17,200 

t  Includes  lucerne 

FOREIGN   MINISTERS,   COUNCIL   OF:     see 

COUNCIL  OF  FOREIGN  MINISTERS. 

FORESTRY.  A  national  census  of  the  forests  and  wood- 
lands of  Great  Britain  was  completed  during  1949.  The  lack 
of  reliable  data  on  the  areas  and  composition  of  British 
woodlands  had  long  been  recognized  and  a  census  was 
already  in  progress  in  1939  when  war  intervened  and  the  work 
was  not  begun  again  until  1947.  Information  now  available 
showed  the  small  area  existing  of  productive  woodlands  in 
Great  Britain  compared  with  other  European  countries  and 
also  the  great  devastation  caused  by  wartime  fellings.  Only 
5%  of  the  land  surface  of  Great  Britain  was  classified  as 
forest  land  and  this  consisted  of  neaily  three  million  ac.  of 
privately  owned  woodlands  and  half  a  million  ac.  of  state 
forests.  More  than  one-third  of  this  total  woodland  and 
forest  area  was  unproductive,  having  been  clear-felled 
during  the  two  world  war  periods  and  not  yet  replanted. 

The  various  legislative  enactments  made  to  remedy  this 
deplorable  state  of  British  forestry  did  not  yet  show  much 
effect.  The  ambitious  programme  of  state  afforestation,  to 
bring  the  total  area  of  forests  up  to  five  million  ac.  at  the  end 
of  50  years,  had  begun  to  give  important  results  and  the  annual 
target  figures  were  almost  reached  again  in  1949,  but  in  the 
great  effort  to  get  large  areas  planted  it  was  considered  by 
some  forestry  experts  that  insufficient  attention  had  been 
paid  to  the  best  ecological  relation  between  the  species  of 
trees  planted  and  the  appropriate  sites.  The  grant  of  financial 
assistance  to  private  owners,  under  certain  conditions,  known 
as  the  "  dedication  "  scheme,  made  little  progress  and  a 
small  increase  in  the  planting  grant  per  ac.  together  with 
new  supplementary  grants  for  the  thinning  of  plantations 
were  made  during  the  year  to  stimulate  dedication  and  to 
encourage  private  forestry. 

Owing  to  the  shortage  of  imported  timber,  excessive 
fellings  in  home  woodlands  continued  after  World  War  IT  and 
the  existing  controls  had  to  be  tightened  by  a  considerable 
reduction  on  the  amounts  of  timber  licensed. 

Serious  insect  damage  was  reported  during  1949  from 
several  regions.  This  was  probably  chiefly  due  to  the  lowered 
resistance  of  the  trees  caused  by  the  prolonged  drought, 
especially  in  the  south  of  England.  In  south  Wales  increased 
infestation  was  said  to  be  due  to  insects  imported  with  pit- 
props  and  other  round  timber  from  France  and  Germany. 

The  British  Forestry  commission  and  the  Colonial  Forestry 
service  both  considerably  increased  their  staffs  during  the  year 
by  the  recruitment  of  forestry  graduates  from  the  universities. 
The  five  postwar  forestry  schools  for  the  training  of  woodmen 
and  foremen  in  Great  Britain  also  produced  their  first  large 
batches  of  qualified  men  in  1949  and  most  of  these  men 
obtained  state  or  private  forestry  appointments.  The  chief 
subjects  of  forestry  research  were  the  afforestation  of  peat  and 
heath  moorlands,  the  maintenance  of  fertility  in  nurseries 
and  the  study  of  the  numerous  varieties  and  races  of  poplars. 

Commonwealth.  In  the  Commonwealth  the  heavy  postwar 
demand  for  timber  intensified  the  search  for  new  sources  of 
commercially  useful  timber;  and  formerly  inaccessible  areas 
were  opened  up  by  modern  mechanical  methods  of  logging 
and  the  construction  of  extraction  roads. 

In  British  Guiana  and  in  west  Africa  important  projects 
were  made  for  more  extensive  use  of  the  forests,  and  new 
sawmills  and  plywood  factories  were  placed  under  con- 
struction. In  east  Africa  some  of  the  plantations  formed 
before  the  war  began  to  yield  their  first  crops  of  sawn  timber. 
The  construction  of  a  pulp  mill  was  put  into  effect  in  Basuto- 
land  and  a  wattle  bark  factory  in  Tanganyika. 

In  Malaya  the  unsettled  state  of  the  country  hindered 
forestry  progress  but  an  important  development  was  the 
compilation  by  the  forest  department  of  new  timber  grading 


FORMOSA 


275 


rules.  These  rules,  based  on  the  ultimate  commercial  uses 
of  the  various  grades  of  timber,  created  much  discussion 
amongst  foresters,  timber  importers  and  sawmillers,  as  the 
principles  involved  might  be  of  great  assistance  in  the  grading 
and  marketing  of  the  lesser  known  species  of  tropical  hard- 
woods not  only  in  Malaya  but  in  other  parts  of  the  Common- 
wealth. 

One  of  the  chief  developments  in  the  fields  of  forest 
utilization  during  the  year  was  in  the  uses  of  wood  waste 
products,  from  both  sawmills  and  papermills  and  also  from 
forest  waste  in  the  form  of  tree  tops,  branch-wood  and  bark. 
In  Canada  and  in  Scandinavia  new  fibre-board  plants  were 
constructed  where  sawmill  waste  was  treated  chemically  and 
mechanically,  the  finished  product  being  obtained  by  pres- 
sure at  a  very  high  temperature 

In  Australia  there  was  a  great  increase  in  the  use  of  euca- 
lyptus hardwoods  for  paper  manufacture  and  1949  saw  the 
establishment  of  new  pulp  mills  and  a  steady  increase  in  the 
Australian  output  of  high  quality  paper  of  all  grades. 

Europe.  In  European  countries  the  disastrous  fire  in  the 
pine  forests  of  the  Landes  m  southwest  France  was  one  of  the 
most  important  events  of  the  year  More  than  360,000  ac. 
of  valuable  forests  were  destroyed,  several  villages  devastated 
and  over  80  lives  lost.  A  national  day  of  mourning  was 
declared  in  France  for  the  victims.  The  pine  foiests  of  the 
Landes  are  the  greatest  source  of  resin  and  turpentine  in 
Europe  and  the  economic  loss  to  France  of  such  a  large  part 
of  the  forests  was  all  the  more  serious  owing  to  the  great 
fires  in  the  same  area  in  1944  and  1945. 

In  Germany  and  in  Austria  much  progress  was  made  in 
the  regeneration  of  the  forests  over-felled  during  the  war  and 
postwar  years,  both  by  methods  of  natural  regeneration  and 
by  the  establishment  of  large  nurseries  for  forest  seedlings 
and  transplants. 

In  Belgium  the  afforestation  of  the  Campines  and  other 
areas  of  poor  soils  continued,  and  a  new  research  station  was 
opened  for  the  cultivation  and  study  of  hybrids  of  poplars. 

A  parasitic  disease  known  as  the  Chestnut  blight  (Endothia 
parasiticd)  caused  considerable  damage  and  economic  loss 
in  Italy,  and  to  a  less  extent  in  Portugal  and  parts  of  Spam. 
There  are  over  two  million  ac.  of  chestnut  forest  in  Italy, 
producing  annually  about  350,000  metric  tons  of  chestnuts. 
The  wood  is  used  for  fuel  and  for  construction  but  is  chiefly 
important  as  the  basic  raw  material  for  tannin.  Direct 
measures  to  cure  or  prevent  the  disease  were  not  effective 
and  research  was  continued  to  find  varieties  of  chestnut 
species  resistant  to  the  parasite.  (A.  H.  LD.) 

United  States.  The  U.S.  Forest  service  issued  in  1949 
a  comprehensive  summary  and  analysis  of  the  postwar 
forest  situation  in  the  United  States.  In  this  report  it  was 
estimated  that  the  potential  productivity  of  the  nation's 
forest  land  was  enough  eventually  to  supply  domestic  needs, 
to  provide  for  national  emergencies  and  to  help  in  some 
measure  towards  meeting  the  world  shortage  of  timber. 
About  one-third  of  the  total  land  area  was  forest  land,  and 
some  461  million  ac.  were  suitable  and  available  for  growing 
commercial  timber.  However,  the  supply  of  saw-timber  was 
now  steadily  shrinking.  More  timber  was  being  cut  or 
destroyed  each  year  than  was  replaced  by  growth.  Timber 
quality  was  also  deteriorating,  the  annual  drain  being  princi- 
pally in  the  better  saw- timber,  particularly  softwoods,  and  the 
growth  was  in  small,  low-grade  trees  and  inferior  hardwoods. 
Three-quarters  of  the  commercial  forest  land  was  privately 
owned  including  generally  the  best  growing  and  most 
accessible  sites,  but  64%  of  cutting  on  these  lands  was  still 
poor  or  destructive  and  only  8  %  up  to  really  good  forestry 
standards. 

If  the  nation's  estimated  future  needs  were  to  be  met  the 
annual  growth  of  all  timber  would  have  to  be  increased  by 


one-half  and  the  present  saw-timber  growth  rate  doubled. 
The  Forest  service  recommended:  (1)  a  system  of  public 
regulation  of  cutting  that  would  stop  forest  destruction  and 
keep  forest  lands  reasonably  productive;  (2)  expansion  and 
intensified  management  of  public  forests;  (3)  increased  public 
assistance  to  private  owners  including  increased  protection 
against  fires  and  destructive  insects  and  diseases,  increased 
aid  in  reafforestation,  a  federally  sponsored  credit  system 
to  provide  long-term  loans,  a  federally  sponsored  insurance 
system  to  reduce  the  risks  inherent  in  forestry  enterprises, 
increased  technical  advice  and  assist*  ncr  for  small  forest 
owners  and  opanded  icsearch  in  forestry  and  wood  utili- 
zation. 

In  a  proclamation  issued  on  June  15,  1949,  President  Tru- 
man renamed  the  Colombia  National  forest  the  Gifford 
Pinchot  National  forest  in  memory  of  the  pioneer  American 
conservationist  and  the  first  chief  of  the  United  States 
Forest  service.  The  formal  dedication  took  place  on  Oct.  15 
under  the  joint  auspices  of  the  Forest  service  and  the  Society 
of  American  Forcsttrs,  a  professional  organization  of  which 
Pinchot  was  co-founder. 

This  forest  covered  1,250,000  ac  ,  had  a  timber  growth 
which  was  estimated  to  yield  200  million  board  ft.  a  year, 
in  perpetuity  and  had  many  recreational  and  scenic 
attractions. 

Fires  burned  many  thousands  of  acres  of  forest  and  water- 
shed lands  in  the  western  states  during  the  late  summer 
months  of  1949,  the  worst  being  m  the  Helena  National 
forest,  Montana,  where  13  men  lost  their  lives.  The  Forest 
service  reported  a  total  of  7,657  fires  in  western  national 
forests  between  January  and  September  compared  with 
4,031  in  the  same  period  of  1948. 

The  Anderson-Mansfield  act  passed  by  the  United  States 
congress  in  1949  authorized  an  accelerated  programme  of 
reafforestation  and  re- vegetation  of  forest  and  range  lands 
in  the  national  forests.  The  act  provided  for  a  15-year 
programme  with  appropriations  for  reafforestation  authorized 
in  progressively  increasing  amounts  from  $3  million  for  the 
fiscal  year  1951  up  to  $10  million  for  1955  and  each  succeed- 
ing year  until  1965.  For  range  re-vegetation  appropriations 
were  authorized  beginning  with  $1-5  million  for  1951  and 
increasing  to  $3  million  between  1955  and  1965.  The  congress 
also  passed  legislation  authorizing  increased  federal  appropri- 
ations for  co-operation  with  the  States  for  the  protection  of 
state  and  private  forest  lands  from  fire  and  in  the  production 
and  distribution  of  foiest  planting  stock  to  private  land 
owners.  (C.  E.  R.) 

United  Nations.  At  the  instigation  of  the  Food  and 
Agriculture  organization  of  the  United  Nations,  the  third 
World  Forestry  congress  was  convened  in  Finland  in  July. 
Thirty  countries  sent  official  representatives  and  several 
international  organizations  were  also  represented,  the  total 
number  of  members  of  the  congress  exceeding  500.  A  wide 
range  of  forestry  problems  was  discussed,  including  silvi- 
culture, forest  surveys,  economics  and  policy,  forest  utilization 
and  wood  industries.  (See  also  NATIONAL  PARKS;  SOIL 
CONSERVATION;  TIMBER.)  (A.  H.  LD.) 


FORMOSA  (Taiwan).  A  large  island  in  the  western 
Pacific,  separated  from  China  by  the  90  mi.  wide  Straits  of 
Formosa.  Area:  14,589  sq.  mi.,  including  Pescadores  and 
neighbouring  islands.  Pop  (1949  est.):  7,000,000,  including 
Chinese  Nationalist  troops  and  refugees  from  the  mainland. 
Chief  towns  (pop.,  1940  census):  Taipei  (formerly  Taihoku, 
cap.,  326,407);  Kaohsiung  (Takao,  152,265);  Tainan 
(142,133)  and  Chilung  (Keelung  or  Kiirun,  100,511). 
Language:  mainly  Chinese.  Religions:  Buddhism,  Con- 
fucianism and  Taoism. 


276 


FRANCE 


History.  As  a  result  of  the  advances  of  Chinese  Communist 
forces  on  the  mainland,  during  1949  Formosa  was  convened 
into  a  Chinese  Nationalist  military  stronghold.  Wei  Tao- 
mmg,  former  ambassador  to  the  United  States,  was  replaced 
as  governor  in  Dec.  1948  by  General  Chen  Cheng,  former 
chief  of  staff  of  Nationalist  forces  in  Manchuria.  On  Dec.  8, 
1949,  the  capital  of  the  Nationalist  government  was  moved 
from  Chengtu  (see  CHINA)  to  Taipei,  capital  of  Formosa. 
On  Dec.  15  Wu  Kuo-cheng  (K.  C.  Wu),  former  mayor  of 
Shanghai,  succeeded  Chen  as  governor.  At  the  same  time 
Generalissimo  Chiang  Kai-shek  appointed  General  Sung 
Li-jen  military  commander  of  the  island. 

At  the  end  of  1949  Formosa  was  one  of  the  two  territories 
remaining  in  the  control  of  the  Nationalist  government,  the 
other  being  Hainan  island.  It  was  estimated  that  General- 
issimo Chiang  Kai-shek  had  on  Formosa  about  200,000 
troops,  an  air  force  of  some  250  bombers  and  fighters  and  a 
navy  of  about  150,000  tons  consisting  of  destroyers  and 
smaller  vessels.  There  were  also  about  200,000  troops  on 
Hainan. 

Upon  taking  over  the  administration  of  the  island,  the 
Chinese  issued  a  special  currency  for  Formosa,  the  Taiwan 
dollar,  based  on  the  former  Japanese  yen  notes.  In  July, 
1948,  the  official  exchange  rate  between  Taiwan  and  Chinese 
National  dollar  was  1  to  1,130.  In  1949  a  new  currency,  the 
new  Taiwan  yuan,  was  issued  and  the  Taiwan  dollar  was 
eliminated.  In  Nov.  1949  the  total  note  issue  amounted  to 
N.T.Y.  144  million.  It  was  reported  that  the  gold  and  silver 
of  the  Nationalist  government's  treasury  had  been  sent  to 
Formosa  during  1949. 

Agriculture.  The  gradual  rehabilitation  of  agriculture  since  the  close 
of  World  War  II  resulted  in  large  increases  in  production  in  1948-49 
although  output  was  still  below  prewar  levels.  Estimated  production 
(1948-49,  in  short  tons):  nee  1,320,000;  sugar  550,000;  tea  10,560; 
pineapples  17,600;  bananas  85,800,  oranges  32,450;  tobacco  3,700; 
jute  14,850;  sisal  2,200.  The  cultivated  area  in  1949  was  estimated  at 
2,055,000  ac.  or  23  %  of  the  total  land  area. 

Industry.  Production  (1948  in  short  tons,  unless  otherwise  stated): 
coal  1,815,000;  salt  396,000,  copper  990;  aluminium  2,750;  cement 
258,900;  refined  sugar  295,000;  chemical  fertilizers  42,100;  paper 
7,150;  caustic  soda  5,280;  hydrochloric  acid  3,410;  bleaching  powder 
3,080;  cotton  yarn  884;  cotton  cloth  4,480,000yd.;  gold  12,200  troy 
oz.;  crude  petroleum  36,000  bbl.,  refined  petroleum  700,000  bbl.; 
electric  power  832  million  kwh. 

Foreign  Trade.  Chief  exports  in  1948  were  rice,  sugar,  coal,  salt, 
cement,  tea  and  fruits.  Chief  imports  were  raw  cotton,  machinery 
and  crude  petroleum.  Exports  during  1948  amounted  to  the  equivalent 
of  U.S.  $17,228,000,  while  imports  totalled  $4,786,000. 

Transport  and  Communications.  Railways  (1946):  govt.,  981  mi., 
private  1,500  mi.,  tramways  500  mi.  Roads  (1946),  10,000  mi  ,  including 
2,200  mi.  of  main  highways.  In  1939  there  were  220  telegraph  offices, 
195  post  offices  and  123  telephone  exchanges. 

(S.  NR.;  X.) 

FRANCE.  A  republic  of  western  Europe  bounded  on 
the  north  by  the  English  channel,  on  the  east  by  Belgium, 
Luxembourg,  Germany,  Switzerland  and  Italy,  on  the  south 
by  the  Mediterranean  sea,  on  the  southwest  by  Spain  and  on 
the  west  by  the  Atlantic  ocean.  Area:  212,737  sq.  mi., 
including  the  Mediterranean  island  of  Corsica  (3,367  sq.  mi.). 
Pop.  (March  1946  census):  40,828,884  including  members  of 
armed  forces,  crews  of  the  commercial  navy  abroad  and  the 
personnel  of  the  military  government  in  Germany  and 
Austria;  (Dec.  1949  est.)  41,800,000.  Language:  French  is 
universally  spoken  but  there  are  also  other  regional  languages 
or  dialects:  German  in  Alsace  and  part  of  Lorraine;  Breton 
in  Brittany;  Flemish  in  the  northern  corner  of  the  Nord 
departement;  Provencal  in  the  Alpes  Maritimes,  Basses-Alpes, 
Var  and  Bouches-du- Rhone  departements;  Catalan  in 
Roussillon  (Pyrenees  Orientales);  Basque  south  of  Bayonne, 
and  Italian  in  Corsica.  Religion:  mainly  Roman  Catholic 
with  c.  one  million  Protestants  and  over  225,000  Jews. 
Chief  towns  (pop.,  1946  census):  Paris  (cap.,  2,725,374); 


Marseilles  (636,264);  Lyons  (460,748);  Toulouse  (264,411); 
Bordeaux  (253,751);  Nice  (211,165);  Nantes  (200,265). 
President  of  the  republic,  Vincent  Auriol  O/.v.);  prime 
ministers  in  1949,  Henri  Queuille  and  (from  Oct.  28)  Georges 
Bidault  fy.v.);  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  Robert  Schuman 
(?.v.). 

History.  The  year  1949  passed  off  with  much  greater 
tranquillity  than  the  preceding  one.  There  was  no  repetition 
in  1949  of  the  big  and  partially  violent  strikes  of  1948,  much 
less  of  the  greater  violence  of  1947.  There  was  also  a  much 
greater  stability  of  price  level  and  no  resort  to  such  excep- 
tional measures  as  the  forced  loan  and  the  withdrawal  of 
all  5,000  franc  notes  at  the  beginning  of  1948.  Interest  in 
politics  and  in  trade  unionism  certainly  declined.  Communist 
propaganda  was  increasingly  concerned  with  *'  peace,"  by 
which  was  meant  opposition  to  the  E.R.P.  and  the  North 
Atlantic  treaty.  By  December  the  only  rationed  commodity 
was  coffee;  in  the  course  of  the  year  milk  had  once  more 
become  legally  available  to  adults  in  towns  and  such  small 
luxuries  as  croissants  had  re-appeared.  Many  price  controls 
however  remained  in  force.  In  spite  of  them  the  tendency 
of  the  cost  of  living  in  the  second  half  of  the  year  was  to  rise. 
As  compared  with  incomes,  prices — though  relatively 
stable — were  high  throughout  the  year.  The  fight  to  secure 
a  balanced  budget  was  not  yet  satisfactorily  won,  partly 
because  of  heavy  expenditures  in  Indo-China  and  partly 
because  so  many  of  the  biggest  nationalized  undertakings 
continued  to  have  deficits.  The  more  tranquil  course  of 
political  life  led  to  a  weakening  of  the  double  pressure  on 
the  Fourth  Republic  from  the  Communists  on  the  one  hand 
and  the  Gaullists,  demanding  a  strengthened  executive,  on 
the  other.  But  the  working  of  the  republic's  machinery  had 
not  noticeably  improved.  The  long  premiership  (by  French 
standards)  of  Henri  Queuille  was  in  part  achieved  by  an 
attitude  that  his  critics  described  as  "  immobilism  "  and  on 
his  resignation  there  were  two  false  starts  and  an  interregnum 
of  over  three  weeks  before  his  government  could  be  replaced. 

The  Double  Pressure  Recedes.  The  prestige  built  up  by 
the  Queuille  government  during  the  Nov.  1948  strikes  was 
reinforced  by  its  two  big  parliamentary  successes  in  December. 
The  first  was  a  vote  of  confidence  by  377  to  181  in  recognition 
of  the  government's  vigorous  protest  against  the  Anglo- 
American  agreement  on  the  Ruhr.  This  protest,  backed  by 
unanimous  French  opinion,  was  the  prelude  to  three-power 
negotiations  which  resulted  in  the  creation  of  the  Ruhr 
authority  and  the  Office  of  Security.  On  Dec.  29  the  French 
government  congratulated  Robert  Schuman,  minister  of 
foreign  affairs,  on  the  results  achieved.  The  government's 
second  success  consisted  in  inducing  the  National  Assembly 
to  approve  by  341  to  231  an  accelerated  procedure  for  voting 
the  budget,  by  which  in  the  first  instance  only  maximum 
figures  of  expenditure  for  the  different  ministries  should  be 
voted  while  the  credits  were  to  be  examined  in  detail  later. 
In  this  form  the  budget  was  finally  voted  on  the  night  of 
Dec.  31,  providing  for  ordinary  expenditure  of  Fr.  1,250,000 
million  and  extraordinary  (reconstruction  and  re-equipment) 
of  Fr.61 5,000  million. 

On  Jan.  13  the  government  in  fulfilment  of  its  promises 
to  stabilize,  and  indeed  reduce,  prices  no  less  than  wages 
issued  a  series  of  decrees  and  administrative  instructions 
aimed  at  diminishing  profit  margins  in  industry  and  in  the 
distributing  trades — especially  those  of  the  middlemen 
dealing  in  farm  produce,  of  which  the  prices  to  the  producer 
were  falling  without  proportionate  advantage  to  the  consumer. 
As  on  some  previous  occasions  there  was  more  talk  of  price 
reduction  than  was  warranted  by  a  situation  in  which  it  was 

In  Aug.  1949  widespread  fires  swept  throught  the  forests  in  the 

Gironde  and  the  Landes  devastating  about  112,000  ac.  of  forest  land. 

The  photograph  on  right  is  of  the  pine  forests  of  Facture. 


FRANCE 


278 


FRANCE 


already  a  great  deal  to  have  achieved  stabilization.  This 
naturally  led  later  to  some  disappointment;  but  in  spite  of 
the  scepticism  of  the  general  public  the  government  achieved 
a  creditable  interruption  of  inflationary  tendencies.  On  Jan.  21 
the  government  announced  the  issue  of  a  loan  at  5  %.  Since 
purchasers  of  scrip  for  Fr.  100,000  were  able  to  exchange  for 
new  scrip  an  equal  amount  of  older  loans  issued  at  lower 
rates  of  interest,  the  interest  of  the  new  loan  was  really  at 
between  6%-7%.  At  the  beginning  of  March  Maurice 
Petsche,  the  minister  of  finance,  announced  that  the  loan 
had  brought  in  Fr.  108,000  million  of  fresh  money  and  that 
in  consequence  it  would  be  unnecessary  to  impose  any 
additional  taxes  in  the  current  year. 

The  result  of  the  loan  was  the  more  satisfactory  in  that 
both  Communist  and  Gaullist  propaganda  against  the 
government  were  of  a  character  to  discourage  subscription. 
The  government  had  had  other  difficulties.  The  minister  of 
justice,  Andre  Mane,  resigned  on  Feb.  13  when  his  health 
(undermined  in  a  concentration  camp  during  the  war) 
collapsed  after  a  running  fight  with  Communists  and  Gaullists 
who  alleged  that  a  decision  had  been  improperly  taken  not 
to  prosecute  a  big  building  firm  which  had  carried  out 
important  military  contracts  for  the  Germans  during  the 
occupation.  Simultaneously  the  government  was  under 
constant  pressure  to  prosecute  Communist  leaders  for 
propaganda  which  by  alleging  that  France  was  becoming 
the  tool  of  U.S.  aggressive  intentions  against  the  U.S.S.R., 
the  true  friend  of  the  French  people,  was  quite  clearly 
intended  to  sabotage  the  integration  of  France  into  any 
western  defence  system.  The  government  in  fact  only 
prosecuted  some  minor  figures,  being  well  aware  that  the 
speeches  of  leading  Communists  were  much  too  cleverly 
worded  to  be  actionable  and  that  their  words  would  have 
most  effect  if  spoken  from  the  dock.  The  Communists 
meanwhile  had  over-reached  themselves  by  provoking  Victor 
Kravchenko  to  a  libel  suit.  The  three  months'  trial  was  to 
end  on  April  4  in  a  verdict  not  altogether  flattering  though 
in  principle  almost  entirely  favourable  to  Kravchenko; 
very  great  damage  was  done  to  the  reputation  of  the  Soviet 
Union  in  France  by  the  evidence  given  about  conditions 
there  (which  the  judge  was  to  declare  mainly  irrelevant  to 
the  issue). 

The  Queuille  government's  prestige  reached  its  height  at 
the  county  council  (conseils  generaux)  elections  on  March 
20-27.  These  affected  half  the  seats  in  every  county  council 
except  that  of  the  Seine  (Greater  Paris).  According  to  the 
statistics  of  the  Ministry  of  the  Interior  the  Communists 
won  23-54%  of  the  votes,  as  compared  with  26-9%  in  the 
same  areas  in  Nov.  1946,  and  the  Gaullists,  who  had  not 
existed  as  a  party  in  Nov.  1946,  won  25-34%.  A  generous 
computation  could  therefore  attribute  to  the  coalition  parties 
51-12%  of  the  votes.  Since  the  Seine  departement,  where 
there  had  been  no  voting,  was  one  of  the  areas  where  both 
Gaullists  and  Communists  were  strongest,  since  further  it 
was  possible  to  disapprove  of  the  government  without 
supporting  either  of  these  parties,  the  claim  of  an  absolute 
majority  was  somewhat  specious;  but  the  elections  did 
clearly  show  that  there  were  at  least  nearly  twice  as  many 
people  supporting  or  prepared  to  tolerate  the  present  regime 
than  there  were  m  either  organized  bloc  of  opponents.  It 
was  no  longer  possible  for  either  Gaullists  or  Communists 
to  claim  convincingly  that  parliamentary  republicanism  was 
the  weakest  political  cause  in  France. 

The  Coalition  Weakens.  It  might  be  that  this  success  contri- 
buted to  weaken  the  cohesion  of  the  coalition  when  the 
National  Assembly  met  after  the  Easter  vacation.  The 
government  had  the  bad  news  for  it  that  the  budget  was  not 
as  watertight  as  had  been  thought,  and  that  the  deficits  of 
the  nationalized  undertakings  were  increasing.  The  Govern- 


ment hoped  to  meet  the  gap  of  Fr.83,000  million  by  economies, 
including  cutting  down  the  investment  programme  and 
increasing  the  price  of  petrol.  Queuille  however  could  only 
induce  the  cabinet  to  agree  on  the  proposals  to  be  laid  before 
the  National  Assembly  when  that  body  had  already  been 
sitting  a  week.  The  government  had  finally  to  abandon  its 
own  petrol  proposals  and  accept  those  of  the  assembly, 
which  proved  in  practice  to  be  based  on  totally  erroneous 
suppositions. 

Meanwhile  the  rivalries  between  trade  union  federations 
were  shaking  the  coalition.  When  the  Socialist  trade  unionists 
left  the  C.G.T.  (Confederation  Geneiale  du  Travail)  m 
Dec.  1947  and  formed  the  "  Force  Ouvncre  "  trade  union 
confederation  they  had  declared  their  aim  was  to  improve 
the  purchasing  power,  not  merely  the  nominal  wage  of 
the  worker.  They  had  concentrated  their  attention  therefore 
on  bringing  prices  down.  The  stabilization  of  prices  was  not 
sufficient  satisfaction  for  their  troops.  The  F.O.  trade  unions 
were  strongest  amongst  minor  officials  and  "  white-collar  " 
workers,  and  largely  unsuccessful  in  competing  with  the 
Communist  organizations  in  the  mines,  heavy  industry  and 
the  building  trade.  In  the  summer  they  felt  it  urgent  to  show 
that  they  were  prepared  to  lead  strikes,  though  they  rejected 
all  collaboration  with  the  Communist-led  C.G.T.  The 
catholic  trade  union  federation  (C.F.T.C.,  or  Confederation 
Francaise  des  Travailleurs  Chretiens)  was  no  less  anxious 
than  the  Socialists  to  show  that  they  were  not  the  tools  of 
capitalism.  Possibly  because  they  felt  more  sure  of  their 
troops,  they  declared  themselves  ready  on  occasion  to 
co-operate  with  Communist  trade  unions.  Both  of  these 
trade  union  federations  began  exerting  pressure  on  their 
political  friends  in  the  coalition — Socialists  in  the  one  case, 
M.R.P.  (Mouvement  Republican!  Populairc)  in  the  other — 
to  resist  the  tendencies  of  the  increasingly  dominant  Conserva- 
tives. The  F.O.  civil  servants'  union  called  on  June  15  a 
24-hr,  strike  of  government  employees  in  support  of  a  demand 
for  re-gradmg  (that  is,  m  fact,  salary  inci  eases)  which  brought 
work  in  a  number  of  public  offices  to  a  standstill,  though  it 
did  not  affect  the  police.  Theie  were  divergencies  within 
the  cabinet  as  to  the  attitude  to  strikes  in  the  higher  adminis- 
trative levels;  the  Socialists  had  their  way  and  there  were  no 
serious  sanctions 

The  government  recovered  prestige  when  Jules  Moch,  the 
Socialist  minister  of  the  interior,  showed  himself  able  to 
permit  without  disorder  both  a  Gaullist  and  a  Communist 
demonstration  in  close  proximity  on  June  18.  A  very  powerful 
police  force  was  placed  between  them  but  on  both  sides 
there  was  an  evident  lack  of  desire  for  trouble.  The  Socialist 
party  congress  on  July  18  approved  of  the  maintenance  of 
the  coalition.  Almost  at  once,  however,  divergent  tendencies 
became  apparent  again  when  it  was  discovered  that  Daniel 
Mayer,  the  Socialist  minister  of  labour,  had  granted  holiday 
bonuses  to  the  workers  of  the  social  insurance  system, 
thereby  setting  a  precedent  for  yielding  to  a  demand  which 
was  being  pressed  m  most  branches  of  industry.  The  Con- 
servative wing  of  the  coalition  protested  that  this  was  the 
thin  end  of  the  wedge  of  wage  increases  which  would  destroy 
the  whole  policy  of  stabilization. 

The  debate  on  the  North  Atlantic  treaty  (ratified  on  July  27 
by  395  votes  to  1 89)  proved  convenient  cover  for  negotiations 
to  hold  the  coalition  together  at  least  until  the  beginning  of 
the  summer  recess.  It  was  only  by  a  majority  of  289  to  230 
that  this  was  achieved  before  the  National  Assembly  dispersed 
on  July  31.  It  was  hoped  that,  with  parliament  absent,  the 
government  would  hold  together.  By  the  end  of  September 
there  were  increasing  rumblings  of  wage  claims  and  Daniel 
Mayer  was  advocating  the  payment  of  a  bonus  to  the  worst 
paid  categories  of  workers.  It  was  the  backwash  of  British 
devaluation  that  finally  made  agreement  within  the  Queuille 


The  prime  ministers  of  France  during  1949.  Left  to  right,  Henri  Queuille,  Sept.  10,  1948-Oct.  5,  1949 ;  Jules  Moch,  Oct.  14-Oct.  17; 

Mayer,  Oct.  20-Oct.  22;  Georges  Bidault,  from  Oct.  27. 


Rene 


government  impossible.  The  unexpectedly  low  dollar-sterling 
rate  which  the  British  government  chose  forced  the  French 
government  to  decide  on  a  further  devaluation  of  the  franc 
which  all  plans  had  been  made  to  avoid.  The  fear  that  this 
would  mean  a  rapid  increase  in  prices  both  stiffened  the 
demand  for  a  wage  increase  and  the  resistance  to  it  of  those 
who  feared  inflation.  Queuille  resigned  on  Oct.  5.  The 
National  Assembly  was  hurriedly  summoned. 

The  Two  Weeks'  Crisis.  On  Oct.  8  President  Auriol  invited 
Jules  Moch,  the  Socialist  minister  of  the  interior,  to  form  a 
government*  Moch,  who  was  more  respected  than  popular 
with  those  who  appreciated  his  services  to  his  country,  was 
particularly  hated  by  both  Gaullists  and  Communists.  After 
a  violent  all-night  debate  he  was  invested  as  prime  minister 
on  Oct.  14  by  31 1  votes,  that  is,  by  one  more  than  the  consti- 
tutional minimum.  On  the  night  of  Oct.  17  he  informed 
President  Auriol  that  he  could  not  secure  the  necessary 
agreement  between  the  parties  to  form  a  cabinet.  On  Oct.  1 8 
President  Auriol  asked  Rene  Mayer,  a  Radical,  to  present 
himself  before  parliament  but,  though  he  secured  investment 
by  341  votes  in  the  National  Assembly,  he  also  had  to  inform 
the  president  on  Oct.  22  that  he  could  not  form  a  cabinet. 
This  was  due  to  his  own  party's  objecting  to  Daniel  Mayer 
remaining  minister  of  labour  and  the  Socialist  party's  refusal 
to  co-operate  on  any  other  terms.  Finally,  on  Oct.  23,  the 
President  asked  Georges  Bidault,  the  leader  of  the  M.R.P. 
and  former  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  to  form  a  cabinet. 
Although  the  country  had  remained  astonishingly  calm, 
almost  indifferent,  through  this  long  interregnum,  anxiety 
was  beginning  to  grow  and  helped  Bidault  to  secure  invest- 
ment on  Oct.  27,  by  367  votes  to  183,  with  53  abstentions. 
Only  the  Communists,  led  by  Jacques  Duclos  (q.v.),  voted 
against  Bidault.  Most  prominent  among  the  abstentionists 
was  Paul  Reynaud  (q.v.)  who  during  the  crisis  was  stressing 
the  necessity  of  a  more  dynamic  economic  policy. 

Bidault  formed  his  government  on  Oct.  28;  Queuille 
remained  in  it  as  minister  without  portfolio,  while  Schuman 
kept  foreign  affairs,  Moch  the  interior  and  Petsche  the 
ministry  of  finance;  Daniel  Mayer  declined  office  in  order 
to  facilitate  the  formation  of  the  government  and  was 
succeeded  by  a  fellow  Socialist,  Pierre  Segelle;  Rene  Pleven, 
who  had  for  long  deplored  the  fierce  opposition  between  the 
Gaullists  and  the  parliamentary  Republicans,  became 
minister  of  national  defence;  Rene  Mayer  occupied  the 
ministry  of  justice. 

Bidault  like  his  two  unsuccessful  predecessors  had  com- 
mitted himself  both  to  a  non-recurring  bonus  for  the  lowest 
paid  categories  of  workers  and  to  the  return  from  government 
control  of  salaries  to  collective  bargaining.  The  first  commit- 
ment was  fulfilled  but  was  at  once  denounced  by  the  trade 


unions  as  totally  insufficient.  The  Socialist-led  F.O.  trade 
unions  called  a  24-hr,  general  strike  for  Nov.  25  in  support 
of  a  general  wage  increase  and  the  Communist-led  C.G.T. 
declared  its  approval.  The  strike  was  effective  in  all  the 
trades  dominated  by  Communist  unions  and  much  less  so 
in  those  dominated  by  Socialists.  The  approval  of  the  strike 
by  the  executive  committee  of  the  Socialist  party  after  it  had 
been  declared  harmful  to  the  public  interest  by  the  prime 
minister  of  a  government  which  included  Socialist  ministers, 
was  a  reminder  that  the  coalition  remained  badly  flawed. 
The  government's  bill  for  restoring  collective  bargaining 
immediately  met  with  sharp  criticism  because  it  provided 
for  compulsory  arbitration. 

The  budget  estimates  for  1950  laid  before  the  National 
Assembly  provided  for  ordinary  expenditure  of  Fr.  1,535,000 
million  and  an  extraordinary  one  of  Fr.740,000  million.  The 
government  was  asking  for  Fr.240,000  million  of  new  taxes, 
but  there  was  sharp  resistance  to  this  proposal. 

Difficulty  in  working  a  coalition  of  such  diverse  parties 
increased  expectation  of  new  elections  which,  however,  could 
only  be  brought  about  if  the  National  Assembly  curtailed 
its  own  existence  by  a  law.  Since  all  the  parties  desiring 
elections  also  desired  a  change  in  the  electoral  system  first, 
and  the  two  parties  not  desiring  elections  or  a  change  in  the 
law  (M.R.P.  and  Communists)  had  an  absolute  majority  in 
the  National  Assembly,  it  was  difficult  to  see  how  elections 
were  to  be  brought  about. 

General  Charles  de  Gaulle  (^.v.)  in  his  press  conference  on 
Nov.  14  seemed  to  show  more  inclination  towards  co-opera- 
tion with  other  political  groups  in  internal  politics,  but  was 
if  anything  more  critical  than  before  of  France's  English- 
speaking  allies.  Criticism  was  widespread,  not  least  in  the 
National  Assembly,  of  Great  Britain  for  her  attitude  towards 
the  Council  of  Europe,  which  became  a  very  important 
element  in  France's  political  hopes.  There  was  also  a  good 
deal  of  anxiety  about  the  alleged  desire  of  important  U.S. 
groups  to  arm  Germany  and  Spain  rather  than  France. 

From  April  20  to  April  25  a  World  Congress  of  Partisans 
of  Peace  was  held  in  Paris  under  Communist  auspices.  This 
brought  into  existence  a  permanent  organization  under 
cover  of  which  a  good  deal  of  Communist  activity  took  place. 

The  official  French  population  statistics  for  1948  recorded 
a  further  small  increase  of  births  (864,000  as  compared  with 
863,000  in  1947)  and  a  further  fall  of  deaths  (506,000  as 
compared  with  533,000)  so  that  the  surplus  of  births  over 
deaths  was  for  the  second  time  running  the  highest  in  the 
statistically  recorded  history  of  the  country.  (D.  R.  Gi.) 
Education.  (1947-48)  Elementary  schools:  state  infant  3,463,  pupils 
373,649,  private  infant  185,  pupils  14,271;  state  elementary  70,014, 
pupils  3,735,657,  private  elementary  11,003,  pupils  899,036;  state 
higher  elementary,  pupils  173,504,  private  higher  elementary,  pupils 


280 


FRANCOIS-PONCET 


61,127;  total  elementary  84,665,  pupils  5,257,244.  Secondary  schools: 
boys  589,  pupils  256,820,  girls  390,  pupils  170,188;  total  947,  pupils 
427,008.  Lower  professional  schools  numbered  more  than  220  with 
over  80,000  pupils.  Higher  education:  state  universities  17,  students 
129,025,  including  40,465  in  the  law  faculties.  There  were  10  other 
state  institutions  of  higher  education,  6  free  (Catholic)  universities 
and  more  than  80  institutions  of  higher  technical  education. 

Agriculture.  Tables  I,  II  and  III  show  respectively  the  production 
of  main  crops,  the  amount  of  livestock  and  the  production  of  certain 
foodstuffs. 

TABLE  I. — AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTION  ('000  metric  tons) 

Wheat     . 
Rye 

Barley      . 
Oats 
Potatoes  . 


1934-38 

1945 

1946 

1947 

1948 

1949 

8,143 

4,209 

6,759 

3,266 

7,634 

7,850 

769 

268 

462 

384 

638 

616 

1,074 

659 

1,063 

1,123 

1,273 

1,412 

4,572 

2,598 

3,771 

2,813 

3,380 

3,126 

17,158 

6,057 

9,882 

13,294 

16,719 

10,423 

Cattle 
Pigs 
Sheep 
Horses 


TABLE  II.— LIVESTOCK  ('000  head) 

Nov.  Nov.  Oct. 

1938  1945  1948 

15,622  14,272  15,437 

7,127  4,386  5,678 

9,872  6,700  7,408 

2,692  2,258  2,418 


TABLE  111. — FOODSTUFFS 

1934-38         1946  1948  1949 

Meat  (million  metric  tons)  .  1,700  1,250  1,675  2,200 
Milk  (million  gal).  .  .  3,211  2,090  2,530  2,750 
Fats  ('000  metric  tons)  .  .  325  210  255  400 

Sugar  ('000  metric  tons)  .          .  769  688  860  900 

Food  rationing  ended  in  France  in  Dec.  1949  and  the  Food  com- 
missariat was  abolished. 

France  is  the  world's  largest  producer  and  consumer  of  wine.  In 
1935-38  its  share  in  world  wine  production  excluding  the  U.S.S.R. 
was  about  30%,  in  1947-49  about  27%.  In  the  four  prewar  years 
the  average  consumption  of  wine  in  France  per  head  of  the  population 
was  about  36  gal.;  in  1945-47  it  was  22  gal. 

TABLE  IV. — -WINE  PRODUCTION,  IMPORT  AND  EXPORT 

(million  Imp.  gal.) 

1935-38        1945  1946          1947  1948 

Wine  produced         .        1,237  629  796         1,129         1,031 

Wine  imported*       .  289  19  23  158          — 

Wine  exported!       -  18  21  26  23          — 

*MainIy  from  Algeria,     f  Mainly  champagnes,  clarets  and  Burgundy  wines. 
Wine  production  in  1949  was  estimated  at  920  million  gal. 

Industry.  The  progress  in  production  in  basic  industries  is  summed 
up  in  Table  V  (excluding  the  Saar). 

TABLE  V. — INDUSTRIAL  PRODUCTION 

1938  1946  1948  1949 

Coal  ('000  metric  tons)  .  .  47,600  49,300  45,130  53,032 
Gas  (million  cu.  m.)  .  .  1,692  2,448  2,520  2,400 
Electricity  (million  kwh.)  .  20,800  23,000  27,500  29,700 
Liquid  fuel  ('000  metric  tons)  .  7,000  2,800  8,300  11,400 
Steel  ('000  metric  tons)  .  .  6,200  4,400  7,235  9,124 
Cement  ('000  metric  tons)  .  3,564  3,372  5,376  6,400 
Nitrogen  fertilizer  ('000  tons)  .  177  127  182  213 

Motor  /Cars     .         .182000       30,480      100,080      100,000 

vehicles  \Tractors  .  1,700  1,900  12,400  17,100 
Woven  cotton  fabrics  ('000 

tons)          ....       145-2         100-8         151-2  150 

Wool  yarn  ('000  metric  tons)  .      117-6         92-4        133-2  130 

Index  number  of  employment  in  manufacturing  stood  in  1949  at 
113  (1937=100);  the  monthly  average  of  unemployment  during  the 
year  was  38,000  against  373,600  in  1938.  The  index  number  of  industrial 
production  in  1949  was  112  (1937^100).  This  increased  production 
was  achieved  by  an  addition  to  the  labour  force  of  300,000  workers, 
by  the  prolongation  of  the  working  week  from  39  to  45  hr.  and  the 
return  to  the  same  level  of  productivity  per  hour  as  before  the  war. 

Foreign  Trade.  In  Table  VI  the  value  of  the  imports  and  the  exports 
is  given  in  million  francs. 

TABLE  VI. — EXTERNAL  TRADE 

1945         1946         1947         1948*       1949* 

Imports         .  .      56,925    234,042   346,692   672,673   921,794 

Exports         .  .      11,399    101,406   213,420   434,047    782,022 

Adverse  balance     .         .      45,526    132,636    133,272   238,626    139,722 

•Including  the  Saar. 

Main  sources  of  imports  in  1949  were*  French  overseas  territories 
29%,  United  States  19%,  Arabia  6-6%,  Germany  6-4%,  Australia 
4-5%,  Great  Britain  3-6%.  Main  destinations  of  exports:  French 
overseas  territories  47%,  Great  Britain  8-4%,  Belgium- Luxembourg 
6  %,  Netherlands  4  •  8  %,  Germany  4  •  7  %,  Switzerland  3  •  9  %,  Argentina 
2-4%,  United  States  2-2%. 


Transport  and  Communications.  By  1949  the  French  national  railways 
system  (25,271  mi )  was  virtually  reconstructed  with  all  its  prewar 
facilities.  In  the  autumn  of  1944  only  isolated  sections  totalling 
11,125  mi.  were  open  to  traffic.  More  than  2,500  bridges  and  viaducts 
and  some  70  tunnels  which  had  been  destroyed  during  World  War  II 
had  been  repaired  or  rebuilt.  In  1948  the  monthly  average  of  passengers 
carried  was  2,554  million  passenger-km.  as  against  1,837  million 
passenger-km.  in  1938.  The  monthly  average  of  freight  carried  in  1948 
was  3,457  million  ton-km.  as  against  2,210  million  ton-km.  in  1938. 
Roads  (1948):  631,000km.  Navigable  waterways  (1947):  8,458km. 
Shipping  (Sept.  1,  1939)  merchant  vessels  670,  gross  tonnage  2,733,633; 
(Dec.  31,  1949)  merchant  vessels  657,  gross  tonnage  2,709,786.  Tele- 
phone (1947):  subscribers  2,108,000.  Wireless  receiving  set  licences 
(1947):  5,728,000. 

Finance  and  Banking.  Table  VII  gives  the  postwar  budget  figures 
with  the  last  prewar  budget  as  a  measure  of  comparison. 

TABLE  VII. — REVENUE  AND  EXPENDITURE 

('000  million  current  francs) 

1938*         1946*       1947*       1948*        I949f       1950| 

Revenue          53-8          815-6      652-0     1,021-0     1,250-42,218-0 

Expenditure     52-2J      1,286-9    1,015-0     1,596-0     1,870-0  2,217-5 

Deficit  -fl'6      —471-3—363  0   —575  0  —619-6      -fO-5 

•Actual.    fEstimates       I  Extraordinary  expenditure  for  defence  not  included. 

Public  debt  (million  francs):  internal  (Sept.  1,  1939)  432,634,  (June 

30,   1948)  2,264,734;     external  (June  30,   1948)  696,217.     Currency 

circulation  (million  francs):  (Dec  1938)111,000;  ( Dec,  1945)  570,000; 

(Dec.  1949)  1,278,000,  including  the  Saar.    This  more  than  eleven-fold 

increase  of  the  note  circulation  in  11  years  was  a  natural  consequence 

of  the  depreciation  of  currency.    The  value  of  circulation  as  expressed 

in  dollars  was  $3,170  million  in   1938  and   $3,650  million  in   1949. 

Between  Dec    1932  and   Dec    1949  the  nominal  value  of  the  gold 

reserves  decreased  only  from  Fr  83,128  million  to  Fr.  62,000  million, 

the  successive  devaluations  of  the  franc  and  re-estimation  of  the  value 

of  the  gold  reserve  in  new  currencies  concealing  the  true  picture.    In 

weight,  however,  the  gold  reserve  decreased  from  4,900  metric  tons  in 

Dec.  1932  to  464-6  metric  tons  on  Aug.  31,  1949.    On  Sept.  20,  1949, 

the  franc  was  devalued  for  the  tenth  time  since  July  25,  1928,  the  new 

exchange  rates  being  $l=*Fr  350  and  £l*=Fr.980. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  M.  Bloch,  Strange  Defeat  (London,  1949);  Economic 
Co-operation  Administration,  France  •  Country  Study  (Washington, 
1949);  A.  Francois-Poncet,  The  Fateful  Years  (London,  1949);  A. 
Geraud,  "  Insurrection  Fades  in  France,"  Foreign  Affairs  (New  York, 
Oct.  1949),  E.  Hernot,  "  France  Looks  Abroad,"  Foreign  Affairs 
(New  York,  April  1949),  A.  Maurois,  A  History  of  France  (London, 
1949);  R.  P.  Schwarz,  "The  First  Half  of  the  Monnet  Plan,"  Fort- 
nightly (London,  Oct.  1949);  Rapport  du  Commi^aire  Central  sur  le 
Plan  de  Modernisation  et  d'Equipement  de  I* Union  Fran^aise  (Pans, 
Dec.  1949).  (K.  SM.) 

FRANCOIS-PONCET,  ANDRfi,  French  politician 
and  diplomat  (b.  Provins,  Scine-et-Marne,  June  13,  1887), 
was  educated  at  the  Ecole  Normale  Superieure.  He  served  in 
World  War  I  as  an  infantry  lieutenant  and,  from  1916, 
worked  in  Switzerland  for  the  French  Foreign  Office.  In 
1919  he  was  a  member  of  a  French  Economic  mission  to  the 
United  States  and  in  1920  became  director  of  the  Soci6t6 
d'Etudes  et  d'lnformations  Economiques  founded  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Comitk  des  Forges.  In  1922  he  was  press 
officer  of  the  French  delegation  to  the  Genoa  conference  and 
in  1923  adviser  with  the  French  occupation  forces  in  the 
Ruhr.  Entering  politics  as  a  moderate  Republican,  he  was 
elected  deputy  of  Paris  in  1924  and  again  in  1928.  He  was 
under  secretary  of  state  for  fine  arts  (1928),  for  foreign 
affairs  (1930)  and  in  the  prime  minister's  office  in  the  Pierre 
Laval  cabinet  (Feb.  1931).  He  was  ambassador  to  Germany, 
1931-38,  and  then  to  Italy.  In  June  1940  he  returned  to  France 
and  on  Jan.  24, 1 94 1 ,  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  National 
council.  In  1942  he  was  controller  general  of  the  press  at 
Vichy  but  in  June  1943,  at  Grenoble,  he  was  arrested  by  the 
Gestapo  and  interned  in  the  Austrian  Tyrol  until  liberated 
by  French  troops  in  May  1945.  For  three  years  he  directed 
and  wrote  on  foreign  policy  in  Figaro.  On  Nov.  15,  1948,  he 
was  appointed  envoy  extraordinary  at  General  J.  M.  P. 
Koenig's  headquarters  at  Baden-Baden,  and  on  May  19, 
1949,  French  high  commissioner  in  Western  Germanv;  he 
assumed  his  duties  on  Aug.  19.  In  1920  he  married  Mile. 
Jacquline  Dillais,  and  there  were  five  children  of  the 
marriage. 


FRANCO-FRENCH  LITERATURE 


281 


FRANCO    Y     BAHAMONDE,    FRANCISCO, 

Spanish  army  officer  and  statesman  (b.  El  Ferreol,  Galicia, 
Dec.  4,  1892),  leader  (Caudilld)  of  the  empire,  chief  of  state, 
commander  in  chief  of  the  armed  forces,  prime  minister  and 
head  of  the  Falange  Espanola  Tradicionalista  y  de  las 
Juntas  de  Ofensiva  Nacional  Syndicalistas.  (For  his  early 
career  see  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  and  Britannica  Book  of 
the  Year  1949.) 

In  a  speech  before  the  Cortes,  on  May  1 8,  he  accused  Great 
Britain  of  failure  to  keep  promises  made  to  Spain  during 
the  war,  quoting  Winston  Churchill  as  having  said  in  1941 
to  the  Duke  of  Alba,  then  Spanish  ambassador  in  London, 
that  if  England  won  the  war  she  would  help  Spain  to  become 
a  strong  power  in  the  Mediterranean  and  support  her 
territorial  aspirations  in  North  Africa.  (Ernest  Bevm  de- 
clared in  the  House  of  Commons  on  June  22  that  there  was 
no  record  in  the  Foreign  Office  archives  justifying  such  a 
claim  and  Anthony  Eden  said  that  no  such  commitment 
was  ever  made).  On  Oct.  22  he  arrived  aboard  the  cruiser 
**  Miguel  de  Cervantes  "  at  Lisbon  for  a  state  visit,  A  recep- 
tion at  the  quayside  by  Marshal  A.  O.  de  Fragoso  Car- 
mona,  president  of  the  Portuguese  republic,  and  Dr.  A.  de 
Oliveira  Salazar,  the  prime  minister,  was  followed  by  a 
military  parade.  The  visit  reciprocated  President  Carmona's 
to  Spain  in  1929,  and  was  the  Caudillo's  first  trip  abroad 
since  1941.  He  returned  to  Madrid  by  air  on  Oct.  27. 

FRASER,  PETER.  New  Zealand  statesman  (b.  Fearn, 
Scotland,  1884),  became  prime  minister  on  April  1,  1940, 
in  succession  to  M.  J.  Savage.  (For  his  early  career  see 
Britannica  Book  of  the  Year  1949.) 

In  Oct.  1948  he  led  the  New  Zealand  representatives  at  the 
Commonwealth  prime  ministers'  conference  in  London,  and 
later  visited  Scotland,  Canada  and  the  United  States  returning 
to  New  Zealand  in  Jan.  1949.  He  again  visited  England  in 
April  1949  for  a  further  meeting  of  the  Commonwealth  prime 
ministers.  Accompanied  by  Joseph  Chifley  (q.v.),  prime 
minister  of  Australia,  he  attended  Anzac  day  celebrations  in 
London  on  April  25.  He  returned  to  New  Zealand  in  May. 
In  the  general  election  on  Nov.  30,  the  Labour  party  lost 
eight  seats  to  the  National  party  thus  leaving  the  government 
in  a  minority.  On  Dec.  7  he  handed  the  resignations  of  him- 
self and  members  of  the  cabinet  to  the  governor  general, 
Sir  Bernard  Freyberg,  and  on  Dec.  13  was  succeeded  as 
prime  minister  by  S.  G.  Holland  (q.v.). 

FREDERIK  IX  (CHRISTIAN  -  FREDERIK  -  FRANZ  - 
MICHAEL  -  KARL  -  WALDEMAR  -  GEORG),  King  of  Denmark 
(b.  Castle  Sorgenfri  near  Lyngby,  March  11,  1899),  succeeded 
to  the  throne  on  April  20,  1947.  (For  his  early  life  see 
Britannica  Book  of  the  Year  1949.) 

On  March  11,  1949,  the  king  celebrated  his  50th  birthday, 
which  was  unmarked  by  any  official  ceremony,  though, 
appearing  with  Queen  Ingrid  on  the  balcony  of  Amalienborg 
palace,  he  thanked  for  their  loyalty  a  crowd  of  some  50,000 
who  had  assembled  to  greet  him  on  the  anniversary.  On  July 
20  the  king  and  queen  left  Copenhagen  in  the  royal  yacht 
"  Dannebrog  "  for  a  visit  to  the  Faeroe  Islands  (q.v.).  On 
Nov.  27  the  king  and  queen  arrived  in  London  on  a  short 
private  visit.  They  spent  a  night  as  the  guests  of  King  George 
VI  and  Queen  Elizabeth  at  Windsor  castle.  On  Nov.  30 
they  were  present  at  a  luncheon  at  the  Danish  embassy  and 
among  the  guests  were  Winston  Churchill  and  Clement  Attlee. 

FREEMASONRY.  The  grand  festival  of  the  United 
Grand  Lodge  of  England  was  held  on  April  27,  1949.  The 
Duke  of  Devonshire  was  proclaimed  on  his  re-election  as 
grand  master  and  he  re-appointed  Lord  Scarborough  deputy 


grand  master  and  Brigadier  General  W.  H.  V.  Darell  assistant 
grand  master. 

At  its  quarterly  communication  in  September,  the  Antient 
Free  and  Accepted  Masons  of  the  Grand  Lodge  of  England 
re-affirmed  the  principles  of  the  craft.  It  was  felt  that  if 
freemasonry  deviated  from  its  course  by  expressing  an  opinion 
on  political  or  theological  questions  it  would  create  discord 
among  its  members.  At  the  same  meeting  it  was  agreed  to 
increase  quarterage  dues  and  registration  fees  as  from  Jan. 
1,  1949.  It  was  estimated  that  the  increase  quarterage  pay- 
ments would  provide  an  additional  £20,000.  Warrants  were 
granted  for  over  100  new  lodges,  bringing  the  total  of  lodges 
on  the  register  to  over  6,200. 

The  350th  anniversary  of  the  earliest  minute  of  the  Lodge 
of  Edinburgh  (Mary's  Chapel)  No.  1  was  commemorated  in 
July.  The  King  sent  a  letter  congratulating  the  Lodge.  The 
oldest  lodge  in  Norway  celebrated  its  bi-centenary. 

Nearly  600  Freemasons  from  the  western  zones  met  in 
Frankfurt,  Germany,  on  June  19  and  decided  to  establish  a 
central  Grand  Lodge,  thus  reviving  the  craft  on  a  national 
scale  for  the  first  time  since  it  was  banned  in  1933.  (X.) 

FRENCH   COLONIAL   EMPIRE:      see    FRENCH 

UNION. 

FRENCH  LITERATURE.  During  1949  many 
French  writers  whose  participation  in  postwar  public  affairs 
had  seemed  a  logical  continuation  of  their  wartime  activities 
lost  some  of  their  illusions  as  to  a  writer's  responsibility. 
The  non-Communist  leftist  political  party  founded  in  1948 
by  Jean-Paul  Sartre  and  David  Rousset  disbanded  as  a 
result  of  internal  disputes;  it  was  rumoured  that  Andre 
Malraux  was  considering  abandoning  his  position  as  chief 
of  information  to  General  Charles  de  Gaulle;  even  certain 
communists  and  their  sympathizers — Edith  Thomas,  Jean 
Cassou,  Jean  Bruller  (Vercors),  Pierre  Emmanuel — publicly 
announced  their  break  with  party  ethics.  Regimentation, 
even  organization,  of  the  critical,  realistic  and  frequently 
exasperated  French  intellect  seemed  more  difficult  to  accomp- 
lish than  at  any  time  since  before  1940. 

Commenting  on  the  Balzac  centenary  celebrations  an  older 
critic  expressed  the  hope  that  after  re-reading  La  ComJdie 
hurnaine,  French  novelists  would  return  to  observation  of 
their  time  rather  than  continue  "  to  wrack  their  brains  over 
insoluble  metaphysical  problems."  Some  critics  were  possibly 
unaware  that  certain  writers  had  already  exchanged  these 
problems  for  those  closer  to  their  own  metier. 

Whatever  may  have  been  the  nature  of  their  extra-literary 
preoccupations — whether  sociological,  philosophical,  political 
or  all  three— -it  was  evident  in  1949,  despite  the  apparent 
confusion  of  the  French  literary  scene,  that  only  those  who, 
in  addition  to  having  participated  in  these  probings,  were 
also  aware  of  the  expanding  frontiers  of  consciousness  and 
of  the  consequent  need  for  new  language  techniques,  had 
succeeded  in  emerging  above  the  level  of  merely  competent 
writing — memoirs,  reportages,  fictionized  current  events,  etc. 
— that  flooded  the  bookshops  as  a  result  of  the  introduction 
of  high-powered  merchandising  methods  into  the  French 
publishing  world  where,  until  recently,  the  goal  was  prestige 
rather  than  large  profits.  It  is  in  fact,  probably  no  exaggera- 
tion to  say  that,  because  of  the  latter  factor  in  particular, 
much  of  the  most  original  writing  of  the  year  remained  almost 
clandestine  in  its  influence.  In  any  case,  the  increasing  number 
of  commercially  inspired  literary  awards  (more  than  100  were 
distnbuted)  brought  out  no  important  new  talents  and  only 
served  to  weaken  the  significance  of  the  awards  that  existed. 

Here  such  classically  written  works  as  Jean-Paul  Sartre's 
La  Mon  dans  Vame  (third  and  most  interesting  volume  of 
Les  C hem  ins  de  la  libertd),  or  Les  Communistes  by  Louis 


282 


FRENCH   UNION 


Aragon  (q.v.),  received  wide  notice,  as  did  the  two  prize- 
winning  novels*  Robert  Merle's  Week-end  a  Zuydercoote 
(Prix  Goncourt),  a  Hemingway-like  story  set  against  the 
background  of  the  battle  of  Dunkirk,  and  Louis  Guilloux's 
800-page  chronicle  of  life  in  a  small  Breton  town,  Jeu  de 
patience  (Prix  Theophraste  Renaudot).  It  was,  nevertheless, 
in  the  more  experimental  works  of  such  less  advertised 
writers  as  Marcel  Bisiaux,  Les  Pas  contes,  Noel  Devaulx, 
Compere,  vous  mentez,  Andre  Dhotel,  David,  Pierre  Gascar, 
Les  Meuhles,  Nathalie  Sarrautc,  Portrait  d'un  inconnu, 
C.  A.  Cmgria,  Boh  sec,  hols  vert,  that  the  gradual  evolution 
of  the  French  novel  away  from  the  event  and  obligation, 
toward  a  new  reality  that  was  neither  surrealist  nor  existen- 
tialist could  be  seen. 

This  tendency  toward  a  new,  more  concrete,  realism  was 
also  to  be  seen  among  the  poets,  whose  work  was  more 
concerned  with  "  things  "  than  with  abstract  ideas  or  with 
the  different  mystiques  that  had  haunted  the  immediate 
postwar  years.  Proeme,  by  Francis  Ponge,  Fete  des  arbres 
et  du  chasseur,  by  Rene  Char,  La  Vie  dans  les  pits,  by  Henri 
Michaux,  were,  each  in  their  way,  representative  of  this 
tendency.  Contre-terre,  by  a  younger  poet,  Rene  de  Solier, 
also  revealed  this  direction.  The  extraordinary  popularity 
of  another  realist,  Jacques  Prevert,  whose  satirical,  tender, 
easily  accessible  poems  were  being  quoted  like  song  hits  by 
an  entire  generation  of  young  people,  was  confirmed  by  the 
enthusiastic  reception  of  new  popular  editions  of  his  Paroles 
4nd  Histoires,  first  published  in  1946.  Critics  noted  that  this 
was  the  first  time  since  Victor  Hugo  that  a  poet  could  be 
said  to  have  penetrated  to  this  extent  beyond  the  literary 
world.  The  cinema,  for  which  Prevert  had  written  frequently, 
had  done  much  to  make  this  popularity  possible. 

Other  events  in  the  year's  poetic  activities  were  the  publica- 
tion of  two  volumes  by  Paul  Eluard,  Corps  memorable  and 
line  Lecon  de  morale,  as  also  of  a  collection  of  Philippe 
Soupault's  later  poems  under  the  title  Chansons,  and  a 
volume  of  the  collected  poems  of  Andre  Breton.  Here  it 
should  be  recalled  that  when  the  critics,  Pascal  Pia,  Maurice 
Saillet  and  Maurice  Nadeau  presented  as  a  supposedly  authen- 
tic unpublished  poem  by  Arthur  Rimbaud,  a  pastiche 
entitled  La  Chasse  spirituelle  (an  affair  that  caused  some  stir 
in  Paris  literary  circles),  it  was  Breton  who  immediately 
launched  one  of  his  most  penetrating  defences  of  the  true 
poet  in  a  little  volume  of  accusation  entitled  Flagrant  delit. 

During  the  early  theatrical  season,  a  number  of  established 
playwrights  remained  silent,  or,  as  in  the  case  of  Henri  de 
Montherlant's  Demain  il  fera  jour,  Jean  Anouilh's  cynical 
comedy,  Ardele  ou  la  Marguerite,  and  Henri  Bernstein's 
La  Soif,  presented  plays  that  added  little  to  their  reputation. 
Two  plays  of  value  that  marked  the  first  months  of  the  year 
were  that  of  the  Catholic  existentialist,  Gabriel  Marcel,  Un 
homme  de  dieu,  a  probing  analysis  of  religious  motives,  and 
Jean  Genet's  desolate  if  brilliantly  written  play  of  crime 
and  punishment,  Haute  surveillance.  Le  Roipecheur,  a  modern 
poetic  version  of  the  Grail  legend,  by  a  newcomer  to  the 
dramatic  field,  Juhen  Gracq,  obtained  a  critical  success 
d'estime,  as  did  the  poet  Georges  Audiberti's  La  Fete  noire, 
for  its  lyrical  satire  and  verbal  richness. 

The  sensations  of  the  autumn  season  were  Roger  Vaiiland's 
Aboard  and  Heloise,  and  Michel  Ghelderode's  Pastes  d'enfer, 
the  former  aggressively,  intellectually  anti-clerical  and  the 
latter  blasphemous  and  obscene.  There  was  a  cry  of  scandal, 
but  both  playwrights  held  the  stage  for  several  months. 
A  French  adaptation  by  Jean  Cocteau  of  Tennessee  Williams' 
A  Streetcar  Named  Desire  aroused  considerable  interest. 

As  usual  in  France,  there  appeared  a  large  number  of 
excellent  critical  essays  that  varied  in  subject  from  the 
sexual  emancipation  of  women  (Le  Deuxieme  sexe,  by  Simone 
de  Beauvoir),  or  a  plan  for  social,  spiritual  and  political 


re-organization  of  France  (VEnracinemcnt,  by  Simone 
Weil)  to  the  more  intellectualized  aesthetic  and  philosophical 
considerations  of  literature  and  art  by  Maurice  Blanchot, 
IM  Part  du  feu  and  Lautreamont  et  Sade,  Maurice  Merleau- 
Ponty,  Sens  et  non-sens ',  or  Francis  Ponge,  Essais  critiques. 
Jean  Paulhan's  resuscitation  of  the  penetrating  critical  works 
of  Felix  Feneon  was  an  event  of  interest,  as  was  the  analysis 
of  Debussy,  Debussy  et  le  mystere  by  Vladimir  Jankelevitch. 

In  the  field  of  pure  philosophy  1949  saw  the  publication  of 
two  volumes  of  lectures  delivered  before  Jean  Ward's  College 
Philosophique  (founded  in  1946),  as  well  as  an  important 
book  by  Gaston  Bachelard,  Le  Ratwnalisme  applique,  which 
completed  the  vast  work  of  this  original  thinker.  Continued 
interest  in  the  philosophy  of  existence  was  evidenced  by  such 
titles  as  De  V essence  de  la  verite,  a  translation  from  the 
German  of  Martin  Heidegger;  Le  Vrai  visage  de  Kierkegaard, 
by  Pierre  Mesnard ;  Gabriel  Marcel  et  Karl  Jaspers,  by  Paul 
Ricoeur.  Sociology,  science  and  political  economy  were 
represented  by  the  important  volume,  La  Structure  elementaire 
de  la  parente,  by  the  ethnologist,  Claude  Levy-Strauss; 
Le  My  the  de  Vetcrnel  re  four,  by  Mircea  Eliade;  Loki,  by 
Georges  Dumezil;  La  Part  maudite,  by  the  curiously  universal 
Georges  Bataille;  La  Science  et  iesperance,  posthumous 
notes  of  Jean  Perrm  (awarded  the  1926  Nobel  prize  in 
Physics),  and  Principes  du  federalhme,  by  Robert  Aron. 

Among  the  20  or  so  literary  reviews,  Cahieri  du  sud, 
Esprit,  Par  ut  La  Table  ronde,  84,  L"Age  nouveau,  Me r cure  de 
France,  Les  Cahiers  de  la  Pleiade,  Psyche,  Presence  Afncaine, 
Contrepomts  and  Dieu  vivant  may  be  said  to  have  been  the 
most  representative.  A  new  review,  Empedode,  made  its 
appearance,  and  the  disappearance  of  Georges  Bataille's 
excellent  Critique  was  generally  deplored.  Four  weekly 
newspapers :  Les  Lettres  franc^aises,  Les  Nouvelles  litteraires, 
Le  Figaro  litteraire,  La  Gazette  des  lettres  and  one  daily, 
Combat,  supplied  well-informed  news  and  criticism  of  literary 
activities.  (See  also  LITERARY  PRIZES.)  (M.  JOL.) 

FRENCH  UNION.  With  the  establishment,  by  the 
constitution  of  1946,  of  the  French  Union,  in  which  are  com- 
prised both  the  mother  country  and  the  former  empire,  the 
old  colonial  terminology  was  abolished  and  for  the  colonies 
were  substituted  four  categories  of  overseas  regions.  The 
older,  completely  assimilated  colonies  claimed  recognition 
as  French  departements  administered  as  in  the  mother 
country;  the  others  became  overseas  territories  (territoires 
d*  out  re- me  r)  which  henceforward  would  elect  representatives 
to  parliament  and  would  have  their  own  local  assemblies 
possessed  of  wide  powers;  the  trust  territories,  to  be  known 
in  future  as  associated  territories,  were  similar  in  structure 
to  the  overseas  territories  and  had  the  same  electoral  privi- 
leges; lastly,  there  were  the  former  protectorates,  now  styled 
associated  states  which  could  belong  to  the  union  only  by  an 
act  of  voluntary  accession. 

Two  of  the  three  central  instruments  of  government 
already  in  operation  were  (1)  the  presidency  of  the  French 
Union,  exercised,  after  the  passing  of  the  constitution,  by 
the  president  of  the  republic  ex  officio,  and  (2)  the  Assembly 
of  the  French  Union,  of  which  75  members  represented 
metropolitan  France  (50  chosen  by  the  National  Assembly 
and  25  by  the  Council  of  the  Republic)  and  75  members 
were  elected  by  the  assemblies  of  the  overseas  countries, 
and  which  had  been  sitting  in  a  consultative  capacity  since 
Dec.  1947.  By  an  act  of  April  24,  1949,  the  High  Council 
of  the  French  Union  was  set  up,  the  function  of  which 
was  to  help  the  government  with  the  general  administration 
of  the  union  and  act  in  an  advisory  capacity.  It  included  a 
delegation  from  the  French  government  consisting  of  the 
chief  ministers  and  representatives  of  the  associated  states, 
under  the  chairmanship  of  the  president  of  the  union.  In 


FRENCH   UNION 


283 


Country 
AFRICA 

ALOtRIA  . 

MOROCCO 

'I  UNISIA     . 

FRFNCH  WFST  AFRICA 

MAURITANIA 

SFNFOAL 

SUDAN 

HAUIF  VOL i A 

IVORY  COASI 

FRENC  H  GUINEA 

NIGLR 

DAHOMLY 
TOGOLAND 
CAMFROUN 

FRENCH    L'QUATORIAL    AFRICA 

GABON 

UBAMGUI  SIIARI 
MIDDLL  CONGO 
CH\I> 

FRbN(  H    SOMALILAND 


Area       Population* 
( s<7   mi  ) 


Capital 


851,078  8,676,000  Algiers     . 

153,870  8,617,400f  Rabat 

48,100  3,230,952|  Tunis 

1,889,000  16,375000  Dakar       . 

450,000  524,000  Saint-Louis 

81,000  1,994,000  Saint-Louis 

461,000  },H7,000  Bamako 

122,000  3,044,000  Ouagadougou 

130,000  2,031,000  Abidjan 

108,000  2,nO,000  Conakry 

493,000  2,041,000  Niamey 

44,000  1,474,000  Porto  Novo 

22,463  944,500f  Lome 

169,4^6  2,902,400  Yaounde 

959,983  4, 130,9 19  J  Braz/aville 

91,405  422,904  Libreville 

238,008  1,065,390  Bangui 

175,630  631,151  Brazzaville 

454,940  2,011,494  Fort  Lamy 

9,071  42,78(>:  Jibuti 


MADAC.ASC  AR  AND  DPPFNDFNCIFS        229,438     4,107, 054f  Antananarivo 


COMORO,  MAYOITF  AND 

Nossi-B '   ISLANDS 
REUNION 

AMERICA 

SAIN  f -Pit  KKL   AND   MIQUI  LON 
FRFNKH  GUIANA  (mcl   Inmi) 
GUADFLOUPC 
MARIINIQUI 

ASIA 

FRIN<  H  INDIA 
STATL  o»   VIMNAM 

BAC-KY  f  former  Tongking) 
TRUNCJ-KY  dormer  Annam) 


650        141,754     D/aoud/i 

(Mayotte)      . 
970        250,000     Saint-Dems       . 

93  4, 3 54 1  Saint-Pierre 

34,740  3 3, 56 It  Cayenne 

686  278,464;   Basse-Ierre 

427  261, 595 1   Fort-de-France 

194        286,000     Pondicherry 
126,608  21,711  000     Saigon      . 

44,660     9,920,000!!    Hanoi 
56,974    6,750,000;!   Hue 


NAM-KY  (former  Coehin-China)       24,974     5,625,000     Saigon 


CAMBODIA 
LAOS 

OCEANIA 

Niw  CALFDONIA  AND  DIPFNDEN- 

CIFS 
NFW  HFBRIDES 

FRFNCH  PACIFIC  ISLANDS  . 

*  1948  estimates  if  not  otherwise  stated 


69,886     3,046,432  §  Pnom-Penh 
89,320     1,500,000     Vientiane 


7,654 
5,700 
1,545 


61,500f  Noumea 
47,30lf  Vila 
55, 734 1  Papeete 

t  1947  est 


some  respects  reminiscent  of  the  Imperial  Commonwealth 
conference,  the  High  Council  could  become  the  nucleus  of 
a  federal  government.  Its  inception  was  not  unattended 
by  difficulty  owing  to  uncertainty  as  to  the  scope  of  its 
powers  and  to  the  abstention  of  Morocco  and  Tunisia  whose 
rulers  had  protested  against  a  statement  by  the  minister  of 
overseas  France  in  which  he  had  included  these  countries 
in  the  French  Union;  by  the  end  of  the  year,  therefore,  the 
High  Council  had  still  not  been  summoned. 

Total  area  of  the  overseas  territories  of  the  French  Union: 
approximately  4,671,112  sq.  mi.  Total  pop.  (1948  est.): 
77,287,000.  Certain  essential  information  on  the  component 
parts  of  the  French  Union  is  given  in  the  table. 

Algeria.  The  cantonal  elections  held  on  March  20-27 
confirmed  the  swing  to  the  right  in  the  first  electoral 
college  (Europeans  and  e values  or  developed  Moslems) 
and  the  success  of  the  "  independent  "  supporters  of  the 
government  in  the  second  college  (Moslems  only).  Four 
seats  were  lost  by  the  Communists  and  six  out  of  eight  by 
the  U.D.M.A.  (Union  Democratique  du  Manifesto  Algerien), 
which,  led  by  Ferhat  Abbas,  stood  for  a  republic  of  Algeria. 
The  Nationalist  M.T.L.D.  (Mouvement  pour  le  Triomphe 
des  Libertes  Democratiques,  led  by  Messali  Haj),  which 


Status 


Group  of  three 
departements 
Protectorate 

Protectorate 

droup  of  temtones 
Overseas  territory 
Overseas  terntoiy 
Overseas  territory 
Oversca>  territory 
Overseas  territory 
Overseas  terntoiy 
Overseas  territory 
Overseas  territory 
Trjst  terntoiy 
I  rust  territory 
Group  of  territories 

Overseas  territory 
Overseas  territory 
Overseas  territory 
Over  seas  territory 
Overseas  territory 
Overseas  territory 
Dependency 

Overseas  departcment 


Rulers  ami  Governors 


Governor  General,  Marcel  Edmond  Naegelen 

Sultan,  Mohammed  hen  Yussef  III 

Resident  General,  Gen    Alphonse  Juin 

Bey,  Mohammed  el-Amm 

Resident  General,  Jean  Mons 

High  Commissioner,  Gov   Gen.,  Paul  Bcchard 

Governor,  hdmond  Terrac 

Governor,  Laurent  Wiltord 

Governor.  Hdmond  Louveau 

Governor,  Albert  M«'jra«ues 

Governor,  Laurent  Pechoux 

Governor,  Roland  Pre 

Governoi,  Jean  loby 

Governor,  Claude  Valluy 

Commissioner,  Jean  Cedile 

High  Commissioner,  Jean  Soucadoux 

High   Commissioner,  Governor  General, 

Bernard  £'ornut-Gentille 
Governor,  Pierre  Peheu 
Governor,  Auguste  Even 
Governor,  Jacques  Fourneau 
Governor,  Marie-Jacques  Rogue 
Governor,  Paul  Sinex 

High  Commissioner,  Gov.  Gen. .Robert  Bargues 
Ruler,  Prince  Said  Hussein 
Administrator,  Alain-Louis  Alamou 
Prefect,  Paul  Dcmange 


Overseas  territory          Administrator,  Jean-Rene  Moisset 
Overseas  departcment   Prelect,  Robert  Vignon 
Overseas  departcment  Prefect,  Maurice  Pmhpson 
Overseas  departement  Prefect,  Pierre  Trouille 

Overseas  territory          Commissioner.  Jean  Chambon 
Associated  State  Ruler,  Bao  Dai 

High  Commissioner,  Leon  Pignon 
Province  Governor   N'Guyen  Huu  Tn 

Commissioner,  Gen   Marcel  J   M   Alessandn 
Province  Governor,  Phan  Van  Giao 

Commissioner,  Gen   Henri  A.  Lonllot 
Province  Governor,  Tran  Van  Huu 

Commissioner,  Gen  Charles  M   F  Chanson 
.     Associated  State  King,  Norodom  Sihanouk 

Commissioner,  Jean  de  Raymond 
Associated  State       .      King,  Sisavang  Vong 

Commissioner,  Miguel  dc  Percira 

Overseas  territory          General  Commissioner  for  the  Pacific  Islands, 

Pierre  Cournane 
Franco-British          \   High  Commnsioners,  Pierre  Cournane  and 

Condominium       /        Sir  Leslie  Freeston 
Overseas  territory     .     Governor,  Armand  Anziam 
:  1 946  census  ||  1941  est  §  1936  census. 

attributed  its  defeat  to  administrative  pressure,  expressed 
itself  with  accumulated  violence  in  the  press  and  at  public 
meetings.  In  the  course  of  a  triumphal  tour  in  May  and  June, 
Vincent  Aunol  (</.v.),  president  of  the  republic,  was  scathing 
in  his  references  to  the  separatists.  On  the  whole,  however, 
conditions  were  quiet.  In  accordance  with  its  constitution 
the  Algerian  Assembly  elected  as  its  president  a  Moslem, 
Salah  Abdelkader,  who  proclaimed  his  unfailing  affection 
for  France.  A  resolution  of  the  Assembly  establishing  a 
system  of  social  security  for  the  non-agricultural  workers 
was  put  into  force  by  a  decree  of  June  10.  On  the  occasion 
of  the  centenary  of  the  death  of  Marshal  Bugeaud,  conqueror 
of  Algeria,  the  government  erected  a  monument  to  the 
memory  of  his  gallant  and  honourable  foe,  the  Emir  Abd-el- 
Kader.  The  three  Algerian  departements  were  included  in 
the  Franco™ Italian  customs  union  under  the  treaty  signed  in 
Paris  on  March  26 

Population  (Oct  31,  1948  est)  Europeans  960,000  (11-2%  of  the 
total).  Chief  towns:  Algiers  (cap ,  315,210);  Oran  (256,661);  Con- 
stantme  (118,774). 

Mineral  Production  (1948,  metric  tons)  Phosphate  rock  670,000; 
coal  225,800;  iron  ore  1,871,500;  zinc  ore  13,771 

Agriculture  Main  crops  (1948,  metric  tons),  wheat  906,980 ;  barley 
742,270;  oats  117,227;  potatoes  164,090;  tobacco  21,068;  dried  figs. 


284 


FRENCH  UNION 


38,667,  dates  11,516;  citrus  fruits  131,081;  wine  (hi.)  12,653,290. 
Livestock  (mid- 1948):  cattle  968,628;  sheep  3,105,121;  goats  2,240,277; 
pigs  142,018;  horses  204 ,790;  asses  282,299;  mules  229,374;  camels 
251,979. 

ForeignTrade  (1948,  Fr  million)  Imports 91, 400 -4;  exports  75,350  5. 

Transport  and  Communications.  Railways  (1947):  4338  km.  Metalled 
roads  (1947):  northern  Algeria  52,519  km  ,  southern  Algeria  282  km.; 
non-metalled  roads  15,046;  tracks  20,575  km.  Motor  vehicles  licensed 
(Jan.  1948):  cars  26.165,  coaches  1,003,  taxis  1,387,  lorries  19,895. 
Telephone  subscribers  (March  1949):  56,000. 

Ships  entered  (1948):  Algiers  2,834;  Oran  2,180;  Bone  1,272; 
cargo  unloaded  (metric  tons)  3,037,600;  loaded  5,385,600.  Air  transport 
(1948):  aircraft  landed  11,310,  passengers  carried,  arrivals  103,200, 
departures  127,200;  freight  carried  (metric  tons)  21,076;  mail  933-6. 

Finance.  (Fr.  million)  Budget:  (1948  est )  revenue  32,086-6,  expendi- 
ture 32,039-6;  (1 949  est.)  revenue  52, 546,  expenditure  52,524.  Monetary 
unit:  Algerian  franc^ metropolitan  franc  (MFr.).  Exchange  rate 
(from  Sept.  19,  1949):  £l-MFr.  980. 

Morocco.  The  administrative  system  introduced  by 
General  Alphonse  Juin,  unfavourable  to  the  Nationalist 
Istiqlal  (Independence)  party  led  by  Si  Allal  el-Fassi  and 
Ahmed  Balafredj,  appealed  to  the  French  settlers  in  Morocco 
who  re-affirmed  their  confidence  in  Juin  for  ensuring  the 
stability  of  prices  and  internal  peace.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  opposition  of  Sultan  Mohammed  ben  Yussef  III  (q.v.) 
seemed  unremitting.  In  reply  to  a  communique  from  the 
resident  general  on  May  3 1 ,  declaring  that  the  Treaty  of  Fez 
of  March  30,  1912,  was  the  only  instrument  regulating 
relations  between  the  French  and  the  Moroccans,  he  caused 
a  statement  to  be  issued  through  the  intermediary  of  the 
Council  of  Vizirs  to  the  effect  that  "  Morocco  did  not  cease 
to  enjoy  a  position  and  a  sovereignty  defined  by  international 
treaties."  His  son,  Prince  Mulay  Hassan,  paid  an  official 
visit  to  France  in  July  and  August.  There  were  no  signs  of 
trouble  in  Morocco  during  the  year.  The  censorship  which 
was  imposed  under  the  martial  law  banned  all  opposition 
attacks  in  the  press. 

At  the  end  of  December  a  serious  conflict  between  the 
resident  general  and  the  sultan  was  made  public.  Mohammed 
ben  Yussef  was  opposed  to  the  organization  of  trade  unions 
in  Morocco  if  the  rights  of  Moroccan  workers,  including 
the  right  of  election  to  executive  bodies,  were  limited. 

In  an  agreement  signed  on  Dec.  30  the  United  States 
accepted  for  an  indefinite  period  the  prohibition  of  free 
imports  into  the  protectorate,  which  had  been  imposed  by 
France  on  Dec.  31,  1948.  By  admitting  certain  exceptions 
to  the  regulation  the  agreement  gave  practical  satisfaction 
to  the  U.S.  without  diminishing  France's  self-respect.  The 
Istiqlal  party  protested  against  the  fact  that  Morocco  did  not 
take  part  in  the  negotiations  and  demanded  that  the  country 
should  be  free  to  regulate  its  foreign  trade. 

Population.  (Jan.  1,  1949  est)  French  287,000  (3  5%  of  the  total), 
Jews  200,000;  foreigners  63,000.  Chief  towns  (pop,  March  1947): 
Rabat  (cap.,  161,416);  Casablanca  (551,322);  Marrakesh  (238,237); 
Fez  (200,946);  Meknes  (159,811). 

Mineral  Production.  (1948,  metric  tons)  Phosphate  rock  3,149,000; 
anthracite  290,200,  iron  ore  301,300;  manganese  195,400;  lead 
39,200;  petroleum  12,900. 

Industry.  (1948)  Mam  products:  cement  262,200  metric  tons;  rugs 
71,400  sq.  m.;  tinned  sardines  950,000  boxes. 

Agriculture.  Main  crops  (1948  metric  tons)'  wheat  680,000;  barley 
1,431.000;  oats  46.400;  maize  445,900;  sorghum  37,300,  linseed 
32,000;  wine  (hi.)  364  000  Livestock  (1948):  cattle  1,449000,  sheep 
8,474,000,  goats  6,009,000,  pigs  97,000;  horses  155,000;  asses 
555,000;  mules  141,000;  camels  165,000. 

Foreign  Trade.    (1948,  Fr   million)  Imports  74,865;    exports  37,188. 

Transport  and  Communications  Roads  (1948)  9,181  km.;  tracks 
32,000  km  Motor  vehicles  licensed  (Dec.  1948)-  cars  24,470;  com- 
mercial vehicles  19,956  Telephone  subscribers  (May  1949):  29,500. 
Ships  entered  (1948):  Casablanca  4,602;  Safi  756.  Transport  aircraft 
landed  (1948)-  6,673;  passengers  carried,  arrivals  54,857,  departures 
56,041;  freight  carried  (metric  tons)  6,031 ;  mail  4,422. 

Finance.  (Fr.  million)  Budget  (1949  est.):  balanced  at  25,574. 
Monetary  unit:  Moroccan  franc—  MFr. 

Tunisia.  By  the  death  on  Sept.  5,  1948,  at  Pau,  of  Bey 
Mohammed  Moncef,  deported  by  the  French  in  1943  but 
regarded  by  the  Tunisians  as  their  legitimate  ruler,  public 


opinion  was  rallied  to  the  reigning  bey,  Mohammed  el- Ami n 
and  one  of  the  most  acute  causes  of  Franco-Tunisian  dis- 
agreement was  removed.  But  the  Nationalist  opposition 
was  reinforced  on  Sept.  8  by  the  return  from  Cairo  of  Habib 
Bourguiba,  chairman  of  the  Tunisian  Destour  (Constitutional) 
party  to  whom  the  bey  accorded  a  cordial  welcome.  How- 
ever, no  serious  unrest  occurred.  The  resident  general, 
Jean  Mons,  exerted  himself  to  arrange  for  the  sale  on  the 
French  market  of  3,000  metric  tons  of  Tunisian  oil  in  spite 
of  the  opposition  of  producers  in  metropolitan  France. 

Population.  (1946  census)  French  143,977  (45%  of  the  total); 
foreigners  (mainly  Italians)  95,572;  Jews  71,543.  Chief  towns*  Tunis 
(cap.,  364,593);  Sfax  (54,637);  Bizerta  (39,327);  Sousse  (36,566). 

Mineral  Production.  (1948,  metric  tons)  Phosphate  rock  1,864,000; 
iron  ore  696,000;  lignite  71,000;  lead  ore  21,600. 

Agriculture.  Mam  crops  (1948,  metric  tons):  wheat  252,400;  barley 
100,000;  olive  oil  26,000;  dates  46,000;  citrus  fruits  21,300;  wine  (hi.) 
726,000.  Livestock  (1948):  cattle  341.000;  sheep  1,588,000;  goats 
1,083,000;  pigs  42,000,  horses  72,000;  asses  109,000;  mules  47,000; 
camels  177,000. 

Foreign  Trade.    (1948,  Fr.  million)  Imports  33,826;    exports  12,675. 

Transport  and  Communications.  Roads  (Jan.  1949).  8,704  km. 
Railways:  2,174km.  Motor  vehicles  licensed  (March  31,  1949): 
cars  11,062;  commercial  6,465.  Telephone  subscribers  (June  1949): 
22,832.  Ships  entered  in  Tunisian  ports  (Tunis,  Bizerta,  Sousse  and 
Sfax,  1948):  2,028;  cargo  unloaded  (metric  tons)  1,028,000,  loaded 
3,115,000.  Transport  aircraft  landed  (1948):  6,972;  passengers  flown: 
arrivals  30,209,  departures  30,730;  freight  earned  (metric  tons)  3,577. 

Finance.  (Fr.  million)  Budget'  (1948  est)  balanced  at  12,174; 
(1949  est  )  balanced  at  16.343.  Monetary  unit.  Tunisian  franc^MFr. 

French  West  Africa.  Paul  Bechard,  the  high  commissioner 
of  the  republic  for  West  Africa,  was  entrusted  on  Jan.  5  with 
putting  into  operation  the  military  defence  of  West  Africa, 
Togoland,  Cameroun  and  Equatorial  Africa.  The  Natives* 
Nationalist  party,  the  R.D.A.  (Rassemblement  Democratique 
Africain),  offshoot  of  the  Communist  party,  continued  its 
agitation,  but  its  influence  was  clearly  declining,  to  the 
advantage  of  the  local  parties,  even  on  the  Ivory  Coast  where 
it  had  most  solidly  established  itself. 

Population.  (1948  est)  Europeans  54,560  (0-34%  of  the  total). 
Chief  towns.  Dakar  (185,000),  Saint-Louis  (62,900),  Bamako  (60,100); 
Abidjan  (56,000);  Conakry  (38,000*;  Porto  Novo  0 1,000). 

Mineral  Production.  (1948)  Gold  659  9  kg  ;  diamonds  77,970 
carats;  ilmenite  3,690  metric  tons;  zircons  191  metric  tons. 

Agriculture.  Ma'n  crops  (1948,  metric  tons)-  groundnuts  600,000; 
cotton  4,500,  palm  kernels  63,093;  palm  oil  35,688,  bananas  (export) 
48,356  Livestock  (1948)  cattle  6,060,000,  sheep  and  goats  18,016,400; 
horses  186,450;  asses  561,700;  camels  284,000. 

ForeignTrade.  (1948,Fr.C  F  A. million)  Imports  19,841 ;  exports  18,471. 

Transport  and  Communications.  (1948)  Roads  75,800km.  Rail- 
ways: 3,726km.  Motor  vehicles  licensed  cars  3,504;  commercial 
9,981.  Telephone  subscribers  5,665.  Ships  entered  (all  ports,  but 
mainly  Dakar.  Conakry,  Abidjan  and  Porto  Novo)  2,789;  cargo 
unloaded  (metric  tons),  1,470,000,  loaded  1,184,000.  Transport 
aircraft  landed*  2,997;  passengers  flown:  arrivals  16,605,  departures 
15,629;  freight  carried  (metric  tons)  2,524;  mail  274. 

Finance.  Budget  (1948  est  )  balanced  at  Fr.  C.F  A  13,347  million. 
Monetary  unit:  franc  C  F  A.  (Colonies  Francoises  d'Afrigue)^MPr.2. 

Togoland.  According  to  the  Dec.  31,  1948,  estimates 
there  were  in  this  trust  territory  841  Europeans.  Capital: 
Lom£  (pop.,  30,063). 

Agriculture.  Mam  crops  (1948,  metric  tons)-  tapioca  (export) 
12,009;  palm  kernels  7,677,  palm  oil  1,098;  cotton  5,707;  copra 
2,093;  groundnuts  2,560;  cocoa  (export)  2,955;  coffee  1,712.  Livestock 
(1948):  cattle  83,712;  sheep  259,938;  goats  191,448;  pigs  169,539; 
horses  1,867;  asses  2,941. 

Foreign  Trade.  (1948,  Fr.C  F.A.  million)  Imports,  824-2;  exports 
1,168  4. 

Transport  and  Communications.  (1948)  Roads:  3,275km  Railways: 
449  km.  Ships  entered  at  Lome.  158;  cargo  unloaded  (metric  tons) 
23,346;  loaded  39.314. 

Finance.    Budget  (1949  est.)  balanced  at  Fr  C  F.A    591,350,000. 

Cameroun.  According  to  the  Jan.  1,  1949,  estimates  there 
were  in  this  trust  territory  6,51 3  Europeans.  Capital:  Yaounde 
(pop.  [1946  est.],  50,000). 

Mineral  Production  (1948)  Titanium  ore  (95%  content  of  TiOg)  576 
metric  tons;  tin  145  metric  tons;  gold  333  kg. 

Agriculture.  Mam  crops  (1948.  metric  tons):  millet  368,000;  cassava 
(manioc)  327,000;  maize  72,395;  bananas  302,558 ;  cocoa  43  000;  coffee 
5,700;  palm  kernels  32,000;  palm  oil  35,000;  tobacco  270. 


FRENCH   UNION 


285 


Foreign  Trade.  (1948,  Fr  C.F.A.  million)  Imports  4,888;  exports  4,285. 

Transport  and  Communications.  (1948)  Roads:  10,606km.  Railways* 
505  km.  Telephone  subscribers:  480  Ships  entered  at  Duala:  385; 
cargo  unloaded  (metric  tons)  186,300;  loaded  163,300 

Finance.     Budget  (1949  est  )  balanced  at  Fr.C  F.A.  2,452 '3  million. 

French  Equatorial  Africa.  According  to  the  Jan.  1,  1948, 
estimates  there  were  only  13,320  Europeans,  including  9,900 
French,  in  all  four  territories  of  French  Equatorial  Africa. 
Chief  towns:  Brazzaville  (cap.,  pop.  [July  1949  est.],  83,579, 
including  4,353  Europeans);  Bangui  (41,044);  Fort  Lamy 
(18,276);  Libreville  (12,600). 

Mineral  Production,  (1948)  Gold  1,982  kg.,;  diamonds  118,000 
carats;  lead  ore  5,006  metric  tons. 

Agriculture.  Main  crops  (1948,  metric  tons,  export  only)-  cotton 
32,276;  palm  kernels  7,563;  palm  oil  2,389;  coffee  2,415;  cocoa  2,041; 
rubber  325;  mahogany  34,360;  okoumc  (light  mahogany)  172,632. 

Foreign  Trade.  (1948,  Fr.C  F  A.  million)  Imports  6,010;  exports  6,177. 

Transport  and  Communications.  (1948)  Roads.  22,170km.  Railways: 
512  km.  Motor  vehicles  licensed-  cars  640,  commercial  2,600  Tele- 
phone subscribers  950.  Cargo,  unloaded  mainly  at  Pomte  Noire  and 
Libreville  (metric  tons):  236,700;  loaded  314,800 

Finance.     Budget  (1949  est.)  balanced  at  Fr.C  F  A.  2,688  5  million. 

French  Somaliland.  From  Jan.  1  the  status  of  Somaliland 
was  raised  to  that  of  a  free  territory.  A  new  currency,  the 
Jibuti  franc,  freely  convertible  into  U.S.  dollars,  was  insti- 
tuted on  March  20.  The  1946  constitution,  which  in  practice 
reserved  the  right  to  vote  to  the  evoluei,  had  the  effect  of 
giving  a  majority  to  the  inhabitants  of  mixed  origin,  to  the 
detriment  of  native  Danakils  and  Issa  Somalis.  The 
consequence  was  an  outbreak  of  disturbances  culminating  in 
riots  and  violence:  38  people  were  killed  and  154  wounded 
at  Jibuti  on  Aug.  29. 

Population.  (1948  est.)  Europeans  2,500,  including  1,750  French. 
Capital-  Jibuti  (pop.,  22,000) 

Foreign  Trade.  (1948,  Fr  C  F.A.  million)  Imports  1,777-4;  exports 
1,018  2. 

Transport  and  Communications-.  (1948)  Roads-  25  km.  Railway: 
98km.  Motor  vehicles  licensed  cars  169,  commercial  210.  Telephone 
subscribers:  296.  Ships  entered  at  Jibuti  1,357;  cargo  unloaded 
(metric  tons)  240,775;  loaded  166,557.  The  volume  of  traffic  ts 
explained  by  the  fact  that  Jibuti  was  the  main  port  serving  Ethiopia. 

Finance.  Budget  (1949  est)  balanced  at  Fr  C  F.A.  403,274,000. 
Exchange  rate.  $l=Jibuti  Fr.  214-39. 

Madagascar.  The  Supreme  Court  of  Appeal  in  Paris,  on 
July  7,  rejected  the  petition  submitted  on  the  ground  of  irregu- 
larities by  the  eight  prisoners  convicted  on  Oct.  4,  1948,  by 
the  court  at  Antananarivo,  but  the  president  of  the  republic 
immediately  commuted  the  death  sentences  to  deportation 
for  life.  Two  deputies  to  the  National  Assembly,  Ravoahangy 
and  Raseta,  were  among  the  condemned.  The  reprieved 
Malagasy  leaders  of  the  armed  revolt  of  March  1947  were 
transferred  to  the  Comoro  islands  pending  their  removal  to 
Belle-lie  off  the  south  coast  of  Brittany,  as  had  been  ordered 
by  the  government  on  Aug.  2,  1949,  but  which  so  far  had  not 
been  effected.  From  efforts  made  to  secure  a  revision  of  the 
case  it  became  more  and  more  clear  that  the  accused  had  not 
had  the  benefit  of  their  constitutional  rights.  After  an 
inquiry  by  a  commission  sent  by  the  Assembly  of  the  French 
Union,  the  latter,  on  June  10,  requested  the  government  to 
take  steps  to  remedy  the  situation  which  in  its  political, 
economic  and  social  aspects  alike  gave  cause  for  anxiety. 
On  Jan.  26  an  agreement  was  signed  between  the  Paris  and 
Washington  governments  for  the  export  of  19,800  tons  of 
graphite  to  the  United  States. 

Population.  (1947  est.)  Europeans  60,498,  including  40,887  French. 
Chief  towns:  Antananarivo  or  Tananarive  (cap  ,  pop.  165,477,  in- 
cluding 17402  French  and  2,780  foreigners);  Tamatava  (29,776); 
Majunga  (26,271);  Diego-Suarez  (21,677). 

Mineral  Production.  (1948,  metric  tons)  Graphite  14,228;  corundum 
4,330;  mica  507;  kaolin  40-6.  Precious  stones  (kg.):  garnets  133,004; 
beryls  9,082;  agates  and  chalcedonies  4,030. 

Agriculture.  Main  crops  (1948,  metric  tons):  rice  744,323;  cassava 
737,462;  sweet  potatoes  and  taros  201,602;  potatoes  90,035;  maize 
68,483;  sugar  cane  293,400;  coffee  23,898;  vanilla  461 

Foreign  Trade.  (1948,  Fr.C.F.A.  million)  Imports  8,941  -9;  exports 
6,121-5. 

Transport  and  Communications.  (1948)  Roads:    26,618km.  Railways: 


859  km.  Motor  vehicles  licensed-  cars  6,087,  commercial  3,990. 
Telephone  subscribers.  4,616.  Cargo  unloaded  (metric  tons):  439,800; 
loaded  244,900. 

Finance.    Budget  (1949  est.)  balanced  at  Fr  C  F.A.  2,646,147,000 

Reunion.  In  1946  only  2-67%  of  the  total  population, 
that  is  6,698,  were  described  as  of  French  origin,  although 
97%  were  French.  Chief  towns  (pop.,  1946  census):  Saint- 
Dems  (cap,  36,096);  Saint-Louis  (23,936);  Saint-Paul 
(25,959);  Saint-Pierre  (22,379). 

Agriculture  Mam  products  (1948)  sugar  67,664  metric  tons  (1949 
est  ,  110,000  metric  tons);  rum  86,730  hi.,  vanilla  53,000  kg. 

Foreign  Trade.  (194S,  Fr  C.F  A.  million)  Imports  2,873  -5;  exports 
2,248-4 

Transport  and  C)mmumcation<!.  (1948)  Roads*  790km.  Railways: 
126  km.  Motor  vehicles  licensed;  cars  2.519,  commercial  1,090. 
Telephone  subscribers:  1,950.  Cargo  unloaded  (metric  tons)  129.696; 
loaded  98,631. 

Finance.    Budget  (1948  est  )  balanced  at  Fr  C  F.A    266,558,696. 

Saint-Pierre  and  Miquelon.  Each  of  the  two  islands  is  a 
commune.  Capital:  Saint- Pierre  (pop.  [1946  census],  3,636). 

Foreign  Trade  (1948,  Fr.C.F.A.  million)  Imports  226-4;  exports 
246  •  5.  Mam  exports  salt  and  fresh  cod,  seal  skins  and  silver  fox  skins. 
Ships  entered.  566;  cargo  unloaded  (metric  tons):  32,700;  loaded  5,060. 

Finance.    Budget  (1949  est.)  balanced  at  Fr.  C.F.A.    174-8  million. 

French  Guiana.  Capital:  Cayenne  (pop.,  [1948  est.],  10,961). 

Foreign  Trade  (1948,  Fr.  million)  Imports  878,  exports  154.  Mam 
exports:  gold  330  kg  ,  balata  gum  884  metric  tons,  tulip-wood  9,700 
kg  Cargo  unloaded  (metric  tons):  15,000;  loaded  3,000. 

Finance    Budget  (1946)  balanced  at  M.Fr.  101-7  million. 

Guadeloupe.  Chief  towns  (pop.,  1946  census):  Basse- 
Terre  (cap  ,  10,086);  Pointe-a-Pitre  (41,323). 

Foreign  Trade.  (1948,  Fr  million)  Imports  5,415;  exports  3,835. 
Chief  exports :  rum  (1947  production:  127  399  hi),  sugar  (1947  pro- 
duction 35,132  metric  tons),  bananas  (1946  production:  48,000  metric 
tons)  and  coffee  (1946  production:  500  metric  tons). 

Finance     Budget  (1947)  balanced  at  M.Fr.  1,049-3  million. 

Martinique.  Chief  towns  (pop.,  1946  census):  Fort-de- 
France  (66,006);  Lamentin  (15,114);  Sainte-Marie  (13,276). 

Foreign  Trade.  (1948,  Fr.  million)  Imports  6,406  •  3 ;  exports  4,692-6. 
Chief  exports  rum  (1948  production:  194,026  hi.)  and  sugar  (1948 
production.  33,701  metric  tons). 

Finance.    Budget  (1949  est.)  balanced  at  M.Fr.  988-3  million 

French  India.  In  the  referendum  held  at  Bengali-speaking 
Chandernagore  on  June  19,  7,473  votes  were  cast  for 
incorporation  in  the  Union  of  India  and  114  against.  Special 
provisions  completely  separated  the  city  from  other  French 
settlements  during  the  negotiations  for  its  transfer.  To 
comply  with  the  expressed  desire  of  the  Tamil -speaking 
southern  settlements  (Pondicherry,  Yanaon,  Karikal  and 
Mahe)  for  an  autonomous  system  within  the  framework  of 
the  French  Union,  the  French  council  of  ministers  on  Sept. 
28  passed  a  scheme  of  federation  for  the  four  free  cities. 
The  referendum  to  determine  the  choice  between  France  and 
India  which  was  to  have  been  held  on  Dec.  1 1  was  postponed 
A  rigorous  blockade  imposed  by  the  Indian  government 
on  the  expiration  of  the  Franco-Indian  customs  convention 
on  April  1  affected  particularly  Pondicherry  and  Karikal. 
The  transformation  of  the  two  cities  into  free  ports  greatly 
increased  their  traffic  in  1949. 

Population  Of  the  four  settlements  the  largest  was  Pondicherry;  the 
population  of  the  towns  was  estimated  in  1948  as  follows:  Pondicherry 
(22,572);  Karikal  (70.541);  Yanaon  (5,853);  Mahd  (18,283). 

Foreign  Trade.  (1948)  Imports:  3,214  metric  tons  valued  at  M.Fr. 
147  1  million;  exports  1,594  metric  tons  valued  at  M.Fr.  633 '9  million. 

Finance.  Budget  (1949  est  )  balanced  at  Rs.  7,673,120  Monetary 
unit-  rupee.  Exchange  rate:  (from  Sept.  19,  1949):  Rs.  l«=M.Fr.  73-50. 

Indo-China.  With  its  political  division  into  three  associated 
states,  Vietnam,  Cambodia  and  Laos,  forming  part  of  the 
French  Union,  the  name  French  Indo-China  became  of 
only  historic  significance. 

On  March  8  the  difficult  negotiations  between  the  French 
government  and  the  ex-emperor  Bao  Dai  (q.v.)  culminated 
in  an  agreement  which  guaranteed,  within  the  framework 
of  the  French  Union,  the  independence  of  Vietnam  com- 
prising the  three  Annamese-speaking  Kyi  Tongking  or 
Bac-Ky  (country  of  the  north),  Annam  or  Trung-Ky  (country 


286 


FRENCH   UNION 


Bao  Dai  (second  from  left)  being  welcomed  by  Pham  Van  Giao  on  his  return  to  Dalai  in  April  1949.    On  Bao  Dai's  right  is  Leon  Pignon, 

French  high  commissioner,  and  on  his  left,  General  N'Guyen  Van  Xiian. 


of  the  middle)  and  Cochin-China  or  Nam-Ky  (country  of 
the  south).  Diplomatic  representatives  in  Vietnam  were  to 
be  accredited  jointly  to  the  president  of  the  French  Union 
and  the  head  of  Vietnam,  their  letters  of  credence  being  signed 
by  the  president  of  the  French  Union  and  initialled  by  the 
head  of  Vietnam;  the  latter  was  to  have  independent  repre- 
sentation only  in  China,  in  Thailand  and  at  the  Vatican;  the 
Vietnamese  army  would  have  French  instructors;  military 
and  economic  guarantees  in  favour  of  France  were  also 
stipulated  in  the  agreement;  Vietnam  would  have  19  represen- 
tatives in  the  Assembly  of  the  French  Union. 

By  the  promise  of  unity  to  Vietnam,  Cochin-China  was 
induced  to  exchange  its  status  of  overseas  territory  for  that 
of  a  province  of  Vietnam,  this  being  decided  on  April  23, 
by  55  votes  to  6,  with  2  abstentions,  by  a  territorial  assembly 
elected  for  the  purpose  on  April  10.  Ratifying  this  decision 
on  June  3  by  367  votes  to  221,  the  National  Assembly  thus 
brought  to  an  end  the  colonial  status  of  Cochin-China  which 
dated  back  to  1862. 

Bao  Dai,  assuming  the  title  of  prime  minister,  on  June  30 
formed  the  first  Vietnamese  government,  with  General 
N'Guyen  Van  Xuan,  president  of  the  provisional  central 
government  of  Vietnam  since  May  1948,  as  deputy  prime 
minister,  minister  of  the  interior  and  minister  of  war.  By 
the  end  of  the  year  the  French  parliament  had  not  yet  ratified 
the  agreement  of  March  8  which  had  come  into  force  on 
June  14  by  an  exchange  of  letters  between  Bao  Dai  and  Leon 
Pignon,  high  commissioner  of  the  republic.  At  a  ceremony  in 
Saigon  on  Dec.  30  the  administrative  and  political  powers 
were  formally  transferred  to  the  Vietnamese  government. 

The  return  of  the  ex-emperor  of  Annam  did  not  to  any 
extent  rally  the  non-Communist  nationalists  or  even  the 
Catholics.  The  economy  of  the  country  showed  an  increasing 
decline  and  in  spite  of  definite  successes  in  the  French  offen- 


sive which  won  from  the  Communist-controlled  Vietminh  the 
Catholic  province  of  Phat  Diem,  to  the  southwest  of  Hanoi, 
Ho  Chi  Minn  continued  to  control  the  mountainous  region 
stretching  from  the  Sino-Tongkinese  frontier  to  the  frontiers 
of  Cochin-China  and  Cambodia.  Guerrilla  fighting  kept 
things  everywhere  in  a  state  of  insecurity.  The  appointment 
on  July  27  of  Gen.  M.  Carpentier  as  commander  in  chief  was 
interpreted  as  an  intention  to  increase  military  pressure; 
but  the  approach  of  the  Chinese  Communist  armies  strength- 
ened the  spirit  of  resistance  of  Vietminh  and  threatened  to 
create  a  new  danger  of  international  import.  The  French 
Left  consequently  showed  signs  of  being  anxious  for  a  truce. 

In  Cambodia  the  fall  of  the  Penn  Nouth  government  on 
Jan.  21,  following  a  financial  scandal,  brought  about  a  crisis 
which  was  ended  on  Feb.  1  by  the  appointment  to  the  premier- 
ship of  Yem  Sambaur,  leader  of  the  Democratic  party  which 
had  provoked  the  emergency.  The  seriousness  of  the  internal 
situation,  due  to  the  successes  of  the  rebel  Issaras,  supported 
by  Vietminh,  and  to  the  progress  of  the  opposition  which 
was  taking  the  risk  of  compromising  the  Franco-Cambodian 
agreement,  led  King  Norodom  Sihanouk  to  dissolve  the 
National  Assembly  on  Sept.  18  and  to  postpone  sine  die 
the  elections  which,  according  to  the  constitution,  were  to 
have  been  held  within  two  months.  The  king  proceeded  to 
Paris  on  Oct.  6  for  the  purpose  of  signing  the  treaty  with 
France,  but  as  the  ministerial  crisis  persisted  he  was  obliged 
to  return  on  Oct.  26.  The  treaty  was  eventually  signed  by  the 
prime  minister,  Sisovath  Moniret,  on  Nov.  8.  Cambodia 
sent  five  representatives  to  the  Assembly  of  the  French  Union. 

On  account  of  a  budgetary  dispute  between  the  govern- 
ment and  the  Assembly,  the  prime  minister  of  Laos,  Souvan- 
narath,  resigned  on  Jan.  2  and  was  replaced  on  Jan.  10  by 
Prince  Boun  Oum,  leading  personality  of  southern  Laos. 
By  a  treaty  signed  in  Paris  on  July  19  by  President  Vincent 


FRIENDS— FRUIT 


287 


Auriol  and  King  Sisavang  Vong,  Laos  was  recognized  as  an 
independent  associated  state.  This  agreement  led  on  Oct.  24 
to  the  voluntary  dissolution  of  the  "  free  government  of 
Laos/*  known  as  the  Lao  Issara  government,  headed  by 
Phya  Khammas  at  Bangkok.  Laos  sent  three  representatives 
to  the  Assembly  of  the  French  Union. 

Population.  (1946  est  )  Europeans  26,000,  including  23,000  French 
and  assinules.  Chief  towns  (pop,  1949  est.)  Saigon  with  the  seaport 
of  Cholon  (1,700,000),  Hanoi  (160,000,  including  6,000  French  and 
7,000  Chinese);  Haiphong  (92,000,  including  ^000  French  and  30,000 
Chinese);  Pnom-Penh  (128,950) 

Agriculture.  Main  products  (1948,  metric  tons)'  nee  4,210,000, 
sugar  15,785;  rubber  43,901 

Industry.  Main  products  (1948,  metric  tons)  coal  338,950,  cement 
180,500. 

Foreign  Trade.  (1948,  MFr  million)  Imports  40,087  7;  exports  19,918 

Transport  and  Communication?.  (1948)  Roads'  20,370km  Railways 
3,245  km.  Motor  vehicles  licensed  cars  15,500,  commercial  7,500. 
Telephone  subscribers.  5,400 

Finance  Budget  (1949  est)  balanced  at  Piastres  1,426  6  million. 
Monetary  unit'  piastre  =MFr  17 

New  Caledonia.  The  population  of  Noumea,  the  capital, 
was  estimated  in  1946  at  10,466  There  were  18,700  Huro- 
pcans  in  the  island. 

Foreign  Trade.  (1948,  Fr  C  F  P  million)  Imports  554,  exports  328 
Main  exports:  (metric  tons)-  nickel  ore  96,415,  nickel  (mattes)  6,300, 
chrome  75,021;  gypsum  779,  copra  1  569,  coffee  920;  hides  285 

Finance  Budget  (1949  est  )  balanced  at  Fr  C  F  P  274  5  mi!  I  ion  Mone- 
tary unit,  franc  C.F  P  (Colonies  Francai  \evdu  Pacifique}—M,l:r  5  50 

French  Pacific  Islands.  This  overseas  territory  comprises 
eight  archipelagos,  the  most  important  being  the  Society 
islands,  including  Tahiti  (area:  600  sq.  mi.;  pop  [1946  est.], 
24,820),  with  the  town  of  Papeete  (pop,  12,428). 

Foreign  Trade  (1948,  Fr  C  H  P  million)  Imports  381-4,  exports 
405  5.  Main  exports  (metric  tons)*  phosphate  rock  187,000,  copra 
18,439;  vanilla  154 

Finance     Budget  (1948  est  )  balanced  at  Fr  C  F  P.  164  7  million 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  D  Boisdon,  Lcs  institutions  dc  r  Union  Francaise 
(Pans,  1949);  J.  Cclener,  Maroc,  (Pans,  1948).  H  Dcschamps,  R. 
Decary  and  A  Menard,  Cote  des  Sornaln;  Reunion  Inde  (Paris,  1948), 
J  Despois,  L'Afriquedu  Notd  (Pans,  1949),  B  Lavergne,  Une  revolution 
dans  la  politique  colomale  de  la  France  Le  problem?  dc  /'  Afnque  du 
Nord  (Paris  1948);  F.  Luchaire,  Manuel  du  Droit  d'Outre-Mer-  Union 
Francaise:  Afnque  du  Nord.  Terntoires  d'Outre-Mer.  Indoclune  (Pans, 
1949);  J  Richard-Molard,  Afnque  Ocudentale  France  (Pans,  1949); 
L.  Rolland  and  P  Lampue,  Precis  de  droit  des  pays  d'Outre-Mer  (Pans, 

(C.  A.  J.) 


FRIENDS,   THE   RELIGIOUS   SOCIETY   OF. 

In  London  Yearly  Meeting,  including  Friends  in  Australia 
and  New  Zealand  and  scattered  members,  the  membership 
in  1948  was  21,888,  an  increase  of  41.  For  Great  Britain 
alone  the  increase  was  26,  on  a  total  membership  of  20,730 
In  Ireland  there  were  1,960  members,  an  increase  of  three  over 
1947.  After  serving  for  six  years  as  clerk,  i.e.,  chairman  of  the 
society  in  Great  Britain,  Mrs  W.  Maude  Brayshaw  was 
succeeded  by  Red  ford  Crosfield  Harris 

The  proceedings  at  the  281st  Yearly  Meeting  held  in  Lon- 
don in  May  indicated  that  the  present  emphasis  in  the  life 
and  thought  of  the  society  was  that  Quakerism  was  intrinsi- 
cally Christian  and  that  it  was  essential  to  the  world  today. 
The  Yearly  Meeting  considered  carefully  the  position  of 
Friends'  schools  and  their  part  in  the  developing  national 
system  of  education.  The  society  declared  itself  opposed  to 
military  conscription  on  the  grounds  that  it  was  contrary  to 
Christian  principle,  and  the  conscription  group  was  instructed 
to  inquiie  into  the  treatment  of  conscientious  objectors  in 
certain  European  countries. 

Relief  work  initiated  by  Friends  Relief  service  and  taken  over 
by  the  Friends  Service  council  in  1948,  was  continued  among 
displaced  persons  in  Germany  and  among  refugees  in  Greece 
and  elsewhere.  It  co-operated  with  the  American  Friends  Ser- 
vice committee  in  work  among  Arab  refugees  in  Palestine  and 
also,  by  means  of  Friends  Service  units,  in  medical  and 
relief  work  in  nationalist  and  Communist  China,  and  in  India. 
Long  established  Quaker  work  overseas  continued  in  India, 


China,  Madagascar  and  elsewhere.  During  1949  the  Friends 
Committee  for  Refugees  and  Aliens,  set  up  in  1933  with  the 
flow  to  this  country  of  German  refugees,  was  discontinued. 
The  chairman  and  the  secretary  of  the  Friends  Relief  service 
were  awarded  the  Medaille  de  la  Reconnaissance  Francaise 
by  the  French  government. 

The  Society  of  Friends  in  Germany  lost  members  during 
the  nazi  period,  but  doubled  its  membership  betveen  1945 
ami  1948  With  an  increase  of  51  during  1948  the  full  mem- 
bership stood  at  450  in  1949;  but  at  some  meetings  "  friends 
of  the  Friends "  exceeded  the  actual  membership  many 
times,  so  that  the  total  congregations  might  well  have  been 
several  thousands. 

The  year  1949  marked  the  centenary  of  the  Bedford 
Institute  association  which  is  responsible  for  Quaker  social 
work  in  seven  centres  in  east  London.  (H.  W.  PE.) 

United  States.  Statistics  compiled  by  the  Friends  World 
Committee  for  Consultation  indicated  that  there  were  more  than 
176,000  persons  in  1949  who  bore  the  name  of  Friends 
(Quakers).  They  composed  53  Yearly  Meetings  and  annual 
conference  groups  all  over  the  world,  the  largest  being  1 19,000 
in  North  America,  26,000  in  Africa  (chiefly  in  Kenya  and 
Madagascar),  5,000  in  Central  America,  1,000  in  Australia 
and  New  Zealand,  900  on  the  European  continent  and  400  in 
Asia  The  major  channels  of  service  were  provided  by  the 
Friends  Service  council  operating  from  London  and  the 
American  Friends  Service  committee  with  headquarters  in 
Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania,  and  regional  offices  in  1 3  American 
cities.  The  American  Friends  Service  committee  organized  a 
large-scale  relief  programme  among  Arab  refugees  in  the  Gaza 
area  of  Palestine  where,  in  conjunction  with  United  Nations 
Relief  for  Palestine  Refugees,  some  40  Quaker  workers 
distributed  food  and  clothing  and  provided  shelter  and  medical 
services  for  more  than  200,000  refugees. 

The  continuance  of  the  "  cold  war  "  prompted  the  Ameri- 
can Friends  Service  committee  to  set  up  a  working  party  to 
study  relations  between  the  United  States  and  Russia.  In 
July  the  working  party  released  a  statement  later  printed 
in  revised  form  under  the  title  The  United  States  and  the 
Soviet  Union:  Some  Quaker  Proposals  for  Peace.  The  group 
concluded  that  Russian  communism  and  western  democratic 
capitalism  were  both  likely  to  persist  and  that  peaceful 
co-existence  rather  than  victory  by  one  side  should  be  the 
aim  of  governmental  policy.  Three  specific  proposals  for 
action  were  made:  the  re-opening  of  cast-west  trade;  the 
creation  of  a  neutralized  and  unified  Germany;  and  the 
strengthening  of  the  United  Nations  as  an  agency  for  settling 
disputes,  for  reducing  armaments  (including  atomic  weapons) 
and  for  fostering  an  atmosphere  in  which  a  more  effective 
instrument  of  world  government  could  be  created.  (See  also 
CHURCH  MLMBLRSHIP.)  (F.  Ts.) 

BIBI  loiiRAPHY  F.  E  Pollard  and  others.  Democracy  and  the 
Quaker  Method  (London,  1949),  I.  Ross,  Margaret  Fell,' Mother  of 
Quakeri\m  (London,  1949);  R  Reynolds,  \Vt\dom  of  John  Woolman 
(London,  1949) 

FRUIT.  Chief  interest  during  1949  centred  round  moss 
storage.  Was  it  a  practical  and  more  economical  alternative 
to  the  normal  gas  store?  Woodland  moss  was  shown:  (a) 
to  be  capable  of  absorbing  cthylene  and  acetaldehyde,  the 
most  important  gases  given  off  in  the  ripening  of  fruit,  and 
at  the  same  time  (b)  to  give  some  control  of  humidity  and  a 
partial  refrigerating  effect.  Invented  in  Switzerland  and 
developed  scientifically  in  France,  this  system  was  brought  to 
Great  Britain  for  trial  in  the  1948-49  season.  The  results 
were  inconclusive,  owing  to  a  constructional  fault  in  the 
building.  In  August  two  scientists  of  the  Food  Investigation 
organization  gave  a  negative  report  upon  the  system  after  a 
ten  weeks*  laboratory  test.  Large-scale  continuation  trials 
took  place  in  private  hands  through  the  winter. 


288 


FURNITURE  INDUSTRY 


Release  of  materials  by  the  British  government  allowed 
fruit  growers  to  build  new  packing  and  storing  stations,  both 
facilities  being  badly  needed  to  improve  the  quality  of  the 
deciduous  fruit  supply.  Four  stations,  with  a  combined 
handling  capacity  of  1,500,000  bu.  were  opened  during 
the  year  and  by  December  fruit-storing  capacity  was 
50,000  tons,  compared  to  30,000  tons  in  1939.  Storage 
plants  on  a  smaller  scale  were  also  extensively  developed  in 
the  Netherlands.  Another  system  of  storing  fruit — by  dipping 
the  individual  fruits  in  an  oil  emulsion — was  also  given  a 
full-scale  trial  in  Great  Britain. 

World  fruit  production  was  estimated  at  some  10%  higher 
in  1949  than  in  1948 — which  was  not  a  good  year. 
Apples,  pears,  cherries,  plums,  apricots  and  peaches  were  all 
in  larger  supply,  with  citrus  crops  slightly  below  average. 
The  U.S.  harvested  the  largest  crop  of  apples  since  1939,  and 
had  to  resort  to  government  purchase  for  the  school  lunch 
and  institutional  feeding  programmes  in  order  to  relieve  the 
pressure  of  deciduous  supplies  on  the  fresh  market.  In 
Great  Britain  cherries  were  a  record  crop  of  31,000  tons. 
Plums  were  estimated  to  yield  at  the  1939-48  average,  with 
apples  and  pears  40  and  43%  respectively  above  average. 
France  expected  a  double  table-apple  crop  but  only  half  an 
average  cider-apple  crop.  In  general,  the  drought  in  western 
Europe  affected  quality  more  than  yield,  except  in  the  case 
of  soft  fruits  which  were  a  poor  crop. 

To  counter  this  general  supply  situation  attempts  were 
made  to  reverse  the  declining  trend  in  international  trade  in 
fruit.  Canada  raised  the  import  quota  for  horticultural 
products  from  70%  to  80%  for  the  second  quarter  of  the 
year,  and  lifted  it  entirely  for  the  second  half  of  the  year. 
Following  the  wish  of  the  Organization  for  European  Econo- 
mic Co-operation  to  liberalize  intra-European  trade,  Great 
Britain  applied  open  general  licence  procedure  (with  reser- 
vations) to  horticultural  produce.  Imports  of  Canadian  and 
U.S.  apples  were  also  increased,  but  overall,  owing  to  a 
lower  intake  in  the  early  part  of  the  year,  the  horticultural 
import  bill  did  not  exceed  average. 

The  British  Ministry  of  Food  de-controlled  lemons  in 
both  price  and  distribution  and  adopted  a  policy  of  caution 
in  the  regulation  of  other  fruit  supplies.  Apples  and  pears 
were  de-controlled  until  the  stored  crop  began  to  come  on 
to  the  market,  provided  that  prices  were  kept  at  reasonable 
levels.  All  soft  fruits  were  freed  from  price  control  in  1949, 
but  growers'  prices  were  generally  lower  than  in  1948.  Straw- 
berries, raspberries  and  blackcurrants  together  were  down  by 
about  12%.  Soft  fruit  acreage  in  England  and  Wales  was 
3%  above  1939.  Respective  acreages  and  indices  (1939  = 
100)  were  as  follows:  strawberries  20,  141  (108),  raspberries 
3,  779  (91),  blackcurrants  15,  501  (149),  goosebsrnes  6, 
424  (70).  (R.  R.  W.  F.) 

United  States.  Apples.  The  U.S.  1949  apple  crop  totalling 
133,181,000  bu.  was  the  largest  since  1939,  about  150%  as 
much  as  the  small  1948  crop  (88,407,000  bu.)  and  a  fifth 
above  average. 

Apricots.  The  1949  crop  in  the  commercial  producing  states, 
California,  Washington  and  Utah,  was  200,300  tons  compared 
with  246,600  tons  in  1948  and  12%  less  than  the  average 
for  the  decade. 

Cherries.  The  1949  U.S.  commercial  cherry  crop  was  a 
large  one  of  243,730  tons,  compared  with  214,380  tons  in 
1948  and  an  average  of  172,223  tons. 

Dates.  The  Californian  date  crop  of  1949  was  estimated 
at  12,800  tons,  compared  with  16,240  tons  in  1948  and  only 
8,352  tons  average  in  the  years  1938-47.  Prices  were  slightly 
lower  than  in  1948. 

Figs.  The  1949  fig  crop  of  California  and  Texas  was  even 
smaller  than  in  1948.  California  produced  28,400  tons  of 
dried  figs  in  1949  (30,300  tons  in  1948)  and  7,000  tons  not 


dried,  compared  with  an  average  for  1938-47  of  33,030  and 
16,130  tons. 

Grapefruit.  The  1949-50  U.S.  grapefruit  crop  was  expected 
to  be  a  small  one  of  36,350,000  boxes,  compared  with 
45,520,000  boxes  in  1948-49  and  an  average  of  50,528,000 
boxes  for  the  previous  decade. 

Grapes.  The  1949  U.S.  grape  crop  of  2,701,500  tons  was 
slightly  less  than  average  and  considerably  below  the  3,044,400 
tons  of  1948,  but  approximated  to  the  prewar  production. 
The  California  crop,  2,526,000  tons  of  the  total,  was  far 
below  the  2,857,000  tons  of  1948  but  about  average. 

Lemons.  The  expected  1949-50  average  California  crop  of 
12  million  boxes  (9,930,000  boxes  in  1948-49)  appeared  to  be 
selling  at  about  $2-80  per  box  compared  with  $4-18  in  the 
previous  year. 

Limes.  The  1949-50  Florida  crop  of  250,000  boxes  was  large 
compared  with  200,000  boxes  in  1948  and  an  average  of 
158,000  boxes  in  1938-47. 

Olives.  California  in  1949  produced  39,000  tons,  compared 
with  58,000  tons  in  1948  and  an  average  of  46,600  tons  in 
1938-47. 

Oranges.  The  expected  U.S.  crop  for  1949-50  was  105-6 
million  boxes,  compared  with  99,620,000  boxes  in  1948  and 
an  average  of  93,593,000  boxes  in  1938-47. 

Peaches.  The  U.S.  1949  peach  crop  was  estimated  at 
74,780,000  bu.,  considerably  larger  than  the  65,352,000  bu. 
of  1948  and  the  68,947,000  bu.  average  of  the  previous  decade. 

Plums  and  Prunes.  The  1949  Californian  plum  crop, 
estimated  at  90,000  tons,  was  one-third  above  1948.  Com- 
mercial dried  prune  production  of  175,100  tons  was  1  %  below 
1948  and  13%  below  average. 

Pears.  The  1949  U.S.  pear  crop  was  a  record  one  of 
36,627,000  bu.,  about  40%  more  than  in  1948  and  20%  above 
average. 

Pineapples.  Florida  pineapple  production  in  1949  was 
5,000  boxes  compared  with  4,600  boxes  in  1948  and  an 
average  of.  9,900  boxes  in  1938-47. 

Strawberries.  The  1949  strawberry  crop  was  8,866,000 
crates,  compared  with  the  10,224,000  crates  in  1948  and  an 
average  of  9,138,000  crates  in  the  years  1938-47.  (J.  K.  R.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  Pierre  Chouard,  "  Moss  Storage.  Has  it  a  Scientific 
Basis?",  Fruitgrower,  London,  Aug  11,  1949;  A.  Faure,  "  La  produc- 
tion fruitierc,"  Journ£?s  fruitieres  organise?  en  Mat  1948  par  la  SrJCiet& 
des  AgricHlteurs  de  France,  pp  111-114,  Pans,  1949,  Dr.  J.  C.  Fidler 
and  Dr  Cyril  West,  "  Moss  Storage-  An  Official  Investigation,"  Fruit- 
grower, Sspt  22,  1949;  U.S  Department  of  Agriculture,  Office  of 
Foreign  Agricultural  Relations,  Foreign  Crop\  and  Markets,  nos. 
4.  5,  1,  11,  Washington,  D.C.,  1949. 

FURNITURE  INDUSTRY.  Shortages  both  of 
labour  and  essential  raw  materials  proved  serious  handicaps 
to  British  furniture  manufacturers  in  1949.  High  Wycombe 
alone  found  itself  4,000  short  of  its  1938  labour  strength  of 
10,000  and  London  and  other  big  manufacturing  centres 
reported  a  similar  scarcity  of  workers.  For  this  reason  plans 
were  put  into  operation  for  the  recruitment  of  new  labour  and 
the  training  of  apprentices. 

On  the  materials  side  chief  shortages  were  hardwoods  and 
plywood  and  coverings  and  springs  for  upholstery.  Imports 
of  oak  from  the  United  States  were  negligible  because  of  the 
dollar  shortage  and,  although  supplies  from  West  Africa 
gradually  improved,  the  devaluation  of  the  pound  to  a  lower 
rate  than  that  of  the  franc  upset  plans  for  a  big  increase  of 
hardwood  imports  from  France.  In  March  most  furniture 
woods  were  removed  from  the  strict  rationing  system  and 
oak  veneers  were  returned  from  government  to  private  pur- 
chase, but  these  moves  made  no  difference  to  the  total  volume 
of  supplies.  There  was,  however,  a  slight  increase  in  the 
allocation  of  hardwood  plywood  and  veneers  to  furniture 
makers  towards  the  end  of  1949,  although  at  the  same  time 


FURS 


289 


the  allocation  of  softwoods  for  kitchen  furniture  manufacture 
was  decreased. 

Towards  the  end  of  1948  furniture  manufacturers  had  been 
granted  freedom  of  design  although  under  the  utility  scheme 
they  were  still  bound  by  a  minimum  specification  laid  down 
by  the  Board  of  Trade.  This  continued  measure  of  control 
together  with  the  shortages  of  labour  and  materials  prevented 
factories  from  working  with  maximum  efficiency;  any  sub- 
stantial reduction  in  prices  and  the  evolution  of  a  really 
new  style  of  design  were,  therefore,  delayed.  In  September 
the  prices  of  non-utility  furniture  were  de-controlled.  This 
made  little  difference  to  public  purchasing;  prices  dropped 
slightly  but  the  high  rate  of  purchase  tax  made  them  pro- 
hibitive to  most  people.  The  vast  majority  of  orders  were 
still  for  utility  pieces  in  the  new  design-freedom  ranges  which 
were  tax  free. 

On  Jan.  1,  1949,  the  government  set  up  a  Development 
council  for  the  furniture  industry  under  the  chairmanship 
of  Sir  David  Waley.  One  of  the  council's  first  moves  was  to 
investigate  the  possibility  of  workable  performance  tests  for 
essential  furniture.  The  object  of  these  tests  would  be  to 
improve  the  general  quality  and  durability  standards  of 
articles  such  as  chairs  and  tables  and  to  prevent  the  return 
of  the  cheap,  badly  made  furniture  marketed  before  World 
War  II. 

The  bulk  importation  of  foreign-made  furniture  under 
government  aegis  was  halted  by  the  liquidation  of  the  Furni- 
ture Import  (Emergency)  association.  (L.  L.) 

United  States.  At  the  close  of  1949  the  4,000  furniture 
factories  making  wooden  household  furniture  showed  a  15% 
drop  in  volume  compared  with  1948  output,  but  the  total 
value  of  their  production  ($1,250  million)  had  been  surpassed 
only  by  the  $1,475  million  volume  turned  out  in  1948.  At 
retail,  the  1949  output  of  furniture  sold  for  approximately 
$2,500  million.  During  1949  wholesale  furniture  prices  were 
reduced  41%,  the  first  reduction  in  eight  years. 

In  1949  modern  furniture  again  outsold  traditional.  As  in 
1948,  French  provincial  was  the  "  high  style  "  leader  for  the 
year  with  18th-century  English  designs  and  Chinese  adapta- 
tions rapidly  returning  to  favour.  Mahogany  continued  the 
most  popular  wood,  with  walnut,  maple,  oak  and  cherry 
following  in  that  order.  The  most  interesting  development 
during  the  year  was  the  invasion  of  the  United  States  furniture 
market  by  England,  Sweden,  Norway,  the  Philippines, 
Belgium,  Italy,  Switzerland  and  Scotland.  Canada  and 
Mexico  remained  the  only  foreign  furniture  customers  of 
U.S.  furniture  factories,  and  furniture  imports  were  far 
greater  than  exports.  No  Japanese  furniture  was  imported, 
but  much  Chinese  cane  furniture  was  sold  in  the  U.S.  during 
the  year.  France  and  Germany,  once  big  exporters  of 
furniture,  were  having  difficulty  in  supplying  their  own 
market  because  of  the  shortage  of  materials.  (See  also 
INTERIOR  DECORATION.)  (J.  A.  G.) 

FURS.  The  British  fur  trade  experienced  a  most  difficult 
year  during  1949.  Early  in  the  year  it  was  thought  that  the 
government's  intentions  were  to  reduce  the  100%  purchase 
tax  on  furs.  This  did  not  materialize  however,  and  in  spite 
of  the  abolition  of  clothes  rationing  in  March,  the  sale  of  fur 
garments  dropped  to  negligible  proportions,  creating  con- 
siderable unemployment  in  the  industry. 

The  devaluation  of  the  pound  certainly  caused  a  great  deal 
of  activity  during  the  last  three  months  of  the  year;  but  this 
was  believed  to  be  only  a  temporary  phase  and  could  be 
attributed  to  the  public's  anxiety  lest  prices  should  rise  as  a 
consequence  of  devaluation. 

The  most  favoured  furs  in  the  utility  range  were  mink-dyed 
marmot,  squirrel  lock,  beaver  lamb,  moleskin,  pony  and 
coney;  and  in  the  non-utility  range  mink,  dyed  ermine, 

E.B.Y. — 20 


dyed  Canadian  squirrel,  beaver,  persian  and  indian  lamb  and 
musquash. 

The  export  trade  was  very  good,  considering  the  restrictions 
with  which  exporters  had  to  contend,  and  it  was  a  matter  for 
congratulation  that  a  balance  in  favour  of  exports  over 
imports  was  shown  for  the  ten  months  ended  Oct.  1949.  The 
figures  were:  Imports  for  10  months  ended  Oct.  31:  (1948) 
£9,249,019;  (1949)  £7,652,691.  Exports  for  10  months  ended 
Oct.  31:  (1948)  £8,81 8,222;  (1949)  £8,024,738.  This  currency 
gain,  although  small,  was  probably  the  only  gain  earned  by 
a  so  called  "  luxury  "  trade  in  the  United  Kingdom. 

Many  events  of  importance  took  place  during  1949 
including  the  inaugural  meeting  of  the  International  Fur 
federation  in  April  at  which  delegates  from  15  coantries 
including  Great  Britain  participated.  Sir  Patrick  Ashley 
Cooper,  governor  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  company  and  first 
president  of  the  federation,  occupied  the  chair  The  London 
fur  fashion  parades  held  in  May  were  attended  by  many 
overseas  buyers.  A  considerable  number  of  orders  were 
taken  and  another  parade  was  arranged  for  1950. 

Of  much  interest  to  the  trade  and  the  country  was  the 
progress  made  by  British  fur  breeders.  This  industry  would 
take  years  to  develop  but  it  was  worthy  of  note  that  there 
were  about  60  breeders  in  Great  Britain  and  the  1949  produc- 
tion of  mink  alone  was  expected  to  exceed  4,000  pelts. 

(S.  L.  L.) 

United  States.  The  year  1949  was  one  of  the  worst  that  the 
U.S.  fur  industry  had  experienced  for  many  years.  Reduced 
consumer  demand  brought  about  a  drastic  deflation  in 
prices.  The  supply  of  mink  was  abundant  and  prices  were 
low.  This  fur  declined  in  value  during  the  first  half  of  the 
year  but  recovered  in  the  last  quarter.  Mink  garments  at 
prices  30%  to  40%  below  those  of  1948  created  a  new  group 
of  customers.  Wild  and  ranch  mink  coats,  capes,  jackets, 
stoles,  etc  ,  sold  well.  New  ranch  mink  coats  sold  retail  in 
New  York  from  $1,500  upwards. 

Persian  lamb,  beaver  and  Russian  squirrel  furs  were 
popular,  but  other  furs  were  neglected  and  the  long-haired 
furs  were  unwanted. 

Promotion  of  fur  lined  cloth  coats,  tax  free,  reduced  sales 
of  fur  coats.  Tax  free  fur  coats  were  denied  further  immunity 
from  tax,  and  merchants  were  given  until  March  1950  to 
dispose  of  such  merchandise. 

All  the  fur  exporting  countries  of  the  world  shipped  fur 
skins  to  the  United  States  during  1949,  especially  the  U.S.S.R. 
American  furs  sold  steadily  early  in  the  year  in  many  European 
countries,  but  quantities  were  limited  because  of  the  dollar 
shortage.  In  September,  when  sterling  and  other  currencies 
were  devalued,  American  fur  shipments  to  most  countries 
slumped. 

The  fur  of  greatest  importance  during  the  year  was  Persian 
lamb,  of  which  about  6  million  skins  were  sold  at  auction. 
Prices  declined  between  30%  and  40%  during  1949.  The 
supply  came  in  about  equal  amounts  from  Afghanistan,  the 
U.S.S.R.  and  South  West  Africa.  Estimates  put  ranch  mink 
skin  production  in  the  United  States  and  Canada  at  less 
than  the  2  million  1948  total. 

Furs  dyed  fancy  colours  were  introduced.  Midnight  blue 
used  on  Persian  lamb,  broadtail,  kid  and  squirrel  was  well 
received  and  other  colours  introduced  were  cardinal  red, 
emerald  green,  caramel  and  navy  blue.  New  styles  were  well 
received  and  favoured  various  collars,  moderate  sleeves  and 
restrained  back  fullness.  Popular  lengths  were  26  to  40  in. 

Raw  fur  imports  for  the  first  ten  months  of  1949  were 
valued  at  approximately  $91  million,  compared  with  approxi- 
mately $137  million  for  the  corresponding  period  in  1948. 
Exports  of  fur  skins  for  the  first  eight  months  of  1949  totalled 
approximately  $26  million,  compared  with  approximately 
$19  million  in  1948.  (W.  J.  BT.) 


290 


GAS-GAULLE 


GABON:   see  FRENCH  UNION. 
GAMBIA:    see  BRITISH  WEST  AFRICA. 
GAMBLING:   see  BETTING  AND  GAMBLING. 

GAS.  The  transfer  of  the  gas  industry  from  company  and 
municipal  enterprise  to  state  ownership  was  effected  on 
May  1,  1949,  when — under  the  Gas  act,  1948 — the  property 
of  1,056  undertakings  was  entrusted  to  12  largely  autonomous 
Area  Gas  boards,  which  became  responsible  for  the  manufac- 
ture and  distribution  of  gas,  coke  and  allied  products  in 
England,  Scotland  and  Wales. 

The  Gas  council,  comprising  the  chairmen  of  the  Area 
boards  and  the  chairman  and  deputy  chairman  of  the  council, 
took  over  the  property  and  staff  of  the  British  Gas  council 
and  certain  other  organizations  voluntarily  established  over 
the  past  38  years  by  the  former  gas  undertakings.  The  Gas 
council  was  to  promote  the  efficient  working  of  the  Area 
boards  and  advise  the  minister  of  fuel  and  power  on  the  gas 
industry.  Whilst  the  Gas  council  had  extensive  responsibilities 
in  financial  matters  and  in  research,  education  and  employ- 
ment, it  otherwise  regarded  itself  as  a  consultative  body, 
except  in  so  far  as  duties — for  example,  national  publicity — 
might  be  entrusted  to  it  by  the  Area  boards.  The  Institution 
of  Gas  Engineers  and  the  Gas  Research  board  continued  to 
be  financed  by  the  industry  for  the  conduct  of  education  and 
research  respectively. 

A  Gas  Consultative  council,  representative  of  gas  con- 
sumers, was  established  in  each  area  to  consider  matters 
affecting  the  supply  of  gas,  the  chairman  being  a  member 
of  the  Area  board.  The  members  of  these  councils  and  of 
the  Area  boards  and  the  chairman  and  deputy  chairman  of 
the  Gas  council  were  appointed  by  the  minister. 

The  Area  boards  having  deemed  their  responsibilities  to 
demand  almost  complete  autonomy,  a  common  policy  and 
practice  did  not  emerge  during  1949.  Each  area  was,  however, 
divided  for  operational  purposes  into  a  varying  number  of 
divisions,  with  sub-divisions  comprising  one  or  more  of  the 
former  undertakings,  under  divisional  or  sub-divisional 
managers,  but  without  uniform  administrative  methods  as 
between  the  areas. 

The  Area  boards  in  general  found  plant  to  be  reasonably 
up-to-date  and  adequate,  the  works  well  managed,  the 
distributing  systems  sufficient  and  the  service  to  consumers 
good.  There  were,  however,  largely  owing  to  the  effects  of 
the  prolonged  threat  of  nationalization  and  the  long  delay 
experienced  in  the  installation  of  new  plant,  a  number  of 
undertakings  where  improvement  was  desirable.  These 
improvements  were  facilitated  by  the  ability  of  the  Area 
boards  to  integrate,  geographically  and  functionally,  the 
production,  distribution  and  administrative  resources  of  the 
individual  units.  Nevertheless,  amongst  the  more  intractable 
problems  there  remained  that  of  the  small  undertaking, 
situated  too  far  from  large  centres  of  population  to  be 
supplied  with  gas,  managed  from  a  central  source  and 
where  the  capital  costs  of  maximum  efficiency  could  not 
reasonably  or  economically  be  met,  in  the  past,  by  small 
communities. 

A  committee  representative  of  the  National  Coal  board 
and  the  Gas  council  was  set  up  to  implement  the  require- 
ment of  the  Gas  act  that  the  two  industries  should  co-ordinate 
their  carbonization  activities,  in  order  to  avoid  waste  of  coke 
oven  gas  or  over-production  of  coke,  to  conserve  coal  and 
to  improve  the  utilization  of  plant  and  labour.  The  funda- 
mental issue  of  the  price  at  which  the  coke  oven  gas  was  to 
be  supplied  to  the  gas  industry,  raised  the  question  of  joint 
working  or  the  transfer  of  all  carbonization  to  the  gas 
industry. 

The  price  of  gas  in  many  localities  was  increased  subsequent 
to  nationalization,  in  order  to  relate  prices  to  the  costs  of 


production.  The  rationing  of  coke  for  domestic,  non- 
industrial  and  smaller  industrial  premises  was  abolished  at 
the  end  of  1949,  the  total  stock  of  coke  at  the  end  of  Nov. 
1949,  having  increased  to  the  excessive  figure  of  2,982,000 
tons.  The  business  of  the  industry  increased  during  the  year. 
In  Nov.  1949,  as  compared  with  Nov.  1948,  the  average 
weekly  production  of  gas  increased  by  600  million  cu.  ft. 
and  the  average  weekly  consumption  of  coal  at  gasworks 
increased  by  17,000  tons.  The  demand  for  better  gas  coal 
and  freedom  to  select  the  coals  suited  for  the  particular  plant 
was  not  met,  whilst  further  increases  in  the  selling  price  of 
coal,  which  was  not  of  prewar  quality,  brought  the  total  rise 
in  the  price  to  two  and  a  half  times  the  figure  in  1939. 

Although  some  improvement  was  to  be  seen,  there  con- 
tinued to  be  delay  in  securing  new  gas  making  plant  and  in 
the  renewal  and  extension  of  mains.  The  production  and 
variety  of  most  domestic  gas  appliances  improved,  but  in 
some  areas  their  sale  was  restricted  in  order  to  avoid  a  demand 
for  gas  in  excess  of  the  output.  Purchase  tax  was  retained  on 
water  heaters,  space  heaters  and  certain  other  appliances, 
and  gas  refrigerators  were  almost  unobtainable  by  the 
ordinary  consumer  owing  to  the  export  demand  and  housing 
authority  priorities.  Gas  appliances  continued  to  improve  in 
design,  efficiency  and  economy;  new  types  became  available. 
Amongst  the  many  technical  problems  discussed  was  the 
difficulty  of  producing  gas  at  reasonable  cost  to  meet  peak 
demands,  which  are  often  very  intermittent.  At  the  conference 
of  the  International  Gas  union  in  London  in  June,  it  was 
generally  agreed  that  the  solution  lay  in  the  designing  of 
plant,  at  a  low  capital  cost,  to  be  used  only  for  abnormal 
peak  requirements.  The  Gas  Research  board  published  a 
paper  describing  such  a  plant  using  oil.  In  the  U.S.A.  the 
use  of  natural  gas  was  found  to  meet  the  problem,  until  the 
pipe  lines  carrying  the  gas  approached  maximum  capacity, 
when  they  became  subject  to  peak-load  difficulties. 

The  proposed  plans  of  the  petroleum  industry  for  refining 
in  Great  Britain  some  20  million  tons  of  oil  annually  would 
release  large  quantities  of  rich  gas,  equalling  possibly  one- 
quarter  of  the  gas  sold  by  the  gas  industry.  Surplus  refinery 
gas  was  supplied  to  Ellesmere  Port,  Shropshire,  and  similar 
supplies  began  to  be  given  to  Manchester,  amounting 
daily  to  600,000  cu.  ft.  of  gas  having  a  calorific  value  of 
890  British  thermal  units/cu.  ft.  This  development  was  of 
significance  if  suitable  prices  could  be  fixed. 

The  gas  industry  continued  to  expand  in  all  countries, 
being  particularly  virile  in  the  U.S.A.  Progress  was  made  in 
overcoming  the  devastation  of  war  in  Europe  and  arrears  of 
constructional  work  were  reduced.  But  for  the  heavy  demand 
for,  and  the  high  cost  of,  plant  and  increasing  gas  prices, 
the  expansion  would  have  been  greater  than  it  was. 

Compensation  on  nationalization  was  paid  to  the  majority 
of  gas  shareholders  during  the  year  by  the  issue  of  3% 
British  Gas  stock,  1990-95.  The  value  of  most  shares  was 
determined  by  the  Stock  Exchange  prices  on  the  dates  stated 
in  the  Gas  act,  or  by  agreement  between  the  stockholders' 
representative  of  each  undertaking  and  the  Ministry  of  Fuel 
and  Power.  The  British  Gas  stock  was  issued  at  100,  but 
although  its  price  temporarily  rose  to  101  7/16  shortly  after 
nationalization,  it  then  showed  considerable  depreciation,  the 
lowest  marking  being  82|.  (J.  R.  W.  A.) 

GAS  TURBINES:  see  JET  PROPULSION  AND  GAS 
TURBINES. 

GAULLE,  CHARLES-ANDRfc-JOSEPH- 
MARIE  DE,  French  army  officer  and  statesman 
(b.  Lille,  Nov.  22,  1890),  former  leader  of  Fighting  France 
(1940-44),  former  head  of  the  French  provisional  government 
(Sept.  10,  1944)  and  first  French  prime  minister  after  World 


GEMS-GENETICS 


291 


War  11  (Nov.  13,  1945-Jan  21,  1946),  leader  of  the  R.P.F. 
(Rassemblement  du  Peuple  Francais).  (For  his  early  career 
see  Britannica  Book  of  the  Year  1949). 

From  his  house  at  Colombey-les-Deux-Eglises,  Marnc, 
he  continued  to  direct  the  R.P.F.  in  which  a  serious  breach 
appeared  on  July  8,  1949,  when  Paul  Giacobbi,  Radical 
deputy  and  chairman  of  the  R.P.F.  intergroupe'1  in  the 
National  Assembly,  resigned  both  the  chairmanship  of  the 
intcrgroupc  and  membership  of  the  R.P.F.  executive  council. 
In  Paris,  on  March  29,  de  Gaulle  said  that  there  was  not  a 
*'  third  force,"  but  only  Communists  and  non-Communists. 
At  Samt-Malo,  on  Aug.  1,  he  insisted  that  if  the  North 
Atlantic  treaty  were  to  be  effective  the  defence  of  France 
must  be  properly  oigamzed.  At  Versailles,  on  Oct.  2,  he 
asked  for  new  elections  and  expressed  his  confidence  that 
there  was  a  majority  in  France  for  a  regime  worthy  of  her. 
At  a  press  conference  held  in  Pans  on  Nov.  14,  de  Gaulle 
sounded  a  new  note  when  he  declared  that  the  unity  of  Europe 
should  have  been  built  round  a  directly  negotiated  Franco- 
German  settlement,  based  on  their  community  of  cultural 
and  economic  interests. 

GEMS.  The  situation  created  by  wartime  restrictions  on 
imports  and  supplies  did  not  appear  to  improve  in  1949. 
Perhaps,  owing  to  a  slight  weakening  in  demand  early  in  the 
year,  the  values  of  poor  and  medium  quality  goods  eased 
further,  yet  that  of  specimen  pieces  continued  to  harden. 

The  immediate  result  of  the  devaluation  of  the  pound  in 
September  was  an  appreciable  increase  of  prices  in  all  grades 
so  that  perfection  goods  became  exorbitant  in  price  and  the 
year  closed  without  revealing  any  indication  that  peak  values 
had  yet  been  reached.  Retail  sales  gave  no  sign  of  the  com- 
mencement of  the  anticipated  slump,  although  retailers  in 
general  continued  their  endeavours  to  reduce  stocks  to  the 
pre-1947  level. 

The  greatest  gemmological  interest  of  the  year  centred 
upon  synthetic  gcmstones,  produced  by  experiments  carried 
out  in  the  U.S. A  ,  whcic,  as  a  direct  result  of  wartime 
necessities,  synthetic  stai -sapphire  and  synthetic  uitile  had 
been  produced.  Specimens  of  the  latter  were  exhibited  in 
1948  in  England,  where  the  astcnas  were  only  known  through 
their  descriptions  in  American  reports.  Fvcn  in  the  U.S.A., 
however,  technical  difficulties  in  production  made  it  im- 
possible to  market  these  stones  commercially  and  it  was 
reported  that  production  costs  were  too  high  for  mass  manu- 
facture to  be  contemplated.  The  few  specimens  of  the  rutile 
that  were  examined  were  in  private  collections  and  would 
most  certainly  not  be  marketed.  They  were  most  remarkable 
stones,  perfectly  transparent  and  possessing  such  extra- 
ordinary strong  colour  dispersion  that  the  fundamental 
yellow  colour  was  partially  masked.  The  synthetic  star- 
sapphire  was  reported  to  possess  a  perfectly  defined  six- 
pointed  star  that  was  thought  to  be  caused  by  the  interference 
of  light  set  up  by  its  reflection  from  properly  orientated 
needle-like  inclusions  of  synthetic  rutile.  The  determination 
of  cither  gemstone  presented  no  difficulty.  The  synthetic  rutile 
was  unlike  any  known  form  or  colour  of  the  natural  crystal, 
and  the  synthetic  sapphire  was  reported  to  contain  the 
characteristic  internal  features  typical  of  the  usual  product 
of  the  inverted  blowpipe  and  distinguishable  from  the 
blemishes  of  natural  specimens.  The  usual  slight  irregularities, 
characteristic  of  the  natural  asterias,  were  missing  and  the 
synthetic  product  might  be  suspected  by  the  brightness  and 
intensity  of  its  star.  (See  also  MINERALOGY.)  (F.  E.  LK.) 

GENETICS.  During  1949  the  interest  of  many  geneticists 
was  concentrated  on  the  problems  of  cytoplasmic  heredity, 
and  the  relations  between  hereditary  units  in  cytoplasm  and 

i  In  French  practice  a  groupe  is  a  parliamentary  representation  of  a  political 
party  and  an  inter xroupe  recruits  it*  members  from  many  groupes. 


nucleus.  A  number  of  contributions  to  this  subject  were 
published  in  a  symposium  volume  entitled  Unite's  biologiques 
donees  de  continuite  genetique,  in  which  various  kinds  of  self- 
duplicating  particles,  other  than  genes,  were  described,  in 
such  diverse  forms  of  life  as  viruses,  bacteria,  protozoa, 
green  plants  and  Drosophila  Nevertheless  much  doubt  still 
existed  regarding  the  reality  of  some  of  these  particles. 

Boris  Ephussi  reported  the  results  of  his  extensive  investi- 
gation into  the  character  petite  colome  in  yeasts.  This  muta- 
tion occurred  spontaneously  in  some  species  with  a  frequency 
of  \%>  but  much  more  often  (to  100%)  in  cultures  treated 
with  acriflavin.  The  mutation  was  found  as  often  in  haploid 
as  m  diploid  cultures,  and  breeding  experiments  failed  to 
establish  a  Mendelian  determination  of  the  trait.  It  wa°  there- 
fore concluded  that  a  form  of  cytoplasmic  heredity  was  in- 
volved. Physiological  studies  showed  that  the  mutants  were 
able  to  utilize  an  exogenous  substrate  (glucose)  only  by  a 
fermentative  path,  and  this  was  evidently  connected  with  the 
fact  that  the  mutants  showed  no  activity  of  the  enzymes 
cytochrome  oxydase  or  succmo-dchydrase.  It  was  further 
found  that  the  cictivity  of  succmo-oxydase  (in  normal  cells) 
v\as  bound  to  some  large  granules  separable  by  centnfu- 
gation  The  genetical  study  of  this  mutant  and  the  trans- 
formation of  populations  of  yeast  by  acriflavin  treatment 
led  to  the  hypothesis  that  there  existed  in  the  cytoplasm  of 
normal  yeast  cells  a  self-reproducing  corpuscular  factor, 
whose  loss  or  mutation  produced  the  mutant  cells. 

Further  progress  was  made  on  the  study  of  the  cytoplasmic 
factor  or  genoid  in  Drowptula  mclanogaster,  rendering  flies 
sensitive  to  killing  by  carbon  dioxide.  L.  Goldstein  obtained 
evidence  of  a  mutant  genoid,  differing  from  that  previously 
known  in  its  transmission  through  the  male  germ  cells.  The 
new  mutant  was  never  (or  with  extreme  rarity)  transmitted 
through  the  male,  whereas  the  original  genoid  was  regularly 
transmitted  in  a  certain  proportion  of  cells.  The  new  type  was 
obtained  by  injecting  ruemolymph  from  the  old  sensitive 
ebony  strain  (cr-e)  into  a  white  strain  (cr-w). 

The  rapidly  developing  subject  of  chemical  mutagenesis  was 
surveyed  by  Charlotte  Auerbach.  Additional  data  were 
accumulated  on  the  effects  of  mustard  gas  and  nitrogen 
mustard  on  Drosophila,  Neurospora,  bacteria  and  other 
organisms.  In  general  the  effects  of  these  substances  were 
found  to  be  similar  to  those  of  X-rays,  though  the  chemicals 
produced  a  smaller  proportion  of  large  deletions  and  trans- 
locations  than  X-rays.  An  effect  characteristic  of  mustard 
gas  was  the  production  of  delayed  mutations.  Other  sub- 
stances proved  to  be  mutagenic  were:  phenols  (visible 
mutations  in  Antirrhinum,  autosomal  lethals  in  Drosophila 
and  chromosome  disturbances  in  Alhum)\  urethane,  especially 
when  mixed  with  potassium  chloride  (translocations  in 
Onothera  and  mutations  in  Drosophila);  formalin,  when 
mixed  with  the  food  (Diosophilci)',  and  hydrogen  peroxide, 
when  added  to  the  medium  (bacteria) 

A  discovery  which  might  prove  of  outstanding  significance 
in  the  study  of  the  mutagenic  effect  of  radiations  was  made 
by  A.  Kelncr  and  confirmed  by  R.  Dulbecco.  It  was  found 
that  comdia  of  the  actmomycete  Streptomyccs  griseus,  after 
having  been  inactivated  by  treatment  with  ultra-violet  radia- 
tion, could  be  revived  by  subsequent  exposure  to  visible 
light.  The  effect  was  readily  reproducible  and  uniform,  and 
resulted  sometimes  in  a  400,000-fold  increase  in  number  of 
survivors  in  an  ultra-violet  irradiated  suspension.  The  re- 
activation effect  of  visible  light  was  proportional,  within 
limits,  to  the  intensity  of  the  light  and  to  the  duration  of 
exposure.  The  rate  of  reactivation  increased  with  rising 
temperature  from  20°C  to  50°C  The  photo-reactivation 
effect  was  also  demonstrated  with  all  seven  of  the  T  group  of 
coh-bactenophages,  provided  that  the  light  treatment  was 
applied  to  bacteria  already  infected  by  phage.  The  extent  of 


292 


GEOGRAPHY 


the  photo-reactivation  was  specific  for  each  phage  type.  No 
reactivation  was  observed  when  either  the  irradiated  phage, 
or  the  bacteria,  or  both,  were  exposed  separately  to  visible 
light  before  mixing.  No  photo-reactivation  was  observed 
with  phage  inactivated  by  X-rays. 

A.  D.  Hershey  and  Raquel  Rotman  obtained  further  data 
on  the  recombination  of  bacteriophage  traits  during  growth 
in  a  bacterium.  Two  types  of  phage  character  were  studied 
in  a  Ta  group:  (1)  host  range  (h),  or  the  ability  to  grow 
in  bacteria  of  a  particular  kind,  and  (2)  the  various  rapid 
lysing  types  (rlt  r7,  r^)  characterized  by  a  different  plaque 
size.  By  infecting  bacteria  with  two  different  types  of  phage 
simultaneously,  new  combinations  of  phage  character  were 
obtained  after  lysis,  and  the  following  recombination  values 
were  obtained:  hxrx — 15^6:  hxr7 — 7^4;  hxr13 — 1±1, 
where  the  figures  given  refer  to  percentages  of  either  recombi- 
nant  in  the  total  yield  of  phage.  The  authors  developed  a 
hypothesis  according  to  which  there  was  genetic  interaction 
not  between  two  phage  particles  but  between  two  sets  of 
independently  multiplying  chromosome-like  bodies,  or  by 
something  like  crossing-over  between  homologous  pairs. 

Knowledge  of  the  heredity  of  human  blood  groups  was 
enlarged  by  the  discovery  of  R.  Race  and  others  of  a  pair  of 
alleles  S  and  s  very  closely  linked  to  the  MN  genes.  No  re- 
combination was  observed  among  82  relevant  children. 
This  situation  was  therefore  similar  to  the  genetics  of  the 
well-known  Rh  character. 

Books  and  articles  by  geneticists  and  others  in  western 
countries  in  both  scientific  and  lay  publications  testified  to  the 
continued  interest  in  the  biological  controversy  in  the 
U.S.S.R.,  where  the  school  of  T.  D.  Lysenko,  denying  the 
validity  of  genetics  as  based  on  Mendelism  and  the  chromo- 
some theory,  was  successful  in  attaining  complete  domination. 

BIBI  IOGRAPHY.  Julian  Huxley,  Soviet  Genetics  and  World  Science 
(London,  1949);  John  Langdon-Davies,  Russia  Puts  the  Clock  Back 
(London,  1949);  Colloques  Jnternatlonaux  du  C.N.R.S  (8):  Unites 
biohgiqites  donees  de  lontinmie  genet  tque  (Pans,  1949);  Charlotte 
Auerbach,  "  Chemical  Mutagenesis,"  Biol  Rev  .  vol  24  (Cambridge, 
1949),  Boris  Ephrussi  et  a/,  i4  Action  dc  Pacnfldvinc  sur  les  levures," 
Ann  de  /7mf.  Pasteur,  vols  76  and  77  (Paris,  1949).  (Q.  H.  BE.) 

GEOGRAPHY.  The  year  was  notable  for  the  holding 
of  the  16th  International  Geographical  congress  at  Lisbon 
in  April.  These  congresses  convened  by  the  International 
Geographical  union  have  served,  since  the  first  was  held  at 
Antwerp  in  1871,  to  bring  together  from  all  over  the  world 
those  whose  subject  of  study  is  the  world  itself.  In  the  past 
they  initiated  such  projects  of  general  utility  as  the  inter- 
national map  of  the  world  on  the  scale  of  one  to  a  million 
(about  16  mi.  to  the  inch).  The  congress  of  1949  renewed  the 
continuity  of  the  series  which  had  been  interrupted  for  11 
years  by  World  War  II  and  the  Portuguese  government  and 
Portuguese  geographers  deserved  the  thanks  of  all  for  their 
tenacity  in  completing  the  arrangements  in  face  of  postwar 
difficulties  and  the  disappointments  which  led  to  the  congress' 
postponement  in  1948.  The  congress  was  well  attended 
and  revealed  a  continuing  activity  in  all  branches  of  the 
subject  during  the  difficult  years  since  the  last  meeting  at 
Amsterdam  in  1938;  years  in  which  there  had  been  little  or 
no  contact  between  workers  in  different  lands.  As  far  as  the 
congress  can  be  said  to  have  had  a  single  dominant  theme, 
it  was  the  necessity  for  understanding  and  making  known  the 
pattern  of  our  human  habitat,  so  significant  in  the  application 
of  science  and  technology.  Among  the  new  commissions 
set  up  at  the  congress  was  one  for  the  employment  of  the 
international  map  to  portray  a  wide  variety  of  geographical 
distributions,  in  particular,  the  distribution  of  the  world's 
population;  other  new  commissions  were  to  study  world 
land  use,  regional  planning  and  soil  erosion.  Their  work 
should  be  reflected  in  the  discussions  at  future  congresses; 


the  next  was  to  be  held  in  the  United  States  in  1952,  under 
the  presidency  of  Professor  George  B.  Cressey  of  Syracuse 
university.  The  retiring  president,  Professor  Emmanuel  de 
Martonne,  was  nominated  honorary  president  of  the 
geographical  union  for  life  in  recognition  of  his  long 
association  with  its  activities. 

Other  congresses  notable  for  their  geographical  bearing 
included  the  meeting  of  the  British  Association  at  Newcastle- 
upon-Tyne  where  section  E  (Geography)  displayed  much 
the  same  emphasis  on  land  use  and  the  human  habitat. 
A  congress  was  held  at  Johannesburg  at  which  representatives 
from  African  countries  and  from  states  having  commit- 
ments in  Africa  met  to  discuss  the  development  of  the 
resources  of  that  continent.  The  seventh  Pacific  Science 
congress  which  met  in  New  Zealand  in  Feb.  1949,  though 
not  primarily  geographical,  deliberated  the  problems  of  the 
Pacific  environment  in  very  much  the  same  terms  and 
research  programmes  were  formulated  similar  to  those  adopted 
at  Lisbon.  A  United  Nations  Scientific  Conference  on  the 
Conservation  and  Utilization  of  Resources  was  convened 
in  New  York  during  August  and  September. 

Another  international  congress,  on  an  aspect  of  geography 
less  obvious  in  its  practical  importance,  met  in  Brussels  to 
discuss  geographical  names.  Yet  the  practical  problem  of 
arriving  at  a  set  of  agreed  place  names  is  very  real  and,  with 
the  rapid  extension  of  international  relations,  immediate. 
It  might  appear  sufficient  to  use  for  each  place  the  name  by 
which  it  is  known  locally  but  even  that  name  is  often  ambigu- 
ous and  inadequately  recorded;  it  can  hardly  be  suitable 
for  cartographical  or  postal  use  unless  it  has  been  trans- 
literated into  a  script  that  is  generally  understood  and  it  may 
exist  only  in  a  language  that  has  never  been  reduced  to  writing. 
Many  countries,  for  example  Germany  (to  use  the  English 
form),  have  well  established  but  widely  different  names  in 
the  languages  of  their  neighbours.  These  problems  were 
discussed  at  the  conference,  though  no  final  conclusions 
were  reached.  There  were  also  papers  on  the  fascinating 
subject  of  noms  de  lieux-dits,  the  names  of  fields  and  other 
parcels  of  land  which,  though  seldom  of  more  than  extremely 
local  currency,  enshrine  much  historical  and  topographical 
information. 

The  development  of  the  world's  untapped  resources, 
which  loomed  so  large  in  the  proceedings  of  the  congresses, 
found  its  expression  in  the  inception  during  1949  of  a  number 
of  important  undertakings  which  cannot  but  be  of  interest 
to  geographers.  Work  was  begun  in  October  on  the  first 
of  a  series  of  dams  which  would  divert  the  headwaters  of  the 
Snowy  river  through  tunnels  beneath  the  Australian  Alps  to 
join  the  Murray  river.  The  diverted  drainage  would  furnish 
abundant  hydro-electric  power  and,  perhaps  of  greater 
importance,  it  would  augment  the  area  of  the  Murray  irriga- 
tion in  the  dry  interior  of  the  continent.  The  Australian  Alps 
intercept  the  rain  bearing  winds  from  the  Pacific,  standing 
between  the  relatively  well  watered  but  mountainous  coasts 
of  New  South  Wales  and  Victoria  and  the  potentially  fertile 
plains  of  the  Murray  valley;  the  dams  and  tunnels  were  to 
restore  to  the  plains  some  of  the  moisture  they  might  have 
enjoyed  had  they  not  been  shadowed  by  the  mountains. 

The  Nile  has  long  been  controlled  in  the  interests  of 
Egyptian  irrigation;  but  the  growing  area  of  cultivation  and 
the  requirements  of  the  Sudan  have  called  for  ever  increasing 
storage  capacities  in  the  Nile  reservoirs.  A  plan  was  authorized 
during  1949  by  the  Egyptian  government  for  the  control 
of  the  White  Nile  at  the  point  where  it  issues  from  Lake 
Victoria  at  Jinja  in  Uganda.  The  dam  at  the  Owen  falls 
would  serve  to  generate  hydro-electric  power,  and  the  con- 
trolled level  of  the  lake  would  ensure  a  greater  regularity 
in  the  flow  of  the  Nile,  averting  the  floods  and  droughts 
equally  disastrous  to  Lower  Egypt.  To  reduce  the  losses  by 


GEOLOGY 


293 


evaporation  it  was  proposed  to  construct  a  canal  to  bypass  the 
papyrus  swamps  of  the  Sudan.  A  similar  control  of  the  Blue 
Nile  at  its  point  of  issue  from  Lake  Tana  was  envisaged. 
A  point  of  interest  was  the  effect  which  the  more  regular 
flow  of  the  White  Nile  must  have  on  the  cattle-breeding 
tribes  of  the  Sudan  who,  though  they  did  not  use  its  water 
for  irrigation,  depended  on  its  periodical  inundations  for 
their  pastures.  This  led  to  an  investigation  into  the  character- 
istics of  river  cross-sections. 

The  African  groundnut  scheme  scarcely  fulfilled  its  early 
promise  and  the  report  published  by  the  British  government 
in  Nov.  1949  provided  sober  reading  on  a  venture  entered 
upon  with  enthusiasm  but  with  an  inadequate  assessment 
of  the  geographical  factors  involved. 

Even  in  normally  well  watered  lands  the  exceptional 
weather  of  the  year  provoked  a  more  than  academic  interest 
in  the  problems  of  water  supply.  In  point  of  long  standing 
records  broken,  it  was  a  matter  for  the  admiration  of 
meteorologists.  The  greater  part  of  western  Europe 
experienced  a  long  and  almost  rainless  summer  and  a  disastrous 
drought  prevailed  in  Spain;  on  the  other  hand  it  was 
unusually  wet  and  cold  in  Iceland  and  northern  Scandinavia. 
A  similar  anomalous  translation  of  climate  was  experienced 
on  the  eastern  and  western  coasts  of  North  America.  In 
England  there  was  concern  for  public  water  supplies  and  the 
flow  of  the  Thames  over  Teddington  weir  became  a  feature 
in  the  newspapers;  not  only  did  it  threaten  the  Londoner 
with  a  curtailed  supply  but  it  presented  the  Port  of  London 
authority  with  the  problems  of  a  polluted  river.  The  possible 
consequences  of  climatic  fluctuation  were  bi  ought  home  to 
the  geographer  and  it  was  seen  that  in  a  highly  urbanized 
community,  even  in  a  temperate  clime,  water  might  become 
a  limiting  factor  in  the  planning  of  towns  and  industries. 

Since  the  great  achievements  of  the  18th  century,  navigation 
had  been  an  established  rather  than  an  actively  growing 
branch  of  mathematical  geography;  but  1949  might  be 
considered  notable  for  two  discussions  held  by  the  Institute 
of  Navigation  in  London;  the  first  on  the  use  of  radar  at 
sea  and  the  second  on  astronomical  navigation  in  the  air. 
Practical  navigators  met  to  discuss  the  limitations  of  the 
techniques  now  established  and  the  fields,  where  knowledge 
was  incomplete,  for  further  investigation. 

The  political  geographer  saw  fewer  formal  changes  to 
his  map  of  the  world  in  1949  than  in  previous  postwar  years, 
but  the  inclusion  of  Newfoundland  in  the  dominion  of 
Canada  came  into  effect,  having  been  decided  by  referendum 
in  1948.  In  the  East  Indies,  the  transfer  of  sovereignty  from 
the  Dutch  crown  to  the  new  republic  of  the  United  States  of 
Indonesia  took  place  on  Dec.  27.  The  city  of  Batavia  was 
renamed  Jakarta.  During  the  year  Transjordan  was 
renamed  Jordan;  Iran,  Persia;  and  Siam,  Thailand. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  "  The  White  Nile  flood  plain  and  the  effect  of 
proposed  control  schemes,"  Geographical  Journal,  vol  114,  London, 
1949;  first  Annual  Report  of  the  Overseas  Food  Corporation,  London, 
1949;  Journal  of  the  Institute  of  Navigation,  vol.  2,  London.  (F.  GE,) 

GEOLOGY.  An  exhibition  of  the  work  of  colonial 
geological  surveys  held  at  the  Imperial  institute  in  July 
illustrated  geological  mapping  in  relation  particularly  to 
mineral  wealth  and  water  supplies.  Also  in  July  the  fourth 
Empire  Mining  and  Metallurgical  congress  met  in  London 
and  Oxford.  Papers  with  special  reference  to  South  Africa, 
Australia  and  Canada  were  read  on  modern  mineral  pros- 
pecting methods  such  as  aerial  photography  and  various 
geophysical  and  geochemical  means;  also  on  radioactivity 
measurements  in  the  search  for  radioactive  minerals. 

The  British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science 
met  in  Newcastle-upon-Tyne.  Professor  Hans  Petterson 
gave  an  account  of  the  cruise  of  the  "  Albatross  "  which 


aroused  wide  interest.  Two  hundred  long  cores  were  taken  of 
sediments  at  depths  between  2,000  and  more  than  4,000 
fathoms,  their  combined  length  exceeding  one  mile.  Continu- 
ous echo-sounding  records  were  obtained  showing  the  profile 
of  the  ocean-floor  which  was  in  some  places  very  irregular. 
Records  of  explosives  in  water  at  depths  between  300  and 
3,500  fathoms  enabled  the  haid  floor  below  the  soft  sediments, 
or  the  "  bottom  below  the  bottom,"  to  be  determined.  It 
was  thus  found  that  the  thickness  of  soft  sediments  in  the 
Atlantic  ocean  was  nearly  12,000ft.  whereas  in  the  Indian 
and  Pacific  oceans  it  was  less  than  1,000  ft  It  is  possible  that 
lava  flows  in  past  times  gave  a  '*  false  "  bottom  and  thus 
concealed  the  full  thickness  of  sediments.  Methods  were 
suggested  which  might  throw  light  on  the  age  or  chronology 
of  the  sediments  represented  by  the  cores.  The  radium 
content  of  sea  water  is  less  than  that  in  equilibrium  with  the 
uranium  but  that  of  the  very  deep  sea  sediments  is  fairly 
high.  It  was  supposed  therefore  that  an  intermediate  product 
(ionium)  in  the  uranium-radium  reaction  chain  might  be 
largely  precipitated.  Hence  analysis  of  the  various  layers  might 
be  expected  to  give  their  relative  ages.  Also  the  species  of 
Foraminifera  in  the  Globigerina  ooze  varied  in  different 
layers  and  the  variation  was  apparently  related  to  the  tem- 
perature of  the  water  in  which  the  species  lived  which  sug- 
gested that  it  might  be  possible  to  identify  past  climates  such 
as  glacial  conditions  in  these  sediments.  (See  F.  B.  Phleger, 
Bull.  GeoL  Soc.  Am.,  vol.  60,  1949.) 

In  Section  C  (Geology),  in  a  discussion  on  the  education 
of  a  professional  geologist,  it  was  agreed  that  a  post-graduate 
course  of  specialized  training  was  beneficial.  The  president 
of  section  C  (Professor  W.  J.  Pugh)  reviewed  recent  work 
on  the  Lower  Palieozoic  rocks  of  Great  Britain. 

Recent  geological  work  of  general  interest.  A.  Holmes 
(GeoL  Mag.,  London,  July-Aug.  1949)  reviewed  the  ages  of 
certain  uraninites  and  monazites  from  the  pre-Cambrian 
rocks  of  India  and  concluded  that  they  represented  two 
cycles  of  igneous  action — one  about  735  million  years  ago 
and  the  earlier  about  900  million  years. 

E.  C.  Bullard  (VeroffentL  des  Finnischen  Geoddtischen 
Institutes,  Helsinki,  no.  36,  1949)  discussed  the  age  of  the 
earth  from  the  examination  of  radioactive  and  isotopic 
contents  of  lead  in  lead  ores  of  various  ages — a  method  which 
was  suggested  by  A  Holmes.  He  arrived  at  a  figure  of  the 
time  which  has  elapsed  since  the  crust  of  the  earth  solidified 
of  3,290  ;!.  200  million  years. 

O.  T.  Jones  and  W.  J.  Pugh  (Quart.  Journ.  GeoL  Soc., 
pt.  1,  London,  1949)  described  an  early  Ordovician  shore- 
line in  Radnorshire  near  Builth  Wells,  Wales,  which  was  still 
in  a  remarkably  good  state  of  preservation  in  spite  of  its 
great  antiquity. 

P.  E.  Kent  (Proc.  GeoL  Aisoc.,  1949)  published  a  structure 
contour  map  based  on  numerous  borings,  showing  the  depths 
to  the  rocks  which  are  older  than  the  Permian.  It  showed 
four  great  depressions  or  basins  filled  with  new  red  sand- 
stone (Permian  and/or  Trias).  The  Solway  basin  exceeds 
4,500  ft.,  the  west  Lancashire  basin  and  the  Cheshire  basins 
are  each  more  than  6,500ft.  and  the  Severn  basin  about 
3,500  ft.  The  pre-Permian  rocks  in  the  Hampshire  basin 
were  believed  to  descend  to  about  12,000  ft.  below  the  surface. 

Hallam  L.  Movius,  Jr.  (Journ.  of  GeoL,  Chicago,  July 
1949),  described  the  stratigraphy  of  the  Villafranchian  in 
southern  and  southwestern  Europe.  The  main  conclusions 
were:  (1)  the  Villafranchian  deposits  overlie  Upper  Pliocene 
and  are  immediately  overlain  by  deposits  of  the  first  inter- 
glacial  period  (Cromer  Forest  beds);  (2)  they  were  laid  down 
during  a  period  of  deterioration  of  climate  (temperature) 
which  heralded  the  first  glacial  stage.  The  Villafranchian  is 
therefore  Pleistocene  and  it  was  indicated  in  the  correlation 
table  that  the  newer  red  crag  of  East  Anglia  belongs  to  this 


294 


GEORGE  VI 


stage.  An  important  review  of  Pleistocene  research  was  pub- 
lished by  the  Geological  Society  of  America  (Bull.,  vol.  60, 
Sept.  1949). 

Geomorphohgy.  E.  S.  Hills  (Geol.  Mag.,  May-June,  1949) 
traced  the  development  of  ideas  regarding  the  mode  of 
formation  of  shore  platforms.  He  considered  that  weathering 
at  water  level  of  rocks  of  various  kinds,  organic  agencies  and 
cementation  might  each  have  an  effect  in  addition  to  the 
normal  wave  erosion  in  shaping  these  platforms. 

L.  King  (Geol.  Mag.,  July-Aug.,  1949)  discussed  the  Pied- 
mont problem  with  special  reference  to  South  Africa  and 
considered  that  the  feature  was  developed  by  sheet  flow  of 
water  along  the  foot  of  highland  areas. 

C.  A.  M.  King  and  W.  W.  Williams  (Geog.  Journal,  1949) 
investigated  the  movement  and  formation  of  sandbars  by 
wave  action.  This  work  arose  out  of  wartime  observations 
on  the  distribution  of  sand  under  the  shallow  waters  off 
enemy-held  beaches  which  were  also  supplemented  by  tank 
experiments. 

Economic.  O.  T.  Jones  (Geol.  Mag.,  1949)  discussed  the 
volatile  contents  of  coal  seams  and  considered  them  to  be 
the  consequence  of  their  former  depth  of  burial.  It  was 
believed  that  the  temperature  at  a  depth  promoted  the  loss 
of  volatiles  from  vegetable  matter,  that  pressure  retarded 
it  and  the  rate  of  sedimentation  during  the  later  stages  of  the 
coal  measures  might  also  have  to  be  taken  into  account. 

(O.  T.  J.) 

United  States.  General  Geology.  Revisions  of  the  Introduc- 
tion to  Physical  Geology  by  W.  J.  Miller  and  Geology: 
Principles  and  Processes  by  W.  H.  Emmons  and  others 
became  available.  Some  important  new  books  included 
Introduction  to  College  Geology  by  Chauncey  D.  Holmes, 
New  York,  and  Geology,  An  Introduction  to  Earth  History 
by  H.  H.  Read,  Oxford,  England. 

Historical  Geology.  Two  outstanding  textbooks  appeared — 
Introduction  to  Historical  Geology  by  R.  C.  Moore  and 
Historical  Geology  by  C.  O.  Dunbar.  In  Germany,  Roland 
Brinkmann's  revision  of  Emanuel  Kayser's  Abriss  der 
Geologic,  Part  2  of  Histonsche  Geologic,  was  issued.  A.  J. 
Eardley's  valuable  paper  on  "  Palaeotectonic  and  Palaeo- 
geologic  maps  of  Central  and  Western  North  America,"  was 
published  in  the  May  issue  of  the  Bulletin  of  the  American 
Association  of  Petroleum  Geologists. 

Stratigraphy.  A  realization  of  the  importance  of  facies 
changes  in  both  pure  and  applied  geology  resulted  in  the 
publication  of  a  symposium  on  the  subject  in  memoir  39 
of  the  Geological  Society  of  America,  based  on  a  conference 
held  under  the  chairmanship  of  C.  R.  Longwell.  "  Sedi- 
mentary Facies  in  Gulf  Coast "  was  the  subject  of  a  far 
reaching  paper  by  S.  W.  Lowman  in  the  Dec.  1949  issue  of 
the  Bulletin  of  the  American  Association  of  Petroleum 
Geologists. 

Structural  Geology.  In  his  presidential  address  before  the 
Geological  Society  of  America,  published  in  the  April 
Bulletin,  James  Gilluly  attacked  the  widely  accepted  concept 
of  the  periodicity  of  mountain-building  movements. 

Petrology  and  Petrography.  The  problem  of  granitization 
dominated  the  field  of  igneous  petrology.  The  November 
issue  of  the  American  Journal  of  Science  carried  a  review  of 
the  problem  by  R.  A.  Daly.  The  results  of  studies  of"  Internal 
Structure  of  Granitic  Pegmatites  "  by  E.  N.  Cameron  and 
others  appeared  as  monograph  2,  Economic  Geology.  The 
crystallization  of  a  magma  from  the  walls  inward  was  con- 
sidered to  be  the  cause  of  zoning  in  these  rocks.  Sedimentary 
Rocks,  by  F.  J.  Pettijohn,  represented  an  outstanding  addition 
to  the  literature  on  geology.  Continued  interest  in  research 
on  clays  was  indicated  by  several  articles.  In  the  January 
issue  of  American  Journal  of  Science,  C.  M.  Gilbert  and 
F.  J.  Turner  advocated  universal  stage  techniques  for  the 


study  of  sedimentary  rocks.  In  a  brief  article  in  Science  for 
Feb.  18,  W.  H.  Newhouse  and  others  set  forth  a  hypothesis 
for  structural  (planar)  control  of  migrating  chemical  elements 
in  metamorphic  processes. 

Applied  Geology*  Two  main  trends  continued  to  dominate 
the  study  of  metallic  ore  deposits:  structural  control  and  wall 
rock  alteration.  The  former  had  received  attention  in  the 
excellent  Structural  Geology  of  Canadian  Ore  Deposits  (1948) 
by  a  number  of  authors,  and  the  latter  was  the  subject  for  a 
symposium  at  the  75th  anniversary  celebration  of  the  Colorado 
School  of  Mines,  Golden,  Colorado.  Rock  Alteration  as  a 
Guide  to  Ore— East  Tintic  District,  Utah,  by  T.  S.  Lovering 
and  others,  was  published  as  monograph  1 ,  Economic  Geology. 
As  an  aid  to  prospectors  for  radioactive  ores,  numerous 
handbooks  were  published  by  governmental  agencies. 
Prospecting  for  Uranium  (U.S.  Atomic  Energy  commission) 
and  Prospector's  Guide  for  Uranium  and  Thorium  Minerals 
in  Canada  (Bureau  of  Mines,  Canada)  were  examples. 

The  second  edition  of  Geologic  des  Gites  Mineraux  by 
E.  Raguin  seemed  valuable  for  a  general  study  of  mineral 
deposits.  Examination  and  Valuation  oj  Mineral  Property, 
3rd  ed.,  by  R.  D.  Parks,  also  merited  the  attention  of  mining 
engineers  and  geologists.  A  revival  of  interest  in  research  on 
the  geology  of  coal  was  evidenced  by  several  excellent  papers 
by  G.  H.  Cady  and  others  in  Economic  Geology  and  by  a 
coal  research  symposium  at  the  meeting  of  the  Geological 
Society  of  America  in  El  Paso,  Texas. 

Among  petroleum  geologists  the  interest  in  reef  limestones 
as  reservoirs  for  oil  and  gas  increased  rapidly  us  a  result  of 
discoveries  and  extensions  of  such  types  of  pools  in  Alberta, 
Canada,  and  in  the  Permian  basin  of  west  Texas.  Three  new 
text  and  reference  books  in  the  field  of  petroleum  geology 
appeared:  Subsurface  Geological  Methods,  a  symposium  by 
42  contributors,  compiled  and  edited  by  L.  W.  LeRoy  and 
H.  M.  Crain,  and  published  as  a  quarterly  by  the  Colorado 
School  of  Mines;  Principles  of  Petroleum  Geology  by  C.  G. 
Lalicker;  and  Oil  Fields  in  North  America  by  W.  A.  Ver 
Wiebe.  (See  also  MINERALOGY;  PALEONTOLOGY;  SEIS- 
MOLOGY.) (B.  H.  P.,  F.  M.  V.  T.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  P.  G.  H.  Boswell,  The  Middle  Silurian  Rocks  of 
North  Wales  (London,  1949)  and  Review  of  the  Resources  and  Con- 
sumption of  Water  in  the  Greater  London  Area  (London,  1949);  K.  E. 
Bullen,  The  Composition  of  the  Earth'  An  Introduction  to  Seismology 
(Cambridge,  1949);  J  S.  Flett  and  J.  B.  Hill,  The  Geology  of  the  Lizard 
and  Meneage,  Mem.  of  the  Geol  Soc.  (London,  1946);  C  S.  Fox, 
The  Geology  of  Water  Supply  (Kingston  Hill,  Surrey,  1949):  F.  R.  C. 
Reed,  The  Geology  oj  the  British  Empire  (2nd  ed  ,  London,  J949); 
L.  J.  Wills,  rhe  Paltfogeography  of  the  Midland  Region  (London,  1949). 

GEORGE  VI,  king  of  Great  Britain,  Ireland  and  the 
British  dominions  (b.  York  cottage,  Sandringham,  Dec.  14, 
1895).  During  1948  plans  were  announced  for  a  royal  tour 
of  Australia  and  New  Zealand  in  1949  by  the  King,  the  Queen 
and  Princess  Margaret;  but  on  Nov.  23,  1948,  it  was 
announced  that  the  King  was  suffering  from  obstruction  to 
the  circulation  of  the  right  leg  and  that  on  medical  advice 
he  was  postponing  the  visit.  (See  Encyclopedia  Britannica 
and  Britannica  Book  of  the  Year  1949). 

On  March  12,  1949,  an  operation  of  lumbar  sympa- 
thcctomy  was  performed  in  Buckingham  palace  by  Professor 
J.  Learmonth  (who  was  later  invested  a  knight  commander 
of  the  Royal  Victorian  order).  The  King  made  good  progress 
and  at  the  beginning  of  April  went  to  Royal  lodge,  Windsor. 
lie  returned  to  London  to  entertain  the  Commonwealth 
ministers  on  April  21  and  on  May  3  entertained  the  European 
foreign  ministers  who  were  in  London  for  discussions  on  the 
constitution  of  the  Council  of  Europe.  On  July  14  he  received 
the  Commonwealth  finance  ministers  who  were  meeting  in 
London.  On  June  9  he  attended  the  trooping  of  the  colour 
parade  on  the  occasion  of  the  official  celebration  of  his 


GERHARDSEN-GERMANY 


295 


birthday  in  a  semi-state  landau  instead  of  on  horseback,  and 
later  in  the  same  month  he  officially  inaugurated  "  Colonial 
Month  "  at  a  ceremony  at  Church  house,  London.  As 
colonel  in  chief  of  the  Irish  Guards  he  presented  new  colours 
to  the  1st  battalion  of  the  regiment  at  Buckingham  palace 
on  July  21.  On  Aug.  3  he  received  the  chiefs  of  staff  of  the 


King  George  (left)  with  Field  Marshal  Viscount  Alexander  of  Tunis, 
governor  general  of  Canada,  at  Buckingham  Palace,  July  27,  1949, 

when  His  Majesty  presented  colours  to  the  Irish  Guards. 
United  States,  Denmark,  Norway  and  Great  Britain.  On 
Aug.  5  he  left  London  for  Balmoral  castle  for  his  annual 
summer  holiday  and  was  sufficiently  recovered  from  his 
illness  to  take  part  in  many  grouse  shooting  excursions.  He 
received  King  Abdullah  of  Jordan  (q.v.)  at  Balmoral  on 
Aug.  27;  and  on  Sept.  15  held  a  Privy  Council  at  which 
measures  connected  with  the  devaluation  of  the  pound  on 
Sept.  18  were  approved.  He  broke  his  holiday  in  order  to 
attend  the  wedding  of  his  nephew,  the  Earl  of  Harewood,  to 
Miss  Marion  Stein  at  St.  Mark's,  North  Audley  street, 
London,  on  Sept.  29.  He  laid  a  wreath  at  the  Cenotaph  on 
Remembrance  day,  Nov.  6,  and  on  Christmas  day  broadcast 
to  the  peoples  of  the  Commonwealth  and  empire. 

GERHARDSEN,  EINAR  HENRY,  Norwegian 
statesman  (b.  Asker,  nr.  Oslo,  May  10,  1897),  chairman  of 
the  Arbeiderpartiet  (Labour  party)  and,  from  June  26,  1945, 
prime  minister.  (For  his  early  career  see  Britannica  Book  of 
the  Year  1949). 

Early  in  1949  he  played  a  decisive  part  in  the  negotiations 
which  preceded  Norway's  adherence  to  the  North  Atlantic 
treaty.  In  January  he  refused  a  Swedish  suggestion  of  a 
Scandinavian  grouping  of  neutrals.  In  March  he  rejected  a 
proposal  by  Moscow  of  a  Soviet-Norwegian  non-aggression 
pact.  After  the  general  election  of  Oct.  10,  he  expressed 
pleasure  at  the  success  of  his  party  and  satisfaction  that  the 
continuance  of  stable  government  was  assured.  Due  con- 


sideration to  the  opposition,  however,  would  be  given. 
'*  In  times  such  as  these,"  he  said,  "  we  should  not  indulge 
in  the  luxury  of  tearing  each  other  to  pieces  in  internecine 
struggle." 

GERMAN  LITERATURE.  The  only  remarkable 
book  connected  with  Goethe's  centenary  did  not,  in  fact, 
come  from  an  author  in  Germany  but  from  Karl  Victor,  a 
literary  historian,  who  for  more  than  ten  years  had  been 
teaching  German  literature  at  Harvard  university.  His 
Goethe:  Dichtung,  Wissenschaft,  Weltbild,  published  in 
Switzerland,  deal^with  the  intellectual  and  external  influences 
that  affected  Goethe  and  found  expression  in  his  work  and 
in  his  humanistic  attitude  to  life. 

There  was  a  noticeable  tendency  among  German  critics 
rather  to  return  to  the  "  eternal  treasure  "  of  old  poetry 
and  prose  than  to  discuss  topical  problems.  In  1949  the 
attention  of  the  younger  generation  was  drawn  to  Gottfried 
Keller  whose  novels  and  stories  expressed  the  bourgeois 
ideals  of  the  19th  century  for  which  a  certain  nostalgia  was 
felt;  Erwin  Ackerknecht's  Gottfried  Keller:  Geschichte 
seines  Lebens  traced  the  stages  of  the  writer's  literary  develop- 
ment. Among  other  essays  Holderlin  und  die  Landschaft  by 
Romano  Guardini,  a  Roman  Catholic  philosopher,  was  a 
masterly  study  which  showed  how  the  landscape  in  Holder- 
lin's  poetry  changed  from  romantic  to  classical  and,  finally, 
as  his  madness  progressed,  became  chaotic.  Helmut  Wocke's 
Holderlins  christliches  Erbe,  however,  was  unconvincing  in 
its  attempt  to  show  the  influence  of  Protestant  theology  on 
the  poet's  thought.  Perhaps  the  most  comprehensive  work 
in  this  category  was  Professor  Ernst  Robert  Curtius' 
Europaische  Literatur  und  lateinisches  Mittelalter  which  was 
an  illuminating  and  scholarly  history  of  the  sources  of 
European  literature. 

In  poetry,  Stephan  Hermlin's  22  Balladen  struck  a  new  note; 
but  the  best  that  could  be  said  of  Rudolf  Hagelstange  (Strom 
der  Zeit),  Karl  Ludwig  Skutsch  (Dichterische  Weisung)  and 
Horst  Lange  (Gedichte  aus  zwanzig  Jahren)  and  other  poets 
such  as  Alexander  Lernet  Holenia  and  Werner  Bergengriin, 
was  that  they  followed  the  tradition  of  Hugo  von  Hofmanns- 
thal,  Stephan  George,  Rainer  Maria  Rilke  and  certain  classics 
without  adding  anything  fresh  and  truly  moving.  Postwar 
German  poetry  remained  a  civilized  but  barren  desert.  The- 
publication  of  Karl  Zuckmayer's  Gedichte  1 916- 1 948,  es- 
pecially the  poems  written  in  the  1920s  under  the  influence  of 
Arthur  Rimbaud,  was  welcomed. 

There  was  more  promise  among  young  fiction  writers. 
Ursula  Risse's  volume  of  short  stories,  Verwehter  Sommer, 
was  a  curious  mixture  of  fairy  tale  and  existentialist  thought. 
Her  religious  feeling  and  concern  with  mankind's  fate  sugges- 
ted that  she  might  become  a  significant  writer.  Herman 
HakeFs  Zwischenstation,  a  collection  of  sketches  and  poems  in 
prose,  showed  that  he  needed  first  to  free  himself  from  Franz 
Kafka's  influence  with  its  hopeless  resignation.  Grete  Weil's 
short  novel  Ans  Ende  der  Welt,  a  love  story  set  among  Jews 
condemned  to  be  deported  to  the  gas  chambers,  marked  the 
new  generation  in  literature.  Werner  Richter's  Die  Geschlag- 
nen  was  a  war  novel  which,  however,  had  to  be  counted  a 
failure.  The  unfinished  third  volume  of  Robert  Musil's  great 
novel,  Der  Mann  ohne  Eigenschaften,  was  published.  Thomas 
Mann's  Die  Entstehung  des  Dr.  Faust  us,  with  the  soul  of  a 
creative  artist  and  the  forces  that  struggle  to  possess  it  as 
its  central  theme,  was  eagerly  read,  although  this  work  by 
Germany's  greatest  living  writer  did  not  altogether  fulfil  the 
high  expectations  it  had  aroused.  (J.  KR.) 

GERMANY.  A  country  of  central  Europe,  bounded  on 
the  north  by  the  North  sea,  Denmark  and  the  Baltic  sea, 
on  the  east  by  Poland,  on  the  south  by  Czechoslovakia, 


296 


GERMANY 


Austria  and  Switzerland,  and  on  the  west  by  France,  Luxem- 
bourg, Belgium  and  the  Netherlands.  According  to  a 
declaration  signed  in  Berlin  on  June  5,  1945,  the  country 
was  under  the  supreme  authority  of  the  four  Allied  powers 
— the  United  States,  Great  Britain,  the  U.S.S.R.  and  France—- 
and divided  into  four  following  zones: 

Population 

Area  (May  17.  1939  (Oct.  29,  1946 

Zones  (sq.  mi.)  census)  census) 

British        .        37,723    )  19,785,500  (  22,344,900 

United  States    41,506     >  94,634      14,257,600       44,523-3     17,174,400 
French       .        15,405*5  6,088,900  (    5,004,000* 

Soviet        .        41,623  15,157,100  17,332,900 

Berlin        .  344  4,321,500  3,179,200 


137,335f 


59,610,600 


65,035,400 


SOUKCB:  Statistical  Bulletin  of  the  Control  Commission  for  Germany  (British 
Element) 

•  Excluding  the  Saar  (area,  734  sq.  mi  ;    pop  874,400). 

t  Including  some  small  German  frontier  areas  which,  as  agreed  upon  under  the 
six-power  agreement  of  March  26,  1949,  were  taken  over  by  Belgium,  Luxembourg, 
the  Netherlands  and  the  Saar  respectively  (total  area,  52-1  sq  mi  ,  total  pop, 
about  13,500). 

Before  the  Anschluss  of  Austria  the  area  of  Germany  was 
181,677  sq.  mi.  with  a  population  (May  17,  1939,  census)  of 
69,317,000.  The  British,  Soviet  and  U.S.  zones  contained 
larger  populations  than  in  1939;  by  1946  the  zonal  increases 
were:  British  zone  12-9%,  Soviet  14-4%,  U.S.  20-5%.  The 
additional  inhabitants  were  mainly  Germans  evacuated  or 
transferred  from  Poland  and  Czechoslovakia.  Only  the 
population  of  the  French  zone  was  less  (3-5%)  than  in  1938. 
Chief  cities  (first  figure,  1939  census;  second  figure,  1946 
census):  Berlin (4, 3 3 2,242;  3,180,383);  Hamburg (1,7 11, 877; 
1,406,158);  Munich  (829,318;  738,018);  Cologne  (772,221; 
489,812);  Leipzig  (707,365;  608,111);  Essen  (666,743; 
520,592);  Dresden  (630,216;  463,032);  Frankfurt-on-Main 
(553,464;  389,097);  Dusseldorf  (541,410;  421,506);  Dort- 
mund (542,261;  436,198);  Hanover  (470,950;  347,040). 
Language  (1946  est.):  German  with  small  admixtures  of 
Lusatian  (260,000  in  Kottbus-Bautzen  area),  Polish  (150,000, 
mainly  in  Westphalia)  and  Danish  (17,000).  Religion  (1938 
est.):  Protestant  62-7%;  Roman  Catholic  32-5%;  Jewish 
0-7%;  others  4-1%. 

During  the  year  Germany  was  virtually  partitioned  into 
two  states  with  a  special  provisional  regime  for  Berlin  (q.v.). 

Western  Germany.  Area,  94,634  sq.  mi.  Pop.  (June  30, 
1949,  est.):  47,254,900  which  indicated  an  increase  of 
2,731,600  since  Oct.  29,  1946;  only  during  the  first  six 
months  of  1949  the  population  of  western  Germany  increased 
by  407,000  including  105,000  returning  prisoners  of  war  and 
162,000  refugees  from  the  Soviet  zone.  Capital:  Bonn  (q.v.). 
President  of  the  German  federal  republic,  Dr.  Theodor 
Heuss  fy.v.);  federal  chancellor,  Dr.  Konrad  Adenauer 
(q.v.)\  Allied  high  commissioners:  British,  Sir  Brian  Robert- 
son; French,  Andre  Francois- Poncet  (q.v.)\  U.S.,  John 
J.  McCloy  (q.v.).  Allied  commanders  in  chief  in  Western 
Germany:  British,  Lieutenant  General  Sir  Charles  F. 
Keightley;  U.S.,  Lieutenant  General  Clarence  R.  Huebner; 
French,  General  A.  Guillaume. 

Eastern  Germany.  President  of  the  German  Democratic 
republic,  Wilhelm  Pieck  (q.v.);  prime  minister,  Otto  Grote- 
wohl  Gy. v.).  Soviet  Control  commission:  Army  General 
Vasily  Ivanovich  ChuykovOy.v.),  chairman;  Ivan  Fedorovich 
Semichastnov,  deputy  chairman;  Vladimir  Semenovich 
Semenov,  political  adviser. 

History.  The  establishment  of  a  West  German  Federal 
republic  and  of  an  East  German  Democratic  republic  in 
1949  marked  the  final  stage  of  the  partition  of  Germany. 
The  three  western  Allies,  despite  many  disagreements,  main- 
tained a  common  policy  of  progressively  handing  back  to 
Western  Germany  her  sovereignty  and  of  modifying  and 
reducing  the  restrictions  and  limitations  on  her  industry. 


The  remaining  restrictions  were  to  be  supervised  by  the  Ruhr 
authority  and  the  Military  Security  board. 

The  Ruhr  statute  which  was  published  by  the  three  western 
Allies  in  Dec.  1948  laid  down  that  a  Ruhr  authority  was  to 
allocate  coal,  coke  and  steel,  prevent  discriminatory  trade 
practices  and  safeguard  foreign  interests  in  the  Ruhr.  It  was 
to  consist  of  15  members  (3  U.S.,  3  British,  3  French,  3  Ger- 
man, and  one  from  each  of  the  Benelux  countries).  The 
German  political  leaders  protested  energetically  against  the 
Ruhr  statute  on  the  grounds  that  it  would  be  used  to  prejudice 
Western  Germany's  competitive  position  and  that  such 
control  could  only  be  justified  if  its  authority  were  extended 
over  the  whole  of  western  Europe's  heavy  industry. 

On  Jan.  17  the  Allied  Security  board  was  set  up,  consisting 
of  Major  General  James  P.  Hodges  (U.S.),  Major  General 
V.  J.  Westropp  (Great  Britain),  General  Etiennc  Paskiewicz 
(France).  Its  sphere  of  responsibility  was  to  be  prevention  of 
military  organizations,  of  the  manufacture  or  import  of 
arms,  and  of  war  preparations  through  scientific  research. 

Major  political  and  industrial  concessions  to  Western 
Germany  which  had  been  busily  discussed  in  London  during 
the  first  two  months  of  the  year  became  accomplished  facts 
in  April  and  May.  On  April  13,  in  Washington,  the  three 
western  ministers  of  foreign  affairs  signed  an  agreement  under 
which  150  industrial  plants  scheduled  to  be  dismantled  were 
to  be  struck  off  the  dismantling  list.  The  following  production 
quotas  were  authorized  in  the  case  of  the  industries  forbidden 
in  1945:  ball-bearings  33  million  units  a  year;  aluminium 
85,000  tons  a  year;  styrin  20,000  tons  a  year.  All  synthetic 
petrol  and  synthetic  rubber  plants  were  to  be  dismantled 
with  the  exception  of  the  Wesseling  hydrogenation  plant. 
Aircraft  construction  remained  forbidden. 

German  Federal  Republic.  On  May  8  the  Basic  law  or 
constitution  for  the  West  German  Federal  republic  was 
agreed  by  the  parliamentary  council  of  65  members  which 
had  been  elected  by  the  state  (Land)  parliaments  in  Oct. 
1948  and  which  had  been  drafting  and  debating  this  consti- 
tutional document  for  eight  months  at  Bonn.  Twelve  votes 
were  cast  against  the  Basic  law:  six  by  the  Bavarian  Christian 
Social  union  and  two  each  by  the  Centre  party,  the  German 
party,  and  the  Communist  party.  The  final  adoption  was 
preceded  by  an  anxious  two  months  of  debate  and  negotiation 
between  the  leading  West  German  political  parties  and  the 
Allied  authorities.  In  general  the  Western  Allies  favoured  in 
varying  degrees  a  constitution  which  would  establish  a  highly 
decentralized  federal  state.  The  Christian  Democratic  union 
were  also  in  favour  of  concentrating  more  power  in  the  hands 
of  the  individual  states  (Lander)  than  was  thought  desirable 
by  the  Social  Democratic  party  who  anticipated  that  without 
a  higher  degree  of  centralism  the  social  reforms  which  they 
advocated  could  not  be  implemented.  The  most  contested 
field  was  finance.  A  deadlock  between  the  viewpoint  of  the 
western  authorities  and  that  of  the  Social  Democratic 
leaders  developed.  On  April  22  this  was  resolved  by  the  Allied 
military  governors  handing  over  to  the  parliamentary  council 
a  letter  from  the  three  western  foreign  ministers  which  made 
the  following  concession  in  the  direction  of  greater  centralism: 
the  federal  government  could  claim — in  addition  to  revenue 
from  customs,  monopolies,  consumers'  taxes,  turn-over  tax 
and  property-tax — part  of  the  revenue  from  income-tax  and 
corporation  tax;  this  additional  revenue  would  be  used  to 
subsidize  education,  health  and  welfare  in  the  poorer  states. 

The  Basic  law,  which  finally  emerged  and  was  adopted, 
provided  for  a  two-chamber  system  consisting  of  a  Federal 
Diet  (Bundestag)  to  be  directly  elected  every  four  years  and 
a  Federal  Council  (Bundesrat)  consisting  of  members  of  the 
individual  state  governments.  The  states  were  to  have  three 
to  five  representatives  in  the  Federal  Council,  according  to 
their  population,  but  each  state  delegation  was  to  have  one 


GERMANY 


297 


In          tw  in 

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0*         7f  owf  (3)  iw» 

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I J          l»  41^  0fi/  ^*a         if  I  4^ 

mer  of 


298 


GERMANY 


vote  only.  The  principal  powers  of  the  Federal  Council 
consisted  of  the  right  to  demand  that  a  joint  commission  of 
the  Federal  Diet  and  the  Federal  Council  should  debate  any 
given  law,  and  of  the  right  of  veto.  The  Federal  Diet  could, 
however,  overrule  the  council's  veto  by  an  absolute  majority. 
The  federal  president  was  to  be  elected  by  a  federal  assembly 
consisting  of  the  Federal  Diet  and  400  delegates  elected  by 
the  state  diets  (Landtage)\  he  was  to  propose  the  federal 
chancellor  who  would  then  select  his  ministers.  Implementa- 
tion of  the  federal  government's  laws  was  to  be  in  the  hands 
of  the  states,  except  in  the  following  fields:  foreign  affairs, 
federal  finance  administration,  post,  inland  waterways  and 
shipping,  federal  railways,  frontier  control  and  criminal 
police. 

Most  interesting  of  the  clauses  of  the  Bonn  constitution 
were  two  aimed  at  eliminating  weaknesses  in  the  constitution 
of  the  Weimar  republic  of  1919-33  which  had  led  to  the 
destruction  of  democratic  government.  The  first  was  article  21 
which  ruled  that "  parties  which  by  their  aims  or  the  behaviour 
of  their  supporters  are  calculated  to  damage  or  destroy  the 
fundamental  free  democratic  order  arc  unconstitutional." 
The  other,  Article  67,  to  prevent  party  groupings  in  the 
legislature  from  following  negative  and  irresponsible  courses 
— laid  down  that  the  Federal  Diet  could  only  pass  a  vote  of 
no-confidence  in  the  chancellor  if  it  chose  a  successor  by 
means  of  a  majority  of  its  members  and  asked  the  president 
to  dismiss  the  chancellor.  According  to  the  Basic  law,  Berlin 
was  named  as  part  of  the  West  German  Federal  republic, 
but  the  three  Allied  military  governors  did  not  agree  to  the 
admission  of  the  former  capital  in  practice  because  of  their 
desire  not  to  embitter  relations  with  the  Soviet  Union  still 
further. 

On  Aug.  14  elections  for  the  Federal  Diet  were  held 
throughout  the  three  western  zones  of  Germany.  Out  of  the 
402  seats  contested  the  Christian  Democratic  union  allied 
with  the  Christian  Social  union  won  139,  the  Social  Demo- 
cratic party  131,  and  the  Free  Democratic  Liberal  party 
52  seats.  The  elections  were  fought  with  some  bitterness, 
and  the  leading  parties'  chief  bid  for  electoral  support 
consisted  in  violent  attacks  on  the  occupying  powers,  par- 
ticularly for  their  policy  of  dismantling  (see  ELECTIONS). 

On  Sept.  12  Dr.  Theodor  Heuss  was  elected  federal  presi- 
dent and  on  Sept.  20  Dr.  Konrad  Adenauer,  the  leader  of 
the  Christian  Democratic  union,  formed  a  coalition  govern- 
ment based  on  the  C.D.U.,  the  F.D.P.  and  the  D.P.  Note- 
worthy in  Adenauer's  first  speech  as  federal  chancellor  was 
his  declaration  that  Western  Germany  would  not  accept  the 
Oder-Neisse  frontier,  which  marked  the  border  of  the 
eastern  territories  annexed  by  Poland  and  the  U  S.S.R. 

On  the  day  following  the  formation  of  the  West  German 
government  the  western  military  governors  made  over  to  it 
extensive  new  powers.  These  were  defined  in  an  Occupation 
statute  which  placed  all  governmental  authority  in  German 
hands,  with  the  exception  of  the  following  reserved  fields: 
disarmament  and  demilitarization;  Ruhr  control,  reparations, 
decartclli/ation,  trade  discrimination  and  foreign  interests  in 
Germany;  foreign  policy,  displaced  persons  and  admission 
of  refugees;  the  prestige  and  security  of  Allied  occupation 
forces;  the  safeguarding  of  exchange  rates;  control  of 
internal  affairs  to  ensure  that  money  and  food  would  be 
used  so  as  to  minimize  aid  from  abroad;  custody  of  people 
arrested  or  sentenced  by  occupation  courts. 

The  three  occupation  authorities  retained  the  right  to 
resume  full  powers  if  necessary  for  security,  for  the  main- 
tenance of  democratic  government  or  for  fulfilling  inter- 
national obligations.  They  also  retained  a  right  to  veto  any 
law  within  21  days  of  receiving  it,  but  pledged  themselves 
only  to  exercise  this  right  in  the  case  of  a  law  conflicting  with 
the  Basic  law,  with  the  state  constitutions,  the  Occupation's 


laws,  the  Occupation  statute,  or  the  basic  aims  of  the  occupa- 
tion. Provision  was  made  for  a  review  of  the  Occupation 
statute  within  18  months  after  coming  into  operation. 

The  three  military  governors  were  re-named  high  commis- 
sioners to  function  as  a  unity  in  an  Allied  High  commission 
which  would  not  deal  with  German  authorities  below  the 
level  of  the  federal  or  state  governments,  except  in  the  field 
of  the  reserved  subjects. 

Against  this  background  of  constructive  political  con- 
cessions Western  Germany  still  had  to  face  in  1949  two 
punitive  measures  in  exaction  of  reparations:  the  first  was 
provisional  frontier  rectifications  at  Germany's  expense,  the 
second  the  continuance  of  dismantling  of  industrial  plants. 
The  provisional  frontier  rectifications  carried  through  on 
April  23  for  the  benefit  of  Holland,  Belgium,  Luxembourg 
and  the  Saar  were  very  small.  Only  52  1  sq.  mi.  and  13,500 
German  inhabitants  were  involved,  but  the  West  German 
political  leaders  and  press  attacked  the  unilateral  rectifications 
bitterly  as  violations  of  the  clause  of  the  Atlantic  charter  in 
which  the  Allies  had  foresworn  territorial  annexations. 

West  German  resistance  to  industrial  dismantling  reached 
a  climax  in  the  summer  when  the  synthetic  petrol  plants  in 
the  Ruhr  were  dismantled.  At  Bergkamen  and  Ruhr-Chemie, 
Obcrhausen,  Allied  troops  had  to  occupy  the  factories  before 
dismantling  could  proceed  (June  12  and  Sept.  5),  and  on 
July  29  six  dismantling  workers  who  had  refused  to  dis- 
mantle at  the  Dortmunder  Paraffinwerke  were  sentenced  to 
two  months'  imprisonment,  though  subsequently  released  on 
good  behaviour.  Two  workers  of  the  same  plant  received 
prison  sentences  of  five  months  and  three  weeks  for  assaulting 
a  dismantling  contractor,  Erwm  Mu Her  (Sept.  15). 

During  the  Washington  talks  between  the  three  foreign 
ministers  in  September  Ernest  Bcvm  suggested  that  dis- 
mantling should  be  terminated  by  Nov.  1  On  Oct.  8  the 
U.S.  high  commissioner  in  Germany,  in  a  news  agency 
interview,  urged  the  ending  of  the  ki  senseless  dismantling." 
The  French  government  were  less  willing  to  make  further 
concessions  to  Western  Germany. 

German  Democratic  Republic.  In  October  the  event  occurred 
which  made  agreement  upon  further  concessions  by  the 
western  Allies  to  the  West  German  republic  politically  urgent 
and  therefore  easier  of  achievement.  A  German  Democratic 
republic  was  proclaimed  in  the  Soviet  zone. 

Already  on  May  16  a  People's  congress  (Volkskongress) 
had  been  elected  in  the  Soviet  zone  and  the  Soviet  sector  of 
Berlin  under  a  plebiscite  arrangement,  each  voter  having  the 
chance  to  vote  ki  yes  "  or  "  no  "  to  a  single  zonal  list  of 
candidates,  also  to  "  the  unity  of  Germany,"  the  early  con- 
clusion of  a  peace  treaty  and  the  withdrawal  of  the  occupation 
forces.  It  was  announced  that  92%  of  the  voters  had  gone  to 
the  polls  and  that  66%  of  these  had  voted  "yes"  in  this 
election,  in  which  there  was  evidence  of  falsification  and 
pressure.  This  People's  congress  elected  a  People's  council 
(Volksrat)  of  400  which  was  transformed  on  Oct.  7,  at  a 
meeting  in  the  former  Air  Ministry  in  Berlin,  into  a  provisional 
People's  Chamber  (Volkskammer)  for  the  new  republic.  A 
Chamber  of  the  States  (Llinderkammer)  was  nominated  three 
days  later  and  on  Oct.  1 1  the  two  chambers  elected  Wilhelm 
Pieck  president  of  the  Democratic  republic.  Half  a  million 
people  marched  past  the  new  president  in  a  torchlight 
procession.  Otto  Grotewohl,  of  the  S.E.D.  (Socialist  Unity) 
party,  formed  a  provisional  government  of  7  S.E.D.  ministers, 
3  from  the  Liberal  Democratic  party,  4  from  the  Christian 
Democratic  union,  1  from  the  National  Democratic  party, 
and  1  from  the  Democratic  Farmers'  party.  The  key  ministries 
— interior,  justice  and  deputy  premiership — were  in  the  hands 
of  the  S.E.D.  (Communist)  ministers  Karl  Steinhoff,  Max 
Fechner  and  Walter  Ulbricht.  At  the  same  time  (Oct.  10) 
General  V.  J.  Chuykov  announced  that  a  Soviet  Control 


GERMANY 


299 


commission  would  replace  the  Soviet  Military  administration 
whose  administrative  functions  would  be  transferred  to  the 
German  provisional  government.  On  Oct.  16  Gheorghy 
Pushkin  was  appointed  Soviet  ambassador  to  the  new 
German  Democratic  republic  and  Rudolf  Appelt  was  sent  as 
German  representative  to  Moscow. 

On  Aug.  20  Wilhelm  Pieck  had  announced  that  the  Soviet 
zone  government  would  claim  to  represent  all  Germany,  and 
on  Oct.  21  the  Western  German  chancellor  answered  by 
declaring:  "  Only  the  West  German  Federal  republic  has  the 
right  to  speak  for  the  German  people." 

The  facade  of  concessions  by  the  Russians  to  the  Germans 
in  their  zone  of  Germany  undoubtedly  spurred  the  western 
Allies  to  improve  the  status  of  the  West  German  republic. 
At  a  conference  of  the  three  western  foreign  ministers  in 
Paris  (Nov.  9-11),  agreement  was  reached  on  a  number  of 
offers  to  be  made  to  the  West  German  government  in  return 
for  its  co-operation  in  the  Ruhr  Control  authority  and  with 
the  Military  Security  board.  On  Nov.  22  a  protocol  was 
signed  at  Petersberg  by  the  three  Allied  high  commissioners 
and  the  West  German  chancellor  under  which,  in  return  for 
full  German  co-operation  with  the  Ruhr  authority  and  the 
Military  Security  board,  dismantling  was  suspended  of  all 
except  1 1  plants.  German  consulates  and  trade  missions  were 
to  be  established  abroad  and  Germany's  participation  in 
international  organizations  and  in  the  Council  of  Europe  was 
to  be  promoted.  Her  participation  in  the  International 
Patent  office  at  The  Hague  had  been  sanctioned  on  Nov.  17, 
and  West  Germany's  representative  had  taken  his  place  in 
the  O.E.E.C.  on  Oct.  31. 

International  discussion  as  to  whether  Germany  should  be 
invited  to  join  the  new  Council  of  Europe  started  in  May  1949 
when  the  statute  of  the  Council  of  Europe  was  adopted  and 
a  clause  was  included  providing  for  "  associate  membership," 
that  is,  membership  of  the  consultative  assembly  only,  in  the 
case  of  countries  such  as  Western  Germany  which  could  not 
send  a  foreign  minister  to  the  Committee  of  ministers. 

At  the  first  session  of  the  Assembly  of  Europe  in  Strasbourg 
in  August  and  September  Winston  Churchill  energetically 
advocated  West  German  membership  but  Robert  Schuman, 
on  behalf  of  France,  laid  down,  as  a  pre-condition,  that  the 
Saar  (</.v.)  must  also  be  admitted  as  a  member.  Churchill 
agreed  that  a  Franco-German  understanding  on  the  Saar 
question  was  a  prerequisite  of  Germany's  admission.  On 
Nov.  3  the  West  German  chancellor  stated  in  a  newspaper 
interview  that  Western  Germany  would  not  refuse  to  enter 
the  Council  of  Europe  if  the  Saar  were  admitted.  In  this  he 
was  at  variance  with  the  Social  Democratic  party,  whose 
leader,  Kurt  Schumacher,  declared  on  Nov.  9  his  opposition 
to  the  French  proposal  to  admit  the  Saar.  In  November  the 
committee  of  ministers  meeting  in  Pans  passed  a  resolution 
in  favour  of  Germany's  admission  to  the  Council  of  Europe, 
and  the  way  seemed  open. 

Behind  the  east- west  tug-of-war  over  Western  Germany 
and  the  mass  of  new  constitutional  documents  and  institutions 
which  came  into  being  in  1949,  loomed,  for  the  new  federal 
government,  three  gigantic  social  problems:  housing,  unem- 
ployment and  refugees.  Five  million  new  dwellings  were 
required  in  Western  Germany  and  the  federal  government 
planned  a  programme  of  250,000  new  dwellings  for  1950; 
unemployment  reached  by  Nov.  1949  a  figure  of  1,558,000; 
the  total  of  refugees  from  the  east  in  Western  Germany 
was  about  eight  million  and  was  increasing  at  the  rate  of 
1,000  a  day  in  autumn  1949.  Most  of  the  refugees  were 
embittered,  impoverished  and  politically  irreconcilable  to  the 
loss  of  i heir  homeland.  Many  thousands  of  them  were  housed 
in  congested  camps.  It  was  reliably  estimated  that  DM. 28,000 
million  would  be  required  over  a  period  of  ten  years  to  finance 
the  businesses,  agricultural  holdings  and  dwellings  necessary 


for  the  social  and  economic  assimilation  of  the  refugees. 
In  the  first  10  months  of  the  year  about  240,000  German 
prisoners  of  war  returned  home  from  the  Soviet  Union. 
On  Oct.  30  Wilhelm  Pieck  promised  that  the  remainder 
would  be  repatriated  by  Jan  1,1950.  About  600,000  German 
prisoners  of  war  and  civilian  prisoners  still  remained  in  the 
U.S.S.R.  in  December.  (See  PRISONERS  OF  WAR.)  (D.  A.  SN.) 

Education.  In  May  1938  Germany  had  M,118  public  elementary 
schools  with  179,260  teachers  and  7,596,417  pupils;  308  private 
elementary  schools  with  1,063  teachers  and  24,783  pupils;  1,563  higher 
elementary  schools  with  9,582  teachers  and  272,635  pupils;  2,319 
secondary  schools  of  several  kinds  with  671,000  pupils,  23  universities 
with  39,900  students  and  44  other  institutions  of  higher  education 
with  approximately  44,000  students.  At  the  end  of  1949  the  latest 
available  information  on  German  education  related  to  1947-48  and 
this  is  summarised  in  Tables  I  and  II. 

TABI  F  I.— SCHOOLS.  EIFMLNTARY  AND  SFCONDARY 


Elementary 

Teachers 

Pupils       . 
Secondary 

Teachers 

Pupils 
Vocational 

Teachers 

Pupils 

including  the  Saar 

British 
1939 

Universi- 
ties 6 
Teaching 

staff  — 

Students     10,515 


British 

US. 

French 

Zone 

Zone 

Zone* 

May  1947 

Nov   1947 

May  1948 

12,144 

10,506 

5,598 

49,500 

32,588 

13,514 

3,133,600 

2,326,424 

869,900 

645 

476 

258 

11,800 

7,979 

3,267 

2X2,800 

221,812 

81,550 

2,315 

791 



10,000 

3,791 

— 

617,400 

314,825 

— 

TABLF  II  — UNIVFRSITIFS 

Zone         U  S.  Zone       French  Zone  Soviet  Zone 

1948       1939       1948      1939      1948  1939      1948 

6  7  7  2          3f  5:  5 

1,550       —          1,318      —  509  —  671 

26,132    11,520    32,406    3,623    13,134  5,163    12,269 


tlncluding  a  new  university  in  Mainz 

j Excluding  (he  universines of  Breslau (Wroclaw) and  Konigsberg (Kaliningrad) 
which  together  had  about  3,000  students  in  1939 

In  addition  there  was  the  University  of  Berlin  which  in  1939  had 
6,100  students  and  in  1948  5,634  students  and  157  professors  and 
lecturers. 

Agriculture.  Tables  III  and  IV  show  respectively  the  production  of 
main  crops  and  the  amount  of  livestock. 

TABLE  HI.— AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTION  ('000  metric  tons) 
(W  — three  Western  Zones  and  the  Saar;     E— Soviet  Zone  with  pro- 
duction for  1934-38  in  1945  frontiers) 


Wheat 
Rye 
Barley 
Oats 

Potatoes  . 
Sugar  Beet 

*  Includes  spelt. 


Cattle 

Pigs 

Sheep 

Horses 

Poultry 


1934-38 

1947 

1948 

/W 

2,533* 

1,229 

1,960 

\E 

1,553* 

483 

999 

/W 

3,114 

2,023 

2,749 

\E 

2,078 

1,418 

1,941 

j  W 

1,705 

701 

857 

\E 

1,029 

423 

428 

•il 

2,865 
1,590 

1,696 
893 

1,922 
809 

19,977 

14,493 

23,721 

}E 

13,630 

8,055 

12,408 

W 

4,117 

2,872 

4,716 

E 

5,467 

3,122 

4,583 

t  Includes  mixed  grams 

TABLE  IV.—  LIVES  IOCK 

('000  head) 

Dec. 

Dec 

1938 

1945 

{l 

12,306   \ 
3,539    / 

13,694 

12,510   1 

\E 

5,493    / 

7,136 

•  W 

1,987   1 

3,380 

\E 

1,779   / 

.   rw 

1,570 

1,614 

IE 

810 

590 

W 

54,525 

— 

\ 


1949 
2,430 

2,784 

1,204 

3,020f 

20,875 

12,500 

4,035 

3,775 


Dec. 
1948 

10,320 

3,200 

5,616 

2,100 

2,362 

780 

1,577 

570 

25,088 


Production  of  certain  foodstuffs  in  Western  Germany  ('000  metric 
tons,  1948;  in  brackets  1934-38  average):  meat  730  (1,860),  milk 
9,004  (14,761),  factory  butter  157-8,  factory  cheese  91-4,  sugar,  raw 
value  473  (505) 

Before  World  War  II  Germany  grew  almost  nine-tenths  of  its  own 
food.  The  total  agricultural  output  in  Western  Germany  in  1949  was 
about  85%  of  prewar,  but  that  represented  only  about  60%  of  all 


300 


GERMANY 


food  consumed  by  a  population  18%  (over  7  million)  larger  than  in 
1939.  Nevertheless,  by  the  end  of  the  year  the  Western  German  govern- 
ment announced  its  decision  to  abolish  the  rationing  of  alt  foodstuffs 
except  sugar  (excluding  sweets).  As  food  prices  had  risen  50%  since 
the  currency  reform  of  June  20,  1948,  there  was  no  risk  in  so  doing. 
**  The  banknote  is  a  more  effective  means  of  rationing  than  the  coupon," 
said  Wilhelm  Niklas,  the  food  minister 

Industry.    The  progress  in  production  in  basic  industries  is  summed 
up  in  Table  V. 

TABLE  V — WESTERN   GERMANY:   INDUSTRIAL   PRODUCTION* 

1936  1946  1948  1949f 

Coal  fOOO  metric  tons)     116,964  53,946  88,416  103,000 

Crude  oil  ('000  tons)     .            445   2             649   5  636  0  760 

Electricity  (million  kwh  )    24,588  23,820  31,320  44,000 

Gas  (million  cu  metres)     14,196  3,167  6,586  8,100 

Steel  ('000  tons)  .                14,232  2,556  5,556  9,000 

Cement  ('000  tons)  .  9,071  2,592  5,580  8,500 
Motor  vehicles. 

Cars       .         .         .174,100  9,900  30,000  80,000 

Commercial              .      45,900  13,400  29,600  50,000 

Cotton  yarn  ('000  tons)           233-7              47  8  119-2  230 

Wool  yarn  ('000  tons)  .              41    5               18  0  38  6  60 

Synthetic  fibres  ('000 

tons)      ...            44  3              23-8  57  3  110 


*  Excluding  the  Saar 


Estimates. 


In  the  table  above  the  year  1936  is  given  as  a  measure  of  comparison 
because  the  British  and  U.S.  governments  considered  it  a  year  of 
neither  boom  nor  depression.  But  German  rearmament  was  already 
in  full  swing  in  1936.  By  1938  Germany  led  the  world  in  the  production 
of  lignite  (195  million  metric  tons,  used  mainly  as  ravv  material  for 
synthetic  petrol),  coming  second  after  the  U  S.  in  steel  production 
(23  million  tons)  and  electricity  and  third  after  the  U.S.  and  Great 
Britain  in  coal  output  (186-7  million  tons).  But  it  had  to  import  a 
large  part  of  the  raw  materials  needed  for  its  industrial  production. 

At  the  time  of  the  currency  reform  in  June  1948  the  general  level  of 
industrial  production  was  51  %  of  the  1936  rate.  The  currency  reform 
proved  to  be  a  major  economic  stimulus  and  by  Nov.  1949  the  index 
number  of  industrial  production  in  Western  Germany  stood  at  98% 
of  the  1936  level  Although  employment  in  manufacturing  in  Nov. 
1949  was  26%  greater  than  the  1936  average,  there  were  1,558,000 
unemployed  as  against  831,500  in  1946. 

No  precise  statistical  information  was  available  for  Eastern  Germany 
but  general  economic  shortages  prevailed  there  during  the  year.  Tex- 
tiles remained  rationed.  Clothes  and  shoes  were  virtually  unobtainable 
in  many  areas.  Bartering  of  textiles  for  meat  and  fats  still  went  on 
Bread  was  scarce  and  of  mediocre  quality  (66%  flour  compared  with 
80%  in  Western  Germany).  The  trading  organizations  (Handels- 
Orgamzationen),  special  shops  and  restaurants  selling  at  higher  than 
the  prices  of  rationed  goods,  increased  steadily  in  number,  and  by 
Oct  1949  totalled  1,450.  Reparations  from  current  production  delivered 
to  the  Soviet  Union  by  Eastern  Germany  and  costs  of  the  Soviet 
occupation  were  as  great  as  the  occupation  costs  in  all  three  western 
zones  added  together.  Official  German  statements  on  the  two-year 
plan  for  Eastern  Germany,  due  to  finish  on  Jan.  1,  1950,  indicated 
that  targets  were  reached  in  the  heavy  industries.  Hard  work  was 
undoubtedly  going  on  under  pressure  of  the  fear  of  forced  labour  and 
the  stimulus  of  the  '*  activist "  movement  in  industry  and  agriculture, 
a  copy  of  the  Soviet  Stakhanovist  movement.  Nevertheless,  according 
to  one  reliable  estimate,  total  production  was  not  more  than  55%  to 
60%  of  production  in  1936. 

Foreign  Trade.  With  curtailed  resources  and  an  increased  population 
\Vestern  Germany  had  to  export  considerably  more  than  before  World 
War  11  in  order  to  pay  for  increased  imports  of  raw  materials  and 
foodstuffs.  In  1936  total  exports  of  manufactured  products  from 
Western  Germany  amounted  to  about  Rm.  3,000  million  of  which  70% 
consisted  of  metals,  chemicals  and  the  products  of  the  metal-working 
industries;  exports  of  mining  products,  prinicpally  coal,  comprised 
12%  of  the  total  Imports  to  Western  Germany  amounted  in  1936 
to  Rm.  2,650  million.  As  the  trizonal  fusion  became  effective  only 
towards  the  end  of  1949,  the  following  figures  arc  of  foreign  trade  of 
the  British  and  U  S.  zones  (Dm.  million,  1948;  1949,  six  months,  in 
brackets):  imports  3,164  (3,051),  exports  1,817  (1,756).  The  adverse 
balance  which  in  1948  was  Dm.  1,347  million  in  the  first  half  of  1949 
reached  Dm.  1,295  million.  Foreign  trade  of  the  French  zone  (1948, 
Dm.  million):  imports  596,  exports  353,  adverse  balance  243.  It  was 
estimated  that  Western  Germany  needed  to  treble  its  exports.  In  1949 
its  share  of  world  trade  was  only  3  %  compared  with  about  6  %  in  1938. 
Transport  and  Communications.  The  total  route  length  of  German 
state  railways  on  Jan.  1,  1938,  was  54,335  km.  After  a  loss  of  territory 
in  the  east  the  total  route  length  was  about  46,900  km.,  including 
32,500  km.  in  the  three  western  zones.  By  March  1948  the  route 
length  open  to  traffic  in  the  British,  U.S.  and  French  zones  was  32,468 
km.  with  the  following  rolling  stock  (serviceable  number  in  brackets) : 
locomotives  17,051  (7,930),  passenger  coaches  28,521  (18,313),  goods 
wagons  348,112  (261,539).  It  was  planned  to  increase  the  number  of 


serviceable  locomotives  to  9,200  and  of  goods  wagons  to  306,000  by 
the  end  of  1949. 

By  mid-1939  there  were  in  Germany,  within  the  Versailles  frontiers, 
212,732  km  of  roads,  including  3,065  km.  of  Autobahnen.  There  were 
only  about  182,900  km.  of  roads  within  the  Potsdam  frontiers,  including 
about  128,000  km.  in  Western  Germany.  Licensed  motor  vehicles 
(Western  Germany,  Dec.  1948)  cars  278,396,  lorries  291,457,  tractors 
90,025,  coaches  and  buses  8,134,  motor  cycles  445,652,  miscellaneous 
11,393;  total  1,125,057. 

High  seas  shipping  included  (June  30,  1939)  2,466  vessels  of  4,492,708 
gross  registered  tons,  that  is,  it  was  still  about  1  million  tons  short  of 
the  1914  level  Two-thirds  of  German  shipping  were  destroyed  in  war 
operations  and  the  rest  was  surrendered  to  the  Allies  Only  vessels 
of  small  tonnage  were  left  and  by  Jan.  1949  these  amounted  to  247,290 
gross  registered  tons.  The  Potsdam  agreement  (Aug  2,  1945)  pro- 
hibited the  building  of  sea-going  ships  in  Germany,  but  in  April  1949 
the  British,  U  S.  and  French  governments  agreed  to  permit  Western 
Germany  to  build  an  unlimited  number  of  12-knot  ships  not  exceeding 
7,200  tons  each  and  in  November  Germany  was  authorized  to  build 
six  special  ships  of  greater  tonnage  and  speed 

The  length  of  inland  waterways,  which  had  played  an  important  part 
in  the  German  transport  system,  was  (Jan.  1938)  7,654  km.  The  inland 
waterways  fleet  numbered  17,756  vessels  of  6,468,500  tons.  This 
transport  system  suffered  great  damage  during  the  war  and  about 
half  of  the  tugs  and  barges  were  sunk  or  damaged  At  the  beginning 
of  1949  the  river  and  canal  fleet  in  Western  Germany  amounted  to 
2  4  million  tons  Telephones  (bizonal  area,  June  1949):  subscribers, 
including  public  call  boxes  1,069,000. 

Finance  and  Banking.  Before  the  currency  reform  of  June  20,  1948, 
the  budgets  of  the  Western  German  Lander  were  in  balance.  For  the 
first  half  of  1948  their  total  revenue  amounted  to  approximately 
Rm.  2,500  of  which  30%  was  spent  on  occupation  and  other  war- 
induced  costs  After  the  currency  reform  revenue  fell  off  sharply, 
partly  reflecting  prepayment  of  taxes  in  anticipation  of  the  introduction 
of  a  new  currency,  partly  because  of  tax  evasion  after  the  conversion 
By  March  31,  1949,  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year,  the  total  deficit  was 
estimated  at  Dm.  600  million.  By  the  end  of  the  year  the  Bonn  govern- 
ment had  prepared  the  first  interim  budget  of  Western  Germany  for  the 
period  Sept  21,  1949-March  31,  1950,  totalling  about  Dm.  1,534 
million.  Balanced  mainly  by  means  of  the  contributions  of  the  individual 
Lander  to  the  federal  treasury,  the  interim  budget  could  not  have  the 
importance  of  the  first  normal  budget  for  1950-51  when  the  federal 
government  would  have  full  control  of  its  own  revenue  from  taxation, 
excise  and  other  sources.  It  was  estimated  at  Bonn  that  the  revenue 
of  the  1950-51  budget  would  be  Dm  8,000  and  the  expenditure 
Dm  10,100,  including  Dm.  4,535  million  for  occupation  costs. 

In  Eastern  Germany  the  1950  budget  estimates  were  as  follows: 
revenue  Dm.  17,630  million,  expenditure  Dm.  17,526  million — an 
expansion  of  10%  in  comparison  with  1949. 

Before  the  currency  reform  of  June  1948,  currency  supply  (notes  and 
deposits)  in  Western  Germany  amounted  to  about  Rm.  150,000  million. 
The  old  Reichsmark  balances  of  individuals  were  converted  into  new 
Deutsche  Mark  accounts  on  the  basis  of  Dm.  6  •  50  for  Rm  100.  Accord- 
ing to  the  reports  of  the  Bank  Deutscher  Lander  the  note  circulation 
was  Dm.  5,053  million  by  mid-Sept.  1948,  and  Dm.  7,279  million  by 
mid-Sept  1949.  The  Deutsche  Mark  did  not  have  any  official  exchange 
rate,  but  for  practical  purposes  the  Joint  Export-Import  agency  fixed 
a  conversion  factor  at  Dm.l^-U  S.  cents  30  On  Sept.  28,  1949,  after 
the  devaluation  of  the  pound  sterling,  the  conversion  factor  was 
changed  to  Dm.  1— U.S.  cents  23-8  which  suggested  a  devaluation  of 
the  Deutsche  Mark  to  the  dollar  by  20-6%.  The  conversion  rate  for 
the  pound  sterling  was  Dm.l  —  1  s.  6d.  before  and  Dm.l  =  Is.  8  -4d.  after 
the  devaluation.  In  the  western  sectors  of  Berlin  there  was  a  special 
issue  of  about  Dm  (B)  400  million. 

According  to  a  report  of  the  Deutsche  Notenbank  the  note  circulation 
in  Eastern  Germany  was  estimated  in  Feb.  1949  at  Deutsche  Mark 
(OsO  4,112  million.  Although  theoretically  at  par,  the  free  exchange 
rate  in  Sept.  1949  was  Dm.(W)l -Dm  (O)5-70.  Officially,  however, 
no  agreement  could  be  reached  as  to  the  exchange  rate  between  the 
two  Dm.  A  special  4t  counting  unit "  Verrechnungseinhelt  (V.E.)  was 
therefore  invented  and  towards  the  end  of  the  year  a  commercial 
agreement  was  concluded  between  the  two  Germanys  for  an  exchange 
of  goods  to  the  amount  of  V.E.287-7  million. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  M  J.  Bonn,  **  Compulsory  Democracy  in  Germany,1* 
Fortnightly  (London,  July  1949);  H.  N.  and  Evamaria  Brailsford, 
"  Germany's  Influence  in  War  and  Peace,'*  Contemporary  Review 
(London,  Sept  1949);  L  C.  Green,  **  The  New  Regime  in  Western 
Germany."  World  Affairs  (London,  Oct.  1949);  K.  Mehncrt  and 
H.  Schulte,  Deutschland-Jahrbuch  (Essen,  1949);  R.  H.  Samuel  and 
R.  Hinton  Thomas,  Education  and  Society  in  Modern  Germany  (London, 
1949);  A  Schonke,  ed.  "Postwar  Reconstruction  in  Western  Ger- 
many," Annals  of  the  American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science 
(Philadelphia,  Nov.  1948);  Sir  Cecil  Weir,  "Economic  Development 
in  Western  Germany,"  International  Affairs  (London,  July  1949). 

(K.  SM.) 


GHEORGHIU-DEJ-GIRL   GUIDES 


301 


GHEORGHIU-DEJ,  GHEORGHE,  Rumanian 
politician  (b.  B§rlad,  Moldavia,  Nov.  8,  1901),  of  peasant 
origin,  worked  as  electrician  with  the  state  railways  adminis- 
tration until  1932,  when  he  was  dismissed  for  revolutionary 
activity.  From  1929  he  was  a  member  of  the  clandestine 
Rumanian  Communist  party.  In  1933  he  took  part  in  the 
organization  of  the  Grivija  railway  workshop  strike,  was 
arrested  and,  in  1935,  sentenced  to  12  years*  imprisonment. 
He  escaped  from  prison  and  represented  the  Communist 
party  at  meetings  which  led  to  the  formation  of  the  National 
Democratic  front.  From  Oct.  1945  he  was  secretary  general 
of  the  Workers'  (Communist)  party  of  Rumania  (Partidul 
Muncitoresc  din  Romania)  and  in  Sept.  1947  was  one  of  the 
Rumanian  delegates  at  the  conference  in  Poland  at  Wilcza 
G6ra,  at  which  the  Cominform  was  created.  He  was  minister 
of  communications,  1944-46,  on  Nov.  30,  1946,  became 
minister  of  national  economy  and  on  April  15,  1948,  first 
deputy  prime  minister  and  chairman  of  the  State  Planning 
commission.  On  April  23,  1949,  however,  he  was  replaced 
in  the  latter  capacity  by  Miron  Constantinescu. 

GIAUQUE,  WILLIAM  FRANCIS,  American 
chemist  (b.  Niagara  Falls,  Ontario,  Canada,  May  12,  1895), 
graduated  at  the  University  of  California  in  1920  and  received 
his  doctorate  in  1922.  He  then  joined  the  teaching  staff 
of  the  university  and  was  instructor,  1922-27,  assistant 
professor,  1927-30,  associate  professor,  1930-34,  and  in  1934 
was  appointed  professor  of  chemistry.  Throughout  his  career 
he  specialized  in  studies  of  the  properties  of  matter  at  the 
lowest  attainable  temperatures.  For  his  extensive  research 
in  this  field  the  Royal  Swedish  Academy  of  Science 
awarded  him  the  1949  Nobel  prize  for  chemistry.  He  received 
the  award  in  Stockholm  on  Dec.  10  and  two  days  later 
delivered  his  Nobel  lecture  "  Some  Consequences  of  Low 
Temperature  Research  in  Chemical  Thermodynamics.'* 
Other  awards  presented  to  Dr.  Giauque  have  included  the 
Pacific  division  prize  of  the  American  Association  for  the 
Advancement  of  Science  in  1929  (jointly  with  H.  L.  Johnston), 
the  Chandler  medal  from  Columbia  university  in  1936  and  the 
Elliott  Cresson  medal  from  the  Franklin  institute  in  1937. 
During  World  War  II  he  was  engaged  on  secret  scientific 
work  for  the  United  States  government. 

GIBRALTAR.  British  fortress  colony,  situated  on  a 
narrow  peninsula  covering  the  western  outlet  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean sea.  Area:  2-12sq.  mi.  Pop.  (Dec.  31,  1947):  22,532. 
Governor,  General  Sir  Kenneth  Anderson. 

History.  The  United  Kingdom  government's  decision  not 
to  create  a  Legislative  Council,  announced  in  July  1948,  was 
rescinded;  and  the  terms  were  published  in  August  of  a  new 
constitution  providing  for  a  Legislative  Council  consisting 
of  the  governor  as  president,  three  ex-ofpcio,  two  nominated 
(of  whom  both  may,  and  one  must,  be  an  official)  and  five 
elected  members. 

In  the  late  summer  strong  protests  were  raised  against  an 
expenditure  of  £2,250,000  incurred  on  the  erection  of  472 
flats  under  a  housing  scheme  sponsored  by  the  United 
Kingdom  government  and  which,  it  was  claimed,  could  have 
been  built  far  more  cheaply  with  local  labour.  Linked  with 
these  protests  were  others  against  an  increase  on  the  duty  on 
coffee  from  Aug.  2  and  against  a  proposed  new  trades  tax 
due  to  operate  from  Jan.  1950.  A  delegation  from  the  Cham- 
ber of  Commerce  visited  England  to  lay  the  local  case  before 
the  secretary  of  state  for  the  colonies. 

It  was  decided  to  end  the  wartime  evacuation  scheme  by 
the  end  of  the  year;  evacuees  from  Gibraltar  who  were  still 
in  Britain  could  apply  for  repatriation  up  to  that  date. 

Finance.  Currency:  pound  sterling,  with  United  Kingdom  coinage 
and  local  government  notes.  Budget  (1948):  revenue  £681,580; 
expenditure  £652,755.  (J.  A.  Hu.) 


GILBERT  AND  ELLICE  ISLANDS:  see  PACIFIC 
ISLANDS,  BRITISH. 

GIRL  GUIDES.  New  appointments  were  headed 
by  that  of  Princess  Margaret  as  Sea  Ranger  commodore, 
so  extending  her  connection  with  the  movement  to  which 
she  has  belonged  since  1937.  Lady  Stratheden  and  Campbell 
was  appointed  chief  commissioner,  Imperial  headquarters, 
in  place  of  Finola  Lady  Somers,  and  Viscountess  Colville  of 
Culcross  succeeded  Mrs.  Stewart  of  Murdostoun  as  chief 
commissioner  for  SmtHnH. 


Lady  btratneaen  and  L-atnpaelt  with  guides  at  the   association's 
headquarters  in  London  in  Oct.  1949  when  she  took  up  her  appoint- 
ment as  chief  commissioner. 

Numbers  showed  an  increase  of  5,000  brownies  and  guides; 
the  total  membership  in  Great  Britain  stood  at  445,000, 
and  the  world  total  at  2*  million.  The  Guide  club,  for  adult 
members  of  the  movement,  was  opened  at  46  Belgrave  square, 
London,  and  was  honoured  by  a  visit  from  Queen  Elizabeth. 
For  the  first  time,  all  members  of  the  movement  were 'asked  to 
contribute  a  penny  a  week  to  headquarters  funds  in  order  that 
headquarters  could  give  the  maximum  amount  of  help  to  its 
members.  The  Princess  Royal  attended  a  colourful  ceremony 
at  St.  George's  chapel,  Windsor,  for  the  dedication  of  a 
standard  for  the  chief  commissioner  for  England.  The 
standard,  which  took  10  years  to  make,  was  a  magnificent 
example  of  embroidery  and  fine  stitchery. 

British  guides  again  travelled  widely  to  camps  and  inter- 
national conferences  and  a  party  from  Great  Britain  attended 
the  Swedish  national  camp.  Great  Britain  acted  as  hostess 
country  to  the  conference  for  extension  guiders  (those  working 
with  handicapped  children)  which  was  altended  by  delegates 
from  16  countries.  (B.  PL.) 

United  States.  On  March  12,  the  37th  Girl  Scout  birthday, 
the  *'  Clothes  for  Friendship  *'  campaign  was  concluded. 
Final  figures  showed  that  over  150,000  destitute  children  in 
Europe  and  Asia  had  benefited  by  this  effort.  U.S.  Girl 
Scouts  were  hostesses  at  a  western  hemisphere  encampment 
in  Manistee  National  forest  near  Muskegon,  Michigan. 

The  Girl  Scouts  held  their  13th  national  convention  in 
Milwaukee,  Wisconsin,  Nov.  15-18.  A  new  international 
service  project,  called  "  Schoolmates  Overseas,'*  was  announ- 
ced. Every  Girl  Scout  troop  would  be  expected  to  make  and 
fill  at  least  one  schoolbag  for  needy  children  of  other  lands. 

On  June  30  there  were  446,163  Brownie  scouts;   611,622 


302 


GLASS-GOLD 


intermediates;     54,348  seniors;      323,331  adult  volunteers; 
and  1,065  local  professional  workers.  (C.  M.  R.) 

GLANDS:   see  ENDOCRINOLOGY. 

GLASS.  The  British  glass  industry  well  maintained 
production  during  1949.  Supplies  of  raw  materials  and  fuel 
were  easier  but  coal  was  far  below  prewar  quality.  Sales  of 
domestic  and  illuminating  glassware  increased  by  more  than 
5  %  above  1948.  The  production  of  glass  containers  exceeded 
the  previous  high  level;  the  weekly  average  output  fluctuated 
between  365,000  and  415,000  gross,  the  all-time  high  record 
of  415,000  gross  per  week  being  reached  during  January. 
Workers  employed  in  the  British  glass  industry  continued  to 
increase  in  number,  the  official  Ministry  of  Labour  figures 
being  67,000  in  April  1949  (53,100  in  1939).  The  value  of 
exports  reached  approximately  £10  million  compared  with 
£8  4  million  (1948)  and  £6  5  million  (1947).  More  than  half 
of  this  total  was  contributed  by  the  plate  and  sheet  glass 
section  whose  exports  \vere  about  seven  times  those  of  1938. 

Among  new  developments  were  the  production  of  glass 
beads  and  small  glass  spheres — known  as  ballot nn- -used  for 
cinema  screens,  road  transport  signs,  and  medical  purposes; 
and  auxiliary  electric  melting,  on  the  French  pattern,  was 
introduced  in  two  glassworks,  for  bottle  glass  and  boro- 
silicate  glass  respectively. 

European  countries  generally  experienced  a  decline  in  the 
demand  for  glass  products,  especially  flat  glass,  which  was 
surprising,  considering  the  vigour  with  which  rebuilding  was 
taking  place,  particularly  in  France  and  Italy.  The  largest 
flat  glass  factory  in  Italy,  almost  ra/ed  to  the  ground  by 
bombing  during  World  War  IF,  was  practically  rebuilt  during 
1949  and  the  latest  type  of  machinery  for  continuous  plate 
glass  production  installed.  About  36,000  workers  were  em- 
ployed in  the  360  glass  factories  of  Italy.  In  France  and  Scan- 
dinavian countries  additional  electric  melting  furnaces  were 
put  into  operation.  Little  news  of  the  glass  industry  in  the 
U.S.S.R.  and  its  satellites  reached  the  west  but  it  was  believed 
that  new  flat-glass  furnaces  using  the  Fourcault  process  were 
installed  and  output  accelerated  by  the  use  of  mechanical 
labour-saving  devices,  especially  automatic  batch  chargers. 
Toughening  of  flat  glass  which  was  commenced  in  1948 
continued  on  a  large  scale. 

In  Western  Germany,  expansion  of  the  glass  industry 
greatly  alarmed  glass  manufacturers  of  Belgium,  France, 
Holland,  Italy  and  Great  Britain,  who,  in  an  agreed  statement, 
called  the  attention  of  their  respective  governments  to  the 
danger  of  German  competition. 

Australian  glass  manufacturers  extended  their  operations  in 
Singapore  and  initiated  a  similar  plant  in  Java.  In  South 
Africa  the  government  ban  on  imports  caused  both  the  well 
established  factories  to  increase  their  output  and  one  comm- 
enced the  enamelled  labelling  of  bottles. 

The  International  Commission  on  Glass,  concerned  with 
scientific  co-operation  and  development  of  research  in  all 
glass-making  countries,  held  a  successful  series  of  meetings 
in  Belgium  in  June  1949.  (E.  MGH.) 

United  States.  The  slight  recession  in  manufacturing 
during  the  early  months  of  1949  caused  a  decline  in  the 
production  of  all  kinds  of  glassware.  Later  in  the  year, 
however,  demand  increased.  Flat  glass,  made  in  34  establish- 
ments, was  produced  in  large  volume.  The  automobile  industry 
required  unprecedented  amounts  of  plate  glass.  The  produc- 
tion of  glass  containers  fell  off  10%  from  the  previous  year, 
reaching  a  total  of  90  million  gross.  These  were  made  in 
87  factories,  employing  about  45,000  people  and  using 
4  million  tons  of  raw  materials.  The  total  value  of  all  glass 
products  was  somewhat  less  than  in  1948  but  it  exceeded 
$600  million.  Improvements  were  made  in  methods  of 


drawing  sheet  glass,  of  drawing  tubing  and  in  feeding  glass 
to  automatic  machines.  Ribbons  of  glass  a  few  thousandths 
of  an  inch  in  thickness  were  successfully  produced  to  serve 
as  dielectric  layers  in  small  condensers. 

Manufacture  of  television  tubes  for  the  first  time  passed  the 
million  mark .  Formerly,  these  were  all  made  from  glass  contain- 
ing lead  to  provide  adequate  electrical  resistance.  New  lead-free 
glasses  were  developed  for  this  purpose,  equally  non-conduct- 
ing. The  older  names  for  the  varieties  of  optical  glass  were 
virtually  abandoned  in  favour  of  a  numbering  system.  For 
example,  a  glass  may  be  designated  as  523 :  64,  which  refers  to 
a  glass  havingan  index  of  refraction  of  1  •  523  and  a  **  nu  "  value 
or  reciprocal  of  dispersive  power  of  64.  (S.  R.  S.) 

GLIDING.  Greatest  activity  in  1949  as  in  1948  was  in 
France  where  a  government  subsidy  made  gliding  available  to 
large  numbers  without  charge.  More  than  60,000  hr.  were  flown 
in  gliders  and  more  than  200  skilled  pilots  earned  their  silver 
"C"  badges.  The  year's  achievements  in  Great  Britain  repres- 
ented about  one-third  of  this  activity.  Sweden  was  next  and 
Netherlands,  relatively  new  to  ghdi  ng,  began  to  rank  fourth.  For 
France,  Guy  Marchand  set  up  a  new  international  single-scat 
duration  record  of  40  hr.  51  min.  in  a  Nord  2000  sailplane  in 
March.  The  British  distance  record  was  taken  back  by  Philip 
Wills  from  C.  J.  Wmgfield  with  a  flight  of  232  •  6  mi.  on  May  1 
in  a  Weihe.  In  the  multi-seater  class,  K.  L.  Hurst  and  K. 
Simpson  m  a  Kranich  set  up  a  British  iccord  of  138  9  mi.  in 
Germany  on  May  28;  and  J  A.  Grantham  and  B  H.  Bell  also 
in  a  Kranich  set  up  a  British  height  record  ot  10,080  ft.  at 
Cambridge  on  July  24.  The  best  out  and  return  flight  was  made 
by  J.  W.  S  Pi  ingle  and  J.  A  Grantham  m  a  Kranich  on  Aug. 
1 2,  when  they  covered  77  •  2  mi.  In  the  special  categoiy  for  non- 
British  subjects,  L.  Marmol,  a  Czech,  made  a  local  duration 
record  of  33  hr.  5  mm.  at  Dunstable  in  April  (L.  C.  So.) 

United  States.  J.  Robinson  set  an  international  absolute 
altitude  record  by  reaching  33,500  ft.  in  his  glider  on  Jan.  1. 
This  altitude  flight  was  the  result  of  direct  application  of 
theoretical  and  practical  knowledge  of  atmospheric  waves. 

The  Soaring  Society  of  America  held  its  16th  national 
soaring  contest  at  Elmira,  New  York,  July  2-10,  Twenty-six 
pilots  flew  under  a  new  set  of  rules  in  which  a  set  task  such 
as  goal,  goal  and  return,  straight  line  distance  and  speed 
was  determined  each  day  for  all  pilots  by  the  contest  board. 
A  total  of  5,381  mi.  was  flown,  19  flights  ranged  from  100 
to  200  mi.  and  the  longest  flight  was  205  mi.  P.  B.  MacCready, 
Jr.,  flying  the  Orhk,  earned  the  title  of  national  soaring 
champion  for  the  second  consecutive  time 

Another  high  performance  sailplane  became  available  to 
glider  pilots  during  1949  when  the  Civil  Aeronautics  adminis- 
tration approved  the  all  metal  single-place  Schweizer  1-23 
for  production.  (B.  SK.) 

GOLD.  World  Production.  The  Russian  output  of  gold 
was  not  reported,  but  was  variously  estimated  at  6  million 
to  7  million  oz.  in  1947,  increasing  from  3  million  to  4  million 
07.  in  1944.  While  data  were  otherwise  fairly  complete,  the 
lack  of  a  definite  figure  for  an  output  of  this  size  made  the 
totals  subject  to  a  certain  degree  of  uncertainty.  The  countries 
listed  in  the  following  table  account  for  70%  to  80%  of  the 
total  output. 

Canada.  The  recovery  of  gold  production  in  Canada  from 
the  postwar  slump  was  not  interrupted.  Output  advanced 
from  2,696,727  oz.  in  1945  to  3,070,221  oz.  in  1947,  3,525,221 
02.  in  1948  and  2,648,171  oz.  in  the  first  eight  months  of  1949. 

South  Africa.  After  a  decline  of  6%,  the  chief  gold- 
producing  country  of  the  world  recovered  from  1 1,200,281  oz. 
in  1947  to  11,584,849  oz.  in  1948  and  7,777,747  oz.  in  the 
first  eight  months  of  1949. 


GOLF 


303 


WORLD  PRODUCTION  OF  GOLD 
(Thousands  of  fine  ounces) 


1943 

1944 

1945 

1946 

1947 

1948 

United  States 

1,381 

1,022 

929 

1,462 

2,165 

2,025 

Canada 

3,651 

2,923 

2,697 

2,833 

3,070 

3,525 

Mexico  . 

632 

509 

419 

421 

465 

368 

Central  America 

280 

271 

244 

218 

250 

262 

South  America 

1,442 

1,354 

1,259 

1,202 

1,100 

935 

India 

252 

188 

•      168 

132 

175 

180 

Belgian  Congo 

439 

364 

341 

331 

308 

300 

Gold  Coast     . 

565 

534 

475 

587 

560 

672 

Southern  Rhodesia 

657 

593 

568 

545 

520 

514 

South  Africa  . 

12,804 

12,280 

12,225 

11,927 

11,200 

11,584 

Australia 

751 

657 

657 

824 

938 

890 

Total  (est.) 


28,900   26,400   26,100   27,500   29,800   29,600 


United  States.  The  mine  production  of  gold  in  the  United 
States  rose  from  the  postwar  level  of  954,572  oz.  in  1945  to 
2,109,185  oz.  in  1947.  Production  dropped  back  to  2,014,257 
oz.  in  1948,  and  still  further  to  1,603,881  oz.  in  the  first  ten 
months  of  1949.  (G.  A.  Ro.) 

Gold  Movements.  So  far  as  the  long-term  position  of  gold 
was  concerned,  the  most  important  single  development  of 
1949  was  the  currency  devaluation,  which  included  the 
pound  sterling  and  the  currency  of  30  other  nations.  One 
result  of  this  readjustment  was  to  change  the  "  price-cost " 
situation  in  gold  mining  in  the  devaluing  countries.  These 
areas  accounted  for  roughly  80%  of  gold  production  outside 
the  U.S.S.R.  Devaluation  had  the  effect  of  raising  the  price 
of  gold  by  10%  in  Canada;  14%  in  the  Belgian  Congo; 
and  44%  in  South  Africa  and  other  sterling  countries. 

After  the  currency  devaluations  and  the  categorical 
declarations  that  there  would  be  no  change  in  the  official 
United  States  price  of  gold,  the  hoarding  of  gold  in  western 
Europe  showed  a  tendency  to  decline,  and  prices  in  the 
premium  markets  such  as  Alexandria,  Bombay,  Hong  Kong, 
Paris  and  Milan  subsided  noticeably  toward  the  end  of  1949. 
There  was  a  marked  reduction  in  the  flow  of  gold  to  the  U.S. 
The  increase  in  U.S.  stocks,  up  till  the  end  of  November, 


Bobby  Locke,  winner  of  the  1949  open  golf  championship  at  Sand- 
wich, Kent,  and  second  in  the  Irish  open. 


was  $227  million.  Thus  the  United  States  absorbed  approxi- 
mately 27%  of  the  new  gold  produced  during  the  year 
(outside  the  U.S.S.R.). 

United  Kingdom  gold  and  dollar  holdings  fell  by  $527 
million  between  Dec.  31,  1948,  and  Sept.  18,  1949,  the  date 
of  devaluation,  but  by  the  end  of  the  year  had  recovered 
$359  million  of  this  loss.  (See  also  MINERAL  AND  METAL 
PRODUCTION  AND  PRICES.)  (E.  H.  Co.) 

GOLD    COAST:  see  BRITISH  WEST  AFRICA. 

GOLF.  After  World  War  II  the  Walker  and  Ryder  cup 
matches  were  resumed  and  were  now  played  in  the  same  year. 
In  1949  both  proved  disastrous  for  Great  Britain— so  much 
so,  indeed,  as  to  lead  to  discussion  about  whether  it  was 
worth  while  continuing  them.  Each  had  been  won  by  the 
British  in  Great  Britain,  although  not  since  World  War  II, 
but  the  form  of  1949  led  to  the  belief  that  the  gap  between 
the  golfers  of  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  was,  if 
anything,  widening. 

At  Winged  Foot,  New  York,  the  American  amateurs  beat 
the  British,  captained  by  P.  B.  Lucas,  by  ten  matches  to  two. 
At  the  United  States  championship  later  none  of  the  British 
team  performed  with  distinction.  In  Great  Britain  American 
professionals,  led  by  Ben  Hogan,  victim  of  a  tragic  motor 
accident  in  February,  lost  the  foursomes  at  Ganton,  York- 
shire, by  3 — 1  but  rallied  in  tremendous  style  to  win  the 
match  by  7 — 5.  On  both  sides  the  golf  was  of  as  high  a 
standard  as  had  been  seen  in  this  match.  England  won  the 
men's  international  series  and  also  beat  France. 

The  open  championship  was  won  at  Sandwich  by  the  South 
African,  Bobby  Locke  (q.v.) — his  first  "open*'  success.  He  had 
first  tied  with  Harry  Bradshaw  of  Ireland,  at  283,  equalling 
the  record  aggregate  first  set  by  Gene  Sarazen  on  the  adjacent 
links  of  Prince's  in  1933.  His  play  in  the  replay,  which  he 
won  with  135  to  147,  was  the  outstanding  exhibition  of  1949. 
It  was  held  by  some  that  Bradshaw  lost  the  championship 
when  his  ball  lodged  in  the  broken  half  of  a  discarded  beer 
bottle  and  he  wasted  a  stroke  in  getting  it  out.  Such  a  con- 
tingency was  later  provided  for  in  the  new  rules  passed  at  the 
business  meeting  of  the  Royal  and  Ancient  in  September, 
to  take  effect  on  Jan.  1,  1950.  H.  Bradshaw  later  won  the 
Irish  Open,  beating  Locke  in  the  process.  The  Irish  open 
amateur  title  was  won  by  Dr.  W.  O'Sullivan  on  his  home 
course  at  the  Killarney  Golf  and  Fishing  club. 

The  amateur  championship,  the  decision  to  play  which  in 
the  republic  of  Ireland  gave  rise  to  criticism,  was  won  at  Port- 
marnock,  magnificently  and  at  the  first  time  of  entry,  by  S. 
McCready,  of  Belfast,  who  entered  from  Sunningdale.  He  beat 
the  holder,  Frank  Stranahan  (U.S.),  and  in  the  final  another 
past  holder  from  America,  Willie  Turnesa.  In  the  first 
round  of  the  final  McCready  holed  the  course  in  70  to 
be  4  up.  One  down  with  4  to  play  he  won  the  next  three  holes 
for  the  match. 

Despite  this  the  outstanding  amateur  golfer  of  the  year 
was  R.  White,  of  Southport,  who  won  the  English  champion- 
ship (beating  Charles  Stowe  in  the  final  at  Formby),  the 
Daily  Telegraph  foursomes  (in  partnership  with  Reginald 
Home  at  Moortown)  and  both  his  matches  in  the  Walker 
cup.  Staleness  prevented  his  showing  his  best  form  in  the 
United  States  championship  in  which  critics  on  both  sides 
rated  his  chances  high.  The  Brabazon  trophy  at  Stoneham 
was  won  remarkably  by  P.  Hine,  a  17-year-old  boy, 
with  287. 

The  women's  title  went  to  Miss  Bunty  Stephens  at  Harlech, 
where  two  of  the  strongest  American  women  players  failed. 
She  beat  Mrs.  V.  Reddan,  Ireland,  in  the  final.  Later  Miss 
Stephens  made  unsuccessful  bids  for  the  American  amateur 
and  open  titles.  Mrs.  A.  C.  Critchley  (Diana  Fishwick) 


304 


GONZALEZ   VIDELA-GOVERNMENT   DEPARTMENTS 


Harry  Bradshaw  of  Kilcroney,  Ireland,  second  in  the  1949   open 
championship  and  winner  of  the  Irish  open. 

was  lured  from  semi-retirement  to  win  the  English  women's 
title  at  Burnham  and  Berrow 

Among  the  professionals  M.  Faulkner  won  three  tourna- 
ments, R.  Burton  two  and  T.  Haliburton,  S.  King  and  F.  Daly 
one  each.  D.  Rees,  after  a  dull  period,  won  the  match  play 
championship  by  one  hole  after  a  thrilling  final  at  Walton 
Heath  with  H.  Cotton,  who  had  in  turn  defeated  two  United 
States  Ryder  cup  men,  L.  Mangrum  and  J.  Palmer,  on  the 
same  day.  The  outstanding  professional  was  undoubtedly 
Charles  Ward,  who  happened  also  to  be  the  smallest.  He 
won  the  Masters  tournament  and  two  others  and  for  the 
second  year  running  headed  the  averages,  thus  winning  the 
Vardon  Trophy.  (H.  L.) 

United  States.  Sam  Snead,  Virginia-born  professional, 
won  the  national  Professional  Golfers'  association  champion- 
ship, the  western  open  tournament  and  the  masters*  invitation 
tournament.  His  only  defection  was  in  the  United  States 
Golf  association  open  tournament,  where  he  made  a  poor 
selection  of  club  at  the  edge  of  the  7 1st  green.  Fifteen-year-old 
Marlene  Bauer  easily  won  the  girls'  national  and  western 
junior  tournaments,  scored  a  number  of  major  match  victories 
over  her  elders  and  reached  the  national  women's  semi-finals 
in  Philadelphia,  where  two  stymies  by  Dot  Kielty  prevented 
her  from  reaching  the  title  match.  Winners  of  the  national 
open  and  women's  titles,  respectively,  were  Cary  Middlecoff, 
a  dentist  from  Memphis,  Tennessee,  who  had  turned  profes- 
sional in  1947  after  a  promising  amateur  career,  and  Mrs. 
Dorothy  G.  Porter,  Philadelphia  housewife  and  mother. 

The  national  amateur  champion  for  1949  was  Charles  Coe 
of  Ardmore,  Oklahoma,  who  bore  out  earlier  predictions 
about  his  prowess  by  decisively  beating  Rufus  King  of  Texas 
in  the  final  bout  at  Rochester,  New  York. 

The  Western  Golf  association  continued  its  Evans  Caddie 
Scholars'  foundation,  a  plan  designed  to  give  college  education 
to  deserving  caddies.  Fifty-eight  boys  who  were  beneficiaries 
of  the  foundation  were  attending  1 9  colleges  and  universities 
throughout  the  country  during  1949.  Bing  Crosby,  one  of 
the  directors  of  the  W.G.A.,  was  voted  recipient  of  the 
W.  D.  Richardson  trophy  by  the  Golf  Writers'  Association 
of  America  for  the  year's  outstanding  contribution  to  golf. 

The  Women's  Western  Golf  association  also  continued  to 


be  a  prominent  factor  in  United  States  golf.  Louise  Suggs 
won  the  W.W.G.A.  open  championship,  and  Helen  Sigel  of 
Philadelphia  became  the  first  easterner  to  win  the  association's 
amateur  title. 

Outstanding  absentee  of  the  1949  season,  but  very  much  in 
the  minds  of  golf  fans  throughout  the  world,  was  Ben  Hogan, 
the  Texan  who  preceded  Snead  as  Professional  Golfer  of  the 
Year.  Almost  fatally  injured  in  a  motor  accident  in  February, 
Hogan  came  back  as  non-playing  captain  of  the  U.S.  Ryder 
cup  team  on  its  tour  of  England.  (C.  BT.) 

GONZALEZ  VIDELA,  GABRIEL,  Chilean  states- 
man (b.  La  Serena,  Chile,  Nov.  23,  1898),  was  elected 
president  of  Chile  in  1946  and  assumed  office  on  Nov.  3, 
1946.  (See  also  Britannica  Book  of  the  Year  1949.) 

On  Jan.  26,  1949,  it  was  announced  that  the  emergency 
powers  granted  to  his  government  in  Jan.  1948  had  been 
renounced.  An  announcement  issued  at  the  time  stated  that 
his  government  had  "  full  confidence  that  Chilean  democratic 
forces  have  erected  an  unbreachable  dyke  against  any 
disruptive  attempt  by  international  Communism  in  our 
country."  A  general  election  on  March  6  for  a  new  Chamber 
of  Deputies  and  20  new  senators  gave  his  coalition  govern- 
ment majorities  in  both  houses.  At  a  ceremony  in  Santiago 
on  Feb.  11,  Manuel  Bianchi,  Chilean  ambassador  in  London, 
presented  Gonzalez  Videla  with  a  portrait  of  Admiral  Lord 
Cochrane  as  a  boy,  a  gift  from  the  Anglo-Chilean  society. 

GOTTWALD,  KLEMENT,  Czech  politician  (b. 
Dedice,  Moravia,  Nov.  23,  1896),  prime  minister  from  July  2, 
1946,  and  president  of  the  republic  from  June  14,  1948. 
(For  his  early  career  see  Britannica  Book  of  the  Year,  1949). 

In  a  broadcast  to  the  nation  on  Nov.  2  he  said  that  it  was 
**  clear  as  the  sun "  that  without  the  protection  of  the 
U.S.S.R.  the  Communist  party  could  not  have  seized  power 
in  Czechoslovakia.  He  alleged  that  Czechoslovakia  owed 
its  creation  as  independent  state  to  Russia,  not  to  western 
powers.  He  also  declared  that  events  proved  the  Czechoslovak 
government's  wisdom  in  rejecting  Marshall  aid  and  joining 
the  Council  of  Mutual  Economic  Assistance  formed  in 
Moscow  on  Jan.  25,  1949. 

GOVERNMENT  DEPARTMENTS.  The  follow- 
ing were  the  chief  officers  of  the  more  important  public 
departments  of  the  United  Kingdom,  Dec.  31,  1949. 


Ministry  or  Department  Name 

Admiralty,  Board  of  Viscount  Hall 

Sir  John  Lang 

Agriculture  and  Fisheries   Tom  Williams 

Sir  Donald  Vandepeer 


Ministry  of 
Air  Ministry 

Bank  of  England 
British  Museum 
Cabinet  Office 


Arthur  Henderson 
Sir  James  Barnes 

C.  F.  Cobbold 

W.  H.  Nevill 

Sir  John  Forsdyke 

Sir  Norman  Brook 


Central  Land  Board  and     Sir  Thomas  Phillips 
War    Damage    Com- 
mission 

Charity  Commission  J.  C.  G.  Pownall 

Civil  Aviation,  Ministry    Lord  Pakenham 
of  Sir  Arnold  Overton 

Civil  Service  Commission  Sir  Percival  Waterfield 

Colonial  Office  Arthur  Creech  Jones 

Sir  Thomas  Lloyd 


Post 

First  Lord 

Permanent    Secre- 
tary 

Minister 

Permanent   Secre- 
tary 

Secretary  of  State 

Permanent  Under 
Secretary 

Governor 

Secretary 

Director  and  Prin- 
cipal Librarian 

Secretary  of  the 
Cabinet 

Chairman 


Chief  Commis- 
sioner 

Minister 

Permanent  Secre- 
tary 

First  Commis- 
sioner 

Secretary  of  State 

Permanent  Under 
Secretary 


GRAIN  CROPS 


305 


Ministry  or  Department 


Name 


Post 


Ministry  or  Department 


Name 


Post 


Sir  John  Caldcr 
Harold  Downie 

\  Crown  Agents 

Stationery  Office                 H.  G.  G.  Welch                  Controller 
Supply,  Ministry  of            George  Strauss                    Minister 

Commonwealth     Rela- 

Philip Noel-Baker 

Secretary  of  State 

Sir  Archibald  Rowlands     Permanent   Secre- 

tions Office 

Sir  Percivale  Leisching 

Permanent  Under 
Secretary 

tary 
Town  and  Country  Plan-    Lewis  Silkin                         Minister 

Customs     and    Excise, 

Sir  William  Croft 

Chairman 

nmg,  Ministry  of             Sir  Thomas  Sheepshanks    Permanent   Secre- 

Board of 

tary 

Defence,  Ministry  of 

Albert  V.  Alexander 

Minister 

Trade,  Board  of                  James  Wilson                      President 

Sir  Harold  Parker 

Permanent   Secre- 

Sir John  Woods                  Permanent   Secre- 

Development   Commis- 

Countess of  Albemarle 

tary 
Chairman 

tary 
Transport,  Ministry  of       Alfred  Barnes                       Minister 

sion 

Sir  Gilmour  Jenkins            Permanent    Secre- 

Duchy   of    Lancaster, 

Hugh  Dalton 

Chancellor 

tary 

Office  of  the 

Treasury                            *Clement  Attlee                   First  Lord 

Education,  Ministry  of 

George  Tomlinson 

Minister 

*Sir  Stafford  Cripps             Chancellor  of  the 

Sir  John  Maud 

Permanent    Secre- 

Exchequer 

tary 

Sir  Edward  Bridges             Permanent    Secre- 

Food, Ministry  of 

John  Strachey 
F.  G.  Lee 

Minister 
Permanent    Secre- 

tary 
War  Works  Commission    Sir  Thomas  Phillips             Chairman 

tary 

War  Office                           Fmanuel  Shmwell               Secretary  of  State 

Foreign  Office 

*Ernest  Bevm 

Secretary  of  State 

Sir  George  Turner               Permanent  Under 

*Sir  William  Strang 

Permanent   Under 
Secretary 

Secretary 
Works,  Ministry  of              Charles  Key                          Minister 

Forestry  Commission 

Lord  Robinson 

Chairman 

SJT  Harold  Emmcrson        Permanent   Secre- 

Fuel and  Power,  Minis- 

HughT. N.  Gaitskell 

Minister 

tary 

try  of 

Sir  Donald  Fergusson 

Secretary 

*  Sfe  separate  article 

General  Register  Office 
Health,  Ministry  of 

George  North 
Aneunn  Bevan 

Registrar  General 

Minister 

GRAIN    CROPS.    The  wide-spread  and  long  enduring 

Sir  William  Douglas 

Secretary 

drought  of  1949  was  one  of  the  most  potent  factors  deter- 

Health, Welsh  Board  of 
Home  Office 

G.  C.  H.  Crawshay 
James  Chuter  Ede 
Sir  Frank  Newsam 

Chairman 
Secretary  of  State 
Permanent  Under 

mining  the  year's  production  figures  of  cereals.     Although 
wheat  and  rye  were  not  much  affected  the  dry  weather  seemed 

Secretary 

to  have  been  responsible  for  somewhat  reduced  yields  of 

Information,  Central 

Sir  Robert  Fraser 

Director  General 

oats,  barley,  maize  and  rice.     As  a  major  crop,  rye  was 

Office  of 
Inland  Revenue,  Board 
of 

Sir  Eric  Bamford 

Chairman 

confined  to  northern  and  central  Europe  and  here  the  yields 
appeared  to  have  been  rather  less  than  in  1948  and  lower 

Labour  and  National 

George  Isaacs 

Minister 

too  than  in  prewar  times.     The  Canadian  rye  crop  which 

Service,  Ministry  of 

Sir  Godfrey  I  nee 

Permanent    Secre- 

achieved a  record  figure  in  1948  reached  less  than  half  this 

Land  Registry 

G.  H.  Curtis 

tary 
Chief  Land  Regis- 
trar 

figure  in  1949.    Oats  and  barley  failed  in  general  to  reach 
the  1948  figures  and  fell  some  way  below  the  prewar  totals. 

Law    Officers*    Depart- 

Sir Hartley  Shawcross 

Attorney  General 

The  acreages  of  maize  and  rice  in  southern  Europe  continued 

ment 

Sir  Frank  Soskice 

Solicitor  General 

to   expand,   especially    in    France,    Greece,    Hungary   and 

Lord  Advocate's  Depart- 

John Wheatley 

Lord  Advocate 

Portugal.  The  rice  crop  of  Hindustan  and  Pakistan  remained 

ment 
Lord  High  Chancellor's 

Douglas  Johnston 
Viscount  Jowitt 

Solicitor  General 
Lord  High  Chan- 

about its  prewar  figure.    Maize  continued  its  advance  north- 

Department 

cellor 

ward  in  Canada. 

Sir  Albert  Napier 

Permanent    Secre- 

The most  intensive  breeding  work  with  rye  was  done  in 

tary 

Sweden.    New  varieties  with  twice  the  chromosome  number 

Lord  Privy  Seal 
National    Assistance 
Board 

Viscount  Addison 
George  Buchanan 
Sir  Harold  Fieldhouse 

Chairman 
Secretary 

of  normal  rye  were  developed;    these  were  of  interest  on 
account  of  their  much  larger  kernels. 

National  Debt  Office 

G.  H  S.  Pmsent 

Comptroller  Gen- 

Sweden was  also  the  country  most  actively  concerned  in 

eral 

the  production  of  new  barley  varieties.    Work  continued  on 

National  Gallery 
National    Insurance, 
Ministry  of 

Philip  Hendy 
James  Griffiths 
Sir  Henry  Hancock 

Director 
Minister 
Permanent   Secre- 
tary 

the  production  of  new  barley  strains  by  means  of  X-ray 
induced  mutations;    and  crosses  between  varieties  of  very 
different  type  were  made  in  the  hope  of  obtaining  significant 

Paymaster  General 

Lord  Macdonald  of 

improvements   in   what   was  already  a   highly   bred   crop. 

Pensions,  Ministry  of 

Gwaenysgor 
Hilary  A.  Marquand 
Sir  Arton  Wilson 

Minister 
Permanent    Secre- 

Frost damage  was  still  a  limiting  factor  in  barley  growing  in 
Sweden  and  Canada  and  in  both  countries  efforts  were  made 

tary 

to  secure  hardier  strains.   Some  barleys  with  reduced  liability 

Post  Office 

Wilfred  Paling 

Postmaster     Gen- 

to breakage  in  the  ear  or  stem,  which  should  prove  useful  for 

Prison  Commission 

R.  A.  Little 
L.  W.  Fox 

eral 
Director  General 
Chairman 

combine  harvesting,  were  developed  in  Sweden  and  renewed 
interest  in  naked  barley  as  a  possible  source  of  barley  flour 

Privy  Council  Office 

Herbert  Morrison 

Lord  President 

or  green  fodder  also  led  to  some  selection  work. 

Sir  Fnc  Leadbitter 

Clerk 

One  of  the  most  serious  problems  confronting  the  oat 

Public  Prosecutions.  De- 
partment of  the  Direc- 
tor of 

Sir  Theobald  Mathew 

Director 

grower  was  the  fungus  disease  Hclminthosporium   Victoria. 
This  disease  arose  in  the  United  States  in  the  early  1940s 

Public  Record  Office 

Sir  Hilary  Jenkinson 

Deputy  Keeper 

and  later  spread  to  Canada.     It  attacked  the  oat  variety 

Public  Trustee  Office 

F.  W.  Hirst 

Public  Trustee 

Victoria,  specially  bred  for  resistance  to  crown  rust,  and 

Public    Works    Loan 
Board 

Sir  Jeremy  Ratsman 

Chairman 

also  various  daughter  varieties  of  the  Victoria  oat  which 

Royal  Mint 

D  J.Wardley 

Deputy     Master 

derive  their  crown  rust  resistance  from  it.    New  sources  of 

and  Controller 

resistance    to    crown    rust    that    were    not    susceptible    to 

Scientific  and  Industrial 

Sir  Ben  Lockspeiser 

Secretary 

H.  Victoria  were  incorporated  into  the  Canadian  oat  breeding 

Research,  Dept.  of 

i>  rr>  0  rft  m  m  f* 

Scottish  Office 

Arthur  Woodburn 
Sir  David  Milne 

Secretary  of  State 
Permanent  Under 
Secretary 

LJlVJtil  dllllllC. 

The  continued  expansion  of  the  world  maize  crop  remained 
one  of  the  most  significant  changes  in  20th  century  agriculture. 

E.B.Y.— 21 


306 


GREAT  BRITAIN 


Much  research  on  the  production  of  new  locally  adapted 
maize  types  was  done  during  1949  in  Canada,  central  and 
southern  Africa,  England,  Italy  and  Portugal.  While  hybrid 
maize  was  the  objective  aimed  at  in  many  cases,  there  was 
a  growing  realization  that  the  expense  of  producing  hybrid 
maize  was  considerable  and  possibly  in  some  cases  prohibitive. 
Consequently,  a  number  of  countries  decided  to  see  what 
could  be  done  by  mass  selection  methods  which,  though 
unlikely  to  produce  a  maize  crop  yielding  as  heavily  as 
hybrid  maize,  would  at  least  give  a  crop  yielding  much  more 
than  unselccted  local  varieties  and  at  the  same  time  involve 
only  a  comparatively  slight  expenditure  in  time  or  money. 
Rice  was  another  crop  whose  acreage  in  Europe  and  Africa 
was  increasing.  Selection  work  to  improve  local  varieties 
was  carried  out  in  Italy  and  Portugal,  also  in  central  Africa 
and  in  Queensland,  Australia.  In  India,  where  innumerable 
varieties  already  existed,  special  attention  was  paid  to  the 
development  of  rice  varieties  able  to  tolerate  flooding  or 
saline  conditions.  (R.  H.  Ri.) 

United  States.  The  U  S.  barley  crop  of  1949  was  estimated 
at  238,104,000  bu.  (British  bushel  1  032  U  S.  bushels),  the 
smallest  crop  since  1937.  The  crop  of  1948  was  315,894,000 
bu.  and  the  ten-year  average  304,741,000  bu.  The  total 
harvested  acreage  of  9,879,000  was  18%  less  than  in  1948 
and  22%  less  than  average,  the  major  reduction  being  in  the 
important  producing  states  of  North  Dakota  (26,608,000  bu.), 
Minnesota  (25,464,000  bu.)  and  South  Dakota  (14,958,000 
bu.).  California,  as  usual,  led  in  production  with  47,038,000 
bu.  The  average  yield  of  24  •  1  bu.  per  ac.  was  less  than  the 
26-4  bu.  of  1948  but  approximately  average  for  the  decade. 

The  1949  U.S.  corn  crop  of  3,377,790,000  bu.  was  the 
second  largest  on  record,  8%  below  the  3,681,793,000  bu.  of 
1948,  but  21  %  above  average.  The  large  1949  crop  added  to 
the  record  carry-over  of  815  million  bu.  provided  a  total 
supply  about  400  million  bu.  larger  than  the  1948  record. 
Acreage  harvested  was  86,735,000  compared  with  86,067,000 
in  1948  and  88,617,000  average  for  the  decade  1938-47. 
Average  yields  per  ac.  declined  to  38-9  bu.  against  42  8  bu. 
in  1948,  but  only  31  -4  bu.  average  for  1938-47. 

The  U.S.  oat  crop  in  1949  of  1,322,924,000  bu.  was  11% 
less  than  the  1948  crop  but  7%  above  the  ten-year  average. 
An  early  spring  favoured  seeding  of  the  crop  on  a  slightly 
larger  acreage  than  in  1948.  However,  a  dry  May  and  June 
in  the  main  producing  area  in  addition  to  heat  and  disease 
damage  reduced  the  yield  4  5  bu.  per  ac.  below  the  1948 
record,  in  spite  of  widespread  use  of  improved  varieties. 

The  U.S.  rice  crop  of  1949  was  the  fourth  consecutive 
record  crop,  reaching  89,141,000  bu.,  42%  larger  than  the 
1938-47  average  of  62,944,000  bu.  and  5%  larger  than  the 
85,056,000  bu.  of  1948.  Acreage,  compared  with  a  govern- 
ment target  of  1  -6  million,  was  at  a  record  level  of  1,821,000. 
The  yield  of  49  bu.  per  ac.  exceeded  the  47-8  per  ac.  of  1948 
and  the  46-6  bu.  per  ac.  average  for  the  previous  decade. 
Louisiana  continued  as  leading  producer. 

The  U.S.  rye  crop  of  1949  amounted  to  18,697,000  bu.,  the 
smallest  crop  since  1934.  It  was  only  71  %  as  large  as  the 
26,449,000  bu.  produced  in  1948  and  only  53  %  of  the  1938-47 
average  production  of  35,109,000  bu.  Much  of  the  decrease 
was  accounted  for  by  a  cut  in  the  acreage  harvested  to  the 
lowest  level  since  1873,  1,558,000  ac.  as  compared  with 
2,096,000  ac.  in  1948  and  an  average  for  1938-47  of  2,874,000 
ac.  Only  47%  of  the  acreage  sown  was  harvested,  the  rest 
being  either  used  for  pasture  and  cover  crop  or  abandoned. 
(See  also  WHEAT.)  (J.  K.  R.) 

GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  NORTHERN  IRELAND, 
UNITED  KINGDOM  OF.  An  independent  kingdom  in 
northwestern  Europe,  the  United  Kingdom  comprises  the 
main  island  of  Great  Britain,  with  numerous  smaller  islands 


off  the  English  and  Scottish  coasts,  and  the  six  northeastern 
counties  of  Ireland.  It  is  a  constitutional  monarchy,  with  a 
king  and  parliament  of  two  houses,  the  House  of  Lords 
consisting  of  3  peers  of  the  blood  royal,  of  704  (Aug.  1949) 
hereditary  peers  (21  dukes,  27  marquesses,  133  earls  and  523 
barons),  26  spiritual  peers  (2  archbishops  and  24  bishops), 
1 6  Scottish  representative  peers,  a  number  of  Irish  representa- 
tive peers  (in  1949,  7;  vacancies  no  longer  filled)  and  a  few 
life  peers  who  have  held  high  judicial  office;  and  the  House 
of  Commons,  numbering  640  members,  elected  by  universal 
suffrage.  The  table  below  shows  areas  and  populations  of  the 
component  parts  of  the  United  Kingdom: 

Area  Population 

(in  sq   mi  )      (Dec    31,    1948,  csl  ) 

Fngland,  together  with  Channel 

Islands  (q  v  )  and  the  Isle  of 

Man  (q  v  )  50,327  "] 

Wales  (q  v  ),  including  Mon-  >  43,676,000* 

mouthshire  .  8,016  J 

Scotland  (q  v)  .  30,410  5,172.000 

Great  Britain  88,753  48,848,000 

Northern  Ireland  (q  v  )  5,451  1,365,000 

United  Kingdom      .          94,204  50,213.000 

*  Wales    pop    (1948  cst  )  2.S23.000 

Cap  :  London  fy.v.)  (pop.,  est.  June  30,  1949):  city  and 
metropolitan  police  districts  8,390,941 ;  city  and  metropolitan 
boroughs  only  3,389,850.  Chief  towns  (est.  June  30,  1949, 
if  not  otherwise  stated):  Glasgow  (est  Dec.  31,  1947) 
1,106,000;  Birmingham  1,107,200;  Liverpool  802,000; 
Manchester  700,700;  Sheffield  513,800;  Leeds  505,400; 
Edinburgh  (est.  Dec.  31,  1947)  487,300;  Belfast  (Jan.  1, 
1939)443,500,  Bristol  439,840;  Nottingham  301,240;  Hull 
296,600.  Newcastle-on-Tyne  295,240,  Leicester  283,400. 
Language:  English  is  almost  universally  spoken,  but  in 
Wales  (according  to  the  1931  census)  3%  of  the  population 
spoke  Welsh  only  and  31  %  spoke  both  languages;  in  Scot- 
land 0-15%  spoke  Gaelic  only  and  27%  spoke  both 
languages;  in  the  Isle  of  Man  528  spoke  English  and  Manx. 
Religions:  Church  of  England  (nominal  membership  15 
million,  effective  5  5  million);  Roman  Catholic  Church 
(England,  Wales,  Scotland  and  Northern  Ireland,  c.  3  •  5 
million);  Presbyterian  established  church  in  Scotland  (1  6 
million  in  1949);  Church  in  Wales  (est.  250,000);  Methodists 
1-5  million  in  1949);  Jews  (c.  400,000);  see  also  CHURCH 
MEMBERSHIP.  King,  George  VI  (q  v.) ;  prime  minister  and 
first  lord  of  the  treasury,  Clement  R  Attlee  (q.v.)\  secretary 
of  state  for  foreign  affairs,  Ernest  Bevm  (</.v.). 

History.  The  Home  Front.  To  the  great  majority  of  the 
people  of  Great  Britain  1949  presented  a  picture  of  calm  and 
the  anxieties  in  their  newspapers  came  no  closer  than  the 
excitements  of  the  news-reel.  The  number  of  people  at  work 
was  extremely  high;  unemployment  was  so  low  as  to  blunt 
the  desire  to  look  for  new  jobs.  It  was  only  towards  the  end 
of  the  year  that  signs  of  unemployment  in  the  shipbuilding 
and  repairing  trades  warned  the  wider  public  that  good  times 
might  not  last  for  ever.  The  hours  of  work  done  per  person 
per  week  differed  hardly  at  all  from  the  average  in  1938; 
and  with  a  huge  labour  force  this  made  the  output  very  high. 
The  good-humoured  calm  that  enveloped  the  working 
population  was  reflected  in  labour  relations.  There  were  a 
number  of  strikes,  some  of  them  irritating;  but  the  total 
number  of  days  lost  in  consequence  was  small ;  and  the  causes 
which  set  off  the  strikes  lay  in  over-easy  circumstances  rather 
than  in  the  presence  of  manifest  wrongs  to  be  righted.  This 
applied,  for  example,  to  the  so-called  lodging  turn  strikes 
which  occurred  among  a  few  railway  men  in  June  because 
footplate  crews  refused  to  spend  the  night  away  from  their 


GREAT  BRITAIN 


307 


homes.  More  serious  were  the  dock  strikes  which  ran  along 
the  coast  from  Liverpool  to  London  and  lasted  intermittently 
from  April  until  July.  The  go-slow  movement  at  Smithfield 
was  due  to  the  porters1  desire  to  prove  that  what  seemed  to 
be  the  modest  amount  of  work  they  did  in  a  week  was  in 
fact  a  full  week's  work. 

Some  of  these  movements — particularly  that  among  the 
dockers — were  fomented  by  Communists.  But  their  success 
was  too  slight  to  trouble  the  generally  tranquil  picture  of  the 
country  as  a  whole.  There  had  been  warnings.  In  March 
the  Trade  Union  congress  condemned  the  disruptive  tactics 
of  the  Communists,  and  in  April  the  prime  minister  gave  a 
general  warning  against  Communism.  Early  in  January 
Arthur  Deakin,  secretary  of  the  Transport  and  General 
Workers'  union,  had  claimed  to  have  knowledge  of  Com- 
munist plans  to  disrupt  industry  in  August;  but  August 
turned  out  to  be  a  quiet  month.  And  the  general  good 
temper  was  further  illustrated  by  the  action  of  the  railway- 
men  as  a  body.  Rather  unskilfully  led,  the  railwaymen  put 
forward  wage  claims  which  British  Railways  would  have  been 
financially  unable  to  meet.  The  claims  were  rejected  by  the 
Conciliation  board.  An  attempt  was  thereupon  made  to 
get  a  "  work  to  rule  "  (/.<?.,  a  slow  motion)  movement  under 
way;  but  it  met  with  a  heavy  defeat. 

For  a  large  proportion  of  the  population  conditions  of 
life  were  in  fact  fairly  comfortable.  Some  scarcities  dimin- 
ished. Early  in  the  year  clothes  rationing  was  ended  to  the 
accompaniment  of  a  subsidiary  "  bonfire,"  as  the  president 
of  the  Board  of  Trade  called  it,  of  minor  controls.  The 
running  of  the  important  remaining  controls  grew  smoother 
as  experience  suggested  the  adoption  of  appropriate  devices 
for  collaboration  between  the  ministries  and  industry.  The 
cost  of  living  was  virtually  unchanged.  So  were  wage  rates. 

The  national  quietism  went  naturally  with  the  national 
state  of  good  health.  Great  Britain  was  eupeptic.  In  the 
September  quarter  infant  mortality  reached  the  lowest 
figure  ever  recorded,  and  the  low  rate  for  most  diseases 
reflected  the  effects  of  the  approach  to  economic  egalitarian- 
ism.  But  the  birthrate  remained  low;  the  population  was 


ageing  and  this  fact  contributed  to  the  quiet  nature  of  the 
national  temper.  The  country's  moral  health  too  continued 
to  improve.  The  level  of  officially  notified  crime  was  higher 
than  before  World  War  II;  but  as  memories  of  the  war 
faded  and  as  shops  became  better  stocked  the  urge  towards 
crimes  against  the  person  and  against  property  lost  force. 
In  the  London  metropolitan  police  area  a  marked  and 
contra-seasonal  decrease  of  crime  was  reported  in  the  second 
half  of  the  year. 

Political  life  developed  on  normal  lines.  Parliamentary 
by-elections  showed  the  pendulum  swinging  slowly  towards 
the  'Right  but  the, opposition  gained  no  seats.  Some  analysts 
observed  especially  that  Liberal  voters  were  sharing  in  the 
movement  to  the  Right.  This  movement  was  manifest  also 
in  the  local  government  elections  held  in  April.  As  a  general 
election  was  due  at  the  latest  in  1950  special  attention  was 
paid  to  the  drafting  of  party  programmes.  The  Labour  party 
led  the  way,  publishing  in  April  a  policy  statement  which 
was  adopted  by  the  party  conference  in  June.  In  theory 
uncompromising,  this  document  made  some  allowance 
for  realities  in  practice.  Nationalization  was  proposed  for 
industrial  assurance,  the  cement  industry,  sugar  refining  and 
manufacturing,  the  wholesale  meat  trade  and  slaughterhouses, 
cold  storage,  water  supply  and  all  suitable  minerals.  The 
chemical  industry  was  to  be  examined  and  a  development 
centre  was  to  be  set  up  for  shipbuilding  and  repairing. 
Industries  already  nationalized  were  to  be  gradually  de- 
centralized and  the  "  fruitful  partnership  "  between  private 
and  public  industry  was  to  be  extended.  Some  controls 
were  to  stay,  others  to  be  removed. 

Conservative  policy  was  stated  in  July  in  a  booklet  called 
The  Right  Road  for  Britain.  The  nationalized  industries 
were  to  be  decentralized  but  there  was  no  mention  of  whole- 
sale denationalization.  Some  important  controls  were  to 
stay  as  long  as  they  were  necessary.  Direct  taxation  was  to 
be  reduced,  there  were  to  be  insurance  and  pension  reliefs, 
and  the  social  services  were  to  be  maintained,  but  waste 
was  to  be  cut  out.  Attlee  and  other  critics  believed  the 
reliefs  were  incompatible  with  lower  taxation. 


Stockbrokers,  jobbers  and  their  assistants  carrying  on  a  street  market  in  Throgmorton  street,  London.    The  Stock  Exchange  was  closed  on 
Sept.  19,  1949 — the  day  after  Sir  Stafford  Cripps  announced  the  devaluation  of  the  pound. 


308 


GREAT  BRITAIN 


As  the  year  went  on  the  government  came  to  be  more  on 
the  defensive.  At  the  Trades  Union  congress  conference  at 
Bridlington  in  September  Attlee  stressed  the  need  for  higher 
production  and  urged  that  an  increase  in  wages  for  the 
lowest-paid  workers  should  not  involve  consequential  in- 
creases all  along  the  line.  On  this  point  the  unions  did  not 
see  eye  to  eye  with  the  government. 

The  Conservative  party  conference  was  held  in  London 
in  October  under  the  shadow  of  the  devaluation  crisis. 
It  brought  promises  of  support  for  any  necessary  sacrifices 
but  did  not  produce  a  detailed  programme  for  meeting  the 
emergency.  Winston  Churchill,  the  leader  of  the  opposition, 
eloquently  refrained  from  saying  that  a  Conservative  govern- 
ment would  scrap  all  Labour  measures.  The  debate  on  the 
government's  economy  measures  in  connection  with  the 
dollar  crisis  showed  that  some  Conservatives  (e.g.,  Anthony 
Eden)  were  ready  for  more  drastic  measures  than  those  out- 
lined in  The  Right  Road  for  Britain. 

By  the  end  of  1949  the  government  had  completed  its 
major  programme  of  legislation.  It  main  objective  now  was 
the  passing  of  the  Iron  and  Steel  bill  and  of  the  Parliament 
bill.  In  November  the  government  agreed  to  delay  the 
vesting  day  for  the  Iron  and  Steel  industry  until  after  the 
general  election;  and  thus  the  bill  reached  the  statute  book 
without  the  application  of  a  new  Parliament  act. 

Economics  and  Finance.  The  almost  idyllic  conditions  of 
the  domestic  scene  were  spoilt  by  the  fact  that  the  entire 
structure  was  built  on  sand:  the  entire  economic  field  was 
dominated  by  the  issue  between  national  solvency  and  in- 
solvency. Supplementary  estimates  published  in  February 
showed  that  an  additional  £58  million  would  be  needed  for 
the  National  Health  service  and  a  further  £52  million  for  the 
Ministry  of  Food.  The  financial  year  ended  on  March  31 
with  a  true  surplus  estimated  at  £352  million  and  the  new 
budget  provided  for  one  of  no  more  than  £14  million.  It 
represented  a  success  for  the  forces  of  solvency;  for  the 
chancellor  kept  the  subsidies  (designed  to  keep  the  cost  of 
living  at  a  moderate  level)  at  £465  million,  or  £103  million 
less  than  the  rates  ruling  in  the  previous  financial  year  would 
have  cost. 

Nevertheless,  it  presently  appeared  that  the  state  was  still 
spending  more  than  it  was  receiving.  Expenditure  soon  rose 
to  a  rate  suggesting  that  long  before  the  end  of  the  financial 
year  the  estimates  would  be  exceeded;  there  was  no  similar 
indication  for  revenue.  The  public  too  was  in  no  saving  mood. 
Savings  were  drawn  on  at  a  net  rate  of  nearly  £2  million  a 
week,  and  the  turnover  of  money  (as  measured,  for  example, 
by  the  figures  of  the  provincial  clearings)  became  more  rapid. 

Questions  of  internal  solvency  were  overshadowed  (despite 
the  continued  receipt  of  E.R.P.  aid)  by  those  relating  to  the 
balance  of  trade.  In  the  second  half  of  1948  the  country's 
oversea  accounts  showed  a  small  surplus.  In  the  second  half 
of  1949  this  trend  was  reversed  and  clouds  rapidly  rose  above 
the  horizon.  The  trouble  was  that,  though  the  overall  accounts 
balanced  on  paper,  Great  Britain  (and  the  sterling  area  as  a 
whole)  was  unable  to  balance  its  accounts  with  the  dollar 
area.  Though  it  had  a  surplus  with  the  rest  of  the  world 
the  balances  thus  built  up  could  not  be  used  to  pay  for 
imports  from  the  United  States  since  many  of  Great  Britain's 
debtors  were  themselves  insolvent,  so  far  as  their  foreign 
trade  was  concerned.  British  overseas  trade  policy  was  caught 
in  a  dilemma.  If  it  concentrated  on  arranging  two-sided  trade 
treaties  (as  with  Poland  and  the  Argentine)  it  did  nothing  to 
foster  the  growth  of  world  trade,  without  which  British 
commerce  cannot  flourish;  if  it  worked  towards  increasing 
the  volume  of  world  trade  (as  at  the  Brussels  conference  on 
the  convertibility  of  currencies  in  June  and  at  the  Annecy 
conference  on  tariffs  which  ended  in  October)  it  ran  the  risk 
of  financing  the  weaker  countries'  trade  at  its  own  expense. 


Groundnuts  from  the  Overseas  Food  corporation's  estates  in  East 
Africa  being  unloaded  at  the  London  docks,  Nov.  1949. 

Officially,  it  was  claimed  that  a  solution  of  this  contradiction 
existed;  it  was  not  apparent  to  the  eye  of  the  man  in  the 
street. 

The  flow  of  gold  and  dollars  continued  and  after  consult- 
ations at  Washington  it  was  decided  to  devalue  the  pound 
on  Sept.  19.  The  rate,  which  had  i>tood  ai  $4-03  to  the  £ 
after  1939,  was  lowered  to  $2-80.  It  was  hoped  that  this 
cheapening  of  the  pound  would  stimulate  exports  to,  and 
discourage  imports  from,  the  dollar  area. 

One  powerful  cause  of  the  British  trading  difficulties  lay 
in  the  high  costs  of  production.  Devaluation  drew  attention 
to  this  fact  and  consequently  placed  a  question  mark  against 
the  entire  philosophy  of  the  welfare  state.  The  opposition 
therefore  pressed  for  a  general  election;  the  government 
refused.  In  late  October  the  government  outlined  fiscal 
steps  to  correct  the  drift  towards  bankruptcy.  They  were, 
however,  judged  inadequate.  The  year  ended  with  a  wide- 
spread conviction  that  more  drastic  decisions  would  have 
to  be  announced  after  if  not  before  the  coming  general 
election.  Non-political  observers  suspected  that  the  opposition 
were  exaggerating  and  the  government  were  belittling 
imminent  dangers,  the  motive  in  each  party  being  an  election- 
eering one.  (See  also  POLITICAL  PARTIES,  BRITISH.) 

Foreign  Policy.  Foreign  policy  was  dominated  by  relations 
with  the  U.S.S.R.  and  to  this  extent  formed  part  of  a  joint 
policy  in  which  the  United  States  held  the  leading  part. 
Early  in  the  year  the  success  of  the  air  lift  supplying 
Berlin  moved  the  Soviet  government  to  agree  to  consultations 
which,  in  May,  resulted  in  the  restoration  of  the  status  quo, 
with  a  promise  to  convene  the  Council  of  Foreign  Ministers 
(q.v.)  to  consider  German  questions.  The  council  duly  went 
through  the  form  of  joint  consultations  but  nothing  resulted. 
More  important  were  the  western  attempts  to  build  up  a 
security  system  designed  in  reality  if  not  in  name  to  contain 
Soviet  expansionism.  The  most  important  measure  under 
this  heading  was  the  North  Atlantic  treaty  (</.v.). 

The  Council  of  Europe,  of  roughly  parliamentary  form, 
was  meant  to  express  the  element  of  supra-national  unity 
existing  in  Europe.  Its  assembly  (or  lower  house)  met  at 


GREAT  BRITAIN 


309 


Strasbourg  in  August  and  September.  It  surprised  many  by 
providing  evidence  of  solidarity:  it  kindled  the  imagination 
of  the  fairly  large  body  of  British  public  opinion  which  saw 
in  the  attempt  to  introduce  a  measure  of  unity  into  western 
Europe  something  more  than  a  defensive  instrument. 

Like  the  American  administration  the  British  government 
was  ready  to  take  energetic  action  on  its  side  of  the  "  iron 
curtain "  to  restrain  whatever  ambitions  might  animate 
Soviet  policy.  But  the  government  was  unable  to  devise 
effective  action  beyond  the  curtain.  For  example,  both 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  addressed  protests 
early  in  April  to  Bulgaria,  Hungary  and  Rumania  on  the 
score  of  their  alleged  violations  of  the  peace  treaties:  but  it 
was  clear  that  this  action  was  prompted  rather  by  the  wish  to 
keep  the  diplomatic  record  straight  than  by  the  hope  of 
weakening  the  Communist  front.  A  similar  inability  to  work 
out  an  effective  policy  was  shown  later  in  the  year  when 
Marshal  Tito's  breach  with  the  U.S.S.R.  became  more  and 
more  violent.  The  impulse  to  assist  him  was  evidently 
tempered  by  the  desire  to  take  no  irremediable  step  about  the 
Soviet  Union. 

As  for  Germany,  policy  was  hampered  by  the  fact  that, 
if  weak,  the  federal  republic  must  be  a  drain  on  its  victor- 
sponsors  and  a  possible  breeding-ground  for  Communism; 
but,  if  strong,  it  would  sooner  or  later  pursue  an  independent 
policy,  and  one  not  necessarily  accommodated  to  the  in- 
terests of  the  western  powers  by  any  pre-established  harmony. 
The  programme  for  setting  up  a  Western  German  govern- 
ment was  pushed  ahead.  The  British  government  played  a 
proper  part  in  fostering  its  creation.  At  the  same  time  it  was 
accused  of  showing  itself  unable  to  grasp  the  implications 
of  this  policy.  The  dismantling  of  German  factories  listed  as 
potentially  dangerous  continued  through  most  of  the  year 
to  the  accompaniment  of  vocal  protests  and  sometimes  of 
physical  violence  on  the  part  of  the  Germans.  Towards  the 
end  of  the  year  it  became  obvious  that  dismantling  would  be 
a  major  issue  for  the  West  German  opposition  and  could  not 
be  disregarded  by  the  administration.  Probably  the  British 
government  was  not  prompted  solely  by  fear  of  the  new 
Germany  it  was  helping  to  build  up;  it  would  not  wish  to 
present  the  Soviet  government  with  a  cut  and  dried  case  for 
contending  that  the  former  enemy  was  being  treated  as  a 
friend. 

On  the  Soviet  Union's  eastern  flank  British  policy  was 
ambiguous.  The  Chinese  Communists  overran  most  of  the 
country,  and  it  was  obvious  that  theirs  was  the  dominant 
power.  In  view  of  this  fact,  and  of  the  desirability  of  main- 
taining commercial  relations,  the  government  appeared 
anxious  to  recognize  the  Communists.  Public  opinion, 
seizing  on  the  striking  and  the  essential,  concentrated  its 
attention  on  relations  with  the  U.S.S.R.  and  extended  to 
every  manifestation  of  Communism  its  hostility  to  that 
power.  There  was  a  strong  craving  for  reassurance  about 
the  status  of  Great  Britain.  This  showed  itself  in  the  indig- 
nation aroused  by  the  Communist  shelling  of  the  frigate 
"  Amethyst  "  on  the  Yangtse  in  April,  and  in  the  effervescent 
celebrations  occasioned  by  the  vessel's  escape  in  July. 

Commonwealth  Affairs.  Intra-Commonwealth  relations 
showed  that  evolutionary  quality  which  is  necessary  for  the 
healthy  life  of  any  political  body.  With  respect  to  India, 
for  example,  means  were  found  for  expressing  the  dominion's 
continued  membership  of  the  Commonwealth  as  well  as  its 
changed  relationship  to  the  traditional  bond  of  empire,  the 
crown.  After  exploratory  conversations  between  British 
envoys  and  the  respective  dominion  authorities,  a  Common- 
wealth conference  was  held  in  London  from  April  21  to  27. 
A  formula  was  found  declaring  that  India  accepted  the  King 
as  the  symbol  of  the  free  association  of  the  Commonwealth's 
independent  member  nations  but  also  affirming  that  India 


was  to  become  a  sovereign  independent  republic.  This 
recognition  of  apparently  conflicting  principles  was  approved 
by  the  other  dominions. 

An  analagous  reconciliation  was  effected  by  the  Ireland 
bill,  which  was  published  on  May  5  and  declared  that  the 
republic  of  Ireland  ceased  to  be  part  of  His  Majesty's 
dominions  on  April  18  but  would  not  be  a  foreign  country 
for  the  purposes  of  any  law  in  force  in  the  United  Kingdom 
or  the  colonies.  The  bill  also  affirmed  that  Northern  Ireland 
remained  part  of  the  British  dominions.  The  measure  had  a 
bad  reception  in  the  republic  of  Ireland  as  perpetuating  the 
so-called  partition.  But  it  correctly  stated  the  facts  of  the 
situation 

In  the  colonial  empire  stress  was  placed  on  economic 
development.  In  the  Commons  debate  on  July  29  Creech 
Jones,  the  colonial  secretary,  showed  that  he  understood  the 
need  to  build  up  a  higher  standard  of  living.  The  difficulty 
lay  in  the  shortage  of  capital  in  Great  Britain;  and  a  report 
issued  on  July  29  by  the  Parliamentary  and  Scientific  com- 
mittee suggested  co-operation  with  the  United  States  in 
dealing  with  the  under-developed  areas.  The  hazards  of 
colonial  development  were  illustrated  by  the  history  of  the 
government's  groundnuts  scheme.  Early  in  November  it  was 
officially  stated  that  over  £29  million  had  been  spent  on  the 
undertaking.  It  was  clear  that,  whatever  its  ultimate  fate 
might  be,  the  project  was  a  long-term  pioneering  endeavour 
and  exposed  to  all  the  difficulties  inherent  in  this  kind  of  effort. 

As  the  year  advanced  the  financial  difficulties  of  Great 
Britain  and  of  the  sterling  area  received  growing  attention. 
A  conference  of  Commonwealth  finance  ministers  sat  in 
London  from  July  13  to  18.  It  expressed  its  appreciation 
of  the  need  for  a  single  many-sided  system  of  world  trade 
and  payments  and  it  discussed  means  for  expanding  the 
sterling  area's  earnings  of  dollars.  The  rate  of  the  outflow 
of  gold  and  dollars  did  in  fact  decline  during  the  third  quarter 
of  the  year.  Equally  important,  within  the  sterling  area,  were 
the  war  debts  owed  by  Great  Britain  to  some  of  the  dominions. 
In  August  arrangements  were  concluded  with  India  and 
Pakistan  (Cmd.  7760  and  7765,  H.M.S.O.,  London)  governing 
releases  of  sterling  to  these  creditors.  If  measured  against 
the  sums  owed  the  releases  were  moderate;  if  against 
the  British  straits,  large.  They  were  criticized  on  both 
grounds  (see  also  BRITISH  EMPIRE).  (W.  L.  A.) 

Education.  The  Education  acts  for  England  and  Wales  (1944),  for 
Scotland  (1945)  and  for  Northern  Ireland  (1947)  had  the  effect  of 
causing  certain  postwar  information  to  be  summarized  in  forms  not 
always  comparable  with  prewar  statistics.  Totals,  however,  might  be 
compared  and  in  Table  I  figures  are  given  for  1938  and  1948. 

TABLE  I. — PRIMARY,  SECONDARY  AND  FURTHER  EDUCATION 

Grant-aided                 England  Northern 

schools                   and  Wales               Scotland  Ireland 

1938         1948         1938         1948  1938         1948 
Primary  and 

secondary           31,026     28,596       3,147       3,027  1,775        — 

Pupils  fOOO)      5,548        5,460          769           764  205-6207-3 

Special  schools*          611           559            63            85  —            — 

Pupils  ('000)           51             43             12             11  —              0-6 
Further  education 

establishments       —           7,248         —            —  —            96 

Pupils  ('000)       —           1,819           162           196  —              2-5 
Full-time  teachers, 

all  schools          193,277211,658      26,502      28,199  —        7,257 
*  Special  schools  provided  education  exclusively  for  children  so  physically 
or  mentally   handicapped   as  to  be  prevented  from  profiting  fully  from  educ- 
ation in  normal  primary  and  secondary  schools. 

TABLE  II. — UNIVERSITIES  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN:  STUDENTS  AND  STAFFS 
Prewar  figures  include  the  universities  of  Aberdeen,  Birmingham, 
Bristol,  Cambridge,  Durham,  Edinburgh,  Exeter,  Glasgow,  Leeds, 
Liverpool,  London,  Manchester,  Nottingham,  Oxford,  Reading, 
St.  Andrews,  Sheffield,  Southampton  and  Wales.  Postwar  figures 
cover  also  the  university  colleges  of  Hull  and  Leicester. 

1938-39     1943-44      1947-48 
Full  and  part-time  students: 

Men 49,202       33.270       73,501 

Women 14,218        15,643       23,003 


310 


GREAT   BRITAIN 


The  ship's  company  of  H M.S.  "  Amethyst  "  and  representatives  of"  London"  "  Consort"  and  "  Black  Swan  "  and  of  the  Royal  Air  Force 
leaving  Buckingham  palace,  London,  after  being  received  by  the  King  on  Nov.  17,  1949. 


1943-44     1947-48 


22,449 
13,199 


1938-39 
Full-time  students: 

Men 38,368 

Women 11,634 

Full-time  teaching  staff:  .  .  .  3,994 

Agriculture.    Table  III  gives  the  estimated  quantities  of  main  crops 
in  two  prewar,  two  wartime  peak  and  three  postwar  years. 

TABLE  III. — AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTION  IN  THE  UNITED  KINGDOM 


59,065 

19,442 

6,536 


(In  '000  long  tons'* 


Wheat     . 
Barley 
Oats 
Rye 

Mixed  corn 
Potatoes  . 
Sugar  beets 


1938 

1939 

1943 

1944 

1947 

1948 

1949 

1,965 

1,645 

3,447 

3,138 

1,667 

2,361 

2,136 

904 

892 

1,645 

1,752 

1,619 

2,027 

2,043 

1,992 

2,003 

3,064 

2,953 

2,509 

2,963 

2,828 

12 

10 

95 

88 

22 

47 

53 

75 

73 

394 

349 

386 

518 

640 

5,115 

5,218 

9,822 

9,096 

7,766 

11,798 

8,861 

2,191 

3,529 

3,923 

3,267 

2,960 

4,319 

3,644 

Cattle 
Sheep 
Pigs 
Poultry 


.  8,762 
.  26,775 
.  4,383 
.  74,246 


8,872 
26,887 

4,394 
74,357 


9,501 
20,107 

1,867 
55,127 


9,567 
16,713 

1,628 
70,006 


9,806 
18,164 

2,151 
85,327 


1949 
10.229 
19,473 

2,811 
95.223 


TABLE  IV.  —  LIVESTOCK  IN  THE  UNITED  KINGDOM 
(In  '000  head  at  June  in  each  year) 
1938       1939       1943       1944       1947       1948 

9,259 
20,383 
1,829 
50,729 

Sales  of  milk  in  the  United  Kingdom  amounted  to  1.249  million  gal. 
in  1938,  1,378  in  1944,  1,618  in  1948  and  1,737  in  1949. 

It  was  estimated  that  agricultural  production  in  1949  was  about 
30%  above  prewar.   About  40%  of  Britain's  food  was  home  produced, 
compared  with  about  30%  prewar.  At  the  end  of  the  year  meat,  bacon, 
fats,  milk,  cheese,  eggs,  sugar  and  tea  continued  to  be  rationed.    An 
account  of  the  payments  made  on  the  food  subsidy  was  given  by  the 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer  on  Nov.  3.    He  listed  the  annual  rate  of 
payments  as  follows  (£  million): 

To  reduce  the  cost  of  imported  food        .         .         .         .       183-5 

To  reduce  the  cost  of  home-grown  food  .         .         .         .       211-3 

To  reduce  the  cost  of  imported  feeding-stuffs   .         .         .         33  •  8 

To  reduce  the  cost  of  home-grown  feeding-stuffs       .         .          2-9 

Acreage  payments    .......         16-1 

Fertilizers       ........         15-0 


Total         .      462-6 
Fisheries.    Landings  of  fish  of  British  takings  are  given  in  Table  V. 


TABLE  V. — BRITISH  FISHERIES:  TOTAL  CATCH* 


1938 


1943 


1948 


1949 


776-6 
12,642 

269-0 
3,907 


159-0 
9,340 

722-0 
34,789 

708-6 
29,479 

150-0 
6,053 

320-3 
12,038 

293-0 
10,308 

England  and  Wales: 

Total  catch  ('000  long  tons) 

Total  catch  (£  '000)  . 
Scotland: 

Total  catch  ('000  long  tons) 

Total  catch  (£  '000)  . 

*  Excluding  shell  fish,  but  including  grey  mullet  and  whitebait. 

Industry.  Number  of  industrial  establishments  with  more  than  10 
employees  (April  1948):  51,040.  Distribution  of  total  manpower  in 
the  years  1938, 1944  and  1948  (at  June  in  each  year)  is  given  in  Table  VI. 

TABLE  VI. — EMPLOYMENT  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN  ('000) 


Men 

Women 
Forces  and  V 
Men 
Women 
Total  in  Civi 
Men 
Women 
Agricultur 
Industries 
Transport 
Distribute 
Insurance, 

Public  Administration: 
National  Government  Service 
Local  Government  Service 
Professional  Services 
Miscellaneous  Services 
Ex-servicemen  not  yet  employed 
Registered  unemployed 


Copulation    . 

1938 
.      19,473 
.      14,476 
4  997 

1944 
22,008 
14,901 
7,107 

1948 
23,146' 
16,057 
7,089 

icn's  Services 

385 

4,967 

'846 

385 

4,500 

807 

. 

467 

39 

nployment   . 

.      17,378 

16,967 

21,926 

. 

.      12,766 

10,347 

14Q45 

4,612 

6,620 

0.981 

rorestry,  Fishing    . 

949 

1,048 

1,268 

8,716 

9,062 

10,776 

\  Communication 

1,225 

1,237 

1,814 

Vades 

2,882 

1,927 

2,689 

nking,  Finance 

414 

268 

441 

1,386         2,091« 


1,806 


1,710 


1,334-J 

20 
54 


688 

766 

1,341 

2,143 

92 

282 


*  Including  private  indoor  domestic  servants  and  gainfully  occupied  persons 
over  pensionable  age  (men  65,  woman  60). 

TABLE  VH.—PRODUCTION  OF  FUFX  AND  POWER  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 

1938         1945         1947         1948         1949 

Coal  (million  long  tons)  .     226-99    182-78     197-44    209-40  215-12 

Gas  (million  cu.  ft.)          .    349,171    428,220   486,422    505,369  522-60 

Electricity  (million  kwh.)       25,708     38,611      43,984     48,084  49,716 


GREAT   BRITAIN 


311 


The  total  number  of  wage-earners  in  the  coal-mining  industry 
decreased  from  782,000  in  1938  to  698,000  in  1941  and  was  724,000  in 
1948  The  overall  absenteeism  which  stood  in  1938  at  6  44%,  reached 
16  31";  in  1945,  decreased  to  11  64?0  m  1948— all  percentages  being 
weekly  averages  The  average  output  in  tons  per  manshift  worked 
was  1  14  in  1938,  1  00  in  1945  and  1  11  in  1948 

The  indigenous  petroleum  production,  which  was  125,500  long  tons 
in  1938  reached  257,300  tons  in  1943  and  decreased  to  153,100  tons  in 
1948  I  his  covered  a  very  small  percentage  of  national  consumption 
In  1948  total  production  from  petroleum  refineries  and  distillation 
plants  in  Great  Britain  attained  3,838,400  tons  of  liquid  products, 
including  1,753,200  tons  of  fuel  oil  and  617,100  of  motor  spirit.  In 
addition,  in  the  same  year,  a  total  of  3,497  4  million  gal  of  refined 
petroleum  were  imported,  including  1,303  6  million  gal  of  fuel  and 
Diesel  oil  and  1,224  1  million  gal  of  motor  and  other  spirit 

TAHib  VIII — PRODUCTION  OF  MBTALS  IN  GREAT  BRIIAIN 

('000  tons) 

1938   1943   1945   1947   1948   1949 

Steel  10,398    13,031     11,824    12,725    14,877    15,553 

Virgin  aluminium  23   0       55    7       31-9       28  9        WO       29  0 

Copper,  refined  -         171    4       74-1       88  9     107   7     105-0 

Virgin /me  —  69   4       62  0       68   3       72    1        58   7 

Lead,  refined  -  15   7       13   5       32   1       36  2       32  9 

The  British  steel  industry  in  1949  was  operating  at  full  capacity, 
the  official  target  for  output  of  crude  steel  in  1952  being  17  million 
long  tons  There  were  99  pig  iron  furnaces  in  blast  in  1938,  125  in 
1940,  94  in  1947  and  102  in  1948.  The  consumption  ol  iron  ore  in  1938 
was  16  3  million  tons,  including  11  7  million  tons  home  extracted, 
in  1948  the  total  consumption  of  iron  ore  amounted  to  20  7  million 
tons,  including  12  2  million  tons  home  extracted  There  were  619 
steel  furnaces  in  existence  m  1938,  820  in  1944  and  731  in  1948.  The 
home  consumption  of  non-ferrous  metals  generally  greatly  exceeded 
the  home  production  and  in  1948  was  (in  '000  long  tons)-  aluminium 
173  4;  copper  356-8;  zinc  223-2;  lead  212  7 

TABLL  IX — TIMBER  PRODUCIION  AND  CONSUMPTION  IN   nit  UNIITD 
KINO  DOM 

1940  1943  1946  1949 

Softwood  ('000  standards; 

Total  consumption                          870-6  678   5  1,082    1  1,149-6 

Home  grown                                     161   4  248   9  94  2  63  0 

Hardwood  (million  cu   ft ) 

Total  consumption                             47   6  58    1  613  81    5 

Home  grown                                       22   1  45  0  42   3  40  9 

Pitwood  ('000  standards) 

Total  consumption                          896-0  7204  7056  7844 

Home  grown                                     597   5  720  6  337   8  193  4 

Plywood  (million  sq    ft  ) 

Total  consumption                  .       167  3  121   0  408  8  340  8 

Home  produced   .                               52  4  68  0  68   3  73   3 

TAIHF  X      TFXTILLS  PRODUCTION  AND  CONSUMPTION  IN   IHE  UNIIED 
KINGDOM 

1937  1945  1949 

Raw  cotton,  consumption  ('O(X)  tons)  619  320  437 

Single  cotton  yarn,  prod    (million  Ib  )  1,233   8         597-1          821    6 

Cotton  waste  yarn,  prod  (million  Ib  )  124  0  66  9  96  7 

Synthetic  fibre,  production  (million  Ib  )  148  4         138  4        288  7 

Cotton  woven  cloth  (million  yd  )  3,640          1,539          2,005 

Wool,  home  production  (million  Ib.)  66  58  50 

Wool,  home  consumption  (million  Ib  )  331  626 

Wool  yarn  production  (million  Ib  )  224  2         126  9         208  2 

Woven  wool  fabrics  (million  yd  )  316  7         193    I         282  9 

Raw  silk,  consumption  ('000  Ib  )  5,832  332  1,667 

Textile  output  declined  and  export  trade  was  sacrificed  as  labour  was 
transferred  from  civilian  industries  to  war  production  and  to  the 
fighting  services.  The  cotton  and  wool  industries  emerged  from  World 
War  II  with  a  greatly  depleted  labour  force  and  with  plant  equipment 
suffering  from  heavy  arrears  of  maintenance  and  replacement,  worst 
in  the  cotton  industry  because  prewar  difficulties  had  caused  under- 
mamtenance  From  1945  substantial  progress  was  made.  In  1949  the 
cotton  industry's  production  was  about  30 °0  higher  than  in  1945, 
while  the  quantity  exported  was  84%  higher  In  the  wool  industry 
output  also  increased  considerably  and  exports  were  about  three  times 
as  much  as  in  1945,  and  substantially  above  prewar  There  was  rapid 
expansion  of  the  production  of  synthetic  fibres  (rayon,  nylon,  etc) 
both  output  and  exports  were  by  1948  already  considerably  greater 
than  prewar 

Between  1938  and  1948  the  production  of  the  mechanical  and 
electrical  engineering  industries  increased  by  one-half  and  it  was 
expected  that  by  1952  it  would  rise  to  about  70%  above  the  1938  level. 
By  1949  exports  of  all  engineering  products  had  risen  to  twice  the 
level  of  1938  and  accounted  for  two-fifths  of  the  United  Kingdom's 
visible  exports 

Index  numbers  of  industrial  production.  Statistical  Office  of  the 
UN  (1937-100),  1946-90,  1948-109,  1949-114;  British  Central 
Statistical  office  (1946-100),  1948-123.  Oct.  1949-134. 


Foreign  Trade.  In  Table  XI  the  value  of  the  imports  is  expressed  in 
c  i  f.  (carnage,  insurance,  freight)  prices  and  the  value  of  exports  in 
fob  (free  on  board)  prices 

TABLE  XI  —  EXTERNAL  TRADE  OF  THE  UNITED  KINGDOM 

1938  1945  1946  1947  1948  1949 
Value  (£  million). 

Imports                 919   5  1,103   7  1,301   0  1,794   5  2,078-0  2,272-5 

Exports                 470  8  399   3  914  7  1,138-3  1,581   8  1,784  4 

Re-exports  61-5  51  0  50  2  59  8  64  7  58  6 
Volume  index*. 

Total  imports      .   100  0  61   9  68  3  77  7  80-8  87  0 

Total  exports          100-0  45-8  99  3  108  7  136-3  151  0 

*  Quantities  revalued  at  1938  prices  and  expressed  as  a  percentage  of  the 
value  ot  imports  or  exports  m  1938 

Mam  commodities  imported  (per  cent  of  total  imports,  1949)  food, 
drink  and  tobacco  42  7;  raw  materials  and  articles  mainly  unmanufac- 
tured 34  1,  articles  wholly  or  mainly  manufactured  22-4,  animals 
not  tor  food  and  parcel  post  0  8  Main  commodities  exported  (per 
cent  of  total  exports,  1949)  articles  wholly  or  mainly  manufactured 
87-5,  food,  drink  and  tobacco  5  5;  raw  materials  and  articles  mainly 
unmanufactured  4  5,  animals  not  for  food  and  parcel  post  2-5. 
Main  sources  of  imports  (1949,  per  cent  of  total  imports)  Canada 
9  92,  United  States  9  76,  Australia  9  35,  New  Zealand  5  15,  India 
4  32  Main  destinations  of  exports  (1949,  per  cent  of  total  exports) 
Australia  10  27,  Union  of  South  Africa  6  80,  India  6  37,  Ireland 
4  47,  Canada  4  42,  New  Zealand  1  51,  United  States  3  40 

transport  and  Communications.  Railways  (1948)  Great  Britain, 
total  first  track  (all  gauges),  19,700  mi,  Noithern  Ireland,  1,015  mi 
Rail  transport  (1948,  Great  Britain)  21,259  million  passenger-mi  , 
goods  21, 457  million  tons-mi  Roads(1948)  Great  Britain,  183,659mi 

TABLE  XII      MOTOR  VEHICLES    1  ICF.NSFD  IN    IUE   UNITED   KINGDOM 

Great  Britain     Northern  Ireland 

Aug  31   Aug   31    Aug   31   Aug  31 

1939    1949    1939    1948 

Total  ('000)  .  3,157        4,016         60   1         82  4 

Private  cars  2.034        2,107         42   9         41    7 

Vehicles  for  public  conveyance  97  9       138-1       21          3-2 

Goods  vehicles  .  476  4      766  9       9  6         16  2 

Agricultural  tractors  32  0       262   2       11          13-8 

TABLF  Xlll    -UNITED  KINODOM  AIRLINES 

1938  1945  1947  1949 

Aircraft  miles  flown  ('000)  13,220  28,031  39,522  44,121 

Passengers  earned  ('000)  219  251  586  917 

Passenger-mi    flown  (*000)  53,412  301,901  441,140  613,383 

Freight  earned  (tons)  2,491  7,090  5,051  14,162 

Frei ght carried* '000  ton-mi )  970  16,962  10,201  18,081 

Mail  earned  (tons)  3,138  2,521  3,002  5,297 

Mail  carried  ('000  ton-mi  )  8,900  5,031  8,240  10,563 

TAULF  XIV      MKRCHANT  VtsshLS  UN  THE  UNIILD  KINODOM  RFGISTER 
Sept   3,        Dec          Dec          Dec          Dec 
1939          1943          1945          1948          1949 
All  vessels  ('000  tons  gross) 

Non-tankers  14,313        9,899      10,726      12,721       12,95* 

Tankers  3.064        2,397        2,720        3,602        3,701 

Vessels  of  500- 1 ,599  tons 

Non-tankers  861  576  606  629  647 

Tankers  57  61  89  94  93 

1,600  tons  and  over 

Non-tankers  H,452        9,323      10,120      12,092      12,306 

Tankers  3,007        2,336        2,631         3,508        3,608 

The  total  number  of  vessels  (steam  and  motor)  was  12,795  on  Dec  31, 

1948,  as  against  13,229  on  Dec    31,  1938     Both  totals  included  vessels 

under  500  gross  tons,  numbering  9,285  in  1948  as  against  9,491  in  1938 

The  tonnage  of  the  small  vessels  totalled  894,000  gross  tons  as  against 

1,011,000  in    1938       Shipping  movement   at    United    Kingdom   ports 

('000    net    tons,    1948,     1938  figures  in  brackets)       all  vessels  63,396 

(91,880),  British  vessels  only  40,646  (49,976) 

Number  of  telephones,  private  stations  (Sept  30,  1949,  in  brackets, 
March  31,  1939)  5,043,465  (3.235,498)  Wireless  receiving  sets  licensed 
(Nov  30,  1949,  m  brackets,  March  31,  1939)  11,900,200(8,968.000) 
Television  licences  (Nov  1949,  in  brackets,  Oct  1948)  206,700 
(73,800) 

Finance  and  Banking.  Table  XV  gives  the  United  Kingdom's  postwar 
budget  figures  with  the  last  prewar  budget  as  a  measure  of  comparison 
The  fiscal  year  ends  on  March  31 

TAHIH  XV    -UNITED  KINGDOM  RTVLNUE  AND  FXPINDITURE  (£  million) 
1938-39     1945-46      1946-47       1947-48       1948-49    1949-50 
actual       actual        actual        actual        actual         est 
Revenue  927  3      3,284-5      3,341    2      3,844  8      4,006  6      3,778 

Expenditure     940  0      5,484  3      3,910  3      3,209  5      3,175  6      3,329 
Surplus  -12  7—2,199-8     —569   1     +635   3     -{-831    0     +449 

National  debt  (£  million,  Dec.  24,  1949,  in  brackets,  March  31, 
1939)  25,707  (7,130  8).  Currency  circulation  (£  million,  Dec  1949, 


312 


GREECE 


in  brackets,  1938  average):  1,312  (446).  Gold  and  dollar  reserves  of 
the  sterling  area  (U.S.S  million;  in  brackets,  £  million  at  £1«=$4-03): 
Dec.  31,  1945:  2,476  (610);  Dec.  31,  1946:  2,696  (664);  Dec.  31, 
1947:  2,079(512);  Dec.  31,  1948:  1,856(457);  Dec.  31,  1949:  1,688 
(416).  At  the  time  of  the  devaluation  of  the  £  (Sept.  18,  1949)  the  gold 
and  dollar  reserves  stood  at  $1,340  million  or  £330  million  at  the  old 
rate  of  exchange.  At  the  new  rate  of  exchange  (£1  —  $2  •  80)  the  reserves 
at  the  end  of  the  year  represented  £603  million.  (K,.  $M.) 

GREECE.  A  kingdom  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Balkan 
peninsula.  Area:  51,168  sq.  mi.  including  the  Dodecanese 
Islands  (1,035  sq.  mi.);  the  mainland  accounts  for  41,328 
sq.  mi.  and  the  islands,  the  largest  being  Crete  (3,235  sq.  mi.), 
for  9,854.  Greece  covers  an  area  slightly  larger  than  that  of 
England,  but  only  one-fifth  of  the  Greek  land  is  cultivable, 
the  rest  being  barren  mountains  or  swamps.  Pop.:  (1928 
census)  6,204,684  including  1,221,849  transferred  from  other 
countries,  but  mainly  from  Turkey  (1,104,216);  (Oct.  16, 
1940  census)  7,344,860;  (Dec.  31,  1949  est.)  7,960,000. 
Chief  towns  (1940  census,  municipal  area  only):  Athens 
(q.v.)  (cap.,  481,225);  Piraeus  (205,404);  Salonika  or 
Thessaloniki  (226,147);  Patras  (79,570);  Volo  (54,919). 
Languages  (1940  census):  Greek  6,794,308  (93%);  Turkish 
(Turks  and  Turkish-speaking  Greeks  from  Anatolia)  222,968; 
Macedonian  Slav  81 ,860;  Rumanian  (Koutso-VIachs)  57,263; 
Albanian  49,629;  Bulgarian  (Pomaks)  18,086,  etc.  Religions 
(1940  census):  Greek  Orthodox  7,090,192  (96-5%);  Roman 
Catholic  29,136;  Moslem  134,722;  Jewish  53,094  (reduced 
to  9,000  by  German  executions).  Ruler,  King  Paul  I  (q.v.)\ 
prime  ministers  in  1949,  Themistocles  Sophoulis  (see 
OBITUARIES)  and  (from  July  1)  Alexandros  Diomidis  (^.v.); 
deputy  prime  minister  and  minister  of  foreign  affairs, 
Konstantinos  Tsaldaris  (?.v.). 

History.  The  early  months  of  1949  were  marked  by  a 
deterioration  of  security  in  Greece,  with  the  Communist 
rebels  reaching  the  climax  of  their  military  effort.  On  Jan.  1 1 , 
rebel  forces  captured  the  industrial  town  of  Naoussa,  in 
Macedonia,  and  held  it  for  three  days  before  being  ejected  by 
government  troops.  Many  of  the  factories  and  other  buildings 
of  the  town  were  destroyed  by  the  retreating  rebels,  who  also 
executed  the  mayor  and  many  prominent  citizens.  This  raid 
was  followed  on  Jan.  20  by  an  attack  on  Karpenissi,  in  central 
Greece,  which  the  rebels  occupied  for  a  fortnight  before 
government  troops  recaptured  it. 

This  proved  to  be  the  last  success  for  the  rebels.  The 
appointment  of  General  Alexandros  Papagos  (^.v.),  Greece's 
wartime  leader,  as  supreme  commander  of  the  Greek  armed 
forces  and  the  drastic  changes  which  the  new  commander  in 


King  Paul  and  Queen  Frederika  greet  prizewinners  at  a  sports 
meeting  in  Athens,  July  1949. 


chief  enforced  in  army  commands  and  military  tactics 
resulted  in  the  methodical  liquidation  of  the  rebel  forces 
beginning  with  the  Peloponese,  which  was  cleared  by  the 
end  of  March,  and  culminating  in  the  large-scale  offensives  of 
August-September  in  the  last  remaining  strongholds  of  the 
rebels  in  the  Mount  Vitsi  and  Mount  Grammos  areas,  on 
the  Greco-Albanian  frontier.  By  the  middle  of  October  all 
organized  resistance  on  the  part  of  the  rebels  had  collapsed, 
and  on  Oct.  16  the  rebel  radio  announced  the  "  temporary 
cessation  of  hostilities."  Casualty  figures  issued  by  the  Greek 
general  staff  showed  that,  from  June  1,  1946,  when  guerilla 
activities  began,  to  March  31,  1949,  the  Greek  army  lost 
10,927  killed,  23,251  wounded  and  3,756  missing;  casualties 
inflicted  on  the  rebels  during  the  same  period  totalled  70,028 
(28,992  killed,  13,105  captured  and  27,931  surrendered). 
Non-combatant  casualties  were  4,247,  of  whom  3,516  were 
executed  by  the  rebels  and  731  were  killed  by  rebel-laid  mines. 
Damage  to  property  included  many  bridges  blown  up,  over 
11,000  houses  destroyed  and  nearly  7,000  villages  looted. 
Some  700,000  persons  were  obliged  to  abandon  their  farms 
and  homes  in  rebel-infested  parts  of  the  country  and  seek 
refuge  in  safe  areas,  and  over  28,000  were  abducted  by  the 
rebels  and  removed  to  Communist  countries  north  of  Greece. 

In  the  domain  of  internal  politics  there  were  also  several 
developments  during  1949.  The  Liberal-Populist  coalition 
government  of  Themistocles  Sophoulis,  which  on  Nov.  21, 
1948,  had  obtained  a  vote  of  confidence  by  a  majority  of 
only  1,  was  obliged  to  resign  on  Jan.  15  after  various  attempts 
to  broaden  its  basis  had  failed.  Following  a  vigorous  state- 
ment by  the  King  that,  unless  a  national  government  were 
formed  at  once,  he  would  be  obliged  to  seek  "  another 
solution,"  Sophoulis  succeeded  in  forming  a  new  government 
on  Jan.  19,  comprising  not  only  the  two  main  parties  (Populist 
and  Liberal)  but  also  the  Unionist  party  of  Panayotis 
Kanellopoulos  and  the  New  party  of  Spyro  Markezinis, 
with  Alexander  Diomidis,  a  non-party  elder  statesman,  as 
deputy  premier.  Although  this  government  obtained  an  over- 
whelming vote  of  confidence  a  fortnight  later  (245  to  50),  it 
had  a  brief  life;  allegations  against  Markezinis  led  to  its 
resignation  on  April  12  and  the  formation,  two  days  later,  of 
a  new  government  which  was  identical  with  its  predecessor, 
with  the  exception  that  the  New  party  was  excluded.  This 
government  remained  in  office  until  June  24  when  the  prime 
minister,  88-year-old  Sophoulis,  died.  Attempts  by  K.  Tsal- 
daris, leader  of  the  Populist  (majority)  party  in  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies,  to  form  a  government  having  failed,  the  King 
entrusted  Diomidis  with  the  formation  of  a  new  government, 
which  was  sworn  in  on  July  1.  The  new  government  was 
again  a  Populist-Liberal-Unionist  coalition,  with  Diomidis  as 
prime  minister  and  the  leaders  of  the  Populist  and  Liberal 
parties,  Tsaldaris  and  Sophocles  Venizelos,  as  deputy  prime 
ministers. 

The  Greek  question  again  came  up  for  discussion  before 
the  4th  general  assembly  of  the  United  Nations  in  September- 
December.  The  U.N.  Special  Committee  on  the  Balkans 
(U.N.S.C.O.B.)  presented  its  report,  covering  the  period 
Oct.  1948-July  1949,  in  which  it  was  stated  that  continued 
Albanian  and  Bulgarian  aid  to  the  Greek  rebels  had  made  the 
situation  a  threat  to  the  political  independence  and  territorial 
integrity  of  Greece  and  to  peace  in  the  Balkans,  and  that  both 
these  countries  had  allowed  the  rebels  '*  extensive  use  "  of 
their  territories  and  had  actively  campaigned  for  guerilla 
recruitment.  The  report  added  that  Yugoslav  aid  had 
decreased  and  "  may  have  ceased."  (In  a  speech  at  Pola  on 
July  10,  Marshal  Tito  announced  that  the  Yugoslav  frontier 
with  Greece  would  be  closed.) 

After  a  lengthy  and  acrimonious  discussion,  the  general 
assembly  adopted  on  Nov.  18,  by  50  votes  to  6  with  2  absten- 
tions, a  resolution  naming  Albania,  Bulgaria  and  Rumania 


GREENLAND 


313 


The  farewell  parade  of  the  first  British  troops  to  leave  Greece — the 

1st  battalion  of  the  East  Surrey  regiment — in  Constitution  square, 

Athens,  Nov.  20,  1949. 

as  having  actively  assisted  the  Greek  guerillas;  calling  upon 
Albania,  Bulgaria  and  other  states  concerned  to  cease 
assistance  to  the  guerillas,  including  the  use  of  their  terri- 
tories as  a  base  for  armed  action;  and  recommending  to  all 
states  to:  (1)  refrain  from  action  designed  to  assist  any 
armed  group  fighting  Greece;  (2)  refrain  from  direct  or 
indirect  provision  of  arms  or  other  war  materials  to  Albania 
and  Bulgaria  until  U.N.S.C.O.B.  or  another  competent  U.N. 
organ  determined  that  unlawful  assistance  by  these  states  to 
the  Greek  guerillas  had  ceased;  (3)  take  into  account,  in  their 
relations  with  Albania  and  Bulgaria,  the  extent  to  which 
these  countries  abided  by  the  recommendations  of  the  general 
assembly  in  their  relations  with  Greece.  (See  also  MACEDONIAN 
PROBLEM.) 

The  resolution  renewed  U.N.S.C.O.B.'s  mandate  and 
called  upon  Albania,  Bulgaria  and  Yugoslavia  to  co-operate 
with  it.  In  addition,  all  states  harbouring  Greek  nationals 
as  a  result  of  guerilla  operations  were  called  upon  to  facilitate 
the  peaceful  repatriation  to  Greece  of  those  who  desired  to 
return  and  "  live  in  accordance  with  the  law  of  the  land." 
Another  resolution,  adopted  unanimously  by  the  assembly, 
noted  that  Greek  children  removed  by  the  rebels  to  other 
countries  had  not  yet  been  returned  to  their  homes  (as 
unanimously  recommended  by  the  U.N.  general  assembly 
on  Nov.  27,  1948)  and  urged  all  states  harbouring  Greek 
children  to  arrange  for  their  speedy  return  to  Greece. 

A  Conciliation  commission  set  up  on  Sept.  29  under 
General  Carlos  Romulo,  president  of  the  U.N.  general 
assembly,  reported  on  Oct.  23  that  its  efforts  had  broken 
down,  mainly  owing  to  the  insistence  of  the  U.S.S.R.  and 
Albania  that  the  existing  Greek- Albanian  frontier  should  be 
regarded  as  permanent  and  that,  in  consequence,  Greece 
should  finally  renounce  her  claims  to  northern  Epirus. 

On  Oct.  31,  Christopher  Mayhew,  the  British  under 
secretary  for  foreign  affairs,  announced  in  the  House  of 
Commons  the  impending  withdrawal  from  Greece  of  the 
British  troops  who  had  been  stationed  there  since  the 
liberation,  stressing  that  this  withdrawal  was  decided  upon  in 
view  of  the  improvement  in  the  situation  brought  about  by 
the  victories  of  the  Greek  army  and  did  not  indicate  any 
lessening  of  British  interest  in  the  security  of  the  Greek  people. 

On  Aug.  8,  the  committee  of  ministers  of  the  Council  of 
Europe,  invited  Greece  to  join  the  council  and  allotted  her 
six  representatives  in  the  assembly. 

On  Aug.  31  Greece  signed  a  reparations  agreement  with 
Italy,  by  virtue  of  which  Italy  would  pay  Greece  $105  million 


in  five  yearly  instalments  by  supplying  agricultural  and 
industrial  products  for  which  Greece  would  provide  the  raw 
materials. 

In  addition  to  her  prime  minister,  Greece  also  lost  two  of 
her  leading  prelates  during  1949.  On  May  20  the  archbishop 
of  Athens  and  primate  of  all  Greece,  Mgr.  Damaskinos 
(see  OBITUARIES)  died  of  heart  failure.  The  metropolitan  of 
Jannina,  Mgr.  Spyridon,  was  elected  on  June  4  to  succeed 
him.  On  Sept.  28  Archbishop  Chrysanthos,  whom  Mgr. 
Damaskinos  succeeded  as  archbishop  of  Athens  in  June  1941, 
also  died  of  heart  failure.  (See  also  EASTERN  ORTHODOX 
CHURCHES;  ZAHARIADIS,  NIKOLAOS.)  (A.  A.  P.) 

Education.  (194T7-48)  Primary  and  infant  schools  9,082,  pupils 
1,023,356,  teachers  16,354;  secondary  schools  407,  pupils  92,687, 
teachers  3,735;  universities  2,  students  7,330,  professors  and  lecturers 
294.  Illiteracy  (1940)  38%. 

Agriculture  and  Fisheries.  Main  crops  (in  '000  metric  tons,  1948; 
1949  estimates  in  brackets):  wheat  770  (650);  barley  190;  oats  110; 
rye  40  (30);  potatoes  304;  rice  9;  maize  229;  legumes  (dry  edible)  68; 
tobacco  37;  cotton  36;  must  380;  table  grapes  105;  currants  78; 
sultana  raisins  22;  dry  figs  23.  Livestock  (spring  1948,  in  '000  head): 
sheep  7,000;  horses  240;  donkeys  360;  mules  148;  bulls  700;  buffaloes 
59;  goats  3,600;  pigs  485;  poultry  8,312.  Sea  fisheries:  total  catch 
(1948)  28,000  tons. 

Industry.  Persons  employed  in  industry  (Oct.  1948)  122,500.  Raw 
materials  (in  metric  tons,  1948):  iron  pyrites  14,805;  baryta  18,706; 
bauxite  44,238;  magncsite  11,610;  emery  12,000;  chrome  ore  1,500; 
lead  1,834;  zinc  5,712;  pig  lead  1,166;  lead  in  sheets  254;  caustic 
calcined  magnesia  238;  lignite  150,000. 

Foreign  Trade  (Million  U.S.  dollars)  1947-48:  imports  362,  exports 
96;  1948-49:  imports  422,  exports  90;  1949-50  (est.)  imports  361, 
exports  92. 

Transport  and  Communications.  Roads  (Dec.  1948)  in  good  condition 
3,666  mi.  Licensed  motor  vehicles  (Dec.  1948):  cars  6,250,  commercial 
vehicles  16,035.  Railways  (Dec.  1948):  operating  trackage  1,328  mi. 
Shipping  (March  1948):  under  Greek  flag,  merchant  vessels  601, 
tonnage  1,286,161;  under  foreign  flag  (mainly  Panamanian),  merchant 
vessels  246,  tonnage  1,362,827. 

Finance.  (Million  drachmae)  Budget:  (1948-49  revised  estimates) 
revenue  3,486,000,  expenditure  4,319,000.  Foreign  aid  to  Greece  since 
the  liberation  to  Jan.  1949:  U.N.R.R.A.,  $347-2  million;  Import 
and  Export  bank  $38  million;  United  Kingdom  £60  million;  United 
States  $465  million.  Currency  circulation  (million  drachmae,  July 
1949;  in  brackets,  July  1948):  1,292,000(1,046,000).  Monetary  unit: 
drachma  with  an  exchange  rate  (from  Sept.  20;  in  brackets  previous 
rate)  of  42,000  (32,000)  drachmas  to  the  pound  and  15,000  (10,000) 
to  the  dollar. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  C.  Kininmonth,  Aegean  Islands  (London,  1949); 
B.  Sweet-Escott,  "  Greece  in  the  Spring  of  1949,"  International  Affairs 
(London,  Oct.  1949);  K.  M.  Smogorzewski,  "  Greece:  Three  Years  of 
Civil  War,"  Fortnightly  (London,  Sept.  1949);  F.  A.  Voigt,  The  Greek 
Sedition  (London,  1949);  Labour  Problems  in  Greece:  Report  of  the 
Mission  of  the  International  Labour  Office  to  Greece  (Geneva,  1949). 

GREENLAND.  A  large  island  (839,782  sq.  mi.,  about 
705,000  sq,  mi.  covered  by  an  ice  cap)  and  a  Danish  possession 
in  the  north  Atlantic  ocean  northwest  of  Iceland.  Capital: 
Godthaab  (second  governor's  seat,  Godhavn).  Pop.  (Oct.  I, 
1945  census):  21,384  distributed  in  small  settlements  along 
the  west  and  south  coasts,  except  for  1,371  on  the  east  coast; 
569  were  Europeans  (mostly  Danes),  the  rest  native  Green- 
landers  (Eskimos).  Language:  Danish  and  Eskimo.  Religion: 
Lutheran  Christian.  Governors  in  1949,  C.  F.  Simony  and 
N.O.  Christensen. 

History.  At  the  centenary  of  the  Danish  constitution, 
June  5,  a  representative  of  Greenland  was  among  those  who 
addressed  a  joint  meeting  of  the  two  houses  of  parliament 
in  Copenhagen.  During  1949  the  Greenland  commission 
deliberated  the  proposed  administrative  and  economic 
changes  in  the  existing  regime  through  various  sub-com- 
mittees, and  visited  Greenland  in  the  summer.  Extended 
access  to  the  country,  but  in  controlled  forms,  was  expected 
to  result.  Meanwhile  tourists  were  increasingly  encouraged;  the 
administration's  guest-houses  in  Godthaab  and  Egedesminde 
could  each  accommodate  30  visitors. 

Before  the  Danish  foreign  minister  signed  the  North 
Atlantic  treaty  he  was  assured  in  Washington  that  U.S. 


314 


GREYHOUND   RACING-GUATEMALA 


bases  in  Greenland  would  neither  be  enlarged  nor  increased 
in  number,  and  that  in  future  such  questions  would  be 
reviewed  by  all  the  signatory  powers  in  consultation. 

The  Danish  government  voted  Kr.  850,000  for  the  detailed 
examination  of  the  E.  Greenland  lead  deposits  discovered 
by  Dr.  Lauge  Koch,  who  revisited  the  area  with  about  80 
assistants,  30  remaining  there  for  the  winter.  Several  radio- 
active slate  beds  were  found.  Over  20  meteorological  stations, 
reconstructed  on  the  broader  basis  established  by  the  U.S. 
in  wartime,  were  by  1949  manned  by  90  Danes  and  40 
Greenlanders;  over  30  Greenland  telegraphists  had  already 
graduated  from  the  local  training  school.  During  the  summer 
a  group  of  scientists,  technicians  and  workers  were  to  start 
buildinga  slaughter-house,  canning  factory  and  freezing  plant. 

In  July  1949  a  French  expedition  of  20  men  with  5  snow 
vehicles  reached  the  site  of  the  central  Greenland  station 
occupied  in  1930-31  by  Alfred  Wegener's  ill-fated  expedition. 

Education.  (1948)  Centres  for  instruction  175,  pupils  4,200,  teachers 
237;  post-primary  schools  4,  pupils  100,  teachers  15,  technical  school 
1,  pupils  50,  teachers  2;  institutions  of  higher  education  2,  students  45, 
lecturers  10.  A  few  old  pcr>ons  still  illiterate 

Agriculture  and  Fisheries.  Livestock  (Nov.  1,  1947)  cattle  90, 
sheep  21,337,  pigs  9,  horses  94,  poultry  1,596.  Total  catch  offish  (1948) 
20,000  tons,  worth  c  Kr.  14  million 

Industry.  (1948)  Industrial  establishments  8,  with  c  400  persons 
employed  Cryolite  exported  (1947)  40,358  metric  tons,  coal  (1940- 
45  average)  6,500  metric  tons 

Foreign  Trade.  (1948)  Imports  Kr.  16,661,000,  exports  Kr. 
12,071,000  Main  imports  wooden  products,  cereals,  food  of  animal 
origin,  textiles,  tobacco,  coffee  and  petrol  Main  exports:  cryolite, 
salted  and  dried  fish  and  whale  fat. 

Transport  and  Communications     Motor  vehicles  licensed  (Jan    1949) 
cars  26,  'ornes  47     Merchant  vessels  on  Denmark-Greenland  run   7 
(6,146   tons),  in   Greenland  coastal   traffic    14  (1,360   tons).    Wireless 
licences:  (April  1,  1948);  700 

Finance  and  Banking.  ('000  Kroner)  Budget:  (1949  50  est.  revenue) 
11,760;  expenditure  19.375,  (1950-51  est  )  revenue  16,535,  expenditure 
23,772.  Currency  circulation  (Dec.  1949)  2,700  Savings  and  bank 
deposits:  2,800  Monetary  unit  the  Danish  krone,  with  an  exchange 
rate  of  Kr  19-34  to  the  pound  sterling. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY     Aagc  Gilberg,  Eskimo  Doctor  (New  York,  1948) 

(E.  J.  L.) 

GRENADA:  see  WINDWARD  ISLANDS. 

GREYHOUND  RACING.  Taxation  of  totalizator 
receipts  (10%)  at  British  greyhound  racing  tracks  in  1949 
gave  an  estimated  £9  million  to  the  exchequer,  despite  a 
15%  decline  in  tote  betting  on  1948  caused  by  a  normal 
recession  from  the  boom  years  of  1945-6.  Breeders  in  Britain 
and  Ireland  returned  to  prewar  discrimination  in  the  use  of 
stock.  Promoters  made  the  photo-finish  general  at  the 
National  Greyhound  Racing  society's  76  racecourses  (there 
were  some  110  independent  tracks).  Two  tracks  introduced 
automatic  starting  release  of  the  starting  box  and  experiments 
were  made  on  automatic  control  of  the  dummy  hare.  The 
year  was  notable,  too,  for  an  increased  interest  taken  by 
British  owners  and  trainers  in  the  sport  in  the  United  States, 
Holland,  Italy  and  Australia.  But  currency  restrictions 
stopped  any  considerable  export  of  British-  or  Irish-bred 
greyhounds.  Ireland  once  again  supplied  Britain  with  grey- 
hounds, valued  at  £900,000. 

The  Greyhound  Derby  (525  yd.,  White  city,  London),  the 
year's  chief  race,  was  won  by  W.  J.  Reid's  English-bred 
bitch,  Narrogar  Ann.  Open  races,  on  which  private  trainers 
depend  almost  entirely,  were  some  300  fewer  than  in  1948, 
many  of  these  events  having  to  be  cancelled  through  lack  of 
entries,  particularly  in  the  north.  The  Anglo-Irish  Inter- 
national race  was  run  at  Shelbourne  park,  Dublin.  The 
winner  was  Lone  Train,  a  two-year-old  bred  and  trained  in 
Belfast.  Other  important  winners  were:  Ballymac  Ball 
(Laurels);  Local  Interprize  (Gold  Collar);  Blossom  of  Anna- 
gurra  (Grand  National);  Eastern  Madness  (Steward's  cup); 


Spanish  Lad  (Irish  Derby);  Mutton  Star  (Olympic);  Burn- 
dcnnet  Brook  (Scurry  cup);  Behattan  Marquis  (Northern 
flat  championship) ;  Flashy  Prince  (Easter  cup).  (J.  A.  Rs.) 

GROTEWOHL,  OTTO,  German  politician  (b. 
Brunswick,  1894).  A  printer  by  trade,  he  joined  the  S.P.D. 
(Sozialdemokratische  Partei  Deutschlands)  after  World  War  I, 
was  a  member  of  the  Brunswick  Landtag  1920-25,  Brunswick 
minister  of  the  interior  and  education  1921-22,  and  of  the 
interior  and  justice  1923-24.  From  1925  to  1933  he  was  a 
member  of  the  Reichstag.  In  1933  he  was  arrested  and  sent 
to  a  concentration  camp.  When  in  June  1945  the  S.P.D.  was 
re-organized  he  was  elected  leader  of  the  party  in  the  Soviet 
zone  of  Germany  and  member  of  the  central  executive 
committee.  He  accepted  the  idea  of  a  merger  between  the 
S.P.D.  and  the  K.P.D.  (Kommunistische  Partei  Deutschlands) 
which  was  mooted  by  the  political  advisers  to  the  Soviet 
military  administration;  and  when,  in  April  1946,  the  merger 
took  place  in  the  Soviet  zone  he  was  elected  one  of  the 
chairmen  of  the  resultant  S.E.D.  (Soziahstische  Einheits- 
partei  Deutschlands),  the  other  being  the  Communist  leader 
Wilhelm  Pieck  (</.v.);  he  also  became  one  of  the  nine  mem- 
bers of  the  Politburo  of  the  S  E.D  When  the  Russians 
decided  to  organize  a  people's  republic  in  their  zone  of 
Germany,  Grotewohl  was  appointed  prime  minister  of  the 
east  German  government  and  on  Oct.  12  presented  his 
cabinet  to  the  Volkskammer  (lower  house).  At  the  end  of 
December  it  was  announced  that  he  had  been  ill  for  several 
weeks  and  had  left  to  convalesce  at  a  south  Soviet  spa. 

GRUBER,  KARL,  Austrian  statesman  (b.  Innsbruck, 
Tirol,  May  3,  1909).  After  reading  law  at  the  University  of 
Innsbruck  he  completed  his  legal  studies  in  Vienna,  taking 
his  degree  of  doctor  of  laws  in  1936.  He  had  entered  govern- 
ment service  in  1934,  in  the  postal  administration  Beginning 
in  the  Youth  group  of  the  Social  Democratic  party  he  trans- 
ferred his  allegiance,  in  1934,  and  soon  became  prominent 
in  the  Christian  Social  trade  union  movement,  as  well  as  in 
Catholic  student  activities.  His  opposition  both  to  the 
Heimwehr  and  to  the  Nazis  during  the  period  before  the 
Anschluss  brought  about  his  dismissal  from  office  in  1938. 
He  then  went  to  Berlin  and  secured  a  post  with  an  industrial 
concern,  at  the  same  time  organizing  with  other  Austrians  a 
clandestine  Austrian  resistance  movement.  During  World 
War  II  he  contrived  to  keep  in  touch  with  his  friends  in  the 
Tirol  and  with  the  Allies  and  early  in  1945  he  returned  to 
his  native  land,  becoming  head  of  the  executive  committee 
of  the  Tirolean  resistance  movement.  He  was  chosen  to  be 
provincial  governor  for  the  Tirol  in  June  J945  and  was  a  dele- 
gate to  the  first  congress  of  the  provinces  in  Vienna  in 
September.  Dr.  Karl  Renncr  gave  him  the  post  of  under 
secretary  of  foreign  affairs  in  his  provisional  government 
and  on  Dec.  19,  1945,  he  took  office  as  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  in  the  I^eopold  Figl  cabinet,  being  the  youngest  foreign 
minister  of  any  European  country  On  Nov.  25,  1945,  and 
on  Oct.  9,  1949,  he  was  elected  as  a  People's  party  deputy 
for  the  Tirol.  (W.  H.  CTR.) 

GUADELOUPE:   see  FRENCH  UNION. 

GUAM:  see  UNITED  STATES  TERRITORIES  AND  POSSES- 
SIONS. 

GUATEMALA.  A  Central  American  republic  bounded 
on  the  W.  and  N.  by  Mexico,  on  the  E.  by  British  Hon- 
duras, the  Caribbean  sea,  Honduras  and  El  Salvador,  and 
on  the  S.  by  the  Pacific  ocean.  Area:  45,452  sq.  mi.  Pop. 
(mid-1948  est.),  3,717,000  including  almost  two-thirds  of 
pure  Indians  descending  from  Maya  or  Quiche  strains, 
one-third  of  mixed  Indian  and  Spanish  (ladinos)  and  Indian 


GUNALTAY-GYN^COLOGY   AND   OBSTETRICS 


315 


and  Negro  blood,  the  balance  of  about  1  %  being  white. 
Chief  towns:  Guatemala  city  (cap.,  pop.,  1946  est.,  225,000); 
Quezaltenango  (pop.,  1940  census,  33,538);  Puerto  Barrios 
(pop.,  1940  census,  15,784).  Language;  Spanish,  but 
unknown  to  hundreds  of  thousands  speaking  only  Indian 
dialects  (numbering  at  least  18).  Religion:  predominantly 
Roman  Catholic.  President,  Juan  Jose  Arevalo. 

History.  The  continued  minority  resistance  to  the  leftist 
administration  of  President  Arevalo  was  emphasized  in  1949 
by  two  abortive  revolts.  The  first  uprising  (described  by  the 
government  as  mere  banditry)  occurred  April  7,  when  200 
armed  men  seized  five  towns  near  the  Mexican  border  and 
sacked  the  customs  offices.  Government  troops  regained 
the  towns  within  two  days  and  most  of  the  insurrectionists 
were  either  killed  or  captured.  A  more  important  revolt 
(the  20th  since  Arevalo  took  office  in  1945)  began  on  July  18. 
It  was  apparently  set  off  by  the  assassination  of  Colonel 
Francisco  Javier  Arana,  chief  of  the  armed  forces  and 
potential  successor  of  Arevalo.  The  Guardia  de  Honor 
garrison  rebelled  but  was  subdued  within  24  hours,  after 
the  loss  of  50  lives.  Labour  unions,  student  organizations 
and  large  numbers  of  other  civilians  aligned  themselves 
with  the  government  during  the  crisis.  The  administration 
denied  rumours  that  Colonel  Arana  had  been  plotting  a 
coup  and  implied  that  he  was  assassinated  by  "  reactionaries  " 
for  having  refused  to  lead  an  insurrection.  In  December  a 
military  court  sentenced  14  of  the  accused  insurgents  to 
fiom  two  to  ten  years'  imprisonment. 

Rainstorms  in  September  and  October  resulted  in  great 
loss  of  life  and  caused  property  damage  amounting  to 
about  $23  million.  The  government  issued  $2  million  in 
bonds  to  finance  emergency  rehabilitation  and  relief. 

The  slowdown  strike  of  United  Fruit  company  wharf 
workers  at  Puerto  Barrios  and  banana  harvesters  in  Tiquizate 
reached  a  crisis  in  February  when  the  company  suspended 
its  activities,  leaving  10,000  unemployed  and  paralysing 
shipping  at  the  chief  Pacific  port  for  several  weeks.  The 
conflict  was  settled  on  March  7  through  government 
mediation,  the  workers  being  awarded  wage  increases  and  a 
collective  contract.  In  September  the  United  Fruit  company 
announced  its  abandonment  of  more  than  50,000  ac.  of 
banana  plantations,  because  of  plant  disease. 

Kducation.  Schools  (1946)  elemenlary  4,425,  teachers  8,266,  pupils 
225,362,  secondary  45,  teachers  819,  pupils  5,494,  University  of  San 
Carlos,  students  1,719,  four  other  establishments  of  higher  education, 
students  773  The  1948-49  budget  allocated  $6  3  million  lor  public 
education. 

Foreign  Trade.  Fxports  for  1948  amounted  to  $50  million  including 
gold  and  silver,  imports  were  valued  at  $68  million  More  than  three- 
fourths  of  the  trade  was  with  the  United  States.  Leading  exports  in 
1947  colTce,  bananas,  cabinet  woods,  cinchona  bark,  cattle  hides, 
essential  oils  and  rice.  The  exportable  coiTee  crop  for  the  1949-50 
season  was  estimated  at  750,000  bags  (910,000  in  1948-49) 

Communications.  Railways  (1947)  817,477  mi.  Of  the  4,800  mi  of 
highways  in  1945,  2,400  were  improved.  There  were  about  8,500  auto- 
mobiles and  trucks  registered  in  1948. 

Finance.  The  monetary  unit  is  the  quetzal,  maintained  at  par  with 
the  U  S,  dollar.  Budget  (1949-50  est  )  provided  lor  expenditures  of 
$41-5  million,  a  $10  million  reduction  from  the  final  1948-49  figure. 
As  at  March  31,  1948,  the  public  debt  was  $847,700,  external,  $3 
million  internal  (M.  L.  M.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  Lily  Aguirre,  The  Land  of  Eternal  Spring  (New  York, 
1949);  Ralph  Lmton,  ed  ,  Most  of  the  World  (New  York,  1949). 

GUIANA,    BRITISH:    sec  BRITISH  GUIANA. 


GUNALTAY,  SEMSETT1N,  Turkish  statesman 
(b.  Egin,  1883),  studied  at  the  University  of  Lausanne, 
where  he  graduated  in  natural  science.  He  had  been  an 
active  member  of  the  Union  and  Progress  party  and  after 
the  1908  revolution  published  a  series  of  books  of  historical 
interest,  in  which  he  urged  a  thorough  reform  of  Islam.  He 
lived  many  years  abroad.  On  his  return  to  Turkey,  he  was 
appointed  in  1915  to  the  chair  of  Turkish  history  and  of  the 
history  of  the  Islamic  races  at  the  University  of  Istanbul  He 
was  elected  deputy  for  Bilecik  to  the  Ottoman  Chamber  of 
Deputies,  and  represented  his  constituency  until  the  abolition 
of  the  chamber.  During  the  Turkish  war  of  independence,  he 
played  an  active  part  in  the  Istanbul  organisation  of  the 
Nationalist  forces,  and  in  1925  was  elected  deputy  foi  Sivas 
to  the  Grand  National  Assembly  in  Ankara,  assuming  at 
the  same  time  the  professorship  of  Turkish  history  at  the 
universities  of  Ankara  and  Istanbul.  Appointed  vice- 
president  of  the  Grand  National  Assembly  in  1938,  and  vice- 
president  of  the  parliamentary  group  of  the  Republican 
People's  party  in  1946,  he  became  prime  minister  on  Jan.  16, 
1 949.  Speaking  at  Izmir  on  Nov.  7,  he  said  that  Turkey  formed 
a  bridge  between  struggling  worlds  and  must  have  recourse 
to  all  means  for  its  defence. 

GUSTAF  V  (OscAR-GusrAF-ADoi  F),  King  of  Sweden 
(b.  Drottmngsholm  castle,  June  16,  1858),  succeeded  his 
father  Oscar  II  on  Dec.  8,  1907.  (For  his  early  life  see 
Encyclopaedia  Bntanmca  and  Bnlannua  Book  of  the  Year^ 
1949). 

Suffering  from  bronchitis,  King  Gustaf  was  carried  to  the 
Riksdag  on  a  stretcher  when  he  opened  the  new  parliamentary 
session  on  Jan.  1 1,  1949,  but  was  able  to  walk  to  the  throne 
supported  by  Crown  Prince  Gustaf  Adolf.  In  March  he 
left  for  France;  his  health  was  so  much  improved  by  a  two 
months'  stay  on  the  French  nviera  that  on  July  10  he  enjoyed 
a  swim  in  the  Kattegatt  at  Saeroe.  In  September  he  again 
fell  ill  but  recovered  and  on  Oct.  10  was  able  to  open  new 
premises  of  the  Supreme  Court.  In  December,  however, 
he  was  too  weak  to  attend  the  Nobel  festival  and  the  prizes 
were  given  to  the  winners  by  the  Crown  Prince. 

GYMNASTICS.  The  Olympic  Games  of  1948  gave  a 
great  impetus  to  the  general  interest  in  gymnastics  in  Great 
Britain;  it  was  most  marked  in  1949  in  the  championships 
and  competitions  and  in  the  response  to  the  revised  scheme 
for  the  training  of  coaches. 

The  national  championships  were  won  as  follows :  men's 
individual,  F.  C.  Turner;  women's  individual,  M.  Hurst; 
women's  gym  team,  Saltaire  ladies'  club;  men's  physical 
training  team,  Woodhouse  club,  Leeds;  and  women's  physical 
training  team,  Saltaire  ladies'  club.  The  English  champion, 
F.  C.  Turner,  represented  England  at  the  international 
gymnastic  tournament  held  at  Ostend,  Belgium,  in  August. 

The  first  inter-branch  competition  for  men's  and  women's 
teams  was  held  during  the  year.  The  men's  contest  was  won 
by  Wales;  the  northern  counties  won  the  women's  events. 

The  second  international  Lingiad  opened  in  Stockholm  on 
July  27.  More  than  15,000  gymnasts  from  17  countries  took 
part.  The  first  Lingiad  was  held  in  Aug.  1939  to  celebrate 
the  100th  anniversary  of  the  death  of  Per  Hennk  Ling, 
founder  of  the  Swedish  system  of  physical  exercises.  (L.  N.) 


GUIANA,   DUTCH    (Surinam): 

OVERSEAS  TERRITORIES. 


see   NETHFRLANIXS 


GYNAECOLOGY      AND     OBSTETRICS.     The 

twelfth  British  Congress  of  Obstetrics  and  Gynaecology 
held  in  London  during  1949  was  mainly  devoted  to  reviews 
of  the  state  of  various  aspects  of  these  subjects.  Sir  William 
Gilliatt  described  the  remarkable  decline  in  maternal  mor- 
GUINEA:  sec  FRENCH  UNION;  PORTUGUESE  COLONIAL  tality  during  the  previous  15  years.  In  the  years  under  con- 
sideration maternal  mortality  in  Great  Britain  and  the  U.S. 


GUIANA,    FRENCH:   see  FRENCH  UNION. 


EMPIRE;  SPANISH  COLONIAL  EMPIRE. 


316 


HAAKON-HAITI 


fell  to  less  than  one-fourth  of  what  it  had  been;  analysis  of 
figures  under  individual  causes  of  death  showed  that  puerperal 
and  post-abortal  sepsis,  which  used  to  be  by  far  the  greatest 
factor,  had  dropped  to  one-sixteenth  of  what  it  had  been  in 
the  early  '30s,  and  toxaemias  to  about  one-fourth.  However, 
there  was  still  no  major  advance  of  knowledge  of  the  causes 
and  treatment  of  toxaemias.  It  was  agreed,  too,  that  haemorr- 
hage was  still  a  menacing  component  of  the  death  rate, 
despite  greatly  increased  facilities  for  blood  transfusion. 

Percy  Stocks  pointed  out,  in  a  review  of  progress  illustrated 
by  vital  statistics,  that  the  stillbirth  and  neonatal  death  rates 
in  Great  Britain  had  fallen  by  40%  in  20  years  and  the  infant 
mortality  rate  by  59  %,  so  that  it  was  now  no  longer  true  that 
the  decline  in  infant  mortality  round  about  birth  was  lagging 
very  much  behind  the  improvement  in  later  infancy.  Never- 
theless, birth  trauma  as  a  cause  of  death  was  relatively  very 
high  and  prematurity  still  a  major  factor. 

The  value  of  vaginal  cytological  methods  for  the  study  of 
the  epithelium  of  the  upper  genital  tract  was  well  established, 
although  their  limitations  were  also  better  known.  It  was 
now  realized  that  cancer  of  the  genital  tract  was  a  disease 
with  a  long  preclinical  and  preinvasive  course,  often  detectable 
by  these  cytological  methods  and  therefore  remediable  in 
its  early  stages  by  relatively  minor  surgery  with  an  accom- 
panying lower  operative  mortality.  The  confessions  of 
American  and  British  gynaecologists  that  the  technique  of 
radical  surgery  should  be  revived  to  play  a  far  larger  part 
in  the  treatment  of  cancer  of  the  cervix  uteri,  now  that  radio- 
sensitivity  or  radio-resistance  of  tumours  could  be  assessed 
with  some  certainty  and  cases  could  be  more  accurately 
selected  for  surgery  or  irradiation,  were  remarkable. 

H.  Braunschweig  (U.S.)  and  his  imitators  achieved  the 
survival  for  months  and  years  in  comparative  comfort  of 
patients  subjected  to  exenteration  for  recurrent  or  widespread 
cancer  of  the  pelvic  organs. 

It  was  stressed  by  H.  Barns  that  diabetes  in  pregnancy  was 
still  taking  an  enormous  toll  of  foetal  life — 55%  in  his 
series — although  the  immediate  and  remote  prognosis  for 
the  mother  was  excellent.  J.  A.  L.  Gilbert  and  D.  M.  Dunlop 
in  Edinburgh  showed,  in  addition,  that  the  overall  foetal 
loss  rate  in  the  pre-diabetic  pregnancies  was  as  high  as  twice 
the  non-diabetic  control  rate;  the  maximal  pre-diabetic 
foetal  loss  rate  occurring  in  the  two  years  immediately 
before  the  diagnosis  of  diabetes  was  made  was  then  six 
times  the  control  rate.  The  good  results  claimed  by  P.  White 
in  1947  for  hormone  therapy  in  diabetic  pregnancies  had 
not  as  yet  been  repeated  in  any  large  scale  trial.  Nor,  as  yet, 
had  there  been  any  reported  adequate  repetition  of  the  work 
of  O.  W.  and  G.  V.  S.  Smith,  reported  in  1948,  on  the 
successful  treatment  with  stilboestrol  of  habitual  abortion 
and  its  familiar  development,  toxaemia  of  pregnancy. 

G,  M.  Bull  and  his  colleagues  elaborated  the  conservative 
treatment  of  anuric  uraemia,  by  which  a  large  proportion 
of  these  desperately  ill  patients  recovered  completely.  Since 
the  greatest  number  of  their  cases  were  of  mismatched  blood 
transfusion  after  delivery  or  miscarriage,  or  of  post-abortal 
shock  or  sepsis,  or  of  poisoning  by  abortefacient  drugs,  his 
methods — dietetic  control  and  control  of  water  balance — 
should  be  of  greatest  interest  to  obstetricians  and  gynaecolo- 
gists. The  use  of  the  newer  anti-histaminic  drugs  to  control 
vomiting  of  early  pregnancy  was  now  well  established. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  H  H.  Barns  and  M.  E.  Morgans,  *•  Pregnancy 
Complicated  by  Diabetes  Melhtus,"  British  Medical  Journal,  p.  51, 
vol.  1,  1949;  J.  A.  L  Gilbert  and  D.  M.  Dunlop,  "  Diabetic  Sertility, 
Maternal  Mortality  and  Foetal  Loss  Rate,"  British  Medical  Journal, 
p.  48,  vol.  1,  1949;  G.  M.  Bull,  "  Conservative  Treatment  of  Aneunc 
Uremia,"  Lancet,  p.  229,  vol.  2,  1949.  (C.  M.  KY.) 

HAAKON  VII  (CHRISTIAN-FREDERIK-KARL-GEORG- 
WALDEMAR-AXEL)  King  of  Norway  (b.  Charlottenlund, 


Denmark,  Aug.  3,  1872),  was  elected  King  by  the  Norwegian 
Storting  on  Nov.  18,  1905.  (For  his  early  life  see  Encyclo- 
paedia Britannica  and  Britannica  Book  of  the  Year  1949). 
On  June  7,  1949,  he  entertained  at  Oslo  Admiral  Sir 
Rhoderick  McG rigor,  who  commanded  the  British  1st 
cruiser  squadron  which,  four  years  before,  brought  him 
back  to  his  capital.  On  Aug.  3,  celebrating  his  77th  birthday, 
he  returned  to  Oslo  from  a  trip  in  the  royal  yacht  "  Norge  " 
— bought  by  the  Norwegian  people  as  a  gift  to  the  King  on 
his  birthday.  He  spent  the  day  quietly  with  the  family  at 
Bydgoe  Kongsgaard,  his  estate  on  the  outskirts  of  the  capital. 

HAILE-SELASSIE  I,  emperor  of  Ethiopia  (b.  Harar, 
July  17,  1891),  ascended  the  throne  on  Nov.  2,  1930.  (For  his 
early  life  see  Encyclopedia  Britannica  and  Britannica  Book 
of  the  Year,  1949). 

During  1949  the  Emperor  made  his  accustomed  public 
appearances,  notably  at  the  festivals  of  Timqat  (Epiphany) 
and  Masqal  (Invention  of  the  Cross).  He  attended  a  garden 
party  at  the  British  institute;  distributed  the  prizes  for 
Addis  Ababa  schools  on  his  birthday  and  re-opened  the 
Commercial  and  Agricultural  exhibition.  Outside  Addis 
Ababa  he  visited  Ambo,  Nazareth  (Adama)  and  district, 
Ogaden  (for  the  "  spudding-in,"  on  May  20,  of  the  first  oil- 
well),  the  Blue  Nile  (to  inaugurate  a  new  bridge),  and  Harar. 
He  was  awarded  the  honorary  degree  of  doctor  of  law  of 
Wheaton  college,  Illinois,  U.S. 

HAITI.  A  West  Indian  republic  forming  the  western 
third  of  the  island  of  Haiti  or  Hispaniola.  Area:  10,748 
sq.  mi.  Pop.  (1947  est.):  3,550,000,  of  whom  95%  are  Negro 
and  the  remainder —the  ruling  class — almost  exclusively 
mulatto.  Port-au-Prince  (pop.  est.  125,000)  is  the  capital. 
French  is  the  official  language,  although  a  patois  called 
Creole  is  widely  spoken.  Roman  Catholicism  is  the  official 
religion,  while  voodooism  is  practised  on  a  large  scale  in 
rural  areas.  President  of  the  republic,  Dumarsais  Estime. 

History.  The  Estime  administration  remained  in  power 
throughout  the  year,  notwithstanding  disaffection  among 
some  military  officers,  student  disorders  and  efforts  to  bring 
about  a  general  strike,  which  led  to  vigorous  measures  in 
mid-November.  An  amnesty,  however,  was  proclaimed  on 
Nov.  30.  Friendly  relations  with  Cuba  were  stressed,  while 
those  with  the  Dominican  Republic  became  more  tense  in 
the  closing  months  of  the  year. 

In  1949,  systematic  efforts  were  made  to  introduce  more 
advanced  agricultural  methods.  Exports  rose  sharply  (in 
value)  during  the  summer,  when  normally  they  decline, 
because  of  the  brisk  demand  for  coffee.  On  Dec.  24,  the 
trade  agreement  with  the  United  States  was  put  into  effect, 
the  first  of  the  bilateral  agreements  concluded  by  the  U.S. 
under  the  general  agreement  of  Annecy.  It  provided  for  a 
reduction  in  U.S.  tariff  rates  on  Haitian  rum,  and  other 
Haitian  products.  A  loan  of  $4  million  from  the  Export- 
Import  bank  was  virtually  negotiated  before  the  year  ended. 
Canals  irrigating  about  30,000  ac.  in  the  valley  of  the  Anti- 
bonite  river  were  opened  in  December.  (C.  McG.) 

Education.  Schools  (1949):  primary,  pupils  87,000,  secondary, 
6  national  lycees  and  15  private  institutions  with  a  total  of  10,000 
pupils.  There  is  a  national  University  of  Haiti. 

Agriculture.  Coffee  is  the  chief  crop-  483,509  bags  (of  132  Ib  )  were 
exported  in  1948-49.  Sisal,  the  second  crop,  had  grown  rapidly  in 
importance:  25,870  metric  tons  were  exported  in  1947-48.  In  1948, 
41,950  metric  tons  of  sugar  and  2-4  million  gal  of  molasses  were 
produced.  Livestock  (1945)  included  200,250  cattle,  13,800  sheep  and 
over  1  million  goats. 

Foreign  Trade.  (Oct  1,  1947-Sept.  30, 1948)  Exports  U  S. $30,884,927; 
imports  $32,208,543.  The  U.S.  supplied  82%  of  the  imports  and  took 
60%  of  the  exports. 

Transport  and  Communications.  Roads  (Jan.  1,  1949)-  about  2,000 
mi.  including  235  mi  surfaced;  there  were  3,880  registered  motor 
vehicles.  Railways:  state,  88  mi  ;  Haitian- American  Sugar  Co.,  75  mi. 


HEART  DISEASES-HEUSS 


317 


Finance.  The  monetary  unit  is  the  gourde,  officially  fixed  at  20  U.S. 
cents.  Budget  (1949-50  est):  balanced  at  73-2  million  gourdes. 
Official  exchange  rates:  £1=G.20-15  and  (after  Sept.  18,  1949) 
£1~G.14-00. 

HARBOURS:    see  DOCKS  AND  HARBOURS. 

HAWAII:  see  UNITED  STATES  TERRITORIES  AND 
POSSESSIONS. 

HEART  DISEASES.  The  year  1949  was  notable  for 
the  emergence  of  steroid  chemistry  from  the  laboratory  into 
clinical  research.  The  role  of  the  adrenal  corticoids  in 
dramatically  affecting  the  course  of  rheumatoid  arthritis  was 
reported  by  P.  S.  Hench  and  his  associates  of  the  Mayo 
clinic  at  Rochester,  Minnesota,  who  also  reported  a  beneficial 
effect  in  rheumatic  fever  with  carditis.  The  preparations  used 
were  Compound  E  (officially  named  Cortisone — 1 7-Hydroxy- 
11-Dehydrocorticosterone)  and  the  pituitary  adrenocortico- 
tropic  hormone  (ACTH).  Whether  or  not  these  hormones 
merely  produce  remissions  in  diseases  characterized  by  spon- 
taneous cycles  was  not  yet  known  but  they  or  related  steroids 
might  furnish  important  preventive  therapy  of  rheumatic 
heart  disease  when  administered  early  in  the  course  of  rheu- 
matic fever. 

The  role  of  the  adrenal  and  of  adrenal  tumours  in  hyperten- 
sion was  actively  studied.  Benzodioxane  and  dibenamme, 
which  temporarily  depress  the  blood  pressure,  were  found 
useful  in  the  diagnosis  of  such  tumours  by  blocking  the  effect 
of  excess  adrenalin  produced  by  the  tumour.  The  artificial 
kidney,  through  which  it  was  possible  to  perfuse  a  patient's 
blood  outside  the  body,  permitted  direct  study  of  humoural 
prcssor  mechanisms  in  hypertension.  Purified  fractions  of 
veratruqp  alkaloids  (protoveratrine)  were  shown  to  have 
remarkable  but  temporary  hypotensive  effects  in  patients  with 
high  blood  pressure. 

The  mechanisms  involved  in  coronary  atherosclerosis  were 
investigated  in  many  laboratories.  A  striking  incidence  of 
premature  coronary  disease  was  demonstrated  in  families 
in  whom  hypercholesteremia  was  an  inherited  trait.  In  the 
treatment  of  acute  myocardial  infarction  (loss  of  blood  supply 
to  a  portion  of  heart  muscle  through  blocking  of  a  coronary 
blood  vessel  by  a  clot)  controlled  studies  showed  the  advisa- 
bility of  the  use  of  anticoagulants  (dicoumarol  and  heparin) 
in  preventing  throm bo-em bolic  complications. 

Surgery  of  the  heart  was  extended  to  include  the  junction 
of  pulmonary  and  azygos  veins  in  patients  with  contraction 
of  the  mitral  valve  without  pronounced  cardiac  enlargement 
or  increased  peripheral  venous  pressure  but  with  attacks  of 
oedema  of  the  lungs  (a  condition  often  characterized  by  the 
collection  of  fluid  in  the  pleural  cavities).  Plastic  operations 
for  the  repair  of  contracted  mitral  valves  were  attempted  with 
some  success  by  various  surgeons.  An  "  artificial  heart " 
or  cardiopulmonary  machine  was  described  by  V.  O.  Bjork 
from  Crafoord's  laboratory  in  Sweden  permitting  bloodless 
operations  on  the  heart  in  animals,  and  experimental  repair 
of  cardiac  valves  by  venous  and  pericardial  grafts  were 
reported  by  J.  Y.  Templeton  III  and  J.  H.  Gibbons,  Jr. 

The  antibiotics  aureomycin  and  streptomycin  were  found 
effective  in  certain  cases  of  bacterial  endocarditis.  In  the 
treatment  of  congestive  heart  failure,  Thiomerin,  a  mercurial 
diuretic  which  could  be  given  subcutaneously  was  introduced; 
cation ic  exchange  resins  added  to  diets  were  successful  in 
removing  ingested  sodium  and  aiding  diuresis;  lithium  salts 
as  seasoning  substitutes  for  sodium  chloride  were  found 
dangerous.  (H.  B.  S.) 

HEMP.  The  hemp  trade  in  the  United  Kingdom  was 
de-controlled  in  1949;  but  devaluation  of  the  pound  and 
other  currencies  and  a  slackening  in  demand  prevented  im- 
provement in  the  trade. 


The  high  value  of  the  Philippine  currency  made  it  extremely 
difficult  for  countries  in  the  sterling  area  and  for  "soft- 
currency  "  countries  to  buy  Manila  hemp.  Therefore,  the 
main  commodities  used  by  hemp  spinners  were  Italian  soft 
hemp  and  East  African  sisal,  the  principal  hard  fibre. 

The  Italian  crop  in  1949  was  about  the  same  as  in  1948  but 
better  in  quality.  The  yield  per  acre  was  lower  than  in  1948 
owing  to  bad  weather  conditions  in  most  areas.  A  larger 
acreage  made  up  the  deficiency  in  the  yield.  Exports  both  to 
Western  Germany  and  to  Great  Britain  increased. 

Nevertheless,  hemp  supplies  for  the  British  industry  were 
stilt  insufficient,  especially  in  Manila  hemp ;  but  great 
progress  was  made  in  manufacturing  cordage  from  other 
fibres. 

The  price  level  of  hemp  in  world  markets  during  1948  and 
the  beginning  of  1949  was  relatively  higher  than  that  of  other 
textile  fibres  and  the  British  government  continued  to  supply 
sisal  to  British  spinners  at  a  fixed  price,  lower  than  world 
parity.  The  United  States  government  acquired  during  that 
period  14,000  tons  of  East  African  sisal  for  stockpiling 
purposes  but  the  U.S.  industry  itself  purchased  less  in  1948 
than  during  1947. 

Under  the  European  Recovery  Programme  the  O.E.E.C. 
allocated  a  sum  of  $14  million  for  purchases  by  France, 
Belgium,  Denmark,  Germany,  Italy,  the  Netherlands  and 
Norway  of  hard  fibres  from  the  Philippines  and  other  Latin 
American  countries  during  the  period  from  April  1948  to 
March  1949.  (G.  Hs.) 

HESS,  WALTER  RUDOLF,  Swiss  eye  and  brain 
specialist  (b.  Frauenfeld,  Switzerland,  March  17,  1881),  was 
educated  at  the  universities  of  Lausanne,  Berne,  Kiel,  Berlin 
and  Zurich  and  obtained  his  doctorate  of  medicine  in  1906. 
From  1917  he  was  director  of  the  Institute  of  Physiology  at 
Zurich  university  and  from  1931  to  1936  was  also  director 
of  the  scientific  station,  Jungfraujoch.  In  Aug.  1938  he 
presided  over  the  16th  International  Congress  of  Physiology 
which  was  held  that  year  in  Zurich.  On  Oct.  27,  1949,  it 
was  announced  he  had  been  awarded,  jointly  with  Professor 
A.  E.  Moniz  (q.v.\  the  1949  Nobel  prize  for  physiology  and 
medicine  for  his  discovery  of  the  functional  organization  of 
the  middle  brain  in  co-ordinating  the  activity  of  the  internal 
organs. 

HEUSS,  THEODOR,  German  statesman  (b.  Bracken- 
heim,  Wiirttemberg,  Jan.  31,  1884),  studied  at  the  universities 
of  Munich  and  Berlin  and  in  1905  obtained  his  doctor's 
degree  in  political  science  at  Munich.  He  joined  the  editorial 
board  of  Fried  rich  Naumann's  Liberal  weekly  Die  Hilfe 
(1905-12)  and  later  was  the  editor  of  the  Neckar-Zeitung  at 
Heilbronn  (1912-18).  In  1920  he  was  appointed  as  lecturer 
at  the  newly  founded  democratic  German  Political  high  school 
in  Berlin.  He  joined  the  Democratic  party  and  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Reichstag  in  1924.  He  failed  at  the  election 
of  1928  but  was  re-elected  in  1930,  twice  in  1932  and  on 
March  5,  1933.  With  all  other  members  of  the  Reichstag, 
Social  Democrats  excepted,  he  voted  in  favour  of  giving 
Hitler  full  powers  on  March  23,  1933.  Soon  afterwards  his 
20  books  (including  Hitler's  Way,  published  in  1932)  were 
among  those  which  were  publicly  burnt  in  Berlin.  After  the 
dissolution  of  the  Reichstag  in  Oct.  1933  Dr.  Heuss  went 
to  Heidelberg  where  he  edited  Die  Hilfe  until  its  suppression 
in  1936.  After  the  capitulation  of  Germany  in  1945  he  ob- 
tained from  the  U.S.  military  government  the  licence  to 
publish  the  RJiein-Neckar-Zeitung  in  Heidelberg.  In  1948 
he  was  elected  chairman  of  the  F.D.P.  (Freie  Demokratische 
Partei),  and  he  was  a  member  of  the  Parliamentary  council 
in  Bonn  (Sept.  1,  1948-May  23,  1949)  that  drew  up  a  consti- 
tution for  Western  Germany.  On  Sept.  12,  1949,  he  was 


318 


HIROHITO-HISTORICAL   RESEARCH 


elected  first  federal  president  of  the  German  federal  republic; 
on  the  second  ballot  he  received  416  of  the  total  804  votes 
cast  in  the  Federal  Assembly,  the  Social  Democrat  candidate, 
Dr.  Kurt  Schumacher,  gaining  312. 

HIRE    PURCHASE:  see  CONSUMFR  CREDIT. 

HIROHITO,  emperor  of  Japan  (b.  Tokyo,  April  29, 
1901),  succeeded  his  father  on  Dec.  25,  1926.  (For  his  early 
life  see  Encyclopedia  Britannica  and  Britannica  Book  of  the 
Year  1949.} 

Jn  Jan.  1949  it  was  disclosed  that  the  U.S.  joint  chiefs  of 
staff  had  given  General  Douglas  MacArthur  secret  orders 
that  Emperor  Hirohito  should  not  be  prosecuted  on  any 
war  crime  charges.  It  was  also  disclosed  that  all  Japan's 
World  War  II  enemies,  including  the  U.S  S.R.,  had  agreed 
in  1945  to  exempt  Hirohito  in  order  to  facilitate  Japan's 
surrender  and  occupation.  However,  Sir  William  Webb  of 
Australia,  who  presided  at  the  Japanese  war  crimes  trials, 
asserted  that  Hirohito  should  be  tried.  In  Sept.  1949  it  was 
disclosed  that  Hirohito  had  written  a  book  about  one  of  his 
hobbies,  the  study  of  deep-sea  life;  the  volume  was  reported 
to  be  on  the  subject  of  sea  horses. 

HISTORICAL  RESEARCH.  In  the  western  world 
the  slow  process  of  bringing  together  again  historical  scholars 
continued  in  1949  despite  all  difficulties.  The  International 
Committee  of  Historical  Sciences  was  re-established  in  new 
quarters  in  Paris  and  through  its  national  committees 
organized  successful  conferences  at  Oxford,  Paris  and  Rome. 
Publication  of  the  1947  volume  of  the  International  Biblio- 
graphy of  Historical  Sciences  (Paris)  was  announced — the 
first  to  be  issued  since  the  1938  volume.  Another  prewar 
organization,  the  International  Institute  of  Political  and 
Constitutional  History,  resumed  its  activities  m  Paris  and 
held  a  plenary  session  at  the  Sorbonne  in  the  spring.  The 
institute's  journal,  the  Revue  cfhistoire  pohtique  et  consti- 
tutionelle,  also  re-appeared.  French  historiography  as  a 
whole  was  thriving,  with  the  issue  of  important  monographs 
in  many  fields,  as  well  as  useful  bibliographies  and  guides  to 
manuscripts.  An  outstanding  work  was  R.  Douce t's  masterly 
study  of  Les  Institutions  de  la  France  au  XV le  siecle  (Paris). 
For  more  recent  history  the  Actes  du  Congres  historique  du 
centenaire  de  la  Revolution  de  1848  (Paris;  Presses  universit- 
aires  de  France)  contained  some  striking  papers  read  at  the 
celebration  in  1948. 

Over  the  border  in  occupied  Germany  the  picture  was  not 
so  rosy.  Yet  here  too,  despite  the  loss,  displacement  or 
removal  of  so  many  German  archives,  a  new  periodical 
devoted  to  the  science  started  at  Diisseldorf :  Der  Archivar, 
successor  to  the  prewar  Archivalische  Zeitschrift.  Even  more 
significant,  the  great  Historische  Zeitschrift  came  out  again 
in  two  thick  numbers,  the  first  to  appear  since  1943.  Under 
the  editorship  of  Walter  Holtzmann  and  Gerhard  Rittcr  a 
comprehensive  bibliography  of  German  historical  studies 
during  and  after  World  War  II  was  prepared.  In  Austria 
the  Staats  Archiv  in  Vienna  was  showing  renewed  activity 
with  its  new  periodical,  the  Mitteilungen  des  osterreichisches 
Archivs,  entering  on  its  second  year.  Among  other  publica- 
tions of  value  to  students  of  palaeography  and  history  was  a 
well-produced  selection  entitled  1,100  Jahre  osterr.  und 
europ.  Geschlchte  in  Urkunden  und  Dokumenten  des  Haus-, 
Hof-  und  Staatsarchiv.  Italy  was  slower  in  recovering  but 
began  to  publish  at  Rome,  under  the  editorship  of  F.  Chabod 
and  others,  a  series  of  source-books  for  the  period  1860  to 
1943.  In  Spain  and  Portugal,  notably  at  Seville  and  Coimbra, 
scholars  were  finding  escape  from  modern  politics  in  the 
editing  of  mediaeval  texts.  At  the  other  end  of  Europe,  amid 
a  wealth  of  propaganda  masquerading  as  history,  a  few 


writers  of  integrity  sought  to  maintain  objectivity  in  such 
journals  as  the  Revue  d'histoire  comparee,  issued  by  the 
Danubian  institute  at  Budapest,  and  the  Annales  d'histoire 
du  droit,  an  excellent  new  Polish  periodical  published  at 
Poznah.  In  the  U.S.S.R.  the  five-year  plan  for  historical 
studies  entered  its  fourth  year  a  long  way  behind  schedule. 
This  was  not  surprising  as  the  scheme  launched  in  1946  aimed 
at  nothing  less  than  the  re-writing  of  the  history  of  the  world 
according  to  strict  Marxist-Leninist  principles.  Among  the 
works  of  international  interest  issued  in  1949  were  V.  F. 
Semyonov's  Enclosures  ami  peasant  movements  in  England  in 
the  16th  century.  A  valuable  new  source  for  European 
history  was  a  selection  of  documents  from  Russian  military 
archives  on  the  Seven  Years  War,  1756-63,  edited  by  N.  H. 
Koroskov.  Rather  more  suspect  was  the  selection  of  Docu- 
ments and  material?  relating  to  the  Eve  of  the  Second  World 
War,  1937-39,  vols.  1  and  2  (English  trans.,  London),  issued 
by  the  Ministry  of  Foreign  Affairs  of  the  U.S.S.R.  and  partly 
based  on  captured  German  material. 

Across  the  Atlantic,  activity  ranged  over  the  whole  field  of 
history,  ancient,  mediaeval,  modern  and  contemporary. 
Besides  various  schemes  sponsored  by  the  Mediaeval  Academy 
of  America,  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  launched  a  co- 
operative History  of  the  Crusades  (Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania), 
the  first  volume  of  which  was  brilliantly  executed  by  Pro- 
fessor J.  L.  La  Monte.  The  American  Historical  association 
carried  further  various  enterprises,  such  as  a  revised  listing 
and  indexing  of  British  parliamentary  papers  and  the  library 
of  congress  continued  the  microphotography  of  materials 
relating  to  American  history  in  European  archives.  The 
Pan-American  union  started  an  important  new  periodical 
called  Americas  (Washington,  District  of  Colun^bia),  an 
illustration  of  the  growing  attention  paid  in  the  United  States 
to  the  history  and  culture  of  Latin  America. 

Much  energy  was  directed  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic 
to  various  schemes  for  editing  documents  dealing  with  the 
origin  and  progress  of  World  War  II.  More  than  20  volumes 
were  added  to  the  printed  evidence  of  the  Nuremberg  trials. 
The  captured  archives  of  the  German  Chancellery  and 
Foreign  Ministry  provided  the  material  for  volumes  1  and  2 
of  series  D  of  the  Documents  on  German  foreign  policy, 
1918-1945  (London).  These  volumes  were  edited  by  a  joint 
American,  British  and  French  committee  and  dealt  with  the 
years  1937  and  1938.  Two  further  volumes  of  the 
E.  L.  Woodward  and  R.  D.  Butler  edition  of  British  docu- 
ments on  foreign  policy,  1919-1939  (London)  appeared 
during  the  year:  first  series,  volume  3,  for  the  year  1919,  and 
third  series,  volume  2,  for  the  year  1938.  No  official  histories 
of  World  War  II  itself  appeared  in  Gieat  Britain  except 
W.  K.  Hancock  and  M.  M.  Gowing's  introductory  volume 
to  the  civil  series,  entitled  British  War  Economy.  The  United 
States  Department  of  the  Army  brought  out  volume  1  of 
the  War  in  the  Pacific  (Washington,  D.C.),  dealing  with 
Okinawa,  and  volume  2  of  the  series  on  The  Army  Air  Forces 
in  World  War  II  (Washington,  D.C.). 

As  regards  Great  Britain,  historical  studies  were  flourishing 
at  the  universities  as  never  before — Oxford,  Cambridge  and 
London  all  had  record  numbers  of  research  students.  Follow- 
ing its  establishment  in  permanent  quarters  in  the  University 
of  London  central  buildings  in  1948,  the  Institute  of  Hist- 
orical Research  attracted  an  increased  number  of  scholars 
from  all  over  the  world.  The  annual  Anglo-American 
Conference  of  Historians  in  July  was  attended  by  twice  as 
many  visitors  as  that  held  in  1948.  Two  further  volumes  of 
the  large  Victoria  County  History  of  England  were  issued 
by  the  institute  during  the  year.  In  November  Louis  Francis 
Salzman  retired  from  the  editorship  after  an  association  with 
the  History  dating  back  to  1904  and  was  succeeded  by  Ralph 
Bernard  Pugh.  Revived  interest  in  English  local  history  was 


HOCKEY-HONDURAS 


319 


a  marked  tendency  of  recent  years,  another  manifestation 
being  the  appointment  of  archivists  and  assistant  archivists 
by  one  county  council  or  borough  after  another.  The  new 
periodical,  Archives  (London),  started  on  Lady  Day  by  the 
British  Records  association,  was  expected  to  co-ordinate 
much  local  effort  organized  by  the  association,  the  National 
Register  of  Archives  and  local  societies. 

Many  record  publications  were  issued  during  the  year, 
including  what  might  be  the  last  volume  in  the  great  series  of 
Public  Record  Office  Calendars  -the  Calendar  of  Patent 
Rolls,  1500-63  (London).  A  fine  exhibition  of  treaties  was 
on  view  at  the  Record  office  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  year, 
with  a  valuable  catalogue.  Another  important  publication 
was  the  introductory  part  of  a  new  Guide  to  the  Public  Record 
Office,  which  would  gradually  supersede  Giuseppi's  well- 
known  guide.  A  documentary  series  initiated  was  "  Nelson's 
Mediaeval  Classics,"  the  first  volume  of  which  was  a  new  text 
and  parallel  translation  of  the  Chronicle  of  Jocelyn  de  Brake- 
lond,  edited  by  H.  E.  Butler,  London. 

Among  secondary  works  the  first  volume  of  J.  E.  Neale's 
Elizabethan  House  of  Commons  (London)  was  universally 
acclaimed.  The  most  prolific  writers  were  H.  Butterfield  and 
A.  Aspmall,  each  of  whom  produced  three  works  of  major 
significance.  The  former  contributed  a  provocative  study  of 
Christianity  and  History,  a  fresh  interpretation  of  The  Origins 
oj  Modern  Science  and  a  highly  specialized  monograph  on 
George  III,  Lord  North  and  the  People,  1779-80  (London). 
Professor  Aspmall  described,  from  new  sources,  Politics  and 
the  Press,  17 80- 1 850,  he  edited  Home  Office  papers  to  show 
the  development  of  Early  English  Trade  Unions  and  he  threw 
new  light  on  the  regency  period  with  the  Correspondence  of 
Princess  Chailottc  (London).  Finally,  it  was  good  to  see  that 
after  the  war's  delays,  the  Royal  Historical  society's  annual 
bibliography  of  Writings  on  British  history  had  resumed 
publication,  although  there  were  many  years  of  arrears  to 
make  up.  (A.  T.  ME.) 

HOCKEY.  The  International  Hockey  board  made 
important  changes  in  the  rules  of  the  game  during  1949. 
These  changes  concerned  principally  offences  under  rule  10 
(obstruction,  rough  play,  etc.),  rule  16  (corner)  and  rule  17 
(penalty  corner).  In  each  case  umpires  were  given  power  to 
impose  more  severe  penalties  than  formerly  for  offences 
considered  to  be  deliberate  or  persistent,  the  object  being  to 
check  any  tendency  to  obstructive  or  dangerous  play.  In 
addition  the  I.H.B.  recommended  that  "  an  experiment  be 
made  with  an  enlarged  circle  of  16yd.  (instead  of  15yd.), 
and  that  all  grounds  be  marked  accordingly."  These  changes 
were  not  adopted  officially  in  women's  hockey,  in  which  the 
rules  differ  somewhat  from  the  men's  game. 

Ireland  won  the  international  championship,  beating 
Wales  5-1,  Scotland  4-0,  and  England  3-2.  England  defeated 
Wales  7-0  and  drew  with  Scotland  0-0.  Final  positions: 

Goals 

Played     Won  Drawn  Lost  Goals  for  against 

Ireland  3300  12  3 

England  3111  9         ...  3 

Wales  3102.  5  .         14 

Scotland         .     3          0          i  2          ...          2        ...          8 

Oxford  defeated  Cambridge  in  the  49th  university  match 
by  3-1. 

The  England  women's  hockey  team  won  all  their  matches, 
defeating  Wales  13-1,  Scotland  3-2,  and  Ireland  3-0,  Final 
positions: 

Goals 

Played    Won  Drawn  Lost  Goals  for          against 

England        ..3300  19  3 

Ireland        ..3201...         12         ...          7 
Scotland       ..3  1          0          2          ...         15  .10 

Wales          ...     3          0          0          3  ...          4        ..          30 

(R.  L.  Hs.) 


HOLLAND:   see  NETHERLANDS. 

HOLLAND  SIDNEY  GEORGE,  New  Zealand 
statesman  (b.  Greenlade,  New  Zealand,  Oct.  18,  1893),  was 
educated  at  Christchurch  West  high  school,  started  work  at  15 
and  served  in  World  War  f.  A  business  man  and  farmer, 
he  successfully  contested  his  father's  seat  of  Christchurch 
north  in  the  House  of  Representatives  in  1935.  He  was 
re-elected  for  the  same  constituency  in  the  general  elections 
of  1938  and  1943,  and  for  Fendalton  in  1946  and  1949.  A 
member  of  the  National  (conservative)  party  he  was  elected 
its  leader  and  alse  leader  of  the  opposition  on  Nov.  26,  1940, 
in  succession  to  Adam  Hamilton,  who  was  a  member  of  the 
war  cabinet.  In  the  general  election  on  Nov.  30,  1949,  the 
National  party  obtained  46  seats  in  a  house  of  80  members 
and  thus  brought  to  an  end  the  Labour  party's  14-year  period 
of  office.  After  the  poll  he  declared  that  close  and  enduring 
relationships  with  Britain  and  the  other  countries  of  the 
British  empire  would  be  one  of  his  governing  principles.  The 
governor  general,  Sir  Bernard  Freyberg,  invited  him  to  form 
a  government  and  he  was  sworn  in  as  head  of  the  42nd  New 
Zealand  ministry  on  Dec.  13.  He  took  the  portfolio  of 
minister  of  finance  in  addition  to  the  premiership. 

HONDURAS.  A  republic  of  Central  America  bounded 
on  the  E.  by  Guatemala,  on  the  S.  by  El  Salvador,  the 
Pacific  ocean  and  Nicaragua  and  on  the  N.  by  the  Carib- 
bean sea.  Area:  59,160  sq.  mi.  Pop.:  (mid- 1949  est.) 
1,325,936,  about  87%  being  mestizos,  that  is,  Indians  with  an 
admixture  of  Spanish  blood;  there  are  also  over  105,000 
tribal  Indians;  on  the  Atlantic  coast  there  are  over  24,000 
Negroes,  of  whom  3,000  are  British  subjects;  the  white 
population  is  less  than  2%.  Chief  cities  (pop.,  1949  est.): 
Tegucigalpa  (cap.,  62,263);  San  Pedro  Sula  (24,425); 
Comayaguela  (16,907).  Religion:  Roman  Catholic.  Lan- 
guage: Spanish,  but  unknown  to  thousands  speaking  only 
Indian  dialects.  President,  Juan  Manuel  Galvez. 

History.  The  year  1949  opened  with  the  country's  first 
new  president  since  1933,  when  Galvez  took  over  the  govern- 
ment. In  his  inaugural  address  on  Jan.  1,  he  renewed  his 
campaign  pledges  to  support  agriculture,  the  electrification 
programme,  the  tourist  trade,  improvement  of  education, 
road  building  and  hemispheric  co-operation. 

The  country's  first  national  income  tax,  with  rates  graduated 
up  to  15  %,  was  enacted  by  the  congress  in  a  special  session 
in  October;  and  proposals  to  set  up  a  central  bank  were 
bound  over  to  the  regular  session  in  December.  In  the  face 
of  considerable  popular  opposition  the  government  in 
November  approved  a  contract  with  the  Tela  Railroad 
company  (a  subsidiary  of  the  United  Fruit  company)  for  a 
25-year  concession  for  the  development  of  cacao,  palm  oil 
and  abaca  fibre  plantations  in  Honduras. 

Plans  were  announced  by  the  Standard  Fruit  and  Steam- 
ship company  for  the  re-opening  of  banana  plantations  in 
the  Trujillo  and  Puerto  Castilla  districts.  Work  was  begun 
during  the  summer  on  a  $200,000  project  to  pipe  26  million 
gal.  of  water  daily  to  Tegucigalpa  from  a  distance  of  11  mi. 

Education.  Schools  (1949).  primary  1,700,  pupils  83,619;  secondary 
27,  pupils  1,340;  normal  24,  pupils  1,541 ;  commercial  14,  pupils  1,073. 
The  National  university  enrolled  about  500  and  the  Pan  American 
School  of  Agriculture,  171  students. 

Foreign  Trade.  Exports  during  the  year  1947-48  amounted  to 
U.S.  $19,128,342;  imports,  $34,905,933.  The  US.  supplied  79%  of 
the  imports.  The  chief  exports  were,  bananas,  timber,  unrefined  silver, 
coffee  and  coconuts. 

Communications.  In  1947  the  banana  area  of  the  north  was  served 
by  922  mi.  of  railway;  the  mam  towns  by  1,201  mi.  of  highway  and 
63  airfields.  Public  telephone  lines  measured  2,646  mi.  There  were 
six  radio  broadcasting  stations  in  1948.  At  the  end  of  1948  there  were 
959  private  cars,  976  lorries  and  26  buses  registered. 

Finance.    The  monetary  unit  is  the  lempira,  officially  valued  (Nov. 


320 


HONG   KONG-HORSE   RACING 


15,  1945)  at  49-02  U.S.  cents.  Budget:  (1948-49  est.)  expenditure 
21,488,662  lempiras;  (1949-50  est.)  expenditure  20,244,162  lempiras. 
On  Dec.  31,  1948,  total  money  in  circulation  amounted  to  16,738.573 
lempiras.  At  the  same  time  the  foreign  debt  stood  at  1,762,516  lempiras. 

(M.  L.  NU 

HONDURAS,    BRITISH:     see  BRITISH  HONDURAS. 

HONG  KONG.  British  colony  on  the  coast  of  China 
consisting  of  the  colony  (Hong  Kong  island,  the  ceded 
territory  of  Kowloon  and  Stonecutter's  island)  and  the  New 
Territories  (the  remainder  of  the  Kowloon  peninsula  and 
numerou.  islands)  leased  from  China  in  1898  for  99  years. 
Area:  colony  36  5  sq.  mi.,  New  Territories  355  sq.  mi. 
Pop.  (mid-1949  est.):  1,857,000.  Executive  Council:  seven 
official  and  four  (two  of  whom  were  Chinese)  unofficial 
members;  Legislative  Council;  nine  official  and  eight 
nominated  unofficial  members,  at  least  three  of  whom  would 
be  Chinese.  Governor,  Sir  Alexander  Grantham. 

History.  Proposals  for  the  institution  of  a  municipal 
council  partly  chosen  by  popular  election  and  for  the  reduction 
of  the  official  membership  of  the  Legislative  Council  to 
seven,  giving  an  unofficial  majority  of  one,  which  had  been 
approved  and  were  expected  to  come  into  effect  in  1948  were, 
in  fact,  postponed.  In  1949  new  proposals  were  put  forward 
with  the  unanimous  support  of  the  unofficial  members  of 
the  Legislative  Council;  they  involved  the  deferment  of  the 
municipal  council  proposals  and  the  reconstitution  of  the 
Legislative  Council  on  broader  lines  and  with  some  popularly 
elected  members  (the  numbers  suggested  were  11  unofficial 
and  6  official  members). 

But  the  position  in  Hong  Kong  during  the  year  was 
dominated  by  the  sudden  successes  of  the  Communist  regime 
in  China.  British  military  reinforcements  were  despatched 
as  a  precaution  against  possible  incidents.  The  defences  were 
strengthened  and  in  June  the  minister  of  defence,  A.  V. 
Alexander,  visited  the  colony  for  defence  talks.  With  the 
capture  of  Canton  by  the  Communists,  the  operation  of  the 
Canton-Kowloon  railway  was  temporarily  suspended. 

The  nature  and  scale  of  the  colony's  trade  made  difficult 
the  application  of  the  strict  exchange  restrictions  in  force 
elsewhere  in  the  sterling  area;  and  in  April  the  government 
banned  all  dealings  in  and  the  possession  of  gold  without  the 
express  permission  of  the  governor  as,  in  spite  of  rigid 
import  and  export  regulations,  there  had  been  an  active  gold 


market  with  prices  well  above  those  laid  down  by  the  Inter- 
national Monetary  fund. 

The  long-awaited  report  by  Sir  Patrick  Abercrombie,  the 
town  planning  expert  who  visited  Hong  Kong  in  Nov.  1947, 
was  released  in  September.  He  recommended,  inter  alia,  a 
tunnel  between  the  island  and  the  mainland,  a  realignment 
of  the  railway  and  the  move  of  the  armed  forces  from  their 
present  quarters  in  the  centre  of  the  city. 

Finance  and  Trade.  Currency:  $1  =  1*.  3d.  Budget  (1948):  Revenue 
$136,093,240;  expenditure  $113,960,826.  Foriegn  trade  (1948): 
imports  $2,077,538,615;  exports  $1,582,739,710.  (J.  A.  Hu.) 

HOPS.  The  1949  crop  consigned  to  the  Hops  Marketing 
board  was  151,500  pockets  as  compared  with  167,736  in  1948. 
The  estimated  market  demand  for  1949  hops  by  brewers 
(some  of  whom  grew  their  own  hops)  was  fixed  at  247,000 
cwts.  It  was  doubtful  whether  the  1949  crop  would  come 
within  20,000  cwt.  of  that  total  and  brewers'  contracts  were 
scaled  down  to  89  %  of  their  estimated  requirements.  Having 
regard  to  the  decline  in  beer  consumption,  however,  the 
percentage  allocated  to  b  ewers  would  be  sufficient  for  a 
year's  production  at  the  existing  rate. 

The  hot,  dry  summer  was  responsible  for  the  crop  being 
smaller  than  in  1948,  the  cones  being  unusually  small;  but  it 
also  resulted  in  a  crop  well  above  average  in  quality.  Hops 
in  general  were  greener  than  usual,  possibly  owing  to  lack 
of  rain,  but  in  most  cases  were  fully  ripened. 

In  the  1949  season  the  responsible  and  complex  task  of 
assessing  the  cost  of  production  per  cwt.  of  hops,  on  which 
the  average  price  to  be  paid  by  the  brewer  was  based,  was 
being  undertaken  by  the  specialized  staff  of  the  Joint  Hops 
committee  and  not,  as  heretofore,  by  the  staffs  of  Wye  college 
and  Bristol  university. 

Early  in  the  year  the  Permanent  Joint  Hops  committee 
decided  that  the  average  price  of  the  1948  crop  should  be 
£25  15^.  a  cwt.  as  compared  with  £23  10s.  a  cwt.  for  the 
1947  crop.  Against  the  total  contracts  of  275,023  cwt.  the 
crop  consigned  to  the  board  amounted  to  255,903  cwt.,  and 
contracts  were  fulfilled  up  to  88  %.  The  acreage  under  hops, 
including  headlands,  was  22,638  ac. 

Several  firms   of  merchants   were   striving    to   establish 
abroad  new  markets  for  English  hops.     This  would  be  a 
development  of  unquestionable  value  for  the  export  trade 
and    therefore    in    the    national 
interest.     It  might  also  serve  to 
provide  a  useful  "cushion"  against 
the  effects  of  exceptionally  good 
or  bad  seasons  so  far  as  the  home 
market  was  concerned.   (See  also 
BREWING  AND  BEER.) 

HORSE  RACING.      The 

National  Hunt  season  in  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  was  favoured 
with  a  mild  winter  in  1948-49; 
the  only  race  of  importance  to  be 
affected  by  frost  was  the  Chelten- 
ham Gold  cup,  postponed  from 
March  to  April.  The  winner,  as 
in  1948,  was  F.  L.  Vickerman's 
Cottage  Rake,  The  Champion 
Hurdle  cup  was  won  by  Hatton's 
Grace,  ridden,  like  Cottage  Rake, 
by  A.  Brabazon  and  prepared 

The  damaged  hull  of  H.M.S. 
44  Amethyst "  as  seen  at  Hong  Kong 
where  she  arrived  on  Aug.  3,  1949 \ 
after  escaping  from  the  Yangtze  -where 
she  had  been  held  from  April  20. 


HORSE    RACING 


321 


The  official  photo  record  of  the  finish  of  the  Bentinck  stakes  at 
Goodwood,  July  1949.  '*  High  Stakes  "  was  declared  the  winner, 
but  later  the  stewards  announced  that  a  mistake  had  been  made. 

by  the  same  trainer,  M.  V.  O'Brien.  O'Brien  accom- 
plished the  rare  feat  of  training  the  winners  of  the  three  main 
events  at  Cheltenham,  for  he  also  trained  Castledermot,  who 
won  the  National  Hunt  steeplechase  ridden  by  Lord 
Mildmay.  The  Grand  National  was  won  by  W.  F.  Williamson's 
Russian  Hero,  trained  by  G.  Owen  at  Malpas,  Cheshire, 
and  ridden  by  L.  McMorrow.  It  was  the  first  time  after  1932 
that  the  race  had  been  won  by  a  horse  bred  in  England.  A 
new  honour  was  bestowed  on  National  Hunt  racing  by  the 
announcement  in  September  that  a  partnership  had  been 
registered  in  the  steeplechaser  Monaveen  by  the  Queen  and 
Princess  Elizabeth. 

Throughout  Europe  flat  racing  was  hampered  from  June 
onwards  by  the  prolonged  drought,  which  made  the  going 
unsuitable  to  many  horses.  Attendances  at  race  meetings 
showed  the  decline  that  was  to  be  expected  after  the  immediate 
postwar  boom,  but  that  the  meeting  of  the  best  horses  in 
Europe  could  still  excite  public  interest  was  proved  by  the 
enormous  crowd  that  watched  the  Prix  de  1'Arc  de  Triomphe 
at  Longchamp  in  October. 

Two  unusual  events  attended  the  English  season;  one,  the 
entry  into  ownership  of  Winston  Churchill,  who  won  several 
races  in  the  autumn  with  his  French-bred  colt  Colonist  II; 
the  other,  the  disfavour  into  which  the  photo  finish  fell  in 
many  quarters.  This  was  largely  caused  by  the  photograph 
showing  the  finish  of  the  Bentinck  stakes  at  Goodwood  in 
July,  which  was  so  deceptive  that  the  judge  awarded  the  race 
to  the  wrong  horse.  The  stewards  of  the  Jockey  club  subse- 
quently took  the  unusual  step  of  announcing  that  in  their 
opinion  the  judge  had  made  an  incorrect  decision,  but  the 
rules  of  racing  did  not  allow  the  official  result  to  be  changed. 

In  the  opinion  of  most  good  judges,  the  three-year-olds, 
both  English  and  French,  were  of  unusually  poor  quality, 
with  the  exception  of  the  sprinter  Abernant,  unrivalled  over 
five  furlongs,  and  the  Two  Thousand  guineas  and  Derby 
winner  Nimbus,  who  did  not  race  after  his  Epsom  success. 
There  was  a  remarkable  finish  to  the  Derby,  for,  after  Nim- 
bus, owned  by  Mrs.  M.  Glenister,  and  Lord  Derby's  Swallow 
Tail  had  disputed  the  lead  for  most  of  the  way,  they  were 
joined  close  home  by  Amour  Drake  and  in  a  finish  in  which 
all  three  horses  came  off  a  true  line,  the  photograph  had  to 
be  inspected — for  the  first  time  in  this  historic  race — to  show 
that  Nimbus  had  beaten  Amour  Drake  by  a  head,  with  Swal- 
low Tail  a  head  away  third.  Nimbus  was  trained  at  New- 
market by  G.  Colling  and  was  ridden  by  E.  C.  Elliott. 

On  the  continent  of  Europe,  the  horses  owned  by  M. 
Boussac  won  a  similar  success  in  France  to  that  consistently 
achieved  in  Italy  by  F.  Tesio.  However,  the  French  classics 
were  shared  between  M.  Boussac  and  other  owners.  Amour 

B.B.Y.— 22 


Drake  won  the  French  Two  Thousand  guineas  in  May  and 
Good  Luck  the  Prix  du  Jockey  club  a  month  later.  The 
Grand  Prix  dc  Paris,  run  three  weeks  after  the  English  Derby, 
went  to  a  filly  Bagheera,  with  the  English-trained  Royal 
Empire  second  and  Amour  Drake  third. 

The  autumn  did  not,  as  in  1948,  bring  brilliant  but  hitherto 
backward  horses  to  the  head  of  the  three-year-old  field,  for 
there  was  nothing  to  suggest  that  Ridge  Wood,  winner  of 
the  St.  Leger,  or  Ciel  Etoile,  who  won  the  French  equivalent, 
were  of  any  great  merit.  Ridge  Wood  was  beaten  in  the 
King  George  VI  stakes  at  Ascot  by  Boussac's  Marveil. 

Despite  the  mediocrity  of  the  colts,  the  iillies  were  in  general 
well  behind  them;  an  exception  was,  of  course,  the  Grand 
prix  winner  Bagheera,  and  no  less  important,  Boussac's 
Coronation  V,  who  won  the  French  Thousand  guineas 
and  in  October  the  Prix  de  1'Arc  de  Triomphe,  in  1949  worth 
Fr.  3,000,000  or  about  £30,000,  and  thus  one  of  the  richest 
races  ever  contested.  Coronation  V  was  the  result  of  a  bold 
experiment  in  inbreeding,  for  both  her  sire  and  dam  were  by 
Tourbillon.  She  had,  however,  run  without  success  in  the 
Epsom  Oaks,  won  like  the  Thousand  guineas  by  Musidora, 
and  had  been  beaten  in  the  Irish  Oaks  by  Circus  Girl.  The 
Irish  Derby  was  won  by  the  Aga  Khan's  English-trained 
Hindostan  and  the  Irish  St.  Leger  by  Brown  Rover,  also 
trained  in  England,  after  the  disqualification  of  Moondust. 

If  the  three-year-olds  were  moderate,  there  were  some 
exceptional  horses  a  year  older.  Black  Tarquin,  winner  of  the 
previous  year's  St.  Leger,  won  several  races  early  in  the  season, 
but  had  to  bow  in  the  Ascot  Gold  cup  before  Lord  Derby's 
Alycidon,  generally  considered  one  of  the  finest  stayers  of 
his  time.  Alycidon  also  won  the  Goodwood  and  Doncaster 
cups  and  was  the  first  horse  to  win  all  three  races  since 
Isonomy  in  1879.  J.  B.  Townley's  Sterope,  ridden  by  E.  C. 
Elliott,  won  the  Cambridgeshire  stakes  for  the  second  year  in 
succession,  being  the  third  horse  to  do  so. 


Johnny  Longdon  (left),  America's  champion  jockey,  with  Gordon 
Richards,  Britain's  champion,  at  Bath,  Aug.  1949. 


322 


HORTICULTURE 


With  the  exception  of  the  three-year-old  Abernant  there 
were  no  outstanding  sprinters,  and  no  two-year-olds  gave  any 
indication  that  they  would  hold  exceptional  chances  in  the 
next  year's  classic  races.  One  of  the  features  of  the  two-year- 
old  racing  was  the  unusual  success  of  those  raced  in  England 
by  the  Aga  Khan,  for  they  won  in  stake  money  a  total  of 
some  £40,000.  In  France  the  filly  Corejada,  yet  another 
high  class  winner  belonging  to  M.  Boussac,  appeared  the 
best  of  her  sex  and  in  October  defeated  the  best  English  filly 
Diableretta  at  Newmarket.  (M.  A.  ME.) 

United  States.  The  year  was  a  memorable  one  although 
attendance  and  totalizator  figures  continued  to  drop  for  the 
third  year  in  succession.  Despite  reduced  expenditure  at 
race-courses  the  season  proved  a  financial  success  and  as 
1949  ended  official  figures  were  expected  to  show  that  nearly 
$1,400  million  had  been  spent  on  bets  and  that  attendance 
was  nearly  23  million. 

The  Kentucky  Derby  at  Louisville,  Kentucky,  on  May  7, 
proved  to  be  one  of  the  season's  major  surprises  when 
Ponder,  after  getting  away  from  a  slow  start,  worked  his  way 
up  the  field  to  lead  home  14  rivals.  Ridden  by  Steve  Brooks, 
Ponder  at  16  to  1,  won  by  three  lengths,  with  Capot,  4t  the 
horse  of  the  year,*'  second  and  Isador  Bieber's  Palestinian 
third.  F.  W.  Hooper's  favourite  Olympia  was  sixth.  In  the 
Preakness  Stakes  at  Pimlico,  Baltimore,  Maryland,  on  May 
14,  Capot  created  a  new  course  record,  winning  by  a  head 
from  Palestinian.  Noble  Impulse,  owned  by  Crispin  Oglebay, 
was  third,  Mrs.  E.  H.  Ellison's  Sun  Bahram  was  fourth  and 
the  favourite,  Ponder,  fifth.  With  jockey  Ted  Atkinson  up, 
Capot  covered  the  mile  and  three-sixteenths  in  1  min.  56  sec. 
Coaltown,  despite  his  1  min.  34  sec.  world  mile  record  in 
the  Whirlaway  Stakes  proved  no  match  for  Capot  who  won 
the  Sysonby  Mile  and  the  Pimlico  Special  easily. 

Ponder's  $321,825  prize  money  made  him  the  year's 
leading  money  winner  in  U.S.  racing.  Capot,  Ponder, 
Palestinian  and  Olympia  were  the  best  of  a  fine  crop  of 
three-year-old  colts  and  Calumet's  Wistful  and  Two  Lea 
led  the  three-year-old  fillies.  Hill  Prince,  Guillotine  and 
Middleground  shared  the  big  events  for  two-year-old  colts. 
The  Calumet  Farm's  string  of  horses  again  won  more  than 
$1  million,  outdoing  all  its  rival  stables,  Willie  Molter  was 
the  leading  trainer,  saddling  the  most  winners,  and  Gordon 
Glisson  was  generally  acknowledged  as  the  outstanding 
jockey  of  the  season.  (T.  V.  H.) 

HORSES:   see  LIVESTOCK. 

HORTICULTURE.  The  year  1949  would  long  be 
remembered  by  horticulturists,  particularly  those  in  the  south 
of  England,  as  the  year  of  the  great  drought.  While  some 
sun-loving  plants  flowered  more  finely  than  in  a  normal 
year,  many  others  particularly  in  such  genera  as  Meconopsis, 
Gentiana  and  Primula  suffered  severely  and  the  stocks  of 
many  difficult  and  rare  species  were  sadly  diminished. 

A  Rhododendron  conference,  originally  arranged  for  1940 
but  postponed  owing  to  the  war,  was  held  in  April  1949  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Royal  Horticultural  society,  London. 
Six  papers  were  read  to  the  conference  and  were  subsequently 
reprinted  in  the  society's  Rhododendron  Year  Book  1949. 
The  conference  provided  the  occasion  for  a  special  show  of 
rhododendrons  and  for  a  ten-day  tour  for  enthusiasts  of  the 
genus  round  the  most  famous  rhododendron  gardens  of  the 
southern  and  western  counties. 

The  Joint  Gardens  committee  of  the  National  Trust  and 
the  Royal  Horticultural  society  made  further  progress  during 
the  year  and  announced  that  the  gardens  at  Hidcotc  manor 
in  Gloucestershire  and  the  famous  gardens  at  Bodnant  in 
North  Wales  had  been  presented  to  the  National  Trust 
for  control  by  the  committee  through  the  kindness  of  Major 


Lawrence  Johnston  and  Lord  Aberconway  respectively. 
An  article  by  V.  Sackville-West  on  the  garden  at  Hidcote 
appeared  in  the  Journal  of  the  R.H.S.  (Nov.  1949)  and 
a  general  article  by  the  Earl  of  Rosse  on  the  scheme  was 
published  in  October  in  the  same  journal. 

During  the  year  the  Royal  Horticultural  society  supported 
plant  hunting  expeditions  to  central  Bhutan  by  Major  G. 
Shcrriff  and  F.  Ludlow,  to  Nepal  by  Oleg  Polunin  and  to 
the  mountains  of  southwest  Anatolia  in  Turkey  by  Peter 
Davis,  and  a  rich  harvest  of  seeds  was  obtained.  These  were 
being  raised  at  the  gardens  of  the  society  at  Wisley  and  at 
other  establishments  throughout  the  country. 

A  complete  volume  of  the  Botanical  Magazine  under  the 
editorship  of  Dr.  W.  B.  Turnll  and  dedicated  to  Lord  Aber- 
conway appeared  during  the  year.  The  coloured  plates  were 
printed  for  the  first  time  by  a  colour  gravurc  process.  A 
Revised  List  of  Tulips  Names,  a  provisional  Check  List  of 
Delphinium  Names  and  an  illustrated  volume  dealing  with 
New  Plants  of  the  Year,  which  received  awards  in  1948,  were 
also  published  in  1949  by  the  Royal  Horticultural  society. 

In  Pans  the  great  spring  Flower  exhibition  of  the  Societe 
Nationale  d'Horticulture  was  held  during  May  for  the  first 
time  after  the  war  and  attracted  large  exhibits  and  many 
visitors.  The  Chelsea  Flower  show  and  the  Northern  Summer 
show  at  Southport  were  held  as  usual  and  the  exhibits  and 
attendance  at  both  was  even  greater  than  before. 

The  results  of  horticultural  research  in  the  subject  of  virus 
diseases  attracted  much  attention  during  the  year  and  the 
Masters  Memorial  lectures  delivered  by  Dr.  Kenneth  M.  Smith 
at  the  Royal  Horticultural  society  dealt  with  this  subject  (see 
Journal  oj  the  R.H.S.,  vol.  74,  parts  11  and  12).  Entomo- 
logical research  was  carried  on  at  Wisley  during  the  year 
into  the  effects  of  some  of  the  newer  synthetic  insecticides  — 
such  as  DDT,  BHC,  HETP  and  the  substance  still  known  as 
E.605— upon  a  range  of  horticultural  pests  and  comparative 
trials  were  carried  out  with  different  smoke  generators, 
aerosols  and  continuous  phase  aerosols  against  a  number  of 
glass  house  pests  (set  Journal  of  the  R.H.S.,  vol.  74,  part  10). 
Further  developments  were  recorded  during  the  year  in  the 
adaptation  of  machinery  for  garden  use.  Although  the 
majority  of  these  machines  were  still  more  suitable  for  the 
market  gardener  than  the  amateur  with  a  small  garden, 
attempts  were  made  to  produce  machinery  suitable  for  the 
latter' s  use.  Special  advances  were  made  in  the  use  of  elec- 
tricity for  driving  small  mowing  machines  and  hedge  cutters. 
The  John  Innes  Horticultural  institution  completed  in 
1949  its  move  from  Merton  to  Bayforabury  near  Hertford  and 
good  progress  was  made  with  the  establishment  of  its  exten- 
sive collections  and  in  the  building  of  new  greenhouses. 
The  institution's  cytological  and  genetical  work  had  become 
increasingly  important  in  horticulture.  A  permanent  collec- 
tion of  rose  species  was  being  formed  there  under  the  aegis  of 
the  Ministry  of  Agriculture's  scheme ;  and  collections  of  dahlia 
and  chrysanthemum  species  were  being  formed  at  Wisley. 
Sir  Ronald  G.  Hatton  retired  from  the  directorship  of  the 
East  Mailing  Research  station  and  Dr.  F.  R.  Tubbs  suc- 
ceeded him.  W.  C.  Moore  succeeded  C.  T.  Gimmingham  as 
director  of  the  Ministry  of  Agriculture  Plant  Pathology 
laboratory  at  Harpenden.  Prominent  horticulturists  who 
died  during  the  year  included  Sir  Frederick  Moore,  formerly 
director  of  the  Glasnevin  botanic  garden;  Charles  Musgrave; 
Alister  Clark  of  Australia;  C.  R.  Radcliff  of  Tasmania; 
W.  B.  Cranfield  and  Lieut.  Colonel  Stephenson  Clarke. 

The  Victoria  Medal  of  Honour  was  awarded  in  1949  by 
the  council  of  the  Royal  Horticultural  Society  to  M.  C.  All- 
wood,  E.  Ballard,  E.  R.  Jones,  Canon  H.  Rollo  Meyer  and 
Dr.  John  Ramsbottom.  (P.  M.  SE.) 

United  States.  Record-breaking  cold  weather  on  the  Pacific 
coast  ushered  in  the  year  1949,  with  heavy  damage  to  citrus 


HOSPITALS 


323 


and  other  commercial  crops  and  to  ornamentals.  Arizona 
had  a  50%  loss  in  oranges  and  grapefruit.  Vegetables  and 
especially  the  cabbage  seed  crop  in  the  Pacific  northwest 
were  hard  hit.  Montana  and  some  other  western  states  and 
most  of  the  eastern  states  suffered  severely  from  drought 
throughout  the  season  after  May. 

Despite  weather  conditions,  the  apple  crop  was  very  large 
throughout  the  country — the  largest  since  1939.  Wholesale 
prices  fell  off  sharply,  and  growers  were  faced  with  inadequate 
storage  facilities 

Insect  pests  continued  to  take  their  toll,  amounting  to  an 
estimated  $95  million.  Grasshoppers  overran  parts  of  the 
west  but  excellent  control  was  finally  found  in  chlordane  and 
toxaphene,  new  spray  materials.  The  European  corn  borer 
continued  to  spread  throughout  the  west  and  remained  a 
serious  pest  in  the  east.  However,  DDT  was  found  very 
effective.  DDT  also  proved  a  boon  to  the  apple  growers  of 
the  northwest,  reducing  the  number  of  spray  applications 
from  six,  or  even  eight,  to  three.  Chlordane  proved  as 
successful  as  DDT  in  controlling  the  Japanese  beetle  and  was 
cheaper.  Experts  expected  it,  when  applied  to  grass  and 
watered  in,  to  be  effective  for  two  or  three  years.  Parathion 
was  a  new  insecticide  widely  experimented  with  and  seemingly 
effective  in  controlling  orchard  mites,  pear  psylla  and  certain 
scales.  The  citrus  black  fly  appeared  in  Mexico  as  a  serious 
threat,  and  U.S.  scientists  worked  with  the  Mexican  govern- 
ment to  check  its  spread.  Gladiolus  growers  felt  that  they  had 
found  a  control  in  Spergon  for  the  fusanum  disease  (a  rot). 

A  large  increase  in  the  number  of  wild  deer  became  a 
problem  in  several  states,  notably  New  York  and  Maine. 
The  use  of  coated  vegetable  seeds  by  commercial  growers 
increased,  reducing  the  amount  of  labour  needed  for  thinning. 

The  All-Amencan  gold  medal  award  went  to  the  new  rose, 
Fashion,  which  was  also  awarded  the  gold  medal  of  Bagatelle, 
France,  and  the  gold  medal  of  the  British  Rose  society.  It  was 
the  fii  st  rose  of  the  flonbunda  type  to  win  the  all- America  award. 

Netherlands  bulb  growers  began  shipping  early,  and  lower 
prices  prevailed,  so  that  some  Maine  farmers  began  experi- 
menting with  Dutch  bulbs  as  a  supplementary  crop.  (See 
also  BOTANICAL  GARDENS;  BOTANY.)  (E.  I.  F.) 

HOSPITALS.  The  new  regional  boards  and  hospital 
management  committees  appointed  in  Great  Britain  under 
the  National  Health  Service  act  had  become  operative  on 
July  5,  1948,  and  were,  therefore,  six  months  old  at  the 
beginning  of  1949.  The  reshuffle  of  personalities  and  res- 
ponsibilities soon  led  to  numerous  projects  for  the  improve- 
ment of  the  hospitals,  especially  as  the  former  authorities 
had  been  reluctant  to  incur  expenditure  upon  services  that 
were  shortly  to  become  the  responsibility  of  the  exchequer. 
Many  hospitals  had  been  short-staffed  during  the  preceding 
years,  and  postwar  shortages  had  limited  repairs  and  replace- 
ments. When,  therefore,  the  first  budgets  were  submitted 
to  the  minister  of  health  early  in  1949  it  was  found  that  the 
cost  of  the  hospital  specialist  and  ancillary  services  had  risen 
from  £87  million,  as  estimated  when  the  National  Health 
Service  bill  was  before  parliament  in  1946,  to  no  less  than 
£170  million.  In  March  the  minister  called  for  economy  in 
terms  which  meant  that  many  of  the  estimates  would  have 
to  be  severely  pruned  and  there  was  much  consternation  in 
hospital  circles.  Although  this  call  for  economy  was  later 
modified,  it  was  widely  felt  that  the  level  of ,  expenditure  thus 
fixed  was  inadequate,  and  would  not  permit  of  the  quality 
of  service  the  public  expected  from  the  national  health 
service.  The  wisdom  of  these  cuts  in  the  estimates  (as  they 
were  popularly  known)  was  hotly  contested  throughout  the 
summer  months.  There  seemed  little  doubt  that  the  former 
methods  of  financing  the  hospitals  had  masked  the  full 
extent  of  the  real  need  for  expenditure.  Thus  it  was  found 


that  in  many  hospitals  greatly  improved  arrangements  were 
desirable  in  the  out-patients  department  and  in  the  systematic 
handling  of  medical  records,  but  that  changes  could  not  be 
effected  without  increased  staff  and  expenditure.  Payment 
of  doctors  who  had  formerly  given  their  services  gratis, 
better  pay  and  shorter  hours  for  nurses  and  domestic  workers 
and  revised  scales  for  many  grades  of  technicians  and  adminis- 
trative staff  all  played  their  part  in  increasing  the  bill  to  a 
level  which  startled  parliament  and  the  country. 

The  hospital  management  committees  to  whom  the  day- 
to-day  control  of  the  hospitals  was  entrusted  by  the  act 
showed  a  strong  sense  of  independence  and  a  desire  to  manage 
their  own  affairs  without  too  much  control  from  the  regional 
boards.  This  was  widely  regarded  as  a  healthy  sign;  difficulty 
arose,  however,  from  the  financial  system,  which,  alihough 
based  upon  budgets  prepared  by  the  hospital  management 
committees  themselves,  lacked  any  objective  standard  by 
which  the  estimates  could  be  assessed.  Estimates  were 
therefore  liable  to  be  pruned  both  by  the  regional  board  and 
by  the  ministry  under  pressure  of  the  need  for  economy,  and 
the  hospital  management  committees  felt  their  work  was 
frustiated  by  what  they  considered  to  be  unwise  interference. 
The  lack  of  a  proper  system  of  costing  was  among  the  matters 
discussed  when  evidence  was  given  before  the  select  committee 
on  estimates  on  the  administration  of  the  national  health 
services  (report  published  by  H.M.S.O.,  London,  May  1949). 
It  was  pointed  out  that  these  difficulties  were  due  to  the 
retention  of  an  obsolete  system  of  hospital  accounts,  which 
did  not  provide  for  departmental  analysis  of  expenditure 
and  consequently  made  it  impossible  for  the  ministry  to  allot 
each  hospital  management  committee  a  round  sum  and  to 
allow  it  discretion  to  spend  this  amount  as  it  wished.  Many 
felt  that  the  success  or  failure  of  the  new  system  largely 
depended  on  solving  this  problem.  In  the  absence  of  a  solu- 
tion the  tendency  to  bureaucracy,  already  serious,  would  be 
bound  to  increase  and  the  sense  of  independence  among  the 
hospital  management  committees  would  be  gradually  under- 
mined. The  new  pattern  of  administration  at  the  hospital 
management  committee  level,  although  partly  modelled  upon 
that  of  the  former  voluntary  hospitals,  was  in  many  cases 
operated  by  men  drawn  from  other  forms  of  public  service, 
and  the  respective  functions  of  the  hospital  management 
committees,  of  the  lay  administrator  and  of  the  medical  and 
nursing  staff  were  in  the  early  months  often  imperfectly 
understood.  The  training  facilities  provided  by  the  Institute 
of  Hospital  Administrators  were  in  great  demand  and 
towards  the  end  of  the  year  King  Fdward's  Hospital  fund 
announced  its  intention  to  establish  in  London  a  small  resi- 
dential staff  college  for  hospital  administrators  where  refresher 
courses  could  be  offered,  and  where  a  small  group  of  new 
entrants  to  the  field  could  receive  a  systematic  training.  This 
college  would  be  in  some  ways  comparable  with  the  several 
university  schools  of  hospital  administration  m  the  LInited 
States  and  would  be  the  first  attempt  in  Great  Britain  or  in 
Europe  generally  to  establish  a  college  solely  concerned  with 
hospital  administration. 

It  had,  of  course,  been  expected  that  the  abolition  of  all 
charges  (except  in  the  relatively  few  pay  beds  reserved  for 
private  patients)  would  lead  to  an  increased  demand  for 
accommodation.  In  the  big  cities  there  was  very  heavy  pressure 
on  accommodation  during  the  winter  months  of  1948-49.  In 
London,  the  emergency  bed  service  was  unable  to  admit  some 
3,500  patients  but  it  was  noticeable  that  nearly  all  of  these 
were  elderly;  i  c .,  aged  60  or  over.  Much  of  the  difficulty  Was 
to  be  attributed  to  the  success  of  recent  medical  discoveries 
which  have  lengthened  the  expectation  of  life  and  created  a 
special  problem  for  the  hospitals.  A  number  of  hospitals  set 
up  special  "  geriatric "  departments  for  dealing  with  the 
aged  on  more  active  lines  than  had  been  customary  in  the  past, 


324 


HOTELS,  RESTAURANTS   AND   INNS 


and  voluntary  bodies  such  as  King  Edward's  Hospital  Fund 
for  London  and  the  Nuffield  Corporation  for  the  Aged  took 
steps  to  provide  special  homes  to  receive  elderly  persons  who 
could  not  otherwise  be  discharged  from  hospital.  The  in- 
creased call  upon  hospitals  also  affected  the  out-patient 
attendances;  although  no  official  figures  were  available,  it  was 
known  that  at  some  of  the  large  London  teaching  hospitals 
out-patient  attendances  had  increased  by  well  over  100,000 
a  year  in  the  first  year  of  the  new  service. 

These  momentous  changes  m  the  hospital  system  in  Great 
Britain  continued  to  attract  great  interest  in  the  United  States 
of  America  and  in  many  other  countries.  They  figured 
largely  in  discussions  at  the  International  Hospital  congress 
held  in  Amsterdam,  Holland,  from  May  30  to  June  3  by  the 
newly  reconstituted  International  Hospital  federation  (presi- 
dent :  Dr,  Rene  Sand  of  Belgium)  Discussions  at  the  congress 
showed  that  the  need  for  some  form  of  regional  grouping  of 
hospitals  was  recognized  in  almost  all  countries;  thus,  in 
France,  hospitals  were  being  surveyed  and  classified  with  the 
object  of  developing  a  regional  plan  m  some  ways  similar  to 
that  in  operation  in  Great  Britain;  m  Norway,  hospitals  were 
being  organized  in  some  20  regions;  in  Denmark  they  were 
already  grouped  in  some  18  regions  and  in  Italy,  too,  under 
the  new  constitution,  there  were  to  be  hospital  regions.  Sir 
E.  Rock  Carling  (Great  Britain)  expressed  the  belief  that  a 
general  hospital  should  serve  some  250,000  inhabitants  and 
the  view  seemed  to  be  held  generally  that  a  single  hospital 
should  not  exceed  700-800  beds.  (For  a  brief  account  of  the 
congress,  see  Lancet,  June  18,  1949.)  (A.  G.  L.  I.) 

Canada.  During  1949,  the  development  of  most  interest 
was  the  National  Health  programme  which  provided  extensive 
financial  assistance  for  hospital  construction  and  education  of 
personnel,  and  special  grants  for  tuberculosis,  mental  care, 
cancer  control,  general  public  health  and  other  special 
services.  Since  April  1,  1948,  projects  for  the  construction  of 
15,000  additional  beds  had  been  approved. 

The  other  major  development  in  Canada  was  the  inaugura- 
tion on  Jan.  1,  1949,  of  the  Hospital  Insurance  service  in 
British  Columbia.  This  was  a  state-sponsored  insurance  plan 
covering  practically  all  citizens.  In  many  respects  the  plan 
was  similar  to  that  which  had  begun  in  Saskatchewan  two 
years  earlier.  In  both  cases  hospitals  were  being  paid  their 
approximate  costs,  and  in  both  instances  reasonably  satis- 
factory arrangements  between  the  hospitals  and  the  govern- 
ment were  established.  In  both  provinces,  however,  costs 
rose  beyond  anticipated  figures  and  premiums  had  to  be 
increased  to  subscribers,  with  a  goodly  portion  of  the  cost 
being  still  absorbed  by  the  province. 

United  States.  A  new  peak  in  the  construction  of  hospital 
facilities  was  reached  during  1949.  The  first  of  the  1,000 
construction  projects  approved  for  federal  aid  since  passage 
of  the  Hill-Burton  act  in  1946  were  completed.  Construction 
expenditure  approved  under  the  act  by  Nov.  1,  1949,  totalled 
$640  million  and  involved  35,000  general  hospital  beds  alone. 
An  amendment  to  the  act,  passed  by  congress  during  1949, 
extended  the  programme  until  June  1955  and  doubled  the 
annual  federal  contribution  to  $150  million. 

The  shortage  of  nurses  and  other  hospital  staff  eased  during 
the  year.  Many  hospitals  introduced  training  programmes 
for  practical  nurses  and  other  semi-skilled  staff.  Wage  levels 
and  employment  conditions  remained  about  the  same  as 
in  1948.  Non-profit  general  hospitals  in  1949  averaged  173 
employees  for  each  100  patients,  as  compared  with  161  per 
100  patients  in  1948. 

A  survey  of  the  American  Hospital  association  showed  that 
hospital  patients  were  paying  an  average  83  %  of  the  actual 
cost  of  hospital  care  they  received.  The  remaining  17%  was 
met  through  gifts,  payments  from  government  and  charitable 
agencies,  or  comprised  hospital  deficits.  It  was  estimated 


that  from  1945  to  1948  general  hospitals  in  the  United  States 
supplied  almost  $700  million  worth  of  hospital  treatment 
for  which  patients  did  not  pay  directly. 

The  organization  of  the  Commission  on  Financing  Hospital 
Care  was  begun  by  the  American  Hospital  association.  This 
two-year  study  would  investigate  the  costs  of  providing 
adequate  hospital  services  in  the  United  States  and  determine 
the  best  systems  of  payment  for  such  services.  Like  the 
previous  Commission  on  Hospital  Care,  the  new  study 
would  be  financed  and  operated  independently  of  the  associa- 
tion, under  27  commission  members  representing  a  cross- 
section  of  the  U.S.  public. 

The  outstanding  event  of  the  year  in  hospital  prepayment 
plans  was  the  establishment  of  the  National  Blue  Cross 
association.  This  was  a  stock  insurance  company  to  under- 
write excess  insurance  for  individual  Blue  Cross  plans  in  the 
enrolment  of  national  accounts.  In  its  first  five  months  of 
operation,  the  Inter-Plan  Service  Benefit  bank  paid  almost 
$200  million  to  hospitals  for  about  25,000  patients  cared  for 
by  host  plans  outside  the  area  of  their  home  plans.  By  the 
end  of  1949,  it  was  expected  that  more  than  35  million 
individuals  would  be  members  of  Blue  Cross  plans  in  the 
United  States  and  Canada.  These  were  enrolled  through 
more  than  260,000  industries,  commercial  organizations  and 
similar  groups.  At  least  61  million  persons  in  the  United 
States  had  hospital  prepayment  coverage  of  some  sort. 
\Sei>  also  NURSING.)  (GE.  Bu.) 

HOTELS,    RESTAURANTS    AND    INNS.     In 

Great  Britain  1949  was  another  difficult  year  for  hotels, 
restaurants  and  inns,  financially  and  otherwise,  and  the 
exceptionally  fine  spring  and  summer  did  not  attract  additional 
business  sufficient  to  make  up  for  the  continued  decline  in 
public  spending. 

Costs  of  conducting  establishments  increased  all  round; 
the  most  severe  burden  arose  from  the  regulations  of  the 
Catering  Wages  act,  1943.  As  regards  licensed  residential 
premises,  after  prolonged  representations  by  the  employers 
(many  of  the  more  experienced  employees  as  well  were  anxious 
as  to  the  ultimate  effects),  an  amending  order  was  issued 
giving  certain  reliefs.  These  did  not,  in  the  judgment  of  the 
proprietors,  go  far  enough  to  restore  flexibility  to  a  wage 
structure  of  permanent  application,  to  permit  more  normal 
services  to  be  renewed  and  maintained.  Heavy  payments  for 
overtime,  spreadover,  etc.,  often  left  managements  with  no 
option  but  to  reduce  services  to  an  inconvenient  minimum, 
not  conducive  to  the  best  hotel  or  innkeeping  standards. 

The  order  applicable  to  unlicensed  premises,  which  was 
pending  at  the  end  of  1948,  was  not  made.  Proposed  regu- 
lations were  issued  and  strenuously  opposed  by  the  establish- 
ments concerned — between  70,000  and  80,000  private  hotels, 
boarding  and  apartment  houses.  These  regulations  were  seen 
to  be  as  complicated  and  rigid  as  those  for  licensed  residential 
premises  and  even  more  difficult  to  work,  bearing  in  mind 
the  smaller  staffs  and  less  organized  methods  used  in  a  great 
many  of  the  premises  affected.  A  new  set  of  proposals  were 
issued,  less  onerous  but  still  regarded  as  unnecessarily 
restrictive.  An  order  giving  effect  to  these,  subject  to  final 
amendments  in  the  light  of  representations  made,  was 
expected  to  become  operative  in  1950. 

Two  matters  of  major  importance  to  hotels,  restaurants 
and  inns  which  should  be  mentioned  were:  (i)  1949  was 
notable  for  another  substantial  increase  in  the  number  of 
visitors  from  overseas,  particularly  from  America;  the  Travel 
association  stated  that  there  were  some  560,000  tourists, 
earning  for  Great  Britain  £55  million — a  record;  (ii)  on  the 
other  side  of  the  picture  there  was  an  exodus  from  Great 
Britain  on  a  considerable  scale;  many  persons  wishing  to 
visit  the  continent  again  after  the  long  war  years  and  especially 


HOUSING 


325 


as  hotels  and  restaurants  there  were  able  to  offer  more  attrac- 
tive meals. 

Indeed,  in  Britain,  establishments  at  the  end  of  the  year, 
were  still  subject  to  the  severe  rationing  regulations  of  the 
war  period  almost  in  their  entirety.  The  greatest  disappoint- 
ment was  that  the  minister  of  food  did  not  see  his  way  to 
remove,  or  at  least  modify,  the  Meals  in  Establishments 
order,  with  its  5s.  maximum  and  complicated  build-up,  where 
applicable,  of  a  house  charge,  charges  for  meals  served  in 
private  rooms,  dancing  and  cabaret  and  service. 

The  most  satisfactory  feature  perhaps  was  the  continued 
recognition  by  the  government  of  the  important  place  that 
hotels,  restaurants  and  inns  occupied  in  the  national  economy, 
ranking  first  again  among  the  major  industries  as  dollar 
earners.  Greater  readiness  to  assist  establishments  was  there- 
fore understandable.  For  instance,  the  Licensing  act,  1949, 
created  new  permitted  hours  during  which  alcoholic  liquor 
could  be  served  until  2.30  A.M.,  where  dancing  or  cabaret 
entertainment  was  provided.  Establishments  in  Westminster 
were  quick  to  take  advantage  of  this — a  praiseworthy  effort 
on  the  part  of  all  concerned  to  revive  London's  night  life, 
which  it  was  felt  overseas  visitors  would  specially  appreciate. 

The  government-appointed  British  Tourist  and  Holidays 
board,  with  its  separate  hotel  and  tourist  committees,  con- 
tinued to  work  to  attract  more  overseas  visitors  and  to  assist 
the  industry  to  cater  for  them.  One  of  its  activities  was  a 
hygiene  campaign  amongst  catering  establishments.  The 
recently  formed  National  Council  for  Hotel  and  Catering 
Education  set  up  an  Hotel  and  Catering  institute,  with  the 
object  of  creating  professional  status  for  hotel  keepers  and 
caterers,  properly  trained  and  certificated.  In  November, 
the  International  Hotel  association  held  its  third  annual 
congress  in  London,  the  British  Hotels  and  Restaurants 
association  acting  as  official  hosts.  (H.  C.  CE  ) 

United  States.  Three  spectacular  developments  during 
1949  were  the  opening  of  the  new  Shamrock  Hotel  in  Houston, 
Texas,  on  St.  Patrick's  Day,  the  acquisition  of  the  Waldorf- 
Astoria  in  New  York  by  the  Hilton  interests,  and  the 
continued  extravagant  expansion  of  resort  hotel  construction 
at  Miami  Beach,  Florida,  in  an  otherwise  uneventful  year  in 
the  hotel  industry. 

In  general,  the  industry  did  little  to  redeem  its  record  of 
being  traditional,  complacent  and  ultra-conservative,  in 
comparison  with  other  heavy  capital  enterprises.  Little  real 
progress  was  made  in  one  of  its  most  perplexing  problems, 
cost  control  and  accurate  cost  accounting  though  one  hotel 
began  to  search  for  an  actuarial  mathematician  to  sec  if  some 
simple  formula?  could  be  evolved  to  give  management  quick 
and  concise  data.  Neither  was  much  imagination  shown  in  the 
expenditure  of  many  millions  of  dollars  on  rehabilitation. 
There  were  attempts  to  compromise  between  modern  and 
traditional  architecture  and  decoration,  without  achieving 
the  best  points  of  either.  Except  at  Miami  Beach  none  of 
the  smaller  hotels  constructed  during  1949  took  advantage  of 
the  immense  strides  in  architecture;  and  even  in  that  area 
very  little  appeared  that  was  truly  notable  except  in  lavishness. 
Architects  specializing  in  hotel  design  did  some  creditable 
work  but  were  apt  to  repeat  their  motifs  and  methods. 
Financially,  1949  saw  a  continuation  of  the  trends  evident 
in  preceding  years.  Room  occupancy  was  down  in  varying 
amounts  in  various  areas,  the  national  average  decline  being 
about  4  to  5  %,  according  to  preliminary  estimates.  In  spite 
of  increased  competition  and  decreased  occupancy  rooms 
did  not  become  cheaper. 

Restaurant  receipts  showed  varying  tendencies,  usually 
according  to  the  efficiency  of  the  management;  but  beverage 
and  bar  business  continued  the  decline  begun  in  1946.  While 
occasionally  prosperous,  night  clubs  in  hotels  were  increasingly 
difficult  to  operate  on  a  profitable  basis  and  so-called  4*  supper 


spot "  attractions  decreased  in  box  office  appeal  as  well  as 
in  salaries. 

Wages,  taxes  and  some  food  costs  increased  during  the 
year;  rehabilitation,  except  for  labour,  was  not  quite  as 
expensive;  net  profits  were  down  to  an  extent  not  yet 
revealed  at  the  close  of  the  year,  but  not  to  an  alarming 
degree;  the  margin  between  revenue  and  overhead  expenses, 
however,  still  decreased.  (See  also  TOURIST  INDUSTRY.) 

HOUSING.  Against  a  background  of  growing  anxiety 
with  regard  to  the  national  economy  as  a  whole,  Great 
Britain  in  1949  proceeded  with  its  housing  programme  with 
the  utmost  energy.  By  the  end  of  June,  684,045  new  homes, 
of  which  526,897  were  permanent  and  157,146  were  tempo- 
rary had  been  erected  in  the  United  Kingdom  under  the 
housing  programme  which  began  immediately  after  the 
general  election  of  1945.  Additional  homes  were  also  pro- 
vided by  the  reconditioning  of  service  camps,  the  conversion 
of  larger  houses  into  smaller  units  and  other  ways  so  that 
by  Nov.  1949  more  than  a  million  families  in  the  United 
Kingdom  had  been  moved  from  overcrowded  houses  into 
modern,  well  equipped  and  comparatively  spacious  new  homes. 

The  actual  work  of  construction  gained  momentum  with 
the  years  and  whereas,  in   1945,  3,014  houses  were  built, 
in  1948,  227,616  were  built.    In  1949  the  building  industry 
in    the    United    Kingdom    was    building   100  houses    for 
every  single  house  built  in  1945,  and  the  monthly  production 
figure     now    rose    to    something    like    25,000    houses    a 
month.      On  June  30,  1949,  190,486  permanent  houses  were 
under     construction,     while     tenders     for     an     additional 
63,867  had  been  approved.     Despite  the  stringency  of  the 
economic  position  and  the  determination  of  the  government 
to  reduce  expenditure  wherever  possible,  no  great  cut  in 
housing  expenditure  was  even  contemplated  and  certainly 
no  substantial  diminution  of  the  number  of  houses  to  be 
constructed  would  have  found  favour  either  with  the  govern- 
ment, with  parliament  or  with  the  people.    Nevertheless  the 
government  adopted  the  policy  recommended  by  the  Royal 
Commission   on   Population   that   a   larger  proportion   of 
smaller  houses  should  be  provided  to  meet  the  modern 
tendency  towards  the  small  family.    It  was  a  commonplace 
criticism  of  the  performance  of  the  British  building  trade 
worker  that  before  1939  three  building  trade  workers  pro- 
duced three  houses  a  year,  whereas  after  1945  three  building 
trade  workers  produced  only  two  houses  a  year.    There  was 
some  force  in  this  criticism,  but  it  would  have  been  grossly 
unfair  to  the  building  trade  worker,  whose  work  was  often 
impeded  by  the  uneven  delivery  of  essential  materials  to  the 
site  of  building  operations,  not  to  acknowledge  the  fact 
that  in  making  this  three  to  two  comparison,  one  was  not 
comparing  like  with  like.  The  average  house  in  Britain  before 
World  War  II  had  a  floor  area  of  850  sq.  ft.    The  standard 
postwar  house  in  Britain  had  1,090  sq.  ft.  of  floor  area.   The 
775,000   seriously   damaged   war   houses   used   labour   and 
materials  sufficient  to  build  over  100,000  new  houses;    the 
139,887  houses  which  had  been  so  badly  damaged  by  bombs 
as  to  be  completely  uninhabitable  were  restored,  while  new 
dwellings  were  provided  for  1 18,770  families  by  the  conversion 
of  existing  buildings.     When  it  was  urged,  as  it  frequently  was, 
that  the  building  industry  could  do  more,  it  should  have  been 
remembered   that   in   Scotland,   for  example,   the   master 
builders  informed  the  government  that  the  programme  which 
the  government  had  set  them  was  straining  the  resources 
of  the  industry  to  the  absolute  limit. 

Legislation  was  passed  during  1949  extending  state  housing 
beyond  the  housing  of  the  working  classes,  to  meet  the  needs 
of  every  section  of  the  community,  and  empowering  local 
authorities  to  grant  loans  up  to  90%  of  £5,000  for  private 
house  purchase  or  building. 


326 


HOUSING 


In  addition  to  all  the  houses  built  by  the  state  and  the  local 
authorities  after  1945,  private  enterprise  built  88,046  houses 
in  the  United  Kingdom,  of  which  4,058  were  in  Scotland. 
The  government  had  consistently  taken  the  view  that  houses 
should  be  built  by  local  authorities  for  letting  and  not  for 
sale.  They  granted  discretion  to  local  authorities  to  give 
permission  for  a  fifth  of  the  houses  on  their  housing  pro- 
gramme to  be  built  by  private  enterprise  for  sale  and  owner 
occupation.  When  the  decision  to  devalue  the  pound  was 
taken  in  Sept.  1949  and  a  programme  was  launched  to  save 
£250  million  on  the  expenditure  side  of  the  national  revenue, 
the  government  decided  to  suspend,  at  least  temporarily, 
permission  to  build  houses  for  private  sale.  This  did  not  mean 
that  private  enterprise  and  the  private  building  contractor 
were  debarred  from  taking  an  active  part  in  the  work  of 
housing  re-construction.  On  the  contrary,  nearly  all  the  houses 
built  in  Britain  in  1949  <?r  at  any  time  after  World  War  II 
(with  two  exceptions:  (a)  a  small  number  of  houses  built 
by  local  authorities  who  had  their  own  Public  Works  depart- 
ment and  who  employed  the  method  known  as  '*  direct 
labour,"  and  (/?)  houses  built  by  the  Scottish  Special  Housing 
association)  were  built  by  private  building  contractors  who 
had  successfully  tendered  for  the  work  to  the  local  authority. 

The  government  continued  to  give  special  priority  to  coal 
miners  and  to  agricultural  workers.  In  allocating  houses  to 
tenants,  local  authorities  were  under  a  statutory  obligation 
to  consider  the  housing  needs  of  the  families  concerned ;  but 
they  now  had  the  additional  responsibility  of  considering 
also  the  economic  needs  of  the  nation;  and  in  accordance 
with  this  policy,  by  the  end  of  June  1949,  30,528  mining 
families  and  18,418  agricultural  workers*  families  had  been 
re-housed  in  homes  built  by  local  authorities.  This  did  not 
mean  that  in  mining  and  agricultural  areas  local  authorities 
were  encouraged  or  even  permitted  to  embark  upon 
unlimited  new  contracts. 

During  the  year  the  aluminium  house,  which  had  made  a 
significant  contribution  to  the  temporary  housing  programme, 
made  an  equally  significant  one  to  the  permanent  programme; 
and  in  many  towns  it  was  common  to  see  a  complete  house 
being  hauled  through  the  town  in  four  sections  ready  to  be 
erected  on  the  site,  thereafter  for  immediate  occupation. 
These  houses,  built  on  the  conveyor  belt  system  in  factories, 
were  complete  in  every  way.  They  were  not  mere  skeleton 
houses,  for  the  sections  included  the  cooking  range,  the 
kitchen  sink  and  the  bath  and  lavatory.  They  could  be 
erected  in  a  few  hours  on  prepared  sites  and,  by  June  1949, 
15,573  aluminium  bungalows  had  been  completed.  Another 
factory-built  house  made  under  government  auspices  was 
that  designed  by  Sir  Edwin  Airey,  a  two-storied  house  com- 
posed of  concrete  blocks  and  posts;  some  20,000  of  these 
houses  were  allocated  to  local  authorities. 

Housing  costs  remained  very  high  and  a  house  which  would 
have  cost  £400  before  the  war  cost  £1,500  or  more.  There 
was  a  large  inflationary  element  in  this  price,  although  during 
1949  there  was  a  downward  tendency. 

Commonwealth.  In  the  dominions,  particularly  in  New 
Zealand  and  Australia,  the  housing  shortage  remained  acute, 
nor  was  it  likely  to  be  solved  until  these  dominions,  who  were 
pursuing  a  strong  immigration  policy,  could  attract  a  sub- 
stantial force  of  trained  building  labour  from  the  United 
Kingdom.  This  in  turn  was  held  up  by  the  acute  shortage  of 
shipping. 

In  the  African  colonies,  housing  needs  were  greatly 
accentuated  by  the  rapid  rise  in  native  populations  and  by 
the  many  new  industrial  enterprises  which  had  been  started 
after  World  War  II.  The  groundnuts  scheme  in  British 
East  Africa  gave  rise  to  a  number  of  ambitious  housing 
projects  both  for  the  European  municipal  staff  and  for  the 
African  workers.  In  Nigeria,  where  indigenous  forest  trees 


were  being  converted  into  sawn  timber  or  into  plywood  in 
one  of  the  most  modern  factories  in  the  world,  the  pressure 
on  housing  accommodation  was  so  great  as  to  produce  an 
extremely  difficult  social  problem,  not  only  of  overcrowding 
but  of  high  rents  for  sub-standard  accommodation  in  appal- 
ling slums.  After  three  years  of  frustrating  delays  the  timber 
company  secured  all  the  necessary  permissions  and  acquired 
the  land  for  what  promised  to  be  a  model  housing  estate  for 
2,000  workers.  At  Takoradi  in  the  Gold  Coast,  where  timber 
wharfs  and  a  vast  extension  to  the  harbour  were  being  built, 
the  government  showed  more  forethought  and  a  model 
village  of  some  500  houses  was  being  constructed  on  a  site 
at  Sekondi,  overlooking  the  Atlantic  surf,  in  advance  of  the 
requirements  of  the  workers  who  would  be  engaged  on  the 
harbour  construction.  In  Zanzibar  where  a  rapid  attack  was 
being  made  on  the  slum  problem,  a  simple  expedient  was 
meeting  with  great  success.  People  who  were  living  in  poor 
houses  were  enabled  to  buy  sets  of  concrete  pillars,  each 
measuring  10ft.  by  6  in.  square,  for  a  nominal  sum.  These 
formed  the  mam  structural  supports  of  a  house  and  were 
then  filled  in  by  the  occupant  himself  with  mud  or  with  a 
mixture  of  mud  and  cement. 

When  European  standards  were  applied  to  the  re-housing 
of  colonial  peoples  the  cost  of  housing  was  almost  as  high  as 
in  the  United  Kingdom.  Many  people  felt  that  to  impose 
European  standards  and  designs  was  not  such  a  good  policy 
as  to  adapt  the  indigenous  materials  and  standards  to  modern 
requirements  and  in  the  Gold  Coast,  for  example,  although 
the  government  tended  to  favour  the  permanent  structure 
of  brick  or  concrete,  there  was  a  strong  feeling  among  many 
of  the  Gold  Coast  Africans,  that  a  policy  of  using  "  stabi- 
lized swish  "  would  be  more  economical  and  would  tend  to  a 
quicker  solution  of  the  problem.  "  Swish  "  is  simply  the 
name  for  the  traditional  indigenous  mud  form  of  building; 
"  stabilized  swish  "  is  a  mixture  of  mud  and  cement. 

Europe.  In  Europe  the  apparently  insoluble  housing 
problem  created  by  war  devastation  was,  nevertheless,  being 
tackled  with  great  energy.  In  France,  in  the  Normandy 


OF  DWELLINGS  IN 
SOME  EUROPEAN  COUNTRIES 


NUMBER    OF    NEW     DWELLINGS    COMPLETED     PER    THOUSAND    POPULATION 


NUMBER    Of    NEW     DWELLINGS    COMPLETED     PFR     THOUSAND    POPULATION 


area  where  the  fighting  after  D  day  was  fiercest,  vast  recon- 
struction schemes  were  carried  out;  and,  although  the  first 
emphasis  was  naturally  on  essential  social  services,  con- 
siderable headway  was  made  in  providing  new  homes. 

In  Germany,  in  towns  such  as  Hamburg,  which,  apart 
from  the  town  centre  round  the  Alster  lake,  was  reduced  to 


HOUSING 


327 


The  Pimlico  housing  estate,  Westminster,  where  for  the  first  time  in  Britain  exhaust  heat  from  a  power  station  would  be  used  for  space  and 
water  heating.  In  the  centre  can  be  seen  the  framework  of  the  heat  accumulator. 


utter  devastation  in  which  a  few  families,  nevertheless, 
contrived  to  live  in  single  basement  rooms  that  here  and 
there  had  survived  the  general  ruin,  considerable  housing 
projects  had  been  and  were  being  carried  out.  In  the  meantime 
every  make-shift  expedient  was  being  adopted  and  many 
multi-storied  air  raid  shelters  were  now  being  used  as  dwelling 
houses,  with  one  family  to  each  tiny  cubicle.  In  spite  of  the 
appalling  overcrowding  which  existed  in  these  shelters,  the 
disease  rates  were  remarkably  low  and  no  epidemic  of  any 
kind  had  yet  taken  place.  In  Poland  the  policy  of  recon- 
struction of  war-devastated  Warsaw  was  carried  out  at  almost 
incredible  speed  and  a  complete  new  city  was  far  advanced. 
In  Switzerland  the  housing  projects  carried  out  by  the 
cantons  and  the  municipal  authorities  continued  to  be 
models  for  the  rest  of  the  world.  It  was  a  standard  practice 
in  Swiss  housing  schemes  to  provide  a  basement  for  each 
house,  which  was  not  used  for  living  accommodation  but 
which  contained  a  washing  and  laundry  room  equipped  with 
mechanical  washing  machines  and  other  labour-saving 
devices,  a  store  room  for  fruit  and  vegetables  and  a  work 
room  for  the  man  of  the  house.  In  Switzerland  houses  were 
built  for  owner  occupation,  usually  on  the  co-operative 
principle.  A  member  of  the  co-operative  paid  a  sum  of  about 
£100  towards  the  cost  of  constructing  his  house  and  the 
rest  of  the  money  was  borrowed.  He  was  then  granted  a 
lease  of  his  house  for  40  years  and  during  that  period  he 
paid  off  the  mortgage;  although  the  house  was  leasehold 
he  had  the  right  to  bequeath  it  in  his  will  and  at  all  times 
had  the  right  to  sell  the  house.  But  if  he  decided  to  sell  he 
had  to  sell  it  to  the  co-operative  itself.  A  feature  of  the 
Swiss  housing  scheme  was  that  each  housing  project  had  as 
its  centre  a  nursery  school,  again  a  model  of  graceful,  human 
and  elegant  building,  staffed  by  trained  teachers  and  with 
ample  garden  and  playing  accommodation.  (G.  McA.) 

United  States.  Work  was  started  on  more  than  1  million 
new  family  dwelling  units  of  all  types,  exclusive  of  farm 
housing,  in  the  U.S.  during  1949.  After  lagging  behind  the 
1948  monthly  totals  up  to  the  end  of  June  housing  con- 
struction figures  rose  sharply  to  establish  new  records  for 


each  of  the  last  six  months  of  1 949  and  a  record  total  for  the 
year.  The  previous  record  of  937,000  units  established  in 
1925  was  exceeded  by  more  than  60,000  units. 

Contributing  factors  in  this  increase  were  lower  residential 
construction  costs,  the  easing  of  mortgage  financing,  a  sub- 
stantial increase  in  the  production  of  rental  units  and  a  greater 
emphasis  on  the  lower-cost  house.  By  Aug.  1949  residential 
construction  costs  were  reported  by  the  Housing  and  Home 
Finance  agency  to  be  at  the  lowest  level  for  20  months  and 
almost  8%  below  the  Oct.  1948  peak,  as  measured  by  the 
Department  of  Commerce  national  index.  The  Bureau  of 
Labour  Statistics  calculation  of  the  average  cost  of  pro- 
ducing privately  financed  one-family  houses,  begun  in  June 
1949,  amounted  to  $7,675 — exclusive  of  land,  site  improve- 
ments, selling  expense,  profit  and  other  non-construction 
items — as  compared  with  a  June  1948  estimate  of  $8,050. 
The  comparable  figure  for  1940  was  $4,075. 

The  availability  of  mortgage  funds,  which  had  been 
shrinking  since  the  autumn  of  1948,  particularly  with  regard 
to  G.I.  (servicemen)  home  loans  carrying  a  maximum  4% 
interest  rate,  received  a  powerful  impetus  in  July.  The 
secondary  market  for  G.I.  and  F.H.A.  (Federal  Housing 
administration  insured)  mortgages  was  increased  by  50% 
when  congress  gave  the  Federal  National  Mortgage  associa- 
tion (more  popularly  known  as  Fanny  May)  an  additional 
$500  million  for  the  purchase  of  such  mortgages.  Fanny 
May's  previous  limit  of  $1,000  million  was  almost  exhausted 
when  congress  acted. 

At  the  same  time,  congress  extended  F.H.A.'s  authority 
to  insure  90%  mortgages  on  rental  housing  under  Title  608 
which  undoubtedly  contributed  substantially  to  the  rise  in 
the  construction  of  apartments.  The  1949  building  of  rental 
units  constituted  25  %  of  the  record  home  building  total  and 
was  the  highest  for  any  year  since  the  1920s.  In  the  first 
10  months  of  1949,  F.H.A.  received  applications  for  mortgage 
insurance  on  rental  projects  totalling  198,194  flats  as  compared 
with  53,597  in  the  same  period  of  1948. 

On  July  15,  1949,  President  Truman  signed  the  Housing 
act  of  1949  marking  the  end  of  a  bitter  struggle  between  the 


328 


HOXHA-HUNGARY 


supporters  and  opponents  of  public  housing  which  had  raged 
over  a  four-year  period,  throughout  one  presidential  and  two 
congressional  election  campaigns.  The  act  greatly  expanded 
the  programme  for  government  financed  and  subsidized 
housing  for  low-income  families,  initiated  a  plan  and  author- 
ized substantial  funds  for  federal  aid  to  communities  in 
rebuilding  slum  and  other  blighted  areas  and  provided 
federal  loans  and  grants  for  farm  housing. 

The  main  feature  of  the  new  law  was  the  public  housing 
section  which  authorized  the  construction  of  810,000  dwelling 
units  for  low-income  families  over  a  six-year  period  and 
provided  grants  of  up  to  $308  million  annually  for  40  years  to 
bring  rentals  down  to  within  the  financial  means  of  such  families. 
With  some  modifications,  the  law  of  1949  extended  the  U.S. 
Housing  act  of  1937  under  which  191,000  dwelling  units 
for  low-income  families  had  been  built.  The  1949  act  set  a 
cost  limit  of  $1,750  a  room  for  public  housing  constructed 
under  its  provisions  which  might  be  increased  by  not  more 
than  $750  in  areas  where  the  cost  of  construction  was 
especially  high. 

By  the  end  of  the  year  the  Public  Housing  Administration 
had  approved  preliminary  loans  to  227  cities  to  start  planning 
a  total  of  221,390  public  housing  units.  Between  60,000  and 
80,000  units  were  scheduled  for  construction  in  1950  with 
full  programmes  of  135,000  to  150,000  to  be  built  annually 
in  the  years  from  1951  to  1955. 

Even  before  the  new  public  housing  programme  was 
enacted,  attention  turned  to  the  housing  needs  of  families 
with  incomes  above  the  limits  set  for  public  housing  but  not 
sufficiently  high  to  enable  them  to  rent  or  buy  housing  in 
the  open  market.  Union  labour  groups  joined  with  housing, 
civic  and  welfare  organizations  to  urge  for  such  families  a 
programme  of  co-operative  housing  aided  by  low-interest, 
long-term  government  loans.  A  bill  embodying  this  pro- 
gramme was  introduced  in  the  1949  session  of  congress  but 
made  little  headway. 

The  first  substantial  step  in  moderating  wartime  controls 
was  taken  with  the  enactment  by  congress  of  the  Housing 
and  Rent  act  of  1949.  Controls  were  continued  until  June  30, 
1950,  but  with  two  important  modifications:  municipalities 
or  entire  states  could  be  released  from  federal  rent  control 
by  the  action  of  their  governing  bodies;  and  landlords 
could  be  granted  increases  in  rent  where  it  could  be  proved 
that  they  were  not  receiving  a  fair  operating  return.  From 
April  1,  when  the  new  law  became  effective,  to  Dec.  9,  four 
states,  Nebraska,  Texas,  Arizona  and  Utah,  as  well  as  a 
number  of  municipalities,  were  released  from  control  by  this 
procedure.  The  Federal  Housing  expediter  released  others 
on  his  own  initiative  so  that  just  before  the  end  of  1949  a 
total  of  2,587,000  family  dwelling  units  had  been  released. 
In  the  case  of  two  localities,  this  action  resulted  in  such  large 
rent  increases  that  the  communities  requested  the  re-establish- 
ment of  controls.  From  April  1  to  Sept.  30,  a  sufficient 
number  of  rent  increases  had  been  granted  under  the  fair 
operating  return  formula  to  affect  352,037  dwelling  units. 
The  increases  averaged  19%. 

The  Lustron  prefabricated  steel  house,  into  which  the 
government  had  put  $37  •  5  million  in  R.F.C.  (Reconstruction 
Finance  corporation)  loans,  became  a  congressional  storm 
centre  in  mid-summer  and  was  in  arrears  on  repayments  at 
the  year's  end.  Further  R.F.C.  loans  were  cut  off  following 
the  congressional  inquiry. 

Housing  research  received  considerable  impetus  with  the 
passage  of  the  Housing  act  of  1949  and  the  formation  under 
its  provisions  of  a  Division  of  Housing  Research  as  one  of 
the  major  components  of  the  Housing  and  Home  Finance 
agency.  An  initial  budget  of  $2,333,000  was  allocated. 
(See  also  BUILDING  AND  CONSTRUCTION  INDUSTRY;  LOCAL 
GOVERNMENT;  TOWN  AND  COUNTRY  PLANNING.)  (H.  M.  P.) 


HOXHA,  ENVER,  Albanian  politician  (b.  Gjino- 
kaster,  Albania,  Oct.  16,  1908),  prime  minister  from  Jan.  11, 
1946,  commander  in  chief  of  the  Albanian  army  from 
July  1944  and  secretary  general  of  the  Albanian  Communist 
party  from  1943,  except  for  the  period  from  Jan.  11,  1946,  to 
Oct.  6,  1948,  when  this  post  was  occupied  by  Koci  Xoxe 
(see  OBITUARIES).  (For  his  early  career  see  Britannica  Book 
of  the  Year  1949.} 

From  March  21  to  April  10,  1949,  he  was  in  Moscow,  and 
on  April  1  Joseph  Stalin  gave  a  dinner  in  his  honour.  On 
July  10,  at  Tirana,  on  the  Albanian  Army  day,  he  thanked 
the  Soviet  army  for  protecting  the  peoples  of  the  world 
from  "  bloodthirsty  imperialists/'  Addressing  the  2nd 
convention  of  Albanian  trade  unions  he  said  that  Tito,  whom 
he  described  as  an  "  American  spy,"  helped  by  his  agent 
Xoxe,  tried  to  transform  Albania  into  a  "  colony."  On 
Nov.  24,  Hoxha,  self-appointed  colonel  general,  was  promoted 
army  general  by  a  decree  of  the  presidium  of  the  National 
Assembly. 

HUNGARY.  A  people's  republic  of  southeastern  Europe 
bounded  on  the  W.  by  Austria,  on  the  N.  by  Czechoslovakia, 
on  the  E.  by  Rumania,  and  on  the  S.  by  Yugoslavia.  Area: 
35,893*  sq.  mi.  Pop.:  (Oct.  1938  est.)  9,021,000;  (1948  est.) 
9, 1 65,000.  Languages  ( 1 947  est.) : 
Hungarian  92-9%;  German 
5-1%;  Slovak  0-8%;  Serbo- 
Croat  and  Slovene  0  •  6  %;  Rum- 
anian 0-2%.  Religions  (1947 
est.):  Roman  Catholic  65-6%; 
Greek  Catholic  2  •  5  % ;  Cal vinist 
20-8%;  Lutheran  6%;  Greek 
Orthodox  0  •  4  % ;  Jewish  4  •  3  %. 
Chief  towns  (1941  census):  Buda- 
pest (cap.,  1,164,963;  [Dec.  31, 
1948  est.]  1,058,288);  Szeged 
(136,752);  Debrecen  (125,933); 
Miskolc  (109,433);  Kecskemet  (87,269);  Pecs  (78,512). 
Chairman  of  the  presidium  of  the  National  Assembly, 
Arpad  Szakasits;  prime  minister,  Istvan  Dobi  Gy.v.); 
ministers  of  foreign  affairs  in  1949:  Laszlo  Rajk  (see  OBITU- 
ARIES) and  (from  June  10)  Gyula  Kallai. 

History.  A  new  Five- Year  plan,  to  replace  the  Three- Year 
plan  ending  in  1949,  was  announced  at  the  beginning  of  the 
year.  Its  aims  were  summarized  in  a  speech  by  the  Communist 
party's  chief  economic  organizer,  Erno  (Singer)  Gero,  in  a 
speech  on  April  13,  1949.  Total  investment  over  the  five 
years  1950-54  was  to  be  F.35,000  million,  six  times  the  amount 
invested  in  the  Three- Year  plan.  Slightly  less  than  half  was 
to  go  to  industry,  and  about  one-third  to  agriculture  and 
communications.  Total  industrial  output  in  1954  was  to  be 
80%  higher  than  in  1949  and  130%  higher  than  in  1938. 
Output  of  iron  and  steel  was  to  be  nearly  doubled  during  the 
five-year  period,  rising  to  1  •  5  million  tons  in  the  last  year. 
Aluminium  output,  based  on  Hungary's  rich  bauxite  deposits, 
was  to  be  doubled,  and  there  were  to  be  great  increases  in 
electric  power,  building  and  chemicals.  In  agriculture  the 
use  of  artificial  fertilizers  was  to  be  trebled  and  it  was  hoped 
to  increase  crop  yields  by  an  average  of  27%.  Mechanization 
of  agriculture  was  expected  to  release  cattle  used  as  draught 
animals  and  so  to  raise  the  milk  output  by  a  quarter. 

Official  figures  during  1949  gave  the  expected  percentage 
figures  of  production,  showing  that  the  Three- Year  plan 
targets  had  been  exceeded  considerably  ahead  of  time.  It 
was,  however,  admitted  that  results  in  some  branches  of 
industry  were  not  as  good  as  the  all-round  figures.  The 
impression  of  independent  western  observers  was  that  con- 
siderable progress  had  been  made  and  that  living  conditions 

•  Excluding  the  so-called  Bratislava  bridgehead  (see  CZECHOSLOVAKIA). 


H/ 


HUNGARY 


329 


substantially  improved  during  1949.  Whereas  the  conditions 
of  the  Czech  workers  had  deteriorated,  those  of  Hungarian 
workers  were  much  better  than  in  1947. 

Collectivization  of  agriculture  was  the  avowed  aim  of 
policy,  but  was  cautiously  pursued.  The  Five- Year  plan 
did  not  specify  what  proportion  of  agriculture  should  be 
collectivized  by  1954.  In  August  there  were  550  collective 
farms  in  Hungary.  In  March  1949  the  Communist  leader 
Matyas  (Roth)  Rakosi  (q.v.)  warned  against  both  right-wing 
and  left-wing  "  deviations."  The  former  consisted  in  excessive 
tenderness  to  medium  and  wealthy  peasants,  leading  to  a 
neglect  of  the  interests  of  the  poorest  peasants  who  were  the 
natural  allies  of  the  proletariat.  The  latter  consisted  in 
indiscriminate  attack  on  all  but  the  poorest  peasants.  This 
merely  drove  the  medium  peasants,  whose  friendship  to  the 
traditional  Leninist-Stalinist  doctrine  should  be  secured, 
into  the  arms  of  the  kulaks.  Pursuit  of  the  left-wing  deviation 
was  liable  to  unite  the  majority  of  the  peasantry  against  the 
government.  Hungarian  Communist  periodicals  quoted 
with  disapproval  cases  of  mob  violence  against  kulaks  or 
alleged  kulaks  which  had  made  the  government  unpopular, 
(See  also  PEASANT  MOVEMENT.) 

The  year  opened  with  the  conflict  between  the  government 
and  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  centred  round  the  trial  of 
Cardinal  Jozsef  Mindszenthy.  The  cardinal,  arrested  in 
Dec.  1948,  was  accused  of  treason,  conspiracy  with  foreign 
enemies  of  the  republic  and  offences  against  the  currency 
Jaws.  The  specific  charges  in  the  published  indictment  for 
the  most  part  amounted  to  talk  hostile  to  the  government, 
which  in  western  countries  would  not  be  regarded  as  treason. 
Of  the  cardinal's  obstinate  hostility  to  the  regime  and  deter- 
mination not  to  trust  the  government's  promises  from  the 
first  days  in  1945,  there  had  never  been  any  doubt:  and  events 
had  to  a  large  extent  justified  both  the  obstinacy  and  the 
distrust.  The  trial  opened  on  Feb.  3.  The  cardinal  confessed 
that  he  was  "  essentially  "  guilty  of  the  offences  with  which 
he  was  charged,  declared  that  he  felt  an  agreement  between 
Church  and  government  to  be  essential  and  hoped  that  his 
person  would  not  stand  in  its  way.  He  was  sentenced  to  life 


Cardinal  Jdzscf  Mindszenthy  seen  during  his  trial  in   Budapest, 
Feb.  1949.   He  was  found  guilty  and  sentenced  to  life  imprisonment. 


L6szl6  Rajk,  former  foreign  minister,  during  his  trial  on  charges  of 

treason  in  Budapest,  Sept.  1949.   He  was  found  guilty,  sentenced  to 

death,  and  hanged  on  Oct.  15. 

imprisonment.  At  the  parliamentary  elections  in  May  the 
hierarchy  did  not  object  to  Catholics  going  to  the  polls. 
But  the  conflict  remained  as  irreconcilable  as  before. 

Elections  were  held  on  May  15.  Unlike  the  Hungarian 
elections  of  1945  and  1947,  those  of  1949  were  of  a  truly 
"popular  democratic"  type;  95%  of  the  electorate  was 
declared  to  have  voted  (see  ELECTIONS). 

The  new  parliament  adopted  a  new  constitution,  closely 
modelled  on  those  of  the  "  people's  democracies  "  and  the 
Soviet  Union.  On  Aug.  23  the  National  Assembly  elected 
the  presidium  of  the  people's  republic  (21  members)  of  which 
Arpad  Szakasits  was  the  chairman. 

A  purge  of  the  United  Workers'  party  was  carried  out  in 
the  first  months  of  1949:  17%  were  removed  from  full 
membership  but  many  of  these  were  allowed  to  remain  as 
"  candidates."  The  sensation  of  the  purge  was  the  "  un- 
masking "  of  Laszlo  Rajk,  a  prominent  Communist  and 
former  minister  of  the  interior,  as  a  nationalist  deviationist 
and  agent  of  the  "  western  imperialists."  With  him  were 
arrested  a  leading  left-wing  Social  Democrat  intellectual, 
Pal  Jusztusz;  the  former  head  of  the  Communist  party's 
cadres  section,  Tibor  Szonyi;  the  former  chief  of  the  political 
section  of  the  general  staff,  Lieut.  General  Gyorgy  (Oester- 
reicher)  PalfTy,  and  the  former  counsellor  of  the  Yugoslav 
embassy  in  Budapest,  Lazar  Brankov.  The  trial,  which 
opened  on  Sept.  16,  was  above  all  an  indictment  of  the  Tito 
regime  in  Yugoslavia.  Brankov  gave  evidence  that  already 
during  the  war  Tito  was  working  for  the  British  secret  service 
against  the  Soviet  Union.  Rajk  confessed  to  all  the 
accusations,  including  that  of  having  worked  for  the  political 
police  of  the  prewar  Horthy  dictatorship  and  of  having  gone 
to  fight  in  Spain  for  the  republic  merely  in  order  to  under- 
mine the  anti-fascist  movement  and  help  the  Axis.  The  incredi- 
bility of  the  charges,  contradictions  between  the  alleged 
facts  and  willingness  of  the  victims  to  confess  on  all  points, 
made  the  Rajk  trial  much  more  similar  to  the  Moscow  trials 


330 


ICE   HOCKEY-ICELAND 


of  1936-37  than  any  of  the  other  "  conspiracy  "  trials  that 
had  so  far  been  staged  in  eastern  Europe.  It  was  therefore  a 
landmark  in  the  development  of  both  the  political  system 
of  the  "  people's  democracies "  and  of  Soviet  policy 
towards  Yugoslavia.  (H.  S.-W.) 

Education.  (1949)  Schools'  elementary  1,432  and  general  4,770, 
pupils  1,220,000;  secondary  388,  pupils  83,000  Universities  (8)  and 
institutions  of  higher  education  (8),  students  28,000  Illiteracy  (1941)- 
6  Q%. 

Agriculture.  Main  crops  ('000  metric  tons,  1948)-  wheat  1,579, 
maize  3,201;  barley  696;  rye  780,  oats  332,  sugar,  raw  value,  153; 
rice  39,  potatoes  2,699;  tobacco  23;  linseed  6  Livestock  ('000  head, 
May  1948)  pigs  2,499,  cattle  and  buffaloes  1,804;  sheep  591,  horses 
(Feb  1949)  569 

Industry.  Fuel  and  power,  coal  and  lignite  ('000  metric  tons,  1948) 
10,613,  natural  gas  ('000  cu.  ft.,  1947)  3,560,000,  crude  oil  ('000 
n.etnc  tons,  1947)  570.  Raw  materials  ('000  metric  tons,  1947)  iron 
ore,  metal  content,  244,  pig-iron  304,  steel  ingots  and  castings  596; 
bauxite  340,  manganese  ore  50  Manufactured  goods  (1947)  cotton 
piece-goods  (million  m)  126,  cotton  yarn  ('000  metric  tons)  21, 
wool  yarn  6  0;  cement  199 

Foreign  Trade.  (1948)  Imports  1,975  million  fonnts,  exports  2,965 
million  fonnts 

Transport  and  Communications.  Roads  (1949)  10,248  mi  Licensed 
motor  vehicles  (Dec  1948).  cars  15,282,  commercial  vehicles  12,317. 
Railways  (1948)  5,173  mi  ,  passenger-mi  2,987  million;  freight  net 
ton-mi.  2,037  million  Danube  shipping  (Dec  1947)  merchant 
vessels  514,  total  tonnage  118,717.  Telephones  (1948)  subscribers 
106,768  Wireless  licences  (Dec  1948)-  475,000. 

Finance  and  Banking.  (Million  fonnts)  Budget'  (1950  est )  revenue 
17,537,  expenditure  17,454  Currency  circulation  (Sept  1949,  in 
brackets,  Sept.  1948)'  3,307  (2,628).  Gold  reserve  (Aug  1949;  in 
brackets,  Aug  1948)  37  (34)  million  U  S  dollars  Savings  and  bank 
deposits  (Sept  1949;  in  brackets,  Sept.  1948):  5,336(2,180)  Monetary 
unit:  Jorint  with  an  official  exchange  rate  of  F.32-87  (47-31  before 
Sept.  18.  1949)  to  the  pound. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  Ferenc  Nagy,  Ihe  Struggle  Behind  the  Iron  Curtain 
(London,  1949). 

ICE  HOCKEY.  The  1948-49  season  was  the  best 
season  recorded  with  attendances  showing  a  considerable 
increase  over  1947-48.  The  senior  English  competitions 
included  eight  teams  with  the  re-entry  of  the  prewar  club 
Earls  Court  Rangers.  The  prewar  international  tournament 
was  resumed  with  the  entry  of  the  Racing  club  team  from 
Paris.  The  Autumn  cup  was  won  by  Wembley  Monarchs  with 
Harringay  Racers  as  runners-up;  the  international  tournament 
by  Wembley  Monarchs  with  Nottingham  Panthers  as  runners- 
up;  and  the  major  competition,  the  National  league,  by 
Harringay  Racers  with  Streatham  as  runners-up. 

In  Scotland  the  Autumn  cup  was  won  by  Fyfe  Flyers  with 
Falkirk  Lions  as  runners-up;  the  Canada  cup  by  Falkirk 
Lions  with  Fyfe  Flyers  as  runners-up;  and  the  National 
league  by  Fyfe  Flyers  with  Falkirk  Lions  as  runners-up. 

The  1948-49  season  showed  progress  in  the  development  of 
purely  British  players  and  for  the  first  time  a  special 
Northern  Amateur  tournament  was  organized  at  Durham. 
Nine  Scottish  teams  and  six  English  teams  competed  and 
Dunfermline  Royals  won  the  trophy. 

The  1949-50  season  started  in  September  and  attendance 
figures  showed  a  considerable  increase  over  the  previous 
season.  Harringay  Greyhounds  dropped  out  of  the  English 
competitions  but  the  remaining  seven  teams  anticipated 
playing  50%  more  home  games  than  previously.  (J.  F.  A.) 

United  States  and  Canada.  The  Toronto  Maple  Leafs 
became  in  1949  the  first  team  in  history  to  capture  the 
Stanley  cup  three  straight  seasons  when  it  routed  the  Red 
Wings  of  Detroit,  Michigan.  Placed  only  fourth  in  the 
regular  National  Hockey  league,  Toronto  furnished  a  major 
upset  by  beating  the  circuit's  title  winners  in  four  games. 

Although  Detroit  had  won  the  regular  league  race  by  a 
good  margin,  it  was  hard  pressed  in  the  semi-finals  for  the 
Stanley  cup,  and  in  the  final  series  Toronto  stopped  the 
Wings  by  3 — 2  in  an  overtime  period,  3 — 1,  3 — 1  and  3 — I. 

Toronto  reached  the  last  round  by  halting  Boston's 
Bruins,  four  games  to  one.  The  Leafs  triumphed  3 — 0, 


3—2,  3—1  and  3—2,  Boston  taking  only  the  third  contest, 
which  was  decided  at  5 — 4  in  overtime. 

Montreal's  Canadians  carried  Detroit  to  seven  games 
in  their  semifinals.  Detroit,  however,  got  off  to  a  fast  start 
in  the  deciding  meeting  on  its  home  ice  to  win,  3 — I,  for  the 
right  to  face  Toronto  in  the  cup  finals.  (T.  V.  H.) 

ICELAND.  An  island  republic  of  the  north  Atlantic. 
Area:  39,768  sq.  mi.  Pop.  (Dec.  31,  1948)  138,502.  Capital, 
Reykjavik,  the  only  large  town  (pop.,  1948  est.,  53,384). 
Language:  Icelandic,  closely  akin  to  Norwegian.  Religion: 
Lutheran.  President  of  the  republic,  Sveinn  Bjornsson; 
prime  ministers  in  1949,  Stefan  Johann  Stefansson  and 
(from  Dec.  6)  Olafur  Thors. 

History.  Iceland  seemed  to  discard,  almost  painlessly,  her 
characteristic  caution  when  the  invitation  to  join  the  North 
Atlantic  treaty  was  accepted  by  the  Althing  on  March  30, 
1949,  only  10  Communist  deputies  voting  against  37  in  favour 
(2  abstained).  However  an  Icelandic  mission  to  Washington 
(March  13-19),  led  by  the  Conservative  minister  of  foreign 
affairs,  Bjarni  Benedtktsson  (q.v\  had  included  Eysteinn 
Jonsson,  the  Agrarian  (Progressive)  party  air  minister,  and 
Emil  Jonsson,  the  Social  Democratic  minister  of  trade,  and 
discussions  on  the  treaty  had  been  held  within  the  framework 
of  Benediktsson's  statement  that  his  government  would  not 
allow  foreign  military  bases  on  their  territory  in  peacetime. 
On  his  return  the  foreign  minister  declared  that  the  country's 
attitude  was  understood  in  view  of  their  complete  disarma- 
ment and  it  was  clear  that  no  national  army  nor  other  forces 
were  contemplated  as  a  result  of  this  new  step. 

At  the  first  meeting  of  the  Council  of  Europe,  Iceland, 
which  had  been  prevented  by  provisions  in  its  constitution 
from  sharing  in  the  council's  foundation,  was  among  the 
countries  invited  (Aug.  8)  to  join  the  original  10  powers 
and  was  allotted  3  representatives.  Inter-Scandinavian 
co-operation  and  consultation  were  also  expressed  in  various 
forms  during  1949.  The  Icelandic  Trade  Union  federation, 
despite  its  large  Communist  element,  decided  to  withdraw 
from  the  World  federation  at  the  same  time  as  the  Danish, 
Norwegian  and  Swedish  sister  organizations.  On  Sept.  12-13 
the  foreign  ministers  of  the  same  four  states  met  in  Copen- 
hagen and  adopted  a  common  policy  about  several  points 
on  the  U.N.  general  assembly  agenda  and  on  the  problem 
of  South  Schleswig  (see  DENMARK),  the  Icelandic  minister 
in  London  later  accompanying  the  Norwegian  and  Swedish 
ambassadors  to  the  British  Foreign  Office  (Nov.  2)  to  support 
Denmark's  case. 

Economic  conditions  caused  rising  anxiety  in  1949. 
Foreign  dollar  and  sterling  reserves  were  nearly  exhausted, 
two  summer  herring  seasons  had  gone  badly,  export  industries 
faced  financial  difficulties,  queues  were  long  and  even  neces- 
sities, especially  textiles,  scarce.  Imports  had  been  cut  down 
but  exceeded  exports  in  value  by  Kr.55  million  between 
January  and  June  (total  1948  excess:  Kr.61  6  million). 
Although  wages  were  pegged  to  the  cost  of  living,  which  still 
rose,  there  were  strikes  on  trawlers,  among  transport  workers 
and  also  among  unskilled  workers  (June);  some  trades  were 
over-filled,  others  short  of  labour.  Inflation  threatened  to 
bring,  in  spite  of  heavy  taxes,  higher  tariffs  and  new  sacrifices. 
It  was  the  Agragnans  who  finally  insisted  on  the  recall  of  the 
Althing  from  its  summer  recess  or  a  general  election;  and 
the  other  two  coalition  parties  preferred  the  second  alterna- 
tive (see  ELECTIONS).  As  it  proved  impossible  to  form 
another  coalition  Olafur  Thors  formed  a  Conservative 
minority  government  on  Dec.  6. 

The  president  of  Iceland  was  elected  "  by  acclamation  " 
for  a  third  term  of  four  years  on  June  20,  with  the  support 
of  Conservatives,  Agrarians  and  Social  Democrats,  the 
Communists  neither  opposing  nor  supporting  his  candidature. 


ICE  SKATING-IMMIGRATION  AND   EMIGRATION 


331 


Luftur  Gudmundsson  wrote  and  produced  Iceland's  first 
film  drama.  The  play  The  Golden  Gate,  by  David  Stefansson, 
ran  for  over  100  performances  in  Reykjavik,  and  in  Gathorne- 
Hardy's  translation  was  well  received  in  Edinburgh. 

Education.  Schooling  from  7  to  14  is  compulsory,  but  children  may 
be  educated  at  home  up  to  8  or  10  years  of  age,  where  communications 
are  very  difficult.  Besides  an  elementary  and  a  day  or  boarding  school 
in  every  district,  there  were  (1946)  10  state  and  2  private  secondary 
schools  In  1948  there  were  556  students  at  the  University  of  Iceland. 
No  illiteracy 

Agriculture  and  Fisheries.  Agricultural  products  were  subsidized, 
but  the  flight  from  the  land  continued,  with  about  1,000  oi  Iceland's 
6,500  farms  deserted  (a  third  during  the  last  six  years)  and  58  3°;,  of 
the  population  living  in  towns  The  mccham/ation  of  agriculture, 
irrigation  schemes  and  plant  and  animal-breeding  research  continued, 
and  the  emphasis  was  shifted  from  sheep-breeding  to  dairy  farming. 
Giant  hot-houses  for  vegetables  and  flowers  built  near  natural  hot- 
springs  did  well  and  tomatoes  were  flown  to  London  for  sale  'I  he 
main  livestock  (1947-48  est.)  were  38,000  head  of  cattle,  540,000  sheep 
and  60,000  horses 

In  1949  (Jan  -July)  187,733  metric  tons  offish  were  landed  in  Iceland 
(Jan  -July  1948,  277,456);  tish  evported  iced,  in  fishing  vessels,  weighed 
75,492  tons  (Ian  -July  1948,  78,056),  in  cargo  vessels" 9,534  (Jan  -July, 
1948,  7,132),  fish  fro/en  67,190  (Jan  -July  194S,  65,815)  and  fish  used 
for  oil  and  meal  4,216  (Jan  -July  1948,  101,048) 

Industry.  The  first  4-year  plan  completed,  the  second  (approved  by 
parliament,  Get  1948)  provided  ior  an  investment  of  Kr  542  8  million, 
mainly  in  harnessing  numerous  waterfalls  power  stations  would  cost 
Kr  130  million,  power  lines  Kr40  million,  and  when  available  would 
run  projected  plants  for  cement,  artificial  fertilizers  and  the  refining 
of  herring  oil 

Foreign  Trade.  ('000  kronur)  Imports  (Jan -June  1949)  206,042 
(Jan -June  1948,  208,472),  exports  151,029  (Jan -June  1948,  198,770) 
The  largest  supply  countnes  in  1949  were  Great  Britain,  the  U  S  , 
Denmark  and  Venezuela,  the  best  customer  countries  were  Great 
Britain,  Germany,  Italy  and  the  Netherlands 

Transport  and  Communications.  Iceland  has  no  railways,  but  in 
1948  there  were  6,268  km.  of  highways,  5,500  motor  cars,  4,372  lorries, 
262  buses  and  570  motor  cycles  Under  the  new  4-year  plan,  12  new 
trawlers  would  be  added  to  the  restored  fishing  fleet,  and  Kr  70  million 
Nvould  be  spent  on  new  freighters,  to  deal  with  much  increased  traffic 
(in  1947  over  Kr  50  million  was  paid  out  lor  freight  on  foreign  ships) 

Finance  and  Banking.  (Million  kronur)  Budget  (1950  est  )  revenue 
263,  expenditure  226  Notes  in  circulation  (June  30,  1949)  157  3 
Deposits  on  current  accounts  and  savings  accounts  (June  1949)  592  8 
Monetary  unit  krona  (pi  krrinttr)  hxchangc  rate  £1  Kr  26  22, 
US  $l-Kr9  36$  (before  devaluation,  Sept  19,  1949,  $1  -Kr  6-50$) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  Agnes  Rothery,  Iceland  New  World  OutpoM  (New 
York,  1948),  "Iceland  and  the  Atlantic  Pact"  and  "Elections  in 
Iceland,"  The  Norseman  (London,  1949,  nos  4,  5  and  6).  (£.  J.  L.) 

ICE  SKATING.  During  the  season  1948-49  there  was 
no  opportunity  to  hold  outdoor  speed  skating  champion- 
ships in  England  but  a  full  programme  of  championships 
and  competitions  on  indoor  ice  took  place.  The  British 
amateur  championships  in  the  international  style  of  figure 
skating  were  held  at  the  Wembley  rink;  the  winner  of  the 
ladies'  title  was  Jeannette  Altwegg,  and  of  the  pairs,  Mr.  J. 
and  Miss  J.  Nicks.  The  events  for  professionals,  held  at 
Brighton,  were  won  by  H.  Alward  (men's),  June  MacDonald 
(ladies')  and  F.  Leemans  and  Miss  E.  Colhn  (pairs). 

The  European  championships  in  figure  skating  were  held 
at  the  Ice  palace,  Milan,  in  Jan.  1949;  the  men's  title  was 
won  by  E.  Rada  (Hungary),  the  ladies'  by  E.  Pawlik  (Austria) 
and  the  pairs'  title  by  the  Hungarians,  E.  Kiraly  and  Miss 
A.  Kekessy.  The  world  championships  for  these  events  were 
held  in  Feb.  1949  at  Velodrome  d'Hiver,  Pans.  R.  Button 
(U.S.A.)  successfully  defended  his  title,  the  ladies'  champion- 
ship was  won  by  A.  Vrzanova  (Czechoslovakia)  and  the 
pairs'  title  by  the  European  champions  mentioned  above. 
Jeannette  Altwegg  (Great  Britain)  was  third  in  both  the 
European  and  world  ladies'  championships.  The  European 
championship  in  speed  skating  was  held  at  Davos  and  was 
won  by  S.  Farstad  (Norway)  and  the  world  championship, 
held  at  Oslo,  was  won  by  K.  Pajor  (Hungary).  (E.  G.  Cs.) 

United  States.  Richard  Button  of  Englewood,  New  Jersey, 
men's  Olympic  and  world  figure-skating  title  holder,  won  the 
North  American  championships  at  Ardmore,  Philadelphia, 


and  the  United  States  meet  at  Colorado  Spiings,  Colorado. 
Yvonne  Sherman,  New  York  city,  capped  several  years  of 
effort  by  winning  the  senior  women's  division  of  both  the 
North  American  and  national  title  tests. 

A  list  of  United  States  title  winners  follows:  Button,  senior 
men;  Sherman,  senior  women;  Karol  Kennedy  and  Peter 
Kennedy  of  Seattle,  Washington,  senior  pairs,  Lois  Waring 
of  Baltimore,  Maryland,  and  W.  H.  Bainbridge  of  Washing- 
ton, D.C.,  gold  dance  team;  Vera  Elliott  and  Rex  Cook  of 
New  York,  silver  dance  team;  Sonya  Klopfer  of  New  York 
city,  junior  women,  Richard  Dwyer  of  L«>s  Angeles  junior 
men;  Tenley  Albnght  of  Boston,  novice  women;  and  Hugh 
C.  Graham  of  Tulsa,  Oklahoma,  novice  men. 

Three  titles  fell  to  Ray  Blum,  veteran  competitor  from 
Nutley,  New  Jersey,  in  men's  speed  skating.  (T.  V.  H.) 

IFNI:    sec  SPANISH  Coi  ONIAL  EMPIRE. 

IMMIGRATION    AND    EMIGRATION.     Great 

Britain.  Movement  of  United  Kingdom  citizens  out  of,  and 
of  aliens  into,  the  United  Kingdom  continued  throughout 
1949.  Only  a  small  percentage  of  the  emigrants  failed  to 
settle,  and  consequently  returned  home.  How  many  of  the 
immigrants  would  remain  permanently  could  not  be 
determined.  During  the  period  Jan.  1946-Jan.  1949  some 
278,000  British  emigrated  to  Canada,  Australia,  New 
Zealand,  South  Africa  and  Southern  Rhodesia,  while  more 
than  4,000  aliens  also  left  Britain.  Some  140,000  British 
were  registered  as  desiring  to  emigrate,  and  about  11,000 
Poles  were  undecided  as  to  whether  to  stay  or  move  on. 

By  the  middle  of  1949  the  number  of  foreign  workers 
brought  in  for  special  labour  needs  totalled  200,000,  and  a 
further  1 3,000  were  considered  necessary  for  Britain's  labour 
force.  Fifteen  thousand  five  hundred  of  the  200,000  were 
displaced  persons  from  central  Europe  brought  in  under 
operation  "  Westward  Ho  "  and  about  9,000  were  women 
who  had  come  in  under  the  "  North  Sea  scheme  "  for  nursing 
and  domestic  services  and  textile  work.  The  last  named 
alien  workers  were  due  to  return  home  in  1951-52. 

Germany.  The  refugee  problem  in  Germany  was  a  question 
not  of  refugees  as  defined  by  international  convention,  but 
of  German  nationals  expelled  from  Czechoslovakia  and  the 
eastern  territories  under  the  Potsdam  agreement.  The  popula- 
tion situation  was  aggravated  by  the  steady  influx  amounting 
to  an  average  of  28,000  persons  a  month  crossing  the  borders 
between  the  eastern  and  western  zones  of  occupation. 

In  addition  to  the  outward  movements  under  the  British 
Ministry  of  Labour  schemes  already  mentioned,  the  United 
States  made  administrative  arrangements  to  accept  28,000 
immigrants  from  Germany;  these  were  to  include  14,000 
Volksdeutsche,  7,000  occupation  brides  and  7,000  unclassified 
immigrants. 

Australia,  with  an  immigration  figure  which  aimed  at 
bringing  the  population  up  to  20  million  agreed  to  accept 
12,500  displaced  persons  yearly,  offering  them  the  possibility 
of  attaining  Australian  citizenship  after  five  years'  residence. 
The  displaced  persons  included  Poles,  Baits,  Czechs,  Yugo- 
slavs, Rumanians  and  Sudeten  Germans  The  figure  set  for 
migration  from  Great  Britain  to  Australia  for  the  year  1949 
was  70,000  and  more  transport  was  made  available  for  this 
purpose.  Welcoming  the  100,000th  postwar  settler  from 
Britain  A.  A.  Calwell,  the  Australian  immigration  minister, 
said  he  looked  forward  to  receiving  millions  of  other  Britons 
to  assist  the  future  development  of  the  commonwealth. 

Canada  expected  a  total  immigration  of  100,000  to  include 
20,000  from  Great  Britain.  The  government  accepted  500 
Estonians  from  Sweden  and,  in  order  to  balance  the  French- 
Canadian  population,  made  especial,  but  not  very  successful, 
efforts  to  secure  immigrants  from  France. 


332 


INDIA,   DOMINION    OF 


UK   IMMIGRATION   AND    EMIGRATION 

(BY  LONG  SEA  ROUTES) 

Number  of 


Number  of 
Emigrants  from  UK 


ints  to  UK 


New  Zealand  in  a  humane  gesture  offered  to  accept  1,000 
of  the  displaced  persons,  to  include  200  children,  300  single 
women  (mainly  for  work  in  hospitals),  50  mothers  or  widows 
and  80  elderly  persons. 

South  Africa  slowed  down  immigration  from  Great  Britain 
but  began  to  accept  Germans  from  Germany. 

Within  the  British  Commonwealth  there  were  also  minor 
movements  like  the  move  of  400  British  subjects  from  Malta 
to  Cyprus.  The  question  of  the  under-population  of  the 
West  Indian  colonies  had  been  raised,  and  the  suggestion 
was  made  that  some  100,000  immigrants,  not  necessarily 
European,  should  be  brought  in. 

Israel.  The  British  mandate  over  Palestine  ended  on 
May  14,  1948.  Up  to  that  time  there  was  limited  immigration, 
though  the  numbers  were  often  exceeded  by  means  of  illegal 
entries,  not  all  of  which  could  be  estimated  and  allowed 
for  in  permits  for  succeeding  periods.  In  the  unrest  and 
warfare  which  rent  Palestine  before  and  after  the  withdrawal 
of  the  mandatory  power  some  600,000  Arabs  were  driven 
from,  or  left,  their  homes  and  villages. 

On  June  9,  1948,  the  Israeli  foreign  minister  announced 
that  the  new  government  did  not  envisage  **  any  measure 
preventing  or  delaying  the  entry  of  Jewish  immigrants  to 
Israel  irrespective  of  age  or  sex."  The  number  of  immigrants 
in  that  same  month  was  1,133.  In  July  1948  it  was  12,687. 
For  the  remaining  months  of  1948  the  average  monthly 
figure  was  15,507.  In  1949,  the  total  number  of  admissions 
was  239,171.  The  immigrants  came  from  not  less  than  43 
different  countries  of  origin,  the  largest  contingents  being 
from  Turkey,  Tunisia,  Morocco  and  Algeria  (these  last  three 
countries  grouped  together),  Poland  and  Czechoslovakia, 
with  large  numbers  in  the  early  months  of  the  year  from 
Bulgaria  and  Rumania.  (B.  L.  B.) 

United  States.  There  were  about  88  million  admissions 
into  the  U.S.  during  the  year  ended  June  30,  1949.  Almost 
97%  of  these,  however,  were  of  citizen  and  alien  border 
crossers,  many  of  whom  made  frequent  crossings. 

Arrivals  and  departures  during  1948  and  1949,  exclusive 
of  border  crossers,  crewmen  and  agricultural  labourers,  were 
as  reported  in  the  Table. 

The  continued  economic  prosperity  of  the  United  States 
and  the  disturbed  political  situation  in  many  other  countries 
were  factors  that  led  to  further  increases  in  immigration  to 


the  United  States.  Immigrant  aliens  admitted  for  permanent 
residence  numbered  188,317 — the  largest  number  since  1930. 

The  total  authorized  immigration  quota  for  all  countries — 
153,929— was  73-4%  filled,  113,046  quota  immigrants  being 
admitted  to  the  United  States.  Included  in  the  number  of  quota 
immigrants  admitted  were  39,734  displaced  persons,  who 
were  admitted  under  the  Displaced  Persons  act  of  1948. 

The  principal  countries  from  which  immigrants  came 
during  the  year  ended  June  30,  1949,  were  as  follows: 
Germany  23,844;  Great  Britain  19,050;  Poland  23,744; 
Italy  11,157;  other  European  countries  60,506;  Canada, 
including  Newfoundland,  21,515;  Mexico  7,977;  West 
Indies  6,5 18;  South  America  2,639;  Central  America  2,493; 
Philippines  1,068;  Asia  5,287;  Africa  737;  Australia  and 
New  Zealand  602;  other  countries  1,180;  total  188,317,  of 
whom  113,046  were  quota  immigrants. 

ARRIVALS  AND  DFPARTURFS  OF  ALIENS  AND  OTIZFNS  IN  THE  UNITED 
STATES  DURING  FISCAL  YFARS  ENDLD  JUNE  30 

1949  1948 
Arrivals' 

Aliens  admitted      .          .          .                   635,589  646,576 

Immigrant                     .          .                   188,317  170,570 

Non-immigrant            .          .                   447,272  476,006 

U  S.  citizens                      .          .          .          620,371  542,932 

Aliens  debarred      .          .                                 3,834  4,905 

Departures 

Aliens  departed      ....         430,089  448,218 

Emigrant             ....           24,586  20,875 

Non-emigrant     .                   .          .         405,503  427,343 

U  S  citizens           .                             .         552,361  478,988 

Aliens  admitted  for  a  temporary  stay  and  resident  aliens 
returning  from  abroad  numbered  447,272.  The  decrease  from 
476,006  temporary  admissions  in  the  previous  fiscal  year  was 
due  largely  to  the  smaller  number  of  visitors  for  pleasure  who 
came  to  the  United  States  during  the  year. 

There  were  430,089  aliens  who  departed  from  the  United 
States.  Of  these  24,586  were  emigrants,  or  aliens  who  left 
a  permanent  residence  in  the  United  States  for  residence 
elsewhere;  22,354  resident  aliens  and  six  treaty  traders 
planned  to  return  to  the  United  States  after  a  temporary 
sojourn  abroad,  and  383,143  aliens  admitted  for  temporary 
periods  departed  for  residence  abroad.  (See  also  ALIENS; 
REFUGEES.)  (W.  B.  Mi.) 

INCOME  AND  PRODUCT:  see  NATIONAL  INCOME. 

INDIA,  DOMINION  OF.  A  self  governing  member 
of  the  Commonwealth  of  Nations  in  southern  Asia  comprising 
9  provinces,  12  centrally  administered  areas  and  9  Indian 
states*  unions.  Area:  c.  1,243,886  sq.  mi.,  including  Kashmir.* 
Pop.:  (1941  census)  320,387,000,  (1948  cst.)  342,114,000. 
As  a  result  of  the  partition  of  the  Indian  sub-continent  in 
Aug.  1947,  by  the  end  of  1948  nearly  5,363,000  non-Moslems 
entered  India  and  about  6,599,000  Moslems  migrated  to 
Pakistan.  Languages  fall  into  two  main  groups:  Aryan  or 
northern  (Hindustani  or  Hindi,  Marathi,  Punjabi,  Gujarati, 
Bengali,  etc.)  and  Dravidian  or  southern  (Telugu,  Tamil, 
Kanarese,  etc.);  on  Sept.  14,  1949,  the  Indian  Constituent 
Assembly  decided  to  retain  English  as  the  official  language 
of  the  union,  to  be  displaced  by  Hindi  in  Devanagari  script 
within  15  years.  Religions:  mainly  Hindu,  with  Moslem, 
Christian,  Sikh,  Buddhist,  Parsee,  Jewish  and  other  minorities. 
Chief  towns  (1941  census):  Delhi  (cap.  521,849);  Calcutta 
(q.v.)  (2,108,891);  Bombay  (1,489,883);  Madras  (777,481); 
Hyderabad  (739,159);  Ahmedabad  (591,257);  Cawnpore 
(487,324);  Amritsar  (391,010);  Lucknow  (387,177).  Governor- 
general,  Chakravarti  Rajagopalachari ;  prime  minister  and 
minister  for  external  relations,  Pandit  Jawaharlal  Nehru  (q.  v.); 
deputy  prime  minister  and  minister  of  the  interior,  Sardar 
Vallabhbhai  Patel  fy.v.). 

*  Area  of  the  disputed  territories  of  Jammu  and  Kashmir-  82  258  sq.  mi. :  poo. 
(1941  census).  4,021,600. 


INDIA,   DOMINION   OF 


333 


History.  The  principal  event  of  the  year  from  the  political 
point  of  view  was  the  conference  of  Commonwealth  prime 
ministers  held  in  London  in  April.  They  came  to  the  unani- 
mous decision  that,  after  becoming  a  sovereign  independent 
republic  in  Jan.  1950,  India  would  continue  in  the  interests  of 
world  peace  to  be  a  full  member  of  the  Commonwealth  of 
Nations.  The  King  would  remain  the  symbol  of  the  free 
association  of  its  independent  member  nations  and,  as  such, 
the  head  of  the  Commonwealth.  This  solution  of  a  delicate 
problem  met  with  general  approval.  Dr.  Rajendra  Prasad, 
president  of  the  Indian  Constituent  Assembly,  expressed  the 
general  opinion  of  the  country  when  he  said:  "  We  wish  to 
remain  on  the  friendliest  terms  with  Great  Britain,  so  long 
as  our  sovereignty  and  independence  of  action  are  not  affected 
in  any  way  ...  I  am  personally  satisfied  with  the  formula 
which  has  been  evolved."  This  result  was  looked  on  as  a 
diplomatic  success  for  Pandit  Nehru  and  Clement  Attlee. 
Under  existing  arrangements,  India  would  be  proclaimed  an 
independent  sovereign  republic  on  the  next  Remembrance 
Day,  Jan.  26,  1950.  India  would  be  known  in  future  by  the 
ancient  Hindu  name  of  Bharat. 

Other  important  changes  were  made  in  the  draft  constitu- 
tion. The  village  panchayats  or  councils  were  to  be  organized 
as  units  of  self-government,  and  the  zemindars  or  landlords 
were  to  be  gradually  expropriated,  with  due  compensation, 
in  order  to  bring  about  direct  relationship  between  the  state 
and  the  cultivators.  The  judiciary  and  the  legislature  were  to 
be  separated  and  appeals  to  the  Privy  Council  abolished. 
Communal  representation  in  the  legislatures  and  representa- 
tion for  religious  minorities  were  rejected  on  the  grounds 
that  they  were  opposed  to  the  conception  of  a  secular  state 
and  that  the  fundamental  rights  of  all  citizens  guaranteed  by 
the  new  constitution  were  so  conclusive  as  to  render  them 
superfluous.  A  prolonged  and  often  bitter  controversy  on 
the  adoption  of  a  national  language  and  numerical  system 
was  ended  by  a  resolution  favouring  the  retention  of  English 
for  the  next  15  years  as  the  official  language  of  the  Indian 
union,  after  which  it  would  be  replaced  by  Hindi.  "  English," 
declared  Pandit  Nehru,  "  must  continue  to  be  a  most  import- 
ant language  in  India,  which  a  large  number  of  people  would 
learn,  and  perhaps  learn  compulsorily." 

The  Integration  of  the  States.  The  absorption  of  the 
princely  states  reached  its  final  stage  under  the  forcible 
direction  of  Sardar  Patel.  It  took 
three  forms:  mergers  with  adja- 
cent provinces,  grouping  with 
other  states  and  conversion  into 
centrally  administered  areas.  The 
two  great  Maratha  states  of  Kolh- 
apur  and  Baroda,  with  a  popula- 
tion of  17-5  million  and  an  area 
of  about  100,000  sq.  mi.,  were 
merged  into  the  province  of 
Bombay.  Twenty-five,  including 
the  leading  Moslem  state  of 
?Bhopal,  became  centrally  admin- 
istered areas,  while  the  bulk  of 
the  rest,  covering  an  area  of 

..      r  T          ~^     LI        approximately    235,000   sq.  mi. 
New  Indian  state  emblem.      *.£.  J    \  ^  r     ->*7  c 

with     a     population     of     37-5 

million,  were  integrated  into  nine  unions  or  groups,  each 
under  a  raj  pramukh  or  prince  president.  The  most  important 
of  these  was  the  Union  of  Greater  Rajasthan,  the  rulers  of 
which  were  the  flower  of  the  ancient  Hindu  aristocracy, 
dating  back  to  pre-Moslem  times.  The  unification  of  these 
proud  and  independent  princes  was  an  outstanding  achieve- 
ment in  itself.  The  Maharaja  of  Bikanir  became  raj  pramukh 
for  life,  while  the  venerable  Maharana  of  Udaipur  retained 
his  position  as  titular  head.  In  the  far  south,  Travancore  and 


reman  nenru,  auaressmg  a  targe  crowa  ai  me  i\eu  run,  ueim,  un 

Indian  Independence  day,  Aug.  75,  7949. 

Cochin  were  integrated  into  a  single  unit.    India's  constitution, 
as  applicable  to  the  states,  was  accepted  by  Mysore. 

All  this  involved  radical  changes  in  the  status  of  the  states 
and  their  rulers.  Sweeping  administrative  reforms,  including 
the  integration  of  finances,  were  effected;  the  provinces  and 
states  were  placed  on  an  equal  footing  with  the  centre,  and 
the  states'  forces  were  merged  with  the  Indian  army.  The 
princes  became  constitutional  rulers,  and  the  limitation  of 
their  privy  purses  meant  that  their  courts  were  shorn  of  much 
of  the  pomp  and  ceremony  traditionally  associated  with  them. 
Those  who  found  themselves  able  to  move  with  the  times 
found  ample  scope  for  public  service. 

The  Exception:  Hyderabad.  Hyderabad  remained  under  the 
occupation  of  an  Indian  military  force  under  General  J.  N. 
Chowdhury,  assisted  by  a  civil  administrator,  and  the  ultimate 
fate  of  the  once  premier  Indian  Moslem  state  was  still  un- 
decided. Moslem  rule  was  clearly  doomed,  and  it  seemed 
likely  that  Hyderabad  would  ultimately  be  partitioned,  the 
eastern  districts  becoming  part  of  the  Telugu-speaking  Andhra 
Desha,andthe  Maratha  and  Kanarese  portions  joining  up  with 
the  Central  Provinces  and  Bombay.  General  Chowdhury's  task 
was  not  an  easy  one.  He  had  to  cope  with  outbreaks  of  violence 
on  the  part  of  Hindu  mobs  directed  against  Moslem  officials  in 
outlying  districts  and,  what  was  more  important,  with  serious 
Communist  risings  on  the  Madras  border.  Kazim  Razvi,  the 
Razakar  leader,  arrested  in  Sept.  1948,  was  put  on  trial  for 
abetment  of  murder.  On  Nov.  24  the  Nizam  signed  an  instru- 
ment of  accession  to  the  Indian  union,  subject  to  its  subsequent 
ratification  by  a  representative  assembly. 

The  Kashmir  Dispute.  In  Kashmir,  the  year  opened  brightly 
with  the  announcement  that  a  truce  had  been  arranged.  No 
one  was  more  relieved  than  the  members  of  the  two  armies, 
who  had  engaged  with  deep  distaste  in  a  fratricidal  conflict. 


334 


INDIA,  DOMINION  OF 


The  large  crowds  at  the  Red  Fort,  Delhi,  listening   to   Pandit    Nehru,  prime   minister,  on   Aug.  15,  1949— the   second  anniversary   of 

Indian  independence.  « 

with  their  old  comrades  in  arms.     Representatives  of  the      of  the  peace  and  stability  of  the  sub-continent,  sent  letters 


Representatives  of  the 

United  Nations  Conciliation  commission  arrived  in  March, 
and  visited  the  heads  of  the  two  governments  at  New  Delhi 
and  Karachi  for  consultation,  and  a  distinguished  U.S.  naval 
officer,  Admiral  Chester  W.  Nimitz,  was  appointed  plebiscite 
administrator.  Proceedings  were  to  be  carried  out  in  three 
stages:  first,  a  cease-fire  was  to  be  proclaimed  and  the  troops 
were  to  be  withdrawn  behind  agreed  lines;  then  law  and  order 
were  to  be  restored  and  invaders  who  had  crossed  the  border 
during  the  disturbances  ejected;  finally  a  plebiscite  was  to 
be  held. 


to  both  governments  appealing  to  them  to  agree  to  the 
United  Nations'  proposals  and  accept  Admiral  Nimitz  as 
arbitrator.  The  president  pointed  out  that  the  only  section 
likely  to  benefit  from  unrest  in  such  areas  as  Kashmir, 
Indonesia  and  Indo-China  was  the  Communists.  Even  when 
these  difficulties  were  overcome,  there  remained  the  problem 
of  carrying  out  a  free  and  impartial  plebiscite  in  a  wild  and 
mountainous  country  with  a  scattered  and  mostly  illiterate 
population.  The  alternative  of  partition  as  the  only  lasting 
solution  did  not  come  up.  On  Sept.  17,  Pandit  Nehru 


Each  side,  however,  was  deeply  suspicious  of  the  other      announced  that  after  due  consideration  the  government  of 
d  unwilling  to  forepo  the  militarv  arivantapes  that  it  haH       TnHia    rr>ip^t*vl    tK^   TTn!t*>H    xio*;/™**    v™u~»:..   — ^, :„„: ** 


and  unwilling  to  forego  the  military  advantages  that  it  had 
gained,  and  matters  were  further  complicated  by  authorized 
violations  of  the  truce  and  by  irresponsible  utterances  on  the 
part  of  political  leaders  and  the  press.  The  main  obstacle  in 
the  way  of  an  agreement  was  the  uncompromising  attitude  of 
the  Indian  government.  Pandit  Nehru  and  his  advisers  per- 
sisted in  their  claim  that  the  maharaja,  Sir  Hari  Singh,  had 
legally  acceded  to  the  Indian  union,  and  that  Sheikh  Abdullah 
was  ipso  facto  the  head  of  the  government.  On  these  grounds 
the  government  of  India  demanded  the  disbandment  of  the 
Azad  forces  (the  Kashmir  resistance  movement)  and  reserved 
four  seats  for  representatives  from  Kashmir  in  the  Indian 
legislature.  The  government  of  Pakistan  on  its  part  declared 
that  this  was  prejudging  the  issue.  The  question  of  expelling 
the  two  million  Sikh  and  Hindu  refugees  as  well  as  the  tribes- 
men before  holding  the  plebiscite  had  been  evaded. 

Trygve  Lie's  claim   for  the  settlement  of  the  Kashmir 
question  as  a  success  for  United  Nations  was  clearly  pre- 


India rejected  the  United  Nations'  Kashmir  commission's 
proposal  for  arbitration. 

Communism.  The  Communist  challenge  remained  the  out- 
standing problem  for  the  Indian  government.  The  methods 
employed  were  the  familiar  ones  of  sabotage,  arson  and 
looting,  and  the  chief  aims  of  the  Communists  were  the 
capture  of  the  trades  unions  and  the  dislocation  of  the 
transport  system  by  systematic  attacks  on  the  railways  and 
other  means  of  communication,  regardless  of  the  misery 
that  this  would  inflict  upon  the  masses.  A  mass  rising  planned 
for  March  5  was  forestalled  by  prompt  and  resolute  action. 
One  of  the  main  storm  centres  was  Calcutta,  where  unem- 
ployment was  heavy.  The  government  was  forced  to  amend 
the  labour  laws  with  a  view  to  preventing  strikes  in  essential 
services.  Matters  became  so  alarming  in  August  that  Pandit 
Nehru  made  a  series  of  tours  in  the  worst  affected  areas,  and 
this  had  a  calming  effect.  But  the  movement  was  not  confined 
to  the  cities,  and  in  Bombay  and  Madras  and  adjacent 


mature,  and  matters  reached  such  a  deadlock  by  the  end  of     districts  of  Hyderabad  it  assumed  the  proportions  of  an 
August  that  President  Truman  and  Attlee,  in  the  interests     agrarian  revolt,  on  lines  only  too  familiar  in  Burma  and 


INDONESIA 


335 


Malaya.  Landlords  and  money  lenders  in  outlying  districts 
were  killed,  and  the  lands  redistributed  among  the  peasants. 

Trade  and  Commerce.  Despite  these  handicaps,  considerable 
industrial  progress  was  made.  India  in  1949  had  seven  air 
transport  companies,  operating  27  internal  schedule  services. 
Orders  for  500  locomotives  were  placed  in  Canada  and  other 
countries,  and  more  than  22  Indian  ships,  aggregating  1 50,000 
tons,  were  plying  between  India,  America  and  the  United 
Kingdom.  Large  sums  were  spent  by  the  Ministry  of  Rehabili- 
tation on  evacuation  and  relief,  and  steps  were  taken  for  the 
large-scale  manufacture  of  prefabricated  houses.  It  was 
decided  not  to  import  cereals,  except  in  cases  of  emergency, 
after  195 1 ,  and  a  food  production  commissioner  was  appointed 
to  co-ordinate  work  between  the  provinces.  A  number  of 
multilateral  river  projects  were  under  execution,  the  most 
important  being  the  Damodar  valley  scheme. 

The  financial  state  of  the  country  was  generally  sound,  but 
in  order  to  carry  out  her  ambitious  programme,  India,  like 
other  countries,  had  to  raise  foreign  capital,  which  could  only 
be  done  by  buying  less  and  exporting  more.  For  this  reason 
India  decided  to  follow  sterling  in  devaluing  the  rupee,  75  % 
of  her  trade  being  with  countries  in  the  soft  currency  area. 
Lasting  progress  was  impossible  until  agreement,  especially 
on  the  Kashmir  dispute,  had  been  reached  with  Pakistan  and 
the  disproportionate  military  expenditure  thereby  drastically 
curtailed.  In  October  and  November,  Pandit  Nehru  paid 
visits  to  the  U.S.,  Canadian  and  British  governments.  It  was 
supposed  that  his  main  object  was  to  discuss  financial  and 
political  problems  arising  out  of  the  devaluation  of  the  pound 
and  the  Communist  threat.  In  October  India  was  elected  to 
the  U.N.  Security  council.  (H.  G.  RN.) 

Agriculture  and  Fisheries.  Main  crops  (1948  in  '000  metric  tons): 
wheat  5,434;  barley  2,528;  maize  1,757;  rice  28,748;  cotton  (ginned) 
444;  jute  368;  tea  248;  cottonseed  830;  wool  (greasy  basis)  24;  lin- 
seed 370;  sesame  356-6;  rapeseed  and  mustard  794;  groundnuts 
3,122;  sugar  (raw)  4,984;  coffee  16.  Livestock  (1945,  in  '000  head): 
cattle  136,369;  sheep  37,731;  pigs  3,704;  horses  556;  asses  1,130; 
mules  44;  goats  46,469;  buffaloes  40,610;  camels  655.  Fisheries: 
total  catch  estimated  at  700,000  tons  annually. 

Industry.  Fuel  and  power:  coal  (1948,  in  '000  metric  tons;  1949, 
six  months,  in  brackets)  30,301  (15,996);  electricity,  (1948,  in  million 
kwh.;  1949,  six  months,  in  brackets)  4,579  (2,416);  petroleum  (1947) 
65,192,235  gal.  Raw  materials  (1948,  in  '000  metric  tons;  1949,  six 
months,  in  brackets):  pig  iron  1,487;  steel  ingots  and  castings  1,222 
(671);  rubber  15-7  (5-1);  iron  ore  2,450;  superphosphates  21-7; 
aluminium  3 '4;  antimony  0-34;  copper  5-9;  lead  0-7;  sulphuric 
acid  81;  salt  2,370;  caustic  soda  4-4;  soda  ash  29.  Gold  (1948,  in 
'000  fine  ounces)  171-7.  Manufactured  goods  (1948;  1949,  six  months, 
in  brackets):  cotton  yarn  (in  '000  metric  tons)  654  (318);  cotton  fab- 
rics (million  metres)  3,960  (1,824);  rayon  fabrics  (million  metres) 
104-2;  cement  ('000  metric  tons)  1,524. 

Foreign  Trade.  (Million  rupees)  Imports:  (1948)  5,188;  (1949), 
six  months)  3,386.  Exports:  (1948)  4,228;  (1949,  six  months)  1,973. 
Principal  imports  (per  cent  of  total  imports,  1948):  machinery  and 
vehicles  24%;  grain  pulse  and  flour  13%;  raw  cotton  12%.  Principal 
exports  (per  cent  of  total  exports,  1948):  jute  manufactures  35%; 
tea  15%;  cotton  manufactures  10%.  Main  sources  of  imports  (1948): 
United  Kingdom  29%,  United  States  20%  and  Burma  4%.  Main 
destinations  of  exports  (1948):  United  Kingdom  23%;  United  States 
17%  and  Japan  11%. 

Transport  and  Communications.  Roads  (1948):  190,500  mi.  Licensed 
motor  vehicles  (Dec.  1948):  cars  141,346,  commercial  vehicles  97,791. 
Railways  (March  1948):  33,985  mi.  passenger-miles  (1947-48)  33,644 
million;  freight  net  ton-miles  (1947-48)  20,398  million.  Shipping: 
total  tonnage  of  the  merchant  marine  approximated  300,000  in  1948. 
Air  transport  (1947;  1948,  nine  months,  in  brackets):  miles  flown 
9-4  (9-2)  million;  passenger  miles  138-8  (131-5)  million;  ton-miles 
goods  traffic  1-3  (1-5)  million.  Telephones  (April  1948):  115,331. 
Wireless  licences  (March  1947):  243,838, 

Finance  and  Banking.  (Million  rupees)  Budget:  (1948-49  est.) 
revenue  2,305,  expenditure  2,574;  (1949-50  est.)  revenue  3,077,  expendi- 
ture 3,225.  National  debt  (1948  est):  22,300.  Currency  circulation 
(Sept.  1949;  in  brackets  Sept.  1948)  12,240  (13,120).  Gold  reserve  (Sept. 
1949;  in  brackets  Sept.  1948)  247  (264)  million  U.S.  dollars.  Bank 
deposits  (Sept.  1949;  in  brackets  Sept.  1948)  7,070  (7,820).  Monetary 
unit:  rupee  with  an  exchange  rate  of  13  -372  rupeees  to  the  pound. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  Rowland  Owen,  India:  Economic  and  Commercial 
Conditions  (London,  H.M.S.O.,  1949). 


INDIA,    FRENCH:    see  FRENCH  UNION;    INDIA. 

INDIA,  PORTUGUESE:  see  PORTUGUESE  COLONIAL 
EMPIRE. 

INDO-CHINA:    see  FRENCH  UNION. 

INDONESIA,  REPUBLIC  OF  THE  UNITED 
STATES  OF.  The  republic  of  the  United  States  of 
Indonesia  (Republik  Indonesia  Serikat)  came  into  being  on 
Dec.  27,  1949,  when  Queen  Juliana  of  the  Netherlands 
signed  the  charter  of  the  transfer  of  sovereignty  of  the 
territories  of  the  Netherlands  East  Indies  (with  the  exception 
of  New  Guinea  [area:  152,089  sq.  mi.])  to  the  Indonesian 
people.  The  republic  consists  of  seven  participating  states 
(negara)  and  nine  independent  political  units  (daera).  Total 
area:  c.  583,000  sq.  mi.  Total  pop.:  about  70  million. 
Capital:  Jakarta  or  Batavia  (pop.,  mid- 1949  est.,  1,200,000). 
President  of  the  republic,  Ahmed  Sukarno  (</.v.);  prime 
minister  and  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  Mohammed  Hatta; 
Netherlands  high  commissioner,  Dr.  H.  M.  Hirschfield. 

The  seven  negara  of  the  republic  are:  the  Indonesian 
Republic,  proclaimed  Aug.  17,  1945,  capital,  Jokyakarta 
(Djokjakarta);  East  Indonesia  (Negara  Indonesia  Timur) 
comprising  Celebes,  Bali,  Lombak,  Sumba,  Sumbawa,  Flores, 
Halmahera,  Timor  and  the  Moluccas,  proclaimed  Dec.  1946, 
capital,  Makassar;  West  Java  (Negara  Pasundan)  proclaimed 
Feb.  26,  1948,  capital,  Bandung  (Bandoeng);  East  Java 
(Negara  Djawa  Timur)  proclaimed  Dec.  3,  1948,  capital, 
Surabaya  (Soerabaja);  Madura  (Negara  Madura)  proclaimed 
Feb.  20,  1948,  capital,  Pamekasan;  East  Sumatra  (Negara 
Sumatera  Timur)  proclaimed  Dec.  25,  1947,  capital,  Medan; 
South  Sumatra  (Negara  Sumatera  Selantan)  proclaimed 
Aug.  30,  1948,  capital,  Palembang.  The  nine  daera  are: 
Central  Java,  Banka,  Billiton,  Riouw,  West  Borneo,  Great 
Dayak,  Bandjar,  South  East  Borneo,  East  Borneo. 

For  the  history  of  Indonesia  in  1949  see  NETHERLANDS 
OVERSEAS  TERRITORIES. 


President  Ahmed  Sukarno  attending  to  his  wife's  haul-dress  at  a 
reception  in  Jakarta,  Dec.  1949. 


336 


INDUSTRIAL   HEALTH 


INDUSTRIAL     HEALTH.      Industrial   Legislation. 

The  National  Insurance  Industrial  Injuries  act  1946  came 
into  force  on  July  5,  1948.  The  comprehensive  act,  by  including 
workmen's  compensation,  both  for  injury  and  prescribed 
industrial  diseases,  had  an  important  bearing  on  industrial 
medicine  and  probably  represented  the  most  advanced 
progress  in  industrial  legislation  on  the  statute  books  of  any 
country  in  the  world.  The  administrative  machine  of  the 
Ministry  of  National  Insurance  which  now  dealt  with  matters 
relating  to  injury  and  industrial  disease  in  place  of  the  legal 
procedure  necessitated  by  the  former  Workmen's  Compen- 
sation act  worked  smoothly  and  fairly. 

Under  the  National  Insurance  act  1948  increased  benefits 
were  paid  during  sickness  and  it  was  anticipated  that  there 
would  be  some  slight  increase  in  sickness  absenteeism  as  a 
result.  This  was  confirmed  in  the  registrar  general's 
Quarterly  Report  (Jan. -March  1949)  which  showed  substantial 
changes  since  July  1948.  The  report  stated  that  in  the  Sep- 
tember quarter  of  1948  the  sickness  rate  for  all  adults  was 
29%  higher,  and  in  the  December  quarter  26%  higher,  than 
for  the  corresponding  quarters  of  1947.  There  was  evidence 
to  show,  however,  that  the  rate  declined  during  the  latter 
months  of  1949. 

The  1948  Factories  act  introduced,  for  the  first  time, 
provision  for  the  medical  care  of  young  persons  in  industry. 
This  was  an  important  step  forward  and  meant  that  young 
persons  between  the  ages  of  15  and  18  could  not  only  be 
examined  on  their  entrance  into  industry  as  had  been  the 
case  before  the  passing  of  the  act,  but  would  also  have  a 
further  examination  once  a  year.  These  examinations  took 
place  either  in  the  factory  or  at  the  surgery  of  the  Appointed 
Factory  Doctor,  a  title  new  in  English  law;  and  it  was 
anticipated  that  they  would  assist  the  correct  placement  of 
young  persons  in  their  proper  jobs  and  in  the  detection  and 
correction  of  minor  disabilities  which  might  become  greater 
and  more  disabling  in  later  life. 

Industrial  Health.  The  Pneumoconioses.  In  the  Annual 
Report  for  1948  of  the  chief  inspector  of  factories  reference 
was  made  to  the  incidence  of  the  pneumocomoses — using 
the  term  generically — and  it  was  shown  that  there  were  885 
deaths  during  the  year  from  asbestosis  and  from  silicosis 
and  pneumoconioses.  This  large  number  of  deaths  illustrated 
only  too  dramatically  the  medical,  social  and  industrial 
magnitude  of  this  problem.  A  Medical  Research  council 
team  working  under  the  direction  of  C.  M.  Fletcher  at 
Cardiff  was  doing  much  to  solve  some  of  the  major  con- 
flicting difficulties  which  had  surrounded  the  aetiology  of 
this  disease.  The  Medical  Research  council  reports  already 
published  indicated  the  size  of  the  task  confronting  this 
committee  and  the  latest  information  would  appear  to  be 
that  the  heavy  incidence  of  the  disease  in  the  anthracite 
mines  of  south  Wales  was  due  not  necessarily  to  the  quality 
of  the  dust  produced  but  rather  to  the  quantity  produced 
and  inhaled  by  the  miner  at  the  coal  face.  No  wide  scale 
investigation  into  the  social  significance  of  this  disease  in 
so  far  as  tuberculosis  was  concerned  had  yet  been  made; 
but  it  was  held  by  some  observers  that  the  massive  changes 
found  in  the  lungs  of  anthracite  miners  in  the  latter  stages 
of  the  disease  were  often  tuberculous;  and  the  effect  of  this 
upon  the  family  of  the  miner  and  his  co-workers  would  be 
of  the  greatest  significance. 

Cancer  of  the  Lung.  For  many  years  the  high  incidence  of 
cancer  of  the  lung  amongst  the  Schneeberg  miners  has  been 
well  known.  Before  World  War  II,  J.  Grosse  of  I.  G.  Farben- 
industrie  and  his  co-workers  reported  on  an  undue  incidence 
of  this  disease  amongst  men  engaged  on  the  grinding  and 
refining  of  mono-chromates  in  Germany.  W.  Machle  and 
F.  Gregorius  of  America  reported  in  1949  on  comparable 
incidence  amongst  chromate  workers  in  six  factories  in  the 


United  States,  and  their  findings  were  strictly  comparable 
with  those  of  Grosse  in  so  far  as  they  showed  that  the  men 
engaged  in  the  grinding  and  refining  of  mono-chromates 
alone  were  effected,  whereas  those  engaged  solely  on  the 
manufacture  and  purification  of  bi-chromates  were  not 
affected. 

The  considerable  and  steady  increase  in  the  incidence  of 
cancer  of  the  lung  had  been  noted  throughout  all  industrial 
countries  during  the  previous  20  years.  The  relationship 
of  cancer  at  this  site  to  asbestosis  and  silicosis  was  well 
demonstrated  by  Dr.  E.  R.  A.  Merewether  in  the  Annual  Report 
for  1947  of  the  Factory  department  of  the  Ministry  of  Labour 
and  National  Service.  Of  the  235  deaths  from  asbestosis  which 
occurred  between  the  years  1942  and  1946,  inclusive,  cancer 
of  the  lung  or  pleura  was  found  to  be  present  in  31  cases 
(13  2%),  an  incidence  of  statistical  importance.  Comparison 
was  made  in  the  report  between  the  incidence  of  cancer  in 
asbestosis  and  silicosis  and  an  analysis  of  6,884  deaths  due  to 
silicosis  demonstiated  cancer  of  the  lung  or  pleura  at  post- 
mortem in  only  1  32%.  Although  there  was  a  disparity 
between  the  number  of  cases  of  asbestosis  and  silicosis,  the 
low  incidence  in  silicosis  was  a  matter  of  medical  importance. 

Beryllium  Poisoning,  Increasing  interest  was  taken  in  the 
complex  study  of  beryllium  poisoning  both  in  Europe  and 
America  and,  after  the  original  paper  by  Van  Ordstrand 
and  other  workers  in  1943,  an  extensive  literature  had  grown 
up  on  this  subject.  There  were  differences  of  opinion  as  to  the 
pathological  properties  of  the  various  compounds  but  it 
was  well  known  that  the  beryllium-containing  phosphors 
possessed  harmful  properties.  These  pathogenic  materials, 
if  inhaled  into  the  lung,  could  produce  either  an  acute 
inflammatory  condition  —  a  pneumonias  —  from  which 
recovery  might  take  place,  or  the  more  serious  state  of  a 
granulomatosis  of  the  lung.  In  addition  to  the  pulmonary 
changes  which  might  follow  inhalation,  the  beryllium- 
containing  phosphors  might  produce,  if  introduced  into  the 
skin  or  possibly  other  surface  tissues,  a  comparable  state  of 
granulomatosis.  Three  cases  of  sub-cutaneous  granulomata 
due  to  injury  with  the  glass  of  a  fluorescent  tube  were 
reported  by  R.  S.  Greer  and  others,  and  special  precautions 
would  need  to  be  taken  in  industry  with  the  use  of  these 
powders  and  with  the  disposal  of  broken  fluorescent  tubes. 
More  recently,  J.  N.  Agate  reported  on  a  case  of  pneumonitis 
in  a  beryllium  worker  in  Great  Britain.  (A.  J.  AR.) 

United  States.  The  year  1949  was  marked  by  tendencies 
toward  co-operation  between  labour,  management,  govern- 
ment and  the  affected  professional  groups  to  accelerate 
existing  programmes  and  avoid  duplicated  effort.  The  Public 
Health  service  of  the  Federal  Security  agency  appointed  an 
advisory  board  of  representation  from  these  major  groups  to 
give  advice  and  guidance  in  the  expanding  services  provided 
by  its  division  of  industrial  hygiene.  The  first  meeting 
produced  resolutions  advocating  intensified  research,  testing 
of  materials,  field  services,  greater  interest  in  medical  care 
plans  for  industrial  workers,  in  the  occupational  effects  of 
atomic  energy,  occupational-disease  reporting  and  air 
pollution.  The  division  also  completed  an  intensive  investiga- 
tion of  the  "  smog "  (fog  and  industrial  smoke  together) 
disaster  at  Donora,  Pennsylvania.  No  single  substance  was 
incriminated  but  rather  an  accumulation  of  several  atmos- 
pheric contaminants,  the  evidence  pointing  particularly  to 
sulphur  dioxide  and  particulate  matter.  The  report  called 
attention  again  to  the  unsatisfactory  state  of  knowledge 
about  the  toxicological  effects  of  mixed  irritant  gases. 

Reduction  in  industrial  accidents  assumed  new  importance 
through  a  conference  called  by  President  Truman,  attended 
by  the  leading  technical  experts  who  prepared  detailed  plans 
for  progress.  The  Bureau  of  Labour  Standards  in  the 
Department  of  Labour  undertook  the  leadership  in  this 


INFANTILE  PARALYSIS 


337 


national  endeavour.  Meanwhile,  the  National  Safety  council 
and  the  American  Medical  association  appointed  a  joint 
committee  on  accidents. 

The  demand  for  qualified  industrial  physicians  stimulated 
greater  interest  in  training.  The  American  Medical  association 
also  approved  the  first  hospital  for  resident  training  in 
occupational  medicine.  Surveys  were  completed  of  industrial 
medical  education  provided  by  medical  schools  and  schools 
of  public  health  for  undergraduate  and  postgraduate  instruc- 
tion. Many  physicians  were  expected  to  qualify  for  special 
certification  by  the  newly  created  American  Board  of  Preven- 
tive Medicine  and  Public  Health.  The  Journal  of  Industrial 
Hygiene  and  Toxicology ;  after  several  decades  of  independent 
publication,  was  merged  with  Occupational  Medic  ine,  to  be 
published  by  the  American  Medical  association  as  Archives 
of  Industrial  Hygiene  and  Occupational  Medicine. 

The  American  Academy  of  Compensation  Medicine 
assumed  major  significance  as  a  means  toward  improved 
medical  service  to  injured  workers.  Legislation  in  South 
Carolina,  New  Jersey,  West  Virginia,  Nevada,  Delaware, 
Rhode  Island  and  Utah  emphasized  the  trend  toward  general 
rather  than  schedule  coverage  for  occupational  diseases. 
New  York  amended  its  workmen's  compensation  act  to 
provide  disability  benefits  for  non-occupational  sickness  a 
significant  departure  from  practices  in  several  other  states 
where  this  form  of  administrative  responsibility  had  been 
assigned  to  unemployment  bureaux,  Indiana  became  the 
41st  state  to  adopt  legislation  authorizing  a  second  injury  fund. 
(See  also  ACCIDENTS.)  (C.  M.  PN.) 

INFANTILE  PARALYSIS.  The  number  of 
recorded  cases  of  poliomyelitis  in  England  and  Wales  in 
1949  was  estimated  at  5,800— second  only  to  1947.  Six 
hundred  people  died  of  the  disease  throughout  the  year, 
an  average  of  0  00 1 4  %  of  the  total  population  The  incidence 
of  poliomyelitis  was  also  unusually  high  during  1949  in 
Austria,  France,  Germany,  India  and  New  Zealand. 

An  outbreak  of  considerable  medical  interest  occurred 
in  the  winter  of  1948-49  among  the  Eskimo  population  in 


700   -- 


600 


500 


400 


300 


20O 


100    


E.B  Y.— 23 


700 


GOO 


500 


INFANTILE 
PARALYSIS 

IN 

ENGLAND 
AND   WALES 


Weekly  notificotions     — 

of  Poliomyelitis 
(including  Polioencepholitis) 


-52  WEEKS— 


the  Chesterfield  area  just  west  of  Hudson's  bay.     There 
was  an  especially  high  mortality  and  paralytic  rate  (estimated 
at  5%  and  14%,  respectively,  of  the  entire  population  in  the 
Chesterfield  area).     The  infecting  agent  was  identified  by 
laboratory  tests  as  poliomyelitis  virus,  and  it  appeared  to 
have  been  transmitted  by  clinically  healthy  human  carriers. 
A  progressive  increase  in  the  number  of  cases  of  polio- 
myelitis  recorded    in   the    United    States   during    15   years 
reached  a  high  peak  in  1949.    The  average  number  of  cases 
per  year  for  the  period   1935-39  was*  6,784;     for  1940-44, 
10,885;     and  for  1945-49,  24,800.     The  epidemic  of  1949, 
totalling  almost  ,45,000  cases,  covered  most  of  the  country, 
whereas  previous  epidemics  were  more  limited  geographically, 
and  the  affected  areas  tended  to  shift  from  year  10  year. 
In  the  United  States,  a  virus  unknown  previously  was 
identified  and  proved  responsible  for  a  human  disease  so 
closely  resembling  the  milder  types  of  poliomyelitis  that 
physicians   were   unable   to   distinguish   between   the   two 
diseases.  The  virus  is  called  the  Coxsackie  or  C  virus,  named 
after  the  village  in  New  York  where  it  was  first  isolated  by 
G.  Dalldorf  and  G.  Sickles  in  1948.    In  addition  to  human 
beings,  this  virus  is  infectious  for  immature  mice  and  ham- 
sters, but  not  for  adults  of  the  same  species.   Several  distinct 
types  of  virus  from  the  point  of  immunity  were  found, 
none  identical  with  any  of  the  known  types  of  poliomyelitis 
virus.     It  was  isolated  from  flies,  from  sewage  and  from 
numerous    human    cases    presenting    symptoms    of    non- 
paralytic  poliomyelitis.      In   1949  there  was  no  published 
report  of  its  isolation  from  any  human  paralytic  case  on  which 
concomitant  tests  for  poliomyelitis  virus  were  clearly  negative. 
Poliomyelitis  and  Coxsackie  viruses  had  been  found  simul- 
taneously, however,  in  stools  from  the  same  patient. 

A  major  difficulty  in  the  preparation  of  poliomyelitis 
vaccines  was  the  necessity  of  using  infected  monkey  spinal 
cord  as  the  source  of  virus.  This  limited  the  material  avail- 
able; entailed  a  danger  of  inducing  an  allergic  inflammation 
of  the  recipient's  own  nervous  tissues;  and  involved  technical 
difficulties  in  the  treatment  of  the  material  with  agents 
designed  to  inactivate  the  virus  without  destroying  its  power 
to  stimulate  resistance.  A  possible  solution  of  these  prob- 
lems was  found  in  the  successful  growth  of  poliomyelitis 
virus  in  cultures  of  non-nervous  human  tissues.  Two  anti- 
genically  distinct  types  of  poliomyelitis  virus  were  so  cul- 
tured, in  tissues  from  the  limbs  and  intestines  of  stillborn 
human  infants.  One  type  of  virus  was  carried  through  a  series 
of  passages  in  cultures  of  skin  from  the  prepuce  of  boys. 
A  systematic  testing  of  poliomyelitis  viruses  was  started 
in  1949  and  scheduled  for  completion  by  1952.  While 
several  hundred  viruses  were  available,  each  isolated  from  a 
different  human  patient,  the  only  property  these  were 
definitely  known  to  possess  in  common  was  that  each  had 
produced  typical  symptoms  and  pathology  of  poliomyelitis 
in  a  susceptible  animal.  Their  relationships  to  each  other 
were  still  for  the  most  part  undetermined.  Thirty  viruses 
that  were  studied  in  1949  all  fell  into  three  groups.  An  animal 
rendered  immune  to  a  virus  in  any  one  group  was  similarly 
immune  to  all  others  of  the  same  group  but  not  to  the 
viruses  of  the  other  two  groups. 

Further  research  provided  convincing  proof  that  the 
paralytic  consequences  of  human  poliomyelitis  could  be 
minimized  by  a  period  of  rest  in  bed  during  the  early  pre- 
paralytic  stages  of  the  disease.  Additional  evidence  was 
also  advanced  to  show  that  the  chances  of  developing 
poliomyelitis  are  heightened  by  pregnancy  and  by  removal 
of  the  tonsils  and  adenoids  during  a  time  when  the  virus  is 
prevalent  in  the  community.  (See  also  EYE,  DISEASES  OF; 
EPIDEMICS;  NERVOUS  SYSTEM.)  (H.  M.  WR.) 

INFANT    MORTALITY:    see  VITAL  STATISTICS. 


338 


INONU— INSURANCE 


INNS:    see  HOTELS,  RESTAURANTS  AND  INNS. 

INONU,  ISMET,  Turkish  army  officer  and  states- 
man (b.  Izmir,  Turkey,  Sept.  24,  1884),  after  Kemal  Atatiirk's 
death  was  unanimously  elected  president  of  the  republic  by 
the  Grand  National  Assembly  on  Nov.  11,  1938,  and 
re-elected  in  1942  and  1946.  (For  his  career  see  Encyclopedia 
Britannica  and  Britannica  Book  of  the  Year  1949.) 

According  to  the  statutes  of  the  government  Republican 
People's  party  adopted  in  1939,  Ismet  Inonu  was  also  *'  the 
permanent  supreme  leader  "  of  the  party.  In  the  statutes 
revised  by  the  congress  of  Nov.  1947,  he  was  not  mentioned; 
it  was  stated  that  the  president  general  of  the  party  is  elected 
by  the  congress  and  specified  that  if  the  president  general  is 
elected  president  of  the  republic,  he  delegates  his  party 
functions  to  the  vice-president  general.  General  Inonu  was 
re-elected  president  general  of  the  R.P.P.  but  immediately 
transferred  his  powers  to  the  vice-president  general,  Hilmi 
Uran.  At  Ankara  on  May  19,  1949,  he  declared  that  "all 
the  damage  and  exhaustion  of  armed  conflict  are  implied  in 
a  war  of  nerves  (against  Turkey),  except  the  loss  of  life  and 
destruction  of  buildings."  He  expressed  the  conviction  that 
the  struggle  for  power  in  Turkey  would  remain  constitutional. 
**  The  Turkish  nation/'  he  said,  **  overcomes  victoriously  the 
dangers  of  a  democratic  regime;  the  country  enters  a  period 
in  which  she  will  profit  by  its  blessings." 

INSANITY:   see  MENTAL  DISEASES. 

INSECTS:    see  ENTOMOLOGY. 

INSURANCE.  Results  published  during  the  year  1949 
in  Great  Britain  disclosed  further  expansion  in  premium 
income  and  considerably  improved  trading.  An  analysis 
of  the  accounts  showed  that  in  1948  the  total  premium 
income  from  fire  and  accident  insurance  combined,  for  24 
representative  British  offices,  rose  by  £27,122,000  to 
£244,224,000,  and  produced  an  underwriting  surplus  of 
£15,313,000,  equivalent  to  6-3%  of  the  premiums.  Marine 
premiums  were  higher  by  £5,329,500  at  £33,382,000,  and 
trading  results  were  favourable.  Unfortunately,  taxation  at 
home  and  abroad  falling  heavily  on  profits  obstructed  the 
very  necessary  strengthening  of  additional  reserves. 

Total  new  ordinary  life  sums  assured  in  1948  was  only 
slightly  below  the  record  figure  of  £500  million  attained  in 
1947.  During  1949,  much  new  business  was  brought  in  by 
the  growing  popularity  of  "  family  protection  "  assurance 
and  staff  pension  schemes,  but  it  was  evident  that  the 
economic  pressure  on  salaries  and  incomes  would  leave  its 
mark  upon  the  total  new  business  production  for  the  year. 

The  high  level  of  new  business  attained  by  the  industrial 
life  offices,  which  was  a  feature  of  1946  and  1947,  was  not 
repeated  during  1948,  the  total  new  business  of  eight  leading 
industrial  companies,  at  £188,692,000,  being  £28,174,000  less 
than  in  1947.  It  was  anticipated  that  increased  national 
insurance  contributions  would  have  at  least  a  temporary 
restrictive  effect  upon  the  flow  of  new  business,  and  this  in 
a  year  of  decline  in  the  general  level  of  savings  proved  1949 
one  of  consolidation  rather  than  of  spectacular  progress. 

Fire  losses  in  the  United  Kingdom  were  again  heavy  in 
1949,  the  experience  in  farming  risks  being  exceptionally 
severe  owing  to  an  abnormally  dry  summer.  The  high  rate 
of  fire  wastage  was  viewed  with  concern  not  only  as  a  financial 
loss  to  underwriters  but  as  a  permanent  and  absolute  loss 
of  national  capital,  and  the  Fire  Protection  association  was 
actively  employed  in  its  endeavour  to  abate  this  serious 
feature.  The  trend  of  insurance  values  was  to  higher  levels, 
consequent  upon  the  continued  inflation  of  values,  and 
coverage  against  consequential  losses  following  industrial 
fires  was  in  increased  demand.  Overseas  claims  attributable 
to  politically  disturbed  conditions,  such  as  incendiarism  on 


Clement  Attlee  and  Herbert  Morrison  are  seen  wooing  the  insurance 

companies  in  this  cartoon  **  Babes  in  the  Wood — 7949  "  by  Vicky 

in  the  "  News  Chronicle  "  (London). 

the  Malayan  rubber  estates,  continued  to  weigh  heavily  on 
the  business,  and  China,  an  important  prewar  field  for 
British  insurers,  was  practically  closed  for  effective  operations 
at  mid-year.  Elsewhere,  an  excessively  nationalistic  approach 
by  certain  countries  to  the  insurance  business  again  proved  a 
disturbing  feature. 

Motor  premium  income  was  well  maintained,  but  the 
high  cost  of  repairs,  especially  in  respect  of  cars  of  new 
design,  combined  with  the  heavy  sums  awarded  as  damages 
for  personal  injuries,  rendered  trading  results  variable  and 
delicately  poised.  Burglary  and  baggage  insurance  showed 
good  progress  and  a  generally  improved  claims  experience. 
Many  sought  the  cover  provided  by  employers'  liability 
insurance.  Accidents  that  formerly  would  have  been  met 
under  the  Workmen's  Compensation  act  were  made  the 
subject  of  common  law  claims  against  the  employer,  and 
doubts  were  expressed  as  to  the  adequacy  of  the  rates  charged 
for  the  cover  granted.  Property-owners  and  general  third- 
party  liability,  personal  liability  cover,  plate  glass  insurance, 
fidelity  guarantees,  the  insurance  of  boilers,  and  personal 
accident  protection  all  remained  in  good  demand. 

Diminution  of  marine  premium  income  arising  out  of  the 
removal  of  the  Combined  Marine  surcharge  and  the  effects 
of  the  amendment  to  the  Joint  Hull  Underwriting  under- 
standing were  more  than  offset  by  the  increased  sterling  value 
of  a  considerable  portion  of  the  premium  income  following 
the  operation  of  the  new  exchange  rates  during  the  last 
quarter  of  the  year.  Major  casualties  included  the  Joss  of 
the  Royal  Mail  liner  "  Magdalena  "  at  a  cost  to  underwriters 
approaching  £3  million  —  a  sum  greater  than  any  ever 
before  known  in  the  history  of  single  losses.  The  very  high 
value  of  new  liners,  together  with  increasing  replacement 
costs,  created  special  underwriting  problems,  but  the  totals 
were  successfully  absorbed.  Theft,  pilferage  and  non-delivery 
problems  received  serious  attention  by  port  and  other 
authorities,  but  world-wide  losses  from  these  causes  con- 
tinued to  be  heavy. 

Insurance  interests  built  up  by  the  British  insurance 
industry  in  the  U.S.  gave  the  devaluation  of  sterling  against 
the  dollar  special  significance  and  presented  underwriting 
and  accountancy  problems  of  some  magnitude  to  British 
insurers.  With  about  65%  of  British  overseas  insurance 
business  derived  from  U.S.  operations,  the  new  rate  of 
exchange  would  enhance  very  considerably  the  sterling 
equivalent  of  the  U.S.  trading  figures  in  world-wide  pub- 
lished accounts.  Conversely,  there  existed  the  necessity  of 
providing  the  increase  in  sterling  equivalent  of  the  unexpired 
risk  and  outstanding  loss  reserves. 


INTERIOR    DECORATION 


339 


Plans  for  the  nationalization  of  the  industrial  assurance 
companies  and  societies—including  ordinary  life  assurance, 
fire,  accident  and  general  business  transacted  by  these 
institutions — were  replaced  towards  the  end  of  the  year  by  a 
proposal  that  industrial  assurance  should  be  conducted  on 
the  principle  of  "  mutual  ownership."  Under  this  modified 
plan  the  proprietary  companies  in  the  field  of  industrial 
assurance  would  be  owned  by  the  policy  holders  themselves 
instead  of  by  private  shareholders  The  outline  of  the  plan 
left  many  important  questions  unanswered,  and  insurance 
spokesmen  expressed  concern  lest  world-wide  repercussions 
of  acute  controversy  in  this  country  might  prove  detrimental 
to  the  insurance  industry  as  a  whole.  (P.  Ss  ) 

United  States.  At  the  end  of  1949,  nearly  85  million 
persons  owned  about  $234,000  million  of  life  insurance 
protection  in  the  legal  reserve  life  insurance  companies  of 
the  United  States  and  Canada.  This  was  only  slightly  in 
excess  of  one  year's  income  of  the  United  States  and  Canadian 
peoples.  The  premiums  paid  in  1949  for  life  insurance  and 
annuities  exceeded  $7,000  million. 

Payments  made  to  policy  holders  and  beneficiaries  by 
United  States  and  Canadian  companies  in  1949  reached  a  new 
peak  of  over  $3,400  million.  If  the  increases  in  reserves  held  to 
assure  payment  of  future  benefits  arc  included  with  payments 
to  policy  holders  and  beneficiaries,  then  over  $7,000  million 
was  paid  or  credited  m  1949  to  United  States  and  Canadian 
families  by  the  legal  reserve  companies  of  the  two  countries. 
In  1949,  new  life  insurance  issued  exceeded  $25,000  million 
for  the  third  year  in  succession  The  net  increase  in  life 
insurance  outstanding  was  about  $14,000  million. 

During  1949,  the  assets  of  United  States  and  Canadian 
legal  reserve  life  insurance  companies  increased  by  about 
$4,000  million  to  reach  $63,700  million,  of  which  approxi- 
mately 93%  was  held  by  United  States  companies.  At  the 
year  end  United  States  companies  held  over  $23,000  million 
of  corporate  securities  and  nearly  $13,000  million  of 
mortgages,  these  two  categories  of  investments  together 
represented  about  60%  of  the  assets  of  U.S.  legal  reserve 
companies. 

The  holdings  of  United  States  government  securities 
declined  again  in  1949  but  such  securities  still  totalled  about 
$15,000  million  at  the  end  of  the  year  (L  A.  L  ) 

Fire  Insurance.  The  premium  income  of  private  companies 
in  the  United  States  showed  a  smallci  increase  m  1949  than 
in  the  two  previous  years,  with  earned  volume  estimated  at 
$2,750  million,  but  the  total  fire  waste  for  the  year  dropped 
over  $40  million  below  the  1948  figure.  The  companies, 
generally,  made  a  profit  in  addition  to  their  increased 
equities  in  the  unearned  premium  reserve,  whereas  many  had 
underwriting  losses  on  fire  insurance  in  each  of  the  four 
years  which  preceded  1948 

Marine  Insurance.  The  year  1949  witnessed  a  substantial 
drop  in  the  total  marine  premiums  written  in  the  United 
States,  but  underwriters  expected  that  the  loss  experience 
would  be  better  than  in  the  previous  year  The  world  shortage 
of  dollars;  the  small  extent  to  which  U.S.  companies 
participated  in  the  insurance  of  Lconomic  Co-operation 
Administration  shipments  and  the  sale  to  foreign  owners 
of  a  large  number  of  government-owned  vessels  all  contri- 
buted to  a  reduced  volume  of  premium  writings.  (X.) 

Hospital \  Medical  and  Surgical.  Inclusion  by  U  S.  labour 
unions  of  health  and  welfare  demands  in  contract  negotiations, 
notably  in  the  steel  and  automotive  industries,  was  probably 
the  most  significant  development  in  this  field  during  1949. 
Acceptance  by  management  of  the  principle  of  company- 
paid  welfare  benefits  provided  a  new  stimulus  toward 
increased  pre-paid  health  service  through  private  channels. 
Industrial  co-operative  and  other  miscellaneous  programmes 
covered,  at  the  end  of  1949,  about  66  million  persons  for 


hospital  benefits,  37  million  for  surgical  benefits,  and  14 
million  for  medical  benefits  (See  also  NATIONAL  INSURANCF; 
SOCIAL  SEC  URITY,  U.S  )  (A.  G.  S.) 

INTERIOR    DECORATION.       It   was    generally 
evident  during  1949  that,  four  years  after  the  end  of  World 
War  II,  the  supply  of  house  furnishings  to  the  home  market 
in  Great  Britain  had  improved  considerably.    Rationing  with 
its  attendant  system  of  dockets  and  priorities  was  discon- 
tinued.  Some  of  the  controls  exercised  by  the  Board  cf  Trade 
over  the  allocation  of  raw  materials  and  the  design  of  finished 
products  were  either  relaxed  or  wholly  lilted    Shortages  were 
still  apparent  but  the  position  had  changed  slowly  from  an 
absolute  dearth  to  a  relative  abundance,  although  the  export 
market  remained  an  over-riding  first  consideration.   This  was 
a  satisfactory  state  of  affairs  as  far  as  it  was  evidence  of  a 
recovery  from  war  and  consequent  scarcities.     Satisfaction 
was  tempered,  however,  by  realizing  that  the  goods  available 
were  limited  by  a  narrow  range  of  choice     The  prospective 
purchaser  of  new  house  furnishings  was  able  to  buy  from 
the  utility   ranges  or  from  manufacturers'  new  and   stock 
designs.    If  his  means  were  modest  he  had  no  alternative  but 
the  former  because  the  price  was  controlled.    There  was  little 
promise  of  high  adventure  in  buying  utility  ware  but  there 
was   fair   certainty    of  finding   sensible   and    unpretentious 
articles.    In  furniture  a  new  phase  was  discernible  which  was 
spoken  of  as  freedom  of  design.    This  meant  that  manufac- 
turers were  allowed  to  produce  their  own  designs  provided 
that  such  designs  conformed  to  the  Board  of  Trade  speci- 
fications which  exempted  them  from  purchase  tax.  Unhappily 
this    freedom,    with    some    outstanding    and    praiseworthy 
exceptions,  resulted  in  a  noticeable  deterioration  of  design 
standards.   First,  in  an  attempt  to  vary  uniformity,  superficial 
differences  were  added  which  disfigured  the  simplicity  and 
spoiled    the    restraint    of   the    original   controlled    designs. 
Then  a  tendency  to  look  back  towards  1939  caused  replicas 
of  cheap  and  undistinguished  prewar  furniture  to  make  an 
unwelcome  re-appearance  in  showrooms.  Thus,  although  free- 
dom of  design  meant  a  wider  variety,  it  was  a  diversity  which 
for  the  most  part  was  degraded  by  indifferent  standards  of 
craftsmanship  and  invention.     Carpets  and  floor  coverings, 
curtains  and  upholstery  fabrics  in  the  utility  ranges  offered 
no  more  than  an  adequate  choice  of  pattern,  colour  and 
texture  with,  here  and  there,  a  design  of  real  distinction. 
In  crockery  there  was  a  drab  monotony  mainly  due  to  a  ban 
on  the  sale  of  decorated  china  to  the  home  market.     The 
only  exceptions  to  the  rule  were  export  "  seconds,"  a  term 
used  to  describe  items  of  crockery  which  for  one  reason  or 
another  were  inferior  to  the  quality  required  for  export.   The 
restricted  variety  of  furnishings  available  in  utility  ranges 
represented  that  which  was  produced  in  the  largest  quantity 
and  which  was  bought  by  the  greatest  number  of  house- 
holders.    But  it  was  only  in  those  goods  which  were  made 
regardless  of  price  control  and  those  made  for  export  that  the 
full  scope  of  British  furnishing  designs  was  evident. 

Throughout  1949  the  importance  of  good  design  in  all 
forms  of  house  furnishing  was  emphasized  and  reiterated 
time  and  again  in  public  speeches,  in  the  press  and  on 
the  wireless.  The  Council  of  Industrial  Design  continually 
urged  the  value  of  good  design  in  promoting  business.  In 
the  furnishing  trades  there  was  a  freer  acceptance  of  the  idea 
that  in  acutely  competitive  world  markets  good  design  was 
no  less  irresistible  than  good  salesmanship,  but  whereas 
there  was  general  acquiescence  about  its  desirability  there 
were  widely  different  approaches  to  its  production. 

In  the  carpet  and  pottery  trades,  for  example,  markets  had 
been  built  up  on  the  production  of  old  and  intricate  designs 
executed  with  unsurpassed  skill,  designs  which  had  become 
familiar  because  of  an  easily  recognizable  pattern  or  shape 


340 


INTERNATIONAL  BANK-INTERNATIONAL  COURT 


and  renowned  for  the  technical  excellence  of  their  manufac- 
ture. Since  very  few  designs  had  been  produced  the  problem 
in  these  trades  was  the  re-animation  of  old  designs  so  that 
without  loss  of  identity  they  were  a  more  immediate  expres- 
sion of  modern  living.  By  contrast  the  textile  industries 
displayed  every  sign  of  using  their  traditionally  high  reputa- 
tion as  a  spur  to  further  development.  In  their  products  they 
showed  versatility  in  the  use  of  new  processes  and  materials, 
originality  in  the  output  of  new  patterns  and  textures  and  a 
good  standard  of  design  informed  by  a  lively  understanding 
of  present-day  requirements.  A  great  deal  of  the  credit  for 
this  alert  attitude  was  due  to  the  work  and  influence  of  the 
Cotton  Board  Colour,  Design  and  Style  centre  and  to  the 
Rayon  federation.  From  the  furniture  trade,  disregarding 
that  section  which  contented  itself  with  the  reproduction  of 
antiques,  there  came  a  number  of  interesting  designs  which 
also  showed  some  knowledge  of  contemporary  needs  in  the 
fact  of  their  smaller  scale  and  lighter  construction  and  in 
their  experimental  use  of  new  shapes  and  materials. 

In  spite  of  an  awakening  interest  in  design  there  were  no 
discernible  trends  in  1949  to  suggest  the  development  of  a 
postwar  style  of  household  furnishing.  It  seemed  that  the 
ultimate  emergence  of  such  a  style  depended  on  the  extending 
influence  of  the  Council  of  Industrial  Design  whose  valuable 
work  of  raising  the  standards  and  correlating  the  various 
aspects  of  interior  design  continued  intensively  throughout 
the  year.  (F.  W.  W.-S.) 

INTERNATIONAL  BANK  FOR  RE- 
CONSTRUCTION AND  DEVELOPMENT. 

Activities  of  the  International  bank  expanded  greatly  during 
1949  along  two  main  lines:  in  the  volume  of  actual  loans 
which  the  bank  granted;  and  in  the  substantially  increased 
amount  of  technical  assistance  and  other  services  which  the 
bank  rendered  to  its  member  countries.  The  bank,  from  Jan.  1 
to  Dec.  1,  1949,  made  a  total  of  11  loans  aggregating 
$206,600,000.  The  majority  of  these  loans  were  for  the 
purpose  of  assisting  in  the  economic  development  of  member 
nations. 

Latin  America.  The  bank  made  two  loans  to  agencies  of 
the  Mexican  government  for  electric  power  development. 
The  first  loan,  of  $24,100,000,  was  made  to  finance  purchases 
by  Mexico's  Federal  Electricity  commission  of  equipment 
needed  for  constructing  generating  stations,  transmission 
lines  and  distribution  systems  in  various  parts  of  Mexico. 
A  second  loan,  of  $10  million,  was  made  to  assist  in  financing 
a  programme  for  expansion  of  electric  generating  and 
distribution  facilities.  Both  loans  were  guaranteed  by  the 
Mexican  government. 

The  bank  made  a  loan  of  $75  million  which  was  guaranteed 
by  the  government  of  Brazil,  to  the  Brazilian  Traction,  Light 
and  Power  Company,  Ltd.,  a  Canadian  corporation,  to 
finance  most  of  the  foreign  exchange  costs  of  a  four-to-five 
year  programme  for  expansion  of  hydro-electric  power  and 
telephone  facilities  of  the  company's  Brazilian  subsidiaries. 
A  loan  of  $5  million  was  granted  to  the  Caja  de  Credito 
Agrario,  Industrial  y  Minero  to  finance  the  purchase  of 
modern  agricultural  machinery.  This  loan  was  guaranteed 
by  the  Colombia  government. 

Europe.  The  bank  made  a  loan  of  $16  million  to  Belgium 
to  finance  imports  of  equipment  for  the  construction  of  two 
privately-owned  steel  mills  and  a  power  plant  in  the  industrial 
district  of  Liege.  A  loan  of  $  1 2,500,000,  which  was  guaranteed 
by  the  government  of  Finland,  was  made  to  the  Bank  of 
Finland  for  reconstruction  and  modernization  of  wood- 
working industries,  electric  power  development  and  expansion 
of  production  of  limestone  powder  used  in  agriculture. 
Another  loan  of  £15  million  was  granted  to  the  Finance 
Corporation  for  National  Reconstruction  (Herstelbank)  of 


the  Netherlands  for  24  projects  involving  reconstruction  or 
modernization  of  Dutch  industry.  This  loan  was  guaranteed 
by  the  Netherlands  government. 

Loans  of  $2,300,000  and  $2,700,000,  respectively,  were 
made  to  Finland  and  Yugoslavia  for  the  purchase  of  timber- 
producing  equipment  in  order  to  develop  the  production  and 
export  of  timber  in  those  countries. 

Asia.  The  bank  extended  its  first  credits  to  a  member 
country  in  Asia  when  it  granted  two  loans  to  India.  The 
first  loan,  of  $34  million,  was  made  to  assist  in  financing  a 
broad  programme  of  railway  improvement.  A  second  loan, 
of  $10  million,  was  for  the  purchase  of  heavy  agricultural 
machinery  needed  for  the  reclamation  of  weed-infested  lands 
and  for  clearance  of  jungle  land. 

General.  These  lending  operations  brought  the  total  loans 
made  by  the  bank  from  the  time  it  began  operations  to 
Dec.  1,  1949,  to  $731,600,000. 

The  increased  tempo  of  the  bank's  activity  in  1949  was  not 
confined  to  the  granting  of  loans.  As  the  year  ended,  the  bank 
was  actively  investigating  additional  projects  in  about  20 
member  countries. 

At  the  request  of  its  members,  the  bank  sent  about  30 
missions  to  member  countries.  While  the  functions  of  these 
missions  necessarily  varied  in  each  particular  case,  they 
included  mainly  the  following:  examining  specific  projects 
proposed  for  bank  financing;  assisting  a  member  country 
in  drawing  up  an  over-all  development  programme  suited 
to  its  needs;  and  making  a  comprehensive  survey  of  the 
general  economic  situation  in  a  member  country  and  assisting 
in  designing  measures  for  improving  its  financial  stability. 

The  bank  engaged  in  no  direct  borrowing  operations 
during  1949.  It  further  developed,  however,  another  type  of 
marketing  technique,  begun  in  1948,  by  selling  from  its  loan 
portfolio  securities  issued  to  it  by  borrowers  under  its  loans. 
During  the  year  the  bank  sold,  with  its  guarantee,  to  institu- 
tional investors  in  the  United  States  the  $16  million  of  bonds 
received  in  connection  with  its  loan  to  Belgium,  and  the  last 
$3,900,000  of  mortgage  notes  received  in  connection  with 
its  loans  to  four  Dutch  shipping  companies. 

The  bank's  operations  for  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30, 
1949,  resulted  in  an  excess  of  income  over  expenses  of 
approximately  $10,600,000.  The  total  excess  of  income  over 
expenses  since  the  bank  began  operations  to  Sept.  30,  1949, 
amounted  to  about  $16,800,000. 

Membership  in  the  bank  was  increased  to  48  countries 
with  the  admission  of  Thailand.  In  addition,  applications 
of  Liberia  and  Haiti  were  approved  by  the  board  of  governors, 
subject  to  completion  of  necessary  formalities. 

At  its  annual  meeting  held  in  Washington,  D.C.,  in  Septem- 
ber, the  board  of  governors  approved  the  bank's  fourth 
annual  report.  This  report  stated  than  an  outstanding  feature 
of  the  year  was  the  increased  attention  given  to  the  problem 
of  economic  development.  It  described  the  bank's  objectives 
in  this  field  as  essentially  the  same  as  those  announced  by 
President  Truman  in  the  Point  Four  programme. 

On  July  1,  1949,  Eugene  R.  Black  assumed  office  as 
president  of  the  bank,  succeeding  John  J.  McCloy  (q.v.). 
(See  also  INTERNATIONAL  MONETARY  FUND.)  (E.  R.  BK.) 

INTERNATIONAL  COURT  OF  JUSTICE.  On 

April  9, 1949,  the  International  Court  of  Justice  gave  its  final 
decision  in  the  Corfu  Channel  case  between  the  United  King- 
dom and  Albania.  It  held  that  Albania  was  responsible  under 
international  law  for  the  explosions  that  occurred  in  Albanian 
waters  on  Oct.  22,  1946,  resulting  in  the  loss  of  one  British 
destroyer  and  damage  to  another  with  heavy  loss  of  life. 

On  two  other  questions  raised  by  the  agreement  between 
the  parties  under  which  the  court  was  proceeding;  i.e.,  as  to 
whether  the  acts  of  the  Royal  Navy  in  those  waters  (1)  on 


INTERNATIONAL  LABOUR  ORGANIZATION 


341 


Oct.  22  and  (2)  in  sweeping  the  waters  on  Nov.  12,  1946  (to 
determine  the  nature  of  the  explosions),  constituted  a  violation 
of  Albanian  sovereignty,  as  contended  by  Albania,  the  court 
decided  the  first  question  in  the  negative  and  the  second  one 
in  the  affirmative.  Money  damages  were  not  allowed,  the 
court  concluding  that  its  declaration  constituted  in  itself 
sufficient  satisfaction  to  Albania.  The  court  issued  an  order 
fixing  time-limits  for  the  submission  of  written  observations 
regarding  damages  claimed  by  the  United  Kingdom. 

On  July  1,  1949,  the  Albanian  agent  filed  with  the  court  a 
statement  contending  that  under  the  special  agreement  signed 
by  the  two  agents  on  March  25,  1948,  the  court  had  solely 
to  consider  whether  Albania  was  obliged  to  pay  compensation 
for  the  damage  done  on  Oct.  22,  1946,  and  was  not  thereby 
authorized  to  fix  the  amount  of  the  compensation  or  to  ask 
Albania  for  information  on  the  subject.  Albania  refused  to 
appear  at  the  hearings  held  on  Nov.  17. 

On  Nov.  19  the  court  designated  Rear-Adm.  J.  B.  Berck 
and  G.  de  Rooy,  both  of  the  Royal  Netherlands  navy,  as  a 
committee  of  experts  to  examine  the  figures  and  estimates 
filed  by  the  United  Kingdom  covering  loss  of  the  destroyer 
"  Saumarez  "  and  damage  to  the  "  Volage."  Their  report 
was  filed  on  Dec.  1  and  was  promptly  communicated  to  the 
parties,  who  were  given  until  Dec.  10  for  submission  of 
written  observations. 

On  Dec.  6  the  United  Kingdom  government  stated  that, 
inasmuch  as  the  experts  had  concluded  that  the  claim  sub- 
mitted by  it  might  be  taken  as  a  fair  and  accurate  estimate 
of  the  damage  sustained,  it  did  not  wish  to  make  further 
observations. 

On  Dec.  10,  shortly  after  expiration  of  the  time-limit, 
the  Albanian  government  filed,  with  the  court,  a  letter  stating 
that  it  desired  to  make  observations  in  the  form  of  direct 
questions  to  be  put  to  the  experts  in  a  session  of  the  court, 
or,  in  the  alternative,  to  be  given  until  Dec.  23  for  the  filing 
of  written  observations.  The  court  declined  to  accede  to  tins 
request  and  on  Dec.  15,  by  a  vote  of  14  to  2,  decreed  that 
Albania  should  pay  to  the  U.K.  the  sum  of  £843,947. 

Advhoty  Opinion.  The  general  assembly  on  Dec.  3,  1948, 
asked  the  court  for  an  advisory  opinion  as  to: 

(1)  Whether  m  the  event  of  an  agent  of  the  United  Nations  suffering 
injury  in  the  performance  of  his  duties  m  circumstances  involving  the 
responsibility  of  a  state,  the  United  Nations,  as>  an  organization,  had 
capacity  to  bring  an  international  claim  against  the  responsible  govern- 
ment for  reparation  in  respect  of  damage  caused  (a)  to  the  organization, 
(b)  to  the  victim  or  to  persons  entitled  through  him9 

(2)  How,  in  the  event  of  an  affirmative  answer  to  point  1  (b)  just 
stated,  action  by  the  organization  was  to  be  reconciled  with  such 
rights  as  might  be  possessed  by  the  state  of  which  the  victim  was  a 
national  ? 

The  court  gave  its  opinion  on  April  11,  1949.  It  was 
unanimous  in  answering  question  1  (a)  in  the  affirmative. 
Eleven  judges  answered  question  I  (b)  in  the  affirmative  and 
four  were  of  opinion  that  no  such  capacity  existed.  They 
thought  that  under  international  law  such  claims  were  to  be 
dealt  with  between  the  state  responsible  for  the  injury  and 
the  state  of  which  the  victim  was  a  national. 

On  the  second  part  of  the  question;  i.e.,  as  to  how  action 
by  the  United  Nations  under  point  1  (b)  was  to  be  reconciled 
with  such  right  as  might  be  possessed  by  the  state  of  which 
the  victim  was  a  national,  the  same  1 1  judges  were  of  the 
opinion  that  since  the  organization,  in  bringing  a  claim  for 
damages  caused  to  its  agent,  could  do  so  only  by  basing  the 
claim  upon  breach  of  obligations  due  to  itself,  respect  for 
this  rule  should  usually  prevent  a  conflict  between  its  action 
and  such  rights  as  the  agent's  national  state  might  possess; 
and  that  in  this  fashion  "  reconciliation "  between  the 
claims  would  be  effected.  This,  they  said,  "  must  depend  upon 
considerations  applicable  to  each  particular  case,  and  upon 
agreements  to  be  made  between  the  organization  and  indi- 
vidual states." 


Pending  Cases.  At  the  close  of  the  year  1949  the  following 
cases  were  pending:  Colombia  v.  Peru,  a  question  of  asylum 
and  safe-conduct  involving  a  Peruvian  national  who  was 
given  refuge  in  the  Colombian  embassy  in  Peru;  Great 
Britain  v.  Norway,  involving  the  extent  of  Norwegian 
territorial  waters  inside  which  fishery  interests  may  be 
reserved  exclusively  for  Norwegian  nationals;  France  v, 
Egypt,  relating  to  the  application  of  certain  Egyptian  decrees 
to  French  nationals  and  their  property.  There  were  requests 
by  the  U.N.  general  assembly  for  advisory  opinions  on: 
the  interpretation  of  provisions  of  pe^ce  treaties  between 
certain  allied  and  associated  powers  and  Bulgaria,  Hungary 
and  Rumania;  whether  the  general  assembly  might  admit 
states  to  membership  in  the  United  Nations  without  a 
favourable  report  from  the  Security  council;  and  the  status 
of  territory  of  South  West  Africa  over  which  the  Union  of 
South  Africa  was  given  a  mandate  by  the  League  of  Nations. 
(Sec  also  INTERNATIONAL  LAW.)  (G.  H.  H.) 

INTERNATIONAL  LABOUR  ORGANIZA- 
TION. The  32nd  session  of  the  International  Labour 
Organization  conference  met  at  Geneva,  Switzerland,  June  8- 
July  2,  1949,  with  550  accredited  delegates  and  advisers  from 
50  member  states.  Five  conventions  and  four  recommenda- 
tions were  adopted.  Three  conventions — the  right  to  organize 
and  collective  bargaining;  protection  of  wages;  and  labour 
clauses  (public  contracts) — completed  the  second  discussion 
of  subjects  begun  at  previous  sessions.  Two  conventions — 
fee-charging  employment  agencies  and  migration  for  employ- 
ment (revised)— were  revisions  intended  to  facilitate  wider 
ratification  by  giving  alternative  choices  in  their  application. 

In  addition  to  these  five  conventions,  the  conference 
adopted  the  partial  revision  of  three  maritime  conventions 
and  the  four  recommendations — labour  clauses  in  public 
contracts;  the  protection  of  wages;  migration  for  employ- 
ment (revised);  and  vocational  guidance.  This  made  a  total 
of  98  conventions  and  87  recommendations  adopted  in 
30  years  with  more  than  50  conventions  in  force. 

The  report  of  the  director-general  (D.  A.  Morse)  stressed 
the  intensification  and  expansion  of  I.L.O.  work  as  a  comple- 
ment to  its  deliberative  and  legislative  functions. 

The  report  was  debated  for  nearly  12  days — more  than 
half  the  working  hours  of  the  conference — by  95  speakers, 
and  its  unique  feature  was  an  assessment  of  world  affairs 
from  the  three-fold  point  of  view  of  governments,  employers 
and  workers  the  world  over.  The  new  emphasis  on  opera- 
tional activities  and  the  wider  participation  of  members  in 
the  ratification  of  conventions,  regional  activities,  etc.,  were 
unanimously  approved. 

The  application  of  conventions  and  ratifications  was 
debated  as  a  matter  of  major  concern  at  the  conference. 
The  total  number  of  ratifications  registered  was  1,011  as 
reported  by  the  conference  committee  in  June,  later  increased 
to  1,039  (October);  but  the  gain  in  both  1948  and  1949  was 
only  about  35.  The  committee  of  experts  said  that  reports 
of  what  had  been  done  after  the  ratification  of  conventions 
and  with  the  recommendations  were  too  few  and  too  late. 
Both  committees  and  the  director-general  said  that,  making 
due  allowance  for  postwar  conditions,  this  situation  was 
critical  and  they  united  in  an  appeal  to  the  member  states  for 
loyalty  and  a  greater  sense  of  obligation. 

The  conference  adopted  a  budget  of  $5,987,526  for  1950. 
This  was  about  $800,000  more  than  for  1949.  The  increase 
was  due  chiefly  to  operational  activities  in  the  field  of  man- 
power, technical  training  and  migration. 

The  governing  body  held  three  sessions,  the  108th  and 
109th  at  Geneva  in  March  and  June,  and  the  1 10th  in  Mysore, 
India,  in  Dec.  1949,  in  connection  with  the  postponed  Asian 
Regional  conference  in  Ceylon.  The  body  appointed  its  own 


342 


INTERNATIONAL   LAW 


tripartite  manpower  committee  for  Europe,  Asia  and  Latin 
America,  and  arranged  for  both  separate  and  joint  meetings. 
It  also  authorized  the  office  to  convene  employment  service 
experts  in  various  regions  and  established  an  l.L.O.  field 
office  on  technical  training  in  Asia.  In  response  to  the  request 
of  the  U.N.  Economic  commission  it  authorized  the  office  to 
assist  countries  to  develop  systems  for  the  training  of  super- 
visors and  instructors  within  industry  and  to  convene  a 
tripartite  meeting  of  experts  from  European  countries. 
Assistant  director-general  G.  A.  Johnson  was  appointed 
treasurer,  and  Wilfred  Jenks,  present  legal  adviser,  and  Luis 
Alvarado  of  Peru  assistant  directors  general. 

The  fourth  conference  of  American  states  members  of  the 
l.L.O.  met  in  Montevideo,  Uruguay,  from  April  25- May  7. 
It  dealt  with  the  life  and  work  of  indigenous  workers,  condi- 
tions of  employment  of  agricultural  workers,  industrialization 
and  the  efficiency  of  the  labour  force  in  Latin  American 
countries,  particularly  with  respect  to  training  and  health 
conditions.  (S.  McC.  L.) 

BIBLIOC.RAPHY.  Industry  and  Labour  appeared  in  an  enlarged  form, 
twice  a  month,  separate  from  the  International  Labour  Re\iew,  with 
which  it  was  combined  in  1940  The  Legislative  Series  appeared  in 
Spanish,  Lnglish  and  French.  Conference  documents  numbered  about 
25  and  included  timely  volumes  such  as  Report  of  the  Dire<  tot 
General,  Equal  Remuneration  tor  Men  and  Women  for  Work  of  hqual 
Value,  Industrial  Relations,  etc  General  reports  of  the  industrial 
committees  were  published  for  inland  transport,  protection  of  young 
workers  on  inland  waterways,  technical  methods  of  selection  ot  workers, 
building,  civil  engineering  and  public  works,  iron  and  steel, 
metal  trades  and  coal  mines  Studies  and  Reports,  /Wvt  Sem's  comprised 
Labour  Problems  in  Greece,  Labour  Court?  in  Latin  America.  Inlet  national 
Standard  Classification  of  Occupations,  and  Wagi'*  and  Payroll  Statistic  s. 
Miscellaneous  publications  were  Year  Book  of  Labour  Statistics, 
1947-4K,  Law  and  Practice  Relating  to  Safety  in  factories,  Third 
Report  to  the  United  Nations 

INTERNATIONAL  LAW.  In  1949,  most  inter- 
national jurists  emphasized  the  co-operative  rather  than  the 
federalists  character  of  the  world  community,  stressing  the 
phrase  44  sovereign  equality  "  of  states  in  article  2  of  the 
United  Nations  charter.  Some,  however,  interpreted  the 
growing  recognition  of  the  status  of  the  individual  as  a  mani- 
festation of  a  movement  toward  world  federalism.  Broad 
interpretations  of  the  veto  and  the  reservation  of  domestic 
jurisdiction  in  the  U.N.  charter  convinced  some  that  state 
sovereignty  had  been  little  curtailed  by  new  institutions  and 
principles.  Others,  noting  the  development  of  regional 
security  arrangements,  foresaw  a  period  in  which  such 
arrangements  would  dominate  the  world  community. 

The  Status  of  International  Organizations.  The  Inter- 
national Court  of  Justice  gave  an  advisory  opinion  in  April 
1949,  at  the  request  of  the  general  assembly,  holding  that  the 
United  Nations  had  an  objective  personality  entitling  it  to 
make  claims,  as  would  a  state,  against  any  state,  whether  a 
member  or  not,  responsible  for  injury  to  its  agents  The 
opinion  was  requested  in.  connection  with  the  assassination 
of  Count  Bernadotte  in  Israel  and,  following  the  opinion  of 
the  court,  the  general  assembly  instructed  the  secrctaiy 
general  to  present  suitable  demands  for  reparation. 

During  the  year  there  was  much  discussion  of  the  authority 
under  international  law  of  the  United  Nations  to  interfere 
in  civil  wars  and  to  recognize  new  states.  The  issue  was  raised 
by  the  action  of  the  U  N.  m  the  Indonesian  controversy  and 
in  this  instance  the  U  N.  successfully  asserted  its  authority. 

The  limitations  which  the  domestic  jurisdiction  reservation 
in  the  charter  (article  2,  para.  17)  imposed  upon  the  United 
Nations  in  dealing  with  controversies  were  also  involved  in 
the  South  African  lefusal  to  observe  repeated  assembly 
resolutions  requesting  it  to  put  the  formerly  mandated 
territory  of  South  West  Africa  under  trusteeship  and  to 
respect  the  human  and  treaty  rights  of  Indians  living  in  South 
African  territory.  Juristic  opinions  differed  on  the  issue 


Some  held  that  a  state  could  withhold  a  matter  from  U.N. 
action  by  declaring  it  to  be  "  essentially  domestic  "  while 
others  held  that  U.N.  agencies  themselves  were  free  to  assume 
that  no  matter  was  in  the  domestic  category  if  it  concerned 
a  subject  put  within  the  competence  of  the  United  Nations 
by  the  charter  or  regulated  by  international  law  or  treaty. 
In  practice  the  organs  of  the  United  Nations  followed  the 
latter  interpretation  but  certain  members,  resting  on  the 
former  interpretation,  ignored  its  recommendations. 

By  admitting  new  states  to  its  membership  and  by  accepting 
the  credentials  of  individuals  commissioned  by  revolutionary 
governments  to  represent  members,  the  U.N.  undoubtedly 
qualified  the  "  sovereign  right  "  of  other  members  to  recog- 
nize or  not  to  recognize  such  states  or  governments.  Juristic 
analyses  indicated  that  many  types  of  assembly  resolutions 
necessarily  had  important  legal  effects  even  though  in  form 
they  were  merely  recommendations.  This  was  formally  true 
of  the  general  assembly's  resolution  in  the  autumn  of  1948 
disposing  of  the  former  Italian  colonies  under  authority 
given  it  by  the  peace  tieaty  with  Italy. 

The  capacity  of  the  United  Nations  and  the  specialized 
agencies  to  request  advisory  opinions  of  the  International 
Court  of  Justice  gave  these  organizations  a  practical  status 
before  the  court.  Jurists  suggested  that  it  might  be  advisable 
to  open  the  court  to  contentious  litigation  by  these  inter- 
national organizations  although  that  step  has  not  yet  been 
taken. 

The  trend  of  opinion,  practice  and  authoritative  decisions 
was  to  augment  the  status  and  power  of  international 
organizations,  thus  qualifying  the  status  of  states  Apprecia- 
tion that  this  legal  position  had  not  always  been  acquiesced 
in  by  members  of  the  United  Nations  led  to  a  resolution 
in  the  general  assembly  in  Dec  1949  by  a  vote  of  53  to  5 
aflirmmg  the  obligations  of  the  charter  and  calling  upon  the 
members  to  co-operate  in  full  with  U.N  organs. 

Status  of  Regional  Arrangements.  Opinions  vaned  con- 
cerning the  status  of  regional  airangemcnts  for  collective 
self-defence,  although  the  permissibility  of  such  arrangements 
under  article  51  of  the  U.N.  charter  was  generally  acknow- 
ledged The  western  powers  had  generally  favoured  the 
i nter- American  arrangement  established  by  the  Rio  de 
Janeiro  convention  of  1947  and  the  Western  Union  arrange- 
ment established  by  the  Brussels  convention  of  1948  On  the 
other  hand,  these  powers  had  been  less  enthusiastic  about 
the  Arab  League  established  in  1944  and  had  generally 
opposed  the  one-sided  anangements  concluded  by  the 
U.S.S  R  with  its  satellites  in  eastern  F:urope  The  North 
Atlantic  pact  concluded  in  April  1949  was  criticized  on  the 
political  ground  that  it  tended  to  widen  the  gap  between  the 
west  and  the  U.S  S  R  and  tended  to  reduce  the  security  of 
Asiatic  states,  and  on  the  juristic  grounds  that  it  provided 
no  impartial  procedure  or  clear  criteria  for  determining  the 
aggressor  and  no  workable  procedure  to  indicate  whether 
a  decision  on  this  point,  made  by  the  parties,  was  just. 

Rights  and  Duties  of  States.  Under  instructions  from  the 
general  assembly,  the  U.N.  International  Law  commission 
approved,  by  a  vote  of  11  to  2,  (the  U.S.  and  U  S.S.R. 
representatives  joining  in  the  dissent)  a  Draft  Declaration  on 
the  Rights  and  Duties  of  States  originally  proposed  by 
Panama.  The  general  assembly  voted  in  November  to  transmit 
this  document  to  the  members  for  comment.  The  instrument 
was  subject  to  much  unofficial  criticism  by  jurists  from  the 
point  of  view  both  of  form  and  of  content,  though  it  com- 
manded considerable  support.  It  constituted  an  effort  to 
state  the  basic  principles  of  international  law  in  brief  para- 
graphs similar  to  instruments  approved  by  the  American 
states  in  the  past 

Many  traditional  problems  of  international  law  were  dealt 
with  judicially  during  the  year.  The  Oksana  Kosenkma  case, 


INTERNATIONAL   MONETARY   FUND 


343 


concerning  the  Soviet  employee  who  jumped  out  of  a  second- 
storey  window  to  escape  Soviet  restraint,  raised  questions  of 
consular  immunity.  The  immunity  of  national  representatives 
to  the  United  Nations  in  the  U.S.  was  raised  in  a  case  involving 
speeding  by  the  Chilean  representative.  U.S.  courts  held 
that  Valentin  Gubichev,  an  employee  of  the  United  Nations 
and  allegedly  still  attached  to  the  Soviet  embassy  was  not 
immune  from  prosecution  on  charges  of  espionage  in  the 
United  States.  British  courts  refused  to  extradite  Gerhard 
Kisler,  a  Communist  found  guilty  of  contempt  of  congress 
for  refusing  to  testify  before  the  Un-American  Activities 
committee  partly  on  the  ground  that  the  offence  was  political. 

The  trend  toward  judicial  acceptance  of  executive  decisions 
on  matters  of  immunity,  status,  privileges,  etc.,  continued  in 
U.S.  and  British  courts  but  was  less  evident  in  continental 
Huropean  courts 

The  International  Court  of  Justice  handed  down  an  opinion 
on  the  merits  of  the  Corfu  Channel  case  in  April  1949, 
finding  Albania  liable  for  the  destruction  of  British  ships  by 
mines  in  its  territorial  waters.  The  court  stated  the  rule  of 
customary  international  law  **  that  states  in  time  of  peace 
have  a  right  to  send  their  warships  through  straits  used  for 
international  navigation  between  two  parts  of  the  high  seas 
without  the  previous  authorization  of  a  coastal  state,  provided 
that  the  passage  is  innocent  Unless  otherwise  prescribed  in 
an  international  convention,  there  is  no  right  for  a  coastal 
state  to  prohibit  such  passage  through  straits  in  time  of 
peace." 

The  International  Law  commission  began  investigating 
three  topics  of  international  law  deemed  to  demand  codifica- 
tion: the  law  of  the  high  seas,  the  law  of  treaties,  and  the 
law  of  arbitral  procedure  In  connection  with  the  first 
topic,  a  whaling  convention  came  into  force  during  the  year 
and  several  states  followed  the  United  States  in  claiming 
domain  beyond  the  thiee-milc  limit  By  legislation  of  1945 
the  United  States  had  claimed  domain  in  the  bottom  of  the 
sea  as  far  as  the  continental  shelf.  Saudi  Arabia  claimed 
six  miles,  both  the  bottom  of  the  sea  and  the  sea  itself,  as 
had  Turkey,  Syna  and  the  Lebanon.  Most  of  the  Persian 
gulf  states  claimed  jurisdiction  over  the  bottom  of  the  gulf 
beyond  the  three-mile  limit,  and  Jamaica  and  the  Bahamas 
claimed  the  continental  shelf  surrounding  these  islands 

U  S.  courts  decided  that  for  certain  purposes  the  U  S 
bases  in  Bermuda  were  lk  possessions  "  of  the  United  States, 
but  Okinawa,  though  occupied  by  U  S.  forces,  was  not. 
Great  Britain  continued  its  controversy  with  Chile  and 
Argentina  concerning  the  Falkland  Islands  dependencies. 
These  countries  had  refused  to  arbitrate  the  title,  but  had 
occupied  certain  islands  which  they  claimed.  During  the  year 
the  western  powcis  recognized  the  Korean  republic  (occupying 
the  southern  half  of  Korea)  and  gave  a  certain  recognition 
to  the  German  federal  republic  including  the  three  western 
/ones  of  Germany  They  retained  ultimate  power  in  the 
Occupation  statute. 

The  general  assembly  in  dealing  with  the  former  Italian 
colonies  as  authorized  by  the  Italian  peace  treaty  decided  that 
Libya  should  be  independent  by  Jan.  1,  1952,  and  that 
Somahland  should  be  under  Italian  trusteeship  for  ten  years, 
It  also  authonzed  a  commission  to  go  to  Eritrea  to  determine 
the  wishes  of  the  population  before  June  1950. 

The  general  assembly  made  several  decisions  in  regard  to 
trusteeships  and  dependent  territories.  It  asked  the  Inter- 
national Court  of  Justice  to  advise  on  the  status  of  South 
West  Africa,  formerly  under  mandate.  U  also  limited  the 
right  of  administering  authorities  to  incorporate  trusteeship 
areas  in  administrative  unions  with  neighbouring  territories 
and  decided  that  the  U.N.  flag  should  fly  with  the  flag  of 
the  administering  authority  in  trusteeship  areas.  The  assembly 
also  asserted  its  competence  to  consider  the  political  develop- 


ment of  dependent  territories  not  under  trusteeship.  These 
positions  were  criticized  by  some  of  the  administering 
authorities.  The  general  assembly  recommended  that 
Jerusalem  be  internationalized  under  the  United  Nations, 
but  this  was  opposed  by  both  Israel  and  Jordan  who  were 
actually  occupying  the  city  (Sec  also  TRUST  TERRITORIES.) 

Human  Rights.  The  Human  Rights  commission  of  the 
United  Nations  produced  a  Draft  Covenant  of  Human  Rights. 
This  instrument  would  create  legal  obligations  for  ratifying 
states  to  observe  certain  of  the  rights  asserted  in  the  universal 
declaration  and  would  be  implemented  by  committees 
competent  to  investigate  and  give  publicity  to  violations  of 
the  covenant.  The  covenant  was  to  be  considered  further  by 
the  Human  Rights  commission  at  its  meeting  in  1950.  The 
general  assembly  failed  to  take  action  on  the  proposed 
Freedom  of  Information  convention.  It  did,  however,  con- 
sider the  alleged  violation  of  human  rights  in  Hungary, 
Bulgaria  and  Rumania  and  asked  the  International  Court  of 
Justice  for  an  advisory  opinion  on  the  obligation  of  these 
states  to  co-operate  in  the  procedure  for  the  protection  of 
human  rights  set  up  in  the  peace  treaties.  These  states  had 
alleged  that  the  matter  was  within  their  domestic  jurisdiction. 

The  International  Law  commission  had  on  its  agenda  the 
drawing  up  of  a  code  on  war  crimes  and  other  offences 
against  international  security  along  the  lines  of  the  Nuremberg 
charter,  and  the  establishment  of  an  international  criminal 
court  The  secretariat  had  prepared  a  '*  Historical  Survey 
of  the  Question  of  International  Criminal  Jurisdiction  "  and 
committees  were  set  up  to  study  the  matter,  but  no  final 
action  was  taken.  (See  also  WAR  CRIMFS  ) 

Status  of  War.  The  Kcllogg-Bnand  pact,  the  United 
Nations  charter,  the  Nuremberg  charter  and  the  Nuremberg 
and  other  war  crimes  judgments  had  made  it  clear  that  war, 
as  a  condition  during  which  two  or  moie  states  were  equally 
free  to  utilize  armed  force  to  solve  their  controversies,  had 
been  outlawed  Under  these  instruments,  as  interpreted  by 
governments  and  international  tribunals,  governments  engaged 
in  hostilities  must  be  eithei  lawful  defenders,  unlawful 
aggressors,  01  governments  lawfully  exercising  domestic 
jurisdiction  or  participating  in  international  sanctions.  They 
could  not  be  belligerents  in  the  traditional  sense.  Neverthe- 
less, hostilities  might  occur  and,  whatever  the  name,  would 
require  regulation.  There  was  considerable  discussion  of  the 
"  law  of  war"  during  1949.  Proposals  were  made  to  dis- 
tinguish kfc  hostile  occupation  "  earned  on  after  unconditional 
surrender  of  an  enemy,  "  pacific  occupation  "  carried  on  in 
an  allied  country  during  hostilities  and  kt  peaceful  occupa- 
tion "  carried  on  in  time  of  peace  from  "  belligerent  occupa- 
tion "  earned  on  in  enemy  country  during  hostilities.  The 
prevalence  of  these  varied  types  of  occupation  rendered  the 
subject  important.  Regulation  of  aerial  bombardment, 
submarine  warfare  and  the  taking  of  hostages  was  urged. 
Improvement  in  the  1929  convention  for  the  treatment  of 
the  prisoners  of  war  was  also  considered  necessary  (See  also 
INTERNAIIONAL  COURT  oh  Jusiict:)  (Q.W.) 

INTERNATIONAL    MONETARY    FUND.    The 

principal  spheres  of  activity  of  the  International  Monetary 
fund  during  1949  related  to  the  establishment  and  revision 
of  par  values  and  exchange  rates,  exchange  transactions, 
exchange  restrictions,  multiple  currency  practices,  gold  policy 
and  admission  of  new  members.  As  in  the  past,  the  fund 
provided  the  machinery  for  continuous  international  consul- 
tation and  co-operation  on  these  varied  problems. 

With  the  admission  of  Thailand  the  membership  of  the  fund 
increased  to  48  members.  Thailand's  quota  in  the  fund  was 
established  at  $12  5  million,  bringing  the  total  aggregate 
quotas  up  to  $8,046-5  million,  compared  with  $8,034  million 
on  Dec.  31,  1948,  and  $7,921  5  million  as  at  Dec.  31,  1947. 


344 


INTERNATIONAL  TRADE 


The  use  of  the  fund's  resources  continued  to  be  governed 
by  the  same  general  policies  as  in  previous  years.  Exchange 
transactions  with  members  were  submitted  to  the  tests  of 
the  various  criteria  set  forth  in  the  fund's  Articles  of  Agree- 
ment. As  a  general  rule,  countries  receiving  assistance  from 
the  Economic  Co-operation  administration  could  request 
the  purchase  of  U.S.  dollars  from  the  fund  only  in  exceptional 
or  unforeseen  cases.  The  following  table  summarizes  the 
fund's  exchange  transactions  during  the  year  1949. 

TABLE  I. — EXCHANGF  TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  INTERNATIONAL 

MONETARY  FUND,  1949 

Sales  of  Sales  of 

Country  U.S.  dollars  Country  U  S.  dollars 

Brazil         .         .       37,500,000  Yugoslavia  .         9,000,000 

India          .         .       31,680,000  Egypt        .  .         3,000,000 

Australia  .         .       20,000,000  Ethiopia    .  .  300,000 

In  addition,  the  fund  sold  6,136,000  U.S.  dollars  against 
gold.  Important  developments  for  the  fund  were  the  beginning 
of  transactions  in  which  member  countries  of  the  fund 
repurchased  some  of  their  own  currencies  with  gold  and 
U.S.  dollars.  The  first  country  to  engage  in  such  a  transaction 
was  Costa  Rica,  which  in  May  repurchased  the  equivalent 
of  $874,000  in  its  own  currency  from  the  fund.  In  subsequent 
months  similar  transactions  were  carried  through  by  Belgium 
and  Nicaragua.  On  Nov.  30,  1949,  the  fund  held  the  equiva- 
lent of  $1,450,563,000  in  gold,  plus  $5,353,629,000  in 
currencies  of  member  countries,  of  which  $1,289,336,000 
represented  U.S.  dollars. 

The  year  1949  saw  many  changes  in  the  par  values  of 
member  countries.  In  addition  to  the  establishment  of  an 
initial  par  value  for  the  Yugoslav  dinar  in  May  and  a  new 
par  value  for  the  Mexican  peso  in  June,  in  September  there 
took  place  a  series  of  changes  in  the  par  values  of  a  number 
of  member  countries.  These  began  on  Sept.  18  when  the 
United  Kingdom  proposed,  and  the  fund  concurred,  in  the 
change  of  the  par  value  of  sterling.  Within  a  few  days  13 
member  countries,  not  including  their  non-metropolitan 
areas,  changed  their  par  values. 

TABLE  II. — NEW  PAR  VALUES  OF  MEMBER  COUNTRIES,  1949 

U  S  cents  per 


Date 

currency 

Country 

Currency 

established 

unit 

Yugoslavia 

Dinar 

May  24 

2  0000 

Mexico 

Peso 

June  17 

11-5607 

United  Kingdom 

Pound 

Sept.  18 

280-000 

Australia 

Pound 

Sept.  18 

224  000 

Union  of  South  Africa 

Pound 

Sept.  18 

280  000 

Norway     . 

Krone 

Sept.  18 

14  000 

Denmark 

Krone 

Sept    18 

14  4778 

Egypt 

Pound 

Sept    18 

287-156 

Canada 

Dollar 

Sept    19 

90  9091 

Iraq 

Dinar 

Sept.  20 

280-000 

Netherlands 

Guilder 

Sept  20 

26-3158 

Iceland 

Krona 

Sept   21 

10  7054 

India 

Rupee 

Sept.  22 

21   0000 

Belgium 

.     Franc 

Sept   22 

2-0000 

Luxembourg 

Franc 

Sept   23 

2-0000 

The  member  countries  which  had  not  yet  established  par 
values  with  the  fund  at  the  end  of  1949,  because  it  was  felt 
that  their  domestic  conditions  did  not  warrant  their  adoption, 
were  Austria,  China,  Finland,  Greece,  Italy,  Poland  and 
Uruguay;  neither  did  Thailand,  which  as  already  stated  had 
joined  the  fund  during  the  year,  have  an  established  par 
value.  France  continued  as  in  1948  not  to  have  a  par  value 
agreed  with  the  fund.  In  addition  to  the  establishment  of 
new  par  values  and  changes  in  established  par  values,  a 
number  of  member  countries  in  consultation  with  the  fund 
took  important  steps  to  change  their  exchange  rates  or  their 
existing  systems.  These  changes  did  not,  however,  involve 
changes  in  par  values.  Among  the  countries  which  made 
such  changes  were  Austria,  Finland,  France,  Greece,  Peru, 
Paraguay  and  Uruguay.  These  changes  usually  involved 
considerable  simplification  of  the  exchange  rate  structure.  In 


France,  the  new  system  established  uniform  exchange  rates 
for  all  transactions  in  every  currency;  however,  this  rate 
was  not  fixed  but  instead,  would  vary  in  accordance  with  the 
rate  quoted  from  time  to  time  on  the  Paris  free  market. 

During  1949,  questions  relating  to  external  sales  of  gold 
at  premium  prices  and  gold  subsidies  were  a  matter  of  dis- 
cussion with  a  number  of  member  countries;  e.g.,  Belgium, 
Canada,  Southern  Rhodesia  and  the  Union  of  South  Africa. 
The  fund  reviewed  and  decided  to  maintain  its  previous 
policy  with  regard  to  external  transactions  in  gold  at 
premium  prices. 

The  fourth  annual  meeting  of  the  board  of  governors  of 
the  International  Monetary  fund  was  held  in  Washington, 
D.C.,  in  September.  At  this  meeting  the  governors  considered 
a  proposal  of  the  Union  of  South  Africa  to  permit,  under 
specified  conditions,  the  sale,  by  the  government  of  any 
member,  of  newly-mined  gold  in  any  market  at  such  premium 
prices  as  might  be  ruling  in  that  market.  After  discussion  it 
was  agreed  that  this  resolution  be  referred  to  the  executive 
directors  of  the  fund  for  a  study  of  the  relevant  considerations 
and  for  a  report  to  the  board  of  governors.  At  this  conference 
it  was  decided  to  admit  Haiti  to  membership  of  the  fund, 
with  a  quota  of  $2  million  and  to  extend  the  period  in  which 
Liberia  might  accept  membership  of  the  fund. 

The  activities  of  the  fund  involved  continuous  consultation 
and  advising  with  member  governments,  and  the  maintenance 
of  close  contacts  with  the  other  international  agencies.  The 
fund  worked  together  with  a  number  of  these  agencies  in 
connection  with  President  Truman's  Point  Four  proposal. 
(See  also  INTERNATIONAL  BANK  FOR  RECONSTRUCTION  AND 
DEVELOPMENT.)  (A.  N.  O.) 

INTERNATIONAL  RED  CROSS:  see  RED  CROSS. 

INTERNATIONAL  REFUGEE  ORGANIZA- 
TION: see  REFUGEES. 

INTERNATIONAL  TRADE.  Preliminary  figures 
for  the  first  nine  months  of  1949  indicated  an  increase  in  the 
value  and  the  volume  of  international  trade,  at  an  annual 
rate,  above  that  of  1948,  and  a  decline  in  world  export  prices. 
However,  the  unbalanced  state  of  the  trade  of  the  rest  of  the 
world  with  the  United  States  and  the  shortage  of  dollar 
exchange  continued  to  be  a  cause  for  common  concern. 
Although  increased  effort  was  made  by  the  rest  of  the 
world  to  reduce  the  high  degree  of  dependence  on  purchases 
from  the  United  States,  declining  exports  to  the  United 
States  and  increased  imports  from  that  source  resulted  in 
trade  deficits  in  the  first  and  second  quarters  of  the  year 
which  were  larger  than  the  deficit  during  any  quarter  in 
1948;  but  considerable  improvement  took  place  in  the 
unbalanced  situation  in  the  third  and  fourth  quarters. 

Import  and  export  exchange  controls  were  universally 
maintained  in  1949  and  many  countries  intensified  them, 
limiting  dollar  imports  to  the  most  essential  goods  and 
trying  to  divert  their  purchases  as  far  as  possible  from 
hard  currency  to  soft  currency  areas.  Various  policies  were 
adopted  to  encourage  exports  to  the  United  States  but  the 
decline  in  economic  activity  in  that  country  in  the  middle 
of  the  year  was  reflected  in  lower  import  figures.  Declining 
currency  reserves  were  halted  by  a  wave  of  currency 
devaluations  beginning  with  the  devaluation  of  the  pound 
sterling  on  Sept.  18,  1949,  which  carried  with  it  devaluation 
of  the  currencies  of  the  sterling  area  with  the  exception  of 
Pakistan.  This  change  was  followed  by  a  general  readjust- 
ment of  most  European  and  several  Latin  American 
currencies. 

The  stringent  world  dollar  exchange  situation  was  partially 
alleviated  by  continued  loans  and  grants.  A  large  part  of 
international  trade  continued  to  be  financed  in  this  manner. 


INTERNATIONAL  TRADE 


345 


TABLE  I. — VALUE  OF  TRADE  OF  THE  UNITED  KINGDOM  WITH 

PRINCIPAL  COUNTRIES* 

(In  £  million) 

Importsf  Ex  ports  t 


Country 

1948 

1949 

Argentina      . 

88   1 

46  7 

Australia 

115   7 

157  4 

Belgium 

28-3 

30  2 

British  West  Africa 

59-7 

73-2 

Canada 

166  4 

156  6 

Ceylon 

21   2 

20-1 

Denmark 

33  2 

57-5 

Egypt  .... 

33  4 

26  4 

France 

31   9 

54-5 

India,  Pakistan,  etc. 

78  3 

80   1 

Ireland 

28   5 

39-3 

Netherlands 

31-3 

48-5 

Netherlands  West  Indies. 

48-2 

30-3 

New  Zealand 

87-7 

96   1 

Norway 

12-9 

16  7 

Sweden 

37-0 

45   8 

Union  of  South  Africa     . 

24-1 

24  6 

United  States 

142-9 

163  0 

Other  countries 

481   2 

514  3 

Total 

1,550  0 

1,681-3 

1948 

1949 

33  5 

35  7 

107  6 

133  8 

28-5 

25  4 

32  9 

46  2 

50  3 

57  9 

9  4 

10  8 

19-3 

34  4 

26-2 

27  2 

26  8 

24  3 

77  6 

123  6 

56  4 

55  6 

31  9 

38-7 

1-9 

1-8 

37-4 

44  8 

21  4 

30  7 

41  0 

33  4 

87  7 

106  4 

49  4 

37  0 

411  6 

447  3 

,150  8 

1,315  0 

*  AH  figures  for  period  Jan  -Sept 

t  General  imports 

j  United  Kingdom  produce 

Many  countries  sought  to  overcome  the  principal  obstacle 
to  trade — currency  convertibility — by  resorting  increasingly 
to  bilateral  agreements  and  barter  arrangements. 

Although  increased  restrictions  on  imports  were  character- 
istic of  the  period,  the  effort  to  lower  tariffs  and  other  trade 
barriers  was  continued.  At  the  Annecy  conference  ten 
countries  seeking  accession  to  the  General  Agreement  on 
Tariffs  and  Trade  negotiated  with  each  other  and  with  the 
original  contracting  parties  to  the  general  agreement.  The 
results  of  the  negotiations  were  contained  in  the  Annecy 
Protocol  of  Terms  of  Accession  to  the  General  Agreement 
on  Tariffs  and  Trade,  which  was  presented  at  U.N.  head- 
quarters on  Oct.  10,  1949,  for  signature  by  the  33  countries 
concerned. 

United  Kingdom.  The  value  of  the  merchandise  trade  of  the 
United  Kingdom  continued  to  reach  record  levels  in  the 
first  nine  months  of  1949.  Exports  totalled  £1,315  million 
compared  with  £1,150  million  in  the  same  period  of  1948. 
Imports  showed  an  8%  increase  in  value  over  1948,  reaching 
£1,680  million  in  the  first  nine  months  of  1949.  The  volume 
of  exports  for  Jan.-Sept.  1949  averaged  48%  above  the  1938 
level.  This  compared  with  an  average  of  36%  above  prewar 
for  1948  and  9%  above  prewar  for  1947.  Retained  imports 
were  still  held  below  the  1938  volume,  though  they  were 


VOLUME   OF  i 

UK    IMPORTS    AND    EXPORTS 


/  I    VOLUME    OF 
/RETAINED   IMPORTS 


greater  than  in  any  postwar  year.  For  the  first  nine  months 
of  1949  they  averaged  87%  of  the  level  for  1938.  In  the 
year  1948  imports  were  81%  of  the  prewar  level. 

The  trade  deficit  with  the  United  States  which  had  narrowed 
encouragingly  in  1948  widened  again  in  the  first  nine  months 
of  1949  when  imports  tended  to  rise  and  exports  fell  off 
sharply.  This  situation,  together  with  a  worsening  of  the 
dollar  position  of  the  other  sterling  area  countries  and  a 
shrinkage  of  the  sterling  area  gold  and  dollar  reserves, 
caused  a  financial  crisis  which  led  to  devaluation  of  the 
pound  sterling  in  Sept.  1949. 

Britain's  trade  deficit  with  its  other  major  dollar  creditor, 
Canada,  was  larger  than  that  with  the  United  States  in  1948, 
but  in  the  fust  nine  months  of  1949  it  had  lessened  appreciably. 
British  exports  to  Canada  continued  to  rise  in  1949,  while 
imports  from  that  area  fell  slightly. 

About  50%  of  Britain's  exports  went  to  sterling  area 
countries  in  the  first  nine  months  of  1949  compared  with  42% 
in  1938.  The  dollar  area  (the  United  States,  Canada  and  the 
"  American  Account "  countries)  received  about  9  %  in 
1949,  but  took  1 1  %  in  1938. 

Canada.  Canadian  foreign  trade  continued  at  a  high  level 
during  the  first  nine  months  of  1949  with  exports  valued  at 
$2.146  million  and  imports  valued  at  $2,073-9  million. 


DIRECTION   OF   BRITISH    TRADE 


DESTINATION 
OF  EXPORTS 


t — -1  Rest  of  the  Western 
L***  Hemisphere 


(excluding  those  in 
Western  Hemisphere) 


38     47   48    4$  (Jon- June! 


38    47    48    49(Jon-Jun« 


Exports  were  $12-2  million  less  than  during  the  correspond- 
ing period  in  1948,  while  imports  were  $150  6  million  greater, 
reaching  a  level  higher  than  any  ever  before  attained  for  a 
similar  period.  The  volume  of  both  imports  and  exports 
(/.<?.,  value  with  the  price  factor  eliminated)  was  far  greater 
than  before  the  war.  For  1948  the  import  volume  index 
(1938-100)  was  181;  the  export  volume  index  was  173. 

Exports  of  Canadian  merchandise  to  the  United  Kingdom 
were  $9-8  million  greater  than  during  the  first  nine  months 
of  1948,  and  imports  from  that  country  were  $23-4  million 
greater.  The  export  balance  (taking  into  account  re-exports)  in 
the  trade  with  the  United  Kingdom  dropped  from  $389-2 
million  to  $288  •  4  million.  In  the  trade  with  the  United  States, 
comparing  the  same  periods,  exports  to  the  United  States 
decreased  by  $16-6  million  and  imports  increased  by  $147-9 
million  despite  continued  exercise  of  comprehensive  import 
controls.  The  import  deficit  in  the  trade  with  the  United 
States  for  Jan.-Sept.  1949  amounted  to  $431-7  million, 
$169  million  greater  than  the  deficit  for  the  corresponding 
period  in  1948,  but  $286  •  5  million  less  than  the  deficit  during 
the  nine  months  period  in  1947. 

In  spite  of  increased  imports  from  the  United  States  during 


346 


INTERNATIONAL  TRADE 


1949,  Canadian  gold  and  dollar  reserves  to  the  end  of  Septem- 
ber were  held  at  just  about  the  level  recorded  for  the  end  of 

1948  -$985  3  million  compared  with  $997  8  miHion.    This 
level  represented  a  marked  increase  from  that  of  $501-7 
million  recorded  for  the  end  of  Dec.  1947.    The  steadiness  in 

1949  was  partly  related  to  the  better  balance  of  trade  with 
European  and  sterling  areas.  The  important  factor,  however, 
was  " off-shore"  purchasing  in  Canada  by  European  Recovery 
programme  countries  using  dollars  allocated  to  them.  Some 
$450  million  in  payments  was  reported  in  this  connection  in 
1948  ;     more    than   $300   million    in    such    payments   was 
anticipated  for  1949.    Canada  financed  some  exports  to  the 
United   Kingdom  by    permitting  the  resumption  of  with- 
drawals  from  the   United    Kingdom   loan  account  to  the 
amount  of  $10  million  per  month. 

Australia  and  New  Zealand.  During  the  fiscal  year  ended 
June  30,  1949,  exports  from  Australia  amounted  to  £A547 
million,  33%  greater  than  the  value  of  exports  during  the 
fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1948;  imports  into  Australia 
during  the  same  period  amounted  to  £A415  million,  22% 
greater  than  the  value  of  imports  during  the  preceding  year. 
Greatest  increases  occurred  in  exports  to  the  United  King- 
dom, Italy,  France  and  the  U.S.S.R.  and  in  imports  from  the 
United  Kingdom,  Indonesia  and  Swe4en.  Exports  to  the 
United  States  declined  from  £A35  million  to  £A32-3  million; 
imports  from  the  United  States  dropped  from  £A66  8 
million  to  £A4l*5  million. 


TABLF  III. — PFRCENTAGF  DISTRIBUTION  OF  FOREIGN  TRADF  OF 
MFTROPOIIIAN  E  R  P.  COUNTRIES 

Jan. -June 
Country  or  area  1938  1948*  1949* 


TABLE  11      GHX.RAPHK:  DISTRIBUTION  or  UNHID  STAIIS 
FORFK.N  TRADI 
Value  (in  millions                                Per 

of  dollars) 

cent 

of  total 

Jan 

-Sept. 

Jan 

-Sept 

Country  or  area 

1948 

1949 

1936-38 

1948 

1949 

1  xports  to* 

Western  hemisphere 

3,955   5 

3,758   5 

33   9 

41    7 

40   1 

Canada 

1,402   7 

1,502   7 

15   3 

14  8 

16  0 

Latin  American  re- 

publics 

2,382   7 

2,097   5 

16  3 

25    1 

22  4 

Other    western 

hemispheie 

170    1 

158    ^ 

2  3 

1    8 

1    7 

Europe     . 

3,239   5 

3,221    3 

41    9 

34    1 

34  4 

United  Kingdom 

487   8 

M6   8 

16  8 

5    1 

5   8 

Other  Europe 

2,751    7 

2,674   5 

25    1 

29  0 

28   6 

Asia 

1,588   9 

1,740  9 

16-8 

16   8         18   6 

Oceania 

105   3 

150  6 

3    1 

1    1 

1    6 

Africa 

599    1 

492   5 

4   3 

6  3 

5   3 

Total 

9,488   3 

9,163   8 

100  0 

100  0 

100  0 

E  R  P  countries} 

3,165   0 

U85   6 

38  0 

33   4 

34  0 

Sterling  area 

1,467   0 

1,478    5 

28   2 

15   5 

15   8 

Import^  from} 

Western  hemisphere  . 

3,013    1 

2,914  0 

37    1 

57    3 

59   8 

C  anad.i 

1,092  4 

1,080  0 

13   8 

20  8 

22  2 

Latin  American  re- 

publics 

1,776  6 

1,706    I 

21    8 

33   8 

35  0 

Othei    western 

hemisphere 

144    1 

127   9 

I    5 

2   7 

2  6 

1  urope 

818    8 

674  9 

28   5 

15   6 

13   9 

United  Kingdom 

213   3 

163   9 

7   0 

4    1 

1   4 

Other  hurope 

605   5 

511    0 

21    5 

11    5 

10   5 

Asia 

979    5 

937  0 

30   1 

18   7 

19   2 

Oceania 

129   7 

94   7 

1    6 

2   5 

2  0 

\fnca 

308   3 

249  0 

2   7 

5   9 

5    1 

Total 

\249   4 

4,869   5 

100  0 

100  0 

100  0 

h  R  P   countncsf 

697    3 

614  9 

24  4 

13   3 

12   6 

Sterling  area 

1,040   3 

857   8 

10  7 

19   8 

17   6 

*  Including  re-expoits 

1   Metropolitan  territories 

+  General  imports 

Exports  from  New  Zealand  amounted  to  £NZ147  8 
million  during  1948  compared  with  £NZ129  4  million  during 
1947.  Imports  in  1948  valued  at  £NZ128  million  were  at 
about  the  same  level  as  in  the  preceding  year.  As  in  the 
case  of  Australia,  New  Zealand's  principal  export  surpluses 
continued  to  be  sold  to  the  United  Kingdom  under  long-term 
contracts. 


Imports 

Source 

United  States 

11    0 

18  2 

18-4 

Canada 

3  9 

4-6 

3-8 

Other  western  hemisphere 

9-9 

12  0 

8-3 

E.R  P  countries 

38-7 

31-8 

34  0 

Eastern  Europe 

10  4 

5  4 

5-0 

All  other  countries 

26-1 

28  0 

30-5 

Total 

100  0 

100  0 

100  0 

Value  (in  millions  of  U  S  dollars) 

12,539  3 

24,502   1 

13,053   3 

Exports  ' 

Destination 

United  States  . 

5    1 

5   5 

3   9 

Canada 

1    6 

2-0 

2   1 

Other  western  hemisphere 

7   7 

8-3 

7-2 

E  R  P  countries 

51-2 

45-0 

45-0 

Eastern  Europe 

10   5 

5   5 

5  7 

All  other  countries 

23  9 

33-7 

36-1 

Total 

100-0 

100-0 

100-0 

Value  (in  millions  of  U  S  dollars) 

9,358-0 

16,952   5 

9,879   3 

*  Prchminaiy  figures 

Union  of  South  Africa.  In  1949  the  government  of  the 
Union  of  South  Africa  took  further  steps  to  arrest  the 
continued  decline  in  the  country's  gold  and  foreign  exchange 
resources  resulting  from  the  unbalanced  state  of  its  trade. 
In  March  1949,  the  union  government  expanded  the  list  of 
prohibited  imports  and,  from  July  1,  1949,  extended  its 
import  and  exchange  controls  to  cover  impotts  from  all 
sources  including  sterling  countries 

United  States.  Exports  from  the  United  States,  although 
still  large  in  1949,  showed  a  decline  for  the  second  consecutive 
year.  After  increasing  in  the  fust  two  quarters,  largely  because 
of  expanded  trade  with  countries  participating  in  the  European 
Recovery  programme  during  the  last  two  quarters  of  1948, 
they  declined  sharply  in  the  third  quarter,  somewhat  further 
in  the  fourth  quarter,  and  showed  a  drop  of  about  6%  in 
total  value  for  the  year  An  estimate  on  the  basis  of  Jan  - 
Nov.  data,  placed  the  year's  total  exports  at  $11,900  million 
compared  with  exports  amounting  to  SI 5, 340  million  in 
1947  and  $12,650  million  in  1948. 

The  decline  from  1948  was  largely  the  result  of  the  down- 
ward trend  in  commodity  prices  beginning  late  in  1948  and 
continuing  in  1949  In  terms  of  quantity  (the  "value" 
figure  adjusted  for  changes  in  the  price  level),  the  total  export 
trade  for  1949  was  approximately  as  large  as  in  1948,  although 
in  the  final  quarter  of  the  year  it  showed  a  decrease  of  about 
10°,,  from  the  1948  quarterly  average. 

Imports  into  the  United  States  decreased  in  the  first  three 
quarters  of  the  year  and,  despite  a  marked  increase  in  the 
final  quarter,  showed  a  decline  for  the  year  of  approximately 
7%  from  1948.  Total  imports  for  1949  were  estimated  at 
$6,600  million  compared  with  $5,756  million  in  1947  and 
$7,124  million  in  1948  Although  the  lower  level  of  prices 
accounted  partly  for  the  drop  in  value  from  1948,  the  quantity 
of  imports  also  showed  some  reduction. 

The  downwaid  trend  in  exports  and  the  rise  in  imports 
after  the  middle  of  1949  narrowed  the  gap  between  exports 
and  imports  to  approximately  $800  million  in  the  fourth 
quarter,  the  smallest  quarterly  export  balance  since  before 
the  war.  At  an  annual  rate,  this  quarterly  balance  amounted 
to  $3,200  million  compared  with  export  balances  of  $9,600 
million  in  1947,  $5,500  million  in  1948  and  an  annual  rate 
of  $6,000  million  m  the  first  nine  months  of  1949. 

Europe.  During  the  period  Jan.-June  1949  the  total  value 
of  imports  into  countries  taking  part  in  the  European 
Recovery  programme  amounted  to  $13, 100  million,  an  increase 
of  5%  over  the  1948  half-year  average;  the  value  of  exports 


INVENTORS,  AWARDS  TO 


347 


from  the  E.R.P.  countries  during  the  same  period  amounted 
to  $9,900  million,  16%  above  the  1948  half-year  average. 
The  expansion  in  exports  further  narrowed  the  export-import 
gap.  The  trade  deficit  for  the  six  months  was  at  an  annual 
rate  of  $6,300  million,  compared  with  a  deficit  of  $7,500 
million  in  1948.  The  1949  trade  deficit  in  terms  of  real  prices 
was  comparable  with  the  1938  deficit  and  the  ratio  of  exports 
to  imports  was  76%  compared  with  75%  in  1938.  The 
export-import  ratio  in  1948  was  69 °0,  and  in  1947  it  was  58% 

The  heavy  dependence  of  E.R.P.  countries  upon  the  United 
States  as  a  source  of  imports  showed  no  indication  of  decline 
for  the  group  as  a  whole  during  the  first  six  months  of  1949 
compared  with  the  previous  year.  Of  total  imports  into 
E.R.P.  countries  during  this  half-year  period,  18  4%  came 
from  the  United  States,  compared  with  18  2%  m  1948. 
The  situation  became  all  the  more  difficult  because  of  the 
falling  off  in  exports  to  the  United  States  during  the  first 
half  of  1949  and  the  trade  deficit  with  the  United  States  grew 
progressively  larger 

The  trend  of  European  trade  in  1948  and  the  first  half  of 
1949  indicated  a  rise  in  volume  of  trade  within  Luiope  as 
well  as  with  the  outside  world.  Imports  into  E.R.P  countries 
from  Eastern  Europe  in  the  first  half  of  1949  remained  at 
about  the  1948  level,  but  exports  to  Eastern  Europe  increased, 
bringing  the  trade  between  the  two  groups  of  countries  mote 
nearly  into  balance 

In  Sept.  1949  the  United  Kingdom  and  many  of  the  Euro- 
pean countries  devalued  their  currencies  in  an  effort  to 
improve  their  trade  position  with  the  dollar  area  It  was 
recogm/cd  that  the  long-term  effects  of  devaluation  would  be 
exceedingly  complex  and  that  it  would  be  some  months 
before  they  would  be  clearly  apparent. 

In  the  autumn  of  1949  a  systematic  attempt  was  made  to 
deal  with  the  problem  of  intra-European  trade  restrictions 
At  the  recommendation  of  the  O  E  E  C.  (Organization  for 
European  Economic  Co-operation)  council  in  Pans  each 
participating  country  removed  quantitative  restrictions  from 
a  substantial  portion  of  its  import  trade  originating  in  member 
countries  Licenses  for  commodities  for  which  quantitative 
restrictions  were  removed  were  to  be  either  abolished  or 
gi anted  automatically 

Middle  East.  In  the  middle  cast  the  foreign  trade  of  most 
countries  remained  at  high  levels  during  1949.  Egyptian 
trade  was  greater  in  the  first  half  of  the  year  than  during  the 
first  half  of  1948  The  foreign  tiade  of  Turkey  was  brought 
more  nearly  into  balance,  laigcly  as  a  result  of  an  increase  in 
exports  Israel's  trade  showed  some  expansion,  but  com- 
mercial activity  with  neighbouring  countries  was  still  res- 
tricted. The  foreign  trade  of  Lebanon  and  Syria  continued 
at  a  low  level.  Iraq's  exports  and  imports  were  less  than  in 
1948  and  strict  control  was  exercised  over  imports  to  hold 
down  the  adverse  balance.  Persia's  trade  positron  improved 
as  a  result  of  increased  exports  in  the  early  part  of 
the  year. 

Southern  Asia.  While  the  foreign  trade  of  southern  Asia 
(India,  Pakistan  and  Ceylon)  was  at  a  very  high  level  during 
the  fiscal  year  1948-49,  being  about  one-fifth  more  than 
in  the  previous  year,  a  sharp  drop  occurred  in  the  fiscal  year 
1949-50.  The  official  import  trade  of  India  during  the  year 
1948-49  amounted  to  $1,563  million  while  exports  were 
valued  at  $1,254  million,  resulting  in  an  import  balance  of 
$309  million.  Pakistan  also  had  an  import  balance  of  $72 
million,  as  imports  were  reported  to  be  $330  million  and 
exports  $58  million  These  figuies,  covering  only  seaborne 
trade,  do  not  reflect  the  overall  trade  between  the  two  coun- 
tries. It  has  been  estimated  that  more  than  75%  of  India's 
imports  from  Pakistan  and  about  40° 0  of  India's  exports 
to  Pakistan  were  by  land  trade  rather  than  seaborne. 

The  trade  impasse  between  India  and  Pakistan  was  brought 


to  a  crisis  in  September  when  the  Indian  rupee  was  devalued, 
while  the  value  of  the  Pakistan  rupee  was  retained.  Dis- 
parity between  the  two  currencies  resulted  in  virtual  cessation 
of  trade  between  the  two  countries. 

During  the  first  nine  months  of  1949,  imports  into  Ceylon 
totalled  $237  million  while  exports  from  Ceylon  totalled 
$229  million  and  the  import  balance  amounted  to  $8  million. 

Far  East.  The  steady  southward  movement  >f  hostilities 
in  China  accelerated  the  deterioration  of  thu<t  country's 
foreign  trade.  Civil  strife  in  Burma,  Indo-Chma  and  Indo- 
nesia interfered  with  production  of  rice,  rubber,  copra, 
coal,  sugar  and  other  exportable  commodities  upon  which 
those  countries  depended  for  ioreign  exchange. 

The  foreign  trade  of  Thailand  (Siam)  showed  some 
expansion  in  1 949  over  the  previous  year.  Rice  exports  almost 
reached  prewar  levels  and  rubber  exports  exceeded  prewar 
quantities. 

Malaya,  principal  dollar  earner  of  the  sterling  area, 
experienced  a  trade  deficit  m  1949  which  exceeded  that  of 
1948  Imports  increased,  while  exports  of  tea  and  rubber  on 
which  the  economy  of  the  country  depended  declined, 
causing  much  concern 

The  volume  of  Japan's  foreign  trade  in  1949  increased 
over  that  in  1948  but  the  adverse  trade  balance  was  only 
slightly  less  than  in  the  preceding  year.  On  April  25,  1949, 
a  single  rate  was  established  for  the  Japanese  yen. 

Latin  America.  Available  statistics  indicated  a  decrease  in 
the  foreign  trade  of  the  Latin  American  republics  in  1949 
from  the  record  levels  attained  in  1947  and  1948  However, 
the  1949  trade  was  still  at  a  high  level  compared  with  prewar 
years.  The  lower  value  of  imports  in  1949  showed  the  effects 
of  intensified  impoit  and  exchange  controls.  The  heavy 
import  demand  characteristic  of  the  postwar  period  con- 
tinued but,  because  of  the  shortage  of  gold  and  dollar 
exchange  iescr\es,  most  Latin  American  countries  limited 
dollar  imports  to  the  most  essential  commodities.  Among 
the  factors  in  the  lower  value  of  exports  in  1949  were  declines 
in  prices  of  a  number  of  export  commodities  and  uncertainty 
caused  by  devaluation  of  European  currencies. 

United  States  statistics  showed  a  drop  of  12%  in  U.S. 
exports  to  the  Latin  American  republics  in  the  first  nine 
months  of  1949  compared  with  the  corresponding  period  in 
1948.  Imports  from  Europe  increased  notably  in  those 
republics  which  had  large  export  markets  in  Europe  Trade 
with  Europe  was  facilitated  by  a  growing  number  of  bilateral 
agreements,  barter  transactions  and  compensation  agree- 
ments planned  to  overcome  difficulties  caused  by  inconverti- 
bility of  currencies  (Sec  also  BUSINESS  REVIEW;  EUROPEAN 
RFCOVKRY  PROGRAMME  EXCHANGE  CONTROL  AND  EXCHANGE 
RATES;  INTERNAIIONAL  BANK  FOR  RECONSTRUCTION  AND 
DEVELOPMENT;  INTFRNAIIONAL  MONETARY  FUND,  TARIFFS.) 

(T.  C.  BL.) 

INVENTORS,  AWARDS  TO.  The  Royal  Com- 
mission on  Awards  to  Inventors  set  up  in  May  1946  under 
the  chairmanship  of  Lord  Justice  Cohen  continued  to  deal 
with  referred  claims  for  the  use  by  the  British  government 
of  inventions,  designs,  drawings  or  processes.  A  claimant 
had  in  the  first  instance  to  submit  his  claim  to  the  govern- 
ment department  concerned  with  its  use.  The  commission 
dealt  with  claims  under  several  heads;  but  the  majority  were 
cases  where  the  inventor  might  have  no  legal  right  to  com- 
pensation To  qualify  for  an  ex  giatia  award  the  subject 
matter  of  a  claim  had  to  be  an  invention,  design,  drawing 
or  process  used  by  or  on  behalf  of  the  crown  and  had  to  be 
of  exceptional  utility.  Up  to  Nov.  8,  1949,  approximately 
£262,000  had  been  recommended  to  meet  claims. 

Owing  to  the  very  large  number  of  inventive  ideas  and 
suggestions  submitted  to  various  government  departments, 


348 


INVESTMENTS  ABROAD 


the  commission  at  the  request  of  the  Treasury  set  up  an 
investigating  committee  consisting  of  two  or  three  of  its 
members  to  ascertain  whether  certain  claims  merited 
consideration  by  the  commission.  Dec.  3 1 ,  1949,  was  fixed  as 
the  final  date  for  lodging  claims.  Claims  were  heard  in  public 
at  Somerset  house,  London. 

PRINCIPAL  AWARDS  MADF  FROM  Nov.  9,  1948,  TO  Nov.  12,  1949 

Name 

A.  C.  Hartley 

B.  J.  Ellis 

Lt.  Col.  P.  D.  lonides 

Caswick,  Ltd.  • 

Zbrojovka  Brno, 

Narodni  Podnik; 

Ceskoslovenskd 

Zbrojovka  Brno, 

Akciova  Spoletnost 
E.  Terrell 
Professor!  T  Randall, 

Dr.  H.  A    H.  Boot, 

Professor  J.  Sayers 


Subject 

Pluto 

Pluto 

Hessian  rapid  airfield 

construction 

Machine  guns  and 

accessories 


Plastic  armour 
Cavity  magnetron 


Award 
£9,000 
£5,000 
£4000 

£5,000  in  addition 

to  sum  already 

paid  for  earlier 

use 


£9,500 
£36,000 

(R.G.  L.) 


INVESTMENTS  ABROAD.  No  statistics,  official 
or  otherwise,  had  been  compiled  after  World  War  II  about 
the  outstanding  capital  amount  of  British  investments  abroad. 
The  annual  official  publication  National  Income  and  Expendi- 
ture of  the  United  Kingdom  contained,  however,  figures 
indicating  the  annual  net  change  in  the  total,  and  also  the 
amount  of  dividends,  interest  and  rent  received  from  abroad 
by  Great  Britain  and  corresponding  amounts  paid  on  foreign 
investments  in  Great  Britain.  In  1948  foreign  lending  to 
Great  Britain  and  sale  of  British  foreign  assets  exceeded 
British  investment  abroad  by  £120  million  compared  with 
£630  million  in  1947,  £380  million  in  1946  and  £70  million 
in  1938.  These  figures  were  not  arrived  at  by  direct  informa- 
tion about  capital  movements  but  indirectly  from  the  size 
of  the  deficit  of  the  British  balance  of  payments  for  those 
years.  From  information  arising  from  the  operation  of 
exchange  control  there  were  now  means  for  ascertaining  the 
actual  amounts  of  investment  and  disinvestment  abroad 
without  relying  on  indirect  calculations,  but  no  use  was  made 
of  these  facilities. 

The  total  of  dividends,  interest  and  rent  received  by  Great 
Britain  on  investments  abroad  in  1948  was  estimated  at 
£162  million,  compared  with  £153  million  in  both  1947  and 
1946  and  £205  million  in  1938.  Simultaneously  the  total  of 
dividends,  interest  and  rent  paid  by  Great  Britain  to  overseas 
investors  increased  from  £37  million  in  1938  to  £97  million 
in  1946,  £120  million  in  1947  and  £122  million  in  1948. 
Thus  the  net  receipts  from  overseas  investments  amounted 
to  only  £40  million  in  1948,  compared  with  £168  million  in 
the  last  prewar  year.  There  was  evidence  that,  during  1949, 
the  declining  trend  of  net  receipts  continued,  owing  to 
liquidation  of  British  foreign  assets.  Great  Britain  continued 
to  invest  abroad,  especially  in  the  colonies,  but  a  large  part 
of  these  new  investments,  such  as  the  amount  expended  on 
the  groundnuts  scheme  in  Tanganyika,  had  not  begun  to 
yield  any  income. 

The  annual  report  of  the  Council  of  Foreign  Bondholders 
reported  no  additional  defaults  on  British-held  foreign  loans 
in  1948.  The  total  capital  amount  of  the  loans  under  complete 
default  was  nearly  £500  million  in  1949.  More  than  a  quarter 
of  this  amount  was  due  from  countries  whose  economies 
had  become  disrupted  by  enemy  occupation  and  about  two- 
fifths  was  owed  by  Austria,  Germany  and  Japan.  Debt 
settlements  were  negotiated  with  Italy,  Bulgaria  and  Chile. 
Italy  undertook  to  make  full  payment  of  all  arrears  incurred 
between  the  outbreak  of  World  War  II  and  the  conclusion 
of  the  peace  treaty  (with  the  exception  of  the  Italian  share 
of  the  guaranteed  Austrian  League  of  Nations  loan  which 
remained  in  default).  The  Bulgarian  government  agreed  to 


MOVEMENTS    OF 
LONG-TERM 
PRIVATE 
CAPITAL 

(NET    OUTFLOW! 


MOVEMENTS  OF  U  S 
LONG-TERM  CAPITAL 
]  INVESTED  ABROAD 

(GOVERNMENT   AND   PRIVATE) 

_| |        [3]    NET    OUTFLOW  I 

NET    INFLOW     i 

RECEIPTS 


31     32    33    34    35    36    3/ 


.4— Ift— -   8,000 


7,000 


6,000 


.-,,-, I   -    5,000 


3,000 


-   2DOO 


i  poo 


the  resumption  of  partial  payments  of  coupons  from  1940. 
Chile  resumed  the  payment  of  interest  at  reduced  rates 
rising  from  1-5%  for  1948  to  3%  from  1954  onward.  A 
sinking  fund  payment  of  I  %  was  also  provided. 

During  1949  the  position  and  prospects  of  British  invest- 
ments abroad  underwent  a  considerable  deterioration. 
Apart  from  the  three  countries  named,  defaulting  debtors 
did  not  show  increasing  willingness  or  ability  to  meet  their 
liabilities.  Owing  to  the  unsatisfactory  outlook  for  receiving 
payments  from  Germany,  the  government  introduced  the 
Distribution  of  German  Enemy  Property  bill  under  which 
German  assets  taken  over  by  the  government  were  to  be 
distributed  among  British  claimants.  The  dividend  derived 
through  this  distribution  was  not  expected  to  be  substantial. 

The  outlook  became  particularly  unsatisfactory  as  far  as 
the  large  British  investments  in  China  were  concerned, 
owing  to  the  victory  of  the  Communists  over  the  Nationalist 
government  during  1949.  Judging  by  experience  with  various 
European  debtor  countries  under  Communist  regimes,  the 
prospects  of  obtaining  any  substantial  payments  on  the  large 
loans  to  China  or  on  British  capital  invested  in  industrial 
or  commercial  undertakings  were  not  very  promising. 
Compensation  paid  or  even  promised  on  nationalized  British 
assets  in  eastern  European  countries  had  so  far  been  negligible. 
No  compensation  had  been  received  from  Burma,  partly 
owing  to  the  disturbed  state  of  the  country  due  to  civil  wars, 
and  partly  owing  to  left-wing  pressure  favouring  repudiation. 

Devaluation  of  sterling  did  not  affect  the  sterling  value  of  the 
foreign  loans  held  in  Great  Britain,  since  practically  all  of  them 
were  issued  in  terms  of  sterling  without  any  gold  or  currency 
clause.  Investments  representing  tangible  assets  tended  to 
continue  to  appreciate  nominally  owing  to  the  rising  trend  of 
prices  in  many  foreign  countries.  There  was  a  noteworthy 
rise  in  the  sterling  value  of  South  Africa  and  other  gold 
mining  shares  as  a  result  of  the  increase  in  the  price  of  gold 
in  terms  of  the  currencies  of  the  gold-producing  countries. 

The  liquidation  of  British  assets  abroad  in  payment  for 
the  current  trade  deficit  continued  in  1 949  but  not  on  as  large 
a  scale  as  in  1948.  The  sale  of  the  Leopoldina  railway  and  the 
Great  Western  of  Brazil  railway  was  negotiated.  Repatriation 
of  foreign  securities  through  individual  purchases  in  relatively 
small  amounts  by  residents  in  debtor  countries  continued. 

Foreign  Investment  in  Great  Britain.  There  was  no  large- 
scale  influx  of  American  or  other  private  capital  into  Great 


INVESTMENTS  ABROAD 


349 


Britain  during  1949.  Although  elaborate  provisions  were 
made  in  the  European  Recovery  programme  to  facilitate  the 
investment  of  American  capital  in  British  industries,  the 
exchange  guarantee  facilities  offered  by  the  United  States 
government  were  not  made  use  of  to  a  noticeable  extent. 
The  British  government  undertook  not  to  discriminate 
against  American  capital  in  the  granting  of  licences  for  the 
erection  of  factories.  Notwithstanding  this  and  the  elimination 
of  the  transfer  risk  through  the  exchange  guarantees  American 
enterprise  showed  little  keenness  in  opening  branch  factories 
in  Great  Britain.  This  reluctance  was  due  in  part  to  fears 
of  unfair  competition  by  nationalized  industries  through  the 
latter  being  favoured  by  the  government.  Although  the 
government  undertook  to  pay  fair  compensation  for  national- 
ized American  industrial  firms,  the  risk  of  working  at  a  loss 
owing  to  such  competition  acted  as  a  deterrent. 

Another  consideration  that  tended  to  discourage  American 
enterprise  was  the  prospect  of  economic  difficulties  in  Great 
Britain  arising  from  lack  of  dollars  to  pay  for  raw  material 
imports.  The  possibility  of  the  termination  of  American 
assistance  at  the  end  of  the  Marshall  aid  period  was  viewed 
with  concern,  and  American  industrial  interests  preferred  to 
await  developments  before  committing  themselves.  Although 
there  was  much  discussion  about  American  investment  in  a 
large  scale  in  British  colonies,  no  actual  progress  was  made. 
During  1949  Great  Britain  continued  to  receive  Marshall 
aid,  part  of  which  assumed  the  form  of  a  dollar  loan.  On  the 
other  hand,  part  of  the  South  African  gold  loan  of  £80  million 
granted  in  1948  was  repaid.  The  Canadian  dollar  loan  was 
drawn  upon  to  the  extent  of  $27  million. 

The  repayment  of  sterling  balances  accumulated  during 
World  War  II  by  overseas  countries  continued  on  a  large  scale. 
During  the  first  nine  months  repayments  amounted  to  £206 
million.  It  was  generally  admitted  that  the  speedy  liquidation 
of  these  war  debts  at  a  time  when  Great  Britain's  trade 
balance  continued  to  show  a  big  deficit  contributed  largely 
towards  the  aggravation  of  the  country's  dollar  difficulties. 
For  it  was  assumed  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  goods 
exported  to  the  sterling  area  and  financed  with  the  aid  of 
sterling  released  from  wartime  balances  could  have  been 
exported  to  the  dollar  area  or  the  hard-currency  countries. 
Or,  in  the  absence  of  the  large  exports  arising  from  war  debt 
repayment,  the  manpower  and  raw  materials  used  in  the 
production  of  goods  needed  for  such  exports  could  have  been 
used  for  the  production  of  goods  needed  by  the  dollar  area 
or  other  hard  currency  countries. 

The  realization  of  these  considerations  during  the  financial 
talks  in  Washington  in  Sept.  1949  led  to  a  resolution  that  the 
United  States  and  British  governments  should  examine 
jointly  the  ways  in  which  the  former  could  assist  in  the 
liquidation  of  wartime  balances.  Pending  the  outcome  of 
these  discussions,  two  important  changes  in  the  British 
government's  attitude  towards  these  balances  became  evident. 
The  prime  minister  and  other  ministers  urged  industrial 
firms,  m  public  statements,  to  divert  their  exports,  as  far  as 
possible  from  the  sterling  area  to  the  dollar  area.  British 
exporters  were  exhorted  by  the  government,  in  the  interests 
of  the  dollar  drive,  to  refuse  orders  from  holders  of  released 
wartime  sterling  balances  in  order  to  be  able  to  accept  orders 
from  the  United  States  and  Canada. 

The  other  important  change  of  policy  was  announced 
by  the  Chancellor  of  the  exchequer  who  informed  the  House 
of  Commons  that  the  government  did  not  intend  to  obtain  a 
drastic  scaling  down  of  the  sterling  balances  by  presenting  to 
the  countries  holding  them  counterclaims  for  services  ren- 
dered to  them  by  Great  Britain  during  World  War  II  and  that 
the  government  did  not  seek  to  re-open  negotiations  on 
existing  temporary  agreements  with  holders  of  sterling 
balances,  which  were  concluded  before  the  aggravation  of 


Great  Britain's  dollar  problem  and  under  which  the  repay- 
ments of  these  war  debts  would  have  to  continue  for  some 
time  on  what  was  subsequently  recognized  to  be  an  excessive 
scale.  (P.  EG  ) 

United  States  Investments  Abroad.  The  flow  of  U.S.  capital 
to  foreign  countries  that  was  resumed  at  the  end  of  World 
War  II  continued  in  diminished  volume  during  1949  and 
contributed  to  raise  the  value  of  U.S.  investment*  in  foreign 
countnes  (and  international  organizations)  to  approximated 
$31,700  million  on  Sept.  30,  1949— an  increase  of  ubout 
$200  million  over  Dec.  31,  1948.  Unlike  previous  years, 
when  loans  by  the, United  States  government  dominated,  the 
bulk  of  new  foreign  investments  accounting  for  this  increase 
was  made  by  the  private  section  of  the  economy  whose 
investments,  including  the  reinvested  earnings  of  subsidiaries 
in  foreign  countries,  accounted  for  about  $650  million  of  the 
$1,200  million  of  government  and  private  capital  investments 
abroad  during  this  period.  However,  the  effect  of  new 
investment^  on  the  total  value  of  U.S.  investments  abroad 
was  offset  by  the  devaluation  of  leading  foreign  currencies 
during  Sept.  1949  which  may  have  had  the  effect  of  reducing 
the  value  of  U.S.  investments  abroad  by  roughly  $750- 
1,000  million. 

Direct  investments  accounted  for  $370  million  of  estimated 
private  capital  outflows  during  the  first  nine  months  of  1949 
together  with  an  additional  $370  million  of  reinvested  earn- 
ings, while  the  only  foreign  borrowing  in  the  United  States 
of  any  consequence  involved  a  $100  million  government  of 
Canada  bond  issue. 

From  the  published  data  it  appeared  that  the  outflow  of 
U.S.  direct  investment  capital  in  1949  would  fall  below  the 
record  of  almost  $800  million  set  during  1948. 

Early  in  1949  interest  in  U.S.  private  foreign  investments 
was  stimulated  by  the  fourth  point  of  the  inaugural  address 
of  President  Harry  S.  Truman,  who  called  for  increased 
American  technical  assistance  and  productive  investments  in 
under-developed  areas.  The  primary  purpose  of  this  pro- 
gramme was  to  help  the  people  of  economically  under- 
developed areas,  who  comprise  a  large  part  of  the  world's 
population,  in  their  efforts  to  develop  their  human  and  natural 
resources,  to  increase  their  productive  capacities  and  to 
raise  their  standards  of  living. 

During  1949,  the  president  requested  congress  to 
authorize  an  experimental  programme  in  order  to  guarantee 
newly  invested  private  capital  in  undeveloped  countries. 
The  capital  would  have  to  contribute  to  the  economic 
development  of  such  areas  and  would  be  guaranteed  against 
risks  related  to  foreign  investments,  other  than  ordinary 
business  risks.  Outstanding  among  such  risks  proposed  for 
a  programme  of  government  guarantees  were  those  of 
(1)  non-convertibility  of  returns  derived  from  the  invest- 
ment, including  capital,  and  (2)  loss  through  seizure, 
confiscation,  or  expropriation,  without  prompt,  adequate 
and  effective  compensation.  Ordinary  business  risks,  such 
as  those  encountered  by  a  business  operating  in  the  United 
States  were  not  included  in  the  proposed  programme. 

Foreign  Investments  in  the  United  States.  The  value  of 
foreign  investments  in  the  United  States  was  practically 
unchanged  during  the  first  nine  months  of  1949  and  stood 
at  approximately  $17,000  million  at  the  end  of  September. 
The  general  ability  of  citizens  of  other  countries  to  retain 
American  assets  in  the  face  of  continuing  balance-of-payment 
deficits  with  the  United  States  was  an  evidence  of  the  success 
of  the  European  Recovery  programme  in  rendering  aid  to 
foreign  countries.  The  effectiveness  of  this  aid  had  been 
apparent  in  an  increase  in  foreign  short-term  balances  in  the 
United  States  during  the  last  half  of  1948  and  the  first  quarter 
of  1949,  following  the  serious  decline  that  began  with  the 
termination  of  lend-lease  aid  in  1945.  However,  banking 


350 


IRAQ 


and  other  short-term  claims  of  E.R.P.  countries  on  the 
United  States  again  declined  in  the  second  quarter  of  1949 
as  a  financial  crisis  developed,  particularly  in  the  United 
Kingdom.  Following  the  devaluation  of  the  pound  sterling 
and  the  currencies  of  other  leading  countries  in  mid-September 
there  was  some  evidence  of  a  recovery  in  short-term  claims 
on  the  United  States. 

According  to  preliminary  figures  of  the  U  S  Department 
of  Commerce,  the  devaluation  of  the  pound  in  Sept  1949 
was  preceded  by  losses  of  short-term  banking  claims  on  the 
United  States  and  sales  of  gold  to  that  country  of  about 
$29  million  in  the  first  quarter  and  $269  million  in  the 
second  quarter  of  the  yeai.  During  the  third  quarter,  the 
loss  amounted  to  $237  million.  At  the  close  of  September, 
British  short-term  banking  claims  on  the  United  States 
were  about  $439  million  as  compared  with  $546  million 
nine  months  earlier. 

The  decline  in  total  foreign  short-term  banking  claims  on 
the  United  States  in  this  period  aggregated  $165  million. 
After  Great  Britain,  the  declines  were  largest  for  the  republic 
of  the  Philippines  ($140  million),  China  ($92  million)  and 
Italy  ($48  million).  However,  the  Italian  loss  of  about 
$100  million  in  the  third  quarter  of  the  year  merely  reflected 
the  shift  of  that  sum  to  gold,  purchased  from  the  U.S. 
Treasury.  Increases  were  largest  for  the  following  countries: 
Japan  ($80  million),  Canada  ($52  million)  and  the  Nether- 
lands ($43  million).  The  Canadian  acquisition  of  United 
States  funds  reflected  the  flotation  of  $  1 00  million  of  Dominion 
of  Canada  bonds  in  the  United  States  during  the  third  quarter 
of  the  year. 

Foreign  countries  and  international  organizations  made 
net  purchases  of  approximately  $86  million  of  the  long-term 
securities  of  United  States  corporations  and  bonds  of  the 
U.S.  government  during  the  first  nine  months  of  1949. 
Such  acquisitions  were  in  contrast  to  the  general  experience 
of  earlier  years  when  countries  in  Europe  and  Asia  sold 
substantial  holdings  of  U.S.  stocks  and  bonds  largely  as  a 
means  of  meeting  their  balance  of  payments  deficits  on 
current  account. 

If  changes  in  the  holdings  of  American  securities  by  the 
International  Bank  for  Reconstruction  and  Development 
were  excluded  from  foreign  acquisitions  during  the  first  three 
quarters  of  1949,  it  appeared  that  over  all  purchases  and  sales 
by  foreign  countries  of  American  securities  were  in  approxi- 
mate balance,  although  the  experience  varied  from  country 
to  country.  Net  purchases  by  the  International  bank  in  this 
period  were  securities  issued  by  the  United  States  government. 

Countries  participating  in  E.R.P.  purchased  about  $35 
million  of  stocks  and  bonds  according  to  data  published  by 
the  U.S.  Treasury  Department  although,  if  trading  for  Swiss 
account  is  eliminated,  transactions  for  other  E.R.P.  countries 
were  about  in  balance  during  the  first  nine  months  of  1949. 
Since  it  was  known  that  several  E.R.P.  countries  were  in 
great  need  of  dollars  during  this  period,  particularly  in  the 
second  and  third  quarters,  the  absence  of  large  liquidations 
of  U.S.  securities  suggested  that  certain  countries  had 
probably  exhausted  their  holdings  of  readily  marketable 
securities.  This  may  have  been  the  case  for  France  and  the 
Netherlands.  These  two  countries,  as  well  as  others,  had 
been  aided  earlier  by  the  U.S.  Treasury  in  identifying  the  U.S. 
assets  of  their  nationals  which  had  not  been  reported  to  them 
and  had  presumably  liquidated  such  security  holdings  as 
had  been  revealed  by  the  Treasury.  Nationals  of  the  United 
Kingdom  had  sizable  holdings  of  securities,  although  the 
choice  of  these  was  still  pledged  with  the  Reconstruction 
Finance  corporation  as  collateral  for  a  loan  granted  to 
England  in  1941  and  were  therefore  not  available  for  sale. 

Of  the  countries  receiving  assistance  from  the  Economic 
Co-operation  administration  of  the  United  States,  Switzerland 


engaged  in  the  largest  volume  of  transactions  of  U.S.  stocks 
and  bonds  during  the  first  nine  months  of  1949  and  on 
balance  purchased  about  $36  million  The  acquisition  reflected 
the  relatively  sound  economic  position  of  that  country 
strengthened  by  its  wartime  neutrality,  although  a  portion  of 
Swiss  security  purchases  presumably  were  for  residents  of 
other  countries  for  whom  Switzerland  acted  as  a  banking 
centre. 

United  Kingdom  purchases  in  this  period  of  $12  million 
of  securities  were  probably  for  the  account  of  non-British 
subjects  since  the  exchange  control  system  of  that  country 
would  presumably  not  have  permitted  the  use  of  scarce 
dollars  for  portfolio  investments.  The  Nethei  lands  sold 
about  $15  million  of  U.S.  stocks  and  bonds,  continuing  the 
programme  begun  in  1948  of  liquidating  its  nationals'  dollar 
holdings  In  that  year  $78  million  of  Netherlands  assets  were 
sold.  France  had  followed  a  similar  programme  during  1948 
liquidating  about  $72  million  of  American  securities,  although 
in  1949  changes  in  French  holdings  of  United  States  securities 
were  negligible  up  till  September  and  appeared  to  consist  of 
switching  from  holdings  of  shares  to  investments  in  bonds. 
Italy  and  Belgium  made  small  security  purchases  in  the 
latter  period. 

As  a  result  of  transactions  and  small  rises  in  the  quoted 
prices  of  stocks  and  bonds,  the  value  of  foreign-held  U.S. 
portfolio  securities  increased  by  about  $192  million  during 
the  first  three  quarters  of  1949.  About  $106  million  of  the 
rise  reflected  security  price  increases  and  the  balance,  the 
previously  mentioned  combined  net  purchases  of  foreign 
countries  and  international  organizations. 

The  latest  report  available  during  1949  on  the  activities 
of  the  Office  of  Alien  Property  of  the  United  States  related 
to  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1948.  On  the  latter  date,  the 
office  held  title  to  former  enemy  property  in  the  United 
States  with  a  value  of  $340  million  and  held  another  $3  million 
of  assets  in  safekeeping  or  under  supervision  In  addition, 
the  annual  .report  of  the  organization  stated  that  about 
$61  million  of  vestible  property  had  not  been  vested  (seized) 
by  June  30,  1948.  From  its  inception  in  Maich  1942  to  that 
date,  the  office  and  its  predecessor  organization  had  received 
about  $125  million  from  the  sale  and  liquidation  of  business 
and  personal  property  it  had  taken  from  enemy  aliens.  (See 
also  BALANCE  or  PAYMENTS  )  (M.  AB.) 

IRAN:  see  PERSIA. 

IRAQ.  Independent  Arab  kingdom  of  Mesopotamia, 
bounded  by  Syria,  Turkey,  Persia,  the  Pcisian  gulf,  Saudi 
Arabia  and  Jordan,  watered  by  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates. 
Area:  168,040  sq.  mi  Pop.:  (1935  official  est )  3,560,456; 
(Oct.  1947  census):  4,794,449.  Religions  (approximately): 
Moslem  91%  (Shiah  Arabs  45%,  Sunni  Arabs  15%,  Sunni 
Kurds  25%,  Shiah  Persians  3%,  Sunni  Turks  2%,  etc.); 
Christian  5%,  falling  into  three  main  groups  (a)  Roman 
Catholics  of  Chaldean,  Syrian  and  Armenian  rites,  the 
strongest  community  (c.  100,000)  being  Chaldean,  (b)  Greek 
Orthodox  and  (c)  free  churches  (Syrian  Jacobite,  Gregorian 
Armenian,  etc.);  Jewish  2-5%;  others  1  5%  (Yczidi, 
Sabaean,etc.).  Languages:  Arabic 67%,  Kurdish  25%,  Persian 
3  %,  Turki  2  %,  others  3  %.  The  Sunni  Arabs  are  the  ruling  class. 
Chief  towns  (pop.  est.  1946):  Baghdad  (cap.,  832,927),  Mosul 
(279,361),  Basra  (181,814).  Ruler,  King  Fay  sal  II  (born 
May  2,  1935);  regent,  Prince  Abdulilah  (<y.v.);  prime  ministers 
in  1949,  General  Nun  Pasha  as-Said  (q.v.)  and  (from  Dec. 
10)  Ah  Jawdat  al-Ayyubi. 

History.  On  Jan.  6  the  government  of  Muzahim  Amin 
al-Pachachi  resigned  and  was  succeeded  two  days  later  by 
one  headed  by  Nuri  Pasha  as-Said,  who  at  once  sent  messages 
to  other  Arab  governments  announcing  the  determination 


IRAQ 


351 


King  I-'aysal  of  Iraq,  wlw  was  studying  in  England,  with  his  uncle, 
Abdulildh  Ibn  Alt',  Regent  of  Iraq,  at  London  airport  on  July  10,  1949, 

when  the  Regent  arrived  in  Britain. 

of  Iraq  to  continue  action  to  free  Palestine  and  strengthen 
the  Arab  League  (</.v.). 

On  Feb.  14-15  Yusuf  Salman  Fahad,  secretary  general  of 
the  Communist  party  of  Iraq,  and  three  other  Iraqi  Com- 
munist leaders  were  sentenced  and  hanged  after  conviction  by 
a  court  martial  of  activities  aimed  at  destroying  the  founda- 
tions of  the  state  and  instigating  elements  of  the  Iraqi  armed 
forces  to  join  their  subversive  organization.  A  number  of 
further  arrests  of  Communists  and  others  was  subsequently 
reported. 

The  cabinet  was  re-shuffled  on  March  18,  Abdulilah  Hafiz 
being  replaced  at  the  foreign  ministry  by  Dr.  Fadil  Jamali, 
who  as  Iraqi  minister  in  Cairo  had  been  due  to  attend  the 
meeting  of  the  Arab  League  council  there  on  March  17  but 
had  been  urgently  summoned  to  Baghdad  instead.  In  a 
press  conference  on  March  22  he  stated  that  Iraq  continued 
to  support  the  Arab  League  while  envisaging  certain  changes 
in  its  organization.  It  was  unfortunate  that  the  enforced 
absence  of  the  Iraqi  delegate  from  the  first  two  sittings  had 
been  interpreted  as  a  change  of  attitude  by  Iraq.  The  charged 
d'affaires  who  attended  the  last  session  on  March  21  had  not 
received  his  instructions  from  the  cabinet  sooner  owing  to 
the  cabinet  changes. 

The  prime  minister's  visit  to  Syria  (</.v.)  on  April  16, 
followed  by  the  statement  that  Iraq  and  Syria  would  stand 
together  against  aggression,  was  connected  by  many  with  the 
press  reports  that  credited  him  with  a  plan  to  unite  Syria 
with  Iraq  under  King  Faysal  II  and  a  council  of  regency. 
This  was  known  as  the  "  fertile  crescent  "  plan,  in  distinction 
from  the  Greater  Syria  plan  of  King  Abdullah  of  Jordan. 
In  a  parliamentary  statement  of  May  3,  the  Iraqi  foreign 


minister  said  his  country's  foreign  policy  was  based  on 
maintaining  the  independence  and  safety  of  Iraq  according 
to  the  principles  of  the  Arab  revolt.  The  recent  coup  d'etat 
in  Syria  was  a  domestic  affair,  but  Iraq  would  welcome 
unity  with  Syria  if  Syria  desired  it.  Iraq's  attitude  to  the 
Arab  League  was  based  on  its  charter.  He  accused  the 
secretary  general  of  the  League  of  having  "  given  himself 
authority  "  which  was  not  his  by  right.  (This  was  believed 
to  have  been  prompted,  among  other  things,  by  Azzam 
Pasha's  visit  to  Husni  ez-Zaim  the  day  after  Nuri  Pasha's 
visit  and  the  dictator's  subsequent  repudiation  of  all  plans 
of  union).  Iraq,  he  said,  favoured  revision  of  the  statutes 
so  as  to  curtail  tht*  powers  of  the  secretariat  and  to  encourage 
bilateral  alliances  among  the  member  states. 

In  a  foreign  policy  statement  of  June  1  the  prime 
minister  told  the  Iraqi  Senate  that  he  would  send 
Muzahim  Amin  al-Pachachi  to  Cairo  to  discuss  Iraqi- 
Egyptian  differences.  With  Great  Britain,  he  said,  it  was 
necessary  to  negotiate  a  new  treaty;  but  Iraq  preferred  to 
participate  in  a  general  pact  grouping  the  Arab  independent 
powers,  like  the  North  Atlantic  treaty.  They  had  been 
opposed  in  1920-21  to  the  division  of  the  Arab  countries  into 
Lebanon,  Syria,  Iraq  and  Palestine  and  regarded  the  division 
as  exclusively  imperialist.  It  was  therefore  surprising  that 
the  unification  of  these  regions  today  should  be  called  an 
imperialist  project. 

On  June  14  the  foreign  minister  accompanied  the  Regent 
on  a  week's  visit  to  Tehran.  The  Regent  also  visited  London 
to  see  his  nephew  King  Faysal,  who  was  at  school  at  Harrow, 
and  on  July  16  called  on  Ernest  Bevin.  Later  the  prime 
minister  went  to  London,  where  he  was  received  by  Mr. 
Bevin  on  Aug.  20.  The  resumption  of  oil  pumping  through 
the  pipeline  to  the  Haifa  refineries  was  discussed  both  with 
him  and  with  the  oil  companies;  but  no  agreement  could  be 
reached  and  oil  pumping  had  still  not  been  resumed  by  the 
end  of  the  year.  On  his  way  back  to  Iraq  he  had  meetings 
in  Alexandria  with  Hussein  Sirry  Pasha,  whom  he  assured 
on  Aug.  5  that  Iraq  did  not  intend  to  force  any  form  of  a 
Greater  Syria  plan  on  other  Arab  states. 

It  was  officially  announced  in  Baghdad  on  Aug.  28  that 
while  in  London  Nuri  Pasha  had  secured  loans  totalling 
£10-5  million,  of  which  £3  million  were  from  the  London 
market  for  the  Iraqi  state  railways,  £4  "5  million  from  the 
International  bank  for  reconstruction  schemes  up  to  1952 
and  £3  million  free  of  interest  from  concessionary  oil 
companies. 

In  August  the  report  was  published  of  the  Irrigation 
Development  commission  under  F.  F.  Haigh  recommending 
schemes  which  it  was  estimated  would  double  the  irrigated 
land  of  Iraq.  The  additional  16  in.  pipeline  from  Kirkuk  to 
Tripoli  was  completed  and  oil  began  to  flow  on  Aug.  1. 

The  Iraqi  forces  in  Palestine  were  withdrawn  during  March 
and  April  and  the  Iraqi  military  government  in  the  Jenin- 
Tulkarm  area  handed  over  to  the  Jordanian  authorities. 
Iraq  was  not  represented  at  the  Palestine  armistice  negotia- 
tions at  Rhodes,  where  Jordan  negotiated  on  its  behalf, 
nor  at  the  meeting  with  the  U.N.  Conciliation  commission 
in  Lausanne. 

On  Nov.  7  Nuri  Pasha  resigned  and  on  Dec.  10  a  coalition 
government  was  formed  under  the  premiership  of  AH  Jawdat 
al-Ayyubi.  (C.  Ho.) 

Education.  (1946-47)  Schools:  elementary  1,057,  pupils  143,070, 
teachers  5,627;  intermediate  and  secondary  151,  pupils  20,424,  teachers 
1,174;  technical  48,  students  7,756;  colleges  7,  students  3,644  (excluding 
the  Engineering  college);  institutions  of  higher  education  10. 

Agriculture.  Main  crops  ('000  metric  tons,  1948):  barley  588;  wheat 
327,  rice  370;  dates  (1947)  305;  tobacco  (1949)  4;  cotton  1.  Live- 
stock ('000  head,  Dec.  1946):  sheep  8,000;  cattle  (1945)  866;  asses  435; 
horses  (Dec.  1945)  198.  Wool  production  ('000  metric  tons,  1948-49)  11. 

Industry.  Crude  oil  ('000  metric  tons,  1948;  1949,  six  months,  in 
brackets):  3,427  (1,658). 


352 


IRELAND 


Foreign  Trade.  (1948)  Imports  ID46  million;  exports,  including  oil, 
ID20  million.  Principal  imports:  cotton  piece-goods,  iron  and  steel, 
machinery  and  sugar.  Principal  exports:  oil,  dates,  wool  and  cereals. 
Main  sources  of  supply:  United  Kingdom  43%,  United  States  7%, 
Italy  6%.  Main  destinations  of  exports  (excluding  oil):  India  19%, 
United  Kingdom  17%,  United  States  13%. 

Transport  and  Communications.  Roads:  4,200  mi.  Licensed  motor 
vehicles  (Dec.  1948):  cars  6,130,  commercial  vehicles  7,600.  Railways 
(1946-47):  966  mi.;  passenger-mi.  392  million;  freight  net  ton-mi.  377 
million.  Air  transport  (1947):  mi.  flown  787,451,  passenger-mi. 
3,868,787.  Telephones  (1947):  subscribers  13,043. 

Finance  and  Banking  Budget:  (1949-50  est.)  balanced  at  ID25 
million.  Currency  circulation  (Aug.  1949;  in  brackets,  Aug.  1948) 
ID35-4  (33-5)  million.  Bank  deposits  (Aug.  1949;  in  brackets,  Aug. 
1948)  ID12-0  (12- 1)  million.  Monetary  unit:  Iraqi  dinar  at  par  with 
the  pound. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — F.  H.  Gamble,  Iraq:  Economic  and  Commercial 
Conditions.  (H.M.S.O.,  London,  1949). 

IRELAND,  NORTHERN:   see  NORTHERN  IRELAND. 

IRELAND,  REPUBLIC  OF.  An  independent 
republic  covering  five-sixths  of  an  island  to  the  west  of 
Great  Britain.  Area:  26,601  sq.  mi.  Pop.:  (1946  census) 
2,953,452;  (Oct.  1948  est.)  3,023,000.  Language:  English 
c.  76%,  Erse  (Gaelic)  c.  24%.  Religions  (1936  census): 
Roman  Catholic  93-4%,  Episcopal  4-9%,  Presbyterian  1%, 
Methodist  0  •  3  %,  Jewish  0  •  1  %,  other  0  •  3  %.  Chief  towns 
(1946  census):  Dublin  (cap.,  506,635);  Cork  (75,361); 
Dun  Laoghaire  (44,689);  Limerick  (42,987);  Waterford 
(28,332).  President,  Sean  Thomas  O'Kelly  (q.v.)\  prime 
minister,  John  A.  Costello;  minister  of  external  affairs, 
Sean  MacBride. 

History.  It  might  seem  unimportant  that  the  Irish  govern- 
ment celebrated  New  Year's  day  by  announcing  that  white 
bread  of  a  prewar  standard  would  once  again  be  allowed  in 
the  shops.  True,  the  bakers  received  this  offer  with  stony 
refusals,  claiming  that  the  75%  extraction  flour  was  too 
dear,  but  the  gesture  was  typical  of  the  government's  efforts 
to  return  to  a  state  of  life  unrestricted  and  decontrolled. 
John  A.  Costello's  inter- party  government,  largely  composed 
of  the  "  conservative  "  Fine  Gael,  reiterated  in  the  words  of 
its  minister  for  industry  and  commerce,  Daniel  Morrissey, 
that  it  "  intends  to  preserve  the  system  of  private  enterprise 
in  industry."  That  such  a  policy  was  possible  in  1949  was 
perhaps  due  to  the  fact  that  large  wage  increases  granted 
after  the  Emergency  Powers  "  standstill  order  "  was  repealed 
in  March  1946  had  raised  the  earnings  index  to  a  point  almost 
exactly  level  with  the  cost  of  living  index.  Retail  prices 
remained  constant  for  over  a  year.  And  so,  although  the 
prices  of  clothing  and  of  whisky  rose  during  1949  when  they 
were  de-restricted,  though  interest  rates  rose  as  banks  tried 
to  draw  in  the  horns  of  credit,  there  was  comparatively  little 
labour  trouble  in  the  republic.  The  January  dockers'  strike 
in  Dublin's  deep-water  port  and  a  six-week  strike  in  the 
freight  department  of  Coras  lompair  Eireann  (Irish  Transport 
company),  during  August  and  September,  caused  some 
inconvenience  but  were  not  indicative  of  any  deep  unrest. 
The  unions,  indeed,  were  in  more  trouble  with  each  other 
than  with  the  employers.  In  July  arrangements  for  a  con- 
ference between  the  Congress  of  Irish  Unions  and  the  Irish 
Trade  Union  congress  (which  was  affiliated  to  the  British 
T.U.C.) — a  conference  which  was  to  discuss  their  amalgama- 
tion— were  broken  off  when  the  two  bodies  failed  to  agree 
on  preliminary  conditions. 

The  government's  outstanding  problem  was  to  curb 
inflation  while  embarking  on  the  most  expensive  investment 
schemes  the  country  had  ever  experienced.  A  ten-year  housing 
scheme  was  expected  to  cost  £100  million ;  another  £17  million 
was  to  provide  hospital  accommodation  for  a  further  2,540 
beds;  James  Dillon,  minister  for  agriculture,  announced  a 
project  to  reclaim  4  million  ac.  of  unproductive  land  in 
ten  years  at  a  cost  of  £40  million.  Yet  all  the  signs  were  not 


President  Sean  T.  O'Kelly  (on  dais)  taking  the  salute  during  the 

march  past  in  Dublin  on  April  18,  1949,  to  celebrate  the  founding  of 

the  Republic  of  Ireland. 

pointing  to  inflation.  In  the  seven  months  ending  in  June 
1949  savings  bank  deposits  increased  by  over  £2  million 
and  there  was  also  a  big  recovery  in  savings  certificates. 
But  John  Costello  pointed  out  in  November  that  current 
savings  might  not  be  enough  to  finance  the  capital  investment 
to  which  his  government  was  committed  and  stated  that 
Irish  sterling  assets  in  the  United  Kingdom,  whose  net  total 
was  then  about  £225  million,  might  have  to  be  transferred 
for  use  at  home. 

Side  by  side  with  the  government's  believers  in  private 
enterprise  and  in  state  enterprise,  marched  the  cabinet's  left 
wingers,  believers  in  state  welfare;  and  they  found  the  going 
harder.  After  some  delay  and  much  toil  William  Norton, 
minister  for  social  welfare  and  leader  of  the  Irish  Labour 
party,  produced  in  October  his  White  Paper  on  compulsory 
insurance.  The  scheme  was  planned  to  cover  every  person 
over  the  age  of  16  who  worked  for  an  employer,  though  the 
position  of  state  employees  was  left  uncertain.  Male  workers 
were  to  contribute  35.  6d.  a  week,  female  2s.  6d.  and  employers 
a  similar  amount.  Unemployment  and  disability  benefit 
would  be  at  the  rate  of  245.  for  a  single  man,  365.  for  a 
married  man  with  an  addition  of  75.  for  each  of  two  children 
under  16.  Retirement  pension  (245.),  widow's  pension  (245.), 
maternity  and  death  benefits  were  included.  Norton  stated 


IRON   AND   STEEL 


353 


that  the  government  intended  to  go  through  with  this  scheme, 
though  there  were  rumbles  of  opposition — especially  from 
the  clergy — both  on  the  general  ground  that  such  social 
security  saps  the  worker's  initiative  and  on  the  particular 
ground  that  the  White  Paper  did  not  appear  to  cover  a  large 
proportion  of  the  population.  Meanwhile  Noel  Browne, 
Clann  na  Poblachta  (Republican  party),  minister  for  health, 
continued  to  prepare  a  scheme  for  state  medicine,  while  the 
Medical  Association  of  Ireland,  unable  to  extract  any  details 
of  the  plan,  gathered  their  strength  to  oppose  what  they 
feared  would  be  the  worst. 

Politically  the  drama  of  the  year  was  the  declaration  of  an 
independent  Irish  republic  one  minute  after  midnight  on 
Easter  Monday,  though  what  should  have  been  heroic 
history  showed  signs  of  tragi-comedy  The  six  counties  of 
Northern  Ireland  ignored  the  declaration,  the  Anglophile 
Irhh  Time?  greeted  it  with  a  distant  leader  on  '*  China's 
Dilemma  "  but  King  George  VI  sent  a  message  of  goodwill 
to  the  new  republic  whose  focal  point  of  inspiration  was 
hatred  of  his  crown.  Many  of  Costello's  Fine  Gael  supporters, 
strong  lovers  of  the  British  connection,  were  left  desolate  in 
the  belief  that  Costello  had  given  way  to  the  Republican 
views  of  Sean  MacBnde,  minister  for  external  affairs.  But 
MacBnde  said  the  whole  idea  was  Costello's  and  so  left  the 
public  more  amazed  than  jubilant  or  indignant.  From  Belfast 
Sir  Basil  Brooke  announced  that  this  step  must  perpetuate 
partition,  and  he  seemed  in  part  confirmed  when  in  May 
the  British  parliament  passed  the  Ireland  act  which,  while 
it  allowed  the  citizens  of  the  republic  the  same  rights  as  those 
of  the  Commonwealth,  guaranteed  the  special  position  of 
Northern  Ireland  for  so  long  as  the  majority  of  its  people 
wished  to  preserve  it.  The  Ireland  act  provoked  unanimous 
indignation  in  the  south  and  a  large  protest  meeting  was 
held  in  Dublin. 

Financially,  the  republic  had  a  good  year.  For  the  first  six 
months  of  1949  exports  were  up  36%  and  imports  down  15% 
against  the  comparable  figures  for  1948.  It  seemed  that  the 
republic's  adverse  trade  balance,  which  in  the  postwar  years 
had  been  running  at  £90  million  to  £100  million  a  year, 
might  be  cut  to  about  £70  million,  and  this— bearing  in  mind 
invisible  exports,  chiefly  earned  by  the  tourist  industry- 
would  bring  the  balance  of  payments  near  to  equilibrium. 
Agriculture  was  expanding  after  a  number  of  stagnant  years, 
the  volume  of  domestic  exports  for  the  first  six  months  of 
1949  increased  by  32%  over  the  figures  for  the  1948  period. 
(But  there  was  still  a  long  way  to  go  if  prewar  standards  were 
to  be  reached;  in  Jan. -June  1949,  for  instance,  202,000 
cattle  were  exported,  50,000  more  than  in  the  same  period 
the  previous  year;  the  equivalent  figure  in  1938  was  296,000). 
Wheat  production  per  acre  was  increasing,  the  export  of  eggs 
reached  a  value  of  £5  million  and  bacon  exports  were  resumed 
towards  the  end  of  the  year  for  the  first  time  since  the  war. 
As  for  industry,  which  together  with  services  was  producing 
an  output  valued  at  about  two-thirds  that  of  Irish  agriculture, 
Mornssey  pronounced  himself  satisfied.  Unemployment  had 
slightly  decreased.  One  problem,  especially  in  view  of  the 
projected  government  works,  was  the  continued  inability 
of  Bord  na  Mona  (Fuel  board)  and  the  Electricity  Supply 
board  to  get  men  to  work  on  schemes  that  would  take  them 
away  from  their  homes.  There  was  also  a  serious  shortage 
of  skilled  building  workers  and  a  campaign  was  begun  to 
attract  Irishmen  in  Britain  back  to  Ireland. 

The  Irish  theatre  lost  much  by  the  death  of  George  Shiels 
on  Sept.  19;  it  gained  little  in  new  works,  the  best  of  which 
were  Bugle  in  the  Blood  by  Bryan  MacMahon  and  In  Sand 
by  Jack  B.  Yeats.  In  sport,  Ireland  once  more  won  the 
Triple  Crown  both  for  rugby  football  and  hockey;  and 
Harry  Bradshaw,  of  Kilcroney,  only  lost  the  British  open 
golf  championship  after  a  play-off  with  Bobby  Locke. 

E.B.Y._24 


The  republic,  in  fact,  could  look  back  on  1949  with  some 
confidence.  Tourists  continued  to  flood  in  with  their  welcome 
money  (on  a  single  Friday  in  July  over  10,000  arrived  from 
Britain).  E.C  A.  headquarters  considered  that  the  government 
had  prepared  realistic  and  ambitious  plans  for  the  recovery 
and  development  of  the  country.  The  budget  reduced  income 
tax  by  6d.  to  6v  6d.  in  the  pound.  Sentimentalists  regretted 
that  the  last  Dublin  tram  ran  on  July  9  The  whole  nation 
mourned  Dr.  Douglas  H)de  (sec  OBITUARIES),  first  president 
of  Eire,  who  died  on  July  12.  But  the  country  looked  forward 
with  some  cheerfulness  to  1950  And  Costello's  government, 
which  at  the  time  of  its  creation  many  hau  thought  a  shaky 
makeshift,  consolidated  its  position  by  winning  a  seat  from 
Fianna  Fail  in  a  November  by-election  in  West  Donegal 
and  could  face  the  future  with  special  confidence.  (R  KN.) 

Kducalion  (1947-48)  Schools  elementary  4,946  pupils  444,132, 
teachers  12,772  secondary  404,  pupils  43,780;  universities  (National 
arid  Trinity  college)  students  7,202,  professors  and  lecturers  558. 

Agriculture.  Mam  crops  ('000  metric  tons,  1948)  wheat  416,  oats 
805,  barley  102,  rye  5,  potatoes  3,328,  flax  3  6  Livestock  ('000 
head  June  1948)  cattle  3,921 ,  sheep  2,058,  pigs  457,  horses  421; 
poultry  20,045  Fisheries  total  catch  (1948)  weight  20,725  metric 
tons,  value  1615,446  Food  production  ('000  metric  tons,  1948  ; 
1949,  six  months,  in  brackets),  butter  co-operative  creameries  onlyr 
28  8  (12  6),  cheese  2  4  (0  4),  meat  '20  0  (53  4) 

Industry.  (1947)  Persons  employed  in  industrial  establishments 
183,444  Fuel  and  power  (1948,  1949,  six  months,  in  brackets):  coal 
consumption  TOOO  metric  tons)  177,  manufactured  gas  (million  cu.  m  ) 
144-0  (72  6),  clectnuty  (million  kwh  )  689  (380)  Index  of  industrial 
production  (1937-100,  1948,  1949,  six  months,  in  brackets);  130 
(134)  Manufactured  goods  (1947)  distilled  spirits  ('000  proof  gal  ) 
1,501;  stout,  porter,  ale  and  beer  ('000  barrels)  1,485,  woollen  and 
worsted  tissues  ('000  sq  yd  )  6,345,  cotton  piece  goods  ('000  sq  yd  ) 
5,884,  boots  and  shoes  (million  pairs)  5,  cigarettes  ('000  Ib  )  9,023 

Foreign  Trade.  Imports  (1948)  £136  7  million,  (1949,  six  months) 
£63  8  million  Exports  (1948)  £47  5  million,  (1949,  six  months) 
£27  7  million  Mam  imports  machinery  and  vehicles,  wheat  and 
corn,  textiles  and  coal  Main  exports  cattle  and  horses,  meat,  fish 
and  dairy  products,  ale  In  1948  54°^  of  total  imports  were  supplied 
by  the  United  Kingdom,  and  87%  of  total  exports  in  1948  went  to 
the  United  Kingdom 

Transport  and  Communications.  Roads  (1949)  49,071  mi  Licensed 
motor  vehicles  (Dec  1948)  cars  60,453,  commercial  vehicles  36,535 
Railways  (1948)  2,440  mi  ,  freight  (net  ton-mi  )  320  million  Shipping 
(1948)  total  tonnage  43.663  Air  transport  (Aer  Lingus,  1948)  flights 
11,908,  mi  flown  2,542,783.  passengers  flown  180,470,  cargo  carried 
1,080  tons,  mail  70  tons  telephones  (1946)  subscribers  55,426. 
Wireless  licences  (1948)  255,000 

Finance  and  Banking.  Budget  (1948-49)  revenue  £71  69  million, 
expenditure  £71  94  million,  (1949-50  cst  )  revenue  £73  35  million, 
expenditure  £73  14  million  National  debt  (March  1948,  m  brackets 
March  1947)-  £104  8  (100  8)  million.  Currency  circulation  (Sept. 
1949,  in  brackets  Sept  1948)  £51  8  (47  6)  million  Gold  reserve 
(Sept  1949.  in  brackets  Sept  1948).  11  (11)  million  US  dollars 
Bank  deposits  (end  1949,  m  brackets  end  1948)  £242  2  (237  6> 
million  Monetary  unit  Iiish  pound  at  par  with  the  pound  sterling 

IRON  AND  STEEL.  During  1949  the  iron  and  steel 
industry  of  Great  Britain  lived  under  the  shadow  of  impending 
change.  It  could  not  be  said  that  the  government's  decision, 
announced  in  November,  to  postpone  until  after  the  general 
election  the  operation  of  the  bill  to  nationalize  the  industry 
made  any  vital  difference  to  the  outlook.  For  some  time  it 
had  been  apparent  that  state  control  could  not  be  made  a 
working  reality  until  after  the  election  and  that,  in  fact,  the 
future  shape  of  the  industry  would  be  left  to  the  voters.  The 
government's  decision  did  at  least  bring  to  an  end  what  had 
developed  into  a  battle  over  the  bill  between  the  two  houses 
of  parliament.  In  May  the  bill  passed  its  third  reading  in  the 
Commons.  A  Conservative  motion  to  reject  it  was  defeated 
by  333  votes  to  203.  Before  it  came  up  for  detailed  dis- 
cussion in  the  House  of  Lords,  Lord  Salisbury  presented 
what  was  called  "  an  ultimatum  "  from  the  Conservative 
peers:  either  the  government  should  agree  to  postpone  the 
operation  of  the  act  until  the  country  had  pronounced 
judgment  on  it  at  the  general  election;  or  the  Conservative 
peers  would  compel  the  government  to  carry  it  under  the 


354 


IRON  AND   STEEL 


Ttoutond  metric  tons 


Thousond  metric  too« 


PRODUCTION    OF    STEEL   INGOTS 
AND    CASTINGS 

MONTHLY    AVERAGES         —  — 

E3  G«rmony  Blzone      HUK       gg§  Fro  net      52  Belgium      H 


1937 


1947 


1948 


1949 

(1st  8  months) 


procedure  of  the  new  Parliament  act,  designed  to  limit  to 
one  year  the  power  of  the  Lords  to  delay  legislation.  To 
this  Lord  Addison,  for  the  government,  gave  a  non-committal 
reply  and  in  June  the  Conservative  and  Liberal  peers  joined 
in  carrying  a  group  of  amendments  which  postponed 
operation  of  the  bill  until  Oct.  1,  1950,  and  the  vesting  date 
until  July  1,  1951.  The  date  selected  by  the  government  for 
the  transfer  of  assets  to  the  state  had  been  May  1,  1950. 
On  July  26  the  bill  was  back  in  the  Commons,  with  60 
amendments.  Of  these  the  government  accepted  23,  on  the 
ground  that  they  did  not  interfere  with  the  government's 
general  intention.  But  the  minister  of  supply  said  that  the 
government  did  not  intend  to  accept  any  significant  change 
and  the  delaying  amendment  was  rejected.  In  due  course, 
the  Lords  restored  it  and  on  Nov.  16,  the  Commons 
considered  the  Lords'  reasons  for  insisting  on  the  amendments 
with  which  the  Commons  had  disagreed.  The  minister  said 
that  May  1,  1950,  could  no  longer  be  the  date  of  transfer. 
Even  if  the  bill  became  law  under  the  new  Parliament  act, 
the  government  would  have  so  to  rush  the  preliminary  steps 
required  to  make  May  1  the  take-over  date  as  to  jeopardize 
the  successful  launching  of  the  scheme.  The  government 
therefore  proposed  that  the  bill  should  become  an  act 
immediately,  but  that  vesting  day  should  be  changed  from 
May  1,  1950,  to  Jan.  1,  1951.  It  was  also  proposed  that  the 
minister  should  not  appoint  any  member  of  the  Iron  and 
Steel  corporation  (to  which  the  securities  of  the  scheduled 
companies  were  to  be  transferred)  before  Oct.  1,  1950,  but 
that  other  provisions,  dealing  with  the  disposal  of  iron  and 
steel  works  and  the  dissipation  of  assets  prior  to  the  date  of 
transfer,  should  come  into  effect  immediately  the  royal  assent 
was  obtained.  These  government  amendments  were  agreed 
to  by  the  Commons  and  the  future  of  the  industry  was  left, 
as  had  been  anticipated,  to  the  decision  of  the  electorate. 
The  bill  received  the  royal  assent  on  Nov.  24. 

Meanwhile,  interim  authority  passed  wholly  into  the  hands 
of  the  Ministry  of  Supply.  The  Iron  and  Steel  board  came 
to  an  end  of  its  own  volition. 

Outside  parliament  the  steel  manufacturers'  case  against 
nationalization  was  repeatedly  stated.  Sir  Ellis  Hunter, 
president  of  the  British  Iron  and  Steel  federation,  proposed 
a  stronger  Iron  and  Steel  board  rather  than  complete  state 
control,  arguing  that  it  ought  to  be  possible  to  develop  suc- 
cessful co-operation  between  the  state  and  private  enterprise. 

In  their  policy  booklet,  The  Right  Road  for  Britain,  pub- 
lished in  July,  the  Conservatives  promised  to  scrap  the 
nationalization  plan  and  to  appoint  a  body,  representing 


the   government,   management,   labour   and   consumer,   to 
supervise  prices  and  development  within  the  industry. 

The  production  side  of  the  industry  appeared  to  be  un- 
disturbed by  all  this  political  argument.  Looking  back  on  a 
year  in  which  14,877,000  tons  of  crude  steel  of  all  qualities 
had  been  produced — more  than  in  any  previous  year — the 
industry  was  set  new  targets  for  1949.  The  economic  survey 
issued  by  the  government  stated  this  aim  as  "  the  maximum 
output  the  industry  can  achieve  with  the  material  it  can 
obtain,"  adding  that  in  the  most  favourable  circumstances 
this  should  be  between  15£  and  15^  million  tons  of  ingot 
steel.  Similarly,  the  revised  monthly  export  targets  announced 
by  the  Board  of  Trade  in  March  raised  the  figure  for  iron  and 
steel  from  £8^  million  a  month  to  £10^  million.  In  March, 
steel  production  reached  a  new  record  with  an  output  of 
steel  ingots  and  castings  equivalent  to  an  annual  rate  of 
16,269,000  tons.  The  industry  beat  this  in  May,  lifting  the 
annual  rate  to  16,409,000  tons.  The  actual  output  for  1949 
was  15,553,000  tons  of  steel,  a  total  which  exceeded  the  top 
limit  set  by  the  government. 

TABLE  I.— IRON  AND  STEFL  WEEKLY  AVERAGE  OUTPUT,  1949,  GREAT 
BRITAIN  (Thousand  tons) 

INGOTS  AND 
IRON  ORE      Pio  IRON      CASTINGS 


Jan. 

Feb. 

March 

April 
May 
June 

July 
Aug. 
Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

269 

267 
263 
255 
263 
268 
258 
248 
266 
237 
249 
249 


178 
181 
179 
179 
187 
186 
177 
182 
185 
184 
187 
186 


289 
311 
313 
305 
316 
301 
244 
288 
306 
307 
315 
291 


Imports  of  iron  ore  into  the  United  Kingdom  rose  steadily 
until  August,  when  they  reached  950,800  tons  compared  with 
a  monthly  average  in  1948  of  722,900  tons.  It  seemed  prob- 
able that  the  total  would  be  about  500,000  tons  more  than  in 
1948.  Two  million  tons  of  scrap,  mainly  from  Germany, 
also  helped  the  raw  material  supply  in  1949.  It  was  felt, 
as  in  the  case  of  iron  ore,  that  future  supplies  depended  on 
the  possibility  of  American  competition  and  on  German 
readiness  to  go  on  exporting.  The  British  steel  industry 
went  ahead  with  the  development  of  new  blast  furnaces  to 
reduce  their  dependence  on  imported  scrap. 

Imports  of  iron  and  steel  were  higher  than  in  1948  and 
the  total  held  was  increased  by  about  500,000  tons  during 
the  year.  Devaluation  raised  the  cost  of  these  imports  a 
great  deal;  the  American  price  became  nearly  double  the 
home  price  for  a  ton  of  steel  and  it  seemed  likely  that  in 
future  imports  would  be  cut.  (See  Table  II.) 

TABLE  II.  — STFEL  SUPPLIES  AND  CONSUMPTION 

(Million  ingot  tons) 

Supplies  1938         1948         1949 

Production  .          .      10-4         14-9         15-6 

Imports   .          .          .          .       1-0          0-5  1-1 

Re-usable  material     .         .       —  0-5          0-5 


Total 

Consumption 
Direct  exports 
Indirect  exports 
Consumption  and  defence  1 
Home  investment       .        J 

Total 
Change  in  stocks 


11-4 


15-9         17-2 


8-7 

11-9 

—0-5 


2-1 
2-7 

10-4 


15-2 
H-0-7 


2-4 
3-0 

11-3 


16-7 
+0-5 


Total          .          .          .     11-4         15-9         17-2 

After  discussions  between  the  industry  and  the  government, 
the  industry's  development  plan,  drawn  up  in  1946,  was 
revised  during  the  year  to  increase  the  productive  capacity 


IRON  AND   STEEL 


355 


in  1953-54  from  16  million  ingot  tons  to  18,500,000  ingot 
tons  a  year.  This  was  to  be  done  partly  by  expanding  the 
capacity  of  projected  schemes  but  mainly  by  keeping  in 
operation  plants  which,  because  of  the  greatly  increased 
cost  of  new  plant,  could  be  considered  as  having  a  longer 
economic  life  than  had  been  anticipated.  It  was  estimated 
that  the  revised  capacity  would  be  enough  normally  to  pro- 
duce 17,500,000  ingot  tons.  Actual  work  on  the  plan  pro- 
ceeded during  the  year  and  new  plant,  blast  furnaces  and  ore- 
unloading  and  treatment  plant  were  brought  into  operation. 


TABLE  IV. — WORLD  PRODUCTION  OF  Pic  IRON 
(In  thousands  of  short  tons) 


Low's  comment  in  the  **  Evening  Standard"  (Ixmdon)  on  the  action 
oj  the  House  of  Lonh  in  arne  tiding  the  Iron  and  Steel  bill. 

An  increase  in  loans  undertaken  by  the  Finance  Corpora- 
tion for  Industry  was  due  mainly  to  extra  finance  for  the  steel 
industry,  since  it  was  felt  that  the  possibility  of  nationalization 
made  it  impracticable  for  many  companies  to  raise  money 
for  the  development  plan  on  the  ordinary  capital  market. 

On  March  30  the  minister  of  supply  announced  in  the 
House  of  Commons  that,  although  the  subsidies  to  meet  the 
excess  cost  of  imported  finished  steel  and  the  import  duties 
on  pig  iron  and  steel  would  be  continued,  as  from  April  1 
the  remaining  subsidies  would  cease,  with  an  estimated 
saving  to  the  exchequer  for  the  year  1949-50  of  about  £25 
million.  The  increase  in  cost  to  the  industry  was  reflected 
in  higher  prices.  This  change  in  price  also  took  into  account 
the  results  of  a  review  of  the  price  structure  on  which  the 
Iron  and  Steel  board  had  been  engaged  since  the  autumn  of 
1947.  Even  after  devaluation,  British  home  trade  prices 
still  compared  favourably  with  those  of  other  producing 
countries  and  were  far  below  those  in  the  U.S. 

Europe.    In  western  Europe  as  a  whole,  progress  in  iron 

TABLF  III  —WORLD  PRODUCTION  OF  IRON  ORE 
(In  thousands  of  short  tons) 


1944 

1945 

1946 

1947 

1948 

Algeria    . 

864 

1,326 

1,842 

1,715 

2,065 

Australia 

2,443 

1,750 

2,100 

2,500 

7 

Austria 

3,323 

357 

520 

976 

1,320 

Brazil 

862 

789 

1,102 

1,022 

1,589 

Canada 

553 

1,135 

1,581 

1,919 

1,354 

Chile 

744 

1,042 

1,491 

1,772 

2,435 

Czechoslovakia 

1,746 

304 

1,230 

1,502 

1,575 

France     . 

20,958 

8,502 

17,893 

20,612 

25,363 

Germany 

? 

7 

4,564 

4,920 

7,202 

Great  Britain 

17,328 

15,962 

13,634 

12,413 

14.661 

India 

2,647 

2,536 

2,697 

2,798 

? 

Italy 

730 

148 

145 

249 

501 

Japan 

4,815 

1,495 

624 

550 

612 

Korea      . 

3,734 

? 

83 

103 

7 

Luxembourg 

3,214 

1,550 

2,477 

2,196 

3,749 

Morocco,  Spanish 

762 

843 

868 

958 

997 

Newfoundland 

520 

1,103 

1,393 

1,617 

1,644 

Poland     . 

750 

103 

467 

600 

664 

Spam 

1,663 

1,291 

1,760 

1,669 

1,862 

Sweden    . 

7,995 

4,332 

7,570 

9,805 

13,295 

Tunisia 

98 

146 

202 

440 

768 

United  States    . 

105,412 

98,982 

79,344 

104,263 

113,124 

Australia 

Austria 

Belgium 

Canada 

China 

Czechoslovakia 

France 

Saar 

Germany 

Great  Britain 

India 

Italy 

Japan 

Luxembourg 

Poland 

Sweden 

U  S.S.R. 

United  States 


1944 
1,462 
1,021 

792 
2,02* 
2,339 
1,746 
3,189 
1,796 
14,738 
7,545 
1 ,602 

341 
3,J80 
1,486 

762 

979 
16,800 
62,897 


1945 

1,257 
107 
810 

1,956 
544 
635 

1,320 

7 

1,238 

7,960 

1,562 

83 

1,081 

349 

252 

866 

18,800 

54,956 


1946 
979 
64 

2,382 
1,521 
1 

1,058 
3,852 
259 
2,297 
8,692 
1,485 
226 
240 
1,504 
800 
793 

1 6,750  ^ 
46,323 


1947 

1948 

1,268 

1,270 

307 

676 

3,105 

4,340 

2,152 

2,372 

1,569 

1,822 

5,3*"> 

7,248 

794 

1,358 

2,493 

6,394 

8,457 

10,389 

1,560 

1,488 

425 

580 

410 

922 

2,004 

2,896 

956 

1,249 

799 

831 

18,000'' 

18,500? 

60,141 

61,966 

Total 


220,000   176,000   170,000   206,000   232,000 


Total        119,000    87,000    87,000   109,000   124,000 

and  steel  production,  considered  as  part  of  the  Organization 
for  European  Economic  Co-operation  expansion  programme, 
led  the  Economic  Co-operation  Administration  to  issue  a 
statement  advising  caution.  It  was  suggested  that  expanding 
steel  industries  in  western  Europe  might  find  themselves  in 
1953  with  an  exportable  surplus  and  inadequate  markets. 
The  programmes  submitted  by  participating  countries  called 
for  the  production  of  57-5  million  tons  of  crude  steel  in 
1953-54,  beside  a  prewar  average  of  44-5  million  tons. 
E.C.A.  suggested  that  the  expansion  programme  should  be 
extended  over  a  period  of  ten  years  rather  than  four,  "  so 
as  to  permit  a  more  accurate  appraisal  to  be  made  of  potential 
markets."  Crude  steel  production  in  the  British  and  American 
zones  of  Germany  passed  a  rate  of  about  nine  million  tons 
a  year  in  the  summer  but  later  fell  below  that  level.  Steel 
benefited  from  the  blockade  of  Berlin,  which  had  the  effect 
of  releasing  more  fuel  to  the  Ruhr,  but  internal  deflation 
and  limit  on  exports  restricted  the  market.  Steel  interests 
in  the  zones  were  more  concerned,  however,  with  the  dis- 
mantling programme.  On  this  issue,  American  opinion, 
which  had  advocated  that  German  steel  output  should  be 
held  down  to  5  8  million  tons,  swung  during  1949  from  that 
extreme  to  the  other.  Towards  the  end  of  November,  an 
agreement  touching  the  dismantling  policy  was  announced 
between  the  German  federal  chancellor  and  the  Allied  High 
commission  which  meant  the  immediate  cessation  of  dis- 
mantling at  a  number  of  steel  plants.  Existing  production 
prohibitions  and  restrictions  were  to  remain,  however, 
and  steel  output  remained  limited  at  11,100,000  tons  a  year. 

The  Benelux  countries  suffered  setbacks  during  1949 
because  of  their  currency  position  and  devaluation,  which 
upset  their  prices  and,  owing  to  their  dependency  on  exports, 
left  them  "  out  on  a  limb."  France  seemed  to  have  reached 
saturation  point  on  her  home  market  but,  like  Great  Britain, 
was  expanding  her  exports. 

Commonwealth.  In  the  Commonwealth,  Australian  steel 
production  was  troubled  during  1949  by  the  coal  strike. 
The  country  was  short  of  steel  and  even  bought  some  from 
Japan.  In  Canada,  production  was  at  a  high  rate  and  the 
main  question  was  whether  or  not  Great  Britain  could 
replace  the  U.S.  in  meeting  the  difference  between  Canada's 
pioduction  and  her  consumption.  South  Africa,  which 
produced  660,000  tons  in  1948  and  about  700,000  tons  in 
1949,  was  hoping  to  lift  the  figure  to  1  million  tons  when  the 
Vanderbilt  park  project  came  into  operation.  (C.  F.  DN.) 

United  States.  Production  of  iron  ore  declined  somewhat 
in  1949,  the  total  for  the  first  10  months  being  90,081,583 
short  tons,  compared  with  99,761,252  tons  in  the  same  period 
of  1948.  The  decline  in  the  remaining  two  months  was 
expected  to  be  even  more  marked,  as  the  usual  winter  decline 


356 


ISLAM— ISRAEL 


TABLE  V. — WORLD  PRODUCTION  OF  STEEL 
(In  thousands  of  short  tons) 


1944 

1945             1946 

1947             1948 

Australia 

1,706 

1 

,508             1,177 

1,376            1,236 

Austria 

7 

189               207 

394               714 

Belgium 

701 

813            2,518 

3,180           4,318 

Canada 

2,930 

2 

,803            2,293 

2,945            3,202 

C/echoslovdkid 

2,778 

I 

.045            1  ,843 

2,520            2,916 

France 

3,408 

1 

,822            4,859 

6,338            7,984 

Saar 

1,974 

?                   32  1 

776            1,346 

Germany 

20,192 

322            2,961 

3,290            6,127 

Great  Britain    . 

11,599 

13 

,243          14,220 

14,246          16,662 

India 

1,468 

1,429               ,376 

,349            1,224 

Italy 

1,138 

437               ,270 

,874            2,342 

Japan 

7,032 

1 

,  1  77                608 

,041             1,889 

Luxembourg 

1,389 

291               ,426 

,888            2,704 

Poland 

755 

546               ,344 

,731            2,070 

Sweden    . 

1,120 

1 

,327              ,335 

,311             1,384 

U.S.S.R  (est.)  . 

15.400 

19,800          20,000 

22,000          22,200 

United  States    . 

89,642 

79,702          66,603 

84,894          88,640 

Total    . 


173,000        134,000        128,000        154,000        171,000 


was  expected  to  be  supplemented  by  a  drop  in  demand  for 
ore  because  of  a  coal  shortage. 

In  1949  blast  furnace  output  was  maintained  during  the 
first  five  months  at  10%  above  the  1948  average  rate  but 
sagged  from  June  to  September  and  dropped  sharply  in  the 
fourth  quarter.  Output  up  to  the  end  of  November  was 
48,430,195  short  tons  of  pig  iron  and  545,433  tons  of  ferro- 
alloys, a  total  of  48,975,628  tons.  These  figures  did  not 
include  the  output  of  ferro-alloys  in  electric  furnaces. 

The  1948  U.S.  steel  output  was  exceeded  only  in  the  years 
1943-44,  and  fell  short  of  the  war  peak  by  a  little  more  than 
a  million  tons.  In  1949,  production  declined  sharply  in  each 
succeeding  quarter  but  the  average  monthly  output  did  not 
fall  below  that  of  1948  until  after  July.  Heavy  reductions 
were  recorded  in  the  last  quarter,  especially  in  October 
because  of  a  coal  shortage,  and  the  total  for  the  year  was 
77,868,000  tons.  (See  also  METALLURGY.)  (G.  A.  Ro.) 

ISLAM.  The  social  and  political  instability  characteristic 
of  the  world  after  World  War  II  did  not  fail  to  have  grave 
repercussions  upon  the  cultural  evolution  of  Islam  in  1949, 
especially  as  it  was  also  suffering  from  its  own  troubles.  Thus 
the  defeat  of  the  Arab  League  (</.v.)  in  its  war  against  Israel 
produced  a  sharp  reaction  of  public  opinion  in  Hgypt,  Iraq 
and  Syria.  The  situation  of  Pakistan  was  seriously  affected 
by  its  conflict  with  India  over  Kashmir.  Soviet  political 
activities  created  disquietude  among  Moslem  countries.  It 
was  only  at  the  end  of  1949  that  Indonesia  came  to  an  agree- 
ment with  the  Netherlands. 

Further  cultural  progress  nevertheless  was  achieved, 
especially  in  the  sphere  of  public  instruction  and  of  the 
emancipation  of  women — the  latter  especially  in  Syria,  the 
first  country  of  the  middle  east  to  grant  the  franchise  to  women. 
The  progress  of  public  instruction  was  noticeable  in  Pakistan, 
where  central  and  provincial  authorities  opened  some  1,500 
new  schools  of  all  kinds.  Urdu,  the  official  language  of  Paki- 
stan, became  the  medium  of  instruction  in  a  degree  college. 
No  less  interesting  were  the  results  of  the  cultural  activity 
of  the  Arab  League.  For  instance,  it  undertook  a  systematic 
publication  of  ancient  Arabic  manuscripts  and  the  publication 
of  a  bulletin  dealing  with  the  intellectual  life  of  Arab  countries. 
In  Egypt  an  interesting  tendency  towards  specialization  in 
the  rural  primary  schools  deserved  attention:  from  the  very 
beginning  the  child  was  initiated  in  the  art  of  agriculture 
and  rural  handicrafts.  All  Moslem  countries,  especially 
Turkey,  Egypt  and  Pakistan,  sent  more  of  their  students 
abroad,  chiefly  to  Great  Britain  and  the  U.S.  The  re-estab- 
lishment in  Turkey  of  theological  education  in  its  universities 
contributed  to  the  intensification  of  religious  life. 

On    Feb.    18-19,    1949,    the    5th    International    Moslem 


congress  took  place  at  Karachi  affirming  once  more  the  unity 
of  Islam.  On  Sept.  11-16  an  Islamic  Cultural  congress 
assembled  at  Tunis;  unfortunately  the  restrictive  measures 
taken  by  the  French  authorities  prevented  the  Moslems  from 
abroad  being  present.  From  Nov.  25  to  Dec.  10  the  first 
Economic  congress  met  at  Karachi  of  all  Moslem  countries 
and  was  attended  by  300  technical  experts,  economists  and 
industrialists. 

In  1949  an  International  Islamic  committee  was  founded 
at  Karachi.  At  the  end  of  the  year  Chaudhury  Khaliquz/aman, 
president  of  the  All-Pakistan  Muslim  league,  suggested  the 
creation  of  a  confederation  of  Moslem  states  under  the  name 
of  Islamistan,  the  capital  of  which  should  be  in  Persia.  He 
toured  the  middle  east  and  in  Iraq  and  Persia  met  with  a 
warm  reception  for  his  views.  (A.  MJD.) 

BIBI  IOORAPHY.  H.  A.  R  Gibb,  Mohammedanism  (Oxford,  1949) 
The  author,  professor  of  Arabic  at  the  University  of  Oxford,  gives  the 
following  estimates  of  the  number  of  Moslems  Pakistan  and  India 
90  million,  Malaya  and  Indonesia  55,  Arab-speaking  populations  in 
western  Asia  15,  Egypt  and  Sudan  17,  north  Africa  16,  Persia  15, 
Afghanistan  12,  Turkey  18,  Asiatic  U  S  S.R.  and  China  30,  Moslem 
Negroes  in  Africa  24,  Balkans  and  European  U.S  S  R  3— total  295 
million. 

ISLE    OF    MAN:    see  MAN,  ISLE  OF. 

ISRAEL.  A  Jewish  republic  in  Palestine,  with  undefined 
frontiers,  was  proclaimed  on  May  14,  1948,  at  Tel  Aviv. 
According  to  a  partition  plan  adopted  on  Nov.  29,  1947,  by 
the  general  assembly  of  the  United  Nations,  the  state  of 
Israel  was  to  cover  5,579  sq.  mi.  (with  Negev);  but  this  area 
was  reduced  to  2,124  sq.  mi.  (without  Negcv)  by  Count 
Folkc  Bernadottc,  the  U.N.  mediator,  in  his  plan  dated 
Sept.  16,  1948.  After  armistices  concluded  with  all  the 
neighbours  during  1 949  the  dc  facto  area  of  Israel  was  estimated 
at  about  7,800  sq.  mi.  According  to  a  census  of  Nov.  8, 
1948,  this  area  had  a  population  of  782,000,  including 
713,003  Jews;  one  year  later  the  million  mark  was  reached. 
Chief  towns  (pop.  Dec.  1949  cst.):  Jaffa-Tel  Aviv  (cj  v.) 
(cap.,  over  300,000);  Haifa  (150,000).  President,  Dr.  Chaim 
Weizmann  (q  v  );  prime  minister,  David  Ben-Gunon  (</.v.); 
minister  of  foreign  affairs,  Moshe  Sharctt  (q.v.). 

History.  This  was  a  year  of  solid  progress  for  the  young 
state  of  Israel,  whose  independence  had  been  proclaimed  on 
May  14,  1948.  By  the  beginning  of  1949  the  government  was 
in  control  of  practically  the  whole  area  over  which  it  claimed 
jurisdiction  with  the  exception  of  the  Negev,  the  southern 
part  of  the  country.  Here  lighting  was  taking  place  along  the 
Egyptian  frontier  in  the  Gaza  district  and  Israeli  forces  were 
actively  consolidating  their  positions  to  the  south  and  east. 
Egyptian  opposition  was  rapidly  overcome  and  by  Jan.  13 
armistice  talks  opened  at  Rhodes,  under  the  auspices  of  the 
United  Nations'  acting  mediator,  Dr.  Ralph  Bunche.  Rela- 
tions with  Great  Britain,  on  the  other  hand,  which  had  been 
strained  ever  since  the  outbreak  of  hostilities  with  the  Arab 
states  suffered  a  fresh  set-back  as  a  result  of  two  events. 
On  Jan.  8,  Israeli  forces  shot  down  five  Royal  Air  Force 
fighter  planes  which  were  carrying  out  a  reconnaissance  over 
the  battle  area  near  Rafah  and  about  the  same  time  it  was 
announced  that  Great  Britain  had  despatched  reinforce- 
ments to  Aqaba,  on  the  Red  sea  coast,  because  of  the  grave 
concern  felt  over  the  Palestine  situation.  For  a  short  while 
the  relations  between  the  two  countries  remained  tense.  The 
incident  of  the  aircraft,  however,  was  smoothed  over  and,  in 
spite  of  the  fact  that  Great  Britain  kept  a  watchful  eye  on 
developments  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Aqaba  and  sent  a 
considerable  force  to  the  Transjordan  coast,  the  Israeli 
army  was  allowed  to  occupy  the  coastal  strip,  known  as 
Elath,  to  which  it  considered  itself  entitled  under  the  terms 
of  the  United  Nations  proposals. 


ISRAEL 


357 


The  first  general  election  in  Israel,  to  a  Constituent 
Assembly,  was  held  on  Jan.  25.  Twelve  parties  competed  for 
the  120  seats.  The  total  number  of  voters  was  782,000 
including  69,000  non-Jews  (Moslems  and  Christians).  The 
result  was  an  outright  victory  for  the  Israel  Labour  party, 
known  as  Mapai,  which  gained  46  seats  (tee  ELECTIONS).  The 
government  that  was  formed  contained  most  of  the  leaders 
who  had  previously  composed  the  provisional  administration 
and  was  a  combination  of  Mapai,  the  Religious  front, 
Progressives  and  Sephardim.  On  Feb.  16,  Dr.  Chaim 
Weizmann  was  elected  first  president  of  Israel. 

Although  it  had  been  proclaimed  that  the  primary  task  of 
the  Constituent  Assembly  would  be  to  adopt  a  constitution, 
the  Knesset  (assembly)  found  itself  confronted  with  so  many 
and  such  urgent  tasks  that  comparatively  little  time  was 
devoted ^to  this  subject;  but  an  interim  or  small  constitution 
was  adopted  immediately  before  the  president  was  elected. 
The  most  pressing  task  with  which  the  government  had  to 
deal  was  the  assimilation  of  the  thousands  of  immigrants 
who  had  arrived  in  the  country.  The  government  had  >et 
themselves  the  objective  of  doubling  the  population  in  four 
years,  which  was  mterpictcd  by  Ben-Gunon,  the  prime 
minister,  as  the  admission  of  750,000  immigrants  during  that 
period.  In  1949,  239,171  immigrants  arrived  in  Israel,  an 
average  of  18,260  per  month. 

Economically,  the  situation  had  to  be  faced  that  the 
country's  natural  resources  were  extremely  limited  and  it  was 
obliged  to  depend  upon  imports  for  a  large  proportion  of  its 
food  supplies,  nearly  all  its  industrial  raw  materials  and  the 
majority  of  its  manufactured  goods  With  the  oil  refineries 
at  Haifa  and  the  potash  works  on  the  Dead  sea  virtually 
closed  down,  Israel  was  left  with  its  orange  crop  as  its  sole 
important  visible  export.  It  was  not  surprising,  therefore, 
that  a  serious  inflationary  situation  was  produced  and  when 
the  finance  minister,  Eliezer  Kaplan,  introduced  his  budget 
on  June  14  he  stressed  the  importance  of  bringing  down  the 
cost  of  living,  increasing  production  and  restricting  imports. 
Severe  measures  were  taken  to  attain  these  objects  and  an 
austerity  regime,  modelled  on  that  in  Great  Britain,  was 
adopted  which  had  the  effect  of  holding  inflation  in  check. 
When  the  pound  sterling  was  devalued  in  September  Israel 
immediately  followed  (although  it  did  not  technically  belong 
to  the  sterling  area)  by  reducing  its  pound  from  $3  to  $2  80. 
The  economy  of  the  country  was  strongly  supported  by 
world  Jewry,  which,  through  the  activities  of  various  affiliates 
of  the  Zionist  organization,  raised  many  millions  of  dollars 
for  the  purchase  of  goods,  afforestation  and  development 
schemes,  educational  and  cultural  activities  In  addition,  a 
credit  of  $100  million  was  granted  by  the  Export-Import 
bank  in  January  and  commercial  agreements  were  negotiated 
with  many  other  countries,  including  Great  Britain. 

Considering  the  difficulties  which  confronted  the  state  at 
its  birth,  the  progress  that  was  made  in  the  field  of  foreign 
affairs  was  striking.  Recognition,  either  de  jure  or  dc  facto, 
which  many  countries  had  been  reluctant  to  grant  in  the  first 
months  following  the  declaration  of  independence,  became 
general  for  practically  all  the  nations  of  the  world  with  the 
exception  of  the  Arab  and  most  of  the  Moslem  countries. 
Great  Britain  granted  de  facto  recognition  on  Jan.  29.  A 
further  success  was  Israel's  admission  to  the  United  Nations 
on  May  1 1,  when  it  obtained  37  votes  in  the  general  assembly 
against  12  with  9  abstentions.  Soon  afterwards  Moshe 
Sharett,  the  foreign  minister,  declared  that  the  basis  of 
Israel's  foreign  policy  was  fidelity  to  the  United  Nations, 
independence  of  either  of  the  two  world  blocs,  a  desire  for 
peace  and  stability  and  co-operation  with  the  Arab  states  in 
the  common  development  of  the  middle  east.  The  conflicting 
demands  of  west  and  east  created  problems,  both  internally 
and  externally,  which  were  similar  to  those  with  which  all 


l',i<icl  Boundary     (subject  to 
.tltordliOP  <»nrj  ba-.t'd  on  U  N 
Security  Council  official  r(co 
Rt-f  S   hC?  RPV   1   tinted 
Atth  Ju 


United  Nation*  Partition  Plan 
.W  boundary    (approved  by  U  N 
General  Assembly 
Nov  29  1147) 


the  smaller  countries  in  the  peripheral  areas  of  the  two  great 
political  blocs  were  obliged  to  deal.  In  the  case  of  Israel  its 
predicament  was  accentuated  by  the  fact  that  its  major 
source  of  economic  support  lay  in  the  governments  and 
Jewish  communities  of  the  west,  whereas  her  principal 
reservoir  of  immigration  remained  in  Soviet-controlled 
Europe.  The  dilemma  was  accentuated  during  the  second 
half  of  the  year  by  the  increasing  obstacles  that  were  placed 
by  satellite  governments  in  the  way  of  emigrants  wishing  to 
leave  eastern  Europe,  which  led  to  the  adoption  of  the  policy 


358 


ISTANBUL 


Chaim   Weizmann  taking  the  oath  as  the  first  president  of  Israel, 
Jerusalem,  Feb.  17,  1949. 

of  encouraging  Jewish  emigration  from  the  middle  east  and 
north  Africa. 

Armistice  agreements  were  concluded  with  all  the  neigh- 
bouring states  and  relations  with  the  Arab  countries  generally 
improved  slightly  though  they  were  far  from  reaching 
normality.  The  U.N.  Conciliation  commission,  which  was 
set  up  in  Dec.  1948,  made  many  attempts  to  convert  the 
armistice  agreements  into  a  peace  settlement  but  without 
success.  The  main  stumbling  block  in  these  negotiations  was 
ostensibly  the  question  of  the  Arab  refugees,  whom  the  Arab 
states  demanded  that  Israel  should  bring  back  to  their  homes 
and  of  whom  Israel  declared  that  it  could  not  take  more  than 
100,000  and  that  this  concession  was  subject  to  the  signing 
of  a  general  peace  settlement.  In  its  interim  report  the  U.N. 
Economic  Survey  Mission  for  the  Middle  East  stated  that 
the  total  number  of  destitute  refugees  was  652,000. 

A  question  which  had  given  rise  to  much  discussion  during 
the  year  and  on  which  the  Vatican  had  expressed  strong 
opinions  was  that  of  the  future  of  Jerusalem  (^.v.)  and  the 
holy  places.  The  Conciliation  commission  proposed  a  plan 
which  was  placed  before  the  autumn  session  of  the  U.N. 
general  assembly  and  envisaged  a  permanent  international 
regime  for  Jerusalem,  dividing  it  into  Arab  and  Jewish 
demilitarized  zones,  the  boundary  of  which  would  follow 
approximately  that  suggested  in  the  partition  resolution  of 
Nov.  29,  1947.  It  was  explained  that  the  plan  did  not  propose 
a  complete  separation  of  the  area  from  the  political  life  and 
authority  of  the  adjoining  states.  The  scheme  was  bitterly 
opposed  by  the  government  and  people  of  Israel  and  also  by 
the  kingdom  of  Jordan,  which  was  equally  concerned. 
Nevertheless,  when  the  matter  came  up  for  discussion  at  the 
general  assembly,  an  Australian-sponsored  resolution,  based 
on  this  proposal  but  giving  the  suggested  international 
authority  even  greater  powers,  was  carried  on  Dec.  9  by  38 
votes  to  14  with  7  abstentions.  The  means  whereby  the  scheme 
was  to  be  carried  out  was  left  to  the  Trusteeship  council  to 


devise  but  not  before  the  assembly  had  voted  $8  million  for 
the  plan.  (D.  F.  K.) 

Education.  Jewish  education,  private  and  public  systems  (1946-47): 
kindergartens  487,  pupils  17,318,  teachers  755;  elementary  schools  349, 
pupils  71,531,  teachers  3,372;  secondary  schools  40,  pupils  12,349, 
teachers  747;  training  colleges  11,  students  1,495,  teachers  191 ;  trade 
schools  31,  pupils  3,993.  teachers  446;  religious  schools  70,  pupils 
5.523,  teachers  364;  schools  for  defectives  and  orphanages  9,  pupils 
635.  teachers  86.  Hebrew  university  pupils  (1946-47)  1,027.  Non- 
Jewish  education,  public  system  (1948-49):  elementary  schools  44, 
pupils  6,677,  teachers  146;  secondary  schools  1,  pupils  411,  teachers  1 1. 

Agriculture  and  Fisheries.  Main  crops  (in  '000  metric  tons,  1947-48): 
wheat  15-5;  barley  9-0;  oats  0-6;  maize  and  durra  6-0;  hay  32-0; 
legumes  2-0;  melons  7-0;  straw  22-0;  potatoes  31 -0;  fresh  vege- 
tables 47-5;  grapes  9-2;  bananas  8-5;  (1948)  oranges  and  tangerines 
183;  grapefruit  36;  lemons  9.  Livestock  (1948):  cattle  32,650,  sheep 
17,995,  donkeys  2,290,  mules  and  horses  4,591.  laying  hens  990,756, 
chickens  905,141,  pullets  442,739,  ducks  22,214.  Fisheries:  total 
catch  (1947-48):  weight  2,650  metric  tons;  value  £P1J  85,000. 

Industry.  Electricity  (million  kwh,  1948)  260,  Manufactured  goods 
(in  metric  tons,  June- Dec.  1948):  salt  4,980,000;  refined  oils  3,788; 
margarine  3,304;  soap  2,622;  cement  45,326;  flour  29,084;  beer 
(in  litres)  3,669,748;  wine  (in  litres)  2,441,038. 

Foreign  Trade.  ('000  £1)  Imports:  (July-Dec.  1948)  23,870;  (1949) 
98,300.  Exports:  (July-Dec.  1948)  1,410;  (1949)  10,600. 

Transport  and  Communications.  Roads  (March  1949):  1,922  km. 
Licensed  motor  vehicles  (Dec.  1948):  cars  10.500,  commercial  vehicles 
11,800.  Railways  (June  1949):  403km.;  passengers  carried  (1948-49) 
382,157;  goods  traffic  (in  tons,  1948-49)  209,272.  Air  transport  (1948): 
passengers  flown  36.416;  cargo  carried  344,386  kg.;  air  mail  carried 
72,691  kg.  Telephones  (1948)  19,312.  Wireless  licences  (1948-49) 
106,403. 

Finance  and  Banking.  Budget:  (1949-50)  ordinary  revenue  and 
expenditure  balanced  at  £1  40-2  million;  extraordinary  expenditure 
for  development  purposes  £1  55  million.  Bank  notes  in  circulation 
(Dec.  1949;  in  brackets  Oct.  1948)  £1  50-1  (28-3)  million.  Monetary 
unit:  Israeli  pound  at  par  with  pound  sterling. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.    Chaim  Weizmann,  Trial  and  Error  (London,  1949). 


ISTANBUL,  as  Byzantium,  former  capital  of  the  Roman 
empire  in  the  east  for  more  than  eleven  centuries,  and, 
as  Constantinople,  former  capital  of  the  Ottoman  empire 
until  1922,  is  still  the  largest  city  of  modern  Turkey.  Pop.: 
(1940  census)  793,949,  including  about  100,000  Greeks, 
53,000  Armenians,  47,000  Jews  and  28,000  other  non- 
Moslems;  (1945  census)  860,558. 

After  many  years  of  vigorous  service  as  valt,  or  governor- 
mayor  of  the  province  and  city  of  Istanbul,  the  election  in 
autumn  1949  of  Dr.  Liitfi  Kirdar  as  deputy  for  Manisa 
confirmed  the  rumours  of  his  coming  departure.  He  was 
succeeded  as  vali  by  Dr.  Fahreddin  Kerim  Gokay,  a 
distinguished  nerve  specialist,  head  of  the  lunatic  asylum  of 
Istanbul.  On  taking  over  he  stated  that,  while  he  would 
continue  the  building  and  housing  policy  of  his  predecessor, 
his  chief  aim  was  to  improve  living  conditions  in  the  ancient 
city. 

In  October  an  exhibition  of  Turkish  industries  was  held, 
which  was  thronged  through  the  month.  It  was  understood 
that  this  would  be  an  annual  affair,  but  without  international 
character. 

Two  disasters  marked  the  year.  In  the  spring  an  explosion 
in  the  centre  of  the  city  destroyed  a  factory  and  many  buildings, 
causing  grave  loss  of  life.  The  factory  was  owned  by  Nuri 
Pasha,  brother  of  the  famous  Enver  Pasha.  Enquiry  revealed 
that  safety  regulations  had  been  ignored  and  that  explosives 
were  being  manufactured  there.  The  first  official  action  was 
to  order  the  removal  of  all  dangerous  factories  outside  the 
city.  The  second  disaster  was  an  explosion  and  fire  on  board 
the  "  Corum,"  a  Turkish  vessel,  just  before  sailing  for  the 
Black  sea.  From  burns,  suffocation  and  panic  56  persons 
were  killed  and  23  seriously  injured. 

The  new  radio  station  in  Istanbul  was  inaugurated  by  the 
president  of  the  republic  on  Nov.  19.  It  was  a  150-kw. 
medium-wave  station.  (MA.  BR.) 


ITALIAN  COLONIAL  EMPIRE 


359 


ITALIAN  COLONIAL  EMPIRE.  Under  this 
heading  are  grouped  the  former  four  Italian  provinces  of 
Libya,  the  former  military  territory  of  Libyan  Sahara,  and 
the  colonies  of  Eritrea  and  the  Italian  Somaliland.  The  total 
area  of  these  territories  is  918,937  sq.  mi.,  and  the  total  popu- 
lation (1948  est.)  3,262,600.  Certain  essential  information 
on  the  constituent  parts  of  the  former  Italian  colonial  empire 
is  given  in  the  table. 

History.  During  1949  the  fate  of  the  former  Italian  colonies 
remained  as  an  international  bone  of  contention  until  late 
in  the  year.  Power  politics  were  pursued  in  the  matter  with 
less  hestitation;  but  in  spite  of  the  steady  support  of  Latin 
America  in  the  United  Nations  Italy's  hope  of  returning  to 
Africa  dwindled.  The  main  reason  for  this  was  the  increase 
in  the  influence  and  claims  of  the  Arabs  as  a  whole,  as  also 
of  native  African  nationalism. 

Owing  to  the  failure  to  arrive  at  any  solution  of  the 
problem  in  Sept.  1948,  the  whole  matter  came  before  the 
political  committee  of  the  United  Nations  at  Lake  Success 
on  April  6,  1949.  At  first  the  great  powers  each  put  forward 
only  a  slight  modification  of  their  respective  proposals  of 
the  previous  autumn.  The  U.S.S.R.,  that  is  to  say,  continued 
to  advocate  United  Nations  trusteeship  for  ten  years  as  a 
preface  to  independence,  while  the  French  supported  Italian 
trusteeship.  On  the  other  hand  the  British  and  Americans 
wished  the  British  to  be  the  trustees  in  Cyrenaica  at  least. 
There  was  now  agreement  on  one  point  alone  and  that  was 
that  concessions  of  some  kind  must  be  made  to  Ethiopia  in 
Eritrea. 

At  this  point  Ernest  Bevin  and  Count  Carlo  Sforza 
unexpectedly  put  their  heads  together  and  produced  fresh 
proposals  according  to  which  the  Italians  were  to  take  over 
the  trusteeship  of  Tnpolitania  in  1951  while  the  British 
remained  in  Cyrenaica  and  the  French  in  the  Fezzan,  but 
the  whole  of  Libya  was  to  become  independent  at  the  end  of 
ten  years.  The  Italians  were  to  be  the  trustees  also  in  Somalia, 
and  Eritrea  was  to  be  divided  up  between  Ethiopia  and 
Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan.  The  United  Nations  looked  slightly 
askance  at  this  tete-A-tete  method,  and  the  Bevin-Sforza 
proposals  were  rejected  by  one  vote  in  the  U.N.  general 
assembly  on  May  18. 

While  this  rejection  was  resented  in  Italy  the  proposals 
themselves  raised  a  storm  in  Libya;  the  Moslems  of  Tripoli- 
tania  declared  that  they  would  fight  to  the  death  rather  than 
allow  the  Italians  to  return  and  they  demanded  the  unity  as 
well  as  independence  of  Libya.  This  thirst  for  Libyan 


Country  Area 

(in  sq  mi.) 
Tnpohtama      106,4711 


Cyrenaica          330,259| 


ITALIAN  Cou 

Population  Capital  Foreign  Trade 

(1948  est)  (1948,  in  £) 

805,960  Tripoli  Imp      1,949,390 

(including        (pop ,  1939,  108,240,  txp.     1,532,913 
44,419  Italians)  mcl.  39,096  Italians) 

309,640  Bengasi  Imp.     1,718,835 

(including        (pop,  1939,  64,641;  hxp.    2,146,184 
77  Italians)       mcl    19,412  Italians) 


unity  was  not  placated  by  the  next  British  step  in  Cyrenaica. 
On  June  1  the  British  chief  administrator  announced  to  the 
national  congress  at  Bengasi  that  the  United  Kingdom 
agreed  to  the  formation  of  a  Cyrenaican  government  under 
the  Emir  Idris  el  Senussi  who  was  thereupon  invited  to 
Britain  to  discuss  further  measures  to  be  taken.  The  Emir 
arrived  in  London  on  July  15  and,  after  his  return  home,  the 
Cyrenaican  constitution  was  enacted  on  Sept.  18  and  Cyren- 
aica became  autonomous:  in  future  the  country  would 
manage  its  own  internal  affairs  although  its  external  relation- 
ships would  remain  under  British  control.  A  National 
congress  which  had  met  at  Tripoli  on  Aug.  24  to  choose  a 
delegation  for  the  autumn  U.N.  assembly  meeting  again 
insisted  that  Libya  should  be  united  as  well  as  independent. 

It  was  the  French  who  were  most  disconcerted  by  the 
rising  Arab  tide,  for  Libyan  unity  would  expel  them  from  the 
Fezzan  and  Libyan  independence  would  disturb  the  already 
uneasy  atmosphere  in  neighbouring  Tunisia.  When  the 
United  Nations  met  once  again  at  Lake  Success  in  Sept. 
1949  the  French  were,  however,  left  behind,  while  the  other 
powers  competed  in  a  race  to  catch  up  with  Libyan  aspira- 
tions. The  British  and  Americans  advocated  independence 
for  Tripolitania  in  from  three  to  five  years,  while  the  Russians 
proposed  the  immediate  independence  of  all  the  former 
Italian  colonies  and  the  evacuation  of  Libya  by  the  British 
within  three  months.  The  Italians  themselves  now  backed 
Libyan  unity  and  supported  the  independence  of  Tripolitania 
where  they  suggested  that  there  should  be  elections  for  a 
constituent  assembly  within  six  months.  The  Italians  also 
pressed  for  the  unity  and  independence  of  Eritrea. 

Meanwhile  former  Italian  Somaliland,  which  the  four 
powers  had  all  but  consigned  to  Italian  trusteeship  in  1948, 
was  the  scene  of  commotion.  The  African  Somalis,  like  the 
Arabs  in  Libya,  were  now  determined  upon  unity  and 
independence  too  ;  and  in  Aug.  1949  declarations  to  this  effect 
were  made  by  the  Somali  Youth  league  and  other  nationalist 
organizations.  This  would  mean  the  union  of  Somalia  with 
French  and  British  Somaliland,  a  plan  which  the  British  had 
considered  at  one  moment  in  1948.  While  the  U.N.  political 
committee  was  debating  at  Lake  Success  a  crowd  of  some 
2,000  Somalis  assembled  in  Mogadishu  on  Oct.  5  and  threat- 
ened the  local  Italians.  They  were  dispersed  by  order  of  the 
British  military  authorities;  two  rioters  were  killed  and  three 
died  of  wounds,  and  a  British  officer  and  six  Native  con- 
stables were  injured. 

On  Nov.  12  the  U.N.  political  committee  accepted  the 
)NIAL  EMPIRE* 


Eritrea 


Somaliland, 
Italian 


45,754} 


1 94,000  * 


1,087,000  Asmara 

(including        (pop  ,   1939,  85,000; 
25,491  Italians)  mcl  50,000  Italians) 


1,010,000 

(including 

2,600  Italians) 


Mogadishu 
(pop.,   1939,  55,000; 
mcl    8,000   Italians) 


Imp 
Exp 


Imp. 
Exp. 


3,017,000 
1,869,000 


1,113,400 
180,500 


Road,  Rail  and  Shipping 

(1947) 

Roads          .  2,300  mi 

Railways  .  94  mi 

Ships  entered  at 
Tripoli  445,129  N  R.T. 

Roads          .  3,000  mi. 

Railways     .         .  56  mi. 

Ships  entered  at 
Bengasi  and  Tobruk  283,000  N  R.T. 

Roads          .  .                780  mi. 

Railways     .  192  mi. 
Ships  e  itered  at 

Massawa  .  550,073  N  R.T. 


Budget 

(Actual  1946-47) 
Rev.      £3,731,606 
Lxp.      £3,260,848 


Rev. 
Exp. 


Rev. 
Exp. 


£1,133,336 
£1,469,057 


£2,555,904 
£2,556,590 


Roads 
Railways 


5,300  mi. 

Nil 


Rev.   £1,260,889 
Exp.   £1,523,068 


•  The  political  units  listed  were  in  1949  under  British  trusteeship  pending  ultimate  decision  by  the  United  Nations  assembly  concerning  disposal  of  the  pre-1940 
Italian  colonial  empire. 

t  In  1934  Libya  was  divided  into  four  provinces  By  a  decree  of  Jan  9,  1939,  these  provinces  (213,821  sq  mi  )  were  incorporated  in  the  national  territory  of 
Italy  The  territory  of  Libyan  Sahara  (465,362  sq.  mi  )  was  not  affected  by  this  decree  Under  British  military  administration  Libya  was  divided  into  Tripolitania 
(provinces  of  Tripoli  and  Misurata)  and  Cyrenaica  (provinces  of  Bengasi  and  Derna,  and  the  eastern  part  of  Libyan  Sahara)  The  western  part  ot  Libyan 
Sahara  (Fezzan)  was  divided  between  British  and  French  military  administrations  (223,153  and  19,300  sq.  mi  respectively  ;  total  pop.  c  50,000) 

1  The  areas  given  here  are  those  before  the  annexation  of  Ethiopia  by  Italy.  A  decree  of  June  1,  1936,  established  the  colony  of  Italian  East  Africa  comprising 
Ethiopia  Eritrea  and  Italian  Somaliland  The  greater  Eritrea  (86,166  sq.  mi )  included  three  northern  provinces  of  Ethiopia  and  the  Ethiopian  Ogaden  was 
assigned 'to  the  greater  Somaliland  (270,972  sq  mi )  These  new  Italian  colonies  ceased  to  exist  with  the  liberation  of  Ethiopia  in  1941,  but  until  Aug  1948  Ogaden 
remained  under  British  military  administration. 


360    HYDERABAD  (DECC«N>.  ITALIAN   LITERATURE— ITALY 


Vicky's  comment  in  the  **  News  Chronicle  "  (Lone/on)  on  the  plan  for  the  Italian  colonies  prepared  by  Ernest   Bevin  and  Count  Carlo  Sforza 

after  it  had  been  rejected  by  United  Nations  general  assembly,  May  1949. 


drafting  committee's  proposals  on  all  the  former  Italian 
colonies  and  on  Nov.  21  the  general  assembly  agreed  to 
them  en  bloc.  Thus  at  last  it  was  settled  that: 

(1)  a  unified  Libya  should  become  independent  by  Jan.  1, 
1952;  in  the  interim  period  administration  was  to  be  carried 
on  by  a  U.N.  commissioner  with  an  advisory  council  of  the 
representatives  of  Egypt,  France,  Italy,  Pakistan,  the  U.K. 
and  the  U.S.  and  four  representatives  of  the  local  population. 

(2)  Somalia  or  former  Italian  Somaliland  was  to  come 
under  Italian  trusteeship  with  a  three-power  advisory  council 
(Colombia,  Egypt  and  the  Philippines)  for  ten  years  and 
during  that  period  be  prepared  for  independence. 

Only  in  the  case  of  Eritrea  was  a  decision  once  more  post- 
poned for  a  year  in  order  that  a  U.N.  commission  of  enquiry 
might  once  again  attempt  to  ascertain  the  wishes  of  the 
Eritrean  peoples.  (E.  Wi.) 

ITALIAN  LITERATURE.  Italian  writing  during 
1949  continued  prolifically.  It  also  continued  to  be  pre- 
dominantly neo-realistic  or  impressionist,  searching  after 
truth  in  the  worst  of  the  melee.  The  forms  most  in  use  were 
still  the  novel  and  short  story.  Elio  Vittorini  published  his 
Le  donne  di  Messina*  another  novel  along  his  accustomed 
lines  but  generally  felt  to  be  less  successful  than  its  predeces- 
sors. Two  shorter  stories  together  entitled  Prima  che  il  gallo 
canti  by  Cesare  Pavese  were  much  admired,  though  the 
majority  of  critics  considered  the  most  important  novel  of 
the  year  to  have  been  Vitaliano  Brancati's  //  beW  Antonio. 
The  subject  of  Brancati's  book  was  the  overwhelming  success 
of  an  extraordinarily  beautiful  young  man  among  the  women 
of  a  provincial  town  in  Sicily;  the  hero  is  then  revealed  to 
be  impotent.  The  whole  story  takes  place  towards  the  end 
of  the  fascist  period  and  Brancati  did  noting  to  neglect 
the  satirical  scope  which  his  subject  offered  him. 

One  of  the  many  prizes  awarded  for  literary  achievement 
went  to  an  autobiographical  novel  called  La  memoria  by 
G.  B.  Angioletti.  Another  prize,  the  Premio  Versilia,  was 
awarded  in  the  first  place  to  Ugo  Moretti  for  a  novel  called 
Vento  caldo.  Towards  the  end  of  the  year  the  ever  fertile 
Alberto  Moravia  (q.v.)  brought  out  his  Vamore  conjugate, 
a  volume  of  short  stories  some  of  which  had  been  published 
before;  meanwhile  the  translation  of  his  novel,  La  bella 
Romano,  was  published  in  England  as  The  Woman  of  Rome. 
Giuseppe  Raimondi's  Giuseppe  in  Italia  was  a  great  deal  less 
modernist;  indeed  it  echoed  the  extreme,  almost  precious, 
literary  tones  of  the  days  of  the  Ronda. 

During  the  year  there  was  a  considerable  harvest  of  drama. 
Massimo  Bontempelli  brought  out  a  play  called  Venezia 
Salva  based  on  Otway,  but  it  was  felt  to  be  unsatisfactory. 
On  the  other  hand  three  well-known  novelists  published  plays 
which  made  a  great  impression :  Yo,  el  Rey  by  Bruno  Cicog- 
nani;  Lunga  nolle  di  Medea  by  Corrado  Alvaro;  and  Lalba 
deir ultima  sera  by  Riccardo  Bacchelli.  Bacchelli's  play  was 


based  on  the  theme  of  a  new  Faust-like  figure  who,  however, 
rejects  the  evil  temptation  of  atomic  knowledge;  it  was 
produced  at  the  Venice  festival  in  the  autumn  but  with 
obvious  difficulty;  its  admirers  praised  it  for  its  literary  and 
philosophic  quality  rather  than  for  its  success  as  drama. 

The  most  outstanding  poetry  of  the  year  was  contained 
in  Salvatore  Quasimodo's  La  vita  non  e  sogno,  though  the 
second  Viareggio  prize  went  in  part  to  Libero  de  Libero  for 
his  Banchetto. 

The  first  Viareggio  prize  went  to  Stato  e  chiesa  negli  ultimi 
cenfanni  by  Arturo  Carlo  Jemolo,  for  the  particular  quality 
as  well  as  the  importance  of  his  book  were  immediately 
recognized.  The  author,  a  historian  of  the  Left,  undoubtedly 
made  an  illuminating  analysis  of  a  burning  question  which 
more  than  ever  coloured  the  political  scene.  Gabrielc  Pepe 
brought  out  his  Medioevo  barbarico  in  Europa,  while  Bene- 
detto Croce's  unfailing  productivity  was  emphasized  by  the 
publication  of  La  letteratura  italiana  del  Settecento  and 
Varieta  di  Storia  letteraria  e  civile.  Another  idealist  philoso- 
pher of  some  note,  Manlio  Ciardo,  published  his  Natura  e 
storia  delV  idealisnw  attuale  while  Remo  Canton i,  a  Marxist 
existentialist  opposed  to  Jean-Paul  Sartre,  brought  out  an 
essay  on  Kierkegaard  called  La  coscienza  inquieta.  (E.  Wi.) 

ITALY.  A  republic  of  southern  Europe,  bounded  on 
land  by  France  to  the  northwest,  by  Switzerland  and  Austria 
to  the  north  and  by  Yugoslavia  to  the  northeast.  The  country 
includes  not  only  the  whole  of  the  Apennine  peninsula,  but 
also  the  large  Mediterranean  islands  of  Sicily  and  Sardinia 
as  well  as  a  number  of  smaller  islands.  Area:  1 16,235  sq.  mi., 
excluding  Venezia  Giulia,  Zara  and  the  islands  (2,843  sq.  mi.) 
ceded  to  Yugoslavia,  the  five  small  areas  in  the  Alps  ceded 
to  France  (397  sq.  mi.)  and  the  free  territory  of  Trieste  (</.v.). 
Pop.:  (April  21,  1936  census):  42,993,602;  (mid- 1948  est.) 
46,110,000.  Language:  mainly  Italian,  but  in  Venezia 
Tridentina  there  were  c.  210,000  German-speaking  Tyrolese 
and  c.  10,000  Romansch-speaking  Ladins;  in  the  area  east 
of  Udine  there  were  c.  \  1,200  Slovenes,  and  the  population  of 
Val  d'Aosta  (c.  6,600)  was  French-speaking.  Religion: 
mainly  Roman  Catholic  (99-6%).  Chief  towns  (pop.,  Jan.  1, 
1948  est.):  Rome  (q.v.)  (cap.,  1,613,660);  Milan  (1,277,013); 
Naples  (995,257);  Turin  (719,528);  Genoa  (657,634);  Palermo 
(470,780);  Florence  (377,203);  Bologna  (329,964);  Venice 
(308,677).  President,  Luigi  Einaudi  Ojr.v.);  prime  minister, 
Alcide  De  Gasperi  (</.v.);  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  Count 
Carlo  Sforza  (q.v.) 

History.  During  1949  the  predominantly  Christian 
Democratic  government  led  by  Alcide  De  Gasperi  continued 
in  office.  The  smaller  groups  it  contained — Liberals  (meaning 
a  small,  strongly  conservative  party),  Republicans  and  moder- 
ate Socialists — all  being  anti-clerical,  criticized  cabinet  policy 
fairly  openly.  The  moderate  Socialists  led  by  Giuseppe 
Saragat,  who  was  deputy  prime  minister  and  minister  of  the 


ITALY 


361 


mercantile  marine,  were  indeed  constantly  on  the  verge  of 
resigning.  On  Oct.  31  they  made  up  their  minds  to  do  so, 
because  the  other  anti-Communist  Socialist  groups  might  be 
readier  to  try  to  reunite  the  Socialist  party  if  the  Saragatiani 
were  not  actually  members  of  a  clerical  administration.  On 
Nov.  7,  De  Gasped  deputed  their  posts  temporarily  to  other 
ministers,  evidently  not  taking  the  resignations  very  seriously. 
By  the  end  of  the  year  there  were  still  no  signs  of  a  real 
reunion  between  the  Saragat  Socialists  and  the  Socialist 
followers  of  Giuseppe  Romita  and  of  Ignazio  Silone,  so 
that  the  traditional  Socialist  party  remained  divided  and 
impotent. 

All  other  regional  elections,  contrary  to  earlier  intimations, 
were  postponed  until  1950,  but  the  first  elections  to  the  regional 
assembly  of  Sardinia — to  which  a  generous  autonomy  had 
long  been  promised — were  held  on  May  8.  The  island  is  poor 
and  backward,  and  some  surprise  was  created  by  the  fall  in 
the  Christian  Democratic  vote  as  compared  with  the  general 
election  of  April  18,  1948,  while  the  Communist  vote  was 
considerable.  In  fact  the  Christian  Democrats  obtained  22 
seats  in  the  Sardinian  assembly,  while  the  Communists  gained 
13  and  6  others  went  to  two  small  groups  allied  with  them. 
The  votes  lost  by  the  government  party  seemed  mostly  to  have 
gone  to  the  M.S.I.  (Movimento  Sociale  Italiano,  the  new 
Fascist  party)  and  even  more  to  the  monarchists.  The  latter 
still  had  many  followers  in  the  south  and  in  the  islands,  and 
ex-King  Umberto  had  encouraged  them  by  sending  messages 
in  which  he  dwelt  upon  the  traditional  ties  of  Sardinia  with 
the  house  of  Savoy. 

When  the  Christian  Democratic  party  conference  was  held 
at  Venice  at  the  beginning  of  June  one  of  its  favourite  topics 
of  discussion  proved  to  be  a  demand  that  the  government 
coalition  should  be  replaced  by  a  homogeneous  cabinet  which, 
it  was  claimed,  would  be  able  to  make  a  clearer  appeal  to  the 
public.  De  Gasperi,  however,  continued  on  his  way;  and 
in  the  next  few  months  the  position  of  the  government 
appeared  to  be  consolidated  by  a  number  of  factors.  For 


instance  the  cabinet  showed  considerable  activity  in  the  way 
of  putting  forward  projects  for  fiscal  and  tariff  reform,  for 
the  revision  of  social  legislation  and  the  restriction  of  the 
right  to  strike.  The  housing  plans  of  the  minister  of  labour, 
Amintore  Fanfani,  began  slowly  to  materialize  and  in  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  in  September  he  was  able  to  state  that 
L.  20,000  million  had  been  invested  in  housing  for  workers 
and  that  more  was  to  follow. 

The  activities  of  the  vigorous  Christian  Democratic  minister 
of  the  interior,  Mario  Scelba,  also  contributed,  perhaps,  to 
the  strengthening  of  the  government's  position.  In  a  speech 
at  the  Communist  centre  of  Siena  on  April  3,  he  heralded  an 
anti-Communist  police  drive,  denouncing  go-slow  tactics  and 
spasmodic  strikes  as  illegal.  The  Siena  speech  was  followed 
by  others  and  the  police  proceeded  often  to  handle  strikers 
so  roughly  that  moderate  opinion  felt  some  uneasiness. 

Communism  and  Trade  Unions.  In  the  course  of  the 
summer  irritation  and  fatigue  due  to  Communist  agitation, 
combined  with  fear  of  the  police  and  fear  of  unemployment, 
reduced  Communist  influence  very  considerably  in  the  in- 
dustrial north  of  Italy.  On  July  13  the  Papal  threat  of  ex- 
communication against  Communism  made  a  further  contri- 
bution to  this  tendency  (see  ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH). 
The  disruption  of  the  Communist-dominated  C.G.I.L. 
(Confederazione  Generale  Italiana  del  Lavaro  or  General 
Confederation  of  Labour),  which  had  begun  with  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  "free"  or  Catholic  L.C.G.I.L.  (Libera 
Confederazione  Generale  Italiana  dei  Lavoratori)  in  Sept. 
1948,  continued;  and  in  June  1949  the  Republican  and  anti- 
Communist  Socialist  labour  groups  also  broke  away  to  form 
the  Italian  Federation  of  Labour  (F.I.L.).  There  was  a  fairly 
general  and  justified  fear  that  jobs,  whether  offered  by  the 
government  or  by  private  employers,  would  not  be  given  to 
those  who  remained  in  the  C.G.I.L.  Thus,  while  at  the  end  of 
1948  the  local  C.G.I.L.  organization  in  the  province  of  Turin 
had  counted  296,000  members,  by  Sept.  1,  1949,  the  number 
had  fallen  to  252,000;  in  the  province  of  Milan  the  fall  in 


The  name  of  the  Communist 


H.  \pupci-  "  Unita  "  spelt  out  by  girls  during  a  large  scale  circulation  drive  in  Florence  for  the  newspaper  in 
Sept.  1949. 


362 


ITALY 


membership  was  relatively  greater.  At  the  national  conference 
of  the  C.G.I.L.  at  Genoa  early  in  October  its  secretary  general, 
Giuseppe  Di  Vittorio,  admitted  losses  in  the  north,  and  since 
June  1947  the  loss  of  about  800,000  members  altogether,  but 
at  the  same  time  he  claimed  that  the  C.G.I.L.  had  gained 
sufficient  ground  in  other  parts  of  the  country  to  keep  its 
membership  figure  up  to  five  million.  When  the  L.C.G.l.L. 
congress  was  held  in  Rome  early  in  Nov.  1949,  its  secretary 
general,  Gmlio  Pastore,  claimed  a  membership  already 
reaching  1,300,000. 

Peasant  Movement.  While  Communist  influence  was 
weakening  particularly  among  the  highly  skilled  workmen  of 
the  northern  industrial  triangle,  it  remained  fairly  steady  in 
central  Italy,  where  many  peasants  were  prosperous  and 
agricultural  industries  flourished;  at  the  same  time  it  con- 
tinued to  grow  in  the  very  poor  districts  of  southern  Italy 
which  had  never  been  industrialized  and  where  it  was  scarcely 
known  before  1948.  The  problem  of  the  extreme  south  had 
lain  dormant  for  many  years,  but  by  1949  it  had  become 
critically  acute  and  of  this  the  Communist  party  was  not  slow 
to  take  advantage.  The  increase  of  the  population  was 
greatest  in  the  south  where  the  difficulty  of  emigration  was 
thus  particularly  felt.  The  peasants  became  aware  of  the 
huge  private  estates  which  in  the  south  were  treated  by  their 
owners  with  neglect;  this  meant  that  there  was  neither  work, 
land  nor  food  for  the  great  mass  of  would-be  agricultural 
labourers  who  were  forced  to  live  in  misery  crowded  together 
in  poor  towns.  No  real  change  in  land-tenure  had  been  made 
since  mediaeval  times  and  the  cry  for  agrarian  reform  rose 
from  all  parts  of  Italy;  but  it  was  in  the  south  that  reform 
was  desperately  needed,  especially  in  Calabria  where  the 
effects  of  deforestation  and  soil  erosion  were  more  cata- 
strophic than  elsewhere. 

On  Easter  Sunday  (April  17),  after  many  vague  promises, 
De  Gasperi  gave  an  interview  to  the  press  in  which  he  out- 
lined a  specific  plan  for  land  reform.  The  plan  proposed  that 
nearly  8,000  owners  of  big  landed  properties  should  be  com- 
pelled to  sell  portions  of  their  land  varying  from  a  fifth  to  a 
half.  Only  the  most  profitable  land,  not  the  largest  most 
neglected  estates,  was,  it  seemed,  to  be  affected.  The  land 
liberated  in  this  way  was  to  form  a  land  pool  out  of  which 
small  peasants  and  labourers  were  to  be  supplied.  All  more 
technical  details  were  to  be  worked  out  later.  This  project 
was  not  well  received,  and  the  months  dragged  on  and  nothing 
further  developed.  Meanwhile  the  labourers  who,  even  in  the 
north  and  centre,  were  badly  paid  and  could  seldom  get 
employment  all  the  year  round,  became  understandably 
impatient  and  there  was  a  serious  agricultural  strike  for  some 
weeks  which  was  settled  towards  the  end  of  June.  The  long 
drought,  followed  by  floods  and  devastation  in  the  autumn, 
brought  great  suffering,  especially  m  the  south,  and  at  the 
end  of  October  there  were  clashes  near  Crotone  in  Calabria 
between  the  police  and  unarmed  peasants  who  had  squatted 
on  the  land.  (In  1944  a  decree  had  permitted  squatting  in 
neglected  land  although  more  recently  squatters  had  fre- 
quently been  punished.)  Public  opinion  reacted  strongly  in 
favour  of  the  peasants,  and  on  Nov.  20-21  De  Gasperi  toured 
Calabria  where  no  Italian  prime  minister  had  ever  been.  The 
peasants*  co-operatives  were  promised  some  of  the  land  they 
claimed  and  money  for  improvements  was  guaranteed. 
Similar  disturbances  took  place  in  Sicily  (where  the  situation 
was  complicated  by  the  apparently  invincible  brigand, 
Salvatore  Giuliano)  and  in  November  in  the  San  Severo  wine- 
growing district  of  Apulia.  Experts  felt  afraid  of  the  piece- 
meal offers  of  land  made  by  the  government  when,  as  they 
believed,  an  all-over  solution  of  the  problem  was  required. 
Improved  Economic  Position.  While  agrarian  unemploy- 
ment was  increasing  there  was  some  improvement  with  regard 
to  industrial  unemployment  in  the  summer  of  1949.  Though 


in  a  country  crammed  with  unregistered  workers,  small 
sweated  industries  and  casual  seasonal  employment  statistics 
could  easily  mislead,  it  was  worth  while  to  record  that  at  the 
end  of  July  1949  there  were  nearly  470,000  less  registered 
unemployed  than  at  the  end  of  July  1948,  while  about  200,000 
more  people  had  come  on  to  the  labour  market  as  the  popu- 
lation grew;  there  were,  into  the  bargain,  some  100,000 
Italians  whose  contracts  in  Switzerland  had  been  ended. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  summer  the  Doxa  institute  (a  public 
opinion  survey  organization)  asserted  that  42%  of  all  Italian 
families  had  an  average  income  of  L.  22,000  a  week  or 
$9  65.  Internal  prices  continued  fairly  stable  during  1949 
and  in  September,  thanks  in  part  to  the  excellent  grain 
harvest,  it  was  possible  to  announce  an  average  10%  reduction 
in  the  price  of  bread  from  the  middle  of  October. 

The  financial  policy  of  the  government  continued  to  be 
very  cautious  though  in  the  spring  a  little  more  play  was 
allowed  by  a  reduction  of  the  official  rate  of  discount  from  5^ 
to  4^%.  Exports  reached  their  highest  postwar  level  during 
the  first  six  months  of  1949  and  the  adverse  balance  of  trade 
was  at  times  eliminated.  After  June  things  became  more 
difficult  owing  partly  to  the  contraction  of  the  world  market. 
The  problem  of  the  constantly  increasing  sterling  balance  in 
Italy,  which  had  reached  the  figure  of  £70  million  by  Septem- 
ber, was  sharpened  by  sterling  devaluation  which  practically 
spelt  a  partial  British  default.  But  the  Italian  government 
had  been  fortunate  in  the  acquisition  of  a  considerable 
quantity  of  gold  in  the  U.S.  before  Sept.  18  and  this,  of  course, 
rose  in  value.  The  lira  was  left  to  find  its  own  value  against 
the  dollar  and  steadied  at  a  rate  which  implied  a  devaluation 
of  not  quite  10%.  The  government  congratulated  the  coun- 
try and  itself  upon  the  steady  confidence  shown  which  was 
undoubtedly  an  achievement  to  emphasize  within  two-and-a- 
half  years  of  the  financial  crisis  of  the  spring  of  1947.  The 
outlook  for  exports  had,  however,  darkened  very  seriously  by 
the  end  of  the  year.  A  basic  reason  for  this  was  the  excessive 
cost  of  industrial  manpower;  and  this  was  due,  as  much  as 
to  anything,  to  the  short-sightedness  of  the  Italian  industria- 
lists who  had  spent  their  postwar  profits  heedlessly,  making 
no  attempt  to  replace  worn-out  plant  or  to  expand  their 
industrial  potentialities. 

Insofar  as  Italy's  storms  were  weathered  in  1949  the  chief 
factor  undoubtedly  was  the  supply  of  Marshall  aid,  and  the 
news  that  the  1949-50  allocation  was  to  reach  only  $407 
million  was  unwillingly  received.  It  should  be  added  that  the 
steady  reconstruction  of  Italy's  mercantile  marine  with  the 
consequent  reduction  of  the  charges  for  freight  had  made  a 
far  from  negligible  contribution  to  the  country's  economic 
health.  A  seamen's  strike  at  Genoa,  Naples  and  Venice 
(and  also  at  Trieste)  in  September  caused  some  dislocation 
but  no  irreparable  harm. 

One  promising  event  for  Italy's  economic  future,  though 
its  effects  were  scarcely  felt  by  the  end  of  1949,  was  the 
discovery  in  June  of  oil  at  a  small  Emikan  town  called 
Cortemaggiore  just  south  of  the  Po.  More  immediately 
important,  because  upon  a  larger  scale,  was  the  organization 
of  the  natural  gas  around  Ferrara  and  at  Lodi  near  Milan. 
It  was  impossible  to  guess  how  far  these  new  fuel  supplies 
would  be  able  to  replace  Italy's  coal  imports  in  the  future, 
but  that  it  should  become  less  dependent  upon  foreign  coal 
was  in  itself  an  epoch-making  event. 

Foreign  Policy.  There  was  no  change  in  Italian  foreign 
policy  in  1949.  The  foreign  minister,  Count  Sforza,  had  been 
associated  in  his  youth  with  attempts  to  improve  relations 
with  the  Yugoslavs  and  he  followed  up  Tito's  difficulties  with 
Moscow  by  friendly  expressions  and  the  extension  of  commer- 
cial relations  with  Yugoslavia.  In  August  he  led  the  Italian 
delegation  to  the  Council  of  Europe  at  Strasbourg  while  a 
good  deal  of  sympathy  was  felt  in  Italy  for  drawing  closer 


JAFFA -TEL  AVIV— JAMAICA 


363 


its  ties  with  the  other  countries  of  western  Europe.  A 
considerable  section  of  the  Italian  press  continued,  especially 
after  the  abortive  Bevm-Sforza  proposals  and  until  after  the 
Mogadishu  incident  in  October  (see  ITALIAN  COLONIAL 
EMPIRE),  to  attack  Great  Britain  as  the  obstacle  in  Italy's 
colonial  path.  It  also  criticized  British  behaviour  in  the  matter 
of  European  co-operation,  particularly  after  the  devaluation 
of  sterling.  Economically  Italy  continued  to  lean  heavily 
upon  the  United  States.  The  Franco-Italian  customs  union 
did  not  bear  much  fruit  because  the  two  countries  produced 
so  much  the  same;  but  more  hope  was  entertained  of  a  wider 
union  to  include  Benelux,  a  union  which  came  to  be  referred 
as  **  Finebel."  Although  the  Soviet  veto  still  excluded  Italy 
from  the  U.N.  it  was  included  in  western  European  strategic 
planning.  But  most  of  all  during  1949  her  cultural  links  with 
the  rest  of  the  world  were  developed  afresh,  to  some  extent 
culminating  in  the  P.E.N.  club  meeting  and  the  Giovanni 
Bellini  exhibition  in  Venice  in  the  autumn.  Events  of  this 
kind  helped  to  bring  Italy's  tourist  traffic  in  1949  back  to  the 
scale  of  1938.  (E.  Wi.) 

Education.  (1946-47)  Elementary  schools  37,131,  pupils  4,703,228, 
teachers  144,815,  secondary  schools  5,799,  pupils  894,037,  teachers 
82,673;  technical  schools  957,  pupils  134,969,  teachers  13,721; 
universities  and  institutions  of  higher  education  27,  students  180,134, 
professors  and  lecturers  8,625.  Illiteracy  (1931)  21-6% 

Agriculture  and  Fisheries.  Main  crops  (in  '000  metric  tons,  1948; 
1949  estimates  in  brackets):  wheat  6,136  (6,620),  maize  2,254, 
barley  230  (226);  oats  483  (395);  rye  122  (124),  nee  619;  potatoes 
3,014,  sugar,  raw,  397,  hemp  76-8.  Livestock  (in  '000  head,  1948). 
cattle  7,923;  sheep  9,434,  pigs  3,757;  horses  720;  poultry  65,000 
Fisheries,  total  catch  (1948)  113,476  metric  tons. 

Industry.  Fuel  and  power  (in  '000  metric  tons,  1948;  1949,  six 
months,  in  brackets)1  coal  972  (579),  lignite  907  (400),  natural  gas 
(in  million  cum)  117  (90),  manufactured  gas  (in  million  cum) 
1,524  (791);  electricity  (in  million  kwh  )  22,692  (8,606);  crude  oil  (in 
'000  metric  tons)  9  2  (4-4).  Raw  materials  (in  '000  metric  tons  1948; 
1949,  six  months,  in  brackets)1  iron  ore,  metal  content  543  (257), 
pig  iron  526  (204),  steel  ingots  and  castings  2,124  (1,001),  lead  26  8 
(13-1),  /me  26  4  (12  4) 

Foreign  Trade.  (Million  lire)  imports,  (1948)  847,200,  (1949,  six 
months)  475,400,  exports,  (1948)  570,000,  (1949,  six  months)  312,500 

Transport  and  Communications.  Roads  (1948)  105,800  mi  Licensed 
motor  vehicles  (Dec  1948)  cars  206,773,  commercial  vehicles  211,636. 
Railways  (1948):  13,000  mi,  passenger-mi  13,260  million;  freight 
carried  37  million  tons.  Shipping  (July  1948)  number  of  merchant 
vessels  of  100  tons  and  upwards  852,  total  tonnage  2,109,067.  Air 
transport  (1948)  mi.  flown  5,348,600,  passengers  flown  190,640; 
cargo  earned  1,568,000  tons;  air  mail  earned  189,000  tons.  Tele- 
phones (1947-48).  subscribers  751,900. 

Finance  and  Banking.  (Million  lire)  budget  (1948-49)  revenue 
800.752,  expenditure  1,251,756;  (1949-50)  revenue  1,222,783,  expendi- 
ture 1,396,915  National  internal  debt  (March  1949,  in  brackets 
March  1948)  2,014,573  (1,597,344)  Currency  circulation  (Aug.  1949, 
in  brackets  Aug  1948)  882,700  (791,900)  Gold  reserve  (Aug.  1949, 
in  brackets,  Aug  1948)  134  (58)  million  U  S  dollars.  Bank  deposits 
(March  1949;  in  brackets  March  1948)  1,099,000(812,000).  Monetary 
unit  lira  with  an  exchange  rate  (Dec.  1949,  in  brackets  Dec  1948) 
of  1,755  (2,317)  lire  to  the  pound 

BiBtiocRAPHY  A.  Giordam,  "  Italy  and  the  Atlantic  Pact,"  Contem- 
porary Review,  London,  May  1949,  W.  Hilton- Young,  The  Italian 
Left  (London,  1949),  V  Ivella,  "  Party  Rule  in  the  Democratic  State," 
Foreign  Affairs,  New  York,  Oct.  1949,  S.  O'Faolam,  A  Summer  in 
Italy  (London,  1949),  M.  Rossi-Dona,  Riforma  agrana  e  azione 
mendtonaluta  (Bologna,  1948),  E.  Wiskemann.  "  Poverty  and  Popula- 
tion in  the  South,"  Foreign  Affairs,  New  York,  Oct.  1949, 

IVORY    COAST:    see  FRENCH  UNION. 

JAFFA -TEL  AVIV.  Capital  and  largest  city  of  Israel. 
Pop.  (1949  est.):  300,000.  The  town  consists  of  two  distinct 
parts:  the  old  city  of  Joppa  which  was  renamed  Jaffa  (pop. 
in  1939,  77,400  [52,700  Moslems.  24,700  Jews]  and  in  1946, 
101,580)  and  Tel  Aviv,  an  all-Jewish  city  founded  in  1909 
(pop.  [1939]  130,300,  [1946]  183,200).  Tel  Aviv  became  the 
capital  on  May  14, 1948,  when  Israel  was  founded.  On  Dec. 
26,  1949,  the  Knesset  (parliament)  was  moved  from  Tel 
Aviv  to  Jerusalem  although  the  seat  of  the  government 
remained  in  Tel  Aviv. 


On  Oct.  5,  1949,  the  Israeli  government  officially  announced 
the  merging  of  Jaffa  and  Tel  Aviv.  The  new  city  was  known 
as  Jaffa-Tel  Aviv  and  its  combined  population  of  300,000 
made  it  one  of  the  largest  cities  in  the  middle  east.  The  new 
town  which  has  4,000  Arabs  would  have  a  central  council 
for  the  purposes  of  administration.  Israel  Rokach,  mayor  of 
Tel  Aviv,  who  was  attending  the  International  Conference 
of  Mayors  in  Switzerland  at  the  time  of  the  announcement, 
expressed  surprise  at  the  decision  being  taken  by  the  govern- 
ment without  consulting  the  local  councils.  The  Red  Cross 
maintained  monthly  distribution  of  foodstuffs  to  the  Arab 
population;  but  during  the  summer  the  Arab  Emergency 
committee  ceasecT  to  function  owing  to  lack  of  funds  and 
because  of  grievances  against  the  Israeli  authorities.  The 
committee  was  not  considered  representative  of  the  Arab 
community. 

Work  began  on  the  building  of  a  new  road  at  a  cost  of 
£1600,000.  This  was  the  first  road  in  Israel  to  be  seven  metres 
wide.  In  September  a  new  railway  terminal  was  opened  when 
the  first  passenger  train  arrived  from  Haifa.  The  large  influx 
of  new  inhabitants  to  Tel  Aviv  caused  a  considerable  strain 
on  the  already  overcrowded  houses  and  flats.  A  town 
planning  exhibition  held  in  Tel  Aviv  in  November  revealed 
that  to  house  each  newcomer  upon  arrival  it  would  be 
necessary  to  complete  one  flat  every  eight  minutes.  For  the 
municipal  elections,  due  to  be  held  early  in  1950,  there  were 
135,000  persons  on  the  voting  register.  (X.) 

JAMAICA.  British  colony  consisting  of  the  largest  of 
the  British  West  Indian  islands.  Area:  4,411  sq.  mi.  Pop. 
(1948  est.):  1,362,000,  mainly  of  African  descent.  Depen- 
dencies: Cayman  islands  and  Turks  and  Caicos  islands. 
Governor,  Sir  John  Muggins. 

History.  The  constitution,  introduced  in  Nov.  1944,  for  a 
five-year  trial  period,  became  due  for  review.  The  House  of 
Representatives  agreed  on  these  proposals:  the  Executive 
Council  should  consist  of  one  official,  two  nominated  and 
eight  elected  members;  the  Legislative  Council  should  not  be 
permitted  to  hold  up  legislation  for  more  than  six  months; 
and  a  candidate  for  the  House  of  Representatives  should 
be  able  to  stand  for  any  constituency  in  the  island.  The  last 
proposal  was  immediately  accepted  and  brought  into  force; 
the  others  remained  subject  to  consideration.  A  general 
election  was  held  on  Dec.  20.  The  Labour  party  led  by 
W.  A.  Bustamante  secured  17  seats  and  the  People's  National 
party  led  by  Norman  Manley,  13  seats. 

In  February  the  government  passed  the  Pioneer  Industries 
(Encouragement)  law,  granting  substantial  concessions  in 
regard  to  exemption  from  income  tax,  tonnage  tax  and 
customs  duty  in  connection  with  the  establishment  of  new 
industries.  There  was  a  spate  of  industrial  and  other  economic 
development.  The  shares  of  a  £1  •  2  million  Caribbean  Cement 
company  were  issued;  construction  of  the  factory  was  due 
to  start  at  an  early  date  and  production  was  scheduled  to 
commence  by  the  beginning  of  1951.  The  West  Indian  Sugar 
company's  new  factory  at  Monymusk,  one  of  the  largest  in 
the  British  Commonwealth,  began  operations  in  April.  Plans 
for  an  industrial  estate  m  western  Kingston  were  well 
under  way.  Jamaica  Welfare,  Ltd.,  which,  since  its  foundation 
in  1937,  had  done  much  valuable  welfare  work,  was  wound 
up  and  handed  over  to  a  new  Social  Welfare  commission 
with  a  civil  servant  as  chairman. 

finance  and  Trade.  Currency,  pound  sterling  Budget  (1949-50  est.): 
revenue  £10,314,313;  expenditure  £10,307,275  Foreign  trade  (1948): 
imports  £19,680,859;  exports  £11,387,350.  Principal  exports:  sugar, 
bananas,  rum,  cigar  tobacco  and  cocoa.  The  1949  sugar  crop  totalled 
237,749  tons,  or  approximately  three  times  the  average  prewar  crop, 
The  rapidly  developing  tourist  trade  contributed  largely  to  invisible 
exports,  and  Tower  Isle,  the  latest  luxury  hotel,  opened  in  January. 

(J.  A.  Hu.) 


364 


JAPAN 


The  Japanese  cabinet  which  took  office  in  Feb.  1949.    Shigeru  Yosluda,  third  from  left>  held  the  posts  of  prime  minister  and  minister  for 
foreign  affairs.    On  his  left  is  Joji  Hayashi,  deputy  prime  minister  and  minister  for  public  welfare. 

JAPAN.  An  island  nation  in  the  western  Pacific,  under 
Allied  military  occupation  following  its  defeat  and  surrender 
in  1945.  In  accordance  with  the  Cairo  and  Potsdam  declara- 


tion, Japan  was  stripped  of  its  former  overseas  possessions 
and  reduced  to  the  following  four  main  islands: 

Honshu  (with  382  adjacent  small  islands)  .         .  88,919  sq.mi. 

Shikoku  (with  167  islands)       ....  7,248      „ 

Kyushu  (with  373  small  islands)        .          .          .  16,247      „ 

Hokkaido  (with  68  small  islands)      .         .         .  34,276      „ 

Total 146,690  sq.mi. 

According  to  Oct.  1,  1940,  census  the  population  of  Japan 
proper  was  73,1 14,308.  On  June  30,  1948,  the  total  population 
was  estimated  at  80,170,815,  a  gain  of  7,761,804  since  Oct.  1, 
1945.  Net  repatriation  to  Japan  contributed  5,934,928  of 
the  increase;  natural  growth  the  remainder.  On  Sept.  1, 
1949,  the  population  was  estimated  at  82,466,181.  Chief 
towns  (first  figure,  Oct.  1,  1940,  census;  second  figure, 
1946  est.):  Tokyo  (cap.,  6,778,804;  3,442,106);  Osaka 
(3,252,340;  1,293,501);  Nagoya  (1,328,084;  719,382); 
Kyoto  (1,089,726;  914,655);  Yokohama  (968,091 ;  706,557); 
Kobe  (967,234;  443,844);  Hiroshima  (343,968;  77,000). 
Language:  Japanese.  Religions:  Buddhist,  Shintoist  and 
Christian  (in  1933  there  were  191,000  Roman  Catholics  and 
249,000  members  of  other  denominations). 

Supreme  commander  for  the  Allied  powers:  General 
Douglas  MacArthur  Gy.v.).  Allied  council  for  Japan  (an 
advisory  body  in  Tokyo):  William  J.  Sebald  (U.S.),  deputy 
for  the  supreme  commander,  chairman;  General  Chu  Shih- 
ming  (China);  Lieutenant  General  William  R.  Hodgson 
(who  late  in  1949  succeeded  Patrick  Shaw  as  representing 
jointly  the  U.K.,  Australia  and  New  Zealand);  Lieutenant 
General  Kuzma  N.  Derevyanko  (U.S.S.R.).  The  policy- 
making  body  is  the  Far  Eastern  commission  sitting  in 
Washington  under  the  chairmanship  of  Maxwell  M.  Hamilton 
who  on  Dec.  8,  1949,  succeeded  General  Frank  R.  McCoy 


(U.S.),  and  comprising  the  representatives  of  Australia, 
Canada,  China,  France,  India,  Netherlands,  New  Zealand, 
Philippines,  United  Kingdom  and  the  U.S.S.R.  On  Nov.  17, 
1949,  Burma  and  Pakistan  were  added  to  the  11  members  of 
the  commission.  Emperor,  Hirohito  (^r.v.);  prime  minister 
and  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  Shigeru  Yoshida  (a.v.). 

History.  Inter-Allied  negotiations  looking  to  the  conclusion 
of  a  peace  treaty  remained  deadlocked  over  questions  of 
procedure.  The  United  States,  with  the  support  of  several 
other  powers,  proposed  that  all  members  of  the  Far  Eastern 
commission  participate  in  the  settlement.  The  Soviet  Union 
insisted  on  a  preliminary  negotiation  of  major  issues  by  the 
United  States,  the  Soviet  Union,  the  United  Kingdom  and 
China.  Meanwhile  U.S.  policies  in  Japan  were  denounced 
as  anti-democratic  and  imperialistic  by  Soviet  representatives 
on  the  Far  Eastern  commission  (Alexander  S.  Panyushkin) 
and  the  Allied  council.  They  were  defended  by  the  U.S. 
government  as  fully  consistent  with  basic  occupation  objec- 
tives of  disarmament  and  democratic  reform.  The  Soviet 
Union  was  accused  in  turn  with  failure  to  live  up  to  its 
Potsdam  pledge  to  repatriate  all  Japanese  prisoners  of  war. 
Some  95,000  were  reported  shipped  back  to  Japan  in  1949. 
In  May  the  Russians  had  stated  that  this  number  would 
complete  their  repatriation  programme;  but  Japanese 
records  showed  377,000  still  unaccounted  for  in  Soviet  areas. 
The  United  States  pressed  for  an  impartial  investigation. 
Lieut.  General  Derevyanko,  Soviet  representative  on  the 
Allied  council  in  Tokyo,  walked  out  of  the  meeting  of  Dec.  21 
when  the  question  was  placed  on  the  agenda. 

The  United  States  retained  the  preponderant  position  in 
administering  occupation  policies  within  the  framework  of 
the  Far  Eastern  commission's  basic  post-surrender  policy 
for  Japan.  Except  for  a  token  British  Commonwealth  force, 
the  occupation  troops  remained  wholly  American,  comprising 
four  infantry  divisions  plus  the  far  east  air  force.  Civilian 
relief  supplies  furnished  by  the  U.S.  armed  forces  to  Japan 


JAPAN 


365 


(including  Okinawa)  totalled  $410  million  in  the  year  ending 
June  30,  1949.  They  had  amounted  to  $1,265  million  in  the 
four  years  since  V-J  day. 

A  move  to  grant  the  Japanese  greater  autonomy  in  managing 
their  own  affairs  was  made  in  August  when  General  Mac- 
Arthur  announced  the  reduction  of  military  government 
supervision  of  civilian  affairs  at  the  prefectonal  and  local 
level.  In  the  economic  realm,  however,  the  year  was  marked 
by  tightened  pressure  on  the  Japanese  government  to  retrench 
its  finances  and  revive  production  and  exports.  A  Washington 
directive  of  Dec.  1948  called  on  the  supreme  commander  to 
"  direct  the  Japanese  government  to  carry  out  an  effective 
economic  stabilization  programme  "  Subsequently,  detailed 
proposals  for  balancing  the  budget,  reforming  the  tax 
structure  and  stabilizing  prices  and  wages  were  put  forward 
by  the  U.S  authorities  The  latter  also  made  clear  their 
opposition  to  labour  stukes  disrupting  key  industries. 

The  emphasis  in  occupation  policy  thus  shifted  towards 
economic  recovery  and  away  from  the  punitive  and  reform 
measures  of  earlier  years  In  May  the  United  States  unilater- 
ally halted  interim  reparations  deliveries  of  industrial  equip- 
ment to  China  and  other  Pacific  nations.  As  the  I  ar  Eastern 
commission  was  still  unable  to  agree  on  a  final  reparations 
programme  and  the  United  States  was  increasingly  concerned 
lo  conserve  Japanese  assets  for  recovery,  the  prospect  of  any 
further  deliveries  seemed  remote.  In  August  it  was  announced 
that  the  programme  to  break  up  excessive  concentrations  of 
economic  power  in  Japan  was  virtually  completed  This 
suggested  that  the  original  aims  had  been  scaled  down 
considerably  The  agrarian  reform  meanwhile  moved  into 
its  final  stage  Over  5  million  ae  of  farm  land  had  been 
purchased  from  former  owners  and  resold  to  small  farmers, 
while  rent  ceilings  and  written  contracts  had  been  instituted 
on  the  10  °£  of  Japan's  cultivated  area  still  farmed  by  tenants 

Domestic  Af/cni\  The  Democratic  Liberal  party,  headed 
by  Shigcru  Yoshida,  won  a  sweeping  victoiy  in  the  national 
Diet  elections  of  Jan.  23  Campaigning  on  a  platform  of 
**  free  enterprise  "  and  anti-Communism,  Japan's  right-wing 
paity  gained  a  working  majority  of  264  out  of  466  scats  in 
the  House  of  Representatives.  Premier  Yoshida  thus  con- 
tinued in  office  through  the  year.  The  centic  parties,  the 
Democrats  and  Social  Democrats,  suffered  heavily  from  the 
corruption  and  internecine  strife  revealed  in  their  earlier 
coalition  governments.  In  the  1949  elections  they  dropped 
to  68  and  49  seats  respectively.  Symptomatic  of  the  polariza- 
tion taking  place  in  Japanese  politics,  the  Communists 
showed  a  marked  accession  of  strength,  increasing  their 
seats  from  four  to  35.  (Sec  ELECTIONS  ) 

Despite  the  general  swing  to  the  right,  and  the  lesser  drift 
from  the  centre  to  the  left,  no  stable  pattern  of  political 
parties  had  yet  emerged  in  postwar  Japan.  Premier  Yoshida, 
spokesman  of  the  old-line  bureaucracy  and  large  business 
interests,  continued  his  efforts  to  draw  the  Democratic  party 
into  a  merger  which  would  create  a  Conservative  bloc  of 
preponderant  strength.  On  the  left  also  there  were  manoeuvres 
to  form  some  more  stable  coalition.  The  Communist  party 
campaigned  vigorously  against  the  policies  of  the  Yoshida 
government,  especially  in  the  labour  field.  They  also  attracted 
support  by  their  overtly  Nationalist  and  anti-occupation 
propaganda.  Towards  the  close  of  the  year,  however,  it 
appeared  that  they  had  lost  ground  in  their  stronghold,  the 
trade  unions.  Anti-Communist  "  Democratization  leagues  " 
had  drawn  large  numbers  of  workers  away  from  Communist 
leadership  and  the  latter' s  attempt  to  stage  a  strong  labour 
offensive  against  the  government  proved  ineffectual.  Com- 
munist influence  among  Japan's  2-5  million  employees  in 
government  offices  and  enterprises  was  also  weakened  by 
the  purging  of  many  party  members  and  sympathisers  in  the 
course  of  the  government's  campaign  to  dismiss  surplus 


employees  from  its  payrolls.  The  strongest  organized  force 
in  Japanese  politics  continued  to  be  the  conservative  bureau- 
cracy, allied  at  various  points  with  business  interests  and 
commanding  strong  support  in  iural  legions.  Only  the 
presence  of  Allied  authority  prevented  a  sharper  and  perhaps 
more  violent  clash  between  the  right  and  left. 

National  politics  in  Japan  continued  to  be  doriinatod  by 
the  issres  of  economic  stabilization  and  reconstruct)  3n.  Under 
insistent  pressure  from  Allied  headquarters,  the  Diet  approved 
Japan's  first  balanced  budget  since  !93()  A  series  of  Allied 
duec/ives  brought  a  sharp  reduction  in  government  subsidies, 
the  suspension  or  deficit  loan^  from  the  Reconstruction 
Finance  bank,  large  scale  dismissals  of  public  employees, 
slashes  in  public  investment,  the  relaxation  of  commodity 
controls  and  far  reaching  plans  for  tax  reform.  On  April  25 
the  yen  v\as  oifiually  pegged  at  360  to  the  U.S  dollar,  as  a 
fcirthet  step  in  the  return  to  normal  trading.  Agricultural 
harvests  were  good;  and  industrial  output  increased  46% 
from  Januaiy  to  October. 

Late  in  the  year  the  authorities  announced  that  monetary 
stabilization  had  been  achieved.  Symptomatic  was  the  marked 
decline  in  the  black  market  and  the  stability  of  prices  and 
wages  through  1949  It  appeased  that  the  problems  of 
inflation  might  be  superseded  by  deflationary  pressures. 
Business  men  complained  increasingly  that  the  austerity 
programme  had  brought  about  a  crippling  shortage  of  funds 
and  mounting  stockpiles  This  was  accentuated  by  the  lag 
in  making  available  counterpart  funds — the  yen  proceeds  of 
U.S.  relief  funds  to  finance  industrial  expansion.  Labour 
unrest  was  widespread,  especially  over  the  dismissal  of  some 
200,000  public  employees  and  the  government's  policy  of  no 
wage  increases.  The  Japanese  economy,  moreover,  still 
continued  to  be  heavily  dependent  upon  American  aid. 
Exports  failed  by  a  wide  margin  to  cover  import  requirements 
of  food  and  raw  materials,  even  though  living  standards 
remained  far  below  prewar  levels.  The  "  balanced  economy  " 
projected  for  1953  by  the  Economic  Rehabilitation  Planning 
commission  called  for  exports  of  $1,500  million  to  support  a 
standard  of  living  10%  below  that  of  1930-34.  This  was  three 
times  the  actual  level  of  exports  m  the  year  ended  June  1949. 

I  ducation  Dunng  the  occupation  the  school  system  was  purged  of 
ihose  teachers  who  wetc  charged  with  being  nationalistic  and  militar- 
istic, and  all  school  books  containing  such  material  were  scrapped. 
With  ft(>0,000  teachers  v>orkms>  in  1948,  from  elementary  schools  to 
the  universities,  there  was  a  shortage  of  about  1 10,000  About  19  million 
pupils  were  enrolled  in  about  50,000  elementary,  secondary  and  technical 
schools  Thete  were  also  6  imperial  universities  and  39  other  institutions 
of  higher  education  with  teaching  stalls  of  about  4,000  and  51,000 
students 

hood  and  Agriculture.  Some  improvement  in  Japan's  food  position 
was  achieved  in  1949  The  index  o1' agricultural  production  (1934-38  - 
UK))  was  83  in  1947-48  and  95  in  1948-49.  For  the  fourth  postwar  year, 
however,  Japan  was  unable  to  provide  sufficient  food  from  her  own 
resources  for  its  now  expanded  population,  or  to  assure  equitable 
distribution  to  the  cities  I  ood  imports  totalled  2,489,000  metric  tons 
in  the  year  ending  June  1949  and  were  expected  to  equal  if  not  exceed 
this  figure  in  the  fiscal  year  1949-50  Production  of  rice  and  nee  substi- 
tutes was  as  follows  in  the  calendar  years  1948  and  1949: 

TABLE  1  —AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTION  ('000  metric  tons) 

1934-38  1947  1948  1949 

Rice  11,501          11,298          11,632          11,474 

Wheat  1,287  767  1,042  1,064 

Barley  1,556  1,157  1,569  1,661 

Potatoes  .  1,622  1,936  2,146  2,091 

Sweet  potatoes  and  yams  3,060  4,415  6,066  — 

Sugar  beet  303  124  66  176 

Tea  ....  49  3  24  9  26  0         — 

High  food  prices  remained  a  major  problem  for  urban  workers,  who 
were  still  forced  to  devote  60  °/  of  their  total  family  expenditure  to  food. 
By  the  end  of  the  year,  average  national  consumption  was  put  at  about 
2,000  calories  per  person  daily  But  the  official  ration  supplied  only 
1,348  calories,  and  the  remainder  had  to  be  purchased  in  the  open 
market  at  two  to  three  times  the  official  prices.  With  heavy  food 
imports  still  financed  by  U  S.  funds,  Allied  headquarters  turned  down 
the  request  of  the  Japanese  government  to  raise  the  basic  nee  ration 
above  2-7  go  (0  88  dry  pints). 


366 


JERUSALEM 


Manufacturing  and  Mining.  Industrial  activity  in  Japan  rose  steadily 
from  Nov.  1946  to  March  1949.  Thereafter  it  showed  a  tendency  to 
level  off,  reflecting  deflationary  pressures  in  domestic  and  export 
markets.  By  Sept.  1949  the  index  of  industrial  output  stood  at  53% 
of  the  1937  level,  a  rise  of  40%  from  the  1948  average.  Based  on 
1932-36  as  100,  the  September  indices  were  as  follows:  general  industrial 
activity  93  -2;  utilities  164-1;  mining  106-2;  manufacturing  75 '3; 
machinery  111-7,  metals  87-6:  chemicals  77-4;  textiles  25-5. 
Employment  in  Japanese  industry,  transport  and  the  distributive 
trades  was  estimated  in  Aug.  1949  to  be  about  the  same  as  Oct.  1947. 
Manufacturing  employment  was  down  22%,  however,  and  real  wages 
were  hardly  more  than  50%  of  prewar  levels.  This  situation  bred 
continuing  discontent  and  unrest  among  Japanese  workers,  some 
6-7  million  of  whom  were  now  organized  in  trade  unions. 

Production  of  basic  commodities  was  as  follows  (monthly  average)* 

TABLE   II. — INDUSTRIAL   PRODUCTION 

1947         1948         1949 

Monthly  Average  (Jan. — Oct  ) 

Coal  ('000  metric  tons)  .         .         .  2,270       2,810  3,148 

Crude  petroleum  (metric  tons)  .  15,500  13,600  16,200 
Gas  ('000  cu.  metres)  .  .  .  49,000  68,500  74,860 
Electricity  (million  kwh.)  .  .  2,461  2,802  2,964 

Pig  iron  ('000  metric  tons)       .  31  70  127 

Steel  ingots  and  castings  ('000  met.  tons)  78  1 43  246 

Refined  copper  (metric  tons)   .          .  3,070       4,530  6,126 

Cement  ('000  metric  tons)        .          .  103  154  259 

Motor  vehicles  (units)     .          .          .  930        1,670  2,365 

Cotton  yarn  (metric  tons)  .  .  10,200  10,200  12,710 
Rayon  staple  fibre  (metric  tons)  730  1,330  2,038 

Woven  cotton  fabrics  ('000  sq.  metres)  46,200  64,400  67,030 
Wheat  flour  ('000  metric  tons)  .  .  66  84  153 

Raw  silk  (bales  of  132  Ib.)       .          .  9,295      11248          13,524* 

•  Jan  -Sept. 

Foreign  Trade.  Japanese  foreign  trade  was  again  characterised  in 
1949  by  a  heavy  import  deficit,  financed  by  U.S.  appropriated  funds. 
Plans  for  1949-50  called  for  exports  of  $520  million  as  against  imports 
of  $820  million.  Actual  exports  increased  substantially  during  1949, 
but  failed  by  a  wide  margin  to  cover  import  requirements  of  food, 
cotton  and  other  materials.  The  figures  were  as  follows  (million  U.S. 
dollars): 

TABLE  III. — FOREIGN  TRADE 

1947         1948         Jan.-Oct.  1949 

Imports  (c.i.f.)          .          .          .         526   1       682  6  780-2 

Exports  (f.o.b.)         .          .          .          173-6       258-3  433-2 

The  United  States  provided  65%  of  Japan's  1948  imports,  of  which 
grain  and  flour  comprised  23  %,  sugar  12%,  raw  cotton  and  wool  17% 
and  fertilizers  6%  Exports  went  mainly  to  sterling  and  other  non- 
dollar areas,  the  U  S.  taking  only  25  %.  Cotton  manufactures  accounted 
for  38%  of  1948  exports,  raw  silk  9%,  and  other  textiles  12%.  In 
terms  of  quantity,  imports  were  only  40%  of  the  1930-34  level,  and 
exports  16%.  The  revival  of  private  trade  and  the  replacement  of 
multiple  exchange  rates  by  a  single  official  rate  (360  yen  to  the  U.S. 
dollar  on  permissible  transactions),  brought  a  gradual  readjustment 
of  Japan's  cost-price  structure  to  the  world  economy. 

Trade  agreements  were  signed  with  a  number  of  countries,  including 
a  £143  million  agreement  signed  with  the  sterling  area  in  November. 
However,  the  austerity  programme  created  a  shortage  of  working 
capital  in  Japanese  industry;  and  exporters  likewise  felt  the  pressure 
of  sagging  world  prices  and  the  devaluation  of  sterling  and  other 
currencies.  At  the  end  of  the  year,  as  export  contracts  lagged,  unsold 
stocks  of  export  goods  were  reported  to  have  reached  80,000  million 
yen.  Officials  and  business  men  displayed  keen  interest  in  the  resumption 
of  trade  relations  with  China,  Japan's  once  important  market. 

Transport.  Railway  traffic  in  Japan  was  as  follows  in  1948  (monthly 
average)'  passenger-km.  6,590  million;  freight  ton-km.  2,109  million; 
freight  tons  9,638,000.  Corresponding  monthly  averages  for  Jan. -July 
1949  were  5,841  million,  2,200  million  and  9,626,000  respectively. 
Japan's  merchant  fleet  remained  far  below  prewar  standards.  In  Oct. 
1949  it  had  only  1,654,178  gross  tons  of  steel  vessels  of  100  gross  tons 
or  over.  Only  66  vessels  of  405.000  tons  could  be  used  in  overseas  trade. 

Finance.  As  noted  above,  postwar  inflation  in  Japan  was  finally 
arrested  in  1949,  under  the  stringent  policies  of  retrenchment  prescribed 
by  Allied  headquarters  in  pursuance  of  the  stabilization  directive  of 
Dec.  1948.  National  government  expenditures  (general  account)  were 
budgeted  for  1949-50  at  704,600  million  yen  This  was  231,500  million 
yen  above  the  previous  year,  and  came  to  26  •  7  %  of  estimated  national 
income.  The  principal  items  were  202,200  million  yen  for  price  adjust- 
ment (subsidies)  and  129,600  million  for  war  termination  expense 
(chiefly  occupation  costs)  Revenues  were  budgeted  at  704,900  million 
yen,  of  which  514,600  million  was  to  come  from  taxes  and  stamp 
revenues  and  121,000  million  from  government  monopoly  profits. 
The  Bank  of  Japan's  outstanding  note  issue  declined  from  355,300 
million  yen  at  the  end  of  1948  to  298,200  million  on  Sept.  30,  1949. 
Meanwhile  the  bank's  holdings  of  government  debt  (including  Recon- 
struction Finance  bank  bonds)  dropped  from  332,500  million  to 
237,400  million  yen.  Total  sight  and  time  deposits  of  all  other  banks 


rose  from  463,700  million  yen  on  Dec.  31,  1948,  to  600,700  million 
on  Aug.  31,  1949.  On  the  latter  date  the  national  debt  was  518,400 
million  yen.  The  gradual  tapering  off  of  price  inflation  is  shown  in 
the  following  indices  (1937-100). 

TABLE   IV. — WAGES  AND   PRICES 

Daily  earning* 

Cost   of  living          of  males  in 
Wholesale  price*         in  28  cities  manufacturing 

1947  .          .  3,720  4,470  3,230 

1948  .          .  9,850  8,643  8,842 

io4o/Jan-    •  14»700  H»100  15'600 

iy*y\Aug.  .  16,200  12,000  16,200 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  Supreme  Commander  for  the  Allied  Powers, 
Summation  of  Non- Military  Activities  in  Japan,  monthly  (Sept.  1945 — 
Aug.  1948);  Japanese  Economic  Statistics,  monthly  (Sept.  1946—); 
Far  Eastern  Commission,  Activities  of  the  Far  Eastern  Commission, 
annual  (1947 — );  J  B.  Cohen,  Japan's  Economy  in  War  and  Recon- 
struction (Minneapolis,  U.S  ,  1949);  Kokutai  No  Hongi:  Cardinal 
Principles  of  the  National  Entity  of  Japan  (Cambridge,  Massachusetts, 
U.S  ,  1949);  W.  Macmahon  Ball,  Japan-  Enemy  or  Ally?  (Melbourne, 
1949);  E.  M.  Martin,  The  Allied  Occupation  of  Japan  (Stanford, 
California,  U.S.,  1948).  (W.  W.  L.) 

JAVA:    see  NETHERLANDS  OVERSEAS  TERRITORIES. 

JERUSALEM.  The  capital  of  former  Palestine, 
revered  as  a  Holy  City  by  Christians,  Moslems  and  Jews  alike, 
during  1948  and  1949  was  divided  by  a  demarcation  line 
between  Israel  and  the  Hashimite  kingdom  of  Jordan.  An 
armistice  was  negotiated  in  March  and  some  progress  was 
subsequently  made  towards  establishing  a  normal  life  on 
both  sides  of  this  demarcation  line  which  divided  the  Arab- 
held  old  city,  with  its  population  of  about  30,000,  from  the 
new  city,  of  which  the  Jewish  population  was  about  100,000. 
No-man's-land  areas  were  eliminated  within  the  city  limits, 
reducing  the  possibilities  of  tension  and  incident. 

Administratively,  the  new  city  was  part  of  the  state  of 
Israel.  It  had  a  Jewish  mayor,  Daniel  Auster,  and  a  district 
representative,  Avraham  Bergmann,  appointed  by  the  Tel 
Aviv  government.  Jerusalem  remained  the  headquarters  of 
the  Jewish  agency,  which  was  responsible  for  immigration 
and  settlement  of  Jews  in  Israel.  It  was  the  seat  of  a  number 
of  Israeli  government  departments,  including  the  Ministry  of 
Religious  Affairs  and  the  post  office.  It  was  also  the  head- 
quarters of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Israel.  A  special  session 
of  the  Knesset  was  held  there  after  the  elections  in  February; 
and  in  many  ways  the  government  was  at  pains  to  stress  the 
city's  inseparable  connection  with  the  state  of  Israel. 

The  old  city  was  administered  by  a  governor,  appointed 
by  King  Abdullah  of  Jordan.  It  contained  practically  all  of 
the  traditional  Holy  Places.  On  the  Jewish  side  of  the  line, 
the  church  of  Dormition  on  Mount  Zion,  which  contains 
the  tomb  of  the  Virgin,  was  restored  to  Dominican  use.  The 
Jews  obtained  access  to  the  traditional  tomb  of  David,  from 
which  they  had  been  barred  for  centuries,  and  it  has  to  some 
extent  taken  the  place  of  the  Wailing  Wall  in  the  old  city 
as  a  place  of  religious  veneration.  The  Cenacitlum,  supposedly 
the  scene  of  the  Last  Supper,  which  is  also  on  Mount  Zion, 
remained  in  the  custody  of  a  Moslem  family. 

A  special  committee  of  Israeli  and  Jordan  representatives 
set  up  under  the  armistice  agreement  made  little  progress  in 
clearing  up  outstanding  points  of  issue  concerning  Jerusalem. 
The  Israelis  offered  the  use  of  the  direct  road  to  Bethlehem 
in  exchange  for  unrestricted  access  to  Mount  Scopus  (seat  of 
the  Hebrew  university).  Meanwhile  the  old  city  remained 
without  electricity  because  the  power  station  of  the  Jerusalem 
Electricity  company  was  on  the  Israeli  side  of  the  city.  Other 
points  of  issue  were  the  restoration  of  the  water-supply,  the 
opening  of  the  Latrun  road  and  apportionment  of  the  con- 
tents of  the  Rockefeller  Museum  of  Palestine  Antiquities. 
Some  in  the  pumping-stations  were  still  under  Arab  control 
and  Jewish  Jerusalem  was  dependent  on  an  emergency 
pipe-line,  which  was  being  enlarged. 


JESSUP— JET   PROPULSION 


567 


A  three-ton  ammunition  depot  in  a  sewer  in  Jerusalem  near  the  Damascus  gate  exploding  on  Aug.  23,  1949.    Some  ammunition  had  been 

removed  but  it  was  considered  too  dangerous  to  remove  the  rest. 


Both  Israel  and  Jordan  opposed  an  Australian-sponsored 
plan  approved  by  the  general  assembly  of  the  United  Nations 
on  Dec.  9,  1949,  to  place  Jerusalem  and  its  environs,  an  area 
of  100  sq.  mi.  including  Bethlehem,  under  permanent  U.N. 
control  as  a  corpus  separatum. 

On  Dec.  26  the  Knesset  (parliament)  was  moved  from 
Jaffa-Tel  Aviv  (q.v.)  to  Jerusalem.  The  seat  of  government 
remained  at  Jaffa -Tel  Aviv.  (See  also  ISRAEL;  PALESTINE.) 

(J.  WR.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.    J.  Parkes,  The  Story  of  Jerusalem  (London,  1949). 

JESSUP,  PHILIP  C.,  U.S.  lawyer  and  diplomat 
(b.  New  York  city,  Jan.  5,  1897),  was  educated  at  Hamilton 
college,  Clinton,  New  York,  Yale  university  and  Columbia 
university,  where  he  received  his  doctor's  degree  in  1927. 
He  taught  international  law  at  Columbia,  becoming  Hamilton 
Fish  professor  of  international  law  and  diplomacy  in  1946. 
In  1929  Jessup  was  assistant  to  Elihu  Root  at  the  conference 
of  jurists  on  the  Permanent  Court  of  International  Justice. 
He  also  lectured  at  the  Academy  of  International  Law  at 
The  Hague  and  in  1930  was  legal  adviser  to  the  U.S. 
ambassador  to  Cuba.  From  1924  to  1944  he  was  assistant 
director  of  the  Naval  School  of  Military  Government  and 
Administration  and  at  the  same  time  lectured  in  a  similar 
school  for  the  army.  He  was  assistant  secretary  general  to 
the  U.N.R.R.A.  conference  in  1943  and  the  U.N.  Monetary 
and  Finance  conference  at  Bretton  woods,  New  Hampshire, 
in  1944.  On  Jan.  3,  1948,  President  Truman  appointed  him 
deputy  U.S.  representative  on  the  *'  little  assembly  "  of  the 
U.N.  general  assembly  and  in  May  appointed  him  deputy 
representative  on  the  Security  council.  In  Dec.  1948 


he  was  granted  the  personal  rank  of  ambassador.  On  Feb.  10, 
1949,  he  was  given  a  new  position  as  ambassador-at-large 
for  special  assignment  to  international  meetings  requiring  an 
experienced  representative  of  high  rank.  He  represented  the 
United  States  in  the  initial  discussions  that  led  to  the  ending 
of  the  Soviet  blockade  of  Berlin  and  was  one  of  the  United 
States  advisers  at  the  Council  of  Foreign  Ministers  in  Paris 
in  May  and  June.  In  July  he  was  appointed  to  direct  a  review 
of  U.S.  diplomatic  policy  towards  the  far  east.  Jessup  was  a 
member  of  the  U.S.  delegation  to  the  fourth  general  assembly 
which  opened  at  Flushing  Meadow,  New  York,  on  Sept.  20. 

JET    PROPULSION   AND    GAS    TURBINES. 

During  1949  steady  improvement  in  turbo-jets  and  turbo- 
props  was  made  and  new  gas  turbines  for  industrial  purposes 
were  put  in  hand. 

Great  Britain.  Turbo-jets.  To  establish  turbo-jets'  inherent 
reliability,  the  de  Havilland  Goblin  2  (3,100  Ib.  maximum 
sea-level  static  thrust)  which  had  been  previously  subjected 
to  a  500  hr.  bench  test  simulating  repeated  fighter  sorties, 
received  a  normal  overhaul  and  ran  a  similar  500  hr.  test. 
After  a  second  overhaul,  210  hr.  to  the  same  schedule  were 
achieved  before  minor  failure.  No  thrust  loss  occurred 
throughout  and  only  61  man-hours'  maintenance  was 
necessary.  The  Air  Registration  board's  civil  approval  was 
granted  to  Goblin  3  (3,350  Ib.m.s.l.s.t.)  and  military  version, 
Goblin  4  (3,500  Ib.m.s.l.s.t.)  was  announced.  Goblins  con- 
tinued to  engine  Vampires  in  many  countries;  including 
Vampire  6  ground  attack  fighter-bomber  and  the  D.H.I  13 
derivative,  the  first  jet  night-fighter. 

Four  Ghost  45  turbo-jets  (5,000  Ib.m.s.l.s.t.)  contributed 


JESSUP— JET  PROPULSION 


A  three-ton  ammunition  depot  in  a  sewer  in  Jerusalem  near  the  Damascus  gate  exploding  on  Aug.  23,  1949. 

removed  but  it  was  considered  too  dangerous  to  remove  the  rest. 

Both  Israel  and  Jordan  opposed  an  Australian-sponsored 
plan  approved  by  the  general  assembly  of  the  United  Nations 
on  Dec.  9,  1949,  to  place  Jerusalem  and  its  environs,  an  area 
of  100  sq.  mi.  including  Bethlehem,  under  permanent  U.N. 
control  as  a  corpus  separatum. 

On  Dec.  26  the  Knesset  (parliament)  was  moved  from 
Jaffa-Tel  Aviv  (q.v.)  to  Jerusalem.  The  seat  of  government 
remained  at  Jaffa-Tel  Aviv.  (See  also  ISRAEL;  PALESTINE.) 

(J.  WR.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.    J.  Parkes,  The  Story  of  Jerusalem  (London,  1949). 


Some  ammunition  had  been 


JESSUP,  PHILIP  C.,  U.S.  lawyer  and  diplomat 
(b.  New  York  city,  Jan.  5,  1897),  was  educated  at  Hamilton 
college,  Clinton,  New  York,  Yale  university  and  Columbia 
university,  where  he  received  his  doctor's  degree  in  1927. 
He  taught  international  law  at  Columbia,  becoming  Hamilton 
Fish  professor  of  international  law  and  diplomacy  in  1946. 
In  1929  Jessup  was  assistant  to  Elihu  Root  at  the  conference 
of  jurists  on  the  Permanent  Court  of  International  Justice. 
He  also  lectured  at  the  Academy  of  International  Law  at 
The  Hague  and  in  1930  was  legal  adviser  to  the  U.S. 
ambassador  to  Cuba.  From  1924  to  1944  he  was  assistant 
director  of  the  Naval  School  of  Military  Government  and 
Administration  and  at  the  same  time  lectured  in  a  similar 
school  for  the  army.  He  was  assistant  secretary  general  to 
the  U.N.R.R.A.  conference  in  1943  and  the  U.N.  Monetary 
and  Finance  conference  at  Bretton  woods,  New  Hampshire, 
in  1944.  On  Jan.  3,  1948,  President  Truman  appointed  him 
deputy  U.S.  representative  on  the  "  little  assembly  "  of  the 
U.N.  general  assembly  and  in  May  appointed  him  deputy 
representative  on  the  Security  council.  In  Dec.  1948 


he  was  granted  the  personal  rank  of  ambassador.  On  Feb.  10, 
1949,  he  was  given  a  new  position  as  ambassador-at-large 
for  special  assignment  to  international  meetings  requiring  an 
experienced  representative  of  high  rank.  He  represented  the 
United  States  in  the  initial  discussions  that  led  to  the  ending 
of  the  Soviet  blockade  of  Berlin  and  was  one  of  the  United 
States  advisers  at  the  Council  of  Foreign  Ministers  in  Paris 
in  May  and  June.  In  July  he  was  appointed  to  direct  a  review 
of  U.S.  diplomatic  policy  towards  the  far  east.  Jessup  was  a 
member  of  the  U.S.  delegation  to  the  fourth  general  assembly 
which  opened  at  Flushing  Meadow,  New  York,  on  Sept.  20. 

JET   PROPULSION   AND    GAS    TURBINES. 

During  1949  steady  improvement  in  turbo-jets  and  turbo- 
props  was  made  and  new  gas  turbines  for  industrial  purposes 
were  put  in  hand. 

Great  Britain.  Turbo-jets.  To  establish  turbo-jets'  inherent 
reliability,  the  de  Havilland  Goblin  2  (3,100  Ib.  maximum 
sea-level  static  thrust)  which  had  been  previously  subjected 
to  a  500  hr.  bench  test  simulating  repeated  fighter  sorties, 
received  a  normal  overhaul  and  ran  a  similar  500  hr.  test. 
After  a  second  overhaul,  210  hr.  to  the  same  schedule  were 
achieved  before  minor  failure.  No  thrust  loss  occurred 
throughout  and  only  61  man-hours'  maintenance  was 
necessary.  The  Air  Registration  board's  civil  approval  was 
granted  to  Goblin  3  (3,350  Ib.m.s.l.s.t.)  and  military  version, 
Goblin  4  (3,500  Ib.m.s.l.s.t.)  was  announced.  Goblins  con- 
tinued to  engine  Vampires  in  many  countries;  including 
Vampire  6  ground  attack  fighter-bomber  and  the  D.H.I  13 
derivative,  the  first  jet  night-fighter. 

Four  Ghost  45  turbo-jets  (5,000  Ib.m.s.l.s.t.)  contributed 


568 


JET   PROPULSION 


o  the  prototype  of  the  de  Haviiland  Comet,  Britain's 
irst  jet-propelled  passenger  liner,  predicted  to  cruise  at 
500  m.p.h.  at  40,000  ft.  and  intended  for  trunk  routes  of 
Britain's  airways  corporations.  On  a  test  flight  this  aircraft 
lew  from  London  airport  to  Castel  Benito,  Libya,  just  under 
1,500  mi.,  in  3  hr.  23  min.  and  came  back  in  3  hr.  15  min. 
The  round  trip  average  of  nearly  450  m  p  h.  was  100  m.p.h. 
aster  than  the  fastest  air  liner  in  service.  Specific  kerosene 
:onsumption  of  l-061b/lb.  thrust/hr.  was  quoted  and 
development  to  higher  thrusts  was  pursued.  The  de  Haviiland 
ighter-bomber  prototype,  Venom,  also  mounted  a  Ghost 
engine.  Sweden  received  licence  to  manufacture  Ghosts 
idditionally  to  Goblins. 

The  Rolls-Royce  effort  on  centrifugal  compressor  turbo- 
ets  was  concentrated  on  the  Tay,  a  double-sided  impeller 
iimilar  to  the  Nene  (5,000  Ib  m.s.l  s  t.)  and  of  same  diameter 
3ut  capable  of  passing  20%  more  air.  Licence  to  build  Tays, 
idditionally  to  Nenes,  was  acquired  by  Pratt  and  Whitney 
:>f  U.S.A.  Ncncs  propelled  the  Vickers  Supermarine  510  and 
Hawker  P.  1052,  aerodynamically  improved  versions  of 
\ttacker  and  Sea  Hawk,  respectively.  A  novel  Nene  applica- 
;ion  was  in  a  high  speed  flow  aerodynamic  research  wind 
unnel;  air  was  drawn  through  the  working  section  by 
impeller  suction  and  by  exhaust  ejector  action. 

Derwent  5  (3,600  Ib.m.s.l.s.t.)  continued  in  Gloster  Meteor 
variants.  A  specially  equipped  Meteor  remained  in  flight 
12  hr.  by  refuelling  ten  times  and  demonstrated  the  potentiality 
[>f  jet  fighters  to  maintain  standing  patrols  or  act  as  bomber 
escorts.  A  Derwent  also  powered  the  Avro  707  delta-wing 
research  aeroplane.  Belgium  received  licence  to  build 
Derwent  5s.  Also  under  development  by  Rolls-Royce  was 
an  axial  compressor  type  Avon,  reported  to  be  the  world's 
most  powerful  turbo-jet.  It  was  olTicially  stated  that  an  early 
variant  delivered  6,000  Ib.  sea  level  static  thrust.  Avons 
powered  Britain's  first  jet  bomber,  English  Electric  Canberra, 
of  performance  comparable  with  contemporary  jet  fighters. 
A  special  Avon-engmed  Meteor  was  stated  to  have  climbed 
nearly  40,000  ft.  in  four  minutes. 

The  Armstrong-Siddeley  Adder  (1,100  Ib.  m.s.l  s.t ),  turbo- 
jet version  of  Mamba,  approached  flight  stage.  This  firm 
disclosed  the  development  of  the  Sapphire  but  published 
neither  design  nor  performance  details. 

A  noteworthy  extension  to  the  jet  propulsion  principle, 
released  after  several  years  of  development,  was  exhaust 
reheat,  a  method  of  thrust  augmentation  for  turbo-jets  for 
take-off,  climb  and  combat  purposes.  Additional  fuel 
injected  into  the  exhaust  stream  was  vaporized;  combustion 
was  initiated  by  a  spark  and  supported  by  oxygen  contained 
in  the  excess  air  which  had  been  introduced  into  the  engine 
to  cool  the  combustion  products  to  a  temperature  unharmful 
to  turbine  blades.  Flame  stabilizers  within  enlarged  jet  pipe 
promoted  flow  conditions  necessary  for  efficient  combustion. 
Use  of  variable  area  final  nozzle  enabled  engine  operating 
conditions  and  reliability  to  remain  unaltered.  Full  scale 
tests  demonstrated  sea  level  static  thrust  gains  of  28% — 48% 
at  a  cost  of  2^%  loss  of  normal  thrust  with  reheat  equipment 
inoperative.  The  highest  reheat  combustion  efficiency  re- 
ported was  91  %  at  40%  thrust  augmentation  with  kerosene 
consumption  of  6  0  Ib./lb.  thrust/hr.  increase.  In  altitude 
flight  thrust  gains  were  considerably  greater.  Recognized 
disadvantages  were  high  reheat  fuel  consumption,  high 
temperature  of  reheated  jet  and  mechanical  complication  of 
variable  nozzle  and  additional  weight. 

De  Haviiland  published  details  of  their  5,000  Ib.  thrust 
Sprite  rocket  motor  for  take-off  and  emergency  jet  propulsion. 

Turbo-props.  The  first  turbo-prop  in  quantity  manufacture 
was  the  Armstrong-Siddeley  Python  required  for  Westland 
Wyvern  2  torpedo-strike  fighter  for  the  Royal  Navy.  A 
Python  was  subjected  to  type  approval  test  at  4,110  maxi- 


mum equivalent  h.p.  Armstrong-Siddeley's  smaller  turbo- 
prop was  developed  up  to  Mamba  2  (1,420  m.e.h.p.)  which 
made  initial  flights  in  the  Armstrong-Whitworth  Apollo, 
Handley-Page  Marathon  2  and  converted  Dakota  civil 
aircraft.  Tests  started  of  the  Double  Mamba  which  con- 
sisted of  two  Mamba  units,  side-by-side,  with  their  individual 
reduction  gears  replaced  by  independent  gearing  in  a  common 
casing,  driving  two  co-axial  propellers  in  opposite  directions. 
It  was  found  that  one  half  engine  could  run  whilst  the  other 
half  and  its  related  propeller  remained  stationary.  Power 
output  was  2,840  m.e.h.p.  at  sea  level  with  kerosene  con- 
sumption of  258  gal.  per  hr.  Net  dry  weight  was  2,000  Ib. 
In  competition  with  Mamba,  the  Rolls-Royce  Dart  was  type 
tested  at  1,365  m.e.h.p.  and  developed  towards  higher  powers 
for  the  Vickers  Viscount.  It  was  the  first  turbo-prop  civil 
aeroplane  granted  the  Air  Registration  board's  airworthiness 
certificate.  Another  combination  of  identical  units  was 
Napier's  Coupled  Naiad,  designed  to  drive  one  centrally 
mounted  counter-rotating  variable  pitch  propeller  through 
reduction  gearing  and  clutches  such  that  either  unit  could 
be  stopped  for  fuel  economy  when  cruising. 

The  Bristol  Theseus  completed  type  test  at  2,500  m.e.h.p. 
and  enabled  the  Handley-Page  Hermes  5,  a  four-cngined 
airliner  prototype,  to  make  preliminary  flights.  The  Proteus, 
(3,500  m  e  h  p.),  in  single  form,  flew  experimentally  and  the 
Coupled  Proteus,  for  the  Saunders-Roe  Princess  civil  flying 
boat  and  second  Brabazon  airliner,  ran  initial  tests. 

Propeller  control  systems  were  under  development  to  suit 
the  starting  and  flight  characteristics  of  turbo-props.  Experi- 
ments with  ducted  fan  gas  turbines  ceased.  Among  cartridge- 
operated  gas  turbine  starters  tested  was  the  Plessey  design 
with  two  5  in.  diameter  contia-rotating  turbines,  rotated  at 
45,000  r  p  m  to  drive  the  main  engine  rotor  through  reduction 
gearing  and  engagement  clutch  Weight  with  two  cartridges 
was  50  Ib.  and  maximum  energy  output  was  50,000  ft.lb. 
The  relative  merits  of  a  wide  range  of  aircraft  turbine  fuels 
were  under  practical  examination.  Aviation  kerosene 
remained  the  normal  flight  fuel. 

Power-generating \  Marine  and  Locomotive  Gas  Turbines. 
Additional  to  the  Gas  Turbine  Collaboration  committee, 
inaugurated  in  1941  to  foster  aero-gas  turbines  exclusively, 
the  independent  Industrial  Gas  Turbine  Development  com- 
mittee was  formed  to  encourage  commercial  gas  turbines 
and  to  make  recommendations  to  interested  organizations 
and  government  departments.  Employment  of  gas  turbines 
to  improve  efficiencies  of  industrial  plants,  including  blast 
furnaces,  chemical  production  processes  and  oil-refining 
equipment  was  under  active  investigation  by  British  industry. 

For  power-generation,  Metropohtan-Vickers  continued  to 
opciatc  their  2,000  kw.  peak  load  experimental  set  and 
proceeded  with  the  manufacture  of  a  15,000  kw.  open  cycle 
plant  for  Trafford  park,  Manchester,  power  station.  Under 
construction  was  a  1,750  kw.  continuous  load  set  to  run  on 
natural  gas  and  a  2,500  kw.  oil  fired  stand-by  set  for  the 
Metropolitan  Water  board.  A  set  of  equal  power  from  Brush 
Electrical  Engineering  company  and  a  1,875  kw.  set  from 
English  Electric  were  also  ordered  by  the  M.W.B.  C.  A. 
Parsons  progressed  with  the  construction  of  open  cycle  sets 
for  the  British  Electricity  authority  and  the  National  Gas 
Turbine  establishment.  Ruston  and  Hornsby  ran  an  open 
cycle  gas  turbine  intended  for  power  generation  at  their  own 
works.  Designed  as  a  general  purpose  long-life  plant,  it 
comprised  a  13-stage  axial  compressor  which  supplied  twin 
combustion  chambers  through  a  contra-flow  tubular  heat 
exchanger.  A  two-stage  turbine  drove  the  compressor  and 
an  independent  two-stage  power  turbine  rotated  a  750  kw. 
alternator  through  4:1  reduction  gearing.  When  operated  at 
1,340°F.  maximum  gas  temperature  at  4:1  pressure  ratio, 
designed  maximum  output  was  1,070  b.h.p.  Plant  thermal 


JET   PROPULSION 


369 


efficiency  was  estimated  at  24%  at  full  load  and  18^%  at 
40%  load.  Without  heat  exchanger,  maximum  output  was 
expected  to  be  1,250  b.h.p.  with  thermal  efficiency  of  17^%. 
Plant  weight  complete  with  alternator  was  21  ^  tons.  The 
500  b.h.p.  experimental  open  cycle  set  at  John  Brown's 
completed  over  1,000  hr.  running  before  conversion  to  a 
closed  cycle  system.  The  12,000  kw.  closed  cycle  plant  for 
the  North  of  Scotland  Hydro-electric  board  was  in  manu- 
facture but  would  not  be  operable  before  autumn  1950.  The 
designed  full  load  thermal  efficiency  was  32%.  In  design 
was  a  700  kw.  closed  cycle  continuous  operation  gas  turbine  for 
utilization  of  waste  heat  in  exhaust  gases  from  coal-gas  retorts. 
The  Metropolitan-Vickers  F.2  type  experimental  set  in  a 
motor  gun-boat  was  still  the  only  marine  gas  turbine  in  use. 
It  had  completed  over  400  hr.  running.  British  Thomson- 
Houston  proceeded  with  manufacture  of  a  1,200s. h.p.  open 
cycle  marine  set  of  20%  thermal  efficiency  for  the  tanker 
"  Auris  "  and  Rolls-Royce  progressed  with  the  mam  com- 
ponents for  machinery  to  replace  steam  turbines  of  8,000  s.h.p. 
in  an  escort  vessel.  The  largest  British  marine  set  under  con- 
struction was  designed  by  English  Electric  to  give  6,600  s.h  p. 
at  5,600  r.p.m.  A  marine  auxiliary  plant  of  l,000kw.  was 
in  design  by  W.  H.  Allen.  Britain's  first  locomotive  gas 
turbine  neared  completion  at  Metropolitan-Vickers.  Of 
2,700  h.p.  it  was  designed  to  give  a  rated  continuous  tractive 
effort  of  29,000  Ib.  Preliminary  tests  were  expected  early  in 
1950.  Rover  had  on  test  an  automobile  gas  turbine  similar 
in  lay-out  to  the  earlier  100  h.p.  unit  but  with  a  designed 
output  of  200  h.p. 

For  industrial  plants,  experiments  with  fuels  heavier  than 
gas  oil  and  diesel  fuel  were  pursued  and  progress  was  made 
towards  the  satisfactory  combustion  of  pulverized  coal. 
Peat-burning  experiments  were  initiated. 

Commonwealth.  In  the  Commonwealth,  Canada  continued 
tests  of  the  Avro  (Canada)  Chinook  (2,600  Ib.m.s.l.s.t.)  and 
announced  the  Orenda,  a  larger  axial  compressor  type  turbo- 
jet. No  details  were  released.  Cold  climatic  tests  of  aero-gas 
turbines,  including  anti-icing  and  de-icing  methods,  were 
continued  by  the  National  Research  council  in  collaboration 
with  British  Ministry  of  Supply.  The  Avro  (Canada)  C.I 02 
jetliner  made  preliminary  flights  powered  with  Rolls-Royce- 
built  Derwent  5  turbo-jets.  Australia  built  Nenes  under 
licence  for  Australian-built  Vampire  fighters.  (R.  H.  SL.) 

Europe.  News  of  the  building  of  aircraft  gas  turbine 
engines  on  the  continent  came  from  two  countries,  France 
and  Sweden,  notably  the  former.  At  an  exhibition  held  in 
Paris,  several  French  aircraft  gas  turbine  engines  were  shown. 
The  larger  engines,  all  of  single  shaft  design,  incorporated 
axial  flow  compressors  designed  for  a  pressure  ratio  of 
approximately  4:1.  Both  propeller  and  pure  jet  types  were 
included;  the  outputs  of  the  former  ranged  from  1,450  h.p. 
to  3,000  h.p.,  and  of  the  latter  type  the  thrusts  were  of  the 
order  of  4,800  Ib.  with  specific  fuel  consumptions  of  between 
I- 1  and  1-2  Ib.  per  hr.  per  Ib.  thrust,  all  these  figures  referring 
to  take-off  conditions.  The  organizations  exhibiting  such 
engines  included  the  Societe  Nationalc  d'£tude  et  dc  Construc- 
tion de  Moteurs  d'Aviation,  and  the  Societe  de  Constructions 
et  d'6quipements  Mecaniques  pour  r  Aviation.  The  Societe 
Rateau  was  developing  a  jet  engine  of  some  2,900  Ib.  take-off 
thrust,  in  which  a  proportion  of  the  total  air-flow,  after  some 
compression,  by-passed  the  main  components  and  mixed  with 
the  hot  exhaust  formed  from  the  remaining  air-flow.  At  the 
exhibition  the  firm  of  Turbomecca  showed  a  small  engine, 
incorporating  a  centrifugal  compressor  and  delivering  140  h.p. 
A  jet  version  of  the  same  engine  was  also  displayed. 

News  of  two  Swedish  jet  engines  was  made  known,  one 
comprising  a  two-stage  centrifugal  compressor,  annular 
combustion  chamber  and  four-stage  turbine,  the  other  being 
of  the  axial  flow  compressor  type. 

E  B.Y  —25 


So  far  as  marine,  locomotive  and  stationary  plants  were 
concerned,  reported  progress  was  mostly  confined  to  Swiss 
firms.  The  Brown-Boveri  gas  turbine  locomotive  was  in 
regular  scheduled  service,  and  up  to  the  middle  of  the  year, 
the  firm's  13,000  kw.  and  27,000  kw.  double-compound 
power  generating  sets  installed  at  Bcznau  completed  3,000 
hr.  and  500  hr.  running  respectively.  The  same  firm  began 
manufacture  on  two  simple  sets  of  4,000  kw.  output  for 
southern  Persia,  intended  to  burn  natural  gas.  On  the  1,000 
kw.  set,  built  by  Maschinenfabnk  Oerhkon,  various  grades  of 
fuel  were  tried,  including  a  very  heavy  rcc.dual,  and  it  was 
reported  that  the  ash  deposits  had  not  proved  troublesome. 
Erection  had  started  on  the  Escher-Wyss  12,^00kw.  double- 
compound  closed  cycle  power  generating  set  for  Paris.  The 
semi-closed  cycle  engine  of  7,500  h  p.  intended  primarily  for 
marine  use  and  built  by  Sulzer  Brothers  underwent  trials, 
and  construction  proceeded  on  a  similar  engine  of  20,000  kw. 
output  for  power  generation  in  Switzerland. 

From  Denmark  came  news  of  the  designing  of  a  marine 
gas  turbine  engine  of  approximately  3,000  h.p.,  working  to 
an  open  cycle.  The  high  pressure  portion  of  this  engine  was 
built  and  was  ready  for  testing  in  July.  Some  firms  in  Holland 
collaborated  in  the  building  of  an  experimental  marine  gas 
turbine  engine  of  2,500  h.p. 

United  States.  In  the  U.S.  few  new  aircraft  gas  turbine 
engines  were  announced  during  the  year,  and  the  development 
of  existing  types  continued.  The  firm  of  Pratt  and  Whitney, 
engaged  on  their  production  model  of  the  British  Nene 
engine  developed  it  to  pass  a  150hr.  qualification  test.  The 
latest  engine  reported  in  the  Westinghouse  24C  series  was 
rated  at  a  take-off  thrust  of  3,200  Ib.  In  addition  to  their 
simple  jet  engines,  the  Allison  division  of  the  General  Motors 
corporation  was  reported  to  be  developing  a  twin  propeller 
turbine  engine  of  some  5,500  h.p.  take-off  rating  and  in- 
corporating axial  flow  compressors.  With  other  organizations, 
development  of  existing  propeller  and  simple  jet  engines 
proceeded,  and  in  the  aircraft  field  emphasis  appeared  to  be 
laid  on  the  axial  compressor  type  of  engine.  The  small  engine 
of  the  Boeing  corporation,  rated  between  100  h.p.  and  200  h.p. 
and  incorporating  a  centrifugal  compressor,  still,  however, 
commanded  interest. 

Research  in  the  U.S.  on  gas  turbine  engines  was  given 
prominence  and  subjects  singled  out  for  special  mention 
included  investigations  into  the  fundamental  processes  of 
combustion,  experiments  in  after-burning  and  water-alcohol 
injection  for  thrust  boosting  of  jet  engines,  research  on  the 
heat-resisting-strength  properties  of  mixtures  of  ceramics  and 
metals,  and  on  turbine  blade  cooling. 

Work  on  ramjets  was  prosecuted  vigorously  and  it  appeared 
that  most  of  the  experimental  work  was  carried  out  with  ram 
jets  of  20  in.  diameter,  but  larger  ones  were  reported  probable. 
A  test  vehicle  powered  by  a  20  in.  ram  jet  attained  a  flight 
Mach  number  of  2  7. 

In  the  marine,  locomotive  and  power  generating  fields, 
reported  progress  was  confined  mostly  to  plants  designed  for 
locomotive  use.  The  General  Electric  company's  4,800  h.p. 
locomotive  engine  successfully  continued  its  test  running  and 
underwent  its  first  public  track  run  in  June.  Tests  were 
carried  out  on  this  engine  using  a  heavy  residual  fuel  and 
mention  was  made  of  a  possible  conversion  to  pulverised 
coal-burning.  Some  details  were  given  of  the  Westinghouse 
and  Elliot  engines,  both  gas  turbine-electric,  the  former  of 
2,000  h.p.  output  employing  a  simple  cycle  with  a  multi-stage 
axial  flow  compressor  and  turbine.  The  output  of  the  latter 
engine  was  given  as  3,750  h.p.  employing  a  single  shaft  design 
with  a  two-stage  centrifugal  compressor.  Mention  was  made 
of  the  Alhs-Chalmers  4,100  h.p.  locomotive  engine,  again  of 
the  gas  turbine-electric  type  with  the  prime  mover  working 
on  a  simple  heat  exchange  cycle.  This  engine  was  eventually 


370 


JEWS,  DISTRIBUTION  OF— JORDAN 


to  be  destined  for  coal  burning.  It  was  reported  that  Bitumin- 
ous Coal  Research  Incorporated  were  planning  coal-burning 
tests  on  a  Houdry  gas  turbine  unit;  further  tests  were  to  be 
made  on  an  ash-collecting  system  developed  during  previous 
research  which  had  shown  that  a  combustion  efficiency  of 
98%  could  be  attained  with  efficient  removal  of  the  fly  ash. 
It  was  stated  that  the  General  Electric  company's  power 
generating  plants  were  to  be  extended  to  include  a  5,000  kw. 
set  in  course  of  manufacture  and  scheduled  for  tests  early  in 
1949.  The  set  was  of  a  double-compound  design  with  a 
relatively  high  thermal  efficiency,  given  as  26-4%.  (See  also 
AIRCRAFT  MANUFACTURE;  AIR  FORCES  OF  THE  WORLD; 
AVIATION,  CIVIL.)  (S.  J.  M.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  D.  G.  Shepherd,  An  Introduction  to  the  Gas  Turbine^ 
London,  1949;  W.  R.  Thomson,  The  Fundamentals  of  Gas  Turbine 
Technology*  London,  1949;  R.  J.  Welsh,  Gas  Turbines  for  Industrial 
Power ,  Diesel  Engine  Users'  Association,  publication  S.201,  1949; 
British  Standards  Institution,  Glossary  of  Aeronautical  Terms.  Gas 
Turbines  and  Jet  Propulsion,  subsection  84,  BS.185  part  2,  London,  1949. 

JEWELS:    see  GEMS. 

JEWS,  DISTRIBUTION  OF.  The  predominant 
characteristic  in  the  demography  of  the  Jewish  people 
during  1949  was  the  continued  flow  of  immigration  to 
Israel  (q.v.)  which  from  May  15,  1948,  to  Nov.  15,  1949, 
admitted  330,000  newcomers.  Precise  figures  showing  the 
number  of  emigrants  from  the  various  countries  were  not 
available  but  the  following  estimates  indicate  the  main 
trends  of  this,  the  third  Jewish  exodus: 

130,000  Yugoslavia  .  .  .  10,000 
37,000  Greece.  .  .  .  3,000 
Yemen  .  .  .  30,000 
20,000  Morocco  .  .  .  15,000 
20,000  Libya  ....  13,000 
30,000  Miscellaneous  .  22,000 

Current  census  figures  of  the  Jewish  population  of  the 
countries  of  the  world  were  practically  non-existent.    The 
table  is  based  upon  the  most  reliable  information  available; 
but  it  must  be  emphasized  that  the  figures  are  estimates  only. 
The  total  Jewish  population  of  the  world  was  thus  some- 
thing over  11  million,  compared  with  a  little  under  17  million 
in  1939.    The  striking  fall  in  numbers,  in  a  world  in  which 
the  population  as  a  whole  had  increased  rapidly,  was  due 
THE  WORLD  DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  JLWS 


Displaced  persons  . 

Bulgaria 

Poland,  Rumania  and 

Hungary    . 
Czechoslovakia 
Turkey 


%of 

%of 

population 

population 

Countries                   Je*s 

Countries 

Jews 

Aden           .                  1,500    1-9 

Japan 

2,000      —  - 

Afghanistan 

4,000    0-04 

Lebanon 

6,500    0-6 

Algeria 

100,000     1-4 

Libya. 

.      26,000    2-4 

Argentina    . 

360,000    2-2 

Mexico 

.      25,000    0-1 

Australia     . 

35,000    0-5 

Morocco 

Austria1 

12,000    0-2 

a.  French 

.    235,000    2-8 

Belgium 

35,000    0-4 

b.  Spanish 

.      14,190     1-1 

Bolivia 

5,000    0-1 

Netherlands 

.      25,000    0-3 

Brazil 

120,000    0-3 

New  Zealand 

3,000    0-2 

Bulgaria 

9,680    0-1 

Norway 

1,100      — 

Canada 

180,000    0-2 

Paraquay    . 

3,000    0-2 

Chile  . 

25,000    0-4 

Persia 

.      90,000    0-7 

China 

4,000      — 

Peru  . 

2,600    0-03 

Colombia    . 

7,000    0-1 

Poland 

.      90,000    0  4 

Cuba 

10,000    0-2 

Portugal 

4,000    0-1 

Czechoslovakia 

17,000    0-1 

Rumania     . 

.    360,000    2-2 

Denmark     . 

7,000    0-2 

South  Africa 

.     103,400    0-9 

Ecuador 

3,500    0-1 

Southern  Rhodesia      3,500    0-1 

Egypt 

75,000    0-4 

Spain 

3,500      —  . 

Ethiopia2    . 

50,000    0-5 

Sweden  3 

.      17,000    0-3 

Finland 

1,800    0-1 

Switzerland 

.      23,000    0-5 

France 

230.000    0-6 

Syria  . 

5,000    0-2 

Germany1  . 

15.000    0-02 

Tangier 

9,000    9-0 

Great  Britain 

450,000    0-9 

Turkey 

.      50,000    0-3 

Greece 

8,000    0-1 

United  States4 

.5,000,000    3-4 

Hungary 

170,000     1-8 

U.S.S.R.      . 

.2,000,000     1-0 

India  . 

28,000       — 

Uruguay 

.      37,000     1-7 

Iraq    . 

120,000    2-6 

Venezuela   . 

3,000    0-1 

Ireland 

5,500    0-2 

Yemen 

.      10,000    0-6 

Israel 

1,000,000    82-3 

Yugoslavia 

5,500    0-03 

Italy1          .         .     40,000    0-1 

(See  notes,  next  column) 


almost  entirely  to  the  slaughter  of  some  six  million  Jews  by 
the  Germans  during  World  War  II. 

Apart  from  the  movement  towards  Israel,  mentioned 
above,  there  was  also  a  not  inconsiderable  migration  of 
Jews  from  Europe  to  North  and  South  America  and  Australia. 
A  large  proportion  of  these  immigrants  had  been  displaced 
persons  who  had  been  living  under  the  care  of  the 
U.N.  International  Refugee  organization  (see  REFUGEES) 
which  had  sponsored  their  transfer  to  various  countries 
of  settlement.  When  the  state  of  Israel  was  established 
there  were  over  146,000  Jews  who  were  being  looked 
after  by  the  I.R.O.,  but  by  the  end  of  1949  the  main 
problem  of  Jewish  displaced  persons  in  Europe  had  been 
solved — for  the  gates  of  Israel  had  been  opened  wide  to 
receive  all  Jews  who  could  make  the  journey.  In  general, 
the  exodus  would  have  been  far  greater  if  freedom  of  move- 
ment had  not  been  denied  to  the  Jews  in  the  Soviet-dominated 
countries  and  in  certain  Arab  countries,  notably  Iraq  and 
Egypt,  but  from  all  these  small  numbers  made  their  way 
surreptitiously  either  to  western  Europe  or  to  Israel. 

(D.  F.  K.) 

JOHANNESBURG.  The  largest  city  and  biggest 
industrial,  commercial  and  gold  mining  centre  in  the  Union 
of  South  Africa,  Johannesburg  also  ranked  as  second  largest 
hub  of  population  in  the  African  continent.  Area:  89-6 
sq.  mi.,  one  of  the  biggest  in  the  Commonwealth  of  Nations 
under  the  control  of  one  local  authority.  Pop.  (June  30, 

1949,  est):    839,154  including  343,192  Europeans,  452,310 
Natives,  16,802  Asiatics  and  26,850  Eurafricans.    The  total 
value  of  land  and  buildings   was  estimated   (1949-50)  at 
£217  million. 

Although  progress  was  made  during  1949,  it  was  con- 
siderably hampered  by  financial  stringency.  At  the  request 
of  the  Union  government  the  city  council  pruned  estimates 
of  capital  expenditure  drastically.  Approved  building  plans 
were  also  much  reduced.  Although  57,000  Native  dwellings 
were  needed,  the  municipality,  necessarily,  stopped  all  housing 
developments,  except  those  for  which  commitments  had 
already  been  made.  In  November  the  city  floated  a  new 
loan  of  £3  million  at  3£%. 

During  the  year  S.  P.  Lee  was  mayor,  being  succeeded  in 
November  by  J.  Mincer.  The  city  council  contained  33 
representatives  of  the  United  party,  three  Labour  members, 
one  Independent  and  five  Nationalists.  The  first  two  freemen 
of  the  city  were  elected  during  1949.  In  November  the  council 
invited  Field  Marshal  J.  C.  Smuts  to  become  a  freeman  in 

1950.  The  city  was  seeking  a  charter  to  give  it  greater  powers 
within  its  own  boundaries. 

Including  the  public  library  and  the  municipal  art  gallery, 
the  cultural  assets  of  the  city  were  estimated  to  be  worth 
£750,000.  (W.  R.  GN.) 

JORDAN,  HASHIMITE  KINGDOM  OF 
THE.  Independent  Arab  kingdom  of  the  middle  east 
bounded  by  Israel  (west),  Syria  (north),  Iraq  (east)  and  Saudi 
Arabia  (southeast  and  south).  Area  (excluding  Arab  Pales- 
tine): 34,750  sq.  mi.  Pop.  (est.  1947):  400,000.  Capital: 
Amman  (pop.  60,000).  Arab  Palestine,  which  was  occupied 
by  Jordani  troops,  covers  approximately  an  area  of  5,000- 
sq.  mi.,  with  a  population  of  about  one  million.  Languages 
(former  Iransjordan):  Arabic  97%,  Circassian  2-5%. 

NOTE*  In  each  of  the  following  countries  the  Jewish  population  was  estim- 
ated to  number  less  than  1,000:  Albania,  Burma,  Dominican  Republic,  Dutch, 
Guiana,  Guatemala,  Kenya,  Luxembourg.  Northern  Rhodesia,  Pakistan  and 
Panama. 

i  Excluding  D  Ps. 

*  This  is  the  figure  given  by  Dr.  J.   Faitlovitch,  executive  director  of  the 
American  Pro-Falasha  committee. 

•  Including  about  10,000  refugees. 

«This  is  the  figure  which  was  given  in  the  American-Jewish  Year  Book 
1947-48  and  was  generally  accepted  as  authoritative  although  the  comparable 
figure  m  the  American- Jewish  Year  Book  1948-49  was  4,500,000. 


JUDAISM 


371 


Religions  (former  Transjordan) :  Moslem  91%  (chiefly 
Sunni);  Christian  8-5%  (chiefly  Arab-speaking  Greek 
Orthodox).  King,  Abdullah  Ibn  Hussein  (<y.v.);  prime 
minister,  Tawfiq  Pasha  Abulhuda. 

History.  Transjordan  was  accorded  diplomatic  recog- 
nition by  the  United  States  on  Jan.  31,  1949.  The  government 
announced  on  June  2  that  Transjordan  had  changed  its  name 
to  the  Hashimite  Kingdom  of  the  Jordan  and  that  foreign 
missions  in  Amman  and  the  U.K.  had  been  asked  to  use  the 
new  style  in  all  correspondence  and  documents. 

On  Jan.  8  it  was  announced  that  in  response  to  a  request 
from  the  government  under  the  Anglo-Transjordan  treaty 
of  March  15,  1948,  a  British  force  had  been  sent  to  Aqaba. 
The  government  early  in  March  informed  the  British  minister 
that  Israeli  forces  moving  southward  to  the  gulf  of  Aqaba 
had  penetrated  Jordanian  territory  at  one  point  and  were 
withdrawn,  and  on  March  12  reinforcements  arrived  for  the 
British  detachment  at  Aqaba.  In  March  it  became  known 
that  the  British  subsidy  for  the  Arab  Legion  had  been 
increased  from  £2  million  to  £3  million.  On  May  4  it  was 
announced  that  an  interest-free  loan  of  £1  million  had  been 
granted  by  Britain  for  development  work  in  connection  with 
the  repatriation  of  refugees. 

A  cease-fire  agreement  with  Israel  was  signed  at  Rhodes 
on  March  11,  and  an  armistice  agreement  on  April  3.  The 
terms  provided  that  the  Arabs  should  retain  the  territory 
then  held  except  that  control  of  the  Hadera-Afula  road  and 
the  Lydda-Haifa  railway  line  (except  at  Tulkarm)  should 
pass  to  the  Israelis.  Partially  demilitarized  zones  were  to  be 
established  along  the  demarcation  lines.  By  agreement  with 
the  Iraqi  and  Egyptian  governments,  Jordan  in  April  took 
over  the  occupation  and  administration  of  the  Jenin-Tulkarm 
and  Hebron-Bethlehem  areas  which  had  hitherto  been  Iraqi 
and  Egyptian  zones  of  occupation  respectively.  The  de  facto 
accession  to  the  territory  of  Jordan  of  those  parts  of  Palestine 
occupied  by  its  troops,  which  had  been  anticipated  by  the 
kingdom's  change  of  name,  did  not  receive  formal  recog- 
nition from  any  power  during  the  year.  The  government 
was  reshuffled  on  May  3,  the  Foreign  Ministry  and  two  other 
ministries  being  given  to  Palestinians.  On  April  26  three 
Palestinian  Arabs  and  a  Jordanian  were  sentenced  to  death 
for  conspiring  against  the  life  of  the  King. 

King  Abdullah  on  April  10  issued  a  statement  on  the 
coup  d'etat  m  Syria  (<y.v.)  which  said  that  Jordan's  policy 
was  one  of  co-operation  with  Syria  until  the  Arab  states  had 
expressed  their  verdict  on  the  Greater  Syria  and  Arab  unity 
moves  impelled  by  events  in  Palestine.  Despite  the  hostile 
statements  of  Husni  ez-Zaim,  Ruhi  Bey  Abdulhadi  was  sent 
to  Damascus  on  May  20  on  a  good-will  mission.  At  the 
army  day  parade  on  May  24,  at  which  Syria,  Lebanon, 
and  Iraq  were  represented,  the  King  reviewing  the  Arab 
Legion  called  on  them  to  "  follow  the  tradition  of  the  first 
Moslem  armies  and  regain  their  glory  ...  by  implementing 
the  fundamentals  of  the  last  revolt  .  .  .  General  Arab  unity 
must  follow."  Jordan  was  one  of  the  first  states  to  recognize 
(on  Aug.  20)  the  Syrian  government  of  Hashem  Bey  Atassi, 
to  whom  the  King  telegraphed  his  congratulations  on 
Aug.  15. 

The  King  visited  Tehran  on  July  28  and  on  Aug.  7  it  was 
announced  that  agreement  had  been  reached  between  Persia 
and  Jordan  for  a  treaty  of  friendship  and  collaboration. 
On  Aug.  18  he  arrived  in  Britain  as  a  guest  of  the  government. 
He  was  accompanied  by  his  son,  Prince  Naif.  The  prime 
minister  was  also  in  London  at  the  same  time,  having  arrived 
in  July;  so  was  the  British  minister,  Sir  Alec  Kirkbride. 
King  Abdullah  visited  Spain  on  his  way  home. 

On  Aug.  26  the  Jordanian  minister  in  London  announced 
that  a  firm  of  British  irrigation  engineers  had  been  employed 
to  make  the  best  use  of  the  water  available  to  the  kingdom 


from  the  Jordan  and  Yarmuk  rivers,  and  were  now  engaged 
in  drafting  practical  schemes  of  irrigation  for  the  Jordan 
valley  in  so  far  as  it  lies  within  the  kingdom  of  the  Jordan. 
Press  reports  said  that  it  was  planned  to  irrigate  75,000  ac. 
at  a  cost  of  some  £10  million.  A  Jaw  was  enacted  in  September 
to  replace  the  Palestine  currency  which  had  hitherto  been 
legal  tender  with  a  new  currency  administered  by  a  Jordan 
Currency  board  in  London.  (C.  Ho.) 

Education.  (1948)  Schools:  government  89,  non-go »ernmem  86, 
total  pupils  15,201,  total  teachers  361 

Agriculture.  Mam  crops  ('000  metric  tons,  1948):  wheat  100,  barley 
41,  lentils  7;  ker senneh  9;  horse  beans  9;  millet  9;  tobacco  (metric 
tons)  120  Livestock  ('000  head,  1943):  goats  324;  sheep  200;  cattle 
53;  donkeys  30;  horses  6;  camels  6;  mules  2. 

Foreign  Trade.  (1948):  Imports  £P1 1,539,950;  exports  £P727,638; 
re-exports  £PI, 783,633;  transit  of  crude  oil  £P706,313.  Principal 
imports,  sugar,  cotton  piece-goods  and  rice  Principal  exports:  fresh 
vegetables,  lentils,  fresh  fruit,  hides  and  skins. 

Transport  and  Communications.  Licensed  motor  vehicles  (Dec. 
1948):  cars  1.241,  commercial  vehicles  1,123 

Finance  and  Banking.  Budget:  (1947)  revenue  £P1, 508,645,  expendi- 
ture £P  1,620,672.  Monetary  unit:  Palestinian  pound  at  par  with  the 
pound  sterling. 

JUDAISM.  The  chief  problem  in  1949  was  the  con- 
tinuing restoration  of  Jewish  religious  life  in  countries  where 
it  had  been  destroyed  under  the  German  occupation.  In 
Germany,  Jewish  religious  life  went  on  consolidating  itself, 
notwithstanding  much  active  resentment  among  former 
nazis,  which  was  expressed  in  the  desecration  of  synagogues 
and  Jewish  cemeteries.  In  1949  there  were  about  20,000 
Jews  in  Germany,  organized  in  nearly  100  Jewish  communi- 
ties. Although  a  few  former  German  rabbis  had  returned 
from  England  and  America  there  was  a  severe  shortage  of 
qualified  rabbis.  A  noteworthy  event  was  the  issue  of 
messages  of  good  wishes  to  the  Jews  in  Germany  by  the 
president  of  the  republic  of  West  Germany,  Dr.  Theodor 
Heuss,  and  by  the  chancellor,  Dr.  Konrad  Adenauer.  Sym- 
bolic too  was  the  publication  in  1949  of  1,050  copies  of  the 
Babylonian  Talmud,  printed  in  Heidelberg,  the  first  copies 
of  the  Talmud  printed  on  German  soil  since  Hitler  had 
thousands  of  copies  of  the  Talmud  burned  on  the  bonfires 
of  books. 

In  Poland,  which  before  World  War  II  had  the  largest 
Jewish  community  in  Europe,  over  3,500,000  members, 
there  were  in  1949  less  than  90,000  Jews.  There  were  70 
organized  Jewish  religious  communities  under  the  Vaad 
Hakehillot,  which  provides  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
synagogues,  Jewish  religious  schools,  Kosher  slaughter 
houses,  cemeteries,  etc.  There  were  complaints  of  inter- 
ference by  the  Communist-dominated  Jewish  central  com- 
mittee, especially  in  education.  The  Polish  government 
promised  to  grant  the  Jewish  religious  communities  complete 
autonomy  and  independence  from  the  Jewish  Central 
committee.  A  great  difficulty  in  Poland  as  in  Germany  was 
the  shortage  of  qualified  rabbis  and  teachers,  and  the  Vaad 
Hakehillot  opened  special  courses  for  training  them.  There 
was  much  uncertainty  during  1949  about  the  right  of  Jews  in 
the  Soviet  Union  to  observe  their  religion  and  to  provide 
Jewish  religious  instruction  for  their  young.  Similar  uncer- 
tainty existed  in  Czechoslovakia,  Hungary  and  other  eastern 
European  countries. 

The  Jewish  communities  of  France,  Belgium  and  Holland 
re-established  themselves  almost  on  prewar  lines,  and  there 
was  much  religious  activity  and  expansion  among  them. 
France  particularly  was  becoming  a  centre  of  revived  Jewish 
religious  and  cultural  life. 

Much  attention  was  paid  during  1949  to  Jewish  religious 
development  in  the  state  of  Israel.  It  was  noted  with  satis- 
faction that  the  synagogues  were  crowded  on  the  New  Year 
and  Day  of  Atonement,  and  that  the  prime  minister,  David 
Ben-Gurion,  and  members  of  his  cabinet  attended  the 


372 


JUDICIARY,   BRITISH— JUTE 


synagogue  services.  There  was  some  talk  of  a  revival  of  the 
Sanhednn,  a  world-wide  authoritative  rabbinical  body, 
centred  in  Israel.  The  idea  was  opposed,  however,  by  most 
orthodox  rabbis  throughout  the  world,  on  the  ground  that 
Jewish  tradition  was  against  such  centralization. 

In  the  United  States  of  America,  with  the  largest  Jewish 
community  in  the  world,  there  was  an  increasing  Jewish 
religious  interest  and  elforts  were  made  to  bring  into  the 
synagogues  the  large  numbers  of  "  unaffihated  Jews." 

In  Great  Britain  a  few  rabbis  and  ministers  accepted  the 
opportunities  offered  them  by  the  rich  and  expanding  Jewish 
community  of  South  Africa.  Some  sections  of  Anglo-Jewry 
complained  of  South  Africa's  drain  upon  the  Anglo-Jewish 
ministry,  but  others  saw  it  as  a  natural  strengthening  of  the 
ties  between  the  Jewish  communities  of  the  homeland  and 
of  the  dominion.  The  chief  rabbi,  Israel  Brodie,  who  con- 
ducted a  pastoral  tour  during  the  year  to  the  smaller  com- 
munities in  the  British  Isles,  to  strengthen  their  religious  life 
and  their  contacts  with  larger  communities. 

An  item  of  interest  was  the  appointment  of  Rabbi  Solomon 
Gaon  as  Haham  of  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  congregation, 
the  original  Jewish  community  in  the  United  Kingdom.  It 
was  the  first  appointment  to  this  ancient  office  since  the 
Haham  Dr.  Moses  Caster  retired  in  1918.  (J.  LWH.) 

JUDICIARY,  BRITISH.  The  principal  changes 
during  1949  in  the  composition  of  the  English  judiciary 
followed  the  deaths,  within  three  days  of  each  other,  of  two 
of  the  lords  of  appeal  in  ordinary,  namely  Lords  Uthwatt  and 
du  Parcq  (see  OBITUARIES).  The  former  became  a  judge 
of  that  division  in  1941  and  was  elevated  to  the  House  of 
Lords  in  1946.  Lord  du  Parcq  had  become  a  judge  of  the 
King's  Bench  division  in  1932,  was  raised  to  the  Court  of 
Appeal  as  a  lord  justice  in  1938  and  like  Lord  Uthwatt  was 
elevated  to  the  Lords  in  1946. 

These  two  vacancies  in  the  House  of  Lords  led  to  a  wide- 
spread re-shuffle  of  judicial  appointments.  Lord  Greene, 
whose  health  had  not  been  good  and  whose  duties  as  master 
of  the  rolls  and  ex-officio  president  of  the  Court  of  Appeal 
involved  a  good  deal  of  administrative  work,  exchanged  that 
post  for  appointment  as  a  lord  of  appeal.  The  other  of  the 
two  vacancies  in  the  supreme  tribunal  was  filled  by  the 
promotion  direct  from  the  Chancery  Bar  of  Sir  Cyril  Rad- 
cliffe,  K.C.,  who  served  in  the  war  as  director  general  of 
the  Ministry  of  Information.  Thus  two  Chancery  lawyers 
now  held  places  formerly  rilled  by  one  Chancery  and  one 
Common  lawyer. 

Lord  Justice  Evershed  was  promoted  to  be  master  of  the 
rolls  at  the  early  age  of  49,  which  post  he  combined  with 
the  chairmanship  of  the  Committee  on  the  Practice  and 
Procedure  of  the  Supreme  Court.  Mr.  Justice  Jenkins  was 
promoted  from  the  Chancery  division  to  the  vacant  place  in 
the  Court  of  Appeal,  and  H.  O.  Danckwerts  was  raised  to 
the  bench  in  his  stead. 

In  Scotland,  H.  W.  Guthrie,  K.C.,  became  a  senator  of 
the  College  of  Justice,  and  Lord  Thomason,  the  lord  justice- 
clerk,  became  chairman  of  the  Central  Advisory  committee 
set  up  by  the  lord  chancellor  to  make  recommendations  for 
the  appointment  of  justices.  In  July,  Lord  Moncrieff,  a  former 
lord  justice  clerk,  died  (see  OBITUARIES)  (W.  T.  Ws.) 

JUDICIARY,  U.S.  The  Supreme  Court  suffered  the 
loss  of  two  of  its  members  during  1949 — Associate  Justice 
Frank  Murphy  who  died  on  July  19  and  Associate  Justice 
Wiley  B.  Rutiedge  who  died  on  Sept.  10.  They  had  served 
since  1940  and  1943  respectively. 

President  Truman  appointed  Thomas  C.  Clark,  of  Texas, 
the  then  attorney  general  of  the  United  States,  and  Sherman 
Minton,  of  Indiana,  a  judge  of  the  United  States  court  of 


appeals  for  the  7th  circuit  and  formerly  a  United  States 
senator,  to  succeed  Justice  Murphy  and  Justice  Rutiedge. 

During  the  1948  term  1,434  cases  were  disposed  of,  a 
record  only  exceeded  by  the  1,520  in  the  1946  term.  In  the 
opinion  of  the  court,  90%  of  the  cases  did  not  merit  dis- 
position by  full  opinion,  as  was  indicated  by  the  fact  that 
only  147  cases  were  covered  by  the  114  signed  opinions 
rendered.  Ninety  dissenting  opinions  were  written  and  35 
decisions  were  carried  by  a  vote  of  5  to  4.  In  addition  there 
were  36  concurring  and  separate  opinions.  As  at  the  pre- 
ceding term  the  government  was  a  party  to  slightly  more 
than  50%  of  the  cases  decided  by  written  opinion,  approxi- 
mately 70%  being  in  its  favour. 

The  United  States  Supreme  Court  was  composed  at  the 
end  of  1949  of  the  following  members  (dates  indicate  year 
appointment  was  confirmed  by  the  senate):  chief  justice, 
Frederick  M.  Vinson  (1946);  associate  justices,  Hugo  L. 
Black  (1937),  Stanley  F.  Reed  (1938),  Felix  Frankfurter 
(1939),  William  O.  Douglas  (1939),  Robert  H.  Jackson 
(1941),  Harold  H.  Burton  (1945),  Thomas  C.  Clark  (1949) 
and  Sherman  Minton  (1949).  (H.  B.  WY.) 

JUGOSLAVIA:     sec  YUGOSLAVIA. 

JUTE.  Realizing  that  manufacturing  costs  in  the  in- 
dustry were  appreciably  increased  by  the  jute  tribunal  award 
late  in  1948,  the  Indian  mill  owners  hoped  to  offset  this  dis- 
advantage eventually  by  increased  production;  but  early  in 
Jan.  1949,  they  saw  that,  because  of  the  short  supply  of  raw 
jute,  they  would  have  difficulty  in  operating  at  full  capacity 
for  the  remainder  of  the  1948-49  jute  year.  After  long  dis- 
cussion, it  was  decided  to  curtail  output  during  the  second  half 
of  1949  by  closing  the  mills  for  one  full  working  week  in 
every  month  from  July.  Receipts  of  raw  jute  by  the  mills 
during  the  period  July-Sept.  1949  had  declined  to  38%  of 
normal  purchase  and  production  by  53%,  resulting  in  a 
reduction  in  stocks  by  the  middle  of  September  to  only 
642,000  bales,  representing  slightly  over  one  month's  normal 
work  (500,000  bales)  and  thus  the  mills  had  no  basis  for 
forward  trading  on  which  they  depend. 

By  working  normally,  the  jute  mills  would  have  consumed 
1,250,000  bales  of  raw  jute  whereas,  by  working  shortened 
hours,  consumption  would  only  be  1,050,000  bales,  thus 
saving  200,000  bales  without  losing  export  trade.  During 
the  closed  week  all  workers  received  involuntary  unemploy- 
ment benefits  amounting  to  half  normal  earnings  plus  Rs.  2 
a  week  food  concession  and  festival  holidays  with  pay. 

Restriction  of  production  and  other  measures  taken  by 
India,  including  an  increase  of  100%  in  the  export  tax  on 
raw  jute  shipments  from  Calcutta,  the  banning  of  raw  jute 
exports  and  a  rigid  reinstatement  of  the  export  quota  system 
on  jute  goods  to  hard  currency  areas,  strengthened  the  price 
structure  of  jute  goods;  India  further  ensured  the  safety  ^f 
her  export  markets  by  putting  a  control  on  selling  prices  of 
finished  goods  and  allowing  brokers  and  merchants  a  mini- 
mum of  5%  profit. 

Fresh  problems  were  created  for  the  jute  industry  by  the 
devaluation  of  the  pound,  followed  by  the  Indian  rupee  but 
not  by  the  Pakistani  rupee.  The  result  was  that  jute  mills 
outside  the  dollar  areas  paid  more  for  raw  jute  whilst  trying 
to  furnish  finished  goods  to  hard  currency  areas  at  lower 
prices.  Dundee,  the  largest  manufacturing  centre  after  Cal- 
cutta, also  suffered  from  Pakistan's  decision  not  to  devalue. 
A  steadily  improved  supply  situation  in  Great  Britain  during 
the  earlier  months  of  1949  had  enabled  the  restriction  on  raw 
jute  consumption,  which  had  automatically  controlled 
working  hours  in  the  spinning  and  manufacturing  centres,  to 
be  relaxed,  and  a  reduction  in  prices  of  Dundee  yarns  and 
manufactures  was  also  about  to  come  into  force,  when  Pakistan 


JUVENILE    DELINQUENCY— JUVENILE   EMPLOYMENT 


373 


decided  not  to  devalue  and  the  Board  of  Trade  immediately 
revoked  its  new  schedule  of  prices.  Stocks  of  raw  jute  held 
in  Great  Britain  were  estimated  to  be  sufficient  to  last  for 
seven  months  at  the  restricted  consumption  rate  and,  in 
order  to  make  supplies  last  even  longer,  a  further  restriction 
on  production  was  forecast. 

These  moves  by  India  and.  Dundee  were  aimed  against 
Pakistan,  since  no  raw  jute  was  being  bought,  in  the  hope 
that  Pakistani  growers  would  be  forced  to  sell  at  prices  more 
favourable  to  manufacturers.  The  Pakistani  government, 
however,  fixed  a  minimum  price  at  which  raw  jute  could  be 
sold  which,  although  comparing  favourably  with  prices 
quoted  in  1948  for  the  hard  currency  areas,  was  much  higher 
for  the  sterling  areas  and  was  consequently  unacceptable. 

The  longer  India  and  Dundee  could  hold  out  without 
purchasing  raw  jute  from  Pakistan  the  better  their  chances 
of  forcing  Pakistan  to  revise  its  prices  or  else  to  devalue 
its  currency.  But  compromise  was  probable  since,  even 
with  Pakistan's  best  forecast  of  5  5  million  bales  and  India's 
2-9  million  bales,  there  was  still  a  shortage  of  1  6  million 
bales  on  the  minimum  of  10  million  bales  of  raw  jute  required 
to  bring  down  prices. 

Important  British  exports  such  as  carpets  and  linoleum  and 
commodities  packed  and  baled  in  jute  might  be  hindered  if 
the  Dundee  industry  became  short  of  raw  material;  and  India, 
the  greatest  importing  and  consuming  country,  exporting  to 
the  U.S.  over  $150  million  worth  of  jute  goods  annually, 
feared  that,  unless  Pakistan  reduced  its  raw  jute  prices,  jute 
goods  might  price  themselves  out  of  the  dollar  markets  where 
alternative  packing  materials  were  available  (G  Ms.) 

JUVENILE  DELINQUENCY.  Indications  that  the 
peak  of  juvenile  delinquency  was  not  reached  in  1948  was 
borne  out  by  figures  published  in  Great  Britain  in  1949  and 
study  of  figures  in  Germany  and  the  U.S.A.  revealed  similar 
trends.  The  plight  of  European  economy,  the  breakdown  of 
currency  and  the  disintegration  of  family  life  owing  to  mass 
migration  remained  contributory  causes.  Despite  the  efforts 
of  governments,  the  International  Refugee  organization  and 
other  bodies,  adolescent  flotsam  and  jetsam  of  World  War  11 
was  still  stealing,  begging,  wandering  and  often  resorting  to 
violence  and  depravity.  Even  in  countries  saved  from  the 
worst  ravages  of  war  juvenile  delinquents  of  1949  were  those 
affected  by  the  adverse  factors  of  war  during  their  most 
formative  years. 

In  Great  Britain,  Appendix  2  of  Criminal  statistics,  1947, 
revealed  an  alarming  increase  in  the  number  of  youthful 
offenders  over  the  years  1938-48  as  is  shown  in  the  table. 

BOYS  AND  GIRLS  FOUND  GUILTY  OF  INDICTABIF  OFFFNCFS 

IN  CNGIAND  AND  WAIFS 

Under  14  14-17  Total 

1938                                         15,559  12,557  28,116 

1945                               .          14,422  19,081  43,503 

1947  21,158  15,536  .        35,694 

1948  26,729      .  17,748  44,477 

A  disquieting  aspect  of  the  steadily  rising  figures  was  the 
more  serious  and  adult  nature  of  crimes  committed. 

1949  was  notable  for  attempts  to  focus  public  attention 
on  juvenile  delinquency  and  to  secure  support  for  both 
preventive  and  reformative  measures.  Three  of  the  most 
notable  of  these  efforts  were: 

1.  The  production  of  a  French  film  on  the  treatment  of 
delinquent  children,  Aux  Royaumes  des  Cieux.  The  preamble 
to  the  film  outlined  the  potentialities  of  new  methods  of  re- 
education and  appealed  for  funds,  buildings,  remuneration 
and  training  of  skilled  teachers. 

2.  In  Holland  the  scheme  of  opening  short  term  camp  schools 
for  delinquents  or  potential  delinquents  was  extended  to 
include  28  camps  under  the  control  of  the  extra  scholastic 
education  department  of  the  Ministry  of  Education. 


3.  In  Great  Britain  conferences  were  held  at  national  and 
local  levels.  At  the  first  of  these  the  home  secretary  and  the 
minister  of  education  met  representatives  of  the  churches, 
local  authorities,  magistracy,  teachers  and  voluntary  organiza- 
tions Attention  was  drawn  to  the  steep  rise  in  the  figures  in 
the  first  part  of  1948  as  against  the  same  period  in  1947. 
Bad  housing,  lack  of  recreational  facilities,  lack  of  parental 
control  and  breakdown  of  family  life  were  regarded  as  causes 
secondary  to  growing  materialism  and  a  decline  in  icligious 
standards  Psychological  investigations  and  research  as 
envisaged  in  the  Criminal  Justice  act,  1948,  (Section  77) 
were  discussed  and  a  conference  on  tru,  scientific  study  of 
juvenile  delinquency  was  called  by  the  relevant  bodies. 
Recognition  that  the  funds  and  buildings  necessary  for  the 
full  implementation  of  the  Criminal  Justice  act  were  not 
readily  forthcoming  affected  these  deliberations.  There  was 
u  resultant  sharpening  of  that  constant  dichotomy  of  view- 
point on  crime,  punishment  versus  re-education.  A  demand 
for  scientific  research  and  treatment  was  countered  by  a 
hardening  of  opinion  concerning  the  alleged  leniency  of 
magistrates  and  a  demand  for  increased  severity. 

Increased  publicity  seemed  to  result  in  widespread  concern, 
acceptance  of  the  need  for  scientific  investigation  and  growing 
disinclination  to  dismiss  juvenile  delinquency  as  merely 
evidence  of  either  psychological  disorder  or  an  inevitable 
evil  of  postwar  society. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  - — Memorandum  on  Juvenile  Delinquency,  issued 
jointly  by  the  Home  Office  and  Ministry  of  Education  (H  M  S  O., 
London,  1949),  Mass  Observation,  Report  on  Juvenile  Delinquency 
(London,  1949),  F  T.  Giles,  The  Magistrates  Courts,  (London,  1949); 
Fh/abeth  R  Glover,  Probation  and  Re-edutation,  (London,  1949). 
Commissioner  of  Polite  for  Metropolis,  Report,  1948  (Cmd.  7737. 
H  M  S  O  ,  1949)  (J.  M.  BR.) 

JUVENILE  EMPLOYMENT.  The  important  Em- 
ployment and  Training  act  of  1948  was  not  passed  until  the 
closing  stages  of  the  summer  session  of  that  year;  most  of 
the  business  of  bringing  it  into  operation  had  therefore  to 
be  done  during  1949.  In  consequence  1949  was  essentially 
a  period  of  adjustment  and  reconstruction.  The  new  National 
Employment  council  was  getting  into  its  stride,  as  were  the 
Scottish  and  Welsh  Advisory  committees.  Local  education 
authorities  were  preparing  and  submitting  their  schemes  under 
the  act,  and  it  was  gratifying  to  note  that  many  local  authori- 
ties that  had  hitherto  not  accepted  responsibility  for  a 
juvenile  employment  service  now  elected  to  do  so.  Many  of 
them  studied  the  methods  employed  by  those  local  authorities 
who  had  long  been  administering  this  service,  with  a  view 
to  taking  advantage  of  their  experience.  Among  the  various 
changes  and  adjustments  there  was  one  of  nomenclature;  in 
accordance  with  the  terminology  prescribed  in  the  act,  the 
old  expression  "  juvenile  "  was  discarded  and  the  service 
became  known  as  the  youth  employment  service. 

When  the  act  was  passed  the  Ministry  of  Labour  issued  a 
descriptive  leaflet  in  which  it  summarized  the  aims  of  the 
youth  employment  service  as  follows:  (a)  to  suggest  types 
of  employment  to  individual  boys  and  girls  that  would  pro- 
vide the  best  opportunities  for  their  capacities  and  interests; 
(b)  to  help  them  to  find  suitable  openings;  and  (c)  to  keep 
in  touch  with  them  until  they  reached  the  age  of  18.  In  the 
well  established  services  this  work  was  being  done  in  many 
ways  and  with  an  agreeable  absence  of  formality.  The  counter, 
aptly  described  in  the  Ince  report  as  "  a  psychological  barrier  " 
lost  its  significance;  and  the  relationship  between  adviser  and 
applicant  became  intimate  and  human. 

Although  the  act  vested  the  minister  of  labour  with  sub- 
stantial powers  and  provided,  through  the  National  Youth 
Employment  council,  for  central  planning  and  co-ordination, 
it  operated  locally  through  youth  employment  committees; 
and  the  function  of  the  service  was  essentially  advisory  with 


374 


KARDELJ— KELLY 


vocational  guidance  as  its  lynch-pin.  Before  World  War  II 
the  dominating  consideration  in  the  juvenile  employment  ser- 
vice was  "  finding  jobs,"  but  when  the  prewar  figure  of 
70,000  insured  unemployed  juveniles  dropped  to  7,000,  the 
two  crucial  questions  became  those  of  guidance  to  the  school- 
leaver  selecting  his  employment  and  of  helping  hard-pressed 
industries  to  solve  their  labour  problems.  The  needs  of 
industry  were  to  some  extent  met  by  the  important  provisions 
for  training  included  in  the  act,  and  industrialists  themselves 
were  releasing  more  young  workers  every  year  for  part-time 
technical  education.  It  became  more  generally  recognized 
that,  if  full  employment  continued,  there  would  be  a  scarcity 
of  juvenile  labour  for  several  years;  and  industry,  guided  by 
working  party  reports,  faced  up  to  the  problem  of  how  to 
make  the  best  of  the  limited  supply  available.  (W.  O.  L.  S.) 

United  States.  According  to  monthly  estimates  of  the 
U.S.  Bureau  of  the  Census,  1,970,000  14-  to  17-year-old  boys 
and  girls  were  employed  full-time  or  part-time  in  April 
1949.  This  was  only  a  very  slight  decrease  from  the  number 
in  April  1948  (2,040,000).  During  school  months  in  1949 
one  out  of  every  four  boys  and  girls  in  the  United  States 
in  this  age  group  was  employed. 

Important  amendments  passed  by  Congress  in  1949  to  the 
1938  child  labour  provisions  of  the  Fair  Labour  Standards 
act — the  Wage  and  Hour  law — broadened  them  to  protect 
children  in  the  transport,  communications  and  other  inter- 
state industries,  and  gave  children  employed  in  agricultural 
jobs  the  law's  full  protection  during  school  hours  for  the 
district  in  which  the  child  was  living  while  he  worked.  For 
the  first  time  an  effective  bar  against  agricultural  employ- 
ment which  competed  with  schooling  became  possible. 

Maine,  Tennessee  and  Alaska  materially  strengthened  their 
juvenile  employment  standards  during  1949,  so  that  22  states, 
together  with  Puerto  Rico  and  Alaska,  now  had  a  basic 
16-year  minimum  age  for  employment.  Tennessee  set  a 
minimum  age  for  employment  at  any  time  in  any  manufac- 
turing or  mechanical  establishment  and  in  bowling  alleys, 
and  raised  from  14  to  16  the  minimum  age  for  employment 
during  school  hours  in  any  gainful  employment  except 
agricultural  or  domestic  work.  Maine  set  16  as  the  minimum 
for  employment  at  any  time  in  any  manufacturing  or  mechani- 
cal establishment  and  in  bowling  alleys,  hotels  and  places  of 
amusement.  It  retained  15  as  the  minimum  for  any  work 
during  school  hours  and  set  a  minimum  of  15  for  employ- 
ment at  any  time  in  stores  and  in  catering  establishments. 
Both  states  improved  provisions  with  regard  to  the  18-year 
minimum  age  for  hazardous  occupations  and  hours  of  work 
standards.  The  new  Alaska  juvenile  employment  law 
established  a  14-year  minimum  age  for  general  employment 
outside  school  hours  and,  under  authority  of  the  act,  the 
commissioner  of  labour  set  a  minimum  age  of  16  in  a  number 
of  occupations  and  a  minimum  of  18  for  a  considerable 
number  of  hazardous  occupations.  (E.  S.  J.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  R.  Godson,  "  The  Industrial  Distribution  of  Juvenile 
Labour,"  Bulletin  of  the  Oxford  Institute  of  Statistics,  Nov.  1949. 

KARDELJ,  EDVARD,  Yugoslav  politician 
(b.  Ljubljana,  Slovenia,  Jan.  27,  1910).  A  teacher  by  pro- 
fession, he  was  imprisoned  for  Communist  activities  from 
1930-32.  Upon  release  he  fled  to  Moscow  and  from  1934-37 
was  professor  of  the  history  of  the  Communist  movement 
at  the  University  of  Sverdlovsk  (formerly  Ekaterinburg). 
He  returned  to  Yugoslavia  before  World  War  II  and  in  the 
summer  of  1941  helped  to  organize  partisan  resistance  in 
Slovenia.  In  Nov.  1943  he  was  elected  first  vice  president  of 
the  A.V.N.O.J.  (Anti-Fascist  Council  of  National  Liberation 
of  Yugoslavia).  On  March  7,  1945,  he  entered  Tito's  govern- 
ment as  deputy  prime  minister  and  minister  for  the 
Constituent  Assembly.  He  was  also  member  of  the  executive 


committee  of  the  People's  Front  of  Yugoslavia  and  of  the 
Politburo  of  the  Yugoslav  Communist  party.  At  the  end  of 
Sept.  1947  he  attended  the  meeting  at  Wilcza  Gora,  Poland, 
at  which  the  Cominform  was  set  up.  On  June  28,  1948,  he 
was  denounced  by  the  Cominform  but  on  Aug.  31  Tito 
appointed  him  foreign  minister.  He  led  the  Yugoslav  dele- 
gation to  the  4th  general  assembly  of  the  United  Nations 
which,  on  Oct.  20,  1949,  elected  Yugoslavia  as  a  non- 
permanent  member  of  the  Security  council. 

KAYE,  DANNY  (DAVID  DANIEL  KOMINSKY),  U.S. 
entertainer  (b.  Brooklyn,  New  York,  Jan.  18,  1913).  At  the 
age  of  ten  he  had  acquired  a  facility  at  entertainment, 
especially  through  his  expressive  hands,  his  "  mugging " 
(face-making)  and  his  adoption  of  a  peculiar  half-singing, 
half-reciting  style  that  eventually  came  to  be  known  as 
44  git-gat-gittle." 

He  attended  a  high  school  in  New  York  and  then  became 
an  entertainer  at  a  summer  camp  in  the  Catskills  near  New 
York  city.  At  the  end  of  four  seasons  at  the  camp,  punctuated 


Danny  Kaye  with  George  Bernard  Shaw  during  a  visit  to  Ayot  St. 
Lawrence,  Hertfordshire^  on  May  J,  7949. 

by  winters  during  which  he  vainly  sought  theatrical  work 
on  Broadway,  he  joined  a  dancing  team  in  vaudeville  and 
was  booked  on  a  tour  of  Asia.  On  his  return  to  the  U.S. 
he  spent  some  time  as  a  night  club  entertainer,  then  was 
invited  to  a  summer  camp  for  actors  near  Stroudsburg, 
Pennsylvania,  where  he  and  Sylvia  Fine  (whom  he  married 
in  1940)  developed  his  stage  routines  into  Straw  Hat  Revue 
which  moved  to  Broadway  for  a  successful  run.  He  began 
to  star  in  night  clubs  and  on  the  stage,  among  his  featured 
roles  being  those  in  Lady  in  the  Dark  (1941)  and  Let's  Face  It. 
He  won  even  greater  fame  in  films  such  as  The  Kid  from 
Brooklyn  and  The  Secret  Lives  of  Walter  Mitty. 

Kaye  made  his  first  appearance  in  Britain,  almost 
unnoticed,  in  1938.  In  both  1948  and  1949,  however,  he  made 
successful  tours  of  the  United  Kingdom.  In  1948  he  took 
part  in  a  command  performance;  in  1949  his  six-week  run 
in  London  was  sold  out  before  it  began. 

KELLY,  SIR  DAVID  VICTOR,  British  diplomat 
(b.  Sept.  14,  1891),  was  educated  at  St.  Paul's  school  and  at 
Magdalen  college,  Oxford.  He  served  in  France  during 
World  War  I  and  in  1919  entered  the  diplomatic  service, 
subsequently  serving  in  Buenos  Aires,  Lisbon,  Mexico  city, 
Brussels  and  Stockholm.  After  a  period  at  the  foreign  office, 
1931-34,  he  was  in  Cairo,  1934-38.  In  1940  he  was  appointed 


KHURI— KOREA 


375 


minister  to  Switzerland  and  on  Jan.  1,  1942,  was  promoted 
ambassador  to  Argentina.  In  May  1946  he  was  transferred 
to  Turkey  and  in  1949  succeeded  Sir  Maurice  Peterson  as 
ambassador  to  the  Soviet  Union.  He  arrived  in  Moscow  on 
June  24  and  on  June  30  presented  his  letters  of  credence  to 
Nikolay  Shvernik,  chairman  of  the  praesidium  of  the  Supreme 
Soviet.  He  was  received  by  Joseph  Stalin  on  July  18. 

KENYA:  see  BRITISH  EAST  AFRICA. 

KHURI,  BISHARA  KHALIL  EL,  Lebanese 
statesman  (b.  Rishmaya,  Lebanon,  1890?),  member  of  an 
ancient  family  of  Christian  (Maronite)  Arabs,  studied  law 
at  the  French  university  at  Beirut.  (For  his  early  career  see 
Britannica  Book  of  the  Year  1949.) 

On  Sept.  21,  1943,  he  was  elected  president  of  the  republic. 
On  May  27,  1948,  he  was  re-elected  for  a  further  six  years, 
as  from  Oct.  1949,  when  his  first  term  would  have  expired. 
On  Sept.  21,  1949,  he  was  sworn  in  for  his  second  term. 
Speaking  in  Beirut  on  Oct.  1,  he  said  in  his  second  inaugural 
address  that  the  Lebanon  would  endeavour  to  effect  union 
among  Arabs  and  would  continue  her  adherence  to  the  Arab 
League  covenant.  On  the  same  day  five  opposition  parties 
published  a  declaration  that  they  considered  President 
Khuri's  second  term  "  illegal." 

KIM  IR  SUNG  (KiM  TL-SONG),  Korean  Communist 
leader  (b.  near  Pyongang,  1913).  Born  as  Kim  Sing-choo, 
during  World  War  II  he  adopted  the  name  of  a  famous 
guerilla  leader  who  was  supposed  to  have  died  in  action. 
Until  1945  he  was  at  Yenan,  seat  of  the  Chinese  Communist 
government,  as  secretary  general  of  the  Korean  Communist 
party.  After  the  occupation  of  northern  Korea  by  the  Soviet 
army  he  moved  to  Pyongyang  where  on  Sept.  6,  1945,  he  was 
instrumental  in  proclaiming  a  people's  republic.  For  the 
time  being  the  Soviet  authorities  recognized  his  government 
only  as  the  Korean  People's  Interim  committee.  Three 
years  later,  however,  when  the  formation  of  a  central  Korean 
government  under  Communist  control  appeared  remote, 
"  elections  "  of  a  Supreme  People's  Assembly  were  held  in 
northern  Korea  and  a  government  of  the  Korean  people's 
republic,  with  Kim  Ir  Sung  as  prime  minister,  was  formed 
on  Sept.  2,  1948.  On  March  17,  1949,  in  Moscow,  he  signed 
with  Andrey  Vyshinsky  a  10-year  agreement  for  economic 
and  cultural  co-operation. 

KOLAROV,  VAS1L,  Bulgarian  politician  (b.  Shumen, 
Bulgaria,  July  16,  1877),  teacher  by  profession,  joined  the 
Bulgarian  Social  Democratic  party  in  1897  and  six  years 
later  was  one  of  the  organizers  of  its  "  narrow  "  or  revolu- 
tionary wing.  In  1913  he  was  elected  deputy  to  the  Bulgarian 
Sobranye,  and  again  in  1920.  When  in  1919  the  "  narrow  " 
Social  Democrats  re-organized  themselves  as  the  Bulgarian 
Workers'  (Communist)  party  (BlgarskaRabotnicheska  Partia), 
he  became  its  secretary  general.  He  attended  all  the  Comin- 
tern congresses  from  1920,  two  years  later  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  executive  committee  and  in  1926  became 
secretary  general.  In  Sept.  1923  he  was  sent  by  the  Kremlin 
to  Bulgaria  to  organize  with  Gheorghi  Dimitrov  (see  OBITU- 
ARIES) an  uprising  which,  however,  failed;  escaping  to  Mos- 
cow, he  remained  there  for  more  than  two  decades,  becoming 
a  Soviet  citizen.  He  returned  to  Bulgaria  in  Sept.  1945. 
He  was  a  member  of  both  Sobranyes  elected  in  Nov.  1945 
and  Oct.  1946.  As  provisional  president  of  the  republic 
(Sept.  1946-Dec.  1947),  in  Nov.  1946  he  appointed  his  old 
friend  Dimitrov  prime  minister,  and  in  Dec.  1947  assumed 
the  duties  of  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  the  second  Dimitrov 
cabinet.  When  Dimitrov  died  on  July  2,  1949,  Kolarov  was 
neither  among  the  few  prominent  Communists  who  went  to 


Moscow  to  bring  the  body  back  to  Sofia  nor  did  he  attend 
the  burial  ceremonies  in  the  Bulgarian  capital.  On  July  20 
the  Sobranye  unanimously  elected  him  prime  minister  and 
foreign  minister  but  he  was  not  present.  On  Aug.  6  the 
cabinet  was  reconstituted  and  Vladimir  Poptomov  succeeded 
Kolarov  as  foreign  minister. 

KOREA.  A  peninsula  extending  from  Manchuria  south- 
ward 600  mi.  between  the  Yellow  sea  and  the  Sea  of  Japan; 
for  11  mi.  it  borders  the  U.S.S.R.;  the  rest  of  the  boundary  is 
with  Manchuria.  Total  area:  85,225  sq.  mi.  Total  pop. 
(19^9  est.):  29,238,600.  The  38th  parallel  N.,  chosen  in 
1 945  to  separate  Soviet  and  U.S.  forces  accepting  the  surren- 
der of  Japanese  troops,  remained  as  the  artificial  but  rigid 
division  between  Korean  governments  organized  in  each  zone. 
The  south  has  44%  of  the  area,  but  its  population  (Sept. 
1949  est.)  of  20,188,600  was  more  than  twice  that  of  the 
north  (1949  est.:  9,050,000).  Chief  towns  in  the  south  (pop., 
May  1949  est.):  Kyongsong  or  Seoul  (cap.,  1,446,049); 
Pusan  (473,619);  Taegu  (313,705);  Inchon  (265,767).  In 
the  north:  Pyongyang,  the  northern  capital  (pop.,  1949  est., 
450,000).  Religions:  Buddhism,  Confucianism  and  a  unique 
eclectic  religion  Chun-dyo-ko;  in  1938  there  were  500,000 
Korean  Christians.  South  Korea:  president  of  the  republic, 
Dr.  Syngman  Rhee  (</.v.);  prime  minister,  Lee  Bum  Suk. 
North  Korea:  chairman  of  the  presidium  of  the  Supreme 
People's  assembly,  Kim  Du  Bon;  prime  minister,  Kim  Ir 
Sung  (q.v.). 

History.  During  the  year  Korea  continued  to  be  a  divided 
land.  The  38th  parallel,  the  boundary  between  the  U.S.- 
aided  Republic  of  Korea  in  the  south  and  the  Soviet-spon- 
sored Democratic  People's  Republic  of  Korea  in  the  north, 
was  the  scene  of  numerous  border  skirmishes.  On  Jan.  1, 
President  Harry  S.  Truman  announced  formal  recognition 
of  the  Republic  of  Korea  by  the  United  States;  on  Jan.  30 
the  first  ambassador  from  the  northern  regime  was  received 
in  the  U.S.S.R.  Both  republics  claimed  suzerainty  over  all 
of  Korea.  The  year  was  marked  by  solidification  of  the 
internal  positions  of  each  in  their  zones. 

The  Republic  of  Korea  in  the  south,  which  is  called  Tai 
Han  Min  Guk  (Great  Han  People's  Country),  had  a  tumult- 
uous year.  The  National  Assembly,  for  example,  adopted  on 
June  2  a  resolution  calling  for  dismissal  of  the  entire  cabinet; 
later  five  members  of  the  assembly,  who  filed  a  petition  with 
the  U.N.  Commission  on  Korea,  were  arrested  on  the  order 
of  President  Syngman  Rhee.  Problems  of  local  security 
made  officials  fearful  and  the  police,  organized  on  a  national 
basis,  were  given  wide  powers  which  they  exercised  on 
occasion  very  harshly.  A  Korean  army  officer  assassinated 
Kim  Koo,  former  president  of  the  Korean  provisional 
government,  a  rightist  who  bitterly  opposed  the  division 
of  the  country.  Sporadic  outbreaks  occurred,  possibly 
under  instigation  from  organizers  from  the  north,  but  these 
were  quickly  quelled.  An  important  forward  step  was  taken 
when  an  administration-sponsored  land  reform  programme 
was  enacted;  this  would  enable  over  a  million  farmers  to 
purchase  their  land  from  Korean  landlords,  following  a 
pattern  established  by  the  American  military  authorities  in 
distributing  former  Japanese-owned  land.  President  Rhee, 
after  a  conference  with  Generalissimo  Chiang  Kai-shek 
(^.v.)  on  Aug.  7-8,  issued  an  appeal  for  a  Pacific  pact  for 
security  purposes  but  it  had  lukewarm  reception. 

The  U.S.  army,  which  had  occupied  southern  Korea  after 
the  surrender  of  Japan,  was  withdrawn  during  the  first  half 
of  the  year,  the  last  troops  embarking  in  July.  Under  treaty 
provisions  a  small  group  of  500  U.S.  army  officers  and  men 
remained  to  aid  in  the  training  of  Korean  security  forces. 
American  economic  aid  continued  on  a  large  scale  and  with 
strict  American  supervision.  An  E.C.A.  programme  calling 


376 


HYDERABAD ( 


LACROSSE 


Soldiers  of  the  Korean  army  march  through  Seoul,  capital  of  South 

Korea,  on  Aug.  75,  7949,  the  first  anniversary  of  the  setting  up  of 

the  Republic  of  Korea. 

for  $150  million  expenditure  was  approved  by  the  U.S. 
House  of  Representatives  foreign  affairs  committee  on 
June  30,  but  it  did  not  pass  the  Senate  until  Oct.  12.  Actual 
appropriation  was  not  made  by  the  end  of  the  year,  though 
some  interim  funds  were  provided. 

The  United  Nations  Commission  on  Korea  remained  in 
southern  Korea  during  the  year  operating  under  some 
difficulties.  It  tried  in  vain  to  make  contacts  with  the  northern 
regime  and  to  work  toward  a  unification  of  the  peninsula. 
In  reporting  its  failures  to  the  U.N.  general  assembly,  it 
laid  the  blame  on  the  world -wide  antagonism  between  the 
Soviet  Union  and  the  United  States.  The  chances  for  unifi- 
cation in  Korea  appeared  to  it  to  be  more  and  more  remote. 
However,  it  was  instructed  by  an  assembly  vote  of  44  to  6 
on  Oct.  3  to  continue  its  efforts  and  to  pay  special  attention 
to  military  developments  in  Korea  which  might  lead  to  full- 
scale  civil  war.  The  Republic  of  Korea's  appeal  for  member- 
ship of  the  U.N.  was  vetoed  by  the  Soviet  Union.  The 
application  of  the  Democratic  People's  Republic  for  member- 
ship was  also  rejected. 

In  the  north,  Soviet  troops  were  withdrawn  in  the  last 
week  of  1948,  thereby  ending  their  occupation.  A  Korean- 
Soviet  agreement  for  economic  and  cultural  co-operation 
was  signed  in  Moscow  on  March  17,  during  a  visit  of  northern 
leaders,  including  Kim  Ir  Sung,  the  premier.  The  northern 
regime  continued  to  use  subversive  and  propaganda  attacks 
on  the  south.  Active  fighting  took  place  along  the  western 
part  of  the  38th  parallel.  The  internal  patterns  of  the  north 
were  developed  along  Communist  lines  with  nationalization 
of  banks,  industry,  transport  and  commerce.  A  two-year 
plan  for  the  national  economy  for  1949-50  was  published. 


It  called  for  an  increase  in  agricultural  land  sown,  building 
of  irrigation  works,  increase  in  grain  production  and  in 
livestock. 

The  whole  pattern  of  developments  during  1949  thus 
showed  a  further  widening  of  the  cleavages  between  north 
and  south  Korea.  The  situation,  especially  along  the  38th 
parallel,  was  grave.  Both  regimes  were  being  bolstered  by 
outside  aid.  Troops  in  the  north  were  estimated  at  200,000 
men.  In  the  north  the  Korean  constabulary  numbered 
about  60,000  and  the  army  about  150,000.  Though  in  both 
areas  there  was  some  increased  economic  development,  the 
lot  of  the  common  man  was  insecure  and  unhappy. 

Education.  A  group  of  U.S.  educators  worked  with  Korean  teachers 
in  south  Korea  in  revising  the  rigid  system  which  had  been  established 
by  the  Japanese.  The  mass  teaching  of  hankul,  the  dialect  script,  was 
started  after  the  war  and  the  literacy  rate  was  rapidly  increasing;  in 
the  south  the  rate  in  1949  was  66%  of  those  over  13  years  of  age.  In 
the  north  the  claim  was  made  that  1,740,000  pupils  were  enrolled  in 
4,327  primary  and  secondary  schools  and  that  1 1  institutions  of  higher 
learning  had  been  established. 

Agriculture.  Rice  is  the  most  important  agricultural  product;  1948 
production  in  the  south  was  estimated  at  2-5  million  metric  tons. 
Other  products  were  (in  metric  tons):  barley  (352,393),  naked  barley 
(212,780),  wheat  (89,912)  and  rye  (18,896).  Fish  and  marine  products 
were  estimated  at  300,000  metric  tons  in  1948.  Production  of  crops 
was  aided  by  fertilizers  imported  with  E.G. A.  aid;  600,000  tons  were 
imported  in  1948-49. 

Industry.  Production  goals  for  1948  announced  for  manufacturing 
in  the  north  were  claimed  to  have  been  attained  in  1949  (in  metric 
tons):  pig  iron  9,000,000;  chemical  fertilizers  332,000;  salt  150,000; 
rayon  yarn  1,440.  Communist  officials  made  statements  at  the  end  of 
the  year  that  showed  that  industrial  production  had  evidently  been 
lagging  considerably.  The  north  Korean  action  in  cutting  off  the  power 
supply  normally  furnished  to  the  south  seriously  hampered  manufac- 
turing there.  Industrial  facilities  in  the  south  were  mostly  chemical 
plants,  food  processing  and  textile  factories  and  light  consumer-goods 
industries  such  as  rubber  shoes,  bicycle  tyres,  etc.  All  of  these  were 
reported  in  1949  to  have  had  a  considerable  increase  in  production. 

The  major  mineral  resources  are  found  in  the  north  where  iron, 
coal,  gold  and  many  other  ore  deposits  were  exploited  by  the  Japanese. 
In  the  south  anthracite  coal  production  was  limited.  714,150  tons  were 
mined  in  1948  and  monthly  production  reached  a  peak  of  97,918  tons 
in  April  1949.  Bituminous  coal,  mainly  used  for  transport  facilities, 
was  imported  from  Japan  (967,903  tons  in  1948).  In  1944  south  Korea 
was  the  world's  leading  producer  of  graphite  (103,000  metric  tons); 
production  in  1948  was  one-seventh  of  that  amount. 

Foreign  Trade.  Trade  on  a  barter  basis  between  the  north  and  south 
was  stopped  in  the  spring,  though  clandestine  trade  continued.  In  the 
south,  foreign  trade  was  largely  restricted  to  essential  imports  of  food, 
petroleum,  fertilizers,  coal  and  raw  materials  for  industry. 

Finance.  In  south  Korea  the  value  of  the  won  maintained  its 
low  level  of  1948;  the  official  rate  of  exchange  was  U.S.  $1  =450  won; 
however,  in  Sept.  1949  curb  rate  was  U.S.  $1  =  1,900  won.  Measures 
slowing  down  the  rate  of  inflation  were  not  effective:  rice  prices,  for 
example,  were  nine  times  as  high  in  Aug.  1949  as  in  Aug.  1945;  cotton 
cloth  prices  were  100  times  as  high.  The  Bank  of  Korea  note  issue 
used  in  the  south  increased  from  8,700  million  won  in  Sept.  1945  to 
49,100  million  in  Sept.  1949.  The  1949-50  budget  in  the  south  called 
for  57,322  million  won  for  general  expenditures  and  166,111  million 
for  special  expenditures.  In  the  north  the  figure  was  19,763  million 
won  for  general  expenditures,  an  increase  of  45  %  over  the  year  before. 

(S.  McC.) 
KUWAIT:   see  ARABIA. 

LABOUR   PARTY:   see  POLITICAL  PARTIES,  BRITISH. 
LABOUR  UNIONS:   see  TRADE  UNIONS. 

LABRADOR :  see  CANADA;  NEWFOUNDLAND  AND 
LABRADOR. 

LABUAN:   see  NORTH  BORNEO. 

LACROSSE.  In  England,  1949  saw  recruitment  to  old 
clubs,  new  ones  founded  and  expansion  in  public  interest  in 
men's  lacrosse.  The  annual  North  v.  South  match  at  Lord's 
was  the  best  for  many  years ;  a  splendid  struggle  resulted  in  a 
draw.  Cambridge  won  the  annual  university  match  against 
Oxford.  A  new  high  level  was  reached  in  the  United  States; 
more  universities,  colleges  and  schools  were  playing  the 


LANGE— LATVIA 


377 


game  than  ever  before.  A  successful  North  v.  South  game  at 
Troy,  New  York,  resulted,  for  the  first  time  since  1943,  in  a 
win  for  the  South.  The  U.S.  navy  and  John  Hopkins  univer- 
sity were  awarded  co-possession  of  the  United  States  inter- 
collegiate championship.  Expansion  was  handicapped  in 
Australia  by  lack  of  equipment  due  to  the  dollar  shortage. 
There  was  a  successful  season  throughout  the  continent. 
Popularity  of  women's  lacrosse  in  England  continued  un- 
abated, a  record  number  of  colleges,  schools  and  clubs  being 
affiliated  to  the  All  England  Ladies'  Lacrosse  association 
At  the  invitation  of  the  United  States  ladies'  Lacrosse 
association  an  All  England  team  toured  the  U.S  A  during 
March  and  April.  They  won  all  their  matches  including  a 
final  game  against  an  All  American  ladies'  team  in  New  York. 

(G.  H.  BA,) 

LANGE,  HALYARD  MANTHEY,  Norwegian 
statesman  (b.  Oslo,  Sept.  16,  1902),  son  of  Christian  Lous 
Lange  (1869-1938).  His  father  was  for  a  quarter  of  a  century 
secretary  general  of  the  Inter- Pailiamentary  union  and  in 
1921  was  awarded  the  Nobel  Peace  prize.  Educated  at  the 
universities  of  Oslo  and  Geneva  and  the  London  School  of 
Economics,  Halvard  Lange  taught  economic  history  at  the 
Oslo  High  School  of  Commerce  (1930-35),  was  lecturer  in 
modern  history  at  the  University  of  Oslo  (1935-38)  and  rector 
of  the  Norwegian  Central  Trade  Union  college  (1938-40). 
He  joined  the  Norwegian  Arbeiderpartiet  (Labour  party)  in 
1929  and  was  a  member  of  its  executive  committee  1933-39 
and  again  from  1945.  He  was  imprisoned  by  the  Gestapo 
Aug.  1940-June  1941  and  Aug.  1942-May  1945.  On  Feb.  1, 
1946,  he  succeeded  Trygve  H.  Lie  (q.v.)  as  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  in  the  cabinet  of  Emar  Gerhardsen  (</.v.),  his  prison 
friend.  In  the  crucial  first  three  months  of  1949  his  beliefs 
and  determination  were  an  important  factor  contributing 
to  Norway's  defiance  of  the  Soviet  interdict,  abandonment 
of  neutrality  and  adherence  to  the  North  Atlantic  treaty  (</  v.). 

LAOS:   see  FRENCH  UNION. 

LATTRE  DE  TASSIGNY,  JEAN-JOSEPH- 
MARIE-GABRIEL  DE,  French  army  officer 
(b.  Mouilleron-en-Pareds,  Vendee,  Feb.  2,  1889).  A  graduate 
of  Saint-Cyr,  he  saw  action  in  World  War  I  and  as  a  captain 
began  service  in  1921  in  Morocco,  where  he  was  wounded 
in  the  Rif  campaign  in  1925.  In  1929  he  was  called  to  the 
general  staff;  by  1939  he  was  the  youngest  general  in  the 
French  army.  In  May  1940  he  commanded  the  14th  Infantry 
division  which  fought  around  Rethel.  On  Aug.  27,  1941,  he 
was  appointed  c.-in-c.  in  Tunisia  but  in  1942  was  recalled 
to  France  to  command  at  Montpelher  one  of  the  seven 
divisions  of  the  "  armistice  army."  When  the  Germans, 
on  Nov.  11,  1942,  took  over  the  "  free  zone,"  he  attempted 
to  resist.  For  his  defiance  of  Vichy's  orders  he  was  sentenced 
on  Jan.  9,  1943,  to  10  years'  imprisonment  at  Riom  but  nine 
months  later  escaped  and  made  his  way  to  London.  He  took 
over  the  French  First  army  which  landed  at  Saint-Tropez 
on  Aug.  1 6,  1 944.  Advancing  up  the  Rhone  valley,  he  crossed 
the  Rhine,  entered  the  upper  Danube  valley  and  brought  his 
troops  to  the  Tirol.  On  May  8,  1945,  in  Berlin,  he  signed  for 
France  the  final  act  of  German  capitulation  and,  on  June  5, 
the  four-power  Berlin  declaration  under  which  the  Allies 
assumed  supreme  authority  in  Germany.  On  July  25  he  was 
appointed  inspector  general  of  the  French  army  and  revo- 
lutionized the  training  of  conscripts  by  increasing  the  pro- 
portion of  time  spent  on  active  training  under  field  conditions. 
On  Oct.  4,  1948,  he  was  appointed  c.-in-c.,  land  forces, 
Western  Europe,  under  Field  Marshal  Viscount  Montgomery 
of  Alamein,  military  chairman  of  the  commanders  in  chief 
committee,  with  headquarters  at  Fontainebleau. 


LATVIA.  From  Jan.  18,  1919,  to  Aug,  5,  1940,  when  it 
was  annexed  by  the  U.S.S  R  ,  Latvia  was  an  independent 
republic.  The  British,  U.S.  and  many  other  governments, 
however,  had  not  granted  dc  jure  recognition  to  this  annexa- 
tion. Area:  25,395  su,.  mi.  Pop.:  (Jan  1939  est.)  1,994,500, 
(Jan.  1946  est.)  1,650,000.  The  reduction  is  explained  by  the 
evacuation  of  the  German  minority  (r.  50,000)  in  1939-40, 
by  Soviet  deportations  in  1940  A\  (c.  34,000),  by  the  murder 
by  the  Germans  of  some  90,000  Jews,  by  the  fact  that  about 
65,000  Latvians  fled  to  Germany  when  the  Soviet  armies 
returned  and  by  a  second  wave  of  Soviet  deportations  in 
1945  (about  105,000).  Chief  towns:  Riga  leap.,  pop.,  1939 
est.,  393,210);  Licpaja  (1935  census,  57,098);  Daugavpils 
(1935,  45,160)  Chairman  of  the  presidium  of  the  Supreme 
Soviet  of  the  I  atvian  S  S.R.,  August  M.  Kirchensteins; 
chaitman  of  the  Council  of  Ministers,  Vilis  T.  I  acis. 

History.  At  the  congress  of  the  Latvian  Communist  party 
in  Jan.  1949,  J.  h.  Kalnberzms  and  P.  Litvinov,  secretaries 
genet  al,  reported  that  the  party  had  31,203  members  and 
candidates,  55%  being  civil  servants,  38%  workers  and  1% 
peasants.  Of  the  69  members  elected  to  the  central  committee 
30  had  Russian  names  and  among  the  13  high  dignitaries  of 
the  party  only  5  were  Latvians 

Many  speakers  at  the  congress  emphasized  that  the  total 
population  of  Latvia  was  over  two  million,  which  would 
suggest  that  by  then  the  Russians  numbered  over  350,000. 
Latvians  who  escaped  to  Sweden  in  March  reported  that  a 
new  wave  of  deportation  was  in  progress  according  to  a  plan 
prepared  by  S.  N.  Kruglov,  Soviet  minister  of  home  affairs 
(M.V.D.),  and  V.  S.  Abakumov,  Soviet  minister  of  state 
security  (M.G.B.)  and  director  of  all  Soviet  camps  of  forced 
labour.  This  plan  concerned  not  only  Latvia,  but  also  Estonia 
and  Lithuania  (qq.v.).  Persons  selected  for  deportation 
included  political  prisoners  under  investigation  or  arrest; 
families  of  persons  accused  of  espionage,  participation  in  the 
underground  movement  and  contacts  with  foreign  countries, 
former  professional  soldiers,  officers  and  non-commissioned 
officers,  with  families;  former  civil  servants;  former  teachers 
and  professors  with  families;  priests  and  members  of  religious 
organizations;  and  members  of  the  free  professions  with 
families.  Altogether  about  70,000  were  said  to  have  been 
deported  from  Latvia.  In  August  Major  General  Alfons  A. 
Noviks,  Latvian  minister  of  state  security,  and  Major  General 
August  P.  Eglits,  Latvian  minister  of  home  affairs,  were 
awarded  the  Order  of  the  Red  Banner  "  for  the  successful 
execution  of  a  special  assignment  of  the  government  of  the 
U.S.S.R."  (Izve&lia,  Aug.  25,  1949). 

Contrary  to  Soviet  promises  in  1944,  on  the  eve  of  the 
second  occupation,  collectivization  was  enforced  during  1949 
with  ruthless  determination.  In  the  spring  of  1947  there  were 
only  four  kolkhozes  (collective  farms);  a  year  later  their 
number  had  increased  to  189,  and  on  July  21,  1949,  V.  T. 
Lacis  announced  that  there  were  3,879  kolkhozes,  embracing 
four-fifths  of  the  arable  land.  But  the  sowed  area  in  the 
spring  of  1949  amounted  to  only  1  -9  million  hectares  against 
2,239,000  hectares  in  1939,  and  milch  cows  numbered  380,000 
against  890,200  in  1939. 

The  number  of  industrial  workers  in  1949  was  118,000 — 
one-fifth  more  than  in  1938.  According  to  an  article  by  J.  E 
Kalnberzms,  about  5,000  Russian  technicians — one-fourth  of 
the  total — helped  to  manage  Latvian  industries.  F.  Dalgavs, 
chairman  of  the  State  Planning  commission,  reported  that  by 
April  1949  only  about  1,500  industrial  plants  had  been 
rehabilitated — one-fourth  of  the  plants  which  existed  in  Latvia 
in  1939.  Nevertheless,  on  Nov.  6,  1949,  Kalnberzms  and 
Lacis  reported  in  a  telegram  to  Stalin  that  the  total  industrial 
production  was  double  what  it  had  been  in  1940. 

Education.  According  to  V.  T.  Lacis,  the  total  number  of  pupils  in 
all  schools  in  1949  was  40,000  more  than  in  bourgeon  Latvia.  (In  1939 


378 


LAW   AND   LEGISLATION 


there  were   1,895  elementary  schools  with  229,825  pupils  and   114 
secondary  schools  with  25,225  pupils  ) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  Mintauts  Cakste,  **  Latvia  and  the  Soviet  Union," 
Journal  of  Central  European  Affair*,  April  and  July  1949  (Boulder, 
Colorado,  US).  (K.  SM.) 

LAW  AND  LEGISLATION.  Public  Law  in  Europe 
and  the  Commonwealth.  In  this  field  the  most  important 
developments  of  1949  were  the  adoption  by  the  Parliamentary 
Council  of  the  basic  law  for  the  federal  republic  of  Germany, 
and  by  the  Constituent  Assembly  of  India  of  a  constitution 
based  on  a  draft  prepared  by  its  drafting  committee  under  the 
chairmanship  of  Dr.  B.  R.  Ambedkhar,  together  with  the 
finding  and  acceptance  by  the  Commonwealth  conference 
of  the  ingenious  formula  whereby  India,  although  pro- 
claiming her  intention  of  being  "  a  sovereign  independent 
republic  "  yet  remained  within  the  Commonwealth  with  its 
"  common  allegiance  to  the  crown.'*  In  Israel,  the  adoption 
of  a  draft  constitution  was  being  debated;  and,  in  Pakistan, 
an  agenda  was  being  debated  for  a  conference  to  establish  a 
constitution. 

The  basic  law  for  Western  Germany  was,  as  its  full  title 
implies,  founded  on  a  division  between  the  federation  on  the 
one  hand  and  the  provinces,  or  Lander,  on  the  other.  In  its 
preamble  it  declared  that  "  Conscious  of  its  responsibility 
before  God  and  mankind  .  .  .  the  German  people  "  in  certain 
specified  provinces  "  has,  by  virtue  of  its  constituent  power, 
enacted  this  basic  law  of  the  federal  republic  of  Germany  to 
give  a  new  order  to  political  life  for  a  transitional  period/' 
The  preamble  claimed,  significantly,  that  the  German  people 
had  thus  acted  on  behalf  of  those  Germans;  i.e.,  in  the 
Soviet  zone,  to  whom  participation  was  denied  and  it  pro- 
claimed that  "  The  entire  German  people  is  called  upon  to 
accomplish  ...  the  unity  and  freedom  of  Germany."  The 
first  section  of  the  basic  law  enumerated  a  number  of  basic 
rights.  These  ranged  from  such  general  statements  as  that 
44  The  dignity  of  man  shall  be  inviolable  "  (art.  1)  and  "  Every- 
one shall  have  the  right  to  the  free  development  of  his  per- 
sonality "  (art.  2)  to  relatively  precise  statements  such  as  that 
44  Secrecy  of  the  mail  .  .  .  shall  be  inviolable.  Restrictions 
may  be  ordered  only  on  the  basis  of  a  law  "  (art.  10)  and 
"  The  dwelling  shall  be  inviolable.  Searches  may  be  ordered 
only  by  a  judge  or,  in  the  event  of  imminent  danger,  by  other 
authorities  provided  by  law  "  (art.  13).  In  their  affirmation 
of  equality  before  the  law,  freedom  of  expression  of  opinion 
and  freedom  of  assembly,  and  in  their  insistence  on  the 
sanctity  of  the  family,  these  articles  expressed  a  reaction 
against  totalitarian  ideas  which  was  the  most  significant 
feature  of  this  section.  In  art.  14  and  15  there  was,  too,  an 
interesting  statement  of  a  compromise  between  individualist 
and  socialist  ideas:  art.  14  stated  that,  subject  to  certain 
limitations,  **  Property  and  the  right  of  inheritance  shall  be 
guaranteed,"  whereas  art.  15  provided  that  "  Land  and 
landed  property,  natural  resources  and  means  of  production 
may,  for  the  purpose  of  socialization,  be  transferred  to 
public  ownership  ...  by  way  of  a  law  which  shall  regulate 
the  nature  and  extent  of  compensation." 

Section  II  regulated  relations  between  the  federation  and 
the  Lander.  It  declared  that  Germany  was  a  democratic 
and  social  federal  state;  it  gave  the  federation  power,  by 
legislation,  to  transfer  sovereign  powers  to  international 
institutions;  it  provided  (art.  28)  that  "The  constitutional 
order  in  the  Lander  must  conform  to  the  principles  of  the 
republican,  democratic  and  social  state  based  on  the  rule  of 
law  ...  In  the  Lander,  Kteise  and  Gememden  the  people 
must  have  a  representative  assembly  resulting  from  universal, 
direct,  free,  equal  and  secret  elections"  and  (art.  31)  that 
"  Federal  law  shall  supersede  Land  law  ":  which  presumably 
meant  that  in  the  event  of  conflict  or  mutual  repugnancy 
federal  law  should  prevail.  Section  III  regulated  the  com- 


position, powers,  and  duties  of  the  Bundestag:  its  first 
clause  was  particularly  important,  namely  that  "  The 
deputies  of  the  German  Bundestag  shall  be  elected  by  the 
people  in  universal,  free,  equal,  direct  and  secret  elections. 
They  shall  be  representatives  of  the  whole  people,  not  bound 
to  orders  and  instructions  and  subject  only  to  their  con- 
science." Section  IV  provided  similarly  for  the  Bundesrat, 
through  which  the  Lander  participate  in  the  legislation  and 
administration  of  the  federation.  Each  Land  has  between 
three  and  five  votes  in  the  Bundesrat,  according  to  its  popu- 
lation, and  its  votes  are  given  as  block  votes,  the  members 
being  members  of  the  governments  of  the  Lander  which 
appoint  and  recall  them.  Section  V  provided  for  the  election, 
by  the  federal  convention  as  there  defined,  of  the  federal 
president  and  prescribed  his  term  of  office,  powers  and 
duties.  Section  VI  dealt  with  the  federal  government,  and 
provided  that  the  federal  chancellor  should  be  elected, 
without  discussion,  by  the  Bundestag  on  the  proposal  of 
the  federal  president.  Federal  ministers  were  to  be  appointed 
and  dismissed  by  the  federal  president  upon  the  proposal  of 
the  federal  chancellor.  The  Bundestag  might  express  its  lack 
of  confidence  in  the  federal  chancellor  only  by  electing  a 
successor  with  a  majority  of  its  members  and  submitting  a 
request  for  the  chancellor's  dismissal  to  the  president. 

Section  VI I  covered  legislation.  It  provided  that  the 
Lander  should  have  the  right  of  legislation  in  so  far  as  the 
basic  law  did  not  accord  legislative  powers  to  the  federation; 
and  then  defined  two  categories  of  subject,  in  respect  of  the 
first  of  which  the  federation  had  the  exclusive  right  of 
legislation  and  in  respect  of  the  second  of  which  there  was  a 
concurrent  right  of  legislation  to  be  exercised  by  the  federation 
only  when  the  regulation  of  the  matter  by  a  Land  law  would 
not  be  effectual,  or  could  prejudice  the  interests  of  other 
Lander  or  of  the  Lander  as  a  whole,  or  where  the  preservation 
of  legal  or  economic  unity  demanded  federal  intervention. 
Federal  legislation  is  normally  passed  by  the  Bundestag 
subject  to  a  limited  power  of  veto  by  the  Bundesrat.  Art.  81 
made  a  curious  provision  for  the  enactment  of  legislation  in 
the  teeth  of  opposition  by  the  Bundestag,  should  the  Bundes- 
rat approve  it  and  the  fedeial  president  declare  a  "  legislative 
emergency."  Of  the  remaining  sections,  it  is  possible  to 
mention  only  that  which  dealt  with  the  administration  of 
justice.  Section  IX  provided  for  a  Federal  Constitutional 
Court,  a  Supreme  Federal  Court,  federal  courts  and  the 
courts  of  the  Lander.  The  Constitutional  Court  was  to  inter- 
pret the  basic  law,  adjudicate  questions  relating  to  the 
compatibility  of  federal  or  land  law  with  the  basic  law,  and 
other  public  law  disputes  between  the  federation  and  a  Land 
or  between  different  Lander. 

The  constitution  of  India,  due  to  come  into  force  in  Jan. 
1950,  presented  certain  points  of  resemblance  with  the  basic 
law  for  the  federal  republic  of  Germany;  but  the  problem 
with  which  it  had  to  deal  was  in  its  nature  and  its  history 
even  more  complex  than  that  of  a  constitution  for  Germany. 

A  preamble  declared  the  resolve  of  the  people  of  India  to 
constitute  India  into  a  sovereign  democratic  republic  and  to 
secure  for  all  its  citizens  justice,  liberty,  equality  and  fraternity 
as  there  defined.  Part  I  provided  that  India  should  be  a 
union  of  the  states  specified  m  the  first  schedule,  comprising 
the  former  governors'  provinces,  the  former  chief  com- 
missioners' provinces,  and  the  former  Indian  states,  parlia- 
ment having  the  power  to  add  to  their  number  or  to  alter 
their  boundaries.  Part  II  dealt  with  the  complex  problem  of 
citizenship,  which  it  conferred  on  (a)  every  person  who  or 
either  of  whose  parents  or  any  of  whose  grandparents  wfcs 
born  in  the  territory  of  India  and  who  had  not  made  his  or 
her  permanent  abode  in  any  foreign  state  after  April  1,  1947 
— a  provision  which  would  seem  to  raise  immediately  the 
question  whether  a  country  in  the  Commonwealth  is  a 


LAW  AND   LEGISLATION 


379 


Mrs.  Helena  Florence  Normanton  (left)  and  Miss  Rose  Heilbron  at  the  House  of  Lords,  April  26, 1949 \  when  they  were  sworn  in  as  King's 
Counsel — the  first  two  women  in  England  to  take  silk.  Mrs.  Normanton  was  also  the  first  woman  to  practise  at  the  bart  1922. 

**  foreign  state  ";  and  (b)  every  person  who  had  his  domicile  in  name.  This  same  part  provided  for  a  parliament  of  two 
the  territory  of  India.  There  was  a  proviso  that  such  a  person  houses:  the  Council  of  States,  with  250  members,  15  nomin- 
must  not  have  acquired  the  citizenship  of  any  foreign  state  ated  by  the  president,  the  rest  representatives  of  the  states; 


before  the  date  of  commencement  of  the  constitution. 


and  the  House  of  the  People,  with  not  more  than  500  members 


Part  III  dealt  with  fundamental  rights.    Included  in  these  directly  elected  by  the  voters.    The  council  was  not  to  be 

were  rights  of  equality,  such  as  the  prohibition  of  discrimina-  subject  to  dissolution  but  a  third  of  its  members  were  to 

tion  on  grounds  of  religion,  race,  caste,  or  sex,  equality  of  retire  on  the  expiration  of  every  second  year;     the  house 

opportunity  in  matters  of  public  employment,  the  abolition  was  to  have  a  term  of  five  years  unless  it  was  first  dissolved, 

of  untouchability,  freedom  of  speech  and  the  prohibition  of  The  council  might  not  interfere  with  money  bills  but  other 

the  employment  of  children  under  14  in  factories,  mines  or  differences  were  to  be  resolved  by  joint  sittings.    Provision 

any  other  hazardous  employment;   rights  relating  to  religion,  was  also  made  for  the  president  to  have  certain  emergency 

affirming  that  all  persons  were  equally  entitled  to  freedom  of  legislative  powers;     and  for  a  federal  judicature,  with  a 

conscience  and  the  right  freely  to  profess,  practise  and  propa-  Supreme  Court  adjudicating  both  on  constitutional  and  other 

gate  religion;    and  rights  to  constitutional  remedies,  that  is,  issues  more  closely  modelled  on  the  United  States  than  on 

to  move  the  Supreme  Court  for  the  enforcement  of  rights  the  German  system,  in  which,  as  seen  above,  the  Constitu- 

provided  by  the  constitution.    Part  IV  had  the  unusual  title  tional  Court  was  distinct  from  the  Supreme  Court.    Part  IX 

of  "  Directive  Principles  of  State  Policy.'*    These  included  was  the  next  part  of  general  importance,  and  provided  for 

(art.  31)  the  imposition  on  the  state  of  the  duty  of  ensuring  relations  between  the  union  and  the  states.    Parliament  was 

that  its  citizens  had   adequate  means  of  livelihood  ;   that  to  have  exclusive  power  with  respect  to  matters  enumerated 

control  of  the  material  resources  of  the  community  should  in  list  I  in  the  seventh  schedule;  the  state  legislatures  were 

be  directed  to  serve  the  common  good  ;  and  that  there  should  to  have  exclusive  powers  over  matters  set  out  in  list  II; 


be  equal  pay  for  equal  work  for  both  men  and  women. 


and  list  III  enumerated  powers  held  concurrently. 


Part  V  was  entitled  "  The  Union."  It  provided,  among  other  Such  were  some  of  the  most  important  provisions  of  the 

things,  for  the  election  of  a  president  by  a  college  consisting  constitution  of  India.      There  remained  to  be  considered 

of  elected  members  of  both  houses  of  parliament  and  of  India's  status  within  the  Commonwealth.     Nearly  all  the 

elected  members  of  the  legislatures  of  the  states  for  a  term  of  formal   links,   including  the  right  of  appeal   to   the   Privy 

five  years  and  of  a  vice-president  who  is  ex-officio  chairman  Council,  were  broken;    India  was  a  "  sovereign  independent 

of  the  Council  of  States.    All  executive  business  was  to  be  republic  "  but  she  contrived  to  remain  a  full  member  of  the 

done  by  members  of  the  Council  of  Ministers  in  the  president's  Commonwealth.    To  quote  the  official  announcement  made 


380 


LAW   AND    LEGISLATION 


by  Herbert  Morrison  in  the  House  of  Commons  on  April 
28,  1949  :  *'  The  government  of  India  have  .  .  .  declared  and 
affirmed  India's  desire  to  continue  her  full  membership  of 
the  Commonwealth  of  Nations  and  her  acceptance  of  the 
King  as  the  symbol  of  the  free  association  of  its  member 
nations  and  as  such  the  head  of  the  Commonwealth/' 

United  Kingdom  Case  Law.  Consideration  is  given  below 
to  cases  of  exceptional  public  interest  and  to  litigation  that 
resulted  in  the  superior  courts  revising  or  modifying  doctrines 
that  were  applied  by  the  courts  below;  to  cases  that  appear 
to  have  arisen  from,  and  to  throw  light  upon,  novel  develop- 
ments in  social  or  economic  life;  and  to  one  or  two  decisions 
which,  however  unexceptionable  in  law,  appear  to  have  raised 
difficult  problems"  in  the  spheres  of  ethics,  morality  or 
conscience. 

Of  the  litigation  of  the  first  of  the  above  categories,  namely 
that  of  exceptional  public  interest,  the  outstanding  example 
was  The  Commonwealth  of  Australia  and  Others  v.  The  Bank 
of  New  South  Wales  and  Others  (decision  reported  in  The 
Times,  Oct.  27,  1949).  This  was  an  appeal — or  rather  it  was  a 
consolidation  of  five  appeals — to  the  Judicial  Committee 
of  the  Privy  Council  from  a  majority  decision  of  the  High 
Court  of  Australia.  It  arose  out  of  section  46  of  the  Banking 
act,  1947,  part  of  which  stated  that  "  a  private  bank  shall  not, 
after  the  commencement  of  this  act,  carry  on  banking  business 
in  Australia  except  as  required  by  this  act,"  and  the  effect 
of  which  was  to  nationalize  banking  in  Australia.  The 
High  Court  of  Australia  held  that  this  section  contravened 
section  92  of  the  constitution  of  the  Commonwealth  of 
Australia,  which  provided  that  4t  trade,  commerce  and  inter- 
course among  the  states  .  .  .  shall  be  absolutely  free."  The 
Privy  Council,  although  affirming  the  High  Court  of  Aus- 
tralia's decision  on  this  point,  decided  the  appeal  in  favour 
of  the  respondents  on  a  preliminary  point,  namely  that  for  an 
appeal  to  lie  in  a  matter  of  this  sort  a  certificate  of  the  High 
Court  was  required.  The  duration  of  this  appeal,  namely 
36  days,  constituted  a  record,  at  least  for  the  Privy  Council. 

Two  other  cases  that  deserve  mention  in  this  category  are 
Krajina  v.  Tass  Agency  (1949  2  All  England  reports  274) 
and  Tamlin  v.  Hannaford  (1949  2  All  England  reports  327). 
In  the  former  the  Court  of  Appeal  affirmed  the  decision  of  a 
judge  and  a  master  setting  aside  service  of  a  writ  for  an 
alleged  libel  published  by  the  agency  on  the  ground  that  it 
was  an  organ  of  the  government  of  the  U.S.S.R.  and  as  such 
entitled  to  sovereign  immunity  from  the  process  of  the 
English  Court.  In  the  latter  it  was  held  that  the  British 
Transport  commission  was  not  a  servant  or  agent  of  the 
crown,  and  its  property  was  therefore  as  much  subject  to 
the  Rent  Restriction  acts  as  the  property  of  any  other  owner. 

Of  the  second  category  of  litigation,  namely,  that  which 
resulted  in  a  superior  court  revising  a  doctrine  laid  down  by  a 
lower  court,  and  long  accepted  as  good  law,  the  most  im- 
portant example  in  1949  was  Hill  v.  William  Hill  (Park  Lane) 
Ltd.  (1949  2  A.E.R.  452).  In  this  case  the  appellant  had 
agreed  to  pay  the  amount  of  a  bet  he  had  lost  in  consideration 
of  the  bookmakers  to  whom  he  was  to  pay  it  refraining  from 
reporting  him  to  Tattersalls  for  non-payment.  A  majority 
of  the  House  of  Lords,  over-ruling  the  decision  of  the  Court 
of  Appeal  in  the  well-known  case  of  Hyams  v.  Stuart  King 
(1908  2  K.B.  696)  held  that  the  appellant's  promise  was  to 
pay  money  won  upon  a  wager  within  section  18  of  the 
Gaming  act,  1845,  and  the  contract  was  therefore  unenforce- 
able. 

R.E.L.  v.  E.L.  (1949  Probate  division  211)  was  an  example 
of  the  third  category  of  case,  arising  from,  and  throwing 
light  upon,  a  novel  social  development.  It  was  there  held 
that  the  fact  that  a  wife  petitioner  had  been  artificially 
inseminated  with  her  husband's  seed  was  no  bar  to  her 
obtaining  a  decree  of  nullity  on  the  ground  of  his  incapacity. 


The  fourth  class  of  case,  where  there  appeared  to  be  some 
question  of  a  clash  between  good  law  on  the  one  hand  and 
good  ethics  or  good  sense  was,  in  the  view  of  some,  exempli- 
fied by  the  decision  of  the  House  of  Lords,  affirming  that 
of  the  Court  of  Appeal,  in  Gilmour  v.  Coats  and  Others 
(1949  Appeal  cases  426).  Following  a  long  line  of  authority 
in  charity  cases,  it  was  held  that  the  necessary  element  of 
public  benefit  was  lacking  in  a  gift  made  to  cloistered  nuns 
in  the  belief  that  their  prayers  would  benefit  the  world  at 
large;  and  that  the  necessary  element  of  public  benefit 
being  lacking  the  gift  was  not  a  valid  charitable  trust.  This 
state  of  the  law  was  held  by  some  to  impose  a  restriction  on 
one  kind  of  chanty  that  did  not  well  accord  with  the  liberal 
interpretation  of  the  rules  respecting  charities  where  animals 
were  concerned,  although  here  too,  of  course,  the  considera- 
tion of  public  benefit  was  paramount. 

United  Kingdom  Legislation.  The  chief  feature  of  United 
Kingdom  legislation  in  1949  was  that,  with  the  enactment 
of  the  main  social  security  measures  constituting  the  pillars 
of  what  is  called  the  welfare  state  and  all  the  nationalization 
measures  that  formed  part  of  the  government's  programme, 
except  the  Iron  and  Steel  bill,  interest  centred  on  legislative 
measures  less  ambitious  in  their  scope.  Meanwhile,  the 
Iron  and  Steel  bill  and  the  Parliament  bill  (whose  main 
provision  was  to  reduce  the  term  wherein  the  House  of 
Lords'  veto  over  legislation  passed  by  the  House  of  Com- 
mons remained  operative)  passed  between  the  House  of 
Lords  and  the  House  of  Commons  in  accordance  with  the 
procedure  laid  down  by  the  Parliament  act,  1911,  the  two 
houses  having  failed  to  reach  agreement  on  either  measure 
until,  in  November,  a  compromise  was  accepted  in  relation 
to  the  Iron  and  Steel  bill. 

Of  measures  of  a  constitutional  character,  the  three  most 
important  were  the  British  North  America  act,  the  Ireland 
act  and  the  Juries  act.  The  first  of  these  gave  effect  to  the 
union  of  Newfoundland  with  Canada  on  the  basis  of  the 
former's  becoming  a  province  of  the  latter.  The  second 
declared  that,  in  accordance  with  Irish  wishes  and  law,  the 
part  of  Ireland  known  as  Eire  ceased,  as  from  April  18,  1949, 
to  be  part  of  the  Commonwealth;  it  proceeded  to  declare 
that  Northern  Ireland  remained  part  of  the  King's  dominions 
and  of  the  United  Kingdom  and  to  affirm  that  in  no  event 
would  Northern  Ireland  or  any  part  thereof  cease  to  be  part 
of  the  Commonwealth  without  the  consent  of  the  parliament 
of  Northern  Ireland — a  provision  which  gave  rise  to  a  great 
deal  of  controversy  in  Ireland  and,  to  some  extent,  in  the 
United  Kingdom  parliament.  Its  later  sections  provided  a 
legal  puzzle  by  declaring  that  the  republic  of  Ireland  was  not  a 
foreign  country  and  that  the  British  Nationality  act  was  not 
affected  by  the  fact  that  the  republic  of  Ireland  was  not 
part  of  the  Commonwealth.  The  Juries  act  made  provision 
for  the  payment  to  jurors  of  subsistence  and  travelling 
allowances  and  of  a  modest  compensation  for  loss  of  earnings 
and  abolished  special  juries  except  City  of  London  special 
juries  in  commercial  cases. 

Of  a  number  of  measures  of  a  social  character  the  most 
important  was  the  Legal  Aid  and  Advice  act.  Part  I  of  this 
act  provided  for  a  new  social  service  by  enabling  the  cost  of 
legal  aid  and  advice  to  be  defrayed  wholly  (below  a  certain 
income  limit)  or  partly  (below  a  higher  income  limit)  out  of 
moneys  provided  by  parliament  in  civil  matters  or  proceedings, 
the  scheme  being  administered  by  the  legal  profession  itself. 
Part  II  provided  for  improved  assistance  in  criminal  pro- 
ceedings. The  operation  of  Part  I  was  partially,  and  that  of 
Part  II  wholly,  deferred  for  economic  reasons.  The  legal 
Aid  and  Solicitors  (Scotland)  act,  made  broadly  similar 
provision  for  Scotland.  (W.  T.  Ws.) 

United  States.  Administrative  Law.  The  Supreme  Court 
ruled  that  the  right  to  argue  orally  before  an  administrative 


LAW   AND    LEGISLATION 


381 


agency  is  not  an  inherent  part  of  due  process.  The  Federal 
Communications  commission  was  justified  in  refusing  to  hear 
oral  arguments  in  support  of  a  petition  which  was  considered 
insufficient  to  raise  a  legal  issue  (FCC  v.  WJR,  337  U.S.  265). 
The  court  also  declined  to  disturb  an  order  of  the  National 
Labour  Relations  board  merely  because  the  trial  examiner 
had  uniformly  credited  the  board's  witnesses  and  discredited 
those  of  the  employer.  This  in  itself  did  not  indicate  bias, 
nor  did  the  record  of  the  hearing  disclose  any  (NLRB  v. 
Pittsburgh  S.S.  Co.,  337  U.S.  656).  But  agencies  had  care- 
fully to  follow  prescribed  procedures,  the  court  said.  An 
immigrant  might  not  be  barred  from  entering  the  U.S. 
because  of  mental  illness  unless  such  a  finding  was  made 
after  strict  compliance  with  Public  Health  service  regulations 
(U.S.  v.  Shaughnessy,  336  U.S.  806). 

The  Supreme  Court  also  gave  rulings  on  the  jurisdiction 
and  powers  of  state  and  federal  agencies  in  several  cases. 
A  Cahfornian  travel  bureau  had  been  convicted  of  violating 
a  state  statute  prohibiting  the  operation  of  transport  over 
state  highways  by  carriers  who  did  not  hold  permits  from 
the  Interstate  Commerce  commission.  The  travel  bureau 
ingeniously  contended  that  the  state  law  was  invalid  because 
it  conflicted  with  the  jurisdiction  of  the  commission  conferred 
upon  it  by  congress  under  the  Motor  Carrier  act.  But  the 
Supreme  Court  rejected  this  view.  The  fact  that  a  state  law 
coincided  with  a  federal  law  did  not  render  it  invalid  unless 
congress  had  clearly  shown  the  intention  of  giving  exclusive 
jurisdiction  to  the  federal  agency  (California  v.  Zook,  336 
U.S.  725).  Such  exclusive  jurisdiction  was  conferred  by 
congress  upon  the  National  Labour  Relations  board  in  the 
matter  of  certifying  the  representatives  of  employees  for 
'*  collective  bargaining  "  in  an  interstate  industry,  according 
to  the  Supreme  Court,  which  set  aside  the  certification  of  a 
union  by  the  Wisconsin  Employment  Relations  board.  Even 
though  the  national  agency  had  not  assumed  jurisdiction, 
the  state  board's  action  was  invalid  unless  and  until  the 
national  board  expressly  ceded  its  jurisdiction  (La  Crosse 
Tel.  Co.  v.  Wis.  ERB,  336  U.S.  18). 

Aliens  and  Citizenship.  The  high  court  reversed  a  district 
court  judgment  denaturalizing  August  Klapprott,  former 
German-American  Bund  leader.  He  had  not  been  given  a 
reasonable  opportunity  to  be  heard,  the  court  said.  At  the 
time  when  the  denaturalization  case  came  up,  he  had  been 
ill,  impoverished  and  a  prisoner  in  gaol  awaiting  trial  on 
charges  that  were  later  dropped;  and  he  had  not  been 
represented  by  counsel  (Klappiott  v.  U.S.,  335  U.S.  601). 
The  Supreme  Court  also  gave  a  second  chance  to  an  immi- 
grant who  had  been  barred  from  the  U.S.  as  a  mental  defective 
because  the  report  of  a  medical  board  did  not  show  that  its 
conclusions  were  based  kk  upon  its  medical  examination  of 
the  alien,"  as  required  by  Public  Health  service  regulations 
(U.S.  v.  Shaughncssy,  336  U.S.  806). 

Armed  Forces.  The  Supreme  Court  considered  the  juris- 
diction and  powers  of  courts-martial  m  three  cases  arising 
out  of  World  War  II.  The  justices  all  agreed  that  a  naval 
court-martial  did  not  have  the  right  to  try  a  serviceman  for 
offences  committed  during  a  previous  period  of  service.  A 
petty  officer,  who  had  re-joined  the  navy  on  the  day  after  his 
honourable  discharge,  was  convicted  by  a  navy  court  of 
beating  two  fellow  war  prisoners  in  a  Japanese  camp  in  the 
Philippines.  His  sentence  was  set  aside  as  illegal  because  the 
navy  had  lost  jurisdiction  to  try  such  offences  after  his 
discharge  (U.S.  ex  rel.  Hirschberg  v.  Cooke,  336  U.S.  210). 

The  Supreme  Court  opened  the  federal  courts  to  suits  by 
service  personnel  against  the  United  States  under  the  Tort 
Claims  act  for  injuries  not  arising  out  of  their  service.  Suit 
was  properly  brought  in  a  district  court  to  recover  damages 
for  the  death  of  one  serviceman  and  injuries  to  another  when 
the  private  car  in  which  they  were  riding  was  struck  by  an 


army  truck.     Membership  in  the  armed  forces  did  not  bar 
their  right  of  action  (Brooks  v.  U.S.,  335  U.S.  901). 

Civil  Rights.  A  five-to-four  decision  of  the  Supreme  Court 
again  illustrated  the  difficulty  of  drawing  a  legal  line  between 
the  use  and  abuse  of  free  speech.  The  court  reversed  the 
conviction  of  Rev.  Arthur  Terminiello  for  violating  a  Chicago 
ordinance  which  defines  disorderly  conduct  as  including 
activities  which  tend  to  a  breach  of  the  peace  The  defendant 
had  spoken  at  a  meeting  sponsored  by  Gerald  L.  K.  Smith. 
He  denounced  Communists,  Russians,  Mrs.  Eleanor  Roose- 
velt, Henry  Wallace  and  the  Morgenthau  plan,  while  praising 
Franco.  A  mob  of  hecklers  demonstrated  outside  the  meeting 
hall,  and  the  defendant  was  arrested  for  having  stined  up  the 
disturbance  through  his  speech.  The  trial  court  ruled  that 
any  misbehaviour  which  stirred  the  public  to  anger,  invited 
dispute,  brought  about  a  condition  of  unrest  or  created  a 
disturbance  might  be  a  breach  of  the  peace.  But  a  majority 
of  the  Supreme  Court  disagreed.  Justice  Douglas  said  that 
speech  was  often  provocative  and  challenging,  but  that 
freedom  of  speech,  though  not  absolute,  was  nevertheless 
protected  against  censorship  or  punishment,  unless  shown 
likely  to  produce  a  clear  and  present  danger  of  a  serious 
substantive  evil  (Terminiello  v.  Chicago,  335  U.S.  890). 

Criminal  Law.  Eleven  American  Communist  party  leaders 
were  convicted  of  conspiring  to  advocate  the  overthrow  of 
the  U.S.  government  by  force  in  violation  of  the  sedition 
provisions  of  the  Alien  Registration  act  of  1940.  The  record 
of  the  trial,  which  lasted  nine  months,  ran  to  more  than 
5  million  words.  Judge  Harold  Medina  not  only  imposed 
prison  sentences  and  fines  upon  the  defendants  but  held  their 
lawyers  guilty  of  contempt  of  court  for  persistently  obstructive 
tactics  during  the  trial.  Among  the  important  issues  to  be 
determined  on  appeal  were  the  constitutionality  of  peacetime 
sedition  laws;  whether  the  judge  should  have  instructed  the 
jury  to  apply  the  "  clear  and  present  danger  "  test  to  the 
defendants'  activities;  and  the  leeway  to  be  allowed  defence 
counsel  in  such  trials. 

A  concurring  opinion  by  Justice  Jackson  in  the  reversal 
of  a  conviction  for  conspiracy  to  violate  the  Mann  act 
promised  to  become  important  when  the  sedition  conspiracy 
case  against  the  eleven  communist  leaders  reached  the 
Supreme  Court  on  appeal.  Loose  practice  in  the  use  of 
conspiracy  charges,  he  said,  "  constitutes  a  serious  threat  to 
fairness  in  the  administration  of  justice  "  (Krule witch  v.  U.S., 
336  U.S.  440). 

The  first  trial  of  Alger  Hiss,  former  state  department 
official,  charged  with  committing  perjury  before  a  grand  jury, 
petered  out  when  the  jurors  failed  to  agree.  The  case  arose 
out  of  charges  made  by  Whittaker  Chambers,  formerly  a 
senior  editor  of  Time  magazine,  before  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives committee  on  un-American  activities,  that  Hiss 
had  given  him  copies  of  secret  documents  in  1938,  to  be  turned 
over  to  Russian  agents.  Hiss  countered  by  suing  Chambers 
for  defamation,  whereupon  Chambers  produced  microfilms 
of  papers  alleged  to  have  been  handed  out  by  Hiss,  who  was 
then  indicted  for  perjury  in  denying  complicity  with  Chambers 
in  his  confessed  spy  activities.  On  his  second  trial,  which 
lasted  beyond  the  year's  end,  Hiss  was  found  guilty. 

In  other  cases  arising  out  of  hearings  before  the  committee 
on  un-American  activities,  circuit  courts  upheld  convictions 
of  contempt  of  congress  against  witnesses  who  had  refused 
to  state  whether  or  not  they  were  members  of  the  Communist 
party.  The  Supreme  Court  dodged  one  aspect  of  this  issue 
by  dismissing  the  appeal  of  Gerhart  Eisler,  German-born 
Communist,  from  a  contempt  sentence  for  refusing  to  testify 
before  that  committee.  The  case  was  moot,  the  court  said, 
because  Eisler  had  fled  from  the  U.S.  to  escape  the  con- 
sequences of  this  and  another  criminal  conviction  (Eisler  v. 
U.S.,  338  U.S.  189). 


382 


LAWN   TENNIS 


The  federal  government  was  unsuccessful  in  its  effort  to 
justify  the  use  of  evidence  taken  from  a  defendant's  hotel 
room  during  an  illegal  search  by  local  police.  Even  though 
the  search  had  not  been  made  upon  the  instigation  of  the 
federal  agent,  the  evidence  was  still  tainted  with  illegality 
(Lustig  v.  U.S.,  338  U.S.  74). 

In  three  cases  the  Supreme  Court  reversed  convictions  by 
the  courts  of  South  Carolina,  Pennsylvania  and  Indiana 
which  were  based  upon  confessions  obtained  after  long  and 
continuous  grilling  of  the  defendants  (Harris  v.  S.C.,  338 
U.S.  68;  Turner  v.  Pennsylvania,  338  U.S.  62;  Walts  v. 
Indiana,  338  U.S.  49). 

Labour.  Organized  labour  lost  substantial  ground  under 
the  impact  of  adverse  court  decisions.  In  two  sweeping 
opinions  by  Justice  Black  the  Supreme  Court  rejected  union 
attacks  on  state  anti-closed  shop  laws.  The  court  ruled  that 
the  **  right  to  work  "  amendments  to  the  constitutions  of 
Arizona  and  Nebraska  and  a  North  Carolina  statute  making 
it  unlawful  to  deny  employment  to  any  person  because  he 
was  or  was  not  a  member  of  a  labour  organization  did  not 
violate  the  federal  constitution.  State  laws  prohibiting  dis- 
crimination between  union  members  and  non-members  did 
not  impair  the  obligation  of  contracts  nor  deny  free  speech, 
free  assembly,  due  process  or  the  equal  protection  of  the 
laws  (Lincoln  F.  L.  U.  v.  N.  W.  I.  &  M.  Co.,  335  U.S.  525; 
A.F.L.  v.  Am.  S.  &  D.  Co.,  335  U.S.  538). 

Labour  scored  in  two  cases  before  the  Supreme  Court 
involving  unfair  practices.  A  National  Labour  Relations 
board  order  directing  a  North  Carolina  cotton  mill  to  permit 
the  use  of  a  company  owned  meeting  hall  in  a  company 
controlled  town  for  union  organization  meetings  was  sus- 
tained (NLRB  v.  Stowe  Spinning  Co.,  336  U.S.  226),  as  was 
also  an  N.L.R.B.  ruling  that  it  was  unfair  for  an  employer 
to  put  into  effect  a  general  wage  increase  substantially  greater 
than  that  offered  to  union  representatives  during  negotiations 
which  had  reached  an  impasse  (NLRB  v.  Crompton- Highland 
Mills,  337  U.S.  217).  In  a  third  case,  however,  the  N.L.R.B. 
was  told  it  had  erred  in  rinding  an  employer  guilty  of  unfair 
practices  when  he  discharged  employees  on  demand  of  a 
union  which  had  expelled  them  from  membership  because 
they  had  been  active  on  behalf  of  a  rival  union.  The  employer 
was  carrying  out  the  terms  of  a  closed  shop  contract  (Colgate 
Co.  v.  NLRB,  338  U.S.  355). 

Taxation.  The  Supreme  Court  told  the  tax  court  to  take  a 
broader  view  in  considering  the  status  of  family  partnerships 
for  income  tax  purposes.  The  tax  court  had  ruled  that  the 
entire  income  from  a  cattle  business  run  by  a  Texas  rancher 
and  his  four  sons  as  partners  was  taxable  solely  to  the  father. 
In  so  holding,  the  tax  court  had  said  that  division  of  income 
among  partners  should  not  be  recognized  as  valid  unless 
each  partner  contributed  '*  vital  services "  or  *'  original 
capital "  to  the  common  business,  phrases  which  the  tax 
court  had  culled  from  the  1946  opinions  of  the  supreme 
court  in  the  Tower  and  Lusthaus  cases.  This  was  a  miscon- 
struction of  those  decisions,  said  the  supreme  court.  The 
concept  of  a  partnership  for  tax  purposes  was  the  same  as 
the  common  law  concept,  namely,  that  the  partners  really 
intend  "  to  join  together  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  on 
business  and  sharing  in  the  profits  or  losses  or  bo',V  (Comrrfr 
v.  Culbertson,  337  U.S.  733). 

The  Supreme  Court  maintained  its  liberal  attitude  toward 
state  taxation  alleged  to  be  in  conflict  with  the  federal 
constitution.  In  two  opinions  the  court  held  that  state  and 
local  governments  could  legally  tax  property  intended  for 
exportation  as  long  as  it  had  not  entered  "  the  export  stream/' 
The  export-import  clause  of  the  federal  constitution  con- 
ferred immunity  from  local  taxation  only  upon  property 
actually  in  the  process  of  being  exported.  Thus  gasoline  held 
in  storage  for  15  months  at  Dearborn,  Michigan,  in  tanks 


marked  "  For  Export  Only  "  was  held  subject  to  a  city 
ad  valorem  tax  (Joy  Oil  Co.  v.  State  Tax  Comm.,  337  U.S.  286). 
A  cement  plant  bought  by  a  foreign  company  for  dismantling 
and  shipment  to  South  America  remained  subject  to  local 
property  taxes  until  the  dismantled  parts  were  delivered  to  a 
carrier  for  shipment.  Intent  to  export  was  not  enough  to  bring 
property  within  the  constitutional  immunity  (Empresa  v. 
Merced,  337  U.S.  154).  (M.  DM.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.— C.  F.  Strong,  Modern  Political  Constitutions 
(London,  1948);  Basic  Law  for  the  Federal  Republic  of  Germany 
(Agreed  Anglo-American  Translation;  Bonn,  1949);  Draft  Constitution 
of  India  (New  Delhi);  A.  M.  Sullivan,  "Eire,"  The  International  Law 
Quarterly,  vol.  2,  no.  4  (London,  1949). 

LAWN  TENNIS.  The  U.S.A.  once  again  swept  the 
board  in  the  international  lawn  tennis  season  of  1949.  They 
won  the  challenge  round  of  the  Davis  cup  against  Australia 
by  four  matches  to  one,  winning  the  four  singles  but  losing 
the  doubles  match,  and  they  won  the  U.S.A.  v.  Great  Britain 
international  women's  match  for  the  Wightman  cup  by  five 
matches  to  nil.  They  won  also  the  men's  and  women's  singles 
championships  at  Wimbledon,  in  Paris  (French  champion- 
ships) and  at  Forest  Hills  (American  championships),  and 
won  the  women's  singles  in  the  Australian  championships, 
none  of  their  leading  players  competing  in  the  men's  singles. 
LAWN  TENNIS  AMATEUR  WORLD  RANKING  (FIRST  TEN),  1949 

Women 

1.  Mrs.W.  Dupont(U.S.A.) 

2.  Miss  L.  Brough  (U.S.A.) 

3.  Miss  D.  Hart  (U.S.A.) 

4.  Mrs.  M.  W.  Bolton  (Australia) 

5.  Mrs.  P.  C.  Todd  (U.S.A.) 

6.  Mrs.B.  E.Hilton  (G.B.) 

7.  Mrs.  S.  P.  Summers  (S.A.) 

8.  Mrs.  A.  Bossi  (Italy) 

9.  Miss  J.  Curry  (G.B.) 

10.  Mrs.  J.J.  Walker-Smith  (G.B.) 


Men 

\.  F.  R.  Schroeder  (U.S.A.) 

2.  W.F.Talbert  (U.S.A.) 

3.  F.  Sedgman  (Australia) 

4.  E.W.Sturgess(S.A.) 

5.  J.  Drobny  (Czechoslovakia) 

6.  B.Patty  (U.S.A.) 

7.  G.Mulloy  (U.S.A.) 

8.  O.  W.  Sidwell  (Australia) 

9.  E.Coche!l(U.S.A.) 

10.  G.  E.  Brown  (Australia) 


G.  L.  Paish  (Great  Britain)  and  V.  Cernik  (Czechoslovakia)  in  the 

second  round  of  the  European  zone  of  the  Davis  Cup  at  Wimbledon* 

May  1949. 


LEATHER 


383 


The  outstanding  men's  singles  players  of  the  year  were 
F.  R.  Schroeder,  who  won  the  English  men's  singles  cham- 
pionship at  Wimbledon  at  his  first  attempt,  and  R.  Gonzales, 
who  retained  the  American  championship,  beating  Schroeder 
in  the  final  16-18,  2-6,  6-1,  6-2,  6-4.  Gonzales  again  beat 
Schroeder  in  the  final  of  a  tournament  in  California  and  then 
turned  professional.  On  his  first  appearance  as  a  professional 
he  was  beaten  by  J.  Kramer  (U.S.A.)  by  three  sets  to  one  at 
Madison  Square  garden. 

One  of  the  features  of  the  men's  singles  championship  at 
Wimbledon  was  the  improved  form  of  F.  Sedgman,  the  new 
young  Australian  champion  who  came  within  a  point  of 
defeating  Schroeder.  The  holder,  R.  Falkenburg,  was  beaten 
by  J.  Bromwich  (Australia)  after  winning  the  first  two  sets, 
and  Bromwich  was  beaten  in  the  next  round,  the  semi-final, 
by  J.  Drobny  (Czechoslovakia)  6-1,  6-3,  6-2.  E.  W.  Sturgess 
(South  Africa),  having  beaten  F.  Parker  (U.S.A.)  in  five  sets, 
took  Schroeder  to  five  sets  in  the  semi-final.  Schroeder  beat 
Drobny  in  the  final  3-6, 6-0, 6-3, 4-6, 6-4.  Only  one  Englishman 
survived  more  than  one  round  at  Wimbledon,  C.  F.  O.  Lister, 
who  was  defeated  in  the  third  round  by  P.  Washer  (Belgium) 
6-1,  6-1,  6-2.  The  two  leading  Englishmen,  A.  J.  Mottram 
and  G.  L.  Paish,  were  beaten  by  C.  Cucclli  (Italy)  and  V. 
Cernik  (Czechoslovakia)  respectively. 

Mrs.  W.  Dupont  (U.S.A.)  was  unbeaten  in  singles  during 
the  year  except  on  one  occasion  when  Miss  L.  Brough  (U.S.A.) 
defeated  her  in  the  final  at  Wimbledon  10-8,  1-6,  10-8,  thus 
maintaining  her  title  for  the  second  year  in  succession. 
In  the  American  final  Mrs.  Dupont  beat  Miss  D.  Hart 
(U.S.A.)  6-4,  6-1,  and  in  the  French  final  she  beat  Mme.  N. 
Adamson  (France),  the  holder,  7-5,  6-2.  Miss  Hart  won  the 
Australian  championship  defeating  Mrs.  M.  W.  Bolton 
(Australia),  the  holder,  in  the  final. 

The  most  successful  British  woman  player  of  the  year  was 
Mrs.  B.  E,  Hilton  who  reached  the  semi-final  of  the  American 
championship  with  two  good  victories  over  Miss  G.  Moran 
(U.S.A.)  and  Mrs.  H.  Perez  (U.S.A.),  before  losing  to  Mrs. 
W.  Dupont.  Miss  J.  Curry  became  the  first  English  woman  to 
beat  either  of  the  two  leading  Americans  when  she  beat 
Miss  L.  Brough  4-6,  9-7,  6-2  in  the  French  championships. 
She  was  beaten  in  the  next  round  by  Mme.  A.  Bossi  (Italy) 
6-3,  4-6,  6-3.  Four  English  women,  Mrs.  B.  Hilton,  Mrs. 
J.  J.  Walker-Smith,  Mrs.  N.  W.  Blair  and  Mrs.  E.  W.  Dawson- 
Scott,  reached  the  last  eight  where  they  all  lost  to  American 
players. 

Great  Britain  beat  Portugal  by  five  matches  to  nil  in  the 
first  round  of  the  Davis  cup  but  was  beaten  by  Czechoslovakia 
by  four  matches  to  one  in  the  second  round  at  Wimbledon. 
In  this  match,  A.  J.  Mottram  scored  Great  Britain's  only 
victory  by  beating  Cernik  (Czechoslovakia).  (J.  OF.) 

United  States.  The  tennis  spotlight  in  1949  was  focused 
on  two  outstanding  players  from  California,  R.  Gonzales  of 
Los  Angeles  and  F.  R.  Schroeder,  Jr.,  of  La  Crescenta. 
Having  won  the  U.S.  singles  championship  once  again, 
Gonzales  left  the  amateur  ranks  and  signed  a  contract  to 
meet  professional  champion  Jack  Kramer  in  a  series  of 
indoor  exhibition  matches. 

In  the  field  for  the  U.S.  championship  were  the  leading 
players  of  the  world,  including  E.  Sturgess,  champion  of 
South  Africa  and  runner-up  for  the  U.S.  title  in  1948; 
J.  Drobny,  former  Czechoslovakian  Davis  cup  star;  F.  Sedg- 
man, champion  of  Australia,  and  his  team-mates,  J.  E. 
Bromwich  and  George  Worthington;  Giovanni  Cucelli, 
Italy's  Davis  cup  hero  and  his  partner,  Marcello  del  Bello; 
Feiicisimo  Ampon,  champion  of  the  Philippines;  Robert 
Abdessalam  of  France,  Naresh  Kumar  of  India;  and  Ricardo 
Balbiers  of  Chile.  The  other  leading  U.S.  players  included 
the  veterans  William  F.  Talbert,  Gardnar  Mulloy,  Frank  A. 
Parker,  and  Arthur  Larsen,  Earl  Cochell,  Herbert  Flam, 


E.  V.  Seixas,  Samuel  Match,  James  Brink  and  Tony  Trabert. 
During  the  championship  at  Forest  Hills,  New  York, 
Schroeder  was  awarded  the  William  M.  Johnston  trophy 
for  good  sportsmanship. 

Parker,  U.S.  champion  in  1944  and  1945,  also  played  his 
last  year  as  an  amateur  and  won  his  second  French  title  in 
Paris  early  in  the  season,  a  feat  accomplished  for  the  first 
time  since  that  championship  was  opened  to  foreign  players. 

The  U.S.  was  challenged  by  28  nations  for  tl-e  Davis  cup. 
Italy  won  the  European  zone  competition  and  for  the  first 
time  in  history  an  Italian  Davis  cup  team  competed  in  the 
U.S.  in  an  inter  zone  final.  Cucelli  and  Del  Bello,  however, 
unaccustomed  to  grass  courts,  were  unequal  to  the  task  of 
holding  off  the  experienced  Australians,  American  zone 
winners.  Later  the  U.S.  team  turned  back  the  Australians 
in  their  third  successive  victory  since  they  won  the  cup  from 
Australia  in  1946.  Bromwich  and  Sidwell,  however,  captured 
the  U  S.  doubles  championship  at  the  Longwood  Cricket 
club,  Brookline,  Massachussets,  where  they  beat  their  team- 
mates, Sedgman  and  Worthington. 

Women's  tennis  in  1949  again  found  U.S.  players  dominat- 
ing the  international  picture,  and  for  the  eighth  year  in 
succession  Mrs.  M.  du  Pont  and  Miss  Brough  won  the 
U.S.  women's  doubles  championship.  (E.  S.  BR.) 

LEARNED  SOCIETIES:  see  SOCIETIES,  LEARNED 
AND  PROFESSIONAL. 

LEATHER.  The  leather  industry  in  Great  Britain  began 
1949  with  its  prices  badly  out  of  adjustment.  Under  the 
controls  governing  it,  the  prices  for  leathers  most  in  demand 
were  too  low,  and  those  for  less  desirable  qualities  were  too 
high.  Good  selections  sold  readily  but  stocks  of  poorer 
qualities  accumulated  on  tanners'  hands. 

There  was  much  agitation  for  greater  freedom  to  price 
leather  more  in  accordance  with  demand.  Eventually  a 
concession  was  made  under  which  tanners  were  permitted 
to  raise  the  prices  of  higher  grade  productions  by  an  amount 
sufficient  to  compensate  them  for  actual  losses  made  by 
selling  low  grades  at  prices  below  the  official  levels. 

Early  in  1949  there  was  a  period  during  which  raw  material 
was  scarce  and  there  was  a  general  fear  of  a  coming  leather 
shortage,  which,  however,  did  not  occur  as  hide  imports 
improved  substantially.  Stocks  of  low  grade  leathers  were 
cleared,  though  only  by  means  of  price  concessions. 

Thus  the  over-riding  consideration  for  the  industry  became 
the  prospect  of  some  measure  of  de-control.  The  industry 
contended  that,  if  the  government  abandoned  its  policy  of 
bulk-buying  of  hides  and  skins,  tanners  could  then  buy  on 
pnvate  account  to  greater  advantage,  particularly  in  securing 
to  each  tanner  the  type  of  raw  materials  best  suited  to  his 
production  methods.  The  industry  was  confident  that 
de-control  would  result  very  soon  in  a  lowering  of  prices.  Much 
pressure  was  brought  to  bear  on  the  government  to  make  it 
relax  controls.  Demand  for  cheaper  leather  was  insistent 
and  there  were  threats  of  an  extended  use  of  various  forms 
of  rubber  soling. 

In  Sept.  1949,  shoe  manufacturers  were  demanding  that 
leather  and  shoes  should  be  de-controlled;  they  were  confi- 
dently predicting  that  lower  prices  would  follow,  despite  the 
fact  that  while  control  persisted  leather  prices  were  being 
subsidized  to  the  extent  of  about  £2  million  a  year  out  of  a 
profit  made  by  the  control  on  the  buying  of  domestic  hides. 

The  devaluation  of  the  pound  upset  most  price  calculations 
and  made  it  evident  that,  because  most  hides  and  skins  had 
to  be  imported,  dearer  leather  was  inevitable. 

A  definite  announcement  was  made  in  Dec.  1949,  that  on 
Jan.  1,  1950,  the  government  would  hand  back  to  tanners 


384 


LEBANON 


the  buying  of  a  large  part  of  the  industry's  raw  materials 
and  that  government-bought  supplies  would  be  sold  to  the 
industry  at  prices  about  half-way  between  the  price  level 
before  devaluation  and  the  current  world  value. 

The  year  ended  with  leather  prices  up  by  some  10  to  12^%. 
There  was  also  a  prospect  of  still  further  increases  when  the 
full  influence  of  the  new  exchange  rates  had  had  time  to  make 
itself  felt  on  the  prices  of  hides  and  skins.  Shoe  manufacturers 
and  leather  merchants  had  bought  heavily  in  anticipation  of 
these  price  increases  and  were  holding  fairly  large  stocks 
capable  of  sustaining  the  full  impact  of  the  new  price  level 
on  the  public.  But  there  was  much  trade  anxiety  as  to  what 
effect  the  expected  leather  prices  would  have  on  current 
demand.  (C.  A.  So.) 

United  States.  U.S.  leather  production  continued  a  slightly 
declining  trend  throughout  1949,  with  the  average  monthly 
output  of  all  major  types  well  below  that  of  1948.  With  the 
exception  of  calf  and  kip  leathers,  however,  the  industry 
maintained  a  production  pace  well  above  the  prewar  level. 
Demand  for  all  leathers  continued  good  throughout  the  year, 
and  stocks  of  finished  leathers  in  tanners'  hands  remained 
at  very  low  levels. 

There  was  little  change  in  the  stringencies  of  raw  stock 
supplies  in  1949,  as  imports  of  hides  and  skins  remained 
unsatisfactory  because  of  world  economic  and  political 
conditions.  However,  the  domestic  hide  and  skin  supply 
was  steadily  improving,  and  U.S.  tanners  were  each  year 
becoming  less  dependent  upon  raw  stock  imports. 

An  abrupt  decline  in  market  prices  caused  a  large  part 
of  the  Argentine  leather  goods  to  be  withdrawn  in  1949, 
and  U.S.  imports  dropped  90%  from  the  1948  level.  As 
these  imports  represented,  for  most  part,  high-grade  raw 
stock,  the  lack  affected  the  U.S.  industry  even  more  than 
the  statistics  indicated. 

Although  the  demand  for  leather  continued  to  be  good 
during  1949,  the  industry  was  alarmed  at  the  tremendous 
rise  in  popularity  of  synthetic  materials  for  purposes  for 
which  leather  had  traditionally  been  used.  Shoe  production 
reports  by  the  Bureau  of  the  Census  revealed  that  synthetics 
had  replaced  leather  for  35%  to  40%  of  shoe  soles  and  were 
making  heavy  inroads  in  the  shoe  upper  leather  market. 
These  materials,  chiefly  rubber  and  plastics,  were  also 
replacing  leather  to  some  extent  in  the  manufacture  of 
handbags  and  upholstery. 

The  directors  of  the  Foundation  of  the  Tanners  Council 
Research  laboratory  authorized  a  grant  to  establish  and 


A  leather  travel/ing  case  which  weighed  only  three  pounds — one  of 
the  exhibits  at  the  1949  British  industries  fair. 


operate  a  programme  for  the  analysis  and  testing  of  various 
leather  substitutes  at  the  council's  research  laboratory  in 
the  University  of  Cincinnati.  F.  O'Flaherty,  director  of  the 
council's  laboratory,  announced  the  development  of  a  new 
portable  device  which  measured  scientifically  the  amount 
of  moisture  present  in  hides  and  leather.  Moisture  content 
determined  the  quality  of  the  finished  leather  and  its 
workability  in  the  manufacture  of  leather  products.  (See 
also  SHOE  INDUSTRY.)  (R.  B.  B.) 


LEBANON.  Independent  Arab  republic,  formerly 
under  French  mandate,  situated  on  eastern  Mediterranean, 
bounded  by  Syria  and  Israel.  Area:  3,475  sq.  mi.  Pop. 
(1949  est.):  1,208,000.  Religions  (1947):  Christian  52% 
(Roman  Catholic  rites:  Maronite  332,900,  Greco- Melchite 
"65,400,  Armenian  10,300,  Syrian  5,000,  Latin  3,100  and 
Chaldean  1,300;  Greek  Orthodox  111,500;  Gregorian 
Armenian  60,800;  Syrian  Jacobite  3,700;  Protestant  10,600); 
Moslem  46  %  (Sunni  240,000;  Shia  214,000;  Druze  75,800); 
others  2%.  Language:  Arabic  is  the  mother  tongue  of  some 
90%  of  the  population,  but  Armenian,  Greek  and  other 
languages  are  also  spoken.  As  in  the  middle  east  religious 
ties  are  often  stronger  than  racial,  Lebanon  might  be  described 
as  a  state  of  minorities,  no  single  rite  or  sect  being  in  a 
majority.  Capital:  Beirut  (pop.  247,000).  President  of  the 
republic,  Bishara  Khalil  el  Khuri  (^.v.);  prime  minister, 
Riad  Bey  es  Sulh. 

History.  On  Jan.  16-19  meetings  of  Lebanese  and  Israeli 
representatives  took  place  on  the  frontier  to  discuss  an 
armistice.  It  received  final  form  on  March  20  and  was 
signed  on  March  23  at  Ras  an-Naqura. 

On  Jan.  28  Lebanon,  with  Syria  (^.v.),  agreed  to  allow  work 
on  the  Trans-Arabian  pipeline,  interrupted  owing  to  dis- 
pleasure at  American  support  for  Israel,  to  be  resumed. 
Negotiations  with  Syria  on  the  one  hand  and  the  T.A.P.- 
line  company  on  the  other  were  completed,  for  subsequent 
ratification  by  the  respective  parliaments,  on  Feb.  5. 

A  treaty  of  friendship  and  commerce  with  Italy  was  signed 
at  Beirut  on  Feb.  15.  Economic  and  political  relations  with 
Syria  deteriorated  after  March  30.  Early  in  May  the  prime 
minister  visited  Cairo  and  Baghdad  in  an  attempt  to  mediate 
in  the  dispute  between  Iraq  and  Egypt  over  the  Arab  League 
(q.v.)  secretariat  and  the  "  fertile  crescent "  plan.  On  his 
return  to  Beirut,  he  called  on  May  1 1  a  meeting  of  the  political 
committee  and  on  May  16  sent  a  message  to  the  Egyptian 
prime  minister:  "1  am  now  very  hopeful  that  all  disputes 
affecting  relations  between  the  Arab  countries  will  be  settled 
in  a  friendly  manner." 

On  June  1 1 ,  following  the  arrest  of  some  300  of  its  members, 
the  Syrian  National  party  in  Lebanon  was  dissolved  by 
government  decree  and  its  headquarters  searched  and  sealed. 
It  was  alleged  to  have  made  preparations  for  an  armed 
revolt.  Early  in  July  the  leader  of  the  party,  Anton  Saadeh, 
who  took  refuge  in  Damascus  and  was  received  by  Husni  ez- 
Zaim,  staged  attacks  on  gendarmerie  posts  in  Lebanon  and 
scattered  groups  of  his  party  followers  made  armed  raids 
from  Syria  along  the  frontier.  It  was  reported  that  the  prime 
minister  appealed  to  Egypt  which  intervened  with  Zaim. 
Saadeh  was  arrested  in  Damascus  on  July  7  and  handed 
over  by  the  Syrian  authorities  to  the  Lebanese  police.  In 
Lebanon  he  was  summarily  tried,  sentenced  and  executed 
the  next  morning.  On  July  16  a  military  court  in  Beirut 
tried  68  adherents  of  the  National  Syrian  party,  of  whom  12 
were  sentenced  to  death  and  53  to  terms  of  imprisonment 
varying  from  three  years  to  life.  Over  800  others  were 
reported  to  be  in  prison.  Two  days  later  the  government 
closed  the  offices  of  the  Phalanges  Libanaises  (Katayib), 
making  13  arrests  and  confiscating  arms.  (C.  Ho.) 


LEEWARD   ISLANDS— LEPROSY 


385 


Education.  (1946-47)  Schools:  state  631,  pupils  53,190;  private  815, 
pupils  64,769;  foreign  306,  pupils  50,111,  universities  (1948-49)  2, 
students  5,110. 

Agriculture.  Mam  crops  ('000  metric  tons,  1947):  wheat  50, 
barley  17;  maize  12;  potatoes  32  Fruit  production  ('000  metric  tons): 
grapes  (1946)  80;  oranges  and  tangerines  (1947)  40;  lemons,  limes, 
etc.  (1947)  25;  olives  (1946)  35  Livestock  ('000  head,  Dec.  1947). 
cattle  and  buffaloes  22,  sheep  21;  horses  (Dec.  1946)  8,  asses  25. 
Fisheries:  total  catch  (1948)  1,440  metric  tons 

Foreign  Trade.  (1948,  with  Syria)  Imports  £L468  million,  exports 
£L79  million. 

Transport  and  Communications.  Roads  (1947):  2,068  mi.  Licensed 
motor  vehicles  (Dec.  1948):  cars  9,100,  commercial  vehicles  4,300. 
Railways  (Dec.  1948)  248-4  mi 

Finance  and  Banking.  Budget:  (1948  est.)  balanced  at  £L67  million; 
(1949  est.)  balanced  at  £L75  million.  Currency  circulation  (March 
1949;  in  brackets,  March  1948):  1L185  (201)  million.  Gold  reserve  of 
the  Bank  of  Syria  and  Lebanon  (June  1949)-  2  8  million  U  S.  dollars. 
Bank  deposits  (Dec.  1948;  in  brackets,  Dec.  1947)-  £L194  (205) 
million.  Monetary  unit:  Lebanese  pound  with  an  exchange  rate  of 
£L6-13  (8-83  before  Sept.  18,  1949)  to  the  pound  sterling. 

LEEWARD  ISLANDS.  British  colony  consisting  of 
a  group  of  islands  in  the  Caribbean  Politically  it  is  divided 
into  four  presidencies:  Antigua  (with  Barbuda),  St  Christo- 
pher-Nevis (with  Anguilla),  Montscrrat  and  the  Virgin 
islands.  Total  area:  423  sq.  mi.  Total  pop.  (Dec.  1947  est ): 
109,274.  Governor,  Earl  Baldwin  of  Bewdley. 

History.  Early  in  1949  the  governor  was  recalled  to  England 
for  consultation.  Rumour  suggested  that  this  was  due  either 
to  complaints  from  certain  Leeward  islanders  or  to  a  some- 
what unconventional  address  he  had  made  to  the  Legislative 
Council;  these  rumours  were  fed  by  remarks  he  made  to 
press  correspondents  but  they  were  denied  in  official  circles. 
None  the  less  the  governor's  return  was  celebrated  in  the 
colony  with  popular  acclaim  as  a  victory  of  the  coloured  and 
poorer  elements. 

Jt  was  announced  in  April  that  the  secretary  of  state  for 
the  colonies  had  agreed  to  certarn  constitutional  changes, 
including  the  introduction  of  adult  suffrage  (subject  to  a 
simple  literacy  test  only)  at  the  next  election  for  the  Legislative 
Council,  and  the  removal  of  the  property  qualification  for  a 
candidate,  subject  to  further  examination  ot  the  existing 
arrangements  for  deposits  which  candidates  were  required 
to  make. 

The  reports  of  the  commission  appointed  in  July  1948  to 
enquire  into  the  organization  of  the  sugar  industry  of 
St.  Kitts  and  of  Antigua  were  published  in  November. 
Each  contained  a  minority  report  recommending  the 
nationalization  of  the  industry.  The  majority  reports 
recommended  inter  alia  a  vigorous  campaign  for  the  improve- 
ment of  rural  housing;  government  responsibility  for  housing 
sugar  estate  workers;  a  wages  board  or  council  for  the 
industry  and  a  joint  consultative  assembly  for  the  industry 
in  St.  Kitts;  a  land  utilization  survey,  reconstruction  of  the 
cost  of  living  index;  review  of  the  wholesale  and  retail 
profit  margins;  and  consolidation  of  basic  wage  rates, 
amendments  and  cost  of  living  bonuses  in  Antigua.  (J.  A.  Hu.) 

Finance  and  Trade.  Currency  (from  1948).  West  Indian  dollar, 
£!_.  $4-80  Principal  exports-  sugar  and  cotton. 

St. 

Antigua        Christopher-  Montserrat        Virgin 
Nevis  Islands 

Revenue    .  $2,207,672"      $1,759,170*  $439,571-       $224,723" 

hxpenditure        .    $2,577, 183*-     $1,816,029*  $591,799°        $217,405- 

Imports      .          .    £1,034,929*      $4.103,384"  $908,540C        $254,880* 

Exports      .          .       £465,582-*      $4,418,877'  $416,882*        $156,326" 
1949  est         *   1948  csl         e  1948          A  194? 

LEGISLATION:    see  LAW  AND  LEGISLATION. 

LEOPOLD  1 II  (LEOPOLD-PHIL  IPPE-CHARLES-ALBERT- 
MEINRAD-HUBERTUS- MARIE-MIGUEL  DE  SAKE -COBOURG), 
King  of  the  Belgians  (b.  Brussels,  Nov.  3,  1901).  On  Nov.  10, 

V  B  Y  —26 


1926  he  married  Princess  Astrid  of  Sweden,  who  died  in  a 
motor  accident  on  Aug  29,  1935;  of  this  marriage  were 
born  Princess  Josephine-Charlotte,  Prince  Bauciouin  (Sept.  7, 
1930),  and  Prince  Albert.  Leopold  acceded  to  the  throne  on 
Feb.  17,  1934,  and  became  the  determining  influence  in 
Belgian  foreign  policy:  on  Oct.  14,  1936,  he  proclaimed  that 
Belgium  would  return  to  a  policy  of  neutrality.  After  a 
courageous  though  vain  resistance  by  the  army,  of  which  he 
was  commander  in  chief,  to  the  German  invasion  launched 
on  May  10,  1940,  the  king  capitulated  on  May  23.  Against 
the  views  of  his  government,  he  decided  not  to  kave  his 
country  and  retired  to  the  castle  of  Laeken.  On  Nov.  14, 

1940,  he  paid  a  visit  to  Hitler  at  Berchtesgaden    On  Sept.  11, 

1941,  he  married  Mile.  Mary  Lihane  Baels,  and  a  son,  Alexan- 
der, was  born  on  July  18,  1942.    On  June  7,  1944,  Leopold 
left  Brussels  with  his  family  under  German  escort  for  intern- 
ment  at    Hirschstem,    near   Dresden,    and   from    March   6, 
1945,  at  Strobl,  near  Salzburg.    He  was  liberated  on  May  8, 
1945,  by  the  US.  7th  army.    The  Belgian  Social  Christian 
party  asked  for  his  immediate  return,  but  a  section  of  the 
Liberals,  the  Socialists  and  the  Communists  advocated  his 
abdication      From  the  summer  of  1945  King  Leopold  and 
his  family  were  living  at  Pregny,  near  Geneva.     Leopold's 
insistence  on  his  reinstatement  created  a  deadlock  and  the 
situation  was  not  clarified  by  the  result  of  the  Belgian  general 
election  of  June  25,  1949  (see  BELGIUM).     It  uas  officially 
disclosed  on  Oct.  18  that  in  a  letter  to  Gaston  Fyskens,  the 
prime  minister,  the  king  had  affirmed  that  if  the  number  of 
votes  in  his  favour  in  the  proposed  referendum  did  not  reach 
55%  of  the  total  of  valid  votes  cast  he  would  abdicate  in 
favour  of  his  son  Baudoum. 

LEPROSY.  From  all  parts  of  the  world  reports  in  1949 
indicated  the  belief  of  leprologists  that  cases  of  lepromatous 
leprosy  receiving  the  sulphones  showed  improvement  far 
beyond  that  expected  from  use  of  other  methods.  Even  though 
cures  were  not  effected,  the  patients  led  a  much  more 
comfortable  existence  and  complications  were  much  less 
pronounced.  According  to  one  leprologist  the  best  drugs 
were  diasone  and  suphctrone  for  oral  administration  and 
promin  for  intravenous  use.  Treatment  had  not  become 
universally  standardized.  In  some  geographic  areas  the 
cost  of  certain  sulphones  limited  their  use.  Careful  clinical 
and  laboratory  observations  were  still  needed  for  patients 
receiving  sulphones. 

A  summary  of  the  problem  of  leprosy  in  the  British 
Commonwealth  and  outlines  for  treatment  and  policy  were 
made  in  an  official  memorandum.  The  problem  was  still 
being  attacked  with  increased  vigour  in  the  British  colonies 
where  there  were  as  estimated  700,000  cases,  principally  in 
Nigeria.  Isolation  was  recommended,  and  persons  with 
leprosy  were  to  be  excluded  from  occupations  which  per- 
mitted others  to  be  exposed  to  infection.  It  was  the  official 
opinion  that  leprosy  was  not  incurable,  but  no  certain  cure 
had  been  found.  It  was  recommended  that  settlements  be 
organized  along  modern  village  lines,  that  restrictions  be 
kept  at  a  minimum,  and  that  patients  not  actively  infectious 
be  allowed  to  return  home  periodically.  Practically  all  British 
colonies  maintained  settlements  for  the  care  of  leprosy. 

Under  the  administration  of  the  United  States  navy  a 
leper  colony  was  being  developed  on  the  depopulated  island 
of  Tinian.  It  was  planned  to  take  cases  of  leprosy  among 
natives  of  the  120  islands  in  that  region  to  Tinian  for  treat- 
ment. In  keeping  with  the  trend  to  abolish  the  word  "  leper  " 
the  institution  was  given  the  name  "  Hansen's  Colony." 
A  young  naval  medical  officer  volunteered  for  a  two-year 
assignment  in  charge  of  the  colony.  At  the  invitation  of  the 
U.S.  navy  an  advisory  group  of  three  physicians  interested  in 
leprosy  visited  the  west  central  Pacific  area.  This  group 


386 


LIAQUAT  ALT   KHAN— LIBERIA 


doubted  the  wisdom  of  placing  the  leprosarium  on  Tinian 
because  it  was  too  far  removed  from  consulting  medical 
services,  and  because  insular  isolation  was  considered  an 
archaic  method  for  controlling  the  disease. 

Attempts  to  cultivate  Mycobacterium  lepra  in  vitro 
continued;  K.  Nakamura  of  the  National  Institute  of  Health 
in  Japan  published  a  method  of  culture  which  he  initiated 
in  1930.  The  ingredients  of  the  liquid  medium  given  specific 
mention  by  the  author  were  mucin  from  the  submaxillary 
gland  of  the  ox,  phthiocol,  vitamin  Bx  and  vitamin  B2. 
Nakamura  was  convinced  that  by  using  material  from  seven 
cases  of  human  leprosy  definite  multiplication  of  bacilli  was 
obtained,  and  reported  that  sub-culturmg  was  successful  up 
to  the  fourth  or  fifth  transplanting.  Since  no  previously 
reported  method  for  culturing  the  leprosy  bacillus  had  with- 
stood the  test  of  time,  this  new  approach  would  need  to  be 
successfully  duplicated  by  other  scientists  before  the  results 
could  be  accepted  by  Icprologists  and  bacteriologists. 

(C.  H.  BD.) 

LIAQUAT  ALI  KHAN,  Pakistani  statesman  (b. 
East  Punjab,  Oct.  1,  1895),  became  the  first  prime  minister 
of  Pakistan  on  Aug.  15,  1947.  (For  his  early  career  see 
Britannica  Book  of  the  Year  1949}. 

In  Oct.  1948  he  attended  the  Commonwealth  prime 
ministers'  conference  in  London,  and  was  also  present  at  the 
second  conference  in  April  1949.  He  visited  Dublin  on  May  2, 
and  was  received  by  President  Sean  O'Kelly  and  members 
of  the  government.  He  returned  to  Karachi  in  May,  after 
visiting  Rome,  Cairo,  Baghdad  and  Tehran.  Inaugurating 
the  council  of  industries  at  Karachi  on  Sept.  8,  he  exhorted 
the  advanced  countries  to  give  "  the  wherewithal  for  develop- 
ment "  to  the  under-developed  countries,  along  with  technical 
assistance.  In  June  it  was  announced  that  he  had  accepted 
an  invitation  to  visit  the  Soviet  Union  in  November,  but  by 
the  end  of  the  year  this  visit  had  not  taken  place.  On  Dec.  10  he 
accepted  an  invitation  to  visit  the  United  States  in  May  1950. 

LIBERAL  MOVEMENT.  Liberal  parties  continued 
to  manoeuvre  precariously  between  the  larger  parties 
assembled  under  the  banners  of  the  welfare  state  and  the 
Christian  revival.  In  Sweden  and  Belgium,  however,  Liberals 
scored  notable  electoral  successes. 

In  the  elections  held  on  Sept.  19,  1948,  to  the  Swedish 
Riksdag  the  Folkepartiet  increased  its  strength  from  26  to  57 
and  supplanted  the  Conservatives  as  the  second  largest  party. 
Professor  Bertil  Ohlin  ascribed  his  party's  success  to  the  failure 
of  centralized  regulation  and  control  to  cope  with  the  prob- 
lems either  of  the  postwar  economy  or  of  international 
collaboration.  He  described  his  own  party's  programme  of 
progress  and  the  defence  of  freedom  as  Social  Liberalism, 
a  phrase  perhaps  borrowed  from  the  Italian  political  vocabu- 
lary of  four  decades  ago.  The  results  suggested  that  the 
Folkepartiet  gained  from  the  Right  rather  than  from  the  Left. 

On  June  26,  1949,  the  Belgian  Liberals  increased  their 
representation  in  the  Chamber  from  17  to  29  and  in  the 
Senate  from  12  to  24  (both  bodies  being  slightly  larger  than 
at  the  time  of  the  1946  elections).  Liberals  also  made  con- 
siderable gains  in  municipal  elections.  These  gains  were 
proportionately  greater  than  those  of  the  Social  Christians, 
and  Socialists  and  Communists  lost  ground.  As  a  result 
Liberals  took  office  in  a  coalition  government  under  a  Social 
Christian  prime  minister.  The  chief  feature  of  the  Liberal 
campaign  was  a  demand  for  a  25%  cut  in  direct  taxation. 
Senator  Roger  Motz,  Liberal  leader,  described  the  Liberal 
successes  as  a  victory  for  a  policy  of  opposition  to  increasing 
state  interference  and  state  expenditure. 

In  countries  governed  by  coalitions  Liberals  provided  at 
least  a  useful  measure  of  support  for  prime  ministers  in  search 


of  parliamentary  majorities.  In  France  Henri  Queuille,  a 
Radical,  set  up  a  postwar  record  of  13  months  continuous 
service  as  prime  minister  before  his  resignation  in  October. 
In  Germany  the  Freie  Demokratische  Partei  made  important 
contributions,  often  by  way  of  compromise  between  the  two 
major  parties,  to  the  work  of  constitution-making  at  Bonn. 
One  of  its  leaders,  Professor  Theodor  Heuss  (q.  v.),  was  elected 
first  president  of  the  new  republic  and  others  joined  the 
government.  The  veteran  Greek  Liberal,  Themistocles 
Sophoulis  (see  OBITUARIES),  died  during  the  year;  he  was 
succeeded  as  prime  minister  of  the  Greek  coalition  by 
Alexandros  Diomidis  Gy.v.),  a  non-political  Liberal. 

In  Great  Britain  the  Liberal  party  appeared  to  make  little 
headway  in  its  struggle  to  recover  from  the  disaster  of  1945, 
but  in  the  absence  of  electoral  evidence  (the  party  refrained 
from  fighting  by-elections)  it  was  not  possible  accurately  to 
judge  its  position.  The  government's  decision  not  to  hold  an 
election  until  1950  offered  greater  possibilities  to  the  Liberal 
party  than  to  any  other,  since  Labour  stood  to  lose  heavily 
by  a  further  deterioration  in  the  economic  position  and  the 
Conservatives  failed  at  their  annual  congress  to  produce  a 
positive  or  striking  alternative  policy.  The  Liberal  party's 
ability  to  turn  this  situation  to  good  account  remained  to  be 
proved  at  the  polls  in  1950,  a  test  which  would  be  anxiously 
watched  by  continental  Liberals  who  regarded  a  Liberal 
revival  in  Britain  as  an  important  factor  in  their  own  fortunes. 
A  Liberal  reverse  in  Britain  in  1950  might  indeed  prove  more 
serious  for  continental  than  for  British  Liberalism,  since 
the  constant  and  wise  refusal  of  the  British  parliament  to 
adopt  any  form  of  proportional  representation  gave  to  the 
marginal  voters  of  the  centre  an  electoral  importance  which 
they  did  not  possess  elsewhere.  (See  also  POLITICAL  PARTIES, 
BRITISH.) 

In  Canada  the  Liberal  party  under  its  new  leader,  Louis  S. 
St.  Laurent  G/.v.),  scored  an  electoral  victory  of  a  size  un- 
precedented in  Canadian  history. 

The  annual  congress  of  the  Liberal  international  was  held 
at  Deauville  in  July  under  the  presidency  of  Salvador  de 
Madariaga.  At  the  same  time  and  place  were  held  the  third 
of  a  series  of  meetings  of  Liberal  newspaper  editors  and  a 
meeting  of  the  newly-formed  Committee  of  Liberal  Exiles. 
(See  also  POLITICAL  PARTIES,  BRITISH.)  (P.  J.  A.  C.) 

LIBERIA.  A  republic  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa, 
bounded  on  the  northwest  by  the  British  colony  of  Sierra 
Leone,  and  on  the  north  and  northeast  by  the  French  colonies 
of  Guinea  and  the  Ivory  Coast.  Area,  c.  43,000  sq.  mi. 
Pop.  (1949  est.):  1,600,000  (all  Negroes),  of  which  approxi- 
mately 12,000  persons  were  direct  descendants  of  the  original 
settlers  from  the  United  States.  Monrovia  (pop.,  c.  12,000) 
is  the  capital.  English  is  the  official  language;  the  tribal 
languages  are  divided  into  some  26  dialects  which  stem  from 
Arabic,  Bantu  and  Nilotic  language  bases.  Liberia  grants 
religious  freedom  to  all  denominations;  nearly  all  Christian 
churches  have  had  missions  in  Liberia  for  many  years. 
President  (inaugurated  in  Jan.  1944),  William  V.  S.  Tubman. 

History.  Late  in  1949  the  bridge  spanning  the  St.  Paul 
river  and  linking  Monrovia  with  the  western  province  was 
officially  opened.  Pan  American  World  Airways  reinstated 
international  air  services  which  brought  Monrovia  within 
26  hr.  of  New  York  city.  Also  in  1949  tangible  steps  were 
taken  to  open  to  international  exports  the  Bomi  Hills  iron 
concessions,  in  which  Christie-Republic  Steel  interests  were 
the  principal  U.S.  investment  factors.  It  was  estimated  that 
there  were  more  than  50  million  tons  of  rich  surface  iron  ore 
in  the  Bomi  area. 

A  corporation  code  and  a  maritime  code  were  among  the 
major  Liberian  legislative  accomplishments  for  1949.  The 
same  year  witnessed  progress  in  the  nation's  principal 


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387 


industry,  the  production  of  natural  rubber.  Firestone,  largest 
American  investor  in  Liberia  by  way  of  its  subsidiary,  the 
Firestone  Plantations  company,  increased  its  Liberian  rubber 
plantations  to  a  total  of  78,861  planted  acres,  of  which  about 
70,000  ac.  were  in  bearing  at  the  year's  end.  Firestone's 
rubber  production  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  Oct.  31,  1949, 
was  57,557,721  Ib. 

Education.  (1949)  Schools:  government  88,  mission  78,  private  23, 
tribal  17.  Institutions  for  advanced  education  included  Liberia  college, 
College  of  West  Africa,  Monrovia,  and  Booker  T  Washington  institute, 
Kakata,  for  the  agricultural  and  basic  industrial  training  of  sons  of 
Native  chiefs  and  other  tnbespcople 

Industry  and  Agriculture.  For  1949,  industrial  employment,  including 
that  of  the  Firestone  Plantations  company  with  approximately  30,000 
Native  employees,  was  estimated  at  44,800  Agriculture  remains  the 
preponderant  source  of  employment,  with  rice  the  principal  subsistence 
crop.  Rubber  is  the  preponderant  export  item,  with  gold,  piassava 
fibre,  palm  oils  and  kernels,  and  kola  nuts  following  in  that  order 

Finance  and  Trade.  The  U.S  dollar  is  the  monetary  unit  of  Liberia 
and  is  supplemented  by  Liberian  fractional  coins  with  the  dollar  base 
freely  negotiable  and  at  par  Revenue  receipts  for  the  year  ending 
Aug  31,  1949,  were  S3,735,354,  an  increase  of  $678,655  over  those  of 
the  preceding  year.  External  debt  (Aug  31,1949):  $584,000;  internal 
debt  $5,050.  Exports  (for  the  12  months  ending  Aug.  31,  1949) 
$13,527,185;  imports  $9,104,870,  with  the  United  States  supplying 
about  81  %  of  the  latter  (C.  M.  Wl.) 

LIBRARIES.  The  special  need  for  scientific  and  technical 
information  to  assist  research  workers  in  science  and  industry 
increased  and  set  more  problems  for  consideration  by  all 
those  whose  work  included  the  supply  of  books,  periodicals 
and  information.  The  availability  of  this  material  for  the 
increasing  number  of  people  in  Great  Britain  who  wanted 
to  use  it  was  therefore  a  major  topic  of  discussion  throughout 
1949  for  many  organizations  concerned  with  libraries, 
education,  science,  industry  and  the  book  trade,  particularly 
the  Lord  President  of  the  Council's  Committee  on  Industrial 
Productivity,  the  Royal  Society,  the  Library  association, 
Aslib,  the  United  Nations  Educational,  Scientific  and  Cul- 
tural organization  and  the  National  Book  league. 

One  of  the  most  important  events  of  latter  years  was  the 
establishment  of  an  independent  organization  to  provide 
an  official  current  national  bibliography,  based  on  a  scheme 
first  drawn  up  by  the  Library  association.  The  council  of 
the  British  National  Bibliography  was  formed  in  March 
1949  and  consisted  of  representatives  of  the  British  museum, 
the  Library  association,  the  Publishers'  association,  the 
Booksellers'  association,  the  National  Book  league,  the 
Royal  Society,  the  National  Central  library,  the  British 
Council,  Aslib  and  the  U.N.E.S.C.O.  Co-operating  Body 
for  Libraries.  The  editorial  work  was  to  be  carried  out  at  the 
British  museum  in  close  proximity  to  the  Copyright  Receipt 
office  and  the  bibliography  was  to  be  issued  in  the  form  of  a 
weekly  book  list  of  all  books  published  in  Great  Britain, 
commencing  in  the  first  week  of  Jan.  1950.  All  books  were 
to  be  fully  catalogued  by  the  Anglo-American  rules  and 
classified  in  accordance  with  the  Dewey  decimal  classification. 
There  was  also  to  be  an  annual  volume  containing  the  entries 
for  the  year,  in  classified  order  with  appropriate  indexes. 
The  British  National  Bibliography  would  thus  form  a  central 
catalogue  of  the  books  published  in  Great  Britain  as  well  as  a 
guide  to  the  selection  and  purchase  of  books. 

Another  important  event  was  the  establishment  of  a  British 
National  Book  centre  at  the  National  Central  library.  This 
became  a  new  department  of  the  National  Central  library 
activities  which,  it  was  hoped,  would  help  the  better  distribu- 
tion of  books  and  periodicals  which  became  available  from 
time  to  time  as  gifts  or  as  superfluous  duplicates,  by  ascertain- 
ing the  requirements  of  libraries  and  meeting  them  as  far 
as  possible.  Many  institutions  had  superfluous  books  which 
were  not  needed  but  which  it  would  be  unwise  to  destroy 
because  experience  had  shown  that  other  libraries  might 


have  been  unable  to  obtain  them.  The  British  National 
Book  centre  acted  as  a  central  bureau  in  Great  Britain  to 
obtain  and  circulate  information  regarding  redundant  books. 
Its  main  object  was  the  distribution  of  books  among  British 
libraries  but  it  was  co-operating  with  U.N.E.S.C.O.  in 
encouraging  international  interchange  of  books  and  periodi- 
cals and  working  with  U.S.  and  Canadian  book  centres 
operating  on  similar  lines.  Many  thousands  of  books  and 
periodicals  had  already  been  distributed  to  British  libraries 
and  libraries  in  Europe. 

These  important  developments,  stimulating  interest  in 
libraries  generally,  were  a  fitting  prelude  to  the  celebration 
of  the  centenary  of  the  passing  of  the  first  Public  Libraries 
bill  for  England  and  Wales,  which  received  the  royal  assent 
in  Aug.  1850.  In  the  public  library  field  much  preparatory 
work  had  been  undertaken  in  order  to  mark  the  centenary 
in  the  most  effective  way  possible,  the  main  object  being  to 
encourage  every  library  authority  to  make  1950  a  year  of 
assessment  and  plan  for  greater  development  of  the  library 
service.  In  commemoration  of  the  centenary  King  George  VI 
granted  his  patronage  to  the  Library  association,  which  was 
also  honoured  by  the  Duke  of  Edinburgh's  acceptance  of 
the  office  of  president. 

Statistics  collected  by  the  Library  association  showed  that 
in  the  financial  year  1948-49  over  £1,870,000  or  approximately 
9d.  a  head  of  the  population  was  spent  on  books  for  public 
libraries  in  Great  Britain  and  Northern  Ireland;  and  the 
total  expenditure  on  the  service,  which  was  available  to  all 
but  about  50,000  people  in  the  whole  of  the  country,  was  about 
£7,705,000  or  3s.  Id.  a  head  of  the  population.  The  amount 
spent  was  one  million  pounds  more  than  in  1947-48.  The 
number  of  books  issued  from  the  lending  departments  of 
these  libraries  for  home  reading  was  312  million,  about 
12  million  more  than  in  the  previous  year.  Further  attempts 
to  extend  the  library  services  to  meet  the  increased  demands 
were  of  necessity  still  in  the  nature  of  temporary  measures. 
Such  measures  included  the  provision  of  branch  libraries 
in  prefabricated  hut^  converted  air-raid  shelters,  shops  and 
other  premises  and  also  the  establishment  of  more  mobile 
libraries  to  serve  urban  areas  where  there  was  no  building 
suitable  for  use  or  no  site  available. 

A  most  important  and  interesting  development  was  the 
establishment,  in  April  1949,  of  a  full-time  library  for  the 
patients  and  hospital  personnel  in  a  large  general  hospital  at 
Southmead,  Bristol.  The  scheme  was  a  joint  one,  with  the 
hospital  management  committee  undertaking  financial  res- 
ponsibility and  the  Bristol  public  libraries  supervising  the 
service.  Opened  with  a  stock  of  4,000  volumes,  the  library 
was  excellently  furnished  with  tables,  easy  chairs  and  book 
display  cases,  while  book  trolleys  were  used  to  give  service 
to  bed-patients  in  the  wards. 

A  new  feature  of  British  libraries,  the  Recorded  Music 
collections,  was  further  developed.  Nearly  50  public  libraries 
now  had  established  collections  of  gramophone  records, 
which  in  most  cases  were  available  for  loan  to  individuals 
but,  in  some  places,  only  to  musical  clubs,  societies  and 
groups.  A  considerable  amount  of  information  about  these 
collections  was  given  in  a  special  number  of  the  Library 
Association  Record,  vol.  51,  no.  7,  July  1949. 

The  work  of  restoring  libraries  which  had  been  damaged 
during  World  War  II  proceeded  slowly.  The  repair  of  the 
bomb-damaged  music  room  and  bookstacks  at  the  University 
of  London  library  and  work  on  the  completion  of  the  tower 
were  begun.  Plans  were  approved  for  the  rebuilding,  on  its 
original  site,  of  the  library  of  the  Inner  Temple,  and  in  July 
the  King  opened  a  new  temporary  library  adjoining  the 
existing  temporary  building.  The  Inner  Temple  lost  many 
books  in  the  bombing  of  1941  but  the  stock  had  gradually 
been  built  up  to  80,000  volumes.  At  Edinburgh,  work  was 


388 


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university  LK 

HYDERABAD  (DECCAN) 


'art  of  one  of  the  murals  which  were  presented 
o   the   Chelsea  children's  library  on   Nov.    J, 
j/ 949.   The  murals  were  painted  by  three  students 
\>f  the  Royal  College  of  Art.    The  above  section 
was  by  Malcolm  Hughes.      The  other  artists 
were   George   Ball  and  Nevill    Dear. 

resumed  on  the  new  building  for  the  National  Library  of 
Scotland  and  there  was  hope  that  by  1953  the  building  would 
be  completed. 

The  Radcliffe  Science  library  at  Oxford  celebrated  its 
bicentenary  on  April  20  and  marked  the  occasion  by  a  public 
ceremony  and  a  special  exhibition  illustrating  the  history  of 
the  library  and  the  life  of  its  founder,  Dr.  John  RadclifTe. 
At  Cambridge,  A.  F.  Scholfield,  university  librarian  since 
1923,  retired  and  his  successor  was  H.  R.  Creswick,  who  was 
librarian  of  the  Bodleian  library,  Oxford,  from  1945  to  1948 
and  therefore  had  the  unique  distinction  of  serving  as 
university  librarian  both  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge. 

Commonwealth.  In  Canada  steps  were  taken  to  establish 
a  National  library  by  the  appointment  of  a  committee  which 
would,  in  the  first  place,  set  up  a  bibliographical  centre  at 
Ottawa.  In  the  British  West  Indies,  plans  were  formulated 
for  regional  library  services  in  the  eastern  Caribbean  and 
Jamaica.  A  further  development  in  Jamaica  was  the  establish- 
ment of  a  new  library  for  the  University  College  of  the  West 
Indies.  In  Trinidad  a  bill  for  the  establishment  of  a  central 
library  for  Trinidad  and  Tobago  became  law  in  1949,  thus 
providing  for  the  continuance  of  a  service  which  began  in 
1946  with  the  help  of  the  Carnegie  corporation. 

Many  developments  were  taking  place  in  Africa;  and  the 
formation  of  a  Central  African  branch  of  the  South  African 
Library  association  was  expected  to  lead  to  further  progress. 
A  university  library  was  inaugurated  at  Ibadan  in  Nigeria 
and,  opening  with  a  stock  of  42,000  volumes  and  periodicals, 
this  was  the  largest  library  in  west  Africa.  Microfilm  equip- 
ment was  installed  and  there  were  plans  for  spending 
approximately  £20,000  in  the  following  few  years.  Steps 
were  also  taken  to  establish  a  library  at  the  University 
College  of  the  Gold  Coast.  Further  progress  could  be 
expected  at  Makercrc  College  library  in  Uganda  which 
received  a  grant  of  £15,000  under  the  Colonial  Development 
and  Welfare  act. 

The  Potchefstroom  University  College  library  in  the 
Transvaal,  South  Africa,  was  destroyed  by  fire  on  Feb.  23,  a 
great  loss  in  a  country  which  had  been  very  active  latterly 
in  developing  its  library  resources.  Help  in  the  difficult 
problem  of  the  replacement  of  stock  was  given  by  the  British 
Council,  which  presented  1,700  recent  British  books. 

The  library  policy  of  the  British  Council,  a  body  which 
had  done  so  much  to  encourage  the  setting  up  of  libraries 
in  the  colonies,  changed.  It  would  no  longer  "  establish  or 
maintain  general  public  libraries  "  and  the  process  of  trans- 
ferring responsibility  to  the  colonies  themselves  began. 

Europe.  U.N.E.S.C.O.  continued  to  encourage  the 
rehabilitation  of  libraries  after  World  War  il  and  the  inter- 
national and  national  library  associations  were  active.  The 


15th  session  of  the  International  Library  committee  of  the 
International  Federation  of  Library  Associations  was  held 
at  Basle  in  July  when  reports  were  received  from  many 
national  associations  on  the  progress  of  the  library  movement. 
In  Germany  the  Bayerische  Staatsbibliothek  of  Munich  and 
the  Universitatsbibliothek  of  Erlangen  organized  a  conference, 
attended  by  more  than  100  delegates,  of  the  re-established  As- 
sociation of  German  Librarians.  In  Czechoslovakia,  a  mobile 
library  service  was  introduced  in  Prague.  Based  on  the  Prague 
Central  library,  the  specially  fitted  library  vans  toured  and 
served  areas  which  were  without  any  other  library  service. 

The  Norwegian  Public  Library  law,  which  was  passed  in 
Dec.  1947,  took  effect  from  July  1949.  This  law  made  it 
compulsory  for  communities  to  maintain  public  libraries. 
Provision  was  made  for  subsidies  on  local  effort  and  an 
interesting  feature  was  that  public  libraries  which  were  so 
well  administered  that  they  could  serve  as  model  libraries 
or  those  to  which  study  groups  were  attached  could  obtain 
an  extra  contribution  from  the  government. 

A  loss  to  Swedish,  and  European,  librarianship  was  caused 
by  the  death  of  Dr.  Isak  Collijn,  librarian  of  the  Royal 
library  at  Stockholm  for  many  years  and  an  outstanding 
figure  in  the  International  Federation  of  Library  Associations. 

(D.  C.  H.  J.) 

United  States.  During  1949  many  foreign  libraries  made 
tours  of  the  U.S.,  sponsored  by  the  War  and  State  depart- 
ments. U.S.  libraries  and  lay  groups  continued  to  send  books 
abroad.  U.N.E.S.C.O.  had  two  library  plans  in  operation: 
the  establishment  of  national  exchange  agencies  (in  the  U.S., 
the  U.S.  Book  Exchange,  continued  under  a  Rockefeller 
grant),  and  the  book  coupon  scheme  to  help  *'  soft  "  currency 
countries  buy  books  in  kl  hard  "  currency  countries.  C.A.R.E. 
(Co-operative  for  American  Remittances  to  Europe)  sent  its 
first  technical  books  package  to  Louvain  university  library. 

Regional  Co-operation.  The  Carnegie  corporation  approved 
a  $500,000  grant  to  establish  a  midwest  inter-library  centre 
as  a  depository  and  bibliographic  centre.  The  54  college  and 
reference  libraries  participating  in  the  Farmington  plan 
(complete  coverage  in  foreign  book  acquisitions)  were 
receiving  books  from  nine  countries:  Mexico,  Norway, 
Sweden,  Denmark,  the  Netherlands,  Belgium,  France, 
Switzerland  and  Italy. 

College  and  Reference  Libraries.  The  most  spectacular 
acquisition  during  the  year  was  the  private  papers  of  James 
Boswell  (4,000  pieces)  by  Yale  university  library. 

Public  Libraries.  A  report  from  the  U.S.  Office  of  Education, 
covering  public  libraries  in  towns  with  populations  of  over 
100,OOJ  showed  the  following  percentage  increases  since  1945: 
45, 1 42,08 1  volumes  (+23  %),  9,0 1 1 ,703  borrowers  ({  1 1  •  25  %), 
133,283,304  books  circulated  (+4-23%),  $45,205,592  expen- 
diture, excluding  capital  outlay  (4-42-66%).  An  American 
Library  association  midsummer  study  showed  that  736 
counties  had  county  libraries.  John  Deferrari,  who  in  1947 
had  given  the  Boston  Public  library  a  $1  million  trust  fund, 
added  $500,000  to  it  in  1949. 

Costs  were  the  main  concern  of  most  public  librarians 


.  UE— LINEN   AND   FLAX 


389 


during  the  year;  budget  increases  were  largely  due  to 
improved  salaries.  The  "  book-buying  power  "  of  public 
libraries  was  set  at  an  estimated  $14  million  and  of  all 
libraries,  at  $32  million. 

Adult  services  made  some  progress;  sporadic  attempts  at 
censoring  the  collections  occurred,  but  there  was  opposition 
in  the  communities  which  defended  the  public  libraries' 
policy  of  book  selection.  An  improved  service  to  Negroes 
in  the  south  was  reported.  The  provision  of  books  on  medical 
subjects,  sex,  marriage,  etc.,  for  adult  readers  was  discussed. 
Group  services  progressed,  the  library's  role  being  more  clearly 
defined  as  one  of  service  rather  than  leadership.  (K.  BN.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  McColvin,  L  R  and  Revic,  J  ,  British  Libraries, 
revised  edition,  London,  1949,  Plant,  M  ,  The  Supply  of  Foreign  Bookt 
and  Periodicals  to  the  Libraries  of  the  United  Kingdom,  London,  1949; 
W  C  Berwick  Sayers,  Brown's  Manual  of  Library  Economy,  6th  edition, 
London,  1949 

LIBYA:    see  ITALIAN  COLONIAL  EMPIRE. 

LIE,  TRYGVE  HALDVAN,  Norwegian  diplomat 
(b.  Oslo,  July  16,  1896),  was  elected  secretary  general  of  the 
United  Nations  on  Feb.  1,  1946.  (For  his  early  career  see 
Bntannica  Book  oj  the  Year,  1949.) 

In  his  fourth  annual  report  dated  July  7,  he  described  the 
twelve  months  ending  June  30  as  **  a  year  of  progress  towards 
a  more  peaceful  world";  there  were  crises  and  alarms  but 
44  the  fear  of  war  has  decreased."  Fearing  that  a  "  misunder- 
standing "  of  the  function  of  the  U.N.  might  lead  *4  to  a 
succession  of  acts,  or  failures  to  act,  that  would  end  by 
relegating  the  U.N.  to  a  second-class  role  in  world  affairs," 
he  restated  the  case  for  the  charter  and  nothing  but  the 
charter.  Although  he  mentioned  that  he  was  not  referring  to 
regional  alliances,  his  report  implied  some  discrete  criticism 
of  the  western  powers  Lie  also  defended  the  unanimity 
principle  and  expressed  the  view  that  it  would  be  advisable 
to  accept  all  the  14  countries  applying  for  membership  of 
the  U.N.  His  speech  at  Bergen,  Aug.  8,  was  misinterpreted 
by  Moscow  radio  as  an  attack  on  the  North  Atlantic  treaty. 
Two  days  later  he  pointed  out  at  Oslo  that  he  never  said  one 
word  either  for  or  against  this  treaty.  He  expressed,  however, 
the  opinion  that  regional  alliances  will  not  be  necessary 
because  "  we  shall  get  more  peaceful  times  very  soon." 
Lie  added  that  he  was  neither  the  servant  of  Wall  street, 
nor  an  agent  of  Moscow. 

LIECHTENSTEIN.  A  small  independent  principality 
between  Switzerland  and  Austria.  Area:  61-4  sq.  mi.  Pop. 
(Dec.  1948  est.):  13,000.  Language:  German.  Religion: 
Roman  Catholic.  Capital:  Vaduz  (pop.  r.  2,400).  Ruler, 
Prince-Regent  Franz-Joseph  II  (succeeded  his  great-uncle, 
Franz  I,  on  July  25,  1938);  prime  minister,  Alexander  Fnck 
(from  Sept.  2,  1945). 

History.  On  July  27  the  Security  council  agreed  by  nine 
votes  with  two  abstentions  to  grant  the  request  of  Liechten- 
stein— which  was  not  a  member  of  the  United  Nations — to 
become  a  party  to  the  statute  of  the  International  Court  of 
Justice. 

On  Sept.  12,  at  Lignieres,  Berri,  France,  Prince  Heinnch- 
Marie-Vincenz-Benedikt,  heir  to  the  throne  of  Liechtenstein, 
married  Archduchess  Elisabeth-Charlotte,  daughter  of  Charles 
of  Habsburg,  the  last  emperor  of  Austria-Hungary,  and  of 
the  Empress  Zita,  nee  of  Bourbon-Parma. 

Finance  and  Economy.  Budget  (1948,  actual):  revenue  Fr  3,798,000, 
expenditure  Fr  4,209,047;  (1949,  est)-  revenue  hr.4,266,200,  expendi- 
ture Fr  4,575,749  Included  since  1924  in  the  Swiss  customs  and 
monetary  union,  Liechtenstein  uses  Swiss  currency.  It  was  believed 
that  a  quarter  of  the  principality's  revenue  came  from  sales  of  postage 
stamps.  The  mam  industries  are  agriculture  (chief  products  being 
potatoes,  corn,  wine  and  vegetables)  and  textiles. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  Barbara  Greene,  Valley  of  Peace-  The  Story  of 
Liechtenstein  (Vaduz,  1948). 


LINEN  AND  FLAX.  The  traditional  linen  trade 
between  Northern  Ireland  and  the  United  States  received  a 
noticeable  impetus  in  the  last  quarter  of  1949  because  of  the 
devaluation  of  the  pound  sterling.  Up  to  September,  reports 
on  the  linen  business  were  pessimistic.  But,  by  the  end  of 
the  year,  exports  of  linens  from  Northern  Ireland  to  the 
United  States  totalled  11,868,000  sq.  yd.  valued  at  £2,280,126, 
an  increase  of  10%  over  1948.  Prospects  for  1950  were 
considered  bright  because  of  a  demand  for  linen  dress 
fabrics,  principally  those  with  new  crease-resistant  finishes. 
Prices  were  estimated  to  be  from  12%  to  15%  below  pre- 
devaluation  levels,  but  were  still  four  times  higher  than  the 
average  before  World  War  II. 

Raw  material  supplies  were  of  major  concern.  Central 
European  sources  were  no  longer  available  to  western 
European  weavers  and  flax-growing  was  being  encouraged 
in  western  Europe.  In  Belfast,  in  October,  the  government 
published  details  of  a  three-year  plan  for  subsidizing  flax 
growing.  Spinners  agreed  to  buy  a  minimum  of  4,000  tons 
of  dercttcd  flax  and  2,000  tons  of  rescutched  tow  during 
a  three-year  period;  the  rest  was  to  be  taken  by  the 
government. 

Progress  was  reported  in  establishing  the  value  of  the 
aeration  ret  in  flax  production;  and  a  modification  of 
the  preliminary  breaking  arrangement  in  the  scutching 
machine  which  produced  an  increased  yield  of  flax  was 
announced  A  reduction  of  temperature  and  humidity  in  the 
wet-spinning  rooms  was  also  accomplished;  high  tempera- 
tures and  excessive  humidity  had  previously  been  blamed 
for  poor  performance  by  individual  workers  and  difficulty 
in  securing  workers. 

Improvements  in  looms,  factory  surveys  in  winding  and 
weaving  and  improvements  in  the  weaveability  of  specific 
cloths  were  given  continued  study. 

A  previous  attempt,  reported  in  1948,  to  utilize  the 
shuttleless  loom,  had  been  followed  by  a  preference  for 
newer  types  of  shuttle-changing  and  bobbin-changing  fully 
automatic  looms  as  being  more  adaptable  to  flax.  The 
shuttle-changing  loom  was  used  for  light  fabrics  such  as 
sheers,  cambric  and  aero  fabrics.  The  bobbin-changing  loom 
was  widely  employed  for  medium  and  heavy  weight  fabrics, 
such  as  huck  towels.  Old  loom  buildings  were  remodelled, 
efforts  being  concentrated  on  widening  passages  to  facilitate 
greater  freedom  of  movement,  the  use  of  larger  warp  beams 
and  the  introduction  of  mechanized  equipment  for  trans- 
porting these  from  the  beam  storage  to  the  back  of  the  loom. 
Another  improvement  was  the  elimination  of  overhead 
motor  drive  which  resulted  in  better  lighting  conditions  and 
greater  freedom  of  movement.  It  was  also  discovered  in 
1949  that  previous  unsuccessful  attempts  to  introduce 
automatic  weaving  into  linen  factories  resulted  not  from 
any  fault  of  the  loom  mechanism  but  from  the  unsatisfactory 
condition  of  the  warps  produced  by  the  old  system  of 
preparation.  The  inelastic  nature  of  flax  yarns  called  for 
certain  modifications  in  construction  and  setting. 

Belgium,  one  of  the  chief  sources  of  flax,  showed,  in  its 
1949  exports  of  linen  and  flax,  the  trend  toward  substitution 
of  flax  yarn  for  linen  fabric.  Based  on  reports  for  eight  months 
of  the  year,  the  average  monthly  production  and  export  of 
flax  and  linen  for  1949,  in  metric  tons,  compared  with  the 
12-month  average  for  1948,  was  as  follows: 


1948 


1949 


Flax  tow 
Scutched  flax 
Flax  yarn     . 
Linen  fabric 


Production     Exports     Production   Exports 


620 
418 


1,011 

3,226 
215 
165 


3,951 
2,350 


10,878 
23,492 
2,457 
1,475 


In  France,  flax  production  was  running  well  ahead  of 


390 


LITERARY   PRIZES 


schedule,  and  was  expected  to  exceed  29,000  tons,  compared 
with  22,000  tons  in  1948. 

In  Canada  all  flax  production  was  suspended  in  1949 
except  m  Quebec  and  Ontario.  Only  7,500  ac.  were  planted 
in  1949,  compared  with  14,116  in  1948  and  an  average  of 
24,548  in  1943-47.  The  only  mill  spinning  flax  fibre  used 
tank-retted  flax  from  Belgium.  However,  even  imports  were 
drastically  lower  in  the  first  six  months  of  1949  than  in  the 
same  period  of  1948.  Belgium  and  the  United  States  supplied 
most  of  the  1,110  cwt.,  compared  with  8,526  cwt.  in  1948. 

The  political  and  military  situation  in  China  created 
confusion  in  the  United  States  linen  market  in  October;  and 
it  was  predicted  that  no  shipments  would  be  received  from 
either  central  or  south  china  until  the  situation  resolved 
itself.  The  Linen  Trade  association  of  New  York,  however, 
filed  a  protest  with  the  U.S.  secretary  of  state  over  the 
seizure  of  two  U.S.  'ships  by  the  Chinese  Nationalist  navy 
on  which  there  was  a  substantial  quantity  of  linens  bound 
for  the  U.S.  for  1949  Christmas  sales. 

Like  other  textile  groups,  linen  merchants  were  disturbed 
in  1949  at  the  rapid  advance  made  by  the  Japanese  in  re- 
entering  world  markets.  Japan  was  expected  to  be  shipping 
large  quantities  by  1950  of  low  count  cotton  fabrics  for 
table  use  that  would  seriously  compete  with  linen  cloths. 

(l.L  BL.) 

LITERARY  PRIZES.  NOBEL  PRIZE  FOR  LITERAIURE. 
In  Nov.  1949,  the  Swedish  Academy  of  Literature  announced 
that  the  literature  prize  for  1949  would  not  be  awarded  since 
none  of  the  candidates  considered  had  received  the  necessary 
absolute  majority  of  votes  from  the  adjudicating  committee. 
The  leading  candidates  were  Winston  Churchill,  Georges 
Duhamel,  the  French  novelist,  and  Benedetto  Croce,  the 
Italian  philosopher. 

Great  Britain.  The  JAMES  TAJT  BLACK  MEMORIAL  PRIZES 
were  awarded  in  1949  to  Graham  Greene  for  The  Heart  of 
the  Matter  (fiction  award)  and  to  Percy  Scholcs  for  The  Great 
Dr.  Burney  (biography).  These  prizes,  worth  about  £250 
each,  were  awarded  by  the  professor  of  English  literature  in 
the  University  of  Edinburgh.  Two  awards  were  made  from 
the  WILLIAM  HEINFMANN  FOUNDATION  FOR  LITERATURE, 
administered  by  the  Royal  Society  of  Literature  (value  up 
to  £200).  Both  were  for  poetry:  the  recipients  were  John 
Betjeman  for  his  Selected  Poetm  and  Frances  Cornford  for 
her  Travelling  Home.  The  CARNEGIE  MEDAL,  awarded  by  the 
Library  association  to  the  British  writer  of  an  outstanding 
book  for  boys  and  girls,  went  to  Richard  Armstrong  for 
Sea  Change.  The  ROSE  MARY  CRAWSHAY  PRIZE,  an  annual 
award  offered  by  the  British  Academy  for  a  critical  or 
historical  work  dealing  with  English  literature  by  a  woman  of 
any  nationality,  was  awarded  to  Rosamond  Tuve  for  an 
essay  on  Elizabethan  and  Metaphysical  Imagery.  The  JOHN 
LLEWELLYN  RHYS  MEMORIAL  PRIZE,  the  value  of  which  was 
raised  in  1948  to  £50,  was  awarded  to  Emma  Smith  for  her 
first  book  Maidens'  Trip.  The  TOM-GALLON  AWARD,  the 
object  of  which  was  to  free  writers  for  creative  work  by 
providing  an  income  for  two  years,  was  given  to  Olivia 
Manning  for  her  short  story,  "  The  Children,**  published  in 
her  volume  of  stories  entitled  Growing  Up.  The  ALEXANDER 
PRIZE,  administered  by  the  Royal  Historical  society,  was 
awarded  to  E.  Drus  for  an  essay  on  The  Attitude  of  the 
Colonial  Office  to  the  annexation  of  Fiji.  The  BLACKWELL 
ESSAY  PRIZE,  administered  by  the  University  of  Aberdeen, 
was  awarded  to  Alexander  J.  T.  Brown.  The  FELICIA  HEMANS 
PRIZE  FOR  LYRICAL  POETRY,  administered  by  the  University 
of  Liverpool,  was  awarded  to  W.  S  Kyle. 

In  1946  the  Rockefeller  foundation  in  New  York  made  a 
grant  of  50,000  dollars  for  ATLANTIC  AWARDS  IN  LITERATURE, 
to  be  given  to  young  British  writers  of  promise  whose  careers 


had  been  interrupted  by  the  war.  Grants  were  awarded  by  a 
committee  under  the  chairmanship  of  Professor  Allardyce 
Nicoll;  the  aim  was  to  enable  the  recipients  of  awards  to 
maintain  themselves  for  about  a  year  and  to  devote  the  whole 
of  that  time  to  writing.  In  1949  awards  were  made  to  Norah 
Kelsall  Cruickshank,  Joseph  Jacobs,  David  Paul,  John 
Singer  and  Peter  Norman  Ross  Yates.  These  would  probably 
be  the  last  awards  to  be  made  since  the  fund  was  now 
exhausted.  The  committee  stated  in  June  that  they  had 
received  some  600  applications  for  awards,  examined  hund- 
reds of  scripts  and  had  made  47  awards  for  poetry,  drama, 
fiction  and  criticism.  They  said:  "We  feel  it  our  duty  to 
declare  publicly  our  belief  in  the  need  and  usefulness  of  such 
help  as  the  Rockefeller  foundation  has  provided,  and  we  are 
certain  that  unless  something  takes  the  place  of  Atlantic 
awards,  or  the  fund  is  sustained  by  further  substantial  gifts, 
there  will  be  a  serious  gap  left  unfilled." 

The  SOMERSET  MAUGHAM  AWARD,  administered  by  the 
Authors'  society  out  of  a  fund  placed  at  their  disposal  by 
Somerset  Maugham  m  1947,  provided  an  annual  award  of 
about  £250  to  be  used  for  foreign  travel  and  was  open  to 
British  entrants  under  the  age  of  30.  In  1949  the  award  went 
to  Hamish  Henderson  for  his  book  of  verse,  Elegies;  for  the 
Dead  in  Cyrenaica.  The  SUNDAY  TIMES  BOOK  PRIZE,  first 
awarded  in  1947  and  worth  £1,000,  was  presented  in  1949  to 
Winston  Churchill  for  his  war  memoirs.  In  addition  two 
special  subsidiary  prizes,  each  consisting  of  a  gold  medal  and 
the  sum  of  £100,  were  awarded  to  F.  Spencer  Chapman  for 
The  Jungle  is  Neutral  and  to  Alan  Paton  for  Cry.  the  Beloved 
Country.  The  WILLIAM  FOYLE  POETRY  PRIZE  was  founded 
by  the  well  known  London  bookseller  in  1949  and  the  first 
award,  the  sum  of  £250,  went  to  Edwin  Muir  for  his  volume 
The  Labyrinth.  (E.  SE.) 

France.  GONCOURT  PRIZE  to  Robert  Merle  for  Week-end 
a  Zuydcoote.  THEOPHRASTE  RENAUDO'I  prize  to  Louis 
Guilloux  for  Jeu  de  patience.  FEMINA  PRIZE  to  Maria  Le 
Hardouin  for  La  Dame  de  Coeur.  INTERALLIE  PRIZE  to 
Gilbert  Sigaux  for  Les  Chtens  enrages.  DENYSE  CLAIROUIN 
PRIZE  to  Dominique  Aury  for  the  translation  of  Evelyn 
Waugh's  The  Loved  One  and  James  Hogg's  Confessions  of  a 
Justified  Sinner.  SAINTE-BEUVE  PRIZE:  (novel)  to  Lise  Deharme 
for  La  Porte  d'a  cote;  (essay)  to  Claude  Mauriac  for  his  book 
on  the  surrealist  leader,  Andre  Breton.  SYNDICAT  des 
CRITIQUES  LITTERAIRES  PRIZE  to  Antoine  Adam  for  his 
Histoire  de  la  Litterature  francaise  au  XVHe  siecle.  (M.  Jo.) 

United  States.  ABINGDON-COKESBURY  AWARD,  $7,500  to 
Roland  H.  Bainton  for  Here  I  Stand,  a  biography  of  Martin 
Luther.  AMERICAN  ACADEMY  OF  ARTS  AND  LETTERS  AWARD 
OF  MERIT  MEDAL,  medal  and  cash  prize  cf  $1,000  to  Thomas 
Mann.  AMERICAN  HISTORICAL  ASSOCIATION  AWARDS: 
JOHN  H.  DUNNING  PRIZE,  about  $100  awarded  every  two 
years  for  the  best  work  on  any  subject  relating  to  U.S. 
history,  to  William  E.  Livezey  for  Mahan  on  Seapower. 
ANISFIELD-WOLF  AWARDS,  $1,000  each  for  the  best  books  on 
race  relations,  to  Alan  Paton  for  Cry,  the  Beloved  Country 
and  to  J.  C.  Furnas  for  Anatomy  of  Paradise.  AUTHOR  MEETS 
THE  CRITICS  PRIZES,  honorary  awards  for  the  best  novel  of 
the  year  and  the  best  non-fiction  work  of  the  year,  chosen 
by  a  majority  vote  of  the  working  critics  and  reviewers  of 
the  U.S.,  to  Tom  Lea  for  The  Brave  Bulls  and  to  Robert 
Frost  for  his  Complete  Poems.  BANCROFT  PRIZES,  "for  dis- 
tinguished writings  in  American  history,"  $2,000  each  to 
Robert  E.  Sherwood  for  Roosevelt  and  Hopkins  and  to 
Samuel  Eliot  Morison  for  Rising  Sun  in  the  Pacific.  BOLLINGEN 
PRIZE,  $1,000  for  the  best  book  of  verse  by  a  U.S.  author 
published  in  1948,  to  Ezra  Pound  for  The  Pisan  Cantos. 
HARPER  PRIZE  NOVEL,  $10,000  awarded  biennially  for  a  work 
of  outstanding  merit  in  fiction,  to  Max  Steele  for  Debby. 
O.  HENRY  MEMORIAL  AWARD  PRIZE  STORIES,  $300  first  prize 


LITERARY   RESEARCH— LITHUANIA 


391 


to  William  Faulkner  for  "  A  Courtship  ";  $200  second  prize 
to  Mark  Van  Doren  for  "  The  Watchman";  $100  third 
prize  to  Ward  Dorrance  for  '*  The  White  Hound/'  NEW 
YORK  DRAMA  CRITICS'  CIRCLE  AWARD,  given  for  the  best 
play  produced  in  New  York  city,  to  Arthur  Miller  for 
Death  of  a  Salesman;  for  the  best  foreign  play,  to  The 
Madwoman  of  Chaillot,  by  Jean  Giraudoux;  for  the  best 
musical,  to  Richard  Rodgers  and  Oscar  Hammerstein  II  for 
South  Pacific.  PARTISAN  REVIEW  AWARD,  $1,000  for  "a 
significant  contribution  to  literature/'  to  George  Orwell, 
author  of  Animal  Farm,  Nineteen  Eighty-Four  and  other 
works.  SHELLEY  MEMORIAL  AWARD,  awarded  by  the  Poetry 
Society  of  America  for  outstanding  poetry,  to  Louis  Kent. 
WENDELL  WILLKIE  MEMORIAL  AWARD,  for  "  the  best  book 
on  international  relations,"  to  John  King  Fairbank  for 
The  United  States  and  China.  CHILD  STUDY  AWARD,  honor- 
ary award  of  the  Child  Study  Association  of  America  "  for 
a  book  for  young  people  which  faces  real  problems  in  their 
world  "  to  Pearl  S.  Buck  for  The  Big  Wave. 

Canada.  GOVERNOR  GENERAL'S  AWARDS:  silver  medals 
awarded  to  Hugh  MacLennan  for  The  Precipice  (fiction); 
to  A.  M.  Klein  for  The  Rocking  Chair  and  Other  Poems 
(poetry);  to  Colonel  C.  P.  Stacey  for  The  Canadian  Army 
1939-45  (academic  non-fiction);  to  Thomas  Raddall  for 
Halifax,  Warden  of  the  North  (creative  non-fiction).  LORNE 
PIERCE  MEDAL,  awarded  by  the  Royal  Society  of  Canada  for 
achievement  of  special  significance  and  conspicuous  merit 
in  imaginative  or  critical  literature,  to  John  Murray  Gibbon. 
LEACOCK  MEMORIAL  MEDAL  FOR  HUMOUR,  to  Angeline 
Hango  for  Truthfully  Yours.  TYRRELL  MEDAL,  awarded 
by  the  Royal  Society  of  Canada  for  research  in  Canadian 
history,  to  Reginald  G.  Trotter.  (R.  E.  Bs.) 

LITERARY  RESEARCH.  The  most  valuable  as- 
pects of  research  in  1949  were  chiefly  concerned  not  with 
literary  criticism  but  with  its  historical  and  biographical 
background  and  with  the  acquisition  of  materials  for  future 
investigation. 

For  the  mediaeval  period  T.  D.  Hendrick's  Later  Saxon  and 
Viking  Art  (London)  threw  new  light  on,  inter  alia,  the 
illumination  of  manuscripts.  Documents  from  the  12th  to 
the  15th  century  were  included  in  the  collection  of  papers 
and  records  acquired  by  the  library  of  St.  Paul's  cathedral. 
It  was,  however,  in  Tudor  manuscripts  that  this  collection 
was  specially  rich,  containing  a  bound  folio  of  letters  from 
the  Privy  Council  and  Archbishop  Whitgift  concerning 
defence  against  the  Armada  and  other  manuscripts  relating 
to  Elizabethan  ecclesiastical  administration. 

An  abortive  design  in  the  theatrical  field  for  one  immense 
amphitheatre  in  London  for  dramatic  and  other  entertain- 
ments was  described  more  fully  than  hitherto  by  Leslie 
Hotson  in  Shakespeare  Survey  2  (Cambridge);  it  was  licensed 
by  James  I  and  Charles  1,  but  did  not  pass  the  Great  Seal. 
F.  N.  L.  Paynter's  selection  from  The  Writings  of  William 
Clowes  (London),  an  Elizabethan  surgeon,  contained  first- 
hand testimony  to  the  sovereign's  easing  of  "  the  king's 
evil,"  dcscubed  by  Shakespeare  in  Macbeth, 

Elaborate  editions  were  published  of  the  Cambridge 
Parnassus  trilogy,  by  J.  B.  Leishman;  of  Samuel  Daniel's 
Tragedy  of  Phihtas,  by  Laurence  Michel  (New  Haven, 
Connecticut),  and  of  Peter  Hausted's  Senile  Odium,  by 
L.  J.  Mills  (Bloomington,  Indiana).  F.  S.  Boas  edited  from 
the  manuscript  prompt  copy,  with  Sir  Henry  Herbert's 
licence,  for  the  Royal  Society  of  Literature,  the  hitherto 
supposed  lost  Restoration  play,  The  Change  of  Crownes  by 
Edward  Howard,  which  was  banned  by  Charles  II. 

For  the  18th  century  Norman  Ault  in  New  Light  on  Pope 
(London)  corrected  and  amplified  details  in  the  poet's 
biography  and  printed  some  of  his  poems,  hitherto  unpub- 


lished. A.  L.  Reade  (The  Times  Literary  Supplement,  London, 
June  17)  quoted  from  15  newly  discovered  letters  from  Sir 
William  Boothby,  a  book-collecting  baronet,  to  Michael 
Johnson,  Samuel's  father,  ordering  books  or  binding  (Oct.  14, 
1684 — Aug.  11,  1685)  and  proving  that  Michael  had  opened 
the  Uttoxeter  branch  of  his  Lichtleld  bookshop  by  the 
beginning  of  1685.  An  article  in  The  Times  Literary  Supple- 
ment (Aug.  12)  on  The  Boswell  Papers,  bought  by  Yale 
university  from  Ralph  Isham,  analysed  the  different  categories 
into  which  they  fall  and  announced  that  the  more  than  4,000 
items  would  be  published  in  40  or  50  volumes. 

The  most  important  contribution  to  the  personal  story  of 
the  poets  of  the  Romantic  movement  was  Contessa  Iris 
Ongo's  The  Last  Attachment  (London),  throwing  new  light 
on  the  relations  between  Byron  ancj  Teresa  Guiccioli  from 
unpublished  letters  of  Teresa.  H.  W.  Hausermann  sent  to 
Notes  and  Queries  (Jan.  22  and  Febj  5)  an  "  Unpublished 
Letter  from  Shelley  to  Medwin  and  Alfred  Tennyson " 
by  his  grandson  Sir  Charles  Tennyson-  -a  remarkable  study 
of  the  singular  personality  of  the  poet's  father,  which  helped 
to  account  for  Alfred's  sensitiveness. 

Theatre  Note-Book,  vol.  3  (London),  contained  a  number 
of  valuable  research  articles,  as  well  as  a  list  of  "  works  in 
progress  "  in  the  theatrical  field.  A  similar  list  of  a  general 
kind  was  published  by  the  Modern  Humanities  Research 
association.  Notes  and  Queries  completed  its  centenary  on 
Nov.  3,  1949.  The  Dictionary  of  National  Biography  pub- 
lished its  supplementary  volume  for  1931-40.  (F.  S.  B.) 

LITERATURE:  sec  AMERICAN  LITERATURE;  AUSTRAL- 
IAN LITERATURE;  BOOK  COLLECTING  AND  BOOK  SALES; 
BOOK  PUBLISHING;  CANADIAN  LITERATURE;  CHILDREN'S 
BOOKS;  CLASSICAL  STUDIES;  CZECH  LITERATURE;  DUTCH 
LITERATURE;  ENGLISH  LITERATURE;  FRENCH  LITERATURE; 
GERMAN  LITERATURE;  ITALIAN  LITERATURE;  LITERARY 
PRIZES;  LITERARY  RESEARCH;  NEWSPAPERS  AND  MAGAZINES; 
NEW  ZEALAND  LITERATURE;  POLISH  LITERATURE;  RUSSIAN 
LITERATURE;  SCANDINAVIAN  LITERATURE;  SOUTH  AFRICAN 
LITERATURE;  SPANISH- AMERICAN  LITERATURE;  SPANISH 
LITERATURE;  WORDS  AND  MEANINGS,  NEW. 

LITHUANIA.  From  Feb.  16,  1918,  to  Aug.  3,  1940, 
when  it  was  annexed  by  the  U.S.S.R.,  Lithuania  was  an 
independent  republic.  The  British,  U.S.  and  many  other 
governments,  however,  had  not  granted  de  jure  recognition 
to  this  annexation.  For  over  two  decades  Lithuania  was 
bounded  by  Latvia,  Poland  and  Germany;  in  1945  the 
U.S.S  R.  became  its  eastern  and  western  neighbour  through 
the  Russian  enclave  of  Konigsberg  (later  Kaliningrad). 
Area:  (before  March  21,  1939,  including  Klaipeda  [Memel]) 
21,330  sq.  mi.;  (after  Oct.  10,  1939,  excluding  Klaipeda  but 
including  Wilno  [Vilnius])  24,092  sq.  mi.;  (from  1945, 
including  both  Klaipeda  and  Vilnius)  25, 173  sq.  mi.  Pop.: 
(Jan.  1939  est.)  2,575,000;  (Jan.  1940  est.)  2,879,000;  (Jan. 
1946  est.)  2,353,000.  If  there  had  been  no  movement  of 
population  the  last  figures  should  have  been  3,032,000.  The 
reduction  is  explained  by  the  evacuation  of  34,000  Germans 
from  Lithuania  proper  in  1939-40  and  of  59,000  Germans 
from  Klaipeda  territory  in  1945,  by  the  first  Soviet  deportation 
in  1940-41  of  35,000  people,  the  murder  of  some  208,000  Jews 
by  the  Germans,  the  fact  that  about  80,000  Lithuanians  fled 
to  Germany  when  the  Soviet  armies  returned,  by  a  second 
wave  of  Soviet  deportations  in  1944-45  (about  85,000)  and 
by  the  evacuation  to  Poland  of  about  178,000  Poles.  Chief 
towns  (Jan.  1940  est.):  Vilnius  (cap.,  pop.,  209,400);  Kaunas 
(154,100);  Klaipeda  (38,900).  Chairman  of  the  presidium  of 
the  Supreme  Soviet  of  the  Lithuanian  S.S.R.,  Justas  I. 
Paleckis;  chairman  of  the  Council  of  Ministers,  Meci- 
slovas  A.  Gedvilas. 


392 


LI   TSUNG-J EN— LIVESTOCK 


History.  As  in  the  two  other  Baltic  republics  1949  saw  a 
new  wave  of  mass  deportations,  the  ruthless  enforcement  of 
collectivization  and  the  final  liquidation  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  hierarchy.  During  the  last  four  months  of  1948  and 
the  first  half  of  1949  a  mass  deportation  was  carried  out  as 
part  of  a  general  plan  extended  also  to  Estonia  and  Latvia 
(qq.v.)  According  to  a  memorandum  submitted  on  Nov.  2, 
1949,  to  the  United  Nations  by  Povilas  Zadeikis,  on  behalf 
of  the  Lithuanian  Liberation  committee,  about  120,000 
Lithuanians  were  deported  to  the  interior  of  the  U.S.S.R.  In 
August  Lieutenant  General  Nikolay  D.  Gorhnsky,  Lithuanian 
minister  of  state  security,  and  Major  General  Juozas  M. 
BartaSunas,  minister  of  home  affairs,  were  awarded  orders  of 
Patriotic  War  (1st  class)  and  of  the  Red  Banner  respectively 
"  for  the  successful  execution  of  a  special  assignment  of  the 
government  of  the  U  S.S  R." 

At  the  6th  congress  of  the  Lithuanian  Communist  party  in 
Feb.  1949,  A.  U.  Sne£kus,  secretary  general,  reported  that  the 
membership  was  about  24,000 — a  low  figure  which,  however, 
was  presented  as  a  fivefold  increase  since  1945.  Sne£kus  called 
on  the  party  to  wage  a  ruthless  struggle  against  the  kulaks  (the 
richer  peasants),  the  nationalists  and  the  Roman  Catholic 
clergy.  Out  of  71  members  of  the  new  Central  committee  33 
had  Russian  names;  out  of  five  elected  secretaries  three  were 
Russians  (A.  S.  Trofimov,  E.  I.  Ozarsky  and  D.  E.  Shupikov). 

Collectivization  made  great  progress  during  the  year.  At 
the  end  of  1947  there  had  been  only  20  kolkhozes  (collective 
farms)  in  Lithuania:  in  a  letter  from  Lithuanian  women 
published  in  Izvestia  on  July  6,  1 949,  the  number  of  kolkhozes 
was  given  as  more  than  4,000.  On  Nov.  3,  M.  A.  Gedvilas 
reported  in  the  same  paper  that  there  were  5,454  kolkhozes. 

According  to  a  broadcast  from  the  Vatican  on  July  6, 
Mgr.  Kazys  Poltorakas,  bishop  of  Panevezys  and  suffragan 
of  Kaunas,  was  ordered  to  suspend  his  activities;  his  where- 
abouts was  not  known.  He  was  the  last  Roman  Catholic 
bishop  tolerated  by  the  Communist  authorities.  Mgr.  V. 
BoriSevicius,  bishop  of  Telsiai,  and  Mgr.  S.  Reims,  vicar 
general  of  Vilnius,  were  arrested.  Of  over  1,300  clergy  left 
free  until  1948,  about  a  half  were  deported  during  1949. 

Education.  In  1949  there  were  2,777  elementary,  660  technical  and 
170  secondary  schools  with  a  total  of  425,000  pupils.  Students  enrolled 
at  the  two  universities  of  Vilnius  and  Kaunas  numbered  about  5,000 
In  1938,  without  the  Vilnius  area,  there  were  2,601  elementary  schools 
with  307,173  pupils,  and  273  secondary  and  technical  schools  with 
31,647  pupils 

BiBLKXiRAPHY  Lithuanian  Bulletin,  published  by  the  Lithuanian 
American  council,  New  York,  Newsletter  from  Behind  the  Iron  Curtain, 
compiled  by  the  Baltic  Review,  Stockholm  (K.  SM.) 

LI  TSUNG-JEN,  Chinese  army  officer  and  politician 
(b.  Kweilin,  Kwangsi,  1890).  In  1928,  as  commander  of  the 
4th  army  group,  he  completed  the  northern  expedition 
against  rebellious  commanders  and,  at  least  theoretically, 
brought  all  China  under  Nanking  control.  Li  was  then 
appointed  a  state  councillor  in  the  national  government. 
In  1929,  however,  he  staged  a  revolt  in  Hankow,  setting  up  a 
virtually  independent  regime  in  southwest  China.  In  1932 
he  was  officially  pardoned  and  appointed  to  the  Kuomintang 
central  supervisory  committee.  After  the  outbreak  of  war 
between  China  and  Japan  in  1937,  Chiang  Kai-shek  sent  Li 
with  his  army  to  the  northern  front,  where  it  performed 
outstandingly.  On  April  19,  1948,  Li  was  elected  acting 
president  of  C'hina.  On  Jan.  21,  1949,  Chiang  "  retired  " 
as  president  of  Nationalist  China,  and  Li  became  his 
successor.  Presumably  Chiang  retired  so  that  Li  and  others 
in  the  Nationalist  government  could  attempt  to  effect  peace 
with  the  Chinese  Communists.  Three  months  of  peace 
talks,  however,  were  ineffectual.  On  Dec.  7  Li  arrived  by 
air  in  New  York  for  medical  treatment  but  pledged  himself 
to  return  to  China  to  continue  the  fight  against  what  he 
called  "  Communist  forces  of  aggression." 


LIVESTOCK.  During  1949  the  changes  in  the  live- 
stock industry  caused  by  World  War  II  either  in  its  different 
phases  of  development  or  of  recovery  from  wartime  dis- 
turbances became  more  clearly  revealed,  especially  in  countries 
with  dense  populations  of  farm  livestock. 

For  example,  the  problems  of  marginal  lands  became  more 
prominent,  although  such  lands  were  usually  defined  by 
reference  to  herbage  associations  and  cropping  systems 
rather  than  as  regions  in  which  different  forms  of  livestock 
production  intermingled.  In  so  far  as  the  highest  common 
factor  in  marginal  lands,  whatever  their  geographical  context, 
was  their  production  of  store  animals  for  subsequent  use  in 
other  areas,  their  mam  economic  difficulties  were  similar, 
and  could  only  be  overcome  through  resuscitated  markets 
for  their  products  instead  of  through  temporarily  alleviation 
by  subsidy  schemes. 

Thus,  in  1949,  while  subsidies  were  continued  in  many 
countries,  there  was  a  marked  tendency  to  encourage  expan- 
sion and  intensification  of  livestock  output  in  the  more 
productive  areas,  thereby  stimulating  production  of  store  and 
breeding  stock  in  the  fringing  marginal  areas.  The  continued 
increase  in  numbers  of  sheep  in  New  Zealand  and  of  their 
associated  dairy  cattle  provided  an  instance  of  this  trend, 
although  an  enlarged  use  of  fertilizers  and  sown  pastures 
has  undoubtedly  enhanced  this  development  in  the  1940s. 
Similarly  in  Great  Britain  there  was  some  revival  of  the  low- 
land sheep  industry  in  the  form  of  grassland  flocks  grazing 
leys,  often  run  with  dairy  herds;  this  led  to  an  increased 
demand  for  suitable  grassland  types  which  in  turn  helped 
the  market  for  stock  bred  and  reared  in  the  upland  regions 
and  improved  the  prospects  of  farmers  that  practised  extensive 
pastoral  stock  husbandry  in  the  mountain  and  hill  grazing 
areas  There  was  also  a  notable  revival  of  the  rearing  of 
beef  stores  in  these  areas;  this  was  encouraged  by  the  calf 
subsidy  but  was  also  partly  attributable  to  the  extension  of 
the  scheme  that  provided  for  the  free  artificial  insemination 
of  inferior  milch  cows  by  semen  from  bulls  of  beef  breeds 
which  colour  marked  their  offspring.  Bullocks  of  the  larger 
framed  dairy  breeds  were  being  kept  to  a  greater  extent  for 
finishing  for  slaughter  to  augment  British  home  grown  beef 
supplies;  and  in  Northern  Ireland  and  Eire  official  policy 
stressed  the  importance  of  dual  purpose  cattle  stocks. 

Artificial  insemination  became  an  established  husbandry 
technique  especially  for  the  breeding  of  dairy  cattle  Signifi- 
cant fractions  of  the  milch  cow  populations  of  Denmark, 
the  United  States,  England  and  Wales  and  New  Zealand  were 
artificially  inseminated  as  a  means  towards  improved  poten- 
tials of  production  and  for  combating  infertility;  and  in 
many  other  countries  the  method  was  used  m  measures  of 
disease  control. 

The  continued  restriction  in  importations  of  feeding  stuffs 
and  concentrates  further  stimulated  attempts  to  use  home- 
grown fodders  and  grassland  more  efficiently  and  to  reduce 
wastage.  In  this  connection  there  was  some  increase  in  the 
pig  and  poultry  populations  generally,  although  such  increases 
tended  to  occur  through  the  integration  of  highly  productive 
enterprises  on  each  holding  rather  than  through  the  renewed 
development  of  specialized  farming  units.  On  the  whole,  the 
postwar  pattern  of  efficient  livestock  husbandry  did  not 
repeat  the  older  mixed  farming  aggregations  of  what  had  been 
usually  relatively  inefficient  stock  units. 

Probably  the  most  important  local  contributions  to  the 
livestock  industry  were  made  in  Australia  in  connection  with 
the  development  of  new  stock-raising  areas  in  South  and 
Western  Australia  following  upon  the  correction  of  soil 
deficiencies,  of  large  scale  cropping  of  sorghum  and  pig 
keeping  m  Queensland  and  of  irrigation  and  improved 
transport  facilities  in  the  northern  beef  cattle  areas  of  that 
continent.  (J.  E.  N.) 


LLOYD— LOCAL   GOVERNMENT 


393 


United  States.  Livestock  on  U.S.  farms  in  1949  began  once 
more  to  increase  in  numbers,  with  the  exception  of  horses, 
mules  and  possibly  sheep.  The  number  of  stock  sheep  on 
farms  on  Jan.  1,  1949,  was  the  lowest  on  record,  apparently 
because  of  the  competition  with  more  profitable  cattle  produc- 
tion and  the  high  cost  and  scarcity  of  labour.  The  number 
of  beef  cattle  began  to  increase  despite  the  fact  that  markets 
were  bidding  strongly  for  high-grade  slaughter  cattle.  Dairy 
herds,  becauss  of  the  easy  feed  situation,  were  fed  more 
heavily  and  less  carefully  culled.  The  large  1948  corn  crop 
caused  more  brood  sows  to  be  kept.  More  chickens  and 
turkeys  were  produced  because  the  demand  for  eggs  and 
poultry  continued  to  be  fairly  favourable  and  the  feeding 
situation  improved.  Horses  and  mules  continued  to  decline 
owing  to  mechanical  replacement. 

Stimulated  by  the  record  corn  crop  of  1948  and  the  very 
large  one  of  1949,  the  pig  crops  of  1949  were  larger,  with  the 
promise  of  a  still  larger  one  in  early  1950.  The  spring  crop 
of  1949  was  59,039,000  head,  compared  with  51,266,000  head 
a  year  earlier,  and  a  preliminary  estimate  of  62,500,000  head 
for  the  spring  of  1950.  The  autumn  crop  of  1949  was  estimated 
at  37,262,000  head,  compared  with  33,921,000  head  a  year 
earlier.  Thus  the  total  for  1949  was  96,301,000  head,  against 
85, 187,000  head  in  1948. 

LIVFSTOCK  ON  LJ  S    FARMS,  JAN    1,  1949,  1948,  AND  IO-^FAR  AVIRAGF, 

1938-47  (thousand  of  head) 

1949  1948  10-year  average 

Horses                          .                        5,921  6,589  9,495 

Mules       .                               .              2,353  2,541  3,620 

Cattle  (including  calves)      .            78,495  78,126  76,312 

Milk  cows                               .            24,450  25,039  26,118 

Sheep                                                  31,963  34,827  49,736 

Pigs                     .                                 57,139  55,028  60,584 

Chickens            .          .                    448,838  461,550  479,166 

Turkeys             .                                5,493  4,450  7,221 

World.  World  horse  numbers  in  1949  were  estimated  at 
76  million  head,  a  slight  increase  compared  with  1948,  but 
21  %  below  prewar  numbers.  Increases  were  mostly  in 
countries  recovering  from  extensive  war  damage. 

World  cattle  numbers  at  the  beginning  of  1949  were 
estimated  at  761  million  head,  a  record,  and  about  10  million 
more  than  a  year  earlier,  and  4%  above  the  prewar  estimate. 
Significant  increases  occurred  in  all  continents  except  North 
America  and  Africa.  Practically  all  European  countries 
increased;  numbers  in  Argentina  declined. 

World  sheep  numbers,  estimated  at  720  million  head  early 
in  1949,  increased  for  the  second  consecutive  year,  but  were 
nevertheless  20  million  head,  or  3%,  below  the  prewar 
average.  Both  improved  grazing  conditions  and  higher  prices 
encouraged  the  expansion.  The  decreases  in  the  U.S.,  Argen- 
tina, and  China  were  more  than  offset  by  increases  in  Europe, 
Australia,  and  the  U.S.S.R. 

World  pig  production  expanded  in  1948,  resulting  in  some 
261  million  head  at  the  beginning  of  1949,  or  6%  more  than 
a  year  earlier.  Further  expansion  was  indicated  for  the  1949 
crop.  Significant  increases  occurred  in  all  continents,  with 
the  devastated  areas  of  Europe  and  the  U.S.S.R.  showing 
the  major  increases.  (See  also  POULTRY;  VETERINARY 
MEDICINE.)  (J.  K.  R.) 

LLOYD,  HILDA  NORA,  British  gynaecologist 
(b.  Aug.  11,  1891),  was  educated  at  King  Edward's  high  school 
for  girls,  Birmingham,  and  the  University  of  Birmingham, 
where  she  obtained  the  degrees  of  bachelor  of  science,  medi- 
cine and  surgery.  She  became  senior  surgeon  at  the  women's 
hospital  and  the  maternity  hospital,  Birmingham,  and  pro- 
fessor of  obstetrics  and  gynaecology  at  Queen  Elizabeth 
hospital  and  the  University  of  Birmingham.  On  Nov.  3, 
1949,  she  made  medical  history,  when,  in  the  presence  of 
the  Queen,  she  was  installed  as  the  president  of  the  Royal 


College  of  Obstetricians  and  Gynecologists — the  first  woman 
to  hold  the  office  of  president  of  any  British  medical  college. 
She  succeeded  in  office  Sir  William  Gilliatt  who,  a  few 
minutes  before  handing  over  to  Professor  Lloyd,  admitted 
the  Queen  as  an  honorary  fellow  of  the  college. 

LOCAL     GOVERNMENT.      Great     Britain.      An 

outstanding  event  of  the  year  1949  was  the  se'tmg  up  in 
January,  under  the  authority  of  the  prime  minuter,  of  the 
Local  Government  Manpower  committee  composed  of 
representatives  of  government  departments  and  local  authori- 
ties with  terms  of  reference: 

4t  To  review  and  co-ordinate  the  existing  arrangements  for 
ensuring  economy  in  the  use  of  manpower  by  local  authorities 
and  by  those  government  departments  which  are  concerned 
with  local  government  matters;  and  to  examine  in  particular 
the  distribution  of  functions  between  central  and  local 
government  and  the  possibility  of  relaxing  departmental 
supervision  of  local  authority  activities  and  delegating  more 
responsibility  to  local  authorities." 

This  committee  originated  from  the  request  made  by  the 
government  to  local  authorities  in  1947  that  the  local  authori- 
ties should  economize  in  manpower.  The  local  authorities 
had  thereupon  made  representations  to  the  government  that 
economy  in  manpower  was  not  possible  while  government 
departments  continued  to  concern  themselves  with  the 
details  of  local  government  administration  and  that  reduction 
in  manpower  could  be  carried  out  only  if  departmental 
controls  over  local  authorities  were  diminished.  The  work 
of  the  committee  was  subdivided  by  the  appointment  of  a 
number  of  sub-committees  and  panels,  each  concerned  with 
particular  local  government  services. 

The  first  general  local  government  elections  to  be  held 
under  the  Representation  of  the  People  act,  1948,  (which 
effected  certain  amendments  in  the  law  of  elections)  took 
place  during  April  and  May.  The  alteration  in  the  law  and 
procedure  and,  in  some  cases,  in  the  areas  of  constituencies 
made  it  difficult  both  to  foretell  the  results  of  the  elections 
or  to  compare  them  with  those  of  previous  elections. 
Politically  there  was  a  swing  towards  the  right;  some  former 
socialist  councils  lost  their  majorities  and  in  many  cases  the 
socialist  majority  was  substantially  reduced.  The  election 
for  the  London  County  council  produced  the  extraordinary 
result  that  Conservatives  and  Socialists  obtained  equal 
numbers  of  seats  on  the  council  (64  each)  with  one  Liberal  in 
addition.  The  fact  that  a  number  of  the  aldermen  remaining 
in  office  were  Socialists  was  sufficient  to  ensure  the  election 
of  a  socialist  chairman.  In  the  election  of  the  new  aldermen 
(for  which  only  councillors  may  vote)  the  chairman  of  the 
council  took  the  unusual  step  of  voting.  Five  out  of  1 1  of 
the  aldermamc  vacancies  were  secured  for  the  Conservatives 
and  the  remaining  6  for  the  Socialists.  In  the  result  the 
council  remained  socialist  by  a  majority  of  78  to  70  (aldermen 
and  councillors  together  but  excluding  the  chairman). 

The  local  government  world  received  with  surprise  the 
announcement  by  the  minister  of  health  (Aneunn  Bevan) 
in  the  House  of  Commons  on  June  27  that  the  Local  Govern- 
ment Boundary  commission  was  to  be  disbanded.  The  com- 
mission had,  in  their  report  for  1948,  pointed  out  the  difficulty 
of  reviewing  areas  of  local  government  without  a  correspon- 
ding review  of  the  functions  of  local  authorities.  Bevan 
alluded  to  this  difficulty  and  said  that  the  government  had 
come  to  the  conclusion  that  it  would  be  advisable  to  repeal 
the  Local  Government  (Boundary  Commission)  act  of  1945 
from  which  the  commission  derived  their  powers;  this  would 
involve  the  winding  up  of  the  commission  and  would  put  the 
position  back  to  what  it  had  been  before  the  act  was  passed 
until  such  time  as  the  government  had  had  an  opportunity 
of  reviewing  the  structure  and  functions  of  local  government. 


394 


LOCAL  GOVERNMENT 


Fire  floats  throwing  jets  of  water  on  the  Thames  in  front  of  County  hall,  Westminster,  in  July  1949 1  as  part  of  the  celebrations  to  mark  the 

50th  anniversary  of  the  London  County  council. 

The  Civil  Defence  act,  passed  in  Dec.  1948,  empowered  manent  re-development  of  the  south  bank  area.  The  erection 
ministers  of  state,  designated  by  Order  in  Council,  to  impose  of  the  new  embankment  was  so  designed  as  to  recover  some 
civil  defence  duties  on  local  authorities  (other  than  parish  4^  ac.  of  land  from  the  river.  As  part  of  the  scheme  both  for 
councils)  by  means  of  regulations.  The  home  secretary  and  the  exhibition  and  for  permanent  use,  the  erection  of  a  new 
the  minister  of  health,  having  been  designated  under  the  concert  hall  was  commenced,  the  foundation  stone  of  which 
act,  held  discussions  with  local  authorities  and  their  repre-  was  laid  by  the  prime  minister,  C.  R.  Attlee,  on  Oct.  12,  1949. 
sentative  associations  on  the  drafting  of  regulations  to  be  The  London  County  council  indicated  that  it  was  their  in- 
made  and  on  the  future  form  of  the  civil  defence  service,  tention  to  use  the  hall  for  programmes,  whether  of  music, 
On  Aug.  10,  1949,  the  Civil  Defence  (General)  regulation,  ballet  or  drama,  of  a  high  artistic  order,  promoted  by  the 
1949,  came  into  effect  and  conferred  on  local  authorities  the  council  itself  and  by  commercial  and  other  interests  under 
administrative  powers  necessary  to  carry  out  the  civil  defence  lettings  from  the  council.  The  council  also  decided  to  co- 
functions  subsequently  to  be  assigned  to  them  under  further  operate  in  the  formation  of  a  company  for  carrying  out  in 
regulations.  On  the  same  date  the  Civil  Defence  Corps  Battersea  park  activities  connected  with  the  festival, 
regulations  authorized  the  local  authorities  each  to  organize  County  councils  and  county  borough  councils  were  occupied 


a  local  division  of  the  Civil  Defence  corps. 


during  the  year  with  the  making  of  schemes  for  the  setting 


Further  regulations  were  issued  during  November  dealing  up  of  valuation  courts,  constituted  from  valuation  panels 

with   the   organization  for  civil   defence   purposes   of  fire  made  up  of  unpaid  members,  to  hear  appeals  from  decisions 

brigades  and  rescue  and  ambulance  services,  with  the  cvacua-  of  valuation  officers  of  the  commissioners  of  inland  revenue 

tion  of  the  civil  population,  with  the  accommodation  and  who,  under  the  Local  Government  act,  1948,  were  given  the 

care  of  the  homeless,  with  the  safeguarding  of  sewerage  duty  in  place  of  the  local  assessment  committees  of  making 

services  and  with  the  instruction  of  the  public  in  civil  defence,  valuations  for  rating  purposes.   The  minister  of  health  asked 

Local  authorities  were  busy  during  the  year  considering  ways  that  the  panels  should  be  constituted  by  Nov.  1949  so  that 

and  means  of  carrying  out  their  duties  in  these  matters,  the  valuation  courts  could  start  functioning  early  in  1950. 

Economic  difficulties  continued  to  restrict  the  activities  of  (W.  E.  J.) 

local  authorities  throughout  1949,  particularly  in  the  field  United   States.      Significant   federal   legislation   in    1949 

of  public  works.    One  notable  exception  was  the  project  of  which   affected  cities  included  the   provision  of  increased 

the  London  County  council  for  the  construction  of  an  em-  federal  aid  for  airports,  increased  federal  aid  for  hospital 

bankment  on  the  south  side  of  the  Thames,  in  the  borough  of  construction   by   municipalities   and  payments   in   lieu   of 

Lambeth  between  Westminster  and  Waterloo  bridges.    This  taxes  to  cities  on  low-rent  housing  projects  for  the  fiscal 

project,  encouraged  by  the  government,  had  the  short-term  year  1950  with  retrospective  payments  for  the  fiscal  years 

object  of  providing  a  site  for  the  Festival  of  Britain  exhibition  1949  and  1948.     Also,  the  programme  of  federal  aid  for 

in  1951  and  the  long-term  object  of  forming  part  of  the  per-  local  public  works  planning  programmes  which  terminated 


LOCKE— LONDON 


395 


on  June  30,  1947,  was  resumed  in  1949  when  congress 
authorized  a  two-year  programme  of  $100  million  interest- 
free  loans  to  states,  cities  and  other  public  agencies  to 
finance  plans  for  a  $3,000  million  group  of  public  works 
projects,  and  appropriated  $25  million  for  the  fiscal  year 
1950.  While  arrears  in  necessary  public  works  throughout 
the  country  were  estimated  at  about  $100,000  million, 
materials  were  once  more  available  and  there  was  a  decline 
in  construction  costs. 

After  hearings  in  May  at  which  federal,  state  and  local 
officials,  members  of  the  Hoover  commission  and  others 
appeared,  a  measure  for  the  establishment  of  a  permanent 
National  Commission  on  Intergovernmental  Relations  com- 
posed of  14  members  representing  the  federal,  state,  municipal 
and  county  governments  and  private  citizens  was  introduced 
into  the  Senate.  The  commission  would  be  responsible  for 
the  continuous  study  of  the  allocation  of  functions  between 
governmental  levels,  and  of  intergovernmental  fiscal  relations. 
The  American  Municipal  association  at  its  annual  conference 
in  December  adopted  an  extensive  statement  of  national 
municipal  policy  on  intergovernmental  relations,  endorsing 
federal  legislation  for  the  establishment  of  a  National  com- 
mission, and  urged  increased  aid  by  the  federal  government 
for  urban  streets  and  highway  construction. 

The  federal  housing  legislation  of  1949  contained  two 
sections  of  major  interest  to  cities:  one  on  urban  redevelop- 
ment, providing  federal  aid  in  the  acquisition,  clearance  and 
development  of  blighted  or  undeveloped  areas;  the  other 
offering  federal  aid  in  the  construction  of  low-rent  public 
housing  for  low-income  families. 

Fiscal  data  on  the  nation's  397  largest  cities  for  1948 
showed  that  expenditures  by  cities  of  over  25,000  population 
totalled  $4,000  million  and  exceeded  expenditures  in  1947 
by  16%.  Revenues  amounted  to  $3,700  million,  or  14% 
more  than  in  1947.  Revenues  from  property  taxes  increased 
10%;  from  city  sales  and  gross  receipts  taxes,  31  %;  and  from 
state  aid  and  service  charges,  14%  each  Expenditures  for 
current  operations,  constituting  three-fourths  of  municipal 
spending  in  1948,  exceeded  the  1947  total  by  13%;  capital 
outlays  inci cased  almost  50%. 

Budgets  early  in  1949  reflected  a  cautious  approach  by 
city  officials,  due  to  declines  or  a  levelling  off  in  prices  and 
construction  costs.  There  were  few  general  increases  in  city 
salaries,  few  extensions  of  municipal  services  and  no  sub- 
stantial increases  in  property  tax  rates.  During  1947  and 
1948,  local  sales  and  income  taxes  had  become  the  largest 
sources  of  tax  revenues  next  to  the  property  tax. 

The  work  of  the  Hoover  commission  in  recommending 
economies  in  the  national  government  set  the  wheels  in 
motion  for  similar  action  in  local  government.  Los  Angeles, 
for  instance,  appointed  a  commission  of  27  citizens  to  study 
all  city  departments,  with  a  view  to  the  improvement  of 
city  organization  and  operating  methods. 

A  survey  of  pay  rates  in  100  cities  showed  that  fewer 
cities  granted  increases  in  the  first  half  of  1949  than  in  the 
corresponding  period  of  1948  and  1947:  40%,  compared 
with  61%  and  47%  for  1948  and  1947  respectively. 

On  Dec.  31,  1949,  there  were  891  council-manager  cities 
in  continental  United  States,  and  15  council-manager 
counties.  Of  the  cities,  71  adopted  the  plan  in  1949,  com- 
pared with  74  in  1948  and  75  in  1947.  There  were  eight 
abandonments  in  the  United  States  in  1949.  Voters  of  DCS 
Moines,  Iowa,  decided  to  abandon  the  commission  form  of 
government  it  had  adopted  m  1908,  in  favour  of  council- 
manager  government,  effective  in  March  1950. 

Proportional  representation  was  finally  abolished  in  Massa- 
chusetts when  the  legislature,  after  several  attempts,  suc- 
ceeded in  removing  it  from  the  state's  optional  Plan  E 
charter  for  cities.  (A.  M.  Ds.;  L.  Gu.) 


LOCKE,  ARTHUR  D'ARCY  (Bobby),  South 
African  golfer  (b.  Germiston,  Transvaal,  South  Africa, 
Nov.  20,  1917),  was  educated  at  Benoni  high  school.  At  the 
age  of  17  he  won  the  Prentice  tournament  and  in  1935  won 
the  South  African  open  and  amateur  championships,  being 
the  youngest  player  ever  to  do  so.  He  again  won  the  South 
African  open  in  1937  and  held  it  throughout  World  War  II. 
During  a  European  tour  in  1938  he  won  the  In  .h  open  and 
the  Dutch  open,  and  also  in  the  same  year  the  New  Zealand 
open.  He  joined  the  South  African  air  force  in  World  War  II, 
becoming  a  pilot  and  serving  in  the  middle  east  and  m  Italy. 
He  played  m  England  in  the  1946  season  and  was  awarded 
the  Harry  Vardon  trophy  for  the  lowest  aggregate  score  for 
competition  play  in  Britain  during  the  year.  He  won  the 
Canadian  open  in  1947.  During  the  early  part  of  the  1949 
season  he  placed  in  the  United  States  and  arrived  in  Britain 
for  the  open  championship  at  Sandwich.  With  a  final  score  of 
283  for  72  holes—the  same  as  that  of  H.  Bradshaw,  of  Kii- 
croney,  Ireland,  he  won  the  play-off  by  12  strokes  and  thus 
won  the  open  at  his  sixth  attempt.  In  the  Irish  open,  Brad- 
shaw beat  Locke  by  one  stroke.  During  the  year  the  American 
Professional  Golfers'  association  banned  him  from  competi- 
tion because  of  alleged  failure  to  keep  his  playing  contracts. 
He  returned  to  the  United  States  and  left  for  Johannesburg 
in  September  to  undergo  an  operation  for  appendicitis. 

LOCKOUTS:  see  STRIKES  AND  LOCKOUTS. 

LOCKSPEISER,  SIR  BEN,  British  scientist  (b.  March 
9,  1891),  was  educated  at  the  Grocers'  school,  at  Sidney  Sussex 
college,  Cambridge,  and  the  Royal  School  of  Mines.  In 
1939  he  was  appointed  assistant  director  of  scientific  research 
at  the  Air  Ministry,  and  from  1941  he  was  at  the  Ministry 
of  Aircraft  Production  where  he  took  a  leading  part  in  the 
direction  of  aeronautical  research.  Leaving  in  1946,  when 
director  general  of  scientific  research,  he  was  appointed  to 
the  newly  created  post  of  chief  scientist  to  the  Ministry  of 
Supply  and  m  May  1949  succeeded  Sir  Edward  Appleton  as 
secretary  of  the  Department  of  Scientific  and  Industrial 
Research.  In  1947,  accompanied  by  Sir  Henry  Tizard,  he 
visited  Canada  at  the  invitation  of  the  Canadian  government 
to  inspect  defence  establishments  in  the  dominion ;  and  in 
the  following  year  he  visited  India  as  a  member  of  the  quin- 
quennial reviewing  committee  of  the  Indian  Institute  of 
Science.  On  May  20  he  opened  new  Nickell  research  labora- 
tories at  Ruabon,  near  Chester.  He  led  the  British  delegation 
to  the  African  regional  scientific  conference  which  was 
opened  by  D.  F.  Malan,  prime  minister  of  South  Africa 
at  Johannesburg  on  Oct.  17.  He  was  knighted  in  1946. 

LONDON.  The  largest  city  in  the  world,  the  largest  port, 
the  largest  industrial  town  in  England,  the  capital  city  of  the 
United  Kingdom  and  of  the  empire.  London  consists  of  the 
county,  comprising  the  28  metropolitan  boroughs  (area,  117sq. 
mi.;  pop.  [June  30,  1949,  est.]  3,389,850)  and  the  City,  the 
ancient  heart  of  London  (area,  1  -05  sq.  mi.;  pop.  [June  30, 
1949,  est.]  4,830);  and  greater  London  of  about  15  mi. 
radius  from  Charing  Cross,  an  entity  sometimes  identified 
with  the  Metropolitan  and  City  Police  areas,  (693  sq.  mi.; 
pop.  [June  30,  1949, est.]  8,390,941),  comprising  the  whole  of 
Middlesex  and  large  areas  of  Kent,  Surrey,  Hertford  and  Essex. 
Chairman  of  the  London  County  council,  J.  W.  Bowen; 
Lord  lieutenant  of  the  county,  Field  Marshal  Earl  Wavell; 
Lord  mayor  of  London,  Sir  George  Aylwen,  and,  from  Nov. 
9,  1949,  Sir  Frederick  Rowland. 

History.  On  April  8  the  triennial  municipal  elections  took 
place  both  for  the  London  County  council  and  the  metro- 
politan boroughs.  In  April  in  the  elections  to  the  London 
County  council  by  a  remarkable  turn  over  of  votes  from  Labour 


396 


LONDON 


to  the  Conservative  party  the  two  parties  drew  even  (64:64) 
and  the  solitary  Liberal  elected,  Sir  Percy  Harris,  held  the 
casting  vote.  The  Labour  party  however  claimed  the  right 
to  appoint  the  chairman  and  also  to  fill  6  of  the  1 1  aldermanic 
vacancies.  In  the  borough  elections  on  May  12  there  was  a 
similar  trend  of  votes  resulting  in  a  gain  of  six  boroughs — 
Holborn,  Paddington,  St.  Pancras,  Lewisham,  Stoke  Newing- 
ton  and  Wandsworth — all  predominantly  working-class 
districts,  to  the  Conservative  interest. 

The  year  was  for  London  the  first  after  World  War  II  of  a 
return  to  something  like  normal  life  and  routine,  with  fewer 
public  events,  less  pageantry  than  in  1948  and  with  the  tale 
of  regular  London  fixtures  and  events  revived  after  a  lapse  of 
ten  years  or  more  almost  completed.  Restoration  and  con- 
struction were  proceeding  steadily  if  not  spectacularly:  on 
many  bombed  sites  the  welcome  sign  "  sold  "  replaced  the 
hitherto  too  numerous  "  for  sale  "  notices;  and  in  important 


areas,  notably  in  the  city  proper,  mechanical  grabs  were  at 
work  clearing  bombed  foundations  and  steel  frames  were 
rising.  Scaffolding  on  many  of  Wren's  churches  indicated 
repairs  in  progress:  the  restoration  of  St.  Clement  Danes 
began;  and  the  restored  Middle  Temple  hall  and  the  recon- 
structed north  aisle  of  All  Hallows,  Barking-by-the-Tower 
(Toe  H  guild  church),  were  opened  in  July  by  the  Queen.  In 
October  the  prime  minister  laid  the  foundation  stone  of  a 
new  permanent  concert  hall,  to  form  part  of  the  1951  Festival 
of  Britain  exhibition  buildings,  on  the  south  bank  of  the  river 
close  to  the  railway  between  Waterloo  bridge  and  County  hall. 
Continued  cleaning  of  facades  and  increased  use  of  flowers 
at  windows,  balconies  and  in  churchyard  gardens,  and  flower 
gardens  laid  out  on  bombed  sites,  did  much  to  brighten  the 
general  aspect  of  the  capital.  The  switching  on  of  electric 
publicity  signs  on  April  2  brought  crowds  to  Piccadilly  circus, 
Trafalgar  square  and  the  West  End  centres  to  see  the  return 


The  prime  minister,  Clement  At t lee,  laying  the  foundation  stone  (inset)  of  the  new  concert  hall  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Thames,  Oct.  12, 
1949.   Behind  (wearing  glasses)  is  Herbert  Morrison,  lord  president  of  the  council  and  a  former  leader  of  the  London  County  council  talking 

to  J.  W.  Bo  wen,  chairman  of  the  London  County  council. 


LONDON    UNIVERSITY 


397 


of  London's  former  night-time  gaiety;  and  in  May,  partly 
for  the  indulgence  of  foreign  summer  visitors  a  clause  was 
added  to  the  Licensing  bill  permitting  properly  licensed 
restaurants  and  night  clubs  in  London  to  conduct  business 
till  2  a.m. 

Extensive  rehousing  activities  in  many  parts  of  London 
included,  among  developments  showing  originality,  a  block 
of  flats  of  unusual  design  in  Finsbury,  blocks  of  flats  in  Isling- 
ton for  old  people  built  by  the  London  Parochial  Charities 
with  garden  courts  and  special  amenities  and  equipment;  and 
West  Ham  borough  council  partially  completed  a  remodelling 
of  a  large,  badly  bombed  district  as  a  "  neighbourhood  unit  " 
on  garden  city  lines,  intended  to  house  12,000  people,  called 
the  Keir  Hardie  estate. 

Throughout  the  port  of  London  there  were  steady  repairs 
and  reconstruction  to  wharves,  transit  sheds,  quays,  lock  gates 
and  docking  machinery.  New  piers  at  Putney  and  Charing 
Cross  were  constructed  to  deal  with  the  summer  "  water-bus  " 
traffic.  The  tonnage  handled  in  the  port  continued  to  rise 
and  at  45,939,095  tons  at  the  close  of  March  1949  was  4\ 
million  tons  above  the  annual  total  at  the  same  date  in  1948 
and  74%  of  the  1939  figure. 

Noteworthy  events  in  the  artistic  life  of  London  were  the 
visits  during  the  summer  of  select  masterpieces  from  the  Alte 
Pinakothek,  Munich,  and  the  Kunsthistorisches  Museum, 
Vienna,  to  the  National  and  Tate  galleries  respectively.  The 
Royal  Academy  in  addition  to  the  usual  summer  show  (the 
attendance  not  quite  up  to  the  record  of  1948)  opened  in 
January  an  exhibition  of  works  acquired  for  the  nation  under 
the  Chantrey  bequest  giving  rise  to  animated  public  con- 
troversy as  to  standards  of  artistic  taste;  and  in  December  an 
exhibition  of  French  landscape  painting,  to  run  through  the 
winter  months. 

At  the  British  museum  in  September  the  Elgin  marbles  were 
restored  to  public  view,  after  ten  years'  seclusion,  in  a  much 
improved  arrangement  in  the  redecorated  old  Elgin  rooms. 
The  new  galleries  built  for  them  (a  gift  of  Sir  Joseph  Duveen) 
had  received  severe  war  damage.  At  St.  Paul's  cathedral 
a  design  was  being  considered  for  replacing  the  19th  century 
reredos  by  a  baldachino  of  baroque  style  in  keeping  with 
Wren's  known  ideas.  The  apsidal  chapel  was  to  become  a 
memorial  chapel  to  members  of  the  U.S.  forces  who  lost 
their  lives  while  based  on  Britain  during  World  War  II,  the 
expenses  to  be  borne  by  British  contributions.  A  marble  roll 
of  honour  was  being  prepared  in  the  United  States. 

The  normal  tranquillity  of  the  lord  mayor's  show  (re- 
capitulating the  history  of  transport)  on  Nov.  9  was  marred 
less  by  the  torrential  rains  than  by  the  bolting  of  the  horses 
of  the  retiring  lord  mayor's  coach  to  the  discomfort  and 
slight  damage  of  some  spectators.  In  November  the  officers 
and  ratings  of  H. M.S.  "Amethyst"  were  welcomed  in 
London  with  a  thanksgiving  service  at  St.  Martins-in-the- 
Fields  and  a  banquet  at  Guildhall.  In  December  there  was  a 
reception  by  the  King,  a  triumphal  march  and  luncheon  at 
the  Guildhall  for  representatives  of  the  Royal  Air  Force 
and  others  who  had  taken  part  in  the  Berlin  air  lift. 

Nearly  all  the  statues  removed  from  open  air  sites  during  the 
war  returned  to  their  positions.  That  of  Sir  Robert  Peel 
formerly  at  the  junction  of  Newgate  street  and  Cheapside 
was  still  absent;  the  Royal  Marines'  memorial  was  re-erected 
in  the  Mall  close  to  its  former  site  now  occupied  by  the 
Admiralty  citadel;  the  Royal  Naval  division  memorial  was 
to  go  to  Greenwich  and  the  statue  of  General  Gordon  from 
Trafalgar  square,  after  much  discussion,  was  to  stand  in 
Whitehall  place  in  front  of  the  new  government  building  in 
course  of  erection. 

In  addition  to  further  discoveries  relating  to  Roman  and 
mediaeval  London  in  the  bombed  Cripplegate  area,  the 
Mediaeval  and  Roman  London  Excavation  council  had  to 


deal  in  circumstances  of  emergency  with  finds,  principally 
Roman,  brought  to  light  by  contractors'  mechanical  excavators 
clearing  bombed  sites  for  reconstruction  in  Old  Jewry, 
Eastcheap,  Wallbrook,  Bankside  and  elsewhere  in  and  around 
the  city.  The  Wallbrook  (now  far  below  street  level),  which 
formed  at  Dowgate  the  Roman  port  of  London,  yielded 
remains  of  Roman  quays,  pavements,  articles  of  use  including 
a  Roman  sandal  and  a  fragment  of  a  presumably  Roman 
stone  bollard.  (D.  NN.) 

Budget.  During  1948-49  the  London  County  council  were  spending 
an  estimated  £64,569.217  on  all  amounts,  towards  which  the  state 
contributed  grants  estimated  at  £13-5  million.  The  net  expenditure 
on  these  rates  was  ^stimated  at  £23-9  million. 

LONDON  UNIVERSITY.  Bedford  College,  the 
earliest  university  college  in  Great  Britain  for  women, 
celebrated  the  centenary  of  its  foundation  in  May  1949  and 
was  honoured  by  a  visit  from  Queen  Mary.  Much  of  the  new 
building  undertaken  to  replace  what  was  destroyed  in  air 
raids  had  been  completed.  The  dome  of  University  college, 
also  destroyed  in  air  raids,  emerged  anew  from  the  scaffolding 
on  the  main  block,  and  good  progress  was  made  with  the 
new  laboratories  on  the  site  of  the  bomb  crater  at  King's 
college.  Good  progress  was  also  made  with  the  reconstruction 
at  St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital  Medical  college,  at  the  London 
School  of  Hygiene,  and  with  the  new  wing  of  the  Royal 
Free  Hospital  School  of  Medicine.  On  the  Bloomsbury  site 
the  shell  of  the  new  Birkbeck  college  was  completed  and 
further  progress  made  with  the  reinstatement  of  war  damage 
to  Senate  House  and  library. 

The  British  Postgraduate  Medical  federation  in  1949  had 
affiliated  13  institutes  attached  to  specialist  hospitals.  The 
enlarged  Institute  of  Education  had  admitted  30  institutions 
for  the  training  of  teachers  as  constituent  colleges  or  depart- 
ments of  the  institute,  and  inaugurated  refresher  and  advanced 
courses  for  practising  teachers. 


Queen  Mary   (right)   with   Geraldine  Jebb,  principal  of  Bedford 

college,  London,  when  Queen  Mary  visited  the  college  on  May  79, 

7949,  during  the  college's  centenary  celebrations. 


398 


LUCA— LUXEMBOURG 


The  number  of  students  in  schools  and  institutions  of  the 
university  was  about  16,800  and  there  were  a  further  5,000 
internal  students  in  polytechnics,  etc.,  in  the  London  area. 
Hostels  for  women  were  opened  at  Wye  college,  Kent,  and 
at  Nutford  house  in  London.  The  facilities  for  students  at 
the  temporary  Union  society  buildings  were  improved  by  the 
introduction  of  a  catering  service  which  provided  over  400 
lunches  daily  at  cheap  rates. 

The  number  of  external  students  including  those  overseas 
exceeded  30,000  and  was  three  times  the  prewar  figure.  An 
important  development  was  the  establishment  of  a  special 
relationship  with  University  college,  Southampton,  as  a 
first  step  to  similar  arrangements  with  the  other  provincial 
university  colleges  whereby  teachers  at  the  college  were 
directly  associated  with  the  university  in  the  degree  examina- 
tions for  their  students.  The  volume  of  the  university's 
extra-mural  adult  education  work  also  increased,  notable 
developments  taking  place  in  residential  courses  and  in 
vacation  courses  for  foreign  students. 

The  vice-chancellor,  Professor  Lillian  Penson,  was  one  of 
the  British  delegates  to  the  Conference  of  Commonwealth 
Universities  at  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  and  she  took  the 
opportunity  of  visiting  several  Canadian  and  U.S.  universi- 
ties. Other  members  of  the  university  paid  advisory  visits 
to  the  new  colonial  university  colleges,  in  Africa  and  the 
West  Indies  and  assisted  in  the  recruitment  of  staffs.  In 
addition,  many  of  the  teachers  in  the  university  co-operated 
with  teachers  in  these  colleges  in  the  setting  and  marking  of 
their  examinations.  The  Senate  considered  this  aspect  of 
the  university's  work  to  be  of  paramount  importance. 

(J.  H.  Ps ) 

LORDS,  HOUSE  OF:  see  PARLIAMENT,  HOUSES  OF. 

LUCA,  VASILE,  Rumanian  politician  (b.  Lemneni, 
Trei  Scaune,  Transylvania,  June  8,  1898),  son  of  a  Hungarian 
peasant,  spent  seven  years  in  an  orphanage  and  later  became 
a  mechanic-locksmith  apprentice.  He  served  in  the  Austro- 
Hungarian  army  in  1915-18  and  took  part  as  a  Socialist  in 
the  Hungarian  revolution  in  1918-19.  He  remained  in 
Rumania  after  the  signature  of  the  Trianon  peace  treaty  and 
in  1922  joined  the  Communist  party  of  Rumania,  becoming 
in  1928  a  member  of  its  central  committee.  Sentenced  to 
10  years'  imprisonment  for  organizing  a  strike  in  Grivita 
railway  workshops  in  1933,  he  was  freed  by  the  Soviet  army 
in  1940,  at  the  time  of  the  occupation  of  Bessarabia.  He 
became  a  Soviet  citizen  and  from  1940-44  was  deputy  to  the 
U.S.S.R.  Council  of  Nationalities.  In  Aug.  1944  he  was  sent 
back  to  Rumania,  renounced  Soviet  nationality  and  assumed 
the  duties  of  secretary  general  of  the  Rumanian  National 
Democratic  front  (from  1946  the  Democratic  Parties'  bloc). 
On  Nov.  19,  1946,  and  on  March  28,  1948,  he  was  elected 
deputy  from  Cluj  to  the  National  Assembly.  In  recognition 
of  his  voluntary  service  in  the  Soviet  army  during  the  war, 
he  was  appointed  in  Nov.  1947  brigadier  general  (reserve) 
of  the  Rumanian  army  and,  on  the  7th  of  the  same  month, 
minister  of  finance.  On  April  15,  1949,  he  became  one  of 
the  three  deputy  prime  ministers  in  the  Petru  Groza  cabinet. 

LUTHERANS.  Lutheran  Churches  throughout  the 
world  were  engaged  during  1949  in  three  major  tasks:  the 
work  of  serving  refugees,  expanding  their  mission  programme 
and  fighting  against  persecution  from  totalitarian  states. 

Within  the  framework  of  the  Lutheran  World  federation 
a  department  of  service  to  refugees  was  giving  spiritual 
ministrations  and  assisting  in  re-settlement  of  displaced 
persons  and  refugees.  Large-scale  immigration  from 
Germany,  Austria  and  Italy  to  the  United  States,  Canada, 
Australia,  South  America,  New  Zealand  and  South  Africa 
was  changing  the  geography  of  Lutheran  protestantism. 


It  had  become  evident  that  millions  of  Lutherans  from 
eastern  Europe  would  have  to  find  a  permanent  place  in 
the  life  of  Western  Germany  because  of  the  limitations  of 
mass  emigration.  Refugees  previously  settling  in  Italy, 
France,  England  and  Sweden  had  created  new  developments. 
In  Italy  a  Lutheran  church  body  was  formed  in  1949,  the 
first  in  the  country's  history. 

The  absence  of  a  peace  treaty  with  Germany,  currency 
restrictions  and  war  devastation  made  necessary  the  support  of 
orphaned  missions  and  younger  churches  in  the  near  east, 
Africa,  China,  India,  New  Guinea  and  Indonesia.  The 
Lutheran  World  federation  organized  a  commission  on 
missions  to  co-ordinate  the  evangelistic  efforts  of  the  various 
member  bodies.  An  immediate  result  was  an  international 
approach  as  in  Africa,  where  American,  Swedish,  Nor- 
wegian and  Finnish  missionaries  were  working  in  one  field. 
Lutherans  launched  a  new  advance  in  their  mission 
programme  in  Japan  where  three  groups  began  work 
in  1949. 

The  continued  pressure  from  totalitarian  states  in  eastern 
Europe  created  serious  handicaps  to  minority  Lutheran  groups. 
After  the  arrest  and  imprisonment  in  1948  of  Bishop  Lajos 
Ordass,  new  Hungarian  church  officials  amenable  to  the  state 
sought  to  win  the  favour  of  communism.  The  Lutheran 
World  federation's  representative  in  Czechoslovakia  was 
ordered  out  of  the  country  just  a  few  days  after  the  new 
church  law  went  into  effect.  This  law  required  that  pastors 
and  church  workers  be  employed  by  the  state.  Opposition 
to  totalitarian  measures  was  extremely  strong  and  effective 
in  eastern  Germany  under  the  leadership  of  Bishop  Otto 
Dibelius  of  Berlin. 

A  programme  of  inter-church  aid  was  still  in  progress 
five  years  after  the  end  of  World  War  II.  American  Lutherans 
had  contributed  more  than  $50  million  to  relief  and  recon- 
struction in  Europe  and  Asia.  (C  E  L.-Q.) 

LUXEMBOURG.  An  independent  grand  duchy  of 
western  Europe  bounded  on  the  south  by  France,  on  the 
northwest  by  Belgium  and  on  the  northeast  by  Germany. 
Area:  1,010  sq.  mi.,  including  the  11  sq.  mi.  of  the 
un-inhabited  Kammerwald  forest  and  a  small  village  annexed 
on  April  15,  1949,  as  accepted  under  the  six-power  agree- 
ment on  March  26,  1949.  Pop.:  (Aug.  20,  1945,  census) 
281,572,  (Dec.  31,  1947,  est.)  290,992.  Language:  Luxem- 
bourgian  (idiomatic)  and  (officially)  French  and  German. 
Religion:  Roman  Catholic  98%.  Capital:  Luxembourg 
(pop.,  Dec.  31,  1947,  est.,  61,996).  Ruler,  Grand  Duchess 
Charlotte  (q.v.)\  prime  minister,  Pierre  Dupong;  minister 
of  foreign  affairs,  Joseph  Bech  (cj.v.). 

History.  The  year  1949  was  undisturbed  by  any  crisis  or 
government  change,  this  political  stability  resting  on  healthy 
social  conditions  and  an  economy  which  was  little  affected 
by  European  uncertainties.  Unemployment  was  negligible 
and  steel  production  was  maintained  at  a  high  level. 

Linked  with  Belgium  in  an  economic  and  customs  union, 
the  grand  duchy  had  to  align  the  Luxembourg  franc  with 
the  Belgian  when  the  latter  was  devalued  on  Sept.  21  (see 
BELGIUM). 

Having  relinquished  neutrality  from  April  15,  1948, 
Luxembourg  took  part  in  the  various  important  international 
meetings,  shaping  its  foreign  policy  to  conform  with  the 
general  political  and  economic  trends  of  the  western  powers. 
On  April  4  Joseph  Bech,  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  signed 
the  North  Atlantic  treaty  and  the  instrument  of  ratification 
was  deposited  on  June  27  with  the  State  Department  in 
Washington  by  Hugues  Le  Gallais,  Luxembourg  minister 
to  the  United  States. 

Within  the  framework  of  the  Organization  for  the  European 
Economic  Co-operation  the  grand  duchy  upheld  a  policy  of  a 


MACARTHUR— MACEDONIAN   PROBLEM 


399 


progressive  return  to  free  circulation  of  goods  in  Europe. 
Bech,  speaking  in  Paris  on  Nov.  2,  commented  that,  although 
all  must  make  sacrifices,  no  country  should  be  asked  to 
subscribe  to  the  ruin  of  its  key  industry:  Luxembourg  was 
particularly  vulnerable,  since  its  steel  and  iron  industry  was 
the  whole  basis  of  its  economic  life.  (G  -H  D.) 

Education.   (1948)  Schools     elementary  966,  secondary  7,  technical  3 

Agriculture.  About  one  third  of  the  Luxembourg  area  is  arable  land 
Production  (in  metric  tons,  1948).  bread  grains  35,958;  other  cereals 
37,881. 

Industry.  Industrial  establishments  (1948)  12,664,  persons  employed 
46,513.  Production  (in  metric  tons,  1948,  1949,  six  months,  in 
brackets)  pig  iron  2,626,334  (1,381,034),  steel  ingots  and  castings 
2,452,844  (1,318,262);  synthetic  fertilizers  545,214  (292,178) 

Transport  and  Communications.  Roads  (1947)  4,254km  Licensed 
motor  vehicles  (1948).  cars  6,671,  lorries  3,884.  Telephones  (1948) 
subscribers  20,700. 

Finance.  Budget  (1949  est.)*  revenue  Fr  3,106  million,  expenditure 
Fr.3,383  million. 

MACAO:    see  PORTUGUESE  COLONIAL  EMPIRF. 

MACARTHUR,  DOUGLAS,  U.S.  army  officer 
(b.  Little  Rock,  Arkansas,  Jan.  26,  1880),  as  commander  of 
the  southwest  Pacific  forces  accepted  the  Japanese  surrender 
in  Tokyo  bay  on  Sept.  2,  1945,  and  was  made  supreme 
commander  of  Allied  powers  in  Japan.  (For  his  early  career 
see  Encyclopedia  Britanmcd). 

In  Jan.  1949,  MacArthur  reported  that  the  Japanese  had 
accepted  a  democratic  way  of  life  and  would  not  yield 
before  Communism  or  any  other  concept  of  enslavement. 
Communist  plotting  continued  to  be  one  of  his  chief  prob- 
lems, however,  and  on  June  13  he  accused  the  U.S.S  R.  of 
inciting  disorders  in  Japan  through  the  Communist  party. 
In  May  he  recommended  that  Allied  control  of  Japanese 
affairs  be  relaxed,  since  continued  occupation  was  not  the 
fault  of  the  Japanese,  he  said,  but  of  conditions  in  China. 
On  July  28  he  ordered  occupation  controls  at  the  local 
level  to  be  disbanded  by  the  end  of  the  year,  leaving  such 
controls  operative  only  nationally.  On  Dec.  21  he  asserted 
that  370,000  Japanese  prisoners  were  still  in  Soviet  hands. 

MACEDONIAN  PROBLEM.  Reduced  to  the 
simplest  terms,  the  Macedonian  problem  centres  on  the 
attempt  of  the  Macedonian  people,  divided  between  Yugo- 
slavia, Bulgaria  and  Greece,  to  achieve  unity  and  indepen- 
dence. Difficulties  arise  from  the  fact  that  the  national 
consciousness  of  the  Macedonians  is  of  only  comparatively 
recent  origin,  that  they  are  small  in  number  and  that  the 
strategic  importance  of  the  area  concerned  has  made  it  a 
focus  of  conflicting  interests  among  various  powers.  This 
problem,  which  had  seemed  near  settlement  after  World 
War  II  by  the  transformation  of  Yugoslavia  into  a  federal 
republic,  and  by  reason  of  the  friendly  relations  existing 
between  Yugoslavia  and  Bulgaria,  became  acute  again  after 
the  quarrel  between  the  Moscow  Politburo  and  Marshal 
Tito  was  made  public. 

History.  In  Nov.  1948  the  Bulgarian  government  had 
allowed  an  organization  of  Macedonians  in  Bulgaria  to 
publish  a  declaration  to  the  effect  that  the  only  correct  and 
democratic  solution  of  the  problem  was  a  Macedonian  state 
equal  to  Yugoslavia  and  Bulgaria.  Five  months  later  the 
so-called  Greek  Democratic  government  became  involved 
in  the  controversy  when  it  sponsored  a  similar  plan.  At  a 
congress  of  168  delegates  held  on  March  27,  1949,  in  the 
rebel-controlled  Vitsi  massif,  in  northern  Greece,  a  Com- 
munist organization  in  Aegean  Macedonia  (K.O.E.M.)  was 
formed.  The  gathering  was  addressed  by  Nikolaos  Zahari- 
adis  (q.v.),  secretary  general  of  the  Communist  Party  of 
Greece,  and  Demetrios  Partsalidis,  the  "  prime  minister." 
Both  pledged  the  support  of  the  Greek  Communist  party 
for  the  new  plan  to  form  an  independent  Macedonian 


AREA  OF  MACEDONIAN  PROBLEM 


I j  Area  of  Macedonian  districts  of  Bui 

I    '  |  garia  Greece  and  Yugoslavia 

Approximate  area  of  Macedonia  as 


people's  republic  including  not  only  Yugoslav  and  Bulgarian, 
but  Greek  (Aegean)  Macedonia  as  well.  The  congress 
elected  a  central  committee  of  which  Mikhail  Maliov  was 
secretary  general  and  among  its  members  were  Paskal 
Mitrovski  and  Stavros  Gochev,  "  ministers  "  in  the  Partsalidis 
"  government/' 

This  change  of  tactics  in  1949  was  the  third  since  the 
Kremlin  decided  to  take  an  active  part  in  the  Macedonian 
problem.  The  first  policy  had  been  formulated  through  the 
Comintern  in  1924  when  Dimitar  Vlahov,  a  prominent 
Macedonian  Communist,  persuaded  Todor  Aleksandrov, 
the  leader  of  the  V.M  R.O.  (Vontreshna  Makedonska 
Revolutsionna  Orgamzatsia,  or  Internal  Macedonian  Revo- 
lutionary Organization),  to  form  a  new  United  (Obedinena) 
organization  (O. V.M. R.O.)  to  fight  for  an  autonomous 
Macedonia  within  a  Communist  Balkan  federation.  Shortly 
afterwards,  the  members  of  the  old  V.M. R.O. — fighting 
simply  for  a  Great  Bulgarian  solution  of  the  Macedonian 
problem — assassinated  Aleksandrov  and  elected  A.  N. 
Protogherov  as  their  leader.  When  he  in  turn  was  assassinated 
in  1928  he  was  succeeded  by  Ivan  Mikhailov. 

The  second  Moscow  policy  in  the  Macedonian  problem 
was  evolved  during  World  War  11.  As  Yugoslavia  was 
partitioned  and  practically  all  Macedonian  lands  were  in 
Bulgarian  occupation,  Moscow  decided  that  the  Macedonian 
problem  should  be  dealt  with  through  the  Bulgarian  Com- 
munist party.  On  July  12,  1943,  at  Petrich,  Dushan  Daskalov, 
on  behalf  of  the  Bulgarian  Communist  party,  and  Yannis 
loanmdis,  on  behalf  of  the  Communist  Party  of  Greece, 
signed  an  agreement  fixing  the  southern  frontier  of  Mace- 
donia on  the  Olympus  latitude  and  deciding  that  Macedonia 
should  be  one  of  the  independent  republics  within  the  Balkan 
Communist  federation. 

By  then,  however,  the  importance  of  Josip  Broz  (Tito)  was 
growing  in  Yugoslavia.  In  his  opinion  a  Balkan  Com- 
munist federation  was  desirable  but  could  become  a  reality 
only  under  the  leadership  of  the  Communist  Party  of  Yugo- 
slavia. Already  in  1943  Tito  had  sent  Svetozar  Vukmanovi£ 
(General  Tempo)  to  Skoplje  to  organize  the  Macedonian 
section  of  the  Yugoslav  Liberation  front,  with  such  success 
that  the  Kremlin  had  to  accept  the  fait  accompli.  In  1945 
Dimitar  Vlahov  became  vice-president  of  the  Federal  Repub- 
lic of  Yugoslavia  and  Lazar  Kulisevski  prime  minister  of 


400 


MACHINERY   AND   MACHINE  TOOLS 


the  republic  of  Macedonia,  with  Skoplje  as  capital.  At  that 
time  Tito  was  looking  south,  towards  Salonika.  At  Skoplje 
on  Oct.  11,  1945,  he  said:  "  We  shall  never  renounce  the 
right  of  the  Macedonian  people  to  unite.  There  are  brothers 
in  Aegean  Macedonia  to  whose  destiny  we  are  not 
indifferent/' 

At  a  meeting  between  Tito  and  the  Bulgarian  prime 
minister,  Gheorghi  Dimitrov,  at  Bled,  in  Aug.  1947,  it  was 
agreed  that  Bulgarian  Macedonia  should  be  incorporated 
into  Yugoslav  Macedonia  as  a  first  step  towards  the  unifica- 
tion of  the  Macedonian  people.  The  two  leaders  hoped  that 
Aegean  Macedonia  would  be  included  after  it  had  been 
liberated  by  the  Greek  Communist  rebels:  they  were  also 
planning  a  great  South  Slav  federation  including  Yugo- 
slavia and  Bulgaria.  In  Jan.  1948,  however,  Dimitrov  was 
rebuked  in  Pravda  for  supporting  such  an  idea.  The  Kremlin 
was  already  exchanging  not-too-friendly  letters  with  Tito 
and  on  June  28,  1948,  the  breach  became  public. 

By  sponsoring  the  creation  of  K.O.E.M.,  the  Soviet 
government  was  reverting  to  its  second  policy  in  the  Mace- 
donian problem — that  of  using  Bulgaria  as  its  main  pawn  in 
the  Balkans.  Tito  replied  by  concentrating  in  Macedonia 
ten  divisions — one-third  of  the  entire  field  strength  of  the 
Yugoslav  army — and  by  closing  the  Yugoslav-Greek  frontier. 
This  last  move,  announced  on  July  10,  1949,  was  of  great 
assistance  to  the  Greek  army  in  their  fight  against  the  rebels. 
On  Aug.  2  Marshal  Tito  in  a  speech  at  Skoplje  attacked  the 
Bulgarian  Communists  for  postponing  the  fusion  of  Bul- 
garian and  Yugoslav  Macedonia.  In  particular  he  described 
Vladimir  Poptomov  (whose  appointment  as  minister  of 
foreign  affairs  of  Bulgaria  was  announced  a  few  days  later) 
as  one  who  had  '*  sold  his  national  conscience  for  a  chicken 
drumstick."  (Tito  had  in  mind  the  Macedonian  national 
conscience  of  Poptomov  who,  in  the  mid-twenties,  was  a 
active  member  of  the  O.V.M.R.O.;  he  also  was  one  of  the 
56  members  of  the  Anti-fascist  Council  of  National  Liberation 
of  Yugoslavia  [A.V.N.O.J.]  formed  at  Jajce,  Bosnia,  on  Nov. 
29,  1943).  Marshal  Tito  also  attacked  Zahariadis  whom  he 
accused  of  having  forgotten  about  the  struggle  for  democracy 
in  Greece  and  of  regarding  support  for  the  CommfornVs 
campaign  against  Yugoslavia  as  the  more  urgent  task.  On 
the  same  occasion  KuliSevski  re-voiced  the  claim  that  Yugo- 
slav Macedonia  had  become  the  "  Piedmont "  of  the  whole 
of  Macedonia. 

In  Athens  and  elsewhere  these  Skoplje  speeches  were  noted 
without  alarm.  There  was  no  reason  to  suppose  that  Yugo- 
slavia would  adopt  a  friendly  attitude  towards  anti-Com- 
munist Greece.  Nevertheless,  as  the  year  closed,  a  Yugoslav- 
Greek  dispute  over  the  Macedonian  problem  seemed  only  a 
most  remote  likelihood. 

Statistical  Data.  Yugoslav  or  Vardar  Macedonia,  a  member  of  (he 
Yugoslav  federal  republic  from  1945,  covers  10,338  sq.  mi  and  — 
according  to  the  1948  census— had  a  population  of  1452,000,  four- 
rifths  of  the  Macedonian  people  who  are  a  branch  of  the  south  Slav 
group  According  to  an  article  by  Dimitar  Vlahov  in  the  Belgrade 
Borba  (Oct.  20,  1948),  Bulgarian  or  Finn  Macedonia  covers  2,623 
sq  mi.  with  a  population  of  240,000  Greek  or  Aegean  Macedonia 
has  an  area  of  13,360  sq  mi  with  about  1,759,000  inhabitants.  But  if 
the  Yugoslav  and  Bulgarian  parts  have  a  Macedonian  majority,  in 
Greek  Macedonia —  according  to  the  1940  census — there  were  only 
65.221  Macedonian  Slavs,  16,639  Bulgars  and  18,086  Pomaks  or 
Moslem  Bulgars  (K.  SM.) 

MACHINERY     AND     MACHINE     TOOLS. 

During  1949  the  output  of  the  machine  building  industries 
in  Great  Britain  continued  to  be  governed  rather  by  ability 
to  produce  than  by  demand;  and,  despite  the  limitations 
imposed  on  the  rate  of  re-equipment  at  home  under  the 
government's  capital  investment  programme,  supplies  failed 
to  satisfy  the  urgent  needs  of  British  manufacturers  on  the 
one  hand  and  of  overseas  customers  on  the  other.  Although 


the  makers  of  industrial  machinery  were  themselves  still 
handicapped  by  lack  of  modern  plant  and  by  the  scarcity  of 
the  necessarily  skilled  labour,  considerable  progress  was  made. 
The  important  textile  and  hosiery  machine  group,  for  example, 
had  an  average  monthly  output  valued  at  £5,589,000  during 
the  first  half  of  the  year  as  compared  with  an  average  of 
£4,693,000  for  the  whole  of  1948.  Similarly,  the  machine  tool 
industry,  upon  which  all  other  forms  of  manufacture  ulti- 
mately depend,  averaged  £2,800,000  between  Jan. -June  as 
compared  with  £2,591,000  monthly  average  in  1948. 

Exports  of  machinery  continued  to  increase  and  for  the 
first  nine  months  of  1949,  while  the  figures  were  still  un- 
affected by  the  devaluation  of  sterling,  reached  a  total  of 
£207,751,000,  as  against  £170,307,065  in  the  same  period 
of  1948.  Although  less  marked,  the  corresponding  increase 
in  tonnage,  namely,  from  577,000  in  1948  to  657,000  in  1949, 
was  still  substantial.  Of  the  various  main  groups  into  which 
machinery  exports  were  divided,  textile  machinery  was  easily 
the  most  important  with  a  value  for  Jan.-Sept.  of  £30,795,000, 
representing  an  increase  of  nearly  £4,000,000  over  the 
equivalent  figure  for  1948.  In  the  same  period  machine  tool 
exports  amounted  to  £12,138,000  or  about  £500,000  more 
than  for  the  first  nine  months  of  1948.  Machinery  thus  made 
a  substantial  contribution  to  the  overseas  trade  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  accounting  for  more  than  15%  of  all  exports,  and 
was  of  great  importance  in  connection  with  the  short  term 
problem  of  securing  a  balance  between  exports  and  imports. 
In  relation  to  the  long  term  problem  of  raising  the  general 
level  of  productivity  and,  consequently,  the  average  standard 
of  living,  however,  the  scale  of  machinery  exports  was 
greater  than  the  country  could  afford 

At  a  time  when  the  builders  of  machine  tools  and  other 
types  of  metal-working  machinery  were  preoccupied  with  the 
necessity  for  continually  increasing  output,  it  would  have 
been  unreasonable  to  expect  any  widespread  introduction  of 
new  designs  and,  for  the  most  part,  the  leading  firms  were 
content  to  consolidate  the  advances  they  had  made  in  prepara- 
tion for  the  Machine  Tool  and  Engineering  exhibition  held 
at  Olympia,  London,  in  1948.  Some  machines  of  noteworthy 
size  were,  however,  completed,  among  which  may  be  men- 
tioned a  boring  and  turning  mill  weighing  475  tons  with  a 
normal  turning  capacity  of  35  ft.  which  could  be  extended  to 
50  ft.,  a  3-roll  bending  machine  for  stainless  steel  plate  up 
to  22  ft.  wide  by  1  in.  thick  believed  to  be  the  largest  of  its 
type  ever  made  in  the  United  Kingdom  and  an  unusual 
gashing  machine  for  preliminary  operations  on  the  forged 
blanks  for  sections  of  large  crankshafts.  On  the  last  mentioned 
machine  the  work  was  rotated,  and  the  2^-in.  wide  gashes 
were  formed  by  a  12  ft.  6  in  diameter  cutter  of  the  circular- 
saw  type.  Another  outstanding  machine  was  supplied  to  a 
manufacturer  of  aircraft  gas  turbines.  This  was  a  lathe  used 
for  grooving  the  casings  of  axial  flow  compressor  units;  the 
tools  could  not  be  seen  by  the  operator  while  cutting  but 
their  positions  were  indicated  on  an  optical  screen  so  that  the 
necessary  settings  could  be  made  rapidly  to  a  high  degree 
of  accuracy. 

The  fine-boring  process  was  increasingly  employed  for 
work  which  had  to  be  held  to  close  limits,  and  a  new  4-way 
machine  was  introduced  for  operations  on  diesel  fuel  pump 
housings  in  which  the  part  was  held  in  an  indexing  fixture  and 
40  bore  diameters  and  14  faces  were  finish  machined  in 
3^  mm. 

There  was  considerable  activity  in  connection  with  the 
development  of  special-purpose  machines  designed  to  meet 
the  needs  of  various  industries  whereby  substantial  economies 
could  be  achieved.  Such  machines  included  a  hydraulic 
blade  grinding  machine  for  the  edge  tool  trade;  a  machine 
for  making  80  cycle  spokes  per  min.;  roller  fluting,  frame 
end  milling  machines  for  the  textile  machinery  trade;  a 


McCLOY 


401 


duplex  spindle  locomotive  cylinder  boring  and  facing  machine 
and  a  double-ended  centering  machine  for  large  aluminium 
alloy  billets.  (C.  H.  Bu.) 

United  States.  The  downward  trend  in  machine  tool 
industry  continued  during  1949,  when  shipments  barely 
touched  $250  million,  compared  with  $286  million  the 
previous  year  and  a  wartime  level  of  $1,360  million.  The  year 
opened  in  lively  fashion,  with  the  new-orders  index  of  the 
National  Machine  Tool  Builders'  association  at  93  in  March 
(with  an  average  month  of  1946-47-48  taken  as  100).  Then 
business  dropped  abruptly  until  the  low  level  of  47  was 
reached  in  July.  Recovery  was  slow,  but  in  November  a 
sharp  rise  occurred  which  brought  the  index  figure  up  to  83. 
It  stayed  close  to  that  level  in  December. 

Unlike  other  postwar  years,  in  1949  new  machine  tool 
orders  exceeded  shipments.  The  Economic  Co-operation 
administration  supplied  the  finance  for  much  of  the  demand. 
Overseas  sales  accounted  for  one-fourth  or  more  of  all 
machine  tool  orders;  England,  Italy,  France  and  Western 
Germany  were  the  best  overseas  markets. 

U.S.  machine  tool  builders  realized  during  the  year  that 
in  the  future  they  would  have  stiflfer  competition  from  the 
machine  tool  industries  of  England  and  European  countries, 
especially  Germany,  but  also  Italy,  Belgium,  Sweden,  Switzer- 
land and  France. 

Near  the  end  of  1949  the  American  Machinist's  mid- 
century  inventory  of  metalworking  equipment  revealed  many 
facts  about  machine  tools  and  other  production  machinery. 
It  showed  that  the  nation's  metalworking  industries  had 
3,118,702  production  units  installed  in  their  plants.  Of  that 
number,  1,762,165  were  machine  tool  and  471,237  were 
metal-forming  units.  If  the  machine  tools  in  college  shops 
and  in  maintenance  departments  outside  the  metalworking 
field  were  included,  U.S.  machine  tool  resources  were  over 
2  •  2  million  units  which  was  a  record. 

It  was  also  revealed  that  about  42%  of  all  metalworking 
equipment  was  ten  or  more  years  old,  and  19%  was  over 
20  years  of  age.  On  the  average,  the  country's  production 
equipment  was  considerably  older  in  1949  than  it  had  been 
at  the  end  of  World  War  II. 

Other  facts  revealed  by  the  American  Machinist's  inventory 
were:  (1)  there  were  installed  in  U.S.  metalworking  industries 
396,464  lathes,  362,776  grinders,  361,935  drilling  machines 
and  182,284  milling  machines — the  four  basic  types  of 
machine  tools;  (2)  the  south  had  doubled  its  metalworking 
operations  (based  on  machines  installed)  since  World  War  II, 
and  New  England  had  increased  its  machine  tool  holdings 
53%  in  the  same  period;  (3)  there  had  been  a  sizable  shrink- 
age of  machine  tool  facilities  in  the  aircraft  industry  in  the 
postwar  period,  and  also  in  the  car  industry;  and  (4)  the 
car  industry  had  the  highest  percentage  of  old  machines  of 
all  metalworking  industries. 

In  technical  developments,  machining  speeds  tended  to 
increase  during  1949.  The  desired  "  mile-a-minute  "  cutting 
speeds  were  reached  in  grinding,  even  with  small-diameter 
wheels,  by  developing  wheelhead  speeds  up  to  200,000  r.p.m. 
Lathe  speeds  had  gone  up  to  1,650  f.p.m.  in  tests  and  to  1,500 
f.p.m.  on  production  units.  Planer  speeds  had  risen  more 
than  50%  to  310  f.p.m. 

The  problem  of  operating  machines  at  so-called  "  super- 
critical speeds  "  was  more  seriously  tackled  in  1949.  Research 
was  given  an  impetus  by  the  disclosure  that  a  German  patent 
was  issued  in  1931  to  C.  Salomon,  who  tested  machining  of 
aluminum  at  speeds  of  55,000  f.p.m.,  of  copper  at  9,350  f.p.m. 
and  of  bronze  at  5,300  f.p.m.  Manufacturers  were  looking 
into  the  possibility  of  determining  from  the  metallurgical 
make-up  and  condition  of  the  metal  exactly  what  the  best 
machining  speed  should  be,  and  ordering  machines  and 
tooling  to  fit  the  specifications. 

K.B.Y.— 27 


The  scope  of  carbide  tools  was  broadened.  Carbides 
were  mounted  so  that  the  cutting  force  was  compression 
rather  than  shear  and  required  only  simple  end  dressing  of  a 
rotatable  performed  shape;  new  forms  of  holding  were 
employed  to  reduce  the  likelihood  of  cracking  from  brazing 
strains;  and  new  forms  of  carbides  themselves  were 
developed. 

Several  companies  in  1949  offered  combined  coolant- 
lubricants  for  use  in  screw  machines,  and  additives  for 
water  to  reduce  its  corrosiveness  so  that  its  maximum 
potentialities  as  a  coolant  could  be  realized.  (See  also 
ELECTRONICS.)  **  (R.  FY.) 

McCLOY,  JOHN  JAY,  U.S.  businessman  and 
lawyer  (b.  Philadelphia,  March  31,  1895),  was  educated  at 
Amherst  and  Harvard.  He  served  in  World  War  I  and  in  the 
occupation  forces  in  Germany  after  that  war.  He  later 
practised  law  in  New  York  city,  specializing  in  corporation 
law  and  foreign  litigation.  In  Oct.  1940  he  was  appointed 
expert  consultant  to  the  secretary  of  war,  and,  in  April  1941, 
assistant  secretary  of  war.  He  became  president  of  the 
International  Bank  for  Reconstruction  and  Development  in 
Feb.  1947.  Early  in  1949,  in  that  capacity,  he  denied  charges 
by  the  Warsaw  Communist  government  that  the  International 
bank  had  discriminated  against  loan  applications  from  eastern 
Europe  and  instead  had  helped  finance  French  and  Dutch 
wars  against  rebels  in  Indo-China  and  Indonesia.  On  May 
18  McCloy  was  appointed  by  President  Harry  S.  Truman 
as  first  civilian  U.S.  high  commissioner  for  Germany, 
succeeding  General  Lucius  D.  Clay.  He  became  also  chief 
E.C.A.  representative  for  Germany,  and  U.S.  representative 
on  the  three-power  Allied  council  set  up  to  exercise  supreme 
Allied  authority  in  the  federal  republic  of  Germany,  which 
became  operative  in  Sept.  1949. 


John   Jay    McCloy    who    in    1949    became    United    States   High 
Commissioner  for  Germany. 


402 


MADRID— MALAYA 


MADAGASCAR:   see  FRENCH  UNION. 

MADRID.  Capital  city  and  geographical  centre  of 
Spain,  chosen  as  such  by  Philip  II  in  1561;  second  in 
size  to  Barcelona.  Pop.  (est.  1949):  1,440,041. 

The  Royalist  mass  for  Alfonso  XIII,  organized  on  the 
anniversary  of  his  death,  on  Feb.  28,  by  the  Council  of 
Grandees,  which  in  1948  was  prohibited  by  the  authorities, 
was  attended  by  3,000  Monarchists.  A  strong  police  force 
was  present:  there  were  no  incidents.  Jn  March  a  Madrid 
court-martial  sentenced  three  Communists  to  death  for 
terrorism  and  nine  others,  including  one  woman,  to 
imprisonment  from  10  to  30  years.  Manifestations  m  the 
capital  in  connection  with  the  tenth  anniversary  of  the  end 
of  the  Civil  War,  on 'April  1,  were  on  a  larger  scale  than  usual. 
The  Real  Academia  de  Ciencias  celebrated  the  centenary 
of  its  foundation  in  May,  under  the  presidency  of  General 
Franco;  learned  societies  of  12  foreign  countries  were 
represented.  The  director  of  the  Spanish  Academy,  Ramon 
Menendez  Pidal,  emeritus  professor  of  Madrid  university 
and  doyen  of  Spanish  scholars,  received  notable  tributes 
from  home  and  abroad  on  his  80th  birthday.  Ramon  Perez 
de  Ayala,  novelist  and  former  Republican  ambassador  to 
London,  returned  to  Madrid  from  Argentina,  where  he  had 
been  living  in  exile. 

An  exhibition  of  British  painting  from  1730  to  1830  was 
opened  in  February  by  Philip  Hendy,  director  of  the  National 
gallery  in  London.  Editorial  Aguilar,  a  leading  Madrid 
publishing  house,  held  an  exhibition  in  London  in  April. 
Ten  boys  from  the  Institute  Ramiro  de  Maeztu,  a  famous 
Madrid  secondary  school,  arrived  in  London  in  July  to  return 
a  visit  paid  to  it  by  Middlesex  boys  in  June.  (W.  C.  AN.) 

MAGAZINES:  see  NEWSPAPERS  AND  MAGAZINES. 
MAIZE:  sec  GRAIN  CROPS. 

MAGNANI,  ANNA,  Italian  actress  (b.  Rome,  March 
26,  1908).  At  the  age  of  17  she  attended  the  Eleanora  Duse 
academy  of  dramatic  art  in  Rome  and  later  made  her  debut 
in  music  halls.  In  1932  she  married  a  film-director,  Gofrredo 
Alessandrim,  but  their  marriage  was  dissolved  in  1940. 
In  1936  Magnani  appeared  for  the  first  time  m  films  in 
Cavalier ia ;  there  followed  La  Principessa  Tarakanova  (1938); 
Una  lampeda  fines tra  (1940);  Finalmente  soli  (1941);  La 
fuggitiva  (1941);  Teresa  Venerdi  (1941);  La  fortuna  viene  dal 
cielo  (1942);  Campo  del  fiori  (1943);  La  vita  e  bella  (1943); 
Un  uomo  rltorna  (1945);  Roma  citta  aperta  (Open  City) 
(1945),  which,  directed  by  Roberto  Rosselhni  (</.v.),  earned 
Magnani  the  Silver  ribbon  (Italian)  award  for  1945-46  and  the 
American  critics'  award  for  the  best  actress  of  1946;  Abbasso 
la  ricchezza  (1946);  //  bandito  (1946);  Davanti  a  lui  tremava 
tutta  Roma  (1946);  LOnorevole  Angelina  (Angelina,  M.P.), 
(1947),  where  her  performance  won  her  the  Grand  Inter- 
national prize  for  the  best  actress  of  1947  at  the  Venice  Film 
festival;  Assunta  Spina  (1948);  Molti  sogni  per  le  strqde 
(1948).  Again  in  1948  Magnani  was  awarded  the  Silver  ribbon 
for  her  acting  in  Amore,  in  which  for  some  90  min.  she  was 
practically  alone  in  front  of  the  camera.  In  1949  she  acted 
in  Vulcano,  directed  by  W.  Dieterle  for  the  United  Artists' 
film  corporation.  In  March  she  visited  London  and  attended 
the  premiere  of  her  film,  Angelina,  M.P.  Anna  Magnani  has 
been  recognized  as  the  greatest  actress  of  the  Italian  cinema 
and  her  art,  which  is  strongly  emotional,  derives  much  of  its 
truthfulness  from  an  intuitive  realism  in  approach.  Speaking 
of  Roma  citta  aperta,  Magnani  said,  "  I  don't  act,  I  live." 

MAKONNEN  ENDALKACHAW,  Bitwadded* 
Ethiopian  statesman  (b.  Addis  Ababa,  Feb.  16,  1891).  His 
father,  Balambaras  Endalkachaw,  a  military  commander 

*  All  titles  are  printed  m  italics. 


under  the  Emperor  Menelik,  was  killed  in  a  campaign  in 
Wallamo.  Makonnen's  first  appointment  was  registrar  of 
companies  (1926);  in  the  following  year  he  became  minister 
of  commerce  with  the  rank  of  negadras.  In  1928  he  was 
Ethiopian  delegate  to  the  League  of  Nations;  after  staying 
some  time  in  France,  he  was  appointed  Ethiopian  minister 
in  London.  Returning  to  Addis  Ababa  in  1932,  he  became 
kantiba  (lord  mayor)  of  the  city;  at  the  end  of  his  term  of 
office  he  was  appointed  minister  of  the  interior,  with  the  rank 
of  dejazmach.  In  1935  he  was  made  governor  of  Ilubabor; 
during  the  Italian  invasion  (1935-36)  he  saw  service  on  the 
southern  (Ogaden)  front,  being  promoted  brigadier  general. 
After  sharing  the  emperor's  five  years'  exile  he  became,  in 
1941,  president  of  the  council  of  ministers,  holding  in  addition 
the  portfolio  of  the  interior;  two  years  later  he  was  made 
prime  minister,  with  the  rank  of  bitwadded',  he  is  a  member 
of  the  Imperial  Crown  council.  He  signed  the  Anglo- 
Ethiopian  agreement  of  1944  as  Ethiopian  plenipotentiary, 
and  in  1945  went  to  the  San  Francisco  conference  as  chief 
Ethiopian  delegate.  He  married,  first,  Waizero  Zawditu, 
daughter  of  Ras  Bitwadded  Mangasha  Atikam;  by  her  he  had 
a  daughter  and  a  son;  after  her  death  in  1936  he  married 
Princess  Yeshash-Warq,  niece  of  the  emperor.  His  published 
works  are  a  play  (The  Voice  of  Blood)  performed  with  success 
in  Addis  Ababa;  This  Capricious  World,  a  moral  romance, 
and  The  Stone  of  Cain,  a  philosophical  dialogue. 

MALAN,  DANIEL  FRANCOIS,  South  African  states- 
man (b.  Riebeck  West,  Cape  Province,  May  22,  1874),  became 
prime  minister  and  minister  of  external  affairs  on  June 
3,  1948,  in  succession  to  Jan  Chnstiaan  Smuts  (q.v.).  (For 
his  early  career  see  Bntannica  Book  of  the  Year  1949). 

On  Feb.  16,  1949,  he  was  taken  ill  while  introducing  the 
second  reading  of  the  South  West  Africa  Affairs  bill  in  the 
House  of  Assembly,  but  was  able  to  continue  his  speech 
on  the  following  day.  He  left  the  Union  for  the  first  time 
after  becoming  prime  minister  when  in  April  he  flew  to 
London  for  the  Commonwealth  prime  ministers'  conference. 
After  the  conference  he  went  to  the  Netherlands  where  he 
was  received  by  Queen  Juliana,  and  to  the  Utrecht  university 
where  he  had  been  a  student  nearly  fifty  years  before.  He 
also  visited  Berlin,  Switzerland,  where  he  went  to  the  house 
once  occupied  by  Paul  Krugcr  in  Montreux,  and  Rome  where 
he  was  received  by  president  Luigi  Emaudi,  He  returned  to 
South  Africa  on  May  6.  In  a  speech  to  the  House  of  Assembly 
on  May  1 1  on  the  Commonwealth  conference  he  stated  that 
he  believed  that  South  Africa's  greatest  chance  of  unity  lay 
in  a  republic  but  that  it  would  never  leave  the  Common- 
wealth. In  a  speech  to  the  Orange  Free  State  Nationalist 
party  congress  on  Oct.  26  he  declared  that  he  was  preparing 
to  make  representations  to  the  British  government  for  the 
incorporation  of  the  protectorates  of  Bechuanaland,  Basuto- 
land  and  Swaziland  into  the  Union.  On  Dec.  16  he  opened 
the  Voortrekker  memorial  at  Pretoria. 

MALAYA  (FEDERATION  OF)  AND  SINGA- 
PORE. The  Federation  of  Malaya  is  a  British  dependency 
consisting  of  the  settlements  of  Malacca  and  Penang  and  the 
protected  states  of  Johore,  Kedah,  Kelantan,  Negri  Sembilan, 
Pahang,  Perak,  Perlis,  Selangor  and  Trengganu.  Area: 
50,850  sq.  mi.  Pop.  (1947  census):  4,867,491.  Singapore  is 
a  British  colony  comprising  the  island  of  that  name  together 
with  the  Cocos-Keeling  Islands  and  Christmas  Island. 
Area:  217  sq.  mi.  Pop.  (1947  census):  940,756.  High 
commissioner  of  the  federation,  Sir  Henry  Gurney ;  governor 
of  Singapore,  Sir  Franklin  Gimson.  A  commissioner  general 
for  Southeast  Asia  exercises,  as  part  of  his  functions,  general 
supervisory  authority.  Commissioner  general,  Malcolm 
Macdonald. 


MALENKOV— MALTA 


403 


History.  In  the  federation  the  disturbances,  which  had 
broken  out  in  June  1948,  continued  to  dominate  the  situation 
in  1949.  The  actual  number  of  Gurhka  and  British  troops 
engaged  was  not  disclosed  but  was  believed  to  be  about  a 
division ;  and  they  were  assisted  by  the  forces  of  the  Malay 
regiment,  air  force  units,  naval  coastal  patrols  and  at  least 
20,000  police.  The  daily  cost  of  the  operations  was  estimated 
at  £25,000.  But  in  spite  of  the  strength  of  the  forces  involved 
and  the  fact  that  the  Communist-led  bandits  were  never 
assumed  to  number  more  than  5,000,  the  hard  core  of  the 
revolt  was  not  broken.  Up  to  November  approximately  900 
bandits  had  been  killed  and  525  captured,  as  opposed  to 
21  officers  and  99  other  ranks  killed;  15  officers  and  162 
other  ranks  wounded;  264  police  and  568  civilians,  including 
34  Europeans,  killed.  September  saw  an  intensification  of 
the  campaign,  combined  with  an  offer  by  the  government  to 
those  who  had  been  consorting  with  the  bandits — in  many 
cases  unwillingly — that  they  would  not  incur  the  death 
penalty  for  the  carrying  of  arms  if  they  surrendered  volun- 
tarily to  the  authorities.  But  the  offer  met  with  small  response 
and  the  campaign  dragged  on. 

One  effect  of  the  troubles  was  to  bring  the  leaders  of  the 
various  communities  closer  together.  In  January  a  Communi- 
ties Liaison  committee  was  formed;  it  truly  reflected  the 
variety  of  races  that  goes  to  make  up  Malaya,  comprising 
6  Malays,  6  Chinese,  1  Indian,  1  European  and  1  Eurasian 
under  the  chairmanship  of  a  Ceylonese.  In  March  this 
committee  put  out  a  statement  in  which  it  stressed  the  need 
for  close  understanding  and  cordial  co-operation  between 
all  those  races;  and  in  another  statement,  issued  in  September, 
it  showed  that  a  basis  had  been  agreed  for  a  policy  of  political, 
social  and  economic  development  of  the  country. 

In  May  it  was  announced  in  the  British  parliament  that  in 
view  of  the  increased  burdens  which  Malaya  had  had  to  bear, 
the  British  government  had  decided  to  offer  a  free  grant  of 
£20  million  towards  the  Malayan  War  Damage  Compensation 
scheme  in  place  of  the  £10  million  offered  in  the  previous  year; 
and  also  that  an  interest-free  loan  of  $160  million  (approxi- 
mately £18^  million)  was  to  be  made  available  to  the  federation 
government  to  be  repaid  in  annual  instalments  (to  the  extent 
that  it  was  taken  up)  commencing  in  1956.  In  the  same  month 
the  federation  government  floated  a  £8,050,000  loan  on  the 
London  market  to  finance  rehabilitation  and  development 
projects  including  railway  and  road  communications,  drainage 
and  irrigation  schemes,  and  other  public  works. 

Law  and  order  was  maintained  in  Singapore,  which  was 
the  scene  of  a  number  of  conferences,  both  local  and  inter- 
national, including  a  conference  of  British  governors  and 
service  chiefs  in  Southeast  Asia  under  the  chairmanship  of 
the  commissioner  general  in  January;  another  in  November 
for  British  diplomatic  representatives,  colonial  governors  and 
service  chiefs  in  the  far  east;  the  inaugural  session  of  the 
Indo-Pacific  Fisheries  council  in  March;  and  the  fifth  session, 
attended  by  19  countries,  of  the  United  Nations  Economic 
Commission  for  Asia  and  the  Far  East  in  October. 

The  legislatures  of  both  territories  accepted  the  recom- 
mendations of  the  Commission  on  University  Education  in 
Malaya  and  passed  legislation  creating  a  University  of 
Malaya,  of  which  Malcolm  Macdonald  was  appointed  first 
chancellor.  The  university  was  formally  opened  in  October. 

In  spite  of  the  troubles  in  the  federation,  production  of 
rubber  and  tin  never  failed;  and  at  Kuala  Lumpur  in 
February  for  the  first  time  in  the  history  of  Malaya  there 
took  place  a  Trades  Union  conference  attended  by  some  150 
delegates  representative  of  80%  of  the  unions  of  the  country. 

Finance  and  Trade.     Currency:   Straits  dollar  =»  2s.  4d. 

Revenue       Expenditure         Imports  Exports 

(1949  estimates)  (1948)  (1948) 

Federation  .  $307,302020  $366,341,880      $490,859,576     $616,922,856 
Singapore    .  $109,051,943  $101,326,627  $1,300,342,063  $1,113,120,406 


Principal  exports.  Rubber,  tin,  tin  ore,  palm  oil,  coconut  oil  and 
copra.  The  trade  figures  are  exclusive  of  trade  between  Singapore  and 
the  federation ;  and  note  should  be  taken  that  as  an  entrepot  centre 
Singapore  was  the  federation's  chief  source  of  supply  and  chief  customer 
-  to  the  extent  of  $370,915,301  and  $498,967,682  respectively  in  1948 

(J.  A.  Hu.) 

MALENKOV,  GHEORGHY  MAKSIMILIANO- 
VICH,  Soviet  politician  (b.  Orenburg  [Chkalov],  Jan.  8, 
1901),  joined  the  Communist  party  in  April  1920.  After  the 
civil  war,  he  studied  at  Moscow  Higher  technical  college  and 
was,  secretary  of  the  Communist  students'  orgam/ation. 
In  1925  he  was  appointed  personal  secretary  to  Joseph  Stalin. 
In  1930  he  was  organizing  secretary  of  the  Moscow  section 
of  the  party.  In  March  1934,  before  the  purges  of  1936-38, 
Stalin  appointed  him  member  of  the  Orgburo  and  head  of 
the  personnel  department.  The  18th  congress  of  March 
1939  elected  him  member  of  the  central  committee  of  the 
All-Umon  Communist  party  which,  in  turn,  appointed  him 
one  of  the  four  secretaries.  On  Feb.  21,  1941,  he  became  a 
substitute  member  of  the  Politburo  and  on  June  30,  1941,  a 
member  of  the  State  Defence  committee.  For  organizing 
aircraft  production  during  World  War  II  he  was  awarded  in 
1943  the  title  of  Hero  of  Socialist  Labour  and  the  Order  of 
Lenin.  On  March  19,  1946,  he  was  appointed  one  of  ten 
full  members  of  the  Politburo  and  one  of  eight  (they  were 
13  by  1949)  deputy  chairmen  of  the  Council  of  Ministers. 
Besides  Stalin,  only  Malenkov  was  simultaneously  a  member 
of  the  government  and  of  the  three  key  party  bodies:  Polit- 
buro, Orgburo  and  secretariat.  On  Sept.  22-23,  1947,  he 
and  the  late  A.  Zhdanov  were  Soviet  delegates  at  the  con- 
ference at  Wilcza  Gora,  Poland,  at  which  the  Commform 
was  created.  In  a  speech  delivered  in  Moscow  on  Nov.  6, 
1949,  he  said  that  the  warmongers  envisaged  the  creation  by 
means  of  violence  of  an  "  American  world  empire  "  but 
there  could  be  no  doubt  that  if  the  imperialists  unleashed 
another  world  war  it  would  mean  the  grave  of  world 
capitalism. 

MALTA.  British  colony  in  central  Mediterranean  with 
dyarchial  constitution.  Area:  122  sq.  mi.  Pop  (1948 
census):  305,922.  Governor,  Sir  Gerald  Creasy;  prime 
minister,  Dr.  Paul  Boffa. 

History.  A  delegation  from  the  government  of  Malta 
consisting  of  the  prime  minister,  Dr.  Paul  Boffa,  the  deputy 
prime  minister,  Dom  Mintoff,  and  the  commissioner  general 
in  London,  Edward  Ellul,  visited  London  during  the  summer 
of  1949  in  order  to  obtain  further  assistance  towards  the 
colony's  finances  and  economy.  The  three  main  objectives 
of  the  delegation  were  an  indefinite  prolongation  of  U.K. 
contributions  to  the  cost  of  food  subsidies  (which  were  due 
to  end  in  1949);  the  maintenance  of  the  existing  high  levels 
of  employment  in  Malta  by  the  British  armed  services, 
notably  in  the  dockyard  where  12,500  were  employed  com- 
pared with  8,050  in  1939;  and  more  direct  benefits  to  Malta 
under  the  European  Recovery  programme. 

The  British  government  requested  information  on  the 
economic  and  financial  position  in  Malta;  but  instead  of 
supplying  this  information  in  a  suitable  form  the  Maltese 
government  presented  an  "  ultimatum."  The  British  govern- 
ment thereupon  stated  that  it  was  not  willing  to  continue  the 
talks  and  Dr.  Boffa  withdrew  the  **  ultimatum  "  on  Aug.  15. 
The  talks  continued  but  the  British  government  was  unable 
to  concede  the  major  claims  of  the  Maltese  government, 
although  it  was  decided  to  reduce  the  rate  of  dismissals  of 
persons  employed  in  the  dockyards  and  the  War  Office 
offered  to  give  work  in  Cyrenaica  to  Maltese  workers. 

Dom  Mintoff  resigned  from  the  government  on  Aug.  15, 
and  Edward  Ellul  resigned  his  post  the  following  day  because 


404 


MAN,  ISLE   OF 


Ceremony  in  Oct.   1949,  at   Valet  ta,  to  mark  the  40th  anniversary  of  the  St.  John  Ambulance  brigade  in  Malta. 


they  did  not  agree  to  the  withdrawal  of  the  kt  ultimatum/1 
Dr.  BofTa  continued  the  discussions  in  London  until  Sept.  5. 
In  a  debate  in  the  Legislative  Assembly  from  Sept.  9  to  Sept. 
19,  Dr.  Boffa  defended  his  action  against  a  bitter  personal 
attack  by  Dom  Mintoff  and  received  a  vote  of  confidence  by 
24  votes  to  7  (Mintoff  and  six  supporters  abstaining).  The 
Maltese  Labour  party,  by  244  votes  to  141,  censured  Dr. 
Boffa  as  leader  of  the  party  and  prime  minister.  Dr.  Boffa 
and  other  ministers  subsequently  resigned  from  the  party 
and  Dom  Mintoff  was  elected  party  leader. 

In  the  period  April  1948  to  March  1949,  3,140  Maltese 
residents  left  for  other  countries.  Of  these  1,265  went  to 
Australia,  772  to  Canada,  323  to  the  U.S.  and  747  to  Britain 
(see  also  IMMIGRATION  AND  EMIGRATION). 

Finance  and  Trade.  Currency:  pound  sterling.  Budget  (1949-50  est.): 
revenue,  £5,380,962;  expenditure,  £5,586,683.  Foreign  trade  (1948): 
imports  £16,033,815;  exports  £1,232,258. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  Malta:  Recent  Requests  for  Financial  and  Economic 
Assistance  (H.M.S.O.,  London,  1949);  Sir  Harry  Luke,  Malta:  An 
Account  and  an  Appreciation  (London,  1949);  W.  E.  Simnett,  "  Can 
Self-governing  Malta  Save  Herself,"  Crown  Colonist*  Jan.  1950. 

MAN,  ISLE  OF.  An  island  in  the  Irish  sea  forming 
part  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Northern 
Ireland,  but  administered  separately  by  a  lieutenant  governor, 
an  appointed  Legislative  Council,  and  the  House  of  Keys  of 
24  elected  members.  Both  branches  of  the  legislature  sitting 
together  as  one  body,  but  voting  separately,  are  known  as 
the  Tynwald  court.  Area:  220-7  sq.  mi.  Pop.  (1939  est.): 
50,829.  Capital:  Douglas  (pop.  20,012).  Lieutenant  governor, 
Air  Vice  Marshal  Sir  Geoffrey  Bromet. 

History.  In  May  the  Tynwald  unanimously  passed  a 
resolution  declaring  that  it  was  right  that  the  island  should 
make  a  greater  contribution  towards  the  cost  of  imperial 
defence  and  other  common  services.  Under  the  Isle  of  Man 
Harbours  act,  1866,  the  island  paid  £10,000  annually  to 


Great  Britain.  The  home  secretary  suggested  certain  revision 
including  a  form  of  customs  union  and  a  deputation  led 
by  the  lieutenant  governor  visited  London  for  discussions. 
The  Treasury  suggested  an  increase  in  the  annual  payment 
to  £300,000,  but  ultimately  agreed  on  £100,000  a  year. 

The  debate  was  resumed  in  the  Tynwald  in  October.  A 
resolution  was  moved  on  behalf  of  the  deputation  that  the 
contribution  be  £50,000  with  an  additional  7^%  upon 
"  common  purse  "  receipts  from  customs  duties  above  £1 
million  with  provision  for  revision  every  ten  years.  An 
amendment  was  moved  to  fix  the  payment  at  £50,000  with 
provision  for  revision  each  year.  This  was  carried  in  the 
Keys  but  defeated  in  the  Legislative  Council.  The  original 
motion  was  defeated  in  the  Keys  and  carried  in  the  Council; 
and  so  deadlock  was  reached.  On  Nov.  15  the  Tynwald 
decided  to  increase  the  payment  for  five  years  to  an  amount 
equal  to  5%  of  the  customs  receipts.  In  1949  this  would  be 
£85,000. 

At  the  annual  Tynwald  ceremony  at  St.  John's  on  July  5, 
32  laws  were  read  which  had  been  passed  by  the  Tynwald 
during  the  previous  year.  In  January  the  Tynwald  passed  a 
resolution  asking  the  King  to  extend  to  the  island  the 
amended  National  Service  act  which  extended  the  period  of 
whole-time  service  to  18  months.  (X.) 

Education.  Schools:  primary  36,  pupils  4,162;  secondary  6,  pupils 
2,870;  domestic  science  college  1,  students  208;  school  of  technology, 
art  and  crafts  1,  students  225. 

Agriculture.  Livestock  (1948):  horses  2,186;  cattle  23,716;  poultry 
176,980;  sheep  69,344;  pigs  2,831.  Acreage  of  land  under  crops  and 
grass  (1948),  75,262.  Tractors  587;  milking  machines  99.  Fisheries: 
crans  landed  (1949  season)  17,555;  value  £62,329. 

Transport.  Railways:  46 \  mi.  Shipping  (1948):  56  merchant 
vessels,  12,223  tons,  and  127  fishing  vessels. 

Finance.  Revenue  (1947-48)  £2,066,473;  expenditure  (1947-48) 
£2.414,689.  Revenue  (1948-49)  £2,700,674;  expenditure  (1948-49) 
£2,768,095.  National  debt  (March  31.  1949),  £1, 390,00  >. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  F.  Maxwell,  In  Praise  of  Manx/and  (London,  1949;) 
B.  F.  Sargeaunt,  A  Military  History  of  the  Isle  of  Man  (Arbroath,  1949). 


MANN— MARINE    BIOLOGY 


405 


MANDATES:   see  TRUST  TERRITORIES. 

MANN,  THOMAS,  German  novelist  (b.  Lubeck, 
June  6,  1875),  received  in  1929  the  Nobel  prize  of  literature. 
Exiled  from  Germany  in  1933,  he  became  a  naturalized 
U.S.  citizen  during  World  War  IF.  (For  his  early  career  see 
Encyclopaedia  Britannica.) 

Before  World  War  II  Mann  was  a  severe  critic  of  all 
compromises  which  assisted  Hitler  to  power.  During  the 
war  he  broadcast  to  Germany  in  the  transmission  Voice  of 
America.  In  1945  he  published  a  *'  Message  to  the  German 
People  "  in  which  he  expressed  the  conviction  that  not  only 
Hitler,  the  Nazi  party  and  German  generals  had  been 
responsible  for  starting  World  War  II  and  committing  crimes 
and  atrocities,  but  also  the  people  themselves.  For  such 
forthright  opinions  he  was  not  popular  in  Germany.  Never- 
theless, on  the  occasion  in  1949  of  the  200th  anniversary  of 
Goethe's  birth,  Mann  received  the  Goethe  prize  (Dm.  10,000) 
from  both  the  city  of  Frankfurt  and  the  city  of  Weimar, 
which,  in  addition,  conferred  upon  him  honorary  citizenship. 
In  an  address  at  Frankfurt  on  July  25  he  said  that  there  was 
in  Goethe,  as  in  the  soul  of  every  German,  a  mixture  of  the 
demoniac  and  the  good;  Goethe  had  succeeded  in  har- 
monizing his  demoniac  forces  in  the  service  of  the  good. 
He  prefaced  the  address  by  stating  that  he  remained  a  German 
writer  and  felt  his  country's  fate  as  deeply  as  any  good 
German.  After  visiting  Munich,  he  arrived  at  Weimar  on 
Aug.  1  and  in  a  speech  there — in  the  Soviet  zone — declared 
that  he  did  not  see  how  humanity  could  emerge  from  its 
existing  political,  economic  and  intellectual  difficulties  with- 
out a  conflict.  In  the  U.S.,  after  his  first  visit  to  Germany 
in  16  years,  Mann  told  the  press  reporters  that  what  impressed 
him  most  about  Germany  was  her  nationalism  and  impeni- 
tence about  the  Hitler  regime. 

MAO  TSE  TUNG,  Chinese  statesman  (b.  Shaoshan, 
Hunan,  1 893),  co-founder  of  the  Chinese  Communist  party 
in  1921  and  member  of  its  first  central  committee;  from 
1936  chairman  of  the  party  and  head  of  the  Yunan  Communist 
government.  (For  his  early  career  see  Britannica  Book  of 
the  Year  1949.) 

In  Nov.  1948  Mao  proclaimed 
that  the  Communists  were  in 
control  of  nearly  one-third  of 
China.  During  1949  practically 
all  continental  China  fell  into 
their  hands.  On  March  25  Mao 
arrived  in  Peking  with  Chou  En- 
lai  (q.v.)  and  General  Chu  Teh 
(q.v.)  and  soon  afterwards  it  was 
announced  that  the  ancient  capi- 
tal would  again  become  the  seat 
of  a  new  central  government. 
On  June  15-19  Mao  presided 
over  a  committee  preparing  a 
Chinese  People's  Political  Con- 
sultative conference,  a  sort  of 
constituent  assembly  which  was 
convened  in  Peking  on  Sept.  21. 
On  June  30,  speaking  on  the  28th 
anniversary  of  the  foundation  of 
Chinese  Communist  party,  Mao 
said  that  new  China  belonged  to 
the  anti-imperialist  camp  under 
Soviet  leadership.  On  Oct.  1,  he 

Princess  Margaret  (left)  in  Rome 
during  her  visit  to  Italy  in  1949. 
She  arrived  in  Rome  on  May  6  and 
on  May  10  was  received  by  Pope  Pius. 


became  chairman  of  the  central  government  council  of  the 
Chinese  people's  republic — an  office  similar  to  that  of  the 
president  of  the  republic.  The  formal  proclamation  of  the 
republic  was  announced  by  a  proclamation  read  by  Mao 
before  a  crowd  of  some  200,000  in  the  square  of  the  Gate 
of  Heavenly  Peace  at  Peking.  On  Dec.  16  he  arrived  in 
Moscow  for  the  first  time  in  his  life  and  was  received  the 
same  day  by  Joseph  Stalin. 

MARGARET  ROSE,  PRINCESS  (b.  Glamis 
castle,  Angus,  Aug.  21,  1930),  the  younger  daughter  of 
Kmg  George  VI  (q.v.)  and  Queen  Elizabeth  accompanied 
her  parents  ana  Princess  Elizabeth  (q.v.)  on  a  state  visit 
to  the  Union  of  South  Africa  in  the  early  months  of  1947. 
After  the  wedding  of  Princess  Elizabeth  on  Nov.  20,  1947, 
Princess  Margaret  undertook  many  public  engagements.  In 
March  1949  she  made  a  series  of  visits  of  an  educational 
nature.  These  included  Battersea  power  station,  Scotland 
Yard,  the  East  London  juvenile  court,  the  central  criminal 
court,  the  House  of  Commons  and  the  offices  of  a  London 
newspaper.  On  April  27,  1949,  she  left  England  by  air  for  a 
month's  holiday  in  Italy  and  visited  Naples,  Capri,  Pompeii 
and  Rome,  where  she  attended  the  International  Horse  show 
and  on  May  10  was  received  in  private  audience  by  the  Pope. 
She  also  visited  Florence,  Stresa  and  Venice  and  spent  a 
few  days  in  Switzerland  and  in  Paris  before  returning  to 
England  on  June  1.  Her  interest  in  youth  movements  was 
reflected  in  many  engagements  with  the  St.  John  Ambulance 
cadets,  of  which  she  was  colonel  in  chief,  the  Girl  Guide 
movement,  of  which  she  was  commodore  of  the  sea  ranger 
section,  and  the  national  and  Scottish  associations  of  girls' 
clubs.  During  her  first  visit  to  Bristol  in  March  she  opened 
an  exhibition  "  Youth  at  Work  and  Leisure."  In  1947  she 
was  appointed  to  the  Order  of  the  Crown  of  India  and  on 
Jan.  13,  1949,  was  invested  dame  of  justice  of  the  Venerable 
Order  of  the  Hospital  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem. 

MARIANAS    ISLANDS:    see  TRUST  TERRITORIES. 

MARINE    BIOLOGY.   Research  in   marine  biology 
showed  some  exoansion  after  the  end  of  World  War  II. 


406 


MARKET   GARDENING 


On  the  seashore  attention  continued  to  be  devoted  to  the 
general  ecology  of  plants  and  animals,  and  to  their  relations 
one  with  another.  Much  new  information  was  recorded  on 
the  growth  and  reproduction  of  some  of  the  larger  seaweeds, 
which  were  being  used  increasingly  as  the  source  of  certain 
commercial  products.  Seasonal  changes  in  the  chemical 
composition  of  these  weeds  were  also  followed.  A  remarkable 
demonstration  was  given  of  the  influence  of  the  common 
limpet  on  the  growth  and  distribution  of  seaweeds  in  the 
Isle  of  Man  where  all  limpets  were  removed  from  a  wide 
strip  of  the  rocky  foreshore  between  tidemarks. 

Much  research  was  done  on  the  problem  of  the  settlement 
of  the  larval  stages  of  marine  animals  on  or  in  the  bottom 
substratum  inhabited  by  the  adults,  and  of  their  subsequent 
metamorphosis.  The  effect  of  sand  particle  size  and  shape 
was  examined  as  <a  factor  in  the  metamorphosis  of  certain 
polychaete  worm  larv<e.  Similarly,  the  role  of  copper  present 
in  sand  and  its  influence  on  the  metamorphosis  of  ascidian 
larvae  was  studied.  Settling  reactions  were  also  studied  in 
relation  to  the  fouling  growths  on  underwater  structures  and 
on  ships*  bottoms,  a  problem  of  major  interest  to  those  con- 
cerned with  the  production  of  satisfactory  anti-fouling  com- 
positions. Interesting  new  information  became  available  on 
the  settling  of  oyster  spat  which  tended  to  settle  in  greatest 
abundance  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  largest  concentrations 
of  the  young  and  adult  oysters.  This,  of  course,  had  an 
important  bearing  on  the  practice  of  laying  of  oysters. 

Considerable  attention  continued  to  centre  round  the 
general  problem  of  the  productivity  of  the  sea.  The  search 
for  limiting  factors  continued  and  manganese  was  shown  to 
act  as  a  trace  element  in  the  sea  as  it  does  on  land.  Attempts 
were  made  to  translate  information  which  had  accumulated  on 
seasonal  changes  in  the  presence  of  nutrient  salts  in  solution 
in  the  sea  and  of  the  abundance  of  the  phytoplankton  and 
zooplankton  organisms  into  equational  form  so  as  to  express 
mathematically  the  changes  that  might  be  expected  should 
there  occur  an  alteration  in  any  one  of  the  conditioning  or 
environmental  factors.  That  the  science  of  the  ecology  of 
sea-water  should  have  reached  this  stage  was  regarded  as 
definite  advance  and  it  was  hoped  that  such  analyses  of  the 
data  available  would  point  the  way  to  new  lines  for  research. 

At  the  same  time  the  assessment  of  the  available  producer 
crop  in  the  plankton  remained  uncertain  owing  to  lack  of 
knowledge  of  the  part  played  by  the  smaller  nanoplankton 
organisms,  such  as  flagellates,  whose  collection  and  identifi- 
cation present  considerable  difficulties.  Attention  was  de- 
voted to  the  culture  of  these  minute  organisms,  and  their 
possible  importance  as  food  for  lamelli branch  molluscs  was 
stressed  by  research.  Previously  it  was  thought  that  the  size 
of  food  organisms  eaten  by  such  molluscs  as  mussels  and 
oysters  was  determined  by  selection  by  the  cilia  of  the  gills. 
It  was  now  suggested  that,  when  feeding,  the  gills  were 
covered  by  a  mucous  layer  and  that  consequently  much 
smaller  particles  could  be  retained. 

A  fresh  interest  developed  in  methods  of  collecting  samples 
of  plankton  for  quantitative  purposes.  Research  aimed  at 
perfecting  methods  whereby  the  quantity  of  water  from  which 
the  plankton  organism  had  been  collected  could  be  accurately 
known.  For  this  purpose  pumps  and  measuring  nets  were 
used  and  the  catches  statistically  analysed  to  evaluate  the 
errors  involved.  It  was  hoped  that  by  this  means  it  would  be 
possible  to  set  the  limits  of  accuracy  of  the  different  methods 
employed.  Doubt  was  thrown  on  the  reliability  of  the  stan- 
dard silk  closing  net  as  a  quantitative  apparatus  for  collecting 
plankton. 

Attention  was  centred  on  the  so-called  *'  scattering  layer  " 
now  found  to  exist  in  most  ocean  water.  This  is  a  layer  which 
produces  a  diffuse  echo  when  ultrasonic  fathometers  are 
used  and  which  usually  occurs  at  a  depth  of  150  fathoms  or 


deeper.  It  is  remarkable  for  showing  a  diurnal  rise  and  fall 
in  the  depth  at  which  it  occurs.  This  latter  property  suggested 
that  its  origin  was  biological,  but  the  actual  organisms  that 
may  cause  it  were  still  unknown.  Planktonic  euphausians, 
squid  or  fish  were  considered  at  present  to  be  possible  causes, 
and  further  information  on  the  phenomenon  was  awaited 
with  interest. 

Further  advances  were  made  in  the  study  of  the  quantity 
of  life  on  and  in  the  sea  bottom.  For  this  purpose  new  types  of 
apparatus  for  sampling  known  areas  of  the  sea  floor  were 
developed.  At  the  same  time,  methods  of  underwater  photo- 
graphy were  improved.  These  means  showed  promise  of 
producing  a  truer  and  more  accurate  picture  of  the  distribution 
and  quantity  of  animals  in  and  on  the  various  types  of 
deposits.  Some  remarkable  parasitic  feeding  habits  of  small 
bottom-living  molluscs  were  described.  (See  also  FISHERIES; 
ZOOLOGY.)  (F.  S.  R.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  C.  M.  Yonge,  The  Sea  Shore  (London,  1949); 
G.  fc.  MdcGmitie  and  Nettie  MacGinitie,  Natural  History  of  Marine 
Ammah  (New  York,  1949),  F  D.  Ommanney,  The  Ocean  (London, 
1949) 


MARKET  GARDENING.  Small  scale  growers  of 
horticultural  crops  in  Great  Britain  had  cause  to  remember 
1949  as  a  crucial  year.  The  business  pendulum  began  to 
swing  backward.  Two  uncontrollable  factors,  the  weather 
and  the  economic  situation,  operated  against  a  continuance 
of  the  hitherto  high  returns  The  mild  winter  brought  along 
heavy  supplies  of  spring  vegetables  and  prices  slumped. 
Most  of  the  country  had  only  one-third  of  normal  rainfall 
between  May  and  August,  consequently  summer  crops  made 
no  bulk  and,  more  important,  winter  greens  made  little 
growth  until  October.  Early  season  offerings  tended  to  meet 
more  competition  from  imported  supplies,  and  with  general 
farmers  beginning  to  encroach  upon  the  mid-season  market 
for  the  staple  crops  like  peas,  carrots  and  celery,  the  market 
gardener  was  left  once  again  in  a  favoured  position  only  in 
his  own  local  and  high  quality  market.  The  output  of  drupe 
fruit  was  much  reduced  and  great  harm  was  done  to  straw- 
berry beds  on  light  soils  in  the  south  of  the  country. 

The  soft  fruit  acreage  increased  during  the  year  from 
39,900  to  48,500  ac.  —  the  1939  level  — with  raspberries 
showing  the  biggest  proportional,  and  strawberries  the 
biggest  absolute,  increase.  By  contrast  the  acreage  of  vege- 
tables recorded  was  52,789  smaller,  at  529,996.  There  was 
a  general  withdrawal  over  all  vegetable  crops,  denoting  a 
marginal  retraction  of  farm  production  and  a  return  towards 
specialized  production  by  market  gardeners.  Farm-produced 
vegetables  became  a  feature  of  the  trade  during  World  War  II 
and  influenced  many  market  gardeners  to  turn  to  out-of- 
season  produce,  which  entailed  increased  outlay  on  portable 
glass  structures.  The  use  of  glasshouses  increased,  and 
flower-  and  nursery  stock-growing  became  a  more  popular 
activity.  A  limited  amount  of  new  glasshouse  construction 
was  allowed. 

The  technical  advance  in  methods  of  disease  control  was 
maintained.  Toxic  smokes  began  to  supplant  dusts  and 
sprays  in  glasshouse  practice,  and  a  new  soil  fumigant  to 
counter  root-knot  eelworm  was  introduced.  More  generally, 
compounds  containing  the  new  phosphatic  insecticides  were 
given  cautious  trial  in  view  of  their  suspected  toxicity  to 
humans.  The  culture  of  strawberries  under  cloches,  with 
varieties  adapted  for  the  purpose,  became  more  widespread. 
A  research  station  to  cover  soft  fruit  growing  was  opened 
in  Hampshire  and  plans  were  made  known  for  three  other 
horticultural  research  stations. 

Part  IV  of  the  1947  Agriculture  act,  which  deals  with  the 
provision  of  smallholdings,  came  into  operation  on  Oct.  1. 
The  Smallholdings  Advisory  council,  in  a  report  published 


MARRIAGE  AND   DIVORCE 


407 


in  April,  recommended  that  new  holdings  should  provide 
full-time  occupation  and  an  annual  net  income  of  some  £450 
to  the  tenant.  It  was  considered  that  five  or  six  ac.  of  good 
market  gardening  land,  or  a  more  intensive  holding  of  two  ac. 
on  which  a  heated  glasshouse  would  be  provided,  would 
enable  market  garden  undertakings  to  fulfil  these  require- 
ments. (5V?-also  AGRICULTURE,  FRUIT;  HORTICULTURE; 
ROOT  CROPS;  VEGETABLES.)  (R.  R.  W.  F.) 

MARRIAGE  AND  DIVORCE.  Shortly  after  World 
War  II,  divorce  rates  had  risen  sharply  in  Great  Britain, 
western  Europe,  including  the  occupied  countries,  and  the 
United  States.  In  1949  there  seemed  little  doubt  that  this 
temporary  postwar  peak  was  past;  but  in  spite  of  further 
decreases  in  many  nations,  comparable  to  those  of  the 
previous  year,  divorce  rates  were  expected  to  resume  the 
upward  trend  of  the  previous  decades. 

Great  Britain.  The  long-awaited  report  of  the  Royal  Com- 
mission on  Population  included  recommendations  that  the 
national  health  service  be  empowered  to  give  contraceptive 
information  to  all  married  persons  desiring  it,  that  parent- 
hood clinics  be  set  up  to  deal  with  the  increasing  number 
of  childless  marriages,  that  sex  education  and  homemaking 
should  be  widely  developed,  that  family  allowances  should 
be  increased  and  that  incentives  should  be  found  to  encourage 
the  professional  classes  to  have  more  children.  On  the  basis 
of  the  1947  census,  the  registrar  general  estimated  that  in 
England  and  Wales  the  total  number  of  women  exceeded 
that  of  men  by  2,308,000.  The  Marriage  Reform  committee, 
claiming  that  100,000  British  couples  were  living  out  of 
wedlock  because  either  the  man  or  woman  was  unable  to 
divorce  the  legal  mate,  demanded  that  a  royal  commission 
be  established  to  study  existing  divorce  laws  and  to  consider 
their  liberalization. 

The  Birmingham  Marriage  Guidance  council  reported  that 
the  three  major  causes  of  marital  disharmony  were  ignorance 
of  sex,  lack  of  spiritual  foundation  and  inadequate  or 
unsuitable  housing  and  that,  of  the  marriages  investigated, 
half  of  them  involved  civil  rather  than  church  weddings. 
The  London  Catholic  Marriage  Advisory  council  tabulated 
the  problems  of  1,543  clients  and  reported  that  17  %  concerned 
annulments,  1 3  %  related  to  legal  problems,  10%  were  medical, 
8%  dealt  with  church  rules  or  moral  questions,  6%  were 
premarital  and  the  rest  were  miscellaneous;  of  447  clients 
with  marital  problems,  159  represented  marriages  between 
Catholics  and  non-Catholics. 

Canada.  The  dominion  Bureau  of  Statistics  found  that  the 
size  of  families  was  decreasing  steadily  among  younger 
French-Canadian  married  couples.  Another  study  indicated 
that  in  1926  the  divorce  rate  was  one-seventeenth  that  of 
the  United  States,  but  within  the  intervening  years  it  had 
increased  to  one-seventh.  There  was  continuing  demand 
from  Quebec  and  Newfoundland  for  separate  divorce  laws 
since  all  actions  from  these  provinces  must  be  adjudicated 
by  the  Canadian  parliament. 

United  States.  The  marriage  rate  (10-8  per  1,000  popula- 
tion) declined  for  the  third  successive  year;  the  number  of 
marriages  was  estimated  at  1,625,000,  a  drop  of  nearly  10% 
from  the  provisional  total  of  1,802,895  in  1948  and  a  decrease 
of  over  18%  from  the  final  total  of  1,991,878  for  1947.  The 
U.S.  Public  Health  service  estimated  that  29,953  of  the 
marriage  licences  issued  in  1948  and  22,965  in  1947  were  not 
used,  and  concluded  that  for  any  given  year  marriages 
tended  to  be  from  1  to  3  %  below  the  number  of  marriage 
licences  issued.  Divorces,  including  annulments,  were  not 
expected  to  exceed  380,000,  a  decrease  of  6%  from  the 
405,000  divorces  of  1948  and  of  21  %  from  483,000  in  1947. 

Research  found  that  one-fourth  of  the  total  labour  force 
were  women,  of  which  approximately  one-half  were  married 


and  one-sixth  divorced;  about  36  million  men  were  married 
(13%  more  than  once),  of  whom  nearly  one-third  were 
under  35  years  (6%  previously  married);  and,  for  all  ages 
of  1 5  years  and  above,  the  number  of  males  per  1 ,000  females 
was  977,  the  first  time  in  history  that  women  had  outnumbered 
men.  The  first  divorce  law  passed  in  South  Carolina  took 
effect  as  from  April  1949  and  cited  grounds  of  adultery, 
desertion,  physical  cruelty  and  habitual  drunkenness.  In  the 
Catholic  archdiocese  of  New  York,  Rochester,  New  York, 
and  Hartford,  Connecticut,  a  new  rule  permitted  mixed 
marriages  to  be  performed  in  church  but  they  could  not  be 
celebrated  at  the  altar  or  with  a  nuptial  mass. 

Other  Countries.  In  Europe  generally  the  divorce  rate  was 
falling,  particularly  in  Belgium,  Denmark,  France,  the 
Netherlands,  Norway  and  Sweden,  although  the  marriage 
rate  showed  no  great  decline.  Offering  a  bonus  of  Fr.22,000 
upward,  Belgium  was  encouraging  families  to  build  new 
homes.  Czechoslovakia  and  Poland  made  civil  marriages 
mandatory  but  these  could  be  followed  by  religious  cere- 
monies; divorce  restrictions  were  tightened  with  divorce  by 
mutual  agreement  no  longer  permitted;  illegitimate  children 
were  given  legal  rights  equal  to  those  of  children  born  in 
wedlock.  In  France  the  Young  Women's  Family  service  was 
providing  training  in  homemaking  to  girls  in  several  centres. 
After  the  ban  on  marriages  of  U.S.  soldiers  to  German 
civilians  was  lifted,  Frankfurt  army  headquarters  reported 
that  about  2,000  such  weddings  had  been  authorized.  From 
Israel  came  the  report  of  a  drop  of  40%  from  the  divorce 
rate  under  British  mandate. 

Both  marriage  and  divorce  rates  were  increasing  in  Italy 
and  the  first  marriage-counselling  centre  was  opened  at  Milan 
under  the  direction  of  Dino  Origlia;  the  general  council  of 
the  International  Union  of  Family  Organizations  was 
convened  at  Rome  in  September.  In  Japan,  where  concern 
was  expressed  at  the  alarming  rise  in  abortions,  parent-teacher 
associations  were  formed  in  a  majority  of  the  new  elementary 
and  secondary  schools.  To  encourage  parenthood,  Luxem- 
bourg extended  its  allotment  system  to  provide  Fr.  5,000  for 
the  first  child  and  Fr.  3,000  for  each  additional  birth.  Through 
its  church  and  school  department,  Norway  was  utilizing  a 
national  committee  of  physicians  and  clergymen  to  deal  with 
problems  of  family-life  education. 

The  supreme  court  of  the  Soviet  Union  urged  the  lower 
courts  to  strengthen  marriage  and  family  ties  by  not  granting 
divorces  for  accidental  or  transitory  causes  (including 
"  casual  cohabitation "),  by  encouraging  sex  education 
through  parental  example;  the  ministry  of  justice  prohibited 
its  citizens  from  marrying  foreigners.  As  from  July  1 ,  working- 
class  couples  in  Spain  were  granted  outright  c.  £60  to  help 
found  new  homes  and  families.  In  Sweden,  the  Institute  for 
Spiritual  Guidance  and  Psychic  Counselling  began  marriage 
counselling  in  its  branches  at  Gothenburg,  Hernosand, 
Norrkoping  and  Uppsala. 

At  Buenos  Aires,  Argentina,  the  first  International  Congress 
of  Mothers  resolved  to  establish  an  institute  of  family 
education  in  every  Latin  American  state.  The  second  Pan- 
American  Congress  of  Social  Work  met  in  Rio  de  Janeiro 
with  the  support  of  the  family  as  its  theme.  An  association 
for  the  study  of  sterility  was  formed  in  Uruguay.  (See  also 
VITAL  STATISTICS.)  (C.  R.  A.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  Periodicals:  National  Marriage  Guidance  Council, 
Marriage  Guidance  (London,  1949);  American  Institute  of  Family 
Relations,  Family  Life  (1949);  United  States  Public  Health  Service, 
Monthly  Vital  Statistics  Bulletin  (1949),  Provisional  Marriage  and 
Divorce  Statistics  (1949)  and  Quarterly  Marriage  Report  (1949). 

MARSHALL  ISLANDS:    see  TRUST  TERRITORIES. 

MARSHALL  PLAN:  see  EUROPEAN  RECOVERY 
PROGRAMME. 


408 


MATHEMATICS— MEAT 


MARTINIQUE:  see  FRENCH  UNION. 

MATHEMATICS.  The  year  1949,  in  contrast  with 
1948,  was  not  distinguished  mathematically  by  any  striking 
discovery.  No  outstanding  old  problem  appeared  to  have 
been  solved  nor  any  promising  new  method  to  have  been 
devised.  Nevertheless,  the  output  of  highly  technical  mathe- 
matics accelerated  and  almost  equalled  in  bulk  that  of  the 
late  1930s.  Much  European  work,  especially  German,  that 
had  been  delayed  in  publication  by  World  War  II  was  printed, 
making  further  demands  on  the  already  overcrowded  journals. 
At  the  close  of  the  year  it  was  too  early  to  sift  and  appraise 
this  mass  of  detailed  contributions. 

As  the  mid-20th  century  approached  it  seemed  that  the 
cultivation  and  production  of  mathematics  was  likely  to  be 
governed  by  economic  and  military  considerations  to  an 
extent  which  would  have  seemed  fantastic  prior  to  World 
War  II;  such  considerations  appeared  to  have  become  a 
significant  feature  of  mathematical  progress  during  1949  and 
affected  mathematics  in  all  countries;  many  mathematicians 
who  before  the  war  had  not  worked  in  applied  mathematics 
were  deflected  from  their  previous  interests,  in  which  they 
had  made  their  reputations,  into  governmental  work  of  one 
kind  or  other. 

On  the  economic  level,  the  continued  increase  in  the  cost 
of  printing  drastically  curtailed  the  publication  of  mathe- 
matical research.  The  most  urgent  problem  facing  the 
mathematicians  of  the  United  States,  for  example,  was  how 
to  finance  publication.  Since  about  1920  this  problem  had 
steadily  become  more  acute.  With  few  exceptions  mathe- 
matical research  was  unpaid;  it  was  done,  mostly  by  univer- 
sity professors,  in  the  researchers'  own  free  time;  and, 
although  mathematical  discovery  might  contain  the  germ 
of  a  lucrative  industry,  the  man  who  made  the  discovery 
received  no  financial  reward,  for  his  discovery  could  be 
neither  patented  nor  copyrighted.  His  compensation  was 
that  some  academy  or  mathematical  society  printed  his 
work  without  cost  to  him.  Now  expense  made  this  no  longer 
possible.  Several  of  the  European  academies  suspended 
publication.  With  great  reluctance  the  American  Mathe- 
matical society  (with  the  largest  membership  of  any  body  of 
professional  mathematicians  in  the  world)  reversed  its  policy  of 
publication  cost-free  to  authors,  a  policy  of  over  half  a  century's 
standing,  and  would  henceforth  ask  either  the  author  of  a 
research  paper  or  the  institution  with  which  he  was  connected 
to  bear  a  substantial  part  of  the  cost  of  publication.  An  example 
of  the  financial  crisis  of  1949  was  the  plight  of  the  abstract- 
journal,  Mathematical  Reviews,  founded  in  1940  to  anticipate 
the  suspension  of  similar  European  journals,  which  was 
sustained  only  by  a  subvention  of  $21,500  for  one  year 
from  the  office  of  air  research.  This,  too,  illustrated  the 
way  in  which  military  departments  had  aided  mathematical 
research  since  the  close  of  World  War  II,  even  though  some 
of  the  subsidized  research  was  in  fields  which,  at  least  to  a 
layman,  seemed  to  have  no  possible  connection  with  military 
needs — for  example,  a  special  case  of  the  decision  problem 
in  mathematical  logic— and  this  type  of  work  was  not  kept 
secret  for  reasons  of  military  security  and  was  given  freely 
to  the  public,  ultimately,  of  course,  at  public  expense. 

A  more  far  reaching  interest  in  mathematics  on  the  part 
of  military  planners  was  expressed  in  the  report  (June  27, 
1949)  of  the  Policy  Committee  for  Mathematics.  This 
committee  in  Feb.  1949  **  established  a  Committee  on 
Liaison  with  the  Department  of  the  Army  and  Department 
of  the  Air  Forces."  This  and  the  following  quotations  were 
transcribed  from  the  report  of  the  Policy  committee  of  the 
American  Mathematical  society,  Aug.  1949.  Their  applica- 
tion, with  obvious  qualifications,  was  world-wide:  "The 
technical  uses  of  mathematics  in  the  army,  as  well  as  of  the 


other  services,  began  to  multiply  rapidly  in  World  War  II, 
and  have  continued  to  do  so.  Adequate  and  effective  utiliza- 
tion of  mathematical  skills  in  the  National  Military  establish- 
ment is  therefore  to  some  degree  still  a  matter  for  pioneering. 
The  fact  that  the  number  of  highly  trained  mathematicians 
is  limited  creates  a  personnel  problem  which  would  become 
critical  in  an  emergency  ...  It  was  decided,  therefore,  that 
the  Committee  of  Liaison  should  hold  itself  ready  to  ... 
act  as  a  panel  of  Consultants  to  assist  the  Department  of 
the  Army  in  attaining  the  optimum  technical  utilization  of 
the  available  mathematical  skills,  and  to  advise  upon  the 
proper  allocation  of  available  mathematical  manpower, 
especially  in  time  of  emergency."  (E.  T.  B.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  A  complete  list  of  publications  for  1949,  with 
concise  abstracts,  is  given  in  Mathematical  Reviews,  vol.  10. 

MATTA,  JOSfi  CAEIRO  DA,  Portuguese  educa- 
tionalist, lawyer  and  statesman  (b.  Jan.  6,  1883,  Vimieiro, 
Portugal).  After  receiving  his  degree  of  doctor  of  law  at  the 
University  of  Coimbra,  he  was  appointed  there  as  professor 
in  1907  and  for  13  years  taught  Roman  law,  history  of  Portu- 
guese law,  civil  and  penal  law  and  political  economy.  In 
1920  he  was  transferred  to  the  University  of  Lisbon  where  he 
was  professor  of  international  law  (public  and  private)  and 
of  statistics.  From  1928  to  1947  he  was  rector  of  Lisbon 
university.  From  April  1933  to  April  1935  he  was  minister 
of  foreign  affairs,  from  1944  to  1947  minister  of  education, 
and  from  Feb.  7,  1947,  minister  of  foreign  affairs  for  the 
second  time.  He  represented  his  country  at  the  two  Paris 
conferences  (July  1947  and  April  1948)  at  which  the  Organiza- 
tion for  European  Economic  Co-operation  was  planned  and 
created.  On  April  4, 1949,  at  Washington,  he  signed  the  North 
Atlantic  treaty  for  Portugal  and  said  that  Europe  was  strugg- 
ling against  the  greatest  and  most  dangerous  mental  epidemic 
of  all  time,  which  threatened  to  destroy  the  flower  of  its 
culture,  but  that  she  was  facing  her  position  with  courage  and 
decision.  Senhor  da  Matta  has  written  many  books  on  law  in 
Portuguese  and  French,  and  received  honorary  degrees  of 
doctor  of  law  from  the  universities  of  Madrid  and  Toulouse. 

MAURITANIA:  see  FRENCH  UNION. 

MAURITIUS.  British  colony  in  Indian  ocean.  Area: 
c.  720  sq.  mi.  Pop.  (Jan.  1,  1948  est.):  438,703.  including 
278,803  Indians.  Dependencies:  area,  c.  87  sq.  mi.;  pop. 
c.  14,000.  Governor,  Sir  Hilary  Blood. 

A  campaign  to  stamp  out  malaria  was  inaugurated  and 
made  good  progress.  A  commission  of  inquiry  into  the' 
workings  of  the  Supply  Control  department  cleared  the 
controller  of  charges  of  bribery  but  was  in  general  critical 
of  the  department  and  found  apparent  evidence  of  fraud 
among  minor  employees.  The  visit  to  the  island  in  May  of 
the  Indian  cruiser  "  Delhi  "  was  the  social  event  of  the  year. 

Finance  and  Trade.  Currency:  1  rupee ^ls.  6d.  Budget  (1947-48): 
revenue  Rs  39,856,646;  expenditure  Rs.49, 147,495.  Foreign  trade 
(1948):  imports  Rs.  136,265,540;  exports  Rs.  144,345,359.  Principal 
export,  sugar.  The  1949  sugar  crop  was  expected  to  reach  the  record 
size  of  410,000  metric  tons.  (J.  A.  Hu.) 

MEAT.  Livestock  production  increased  during  1949  in 
many  countries.  As  a  consequence  meat  rationing  relaxed; 
in  certain  European  countries  consumer  rationing  was 
abolished  altogether,  while  in  others  only  price  control 
remained.  Great  Britain's  slaughterings  of  cattle  and  sheep 
in  Jan.-Aug.  1949  were  higher  than  the  previous  year  so  that 
beef  supplies  increased  24%  and  mutton  and  lamb  19%, 
while  pork  and  bacon  output  more  than  doubled. 

U.  K.  imports  of  meat  of  all  descriptions  in  1949  were  3% 
heavier  than  the  previous  year.  Taking  carcase  meat  only 
into  account,  the  aggregate  15,114,000  cwt.  was  530,000  cwt. 


MEAT 


409 


Percentage 


Percentage 


60 


20 


I 


U.K.   MEAT    SUPPLIES 

|  |        (INCLUDING    BACON)  j 

PREWAR  LEVEL    '      .      !         PREWAR  LEVEL 


PERCENTAGE  HOME  PRODUCED  TO 
TOTAL  MEAT  CONSUMPTION 


100 


80 


40 


20 


O 
1940      1941        1942        1943      1944      1945      1946       1947       1948      1946-9 

below  1948,  a  3%  reduction.  The  variation  was  due  almost 
entirely  to  canned  meat  supplies,  which  were  over  500,000 
cwt.  in  excess  of  1948.  Beef  imports,  9,189,327  cwt.,  were 
heavier  by  107,000  cwt.,  or  1  %,  but  those  from  the  dominions 
showed  a  drop  of  more  than  1  million  cwt.,  nearly  30%. 
Australian  supplies  declined  603,000  cwt.  (28%)  and  New 
Zealand  434,000  cwt.  (31  %).  Arrivals  from  South  America, 
on  the  other  hand,  were  substantially  increased—Argentina 
665,000  cwt.  (13%),  Uruguay  505,000  cwt.  (60%).  Denmark 
sent  84,000  cwt.,  nearly  twice  as  much  as  in  1948.  The 
weight  of  veal  imported  dropped  from  400,000  cwt.  to 
232,000  cwt.  Mutton  and  lamb  imports  (7,527,886  cwt.) 
were  down  471,000  cwt.,  a  6%  reduction.  All  senders  shared 
in  the  deficit  with  the  exception  of  Australia,  whose  contri- 
bution increased  by  408,000  cwt.  (47%).  The  reduction  in 
the  case  of  New  Zealand  was  382,000  cwt  (7%)  and  of  Argen- 
tina 322,000  cwt.  (23  %).  The  weight  of  pork  received  during 
the  year,  600,000  cwt ,  was  nearly  treble  that  of  1948.  Other 
pork  products  except  bacon  amounted  to  591,000  cwt,  a 
slight  increase.  Deliveries  of  bacon,  2,772,000  cwt.,  were 
105,000  cwt.  more  than  the  previous  year.  Denmark,  with 
1,606,000  cwt.  compared  with  478,000  cwt.  in  1948,  had 
taken  the  place  of  Canada. 

Commonwealth.  The  output  of  beef  and  veal  in  Australia 
for  1948-49 — nearly  11-5  million  cwt. — was  the  largest 
recorded  since  1938,  when  nearly  12  million  cwt.  was  pro- 
duced. Home  consumption,  however,  increased  to  a  greater 
extent  than  the  increase  in  output  and  exports  declined  15%. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  new  season,  production  figures  for 
beef  showed  a  fall  as  compared  with  1948.  A  15-year  agree- 
ment was  signed  in  May  under  which  Britain  guaranteed  a 
market  for  Australia's  exportable  meat  surplus. 

Production  of  beef  and  veal  in  Canada  in  the  first  eight 
months  of  1949  was  lower  than  in  the  comparable  period  of 
1948  and  both  exports  and  the  balance  available  for  consump- 
tion declined.  The  export  of  cattle  and  calves,  199,000  head, 
almost  all  to  the  United  States,  was  84%  greater  than  the 
comparable  period  of  1948  and  81%  above  1938.  Pig  meat 
production  in  Canada  was  23%  less  than  in  1948. 

New  Zealand  output  of  beef  for  export  in  1948-49  fell 
below  the  level  reached  in  the  two  preceding  seasons,  the 
total  being  20%  less  than  in  1947-48.  Production  of  mutton 
and  lamb  m  1948-49  was  3%  greater  than  in  the  previous 
season,  although  below  the  record  set  up  in  1946-47.  Pork 
production  was  20  %  less  and  the  output  of  bacon  fell  slightly 
below  the  level  of  1947-48. 


Europe.  The  cattle  population  of  Denmark — 2,962,000 — 
was  5  %  above  1 948,  although  below  the  prewar  and  immediate 
postwar  figures.  The  sheep  population  had  declined  to  67,000; 
the  census  of  pig  stocks  in  Oct.  1949,  was  3,029,000—68% 
above  the  previous  year.  Exports  for  the  first  nine  and  a 
half  months  of  1949  were  83%  over  1948,  although  only 
half  the  previous  figure. 

Cattle  exports  from  the  republic  of  Ireland  in  the  first 
nine  months  of  1949  were  314,000,  30%  above  1948.  Exports 
of  sheep  and  lambs,  71,000,  although  nearly  double  the 
previous  period,  were  only  about  one-third  of  prewar.  For 
the  first  time  sir^ce  1942  bacon  was  to  be  sent  from  Ireland  to 
the  United  Kingdom.  The  trade  in  pigs  and  bacon  was  in 
the  region  of  800,000  cwt. 

The  number  of  cattle  in  the  Netherlands  continued  to 
increase,  the  total  in  Sept.  1949  being  over  2-5  million 
higher  than  at  any  time  in  the  previous  four  years.  A  recovery 
in  the  pig  population  evident  in  1948  was  fully  maintained, 
and  in  September  stood  at  1,766,000.  This  was  55%  higher 
than  in  Sept.  1948.  Cattle  and  calves  for  slaughter  were  22% 
heavier,  pig  meat  supplies  nearly  double  and  sheep  18% 
heavier.  In  November  rationing  was  abolished,  but  price 
control  was  maintained.  In  May  a  four-year  bacon  pact  was 
concluded  between  Great  Britain  and  the  Netherlands  for 
the  supply  of  a  minimum  of  10,000  tons  in  1949,  25,000  tons 
in  1950  and  35,000  tons  in  1951.  (C.  A.  Mo.) 

United  States.  Production  of  all  meats  increased  very 
moderately  in  1949,  the  total  being  estimated  at  a  minimum 
of  22,130  million  lb.,  compared  with  21,599  million  Ib.  in 
1948;  the  prewar  average  (1937-41),  however,  was  only 
17,675  million  lb.  Pork  accounted  for  most  of  the  increase. 
The  total  meat  supply  per  head  in  1949  was  estimated  at 
147  to  150  lb.,  compared  with  146-6  lb.  in  the  previous  year 
and  126  lb.  average  in  1935-39.  The  consumption  of  beef 
per  head  was  estimated  at  64-1  lb.,  slightly  more  than  the 
63  3  lb.  of  1948.  Veal  consumption  in  1949  was  8-5  lb., 
compared  with  9-4  lb.  in  1948.  Pork  consumption  per  head 
for  1949  was  estimated  at  70-2  lb.,  compared  with  68-7  lb. 
in  1948. 

Lamb  and  mutton  meat  production  declined  to  600  million 
lb.  in  1949,  or  4-0  lb.  per  head,  compared  with  753  million  lb. 
in  1948,  and  an  average  prewar  consumption  of  about  6-8  lb. 
per  head.  Stock  sheep  numbers  on  Jan.  1,  1949,  were  only 
27,8 18,000  head. 

U.S.  exports  of  meats  were  small,  estimated  at  73  million  lb. 
(carcase  weight)  during  1948-49,  compared  with  152  million  lb. 
in  the  preceding  year  and  1,376  million  lb.  in  1945-46,  lower 
even  than  the  123  million  lb.  prewar  average. 

Because  of  the  larger  number  of  pigs,  the  production  of 
lard  in  1949  was  forecast  at  2,850  million  lb.,  as  compared 
with  2,526  million  lb.  in  1948  and  a  prewar  average  of  2,091 
million  lb.  Exports  of  lard  were  very  large,  amounting  to 
513-2  million  lb.  in  the  period  Jan. -Sept.  1949,  as  compared 
with  235  •  1  million  lb.  during  the  same  period  of  1948. 
Storage  stocks  in  December  were  38,285,000  lb.,  less  than 
half  those  for  1948.  (See  also  LIVESTOCK.)  (J.  K.  R.) 

MEDALS:    we  DECORATIONS  AND  MEDALS. 

MEDICAL  ARTICLES:  we  ALIMENTARY  SYSTEM, 
AN/EMIA;  AN/ESTHESIOLOGY;  ARTHRITIS;  BACTERIOLOGY; 
BIOCHEMISTRY;  CANCER;  CHEMOTHERAPY;  COLD,  COMMON; 
DENTISTRY;  DERMATOLOGY;  DIABEIES;  EAR,  NOSE  AND 
THROAT,  DISEASES  OF;  ENDOCRINOLOGY;  EPIDEMICS;  EYE, 
DISEASES  OF  THE;  FOOD  RESEARCH;  GENETICS;  GYN/ECO- 
LOGY  AND  OBSTETRICS;  HEART  DISEASES;  HOSPITALS; 
INDUSTRIAL  HEALTH;  INFANTILE  PARALYSIS;  LEPROSY; 
MEDICINE;  MENTAL  DISEASES;  NATIONAL  HEALTH  SERVICE; 


410 


MEDICINE 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM;  NURSING;  OSTEOPATHY;  PHARMACY; 
PHYSIOLOGY;  PLAGUE;  PNEUMONIA;  PSYCHIATRY;  PSY- 
CHOLOGY; PSYCHOSOMATIC  MEDICINE;  SURGERY;  TROPICAL 
DISEASES;  TUBERCULOSIS;  UROLOGY;  VENEREAL  DISEASES; 
VETERINARY  MEDICINE;  X-RAY  AND  RADIOLOGY. 

MEDICINE.  Cortisone,  The  most  interesting  medical 
event  of  1949  was  the  announcement  by  P.  F.  Hench  and  his 
colleagues  at  the  Mayo  clinic  in  Baltimore,  that  injections  of 
E.  C.  Kendall's  compound  E  or  cortisone  in  rheumatoid 
arthritis  produced  remissions  of  the  symptoms  in  a  few  hours. 
It  was  significant  because  this  painful  and  crippling  disease 
had  long  resisted  all  attempts  at  cure  and  also  because  never 
had  so  much  interest  been  aroused  by  a  report  of  such  a 
therapeutic  trial  on  so  few  cases.  Only  14  patients  were 
treated,  all  of  whom  benefited.  The  smallness  of  the  trial 
was  due  to  the  great  cost  of  the  material  which  was  produced 
by  a  36-stage  synthesis  from  desoxycholic  acid,  a  scanty 
fraction  of  ox  bile.  The  yield  of  the  process  was  so  small  that 
13,000  tons  of  cattle  would  be  needed  to  provide  enough 
cortisone  to  treat  a  patient  for  a  year.  The  estimated  cost  of 
treating  a  patient  was  about  £1,500  a  week.  Unfortunately 
too,  the  evidence  so  far  was  that  cortisone  was  not  a  cure 
but  acted  in  a  way  similar  to  that  of  insulin  which  must  be 
taken  for  the  rest  of  the  patient's  life.  It  was  later  announced 
that  cortisone  could  be  made  by  a  shorter  synthesis  from  a 
glucoside  sarmentogemn,  found  in  the  seeds  of  a  tropical 
plant,  Strophanthus  sarmentosus.  Although  this  source  would 
yield  cortisone  at  less  cost  it  would  still  be  too  expensive  for 
any  wide  use.  The  plant  takes  five  years  to  mature  so  culti- 
vation was  not  a  simple  answer  to  the  production  problem. 
Besides  the  many  clinical  questions  raised  by  cortisone,  it 
posed  a  multitude  of  chemical  and  production  puzzles  and 
stimulated  the  best  brains  in  the  field  of  steroid  chemistry  to 
seek  their  solution.  Parallel  to  this  discovery  came  the 
announcement,  also  from  the  Mayo  clinic,  that  the 
adrenocorticotrophic  hormone  (A.C.T.H.)  seemed  to  have 
rnuch  the  same  effect  as  cortisone  itself.  This  too  was  a  sub- 
stance of  great  scarcity,  being  obtained  only  from  the  tiny 
pituitary  glands  of  animals.  No  chemical  method  yet  had 
been  found  of  making  it.  There  were  indications  that  cortisone 
and  A.C.T.H.  would  be  of  benefit  in  other  conditions  besides 
rheumatoid  arthritis.  This  was  probably  only  the  beginning 
of  what  might  prove  to  be  one  of  the  most  epoch-making 
discoveries  of  medicine.  But  it  was  important  to  realize  that 
it  would  be  a  long  time  before  either  of  these  substances,  or 
similar  drugs  derived  from  them,  could  be  applied  in  ordinary 
practice.  Although  this  was  of  small  comfort  to  sufferers  from 
rheumatoid  arthritis,  at  least  it  did  give  a  ray  of  hope  which 
was  not  there  before. 

Tuberculosis  Prophylactic.  In  1908  two  French  bacteriolo- 
gists, A.  Calmette  and  C.  Guerin,  produced  a  vaccine 
*'  B.C.G."  from  the  tubercle  bacillus  which,  they  claimed,  was 
harmless  to  man  but  could  induce  immunity  against  the 
dread  disease  of  tuberculosis.  For  a  number  of  reasons  this 
vaccine  was  never  used  on  any  scale  in  Great  Britain,  although 
it  found  favour  elsewhere,  especially  in  Scandinavia.  During 
1948-49  a  large  scale  trial  was  started  by  the  Ministry  of 
Health  in  England.  So  as  to  keep  strict  critical  control  of 
the  test  and  yet  to  meet  the  need  of  those  most  exposed  to 
risk,  the  application  of  the  vaccine  was  confined  in  the  main 
to  medical  students  and  to  the  nursing  staffs  of  hospitals. 
Small  supplies  for  individual  use  were  given  to  chest  special- 
ists to  use  on  their  own  responsibility,  for  example,  for 
contacts  with  tuberculosis  cases.  Some  years  would  have  to 
elapse  before  all  the  answers  to  this  trial  could  be  obtained. 

Radiological  Advance.  The  first  synchrotron  in  the  world 
to  be  built  and  used  for  medical  research  was  installed  in 
the  Royal  Cancer  hospital,  London,  under  the  auspices  of  the 


Medical  Research  council.  This  30  million  volt  instrument 
produced  X-rays  of  great  power  and  intensity.  It  differed 
from  conventional  X-ray  machines  which  could  not  effectively 
be  made  for  potentials  above  about  a  million  volts.  This 
remarkable  apparatus  was  first  used  for  varied  biological 
researches.  These,  inter  alia,  gave  data  of  importance  in 
planning  the  later  application  of  the  machine  to  the  treatment 
of  patients  with  cancer  in  those  organs  where  the  particular 
properties  of  the  rays  had  special  advantage.  The  possibilities 
offered  by  this  immensely  powerful  apparatus  were  very  wide. 
It  was  the  first  of  two  such  instruments. 

Blood  Transfusion.  During  World  War  II  great  advances 
were  made  in  the  technique  of  blood  transfusion,  and  its 
uses  were  extended.  The  interest  this  aroused  continued  in 
1948  as  was  shown  by  work  on  further  refinements  in  blood 
typing  and  on  the  genetic  Rh  factors  which  may  cause  the 
death  of  new  born  infants.  Another  line  of  investigation 
resulted  in  the  standardization  of  methods  of  preparing 
several  fractions  of  human  blood.  In  Great  Britain  this 
brought  these  fractions  within  the  scope  of  the  Therapeutic 
Substances  act.  Owing  to  certain  difficulties  in  using  blood 
for  transfusion  many  possible  substitutes  were  tried.  In 
general  they  were  unsatisfactory  for  one  or  more  reasons. 
For  some  time  the  Swedes  had  been  investigating  Dextran 
(a  long  chain  molecule  prepared  from  sugar)  as  a  blood 
plasma  substitute;  and  in  1948  some  work  was  published  in 
America  and  elsewhere  which,  although  critical  in  some 
respects,  showed  that  Dextran  was  an  appreciable  step  nearer 
the  goal  of  a  blood  plasma  substitute.  In  the  autumn  it  was 
made  commercially  available  in  Great  Britain.  This  should 
make  possible  the  wide  experience  necessary  before  a  final 
assessment  of  such  a  substance  could  be  reached. 

Anti-histaminics.  In  1910  when  Dale  (now  Sir  Henry) 
advanced  the  theory  that  the  effects  of  allergic  disorders  were 
produced  by  histamme  he  opened  up  a  far  reaching  vista  of 
research  which  led  to  many  important  discoveries.  Not 
least  among  these  was  the  introduction  in  1948  of  several 
powerful  new  drugs  with  many  applications.  The  simplest 
explanation  of  the  basic  idea  was  that  by  a  antigen-antibody 
reaction  the  substance  histidme  in  the  tissue  cells  released 
histamine  and  this  produced  the  broncho-spasm  in  asthma, 
the  skin  weals  in  urticaria  and  the  many  other  signs  and 
symptoms  now  classed  together  as  allergic.  In  1937  D.  Bovet 
and  A.  M.  Staub  developed  the  first  anti-histaminic  drug, 
that  is,  a  substance  which  blocks  the  responses  of  the  tissues 
to  histamine  yet  which  in  the  same  dosage  range  has  little 
or  no  apparent  effect  on  the  normal  body.  This  offered 
effective  therapy  in  allergic  conditions  which  had  hitherto 
presented  many  difficulties  in  treatment.  These  disorders 
included  hay  fever,  some  asthmas,  angioneurotic  oedema, 
chronic  urticaria,  pruritus,  neurodermatitis,  some  neuralgias 
and  some  intestinal  troubles.  In  addition  to  successful 
reports  on  these  there  were  indications  of  benefit  in  the 
symptomatic  treatment  of  Parkinson's  disease  and  in  the 
nausea  and  vomiting  of  pregnancy.  A  particularly  valuable 
discovery  in  1948  was  the  chance  one  that  Dramamine  and 
Anthisan  were  effective  preventives  of  motion  sickness;  and 
they  soon  found  wide-spread  use  for  abolishing  sea  sickness. 
With  these  as  with  other  anti-histaminics,  large  doses  could 
produce  side  effects  such  as  giddiness  and  somnolence;  so 
they  had  to  be  used  with  care  and  it  was  inadvisable  to  take 
them  without  the  guidance  of  a  doctor.  There  were  also 
hints  that  the  sphere  of  usefulness  of  the  anti-histaminics 
might  be  still  wider;  e.g.,  in  migraine  and  some  forms  of 
rheumatism.  Among  other  new  anti-histaminic  drugs  put 
on  the  market  (though  all  were  not  available  in  Great 
Britain)  were  Antistin,  Pyribenzamine,  Neohetramine,  Neo- 
antergan,  Histadyl,  Chlorothen,  Tagathen,  Phenergan, 
Trimeton,  Theophorin  and  Thenylene.  Chlortrimeton 


MEDICINE 


411 


A  scene  in  the  laboratory  at  the  Imperial  Chemical  Industries  works  near  Manchester  where  the  new  drug'  Antrycide,  which  would  provide 
immunity  against  trypanosomiasis  (sleeping  sickness)^  was  being  manufactured. 


combined  with  aspirin  and  caffeine  in  a  compound  called 
Coricidin  was  tested  by  the  U.S.  navy  for  treating  the  common 
cold  and  first  reports  were  favourable.  Owing  to  the  protean 
nature  of  this  condition  however,  further  research  was 
needed.  But  over  all,  it  was  unquestionable  that  in  the  anti- 
histaminic  drugs  a  most  useful  company  had  been  added  to 
the  armamentarium  of  the  physician. 

Vitamin  Bn.  In  1948  it  was  noted  that  in  America,  E.  L 
Rickes  had  isolated  vitamin  Bia  from  liver  and  that  this 
substance  was  effective  against  pernicious  anaemia.  At  the 
same  time  E.  Lester  Smith  in  England  had  discovered  two 
crystalline  factors  from  liver,  and  one  of  these  was  identical 
with  Rickes'  Bia.  Further  work  showed  that  injections  of 
extremely  small  amounts  of  the  vitamin  not  only  make  the 
blood  picture  of  pernicious  anaemia  normal  again  but 
improve  the  whole  appearance  and  strength,  mental  alertness 
and  appetite  of  a  patient.  There  was  even  improvement  in 
patients  who  had  combined  degeneration  of  the  spinal  cord. 
The  factor  was  thought  to  be  the  same  as,  or  closely  associated 
with,  the  "  animal  protein  factor,"  a  vitamin  not  chemically 
identified,  which  promoted  growth  of  chickens  and  rats. 
Research  showed  that  there  were  more  widely  distributed 
sources  of  B12  than  liver.  The  most  interesting  discovery 
was  that  it  could  be  isolated  from  a  by-product  of  the  culture 
of  Streptomyces,  such  as  was  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
streptomycin.  This  would  undoubtedly  lower  the  cost  so 
much  that  it  should  be  possible  to  make  the  vitamin  generally 
available.  If  liver  was  the  sole  source  of  B,2  this  would  not 
be  practicable  owing  to  the  extremely  small  yield. 

Antibiotics.  Further  work  continued  on  penicillin,  for 
example,  by  giving  it  as  an  inhalation  in  the  form  of  a  fine 
dust  or  an  aerosol  mist.  Procaine  penicillin  suspended  with 


aluminium  stearate  became  firmly  established  as  it  made 
possible  the  painless  injection  of  a  large  dose  with  a  "  depot  " 
action,  that  is,  delayed  absorption  enabling  the  necessary 
blood  levels  to  be  maintained  with  fewer  injections.  The  uses 
of  streptomycin  were  extended  beyond  tuberculosis  and  good 
results  were  obtained  in  B.coli  infections  of  the  urinary 
tract,  hitherto  most  obdurate  towards  treatment.  Increase 
of  supplies  in  Great  Britain  made  it  possible  to  release  this 
antibiotic  from  restrictions  on  its  use  which  the  government 
had  had  to  enforce.  A.  Hirsch  and  A.  T.  R.  Mattick  re- 
ported that  nisin,  an  antibiotic  developed  entirely  in  Great 
Britain,  was  active  against  experimentally  produced  tubercu- 
losis. This  substance  promised  well  if  production  problems 
could  be  solved.  In  America  S.  A.  Waksman  discovered 
another  antibiotic,  neomycin,  which  also  appeared  to  be  active 
against  tuberculosis.  A  great  chemical  triumph  from  America 
was  the  synthesis  of  chloromycetin  (Chloramphenicol),  the 
antibiotic  which  was  effective  against  enteric  fevers  and  rickett- 
sial  infections,  psittacosis  and  brucellosis.  There  had  never 
before  been  any  specific  against  these  diseases.  Aureomycin, 
another  relatively  newcomer  to  this  field,  had  much  the  same 
range  of  activity  as  chloromycetin  and  like  it  could  be  given 
by  mouth.  The  chief  disadvantage  of  these  promising  drugs 
was  their  high  cost. 

As  an  aid  to  the  general  and  psychological  treatment  of 
alcoholism  a  new  drug  was  introduced  which  made  subse- 
quent doses  of  alcohol  extremely  unpleasant  to  the  patient 
who  was,  irfdeed,  made  to  feel  extremely  ill.  This  was  tetra- 
ethylthiuramdisulphide,  also  known  under  the  proprietary 
names  of  Antabus  and  Antalco.  Although  it  was  undoubtedly 
effective  this  was  a  drug  which  had  to  be  treated  with  know- 
ledge and  respect  and  fatalities  were  reported  from  its  use. 


412 


MEDICINE 


Some  other  medical  fields  in  which  the  year  saw  great 
activity  were  geriatrics  or  the  science  of  the  diseases  peculiar 
to  old  age;  psychosomatic  medicine  which  stressed  the 
influence  of  the  mind  on  the  production  of  physical  disease; 
the  epidemological  researches  in  Great  Britain  by  the  Ministry 
of  Health,  the  Public  Health  Laboratory  service  and  the 
Medical  Research  council,  particularly  into  food  poisoning 
and  the  common  cold ;  and  the  work  of  the  Technical  com- 
missions of  the  World  Health  organization,  for  example, 
on  the  nomenclature  of  disease  (a  matter  of  great  importance 
in  pathology  and  medical  statistics)  and  on  the  unification 
of  pharmacopoeias.  (W.  P.  K.) 

United  States.  The  most  important  announcement  of  an 
advance  in  medicine  during  1949  was  the  control  of  rheuma- 
toid arthritis  by  use  of  an  extract  from  the  adrenal  gland 
called  Cortisone  or  an  active  principle  from  the  pituitary 
gland  called  ACTH  or  the  adrenocorticotrophic  hormone 
(see  above). 

It  was  discovered  in  1949  that  anti-histammic  drugs  such 
as  benadryl,  pyribenzamine,  chlor-tnmeton  and  many  others 
could,  when  used  early,  avert  the  common  cold  or  cure  it. 
The  food  and  drug  administration  permitted  the  public  sale 
of  these  drugs,  including  mixtures  of  anti-histammic  drugs 
with  the  common  ingredients  of  cold  tablets  such  as  aspirin 
and  phenacetin  and  caffeine  as  well  as  mixtures  with  nose 
drops  and  creams.  Allergists  asserted,  however,  that  at 
least  one-third  of  the  people  taking  anti-histaminic  drugs 
suffered  drowsiness  and  warned  against  the  possible  toxic 
effects  of  such  drugs  when  used  without  medical  controls 
or  over  long  periods  of  time. 

A  third  announcement  in  1949  which  attracted  much 
attention  was  the  elaboration  in  Denmark  of  a  drug  called 
Antabus,  technically  known  as  tetraethyl  thiuram  disulphide, 
whjch  created  an  unpleasant  reaction  in  persons  who  had 
previously  taken  alcohol. 

Dramamme,  a  combination  of  an  anti-histammic  drug 
with  ammophyllin,  established  its  usefulness  in  controlling 
sea-sickness  and  air-sickness  and  it  was  also  being  tried  with 
some  success  in  controlling  the  nausea  of  pregnancy  and  the 
dizziness  associated  with  Memere's  disease. 

Continued  work  with  streptomycin  indicated  its  effective- 
ness in  several  forms  of  tuberculosis.  Extensive  studies  made 
by  the  Veterans'  administration  showed  that  streptomycin 
combined  with  a  drug  discovered  in  Sweden  called  para- 
ammo  salicylic  acid  was  more  effective  in  a  considerable 
number  of  cases  than  either  drug  used  alone 

Attention  continued  to  be  focused  on  the  antibiotic  drugs 
and  their  usefulness  in  a  variety  of  conditions.  Penicillin 
continued  to  be  the  mainstay  against  most  germ  infections. 
Antibiotic  drugs  were  being  sought  in  a  variety  of  sources, 
including  fungi,  germs  such  as  the  Bacillus  sub  til  is  (which 
yields  bacitracin),  also  in  ragweed,  bananas  and  sweet 
potatoes. 

Aureomycm  was  found  especially  effective  in  Rocky 
Mountain  spotted  fever,  typhus,  atypical  pneumonia,  undu- 
lant  fever,  syphilis,  venereal  granuloma,  herpes,  pemphigus 
and  whooping  cough. 

Chloromycetm,  renamed  chloromphenicol,  was  also  found 
useful  in  many  of  these  conditions,  and  especially  in  the 
treatment  of  infection  with  the  germ  of  typhoid  fever 

Several  new  drugs  were  being  triecl  in  hypertensive  disease, 
or  high  blood  pressure,  with  particular  interest  centred  on 
veratrium  vinde  and  dihydroergocornine,  which  seemed  to 
have  the  ability  to  put  the  sympathetic  nervous  system  out 
of  action,  thus  achieving  to  a  considerable  extent  the  same 
result  accomplished  by  surgical  procedures  on  the  sym- 
pathetic nervous  system  that  had  attracted  interest  for  some 
years. 

Research   with   radioactive   isotopes  continued       Radio- 


active iodine  became  the  main  factor  in  the  control  of  dis- 
turbances affecting  the  thyroid  gland  and  was  being  used 
instead  of  operative  procedures  for  excessive  action  of  the 
thyroid,  called  hyperthyroidism.  Radioactive  isotopes  were 
also  used  extensively  in  studying  the  physiology  of  the  body 
and  in  tracing  drugs,  vaccines  and  other  preparations 
injected  into  the  body  to  determine  their  effectiveness. 

Especially  interesting  in  the  field  of  research  was  the 
introduction,  almost  as  a  routine  procedure,  of  injection 
directly  into  the  veins  of  the  local  anaesthetic  substance 
called  procame.  Procaine  was  used  especially  for  the  control 
of  pain  in  burns  and  after  operation  in  a  variety  of  inflam- 
matory conditions.  The  drug  was  tested  also  for  producing 
anaesthesia  in  childbirth,  for  frostbite  and  asthma  and  in 
painful  cases  of  infantile  paralysis.  Procaine  given  intraven- 
ously has  the  special  power  of  inhibiting  action  of  the 
sympathetic  nervous  system.  When  the  drug  is  given  by 
injection  into  the  vein,  there  is  a  sensation  of  warmth 
throughout  the  body  five  to  seven  minutes  later,  also  dilation 
of  the  pupils  of  the  eyes  and  some  lightheadedness,  followed 
by  relaxation.  Paradione  was  prominent  in  the  research 
field  during  1949  and  was  used  for  the  treatment  of  epilepsy; 
other  drugs  were  marphan  as  a  substitute  for  morphine,  and 
Vitamin  B12  or  Cobione  as  an  effective  treatment  in  pernicious 
anaemia  and  in  other  amemias.  Calciferrol,  a  highly  con- 
centrated vitamin  D  preparation,  was  found  useful  in  lupus 
vulgaris.  Two  new  drugs,  parpamt  and  Artane,  were  tried 
for  spasmodic  conditions  and  tremors  m  shaking  palsy  and 
similar  diseases.  In  amoebic  dysentery  a  new  drug  called 
mihbis  (bismuth  glycolyl  arsemlate)  was  recommended. 

Among  surgical  procedures,  greatest  interest  continued  to 
attach  to  operations  on  the  blood  vessel  system,  including 
shunt  operations  such  as  those  used  for  the  control  of  blue 
babies,  also  an  operation  for  coarctation  of  the  aorta.  New 
devices  enabled  partial  clamping  of  this  great  blood 
vessel  during  which  operative  procedures  could  be  carried 
out. 

Other  surgical  procedures  in  the  research  field  during  1949 
included  prefrontal  lobotomy  by  a  variety  of  techniques  to 
change  the  functions  of  the  brain  as  a  mechanism  for  the 
control  of  depressive  and  other  forms  of  mental  disturbances. 
Antonio  Moniz  of  Lisbon,  Portugal,  who  devised  this 
procedure,  received  the  Nobel  prize  in  medicine  for  1949. 
The  prize  was  shared  with  R.  W.  Hess  for  his  discoveries 
of  the  factors  in  the  nervous  system  concerned  in  sleep. 

Among  new  devices  which  were  the  focus  of  attention  were 
elcctrosonic  waves  for  inducing  heat  and  various  changes 
in  the  tissues  of  the  body;  and  also  the  jet  injectors  for 
injecting  drugs  into  the  body  without  breaking  the  skin. 

In  surgical  procedures  for  removal  of  portions  of  the  lung» 
the  operation  was  improved  by  the  use  of  Lucite  balls  in  a 
polythene  sac  to  fill  the  area  removed  in  a  surgical  operation 
called  thoracoplasty,  an  operation  performed  in  severe 
tuberculosis  and  also  in  abscess  of  the  lung. 

A  gallstone  detector  was  devised  in  the  form  of  a  probe 
which  gives  off  an  amplified  sound  when  the  probe  is  passed 
into  the  gall  ducts  and  touches  a  stone. 

Research  on  the  causes  of  disease  centred  on  the  observa- 
tion that  poliomyelitis  or  infantile  paralysis  is  not  caused 
by  one  virus  but  by  several  viruses;  the  development  of  a 
vaccine  against  the  disease  would  involve  determination  of 
the  specific  form  of  virus  responsible  for  any  individual 
epidemic. 

At  Notre  Dame  university,  South  Bend,  Indiana,  experi- 
ments were  conducted  on  cats  and  chickens  with  a  view  to 
raising  animals  in  an  atmosphere  entirely  free  of  infective 
germs.  Noteworthy  observations  included  the  fact  that 
chickens  raised  under  such  conditions  developed  a  form  of 
jitters  not  occurring  under  ordinary  conditions.  The  theory 


MELBOURNE— MENZIES 


413 


was  that  the  absence  of  germs  permitted  the  growth  of  viruses 
which  were  specifically  dangerous  to  the  nervous  system 
Animals  kept  under  such  conditions,  however,  showed 
complete  absence  of  dental  decay.  (See  also  cross  reference 
MEDICAL  ARTICLES.)  (M.  Fi.) 

MELBOURNE,  capital  of  the  state  of  Victoria, 
Australia.  Pop.  (June  30,  1947  census):  1,226,923.  Lord 
Mayor,  J.  S.  Disney. 

The  new  governor  for  Victoria,  Lieut.  General  Sir  Dallas 
Brooks,  took  up  residence  in  Melbourne  in  October.  Follow- 
ing a  series  of  articles  in  the  Melbourne  Herald,  by  a  former 
Communist  leader,  Cecil  Sharpley,  which  alleged  Communist 
ballot-rigging  in  trade  union  elections,  the  Victorian  govern- 
ment appointed  a  royal  commission  of  inquiry  into  Com- 
munist activities.  Hearing  of  evidence  by  the  commissioner, 
Mr.  Justice  Lowe,  sitting  in  Melbourne,  started  on  June  20 
and  continued  into  1950.  A  controlling  interest  in  one  of 
the  three  Melbourne  morning  newspapers,  the  Argus,  was 
acquired  by  the  London  Daily  Mirror. 

As  in  Australia  generally  full  employment  and  economic 
prosperity  continued,  coupled  with  an  acute  labour  and 
housing  shortage.  14,646  houses  were  completed  in  Victoria 
during  1948-49.  Progress  was  made  with  the  Kiewa  power 
scheme.  The  coal  strike  reduced  Melbourne's  gas  supply  to 
a  very  low  level.  The  Victorian  government  later  decided  to 
introduce  a  German  process  for  the  gasification  of  brown 
coal,  of  which  Victoria  has  large  reserves. 

The  Olympic  Games  for  1956  were  allotted  to  Melbourne: 
the  decision  would  involve  the  construction  of  many  new 
hotels,  sports  facilities  and  other  considerable  expenditure. 

The  number  of  students  at  Melbourne  university  was 
9,124;  approximately  400  less  than  in  1948.  An  important 
experiment  in  decentralization  came  to  an  end  with  the 
decision  to  close  the  Mildura  branch  of  Melbourne  university, 
which  had  trained  first-year  students  of  a  number  of  faculties 
since  1947.  The  decision  was  caused  by  the  prohibitive 
cost  and  the  problems  of  dispersal  of  staff  and  equipment. 

There  were  many  theatrical  and  musical  events  of 
importance,  which  included  a  return  visit  of  an  Italian 
opera  company,  a  visit  of  the  Shakespeare  Memorial 
company  from  Stratford-on-Avon  and  concerts  by  a 
number  of  famous  visiting  conductors,  pianists  and 
singers.  (W.  FR.) 

MENTAL  DISEASES.  Developments  carried  on 
during  1949  from  the  well  established  leucotomy  included 
topectomy  or  resection  of  cortical  grey  matter  which  was 
done  in  several  American  and  at  least  one  British  hospital  ; 
undercutting  of  the  cerebral  cortex  which  was  practised  by 
W.  B.  Scoville  in  America,  and,  calling  it  thalamotomy, 
H.  T.  Wycis  at  Temple  university,  Philadelphia,  reported 
an  operation  involving  the  use  of  a  stereotaxic  instrument 
whereby  it  was  possible  to  produce  partial  electrical  des- 
truction of  the  dorsomedial  nucleus  of  the  thalamus.  In 
several  publications  Professor  A.  Meyer  of  the  Institute  of 
Psychiatry  in  London  described  the  neuropathological 
findings  in  cases  which  had  come  to  autopsy,  and  paid 
particular  interest  to  the  use  of  posterior  cuts  in  leucotomy 
and  to  the  anatomical  correlations  of  improvement  in  this 
operation.  Posterior  cuts  appeared  to  have  been  responsible 
for  certain  undesirable  symptoms;  he  found  nothing  to 
justify  claims  to  the  localization  of  function  within  the 
frontal  lobe.  Persistent  personality  changes  were  found  to 
occur  after  bilateral  lesions  of  the  frontal  lobes  and  there 
seemed  to  be  a  quantitative  relationship  between  the  person- 
ality change  and  the  amount  of  cortex  cut  off.  This  change 
showed  a  positive  correlation  with  the  degree  of  improvement 
found. 


Much  interesting  biochemical  work  was  published,  in- 
cluding W.  R.  Ashby's  paper,  which  won  the  Burhngame 
prize,  on  the  effects  of  electrical  treatment  on  cortm  and 
ketosteroids;  these  substances  were  found  to  be  excreted  in 
increased  amount  during  the  first  few  days  of  the  treatment 
and  this  brisk  outpouring  was  associated  with  a  greater 
tendency  to  clinical  recovery.  Derek  Richter  published 
articles  on  the  brain  metabolism  during  emotional  excite- 
ment and  sleep  with  particular  reference  to  the  amount  of 
lactic  acid  found  in  animals  killed  under  these  conditions. 
He  showed  in  another  paper  that  there  was  no  evidence  that 
cerebral  stimulation  caused  a  liberation  of  ammonia  into 
the  ccrebro-spmai  fluid  and  that  the  cerebro-spinal  fluid 
ammonia  level  was  not  a  reliable  indicator  of  the  degree  of 
cerebral  irritation. 

In  therapy,  curare  preparations  and  a  similar  substance 
C.10  were  used  to  reduce  the  muscular  violence  of  electrical 
treatment;  inhalation  of  COa  was  advocated  for  the  investi- 
gation of  certain  cases  and  several  new  substances  were 
tested  for  their  therapeutic  value  including  parpanit  which 
was  used  in  Parkmsonism  without  very  great  improvement. 
Myanesin  proved  useful  in  certain  conditions  but  it  had  to 
be  given  by  injection  and  its  effects  quickly  wore  off.  Anta- 
buse  was  used  for  the  treatment  of  alcoholics;  this  method 
of  getting  the  patient  to  take  a  daily  tablet  which,  if  com- 
bined with  even  the  smallest  amount  of  alcohol  produced 
an  intensely  unpleasant  reaction,  was  ingenious,  but  there 
still  seemed  to  be  some  dangers  associated  with  its  use. 

Much  work  was  done  with  the  electroencephalograph  and 
the  International  Electroencephalograph  conference  in  Paris 
in  September  produced  several  valuable  contributions 
including  those  of  Dems  Hill  of  the  Institute  of  Psychiatry. 

An  account  was  published  of  the  interesting  Danish 
experiment  in  the  treatment  of  criminal  psychopaths  by 
committing  them  to  a  psychopathic  prison  with  an  indeter- 
minate sentence;  the  results  had  so  far  proved  encouraging. 

The  organization  of  the  mental  health  services  consequent 
upon  the  division  of  the  country  into  14  regions  under  the 
National  Health  Service  act  continued  and  the  regional 
psychiatrists  justified  their  appointments. 

Much  material  was  being  collected  throughout  the  year 
for  presentation  before  the  International  Congress  of 
Psychiatry  to  be  held  in  Pans  in  Oct.  1950.  (Sec  also 
PSYCHIATRY;  PSYCHOSOMATIC  MEDICINE.)  (J.  G.  H.) 

MENZIES,  ROBERT  GORDON,  Australian 
statesman  (b.  Jepant,  Victoria,  Dec.  20,  1894),  was  educated 
in  the  state  schools  of  Victoria,  at  Grenville  college,  Ballarat, 
and  at  Wesley  college,  Melbourne.  In  May  1918  he  was 
called  to  the  Victorian  bar  and  high  court  of  Australia,  and 
11  years  later  became  a  K.C.  In  1928  he  was  elected  to  the 
Victoria  Legislative  Council  and  in  the  following  year  to  the 
Victoria  Legislative  Assembly.  He  was  minister  without 
portfolio,  1928-29,  and  attorney  general,  minister  for  railways, 
and  deputy  prime  minister  of  Victoria,  1932-34.  In  the 
latter  year  he  was  elected  to  the  federal  House  of  Representa- 
tives for  Kooyong,  and  from  1935  to  1939  was  attorney  general 
and  minister  for  industry.  He  resigned  in  March  1939  in 
protest  against  a  decision  to  postpone  a  national  insurance 
scheme  but  retained  the  portfolio  of  co-ordination  of  defence. 
After  the  death  of  J.  A.  Lyons  on  April  7,  1939,  Sir  Earle 
Page  was  prime  minister  until  April  26,  when  he  was  succeeded 
by  Menzies  who  had  been  elected  leader  of  the  United 
Australia  (later  Liberal)  party.  He  resigned  on  Aug.  29, 
1941,  after  the  Labour  party  had  refused  to  join  a  coalition 
government,  and  was  succeeded  by  Arthur  Faddcn,  leader 
of  the  Country  party.  Menzies  remained  as  minister  for 
co-ordination  of  defence  until  the  fall  of  the  Fadden  ministry 
on  Oct.  7,  1941.  From  1943  he  was  leader  of  the  Federal 


414 


METALLURGY— METEOROLOGY 


opposition  in  the  House  of  Representatives.  The  general 
election  of  Dec.  10,  1949,  resulted  in  a  defeat  for  the  Labour 
government  led  by  J.  B.  Chifley  (</.v.),  and  Menzies  was 
sworn-m  on  Dec.  19  as  the  head  of  a  coalition  of  the  Liberal 
and  Country  parties. 

METAL    PRODUCTION    AND    PRICES:     we 

MINERAL  AND  MLTAL  PRODUCTION  AND  PRICES 

METALLURGY.  A  few  of  the  more  important 
developments  in  the  field  of  metallurgy  during  1949  arc 
summarized  in  the  following  paragraphs. 

Aluminium  Steel  sheets  coated  with  aluminium  were 
produced  by  hot-rolling  two  sheets  of  aluminium  foil  on  to 
the  surfaces  of  a  steel  strip,  after  passing  the  strip  through 
a  cleaner  bath  and  an  electrolytic  cell  which  plated  a  thin 
layer  of  electrolytic  iron  on  the  surface  of  the  steel. 

Cobalt.  A  new  plant  was  completed  in  the  United  States 
for  the  treatment  of  cobalt  ores,  and  a  new  smelter  was 
nearing  completion  in  Canada,  to  handle  cobalt-silver- 
arsenic  ores  from  the  cobalt  district.  The  latter  plant  was 
expected  to  work  new  ores  and  to  rework  old  tailing  piles 
which  still  contained  some  ore. 

Gallium.  Gallium  was  being  produced  and  sold  in  small 
quantities,  after  recovery  as  a  by-product  in  the  treatment 
of  bauxite  ores. 

Magnesium.  New  uses  for  magnesium  included  its  employ- 
ment for  lightweight  components  in  textile  looms. 

Titanium.  Marked  advances  were  made  inv methods  for  the 
production  of  pure  titanium  metal,  and  extensive  research 
was  under  way  on  its  possible  commercial  applications. 

Substitutes.  The  shortage  of  steel  during  1949  resulted  in 
a  considerable  need  to  substitute  aluminium,  especially  in 
sheets.  This  substitution  might  have  gone  further,  had 
aluminium  supply  been  plentiful.  In  the  making  of  containers 
for  repeated  use,  such  as  milk  cans,  tin  plated  steel  was 
being  replaced  by  stainless  steel,  for  greater  strength,  lighter 
weight,  freedom  from  corrosion  and  upkeep  and  a  useful 
life  that  was  expected  to  last  two  to  four  times  as  long. 

Probably  the  most  frequent  substitution  was  in  the  replace- 
ment of  metals  by  plastics.  This  movement  was  advancing 
rapidly  and  extensively,  not  only  in  toys  and  gadgets,  but 
also  in  industrial  equipment  such  as  gears  and  other  machine 
parts. 

The  U.S.  army  was  reported  to  be  testing  a  plastic  pipe,  for 
possible  use  in  combat  oil  lines.  The  high  cost  was  offset 
by  its  light  weight,  its  ease  of  handling  and  laying,  besides 
the  fact  that  it  saved  steel  consumption. 

Welding  and  Soldering.  Difficulties  in  soldering  on  a  metal 
surface  plated  with  passivated  zinc,  such  as  a  radio  chassis, 
were  overcome  by  devising  a  special  technique  for  resistance 
welding.  An  indium-base  solder  was  also  developed  which 
made  possible  the  soldering  of  glass  to  glass  or  glass  to 
metal.  (G.  A.  Ro.) 

METEOROLOGY.  The  oustanding  events  in  meteoro- 
logy and  the  principal  results  of  research  during  1949  can  be 
grouped  conveniently  under  the  sub-headings  Experimental 
Meteorology,  Synoptic  Meteorology,  Applied  Meteorology, 
Theoretical  Meteorology  and  Research,  International  Co-op- 
eration and  Weather  of  1949. 

Experimental  Meteorology.  Experimental  methods  that 
have  given  revolutionary  results  in  other  physical  sciences 
have  had  only  limited  use  in  meteorology  although  there 
have  been  repeated  efforts  to  find  a  laboratory  approach  to 
the  secrets  of  the  atmosphere.  Renewed  attacks  in  experi- 
mental meteorology  were  reported  and  the  approach  gained 
ground  during  1949.  As  in  other  sciences  there  were  certain 
problems  in  meteorology  that  could  be  isolated  and  analysed 


step  by  step  in  the  laboratory  and  eventually  broken  down 
into  their  components. 

Work  in  experimental  meteorology  approached  laboratory 
techniques  in  two  ways:  one  made  use  of  radar,  rocket, 
rawinsonde,  artificial  modification  of  clouds  and  other  free 
air  experiments,  in  an  effort  to  make  the  atmosphere  itself 
the  meteorological  laboratory,  the  other  involved  a  more 
concerted  effort  to  devise  conventional  laboratory  techniques 
for  simulating  if  not  duplicating  free  air  conditions. 

Among  the  latter  were  the  laboratory  studies  of  the  rates 
of  fall  and  rates  of  evaporation  of  water  droplets  and  a  new 
experimental  dcteimmation  of  the  terminal  velocities  of 
falling  raindrops.  This  research  also  gave  new  and  more 
exact  measurements  of  the  electrical  charges  on  falling  rain- 
drops. Other  studies  repeated  measurements  of  the  size 
and  distribution  of  cloud  droplets  and  their  behaviour  in  an 
electrical  field.  Another  interesting  research  project  was  a 
refinement  of  earlier  attempts  to  simulate  the  circulation  of  a 
fluid  on  a  rotating  globe  with  opposing  currents  set  up  by 
applying  heat  at  one  place.  The  apparatus  was  designed  to 
duplicate  the  general  features  of  the  circulation  of  the  atmos- 
phere about  a  polar  hemisphere  and  to  study  the  flow  along 
the  boundaries  of  opposing  currents.  These  laboratory 
studies,  although  not  yet  conclusive,  were  aimed  at  determin- 
ing quantities  fundamental  to  full  understanding  of  the  general 
circulation  of  the  atmosphere,  the  formation  of  fronts  and 
cyclones  and  the  condensation  and  coalescence  of  moisture 
into  precipitation.  The  results  of  these  and  other  experi- 
ments were  published  in  the  Journal  of  Meteorology  and  the 
Bulletin  of  the  American  Meteorological  society. 

Research  that  used  the  atmosphere  itself  as  the  "  labora- 
tory "  was  greater  in  scope  and  diversification  than  meteoro- 
logical research  in  the  usual  laboratory  sense.  Experiments 
in  the  modification  of  clouds,  the  conversion  of  sub-cooled 
cloud  droplets  into  ice  crystals  and  the  precipitation  of  ram 
and  snow  from  shower  type  clouds  were  carried  on  more 
systematically  and  with  more  thorough  scientific  examination 
of  the  results  during  1 949  than  in  the  preceding  year.  Methods 
were  essentially  the  same  although  refinements  in  techniques 
were  reported.  The  chemical  agents  most  commonly  used 
in  treatment  of  shower  clouds  from  aircraft  flying  above  or 
through  the  cloud  were  dry  ice  and  silver  iodide.  In  experi- 
ments designed  to  diffuse  condensation  nucleii  into  the 
cloud  from  generators  on  the  ground,  silver  iodide  was 
generally  used. 

Unfortunately  scientists  disagreed  about  the  results. 
Project  Cirrus,  financed  by  the  United  States  Office  of  Naval 
Research  and  the  Signal  corps  of  the  army,  reported  success  in 
causing  rain  to  fall  from  shower-type  clouds  in  southwestern 
United  States,  but  the  Cloud  Physics  project  of  the  air  force 
and  the  Weather  Bureau,  in  extensive  tests  in  Alabama, 
California  an<?  Ohio,  designed  to  investigate  aspects  of  the 
subject  not  duplicated  by  Project  Cirrus,  found  little  evidence 
that  artificial  means  had  been  successful  in  increasing  rain- 
fall sufficiently  to  be  of  commercial  value,  except  possibly 
under  very  exceptional  circumstances.  In  Canada,  under  the 
National  Research  council,  field  tests  were  reported  in  which 
"  seeding  "  clouds  with  dry  ice  had  caused  rain  in  consider- 
able quantities. 

Although  professional  "  rainmakers "  of  the  past  have 
claimed  power  to  bring  rain  clouds  even  though  skies  were 
clear,  no  reputable  rainmaker  in  1949  claimed  more  than  a 
means  of  inducing  or  increasing  the  fall  of  rain  from  clouds 
formed  by  natural  causes.  Artificial  methods  were  not 
applied  except  when  weather  conditions  were  such  that 
cumulus  clouds  were  already  present.  Showers  as  distinct 
from  steady,  light  rain  come  from  cumulus  clouds.  Thus  the 
rainmaker  usually  went  to  work  when  the  weather  was 
favourable  for  the  development  of  showers  without  artificial 


METEOROLOGY 


415 


TABLE  I. — MEAN  MONTHLY  TEMPERATURFS 


Fort  William 

1948  July 

57  5 

Aug. 
55  5 

Sept. 

53  5 

Oct 

48  6 

Nov. 

45  5 

Dec 

42  7 

1949    Jan 
41   3 

Feb 

42   1 

March 
41   9 

April 
46  7 

May 
49  5 

June 
56   1 

Inverness     . 

57  1 

54   1 

53  3 

46-8 

44-8 

41   3 

40  1 

41    1 

40  3 

46  8 

48  9 

53  5 

Perth 

58  9 

56  7 

53  9 

47  9 

43  2 

39  9 

40  3 

41    1 

40  9 

48    1 

51    3 

56  9 

Edinburgh 
Oban 

57  7 
57  2 

55  5 
56  3 

54  1 

53   5 

48  4 
49  2 

45  5 
47  3 

42  3 
43   7 

41    1 

42  5 

41   7 
42  4 

39  9 
42  9 

47  8 
46  7 

50  7 
50  3 

55   3 

57  3 

Glasgow 
Cardiff 

59  3 
60  7 

56  7 
60   1 

53  9 
58  0 

48  2 
51    7 

43  7 
46  9 

40  3 
43   5 

40  0 

43  3 

41    1 

43    1 

41   2 
43  4 

47  4 

51    5 

58  4 
61    3 

Llandudno 

60  4 

59  9 

58   1 

52  7 

49  7 

45  0 

44  9 

45  0 

43   7 

50  9 

51   7 

59-1 

Berwick-on-Tweed 

57  5 

55  9 

54  9 

48-9 

44  3 

41   0 

41    1 

41-9 

40  5 

48  9 

50  0 

54  3 

York  . 

60  9 

59   1 

56  9 

50  9 

44  3 

41   8 

41   3 

42   1 

41    1 

50  9 

52  9 

59  5 

Nottingham 
Birmingham  (Edgbaston) 
Oxford 

61    } 
60  1 
61   9 

59  7 
58  7 
60  7 

57  8 
57   1 
58  7 

50  6 
50  0 

50  5 

44  7 
45   1 
45  3 

43   1 
41   9 
43   1 

41    7 
41   7 
4?  5 

43   I 
42  5 
42  7 

41    1 

40  7 
41   6 

51-3 
49  9 
51   4 

52-7 
52   1 
52  9 

60   1 

59  7 
60  7 

Kew  Observatory 
Tunbndge  Wells 
Bournemouth 

62  7 
60   1 
62  3 

61    5 
59  7 
60  5 

59  0 
57  1 
58  9 

51   3 
49  8 
51   8 

45  6 
43  9 
47  8 

44-1 
41   9 
44   1 

42  7 
40  2 
43  9 

42  5 
40  7 
43  5 

42  3 
40  2 
43   3 

52  3 
50  7 
51   5 

53  7 
51-8 
53    1 

61    8 
58  4 
60  6 

Ringway  (Manchester) 
Bristol 

59  2 
60  9 

58  5 
60   1 

55  7 
57  9 

49  5 
51    1 

45  3 
47  4 

41   4 

43  5 

41   3 
42  8 

42  5 
43  0 

40  5 
42  3 

49   1 
50  5 

51    5 
52  3 

58  3 
60  1 

Aldergrove 
Armagh 

57  8 
58  5 

57  3 
57  9 

54  9 

55   1 

50   1 
50  0 

46  9 
47   1 

42-3 
42   3 

42  3 
43  0 

42  6 
43  3 

42  7 
43  6 

48   1 
49  3 

50  5 
51   2 

57  5 
58  7 

aid  and  it  was  difficult  to  determine  whether  the  cloud 
treated  with  dry  ice  or  silver  iodide  gave  rain  as  a  result  of 
the  treatment  or  whether  it  would  have  developed  in  exactly 
the  same  way  from  natural  causes.  It  was  well  known  that 
the  moisture  necessary  for  heavy  rainfall  comes  from  vast 
quantities  of  humid  air  brought  into  the  shower  cloud  (or 
the  cyclonic  system  in  the  case  of  widespread  ram)  by  a 
comparatively  large  scale  inflow  of  air  from  other  regions, 
sometimes  from  far  away.  Since  rainmakers  did  not  usually 
claim  to  set  in  motion  by  artificial  means  the  large  scale 
circulation  necessary  for  heavy  rainfall  except  as  a  possible 
consequence  of  the  initial  rain  which  they  did  claim  to 
produce,  meteorologists  pointed  out  that  artificial  rainmakmg 
had  not  yet  shown  conclusive  evidence  or  made  a  scientific 
case  for  its  claims.  In  their  experiments  rainmakers  usually 
selected  for  their  tests  those  clouds  which  appeared  most 
promising  as  shower  producers.  Meteorologists  also  pointed 
out  that  few  commercial  rainmakmg  operations  had  been 
accompanied  by  comprehensive  and  impartial  observations 
of  results  and  by  documentation  of  unsuccessful  as  well  as 
"  successful  "  attempts.  The  general  opinion  of  scientists 
familiar  with  the  subject  appeared  to  be  that  the  quantity  of 
rain  might  be  increased  locally  by  artificial  means  under  cer- 
tain relatively  infrequent  circumstances  when  naturally  formed 
clouds  were  near  the  shower  stage  and  air  currents  in  the 
region  were  favourable  for  shower  development,  but  in  no 
case  was  there  reason  to  believe  that  artificial  rainmakmg 
was  a  solution  for  widespread  drought  when  atmospheric 
conditions  were  unfavourable  for  rain.  However,  intensive 
research  into  this  important  but  controversial  subject  was 
being  continued. 


Experimental  meteorology  during  1949  also  announced 
new  altitude  records  for  high  level  sounding  balloons.  In 
Project  Skyhook  the  Office  of  Naval  Research  reported 
soundings  at  altitudes  slightly  over  100,000  ft.,  while  the  Army 
Signal  corps  published  the  results  of  one  sounding  in  which 
the  balloon  was  computed  to  have  reached  140,000  ft.,  the 
highest  altitude  ever  recorded  by  a  sounding  balloon.  The 
naval  balloons  were  fabricated  from  very  thin  polyethylene 
sheets  only  -001  in.  in  thickness.  Unlike  rubber  sounding 
balloons  they  did  not  expand  much  as  they  ascended.  Their 
maximum  size  inflated  was  approximately  100  ft.  in  vertical 
diameter  and  70  ft.  in  horizontal.  When  they  reached  their 
equilibrium  altitude  they  could  remain  at  constant  level  for 
many  hours  and  by  suitable  design  in  si/e,  weight  and  other 
characteristics  it  was  possible  to  manufacture  balloons  for 
any  desired  intermediate  altitude  within  rather  rough  limits. 
This  constant  altitude  balloon  provided  a  new  device  for 
exploring  the  atmosphere  especially  with  reference  to  wind 
flow  for  long  distances  at  high  altitudes. 

The  Signal  corps  high  level  balloons  were  made  of  neo- 
prene  latex.  At  maximum  altitude  their  size  was  about  75  ft. 
in  diameter.  Their  lifting  capacity  was  not  as  great  as  that  of 
the  larger  naval  balloon.  In  addition  to  their  measurements 
of  atmospheric  pressure  and  temperature  and  their  evidence 
of  wind  discontinuities  not  previously  suspected  in  the  upper 
air,  these  balloons  were  used  for  other  physical  research  in 
ozone  distribution,  lomzation  and  cosmic  radiation.  Too 
costly  for  everyday  soundings,  these  high  level  balloons  were 
still  in  the  experimental  stage. 

Among  other  developments  during  the  year  in  experimental 
meteorology  were  practical  studies  in  the  use  of  radar  for 


TABLE  II. — MONTHLY  TOTALS  OF  RAINFALL  IN  INCHLS 


Fort  William 

Inverness 

Perth 

Edinburgh 

Oban 

Glasgow 

Cardiff 

Llandudno 


Berwick-on 


Tweed 


York 

Nottingham 

Birmingham  (Edgbaston) 

Oxford 

Kew  Observatory 

Tunbndge  Weils  . 

Bournemouth 

Ringway  (Manchester) 

Bristol 

Aldergrove 

Armagh 


1948  July 

Aug. 

Sept 

Oct.    Nov. 

Dec 

1949  Jan 

Feb.   March 

April 

May 

June 

7  05 

8  51 

13  78 

12  59    7  47 

9  73 

14  22 

14  11    4  24 

12  00 

4-05 

2  55 

3  17 

6  06 

2  24 

2  49    1-87 

3  16 

4  65 

2  29    2  30 

1  60 

1  82 

0  90 

4  44 

7  86 

2-98 

3  47    1  60 

4  8S 

1  98 

1  90    1 

44 

1  38 

2  09 

1-80 

1  94 

9  40 

2  58 

1  61    2  33 

2  20 

2  16 

1  67    0  80 

1  07 

1  90 

1  01 

4  36 

5  98 

9-59 

10  17    6-01 

8  51 

9  32 

7  61    3-34 

9  54 

3-41 

1-67 

3-17 

6  61 

6  60 

5  19    3-38 

5  50 

3  72 

4  05    2  07 

3-76 

2  13 

1  19 

4  29 

5  65 

4  18 

5  61    2  45 

4  95 

1  24 

2  37 

•87 

3  02 

3-71 

0  65 

55 

2-72 

2-01 

2  10 

•45 

4  25 

2  36 

1-26 

•66 

2  11 

1-87 

0  42 

39 

8  94 

1  85 

2  45 

•40 

1  27 

1  10 

0  50 

76 

0  61 

0-77 

1  14 

•19 

3-77 

1-20 

1  31 

99 

2  13 

0  68 

0  62 

45 

2  48 

1-80 

0-57 

•14 

3-60 

2-55 

1  95 

•21 

2  76 

1  06 

0  53 

•26 

1-72 

2  07 

0-45 

•83 

4-39 

2  81 

2  83 

•54 

5  00 

1  38 

0  77 

•57 

2  39 

2  21 

0  25 

0  85 

3-43 

2  48 

2  33 

50 

2-70 

0-91 

1  01 

70 

1-31 

2  41 

0-46 

19 

2  87 

1-24 

1-83 

•59 

2  02 

1-20 

0  88    0  92 

1  46 

2  30 

0  50 

27 

3  80 

2-10 

1  86 

•68 

4  27 

0  97 

•43    0-92 

1-67 

1  50 

0-68 

18 

3-44 

2-50 

1  95 

•61 

5-16 

0-76 

•28 

1  48 

1-78 

1  68 

0-39 

3-06 

4-48 

2  33 

2-13    2  12 

2-91 

2  22 

•40 

1  91 

2  77 

4  22 

0  94 

I  14 

4-44 

2  29 

4  29    1-74 

5  51 

1-03 

•47 

1-47 

2  15 

3-73 

0-41 

2  51 

2-89 

4-30 

3  17    2  53 

4  48 

2  48 

•74    2  19 

1  94 

1-85 

0-58 

2-46 

3-50 

2-64 

2  26    2-64 

4  52 

2-41 

2  51    2-11 

2  18 

1  79 

0-9& 

416 


METEOROLOGY 


TABLE  II I.  —  MFAN  MONTHLY  TFMPKRATURES  °F. 


1948 

July 

Aug 

Sept. 

Oct 

Nov. 

Dec. 

1949  Jan. 

Feb. 

March 

April 

May 

June 

Hamburg    . 

63  7 

63  0 

58  6 

49  3 

41-9 

37  2 

37-6 

38-7 

37-6 

50  5 

54  9 

58  1 

Stockholm 

64  9 

60  6 

54  3 

41  2 

35   1 

36  9 

32  9 

34  5 

32  2 

42  3 

54  5 

56-1 

Brussels 

62  4 

63   *\ 

59  5 

51    1 

44  1 

39  4 

40  1 

40  8 

40-1 

53   1 

53  6 

59  0 

Lisbon 

70  8 

71   5 

71   0 

67  5 

63  4 

58-3 

55  5 

56  9 

58  5 

64  8 

62  7 

69  8 

Malta 

74    1 

77  9 

73  7 

71    9 

61   7 

56  6 

54  3 

53  5 

52-9 

60  8 

66-3 

72-7 

Cairo 

82  9 

82  6 

78  6 

73  9 

66  4 

57  0 

55  5 

54  3 

62-1 

64  2 

80-4 

81-3 

Baghdad 

95  9 

95  2 

85  3 

73  3 

60  1 

48  7 

46  7 

49  5 

57  5 

66  3 

83  4 

91   5 

Aden 

90  0 

88  9 

89   1 

85  3 

79-5 

77  3 

76  5 

77  3 

79  9 

81   5 

87  7 

90  5 

Salisbury,  Southern  Rhodesia 

57  5 

59  3 

65   5 

70  6 

69  7 

71   0 

71   3 

68  3 

67  9 

66  5 

62  0 

56  5 

Capetown 

54  3 

55  7 

56  7 

61    9 

— 

68  2 

71  0 

72  5 

71    1 

63  •  5 

60  1 

60-2 

Colombo 

81   2 

80  9 

81   4 

80  3 

79  9 

79   1 

79  5 

79  0 

81   3 

80  9 

81-9 

81- 

Toronto 

71   3 

70  9 

65  8 

48  7 

45  3 

31   5 

29   I 

29  3 

32   5 

45  9 

58   1 

72 

Winnipeg 

68   1 

67  7 

62   1 

46  8 

25  9 

16   1 

1   9 

-6   1 

15  8 

42-7 

52  9 

63  4 

Victoria,  B.C 

60  2 

59  0 

55  7 

48  8 

42  2 

35  8 

30  9 

35  9 

42  9 

47   1 

54  7 

57- 

Hobart 

45  5 

49  3 

52  5 

51    1 

54  8 

59  5 

59   1 

56  9 

58  0 

52  5 

49  8 

45 

Wellington 

48  0 

48  3 

51   9 

52  3 

55  2 

60  2 

59  4 

63  5 

58  3 

53-5 

51   7 

48- 

New  York 

75  6 

74  8 

69  3 

55  9 

52-4 

38  8 

39  0 

38  9 

42  4 

53  3 

62-3 

72  6 

Washington,  D  C 

78  4 

76  0 

69  7 

56  2 

52-2 

40  6 

43  4 

44  6 

47  2 

55  4 

66-4 

75-8 

San  Francisco 

59  3 

59  6 

60  0 

60  4 

56-6 

47  8 

44  7 

48  3 

53  2 

55  6 

56  7 

58  8 

the  idenlification  of  thunderstorms  and  possibly  tornadoes; 
also  research  on  the  possibilities  of  using  radar  to  estimate 
the  quantity  of  rainfall  over  an  area  of  several  hundred 
square  miles.  Although  individual  studies  in  the  use  of 
seismographs  and  "  sfencs  "  recorders  to  detect  the  develop- 
ment and  movements  of  hurricanes  far  out  at  sea  were 
continued,  there  were  no  outstanding  achievements  in  these 
methods  during  1949. 

Synoptic  Meteorology.  During  1949  the  principal  weather 
forecasting  centres  in  the  United  States  received  synoptic 
messages  every  six  hours  reporting  the  weather  in  about 
700  places  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  and  in  addition  many 
of  these  centres  received  several  hundred  reports  each  hour, 
more  than  10,000  each  day,  from  airport  weather  stations 
conveying  meteorological  items  of  importance  in  air  navi- 
gation. Yet  these  voluminous  reports  presented  only  a  small 
part  of  the  picture  of  local  conditions  and  variations  in 
weather  of  significance  to  agriculture,  commerce  and  trans- 
port. There  was  a  constant  demand  from  business  concerns 
and  the  general  public  for  a  more  comprehensive  coverage 
by  the  government  meteorological  service;  and  as  aviation 
expanded  there  was  an  urgent  need  for  more  weather  reports. 
Surface  weather  observations  were  augmented  by  upper  air 
soundings  with  pilot  balloons  and  radiosondes,  by  aircraft 
reconaissance  reports  and,  more  recently,  by  hundreds  of 
"  in-flight  "  weather  reports  from  commercial  pilots  who,  on 
their  regular  air  transport  routes,  encountered  local  storms, 
icing  clouds  and  air  turbulence  that  would  otherwise  not  be 
reported  for  entry  on  the  daily  weather  charts  from  which 
forecasts  and  storm  warnings  were  prepared.  The  great 
number  of  incoming  reports  arriving  in  a  continuous  stream 
flooded  the  primitive  facilities  of  the  weather  map  analyst 
and  forecaster,  so  that  fewer  and  larger  analysis  centres 
became  essential,  with  facilities  for  mechanical  processing  of 
data  and  the  transmission  of  completely  analysed  maps  by 
facsimile  to  remote  district  and  local  forecasting  offices. 
This  evolutionary  trend  was  still  in  progress  by  the  end  of 
1949  and  the  practice  of  central  analysis  could  not  be  com- 
pletely adopted  until  communication  facilities  were  avail- 
able and  other  technical  problems  solved,  but  by  the  end  of 
the  year  the  use  of  upper  air  charts  and  prognostics  prepared 
by  the  central  analysis  unit  in  Washington  had  become 
general  throughout  the  United  States. 

The  flood  of  weather  reports  led  to  other  steps  It  was 
impossible  for  the  individual  forecaster  to  assimilate  and 
interpret  mentally  the  innumerable  items  of  meteorological 
data  required  to  determine  or  define  the  state  of  the  atmos- 
phere over  the  country,  the  continent  and  the  globe.  Never- 
theless this  overall  analysis  was  important  for  air  navigation, 
for  long  range  weather  forecasting  and  estimates  of  agricul- 
tural production  and  other  business  analyses  and  activities. 
There  was,  therefore,  some  improvement  during  1949  in  the 


use  of  machine  tablulation  methods  and  electronic  com- 
puter apparatus  for  rapid  processing  of  synoptic  weather 
data. 

In  an  effort  to  reduce  the  number  of  immediate  reports 
required  to  represent  the  state  of  the  atmosphere,  one  in- 
vestigator proposed  a  new  concept  of  synoptic  presentation, 
a  system  which  would  show  the  virtual  parameters  of  the 
weather  for  an  area  rather  than  a  point.  This  concept  was 
too  great  a  departure  from  customary  synoptic  practices  and 
the  elements  it  represented  were  too  intangible  for  immediate 
acceptance  by  weather  forecasters;  but  it  constituted  one 
solution  to  a  pressing  problem. 

In  the  preceding  years  evidence  of  distinct  wind  streams 
in  the  upper  air,  occasionally  with  velocities  of  200  m.p.h. 
or  more,  called  jet  streams,  and  the  relation  of  these  streams 
to  the  general  circulation  and  their  bearing  on  the  operation 
of  high  altitude  aircraft  and  missiles  caused  synoptic  meteoro- 
logists, during  1949,  to  bring  out  new  theories  on  the  connec- 
tion between  fronts  in  the  troposphere  and  jet  streams  in 
the  stratosphere.  Preliminary  observations  of  the  occurrence 
of  these  high  velocity  wind  streams  in  the  southern  hemisphere 
were  presented  with  theoretical  reasons  for  believing  the 
phenomenon  to  be  less  frequent  and  less  intense  than  in  the 
northern  hemisphere.  Direct  observations  so  urgently 
needed  to  delineate  the  extent  and  nature  of  jet  streams 
five  or  ten  miles  above  the  ground  probably  depended  upon 
wider  and  more  frequent  soundings  with  the  constant  level 
high  altitude  balloons  already  described.  It  was  formerly 
contended  that  winds  in  the  stratosphere  were  relatively 
constant  and  formed  a  fairly  simple  general  global  circulation, 
but  later  it  was  calculated  that  the  velocities  in  jet  streams 
occasionally  reach  300  m.p.h.  However,  most  meteorologists, 
pointing  to  the  ranfied  state  of  the  atmosphere  at  high 
altitudes,  believed  the  air  and  winds  there  had  insufficient 
weight  and  driving  force  to  exert  much  influence  on  weather 
in  the  lower  troposphere  far  below  near  the  ground. 

Synoptic  meteorologists  were  giving  more  attention  to 
pragmatism  in  weather  forecasting.  During  1949  there  were 
many  studies  and  some  progress  in  developing  more  objective 
methods  for  forecasting  the  weather  locally,  that  is,  methods 
based  on  substantive  factors  and  "  engineering  "  techniques 
rather  than  upon  subjective  prognostics  and  expert  opinion 
alone.  Forecasts  of  river  stages  and  floods  and  of  seasonal 
water  supply  in  western  states,  where  snow  accumulation 
in  the  mountains  is  an  important  source  of  water  for  irri- 
gation in  the  summer  growing  season,  had  been  improved 
in  recent  years  and  were  especially  valuable  during  1949. 

The  daily  synoptic  icports  and  upper  air  soundings  in 
the  Arctic  and  over  the  oceans,  which  had  been  new  achieve- 
ments during  the  preceding  years,  became  routine  operations 
in  1949.  Throughout  the  year  weather  reconnaissance  flights 
to  the  north  pole  were  made  by  U.S.  air  force  planes  operating 


METEOROLOGY 


417 


TABIF  IV 

.    -MONIHLY    TOIALS   OF    RAINIALL 

IN  INCHES 

1948  July 

Aug. 

Sept 

Oct 

Nov 

Dec 

1949  Jan. 

Feb 

March 

April 

May 

June 

Hamburg 

5  24 

6  26 

2  56 

1    65 

0  91 

0  79 

1   42 

1    77 

1    81 

4  88 

3  27 

3-70 

Stockholm 

3  81 

4  09 

1    53 

1   06 

0  86 

0  87 

1   41 

0  36 

0  52 

1    30 

1    19 

2  10 

Brussels 

5    12 

2  27 

1    57 

1    75 

1   75 

2  49 

1   09 

0  80 

1    84 

1-88 

2   12 

0  87 

Lisbon 

0  00 

0  08 

0  03 

1    99 

0  37 

7  66 

1   58 

0  70 

1    74 

1   49 

0  41 

0-49 

Malta 

0  03 

0  00 

0  05 

5   96 

5  56 

7  42 

2  28 

2  50 

1    71 

0   16 

0  52 

0  04 

Cairo 

0  00 

0  00 

0  00 

tr 

0  04 

0   17 

0  28 

0  07 

0  00 

0  02 

0-01 

0  00 

Baghdad 

0  00 

0  00 

0  00 

0  00 

0   10 

0  88 

0   11 

0   13 

3-27 

0  29 

0-13 

— 

Aden 

tr 

0  02 

tr 

0  26 

0  02 

0  42 

0  55 

0   18 

tr. 

tr. 

0  03 

0  00 

Salisbury,  Southern 

Rhodesia            0  02 

0  00 

0  00 

1    85 

5  47 

2  23 

6  02 

4  75 

1    95 

0  46 

0  90 

0  00 

Capetown 

5  24 

2  00 

2  68 

1    60 

0  31 

0  62 

6  02 

0  20 

0-23 

2  49 

1    63 

2  57 

Colombo 

2  70 

6  60 

2   18 

8  97 

12  32 

5  22 

1-50 

0  14 

6-08 

22  98 

12-62 

12-46 

Toronto 

1   31 

0  89 

2  22 

2  63 

3  30 

2   12 

3  33 

2  83 

2   17 

1    15 

0  41 

0  06 

Winnipeg 

4  06 

0  94 

0  05 

0  39 

1   28 

1   63 

2  04 

1  07 

0  69 

0  08 

1   71 

2  71 

Victoria,  B  C 

1   40 

2  58 

1    81 

1    87 

7  70 

6  10 

0  S9 

6  86 

2  22 

1   41 

0  71 

1-15 

Hobart 

1    29 

0  77 

2  80 

4   11 

2  50 

1    84 

4  20 

1    14 

1    14 

1   06 

2  40 

1   06 

Wellington 

7  41 

2  28 

1    17 

4  43 

4  27 

1-41 

2  25 

1   29 

2  54 

4  85 

3    19 

5  83 

New  York 

7  52 

3  21 

1    13 

2  44 

3  33 

6-^2 

5  63 

3  70 

1   97 

3  84 

4    11 

0  16 

Washington    D  C 

3  60 

X  00 

3   63 

3    11 

5  78 

4-93 

5  OS 

3  27 

3  96 

2  01 

5   65 

1-85 

San  Francisco 

0  02 

0  02 

0  09 

0  20 

1    18 

4  75 

2  20 

3  04 

5  85 

tr. 

0  93 

tr. 

from  Alaska,  and  during  the  hurricane  season  similar  flights 
were  made  over  tropical  waters.  Weather  reconnaissance 
flights  and  radar  observations  contributed  much  toward 
keeping  the  hurricane  warning  service  of  the  Weather  Bureau 
at  a  high  level  of  accuracy  For  reasons  of  economy  the 
nations  participating  in  the  ocean  weather  vessel  patrol  in 
the  North  Atlantic  agreed  to  reduce  the  number  of  station 
vessels  to  1 1  and  for  similar  reasons  the  United  States 
reduced  the  number  in  the  Pacific  to  three  Television,  an 
excellent  medium  for  meteorological  services  in  which  map 
display  is  important,  came  into  wider  use  as  a  means  of 
picturing  the  weather  from  day  to  day  for  the  general  public. 

Applied  Meteorology.  After  World  War  H  meteorologists 
redoubled  their  efforts  to  encourage  and  develop  the  practical 
applications  of  weather  science  and  its  services  in  the  every- 
day operations  of  business  and  industry  and  the  thousands 
of  enterprises  where  weather  and  climate  are  important 
factors.  During  1949  the  American  Meteorological  society 
gave  special  attention  to  opportunities  in  applied  meteorology. 

Research  work  at  the  Laboratory  of  Applied  Climatology 
of  John  Hopkins  university,  Baltimore,  Maryland,  in  the 
meteorological  factors  relating  to  crop  development  and 
harvesting  led  to  improved  quality  of  product,  better 
scheduling  of  harvest  and  reduced  labour  costs  Although 
in  previous  years  agricultural  experimental  stations  of  state 
and  federal  governments  and  agricultural  colleges  had 
worked  extensively  on  relationship  between  weather,  climate 
and  crops,  the  work  of  the  Laboratory  of  Applied  Clima- 
tology was  outstanding  as  an  instance  in  which  an  industrial 
concern  made  broad  use  of  a  scientific  consultant  service  in 
meteorology. 

In  the  building  industry  a  preview  of  the  application  of 
modern  meteorology  and  climatology  to  design,  construction 
and  location  of  industrial  and  residential  structures  was 
shown  with  the  co-operation  of  the  American  Institute  of 
Architects  and  one  of  the  popular  periodicals  on  home 
design.  The  publication  aroused  widespread  interest  and 
heralded  closer  co-operation  in  research  for  better  utilization 
of  natural  "  resources  "  in  weather  and  climate  for  planning 
and  selecting  the  best  site  for  the  particular  industrial  or 
residential  purpose,  and  for  other  uses  such  as  revision  of 
building  codes  and  formulation  of  better  maintenance 
practices  to  meet  the  diverse  effects  of  different  kinds  of 
weather  and  climate. 

The  problem  of  control  of  air  pollution  focused  attention 
on  micro-meteorology,  especially  in  localities  like  Donera, 
Pennsylvania,  where  in  Oct.  1948  local  weather  conditions 
led  to  concentration  of  factory  effluents  and  to  many  casual- 
ties among  people  overcome  by  the  vapour.  In  Nov.  1949 
the  Public  Health  Service  published  a  comprehensive  report 
of  studies  completed  in  co-operation  with  the  Weather 
Bureau  and  other  investigating  groups.  The  results  were  of 

E.B.Y.— 28 


interest  to  all  cities  and  industrial  communities  that  suffered 
from  air  pollution.  Although  the  Donora  study  had  to  do 
primarily  with  local  meteorology  rather  than  micro-meteoro- 
logy in  the  strict  sense,  it  was  illustrative  of  the  attention 
being  given  to  investigations  into  the  small  scale  or  local 
details  of  weather  and  climate 

The  year  saw  other  new  activities  in  applied  meteorology. 
An  example  was  specialization  in  local  forecasting  of  sea 
swells  and  hurricane  winds  dangerous  to  persons  engaged 
in  oil  drilling  operations  off  the  coasts  of  Louisiana  and 
Texas.  In  applied  climatology  and  micro-climatology  as 
well  as  in  applied  meteorology  scientists  spoke  optimistically 
of  the  possibilities  and  need  for  specialization  in  the  work 
of  these  meteorological  fields 

Theoretical  Meteorology  and  Research.  Most  technical 
papers  contributing  to  knowledge  in  theoretical  meteorology 
during  1949  were  published  in  the  Journal  of  Meteorology 
of  the  American  Meteorological  society  (A. M.S.),  the 
Quarterly  Journal  of  the  Royal  Meteorological  society  and 
Tel  Ins,  a  new  quarterly  which  first  appeared  in  March  1949 
as  a  publication  of  the  Swedish  Geophysical  society  and  the 
University  of  Stockholm.  Other  important  research  results 
on  subjects  of  a  less  theoretical  nature  were  published  in 
the  Bulletin  of  the  A  M  S  ,  the  Meteorological  Magazine, 
London,  and  the  Tmn\actions  of  the  American  Geophysical 
union  A  number  of  the  longer  research  treatises  appeared 
as  monographs  of  the  A  M  S  ,  or  as  separate  publications 
and  reports  issued  by  the  meteorological  departments  of 
universities,  government  offices  or  their  contracting  agencies. 

The  predominance  of  papers  dealing  with  the  general 
circulation  of  the  atmosphere  showed  the  basic  importance 
of  this  subject  in  the  minds  of  meteorologists.  Of  special 
interest  was  the  research  in  development  of  mathematical 
techniques  for  predicting  the  weather  through  use  of  the 
electronics  computer  to  perform  the  very  large  number  of 
computations  involved. 

Tnternational  Co-operation.  The  new  convention  for  the 
World  Meteorological  organization  proposed  by  the  Inter- 
national Meteorological  organization  (I.M.O.),  in  its 
Washington  conference  of  directors  of  national  meteorological 
services  in  1947  had  been  ratified  by  27  nations  as  1949  came 
to  a  close.  During  the  year  the  United  States  continued  its 
programme  of  assistance  to  the  Philippine  meteorological 
service  and  to  the  services  in  certain  other  countries  where 
assistance  was  required  as  part  of  international  co-operation 
in  support  of  air  commerce.  Of  international  interest  in  the 
Americas  was  the  thirtieth  anniversary  of  the  American 
Meteorological  society  in  December. 

The  Weather  in  1949.  In  parts  of  western  Kansas  and 
Nebraska  as  well  as  portions  of  adjoining  states  the  heavy 
snows  and  cold  weather  which  began  the  first  week  of  Jan. 
1949  practically  paralysed  normal  winter  activities  for  the 


418 


METHODIST  CHURCH— MEXICO 


ensuing  six  weeks,  and  one  blizzard  after  another  threatened 
to  cut  off  entirely  the  supply  of  food  and  other  essential 
commodites  from  many  localities.  Emergency  supplies  were 
flown  in  by  the  air  force  and  some  of  the  main  roads  were 
re-opened  with  great  difficulty  by  the  corps  of  engineers. 
Traffic  on  main  railroads  was  interrupted  for  days  in  parts  of 
the  middle  west  and  near  northwest.  Snowfall  was  the 
heaviest  ever  recorded  in  many  localities.  At  Dead  wood, 
South  Dakota,  the  fall  in  January  was  77  in.  Places  in  Arizona, 
New  Mexico,  Texas  and  southern  California  had  snow  for  the 
first  time  in  a  century.  Temperatures  in  Texas  reached  the 
lowest  ever  recorded  there.  Waco  experienced  5°F.  below 
zero. 

In  May,  Fort  Worth,  Texas  had  the  worst  flood  in  the 
history  of  the  city  with  a  rainfall  which  exceeded  10  in.  in 
24  hours.  In  the  northeastern  states  late  spring  and  summer 
months  were  unusually  hot  and  dry.  New  England  had  the 
second  hottest  July  in  the  long  meteorological  records  for 
that  region.  As  a  result  of  the  exceptionally  dry  summer, 
crop  damage  in  New  Jersey,  eastern  New  York  and  New 
England  was  heavy  and  the  water  supply  reservoirs  of  many 
cities  and  towns  were  seriously  depleted.  Toward  the  end 
of  the  year  the  long  rainless  period  led  to  a  serious  water 
shortage  in  the  entire  metropolitan  area  of  New  York  city. 
(See  also  SEISMOLOGY.)  (F.  W.  Rn.;X.) 

METHODIST  CHURCH,  In  1949  the  Methodist 
Church  in  Great  Britain  showed  its  first  increase  (2,602)  in 
membership  for  17  years;  the  number  of  Sunday  school 
scholars  rose  by  23,000,  making  a  total  gain  of  50,000  since 
1947;  and  the  president  of  the  conference,  the  Rev.  H.  B. 
Rattenbury,  reported  that  there  were  now  30  million  Methodist 
adherents  in  the  world. 

The  annual  conference  sent  to  every  church  a  call  to 
action,  urging  each  society  to  examine  its  spiritual  condition 
and  to  adapt  its  machinery  to  modern  needs.  The  Ministerial 
Manpower  commission  suggested  an  amalgamation  of 
certain  circuits  in  order  to  economize  ministerial  manpower. 
A  survey  of  churches  in  mining  areas  revealed  that  in  many 
districts  progress  was  being  made  though  some  apathy 
existed  where  Communism  was  strong.  The  Home  Mission 
department  was  empowered  to  train  workers  for  the  mining 
areas  and  to  undertake  full-scale  evangelism  m  selected 
districts.  A  travelling  cinema  van  was  equipped  to  serve  as 
a  mobile  Sunday  school  in  rural  and  new  areas;  several 
caravans  for  deaconess-evangelists  were  also  dedicated  for 
this  specialized  work.  The  Women's  fellowship  (chairman, 
Mrs.  Leslie  Church)  showed  marked  advance  in  its  social 
service  and  as  a  spiritual  force  in  the  life  of  the  Church. 

The  Overseas  Mission  department  appealed  for  an  addi- 
tional annual  income  of  £100,000  and  for  100,000  new 
supporters.  A  new  constitution  for  the  Ceylon  synod  was 
approved,  to  become  operative  in  1950.  Hospitality  for 
overseas  students  and  visitors  was  organized  and  close 
co-operation  with  colonial  welfare  officers  maintained. 

The  Methodist  Church  in  Australia  in  1949  launched  a 
three-year  drive,  stressing  Christian  teaching  as  related  to 
human  needs  and  aiming  at  recapturing  the  spirit  of  the 
18th  century  revival  of  religion.  In  the  first  year  many 
members  were  added  to  the  Church.  The  programme  for 
the  second  year  would  be  devoted  to  extensive  work  in  youth 
organizations,  and  for  the  third  year  to  a  press  and  radio 
campaign  directed  to  people  outside  all  Christian  churches; 
in  some  cities  an  open  forum  would  also  offer  Christianity 
to  the  unattached  masses.  During  1935-49  Methodist 
membership  in  Australia  increased  by  187,403  (27-4%)  as 
compared  with  14-3%  increase  in  population.  Arrange- 
ments were  made  to  receive  emigrants,  especially  from  the 
National  Children's  Home  and  Orphanage.  Two  units  of 


outback  motor  patrol  nursing  services  started  working  in 
the  Darling  river  area,  based  on  Menindie. 

In  South  Africa  the  membership  of  the  Methodist  Church 
showed  an  increase  of  11,000.  The  racial  problems  were 
faced  and  no  barriers  of  colour  or  caste  were  acknowledged. 
A  joint  training  scheme  for  ministerial  students  was  estab- 
lished and  a  divinity  faculty  set  up  at  Rhodes  university 
college.  (L.  F.  C.) 

United  States.  The  Methodist  Church,  the  largest 
Protestant  body  in  the  U.S.,  on  May  10,  1949,  closed  its  first 
decade  since  the  reunion  of  three  bodies  brought  it  into 
existence.  During  the  ten  years  notable  advances  were 
recorded.  Membership  since  the  merger  showed  a  gain  of 
1,432,382,  the  number  on  Jan.  1,  1950,  being  8,792,569. 
This  figure  included  24,255  ministers,  but  not  671,820 
preparatory  members  or  875  full  members  in  50  mission  lands. 

Progress  in  the  1948-52  programme,  the  "  Advance  for 
Christ  and  His  Church,"  was  registered  in  observance  of  a 
week  of  dedication  in  March. 

The  four-year  study  programme  first  centred  on  the 
documents  of  the  Amsterdam  Assembly  of  the  World  Council 
of  Churches;  it  was  followed  in  October  by  a  nationwide 
series  of  78  all-day  mass  meetings  to  launch  a  formal  study 
of,  and  deeper  commitment  to,  Christian  faith.  Eight 
months  of  1949  and  1950  were  dedicated  to  concentration 
upon  a  specific  doctrine,  aided  by  booklets,  sermons  and 
group  study.  (See  also  CHURCH  MEMBERSHIP.) 

MEXICO.  A  federal  republic  of  North  America  lying 
between  the  United  States  and  Central  America.  Area: 
767,168  sq.  mi.  Pop.:  (1940  census)  19,653,552;  (mid-1949 
est.)  24,448,000;  about  55%  of  the  population  was  mestizo 
29%  Indian  and  15%  white.  Chief  towns  (pop.,  1948  est.): 
Mexico  City  (federal  district,  2,043,574);  Guadalajara 
(282,280);  Monterrey  (252,639);  Puebla  (159,701);  Merida 
(114,967);  Tampico  (106,874).  Language:  Spanish,  but  an 
estimated  14%  speak  only  Indian  tongues.  Religion:  pre- 
dominantly Roman  Catholic.  President,  Miguel  Aleman 
Valdes  (^.v.). 

History.  The  most  important  events  of  1949  were  connec- 
ted with  attempts  to  solve  the  nation's  economic  problems. 
Among  these  were  a  continuing  unfavourable  balance  of 
trade  and  the  instability  of  the  Mexican  peso.  After  a  series 
of  downward  fluctuations  from  the  pegged  value  of  4-85 
to  the  U.S.  dollar,  which  began  in  July  1948,  the  peso  was 
finally  stabilized  at  8  -65  to  the  U.S.  dollar  on  June  17,  1949. 
Stabilization  was  achieved  with  the  help  of  a  loan  of  $25 
million  from  the  U.S.  Treasury  through  a  renewed  stabiliza- 
tion agreement  between  the  two  governments  and  $22-5 
million  from  the  International  Monetary  fund.  These  loans 
together  with  the  Bank  of  Mexico's  reserves,  announced  at 
$84  million,  gave  the  8  65  pesos  to  the  dollar  rate  a  total 
support  of  $131-5  million.  Certain  groups,  such  as  the 
exporters  of  Mexican  goods  and  those  engaged  in  the  tourist 
trade,  stood  to  benefit.  On  the  other  hand,  importers  of 
goods  from  the  U.S.  feared  that  the  new  rate  would  accelerate 
an  already  serious  inflation. 

To  halt  inflationary  tendencies,  Ramon  Beteta,  secretary 
of  the  Treasury,  announced  an  eight-point  programme  which 
included  balancing  the  federal  budget,  prevention  of  infla- 
tionary credits  by  private  banks,  control  of  monetary 
circulation,  maintenance  of  wages  and  salaries  at  their 
maximum  purchasing  power,  downward  revision  of  import 
tariffs  to  lessen  the  blow  of  devaluation  to  importers,  retention 
of  the  15%  ad  valorem  surtax  on  all  exports,  prohibition  of 
certain  imports  (on  June  21,  1949,  207  classifications  of 
the  Mexican  import  tariff  were  added  to  a  previous  list  of 
prohibited  imports)  and  suspension  of  the  export  permit 
system. 


MINC— MINERAL  AND  METAL  PRODUCTION  AND  PRICES        419 


On  the  political  scene,  the  government,  on  Jan.  28,  1949, 
cancelled  the  registration  of  the  P. P.P.  (Partido  Fuerza 
Popular),  the  political  organ  of  the  Uni6n  Nacional  Sinar- 
quista.  The  petition  of  the  P.R.I.  (Partido  Revolucionario 
Institucional),  the  government  party,  on  which  the  govern- 
ment based  its  decree,  accused  the  P. P.P.  of  being  anti- 
democratic and  of  aiming  at  restoring  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  to  the  position  of  influence  it  had  enjoyed  before  the 
Laws  of  the  Reform. 

The  federal  elections,  held  throughout  Mexico  on  July  3, 
1949,  resulted  in  a  sweeping  victory  for  the  government 
party,  the  P.R.L,  which  won  143  of  the  147  contested  seats 
in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  The  remaining 4 seats  were  won  by 
the  more  conservative  P.A.N.  (Partido  de  Accion  Nacional). 
The  P.R.I,  announced  that  its  candidates  had  also  won  in 
the  six  state  elections  for  governor.  Under  Mexico's  new 
compulsory  registration  and  voting  law  (1948),  about  3-5 
million  citizens  registered  although  only  about  60%  of  this 
number  voted.  The  election  was  conducted  with  a  minimum 
of  violence  and,  although  the  P.A.N.  made  bitter  charges  of 
fraud,  the  decision  was  accepted  peacefully. 

An  event  which  produced  a  tremendous  outburst  of 
patriotic  enthusiasm  was  the  announcement,  in  Sept.  1949, 
of  the  discovery  of  the  remains  of  Cuauhtemoc,  the  last  of 
the  Aztec  chief  tans  and  one  of  Mexico's  greatest  national 
heroes.  The  discovery  was  made  through  the  directions 
in  a  document,  allegedly  preserved  since  the  conquest. 
The  authenticity  of  the  find  was  strongly  challenged  by  one 
group  of  scholars,  while  another  group  maintained  just  as 
strongly  that  the  remains  were  genuine.  Regardless  of  the 
outcome  of  the  contest,  the  event  was  a  graphic  illustration 
of  contemporary  Mexico's  repudiation  of  the  Spanish  con- 
quest and  its  glorification  of  its  Indian  past.  (L.  N.  McA.) 

Fducation.  Schools  (1949)  kindergarten  837,  pupils  98,155,  teachers 
2,887,  primary  24,625,  pupils  2,997,198,  teachers  67,860.  secondary 
466,  pupils  80,598,  teachers  7,805,  technical  199,  pupils  41,928, 
teachers  1,676;  agricultural  16,  pupils  5,949,  teachers  701,  teachers' 
colleges  77,  students  26,998,  teachers  2,854,  universities  and  institutions 
of  higher  education  12,  students  40,031.  Illiteracy  (1948  est  )  65  % 

Agriculture  and  Fisheries.  Main  crops  ('000  metric  tons,  1948; 
1949  est  in  brackets)  maize  2,832  (3,139),  wheat  477  (451),  barley 
120  (126);  oats  35;  rice  163  (176),  potatoes  140,  beans  234  (283); 
sugar,  raw,  635;  cotton,  ginned,  119,  tobacco  (1946)  36,  coffee 
(1947)  55  Livestock  ('000  head,  Jan  1946)  cattle  (1948)  12,240; 
sheep  4,742,  pigs  5,314,  horses  2,641,  asses  2,471,  mules  1,001, 
poultry  (Jan.  1947)  37,393. 

Industry.  Fuel  and  power  (1948)  natural  gas  1,066  million  cu.  m  ; 
electricity  3,970  million  kwh.,  crude  oil  8,371,000  metric  tons  Raw 
materials  ('000  metric  tons,  1948)  iron  ore,  metal  content,  236;  steel 
ingots  and  castings  269,  copper  59,  lead  193,  zinc  179,  gold  ('000 
fine  oz  )  450  Manufactured  goods  ('000  metric  tons,  1948)  cotton 
yarn  5-9,  woven  cotton  fabric  47  3;  woollen  goods  4-5;  cement  833 
Index  ol  industrial  production  (1937-=  100,  average  for  1948)  general 
index  121;  mining  84,  manufacturing  industries  147 

Foreign  Trade.  (Million  pesos)  Imports  (1948)  2,950,  (1949,  six 
months)  1,797;  exports  (1948)  2,594,  (1949,  six  months)  1,653 
Main  imports  wheat,  vehicles,  tractors,  machinery,  rayon,  generators, 
petrol,  tubing  and  pipeline  Mam  exports  lead,  silver,  zinc,  copper, 
petroleum  and  products,  cotton  and  fish  In  1948,  the  United  States 
took  75°'o  of  Mexican  exports  and  supplied  87°^  of  imports 

Transport  and  Communications.  Roads  (1949)  about  18,133  mi. 
suitable  for  motor  vehicles.  Licensed  motor  vehicles  (Dec  1948). 
cars  134,079,  commercial  vehicles  100,998  Railways  (1948)  1 4,000  mi  ; 
traffic  (1948,  national  railways  only),  passenger-mi,  1,208  million; 
freight  net  ton-mi.  4,340  million.  Shipping  (July  1948)  merchant 
vessels  of  100  tons  and  upwards,  75,  gross  tonnage  121,682  Air 
transport  (1948)  passenger-mi  343  million.  Telephones  (1948). 
239,749.  Broadcasting  (1948):  136  stations  and  1,113,000  receiving 
sets  in  use. 

Finance  and  Banking.  (Million  pesos)  Budget:  (1948  actual)  revenue 
1,940,  expenditure  2,300;  (1949  est.)  revenue  2,372,  expenditure  2,550. 
National  funded  debt  (Dec  1947)  1,856  Currency  circulation  (June 
1949;  in  brackets,  June  1948)-  2,054  (1,726).  Bank  deposits  (April 
1949;  in  brackets,  April  1948).  1,742  (1,716).  Monetary  unit:  pevo 
with  a  selling  exchange  rate  (Dec.  1949;  in  brackets.  Dec.  1948)  of 
24-4  (27-7)  pesos  to  the  pound. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  W.  W.  McVittie,  Mexico  Economic  and  Commercial 
Conditions  (London,  H.M.S  O.,  1949). 


MIDDLE  CONGO:    see  FRENCH  UNION. 

MIDWAY  ISLANDS:  see  UNITED  STATES  TERRITORIES 
AND  POSSESSIONS. 

MILK:    see  DAIRY  FARMING 

MINC,  HILARY,  Polish  politician  (b.  Kazimierz, 
Poland,  Aug.  31,  1905),  studied  law  and  economics.  During 
a  stay  in  France  (1927-28),  he  was  active  in  organizing 
Communist  cells  among  the  Polish  miners;  but  in  Poland, 
as  a  civil  servant  (1930-39),  he  succeeded  in  concealing  his 
political  ties.  He  worked  in  the  editorial  section  of  the 
General  Statistical  office,  was  a  member  of  an  advisory 
committee  at  the  ministry  of  finance  and  was  for  some  time 
attached  to  Gdynia.  After  the  partition  of  Poland  between 
Germany  and  the  U  S  S  R.  he  became  professor  of  economics 
at  the  University  of  Samarkand  (1939-43).  In  1943  he  was 
one  of  the  organizers  of  the  Union  of  Polish  Patriots,  the 
cradle  of  the  Communist-controlled  government  of  Poland. 
In  June  1945  he  became  minister  of  industry  and  trade  in  the 
first  government  of  "  national  unity."  In  the  cabinet  appointed 
on  Feb.  7,  1947,  and  presided  over  by  Jozef  Cyrankiewicz, 
he  was  minister  of  industry.  Though  ready  in  June  1947  to 
accept  Marshall  plan,  he  kept  in  line  with  Moscow  when 
informed  of  the  Soviet  attitude.  As  a  member  of  the  Polit- 
buro of  the  Polish  Workers'  (Communist)  party  he  was  one 
of  the  delegates  at  the  conference  of  Wilcza  Gora,  Poland, 
in  Sept.  1947,  at  which  the  Cominform  was  created.  On 
April  22,  1949,  he  was  appointed  acting  prime  minister  with 
far  reaching  powers  to  co-ordinate  the  economic  activities 
of  all  branches  of  the  state  administration. 

MINERAL  AND  METAL  PRODUCTION  AND 
PRICES.  Table  I  shows  the  output  of  the  more  important 
minerals  and  metals  in  the  major  producing  countries. 
Table  VII  gives  the  prices  for  the  leading  minerals  and 
metals,  as  quoted  on  New  York  and  London  markets  at  the 
beginning  and  end  of  1949.  Many  of  these  prices,  especially 
those  of  the  major  non-ferrous  metals,  took  sharp  drops 
during  the  year,  marking  the  end  of  the  postwar  period 
required  to  exhaust  the  backlog  of  industrial  demand  that 
had  accumulated  during  World  War  II.  Following  the 
abandonment  of  price  control  in  1946  there  was  practically 
continuous  advance  in  prices.  The  E.  &  M.  J.  Metal  and 
Mineral  Markets  weighted  index  of  non-ferrous  metal  prices, 
which  averaged  90-86  m  1945,  rose  to  142-19  in  Dec.  1946, 
to  152-48  in  Dec.  1947  and  to  185-52  in  Dec.  1948.  A  peak 
of  185-75  in  Feb.  1949  was  followed  by  a  gradual  decline  to 
131  -20  in  June  and  a  reaction  to  142-24  in  September,  with 
further  minor  fluctuations  in  subsequent  months,  closing  at 
approximately  the  level  prevailing  late  in  1946. 

Aluminium.    Although  world  production  of  aluminium  in 

1948  increased  one-sixth  over  1947,  to  more  than  double  the 
1939  total,  it  was  still  only  65%  of  that  of  1943,  the  World 
War  II  peak  year.    The  bulk  of  the  increase  was  in  Canada 
and  the  United  States,  which  supplied  respectively  26%  and 
45%  of  the  total  and  together  accounted  for  62%  of  the 
increased  output  of  1948. 

The  demand  for  U.S.  aluminium  increased  steadily  and 
until  the  latter  half  of  1949  supplies  were  not  plentiful. 
While  the  production  rate  advanced  appreciably  during  the 
first  half  of  1949,  strikes  in  several  of  the  plants  cut  output 
in  the  second  half.  The  total  output  up  to  the  end  of  Oct. 

1949  was  526,436  tons,  and  the  total  for  the  year  was  expected 
to  be  about  the  same  as  that  of  1948. 

Copper.  World  production  of  copper  was  gradually 
recovering  from  the  postwar  slump.  The  1948  total  was 
14%  more  than  the  1939  level,  but  was  still  short  of  the 
World  War  II  peak  by  a  similar  percentage.  Incomplete 


420 


MINERAL  AND   METAL   PRODUCTION   AND   PRICES 


smelter  reports  for  1949  indicated  appreciable  gains  in 
output  in  Canada,  Germany,  Japan  and  Northern  Rhodesia, 
but  these  were  largely  offset  by  declines  in  Chile  and  the 
United  States,  and  little  improvement  could  be  expected 
in  the  yearly  total. 

Demand  exceeded  supply  until  well  into  1949,  when  a 
reversal  of  the  trend  was  marked  by  a  sharp  drop  in  prices 

In  the  U.S.,  the  1948  output  fell  somewhat  short  of  that 
of  1947  because  of  strikes  in  the  industry,  although  the 
decreased  ore  tonnage  was  partly  offset  by  a  small  increase 
in  copper  content  of  the  ore.  The  decline  in  domestic  output 
was  more  than  offset  by  increased  imports,  giving  a  small 
increase  in  the  total  supply  above  that  of  1947. 

In  1949  mine  output  suffered  further  declines,  partly  from 
labour  stoppages  and  partly  from  a  cut  in  working  time 
from  48  to  40  hr.  a  week.  Mine  production  during  the 
first  three-quarters  of  1949  totalled  557,581  tons,  a  reduction 
of  1 1  %  from  the  average  monthly  rate  in  1948. 

In  Canada,  primary  copper  production  advanced  from 
225,861  tons  in  1947  to  240,732  tons  in  1948,  and  continued 
to  improve  at  about  the  same  rate  in  1949  with  a  total  of 
172,925  tons  up  to  the  end  of  August.  Small  tonnages  of 
ore  and  concentrates  were  exported,  but  the  bulk  of  the  output 
was  converted  into  refined  copper.  Refinery  output  increased 
from  202,427  tons  in  1947  to  221,275  tons  in  1948  and  151,985 
tons  in  the  first  eight  months  of  1949. 

Lead.  The  lead  output  of  the  major  producing  countries 
and  estimated  world  totals  are  shown  in  Table  II.  Eaily  in 
1949  a  sharp  break  in  prices  took  place,  due  to  increased 
production  which  brought  supply  ahead  of  demand. 


TABLE  II — WORLD  SMFLFI-R  PRODUCTION  o*  LEAD 
(Thousands  of  short  tons) 


1943 

1944 

1945 

1946 

1947 

1948 

Argentina 

26-2 

21    1 

2?   3 

17   8 

22  0 

23   7 

Australia 

202   3 

171    1 

174  6 

154  0 

177-6 

211  -4 

Belgium 

8   8 

8  5 

8  0 

26  2 

44  6 

72  4 

Canada 

223   9 

142   6 

162   5 

165   8 

162  0 

160   1 

France 

13   7 

2    1 

3   0 

38   3 

38    1 

38   4 

Germany 

173   3 

154  2 

9 

11    9 

26   8 

54    1 

Italy 

13   7 

9 

0  9 

15  4 

19   3 

29    1 

Japan 

35   8 

8   8 

13   9 

5  4 

9   6 

11    7 

Mexico 

234-2 

196   5 

221-7 

151    8 

240    1 

217  4 

Peru 

47  8 

42   9 

44   1 

40  2 

36    1 

38  4 

Spam 

40  5 

34    1 

15    1 

35   6 

37  9 

24  2 

USSR 

H9 

120 

45 

55 

66 

9 

United  States 

469  6 

464   8 

443   6 

318   2 

441    0 

406   7 

Total 


1,720        1.480        1,230        1,140        1,415 


While  the  U  S  mine  output  of  lead  showed  little  improve- 
ment in  1948,  and  refinery  output  ^declined  80/0,  this  trend 
was  reversed  in  1949.  The  mine  total  was  stepped  up  to 
311,281  tons  in  the  first  three  quarters  of  1949,  while  the 
primary  refinery  output  advanced  to  399,139  tons. 

The  output  of  primary  lead  in  Canada  increased  from 
161,668  tons  in  1947  to  167,251  tons  in  1948,  but  operations 
were  slowed  down  in  1949,  the  total  for  the  first  eight 
months  being  98,452  tons. 

Manganese.  The  output  of  the  more  important  manganese 
producing  countries,  as  listed  in  Table  III,  are  usually 
about  90";  of  the  world  total,  although  there  are  about  35 
minor  producers. 

The  domestic  output  of  manganese  in  the  U.S.  continued 
to  decline.  Shipments  from  the  mines  showed  only  a  minor 

TABIF  i — World  Mineral  and 


(Metric  tons  unless  otherwise  specified    Th    indicates  thousands  and  Mi    millions  of  units  ) 

Did- 


Country 

Alumi- 

Asbes- 

Chro- 

Copper 

Copper    monds    Gold       lion         Pi«                        Lead 

Lead 

nium 

Anli- 

tos 

Bauxite 

Cad- 

nutc 

Coal 

Coke    m  Ore  ( 

Smelter 

)   Oh         (Ih          Ore         lion       Steel     m()ie( 

refined) 

(In) 

monv 

(Th  ) 

Oh) 

mium 

(Th  ) 

(Mi) 

(Mi)      (Ih) 

(Th  ) 

carats)      o*  )        (  1  h  )      (In)     (  1  h  )       (  I  h  ) 

Oh  ) 

ALGIRIA 

8f7 

P 

0   23 

— 

— 

—            —           1,872                      --            10 

ANGOLA 

— 

_ 

796       —            —           --            — 

„ 

AUSIRALIA 

I627 

1    4' 

3  O7 

223   9 

P 

23   4° 

1    34'    13   4 

13    3 

—  -              890      2,140       1,255       1,236  207   8 

191    8 

BELGIAN  CONGO 

— 

18   0 

0    II7 

155   5 

155   5 

5,825          300       —           —           —           06 

BELGIUM 

— 

— 

—  . 

157  9 

— 

26  68 

3  73      — 

— 

90      3,937      3,917       — 

__ 

BOLIVIA 



14,280 

0   1 



— 





__            66 



4                                                  25   6 

.. 

BRAZIL 



— 

p 

. 

1    6 

2  01 

0  27       — 



250  •>       1*7       1,441          532         462 



BURMA 

_ 

66' 

17 

„_ 



—           —             P                                           76 

7    6 

CANADA 

13  1  0 

124 

650   2 

— 

346    I 

1    5 

16   72 

1    12  217   6 

192   6 

3,528       1,228      2.151       2,866    149   0 

145   2 

Cmi  E 





p 







2  24 

—       448   3 

424  9 

157      2.545         48  17     —           — 



CHINA 

p 

3,251 

P 

— 

_ 

— 

8   72 

()  09       0  5 

0   5 

1087        246            47       —              ' 

7 

COLOMBIA 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

0  857 

335         -             -           — 

CZECHOSLOVAKIA 

1,593 

P 

-- 

— 

41    34 

5  22       - 

—                  27     1,428       1,660      2,645          > 

; 

FRANC  t 

64   8 

200' 

0  5' 

790 

50    1 

4^    11 

6    lf>        P 

p 

33'  23  031      6,571      7,243     11    6 

34    8 

GERMANY 

7   3 

— 

P 

3   5 

267   08 

18  98     17    57 

62   2 

—           —          6,534      5,630      5,558     22   3 

49   2 

GOLD  COAST 

„ 

__ 

132  2 

.  . 

__            . 

_ 

850  '       672       - 

GREECE 

— 

40   2 

— 

1    5 



_                _ 

—             p             --                            16 

1    6 

GUIANA,  BRITISH 

__ 

1,901    2 



. 

_             __ 

36            17       —                                          — 

GUIANA,  Dim  u 



— 

2,149   9 



_ 

4                       __           __ 

. 

HUNGARY 

5    2 

__ 

— 

100 

10   60 

P 

27        276          121          742       — 



INDIA 

3  4 

_ 

0   I7 

12  97 

M   37 

30   79 

1    664     6  3 

6  0 

180      2,5367    1.457      1.224       — 



INDO-CHINA 

—  . 

_ 

—  - 

— 

0    16 



P             P            —           — 

_ 

INDONESIA 

-_ 

— 

417   8 

— 

0   29 

—            P 

_ 

ITAI  Y  . 

33    1 

430 

II    8 

160 

49   7 

1    96 

2   28         p 

p 

25        455          525      2,125     30    1 

26  4 

JAPAN 

7  0 

124 

4   6 

-  - 

18   9 

9    3 

35   25 

1    93     25   8 

54   3 

70         556         812       1.714       6   7 

10  6 

LUXEMBOURG 

— 

— 

- 

— 

3,399      2,626      2,451       — 



MAL  AYA 

— 

0   38 

. 



—                10        p            —           —           — 



MANC  HURIA 



__ 



_ 

_ 



_ 

_                _           



MEXICO 

_ 

6,790 

-_ 

P 

__ 

1    067 

0   5V    59    1 

48  8 

—              368         229         270         269  197   5 

194   5 

MOROtC  0,     1  Rl  N(  M 



411 

0  4 



— 



0   29 

—            04 

p              301       —           —         28   2 



Nbw  CALEDONIA 



~ 



— 



75   0 

__ 



p            —           __           — 

__ 

NORWAY 

10    1 

— 

_ 

— 

69  0 

— 

13   6 

8   7 

288         202       — 

_ 

PERU 

_ 

1,770 

_ 



2  4 



0   19 

p           18    1 

12   8 

J  J  J             AO      ^ 

34  8 

PHILIPPINES 







_ 



256  9 

0  09 

—           3   4 

209            18       —           —            —  ' 

POLAND 



— 

— 

— 

115  0* 

__ 

75   28 

4   66 

602       1,133     1,878       7  87 

16  9 

PoRFUGAJ 

___ 

217 

p 

. 

p 

0  49 

.  . 

167      p            _           __            _ 

RHODESIA.   NORTHERN 

_ 







230  7 



—       226   5 

217   0 

P             p            —           —          13  2 

13   2 

RHODESIA,  SOUTHERN 

.  

10 

62   5 



_ 

1    70 

P              P 

__             514           30       _           _             ._ 

SIFRRA  LEONE 

- 

__ 

—  _ 

__ 

—  . 

7   9 

_ 

466             2         968       — 

__ 

SOUTH  AIRK  A 

3.700 

41    5 

— 

— 

412   8 

23   56 

0   31  «   29   5 

29  0 

1,200'M  1,584      1,164         651         600       — 



S   W.  APRKA 

__ 

P 



10  8 



201        p             p            —           —         25  4 

_ 

SPAIN 

I   0 

270 

— 

8  9 

— 

__ 

11    62 

0  83     11    87 

20  8 

37     1  717         530         536     27   3 

22  0 

SvvrDrN 

3   5 

- 

_ 

_ 

_ 

0  4? 

0  08     16   3 

15    5 

767  12,061          754      1,256     20  9 

5   5 

THAILAND  (SIAM) 

_ 

8  5 







_           _ 

__ 

_.            „ 

TUNISIA 

— 

_ 

__ 

__ 

0  07 

__ 

696       —           -_         13  4 

18  2 

TURKEY 

520 

0  2 

— 

— 

285  4 

3  45 

0  34     12  4 

11   0 

185         166           99 

UNITED  KINGDOM 

10   5 

- 

— 

115  8 

— 

211    77 

15   58 

— 

13,320      9,423    I\I16       23 

2~3 

UNITED  STATIS 

565   6 

5,416 

33  6 

1,480  5 

3,527  0 

3   2 

590  62 

61   06  757  3 

839  6 

2,025102,855    56,214    80,413  351    0 

418   5 

USSR 

140 

P 

P 

500 

P 

__ 

201'' 

14  5«    180 

180 

7,000    21,000*  12,770    20,000       P 

P 

VENEZUELA 

— 

0  2 

— 

—  . 

— 

0  02 

__ 



76           50       —          —          — 

YUGOSLAVIA 

P 

P 

— 

P 

— 

— 

11    50 

—           P 

P 

P               172       —             "> 

?" 

WORLD  TOTAL  . 

,       1,265 

41,300 

989 

8.246 

4,772 

2,113 

1,689 

160-5       2,321 

2,341 

10.028    29,600211.000112,700155,000         ? 

7 

Noifv.  Each  item  of  data  previous  to  1948  is  followed  by  a  reference  superscript  indicating  the  year  to  which  the  figure  belongs — '  for  1947,  •  for  1946  and  so  on  for 
the  earlier  years  A  figure  followed  bv  9  or  with  less  decimals  than  others  in  the  column  is  an  estimate  The  letter  "  p  "  indicates  a  small  production  unknown  in 
amount  or  less  than  the  minimum  base  of  the  table,  "  P  "  indicates  a  larger  but  unknown  production 


MINERAL  AND   METAL  PRODUCTION   AND   PRICES 


421 


PABI  E  III      WORID  PRODUCTION  OF  MANGANESE  Oar 


(In  thousands  of  short  tons) 


Brazil 
Chile 
Cuba 

Gold  Coast 
India 

South  Africa 
USSR 
United  States 

Total 


1943 

1944 

1945 

1946 

1947 

1948 

303  8 

162  0 

269  7 

164  4 

156  7 

155  7 

125  8 

48  5 

8  2 

22  6 

21  4 

26-0 

141  0 

284-3 

218  5 

144  2 

53  6 

32  0 

589  0 

528  6 

675  '> 

857  2 

560  7 

705  6 

666  8 

414  7 

2is  5 

281  5 

503  2 

350  8 

241  5 

117  8 

126  2 

262  1 

317  7 

304-7 

508  •>      2,480''      1,870?      1.9801' 


Proved  ore  reserves  were  increased  during  1948  from  7, 17 1,000 
tons  of  nickel-copper  content  to  7,503,000  tons. 

Production  m  1949  was  maintained  at  about  the  same  rate 
as  in  1948,  but  exports  increased,  total  production  up  to 
the  end  of  August  being  85,485  tons,  and  total  exports 
90,050  tons. 

TABLL  IV      Woiu  n  PRODUCTION  of  NICKEL 


205 


247   6       182 


143   6        131    6       131    I 


(In  short  tons) 


4,450        3,200        4,675        4,010        4,299 


4,100 


decline  in  1948,  to  131,100  tons  against  131,627  tons  in  1947, 
but  there  was  a  sharp  drop  in  1949,  the  total  for  the  first 
three  quarters  being  only  86,022  tons.  Receipts  of  foreign 
ores  were  1,034,168  tons  in  the  first  three  quarters  of  1949, 
as  compared  with  1,256,597  tons  in  the  full  year  1948.  The 
drop  in  ore  imports  was  partly  offset  by  increased  imports 
of  ferro-manganese  in  1947  and  1948,  but  in  1949  these 
dropped  back  to  the  1947  level.  While  the  three-quarters 
total  of  1949  for  general  imports  of  ore  was  1,034,168  tons, 
against  984,127  tons  of  imports  for  consumption,  the  corres- 
ponding consumption  figure  was  1,060,179  tons,  indicating 
even  heavier  withdrawals  from  plant  stocks. 

Nickel.  The  bulk  of  the  world's  supply  of  nickel  came  from 
Canada,  but  outputs  of  other  significant  producers  and  the 
estimated  world  totals  during  several  recent  years  are  shown 
in  Table  IV. 

There  was  a  sharp  increase  in  Canada  in  1948  in  both 
production  and  exports  of  nickel,  and  extensive  development 
work  was  under  way  in  the  mines  to  expand  the  ore  reserves 

Metal  Production  in  1948 


Canada 

Cuha 

Finland 

G  recce 

Japan 

New  Caledonia 

Norway 

South  Africa 

USSR   (cst  ) 

United  States 

Total 


1943 

1945 

1946 

1947 

1948 

144,009 

122,565 

96,062 

118,627 

131,075 

2,679 

12,015 

12,191 

2,220 

9,888 

992 

662 

^ 

? 

,  545 

— 



1,778 

717 

? 

^ 

7 

8,128 

4,771 

3,063 

3,687 

5,381 

636 

569 

61 

— 

— 

378 

550 

548 

583 

505 

12,300 

14,800 

22,000 

27,500 

27,500 

642 

1,155 

352 

646 

883 

184,000      160,000      135,500       153,000       165,000 


Tin.  World  production  of  tin  increased  by  nearly  one- 
third  in  1948,  but  was  still  more  than  one-third  under  the 
peak  production  of  1941  Outputs  of  the  major  producing 
countries  and  the  estimated  world  totals  during  lecent  years 
are  shown  in  Table  V,  as  reported  by  the  U  S.  Bureau  of 
Mines 

The  1948  total  was  about  the  same  as  that  of  1939,  and  was 
ahead  of  consumption  for  the  first  time  since  1943.  World 
smelter  capacity  had  been  largely  rehabilitated,  and  the 
improvement  was  reflected  in  imports  of  metal  into  the 


(Metric  Ions  unless  otherwise 

specified    Th    indicates 

thousands  and  Mi    millions  of  units) 

Manga- 

Pctro-    Phos- 

Plati- 

Tin 

Mag- 

nese 

Mer- 

leum     phate 

num 

Silver 

in    ore 

Tin 

Tung-      7mc 

/me 

Country 

nesitc 

ore 

cury 

Nickel        (Mi        Rock 

(Th       Potash 

Pyritc 

Salt        (Ih    Sulphur 

(Long 

(Long 

stcn       in  ore  (smeltei) 

(Th)* 

(Th  > 

Flasks 

(Th  )         bhl  )       (Th  ) 

o/  )       (Ih)t 

(In  ) 

(Fh)        or.  )       (Th)* 

tons) 

tons) 

Cone  §     (Th  ) 

(Ih) 

_. 

377 

670  6 

15    1 

777          487     — 

— 

— 

6   1 

— 

ALGERIA 



_ 





—  . 

ANGOLA 

37   4- 

1    87 

p 

5   47 

01         01 

119   77 

89    10,058       — 

1.874 

254 

1,1327151    7 

83    I 

A  US!  R  At  IA 

17   67 

0  2 

1       3,806       — 

14,073 

3.875 

236    46  5 

— 

BFLGIAN  CONGO 

.  



—              —         68   9 

P 



10,469 

_ 

153  9 

BELGIUM 





P 



_           



—          7,562       2   7 

37,336 

81 

2,485       — 

— 

BOLIVIA 

p 

141    3 

p               



3   6 

781            23 

240 

— 

1  ,  1  44       — 

-_ 

BRAZIL 

p 



03          — 



Sf>«        450 

1,161 



It0457      — 

BURMA 

0   2 

M8   9          12  4 

116  6 

167  0 

672    14,569       — 

109 

309 

727  214   8 

178   3 

C  ANADA 

__ 

20   5 

359 

—              _-         59    5 

—             P 

78         990     13    3 

P            — 

— 

CHILE 

P 

22 

290 

—             P 

42  9 

2,842             27      P 

4,800 

1,606 

1  2.200       — 

0   1 

CHINA 







—           23   9         - 

40  0         — 



124          109       — 



— 

— 

C  OLOMRtA 

P 

800 

1    2 

qe     i(600       — 

.  

— 

2  0? 

C/K  HOSLOVAKIA 

_ 

56  87 

466   7 

179 

1,991«        535«    13   8 

78 



39P    12  2 

55   5 

I  RANCF 

P 

897 

P 

45         05 

—    1,925   5 

583    1 

1,912         867 

100 

26 

—         28  9 

41    4 

GERMANY 

640    1 

_            __ 

__ 

54<j     



-  - 

(Joi  r>  COAST 

12   2 

p 

__ 

_ 

16   2 

52       —             p 







GRLCC  E 



__. 

__ 



— 

GUIANA,   BRITISH 





.  

__ 







_ 

._ 

GUIANA,  Duic  H 

__ 

13   57 

.  

—             17         — 

__ 

P 

p                 15« 



__ 

HUNGARY 

52  47 

456  57 



24        0  97 

1    1 

P 

2,378           127     p 



p 

INDIA 

_ 

64         — 

30 

60 

INDO-CHINA 





.  

31    6 

p 



360       —  -            P 

29,206 

136 

_ 

_ 

INDONESIA 

P 

26 

39,000 

P                              P 

p 

753   7 

559          601    170 

120 

120 

p          79   8 

26    8   . 

ITAIY 

47   5 

1,526 

—              11          36 

—    ] 

.118 

119      2,211      40    1 

120 

146 

9     33   4 

21    2 

JAPAN 

_ 



LUXEMBOURG 



.  



.  

.  





44.815 

49,707 

87 

MALAYA 

__ 





__ 







__ 



_- 

MANC  HURIA 

_ 

53   8 

9.7007 

—           5H   5         — 





157    57,520      2    1 

182 

181 

168  171    6 

48   3 

MEXICO 



214  4 



—            —    3,226  3 



_ 

647        i|76     „ 



23 

_ 

MOROCCO,  FRENCH 



. 

49           —           P 



_. 

— 



_ 

NEW  CALEDONIA 

1   77 







715   4 

—              148 

p 

p            60 

42  0 

NORWAY 

.. 





—           14  8         — 

.  



60    10,422       1    0 

74 

227       -- 

1    5 

PERU 



25   6 



p 





—              151 





64  9 

_™ 

PHILIPPINES 

3   S' 

_ 



—             10           — 



39  77 

726 



— 

— 

87    1 

POLAND 

_ 

2  47 



__           

556    I 

__           —  ...           -  - 

453 

240 

2,930 



PORTUGAL 

4  0 

__ 

__           

.               ...  . 

__ 

__ 

—         22  5 

22  5 

RHODFSIA.  NORTHERN 

5   7 



__             

__ 

13   2 

—                81        - 

105 

__ 

80       - 

RHODESIA,  SOUTHERN 

.  

__ 

_           

0   1         — 



_ 

__ 

_. 

SIERRA  LEONE 

10  7 

276  4 

_. 

0  5           —         39  7 

73  7 

36  0 

I24«     ij7i        _ 

457 

554 

151       -- 

— 

SOUTH  AFRICA 



__. 

._ 

10 

_ 

15          301        — 

1  11 

.._ 

12       — 

— 

S   W    AFRICA 

5  6 

17  7 

55.6087 

20  2 

115   8  1 

,110   7 

8357        206     17  0 

400 

352 

888     47  0 

21   2 

SPAIN 

— 

10  77 

p 

50  7« 

310  67 

1,0897     — 



— 

3227   36   3 

— 

SWEDEN 

— 

—  . 

. 

.  . 

78«     _ 

4,240 

— 

495 

.  _ 

THAILAND  (SIAM) 





--    1,863   7 

_ 

3   2 

93«          60« 





25 



TUNISIA 

3  4 

8   3 

987 

.           

p 

237                    24 









TURKEY 

. 



„ 



10     17 

3,189            25       — 

1.281 

30,218 

687     -  - 

73    1 

UNirrn  KINGDOM 

341    I7 

118  9 

14,388 

08    2,016   38,807  9 

19  3     757    1 

943  4 

14,881    39,2284,869  2 

6 

36,703 

3,633    563  8 

714   6   . 

UNITED  STATES 

P 

1,800 

P 

25           211    8         P 

125             — 

P 

_           __           p 

— 

— 

P             — 

1067 

USSR 

1   9 



. 

—         490  0         — 

_ 



36        —           — 





_ 



VFNFZUFI  A 

P 

— 

— 

. 

P 

— 

— 

— 

- 

YUGOSLAVIA 

2,000 

3,900 

164,000' 

150        3,414    17,000 

520      3,431      9,000 

42,488    171,0005,300151,800153,300 

32,000         ? 

1,692       . 

.  WORLD  TOTAL 

*Crude  magnetite. 
§60%  WO»  basis. 


equivalent  of  salts  produced.  {Mainly  crude  sulphur,  but  includes  some  ore  and  some  sulphur  recovered  from  roaster  gase*. 


422 


MINERALOGY 


United  States  in  1948,  which  more  than  doubled  over  1947. 
During  1949  smelter  operations  were  maintained  at 
approximately  the  1948  level,  the  output  up  to  the  end  of 
November  totalling  37,253  short  tons,  as  against  37,546 
tons  in  the  same  period  of  1948. 


TABLE  V. — WORLD  PRODUCTION  OF  TIN 
(In  thousands  of  short  tons) 


Australia  . 

Belgian  Congo 

Bolivia 

China 

Malaya 

Neth.  Indies 

Nigeria 

Siam 

Others 

Total      . 


1943         1944 


3-0 
19-6 
46-5 

3-6 
29 
19-7 
14-2, 

6-5  , 
12-4 


2-9 
19-4 
43-5 

3-7 
10-4 

7-6 
14 

3-7 

7-8 


154-5       113 


1945 

2-6 

19-1 

47-6 

3-9 

3-5 

1-5 

12-6 

2-0 

8-2 

101 


1946 

1947 

1948 

2-4 

2-7 

2-1 

15-8 

16-7 

15-5 

42-1 

37-3 

41-1 

1-5 

4-5 

5-3 

9-4 

30-3 

49.4 

7-2 

17-8 

32-2 

1-2 

10-2 

10-1 

1-2 

1-6 

4-6 

8-2 

6 

7 

99 


127-1       167-3 


Uranium.  The  major  sources  of  supply  of  uranium  in  the 
past  were  the  Belgian  Congo  and  Canada,  with  small  amounts 
from  the  United  States,  Czechoslovakia  and  Portugal. 
With  the  development  of  the  atomic  bomb  a  new  incentive 
arose  for  a  world-wide  search  for  uranium  ores.  In  such  a 
widespread  programme  favourable  results  could  be  expected 
in  only  a  relatively  few  locations,  but  no  definite  information 
was  available  during  1949  on  the  findings.  A  number  of 
new  locations  were  reported,  but  for  security  reasons  little 
detailed  information  was  made  public. 

Before  the  discovery  of  the  rich  ores  of  the  Belgian 
Congo,  small  amounts  of  radium  ores  were  mined  in  the 
United  States,  and  from  these  uranium  was  recovered  as  a 
by-product.  The  Colorado  plateau  area  of  Colorado,  Utah 
and  Arizona  had  supplied  moderate  tonnage  of  low  grade 
vanadium-uranium-radium  ores  since  the  early  1930s.  Pros- 
pecting and  new  development  were  active  in  this  area,  and 
late  in  1949  it  was  reported  that  there  were  about  300  mines 
in  operation,  employing  1,000-1,200  miners  and  supplying 
ore  to  six  treatment  plants.  Other  areas  of  Arizona  also 
made  marked  progress,  and  in  mid- 1949  ore  production  was 
estimated  at  200  tons  per  day. 

To  stimulate  the  prospecting  programme  in  the  United 
States,  a  price  of  $3,50  per  pound  of  uranium  oxide  was 
guaranteed,  supplemented  by  a  bonus  of  $10,000  to  any 
operator  who  delivered  as  much  as  20  tons  of  concentrates 
of  at  least  20  %  of  uranium  oxide  from  any  single  claim  not 
previously  operated. 

Zinc.  World  production  of  zinc  in  1948  advanced  by  6% 
to  a  level  above  that  of  1939.  The  outputs  of  the  important 
producing  countries  and  the  estimated  world  totals  during  the 
past  several  years  are  shown  in  Table  VI. 

Smelters  in  most  European  countries  were  up  to  or  past 
their  prewar  outputs,  and  the  deficiencies  in  Germany  and 
Poland  were  more  than  offset  by  increases  elsewhere. 

TABLE  VI. — WORLD  PRODUCTION  OF  ZINC 
(In  thousands  of  short  tons) 


1939 

1944 

1945 

1946 

1947 

1948 

Australia  . 

79-8 

88-2 

93-8 

85-4 

77-7 

91-6 

Belgium     . 
Canada 

205-1 
175-6 

9-6 
168-5 

12-9 
183-3 

95-0 
185-7 

146-7 
172-9 

169-5 
196-5 

France 

67-3 

9-7 

9-3 

33-5 

50-7 

61-2 

Germany  . 
Great  Britain 

254-6 
58-3 

286-2 
80-7 

? 
69-5 

31-3 
73-1 

22-8 
76-4 

45-6 
80-6 

Italy. 
Japan 
Mexico 

39-0 
56-5 
39-0 

69-0 

54-3 

1-7 
20-4 
54-0 

16-8 
12-4 
46-3 

28-6 
16-4 
62-5 

29-5 
23-4 
53-2 

Netherlands 

22-4 

2-3 

— 

2-2 

10-5 

15-0 

N.  Rhodesia 

14-2 

16-2 

17-1 

19-2 

23-7 

24-8 

Norway     . 
Poland 

50-6 
120-0 

13-0 
? 

10-2 
40-1 

33-3 
62-4 

38-1 
79-1 

46-3 
96-0 

Spain 
United  States 

14-8 
507-2 

19-9 
869-3 

19-1 
764-6 

19-4 
772-4 

21-8 
802-5 

23-4 
787-8 

Total 


.  1,820       1,790       1,400       1,550       1,760       1,865 


Merchants  at  the  London  Metal  exchange  which  opened  for  trading 
in  tin  for  the  first  time  for  almost  eight  years  on  Nov.  15,  1949. 

In  the  U.S.  in  1948  mine  output,  smelter  output  and 
imports  all  fell  short  of  the  1947  level,  cutting  the  supply  at 
the  same  time  as  consumption  was  increasing.  There  was 
another  small  decline  in  mine  output  in  1949,  but  smelter 
output  increased  slightly,  assisted  by  larger  imports  of  ore. 

The  recoverable  zinc  content  of  Canadian  ores  rose  from 
207,863  tons  in  1947  to  234,164  tons  in  1948,  of  which 
196,575  tons  was  produced  locally  as  refined  zinc  and  37,589 
tons  was  exported  in  ores  and  concentrates.  The  improved 
production  rate  was  continued  in  1949,  with  a  total  of 
212,544  tons  in  the  first  nine  months,  of  which  156,706  tons 
was  refined  zinc  output.  After  mid- 1949  the  exports  of  zinc 
in  ore  and  concentrates  more  than  doubled  compared  with 
the  preceding  rate,  and  reached  a  total  of  72,365  tons  by 
the  end  of  September.  (See  also  COAL;  DIAMONDS;  GOLD; 
IRON  AND  STEEL;  PETROLEUM;  SILVER.)  (G.  A.  Ro.) 

MINERALOGY.  The  occurrence  in  nature  of  the  well- 
known  nickel  compound,  NiSO4-6H2O,  was  reported  by 
Clifford  Frondel  and  Charles  Palache  and  the  name  retgersite 
assigned  to  it  as  a  mineral  (American  Mineralogist,  vol.  34, 
188-194).  W.  C.  Smith,  F.  A.  Bannister  and  M.  H.  Hey 
described  cymrite,  a  new  barium  mineral,  BaAlSi3O8OH, 
from  the  Benallt  manganese  mine,  Rhiw,  Carnarvonshire, 
Wales  (Mineralogical  Magazine,  vol.  xxviii). 

The  increased  demand  for  single  crystals,  the  success 
achieved  in  growing  them  in  the  laboratory,  their  properties 
and  many  uses  were  described  in  an  illustrated  article 
"  Crystals  "  by  Hans  Jaffe  (Physics  Today,  Sept.  1949). 

The  progress  made  from  1939-49  in  producing  synthetic 
gem  materials  in  the  United  States  was  discussed  in  "  Ameri- 
can Synthetic  Crystals — Sapphire  to  Titania "  by  A.  K. 
Seemann  (Gems  and  Gemology,  vol.  vi,  pp.  151-159)  and  by 
C.  H.  Moore,  Jr.,  in  "  Formation  and  Properties  of  Single 
Crystals  of  Synthetic  Rutile  "  (Mining  Engineering \  Mining 
Transactions,  June  1949). 

During  the  year  the  following  books  became  available. 
Story  of  Jade  by  Herbert  P.  Whitlock  and  Martin  Ehrmann 


MISSIONS,   FOREIGN   RELIGIOUS 


423 


TABLE  VII. — MINERAL  AND  METAL  PRICES  IN  1949 


New  York  market  as  reported  by  E.  &  M  J.  Metal  and  Mineral 
Markets 


London  market  as  reported  by  the  Metal  Bulletin 


Open 
17  00    cents 
$     5    10 

Close 
17  00    cents 

$     2  75 

Grade 
99  %  ingot 
50-5  5  %Sb 

Units 
Pound 
S  T  unit  . 

Aluminium 
Antimony,  Ore 

Grade 
98-99  % 
50-55?;Sb 

Units 
Long  ton 
Unit 

Open  (/) 
£         s         d 
87 
25         6 

Close  (g) 
£        s          d. 
112 
21       6 

41    67 

cents 

35  28    cents 

Domestic,  cased 

Pound 

Antimony 

Domestic.  99  % 

Long  ton 

200 

185 

6  00 

cents 

5  50    cents 

White  oxide 

»f 

Arsenic 

Foreign,  99% 

tt 

43 

5 

39 

15 

$  24   50 

$  24  50 

4  "/  Bo                     .       (a) 

ft 

Beryllium-copper  alloy 

(a,d) 

Pound 

8 

10 

8 

10 

S     2  00 

$     2  00 

Ton  loth 

Bismuth 

t< 

10 

9 

14 

6 

$     2  00 

$     2  00 

Commercial  sticks 

ft 

Cadmium 

tt 

12 

6 

14 

6 

$  38   50 

$  37  50 

48  %  Cr203,  3  Cr2   Fc    . 

Short  ton 

Chromium,  Ore 

Rhodcsian,  1st  grade 

Long  ton 

10 

4 

10 

4 

6 

*     1    02 

$     1    12 

97%,  spot 

Pound 

Metal 

98-99%    . 

Pound 

5 

1 

5 

1 

19   55 

cents 

19  55    cents 

4-9  %  C,  65-69  Cr         (a) 

hcrro-alloy 

4-8%C,60%Cr 

Long  ton 

60 

60 

$     1    65 

$     1   80 

97-99%  Co 

>t 

Cobalt 

Pound 

10 

13 

6 

2)   20 

cents 

18   20    cents 

Domestic 

it 

Copper 

Fire  rcf  ,  high  gr 

Long  ton 

139 

10 

152 

to 

23  45 

cents 

18  425  cents 

Export 

it 

f  Jettrolytic 

140 

153 

$  35  00 

$  35  00 

Ounce 

Gold 

Official 

Ounce 

172 

3 

248 

$     2   25 

$     2  25 

99  9%  In 

tt 

Indium 

ti 

12 

6 

13 

SI  12   50 

$102   50 

Sponge,  powder 

tt 

Indium 

Sponge,  powder 

25 

35 

$     6  20 

$     7   20 

Mesabi  non-bessemer 

Long  ton 

Iron,  Ore 

(<*) 

(f) 

$292    17 

$147   67 

80°;,  Joplm,  Mo 

Short  ton 

Lead,  Ore 

(K) 

(a) 

21    50 

cents 

12  00    cents 

New  York 

Pound 

Metal 

Foreign,  soft 

Long  ton 

M2- 

97 

20  50 

cents 

20   50    cents 

99  8%  car  lots 

M 

Magnesium  Ingots 

Pound 

i 

2 

I 

2 

27   50 

cents 

27   SO    cents 

Slicks 

l 

6 

1 

6 

71    60 

cents 

82   80    cents 

48%  Atlantic  ports 

L  T  unit 

Manganese,  Ore 

48-50%  Mn 

Unit 

2 

8 

35 

30  00 

cents 

35   50    cents 

96%Mn,2%rc 

Pound 

Metal 

96-98  %Mn 

Pound 

1 

5i 

1 

3^ 

$160  00 

$172  00 

78-82% 

Long  ton 

Ferro-alloy 

7%Mn,  1%C 

I  ong  ton 

86 

86 

$  62  00 

$  65   00 

19-21  %Mn 

Spiegel 

?0%Mn 

14 

7 

3 

17 

8 

$  91    50 

$  72  00 

(76  Ib) 

1  la'sk 

Mercury 

(76  Ib  ) 

Flask 

15 

26 

5 

45   00 

cents 

54  00    cents 

90%MoS^                   (b) 

Pound 

Molybdenum,  Ore 

85%MoSjt 

Unit 

49 

6 

88 

6 

$     2   SO 

$     2  80 

99  %  Mo 

Metal 

Powder 

Pound 

35 

9 

32 

6 

95   00 

cents 

$     1    10 

55-65  %  Mo                   (a) 

if 

herro-alloy 

70-75  %  Mo               (a) 

5 

8 

8 

6 

40  00 

cents 

40  (M)    cents 

Cathodes 

Nickel 

Refined 

Long  ton 

224 

321 

10 

$  24  00 

$  24  (H) 

Ounce 

Palladium 

Ounce 

5 

5 

15 

8 

10 

$  58   50 

$  75  00 

24  %P 

Long  ton 

Phosphorus,  Ferro- 

alloy 

20-25  %P 

1  ong  ton 

23 

12 

6 

23 

12 

6 

$  93   00 

$  69  00 

Wholesale 

Ounce 

Platinum 

Ounce 

21 

15 

24 

$125   00 

$125   00 

Rhodium 

27 

10 

40 

$     2   00 

$     2   00 

99   5% 

Pound 

Selenium 

Pound 

10 

14 

4 

16   75 

cents 

19  00    cents 

97  *-  %  Si,  spot 

Silicon 

98  %  Si 

1  ong  ton 

113 

7 

6 

120 

11    30 

cents 

1  1    10    cents 

50%  Si                            (u) 

t) 

Ferro-alloy 

45",,  Si 

32 

10 

32 

10 

13    50 

cents 

13    50    cents 

75%  Si                             (a) 

75  %  Si 

49 

49 

70  00 

cents 

73   25     cents 

Foreign,  New  York 

Ounce 

Silver 

Official,  spot 

Ounce 

42i 

64 

$     2   37S 

$     2  25 

60%Ta2O6                   (a) 

Pound 

Tantalum,  Ore 

60-65%  ra2O5 

Unit 

11 

11 

$14?  00 

$143  00 

Sheet 

Kilo 

Metal 

Powder 

Pound 

15 

(e) 

$     1    75 

$     1    75 

Pound 

Tellurium 

Pound 

8 

9 

12 

6 

S      I    03 

77   50    cents 

Straits 

Pound 

Tin 

99  %  f 

Long  ton 

569 

598 

$      1    40 

$      I    40 

20-2  5  %Ti                     (a) 

Short  ton 

Titanium,  Ferro-alloy 

20-25  %Ti 

100 

100 

$    19   00 

$    15   (X) 

56-59  %TiO  2 

Long  ton 

,,           Ilrnemte 

50-52  %TiO^, 

Malayan 

Long  ton 

8 

7 

10 

7   00 

cents 

4   50    cents 

94%  riOa 

Pound 

Rutile 

95  %  TiOjj,  Australian 

tt 

24 

22 

10 

$  28    50 

$  28   50 

Domestic 

S  T  unit 

Tungsten,  Ore 

"\     _  a/ 

Unit 

1  16 

3 

90 

$  24   50 

$   18  75 

Chinese 

tt 

f 

$     2   30 

$     2  30 

75-80  %W                    (a) 

Pound 

Ferro-alloy 

80-85%W                (a) 

Pound 

8 

6 

6 

$     2  90 

$     2  90 

98  8%W 

ft 

Powder 

9K-99%  W 

Pound 

9 

7 

6 

27   50 

cents 

27   50    cents 

(r) 

Vanadium,  Ore 

18-20%V205 

Unit 

70 

80 

$     3   00 

$     3  00 

herro-alloy 

35-60%  V                  (a) 

Pound 

15 

15 

$110  00 

$  57  00 

60%,  Joplin,  Mo 

Short  ton 

/.inc.  Ore 

52%  RC 

Long  ton 

13 

5 

nom 

17   50 

cents 

9   75    cents 

St   Louis 

Pound 

Metal  . 

GOB,  foreign 

106 

85 

10 

(a)  Per  pound  of  base  metal  contained      (b)  Per  pound  of  MoS2  contained      (<•)  Per  pound  of  V2Os  contained     (d)  Plus  li   Id  per  pound  of  alloy     («•)  Not  quoted. 
(/)  Jan    1,  1949     (?)  Dec    15.  1949 


(New  York).  This  was  an  important  contribution  to  our 
knowledge  of  jade,  with  179  black  and  white  illustrations 
and  four  full  colour  plates  of  notable  jade  objects.  The  third 
edition  of  E.  S.  Dana's  Minerals  and  How  to  Study  Them 
(New  York),  well  adapted  to  the  needs  of  beginners  and 
amateurs,  was  revised  by  C.  S.  Hurlbut,  Jr.  The  first  edition 
appeared  in  1895.  The  revised  and  enlarged  10th  edition  of 
G.  F.  Herbert  Smith's  Gemstones  (London)  was  widely  used. 
Crystals  and  X-Rays  by  Kathleen  Lonsdale  (New  York) 
was  intended  for  all  interested  in  crystallographic  science. 
Probleme  der  Naturwissenschaften  by  Paul  Niggli  (Basel) 
was  an  attempt  to  explain  the  concept,  and  Us  development, 
of  the  nature  of  crystals  and  minerals.  Gesteine  und  Mineral- 
lagerstatten  by  Paul  and  Ernest  Niggh  (Basel)  presented  a 
modern  treatment  of  rocks  and  mineral  deposits.  Das 
Geheimnis  der  Kristallwelt  by  H.  Tertsch  (Vienna)  described 
in  detail  the  history  and  development  of  crystallography  and 
mineralogy. 

Notable  progress  was  made  in  Germany  in  re-establishing 
journals  which  were  discontinued  during  World  War  II  and 
in  launching  new  ones.  During  1949  the  leading  German 
journal  devoted  to  gemology  and  jewellery,  Die  Deutsche 
Goldschmiede-zeitung,  which  ceased  publication  in  1943, 
began  to  re-appear.  Moreover,  two  new  journals  were 
launched:  Edelsteine  und  Schmuck  was  published  at  Idar- 
Oberstein,  recognized  as  a  leading  gem  centre  for  more  than 
four  centuries,  and  Achat,  devoted  to  mineralogy,  gemology 
and  jewellery  was  issued  at  Hamburg. 

The  greatly  increased  application  since   1939  of  X-ray 


analysis  and  electron  diffraction  to  the  study  of  crystal 
structure  and  the  solid  state  led  to  the  formation  of  the 
Crystallographic  Society  of  America  and  the  American  Society 
for  X-ray  and  Electron  Diffraction.  As  the  functions  and 
memberships  of  these  societies  overlapped,  it  was  voted  to 
merge  them,  as  from  Jan.  1,  1950.  The  new  organization 
would  be  known  as  the  American  Crystallographic 
association. 

The  Washington  A.  Roebling  medal  was  awarded  to 
Herbert  E.  Merwin  of  Washington,  D.C.,  by  the  Mineral- 
ogical  Society  of  America  at  its  annual  meeting  at  El  Paso, 
Texas,  Nov.  11,  1949.  Eor  40  years  Merwin  had  been  on  the 
staff  of  the  geophysical  laboratory  of  the  Carnegie  institution. 
He  had  contributed  extensively  to  the  advancement  of 
mineralogy  and  petrography.  (See  also  MINERAL  AND  METAL 
PRODUCTION  AND  PRICES.)  (E.  H.  KR.) 

MISSIONS,  FOREIGN  RELIGIOUS.  All  over 
the  world  the  enterprise  of  foreign  missions  continued  to 
take  the  strain  imposed  by  financial  tension  and,  in  many 
countries,  by  political  developments  or  tendencies.  Recruits 
were  short  except  in  the  Roman  Catholic  missions. 

India  and  Pakistan.  New  troubles  were  experienced  in  the 
state  of  Hyderabad  and  in  Kashmir,  but  European  mission- 
aries remained  at  their  posts  and  carried  on  their  work.  In 
the  south  the  recently  united  Church  of  South  India  (Angli- 
cans, Wesleyans,  Presbyterians  and  Congregational ists) 
proved  to  be  a  steadying  influence.  In  the  north  the  aftermath 
of  the  separation  of  India  and  Pakistan  continued  to  be  felt, 


424 


MISSIONS,   FOREIGN    RELIGIOUS 


especially  in  the  Punjab  and  in  the  Northwest  Frontier 
province.  Around  Delhi  there  was  some  return  to  Hinduism 
but  the  Indian  clergy  remained  loyal.  The  future  of  the 
mission  schools  and  colleges  still  remained  uncertain.  Unless 
adequate  standards  were  maintained  they  would  be  taken 
over  by  the  state.  In  India  Knghsh  was  displaced  by  Hindi 
and  Christian  teaching  was  to  be  given  outside  school  hours 
in  the  middle  and  primary  schools.  In  Kashmir  the  govern- 
ment favoured  the  mission  schools;  but  in  Assam  the 
government  took  over  responsibility  for  them.  Much  the 
same  was  true  of  the  mission  hospitals  and  other  institutions. 
On  the  other  hand,  church  buildings,  formerly  the  property 
of  the  British  government  of  India,  were  being  handed  over 
to  the  missions  by  the  new  government,  with  a  temporary 
grant  for  their  maintenance. 

In  order  to  mitigate  the  effects  of  these  changes,  the  Society 
for  the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel  set  up  a  reserve  fund  for 
India  and  Pakistan,  upon  which  the  metropolitan  bishop  of 
Calcutta,  in  consultation  with  the  provincial  bishops,  could 
draw  for  the  next  ten  years,  chiefly  for  stipends  in  those 
parts  of  the  mission  field  where  the  local  churches  were 
contributing.  Moreover,  annual  grants  were  to  be  gradually 
reduced,  and  a  new  policy  of  capital  grants  introduced,  where 
local  effort  responded,  in  order  to  help  to  endow  the  church 
in  India  and  Pakistan.  The  transfer  of  lands  and  buildings 
would  go  on. 

Relief  work  among  the  Moslems  in  the  North- West 
Frontier  province  impressed  the  Pakistan  government. 
Progress  was  made  in  the  Church  Missionary  society's  area 
in  the  western  Punjab  where  the  offerings  of  village  Christians 
were  twice  as  high  as  in  the  previous  year.  The  Baptists 
reported  little  or  no  interruption  to  their  work,  though  they 
expected  restrictions  in  the  schools.  At  Scrampore  college 
they  recorded  a  high  enrolment  of  students,  and  also  at 
Bishnapur  where  they  co-operated  with  the  Congregational ists. 
A  scheme  of  union  for  the  Baptists  in  north  India  was 
inaugurated. 

Ceylon.  The  Methodists  and  Baptists  reported  improved 
relationships  between  the  government  and  the  missions  after 
the  declaration  of  Ceylon's  independence  on  Feb.  4,  1948. 
There  was  no  disturbance  or  communal  strife.  Christian 
teaching  in  the  schools  was  forbidden  in  school  hours; 
nevertheless,  the  classes  held  outside  school  hours  were  well 
attended.  The  Buddhists  were  adopting  Christian  methods 
in  order  to  counter  Christian  propaganda.  Negotiations  to 
unite  the  Anglican,  Methodist,  Baptist  and  other  Churches 
in  Ceylon  continued. 

Burma.  With  China  and  Korea  Burma  was  one  of  the 
most  disturbed  mission  fields.  Communists  and  insurgent 
Karens  rendered  the  work  difficult,  although  the  latter 
opposed  the  separation  from  the  British  and  continued  to  be 
the  strongest  Christian  section  of  the  population.  It  was 
difficult  to  obtain  leave  for  missionaries  to  enter  the  country, 
except  for  those  who  were  there  before  World  War  II.  Yet 
Anglicans  reported  that  buildings  were  being  repaired  in 
Rangoon  and  the  Methodists  reported  the  same  at  Mandalay, 
and  that  their  work  was  progressing  on  the  Assam  border. 

Far  East.  China.  In  spite  of  the  spread  of  war  to  the 
southern  provinces  the  spirit  of  the  Chinese  churches  and 
missions  was  buoyant,  especially  where  work  was  being  done 
among  students  and  young  people.  There  were  great  oppor- 
tunities in  other  branches  of  the  work,  but  shortage  of  staff 
and  rising  costs  prevented  them  being  used.  Inflation  reached 
prodigious  figures.  Hospital  work  was  being  maintained, 
even  in  areas  occupied  by  Communist  forces.  In  the  north 
some  missionaries  were  working  entirely  cut  off  from  com- 
munication with  the  home  churches.  The  Baptists  and 
Methodists  reported  that  the  National  Christian  council  had 
organized  a  Forward  movement.  Nearly  1,000  students  from 


13  universities  were  baptized  during  the  year,  and  the 
Methodists  reported  over  3,000  baptisms  in  the  middle 
schools.  The  government  permitted  the  teaching  of  the  Bible 
in  secondary  schools  m  central  China,  where  also  the  primaiy 
pupils  crowded  into  the  church  services.  Where  they  had  to 
evacuate,  the  Baptist  missionaries  were  co-operating  with  the 
Church  of  Christ,  the  London  Missionary  Society,  the  English 
Presbyterians,  the  American  Baptists  and  Canadian  missions. 
But  the  sweep  of  the  Communists  to  the  south  would  place 
new  obstacles  before  all  this  work. 

Korea.  This  was  probably  the  most  difficult  field  for 
missions  in  the  world  Political  barriers  separated  north  and 
south  In  the  south  the  Americans  restored  freedom  of 
Church  life.  The  need  was  stressed  for  more  missionaries 
who  would  stay  for  life,  to  replace  those  who  were  growing 
old.  Higher  education  was  in  demand  especially  at  the 
American  Presbyterian  and  Wesleyan  hostel  at  Seoul 
university. 

Japan  The  Church  Missionaiy  society  (C  MS)  reported 
the  recommencement  of  church  life  at  Hiroshima.  The 
Japanese  bishops  and  clergy  asked  for  more  missionaries  to 
meet  opportunities  open  on  all  sides.  There  was  an  evangelistic 
mission  throughout  Japan  in  the  spring  in  response  to  a 
widespread  desire  to  hear  Christian  teaching.  By  1949  no 
field  appeared  to  be  more  open  to  Christian  missions 

Singapore*.  Mission  work  was  difficult  on  the  outskirts 
owing  to  the  interference  of  bandits,  but  the  schools  were 
full  and  more  could  be  opened. 

Borneo  Schools  were  desired,  people  crowded  to  Christian 
preaching  and  the  rebuilding  of  churches  was  going  on 

Middle  East.  The  Christian  Church  in  Palestine  was 
scattered  by  the  flight  of  the  Arabs  to  Lebanon  and  Jordan; 
a  despairing  remnant  remained  in  Palestine  under  the  care 
of  a  few  Arab  pastors.  The  C.M  S  headquarters  were  in 
1949  at  Amman,  Jordan,  where  relief  work  among  refugees 
was  being  carried  out  by  the  missionaries.  In  Egypt  the 
teaching  of  Christianity  to  children  in  the  state  schools  was 
sanctioned  and  would  be  financed  by  the  government.  In 
the  mission  schools  Moslem  children  should  be  taught  the 
Koran.  Closer  relations  with  the  Coptic  Church  were 
established  in  Cairo  and  in  the  towns  around.  In  Persia 
Christian  schools  were  restricted  by  the  government  and 
there  was  a  shortage  of  doctors  in  the  hospital,  this  hindered 
contact  with  the  people.  The  Presbyterians  of  north  Persia 
and  the  Anglicans  of  the  south  united  to  form  a  Christian 
Literature  committee. 

Africa.  Christianity,  Islam  and  political  materialism  were 
bidding  for  the  soul  of  Africa.  The  African  was  taking  up 
the  function  of  leadership  amid  the  industrial  changes  that 
were  going  on.  The  importance  of  schools  and  colleges  in 
which  these  leaders  could  be  trained  was  emphasised  by  the 
missions.  On  the  Gold  Coast,  Anglicans  and  Methodists, 
in  spite  of  nationalist  ambitions,  reported  that  educational 
work  was  progressing;  there  was  no  shortage  of  funds  but 
recruits  for  the  ministry  were  not  forthcoming.  In  the  Niger 
and  Yoruba  field  the  C.M.S.  was  fostering  the  development 
of  Christian  home  life  and  also  the  provision  of  maternity 
homes.  Shortage  of  staff  hindered  the  work.  In  eastern 
Nigeria,  the  Methodists  were  co-operating  with  the  C.M.S. 
and  the  Church  of  Scotland  in  a  theological  college.  On  the 
Congo,  the  Baptists  reported  that  the  schools  were  full.  The 
Grenfell  Training  institute  (Yalemba)  for  educational  and 
pastoral  work  had  a  successful  first  year.  On  the  middle 
Congo  the  work  progressed  in  all  its  branches,  but  on  the 
lower  Congo  it  was  hindered  by  shortage  of  staff  while  the 
Belgian  government  expected  a  higher  standard  in  the  schools 
in  return  for  its  subsidies.  The  Methodists  reported  that 
they  could  not  meet  all  the  opportunities  in  education.  In 
Portuguese  Angola,  in  spite  of  growing  industrialism  the 


MOHAMMAD— MONACO 


425 


Baptist  mission  was  advancing.     In  French  Dahomey  there 
was  a  revival  of  fetish  worship  among  the  converts 

In  the  diocese  of  Zanzibar  the  Anglicans  reported  that 
new  government  salary  scales  increased  the  financial  burden 
of  educational  and  medical  work.  Moreover,  since  the 
African  clergy  were  paid  one-fourth  the  rate  of  a  grade-one 
teacher,  it  was  difficult  to  secure  iccruits  for  the  ministry.  In 
Nyasaland  Anglican  schools  and  hospitals  were  suffering 
from  a  reduction  of  staffs  and  medical  units  were  being  placed 
in  charge  of  nursing  sisters;  but  in  most  parts  there  was 
increased  financial  support  In  the  Presbyterian  and  Dutch 
Reformed  missions  the  salaries  of  the  African  ministers  were 
entirely  paid  by  Africans.  In  Northern  Rhodesia,  while  com- 
merce and  industry  expanded,  pastoral  and  evangelistic  work 
made  little  progress,  through  a  shortage  of  Furopcan 
missionaries  Here,  as  elsewhere,  the  visit  of  the  bishop  to 
the  Lambeth  conference  in  1948  produced  very  few  recruits. 
In  Masasi  diocese  there  was  a  sense  of  frustration  owing  to 
the  slow  progress  of  the  groundnuts  scheme  hew  European 
settlers  supported  the  missions,  though  they  were  friendly. 
There  were  three  more  schools  than  in  1948,  but  the  standard 
in  the  schools  needed  to  be  improved  to  retain  government 
grants  In  Southern  Rhodesia  there  was  a  great  demand  for 
baptism  among  the  Africans  who  flocked  into  the  towns  for 
work,  but  the  missionaries  were  too  few  to  cope  properly 
with  the  work.  The  Anglicans  were  preparing  an  evangelistic 
campaign  for  1950.  Several  new  parishes  were  founded;  and 
the  colleges  at  Gwelo  and  Penhalonga,  founded  largely  by 
support  from  the  Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge, 
were  turning  out  well  trained  teachers. 

In  the  Union  of  South  Africa  racial  tension  became  moie 
acute  owing  to  the  diminution  of  Native  rights  by  the  govern- 
ment The  missions,  through  the  Christian  Council  of  South 
Africa,  upheld  the  claims  of  the  Africans  Great  oppor- 
tunities for  evangelism  were  being  lost  by  understaftmg  and 
overwork  among  the  clergy.  However,  new  Anglican  mission 
stations  continued  to  be  opened.  The  Roman  Catholic  and 
Methodists  were  at  work  on  the  new  gold  fields  near  Bloem- 
fontem.  In  Basutoland  the  Roman  Catholics  and  the  Pans 
Evangelical  mission  were  doing  well,  but  the  Anglicans  were 
handicapped  by  lack  of  support  However,  at  Pretoria  a 
gift  of  £12,000  was  received  and  would  help  Anglican 
schools  and  other  institutions  (A  J.  MAC  ) 

MOHAMMAD,     RIZA    SHAH    PAHLAVI, 

Shahanshah  (king  of  kings)  of  Persia  (b  Tehran,  Oct.  26, 
1919),  succeeded  to  the  throne  on  Sept.  16,  1941.  (For  his 
early  life  see  Bntannica  Rook  of  the  Year  1949). 

On  Feb.  4,  1949,  a  newspaper  photographer  named  Fakhr 
Rai,  a  member  of  the  Tudeh  (Masses)  party,  attempted  to 
murder  the  Shah,  firing  five  shots  at  10  ft.  range.  On  Feb.  24, 
asking  for  an  amendment  of  the  constitution,  giving  him  the 
right  to  dissolve  the  Majlis  and  call  fresh  elections,  the  Shah 
said  that  the  Majlis  had  done  nothing  to  improve  the  economic 
position  of  the  country,  having  not  even  passed  a  budget 
for  the  previous  five  years.  In  June  he  received  the  visits  of 
Liaquat  Ali  Khan  (</.v.),  prime  minister  of  Pakistan,  and  of 
Abdulilah  (</.v.),  the  regent  of  Iraq.  On  July  28  King  Abdullah 
(</.v.)  of  Jordan  paid  a  state  visit  to  Persia.  During  the 
year,  in  statements  to  foreign  correspondents,  the  Shah 
appealed  repeatedly  to  the  west  for  financial  aid  to  the  country. 
On  Nov.  16  he  arrived  in  Washington  on  a  six-week  visit 
to  the  United  States.  He  returned  to  Tehran  on  Jan.  2,  1950. 

MOHAMMED  BEN  YUSSEF,  Sultan  of  Morocco 
(b.  Mcknes,  1911),  the  third  son  of  Mulay  Yussef,  of  the 
Alaouite  dynasty  which  had  ruled  the  country  from  1639. 
He  was  elected  sultan  on  Sept.  18,  1927,  by  the  college  of 
ulemas  of  Fez.  By  virtue  of  being  descended  from  the 


Prophet,  he  had  the  religious  title  of  dtenf.  consequently 
he  exercised  both  tcmpoial  and  spiritual  power.  Taking 
seriously  his  role  of  sovereign,  Sidi  (or  Sir,  as  he  was  styled) 
Mohammed  held  out  against  the  forms  of  direct  administra- 
tion of  the  protectorate  by  refusing  or  delaying  his  signature 
of  the  dahu  v  (decrees  having  the  force  of  law)  which  was 
essential  to  their  validity  Without  taking  any  official  stand, 
he  made  no  secret  of  his  goodwill  towards  the  Istiqlal  party 
working  for  Moroccan  independence.  He  declared  that  he 
favoured  democracy  if  considered  as  an  application  of  the 
moral  principles  of  Islam  which  respected  the  integrity  of 
theocratic  pierogatives.  His  elder  son,  Prince  Mulay  Hassan, 
constituted  himself  spokesman  for  Moroccan  youth,  and  the 
eldest  of  his  three  daughters,  Princess  Lalla  Ayesha,  who 
threw  off  the  veil  and  other  traditional  restraints,  called  upon 
Moroccan  women  to  emancipate  themselves.  In  a  number 
of  speeches  after  World  War  II  the  Sultan  claimed  the  right 
of  Morocco  to  achieve  liberty,  but  without  explicitly 
demanding  independence  His  opposition  to  French  rule 
was  in  general  both  subtle  and  controlled  On  April  10, 
1947,  however,  at  Tangier,  he  made  a  friendly  reference  to 
the  Arab  league  and  claimed  independence  for  Morocco.  The 
civil  resident  general,  Fink  Labonne,  was  therefore  recalled 
and  General  Alphonse  Juin,  exponent  of  authoritarian 
tradition,  appointed  in  his  place  From  that  date  the  Sultan 
unremittingly  continued  his  passive  resistance  So,  in  1949, 
he  protested  against  the  speech  of  a  French  minister  in  which 
Morocco  was  regarded  as  an  associated  state  within  the 
French  Union.  (C.  A.  J.) 

MOHAMMED  ZAHIR  SHAH,  AL- 
MUTAWAKKIL-ALA-ALLAH,  King  of  Afghanistan 
(b.  Kabul,  Oct.  15,  1914),  son  of  Mohammed  Nadir  Shah. 
On  his  father's  banishment  by  King  Amanullah  in  1924, 
Zahir  studied  at  the  lycees  Janson  dc  Sailly  and  Pasteur  in 
Pans  and  later  at  Montpelher.  Following  the  assassination 
on  Nov.  8,  1933,  of  his  father,  who  by  defeating  and  executing 
the  intervening  ruler  Habibullah  had  eventually  become  king 
after  the  abdication  and  exile  of  Amanullah  in  1929,  Zahir 
succeeded  to  power  without  difficulty,  chiefly  by  reason  of 
the  support  given  by  his  uncles,  one  of  whom,  Sirdar  Moham- 
med Hashim  Khan,  was  prime  minister  and  another,  Sirdar 
Shah  Mahmud  Khan  Ghazi,  war  minister  and  c.  in  c.  On 
Nov.  7,  1931,  he  married  his  cousin,  Umairah  Begum, 
daughter  of  Sirdar  Ahmed  Shah  Khan,  and  they  had  five 
children,  including  the  crown  prince  Mohammed  Akbar 
Khan  (b  Kabul,  Aug  10,  1933).  On  July  3,  1949,  opening 
the  National  Assembly,  the  king  said  that  Afghanistan  did 
not  recognize  any  agreements  or  pacts  concerning  the  Indo- 
Afghan  frontier  concluded  with  Great  Britain,  as  the  British 
had  left  India  (see  AFGHANISTAN  and  PAKISTAN).  On  Oct.  13, 
1949,  he  arrived  in  Pans  for  eye  treatment  and  was  received 
by  President  Vincent  Auriol. 

MONACO.  A  sovereign  principality  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean coast,  9  mi.  E.  of  Nice,  bounded  on  all  land  sides  by 
the  French  departemcnt  of  Alpes  Maritimes.  Area:  0  6  sq. 
mi.  Pop.  (1946  census):  19,242  including  1,975  Monacans 
and  10,522  French.  Ruler:  Prince  Rainier  III;  minister  of 
state  (appointed  July  12,  1949)  Jacques  Rueff. 

Prince  Louis  11  Goyon  de  Matignon-Grimaldi,  who  died 
on  May  9,  1949,  was  succeeded  by  his  grandson  Rairner 
(b.  May  31,  1923),  son  of  the  hereditary  Princess  Charlotte- 
Louise-Juliette  and  of  Count  Pierre  de  Polignac.  He  was 
enthroned  on  Nov.  19. 

Social  changes  of  the  postwar  period  were  felt  in  Monaco. 
The  casino  of  Monte  Carlo,  the  financial  mainstay  of  Monaco, 
saw  its  salles  privees  shut  and  the  roulette  players  risking  only 
modest  sums.  To  attract  tourists  the  casino  broke  its  tradition 


426 


MONGOLIAN    PEOPLE'S    REPUBLIC— MONTREAL 


The  American  dice  game,  crap-shooting,  being  played  for  the  first 
time  at  the  Monte  Carlo  casino,  July  1949. 

by  introducing  in  the  summer  of  1949  the  American  dice 
game  of  craps.  A  discussion  was  initiated  with  the  French 
government  with  a  view  to  "  liberalizing "  the  French- 
Monacan  financial  agreement  of  April  14,  1945,  by  which 
the  principality  was  submitted  to  strict  fiscal  and  exchange 
control  by  the  French  authorities. 

Finance.  Budget  (1950  est.,  million  francs):  ordinary,  revenue  924-4, 
expenditure  884-8;  extraordinary,  revenue  120-2,  expenditure  50-3. 

MONGOLIAN   PEOPLE'S   REPUBLIC 

(formerly  OUTER  MONGOLIA).  A  vast  tableland  bounded  on 
the  north  by  Siberia,  on  the  east  by  the  Mongol-populated 
fringes  of  the  Manchurian  provinces  of  China,  on  the  west 
by  the  Chinese  province  of  Sinkiang  (part  of  the  frontier 
being  in  dispute),  on  the  south  by  the  Mongol-populated 
fringes  of  the  Chinese  provinces  of  Ninghsia,  Suiyuan, 
Chahar  and  Jehol.  Area:  580,158  sq.  mi.  Pop.  (according  to 
Soviet  figures  published  in  1948,  but  cited  from  data  of 
1941):  850,000.  Religion:  Lama-Buddhism,  followed  by 
the  majority  of  the  population,  though  the  properties  of  the 
great  temples  and  monasteries,  formerly  untaxed,  have  been 
appropriated  by  the  state,  and  the  "  reincarnation "  of 
"Living  Buddhas "  has  been  forbidden.  Capital:  Ulan 
Bator,  formerly  Urga  (pop.,  1941  est.,  70,000).  Chairman 
of  the  presidium  of  the  Little  Hural,  Bumatsende;  prime 
minister  and  commander  in  chief,  Marshal  Choibalsan. 

History.  The  first,  chronologically,  of  Soviet-dominated 
people's  republics  celebrated  during  1949  the  28th  anni- 
versary of  its  national  revolution  and  the  25th  anniversary 
of  the  foundation  of  the  present  regime. 

The  foundation  of  the  Mongol  People's  Revolutionary 
(Communist)  party  in  1921  was  the  occasion  of  a  solemn 
meeting,  at  Ulan  Bator  on  July  11.  The  main  speakers  were 
Y.  Tsedenbal,  secretary  general,  and  Choizhamts,  secretary 
of  the  central  committee  of  the  M.P.R.P. 

More  important  still  was  the  celebration  of  the  anniversary 
of  the  adoption  by  the  first  Great  Hural  or  people's  assembly 


of  the  Mongolian  constitution  (Nov.  26,  1924).  On  this 
occasion  Joseph  Stalin  sent  a  message  to  Marshal  Choibalsan 
congratulating  the  Mongolian  people  for  having  liquidated 
through  stubborn  labour  the  heritage  of  the  past,  the  age-old 
backwardness  of  the  Mongolian  people.  Choibalsan  replied 
by  proclaiming  that  the  Mongolian  people  owed  their 
freedom  and  independence  and  all  their  achievements  in 
state,  economic  and  cultural  construction  of  their  country 
to  "  the  many-sided  and  disinterested  assistance  of  the  great 
Soviet  people." 

At  a  big  meeting  held  at  Ulan  Bator  on  Nov.  25,  Surunzhab, 
deputy  prime  minister,  reported  on  progress  achieved  in  25 
years.  Land  cultivation  was  173  times  larger  than  in  1927; 
the  arats  (peasants)  of  Mongolia  had  organized  121  collective 
stock  farms;  livestock  (horses,  cattle  and  sheep)  numbered 
in  1949  twice  as  many  head  as  in  1924;  extraction  of  coal 
(which  began  in  1915)  had  increased  127  times  and  the  total 
number  of  industrial  establishments  was  252  times  greater 
than  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago;  by  the  end  of  1949  there 
were  in  the  country  about  1,000  km.  motor  roads  and  on 
Nov.  7  the  first  railway  line  linking  Ulan  Bator  to  the  Trans- 
Siberian  was  inaugurated.  There  were  also  big  achieve- 
ments in  the  cultural  field:  25  years  ago  illiteracy  had  been 
almost  universal;  by  1949  it  was  reduced  to  55-4%. 

In  April  1949  Dango  Surun  Neydachin,  secretary  general 
of  the  Revolutionary  Union  of  Youth  of  Mongolia,  took 
part  in  the  9th  congress  of  the  Young  Communist  league  in 
Moscow.  Tsedenbal,  secretary  general  of  the  M.P.R.P.,  was 
present  in  Moscow  on  Dec.  21  at  the  celebration  of  Stalin's 
70th  birthday.  Together  with  other  people's  republics 
Mongolia  recognized  the  Chinese  People's  republic  (Oct.  9). 

The  application  of  Mongolia  for  United  Nations  member- 
ship, already  rejected  in  1946  and  1947,  was  again  opposed 
by  the  Security  council  on  Sept.  15:  U.S.S.R.  and  Ukrainian 
S.S.R.  voted  for;  Canada  and  China  against;  Argentina, 
Cuba,  Egypt,  France,  Norway,  United  Kingdom  and  United 
States  abstained. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  David  J.  Dallin,  Soviet  Russia  and  the  Far  East 
(London,  1949);  Gerard  M.  Friters,  Outer  Mongolia  and  its  Inter- 
national Position  (Baltimore,  1949).  (K.  SM.) 

MONIZ,  ANTONIO  CAETANO  DE  ABREU 
FREIRE  EGAS,  Portuguese  medical  scientist  and  diplo- 
mat (b.  Avanca,  Portugal,  Nov.  29,  1874),  was  educated  at  the 
universities  of  Coimbra  and  Bordeaux.  Until  1911  he  was  a 
professor  at  Coimbra  and  from  1911  was  professor  of  neurol- 
ogy at  Lisbon  university.  He  served  in  the  Portuguese  parlia- 
ment, in  1918  was  minister  in  Madrid  and  from  1918  to  1919 
was  minister  of  foreign  affairs.  He  was  a  pioneer  in  the 
surgical  treatment  of  mental  disorders.  In  1927  he  invented 
*'  cerebral  angiography,"  a  method  of  visualizing  the  blood- 
vessels of  the  brain  and  making  it  possible  to  diagnose  and 
locate  cerebral  tumours.  On  Oct.  27,  1949,  it  was  announced 
that  he  had  been  awarded,  jointly  with  Dr.  W.  R.  Hess  (?.v.), 
the  1949  Nobel  prize  for  physiology  and  medicine  for  his 
discovery  of  the  therapeutic  value  of  the  prefrontal  leucotomy 
in  the  treatment  of  certain  mental  disorders. 

MONTREAL.  A  city  in  the  province  of  Quebec, 
Canada,  first  called  Ville  Marie.  The  population  of  the  city 
proper  was  estimated  in  1949  at  1,420,057  and  of  greater 
Montreal  at  1,650,011. 

The  port  of  Montreal  is  the  largest  in  Canada.  Deep-sea 
vessel  arrivals  in  1949  (commercial)  numbered  1,112,  with  a 
net  tonnage  of  4,113,327.  The  number  of  coastal  or  inland 
vessel  arrivals  (commercial)  in  1949  was  3,198,  with  a  net 
tonnage  of  3,502,218.  During  1948  a  total  of  2,568,010  tons 
of  cargo  passed  through  the  port,  including  2,209,884  tons 
inward  and  358,126  tons  outward. 


MONUMENTS   AND    MEMORIALS— MORAVIA 


427 


The  assessed  value  of  real  estate,  as  of  April  30,  1949,  was 
$1,442-8  million  of  which  $1,081-7  million  was  taxable. 
In  1949  building  permits  were  issued  for  4,717  new  buildings, 
having  a  value  of  $78  •  2  million  and  for  2,878  repairs,  having 
a  value  of  $10-9  million.  Bank  clearings  for  1949  were 
$13,911  million. 

MONTSERRAT:    see  LEEWARD  ISLANDS. 

MONUMENTS  AND  MEMORIALS.  1949  saw 
the  erection  and  dedication  of  many  memorials  to  the  fallen 
of  World  War  II.  On  Remembrance  Sunday,  Nov.  6,  many 
monuments  were  unveiled  and  many  more  were  consecrated 
during  the  year.  On  Nov.  8  two  memorial  books  containing 
the  names  of  20,000  men  of  the  R.A.F.  Bomber  command 
who  failed  to  return  were  placed  in  the  Royal  Air  Force 
Chapel  of  St.  Michael  in  Lincoln  cathedral. 

The  Imperial  War  Graves  commission  continued  to  record 
and  maintain  graves  of  the  fallen  of  two  world  wars  and  in 
November  it  was  announced  that  90,000  headstones  for 
World  War  II  had  been  made  and  engraved. 

Ancient  monuments  under  the  ownership  or  guardianship 
of  the  Ministry  of  Works  continued  to  increase  in  number. 
The  report  of  the  Ministry  of  Works  gave  details  of  28  monu- 
ments and  historic  buildings  for  which  the  ministry  took  over 
responsibility  during  1948.  They  included  Hadleigh  castle, 
EsseX;  Hailes  abbey,  Gloucestershire;  Eynsford  castle, 
Kent;  Longthorpe  tower,  Northamptonshire;  Caer  Gybi 
Roman  wall,  Holyhead;  Auchindoun  castle,  Banffshire; 
Drumin  castle,  Banffshire;  Craignethan  castle,  Lanarkshire; 
Cairnpapple  burial  site,  West  Lothian;  and  Edron  Old 
Norman  archway,  Berwickshire.  A  new  edition  of  regional 
guides  to  ancient  monuments  in  England  and  Wales  was  in 
preparation.  Volumes  had  been  published  for  North  Wales, 
South  Wales  and  Northern  England. 

A  bronze  equestrian  statue  of  Lady  Godiva  (1040-1080) 
in  Broadgate,  Coventry,  was  unveiled  by  Mrs.  Lewis  Douglas, 
wife  of  the  American  ambassador,  on  Oct.  23.  The  statue, 


The  statue  of  Lady  Godiva  (1040-1080),  by  Sir  William  Reid  Dick, 

in  Broadgaie,  Coventry.    It  was  unveiled  by  Mrs.  Lewis  Douglas, 

wife  of  the  U.S.  ambassador  to  Britain,  on  Oct.  23,  1949. 


9  ft.  6  in.  above  its  large  plinth  of  Portland  stone,  was  the 
work  of  Sir  William  Reid  Dick  and  was  the  first  permanent 
memorial  in  Coventry  to  Lady  Godiva.  It  had  cost  £20,000 
and  was  presented  by  W.  H.  Bassett-Green. 

A  stone  plaque  in  memory  of  Sir  Arthur  Conan  Doyle 
(1859-1930),  was  unveiled  at  11,  Picardy  place,  Edinburgh, 
in  April.  A  plaque  in  memory  of  David  Livingstone  (1813- 
1873)  was  unveiled  in  September  in  Newstead  abbey  where 
he  wrote  The  Zambesi  and  its  Tributaries.  The  entrance  arch 
of  the  Navy  aisle  in  Portsmouth  cathedral  was  dedicated  on 
July  24  to  Admiral  of  the  Fleet  Sir  Osmond  de  Beauvoir 
Brock  (1869-1947fK  chief  of  staff,  grand  fleet,  1916-19. 

A  public  subscription  of  £25,000  was  raised  for  an  open  air 
auditorium  in  the  state  of  Victoria,  similar  to  the  Hollywood 
bowl,  California,  in  memory  of  the  Australian  singer,  Dame 
Nellie  Melba  (1861-1931).  A  memorial  statue  of  General 
Sir  John  Monash  (1865-1931),  commander  of  the  Australian 
Army  corps  in  France,  1918,  was  being  prepared  in  England 
for  erection  in  the  Melbourne  domain  in  the  shadow  of  the 
Shrine  of  Remembrance.  The  Australian-American  society 
in  October  approved  plans  for  the  erection  of  a  memorial 
in  Canberra  as  a  tribute  to  the  contribution  of  the  United 
States  to  the  defence  of  Australia  in  World  War  II. 

In  Canada,  the  partnership  of  Australia,  Canada,  Great 
Britain  and  New  Zealand  in  the  British  Commonwealth  Air 
Training  plan  was  commemorated  at  the  Royal  Canadian 
Air  Force  station,  Trenton,  Ontario,  on  Sept,  30.  The 
memorial  took  the  form  of  double  main  gates  and  posterns 
of  ornamental  handwrought  iron  made  in  Great  Britain  and 
bearing  the  coats  of  arms  of  the  four  nations.  On  July  27  a 
granite  monument  commemorating  the  landing  of  the  first 
trans- Atlantic  cables,  1858-66,  was  unveiled  at  Bay  Bull's 
Arm,  Trinity  bay,  Newfoundland. 

In  the  United  States,  congress  passed  a  bill,  signed  by 
President  Harry  S.  Truman  on  Sept.  28,  providing  for  a 
memorial  to  Mahatma  Gandhi  (1869-1948)  in  the  form  of  a 
building  containing  books  by  and  about  him  and  of  Indian 
culture. 

In  Israel  the  government  decided  to  plant  a  forest  in  the 
Judaean  hills  in  memory  of  Count  Folke  Bernadotte  (1895- 
1948).  In  October  was  opened  the  Rathbone  Memorial 
institute,  in  memory  of  Eleanor  Rathbone  (1872-1946), 
described  as  "  champion  of  justice  and  a  lover  of  children." 

A  statue  by  Gustaf  Nordahl  of  the  pioneer  of  Swedish 
gymnastics,  Per  Henrik  Ling  (1776-1839),  was  erected  in 
Stockholm.  On  May  2,  Oskar  Helmer,  Austrian  minister 
of  the  interior,  opened  the  former  Nazi  concentration  camp 
at  Mauthausen  for  public  inspection,  as  a  national  monu- 
ment to  the  memory  of  those  who  lost  their  lives  there.  (X.) 

MORAVIA,  ALBERTO,  pseudonym  of  Alberto 
Pincherle,  Italian  novelist  and  essayist  (b.  Rome,  Nov.  28, 
1907),  was  compelled  by  an  illness  to  leave  school  and  live 
as  an  invalid  for  five  years.  In  1929  Moravia  published  his 
first  novel,  Gli  Indifferenti  which  brought  him  immediate 
fame  and  was  largely  responsible  for  a  new  naturalistic  and 
existentialist  literary  outlook  in  Italy.  This  and  later  novels 
were  characterized  by  a  realism  and  psychological  interest 
reminiscent  of  some  Russian  writers,  in  particular  Dostoyevsky. 
In  general  there  was  a  pre-occupation  with  crime  and  self- 
destruction  and,  to  present  his  subject  truthfully,  he  often 
dispensed  with  conventional  reticence.  From  1929-42,  while 
publishing  novels  and  short  stories,  he  travelled  in  England, 
France,  Germany,  the  U.S.A.,  Mexico,  Greece  and  China. 
La  mascherata,  a  satire  on  the  dictatorship,  was  written 
during  this  period,  as  also  were  La  bella  vita  (1935),  a  collec- 
tion of  short  stories,  and  Le  ambizioni  sbagliate  (1935), 
translated  into  English  in  1937  under  the  title  The  Wheel  of 
Fortune.  Later  novels  included  Agostino  (1945).  for  which 


428 


MOSCOW— MOTOR   CYCLE   AND   CYCLE    INDUSTRY 


Moravia  was  awarded  a  literary  prize,  and  La  Romana 
(1947),  both  translated  into  Bnghsh,  the  latter  in  1949  as 
The  Woman  of  Rome  \  La  disuhhidienza  ( 1 948) ;  and  Lamore 
comugale  ( 1949).  Moravia  also  wrote  La  speranza^  a  collection 
of  essays,  and  several  books  of  short  stories:  L*  imbroglio 
( 1 937) ;  /  sogni  del  pigro  ( \  940),  L'amante  in f dice  ( 1 943)  and 
Uepidenna  (1945)  were  also  written  by  him  Many  of  his 
books  have  been  translated  into  several  languages.  Moravia 
contributed  regularly  to  the  daily  newspaper,  //  Comcre 
della  Seta,  and  to  a  weekly  magazine,  //  Mondo 

MOROCCO:  sec  FRINCH  UNION;  SPANISH  COLONIAL 
EMPIRL;  TANGIER. 

MOSCOW,  capital  of  the  Union  of  Soviet  Socialist 
Republics  and  of  the  Russian  Soviet  Federated  Socialist 
Republics  and  the  fourth  largest  city  of  the  world.  Area: 
(1917)  68  I  sci  mi"  <I939>  HO  1  sq  mi.  Pop.:  (1917) 
1,701,300,  (1939  census)  4,137,018. 

Moscow,  which  houses  the  headquarters  of  the  vast  adminis- 
tration of  the  state  and  the  headquarters  of  the  Communist 
party,  exercised  a  magnetic  attraction  for  the  ambitious 
citizen  who  strove  to  get  to  Moscow,  where  the  best  jobs 
were  to  be  had  and  where  living  was  better  than  in  the 
provinces.  From  about  two  million  in  1926  the  population 
reached  over  four  million  in  Jan.  1939  and,  though  official 
figures  were  not  available,  it  was  generally  accepted  that  the 
figure  for  1949  was  in  the  region  of  six  million.  The  building 
programme  had  by  no  means  kept  up  with  this  growth  and, 
in  spite  of  police  efforts  to  relieve  the  town  of  any  citizens 
who  had  no  permit  to  live  there  and  of  legally  laid  down 
norms  of  accommodation,  housing  conditions  were  difficult, 
with  two  rooms  as  the  average  allowance  for  a  family. 

The  main  streets,  which  radiate  like  spokes  of  a  wheel 
from  the  crenellated  walls  of  the  Kremlin  with  two  ring-roads 
which  link  them,  showed  signs  in  surfacing,  tree-planting 
and  laying-out  of  flowerbeds  of  the  civic  pride  of  the  City 
Soviet,  though  the  side-streets  failed  to  live  up  to  their 
standards.  The  crowds  thronging  the  main  shopping  streets 
showed  in  the  general  shabbiness  of  their  dress  that  in  1949 
the  Soviet  Union  still  had  a  long  way  to  go  before  the  needs 
of  all  could  be  met.  However,  supplies  of  food  and  consumer 
goods  in  the  shops  maintained  signs  of  improvement,  queues 
decreased  and,  most  important  of  all,  prices  of  some  classes 
of  goods  were  lowered.  The  citizens  of  Moscow  still  had  to 
struggle  with  congested  public  transport,  in  spite  of  the 
continued  efforts  to  improve  it.  But,  whatever  the  rigours 
of  life  and  travel,  Muscovites  enjoyed  the  consolation  of 
good  theatres,  excellent  concerts  and  the  best  ballet  in  the 
world.  (R.  Psr.) 

MOTION  PICTURES:  see  CINEMA. 

MOTOR-BOAT  RACING.  The  46-year-old  Harms- 
worth  trophy  (British  international  trophy  for  power  boats), 
held  by  American  boats  since  1920,  returned  to  competition 
in  1949  for  the  first  time  since  1933,  with  a  Canadian  challenge 
by  E.  A.  Wilson's  '*  Miss  Canada  IV,'*  driven  by  the  owner's 
son,  Harold  Wilson.  The  races  for  it  on  the  Detroit  river, 
July  29-Aug.  1,  were  won  by  R.  Stanley  Dollar,  Jr.,  of 
California,  driving  his  **  Skip-A-Long."  He  averaged  94  285 
m.p.h.  to  lower  the  previous  (1931)  Harmsworth  record  of 
89-913  m.ph 

Though  it  failed  to  take  the  Harmsworth  trophy,  "  Miss 
Canada  IV,"  early  in  October  at  Picton,  Ontario,  set  up  a 
new  North  American  straightaway  speed  record  of  139-5 
m.p.h.,  a  close  call  for  the  world's  motor-boat  speed  record 
of  141-74  m.p.h.  made  by  Sir  Malcolm  Campbell  in  1939 
with  "  Blue  Bird  II."  An  unsuccessful  attempt  to  beat  this 


record  was  made  in  England  by  Sir  Malcolm's  son,  Donald 
Campbell,  on  Lake  Coniston. 

The  North  American  record,  made  by  Gar  Wood  in 
"  Miss  America  X,"  had  stood  for  17  years  until  Aug.  20, 
1949,  when  it  was  broken  by  Dan  Arena,  driving  Jack 
Schafer's  '4  Such  Crust,"  on  Gull  lake,  Michigan,  at  126-588 
m.p  h  ,  a  record  which  lasted  only  6  weeks  before  Wilson 
broke  it  with  **  Miss  Canada  IV." 

Outstanding  among  unlimited  speedboats  in  American 
racing  during  1949  was  Horace  Dodge's  Hacker- built, 
Allison-powered  "  My  Sweetie,"  driven  by  Bill  Cantrell 
With  the  single  exception  of  the  Harmsworth,  "  My  Sweetie  " 
won  every  race  it  entered  during  the  year,  including  the  Gold 
cup  and  Silver  cup  events  at  Detroit,  Michigan,  fiee-for-alls 
at  Red  Bank,  New  Jersey,  and  Buffalo,  New  York,  and  the 
President's  cup  race  at  Washington,  D.C.  (W.  H.  TR.) 

MOTOR   CYCLE    AND    CYCLE   INDUSTRY. 

Increased  production  in  1949  in  both  branches  of  the  industry 
in  Great  Britain  was  still  not  capable  of  supplying  the  demand 
in  the  home  market  and  in  the  export  fields,  where  British 
cycles  were  still  attracting  the  greatest  interest.  The  industry 
produced  mainly  for  the  export  market  and  in  the  first  nine 
months  exported  50,969  motor  cycles  and  1,705,836  cycles 
The  total  value  of  the  trade's  exports  for  the  period  Jan.- 
Sept.,  1949,  including  parts  and  accessories  worth  £5,322,956, 
was  £22,436,208. 

The  largest  export  market  for  motor  cycles  was  Australia 
which  was  importing  from  Britain  at  the  rate  of  about  2,000 
machines  a  month.  India,  Pakistan,  South  Africa,  British 
West  Africa,  Malaya  and  Indonesia  were  the  chief  markets 
for  British  pedal  cycles. 


TABLF. — PRODUCTION  AND  EXPORT  OF  MOTOR  CYCLKS  AND  CYCLLS 

Cycles 

Produced  Exported 
2.492,006  1,449,082 
2,9*9,000  1,804,878 


1947  . 

1948  . 
1948 

Oct. 
Nov. 
Dec 

1949 
Jan. 
Feb 

March    . 
April 
May 
June 
July 
Aug. 
Sept. 
SOURCE: 


Motor  Cycles 
Produced         Exported 
111,788  55,318 

133,500  75.136 


11,470 
11,650 
13,500 

13,070 
12,350 
14,6  W 
11,440 
12,610 
15,120 
10,880 
11,500 
13,490 


4,864 
7,098 
7,902 

7,561 
5,615 
6,539 
4,908 
6.576 
5,277 
4,359 
4,822 
5,087 


Monthly  Bulletin  of  Statistics,  H  M  S  O 


260,200 
248,500 
272,900 

274,600 
282,800 
317,100 
262,500 
315,900 
294,500 
244,900 
276,100 
332,000 
London 


1 50,400 

m.9oo 

1  70,600 

186,158 
175,518 
221,710 
186,133 
201,271 
176,666 
203,000 
176,600 
177,900 


Until  the  summer  of  1949,  India  was  by  far  the  best  custo- 
mer for  cycles,  but  the  introduction  of  a  tariff  on  British 
bicycle  products  of  60%  ad  valorem  seriously  restricted  trade. 
In  June  the  value  of  the  exports  of  cycles  to  India  was 
£346,607  but  in  September  it  was  only  £7,482.  Raleigh 
Industries,  Ltd.,  announced  in  November  the  formation  of 
Sen-Raleigh  Industries  of  India,  Ltd.;  land  was  acquired  at 
Asansol,  150  mi.  from  Calcutta,  where  it  was  hoped  to  start 
production  in  1951  with  an  initial  output  of  50,000  bicycles 
a  year.  Hercules  announced  in  October  that  it  was  entering 
the  Indian  market  with  a  factory  in  Madras.  Its  products 
would  be  sold  under  the  name  of  "  Hercules  India."  The 
B.S.A.  company  was  also  planning  to  manufacture  cycles  in 
India. 

The  silver  jubilee  Cycle  and  Motor  Cycle  show  was  held 
at  Earls  Court,  London,  in  October.  Export  orders  were  at 
least  double  those  received  at  the  1948  show.  The  export 
figures  achieved  by  the  industry  during  the  year  gave  en- 
couragement but  there  was  fear  of  possible  competition  from 
Germany  and  Japan.  Before  World  War  II  the  total  cycle 


MOTOR   CYCLING— MOTOR    INDUSTRY 


429 


exports  from  Germany  were  worth  approximately  £3  million, 
while  in  1948  the  bizone  exported  cycles  and  components 
worth  only  £800,000.  In  1940  Japan  produced  1,245,000 
cycles  and  in  1948  only  337,000.  The  Japanese  industry 
improved  its  position  in  1949;  the  production  for  the  first 
five  months  was  at  an  annual  rate  of  474,000.  In  both  these 
countries,  cycle  production,  although  far  behind  the  prewar 
average,  was  slowly  increasing  and  British  manufacturers 
saw  in  this  a  possible  reduction  in  future  exports. 

For  the  first  time  springing  and  other  devices  developed 
from  British  racing  motor  cycles  were  available  in  two-stroke 
models  for  the  general  public. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  **  The  Cycle  Industry,"  Planning,  vol.  XVI,  no.  304, 
P.E.P.,  London,  Oct.  1949;  H.  R.  Watling,  "  Britain  is  the  World's 
Greatest  Exporter  of  Bicycles  and  Motor  Cycles,"  Board  of  Trade 
Journal,  vol.  157,  no.  2758,  H.M.S.O.,  London,  Oct.  1949.  (X.) 

MOTOR  CYCLING.  The  premier  award  in  the 
international  six  days'  trial  held  in  Wales  was  won  by  Great 
Britain.  The  British  team  of  B.  H.  M.  Viney  (A.J.S.),  F.  M. 
Rist  (B.S.A.),  P.  H.  Alves  (Triumph),  C.  M.  Ray  (Ariel)  and 
C.  N.  Rogers  (Royal  Enfield)  rode  without  loss  of  marks. 
The  Czechoslovak ian  team  was  second  with  a  loss  of  29 
marks.  Czechoslovakia  won  the  subsidiary  silver  vase 
competition  with  Great  Britain  second;  neither  team  lost 
marks,  the  tie  being  decided  on  a  special  test.  Great  Britain 
won  the  only  manufacturers'  team  prizes  awarded. 

Of  the  world's  five  road-racing  championships  three  were 
won  by  British  riders  and  machines:  500  c.c.,  R.  L.  Graham 
(A.J.S.);  350  c.c.,  F.  L.  Frith  (Velocette);  sidecar,  E.  Oliver 
(Norton).  The  Italians  N.  Pagani  (Mondial)  and  B.  Ruffb 
(Guzzi)  won  the  125  and  250  c.c.  championships. 

The  winners  of  the  Isle  of  Man  Tourist  Trophy  races  were: 
senior,  H.  L.  Daniell  (Norton);  junior,  F.  L.  Frith  (Velo- 
cette); lightweight,  M.  Barrington  (Guzzi).  The  senior  Manx 
Grand  Prix  was  won  by  G.  E.  Duke  (Norton);  the  junior 
race  by  W.  McCandless  (Norton). 

The  other  international  races  were  won  by:  350  c.c., 
F.  L.  Frith— Swiss,  Dutch,  Belgian  and  Ulster  Grands  Prix; 
500  c.c.,  R.  L.  Graham—Swiss  and  Ulster,  W.  Doran  (A.J.S.) 
— Belgian,  N.  Pagani  (Guzzi) — Dutch  and  Italian;  250  c.c., 
B.  Ruffo — Swiss,  M.  Cann  (Guzzi) — Ulster,  D.  Ambrosini 
(Benelli)— Italian. 

America's  premier  event  at  Daytona  saw  British  Norton 
machines  finish  first,  second  and  third  in  the  professional 
race;  first  and  second  in  the  amateur  race.  (G.  WA.) 

MOTOR  INDUSTRY.  By  Nov.  1949  the  British 
motor  industry  was  producing  at  an  annual  rate  of  390,000 
cars,  210,000  commercial  vehicles  and  over  100,000  agri- 
cultural tractors,  and  throughout  the  year  it  kept  the  position 
it  had  gained  in  1948  as  the  largest  exporter  of  motor  vehicles 
in  the  world.  The  great,  banked-up  domestic  demand  for 
cars,  estimated  at  between  half  and  three-quarters  of  a 
million,  remained  on  the  order  books  of  British  distributors, 
while  70%  of  the  cars  and  50%  of  the  commercial  vehicles 
made  in  the  country  were  sent  overseas.  The  home  market 
had  an  unexpected  windfall  of  about  50,000  extra  cars  in 
the  summer  as  a  result  of  the  dock  strike,  the  temporary 
closure  of  the  South  African  market  and  the  low  sales  in  the 
United  States  in  the  months  before  devaluation.  In  spite 
of  this  the  target  earnings  of  foreign  currency,  set  by  the 
government,  were  surpassed  in  the  case  of  motor  cars  and 
all  but  attained  by  the  makers  of  commercial  vehicles  and 
agricultural  tractors. 

Prices  and  Raw  Materials.  During  1949  manufacturers 
took  steps  towards  the  simplification  and  standardization  of 
their  models  and  the  "  Big  Six  "  formed  a  standardization 
committee  whose  purpose  was  to  reduce  the  varieties  of 
components  used  in  the  mass-produced  makes  of  car.  The 


consultation  and  exchange  of  information  between  the  Austin 
and  Nuffield  companies  which  had  been  projected  in  1949 
did  not  materialize  but  Nuffield  proceeded  with  the  rationaliza- 
tion scheme  which  included  the  geographical  concentration  of 
units  of  production,  in  fact,  however,  the  main  element  of 
cost  lay  outside  the  maker's  control  for  it  consisted  of  raw 
materials,  which  had  increased  2^  times  since  prewar  days, 
and  bought-out  parts.  Taken  together  these  items  form 
65  %  of  the  cost  of  a  mass-produced  car.  Another  -and  in 
the  long  run  a  more  important — cause  of  high  prices  was  the 
fact  that  the  industry  was  only  producing  at  75%  of  its 
capacity  of  800,000  units  a  year.  Here  the  limiting  factor 
was  lack  of  sheet  steel.  This  deficiency  could  not  be  met  from 
domestic  production  because  of  limited  plant  capacity  and, 
being  unwilling  to  deny  steel  to  other  users,  the  minister  of 
supply  was  left  with  the  alternative  of  increasing  imports  of 
steel  sheet  from  the  U.S.  During  the  first  three  quarters  of 
1949  these  had  amounted  to  15,098  tons — enough  to  make 
30,000  cars.  At  the  end  of  October  the  ministry,  encouraged 
no  doubt  by  the  greater  volume  of  sales  in  the  U.S.  following 
devaluation,  announced  that  there  would  be  an  increase  in 
the  steel  allocation  and  that  this  steel,  most  of  which  would 
have  to  be  paid  for  in  dollars,  would  go  to  those  manufac- 
turers who  were  most  successful  in  their  exports  to  the  U.S. 
This  meant  in  practice  the  "  Big  Six  "  who  were  the  only 
manufacturers  capable  of  maintaining  a  rate  of  export  of 
over  75%  of  production  during  1949. 

Exports.  Whatever  its  value  to  the  country  the  U.S.  dollar 
harvest  was  the  most  difficult  of  all  to  reap.  Even  in  1948 
manufacturers  had  been  selling  their  cars  at  prices  that 
represented  a  net  loss  or  at  any  rate  a  substantially  lower  rate 
of  profit  than  was  to  be  gained  in  soft-currency  markets. 
The  only  incentives  in  fact  to  export  to  what  L.  P.  Lord 
called  <k  the  hardest  and  toughest  country  in  the  world  in 
which  to  sell  anything  "  were  the  obvious  national  necessity, 
the  threat  by  the  Ministry  of  Supply  to  withhold  steel  supplies 
from  unsuccessful  exporters  and  the  hope  that  costs  would 
be  gradually  reduced  as  the  sales  of  British  cars  in  the  United 
States  grew  in  bulk.  The  American  recession,  signalized  by 
a  reduction  in  U.S.  car  prices,  made  the  situation  in  early 
1949  more  difficult  still  and  in  February  shipments  fell  to 


The  German  "  Volkswagen  "  on  view  at  an  open-air  motor  show  in 
Berlin,  Sept.  1949. 


430 


MOTOR   INDUSTRY 


Thousands 


TOTAL  PRODUCTION  OF  MOTOR  VEHICLES 


U.K. 


500 


450 


40O 


350 


300 


250 


200 


150 


100 


50 


MAIN  EUROPEAN 
PRODUCERS 


Vehicles  Exported 


—  ^   Total  Production    - 
-GERMANY- 


CZECHO- 
SLOVAKIA 


PERCENTAGE  OF 
WORLD  PRODUCTION 


TOTAL    1938 
4,014,950 


1938 


Rest  of 
Europe 


DRest  of 


world 


TOTAL  1948 
6,883,047 


1948 


697  compared  with  a  monthly  average  of  nearly  2,000  in 
1948.  The  months  which  followed,  when  the  world,  and 
particularly  the  U.S.,  was  waiting  for  Great  Britain  to 
devalue  the  pound,  saw  a  further  decline  in  shipments  until 
in  August  only  158  cars  were  sent  to  the  U.S. 

The  impetus  given  by  devaluation  was  immediate  and 
dramatic  and  the  American  distributors  cleared  their  stocks 
within  a  few  days  and  placed  large  new  orders.  Retail  prices 
were  reduced  by  between  1 6  and  20  %  on  the  mass-produced 
models  and  there  was  a  large  demand  even  for  some  of  the 
more  expensive  makes.  At  first  it  was  asked  whether  this 
was  not  after  all  mere  panic  buying,  to  be  followed  in  the 
months  ahead  by  a  gradual  decline  in  sales.  But  the  demand 
held  till  the  new  year  and  manufacturers  were  fully  com- 
mitted in  the  U.S.  market  for  some  time  to  come. 

In  spite  of  the  fact  that  British  makers  had  not  cut  prices 
by  the  full  margin  of  devaluation  the  American  market  was 
still  not  a  profitable  one.  Charges  for  freight,  handling,  duty 
and  the  American  distributors'  margin  still  had  to  be  paid 
in  dollars  and  from  the  exporters'  point  of  view  these  were 
at  a  less  favourable  rate.  At  the  same  time  raw  materials  had 
increased  in  price  and  it  was  likely  that  wages  too  would 
soon  rise  as  a  direct  result  of  devaluation.  Nevertheless 
manufacturers  were  determined  to  stay  in  the  U.S.  market 
and  they  had  every  confidence  in  their  ability  to  do  so  now 
that  the  heavy  initial  cost  of  breaking  into  it  had  been  paid. 

Although  devaluation  as  a  policy  had  chiefly  aimed  at 
increasing  sales  in  the  United  States  it  had  the  paradoxical 
effect  of  stimulating  demand  from  other  markets  as  well, 


for  it  made  American  cars  relatively  more  expensive.  The 
world-wide  shortage  of  dollars  also  led  to  increased  sales  of 
British  cars,  notably  in  Canada,  where,  in  the  third  quarter 
of  the  year  (when  American  purchases  had  dwindled  to  a 
mere  trickle),  9,522  cars  were  exported  compared  with  an 
average  quarterly  figure  of  526  in  1947  and  3,654  in  1948. 
Throughout  1949  Australia  remained  the  largest  buyer  of 
British  cars  taking  no  less  than  22,276  in  the  third  quarter. 
The  South  African  import  restrictions,  first  on  built-up  cars 
and  then  on  C.K.D.  also,  caused  a  drop  from  6,700  in  the 
second  quarter  to  2,383  in  the  third.  But  with  devaluation 
and  the  new  price  of  South  African  gold  it  was  expected 
that  the  government  of  the  Union  would  reconsider  its 
restrictions. 

Trends  in  Design.  In  the  first  six  months  of  1948  25%  of 
British  cars  exported  had  an  engine  capacity  of  more  than 
1,600  ex.;  in  the  same  period  of  1949  this  percentage  had 
risen  to  35.  These  figures  indicated  the  importance  which 
manufacturers  had  attached  to  the  demand  in  overseas 
markets  when  designing  their  1948  models.  They  had  also, 
no  doubt,  calculated  that  the  British  motorist  would  demand 
a  larger  car  as  a  result  of  the  introduction  of  the  new  flat 
rate  of  motor  taxation  in  1 948.  There  was  evidence,  however, 
that  designers  were  not  prepared  to  commit  themselves 
wholly  to  the  production  of  larger  cars.  Already  in  1948 
Lord  Nuffield  had  produced  a  new  version  of  the  Morris 
"Minor"  and  in  Oct.  1949  the  chairman  of  the  Austin 
company  announced  that  if  Austin  produced  a  new  model 
it  would  be  a  "Seven." 


Further  evidence  of  the  makers'  unwillingness  to  abandon 
the  small-car  field  was  provided  by  the  appearance  at  the 
Earls  Court  motor  show  of  the  Triumph  "  Mayflower  " — the 
only  entirely  new  British  car  on  view — with  an  engine  of 
1,250  c.c.  Except  for  this  car  and  the  six-cylinder  Rover  "  75," 
the  coachwork  of  which  had  been  completely  modernized  as 
well  as  the  gear-change  and  other  features,  the  British  cars 
on  view  were  modified  versions  of  those  which  had  first 
appeared  in  1948.  The  capacity  of  the  Hillman  "  Minx  " 
engine  had  been  increased  to  1,265  c.c.;  the  Jowett  Javelin 
appeared  as  an  open  tourer  as  well  as  a  saloon;  there  was 
also  a  saloon  version  of  the  Austin  A  "90";  and  Rolls- 
Royce  showed  their  first  model  with  coachwork  by  the  parent 
company.  Two  new  commercial  vehicles  appeared  in  1949: 
an  A.E.C.  truck  with  a  direct-injection  diesel  engine  of 
11-3  litres  capacity  and  a  Guy  "  Otter  "  with  a  load  capacity 
of  five  to  six  tons  and  three  alternative  lengths  of  wheel  box. 
Both  models  illustrated  the  efforts  of  British  commercial 
vehicle  manufacturers  to  cater  for  the  diverse  needs  of  over- 
seas users.  It  was  also  encouraging  to  note  that  by  1949 
British  factories  were  producing  every  type  of  agricultural 
tractor,  including  the  heaviest  "crawler"  types;  domestic 
production  of  these  essential  agricultural  tools  would  save 
both  Britain  and  the  sterling  area  many  dollars. 

Europe  and  the  Dominions.  The  French  industry  made 
notable  progress  in  1949:  production  increased  by  50%  to 
300,000 — the  figure  laid  down  in  the  Monnet  plan — and  by 
the  time  of  the  Paris  Salon  in  October  it  was  clear  that  the 
industry  had  passed  out  of  the  prototype  stage  and  that 
Series  production,  particularly  of  the  miniature  cars  which 
had,  after  the  close  of  World  War  II,  become  the  backbone 
of  the  industry,  had  swung  into  its  full  stride.  About  40% 
of  the  total  production  was  exported.  The  search  for  economy 
continued  and  to  the  Renault  4  h.p.  (which  by  October  was 
being  produced  at  the  rate  of  315  per  day),  the  Dyna-Panhard 
and  other  small  French  cars  was  added  the  new  Citroen  2  h.p. 
This  car  had  an  engine  capacity  of  only  375  c.c.  but  was 
capable  of  carrying  four  passengers  and  100  Ib.  of  luggage. 
The  price  was  to  be  Fr. 229,000— 50,000  less  than  the  baby 
Renault  and  the  petrol  consumption  was  claimed  to  be 
71  mi.  to  the  gallon.  Citroen  had  not  been  scheduled  under 
the  Monnet  plan  to  produce  a  small  car  but  the  makers 
pointed  out  that  their  enterprise  was  in  accordance  with  the 
need  of  the  country  for  economical  transport. 

In  Italy  production  of  motor  vehicles  had  risen  to  an 
annual  rate  of  70,000  during  the  first  six  months  of  the  year. 
This  was  25%  more  than  the  total  in  1948  and  16%  more 
than  the  1938  figure.  Within  this  total,  however,  production 
of  cars  had  risen  since  1946  by  three  times  while  the  pro- 
duction of  trucks  had  fallen  to  a  third  of  the  1946  rate.  It 
was  learnt  during  the  year  that  the  Fiat  company  was  to 
receive  dollar  loans  totalling  $25,700,000  from  Economic 
Co-operation  administration  and  the  Export-Import  bank 
for  the  expansion  and  re-equipment  of  their  plant.  Most  of 
the  sum  was  earmarked  for  the  motor-car  division  of  the 
company.  In  August  west  German  production  reached  a 
new  postwar  record  of  15,628  units. 

In  Australia  a  factory  was  set  up  for  the  assembly  of 
Standard  and  Triumph  cars  and  Ferguson  agricultural 
tractors;  and  an  Australian  company  began  to  produce  a 
low-powered  three-wheeler  which  would  cost  only  £A250 
and  would  do  60  mi.  to  the  gallon.  During  1949  India  pro- 
duced its  first  agricultural  tractor  and  the  Rootes  group's 
new  assembly  plant  went  into  production.  In  New  Zealand 
there  was  an  expansion  of  assembly  plant  and  in  May  it 
was  announced  that  no  more  import  licences  would  be 
granted  for  built-up  vehicles.  (X.) 

United  States.  In  1949  output  of  vehicles  was  6,255,401. 
This  exceeded  the  long-standing  record  of  1929  by  more 


MOTOR   INDUSTRY  Csroaait'  Uiifersity  Likiaif, 

HYDERABAD  (DECCAN). 


431 


432 


MOTOR    RACING 


COMMERCIAL  VEHICLES  AND  TRACTORS  FROM  THE  UNITED  KINGDOM  1947-49  (By  Quarters) 

1947 

1948 

1949 

Quarterly 

averages 

1st  qtr. 

2nd  qtr. 

3rd  qtr. 

4th  qtr. 

4,776 

13,346 

15,823 

15,638 

22,276 

10,311 

526 

3,654 

4,314 

7,772 

9,522 

3,236 

3,583 

2,311 

2,505 

2,731 

3,102 

1,072 

3,053 

3,751 

2,237 

3,606 

2,645 

1,532 

2,377 

4,060 

6,377 

6,700 

2,383 

1,057 

608 

,775 

2,119 

2,116 

,792 

625 

1,110 

,270 

2,372 

1,958 

,546 

578 

1,124 

,432 

1,194 

872 

,471 

611 

1,430 

,511 

1,375 

1,848 

,605 

833 

1,496 

,223 

1,268 

1,534 

,011 

552 

373 

,057 

1,009 

945 

995 

1,305 

518 

613 

610 

875 

796 

944 

6,546 

7,586 

6,932 

6,688 

4,645 

417 

282 

6,124 

2,377 

705 

521 

1,038 

7,922 

7,015 

7,077 

7,312 

5,667 

2,241 

35,724 

56,728 

57,589 

61,300 

59,977 

26,352 

6,020 

9,148 

11,452 

10,477 

9,191 

13,623 

6,389 

9,625 

11,897 

11,623 

11,572 

13,252 

4,190 

16,941 

25,420 

12,551 

11,560 

14,389 

52,323 

92,442 

109,358 

95,951 

92,300 

67,616 

EXPORTS  OF  CARS, 

To 

Australia  . 

Canada  ..... 
New  Zealand  .... 
Belgium  ..... 
South  Africa  .... 

Brazil 

Netherlands        .... 

Malaya      ..... 

Ireland      ..... 

Switzerland        .... 

British  East  Africa 

British  West  Africa      . 

Other  Commonwealth  countries    . 

U.S.A 

Other  foreign  countries 

TOTAL  Cars 
Commercial  vehicles   . 
Chassis  for  commercial  vehicles     . 
Agricultural  tractors    . 

TOTAL  Motor  vehicles 

than  one-sixth.  Passenger  car  production  reached  a  total 
of  5,119,911— an  increase  of  11-6%  over  1929,  35-5% 
over  1941,  and  31  %  over  1948.  The  output  of  motor  lorries 
was  1,135,490,  47-3%  over  1941.  Compared  with  1948, 
however,  there  was  a  decrease  of  18*5%. 

The  1949  wholesale  value  of  passenger  cars  was  estimated 
at  $6,900  million,  an  increase  of  42%  over  1929,  169%  over 
1941  and  42%  over  1948.  Motor  truck  wholesale  value  was 
estimated  at  $1,560  million,  an  increase  of  175%  over  1929, 
46%  over  1941,  but  reflected  a  decrease  of  16%  below  1948. 

The  activities  of  the  motor  industry  as  a  whole  remained 
remarkably  steady  throughout  the  year,  in  terms  of  number 
of  units  produced,  despite  the  strike  in  one  large  company 
during  part  of  the  month  of  May,  and  the  major  strikes  in 
the  steel  and  coal  industries  during  the  latter  part  of  the  year. 
This  relative  stability  in  production  activity  was  made 
possible  by  the  foresight  of  motor  vehicle  manufacturers 
in  purchasing  reserve  supplies  of  steel,  coal  and  other  materials 
in  anticipation  of  a  possible  major  strike  in  those  industries. 

As  in  the  preceding  year,  foreign  markets  continued  to 
reflect  the  shortage  of  American  dollars,  resulting  in  a 
decrease  of  35  •  6  %  in  factory  sales  of  passenger  cars  to  foreign 
markets,  and  a  decline  of  37-3%  in  the  number  of  lorries 
for  export,  or  a  combined  decrease  of  36  •  5  %.  The  decrease 
was  progressive  throughout  the  year,  reaching  its  lowest 
point  in  December. 

The  demand  for  lorries  continued  to  be  for  a  higher 
proportion  of  the  lighter  type  of  vehicles.  During  the  first 
11  months  of  1949,  45-3%  of  motor  lorry  factory  sales  was 
in  the  5,000  Ib.  class  and  under  (gross  vehicle  weight),  as 
compared  with  36%  in  1948  and  30-6%  in  1947. 

Preliminary  registration  totals  released  by  the  U.S.  Bureau 
of  Public  Roads  for  the  end  of  1949  were  35,491,000  passenger 
cars  and  7,807,000  lorries  and  buses,  or  a  combined  total  of 
43,298,000.  This  was  an  increase  of  6-7%  over  1948  for 
passenger  cars  and  6  •  1  %  increase  for  lorries.  (O.  P.  P.) 

MOTOR  RACING.  The  most  outstanding  Grand 
Prix  successes  in  1949  were  recorded  by  the  improved  Italian 
1^  litre  12  cylinder  Ferrari,  with  the  older  Maserati  cars 
offering  the  most  serious  opposition.  Notable  absentees  from 
the  leading  events  were  the  Alfa  Romeo  cars. 

A  new  ace  appeared  in  Juan  Manuel  Fangio,  who,  after  a 
succession  of  brilliant  Grand  Prix  successes  at  Pau,  Perpignan, 
Marseilles  and  Albi,  France,  and  Monza,  Italy,  early  in  the 
year,  returned  to  his  home  in  the  Argentine. 

The  300  mi.  British  Grand  Prix  held  on  the  Silverstone 
aerodrome  circuit  was  won  by  Baron  Emannuel  de  Graffen- 
ried  (Maserati)  at  77-31  m.p.h.,  with  F.  R.  Gerard  in  his  1937 
E.R.A.  second. 


Value 
1949 

£23,260,000 
£7,840,000 
£2,690,000 
£3,550,000 
£5,060,000 
£2,580,000 
£1,850,000 
£1,550,000 
£1,880,000 
£1,780,000 
£1,375,000 
£1,078,000 
£5,777,000 
£1,850,000 
£9,020,000 

£71,140,000 
£19,200,000 
£23,000,000 
£19,300,000 

£132,640,000 


The  Austin  A90  "  Atlantic  "  Convertible  on  the  Indianapolis  Speed- 
way, Indiana,  U.S.A.  where  the  car  covered  11,850  mi.  in  seven 
days  and  broke  63  American  stock  car  records. 

Louis  Rosier,  in  an  unsupercharged  Talbot-Lago,  secured 
a  surprising  victory  in  the  Belgian  Grand  Prix  when,  at  96-95 
m.p.h.,  he  defeated  Luigi  Villoresi  (Ferrari).  His  team  mate, 
veteran  Louis  Chiron,  also  finished  ahead  of  the  Italians  in 
the  French  Grand  Prix  which  he  won  at  99-98  m.p.h. 

Alberto  Ascari,  leading  Ferrari  driver,  established  himself 
as  Europe's  best  by  winning  the  Bari  (Italy)  Grand  Prix  at 
73  m.p.h.,  the  Swiss  Grand  Prix  at  90- 76  m.p.h.,  the  British 
Racing  Drivers*  Club's  international  trophy  race  at  Silver- 
stone  at  89-58  m.p.h.  and  the  Grand  Prix  of  Europe  on  the 
Monza  circuit  at  105.08  m.p.h.  Other  Ferrari  successes 
included  the  Zandvoort  (Netherlands)  Grand  Prix  (driver 
Villoresi)  and  the  Czechoslovak  Grand  Prix  (driver  Peter 
Whitehead). 

The  British  Automobile  Racing  club  ran  two  successful 
meetings  on  the  Goodwood  aerodrome  circuit  where  Reginald 
Parnell  (Maserati)  established  new  lap  records  at  over  87 
m.p.h.  and  Stirling  Moss,  in  his  tiny  500  c.c.  Cooper,  lapped 
at  over  82  m.p.h.  The  British  Empire  Trophy  race  held  under 
Grand  Prix  formula  in  the  Isle  of  Man  was  won  by  F.  R. 
Gerard  (E.R.A.)  at  71-06  m.p.h.  The  Jersey  international 
road  race,  was  won  also  by  Gerard  at  77-10  m.p.h. 

The  Italian  990  mi.  mille  miglia  race,  with  a  field  of  302 
cars,  was  won  the  third  time  in  succession  by  Clemente 
Biondetti  (Ferrari)  at  81-687  m.p.h.,  while  the  winner  of 
the  touring  class  was  T.  H.  Wisdom  (Healey)  at  68  •  738  m.p.h. 

The  year  saw  a  great  revival  in  sports  car  racing.   Clemente 


MOTOR  TRANSPORT 


433 


Biondetti  (Ferrari)  won  the  Targa  Florio  race  round  Sicily, 
while  L.  Chinetti,  also  in  a  Ferrari,  won  the  two  24  hr. 
classic  events  at  Le  Mans  (France)  and  Spa  (Belgium).  At 
Le  Mans,  with  Lord  Peter  Selsdon  as  his  co-driver,  he  covered 
1,970  mi.  at  an  average  speed  of  82-27  m.p.h.;  at  Spa,  with 
J.  Lucas,  1,899  mi.  were  covered  at  78 -7  m.p.h. 

One  of  the  most  outstanding  events  of  the  year  was  a 
one-hour  race  for  production  cars  held  at  Silverstone.  Winner 
in  the  general  classification  was  L.  G.  Johnson  who  in  a  new 
3^  litre  standard  Jaguar  two-seater  sports  car  averaged 
82- 8  m.p.h.  British  hill  climb  champion  was  Sidney  Allard 
(3,700  c.c.  Allard).  (CH.  FL.) 

Bill  Holland  of  Reading,  Pennsylvania,  after  being  second 
to  Mauri  Rose  of  South  Bend,  Indiana,  in  the  two  preceding 
years,  captured  the  500-mi.  Memorial  day  classic  at  Indiana- 
polis speedway  at  a  record  average  speed  of  121  -327  m.p.h. 
Duke  Nalon  cheated  death  in  the  24th  lap  when  a  wheel  tore 
loose  and  his  car  burst  into  flames  as  it  struck  a  wall.  Nalon 
had  set  a  first-lap  record  of  126-564  m.p.h.  The  former 
record  of  123-02  m.p.h.  had  been  established  in  1948  by 
Rex  Mays  of  Glendale,  California,  who  met  his  death  in  a 
motor  racing  accident  on  Nov.  6,  1949,  at  Del  Mar,  California. 

Alex  Xydias  of  Burbank,  California,  set  a  world  record  of 
153  m.p.h.  at  the  first  annual  meeting  for  American  stock 
power  motor  cars  at  Bonneville  Salt  Flats,  Utah.  Xydias 
had  held  the  previous  record  of  138-74  m.p.h.  (T.  V.  H.) 

MOTOR  TRANSPORT.  The  British  Transport 
commission's  accounts  published  in  its  Report  and  Accounts 
for  1948  (H.M.S.O.,  Sept.  1949)  showed  a  deficit  of  £4-7 
million  for  the  calendar  year  1948;  by  the  beginning  of 
November  it  was  clear  that  the  deficit  would  approach  £20 
million  and  authority  was  asked  of  the  minister  of  transport 
to  raise  freight  rates  on  the  railways  by  16-5%.  This  was  a 
stopgap  measure  designed  merely  to  cut  down  future  losses 
and  ran  counter  to  the  expectations  of  the  public  and  the 
intentions  of  the  commission  that  nationalization  of  transport 
should  bring  with  it  a  co-ordination  of  charges  and  a  general 
integration  of  all  forms  of  transport. 

The  Transport  commission  had  been  required  under  the 
act  to  produce  a  charges  scheme  and  submit  it  to  the  Trans- 
port tribunal  by  Aug.  6,  1949,  but  it  was  found  impossible 
in  so  short  a  time  to  produce  such  a  scheme  in  view  of 
differences  between  the  systems  in  use  in  the  several  branches 
of  the  transport  industry  and  a  further  two  years  was  granted 
by  the  minister.  The  commission  was  well  aware,  however, 
that  an  overall  scheme  of  charges  was  the  foundation-stone 
of  a  properly  integrated  .ir.nsport  structure.  The  responsi- 
bility for  this  work  was  given  to  the  Charges  committee. 

The  work  of  co-ordination,  apart  from  charges,  went  on 
and  the  most  important  task  of  examining  branch-line 
traffic  with  a  view  to  the  substitution  of  road  services  resulted 
in  the  closing  down  of  several  branch  lines  during  the  year. 
Radical  changes  could  not  however  be  expected  at  this  stage; 
and  when  Sir  Cyril  Hurcomb,  the  chairman  of  the  com- 
mission, announced  the  setting-up  of  the  new  transport 
research  organization  he  said  that  the  most  economic 
distribution  between  road  and  rail  services  could  not  be 
judged  until  arrears  of  maintenance  had  been  made  up  and 
obsolete  stock  replaced  on  the  railways.  It  was  reasonable 
to  suppose  that  until  the  railway  system  had  been  modernized 
and  pruned  of  dead  wood  the  road  services  would  take  the 
financial  load;  nevertheless  it  was  hoped  that  the  "  bold 
application  "  of  this  sharing  principle  would  not  lead  to 
heavily  increased  road  charges. 

Road  Passenger  Transport.  At  the  end  of  1948  the  com- 
mission had  acquired  the  15  or  so  bus  companies  which  made 
up  the  Tilling  group.  On  Jan.  25,  1949,  it  also  acquired 
control  of  the  Scottish  Motor  Traction  group  for  £23^  million. 

B.B.Y.— 29 


Thus  by  the  beginning  of  the  year  the  commission  controlled 
nearly  20,000  buses  and  coaches  including  those  belonging 
to  London  Transport.  It  also  held  large  interests  in  British 
Electric  Traction  and  its  subsidiary  companies.  It  was  never 
the  intention,  however,  that  the  commission  should  directly 
control  even  a  majority  of  the  bus  services  in  the  country: 
the  function  of  the  Road  Transport  executive  and  of  the 
Road  Passenger  executive  which  succeeded  it  in  1949  was  to 
co-ordinate,  in  conjunction  with  the  local  authorities,  the 
bus  services  in  different  areas. 

The  first  scheme  under  section  63  of  the  act  was  for  the 
northern  area  comprising  Northumberland  and  Durham 
and  a  large  part  of  the  North  Riding  of  Yorkshire.  The 
scheme  affected  6  local  authorities,  1  joint  board  and  130 
undertakings.  The  proposals  included  the  setting-up  of  an 
area  board  with  a  chairman  and  from  7  to  11  part-time 
members.  Under  the  area  board  would  be  three  districts, 
each  under  a  manager.  The  area  board  was  to  have  as  much 
autonomy  as  it  was  possible  for  the  commission  to  grant 
under  the  act  and  there  would  be  consultations  between  the 
board  and  the  railway  executive  to  co-ordinate  services. 

During  1949  some  1,600  new  or  reconditioned  buses  were 
put  into  service  by  the  London  Transport  executive.  Though 
this  was  twice  as  many  as  in  the  previous  year  the  figure 
did  not  cover  the  number  of  old  buses  withdrawn  from  service 
and  the  greater  operating  efficiency  in  terms  of  miles  run 
was  largely  gained  at  the  expense  of  passengers'  comfort. 
However,  Lord  Latham,  chairman  of  the  London  Transport 
executive,  expressed  optimism  about  the  situation  in  1950 
when  there  would  be  a  net  increase  in  numbers  of  buses 
and  trolley  buses  and  a  consequent  expansion  of  services. 
He  also  announced  that  preliminary  steps  were  being  taken 
for  the  conversion  of  the  south  London  tramways  into  bus 
routes  and  that  16  new  garages  or  converted  depots  were 
to  be  built  at  a  cost  of  £4,600,000.  For  the  more  distant 
future  the  executive  was  preparing  the  re-organization  of  its 
services  to  meet  the  decentralization  of  population  under 
the  government's  plan  for  London. 

Statistics  taken  from  the  Report  showed  an  interesting 
comparison  between  the  costs  and  takings  per  car/mi,  for 
the  different  services  of  London  Transport  during  1948. 

TABLE  I  — LONDON  TRANSPORT 

Expenditure  Buses  and  Trolley 

per  ( it r I mi                                              Coaches              buses  Trams 

Operating  costs                              .        14   lid             16  03</  16   88</. 

Maintenance  and  depreciation             4  3U,             4  99d.  7  22</. 

General  expenses     .          .          .         \-96d.              1   9\d.  2  Q9d. 


Fold) 


Average  takings  per  car/mi 


21   ()4</. 

Bine v and 
Coaches 
24  4\d. 


22  93d 


26    \9d. 


Trolley  buses  and 
Trami 


Reproduced   by   permission  of  the  Controller  of  H  M.   Stationery   Office 

Figures  of  average  takings  were  not  available  for  the 
provincial  and  Scottish  services,  nor  were  the  figures  for 
expenditure  exactly  comparable  with  those  of  London 
Transport  but,  nevertheless,  they  are  worth  recording: 

TABLE  II. — PROVINCIAL  AND  SCOTTISH 
(April  to  Dec.  1948,  only) 

Provincial  Scottish 

Operating  costs  .          .          .          .      10  5\d.  8  44d. 

Maintenance  and  depreciation  .          .          .       4  37</.  4-03J. 

General l-48rf.  1    23rf. 

Total 16  36d.  13  7<X/. 

Reproduced  by  permission  of  the   Controller  of  H  M.   Stationery  Office. 

While  in  1948  fares  on  the  railways  had  increased  by  55% 
over  the  1938  level,  those  of  London  Transport  were  only 
30%  up  and  fares  on  the  provincial  and  Scottish  services 
were  the  same  as  before  World  War  II. 

Road  Haulage.  Under  part  III  of  the  act  the  commission 
was  to  have  the  sole  right  to  carry  on  long-distance  haulage 


434 


MUNITIONS   OF  WAR 


for  "  hire  or  reward  "  (except  in  the  case  of  goods  like  petrol, 
milk  and  timber  for  which  specialized  vehicles  were  needed) 
after  an  appointed  day  to  be  fixed  by  the  minister.  In  Novem- 
ber the  minister  announced  that  the  day  had  been  fixed  as 
Feb.  1,  1950.  After  this  date  only  firms  which  had  been 
operating  on  Nov.  28,  1946,  and  had  original  permits  or  those 
which  had  since  been  granted  permits  to  operate  could 
continue  in  their  business,  and  then  only  until  the  Road 
Haulage  executive  was  ready  to  take  them  over. 

In  1948  a  nucleus  of  important  road  haulage  concerns 
had  been  taken  over  by  the  commission.  Some  of  these  were 
part  of  the  assets  of  the  railways  and  others  had  been  taken 
over  by  agreement  or  by  compulsory  acquisition.  By  the 
end  of  1949  30,000  vehicles— three-quarters  of  the  total  in 
the  A  and  B  licence  class — had  been  acquired  and  an  organiza- 
tion comprising  eight  regional  divisions  and  districts  set  up 
to  control  them. 

In  its  Report  the  commission  called  attention  to  the  post- 
war growth  in  the  numbers  of  C  licence  holders.  In  1947 
there  had  been  487,151  vehicles  under  C  licence  and  by  the 
beginning  of  1949  the  figure  was  590,516.  These  traders, 
who,  so  long  as  they  carried  their  own  goods,  would  be  able 
to  operate  within  any  distance  of  their  base,  formed  a  hard 
core  of  competition  to  the  services  provided  by  the  com- 
mission; and  the  Report  stated,  rather  ambiguously,  that 
although  most  of  the  vehicles  were  under  30  cwt.  and  were 
therefore  presumably  engaged  in  retail  distribution,  the 
increased  use  of  C  licensed  vehicles  affected  the  commission 
in  planning,  in  fixing  charges  and  in  the  eventual  integration 
of  its  services.  There  were  critics  of  the  commission  who 
foresaw  curtailment  of  the  "  privilege  "  of  C  licences  when 
the  commission  really  found  itself  up  against  competition 
from  that  quarter;  others  pointed  to  the  attitude  of  the 
chairman  who  was  inclined  to  face  the  challenge  and  await 
results.  A  clear  indication  of  the  future  of  C  licence  holders 
could  not  be  expected  until  at  least  the  appointed  day,  when 
practically  all  other  forms  of  transport  would  be  controlled 
by  the  commission,  and  probably  not  until  1951  when  the 
overall  charges  scheme  would  have  been  worked  out. 

It  was  interesting  to  compare  the  method  adopted  in 
France  for  co-ordinating  charges  for  road  and  rail  services. 
A  decree  published  on  Nov.  15  laid  down  that  the  railways 
would  no  longer  run  road  passenger  services  and  that  rates 
for  road  services  would  be  fixed  by  the  minister  of  transport. 
Transporters  would  then  be  required  to  fix  their  charges  at 
between  10%  over  and  20%  under  the  basic  rate.  Basic 
rates  would  also  be  set  for  the  transport  of  goods,  and  road 
transporters  would  only  be  able  to  compete  with  the  main- 
line railways  by  authorization  of  the  latter.  The  railways 
were  to  have  far  greater  freedom  in  fixing  detailed  freight 
charges  and  would  thus  be  able  to  co-ordinate  their  charges 
with  those  of  the  road  transporters  and  compete  with  them 
for  traffic.  (X.) 

United  States.  The  production  of  new  buses  in  the  United 
States  during  1949  was  less  than  half  of  that  in  1948  when 
11,143  buses  were  put  into  service  on  city  and  intercity  bus 
routes.  Available  information  indicated  that  4,650  motor 
buses  and  650  trolley  buses  were  produced  in  1949  for  bus 
companies  that  were  operating  over  regular  routes. 

The  motor  industry's  production  in  the  United  States  in 
1949  totalled  6,255,401  vehicles.  Included  in  this  were 
5,119,911  passenger  cars  and  1,135,490  lorries  and  buses. 
The  industry's  previous  record  was  in  1929  when  5,358,420 
cars  and  lorries  were  produced.  At  the  end  of  1949  it  was 
estimated  that  nearly  3,000,000  more  passenger  cars  and 
lorries  had  been  registered  in  the  United  States  than  in  1948. 

The  transport  industry  as  a  whole  in  1949  was  estimated 
to  have  carried  19,000  million  passengers,  46%  more  than 
the  1936-40  average.  Although  this  figure  was  11%  lower 


than  that  for  1948,  it  represented  a  weekday  average  of 
about  63  million  rides  on  the  nation's  street  cars,  trolley 
buses,  buses  and  underground  systems.  Fare  increases  kept 
the  industry's  operating  revenue  at  $1,490  million,  or  slightly 
above  that  of  1948.  Operating  expenses,  including  deprecia- 
tion but  not  taxes,  decreased  in  1949  by  approximately  1-5% 
to  $1,324  million.  When  compared  with  the  previous  year, 
according  to  these  preliminary  figures,  net  revenue  was 
approximately  $166  million,  or  14-52%  more  than  in  1948. 
Despite  poor  net  earnings,  transport  companies  had  pur- 
chased 3,000  surface  and  subway  coaches,  3,500  trolley 
buses  and  37,000  motor  buses,  or  nearly  44,000  new  vehicles 
in  the  years  1944-49.  Estimates  placed  the  number  of  surface 
trolley  coaches  in  use  during  1949  at  16,100,  a  decrease  of 
about  41  %  since  1944;  and  buses  at  59,000,  an  increase  of 
22%  during  the  same  period.  The  total  number  of  passenger 
carrying  vehicles  owned  by  the  transport  industry  was  esti- 
mated at  slightly  more  than  90,000,  approximately  the  same 
number  as  in  1948.  However,  the  vehicles  purchased  in  later 
years  generally  had  greater  seating  capacity  and  the  actual 
number  of  seats  available  for  passengers  had  increased. 

Approximately  97,600  buses  were  used  daily  during  the 
school  year  of  1949  to  transport  5,720,000  children  to  and 
from  45,256  public  schools,  largely  in  the  rural  areas.  The 
routes  served  totalled  2,079,000  mi.,  and  the  actual  distance 
covered  by  the  buses  was  about  736  million  bus  mi.,  at  an 
estimated  cost  of  about  $177-5  million. 

In  bus  and  lorry  traffic  the  trend  continued  toward  the  use 
of  diesels.  The  number  of  diesel  lorries  in  service  increased 
from  about  7,600  in  1944  to  about  12,000  in  1948.  The 
conversion  of  buses  to  diesel  engines  was  more  rapid,  over 
70%  of  the  new  buses  delivered  to  companies  during  two 
months  of  1949  being  diesel  powered.  It  was  estimated  that 
in  1949  almost  40%  of  the  total  bus  production  for  transport 
in  city  and  intercity  services  was  diesel  powered.  A 
50-passenger  city  type  bus  was  developed  for  ultimate  use 
on  the  municipally-owned  routes  in  New  York  city;  it  had 
staggered  seats,  wide  and  easy-moving  windows,  fluorescent 
lighting,  double  width  exit  and  entrance  doors  and  improved 
springing.  (C.  W.  S.) 

MOZAMBIQUE:  see  PORTUGUESE  COLONIAL  EMPIRE. 

MUNICIPAL  GOVERNMENT :  see  LOCAL 
GOVERNMENT. 


MUNITIONS  OF  WAR.  U.S.  Army.  Some  of  the 
developments  in  munitions  and  related  fields  during  1949 
are  briefly  described  below. 

Armour.  Specially  fabricated  plastic  armour  was  success- 
fully tested  and  stopped  a  -45-calibre  bullet. 

Battery.  The  army  signal  corps  perfected  a  24 -v.  electric 
battery  that  would  start  an  engine  at  65°F.  A  dry-cell  battery 
using  magnesium  instead  of  zinc  was  also  made.  It  had 
twice  the  capacity  of  the  conventional  type  and  required  no 
special  machinery  for  its  manufacture. 

Boat.  A  new  assault  craft  for  the  use  of  infantry  in  crossing 
rivers  was  made  of  Fiberglas  spun  to  one-thirtieth  of  the 
thickness  of  a  human  hair.  This  was  woven  into  cloth  and 
impregnated  with  tough  plastic.  A  boat  so  constructed 
weighed  less  than  300  lb.,  was  powered  by  a  33-h.p.  engine 
and  could  carry  1 5  men. 

De-activator.  The  Ordnance  department  worked  out  a 
process  for  safely  removing  fuses  and  boosters  from  high 
explosive  bombs  and  projectiles.  A  television  camera  trans- 
mitted an  image  of  the  work  being  done  to  an  operator  who 
manipulated  control  tools  from  a  bombproof  shelter. 

Engines.     Continental   Motors  corporation  developed  an 


MUNITIONS  OF  WAR 


435 


air-cooled  engine  for  military  vehicles.    It  ranged  from  125 
to  l,040h.p. 

Cases.  The  Chemical  Warfare  service  was  responsible  for 
testing  and  developing  a  new  series  of  gases  more  deadly  than 
lewisite  or  mustard  gas.  This  new  gas  used  Tabun,  first  of 
the  G  series,  as  a  base.  This  series  was  also  known  as  "  green 
ring  three  "  and  included  the  deadly  nerve  gases,  sometimes 
referred  to  as  psychological  gases  since  they  caused  irrespon- 
sible action  or  behaviour  among  their  victims.  Small 
quantities  of  these  new  gases,  inhaled  or  brought  into  contact 
with  the  skin,  produced  death. 

Laboratory.  The  Quartermaster  corps  received  from  a 
civilian  manufacturer  a  highly  developed  and  complete 
mobile  laboratory  for  testing  petroleum  fuels  and  lubricants. 
It  was  completely  self-contained  and  independent  of  other 
sources  for  electrical  power,  heat  control,  etc.  It  could  main- 
tain any  critical  range  of  temperature  necessary  for  testing 
operations  and,  in  a  test  at  Wright  field,  Ohio,  maintained 
an  inside  temperature  140°  higher  than  the  temperature 
outside.  In  it  could  be  tested  all  grades  of  petrol,  fuel  oils, 
lubricating  oils  and  greases. 

Motors.  Two  giant  electric  motors,  each  developing 
25,000  h.p.  and  capable  of  producing  a  1,500  m.p.h.  gale, 
were  built  at  Moffett  air  force  base,  California,  to  test  full- 
scale  aircraft  at  supersonic  speeds. 

Petrol  Congealed  petrol  was  developed  for  practical  use. 
It  could  be  stored  in  open  bins  and  shipped  in  ordinary 
freight  cars  like  coal.  It  did  not  explode  nor  did  it  ignite 
easily. 

Rifles.  The  Firestone  Tyre  and  Rubber  company,  Akron, 
Ohio,  began  the  mass  production  of  two  recoilless  rifles 
which  would  give  the  infantry  soldier  striking  power  equiva- 
lent to  field  artillery.  One  was  a  57-mm.  shoulder  weapon 
while  the  other  was  a  75-mm.  rifle.  The  latter  was  fired  from 
a  standard  machine-gun  tripod  and  hurled  a  14-lb.  high 
explosive  shell  more  than  four  miles. 

Rocket  Launchers.  Several  types  of  rocket  launchers, 
wheeled  and  tank-mounted,  were  completed.  They  consisted 
generally  of  a  large  number  of  tubes,  mounted  in  honeycomb 
fashion,  lightweight,  easily  portable  and  capable  of  rapid 
fire  with  high  explosive  shells. 

Rockets.  In  firing  tests  with  high-reaching  rockets  much 
valuable  material  was  heretofore  lost.  This  condition  was 
remedied  by  redesigning  the  war  head  of  the  rocket.  At  a 
distance  of  100  mi.  from  the  earth,  the  3,600-lb.  war  head 
of  the  V-2  rocket  was  detached  automatically  from  the  rocket. 
This  war  head  contained  the  instruments  for  upper-air 
research.  When  detached,  the  war  head  trailed  a  30-ft. 
diameter  pilot  parachute.  When  this  dropped  below  50-mi. 
altitude,  the  pilot  parachute  opened  fully  and  dragged  open 
a  100-ft.  diameter  parachute  which  brought  the  expensive 
instruments  safely  to  the  ground. 

Steel.  The  Lebanon  Steel  foundry  produced  an  alloy  steel 
which  functioned  at  temperatures  as  low  as  — 423  °F.  It  was 
an  austenitic  cast  ferrous  alloy  containing  19-5%  chromium 
and  9%  nickel,  among  other  metals.  It  could  be  used  effec- 
tively in  production  of  castings  for  pressure  equipment,  in 
storage  facilities  for  liquid  oxygen  used  as  a  propellent  in 
rocket  guns. 

Tanks.  Greater  power  and  manoeuverability  was  secured 
in  the  "  General  Patton  "  tank  by  use  of  an  improved  810-h  p. 
engine,  by  the  perfection  of  a  new,  rugged  transmission 
system,  and  by  the  adoption  of  a  single  "  wobble-stick  " 
control. 

Teletypewriter.  An  improved,  waterproof  teletypewriter 
was  made  which  could  be  carried  by  a  parachutist.  It  weighed 
45  lb.,  just  one-fourth  the  weight  of  the  former  types,  and 
transmitted  and  received  messages  66%  faster  than  previous 
existing  types.  (R.  S.  T.) 


U.S.  Navy.  The  development  of  new  U.S.  navy  weapons  of 
offence  and  defence,  capable  of  dealing  effectively  with 
anticipated  future  war  conditions,  was  pursued  vigorously 
during  1949  to  keep  pace  with  continuing  rapid  advances  in 
the  fields  of  high-speed  aircraft,  submarines  and  guided 
missiles.  While  much  effort  was  directed  towards  developing 
radically  new  weapons,  progress  continued  in  providing 
improved  interim  weapons  to  maintain  the  fleet's  high  state 
of  readiness. 

Anti-submarine  weapons  continued  to  receive  major 
attention.  The  recently  commissioned  U.S.S.  **  Robert  A. 
Owens  "  and  U.S.S.  "Carpenter,"  prototype  navy  hunter- 
killer  destroyers  Carrying  some  of  the  latest  armament  and 
detection  devices,  were  to  be  tested  early  in  1950  against 
new  high-speed  schnorkel  submarines. 

Progress  in  aviation  ordnance  was  highly  satisfactory.  New 
weapons  and  fire-control  systems  were  developed  to  cope 
with  the  problems  of  high-speed  flight. 

Three  new  cruisers  of  the  "  DCS  Moines  "  class  were  the 
first  to  be  equipped  with  the  navy's  new  completely  automatic 
rapid-fire  eight-inch  dual-purpose  guns,  capable  of  firing  at 
battle  ranges  substantially  faster  than  previous  guns  of  this 
or  larger  calibres. 

The  fullest  utilization  of  new  weapons  required  advanced 
designs  of  computing  machines  and  fire-control  systems, 
emphasizing  the  automatic  features  of  operation  and  the 
increased  speeds  of  probable  targets.  Probably  the  most 
noteworthy  progress  was  made  on  guided  missiles,  where 
active  research  and  development  were  being  conducted  on 
missiles  in  the  surface-to-air,  air-to-surface,  air-to-subsurface 
and  air-to-air  categories.  The  U.S.S.  "  Norton  Sound  "  was 
placed  in  operation  to  facilitate  the  testing  of  guided  missiles 
at  sea.  This  floating  laboratory  was  used  during  the  year 
for  upper  atmosphere  research  firings  with  the  Aerobee  missile. 
In  the  late  spring  of  1949  off  Point  Mugu,  California,  such 
control  was  achieved  over  3,000-m.p.h.  surface-to-air  rockets 
that  were  fired  at  a  helium  balloon  labelled  "  friend  "  and 
then  deflected  to  score  a  direct  hit  on  a  balloon  labelled  "  foe." 

Two  new  ordnance  wind  tunnels  came  into  operation  to 
accelerate  work  on  guided  missiles  and  other  new  weapons. 
One,  at  the  Naval  Ordnance  laboratory,  White  Oak,  Mary- 
land, recently  achieved  Mach  number  5-18  (or  5-18  times 
the  speed  of  sound) — the  highest  speed  ever  attained  in  a 
tunnel  of  this  size.  The  second,  at  the  Massachusetts  Institute 
of  Technology,  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  would  permit 
the  simultaneous  training  of  technical  students  in  advanced 
wind  tunnel  operation  and  the  competent  refinement  of 
development  designs  and  search  for  new  aerodynamic 
knowledge.  (A.  G.  NE.) 

Air.  Evidence  of  the  urgency  and  extent  of  the  U.S. 
guided-missiles  programme  was  shown  in  the  fact  that  about 
$100  million  of  the  1950-51  research  and  development  budget 
was  allocated  to  revolutionary  weapons  of  this  type.  This 
amounted  to  20%  of  the  $500  million  budget  approved  by  the 
Research  and  Development  board. 

Some  details  of  the  U.S.  air  force's  first  postwar  air-to-air 
guided  missile  were  released  late  in  1949.  It  was  the  Ryan 
Firebird,  designated  XAAM-A-1  (experimental,  air-to-air 
missile,  air  force,  first  model).  When  this  project  was  first 
announced  in  1947  it  was  stated  that  it  would  result  in  one 
of  the  most  compact  weapons  of  its  type  yet  designed,  with 
a  "  built-in  brain  capable  of  doing  its  own  thinking  "  once 
it  was  launched.  It  was  revealed  in  1949  that  this  intelligence 
consisted  of  a  complicated  radar  navigational  and  electronic 
system.  Launched  from  a  mother  jet  fighter  plane,  the 
Firebird  was  capable  of  heading  off  and  destroying  its  enemy 
objective  in  a  matter  of  seconds,  even  though  the  objective 
might  be  engaged  in  violent  evasive  action.  In  flight  tests  it 
showed  all  the  speed  first  generated  by  the  parent  fighter  plus 


436 


MUNNINGS— MUSEUMS 


the  added  power  of  its  own  "  booster  "  rocket  and  finally 
its  flight  rockets.  A  direct  hit  was  not  necessary  because  an 
improved  type  of  proximity  fuse  detonated  its  heavy  explosive 
charge  when  the  missile  came  within  lethal  range  of  the  enemy. 

A  further  development  of  an  air  defence  missile  was 
announced  which  did  away  with  the  mother  plane.  This  was 
a  ground-to-air  pilotless  aircraft  which  was  in  advanced 
development  in  the  U.S.  It  could  climb  much  faster  than  a 
piloted  aircraft  and  when  it  reached  the  point  where  it  could 
see  the  enemy  with  its  own  radar  eye  it  cut  itself  off  from 
ground  control  and  started  its  electronic  brain  working. 
This  solved  a  complicated  mathematical  equation  taking 
into  account  the  relative  speeds  of  the  enemy  bomber  and 
missile  and  then  enabling  the  missile  to  blow  itself  and 
bomber  at  the  point  of  interception. 

After  two-and-a-half  years  of  constructional  work,  the  first 
long-range  ground-to-ground  rocket  missiles  were  fired  from 
the  testing  ground  of  the  British  Commonwealth  at  Woomera, 
New  South  Wales,  in  the  summer  of  1949.  Between  2,000 
and  3,000  personnel  were  employed  at  this  station  during  the 
year.  Supersonic  missiles  were  fired  on  four  ranges,  the  main 
range  covering  a  course  of  1,200  mi.  to  the  western  Australian 
coast  and  Indian  ocean,  with  an  extra  1,500  mi.  to  Christmas 
island. 

Apart  from  the  guided  missiles  field,  a  revolutionary  tactical 
air  development  was  the  helicopter  assault  operation,  success- 
fully tested  by  the  U.S.  Marine  corps,  superseding  the  need 
for  landing  craft  to  creep  ashore  under  heavy  fire.  (See  also 
AIR  FORCES  OF  THE  WORLD;  ARMIES  OF  THE  WORLD; 
METALLURGY;  NAVIES  OF  THE  WORLD.)  (N.  F.  S.) 

MUNNINGS,  SIR  ALFRED  JAMES,  British 
artist  (b.  Oct.  8,  1878),  was  educated  at  Framlingham  college, 
at  Norwich  school  of  art  and  at  Paris.  He  first  exhibited  at  the 
Royal  Academy  in  1898,  was  elected  an  associate  in  1919, 
an  academician  in  1925  and  on 
March  15,  1944,  was  elected 
president  of  the  academy  in  suc- 
cession to  Sir  Edwin  Lutyens. 
His  fresh,  smoothly  glittering 
paintings  of  thoroughbred  horses 
in  settings  of  open,  downland 
landscape  won  him  renown ;  and 
his  works  were  purchased  by 
the  cities  of  Aberdeen  and  Bir- 
mingham and  by  the  Chantrey 
bequest.  During  World  War  I  he 
was  attached  to  the  Canadian 
cavalry  brigade  in  France  and 
painted  45  war  pictures  for  the 
Canadian  government.  He  has 
also  modelled  equestrian  statues. 
Early  in  1949,  he  announced  his 
intention  of  retiring  from  the 
presidency  of  the  academy,  and 
on  Dec.  8  Sir  Gerald  Kelly  was 
elected  to  succeed  him.  In  a 
speech  at  the  Royal  Academy 
banquet  at  the  opening  of  the 
1949  summer  exhibition  he  severe- 
ly criticized  modern  art  and  des- 
cribed some  modern  painters 
as  '*  young  jugglers/*  On  May 
28  he  opened  a  memorial 

One  of  the  galleries  in  Hutchinson 
House>  Stratford place,  London^  which 
was  opened  in  Feb.  1949  as  the 
National  Gallery  of  British  Sports 
and  Pastimes. 


exhibition  of  painting  by  Stanhope  Forbes  at  Newlyn, 
Cornwall,  and  again  criticized  works  by  Henri  Matisse  and 
others.  Describing  Forbes'  "  The  Health  of  the  Bride  "  as 
his  favourite  picture  he  complained  that  although  purchased 
for  the  Tate  gallery  under  the  Chantrey  bequest  it  was  not 
on  public  view.  (See  also  ART  EXHIBITIONS.) 

MUSEUMS.  The  year  1949  showed  a  steady  improve- 
ment in  the  museums  and  art  galleries  of  most  countries  of 
the  Commonwealth  and  British  colonies  and  in  those  of 
Europe. 

In  Great  Britain  the  government,  in  addition  to  giving 
general  approval  to  the  Report  of  the  Standing  Commission 
on  National  Museums  and  Galleries  issued  in  Oct.  1948, 
also  considered  assisting  provincial  museums;  and  discussions 
took  place  between  the  Ministry  of  Education,  the  Museums 
association  and  representatives  of  the  local  authorities.  But 
towards  the  end  of  1949  the  economy  drive  tended  to  slow 
down  the  approach. 

In  London  galleries  were  re-opened  at  the  British  museum 
and  the  Victoria  and  Albert  museum.  At  the  former  the 
Elgin  marbles  were  on  view  again  for  the  first  time  after  1940. 
Preparations  were  continued  for  accommodating  the  London 
museum  in  its  new  quarters  in  Kensington  palace.  At  the 
Science  museum  work  was  about  to  begin  on  the  construction 
of  a  large  central  block  on  the  roof  of  which  a  Planetarium 
would  be  erected;  it  was  hoped  to  finish  this  in  1954.  The 
complete  restoration  of  the  Tate  gallery  was  marked  by  its 
re-opening  in  Feb.  1949.  New  galleries  were  opened  at  the 
Imperial  War  museum  and  at  the  Public  Record  office. 

At  the  Natural  History  museum,  Birmingham,  the  gallery 
containing  the  Chase  collection  of  British  birds  was  re-opened. 
Near  Bristol,  the  Blaise  Castle  House  Folk  museum,  a 
branch  of  the  Bristol  City  museum,  was  opened  in  May;  and 
in  the  same  month  a  new  art  eallerv  was  ooened  in  Berwick- 


MUSEUMS 


Usmania  Onirersity  Library; 

HYDERABAD  (OECCAN). 


437 


A  view  of  the  collection  of  Elgin  Marbles  on  Sept.  5,  7949,  when  they  were  on  view  for  the  first  time  after  World  War  IL 


on-Twecd.  In  July  there  were  formal  openings  of  the  Cecil 
Higgins  museum  at  Bedford  and  the  Jane  Austen  museum  at 
Chawton,  Hampshire.  There  were  also  considerable  develop- 
ments at  Leicester  and  Southampton.  The  first  museum  in 
Great  Britain  and  one  of  the  very  few  in  Europe  to  be  devoted 
entirely  to  eastern  art  was  opened  at  Oxford  as  a  branch  of 
the  Ashmolean  museum  under  the  charge  of  Dr.  William 
Cohn. 

In  Scotland  a  few  museums  enjoyed  the  first  financial  year 
free  of  the  ancient  threepenny  rate  limitation,  Paisley  being 
a  notable  example.  In  Edinburgh  the  Scottish  National 
Portrait  gallery  and  the  Scottish  United  Services  museum 
were  re-opened,  the  Royal  Scottish  museum  was  rehabilitated 
after  the  disorganization  caused  by  World  War  II  and  the 
Beasts  of  Prey  hall  was  re-opened  in  March.  Edinburgh  also 
recorded  considerable  progress  on  the  educational  side  of 
museum  activities.  At  Glasgow  an  open  air  museum  of 
sculpture  was  formed  at  the  new  Burrell  museum. 

In  the  dominions  there  was  steady  progress  though  without 
any  particularly  spectacular  developments.  In  the  Union 
of  South  Africa  the  proposed  commission  to  consider  the 
further  development  of  the  research  function  of  museums 
did  not  eventuate.  In  the  British  colonies  one  of  the  most 
interesting  developments  was  the  decision  of  the  government 
of  Nigeria  to  appoint  a  museum  technical  instructor  to  train 
Africans  as  museum  technical  assistants. 

In  France  three  important  museums  in  the  Palais  de 
Chaillot,  the  Musee  de  rHomme,  Musee  de  la  Marine  and 
the  Musee  des  Monuments  Francais  were  re-opened  to  the 
public  after  having  been  closed  in  April  1948  because  of  the 
occupation  of  that  building  by  the  United  Nations  general 
assembly.  The  Musee  de  Cluny,  Paris,  and  the  Musee 
Ceramique  de  Sevres  were  also  re-opened.  In  the  provinces 
there  were  re-openings  at  Marseilles,  Autun,  Le  Mans  and 
Dieppe;  new  museums  were  opened  at  Toulouse,  Beaune 
and  elsewhere  and  considerable  improvements  were  made  at 
Besancon,  Compiegne,  Dijon,  Nancy,  Poitiers  and  Rheims. 
All  the  state  museums  in  Belgium  and  the  museums  of 
Brussels  were  open  once  again  to  the  public;  the  Musee  des 
Beaux  Arts  of  Liege,  badly  damaged  in  1944,  was  being 
completely  modernized.  There  was  a  move  on  foot  to  extend 
state  control  to  provincial  museums.  In  Holland  the  Rijks- 
museum  was  being  systematically  re-organized  and  the 
picture  galleries  were  now  open  to  the  public.  At  the  Stedelijk- 
museum  70  exhibitions  of  modern  art  had  already  been  held 


since  the  liberation  in  1945.  In  Poland,  1948  saw  the  publica- 
tion of  Muzealnictwo  edited  by  Stefan  Komarnicki  and 
Tadeusz  Dobrowolski,  which  was  a  combined  manual  for 
curators,  a  history  of  the  Polish  museum  movement  and  a 
handlist  of  Polish  museums.  The  Museum  of  Archaeology, 
Warsaw,  which  was  looted  by  the  Germans  in  1939  and  in 
consequence  closed  throughout  World  War  II,  had  now 
recovered  about  half  of  its  collections  and  most  of  its  furnish- 
ings; it  was  installed  in  the  beautiful  Lubomirski  palace 
towards  the  end  of  1949.  There  was  little  news  of  improve- 
ments in  museums  in  Germany;  but  the  Deutsches  Museum 
resumed  publication  of  its  technical  handbooks  and  the 
Goethe  Haus  at  Frankfurt  was  restored  and  re-opened. 
In  Austria,  Greece,  Italy  and  Norway  there  was  a  steady  but 
not  spectacular  improvement  in  the  museum  situation  but, 
as  in  Germany,  there  could  be  little  hope  yet  of  permanent 
reconstruction  or  building  in  most  of  these  countries.  Sweden 
had  a  series  of  outstanding  museums  and,  considering  its 
limited  population  and  resources,  was  probably  the  best 
country  in  Europe  for  museum  buildings  and  display  tech- 
niques. Its  methods  were  being  studied  and  copied  through- 
out the  world. 

The  International  Council  of  Museums  (I.C.O.M.) 
decided  to  set  up  a  committee  to  consider  encouraging  the 
various  countries  who  were  members  of  U.N.E.S.C.O.  to 
publish  Directories  of  Museums ;  only  seven  countries  had 
so  far  produced  such  Directories  after  World  War  II. 
I.C.O.M.  also  published  Andre  Leveille's  Les  Musees 
scientifiques,  techniques,  de  la  same*,  planetaria  et  la  populari- 
sation de  la  science  (Paris,  1948).  Late  in  1949  U.N.E.S.C.O. 
published  an  18-page  pamphlet  entitled  Art  Museums  in 
Need  which  reviewed  the  war  damage  to  museums  in  Europe 
and  Asia  and  appealed  for  funds  to  assist  in  their  recon- 
struction. A  book  which  had  a  mixed  reception  was  A.  S. 
Wittlin's  The  Museum:  its  History  and  its  Tasks  in  Education 
(London,  1949).  Icom  News  carried  special  articles  on  the 
museum  situation  in  Tunisia  and  Morocco  which  showed 
that  considerable  progress  had  been  made  in  these  areas. 

The  Museums  division  of  U.N.E.S.C.O.  continued  its 
activities,  its  new  director  being  J.  K.  van  der  Haagen. 
Its  well  produced  publication  Museum  enjoyed  a  world-wide 
reputation.  (S.  F.  M.) 

United  States.  Many  notable  works  of  art  entered  the 
public  collections  during  1949.  The  National  gallery  in 
Washington,  D.C.,  acquired  a  large  Murillo,  "  The  Return 


438 


MUSIC 


of  the  Prodigal  Son,*'  given  by  the  Avalon  foundation  through 
the  generosity  of  Mrs.  Ailsa  Mellon  Bruce. 

New  York's  Metropolitan  museum  received  as  a  gift  from 
John  D.  Rockefeller  a  group  of  five  tapestry  panels  from  the 
famous  set  of  "  Nine  Heroes  "  woven  in  the  15th  century, 
presumably  for  the  Duke  of  Berry.  It  also  acquired  a  rare 
early  Italian  painting,  "  St.  Sebastian  "  (c.  1445)  by  Andrea 
del  Castagno  (1390-1457).  The  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston, 
Massachusetts,  purchased  a  great  Titian,  "  St.  Catherine  of 
Alexandria,"  painted  about  1568.  Two  notable  Tintorettos 
entered  other  New  England  museums— the  Currier  gallery 
at  Manchester,  New  Hampshire,  having  purchased  the  Pietro 
Capello,  "  Venetian  Senator  "  (1585-90),  while  the  "  Portrait 
of  a  Courtesan,"  dated  1574,  went  to  the  Worcester  museum, 
Worcester,  Massachusetts. 

The  Detroit  Institute  of  Arts  acquired  "  St.  Jerome  in  the 
Wilderness  "  by  the  great  Spanish  baroque  painter  Ribera 
(1588-1652);  the  portrait  of  Hendrick  Swalmius  by  Frans 
Hals  (1580-1666);  and  Baron  Gros's  (1771-1835)  sketch 
for  "  Murat  Winning  the  Battle  of  Aboukir."  A  small  but 
select  collection  of  near  eastern  and  oriental  art  was  being 
assembled  at  the  Cincinnati  Art  museum  by  the  gift  of  approxi- 
mately $150,000  from  the  heirs  of  Charles  F.  Williams. 

Two  important  American  18th-century  portraits  were 
purchased  by  the  City  Art  museum  of  St.  Louis.  These  were 
Ralph  Earle's  (1751-1801)  "  Major  Moses  Seymour"  (1789) 
and  "  Mrs.  Moses  Seymour  and  Son."  The  Portland  (Oregon) 
Art  museum  purchased  with  the  aid  of  several  donors, 
the  outstanding  collection  of  northwest  coast  American 
Indian  Art  assembled  by  Axel  Rasmussen,  a  former  school- 
teacher and  superintendent  of  schools  in  Skagway,  Alaska. 
This  collection  consists  of  some  5,000  objects  and  includes 
masks,  potlatch  boats,  house  posts,  totem  poles,  etc. 

The  William  Rockhill  Nelson  Gallery  of  Art  in  Kansas 
City  held  a  gala  celebration  of  its  1 5th  anniversary  and  put 
on  view  a  group  of  new  acquisitions.  Outstanding  among 
these  was  a  statue  of  St.  Barbara  (c.  1570)  by  the  French 
sculptor  Germain  Pilon  ;  four  Roman  portrait  busts, 
including  the  emperors  Lucius  Verus  and  Caracalla;  and  a 
stone  guardian  lion,  Chinese,  of  the  T'ang  dynasty. 

Perhaps  the  greatest  collection  to  go  to  a  museum  during 
the  year  was  received  by  the  Baltimore  museum  as  a  bequest 
of  Etta  Cone.  This  collection,  valued  at  $400,000,  contained 
350  paintings  and  50  pieces  of  sculpture  and  included  10 
Picassos,  39  paintings  and  10  bron/es  by  Matisse  (most 
important  single  group  in  any  collection),  top  quality  paint- 
ings by  Gauguin,  Van  Gogh,  Cezanne,  Renoir  and  Corot. 
Miss  Cone  and  her  sister,  Claribel  Cone,  were  pioneer 
collectors  of  modern  art.  (See  also  ART  EXHIBITIONS;  ART 
SALES.)  (F.  A.  Sw.) 

MUSIC.  From  the  point  of  musical  activity,  1949  was 
the  most  productive  of  the  postwar  years.  In  the  realm  of 
opera  it  was  England  which,  for  the  second  successive  year, 
took  the  European  lead  in  first  performances  and  important 
revivals.  Arthur  Benjamin's  Prima  Donna  was  presented  for 
the  first  time  in  February,  although  the  work  was  written 
in  1933;  Inglis  Gundry's  Avon  followed  in  April;  in  June,  at 
the  Aldeburgh  festival,  Benjamin  Britten's  opera  for  children 
Let's  make  an  opera  had  its  first  performance;  and  m  Sep- 
tember, the  new  Arthur  Bliss -J.  B.  Priestley  opera  The 
Olympians  was  presented  at  Covent  Garden.  Of  these,  only 
the  third  and  fourth  seemed  likely  to  survive.  Britten's  work 
was  of  a  specialized  nature,  written  for  a  specific  educational 
purpose  within  the  bounds  of  which  it  was  highly  successful; 
The  Olympians,  though  hardly  the  unqualified  masterpiece 
that  advance  publicity  had  suggested,  was  a  worthy  addition 
to  the  short  history  of  British  opera  and  seemed  likely  to 
retain  a  place  in  the  repertory  of  the  Royal  Opera  house. 


The  revivals  included  a  concert  performance  of  Alban 
Berg's  Wozzeck  given  by  a  distinguished  group  of  soloists 
with  the  B.B.C.  Symphony  orchestra  conducted  by  Sir  Adrian 
Boult;  the  performance  was  of  exceptional  quality,  and 
renewed  acquaintance  with  the  work  confirmed  its  important 
position  m  the  history  of  contemporary  music.  At  Covent 
Garden,  two  complete  cycles  of  Richard  Wagner's  Der  Ring 
des  Nibelungen  were  presented  for  the  first  time  after  the  end 
of  World  War  II;  Kirsten  Flagstad,  Set  Svanholm  and  Hans 
Hotter  were  the  principal  singers  in  an  international  cast, 
and  both  cycles  were  conducted  by  Karl  Rankl.  Another 
interesting  revival  took  place  at  the  People's  palace,  where 
the  London  Philharmonic  orchestra  sponsored  a  series  of 
performances  of  Rutland  Boughton's  The  Immortal  Hour, 
conducted  by  the  composer;  although  largely  devoid  of 
originality,  the  work  was  seen  to  possess  a  certain  elusive 
charm  that  ensured  a  popular  reception.  The  opera  from 
which  it  was  in  certain  respects  derived-  Claude  Debussy's 
Pelleas  et  Melisande—was  presented  by  the  Pans  Opera- 
Comique  at  Covent  Garden  in  July. 

In  September,  the  death  of  Richard  Strauss  deprived  the 
musical  world  of  one  of  its  most  respected  composers;  it 
also  severed  the  last  link  with  the  creative  musical  world  of 
the  late  19th  century.  As  a  composer  Strauss  remained  active 
to  the  last,  although  he  was  likely  to  be  best  remembered  by 
the  works  of  his  early  manhood.  Memorial  concerts  were 
held  throughout  Europe;  in  London,  Sir  Thomas  Bcccham 
conducted  a  programme  which  concluded  with  a  superb 
performance  of  Don  Quixote  English  musical  scholarship 
lost  two  notable  figures  during  the  year;  the  death  was 
announced  of  Dr.  Ernest  Walker,  essayist,  composer  and 
teacher,  and  of  Sir  Stanley  Marchant,  the  respected  principal 
of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music.  In  October,  the  musical 
world  mourned  the  death  of  the  young  French  violinist 
Ginette  Neveu,  killed  in  an  air  disaster  (see  OBITUARIES); 
her  artistry  and  musicianship  would  long  be  remembered. 

Notable  first  performances  during  the  year  included 
Edmund  Rubbra's  Fifth  Symphony,  a  work  of  considerable 
interest  though  lacking  in  some  degree  the  power  and 
originality  of  its  predecessors.  At  the  Edinburgh  festival, 
Ernest  Bloch  conducted  the  first  performance  of  his  new 
Concerto  Symphonic/Me  for  piano  and  orchestra;  the  work  had 
a  mixed  reception  from  the  critics,  most  of  whom  felt  that  it 
was  below  the  standard  set  by  the  composer  m  his  Second 
Quartet  and  Piano  Quintet  Later  in  the  season,  Bloch 
conducted  a  concert  of  his  own  music  in  London,  including 
the  beautiful  Sacred  Service  in  which  Marko  Rothmuller 
sang  the  solo  part.  At  the  festival  of  British  music  held  in 
Cheltenham,  the  first  public  performance  of  Richard  ArnelFs 
Fourth  Symphony  was  given;  the  composer,  although  British 
by  nationality,  had  spent  much  of  his  creative  life  in  America 
and  consequently  his  music  had  not  yet  become  established 
in  Europe.  First  performances  at  the  autumn  Promenade 
concerts  included  Alan  Rawsthorne's  Concerto  for  String 
Orchestra,  William  Alwyn's  Oboe  Concerto,  and  a  Duet 
Concertino  for  clarinet,  bassoon,  strings  and  harp  by  Richard 
Strauss — the  latter  work  revealing  an  altogether  charming 
facility  within  unpretentious  bounds. 

Most  of  the  European  festivals  during  1949  were  successful, 
though  few  new  works  of  importance  were  introduced.  The 
International  Society  for  Contemporary  Music  held  its 
meeting  at  Palermo,  Sicily;  most  of  the  critics  seemed  to 
prefer  the  surroundings  to  the  music,  although  Matyas 
Seiber's  Fantasia  for  violin  and  strings  was  generally  praised, 
as  also  were  string  quartets  by  Armin  Schibler  of  Switzerland 
and  Willen  Pijper  of  Holland.  In  London,  a  festival  of 
Edward  Elgar's  music  was  held  in  May  and  June,  incorpora- 
ting performances  of  all  his  major  works;  Jascha  Heifetz  gave 
an  admirably  lucid  interpretation  of  the  Violin  Concerto.  The 


MUSIC 


439 


festival  at  Salzburg  followed  tradition  and  restricted  itself 
mainly  to  high  class  performances  of  established  classical 
works;  similarly  at  Edinburgh  the  focus  was  mainly  on  the 
works  of  the  past,  although  L'Orchestre  de  la  Suisse  Romande 
under  Ernest  Ansermet  gave  a  performance  of  Frank  Martin's 
interesting  Symphonic  Concertante  for  piano,  cembalo,  harp 
and  string  orchestra.  The  Swiss  players  were  highly  praised, 
and  the  orchestra  was  in  some  respects  superior  to  the 
Berlin  Philharmonic  which  appeared  under  the  direction  of 
Sir  John  Barbirolli  (q.v.)  and  Eugene  Goosens;  the  latter 
conducted  a  fine  performance  of  Gustav  Mahler's  First 
Symphony.  Jn  addition  to  those  already  mentioned,  festivals 
were  also  held  at  Aldeburgh  (English  Opera  group),  Amster- 
dam, Bath  and  Hereford  (The  Three  Choirs). 

The  Philadelphia  orchestra,  under  its  chief  conductor 
Eugene  Ormandy,  paid  a  short  visit  to  England  and  impressed 
audiences  with  a  remarkable  display  of  orchestral  virtuosity; 
the  Vienna  Philharmonic  also  gave  a  number  of  excellent 
concerts  in  London.  On  the  occasion  of  Sir  Thomas  Bee- 
cham's  70th  birthday  a  special  concert  was  given  in  London 
by  the  Royal  Philharmonic  orchestra,  which  also  appeared 
with  Sir  Thomas  at  the  Edinburgh  festival.  The  interchange 
of  artists  on  an  international  basis  continued  to  play  an 
important  part  in  European  musical  life ;  in  Paris, 
the  German  pianist  Wilhelm  KemprT  rapidly  re-established 
himself  among  the  great  interpreters  of  Bach,  Mozart 
and  Beethoven;  in  England,  Eduard  van  Beinum 
(conductor  of  the  Amsterdam  Concertgebouw  orchestra) 
took  over  the  London  Philharmonic  for  a  period  of  six 
months,  during  which  time  a  considerable  improvement  in 
orchestral  technique  was  noticed.  Later  in  the  year  he  was 
succeeded  by  Nicolai  Malko. 

Reports  of  increasing  musical  activity  in  the  dominions 
and  commonwealth  were  received  during  1949.  In  addition 
to  a  wealth  of  native  talent,  Australian  musical  life  enjoyed 
the  presence  of  several  well  known  European  artists,  including 
Rafael  Kubelik  and  Aleksander  Helmann. 

In  Germany,  the  return  to  a  stable  currency  brought  about 
a  strenuous  revival  in  musical  activity,  though  there  remained 
little  indication  of  new  creative  thought.  Opera  productions 
in  the  main  towns  and  cities  reached  a  high  standard  (particu- 
larly in  Munich,  under  the  musical  direction  of  Georg  Solti) 
and  the  programmes  for  the  autumn  season  were  ambitious 
without  showing  much  deviation  from  the  paths  of  con- 
vention; among  the  few  contemporary  composers  active  in 
Germany,  Boris  Blacher  emerged  as  a  figure  of  potential 
importance. 

Early  in  the  year  it  was  reported  from  Vienna  that  the 
death  mask  of  Wolfgang  Mozart  had  been  discovered  by 
Professor  Willy  Kaucr.  Preliminary  evidence  seemed  to 
suggest  that  this  was  the  death  mask  taken  by  Count  Deym 
on  Dec.  5, 1791 ;  the  Austrian  Ministry  of  Education  appointed 
a  commission  to  investigate  the  discovery  and  to  arrange  for 
the  publication  of  details  if  or  when  authenticity  could  be 
determined. 

In  the  philosophy  of  music,  the  dominating  problem 
remained  that  of  the  relation  of  the  composer  to  his  audience, 
typified  on  the  one  side  by  the  "  free  "  composers  in  the 
western  European  states  and  on  the  other  by  those  composers 
working  under  state  patronage  in  the  eastern  and  certain 
mid-European  countries.  In  the  technical  sphere,  the  dis- 
pute continued  between  composers  writing  within  the  twelve- 
tone  system  and  those  seeking  to  write  originally  within  the 
established  tonal  system.  To  a  certain  degree  these  problems 
appeared  to  be  inter-related,  and  might  have  been  partly 
responsible  for  the  somewhat  precarious  creative  state 
evident  in  European  music  during  the  year.  (J.  Cw.) 

United  States.  During  1949  several  orchestras  extended 
their  seasons,  for  example,  the  Cleveland  orchestra,  the 


Minneapolis  Symphony,  the  Nashville  Symphony  and  the 
Tulsa  Philharmonic.  Serge  Koussevitzky  retired  from  the 
conductorship  of  the  Boston  Symphony,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Charles  Munch.  The  Chicago  Symphony  orchestra  also 
acquired  a  new  conductor — the  Czechoslovakian,  Rafael 
Kubelik.  Antal  Dorati  and  Walter  Hendl  began  successful 
seasons  with  the  Minneapolis  Symphony  and  the  Dallas 
Symphony  orchestra  respectively.  Conductor  Karl  Kreuger 
resigned  from  Detroit  Symphony  orchestra.  Hans  Kindler 
resigned  from  the  National  Symphony  orchestra  and  was 
succeeded  by  Howard  Mitchell.  Although  the  pavilion  at 
Ravinia  park,  n^u*  Chicago,  was  destroyed  by  fire,  the 
summer  programme  was  successfully  carried  on  in  a  huge 
tent  which  was  once  a  B-29  hangar.  A  concluding  series  of 
chamber  music  concerts  at  Ravinia  brought  Jascha  Heifetz, 
Artur  Rubinstein  and  Gregor  Piatigorski  together  for  the 
first  time  in  trio  work. 

A  summary  of  the  new  works  performed  in  and  about 
New  York  city  indicated  that  1949  was  an  encouraging  year 
for  music.  There  were  over  500  performances,  including 
200  premieres.  (F.  B.  C.) 

Popular  Music.  The  importance  of  the  American  operetta 
style,  and  the  superiority  of  stage  songs  to  the  routine  output 
of  conventional  writers,  were  established  in  1949.  Two  musical 
shows,  far  in  advance  of  all  their  predecessors  in  this  field, 
provided  proof  of  this  triumph  of  good  popular  music. 
They  were  South  Pacific,  adapted  by  Richard  Rodgers,  Oscar 
Hammerstein  II  and  Joshua  Logan  from  the  prize-winning 
Tales  of  James  A.  Michener,  and  Kiss  Me,  Kate,  for 
which  Cole  Porter  wrote  both  words  and  music  to  a  book 
by  the  Spewacks  based  on  Shakespeare's  Taming  of  the 
Shrew.  Later  came  the  Berhn-Sherwood-Hart  Miss  Liberty, 
which  suffered  only  by  comparison  with  its  rivals. 

44  Some  Enchanted  Evening,"  sung  by  Ezio  Pinza  in  South 
Pacific,  was  the  most  popular  song  of  the  year,  according  to 
the  Lucky  Strike  Hit  Parade,  which  presented  it  for  more 
than  20  successive  weeks,  heading  the  programme  13  times. 
Actually  there  were  better  songs  than  this  in  the  Rodgers- 
Hammerstein  score;  three  of  them,  "  A  Wonderful  Guy," 
44  Bali  Ha'i  "  and  *4  Younger  Than  Springtime,"  received 
adequate  recognition  from  radio's  high  tribunal. 

Unquestionably  Kiss  Me,  Kate  contained  the  best  songs 
and  music  ever  written  by  Cole  Porter.  "  So  in  Love  " 
appeared  a  dozen  times  on  the  Hit  Parade  and  was  definitely 
the  most  popular  number  in  the  show,  although  such  songs 
as  "  The  Life  I  Late  Have  Led,"  44  Always  True  to  You  in 
My  Fashion  "  and  "  Too  Darn  Hot  "  were  also  popular. 

Miss  Liberty,  which  pleased  the  public  more  than  the 
critics,  had  two  songs  in  the  Hit  Parade,  44  Just  One  Way  to 
Say  1  Love  You  "  and  "  Let's  Take  an  Old-fashioned  Walk  "; 
but  there  were  other  numbers  fully  up  to  the  Irving  Berlin 
standard,  including  the  plaintive  "  Homework." 

The  top  song  of  1948,  "  Buttons  and  Bows  "  held  its  own 
well  into  1949,  as  did  the  two  Loesser  hits,  "  My  Darling, 
My  Darling  "  and  "  On  a  Slow  Boat  to  China." 

Most  of  the  popular  songs  were  definitely  reminiscent  of 
earlier  music,  particularly  "  Far  Away  Places  "  and  "  Cruising 
Down  the  River."  "  Powder  Your  Face  with  Sunshine  " 
had  some  individuality,  but  there  was  nothing  particularly 
distinctive  about  "  A  Little  Bird  Told  Me,"  "  Again,"  "  A 
Room  Full  of  Roses,"  "  You're  Breaking  My  Heart," 
44  That  Lucky  Old  Sun,"  44  Don't  Cry  Joe  "  and  "  I  Can 
Dream,  Can't  I  ?,"  all  of  which  reached  the  top  of  the  Lucky 
Strike  list  more  than  once.  The  humorous  44  Baby,  It's  Cold 
Outside  "  was  handicapped  by  radio  censorship.  Late  in 
the  year  a  line  by  Stephen  Foster  suggested  the  currently 
successful 4t  Dear  Hearts  and  Gentle  People,"  and  Christmas 
brought  the  year's  real  novelty  in  "  Rudolph,  the  Red- 
Nosed  Reindeer."  (S.  SP.) 


440 


NARCOTICS— NATIONAL  HEALTH   SERVICE 


NARCOTICS.  The  Commission  on  Narcotic  Drugs  of 
the  United  Nations,  at  its  fourth  session  in  May  1949,  made  a 
number  of  decisions  and  recommendations  with  a  view  to 
suppressing  illicit  traffic  and  tightening  controls  over  the 
production  of  opium  and  the  distribution  of  all  dangerous 
narcotic  drugs.  Progress  was  made  toward  the  drafting  of  a 
new  single  convention  to  replace  and  simplify  existing  con- 
ventions and  agreements.  The  commission  considered  the 
creation  of  only  two  control  bodies — a  policy-making  body 
and  an  administrative  body — with  a  single  secretariat  for 
these  two  bodies.  Also  proposed  were  an  international 
purchasing  and  selling  agency  for  distributing  opium  and  an 
international  clearing  house  for  reviewing  import  permits 
covering  narcotic  drugs  before  the  issuing  of  export  permits. 

A  sub-committee  composed  of  representatives  of  the 
principal  opium-producing  countries — India,  Persia,  Turkey, 
the  U.S.S.R.  and  Yugoslavia — was  appointed  to  consider 
the  desirability  of  convening  a  conference  to  conclude  an 
interim  agreement  for  limiting  the  production  of  raw  opium 
to  medical  and  scientific  needs.  The  sub-committee  agreed 
that  an  ad  hoc  committee  of  the  Commission  on  Narcotic 
Drugs  composed  of  the  representatives  of  these  principal 
opium-producing  countries  should  meet  in  Turkey. 

The  Commission  on  Narcotic  Drugs  having  drawn  the 
attention  of  the  Economic  and  Social  council  to  the  large 
volume  of  illicit  traffic  in  narcotic  drugs  throughout  the 
world,  the  council  adopted  a  resolution  designed  to  suppress 
such  traffic.  It  recommended  that  all  states  should  increase 
their  efforts  to  suppress  the  illicit  production  of  all  raw 
materials  from  which  narcotic  drugs  were  prepared  and  the 
illicit  manufacture  of  these  drugs,  as  well  as  of  those  produced 
synthetically.  It  further  recommended  that  stringent  measures 
of  control  should  be  applied  to  the  distribution  and  trans- 
portation of  narcotic  drugs  and  that  special  attention  should 
be  paid  to  the  smuggling  of  drugs  in  aircraft.  Finally,  steps 
should  be  taken  to  strengthen  measures  for  apprehending 
traffickers  and  to  subject  them  to  severe  penalties. 

The  Commission  of  Inquiry  on  the  Coca  Leaf  started  work 
in  Peru  in  September.  It  was  appointed  to  study  the  economic 
and  social  effects  of  the  chewing  of  the  coca  leaf  and  to 
recommend  measures  for  limiting  the  production  of  the  coca 
leaf  to  medical  and  other  legitimate  requirements. 

An  important  accomplishment  of  1948  in  the  international 
control  of  narcotic  drugs  had  been  the  approval  by  the 
general  assembly  of  the  U.N.  of  a  protocol  which  brought 
under  international  control  manufactured  drugs  outside  the 
scope  of  the  convention  of  1931.  This  new  protocol,  unani- 
mously approved  by  the  general  assembly  on  Oct.  8,  1948, 
and  thereafter  opened  for  signature,  brought  all  synthetic 
narcotic  drugs  under  international  control.  If  the  World 
Health  organization  found  that  a  drug  was  capable  of 
producing  addiction  or  of  conversion  into  a  product  capable 
of  producing  addiction,  it  would  notify  the  secretary  general 
of  the  U.N.,  who  would  immediately  inform  all  members  of 
U.N.,  non-member  states  who  were  parties  to  the  protocol, 
the  Commission  on  Narcotic  Drugs  and  the  Permanent 
Central  Opium  board.  On  receipt  of  this  information  the 
parties  to  the  protocol  would  apply  to  the  drug  the  appro- 
priate control  laid  down  by  the  1931  convention. 

Trends  in  the  illicit  drug  traffic  in  the  United  States  indicated 
that  some  of  the  old  sources  of  supply,  such  as  Turkey, 
France  and  Italy,  were  active  as  in  prewar  years.  In  addition, 
it  appeared  that  India  and  Hong  Kong  were  bases  for  the 
smuggling  of  narcotic  drugs.  Raw  opium  seizures  increased 
in  the  Atlantic  coast  area.  Turkey  and  other  near  eastern 
countries  served  as  sources  of  supply  of  raw  opium  and 
hashish.  Indian  raw  opium  seizures  were  heavy  in  the 
Atlantic  coast  area,  being  second  in  quantity  to  those  of 
Turkish  opium.  Raw  opium  seizures  identified  definitely 


as  originating  from  Persia  were  fewer  than  Turkish  and 
Indian  opium  seizures,  but  it  was  believed  that  a  number  of 
unidentified  seizures  were  of  Persian  origin. 

There  was  a  disturbing  increase  in  the  quantity  of  cocaine 
seized.  Reliable  information  indicated  that  cocaine  for 
smuggling  into  the  United  States  was  available  in  large 
quantities  in  Peru,  Chile  and  Bolivia.  Seizures  of  marijuana 
also  increased. 

Accidental  deaths  and  suicides  directly  attributable  to  the 
effect  of  barbituric  acid  drugs  continued  to  increase  in  the 
United  States.  The  lack  of  adequate  control  prompted  the 
introduction  in  congress  of  two  bills  to  bring  these  drugs 
under  federal  narcotic  laws.  The  administration  opposed 
these  measures  on  the  grounds  that  there  was  no  smuggling 
and  no  interstate  illicit  traffic  and  therefore  the  problem 
should  be  controlled  by  the  states.  (H.  J.  A.) 

Measures  controlling  the  consumption  in  Great  Britain  of 
a  number  of  dangerous  drugs  were  strengthened  by  regulations 
which  came  into  force  on  Jan.  1,  1949.  Two  of  the  new 
requirements  were  that  persons  authorized  to  be  in  possession 
of  dangerous  drugs  were  compelled  to  take  proper  care  of 
them,  and  accredited  vendors  had  to  keep  them  under  lock 
and  key.  The  regulations  restricted  the  authority  to  dispense 
dangerous  drugs  and  imposed  on  pharmacists  the  responsi- 
bility for  satisfying  themselves  of  the  genuineness  of  all 
prescriptions  for  which  they  dispensed  a  dangerous  drug. 
Drug  addiction  did  not  present  a  serious  problem  in  Great 
Britain,  and  statistics  showed  that  addicts  numbered  only 
383.  The  principal  drugs  used  were  morphine  and  heroin. 
Few  used  cocaine  and  the  number  was  decreasing.  The 
domestic  manufacture  of  drugs  was  controlled  by  a  system 
of  licensing  and  Home  Office  inspection  and,  according  to  a 
government  report  to  the  U.N.,  addicts  or  would-be  traffickers 
had  little  chance  of  obtaining  drugs  from  these  sources. 

It  was  announced  on  March  3  that,  by  arrangement  with 
the  Pharmaceutical  society,  the  B.B.C.  would  discontinue 
broadcasting  messages  concerning  lost  drags,  except  when 
real  danger  to  life  existed  or  where  drugs  and  poison  were 
known  to  have  been  purchased  in  mistake  for  harmless 
medicines. 

Abnormal  traffic  in  drugs  in  the  British  and  U.S.  zones  of 
Germany  was  the  subject  of  a  report  submitted  by  the 
occupation  authorities  on  May  19  to  the  U.N.  Commission 
on  Narcotic  Drugs.  The  traffic  was  aggravated  by  groups  of 
people  who  bartered  drugs  for  coffee  and  cigarettes  provided 
as  amenities  in  camps  for  displaced  persons.  The  British 
representative  reported  that  most  narcotics  seized  in  the 
black  market  came  from  former  Wehrmacht  medical  depots 
and  supply  trains  looted  at  the  end  of  World  War  II.  The 
report  stated  that  there  was  no  proof  of  the  illicit  import  of 
such  drugs. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  Report  of  the  United  Nations  Commission  on  Narcotic 
Drugs,  to  the  Economic  and  Social  Council  at  the  fourth  session,  held 
at  Lake  Success,  New  York,  May  16  to  June  3,  1949  (Document  no 
E/1361,  June  7,  1949;,  Traffic  in  Opium  and  Other  Dangerous  Drugs 
for  the  year  ended  December  31,  1948  (U  S  Treasury  Department 
Bureau  of  Narcotics,  1949). 

NATIONAL  HEALTH  SERVICE.  1949  was  the 
first  full  year  during  which  the  National  Health  Service  act, 
1946,  operated.  Ninety-rive  per  cent  of  the  population  had 
registered  with  general  medical  practitioners  under  the  scheme. 
Although  a  large  proportion  of  doctors  in  general  practice 
accepted  service  under  the  scheme,  patients  were  sometimes 
delayed  in  obtaining  treatment  owing  to  the  shortage  of 
doctors;  and  there  were  complaints  of  overwork  in  the 
profession.  There  was  evidence  that  some  people  were  going 
to  their  doctors  too  readily  and  that  the  provision  of  free 
medicine  was  being  abused  by  a  minority  of  the  patients.  It 
was  decided,  therefore,  that  a  charge  of  one  shilling  should 
be  made  for  each  prescription.  There  was  some  criticism  of 


NATIONAL   INCOME 


441 


the  service  being  available  to  foreigners.  It  was  therefore 
decided  that  the  provision  of  artificial  limbs,  dentures  and 
other  appliances  or  expensive  treatment  should  not  be 
available  to  persons  coming  specially  to  Great  Britain  for  the 
purpose.  Dental  treatment  was  even  more  difficult  to  obtain 
than  medical  treatment  for  some  years  because  there  had 
been  a  great  shortage  of  dentists  in  Great  Britain.  Under 
the  new  scheme  the  earnings  of  some  dentists  were  considered 
to  be  excessive  and  revision  of  their  fees  was  under  con- 
sideration. In  the  school  medical  service  dentists  continued 
to  be  paid  by  salary  and  there  was  a  tendency  for  this  service 
to  suffer  since  private  practice  became  more  attractive. 
The  ophthalmic  service  was  also  carried  on  under  some 
difficulty,  particularly  in  the  supply  of  spectacles  of  which 
five  million  were  provided  in  the  first  year. 

When  the  new  scheme  was  introduced  the  British  Medical 
association,  acting  for  the  profession,  feared  the  possibility 
of  the  establishment  of  a  state  medical  service.  The  National 
Health  Service  (Amendment)  act,  1949,  was  accordingly 
passed  to  give  a  statutory  guarantee  that  a  whole-time 
salaried  service  for  general  medical  practitioners  would  not 
be  introduced  without  special  legislation.  This  act  also  met 
objections  which  had  been  raised  to  the  operation  of  the 
main  act  in  regard  to  partnership  agreements. 

The  development  of  the  health  services  received  considera- 
tion in  the  dominions  and  particularly  in  Canada  where, 
during  the  year,  progress  was  made  with  the  National  Health 
programme  under  which  some  $30  million  were  to  be  made 
available  by  the  dominion  government  to  the  provinces  for 
the  improvement  of  health  services. 

In  India  consideration  was  given  to  the  indigenous  systems 
of  medicine,  known  as  Ayurvcda,  Unani,  etc.,  and  to  a  scheme 
in  connection  with  the  Employees  Insurance  act. 

The  Nurses  act,  1949,  aimed  at  raising  the  standard  of 
the  profession  in  order  to  redress  the  shortage  of  nurses 
which  had  restricted  hospital  service  during  postwar  years. 
The  General  Nursing  council  gave  a  more  intimate  contact 
with  the  training  hospitals  through  the  establishment  of 
nurse-training  committees.  Further  it  was  hoped  that  the 
provision  in  the  act  for  the  election  of  nurses  to  the  General 
Nursing  council  would  encourage  amongst  nurses  them- 
selves a  steadily  growing  interest  in  their  own  profession 
and  in  the  health  service  as  a  whole.  (See  NURSING.) 

Owing  to  financial  stringency  it  was  only  possible  to  make 
a  small  increase  in  hospital  provision.  There  was  considerable 
difficulty  in  obtaining  hospital  accommodation  for  the 
elderly  sick.  On  the  other  hand,  in  some  hospitals  the  accom- 
modation for  the  sick  was  being  used  by  ambulatory  patients. 
Voluntary  organizations  (particularly  the  National  Corpora- 
tion for  the  Care  of  Old  People  and  the  National  Old  People's 
Welfare  committee)  in  association  with  the  medical  profession 
were  exploring  the  possibility  of  establishing  rest  homes  to 
which  such  persons  could  be  transferred.  Similar  problems 
were  receiving  attention  in  the  United  States  and  Canada. 
Economy  of  expenditure  and  restrictions  on  new  building 
limited  progress  in  the  provision  of  health  centres  by  local 
health  authorities. 

The  estimated  cost  of  the  service  for  the  financial  year  was 
£232  million  or  about  2s.  Id.  a  head  a  week  of  the  whole 
population.  This  was  considerably  greater  than  had  been 
anticipated  when  the  scheme  was  introduced  but  was  no 
doubt  due  largely  to  the  fact  that  health  needs  which  were 
clearly  neglected  or  inadequately  provided  for  were  being 
met  more  efficiently.  There  was  some  criticism  of  the  cost 
of  the  administration  of  the  scheme,  but  the  minister  of 
health  pointed  out  that  it  was  not  more  than  between  1\ 
and  3%  of  the  total  expenditure  on  the  national  health 
service.  The  expenditure  was  reviewed  by  a  House  of 
Commons  select  committee  which  considered  that  there 


was  need  for  public  recognition  that  any  abuse  of  the  service 
constituted  a  grave  threat  to  its  maintenance  and  further 
expansion.  The  committee  had  evidence  that  there  was  some 
difficulty  in  maintaining  professional  standards  which  could 
be  overcome  only  by  the  utmost  endeavour  on  the  part  of 
all  concerned  to  use  the  service  wisely.  In  this  connection 
mention  should  be  made  of  the  adoption  by  the  World 
Medical  association  of  an  international  code  of  medical 
ethics.  (Jo.  Ms.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  National  Health  Service  (Amendment)  Act  (H  M  S  O  , 
London,  1949);  Report  of  General  Awembly  of  the  World  Medical 
Association,  British  Medical  Journal  Supplement  (London,  Oct.  1949). 

NATIONAL  INCOME.  The  computation  of  national 
income  statistics  made  further  considerable  headway 
during  1949.  The  United  Nations  Statistical  bulletin  was 
able  to  extend  its  comparative  table,  which  could  now  be 
regarded  as  fairly  representative  for  both  western  Europe  and 
the  Commonwealth.  In  Great  Britain  the  White  Paper  on 
National  Income  and  Expenditure  of  the  United  Kingdom 
contained  more  detailed  estimates  for  1948  than  for  previous 
years.  Other  governments,  too,  inspired  by  the  efforts  of 
U.N.  to  make  information  available  about  the  national 
incomes  of  its  member  countries,  improved  their  statistical 
services  in  that  direction. 

Nevertheless,  the  computation  of  national  income  statistics 
left  much  to  be  desired.  No  uniform  method  had  so  far  been 
adopted  by  the  countries  which  contributed  their  figures  to 
U.N.,  so  that  the  various  series  of  figures  were  not,  strictly 
speaking,  comparable.  There  was  also  a  danger  that  the  lay 
reader  might  attribute  to  these  figures  a  higher  degree  of 
accuracy  than  they  could  justifiably  claim  to  possess.  In  this 
respect  the  warning  contained  in  the  introductory  notes  of 
the  British  White  Paper  referred  to  above  was  well  worth 
bearing  in  mind. 

"  It  cannot  be  too  strongly  emphasized  that  the  estimates 
in  this  paper  are  not  based  on  exact  information  collected 
by  census  enumerators  or  obtained  by  scientifically  designed 
sample  enquiries.  They  are,  in  almost  every  case,  estimates 
based  on  incomplete  information  collected  by  government 
departments  in  a  form  designed  to  suit  needs  other  than  those 
of  the  national  income  investigator.  In  some  cases  the 
information  available  is  exiguous  in  the  extreme.  Little  is 
known  about  the  distribution  trades,  little  about  wages  and 
salaries  in  some  other  service  industries,  little  about  changes 
in  the  value  of  manufacturers'  and  distributors'  inventories 
and  work  in  progress.  In  other  cases  the  available  information 
is  so  scanty  that  it  has  been  possible  to  make  no  direct 
estimate  at  all  Thus  the  estimates  of  personal  saving  in  this 
paper  are  all  residues  obtained  by  subtracting  estimates  of 
expenditure  from  estimates  of  income.  Even  in  cases  where 
information  is  more  complete  it  is  available  only  after  con- 
siderable delay  .  .  .  The  figures  shown  are  the  best  estimates 
that  could  be  made,  but  as  there  had  been  no  body  of  accumu- 
lated experience  to  draw  on  in  making  them  it  would  be 
surprising  if  they  stood  the  test  of  time  as  well  as  other 
estimates  in  more  familiar  fields." 

This  candid  admission  applies  to  the  national  income 
figures  published  by  other  governments  probably  even  more 
than  to  the  British  figures,  for  the  statistical  services  of 
most  countries  were  less  highly  developed  than  those  of  Great 
Britain.  It  is  with  this  reservation  in  mind  that  the  table 
of  national  incomes  between  1937  and  1948  should  be 
studied. 

The  figures  of  various  countries  in  the  table  were  not 
comparable,  because  each  government  had  its  own  idea  on 
how  to  treat  various  items.  Moreover,  in  some  cases  the 
figures  were  based  on  the  gross  value  of  national  products 
at  market  prices,  in  others  on  the  gross  value  of  national 


442 


NATIONAL   INCOME 


TABLE  I.— NATIONAL  INCOME 


ustralia 

Belgium 

Canada 

1  AOLt      1.  —  1^1  A  1  lV»f>/\L.     irtWTOE 

Czechoslovakia  Denmark.  Netherlands  New  Zealand    Norway 

Sweden 

United 

million 

million 

million 

1,000  million 

million 

million 

million 

million 

million 

Kingdom 

£A 

francs 

dollars 

korun 

kroner 

guilder 

£NZ 

kroner 

kronor 

million   £ 

820 

65,270 

4,017 

58  6 

6,094 

4,802 

— 

3,639 

— 

4,616 

814 

65,200 

3,986 

56-7 

6,360 

4,904 

194-1 

3,741 

11,970 

4,640 

877 

65,200 

4.289 

38  9* 

6,920 

5,207 

211-4 

4,095 

— 

5,037 

949 

5,255 

45-5* 

7,441 

— 

231-9 

4,344 

— 

5,980 

,099 



6,594 

51-5* 

8,441 

— 

254-4 

5,339 

— 

6,941 

.253 



8,382 

57-2* 

9,489 

— 

293-7 

5235 

— 

7,664 

,309 



9.093 

60-8* 

10,754 

— 

326-9 

5,328 

17,900 

8,171 

,274 



9,712 

61-3* 

11,956 

— 

330 

— 

18,600 

8,310 

,299 



9.772 



11,968 

— 

350 

4.462 

19,400 

8,355 

,358 

190.600 

9,765 

155-4 

13,299 

9,326 

364-9 

6,992 

21,520 

8,111 

,753 

214,550 

10,989 

194-4 

14,585 

11,388 

411-2 

8,143 

23,340 

8,725 

,955 

243,900 

12,796 

213-1 

15,776 

12,700 

419 

8,750 

25,380 

9,675 

1937 

1918 

1939 

1940 

1941 

1942   . 

1943 

1944 

1945  . 

1946  . 

1947  . 

1948  . 

*  Bohemia  and  Moravia  only 

products  at  factor  costs.  (National  income  at  "factor" 
costs  is,  according  to  the  definition  of  the  U.N.  statistical 
bulletin,  the  aggregate  of  all  incomes  earned  in  the  production 
of  goods  and  services  in  the  course  of  a  year,  including  net 
income  from  abroad.  It  is  the  sum  of  all  wages,  salaries, 
rent,  dividend,  interest,  income  of  enterpreneurs  and 
undistributed  profit  of  corporations  before  taxation.  National 
income  at  market  prices  equals  national  income  at  factor 
costs  plus  indirect  taxes  and  similar  levies,  minus  subsidies.) 

The  increase  of  national  incomes  was  in  almost  every 
instance  continuous  throughout  and  after  World  War  II. 
This  was  not  surprising  as  prices  had  been  rising  almost 
uninterruptedly  after  1939,  so  that  the  nominal  amounts 
of  the  national  income  were  bound  to  advance  in  the  absence 
of  a  very  marked  setback  in  productive  activity.  During 
postwar  years  the  effect  of  rising  prices  on  national  incomes 
was  accentuated  bv  the  effect  of  rising  production.  It  was 
unfortunate  that  there  was,  in  the  existing  stage  of  the 
progress  of  national  income  statistics,  no  way  of  ascertaining 
to  what  extent  the  increases  of  national  incomes  were  purely 
nominal,  being  due  to  a  depreciation  of  the  national  currency, 
and  to  what  extent  there  had  been  real  increases.  In  some 
instances,  such  as  France,  until  1949  the  nominal  increase 
of  the  national  income  lagged  behind  the  increase  of  the 
cost  of  living,  so  that  the  assumption  was  that  there  had  been 
an  actual  decline  of  the  real  national  income. 

The  increase  in  the  volume  of  employment  throughout 
Europe  and  the  Commonwealth,  even  before  World  War  II, 
partly  through  the  reduction  of  unemployment,  partly  through 
the  larger  number  of  women,  older  people,  etc.,  now  engaged 
in  paid  employment,  and  partly  through  the  increase  of  the 
population,  contributed  towards  the  higher  national  incomes. 
The  increase  of  populations  was  a  factor  of  particular 
importance  and  deserved  to  be  taken  into  account  more  than 
it  had  been  so  far,  because  if  the  increase  of  the  national 
income— after  allowing  for  currency  depreciation — was  no 
more  than  equal  to  the  proportion  of  the  increase  of  the 
population  there  was  no  real  increase  of  wealth.  From  this 
point  of  view  it  was  the  changes  in  the  national  income 
per  head  of  the  population  that  mattered. 

All  countries  publishing  national  income  figures  showed 
more  or  less  substantial  increases  during  1948  in  spite  of 
the  efforts,  successful  or  otherwise,  to  check  and  even  reverse 
postwar  inflation.  In  Great  Britain  the  wages  and  dividends 
ceiling  adopted  by  the  government  at  the  beginning  of  1948 
did  not  prevent  an  increase  of  some  10%,  only  part  of  which 
could  be  accounted  for  by  the  further  rise  in  prices.  In 
Belgium  and  the  Netherlands  the  rise  was  even  more  pro- 
nounced; but  the  Scandinavian  countries  registered  more 
moderate  advances.  The  remarkable  expansion  of  national 
wealth  in  the  dominions  continued  unabated. 

Apart  from  changes  in  grand  totals  of  national  incomes, 
it  was  interesting  to  study  the  changes  in  individual  items 
within  the  totals.  The  British  White  Paper  contained  an 
interesting  comparison  of  various  national  income  items 


before  World  War  II  and  in  1946,  1947  and  1948.  It  threw 
some  light  on  the  redistribution  of  incomes  that  had  taken 
place  even  before  the  levelling  effect  of  high  taxation. 


TABLE    II.  —  COMPOSITION  OF  THE  NATI 

IONAL  INCOME 

(£  million) 

1938 

1946 

1947 

1948 

1. 

Wages          .... 

1,735 

3,095 

3,530 

3,975 

2. 

Salaries 

1,110 

1,630 

1,750 

1,850 

3. 

Pay    and    allowances   of   the 

armed  forces 

78 

524 

346 

246 

4. 

Professional  earnings 

84 

134 

147 

161 

5. 

Income  from  farming 

60 

190 

203 

248 

6. 

Profits  of  other  sole  traders  and 

partnerships 

440 

815 

880 

970 

7. 

Trading  profits  of  companies 

543 

1,219 

1,393 

1,639 

8. 

Operating    profits    of    public 

enterprises 

27 

26 

18 

116 

9. 

Rent  of  land  and  buildings 

395 

422 

425 

430 

10.  Income  arising  in  the  United 
Kingdom     . 

11.  Net  income  from  abroad 

12.  National  income 


4,472      8,055      8,692      9,635 
168  56  33  40 


4,640      8,111       8,725      9.675 


SoiJRCt     National  Income  and  Expenditure  of  the  United  Kingdom,  (H  M  S  O  , 
London,  1949) 

Although  wages  had  more  than  doubled,  during  the  ten 
years  ended  1948,  salaries  increased  by  only  some  70%,  a 
fact  which  showed  the  stronger  bargaining  position  of  physical  • 
labourers  compared  with  black-coated  workers.  Professional 
earnings  also  rose  to  a  smaller  extent  than  wages.  The 
increase  of  trading  profits  was  striking,  but  in  that  respect  the 
effect  of  higher  taxation  on  net  profits  had  to  be  borne  in 
mind.  Incomes  from  farming  increased  by  over  200%  by 
1947  and  by  300%  by  1948,  though  the  latter  was  an 
abnormally  good  year.  This  sharp  increase  was  largely  due, 
however,  to  the  abnormally  low  level  of  farming  profits 
before  World  War  II.  Continued  rent  control  was  reflected 
in  the  very  moderate  increase  of  incomes  from  rent  of  land 
and  buildings.  The  decline  of  Great  Britain's  net  income 
from  abroad  to  less  than  a  quarter  of  its  prewar  figure  was 
a  change  of  considerable  importance.  The  higher  total  of 
pay  and  allowances  of  the  British  armed  forces  was  largely 
due  to  the  maintenance  of  a  larger  number  of  men  under 
arms  than  before  World  War  II. 

The  levelling  effect  of  taxation  on  various  items  of  the 
national  income  was  illustrated  by  the  fact  that,  whereas 
before  World  War  II  untaxed  wages  were  roughly  equal  to 
the  total  of  untaxed  profits  and  interest,  and  rent  and  taxed 
wages  were  39%  of  the  total  of  personal  incomes  against 
34%  for  profits,  interest  and  rents,  in  1948  untaxed  wages 
represented  44%  and  taxed  wages  48%  and  profits,  interest 
and  rent  declined  to  32%  before  taxation  and  to  28%  after 
taxation.  Salaries  too  represented  a  lower  proportion  of 
the  total,  both  before  and  after  taxation,  than  before  World 
War  II.  According  to  the  estimate  of  the  Oxford  University 
Institute  of  Statistics,  the  net  national  income  of  Great 
Britain  during  the  third  quarter  of  1949  was  at  the  annual 


NATIONAL   INCOME 


443 


rate  of  £10,470  million;  real  income  had  been  rising  through- 
out the  year  at  the  same  rate  as  in  1948,  viz.,  £90  million  a 
quarter;  and  the  increase  of  wages  seemed  to  have  slowed 
down,  the  proportion  of  wages  to  the  national  income  being 
somewhat  lower  than  in  1948. 

It  could  be  assumed  that  the  national  income  of  many  other 
European  and  Commonwealth  countries  besides  Great  Britain 
continued  to  rise  during  1949.  There  was  no  setback  of  trade 
and  prices  comparable  to  that  experienced  in  the  United 
States  during  the  first  half  of  the  year  and  again  after  the 
devaluation  of  sterling.  Nor  was  there  any  substantial 
unemployment,  except  in  Belgium  and  Italy.  In  spite  of 
much  talk  about  disinflation  and  the  profits  of  a  large  number 
of  firms  showing  declines,  the  wages  bills  continued  to  increase 
everywhere.  In  none  of  the  countries  did  the  experience  of 
the  early  '20s  or  the  early  '30s,  when  deflation  went  far 
enough  to  cause  a  substantial  decline  in  the  national  income, 
repeat  itself  during  the  period  after  World  War  II.  Since 
almost  all  western  European  and  Commonwealth  countries 
devalued  in  Sept.  1949,  this  further  removed  the  possibility 
of  any  such  setback.  Although  the  devaluations  could  not 
produce  any  appreciable  effect  on  national  incomes  in  Europe 
within  the  brief  space  of  the  three  months,  they  certainly 
influenced  the  underlying  trends  in  the  direction  of  an 
increase  in  national  income.  This  was  most  marked  in  the 
raw  material  producing  Commonwealth  countries,  since  the 
prices  of  their  staple  products  in  terms  of  sterling  rose 
sharply;  their  increased  exporting  capacity,  also  a  result  of 
devaluation,  set  into  motion  factors  tending  to  cause  an 
expansion  of  production.  In  European  countries  the  effect, 
though  not  so  distinct,  was  substantially  the  same,  for  it 
had  the  effect  of  increasing  production,  wages  and  profits 
Thus  it  could  be  assumed  that  in  the  last  quarter  of  1949 
there  was  an  increase  in  the  national  income  both  in  Common- 
wealth countries  and,  to  a  lesser  extent,  in  European  countries. 

(P.  EG.) 

United  States.  According  to  preliminary  estimates,  the 
U.S.  National  income  in  1949  amounted  to  $222,000  million 
and  the  gross  national  product  to  $259,000  million.  Both  of 
these  comprehensive  measures  of  the  nation's  economic 
activity  were  less  than  2%  below  the  record  established  in 
1948. 

Another  indication  of  economic  well-being  in  1949  was 
the  virtual  maintenance  of  personal  income  at  the  1948  level. 
Preliminary  data  indicated  that  personal  incomes  aggregated 
$210,000  million  in  1949,  only  slightly  below  the  record  total 
of  $212,000  million  in  the  previous  year. 

The  pace  of  economic  activity  was  not  uniform  throughout 
1949.  National  income  and  product  continued  their  upward 
postwar  movement  throughout  1948  but  turned  downward 
in  the  first  half  of  1949.  With  the  recovery  of  industrial 
production  and  construction,  there  was  a  general  stabilization 
in  business  activity  following  this  downward  adjustment. 

National  income,  as  measured  by  the  U.S.  Department  of 
Commerce,  is  the  sum  of  the  net  earnings  of  labour  and 
property  arising  from  the  current  production  of  goods  and 
services  by  the  nation's  economy. 

Personal  income  is  the  current  income  received  by  persons 
from  all  sources,  including  transfers  from  government  and 
business  but  excluding  transfers  among  persons.  Not  only 
individuals  (including  owners  of  unincorporated  enterprises), 
but  non-profit  institutions  and  private  trust  and  welfare 
funds  are  classified  as  persons. 

Gross  national  product  or  expenditure  is  the  market  value 
of  goods  and  services  produced  by  the  nation's  economy, 
before  deduction  of  depreciation  charges  and  other  allow- 
ances for  business  and  institutional  consumption  of  durable 
capital  goods.  Other  business  products  used  up  by  business 
in  the  accounting  period  are  excluded. 


A  substantial  reduction  in  the  income  of  farm  proprietors 
was  the  principal  change  in  the  distributive  shares  of  national 
income  from  1948  to  1949.  There  were  comparatively  minor 
changes  in  the  proportions  of  national  income  formed  by 
the  other  broad  types  of  earnings. 

TABLE  HI. —NATIONAL  INCOME  BY  DISTRIBUIION  SHARES 

(In  000,000,000s  of  dollars)* 

Item  1939        1947         1948        1949-j- 

National  income    .          .  72   5       201-7      226  2      222  0 


47  8 

45   7 

37-5 

4 

7   8 

2   1 

1    5 
•5 


127-6 

122-3 

104-8 

4-0 

13  6 

5   3 

3   5 
1   8 


140  3 

135  3 

116  1 

3  9 

15-2 

5  0 

3  0 

2  0 


140-5 

135-0 

114  3 

4-1 

16-6 

5  5 

3  4 
2-1 


11  3 

6  8 

6  9 

._  2 
4-5 
3-5 

5  8 

6  5 
1  -5 
5-0 

3  8 
1  2 

—  7 

4  2 


38  5 

23  1 

24  7 

—  1  6 

15-4 

6  5 

25  6 


31 
12 
19 


7   0 


12 

—6 

3 


42  8 
24  5 

24  9 

—  4 

18  4 

6-6 

32  6 
34  8 
13  6 
21-2 

7-9 

13  2 

—  22 

3  8 


39-1 
24-1 


t 

15  0 
6  6 

31  5 
28  8 


11-5 

17  3 
8  4 
8  9 

2-7 
4  2 


and  will  not  necessarily  equal  totals 
estimated          {  Not  available 


Compensation  of  employees 
\Vages  and  salaries  . 
Private 
Military 

Government  civilian 
Supplements  to  wages  and  sal- 
aries  . 
Employer    contributions    for 

social  insurance 
Other  labour  income 
Income  of  unincorporated  enter- 
prises and   inventory  valuation 
adjustment 
Business  and  professional 

Income     of     unincorporated 

enterprises 

Inventory    valuation    adjust- 
ment 
Farm 

Rental  income  of  persons 
Corporate    profits    and    inventory 
valuation  adjustment 
Corporate  profits  before  tax 
Corporate  profits  tax  liability 
Corporate  profits  after  tax 
Dividends 

Undistributed  profits 
Inventory  valuation  adjustment 
Net  interest 

*  Details  are  given  in  rounded  numbers 
t  First  three  quarters  actual,  last  quarter 
SOURCE  US  Department  of  Commerce 

Wages  and  salaries  remained  stable  at  the  1948  level 
of  $135,000  million,  as  higher  average  earnings  offset  a 
small  reduction  in  the  total  number  of  workers  employed. 
Government  pay  rolls,  including  civilian  and  military, 
advanced  from  $19,100  million  to  $20,700  million  over  the 
two  years,  whereas  private-industry  pay  rolls  declined  from 
$116,100  million  to  $1 14,300  million.  This  small  decline  was 
centred  in  manufacturing,  which  was  the  sector  in  the 
nation's  non-agricultural  economy  most  directly  affected  by 
the  business  downturn  in  the  first  half  of  1949. 

Nearly  all  of  the  1948-49  decrease  of  business  earnings  in 
the  non-corporate  sector  occurred  in  agriculture.  The 
aggregate  net  income  of  farm  proprietors  dropped  from 
$18,400  million  to  $15,000  million,  chiefly  because  of  lower 
farm  prices. 

The  corporate  profits  component  of  national  income — 
"  corporate  profits  and  inventory  valuation  adjustment " — 
was  an  estimated  $31,500  million  in  1949,  as  compared  with 
$32,600  million  in  the  preceding  year.  The  decline  in  this 
measure  of  corporate  earnings  was  very  much  less  than  that 
shown  by  4<  corporate  profits  before  tax."  The  sizable  drop 
in  the  latter  measure,  from  $34,800  million  to  $28,800  million, 
reflected  very  largely  the  predominant  corporate  practice 
of  charging  inventories  to  cost  of  sales  in  terms  of  prior- 
period  prices,  rather  than  current  replacement  prices. 

The  1948-49  decline  in  the  gross  national  product  was 
accounted  for  by  a  substantial  drop  in  inventory  investment 
demand.  In  1948,  when  inventories  were  still  rising  to  meet 
postwar  requirements,  there  was  an  inventory  accumulation 
of  $6,500  million.  In  1949,  however,  there  was  a  small 
liquidation  of  inventories. 

Net  foreign  investment,  which  measures  the  net  export  of 
goods  and  services  commercially  financed,  expanded  sharply 
in  the  early  postwar  period  because  of  the  heavy  demand  for 


444 


NATIONAL  INSURANCE 


67-5 

166  9 

178  8 

178-5 

6  7 

22  0 

23  5 

24-8 

35-3 

96  2 

102  2 

97-7 

25-5 

48-8 

53  1 

56  0 

9-9 

31-1 

45  0 

36-8 

4-9 

13  8 

17  9 

17-2 

4-6 

17  2 

20  7 

20  0 

4 

1 

6-5 

--0-4 

•9 

8  9 

1  9 

0 

13  1 

28  8 

36-7 

43-5 

5-2 

15  7 

20  9 

25-7 

7  9 

13  1 

15-8 

17-8 

TABLE  IV. — GROSS  NATIONAL  PRODUCT  OR  EXPENDITURE 

(In  000,000,000s  of  dollars)* 

Item  1939        1947         1948        1949f 

Gross  national  product   .         .         .     91   3      235  7      262  4      258-7 

Personal  consumption  expenditures   67 

Durable  goods         .         .         . 

Non-durable  goods 

Services 
Gross  private  domestic  investment 

New  construction     . 

Producers*  durable  equipment    . 

Change  in  business  inventories  . 
Net  foreign  investment 
Government   purchases  of  goods 

and  services     . 

Federal 

State  and  local 

*  Dstaih  are  given  in  rounded  numbers  and  will  not  necessarily  equal  totals 
t  First  three  quarters  actual,  last  quarter  estimated 
SOURCF    U  S   Department  of  Commerce 

U.S.  goods  by  foreign  countries  whose  economies  had  been 
disrupted  by  the  war.  Foreign  investment  declined  sharply 
thereafter,  to  a  level  of  $1,000  million  in  1948  and  to  approxi- 
mately zero  in  1949.  The  decline  reflected  mainly  the  growing 
exhaustion  of  foreign  dollar  and  gold  resources.  It  represented 
partly,  however,  a  shift  to  U.S.  government  grants  under  the 
Foreign  Assistance  act  as  a  means  of  financing  exports. 

Government  purchases  of  goods  and  services  advanced 
from  $36,700  million  in  1948  to  $43,500  million  in  1949. 
Both  the  federal  and  the  state  and  local  governments  contri- 
buted to  this  expansion,  which  helped  to  counterbalance 
the  decline  in  total  demand  emanating  from  private  sectors 
of  the  economy.  The  sharp  rise  in  federal  purchases  of 
goods  and  services,  from  $20,900  million  to  $25,700  million, 
was  chiefly  due  to  increased  outlays  for  foreign  aid  and 
to  larger  military  expenditures.  Expenditures  for  goods 
and  services  by  state  and  local  governments  rose  $2,000 
million,  mainly  as  a  result  of  increases  in  public  pay  rolls 
and  in  outlays  for  schools,  highways  and  other  types  of 
construction. 

Estimates  of  personal  income  and  its  disposition  arc  pro- 
vided in  Table  V.  Personal  income  was  only  slightly  lower 
in  1949  than  in  the  preceding  year.  With  the  sizable  reduction 
in  personal  taxes,  reflecting  both  the  lower  rates  in  effect 
in  1949  and  refunds  on  1948  tax  payments,  disposable 
personal  income  was  actually  a  little  higher  than  in  1948. 
As  a  consequence,  consumers  were  able  in  1949  not  only  to 
maintain  the  volume  of  their  expenditures  for  goods  and 
services  at  the  1948  level,  but  also  to  save  somewhat  more 
than  they  did  in  the  previous  year.  Personal  saving  amounted 
to  6%  of  disposable  income  in  1949.  (See  also  WEALTH  AND 
INCOME,  DISTRIBUTION  OF.) 

TABLE  V — PERSONAI    INCOME  AND  DISPOSITION  OF  INCOMF 

(In  000,000,000s  of  dollars)* 

Item                                                     1939        1947  1948         1949f 

Personal  income                                      72  6       193  5  211   9      209  9 

Wage  and  Salary  receipts                .  45-1  120  2  133    1  132  8 

Total  employer  disbursements  45-7  122  3  135  3  135  0 
Less*  Employees'  contributions 

for  social  insurance  6  2-1  21  22 
Other  labour  income  -5  1  •  8  20  2-1 
Proprietors' and  rental  income  14 '7  45   1  49  5  45  7 
Dividends                               .          .38  70  79  8-4 
Personal  interest  income                 .  54  78  83  8-8 
Transfer  payments  30  117  11    1  12-0 
Less.  Personal  tax  and  non-tax  pay- 
ments        .                            .  2  4  21    5  21    1  18  8 
Federal  .          .  1-2  19  6  19  0  n  a. 
State  and  local  12  1-9  21  n  a. 
Equals   Disposable  personal  income  70  2  172  0  190  8  191-5 
Less   Personal  consumption  expendi- 
tures                    .  67-5  166  9  178-8  178-5 
Equals.  Personal  saving           .         .  27  51  120  13-0 

*  Details  are  given  in  rounded  numbers  and  will  not  necessarily  equal  totals 

+  First  three  quarters  actual,  last  quarter  estimated 

SOURCE'  U.S   Department  of  Commerce  (C.  F.  Sz  ) 


NATIONAL  INSURANCE.  The  national  insurance 
schemes,  including  that  replacing  the  former  Workmen's 
Compensation  scheme,  came  into  operation  on  July  5,  1948, 
and  there  was  no  further  legislation  on  the  subject  in  1949. 
Like  many  modern  statutes  the  implementation  of  the  two 
acts  required  the  making  of  a  large  number  of  regulations  by 
the  minister  of  national  insurance.  During  the  year  there 
were  some  amendments  to  these  regulations. 

In  the  first  12  months  of  the  operation  of  the  new  scheme 
10  million  claims,  involving  40  million  separate  payments, 
were  dealt  with  at  the  987  local  offices  of  the  Ministry  of 
National  Insurance.  The  death  grant  payable  under  the  act, 
which  was  a  cash  payment  varying  in  amount  up  to  a  maximum 
of  £20  to  help  to  meet  the  expenses  connected  with  the  death 
of  an  insured  person,  did  not  take  effect  until  July  5,  1949. 
Seven  million  new  claims  to  sickness  benefit  were  made  in 
the  year,  about  half  of  which  included  claims  for  dependants. 
Under  the  former  national  insurance  schemes  no  payments 
were  made  for  dependants.  There  were  800,000  maternity 
benefit  claims.  At  the  end  of  the  period  July  5,  1948-July  5, 
1949,  4,150,000  men  over  65  and  women  over  60  were 
receiving  national  insurance  retirement  or  old  age  pensions. 
About  two-thirds  of  all  insured  men  reaching  65,  and  about 
one-half  of  all  insured  women  reaching  60,  after  July  5,  1948, 
continued  in  regular  employment  and  accordingly  qualified 
for  the  increments  for  postponed  retirement  that  would  be 
added  to  their  retirement  pension  when  they  eventually  did 
retire  and  claim  the  pension.  These  increments  were  in 
effect  \s.  (2s.  for  married  couples)  for  every  six  months  of 
postponed  retirement  and  could  increase  the  joint  pension 
of  a  man  with  a  wife  over  60  by  20.y  to  62 v.  a  week. 

Four  hundred  and  sixty  thousand  widows  under  60  were 
receiving  widows'  benefits.  A  new  arrangement  was  brought 
into  force  during  1949  whereby  anyone  notifying  the  death  of 
a  married  man  received  from  the  registrar  of  deaths  a  simple 
leaflet  giving  details  of  the  national  insurance  death  grant 
and  widows'  benefits.  In  addition  to  the  widows'  benefits, 
guardians'  allowances  or  orphans'  pensions  were  being  paid 
to  10,000  children.  Industrial  injuries  insurance  formed 
another  big  section  of  the  scheme.  About  750,000  claims 
were  made  to  industrial  injuries  benefits  during  the  first  year. 

In  Sept.  1949  changes  were  made  in  the  application  of  the 
main  insurance  scheme  to  persons  who  were  being  maintained 
free  of  charge  in  hospital  under  the  national  health  service 
scheme  or  by  the  Ministry  of  Pensions.  No  reduction  of 
benefit  was  to  be  made  normally  during  the  first  eight  weeks  in 
hospital,  but  after  that  period  the  benefit  was  reduced  by 
5s.  a  week  if  the  patient  could  be  treated  as  having  a  dependant, 
or  otherwise  by  10s.  a  week.  After  a  year  in  hospital  no  more 
than  5r.  was  normally  payable  direct  to  a  person  in  hospital, 
unless  he  was  under  treatment  for  respiratory  tuberculosis, 
in  which  case  l(h.  was  payable.  The  exception  related  to 
certain  circumstances  where  the  person  had  a  dependant. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  year,  draft  regulations  were  made 
by  the  minister  modifying  the  classification  for  national 
insurance  purposes  of  persons  in  certain  specified  part-time 
employment.  The  administration  of  the  scheme,  like  the 
previous  scheme,  involved  insurance  cards  being  stamped 
which,  in  the  case  of  a  large  organization,  caused  considerable 
work.  Arrangements  were  therefore  made  by  the  ministry 
with  certain  large  employers  under  which  payments  could 
be  made  in  bulk. 

The  foreign  ministers  of  Belgium,  France,  Luxembourg,  the 
Netherlands  and  the  United  Kingdom  signed  two  important 
conventions  representing  a  new  stage  in  their  collaboration 
in  social  matters.  The  first  convention,  which  was  closely 
linked  with  the  network  of  bilateral  agreements  on  social 
security  already  negotiated  or  in  course  of  negotiations, 
enabled  nationals  of  these  countries  to  take  advantage  of  any 


NATIONALIZATION 


445 


of  these  bilateral  agreements,  no  matter  in  which  of  the  five 
countries  they  were  residing  or  had  resided.  The  benefits 
covered  by  these  agreements  included  benefits  provided  in 
case  of  sickness,  invalidity,  old  age,  death,  maternity,  industrial 
injuries  and  prescribed  occupational  diseases.  The  second 
convention  was  based  on  the  principle  that,  if  a  national  of 
any  of  the  five  countries,  when  resident  in  the  territory  of 
any  of  the  other  four,  required  social  or  medical  assistance 
but  was  without  sufficient  resources,  he  would  receive  such 
assistance  from  the  latter  country  on  the  same  basis  as  its 
own  nationals.  (See  also  NATIONAL  HEALTH  SERVICE; 
SOCIAL  SECURITY,  U.S.)  (Jo.  Ms.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  The  National  Insurance  (Hospital  In-Patient?)  Regu- 
lations, London,  1949. 

NATIONALIZATION.  In  1949  the  pace  at  which  nation- 
alization had  been  carried  out  since  1945  was  sensibly  slowed 
down.  In  Great  Britain  the  Labour  government's  programme 
was  completed.  In  Europe  generally  such  nationalization  as 
was  intended  had  been  earned  out  before  the  beginning  of 
the  year.  And  in  the  Commonwealth  and  other  countries 
there  was  actually  some  retreat.  In  some  countries  the  need 
for  foreign  capital  dictated  a  more  cautious  policy.  In  Great 
Britain  compensation  was  paid  during  the  year  for  the  Cable 
and  Wireless  company  and  for  many  of  the  gas  undertakings; 
in  their  trade  treaties  the  countries  of  eastern  Europe  made 
arrangements  to  compensate  the  expropriated  foreign  holders. 

Great  Britain.  In  Great  Britain  the  only  tangible  develop- 
ment in  the  Labour  government's  programme  of  nationaliza- 
tion was  the  vesting  of  the  gas  industry  (May  1).  All  other 
industries  intended  for  nationalization  had  been  vested  in 
state  ownership  before  the  beginning  of  1949  with  the  ex- 
ception of  iron  and  steel.  The  Iron  and  Steel  bill  was  given 
its  third  reading  by  both  houses  of  parliament  in  the  summer; 
and  a  compromise  at  the  last  minute  over  the  vesting  date 
enabled  the  bill  to  receive  the  royal  assent  on  Nov.  24 
— without  the  operation  of  the  new  Parliament  act.  According 
to  the  act  the  industry  was  to  be  vested  in  public  ownership 
on  Jan.  1,  1951,  or  within  a  year  from  that  date,  no  members 
of  the  corporation  being  appointed  before  Oct  1950. 
Whether  or  not  it  should  be  nationalized  was  thus  made  to 
depend  on  a  general  election.  (See  IRON  AND  SittL.) 

However,  1949  also  saw  the  publication  of  the  Labour 
party's  proposals  for  fresh  nationalization,  and  the  Conserva- 
tive party's  counter-proposals  for  dealing  with  the  industries 
already  nationalized.  The  Labour  party's  policy  statement 
included  the  nationalization  of  all  departments  of  all  in- 
dustrial insurance  companies,  which  later  in  the  year  was 
modified  to  "  mutuahzation  ";  of  cement;  of  sugar  manu- 
facturing and  refining;  of  meat  wholesaling;  of  water;  and 
of  all  "  suitable  "  mineral  rights.  The  document  also  pro- 
posed an  examination  of  the  chemical  industry  with  a  view 
to  nationalization  and  a  development  council  for  the  ship- 
building industry.  It  foreshadowed  besides  a  new  departure 
in  the  party's  attitude  to  state  ownership;  for,  where  nationali- 
zation was  thought  to  be  unsuitable,  it  suggested  that  state- 
owned  undertakings  should  enter  into  competition  with 
private  industry.  The  general  principle  of  the  Conservative 
counter-proposals  was  that  nationalization  should  be  undone 
as  far  as  possible:  the  nationalization  of  iron  and  steel 
would  of  course  be  reversed;  but,  in  addition,  road  haulage 
and  road  passenger  transport  would  be  sold  back  to  private 
ownership;  and  the  Liverpool  cotton  exchange  would  be 
re-opened.  Other  industries  in  the  Conservative  view  could 
not  be  de-nationalized.  For  these,  in  a  radical  decentralization, 
it  was  proposed  that  there  should  be  independent  price 
tribunals  and  that  the  operations  of  the  nationalized  in- 
dustries should  be  brought  within  the  scope  of  the  Mono- 
polies commission.  (See  POLITICAL  PARTIES,  BRITISH.) 

During  1949  the  reports  of  several  of  the  major  nationalized 


industries  for  1948  were  published.  In  1948  the  National 
Coal  board  made  an  operating  profit  of  £16-2  million  and 
a  net  profit  of  £1-  7  million;  but  it  still  carried  over  into  1949 
a  deficit  of  £21-8  million— the  result  of  the  loss  in  1947.  The 
year's  profit  was  almost  entirely  due  to  the  premium  of  £1 
a  ton  which  was  obtained  for  export  coal  and  the  board  felt 
it  necessary  to  say  that  this  premium  could  not  be  counted 
on  for  very  much  longer.  However,  devaluation  later  in  the 
year  gave  the  board  a  further  margin  in  many  markets;  and 
in  the  first  and  second  quarters  of  1949  the  board  reported 
net  profits  of  £3-8  million  and  £2-5  million  respectively. 
Later  in  the  year  tjhe  outlook  for  the  industry  was  less  pro- 
mising. The  cost  curve  which  had  seemed  to  be  flattening 
out  took  another  upward  turn;  and  in  Britain,  as  in  France, 
a  fall  in  the  labour  force  set  in,  spreading  even  to  the  face- 
workers.  Nevei theless,  the  production  target  set  was  reached. 
(See  COAL.) 

The  Transport  commission  reported  a  much  smaller  loss 
for  1948  than  had  generally  been  expected.  There  was  a 
revenue  deficit  of  £1-7  million  and  a  net  deficit  of  £4-7 
million.  This  unexpectedly  favourable  result  was  due,  in 
part,  to  the  economies  that  had  been  put  in  hand  before 
nationalization;  in  part  also  it  reflected  a  perhaps  inadequate 
provision  for  depreciation;  nothing  was  placed  to  general 
reserve.  Nor  was  it  more  than  superficial;  for  by  the  end 
of  the  year  the  prospect  of  a  £20  million  deficit  forced  the 
commission  to  apply  for  increased  freight  charges  on  the 
railways.  The  commission  was  unable  to  report  much  pro- 
gress in  its  principal  task  of  unification  since  its  main  pre- 
occupation was  and  would  be  for  some  time,  the  standardiza- 
tion of  its  separate  parts.  But  during  1949  the  British  railways 
announced  further  schemes  for  the  standardization  of  equip- 
ment and  two  area  schemes  for  road  passenger  transport  were 
published.  Towards  the  end  of  the  year  the  appointed  day 
for  the  takeover  of  long-distance  road  haulage  was  announced. 
(See  MOTOR  TRANSPORT;  RAILWAYS.) 

Cable  and  Wireless,  in  spite  of  rising  costs  and  unchanged 
traffic,  made  a  profit  for  1948  almost  exactly  the  same  as  that 
for  1947 — £1-7  million;  and  the  falling  trend  of  traffic 
seemed  to  have  been  checked.  (See  TELFGRAPHY.) 

The  Raw  Cotton  commission  made  a  profit  of  £1-0  million 
on  a  turnover  of  £61- 1  million. 

The  nationalized  air  transport  once  again  exceeded  its 
vote.  B.O.A  C.  reduced  its  deficit  by  £1-2  million  and  B.E.A. 
by  £800,000.  But  B.S.A.A.'s  deficit  increased  and  the  com- 
bined loss  was  only  slightly  lower  at  £9-7  million.  These 
losses  were  again  largely  owing  to  the  use  of  unsuitable  types 
of  aircraft,  but  both  the  major  corporations  reported  an 
increase  both  in  capacity-ton  miles  and  in  productivity. 
A  bill  was  introduced  merging  B.O.A. C.  and  B.S.A.A. 
But  the  fruits  of  this  merger  were  not  expected  to  be  gathered 
until  well  on  into  1950  and  it  was  likely  that  the  target  of  a 
deficit  of  £5-5  million  for  1949  would  not  be  fulfilled.  (See 
AVIATION,  CIVIL.) 

The  British  Electricity  Authority  whose  first  report  was 
published  at  the  end  of  the  year  made  a  profit  of  £4,391,684 
in  its  first  financial  year  which  ended  on  March  31,  1949. 

These  financial  results  were  on  the  whole  better  than  those 
for  1947.  But  in  1949  it  was  still  too  early  to  judge  the 
results  of  nationalization  solely  by  profit  and  loss.  In  general, 
though  the  nationalized  industries  had  the  statutory  duty  of 
balancing  their  accounts  "  taking  one  year  with  another," 
the  proponents  of  nationalization  tended  to  argue  that  the 
industries  should  be  judged  primarily  by  the  service  that  they 
rendered,  secondly  as  instruments  for  maintaining  full 
employment  and  only  thirdly  as  ordinary  commercial  under- 
takings. Here  the  experience  of  1949  suggested  that  the 
development  of  the  nationalized  industries  was  following  two 
directions.  On  the  one  hand,  those  industries,  which  like 


446 


NATIONAL  PARKS 


cable  and  wireless,  or  even  gas  and  electricity,  offered  the 
community  largely  technical  services,  employing  relatively 
small  labour  forces,  showed  every  sign  of  carrying  on  under 
state  ownership  in  almost  exactly  the  same  ways  as  under 
private  ownership.  The  integration  of  capital  investment 
was  expected  to  yield  economies,  but  only  in  the  long  run. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  industries  which  were  large  employers 
of  labour  and  whose  labour  costs  formed  the  principal  item 
of  their  expenses,  particularly  coal  and  transport,  seemed  to 
be  running  into  trouble  precisely  where  nationalization  had 
been  expected  to  bring  the  greatest  benefits.  In  1947  the 
principal  benefit  of  nationalization  had  been  psychological; 
production  rose  and  the  labour  force  expanded.  But  in  1949 
it  seemed  that  this  initial  enthusiasm  was  dying  away.  And 
both  the  coal  mines  and  the  nationalized  transport  suffered 
from  unofficial  strikes.  Those  who  had  always  opposed 
nationalization  considered  they  had  found  confirmation  for 
their  belief  that  the  association  of  the  trade  union  leaders  in 
management  would  not  in  the  long  run  be  wise.  And  even 
the  supporters  of  nationalization  seemed  sometimes  to  doubt 
whether  the  ownership  of  these  industries  by  independent 
public  corporations  offered  the  most  satisfactory  way  of 
controlling  them. 

Europe.  In  Europe  the  difficulties  of  the  nationalized  in- 
dustries were  hard  to  distinguish  from  the  economic  diffi- 
culties of  the  countries.  Particularly  in  eastern  Europe, 
where  nationalization  had  been  one  of  the  means  of  imple- 
menting very  heavy  programmes  of  capital  investment,  the 
failure  to  produce  sufficient  was  a  general  complaint. 
In  France  only  the  Regie  Renault  and  the  nationalized 
electricity  undertaking  made  profits:  the  profit  of  Fr.  25,000 
million  shown  in  1948  for  electricity,  however,  took  no 
account  of  capital  expenditure  which  was  financed  by  the 
counterpart  fund  of  Marshall  aid.  Gas,  transport  and  the 
mines  all  showed  losses  and  there  seemed  little  hope  that  the 
losses  would  be  less  in  1949.  The  nationalized  railways, 
though  they  succeeded  early  in  1949  in  returning  to  prewar 
standards  of  service,  were  severely  criticized  for  the  number 
of  pensioners,  for  the  financial  organization,  for  methods 
of  control  and  for  the  unco-ordinated  way  in  which  they  had 
planned.  Railway  lines  known  to  be  uneconomic  before  1939 
had  been  restored,  though  competition  from  the  roads  and 
from  the  waterways  would  soon  close  them. 

The  coal  mines  suffered  heavily  in  the  strikes  of  1948;  the 
contribution  of  Fr.  8,000  million  made  by  the  government 
was  estimated  to  be  too  little.  And  they  had  the  formidable 
task  of  overtaking  arrears  of  maintenance.  It  was  estimated 
that  Fr.  53,000  million  of  investment  was  needed  merely  to 
maintain  production,  a  further  Fr.  57,000  million  for  long 
term  development  and  Fr.  34,000  million  for  overtaking 
arrears  of  maintenance.  The  prewar  production  rate  was 
recovered,  but  in  spite  of  an  improvement  in  productivity 
during  1949  the  Monnet  plan  objective  of  65  million  tons 
in  1950  and  70  million  tons  in  1952  had  to  be  modified  to 
60  million  tons  in  1952. 

In  eastern  Europe  the  nationalization  of  industries  was 
virtually  complete  at  the  beginning  of  the  year.  Where  parts 
of  the  economy  were  still  in  private  hands,  as  for  example 
some  of  the  retail  shops  in  Czechoslovakia,  the  distribution 
of  supplies  was  used  as  a  method  of  squeezing  out  private 
ownership.  One  of  the  few  countries  still  nationalizing  was 
Rumania,  where,  during  the  year,  the  pharmacy  industry  and 
insurance  were  transferred  to  public  ownership — with  the 
exception  of  those  establishments  which  had  already  been 
transferred  to  the  U.S.S.R.  as  reparations.  Almost  every- 
where during  1949  there  was,  it  seemed,  a  fall  in  output  in 
the  nationalized  industries  below  the  targets  set.  And  special 
measures  were  taken.  In  Hungary  "  norms  "  of  work  were 
laid  down  each  month  and  the  workers  shared  in  profits  if 


they  exceeded  the  norm.  In  Czechoslovakia  a  system  of 
accounting  was  adopted  under  which  each  workshop  was 
treated  as  a  self-supporting  unit;  rendering  weekly  and  fort- 
nightly accounts.  Only  in  Western  Germany,  where  the 
election  results  were  interpreted  as  a  vote  against  nationaliza- 
tion, was  there  a  specific  reaction  against  the  policy. 

Commonwealth.  In  the  Commonwealth  countries  there 
was  a  distinction  in  attitude  between  those  countries  which 
were  industrially  advanced  and  those  which  were  in  need  of 
foreign  capital.  In  New  Zealand  (though  at  the  end  of  the 
year  the  vote  against  the  Labour  government  was  in  part 
a  vote  against  nationalization)  a  further  step  was  taken 
when  in  April  the  privately  owned  coal  mines  were  national- 
ized ;  plans  were  also  made  during  the  year  for  the  construction 
of  a  state-owned  pulp  and  paper  mill.  In  Canada  plans  were 
made  to  nationalize  the  whole  external  communications 
system,  including  Canadian  interests  in  the  British  state- 
owned  Cable  and  Wireless  company.  In  Australia  the  desire 
of  the  government  was  once  again  over-ruled  by  a  legal 
decision.  During  1948  the  act  nationalizing  the  trading  banks 
was  declared  unconstitutional  by  the  High  Court,  and  in 
1949  this  decision  was  confirmed  after  a  record  hearing  of 
36  days  by  the  judicial  committee  of  the  Privy  Council. 
On  the  other  hand  in  the  countries  where  the  need  for  capital 
was  great,  the  policy  of  nationalization  was  considerably 
modified.  In  India  the  government  was  publicly  committed 
not  to  entertain  any  further  projects  for  nationalization  for  a 
period  of  10  years.  And  in  Burma,  private  capital  was  in- 
vited to  share  in  all  the  major  industries,  some  of  which  had 
been  nationalized  in  1948,  under  terms  which  guaranteed  the 
investor  against  nationalization  for  a  specific  period.  (J.R.  AY.) 

NATIONAL  PARKS.  In  March  1949  the  National 
Parks  and  Access  to  the  Countryside  bill  was  published.  The 
main  objects  of  the  bill  were  to  provide  for  the  designation  of 
national  parks  in  England  and  Wales  and  for  the  establish- 
ment of  a  National  Parks  commission;  to  confer  on  the 
Nature  Conservancy  and  on  local  authorities'  powers  for 
the  recording,  creation,  maintenance  and  improvement  of 
public  paths  and  for  the  establishment  of  long  distance 
routes;  to  enable  the  public  to  have  access  to  open  country; 
to  confer  further  powers  for  preserving  and  enhancing  the 
natural  beauty  of  the  countryside;  and  to  provide  for  ex- 
chequer assistance  towards  these  purposes.  The  bill  broadly 
followed  the  recommendations  of  the  Hobhouse  committee 
which  reported  in  July  1947,  but  differed  from  it  in  giving 
administrative  powers  to  local  county  councils  and  borough 
councils.  The  National  Parks  commission,  appointed  by  the 
minister  of  town  and  country  planning,  would  select  any 
extensive  and  beautiful  area  which  it  considered  suitable 
and  would  encourage  the  provision  and  improvement  of 
facilities  for  visitors  to  the  national  parks.  The  bill  received 
the  Royal  Assent  on  Dec.  16  and  Sir  Patrick  Duff  was  ap- 
pointed first  chairman  of  the  National  Parks  commission. 

The  six  National  Forest  parks,  administered  by  the  Forestry 
commission,  became  increasingly  popular.  More  camping 
sites  were  provided  and  facilities  for  visitors  improved. 
Additional  guides  to  the  forest  parks  were  published  including 
booklets  on  Hardknott  and  Glenmore. 

Canada.  The  Fundy  national  park  was  officially  opened 
during  the  summer  of  1949.  The  80  sq.  mi.  scenic  and 
recreational  area  in  New  Brunswick  was  proclaimed  a 
national  park  in  April  1948  and  in  1949  parliament  approved 
the  name  "  Fundy."  An  essay  contest  was  held  throughout 
provincial  schools  to  select  a  title  for  the  park.  In  June  the 
deputy  minister  of  mines  and  resources,  Dr.  H.  L.  Keenley- 
side,  announced  that  the  Dominion  Wildlife  service  would 
carry  out  special  intensive  studies  of  wildlife  in  the  national 
parks.  Developments  in  the  national  parks  included  additional 


NATIONAL  TRUST— NAVIES   OF   THE   WORLD 


447 


work  on  park  highways  in  Waterton  Lakes  park,  Prince 
Albert  national  park,  Riding  Mountain  national  park, 
Cape  Breton  Highlands  national  park  and  on  the  highways 
leading  to  the  mountain  national  parks.  Facilities  for  the 
protection  of  the  park  forests  were  also  improved.  During 
the  first  four  months  of  the  fiscal  year  46-5%  more  visitors 
entered  the  parks  compared  with  the  same  period  in  1948. 
In  August  1949  visitors  to  the  parks  numbered  485,133. 

Kenya.  The  government  took  over  the  ancient  ruined  city 
of  Gedi,  10  mi.  south  of  Malindi,  as  a  national  park.  Investi- 
gation and  conservation  work  was  to  be  carried  out  by 
J.  S.  Kirkman,  warden  of  Kenya's  historic  sites.  The  ruins 
of  the  city,  which  include  five  mosques,  a  ruler's  palace  and 
many  large  houses  were  first  discovered  25  years  ago. 

New  Zealand.  Extending  south  from  a  track  between  Te 
Anau  and  Milford  sound  to  Lake  Manapouri  an  area  of 
400,000  ac.  of  Fiordland  national  park  in  South  Island  was 
proclaimed  a  bird  sanctuary. 

Northern  Rhodesia.  In  September  the  Legislative  Council 
passed  a  motion  providing  for  the  proclamation  of  an  area 
of  8,650  sq.  mi.  in  the  southern,  central  and  western  provinces 
as  a  national  park.  The  area  was  situated  entirely  in  Native 
trust  lands  and  was  almost  entirely  infested  with  tsetse  fly 
and  had  extremely  poor  soil.  It  was  almost  uninhabited 
except  in  a  small  area  along  the  Kafue  river.  It  was  estimated 
than  an  expenditure  of  £40,000  over  a  period  of  three  years 
would  be  required  to  bring  it  up  to  the  standard  of  the 
Wankie  game  reserve  and  that  the  recurrent  expenditure 
would  be  approximately  £8,000  a  year. 

Southern  Rhodesia.  A  National  Parks  act  was  passed 
during  the  year.  It  provided  for  the  establishment  of  national 
parks  and  for  the  preservation  of  wild  animal  and  fish  life 
and  vegetation  and  objects  of  geological,  ethnological, 
historical  or  other  scientific  interest;  and  for  the  control  and 
management  of  such  parks  by  a  National  Parks  Advisory 
board  appointed  by  the  minister  of  internal  affairs.  The  act 
scheduled  the  following  areas  as  national  parks:  Wankie 
game  reserve  (3,256,998  ac.);  Robins  game  sanctuary 
(25,398  ac.);  Kazuma  Pan  game  reserve  (48,640  ac.)  and 
Chimanimani  national  park  (20,213  ac.).  The  first  three 
were  situated  in  the  Wankie  native  district  and  the  last  in  the 
Melsetter  district. 

Uganda.  An  official  committee  was  set  up  during  the  year 
to  examine  the  possibility  of  establishing  national  parks  in 
the  protectorate.  (X.) 

United  States.  Visitors  to  U.S.  national  parks  and  other 
areas  totalled  31,864,180  in  1949,  an  increase  of  more  than 
2,250,000  over  1948. 

Three  areas  of  historic  significance  were  established. 
The  massive  fortifications  in  San  Juan,  Puerto  Rico,  were 
designated  as  San  Juan  National  Historic  site;  blufflands 
along  the  Mississippi  river  containing  unusual  prehistoric 
earth  mounds  were  established  as  Kftigy  Mounds  National 
monument;  and  the  De  Soto  National  memorial,  to  com- 
memorate the  landing  of  Ferdinando  de  Soto's  expedition 
in  Tampa  bay,  was  established  in  the  vicinity  of  Bradenton, 
Florida.  Deeds  to  approximately  33,500  ac.  of  land  in  the 
Jackson  Hole  region  of  Wyoming  were  donated  to  the  federal 
government  by  John  D.  Rockefeller,  Jr.,  for  administration 
as  part  of  Jackson  Hole  National  monument.  At  the  year's 
close,  areas  administered  by  the  National  Park  service  totalled 
181,  with  a  combined  area  of  21,754,134  ac.  (N.  B.  D.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  Snowdonia.  The  National  Park  for  North  Wales 
(London,  1949). 

NATIONAL  TRUST.  During  1949  the  National 
Trust  for  Places  of  Historic  Interest  or  Natural  Beauty 
received  £80,000  in  legacies.  With  its  1,000  properties  com- 
prising 1 50,000  ac.,  it  was  the  largest  non-official  landowner 
in  England  and  Wales.  Its  membership  totalled  16,500. 


The  principal  houses  acquired  during  the  y  ar  were  Rain- 
ham  hall  (Essex),  Buscot  park  (Berkshire),  Lytes  Cary 
(Somerset),  Sizergh  castle  (Westmorland)  and  Lamb  house 
(Rye).  Rainham  hall,  a  good  example  of  late  Renaissance 
architecture,  was  built  about  1729.  The  panellings  and 
wrought-iron  gates  were  of  particular  interest.  Busco  park, 
3  mi.  northwest  of  Fanngdon,  was  well  known  for  the 
"  Briar  Rose  "  paintings  by  Sir  Edward  Burne-Jones  and  for 
its  gardens  laid  out  by  Harold  Peto.  Lytes  Cary,  near  II- 
chester,  a  typical  Somerset  manor  house,  was  the  home  for 
500  years  of  the  Lyte  family.  Sir  Walter  Jcnner,  under  whose 
will  Ithe  house  an^  its  contents  were  acquired,  had  re-laid  the 
garden  in  the  Elizabethan  tradition.  Sizergh  castle,  3^  mi. 
south  of  Kendal,  is  a  fortified  mansion  with  a  peel  tower  of 
the  14th  century  in  perfect  condition,  and  with  good  oak 
wainscoting  of  the  1 6th  century.  It  was  given  by  the  Hornyold- 
Stncklands  family  whose  ancestors  lived  there  for  many 
centuries.  Lamb  house,  Rye,  is  a  fine  Georgian  house  long 
occupied  by  the  novelist  Henry  James. 

With  the  aid  of  other  societies  the  National  Trust  acquired 
eight  early  17th  century  stone  cottages  known  as  Arlington 
row,  Bibury,  Gloucestershire.  The  birthplace  of  George 
Stephenson,  the  inventor,  at  Wylanvon-Tyne  was  given  by 
the  North-East  Coast  Institution  of  Engineers  and  Ship- 
builders. It  was  a  workman's  cottgae  built  about  1750. 
On  wooden  rails  running  past  the  house  Stephenson  watched 
experiments  with  the  earliest  locomotives. 

Among  the  fine  scenery  acquired  during  the  year  were  the 
moorland  hilltop  of  Lantern  Pike,  Derbyshire;  the  Slindon 
estate,  near  Bognor,  devised  by  Wootton  Isaacson,  comprising 
3,600  ac.  extending  to  the  summit  of  the  south  downs; 
Durford  heath,  also  in  Sussex;  Low  Wray  farm  (420  ac.), 
on  the  western  shore  of  Windermere;  The  Side  (874  ac.), 
in  Ennerdale;  Bull  crag  (69  ac.),  at  the  foot  of  Langstrath, 
Derwentwater;  Eaves  wood  (97  ac.),  north  of  Carnforth; 
and  Southdown  farm  (273  ac.),  with  views  over  Somerset, 
Dorset,  Devon,  Cornwall  and  the  sea. 

Section  27  of  the  Finance  act,  1949,  exempted  from  death 
duties  endowments  for  the  maintenance  of  the  Trust's  in- 
alienable properties  (which  themselves  had  been  exempt 
since  1931.)  An  arrangement  was  made  with  the  Queen's 
Institute  of  District  Nursing  whereby  the  Trust's  garden  fund 
would  receive  a  share  of  the  entrance  fees  to  private  gardens 
opened  to  the  public. 

Earl  de  la  Warr  succeeded  Dr.  G.  M.  Trevelyan  as  chair- 
man of  the  Trust's  estates  committee.  F.  W.  Rathbone  was 
appointed  secretary  in  succession  to  Vice  Admiral  O.  Bevir. 
(See  also  MONUMENTS  AND  MEMORIALS;  NATIONAL  PARKS.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  C  Williams-Ellis,  On  Trust  for  the  Nation  2  (Lon- 
don, 1949).  (E.  H.  Kg.) 

NAURU:    see  BRITISH  EMPIRE;    TRUST  TERRITORIES. 

NAVIES  OF  THE  WORLD.  At  the  end  of  1949 
only  two  navies  could  be  considered  as  being  first  class, 
those  of  the  United  States  and  of  Great  Britain,  the  former 
being  fully  three  times  larger  than  the  latter.  The  fleets  of 
the  U.S.S.R.,  France  and  Italy  could  be  reckoned  as  second 
class,  and  those  of  Argentina,  Australia,  Brazil,  Canada, 
Chile,  Netherlands,  Spain,  Sweden  and  Turkey  as  third  class. 
Several  of  the  smaller  navies  renewed  their  strength  by 
acquiring  surplus  warships  from  the  United  States  and 
Great  Britain.  The  relative  strengths  of  the  navies  of  the  world 
can  be  seen  at  a  glance  from  the  table. 

It  became  apparent  during  the  year  that  the  importance  of 
the  battleship  and  the  cruiser  had  more  than  ever  waned, 
and  that  the  various  admiralties  and  navy  departments  were 
concentrating  on  the  development  of  aircraft  carriers,  des- 
troyers, submarines  and  frigates  to  counter  the  ever  increasing 


448 


NAVIES  OF  THE  WORLD 


NAVIES  OF  THE  WORLD,  Dec.  1949 


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GREAT  BRITAIN 
U.SSR. 

FRANCE           .  2 

ITALY     .         .  2 

ARGENTINA     .  2 

AUSTRALIA      .  — 

CANADA          .  — 

BRAZIL  .         .  1 

CHILE    .         .  1 

TURKFY          .  — 

NETHERLANDS  — 

SWEDEN           .  — 

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GREECE  .         .  — 

INDIA     .          .  — 

NORWAY         .  — 

PORTUGAL      .  — 

CHINA    .         .  — 

POLAND           .  — 

PAKISTAN  — 
DOMINICAN  RFH. — 

RUMANIA        .  — 

COLOMBIA       .  — 

THAILAND       .  - 

DENMARK       .  — 

YUGOSLAVIA   .  — 
MEXICO 
VENEZUELA 

CUBA     .         .  — 

SOUTH  AFRICA  — 

BELGIUM  — 
IRISH  REPUBLIC  -- 

PERSIA    .         .  — 

ECUADOR        .  — 

BURMA  .  — 


menace  of  atomic  weapons,  more  deadly  aircraft  and  faster 
submarines. 

Many  battleships  and  cruisers  of  the  two  principal  navies 
were  broken  up  or  discarded,  together  with  prewar  or  war- 
built  destroyers,  submarines  and  smaller  craft  no  longer 
required,  but  there  were  signs  that  this  was  the  final  reduction 
of  the  large  wartime  fleets  to  a  postwar  establishment  com- 
mensurate with  foreseeable  needs  and  straitened  economies. 

The  majority  of  the  major  warships  of  the  principal  nations 
were  put  in  a  state  of  preservation  or  refitted  for  placing  in 
reserve,  but  many  experiments  were  carried  out  with  aircraft 
carriers,  destroyers  and  submarines.  While  designs  of  the 
warships  of  the  future  were  being  prepared  according  to  the 
lessons  of  World  War  II  to  counter  the  latest  aircraft  and 
submarines,  most  navies  perforce  made  the  best  of  existing 
warships  by  bringing  them  up  to  date  or  modifying  them 
for  new  duties. 

There  were  signs,  however,  that  revolutionary  types  of 
warships  were  being  prepared  for  the  operation  of  atomic 
bombs,  guided  missiles,  rockets  and  new  anti-submarine 
and  anti-aircraft  weapons  developed  since  the  war,  these 
ships  being  designed  with  novel  types  of  propelling  machinery 
such  as  atomic  energy,  hydrogen  peroxide  and  gas  turbines. 

In  most  of  the  big  navies  there  was  a  shortage  of  personnel 
to  man  operational  ships,  of  which  fewer  than  ever  were  in 
full  commission.  This  was  partly  due  to  a  falling  off  in  re- 
cruitment and  the  demobilization  of  wartime  entries,  but 
chiefly  to  the  long  training  in  the  handling  of  the  complicated 
weapons  and  advanced  scientific  apparatus  which  an  officer 
or  rating  must  now  undergo  on  shore  before  he  is  competent 


to  control  and  maintain  the  equipment  of  modern  warships. 

Among  the  naval  events  of  the  year  which  shocked  and 
stirred  the  world  were  the  surprising  halt  in  the  construction 
of  the  giant  U.S.  aircraft  carrier  **  United  States,"  the  largest 
warship  ever  designed,  only  five  days  after  she  had  been  laid 
down  on  April  1 8 ;  the  trapping  of  the  British  frigate  "  Ame- 
thyst "  by  the  Communists  in  the  river  Yangtse  on  April  20, 
her  attempted  rescue  by  the  cruiser  "  London,"  destroyer 
44  Consort  "  and  frigate  **  Black  Swan,"  and  her  subsequent 
remarkable  feat  of  navigation  in  escaping  down  the  river  to 
join  the  fleet  on  the  night  of  July  30-3 1 ;  the  Western  Union 
naval  "  Exercise  Verity  "  carried  out  by  the  combined  fleets 
of  Great  Britain,  France,  the  Netherlands  and  Belgium  in 
July;  the  loss  of  the  U.S.  submarine  "  Cochino,"  which  after 
two  explosions  in  her  battery  room  caught  fire  and  sank  off 
the  north  coast  of  Norway  on  Aug.  26  while  on  an  Arctic 
training  cruise;  the  loss  of  the  Argentine  minesweeper 
44  Fourmer  "  which  sank  in  the  Straits  of  Magellan  on  Sept. 
21;  the  gamma  ray  tests  on  the  obsolescent  British  cruiser 
44  Arethusa  "  during  the  summer;  and  the  scrapping  at  the 
end  of  the  year  of  the  oldest  warship  afloat  in  the  world,  the 
148-year-old  British  man-o'-war  *'  Implacable,"  formerly 
the  French  "  Duguay-Trouin,"  which  was  laid  down  in  1797, 
fought  against  the  British  at  the  battle  of  Trafalgar,  was 
captured  a  fortnight  later  and  served  in,  or  latterly  in  close 
association  with,  the  Royal  Navy  ever  since. 

United  States  Naval  Strength.  Late  in  1949  only  one  of 
the  15  US.  battleships  remained  in  full  commission,  the 
"  Missouri,"  which  led  a  task  force  of  ten  warships  on  two 
separate  midshipmen's  training  cruises  to  Great  Britain  and 
France  during  the  summer.  The  battleship  "  Kentucky  " 
and  the  battle  cruiser  "  Hawaii,"  laid  down  during  World 
War  II,  were  still  only  73  and  84%  complete,  respectively. 
The  27,100  ton  aircraft  carrier  "  Onskany,"  modified  from 
the  original  4t  Essex  "  class  design  while  under  deferred  con- 
struction, was  completed  in  December.  Twelve  other  ships 
of  the  class  were  to  be  modified  on  similar  lines  to  enable 
them  to  operate  heavier  aircraft.  The  fleet  comprised  15 
battleships,  two  battle  cruisers,  37  fleet  aircraft  carriers,  66 
escort  carriers,  25  heavy  cruisers,  44  light  cruisers,  363 
destroyers,  244  escort  destroyers,  172  submarines,  195  mine 
craft,  122  patrol  vessels,  844  amphibious  craft  and  537 
miscellaneous  vessels.  The  total  strength  of  personnel  was 
394,500  in  the  navy  and  77,000  in  the  marine  corps. 

British  Naval  Strength.  One  battleship  and  eight  cruisers 
were  removed  from  the  effective  list.  Of  the  five  remaining 
battleships  none  was  in  operational  commission  at  the  end 
of  the  year,  the  "  Vanguard  "  being  in  the  training  squadron 
and  the  four  of  the  "  King  George  V  "  class  relegated  to 
reserve.  There  were  12  fleet  aircraft  carriers  and  one  escort 
carrier.  The  large  aircraft  carrier 4t  Eagle  "  was  not  completed, 
and  her  sister  ship  44  Ark  Royal "  was  not  launched.  Little 
progress  was  made  with  the  intermediate  fleet  carriers 
44  Albion,"  44  Bulwark  "  and  44  Centaur  "  and  the  remaining 
ship  of  the  class,  the  44  Hermes,"  was  not  launched.  The 
light  fleet  carriers  44  Hercules,"  44  Leviathan  "  and  44  Power- 
ful "  were  still  suspended.  As  a  result  of  scrapping,  cruisers 
were  reduced  to  25.  No  building  progress  was  made  with  the 
cruisers  "  Blake,"  "  Defence  "  and  4*  Tiger  "  begun  in  1942-43 
and  stopped  in  1946.  Destroyers  numbered  111.  Two  of 
the  eight  large  destroyers  of  the  <4  Daring  "  class  ordered 
during  World  War  II  were  launched.  There  were  167  frigates, 
including  50  former  escort  destroyers  of  the  4I  Hunt  "  group, 
24  former  sloops,  and  26  former  corvettes,  which  were  all 
re-classified  as  frigates.  Submarines  numbered  68,  including 
four  44  midgets."  Other  vessels  included  two  monitors, 
three  fast  minelayers,  three  aircraft  maintenance  carriers, 
66  fleet  minesweepers,  and  many  coastal  craft,  miscellaneous 
vessels  and  auxiliaries.  Naval  personnel  numbered  146,000. 


NAVIES   OF  THE  WORLD 


449 


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450 


NAVIES   OF  THE   WORLD 


U.S.S.R.  The  Soviet  navy  returned  one  battleship,  seven 
destroyers  and  three  submarines  to  Great  Britain  and  one 
cruiser  and  27  frigates  to  the  United  States  which  had  been 
on  loan  since  1944;  but  the  U.S.S.R.  was  compensated  by  the 
acquisition  of  one  battleship,  one  cruiser,  six  destroyers, 
two  submarines  and  other  warships  from  Italy  under  the 
peace  treaty,  six  destroyers  and  other  warships  from  surren- 
dered Japanese  tonnage  and  a  considerable  number  of  ex- 
German  ships,  including  the  incomplete  aircraft  carrier 
44  Graf  Zeppelin."  Total  available  strength  in  1949  was 
three  battleships,  14  cruisers,  two  coast  defence  ships,  60 
destroyers,  24  escort  vessels,  360  submarines  and  numerous 
minelayers,  minesweepers,  patrol  vessels,  torpedo  boats  and 
auxiliaries. 

France.  Owing  to  straitened  finances  the  battleship  44  Jean 
Bart "  was  still  not  completed,  the  aircraft  carrier  "  Clemen- 
ceau  "  was  not  proceeded  with  and  the  cruiser  "  De  Grasse  " 
was  not  resumed.  The  fleet  comprised  two  battleships,  one 
light  fleet  carrier,  one  escort  carrier,  11  cruisers,  one  coast 
defence  battleship,  20  fleet  destroyers,  16  escort  vessels  and 
frigates,  12  submarines  and  numerous  patrol  vessels  and 
other  warships.  Personnel  numbered  50,000. 

Italy.  The  fleet  was  reduced  to  the  two  battleships,  four 
cruisers,  four  fleet  destroyers,  16  escort  destroyers,  20  cor- 
vettes and  a  number  of  minesweepers  and  auxiliaries  that 
were  allowed  under  the  peace  treaty. 

Other  European  Countries.  Turkey  acquired  four  destroyers 
from  the  United  States,  and  now  had  one  old  battle  cruiser, 
12  fleet  destroyers,  ten  submarines,  and  smaller  warships. 
Personnel:  4,800. 

The  Netherlands  had  a  well  balanced  fleet  of  one  light 
fleet  aircraft  earner,  two  cruisers,  seven  destroyers,  three 
escort  vessels,  eight  submarines  and  a  number  of  other  war- 
ships and  auxiliaries,  among  them  a  sloop  converted  into  a 
radar  training  ship  and  an  ex-German  whaler  adapted  as  a 
submarine  detection  ship.  Personnel:  27,700. 

Sweden  had  four  cruisers,  five  coast  defence  ships,  1 3  fleet 
destroyers,  eight  escort  vessels,  including  two  older  destroyers 
being  converted  into  anti-submarine  vessels,  24  submarines, 
two  minelayers  and  numerous  other  warships  including  a 
radar  training  ship.  Personnel:  13,500. 

Spain  possessed  six  cruisers,  13  fleet  destroyers,  15  escort 
vessels,  six  submarines,  six  minelayers  and  seven  fleet  mine- 
sweepers, also  many  minor  warships  and  auxiliaries.  Per- 
sonnel: 22,300. 

Greece  had  one  cruiser,  two  destroyers,  eight  escort  des- 
troyers, six  submarines,  eight  corvettes  and  numerous  smaller 
craft.  Personnel:  10,000. 

Norway  had  six  destroyers,  seven  escort  destroyers,  five 
submarines,  three  corvettes,  two  fleet  minesweepers  and 
sundry  minor  warships. 

Portugal  acquired  three  submarines  and  two  frigates  from 
Great  Britain,  and  completed  the  reconstruction  and  modern- 
ization of  her  five  fleet  destroyers.  At  the  end  of  1949  there 
were  five  destroyers,  eight  sloops  and  frigates,  six  submarines 
and  various  ancillary  vessels. 

Poland  had  two  destroyers,  four  submarines,  and  smaller 
craft. 

Denmark  possessed  ten  torpedo  boats  or  small  escort 
destroyers,  two  frigates,  three  submarines,  a  corvette  and 
minor  vessels. 

Rumania  had  two  destroyers,  one  submanne,  two  mine- 
layers and  minor  craft. 

Yugoslavia  had  three  escort  destroyers  and  seven  sub- 
marines. 

Belgium  possessed  two  sloops  and  a  frigate,  with  minor 
craft. 

Finland  had  only  minor  craft,  but  her  navy  was  to  be  built 
up  to  the  10,000  tons  aggregate  allowed  under  peace  treaty. 


Bulgaria  had  a  few  coastal  craft. 

South  and  Central  America.  Argentina  had  two  old  battle- 
ships, three  cruisers,  a  coast  defence  ship,  1 1  destroyers,  four 
escort  destroyers,  four  frigates,  three  submarines,  a  corvette, 
two  patrol  vessels  and  a  considerable  number  of  other  craft. 

Brazil  had  one  battleship,  seven  fleet  destroyers,  eight 
escort  destroyers  and  four  submarines,  also  six  trawler-type 
corvettes  and  smaller  craft. 

Chile  possessed  one  battleship,  two  coast  defence  ships, 
six  destroyers,  three  frigates,  three  corvettes  and  various 
other  vessels. 

Peru  had  two  obsolete  cruisers,  one  old  destroyer,  three 
frigates  and  four  submarines. 

The  Dominican  Republic  had  greatly  strengthened  her 
navy  by  the  acquisition  of  two  destroyers  from  Great  Britain 
and  three  frigates  from  the  United  States.  She  also  had  an 
ex-frigate  presidential  yacht,  five  corvettes  and  a  number  of 
patrol  vessels  and  coastal  craft. 

Colombia  had  two  destroyers,  a  frigate  and  several  smaller 
craft. 

In  the  Mexican  navy  were  four  sloops,  four  frigates,  five 
submarine-chaser  type  patrol  vessels,  and  minor  craft 

Venezuela  possessed  six  corvettes,  two  gunboats  and  a  few 
small  craft. 

Cuba  had  two  sloops,  three  frigates,  two  patrol  vessels  and 
a  number  of  minor  war  vessels. 

Asia.  China's  navy  was  very  divided  The  cruiser  *'  Chung- 
king," formerly  H.M.S.  "  Aurora,"  and  the  sloop  '*  Chang 
Shin  "  (ex-Japanese  "  Uji  ")  were  lost  in  the  civil  war  in 
March  and  September,  respectively,  and  the  escort  destroyer 
44  Lin  Fu,"  formerly  H.M.S.  "  Mendip,"  was  returned  to  the 
Royal  Navy  in  May.  The  fleet  comprised  four  destroyers, 
ten  vessels  of  the  escort  destroyer  and  sloop  type  and  numer- 
ous corvettes,  minesweepers,  gunboats,  patrol  vessels  and 
coastal  craft. 

Siam  possessed  four  small  coast  defence  ships,  two  sloops, 
two  corvettes,  an  old  destroyer,  a  fleet  minesweeper,  ten 
torpedo  boats,  12  M  T.Bs.  and  a  number  of  other  small 
warships. 

Persia  acquired  a  frigate  and  a  fleet  minesweeper  from 
Great  Britain. 

Modern  Types  of  Warships.  The  principal  types  of  war- 
ships in  the  world's  navies  were  as  follows: 

Battleships.  U.S.  "  Iowa,"  45,000  tons;  nine  16  in.,  twenty 
5  in.  guns;  33  knots;  200,000  S.H.P.  U.S.  "  South  Dakota," 
35,000  tons;  nine  16  in.,  twenty  5  in.  guns;  30  knots;  130,000 
S.H.P.  British  "Vanguard,"  42,500  tons;  eight  15  in., 
sixteen  5-25  in.  guns;  28  knots;  130,000  S.H.P.  British 
44  King  George  V,"  35,000  tons,  ten  14  in.,  sixteen  5-25  in. 
guns;  27  knots;  110,000  S.H.P.  French  '4  Richelieu,"  38,500 
tons;  eight  15  in.,  nine  6  in.  guns;  30  knots;  150,000  S.H.P. 

Battle  Cruisers.  U.S.  44  Alaska,"  27,500  tons;  nine  12  in  , 
twelve  5  in.  guns;  33  knots;  150,000  S.H.P. 

Aircraft  Carriers.  U.S.  "  Midway,"  45,000  tons;  eighteen 
5  in.  guns;  137  aircraft;  33  knots;  200,000  S.H.P.  U.S. 
44  Essex,"  27,100  tons;  twelve  5  in.  guns;  82  aircraft;  33  knots; 
150,000  S.H.P.  U.S.  44Saipan,"  14,500  tons;  light  guns; 
48  aircraft;  33  knots;  120,000  S.H.P.  U.S.  44  Independence," 
11,000  tons;  light  guns,  45  aircraft;  33  knots;  100,000  S.H.P. 
British  44  Implacable,"  23,000  tons;  sixteen  4-5  in.  guns;  over 
60  aircraft;  32  knots;  148,000  S.H.P.  British  44  Glory," 
13,190  tons;  light  guns;  40  aircraft;  25  knots;  40,000  S.H.P. 

Cruisers.  U.S.  44  Des  Moines,"  17,000  tons;  nine  8  in., 
twelve  5  in.  guns;  32  knots;  130,000  S.H.P.  U.S.  44  Oregon 
City,"  13,700  tons;  nine  8  in.,  twelve  5  in.  guns;  33  knots; 
120,000  S.H.P.  U.S.  k4  Worcester,"  14,700  tons;  twelve  6  in., 
twelve  3  in.  guns;  32  knots;  120,000  S.H.P.  U.S.  44  Fargo," 
10,000  tons;  twelve  6  in.,  twelve  5  in.  guns;  33  knots;  100,000 
S.H.P.  U  S.  44  San  Diego,"  6,000  tons;  twelve  5  in.  guns; 


NEHRU—NERVOUS   SYSTEM 


451 


33  knots;  75,000  S.H.P.  British  "  Superb/'  8,000  tons;  nine 
6  in.,  ten  4  in.  guns;  31-5  knots;  72,500  S.H.P.  British 
"Dido,"  5,450  tons;  eight  5-25  in.  guns;  32  knots;  62,000 
S.H.P.  Swedish  "  Tre  Kroner,"  7,400  tons;  seven  6  in. 
guns;  33  knots;  100,000  S.H.P. 

Destroyers.  U.S.  "Gearing,"  2,400  tons;  six  5  in.  guns; 
35  knots;  60,000  S.H.P.  U.S.  "  Sumner,"  2,200  tons;  six 
5  in.  guns;  36  knots;  60,000  S.H.P.  British  "  Battleaxe," 
1,980  tons;  four  4  in.  guns;  31  knots;  40,000  S.H.P.  British 
"Jutland,"  2,400  tons;  five  4-5  in.  guns;  31  knots;  50,000 
S.H.P.  French  "  Hoche  "  (ex-German),  2,660  tons;  four  6  in. 
guns;  36-5  knots;  70,000  S.H.P.  Swedish  "  Oland,"  1,880 
tons;  four  4-7  in.  guns;  35  knots;  44,000  S.H.P. 

Submarines.  U.S.  "  Balao,"  1,526  tons;  two  5  in.  guns; 
ten  21  in.  torpedo  tubes;  surface  speed  21  knots;  6,500 
B.H.P.  British  "  Amphion,"  1,120  tons;  one  4  in.  gun; 
ten  21  in.  torpedo  tubes;  18  knots;  4,300  B.H.P.  Russian 
(ex-German  type),  1,600  tons;  light  guns;  six  torpedo  tubes; 
15  knots;  4,800  B.H.P.  (R.  V.  B.  B.) 

NEHRU,  PANDIT  JAWAHARLAL,  Indian 
statesman  (b.  Allahabad,  Nov.  14,  1889),  was  one  of  the 
leaders  of  the  Indian  independence  movement  and  on  Aug. 
15,  1947,  became  the  first  prime  minister  of  the  dominion 
of  India.  (For  his  career  see  Encyclopedia  Britannica  and 
Britannica  Book  of  the  Year  1949.) 

In  April  1949  he  attended  the  Commonwealth  conference 
at  which  a  solution  was  found  whereby  India  could  become 
a  republic  and  at  the  same  time  remain  within  the  Common- 
wealth. Pandit  Nehru  described  the  decisions  of  the  confer- 
ence as  **  good  for  India,  the  Commonwealth  and  the  world." 
On  April  28  he  visited  Dublin,  where  he  was  received  on  the 
floor  of  the  Dail,  and  then  went  to  Switzerland  where  at 
Berne  on  May  5  he  ratified  the  Indo-Swiss  treaty  of  friend- 
ship which  had  been  signed  in  New  Delhi  in  Aug.  1948. 
Addressing  the  Delhi  provincial  political  conference  on  June 
19  he  announced  that  it  had  tentatively  been  decided  that 
India  should  be  declared  a  republic  on  Jan.  26,  1950.  He 
broadcast  on  June  29  on  India's  food  situation  and  urged 
the  nation  to  co-operate  in  a  "  mighty  drive  for  food  pro- 
duction." After  outbreaks  of  violence  in  Calcutta,  he  paid 
a  three-day  visit  to  West  Bengal  in  July.  The  dispute  with 
Pakistan  over  Kashmir  reached  a  climax  in  September; 
and  Pandit  Nehru  expressed  surprise  at  letters  from  Clement 
Attlee  and  President  Harry  S.  Truman  and  again  claimed 
that  Kashmir  was  part  of  India  (q.v.).  In  October  he  went  to 
the  United  States  and  Canada  at  the  invitation  of  the  two 
governments  and  also  visited  London.  He  returned  to 
Bombay  on  Nov.  14.  On  May  23  at  Dak  Pathar  he  laid  the 
foundation  stone  of  the  first  river  valley  project  in  United 
Provinces,  known  as  the  Yamuna  hydro-electric  scheme. 

NEPAL.  An  independent  kingdom  in  the  Himalayas, 
lying  between  India  and  Tibet.  Area:  c.  54,000  sq.  mi. 
Pop.  (1948  est.):  c.  6,910,000.  The  aboriginal  stock  is 
Mongolian  with  an  important  admixture  of  Hindu  blood. 
Languages:  the  Gorkhalis,  or  Gurkhas,  speak  Parbatia 
which  is  of  Sanskrit  origin;  the  Bothias  use  Tibetan;  the 
Newars,  who  came  from  southern  India,  speak  Gubhajius, 
which  resembles  Tibetan  but  is  interspersed  with  many 
Sanskrit  words.  Religion:  Buddhism  mixed  with  Hinduism. 
Capital:  Kathmandu  (pop.,  c.  110,000).  The  ruling  family 
are  Hindu  Rajputs.  All  power  is  in  the  hands  of  the  prime 
minister,  to  whom  it  was  permanently  delegated  by  the  king 
in  1867.  Ruler;  Maharajadhiraja  Tribhubana  Bir  Bikram 
Jung  Bahadur;  prime  minister  and  supreme  commander  in 
chief,  Sir  Mohan  Shumshere  Jung  Bahadur  Rana. 

History.  Constitutional  reforms  of  a  minor  character  had 
been  introduced  but  in  1949  power  was  still  wielded  by  a 


znumsnere  Jung  aanaaur  Kana,  me  Hepaiese  ambassador 
to   France,   after  presenting  his   credentials  to   President    Vincent 
Auriol,  Nov.  1949. 

hereditary  prime  minister.  The  policy  of  isolation  was  little 
changed.  There  was  still  no  modern  industry  and  no  railway 
link  with  the  outside  world.  Schemes  of  development  were, 
however,  under  consideration.  An  outstanding  event  was  the 
landing  of  an  aircraft  at  Kathmandu.  A  movement  for 
popular  reform  in  the  state  was  receiving  support  from  the 
Indian  Congress  party  and  an  appeal  was  made  by  Nepalese 
agitators  to  Pandit  Nehru  imploring  him  to  intervene. 
Some  sympathy  was  given  to  it  by  the  Nepalese  domiciled 
in  India,  estimated  at  two  millions.  (W.  BN.) 

Foreign  Trade.  (1944-45)  Imports  32,520,000  Nep.  rupees;  exports 
37,376,000  Nep.  rupees.  Principal  imports:  cattle,  sheep,  goats,  salt, 
spices,  sugar,  tobacco,  drugs  and  dyes.  Principal  exports:  cattle, 
hides  and  skins,  opium  and  drugs,  gums,  resins  and  dyes. 

Transport  and  Communications.  Roads  (1949):  237  mi.  suitable  for 
motor  vehicles.  Licensed  motor  vehicles  (Dec.  1948):  cars  227,  com" 
mercial  motor  vehicles  88. 

Finance  and  Banking.  Estimated  gross  revenue  12,500,000  Nepal 
rupees.  Monetary  unit:  Nepal  rupee  with  an  exchange  rate  (Dec. 
1949)  of  13-37  Nepal  rupees  to  the  pound. 

NERVOUS  SYSTEM.  Research  in  nervous  and 
mental  diseases  in  1949  had  good  results  with  regard  to 
Parkinsonian  syndromes  and  convulsive  diseases.  Two 
synthetic  drugs,  artane  and  tridione,  were  intensively  used 
on  patients.  Artane  (tri-hexyphenidyl),  and  antispasmodic, 
was  used  primarily  in  the  treatment  of  all  forms  of  Parkin- 
sonian-like  diseases — conditions  caused  by  an  infection  of 
the  brain  (encephalitis)  or  disturbances  of  the  blood  vessels 
of  the  brain  (vascular).  The  drug  was  found  to  stop  or 
reduce  the  tremor  found  in  nearly  all  cases  of  Parkinsonian 
syndromes.  Other  symptoms,  rigidity  and  weakness  were 
only  relieved  occasionally.  Fortunately  toxic  effects  were  not 
often  produced  by  this  new  drug.  Tridione  (tri-methyl- 
oxazolidine-dione)  was  used  in  1949  in  the  treatment  of 
petit  mal  epilepsy  (a  momentary  lapse  of  consciousness). 
Treatment  of  this  condition  had  previously  been  disappointing^ 
but  tridione  was  found  to  arrest  or  stop  the  petit  mal  attacks. 
Its  use,  however,  was  found  to  cause  harmful  or  toxic  effects 
on  the  white  corpuscles  of  the  patient's  blood.  The  white 


452 


NETHERLANDS 


blood  cells  were  reduced  in  number  at  first  and  then  altered 
so  that  an  increase  in  the  lymphocytes  and  a  decrease  in  the 
polymorpho-nuclear  leucocytes  resulted.  Tridione  was  found 
to  produce  glare  phenomenon,  decreased  day  vision,  macrop- 
sia,  drowsiness,  epigastric  distress,  headache,  skin  rashes  and 
swellings  of  the  eyelids,  lips  and  many  other  regions.  When 
such  symptoms  developed,  the  drug  was  eliminated  and  in 
all  cases  the  symptoms  vanished.  If  the  drug  was  not  stopped 
early  agranulocytosis  (diminished  white  blood  cells)  might 
develop  and  cause  death;  three  deaths  were  reported. 
Although  the  toxic  reactions  were  found  in  a  small  number 
of  cases  tridione  was  highly  recommended. 

Cortisone  (compound  E)  was  another  new  substance 
that  was  found  to  have  a  definite  value  in  the  care  of  nervous 
and  mental  diseases.  The  drug  could  improve  the  mental 
capacity  of  the  patient  as  well  as  give  him  a  sense  of  well- 
being.  Such  help  was  often  needed  by  patients  who  were 
afflicted  with  a  debilitating  disease.  The  drug  was  also  found 
to  be  exceedingly  helpful  in  myasthenia  gravis  when  given 
with  neostigmine.  (See  also  PSYCHOSOMATIC  MEDICINE.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  L.  K.  Doshay  and  K.  Constable,  **  Artane  R 
Therapy  for  Parkinsonism,"  J.  Am.  Med.  Assoc.,  140:  1317-22,  Chicago, 
Aug.  27,  1949;  E.  Davidoff,  "Clinical  Electroencephalographic 
Observations  Concerning  Effect  of  Tridione  in  Epileptic  Patients," 
Ant.  J.  Psyclriat.,  104:  600-607,  New  York,  April  1948;  C.  T.  Stone 
and  J.  A.  Rider,  *'  Treatment  of  Myasthenia  Gravis,"  /.  Am.  Med. 
Assoc.,  141:  107-111,  Chicago,  Sept.  10,  1949.  (T.  T.  S.) 

NETHERLANDS.  A  kingdom  of  northwest  Europe, 
bounded  on  the  north  and  west  by  the  North  sea,  on  the 
east  by  Germany  and  on  the  south  by  Belgium.  Area: 
12,868  sq.  mi.  (not  including  the  waterways  and  sheets  of 
water  larger  than  185  ac.  and  minor  acquisitions  along  the 
German  frontier).  Pop.  (July  1,  1949,  est.):  9,955,394. 
Language:  Dutch.  Religion  (May  1947):  Roman  Catholic 
38-50%,  Dutch  Reformed  31-03%,  Reformed  Churches 
7-93%,  non-church  members' 17-04%.  Chief  towns  (pop. 
July  1,  1949,  est.):  Amsterdam  (cap.,  832,583);  Rotterdam 
(671,901);  The  Hague  (555,339);  Utrecht  (191, 8 11);  Haarlem 
(161,380);  Eindhoven  (139,320).  Ruler,  Queen  Juliana; 
prime  minister,  Willem  Drees;  minister  of  foreign  affairs, 
Dr.  Dirk  Uipko  Stikker  (q.v.). 

History.  At  the  beginning  of  the  year  the  country  was  the 
object  of  world  attention  and  criticism  on  account  of  the 


government's  decision  to  resume  military  operations  in 
Indonesia  on  Dec.  18,  1948,  and  the  Indonesian  question 
(see  NETHERLANDS  OVERSEAS  TERRITORIES)  remained  in  the 
forefront  throughout  the  year.  It  led,  following  the  resolution 
of  the  United  Nations  Security  council  of  Jan.  28,  to  the 
resignation  on  Feb.  14  of  Dr.  E.  M.  J.  A.  Sassen,  minister  of 
overseas  territories,  and  later,  after  the  government's  accept- 
ance of  the  van  Royen-Roem  statements  of  May  7,  which 
provided,  inter  alia,  for  the  return  of  the  republican  govern- 
ment to  its  seat  at  Djokjakarta,  to  the  resignation  of  the  first 
high  commissioner  of  the  crown  in  Indonesia,  Dr.  L.  J.  M. 
Beel,  and  his  replacement,  on  June  2,  by  A.  H.  J.  Lovink. 
From  Aug.  23  to  Nov.  2,  The  Hague  was  the  scene  of  the 
round  table  conference  between  Dutch  and  Indonesian 
representatives,  with  observers  of  the  U.N.  Commission  for 
Indonesia  in  attendance.  At  this  conference  agreement  was 
reached  on  the  charter  transferring  sovereignty  to  the  new 
republic  of  the  United  States  of  Indonesia,  on  the  statute  of 
union  between  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  and  the  new 
republic  and  on  a  number  of  technical  regulations  arising 
out  of  the  transfer.  The  ceremonial  transfer  of  sovereignty 
took  place  in  the  royal  palace  at  Amsterdam  on  Dec.  27. 
In  view  of  the  close  ties  uniting  the  Netherlands  to  its  far 
eastern  territories  in  past  centuries,  changes  so  fundamental 
were  likely  to  have  marked  repercussions  in  the  home 
country. 

The  year  saw  further  important  developments  in  the 
country's  postwar  participation  in  European  and  world 
affairs.  It  was  a  signatory  of  the  North  Atlantic  treaty 
(<y.v.),  concluded  at  Washington  on  April  4  and  approved  by 
the  Lower  and  Upper  Chambers  on  July  19  and  Aug.  4, 
respectively;  while  in  September  the  minister  of  foreign 
affairs,  Dr.  D.  U.  Stikker,  attended  the  first  meeting  of  the 
North  Atlantic  council.  On  May  5  the  country  was  likewise 
a  signatory  of  the  statute  of  the  Council  of  Europe  (q.v.)  and 
took  part  in  the  first  meeting  of  the  new  council's  assembly 
at  Strasbourg  during  August  and  September  and  in  the 
meeting  of  the  committee  of  ministers  in  Paris  in  November. 
As  a  member  of  the  Brussels  treaty,  it  sent  delegates  and 
experts  to  the  various  Western  Union  conferences  held  during 
the  year,  while,  in  the  summer,  units  of  the  armed  forces 
participated  in  the  five  powers'  combined  fleet  and  air 
manoeuvres.  That  these  commitments,  however,  imposed 


truiem  urees,  prime  minister  oj  me  Netherlands,  addressing  the  round  table  conference  at  The  Hague,  which  evolved  a  new  status  for 
Indonesia.   The  conference  opened  on  Aug.  23,  1949,  and  continued  until  Nov.  2. 


NETHERLANDS   OVERSEAS  TERRITORIES 


453 


heavy  burdens  on  a  country  still  struggling  to  recover  from 
World  War  II  was  shown  in  the  budget  estimates  for  1950, 
which  provided  no  less  than  Fl.  1,901  million,  more  than 
half  the  estimated  total  expenditure,  for  military  purposes, 
repair  of  war  damage  and  national  debt  payments.  The 
maximum  expectation  of  Marshall  aid  for  1949-50  was 
$258  •  1  million.  In  November  an  additional  $37  •  5  million 
was  granted  for  Indonesia  up  to  Dec  31,  after  the  ban  on 
this  aid  was  lifted  following  the  successful  conclusion  of  the 
round  table  conference.  On  July  1 1,  it  was  agreed  with  the 
U.S.  that  F1.240  million  should  be  made  available  from  the 
special  E.R.P.  local  currency  account  to  finance  four  impor- 
tant building  and  drainage  schemes,  and,  in  the  same  month, 
a  U.S.  loan  of  $15  million  was  arranged  through  the  Inter- 
national bank  for  the  purchase  of  vital  factory  plant  abroad. 

Despite  the  serious  technical  difficulties  involved,  the 
immediate  Benelux  goal  of  full  economic  union  between  the 
Netherlands,  Belgium  and  Luxembourg  was  neared  during 
the  year.  At  the  conference  in  March  at  The  Hague,  July  1, 
1950,  was  fixed  as  the  date  on  which  this  union  would 
become  a  reality;  and  at  Luxembourg  in  October  agree- 
ment was  reached  on  the  last  preparatory  steps  to  be  taken. 
The  "  pre-union,"  originally  planned  for  July  1,  whereby 
restrictions  on  the  exchange  of  certain  goods  between  the 
three  countries  were  removed,  came  into  operation  on  Oct.  17. 
Discussions  were  also  begun  between  experts  from  the 
Benelux  countries  and  France  and  Italy  concerning  an 
integration  of  all  five  national  economies. 

As  a  result  of  American  aid,  Benelux  and  the  nation's  own 
efforts,  visible  progress  was  made  during  the  year  towards 
economic  recovery.  On  Sept.  20  the  minister  of  finance 
presented  for  1950  what  was,  with  the  exception  of  the 
capital  expenditure  section,  the  first  balanced  budget  since 
World  War  II.  On  the  same  day  he  announced  a  30-5% 
devaluation  of  the  guilder  in  terms  of  the  dollar,  as  a  con- 
sequence of  a  simijar  devaluation  of  the  British  pound.  The 
rationing  of  all  consumers'  goods,  apart  from  cofTee  and 
fuel,  ceased  on  Nov.  6. 

Yet,  despite  these  improvements,  the  government  warned 
that  great  effort  and  sacrifice  and  a  larger  measure  of 
industrialization  were  required  if  the  country  was  to  solve 
the  difficulties  ahead,  difficulties  accentuated  by  growing 
competition  in  the  export  market  and  the  rapid  increase  of 
the  home  population.  Since  the  turn  of  the  century  the  latter 
had  doubled  itself,  reaching  10  million  early  in  October, 
while  the  death  rate  for  1948  had  achieved  the  world  record 
figure  of  only  7-4  per  thousand. 

On  April  23  twenty  minor  adjustments  were  made  to  the 
eastern  frontier,  whereby  the  Netherlands  acquired  about 
27  sq.  mi.  of  territory,  inhabited  by  9,404  Germans.  The 
corrections — agreed  upon  by  the  six  western  powers  on 
March  26,  1949 — were  of  an  interim  character  pending  the 
peace  treaty  with  Germany  and  were  designed  to  remove  anom- 
alies in  communications  and  to  facilitate  customs  control. 

Local  government  elections  were  held  in  June.  The  results 
reflected  the  slight  shift  to  the  Right  observed  in  the  general 
elections  of  the  previous  year  and  again  mainly  at  the  expense 
of  the  Communist  party.  (J.  T.  BY.) 

Education.  (1947)  Elementary  schools  7,936,  pupils  1,293,000, 
teachers  39,050,  secondary  schools  446,  pupils  100,960,  teachers 
6,121;  technical  schools,  797,  pupils  194,837,  teachers  8,567;  training 
colleges  88,  students  6,552,  teachers  1,006;  agricultural  schools  (1946) 
192,  pupils  42,851;  universities  and  institutions  of  higher  education 
10,  students  25,036,  professors  and  lecturers  769. 

Agriculture  and  Fisheries.  Mam  crops  (1948,  m  '000  metric  tons, 
1949  estimates  in  brackets):  wheat  305  (325);  barley  138;  oats  316, 
rye  382  (375);  potatoes  5,870;  sugar  (raw  value),  281 ,  dry  peas  32, 
flax  fibre  183;  linseed  15;  rapcseed  27.  Livestock  (m  '000  head,  May 
1948):  cattle  2,313,  sheep  425;  pigs  871;  horses  334;  hens  17,405. 
Fisheries:  total  catch  (1948):  weight  257,870  metric  tons;  value 
Fl.89,746,000.  Production  (1948,  in  metric  tons):  milk  4,488,000; 
butter  70,956;  cheese  96,828;  sugar  455,880;  meat  168,000. 


Industry.  Industrial  establishments  (Dec  1948)  9,230;  persons 
employed  773,527.  Fuel  and  power  (1948,  1949,  six  months,  in  brac- 
kets)' coal  (m  '000  metric  tons)  11,033  (5,684),  manufactured  gas 
delivered  (in  '000  cu.  ft )  49,723  (25,850),  electricity  (in  million  kwh.) 
4.132  (2,239);  crude  oil  (in  '000  metric  tons)  495  (301).  Raw  materials 
(1948,  in  '000  metric  tons),  pig  iron  441;  iron  castings  132,  steel 
castings  8;  steel  ingots  200,  salt  250.  Manufactured  goods  (1948, 
in  '000  metric  tons)  tobacco  (cut)  8-3,  cigarettes  (in  millions)  5,317-6; 
paper  288;  cotton  yarn  47  8;  woollen  yarn  26-0;  rayon  yarn  16-0, 
rayon  fibre  9  8;  cement  588,  building  bricks  (in  millions)  972 

Foreign  Trade.  (Million  florins).  Imports.  (1948)  4,966;  (1949, 
six  months)  2,669.  Exports  (1948)  2,718;  (1949,  six  months;  1,708. 

Transport  and  Communications.  Roads  (1949).  9,320  mi  Licensed 
motor  vehicles  (Dec  1948).  cars  103,000,  commercial  motor  vehicles 
87,500  Railways  C1948):  2,083  mi.,  passenger-mi  4,273  million; 
goods  traffic  ('000  metric  tons)  18,312  Shipping  (Jan.  1949):  number 
of  merchant  vessels  965,  total  gross  tonnage  2,558,566.  Air  transport 
(1948):  '000  mi  flown  21,056,  passenger-mi  402  million,  cargo, 
including  mail,  net  ton-mi.  15  million.  Telephones  (1947)  575,995. 

Finance  and  Banking.  (Million  florins)  Budget:  (1949  est  )  revenue 
4.004,  expenditure  4,299;  (1950  est  )  revenue  3,520,  expenditure  3,500. 
National  debt  (Jan.  1948).  21,586.  Currency  circulation  (Aug.  1949; 
in  brackets  Aug  1948)  3,073  (3,117)  Gold  reserve  (Sept  1949;  in 
brackets  Sept.  1948)  162  (174)  million  US  dollars.  Bank  deposits 
(Aug  1949,  m  brackets  Aug  1948)  4,199  (4,152)  Monetary  unit: 
florin  or  guilder  with  an  exchange  rate  (Dec.  1949;  m  brackets  Dec. 
1948)  of  10  64  (10  69)  florins  to  the  pound 

RfBLKXiRAPHY  L  B  S  Larkins,  Netherlands  Economic  and  Com- 
mercial Condition^  (London,  H  M  S  O  ,  1949). 

NETHERLANDS  OVERSEAS  TERRITORIES. 

Under  this  heading  are  grouped  the  overseas  territories 
whose  names  were  formally  changed  (on  Sept.  20,  1948)  to 
"  Indonesia,"  '*  Surinam,"  and  the  **  Netherlands  Antilles  " 
respectively.  Their  total  area  is  approximately  789,694  sq.  mi. 
and  the  total  population  71,903,700. 

Indonesia.  The  archipelago  called  Indonesia  and  com- 
prising the  territory  of  the  former  Netherlands  East  Indies, 
stretches  3,000  mi.  from  east  to  west  and  1,300  mi.  from  north 
to  south,  between  6°N.  and  1 1°S  and  from  95°  to  141°E. 
It  includes  the  islands  of  Sumatra,  Java,  Celebes  and  Borneo 
(whose  northern  part  is  under  British  rule),  and  many  smaller 
islands,  together  with  the  western  half  of  New  Guinea.  Total 
area:  <\  735,000  sq.  mi.;  total  pop.  (1941  est.)  71,534,000, 
all  but  2*6%  of  them  being  indigenous  (Java  40  million, 
Sumatra  8  million,  Celebes  4  million,  Dutch  Borneo  2-5 
million).  Chief  towns  (pop.,  1930  census):  Batavia  (cap., 
435,184;  [mid-1949  est.]  1,200,000);  Socrabaja  (341,675); 
Semarang  (217,796);  Bandoeng  (166,815);  Soerakarta  or 
Solo  (165,484);  Djokjakarta  (139,649)  Languages:  Malay 
is  to  a  certain  extent  a  language  of  inter-communication 
between  different  population  groups  speaking  25  main  langu- 
ages and  250  dialects;  Dutch  is  also  spoken  by  educated 
Indonesians.  Religions:  Moslem  c.  90%,  Christians  3-4%, 
Hindu  1  4%.  High  commissioners  of  the  Crown  in  1949: 
Dr.  Louis  J.  M  Beel,  (after  June  2)  Anthony  H.  J.  Lovink 
and  (after  Dec.  27)  Dr.  H.  M.  Hirschfeld. 

History.  The  second  police  action  of  the  Netherlands 
military  forces  intended  to  curb  the  Indonesian  republic 
having  achieved  its  aims  in  the  course  of  a  few  days,  hostilities 
ceased  in  Java  on  Jan.  1,  1949,  and  in  Sumatra  on  Jan.  6, 
1949.  Deprived  of  its  remaining  territory,  which  was  almost 
entirely  occupied  by  the  Dutch,  of  its  various  armed  forma- 
tions which  were  scattered  and  of  its  leaders  who  had  been 
removed  elsewhere,  the  Indonesian  republic  virtually  ceased 
to  exist.  And  with  it  disappeared  the  uncompromising 
spirit  in  which  the  Republicans  competed  with  the  Federalists 
for  the  inheritance  of  power  in  the  archipelago. 

In  Jan.  1949,  however,  the  government  of  India  summoned 
a  conference  of  Asiatic  countries  to  New  Delhi,  where  the 
Dutch  action  in  Indonesia  was  sharply  condemned  and  a 
resolution  was  passed  calling  for  the  restoration  of  the 
status  ante  quo  in  Indonesia.  The  U.S.  representative  on  the 
United  Nations  Security  council  sponsored  a  resolution, 
passed  on  Jan.  28,  enjoining  the  Netherlands  to  withdraw  its 


454 


NETHERLANDS   OVERSEAS  TERRITORIES 


THE  REPUBLIC  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  INDONESIA 


PACIFIC 
O   C  K  A 


INDIAN 

O  C\  K  A    N 


By  the  agreement  signed  on  Nov  ?,  1949,  the  Netherlands  transferred  sovereignty  over  Indonesia  to  the  Republic 
of  the  United  States  of  Indonesia  effective  on  Dec  27.  1949 


New  Guinea  wilt  continue  under  the  government  of  the  Netherlands  for  the  present  Its  political  status  will  be 
determined  within  one  year  of  the  date  of  transfer  through  negotiations  between  the  Republic  and  the  Netherlands 


A    U    S    TJR    A    U  MA 


00°        rNCYClOPAbDIA  8RITANNICA,  Inc 


*  FEDERAL  DISTRICT 

1  REPUBLIC  OF  INDONESIA 

2  STATE  OF  SOUTH  SUMATRA 

3  BANTAM,  UNDER  PROV    FED    GOV'T 

4  STATE  OF  PASUNDAN  (WEST  JAVA) 

5  STATE  OF  MADOERA 


6  STATE  OF  EAST  JAVA 

7  STATE  OF  EAST  INDONESIA 

8  AUTONOMOUS  AREA  OF  EAST  BORNEO 

9  AUTONOMOUS   AREA  OF  S  E    BORNEO 

10  AUTONOMOUS  AREA  OF  BAN  JAR 

11  STATE  OF  GREAT  DAYAK 


12  AUTONOMOUS  AREA  OF  WEST  BORNEO 

13  STATE  OF  BILLITON 

14  STATE  OF  BANGKA 

15  STATE  OF  RIOUW 

76  STATE  OF  EAST  SUMATRA 


troops  from  former  republican  areas  in  Java  and  Sumatra, 
to  release  the  captured  leaders  and  to  restore  the  government 
of  the  republic  at  Djokjakarta 

Faced  with  this  grave  development  on  the  one  hand  and  its 
inalienable  responsibilities  as  the  recognized  sovereign  power 
in  Indonesia  on  the  other,  the  Netherlands  government  chose 
to  make  it  clear  that  it  had  to  reject  this  intervention.  The 
consequence  of  this  attitude  soon  assumed  alarming  aspects, 
as  in  reply  to  the  Netherlands  refusal  to  yield  to  the  Security 
council's  injunctions,  sanctions  and  suspension  of  aid  under 
the  European  Recovery  programme  were  adumbrated.  To 
break  the  deadlock,  Canada's  representative  in  the  Security 
council  tabled  some  constructive  suggestions  in  March,  which 
proved  to  be  acceptable  to  the  Dutch  and  which  were  finally 
embodied  in  the  council's  "  ruling  "  of  March  24.  The  ruling 
combined  the  operative  part  of  the  Security  council's  Jan.  28 
resolution  with  the  recommendations  that  the  republic,  if 
it  were  to  be  restored,  should  in  future  undertake  to  co- 
operate towards  an  effective  cessation  of  hostilities  in  Indo- 
nesia and  should,  furthermore,  be  prepared  to  take  part, 
together  with  the  Netherlands  and  the  Federalists,  in  a  round 
table  conference  at  The  Hague,  which  was  to  provide  for  a  peace- 
ful and  lasting  settlement  of  the  Indonesian  problem.  The  Dutch 
forthwith  concurred  with  the  Canadian  ruling,  and  from  then 
on  developments  moved  with  noticeable  rapidity.  On  May  1 
the  leaders  of  the  Dutch  and  Republican  delegations,  nego- 
tiating on  the  newly  recommended  basis  of  compromise, 
announced  that  agreement  in  principle  had  been  reached. 
On  June  22  a  meeting  of  the  heads  of  the  delegations  was 
brought  about  regarding  a  method  to  effectuate  the  cessation 
of  hostilities  (it  took  effect  on  Aug.  10  in  Java  and  on  Aug.  14 
in  Sumatra).  Thereupon  the  evacuation  of  Djokjakarta  and 
surrounding  districts  by  the  Netherlands  troops  took  place 
on  June  24,  and  on  July  6  the  reconstructed  Republican 
government  was  allowed  to  return  to  its  former  capital. 

Meanwhile  the  governments  of  the  Indonesian  federal 
states,  who  welcomed  the  new  policy  of  compromise  and  who 


had  contributed  their  influence  to  bring  it  about,  took  steps 
to  safeguard  their  own  positions.  An  inter-Indonesian 
conference  was  held,  bringing  together  Federalists  and 
Republicans  for  the  purpose  of  exploring  the  possibilities 
of  a  common  policy  to  guide  their  respective  delegations 
at  the  forthcoming  round  table  conference.  The  inter- 
Indonesian  conference  ended  in  Batavia  on  Aug.  2  on  a 
note  of  complete  harmony,  which  covered  amongst  other 
things  recognition  of  the  federal  structure  of  Indonesia  as  a 
basic  conception  of  the  new  constitutional  system. 

The  round  table  conference  thus  opened  in  The  Hague 
on  Aug.  23  in  a  favourable  atmosphere  which  prevailed  to  the 
end,  notwithstanding  occasional  clashes.  Some  part  of  this 
success  might  be  attributed  to  the  U.N.  Commission  for 
Indonesia,  which  attended  throughout  the  conference  and 
towards  the  end  arbitrated  in  several  delicate  cases.  On 
Nov.  2  the  round  table  conference  ended  with  a  solemn 
plenary  session  in  the  mediaeval  Hall  of  the  Knights  at  The 
Hague,  where  the  completion  of  its  business  was  announced 
and  the  documents  were  signed  by  the  three  delegations, 
Netherlands,  Republican  and  Federalist,  certifying  agree- 
ment on  the  following  mam  subjects: 

1  The  charter  of  transfer  by  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands   of 
sovereignly  over  Indonesia  to  the  republic  of  the  United  States 
of  Indonesia,  to  be  effected  not  later  than  Dec   30,  1949.    (It  was 
also  agreed  that  the  Netherlands  kingdom  should  retain  sovereignty 
over  the  Dutch  part  of  New  Guinea  [area    152,089  sq   mi  ]  for  the 
time  being,  on  which  a  further  decision  would  have  to  be  negotiated 
within  one  year) 

2  The  statute  of  the  union  to  be  concluded  between  the  Netherlands 
and  Indonesia     The  union,  under  the  Queen  of  the  Netherlands 
would  have  to  assure  the  co-operation  of  the  partners  in  the  held 
of  their  common  interests  through  ministerial  conferences  twice 
yearly     Attached  to  this  statute  was  a  joint  declaration  on  funda- 
mental human  rights  and  liberties  followed  by  a  scries  of  agreements, 
some  of  them  in  detail,  on  the  principal  subjects  of  future  co-opcr- 
ation     foreign  relations,  defence,  financial  and  economic  matters 
(rights,    concessions    and    enterprises,    financial    and    monetary 
conditions,     commercial     policy,     public    indebtedness    of    the 
former  Netherlands  Indies)  and  cultural  interests 


NETHERLANDS   OVERSEAS   TERRITORIES 


455 


3   An  agreement  on   (he   transition  period  covering  a  great   many 
problems  arising  out  of  the  change  from  the  old  to  the  new  consti- 
tutional order  (citi/cnship  and  nationality,  position  and  rights  of 
civil    seivants,    military    questions,    such    as    the    withdrawal    of 
Netherlands  naval,  land  and  air  forces  and  the  setting  up  o!  a 
Netherlands   military   mission   to   assist   the   new   government   ot 
Indonesia  to  build  up  sea,  land  and  air  forces  ot  its  own) 
All  the  above  mentioned  agreements  and  various  protocols 
accompanying  them  required  ratification  by  the  Netherlands 
parliament  and  by  the  representative  bodies  of  the  federal 
states  and  the  republic  of  Indonesia  respectively. 

The  Netherlands  government  was  the  first  to  initiate 
proceedings  of  ratification.  The  first  reaction  of  parliament 
was  not  directly  favourable,  the  lack  of  precision  and  the 
absence  of  guarantees  for  the  fulfilment  of  the  agreements 
being  amongst  their  main  objections.  Simultaneously  with 
the  end  of  the  round  table  conference  security  conditions 
in  several  parts  of  Java  showed  a  marked  deterioration;  and 
the  question  as  to  how  law  and  order  were  to  be  maintained 
after  the  withdrawal  of  the  Dutch  troops  did  not  fail  to  give 
rise  to  anxiety.  It  was  to  be  foreseen,  however,  that  both 
the  Netherlands  parliament  and  the  Indonesian  representative 
bodies  on  the  other  hand  would  realize  that  a  rejection  of  the 
results  of  the  round  table  conference  would  create  an 
impossible  and  untenable  situation  and  that  under  the  circum- 
stances trust  in  the  good  faith  of  all  parties  concerned  in 
carrying  out  the  agreements  according  to  the  spirit  rather 
than  to  the  letter,  might  be  justified  by  future  events. 

While  the  round  table  conference  was  still  in  progress,  the 
Republican  and  Federalist  delegations  in  The  Hague  reached 
complete  agreement  on  a  preliminary  constitution  for  the 
republic  of  the  United  States  of  Indonesia,  based  on  the 
principles  of  federalism  and  parliamentary  democracy, 
which  would  remain  in  effect  until  a  constituent  assembly, 
scheduled  to  convene  within  one  year's  time,  should  pass  a 
final  text.  On  the  basis  of  this  constitution,  the  Indonesians 
made  preparations  for  the  transfer  of  sovereignty.  Ahmed 
Sukarno  (q.v.)  was  elected  on  Dec.  15,  at  Djokjakarta,  by 
representatives  of  the  Indonesian  states  to  be  the  president 
of  the  republic  and  the  first  all-Indonesian  cabinet  was 
formed  with  Mohammed  Hatta  as  prime  minister. 

The  round  table  conference  agreements  were  ratified  by 
both  houses  of  parliament  in  Holland  and  by  the  representa- 
tive assemblies  of  the  Indonesian  states  in  the  course  of  the 
first  few  weeks  of  December.  On  Dec.  27  the  solemn  transfer 
of  sovereignty  by  the  Queen  of  the  Netherlands  to  an  Indo- 
nesian delegation  headed  by  premier  Hatta  took  place  at 
Amsterdam,  the  capital  of  the  Netherlands,  while  simul- 
taneously in  Batavia  (renamed  Jakarta)  the  high  commissioner 
of  the  Crown,  last  representative  of  Netherlands  constitutional 
authority  in  Indonesia,  handed  over  the  reins  of  government 
to  President  Sukarno.  The  rule  of  the  Netherlands  kingdom 
in  Indonesia  had  come  to  an  end,  and  under  a  darkening 
political  sky  spreading  over  southeast  Asia  the  new  republic 
faced  the  uncertainties  of  the  future.  (See  also  INDONESIA, 
REPUBLIC  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF.)  (W.  G.  P.) 

Education.  Schools  (1940,  public  and  private  together),  village 
schools  17,718,  teachers  35,163,  pupils  1,896,000;  primary  Indonesian 
354,  teachers  2,331,  pupils  82,935,  primary  European  292,  teachers 
1,611,  pupils  47,282,  primary  Chinese  110,  teachers  707,  pupils  25,696, 
higher  elementary  Indonesian  2,783,  teachers  8,394,  pupils  296,885; 
secondary  41,  teachers  542,  pupils  8,686;  University  ot  Batavia, 
teaching  staff  125,  students  1,246  Illiteracy  (1940)  58  7%  The 
only  postwar  figures,  excluding  the  republic  of  Indonesia,  were  as 
follows  (1948).  elementary  schools  12,000,  pupils  3,000,000;  secondary 
schools  47,  pupils  6,500 

Foreign  Trade.  IMPORTS  EXPORTS 

Weight  Value  Weight  Value 

('000  metric       (million        ('000  metric       (million 
tons)  guilders)  tons)  guilders) 

1938     .          .          2,002  0  497  4  11,030-0  714  3 

1947  .          .  909  4  754-0  1,216  0  346  6 

1948  .          .          2,1170  1,155-0  5,185   3          1,040-4 

1949  (six  months)   1,429  0  786-6  4,067  9  763  5 


PRINCIPAL  EXPORIS  ('000  metric  tons) 

1938  1947  1948 

Mineral  oil  products  6,067  4  771    0  3,848  0 

Sugar  1,077  X  17  63  9 

Copra  556  5  152  6  242  2 

Rubber  311    2  85  0  279-8 

Palm  oil  255   7  23  39  9 

Tea  71   9  32  94 

Pepper  54  5 

Tobacco  47  9  22  II 

Tin  and  tin  ore  .  26  5  21    7  46   3 

Cruet  destinations  of  exports  were  (1948,  million  guilders)  the 
Netherlands  175  1,  Singapore  and  Malaya  197-8;  the  US  183  3, 
Japan  25  4,  the  U  K  21  0.  Chief  source  of  imports  were  the  U.S  , 
the  Netherlands,  the'U.K  and  Singapore  and  Malaya. 

Agriculture.  Main  crops  (1947,  '000  metric  tons,  Java  and  Madoera 
only)  rice  (paddy)  6,600,  maize  1,300,  cassava  5,600,  sweet  potatoes 
1,200,  ground  nuts  130,  soya  beans  180  I  ivestock  (1947,  '000  head)*: 
cattle  },590,  sheep  1,640;  goats  5,1 12,  pigs  1,162,  buffaloes  2,675 1 
horses  620  Fisheries  (total  catch,  1947)  28,000  metric  tons 

transport  and  Communications.  Railways  (1947)  1,900  km. 
Roads  (1947)-  53,200  km,  including  metalled  12,600  km  Licensed 
motor  vehicles  (1947),  cars  12,500,  lorries  12,  UK)  Shipping  regularly 
serving  Indonesia  (1947)  merchant  vessels  154,  gross  tonnage  757,000 

Finance.  Budget  (million  guilders,  1947  est  in  brackets  1940) 
revenue  1,034  (743  6),  expenditure  2,929  (761  3)  National  debt  was 
estimated  in  Dec  1947  at  H  3,970  million.  Currency  circulation 
(Dec  1947)-  H  1,445  million.  Until  Dec  1949  the  monetary  unit  was 
Dutch  guilder  or  florin  with  an  exchange  rate  of  £1  -Fl  10  64  and 
S1--F13  80  (F12  65  until  Sept  18,  1949) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  H  J  van  Mook,  "  Indonesia  and  the  Problem  of 
Southeast  Asia,"  Foreign  Aflau\  (New  York,  July  1949);  A.  Vanden- 
bosch,  "  Indonesia,"  in  The  AVw  World  of  Southeast  A\ia  (Lennox  A. 
Mills,  ed  ,  Minneapolis,  U  S  ,  1949) 

Netherlands  Antilles.  The  Netherlands  Antilles  consist  of 
six  islands  in  the  West  Indies,  with  a  total  area  of  403  sq.  mi. 
and  a  total  population  (1949  est.)  of  160,000,  of  which  about 
one  quarter  are  aliens.  Three  islands  lie  near  western  Vene- 
zuela, Curacao  (210  sq.  mi.),  Bonaire  (95  sq.  mi.)  and  Aruba 
(69  sq.  mi.).  The  other  three  islands,  sparsely  populated, 
he  500  mi.  to  the  northeast — the  southern  portion  of  St. 
Martin  (17  sq.  mi.),  St.  Eustace  (7  sq.  mi.)  and  Saba  (5  sq.  mi.). 
The  largest  city  and  capital  is  Willemstad,  on  the  island  of 
Curacao  (pop.,  1949  est.,  45,000).  The  official  language  is 
Dutch,  but  a  local  patois  of  diverse  origin  is  equally  wide- 
spread. Religion:  mainly  Roman  Catholic  (90%).  Governor, 
L.  A.  H.  Peters. 

The  first  election  in  the  colony  too  place  on  March  17, 
1949.  The  National  People's  party  gained  4  of  the  8  seats  of 
the  island  of  Curacao  in  the  Legislature  (Staten),  and  all 
the  3  seats  of  Bonaire  and  the  northeastern  islands;  these  7, 
with  the  5  representatives  of  the  Aruban  People's  party,  set 
up  a  coalition.  On  April  19,  the  Legislature  was  officially 
installed,  and  the  head  of  the  National  People's  party, 
M.  F.  da  Costa  Gomez,  became  prime  minister.  Ill  feeling 
between  the  Aruba  and  Curacao  wings  of  the  coalition  soon 
forced  the  re-organization  of  the  cabinet.  After  eight  weeks 
of  wrangling,  at  the  end  of  July,  there  was  set  up  a  compromise 
cabinet,  consisting  in  part  of  technicians  not  identified  with 
any  party,  and  presided  over  by  L.  C.  Kwartsz. 

An  unusually  severe  and  protracted  drought  affected 
Curacao  through  the  first  half  of  1949.  An  ambitious  pro- 
gramme of  expanding  the  facilities  for  increasing  the  water 
supply  was  authorized  to  be  undertaken  immediately,  in 
the  hope  of  its  completion  in  two  or  three  years.  (C.  McG.) 

Education.  Schools  (1949)-  elementary  47,  pupils  15,462;  higher 
elementary  25,  pupils  9,592,  secondary  1,  pupils  133 

Economy  and  Finance.  Petroleum  refining  is  the  most  important 
industry.  There  were  3  refineries— Curacaosche  Petroleum  Industrie 
Maatschappij,  at  Emmastad  on  Curacao,  and  Lago  Oil  and  Transport 
Co  (Standard  Oil  Co  )  and  the  Eagle  Oil  Co  on  Aruba  Production 
of  refined  petroleum  products  in  1948  by  the  first  two  amounted  to 
234  million  bbl  (95%  of  the  total) 

Exports  in  1948  totalled  Fl  766  million,  imports  Fl  867  million. 
About  97%  of  the  exports  consisted  of  petroleum  products,  and  77% 
of  the  imports  consisted  of  crude  petroleum,  almost  all  of  which  is 
brought  from  Venezuela  by  shallow-draught  tender  Total  imports  of 
crude  petroleum  in  1948  amounted  to  245  million  bbl. 


456 


NEWFOUNDLAND  AND   LABRADOR 


The  monetary  unit  is  the  Netherlands  Antilles  guilder  or  florin, 
valued  at  U.S  $0-53.  Budget  (1949  est.).  revenue  Fl. 57,329,51 1 ; 
expenditure  FI. 57,267,582.  Actual  revenue  in  1948  was  Fl.55,788,497. 
Public  debt  (Dec  1,  1949)  FI.4,884.000.  Notes  in  circulation  (Dec.  1. 
1949):  F1.37  million;  gold  reserve:  Fl  35  million 

Surinam  (Dutch  Guiana).  A  Netherlands  colony  in  north- 
eastern South  America,  bounded  on  the  north,  east,  south 
and  west  by  the  Atlantic  ocean,  French  Guiana,  Brazil  and 
British  Guiana,  respectively.  Area:  54,291  sq.  mi.  Pop. 
(1948  census):  209,700.  In  addition  to  over  80,000  native- 
born  Surinamese  and  American  Indians,  principal  population 
groups  included  56,000  Asiatic  Indians,  35,000  Javanese, 
19,000  Negroes  and  2,400  Chinese.  The  capital  and  chief 
port  is  Paramaribo  (pop.,  1946  est.,  71,000).  The  official 
language  of  the  colony  is  Dutch,  although  English,  Javanese, 
Hindi  and  Urdu  are  also  spoken.  Governor,  Willem  Huender; 
from  Dec.  2,  J.  Klaasesz. 

Projects  designed  to  secure  autonomy  for  Surinam  within 
the  Netherlands  empire  moved  forward  during  1949  with  less 
friction  than  in  the  previous  year.  However,  some  agitation 
followed  the  adjournment  at  Havana,  Cuba,  on  July  21  of  a 
meeting  of  representatives  of  the  Latin- American  republics 
sponsored  by  the  American  Committee  on  Dependent 
Territories,  which  had  been  established  in  1948  by  the  9th 
International  Conference  of  American  States.  The  Havana 
meeting  adopted  a  resolution  requesting  a  later  inter- 
American  conference  to  call  upon  the  remaining  European 
powers  with  American  possessions  to  co-operate  in  (1) 
granting  eventual  independence  to  these  holdings  and  (2) 
establishing  United  Nations  trusteeship  arrangements  for 
colonies  found  to  be  incapable  of  self-government.  Mean- 
while, the  Netherlands  government  intensified  its  co-operation 
with  the  U.S.,  the  United  Kingdom  and  France  through  the 
Caribbean  commission  fy.v.),  representing  a  four-power 
approach  to  the  problems  of  Surinam  and  other  dependent 
territories  in  the  western  hemisphere.  (G.  I.  B.) 

Education.  Schools  (Jan  1,  1949):  primary  129,  teachers  773, 
pupils  31,463 

Economy  and  Finance.  Exports  in  1948  totalled  Fl  27,371,980, 
imports  H  36,172,232.  Chief  exports  bauxite  (79%),  timber  (5%), 
citrus  fruit  (5%)  and  gold  (4%).  Principal  customers  were  the  U  S 
(85%)  and  the  Netherlands  (10%),  the  chief  suppliers  were  the  U  S. 
(49%)  and  the  Netherlands  (30%)  The  major  economic  activity  is  the 
extraction  of  bauxite,  most  of  which  is  exported  to  the  U  S  Production 
in  1948  was  2,186,000  short  tons 

Actual  government  revenue  in  1948  was  Fl  22,147,000  (est  1949: 
Fl  26,68 3, 000),  actual  expenditure  was  F1.21, 120,000  (est  1949. 
FI.26,090,000)  Notes  in  circulation  (Oct.  1,  1949).  Fl  10,683,000; 
gold  reserve.  H. 6,586, 649.  Monetary  unit*  Surinam  guilder  or  florin 
valued  at  U  S.  $0  53 

NEW  CALEDONIA:    see  FRENCH  UNION 

NEWFOUNDLAND  AND  LABRADOR.  A  Brit- 
ish island  colony  of  North  America,  which  on  March  31, 
1949,  became  the  tenth  province  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada. 
Area:  Newfoundland  42,734  sq.  mi.,  Labrador  c.  110,000 
sq.  mi.  Pop.:  Newfoundland  (1945  census)  315,643,  (1947 
est.)  321,897;  Labrador  (1947  est.)  5,639.  Capital:  St. 
John's  (pop.,  1947,  57,849).  Language:  English  99-3%. 
Religion:  Roman  Catholic  33%,  Church  of  England  31-4%, 
United  Church  24  9%,  Salvation  Army  7%,  Presbyterian 
05%,  others  3  2%.  Last  British  governor,  Sir  Gordon 
Macdonald  (left  the  island  on  March  5);  prime  minister, 
Joseph  R.  Smallwood. 

History.  In  a  referendum  in  July  1948  Newfoundland 
decided  by  78,323  votes  to  71,334  in  favour  of  confederation 
with  Canada  as  against  a  return  to  responsible  government. 
By  December  the  terms  were  completed.  They  were  ratified 
by  the  Dominion  parliament  on  Feb.  18,  1949,  and  approved 
by  the  British  parliament  on  March  16.  As  from  midnight 
March  31,  Newfoundland,  including  Labrador,  became  the 
tenth  province,  thereby  bringing  to  fruition  the  plan 


envisaged  in  1864  of  consolidating  British  North  America  as  a 
political  entity  within  the  Empire. 

Commission  government  terminating  after  a  15  years' 
tenure,  Sir  Albert  J.  Walsh  was  appointed  provisionally 
lieutenant  governor  and  Joseph  R.  Smallwood,  moving 
spirit  in  the  confederation  campaign,  was  sworn  in  as  acting 
premier.  In  the  provincial  election  on  June  27  the  Liberals, 
led  by  Smallwood,  won  21  seats  against  5  Progressive- 
Conservatives  and  1  Independent.  In  the  federal  contest  for 
seven  seats,  5  Liberals  and  2  Progressive-Conservatives 
were  elected.  The  Assembly  met  on  July  12.  Relinquishing 
his  office*  Sir  Albert  Walsh  was  succeeded  by  Sir  Leonard 
Outerbridge. 

Under  the  confederation  agreement  Canada  assumed 
Newfoundland's  public  debt,  pursuant  to  the  Loan  act  of 
1933,  and  took  over  the  sinking  fund  established  under  that 
act.  Subject  to  certain  provisions,  Newfoundland  retained 
surplus  revenue  standing  to  the  credit  of  the  exchequer  at 
the  date  of  union.  The  province  was  to  receive  an  annual 
subsidy  of  $180,000,  together  with  an  annual  subsidy  equal 
to  80  cents  a  head  of  the  population  in  the  first  ten  years, 
subject  to  adjustment  thereafter,  and  a  further  subsidy  of 
$1-1  million  in  recognition  of  geographical  and  other  problems 
peculiar  to  the  province.  It  was  also  provided  that  negotia- 
tions should  be  undertaken  for  a  tax  agreement  for  the  rental 
to  the  government  of  Canada  of  income,  corporation  in- 
come and  corporation  tax  fields  and  the  succession  duty  tax 
field.  Provision  was  also  made  for  payment  of  provisional 
grants  by  Canada  for  12  years,  starting  at  $6-5  million, 
and  gradually  reduced  to  $350,000.  To  determine  the  financial 
consequences  of  union,  it  was  arranged  that  a  Royal  com- 
mission would  review  the  position  within  eight  years.  Canada 
assumed  responsibility  for  the  operation  of  the  Newfoundland 
railway  (showing  an  annual  deficit  of  $2-  5  million),  including 
steamship  and  other  marine  services;  the  Newfoundland 
hotel;  postal  and  telecommunication  services;  fisheries 
administration;  surveys;  shipping  aids;  marine  hospitals, 
etc.;  the  broadcasting  system;  civil  aviation,  including  the 
Gander  airport;  defence;  veterans*  atFairs;  customs  and 
excise.  Jurisdiction  over  natural  resources,  public  health, 
education  and  public  works  remained  with  the  province. 
Social  securities  such  as  family  allowances,  old  age  pensions 
and  unemployment  insurance  as  obtained  in  Canada  were 
extended  to  the  province.  Among  other  arrangements  it 
was  agreed  that  freight  rates  on  traffic  within,  into  or  out  of 
the  mantimcs  should  be  applicable  to  the  island  of  New- 
foundland. 

Newfoundland  entered  the  new  era  still  enjoying  the 
economic  prosperity  resulting  from  wartime  activities.  Fish- 
ing, newsprint  and  mining  industries  operated  at  full  capacity 
and  exports  commanded  high  prices.  Surveys  in  Labrador 
revealed  iron  ore  beds  exceeding  300  million  tons  which 
promised  future  sources  of  revenue  and  employment,  and 
development  was  being  undertaken  by  Hollmgers  Consoli- 
dated and  Hanna  company. 

Spring  operations  opened  with  a  highly  successful  seal 
fishery,  valued  at  $500,000.  A  delayed  ice  blockade  in  the 
north  hampered  the  fisheries  which,  m  some  sections,  were  a 
failure.  The  currency  situation  also  had  an  adverse  effect 
on  trade  and  industry.  Forest  operations  were  curtailed 
owing  to  the  loss  of  the  British  market  for  newsprint  and 
sulphite  pulp.  This,  with  the  fishery  setback,  left  about 
10,000  without  employment  by  November.  Instead  of  dole 
distribution,  relief  work  was  organized  on  a  plan  whereby 
the  men  were  paid  55  cents  hourly  for  three  days  of  the  week* 
and  on  the  other  three  gave  free  labour. 

Finance.  In  the  first  six  months  of  confederation,  revenue  totalled 
$16,696,710  (including  federal  grant  of  $4,405,000),  expenditure 
$13,146,362  Family  allowances  in  that  period  totalled  $6,000,000. 


NEWSPAPERS    AND    MAGAZINES 


457 


Trade.  Total  trade  in  1948  was:  exports,  $77,839,000;  imports, 
$105,055,000.  Fishery  products  were  valued  at  $29,022,000;  pulp  and 
paper,  $25,729,000;  minerals,  $15,760,000.  Chief  supplying  countries: 
Canada  ($54,983,000);  U.S  A.  ($40,313,000);  United  Kingdom 
($6,228,000).  Chief  customers-  U  S  A.  ($26,063,440),  United  King- 
dom ($13,484,942);  Canada  ($9,732,227). 

Communications.  Motor  cars  licensed  in  1949  numbered  8,341 
(in  1948,  7,343);  other  vehicles  4,531  (1948,  4,210).  With  a  view  to 
frieght  adjustments  a  Transportation  commission  heard  briefs  in 
October.  Surveys  for  a  trans-insular  highway  began.  (C.  E.  A.  J.) 

NEW  GUINEA:  see  NETHERLANDS  OVERSEAS  TERRI- 
TORIES; PAPUA-NEW  GUINEA;  TRUST  TERRITORIES. 

NEW  HEBRIDES:   see  BRITISH  EMPIRE. 

NEWSPAPERS  AND  MAGAZINES.  There  was 
considerable  improvement  in  the  supply  of  newsprint  in  1949, 
with  the  result  that  the  British  press,  having  been  thwarted 
for  so  long,  was  at  last  given  wider  scope  for  its  enterprise. 
Unrestricted  sales  of  newspapers  were  resumed  on  Jan.  3, 
when  a  more  generous  allocation  of  newsprint  permitted  the 
penny  newspapers  to  increase  their  size  to  a  daily  average  of 
five  pages.  Nearly  four  months  later  further  supplies  of 
paper  advanced  the  number  of  pages  to  six  and  so  caused  the 
disappearance  of  the  four-page  newspaper,  which  had  been 
established  by  government  regulation  in  1941.  With  the 
removal  of  restrictions  on  circulations,  the  non-competitive 
period  ended  and  newspapers  were  quick  to  take  advantage 
of  the  new  conditions.  More  news  was  covered  and  there 
was  keen  competition  in  new  features;  but  although  circula- 
tions rose  there  were  not  the  large  increases  that  had  been 
expected. 

The  sales  of  daily  newspapers  rose  from  19  million  a  day 
before  World  War  II  to  29  million,  but  the  consumption  of 
newsprint  was  much  less  than  in  1938.  The  equalized  price 
of  newsprint  at  the  beginning  of  1949  stood  at  the  high  price 
of  £42  a  ton  and  this  was  reduced  by  stages  to  £33  5s.  in 
October.  Approximately  70%  of  newsprint  during  the  year 
was  home-produced. 

The  Royal  Commission  on  the  Press,  which  had  been 
appointed  in  1947  under  the  chairmanship  of  Sir  David  Ross 
and  cost  over  £20,000,  published  its  report  in  June.  The 
report—running  to  about  100,000  words  — vindicated  the 
press  on  the  more  exaggerated  charges  brought  against  it  but 
criticized  certain  newspapers  for  excessive  partisanship  and 
distortion  of  news.  The  commission's  chief  recommendation 
was  for  the  establishment  of  a  voluntary  General  Council 
of  the  Press.  This  council  was  to  consist  of  at  least  25  mem- 
bers representing  proprietors,  editors  and  other  journalists 
and  to  have  a  lay  membership  of  up  to  one-fifth,  the  total 
including  a  paid  chairman.  The  objects  of  the  council  as 
defined  by  the  commission  would  be  "  to  safeguard  the 
freedom  of  the  press;  to  encourage  the  growth  of  the  sense 
of  public  responsibility  and  public  service  among  all  engaged 
in  the  profession  of  journalism— that  is,  in  the  editorial 
production  of  newspapers — whether  as  directors,  editors  or 
other  journalists;  and  to  further  the  proficiency  of  the 
profession  and  the  well-being  of  these  who  practise  it." 

Other  recommendations  were  that  chain  newspapers  should 
be  required  by  law  to  carry  on  the  front  page  a  formula 
clearly  indicating  their  common  ownership,  and  that  if  local 
monopolies  in  a  considerable  area  should  be  found  not  to  be 
within  the  purview  of  the  Monopolies  commission,  the 
Monopolies  and  Restrictive  Practices  act  should  be  amended 
to  bring  newspaper  monopolies  in  areas  of  this  size  within 
its  scope.  The  commission  found  that  the  case  against  chain 
organizations  had  been  overstated;  it  did  not  favour  state 
ownership  of  newspapers;  and  in  stating  that  the  press  was 
free  from  corruption  said  that  it  was  generally  agreed  that  the 
British  press  was  inferior  to  none  in  the  world. 


Thousands 
4500 


4000 


3500 


3000 


2500 


2000 


1500 


IOOO 


500     - 


1937 


Thpuson 


CIRCULATION    OF    SOME 

LONDON 
NEWSPAPERS 


2000 


t5OO 


r    IOOO 


5OO 


1947 


1949 


In  a  subsequent  debate  in  the  House  of  Commons  Herbert 
Morrison,  lord  president  of  the  council,  said  that  the 
government  accepted  the  report  in  general.  They  favoured 
the  recommendation  for  a  council  and  hinted  that  if  the  press 
failed  to  establish  a  voluntaiy  body  a  statutory  one  would 
be  set  up.  The  press  itself  was  not  enthusiastic  about  the 
council,  and  although  the  conference  of  the  Institute  of 
Journalists  accepted  the  idea  in  principle  they  wanted 
adequate  safeguards  against  political  and  other  outside 
interference.  The  executive  of  the  National  Union  of  Jour- 
nalists accepted  the  proposed  constitution  of  the  council  "  as 
a  working  basis/*  Committees  of  the  Newspaper  Proprietors' 
association  and  the  Newspaper  society  were  examining  the 
recommendations  of  the  commission.  The  Daily  Express  and 
Sunday  Express  anticipated  any  change  in  the  law  by  adding 
to  their  imprint lt  controlling  shareholder  Lord  Beaverbrook." 

The  Institute  of  Journalists  voted  against  supporting 
proposals  for  re-opening  negotiations  with  the  National 
Union  of  Journalists  with  regard  to  the  fusion  of  the  two 
bodies. 

In  March,  the  editor  of  the  Daily  Mirror  was  committed 
to  prison  for  three  months  and  the  company  fined  £10,000 
for  contempt  of  court.  The  newspaper  had  published 
objectionable  matter  concerning  a  person  who  was  under  a 
criminal  charge.  On  July  30,  the  same  newspaper,  with  a 
circulation  of  over  4£  million,  prominently  displayed  a 
statement  signed  by  the  editor  that  it  would  continue  to 
feature  sensational  news.  "  The  Daily  Mirror  is  a  sensational 
newspaper  .  .  .  We  shall  go  on  being  sensational  to  the  best 
of  our  ability."  It  expressed  its  opposition  to  a  press  council 
as  proposed  by  the  Royal  commission. 

Expenditure  by  government  departments  on  advertising  in 
the  British  press  in  1948-49  (estimated)  was  £1,558,856,  and 


NEWSPAPERS   AND    MAGAZINES 


BRITISH  NEWS  PICTURES  of  the  YEAR 

I  he  pictures  on  these  facing  pages  received 
awards  in  the  second  annual  "  British  News 
Pictures  uf  the  Year"  competition  sponsored 
bv  the  **  Britannica  Book  of  the  Year"  The 
photographs  of  Ferdinand  du  Moulin  and 
"  Blue  Bahy  Operation  "  have  been  selected 
from  the  winning  portfolio  and  sequence 
entries.  The  competition  was  judged  by  Mr. 
Harold  Lewis,  editor  of  "  Photography  "  and 
of  "  Photography  Year  Book"  Mr.  Percy 
Harris,  F  R.P.S.,  Mr.  Bertram  Sinkinson, 
F.R.P.S.,  F.I.B.P.,  Mr.  Stanley  Devon,  and 
Mr.  John  A  fruitage,  London  editor  of 
Enc  \ '( 'lop&dia  Britannic  'a,"" 


NEWS.  His  Majesty  King 
George  in  a  Land  Rover:  by 
R.  H.  Palmer  of  Inter- 
national News  Photos  (Lon- 
don). 


SEQUENCE.  After  the 
operation:  one  of  the  21 
photographs  in  the  winning 
sequence  entitled  "  Blue 
Baby  Operation  "  by  E.  G. 
Mandoline  of '"  Illustrated" 
(London). 


.  NEWSPAPERS   AND    MAGAZINES 


459 


PORTFOLIO.  Ferdinand 
du  Moulin  at  Dover  after 
swimming  the  English 
Channel:  one  of  the  ten 
photographs  in  the  winning 
portfolio  by  Robert  Rider- 
Rider  of  Associated  Press 
(London).  The  winner  in 
this  category  is  accorded 
the  title  "  British  News 
Photographer  of  1949." 


FEATURE.  The  chorus  dressing 
room  of  the  show  '*  Folies  Ber- 
gere  "  at  the  London  Hippodrome 
theatre:  by  P.  Waugh  of  "  Illus- 
trated" (London). 


SPORT.  Freddie  Mills  being 
counted  out  at  the  end  of  his 
championship  fight  with  Bruce 
Woodcock  in  June  1949:  by  Roy 
Illingworth  of  P. A. -Renter  Photos 
(London). 


More  than  1,800  pictures  were 
entered  by  202  British  press 
photographers.  Entries  were 
accepted  from  32  centres  in 
the  British  Isles,  and  for  the 
first  time  one  of  the  awards 
went  to  a  provincial  camera- 
man— the  third  prize  in  the 
news  category  to  B.  Hess  of 
the  "  Birmingham  Gazette." 
In  addition  to  the  five  categories 
illustrated  on  these  pages  there 
was  a  sixth  for  colour  entries. 
First  prize  in  this  section  was 
awarded  to  R.  Westwood  of 
"  Illustrated  "  (London)  for  his 
photograph  of  Margaret 
Leighton. 


460 


NEWSPAPERS   AND    MAGAZINES 


**  How  Fleet  Street  looked  to  Vicky  yesterday  after  the  press  com- 
mission's report"  published  in  the  *'  News  Chronicle  "  (London), 

July  7,  7949. 

included  £3,925  in  the  Daily  Worker^  the  Communist  news- 
paper. A  gradual  reduction  of  government  advertising  was 
evident  towards  the  end  of  the  year. 

A  new  company  was  formed  to  acquire  all  the  share  capital 
of  W.  H.  Smith  and  Son,  Ltd.,  the  newsagents  and  book- 
sellers. The  vendors  were  the  executors  of  Viscount  Hamble- 
den  and  the  offer  was  made  to  meet  estate  duty  assessed  at 
about  £6  million.  The  share  issue  of  some  £6^r  million  was 
over-subscribed.  The  company  decided  to  extend  its  activities 
to  Canada  and  to  form  a  new  company  for  this  purpose. 

The  Times  announced  that  its  air  edition,  which  made  its 
first  appearance  in  1944,  had  attained  a  world  circulation. 
The  paper  was  available  in  most  places  in  Europe  on  the  day 
of  issue;  New  York,  west  Africa,  Egypt  and  the  Sudan  on 
the  following  day;  and  south  and  east  Africa  two  days  after 
leaving  London.  Over  14,000  copies  were  flown  to  readers 
abroad  daily. 

The  Newspaper  Press  Directory,  published  since  1846  by 
C.  Mitchell  and  Co.,  Ltd.,  was  acquired  by  Benn  Brothers, 
Ltd.  In  the  first  issue  under  the  new  proprietorship  the 
number  of  publications  recorded  as  then  appearing  in  Great 
Britain  and  in  Ireland  was,  dailies — morning  56,  evening  88; 
Sunday  newspapers  17;  and  weekly  newspapers  1,391. 

After  a  small  paper  increase  in  March  the  periodicals 
were  granted  a  50%  increase  on  current  supplies  at  the 
beginning  of  July.  This  brought  the  maximum  permitted 
consumption  up  to  70%  of  the  amount  used  before  World 
War  II.  Even  after  this  increase,  public  demand  for  some  of 
the  more  popular  periodicals  was  so  great  that  the  sales 
again  had  to  be  limited.  New  periodicals  included  British 
Farm  Mechanization;  World  Crops;  Journal  of  African 
Administration;  Coronay  the  journal  of  the  colonial  service; 
the  Cornish  Review;  and  Archives,  the  journal  of  the  British 
Records  association. 


Among  the  appointments  announced  during  the  year  were 
those  of  W.  Vaughan  Reynolds  as  editor  of  the  Birmingham 
Post  in  succession  to  T.  W.  Hutton;  B.  C.  Canter  as  editor 
of  The  Friend,  the  Quaker  weekly;  A.  Woodward  as  editor 
of  the  Yorkshire  Evening  Post;  J.  R.  Campbell  as  editor  of 
the  Daily  Worker;  F.  Mathcw  as  manager  of  The  Times  in 
succession  to  C.  S.  Kent;  A.  C.  Duncan  as  chairman  of 
Odhams  Press;  and  W.  Surrey  Dane  as  chairman  of  Daily 
Herald,  Ltd. 

The  long  list  of  journalists  and  newspapermen  who  died 
during  the  year  included,  among  other  notable  names,  those 
of  Sir  Malcolm  Fraser,  a  former  editor  of  the  Evening 
Standard;  Sir  Charles  Igglesden,  editor  of  the  Kentish 
Express  for  some  68  years;  Sir  John  Hammerton,  who  had 
edited  several  provincial  newspapers  and  many  popular 
works  of  reference;  Sir  William  Bailey,  president  of  the 
Newspaper  society,  1939-46;  Sir  Fabian  Ware,  editor  of  the 
Morning  Post,  1905-11;  J.  R.  Scott,  chairman  and  governing 
director  of  the  Manchester  Guardian  and  Manchester  Evening 
News;  Sir  Errol  Knox,  an  outstanding  figure  in  Australian 
journalism;  Robert  Lynd,  for  many  years  literary  editor  of 
the  News  Chronicle;  A.  G.  Cousins,  chairman  of  the  Daily 
Herald  and  of  Odhams  Press;  J.  L.  Hammond,  the  well- 
known  historian,  who  had  a  distinguished  career  as  a  jour- 
nalist on  liberal  newspapers;  H.  Russell,  night  editor  of 
The  Times;  E.  Oldmeadow,  editor  of  the  Tablet,  1932-36; 
Dr.  Albert  Peel,  founder  and  for  23  years  editor  of  the 
Congregational  Quarterly;  and  William  Rust,  editor  of  the 
Daily  Worker. 

Commonwealth.  The  price  of  all  South  African  daily  news- 
papers was  increased  from  2d.  to  3d.  on  Dec.  1.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  year  newspapers  in  Australia  were  freed 
from  restrictions  on  newsprint  and  from  price  control  of 
advertisement  rates  for  the  first  time  in  10  years.  Daily 
Mirror  Newspapers,  Ltd.,  and  Sunday  Pictorial  Newspapers 
(1920),  Ltd.,  bought  a  controlling  interest  in  the  Melbourne 
Argus  and  the  Australasian  Post.  The  Sydney  Morning 
Herald  began  publication  of  a  Sunday  edition,  which  within 
six  months  had  attained  a  circulation  of  270,000. 

P.  D.  Ross,  who  had  controlled  the  Ottawa  Journal  for 
over  60  years,  sold  his  shares  to  E.  Norman  Smith,  vice- 
president  of  the  company,  and  M.  Grattan  O'Leary,  associate 
editor.  These  two  transferred  blocks  of  shares  to  other 
members  of  the  staff  who  thus  obtained  a  proprietary  interest 
in  and  control  of  the  Journal.  The  London  (Ontario)  Free 
Press  celebrated  its  centenary,  with  a  special  edition  of  232 
pages  which  was  claimed  as  the  largest  newspaper  ever 
printed  in  Canada. 

In  Cyprus  the  editor  of  the  Communist  newspaper 
Democrats  was  sentenced  to  three  months'  imprisonment  for 
publishing  a  seditious  article.  The  paper  was  suspended  for 
three  months  and  fines  were  imposed  on  the  company  and 
the  printer.  The  editor  of  a  rightist  paper  in  Cyprus  was  also 
sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  three  months  for  libel.  In  the 
Gold  Coast  an  owner  and  editor  was  fined  for  contempt  of 
court;  and  two  other  editors  received  hard  labour  sentences 
for  publishing  seditious  libels.  The  Bulletin,  an  English- 
language  newspaper  in  Malta,  edited  by  J.  J.  Scorey,  was 
suspended  for  four  days.  The  editor  was  convicted  on  charges 
arising  out  of  a  report  which  was  alleged  to  have  brought 
the  governor  "  into  hatred  and  contempt."  In  reply  to  com- 
plaints that  colonial  governors  possessed  excessive  powers 
which  endangered  the  freedom  principle,  the  Empire  Press 
union  undertook  a  general  survey  of  the  laws  affecting 
newspapers  in  the  colonies. 

An  agreement  was  concluded  which  made  the  newspapers 
of  India  joint  owners,  with  Great  Britain,  Australia  and  New 
Zealand,  of  Reuters,  Ltd.  Two  new  newspapers  made  their 
appearance  in  Bombay,  the  Evening  Star  and  Bharat;  the 


NEW  YORK  CITY 


461 


city  then  had  nine  English-language  dailies.  An  American 
syndicate  was  formed  to  purchase  newspapers  in  India  and 
other  Asiatic  countries.  Its  first  acquisition  was  the  Civil 
and  Military  Gazette  (published  in  Lahore  and  Karachi),  on 
which  Rudyard  Kipling  once  served  as  a  sub-editor.  The 
Parkistan  government  announced  its  intention  to  introduce 
legislation  to  regulate  the  ownership  and  editorship  of 
Pakistani  newspapers  by  foreigners. 

Europe.  The  year  saw  some  important  developments  in 
Western  Germany,  in  1946,  when  certain  newspapers  were 
licensed  by  the  occupying  powers,  none  of  the  ex-nazi 
dailies  were  allowed  to  appear  but  several  of  their  owners 
were  permitted  to  continue  as  printers.  When,  in  Sept.  1949, 
the  Allies  gave  up  their  licensing  control  over  the  German 
press  it  was  feared  that  many  of  the  pro-nazi  newspapers 
would  re-emerge.  Some  local  sheets  with  nazi  associations 
did  in  fact  appear  in  anticipation  of  the  ending  of  licensing 
but  these  were  suppressed  by  the  British  authorities.  In  the 
American  zone  it  was  said  that  of  the  106  newspapers  due 
to  start  on  Sept.  1  80%  would  be  "chauvinistic,  rabble- 
rousing,  anti-democratic,  anti-Semitic  and  anti-American." 
An  organization  was  set  up  in  all  three  western  zones  to 
finance  new  papers  in  opposition  to  the  established  licensed 
press.  A  new  press  association,  with  hopes  of  600  member- 
papers,  was  formed  in  opposition  to  the  one  set  up  under 
Allied  supervision.  The  democratic  press  very  soon  felt  the 
strain  of  competition  and  there  was  a  general  decline  in 
circulations — Die  Welt,  Hamburg,  the  official  British  German- 
language  newspaper,  dropped  from  nearly  one  million  to 
500,000.  A  law  was  passed  by  the  Allied  high  commission, 
which  replaced  the  military  government,  giving  the  high  com- 
missioners power  to  act  in  cases  of  printed  statements 
derogatory  to  the  occupation  powers  or  which  might  display 
the  nazi  spirit  The  high  commissioners  made  it  clear, 
however,  that  it  was  the  duty  in  the  first  place  of  the  West 
German  federal  government  to  see  that  the  democratic 
principles  were  not  violated  and  that  the  freedom  of  the  press 
was  preserved. 

Pressure  in  the  "  iron  curtain  "  countries  continued  as 
before.  Godfrey  Lias,  Prague  correspondent  of  The  Times, 
and  John  Fisher,  an  Australian  journalist,  left  Czecho- 
slovakia at  the  request  of  the  Czechoslovak  government.  In 
Finland  a  printers'  strike  in  March  stopped  all  except  the 
Communist  and  Social  Democrat  newspapers  for  nearly 
three  weeks.  Roman  Catholic  printing  offices  in  Poland 
were  placed  under  state  control  so  that  nearly  all  Catholic 
newspapers  in  Poland  were  printed  on  state-owned  presses 
For  a  Lasting  Peace,  for  a  Peopled  Democracy  /,  the  journal 
of  the  Commform  published  in  Bucharest,  was  changed  from 
a  fortnightly  to  a  weekly  in  September.  A.  Johnstone,  the 
editor  of  the  British  Foreign  Office  newspaper  in  Moscow, 
British  Ally  (Britansky  Soyuznik),  resigned  from  his  post 
44  for  reasons  of  conscience."  He  renounced  British  nation- 
ality and  decided  to  remain  in  the  Soviet  Union;  W.  R.  Jones, 
assistant  news  editor  of  the  Daily  Telegraph,  was  appointed 
to  succeed  him.  The  English-language  newspaper  Moscow 
Daily  News  closed  down  in  February,  and  Izvestia,  the 
government  newspaper,  was  awarded  the  Order  of  the  Red 
Banner  for  **  successful  work  in  educating  the  workers.'* 
Meanwhile,  the  Court  of  Appeal  in  Britain  ruled  that  the 
Tass  agency  (the  official  Soviet  news  agency)  was  protected 
against  actions  for  libel  by  diplomatic  immunity.  (D.  HN.) 

United  States.  The  highest  costs  in  history  faced  U.S. 
newspaper  proprietors  in  1949.  The  average  hourly  wage  of 
mechanics  passed  the  $2  mark  for  the  first  time,  and  further 
wage  increases  were  demanded.  Newsprint  remained  at  the 
$100-a-ton  price  reached  during  the  war.  Consumption  of 
newsprint  broke  all  records,  approaching  4  million  tons 
during  the  first  ten  months.  Many  large  special  editions, 


including  a  380-page  New  York  Times,  were  partially  respon- 
sible for  the  increase.  Circulation  in  Jan.  1949  reached  the 
new  record  of  52,285,297  copies  sold  daily  and  46,308,081 
Sunday  sales,  and  appeared  to  be  rising  slightly,  with  after- 
noon newspapers  leading.  But  copy  prices  had  risen  to 
five  cents,  with  no  one-cent  and  few  two-cent  daily  newspapers 
on  sale,  and  publishers  estimated  profits  at  5%  to  30%  below 
those  of  1948,  For  the  sixth  year,  the  number  of  daily 
newspapers  increased. 

The  most  important  labour  news  was  the  settlement  on 
Sept.  18  of  the  strike  of  the  printers  of  five  Chicago 
newspapers  which  had  started  on  Nov  24,  1947.  After 
printing  with  photo-engraved  typewritten  copy  since  the 
strike  began,  Chicago  daily  papers  started  using  type  again 
on  Sept.  21,  giving  their  1,500  printers  $10  a  week  increase 
and  a  new  contract  which  met  the  demand  of  the  International 
Typographical  union  for  something  like  "  closed  shop " 
conditions  without  violating  the  Taft-Hartley  labour  law. 
After  months  of  argument,  the  National  Labour  Relations 
board  on  Oct  29  found  the  I.T.U.  guilty  of  violation  of  the 
Taft-Hartley  law  in  its  "  closed  shop  "  and  "  unilateral " 
bargaining,  but  as  late  as  Dec.  17  the  union  had  taken  no 
steps  to  comply  with  the  board's  order. 

United  Press  set  up  the  first  teletype  system  in  Japan  and 
on  April  26  transmitted  a  radio  teletype  message  from  London 
to  three  continents.  Six  Kansas  daily  papers  joined  in  a 
tele-typesetter  circuit  for  wire  news.  The  New  York  Times 
printed  a  Pans  edition  for  which  matrices  were  flown  daily 
from  New  York. 

The  most  notable  ownership  change  was  the  purchase  on 
July  20  of  the  Washington  Times- Herald  by  Colonel  R.  R. 
McCormick,  publisher  of  the  Chicago  Tribune  and  part 
owner  of  New  York  Daily  News.  The  New  York  Star, 
successor  in  1948  to  PM,  suspended  publication  on  Jan.  28, 
thus  ending  the  venture  of  a  newspaper  carrying  no  advertise- 
ments started  by  Ralph  Ingersoll  in  1940. 

A  request  of  the  U.S.  post  office  in  February  for  a  25% 
increase  in  second  class  mailing  rates  for  publications  led 
to  much  discussion  at  newspaper  meetings,  but  congress 
adjourned  without  passing  the  bill  to  increase  rates. 

The  magazine  industry  reported  tighter  business  trends  in 
1949.  Although  circulations  fluctuated,  there  was  a  9-4% 
increase  in  total  bookstall  sales.  Total  advertising  dropped 
by  about  2%  during  the  first  nine  months.  Life  cut  its 
advertising  rates  by  3%  on  April  4.  Paper  prices  dropped 
slightly  during  the  early  months  of  the  year  but  rose  again 
in  August.  Wages  and  selling  costs  rose  and  profit  margins 
narrowed.  The  greatest  sales  gains  were  reported  by 
"  romance  "  magazines,  cinema  reviews,  "  'teen-age,"  popular 
science,  home  architecture  and  fashion  publications,  while 
sales  of  standard  women's  magazines  declined.  More  maga- 
zines were  launched  for  ages  7-14.  Morris  Fishbein  retired 
as  editor  of  the  American  Medical  Journal;  David  A.  Smart 
returned  as  publisher  of  Esquire,  and  John  Denson  became 
managing  editor  of  Colliers.  An  annual  directory  listed  7,800 
magazines  of  all  types  in  1949.  (G.  M.  HY.) 

NEW  YORK  CITY.  Largest  city  in  the  United  States 
and  second  largest  in  the  world.  The  population  of  New 
York  city  was  estimated  m  1949  at  8,161,000.  The  city 
polled  the  largest  mayoralty  vote  in  its  history  in  the  1949 
election  and  returned  Mayor  William  O'Dwyer  and  the 
principal  officers  of  his  first  administration  to  office. 

On  the  fourth  anniversary  of  the  founding  of  the  United 
Nations,  the  cornerstone  of  its  permanent  home  was  laid 
in  an  historic  meeting  of  the  general  assembly  on  the  site. 
In  1949  the  city  of  New  York  contributed  $23  million  in 
property  and  services  to  the  establishment  of  the  permanent 
U.N.  headquarters  on  the  East  river. 


462 


NEW  ZEALAND 


/*  puruue  arriving  in  ine  \~ny  nun, 


turn,  ;\6»v.  „'/,  /y*y,  in  nonour  oj  me  znan  oj  rersia,  sianamg  cemre  joregouna  \oart-neaaeui  wun 
Mayor  William  O'Dwyer  on  his  left. 


Construction,  public  and  private,  rose  to  the  highest  level 
since  World  War  II.  The  city  construction  co-ordinator 
reported  that  $505  million  of  the  city's  improvement  pro- 
gramme was  under  construction  and  that  $555  million  of 
construction  by  other  public  or  quasi-public  agencies  was 
under  way.  School  construction  reached  a  peak,  with  projects 
completed  at  the  rate  of  more  than  one  a  month.  Public 
housing  projects  to  accommodate  more  than  32,300  families 
were  under  construction  or  completed  during  the  year.  Plans 
were  advanced  for  construction  of  80,000  additional  public 
housing  apartments  with  state  and  federal  financing.  However, 
the  shortage  of  housing  continued  acute  and  the  city  took 
steps  to  reinforce  rent  controls. 

The  last  months  of  1949  found  New  York  city  grappling 
with  the  most  critical  water  shortage  in  memory.  During 
the  summer,  the  New  York  watersheds  were  parched  by 
drought.  Construction  of  the  Delaware  Water  Supply 
system,  initiated  in  1937  but  suspended  during  World  War  II, 
was  several  years  from  completion.  With  consumption 
averaging  1,150  million  gal.  per  day,  175  million  gal.  more 
than  in  1937,  water  in  the  reservoirs  fell  to  one-third  of 
capacity.  A  crisis  was  averted  through  a  campaign  for 
voluntary  conservation  which,  at  the  end  of  the  year,  had 
curtailed  consumption  by  310  million  gal.  per  day,  thus 
giving  the  authorities  time  to  consider  further  measures  for 
husbanding  supply. 

NEW  ZEALAND,  DOMINION  OF.  A  self 
governing  member  of  the  Commonwealth  of  Nations.  It 
consists  of  two  large  and  several  small  islands  in  the  south 
Pacific.  Area:  dominion  proper  103,416  sq.  mi.;  other 
islands  519  sq.  mi.  Pop.,  dominion  proper:  (Sept.  25,  1945 
census,  excluding  Maoris)  1,603,554;  (est.  June  1949) 
1,888,000  including  114,000  Maoris;  Cook  and  other  Pacific 
islands  19,167;  Tokelau  islands  (1945  census)  1,388.  Western 
Samoa,  a  trusteeship,  has  an  area  of  1,133  sq.  mi.  and  a  pop. 
(est.  March  1947)  of  71,460.  Chief  cities  (est.  April  1949): 
Wellington  (<y.v.)  (cap.,  186,000);  Auckland  ty.v.)  (289,000); 
Christchurch  (164,000);  Dunedin  (88,800);  Palmcrston 
North  (30,100).  Language:  English.  Religion:  mainly 


Christian  (Anglican  37-5%,  Presbyterian  23-4%,  Roman 
Catholic  13-5  %).  Ruler,  King  George  VI ;  governor  general, 
Lieutenant  General  Sir  Bernard  Cyril  Freyberg;  prime 
ministers  in  1949,  Peter  Fraser  (</.v.)  and  (from  Dec.  13) 
Sidney  George  Holland  (^.v.). 

History.  The  event  of  the  year  was  the  defeat  of  the  Labour 
party  by  the  National  party  in  the  general  election  held  on 
Nov.  30.  The  Labour  party  led  by  Peter  Fraser,  who  had  held 
the  office  of  prime  minister  for  nine  years,  had  completed  14 
years  of  service.  S.  G.  Holland,  the  new  prime  minister,  was 
first  returned  to  parliament  in  1935.  His  party  returned  to 
office  on  a  programme  of  relaxation  of  controls,  discontinu- 
ance of  further  schemes  of  nationalization  and  a  re-affirmation 
of  the  merits  of  private  enterprise.  The  National  party 
promised  not  to  reduce  the  existing  system  of  social  security. 
Thus  the  swing  of  the  political  pendulum  repeated  political 
history  which  in  general  records  decades  of  Liberal  govern- 
ment interspersed  with  periods  of  Conservative  adminis- 
tration (see  ELECTIONS). 

The  year  saw  the  wave  of  economic  prosperity  in  New 
Zealand  still  high,  and  reflected  throughout  the  whole 
community.  Prices  for  crossbred  and  merino  wool  broke 
all  records  at  66^</.  and  85d.  per  lb.;  average  prices  were 
26d.  and  46|J.  per  lb.  respectively.  High  production  in  other 
primary  industries  made  New  Zealand  Britain's  chief  sup- 
plier of  meat,  butter  and  cheese.  Record  production  was 
achieved  in  timber  milling  and  food  processing  works. 

The  buoyancy  of  the  prosperity  wave  was  reflected  in  the 
conversion  of  a  £29  million  debt  loan  floated  within  the 
country.  Later  in  the  year  two  further  conversions  on  the 
London  market  were  equally  successful.  The  first,  £7,322,579, 
3i%  maturing  1954,  of  which  £7  million  was  converted  into 
3%  1973-77;  the  second,  £7-5  million,  5%  maturing  1949, 
of  which  £6  million  was  converted  into  3J%  1963-66.  The 
balance  in  each  case  was  repaid. 

In  the  field  of  international  affairs  New  Zealand  sent  an 
observer  to  the  conference  on  Indonesia  and  the  government 
recorded  support  for  the  Antarctic  agreement  reached  between 
Argentina  and  Great  Britain.  Representation  on  the  Fai» 
Eastern  commission  was  continued,  while  Lieut.  Colonel 


NEW   ZEALAND    LITERATURE 


463 


F.  W.  Voelcker  and  C.  G.  R.  McKay  represented  the  c6untry 
on  the  South  Pacific  commission.  A  new  legation  in  Paris 
was  opened  with  Miss  Jean  McKenzie  as  charge  d'affaires, 
and  a  new  consul  general's  office  was  established  in  San 
Francisco.  James  Thorn,  high  commissioner  for  New 
Zealand  in  Canada,  gained  distinction  by  being  elected 
president  of  the  U.N.  Economic  and  Social  council.  New 
responsibilities  in  the  administration  of  Western  Samoa  and 
Nauru  island  under  the  United  Nations  trusteeship  agree- 
ment were  assumed;  and  Sir  Carl  Berendsen  led  the  New 
Zealand  delegation  to  the  United  Nations  meetings  at  Lake 
Success.  Recognition  was  given  to  the  new  state  of  Israel 
and  to  Korea. 

Legislation  giving  the  state  the  sole  right  to  transact 
workers'  compensation  insurance  became  effective.  A 
national  referendum  on  the  question  of  gaming  and  hotel 
licensing  hours  was  held,  the  majority  favouring  off-course 
betting  through  the  existing  totalizator  facilities.  The  referen- 
dum also  decided  to  continue  the  present  licensing  laws 
whereby  hotel  bars  close  at  6  P.M. 

Emigrants  from  Britain  in  the  postwar  period  to  March 
31,  1949,  totalled  33,786.  Of  this  total,  5,195  of  single  status 
and  specially  selected,  received  government  assistance;  and 
the  Overseas  league  of  Britain  sponsored  a  child  migration 
scheme  during  the  year  under  which  128  children  found 
homes  in  the  country. 

A  defence  scheme  involving  compulsory  military  service 
was  submitted  to  a  national  referendum  and  approved  by 
535,016  to  152,575.  The  expansion  of  navy  and  air  force 
units  was  also  outlined. 

Foundations  were  laid  for  the  development  of  a  salt  indus- 
try at  Lake  Grasmere,  and  of  a  state  factory  to  manufacture 
newsprint  and  other  wood-pulp  products  at  Murupara.  New 
tests  for  smelting  ironsands  from  Taranaki  beaches  by  electrical 
processes  were  successful  and  were  likely  to  increase  New 
Zealand's  industrial  potential.  Large  schemes  of  hydro- 
electric development  were  carried  forward  on  the  Waikato 
river,  where  ultimately  ten  power  stations  were  planned, 
and  at  Lake  Tekapo  and  Roxborough  in  the  South  Island. 
A  seven-year  plan  for  spending  £54  million  on  such  work  was 
outlined  by  the  minister  of  works,  R.  Semple.  In  September 
the  devaluation  of  the  currency  and  the  maintenance  of  parity 
with  sterling  were  announced. 

Shipping  lines  improved  their  services  to  the  dominion 
as  new  vessels  and  others,  re-fitted  after  war  service  and  carry- 
ing the  latest  devices  for  refrigerated  cargo,  took  up  the 
dominion  run.  The  increased  passenger  accommodation 
assisted  in  reducing  the  long  waiting  list  for  intending 
travellers  to  and  from  the  dominion. 

The  British  Commonwealth  Pacific  Airways  company 
began  to  fly  the  Pacific  using  the  latest  long-distance  Douglas 
aircraft.  The  route  between  Auckland,  San  Francisco  and 
Vancouver  via  Fiji,  Canton  island  and  Honolulu,  cut  10^ 
hours  off  the  previous  timetable  of  56  hours.  The  new  service 
operated  weekly  instead  of  fortnightly. 

The  Pacific  Science  congress  met  for  the  first  time  in  New 
Zealand  in  February  with  more  than  300  delegates  from  many 
countries  attending.  The  sessions  held  in  Auckland  and 
Christchurch  discussed  methods  of  co-operation  and  organized 
research,  while  stress  was  placed  on  the  role  of  the  Pacific  area 
in  the  world's  activities.  Professor  R.  A.  Falla,  director  of  the 
Dominion  museum,  was  chairman.  (A.  T.  CL.) 

Education.  (Dec.  1947)  Primary  schools  2,270,  pupils  259,182, 
teachers  8,215;  secondary  schools  229,  pupils  37,229,  teachers  1,897; 
secondary  schools  for  Maoris  16,  pupils  804;  technical  schools  28, 
pupils  12,328  (part-time  18,697),  teachers  706;  University  of  New 
Zealand,  students  12,764;  training  colleges  4,  students  1,564. 

Agriculture  and  Fisheries.  Main  crops  (in  '000  metric  tons,  1947-48; 
1948-49  in  brackets):  wheat  124  (150);  barley  46  (45);  oats  47  (50); 
potatoes  158  (136).  Livestock  (in  '000  head):  lambs  (April  1948) 


The  prime  ministers  of  New  Zealand  during  1949.     Peter  Fraser 

(/e//),  prime  minister  from  April  /,  1940 ',  and  Sidney  George  Holland 

from  Dec.  13,  1949. 

7,947;  breeding  ewes  (April  1948)  21,055;  total  sheep  (April  1948) 
32,483;  dairy  cows  and  heifers  (Jan.  1948)  2,638;  beef  stock  (Jan. 
1948)  2,078;  total  cattle  (Jan.  1948)  4,716;  pigs  (Jan.  1948)  548; 
horses  (Jan.  1949)  200.  Fisheries:  total  catch  (1946):  weight  32,047 
metric  tons.  Food  production:  meat  (in  metric  tons  bone-in-weight, 
1946-47):  total  carcase  543,873  of  which  beef  170,748,  veal  18,514, 
mutton  130,697,  lamb  188,419,  pig  meat  35,495;  edible  offal  (in  metric 
tons,  1946-47)  22,476;  butterfat  (in  '000  metric  tons,  1947-48)  190-5; 
creamery  butter  (in  '000 metric  tons,  1947-48)  151  -5  ;  cheese  (in  *000 
metric  tons,  1947*48)  87-7.  Wool  production  (in  '000  metric  tons, 
greasy  basis,  1948-49)  166. 

Industry.  (1948)  Industrial  establishments  35,579;  persons  employed 
438,480.  Fuel  and  power  (1948;  1949,  six  months,  in  brackets): 
coal  (in  '000  metric  tons)  969  (403);  lignite  (in  '000  metric  tons)  1,851 
(942);  manufactured  gas  (in  million  cu.m.)  155  (76);  electricity  (in 
million  kwh.)  2,590  (1,189).  Raw  materials  (in  metric  tons):  pumice 
(1947)3,443;  white  arsenic  (1947)  8;  superphosphates  (1948)  558,400. 
Gold  ore  (in  fine  troy  ounces,  1948)  93,903;  silver  ore  (in  fine  troy 
ounces.  1948)  232,563. 

Foreign  Trade.  Imports  (1948),  £NZ.128-8  million;  exports  (1948), 
£NZ.147'3  million.  Principal  imports:  textiles,  apparel,  machinery, 
vehicles  and  paper.  Principal  exports:  wool,  butter,  meat  and  cheese. 
Main  sources  of  imports  in  1948:  United  Kingdom  52%,  Australia 
11%,  United  States  11%.  Main  destinations  of  exports  in  1948: 
United  Kingdom  73%,  United  States  5%. 

Transport  and  Communications.  Roads  (1948)  76,401  mi.  Licensed 
motor  vehicles  (Dec.  1948):  cars  228,562,  commercial  vehicles  73,570. 
State  railways  (1948-49):  3,526  mi.;  passenger  journeys  26  million; 
freight  net  ton-mi.  980  million.  Shipping  (Dec.  1947):  number  of 
registered  vessels  478,  total  net  tonnage  95,089.  Air  transport  (1948- 
49):  mi.  flown  7-6  million,  passengers  flown  215,200.  Telephones 
(March  1948):  subscribers  222,504.  Wireless  licences  (March  1948) 
420.983 

Finance  and  Banking.  Budget  (consolidated  fund  and  social  security 
fund  excluding  war  expenses  account):  (1948-49  actual)  revenue 
£N  Z.I  70,96 1,000,  expenditure  £NZ.  166,890,000;  (1949-50  est.) 
revenue  £NZ.  153,03  3,000,  expenditure  £NZ.  154,939,000.  Gross 
national  debt  (Dec.  1947):  £NZ.5,989  million.  Currency  circulation 
(Sept.  1949;  in  brackets  Sept.  1948):  £NZ.45-7  (43-9)  million.  Gold 
reserve  (Sept.  1949;  in  brackets  Sept.  1948):  29  (23)  million  U.S. 
dollars.  Depositmoney  Aug.  1949;  in  brackets  Aug.1948):  £NZ.146-7 
(138-0)  million.  Monetary  unit:  New  Zealand  pound  with  an  exchange 
rate  (Dec.  1949;  in  brackets  Dec.  1948)  of  £NZ.1-0038  (1-0038)  to 
the  pound  sterling. 

NEW  ZEALAND  LITERATURE.  Nearly  all  new 
novels  published  during  1949  were  set  in  New  Zealand  in 
the  thirties.  Within  a  framework  of  family  life,  three  novels 
developed  themes  which  allowed  their  characters  to  be 
affected  by  the  special  issues  of  that  time,  from  unemploy- 
ment to  war.  Dan  Davin's  Roads  from  Home  (London),  the 
most  powerfully  written  of  them,  outlined  the  problems  of 
two  sons  of  an  Irish-Catholic  railwayman  in  Southland, 
one  with  an  unfaithful  wife  and  the  other  expected  by  his 
pious  mother  to  become  a  priest.  Frank  Sargeson's  /  Saw  in 
my  Dream  (London)  contained  and  completed  his  earlier, 
episodic  When  the  Wind  Blows  (1945)  by  developing  his 
lawyer-clerk  hero  into  a  back-country  farm-worker  who 


464 


NICARAGUA— NOBEL  PRIZES 


becomes  involved  in  several  very  human,  but  unresolved, 
situations.  A  pacifist  who  later  joins  the  army  and  finds 
himself  forced  to  shoot  a  fugitive  from  justice  was  the 
main  theme  of  Erik  de  Mauny's  The  Huntsman  in  hi?  Career 
(London).  These  three  novels  and  David  Ballantyne's  The 
Cunninghams  (New  York,  1948),  were  recognized  as  showing 
a  considerable  advance  in  technique  and  literary  skill  over 
earlier  New  Zealand  fiction.  Curiously  all  seemed  to  owe 
some  of  their  qualities  to  John  Mulgan's  important  Man 
Alone  (1939),  which,  after  being  unprocurable  for  a  decade, 
was  re-published  (Hamilton)  during  the  year  with  the  aid  of  a 
grant  from  the  State  Literary  fund.  The  only  other  works 
of  fiction  were  Greville  Texidor's  These  Dark  Classes  (Christ- 
church)  and  Nelle  Scanlan's  The  Rusty  Road  (Wellington). 

The  most  discussed  poem  was  Ruth  France's  Royal  Ode, 
which  won  a  competition  for  the  best  ode  celebrating  the 
(postponed)  royal  visit  to  New  Zealand.  James  Baxter, 
with  a  delicate  awareness  of  landscape  and  a  stronger  turning 
towards  the  human  scene,  wrote  some  fine  lyric  poems. 
Save  for  Denis  Glover's  The  Coaster,  a  film  commentary  in 
verse,  the  older  poets  published  no  major  work;  but  the 
younger  poets,  particularly  William  Oliver  and  Pat  Wilson, 
were  effusive,  sensitive,  and  highly  romantic.  In  three  acts 
of  prose  and  verse,  Howard  Wadman's  Life  Sentence  (Welling- 
ton) attempted  to  be  a  society  satire  and  a  drama  of  sin  and 
expiation. 

More  Otago  centennial  publications  appeared,  the  most 
important  being  A.  H.  McLmtock's  History  of  Otago, 
which  brought  to  New  Zealand  for  the  first  time  the  Ernest 
Scott  prize,  given  for  research  in  Australasian  history.  The 
Golden  Jubilee  of  Victoria  University  college  was  marked 
by  a  witty,  provocative  college  history  by  Dr.  J.  C.  Beagle- 
hole  and  a  new  anthology  of  college  verse. 

Professor  A.  S.  Musgrove  wrote  an  interesting  critical 
paper,  Some  Anthropological  Themes  in  the  Modern  Novel 
(Auckland). 

Land  fall  i  a  quarterly  edited  by  Charles  Brasch,  completed 
its  third  year  of  publication;  and  a  new  Wellington  literary 
quarterly,  Hilltop,  appeared  in  April.  (R.  W.  B.) 

NICARAGUA.  A  republic  in  Central  America, 
situated  between  Honduras  on  the  north  and  Costa  Rica  on 
the  south,  with  a  coastline  of  over  300  mi.  on  the  Atlantic 
and  over  200  mi.  on  the  Pacific.  Area:  57,143  sq.  mi.  (of 
which  3,475  sq.  mi.  is  water).  Pop.  (Dec.  31,  1948  est.): 
1,172,862.  Nicaragua  is  the  most  thinly  populated  of  the 
Central  American  republics;  the  population  of  the  eastern 
half  of  the  country  is  mainly  Indian  or  Negro;  the  population 
of  the  western  part  is  of  mixed  Spanish  and  Indian  extraction, 
with  some  of  pure  Spanish  descent.  Chief  towns  (pop., 
1948  est.):  Managua  (cap.,  146,819);  Leon  (53,277); 
Matagalpa  (53,118);  Jinotega  (41,065).  Language:  Spanish. 
Religion:  predominantly  Roman  Catholic.  President  of  the 
republic,  Victor  Manuel  Roman  y  Reyes. 

History.  The  major  political  issue  during  1949  was  the 
national  conciliation  programme  designed  to  bring  about  a 
coalition  of  all  parties  and  to  present  a  single  presidential 
candidate  in  the  next  election.  The  pact  which  was  subscribed 
to  by  the  Nationalist  Liberal  (administration)  party  and  the 
"  civilista  "  Conservatives  in  Feb.  1948,  was  discussed  again 
during  the  year,  but  administrative  attempts  to  bring  the 
44  genuine  "  Conservatives  and  the  Independent  Liberals  into 
the  coalition  were  fruitless.  As  a  conciliatory  gesture  to  the 
44  genuine "  Conservatives,  the  government  invited  their 
exiled  chief,  General  Emiliano  Chamorro,  to  return  to  the 
country.  Chamorro  returned  on  June  18;  but  although 
talks  between  him  and  both  President  Roman  y  Reyes  and 
General  Anastasio  Somoza  continued  until  late  November,  no 
agreement  was  reached.  The  Conservative  party's  opposition 


to  national  conciliation  was  expressed  in  September  when 
it  ousted  Carlos  Cuadra  Pasos  from  its  leadership  for 
his  part  in  the  Feb.  1948  agreement  between  the  "  civilista  *' 
Conservatives  and  the  administration  party.  The  temporary 
arrest  of  Arturo  Velazquez  Aleman,  secretary  general  of  the 
Independent  Liberal  party,  on  March  21,  intensified  the 
antagonism  of  his  group  towards  the  official  party. 

A  major  point  of  contention  was  the  influence  in  the 
government  and  the  possible  presidential  candidacy  of 
General  Somoza,  both  of  which  were  ardently  opposed  by 
the  Independent  Liberals.  A  tour  of  the  Atlantic  coast 
districts  by  Somoza  and  a  public  demonstration  on  his  behalf 
when  he  returned  to  Managua  in  May  were  interpreted  in 
some  quarters  as  a  bid  by  Somoza  for  the  presidency  in  the 
next  election. 

On  the  economic  front,  Nicaragua  continued  to  suffer  an 
unfavourable  balance  of  trade  and  shortage  of  dollar  reserves, 
but  was  able  to  repurchase  2  5  million  c6rdobas  from  the 
International  Monetary  fund  and  thus  restore  $500,000 
purchased  from  the  fund  in  1948.  Higher  coffee  prices  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  year  gave  promise  of  an  improved 
economic  position. 

Education.  Schools  (1948-49)  primary  1,302,  teachers  2,918, 
pupils,  89,991 ;  secondary  78,  teachers  556,  pupils  10,891 ;  universities  2, 
students  620  For  the  year  the  national  budget  provided  7,764,390 
cordobas  for  public  education 

Foreign  Trade.  Exports  during  1948  were  valued  at  US  $26 -6 
million  ($20  9  million  in  1947);  imports  $24  1  million  ($20  8  million 
in  1947).  The  U  S  supplied  85-5%  of  the  imports  and  took  43  8% 
of  the  exports  In  1948  the  leading  shipments  were  gold  (182,964- 16 
troy  oz  ),  coffee  (242,017  bags  of  132  Ib  each),  bananas  (678,598  stems) 
and  sesame  seed  (26,565,633  Ib  )  Coffee  exports  trom  the  1948-49 
crop  (the  lowest  since  1912)  totalled  109,609  hags 

Communications.  In  1949,  railways  measured  236  mi.,  surfaced 
highways  417  mi.,  all-weather  dirt  roads  79  mi  At  the  close  of  1948 
there  were  1,443  motor  cars,  672  lorries  and  151  buses  registered  in 
the  country 

Finance.  The  monetary  unit  is  the  cordoba,  officially  maintained  at 
20  U  S  cents.  The  1949-50  budget  provided  for  expenditures  of 
C  54  3  million,  a  14%  reduction  from  the  previous  year  On  Dec  31, 
1948,  the  public  debt  was  C  28  9  million  internal  and  C  17-3  million 
external.  Notes  in  circulation  (Sept.  1949):  C  50  7  million  (M.  L.  M.) 

NIGER:   see  FRENCH  UNION 
NIGERIA:    see  BRITISH  WEST  AFRICA. 


NOBEL  PRIZES.  These  are  awarded  from  the 
Nobel  foundation,  a  fund  established  under  the  will  of  A.  B. 
Nobel,  a  Swedish  chemist  and  engineer,  who  died  on  Dec.  10, 
1896  The  prizes  were  first  awarded  in  1901.  The  values  oi 
the  prizes  vary:  the  prizes  in  1949  were  156,289  Swedish 
crowns  (about  £11,000). 

The  1949  peace  prize  was  awarded  to  Lord  Boyd-Orr  (q.v.). 
Lord  Boyd-Orr  was  director-general,  United  Nations  Food 
and  Agricultural  organization,  1946-47,  and  in  1949  was 
president  of  the  world  movement  for  a  world  federal  govern- 
ment. The  prize  for  medicine  and  physiology  was  shared 
between  Professor  Antonio  Caetano  de  Abreu  Freire  Egas 
Momz  O/.v.),  a  neurologist  and  former  diplomat,  of  Lisbon, 
Portugal,  and  Professor  Walter  Rudolf  Hess  (^.v.),  an  eye 
and  brain  specialist,  of  Zurich,  Switzerland.  Dr.  Hideki 
Yukawa  (q.v.)  of  Tokyo,  who  in  Sept.  1949  was  appointed 
visiting  professor  of  theoretical  physics  at  Columbia  univer- 
sity, New  York,  received  the  physics  prize.  This  was  the 
first  time  the  prize  for  physics  had  been  awarded  to  a  Japanese 
The  prize  for  chemistry  went  to  Professor  William  Francis 
Giauque  (^.v.),  professor  of  chemistry  at  the  University  ol 
California. 

The  Swedish  Academy  of  Letters  decided  not  to  aware 
the  Nobel  prize  for  literature  in  1949.  The  value  of  th( 
prize  would  be  carried  forward  to  1950. 


NOBS— NORTH   ATLANTIC  TREATY 


465 


The  Crown  Prince  of  Sweden  (right)  presenting  the  Nobel  prize  for 

medicine  to  Professor  Rudolf  Hess,  of  Zurich,  in  Stockholm,  Dec.  JO, 

1949. 

NOBS,  ERNST,  Swiss  statesman  (b.  Seedorf,  Canton 
Berne,  July  14,  1886).  A  teacher  by  profession,  he  was 
editor  of  the  Social  Democratic  daily  newspaper  Volksrecht 
(ZUrich)  1915-35.  He  was  a  member  of  the  National  Council, 
1919-43,  and  a  member  of  the  state  council  of  the  canton  of 
Zurich,  1935-42.  In  1942-43  he  was  lord  mayor  of  Zurich, 
and  on  Dec.  15,  1943,  he  was  elected  to  the  Federal  Council 
as  minister  of  finance  and  customs.  On  Dec.  16,  1948,  he 
was  elected  president  of  the  confederation  for  1949,  being 
the  first  Social  Democrat  in  Swiss  history  to  be  appointed 
to  this  post.  On  July  28,  1949,  President  Nobs,  a  widower 
since  1948,  married  Rosa  Hulda  Froehlich. 

NORDENSKIOLD,     BENGT     GUSTAFSSON, 

Swedish  air  force  officer  (b.  Sundsvall,  Sept.  6,  1891),  naval 
cadet  1907-08,  served  with  the  Royal  Svea  Life  guards  and 
graduated  from  the  Military  academy  in  1924.  After  two 
periods  on  the  general  staff  and  further  service  with  his 
regiment,  he  became  (1931)  an  observer  in  the  air  force, 
where  his  interests  henceforth  centred,  although  he  taught 
at  the  Military  academy  from  1933  and  was  a  major  on  the 
general  staff  in  1935.  He  underwent  training  as  a  pilot  until 
1936,  when  he  took  over  command  of  the  air  force  staff. 
Study  of  the  British,  Canadian,  Finnish,  German,  Italian 
and  U.S.  air  forces  and  aircraft  industries  further  equipped 
the  creator  of  the  Swedish  air  force,  of  which  he  had  been 
c.-in-c.  since  1942.  During  World  War  II  he  took  a  close 
personal  interest  in  the  care  of  Allied  airmen  who  made 
forced  landings  in  Sweden  after  attacks  on  Germany,  and  was 
created  a  K.B.E.  In  an  address  to  Uppsala  university  students 
in  1942  he  stressed  the  strict  requirements  of  defence  in  a 
44  war  of  brains  "  and  the  need  for  internal  unity,  to  make 
Sweden  the  solid  rock  on  which  a  free  and  happy  North 
could  build.  When  in  Feb.  1949  he  visited  Canada  to  study 
winter  flying  conditions,  the  climatic  similarity  to  Sweden 
enabled  him  to  make  valuable  observations  on  a  tour  which 
extended  to  Whitehorse  in  the  Yukon.  (E.  J.  L.) 

NORFOLK  ISLAND:    see  BRITISH  EMPIRE. 

NORTH  ATLANTIC  TREATY.  This  treaty, 
which  was  concluded  in  1949,  links  the  United  States  and 
Canada  with  ten  western  European  nations  for  20  years  in 

E.B.Y.— 31 


a  defensive  alliance,  embodying  the  principles  of  joint 
strategic  planning  and  of  mutual  aid  in  military  supply  policy. 
It  was  the  first  alliance  ever  entered  by  the  United  States 
in  peacetime,  and  it  formed  the  chief  basis  of  security  in 
western  Europe.  The  conclusion  of  the  treaty  was  one  of 
the  two  most  important  world  political  events  of  1949  (the 
other  being  the  Communist  victory  in  the  Chinese  civil  war); 
it  changed  the  world  balance  of  power  by  checking  Soviet 
expansion  in  Europe;  it  also  noticeably  reduced  the  danger 
of  war,  which  had  made  itself  felt  in  the  preceding  year. 

When,  on  March  17,  1948,  Great  Britain,  France  and 
Benelux  signed  the  Treaty  of  Brussels,  President  Harry  S. 
Truman  declared  that  **  the  determination  of  the  free  countries 
of  Europe  to  protect  themselves  will  be  matched  by  an  equal 
determination  on  our  part  to  help  them  to  do  so."  A  Senate 
resolution,  passed  at  the  initiative  of  Senator  Arthur  H. 
Vandenberg  on  June  11,  1948,  gave  support  to  that  declara- 
tion. The  need  for  linking  the  defence  of  North  America 
with  that  of  western  Europe  was  also  expressed  by  the  then 
minister  of  external  affairs  of  Canada,  Louis  Stephen  Saint- 
Laurent,  on  April  29,  1948. 

The  Soviet  blockade  of  Berlin,  which  began  on  June  24, 
1948,  gave  added  urgency  to  the  question  of  security  in 
western  Europe.  Accordingly,  exploratory  discussions  about 
a  defensive  alliance  began  in  Washington  on  July  6,  1948, 
between  the  U.S.  State  Department  and  the  ambassadors 
of  the  Brussels  treaty  powers  and  Canada.  From  July  21,  a 
U.S.  observer,  Major  General  Lyman  L.  Lemnitzer,  took 
part  in  the  meetings  of  the  military  committee  of  the  Brussels 
treaty  powers  in  London. 

By  the  beginning  of  1949,  the  Washington  negotiations 
had  produced  agreement  in  principle.  The  major  difficulties 
— especially  the  obstacles  placed  in  the  way  of  advance 
commitments  by  the  U.S.  constitution,  which  reserves  the 
right  to  declare  war  to  congress — were  overcome,  and 
successive  statements  by  the  U.S.  State  Department  began 
to  prepare  American  public  opinion  for  this  major  new 
departure  in  foreign  policy. 

At  the  same  time,  the  State  Department  let  it  be  known 
that  it  favoured  the  inclusion  of  Denmark,  Norway,  Iceland, 
Portugal  and  Ireland  in  the  proposed  regional  defence  group 
owing  to  their  strategic  importance  to  the  defence  system 
of  the  U.S.  and  the  north  Atlantic.  Of  these  countries, 
Ireland  refused  participation  on  the  grounds  of  its  grievance 
over  the  status  of  Northern  Ireland.  On  the  other  hand, 
Italy  took  an  initiative  of  her  own  to  be  included  in  the 
proposed  treaty.  A  journey  of  its  prime  minister,  Alcide  De 
Gasperi,  to  Paris  and  Brussels  and  a  memorandum  sent  by 
its  foreign  minister,  Count  Carlo  Sforza,  to  the  Western 
Union  council  secured  Western  Union  support  for  its 
membership,  and  the  other  founding  members  agreed. 

A  protracted  crisis  arose  in  Scandinavia  over  the  proposed 
membership  of  Norway  (q,v.)  and  Denmark  O/.v.).  At  a 
meeting  of  the  three  Scandinavian  prime  ministers  in  Karl- 
stad, Sweden,  on  Jan.  5,  1949,  Sweden  O/.v.)  submitted  an 
alternative  proposal  for  a  regional  defence  group  of  the  three 
Scandinavian  countries,  which  would  be  pledged  to  joint 
neutrality.  This  proposal  was  debated  at  further  meetings 
at  Copenhagen  (Jan.  22-24)  and  Oslo  (Jan.  29-30).  In  two 
notes  of  Feb.  1  and  6,  the  Soviet  Union  pressed  Norway 
not  to  join  the  proposed  North  Atlantic  treaty  and  offered 
a  non-aggression  treaty  instead.  On  Feb.  6,  the  Norwegian 
foreign  minister,  Halvard  Lange,  flew  to  Washington  to 
discuss  the  alternatives  before  Norway  with  the  U.S.  secretary 
of  state,  Dean  G.  Acheson,  and  in  particular  to  ascertain 
whether  a  neutral  northern  defence  group  could  expect 
American  assistance  in  armament  supply.  The  results  of  his 
journey  were  debated  in  secret  session  by  the  Norwegian 
Storting  on  March  3,  when  it  was  decided  by  a  vote  of  1 1 8 


466 


WORTH  ATLANTIC  TREATY 


A   cartoon  by  Raul    Verdini  published  in  the   Communist   weekly 

"  Vic  Niiovc  "  (Rome)  under  the  title  "  A  rabbit  should  appear  but 

he's  a  North  Atlantic  treaty  conjuror" 

to  1 1  that  Norway  should  participate  in  the  North  Atlantic 
treaty  discussions  and  decline  the  Soviet  offer  of  a  non- 
aggression  pact,  as  well  as  the  Swedish  offer  of  a  neutral 
Northern  alliance.  Denmark  subsequently  followed  the 
Norwegian  lead. 

On  March  19,  the  U.S.,  Canada,  Great  Britain,  France, 
Belgium,  the  Netherlands,  Luxembourg  and  Norway  announ- 
ced full  agreement,  published  the  text  of  the  proposed  treaty 
and  invited  Denmark,  Iceland,  Italy  and  Portugal  to  join 
them  in  signing  the  treaty  dnring  the  first  week  in  April. 
The  invitations  were  accepted,  and  the  12  foreign  ministers 
signed  the  treaty  in  solemn  ceremony  in  Washington  on  April 
4,  in  the  presence  of  President  Truman. 

The  treaty  is  set  out  in  a  preamble  and  14  articles,  of  which 
the  operative  articles  are  articles  3,  5  and  9.  Article  3  pledges 
the  parties  to  the  treaty  "  separately  and  jointly,  by  means 
of  continuous  and  effective  self-help  and  mutual  aid,  to 
maintain  and  develop  their  individual  and  collective  capacity 
to  resist  armed  attack."  Article  5  states  "  that  an  armed 
attack  against  one  or  more  of  them  in  Europe  or  North 
America  shall  be  considered  an  attack  against  them  all " 
and  that  in  that  case  each  of  them  "  will  assist  the  party  or 
parties  so  attacked  by  taking  forthwith,  individually  and  in 
concert  with  the  other  parties,  such  action  as  it  deems  neces- 
sary, including  the  use  of  armed  force,  to  restore  and  maintain 
the  security  of  the  north  Atlantic  area."  Article  9  states: 
**  The  parties  hereby  establish  a  council,  on  which  each  of 
them  shall  be  represented,  to  consider  matters  concerning 
the  implementation  of  the  treaty.  The  council  shall  be  so 
organized  as  to  be  able  to  meet  promptly  at  any  time.  It  shall 


set  up  such  subsidiary  bodies  as  may  be  necessary;  in  particu- 
lar, it  shall  establish  immediately  a  defence  committee,  which 
shall  recommend  measures  for  the  implementation  of 
articles  3  and  5." 

The  preamble  pays  homage  to  "  the  principles  of  demo- 
cracy, individual  liberty  and  the  rule  of  law."  The  other 
articles  of  the  treaty  contain  references  to  the  United  Nations 
charter,  general  undertakings  for  consultation  and  economic 
co-operation,  a  definition  of  the  area  covered  by  the  treaty 
("  north  of  the  tropic  of  Cancer  ")  and  technical  provisions 
for  ratification,  procedure  for  further  accessions,  possibilities 
of  revision  after  10  years  and  termination  after  20  years. 

After  stormy  debates  in  the  French  and  Italian  parliaments 
and  searching  debates  in  the  U.S.  congress,  the  treaty  was 
ratified  by  all  signatories  during  the  summer  and  was  pro- 
claimed by  President  Truman  to  have  entered  into  force 
on  Aug.  24,  1949. 

The  Soviet  Union  reacted  to  the  treaty  with  violent  words 
and  cautious  actions.  Moscow  radio  declared  that  *'  the 
pact  means  war  against  the  Soviet  Union  "  and  the  Soviet 
press  spoke  of  its  "  aggressive  aims  "  and  called  it  "  a  weapon 
of  the  Anglo-American  imperialists  intent  upon  world 
domination."  The  Soviet  Union  also  protested  against  the 
inclusion  of  Italy  in  the  treaty,  alleging  that  this  violated 
the  Italian  peace  treaty.  At  the  same  time,  however,  the 
Soviet  Union  proclaimed  "  a  policy  of  peace  "  and  agreed 
to  the  lifting  of  the  blockade  of  Berlin.  Tension  in  Europe 
relaxed  somewhat,  and  the  threat  of  a  situation  in  which 
article  5  of  the  treaty  might  have  to  be  invoked  receded  for 
the  time  being. 

The  rest  of  the  year  was  mainly  filled  with  activity  to 
implement  articles  3  and  9.  On  May  14,  the  U.S.  State 
Department  issued  a  "  Peace  Paper,"  stating  that  the  existing 
defences  of  western  Europe  were  so  inadequate  as  to  "  invite 
military  aggression  "  and  asking  for  a  Military  Aid  pro- 
gramme, consisting  of  dollar  aid  to  increase  military  produc- 
tion in  western  Europe,  direct  supply  of  arms  and  equipment 
and  provision  of  U.S.  technical  assistance.  The  cost  of  the 
programme  for  the  year  July  1,  1949,  to  June  30,  1950,  was 
estimated  at  $1,450  million,  of  which  $1,130  million  was 
earmarked  for  the  North  Atlantic  treaty  nations. 

The  Mutual  Defence  Assistance  bill,  which  embodied  these 
proposals,  had  a  difficult  passage  through  congress  but  was 
in  the  end  substantially  passed  under  the  impact  of  President 
Truman's  announcement  on  Sept.  22  of  an  atomic  explosion 
in  the  Soviet  Union.  The  value  of  aid  to  the  North  Atlantic 
treaty  nations  was,  however,  limited  to  $1,000  million  and 
made  conditional  on  the  acceptance  of  a  generally  agreed 
defence  plan. 

In  November,  the  United  States  entered  into  negotiation 
with  the  prospective  recipients  of  military  aid  for  the  con- 
clusion of  bilateral  treaties  about  the  conditions  under  which 
aid  was  to  be  supplied  and  the  use  to  be  made  of  it.  These 
negotiations  were  approaching  successful  conclusion  by  the 
end  of  the  year  after  initial  differences,  especially  between 
the  United  States  and  Great  Britain,  had  been  narrowed 
down.  No  American  arms  were,  however,  actually  delivered 
to  the  North  Atlantic  treaty  countries  during  1949. 

In  preparation  of  the  planned  military  assistance  to 
Europe,  the  U.S.  government  established,  during  the  closing 
months  of  1949,  a  new  Military  Assistance  administration, 
largely  modelled  on  the  Economic  Co-operation  administra- 
tion concerned  with  the  European  Recovery  programme. 
Under  the  president,  who  was  advised  by  the  Defence 
Steering  committee  composed  of  the  secretaries  of  state  and 
defence  and  the  E.C.A.  administrator,  military  aid  was  to  be 
operated  by  a  Military  Assistance  Correlation  committee, 
headed  by  a  director  of  military  aid.  James  Bruce  was 
appointed  to  this  post.  A  co-ordinating  committee  in  London, 


NORTH    ATLANTIC   TREATY 


467 


headed  by  the  U.S.  ambassador  in  London,  was  to  direct 
operations  at  the  receiving  end,  while  U.S.  military  aid 
missions,  consisting  of  military  technicians,  were  to  be 
attached  to  the  U.S.  embassies  in  the  recipient  countries. 
Parallel  with  this  American  machinery  for  the  purpose  of 
assisting  western  European  military  re-equipment,  formidable 
international  machinery  came  into  being  during  the  closing 
months  of  1949  for  the  purpose  of  joint  strategic  planning 
among  the  North  Atlantic  treaty  powers.  The  North  Atlantic 
council,  established  in  article  9  of  the  treaty,  held  its  first 
meeting  in  Washington  on  Sept.  17  under  the  chairmanship 
of  the  U.S.  secretary  of  state.  It  set  up  a  defence  committee 
(consisting  of  the  defence  ministers),  a  military  committee 
(consisting  of  the  chiefs  of  staff  or  their  deputies),  a  standing 
group  (consisting  of  three  high-ranking  U.S.,  British  and 
French  officers  and  meeting  in  continuous  session  in  Washing- 
ton) and  five  regional  planning  groups,  with  the  following 
membership:  (1)  Northern  Europe — Great  Britain,  Norway, 
Denmark;  (2)  Western  Europe — Great  Britain,  France, 
Benelux;  (3)  Southern  Europe-Mediterranean — Great  Britain, 
France,  Italy;  (4)  North  America-  U.S.,  Canada;  (5)  North 
Atlantic— all  members  except  Italy  and  Luxembourg. 


It  was  decided  that  the  U.S.  should  take  part  in  the  work 
of  regional  planning  groups  1,  2  and  3  and  that  in  addition 
Canada,  Denmark  and  Italy  should  take  part  in  that  of 
regional  planning  group  2. 

All  these  committees  and  groups  started  work  during 
October  and  November  in  Washington  (defence  committee, 
military  committee,  standing  group,  planning  groups  4  and  5), 
London  (planning  groups  1  and  2)  and  Paris  (planning 
group  3).  In  addition,  a  military  production  and  supply 
board  (concerned  with  such  questions  as  international 
standardization  of  arms  designs)  was  established  in  London 
on  Nov.  1 ,  and  a  financial  and  economic  committee  (dealing 
with  the  economics  of  common  defence  and  keeping  liaison 
with  E.C.A.  and  O.E.E.C.)  in  Paris  on  Dec.  19. 

The  defence  and  military  committees  met  in  Paris  from 
Nov.  29  to  Dec.  1  and  agreed  on  a  strategic  over-all  plan  for 
the  defence  of  the  North  Atlantic  treaty  area,  a  programme 
of  production  and  supply  and  the  co-ordination  of  planning 
between  regional  groups. 

Altogether,  the  closing  months  of  1949  saw  the  North 
Atlantic  treaty  organization  coming  vigorously  to  life, 
though  physical  rearmament  of  western  Europe  through 


Ernest  Bevin  signing  the  North  Atlantic  treaty  in  Washington,  April  4,  1949.    On  his  right  is  Sir  Oliver  Franks,  British  ambassador,  and 
behind,  left  to  right,  are  President  Harry  S.  Truman,  Dean  Acheson  (United  States),  Lester  Pearson  (Canada)  and  Robert  Schuman  (Prance). 


468 


NORTHERN   IRELAND-NORTHERN   RHODESIA 


American  aid  was  only  to  start  in  1950.  One  unsettled  problem 
remained  the  relation  of  the  largely  duplicating  international 
defence  machineries  built  up  under  the  North  Atlantic  treaty 
and  under  the  treaty  of  Brussels.  (S.  HR.) 

NORTHERN  IRELAND  comprises  the  six  counties 
of  Antrim,  Armagh,  Down,  Fermanagh,  Londonderry  and 
Tyrone;  it  forms  part  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great 
Britain  and  Northern  Ireland,  but  (from  1920)  has  had  its 
own  parliament  and  executive  (with  limited  powers  for  local 
purposes)  although  it  is  represented  in  the  imperial  parliament 
by  13  members.  Area:  5,451  sq.  mi.  Pop.  (Dec.  31,  1948, 
est.):  1,365,000.  Language:  English.  Religions  (1937 
census):  Roman  Catholic  33-5%;  Presbyterian  30-5%; 
Episcopalian  27%;  Methodist  4-3%,  etc.  Chief  towns 
(pop.  est.  1948):  Belfast  (cap.,  450,000);  Londonderry 
(49,000);  Bangor  (19,000).  Governor,  the  Earl  Granville; 
prime  minister,  Sir  Basil  Brooke  (^.v.). 

History.  The  year  began  at  election  fever  heat.  Sir  Basil 
Brooke,  the  prime  minister,  had  announced  that  there  would 
be  a  general  election  on  Feb.  10  in  order  that  the  voters  could 
respond  to  the  British  government's  assurance  that  the  status 
of  Northern  Ireland  would  not  be  changed  unless  its  people 
so  wished.  Sir  Basil  had  visited  Clement  Attlce  in  London 
to  get  this  assurance  when  Eire  declared  her  intention  of 
becoming  an  independent  republic.  The  Nationalist  opposi- 
tion maintained  that  Sir  Basil  was  rushing  the  election  before 
the  new  electoral  register  came  into  force  on  April  1  so  as  to 
disfranchise  a  large  number  of  possibly  hostile  voters.  The 
campaign  in  Belfast,  which  is  not  noted  for  quiet  elections, 
was  even  bitterer  than  usual.  Jack  Beattie,  an  Independent 
Socialist  and  a  member  at  Westminster,  protested  in  the 
British  House  of  Commons  that  he  was  in  bodily  danger 
and  was  being  denied  the  right  of  free  speech.  When  the 
wrangling  was  finally  over  the  Unionists  were  seen  to  have 
triumphed  utterly.  They  were  returned  with  37  seats  instead 
of  35;  the  Nationalists  secured  9  (previously  8);  Independent 
Unionists  2,  Independent  Labour  1,  Socialist  Republican  1 
and  Independents  2  were  all  unchanged;  the  North  of 
Ireland  Labour  party  which  had  3  seats  was  wiped  out. 

Though  the  Labour  landslide  was  largely  due  to  their  own 
vacillation  on  the  subject  of  Irish  partition,  Sir  Basil  Brooke 
could  hardly  be  denied  when  he  said  that  Ulster  had  re-affirmed 
its  allegiance  to  the  King  and  its  faith  in  the  British  Common- 
wealth. The  raising  of  funds  in  the  south  of  Ireland  to  help 
Nationalist  candidates  in  the  north  certainly  helped  to  harden 
and  close  the  ranks  of  the  Unionists  who  were  bitter  about 
what  they  termed  "  foreign  interference."  But  once  the 
verdict  of  the  electors  was  given  and  the  British  guarantee 
received  by  the  passing  of  the  Ireland  act,  the  government  at 
Stormont  could  afford  once  more  to  ignore  the  south  and 
get  on  with  its  business. 

It  was  pretty  substantial  business.  Northern  Ireland's 
exports  in  1948  totalled  £159,158,000.  It  was  announced  in 
March  1949  that  since  World  War  II  211  factories  had  either 
been  started  or  extended,  to  give  employment  to  35,000 
people.  Up  to  the  end  of  1948  10,000  houses,  2,000  of  them 
prefabricated,  had  been  erected,  a  number  which  would  have 
been  considerably  greater  but  for  shortages  of  labour  and 
materials.  To  prove  their  constant  assertion  that  they  were 
the  most  industrious  and  thrifty  persons  in  the  British  Isles, 
Northern  Irishmen  could  point  to  the  fact  that  their  small 
savings  in  1948  averaged  £3  10.s.  a  head,  as  compared  with 
an  average  of  1 2s.  a  head  for  the  rest  of  the  United  Kingdom. 

Nineteen-forty-nine  saw  the  upward  movement  of  unem- 
ployment halted,  though  the  figures  remained  higher  than 
in  1948.  It  was  proposed  to  build  two  satellite  towns  near 
Belfast,  to  be  named  Loughside  and  North  Laganside,  which 
would  be  reserved  entirely  for  light  industries.  Meanwhile  a 


new  2£  mi.  tunnel  "was  to  be  driven  through  the  Slieve  Bingian 
mountain  in  Co.  Down,  to  carry  an  aqueduct  that  would 
assure  a  permanently  adequate  water  supply  for  Belfast.  In 
June  there  were  21  merchant  vessels,  grossing  210,498  tons, 
under  construction  in  Belfast  yards  and,  though  this  figure 
was  slightly  smaller  than  in  1948,  it  still  represented  about 
one-twentieth  of  the  total  world  tonnage  being  built.  About 
25  %  of  the  slips  were  idle,  chiefly  because  of  the  difficulty  of 
obtaining  steel.  Fears  expressed  early  in  the  year  that  the 
rising  price  of  steel  would  strike  savagely  at  Belfast's  main 
heavy  industry  were  allayed  by  the  announcement  of  devalua- 
tion which  it  was  hoped  would  offset  increasing  costs.  The 
linen  industry,  exporting  75%  of  its  output,  found  trade 
difficulties  hampering  its  efforts  to  hit  a  target  of  £10  million. 

Though  four-fifths  of  the  agricultural  holdings  in  Northern 
Ireland  were  of  less  than  50  ac.,  output  again  increased.  In 
the  year  ending  March  31,  1949,  Northern  Ireland's  90,000 
farms  exported  to  Britain  over  £27  million  of  food.  There 
was  an  especially  large  increase  in  the  export  of  milk,  and 
during  the  autumn  70,000  gal.  a  day  were  sent  to  Britain  by 
sea.  The  target  of  80  million  dozen  eggs  a  year,  originally 
set  for  1952-53,  seemed  likely  to  be  hit  early  in  1950. 

In  the  government  there  were  changes  after  the  death  of 
William  Grant,  minister  of  health  and  local  government,  and 
again  when  Edmond  Warnock  was  appointed  attorney- 
general  in  November.  His  place  as  minister  of  home  affairs 
was  taken  by  W.  B.  Maginess,  and  there  were  other  minor 
replacements  in  the  cabinet.  As  though  to  refute  the  often 
made  assertion  from  the  south  that  the  Unionists  were 
44  fascists,"  the  government  in  autumn  revoked  a  number  of 
the  regulations  made  under  the  Special  Powers  act.  The  year 
ended  with  a  political  flare-up  which  caused  the  resignation 
of  the  minister  of  education,  Lieut.  Colonel  S.  H.  Hall- 
Thompson,  after  Unionist  back  bench  pressure  had  tried  to 
alter  the  terms  of  government  grants  to  voluntary  schools. 
According  to  the  extremer  Unionists  these  grants  favoured 
the  Roman  Catholics.  It  looked  as  though  the  confidence 
gathered  from  their  February  triumph  might  after  all  be 
tempting  the  Unionists  along  a  reactionary  path.  (R.  KM.) 

Education.  (1947-48)  Schools:  elementary  1,656,  pupils  185,418; 
secondary  77,  pupils  21,973,  technical  115,  students  30,124.  The 
Queen's  University  of  Belfast,  professors  and  lecturers  216,  students 
2,685. 

Agricu'ture.  Main  crops  ''000  metric  tons,  1948):  oats  398,  potatoes 
1  693,  wheat  4  8,  barley  6  6,  dredge  corn  7  4;  hay  792.  Livestock 
('000  head,  June  1949).  cattle  980;  sheep  645,  pigs  458;  horses  55, 
goats  and  kids  9  6,  asses  5-5;  poultry  24,237.  Food  production 
(1948-49).  sales  of  milk  80  million  gal.,  eggs  74  mill'on  dozen;  pig- 
meat  373,000  cwt  ;  mutton  and  lamb  95,000  cwt.  Shipments  to  Great 
Britain  (1947-48;  1948-49  m  brackets):  milk  14-8  (18-6)  million  gal. 
eggs  26  0  (32  0)  million  dozen;  meat  742,000  (752,000)  cwt.;  bacon 
and  ham  89,000  (131,000)  cwt.;  poultry  116,000  (140.000)  cwt. 

Industry.  Flectricity  sales  (million  kwh  ,  1947;  1948  m  brackets): 
418  (467).  Value  of  exports  of  linen  goods  to  the  United  Kingdom  for 
12  months  ending  Sept  30,  1948:  £18  8  million 

Transport  and  Communications.  Roads  (1947)  13,000  mi.  Licensed 
motor  vehicles  (Aug.  1949).  cars  41  572,  commercial  vehicles  16,743. 
Railways  (1947):  644  rm  ;  passengers  carried  17,411,803;  goods 
2,095,  637  tons  Belfast  airport  (1948);  flights  6,283,  passengers  flown 
81,884,  cargo  earned  605,812  Ib  ,  mail  639,206  Ib.  Telephones  (1947): 
subscribers  37,067.  Wireless  licences  (1947)  173,505. 

Finance  and  Banking.  Budget.  (1948-49)  revenue  £60,306,286; 
expenditure  £38,712,828;  (1949-50  est )  revenue  £65,057,000;  expendi- 
ture £44,995,000  Expenditure  figures  exclude  contribution  towards 
imperial  expenditure  estimated  at  (1948-49)  £21-5  million  and  (1949- 
50)  £20  million.  Public  debt  (March  1949;  in  brackets  March  1948) 
£28,666,725  (£28,430652)  Currency  circulation  (July  1949): 
£11,087,282.  Ulster  savings  certificates  (Sept.  1949;  m  brackets  June 
1948^:  £41,335,686  (£31,345,325).  Trustee  savings  banks  deposits 
at  Belfast  (Nov  1949;  in  brackets  Aug.  1948):  £44,147,148 
(£41,521,898).  Commercial  bank  deposits  (June  1948):  £101,107,000 

NORTHERN  RHODESIA.  British  protectorate  on 
the  plateau  of  central  Africa.  Area:  284,745  sq.  mi.  Pop. 
(1947  est):  1,683,600.  Governor,  Sir  Gilbert  Rennie. 


NORWAY 


469 


Arthur  Creech  Jones,  secretary  of 
state  for  the  colonies,  addressing 
the  girls'  school  at  Mindolo,  Northern 
Rhodesia,  during  a  visit  to  Africa  in 
April,  1949. 

History.  In  February  unofficial 
European  members  of  both  the 
Northern  Rhodesian  and  Nyasa- 
land  Legislative  Councils  took  part 
in  a  conference,  attended  also  by 
the  prime  minister  and  other  mem- 
bers of  the  Southern  Rhodesian 
government,  at  which  a  unani- 
mous resolution  was  passed  in 
favour  of  federation  of  the  three 
territories  and  the  creation  of  a 
federal  parliament,  the  federal 
government  to  have  wide  powers. 

Unofficial  members  of  the 
Legislative  Council  having  raised 
the  question  of  taxing  the  mineral 
royalties  of  the  British  South 
Africa  company,  a  meeting  was 
called  in  London  between  the 
secretary  of  state  for  the  colonies, 
the  governor,  and  representatives 
of  the  elected  members  of  the 

Legislative  Council  and  the  company;  it  was  there  agreed, 
inter  alia,  that,  subject  to  certain  guarantees  in  the  meantime, 
the  company  should  transfer  its  mineral  rights  to  the  govern- 
ment of  Northern  Rhodesia  after  37  years. 

A  speech,  made  by  the  secretary  of  state  for  the  colonies  at 
Salisbury,  Southern  Rhodesia,  during  a  tour  of  central 
Africa  in  the  spring,  was  strongly  criticized  by  the  European 
element  in  Northern  Rhodesia.  In  the  course  of  the  speech 
the  secretary  of  state  stressed  the  British  government's 
responsibilities  to  the  Africans  in  Northern  Rhodesia  and 
defined  the  scope  of  white  settlement  and  European  develop- 
ment. Later  he  found  it  necessary  to  enlarge  on  his  statement 
and  define  his  meaning  more  explicitly. 

Under  the  auspices  of  the  Beit  trustees  one  of  London's 
wartime  bridges  was  transported  and  re-erected  over  the 
Kafue  river,  thus  linking  more  effectively  two  sections  of  the 
Great  North  road  in  southern  Africa  (see  BRIDGES). 

Finance  and  Trade.  Currency:  Southern  Rhodesian  pound  at  par 
with  sterling.  Budget  (1948):  revenue  £6,715,517;  expenditure 
£6,208,455.  Foreign  trade  (1948):  imports  £16,438,126;  exports 
£28,650,783.  Principal  exports:  copper  (blister  and  electrolytic), 
zinc  and  lead.  (J.  A.  Hu.) 

NORWAY.  A  constitutional  monarchy  of  northern 
Europe,  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  Arctic  ocean,  on  the  E. 
by  Finland,  the  U.S.S.R.  and  Sweden  and  on  the  S.  and  the 
W.  by  the  North  sea.  Area:  125,147 sq.  mi.1  Pop.:  (Dec.  3, 
1946  census)  3,123,338;  (mid-1948  est.)  3,181,000.  Chief 
towns  (pop.,  1948  est.):  Oslo  (cap.,  418,000,  after  extension 
of  city  limits);  Bergen  (108,933);  Trondheim  (56,444); 
Stavanger  (42,218).  Languages:  Norwegian  and  Lappish 
(19,000).  Religion:  Lutheran.  Ruler:  King  Haakon  VII 
(q.v.);  prime  minister:  Einar  Gerhardsen  (q.v.). 

History.  In  a  New  Year's  message  Halvard  Lange  (</.v.), 
Norway's  resolute  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  said  that 
co-operation  must  be  expanded  "  with  peoples  with  whom  we 
feel  a  kindred  relationship — people  outside  the  boundaries  of 
Scandinavia,"  and  expressed  the  hope  that  Denmark  and 
Sweden  would  come  to  the  same  conclusion.  However,  at 
three  sessions  held  successively  in  Sweden,  Denmark  and 

l  Excluding  Svalbard  archipelago  (Spitsbergen  and  Baer  Island).  Area:  24,294 
sq.  mi.  The  population,  largely  miners,  shifts  seasonally;  in  1939  it  was  estimated 
at  2,210  (including  1,500  Russians).  The  extraction  of  coal,  interrupted  during 
World  War  II.  reached  in  the  Norwegian  mines  436,800  metric  tons  in  1948, 
and  about  435,000  in  1949. 


Norway  during  January  by  the  prime  ministers  and  foreign 
and  defence  ministers  of  these  countries,  the  possibilities  of  a 
Scandinavian  military  alliance  were  explored  in  vain.  To 
reach  common  ground,  Norway  had  been  willing  to  forgo 
formal  attachment  to  a  more  comprehensive  regional  system, 
but  could  not  accept  the  Swedish  stipulation  that  "security  and 
political  realities"  were  not  to  be  discussed  with  the  western 
powers.  Moreover  it  had  been  learned  that  arms  would  not 
be  available  from  the  U.S.  for  nations  not  committed  to 
general  western  defence;  and  Sweden  could  not,  alone,  arm 
Norway  and  Denmark  to  the  extent  required. 

Lange  flew,  therefore,  to  Washington  (Feb.  6)  for  informa- 
tion about  the  proposed  North  Atlantic  grouping,  which  was 
indeed  the  embodiment  of  a  concept  outlined  in  Nov.  1940  by 
Arnold  Raestad,  governor  of  the  Bank  of  Norway,  in  London. 
Meanwhile  a  Soviet  note  (Jan.  29)  denouncing  the  proposed 
treaty  had  evoked  the  reply  that  the  government  would  not 
join  any  agreement  with   other  states  opening  bases  for 
foreign  "military  forces  on  Norwegian  territory,  as  long  as 
Norway  is  not  attacked  or  exposed  to  threats  of  attack." 
Lange,  who  saw  Ernest  Bevin  in  London  on  his  way  home, 
received  overwhelming  support  for  his  initiative  from  the 
Norwegian  Labour  party  congress  (Feb.  20)  and,  when  a 
formal  invitation  from  the  seven  negotiating  powers  was  placed 
before  parliament,  in  secret  session  (March  3),  the  129  mem- 
bers in  favour  were  opposed  solely  by  11  Communists  (5 
Labour  opponents  staying  away).    Einar  Gerhardsen,  the 
prime  minister,  said  that  "those  who  want  to  wait  until  an 
Atlantic  treaty  is  a  reality  must  know  that  Norway  does  not 
want  to  shirk  its  share  of  responsibility.  We  wish  to  co-oper- 
ate from  the  start,  because  we  do  not  want  the  treaty  to  be 
only  an  affair  of  the  great  powers."  Simultaneously  a  second 
Soviet  note  (Feb.  5),  suggesting  a  non-aggression  pact,  was 
answered  by  reference  to  the  pledges  of  non-aggression  made 
by  all  members  of  the  U.N.  and  by  the  assurances  that  in 
determining  what  constituted  a  "threat  of  attack"  the  govern- 
ment would  depend  on  facts  and  not  on  rumours.   As  soon 
as  the  North   Atlantic   treaty   (q.v.)  was  signed   Norway 
requested  military  assistance;  and  when  the  Mutual  Defence 
Assistance  act  had  been  approved  by  congress  American 
officials  visited  Oslo  to  discuss  the  military  aid  programme, 
consultations  continuing  in  London. 


470 


NU,  THAKIN 


But  Norway  did  not  wait  passively  for  help  North  Norway 
was  now  designated  a  special  defence  area,  under  Admiral 
Tore  Horve;  army  manoeuvres  were  earned  out  in  eastern 
Norway,  to  test  preparedness;  in  August  the  air  manoeuvres 
were  the  most  extensive  since  World  War  II  and  the  chief 
airport  at  Stavanger  was  being  enlarged;  it  was  officially 
stated  that  Norway's  merchant  fleet  would  be  armed  in  case 
of  war;  an  Industrial  guard  linked  170,000  workers  from  some 
thousand  independent  enterprises,  most  of  a  Home  guard 
numbering  about  100,000  had  weapons  and  uniforms,  90 °/0 
ready  to  reach  their  posts  within  1-3  hr.,  and  several  under- 
ground hydro-electric  power  stations  would  be  completed 
in  3-4  years.  On  Dec.  6  the  Norwegian  all-party  defence 
commission,  at  work  since  1946,  reported  in  favour  of  a  50% 
higher  annual  defence  expenditure  (Kr.  300  million  yearly) 
and  a  capital  expenditure  of  about  Kr.  1,000  million  over 
six  years.  Depots,  it  was  proposed,  should  be  decentralized 
and  the  chief  naval  base  moved  from  Oslo  fjord  to  Bergen 
Jens  Hauge,  the  minister  of  defence,  stated  firmly,  "  Defending 
Norway  is  no  hopeless  task,  and  it  is  not  correct  to  assume 
that  Norway  must  be  occupied  in  the  event  of  a  new  war." 

A  Norwegian  National  Council  of  the  European  Movement 
was  formed  in  May,  as  a  result  of  Norway's  joining  the  Coun- 
cil of  Europe  (c/.v.),  where  it  was  granted  four  representatives 
on  the  consultative  assembly.  At  the  first  meeting  in  Stras- 
bourg, Tcrje  Wold,  chairman  of  the  foreign  relations  commit- 
tee of  parliament,  gave  as  an  example  of  the  "  functional 
approach  "  to  greater  unity,  which  most  of  the  British  and 
northern  delegates  advocated,  such  Scandinavian  co-opera- 
tion as  already  existed  in  many  spheies:  for  instance,  no 
important  law  was  now  passed  in  Norway,  Denmark  or 
Sweden,  he  said,  without  prior  consultation  between  them. 
In  December,  Lange  declared  that  Norway  favoured  Western 
Germany's  membership  of  the  council. 

Scandinavian  co-operation,  including  Iceland,  was  ex- 
pressed during  the  year  by  a  joint  decision  to  recognize  Israel 
de  facto,  by  a  joint  demarche  in  support  of  the  Danish  view 
on  South  Schleswig  (see  DENMARK),  by  a  joint  announcement 
of  withdrawal  from  the  World  Federation  of  Trade  Unions 
(see  TRADk  UNIONS)  and  by  plans  for  mutual  social  security 
regulations,  already  agreed  upon  with  respect  to  old  age 
pensions.  Norway,  Sweden  and  Denmark  would  also 
attempt  to  co-ordinate  their  expanding  steel  programmes: 
but  Lange  maintained  (Dec.  1)  that  a  Nordic  customs  union 
would  be  detrimental  to  Norway  and  that  security  considera- 
tions still  forced  each  country  to  aim  at  self-sufficiency. 

On  July  28  the  Storting  dissolved,  having  served  the  allotted 
span  of  four  years,  and  a  gentlemen's  agreement  was  made  to 
conduct  the  elections  in  a  sober,  factual  manner,  abstaining 
from  rival  demonstrations  at  election  meetings  and  avoiding 
slander  and  abuse.  The  results  (\ee  ELECTIONS)  increased  the 
Labour  majority  in  parliament  from  2  to  20  and  gave  them 
more  members  than  the  other  parties  combined,  although 
they  did  not  win  a  majority  of  all  votes  cast,  and  also  elimi- 
nated Communist  representation.  A  month  later  Peder 
Furubotn,  veteran  Communist  leader,  was  expelled  by  the 
central  committee  for  "  Titoisrn "  and  was  said  to  have 
organized  a  new  central  committee  with  three  former  national 
executive  members,  likewise  expelled. 

The  Labour  victory  was  attributed  to  the  critics'  dispersal 
among  many  parties  but  also  to  the  government's  achieve- 
ments: full  employment,  higher  production  than  before 
World  War  II,  ample  investment  in  new  factories  and  power 
plants,  substantial  reconstruction  in  the  north,  restoration 
of  the  merchant  fleet  to  prewar  size,  improvement  in  food 
and  clothing  supplies  and  diminished  rationing.  Unanimity 
on  defence  and  foreign  policy  moreover  largely  prevailed 
except  for  the  Communist  group,  which  campaigned  against 
the  North  Atlantic  treaty  and  Marshall  aid.  Nevertheless 


many  besides  the  Conservatives  had  doubts  about  the  future; 
above  all,  Norway  shared  Europe's  dollar  problem.  In  a 
conciliatory  post-election  speech  Gerhardsen  promised  not  to 
intensify  socialization  and  stated  solemnly,  **  Only  increased 
production  can  help  us.  If  we  could  only  increase  production 
by  4%-5%,  we  would  not  have  any  problem  at  all." 

In  May  A.  E.  Staley,  retiring  chief  of  the  F  C  A.  mission, 
described  Norway's  four-year  recovery  plan  as  "  unique 
among  Marshall  lands,"  and  elsewhere  the  production  index 
for  1948,  that  is,  138  (1937  100),  had  been  cited  as  the  best 
in  the  same  group.  Without  Marshall  aid,  however,  1948-49 
imports  would  have  been  cut  by  50 %,  affecting  food  and 
investment.  The  outlook  was  also  complicated  by  widespread 
demands  for  higher  wages,  which  employers  protested  they 
could  not  pay  because  of  increased  working  costs.  After  a 
visit  by  seven  Labour  leaders  to  the  U.S  ,  Haakon  Lie,  secre- 
tary general  of  the  Norwegian  Labour  party,  proposed  that 
200  workers  should  be  employed  annually  for  a  period  in 
U  S.  plants,  to  study  means  of  achieving  a  high  output. 

An  old  disagreement  with  Great  Britain  about  the  extent 
of  Norwegian  territorial  waters  came  to  the  fore  through  the 
Storting's  decision  (Sept  1,  1948)  to  enforce  a  royal  decree 
of  1935,  defining  Norway's  rights  over  areas  not  previously 
claimed.  When  negotiations  failed  (July  15,  1949)  Britain 
referred  the  dispute  to  the  International  Court  of  Justice. 

Fducation.  Schools  (1946)  elementary  5,626,  pupils  289,449,  teachers 
10,766,  secondary  288,  pupils  44,156,  teachers  3,090  'lechmcal 
schools  (1947)  day  9,  pupils  1,82^.  teachers  233,  apprentice  84, 
pupils  8,481,  teachers  940,  workshop  144,  pupils  2,810,  tcacheis  330 
Two  universities  and  8  institutions  of  higher  education  (1948)  students 
7,743,  professors  and  lecturers  730 

Agriculture  and  Fisheries.  Mam  crop-,  ('000  metric  tons,  1948, 
1949  est  m  brackets)  \\heat  76  (61),  barley  89,  oats  177,  rye  3  (3), 
potatoes  1,454  Livestock  ('000  head,  June  20,  1948)  cattle  1,175, 
sheep  1,629,  pigs  248,  horses  206,  poultry  4,663  I  ishcnes  (1948) 
total  catch  1  3  million  metric  tons,  worth  Kr  325  million  Landings 
of  herring  (metric  tons,  1948,  1949  m  brackets)  820,292  (567,454), 
landings  of  cod  133,712  (112,995) 

Industry.  Industrial  establishments  (1947)  5,785,  employing  186,774 
manual  and  28,942  salaried  workers  hue!  and  power  coal  ('000 
metric  tons,  1948,  1949,  six  months,  in  brackets)  436  (300),  gas  ('000 
cu  m  )  46,944  (25,721),  electricity  (million  kwh  )  12,445  (8,592) 
Raw  materials  (metric  tons,  1948,  1949,  six  months,  m  brackets) 
pig  iron  63,331  O6,258),  pyrites  735,422  (420,945),  fcrrosilicon 
(calculated  45  °0  basis)  43,991  (35,440),  other  ferro-alloys  94,862 
(61,375),  aluminium  30,157  (19,522),  nickel  8,401  (5,716),  zinc  42,000 
(25,431),  sulphur  78,479  (36,535),  mechanical  wood  pulp  for  sale 
(wet  basis)  562,129  (357,790),  chemical  wood  pulp  (dry  basis)  390,219 
(237,869)  Other  products  (1947)  nitrate  of  lime  473,098  metric  tons, 
herring  oil  243,433  hi  ,  paper,  pasteboard  and  cardboard  455,681 
metric  tons,  canned  fish  and  fish  products  48,801  metric  tons  Building 
m  1948  was  120°;,  of  the  best  prewai  years 

Foreign  Trade.  (Million  kroner,  1948,  1949,  six  months,  in  brackets) 
Imports  3,721  (2,376),  exports  2,063  (1,286) 

transport  and  Communications.  Roads  (June  30,  1949)  44,247  km 
Licensed  motor  vehicles  (Jan  1948)  cars  62,578,  lorries  46,396 
Railways  (June  30,  1948)  state  4,474  km  .  private  83  km  Shipping 
(Jan  1949)  merchant  vessels  5,136  (above  25  gross  tons)  totalling 
4,680,000  tons  Telephone  subscribers  (June  30,  1948)  400,200 
Wireless  licences  (Oct  1,1949)  709,116 

Knance  and  Banking.  (Million  kroner)  Budget  (1948-49)  revenue 
2,782,  expenditure  2,610,  (1949-50  est)  revenue  2,584.  expenditure 
2,320  National  debt  (Jan  1949,  Jan  1948  in  brackets)  6,090(6,117) 
Currency  circulation  (June  1949,  Dec  1948  in  brackets)  2,116 
(2,159)  Gold  reserve  (June  1949,  Dec  1948  m  brackets)  185(185) 
Savings  and  bank  deposits  (June  1949,  Dec  1948  in  brackets)  8,728 
(8,267)  Cost  of  living  index,  mid- 1949,  163  (1938  100).  The  monetary 
unit  is  the  krone  (pi  kroner)  Exchange  rates  JL1  Kr  20  00  and 
SI  -  Kr7  14  (before  Sept.  18,  1949  $1  Kr4-96) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  B  A  Arneson,  The  Demoiram.  Monardn  of  Standt- 
navia  (Oslo,  1949);  L  C  S  Barber,  Notwav  Ft  onomn  ami  Commercial 
Condition  (London,  H  M  SO  1949),  W  (ialcnson.  Labour  in  Norway 
(Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  US,  1949),  H  Haugstol  and  J  Vegel, 
77m  n  Norway  (Oslo,  1949)  (|£.  J  L  ) 

NU,  THAKIN,  Burmese  statesman  (b.  Wakema, 
Burma,  1906),  became  prime  minister  of  Burma  on  JanT  4 
1948.  (For  his  career  see  Britannica  Rook  oj  the  Year  1949). 


NURI   PASHA   AS-SA'ID— NUTS  HYDERABAD  (DECCA      4?1 


In  April  he  visited  India  and  Pakistan  for  talks  with  Pandit 
Nehru  and  Liaquat  Ali  Khan.  The  cabinet  was  reshuffled  in 
March  1949,  Thakin  Nu  remaining  prime  minister  and  taking 
charge  also  of  the  defence  and  home  portfolios;  on  a  further 
re-organization  in  April,  he  resigned  the  Defence  and  Home 
ministries  but  took  charge  of  the  Ministry  of  National  Planning. 

NURI  PASHA  AS-SA'ID,  Iraqi  statesman 
(b.  Baghdad,  1888).  A  Sunni  Moslem,  he  graduated 
from  the  military  college,  Istanbul,  in  1906,  and  from 
staff  college,  Istanbul,  in  1911.  In  1913  he  helped  to 
found  the  Arab  secret  society  Al-Ahd  and  joined  the  Sharif 
Hussein  of  Hejaz  as  soon  as  he  proclaimed  the  Arab  revolt 
in  1916.  He  became  chief  of  staff  to  the  Hejaz  army  and  later 
commander  of  the  Northern  Arab  army.  In  1919  he  accom- 
panied Prince  Faysal  to  Paris  to  present  the  Arab  case  to 
the  powers.  He  returned  in  1921  to  Iraq,  where  he  was  one 
of  those  who  invited  Faysal  to  become  king,  and  was 
appointed  chief  of  staff  and,  for  a  while,  acting  commander 
in  chief.  He  was  minister  of  defence  in  six  cabinets,  six  times 
minister  of  foreign  affairs  and  in  1930  became  prime  minister 
— a  post  which  he  afterwards  held  on  numerous  occasions. 
He  negotiated  and  signed  the  1930  treaty  with  Great  Britain 
and  was  a  member  of  the  delegation  which  signed  the  abortive 
treaty  of  Portsmouth  in  1948.  He  was  much  attacked  as  an 
Anglophile.  He  had  to  flee  the  country  after  the  Bekr  Sidgi 
coup  d'etat  in  Oct.  1936  and  again  after  that  of  Rashid  Ali 
in  April  1941.  In  1943  he  circulated  a  confidential  memo- 
randum, in  which  he  proposed  the  reunion  of  Syria,  Lebanon, 
Palestine  and  Transjordan  in  one  territory  under  the  name  of 
Greater  Syria  and  their  union  with  Iraq  in  a  league.  His 
subsequent  discussions  with  the  Egyptian  prime  minister 
Nahas  Pasha  led  to  the  formation  in  1945  of  the  Arab 
League  (q.v.).  After  becoming  prime  minister  again  in 
Jan.  1949,  he  was  reported  to  be  sponsoring  with  Syria 
(and  possibly  also  with  Lebanon)  under  King  Faysal  II  a 
union  of  Iraq  which  became  known  as  the  "  fertile  crescent  " 
scheme.  He  resigned  on  Nov.  7.  (C.  Ho.) 

NURSING.  In  Great  Britain  a  comprehensive  Nurses' 
bill  was  introduced  into  the  House  of  Lords  in  April  1949  on 
behalf  of  the  Ministry  of  Health.  The  bill  refrained  from 
attempting  to  lay  down  centrally  the  lines  upon  which  the 
training  of  nurses  should  be  modified  and  provided  instead 
(i)  freedom  to  experiment  in  nurse  training;  (ii)  the  separation 
of  the  finances  of  nurse  training  from  that  of  the  hospitals; 
and  (iii)  a  more  flexible  constitution  for  the  General  Nursing 
council.  This  bill  was  the  most  important  step  taken  since  the 
Nurses  Registration  act  of  1919,  when  the  training  of  nurses 
in  Great  Britain  had  first  been  placed  under  the  control  of 
the  General  Nursing  council  and  state  registration  introduced. 
It  was  now  widely  held  that  the  old  arrangements  were  too 
rigid  and  that  they  failed  to  give  the  necessary  financial  sup- 
port to  nurse  training  schools  to  enable  them  to  afford  the 
young  nurse  a  satisfactory  student  status.  The  bill  was  in- 
tended to  remedy  these  defects  without  disturbing  the  system 
of  apprenticeship,  which  distinguished  nurse  training  in 
Great  Britain  from  that  in  the  United  States  and  the  various 
schools  on  the  American  model. 

Although  there  was  still  a  shortage  of  nurses  (estimated 
at  48,000,  as  against  an  existing  staff  of  about  121,000  full- 
time  and  20,000  part-time  nurses),  the  position  improved 
and  there  were  29,000  more  nurses  and  mid  wives  in  Great 
Britain  in  1948  than  in  1938.  The  ratio  of  10-67  staffed 
hospital  beds  per  1,000  of  the  population  was  quoted  by  the 
Division  of  Nursing  of  King  Edward's  Hospital  fund  as 
almost  certainly  the  highest  in  the  world;  and  it  was  added 
that  probably  the  ratio  of  staff  to  beds  in  Great  Britain  was 
much  higher  than  the  average  in  other  countries. 


Five  15-year  old  girls  at  Fulham  hospital  where  a  cadet  nursing 
scheme  for  girls  between  15  and  18  was  started  in  1949. 

In  1949  an  Interim  conference  was  held  in  Stockholm  to 
mark  the  50th  anniversary  of  the  International  Council  of 
Nurses.  Thirty-two  countries  were  represented  and  the 
subjects  for  discussion  were:  the  Medicine  of  Tomorrow  and 
the  Position  of  the  Nurse;  Nursing  Education — Methods  of 
Clinical  Instruction;  and  Nursing  Service — How  to  meet  the 
Demand.  Sweden,  Denmark,  Norway,  Iceland  and  Finland 
provided  the  speakers  on  the  first;  the  United  States  of 
America,  Canada  and  Norway  on  the  second;  and  Great 
Britain,  Holland,  New  Zealand  and  South  Africa  on  the 
third.  These  papers  and  discussions  revealed  a  strong  resem- 
blance between  problems  and  attempted  solutions  in  different 
countries  and  a  resolution  was  passed  urging  experiments 
along  all  possible  lines.  (See  also  HOSPITALS;  NATIONAL 
HEALTH  SERVICE.)  (A.  G.  L.  I.)  - 


NUTS.  From  the  1920s  there  had  been  a  growing  appre- 
ciation of  the  value  of  nuts  as  human  food,  and  as  a  result 
of  World  War  II  this  appreciation  greatly  increased  on  account 
of  the  universal  shortage  of  edible  oils  or  fats  and  of  meat 
or  protein.  Nuts  are  richer  in  fat  and  protein  than  any  other 
vegetable  food  and,  properly  utilized,  constitute  a  highly 
nutritious  food,  but  being  a  concentrated  food  with  generally 
little  water  and  crude  fibre  or  roughage  in  their  make-up, 
are  liable  to  cause  digestive  disturbance  if  taken  in  quantity. 
They  are  therefore  to  be  eaten  along  with  other  foods  in  the 
same  way  that  cheese  is  usually  eaten  with  bread. 

The  nut  or  nut  kernel  requirements  .of  vegetarians  in  the 
British  Isles  were  taken  into  consideration  during  the  1940s 
and  certain  classes  of  nut  kernels  specially  imported  for 
holders  of  vegetarian  rations  books.  The  range  of  varieties 
and  the  selectivity  had  been  somewhat  restricted,  but  was 
now  widening  though  currency  considerations  still  imposed 
limitations.  Importation  was  sanctioned  for  supplies  of 
certain  types  of  nut  in  the  shell  from  France,  Spain,  Italy, 
Sicily,  Turkey,  Syria  and  Brazil  for  the  general  public,  and 
these  nuts  were  again  freely  on  sale  in  the  shops.  Restricted 
varieties  included  chiefly  hazel  kernels  from  the  Levant, 
almond  kernels  from  Italy  and  Sicily  and  cashew  kernels 


472 


NYASALAND— OBITUARIES 


from  India.  American  pecan  nuts  and  the  high  quality 
walnuts  from  Californian  nut  groves  which  were  so  popular 
in  Britain  before  World  War  II  were  not  available  on  British 
and  most  European  markets,  and  were  unlikely  to  appear 
following  the  devaluation  of  the  pound  and  other  curren- 
cies that  took  place  in  the  autumn  of  1949. 

Interest  in  the  possibility  of  increasing  supplies  of  English 
grown  walnuts  for  the  home  market  or  for  home  consumption 
was  maintained.  This  could  only  be  done  by  selecting  and 
propagating  by  grafting  varieties  of  walnut  that  were  well 
suited  to  English  climatic  conditions.  Most  of  the  trees 
throughout  the  country  had  been  raised  as  seedlings,  not 
grafted,  and  yielded  poor  quality  nuts  or  were  erratic  in  crop- 
ping. Experimental  work  showed  that  an  important  consider- 
ation was  to  choose  varieties  that  were  late  in  leafing  out  in 
spring  and  therefore  more  likely  to  escape  injury  from  late 
spring  frosts,  an  unfortunate  feature  of  the  English  climate. 
The  most  promising  of  the  imported  (French)  varieties  were 
Franquette,  Mayette,  Melanaise,  Treyve  and  Chaberte,  and 
the  most  promising  varieties  of  English  origin,  Excelsior  of 
Taynton,  Northdown  Clawnut,  Secrett  and  Patchling.  The  two 
last  mentioned  bore  sound  shelled,  good  nuts  even  in  the 
extremely  poor,  wet  season  of  1946.  The  grafting  of 
walnuts  in  the  comparatively  cool  climate  of  Britain  had 
always  been  a  difficult  matter;  but  by  growing  seedlings 
in  pots  and  utilizing  glass  and  bottom  heat  to  stimulate 
callus  formation  a  fair  degree  of  success  was  obtained. 

The  fine  hot  summer  of  1949  favoured  nut  production  in 
many  parts  of  the  British  Isles  where  established  trees  existed. 
Some  very  good  samples  of  home-grown  walnuts  were 
produced.  The  chestnut  crops  in  many  European  countries 
were  also  heavy.  (F.  N.  H.) 

NYASALAND.  British  protectorate  in  central  Africa. 
Area:  47,949  sq.  mi.  Pop.  (1947  est.):  c.  2,300,000.  Gover- 
nor: Sir  Geoffrey  Colby. 

Membership  of  the  Legislative  Council  was  increased 
from  13  to  19  by  the  addition  of  three  officials  and  three 
(two  African  and  one  Indian)  unofficial  members,  thus  for 
the  first  time  providing  non-European  representation  on 
the  council.  Severe  drought  necessitated  the  introduction 
of  large  scale  precautions  against  famine;  emergency  food 
imports  were  arranged  and  an  African  Foodstuffs  com- 
mission was  established  to  control  supplies. 

Finance  and  Trade.  Budget  (1949  cst ):  revenue  £2,734,033;  expendi- 
ture £3,160,487.  Foreign  trade  (1948):  imports  £4,340.468;  exports 
£4,212,424.  Principal  exports:  tobacco,  tea  and  cotton.  (J.  A.  Hu.) 

OATS:   see  GRAIN  CROPS. 

OBITUARIES:  The  following  is  a  selected  list  of 
prominent  men  and  women  who  died  during  1949: — 

Adams,  James  Truslow,  U.S.  historian  (b.  Brooklyn,  New  York,  Oct  18, 
1878 — d.  Southport,  Connecticut,  May  18),  received  his  bachelor's 
degree  at  Brooklyn  Polytechnic  institute  in  1898  and  an  M.A.  at 
Yale  in  1900.  He  entered  business  and  in  a  few  years  was  a  partner 
in  a  New  York  stock  exchange  firm  He  retired  from  this  career  in 
1912  to  become  a  historian  and  in  1916  published  a  history  of  his 
home  town  of  Bndgehampton,  Long  Island.  During  World  War  I 
he  served  with  the  intelligence  division  of  the  U  S.  general  staff  and 
was  commissioned  by  Colonel  E.  M  House  to  prepare  data  for  the 
Paris  peace  conference.  He  afterwards  resumed  his  writing  on  colonial 
American  history  and  in  1922  won  the  Pulit/er  prize  for  his  Founding 
of  New  England,  which  was  followed  by  other  volumes  on  New  Eng- 
land history.  In  1929  Our  Business  Civilization  received  wide  attention 
and  was  followed  by  The  Adams  family  (1930),  The  Epic  of  America 

•  (1931),  perhaps  Adams'  best  known  work,  and  many  other  books. 
His  last  two  works  were  studies  of  American  life.  The  American 
(1944)  and  Big  Business  in  Democracy  (1946)  Adams'  literary 
activity  was  constant;  and  he  was  editor  in  chief  of  The  Album  of 
American  History,  The  Atlas  of  American  History  and  The  Dictionary 
of  American  History,  and  was  a  contributor  to  The  Dictionary  of 
American  Biography  and  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica. 

Adams,  William  Thomas,  British  politician  (b.  Sept.  10,  1884 — d.  Lon- 
don, Jan.  9),  elected  M.P.  for  South  Hammersmith,  July  1945, 
held  many  posts  in  trade  union  and  co-operative  movements. 


Allen,  Hervey,  American  author  (b.  Pittsburgh,  Pennsylvania,  Dec.  8, 
1889 — d.  Miami,  Florida,  Dec.  28),  was  best  known  as  the  author  of 
Anthony  Adverse  (1933),  a  massive  novel  ranging  over  a  wide  field 
of  history  in  several  parts  of  the  world.  In  addition  to  his  novels 
he  wrote  eight  books  of  poems.  Among  his  early  books  was  Israfel 
(1926),  a  study  of  the  life  and  times  of  Edgar  Allan  Poe. 

Airiigo,  Peter  Emmanuel,  Roman  Catholic  archbishop  (b.  Gibraltar, 
May  26,  1864 — d.  Southwark,  London,  Oct.  1),  was  ordained  m 
1 888  and  for  four  years  taught  at  St.  Edmund's  college.  Ware,  where 
previously  he  had  been  educated.  In  March  1904  he  was  consecrated 
bishop  of  Southwark,  and  1929  was  nominated  an  assistant  to  the 
Pontifical  throne  in  recognition  of  his  intense  personal  devotion  to 
the  Holy  See.  In  1938,  on  the  occasion  of  the  golden  jubilee  of  his 
ordination,  he  was  accorded  the  title  of  archbishop. 

Argyll,  Mali  Diarmid  Campbell,  10th  Duke  of,  British  peer  (b.  Feb.  16, 
1872 — d  Inveraray  castle,  Argyll,  Aug.  20),  succeeded  to  the  duke- 
dom in  1914.  His  many  titles  included  those  of  Hereditary  Master 
of  the  Royal  Household  m  Scotland,  Admiral  of  the  West  Coast  and 
Isles,  and  chief  of  clan  Campbell. 

Bailey,  Sir  William  Thomas,  British  newspaper  director  (b.  Bedale, 
Yorkshire,  Feb.  1,  1873— d.  London,  June  15),  served  in  managerial 
capacities  on  Northern  Daily  Gazette,  Northern  Echo,  Sheffield 
Independent  and  Westminster  Gazette.  He  was  a  director  of  the 
Westminster  Press  Provincial  Newspapers,  Ltd  ,  and  from  1939  to 
1946  president  of  the  Newspaper  society. 

Barr,  James,  Scottish  United  Free  Church  minister  and  former  M.P. 
(b.  Beanscroft,  July  26,  1862 — d  Glasgow,  Feb.  24),  was  minister 
at  Johnstone  and  Wamphray,  1889-96,  and  later  at  Dcnmstoun, 
Glasgow,  and  at  Govan,  Glasgow;  home  mission  secretary  of  the 
Free  Church,  1920-25,  and  moderator,  1929  and  1943  He  was  a 
Labour  M  P,  1924-31,  and  1935-45. 

Bates,  Sir  (Richard)  Dawson,  Northern  Ireland  politician  (b  Nov.  23, 
1876 — d  Glastonbury,  Somerset,  June  9),  was  admitted  a  solicitor, 
1900.  He  sat  in  the  Northern  Ireland  House  of  Commons,  1921-43, 
and  was  home  secretary  for  the  same  period. 

Beasley,  John  Albert,  Australian  politician  and  diplomat  (b  Werribec, 
Victoria,  Nov.  9,  1895  -d  Sydney,  Sept  2),  was  educated  at  Wernbee, 
and  worked  for  the  Sydney  city  council  electricity  supply  department 
for  some  years.  He  was  an  active  trade  unionist  and  for  seven  years 
from  1921  was  president  of  the  New  South  Wales  Labour  council. 
From  1928  until  1946  he  sat  in  the  federal  House  of  Representatives 
as  member  for  west  Sydney,  and  from  1929  to  1931  he  was  assistant 
minister  for  industry  and  external  affairs  m  the  government  of 
J  H.  Sculhn.  In  1940,  while  leader  of  the  non-Communist  Labour 
party,  he  was  appointed  to  the  advisory  war  council,  and  in  the 
following  year  his  party  merged  with  the  Labour  party  under  John 
Curtm.  When  Curtm  became  prime  minister  in  Oct.  1941,  Beasley 
was  made  minister  of  supply  and  shipping  Because  of  ill-health 
he  was  given  the  less  onerous  post  of  vice-president  of  the  executive 
council,  Feb. -July  1945,  and  from  July  until  December  was  minister 
of  defence.  He  was  then  appointed  minister  resident  m  London, 
and  in  Aug.  1946  became  high  commissioner 

Beaumont,  Sir  Henry  Hamond  Dawson,  British  diplomat  (b  Feb.  4, 
1867 — d.  Fawley,  Southampton,  Dec.  15),  entered  the  diplomatic 
service  in  1892  and  served  m  Montenegro,  Athens,  Constantinople 
and  Rome.  From  1916  to  1923  he  wa^  minister  to  Venezuela 

Beery,  Wallace,  U  S.  actor  (b  Kansas  cit>,  Missouri,  April  1,  1886 — 
d  Hollywood,  California,  April  15),  left  school  to  become  an  elephant 
trainer  at  a  circus,  then  Coined  his  brother  in  the  chorus  of  a  Broad- 
way stage  show.  Within  a  short  time  he  had  replaced  Raymond 
Hitchcock  as  the  star  of  The  Yankee  Tourist  In  1913  he  joined  the 
Essanay  motion  picture  studios  in  Chicago,  and  from  that  year  until 
his  death  acted  in  250  pictures  He  was  a  comedian  for  the  Keystone 
company  in  the  early  years  in  Hollywood,  but  by  1917  he  had  begun 
to  be  featured  in  villain  roles.  In  his  later  career  he  generally  played 
rough  but  kindly  characters.  He  received  an  Academy  Award  in 
1931  for  his  performance  in  The  Champ. 

Bell,  Henry  Thurburn  Montague,  British  journalist  (b.  Colombo, 
Ceylon,  July  10,  1873 — d.  Reading,  Berkshire,  Nov.  6),  was  editor, 
North  China  Daily  News  and  Herald,  Shanghai,  1906-11,  editor  in 
chief,  The  Near  East  and  India,  1916-35,  joint  founder  and  editor, 
China  Year  Book,  and  editor,  The  Near  Last  Year  Book,  1927-31. 
He  was  editor  of  the  Annual  Register  1946. 

Benelli,  Sem,  Italian  poet  and  playwright  (b.  Prato,  near  Florence, 
1877— d.  Zoagh,  Italy,  Dec.  18),  joined  the  staff  of  the  Rassegna 
Internazionale  and  later  became  its  editor  in  chief.  He  was  elected 
to  the  Italian  parliament  and  took  part  in  World  War  I  and  in  the 
Ethiopian  campaign.  His  first  success  as  a  playwright  was  with 
La  Masthera  di  Bruto.  La  Cena  delle  Beffe  was  produced  in  London 
in  1921  under  the  title  The  Love  Thief.  His  later  plays  included 
Vamore  dei  tre  re,  Rosmunda,  Le  Nozze  dei  Centauri,  Caterina 
Sforza  and  L'Orchidea.  His  impressions  of  the  Ethiopian  campaign 
were  recorded  in  lo  m  Africa. 

Berard,  Christian,  French  painter,  illustrator  and  stage  designer  (b. 
1903?— d.  Pans,  Feb.  12),  was  well-known  for  his  stage,  screen  and 
ballet  decors.  A  close  friend  of  Louis  Jouvet  and  Jean  Cocteau, 
he  did  much  designing  for  them,  including  the  sets  for  Cocteau's 
film,  La  Belle  et  La  Bete 

Bergius,  Friedrich  Karl  Rudolph,  German  chemist  (b.  near  Brest  a  u 
[Wroclaw]  Oct.  11,  1884-d.  Buenos  Aires,  March  30),  succeeded 
during  World  War  I  in  producing  synthetic  oil  from  coal  He  also 
discovered  the  process  for  transforming  wood  into  sugar.  In  1931 
he  was  awarded  the  Nobel  prize  for  chemistry,  jointly  with  Carl 
Bosch,  "  for  their  services  regarding  the  invention  and  development 
of  chemical  high  pressure  methods." 

Berryntan,  Clifford  Kennedy,  U.S.  cartoonist  (b.  Versailles,  Kentucky. 
April  2,  1869— d.  Washington,  Dec.  11.)  drew  his  first  cartoon  for 
The  Evening  Star  (Washington)  in  Feb.  1907  and  remained  with  the 


OBITUARIES 


473 


paper  until  his  death.  In  1944  he  was  awarded  the  Pulitzer  prize 
for  one  of  his  political  cartoons.  (For  an  example  of  his  work  see 
UNITED  STATES). 

Bitten,  Sir  Rowland  Harry,  British  botanist  (b.  1874— d.  Cambridge, 
July  12),  was  professor  of  agricultural  botany  at  Cambridge,  1908-31, 
and  professor  emeritus  from  1931.  He  was  elected  to  the  Royal 
Society  in  1914,  and  awarded  the  Darwin  medal  in  1920 
Black,  Jantes  MacDougall,  Scottish  churchman  (b.  Rothcsay,  Isle  of 
Bute,  Jan.  25,  1879— d.  Edinburgh,  Oct.  18),  was  ordained  in  1903. 
He  was  moderator  of  the  general  assembly  of  the  Church  of  Scotland, 
1938-39,  and  from  1942  had  been  chaplain  to  the  King  in  Scotland. 
Bloom,  Sol,  U.S.  congressman  b  Pekin,  Illinois,  March  9,  1870 — d. 
Bethesda,  Maryland,  March  7),  had  little  formal  education,  but 
became  a  play  producer  in  his  curly  teens  and  when  only  17  built 
his  first  theatre.  He  moved  to  New  York  and  in  1903  entered  the 
real  estate  business,  building  apartment  houses  and  theatres.  From 
1923  he  represented  the  19th  (later  20th)  congressional  district  of 
New  York.  He  was  chairman  of  the  foreign  affairs  committee  of 
the  House  of  Representatives  from  1939  to  1947  and  again  m  1949. 
Boyle,  Sir  Algernon  Douglas  Edward  Harry,  British  admiral  (b  Oct.  21, 
1871— d.  London,  Oct.  13),  entered  the  Royal  Navy  in  1884  and 
served  in  World  War  I  at  Gallipoli,  at  Jutland  and  in  the  Zeebrugge 
and  Ostend  raids  He  was  fourth  sea  lord,  1920-24,  and  from  1925 
to  1929  was  a  member  of  the  Port  of  London  authority. 
Burnaby,  George  Davy,  British  comedian  (b  Burkland,  Hertfordshire, 
April  7,  1881 — d.  Rustmgton,  Sussex,  April  17),  appeared  in  concert 
parties  throughout  Bntian.  The  Co-optimnts  which  was  first  produced 
in  1921  brought  him  before  a  very  wide  public.  He  also  appeared 
in  pantomime,  films  and  musical  comedies 

Caclamanos,  Demetrios,  Greek  diplomat  (b.  Naupha,  Greece,  1872— 
d.  London,  June  7),  began  his  career  in  Athens  as  publisher  and 
editor  of  a  political  and  literary  periodical  A\ty  He  entered  the 
diplomatic  service  in  1907  and  from  1918  until  1935  (with  only  a 
brief  interruption  in  1922)  was  Greek  minister  to  London. 
Cassidy,  Sir  Maurice  Alan,  British  physician  (b.  Lancaster,  Feb  29, 
1880-  d  London,  Oct.  22),  was  educa'led  at  Clare  college,  Cambridge, 
and  St.  Thomas's  hospital,  London.  He  had  an  extensive  private 
practice  in  London,  but  was  also  consulting  physician  to  St.  Thomas's 
hospital,  to  Lord  Mayor  Treloar's  Cripples'  hospital  at  Alton,  and 
to  King  Edward  VII  sanatorium  at  Midhurst.  He  had  been  physician- 
m-ordmary  to  King  George  V,  King  hdward  VIII,  and  King  George 
VI,  and  was  one  of  the  doctors  who  attended  King  George  during 
his  illness  in  1949  He  was  injured  in  a  car  accident  in  April  1949 
and  never  fully  recovered.  He  was  created  a  K.C.V  O.  in  1934,  and 
in  1949  was  promoted  to  G  C  V  O  Being  too  ill  to  visit  Buckingham 
palace,  he  was  invested  with  the  decoration  by  the  King  at  his  house 
in  Montagu  square,  London.  He  was  recognized  as  being  one  of 
the  greatest  authorities  on  diseases  of  the  heart. 
Cerdan,  Marcel,  French  boxer  (b  Sidi-bel-Abbcs,  Algeria,  July  22, 
1916-d.  [in  an  air  crash]  Algarvia,  Azores,  Oct.  28),  won  the  world 
middleweight  boxing  championship  by  defeating  Tony  Zale  on  Sept. 
21,  1948.  He  lost  his  world  title  to  Jake  La  Motta  in  New  York 
in  June;  he  was  flying  to  New  York  to  fight  La  Motta  again  when 
his  plane  crashed  in  the  Azores  In  the  110  fights  of  his  career 
Cerdan  had  lost  only  two  outright  and  had  been  disqualified  in  two. 
Handsome,  good-humoured  and  happily  married,  he  had  an  immense 
following  in  France  and  his  popularity  compared  with  that  of  Georges 
Carpentier. 

Charlemont,  James  Edward  Caulfeild,  8th  Viscount  (b.  May  12,  1880 — 
d.  Newcastle,  county  Down,  Aug.  30),  was  elected  to  the  Northern 
Ireland  Senate  in  1925,  and  in  Jan.  1926  succeeded  Lord  Londonderry 
as  leader  of  the  Senate  and  minister  of  education.  He  retired  from 
these  offices  in  1937.  He  was  also  an  Irish  representative  peer. 
Chester,  Sir  George,  British  trade  union  leader  (b.  Jan.  16,  1886— d. 
Earls  Barton,  Northamptonshire,  April  21),  was  a  member  of  the 
T.U  C.  general  council  from  1936,  and  a  director  of  the  Bank  of 
England  from  March,  1949. 

Christopherson,  Stanley,  British  banker  (b.  Blackheath,  Kent,  Nov.  11, 
1861 — d.  London,  April  6),  was  on  the  London  stock  exchange, 
1882-99,  and  subsequently  became  director  of  many  public  companies 
and  chairman  of  the  Midland  Bank  He  played  cricket  for  England 
in  1884  and  was  president  of  the  M  C  C.,  1939-45. 
Qynes,  John  Robert,  British  politician  (b  Oldham,  Lancashire,  March 
27,  1869 — d.  London,  Oct.  23),  received  little  formal  education,  and 
at  the  age  of  ten  began  work  in  a  cotton  mill.  He  left  the  mill  at  24 
and  became  assistant  organizer  for  the  Lancashire  district  of  the 
National  Union  of  Gas  Workers  and  General  Workers.  Later  he 
was  appointed  district  secretary,  holding  the  position  until  1917. 
He  was  an  early  member  of  the  Independent  Labour  party,  and  in 
1906  he  was  elected  to  the  House  of  Commons  for  the  north  east 
(later  Platting)  division  of  Manchester.  Except  for  the  four  years 
1931-35  he  continued  to  represent  Platting  until  his  retirement  in 
1945.  In  June  1917  he  was  appointed  parliamentary  secretary  to 
the  Ministry  of  Food,  and  from  1918  to  1919  was  food  controller. 
He  became  leader  of  the  Parliamentary  Labour  party  in  1921,  but 
in  the  following  year  was  defeated  by  Ramsay  MacDonald  by  five 
votes.  He  was  lord  privy  seal  in  the  first  Labour  government,  1924, 
home  secretary,  1929-31,  but  remained  loyal  to  the  Labour  party 
when  in  Aug.  1931  Ramsay  MacDonald  formed  his  national  govern- 
ment. In  1947  he  revealed  that  he  was  living  m  very  straitened 
circumstances  and  a  fund  was  raised  by  members  of  the  House  of 
Commons.  His  autobiography  was  published  m  1937. 
Cobham,  John  Cavendish  Lyttelton,  9th  Viscount,  British  politician 
(b.  Oct.  23,  1881— d.  Stourbndge,  Worcestershire,  July  31),  was 
Unionist  M.P.  for  Droitwich,  1910-16.  He  was  president  of  the 
Marylebone  Cricket  club  in  1935  and  treasurer  from  1938. 
Cooper,  Frank  Arthur,  Australian  politician  (b.  Blayney,  New  South 
Wales,  July  16,  1872— d.  Brisbane,  Nov.  30),  was  first  elected  to  the 


Queensland  legislative  assembly  in  1915.  He  was  prime  minister  of 
Queensland,  1942-46,  and  lieutenant  governor  from  1946. 
Copeau,  Jacques,  French  dramatist  (b.  Pans,  Feb.  29,  1879 — d.  Beaune, 
C6te  d'Or,  Oct  21)  was  educated  at  the  Lycce  Condorcet.  One  of 
the  founders  of  the  Nouvelle  Revue  Fran<;aiie  (1908),  he  was  a  friend 
of  Andre  Gide  and  Jacques  Rouchc  and  wrote  a  stage  version  of 
Fyodor  Dostoyevsky's  Brothers  Karamazov  for  the  latter.  He 
became  manager  of  the  Vicux  Colombicr  theatre  (1913),  and  apart 
from  a  break  during  World  War  I  he  produced  plays  there  until  he 
retired  in  1924.  He  continued,  however,  to  give  special  performances 
with  a  little  group  later  known  as  4t  La  Compagnu,  des  Quinze  " 
whom  he  trained. 

Cousins,  Arthur  George,  British  newspaper  chairman  (b  Braunton. 
Devon,  1882 — d.  Henley-on-Thames,  Oxfordshire,  Sept.  25),  was 
for  many  years  managing  director  of  lnvestme.it  Registry,  Ltd.,  and 
a  director  of  Odhams  Press.  On  the  death  of  Lord  Southwood  in 
1946  he  succeeded  him  as  chairman  of  Odhams  Press,  and  Daily 
Herald  (1929)  Ltd 

Cox,  Lionel  Howard,  British  major  general  (b.  April  1,  1893— d  Athens, 
July  29),  wa«  commissioned  in  the  Gloucestershire  Regiment,  1912, 
and  served  in  France  during  World  War  I  He  was  in  Iraq,  1919-20, 
and  later  served  in  India,  Egypt  and  Malta  In  World  War  II  he 
saw  active  service  in  Malta  and  the  far  east.  He  retired  from  the 
arm>  in  1948  and  was  appointed  deputy  chief  of  the  British  delegation 
to  the  United  Nations  Balkan  committee. 

Dalai,  Sir  \rdeshir  Rustomji,  Indian  industrialist  (b  Bombay,  April  24, 
1884— d  Bombay,  Oct.  8),  was  director  of  Tata  Iron  and  Steel 
company,  the  largest  industrial  concern  in  India,  and  from  1944 
to  1946  was  a  member  of  the  viceroy's  executive  council. 
Dardaskinos  (GHEORC(HIOS  PAPANDRLOU),  archbishop  of  Athens  and 
primate  of  Greece  (b  Dorvitsa,  March  3,  1891 — d.  Psychiko,  near 
Athens,  May  20),  was  of  peasant  stock.  He  was  educated  at  the  high 
school  at  Karditsa  and  the  University  of  Athens.  Discarding  his 
baptismal  name  when  ordained  priest  in  1917,  he  was  appointed 
superior  of  the  monastery  of  Pentcli.  After  reorganizing  its  institu- 
tions, he  performed  a  similar  duty  at  the  monasteries  on  Mount 
Athos  in  1918.  In  1922  he  was  elected  bishop  of  Corinth.  His 
election  as  archbishop  of  Athens  and  primate  of  Greece  by  the 
Holy  Synod  of  the  Greek  Orthodox  church,  was  anulled  by  loanms 
Metaxas  for  opposition  to  the  regime,  and  he  was  exiled  to  a  mountain 
monastery  During  the  German-Italian  occupation  of  Greece  he  was 
invited  in  1942  to  assume  the  office  to  which  he  had  been  elected, 
and  he  rapidly  emerged  as  a  spiritual  leader.  After  the  Communist 
rebellion  of  Dec  3,  1944,  King  George  II  surrendered  his  powers 
provisionally  to  Damaskinos  who  was  appointed  regent  on  Dec.  29. 
During  his  visit  to  London  in  Sept  1945  it  was  decided  that,  before 
a  plebiscite  to  determine  whether  Greece  should  be  a  monarchy  or 
a  republic,  a  general  election  should  be  held.  Two  months  later,  in 
Athens,  an  agreement  was  reached  to  hold  the  election  on  March  31, 
1946,  but  Damaskinos,  against  the  opposition  of  the  king,  suggested 
postponing  the  plebiscite  to  1948.  The  election  resulted  in  a  decisive 
royalist  victory,  which  was  confirmed  by  the  plebiscite  of  Sept.  1, 
1946.  On  Sept.  27  King  George  returned  to  the  country  and  Damask- 
inos thereafter  took  no  direct  part  in  political  life. 
Daryngton,  Herbert  Pike  Pease,  1st  Baron,  of  Witley,  Surrey,  British 
politician  (b.  May  7,  1867 — d.  London,  May  10),  was  M.P.  for 
Darlington,  1898-1923,  when  he  was  created  a  peer.  He  was  assistant 
postmaster-general  1915-22,  an  ecclesiastical  commissioner  from 
1923,  and  chairman  of  the  house  of  laity  of  the  Church  assembly. 
De  Pencier,  Adam  Urias,  Anglican  archbishop  (b.  Burntt's  Rapids, 
Ontario,  Feb.  9,  1866— d  Vancouver,  British  Columbia,  May  31), 
was  ordained  in  1890.  He  was  archbishop  of  New  Westminster, 
1910-40,  becoming  metropolitan  of  British  Columbia  in  1925. 
Derwent,  George  Harcourt  V  anden- Bern  pde- Johns  tone,  3rd  Baron,  of 
Hackness,  British  author  and  diplomat  (b  Oct.  22,  1899 — d.  Paris, 
Jan.  12),  was  honorary  attach^  at  Warsaw  (1923),  Brussels  (1927), 
Madrid  (1928),  Berne  (1940).  He  wrote  two  volumes  of  poetry  and 
essays  on  Prosper  Mcnmee,  Goya  and  Rossini. 

Deleaves,  Lucien,  French  novelist  (b.  Pans,  March  18,  1861— d.  Paris, 
Sept.  6).  Entering  journalism  under  the  guidance  of  Alphonse 
Daudet,  he  became  famous  through  the  publication  of  his  fifth  novel 
Sous-Offs  (1889),  which  involved  him  in  a  law-suit  with  the  state; 
he  was  accused  of  insulting  the  army,  but  won  his  case.  The  Pans 
Commune  inspired  two  of  his  novels,  La  Colonne  (1901)  and  Philemon^ 
vieux  de  la  vieille  (1912).  In  1903,  he  was  elected  one  of  the  ten 
original  members  of  the  newly  founded  Academic  des  Goncourt, 
the  most  exclusive  of  French  literary  circles.  Later  he  turned 
towards  the  theatre  where  he  had  several  successes,  among  them 
Oiseaux  de  passage  (1904  m  collaboration  with  Maurice  Donnay) 
and  L'Attentat  (1906,  with  Alfred  Capus).  His  last  work  was  a  book 
of  memoirs  entitled  Souvenirs  d*un  ours. 

Diaz  Arosemcna,  Domingo,  Panamanian  politician  (b.  June  25,  1875 — d. 
Panama,  Aug.  23),  was  elected  president  on  May  9,  1948,  but  the 
results  of  the  election  were  not  announced  until  Aug.  7  owing  to 
allegations  of  fraud  He  took  office  on  Oct.  1,  1948,  but  because  of 
ill-health  was  granted  six  months'  leave  of  absence  from  July  28,  1949. 
Dickson,  William  Kirk,  British  librarian  (b.  Edinburgh,  Nov.  24, 
1860— -d.  Edinburgh,  July  14),  was  appointed  keeper  of  the  Advocates' 
library,  Edinburgh,  in  1906  and  from  1925  to  1931  was  the  first 
librarian  of  the  national  library  of  Scotland. 

Dimitrov,  Gheorghi,  Bulgarian  politician  (b.  Kovachevtsi,  near  Rado- 
mir,  Bulgaria,  June  18,  1882 — d.  near  Moscow,  July  2),  joined  in 
1902  the  Social  Democratic  party  which  in  the  following  year  divided 
into  reformist  or  **  broad  "  and  revolutionary  or  "  narrow  "  wings 
Dimitrov  sided  with  the  **  narrows "  who  were  followers  of  the 
Russian  bolsheviks.  In  1913  he  was  elected  deputy  to  the  Bulgarian 
National  Assembly,  and  four  years  later  was  imprisoned  for  opposing 
Bulgaria's  participation  in  World  War  I.  In  1919  the  "narrow" 


474 


OBITUARIES 


Archbishop  Peter  Amigo 


A  rchbishop  Damask inos 


Gheorghi  Dimitrov 


Mrs.  Flora  Drummond 


Social  Democrats  reorganized  themselves  as  the  Bulgarian  Workers' 
(Communist)  party  with  Dimitrov  and  Vasil  Kolarov  as  its  leaders. 
By  the  end  of  1920  Dimitrov  reached  Russia  to  take  part  in  the  third 
congress  of  the  Comintern  (1921),  which  elected  him  a  member  of 
its  executive  committee.  Escaping  into  Yugoslavia  after  an  abortive 
attempt  to  overthrow  the  Bulgarian  government  in  Sept.  1923, 
Dimitrov  was  tried  in  his  absence  and  sentenced  to  death.  Under  an 
assumed  name  he  lived  in  Vienna  as  head  of  the  Balkan  section  of 
the  Comintern  until  1929  when  he  was  transferred  to  Berlin  as  leader 
of  the  Central  European  section.  On  March  9,  1933.  he  was  arrested 
in  the  German  capital  and  charged  with  complicity  in  the  burning 
of  the  Reichstag.  Though  acquitted  on  Dec.  23,  1933,  he  was  released 
from  prison  only  on  Feb.  27,  1934,  when  he  left  for  Moscow.  In  1935 
he  was  appointed  secretary  general  of  the  Comintern  and  held  office 
until  its  official  dissolution  in  1943.  In  1937  he  was  elected  deputy 
of  the  Supreme  Soviet.  He  returned  to  Bulgaria  on  Nov.  6,  1945, 
to  transform  the  country  into  a  communist  republic.  He  was  allowed 
to  renounce  his  Soviet  citizenship,  adopted  before  the  war,  and 
reverted  to  Bulgarian  nationality.  On  Nov.  22,  1946,  he  was  appointed 
prime  minister.  In  April  1949  it  was  announced  that  he  had  gone 
to  the  U.S.S.R.  for  medical  treatment.  He  died  three  months  later 
in  the  Barvikha  sanatorium,  near  Moscow.  His  body  was  sent  to 
Sofia  and  on  July  10  was  laid  in  a  temporary  mausoleum. 

Dix,  Richard  (Ernest  Carlton  Brimirier),  United  States  actor  (b.  St.  Paul, 
Minnesota,  July  18,  1895 — d.  Hollywood,  California,  Sept.  20), 
began  his  film  career  as  a  featured  player  in  Not  Guilty.  He  appeared 
in  about  200  productions  in  25  years,  winning  greatest  praise  lor  his 
roles  in  pictures  portraying  episodes  in  the  settling  of  the  west. 

Dodd,  Francis,  British  painter  (b.  Holyhead,  Anglesey,  Nov.  29,  1874 — 
d.  Blackheath,  London,  March  7),  was  trained  at  the  Glasgow  School 
of  Art  and  later  studied  in  Paris  and  Italy.  He  settled  in  Manchester 
and  in  1904  moved  to  London.  He  was  elected  to  the  New  English 
Art  club  in  1904,  became  an  A.R.A.  in  1927  and  an  R.A.  in  1935. 

Drummond,  Mrs.  Flora,  British  suffragette  leader  (b.  Manchester-- 
d.  Carradale,  Argyllshire,  Jan.  17),  was  active  in  the  suffragette 
movement  as  a  speaker  and  organizer.  For  her  actions  on  behalf  of 
the  movement  she  served  many  prison  sentences.  On  one  occasion 
she  invaded  the  cabinet  room  at  No.  10  Downing  Street  during  a 
sitting  of  the  cabinet.  She  founded  the  Women's  Guild  of  Empire 
in  1920,  was  for  many  years  its  controller-in-chief  and  continued  as 
chairman  until  her  death. 

Dullin,  Charles,  French  actor-producer  (b.  Yenne,  Savoy,  1885— d. 
Paris,  Dec.  11),  made  his  first  appearance  at  the  Theatre  des  Arts, 
Paris,  in  1910  in  Le  Carnaval  ties  Enfant s  after  performing  in  show- 
booths  at  fairs,  in  the  street  and  in  cafes.  He  remained  at  the  Theatre 
des  Arts  for  a  few  years  and  then  joined  Jacques  Copeau's  company 
at  the  Vieux  Colombier  before  founding  his  own  company  of  actors. 
In  1922  he  gave  his  first  Parisian  season  at  the  small  workshop- 
theatre,  L'Atelier,  and  remained  there  for  nearly  twenty  years. 

Dunne,  John  William,  British  aviation  pioneer  and  philosopher  (b. 
1875—d.  Banbury,  Oxfordshire,  Aug.  24),  developed  the  stable, 
tailless  type  of  aerofoil  in  1904,  and  in  1907-8  his  military  aeroplane 
was  tested  by  the  War  Office.  Successful  tests  in  1912  on  another 
machine  failed  to  impress  the  War  Office,  and  he  flew  the  monoplane 
across  the  channel  to  France  in  1913  where  he  sold  the  rights  of  the 
design  to  a  French  syndicate.  His  book  An  Experiment  with  Time, 
which  appeared  in  1927,  attracted  considerate  attention.  In  it  he 
recorded  experiences  which  had  led  him  to  believe  that  future  events 
are  regularly  foreseen  in  dreams,  and  with  mathematical  -argument 
he  elaborated  his  philosophy  of  "  serialism."  Later  books  on  the 
same  theme  were  The  Serial  Universe  (1934),  The  New  Immortality 
(1938)  and  Nothing  Die*  (1940). 

Dunstan,  Sir  Wyndhairi  Rowland,  British  agricultural  chemist  (b.  Chester, 
1861 — d,  April  20),  was  director  of  the  Imperial  institute,  London, 
1903-24.  having  previously  been  a  lecturer  at  Oxford  and  later  pro- 
fessor of  chemistry  at  St.  Thomas's  hospital,  London. 

Du  Parcq,  Herbert  du  Paroq,  Baron  (life  peer),  of  Grouville,  Jersey, 
British  lord  of  appeal  (b.  St.  Helier,  Jersey,  Aug.  5,  1880— d.  London, 
April  27),  was  educated  at  Victoria  college,  Jersey,  and  Exeter 
college,  Oxford.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1906,  and  in  the  same 
year  was  admitted  to  the  Jersey  bar.  In  1926  he  was  appointed  a 
King's  counsel.  He  was  recorder  of  Portsmouth,  1928-29,  and  of 
Bristol,  1929-32.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  made  a  judge  of  the  high 


court  and  in  1938  a  lord  justice  of  appeal.  In  1946  he  was  appointed 
a  lord  of  appeal  in  ordinary  and  granted  a  life  peerage.  In  Jan. 
1932  he  was  called  upon  by  the  home  secretary  to  report  on  disturb- 
ances which  had  occurred  in  Dartmoor  prison.  He  served  on  the 
Committee  on  Persistent  Offenders  in  1931,  and  in  1946  was  appointed 
chairman  of  the  Royal  Commission  on  Justices  of  the  Peace. 

Eason,  Sir  Herbert  Lightfoot,  British  surgeon  (b.  July  15,  1874  -d. 
London,  Nov.  2),  was  senior  ophthalmic  surgeon,  Guy's  hospital, 
and  dean  of  the  medical  school.  He  was  vice-chancellor  of  the 
University  of  London.  1935-37,  and  president  of  the  General  Medical 
council  from  1939.  He  was  knighted  in  1943. 

Eddy,  Sir  Montague  John,  British  railway  administrator  (b.  1881  — 
d.  Ryde,  Isle  of  Wight,  Dec.  22),  was  chairman  or  director  of  a 
number  of  railway  companies  in  Argentina.  He  was  knighted  in  1 944. 

Ellis,  Sir  (Samuel)  Howard,  New  Zealand  born  lawyer  (b.  June  2,  1889  » 
d.  Cambridge,  New  Zealand,  Jan.  19),  was  called  to  the  New  Zealand 
bar  in  1912  and  to  the  Fiji  bar  the  same  year.  He  practised  in  Fiji 
and  in  1942-45  was  director  of  manpower  and  national  service  in  Fiji. 

Ensor,  James,  Belgian  painter  (b.  Ostend,  April  13,  1860-  d.  Ostend, 
Nov.  19),  the  son  of  an  English  father  and  a  Flemish  mother,  he 
later  took  over  their  shop  in  Ostend  for  the  sale  of  sea  shells  and 
souvenirs.  With  the  exception  of  three  years  at  the  Brussels  academy 
he  lived  in  Ostend  throughout  his  life.  He  was  essentially  a  painter 
of  the  fantastic  and  macabre  in  the  persistent  Flemish  tradition  of 
Jerom  Bosch  and  Picter  Bruegel.  His  most  ambitious  work  was 
"  Entry  of  Christ  into  Brussels  "  (1888),  a  huge  canvas  packed  with 
grotesque  figures  which  he  refused  to  sell.  He  painted  also  excellent 
seascapes,  interiors  and  still-life  subjects.  He  fed  an  uneventful  life 
and  during  World  War  II  rumour^  of  his  death  enabled  him  to  hear 
obituaries  broadcast  in  his  honour.  An  exhibition  of  his  work  was 
held  at  the  National  gallery,  London,  in  1946. 

Etherton,  Sir  George  Hammond,  British  county  clerk  (b.  1878— d. 
Bracknell,  Berkshire,  Dec.  3),  was  town  clerk  of  Portsmouth,  1908- 
20,  town  clerk  of  Liverpool,  1920-22,  and  clerk  of  the  Lancashire 
County  council,  1922-44.  He  was  knighted  in  1927. 

Everard,  Sir  (William)  Lindsay,  British  pioneer  of  private  flying  (b. 
1891— d.  Torquay,  March  11),  was  M.P.  for  Melton,  1924-45. 

Fisher,  Sir  Stanley,  British  lawyer  (b.  Feb.  12,  1867— d.  Budleigh 
Salterton,  Devon,  May  28),  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1890,  and  in 
1902  was  appointed  president  of  a  district  court  in  Cyprus.  He 
subsequently  served  in  Cairo,  Trinidad  and  Ceylon,  where  he  was 
chief  justice  from  1926  to  1930. 

Forrestal,  James  Vincent,  U.S.  politician  (b.  Beacon,  New  York,  Feb. 
15,  1892— d.  Bethesda,  Maryland,  May  22),  studied  at  Dartmouth 
college  and  Princeton  university,  served  in  naval  aviation  in  World 
War  I  and  then  was  on  the  New  York  stock  exchange  until  June 
1940,  when  he  became  one  of  President  Franklin  D.  Roosevelt's 
administrative  assistants.  In  Aug.  1940  he  was  appointed  under 
secretary  of  the  navy  and  followed  Frank  Knox  as  secretary  in  May 
1944.  He  was  appointed  first  secretary  of  defence  in  1947  but  resigned 
in  March  1949.  He  was  suffering  from  depression,  and  on  May  22 
threw  himself  from  a  window  in  the  naval  hospital,  Bethesda. 

Fortune,  Sir  Victor  Morven,  British  major  general  (b.  Aug.  21,  1883 — • 
d.  Dumfries,  Jan.  2),  served  in  World  War  I  when  he  was  awarded 
the  D.S.O.  In  World  War  II  he  commanded  the  51st  (Highland) 
division  in  1940  and  was  taken  prisoner  at  St.  Valery-en-Caux. 

Fraser,  Sir  (John)  Malcolm,  British  journalist  (b.  Hampstead,  Dec.  24, 
1878 — d.  Poolc  harbour,  Dorset,  May  4),  was  editor  of  the  Evening 
Standard,  day  editor  Daily  Express  and  editor  in  chief  of  the  Birming- 
ham Gazette.  He  was  created  a  baronet  in  1 921  and  was  vice  chairman 
of  the  Conservative  party,  1937-38. 

Galway,  Sir  Henry  Lionel,  British  army  officer  and  colonial  and  state 
governor  (b,  Sept.  25,  1859 — d.  London,  June  17),  was  acting  high 
commissioner,  south  Nigeria,  1900;  governor  of  St.  Helena,  1902-11 ; 
of  the  Gambia,  1911-14,  and  of  South  Australia,  1914-20. 

Giraud,  Henri  Ho  no  re,  French  general  (b.  Paris,  Jan.  18,  1879 — d. 
Dijon,  France,  March  11),  was  educated  at  the  St.  Cyr  military 
academy  and  served  as  a  captain  of  Zouaves  in  World  War  I.  Woun- 
ded and  taken  prisoner,  he  subsequently  escaped  from  a  German 
prison  camp— a  feat  he  repeated  in  World  War  II.  He  served  as 
second  in  command  to  Marshal  Louis  Lyautey  in  the  Rif  campaign 
in  north  Africa  in  1925-26,  and  was  commander  of  the  unit  that 
received  the  surrender  of  the  Moroccan  leader,  Abd-el-Krim.  At 


OBITUARIES 


475 


the  start  of  World  War  II  he  was  military  governor  of  Met/,  and  he 
later  took  command  of  the  7th  I  tench  at  my  group  Captured  by 
the  Germans  during  their  bieak-through  iti  1940,  he  escaped  in 
April  1942  and  immediately  reported  to  the  Vichy  government 
Later,  however,  he  secretly  pledged  himself  to  the  Allied  cause, 
escaped  from  France  in  a  British  submarine,  and  was  landed  in 
Algiers  the  day  before  the  Allied  landings  there  On  the  day  of  the 
landings  (Nov  8,  1942)  he  announced  in  a  broadcast  that  he  had 
taken  command  of  all  Trench  tioops  in  north  Africa,  and  in  Decem- 
ber, alter  the  assassination  ot  Admiral  Jean  hran^ois  Dai  Ian,  he 
was  appointed  high  commissioner  ol  hrench  North  Atnca  In  May 
194?  an  agreement  was  reached  to  set  up  the  I  rench  Committee 
of  National  Libeiahon  with  General  Charles  dc  Gaulle  and  Giraud 
as  joint  chairmen  In  November  the  provisional  Consultative 
Assembly  was  formed  and  Guaud  left  the  C'ommittcc  ot  Naliona1 
Liberation  though  he  remained  commander  in  chief  until  April  1944 
Later  he  sat  for  a  time  as  deputy  lor  Met/  m  the  C  onstitucnt  Assem- 
bly A  few  days  before  his  death  he  received  the  Medaille  Mihtaire 

Gollan,  Sir  Henry  Covvper,  British  colonial  lasvyer  (b  Coquimbo,  (  hile, 
Jan  8,  1868  d  London  Aug  5),  was  called  to  the  bar,  1891,  and 
served  as  attorney  general  and  then  as  chief  justice  of  Northern 
Nigeria  He  later  served  in  similar  capacities  in  Bermuda,  Trinidad, 
Ceylon  and  Hong  Kong  He  was  knighted  in  1921 

Goodman,  Paul,  British  /iomst  worker  and  author  (b  Tartu,  I  stonia, 
April  10,  1875-  d  London,  Aug  13),  went  to  Britain  m  1891  In 
1895  he  was  appointed  assistant  secretary  of  the  Spanish  and  Portu- 
guese Jewish  congregation,  and  in  1910  succeeded  Samuel  Cohen  as 
secretary  He  held  many  posts  in  the  Zionist  federation  of  Gieat 
Britain  and  in  international  /iomst  bodies,  and  was  a  member  of  the 
council  of  the  Jewish  Agency  for  Palestine  His  first  hook  was 
/ he  Synagogue  anil  the  dhunh  (1908)  and  was  followed  by  man\ 
others',  including  A  History  of  the  Jem  (1911,  7th  ed  19^9\  \fo<>^ 
Montefwre  (1925),  Jheodor  Herzl  (1927),  Zionism  in  hngluml  (1930) 
and,  under  his  editorship,  Hie  Jewish  Notional  Home  (1941) 

Gordon- Watson,  Sir  Charles  Gordon,  British  surgeon  (b  April  18, 
1874  d  York,  Dec  19),  was  governor  and  consulting  surgeon, 
St  Bartholomew's  hospital,  1  ondon  He  had  been  a  vac  president 
of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  and  Irom  19^9  to  1942  was  con- 
sulting surgeon  to  the  army 

Gour,  Sir  Han  Singh,  Indian  lawver  and  politician  (b  Saugor,  C  entral 
Provinces,  Nov  26,  1872  d  Saugor,  Dec  25),  entered  the  Indian 
Legislative  Assembly  in  1921  and  became  leader  ol  the  National 
paitv  He  was  vice-chancellor  ol  Delhi  university,  1923-27,  and  of 
Nagnur  university,  1936-38  He  was  created  a  knight  in  1925 

Grabski,  Stamstaw,  Polish  politician  (b  Borow,  near  Louie/  Poland, 
April  5,  1871  d  Sulejowek,  near  Warsaw,  May  6),  was  educated  at 
(he  universities  of  Warsaw,  Berlin  and  Berne,  and  the  School  of 
Political  Science  m  Paris  In  1910  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
political  economy  at  the  University  of  Lwow  At  the  beginning 
ot  World  War  I  he  took  refuge  m  Moscow,  but  after  the  Com- 
munist i evolution  left  lor  Paris  where  he  became  a  member  of 
the  Polish  National  committee  presided  over  by  Roman  Dmowski 
After  the  armistice  of  Nov  11,  1918,  Dmowski  sent  him  to  Warsaw 
to  discuss  with  Joseph  Pilsudski  the  formation  of  a  national  govern- 
ment and  the  appointment  of  a  Polish  delegation  to  the  Pans  Peace 
conference  Llected  a  member  of  the  constituent  Sejm,  Grabski 
opposed  Pilsudski's  plan  for  a  federal  Polish  republic  As  a  member 
of  the  Polish  delegation  to  negotiate  peace  \\ith  Soviet  Russia,  he 
played  a  prominent  part  in  establishing  the  new  frontier  by  the 
peace  treaty  of  Riga  (March  18,  1921)  Grabski  was  twice  minister 
of  education  and  rejigious  affairs  (192^  and  1924-26)  After  the 
Pilsudski  coup  d'etat  of  May  1926,  he  withdrew  from  politics,  con- 
tinuing to  teach  at  the  University  of  I  wow  He  was  arrested  by  the 
Soviet  police  in  Oct  1939  and  sent  as  a  political  prisoner  to  Moscow 
He  was  freed  two  years  later  and  went  to  London  where  in  1942-44 
he  was  chairman  of  the  Polish  National  council 

Graham,  Sir  Ronald  William,  British   diplomat  (b    I  ondon,  July  24, 

1870  d     London,    Jan     26),    was    minister    to    Holland,    1919-21, 
ambassador  to  Italy   1921-33  and  director  of  the    Sue/  Canal  Co, 
1939-45 

Graham-Harrison,   Sir   William   Montagu,   British   lawyer   (b     heb    4, 

1871  d   London,  Oct  29)  was  created  a  K  C  B  in  1926  and  appointed 
K  C    in   1930     He  was  first  parliamentary  counsel  to  the  Tieasury, 
1928-33,  and  after  his  retirement  was  chancellor  of  the  dioceses  of 
Durham,    Truro  and  Portsmouth 

Grant,  William,  Northern  Ireland  politician  (b  Belfast,  1883  d 
Belfast,  Aug  15),  was  first  elected  to  the  Northern  Ireland  House  of 
Commons  in  1921  He  served  as  minister  of  public  security,  1941-43, 
minister  of  labour,  1943-44,  and  mmistei  ot  health  and  local  govern- 
ment from  1944 

Gratke,  Charles  Fxtaard,  U  S  journalist  (b  Astoria,  Oregon,  Aug  1 1, 
1901  d  [in  an  air  crash]  near  Bombay,  India,  July  12),  worked  on 
his  father's  Astoria  Evening  Budget,  then  on  the  Dunut  News,  the 
Portland  Oregoman  and  the  Oregon  City  Hnterprtse  He  became 
foreign  editor  of  the  Christian  Sueme  Monitor  in  1937,  after  having 
served  on  that  paper's  foreign  staff  in  Berlin  during  the  rise  of  Hitler 
He  won  the  annual  award  of  Sigma  Delta  Chi  in  1946  for  his  survey 
of  Germany  under  the  U  S  occupation 

Green,  George  Alfred  Lawrence,  South  African  journalist  and  editor 
(b  Portsmouth,  1868  d  Capetown,  Aug  10),  settled  in  South 
Africa  in  1894,  joining  the  Cape  Iime\  He  edited  the  Diamond  fields 
Advertiser,  1898-1910,  and  the  Cape  Argus  from  1910  until  he  retired 
in  1937  He  sat  in  the  House  of  Assembly  for  Kimberley,  1908-10 

Guggenheim,  Solomon  R.,  American  industrialist  (b  Philadelphia,  Lcb 
2,  1861— d  Port  Washington,  New  York,  Nov  3),  with  his  brothers 
was  one  of  the  leading  copper  magnates  in  the  world  He  was  a 
generous  art  patron  and  established  the  Guggenheim  foundation  for 
the  promotion  of  modern  art 


Hajir,  \bdol  Hussein,  Persian  statesman  (b  1897''— d  (assassinated] 
Tehran,  Nov  5),  was  prime  minister  from  June  13  to  Nov  8,  1948 
He  was  finance  minister  m  the  cabinet  of  Ahmad  Qavam-es-Saltaneh, 
1946-47,  and  had  previously  held  the  portfolios  of  interior,  commerce 
and  industry,  and  toads  and  communications  As  prime  minister  he 
enforced  the  stnct  observance  of  Ramadan  and  was  afterwards 
minister  at  court  On  Nov  4,  1949,  in  Tehran,  he  was  shot  at  close 
range  anil  died  the  following  day 

Halsey,  Sir  Lionel,  British  admiral  (b  Leb  26,  1872  d  Biggleswade, 
Bedfordshire,  Oct  26),  served  on  land  m  the  South  African  War 
with  naval  guns,  in  World  War  1  m  actions  at  Heligoland.  Dogger 
bank  and  Jutland,  and  as  third  sea  lord,  1917-18  He  commanded 
the  Roval  Australian  Navv,  1918-22,  and  was  chief  of  staff  and  later 
comptroller  and  treasurer  to  the  Prince  of  Wales,  1919-36. 

Hanimerton,  Sir  John  Alexander,  Butish  editor  (h  Alexandria,  Scotland, 
I  eb  27,  1871  d.  London,  Ma>  12),  joined  tht  Smrtish  Reformer  in 
18S8  and  then  edited  papers  in  Blackpool,  Nottingham  and  Birming- 
ham, going  to  I  ondon  in  1900  He  edited  the  Dm lonurio  Hispano — 
-\mcmuno  in  South  America,  and  during  World  War  I  l^e  War 
Illus  ttatel  and  I  he  (.treat  14  ar  Similar  records  were  edited  by  him 
durum  World  War  II  Other  reference  works  included  Harms*  orth\ 
L'nivei  w//  Lm  i  <  lopaedia  and  Universal  Histor  \  of  the  World  He  was 
the  author  ol  inany  books,  and  from  1945  was  president  of  the  Robert 
Louis  Stevenson  \.lub 

Hammond.  John  Lawrence  Le  Breton,  historian  and  journalist  (b 
Dngblmgton,  Yoikshire,  July  18,  1872— d  Hernel  Hempstead, 
Herttordsi.iie,  April  7),  was  educated  at  Bradford  grammar  school 
and  Si  John's  college,  Oxford  In  1899  he  became  editor  of  the  Liberal 
weekly  Speaker  and  later  worked  on  the  staffs  of  the  Fnbune  and  of 
(he  Dailv  News  In  World  War  I  he  was  at  first  commissioned  in 
the  R  I  \  and  later  worked  in  the  Ministry  of  Reconstruction.  At 
the  peace  conference  he  was  special  co1  respondent  for  the  Manchester 
(•uarduin  and  later  he  contributed  frequently  to  that  paper,  working 
from  1939-45  in  its  Manchester  offices  He  had  married,  in  1901, 
Baibara  Bradby  who  was  his  collaborator  m  much  of  his  work  and 
notably  in  the  historical  tnlogy  on  the  conditions  of  the  labouring 
classes  during  the  industrial  revolution  The  three  works,  which 
appeared  between  1911  and  1919  were  I  he  Village  Labourer,  7  he 
To\\n  Labourer  and  7 he  Skilled  Labourer,  their  impact  was  consider- 
able for  they  contained  much  new  material  and  threw  new  light  on 
the  period  J  I  and  Barbara  Hammond  also  wrote  books  on  Lord 
Shafteshurv  (192M,  The  Rise  of  Modern  Industry  (1925)  and  Phe  Age 
ol  the  Chartists  (19^0)  while  J  L  Hammond  was  the  biographer  of 
C  hatics  James  1  ox  ( 1903)  and  C  P  Scott  (1934)  and  author  of  Glad- 
stone and  the  lush  Nation  (1938)  Oxford  umversi'y  conferred  the 
honorary  degree  of  D  Litt  on  both  husband  and  wife  simultaneously 
in  1913,  and  Hammond  was  also  in  1944  made  a  fellow  of  the  British 
Academy  and  had  the  honorary  degree  of  D  Litt  of  Manchester 
university  conferred  on  him  (See  also  Emvt lop<rdia  Bntannua) 

Handle},  I omm>,  British  radio  comedian  (b  Liverpool,  Jan  12,1896  - 
d  London,  Jan  9),  obtained  his  first  professional  engagement  rn 
Maid  of  the  Mountains  in  1917  After  the  war  he  toured  in  revues 
and  his  first  Royal  Command  performance  was  in  a  sketch  I  he 
Dis-orderlv  Room  He  first  broadcast  in  1924  and  subsequently 
appeared  regularly  before  the  microphone  sometimes  as  "  Mr 
Murgatroyd  "  in  "  Murgatroyd  and  Winterbottom  "  with  Ronald 

I  rankau     At  the  time  of  his  death  he  was  immensely  popular  as  a 
result  of  his  weekly  radio  programme  1TMA  (//'«  Fhat  Man  Again') 
Started  in    1939  and  continued  with  short  seasonal  breaks  for  ten 
>ears,  the  programme  celebrated  its  300th  performance  in  Oct    1948 

I 1  MA  was  essentially  Tommy  Handley's  programme  and  went  on 
the  ait  for  what  proved  to  be  the  last  time  on  Jan  6,  three  days  before 
his  sudden  death     The  King  and  Queen  were  among  those  who  sent 
messages  of  sympathy  to   Mrs    Hand  ley      Memorial  services  were 
held  in  St    Paul's  cathedral,  London,  and  in  Liverpool  cathedral 

Harald,  Christian  Frederik,  Danish  prince  (b  Charlottenlund,  Denmark, 
Oct  8,  1876  d  March  30),  was  brother  of  King  Christian  X  of 
Denmaik  and  King  Haakon  VII  of  Norway 

Hawkesworth,  Sir  Ibdnard  Gerald,  British  colonial  administrator 
(b  1897  d  London,  Aug  14),  served  in  the  colonial  service  in 
Nigeria  from  1921  to  1941,  when  he  was  appointed  chief  commis- 
sioner at  Ashanti,  Gold  Coast  From  1947  to  1948  he  was  governor 
and  commander  in  chief,  British  Honduras 

Ha>,John  Primrose,  British  politician  (b  Coatbndge,  1878  -d  Glasgow, 
Dec  5),  was  lecturer  in  mathematics,  Manchuria  Christian  college, 
Mukden,  1906-15  He  was  Labour  member  of  parliament  for 
Cathcart  division  of  Glasgow,  1922-23 

Ha>,  Will,  British  comedian  (b  Dec  6,  1888  — d  London,  April  18), 
went  on  to  the  stage  in  1909  and  into  films  in  1934  and  played  the  r6le, 
in  his  comedies,  of  "  headmaster  of  St  Michael's  "  He  was  also  an 
amateur  astronomer  and  during  World  War  II  served  in  the  R  N  V  R 
as  an  instructor. 

Hcaton,  Sir  John  Frederick,  British  motor  transport  pioneer  (b  Oct  18, 
1880  d  Croxley  Green,  Hertfordshire,  April  27),  took  an  active 
part  in  the  inauguration  and  development  of  many  provincial  bus 
services  He  was  chairman  and  managing  director  of  Thomas 
Tilling,  Ltd  and  chairman  of  many  other  road  transport  companies. 

Hicks,  Sir  (Edward)  Sevmour,  British  actor  (b.  St  Helier,  Jersey, 
Channel  Islands,  Jan  30,  1871 — d  Heet,  Hampshire,  April  6),  was 
intended  by  his  parents  to  enter  the  army  but  after  passing  his  pre- 
liminary examinations  he  gave  up  all  thought  of  a  military  career  and, 
to  the  displeasure  of  his  father,  went  on  the  stage  From  1889  to  1891 
he  toured  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  with  Mr  and  Mrs 
Kendal  In  1901  his  play  Bluebell  in  Fairyland  made  a  great  success 
with  his  wife  Lllalme  lernss  in  the  name  part  He  later  wrote  other 
musical  plays  including  The  Catch  of  the  Season  (with  Cosmo  Hamil- 
ton) in  which  he  played  the  lead  He  built  the  Aldwych  theatre, 
opened  it  in  1905,  and  in  the  next  year  he  built  the  Globe  During 


476 


OBITUARIES 


World  War  I  he  organized  concert  parties  for  the  troops  in  France. 
In  March  1922  he  appeared  in  one  of  his  most  characteristic  and 
successful  parts  The  Man  in  Dress  Clothes  (an  adaptation  from  the 
French).  He  wrote  several  books  of  autobiography  and  memoirs 
and  in  Vintage  Years  (1943)  he  looked  back  with  regret  to  the  Ed- 
wardian era.  He  was  knighted  in  1935.  In  1939  he  became  controller 
of  ENS  A  (Entertainments  National  Service  association)  and  in  1940 
chairman  of  the  Advisory  Production  council. 

Holmes,  William  Barry,  English  rugby  footballer  (b.  Buenos  Aires, 
Argentina,  Jan.  6,  1928 — d.  Salta,  Argentina,  Nov.  8?)  played  for 
Cambridge  against  Oxford  in  1947  and  1948  and  for  England  against 
Scotland,  Ireland,  Wales  and  France.  He  toured  Argentina  in  a 
combined  university  side  in  1948  and  returned  in  1949  to  live  in 
Salta.  He  died  of  typhoid  fever  within  a  week. 

Horsnell,  Horace,  British  playwright,  novelist  and  dramatic  critic 
(b.  St.  Leonards,  Sussex,  June  12,  1882— d.  London,  Feb.  10),  was 
dramatic  critic  to  Outlook  (1927-28),  Punch  (1930-31),  Observer 
(from  1920)  and  Taller  (from  1942).  He  wrote  five  novels  and  several 
plays  including  Advertising  April  (with  Herbert  Farjeon). 

House,  George,  British  politician  (b.  March  7, 1892 — d.  London,  Feb.  8), 
started  work  as  a  printer  and  later  became  a  trade  union  organizer. 
Was  a  member  of  the  London  County  council  and  was  elected  M.P. 
for  St.  Pancras,  North,  in  July  1945. 

Hubback,  Eva  Marian,  British  college  principal  (b.  1886 — d.  London, 
July  15),  was  a  daughter  of  Sir  Meyer  A.  Spielman  and  was  educated 
at  St.  Felix  school,  Southwold,  and  Newnham  college,  Cambridge, 
where  she  graduated  in  1908.  She  was  appointed  principal  of  Morley 
college  for  working  men  and  women,  London,  in  1927.  She  worked 
for  many  years  with  Lord  Simon  of  Wythenshawe  and  published  in 
collaboration  with  him  Education  in  Britain  and  The  Population  of 
Britain.  In  1946  she  was  elected  to  the  London  County  council. 

Hughes,  Arthur  Walter,  Roman  Catholic  archbishop  (b.  London, 
Aug.  25,  1902~d.  Ewell,  Surrey,  July  12),  was  ordained  in  1927,  and 
in  1933  went  out  to  the  White  Fathers  mission  in  Uganda.  In  1943 
he  became  regent  of  the  apostolic  delegation  in  Egypt,  being  conse- 
crated titular  bishop  of  Hieropolis  in  May  1945,  and  two  years  later 
was  promoted  titular  archbishop  of  Aprus  and  nominated  apostolic 
internuncio  at  Cairo. 

Hyde,  Douglas,  (known  in  Ireland  as  An  Craoibhin  Aoibhinn — the 
delightful  little  branch)  Irish  statesman,  historian,  poet  and  student 
of  folklore  (b.  Frenchpark,  Co.  Roscommon,  Jan.  17,  1860— d. 
Dublin,  July  12),  was  the  son  of  the  Rev.  Arthur  Hyde,  canon  of 
Elphin  and  rector  of  Tibohine,  and  was  educated  at  Trinity  college, 
Dublin.  From  his  earliest  days  he  acquired  a  love  for  the  Irish 
language,  which  at  that  time  was  neglected  by  scholars,  and  in  1878 
he  joined  the  Society  for  the  Preservation  of  the  Irish  Language. 
Later  he  left  the  society  and  started  the  Gaelic  union  which  published 
the  first  periodical  in  the  Irish  language.  In  the  nineties  he  travelled 
throughout  Ireland  campaigning  to  make  the  people  realize  the 
importance  of  Irish.  He  founded  the  Gaelic  league  in  1893  and  held 
the  position  of  president  until  1915.  In  Nov.  1905  he  left  on  a  tour  of 
the  United  States  where  he  created  great  interest  in  the  Gaelic  league: 
he  returned  in  June  1906  having  collected  £11,000.  He  was  elected 
a  senator  in  1925  and  again  in  1938.  When  the  new  constitution  was 
created  in  1937  all  parties  agreed  on  the  election  of  Hyde  as  the  first 
president  of  Ireland.  He  held  office  from  June  25,  1938,  until  June  25, 
1945,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  Sean  O' Kelly.  In  1891  he  was 
interim  professor  of  modern  languages  at  the  University  of  New 
Brunswick,  Canada,  and  from  1909  to  1932  was  professor  of  modern 
Irish  in  the  National  University  of  Ireland.  His  first  publication 
appeared  in  1889  and  his  last  in  1939.  Amongst  his  works  in  English 
were  Story  of  Early  Gaelic  Literature  (1895),  A  Literary  History  of 
Ireland  ( \  899)  and  Mediaeval  Tales  from  the  Irish  ( \  899).  He  also  wrote 
many  books,  poems  and  plays  in  Irish  and  in  Mise  agus  an  Connradh 
(1938)  he  told  of  his  association  with  the  Gaelic  league.  (See  also 
Encyclopedia  Britannica.) 

Igglesden,  Sir  Charles,  British  author  and  journalist  (b.  Ashford,  Kent, 
1861 — d.  Ashford,  June  26),  became  editor  of  the  Kentish  Express  in 
1881  and  continued  to  edit  the  paper  for  68  years. 

Intms,  Augustus  Daniel,  British  entomologist  (b.  Aug.  24,  1880 — d. 
Sidmouth,  Devon,  April  3),  held  posts  in  India,  1907-13,  and  at 
Manchester  university.  He  was  chief  entomologist  at  Rothamsted 
Experimental  station,  1918-31,  and  reader  in  entomology  at  Cam- 


bridge, 1931-45.  His  books  included  General  Text-book  of  Entomology 
(1925),  Recent  Advances  in  Entomology  (1930)  and  Insect  Natural 
History  (1947). 

Inskip,  James  Theodore,  Anglican  bishop  (b.  Clifton,  Bristol,  April  6, 
1868 — d.  Loughton,  Essex,  Aug.  4),  was  ordained  in  1891  and  became 
curate  of  St.  James',  Hatcham,  London.  Later  he  was  vicar  at 
Penzance,  Ley  ton,  Jesmond  and  Southport,  and,  from  1919  to 
1948,  bishop  suffragan  of  Barking.  Among  his  works  were  The 
Pastoral  Idea  (1905),  Evangelical  Influence  in  English  Life  (1933), 
The  One  Foundation  (1933)  and  his  autobiography  A  Man's  Job  (1948). 

Jaloux,  Edntond,  French  novelist  and  critic  (b.  Marseilles,  June  19, 
1878 — d.  Lutry,  near  Lausanne,  Switzerland,  Aug.  22).  His  first 
novel,  VAgonie  de  i 'amour,  appeared  in  1899.  Ten  years  later  he  was 
awarded  the  Prix  Femina  for  Le  reste  est  silence,  which  established 
his  reputation,  and  during  the  next  40  years  he  wrote  more  than  20 
novels,  among  them  Fumees  dans  la  campagne  (1918),  r Alcyone  (1925) 
and  Laetitia  (1929).  Volumes  of  criticism  included  /' Esprit  des  llvres 
(1923),  Figures  etrangeres  (1926)  and  De  Pascal  a  Barres  (1928).  In 
1920  he  won  the  Grand  Prix  de  Litterature  of  the  French  Academy 
and  in  1936  succeeded  to  the  seat  of  Paul  Bourget  among  the  40 
"  immortals."  He  was  co-founder  and  co-editor  of  the  Deutsch- 
Franzosische  Rundschau  in  Berlin  and  the  Revue  d  Allemagne  in  Paris, 
which,  after  the  signature  of  the  Locarno  agreement,  tried  to  serve 
the  cause  of  Franco-German  reconciliation.  After  the  capitulation 
of  France  in  1940  Jaloux  crossed  into  Switzerland,  where  he  wrote 
his  last  two  novels  and  two  volumes  on  the  history  of  French  literature. 

Jelf,  Sir  Ernest  Arthur,  British  lawyer  (b.  Oct.  3,  1868 — d.  Sept.  1),  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  1893.  He  was  appointed  a  master  of  the  supreme 
court  in  1914  and  was  King's  Remembrancer  and  senior  master, 
1937-43.  He  edited  the  third  edition  of  Encyclopedia  of  the  Laws  of 
England  and  was  the  author  of  many  legal  books  and  also  of  plays 
and  ballets  for  children. 

Jenkinson,  Charles,  Anglican  vicar  and  housing  reformer  (b.  1887? — d. 
Leeds,  Aug.  3),  was  vicar  at  Holbeck,  Leeds,  1927-38,  and  minister 
at  Belle  Isle,  Leeds,  1938-48.  He  served  on  the  Leeds  city  council 
for  many  years,  and  was  chiefly  responsible  for  large  slum  clearance 
projects  costing  £12  million.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Central 
Housing  advisory  committee,  and  from  Sept.  1948,  chairman  of  the 
Stevenage  New  Town  Development  corporation. 

Jones,  Thomas  Gwynn,  Welsh  author  (b.  Bettws-yn-Rhos,  Denbigh- 
shire, 1871 — d.  Aberystwyth,  Cardiganshire,  March  7),  was  professor 
of  Welsh  literature,  University  College  of  Wales  and  author  of  many 
plays,  poems  and  biographies  in  Welsh  and  English,  including  The 
Culture  and  Tradition  of  Wales  (1928)  and  Welsh  Folk-lore  and  Folk 
Custom  (1930). 

Jordan,  Sir  Frederick  Richard,  Australian  judge  ^b.  London,  Oct.  13, 
1881 — d.  Sydney,  Nov.  4),  was  appointed  chief  justice  of  New  South 
Wales  in  1934  and  from  1938  was  lieutenant  governor. 

Kershaw,  Sir  Leonard  William,  British  barrister  and  court  registrar 
(b.  Nov.  18,  1864— d.  Feb.  9),  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1886.  He 
was  registrar  of  the  court  of  criminal  appeal,  1912-33  and  edited 
revised  editions  of  Russell  on  Crimes  and  Wise  on  Riots. 

Keynes,  John  Neville,  British  university  lecturer  (b.  Salisbury,  Aug.  31, 
1852— d.  Cambridge,  Nov.  16),  was  for  many  years  a  lecturer  in 
moral  sciences  at  Cambridge  university.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
council  of  the  senate  of  the  university,  1892-1924.  One  of  his  sons, 
John  Maynard,  later  became  Lord  Keynes. 

Kirke,  Sir  Walter  Mervyn  St.  George,  British  general  (b.  Jan.  19,  1877 — 
d .  near  Carlisle,  Sept.  3),  was  gazetted  in  the  Royal  Artillery  in  1896. 
and  served  in  Burma,  India,  Europe  during  World  War  I,  Finland 
and  Hungary.  In  1936  he  was  appointed  director  general  of  the 
territorial  army  and  for  a  short  period  in  1939  he  was  inspector 
general  of  home  defences.  From  then  until  May  1940  he  was 
commander  in  chief,  home  forces. 

Kirwan,  Sir  John  Waters,  Australian  politician  (b.  Dec.  2,  1866 — d. 
Perth,  Sept.  9),  emigrated  to  western  Australia  in  1895  and  eventually 
became  editor  of  the  Kalgoorlie  Miner  and  the  Western  Argus.  He 
was  one  of  the  first  representatives  of  western  Australia  in  the 
federal  House  of  Representatives,  and  from  1908  to  1946  sat  in  the 
legislative  council  of  western  Australia,  being  its  president,  1926-46. 

Knickerbocker,  Hubert  Renfro,  U.S.  journalist  (b.  Yoakum,  Texas,  Jan. 
31,  1898 — d.  [in  an  air  crash]  near  Bombay,  July  12),  was  educated 
at  Southwestern  university,  Georgetown,  at  Columbia  university  and 


General  Henri  Giraiid. 


Tommy  Handley. 


Will  Hay. 


Sir  Seymour  Hicks. 


OBITUARIES 


477 


later  at  Munich  and  Berlin.  He  began  newspaper  work  on  the  Newark 
Morning  Ledger  in  1920.  As  a  foreign  correspondent  he  reported  from 
the  Soviet  Union,  winning  the  Pulitzer  prize  in  1931  for  his  reports 
on  the  purge  trials;  he  covered  the  wars  in  Ethiopia  and  Spam 
and  in  1940  witnessed  the  fall  of  France  and  the  Battle  of  Britain. 
He  was  appointed  chief  of  the  foreign  service  of  the  Chicago  Sun  in 
1941  and  covered  the  war  in  the  Pacific,  north  Africa  and  Europe. 

Knox,  Sir  Enrol  Galbraith,  Australian  newspaper  director  (b.  June  25 
1889 — d.  Melbourne,  Oct.  17),  became  managing  editor  of  the 
Sydney  Evening  News  at  the  age  of  32.  He  was  later  managing  director 
and  editor  in  chief  of  the  Argus  and  Australasian,  Ltd.  and  for  many 
years  was  treasurer  of  the  Empire  Press  union. 

Rostov,  Traicho,  Bulgarian  politician  (b.  Sofia,  June  17,  1897—d. 
[executed)  Sofia,  Dec.  16).  After  studying  law  at  the  University  of 
Sofia  he  was  active  in  the  Bulgarian  Workers'  (Communist)  party. 
For  his  part  in  the  Sept.  1923  uprising  he  was  arrested  and  sentenced 
in  the  following  year  to  five  years'  imprisonment.  On  release  from 
prison  he  went  to  Moscow,  where  he  spent  two  years.  Returning  to 
Bulgaria  in  1931,  he  worked  there  as  a  member  of  the  illegal  Com- 
munist party.  From  1941  he  engaged  in  partisan  resistance,  was 
arrested  on  April  29,  1942,  and  sentenced  to  life  imprisonment. 
When  freed  in  Sept.  1944,  he  became  a  member  of  the  committee  of 
the  Fatherland  front,  a  member  of  the  Politburo  and  secretary  of  the 
central  committee  of  the  Communist  party.  He  was  elected  deputy 
for  Sofia  in  Nov.  1945  and  Oct.  1946.  He  joined  the  second  Kimon 
Gheorghiev  cabinet  on  March  21,  1946,  as  deputy  prime  minister, 
retaining  this  position  in  the  first  Gheorghi  Dimitrov  cabinet; 
in  addition,  in  the  second  Dimitrov  cabinet  he  became  chairman 
of  the  cabinet  economic  and  financial  committee.  On  April  4,  1949, 
it  was  announced  in  Sofia  that  he  had  been  removed  from  the 
Politburo  of  the  central  committee  of  the  Communist  party  and 
relieved  of  his  government  duties  because  he  had  formed  "  an 
insincere  and  unfriendly  attitude  to  the  U.S  S.R."  On  June  12  lie 
was  expelled  from  the  party  and  on  July  20  deprived  of  his  parlia- 
mentary immunity,  although  he  had  already  been  arrested  on  June 
25.  He  was  indicted  for  espionage  and  high  treason.  At  the  trial 
which  began  in  Sofia  on  Dec.  7  he  denied  the  major  charges  and  most 
of  the  depositions  which,  it  was  alleged,  he  had  previously  made. 
He  was  condemned  to  death  on  Dec  14  and  executed  on  Dec  16. 

Krogh,  Schack  August  Steenberg,  Danish  physiologist  (b  Grcna, 
Denmark,  Nov.  15,  1874  -d.  Copenhagen,  Sept.  13),  graduated  in 
zoology  at  Copenhagen  in  1899  and  took  his  doctor's  degree  in  1903. 
In  1920  he  was  awarded  the  Nobel  pn/e  for  medicine  for  his  discovery 
of  the  regulation  of  the  motor  mechanism  of  the  capillaries.  (See 
also  Emyclopaniia  Britannua.) 

Lamb,  Sir  Joseph  Quinton,  British  farmer  and  politician  (b.  May  2, 
1873— d.  hccleshdtl,  Staffordshire,  Nov  20),  was  Conservative 
member  of  Parliament  for  Stone,  Staffordshire,  1922-45,  and  in  1921 
was  chairman  of  National  Farmers'  union. 

Larnont  of  Knockdow,  Sir  Nornlan,  2nd  Baronet,  Butish  politician 
(b  Dec.  7,  1869  -d.  Port  of  Spain,  Tumdad,  Sept.  4),  was  a  member 
of  the  House  of  Commons,  1905-10,  and  an  unofficial  member  of 
the  Legislative  Council  of  Trinidad  and  Tobago,  1915-23. 

Lawrence,  Sir  Henry  Staveley,  Bntish-born  administrator  in  India 
(b  Co.  Donegal,  Oct  20,  1870— d  Oxford,  June  29),  entered  the 
Indian  civil  service  in  1890  and  served  in  Sind  and  Bombay.  He  was 
commissioner  of  Sind,  1916-20;  finance  member  of  Council,  1921-26, 
and  acting  governor  of  Bombay,  1926. 

Leach,  William,  British  politician  and  manufacturer  (b  Bradford, 
Yorkshire,  Nov  30,  1870  -d.  Nov.  21),  was  Labour  member  of 
parliament  for  Bradford  central,  1922-24,  1929-31,  1935-45,  and  was 
under  secretary  of  state  for  air,  1924 

Lee,  Sidney,  British  artist  (b  Manchester,  1886  -d  London,  Oct  31), 
was  elected  A  R  A.  in  1922,  R  A  in  1930  and  was  treasurer  of  the 
academy,  1932-40.  He  worked  in  several  media  but  was  almost 
exclusively  a  landscape  artist  Examples  of  his  work  were  purchased 
for  the  Tate  gallery  by  the  Chantrey  trustees;  others  are  in  the 
municipal  collections  of  Liverpool,  Glasgow,  Southampton  and  Hull. 

Lerroux,  Alejandro,  Spanish  statesman  (b  La  Rdinbla,  near  Cordoba, 
1864 — d  Madrid,  June  27),  was  son  of  a  sergeant  in  the  veterinary 
corps.  Elected  to  the  Cortes  in  1901  as  deputy  for  Barcelona,  he 
became  known  for  his  eloquent  anti-clericalism  and  republicanism. 
He  spent  a  few  years  in  Argentina,  where  he  fled  in  1907,  but  after 
World  War  I  was  allowed  to  return  to  Spam  He  played  a  large  part 
in  creating  the  republic,  and  in  1931  became  its  hist  foreign  minister. 
His  progress  towards  the  moderate  centre  was  demonstrated  by  the 
composition  of  the  four  cabinets  which  he  headed  between  1933 
and  1935  He  fled  from  Spain  on  the  eve  of  the  civil  war  and  lived 
for  11  years  in  Lisbon.  (See  also  hncychpttdia  Bntanmca). 

Lcverhulme,  William  Hulnle  Lever,  2nd  Viscount,  of  the  Western  Isles, 
British  industrialist  (b  Bolton,  Lancashire,  March  25,  1888 — 
d.  Minneapolis,  Minnesota,  May  26),  was  the  only  child  of  the  first 
Viscount  Lcverhulme  and  was  educated  at  Eton  college  and  Trinity 
college,  Cambridge.  In  order  to  gam  experience  in  his  father's 
business  he  began  work  as  a  labourer  at  Port  Sunlight.  On  May  7, 
1925,  his  father  died  and  William  Lever  succeeded  to  the  titles  and 
became  governor  of  Lever  Brothers.  In  1925  the  firm  had  250 
associated  companies  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  but  under  his  governor- 
ship its  activities  increased  still  further  and  in  1937  Lever  Bros, 
amalgamated  with  Unilever  Ltd.,  under  the  title  Lever  Brothers  and 
Unilever.  (See  Encyclopedia  Bntanmca).  Prom  1932-36  he  was  a 
pro-chancellor  of  Liverpool  university.  A  great  traveller,  he  was 
returning  from  a  business  visit  to  Australia  when  he  died  in  hospital 
in  Minneapolis.  His  life  of  his  father,  Viscount  Leverhulme  by  his 
Son,  was  published  in  1927. 

Lindner,  Peter  Moffat,  British  artist  (b.  Birmingham,  Feb.  12,  1852- 
d.  St.  Ives,  Cornwall,  Sept.  20),  studied  art  at  the  Slade  school  and 
Heatherlcys.  He  specialized  in  painting  landscapes  and  marine 


subjects  both  in  oils  and  water-colour.    He  was  a  regular  exhibitor 
at  the  Royal  Academy — the  last  time  m  1938. 
Londonderry,    Charles    Stewart    Henry    Vane-Tempest-Stewart,    7th 

Marquess  of  (b  London,  May  13,  1878 — d.  Newtownards,  N.  Ireland, 
Feb.  11),  was  educated  at  Eton  college  and  the  Royal  Military 
college,  Sandhurst,  and  served  in  World  War  I.  He  was  Conservative 
member  of  parliament  for  Maidstone  from  1906  until  he  entered 
the  House  01  Lords  on  the  death  of  his  father  in  1915.  In  1917-18  he 
represented  Ulster  m  the  Irish  Convention.  In  1920  he  became 
under-secretary  for  air  but  resigned  his  office  to  return  to  Northern 
Ireland  as  minister  of  education  and  leader  of  the  Senate  in  the  newly 
formed  government.  From  1928  to  1929  he  was  first  commissioner 
of  works  and  in  1931  he  became  minister  for  air.  He  was  an  active 
minister  and  the  development  of  the  Royal  Air  Force  owed  much  to 
him  In  June  1935  he  was  appointed  lord  privy  seal  and  leader  of 
the  House  of  Lords,  but  was  dropped  from  the  government  when  it 
was  reformed  aftei  the  general  election  in  Nov.  1935.  His  book 
Ourselves  and  Germany,  published  in  1938,  was  the  result  of  two 
visits  to  that  country  in  1936  and  various  conversations  he  had  had 
there.  In  July  1942  he  became  regional  commandant  of  the  Air 
Training  corps  in  Northern  Ireland. 

Louis  II  (Louis  Goyon  de  Matignon-Crimaldi),  prince  of  Monaco 
(b.  Baden-Baden,  Germany,  July  12,  1870— -d.  Monaco,  May  9), 
served  during  World  War  I  in  the  First  Foreign  regiment  of  the 
French  army  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  general  of  brigade.  He  succeeded 
his  father.  Albert  I,  on  June  26,  1922,  as  ruler  of  Monaco.  He 
was  sometimes  referred  to  as  an  absentee  ruler  by  his  subjects, 
because  he  preferred  to  live  in  Prance,  and  at  least  one  riotous  out- 
burst of  discontent  among  the  people  was  attributed  to  this  fact. 
There  was  also  discontent  between  the  years  1928-30  over  the 
administration  of  the  Casino — Monaco's  chief  source  of  income. 
As  a  result  the  prince  in  1930  suspended  the  constitution  granted  to 
the  Monacans  by  Albert  I,  his  father.  Five  days  before  his  death 
he  turned  over  his  duties  to  his  grandson,  Prince  Rainier,  who 
succeeded  him 

Lovelock,  John  Edward  (Jack),  British  athlete  (b  New  Zealand,  1910 — 
d.  New  York,  Dec.  28),  was  a  Rhodes  scholar  at  Oxford  university 
and  later  became  a  medical  student  He  settled  in  New  York  in  1947 
to  practice  at  an  orthopaedic  hospital.  During  World  War  II  he 
served  in  the  R  A.M.C.  In  1931  he  ran  a  mile  in  4  mm.  24  sec.  and 
two  years  later  for  Oxford  and  Cambridge  against  Princeton  and 
Cornell  his  time  was  4  mm  7  6  sec  ,  then  a  world  record.  In  1936 
in  Berlin  he  won  the  Olympic  1,500  m  in  3  mm.  47-8  sec. — then  a 
world  record  and  after  13  years  still  an  Olympic  record.  On  Dec. 
28,  during  an  attack  of  giddiness,  he  fell  before  an  electric  tram. 

Lucan,  George  Charles  Binghant,  5th  Earl  of,  British  peer  and  a 
representative  peer  of  Ireland  from  1914  (b.  Dec.  13,  1860 — d.  East- 
bourne, Sussex,  April  20),  sat  in  the  House  of  Commons  for  Chertsey, 
1904-6,  and  served  as  a  Conservative  whip  in  the  House  of  Lords. 

Lykke,  Ivar,  Norwegian  statesman  (b  1872—d  Dec.  4),  was  first 
elected  to  the  Storting  in  1915.  He  was  prime  minister  and  minister 
of  foreign  affairs  from  March  1926  until  Feb  1928. 

Lynd,  Robert,  British  writer  (b.  Belfast,  April  20,  1879— d  London, 
Oct  6),  graduated  at  Queen's  college  (now  university),  Belfast,  in 
1899  and  became  a  literary  journalist.  His  earliest  book  Irish  and 
hntflnh  Portrait?  and  Impressions  (1908)  was  the  first  of  numerous 
collections  of  articles  and  reviews  He  went  to  England  in  1901  and 
worked  as  a  dramatic  critic,  book  reviewer  and  essayist.  In  1908 
he  joined  the  Datlv  New*  and  two  years  later  became  its  literary 
editor  and  that  of  its  successor,  the  News  Chronicle,  until  his  death. 
He  contributed  essays  to  the  New  Statesman  for  many  years,  over 
the  signature  "  Y.Y.  '  In  1946  Lynd  received  an  honorary  doctorate 
of  letters  from  his  old  university  In  his  earlier  work  were  anecdotal 
volumes  on  Ireland,  afterwards  succeeded  by  works  of  literary 
criticism  such  as  The  Art  of  Letters  (1921)  and  Dr.  Johnson  and 
Company  (1928)  and  volumes  of  graceful,  perceptive  essays,  notable 
among  which  were  The  Pleasures  of  Ignorance  (1921),  Life's  Little 
Oddities  (1941)  and,  his  last,  Things  One  Hears  (1945). 

MacDougall,  Sir  Raibeart  Maclntyre,  British  civil  servant  in  Burma 
(b.  April  30,  1892— d.  Worthing,  Sussex,  Nov.  2),  entered  the  Indian 
civil  service  in  1915  and  served  in  Burma.  From  1941  to  1947  he 
was  counsellor  to  the  governor  of  Burma. 

Mackenzie,  Ian  Alistair,  Canadian  lawyer  and  politician  (b.  Assynt, 
Scotland,  July  27,  1890  -d.  Banff,  Alberta,  Sept.  2),  was  a  member 
of  the  British  Columbia  legislative  assembly,  1920-30,  a  member  of 
the  Federal  House  of  Commons,  1930-48,  and  a  senator  from  1948. 
He  was  minister  of  immigration,  1930-35,  minister  of  national 
defence,  1935-39,  minister  of  pensions  and  national  health,  1939-44, 
and  minister  of  veterans'  affairs,  1944-48 

McMahon,  Sir  (Arthur)  Henry,  British  diplomat  (b.  Nov.  28,  1862— 
d.  London,  Dec.  29),  joined  the  Indian  political  department  in  1890. 
He  was  foreign  secretary  to  the  government  of  India,  1911-14,  and 
was  first  high  commissioner  in  Egypt,  1914-*16  From  1920  to  1925 
he  was  chairman  of  the  management  committee  and  a  member  of 
the  board  of  the  British  Empire  exhibition  at  Wembley,  and  from 
1928  to  1947  was  president  of  the  Y.M.C.A  national  council. 

McMurray,  Thomas  Porter,  British  surgeon  (b  Belfast,  Dec  5,  1887 — 
d  Nov.  16),  was  for  many  years  until  1948  professor  of  orthopaedic 
surgery  at  Liverpool  university.  He  had  been  president  of  the 
British  Orthopaedic  association  and  when  he  died  was  president-elect 
of  the  British  Medical  association. 

McMurtrie,  Irancis  Edwin,  British  naval  journalist  (b.  London,  April  8, 
1884 — d.  Hoddesdon,  Hertfordshire,  Feb  22),  became  associated 
with  Jane's  Fighting  Ships  in  1904,  and  from  1923  was  its  editor. 
Was  naval  correspondent  to  Daily  News  and  News  Chronicle  (1928- 
40),  Daily  Telegraph  (1940-42),  and  later  to  Sunday  Expre**. 

Maeterlinck,  Count  Maurice  Polydore  Marie  Bernard,  Belgian  writer 
(b.  Ghent,  Belgium,  Aug.  29,  1862 — d  Nice,  France,  May  6),  was 


478 


OBITUARIES 


educated  at  the  Samte-Barbe  Jesuit  college  and  at  Ghent  university 
where  he  met  Fmile  Verhaeren  Though  his  inclinations  were  literary 
he  studied  law  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1886  But  he  soon  found 
that  he  was  not  a  success  as  a  barrister  and  he  gave  up  the  law  for 
literature  From  1889  until  1901,  when  La  Vie  de\  abeilles  appeared, 
he  wrote  a  book  of  poems  and  several  plays  ol  which  Pelleas  er 
Melisande  was  the  most  successful  These  early  works  were  full  of 
mysticism  and  fantasy  but  la  Sa%e\\e  et  la  destinee  (1898)  had  a 
more  perceptible  philosophy  He  left  Belgium  in  1896  for  Pans 
and  then  moved  to  an  old,  disused  Norman  abbey  near  Rouen  where 
he  lived  for  10  years  His  greatest  success  I  he  Blue  Bint  (published 
in  English  1909)  was  first  performed  at  the  Moscow  Art  Theatre  in 
1908  In  1911  Maeterlinck  was  awarded  the  Nobel  Prize  tor  I  iterature 
At  this  time  he  was  also  ottered  membership  of  the  Academic 
Francaise  During  World  War  I  he  lectured  in  support  of  the  Allied 
cause  in  Italy  and  Spain  After  the  war  he  marred  Renee  Dahon 
and  settled  in  Nice  He  travelled  widely  and  worked  hard  Horn 
1939-47  he  was  in  the  United  States  but  he  icturned  to  Trance  two 
years  before  his  death  (See  also  hmvLlopmdia  Britannic  a) 

Maitland,  Sir  Adam,  British  politician  (b  Bury,  Lancashire,  May  25, 
1885-  d  Henley-on-1  names,  Oxfordshire,  Oct  5),  was  M  P  for 
Faversham  1928-45  He  was  a  director  ot  the  Royal  Fxchange 
Assurance  and  chairman  of  the  Pall  Mall  Gazette  and  Globe 

Malvy,  Louis-Jean,  French  politician  (b  Figeac,  France,  Dec  1  1875 
— d.  Pans,  June  9),  entered  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1906  as  a 
Radical  and,  in  June  1914,  became  minister  of  the  interior  He  acquired 
notoriety  during  World  War  1  when  Georges  Clemenceau  on  July 
22,  1917,  charged  him  with  laxity  in  dealing  with  defeatists  and 
revolutionaries  Following  his  resignation  on  Aug  31,  1917,  he  was 
accused  of  treason  and  on  Aug  6,  1918,  was  found  guilty  of  culpable 
negligence  Sentenced  to  five  years'  banishment,  he  passed  the  time 
in  Spain  In  1924  he  was  re-elected  a  deputy  and  two  years  later 
he  became  again,  lor  a  few  weeks,  minister  of  the  interior  in  an 
Anstide  Briand  cabinet  (See  also  Encviloptrdia  Britannua) 

Marchant,  Sir  Stanley  Robert,  British  professor  of  music  (b  London, 
May  15,  1883  d  London,  Feb  28),  was  educated  at  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Music  He  was  organist  at  Kcmsmg  parish  church, 
Kent,  1899-1901,  Christ  church,  Newgate  street,  190V 191 3,  St 
Peter's,  Faton  square,  1911-1921,  and  St  Paul's  cathedial,  first  as 
sub-organist  and  from  1927  as  organist  In  1913  he  became  a  professoi 
at  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music  and  from  1936  until  his  death  was 
principal  of  the  academy  In  1937  he  was  appointed  King  Ldward 
professor  of  music  at  the  University  of  London — a  position  from 
which  he  retired  in  1948  In  addition  to  these  posts  he  was  a  member 
of  many  bodies  concerned  with  music  and  the  arts  He  was  president 
of  the  Royal  College  of  Organists,  1930-32 

Marriot,  George  Moore,  Bntish  actor  (b  West  Drayton,  Middlesex, 
1885 — d  Bognor  Regis,  Sussex,  Dec  11),  appeared  in  more  than 
300  films  and  was  best  known  by  his  comic  character  studies  of  a 
very  old  man  in  films  with  Will  Hay  and  Graham  MotTatt,  which 
included  Windbag  the  Sailor,  Oil,  Mr  Porter',  Ask  a  Polueman  and 
Old  Bones  oj  the  River  He  took  an  energetic  part  in  local  affairs  and 
in  1943  was  elected  to  the  Daventry  Rural  District  council 

Marshall,  Francis  Hugh  Adam,  British  agricultural  physiologist  and 
fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  (b  High  Wycombe,  July  11,  1878  — 
d  Cambridge,  Feb.  5),  was  lecturer  on  the  physiology  of  reproduction, 
Edinburgh  (1905-8),  lecturer  on  agricultural  physiology  (1908-19) 
and  reader  (1919-43)  at  Cambridge,  and  vice  master  of  Christ's 
college,  Cambridge  (1939-42)  His  most  famous  work  was  Vhe 
PhvMologv  oj  Reptodmtion  (1910,  3rd  ed  1948) 

Martin,  John,  South  Afncan  mining  and  newspaper  director  (b  Stirling, 
Scotland,  April  19,  1884 — d.  Johannesburg,  March  28),  was  a 
director  of  the  Bank  of  England,  1936-46,  and  chairman  of  the  Argus 
newspaper  group  of  South  Africa 

Matsudaira,  Tsunco,  Japanese  diplomat  (b  Tokyo,  April  17,  1877  — 
d  Tokyo,  Nov  14),  was  ambassador  to  the  United  States  1925-28, 
and  ambassador  to  Great  Britain,  1929-36  From  1936  to  1945  he 
was  minister  of  the  Imperial  household  and  after  the  1947  elections 
was  elected  president  of  the  House  of  Councillors 

Melchett,  Henry  Ludwig  Mond,  2nd  Baron,  of  Landford,  British 
business-man  and  politician  (b  May  10,  1898 — d  Miami,  Florida, 
Jan  22),  was  M  P  for  Fly,  1923-1924,  and  for  H  Toxteth,  Liverpool, 
1929-30,  deputy  chairman,  Imperial  Chemical  Industries,  1940-47, 
and  a  director  of  Barclays  Bank. 

Mitchell,  Margaret  (Mrs  John  R  Marsh),  U  S  author  (b  Atlanta, 
Georgia,  19()0>—  d  Atlanta,  Aug  16),  was  educated  at  Smith 
college,  Northampton,  Massachusetts,  and  from  1922  to  1926  worked 
on  the  Atlanta  Journal  Her  novel  about  the  American  Civil  War, 
Gone  With  the  Wind,  which  she  began  m  1930,  was  published  in 
1936  and  immediately  became  one  of  the  most  popular  books  of 
all  time  By  1949  more  than  8  million  copies  had  been  sold  in  40 
countries  and  30  languages.  In  1937  she  was  awarded  a  Pulitzer 
prize  for  the  novel 

Molony,  Sir  Thomas  Francis,  1st  Baronet,  Irish  lawyer  (b  Dublin, 
Jan  31,  1865 — d  London,  Sept  3),  was  called  to  the  Irish  bar  in 
1887  and  took  silk  in  1899  He  was  solicitor  general  for  Ireland, 
1912-13,  and  for  one  month  in  1913  was  attorney  general  He  was 
a  judge  of  the  King's  bench,  1913-15,  a  lord  justice  of  appeal,  1915-18, 
and  lord  chief  justice  of  Ireland,  1918-24. 

MoncriefT,  Lord,  Alexander  Moncricff,  Scottish  attorney  (b.  Aug  14, 
1870— d  Edinburgh,  Aug  5),  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1894,  and 
became  a  K  C.  Scotland,  1912  Fie  was  a  senator  of  the  College 
of  Justice  in  Scotland,  1926-47,  and  was  Lord  Justice  Clerk  of 
Scotland,  Feb. -Oct  1947 

Morgan,  Frank  (Francis  Philip  Wupperntann),  United  States  actor 
(b.  New  York,  June  1,  1890— d  Beverly  Hills,  California,  Sept  18), 
began  acting  in  1914.  As  the  Duke  of  Florence  in  The  Firebrand,  in 
1924,  he  became  firmly  established,  and  the  title  role  of  Topaze  (1930), 


brought  him  to  the  attention  of  Hollywood      He  appeared  in  scores 
of  films,  mostly  in  comedy  roles 

Munthe,  Axel  Martin  Fredrik,  Swedish  physician  and  author  (b  Oskars- 
hamn,  Sweden,  Oct  31,  1857 — d  Stockholm,  Feb  11),  was  educated 
at  the  University  of  Uppsala;  he  later  worked  for  some  time  under 
Jean  Charcot  at  the  Salpetnere  in  Paris  After  quarrelling  with 
Charcot  and  leaving  the  Salpetnere  he  conducted  fashionable 
medical  practices  first  in  Pans  and  then  in  Rome,  where  he  lived 
in  some  style  in  Keats's  house  He  built  his  villa  of  San  Michele  on 
the  highest  point  of  the  island  of  Capri  and  cieated  a  bird  sanctuary 
there  I  he  Sto/  \  of  SVj/j  Muhele,  the  memoirs  of  a  life  full  ol  incident, 
was  written  in  English  and  published  in  1929,  It  had  an  outstanding 
success  and  was  later  translated  into  almost  every  literal y  tongue 
He  spent  his  last  years  as  a  guest  of  the  king  of  Sweden  in  the  Royal 
palace  in  Stockholm 

Murphy,  Frank,  US  lawyer  (b  Haibor  beach,  Michigan,  April  13, 
1890  d  Detroit,  Michigan,  July  19),  graduated  in  law  from  the 
University  of  Michigan  in  1914  He  served  as  judge  of  the  Detroit 
recoufer's  court  192^-30,  mayor  of  Detroit  19W-33,  governor 
general  ot  the  Philippines,  1933-35,  and,  when  the  Plvlippmes 
became  a  commonwealth  toi  a  ten-year  trial  period  on  Nov.  15, 
1915,  first  high  commissioner  In  1916  he  was  elected  governor  ol 
Michigan  In  Jan  1939,  President  Franklin  D  Roosevelt  nominated 
him  U  S  attorney  general  and  in  1940  appointed  him  to  the  U  S 
supreme  court  (See  also  Em  \tfapardia  Bntannica  ) 

Myers,  Torn,  British  politician  (b  Feb  15,  1872  d  Dewsbury,  York- 
shire, Dec  21),  deleated  Sir  John  Simon  m  a  by-election  for  the  Spen 
Valley  division  in  1920,  and  sat  in  the  House  of  Commons  until 
1922.  He  was  mayor  ot  Dewsbury,  1940-41 

Naidu,  Mrs.  Sarojini,  Indian  nationalist  leader,  poetess  and  oratoi 
(b  Hyderabad,  Feb  13,1879  d  Lucknow,  India,  March  2),  was  the 
eldest  child  of  Dr  Aghorenath  Chattopadhyay,  who  became  principal 
of  the  Ni/am's  college,  Hyderabad  She  matriculated  at  Madras 
when  only  12  and  in  1895  went  to  Fngland  and  studied  at  King's 
college,  I  ondon,  and  Ciirton  college,  Cambridge  Her  first  volume 
of  poems  I  he  Golden  Threshold  was  published  in  1905  and  shortly 
afterwards  her  second  volume  Fhe  Bird  of  lime  appeared  with  an 
introduction  by  Fdnuind  Gosse  In  1914  she  was  elected  a  fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  Liteiature  About  1915  she  met  Mahatma 
Gandhi  in  London,  and  from  that  time  devoted  her  life  to  work 
for  the  Indian  national  struggle  tor  independence  In  1925  she 
became  the  first  Indian  woman  to  preside  over  the  Indian  National 
Congress  She  accompanied  Gandhi  to  the  Round  Table  conference 
in  London  in  1931,  but  on  her  return  to  India  was  imprisoned  for 
her  part  in  the  civil  disobedience  movement  She  was  again  imprisoned 
m  1942  The  Asian  Relations  conference  of  1947  was  presided  over 
by  her,  and  in  the  same  year  after  the  advent  of  independence  she 
became  governor  of  the  United  Provinces,  a  post  she  held  until  her 
death  (See  also  Emydoptrdia  Brilanmca) 

Ncveu,  Ginette,  French  violinist  (b  Pans,  Aug  11,  1919  -d  (in  an 
air  crash]  Algarvia,  A/ores,  Oct  28),  made  her  first  public  appeaiance 
with  the  Colonne  orchestra  under  Gabriel  Pierne  at  the  Sorbonne 
at  the  age  of  seven  She  studied  at  the  Pans  Conservatoire  and  at  15 
won  the  Wiemawski  international  violin  competition  m  Warsaw 
Her  first  appearance  in  London  was  in  M.irch  1945  After  that  she 
often  played  in  Britain,  appearing  at  the  Fdmburgh  festival  m 
Aug  1949  and  three  weeks  before  her  death  with  the  London 
symphony  orchestra  and  the  Halle  orchestra  She  was  flying  to 
America  to  give  a  series  of  concerts  when  the  plane  in  which  she  was 
travelling  crashed  in  the  Azores 

Newberry,  Percy  Edward,  British-born  Egyptologist  (b  April  23,  1869 
d  Hascombe,  near  Godalming,  Surrey,  Au£  7),  was  educated  at 
King's  college,  London,  and  began  the  study  of  tgypt  in  1884.  In  1890 
he  became  officer  in  charge  of  the  Archaeological  Survey  of  Fgypt 
of  the  hgypt  Fxploration  fund  From  1895  to  1901  he  undertook  the 
survey  of  the  necropolis  at  Thebes,  and  then  served  on  the  staff  of 
the  Catalogue  General  of  the  Services  des  Antiquites  ot  the  Cairo 
museum  He  was  Brunner  professor  of  hgyptology  in  the  University 
of  Liverpool,  1906-19,  and  from  1929  to  1933  professor  of  ancient 
Fgyptian  history  and  archaeology  in  the  University  of  Fgypt,  Cairo 
He  was  a  member  ol  the  group  under  Howard  Carter  which  in  1922 
discovered  the  tomb  of  Tutankhamen,  and  five  years  later  explored 
the  Gebel  hlba  region  of  the  Red  sea  province  of  the  Sudan 

Newton,  Sir  (Hibbert)  Alan  Stephen,  Australian  surgeon  (b  Victoria, 
April  30,  1887-  d  Melbourne,  Aug  4),  graduated  from  the  University 
of  Melbourne  in  1909  At  the  age  of  26  he  joined  the  surgical  staff 
of  the  Royal  Melbourne  hospital,  and  at  the  time  ot  his  death  was 
its  consulting  surgeon  He  was  a  foundation  fellow  and  later  president 
of  the  Royal  Australasian  College  of  Surgeons 

Nicholson,  Sir  Charles  Archibald,  2nd  baronet,  British  church  architect 
(b  April  27,  1867— d  Headington,  OKfbrdshire,  March  4),  was 
consulting  architect  for  Wells,  Lichfield,  Llandaff,  Portsmouth, 
Sheffield  and  Belfast  cathedrals  Besides  planning  works  of  recon- 
struction, he  also  designed  many  churches  and  secular  buildings 

Nicholson,  Sir  William  New^airt  Prior,  British  painter  (b.  Newark-on- 
Trent,  1872— d  Blewbury,  Berkshire,  May  16)  Fxlucated  at  the 
Magnus  school,  Newark-on-Trent,  he  studied  in  London  and  Pans. 
He  attracted  considerable  attention  when,  together  with  his  brother- 
in-law  James  Pryde,  he  produced  a  series  of  posters  under  the 
pseudonym  of  the  Bcggarstaff  Brothers.  Although  he  also  designed 
woodcuts  and  stained  glass,  he  is  probably  best  known  lor  his  por- 
traits in  oils,  which  include  those  of  W.  E.  Henley  and  J.  C.  Smuts. 
He  was  knighted  in  1936,  and  an  exhibition  of  his  work  was  held 
in  the  National  gallery,  London,  m  1942.  Examples  of  his  work 
are  to  be  found  in  the  Tate  gallery,  London,  of  which  he  was  a  trustee 
1934-39,  and  also  in  the  Fitzwilliam  museum,  Cambridge,  the 
Luxembourg  palace,  Paris,  and  several  British  municipal  galleries 

Ogilvie,  Sir  Frederick  Wolff,  British  scholar  and  public  servant  (b. 


Osnuii  Diversity  Library, 

HYDERABAD  (DECCAN). 


OBITUARIES 


479 


Douglas  Hyde. 


Viscount  Leverhulme. 


Marquess  of  Londonderry. 


Lord  Rushctiffe. 


Feb.  7,  1893  —  d.  London,  June  10),  was  educated  at  Clifton  college 
and  Balliol  college,  Oxford.  He  served  in  the  Bedfordshire  regiment 
in  World  War  I  when  he  was  seriously  injured,  losing  his  left  arm. 
He  returned  to  Oxford  in  1919  and  in  1920  became  lecturer  in 
economics  at  Trinity  college;  in  1926  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  political  economy  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh.  He  was  presi- 
dent and  vice-chancellor  of  Queen's  university,  Belfast,  from  1934 
until  1938,  when  he  succeeded  Sir  John  (later  Lord)  Reith  as  director 
general  of  the  British  Broadcasting  corporation.  He  took  over  at  a 
difficult  time  and  was  responsible  for  re-shaping  the  B.B.C.  into  a 
valuable  part  of  Britain's  war  effort.  He  resigned  in  1942  and  for  a 
time  served  on  the  staff  of  the  British  Council.  From  1944  until  his 
death  he  was  principal  of  Jesus  college,  Oxford. 

Ollard,  Sidney  Leslie,  British  ecclesiastical  historian  (b.  1875  —  d. 
Datchet,  Buckinghamshire,  Feb.  28),  was  ordained  in  1899.  He  was 
later  rector  of  Dunsfold,  1914-15,  rector  of  Bainton,  1915-36,  and 
prebendary  of  York  Minster,  1935-36.  He  edited  the  Dictionary  of 
English  Church  History  (2nd  cd.  1919)  and  Wakemans  History  of 
the  Church  of  England  (llth  ed.  1926)  and  his  writings  included 
The  Oxford  Movement  (1909)  and  The  Anglo-Catholic  Revival  (1925). 

Page,  Sir  Archibald,  British  electrical  engineer  (b.  Alloa,  Scotland, 
1875  —  d.  Sanderstead,  Surrey,  March,  7),  was  general  manager, 
Clyde  Valley  Electric  Power  company,  1917-20,  and  electricity 
commissioner,  1920-25,  and  chairman,  Central  Electricity  board, 
1935-44,  He  played  a  leading  part  in  the  installation  of  the  grid 
system  throughout  Great  Britain. 

Pares,  Sir  Bernard,  student  of  Russian  history  and  the  Russian  language 
(b.  March  1,  1867  —  d.  New  York,  April  17),  was  educated  at  Harrow 
and  Trinity  college,  Cambridge.  He  had  a  knowledge,  unrivalled 
in  his  own  country,  of  pre-revolutionary  Russia  which  he  visited  for 
the  first  time  in  1898.  On  his  second  visit,  in  1906,  Pares  met  many 
of  the  important  figures  of  the  second  Duma  which  was  at  that  time 
meeting  in  St.  Petersburg  and  his  book  Russia  and  Reform  (1907) 
was  the  fruit  of  his  experiences.  In  1906  he  had  been  appointed 
reader  in  Russian  history  and  from  1908  to  1917  he  was  professor 


of  Russian  history,  language  and  literature  in  the  university  of  Liver- 
pool. During  World  War  I  he  was  attached  to  the  Russian  army 
as  official  observer  and  in  1917  he  joined  the  staff  of  the  British 


pool.     During 
as  official  obse 

ambassador  in  Petrograd.  In  1919  he  was  appointed  to  a  chair  of 
Russian  at  London  university  and  three  years  later  he  became,  in 
addition,  the  first  director  of  the  School  of  Slavonic  and  East  Euro- 
pean studies.  In  1926  his  distinguished  verse  translation  of  Krylov's 
fables  appeared.  During  World  War  II  he  lectured  in  the  U.S.A. 
for  the  British  Ministry  of  Information  and  his  book  Russia  in  the 
Penguin  series  enjoyed  wide  sales  in  both  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States.  Several  visits  io  Soviet  Russia  had  made  him  critical 
of  the  regime,  which  he  saw  in  his  My  Russian  Memoirs  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  pre-revolutionary  Liberals,  but  in  1936  he  visited 
Russia  once  more  and  recorded  in  Moscow  Admits  a  Critic  opinions 
which  were  not  unfavourable  to  it. 

Peel,  Albert,  Congregational  minister  and  writer  (b.  Gomersal,  near 
Leeds,  March  20,  1887  -d.  Glasgow,  Nov.  3),  was  editor  of  the 
Congregational  Quarterly  and  of  the  Transactions  of  the  Congrega- 
tional Historical  Society,'  1922-45.  He  was  the  author  of  many  books, 
and  in  1940-41  was  chairman  of  the  Congregational  Union  of 
England  and  Wales. 

Pender,  John  Cuthhert  Denison  Denison-  Fender,  1st  Baron,  of  Porth- 
curnow,  Cornwall,  British  business-man  and  politician  (b.  May  11, 
1882—  d.  London  Dec.  4).  was  M.P.  for  Newmarket,  1913-18,  and 
for  Balham  and  Tooting,  1918-22.  He  was  joint  president,  Marconi 
International  Marine  Communication  company,  governor  and 
managing  director,  Cable  and  Wireless  (Holding),  Ltd.,  and  a 
director  of  Cable  and  Wireless.  He  was  created  a  baron  in  1937. 

Pickard,  Sir  Robert  Howson,  British  chemist  (b.  Birmingham,  1874  — 
d.  Headley,  Surrey,  Oct.  18),  was  principal,  Blackburn  Technical 
college,  1907-19;  principal,  Battersea  polytechnic,  1920-27,  and 
director  of  the  British  Cotton  Industry  Research  association,  1927-43. 
He  was  vice-chancellor  of  London  university,  1937-39. 

Pope-Hennessy,  Dame  Una  Constance,  British  author  (b.  1876  —  d. 
London,  Aug.  16),  who  in  her  later  years  wrote  many  literary  and 
historical  biographies.  Her  first  book  was  Early  Chinese  Jades 
(1923)  and  six  years  later  she  published  Three  English  Women  in 
America,  Her  biographies  included  works  on  Sir  Walter  Scott  (1932), 
Edgar  Allan  Poe  (1934),  Agnes  Strickland  (1940),  Charles  Dickens 


(1945)  and  Charles  Kingslcy  (1948).  During  World  War  I  she  was  a 
member  of  the  central  prisoners  of  war  committee  of  the  British 
Red  Cross,  and  in  1920  was  created  a  Dame  of  the  British  Empire. 

Portal,  Wyndham  Raymond  Portal,  1st  Viscount,  of  Lavcrstoke,  British 
business-man  and  politician  (b.  April  9,  1885 — d.  Whitchurch, 
Hampshire,  May  6),  was  educated  at  Eton  college  and  Christ  Church, 
Oxford,  and  in  1905  joined  the  Life  Guards.  He  was  placed  on  the 
reserve  in  1911,  but  returned  to  serve  in  World  War  1  and  in  1918 
was  awarded  the  D.S.O.  Appointed  a  justice  of  the  peace  in  1912 
and  a  deputy  lieutenant  of  the  county  of  Southampton  in  1924,  he 
became  lord  lieutenant  in  1948  in  succession  to  Lord  Mottistone. 
In  1934  he  was  one  of  the  four  commissioners  appointed  by  the 
government  to  report  on  the  distressed  areas  (later  renamed  **  develop- 
ment areas  ")  and  his  part  of  the  work  was  mainly  concerned  with 
south  Wales.  At  the  outbreak  of  World  War  II  he  was  appointed 
regional  commissioner  for  Wales.  In  Dec.  1939  he  resigned  and  early 
in  1940  became  chairman  of  the  Coal  Production  council  and  addition- 
al parliamentary  secretary  to  the  Ministry  of  Supply.  In  1942-44 
when  minister  of  works  and  planning,  he  introduced  the  **  Portal  '* 
prefabricated  house.  He  then  returned  to  his  business  interests  and 
became  chairman  of  the  Great  Western  railway  until  it  was  taken 
over  by  the  British  Transport  commission  on  Jan.  1.  1948.  He 
was  a  keen  sportsman,  being  president  of  the  British  Olympic 
association  from  1936;  the  14th  Olympic  Games  1948,  were  held 
under  his  presidency. 

Purvcs-Stewart,  Sir  James,  British  neurologist  (b.  Nov.  20,  1869— 
d.  London,  June  14),  studied  at  Edinburgh  university  and  was  later 
consulting  physician  to  the  Westminster  hospital,  to  the  West  End 
Hospital  for  Nervous  Diseases,  and  physician  to  the  Royal  National 
Orthopaedic  hospital.  Author  of  many  textbooks  including  Diagnosis 
of  Nervous  Diseases  (10th  ed.  1948),  Nerve  Injuries  and  their  Treat- 
ment (2nd  ed.  1919),  and  an  autobiography  Sands  of  Time  (1939). 

Quccnborough,  Almeric  Hugh  Paget,  1st  Baron,  of  Queenborough, 
Kent,  British  politician  (b.  March  14,  1861 — d.  Camfield  place,  near 
Hatfield,  Hertfordshire,  Sept.  22),  was  a  Unionist  M.P.  1910-17. 

Radbruch,  Gustav  Lambert,  German  politician  and  lawyer  (b.  Liibeck. 
Nov.  21,  1878- d.  Heidelberg,  Dec.  29?),  was  minister  of  justice, 
1921-22  and  1923,  and  professor  of  criminal  law  at  Heidelberg, 
1926-33  and  1945-48. 

Rajk  (Reich),  Las/16,  Hungarian  politician  (b.  Szekely-Udvarhely 
[Odorhei],  Transylvania,  1909  — d.  Budapest,  Oct.  15).  As  a  student 
at  Budapest  university  he  joined  the  illegal  Communist  party  in  1930 
and  was  arrested  the  following  year.  In  1936  he  fought  in  the  Spanish 
civil  war  and  early  in  1939  was  interned  in  France.  In  1941  the  Germans 
allowed  him  to  return  to  Hungary,  where  he  was  arrested  and  sen- 
tenced to  a  short  term  of  imprisonment.  In  Oct.  1944  he  was  again 
arrested  but,  freed  after  World  War  II,  became  influential  in  the 
re-organized  Hungarian  Workers'  (Communist)  party.  He  was 
minister  of  the  interior  from  Feb.  1946  until  he  became  minister  of 
foreign  affairs  in  Dec.  1948.  On  Feb.  1,  1949,  he  was  appointed 
secretary  general  of  the  re-organized  People's  Independence  front. 
He  was  arrested  on  May  16,  after  the  elections,  and  on  Sept.  10  his 
indictment  was  published  in  which  he  was  accused  of  plotting  to 
murder  Matyas  Rakosi  and  four  other  Communist  leaders,  and  of 
spying  for  Marshal  Tito  and  the  U.S.  military  intelligence.  It  was 
also  alleged  that  from  1931  he  had  been  a  Hungarian  police  agent. 
At  his  trial,  which  opened  on  Sept.  16,  Rajk  confessed  to  all  the 
crimes  of  which  he  was  accused,  and  he  was  hanged  on  Oct.  15. 

Rankeillour,  James  Fitzalan  Hope,  1st  Baron,  of  Buxtcd,  Sussex,  British 
parliamentarian  (b.  Dec.  11,  1870 — d.  London,  Feb.  14),  was  elected 
M.P.  in  1900  for  Brightside  division,  Sheffield,  and  from  1908  to 
1929  sat  for  the  central  division.  He  was  chairman  of  committees 
and  deputy  speaker,  1921 -Feb.  1924,  and  Dec.  1924-29. 

Raza,  Ali,  Sir  Syed,  Indian  statesman  (b.  Kundarki,  Moradabad, 
April  29,  1882— d.  Karachi,  Pakistan,  Aug.  15),  was  a  member  of 
the  United  Provinces  legislative  council,  1912-20.  and  a  member  of 
the  Council  of  State,  1921-26.  He  was  agent  general  for  the  eovern- 
ment  of  India  in  South  Africa,  1935-38. 

Read,  Sir  Herbert  James,  British  colonial  administrator  (b.  March  17, 
1863— d.  Oct.  17),  entered  the  Colonial  Office  in  1889  and  for  more 
than  40  years  worked  in  the  interest  of  the  colonies.  He  was  one  of 
the  first  to  see  the  bearing  of  the  study  of  tropical  medicine  on 
colonial  administration.  He  was  governor  of  Mauritius,  1924-30. 

Reynolds,  John  Henry,  British  astronomer  (b.  Edgbaston,  Birmingham* 


480 


OBITUARIES 


June  27,  1874 — d.  Birmingham,  Nov.  22),  was  elected  a  fellow  of 
the  Royal  Astronomical  society,  1899,  and  was  president  of  the 
society,  1935-36,  and  treasurer,  1929-35  and  1937-45. 

Rintelen,  Franz  von,  German  naval  officer  and  spy  (b.  Germany,  1884 
— d.  London,  May  30),  was  on  the  staff  of  the  German  admiralty 
when  World  War  I  broke  out.  He  was  sent  to  the  United  States  to 
sabotage  the  dispatch  of  munitions  to  the  Allies  and  was  so  successful 
that  the  British  authorities  determined  to  remove  him.  In  1915  a 
false  message  of  recall  caused  Captain  von  Rintelen  to  cross  the 
Atlantic  and  he  was  arrested  on  his  way  back  to  Germany  when 
the  Dutch  ship  in  which  he  was  travelling  was  in  British  waters.  He 
was  interned  until  the  entry  of  the  U.S.  into  the  war  when  he  was 
sent  to  America  and  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  espionage 
activities.  He  was  pardoned  by  President  Woodrow  Wilson  in  1920 
and  later  settled  in  England,  publishing  two  books  of  reminiscences, 
The  Dark  Invader  (1933)  and  The  Return  of  the  Dark  Invader  (1935). 

Ripley,  Robert  Leroy,  U.S.  cartoonist  (b.  Santa  Rosa,  California, 
Dec.  25,  1893 — d.  New  York,  May  27),  sold  his  first  drawing  to  the 
old  Life  maga/me  at  the  age  of  14  He  began  newspaper  work  on 
the  San  Francisco  Bulletin  in  1909,  transferred  to  the  San  Francisco 
Chronicle  and  in  1913  went  to  work  for  the  New  York  Evening  Globe. 
In  1918  he  produced  his  first  "  Believe  it  or  not "  cartoon  and  for 
31  years  continued  to  collect  oddities  which  were  published  under 
the  title  "  Believe  it  or  not."  He  left  the  Globe  for  the  New  York 
Evening  Post  and  continued  to  produce  cartoons  that  were  eventually 
syndicated  to  about  30  papers.  His  work  first  won  broad  national 
recognition  with  the  publication  of  the  first  **  Believe  it  or  not " 
book  in  1929.  Subsequently  his  drawings  were  syndicated  to  more 
than  300  newspapers  throughout  the  world.  He  also  developed 
motion-picture  short  subjects,  and  for  many  years  conducted  a 
radio  programme,  all  based  on  the  '*  Believe  it  or  not  "  theme. 

Robinson,  William  Albert,  British  politician  (b.  1877 — d.  Liverpool, 
Dec,  31),  was  Labour  M.P.  for  St  Helens,  Lancashire,  1935-45 

Rothschild,  Baron  Edouard-Alphonse-Janles  de,  French  banker  (b  Feb. 
24,  1868 — d.  June  30),  was  the  head  of  the  French  branch  of  the 
Rothschild  family.  He  was  a  regent  of  the  Bank  of  France,  president 
of  the  Rothschild  Brothers  bank,  and  president  of  the  Compagnie 
du  Chemm  de  fer  du  Nord.  He  owned  the  largest  racing  stables  in 
France  and  was  one  of  the  most  prominent  figures  of  the  French 
turf.  In  1926  he  played  an  important  part  with  Raymond  Pomcare 
in  stabilizing  the  franc.  During  World  War  11  he  was  deprived  of  his 
French  nationality  by  the  anti-semitic  laws  of  the  Vichy  government 
and  in  1940  went  to  live  in  the  United  States  until  the  liberation  of 
France,  when  he  returned  to  his  country. 

Runciman  of  Doxford,  Walter  Runciman,  1st  Viscount,  British  politician 
(b.  South  Shields,  Nov.  19,  1870— d.  Doxford,  Northumberland, 
Nov.  14),  was  educated  at  Trinity  college,  Cambridge.  In  1898  he 
unsuccessfully  contested  the  Gravesend  division  of  Kent  as  a  Liberal, 
and  in  1899  was  elected  for  Oldham  (defeating  Winston  Churchill). 
In  the  following  year  he  was  defeated  by  Churchill  in  the  general 
election,  he  again  sat  in  the  House  of  Commons  for  Dewsbury, 
1902-18,  for  Swansea,  west,  1924-29,  and  for  St.  Ives,  Cornwall, 
1929-37.  After  1931  he  sat  as  a  Liberal  National.  He  held  many 
posts  in  Liberal  governments,  his  first  being  parliamentary  secretary 
to  the  Local  Government  board,  1905-7.  He  was  financial  secretary 
to  the  Treasury,  1907-8,  president  of  the  Board  of  Education,  1908-1 1, 
and  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture,  1911-14.  He  was  president  of  the 
Board  of  Trade,  1914-16,  and  again  in  the  National  government, 
1931-37.  In  1937  he  was  created  a  viscount  and  in  the  following 
year  went  to  Czechoslovakia  as  head  of  a  mission  which  attempted 
to  persuade  the  Czechs  to  accept  the  claims  of  the  Sudeten  Germans. 
He  was  lord  president  of  the  council,  1938-39. 

RushclitTe,  Henry  Bucknall  Be  tier  ton,  1st  Baron,  of  Blackfordby, 
Leicestershire,  British  politician  (b.  Aug.  15,  1872 — d.  Scaford, 
Sussex,  Nov  18),  was  educated  at  Rugby  and  at  Christ  Church, 
Oxford,  and  in  1896  was  called  to  the  bar.  In  1918  he  was  elected 
Conservative  member  of  parliament  for  Rushchffe  and  continued  to 
represent  the  division  from  which  he  later  took  his  title  until  he  was 
created  a  peer  in  1935.  He  was  parliamentary  secretary  to  the 
Ministry  of  Labour,  1923-24,  and  Nov.  1924-29,  and  minister  of 
labour  from  1931  until  1934  when  he  became  the  first  chairman  of 
the  Assistance  board,  which  he  himself  had  set  up  as  minister  of 
labour.  He  retired  from  the  Assistance  board  in  1941,  and  later 
served  as  chairman  of  the  National  Service  Hostels  corporation, 
1941-46;  of  the  Land  Title  inquiry,  of  the  nursed  salaries  committee; 
and  in  1945  of  the  committee  on  legal  aid  and  legal  advice. 

Russell,  Sir  Walter  Westley,  British  landscape  and  figure  painter 
(b  Fpping,  Essex,  May  31,  1867— d  London,  April  16),  studied  at 
the  Westminster  School  of  Art  under  Professor  Frederick  Brown. 
He  was  elected  to  the  New  English  Art  club  in  1895,  an  A. R  A  in  1920, 
and  an  R  A.  in  1926 

Rust,  William,  British  Communist  leader  and  journalist  (b  1904— 
d.  London,  Feb.  3),  was  formerly  secretary  of  the  Young  Communist 
league  and  editor  of  the  Young  Worker,  1924.  In  1930  he  was  appoin- 
ted editor  of  the  Daily  Worker.  He  was  its  correspondent  in  Spam, 
1937-38,  and  continued  as  editor  until  his  death,  except  when  the 
paper  was  suspended  from  Jan  21.  1941,  to  Sept.  7,  1942. 

Rutter,  Sir  Frederick  William  Pascoc,  British  insurance  director 
(b.  June  28,  1859— d.  Kingston  Hill,  Surrey,  June  24),  joined  the 
London  and  Lancashire  Fire  Insurance  company  in  1873,  becoming 
general  manager  in  1899  and  governor  m  1921.  He  was  president 
of  the  Insurance  Institute  of  Great  Britain,  1910-11. 

Ryan,  Sir  Andrew,  British  diplomat  (b.  Nov.  5,  1876— d.  East  Bergholt, 
Suffolk,  Dec.  31),  was  consul  general  at  Rabat,  1924-30,  minister  to 
Saudi  Arabia,  1930-36.  and  minister  to  Albania,  1936-39. 

Sapru,  Sir  Tej  Bahadur,  Indian  lawyer  and  politician  (b.  Dec.  8,  1875 
— d.  Allahabad,  United  Provinces,  Jan.  20),  was  educated  at  Agra 
college,  Allahabad,  and  in  1896  became  an  advocate  of  the  high  court 


at  Allahabad.  (For  his  early  life  see  Encyclopaedia  Britannlca.)  He 
attended  the  Round  Table  conferences  m  London  in  1930,  1931 
and  1932.  In  1933  he  returned  to  London  to  confer  with  the  parlia- 
mentary committee  on  Indian  reforms  and  m  the  following  year  was 
made  a  privy  councillor.  During  World  War  II,  Sapru,  unlike  many 
Indian  politicians,  favoured  co-operation  with  Britain,  provided 
that  the  composition  of  the  viceroy's  executive  council  was  changed. 

Scott,  John  Russell,  British  newspaper  director  (b.  July  12,  1879 — 
d  Manchester,  April  5),  was  the  second  son  of  C.  P.  Scott,  editor  of 
the  Manchester  Guardian  (1872-1929),  and  succeeded  him  as  chair- 
man and  managing  director  of  The  Manchester  Guardian  and 
Evening  News,  Ltd  ,  in  1932.  In  1947  he  became  governing  director. 

Shephard,  Firth,  British  impresario  (b.  London,  April  27,  1891— 
d  London,  Jan.  3),  started  in  the  insurance  business  but  became  an 
entertainer  and  subsequently  a  London  theatrical  manager.  He 
produced  at  most  theatres  in  the  west  end  of  London  and  his  later 
successes  included  Arsenic  and  Old  Lace  and  life  With  Father. 

Short,  Walter  Campbell,  United  States  general  (b.  Fillmore,  Illinois, 
March  30,  1880— d.  Dallas,  Texas,  Sept.  3),  was  commissioned  a 
second  lieutenant  in  March  1902,  and  served  in  Mexico  in  1916  and 
in  France  in  1918.  He  was  commander  of  the  Hawaiian  department 
at  the  time  of  the  Japanese  attack  on  Pearl  Harbour,  Dec.  7.  1941. 
He  retired  from  the  army  on  Feb.  28,  1942.  In  Jan.  1942  a  committee 
headed  by  Justice  O.  W.  Roberts  reported  that  the  success  of  the 
Pearl  Harbour  attack  was  largely  due  to  the  failure  of  General  Short 
and  Admiral  H.  E.  Kimmcl  to  take  adequate  action.  Later  a  congres- 
sional inquiry  found  that  they  were  not  guilty  of  "  dereliction  of 
duty  "  but  of  **  errors  of  judgment  " 

Skirmunt,  Konstanty,  Polish  politician  and  diplomat  (b.  Molod6w, 
near  Pmsk,  Aug.  30,  1866-d.  Sobiecm,  near  Walbrzych,  Silesia, 
July  24).  Educated  at  the  University  of  St.  Petersburg  (Leningrad), 
he  was  an  active  member  of  the  Polish  Realist  (Conservative)  party, 
and  an  elected  member  of  the  Russian  Council  of  State  (Upper 
Chamber)  1909-17.  On  the  restoration  of  Poland  he  was  appointed 
first  Polish  minister  to  Italy  and  was  minister  of  foreign  affairs 
1921-22  He  was  Polish  minister  in  London  from  1922  and  ambassa- 
dor 1929-34.  After  his  retirement  from  public  service  he  lived  in  the 
family  manor  where  he  was  born.  (His  death  was  erroneously 
announced  in  the  press  in  Oct.  1939). 

Smith,  Herbert  Maynard,  British  theologian  and  historian  (b.  1869 — 
d  Shrewsbury,  Jan  6),  was  ordained  in  1893  and  from  1921  to  1946 
was  canon  residentiary  of  Gloucester.  His  works  included  John 
Evelyn  in  Naples  (1910),  Early  Life  and  Education  of  John  Evelyn 
(1920),  Pre- Reformation  England  (1938)  and  Henry  VIII  and  the 
Reformation  (1948).  He  was  editor,  Church  Quarterly  Review,  1926-31. 

Smithers,  Alfred,  (Alfred  Drayton),  British  actor  (b  Brighton,  Sussex, 
Nov  1,  1881 — d.  London,  April  26),  played  his  first  professional 
part  in  The  Beloved  Vagabond  in  Cardiff  in  1908.  From  1936  he 
partnered  Robertson  Hare  in  many  farces. 

Smythe,  Francis  Sydney,  British  mountaineer  (b.  Maidstone,  Kent, 
July  6,  1900  — d  Colgate,  Sussex,  June  27),  was  educated  at  Berk- 
hampsted  school  and  in  1919  entered  Faraday  House  Engineering 
college.  He  made  his  first  visit  to  the  Himalayas  in  1930  as  a  member 
of  the  International  Kanchenianga  expedition  led  by  Dr.  G  O, 
Dyhrenfurth,  and  in  1931  he  led  a  small  party  of  British  climbers 
which  succeeded  in  reaching  the  top  of  Kamet  (25,477  ft ).  Smythe 
made  three  attempts  on  Everest  in  1933,  1936  and  1938,  and  in  the 
first  of  these  he  was  one  of  three  men  who  reached  28,000  ft. — 
the  highest  point  from  which  any  climber  has  returned  safely. 
During  World  War  II  he  helped  to  train  troops  m  mountain  warfare. 
New  fields  were  explored  when  in  1946  and  1947  he  took  part  in 
expeditions  in  the  Canadian  Rockies.  His  1947  expedition  in  the 
Lloyd  George  range  was  undertaken  by  the  use  of  aircraft  to  reach 
the  heart  of  the  range  He  became  widely  known  through  his  many 
books  and  photographs  on  mountaineering  subjects.  Most  of  his 
expeditions  were  followed  by  full  length  records  by  which  he  com- 
municated his  enjoyment  of  mountains  to  a  wide  public. 

Somerville,  Edith  Anna  OEnonc,  Irish  artist  and  authoress  (b  Corfu, 
1858?— d  Castle  Townshend,  County  Cork,  Oct.  8),  studied  art  in 
Pans  and  at  the  Royal  Westminster  School  of  Art  in  London,  and 
soon  became  a  successful  painter  in  oils  and  also  an  illustrator  to 
many  of  her  own  books,  but  her  cousin,  Violet  Martin,  of  Ross, 
encouraged  her  to  develop  her  literary  gifts.  Their  most  famous 
book,  Some  Experiences  of  an  Irish  R.M.  (1899),  was  on  a  plane  of 
comedy  not  attained  by  an  Irish  writer  before  or  since.  Other  joint 
works  included  The  Real  Charlotte  (1 894),  Dan  Ru&sel,  the  Fox  (1911) 
and  In  Mr.  Knox's  Country  (1915).  The  partnership  ended  in  1915 
with  the  death  of  Violet  Martin,  who  wrote  under  the  name  of 
Martin  Ross  Miss  Somerville  continued  to  write  books  on  Irish 
life  and  foxhunting  which  were  read  by  a  very  large  public.  She  was 
one  of  the  original  members  of  the  Irish  Academy  of  Letters,  receiving 
its  Gregory  medal  in  1914,  and  was  a  master  01  foxhounds,  1912-19. 

Somerville,  Sir  James  Fownes,  British  admiral  of  the  fleet  (b.  Somerset, 
July  17,  1882— d  Wells,  Somerset,  March  19),  became  a  commander 
during  World  War  [,  receiving  the  Distinguished  Service  Order  for 
his  work  as  fleet  wireless  officer  at  the  Dardanelles  By  1937  he  was 
a  vice  admiral  and  in  1938  he  became  commander  in  chief,  East 
Indies;  in  April,  1939,  he  was  invalided  home  with  a  lung  infection. 
After  special  treatment  he  returned  to  the  Admiralty  for  duties  in 
connection  with  the  development  of  radar  in  which  he  was  a  specialist. 
During  the  evacuation  from  Dunkirk  he  helped  Vice  Admiral  Bertram 
Ramsay  Shortly  afterwards  a  special  task  force,  Force  H,  was 
formed,  with  Somerville  in  command  This  force  led  the  action 
against  the  French  fleet  at  Oran.  In  1942  Somerville  was  in  charge  of 
the  British  fleet  in  the  Far  East,  and  from  Oct.  1944  to  the  end  of 
1945,  he  was  head  of  the  British  Admiralty  delegation  in  Washington. 
He  was  promoted  to  admtral  of  the  fleet  in  May  1945. 

Sophoulis,  Themistoclcs,  Greek  statesman  (b.  Vathy,  island  of  Samos, 


OBITUARIES 


481 


Nov.  25,  1861 — d.  Kiftssia,  June  24),  an  archaeologist  and  man  of 
letters  by  profession,  was  the  leader  of  the  movement  which  ended 
in  August  1912  in  the  proclamation  of  the  union  of  Samos  with 
Greece.  Governor  of  Samos  from  1912,  he  was  appointed  governor- 
general  of  Macedonia  in  1914,  and  was  elected  member  for  Samos 
in  the  Greek  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1915.  A  staunch  supporter  of 
the  Liberal  leader,  Eleutherios  Venizelos,  Sophoulis  followed  him 
at  the  time  of  the  pro- Allied  Salonika  revolution  of  1916,  returning 
to  Athens  after  King  Constantine  had  been  removed  from  the  throne. 
He  was  elected  president  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1917,  a  post 
which  he  held  till  the  defeat  of  the  Liberal  party  at  the  elections  of 
Nov  14,  1920  In  1924,  after  the  proclamation  of  the  republic  and 
Vemzelos*  first  withdrawal  from  politics,  Sophoulis  was  for  a  few 
months  prime  minister.  From  19^8  to  1931  he  was  again  president 
of  the  Chamber.  After  Venizelos'  second  withdrawal  from  politics 
in  1935,  Sophoulis  succeeded  him  as  leader  of  the  Liberal  party. 
During  the  loanms  Metaxas  dictatorship  (1936-41)  he  abstained 
from  politics  In  1944  he  was  arrested  by  the  Germans.  After  the 
liberation,  he  took  office  as  prime  minister  of  a  Republican  cabinet 
on  Nov.  22,  1945.  He  resigned  after  the  elections  on  March  31, 
1946,  had  given  the  victory  to  the  Populist  (conservative)  party.  On 
Sept.  7,  1947,  he  again  assumed  the  premiership  in  a  coalition 
government  composed  of  Liberals  and  Populists. 
Spoor,  Simon  Hcnorik,  Netherlands  general  (b.  Amsterdam,  1902 — • 
d.  Batavia,  May  25),  graduated  from  the  Breda  Military  academy 
as  second  lieutenant  in  1923.  Posted  to  Indonesia,  he  returned  to 
Holland  in  1929  to  study  at  the  staff  college.  He  was  attached  to  the 
general  staff  in  Indonesia  in  1932,  and  returning  to  Holland  two  years 
later  was  promoted  captain  and  appointed  lecturer  at  the  Breda 
academy.  In  1938  he  was  back  at  Batavia  and  at  the  beginning  of 
1942,  with  the  rank  of  major,  was  attached  to  General  Douglas 
MacArthur's  staff.  After  the  capitulation  of  Japan  he  returned  to 
Indonesia  as  a  colonel  and  director  of  the  Netherlands  forces  intelli- 
gence service.  In  Jan  1946  he  was  promoted  major  general  and 
appointed  commander  in  chief  of  the  Netherlands  forces  m  Indonesia 
and  head  of  the  war  department  there,  becoming  lieutenant  general 
in  September.  He  led  the  military  operations  against  the  Republic 
of  Indonesia  which  started  on  Dec  18,  1948.  He  was  promoted 
general.  May  23,  1949,  and  died  from  a  heart  attack  two  days  later. 
Stack,  Thomas  Neville,  British  aviation  pioneer  (b  April  1,  1896— 
d.  [in  a  road  accident],  Karachi,  Pakistan,  Feb  22),  joined  the  army 
in  1914  and  later  transferred  to  the  RFC  Between  the  wars  he  was 
a  test  pilot  and  instructor  and  during  World  War  11  was  commissioned 
in  the  Fleet  air  arm.  In  May  1948  he  was  appointed  manager  of 
Pakistan  airways 

Stamford,  Thomas  William,  British  politician  (b  Cambridge,  Dec  20, 
1882— d.  Bradford,  May  29,  1949),  was  a  bookbinder,  and  for  many 
years  a  member  of  the  Bradford  City  council.  He  was  Labour  M  P. 
for  West  Leeds,  1923-31,  and  from  1945 

Steptoe,  Harry  Nathaniel,  British  diplomat  (b.  Portsmouth,  March  11, 
1892— d  San  Salvador,  El  Salvador,  March  14),  served  in  China, 
1919-36,  and  later  at  Lourenco  Marques,  Basra,  Tehran  and  Leopold- 
ville  He  was  appointed  minister  at  San  Salvador,  April,  1948. 
Stettinius,  Edward  Reilly,  Jr.,  United  States  industrialist  and  statesman 
(b  Chicago,  Oct.  22,  1900- -d  Greenwich,  Connecticut,  Oct  31), 
was  educated  at  Pomfiet  school  in  Connecticut  und  at  the  University 
of  Virginia  He  held  several  posts  in  General  Motors  corporation, 
1926-34,  and  then  moved  to  the  United  States  Steel  corporation 
where  he  became  chairman  in  19*8  President  Franklin  Roosevelt 
appointed  him  to  the  War  Resources  board  m  1939  and  in  the 
following  year  he  became  a  member  of  the  advisory  commission  to 
the  Council  of  National  Defence  He  was  lease-lend  administrator 
1941-43;  under  secretary  of  stale,  1943-44;  and  succeeded  Cordell  Hull 
as  seCietary  of  state  in  Nov.  1944.  He  resigned  on  June  27,  1945  and 
was  appointed  head  of  the  U  S  delegation  to  the  United  Nations. 
He  held  this  post  until  June  1946.  He  was  rector  of  the  University 
of  Virginia,  1946-49. 

Stewart,  Duncan  George,  British  colonial  governor  (b.  Wilkleifontem, 
Transvaal,  Oct  22,  1904— d.  [assassinated],  Singapore,  Dec  10),  was 
educated  at  Winchester  and  Oriel  college,  Oxford.  In  1928  he  joined 
the  colonial  service  and  served  m  Nigeria  In  1944  he  was  transferred 
to  the  Bahamas  as  colonial  secretary  and  in  1947  went  to  Palestine 
as  financial  secretary.  He  was  in  charge  of  the  Palestine  Accounts 
Clearance  office  in  Cyprus  when,  in  Sept  1949,  he  was  appointed 
governor  of  Sarawak  in  succession  to  Sir  Charles  Arden  Clarke.  He 
arrived  in  the  colony  on  Nov  14  On  Dec.  3,  during  his  first  visit 
to  Sibu,  the  second  largest  town  in  Sarawak,  he  was  stabbed  by  a 
young  Malay  and  seriously  wounded.  He  was  flown  to  Singapore 
and  died  a  week  later.  He  was  buried  at  Bidadan  cemetery,  Singapore 
Stewart,  William  Downie,  New  Zealand  politician  (b  July  29,  1878 
— ^d.  Dunedm,  Sept.  29),  sat  in  parliament,  1914-35.  He  held  many 
ministerial  posts  including  -the  portfolios  of  customs,  1920-28, 
internal  affairs,  1921-24,  industries  and  commerce,  1923-26,  and 
finance,  1926-28.  1931-33. 

Sticbel,  Sir  Arthur,  British  barrister  and  registrar  (b.  Feb  27,  1875 — 
d.  Ascot,  Berkshire,  Feb.  15),  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1899.  He  was 
registrar  in  companies  (winding  up)  and  in  bankruptcy  of  the  high 
court  of  justice,  1920-47.  He  was  also  president  of  the  Jewish  Board 
of  Guardians,  1920-30. 

Stockdale,  Sir  Frank  Arthur,  British  colonial  administrator  (b.  June  24, 
1883 — d.  London,  Aug.  3),  was  educated  at  Wisbech  and  at  Magda- 
lene college,  Cambridge.  He  entered  the  colonial  service  as  mycolo- 
gist  in  the  Imperial  department  of  agriculture  for  the  West  Indies 
in  1905.  He  was  transferred  to  British  Guiana  in  1908;  in  1912  was 
appointed  director  of  agriculture  in  Mauritius,  and  in  1916  went  to 
Ceylon  in  a  similar  capacity.  He  served  as  agricultural  adviser  to 
the  secretary  of  state,  1930-40,  and  in  the  latter  year  he  became 
comptroller  for  development  and  welfare  in  the  West  Indies.  While 

E.B.Y.— 32 


in  the  West  Indies  he  was  co-chairman  of  the  Anglo-American 
Caribbean  commission,  1942-45,  and  the  West  Indian  conference, 
1944.  He  was  development  planning  adviser  at  the  Colonial  office 
from  1945  to  1948,  when  he  became  vice-chairman  of  the  Colonial 
Development  corporation. 

Stocker,  William  Nelson,  British  physicist  and  university  don  (b. 
Horsforth,  near  Leeds,  Jan.  28,  1851 — d.  Oxford,  Aug.  2)  m  1877, 
won  an  open  fellowship  at  Brasenose  college,  Oxford — which  he 
held  for  72  years.  He  was  a  professor  of  physics  in  India,  1883- 
1901,  when  he  returned  to  Brasenose.  He  became  senior  fellow  in 
1911  and  resigned  in  1945. 

Strathmore  and  Kinghorne,  Patrick  Bowes-Lyon,  1 5th  Earl  of.  (b.  Sept. 
22,  1884 — d.  Glamis,  May  25).  His  youngest  sister,  Elizabeth,  married 
Prince  Albert,  Duke  of  York,  in  1923,  and  became  Queen  m  1936. 

Strauss,  Richard,  German  composer  and  conductor  (b.  Munich,  June 
11,  1864 — d.  Garmisch:Partenkirchen,  Sept.  8),  was  the  son  of  Franz 
Strauss,  a  horn  player  in  the  opera  orchestra.  He  began  to  compose 
at  the  age  of  six,  studied  music  at  Munich  and  at  21  became 
conductor  of  the  Meiningen  court  orchestra.  In  1889  he  was  con- 
ductor m  Weimar,  six  years  later  in  Munich,  and  in  1898  he  became 
conductor  at  the  Berlin  state  opera.  In  1905  he  composed  his  first 
great  opera,  Salome,  based  on  Oscar  Wilde's  libretto.  In  1908  with 
Electra  began  his  long  partnership  with  the  Austrian  poet  Hugo  von 
Hoflmannsthal.  From  this  collaboration  many  operas  were  born 
including  Der  Rosenkavalier  (1911),  the  most  successful,  Ariadne 
auf  Naxos  (1912)  and  Die  Frau  ohne  Schatten  (1919).  Arabella, 
composed  in  1929  and  produced  four  years  later,  failed  to  achieve 
success.  Among  symphonic  poems,  Don  Juan  (1889),  Till  Eulenspicgel 
(1895)  and  Don  Quixotte  (1898)  are  generally  the  most  esteemed. 
To  the  nazis  Strauss's  world-wide  reputation  made  him  an  acceptable 

C resident  of  their  Retchsmutikkammer,  but  his  appointment  in  1933 
rought  him  no  credit  and  he  did  not  remain  in  favour.    In  1935  he 
Croduced  at  Dresden  Die  Schweigsame  Frau,  an  opera  of  which  the 
bretto  based  on  Ben  Johnson's  comedy,  Epicoene  or  The  Silent 
Woman,  was  adapted  by  Stefan  Zweig.     Because  the  latter  was  a 
Jew  the  opera  was  banned  after  its  second  performance  and  Strauss 
resigned  the  presidency  of  the  Reichsmu\ikkammer.    His  last  opera, 
Der  Priedenitag,  produced  at  Munich  m  1938,  was  hissed  by  the  nazis. 
In  1944  Strauss  took  refuge  in  Switzerland  but  returned  to  Garmisch 
after  the  capitulation    In  Oct.  1947  he  visited  London  and  at  the  Albert 
Hall   directed   a   performance   of  some   of  his   works.      (See  also 
Encyclopedia  Brttanntca 

Stuart,  Sir  Louis,  British  judge  in  India  (b  March  12,  1870— d  London, 
Dec  26),  entered  the  Indian  civil  service  m  1891.  He  was  puisne 
judge,  Allahabad  high  court,  1922-25,  and  chief  judge  of  Oudh 
chief  court,  1925-30  He  was  knighted  in  1926  and  retired  in  1930. 

Suhard,  Emmanual  Celestin,  Cardinal,  French  prelate  (b.  Brams-sur- 
les-Marches,  Mayenne,  April  5,  1874— ^d  Pans,  May  29),  was 
appointed  bishop  of  Bayeux  and  Lisieux  in  1928.  In  1930  he  became 
archbishop  of  Rheims  and  m  1940  succeeded  Cardinal  Jean  Verdier 
as  archbishop  of  Paris  He  was  created  a  cardinal  on  Dec.  16,  1935. 

Sullivan,  Timothy,  Irish  lawyer  (b  1874 — d  Dublin,  March  29),  became 
a  barrister  in  1895  and  a  K.C  ,1918.  He  was  president  of  the  high 
court  of  justice  of  the  Irish  Free  State,  1924-36,  and  President  of  the 
supreme  court  and  chief  justice,  1934-36. 

Sutherland,  Sir  William,  British  politician  (b.  Glasgow,  March  4, 
1880 -d.  Sheffield,  Sept.  19),  sat  in  parliament,  1918-24,  was  a  lord 
of  the  treasury  1920-22,  and  chancellor  of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster, 
1922  He  was  private  secretary  to  David  Lloyd  George,  1915-20. 

Taylor,  William  Henry,  British  journalist  (b  1893?— d.  St.  Peter  Port, 
Guernsey,  Dec  8),  was  editor  of  the  Sunday  Dispatch  (London) 
and  went  to  Guernsey  where  he  edited  the  Star.  The  newspaper 
was  suspended  by  the  Germans  for  three  months  in  1944.  He  later 
became  editor  of  the  Guernsey  Evening  Prew 

Thomas,  Jairtes  Henry,  British  politician  and  trade  union  leader  (b. 
Newport,  Monmouthshire,  Oct  3,  1874  -d.  London,  Jan  21),  left 
school  when  nine  years  of  age  and  after  starting  life  as  an  errand  boy 
became  in  turn  an  engine  cleaner,  a  first-class  fireman  and  an  engine 
driver.  He  was  an  active  trade  union  organizer  at  Swmdon  and  later 
he  worked  for  the  Amalgamated  Society  of  Railway  Servants  in 
Manchester  and  in  south  Wales,  becoming  its  assistant  secretary. 
He  was  general  secretary  of  the  National  Union  of  Railwaymen  in 
1918-24  and  1925-31.  From  1910  when  he  was  elected  M.P  for 
Derby  he  took  an  active  part  in  politics  and  when  Labour  took 
office  in  1924  he  became  colonial  secretary.  In  1926  Thomas  opposed 
the  general  strike  but  he  also  disapproved  of  the  government's 
handling  of  the  situation  and  particularly  of  the  Trade  Disputes  and 
Trade  Unions  bill  which  was  introduced  in  the  following  year.  In 
1929  he  became  lord  privy  seal  and  minister  for  employment  in  the 
second  Labour  government.  When  the  Imperial  conference  met  in 
1930,  Thomas,  as  secretary  of  state  for  the  dominions,  took  an 
important  part.  In  1931  he  entered  the  new  National  government 
continuing  to  hold  the  same  office  and,  for  a  time,  the  secretaryship 
of  the  colonies  as  well.  He  had  been  repudiated  by  the  Derby  Labour 
party  but  was  returned  in  the  election  of  that  year  when  he  stood 
as  an  independent  Labour  candidate  Returned  again  in  1935  he 
became  colonial  secretary.  In  1936  he  was  found  by  a  tribunal  of 
inquiry  to  be  guilty  of  the  disclosure  of  information  about  the 
budget  and  retired  from  politics. 

Thomson,  Sir  William    Johnston,   British  business-man  (b.   1881 — d. 
Edinburgh,   Sept.    18),   was  chairman   and   managing  director  of 
Scottish  Motor  Traction.  Ltd.,  and  president  of  the  Scottish  Amicable 
Building  society.    He  was  lord  provost  of  Edinburgh,  1932-35. 
Titterington,  Meredith  Farrar,  British  trade  union  leader  and  politician 
(b.   Bradford,    1886— d.   Bradford,   Oct.   28),  was   lord   mayor    of 
Bradford,  1939-40  and  M.P.  for  Bradford  south  from  1945. 
Tolbukhin,  Fyodor  Ivanovich,  Soviet  marshal  (b.  Andronmki,  Yaroslavl 
province,  June  16,  1894 — d.  Oct.  17),  was  the  son  of  a  peasant* 


OBITUARIES 


Edward  Stettinius.  James  Henry  Thomas. 

During  World  War  1  he  rose  from  private  to  captain;  he  joined  the 
Red  army  and  in  1920  commanded  a  division.  After  the  civil  war  he 
graduated  from  the  M.  V.  Frunze  Military  academy,  Moscow,  and 
in  1941  was  a  major  general  and  chief  of  staff  of  a  military  district. 
During  World  War  II  he  distinguished  himself  as  a  tactician  and  an 
expert  in  tank  warfare.  In  Nov.  1942  he  commanded  the  army  which, 
from  the  southeast,  helped  to  encircle  the  German  Sixth  army  at 
Stalingrad,  and  on  Feb.  I,  1943,  he  personally  accepted  Field 
Marshal  Friedrich  von  Paulus'  surrender.  In  Aug.  1943  he  defeated 
the  Germans  at  Taganrog;  later  he  took  Melitopol,  contributed  to 
the  liberation  of  the  Crimea  and  on  May  9,  1944,  recaptured  Sevasto- 
pol. In  Aug.  1944  his  army  swept  through  Rumania  into  Bulgaria, 
and  it  was  he  who  signed  the  Bulgarian  armistice  on  Oct.  28,  1944. 
Promoted  marshal  on  Sept.  12,  1944,  he  contributed  to  the  liberation 
of  Yugoslavia;  in  Dec.  1944  his  army  group  reached  Balaton  lake 
in  Hungary,  and  early  in  1945  he  participated  in  the  battles  of  Buda- 
pest and  Vienna.  He  was  awarded  the  Order  of  Victory  and  the 
Order  of  Lenin  (twice).  His  last  appointment  was  as  commander 
of  the  troops  of  the  Transcaucasian  military  district. 

Turina,  Joaquin,  Spanish  pianist,  composer  and  critic  (b.  Seville,  Dec. 
9,  1882 — d.  Madrid,  Jan.  14),  studied  in  Paris  and  returned  to  Spain 
in  1914.  His  works  included  the  lyric  comedy  Margot,  a  composition 
for  strings  Oration  del  Toreador  and  stage  works  La  Adultera  Penitente 
and  Jar  din  del  Oriente. 

Ullswater,  James  William  Lowther,  1st  Viscount,  of  Campsea  Ashe, 
Suffolk,  British  parliamentarian  (b.  April  1,  1855— d.  Campsea  Ashe, 
March  27),  was  educated  at  Eton,  King's  college,  London,  and 
Trinity  college,  Cambridge.  He  was  called  to  the  Bar  in  1879  and  in 
1883  entered  the  House  of  Commons  as  Conservative  member  for 
Rutland.  He  was  defeated  at  Penrith,  Cumberland,  in  1885,  but  was 
elected  in  the  following  year.  His  only  government  office  was  the 
under-secret ary ship  for  foreign  affairs,  1891-92.  In  1895  he  was 
elected  chairman  of  the  committee  of  ways  and  means  and  deputy 
speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons,  and  for  the  next  26  years 
continued  as  an  officer  of  the  House  of  Commons, — until  1905 
as  deputy  speaker,  and  from  1905-21  as  speaker.  He  resigned  in 
1921  and  was  created  a  viscount  by  King  George  V.  One  of  the 
greatest  speakers  of  the  House  of  Commons  he  did  much  to  uphold 
the  traditions  of  his  high  office.  In  1925  he  published  his  autobio- 
graphy A  Speaker's  Commentaries. 

Undset,  Sigrid,  Norwegian  author  (b.  Kalundborg,  Denmark,  May  20, 
1882 — d.  Lillehammer,  Norway,  June  10),  earned  an  international 
reputation  by  her  three  novels,  Frit  Marta  Oulie  (1907),  Jenny  (191 1) 
and  Kristin  Lavransdatter  (1920-22),  for  the  last  of  which — a  three- 
volume  work  based  on  mediaeval  life  in  Norway — she  was  awarded 
the  Nobel  prize  for  literature  in  1928.  Historical  studies  made  for 
Kristin  Lavransdatter  led  to  her  conversion  to  Roman  Catholicism  in 
1925.  Olav  Audunsson  (1925-27),  Ida  Elizabeth  (1932)  and  Saga  of 
Saints  (1934)  continued  the  historical  series,  and  in  1939  her  auto- 
biography Men,  Women  and  Places  appeared.  A  year  later,  v\hen 
Norway  was  invaded,  Fru  Undset  issued  a  strong  statement  urging 
her  countrymen  to  resist.  Eventually  she  fled  with  her  younger  son 
Hans  through  Stockholm,  Moscow  and  Vladivostok  to  the  United 
States;  at  Stockholm  she  learned  that  her  elder  son  Anders  had  been 
killed  fighting  the  Germans.  Returning  to  Norway  in  July  1945  she 
lived  quietly  in  her  logwood  cabin  at  Lillehammer.  Her  last  book 
Happy  Times  in  Norway  appeared  in  1942  in  New  York.  (See  also 
Encyclopaedia  Britannica) . 

Uthwatt,  Augustus  And  roves  Uthwatt,  Baron  (life  peer),  of  Lathbury, 
Buckinghamshire,  British  lord  of  appeal  (b.  Australia,  April  25, 
1879- d.  Sandwich,  Kent,  April  24),  was  educated  at  Ballarat 
college,  Victoria,  and  Balliol  college,  Oxford.  He  was  called  to  the 
bar  in  1904.  During  World  War  I  he  was  the  legal  adviser  to  the 
Ministry  of  Food.  In  1934  he  was  appointed  junior  counsel  (on  the 
chancery  side)  to  the  Treasury  and  the  Board  of  Trade  and  to  the 
attorney  general  in  charity  matters.  On  the  death  of  Mr.  Justice 
Crossman  in  1941  he  was  appointed  a  judge  of  the  chancery  division 
and  in  1946  was  made  a  lord  of  appeal  in  ordinary  and  created  a 
life  peer.  Shortly  after  his  elevation  to  the  bench  in  1941  he  was 
appointed  chairman  of  an  expert  committee  on  land  compensation 
and  betterment. 

Vanbrugh,  Dame  Irene,  English  actress  (b.  Exeter,  Devon,  Dec.  2, 
1872— d.  London,  Nov.  30),  made  her  first  stage  appearance  at  the 


Marshal  Fyodor  Tolbukhin.  Viscount  Ullswater. 

age  of  16  as  Phoebe  in  As  You  Like  It  at  Margate.  After  this  she 
toured  with  J.  L.  Toole's  company  and  played  in  England,  Australia 
and  New  Zealand.  She  first  appeared  9n  the  London  West  End 
stage  in  1892  and  in  following  years  was  with  Beerbohm  Tree,  George 
Alexander  and  A.  Bourchier.  Her  work  showed  great  versatility  but 
it  was  in  light  comedy  in  which  she  excelled.  She  created  amongst 
other  parts  those  of  Gwendolen  Fairfax  in  The  Importance  of  Being 
Earnest,  Lady  Mary  Lazenby  in  The  Admirable  Crichton,  Rose 
Trelawny  in  Trelawnv  of  the  Wells.  Continuing  her  career  until  her 
death  two  days  before  her  77th  birthday  she  had  made  many  tours 
of  Australia,  New  Zealand  and  South  Africa  and  during  World  War 
II  worked  with  ENSA  (Entertainments  National  Service  association). 
She  appeared  in  films  including  Catherine  the  Qreat  and  /  Live  in 
Grosvenor  Square.  Her  autobiography  To  Tell  My  Story  was  pub- 
lished in  1948.  She  was  created  a  D.B.E.  on  Jan,  1,  1941. 

Wadsworth,  Edward  Alexander,  British  painter  (b.  Cleckheaton,  York- 
shire, Oct.  1889 — d.  London,  June  21),  studied  at  the  Slade  school 
and  was  elected  to  the  New  English  Art  Club  in  1921.  His  best 
known  paintings  were  careful  compositions  of  marine  objects,  in 
tempera.  He  executed  two  panels  for  the  interior  of  R.M.S.  "  Queen 
Mary  "  and  one  for  the  De  La  Warr  pavilion,  Bexhill,  and  works  of 
his  are  in  the  Tate  gallery,  London,  and  many  provincial  galleries. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  London  group  and  of  Unit  One  and  held 
numerous  exhibitions.  He  became  an  A.R.A.  in  1943. 

Wakatsuki,  Reijiro,  Baron,  Japanese  statesman  (b.  1866? — d.  near  Ito, 
Japan,  Nov.  20),  was  prime  minister  in  1926  and  1931,  having  previ- 
ously been  minister  ol  home  affairs.  He  attended  the  London  naval 
conference,  1929,  and  was  afterwards  created  a  baron. 

Walker,  Sir  Herbert  Ashcombe,  British  railway  manager  (b.  London, 
May  18,  1868 — d.  London,  Sept.  29),  was  general  manager,  Southern 
railway,  1923-37.  Under  his  direction  the  Southern  railway  greatly 
extended  and  improved  its  electric  services,  and  the  suburban  system 
became  the  largest  of  its  kind  in  the  world.  He  was  knighted  in  1915 
for  his  work  in  transporting  the  British  army  to  France. 

Walls,  Tom  Kirby,  British  actor  and  racehorse  owner  (b.  Kingsthorpe, 
Northamptonshire,  Feb.  18,  1883— d.  Ewell,  Surrey,  Nov.  27), 
was  educated  at  Northampton  county  school,  served  in  the  Metro- 
politan police,  and  made  his  first  stage  appearance  in  1905  in  Glasgow. 
He  toured  in  the  United  States,  Canada,  and  Australia.  In  1922 
he  embarked  on  his  first  managerial  venture  with  Leslie  Henson 
with  a  farce  Tons  of  Money  which  ran  for  two  years.  This  was  followed 
by  others  with  Ralph  Lynn  at  the  Aldwych  theatre.  He  assumed 
control  of  the  Fortune  theatre  in  1927  and  produced  On  Approval 
(1927),  Mischief (1928),  Aren't  We  All?  (1929),  The  Last  Enemy  (1929) 
and  Cape  Forlorn  (1930).  In  1929  he  acted  in  his  first  film  and 
directed  and  acted  in  more  than  20  pictures.  As  soon  as  his  theatrical 
success  allowed  he  acquired  a  string  of  racehorses  and  achieved  many 
successes  including  the  Derby  in  1932  with  April  the  Fifth. 

Ward,  Ida  Caroline,  British  linguistic  scholar  (b.  Bradford,  Yorkshire, 
Oct.  4,  1880— d.  Guildford,  Oct.  10),  contributed  to  the  study  of 
English  phonetics  and  to  research  in  speech  defects  before  she  began 
her  work  in  west  African  languages,  which  gave  their  study  a  new 
status.  She  was  for  many  years  adviser  in  African  studies  in  the 
School  of  Oriental  and  African  studies,  University  of  London. 
In  1944  she  became  professor  of  west  African  languages  and  in  1948 
was  created  professor  emeritus. 

Ware,  Sir  Fabian  Arthur  Goulstonc,  British  major  general  (b.  Clifton. 
Bristol,  1869 — d.  Amberley,  Gloucestershire,  April  28),  started  as  a 
schoolmaster  in  Bradford  and  later  became  director  of  education. 
Transvaal.  He  was  editor  of  the  Morning  Post,  1905-1 1.  He  served 
in  World  War  I  and  in  1917  founded  the  Imperial  War  Graves 
commission,  being  its  vice-chairman  until  1948. 

Watson,  Vernon,  (Nosirto  King),  British  comedian  (b.  Peterborough, 
1887? — d.  London,  Jan.  13),  started  as  a  bank  clerk,  but  became  a 
success  on  the  stage  as  a  mimic.  He  later  appeared  as  a  black-faced 
comedian  under  the  stage  name  **  Nosmo  King." 

Wensley,  Frederick,  British  detective  (b.  Taunton,  Somerset,  1865 — 
d.  London,  Dec.  4),  joined  the  Metropolitan  police  in  1887.  In  1924 
he  was  appointed  chief  constable — a  rank  specially  created  for  him. 
He  retired  from  the  police  in  1929.  During  his  42  years  of  service 
he  was  responsible  for  initiating  the  flying  squad;  and  while  he  was 
chief  constable  the  term  "  Big  Four  "  was  first  applied  to  the  four 
senior  officers  who  were  assigned  the  task  of  re-organizing  the  police. 


OCEANOGRAPHY 


483 


Wiltshire,  Sir  Frank  Henry  Cafuade,  British  town  clerk  (b  Suffolk, 
Nov  27,  1881 — d  March  19),  was  town  clerk  of  Birmingham, 
1919-46,  and  clerk  of  the  peace,  1937-46,  and  from  Nov  1947  judge 
of  Alderney,  Channel  Islands 

WintrinKham,  Thomas  Henry,  British  politician  and  author  (b  Gnmsby, 
Lincolnshire.  May  15,  1898-  d  Scarby  Manor,  Lincolnshire,  Aug 
16),  was  educated  at  Gresham's  school,  Holt,  and  Balhol  college, 
Oxford.  He  joined  the  Communist  party  in  1922  and  worked  on  the 
Worker^  Weekly,  Workers'  Life  and  the  Dailv  Worker  He  com 
mandcd  the  British  battalion  of  the  International  Brigade  in  the 
Spanish  Civil  War  in  1937,  and  in  the  following  year  was  expelled 
from  the  Communist  party  for  "  maintaining  personal  relations  with 
elements  considered  undesirable  by  the  party."  His  experiences  in 
Spam  were  put  to  good  use  in  World  War  11,  when  in  1940  he  helped 
to  orgam/c  the  Ostcrley  Park  training  school  for  the  Home  Guard 
He  wrote  two  books  on  guerrilla  warfare.  New  Ways  of  War  and 
Armies  of  Freedom  His  English  Captain  (1939)  recounted  his 
Spanish  adventure,  and  Your  M  P  ,  a  book  (irst  issued  anonymously, 
caused  considerable  controversy  before  the  general  election  of  194^ 

Wise,  Stephen  Samuel,  U  S  rabbi  and  /lonist  leader  (b  Budapest, 
Hungary,  March  17,  1874  -d  New  York  city,  April  19)  His  family 
settled  in  New  York  in  1875,  and  he  was  educated  at  City  college 
and  Columbia  university  He  became  rabbi  of  the  Madison  avenue 
synagogue  in  New  York  in  1891,  and  in  1900  moved  to  Portland 
In  1906  he  returned  to  New  York  and  in  the  following  year  founded 
the  Free  synagogue  of  New  York  He  was  president  of  the  American 
Jewish  congress,  a  member  of  the  executive  board  of  the  Jewish 
Agency  for  Palestine,  co-chairman  of  the  American  Zionist  emergency 
council,  president  and  founder  of  the  Jewish  Institute  ol  Religion  and 
from  1936  president  of  the  World  Jewish  congress 

Woodbridgc,  Arthur  Charles  Churchman,  1st  Baron,  of  Ipswich,  Suffolk, 
British  politician  and  former  vice-chairman  of  the  British- American 
Tobacco  Company  (b  Sept  7,  1867  d  South  Africa,  Fen  3), 
was  M  P  for  Woodbndge,  Suffolk,  1920-29,  and  \vas  created  a  baron 
in  1932 

Xoxe,  Koci,  Albanian  politician  (b  Negovan,  Albania,  May  1,  1911-  - 
d  (executed!  Tirana,  June  11),  was  a  blacksmith,  of  Orthodox  faith, 
who  became  active  as  a  labour  leader  at  Korce  and  in  1937  was 
elected  to  the  municipal  council  Intermittently  arrested  for  activities 
against  King  /og  1  before  the  Italian  occupation,  he  became  in  1941 
an  orgam/er  of  the  Albanian  Communist  party  and  two  years  later 
of  the  Albanian  Liberation  army  in  which  he  appointed  himself  a 
lieutenant  general  On  Dec  2,  194*>,  lie  was  elected  deputy  for 
Kor\c  to  the  Albanian  Constituent  Assembly,  and  on  Jan  11,  1946, 
he  became  vice-president  of  the  assembly,  at  the  same  time  succeeding 
Fnvei  Ho\ha  (q  v  )  as  secretary  general  of  the  Albanian  Communist 
party  On  March  22  of  the  same  year  he  was  appointed  deputy 
prime  minister  and  minister  of  the  mlenoi  Betsveen  1946  and  mid- 
1948  it  was  Xoxe  who  held  the  real  power  in  Albania,  Hoxha  being 
largely  a  figurehead  In  July  1947  both  Albanian  leaders  paid  an 
ofhcial  visit  to  Moscow,  but  on  Oct  6,  1948,  Xoxe  was  dismissed 
as  a  supporter  of  Tito's  Nationalist  heresy  and  arrested  with  many 

Eolitical  friends  After  months  of  detention,  he  was  tried  in  camera 
y  the  Supreme  Court  in  Tirana,  and  on  June  10,  1949,  was  sentenced 
to  death  for  anti-Soviet  tendencies  He  was  shot  the  following  day 

/.aim,  Husni  e/.-,  Syrian  aimy  officer  of  Kurdish  extraction  (b  Aleppo, 
1897  — d  Damascus,  Aug  14)  Trained  as  a  cadet  in  the  Turkish 
army,  he  served  under  lakhn  Pasha  against  the  Arabs  in  1914-18 
and  was  taken  prisoner  at  Medina  In  1920  he  joined  the  French 
levies  in  Syria,  rose  to  the  rank  of  colonel  and  commanded  a  brigade 
which  took  part  in  the  fighting  ordered  by  the  Vichy  government 
against  the  Allied  forces  entering  Syria  in  1941  After  a  period  of 
imprisonment  under  the  Allied  occupation,  he  was  appointed 
inspector  general  of  police  of  the  Syrian  republic  In  May  1948  he 
became  chief  of  staff  in  the  Syrian  army  On  March  30,  1949,  he  led 
the  military  coup  d'etat  which  oserthiew  the  Shukn  el-Qimath 
regime  By  a  referendum  of  June  25  he  was  elected  president  of 
Syria  by  over  60°;,  of  the  votes  and  took  the  rank  of  marshal  His 
head  was  turned  by  power,  and  he  resorted  to  wholesale  arrests, 
often  ol  former  friends  and  supporters  Soon  the  army  turned  against 
him  and  early  in  the  morning  of  Aug  14  he  was  taken  from  his 
residence  and  shot  by  a  group  of  ofliceis  led  by  Colonel  Sami 
Hmnawi 

Zamora  y  lorres,  Nieeto  Alcala,  exiled  former  president  of  the  Spanish 
Republic  (b  Pnego,  Spam,  July  6,  1877  -d  Buenos  Aires,  Areenlma, 
Feb  18),  was  educated  at  the  universities  of  Granada  and  Madrid, 
taking  a  doctorate  of  law  and  speciah/mg  in  administrative  lavs  He 
was  elected  as  a  Liberal  deputy,  and  in  1917  became  a  member  of 
the  cabinet,  first  as  nunistei  of  public  works  and  later  as  minister 
of  war  During  the  agitation  against  the  Spanish  royal  family  in 
the  decade  following  World  War  I,  /amora  held  a  moderate  course, 
though  he  finally  came  out  publicly  in  favour  of  a  lepublic  in  1930 
He  was  arrested  in  Dec  1930  for  conspiracy  and  sentenced  to  six 
months'  imprisonment  It  was  under  his  leadership  that  the  republi- 
cans oidered  King  Alfonso  to  abdicate,  and  Zamora  was  installed  as 
provisional  president  and  later  as  the  hrst  constitutional  president 
of  the  second  Spanish  Republic  In  April,  1936,  he  was  removed  by 
a  motion  of  the  Socialists  on  grounds  of  having  dissolved  parliament 
illegally  He  was  out  of  favour  when  the  Franco  regime  acquired 
power  through  the  Civil  War  and  he  was  exiled  and  sentenced  to 
loss  of  nationality  and  a  fine  of  all  his  fortune  in  Spain 

OBSTETRICS:    see  GYNAECOLOGY  AND  OBSTETRICS 

OCEANOGRAPHY.  The  Pacific  Science  congress, 
meeting  in  New  Zealand  at  the  beginning  of  1949,  asked  for 
more  intensive  studies  of  the  interaction  between  the  sea  and 


atmosphere,  the  deep-water  circulation  in  the  oceans,  the 
structure  and  topography  of  the  sea  bottom  and  the  effect 
of  waves  and  currents  on  shore  lines. 

The  most  notable  publications  of  the  year  were  the  pro- 
ceedings of  the  general  assembly  of  the  Association  of 
Physical  Oceanography  at  Oslo,  issued  by  the  secretariat 
of  the  association  in  the  Geophysical  institute  at  Bergen, 
and  a  collection  of  41  papers  by  U  S.  oceanogi aphers  in  a 
special  volume  of  the  Journal  of  Marine  Research  (Yale)  to 
commemorate  the  60th  birthday  of  Professor  H.  U.  Sverdrup, 
retiring  director  of  the  Scnpps  Institution  of  Oceanography. 

Many  of  the  papers  dealt  with  the  theory  of  fluid  motion 
and  the  processes  of  stirring  and  mixing  in  the  oceans. 
C  O'D.  Iselin,  in  a  paper  on  developments  in  the  study  of 
the  Gulf  stream,  showed  that  at  any  one  time  the  current 
could  be  very  different  from  the  average  picture  gained  over 
many  years  from  thousands  of  ships'  observations  of  drift 
Between  ("ape  Hatteras  and  Nova  Scotia  the  ocean  is  well 
covered  by  the  **  Loran  "  navigational  aid,  and  the  drift  of  a 
ship  manoeuvred  in  and  out  of  the  current  can  be  plotted 
with  great  accuracy  Using  such  techniques  the  research 
vessel  "  Atlantis  "  showed  that  the  tendency  of  the  current 
was  to  follow  a  meandering  course,  being  often  very  narrow 
and  faster  than  the  charted  velocity,  but  with  strong  eddies 
and  counter-currents  On  one  occasion,  while  investigating 
a  three  to  four  knot  counter-current,  she  passed  several 
freighters  bound  for  Europe  stemming  the  unfavourable 
current  for  six  hours  or  more.  The  setback  would  probably 
be  made  good  within  the  24  hr.,  in  a  more  favourable  part 
of  the  current,  and  in  general  navigation  the  average  day's 
run  would  probably  indicate  a  forward  set  approximately 
equal  to  the  charted  current  velocity. 

In  another  of  the  papers  A  F.  Spilhams  and  A.  R.  Miller, 
in  the  description  of  a  new  sea  sampler,  showed  how  the 
instrument  would  make  a  record  of  temperature  against 
depth  and  collect  water  samples  at  12  pre-determined  depths 
between  a  depth  of  450  ft.  and  the  surface,  without  stopping 
the  ship.  The  apparatus  was  particularly  useful  in  studying 
the  mixing  between  deep  and  shallow  waters  at  the  edge  of 
the  continental  shelf 

M.  S.  Longuet-Higgms  studied  the  electromotive  forces  of 
a  few  millivolts  per  kilometre  induced  by  the  tidal  movement 
of  water  relative  to  the  earth's  magnetic  field  in  the  English 
channel.  ("  The  Electrical  and  Magnetic  Effects  of  Tidal 
Streams/'  Royal  Astr.  Soc.,  Ceophvs.  Supp^  vol.  5,  no.  8, 
London,  1949).  The  horizontal  potential  gradients  are  almost 
independent  of  vertical  differences  in  velocity,  but  are  affected 
critically  by  the  depth  of  water  and  the  conductivity  of  the 
sea  bed.  The  induced  electric  currents  can  be  expected  to 
extend  to  depths  comparable  with  the  width  of  the  channel, 
and  it  was  shown  that  tidally  generated  electric  currents 
could  be  measured  in  the  earth  some  distance  inland. 

Recent  theoretical  and  experimental  researches  on  waves 
and  swell  and  possible  applications  of  new  methods  of 
analysing  records  of  sea  waves  and  microseismic  waves, 
were  summarised  by  G.  E.  R  Deacon  ("Waves  and  Swell," 
Quart.  Journ.  Royal  Met,  50i.,  vol.  75,  no.  325,  London, 
July  1949;  kk  Storm  Warnings  from  Waves  and  Microseisms," 
Weather,  vol.  4,  no.  3,  London.  March  1949). 

In  most  centres  of  ocean ographical  research  considerable 
attention  was  paid  to  the  effect  of  the  stress  of  the  wind  on 
the  surface  of  the  sea.  Theoretical  and  practical  evidence 
was  put  forward  to  show  that  the  eddy-viscosity  depends 
on  the  scale  of  the  phenomenon;  in  explaining  the  generation 
of  a  drift  current  it  was  reasonable  to  assume  a  much  higher 
value  for  the  viscosity  between  the  air  and  water  than  could 
be  tolerated  in  accounting  for  the  decay  of  waves.  Semi- 
quantitative  demonstrations  were  given  for  several  parts  of 
the  ocean  to  show  that  the  permanent  ocean  currents  are 


484 


O'KELLY— OSTEOPATHY 


Otis  Barton  of  Boston,  Massachusetts,  inside  the  benthoscope  in 
which  he  descended  4,500  ft.  in  the  Pacific  ocean  on  Aug.  16, 1949. 

maintained  by  the  prevailing  winds;  horizontal  density 
gradients  maintained  by  differences  in  climate  are  not  likely 
to  give  rise  to  water  movements  faster  than  1  cm.  a  second. 
It  was  emphasized  that  more  detailed  knowledge  of  how  the 
energy  of  the  wind  was  distributed  among  waves,  connection 
movement,  and  drift  currents  was  an  essential  step  towards 
the  preparation  of  a  more  complete  picture  of  the  distribution 
of  physical  properties  in  the  oceans.  (G.  E.  R.  D.) 

OILS  AND  FATS,  VEGETABLE  AND 
ANIMAL:  see  VEGETABLE  OILS  AND  ANIMAL  FATS. 

O'KELLY,  SEAN  THOMAS,  Irish  statesman 
(b.  Aug.  25,  1882)  was  educated  at  O'Connell  schools,  Dublin. 
A  member  of  the  Irish  Republican  brotherhood  when  only  18, 
he  was  in  1905  one  of  the  founders  of  Sinn  Fein.  Next  year 
he  became  the  first  city  councillor  of  Dublin  to  be  elected  as 
a  Sinn  Fein  candidate.  He  early  came  under  the  influence  of 
Douglas  Hyde,  later  first  president  of  Eire,  and  in  1915  was 
secretary  general  of  Hyde's  Gaelic  league.  In  1914  he  had 
led  the  volunteer  detachment  which  smuggled  in  arms  at 
Kilcoole,  Co.  Wicklow;  in  the  1916  rising  he  fought  in  the 
G.P.O.  as  staff  officer  to  Padraic  Pearse  and  after  the  latter's 
surrender  was  imprisoned  for  the  remainder  of  the  year. 
Returned  for  mid-Dublin  in  the  1918  election,  he  became 
speaker  of  Dail  Eireann,  but  in  the  following  year  was  sent 
to  Paris  as  first  foreign  envoy  of  the  Irish  republic.  He  was 
dismissed  from  this  post  by  the  Arthur  Griffith  government 
when  he  declared  against  the  Anglo-Irish  treaty  of  1921. 
In  1922  he  was  arrested  and  imprisoned  until  the  general 
amnesty  of  1923.  In  1926  he  became  deputy-leader  of  Eamon 
de  Valera's  new  Fianna  Fail  party  and  from  1927  held  his 
seat  for  North  Dublin  uninterruptedly  until  elected  president, 
serving  as  minister  for  local  government  from  1932  to  1939 
when  for  a  short  time  he  was  minister  of  education  before 
becoming  minister  of  finance.  O'Kelly  was  nominated  by 
Fianna  Fail  (Soldiers  of  Destiny)  as  candidate  for  the  presi- 
dency in  the  election  in  1945;  he  was  elected  with  a  majority 
of  110,000  over  General  Sean  McKeon,  Fine  Gael  (Irish 
Clan),  and  took  office  from  Hyde  on  June  25,  1945.  On 
April  18,  1949,  exactly  23  years  after  the  Easter  Monday 
risings  he  inaugurated  the  republic  of  Ireland.  (R.  KN.) 

OMAN  AND  MASQAT:   see  ARABIA. 


ORGANIZATION  FOR  EUROPEAN  ECONO- 
MIC CO-OPERATION  (O.E.E.C.):  see  EUROPEAN 
RECOVERY  PROGRAMME. 

ORGANIZATION  OF  AMERICAN  STATES. 

At  the  beginning  and  again  at  the  end  of  1949  the  Organization 
of  American  States  was  confronted  with  international  situa- 
tions which  threatened  the  peace  of  the  continent  and  required 
the  application  of  the  Inter-American  Treaty  of  Reciprocal 
Assistance.  This  treaty,  which  was  signed  at  Rio  de  Janeiro 
on  Sept.  2,  1947,  and  came  into  force  on  Dec.  3,  1948,  is  a 
mutual  assistance  pact  under  which  the  signatory  states 
agree  to  act  collectively  in  the  event  of  an  aggression  or 
threat  of  aggression  against  any  one  of  them. 

The  first  application  of  the  treaty  occurred  in  Dec.  1948, 
when  the  government  of  Costa  Rica  alleged  that  its  territory 
had  been  invaded  by  armed  forces  proceeding  from  Nicaragua. 
The  council  of  the  organization,  acting  provisionally  as  the 
organ  of  consultation  under  the  Rio  de  Janeiro  treaty,  sent  a 
diplomatic  commission  of  investigation,  composed  of  repre- 
sentatives of  Brazil,  Colombia,  Mexico  and  the  United  States. 
In  Jan.  1949,  following  the  presentation  of  the  report  of  the 
commission,  the  council  of  the  organization  made  a  series 
of  recommendations  and  sent  a  commission  of  military 
experts  to  Costa  Rica  and  Nicaragua  to  observe  the  appli- 
cation of  its  proposals.  This  group  was  composed  of  represen- 
tatives of  the  four  countries  which  comprised  the  diplomatic 
commission  and  Paraguay.  A  pact  of  amity  was  signed  on 
Feb.  21,  1949,  and  subsequently  ratified  by  both  governments. 

In  Feb.  1949  the  government  of  Haiti  sought  to  have 
recourse  to  the  Rio  de  Janeiro  treaty,  alleging  that  the  Domini- 
can Republic  was  permitting  its  territory  to  be  used  for  radio 
broadcasts  that  threatened  the  peace  of  the  two  countries. 
The  council  of  the  organization  decided  not  to  apply  the 
treaty  and  Haiti  thereupon  requested  the  good  offices  of 
the  Inter-American  Peace  committee,  composed  of  represen- 
tatives of  Argentina,  Brazil,  Cuba,  Mexico  and  the  United 
States.  The  Committee  sent  a  delegation  to  the  two  countries, 
following  which  representatives  of  the  two  governments 
signed  a  joint  declaration  on  June  11,  1949.  Although  by 
this  statement  the  two  governments  undertook  to  settle  by 
peaceful  means  any  difference  that  might  arise  between  them, 
no  permanent  solution  was  found;  and  on  Jan.  6,  1950,  the 
council  of  the  organization  decided  to  proceed  in  accordance 
with  the  provisions  of  the  treaty.  This  action  was  taken  at 
the  request  of  Haiti,  which  invoked  the  treaty  against  the 
Dominican  Republic,  and  also  at  the  request  of  the  Dominican 
Republic,  which  made  charges  against  both  Haiti  and  Cuba. 

In  accordance  with  a  resolution  of  the  Bogota  conference, 
the  council  convoked  the  American  Committee  on  Dependent 
Territories  to  assemble  in  Havana,  Cuba,  on  March  15,  1949. 
The  committee  was  in  session  until  July  21,  1949.  The  final 
act  of  the  committee  and  a  report  on  its  work  were  trans- 
mitted to  the  council. 

On  Nov.  16,  1949,  Luis  Quintanilla,  Mexico,  and  H6ctor 
David  Castro,  El  Salvador,  were  chosen  chairman  and  vice 
chairman  respectively  of  the  council  of  the  organization  for 
1950.  (W.  MR.) 

OSTEOPATHY.  The  year  1949  was  one  of  steady 
progress  in  the  profession  of  osteopathy  in  Great  Britain, 
both  in  education  and  in  the  field  of  organization. 

The  number  of  students  at  the  British  School  of  Osteopathy 
increased  and  the  difficulties  experienced  in  re-starting  the 
school  after  World  War  II  were  finally  overcome.  There 
was  every  sign  that  an  increasing  number  of  suitable  young 
men  and  women  would  be  anxious  to  take  up  osteopathy 
as  a  career  and  the  school  and  the  profession  hoped  to  expand 
educational  facilities  to  meet  this  demand.  The  annual  post- 
graduate course  for  qualified  osteopaths,  instituted  in  1948, 


OTTAWA— OXFORD   UNIVERSITY 


485 


proved  valuable  in  bringing  members  of  the  profession 
together  and  in  helping  to  keep  them  abreast  of  new  ideas 
and  new  methods.  The  Osteopathic  Educational  foundation 
had  already  done  much  for  osteopathic  education  after  its 
inception  in  1945;  but  expansion  of  educational  facilities 
was  conditioned  by  financial  factors.  Assistance  in  this 
direction  would  in  future  be  given  by  a  new  organization  of 
lay  helpers  inaugurated  in  1949  and  known  as  the  British 
Osteopathic  league,  which  would  endeavour  to  raise  money 
for  osteopathic  funds  by  various  kinds  of  social  gatherings 
and  entertainments. 

The  work  of  organizing  the  Register  of  Osteopaths  made 
further  progress  during  the  year.  The  number  of  qualified 
osteopaths  registered  reached  166.  The  officers  of  the 
Register  did  much  valuable  work  in  giving  authoritative 
information  to  the  public  about  osteopathy  and  in  protecting 
the  public  and  the  profession  against  untrained  practitioners 
and  unethical  conduct  or  advertising. 

Osteopathy  received  a  good  deal  of  publicity  during  the 
year  both  in  the  public  press  and  medical  journals.  This 
publicity  was  on  the  whole  useful  as  showing  interest  in 
osteopathy  among  the  public  and  even  certain  sections  of 
the  medical  profession.  (J.  C.  P.  P.) 

OTTAWA,  the  capital  of  Canada  is  at  the  confluence 
of  the  Rideau  and  the  Ottawa  rivers  in  Ontario.  On  Dec.  31, 
1949,  in  its  llth  annexation  in  50  years,  Ottawa  took  over 
parts  of  bordering  townships  of  Gloucester  and  Nepean, 
increasing  the  area  of  the  city  proper  by  22, 1 25  ac.  and  making 
its  total  area  28,134  ac.  The  population  automatically 
increased  by  27,500,  to  bring  the  total  to  191,442  (plus  about 
17,000  in  outlying  areas  and  the  remaining  townships). 

A  plan  for  the  development  of  Ottawa  as  a  capital  worthy 
of  the  Canadian  nation  was  published.  One  of  the  leading 
town  planners  of  Europe,  Professor  Jacques  Greber,  of  Paris, 
was  employed  to  work  out  a  master  plan  for  a  tract  of  940 


sq.  mi.,  346  of  them  in  Ontario  and  the  rest  in  Quebec. 
The  city  would  only  cover  a  fraction  of  this  area.  The 
remainder  would  be  parks,  protected  farm  land,  and  some 
80  sq.  mi.  of  water  in  rivers  and  lakes. 

The  Federal  district  commission  set  up  a  special  committee 
to  deal  with  expropriation  prices.  The  city  council  purchased 
the  Ottawa  Light  Heat  and  Power  company,  making  the 
Ottawa  hydro  sole  distributor  of  electricity  and  started  a  $6 
million  scheme  to  extend  the  water  service. 

Statistics  for  1948  included:  government  and  industrial 
pay  rolls  at  a  record  peak  of  $100  million;  average  weekly 
wages,  $34-48  (1947:  $31-69);  assessment  $184-9  million 
(1947:  $177 -8  million). 


OUTER  MONGOLIA: 

REPUBLIC. 


see  MONGOLIAN   PEOPLE'S 


OXFORD  UNIVERSITY.  In  the  summer  of  1949, 
6^218  men  and  1,076  women  were  in  residence,  both  numbers 
being  slightly  smaller  than  in  the  previous  year.  The  pro- 
portion of  students  reading  different  groups  of  subjects 
remained  very  nearly  as  recorded  for  1948. 

The  Spalding  professorship  of  eastern  religions  and  ethics 
was  established  permanently  by  a  gift  of  £42,000  from 
Mr.  and  Mrs.  H.  N.  Spalding.  Professor  Sir  S.  Radhakrishnan 
remained  professor  but  was  granted  one  year's  leave  of 
absence  to  act  as  Indian  ambassador  at  Moscow.  Dr.  G.  D. 
Kilpa trick  succeeded  Professor  R.  H.  Lightfoot  as  Dean 
Ireland's  professor  of  exegesis;  Dr.  H.  G.  Hanbury,  Professor 
G.  C.  Cheshire  as  Vinerian  professor  of  English  law;  and 
Dr.  J.  Trueta,  Professor  H.  J.  Seddon  as  Nuffield  professor 
of  orthopaedic  surgery. 

J.  T.  Christie,  headmaster  of  Westminster  school  was 
elected  to  succeed  the  late  Sir  Frederick  Ogilvie  as  principal 
of  Jesus;  Sir  David  Keir,  vice-chancellor  of  Queen's  uni- 
versity, Belfast,  to  succeed  Lord  Lindsay  of  Birker  as  master 


Th6  Earl  of  Halifax*  chancellor  of  Oxford  university,  leading  the  procession  to  the  site  of  Nuffield  college  for  the  laying  of  the  foundation 
stone  on  April  21, 1949.    Walking  behind,  on  left,  is  Viscount  Nuffield. 


486 


PACIFIC   ISLANDS,   BRITISH— PAINTING 


of  Balliol,  and  Professor  H.  Last,  fellow  of  Brasenose 
college,  to  succeed  the  late  Dr.  W.  T.  S.  Stallybrass  as 
principal  of  Brasenose. 

On  April  21  the  foundation  stone  of  Nuffield  college  was 
laid  by  the  chancellor,  the  Earl  of  Halifax,  in  the  presence 
of  the  founder,  Viscount  Nuffield.  Sir  Henry  Clay  retired 
from  the  wardenship  of  the  college  on  Sept.  30.  A.  Loveday 
was  appointed  to  succeed  him. 

The  university  joined  the  city  council  in  opposing  an 
order  made  by  the  minister  of  fuel  and  power  under  which 
the  gas  works,  which  dominate  the  city  on  the  south,  would 
have  been  extended  over  an  adjoining  area  of  19  ac.  The 
opposition  was  successful;  and  it  was  generally  agreed  that 
the  next  step  must  be  the  framing  of  a  continuous  programme 
under  which  the  gas  works  would  be  removed  altogether. 

University  college  on  July  1  celebrated  the  seventh  cen- 
tenary of  its  first  historical  endowment  by  William  of  Durham. 
The  bicentenary  of  the  opening  of  the  Radcliffe  Camera  was 
celebrated  by  a  luncheon  at  University  college  (of  which 
Dr.  Radcliffe  was  a  member)  on  April  20,  followed  by  an 
address  by  Lord  Cottesioe,  the  chairman  of  the  trustees,  in 
the  Radcliffe  Camera.  Gifts  and  bequests  included  £10,000 
a  year  for  seven  years  from  the  Pressed  Steel  company  for 
research  fellowships  in  various  scientific  laboratories.  Of  the 
total  income  of  the  university,  48  %  was  made  up  of  govern- 
ment grants. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  The  Oxford  University  Handbook,  Oxford  University 
Gazette,  Oct  5,  1949,  supp  2,  containing  the  vice-chancellor's  review 
of  the  year;  O \ford,  the  magazine  of  the  Oxford  society.  (D.  V  ) 

PACIFIC  ISLANDS,  BRITISH.  These  islands 
include  the  colony  o^  Fiji  (consisting  of  a  number  of  islands), 
the  British  Solomon  Islands  protectorate,  the  Gilbert  and 
Ellice  Islands  colony,  the  protected  state  of  Tonga  and 
Pitcairn  island.  Total  area:  19,125  sq.  mi.  Total  pop. 
(1947  est.):  444,862.  It  would  be  incorrect  to  describe  the 
New  Hebrides  (area,  4,633  sq.  mi.;  pop.  about  48,000), 
an  Anglo-French  condominium,  as  British,  but  it  should  be 
mentioned  here  (see  also  FRENCH  UNION).  Governor  and 
high  commissioner:  Sir  Brian  Freeston. 

History.  The  defences  of  Fiji  were  re-organized  in  1949. 
Its  importance  as  a  communication  centre  in  the  South 
Pacific  made  its  security  of  special  concern  to  New  Zealand 
and  that  government,  therefore,  lent  an  officer  for  the  triple 
role  of  commandant  of  the  Fiji  military  forces,  liaison  officer 
with  the  New  Zealand  chiefs  of  staff  and  defence  adviser  to 
the  government  of  the  colony.  With  his  assistance  a  Military 
Forces  bill— to  fix  the  establishments  for  new  military  units 
and  the  timetable  for  their  creation  and  training— was 
framed  and  laid  before  the  Legislative  Council. 

A  committee  of  six  members  representative  equally  of  the 
three  (European,  Fijian  and  Indian)  communities,  appointed 
in  1948  to  consider  constitutional  reform  in  Fiji,  reported 
unanimously  in  July  advocating  only  small  changes,  though 
three  members  signed  with  reservations  in  respect  of  certain 
points  and  submitted  minority  reports.  Their  proposals 
recommended:  (1)  an  Executive  Council  consisting  of  the 
governor  as  president,  four  ex-ofticio  and  three  (one  from 
each  of  the  communities)  unofficial  members;  these  last  to  be 
members  of  the  Legislative  Council  chosen  by  the  governor 
from  a  panel  of  six  comprised  of  two  members  of  each  racial 
group;  (2)  a  Legislative  Council  consisting  of  the  governor 
as  president,  four  ex-ojjicio,  12  official  and  15  unofficial 
(comprising  five  Europeans  elected  by  the  European  elector- 
ate, five  Fijians  elected  by  the  Council  of  Chiefs  and  five 
Indians  elected  by  the  Indian  electorate)  members. 

The  quasi-nationalist  political  movement  known  as 
Marching  Rule,  which  in  the  previous  2-3  years  had  to  a 
large  extent  dominated  Native  affairs  in  the  British  Solomons 
and  had  done  incalculable  harm  by  materially  slowing  up  the 


progress  of  the  island  group,  waa  reported  to  have  lost 
ground. 

Finance  and  Trade.  Currency  Fiji,  £F1 11  =  £100;  in  the  Solomons, 
Gilbert  and  EUice  Islands  and  Tonga,  United  Kingdom  and  Australia 
currency  are  legal  tender,  though  Tonga  issues  its  own  notes  and  in  all 
three  territories  the  exchange  standard  system  is  based  on  Australian 
currency;  in  the  New  Hebrides  sterling  and  French  currency  are  both 
legal  tender. 

Revenue  Expenditure  Imports  Exports 

FIJI                  .  £F2,915,999«  £F2.933,920"  £F5,944,834«  £F7,789,512« 

Solomon  Is  £A630,281»  £A6M),281*  £A320,655/  £A154,000/ 
Gilbert  and 

Ellice  Is  £A479,290'  £A479,290«  £A197,850'  — 

Tonga  £T302,00(X  £T323,243«-  £T677,123'  £T850,000» 

New  Hebrides  £83,209*  £49,220*  £400,512'  £988,403* 

a  1949  est     b  1948-49  est      c    1949-50  est 

d  1947  actual,  in  condominium  only  the  respective  British  and  French 
administrations  each  have  supplementary  budgets 

*  1948     /  April   Dec    1948 

NOTE  ihe  Solomon  Islands  and  Gilbert  and  Ellice  Islands  revenue  figures 
include  grants  in  aid  of  £A36 1,368  and  £AI 60,002  respectively 

Principal  exports  sugar  and  gold  bullion  (Fiji),  phosphates  (Ocean 
Island  in  the  Gilbert  and  Ellice  Islands)  and  copra.  (J.  A.  Hu.) 

PACIFIC  ISLANDS,  FRENCH:  see  FRENCH 
UNION. 


PACIFIC   ISLANDS,    U.S.: 

TERRITORIES  AND  POSSESSIONS. 


see  UNITED  STATES 


PACIFIC  ISLANDS  UNDER  TRUSTEESHIP: 

see  TRUST  TERRITORIES. 

PAINTING.  For  a  century  France  has  constituted  the 
most  powerful  force  in  the  visual  arts  of  western  civilization. 
Gradually,  however,  as  the  great  names  in  contemporary 
painting  are  realized  to  be  no  longer  young,  not  only  is  the 
problem  of  succession  posed  with  growing  insistence,  but 
national  movements  in  painting  assume  more  and  more  the 
character  of  provincial  variants  of  a  common  language. 
Small  signs  accumulated  during  1949  that  the  impetus  behind 
the  latter-day  revolutions  had  spent  itself  and  that  consolida- 
tion and  synthesis  were  the  aims  that  painters  would  set 
themselves.  It  was  significant,  for  example,  that  the  Paul 
Gauguin  exhibition  in  Paris  was  hailed  as  bridging  the  con- 
structivism of  Paul  Cezanne  and  the  expressionism  of  Vincent 
Van  Gogh  and  providing  a  synthesis  upon  which  the  future 
could  build.  One  could  note,  on  the  one  hand,  the  volte  face 
of  an  artist  like  Giorgio  De  Chinco,  who  now  renounced  his 
earlier  surrealism  and  wished  to  return  to  tradition;  on  the 
other,  the  admittance  in  1949  by  the  conservative  Royal 
academy  in  London  of  a  gallery  of  "  modern  "  painting. 
Beneath  the  surface  froth  of  conflicting  theories,  indeed, 
strong  tides  could  be  sensed  moving  towards  unification.  It 
would  have  been  a  mistake  to  seek  in  this  tendency  indications 
of  a  return  to  purely  objective  realism — that,  it  could  be 
taken  for  granted,  was  a  thing  of  the  past.  Either  society  as  a 
whole  would  learn  to  understand  this  new  language  of  paint- 
ing, or  art  would  be  encouraged  for  its  therapeutic  proper- 
ties in  schools,  hospitals  and  prisons;  or  it  would  retain  a 
faint,  vestigial  existence  under  governmental  patronage  and 
otherwise  disappear  into  the  new  problems  of  industrial 
design  (for  the  man-in-the-street  would  as  happily  accept 
distortions  and  abstractions  in  his  applied  arts  as  he  would 
through  habit  reject  them  in  his  fine  arts).  Against  this 
general  slowing  up,  then,  of  the  radicalism  of  the  first  half 
of  the  century  could  be  seen  the  developments  of  1949. 

In  Great  Britain  the  neo-romantic  movement  which  emerged 
after  World  War  II  lost  a  good  deal  of  its  ebullience  and  many 
of  its  specifically  indigenous  qualities.  Graham  Sutherland, 
its  leading  painter,  completed  his  first  important  portrait 
(of  Somerset  Maugham)  but  exhibited  no  new  work.  John 
Piper  was  commissioned  by  the  government  to  undertake  six 
decorative  panels  on  themes  of  Regency  architecture  for  the 
British  embassy  in  Rio  de  Janeiro — the  first  example  in  the 


PAINTING 


Osinania 


487 


country  of  official  patronage  of  this  kind.  The  younger  wing 
of  the  movement — Robert  Colquhoun,  John  Craxton,  Robert 
MacBryde,  John  Minton  and  Keith  Vaughan — seemed,  in 
many  cases,  to  be  marking  time  (though  it  may  be  noted  that 
both  Craxton  and  Minton  boldly  attempted  statements  on  a 
considerable  scale).  A  relative  newcomer,  Prunella  Clough, 
whose  work  related  to  these  artists,  promised  to  go  far.  Two 
painters  on  the  most  literary  wing,  Francis  Bacon  and  Edward 
Burra,  showed  examples  of  their  ominous,  macabre  and  often 
powerful  talents.  From  the  other  extreme  of  complete 
formalism  relatively  little  came  to  light,  but  William  Gear  and 
Peter  Foldes  showed  interesting  work  of  a  non-figurative  kind. 
Perhaps  the  most  intriguing  development  in  this  field  was  the 
arrival  of  Victor  Pasmore,  once  the  most  talented  painter  of 
the  so-called  Huston  Road  group,  at  the  stage  of  the  abstract 
collage — the  very  negation  and  antithesis  of  all  the  neo- 
impressionist  realism  the  group  stood  for  a  decade  before. 
Other  original  members,  pupils  and  followers  performed  a 
useful  function  within  the  Royal  academy,  where  they  served 
to  leaven  the  stodgier  painting  and  to  stiffen  the  more  frivolous 
with  their  often  unimaginative  but  always  serious  pictures. 
Ivon  Hitchens  could  be  instanced  as  an  unattached  artist, 
whose  flashing  horizontal  canvases  showed  during  the  year 
that  his  powers  were  in  no  way  diminished.  Matthew  Smith, 
who  likewise  derived  ultimately  from  the  fauvist  movement, 
was  created  a  C.B.E.  for  his  services  to  painting. 

In  France  the  form,  as  always,  seemed  more  important  than 
the  content.  The  scene  was  still  dominated  by  Pablo  Picasso, 
Georges  Braque,  Fernand  Leger  and  Henri  Matisse,  all  of 
whom  were  shown  extensively  during  the  year.  Matisse 
continued  work  upon  the  designs  for  the  chapel  Ste.  Marie  du 
Rosaire,  to  be  built  at  Vence.  Younger  painters  swung 
between  the  figurative  and  the  non-figurative.  Broadly,  the 
former  attempted  to  integrate  the  diverse  discoveries  of  their 
elders,  and  a  number — among  them  Jean  Bazaine,  Pierre  Tal 
Coat,  Andr£  Fougeron,  Alfred  Manessier,  Edouard  Pignon 
and  Francis  Tailleux — achieved  a  personal  idiom  of  near- 
abstraction  which,  however,  never  departed  completely  from 
the  object.  In  contrast  to  much  of  this  painting,  which  with 
a  fine  disdain  for  cuisine,  relied  often  upon  scribbled  expanses 
of  very  thin  paint,  might  be  cited  the  work  of  Bernard  Buffet, 
Clave  and  Claude  Venard  whose  approach  was  altogether 
richer  and  warmer  in  colour,  texture  and  humanity.  The 
leading  figures  of  the  non-figurative  school,  which  leaned 
towards  an  excessively  linear  treatment,  were  perhaps  Hans 
Hartung  and  Gerard  Schneider.  It  was  not  easy  to  see  in 
the  work  of  any  of  these  Parisian  painters,  however,  more 
than  facility  and  a  tradional  feeling  for  the  medium. 

A  particularly  strong  group  of  non-figurative  or  "concrete" 
artists  was  to  be  found  in  Sweden,  where  Olle  Bonnier,  Karl 
Axel  Pehrson  and  Pierre  Olofson  not  only  exhibited  together 
but  decorated  the  exterior  of  a  large  sports  exhibition  in 
Stockholm  in  a  manner  recalling  earlier  Bauhaus  experiments. 
Italian  painters,  having  entered  with  vehemence  into  the 
contemporary  movements  of  Europe  in  the  postwar  period, 
began  to  settle  down  to  enjoy  their  creative  freedom.  Germany 
had  begun  to  extricate  itself  from  the  slough  of  its  recent  past, 
and  under  such  names  as  Carl  Hofer,  Willi  Baumeister,  Max 
Pechstein  and  Karl  Schmidt-RottlufT  (all  of  them  teaching 
in  the  academies)  felt  its  way  towards  the  main  stream  again: 
it  was  noticeable  that  the  more  extreme  aspects  of  disillusion, 
which  were  so  marked  a  feature  of  the  years  after  World  War  I 
were  much  less  in  evidence  in  1949.  Belgian  painting  lost  a 
historic  figure  with  the  death  of  James  Ensor  (see  OBITUARIES); 
Anglo-Polish  painting  suffered  by  the  death  of  Jankl  Adler 
and  international  theatre  design  through  the  death  of  Christian 
Berard  (see  OBITUARIES).  (M.  H.  MN.) 

United  States.  The  cultural  crisis  of  painting,  concerned 
more  and  more  with  rarified  problems  of  form  and  void  of 


"  Portrait  of  a  little  girl "  by  Pablo  Picasso  exhibited  at  the  Maison 
de  la  Pennee  Franqaise  gallery,  Paris,  Aug.  1949. 


human  significance,  was  discussed  in  magazine  articles  by 
such  leaders  of  U.S.  artistic  life  as  Lincoln  Kirstein,  Lester 
Longman  and  Francis  Taylor.  At  the  same  time  a  crusade 
against  modern  art  was  carried  on  but  was  vigorously  opposed 
by  Alfred  Barr,  Jr.,  and  Emily  Genauer.  Illustrated  maga- 
zines such  as  Life,  View,  etc.,  contributed  to  bring  contempo- 
rary painting  in  all  aspects  to  the  attention  of  millions  of 
readers.  A  number  of  round-table  discussions  held  by  Life, 
Columbia  university  and  the  California  School  of  Fine  Arts, 
San  Francisco,  California,  shared  a  public  concern  with 
contemporary  art  expression  in  painting. 

The  international  exchange  of  travelling  exhibitions  of 
old  and  modern  masters  increased.  Especially  important 
was  the  show  of  contemporary  Italian  art  at  the  Museum  of 
Modern  Art,  New  York  city.  Works  were  contributed  by 
116  U.S.  painters  and  collectors  to  the  three  museums  of 
Israel. 

Anton  Refregier  finished  his  impressive  cycle  of  wall 
paintings  dealing  with  the  history  of  life  in  early  California 
in  the  Rincon  Post  Office  annexe  in  San  Francisco.  Rico 
Lebrun  completed  his  vast  *'  Crucifixion  "  series  which  was 
shortly  to  go  on  display  at  the  Los  Angeles  County  museum. 
Peter  Blume  brought  to  completion  and  displayed  another 
absorbing  composition,  "  The  Rock." 

The  first  prize  at  the  Carnegie  institute's  annual  exhibit 
went  in  1949  to  Max  Beckmann,  who  received  an  invitation  to 
join  the  staff  of  the  Brooklyn  Museum  Art  school,  Brooklyn, 
New  York.  The  influence  of  this  powerful  artist,  a  newcomer 
to  the  United  States,  was  already  felt  in  the  work  of 
younger  artists.  Yet  away  from  the  main  road  of  art  Grandma 
Moses  remained  the  favourite  of  the  U.S.  public:  there 
existed  a  wide  margin  between  the  taste  of  the  people  and 
the  main  currents  of  contemporary  painting.  (See  also 
ART  EXHIBITIONS;  ART  SALES;  DRAWING  AND  ENGRAVING; 
MUSEUMS.)  (A.  NR.) 


488 


PAINTS   AND  VARNISHES— PAKISTAN 


PAINTS  AND  VARNISHES.  Developments  in 
the  paint  industry  during  1949  were  mainly  improvements 
in  established  principles  and  techniques. 

Since  many  pigments  contain  a  high  proportion  of  heavy 
metals,  the  wastage  of  available  ore  deposits  and  the  difficulty 
of  discovering  and  working  new  sources  indicated  increasing 
prices  for  these  materials.  To  meet  these  circumstances  a 
new  pigment  concept  was  evolved.  Basically  this  consisted 
of  coating  an  inert  extender  such  as  silica  with  a  thin  layer 
of  active  pigment  sufficient  to  give  the  necessary  life  for 
normal  paints. 

Considerable  attention  was  given  to  the  development  and 
investigation  of  titanium  dioxide  and  interest  centred  on  new 
titanium  deposits  discovered  at  Allard  Lake,  Quebec,  Canada. 
A  light  stable  pigment  was  claimed  to  have  been  obtained 
by  exposing  titanium  dioxide  to  aluminium  chloride  vapour 
at  a  temperature  in  excess  of  300°C,  followed  by  calcination 
at  800°C. 

An  important  advance  in  grinding  technique  was  the 
introduction  of  a  reductionizer  which  comminuted  solid 
materials  to  very  small  particle  sizes  by  impact  and  attrition 
in  a  curved  tube  through  which  a  current  of  superheated  steam 
or  compressed  air  was  passed.  It  was  claimed  that  pigment 
materials  treated  thus  could  be  ground  fine  enough  for 
nothing  to  be  retained  on  a  325-mesh  U.S.  testing  sieve. 

Considerable  interest  was  aroused  by  the  possibility  of 
including  silicones  in  paint  formulations.  They  could  be 
treated  at  high  temperatures  for  long  periods  without  crazing 
or  becoming  brittle.  On  account  of  their  good  heat  resistance 
a  range  of  electrical  insulations  resistant  to  very  high  tem- 
peratures became  possible.  Many  silicones  were  highly 
water  repellent  and  so  were  used  to  render  surfaces  hydro- 
phobic. 

There  was  much  investigation  and  increased  use  of  materials 
that  were  not  orthodox  paint  constituents.  Paint  oils  from 
wool  fats  and  fish  were  more  widely  used  and  the  possibility 
of  obtaining  paint  oils  from  seaweed  and  sisal  leaf  was 
examined. 

Supply  sources  of  petroleum  chemicals  for  use  in  the  paint 
industry  increased  during  1949.  In  Great  Britain,  the  new 
Catarole  plant  at  Partington,  Cheshire,  produced  materials 
for  paint,  varnish,  rubber  and  plastic  products  and  for 
dyestuffs;  the  new  chemical  solvents  plant  at  Stanlow, 
Cheshire,  produced  ketones,  alcohols  and  ethers,  many  of 
which  are  useful  in  surface  coatings. 

A  novel  testing  technique  developed  was  the  application 
of  ultrasonics  to  the  paint  industry.  It  was  claimed  that  the 
adhesion  properties  of  synthetic  paints  and  varnishes  could 
be  tested  in  less  than  a  second  with  an  instrument  that  used 
ultrasonic  waves.  (E.  N.  T.) 

PAKISTAN,  DOMINION  OF.1  A  self-governing 
member  of  the  Commonwealth  of  Nations.  Total  area 
(excluding  Kashmir):  c.  337,524  sq.  mi.,  composed  as 
follows  : 

Area  Population 

(in  sq.  mi.)  (1941  census  or  est.) 
48,136  4,535,000 


As  a  result  of  the  partition  of  the  Indian  sub-continent  in 
Aug.  1947,  by  the  end  of  1948  nearly  6,599,000  Moslems 
entered  Pakistan  and  about  5,563,000  non-Moslems  migrated 
to  India :  the  net  increase  in  population  resulting  from  this 
great  migration  was  over  a  million.  The  total  population  in 
1948  was  estimated  at  73,321,000.  Languages:  mainly  Urdu, 
Punjabi,  Baluchi  and  Pushtu  in  Western  Pakistan  and  Bengali 
in  Eastern  Pakistan,  but  English  remained  in  use  as  a  medium 
of  instruction  in  higher  education.  Religion :  mostly  Moslem 
(72-9%),  with  Sikh,  Hindu,  Christian,  Parsee  and  other 
minorities.  Chief  towns  (pop.,  1941  census):  Karachi  (cap., 
359,492;  1948  est.  c.  1,000,000);  Lahore  (671,659;  1948  est,, 
c.  1,000,000);  Dacca  (213,218);  Rawalpindi  (181,169); 
Multan  (142,768);  Sialkot  (138,348);  Peshawar  (130,967). 
Pakistan  is  a  federation  of  provinces,  and  the  federal  executive 
consists  of  a  cabinet  of  ministers  appointed  by  the  governor- 
general  from  members  of  the  legislature  and  answerable  to  it. 
The  Pakistan  Constituent  Assembly,  elected  on  the  basis  of 
one  member  for  every  million  inhabitants,  was  also  the 
federal  legislature.  In  addition,  each  of  the  four  provinces 
(East  Bengal,  West  Punjab,  North-West  Frontier  Province 
and  Sind)  has  an  executive  consisting  of  a  governor  in  council 
responsible  to  the  provincial  legislature.  Governor  general, 
Khwaja  Nazimuddin;  prime  minister,  Liaquat  AH  Khan 
(^.v.);  minister  of  foreign  affairs  and  Commonwealth  rela- 
tions, Sir  Mohammad  Zafrullah  Khan  (q.v.). 

History.  As  in  the  preceding  year,  the  chief  problem  in  1949 
was  that  of  the  "  cold  war  "  with  the  dominion  of  India  over 
Kashmir.  It  was  hoped  that  a  settlement  was  in  sight  when  it 
was  announced,  on  the  first  day  of  the  year,  that  the  United 
Nations  Conciliation  commission  had  arranged  a  cease-fire, 
preparatory  to  a  truce  and  to  arrangements  for  holding  a 
plebiscite.  The  commission  proposed  that  the  cease-fire 
arrangements  should  include:  (a)  the  withdrawal  of  the 
tribesman  and  other  unauthorized  Pakistani  nationals;  (b)  the 
withdrawal  of  the  Pakistani  army;  (c)  the  withdrawal  of  the 
bulk  of  the  Indian  army.  After  this,  arrangements  were  to 


Sind     .... 

West  Punjab  . 

North-West  Frontier  Province 

(a)  administered  area 

(b)  tribal  area 
Baluchistan    . 

Western  Pakistan      . 
Eastern  Pakistan 

Total  . 


62,100 

14,200 

24,986 

134,002 

283,424 
54,100 

337,524 


15,800,000 

3,038,067 

2,500,000 

857,835 

26,730,902 
41,880,000 

68,610,902 


l  The  name  Pak(i)stan  is  composed  of  letters  taken  from  the  names  of  its 
components:  Punjab,  North-West  Frontier  province  (of  which  the  inhabitants  are 
mainly  Afghan),  ATashmir  (a  province  still  in  dispute  with  India),  Sind  and 
Baluchistan.  The  name  was  invented  by  C.  Rahmat  Ali,  founder  of  the  Pakistan 
movement,  in  1933.  The  word  pak  means  also  "pure"  or  "clean." 


Liaquat  Ali  Khan  (wearing  glasses)  and  Begum  Ali  Khan  visiting 
the  Valika  textile  mills,  Karachi,  Sept.  16t  1949. 


PAKISTAN 


Osmania  Dnrrenify 


,489 


be  made  for  ascertaining  the  will  of  the  people  by  a  free  and 
impartial  vote.  The  subsequent  delays,  finally  ended  in  a 
deadlock  (5**?  INDIA).  The  government  of  India  assumed 
an  intransigent  attitude  throughout  the  proceedings  and 
insisted  as  a  preliminary  on  the  disbandment  of  the  Azad 
Kashmir  forces,  which  would  leave  the  Moslem  population  at 
the  mercy  of  the  rival  faction  under  Sheikh  Abdullah.  Much 
disquiet  was  aroused  by  the  recognition  on  the  part  of  the 
Indian  government  of  the  son  of  Sir  Hari  Singh  as  maharaja, 
which  was  regarded  in  Pakistan  as  a  ruse  for  the  perpetuation 
of  Dogra  rule  over  the  masses. 

One  of  the  major  difficulties  created  by  the  partition  was 
over  the  canals.  In  Western  Pakistan,  with  its  low  rainfall, 
the  water-supply  was  a  matter  of  life  and  death  for  millions. 
The  Ravi,  Beas  and  Sutlej  rivers  rise  in  Indian  territory  and 
lower  down  they  join  the  Indus.  West  Punjab  and  Sind  depend 
for  their  livelihood  on  the  complicated  system  of  canals 
derived  from  this  source.  At  the  time  of  the  partition,  it  was 
assumed  that  the  system  would  remain  intact  and  that  some 
machinery  for  their  joint  control  would  be  set  up.  After  the 
partition,  however,  India  put  in  a  claim  for  the  absolute 
control  of  all  waters  passing  through  its  territories.  The 
matter  was  discussed  at  an  inter-dominion  conference  held  at 
New  Delhi  in  August,  but  no  agreement  was  arrived  at.  It 
was  felt  that,  failing  a  solution,  the  matter  should  be  referred 
to  the  U.N.  Security  council. 

Another  cause  of  tension  was  the  failure  to  settle  the 
question  of  evacuee  property.  By  an  agreement  arrived  at  in 
January,  it  was  decided  that  the  arrangement  arrived  at  should 
be  confined  to  the  East  Punjab  and  adjacent  areas  of  the 
United  Provinces,  as  it  was  only  in  these  districts  that  sub- 
stantial movements  of  the  population  had  occurred.  The 
Indian  government  on  the  other  hand  contended  that  it  should 
apply  to  the  whole  of  India.  If  this  were  admitted,  Moslems 
in  any  part  of  the  country  would  be  liable  to  be  deprived  of 
their  possessions,  and  this  again  would  start  a  fresh  exodus 
of  refugees  into  Pakistan.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Indian 
government  accused  Pakistan  of  banning  sales  and  exchanges 
of  immovable  evacuee  property  and  of  taking  over  about  a 
dozen  of  the  leading  non-Moslem  firms  in  Karachi,  on  the 
ground  that  they  were  intending  to  leave  the  country. 

The  relations  of  the  provinces  with  the  central  government 
were  not  altogether  satisfactory.  The  exception  was  East 
Bengal,  where  Khwaja  Nazimuddin  was  succeeded  by  his 
colleague  Nural  Amin,  and  the  questions  arising  out  of  the 
influx  of  Hindus  to  West  Bengal  and  a  threatened  famine  were 
promptly  dealt  with.  The  only  effective  opposition  was 
provided  by  the  Congress  party  under  H.  S.  Suhrawardy.  In 
West  Punjab  a  drive  to  put  an  end  to  political  jobbery  and 
corruption  led  to  the  resignation  of  the  governor,  Sir  Francis 
Mudie,  who  came  into  conflict  with  the  local  branch  of  the 
Moslem  League  owing  to  his  vigorous  methods  to  combat  the 
evil.  Similar  trouble  had  already  arisen  in  Sind,  where  the 
prime  minister,  M.  A.  Khuhro,  was  removed,  and  his  successor, 
Pir  Illahi  Bux,  suffered  a  similar  fate. 

More  serious  was  the  friction  which  arose  in  the  North- 
West  Frontier  Province,  where  the  Pathans  had  never  really 
been  reconciled  to  Pakistani  rule.  The  Durand  line  demarcated 
between  Britain  and  Afghanistan  in  1892  had  left  a  kind  of 
no-man's-land  between  the  two  countries,  where  order  had 
been  kept  by  the  establishment  of  strong  points  connected  by 
strategic  roads  from  which  expeditions  could  be  sent  to  deal 
with  parties  of  raiders  seeking  to  enter  British  territory.  The 
position  had  never  been  satisfactory  and,  after  the  withdrawal 
of  the  British  garrison,  the  Afghan  government  had  sought  to 
win  over  the  Pathan  tribesmen  by  encouraging  malcontents 
like  the  fakir  of  Ipi  and  exploiting  local  grievances  (see  also 
AFGHANISTAN).  One  of  the  last  achievements  of  the  Quaid-i- 
Azamt  M.  A.  Jinnah,  had  been  to  counteract  these  attempts 


Viscount  Hall,  first  lord  of  the  Admiralty,  handing  over  H.M.S. 
*'  Onslow  "  to  the  Pakistan  high  commissioner  in  London  for  transfer 
to  the  Pakistan  navy  as  H.M.P.S.  "  Tippu  Sultan"  Devonport, 

Sept.  30, 1949. 

to  stir  up  trouble  by  taking  active  measures  to  alleviate  the 
poverty  which  was  at  the  root  of  the  discontent.  Work  was  to 
be  found  for  the  tribesmen  in  road-building  and  hydro- 
electric schemes,  irrigation  and  cottage  industries.  The  most 
comprehensive  of  these  schemes  was  one  for  the  settlement  of 
the  unruly  tribe  of  the  Mahsuds  of  southern  Waziristan  in 
the  Dera  Ismail  Khan  district.  About  2,000  ac.  were  allotted 
for  the  purpose,  and  further  5,000  ac.  were  being  cleared  for 
distribution  when  fit  for  cultivation.  It  was  estimated  that 
over  500  families  would  be  settled  in  the  area  on  holdings 
between  12  and  25  ac.  within  the  next  five  years,  and  would 
be  self-supporting. 

The  key  to  prosperity  lay  in  co-operation  between  the  two 
dominions.  Their  economics  were  complementary.  Pakistan 
had  certain  raw  materials,  whereas  India  had  coal,  iron  and 
manufacturing  facilities;  but  the  two  had  to  be  harnessed 
together  in  order  to  attract  the  foreign  capital  necessary  for 
their  development.  The  chief  obstacle  in  the  way  of  agreement 
was  the  deadlock  over  Kashmir.  "  Once  Kashmir  is  out  of  the 
way/'  the  prime  minister  of  Pakistan  was  reported  to  have 
said,  **  there  should  be  nothing  to  divide  us." 

Despite  all  handicaps,  the  economic  outlook  was  hopeful. 
The  State  bank  accomplished  the  difficult  task  of  withdrawing 
Indian  notes  circulating  in  Pakistan  and  replacing  them  by 
its  own  currency,  and  partly  received  Pakistan's  share  of  the 
assets  of  the  Reserve  Bank  of  India.  In  order  to  keep  down 
the  cost  of  living  and  maintain  conditions  favourable  to  the 
country's  development,  it  was  decided  not  to  devalue  the 
rupee.  Pakistan's  exports,  mostly  jute,  cotton,  hides,  skins 
and  wool,  did  not  admit  of  any  appreciable  expansion.  On 
Nov.  25  the  first  Islamic  international  industrial  and  economic 
conference  and  commercial  exhibition  was  opened  at  Karachi, 
and  was  the  first  attempt  to  unite  the  Moslem  world  on  the 
basis  of  Islamic  principles  rather  than  political  alliances. 
(See  ISLAM.) 

Of  special  significance  was  the  movement  to  cultivate 


490 


PA  L^ONTOLOGY— PALESTINE 


friendly  relations  with  the  U.S.S.R.  The  prime  minister, 
Liaquat  Ali  Khan  was  invited  to  Moscow,  and  Shoaib 
Quereshi,  formerly  foreign  minister  of  Bhopal  state,  was 
appointed  first  ambassador  of  Pakistan  to  the  U.S.S.R. 

(H  G.  RN.) 

Agriculture  and  Fisheries.  Main  crops  ('000  metric  tons,  1948): 
rice,  paddy,  11,621,  wheat  3,317;  barley  136;  sugar,  in  terms  of 
gur,  998;  jute  994  (71%  of  the  Indo-Pakistam  subcontinent);  cotton, 
ginned,  212;  linseed  13,  sesame  35;  tea  20,  tobacco  (with  India, 
1947)  454.  Livestock  (in  '000  head,  1939  est )  cattle  24,444;  sheep 
5,941;  pigs  73;  horses  1,461;  goats  7,982;  camels  5,303.  Production 
of  wool  (in  '000  metric  tons  on  greasy  basis,  1948-49)  11.  Fisheries, 
annual  catch  estimated  at  33  million  Ib, 

Industry.  Factories  (1944  est)  1,261;  persons  employed  186,814 
Fuel  and  power  (1948,  1949,  six  months,  in  brackets)  coal  and 
lignite  ('000  metric  tons)  241  (173),  electricity  (million  kwh  )  130 
(77),  crude  oil  ('000  metric  tons)  47  6  (36-5).  Raw  materials  ('000 
metric  tons,  1944  est )'  salt  93;  gypsum  25;  chromite  21.  Manufac- 
tured goods  (1948):  cotton  cloth  (million  m  )  86;  cement  ('000  metric 
tons)  325. 

Foreign  Trade.  Imports.  (1948)  Rs.842  million;  (1949,  six  months) 
Rs.744  million.  Exports:  (1948)  Rs  867  million;  (1949,  six  months) 
Rs.579  million. 

Transport  and  Communications.  Licensed  motor  vehicles  (Dec  1948): 
cars  14,130,  commercial  vehicles  8,276.  Shipping  (Dec  1948)  number 
of  merchant  vessels  19,  total  gross  tonnage  87,703 

Finance  and  Banking.  (Million  Rs  )  Budget:  (1948-49  est )  balanced 
at  950,  (1949- 50 est )  balanced  at  1,110,  (1950-51  est.)  balanced  at  1,156. 
Note  circulation  (old  notes  of  the  Reserve  Bank  of  India  over-stamped 
"  Pakistan "  and  new  notes  issued  by  the  State  Bank  of  Pakistan 
from  Oct  1,  1948).  (Aug  1948)  855,  (Aug  1949)  1,644  Gold  reserve 
(Aug.  1949,  in  brackets,  Aug  1948)  13  3  (5  I)  million  U  S  dollars 
Bank  deposits  (Aug  1949,  in  brackets,  Jan  1949)  2,568  (2,682). 
Monetary  unit  rupee  with  an  exchange  rate  of  Rs  9-29  (13  33  before 
Sept.  18,  1949)  to  the  pound;  Rs.l«=2j.  2d  (Is.  6d  before  the 
devaluation  of  the  £) 

PALEONTOLOGY.  In  1948  attention  was  drawn 
to  the  remarkable  work  that  had  been  done  on  the  nature  of 
graptolites  by  Roman  Kozlowski.  This  work  had  then 
only  been  outlined  but  the  full  details  were  published  in 
1949.  Otherwise  the  work  of  1949  was  a  consolidation  of 
knowledge  from  many  parts  of  the  world.  The  shells  and 
other  structures  of  very  small  animals  and  plants,  such  as 
the  Foramimfera  and  diatoms  and  the  spicules  of  sponges, 
were  the  subjects  of  continued  study.  In  the  new  world 
Orville  Bandy  monographed  the  Eocene  and  Ohgocene 
Forammifera  of  Alabama  and  in  the  old  world  Andre 
Pastiels  wrote  an  impressive  study  of  the  radiolarians, 
diatoms  and  sponges  of  the  Belgian  Eocene.  Knowledge  of 
the  Polyzoa  was  increased  by  Michel  Vigneaux  who  made 
extensive  studies  of  the  Bryozoa  of  the  Aquitame  basin, 
and  revised  the  classification  of  the  group.  This  work  was 
expected  to  affect  and  interest  workers  far  beyond  the 
confines  of  France.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  world 
Fredenco  Lange  monographed  the  polychicte  annelids  of 
Devonian  age  in  Brazil  in  one  of  the  fine  publications  of  the 
Pakeontological  institute  of  Ithaca,  New  York. 

Thecnnoids,  or  sea-lilies,  continued  to  be  studied  by  Harrell 
Strimple  in  the  United  States.  Stnmple  worked  on  Carbon- 
iferous forms  but  an  Australian  colleague,  Curt  Tcichert, 
devoted  himself  to  the  later,  Permian,  crmoid  Calccolispongia. 

Other  invertebrate  studies  included  the  splendid  work  by 
Maxime  Gilbert  on  the  gastropods  of  the  lower  Miocene 
of  the  Loire;  on  the  Silurian  and  later  Tnlobites  of  Britain 
in  the  final  papers  of  F.  R.  Cowper  Reed,  and,  in  the  tangled 
pathways  of  Ammonite  nomenclature,  by  L.  F.  Spath. 

In  vertebrate  palaeontology,  T.  S.  Westoll  wrote  an 
important  paper  on  the  evolution  of  the  Dipnoi,  stressing 
characters  which  could  be  taken  to  show  advance  and  thus 
to  give  a  clue  to  the  rates  of  evolution.  In  Germany,  the 
veteran  student  of  fossil  reptiles,  Friednch  von  Huene, 
described  new  remains  of  ichthyosaurs  and  plesiosaurs  and 
discussed  in  detail  the  probable  development  of  the  terrestrial 
type  of  limb  into  the  swimming  paddle  of  the  plesiosaurs 


and  placodonts.  He  confined  himself  to  the  study  of  the 
forelimb  and  shoulder  girdle  which  were  of  importance  in 
the  classification  of  the  plesiosaurs.  The  same  author  also 
published  a  review  of  the  lower  Tetrapoda  which  summarized 
his  views  on  fossil  Amphibia  and  Reptilia.  Each  order  and 
sub-order  was  diagnosed.  This  paper  was  published  in  a 
volume  to  commemorate  the  work  of  Robert  Broom,  whose 
studies  on  fossil  reptiles  and,  more  recently,  on  fossil  man, 
were  world  famous.  During  1949  Dr.  Broom  lectured  in 
America  and  Great  Britain  on  his  discoveries  of  Pat anthropus 
and  Plesianthropus.  Information  on  these  and  other  finds 
and  a  summary  of  present  knowledge,  in  a  popular  form,  was 
given  by  W.  E.  le  Gros  Clark  in  his  History  of  the  Primates. 

In  palieobotany,  Tom  Harris  continued  his  studies  in  the 
Jurassic  flora  of  Yorkshire.  Francis  Stockmans  wrote  on 
the  Vegi'taux  du  devonien  super ieur  de  la  Belgique,  a  large 
work  contrasting  the  Belgian  species  with  those  of  other 
parts  of  the  world  and  having  an  excellent  bibliography. 

In  the  field  of  evolutionary  philosophy,  two  Americans 
made  important  contributions.  A.  S.  Romer  dealt  with  time 
series  and  trends  in  animal  evolution  and  covered  a  wide 
field  of  invertebrate  and  vertebrate  examples.  He  dealt  also 
with  extinction,  regarding  this  primarily  as  an  environmental 
effect,  in  many  cases  the  scarcity  of  food,  animals  and  plants 
being  responsible  for  wide  results.  E.  H.  Colbert  dealt  with 
progressive  adaptations  as  seen  in  the  fossil  record,  confining 
himself  to  the  fossil  reptiles  on  which  he  is  a  leading  authority. 
He  abandoned  this  particular  field,  however,  in  an  important 
essay  on  the  palaeontological  principles  significant  in  human 
evolution.  Here  he  dealt  with  the  theories  of  natural  selec- 
tion, with  parallelism,  irreversibihty  of  evolution,  ortho- 
genesis and  extinction.  Professor  Colbert  lately  made  some 
important  discoveries  in  the  field  but  in  1949  his  investigations 
were  of  an  exploratory,  rather  than  of  a  collecting  nature. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  E  H.  Colbert  "  Some  palieontological  principles 
significant  in  human  evolution,"  Studies  in  Phvutal  Anthropology, 
no  1,  Early  Man  in  the  Far  hast,  Washington,  DC,  1949,  W  E.  le 
Gros  Clark,  History  of  the  Primates,  London,  1949,  A  S  Romer, 
"Time  Series  and  Trends  in  Animal  Evolution,"  Genetic*.  Palaeontology 
and  Evolution,  pp  103-120,  Princeton,  1949  (\y.  E.  S.) 

PALAU  (PELEW)  ISLAND:  ^TRusr  TERRITORIES. 

PALESTINE.  The  former  British-administered  man- 
dated territory  of  10,159  sq.  mi.  had  been  partitioned  during 
1948  and  1949  between  the  new  state  of  Israel,  which  held 
four-fifths  of  its  area,  and  the  kingdom  of  Jordan,  which 
occupied  the  greater  part  of  the  remainder.  In  the  southwest 
a  small  strip  of  territory  around  Gaza  (about  100  sq.  mi.) 
was  in  Egyptian  hands  and  in  the  northeast  Syrian  forces 
occupied  some  small  frontier  areas.  No  serious  fighting  took 
place  after  the  conclusion  of  the  final  Israeli  campaign  in 
the  Negev  in  Jan.  1949.  (See  ISRAEL.) 

The  population  of  the  area  of  Palestine  which  remained 
in  Arab  hands  could  not  readily  be  established  because  of  the 
influx  of  refugees  from  Israeli  territory  That  of  the  Gaza 
district  was  estimated  at  over  200,000,  while  the  much  larger 
mountain  areas  of  Samaria  and  eastern  Judaea,  which  was 
occupied  by  Arab  legion  forces  from  Jordan,  was  probably 
in  excess  of  600,000.  The  total  number  of  Palestinian  Arab 
refugees  made  destitute  by  the  Arab-Israel  war  was  com- 
puted by  the  U.N.  Economic  Survey  Mission  for  the  Middle 
East  at  652,000.  During  1949  most  of  them  were  in  receipt 
of  food  and  medical  assistance  from  U.N.  agencies  or 
voluntary  relief  organizations. 

The  Old  City  of  Jerusalem,  Nablus  and  Hebron  were  the 
main  Jordan-held  centres  of  Arab  Palestine,  administered 
by  governors  appointed  by  King  Abdullah  of  Jordan,  who 
had  strengthened  his  Amman  government  by  the  inclusion 
of  some  Palestinian  Arab  leaders.  But  there  was  no  formal 
act  of  annexation  or  incorporation  of  the  area  into  Jordan. 


PANAMA— PAPAGOS 


491 


The  United  Nations  still  regarded  Palestine  as  one  area  for 
purposes  of  conciliation  and  economic  development  and 
maintained  a  staff  with  permanent  headquarters  at  the 
government  house  in  Jerusalem,  in  an  enclave  between 
Jordan-  and  Israel-held  territory.  By  a  resolution  of  the 
general  assembly  of  Dec.  1949,  the  U.N.  laid  claim  to  the 
administration  of  Jerusalem  (q.v.)  and  its  environs. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  J  Parlccs,  A  History  of  Palestine  from  135  A.D.  to 
Modern  Ages  (London,  1949)  (J.  \VR.) 

PANAMA.  A  republic  of  Central  America  adjoining 
South  America.  It  is  bisected  by  the  canal  zone,  which  is 
leased  to  the  United  States.  Area:  28,575  sq.  mi.  Pop.  (mid- 
1949  est.):  763,800.  Both  area  and  population  are  exclusive 
of  the  canal  zone.  The  racial  composition  includes  Europeans 
(11%),  native  Indians  (9%),  Negroes  (14%),  mestizos  or 
mixed  (65%),  the  rest  being  Asiatics.  Language:  Spanish. 
Religion:  Roman  Catholic  93%,  Protestant  6%.  Chief 
towns  (1949  est.):  Panama  City,  on  the  Pacific  coast  (cap., 
146,117);  Colon,  on  the  Atlantic  coast  (54,334).  Presidents 
in  1949:  Domingo  Diaz  Arosemena,  Daniel  Chanis,  Roberto 
F.  Chian  and  Arnulfo  Arias  Madrid. 

History.  The  year  1949  was  featured  by  a  rapid  succession 
of  presidents.  The  administration  weathered  one  crisis  when 
an  alleged  plot  against  the  government  was  discovered  in 
April  and  thwarted  by  a  suspension  of  constitutional  guaran- 
tees and  the  arrest  of  several  political  figures.  Among  those 
detained  were  the  brothers  Harmodio  and  Arnulfo  Anas, 
both  former  presidents. 

A  heart  ailment  caused  President  Diaz  Arosemena  to  retire 
in  July,  and  he  died  on  Aug.  23.  He  was  succeeded  on  July  28 
by  the  first  vice-president,  Daniel  Chanis,  Jr.  The  new  presi- 
dent lifted  the  state  of  siege,  released  those  arrested  in 
connection  with  the  plot  and  undertook  to  break  the  meat- 
packing and  bus-transportation  monopolies,  allegedly  con- 
trolled by  national  police  personnel.  The  latter  policy 
provoked  a  clash  between  Chanis  and  the  chief  of  police, 
Colonel  Jose  Remon,  and  on  Nov.  20  Colonel  Remon 
forced  Chanis  to  resign  in  favour  of  the  second  vice-president, 
Roberto  F.  Chian.  Chanis,  however,  made  a  dramatic 
appearance  before  the  National  Assembly  and  withdrew  his 
resignation,  explaining  it  had  been  signed  under  coercion. 
His  reinstatement  was  upheld  by  the  Supreme  Court  on 
Nov.  24  but  he  was  ousted  the  same  day  by  Colonel  Remon 
and  replaced  by  Arnulfo  Anas  Chanis  fled;  Chian  retired; 
and  Anas  was  sworn  in  as  president  on  Nov.  25. 

Arias  referred  the  legality  of  his  position  to  the  national 
election  jury.  This  body  had  denied  him  a  majority  in  the 
presidential  election  of  1948  by  invalidating  a  large  number 
of  his  votes  and  proclaiming  Diaz  Arosemena  elected.  Now 
it  reversed  its  decision  and  declared  that  Anas  was  legally 
elected  and  therefore  the  constitutional  president.  A  general 
strike  in  protest  of  the  coup  ended  Nov.  28  and  the  National 
Assembly  accepted  Arias  as  president  on  Nov.  29. 

The  threat  of  a  world-wide  boycott  of  shipping  under 
Panama  registry  lingered  throughout  the  year  as  the  Inter- 
national Labour  organization  investigated  working  conditions 
on  the  country's  flagships. 

Education.  Schools  (1948-49).  primary  922,  teachers  3,175,  pupils 
101,249,  secondary  15,  teachers  316,  pupils  7,155,  professional  52, 
teachers  497,  pupils  9,149;  National  university,  professors  76,  students 
1,343 

Agriculture.  Mam  crops  (1948;  '000  Ib )  nee  166,065;  corn 
102,912,  beans  12,718;  coffee  8,283,  potatoes  4,137. 

Foreign  Trade.  Exports  during  1948  were  estimated  at  $10,477,272 
and  imports  at  $63,775,726  The  chief  exports  were,  bananas,  cacao 
beans,  coconuts  and  abaca  fibre 

Communications.  Railways  (1949)  223 -4  mi  Roads  (1948)'  1,102  mi 
paved  and  450  •  9  mi.  gravel ,  motor  vehicles  registered  25, 173  Merchant 
marine  (end  1948):  654  ships  with  a  total  tonnage  of  2,965,428. 

Finance.  The  monetary  unit  is  the  balboa,  maintained  at  par  with 
the  U.S.  dollar.  Budget  (1949  est.)  expenditure  $33-2  million.  Public 


debt  (Dec.  31,  1948):  $25,968,939  (including  $15,496,898  external). 
Money  in  circulation  (June  30,  1949):  $1,510,000  in  specie  and 
$1,253,000  in  banknotes.  (M.  L.  M.) 

PANAMA  CANAL  ZONE.  A  United  States  military 
reservation  embracing  a  ten-mile  strip  across  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama,  leased  for  the  protection  and  administration  of  the 
Panama  canal.  Area:  553-1  sq  mi.  including  190-9  sq.  mi. 
of  fresh  water.  Population,  exclusive  of  military  personnel 
(end  of  1948  est):  47,077,  including  22,402  U.S.  citizens. 
Administrative  centre:  Balboa  Heights  (pop.,  1946:  17,623). 
Governor,  Brigadier  General  Francis  K.  Newcomber 

Discussions  of  canal  modernizations  were  continued 
during  1949  without  decision,  and  the  study  of  proposed  toll 
increases  was  postponed  until  1950.  On  Sept.  21,  1949, 
commercial  air  operations  were  transferred  from  Albrook 
field  to  Panama's  new  national  airport.  A  committee  repre- 
senting labour  organizations,  investigating  conditions  in 
canal  /one  employment,  reported  in  February  that  racial 
discrimination  existed  in  housing,  schools,  hospitals  and  wage 
rates.  In  September  employment  by  the  canal  and  Panama 
Railroad  company  was  reportedly  the  lowest  since  1940. 

Education.  In  1948  there  were  14  schools  with  4,219  pupils  and  a 
junior  college  for  whites,  14  schools  with  2,973  and  a  normal  school 
tor  coloured  pupils 

Finance.  Total  canal  revenues  (1947-48)  $20,298,260;  net  expenses, 
$19,235,067,  net  capital  investment,  $516,332,328  In  the  same  period, 
4,678  ships  passing  through  the  canal  carried  cargoes  totalling  24,1 17,788 
tons  and  paid  tolls  amounting  to  $19,956,593  The  canal  traffic  was 
up  3-7%  during  the  first  nine  months  of  1949  from  the  same  period  of 
1948.  (M.  L.  M.) 

PAN-AMERICAN  UNION:  see  ORGANIZATION  OF 
AMIRICAN  STATES. 

PAPAGOS,  ALEXANDROS,  Greek  army  officer 
(b.  Athens,  Dec.  9,  1886),  son  of  General  Leonidas  Papagos 
and  Marie  nee  AverofF.  After  studying  at  the  Greek  War 
academy,  Brussels  Military  academy  and  the  Cavalry  school 
at  Ypres,  Belgium,  he  was  commissioned  in  1906  in  a  Greek 
cavalry  regiment.  He  served  in  the  Balkan  wars  (1912-13), 
reaching  the  rank  of  major  during  World  War  1.  As  a  lieuten- 
ant colonel  he  was  chief  of  staff  of  a  cavalry  division  during 
the  Asia  Minor  campaign  (1919-22).  From  1927-32  he  was 
major  general  in  command  of  the  Larissa  cavalry  division. 
He  was  appointed  deputy  chief  of  staff  in  1932,  inspector 
general  of  cavalry  in  1934  and  a  year  later  was  promoted  to 
lieutenant  general  and  appointed  commander  of  the  3rd 
(Salonika)  army  corps.  Papagos  was  for  a  few  months 
minister  of  war  in  the  Gheorghios  Kondylis  cabinet  (1935) 
but  after  the  return  of  King  George  11  was  appointed  inspector 
general  of  the  Greek  army  and  in  1936  chief  of  the  general 
staff.  When  Italy  attacked  Greece  on  Oct.  28,  1940,  he  was 
commander  in  chief  of  the  Greek  forces.  He  checked  the 
Italian  invasion,  took  the  offensive  and  conquered  the  southern 
part  of  Italian-occupied  Albania;  but  when  German  forces, 
coming  from  Bulgaria,  also  attacked  Greece  (April  6,  1941) 
neither  his  moral  prestige  nor  his  skilful  strategy  could  hold 
out  against  superior  mechanized  force.  He  remained  in 
Greece  after  the  occupation  of  the  country,  was  taken  as  a 
hostage  by  the  Germans  in  1943  and  imprisoned  in  various 
concentration  camps,  including  Oranienburg  and  Dachau. 
Liberated  in  May  1945  by  the  5th  U.S.  army  from  a  camp  in 
the  Tirol,  Papagos  returned  to  Greece,  was  recalled  to  active 
service,  promoted  full  general  in  July  1947  and  appointed 
commander  in  chief  on  Jan.  20,  1949.  In  the  Grammos-Vitsi 
area,  familiar  to  him  from  1940-41 ,  he  destroyed  the  remaining 
Communist  rebel  strongholds  in  Greece.  On  Oct.  28  he  was 
promoted  field  marshal,  the  first  Greek  professional  soldier 
to  hold  this  rank. 


492 


PAPER  AND   PULP  INDUSTRY— PARAGUAY 


PAPER  AND  PULP  INDUSTRY.  The  first 
postwar  setback  to  the  upward  trend  of  the  world  pulp  and 
paper  industry  was  encountered  during  1949.  First  intimation 
came  with  a  sharp  recession  in  the  United  States  which, 
eventually  felt  in  North  America  and  Europe,  was  main- 
tained until  mid-year.  This  movement  then  gradually 
reversed  and  during  later  months  the  U.S.  became  sub- 
stantial buyers  in  the  Scandinavian  market.  Price  declines 
and  pulp  and  paper  mill  closures  in  many  countries  were 
features  of  the  first  half  of  the  year  but  as  1949  closed  Scandi- 
navian prices  hardened  and  tended  to  rise. 

Meanwhile  in  Great  Britain,  the  Commonwealth  and  Euro- 
pean countries  there  was  a  fictitious  appearance  of  over- 
production. As  consumption  in  many  countries  was  below 
prewar  owing  to  government  restrictions,  lack  of  purchasing 
power  and  other  reasons,  world  pulp  and  paper  trade  had 
still  to  effect  substantial  extra  production  before  the  prewar 
level  of  per  capita  consumption  could  be  reached. 

In  Great  Britain  manufacture  of  many  paper  qualities 
improved;  nevertheless  statistics  disclosed  that  paper 
production  was  only  80%  of  1939  although  that  of  paper- 
board  was  well  above  prewar.  Whereas  the  receipts  of  paper- 
making  materials  from  abroad  reached  about  85%  of  1939, 
exports  of  paper  and  boards  were  returned  at  approximately 
110%  and  imports  at  about  40%. 

Vast  potential  world  paper  consumption  was  still  recog- 
nized and  news  of  heavy  capital  investment  in  new  mills  was 
reported.  Concurrently  efforts  continued  to  be  made  by 
many  countries  to  render  themselves  independent  of  pulp 
and  paper  importation  but  it  seemed  probable  that  expanding 
consumption  would,  for  many  years,  keep  ahead  of  this 
desire.  Thus  new  material  sources  were  constantly  being 
looked  for  and  in  this  respect  undoubtedly  straw  would 
become  increasingly  important  as  time  progressed  because 
existing  papermaking  materials,  particularly  wood  pulp, 
would  not  be  capable  of  meeting  the  constantly  expanding 
demand  for  paper. 

In  India,  where  production  remained  at  approximately 
100,000  tons  for  a  population  of  nearly  400  million  the  first 
newsprint  mill  was  being  erected  and  other  projects  were  in 
view.  Canada,  which  supplied  60%  of  the  world's  newsprint, 
continued  to  expand  production  and  new  mills  were  in  course 
of  erection.  New  Zealand  proposed  to  build  a  state-owned 
pulp  and  paper  mill  at  Murupara;  Australia  was  also  building 
rapidly;  and  the  successful  use  of  a  new  raw  material, 
Canna  lily,  promised  to  supply,  among  other  articles,  pulp 
for  papermaking. 

In  Europe,  Sweden  produced  less  than  prewar  and  appeared 
to  have  reached  the  limit  of  pulp  production,  as  cutting  for 
many  years  was  too  high  for  re-growth  of  forests.  To  over- 
come present  shortage  efforts  were  being  made  to  increase 
yield  and  make  better  use  of  present  supplies.  Latest  pub- 
lished figures  from  France  indicated  steady  improvement  in 
production  of  both  pulp  and  paper.  In  the  British  zone  of 
Germany  1948  production  was  nearly  double  that  of  the 
previous  year  and  1949  produced  further  progress.  Similar 
reports  were  received  from  other  European  countries. 

The  Food  and  Agriculture  organization  predicted  that 
there  would  be  an  under-production  of  pulp  by  1955  of  one 
million  tons.  It  was  estimated  that  the  world  demand  in 
that  year  would  be  37-2  million  tons  and  production  36-3 
million  tons.  (V.  S.  S.) 

United  States.  The  estimated  production  of  paper  and 
paperboard  in  the  United  States  for  1949  was  approximately 
20-1  million  tons,  or  about  10%  less  than  in  1948.  At  the 
end  of  1949  the  industry  was  running  at  more  than  99% 
of  capacity,  with  both  production  and  prices  stable. 

Canada.  Canadian  production  of  pulpwood  in  the  1948-49 
season  was  estimated  at  about  9-4  million  cords.  Production 


of  wood  pulp  continued  at  the  record  established  in  1947. 
No  new  mills  were  built  in  1948  or  1949,  but  modernization 
of  newsprint  mills  resulted  in  an  increase  of  150,000  tons  in 
1948.  The  pulp  and  paper  industry  held  first  place  in  the 
dominion  in  regard  to  gross  value  of  products. 

PAPUA -NEW  GUINEA.  Under  the  Papua-New 
Guinea  Provisional  act  1949  the  territory  of  Papua  and  the 
trust  territory  of  (former  German)  New  Guinea  are  united  into 
a  single  area  administered  by  the  Commonwealth  of  Australia. 
Areas:  Papua,  90,540  sq.  mi.;  New  Guinea  proper,  69,700 
sq.  mi.;  New  Britain,  New  Ireland,  Admiralty  islands  and 
certain  of  the  Solomon  islands  (included  in  the  trust  territory), 
23,300  sq.  mi.  Population  (1941  est.):  Papua,  Native  about 
300,000,  white  3,070;  New  Guinea  (including  the  islands), 
Native  684,300,  white  4,100.  Capital  of  joint  administration: 
Port  Moresby  (pop.,  1937  est.,  3,000).  Administrator, 
Colonel  J.  K.  Murray. 

History.  In  Jan.  1949,  Cyril  Chambers,  acting  minister  of 
external  affairs,  visited  Papua  and  New  Guinea  and  on  his 
return  stated  that  with  proper  development  the  territories 
could  supply  Australia  and  other  markets  with  cocoa,  tea, 
coffee,  rice  and  jute.  A  bill  to  ensure  that  New  Guinea 
retained  its  separate  identity  as  a  trust  territory  and  did  not 
become  merged  with  Papua  was  passed  during  the  year  by 
the  federal  parliament  at  Canberra. 

In  October  a  severe  earth  tremor  shook  the  Rabaul  area 
on  the  island  of  New  Britain.  More  than  20  landslides  were 
caused  on  the  road  from  Rabaul  to  Kokopo.  Already  in 
1937  severe  earthquakes  at  Rabaul  had  caused  the  capital  to 
be  moved  from  Rabaul  to  Port  Moresby.  W.  J.  McKell, 
governor  general  of  Australia,  visited  Port  Moresby  at  the 
end  of  July  and  Rabaul  at  the  beginning  of  August. 

At  the  third  session  of  the  South  Pacific  commission  (</.v.) 
at  Noumea,  New  Caledonia,  in  May,  preliminary  considera- 
tion was  given  to  arrangements  for  the  first  South  Pacific 
conference  representing  the  Native  peoples  of  its  Pacific 
island  groups  and  the  Kingdom  of  Tonga.  The  conference, 
at  which  delegates  would  be  present  from  Papua  and  New 
Guinea,  was  planned  to  be  held  in  April  1950  at  Suva,  Fiji. 

On  Oct.  11,  1949,  the  Australian  government  set  up  a 
cabinet  sub-committee  of  five  cabinet  ministers  and  also  an 
inter-departmental  committee.  These  committees  were  set 
up  to  prepare  schemes  and  report  upon  measures  for  the 
co-ordination  of  development  of  Papua  and  New  Guinea. 

When  at  the  end  of  the  year  the  new  Indonesian  government 
claimed  the  annexation  of  the  Dutch  western  half  of  New 
Guinea  (152,089  sq.  mi.),  Australian  public  opinion  con- 
sidered that  this  claim  was  not  substantiated. 

Budget.     Estimated  expenditure  by  Australia  (1949-50):  £3,795,000. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  T.  P  Fry,  Law  and  Administration  in  New  Guinea 
(Sydney,  1949);  L  P.  Mair,  Australia  in  New  Guinea  (London,  1949); 
J.  K.  Murray,  The  Provisional  Administration  of  the  Territory  Papua- 
New  Guinea  (Brisbane,  1949).  (x.) 

PARAGUAY.  A  land-locked  republic  in  south-central 
South  America,  bounded  on  the  N.  and  in  the  E.  by  Brazil, 
on  the  S.  by  Argentina,  and  on  the  W.  by  Bolivia. 
Area:  157,047  sq.  mi.,  of  which  95,338  sq.  mi.  constitute  the 
sparsely  populated  Chaco,  while  the  61,709  lying  east  of 
the  Paraguay  river  contain  95%  of  the  population.  Pop. 
(mid- 1948  est.):  1,270,000.  The  people  are  a  homogeneous 
mixture  of  Guarani  Indian  and  Spanish,  with  a  small  propor- 
tion of  Portuguese  and  Italian  stocks.  Spanish  is  the  official 
language  but  Guarani  dialects  are  used  by  the  majority  of 
the  population.  Chief  towns  (pop.,  1948  est.):  Asunci6n 
(cap.,  130,067);  Villarica  (31,081);  Conception  (16,487). 
The  official  religion  is  Roman  Catholic,  and  the  archbishop 
is  president  of  the  Council  of  State.  Presidents  in  1949, 
Juan  Nataiicio  Gonzalez,  (from  Jan.  31)  General  Raimundo 


The  funeral  parade  of  General  Hen 


it,n-n  17, 1949.    A  few  days  bcjorc  iu\  dcaili  at  Dijon  un  March  11  he  was  decorated 
with  the  Medaille  Militaire. 


Rolon,  (from  Feb.  26)  Felipe  Molas  Lopez  and  (from 
Sept.  11)  Federico  Chaves. 

History.  On  Jan.  30,  1949,  an  army  faction  headed  by 
General  Raimundo  Rolon,  with  leanings  toward  Franquismo 
(Liberal  Socialism),  forced  the  resignation  of  President 
Gonzalez,  of  the  "  Guion  "  (battle-standard)  branch  of  the 
Colorado  party.  As  provisional  president,  General  Rolon 
proclaimed  that  political  exiles  of  all  opinions  might  freely 
return  to  Paraguay  and  participate  in  the  new  presidential 
elections  which  he  set  for  April.  Faced  with  this  situation 
41  Guion  "  and  **  Democratic©  "  factions  of  the  Colorados 
pooled  their  influence  with  the  various  army  officers.  They 
thus  succeeded  in  taking  over  the  government  from  General 
Rolon  on  Feb.  26,  during  the  funeral  ceremonies  of  the  arch- 
bishop, and  installed  as  provisional  president  Felipe  Molas 
Lopez,  of  the  '*  Guion  "  faction.  Molas  was  made  the  sole 
candidate  in  the  April  elections,  as  the  Liberal  ancj  the 
Franquista  (Febrerista)  exiles  did  not  return.  He  assumed 
office  formally  on  April  17,  with  ostensible  support  from 
both  Colorado  factions;  but  during  the  summer  the  ascen- 
dancy of  the  "  Democraticos  "  became  sufficiently  pronounced 
to  induce  the  Colorado  governing  board  to  direct  Molas  to 
resign.  On  Sept.  11  Federico  Chaves  was  made  president, 
ruling  the  country  on  behalf  of  the  governing  board  (which 
also  dominated  the  parliament).  On  Nov.  10  Chaves,  a 
veteran  Colorado  leader  who  had  borne  the  brunt  of  his 
party's  labours  during  its  long  years  in  opposition,  issued  a 
decree  calling  for  another  election  in  July  1950;  but  no 
indication  was  given  as  to  whether  the  Liberals  and  Febre- 
ristas  would  be  involved.  (W.  FT.) 

Education.  Schools  (1947):  elementary,  state  1,293,  pupils  176,465, 
teachers  4,157;  elementary,  private  19.  pupils  8,148,  teachers  202; 
secondary  14,  pupils  2,054;  technical  129.  National  university  (1940): 
students  890,  professors  and  lecturers  115. 

Agriculture.  Main  crops  ('000  metric  tons):  oranges  and  tangerines 
(1947)  206;  maize  (1945)  168;  yam  (1948)  HO;  cotton  (1948)  22; 
rice  (1948-49)  30;  tobacco  (1947)  11;  sugar,  raw  value  (1947)  16; 
vegetable  oils  (1948)  7.  Production  of  hardwood  timber  important: 
exports  in  1948  amounted  to  £12  million.  Livestock  ('000  head,  Dec. 
1946):  cattle  3,004;  horses  180;  sheep  110;  goats  7;  pigs  65. 

Industry.  Quebracho  (tannin)  was  extracted  from  timber  logs  in 
the  Chaco  region,  providing  (1948)  48,000  metric  tons  which  was  about 
a  quarter  of  total  world  production.  Petitgrain  oil  was  distilled  from  the 
leaves  of  a  bitter  orange  tree  and  used  in  the  manufacture  of  perfume; 


Paraguay  was  the  world's  leading  producer:  (1946)  407  metric  tons. 
Mineral  resources  are  extremely  meagre. 

Foreign  Trade.  (1948)  Imports  75  million  guaranis;  exports  87 
million  guaranis.  Principal  imports:  foodstuffs,  textiles  and  textile 
manufactures,  vehicles  and  accessories  and  metals  and  metal  manu- 
factures. Principal  exports:  timber,  cattle,  hides,  cotton,  quebracho 
extract  and  canned  meat.  Main  sources  of  supply  (1948):  Argentina 
34%,  United  States  27%,  United  Kingdom  14%,  Brazil  6%.  Main 
destinations  of  exports  (1947):  Argentina  33  %,  Uruguay  8  %,  United 
Kingdom  6%,  Netherlands  1%. 

Transport  and  Communications.  Improved  roads  (1949):  475  mi. 
Licensed  motor  vehicles  (Dec.  1948):  cars  1,290,  commercial  vehicles 
1,870.  Railways  (1947):  749  mi.  Water  transport  on  the  Parana  and 
Paraguay  rivers  handled  440.000  metric  tons  in  1948.  while  rail  trans- 
port handled  240,000  tons.  Telephones  (1949):  subscribers  3,977. 
Wireless  receiving  sets  (1948):  25,000. 

Finance  and  Banking.  (Million  guaranis)  Budget  (1949  est.):  revenue 
54-8,  expenditure  70-8.  Currency  circulation  (June  1949;  in  brackets 
June  1948):  67  (45).  Bank  deposits  (June  1949;  in  brackets  June 
1948):  63  (31).  Monetary  unit:  guarani  with  an  exchange  rate  (Dec. 
1949;  in  brackets  Dec.  1948)  of  8-65  (12-48)  guaranis  to  the  pound. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  H.  G.  Warren,  Paraguay:  an  Informal  History 
(Norman,  Oklahoma,  1949). 

PARIS.  Capital  and  largest  city  of  France,  pop.: 
(1936  census)  2,829,746,  (1946  census)  2,725,374.  President 
of  the  municipal  council:  Pierre  de  Gaulle. 

History.  In  general,  throughout  1949  there  was  a  gradual 
return  to  normal  peacetime  conditions.  There  were  no 
important  or  violent  strikes.  Food,  though  usually  expensive, 
was  good  and  plentiful ;  and  rationing  was  abolished,  although 
many  price  controls  were  retained.  Paris  continued  to  be  the 
scene  of  various  important  international  conferences,  some 
of  the  most  noteworthy  being  those  of  the  Organization  for 
European  Economic  Co-operation,  which  held  meetings  in 
February,  April  and  September,  and  the  Council  of  the 
Food  and  Agriculture  organization  which  met  in  June. 
The  World  Congress  of  the  Partisans  of  Peace  was  held  from 
April  20-25,  under  Communist  auspices. 

A  certain  amount  of  dissatisfaction  with  prevailing  condi- 
tions manifested  itself  in  a  series  of  strikes,  which  were, 
however,  of  short  duration.  There  was  unrest  in  the  civil 
service,  in  some  transport  services  and  in  the  nationalized 
Renault  works.  On  May  7  the  government  issued  requisition 
orders  for  staffs  of  Air  France  who  had  struck  because  of 
inadequate  pensions  and  were  demanding  "  charters "  for 


494 


PARLIAMENT,  HOUSES   OF 


flying  staffs.  In  late  July  a  strike  of  midinettes  or  dressmakers 
threatened  the  Paris  fashion  shows.  On  Nov.  25,  the  rnttro 
and  buses  ceased  running  as  part  of  the  24  hr.  general  strike 
occasioned  by  the  government's  refusal  to  extend  the  special 
wage  bonus,  granted  earlier  in  the  year,  to  all  workers  instead 
of  merely  to  those  in  the  lowest-paid  categories. 

A  welcome  event  during  1949  was  the  re-opening  of  three 
museums  in  the  Palais  de  Chaillot  which  had  been  occupied 
in  1948  by  the  United  Nations  general  assembly.  These 
were  the  Musee  de  THomme,  Musee  de  la  Marine  and 
Musee  des  Monuments  Frangais.  The  Musee  de  Cluny  was 
also  re-opened. 

In  October,  the  new  "  territorial  brigades  "  of  police  were 
introduced  in  an  effort  to  counter  increasing  brigandage  in 
Paris  and  its  suburbs. 

In  July  the  London  Symphony  Orchestra,  paying  its 
second  visit  to  Pans  since  1905,  was  warmly  received.  Works 
by  William  Walton  and  Vaughan  Williams  were  included 
and  the  orchestra  was  conducted  by  Gaston  Poulet. 

The  city's  budget  for  1949  was  balanced  at  Fr.42,673 
million. 

PARLIAMENT,  HOUSES  OF.  For  the  first  time 
since  1939  both  houses  sat  on  a  Saturday  when  on  July  30 
they  assembled  to  conclude  outstanding  business  before  the 
summer  adjournment  The  ten-week  recess  was  interrupted 
on  Sept.  28  when  both  houses  reassembled  to  debate  the 
government's  policy  of  devaluing  the  pound  sterling  The 
House  of  Commons  sat  for  three  days,  and  the  Lords  for 
two  days.  The  session,  which  had  been  opened  by  the  King 
on  Oct.  26,  1948,  continued  until  Dec.  16,  1949.  This  long 
session  was  held  in  order  to  pass  the  Parliament  bill  and  the 
Iron  and  Steel  bill  before  parliament  was  dissolved. 

The  Parliament  bill  was  passed  by  the  House  of  Commons 
on  Nov.  14,  but  on  Nov.  29  it  was  rejected  for  the  third  time 
by  the  House  of  Lords.  Under  the  procedure  of  the  Parlia- 
ment act  1911  the  bill  could  then  become  law  despite  its 
rejection  by  the  Lords  and  it  received  the  royal  assent  on 
Dec.  17.  In  November  the  government  introduced  a  series 
of  amendments  to  the  Iron  and  Steel  bill  whereby  the  industry 
could  not  be  taken  over  by  the  state  until  after  the  1950 
general  election,  thus  meeting  the  opposition  of  the  Con- 
servative peers.  These  amendments  were  accepted  by  both 
houses  and  the  bill  became  law  on  Nov.  24 

The  latest  constitutional  date  for  the  dissolution  of  parlia- 
ment was  Aug.  1950,  but  in  the  autumn  of  1949  it  was  widely 
believed  that  the  government  favoured  an  immediate  general 
election,  and  on  Oct.  13  the  following  statement  was  issued 
from  No.  10  Downing  street:  "  Having  regard  to  the  dis- 
turbing effects  on  trade  and  industry  and  on  the  national 
effort  by  the  continuance  of  speculations  as  to  an  early 
general  election,  the  prime  minister  thinks  it  right  to  inform 
the  country  of  his  decision  not  to  advise  His  Majesty  to 
dissolve  parliament  this  year." 

The  strength  of  the  Labour  party  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons was  reduced  by  three  during  the  year.  On  May  18, 
K.  Zilliacus  (Gateshead)  and  L.  J.  Solley  (Thurrock,  Essex) 
were  expelled  from  the  Labour  party,  and  L.  Hutchinson 
(Manchester,  Rusholme)  was  expelled  on  July  27.  With 
D.  N.  Pntt  (Hammersmith,  north)  and  J.  Platts-Mills  (Fins- 
bury)  they  formed  an  independent  labour  group  under  the 
chairmanship  of  D.  N.  Pritt.  Alfred  Edwards  (Middles- 
brough) and  Ivor  Thomas  (Keighley,  Yorkshire),  both  of 
whom  had  been  elected  as  Labour  members  but  later  sat  as 
independents,  received  the  Conservative  whip. 

On  Jan.  27,  for  the  first  time  since  1938,  a  ballot  was  held 
for  private  members'  bills.  353  members  entered  for  the  ballot : 
25  names  were  drawn  and  the  bills  formally  introduced  on 
Jan.  28.  Among  those  which  were  rejected  at  the  second  or 


third  readings  in  the  House  of  Commons  were  the  Protection 
of  Animals  (Hunting  and  Coursing  Prohibition),  Spelling 
Reform,  Analgesia  in  Childbirth,  Hairdressers  (Registration). 
The  first  private  members'  bill  to  receive  the  royal  assent 
was  the  Slaughter  of  Animals  (Scotland),  which  received  the 
assent  on  July  30. 

Six  by-elections  were  held  in  1949.  In  the  52  by-elections 
since  the  1945  general  election  the  results  were: 

Partv  Gamed      Held  Lost 

Labour        ....  -  35 

Conservative  .  .  311 

Independent  Labour  Party                      .  -                  1  1 

Ulster  Unionists    .  11- 

Independent  Ulster  Unionist       .                                               -  1 

Independent           ...  -                  -  2 

The  results  of  the  by-elections  in  1949  were: 

Divmon  Elected  candidate  Partv  Major it\ 

Batley  and  Morley,  Yorkshire  ADD  Broughton  Labour  7,686 
Hammersmith,  south  WT  Williams  Labour  1,613 

St  Pancras,  north  K  Robinson  Labour  5,067 

Sowerby,  Yorkshire  A  L  N  D.  Houghton  Labour  2.152 

Leeds,  west  F  P  Pannell  Labour  4,109 

Bradford,  south  G  Craddock  Labour  4,022 

In  December  J.  J.  Lawson  (Labour,  Chester-le-Street) 
was  appointed  vice-chairman  of  the  National  Parks  com- 
mission and  this  being  an  office  of  profit  he  was  appointed 
steward  of  the  Chiltern  Hundreds. 

The  clerk  of  the  parliaments  from  1934,  Sir  Henry  Badeley, 
retired  on  May  30  and  was  succeeded  by  Robert  Overbury, 
who  had  been  clerk  assistant  of  the  parliaments  from  1937. 
In  the  birthday  honours  list  Sir  Henry  was  created  a  baron; 
and  he  took  the  title  of  Lord  Badclcy,  of  Badley,  Suffolk. 
Admiral  Sir  Geoffrey  Blake,  Gentleman  Usher  of  the  Black 
Rod  from  1945,  resigned  in  January  owing  to  continuing 
deafness  from  gunblast;  the  King  appointed  Lieutenant 
General  Sir  Brian  Horrocks  to  succeed  him. 

Other  new  peers  created  in  1949  were:  Lord  Adams 
(J.  J.  Adams),  Lord  Ougan  of  Victoria  (Sir  Winston  Dugan), 
Lord  Boyd-Orr  (Sir  John  Boyd  Orr),  Lord  Macdonald  of 
Gwaenysgor  (Sir  Gordon  Macdonald)  and  Lord  Archibald 
(George  Archibald) 

The  government  chief  whip  in  the  House  of  Lords,  Lord 
Ammon,  resigned  in  July  after  criticizing  the  government 
for  their  handling  of  the  London  dock  strike.  Lord  Shepherd 
was  appointed  to  succeed  him.  Lord  Milverton  resigned 
from  the  Labour  party  in  opposition  to  the  Iron  and  Steel 
bill  and  later  joined  the  Liberal  party. 

Only  one  matter  was  referred  to  the  Committee  of  Privi- 
leges. On  July  26,  the  House  of  Commons  referred  a  com- 
plaint by  R.  Blackburn  (Labour,  King's  Norton)  that  he 
had  been  misrepresented  in  a  report  in  the  Daily  Worker. 
The  committee  reported  on  Oct.  20  that  the  report  did  not 
call  for  any  action  by  the  house 

In  January  a  delegation  from  the  House  of  Commons  led 
by  Major  James  Milner,  deputy  speaker,  and  accompanied 
by  Major  L.  A.  Fellowes,  clerk  assistant,  visited  Ceylon, 
where  on  Jan.  11,  they  presented  to  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives a  speaker's  chair  and  mace.  These  gifts  were  made  for 
the  purpose  of  marking  Ceylon's  attainment  of  fully  respon- 
sible self-government  and  full  membership  of  the  Common- 
wealth which  took  place  on  Feb  4,  1948. 

Commonwealth.  Changes  in  the  sizes  of  the  houses  in  three 
of  the  dominions  came  into  operation  during  the  year.  In 
Canada,  the  confederation  with  Newfoundland  added  seven 
members  to  the  House  of  Commons  and  six  to  the  Senate. 
In  Australia  the  House  of  Commons  was  enlarged  from  75 
seats  to  122  and  the  Senate  from  36  to  60.  In  South  Africa 
the  South  West  Africa  Affairs  Amendment  act  received  the 
assent  of  May  3.  Under  this  act  four  seats  would  be  added  to 
the  House  of  Assembly  for  representatives  of  South  West 
Africa  and  two  in  the  Senate. 


PATEL— PATENTS 


In  December  the  British  Columbia  Legislative  Assembly 
elected  Mrs.  Nancy  Holmes  as  speaker.  She  became  the 
first  woman  speaker  in  the  commonwealth.  (X.) 

PATEL,  SARDAR  VALLABHBHAI,  Indian 
politician  (b.  Karamsad,  near  Nadiad,  Oct.  31,  1875),  was 
educated  at  Nadiad  high  school.  He  became  a  barrister  and 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  London  and  also  practised  at  Ahmeda- 
bad.  He  soon  became  associated  with  Mahatma  Gandhi 
and  was  imprisoned  many  times  for  civil  disobedience 
activities.  He  was  a  member  of  the  working  committee  of 
the  Indian  National  congress,  and  on  Sept.  1,  1946,  took 
office  as  minister  for  the  home  department,  information  and 
broadcasting  in  the  interim  government.  After  the  granting 
of  independence  on  Aug.  15, 1947,  Sardar  Patel  became  deputy 
prime  minister  and  minister  for  states,  home,  information  and 
broadcasting.  As  minister  for  states  he  was  responsible 
for  the  integration  and  democratization  of  the  Indian  states. 
The  process  of  integration  was  completed  on  Oct.  15,  1949, 
and  Sardar  Patel  sent  messages  to  the  peoples  of  Benares 
Manipur  and  Tripura,  the  states  concerned  in  the  final 
transfer.  After  the  Commonwealth  conference  in  London  in 
April  had  made  known  that  it  had  been  found  possible  for 
India  to  be  an  independent  republic  within  the  Common- 
wealth, Sardar  Patel  described  its  decisions  as  "  bold  and 
momentous.'*  In  May,  in  the  debate  in  the  constituent 
assembly  on  the  proposal  to  abolish  seats  in  the  legislatures 
for  minority  communities,  he  said  "  we  are  to-day  laying 
the  foundation  stone  of  a  true  secular  democratic  state, 
where  everybody  has  equal  chance  and  equal  opportunity." 
On  June  4  he  inaugurated  the  armed  forces  academy  at 
Dehra  Dun.  The  Kasturba  Gandhi  trust,  in  memory  of  the 
wife  of  Mahatma  Gandhi,  re-elected  Sardar  Patel  chairman 
for  a  further  period  of  three  years  in  June  1949.  In  February 
Pandit  Nehru  unveiled  a  bust  of  Sardar  Patel  in  Godhra 
(Gujarat).  Pandit  Nehru  also  laid  the  foundation  stone  of 
Vallabh  Vidya-Nagar,  a  university  town  to  be  known  after 
Sardar  Patel. 

PATENTS.  The  year  1949  saw  the  passage  of  an  im- 
portant Patents  and  Designs  act  in  the  United  Kingdom 
but  was  otherwise  relatively  uneventful  in  the  domain  of 
patents.  That  act  made  numerous  changes  in  the  law  in 
substantial  agreement  with  the  recommendations  of  a 
departmental  committee.  Subsequently,  a  bill  to  consolidate 
the  whole  of  the  existing  law  relating  to  patents  and  a  similar 
bill  in  respect  of  the  law  relating  to  industrial  designs  were 
introduced  into  parliament;  they  were  expected  to  become 
law  and  to  come  into  operation  on  Jan.  1,  1950. 

The  agreement  between  Belgium,  France,  Luxembourg 
and  the  Netherlands  for  the  establishment  of  an  International 
Patents  Search  office  at  The  Hague  was  duly  ratified  and  the 
first  steps  towards  its  establishment  were  taken.  The  main 
function  of  this  office  would  be  to  issue  to  the  governments 
of  the  contracting  countries  qualified  advisory  opinions  on 
the  novelty  of  inventions  for  which  applications  for  patents 
were  filed  with  the  national  patent  offices.  The  intention  was 
that  the  new  office  should  commence  to  operate  at  the 
beginning  of  1950.  In  the  meantime  use  was  made  of  the 
staff  and  documentation  of  the  Netherlands  Patent  office, 
but  the  International  office  hoped  in  due  course  to  recruit 
and  train  its  own  staff  and  to  establish  its  own  collection  of 
search  material. 

A  project  for  a  European  Patents  Search  office  was  sub- 
mitted to  the  consultative  assembly  of  the  Council  of  Europe 
and  was  referred  to  the  council  of  ministers  for  examination. 
If  an  efficient  and  economical  scheme  could  be  evolved 
notwithstanding  the  immense  administrative  and  practical 
difficulties,  there  would  be  repercussions  on  the  position  of 


Uoirersify 

HYDERABAD 


495 


A  steam  tram  disguised  as  a  horse  vehicle  which  appeared  in  Boston, 
Massachusetts,  during  the  19th  century:  one  of  the  many  inventions 
for  which  patents  were  applied,  described  in  "  Patent  Applied 

For  "  (London,  1949). 

The  Hague  Search  office  and  a  solution  of  this  and  other 
connected  problems  would  have  to  be  found. 

Preliminary  preparations  for  the  next  conference  of  the 
International  Union  for  the  Protection  of  Industrial  Property 
which  was  expected  to  be  held  in  Lisbon  in  1952  or  1953  for 
the  purpose  of  revising  the  text  of  the  convention  of  the 
union  signed  in  London  in  1934,  were  begun.  The  Association 
of  International  Chambers  of  Commerce  held  a  meeting  at 
Quebec  in  June  and,  amongst  other  things,  adopted  a 
number  of  resolutions  relative  to  the  amendment  of  the 
convention  of  the  union.  Similarly  the  International  Associa- 
tion for  the  Protection  of  Industrial  Property  began  its 
arrangements  for  a  meeting  to  be  held  in  Paris  in  1950  to 
consider  possible  amendments  in  the  convention.  The  resolu- 
tions adopted  by  these  associations  would  have  an  important 
influence  on  the  programme  for  the  Lisbon  conference 
which  would  eventually  be  drawn  up  by  the  international 
bureau  of  the  union  and  the  Portuguese  government. 

A  fully  functioning  Patent  office  was  established  at  Munich 
as  from  Oct.  1  for  the  combined  American,  British  and 
French  zones  of  Germany.  A  branch  office  was  opened  at 
Berlin.  In  consequence  the  filing  offices  at  Darmstadt  and 
Berlin  were  closed.  The  international  relations  of  the  new 
office  had  not  yet  been  established,  but  it  was  anticipated 
that  the  Industrial  Property  union  would  recognize  the  new 
federal  republic  as  a  member  of  the  union.  (J.  L.  BE.) 

United  States.  The  United  States  Patent  office  granted 
39,809  patents  during  the  calendar  year  1949,  which  included 
4,451  for  designs,  93  for  plants  and  118  re-issues.  This  was 
an  increase  of  11,713  over  the  28,096  total  for  1948. 

Applications  for  patents  filed  in  the  Patent  office  for  the 
calendar  year  1948  totalled  75,952;  for  the  first  11  months  of 
1949,  the  number  filed  was  68,133.  In  Dec.  1949,  approxi- 
mately 240,000  applications  were  pending  in  the  Patent  office, 
of  which  about  141,000  were  awaiting  action  by  the  office 
and  96,000  under  rejection  were  awaiting  response  by 
applicants,  the  remainder  being  in  interference  or  on  appeal. 
Trade-marks  registered  (15,972)  and  renewed  (3,797)  during 
1949  totalled  19,769.  This  compared  with  16,530  registrations 
and  renewals  in  1948.  In  addition,  12,983  registrations  were 
republished.  Applications  for  registration,  republication  and 
renewal  for  the  first  11  months  of  1949  totalled  23,419, 
compared  with  37,159  applications  for  the  entire  preceding 
year.  Approximately  41,000  trade-mark  applications  were 
pending  in  the  office  in  Dec.  1949. 


496 


PAUKER— PEASANT   MOVEMENT 


At  the  end  of  1949,  the  Patent  office  had  granted  more  than 
2,492,000  patents,  of  which  about  600,000  were  unexpired. 
More  than  40,000  unexpired  patents  were  listed  on  the 
register  of  patents  available  for  licence  or  sale — the  new 
listings  being  published  in  the  Official  Gazette. 

The  comprehensive  revision  of  the  patent  rules  of  practice 
undertaken  in  1946  was  concluded  and  published  as  Rules 
of  Practice  of  the  United  States  Patent  Office  in  Patent  Cases, 
effective  March  1,  1949.  In  Nov.  1949  the  Manual  of  Patent 
Examining  Procedure  was  published.  Also  published  in  1949 
was  the  Guide  for  Patent  Draftsmen.  The  project  undertaken 
in  1948  to  perfect  the  patent  copy  reference  collection  main- 
tained for  public  use  in  the  research  room  continued  during 
the  year.  (See  also  INVENTORS,  AWARDS  TO.)  (J.  A.  ML.) 

PAUKER,  ANA,  Rumanian  politician  (b.  Codacsti, 
Moldavia,  Dec.  31,  1893),  the  daughter  of  Zvi  Rabinsohn,  a 
shohet  or  Jewish  slaughterer,  was  appointed  on  Nov.  7,  1947, 
minister  of  foreign  affairs.  (For  her  early  career  see  Britannica 
Book  of  the  Year  1949.) 

On  April  15,  1949,  she  was  appointed  one  of  the  three 
Communist  deputy  prime  ministers.  On  July  10  she  was 
present  at  Sofia  at  the  burial  of  G.  Dimitrov.  With  G. 
Gheorghiu-Dej,  one  of  the  deputy  prime  ministers,  she 
headed  the  Rumanian  delegation  to  Moscow  on  the  occasion 
of  Joseph  Stalin's  70th  birthday  on  Dec.  21.  On  Dec.  30, 
second  anniversary  of  the  proclamation  of  the  Rumanian 
people's  republic,  the  Moscow  Pravda  published  an  article 
by  her  commenting  on  the  event, 

PAUL  I,  King  of  the  Hellenes  (b.  Athens,  Dec.  14,  1901), 
succeeded  to  the  throne  on  April  1,  1947.  (For  his  early  life 
see  Britannica  Book  of  the  Year  1949). 

On  Jan.  16,  1949,  urging  the  formation  of  a  strong  national 
government,  he  stated  that  if  such  a  government  were  not 
formed  within  24  hours  he  would  find  another  solution  for 
which  he  hoped  the  parliament  would  grant  full  support. 
However  the  political  party  leaders  agreed  to  form  a  coalition 
government  and  requested  the  King  to  nominate  its  prime 
minister.  The  King  complied  by  appointing  T.  Sofoulis, 
the  Liberal  leader.  During  the  year  he  visited  various  battle 
areas  where  fighting  was  going  on  against  the  Communist 
rebels,  and  also  during  August  and  September  the  liberated 
Vitsi  and  Grammos  areas.  On  Sept.  14,  speaking  in  Athens, 
he  appealed  to  the  whole  of  the  Greek  nation  to  contribute 
to  the  work  of  relieving  the  suffering  of  700,000  refugees.  On 
Oct.  9  the  King  and  Queen  Fredenka  left  Athens  on  a  tour 
of  inspection  of  the  Cyclades  and  Aegean  islands.  On  Oct. 
26  they  were  in  Salonika  for  the  celebration  of  the  anniversary 
of  its  liberation  by  the  Greek  army  in  1912.  On  Nov.  15  the 
King  and  Queen  travelled  to  Tripolis  (Peloponnesus)  for  the 
opening  of  a  reconstructed  road. 

PEARSON,  LESTER  BOWLES,  Canadian  diplo 
mat  and  statesman  (b.  Toronto,  April  23,  1897),  was  educated 
at  the  University  of  Toronto  and  St.  John's  college,  Oxford. 
He  served  in  World  War  I  in  Salonika  and  in  1917  trans- 
ferred to  the  Royal  Flying  Corps.  From  1924  to  1928  he 
was  assistant  professor  in  history  at  the  University  of  Toronto. 
In  1928  he  joined  the  newly  formed  Department  of  External 
Affairs  and  was  a  first  secretary  in  Ottawa  until  1935  when 
he  went  in  a  similar  capacity  to  the  office  of  the  Canadian 
high  commissioner  in  London.  He  was  in  Ottawa  in  the 
Department  of  External  Affairs,  1941-42,  and  from  1942  to 
1946  was  in  Washington,  first  as  minister  and  later  when  the 
status  of  the  mission  was  raised  to  an  embassy,  as  ambassador. 
He  returned  to  Ottawa  to  become  under  secretary  of  state 
for  external  affairs  and  on  Sept.  10,  1948,  was  sworn  in  as 
minister  for  external  affairs  in  succession  to  Louis  St.  Laurent. 


Pearson  was  a  Canadian  delegate  at  many  international 
conferences  including  the  San  Francisco  conference,  1945, 
and  subsequently  at  United  Nations  assemblies  in  Paris  and 
New  York.  At  the  special  assembly  in  April  1947  to  discuss 
the  future  of  Palestine  he  was  chairman  of  the  political 
committee  and  on  Sept.  20,  1949,  he  was  again  elected  chair- 
man of  the  political  committee  for  the  fourth  general  assembly. 
In  1948  he  was  elected  to  the  House  of  Commons  for  Algoma 
East,  Ontario.  He  was  re-elected  on  June  27,  1949.  He 
represented  Canada  at  the  Commonwealth  conference  in 
London  in  April  1949.  On  April  4,  1949,  he  signed  the  North 
Atlantic  treaty  m  Washington  on  behalf  of  Canada. 

PEASANT  MOVEMENT.  In  Europe  in  general  and 
in  eastern  Europe  in  particular  the  Peasant,  Populist  or 
Agrarian  parties  always  stood  for  truly  democratic  political 
systems  and  radical  land  reforms.  "Land  and  freedom  " 
was  their  slogan:  low  taxes  and  good  prices  for  agricultural 
produce  were  their  aims.  These  parties  rejected  Socialism 
because  it  meant  nationalization  of  land;  they  stressed, 
however,  the  necessity  for  setting  up  co-operatives  for 
specific  purposes  or  embracing  the  whole  life  of  a  village 
community.  After  World  War  II  the  peasants'  way  of  life 
was  challenged  by  the  Communists  and,  though  by  1949 
they  still  owned  the  land  in  the  people's  democracies,  they 
were  neither  politically  free  nor  could  they  hope  for  a 
satisfactory  settlement  of  their  economic  claims. 

In  a  speech  at  Budapest  on  March  5,  1949,  published  under 
the  title  "  On  the  Character  of  our  People's  Democracies  " 
in  Tarsadalmi  Szemle,  (Budapest,  March- April  1949),  Jozscf 
Revai,  a  prominent  Hungarian  Communist,  admitted  that 
the  Communist  parties  had  misled  the  Baltic,  Danubian  and 
Balkan  nations  into  believing  that  a  people's  democracy 
was  merely  a  plebeian  and  popular  form  of  bourgeois  demo- 
cracy and  that  the  land  reforms  of  1944-45  were  made  in 
defence  of  small  landowners.  He  recalled  the  insistence 
of  both  Lenin  and  Stalin  on  the  fact  that  all  power  had  to  be 
in  the  hands  of  the  proletariat  and  that  it  could  not  be 
shared  with  peasants  or  any  other  class  of  the  population. 

During  1949  the  role  of  the  Peasant  parties  in  Soviet- 
dominated  Europe  was  reduced  to  one  of  subservience.  In 
Bulgaria,  Ghcorghi  Traikov,  secretary  general  of  the  Bul- 
garian National  Agrarian  union  (Blgarski  Zemledelski 
Naroden  Sayuz),  was  still  deputy  prime  minister.  In  Hungary, 
Istvan  Dobi,  chairman  of  the  purged  Smallholders'  party 
(Kisgazda  Part),  was  a  figurehead  prime  minister,  but  the 
minister  of  agriculture  was  Dr.  Ferenc  Erdei,  a  Marxist, 
leader  of  the  small  National  Peasant  party  (Nemzeti  Paraszt 
Part).  In  Poland  a  fusion  took  place  on  Nov.  27-30  of  the 
rump  Polish  Peasant  party  (Polskie  Stronnictwo  Ludowe) — 
formerly  associated  with  Wincenty  Witos  and  Stanislaw 
Mikotajczyk— and  the  Communist-controlled  Peasant  party 
(Stronnictwo  Ludowe).  The  chairman  of  the  latter, 
Wladyslaw  Kowalski,  became  chairman  of  the  executive 
committee  of  the  new  United  Peasant  party  (Zjednoczone 
Stronnictwo  Ludowe),  and  Jozef  Niecko,  leader  of  the 
P.S.L.,  was  elected  chairman  of  the  national  council  of  the 
United  party  which  accepted  the  Communist  leadership  in 
the  state  and  the  form  of  people's  democracy  as  a  transition 
towards  a  Socialist  economy.  In  Rumania  Dr.  Petru  Groza, 
leader  of  the  Ploughmen's  front  (Frontul  Plugarilor),  con- 
tinued to  serve  as  prime  minister  under  the  supervision  of 
his  three  Communist  deputies.  In  the  Soviet  zone  of  Germany, 
Ernst  Goldenbaum,  a  leader  of  the  Democratic  Peasant  party 
(Demokratische  Bauernpartei),  formed  in  1948,  on  Oct.  12 
was  appointed  minister  of  agriculture. 

Collectivization  in  the  satellite  people's  democracies  by  the 
end  of  1949  was  still  in  its  initial  stages.  Even  Bulgaria,  whose 
aim  was  to  collectivize  60%  of  all  arable  land  by  1953,  had 


PERON— PERSIA 


497 


TABLE — COLLECTIVIZATION  OF  AGRICULTURE  IN  EASTERN  EUROPE 


Total  arable 


Number  of 


%  of  total 


land 

producers' 

arable  are: 

(in  ac.) 

co-operatives  in  1949 

12,336,000 

1,594 

11-2 

13,560,000 

250 

1-0 

16,949,000 

587 

1    3 

41,196,000 

170 

0-9 

24,070,000 

55 

0   1 

36,435,000 

4,250 

c.  20-0 

Bulgaria       .... 

Czechoslovakia 

Hungary     . 

Poland        .... 

Rumania 

Yugoslavia 

*  Private  and  owned  by  the  M  T  S    (machine  tractor  stations) 

only  1,594  labour  agricultural  co-operatives  covering  11-2% 
of  the  arable  land  by  Sept.  1949.  In  Hungary  there  were  at 
the  same  time  587  producers*  co-operatives  covering  1  •  3  %  of 
all  arable  land;  and  in  Poland  there  were  170.  In  Rumania 
the  first  55  producers'  co-operatives — called  gospodaria 
agricola  colectiva — were  formed  during  August  and  Sep- 
tember. 

In  non-Cominform  Yugoslavia,  Mijalko  Todorovid, 
minister  of  agriculture,  announced  in  the  national  assembly, 
or  Skups'tina,  on  May  27,  1949,  that  there  were  4,250  peasant 
co-operatives,  representing  an  average  of  one  co-operative  for 
every  three  villages.  Yugoslavia's  working  co-operatives 
were  divided  into  four  types,  varying  from  a  "  lower  "  type, 
where  land  was  worked  in  common  but  owned  individually, 
to  a  "  highest  "  type,  where  land  was  both  worked  and  held 
in  common.  The  idea  was  understood  to  be  that  eventually 
all  co-operatives  should  conform  to  the  highest  type. 

During  the  year  Communist  leaders  in  the  satellite  coun- 
tries warned  their  followers  not  to  press  collectivization.  The 
Bulgarian  Communist  party  on  June  21  published  a  resolution 
complaining  of  excess  of  zeal  among  its  members  in  forcing 
the  pace  on  farmers.  In  Hungary  Matyas  Rakosi  stated  in  a 
speech  on  Aug.  17  that  though  most  peasants  were  still  *'  the 
slaves  of  private  ownership/'  their  attitude  was  changing  and 
he  hoped  that  by  the  end  of  the  year  5  %-6  %  of  the  arable 
land  would  be  under  collective  ownership.  In  Rumania 
Vasile  Luca,  in  an  article  published  by  the  Cominform 
journal  on  Aug.  1,  admitted  that  conditions  permitting  the 
mass  liquidation  of  the  kulak  class  (richer  peasant  proprietors) 
were  not  yet  present.  At  the  merger  congress  of  the  Polish 
Peasant  parties  it  was  stated  that  when  conditions  were  ready 
and  where  the  peasants  had  understood  the  matter  producers' 
co-operatives  would  be  set  up.  In  all  people's  democracies 
"  poor "  and  "  medium "  peasants  were  helped  at  the 
expense  of  the  kulaks.  Differential  taxes  were  imposed  on 
the  latter,  prices  and  credits  were  regulated  to  the  same  end 
and  compulsory  savings  were  required  from  the  **  rich " 
peasants  who  were  not  to  be  allowed  to  hold  office  in  any 
political  or  economic  organization. 

That  Communist  leaders  were  cautious  in  applying  collecti- 
vization was  due  to  the  fact  that  economic  planning  in  the 
people's  democracies  was  under  the  supervision  of  the  Council 
of  Mutual  Economic  Assistance,  formed  in  Moscow  in 
Jan.  1949.  All  satellite  countries  embarked  on  a  policy  of 
building  up  heavy  industries  as  quickly  as  possible.  This 
emphasis  was  bound  to  delay  economic  development  and  a 
rise  in  the  standard  of  living.  As  the  U.N.  Economic  Commis- 
sion for  Europe  puts  it  in  its  Economic  Survey  of  Europe 
in  1948  (Geneva,  May  1949),  the  alternative  of  concentrating 
on  the  light  industries  or  on  agriculture  would  require  heavy 
imports  of  both  agricultural  and  industrial  machinery  "  on 
which  these  countries,  partly  for  political  or  strategic  reasons, 
do  not  wish  to  rely."  In  other  words,  the  satellites,  following 
the  Soviet  veto  of  1947  on  joining  the  Organization  for 
European  Economic  Co-operation,  were  left  to  their  own 
resources,  the  U.S.S.R.  being  unable  to  help  them  fulfil  their 
economic  plans.  The  percentages  of  capital  expenditure  for 
agriculture  in  Bulgarian,  Czechoslovak,  Hungarian,  Rumanian 
and  Polish  plans  varied  from  8%  to  13%  of  the  total  invest- 

I.B.Y.— 33 


Number  of 
tractors  in  1949* 

5,000 
22,000 
11,000 
14,000 
11,000 

4,000 


Planned  number 
of  tractors 

10,000  (1953) 

45,000  (1953) 

22,800  (1954) 

76,500  (1955) 

29,000  (1955) 

8,000  (1952) 


ments  as  opposed  to  39-49%  of  capital  investment  in  mining 
and  manufactures  and  17-24%  in  transport. 

Lack  of  mechanical  equipment  was  another  reason  for  the 
slow  rate  of  collectivization.  During  1949  Polish  producers* 
co-operatives  acquired  some  1,600  locally-built  tractors.  The 
arable  area  of  Poland  being  over  41  million  ac.,  the  country 
would  require  for  motorized  cultivation  a  minimum  of 
55,000  tractors  which  would  consume  yearly  400,000  metric 
tons  of  petrol  —seven  times  the  existing  national  production. 
However,  according  to  Stanislaw  Ignar,  member  of  the 
executive  committee  of  the  United  Peasant  party,  60,000 
tractors  would  be  working  in  the  Polish  countryside  by  1955. 
In  Hungary  there  were  in  December  11,000  tractors  out  of 
which  only  3,500  were  owned  by  the  state,  but  the  country 
itself  was  believed  to  be  producing  about  3,000  tractors 
yearly.  In  Rumania,  according  to  V  Luca,  there  were  2,289 
state-owned  tractors  by  mid- 1949;  but  by  1955  the  Brasov 
factory  would  be  producing  about  5,000  tractors  yearly. 
It  was  clear,  therefore,  why  Communist  leaders  in  the 
people's  democracies  were  advised  by  Moscow  not  to 
jeopardize  industrialization  by  too  rapid  collectivization  of 
agriculture:  from  the  land  must  come  the  surplus  for  feeding 
increasing  urban  populations  and  for  export  to  pay  for  such 
machinery  and  raw  materials  as  they  would  be  permitted 
to  buy  abroad. 

The  International  Peasant  union  with  headquarters  in 
Washington  (president,  Stanislaw  Mikolajczyk;  secretary 
general,  Dr.  G.  M.  Dimitrov),  originally  consisting  of  the 
representatives  of  the  Bulgarian,  Croat,  Hungarian,  Polish, 
Rumanian  and  Serbian  Peasant  parties  in  exile,  increased  its 
membership  during  the  year  by  co-opting  the  leaders  of  the 
Czech  Agrarians  (Dr.  Josef  Cerny),  Estonian  Smallholders 
(Johannes  Sikkar),  Lithuanian  Populists  (Dr.  Kazys  Grinius) 
and  Slovak  Agrarians  (Dr.  Fedor  Hodza).  One  vice  president, 
Gngorc  Niculescu-Buzc§ti,  of  the  Rumanian  National 
Peasant  party,  died  in  New  York  in  October  at  the  age  of  41. 

(K.  SM.) 
PEMBA:  see  BRITISH  EAST  AFRICA. 

PERFUMERY:  see  SOAP,  PERFUMERY  AND  COSMETICS. 

PERON,  JUAN  DOMINGO,  Argentine  army 
officer  and  politician  (b.  near  Lobos,  south  of  Buenos  Aires, 
Oct.  11,  1895),  was  elected  president  on  Feb.  24,  1946. 
(For  his  early  career  see  Britannica  Book  of  the  Year  1949). 

In  1948  the  Peronistas  won  sufficient  strength  in  the  con- 
gressional elections  to  sponsor  a  constitutional  convention 
initiating  an  amendment  to  permit  the  immediate  re-election 
of  the  president.  The  new  constitution,  which  became 
effective  on  March  16,  1949,  also  provided  for  direct  instead 
of  electoral-college  election  of  the  president.  Though  Peron 
continually  insisted  that  he  did  not  intend  to  run  for 
re-election,  his  followers  renominated  him  at  their  party 
convention  in  Buenos  Aires  in  July  1949. 

PERSIA.1  An  independent  kingdom  of  western  Asia, 
bounded  on  the  east  by  Pakistan  and  Afghanistan,  on  the 

i  Persia  had  been  known  as  Iran  from  March  1935,  but  on  Get  25,  1949, 
it  was  announced  that  the  Tehran  government  reverted  to  the  former  name  in 
foreign  languages. 


498 


PERSIA 


north  by  the  U.S.S.R.,  on  the  west  by  Turkey  and  Iraq  and 
on  the  south  by  the  Persian  gulf  and  Arabian  sea.  Area: 
c.  634,413  sq.  mi.  Pop.  (no  census  ever  taken,  1948  est.): 
between  16,500,000  and  17,500,000.  Language:  mainly 
Persian,  but  some  Turki  and  Armenian  in  the  north,  Kurd 
in  the  west,  Arabic  in  the  south  and  Pushtu  in  the  east. 
Religion:  mainly  Shiah  Moslem  but  the  Kurds  (750,000) 
are  Sunni;  there  are  also  c.  50,000  Gregorian  Armenians 
and  a  few  thousand  Catholic  Armenians,  40,000  Nestorians 
and  80,000  Jews.  Chief  towns  (1948  est.):  Tehran  (cap., 
850,000);  Meshed  (250,000);  Tabriz  (214,000);  Isfahan 
(205,000);  Abadan  (150,000);  Shiraz  (129,000);  Resht 
(122,000);  Hamadan  (104,000).  Ruler,  Shahanshah  Moham- 
mad Riza  Shah  Pahlavi  Gy.v.);  prime  minister,  Mohammad 
Saed  Maragheh  (q.v.). 

History.  On  Feb.  4,  1949,  whilst  the  Shah  was  distributing 
prizes  at  the  Tehran  university,  an  attempt  was  made  on  his 
life  by  a  member  of  the  left-wing  Tudeh  party.  The  assailant, 
Fakhr  Rai,  fired  several  shots  at  close  range,  injuring  the 
Shah  in  the  lip  and  back.  He  was  attacked  by  the  crowd  and 
died  after  reaching  the  hospital.  Martial  law  was  declared, 
many  Tudeh  members  were  arrested  and  the  party  was 
dissolved.  The  Shah's  injuries  did  not  prove  serious  and  he 
recovered  shortly  after  the  attempt. 

On  Feb.  12  the  Soviet  government  protested  to  Persia 
against  statements  in  Majlis  (parliament)  that  the  Tudeh 
party  was  backed  by  the  U.S.S.R.  and  that  the  Soviet  govern- 
ment was  interfering  in  the  internal  affairs  of  Persia.  Replying 
to  the  Soviet  note,  the  Persian  government  called  attention 
to  the  Soviet  radio  propaganda  directed  against  Persia; 
and  objection  was  made  to  the  assertion  that  Persia  was  under 
U.S.  military  domination  and  had  become  an  American  base. 
It  reiterated  the  fact  that  U.S.  officers  in  Persia  were  merely 
paid  advisers. 

In  the  first  week  of  March  the  Majlis  passed  a  new  Press 
act  whereby  insults  to  the  royal  family  and  heads  of  foreign 
states  with  which  there  were  friendly  relations,  blasphemy 
against  Islam  and  instigation  to  revolt  could  be  promptly 
punished. 

The  Imperial  Bank  of  Iran,  whose  concession  granted 
60  years  previously  expired  at  the  end  of  Jan.  1949,  reached 
an  agreement  with  the  Persian  government  whereby  the  bank 
would  in  future  operate  under  ordinary  laws,  depositing 
with  the  Bank  Melli  Iran  (National  bank),  free  of  interest, 
all  deposits  in  excess  of  two-and-a-quarter  times  the  amount 
of  capital  employed  in  Persia  by  the  bank  and  selling  a  further 
£1  million  to  the  government  as  exchange.  The  bank's  name 
was  subsequently  changed  to  the  British  Bank  of  Iran  and 
the  Middle  East. 

On  May  11,  revising  the  constitutional  law  of  1906, 
the  Majlis  defined  the  procedure  for  future  constitutional 
amendments  and  gave  the  Shah  the  limited  right  to  dissolve 
Majlis  with  the  approval  of  the  Senate  (which,  though 
provided  for  in  the  constitution,  did  not  hitherto  exist). 

In  June  two  middle  eastern  statesmen  paid  official  visits 
to  Persia.  Liaquat  Ali  Khan,  the  prime  minister  of  Pakistan, 
was  the  first;  he  was  followed  by  Emir  Abdul  Illah,  the 
regent  of  Iraq.  These  visits  were  rounded  off  by  that  of  King 
Abdullah  of  Sordan  who  paid  a  state  visit  on  July  28.  The 
exchange  of  courtesies  and  views  of  these  middle  east 
rulers  with  the  Shah  and  his  government  strengthened  the 
bonds  of  friendship  and  collaboration  existing  between 
these  Moslem  countries. 

After  protracted  negotiations  between  the  Persian  govern- 
ment and  representatives  of  the  Anglo-Iranian  Oil  company 
for  an  increase  of  royalties  payable  to  Persia,  agreement  was 
reached  and  on  July  19  the  minister  of  finance  presented  to 
Majlis  a  bill  embodying  the  agreement.  The  bill  provided: 
(1)  that  from  1948  the  royalty  on  oil  be  raised  from  4s.  to  6s. 


King  Abdullah  of  Jordan  standing  between  Ibrahim  Uakimi,  former 
prime  minister  of  Persia  (left)  and  Mohammad  Saed  Maragheh, 
prime  minister  from  Nov.  9,  1948,  during  the  King's  visit  to  Tehran, 

July  1949. 

a  ton  and  that  the  company  pay  £3,360,000  in  respect  of 
1948;  (2)  that  the  excise  on  oil  be  raised  from  9d.  to  15.  a 
ton  and  that  the  company  pay  £600,000  in  respect  of  1948; 
(3)  that  the  company  should  pay  20%  of  its  profits  from 
general  reserve,  calculated  before  deduction  of  British 
income-tax  instead  of  after  deduction  of  tax  as  hitherto,  and 
pay  £5  million  in  respect  of  1948.  The  Majlis  was  dissolved 
at  the  end  of  June  before  a  vote  could  be  taken  on  the  oil 
agreement. 

The  1947  monetary  agreement  with  Great  Britain  dealing 
with  the  convertibility  of  Persian  sterling  credits  into  other 
currencies  for  imports  obtainable  in  Britain  was  extended 
for  another  year. 

During  October  and  November  elections  for  the  16th 
Majlis  and  the  new  Senate  were  held  all  over  the  country. 

On  Nov.  4  whilst  the  minister  of  court  and  former  prime 
minister,  Abdol  Hossein  Hajir  (see  OBITUARIES),  was  attending 
a  ceremony  at  the  mosque  of  Sepah-Salar,  a  fanatic,  Hossein 
Emami,  fired  several  shots  at  him  at  close  range.  Hajir  died 
two  days  later.  The  assailant  was  tried  by  a  military  court 
and  hanged. 

On  Nov.  16  the  Shah  flew  to  Washington  on  an  official 
visit  at  the  invitation  of  President  Truman  and  addressed 
both  houses  of  congress.  On  Dec.  30,  a  few  hours  before  the 
Shah  departed  by  air  from  New  York  after  his  American  tour, 
President  Truman  announced  that  the  United  States  was 
ready  to  offer  certain  military  assistance  to  Persia  and  would 
support  its  requests  for  loans  from  the  International  Bank 
for  Reconstruction  and  Development.  (X.) 

Education.  (1938)  Schools  8,381,  pupils  457,236,  teachers  13,078. 
There  is  one  university  at  Tehran. 

Agriculture  and  Fisheries.  Main  crops  (in  '000  metric  tons):  wheat 
(1948)  1,700;  barley  (1948)  600;  cotton  (1948)  22;  rice  (1948)  424; 
sugar  (1948)  46;  tea  (1947)  7;  tobacco  (1948)  11;  jute  (1948)  14. 
Livestock  (in  '000  head):  sheep  (March  1948)  13,000;  goats  (1946-47) 
6,800;  cattle  (March  1946)  2,500;  horses  (1946-47)  350.  Wool  pro- 
duction (in  '000  metric  tons,  1948-49)  11.  Fisheries  (production  of 
the  Societe  Mahie);  approximate  catch  of  sturgeon  5,000  tons,  from 
which  30  tons  of  caviar  are  extracted. 

Industry.  Fuel  and  power  (in  '000  metric  tons):  coal  (1948  est.)  150; 
crude  oil,  production  of  the  Anglo-Iranian  Oil  company,  (1948;  1949, 
six  months,  in  brackets)  25,270  (13,384).  Raw  materials  (in  metric 
tons,  estimated  annual  production):  copper  ore,  1,000;  sulphur  600; 
red  oxide  10,000;  arsenic  ore  500.  Cement  production  (in  '000  metric 
tons,  1946)  35.  Textiles  and  rugs  are  produced  on  a  small  scale. 

Foreign  Trade.  Imports:  (1948-49)  5,440  million  rials.  Exports, 
including  oil  exports  of  the  Anglo-Iranian  Oil  company:  (1948-49) 
18,990  million  rials.  Principal  imports:  sugar,  cotton  piece-goods, 
metals  and  metal  products,  and  tea.  Principal  exports:  oil,  rugs, 
dried  fruit  and  nuts,  and  medicinal  plants  and  seeds.  Main  sources  of 
supply  in  1947-48  were  United  States  22%,  United  Kingdom  22%  and 
India  11%.  Main  destinations  of  exports  in  1947-48  were  United 
Kingdom  61%,  India  8%  and  United  States  5%. 


PERU— PETROLEUM 


499 


Transport  and  Communications.  Roads  (1949)  17,000  mi.,  of  which 
8,000  mt.  are  suitable  for  vehicles.  Licensed  motor  vehicles  (Dec.  1948): 
cars  9,800,  commercial  vehicles  11,600.  Railways  (1948):  1,750  mi. 

Finance  and  Banking.  Budget  estimates  (in  million  rials):  (1948-49) 
revenue  7,755,  expenditure  8,398;  (1949-50)  7,705,  expenditure  10,835. 
National  debt  (Dec.  1948)  5,400  million  rials.  Currency  circulation 
(July.  1949;  in  brackets,  July  1948)-  6,120  (6,600)  million  rials.  Gold 
reserve  (July  1949;  m  brackets,  July  1948)  140  (142)  million  U.S. 
dollars.  Bank  deposits  (July  1949,  in  brackets,  July  1948):  7,960 
(6.640)  million  rials.  Monetary  umf  rial  with  an  exchange  rate  (Dec. 
1949;  in  brackets,  Dec.  1948)  of  90-20  (129)  rials  to  the  pound. 

PERU.  A  South  American  west-coast  republic,  bounded 
on  the  north  by  Ecuador  and  Colombia,  on  the  east  by  Brazil 
and  Bolivia,  and  on  the  south  by  Chile.  Area:  482,258  sq.  mi., 
including  Lake  Titicaca  and  islands  of  the  Pacific.  Pop.: 
(1940  census)  7,023,111;  (mid-1949  est.)  8,061,000,  of 
which  13-3%  are  concentrated  in  the  provinces  of  Lima  and 
Callao  covering  only  3-3%  of  the  total  area.  The  racial 
distribution  is  estimated  at  52-89%  whites  and  mestizos, 
45-86%  Indians,  0  68%  Asiatics  and  0-47%  Negroes. 
Religion:  mainly  Roman  Catholic.  Language:  Spanish,  but 
Indians  speak  only  Quechua  or  Aymara.  Chief  towns 
(pop.  1945  est.):  Lima  (cap.,  657,824);  Callao,  the  mam 
port  (93,313);  Arequipa  (87,260);  Cuzco  (49,760).  President 
of  the  republic,  General  Manuel  A.  Odria. 

History.  During  1949  the  Odria  regime,  which  had  seized 
power  in  Oct.  1948,  moved  to  consolidate  its  position.  The 
military  dictatorship  was  formalized  by  a  decree  dated  Jan.  8, 
which  announced  the  suspension  of  congress  and  the  assump- 
tion by  the  cabinet  of  all  executive  and  legislative  authority. 
Civil  rights  were  curtailed  and  press  censorship  was  estab- 
lished in  May;  a  measure  promulgated  in  the  middle  of 
that  month  rendered  all  women  between  the  ages  of  21  and 
45  subject  to  military  service  in  the  event  of  war.  Labour 
groups  expressed  their  opposition  to  the  regime  on  Jan.  14, 
when  the  American  Federation  of  Labour  complained  in  a 
letter  to  the  United  Nations  that  labour  organizations  could 
no  longer  function  normally  in  Peru;  and  on  May  6,  when  a 
regional  unit  of  the  International  Labour  office,  meeting  at 
Montevideo,  Uruguay,  adopted  a  resolution  censuring  the 
Odria  regime  for  alleged  violations  of  workers'  rights. 
Reportedly  opposed  to  Odria  were  Luis  Flores  and  Llosa 
Gonzalez  Pavon,  leaders  of  relatively  powerful  right-wing 
political  organizations. 

Meanwhile,  the  leftist  A.P.R.A.  (Alhanza  Popular  Revolu- 
cionaria  Americana)  or  People's  party,  known  as  Apnsta 
and  outlawed  in  1948,  was  re-organized  for  more  effective 
underground  activity.  Aprista  leader  Victor  Raul  Haya  de 
la  Torre,  who  had  been  a  fugitive  since  the  time  of  the  Odrfa 
revolution  and  had  taken  refuge  in  the  Colombian  embassy 
in  January,  petitioned  for  safe  conduct  out  of  Peru,  which 
was  denied  by  the  military  regime  on  Feb.  24.  Safe  conduct 
was  similarly  denied  to  Fernando  Leon  de  Vivero  and  Pedro 
Muniz,  Apristas  who  had  found  sanctuary  in  the  Cuban 
embassy;  and  Peru  severed  diplomatic  relations  with  Cuba 
on  Aug.  19,  when  it  was  discovered  that  Leon  de  Vivero 
and  Muniz  had  escaped  to  Havana. 

The  Odria  government  developed  a  programme  of  relaxing 
controls  over  foreign  exchange,  imports  and  exports.  Duty- 
free  imports  of  agricultural  machinery  and  implements  was 
extended  for  five  years  by  a  decree  dated  May  25,  and 
President  Odria  declared  on  June  2  that  the  country  needed 
foreign  capital  to  develop  technical  skill,  transport 
facilities  and  irrigation  projects.  Operations  of  the  Peruvian 
International  Airways  were  suspended  on  Feb.  28,  when  the 
company  was  unable  to  satisfy  claims  amounting  to  $800,000 
due  to  general  creditors  and  $4  million  due  to  note  holders. 

(G.I.B.) 

Education.  (1946)  Schools:  elementary  7,700,  pupils  850,000; 
secondary  96,  pupils  35,000,  Lima  state  university  7,000  students. 


There  were  three  other  state  universities  and  the  Catholic   university 
at  Lima.    Illiteracy  (1940).    56-6%. 

Agriculture.  Main  crops  0000  metric  tons,  1948):  wheat  144;' 
barley  161;  maize  621;  potatoes  674,  nee  (1947)  230;  sugar,  raw 
value,  470;  cotton  seed  113;  cotton,  ginned,  67.  Livestock  ('000  head, 
1946)-  sheep  17,288;  cattle  2,662;  pigs  777;  goats  962;  horses  452; 
asses  349;  llamas,  alpacas  and  vicunas  2,450;  poultry  9,500.  Fisheries: 
total  catch  (1946)  27,657  metric  tons. 

Industry.  Fuel  and  power  coal  (metric  tons,  1947)  2!  5, 332;  elec- 
tricity (million  kwh  ,  1948)  179;  crude  oil  (metric  tons,  1948)  1,875,000. 
Raw  materials  (metric  tons,  1948).  copper  from  ore  19,065;  lead  on 
mine  basis  48,529;  zinc  ore  58,832;  antimony  1,636;  gold  (fine 
ounces)  111,160;  silver  (fine  ounces)  9,288,489;  rubber  1,623 

Forttgn  Trade.  (Million  soles)  Imports'  (1948)  1,089;  (1949,  six 
months)  1,265.  Exports:  (1948)  1,019,  (1949,  six  months)  865 
Principal  imports:  machinery,  motor  vehicles,  cereals  and  products, 
meat  and  other  food  products  Principal  exports:  cotton,  sugar, 
petroleum  and  products  and  copper.  Mam  source  of  imports:  United 
States  54%,  Argentina  18%,  United  Kingdom  7%  Main  destinations 
of  exports  United  States  25%,  Chile  19%,  United  Kingdom  16% 

Transport  and  Communications.  Roads  (highways  only,  1947): 
21,550  mi.  Licensed  motor  vehicles  (Dec.  1948)  cars  22,804,  commer- 
cial vehicles  1 8,279  Railways  (1947)'  2,612  mi  ;  passenger  traffic 
5,560,713;  goods  traffic  3,378,184  metric  tons  Shipping  (July  1948): 
vessels  44,  total  tonnage  92,386  A.ir  transport  (four  mam  airlines, 
1946):  flights  6,078,  passengers  flown  72,184,  cargo  carried  1,753 
metric  tons,  airmail  carried  102  metric  tons  Telephones  (1948):  43,000. 

Finance  and  Banking.  (Million  soles)  Budget:  (1948  est )  revenue  927, 
expenditure  927,  (1949)  revenue  1,150,  expenditure  1,150.  National 
debt  (June  30,  1948)  1,755.  Currency  circulation  (June  1949;  in 
brackets  June  1948):  747  (670)  Gold  reserve  (July  1949;  m  brackets 
July  1948):  million  U  S  $20  0  (20  2)  Bank  deposits  (June  1949;  m 
brackets  June  1948)  1,202  (1,001).  Monetary  unit  sol  with  an  official 
exchange  rate  of  £1  -S  26  19,  after  Sept.  18,  1949,  £1-8.18-20. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  W  G  Bruz,aud,  Peru  Economic  and  Commercial 
Conditions  (London,  H  M  S  O  ,  1949) 

PETITPIERRE,  MAX,  Swiss  statesman  (b.  Neu- 
chatel, Feb.  26,  1899),  after  studying  at  the  universities  of 
Neuchatel,  Zurich  and  Munich,  practised  as  a  lawyer  in  his 
native  town  from  1922.  He  was  professor  of  private  inter- 
national law  at  the  University  of  Neuchatel  1926-31  and  1938- 
44.  In  1942  he  was  elected  to  the  National  Council  as  a 
Radical  and  on  Dec.  14,  1944,  to  the  Federal  Council  as 
minister  of  foreign  affairs.  Repeatedly  re-elected  to  the  latter 
post,  on  Dec.  16,  1948,  he  was  also  elected  vice  president 
of  the  Federal  Council  for  1949.  In  Feb.  1949,  he  attended 
the  meeting  in  Pans  of  the  Organization  for  European 
Economic  Co-operation.  In  August  he  presided  over  the 
Red  Cross  conference  at  Geneva. 

PETROLEUM.  Although  1949,  like  previous  years, 
was  marked  by  local  rationing  of  certain  oil  products,  there 
was  no  longer  an  actual  global  shortage  of  oil,  and  the  res- 
trictions on  the  use  of  oil  imposed  in  several  countries  were 
simply  a  symbol  of  the  general  economic  problems  from  which 
many  nations  suffered.  Shortage  of  dollars,  especially  in  the 
sterling  area,  compelled  purchases  of  "  dollar "  oil  to  be 
reduced  to  an  uncomfortable  minimum,  while  in  the  United 
States  oil  production  was  kept  down  because  of  the  falling 
off  in  demand.  World  output  of  oil  was  thus  well  below  the 
level  it  could  have  reached  during  1949  had  world  demand 
required  a  continuance  of  the  all-out  effort  for  a  maximum 
production. 

Estimates  for  the  first  half  of  1949  gave  a  total  world 
production  of  1,672  million  bbl. — an  average  of  3,344  million 
bbl.  for  the  whole  year.  This  would  show  a  definite  pause 
in  the  steady  upward  trend  which  raised  world  production 
from  1,454  million  bbl.  in  1942  to  3,398  million  bbl.  in  1948. 

In  1948  the  order  of  the  chief  producing  areas  was:  United 
States,  Venezuela,  U.S.S.R.,  Persia,  Saudi  Arabia,  Mexico, 
Kuwait,  Indonesia,  Rumania,  Iraq,  Colombia,  Argentina, 
Trinidad  and  British  Borneo.  During  the  first  six  months  of 
1 949,  a  few  minor  changes  occurred  in  the  order  of  precedence. 
Thus  Kuwait  production  passed  that  of  Mexico,  and  British 
Borneo  had  a  larger  output  than  Trinidad,  Argentina  and 
Iraq — the  last  named  suffering  from  political  troubles 


500 


PETROLEUM 


connected  with  the  establishment  of  the  state  of  Israel.  At 
the  beginning  of  1949,  also,  Venezuela,  the  world's  chief  oil 
exporter,  was  for  the  first  time  surpassed  in  output  by  the 
middle  east — though  Venezuela  remained  by  far  the  largest 
single  producing  country  after  the  United  States. 

The  most  significant  feature  of  the  half-year  was  the 
decline  in  the  output  of  the  U.S.  and  Venezuela,  for  this 
was  a  direct  indication  that  world  production  had  caught 
up  with  world  demand— although  it  had  to  be  admitted  that 
it  was  an  attenuated  demand,  restricted  in  many  areas  for 
economic  reasons.  It  was  only  by  exercising  considerable 
restraint  in  production  and  refining  that  the  oil  industry  in 
the  U.S.  was  able  to  keep  supply  and  demand  in  balance. 
For  the  same  reason,  Venezuela  also  showed  a  considerable 
decline  in  output  from  the  level  of  the  previous  year.  For 
the  first  six  months  of  1949,  output  in  these  two  countries 
was  estimated  at  931  million  bbl.  and  224  million  bbl.  respec- 
tively— amounting  to  69%  of  world  output  compared  with 
the  73%  they  contributed  to  the  larger  1948  production. 

In  the  middle  east,  however,  output  continued  to  rise. 
Persian  production,  at  97  million  bbl.  for  the  first  half-year, 
was  slightly  above  the  1948  average,  while  Saudi  Arabia, 
which  produced  92  million  bbl.,  showed  an  increase  of  over 
30%.  The  rise  in  Kuwait's  production  was  even  more 
spectacular,  the  production  of  45  million  bbl.  for  six  months 
being  less  than  2  million  bbl.  below  that  for  the  whole  of 
1948.  In  Iraq,  production  was  very  low  in  the  early  months 
of  1949,  owing  to  the  fact  that  only  the  Tripoli  pipeline  was 
in  use,  the  Haifa  pipeline  remaining  closed;  in  the  summer, 
however,  the  new  pipeline  to  Tripoli  came  into  operation; 
and  this  additional  outlet  was  expected  to  raise  production 
over  the  whole  year  well  above  the  1948  level  of  26  million  bbl. 
Production  in  the  middle  east  was,  however,  still  limited 
by  the  lack  of  outlets,  which  would  be  overcome  only  with 
the  completion  of  the  various  pipeline  projects,  some  of  which 
were  already  under  way.  These  new  pipelines  would  link 
the  oilfields  of  Saudi  Arabia,  Persia  and  Kuwait  to  Mediter- 
ranean ports,  while  Iraq's  existing  pipeline  capacity  would 
be  greatly  expanded. 

Of  the  other  leading  producers,  no  reliable  figures  were 
available  either  for  the  U.S.S.R.  or  for  Rumania:  neither 
was  likely  to  show  any  considerable  change  from  1948  output, 
although  the  U.S.S.R.  might  have  slightly  increased  her 
production. 

In  other  areas,  changes  were  noticeable  which,  though 
comparatively  minor  to  world  oil  economy,  were  calculated 
to  have  a  perceptible  effect  on  local  economies.  Indonesian 
production  continued  to  draw  nearer  to  the  prewar  level, 
supplemented  by  output  from  New  Guinea,  which  began  the 
export  of  oil  m  the  last  days  of  1948.  British  Borneo  showed 
a  further  increase  in  output  and  was  likely  to  prove  the 
Commonwealth's  largest  producer  for  1949 — though  before 
long  it  might  be  surpassed  by  Canada. 

Canadian  oil  activity  was  most  noticeable  in  Alberta, 
where  several  more  important  oil  discoveries  were  made 
during  1949:  output  for  the  first  six  months  of  1949  was 
almost  10  million  bbl ,  compared  with  12-4  million  bbl.  for 
the  whole  of  1948.  Already  production  in  Alberta  was  being 
restricted  owing  to  the  problem  of  disposing  of  the  oil. 
A  450-mi.  pipeline  was  under  construction  from  Edmonton 
to  Regina  and  later  this  would  be  extended  a  further  700  mi. 
to  Superior,  Wisconsin,  U.S. 

Other  countries  that  showed  signs  of  increasing  output 
were  Germany  and  the  Netherlands,  each  of  which,  however, 
had  only  a  small  production. 

For  the  world  as  a  whole,  1949  might  thus  be  regarded  as 
essentially  a  year  of  transition.  It  showed  a  decline  in  output 
in  the  western  hemisphere,  only  partly  offset  by  higher  output 
in  the  middle  east  and  other  areas.  Thus  1949  marked  the 


Million  metric  tons 


37-5 


M  niton  metric  tons 


375 


325 


250 


225 


WORLD    PRODUCTION 

OF 
CRUDE   OIL 


(By  Countries) 

MONTHLY    AVERAGE 


end  of  the  period  of  increasing  production  to  meet  the 
demands  of  the  war  years  and  of  subsequent  reconstruction. 
The  fact  that  production  for  the  first  half  year  was  below  the 
average  for  1948  was  eloquent  proof  that  the  oil  industry 
had  caught  up  with  the  demand  for  oil.  The  year  also  repre- 
sented a  period  of  consolidation  and  advance  in  creating  the 
new  pattern  for  future  world  supplies.  The  still  rising  output 
of  Persia,  Saudi  Arabia  and  Kuwait  and  the  progress  made 
in  the  pipeline  projects  for  linking  the  middle  east  oilfields 
to  the  Mediterranean,  emphasized  that  soon  the  eastern 
hemisphere  would  cease  to  rely  on  the  U.S.  and  the 
Caribbean  and  look  instead  to  the  middle  east  for  its  oil. 
Inter-allied  with  middle  east  developments  was  the  building 
up  of  European  refinery  capacity  which,  as  pointed  out  in 
the  O.E.E.C.  programme  published  towards  the  end  of  1949, 
allowed  for  a  crude  oil  output  in  1952-53  of  nearly  three 
times  that  of  1948.  This  expansion  of  Europe's  capacity 
was,  incidentally,  like  the  developments  in  the  middle  east, 
a  truly  international  affair,  in  which  American  as  well  as 
British  and  other  European  oil  interests  were  participating. 

In  a  word,  1949  might  be  described  as  a  year  in  which  the 
oil  industry,  besides  catering  for  immediate  requirements, 


PHARMACY— PHILATELY 


501 


was  also  engaged  in  building  for  the  future,  so  as  to  be  able 
to  meet  even  the  large  unrestricted  demands  which,  once 
world  conditions  permitted  of  a  freer  economy,  were  to  be 
expected.  (K.  W.) 

PHARMACY.  A  survey  by  the  International  Pharma- 
ceutical federation  undertaken  in  1949  elicited  the  following 
facts:  in  Great  Britain  the  volume  of  dispensing  increased 
by  about  2^  times  after  the  introduction  of  the  National 
Health  service  in  July  1948;  in  all  other  countries  there  was  a 
reduction  in  the  compounding  of  medicines  and  an  increase 
in  the  sale  of  specialties;  more  pharmacists  were  employed 
in  manufacturing  concerns  and  by  public  authorities; 
generally,  pharmaceutical  training  was  extended  and  more 
countries  introduced  an  equivalent  of  the  honours  degree 
course  in  pharmacy  of  London  university;  the  cost  of 
pharmaceutical  training  had  become  nearly  ecjual  to  that  of 
medical  training. 

Two  important  books  were  published:  The  National 
Formulary  1949,  a  standard  preserver's  formulary  for  use 
under  the  health  service;  and  the  British  Pharmaceutical 
Codex  1949,  a  book  of  standards  for  drugs  and  preparations 
which  were  not  included  in  the  British  Pharmacopoeia. 
The  codex,  which  was  last  published  in  1934,  now  provided 
standards  for  various  preparations  of  human  blood,  such  as 
liquid  and  dried  plasma  and  serum,  fibrinogen,  fibrin  foam 
and  thrombin,  thus  ensuring  the  same  preparations  being 
supplied  throughout  the  Commonwealth. 

The  cost  of  the  pharmaceutical  side  of  the  British  health 
service  was  far  in  excess  of  the  estimates  and  in  the  first  year's 
working  187  million  prescriptions  were  dispensed  at  an 
average  cost  of  2v.  9\d.  each.  The  principle  of  paying 
chemists  on  average  values  of  prescriptions  had  to  be  con- 
tinued and  there  was  dissatisfaction  at  the  delay  in  meeting 
accounts.  The  prescribing  of  expensive  proprietary  medicines 
was  partly  responsible  for  the  high  cost  and  a  committee 
was  appointed  to  consider  whether  it  was  desirable  and 
practicable  to  restrict  or  discourage  the  prescribing  of 
(i)  drugs  of  doubtful  or  of  an  unethical  character,  and  (ii) 
unnecessarily  expensive  brands  of  standard  drugs.  The 
advertising  of  popular  medicines,  although  showing  a  slight 
improvement,  was  considered  to  be  sufficiently  exaggerated 
and  misleading  to  engage  the  attention  of  the  British  Medical 
association,  but  beyond  expressing  the  opinion  (a)  that  the 
public  should  be  protected  against  the  dangers  of  self- 
medication,  and  (b)  that  more  stringent  measures  should  be 
taken  to  ensure  that  newspapers  did  not  accept  advertising 
from  firms  which  disregarded  the  provisions  of  the  British 
Code  of  Standards  in  Relation  to  the  Advertising  of  Medicines, 
it  put  forward  no  proposal  to  mitigate  the  danger. 

Several  new  medicinal  compounds  were  synthesized; 
e.g.,  chloromycetin,  an  antibiotic,  which  was  active  when 
given  by  the  mouth  in  the  treatment  of  typhoid  fever  and 
whooping  cough,  and  L-thyroxine  sodium,  another  orally- 
active  compound  representing  an  active  principle  of  the 
thyroid  gland.  Compounds  of  corticosterone  attracted 
considerable  attention  because  of  the  results  obtained  in 
rheumatoid  arthritis,  especially  with  17-hydroxy-ll-dehydro- 
corticosterone  (cortisone,  compound  F)  and  with  the 
adrenocorticotropic  hormone  (ACTH),  but  no  supplies  were 
available  commercially  at  the  end  of  the  year.  Perhaps  the 
most  outstanding  discovery  was  the  production  of  vitamin 
B12  by  deep  fermentation  of  the  mould  streptomyces,  thus 
providing  a  relatively  cheap  source  of  this  anti-anaemic  factor. 
(See  also  CHEMOTHERAPY;  MEDICINE.)  (W.  K.  F.) 

PHILATELY.  The  year  1949  saw  the  75th  anniversary 
of  the  Universal  Postal  union  which  was  founded  in  Berne, 


Switzerland,  in  1874.  To  commemorate  the  occasion  all 
countries  of  the  world  issued  special  series  of  stamps.  Great 
Britain's  four  stamps  were  twice  the  usual  size  and  were 
designed  by  Mary  Adshead  (2\d.),  Percy  Metcalfe  (3d.), 
A.  Fleury  (6d.)  and  George  R.  Bellew  (6d.).  Fach  of  the 
British  colonies  issued  four  stamps,  and,  with  the  exception 
of  New  Hebrides  which  had  all  four  values  in  the  design 
used  for  the  Is.  issue  of  Bermuda,  the  designs  were  the  same 
as  for  Bermuda  (see  illustration).  The  colonial  designs 
represented  Hermes,  the  globe  and  forms  of  transport;  the 
hemispheres,  aeroplane  and  steamer;  Hermes  and  the  globe; 
and  the  Universal  Postal  union  monument  at  Berne.  The 
most  common  designs  for  the  U.P.U  series  of  stamps  were 
comparisons  between  transport  in  1874  and  in  1949,  the 
U.P.U.  monument  and  a  globe  or  the  two  hemispheres. 

The  French  issues  in  1949  included  ones  for  the  250th 
anniversary  of  the  death  of  Jean  Racine  and  a  Christmas 
charity  set.  In  Italy  stamps  were  issued,  amongst  others,  for 
the  opening  of  Holy  Year,  the  rebuilding  of  Holy  Trinity 
bridge,  Florence;  the  13th  Bari  fair;  the  400th  anniversary 
of  the  completion  of  Palladio's  basilica  at  Vicenza;  the 
500th  anniversary  of  the  birth  of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici;  the 
bicentenary  of  the  birth  of  Vittorio  Alfieri;  and  the  150th 
anniversary  of  the  discovery  of  the  electric  cell  by  Alessandro 
Volta.  San  Marino,  a  tiny  country,  yet  a  prolific  supplier  of 
new  sets,  continued  to  issue  stamps  of  interest  to  philatelists. 
Its  1949  issues  included  stamps  to  commemorate  Garibaldi's 
retreat  from  Rome.  The  republic  of  Ireland,  which  before 
April  1949  was  known  as  Eire,  issued  stamps  to  mark  the 
new  international  status  of  the  country. 

In  Asia  many  new  issues  were  made.  India  issued  an 
archaeological  series  of  16  stamps  and  on  Sept.  11,  the  first 
anniversary  of  the  death  of  Mohammed  AH  Jinnah,  a  set 
of  memorial  stamps  was  issued  in  Pakistan.  In  accordance 
with  Islamic  custom,  they  did  not  bear  any  portrait  but 
instead  carried  Jinnah's  watchwords,  "  Unity,  Faith,  Disci- 
pline." 

Persia  issued  stamps  to  commemorate  the  country's  war 
effort,  and  in  aid  of  a  fund  for  the  protection  of  the  country's 
national  monuments.  Stamps  were  issued  for  the  first  time 
bearing  the  legend  "  The  Hashimitc  Kingdom  of  the  Jordan  " 
in  place  of  Transjordan.  In  Syria  the  portrait  of  Husm  ez- 
Zaim,  who  was  dictator  of  Syria  from  March  until  his 
execution  on  Aug.  14,  appeared  on  two  issues. 

Japan  probably  made  the  largest  number  of  new  issues 
during  1949.  Among  events  recorded  were  the  children's 
festival  day,  the  75th  anniversary  of  the  central  meteorological 
observatory  in  Tokyo  and  the  setting  up  of  a  memorial  city 
at  Hiroshima.  A  series  was  issued  of  views  of  the  Fuji- 
Hakone  national  park. 

The  devaluation  of  many  currencies  in  September  had 
little  repercussion  on  stamps.  Market  prices  recessed  slightly 
in  current  issues  for  the  countries  affected,  in  terms  of  hard 
currencies.  Some  values,  in  Swiss  gold  centimes,  were  no 
longer  valid  for  the  international  service  for  which  they  were 
originally  designed. 

Societies.  The  Junior  Philatelic  Society  of  London  cele- 
brated its  50th  anniversary  in  November.  From  a  charter 
membership  of  10  it  had  expanded  to  more  than  3,000.  In 
October  the  Chicago  Philatelic  society  held  its  1,500th 
consecutive  semi-monthly  meeting.  A  commemorative  medal 
was  issued  for  the  occasion. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  In  addition  to  the  annual  catalogues,  a  number  of 
specialized  books  were  published  in  1949.  These  included.  King 
George  VI  Pottage  Stamps  (Stanley  Gibbons,  London);  A.  T.  Todd, 
A  History  of  British  Postage  Stamps  (London);  Stamps  of  the  Common- 
wealth of  Australia  (Melbourne);  Postage  Stamp*  of  South  Australia 
(Australia);  Grece:  Catalogue  de  Timbres-Poste  (Athens);  E.  F. 
Aguilar,  The  Philatelic  Handbook  of  Jamaica  (Jamaica),  Ichiro  Yoshida. 
Japan  Through  Postage  Stamps  (Tokyo).  (X.) 


502 


PHILATELY 


A  selection  of  the  stamps  issued  to  commemorate  the  75th  anniversary  of  the  Universal  Postal  union.   1-4,  British  colonies;  5,  South  Africa; 

6,  Australia;    7,  India;    8,  Ceylon;    9-12,  Great  Britain;    13,  Egypt;    14,  Denmark;    15,  Finland;   16,  Indonesia;   17,  the  Netherlands; 

18,  Norway;    19,  Austria;   20,  France;    21,  United  States  of  America;    22,  Italy;    23-24,  Germany;   25,  Belgium. 


PHILIPPINES 


UUITCI3IIJT    JLIUIAIJ, 

HYDCHABAD  (DECCAN). 


PHILIPPINES,  REPUBLIC  OF  THE.  An  island 
republic  lying  about  500  mi.  off  the  southeast  coast  of 
Asia;  an  archipelago  of  7,107  islands  extending  north  and 
south  about  1,152  mi.  and  east- and  west  about  688  mi. 
Eleven  islands  have  an  area  of  over  1,000  sq.  mi.,  the  largest 
being  Luzon  (40,814  sq.  mi.)  and  Mindanao  (36,906  sq.  mi.). 
Total  area:  115,600  sq.  mi.  Pop.:  (1939  census)  16,000,303; 
(Oct.  1,  1948  census)  19,234,182.  In  1939  the  population 
included  117,500  Chinese  and  by  official  count  their  number 
was  140,000  by  1949,  but  the  actual  full  blooded  Chinese 
population  exceeded  200,000.  There  were  43  identifiable 
ethnic  groups  in  the  islands  but  the  dominant  stock  of  the 
population  was  Malayan;  the  aborigines  of  the  archipelago 
were  akin  to  the  Australian  blacks  and  Papuans.  The  term 
"  Filipino  "  in  Spanish  times  meant  the  same  as  Creole,  that 
is,  an  island  native  of  Spanish  descent.  Languages :  English 
(spoken  by  about  5  million),  Spanish  (about  500,000)  and 
some  87  dialects  of  which  8  or  9  were  spoken  by  90%  of  the 
people;  Takalog,  spoken  by  about  3-5  million,  was  declared 
the  national  language.  Religion:  mainly  Roman  Catholic 
(about  80%),  but  there  were  also  about  1  -8  million  followers 
of  the  Independent  Filipino  (Christian)  Church,  about 
425,000  Protestants  of  all  sects,  700,000  Moslems  (the  Moros 
of  Mindanao)  and  almost  700,000  pagans  widely  scattered. 
Chief  towns  (pop.  1939  census):  Manila  (cap.,  623,492; 
[1949 est.]  1,300,000);  Cebu (146,817;  Zamboanga (13 1,455); 
Davao  (95,546);  Iloilo  (90,480).  President  of  the  republic 
and  secretary  of  foreign  affairs,  Elpidio  Quirino. 

History.  Politics  dominated  the  stage  during  the  year. 
Elpidio  Quirino,  having  succeeded  President  Manuel  Roxas 
upon  the  latter' s  death  on  April  15,  1948,  became  a  candidate 
for  the  presidency  at  the  elections  at  the  end  of  1949.  Party 
politics  provoked  many  charges  of  corruption  and  dragged 
up  the  issue  of  wartime  Japanese  collaboration,  so  that  the 
election  campaign  was  a  rough  one.  Jose  Avelino,  former 
president  of  the  Senate  and  leader  of  the  Liberal  party, 
ousted  from  both  posts  on  charges  of  selling  war  surplus 
property,  led  a  rebel  wing,  Quirino  heading  the  main  body 
of  the  party.  Strongest  opposition  came  from  Nationalist 
party  .candidate  Jos£  B.  Laurel,  wartime  Japanese  puppet 
president.  In  the  election  on  Nov.  8,  military  pressure, 
violence  and  disorder  resulted  in  protest  concerning  nearly 
one  half  of  the  total  votes  cast.  On  almost  complete  returns 
the  count  stood  (Nov.  21):  Quirino  1,711,448;  Laurel 
1,282,994;  Avelino  399,931.  A  short-lived  rebellion  broke 
out  in  Batangas,  Laurel's  home  province,  after  the  election. 
Quirino's  Liberal  party  won  a  majority  in  congress,  control- 
ling some  60  out  of  100  seats  in  the  House  of  Representatives 
and  at  least  1 5  out  of  24  seats  in  the  Senate. 

The  Hukbalahap,  led  by  Luis  Taruc,  originally  a  wartime 
anti-Japanese  guerilla  organization,  had  become  dominated 
by  Communists  and  had  militantly  espoused  the  cause  of 
Philippine  tenant  farmers.  The  result  of  1948  military 
punitive  expeditions  against  them  was  to  scatter  the  partisans 
throughout  the  mountain  country  of  Luzon.  Campaigns 
during  1949  made  little  headway  toward  eliminating  the 
Hukbalahap,  though  they  formed  no  major  internal  threat 
during  the  year. 

Changes  in  agrarian  legislation  during  1947-48  made 
technically  possible  the  peaceful  amelioration  of  tenant 
problems,  but  landlord  domination  of  central  Luzon's  rice 
lands  prevented  effective  agrarian  adjustment  and  maintained 
the  basic  unrest  which  could  be  exploited  by  the  Hukbalahap. 
Expansion  of  colonial  land  settlement  projects  in  the 
southern  Philippines  was  undertaken  both  to  help  increase 
agricultural  production  and  to  alleviate  Luzon's  agrarian 
problems. 

On  July  10  Quirino  met  Chiang  Kai-shek  at  Baguio,  Luzon.  A 
communique  issued  after  the  meeting  emphasized  the  necessity 


for  the  countries  of  the  Pacific  and  east  Asia  to  collaborate 
against  Communism.  Shortly  after,  Quirino  was  invited  by 
President  Truman  to  visit  Washington.  He  arrived  there  on 
Aug.  8,  addressed  the  Senate  and  the  House  of  Representatives 
the  next  day,  had  talks  with  Truman  and  Dean  Acheson 
and  left  the  U.S.  capital  on  Aug.  11.  It  was  clear  from  a 
statement  issued  by  the  two  presidents  that  the  idea  of  a 
Pacific  military  alliance  had  been  dropped  for  the  time 
being. 

On  Oct.  15,  the  U.S.  Philippine  army  command  was 
reduced  to  the  Philippine  air  command,  with  headquarters 
at  Clark  Field,  nqrth  of  Manila.  This  became  the  head- 
quarters of  the  iith  air  force  and  the  only  major  U.S. 
military  base  in  the  Philippines. 

The  U.S.  War  Damage  commission  expected  to  release 
about  $185  million  between  July  1949  and  June  1950  in  partial 
settlement  of  major  public  and  private  claims.  Small  claims 
were  paid  in  full  during  1947-48,  leaving  major  claims  to 
be  liquidated  by  annual  instalments  during  1948-51. 

Postwar  trade  showed  an  extraordinarily  large  volume  of 
imports  and  a  decreased  volume  of  exports,  in  contrast  to 
prewar  trade  which  normally  showed  a  surplus  of  exports. 
Most  Philippine  trade  still  was  with  the  United  States. 
Though  agricultural  productivity  for  home  use  crops  was 
above  normal,  the  export  volumes  of  sugar,  abaca  and 
tobacco  had  not  yet  returned  to  prewar  levels.  Only  coconut 
products  exceeded  prewar  productions. 

The  year  was  the  first  of  a  five-year  programme  of  agri- 
cultural expansion  and  industrial  development  designed  to 
even  the  balance  of  trade  and  maintain  the  advance  in  the 
standard  of  living.  The  1948-49  rice  crop  of  2,660,000  short 
tons  was  one  of  the  largest  ever  grown,  but  still  was  in- 
sufficient to  feed  the  growing  population.  Increased  rice 
production,  already  the  leading  crop,  was  one  of  the  chief 
aims  of  the  programme.  Sugar  production  for  the  crop  year 
1948-49  was  728,000  tons,  with  27  refineries  operating. 
For  the  crop  year  1949-50  there  would  be  29  refineries  in 


Elpidio  Quirino,  president  of  the  Philippines,  with  Cardinal  Francis 
Spellman  in  New  York,  Aug.  1949. 


504 


PHILOSOPHY 


operation  and  the  yield  was  estimated  at  about  830,000  tons, 
a  vital  part  of  the  export  programme.  Timber  production 
exceeded  the  prewar  normal  output  during  1949,  with  a  cut 
of  1,037  million  board  feet,  permitting  a  small  export  pro- 
gramme. (J.  E.  SR.) 

Education.  Schools  (1945-46)  state  11,791,  pupils  2,500,055,  teachers 
46,854;  private  468,  pupils  168,584,  teachers  5,913.  University  of  the 
Philippines,  students  3,155.  Illiteracy  (1939):  51%. 

Agriculture.  Main  crops  ('000  metric  tons) :  abaca  (1948)  74;  tobacco 
(1947)29;  maize  (1948)  543.  Livestock  ('000  head) •  cattle  (Jan.  1945) 
560;  pigs  (Dec.  1945)  1,903;  horses  and  mules  (Dec.  1945)  169; 
sheep  (Dec.  1945)  19;  goats  (Dec.  1945)  187.  Fisheries:  total  catch 
(1947)  190,000  metric  tons. 

Industry.  Coal  production  (1946)  20,000  metric  tons.  Raw  materials 
('000  metric  tons):  chrome  ore  (1946)  58;  manganese  ore  (1941,  nine 
months)  51;  copper  (1941  est.)  10;  gold  (1947)  64,441  fine  troy  oz. 
Manufactured  goods:  woven  cotton  fabrics  (1948)  7-5  million  metres  ; 
cement  ('000  metric  tons,  1948;  1949,  six  months,  in  brackets)  119 
(94);  dessicated  coconut  ('000  metric  tons,  1$47)  35;  coconut  oil 
(1947)  70,000  metric  tons. 

Foreign  Trade.  (Million  pesos)  Imports:  (1948)  1,172,  (1949,  six 
months)  532;  exports:  (1948)  636,  (1949,  six  months)  281. 

Transport  and  Communications.  Roads  (1946)-  14,933  mi.  Licensed 
motor  vehicles  (Dec.  1948):  cars  28,000,  commercial  vehicles  45,000. 
Railways  (1946):  563  mi.  Shipping  (July  1948):  number  of  merchant 
vessels  of  100  tons  and  upwards  38,  gross  tonnage  96,004.  Air  trans- 
port (1947)-  miles  flown  6,788,492,  passenger-mi.  80-6  million 
Telephones  (1948):  6,917 

Finance  and  Banking.  (Million  pesos)  Budget  (1947-48  est.):  revenue 
263,  expenditure  307;  (1948-49  est.).  revenue  392,  expenditure  499. 
Currency  circulation  (April  1949;  in  brackets,  April  1948):  577  (492). 
Bank  deposits  (April  1949;  in  brackets,  April  1948)-  575  (472). 
Monetary  unit:  peso  with  an  exchange  rate  of  5  •  63  pesos  to  the  pound 
(£1~8-10  pesos  before  Sept.  18,  1949).  In  Dec.  1949  the  domestic 
buying  rate  for  U.S.  S  was  2-008  pesos  and  the  domestic  selling  rate 
2-01  per  dollar. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  Claude  A.  Buss,  "  The  Philippines,"  in  the  New 
World  of  Southeast  Alia  (L.  A.  Mills,  ed.,  Minneapolis,  U  S  ,  1949). 

PHILOSOPHY.  During  1949  the  general  pattern  of 
controversy  in  philosophy  continued  unchanged  from  that  of 
1948.  It  was,  in  outline,  the  pattern  which  controversy  had 
always  taken  up,  especially  in  times  of  political  crisis:  on 
the  one  side  were  the  intuitiomsts  and  idealists  and  on  the 
other  were  the  empiricists  and  materialists;  the  former 
tended  to  reject,  and  the  latter  to  advocate,  scientific  method 
as  the  instrument  of  most  value  in  solving  urgent  problems. 

But,  although  the  two  sides  still  existed  in  their  traditional 
form,  there  had  emerged  during  the  preceding  30  years, 
what  might  be  called  a  third  party,  which  held  that  the 
function  of  philosophy  was  not  to  answer  questions  about 
the  nature  of  reality  nor  to  work  out  rules  of  conduct  but  to 
analyse  and  clarify  the  language  in  which  discussions  took 
place  about  the  world  and  how  to  behave  in  it.  In  the  course 
of  thus  analysing  talk  about  ethics,  these  philosophers  came 
to  the  conclusion  that  the  traditional  method  of  basing  moral 
judgments  upon  metaphysical  foundations  was  mistaken, 
since  in  their  opinion  it  was  impossible  to  decide  objectively 
between  (i.e.,  to  verify)  the  claims  of  moral  judgments  that 
were  based  upon  metaphysical  propositions  but  happened 
to  be  contradictory. 

This  is,  of  course,  a  much  simplified  statement.  There  were 
detailed  variations  of  attitude  among  philosophers  who 
belonged  to  this  third  party — that  is  to  say,  among  those  who 
were  associated  with  scientific  empiricism,  logical  positivism 
and  logical  analysis.  But  it  was  not  possible  to  understand 
contemporary  discussion  of  ethics  without  a  realization  that 
in  general  these  philosophers  stood  rather  aside  from  the 
traditional  controversy.  For  they  were  not  concerned  to 
make  moral  judgments;  they  were  concerned  only  to  analyse 
them.  It  was  true  however  that,  in  attacking  metaphysics, 
the  positivist  philosophers  tended  to  identify  themselves,  in 
their  general  outlook,  more  with  the  empiricists  and  material- 
ists than  with  the  idealists,  and  were  taken,  too,  to  be  attacking 
morality  in  general. 

There  were  then  two  axes  of  controversy  in  ethics,  and 


indeed  in  philosophy  as  a  whole:  one  between  opposed 
schools  of  metaphysicians;  e.g.,  idealists  and  dialectical 
materialists,  and  the  other  between  metaphysicians  of  all 
schools  and  positivists. 

To  deal  first  with  the  idealist-materialist  axis:   during 
1949    this    controversy    became    more    acute    in     most 
European    countries;     people    were    naturally    concerned 
with    the    over-riding   political    questions    implicit    in    the 
opposition  between  the  U.S.S.R.  and  the  western  nations, 
and  this  led  to  discussion  of  the  ethics  of  Marxism,  based 
in  Italy  partly  upon  Eugenio  Pennati's  L'Etica  e  il  Marxismo 
(Florence,  1948).    In  France  there  was,  perhaps,  more  con- 
cern with  the  practical  consequences  of  the  adoption  of  the 
opposed   philosophies.      Such   discussion   was,   of  course, 
directed  to  the  valuation  of  moral  judgments  rather  than  their 
analysis.     This  was  partly  why  it  is  considered  under  the 
heading   of  the   idealist-materialist   axis,   although   such   a 
placing  begs  a  debatable  question;   for  some  Marxists  would 
probably  claim  that  dialectical  materialism  was  essentially 
a  scientific  system  and  should  not,  therefore,  be  treated  as  a 
rival  metaphysic  to  that  of  idealism.     However,  Marxists 
continued  during  1949  to  attack  the  positivist  position,  thus 
suggesting  that  their  own  position  was  at  the  other  end  of 
the  metaphysical-positivist  axis.    In  1948  they  had  attacked 
logical  positivism  directly.    In  the  early  part  of  1949,  as  a 
result  of  an  article  which  appeared  during  Nov.  1948  in  the 
Soviet  Literary  Gazette  and  condemned  reactionary-idealistic 
forces   in   Soviet   biology,    discussion   centred    round    the 
philosophy   of  science   and   particularly   the   philosophical 
consequences  of  quantum  theory.  Niels  Bohr  and  W.  Heisen- 
berg,    among   others,    were   condemned    for   western    and 
bourgeois  ideals  of  physics  and  it  was  suggested  that  quantum 
theory  had  been  used  to  justify  idealist  mystical  conclusions. 
Some  of  the  leading  Soviet  physicists  were  also  criticized 
for  idealism  and  formalism  in  atomic  theory.  The  assumption 
underlying  these  attacks  appeared  to  have  been  similar  to 
that  underlying  the  attacks  on  logical  positivism;    the  sug- 
gestion that  words  like  neutron,  meson,  quantum,  etc.  were 
used  rather  as  symbolic  aids  to  calculation  and  prediction 
than  as  labels  for  material  objects  seemed  to  have  been  taken 
as  an  idealist  denial  of  the  existence  of  the  real  world  and 
thus  of  the  materialist  principle  that  matter  is  the  ultimate 
reality. 

In  this  connection,  N.  Bohr's  principle  of  complementarity 
is  relevant.  For  it  may  resolve  the  contradiction  implied  in 
saying  that  elementary  particles  such  as  neutrons  and  protons 
arc  both  waves  and  particles.  It  stated  that  there  was  no 
meaning  to  the  question  of  whether  they  were  really  waves  or 
particles;  the  wave  and  particle  concepts  were  merely 
analogies  which  acted  as  symbolic  aids  to  the  physicist  in 
dealing  with  separate  aspects  of  the  phenomena  he  was 
studying  and  they  could  therefore  be  regarded  as  complemen- 
tary rather  than  contradictory.  This  principle  was  originally 
applied  only  to  physics.  But  during  1949  its  possible  applica- 
cation  to  other  fields  and  to  philosophy  in  general  was  widely 
discussed;  for  instance,  in  the  journals  Synthese  (Bussum, 
Holland)  and  Dialectica  (Neuchatel,  Switzerland)  by  Chr.  P. 
Raven,  L.  de  Broglie  and  J.-L.  Dcstouches. 

To  return  to  ethics:  Jean-Paul  Sartre's  atheistic  existen- 
tialism was  a  philosophy  which  was  opposed,  like  Marxism 
but  on  very  different  grounds,  to  the  idealistic  metaphysic  of 
morals.  In  Great  Britain  interest  in  this  philosophy  had  died 
out,  but  in  Europe  it  was  still  discussed — for  instance  in  Spain 
in  Filosofia  y  Letras.  In  the  U.S.A.  there  was  published  a 
translation  of  Simone  de  Beauvoir's  Pour  une  morale  de 
Vambiguitt  (Paris,  1947)  under  the  title  of  The  Ethics  of 
Ambiguity  (New  York,  1948).  Madame  de  Beauvoir's  central 
theme  was  that  man  could  not  just  adopt  a  ready-made  code 
of  morals;  he  must  make  his  own  anxious  choice.  There  was 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


505 


also  some  discussion  of  Heidegger's  existentialism  in  Italy. 
The  Christian  existentialist  Gabriel  Marcel  published  Position 
et  approches  concretes  du  mystdre  ontologique  (Paris,  1949) 
while  a  translation  of  his  Philosophy  of  Existence  appeared  in 
the  U.S.A.  (New  York,  1949)  and  a  translation  of  his  Etrc  et 
Avoir  in  England  (London,  1949). 

The  ethical  aspects  of  the  metaphysical-positivist  axis  of 
controversy  had  begun,  during  1948,  to  attract  the  attention 
of  the  general  public  in  Great  Britain.  But  the  positivist 
philosophers  themselves  had  taken  little  part  in  non-academic 
discussions,  since  these  were  concerned  mainly  with  making 
judgments  rather  than  analysing  them.  However,  in  1949, 
A.  J.  Ayer  attempted  to  explain  his  position  in  a  discussion 
with  F.  C.  Copleston  on  the  B.B.C.'s  Third  programme  and 
in  an  article  "  On  the  Analysis  of  Moral  Judgments " 
(Horizon,  London,  Sept.  1949).  He  claimed,  incidentally,  that 
a  man  who  held  logical  positivist  views  about  the  analysis  of 
moral  judgments  was  not  thereby  precluded  from  having 
personal  moral  standards  nor  from  making  moral  judgments 
which  may  be  as  good  as  other  people's,  although  he  was 
precluded  from  holding  that  these  judgments  were  a  logical 
consequence  of  his  philosophy.  On  the  other  hand,  C.  E.  M. 
load  put  forward  in  a  number  of  lectures  and  articles  (*>.£•., 
Hibbert  Journal,  London,  Oct.  1949)  the  view  that,  although 
logical  positivists  might  not  intend  to  attack  morality  in 
general,  the  practical  effect  of  their  philosophy  was  in  fact 
to  destroy  it. 

Interest  in  positivist  views  and  in  allied  linguistic  questions 
was  still  confined  mainly  to  Great  Britain,  Holland  and  the 
U.S.A.  There  was  no  discussion  of  them  in  France,  and 
although  a  bibliographical  introduction  to  Dcr  lognche 
Posit  ivismus  by  Karl  Durr  was  published  in  Berne  in  1948, 
few  Germans  could  afford  to  buy  Swiss  books.  German 
philosophy  indeed  appeared  to  remain  very  much  isolated 
from  development  in  the  rest  of  the  world.  (See  Hartmann 
in  the  Bibhogtaphv)-  It  was  an  unfortunate  sign  of  the 
times  that  information  about  German  philosophy  was  almost 
impossible  to  obtain  in  England.  The  current  journals 
were  not  taken  even  by  the  British  Museum.  Karl  Jaspers' 
Von  der  Wahrhcit  (Munich,  1948) — the  first  volume  of  a 
comprehensive  logis  of  metaphysics  and  philosophy  based 
on  an  original  definition  of  truth — -seemed  to  have  been 
regarded  as  the  most  important  work  lately  published. 

In  fact  it  was  probably  true  to  say  that,  in  general, 
intuitionist  and  metaphysical  views  gained  further  ground  as 
against  positivist  views.  In  Latin  America  for  instance,  (see 
Cannabrava  in  the  Bibliography)  intuitionism  was  much  in 
the  ascendant.  Reason  was  regarded  as  useless  and  burden- 
some, incapable  of  conveying  the  deep  meaning  of  existence 
with  its  emotional  content. 

Apart  from  an  article  by  C.  D.  Broad  on  "  The  Relevance 
of  Psychical  Research  to  Philosophy  "  (Philosophy,  London, 
Oct.  1949),  there  was  little  further  discussion  of  extra-sensory 
perception,  although  the  journal  Enquiry,  which  had  been 
started  in  1948,  continued  publication.  However,  interest  in 
the  capacities  of  the  human  mind  was  stimulated  by  reports 
of  the  capacities  of  machine  minds  of  electronic  calculating 
machines.  Although  this  subject  was  mainly  a  scientific  one, 
it  had  philosophical  implications  of  two  kinds.  In  the  first 
place,  it  involved  questions  as  to  whether  the  human  mind 
was  essentially  different  from  any  machine.  In  the  second 
place,  there  was  the  question  whether  the  ways  in  which 
calculating  machines  function  could  throw  any  light  upon 
philosophical  problems  such  as  those  connected  with  percep- 
tion and  the  status  of  universals.  Questions  of  the  first  kind 
were  discussed  (though  not  in  this  context)  by  Gilbert  Ryle 
(editor  of  Mind)  in  broadcasts  and  in  The  Concept  of  Mind 
(London,  1949),  which  adopted  broadly  the  non-vitalist 
attitude  in  setting  out  to  show  that  the  distinction  between 


the  inner  and  the  outer  world  could  not  be  sustained  in  its 
Cartesian  form.  Questions  of  both  kinds  were  discussed  in 
some  chapters  of  Cybernetics  by  Norbert  Wiener  (New  York, 
1948;  London,  1949),  the  word  "cybernetics  "  having  been 
coined  by  Dr.  Wiener  himself  as  a  name  for  the  general 
subject  of  control  and  communication  in  the  animal  and  the 
machine.  His  view  was  also  non-vitalist;  indeed  he  suggested 
that  the  whole  mechanist-vitalist  controversy  could  be 
relegated  to  the  limbo  of  badly  posed  questions.  (See  also 
THEOLOGY.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  The  Philosophy  of  Ernst  Cu  \iirer  (a  symposium 
planned  before  Cassirer's  death  m  1945),  vol  6  in  the  Libraiy  of 
Living  Philosophers,  edited  by  P.  A  Schilpp  (Evanston,  Illinois,  and 
London,  1949),  Gilbert  Ryle,  The  Comept  of  Mind  (London,  1949); 
William  Kneale,  Probability  and  Induction  (Oxford,  1949);  Readings  in 
Pluhsophnal  Analyst*,  ed  Herbert  Feigl  and  Wilfrid  Sellars  (New 
York,  1949);  The  language  of  Wisdom  and  Folly,  ed  Irving  J  Lcc 
(New  York,  1949),  Nicolai  Hartmann,  "  German  Philosophy  in  the 
Last  Ten  Years."  Mind,  vol  58,  no  232,  Edinburgh,  Oct  1949  ,  Euryalo 
Cannabrava,  "  Present  Tendencies  m  Latin  American  Philosophy," 
The  Journal  of  Philosophy,  vol  46,  no.  5,  Lancaster,  Pennsylvania, 
March,  1949.  (R.  C.-W.) 

PHOTOGRAPHY.  In  Great  Britain  during  1949, 
there  was  a  certain  amount  of  progress  in  the  development 
of  new  cameras  and  for  the  first  time  a  popularly  priced 
British  made  35-mm.  instrument  was  made  available.  This 
was  the  llford  Advocate,  a  sturdy  little  instrument  with  die 
cast  body,  finished  in  an  unusual  but  pleasing  cream  colour 
and  fitted  with  a  bloomed  lens  of  35-mm.  focus.  This  camera 
took  the  standard  24  x  36-mm.  frame  using  the  well  known 
velvet  light  trapped  cassette,  had  a  wide  range  of  shutter 
speeds  up  to  1/200  sec.,  and  focusing  mount. 

Another  successful  British-made  instrument  was  the  new 
Sclfix  820  made  by  Barnct-Ensign-Ross  Ltd.  Fitted  with  a 
British-made  speeded  shutter  with  exposures  from  1  to  1/250 
sec  and  with  an  f/3  •  8  Ross  Xpres  lens  coated,  it  took  either 
120  or  620  spools  and  either  eight  pictures  2|  x  3£  in.  or 
twelve  pictures  2|  in  square,  hinged  masks  being  provided 
for  the  change  over.  The  shutter  was  fitted  with  built-in 
contacts  for  flash  work  using  the  popular  Speed  Midget 
bulbs. 

Two  interesting  cameras  for  the  professional  worker  also 
appeared  during  the  year.  One  was  the  4  x  5  in.  M  .P.P.  camera 
with  a  wide  range  of  movement  including  a  triple  extension 
with  crossed  front,  a  tilting  front  and  a  four-way  swing  and 
revolving  back  with,  when  required,  a  coupled  range  finder. 
The  other  camera  was  an  entirely  new  design  for  press  men 
and  was  known  as  the  **  Nelrod."  A  particular  feature  was 
the  completely  built-in  flash  equipment  for  either  electronic 
flash  or  consumable  bulbs,  it  also  had  a  coupled  range  finder, 
rapid  focusing,  quick  change  dark  slides,  etc. 

But  perhaps  the  most  important  introduction  from  the 
popular  point  of  view  was  the  British-made  Speed  Midget 
flashbulb  which  did  so  much  to  revolutionize  popular 
photography  in  the  United  States.  These  bulbs  were  made 
by  two  firms,  the  General  Electric  company  and  the  British 
Thomson  Houston  company,  who  were  also  making  the  wire- 
filled  bulbs  with  the  20  milli-second  delay.  These  bulbs 
enabled  most  British  manufacturers  of  the  cheaper  cameras 
to  provide  built-in  flash  contacts  so  that  night  photography 
became  as  simple  as  daylight  photography. 

Two  new  British  made  photo-electric  exposure  meters 
were  introduced.  The  first  was  the  Avo,  the  new  model  of 
which  was  being  distributed  by  Kodak  Ltd.,  while  another 
photo-electric  meter  known  as  the  llford  Model  C  was  being 
distributed  by  that  company. 

In  British-made  colour  films,  llford  Ltd.  distributed  both 
daylight  and  photoflood  emulsions  in  their  35-mm.  "  Ilford- 
colour."  (P.  W.  H.) 


506 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


Great  progress  was  made  during  1949  in  re-establishing 
international  trade  in  photographic  products.  Germany  was 
rapidly  coming  into  full  prewar  production  by  making  more 
than  78,000  cameras  a  month  during  the  latter  part  of  the 
year.  About  28,000  of  these  cameras  came  from  the  Agfa 
Kamerawerk,  under  U.S.  administration,  and  more  than 
3,000  Leica  cameras  and  about  the  same  number  of  Rollei- 
flex  cameras  came  from  the  western  zones  of  Germany  each 
month.  A  large  part  of  this  production  was  being  exported 
to  the  United  States. 

Agfa  Kamerawerk  introduced  two  new  cameras,  the  Karat 
and  Isolette,  which  were  sold  in  the  United  States  under  the 
names  of  Karomat  36  and  Ventura,  respectively.  Both  were 
of  the  miniature  type,  the  Karomat  36  with  built-in  coupled 
range  finder,  using  a  35-mm.  film  and  the  Ventura  made  for 
use  with  a  film  which  made  2J  x  2|  in.  negatives. 

At  the  International  Trade  fair  m  Utrecht,  Netherlands, 
early  in  April,  photographic  equipment  from  both  eastern 
and  western  Germany  was  on  official  display  for  the  first 
time  since  World  War  II  outside  Germany.  From  the  Dresden 
works  of  Zeiss-Ikon  came  a  newly  designed  Contax  "  S  " 
camera.  The  important  change  in  this  35-mm  miniature 
camera  was  in  the  eye-level  reflex  focusing  method,  which 
replaced  the  former  built-in  range  finder.  New  models  of 
the  Kine  Exakta  camera  were  on  exhibition,  equipped 
with  Hugo  Meyer  lenses. 

Progress  in  the  Netherlands'  photographic  industry  was 
shown  by  products  from  De  Oude  Delft  Optische  Industrie, 
with  their  new  telephoto,  wide  angle  and  enlarging  lenses, 
and  the  Philips  company  at  Eindhoven.  The  latter  company 
showed  their  new  PF25N  flash  bulb,  available  in  three  different 
colour  temperatures  of  3,400°,  4,000U  and  6,000°K.  Philips 
also  had  a  small  hand  flash  lamp  outfit  for  use  with  their 
make  of  flash  lamps.  Flash  photography  was  slow  in  develop- 
ing  on  the  continent,  primarily  because  of  the  lack  of  equip- 
ment and  supplies. 

Franke  and  Heidecke  displayed  models  of  their  Rolleiflex 
cameras.  A  new  Magnar  telescopic  lens  attachment  was  of 
interest.  This  auxiliary  lens  fitted  over  the  standard  7-5-cm. 
Rolleiflex  lens  to  give  it  an  effective  focal  length  of  30-cm. 
A  new  Rolleiflex  was  introduced  later  in  the  year  with  such 
features  as  a  new  Compur  shutter  with  built-in  flash  syn- 
chronization, eye-level  viewing  and  focusing,  a  full-image 
magnifier  and  a  new  carrying  case. 

Japan  made  steady  progress  in  getting  its  photographic 
industry  back  into  full  production.  By  the  end  of  the  year 
photographic  manufacturing  had  reached  60%  of  prewar 
production.  There  were  36  important  camera  manufacturers 
employing  more  than  4,500  workers.  The  camera  industry 
represented  about  37%  of  the  optical  equipment  industry  in 
Japan.  The  main  cameras  for  export  were  in  the  miniature 
camera  class,  using  16-mm.  and  35-mm.  films.  Many  were 
almost  direct  copies  of  German  cameras  like  the  Contax, 
Leica  and  Rolleiflex.  The  Japanese  Motoca  35,  Leotax 
Special  and  Canon  Sil  were  similar  to  the  Leica.  Other 
cameras  in  the  miniature  class  included  the  Nikon,  Olympus 
35,  Mamiya  35,  Steky,  Minion  35  and  the  35-mm.  Konica. 
A  number  of  these  cameras  were  finding  a  market  in  the 
United  States. 

United  States.  A  new  du  Pont  Polymer  Print  film  was  a 
notable  addition  to  the  field  of  colour  motion-picture  photog- 
raphy. This  film  was  designed  to  be  printed  from  three 
black-and-white  separation  negatives  and  to  be  developed  in 
colour  during  a  single  passage  through  a  slightly  modified 
conventional  developing  machine.  Formerly  the  emulsion 
layers  for  colour-forming  development  contained  at  least 
three  components — gelatine,  silver  halide  and  colour  former. 
In  the  printing  film  worked  out  by  du  Pont,  only  two  com- 
ponents were  employed — silver  halide  and  a  water-sensitive 


synthetic  polymer  playing  the  role  of  both  gelatine  and 
colour  former. 

The  Kodak  Ektacolour  film  was  made  available.  This  new 
colour  film,  first  announced  in  1947,  produced  a  negative 
whose  colours  were  complementary  to  those  which  would 
appear  in  the  final  print.  Ektacolour  simplified  the  making 
of  colour  prints  and  photomechanical  reproductions  by 
eliminating  the  need  for  masking  and  for  separation  negatives. 
This  film  was  intended  primarily  for  professional  use  in 
artificial  light.  It  could  be  processed  in  the  photographer's 
studio.  Kodak  Pan  Matrix  film  was  also  brought  out  in 
connection  with  Ektacolour.  This  new  film  permitted  positive 
colour  printing  matrices  to  be  made  directly  from  Ektacolour 
transparencies  either  by  contact  printing  or  by  enlarging 
through  filters  without  any  intermediate  processes.  A  special 
black-and-white  proofing  paper  for  use  with  Ektacolour 
film  and  a  special  Kodak  Vacum  Register  board  to  speed 
printing  with  Pan  Matrix  film  were  also  available.  Kodacolor 
film,  type  A  was  a  new  colour  roll  film  properly  balanced  for 
clear  flash  and  flood  illumination.  No  filters  were  required 
for  its  use  with  this  type  of  lighting  indoors.  This  film  had 
the  same  emulsion  speed  as  a  regular  Kodacolor  film.  It 
was  of  the  colour  coupler  type  and  had  a  wide  colour- 
reproduction  latitude. 

New  Equipment.  A  new  Kodalith  Blue-Sensitive  film  for 
the  graphic  arts  became  available.  The  new  film,  which  had 
no  anti-halation  backing,  was  specifically  made  for  those 
who  wanted  to  reverse  an  image  by  exposure  through  the 
back  of  the  film.  The  general  characteristics  of  the  new  film 
were  somewhat  similar  to  Kodalith  Ortho  film,  type  II, 
except  that  the  new  film  was  not  an  orthochromatic  emulsion. 

A  new  model  of  the  Kodak  Tourist  camera  incorporating 
a  radically  new  between-the-lens  shutter  with  an  accurate 
top  speed  of  1/800  sec.  was  the  world's  fastest  shutter  of  its 
type,  with  the  widest  speed  range  in  the  folding  camera  field. 
To  attain  this  exposure  speed  the  blades  in  the  new  shutter 
pivoted  and  rotated  through  a  partial  circle  inside  the  shutter 
housing.  As  the  rotation  progressed,  the  shutter  aperture 
opened  and  then  closed.  There  was  also  a  built-in  flash 
synchronizer  in  this  shutter. 

The  Kodak  Reflex  II  camera  was  a  new  twin-lens  reflex 
camera  equipped  with  the  new  plastic  Kodak  Ektalite  Field 
lens  in  the  viewing  system.  The  inscition  of  this  flat,  grooved 
lens  beneath  the  camera's  ground  glass  increased  the  over-all 
illumination  on  the  ground  glass  by  250%  and  corner  and 
edge  illumination  by  1,000%.  Critical  focusing  was  speeded 
and  made  easier  and  composition  was  simplified  because  of 
the  more  brilliant  image. 

Compared  with  previous  years  there  was  not  very  much 
new  equipment  for  the  darkroom  worker.  However  the 
Kodak  Flurolite  enlarger  and  the  Kodak  Hobbyist  enlarger 
were  important  exceptions. 

High-Speed  Photography  and  Special  Developments.  In  the 
field  of  high-speed  photography  the  new  Kodatron  Colour 
Speedlamp  wa?>  of  importance.  This  new  model  had  approxi- 
mately 20  times  the  light  output  of  the  former  Kodatron 
Studio  model.  The  power  output  ranged  from  1 ,000-watt-sec. 
with  one  power  unit  and  one  condenser  to  2,73 6- watt-sec, 
with  one  power  unit  and  three  condensers. 

A  new  Graflex  2^  x  3^  Century  Graphic  was  produced 
in  the  fieW  of  miniature  press-type  cameras.  Graflex  roll 
film  holders  were  made  for  use  with  the  various  Graflex 
cameras.  The  Super  D  Graflex  single-lens  reflex  cameras 
were  equipped  with  a  highly  specialized  Fresnel  lens  for 
increasing  uniformity  as  well  as  intensity  of  screen  illumina- 
tion in  the  picture  viewing  system.  A  2£  x  3 J  Century 
Graphic  camera  was  made  similar  in  design  to  the  Speed 
Graphic  cameras  but  without  the  rear  focal  plane  shutter. 

The  Polaroid  Land  camera,  introduced  at  the  beginning 


PHYSICS 


HYDERABAD  (DECCAN). 


507 


•  '  •  '   '    ''* '  '  :  : :  > : 

-    :  Jr...  .    ;        :  -  ^.; 


//f  /j*/y  7949  the  Admiralty   released  a  series  of  photographs  (one  of  which  is  reproduced  above}  taken  by  a  new  technique  in  underwater 
photography.   The  photographers  were  equipped  with  adapted  **  frogman  '*  suits  and  could  take  photographs  to  a  depth  of  100ft. 


of  1949,  rapidly  established  itself.  With  this  camera  it  was 
possible  to  expose  and  develop  a  finished  picture  inside  the 
camera  within  one  minute.  By  the  end  of  the  year  nearly 
7  million  pictures  had  been  taken  with  these  cameras.  In 
addition  to  the  overwhelming  majority  of  cameras  used  for 
taking  pictures  for  personal  use,  many  were  used  in  the 
industrial  and  business  fields  where  they  were  invaluable  for 
recording  purposes. 

Stereoscopic  photography  made  steady  progress  with  the 
Stereo  Realist  camera  and  with  the  new  Three  Dimension 
Company's  Stereo  projector  which  was  equipped  with 
Polaroid  filters  to  give  unusual  stereoscopic  effects  upop  the 
projection  screen. 

Bausch  and  Lomb  Optical  company  introduced  nine  new 
Animar  motion-picture  lenses  for  8-mm.  and  1 6-mm.  photo- 
graphy. There  were  five  standard  and  four  telephoto  lenses. 
Important  features  of  these  lenses  besides  their  optical 
qualities  were  the  spread  diaphragm  stops  for  easier  reada- 
bility and  the  click  stops  for  changing  settings  without  looking 
at  the  lens  scale.  This  manufacturer  also  produced  a  new 
series  of  high-speed  projection  lenses  especially  for  large 
cinemas  with  a  speed  of  f/2  •  0. 

General  Electric  made  a  new  photographic  flash  tube  to 
operate  at  speeds  of  1/5,000-sec.,  with  an  improved  triggering 
circuit  for  use  with  lightweight  portable  power  speedlamp 
units.  A  new  375-w.  photoflood  lamp  was  made  with  a 
narrower  beam  spread  which  gave  more  light  on  the  camera 
subject  than  the  wide-beam  500-w.  reflector  photoflood 
lamp.  General  Electric  also  produced  an  extremely  powerful 
photographic  floodlight  producing  light  from  7  to  15  times 
the  intensity  of  sunlight  for  use  with  high  speed  motion- 
picture  work  where  speeds  up  to  8,000  pictures  per  second 
were  required.  This  lamp  produced  75,000  ft.-candles  of 
light,  as  compared  with  the  normal  50  ft.-candle  level  existing 
in  the  better  indoor  lighting  systems. 

Electron  Microscopy.  Developments  in  electron  microscopy 
were  not  spectacular,  though  there  was  a  steady  stream  of 
new  results.  In  the  Radio  Corporation  of  America  labora- 
tories at  Princeton,  New  Jersey,  the  first  quantitative  method 


of  testing  the  symmetry  of  electron  microscope  objectives 
was  perfected.  A  new  removable  intermediate  lens  was 
developed  to  provide  magnifications  from  1,000x  to  20,000x 
without  changing  lenses. 

Considerable  new  work  was  done  on  the  ultra  thin  section- 
ing of  tissue.  C.  E.  Hall  of  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology,  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  made  electron 
micrographs  of  crystals  made  up  of  molecules  of  seed  globulin. 
These  are  the  smallest  (6  mu.)  molecules  seen  in  crystalline 
form.  J.  L.  Melnick  of  Yale  university,  New  Haven,  Con- 
necticut, photographed  virus-like  bodies  from  human  skin 
papillomas  in  what  appeared  to  be  a  crystalline  arrangement. 
In  spite  of  his  conservative  pronouncements,  it  was  generally 
accepted  that  this  represented  the  first  demonstration  of  an 
animal  virus  in  crystalline  form.  (See  also  CINEMA;  TELE- 
VISION; X-RAY  AND  RADIOLOGY.)  (W.  D.  MN.) 

PHYSICS.  During  1949,  while  science  was  still 
recovering  from  its  exploitation  during  World  War  II, 
considerable  advances  were  made  along  many  lines,  notably 
in  microwave  physics,  in  the  interpretation  of  cosmic  ray 
phenomena,  in  the  application  of  molecular  vibrations  to 
the  standardization  of  time  intervals,  in  the  cataloguing  of 
the  properties  of  radioactive  materials,  in  low  temperature 
physics  and  in  the  theory  of  the  nucleus.  A  few  special  topics 
described  briefly  below  show  the  progress  made  in  funda- 
mental physics. 

Several  important  groups  of  physicists  turned  their  attention 
to  the  problem  of  abstracting  the  literature  of  physics. 
Especially  since  about  1938,  it  had  become  virtually  impos- 
sible for  a  physicist  to  read  in  full,  much  less  study,  all  the 
published  papers  that  interested  him,  even  if  all  the  physics 
periodicals  of  the  world  were  accessible;  and  it  is  essential 
that  a  research  physicist  should  keep  abreast  of  the  times. 
It  was  felt  that  the  problem  might  be  solved  by  a  new  abstract 
service  of  some  kind.  Most  English-speaking  physicists  had 
relied  on  Physics  Abstracts,  issued  monthly  in  England  by 
the  Institution  of  Electrical  Engineers;  but  judged  by 
modern  standards  that  compilation  was  believed  to  have 


508 


PHYSICS 


become  inadequate  in  several  respects.  In  order  that  a 
practical  and  acceptable  solution  of  the  problem  might  be 
reached,  the  American  Institute  of  Physics,  working  with 
the  Office  of  Naval  Research,  spent  1949  in  assembling  the 
information  necessary  for  answering  such  questions  as: 
How  important  are  abstracts  to  physicists?  How  do  they 
try  to  use  the  abstracts?  What  do  they  think  of  the  abstracts 
they  now  have?  What  kind  of  abstracts  would  they  like? 
The  results  of  this  study  were  awaited  with  interest. 

Neutron.  The  neutron,  an  uncharged  particle  of  approxi- 
mately the  same  mass  as  the  proton,  is  a  constituent  of  all 
atomic  nuclei  except  ordinary  hydrogen.  The  particle  is 
unstable  (or  radioactive)  when  liberated  into  the  free  state 
by  the  breaking  of  nuclei;  but  its  half-life  was  known  only 
by  theoretical  estimate.  The  half-life  had  not  been  measured 
experimentally  for  the  simple  reason  that  it  was  impossible 
for  neutrons  to  be  imprisoned  within  a  vessel  as  atoms  of 
gas  could  be.  The  neutrons,  having  no  electric  charge,  would 
escape  immediately  through  the  walls  of  the  vessel,  no  matter 
of  what  it  was  made.  Without  giving  detailed  reasons,  it 
may  be  asserted  that  the  only  feasible  method  of  determining 
directly  the  half-life  of  the  neutron  was  by  making  measure- 
ments on  a  newly  born  stream  of  neutrons  such  as  emerged 
from  a  nuclear  reactor.  The  experiment  would  have  no  chance 
of  success  unless  the  stream  of  neutrons  was  very  intense. 
Utilizing  the  neutron  stream,  probably  the  most  intense  in 
the  world,  emerging  from  the  nuclear  reactor  at  Chalk 
River,  Ontario,  J.  M.  Robson  was  able  to  measure  the 
intensity  of  the  positive  decay  protons  by  a  focusing  ion- 
spectrometer.  The  effect  that  was  measured,  and  on  which 
the  half-life  was  based,  was  a  proton  current  that  stood  out 
about  30%  above  the  background  of  the  counting  devices 
used.  In  most  experiments  in  nuclear  physics,  such  a  situation 
would  be  presumed  to  lead  to  fairly  reliable  numerical 
results.  Robson's  final  figure  was  that  the  half-life  of  the 
neutron,  as  measured  directly,  lay  between  9  and  18  min., 
in  agreement  with  theoretical  estimates.  (For  example,  in 
1947,  in  the  course  of  a  formal  lecture,  H.  A.  Bethe  estimated 
the  half-life  at  20  min.)  Independent  experiments,  carried 
out  at  the  Oak  Ridge,  Tennessee,  laboratories  of  the  Atomic 
Energy  commission  and  reported  in  Nov.  1949,  indicated 
that  Reason's  result  was  unlikely  to  be  wrong. 

Radioactivity.  The  following  is  quoted  from  an  article  by 
J.  H.  Webb  in  the  Physical  Review,  Aug.  1,  1949: 

Following  the  explosion  of  the  experimental  atom  bomb  at 
Alamogordo,  New  Mexico,  on  July  16,  1945,  a  radioactive  contami- 
nant was  encountered  in  strawboard  material  used  by  Eastman 
Kodak  company  for  packaging  photographic  sensitive  films  This 
paper  board  was  manufactured  in  a  mill  situated  at  Vincennes, 
Indiana,  on  the  Wabash  river  A  run  of  strawboard,  produced  on 
Aug.  6,  1945,  showed  this  new  and  unusual  type  of  radioactive 
contaminant.  X-ray  film  packed  with  this  board  showed  fogged 
spots  after  about  two  weeks'  exposure 

Measurements  of  the  contaminated  spots  of  strawboard  showed 
no  alpha-activity  but  a  fairly  strong  beta-activity.  Absence  of  alpha- 
activity  ruled  out  naturally  radioactive  materials.  Measurements  of 
the  beta-activity  showed  a  maximum  energy  of  0  6  Mev  and  a 
half-life  of  approximately  30  days.  Radiochemical  studies  of  the 
active  ash  from  the, strawboard  indicated  that  the  material  was  of 
the  rare  earth  series.  The  energy  value  and  half-life  of  the  beta- 
radiation  are  compatible  with  the  isotope  Ce  141. 

All  studies  point  to  the  conclusion  that  the  radioactive  contaminant 
was  an  artificially  radioactive  material  which  found  its  way  into  the 
mill  through  the  river  water.  The  tnost  likely  explanation  seems  to 
be  that  it  was  a  wind-borne  fission  product  derived  from  the  atom- 
bomb  detonation  in  New  Mexico  on  July  16,  1945. 

Similar  effects  were  caused  by  strawboard  manufactured 
in  Sept.  1945  at  a  paper  mill  in  Iowa,  several  hundred  miles 
from  Vincennes,  Indiana,  and  on  a  different  watershed.  The 
amounts  of  radioactive  material  involved  were  in  all  cases 
exceedingly  small,  and  it  was  only  because  the  strawboard 
happened  to  be  used  for  packaging  sensitive  photographic 
film  that  it  was  detected  at  all.  Presumably,  specks  of  radio- 


active dust,  perhaps  precipitated  with  rain,  were  carried  down 
by  the  rivers  and  filtered  out  during  the  manufacture  of  the 
strawboard. 

A  New  Meson.  The  photographic  methods  used  in  the 
discovery  of  new  fundamental  nuclear  particles  by  C.  F. 
Powell  and  his  colleagues  at  the  University  of  Bristol  since 
1946  were  adopted  in  many  laboratories  throughout  the 
world.  Since  the  examination  of  photographic  emulsions  for 
tracks  that  showed  evidence  of  new  phenomena  took  some 
time,  further  progress  might,  for  a  few  years,  have  been 
expected  to  be  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  investigators 
engaged  in  the  work.  Powell's  work  established  clearly  the 
existence  of  both  TT  and  /x  mesons,  and  the  mother-daughter 
relationship  between  them.  Between  1946  and  1949,  a  new 
heavy  meson  designated  by  the  symbol  r  was  reported  by 
several  workers  in  the  U.S.S.R.,  in  England  and  in  the  U.S. 
The  report  supported  by  the  most  definite  evidence  was  that 
of  N.  Wagner  and  D.  Cooper  of  Maryland  university. 

The  various  types  of  charged  mesons  are  distinguished  by 
the  linear  densities  and  the  variations  of  linear  densities  of 
developed  photographic  grains  along  their  tracks;  and  these 
differences  are  interpreted  in  terms  of  the  different  masses 
and  energies  of  the  particles.  According  to  the  best  recent 
determinations,  TT  and  p  (primary  and  secondary)  mesons 
have  masses  286  and  205  times  as  great  as  the  electron's 
mass.  The  r  meson  was  found  to  be  much  heavier — 720 
times  the  electron's  mass — but.  apart  from  the  fact  that  it 
might,  at  the  end  of  its  range,  be  captured  by  a  nucleus 
which  then  exploded  or  alternatively  might  end  its  travel 
without  evidence  of  being  captured,  little  was  learned  of  its 
properties.  It  appeared  to  originate  among  the  explosion 
products  of  a  nucleus  disintegrated  by  cosmic-ray  action. 
No  family  connection  of  the  r  with  rr  and  /t  mesons  was 
indicated;  but  if  such  a  connection  should  exist,  its  nature 
might  not  be  determined  until  an  answer  had  been  found 
to  the  question  whether  mesons  occur  with  definite  masses 
or  with  a  continuously  variable  range  of  masses. 

Terrestnal  Magnetism.  According  to  a  first  approximation, 
the  magnetic  qualities  of  the  earth  are  those  it  would  possess 
if  it  were  a  "  uniformly  magnetized  sphere/'  There  seems 
also  to  be  no  doubt  that  the  magnetic  field  that  is  measured 
at  or  near  the  earth's  surface  originates  from  sources  inside 
the  earth  rather  than  from  any  happenings  m  space  outside 
the  earth.  The  next  step  in  a  proper  understanding  of  the 
earth's  magnetism — an  explanation  of  the  extent  to  which 
the  earth's  field  differs  from  that  of  a  uniformly  magnetized 
sphere— is  one  of  tremendous  complexity.  Measurements 
have,  of  course,  been  made  of  these  differences  all  over  the 
land  and  oceans,  but  a  satisfactory  explanation  of  their 
patterns  has  been  elusive.  Furthermore,  the  patterns  change 
slightly  in  a  definite  but  complex  manner  from  year  to  year. 

Some  new  ideas  on  the  subject  were  published  during  1949 
by  E.  C.  Bullard,  director-elect  of  the  National  Physical 
laboratory,  England.  Discarding  the  idea  of  any  permanent 
magnetism,  he  sought  to  explain  the  observed  phenomena  in 
terms  of  large-scale  electric  currents  within  the  liquid  metallic 
core  of  the  earth.  In  order  that  the  magnetic  effects  might 
be  reasonably  permanent,  it  had  to  be  assumed  that  inside 
the  core  of  the  earth  the  flow  of  electricity  and  the  flow  of 
material  of  which  the  core  is  composed  must  be  such  as  to 
simulate  a  self-exciting  dynamo,  so  that  the  flow  of  charge 
created  the  magnetic  field  across  which  liquid  metal  moved 
only  to  have  more  electric  currents  induced  in  it.  Such  a 
supposition  was  eminently  reasonable,  provided  that  a  source 
of  energy  available  for  maintaining  the  mass-flow  could  be 
identified.  Bullard  suggested  that  either  (1)  the  liquid  core 
did  not  follow  faithfully  the  precessional  motion  of  the  earth 
or  what  was  more  likely  (2)  thermal  convection  currents 
existed  to  carry  heat  from  the  core  outward.  The  second  of 


PHYSIOLOGY 


509 


The  four  Equation! 

The  heart  of  the  genertUte*  theory  of  gravitation  U 
•xpr«»s«<S  in  four  equetlona,  shown  in  the  accompanying  illus- 
tration. 


The  equation*  have  the  rathematlorl  proper tlo»  which  acorn  to  be 
'"  required  In  order  to  Ceecrlbo  the  knovn  effacta,  but  thoy  wust 
1  be  te»tort  again at  observed  physical  fncta  tcforo  tholr  validity 
'  can  be  «boolut«ly  eatabliahed. 

Part  of  a  paper  published  by  Professor  Albert  Einstein  on  Dec.  27, 
1949,  in  which  he  developed  a  "generalized  theory  of  gravitation." 

these  assumptions  was  partially  developed,  without  serious 
conflict  with  established  facts,  to  explain  the  major  part  of 
the  earth's  magnetic  field.  Local  irregularities  in  the  field 
and  secular  changes  thereof  were  then  presumed  to  be  the 
result  of  two  further  effects,  the  occurrence  of  local  eddies  in 
the  liquid  interior  and  distortion  of  the  regular  field  by 
magnetic  materials  in  the  solid  crust. 

Origin  of  the  Elements.  The  96  known  elements  are  not  all 
equally  abundant  in  that  part  of  the  universe  that  is  accessible 
to  scientific  observation.  Striking  regularities  in  quantities 
appear  side  by  side  with  striking  irregularities.  For  example, 
it  has  been  proved  that  light  elements  are  more  abundant 
than  heavy  ones  and  that  there  is  a  gradual  change  in  relative 
abundance  from  hydrogen  (the  lightest  element)  to  the 
heaviest  elements,  covering  a  factor  of  about  ten  thousand 
million.  At  the  same  time  there  exist  violent  fluctuations  of 
abundance  from  one  light  element  to  the  next.  To  illustrate 
these  generalities,  it  can  be  asserted  that  for  every  atom  of  gold 
in  the  universe,  there  are  ten  thousand  million  atoms  of 
hydrogen,  one  thousand  atoms  of  fluorine  and  one  million 
atoms  of  neon.  Since  all  nuclei  are  composed  of  neutrons  and 
protons,  it  seems  clear  that  these  regularities  and  irregularities 
of  abundances  must  reflect  the  manner  in  which  nuclei  were 
originally  formed  from  their  constituent  elementary  parts. 

M.  G.  Mayer  and  E.  Teller  summarized  the  existing  situa- 
tion, calling  attention  to  the  probability  that  light  elements 
may  have  been  formed  by  thermonuclear  reactions,  in  the 
course  of  which  new  nuclei  were  built  by  the  addition  of 
protons  to  already  existing  nuclei.  They  emphasized  strongly 
the  conclusive  evidence  that,  at  the  time  of  formation  of 
heavy  nuclei,  the  proportion  of  neutrons  exceeded  that  which 
is  now  found;  otherwise,  the  heaviest  isotopes  of  the  heavy 
elements  would  not  be  the  most  abundant.  They  then 
explored  the  hypothesis  that  heavy  nuclei  were  formed  by 
the  disintegration  of  a  cold  nuclear  fluid  containing  a  great 
excess  of  neutrons.  Considering  this  as  a  kind  of  fission  and 
neutron-evaporation  process  operating  on  nuclei  much  heavier 
than  now  exist,  Mayer  and  Teller  predicted  a  theoretical  distri- 
bution of  isotopic  nuclei  in  the  range  of  atomic  numbers  62 
to  78,  that  agreed  remarkably  well  with  actual  observations.  In 
deriving  this  distribution  of  abundances  among  the  isotopes 
of  each  of  a  series  of  elements,  the  authors  pushed  the 
theory  one  step  farther  than  it  had  been  carried  before. 

Einstein  s  Unified  Field  Theory.  Physicists  had  been  for  a 
hundred  and  fifty  years  acquainted  with  effects  separately 
described  as  electricity,  magnetism,  light,  gravitation.  For 
example,  a  thunderstorm  was  an  electrical  phenomenon, 
the  pointing  of  a  compass  toward  the  north  a  magnetic  one, 
the  scattering  of  light  was  optical,  the  falling  of  an  apple  to 
the  ground  was  gravitational.  When  they  were  first  dis- 
covered, all  four  types  of  effects  were  unrelated — in  different 
compartments  of  knowledge.  Through  the  work  of  Michael 
Faraday,  James  Clark  Maxwell,  and  others,  the  fields  of 
electricity,  magnetism,  and  light  were  brought  under  one 


discipline,  so  that  it  was  known,  for  example,  how  the 
movement  of  electric  charges  produces  light.  Gravitation 
alone  remained  isolated,  having  no  apparent  connection 
with  electro-magnetic  or  optical  phenomena. 

Einstein's  new  "  field  theory,"  announced  in  Dec.  1949, 
brought  gravitation  into  the  fold,  as  it  were,  providing  a 
formal  connecting  link  between  gravitational,  electromagnetic 
and  optical  effects.  It  was  felt  that  many  years  might  elapse 
before  his  theory  could  be  checked  by  experiment.  (See  also 
ASTRONOMY;  ATOMIC  ENERGY;  ELECTRONICS;  RADIO, 
SCIENTIFIC  DEVELOPMENT  IN  ) 

BIBLICJGRAPHY  To  lead  him  to  more  detailed  information,  the 
reader  should  consult  *  Nature,  vols  163  and  164,  London,  1949; 
Physical  Review,  vols.  75  and  76,  New  York,  1949.  (T.  H.  O.) 

PHYSIOLOGY.  Steady  progress  in  the  elucidation  of 
the  phenomena  associated  with  the  nerve  impulse  continued 
to  be  made  throughout  1949.  In  England,  A.  L.  Hodgkm 
and  B.  Katz,  using  a  single  fibre  preparation  of  the  giant 
axon  of  the  squid,  Lohgo  forbesi^  with  an  internal  micro- 
electrode,  showed  that  the  transient  reversal  of  potential 
difference  during  the  passage  of  the  nervous  impulse  was 
reduced  and  could  even  be  abolished  by  decreasing  the 
concentration  of  sodium  ions  in  the  external  fluid. 
Their  results  were  explained  on  the  assumption  that  the 
permeability  of  the  membrane  during  activity  was  the 
reverse  of  that  in  the  resting  state.  During  the  passage  of 
the  nervous  impulse,  a  large  increase  in  sodium  permeability 
occurred  whilst  that  of  potassium  was  unaffected.  The  rate 
of  entry  of  radioactive  sodium  ions  into  single  sepia  axons 
was  found  to  be  about  15  times  greater  during  stimulation 
than  at  rest. 

Interruption,  in  situ,  of  the  blood  supply  of  the  nerve  to 
the  tibiahs  anticus  muscle  of  the  cat  for  periods  up  to  six 
minutes  caused  an  increase  in  the  irritability  of  the  nerve. 
Restoration  of  the  blood  supply  at  the  height  of  this  irrita- 
bility resulted  in  a  return  to  its  initial  value  in  about  three 
minutes.  When  the  iscruemia  continued  for  more  than  ten 
minutes,  the  irritability  fell  below  the  initial  threshold  value. 
Occasionally  an  apparently  complete  restoration  of  the 
circulation  produced  complete  recovery  in  30-50  mm., 
but  not  always. 

Pain.  The  intensity  of  the  pain  felt  in  the  first,  second  and 
fourth  stages  of  child-birth  was  measured  in  13  normal 
deliveries.  The  method  consisted  essentially  of  comparing 
the  intensity  of  a  spontaneous  pain  with  one  induced  on  the 
dorsum  of  the  hand  by  thermal  radiation.  Before  labour,  the 
subject  was  accustomed  to  the  measurement  of  the  pain 
threshold  and  the  assessment  of  varying  intensities  of  pain. 
In  the  first  stage  of  labour,  the  intensity  of  pain  was  roughly 
proportional  to  the  degree  of  cervical  dilation  and  inversely 
proportional  to  the  length  of  the  interval  between  the  uterine 
contractions.  Pain  of  maximal  intensity  was  felt  at  the  end 
of  the  first  and  throughout  the  second  stage.  The  reactions 
of  the  woman  did  not  always  correspond  to  the  intensity 
of  her  pain  perception. 

Gastric  Secretion.  The  effect  of  intravenous  insulin  on 
gastric  secretion  was  examined  in  gastric  fistula  dogs. 
Secretion  began  when  the  blood  sugar  (Fohn's  microcolon- 
metric  method)  fell  to  60-80  mg.  %.  Acid  and  pepsin  secretion 
reached  a  peak  m  30-45  min.  after  0- 1  to  0-2  units  per  kg. 
of  body  weight.  Larger  doses  of  insulin  caused  a  diminution 
or  inhibition  of  secretion.  Nembutal,  ether  and  morphine 
in  hypnotic  doses  abolished  the  gastric  secretory  response; 
chloralose  inhibited  the  response  unless  large  doses  of  insulin 
were  given.  No  hypoglycasmic  gastric  secretory  response 
was  obtained  in  anaesthetized  or  unansesthetized  cats. 
Decorticate  dogs  showed  a  hypoglycaemic  secretion.  After 
decerebration  a  reduced  and  delayed  hypoglycaemic  response 


510 


PIECK— PIUS 


was  obtained  in  three  animals.  Whereas  decortication  did 
not  modify  the  motility  pattern  of  the  stomach  before  or 
during  hypoglycaemia,  decerebration  inhibited  spontaneous 
motility;  neither  the  gastric  tonus  nor  the  motility  of  these 
animals  was  affected  by  insulin  hypoglycaemia. 

Respiration.  Pulmonary  arterial  and  venous  blood  pressure 
measurements  were  obtained  in  the  dog,  under  nembutal, 
by  direct  catheterization.  Catheterization  of  the  pulmonary 
veins  via  the  right  carotid  artery  was  attended  by  about  a 
10%  mortality.  A  significant  correlation  between  the  mean 
systemic  arterial  blood  pressure,  the  mean  pulmonary 
arterial  and  venous  pressures  and  the  cardiac  output  was 
noted.  In  50  dogs  where  the  mean  systemic  arterial  blood 
pressure  was  100  mm.Hg.  or  more,  the  mean  pulmonary 
arterial  blood  pressure  was  17-8:j  3-6  and  the  mean  pul- 
monary venous  pressure  8-5  |  4-2  mm.Hg.  In  13  human 
subjects  with  apparently  normal  cardiovascular  systems,  a 
venous  catheter  was  introduced  into  a  distal  branch  of  the 
pulmonary  artery  so  as  to  occlude  it.  Measurements  of  the 
pressure  distal  to  the  occluding  catheter  were  recorded.  In 
two  subjects  with  atrial  septal  defects,  in  addition  a  branch 
of  a  pulmonary  vein  was  occluded  and  the  distal  pressure 
measured;  identical  pressures  were  observed  in  both  occluded 
arteries  and  veins  and  were  believed  to  be  close  approxi- 
mations of  the  true  pulmonary  capillary  pressure.  The 
pulmonary  "capillary"  pressure  averaged  10  mm.Hg. 
(range  7  to  15);  the  mean  pulmonary  arterial  pressure 
averaged  16  mm.Hg.  (range  11  to  21). 

Bronchospirometnc  studies  in  the  dog  under  pentobarbital 
anaesthesia  showed  that  after  ligature  of  the  left  pulmonary 
artery  the  left  lung  retained  some  respiratory  function.  The 
capacity  of  such  a  lung  to  absorb  oxygen  gradually  increased 
with  the  development  of  bronchial  anastomoses.  After  four 
months  it  was  computed  that  the  blood  flow  in  such  a  lung 
usually  exceeded  one  litre  per  square  metre  of  surface  area 
per  minute.  Twenty-one  months  after  ligation  of  the  pul- 
monary artery  the  bronchial  circulation  of  the  left  lung  was 
insufficient  to  maintain  life  on  pure  oxygen  for  more  than 
a  few  minutes. 

Simultaneous  action  potential  records  from  each  hemi- 
diaphragm  following  hemisection  of  the  second  cervical 
segment  were  used  to  map  the  nervous  pathways  from  the 
respiratory  centres  to  the  pool  of  phrenic  motorneurones  in 
the  cat  and  rabbit.  Bulbo-spmal  fibres  of  respiratory  function 
descend  primarily  ipsilaterally  but  a  significant  number  cross 
to  synapse  on  the  phrenic  motorneurones  of  the  opposite 
side.  The  crossed  fibres  are  quantitatively  less  powerful 
than  the  uncrossed  fibres. 

Orthostatic  Hypotension.  An  experimentally  produced 
orthostatic  hypotension  was  produced  in  the  dog  under 
heavy  morphine  or  chloralose-morphine  anaesthesia  by  local 
cocaimzation  of  the  floor  of  the  fourth  ventricle  for  3-5  mm. 
with  a  2%  solution  of  cocaine  applied  on  a  piece  of  filter 
paper.  Normal  pressor  reflexes  were  obtained  except  on 
standing  when  hypopiesia  occurred;  respiration  was  not 
affected. 

Kidney.  Simultaneous  determinations  of  the  glomerular 
filtration  rate,  renal  plasma  flow  and  the  oxygen  content  of 
the  right  renal  vein  blood  were  made  in  unanaesthetized 
humans.  Under  approximately  basal  conditions  the  arterial- 
renal  venous  oxygen  difference  in  ten  normal  subjects  averaged 
only  1-42  volumes  %  (range  1-09  to  1-87),  yet  the  blood 
flow  was  such  that  the  average  renal  oxygen  consumption 
was  16  cc.  per  mm. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  — A  L  Hodgkin  and  B  Katz,  "  The  Effect  of  Sodium 
Ions  on  the  Electrical  Activity  of  the  Giant  Axon  of  the  Squid,"  /. 
Physiol.,  108,  37-77,  Cambridge,  1949,  R.  D.  Keynes,  "The  Move- 
ments of  Radioactive  Scdium  during  Nervous  Activity,"  ibid ,  7619,  13P, 
1949  ;  E.  L.  Porter  and  P.  S.  Wharton,  "  Irritability  of  Mammalian 
Nerve  following  Ischaemia,"  J.  NeurophyuoL,  12,  109-116,  Springfield, 


Massachusetts,  1949,  J.  D  Hardy  and  C.  T.  Javert,  "Studies  on 
Pain  Measurements  of  Pain  Intensity  in  Childbirth, "/.  Clin  Invest  ,  28, 
153-162,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  1949,  P  Jogi  and  B.  Uvnds,  "The  Gastric 
Secretory  Response  to  Insulin  in  Dogs  and  Cats,"  Atta  Phvsiol 
Stand,  17,  206-211,  Stockholm,  1949,  P.  Jogi  et  al ,  "  The  Origin  in 
the  C  N  S  ot  Gastric  Impulses  induced  by  Hypoglyczemia,"  ibid.,  17, 
212-221,  1949  ,  F  J  Haddy  et  al ,  "  A  Study  of  Pulmonary  Venous 
and  Arterial  Pressures  and  other  Variables  in  the  Anaesthcti/ed  Dog 
by  flexible  Catheter  Techniques,"  Am.  J  Physiol ,  158,  89-95,  Washing- 
ton, DC,  1949;  H  K  Hellems  et  a/,  "Pulmonary  'Capillary* 
Pressure  in  Man,"  J  Appl  P/i\uoI ,  2,  24-29,  Washington,  D  C  ,  1949; 
W  E  Bloomer  et  al ,  "Respiratory  Function  and  Blood  Flow  in 
the  Bronchial  Artery  after  Ligation  of  the  Pulmonary  Artery,"  Am. 
J  PhvMol ,  157,  317-328,  Washington,  DC,  1949,  H  Rosenbaum 
and  B  Renshaw,  "  Descendmu  Respiratory  Pathways  in  the  Cervical 
Spinal  Cord,"  ibid ,  757,  468-476,  1949,  A  Ardumi  and  C  Bartorelli, 
"Hypotension  Orthostatique  Expdnmentale,"  /.  de  Phvwol ,  41, 
145-152,  Pans,  1949,  W  H  Cargill  and  J  B  Hickam,  "The  Oxygen 
Consumption  of  the  Normal  and  Diseased  Human  Kidney,"  J  Clin 
/nvett,  28,  533-538,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  1949.  (C.  C.  N.  V.) 

PIECK,  WILHELM,  German  politician  (b.  Guben, 
Brandenburg,  Jan.  3,  1876),  son  of  working-class  parents, 
started  his  life  as  a  carpenter  and  in  1905  became  secretary 
of  the  International  Socialists  in  Bremen,  where  he  was 
associated  with  Karl  (Sobelsohn)  Radek,  the  Communist 
writer  born  in  Poland.  In  1906  Pieck  was  elected  to  the 
Bremen  city  parliament.  He  went  to  work  in  Berlin  in  1907 
when  he  became  closely  associated  with  Rosa  Luxemburg 
and  Karl  Liebknecht  as  a  pupil  at  the  Social  Democratic 
party  school.  In  Aug.  1914  Pieck  together  with  the  rest  of 
his  group  of  the  party  dissented  from  and  attacked  the  Social 
Democratic  party,  when  they  voted  the  war  credits,  and 
carried  on  an  illegal  anti-war  activity.  He  was  arrested  and 
sent  to  the  front  and  finally  to  a  punishment  company. 
He  deserted  and  escaped  to  Holland  where  he  edited  an  anti- 
war paper,  which  circulated  secretly  in  Germany.  In  Oct. 
1918  Pieck  returned  to  Berlin  and  played  a  leading  part  in 
the  foundation  of  the  Spartacus  league  and  in  the  revolution. 
Arrested  on  Jan.  15,  1919,  together  with  Liebknecht  and  Rosa 
Luxemburg,  he  escaped  their  fate,  when  they  were  shot  in 
the  Hotel  Eden,  Berlin.  A  14-year  period  of  political  legality 
in  the  Prussian  Diet,  the  Prussian  state  council  and  the 
Reichstag  followed.  After  a  short  arrest  in  1933  following 
the  Reichstag  fire  Pieck  fled  to  Moscow  where  he  remained 
for  12  years,  and  after  the  German  aggression  against  the 
Soviet  Union  he  was  a  leading  member  of  the  Free  Germany 
committee  in  Moscow.  After  his  return  to  Germany  in 
1945  he  assumed  leadership  of  the  Communist  party  and 
became  chairman  of  the  Socialist  Unity  party,  the  new 
amalgamation  of  the  Communist  party  with  extreme  left 
Social  Democrats.  On  Oct.  11,  1949,  he  was  elected  president 
of  the  Communist-dominated  German  Democratic  republic 
in  the  Soviet  zone  of  Germany.  (D.  A.  SN.) 

PIGS:    see  LIVESTOCK. 

PIUS  XII,  the  262nd  successor  of  St.  Peter  in  the  see 
of  Rome  (b.  Rome,  March  2,  1876,  as  Eugenio  Pacelli), 
was  elected  by  the  cardinals  in  conclave  in  1939  on  his  63rd 
birthday,  and  was  crowned  as  pope  on  March  12.  (For  his 
early  life  see  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  and  Britannica  Book 
of  the  Year  1949}. 

In  1949,  in  a  speech  to  delegates  of  the  International 
Catholic  Employers  association,  Pope  Pius  urged  closer 
collaboration  between  management  and  labour.  He  told 
employers  that  "  workers  should  be  assigned  a  fair  share  of 
responsibility  in  the  development  of  the  national  economy  " 
and  urged  them  to  adopt  an  enlightened  social  policy  in  the 
interest  of  collectivity  as  a  whole.  He  urged  Belgian  workers, 
who  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Castel  Gandolfo  in  Sept.  1949,  to 
draft  a  "  statute  of  public  law  and  economic  life."  This  was 
suggested  because  of  the  temptation  to  misuse  the  power  of 


PLAGUE 


*"* 

(OFCCAN) 


511 


Pope  Pius  XII,  surrounded  by  the  Papal  xuardt  being  carried  to  St.  Peter's,  Rome,  in  Dec.  1949,  to  celebrate  (he  50th  anniversary  of  his 

ordination  as  a  priest. 

trade  unions.     He  made  it  clear  that  trade  unions  had  the 


blessing  of  the  church  provided  they  seek  to  "  promote  the 
Christian  order  in  the  labour  world."  A  group  of  visiting 
businessmen  were  told  by  the  pope  the  Catholic  Church 
approved  of  nationalization  of  industry  within  certain  limits. 
In  speaking  to  members  of  the  U.S.  senate  military 
appropriations  sub-committee  on  Nov.  17,  the  pope  advocated 
re-armament,  making  a  very  careful  distinction  between 
force  as  an  instrument  for  the  enslavement  of  peoples  and 
force  as  a  means  to  resist  aggression.  In  his  Christmas 
message  he  called  upon  all  Protestant  Churches  to  "  return 
to  the  unity  of  Rome,"  and  urged  all  Christians  as  well  as 


Another  survey  was  made  of  the  extent  and  persistence 
of  the  infection  among  the  field  rodents  of  the  western  United 
States  by  examination  of  fleas  collected  from  rodents  which 
were  shot  or  trapped,  or  taken  from  their  burrows  and  nests. 
The  results  of  the  investigation  indicate  that  the  enzootic 
has  persisted  or  recurred  over  periods  as  long  as  10  years. 
Infected  fleas  were  found  in  counties  of  midwestern  states, 
which  might  indicate  an  extension  of  the  enzootic  zone 
eastward  to  more  populous  areas. 

The  longevity  of  Pasteurella  pestis  under  favourable 
conditions  may  be  of  practical  significance  through  its 
transportation  in  fleas  hidden  in  cargo.  Under  suitable 


Jews  to  support  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  the  creation    laboratory  environment  it  will  remain  viable  and  retain  its 


of  a  united  front  against  militant  atheism.   (See  also  ROMAN 
CATHOLIC  CHURCH;     VATICAN  CITY  STATE.)        (J.  LAP.) 

PLAGUE.  Progress  in  the  control  of  epidemics  of  plague, 
and  in  protection  against  this  infection,  was  reflected  in 
the  recommendations  of  20  specialists  who  conferred  in 
Washington,  D.C.  in  Oct.  1948,  and  at  a  sanitary  convention 


virulence  for  years.  A  set  of  40  slope  cultures  of  virulent 
bacilli  was  made  on  beef  infusion  agar  in  1923.  The  tubes 
were  stoppered  with  corks  coated  with  a  mixture  of  paraffin 
and  vaseline  and  stored  at  temperatures  of  from  5°  to  10°C. 
Subcultures  were  made  in  1943  and  from  33  of  the  originals 
growth  was  luxuriant.  In  1948  25%  of  the  originals  were 
alive,  and  inocula  made  from  their  subcultures  produced 


at  Paris  in  November.  They  decided  that  search  for  previously    febrile  reactions  in  guinea  pigs.    Three  of  these  which  died 


unrecognized  zones  of  enzootics  should  be  continued ;  and, 
because  of  the  widely  spread  use  and  efficacy  of  insecticides 
such  as  D.D.T.  (dichloro-diphenyl-trichlorethane),  inter- 
national prophylactic  procedures  could  be  reduced.  They 
recommended  a  more  intense  comparative  study  of  the 
relative  values  of  immunizing  vaccines  prepared  from  killed 
bacilli  or  from  live  organisms,  and  the  designation  of 
laboratories  of  world-wide  distribution  for  the  conservation 
and  supplying  of  strains  of  bacilli  of  tested  antigenic  value; 
and  suggested  recommending  prophylactic  treatment  with 
sulphamides,  or  with  streptomycin  in  cases  of  pneumonic 
plague  particularly,  in  the  belief  that  such  measures 
would  at  least  reduce  the  period  of  observation  on  contacts. 

Though  no  large  epidemics  were  registered  during  1949 
plague  continued  to  smoulder  on;  cases  were  reported  in 
Asia,  including  sections  or  provinces  of  Burma,  China, 


contained  lesions  typical  of  acute  plague  with  bacilli  in  spleen 
and  buboes.  The  reactions  of  the  subcultures  in  carbo- 
hydrate media  were  the  same  as  those  of  the  originals. 

With  the  extension  of  the  use,  in  ship  quarantine,  of 
sodium  fluoracetate  (1080)  as  a  poison  by  ingestion  for  the 
destruction  of  rats,  or  in  other  anti-rodent  measures,  the 
question  arose  of  the  likelihood  of  invalidating  the  diagnosis 
of  plague  in  rats  presumably  poisoned  and  found  dead.  The 
diagnostic  procedure  is  that  of  reproducing  the  disease  in 
guinea  pigs  by  injecting  them  subcutaneously  with  a  saline 
suspension  of  triturated  bits  of  the  liver  and  spleen  of  the 
suspected  rat.  A  preliminary  test  was  made  with  rats  found 
dead  after  the  use  of  the  poison  (1080)  on  ships.  Guinea 
pigs  injected  with  the  suspensions  of  rat  liver  and  spleen 
remained  well,  but  others  injected  with  the  stomach  contents 
of  the  rats  developed  convulsions  within  an  hour,  and  died. 


India,  Indo-China,  Java  and  Thailand;    in  Africa,  including  A  guinea  pig  which  was  inoculated  with  a  virulent  culture  of 

Belgian  Congo,  Cape  Colony,   Madagascar,  Orange  Free  P.  pestis  became  febrile  in  two  days  with  manifestations  of 

State,  Rhodesia  and  Tanganyika;    in  the  Azores;    in  South  plague.  It  was  then  poisoned  by  feeding  it  with  1080;   35  min. 

America,  including  Brazil,  Peru,  Venezuela;    in  the  United  later  it  had  developed  convulsions,  and  died.    Upon  autopsy 

States,  where  two  cases  occurred  in  the  state  of  New  Mexico,  it  exhibited  lesions  of  acute  plague,  which  were  borne  out 


512 


PLASTICS   INDUSTRY 


by  subsequent  animal  inoculation  and  by  cultural  methods. 
Tests  in  vitro  of  the  poison  revealed  no  bacteriostatic  action 
on  growth  of  the  bacillus  in  cultures. 

The  procedures,  in  practice,  for  the  limitation  of  human 
infection  and  for  the  control  of  epidemics  in  endemic  areas 
continued  to  be  those  of  destruction  of  the  local  rodents 
and  their  fleas.  These  measures  had  been  effective  if  accom- 
plished with  thoroughness  over  prolonged  periods.  Such 
widespread  programmes  were  impracticable  in  large  sections 
of  the  world,  however,  and  the  prophylactic  inoculation  of 
people  with  plague  vaccines  became  regarded  as  the  best 
preventive  measure  practicable. 

The  prophylactic  value  of  any  vaccine  is  challenged  by  the 
virulence  of  the  organism  against  whose  invasion  the  pro- 
tection is  designed.  The  determination  of  virulence  is  usually 
accomplished  by  repeated,  painstaking,  comparative  labora- 
tory tests  on  animals.  It  is  evident  that  simpler  tests  are 
desirable  either  to  replace  or  to  curtail  supplementarily  this 
costly  method,  and  investigation  was  directed  in  1949 
towards  the  discovery  and  measurement  of  some  chemical 
reaction  of  P.  pcst'n  which  is  allied  to  its  virulence.  This 
seemed  to  have  been  accomplished  by  the  measurement  of 
its  catalse  activity,  which  was  determined  by  its  ability  to 
decompose  hydrogen  peroxide.  (N.  E.  W.) 

PLASTICS  INDUSTRY.  Considerable  progress  was 
made  during  1949  towards  increasing  raw  material  production. 
The  new  Imperial  Chemical  Industries'  plant  at  Wilton,  near 
Middlesborough,  was  inaugurated  in  September  and  two 
plants  started,  one  for  the  manufacture  of  phenolic  resins, 
the  other  for  Perspex — poly  methyl  methacrylate  sheet.  The 
construction  of  the  plant  for  the  cracking  of  petroleum  oils 
to  produce  simple  unsaturated  compounds,  such  as  ethylene 
for  polythene  and  propylcne  for  acetone  and  thus  Perspex, 
proceeded. 

Petrochemicals,  Ltd.,  announced  that  five  of  the  furnaces 
in  its  cracking  plant  had  begun  working  and  that  benzene, 
toluene,  xylene  and  methyl  naphthalene  were  available. 
These  resulted  from  the  new  Catarole  process  which  converted 
straight  chain  hydrocarbons  into  ring  compounds.  It  was 
noteworthy  that  these  ring  compounds  were  free  from 
thiophene  present  in  coal  tar  benzene  and  toluene;  ethylene, 
ethylene  glycol,  propylene  oxide,  propylene  glycol  and  other 
derivatives  were  also  produced  at  these  works.  In  the  same 
field  should  be  mentioned  the  decision  to  erect  at  Grange- 
mouth,  Scotland,  with  Marshall  aid  funds,  yet  another 
petroleum-chemical  plant  to  be  operated  by  British  Petroleum 
Chemicals,  Ltd.,  owned  jointly  by  Anglo-Iranian  Oil  company 
and  the  Distillers'  company. 

Plastic  machinery  production  progressed  rapidly.  Signifi- 
cant was  the  production  by  R.  H.  Windsor,  Ltd  ,  under  the 
L.P.M.  (Italian)  patents,  of  an  extrusion  machine  which 
used  a  multi-screw  extruder  and  was  exceptionally  flexible 
in  output.  The  one  machine  could  compound,  colour  and 
pellet  the  raw  material,  extrude  it  in  a  variety  of  forms, 
including  a  tube  with  a  soft  inner  wall  and  a  hard  strong  outer 
wall,  or  a  ten  in.  tube  which  could  be  slit  automatically  to 
form  a  sheet  30  in.  wide.  A.  C.  Wickman,  Ltd.,  introduced 
another  machine,  the  new  H.P.M.  for  injection,  into  this 
country  from  the  U.S.A. ;  it  could  inject  automatically  into  a 
mould  two  streams  of  differently  coloured  plastic  material, 
thereby  eliminating  much  tedious  and  laborious  post- 
moulding  work.  In  the  mould-making  field  B.I.P.  Tools, 
Ltd.,  announced  an  exceptionally  important  process  for 
casting  high-precision  moulds.  High  fidelity  results,  the 
avoidance  of  much  machining  and  rapidity  of  production 
were  promising  features.  A  two-colour  injection  plant  was 
being  produced  and  a  very  versatile  extrusion  press  capable, 
for  example,  of  extruding  a  12-in.  diameter  tube  of  thermo- 


plastic which  could  be  slit  automatically  to  produce  a  36-in. 
sheet  was  now  being  manufactured.  Two  of  these  machines 
working  in  conjunction  could  produce  two  concentric  tubes, 
each  of  different  hardness.  Finally,  of  exceptional  importance 
to  thermosetting  resin  moulders,  the  prototype  of  a  new 
control  unit  capable  of  converting  a  hydraulic  press  to  a 
highly  automatic  type  was  tested  successfully.  It  would 
be  in  production  in  1950. 

Some  of  the  most  noteworthy  productions  of  plastic  units 
were  for  the  engineering  field.  One  was  a  stud-welding  pistol 
containing  a  solenoid  control — the  phenolic  moulded  struc- 
ture being  essential  as  an  insulator.  This  was  moulded  by 
Ashdowns,  Ltd.,  of  St.  Helens,  for  Crompton  Parkinson,  Ltd. 
A  second  was  a  large  baseplate  weighing  31  Ib.  moulded  by 
Aeroplastics,  Ltd.,  for  a  G.  and  J.  Weir  refrigerator  motor- 
compressor.  A  third  moulding  which  entailed  exceptionally 
close  tolerance  work  was  the  highly  praised  14^  in.  grid  r«\g 
with  180  radiating  teeth,  moulded  by  British  Moulded 
Plastics  Ltd.  for  Mellor  Bromley  and  company.  Pontefract 
Box  company  developed  a  new  type  of  packaging  for  the 
chemical  industry.  This  was  a  resin-treated  wood  waste 
moulded  in  two  halves  so  that  bottles;  e.g.,  Winchester 
quarts  or  sample  bottles,  fitted  snugly  in  the  bottle-shape 
moulded  recesses.  Details  were  given  of  the  all-wood  con- 
struction of  the  Healey-Duncan  motor  car  utilizing  *'  Aero- 
lite "  synthetic  resin  as  a  bond. 

The  low-pressure  resins  of  the  poly-ester  type  were  intro- 
duced by  I.C.I,  and  Scott  Bader  and  company.  They  were 
exceptionally  valuable  and  found  especial  use  for  bonding 
glass  fibre  to  produce  very  high-strength  structures  of  great 
heat  resistance. 

Thermoplastics  generally  progressed.  Un-backed  and 
fabric-backed  poly  vinyl  chloride  sheet  improved  in  quality 
and  embossed  design,  and  found  a  ready  market  in  the  hand- 
bag industry.  The  motor  industry  began  using  this  leather- 
like  material  for  seating.  1949  also  saw  the  introduction  of 
the  highly  polished  form  for  evening  shoe  uppers.  Stiff  p.v.c 
sheets  were  now  employed  in  the  printing  industry  as  an 
intermediary  in  block  making. 

In  1949  the  plastic  bottle  for  general  use  was  manufactured. 
Made  from  p.v.c.  paste  or  polythene  by  blowing  or  variations 
of  blowing  from  tube,  they  opened  up  new  possibilities.  Poly- 
thene lay-flat  tube  was  introduced  by  I.C.I,  especially  for 
the  packaging  industry  with  special  stress  on  the  deep  freeze 
process  of  preserving  foods.  Nylon  was  available  for  the 
first  time  for  moulding  purposes.  Cascclloid,  Ltd.,  installed 
a  Trans-Bo-Matic  machine  capable  of  producing  1,000 
cellulose  acetate  containers  per  hr.  Eight  hundred  feet  of 
polythene  piping  were  laid  in  Scotland  for  farm  water  supplies. 

In  the  Commonwealth,  Australia  reported  that  cellulose 
acetate  would  be  undertaken  by  Colonial  Sugar  Refining 
company  of  Sydney  and  Beetle  Elliott,  Ltd.,  of  Sydney 
announced  that  production  of  their  moulding  powders 
would  be  about  500  tons  annually. 

The  All-India  Plastics  Manufacturers  association  was 
formed  and  did  excellent  work  in  unifying  production, 
discussing  technical  problems  and  advancing  the  plastics 
industry  in  India.  There  were  now  about  150  injection 
machines  in  the  country,  mostly  devoted  to  fancy  goods. 
There  were  also  a  number  of  extrusion  presses  making 
knitting  needles,  extruded  strips  for  bags,  watches,  etc. 

(M.  D.  CN.) 

United  States.  The  consumption  of  U.S.  plastics  materials 
of  all  kinds  in  1949  increased  by  more  than  50%  over  1946, 
the  first  postwar  year  in  which  relatively  exact  figures  for  the 
industry  were  made  available. 

Phenolics.  Consumption  and  sales  of  phenolics  rose 
rapidly,  reaching  15  million  Ib.  monthly  by  the  end  of 
1949.  Another  possibility  in  developing  increased  use  for 


D  (DECCAN).  PNEUMONIA 


513 


A  selection  of  modern  electrical  equipment  made  in  plastics. 

phenolic  moulding  powder  was  in  combination  with  rubber, 
although  progress  was  disappointingly  slow. 

Vinyl.  Vinyl  chloride  and  vinyl  chloride  copolymer  resin 
compounds  led  all  other  plastics  in  production  with  a 
1949  volume  in  the  neighbourhood  of  300  million  Ib.  The 
biggest  outlet  for  vinyl  in  1949  continued  to  be  film  for 
drapes  and  curtains,  raincoats,  shower  curtains  and  protective 
coverings  for  items  ranging  from  typewriters  to  cars  in  transit 
and  butchers'  aprons. 

Polystyrene.  Polystyrene  moulding  powder  sales  rose  from 
66  million  Ib.  in  1946  to  nearly  180  million  Ib.  in  1949.  New 
uses  for  styrene  monomer  were  constantly  being  discovered 
so  that  an  adequate  future  supply  was  problematic. 

An  improved  moulding  technique  was  only  partly  respon- 
sible for  the  advances  made  by  polystyrene.  Without  altering 
physical  properties,  producers  were  able  to  formulate  better 
compounds  by  employing  improved  compounding  methods 
and  adding  new  types  of  lubricants. 

Cellulosics.  A  total  of  approximately  60  million  Ib.  of 
cellulose  acetate  was  sold  in  1949  as  compared  with  an  80 
million  Ib.  record  in  1946.  Flame-resistant  acetate  which, 
because  of  its  high  impact  strength,  was  particularly  adaptable 
for  housings  of  electrical  appliances  was  widely  used.  A 
higher  heat-resistant  acetate  was  developed  which  could 
withstand  numerous  boilings  without  undue  distortion. 

Urea  and  Melamine.  The  consumption  of  melamine 
resin  increased  from  17  million  Ib.  in  1947  to  24  million  Ib. 
in  1948,  and  since  melamine  moulding  powder  for  dishware 
alone  was  used  at  a  rate  of  several  hundred  thousand  Ib. 
during  the  year,  the  increase  in  1949  was  undoubtedly 
substantial.  The  improved  powder  was  of  more  uniform 
bulk  and  granulation  so  that  there  was  less  scrap  loss  and 
fewer  rejects. 

Saran.  Saran  monofilament  was  chiefly  used  for  woven 
car  seat  covers  in  1949.  Woven  saran  upholstery  material 

E.B.Y.— 34 


was  also  being  tested  as  upholstery  for  seats  in  vehicles, 
public  seating  for  both  indoors  and  outdoors  and  home  and 
hotel  furniture. 

Polyethylene.  About  31  million  Ib.  of  polyethylene  were 
produced  in  1949  and  used  in  a  variety  of  applications 
ranging  from  disposable  baby  bottles  and  lollipop  sticks  to 
heavy  jacketing  for  telephone  cable.  Electrical  uses  for 
polyethylene  were  still  taking  a  large  quantity  of  the  output 
for  such  purposes  as  insulation  in  high-frequency  wiring 
and  co-axial  cable. 

Nylon.  Wire  coated  with  nylon  had  innumerable  uses, 
particularly  because  of  its  resistance  to  abrasion  and  fungus 
as  well  as  to  heat.  The  use  of  nylon  as  a  monofilament  for 
brush  bristles,  fishing  leaders  and  sutures  was  well  established 
and  growing.  (C.  A.  BN.) 

PNEUMONIA.  With  the  introduction  of  the  sulphona- 
mides  and  later  penicillin,  a  great  step  forward  was  made 
during  1949  in  the  treatment  of  lobar  pneumonia.  The 
improvement  was  reflected  not  only  in  the  improved  mor- 
tality figures,  but  also  in  the  clinical  condition  of  the  patient 
immediately  one  of  these  drugs  was  used.  From  being  a 
disease  which  ran  a  very  well  defined  course  with  characteristic 
symptoms  and  signs,  lobar  pneumonia  was  reduced  to  a 
febrile  incident  in  which  lung  consolidation  might  or  might 
not  occur.  Consequently  interest  was  now  focused  on  the 
treatment  of  atypical  cases  of  pneumonia  or  on  details  of  the 
administration  of  either  the  sulphonamides  or  penicillin  in 
cases  of  lobar  pneumonia. 

Atypical  pneumonia  is  a  relatively  benign  disease  and 
probably  is  not  one  clinical  entity  but  a  grouping  together  of 
various  diseases  of  different  aetiology.  Many  cases  were 
thought  to  be  due  to  virus  infection.  One  article,  "  Treatment 
of  Atypical  Pneumonia  with  Aureomycin,"  Emanuel  B. 
Schoenbach  and  Morton  S.  Bryer,  Journal  of  the  American 
Medical  Association  (Chicago,  Illinois,  Jan.  1949),  claimed 
beneficial  results  from  the  use  of  aureomycin  in  the  treatment 
of  atypical  pneumonia  but  this  claim  did  not  bear  very  close 
scrutiny  and  no  proved  effective  cure  for  this  disease  was 
found.  Failure  to  find  an  effective  drug  is  of  no  great  moment 
when  considering  a  mild  disease  such  as  atypical  pneumonia; 
but  the  application  of  such  a  drug,  if  found,  to  other  and 
more  serious  virus  diseases  would  be  of  great  interest  and 
possibly  lasting  beneficial  result  to  the  human  race. 

Other  authors  who  dealt  with  the  dosage  of  penicillin  and 
the  sulphonamides  in  ordinary  bacterial  pneumonia  were: 
Robert  Buckhouse,  Mark  H.  Lepper,  Thomas  E.  Stone  and 
Harry  F.  Dowling,  "  The  Treatment  of  Pneumonia  and  Other 
Infections  with  a  Simple  Sulphonamide  Gantrosan  (NU-445; 
3,  4-Dimenthyl  5-Suifanilamido-Isoxozole),"  American  Journal 
of  the  Medical  Sciences  (Philadelphia,   Pennsylvania,  Aug. 
1949),  and  Morton  Hamburger,  Jerome  Berman,  Robert  T. 
Thompson  and  M.  A.  Blankenham,  "  The   Treatment  of 
Pneumococcal  Pneumonia  by  Penicillin  in  Aqueous  Solution 
at    Long   Intervals,"   Journal   of  Laboratory   and    Clinical 
Medicine  (St.  Louis,  Missouri,  Jan.  1949):    and  one  point 
of  interest  emerged.   It  was  stated  by  these  authors  that  one 
large  injection  of  aqueous  solution  penicillin  every  24  hr. 
was  just  as  effective  as  that  divided  into  more  frequent  doses. 
Combined  penicillin  and  sulphonamide  medication  came 
in  for  some  adverse  criticism  in  an  article  based  on  such 
small  series  of  cases  that  any  conclusions  could  not  be 
considered  to  be  reliable.    The  results  of  research  by  Italo 
F.  Volini,  James  R.  Hughes,  and  J.  R.  Peffer  were  published 
in   an   article:    "A  Comparative   Study   of  Sulfadiazine, 
Penicillin  and  Penicillin  combined  with  Sulfadiazine  in  the 
Treatment  of  Lobar  Pneumonia,"   Diseases  of  the  Chest 
(vol.   15,  no.  3,  March   1949,  American   College  of  Chest 
Physicians).    The  effect  of  the  article  was  further  damaged 


514 


POLAND 


by  carelessness  in  compiling  the  various  tables.  The  mortality 
for  cases  treated  with  intra-muscular  penicillin  in  Table  IX 
was  given  as  1  •  9  %  (i.e.,  one  case)  but  in  Table  X  under  intra- 
muscular penicillin  two  deaths  were  recorded — one  from 
empyema  and  the  other  from  lung  abscess.  (F.  P.  L.  L.) 

POLIOMYELITIS:    see  INFANTILE  PARALYSIS. 

POLAND.  A  peopled  republic  of  eastern  Europe 
bounded  on  the  east  by  the  U.S.S.R.,  on  the  south  by  Czecho- 
slovakia, on  the  west  by  Germany  and  on  the  north  by  the 
Baltic  sea.  Area:  (before  Sept.  1,  1939)  150,052  sq.  mi., 
(after  Aug.  2,  1945)  120,359  sq.  mi.— a  reduction  by  one- 
fifth,  the  result  of  the  annexation  of  68,667  sq.  mi.  by  the 
U.S.S.R.,  and  of  the  establishment  of  a  new  western  frontier 
along  the  rivers  Oder  and  Neisse  which,  together  with  the 
partition  of  East  Prussia  between  Poland  and  the  U.S.S.R., 
gave  Poland  an  area  of  38,974  sq.  mi.  Pop. :  (before  Sept.  1 , 
1939)  35,339,000,  (Feb.  14,  1946,  census)  23,929,757,  (Jan.  1, 
1948,  est.)  23,781,077.  A  large  migratory  movement  and  great 
changes  in  the  composition  of  the  population  took  place 
which  may  be  summarized  as  follows: 

(1)  The  total  population  of  the  eastern  Poland  area  annexed 
by  the  U.S.S.R.  was  10-7  million,  including  some  3-9  million 
Poles,  of  whom  about  1  •  5  million  were  deported  to  the  Soviet 
forced  labour  camps  in  1939-40;  by  June  30,  1949,  only 
1,503,816  Poles  had  returned  from  the  east,  including  263,966 
who  had  been  deported  to  the  interior  of  the  Soviet  Union; 


also  by  mid-1949,  518,219  Ukrainians,  Byelorussians  and 
Lithuanians  were  transferred  from  Poland  allegedly  to  their 
respective  Soviet  republics. 

(2)  The  total  population  of  recovered  territories  in  the 
west  (including  the  Free  City  of  Danzig)  was  in  1939  about 
8-3  million,  including  1,011,700  Poles;    by  mid-1949  about 
7  •  9  million  Germans  living  east  of  the  Oder-Neisse  frontier, 
including  800,000  in  pre-1939  Poland,  had  left  for  Germany 
(half  of  them  had  fled  to  the  west  during  1944-45  before  the 
advancing  Soviet  armies);    some  250,000  remained. 

(3)  Of  3  million  Poles  who  by  the  end  of  1944  were  numbered 
among  forced  labourers,  prisoners  of  war  and  inmates  of 
concentration  camps  in  Germany,  2,272,000  had  returned  to 
their  country;    one  half  of  the  remainder  had  been  shot  or 
gassed  or  had  died  of  exhaustion,  and  the  others  had  been 
unwilling  to  return  to  a  Soviet-dominated  country.     The 
number  of  Polish  war  losses  (forces  only)  was  estimated  at 
218,000.  In  1936-38  Poland's  annual  population  increase  was 
385,000;  no  vital  statistics  were  available  for  the  war  years, 
but  in  1947  live  births  were  22-7  per  1,000  and  the  mortality 
rate  was  11-2  per  1,000,  which  suggested  an  increase  of 
population  of  265,000. 

(4)  In  Sept.   1939  Poland  had  3,351,000  Jews,  including 
899,000  in  the  area  annexed  by  the  Soviet  Union  in  1939; 
about  300,000  either  were  deported  to  the  Soviet  Union  or 
voluntarily  sought  refuge  there,  and  200,000  survived.    With 
the  exception  of  60,000  hidden  by  the  Poles,  all  Jews  found  in 
Poland  by  the  Germans  were  killed  by  them. 


The  new  east-west  thoroughfare  in  Warsaw  which  was  inaugurated  on  July  22,  1949.   Inset  picture  shows  Boles/aw  Bierut,  president  of  the 

republic,  cutting  the  tape  during  the  ceremonies  to  mark  the  occasion. 


POLAND 


515 


Chief  towns  (pop.,  first  figure  est.  Sept.  1,  1939;  second 
figure  est.  Sept.  1,  1948,  if  not  otherwise  stated):  Warsaw 
(c/.v.,  cap.,  1,289,000;  [Sept.  1,  1949]  630,024);  Lodz 
(672,000;  (July  1,  1949J  615,000);  Cracow  (259,000; 
307,400);  Wroclaw  or  Breslau  (625,000;  299,000);  Poznan 
(272,000;  297,000);  Szczecin  or  Stettin  (272,000;  [July  1, 
1949]  185,000);  Gdansk  or  Danzig  (235,000;  164,000); 
Katowice  (134,000;  163,000).  Language:  almost  exclusively 
Polish.  Religion:  overwhelmingly  Roman  Catholic.  Presi- 
dent of  the  republic,  Boleslaw  Bierut  (</.v.);  prime  minister, 
Jozef  Cyrankiewicz  (</.v.). 

History.  The  year  was  marked  by  the  fulfilment  of  the  first 
three-year  plan  of  economic  rehabilitation.  In  a  speech  on 
Nov.  1 1  before  the  central  committee  of  the  United  Workers' 
(Communist)  party,  Boleslaw  Bierut,  its  chairman,  announced 
that  if  the  1938  production  figures  were  taken  as  100,  the 
index  numbers  for  1949  were  as  follows:  total  value  of 
industrial  production  174,  industrial  output  per  head  of  the 
population  244.  For  agricultural  production  Bierut  said  only 
that  between  1946  and  1949  crops  had  increased  by  62%  and 
livestock  by  81  %,  which,  however,  when  compared  with 
1938,  would  mean  that  crop  production  per  head  stood  in 
1949  at  115  and  meat  and  dairy  products  at  105. 

Bierut  was,  of  course,  comparing  the  production  of  two 
different  areas.  To  obtain  a  clearer  picture  of  Polish  achieve- 
ments in  the  field  of  economic  rehabilitation  it  must  be 
remembered  that  the  territorial  shift  to  the  west  on  the  whole 
considerably  increased  the  country's  industrial  production 
capacity,  except  in  regard  to  petroleum,  of  which  three- 
quarters  of  the  production  were  lost.  In  1938  Poland  mined 
over  38  million  metric  tons  of  bituminous  coal;  in  the 
formerly  German  part  of  Silesia  prewar  production  amounted 
to  31  million  tons;  as  the  total  Polish  coal  production  in 
1949  was  estimated  at  72  million  tons,  the  actual  increase 
was  4%.  The  prewar  production  of  steel  was  1  -4  million 
tons  in  1938;  in  the  same  year  the  recovered  territories 
produced  0-9  million  tons;  as  Polish  production  in  1949 
was  estimated  at  over  2-2  million  tons  the  prewar  level  was 
reached.  Another  sign  of  increased  industrial  potentiality 
was  the  output  of  electric  power:  in  1938  Poland  produced 
3,977  million  kwh.;  its  loss  in  the  east  amounted  to  211 
million  kwh.,  its  gain  in  the  west  to  2,609  kwh.;  as  the  actual 
production  in  1948  was  7,512  million  kwh.,  the  increase 
achieved  was  over  19%. 

Agriculturally  Poland  had  lost  in  the  east  rather  poor  areas, 
while  in  the  west  it  gained  highly-developed  agricultural 
lands.  But  by  1949  production  was  still  lagging  behind  the 
1934-38  averages,  the  total  bread  grain  production  being 
79%,  oats  72%,  potatoes  88%  and  sugar-beet  90%.  This 
is  shown  by  the  following  table: 

POLAND'S  AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTION 

(in  '000  metric  tons) 
Prewar      Losses  in     Gains  in 
the  east* 


crops* 


Wheat 

Barley 

Rye 

Oats 

Potatoes 

Sugar-beet 


Total  Production  in 
the  west*  1949 

Possible     Estimated 

2,213-1 

1,688-7 

7,968  •  3 

3,429  •  3 
37,109-2 

4,751-7 


997-5 

815-5 

2,763-6 

1,761-4 

13,985-1 

2,010-2 


1,814-7 
1,050-4 
6,493-0 
2,473-0 
32,629-0 
4,226-4 


2,171-9  956-3 

1,371-3  498-1 

7,253-4  2,048-7 

2,656-5  988-6 

34,558-2  11,434-1 

3,162-4  420-9 
*  Annual  averages  for  1934-38. 

Calculated  per  head  of  the  population,  the  bread  grain 
(wheat,  barley  and  rye)  production  fell  from  317  kg.  in  1934-38 
to  169  kg.  in  1946  and  in  1949  reached  390  kg.,  instead  of  a 
possible  495  kg.  The  production  of  potatoes  was  1,016  kg. 
per  head  before  the  war,  779  kg.  in  1946  and  1,358  kg.  in 
1949,  instead  of  a  possible  1,546  kg. 

In  the  new  six-year  plan  starting  in  1950  Poland  was 
expected  to  reach  by  1955  a  production  of  90  million  tons  of 
coal,  7  million  tons  of  steel  (a  threefold  expansion  in  com- 


Marshal  Konstantin  Rokossovsky  (right}  leaving  the  Sej/n  building 

in  Warsaw  shortly  after  being  appointed  commander  in  chief  of  the 

Polish  army.   With  him  is  Marshal  Michal  Zymierski.1 

parison  with  1938),  23,500  million  kwh.  of  electric  power 
(almost  four  times  as  much  as  in  1938).  By  1955  Polish 
industry  was  to  produce  annually  12,000  tractors  and  18,000 
motor  vehicles,  but  plans  for  consumption  goods  were  on  a 
more  modest  scale:  the  1955  targets  for  cotton  and  wool 
yarn  were  137,300  and  49,500  metric  tons  respectively, 
which  meant  only  a  77%  increase  for  cotton  and  45%  for 
wool.  It  was  not  expected  that  the  agricultural  output  in 
1955  would  exceed  the  1938  levels  (described  as  possible  in 
the  table).  If  collectivization  were  forcibly  introduced  not 
only  the  1938  levels  would  not  be  reached  by  1955,  but  there 
would  be  a  decrease  from  the  1949  production  volume. 
This  probably  explains  why  by  1949  there  were  only  170 
collective  farms  covering  less  than  1  %  of  the  arable  land. 
Hilary  Mine  (</.v.),  deputy  prime  minister,  chairman  of  the 
economic  committee  of  the  council  of  ministers  and  chairman 
of  the  State  Planning  commission,  explained  on  Nov.  18  in 
an  article  published  by  the  Cominform  journal,  that  planning 
in  the  people's  democracies  was  not  and  could  not  be  some- 
thing mid-way  between  "  capitalist  anarchy "  and  Soviet 
planning:  it  was  Socialist  planning  which,  in  its  class  essence, 
was  of  the  same  type  as  Soviet  planning.  Collectivization, 
therefore,  was  only  postponed;  for  the  time  being  the 
Communists  were  cautious  with  the  peasants  (see  PEASANT 
MOVEMENT). 

Similar  caution  marked  the  regime's  policy  towards  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  which  in  Jan.  1949  was  organized  in 
5,977  parishes  with  22,799,000  practising  faithful.  Mgr.  Stefan 
Wyszynski,  archbishop  of  Warsaw  and  Gniezno  and  primate 
of  Poland,  together  with  Cardinal  Adam  Sapieha,  archbishop 

1  This  photograph  shows  Polish  officers  wearing  for  the  first  time  round  caps 
instead  of  the  traditional  square  ones. 


516 


POLAND 


of  Cracow  and  22  bishops  and  apostolic  administrators,  in 
a  pastoral  letter  read  in  all  churches  on  April  24,  affirmed 
that  the  Church  had  never  used  its  influence  to  the  prejudice 
of  Poland.  As  to  the  allegations  made  on  March  14  by 
Wladystaw  (Piwowarczyk)  Wolski,  minister  of  public  adminis- 
tration, that  the  Church's  attitude  towards  the  state  was  one 
of  growing  hostility  and  that  many  of  the  clergy  were  "  playing 
the  game  of  Anglo-American  imperialists,"  the  pastoral  letter 
commented  that  it  would  be  difficult  to  persuade  anyone  that 
the  clergy  represented  foreign  powers  hostile  to  Poland.  It 
asked  the  people,  especially  the  young,  to  take  no  part  in 
atheistic  meetings.  Publication  of  this  letter  was  forbidden 
in  even  the  Catholic  press.  So  also  was  that  of  a  letter 
addressed  to  the  archbishops  and  bishops  of  Poland  by 
Pius  XII  on  the  occasion  of  the  10th  anniversary  of  the 
invasion  of  Poland  in  which  the  Pope  complained  of  the 
destruction  of  Catholic  associations,  of  difficulties  put  in  the 
way  of  religious  education  and  in  that  of  the  external  mani- 
festations of  Catholic  life,  of  "  vicious  "  censorship  of  the 
Catholic  press,  and  of  interference  with  the  exchange  of 
letters  between  the  Holy  See  and  the  Polish  hierarchy  and 
prevention  of  other  contact  between  them. 

Although  the  trouble  which  had  been  fomenting  between 
the  Church  and  the  government  did  not  come  to  a  head, 
many  trials  were  staged  at  which  priests  "  confessed  "  to 
being  encouraged  by  their  bishops  to  burn  portraits  of 
President  Bierat  hanging  in  Catholic  schools  (as  in  the  case 
of  Fr.  L.  Pietroszek,  who  in  court  at  Katowice  denied  his 
confession),  to  join  the  underground  resistance  groups  (as  in 
the  case  of  Fr,  W.  Gurgacz  condemned  to  death  in  Cracow), 
or  to  murder  the  Communist  leaders  (as  in  the  case  of 
Fr.  W.  Ortotowski  and  Fr.  M.  Losos,  both  sentenced  to 
death  at  Lodz).  At  the  same  time  attempts  were  made  to 
oppose  the  clergy  to  the  bishops.  On  Sept.  1  Bierut  received 
a  delegation  of  priests  who  attended  the  Fighters  for  Freedom 
congress  in  Warsaw  (see  EX-SERVICEMEN'S  ORGANIZATIONS). 
One  priest,  Fr.  B.  Grim,  said  that  he  and  his  friends  "  felt 
disturbed  because  the  hierarchy  had  taken  certain  steps  and 
they,  the  rank  and  file,  had  come  to  ask  the  president  to 
help  them.*'  Bierut  replied  that  talks  between  the  government 
and  the  hierarchy  were  going  on  and  that  the  government 
would  do  everything  in  its  power  to  bring  a  settlement. 
The  chief  difficulty,  he  added,  lay  in  the  unfriendly  attitude 
of  the  hierarchy  who  encouraged  the  clergy  to  make  political 
use  of  the  churches,  harmful  practices  which  sooner  or  later 
would  have  to  end.  (See  also  ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH.) 

The  Moscow  policy,  adopted  in  1944,  of  appointing 
Soviet  officers  to  all  key  posts  in  the  army  of  strategically  the 
most  important  European  satellite  state  was  crowned  in 
1949,  when  the  Soviet  government  put  at  the  disposal  of 
Poland  Marshal  Konstantm  Rokossovsky  (thenceforward 
Konstanty  Rokossowski).  On  Nov.  6  he  was  accorded  by 
decree  Polish  citizenship  and  rank  of  marshal  in  the  Polish 
army,  and  was  appointed  minister  of  national  defence  and 
commander  in  chief  of  the  9  Polish  forces  in  succession  to 
Marshal  MichaJ  (Lyzwihski)  Zymierski.  With  Rokossowski's 
appointment  all  important  army  posts  were  in  the  hands  of 
officers  who  had  made  their  military  career  exclusively  in  the 
Soviet  army,  although  some  were  of  Polish  descent.  The 
Polish  army  was  believed  to  consist  of  6  army  corps,1  16  infan- 
try divisions,  3  artillery  brigades,  10  armoured  regiments, 
5  pioneer  regiments  and  6  signal  regiments,  totalling  in  all 
250,000  men.  There  were  also  1 1  brigades  of  W.O.P.  (Wojska 
Ochrony  Pogranicza,  or  Frontier  Guard  Troops)  and  18 

1  Until  Nov  1949  there  were  MX  military  districts  as  follows  I  Warsaw 
II  Bydgoszcz,  III.  Wroclaw,  IV.  Poznan,  V.  Cracow  and  VI.  Lublin  It  was 
believed  that  Rokossowski  would  suppress  the  Poznan  and  Lublin  commands. 
Of  the  district  commanders  only  General  Stefan  Mossor  (Cracow)  had  served 
in  the  Polish  army  before  World  War  II  The  other  commanders,  as  well  as 
General  Wladyslaw  Korczyc,  chief  of  staff,  were  Russians  of  Polish  ongin  who 
had  made  their  military  careers  in  the  Soviet  army 


regiments  of  K.B.W.  (Korpus  Bezpieczenstwa  Wewnqtrznego, 
or  Home  Security  Corps)  under  the  command  of  Stanisfow 
Radkiewicz,  minister  of  public  security.  In  his  first  order  of 
the  day  on  Nov.  7  Rokossowski  commanded  the  Polish  army 
to  protect  Poland,  its  independence  and  sovereignty,  to  guard 
its  boundaries  on  the  Oder-Neisse  line  and  the  Baltic  sea  and 
to  tighten  brotherly  relations  between  Poland  and  the  U.S.S.R. 

On  Nov.  1 5  it  was  announced  that  Rokossowski  had  been 
co-opted  as  a  member  of  the  central  committee  of  the 
Communist  party,  and  that  Wladyslaw  Gomolka,  Marian 
Spychalski  and  Zenon  Kliszko  were  expelled  from  the 
central  committee  and  forbidden  to  be  in  charge  of  any  state 
or  party  office.  Though  Gomolka  had  been  relieved  of  his 
duties  as  deputy  prime  minister  and  minister  of  the  recovered 
territories  in  Aug.  1948,  after  public  recantation  of  his 
"  Titoist  deviation,"  he  was  appointed  vice-chairman  of  the 
Supreme  Control  and  Audit  office.  In  Oct.  1949,  however, 
an  article  by  Edward  Ochab  in  the  Communist  monthly 
Nowe  Drogi  (New  Ways)  accused  Gomolka  of  t4  building  a 
wall  of  mistrust  between  Poland  and  the  Soviet  Union." 
Spychalski,  former  deputy  minister  of  national  defence,  and 
Kliszko,  former  chairman  of  the  parliamentary  group  of  the 
Communist  party,  both  friends  of  Gomolka,  were  accused 
of  enabling  enemy  agencies  to  secure  responsible  posts  and 
act  against  the  people's  democracy  Among  many  high 
officials  arrested  was  Jozef  Dubiel,  former  deputy  minister 
of  recovered  territories  and  another  friend  of  Gomolka. 
According  to  Bierut  himself,  Dubiel  had  already  confessed 
to  having  been  a  Gestapo  agent  during  World  War  II. 

Education.  (1949)  Schools:  kindergarten  5,239,  pupils  240,839, 
elementary  22,133,  pupils  3,241,046,  secondary,  lower  grade  335, 
pupils  197,110,  higher  (liceum)  grade  486,  pupils  140,893,  secondary 
vocational  1,131,  pupils  183,440;  teachers'  colleges  149,  students 
31,000;  higher  vocational  institutions  39,  students  16,988;  universities 
(8),  technical  colleges  (5)  and  other  schools  of  higher  education  (14), 
students  92,444.  illiteracy  (mid-1949  est  )  1,100,000. 

Agriculture.  Main  crops  (in  metric  tons,  1948)  wheat  1,620,300; 
barley  1,010,080,  rye  6,304,040;  oats  2,401,860;  potatoes  26,755,860 
Livestock  (mid-1949  est.)  cattle  6,380,000;  horses  2,561,000,  pigs 
5,181,000,  sheep  1,622,000  Sugar,  raw  value  (1948)  681,000  metric 
tons.  Fisheries:  total  catch  (1948)  48,328  metric  tons;  (1949,  six 
months)  34,800  metric  tons. 

Industry.  Industrial  establishments  (Jan  1948)  184,334,  including 
6,668  state-owned;  persons  employed  1,867,540,  including  1,318,385 
(April  1949  1,411,198)  in  state  enterprises  Fuel  and  power  (figures 
for  the  first  six  months  of  1949  given  in  brackets  throughout):  coal 
(metric  tons,  1948)  70,360,000  (35,943,000),  manufactured  gas 
(million  cu.  m,  1948)1  285  8  (153  8);  natural  gas  (million  cu.  m., 
1948  est).  160,  electricity  (million  kwh.,  1948)  7,512(3,700);  crude 
petroleum  (metric  tons,  1948  est.):  132,000  Raw  materials  (metric 
tons,  1948):  pig  iron  1,080,000,  steel  ingots  and  castings  1,860,000 
(1,131,000),  lead  18,500,  zinc  120,000.  Manufactured  goods  (metric 
tons,  1948)'  cement  1,824,000  (1,092,000);  cotton  yarn  81,960 
(43,970);  wool  yarn  33,240  (18,760);  rayon  yarn  7,080  (4,310); 
artificial  fertilizers  580,400  (378,000^. 

Foreign  Trade.  Value  (official  estimates  published  in  Warsaw  in 
million  US.  dollars,  1948;  1949,  six  months,  m  brackets)  imports 
509  (265),  exports  528  7  (276)  Weight  (in  '000  metric  tons,  1948; 
1949,  six  months,  in  brackets):  imports  4,431-9  (2,347  4),  exports 
32,094-3  including  coal  24,752  5  (18,156-1  including  coal  14,298  4). 
In  1948  the  exchange  of  goods  between  Poland  and  the  U.S  S.R. 
reached  $230  million  and  between  Poland  and  other  people's  democra- 
cies $130  million. 

Transport  and  Communications.  Railways  (Jan.  1948)-  21,415  km.; 
freight  traffic  (in  million  metric  tons-km  ,  1948;  1949,  six  months,  in 
brackets):  28,188  (14,832);  passenger  traffic  (in  million  passenger-km., 
1948;  1949,  six  months,  in  brackets).  19,848  (9,060).  Roads  (April 
1947):  96,605km.;  licensed  motor  vehicles  (April  1948):  cars  24,240, 
lorries  28,957,  motorcycles  24,561.  Shipping  (May  1949):  merchant 
vessels  46,  total  tonnage  164,989  B  R.T.  Freight  traffic  in  Polish  ports 
(metric  tons)'  (1947)  Gdansk-Gdynia,  imports  2,797,700,  exports 
6,892,800;  Szczecin,  imports  116,900,  exports  609,400;  (1948,  total 
imports  and  exports)  GdaAsk-Gdyma  12  7  million,  Szczecin  3-2 
million.  Air  transport  (1948):  Polish  airlines,  flights  7,730,  km.  flown 
2,363,200,  passengers  flown  77,522,  cargo  carried  900-3  metric  tons; 
foreign  aircraft,  flights  1,221,  passengers  flown  6,960,  cargo  carried 
536  6  metric  tons.  Telephones  (Jan.  1948)-  subscribers  137,400. 
Wireless  licences  (July  1949)-  1,054,551  including  335,489  home 
loudspeakers. 


POLICE 


517 


Finance  and  Banking.  Budget  (in  million  ztoty):  (1949  est.)  revenue 
612,058,  including  349,700  from  public  contributions  (229,400  from 
turnover  tax),  125,257  from  state  enterprises  and  establishments, 
61,700  from  investments,  etc.;  expenditure  612,058,  including  331,758 
for  administration  and  280,300  for  capital  and  investment  expenditure. 
Currency  circulation  (Dec.  1948,  last  figure  published):  Zl.  128,800 
million.  Deposit  money  (Dec.  1948):  211  50,300  million.  Monetary 
unit:  zloty.  Exchange  rates  (after  Sept.  18,  1949;  previous  rate  in 
brackets):  official  £1=Z».280  (403),  premium  £1«ZM,120  (1,612); 
U.S.  dollar,  official,  Sl-ZMOO,  premium  $1«ZJ.400. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  Lieut.  General  W.  Anders,  An  Army  in  Exile  (London, 
1949);  The  Cambridge  History  of  Poland:  From  the  Origins  to  Sobieskit 
edited  by  W.  F.  Reddaway,  J.  H.  Penson,  O.  Halecki  and  R.  Dyboski, 
vol.  i  (Cambridge,  1949);  Destiny  Can  Wait:  The  Polish  Air  Force  in 
the  Second  World  W  ar  (London,  1949);  Dr.  B.  KuSnierz,  Stalin  and 
the  Poles:  An  Indictment  of  the  Soviet  Leaders  (London,  1949); 
*  R.',  "  The  Fate  of  Polish  Socialism,'*  Foreign  Affairs  (New  York, 
Oct.  1949);  Rocznik  Statystyczny  1948  (Warsaw,  1949).  (K.  SM.) 

POLICE.  An  important  event  in  the  history  of  the 
British  police  was  the  issue  in  April  1949  of  the  report  of  the 
Oaksey  Committee  on  Police  Conditions  of  Service,  although 
its  conclusions  caused  no  great  surprise  either  in  official 
circles  or  among  the  general  public.  The  long  standing 
grievances  of  the  police,  their  increasing  duties,  long  horrs 
of  work  and  the  sometimes  dangerous  tasks  they  were  called 
upon  to  perform  were  well  known.  The  committee's  recom- 
mendations were  quickly  put  into  effect,  almost  in  their 
entirety.  Appointed  by  the  home  secretary,  Chuter  Ede, 
nearly  twelve  months  before,  the  committee  under  the 
chairmanship  of  Lord  Oaksey  had  had  to  review  police 
administration  and  work  as  a  whole  with  particular  reference 
to  the  dissatisfaction  that  was  generally  felt  about  conditions 
of  service.  The  two  main  problems  were  a  persistently 
dwindling  police  force  and  a  constant  increase  in  the  inci- 
dence of  serious  crime.  No  inquiry  on  such  a  comprehensive 
scale  had  hitherto  been  held. 

The  report  recommended  increases  of  pay  which,  above 
the  existing  cost  of  police  pay  of  about  £25  million  a  year, 
would  cost  £3,800,000  to  £4  million  apart  from  the  effect 
on  future  pensions,  improvement  of  certain  conditions  and 
remedies  for  many  existing  anomalies;  but  it  did  not  satisfy 
members  of  the  police.  Pay  scales  especially  were  criticized 
by  experienced  officers  as  being  too  low  to  stimulate  recruiting, 
and  there  was  disappointment  at  the  lack  of  suggestions  for 
the  removal  of  old-standing  grievances;  nevertheless,  those 
most  closely  affected  by  this  omission  hoped  that  outstanding 
matters  might  be  dealt  with  internally  by  subsequent 
negotiation. 

The  problem  of  building  up  an  adequate  police  force, 
however,  still  remained  to  be  solved.  Special  inducements, 
though  substantial,  continued  to  be  offset  by  wastage  through 
normal  retirements  and  the  resignation,  after  relatively  short 
service,  of  promising  young  men.  This  trend  was  reflected  in 
official  statistics  (see  Table  I).  Disquieting  as  the  discrepancy 
was  in  other  parts  of  the  country,  responsible  officials  were 
particularly  concerned  at  the  handicap  in  London  caused  by 
well  over  4,000  vacancies  in  an  establishment  which  had 
remained  substantially  the  same  as  in  1938. 


TABLE  I.  POLICE  STRENGTH,  GREAT  BRITAIN,  DEC. 


23,801* 
17,288* 
15,333 

722* 

2,558 
4,400 


England  and  Wales 
Counties 
Boroughs 
Metropolitan    . 
City  of  London 

Scotland 
Scottish  Counties 
Scottish  Burghs 
*  At  at  Sept.  1948. 

i 

21,926,983 
12,540,800 
8,277,407 
4,810 

2,547,900 
2,624,600 

J"*^5 
si 

27,762< 
20,950' 
19,400 
976' 

2,750 
4,573 

1948. 

"^  -*. 

>  3? 
II 

*£ 


790 

599 

422 

5 

927 
574 


606* 
498* 
338 


70 

88 


396* 
380* 
223 


44 
75 


A  constable  of  the  Metropolitan  police  wearing  the  new  tunic  with  a 
collar  and  tie,  first  issued  in  1949. 

Women  police  outside  the  Metropolitan  area  numbered 
776  against  an  authorized  1,104,  and  in  London  223  against 
338.  Every  force  in  England  and  Wales  with  two  exceptions 
now  had  a  women's  section,  and  the  fact  that  in  most  cases 
they  were  below  strength  did  not  cause  undue  alarm  because 
it  was  recognized  that  the  office  of  a  police  woman  called 
for  distinctive  qualities,  which  necessarily  limited  recruitment. 

On  the  other  hand  concern  continued  to  be  felt  at  the 
shortage  of  men  recruits  at  a  time  when  the  number  of 
serious  and  violent  crimes  was  mounting.  For,  whereas  in 
the  two  decades  1900  to  1919  the  annual  average  of  indictable 
crimes  was  under  100,000,  by  1939  it  was  over  300,000  and 
by  1947  nearly  500,000. 

Notwithstanding  the  improved  scales  of  pay  and  conditions 
the  police  forces  in  both  England  and  Wales  and  in  Scotland 
continued  to  diminish  during  the  year.  The  resignations 
owing  to  the  offer  of  more  remunerative  posts  elsewhere  of 
senior  officers,  especially  from  detective  departments  and 
particularly  in  London,  became  a  serious  matter.  Although 
there  was  no  want  of  equipment  or  method  in  the  prevention 
and  detection  of  crime  and  the  system  of  wireless  communi- 
cation between  the  various  police  forces  had  become  very 
effective,  the  protection  of  the  public  depended  primarily  on 
a  police  force  of  adequate  strength.  (W.  A.) 

United  States.  In  the  United  States  police  forces  continued 
to  expand.  Their  numerical  strength  rose  to  the  highest  level 
in  the  nation's  history,  and  this,  combined  with  rising  salary 
scales  and  pension  costs,  was  reflected  in  a  record  total 
police  expenditure.  The  extent  and  distribution  of  the 
steady  enlargement  in  police  manpower  is  illustrated  in 
Table  II. 

The  number  of  municipal  police  killed  on  duty  in  the 
United  States  totalled  64  in  1948,  a  slight  drop  from  the 
1947  figure.  The  highest  police  fatality  rates  were  in  the 
west,  south,  central  and  south  Atlantic  regions;  New  England 
cities  showed  rates  less  than  one  tenth  as  high. 


518 


POLISH    LITERATURE— POLITICAL   PARTIES,   BRITISH 


FABLE  II.— NUMERICAL  SFRENGIH  OF  US    MUNFCIPAI  Police  FORCFS 
(Number  per  1,000  Inhabitants) 

Population  Groups  of  Cities                                  1949  1948  1939 

Group  I— Over  250.000                                            2  41  2   33  2    19 

Group  II  -100,000-250,000                                          73  67  47 

Group  111—50,000-100,000                                           71  6^  ^6 

Group  IV— 25000-50.000                                             56  50  21 

Group  V- 10,000-25  000                                               44  37  08 

Group  VI  —  Less  than  10,000                                       35  29  11 

Average    police   employees    per    1,000    in- 
habitants                                                           1    89  1   83  I    65 

The  slow  but  steady  rise  in  municipal  police  effectiveness 
during  the  past  two  decades  was  maintained  in  1948.  But 
the  fact  remained  that  levels  of  performance  were  less 
satisfactory  for  manslaughter  and  burglary  than  they  had 
been  in  1941,  when  the  numerical  strength  of  municipal 
police  was  about  10%  lower. 

The  International  Association  of  Chiefs  of  Police  held  its 
annual  congress  in  Dallas,  Texas,  in  Sept  1949.  About 
1,000  police  administrators,  most  of  whom  represented  U  S 
and  Canadian  police  forces,  attended  (BR  S  ) 

POLISH  LITERATURE.  The  most  important 
literary  event  of  the  year  was  the  publication  by  Julian  Tuwim 
of  Polish  Flowers,  a  long  poem  of  loose  composition,  written 
under  the  marked  influence  of  Pushkin  and  showing  an 
extraordinary  mastery  of  language  and  especially  remarkable 
in  the  richness  and  variety  of  its  rhythms.  An  interesting 
poetical  debut  with  a  marked  individual  style  was  The  Defence 
of  Mists  by  Bronislaw  Przyluski  (London) 

A  volume  of  uneven  short  stones  by  Adolf  Rudmcki  The 
Flight  from  Yasnaya  Polyana  was  interesting  chiefly  as  a 
serious  attempt  at  the  creation  of  an  individual  literary  idiom. 
Good  craftsmanship  distinguished  Creek  Stories  by  Anna 
Kowalska.  The  Ties  of  Life  by  Zofia  Nalkowska  depicted 
satirically  the  prewar  political  elite  but  was  marred  by 
mannerism.  Politics  was  also  dealt  with  in  Between  the  Wars, 
by  Kazimierz  Brandys,  a  cycle  of  novels  opposing  two 
worlds,  the  Communist  and  the  bourgeois;  the  first  two  had 
been  published:  Samson  and  Antigone.  The  Iron  Curtain  by 
Halina  Boguszewska  represented  a  kind  of  simplified  unantm- 
isme,  and  depicted  the  life  of  the  average  Warsaw  family. 
Karol  Bunsch's  The  Namesake  was  another  historical  novel 
on  the  1 1th  century,  after  1945  a  popular  one  in  Polish  litera- 
ture. The  Sacred  Sword  by  a  prolific  Catholic  novelist  Jan 
Dobraczyriski  told  the  story  of  St.  Paul's  life. 

A  new  development  was  a  literature  composed  strictly 
according  to  Soviet  "  Socialist  realism,"  with  a  very  simplified 
psychology  and  an  emphasis  on  political  edification.  It  had 
not  as  yet  attained  any  literary  distinction 

Two  posthumously  published  dramas  by  Stamslaw  Ignacy 
Witkiewicz,  In  a  Small  Manor  House  and  The  Cobblers,  were 
highly  original  both  in  form  and  intellectual  content.  A 
dramatic  story  by  Waclaw  Kubacki,  The  Cry  of  a  Sorb-tree, 
recreated  the  Romantic  world. 

Jan  Parandowski  published  a  beautiful  volume  of  reminis- 
cences and  critical  essays,  Meditenanean  Hour,  distinguished 
as  much  for  the  wide  literary  knowledge  it  displayed  as  for 
its  mature  classical  style.  The  imposing  Memorial  Volume  in 
Honour  of  Leopold  Staff,  the  greatest  Polish  poet  of  the  older 
generation,  published  under  the  joint  editorship  of  J.  W. 
Gomuhcki  and  Julian  Tuwim,  brought  together  a  number  of 
valuable  contributions  in  poetry  and  prose.  Stefan  Kisie- 
lewski's  Politics  and  Art  was  a  volume  of  essays  by  a  leading 
Catholic  publicist.  Julius/  Kleiner  published  a  three-volume 
erudite  critical  study  Mickiewicz. 

Two  important  volumes  were  published  outside  Poland. 
General  Wladyslaw  Anders'  Without  the  Last  Chapter,  a 
book  of  war  reminiscences  (the  English  version  was  published 
under  the  title  An  Army  in  Exile).  Jozef  Czapski's  On  An 
Inhuman  Soil  (published  also  m  a  French  translation  as  La 


tetrc  inhumaine)  described  the  wartime  Russian  experiences 
of  the  author;  the  book  was  rather  diffuse  in  composition 
but  captivating  in  its  sincerity  and  humanity.  (W.  WB.) 

POLITICAL  PARTIES,  BRITISH.  Parliamentary 
by-elections  and  local  elections  during  1949  supplied  both  the 
mam  parties  with  ample  material  for  optimistic  speculation 
about  the  result  of  the  next  general  election,  but  no  conclusive 
evidence  of  a  sweeping  change  in  public  opinion.  The  six 
parliamentary  seats  contested  between  January  and  December 
were  all  held  by  the  Labour  party  though  with  reduced 
majorities.  In  the  county  council  elections  in  April  the 
Labour  party  lost  over  350  seats  and  the  Conservatives  gained 
correspondingly.  Over  800  Labour  seats  were  lost,  mainly 
to  the  Conservatives,  in  the  borough  elections  in  May. 
Conservative  satisfaction  was  tempered,  however,  by  the 
knowledge  that  government  supporters  seldom  turn  out 
in  full  force  at  local  elections.  At  Westminster  the  Labour 
party  seemed  more  secure  than  ever,  at  least  until  the  announce- 
ment of  devaluation  in  September  In  May  the  party  execu- 
tive, by  expelling  L  J.  Solley  and  Konni  Zilhacus  for  consist- 
ently opposing  the  government's  foieign  policy,  administered 
the  final  blow  to  the  "  Keep  Left  "  movement,  which  had 
been  the  only  serious  source  of  dissension  among  the  govern- 
ment back-bencheis  since  1945.  As  a  furthci  token  of  his 
determination  not  to  tolerate  even  the  mildest  and  most 
traditional  acts  of  rebellion  the  prime  minister,  Clement 
Attlee  O/.v  ),  summarily  dismissed  three  parliamentary  private 
secretaries  who  had  opposed  the  government's  bill  for  making 
Eire  a  republic  within  the  Commonwealth,  while  guaranteeing 
the  independence  of  the  six  counties.  Two  more  resigned  in 
sympathy.  The  cabinet,  which  had  come  successfully  through 
the  Lynskey  tribunal's  enquiry  into  conupt  practices  m  the 
civil  service  at  the  end  of  1948,  had  no  internal  crisis  of  com- 
parable dimensions  to  face  in  1949.  In  July  Lord  Ammon 
was  dismissed  from  the  post  of  chief  government  whip  in  the 
House  of  Lords  as  a  result  of  a  disagreement  with  the  cabinet 
over  his  conduct  in  his  capacity  as  chairman  of  the  Dock 
Labour  board  during  a  strike  at  the  London  docks.  In 
November  Lord  Pakenham,  minister  for  civil  aviation,  and 
one  of  Labour's  most  competent  debaters  in  the  Lords,  was 
temporarily  embarrassed  by  the  resentment  aioused  at  his 
peremptory  rejection  of  the  findings  of  a  tribunal  appointed 
by  himself  to  enquire  into  the  causes  of  an  air  disaster  at 
Prestwick.  He  retained  the  confidence  of  his  colleagues  and 
emerged  from  the  quarrel  unscathed  if  not  quite  victorious 
The  prime  minister,  though  constantly  expected  to  re-shuttle 
his  cabinet,  did  not  do  so  and  could  legitimately  pride  him- 
self on  having  maintained  an  administration  more  stable  in 
respect  of  its  composition  than  most  of  its  predecessors. 


Ite^y'l  is^ffiH  r^ffsgssn 


Vicky's  comparison  in  Jan.  1949,  in  the  "  News  Chronicle  "  (London), 
of  the  Labour  government  with  an  association  football  team. 


POLITICAL   PARTIES,  BRITISH 


519 


Thus  fortified  against  opposition  from  within,  the  govern- 
ment carried  out  its  legislative  programme  with  what  seemed 
to  its  supporters  a  splendid  steadfastness  and  to  its  opponents 
a  remarkable  indifference  to  the  actual  state  of  the  country 
The  time-table,  which  had  been  carefully  worked  out,  pro- 
vided for  the  passage  of  the  Parliament  bill  (reducing  the 
delaying  powers  of  the  House  of  Lords  to  one  year)  and  the 
bill  for  the  nationalization  of  iron  and  steel,  by  the  end  of 
1949.  According  to  the  opposition,  and  to  most  independent 
observers,  the  object  of  the  Parliament  bill,  which  was  to 
operate  retroactively,  was  to  enable  the  Iron  and  Steel  bill 
to  become  law  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  the  upper  house 
before  the  general  election  of  1950  The  better  part  of  two 
years  had  been  expended  on  the  ceremony  of  presenting  these 
bills  to  the  Lords  and  laboriously  repeating  the  arguments 
for  and  against  them,  and  the  process  had  almost 
reached  its  foreordained  conclusion  when  the  government 
announced  that  it  had  decided  to  introduce  an  amendment 
which  would  have  the  effect  of  postponing  the  application 
of  the  Iron  and  Steel  bill  until  after  the  general  election. 
This  met  the  requirements  of  the  opposition  and  the  House 
of  Lords  fully  and  had  indeed  already  been  proposed  by  them. 
The  Conservative  party  rejoiced  at  what  it  regarded  as  a 
proof  that  the  government  was  not  confident  of  its  success 
at  the  election  and  wished  to  forestall  the  charge  of  having 
foisted  a  controversial  measure  on  the  country  without  its 
consent.  Labour  supporters,  on  the  other  hand,  were  content 
with  the  knowledge  that  iron  and  steel  would  become  the 
nation's  property  without  further  ado  if  the  paity  were 
returned  to  power,  and  that  a  fresh  inroad  had  been  made  on 
the  privileges  of  the  upper  house 

The  Labour  Party.  Meantime,  preparations  for  the  general 
election  continued  The  government,  like  all  parties  which 
have  successfully  accomplished  a  revolution,  was  faced  with 
the  problem  of  what  to  do  next  Some  favoured  a  policy  of 
safety  first  and  the  consolidation  of  gains  already  made. 
Others,  notably  a  section  of  the  rank  and  file  of  the  trade 
union  movement,  wished  to  move  from  public  ownership  to 
workers'  control  and  had  begun  to  murmur  that  centralized 
bureaucracy  was  only  one  degree  better  than  capitalist 
exploitation.  Finally,  convinced  doctrinaires  wished  to 
continue  nationah/ing  industries  and  differed  about  the  point 
at  which  the  process  should  stop  The  party's  programme, 
embodied  in  a  pamphlet  entitled  Labour  Believes  in  Britain, 
attempted  a  compromise  betvveen  these  views  Industrial 
insurance,  the  cement  industry,  sugar  refining,  the  wholesale 
meat  trade,  slaughter-houses,  cold  storage,  water  supply  and 
what  were  comprehensively  described  as  "all  suitable 
minerals  "  were  to  be  brought  under  public  ownership.  The 
chemical  industry  would  be  considered  for  nationali/ation. 
Shipbuilding  and  repairing  would  be  dealt  with  by  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  development  council;  and  land  would  be  acquired 
by  the  state,  as  indeed  it  always  had  been,  when  the  public 
interest  was  deemed  to  necessitate  it  The  menu  was  com- 
pleted by  the  ofler  of  a  consumer  advice  centre  and  cheap 
hotels  for  the  working-man's  holidays.  There  was  a  vague 
reference  to  the  importance  of  joint  consultation  in  industry. 
The  programme  threatened  party  unity  at  only  one  point. 
The  Co-operative  movement,  which  did  a  considerable  trade 
in  industrial  insurance,  objected  to  the  proposal  to  nationalize 
this  service;  but  the  objection  was  met  by  the  decision, 
announced  in  November,  to  turn  all  industrial  insurance 
firms  into  co-operatives. 

At  a  singularly  zealous  but  rather  uneventful  party  confer- 
ence at  Blackpool  in  June  this  programme  was  approved  by 
an  overwhelming  majority.  A  similar  and  even  more 
striking  success  was  achieved  at  the  T.U.C.  conference  in 
early  September,  when  the  government's  demand  for  restraint 
on  wage  claims  was  approved  by  a  majority  of  six  and  a  half 


million  to  one  million.  After  the  devaluation  erf  the  pound 
the  government  was  forced  to  make  cuts  in  public  expenditure 
which  the  opposition  condemned  as  inadequate  and  Labour 
supporters  accepted  loyally  but  reluctantly  More  serious 
still,  it  had  to  intensify  its  campaign  for  the  freezing  of  wages. 
Here  it  was  able  to  report  considerable  success  by  the  end  of 
the  year.  Faced  by  the  financial  and  economic  crisis,  the 
government  still  declined  to  make  any  fundamental  change  in 
its  domestic  policy 

The  Conservative  Party.  The  preparations  of  the  Conserva- 
tive party  were  hastened  by  a  rumour  which  became  current 
in  the  summer  that  the  prime  minister  would  appeal  to  the 
country  in  the  autumn.  The  party  was  united  in  demanding 
a  reduction  of  public  expenditure,  the  restoration  of  incen- 
tives to  production  and  the  abolition  of  vexatious  controls. 
Within  this  framework,  however,  there  was  much  room  for 
disagreement.  Some  members  appeared  to  favour  a  policy  of 
wholesale  de-nationalization,  accompanied  by  rigorous 
disinflation  and  the  nearest  possible  return  at  home  and  abroad 
to  the  conditions  of  a  free  economy.  Others  held  that  the 
first  duty  of  a  government  was  to  maintain  a  minimum  stand- 
ard of  living,  that  the  social  services  were  sacrosanct  and  that 
economies  could  only  be  effected  within  the  limits  set  by  these 


•THE  RIGHT   ROAD  FOR  BRITAIN 


Low  in  this  cartoon  in  the  "  Evening  Standard  "  (Ijondon)  in  Oct. 

1949  depicted  the  leaders  of  the  various  factions  of  the  Conservative 

partv  each  with  their  own  future  policy. 

conditions.  Nationalization  could  not  be  wiped  out,  though 
its  extension  must  be  resisted  and  some  attractive  alternative 
to  it  found.  In  imperial  and  foreign  policy  divisions  also 
appeared.  A  group  of  members,  under  the  distinguished 
patronage  of  Winston  Churchill  (</.v),  looked  with  disfavour 
on  changes  in  the  structure  of  the  Commonwealth  designed 
to  enable  it  to  retain  members  who  repudiated  their  allegiance 
to  the  ci  own ,  while  at  the  same  time  many  of  them,  including 
Churchill,  crusaded  passionately  for  a  customs  union  with 
western  Lurope  and  the  merging  of  Great  Britain  in  some  kind 
of  western  European  union  Others  felt  that  these  two 
policies  were  incompatible. 

After  much  deliberation  the  policies  and  principles  of  the 
party  were  set  out  in  a  pamphlet  entitled  The  Right  Road  for 
Britain  The  party  decided  against  general  de-nationalization 
but  put  forward  practical  proposals  for  improving  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  nationalized  industries  by  decentralization.  It 
demanded  drastic  reductions  in  public  expenditure,  combined 
with  the  full  maintenance  and  some  extension  of  the  social 
services,  and  a  vigorous  defence  policy.  It  thus  seemed  to  rely 
entirely  on  the  elimination  of  wasteful  administration  as  a 
means  of  saving  money.  The  alternative  to  nationalization 
was  provided  by  the  re-affirmation  of  the  Conservative 
Industrial  Charter,  which  set  profit-sharing  and  joint  consulta- 
tion as  the  ideals  of  British  industry  and  committed  the  party, 
if  returned  to  power,  to  encouraging  their  adoption  by  practical 
means.  The  programme  contrasted  the  centralized  Socialist 
state  administered  from  Whitehall  with  the  Conservative 


520 


POLITICAL  PARTIES,   U.S. 


ideal  of  a  property-owning  democracy  in  which  every 
man  would  take  an  active  part  in  the  affairs  which  touched 
him  most  closely.  To  this  end  local  government  would  be 
given  increased  powers  and  duties;  and  corporate  and  volun- 
tary activity  within  the  state  would  be  encouraged.  Abroad 
the  party  desired  friendship  with  both  the  dominions  and 
western  Europe  but  put  rather  more  emphasis  on  Common- 
wealth unity.  This  programme  was  enthusiastically  approved 
at  the  party  conference  in  London  in  October.  As  the  weeks 
passed,  however,  party  spokesmen  insisted  increasingly  not 
on  their  long-term  programme  but  on  the  immediate  crisis 
and  the  superior  ability  of  a  Conservative  government  to 
cope  with  it.  It  seemed  to  many  that  events  were  in  train 
which  would  make  paper  programmes,  devised  in  the  summer 
of  1949,  irrelevant. 

The  Liberal  Party.  The  Liberal  party,  at  its  conference  at 
Hastings  in  March,  approved  the  executive's  intention  to 
put  600  candidates  up  at  the  general  election  and  rejoiced  at 
having  already  induced  300  to  stand.  Its  programme  was 
approved  by  a  large  majority,  and  a  new  proposal  for  a 
flat  rate  of  income-tax  on  all  incomes  below  £500  a  year  took 
its  place  beside  federal  union,  proportional  representation 
and  free  trade  in  the  party's  medicine-chest.  A  bitter  con- 
troversy in  which  accusations  of  communist  and  fascist 
tendencies  were  freely  exchanged  arose  out  of  a  proposal  to 
cut  out  the  compulsory  clause  in  the  scheme  for  profit- 
sharing  and  joint  control  which  the  Liberals  intended  to 
apply  to  a  great  part  of  British  industry  in  the  event  of  their 
being  returned  to  power.  The  supporters  of  compulsion 
pointed  out  that  in  addition  to  its  other  merits  it  was  the  only 
aspect  of  the  scheme  which  distinguished  it  from  the  Conserva- 
tive Industrial  Charter^  and  the  clause  was  approved  amid 
scenes  of  considerable  enthusiasm.  Throughout  the  year 
Liberals  continued  to  protest  against  any  proposal  for  an 
electoral  truce  with  the  Tories. 

Other  Parties.  The  Communist  party  of  Great  Britain, 
assembled  at  Liverpool  in  November,  demanded  the  reversal 
of  all  policies  favoured  by  all  other  parties,  calling  for  higher 
wages,  more  public  expenditure,  non-intervention  in  eastern 
Europe  and  the  erection  of  a  phenomenal  number  of  houses 
in  a  phenomenally  short  time. 

Sir  Oswald  Mosley's  Union  movement,  which  was  widely 
regarded  as  a  reincarnation  of  the  Fascist  party,  maintained 
silence  throughout  the  year,  although  there  was  some  activity 
among  local  branches.  (T.  E.  U.) 

POLITICAL  PARTIES,  U.S.      Democratic   Party. 

President  Harry  S.  Truman  (q.v.)  led  the  Democratic  party 
to  several  important  victories  at  the  polls  in  1949,  but  party 
differences  prevented  the  passage  of  most  of  his  welfare  state 
legislation  in  the  first  session  of  the  81st  congress.  Assuming 
a  more  aggressive  leadership  role  as  a  result  of  his  election 
in  his  own  right  in  1948,  Truman  submitted  a  formidable 
programme  in  his  inaugural  address  on  Jan.  20,  1949,  and 
m  subsequent  messages.  He  also  discarded  the  Roosevelt  New 
Deal  as  a  party  slogan  substituting  for  it  the  Truman  Fair 
Deal.  His  proposals  were  regarded  as  more  far-reaching  than 
anything  ever  olTered  by  Franklin  D.  Roosevelt.  To  finance 
the  many  new  outlined  activities,  he  asked  for  a  $4,000  million 
tax  increase.  In  foreign  affairs  Truman  urged  continued  Ameri- 
can co-operation  with  western  Europe  to  combat  Communism, 
which  he  assailed  as  "  false  doctrine."  He  advocated  support 
of  the  United  Nations,  the  European  Recovery  programme 
and  the  North  Atlantic  treaty. 

Truman's  proposals  for  extension  and  expansion  of  govern- 
mental power  and  activity  were  defeated  through  a  combina- 
tion of  Republicans  and  conservative  Democrats,  mostly 
from  southern  states.  He  obtained  only  a  housing  construc- 
tion bill  and  a  farm  measure  providing  for  sliding  and  slightly 


lower  subsidies.  Truman's  foreign  programme  was  enacted 
almost  as  he  presented  it,  despite  some  protests  as  to  the  cost 
of  the  foreign-aid  bill. 

In  Labour  day  addresses  before  factory  workers  at  Pitts- 
burgh, Pennsylvania,  and  farmers  at  Des  Moines,  Iowa,  he 
reiterated  demands  for  action  on  all  his  original  proposals. 
He  urged  a  political  alliance  between  farmers  and  workers 
as  the  two  groups  responsible  for  the  "  tremendous  produc- 
tion of  the  country's  economic  system."  Denouncing  his 
opponents  he  declared  that  "  with  the  Fair  Deal  we  will  win 
in  1950  and  1952."  The  special  election  results  in  1949 
offered  some  ground  for  these  forecasts.  The  Democrats 
won  four  of  the  five  contests  for  vacancies  in  the  House  of 
Representatives,  losing  only  in  a  normally  Republican 
district  in  Pennsylvania.  When  on  Nov.  7  Herbert  H.  Lehman 
won  the  election  to  the  senatorial  seat  in  the  state  of  New 
York  (see  below),  the  president  interpreted  the  outcome  as 
endorsement  of  his  later  record.  He  declared  that  it  marked 
an  advance  in  the  creation  of  the  welfare  state.  As  1949 
ended,  the  Senate  consisted  of  54  Democrats  and  42  Republi- 
cans. In  the  House  of  Representatives  there  were  261 
Democrats,  169  Republicans,  1  American  Labour  party 
member,  1  Democratic-Liberal  member  and  3  vacancies. 

The  chairmanship  of  the  Democratic  national  committee 
changed  hands  during  the  year.  When  J.  Howard  McGrath, 
of  Rhode  Island,  resigned  to  become  attorney  general,  he 
was  succeeded  by  William  M.  Boyle,  Jr.,  of  Kansas  City, 
Kansas.  A  former  policeman  and  practical  politician,  and 
a  close  friend  of  the  president,  Boyle  stepped  up  activity  at 
national  headquarters  at  Washington,  D.C.,  and  throughout 
the  country.  Like  the  president's,  his  formula  for  victory 
was  an  alliance  of  labour,  farm  and  other  numerically  strong 
groups  whose  lot,  he  maintained,  had  been  bettered  by 
Truman  policies.  Democratic  leadership  in  the  Senate 
consisted  of  Alben  W.  Barkley,  of  Kentucky,  as  vice-president, 
Senator  Scott  W.  Lucas,  of  Illinois,  as  majority  leader  and  Sen- 
ator Francis  F.  Myers,  of  Pennsylvania,  as  majority  whip.  In 
the  House  of  Representatives,  Sam  Ray  burn,  of  Texas,  was  the 
speaker  and  John  W.  McCormack,  of  Massachusetts,  served 
as  majority  leader. 

Republican  Party.  In  1949  the  Republican  party,  which 
had  been  out  of  power  for  16  years,  became  a  divided  and 
weakened  organization  in  search  of  a  popular  leader  and  a 
popular  issue.  Inter-party  strife  began  as  soon  as  the  national 
committee  held  its  annual  meeting  at  Omaha,  Nebraska,  in 
January.  ComrmUeemen  identified  with  the  Taft-Stassen 
group  demanded  the  resignation  of  the  national  chairman, 
Hugh  D.  Scott,  Jr.,  of  Pennsylvania,  who  had  been  selected 
for  the  post  by  Governor  Thomas  E.  Dcwey,  of  New  York, 
after  his  nomination  as  the  1948  presidential  candidate. 
The  opposition  argued  that  Dewey  and  Scott  had  been  too 
sympathetic  to  Truman's  Fair  Deal  programme  in  the  1948 
contest  and  that  they  no  longer  represented  or  reflected  major 
party  sentiment. 

Scott  submitted  his  resignation  at  a  special  meeting  of  the 
national  committee  in  Washington  in  August  and  Guy  G. 
Gabrielson,  of  New  Jersey,  was  elected  in  his  place.  A  Man- 
hattan lawyer,  he  had  been  a  Dewey  supporter  at  the  1948 
convention;  but  he  immediately  disassociated  himself  from 
any  candidate  or  faction.  James  S.  Kcmper,  on  resigning 
as  party  treasurer,  revealed  that  there  was  only  $90,000  in 
the  special  reserve  fund  and  blamed  the  decline  in  contri- 
butions on  to  the  support  given  by  the  party  to  the  Fair 
Deal  policy.  On  Dec.  31,  1949,  the  deficit  in  the  everyday 
operating  treasury  as  distinct  from  the  reserve,  was  $420,000. 
Kemper  was  succeeded  by  R.  Douglas  Stuart. 

In  November,  acting  on  an  authorization  from  the  August 
meeting  of  the  national  committee,  Gabrielson  sounded  the 
sentiment  of  Republican  officeholders  and  organization 


POLO— PORTUGAL 


521 


members  on  issuing  a  formal  statement  of  principles.  He 
asked:  "  Should  there  be  a  restatement  of  party  principles 
at  this  time?  If  so,  what  should  the  restatement  contain?'* 

Election  results  in  1949  had  an  anti-Republican  flavour. 
The  contest  which  attracted  most  attention  was  in  New  York, 
where  the  former  governor,  Herbert  H.  Lehman,  opposed 
John  Foster  Dulles,  who  had  been  appointed  by  Governor 
Dewey  to  the  seat  made  vacant  by  the  resignation  of  Robert 
F.  Wagner.  Dulles  made  an  all-out  campaign  against  the 
Truman  Fair  Deal  philosophy.  Truman  threw  all  his  influence 
behind  Lehman,  who  won  by  a  majority  of  196,293  in  a  total 
vote  of  more  than  5  million. 

So  discouraging  were  the  1949  election  results  that  Senator 
John  W.  Bricker,  of  Ohio,  the  party's  vice-presidential 
nominee  in  1944,  suggested,  unsuccessfully,  that  the  Republi- 
cans and  conservative  Southern  Democrats,  who  had  fre- 
quently joined  in  voting  against  administration  proposals, 
should  formalize  their  legislative  alliance  by  merging  into  a 
new  political  party. 

Other  parties.  Third  parties  were  almost  a  negligible  factor 
in  U.S.  politics  in  1949.  The  political  and  economic  climate 
was  not  propitious  for  insurgency. 

Leftist  movements  such  as  Henry  A.  Wallace's  Progressive 
party  suffered  from  intensification  of  the  "  cold  war  "  with 
the  U.S.S.R.  High  employment  and  wages,  temporarily  at 
least,  neutralized  the  appeal  of  almost  all  rebellious  elements. 
Still  a  third  explanation  was  that  Truman's  Fair  Deal  pro- 
gramme approximated  the  domestic  demands  of  most  inde- 
pendents. 

Wallace,  who  had  organized  the  Progressive  party  to  make 
his  unsuccessful  try  for  the  presidency  m  1948,  was  inactive 
and  seemingly  indifferent.  He  refused  to  run  as  an  American 
Labour  party  candidate  for  the  U.S.  Senate  from  New  York. 
The  Progressive  party  held  a  national  housing  conference 
in  Cleveland,  Ohio,  in  September,  which  Wallace  addressed. 
Only  600  delegates  attended.  Save  for  a  demand  for  Anglo- 
Russo-Amencan  co-operation  through  the  United  Nations, 
the  platform  differed  only  slightly  from  the  doctrines  of  the 
Truman  administration. 

The  Communist  party  virtually  disappeared.  The  number 
of  active,  die-hard  members  dropped  to  40,000,  according  to 
the  best  estimates.  Nowhere  did  its  local  candidates  for 
office  receive  more  than  a  handful  of  votes.  When  1 1  top 
party  officials  in  New  York  were  convicted  of  conspiracy 
to  overthrow  the  government  by  force,  Kugenc  Dennis, 
secretary  general  and  one  of  the  1 1  defendants,  announced 
that  the  party  would  go  underground.  Despite  these  setbacks, 
he  announced  a  drive  for  a  $2  million  campaign  fund. 

The  Socialists  named  candidates  for  local  and  state  offices, 
notably  in  New  York  and  New  Jersey  gubernatorial  contests, 
but  they  did  not  receive  sufficient  votes  to  remain  on  future 
ballots;  this  would  force  them  to  enter  candidates  by  the 
petition  process.  Norman  Thomas,  perennial  Socialist 
presidential  candidate,  indicated  that  he  had  had  enough 
and  would  not  run  again.  The  party's  only  important  state 
convention,  held  at  Albany,  Now  York,  in  September, 
virtually  endorsed  the  Truman  administration's  legislative 
programme. 

Typical  of  the  voter's  reaction  to  third  parties  was  the 
outcome  of  the  contests  for  New  York's  city  council.  Under 
a  system  of  proportional  representation,  the  American 
Labour  party  lost  its  only  two  seats,  and  the  Liberal  party 
lost  its  three  incumbents.  The  new  body  consisted  of  24 
Democrats  and  1  Republican-Liberal.  The  only  member  of 
the  House  of  Representatives  who  did  not  belong  to  one  of 
the  two  major  organizations  was  Vito  Marcantonio,  of  New 
York,  American  Labour  representative.  The  New  York 
elections  for  mayor  and  U.S.  senator,  however,  suggested 
that  these  various  political  fragments  could  not  be  wholly 


discounted.  Running  as  mayoralty  entry  of  the  American 
Labour  party,  the  left-wing  offshoot  of  an  independent 
trades  union  movement  organized  in  1938,  Marcantonio 
polled  356,423  votes  compared  with  1,264,600  for  Mayor 
William  O'Dwyer  and  956,170  for  Newbold  Morris, 
Republican. 

The  Liberal  party,  the  right-wing  element  of  the  original 
trades  union  movement,  gained  prestige  in  the  New  York 
contests.  Its  most  prominent  figure  was  Adolph  A.  Berle,  Jr., 
former  assistant  secretary  of  state.  The  Berle  faciiort  turned 
out  372,281  votes  for  Morris  in  the  mayoralty  right,  and 
416,023  for  Lehrran  in  the  contest  for  the  Senate.  Since  the 
latter  won  by  only  196,293,  he  would  have  been  defeated 
if  this  vote  had  shifted  to  John  F.  Dulles,  Republican. 
Should  the  Berle  and  Marcantonio  wings  ever  reunite,  and 
their  contrasting  attitude  toward  the  Soviet  Union  was  the 
main  issue  that  divided  them,  they  could  conceivably  dominate 
politics  in  the  nation's  largest  city  and  state.  (See  also 
COMMUNIST  MOVEMENT;  CONGRESS,  U.S.;  UNITED  STATES.) 

(R.  Tu.) 

POLO.  Steady  progress  was  made  during  1949  in  the 
recovery  of  polo  in  England.  There  were  eight  clubs  now 
playing  regularly.  Cowdray  park,  Ham  common,  Henley- 
on-Thames,  Billericay  (Essex),  Rhinefield  (New  Forest), 
Taunton,  Toulston  (Yorkshire)  and  the  newly-formed 
Hertfordshire  club. 

The  county  polo  tournament  was  played  in  July  at  Roe- 
hampton  and  successful  tournaments  were  held  at  Cowdray 
park  in  Goodwood  week,  at  Henley  in  early  August  and  at 
Brockenhurst,  the  Rhinefield  club  ground,  in  early  September. 
A  team  consisting  of  Jack  Traill,  John  Lakin,  R.  Skene  and 
Humphrey  Guinness,  with  Lord  Cowdray  as  manager, 
undertook  a  tour  m  the  Argentine  at  the  invitation  of  the 
Argentine  polo  club,  which  also  made  all  arrangements  to 
mount  them,  and  succeeded  in  giving  a  very  good  account  of 
themselves.  It  was  hoped  that  an  Argentine  team  might  visit 
England  during  1950.  Polo  crosse  continued  to  gain  ad- 
herents; it  became  especially  popular  in  the  west  country. 

(J.  C.  G.) 

United  States.  Argentina  sent  two  teams  to  the  United 
States.  The  Venado  Tuerto  four  visited  the  Pacific  coast 
in  the  spring  where  they  completed  a  successful  tour  against 
the  best  players  in  the  west.  The  only  game  they  lost  was  to  a 
strong  Hurricane  team  in  the  Pacific  Open  championship 
tournament.  A  second  Argentine  team,  El  Trebol  (the  clover), 
arrived  in  May  and  played  in  all  the  eastern  tournaments 
during  September. 

The  outstanding  team  of  the  1949  season  was  the  Hurri- 
canes, which  won  the  Pacific  Open  and  the  National  Open 
for  the  second  year  in  succession.  The  university  of  Miami, 
Florida,  team  won  the  intercollegiate  crown.  (W.  CN.) 

POPULATIONS  OF  THE  COUNTRIES  OF 
THE  WORLD:  see  AREAS  AND  POPULATIONS  OF  THE 

CoUNTRItS  OP  THE  WORLD. 

PORTUGAL.  A  republic  of  southwestern  Europe, 
forming  part  of  the  Iberian  peninsula  and  bounded  on  the 
F.  and  on  the  N.  by  Spain.  Area:  35,413  sq.  mi.,  including 
Azores  (888  sq.  mi.)  and  Madeira  (302  sq.  mi.).  Pop.:  (1940 
census)  7,722,152;  (mid- 1948  est.)  8,402,000,  including 
Azores  (1940  census,  286,885)  and  Madeira  (250,124). 
Language:  Portuguese.  Religion:  predominantly  Roman 
Catholic.  Chief  towns  (pop.,  1940  census):  Lisbon  (cap., 
709,179);  Oporto  (262,309);  Funchal  (54,856);  Coimbra 
(35,437).  President  of  the  republic,  Marshal  Antonio  Oscar 
de  Fragoso  Carmona  (g.v.);  prime  minister,  Dr.  Antonio 
de  Ohveira  Salazar  (</.v.);  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  Dr. 
Jose  Caeiro  da  Matta  (.v.). 


522 


PORTUGAL 


Marshal  Carmona  (centre  pointed  by  arrow)  at  the  Central  station.  Oporto,  during  the  1949  presidential  election  campaign.     He  was 
re-elected  on  Feb.  13  by  941,863  votes  to  4  J 89  for  General  Norton  de  Mattos,  who  had  withdrawn  from  the  election  on  Feb.  11. 


History.  After  a  heated  electoral  campaign,  with  threats 
of  army  intervention,  General  Norton  de  Mattos  withdrew 
and  on  Feb.  13,  1949,  Marshal  Carmona  was  re-elected 
president  for  a  fourth  7-year  term.  At  elections  for  the 
National  Assembly  on  Nov.  13,  the  Uniao  Nacional  (pro- 
government)  party  was  again  returned,  with  negligible 
opposition.  About  half  of  its  candidates  were  civil  servants. 
The  new  assembly  could  initiate  revision  of  the  1933  constitu- 
tion. The  archives  of  the  illegal  Communist  party  were  seized 
in  Luso  in  March  and  its  secretary  general,  a  lawyer,  was 
arrested.  In  June  a  public  security  council  was  established 
to  tighten  preventive  and  repressive  measures  against  sub- 
versive activities. 

Features  of  the  1949  budget,  which  estimated  receipts  at 
Es.4,309  million,  ordinary  expenditure  at  Es.4,308  million 
and  extraordinary  at  Es.1,358  million,  were  the  provision  of 
Es.317  million  for  increases  in  civil  service  salaries  and  a  cut 
in  public  works  in  favour  of  development  in  Mozambique. 
It  was  announced  in  May  that  Portugal  had  foregone,  in 
favour  of  other  O.E.E.C.  countries,  any  claim  to  U.S. 
financial  assistance.  Entry  in  July  to  the  multilateral  pay- 
ments and  compensation  system  between  countries  partici- 
pating in  the  European  Recovery  programme  led  to  an 
alignment  of  currency  parity  at  Es.25  to  the  $.  The  new 
sterling  rate  after  devaluation  of  the  £  was  Es.80-  50  (instead 
of  100  •  25). 

A  European  regional  conference  of  the  Food  and  Agri- 
culture organization  of  U.N.  was  held  in  Lisbon  in  March, 
as  was  in  April  the  International  Geographical  conference. 
The  exchange  of  diplomatic  missions  with  Pakistan,  with 
the  rank  of  legations,  was  agreed  on  in  September. 

Following  on  consultations  with  Spain,  Portugal  adhered 
to  the  North  Atlantic  treaty  in  April,  with  the  reserve  that 
no  use  of  bases  would  be  granted  in  time  of  peace.  Dr. 
Salazar  stated  that  the  value  and  significance  of  Portugal's 
adherence  would  be  affected  by  the  inclusion  or  exclusion  of 
Spain.  The  close  understanding  with  Spain  was  underlined 
by  the  visit  to  Portugal  of  General  Franco  (^.v.)  in  October, 
when  he  was  made  a  general  in  the  Portuguese  army. 


The  Anglo-Portuguese  monetary  agreement  was  extended 
in  April  for  a  year.  Great  Britain  continued  to  be  Portugal's 
chief  supplier  and,  after  the  Portuguese  colonies,  its  best 
customer.  A  fall  in  imports  from  Great  Britain  was  envisaged 
in  a  new  trade  programme  aiming  at  approximate  equilibrium 
in  payments  between  the  two  areas.  A  one-year  trade  agree- 
ment was  signed  with  France  in  October,  totalling  Es.  600 
million  in  each  direction.  Duties  on  all  imports  from 
abroad,  certain  agricultural  chemicals  and  food  excepted, 
were  increased  in  June  by  60%.  In  September  a  fund  was 
created  to  stimulate  exports. 

Heavy  rainstorms  in  September  ended  the  longest  drought 
in  the  country's  history,  which  had  severely  hit  the  cotton 
and  woollen  industries  through  cuts  in  hydro-electric  power. 
Much  wheat  had  also  to  be  imported.  A  vast  reconstruction 
plan  for  the  centre  of  Lisbon  was  approved.  Dr.  Egas  Moniz 
(^.v.),  the  Lisbon  neurologist,  shared  with  a  Swiss  physiologist 
the  Nobel  prize  for  physiology  and  medicine.  (W.  C.  AN.) 

Education.  (1946-47)  Primary  schools  10,248,  pupils  533,344, 
teachers  13,747;  private  elementary  schools,  pupils  59,698;  secondary 
schools  (/iceux)  43,  pupils  20,965,  teachers  1,154;  private  secondary 
schools,  pupils  24,80K);  technical  secondary  schools  58,  pupils  39,521, 
teachers  1,481;  commercial  schools  8,  pupils  3,150,  teachers  204; 
universities  3,  students  8,568,  professors  and  lecturers  464;  institutions 
of  higher  education  3  students  5,846,  professors  and  lecturers  281. 
Illiteracy  (1940):  49%. 

Agriculture  and  Fisheries.  Main  crops  (in  '000  metric  tons,  1948; 
1949  estimates  in  brackets):  wheat  322  (317);  barley  88;  oats  99; 
maize  317;  rye  131  (136);  potatoes  994;  rice  89;  dry  beans  40. 
Livestock  (in  '000  head):  cattle  (Dec.  1945)  950;  sheep  (Dec.  1947) 
4,000.  Fisheries  total  catch  (1948):  weight  180,606  metric  tons;  value 
669  million  escudos.  Production  (1948):  meat  (in  '000  metric  tons) 
70-8;  milk  (in  '000  metric  tons)  330;  olive  oil  (in  hectolitres)  315,930; 
wine  (in  '000  hectolitres)  8,162. 

Industry.  Fuel  and  power  (in  '000  metric  tons,  1948;  1949,  six 
months,  in  brackets):  coal  386  (231);  lignite  (in  '000  metric  tons) 
103  (54);  manufactured  gas  (in  '000  cu.ft.)  1  234  (702);  electricity 
(in  million  kwh.)  805  (418).  Raw  materials  (in  metric  tons  1948; 
1949,  six  months,  in  brackets):  lead  1,650  (1,050);  tin  content  of 
cassiterite  710  (630);  iron  pyrites  556,135;  wolfram  2,511;  antimony 
84;  sulphur  9,826;  manganese  280;  chromium  170;  baryta  396; 
sulphur  pyrites  9,826;  cork  140,442.  Manufactured  goods  (in  metric 
tons,  1948):  cotton  yarn  31,486;  cotton  piece-goods  24,452;  refined  sugar 
63,896;  sulphuricacid  200,069;  superphosphates 302,845;  cement  500,000. 


.PORTUGUESE   COLONIAL   EMPIRE 


523 


Foreign  Trade.  (Million  cscudos)  imports'  (1948)  10,351,  (1949, 
six  months)  5,125,  exports  (1948)  4.295,  (1949,  six  months)  1,713. 
Principal  imports  in  1948  machinery  and  vehicles,  coal,  petroleum 
and  products,  wheat  and  flour  and  steel  mill  products.  Principal 
exports  in  1948  cork  and  manufactures,  cotton  fabrics,  wine  and  fish. 
Main  sources  of  imports  United  States,  LJnited  Kingdom  and  Portu- 
guese colonies  Main  destinations  of  exports  Portuguese  colonies, 
United  Kingdom  and  United  Stales 

Transport  and  Communications.  Roads  (1947).  16,080  mi  Licensed 
motor  vehicles  (Dec  1948)  cars  51,700,  commercial  vehicles  21,200 
Railways  (1947).  2,240  mi  ,  passenger  traffic  47,023,722,  goods 
traffic  5,210,802  metric  tons.  Shipping  (July  1948)  number  of  merchant 
vessels  of  100  tons  and  upwards  320,  total  tonnage  471,438  Tele- 
phones (1948).  114,818.  Wireless  licences  (1948)  974,192 

Finance  and  Banking.  (Million  escudos)  Budget  (1950  est  )  revenue 
5,271  5,  expenditure  5,268-3  National  debt  (1947)  internal  10,621, 
external  3,101  Currency  circulation  (Sept  1949)  7,850  Gold  reset ve 
(March,  1949,  in  brackets  March  1948)  146  (184)  million  U  S  dollars 
Bank  deposits  (July  1949,  in  brackets  July  1948)  17,230  (17,830) 
Monetary  unit  nnudo  with  an  exchange  rate  (Dec  1949,  in  brackets 
Dec  1948)  ol  80  SO  (100  2<5)  escudos  to  the  pound 

PORTUGUESE  COLONIAL  EMPIRE.  Under 
this  heading  are  grouped  the  Portuguese  possessions  in  Africa 
and  Asia.  Their  total  area  is  approximately  803,835  sq.  mi. 
and  the  total  population  (mid-1947  est.)  12,736,000.  Certain 
essential  facts  and  figures  relating  to  the  Portuguese  colonies 
are  given  in  the  accompanying  table 

History.  In  July  1949  the  Indian  Congiess  party  president, 
echoing  Pandit  Nehru's  statement  of  Nov.  12,  1948,  declared 
that  neither  the  French  nor  the  Portuguese  possessions  in 
India  could  have  a  separate  existence  from  the  Indian  Union. 


A  conference  held  at  Belgaum  had  earlier  demanded  the 
accession  of  Goa  to  the  Union,  and  the  Indian  press  alleged 
that  many  Goan  National  congress  leaders  had  been  arrested 
when  seeking  to  leave  Goa  to  attend.  (Portuguese  India  was 
given  in  Dec.  1946  the  status  of  a  metropolitan  province). 

The  garrison  at  Macao  was  reinforced  in  August  from 
Portugal  and  Portuguese  Africa  to  a  total  of  some  6,000. 
In  Novembei,  as  the  Chinese  Nationalists  withdrew  from  the 
neighbourhood,  many  stragglers  and  a  number  of  Nationalist 
gunboats  and  armed  junks  sought  refuge  in  Macao,  drawing 
some  Communist  shelling. 

On  Jan.  1  the  portugucse  government  redeemed  the  Beira 
( Mozambique)  concession,  and  port  and  railway  passed  to  the 
Mozambique  colonial  administration.  An  international 
Conference  of  African  Transport,  covering  railways,  inland 
waterways,  roads  and  ports,  met  in  Lisbon  in  May  with  a 
view  ro  (he  co-ordination  of  developments  throughout  the 
territories  of  central  and  southern  Africa  A  plenary  con- 
ference in  Africa  was  to  follow.  Coal  deposits  believed 
sufficient  to  supply  the  whole  Portuguese  empire  were  dis- 
covered at  Mamamba,  Mozambique.  Mozambique  and 
Angola  production  of  cotton  was  stated  to  be  almost  sufficient 
now  for  all  empire  needs. 

Considerable  developments  in  public  works  were  recorded 
in  the  African  colonies  (and  in  Timor)  and,  taken  in  con- 
junction with  the  provision  of  government-paid  passages  for 
emigrants  and  their  families  going  to  guaranteed  employ- 
ment, were  reflected  in  a  substantial  increase  in  emigration 


PORIUC.UFSE  COLONIAL  EMPIRE 

Country                  Area 

Population 

Capital,  Status, 

Principal  Products 

Imports  and 

Road,   Kail  and 

Revenue  and 

(in  sq    nil  ) 

(1947  est  ,  percent- 

Governor 

Exports  -1947 

Export": 

Shipping 

Expenditure 

AFRICA 

ages  as  of  1940) 

(in  metric  tons) 

(in  '000  escudos)               1946              (in 

'000  escudos) 

ANGOLA                481,351 

4,495,000 

Sao     Paulo     de 

maize                44,700 

(1947) 

rds        .     21,949  mi. 

(1946,  actual) 

(Portuguese 

(Europeans    1  '2",,, 

Luanda     (pop 

coffee               44,000 

imp     962,074 

rly               2,363  km 

rev      525,872 

West  Africa) 

Negroes  98   7^) 

40,000),    colony. 

cane  sugar        35,200 

exp      981,012 

shpg   (entered) 

exp     482,173 

Governor  general, 

coconuts           H,900 

vessels              3,018 

(1949,  est  ) 

Captain  Silva  Car- 

palm  oil            12,400 

cargo  loaded 

balanced  at 

valho 

sisal                   10,500 

619,869  tons 

644,169 

diamonds 

cargo  unloaded 

(carats)         802,000 

220,286  tons 

(  APF   VLRDF    Is         1.^57 

168,000 

Praia  (pop  ,  6,000), 

(1947,  8  months) 

(1947) 

rds.                 544  km. 

(1944,  actual) 

(1  uropeans   3  "0. 

colony    Governor, 

mineral  oil     160,862 

imp     223,429 

shpg  (entered)- 

rev         24,687 

Half-castes  65  "„, 

Major  Dr  Alberto 

copra         .         1  ,008 

exp      205,895 

vessels              4,593 

exp        22,249 

Negroes  32  °0) 

Alvez  Rocadas 

co  lice                       47 

net  tonnage 

castor  oil                34 

3,095,390 

PORIUOL-LSI              13.948 

422,000 

Bissau,  colony 

groundnuts      66,045 

(1947) 

rds               2,705  km 

(1946,  actual) 

GUINI  A 

(  Europeans   0  4°,,, 

Governor,     Raim- 

coconuts           27,884 

imp      145,303 

shpg   (entered) 

rev        40,629 

Negroes  98  9°0) 

undo  Scrrao 

palm  kernel 

exp      120,472 

vessels                   65 

exp        37,956 

oil                          5,188 

net  tonnage  91,128 

rice                     4,414 

S\o    TOML                       *72 

57,000 

Sao     1  ome    (pop  , 

cocoa                 8,393 

(1947) 

rds.                 327  km 

(1947,  actual) 

AND  PRINC  IPI 

(L  uropeans  2°0, 

1,187),        colony 

coffee                    440 

imp        79,949 

shpg   (entered). 

rev.        40,612 

ISLANDS 

Negroes  94  °'n) 

Governor,    Major 

coconuts            4,927 

exp      222.393 

net  tonnage 

exp        24.179 

(.  arlos    de    Sousa 

copra                  4,118 

372,291 

Gorgulho 

MOZAMBIQUE         297,711 

6,1  16,000 

Lourenco  Marques 

sugar  (raw)      76,328 

(1946) 

rds             28,913  km 

(1946,  actual) 

(Portuguese 

(Europeans   0  5"(), 

(pop,     48,000), 

copra                47,231 

imp  1,127,101 

rly               2,298  km 

rev.      892,904 

East  Africa) 

Negroes  99",,) 

colony     Governor 

groundnuts       16,599 

exp      966,421 

shpg  (entered,  1944). 

exp      839,871 

general,  Comman- 

timbet              80.529 

vessels                  931 

(1949,  est  ) 

der  Gabriel  Maun- 

net  tonnage 

balanced  at 

ASIA 

cio  Teixeira 

3,865,389 

985,946 

PORTUGUESE              1,538 

657.000 

Nova  Goa,   metro- 

hsh, spices,  coconuts. 

(1945) 

rds                  702  km 

(1946.  est) 

INDIA 

politan     province 

copra  and  salt 

imp     224,052 

rly                     80  km 

rev        48,005 

Governor  general, 

exp        67,874 

shpg.  (entered,  1940) 

exp       48,005 

Commander    Fer- 

net tonnage  22  1,822 

nando  Qumtamlha 

de  Mendonva  Dias 

MACAO                         6  2 

387,000 

Macao,      colony 

fish     preserves     and 

(1936.  in 

rds                    19  km 

(1946,     estf) 

(Europeans   0  5"0, 

Governor,     Com- 

cement 

'OOOpatacasf) 

shpg.  (entered,  1938) 

rev        60,766 

Asiatics  98  6°,J 

mander      Albano 

imp,      15,724 

net  tonnage 

exp        60,766 

Rodriguez  de  Oh- 

exp          9,144 

3.116,410 

veira 

TIMOR                        7,332 

433,000* 

Dilh  (pop,  7,000), 

coffee,  sandal  wood, 

(1940,  in 

ids.       .        1,039  mi 

(1946,  est  f) 

colony   Governor, 

wax  and  copra 

'000  patacast) 

shpg.  (entered,  1939) 

rev.         9,430 

Captain     Oscar 

imp         3,880 

net  tonnage  91,215 

exp.         9,430 

Freire  Vasconcellos 

exp.         4,154 

•Native  population  only.    fPataca=  16  07  escudos. 

Ruas 

524 


POST  OFFICE 


from  Portugal.  Mozambique  attracted  twice  as  many  as 
Angola.  The  number  of  Portuguese  settlers  in  Portuguese 
Guinea  (784  in  1940)  had  doubled  by  1949.  A  medical 
exchange  system  between  doctors  and  specialists  in  Portugal 
and  in  Angola  and  Mozambique  was  inaugurated  early  in 
the  year.  Over  600  students  from  the  colonies  were  engaged 
in  higher  studies  in  Portugal. 

The  minister  for  colonies  re-affirmed  in  February  that 
Portuguese  policy  continued  firmly  opposed  to  the  modern 
trend  towards  autonomy  and  eventual  independence  for 
colonial  territories.  (W.  C.  AN.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  Cyril  W.  Andrews,  Portuguese  East  Africa;  D.  O. 
Fynes-Clinton,  Portuguese  Went  Africa — both  published  for  the  Board 
of  Trade  by  H.M.S.O.  (London,  1949). 

POST  OFFICE.  The  total  value  of  post  office  transac- 
tions in  Great  Britain  with  the  public  during  the  year  ended 
March  31,  1949,  was  £3,053,595,000.  This  was  a  reduction 
of  about  £32,405,000  on  the  figure  for  the  preceding  12 
months,  and  was  more  than  accounted  for  by  a  decrease  in 
the  savings  bank  deposits.  (See  Savings  Bank  below.) 

Postal.  The  number  of  letters  and  letter  packets  posted 
during  1948-49  was  estimated  to  have  been  8,050,000,000, 
an  increase  of  450,000,000  on  the  traffic  for  1947.  The  number 
of  parcels  handled  during  the  year  dropped  from  243,500,000 
to  239,601,000.  This  latter  figure  included  16,024,000 
received  from  abroad,  of  which  about  13,000,000  were  gift 
parcels,  mostly  food  and  mainly  from  the  Commonwealth 
and  the  United  States.  On  May  1, 1949,  the  inland  registration 
fees  were  raised  by  one  penny  at  each  step  of  the  scale.  The 
minimum  fee  became  4</.  covering  compensation  up  to  £5, 
5d.  covering  compensation  up  to  £20,  then  by  \d.  at  each  step 
up  to  the  maximum  of  25.  for  £400. 

Air  parcel  services  were  started  in  April  1949  to  many 
countries  in  Europe,  and  on  June  1  the  arrangements  whereby 
first  class  mail  (letters,  letter  packets  and  postcards)  could  be 
forwarded  by  air  or  surface  route,  whichever  offered  the 
earlier  delivery,  were  extended  to  include  Germany.  A 
reduced  air  postage  rate  of  4d.  a  half-ounce  was  introduced 
on  July  1  for  second  class  mail  (printed  papers,  commercial 
papers,  samples,  literature  for  the  blind  and  small  packets) 
to  Canada,  the  United  States  and  Mexico,  thus  extending 
this  facility  to  include  the  whole  of  the  western  hemisphere. 
Some  additional  internal  air  mail  services  were  introduced 
during  1949  and,  in  co-operation  with  British  European  Air- 
ways, the  post  office  continued  to  study  the  problem  of  using 
helicopters  for  inland  mail  services. 

Telecommunications.  The  number  of  telegrams  handled 
during  the  year  ended  March  31,  1949,  was  53,661,000,  of 
which  10,265,000  were  overseas  telegrams.  The  comparable 
total  for  the  preceding  12  months  was  58,054,000,  of  which 
10,615,000  were  overseas  telegrams.  The  system  of  manual 
through-switching  introduced  in  the  inland  service  was 
extended,  thus  reducing  progressively  the  average  length  of 
time  for  transmission  of  telegrams  over  the  network.  Plans 
were  well  advanced  for  the  gradual  introduction  of  an  auto- 
matic switching  system. 

The  number  of  telephones  in  service  rose  from  4,652,704 
to  4,919,203,  a  net  increase  of  266,499;  this  represented  an 
actual  rate  of  installation  of  over  56,000  a  month  after  allowing 
for  cessations,  which  was  more  than  50  %  above  that  of  any 
prewar  year.  The  number  of  working  exchange  lines  rose 
by  4- 1  %  from  2,835,558  to  2,952,416,  a  net  increase  of  1 16,858 
exchange  lines.  In  Sept.  1949  the  5  millionth  telephone  was 
installed  on  a  farm  near  Canterbury,  Kent.  The  number  of 
applicants  waiting  for  telephone  service  rose  from  488,000 
to  558,000,  despite  the  high  rate  of  connecting  new  subscribers. 

The  number  of  long-distance  circuits  in  the  public  telephone 
network  was  increased  by  7%  from  14,528  to  15,562.  The 


A  small  machine,  introduced  in  1949  >  for  use  by  post  office  clerks  in 
issuing  small  numbers  of  posiage  stamps. 

total  number  of  inland  telephone  calls  handled  was 
3,137,000,000  of  which  2,911,000,000  were  untimed  calls: 
this  represented  an  increase  on  the  1947-48  period  of 
10,000,000  timed  and  230,000,000  untimed  calls.  On  March 
31,  1949,  there  were  3,969  automatic,  1,879  manual  and  230 
auto-manual  and  trunk  exchanges  in  operation  throughout 
Great  Britain. 

Savings  Bank.  Deposits  for  the  year  ended  March  31, 
1949,  amounted  to  £371,869,000,  a  decrease  of  €54,959,000 
on  the  sums  deposited  in  1947-48.  The  number  of  separate 
deposit  accounts  at  the  end  of  March  1949  was  23,562,000; 
on  Dec.  31,  1948,  the  total  amount  due  to  depositors 
stood  at  £1,948,051,000  In  the  first  three  months  of  1949, 
22,050,000  savings  certificates  were  purchased. 

Personnel  In  March  1949  post  office  personnel  numbered 
348,224,  with  a  wage  bill  (including  national  insurance 
contributions)  of  £113,250,000  a  year.  (G.  P.  O.) 

United  States.  Revenues  of  the  post  office  department  for 
the  fiscal  year  1948-49  amounted  to  $1 ,572,851 ,202.  Estimated 
postage  revenues  lost  from  services  not  on  a  regular  pay 
basis — penalty  and  franked  mail,  free-in-county  mail, 
differentials  in  second-class  mail  matter  and  free  matter 
for  the  blind — together  with  the  excess  of  the  cost  of  aircraft 
service  over  the  postage  revenue  derived  from  air  mail, 
amounted  to  $120,118,663. 

The  expenditures  of  the  department  for  the  fiscal  year 
amounted  to  $2,149,322,128,  of  which  amount  $147,013,102 
was  on  account  of  previous  years.  There  was  $120,671,703 
unpaid  on  account  of  the  1949  fiscal  year.  This  left  a  total 
expense  of  $2,122,980,730,  resulting  in  a  gross  operating 
deficit  on  an  accrual  basis  of  $551,129,528.  This  amount 
did  not  include  pending  retrospective  payments  to  railways, 
but  did  include  a  25%  interim  increase  granted  to  partici- 
pating railways  by  the  Interstate  Commerce  commission. 
It  also  included  the  estimated  increased  cost  for  the  projected 
establishment  of  permanent  rates  on  air  mail  routes  by  the 
Civil  Aeronautics  board. 

During  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1949,  1,470  million 
free  pieces  weighing  177  million  Ib.  were  mailed  for  other 
government  departments — an  increase  of  52  million  pieces 
but  a  decrease  of  2-5  million  Ib.  from  the  fiscal  year  1948. 

On  June  30,  1948,  war  savings  stamps  were  on  sale  at 
41,607  offices,  and  sales  from  July  1,  1948,  to  June  30,  1949, 
amounted  to  $15,067,255.  During  the  fiscal  year  6,459,306 
savings  bonds  with  a  sale  value  of  $368,181,469  were  sold. 
At  the  close  of  1948,  bonds  were  on  sale  at  26,503  post  offices. 
Postal  savings  depositors  numbered  3,964,509  for  1949— a 
decrease  of  3  - 6%  from  the  preceding  year.  The  balance  due 


POULTRY— PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH 


525 


to  depositors  by  outstanding  certificates  of  deposits  was 
$3,277,173,306—a  3%  decrease.  In  addition  there  was  held 
in  trust  for  depositors  accrued  interest  of  $113,251,238  and 
unclaimed  deposits  of  $228,964,  making  a  total  of 
$3,390,653,508. 

Through  the  41,607  post  offices  and  3,724  stations  being 
conducted  under  contract  agreement,  as  well  as  2,083  stations 
and  branches,  there  were  received,  transported  and  delivered 
43,380  million  pieces  of  mail  matter  during  the  fiscal  year, 
having  a  weight  of  11,623  million  lb.,  an  increase  of  3,000 
million  pieces  and  1,300  million  lb.  from  the  previous 
fiscal  year. 

Delivery  service  was  established  in  143  additional  cities 
during  the  fiscal  year,  thereby  increasing  to  4,413  the  number 
of  cities  in  which  this  service  was  operated. 

During  1949  it  was  impossible  to  deliver  18,142,721  letters 
— an  increase  of  23%  from  the  previous  year.  A  total  of 
4,075,970  were  returned  to  the  senders.  Letters  containing 
valuable  enclosures  numbered  374,234,  of  which  102,442 
contained  money  amounting  to  $209,272.  There  were  also 
718,156  unclaimed  parcels  and  articles  found  loose  in  the 
mails.  A  total  of  592,944  were  returned  to  the  senders.  The 
remaining  125,212  parcels  were  sold  by  public  auction  and 
$135,533  was  realized. 

On  June  30,  1949,  there  were  155,314  mi.  of  domestic  air 
mail  routes  in  the  United  States — an  increase  of  25,221  over 
June  30,  1948.  Three  new  domestic  air  mail  routes  were 
established.  The  domestic  air  mail  rate  was  raised  to  six 
cents,  effective  from  Jan.  1949  A  four-cent  air  mail  postal 
card  had  been  authorized  for  the  first  time  in  1948.  Foreign 
air  parcel  post  had  been  inaugurated  on  March  15,  1948, 
and  domestic  air  parcel  post  on  Sept  1  of  that  year.  (See 
also  PHILATELY;  TEIK/RAPHY;  TEIBPHONE.)  (I.  GG.) 

POTATOES:    s<r  Rcxrr  CROPS. 

POULTRY.  Although  no  great  changes  m  the  animal 
feedstuflfs  rationing  situation  took  place  during  1949,  the 
concessions  granted  by  the  ministries  responsible  resulted 
in  large  increases  in  the  poultry  population. 

In  England  and  Wales  in  1949  there  were  no  fewer  than 
60,975,000  head  of  stock,  including  ducks,  gccse  and  turkeys, 
on  the  latest  official  returns  compared  with  just  under  52 
million  in  1948.  In  Scotland  and  Northern  Ireland  the 
figures  were  10,006,270  (9,284,741  in  1948)  and  24,236,000 
(24,233,796  in  1948)  respectively  In  each  case  these  figures 
excluded  stock  kept  on  holdings  of  less  than  one  acre. 

Official  estimates  of  egg  production,  based  on  packing 
station  figures  were  unreliable  because  they  took  no  account 
of  the  millions  of  eggs  passing  through  the  hatcheries,  nor 
of  those  millions  produced  by  the  smaller  poultry  keepers 
who  now  enjoyed  a  free  market  for  their  sales.  It  was  esti- 
mated that  the  number  of  domestic  poultry  keepers  in  Eng- 
land and  Wales  was  still  in  the  region  of  over  a  million — 
between  them  they  kept  upwards  of  6^  million  head  of  stock. 

The  greatest  blow  suffered  by  the  poultry  industry  in  post- 
war years  was  the  re-introduction  of  Newcastle  disease 
(fowlpest)  to  the  United  Kingdom  owing  to  imports  of 
table  poultry  from  abroad.  The  early  part  of  1949  witnessed 
many  serious  outbreaks  of  the  disease  but,  owing  to  the 
stringent  measures  taken  by  the  Animal  Health  division  of 
the  Ministry  of  Agriculture,  England  and  Wales  became 
comparatively  free  of  the  disease  and  the  outbreaks  in  Scot- 
land were  almost  completely  localized. 

In  the  Commonwealth,  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  free 
from  ration  worries  but  tied  to  high  feedingstuffs  costs,  were 
encouraged  to  expand  their  poultry  populations  by  the 
markets  waiting  for  their  produce  in  Britain.  South  Africa 
and  Canada  were  also  in  advance  of  their  1939  figures. 


European  countries  which  were  competitors  on  the  British 
egg  market  prior  to  1939  made  more  rapid  strides  in  their 
poultry-production  programmes,  some  by  making  use  of 
European  Recovery  programme  funds  to  do  so.  Denmark 
and  Holland  in  particular,  showed  considerable  expansion 
and,  with  Poland,  were  again  exporting  huge  quantities  of 
eggs  to  the  United  Kingdom.  (Sec  also  VETERINARY  MEDI- 
CINE.) (C.  G  MY.) 

PRAGUE  (PRAHA),  capital  of  Czechoslovakia,  situated 
on  both  banks  of  a  large  meander  of  the  Vltava.  Pop. :  (1930 
census)  848,823;  (1947  census)  921,416.  President  (mayor), 
Vaclav  Vacck. 

Prague  had  emerged  from  World  War  II  with  very  little 
damage  Nevertheless  acute  housing  shortage  soon  began 
to  be  felt.  As  the  central  bureaucracy  increased  after  the 
*' revolution  "  of  1948,  with  its  three  growing  branches  of 
nationalized  industry,  Communist  party  hierarchy  and 
Communist-controlled  trade  unions,  so  the  pressure  on 
housing  space  increased.  It  would  increase  further  as  the 
industrialization  programme  of  the  five-year  plan  was  carried 
out.  Prague  would  have  not  only  new  factories,  but  still 
more  bureaucrats  to  administer  the  ever  more  centralized 
economy.  Considerable  sums  were  allocated  in  the  five-year 
plan  to  building.  But  this  included  industrial  premises, 
government  buildings  and  party  offices.  Private  housing  had 
a  low  priority.  Overcrowding  in  Prague  was  therefore  likely 
to  increase  to  the  point  customary  in  the  great  cities  of  the 
U.S.S.R.  The  principal  casualties  were  the  former  middle 
class.  Having  lost  their  property,  their  jobs  either  removed 
or  threatened,  they  faced  the  final  blow  of  being  driven  from 
their  homes.  During  1949  the  authorities  began  to  remove 
inessential  persons  from  the  capital  and  to  take  over  rooms 
in  apartments  for  workers.  These  powers  could  of  course  be 
abused  for  political  or  personal  ends.  Reduced  to  minimum 
housing  space,  former  "  bourgeois  "  must  part  with  all  but 
essential  possessions,  such  as  books.  Thus  the  destruction  of 
private  libraries  completed  the  process  of  regimenting  thought, 
of  which  the  earlier  stages  were  censorship  of  the  printed 
word,  purge  of  public  libraries  and  nationalization  of  publish- 
ing and  of  bookshops.  The  last  measure  did  as  much  as 
anything  to  change  the  face  of  Prague,  the  variety  and  enter- 
prise of  whose  bookshops  was  once  famous  in  Europe.  The 
symbol  of  the  change  that  had  come  over  Prague  was  to  be 
the  100-ft.  statue  of  Stalin,  which  it  had  been  decided  to  set 
up  on  the  castle  square,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and  historic 
sites  on  the  continent,  which  even  six  years  of  Nazi  rule  did 
not  deface.  (H.  S.-W.) 

PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH.  Europe.  From  the 
distraught  conditions  of  the  Reformed  Churches  in  Europe 
a  new  life  and  a  new  structure  were  arising.  The  meetings 
of  the  Council  of  Reformed  Churches  at  Geneva,  Switzerland, 
in  Aug.  1948,  had  initiated  a  more  widespread  influence. 
The  extent  of  this  Reformed  influence  was  stated  thus:  "  that 
of  all  the  non-Roman  Communions  the  Reformed  is  the 
most  catholic  both  in  geographical  extension  and  in  variety  of 
race  and  language."  Representatives  to  the  council  came 
from  France,  the  Netherlands,  Switzerland,  Italy,  Germany, 
Czechoslovakia  and  Hungary  (with  the  largest  Reformed 
Church  on  the  continent).  Delegates  were  present  from 
Scotland,  Ireland,  England,  northern  India,  Ceylon,  South 
Africa,  Australia,  New  Zealand  and  America.  Headquarters 
of  the  alliance  opened  in  Geneva  in  Jan.  1949.  This  World 
Presbyterian  alliance  offered  assistance  to  the  European 
Reformed  Churches  in  providing  funds  for  the  rebuilding  of 
churches  and  for  the  sending  of  ministers  into  new  areas. 
The  alliance  also  enlisted  women  and  young  people  through 


526 


PRICES 


their  organizations  to  further  Christian  brotherhood  and 
oecumenical  understanding. 

United  States.  The  western  section  of  the  Reformed 
Churches  throughout  the  world  which  held  the  Presbyterian 
system,  within  the  United  States  of  America,  numbered  12 
branches  of  Reformed  Churches  in  1949,  and  included 
18,431  ministers,  18,479  churches  and  4,234,288  communicant 
members. 

The  western  section  of  the  World  Presbyterian  alliance  took 
steps  in  Feb.  1949  to  promote  the  union  of  churches 
with  emphasis  on  the  reunion  within  the  Reformed  and 
Presbyterian  Churches.  Negotiations  toward  union  were  in 
progress  between  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States 
(Southern)  and  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States 
of  America;  and  between  the  United  Presbyterian  Church 
of  North  America  and  the  Reformed  Church  in  America. 
A  union  of  the  Evangelical  and  Reformed  Church  with  the 
Congregational-Christian  Church  was  scheduled  to  form 
the  United  Church  of  Christ. 

Protestantism  continued  to  make  unusual  strides  in  the  Latin 
American  countries.  The  first  Inter-American  Evangelical 
conference,  which  met  at  Buenos  Aires,  Argentina,  from 
July  18  to  31,  1949,  was  composed  of  some  70  official 
delegates  from  17  countries  of  Latin  America.  Two  major 
tasks  of  the  Evangelical  churches  in  Latin  America  were  the 
dissemination  of  the  Bible  and  the  combating  of  secularism. 
In  these  tasks  the  Presbyterian  and  Reformed  delegates  held  a 
special  meeting  to  promote  more  united  action  in  Latin 
America. 

In  the  air  of  spiritual  advance  the  emphasis  upon  evangelism 
produced  significant  results  within  the  ranks  of  Presbyterian 
and  Reformed  Churches.  The  spiritual  awakening  brought 
many  non-attenders  to  a  sense  of  their  spiritual  needs  and 
resulted  in  increased  membership.  Through  the  New  Life 
movement  in  the  Presbyterian  Church,  U.S  A  ,  many  young 
people  enlisted  in  the  work  of  the  church.  The  Westminster 
fellowship,  the  Geneva  fellowship  and  the  Westminster 
foundations  did  much  to  enlist  the  support  of  young  people 
in  Christian  life  and  work.  Women,  through  their  local 
and  national  organizations,  enlarged  their  mission  work. 
The  National  Council  of  Presbyterian  Men,  organized  in 
1948,  continued  to  educate  Christian  laymen  in  the  work  of 
Christian  missions  and  in  the  vital  relationship  between 
protestantism  and  human  freedom.  (See  also  CHURCH 
MEMBERSHIP;  CHURCH  OF  SCOTLAND.)  (W.  B.  Pu.) 

PRICES.  The  course  of  prices  in  the  United  Kingdom 
in  1949  was  dominated  by  the  devaluation  of  sterling  in 
September.  The  upward  movement  in  prices  had  been  general 
and  continuous  from  the  end  of  World  War  II  until  the 
middle  of  1948.  The  rise  in  prices  was  then  halted  and  during 
the  following  12  months  prices  were  generally  stationary  or 
falling.  A  slow  but  definite  downward  movement  in  general 
price  levels  (apart  from  adjustments  in  subsidies  and  taxation) 
was  the  characteristic  feature  of  the  middle  months  of  1949. 
This  trend  was  violently  changed  by  devaluation.  Although 
only  partial  and  immediate  effects  were  reflected  in  price 
index  numbers  by  the  end  of  1949,  the  prospects  then  were 
for  continued  and  (in  some  sectors)  large  price  increases  for 
many  months  to  come. 

Prices  before  Devaluation  of  Sterling.  The  main  price  index 
numbers  arc  shown  in  Table  I.  The  downward  movement  in 
prices  during  the  months  before  devaluation  in  Sept.  1949  was 
most  clear  in  prices  of  imports.  Early  in  1949,  import  prices 
stood  at  a  level  three  times  that  of  1938;  at  the  time  of  de- 
valuation they  had  been  lowered  by  more  than  5%.  Prices 
of  imported  foodstuffs  declined  equally  with  raw  material 
prices.  The  prices  of  United  Kingdom  exports  remained  firm 
during  this  period  of  falling  import  prices.  As  a  result,  the 


decline  in  the  prices  paid  for  imports  was  matched  by  an 
improvement  in  the  terms  of  trade.  At  the  end  of  1948,  terms 
of  trade  were  almost  20%  less  favourable  than  in  1938;  by 
the  time  of  devaluation  in  1949  this  differential  had  been 
reduced  to  little  more  than  10%. 

The  trend  of  domestic  prices  was  less  easy  to  follow  since 
the  prices  were  affected  by  changes  in  subsidies,  in  indirect 
taxation  and  in  controls.  Prices  received  by  domestic  farmers, 
inclusive  of  all  government  payments,  were  largely  a  matter 
of  agreement  between  the  farmers  and  the  government; 
apart  from  seasonal  variations,  they  did  not  differ  much 
between  1948  and  1949  Prices  of  commodities,  both  at 
wholesale  and  at  retail,  were  affected  between  April  and  June 
by  a  set  of  adjustments,  following  the  budget  and  the  declared 
policy  to  limit  the  total  amount  of  subsidies  and  trading 
losses  by  the  government.  The  main  adjustments  were  in 
iron  and  steel  prices  and  in  the  prices  of  some  basic  foods- 
meat,  butter,  margarine,  cheese  and  eggs  There  were  also 
budget  changes,  particularly  in  the  prices  of  beer  and  matches. 

Among  wholesale  prices,  the  group  of  prices  of  basic 
foodstuffs  (cereals,  meat,  tish  and  dairy  produce)  was 
increased  from  50%  to  nearly  75%  above  1938.  This  was 
almost  entirely  the  result  of  the  limitation  of  subsidies. 
Similarly,  iron  and  steel  prices,  under  governmental  control, 
were  adjusted  to  give  an  average  increase  from  under  70% 
to  more  than  85%  above  1938  In  addition,  prices  of 
industrial  materials  declined  fairly  rapidly  in  the  first  nine 
months  of  1949  and  food  prices  at  wholesale  showed  no  more 
than  normal  seasonal  changes  (eg.,  in  fruit  and  vegetable 
quotations).  The  general  index  of  wholesale  prices  at  the 
beginning  of  1949  was  218%  of  1938,  practically  the  same 
figure  as  at  mid- 1948.  In  Aug  1949,  the  recoided  index  was 
225%  of  1938  but  elimination  of  the  effect  of  adjustments  in 
prices  of  iron  and  steel  and  of  subsidized  foods  \\ould  reduce 
the  figure  to  about  210%  of  1938  This  figure  was  comparable 
with  the  index  at  the  beginning  of  the  year,  indicating  that 
the  underlying  movement  in  wholesale  prices  was  downward. 
The  fall  amounted  to  some  3  or  4%  in  eight  months,  and  was 
due  mainly  to  declining  prices  of  non-ferrous  metals,  textile 
materials  and  other  (non-food)  agricultural  products. 

The  adjustments  in  subsidized  food  prices  raised  the  index 
of  retail  prices  of  all  foods  from  50 %  to  about  60%  above 
1938.  The  index  of  all  retail  prices,  affected  also  by  the  re- 
duction in  the  price  of  beer  and  the  increase  in  the  price  of 
matches  following  the  budget,  was  raised  from  about  175% 
of  1938  to  nearly  180%  of  the  prewar  level.  Otherwise  the 
general  level  of  retail  prices  remained  almost  unchanged 
during  the  nine  months  before  devaluation.  There  were  some 
changes  in  gas  and  electricity  tariffs,  including  the  switch  from 
winter  to  summer  charges  for  electricity.  Generally,  price 
declines  at  the  import  and  wholesale  stages  were  absorbed 
or  had  not  reached  the  retail  stage. 

The  Effect  of  Devaluation  of  Stei  ling  By  the  end  of  1 949, 
recorded  index  numbers  of  prices  reflected  the  consequences 
of  devaluation  to  a  limited  extent  The  longer-run  effect  of 
devaluation,  to  be  expected  during  1950,  could  only  be  roughly 
guessed.  One  computation  could  be  made  to  show  the  direct 
effect  of  devaluation  defined  in  a  special  sense.  The  cal- 
culation was  based  on  the  assumption  that  the  domestic 
clement  in  the  prices  of  any  commodity  (including  the  actual 
amount  of  the  distributive  margin,  of  subsidies  and  of 
indirect  taxes  per  unit  of  the  commodity)  remains  unchanged, 
and  also  that  the  import  element  is  unchanged  in  the  curren- 
cies of  the  exporting  countries.  Sterling  prices  then  increase 
only  as  a  direct  result  of  the  new  exchange  rates,  applied  to 
the  import  elements  in  the  prices.  It  was  also  assumed  that 
the  composition  of  imports  from  various  sources  remained 
unchanged  and  that  the  volume  of  imports  and  of  consump- 
tion moved  together. 


PRICES 


527 


TABIP   I.— PRKF  INDFX  NUMIURS.  UNIIFD  KINGDOM  1 
(Avciagc  1938-100) 

Average  1949 

1946      1947      194X     F-eb  May     Aug      Nov 


2W       289        ?WA     298       28  5     311 


(1)  Average     values     of 

total  imports  211 

hood,     drink      and 

tobacco  220       2S5       282       29  5       2K5       277     300 

Raw  materials  221        280       325       317       345       326     342 

Average     values     of 

U  K   exports  193       222 

Ferms  of 'I  rade  I  OK        116 


247 
117 


2*f>\   25(>\ 
111      121 


252  2^4 

119  117 

204   237   24*   27  O  231  249  2.V6 

2W   237   280   282  281  273  280 

184   218   237   246  274  259  247 

209   225   239   288  185  228  323 

173   189   2  If)   218  228  22f>  23ft 

158   lf)7   177   172  189  197  203 


(2)  Agricultural  prices 
drams 
Livestock 

Dairy  produce 

(3)  Wholesale  prices 
Food  Products 
Cereals,     meat,     tish 

and  dairy  produce  J36  137  149  150  166  175  182 
Fruit  and  vegetables  234  277  249  209  251  264  269 
Sugar  and  beverages  189  207  249  245  242  24S  247 

Industrial  materials  191  2/J  ?07  ?/*  307  288  319 

Iron  and  steel  145  152  165  167  186  186  186 

Non-ferrous  metals  182  278  311  368  U3  277  355 

Agricultural  products  218  283  372  380  366  347  382 

(4)  Retail  prices    .  150  160  174  176  178  179\  181 
Food  129  137  149  1 50  158  160  164 
Drink  and  tobacco  241  274  311  316  306  306  306 
Fuel  and  light  142  147  161  165  162  164  166 
Other  goods  175  182  196  204  205  206  204 
Services  138  145  152  153  153  153  154 

(1)  Index  of  average  values  of  imports  or  exports  computed  from 
annual  data  and  extrapolated  into  1949  by  use  of  index  of  import  or 
export  prices  (Board   of   Trade)       Terms  of  trade  taken   as   ratio  of 
average  value  index  of  imports  to  that  of  exports 

(2)  Index  of  prices  received  by  domestic  farmers  (including  govern- 
ment payments)      Total  index  quoted  in   Monthly  l)ige\t  oj  Statntu  ?, 
annual   index  comprises  some  items  not   included   m  monthly   index 
Index  numbers  for  sub-groups  as  quoted  in  Bulletins  of  London  and 
Cambridge  hconomic  Service,  based  on  Ministry  of  Agriculture  data 

(3)  Index  of  average  monthly  prices  (Board  of  1  rade)      Index  (or 
food  products  and  that  lor  industrial  materials  demed  by  re-combining 
and    re- weighting   price   scries   selected   from   the   complete   Board   of 
Trade  index  (see  Economic  J out  mil,  London,  June  194^)      The  group 
of  "  agricultural  "  industrial  materials  comprised  natural  fibres,  hides 
and  skins,  timber,  wood  pulp,  artificial  silk,  rubber  and  technical  oils 

(4)  Index  of  mid-month   prices  (Ministry  o!    Labour)  carried   back 
to  1938,    series  as  calculated  for  Bulletins  of  London  and  Cambridge 
Economic  Service      "  Other  goods  "  comprised   the  three  groups  oi 
clothing,  household  durables  and  miscellaneous  goods. 

In  this  special  sense,  the  direct  effect  of  devaluation  would 
be  to  raise  import  prices  by  a  little  over  15°0  and,  since  the 
import  content  of  total  consumption  was  around  one-fifth, 
retail  prices  would  go  up  by  some  3/0  over  the  whole  range 
of  commodities  and  services  purchased  by  all  consumers. 

The  direct  effect  of  the  new  exchange  rates  on  the  index  can 
be  calculated  at  once  from  Table  II.  For  example,  in  the 
total  index,  imports  from  countries  which  did  not  devalue 
their  currencies  amounted  to  4  3"0  of  the  total  and  an  in- 
crease of  44%  in  the  sterling  price  equivalent  must  be  applied 
to  this  part.  The  uncertainty  in  the  calculation  is  in  the  1-4% 
of  the  total  attributable  to  imports  from  countries  with 
multiple  exchange  rates,  and  this  would  only  be  resolved  when 
new  prices  were  fixed  for  Argentine  meat,  Spanish  oranges, 
etc.  It  was  expected  that  the  modest  rise  in  the  retail  price 
index  in  the  last  quarter  of  1949  would  be  only  a  first  instal- 
ment; a  further  increase  of  at  least  5%  taking  place  during 
1950. 

Europe.  As  in  1948,  the  greatest  stability  in  prices,  both 
at  wholesale  and  at  retail,  was  in  the  Scandinavian  countries 
and  the  movement  was  very  slight.  In  the  Netherlands, 
wholesale  and  retail  prices  rose  towards  the  end  of  1948  but 
became  more  stable  in  1949.  The  two  countries  with  hard 


ri — i — r" 

WHOLESALE    PRICES 
1937-100! 


the 


1  Figures  by  permission  of  the  Controller,  His  Majesty's  Stationery  Office, 
London  and  Cambridge  Economic  Services  and  the  Economic  Journal, 


'537  38       40        4.?        44       4 1>        48  Jon  Mor       Juo       Sept      Dec      Mor       Jon      S«pr      ( 
^-— —       1948 «P 1949 — 


currencies,  Belgium  and  Switzerland,  experienced  a  consider- 
able amount  of  deflation  and  prices  declined  in  1949,  particu- 
larly at  the  wholesale  stage.  Of  the  two  main  countries  where 
inflationary  pressure  was  strongest,  France  was  the  more 
successful  in  controlling  prices  In  Italy,  although  there  was 
no  repetition  of  the  inflation  experienced  up  to  1947,  prices 
were  by  no  means  stable.  Prices  fell  and  then  rose  again  in 
1948,  with  some  reaction  in  1949. 

TAW  L    11 — IMPORT     CONTLNI     OF    RFIAII     PRICF    INDIX,    UNITFD 

KINGDOM,  JL\T    1949  ,.  ,  .  .. 

Other  All 

Food  Items  Items 

"0    of    retail    price    attributable    to 
imports  from 

(1)  Countries     \vith     cunenues     not 

devalued  44  4-2  43 

(2)  Canada  and  Newfoundland  80  05  12 
O)  Countries  with  multiple  exchange 

rates  3    1  04  14 

(4)  Belgium,  France,  Italy  and  Ger- 
many I  06  04 

(M  Countries  with  currencies  de- 
valued with  sterling  26  7  43  12-4 

Total  import  content  42  4  10-0  21-7 

t  Less  than  0  05% 

SOURCI     Bulletin  of  London  and  Cambridge  Economic  Service,  Nov    1949 

Commonwealth.  The  movement  of  prices  in  Common- 
wealth countries  was  similar  to  that  in  the  U  S.  or  the  United 
Kingdom,  as  expected.  Both  wholesale  and  retail  prices 
reached  a  peak  in  the  middle  or  during  the  second  half  of 
1948;  the  trend  was  subsequently  stationary  or  downward 
until  the  devaluation  of  sterling  in  1949  Price  declines  were 
most  evident  in  Canada,  India  and  Pakistan.  In  Australia 
and  South  Africa,  there  was  a  greater  stability  in  price  levels 
and  price  rises  were  slightly  more  numerous  than  price  falls 
after  the  middle  of  1948.  (R.  G.  D.  A.) 

United  States.  In  the  United  States  a  gradual  decline  in  the 
general  levels  of  both  wholesale  and  retail  prices  which  began 
m  the  late  summer  of  1948  continued  throughout  1949. 
By  December,  wholesale  prices  declined  10-6%  and  retail 
prices  4%  from  the  postwar  maximum  levels  of  Aug.  1948. 
Wholesale  prices  of  all  major  commodity  groups  fell,  the 
most  substantial  decreases  being  recorded  in  farm  products, 
chemicals  and  allied  products  and  food.  At  the  retail  level, 
decreases  in  the  prices  of  foods,  apparel  and  house-furnishings 
were  somewhat  offset  in  the  cost-of-hving  index  by  the 
relatively  small  increases  in  rent,  fuel,  electricity  and  refrigera- 
tion, and  miscellaneous  items,  which  all  attained  new  postwar 
maxima  at  the  end  of  the  year.  Despite  the  general  over- 
all decline  in  prices  during  the  year,  the  wholesale  price 


528 


PRINTING 


Post- 

mum 

Year 

All 

Ap- 

city 

furnish-  Miscel- 

war 

from 

from 

and  month 

items 

Food 

parel 

Rent 

and  ice 

ings 

laneous 

maxi- 

Dec. 

Aug. 

Dec 

Dec. 

1948 

mum 

1948 

1939 

1948 

1947 

December 

100  0 

100  0 

100  0 

100-0 

100-0 

100  0 

100  0 

1949 

—21-3 

—11    6 

\  157-0 

4-12-4 

99 

January     . 

99-7 

99  9 

98   1 

100-2 

100  3 

98-9 

100-1 

—16   1 

—6  6 

1-136  5 

j  11   3 

—4-6 

February   . 

98-6 

97-4 

97-4 

100-3 

100-7 

98-5 

100-1 

—8-2 

—6  0 

1  103   5 

—2   5 

--0-9 

March 

98  9 

98-3 

96-8 

100-5 

100  8 

97  6 

100-3 

-5-5 

—5  2 

+  79-1 

}  0-3 

4-10-1 

April 

99  0 

98  9 

96-1 

100-7 

99  7 

96  6 

100  4 

.-47 

--3   7 

4-79-5 

4-1-0 

1-14-7 

May. 

98-7 

98-7 

95-5 

100  8 

98-3 

95-4 

100-3 

—7    1 

-6  3 

-1-111    5 

+  0  8 

4-5  9 

June. 

,   98  9 

99-7 

95-0 

100-9 

98  4 

94  3 

100-1 

—  11    1 

—2  4 

f  195  0 

]  9  8 

—8-9 

July 

98   3 

98-4 

94-1 

101  -0 

98  4 

94   1 

100-2 

August 

98  5 

98-8 

93-5 

101    1 

98-5 

93-1 

100-5 

—  16  4 

—11   4 

I  56  5 

4-5  9 

—  2-9 

September 

98  9 

99-6 

93  4 

101-4 

99-4 

93-4 

100-8 

•}  4 

—3-4 

i  67   5 

0  0 

I  6-5 

October     . 

,   98-3 

97-9 

93  2 

101-7 

100-4 

93-3 

100-8 

-11  -2 

—7  4 

4-49   7 

-{  4-3 

—2  5 

November, 

,   98-4 

98-0 

93-0 

102-1 

100-9 

93-4 

100-6 

10  6 

-6  7 

4  102  0 

4-4  4 

—0  5 

December  , 

,  97-7 

96-2 

92-7 

102-3 

101    4 

93-4 

100-8 

TABLE  III. — PER  CENT  CHANGE  IN  WHOLESALE  PRICES,  BY  MAJOR 
COMMODITY  GROUPS,  UNI i ED  STATES,  SELECTED  PERIODS,  1939-1949 

Per  cent  change 
Nov.   1949  from  Postwar  Dec.   1948 

Maxi- 
Post- 
war 

maxi-        Dec.         Aug. 
Commodity 

Farm  products 
Food    . 

Textile  products 
Fuelandlightingmatenals 
Metalsand  metal  products 
Building  materials 
Hidesandleathcrproducts  — 11 
Chemical    and     allied 

products    . 

House-furnishing  goods 
Miscellaneous 
All  commodities 

index  was  slightly  moie  than  100%  greater  in  Dec.  1949 
than  in  Aug.  1939;  and  the  consumers*  price  index  was 
70%  greater  than  that  of  Aug.  1939. 

Wholesale  prices  for  each  major  group  of  commodities, 
with  two  exceptions,  reached  their  postwar  maximum  levels 
in  1948,  The  wholesale  price  of  hides  and  leather  products 
reached  a  peak  in  Dec.  1947.  In  1949  (January)  only  metal 
and  metal  products  attained  a  new  high  point.  On  the  retail 
level,  the  rent,  fuel,  electricity  and  refrigeration,  and  miscel- 
laneous items  in  the  cost-of-living  index  continued  to  rise 
to  new  high  levels  at  the  end  of  1949. 

As  shown  in  Table  I  If,  wholesale  prices  declined  6-7% 
during  1949.  The  downward  trend  was  continuous  throughout 
the  year  except  for  two  slight  upturns  in  March  and  September. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  year  prices  dropped  2  •  6  %,  largely 
as  a  result  of  heavy  inventory  liquidations  which  were 
carried  out  in  an  orderly  manner.  The  return  to  a  shorter 
working  week,  production  curtailments  and  high  levels  of 
consumer  expenditure  prevented  a  greater  decline  in  industrial 
and  raw  material  prices,  and  government  subsidy  programmes 
prevented  a  greater  decline  in  the  prices  of  farm  products 
and  foods. 

Consumers'  prices,  which  levelled  off  during  1948, 
fluctuated  sporadically  during  1949  and  at  the  end  of  the  year 
were  2-3%  lower  than  at  the  end  of  the  previous  year. 
Retail  prices  were  still  25-7%  above  the  June  1946  level  at 
which  time  price  controls  were  removed,  51-6%  above  the 
level  of  the  Dec.  1941,  and  69-9%  above  the  Aug.  1939 
level.  Declines  in  the  prices  of  foods,  clothing  and  house- 
furnishings  more  than  offset  the  increases  in  other  con- 
sumers' prices  shown  in  Table  IV.  Had  retail  food  prices 
declined  during  the  year  as  much  as  wholesale  food  prices, 
the  cost-of-living  index  would  have  been  lowered  substantially. 
The  three  peaks  attained  by  the  index  of  all  items  during  the 
year — those  in  April,  June  and  September — largely  reflect 
sudden  upturns  in  the  prices  of  food  and  rent  (see  Table  V). 

'IABLE  IV. — PER  CENT  CHANGE  IN  CONSUMERS'  PRICES  (Cosi  OF  LIVING), 

HY  MAJOR  COMMODITY  GROUPS,   UNITED  STATES,  SI-LLCIFD  PERIODS, 

1939-1949 

Per  cent  change 

Dec    1949  from   Postwar  Dec    1948 
Maxi- 


Commodity 

Food    . 

Apparel 

Rent     . 

Fuel,  electricity,  etc 

House-furmshtngs 

Miscellaneous 

All  items 


TABI  F  V  — CONSUMERS*  PRICE  INDEX  (Cosr  OF  LIVING),  BY  MAJOR 

COMMODIIY  GROUPS,  UNITED  STATES,  DEC.  1948-Drc.  1949. 

(Dec.  1948-100). 

Fuel, 
electri-  House- 


Post- 

mum 

war 

irom 

from 

maxi- 

Dec 

Aug 

Dec. 

Dec. 

mum 

1948 

1939 

1948 

1947 

-9  0 

—3-8 

i  111   0 

4  5-8 

0-9 

-7   8 

—7   3 

t  85  2 

4-0  6 

1-4  8 

0  0 

4-2-3 

i  17-2 

+  2-3 

I  3-6 

0-0 

4-1  4 

4  43-3 

hl-4 

i  7-8 

—6-7 

—6-6 

4-84-4 

40-1 

i  3-8 

0-0 

-»  0-8 

f-54-7 

4  0-8 

f6-6 

—4  0 

—2  3 

h69-9 

H  8 

4-2-6 

The  downward  trends  of  wholesale  and  retail  prices 
during  1949  are  summarized  in  Table  VI.  Some  of  the 
decrease  in  wholesale  prices  resulted  from  the  reduction  in 
exports  caused  by  dollar  shortages  abroad.  Since  foreign 
demand  in  the  postwar  years  was  largely  for  commodities 
which  were  in  shortest  supply,  this  demand  had  a  very  strong 
influence  on  domestic  prices.  The  decrease  in  exports  largely 
reflected  the  revival  of  foreign  economies  on  the  one  hand 
and  inability  to  pay  for  imports  from  the  United  States  on 
the  other.  The  devaluation  of  foreign  currencies  during  the 
year  also  exerted  downward  pressure  on  wholesale  prices 
since  in  most  cases  devaluation  abroad  did  not  lead  to  a 
proportionate  increase  in  prices  of  foreign  exports  to  the 
United  States.  Other  factors  which  tended  to  have  a  depres- 
sing effect  upon  prices  were  inventory  liquidations,  the  over- 
coming of  nearly  all  shortages  in  strategic  raw  materials, 
the  decline  in  new  plant  expansion  and  competitive  pressures. 

TABLE  VI — INDFX  oh  WHOLESAIE  AND  CONSUMERS'  PRICES,   UNITED 
STATES,  DEC     1948-Dpr    1949 

(Dec    1948  -100) 
Whole-        Con- 
sale         sumers' 


price 


price 


Whole-  Con- 
sale  sumers 
price  price 


1949 

100  0 

100  0 

June 

95-1 

98  9 

July 

.     94-5 

98-3 

98  9 
97  4 
97-5 

99  7 
98-6 
98   9 

August 
September 
October. 

94  2 
94  6 
93-7 

98-5 
98-9 
98  3 

96  6 

99  0 

November 

93   3 

98-4 

95  9 

98-7 

December 

* 

97-7 

1948 

December 
1949 

January 

February 

March    . 

April 

May 

*  Not  available 

Factors  tending  to  sustain  high  prices  were  the  continued 
high-level  government  and  individual  expenditures,  temporary 
scarcity  of  commodities  where  output  was  curtailed  by 
labour  disputes,  rent  de-control  and  foreign  demands  subsi- 
dized by  the  U.S.  In  general,  the  continued  high  levels  of 
wholesale  and  consumers'  prices  were  sustained  by  the 
continued  high  level  of  economic  activity  in  the  U.S.  which 
was  buttressed  by  large  government  expenditures  for  national 
defence,  foreign  aid  and  farm  price  subsidy  programmes. 
(See  also  BUSINESS  REVIEW;  NATIONAL  INCOME;  WEALTH 
AND  INCOME.)  (W.  V.  WT.) 

PRINTING.  Several  European  countries  which  had  not 
previously  produced  much  machinery  for  the  printing  and 
allied  industries  attempted  to  enter  the  export  market  during 
1949.  Such  countries  included  Great  Britain  (viz.,  book- 
binding machinery),  Czechoslovakia,  Holland,  Italy,  Sweden 
and  Switzerland.  The  production  of  photographic  type  for 
lithographic  and  gravure  processes  continued  to  be  an  im- 
portant matter  and  several  methods  moved  nearer  to  practical 
application.  Exhibitions  were  held  at  a  very  large  number  of 
European  centres  to  attract  export  trade. 


PRINTING 


529 


In  Great  Britain  general  unrest  regarding  wage  standards 
was  reflected  in  the  printing  industry  and  progress  towards  a 
long  term  settlement  was  made.  The  amount  of  work  to  be 
done  was  far  greater  than  the  available  labour  capacity; 
efforts,  therefore,  were  made  to  recruit  workers  to  the  various 
branches  of  the  industry  and  incentive  schemes  of  payment 
were  proposed.  The  new  P.A.T.R.A.  Research  laboratories 
reported  a  very  satisfactory  first  full  year  of  work.  The  amalga- 
mation of  the  L.C.C.  School  of  Photo-Engraving  with  the 
London  School  of  Printing  was  announced.  Arrangements  were 
made  for  the  printing  industry,  along  with  certain  other 
industries,  to  study  production  methods  in  the  United  States. 

On  the  technical  side  home  needs  of  new  machinery  were 
still  sacrificed  to  the  urgent  demands  for  export.  A  remark- 
able offset  litho  machine  designed  to  print  four  colours 
simultaneously  on  both  sides  of  the  paper  web  at  speeds  of 
more  than  30,000  an  hour  was  completed  and  exported  to 
Denmark  for  the  printing  or  periodicals.  The  successful 
development  of  this  type  of  machine  was  made  possible  by  the 
adoption  of  the  bi-metal  methods  of  lithographic  plate-making, 
these  plates  becoming  increasingly  available  for  commercial 
adoption  in  1949.  Important  improvements  were  made  in 
silkscreen  printing,  both  methods  of  stencil  production  and 
in  mechanical  operation.  Owing  to  the  difficulty  of  importing 
costly  precision  machinery  for  the  reduction  of  make-ready 
time  in  letterpress  printing,  arrangements  were  made  to 
manufacture  in  Great  Britain  the  Vandercook  types  of 
presses  together  with  certain  Swiss  precision  equipment. 
The  extended  use  of  electronics  was  applied  in  register 
control  of  paper  webs,  in  counting  devices,  in  control  of 
ink  films  and  in  the  measurement  of  photographic  image 
densities.  A  British  standard  for  four-  and  three-colour 
letterpress  process  inks  covering  hue,  lightfastness  and 
concentration  was  also  issued. 

Europe.  Czechoslovakia  made  efforts  to  produce  machinery 
for  export  but  did  not  achieve  large  scale  manufacture. 
In  France  individual  work  was  done  on  certain  important 
technical  developments  and  newsprint  control  was  lifted 
from  Oct.  1,  1949,  but,  owing  to  financial  difficulties  no 
outstanding  progress  was  reported. 

A  certain  amount  of  printing  industry  reconstruction  was 
carried  out  in  western  Germany  with  the  authorization  of 
the  occupying  powers.  In  the  eastern  zone  production  both 
of  printed  matter  and  machinery  was  in  the  main  for  export 
to  the  U.S.S.R.  The  difficulties  of  machinery  shortage  and 
depleted  technical  manpower  were  partly  solved  and  work 
was  done  by  employees  and  trade  unions  jointly  in 
re-organizing  and  financing  printing  technical  schools.  Keen 
interest  was  shown  in  technical  developments  in  graphic 
processes  throughout  the  world.  Efforts  were  made  in  Italy 
to  produce  machinery  for  export  in  a  fairly  wide  range. 
A  high  standard  of  printing  design  was  encouraged  by  the 
establishment  of  graphic  arts  centres.  The  Netherlands 
increased  the  amount  of  printing  produced  for  export 
including  work  in  litho,  letterpress  andgravure  and  particularly 
in  book  and  periodical  productions.  The  Hadego  method 
of  photographic  type  production  was  also  improved  during 
1949.  Schemes  for  payment  by  results  were  adopted.  In 
Sweden  control  was  withdrawn  on  Jan.  1,  1949,  and  more 
use  was  made  of  bi-metal  plates  for  lithographic  printing. 
In  addition  to  the  continued  development  of  precision 
methods  and  equipment  Switzerland  was  the  meeting  place 
of  three  International  Graphic  Trade  conferences.  (A.  KK.) 

United  States.  Announcements  of  phototypesetting 
mechanisms  continued  during  1949.  One,  unofficially  named 
Lumitype,  was  designed  for  book,  magazine  and  newspaper 
composition.  Public  demonstrations  of  a  laboratory  model 
were  held  by  Graphic  Arts  Research  foundation.  The 
machine  was  the  invention  of  two  French  communications 

E.B.Y.— 35 


engineers,  Rene  A,  Higonnet  and  Louis  Moyroud.  Joined 
with  the  foundation  were  Vannevar  Bush  and  Samuel 
Caldwell.  Bush  was  the  inventor  of  the  telephonic  relay 
system  which  was  employed  in  a  limited  manner  in  the  photo- 
typesetting  machine. 

There  were  five  basic  parts :  ( 1 )  electric  typewriter,  (2)  mem- 
ory unit,  (3)  counter) ustifier  which  was  an  electrical  computing 
and  control  system,  (4)  automatic  photographic  unit  and 
(5)  automatic  stripping  machine.  The  typewriter  typed 
characters  on  paper  just  as  was  done  on  the  conventional 
machine;  also,  as  each  character  was  typed  its  set-width  was 
coded  and  stored  in  a  memory  device.  The  system  used 
was  based  on  units  "of  0.01  in.  (actually  two-tenths  of  a  mm.). 
Thus,  as  each  line  was  typed  an  indicating  dial  recorded 
by  increments  progressively  the  units  occupied  by  letter 
characters  and  the  word  spaces.  Having  typed  the 
maximum  number  of  words  which  would  go  into  the  line, 
the  operator  depressed  a  special  key.  Switching  elements  in 
the  counterjustifier  added  the  number  of  units  required  for 
words  and  spaces  between  words.  The  total  number  of  units 
was  subtracted  from  the  maximum  number  of  units  required 
to  fill  the  line.  The  excess  space  required  to  fill  the  line  to 
constant  width  was  then  automatically  distributed  evenly 
between  the  words. 

The  counterjustifier  then  sent  its  signals  to  the  automatic 
photographic  unit  in  which  there  was  a  continuously  revolving 
vertically  positioned  glass  disc  six  inches  in  diameter.  Inset 
radially  through  the  disc  were  photographic  negatives  of  all 
the  letter  characters  in  the  usual  type  fount.  Set  at  right 
angles  to  the  disc  was  a  high-speed  stroboscopic  lamp  which 
emitted  flashes  of  two-millionths  sec.  duration.  The  lamp 
rays  arrested  the  movement  of  the  negative  letter  character 
in  the  revolving  disc  during  exposure  to  the  film.  At  the  other 
side  of  the  disc  and  also  at  right  angles  to  it,  but  in  line  with 
the  apertures  in  the  whirling  disc,  was  a  lens  system  and  the 
sensitized  film.  When  an  impulse  was  created  by  one  of  the 
coded  characters  a  beam  of  light,  triggered  by  a  photo-electric 
cell,  passed  through  the  selected  negative  in  the  whirling  disc 
into  a  lens  system  focused  on  the  photographic  film.  Letter 
characters  were  photographed  on  the  film  at  six  exposures 
per  sec.  After  development,  the  film  could  be  printed  on 
sensitized  or  Ozalid  paper  for  proof  reading. 

The  automatic  stripping  mechanism  made  corrections  in 
previously  composed  matter,  inserted  folios,  page  numbers 
and  running  heads  and  automatically  photographed  a  new 
film  ready  to  be  used  by  the  platemaker.  The  proof  reader's 
corrections  were  made  on  a  new  film  and  a  code  mark  was 
placed  at  one  side  of  the  line  or  lines  containing  errors  on 
the  original  film.  The  original  film  and  corrected  film  were 
fed  into  the  stripping  machine  simultaneously.  The  machine 
photographed  a  new  film  from  the  original  composition  until 
one  of  the  code  signals  indicated  by  the  proof  reader  told  the 
machine  to  shift  to  the  corrected  film.  After  the  corrected 
line  or  lines  had  been  photographed  on  the  new  or  third  film, 
the  stripping  machine  was  shifted  back  to  the  original  film. 
Operation  was  at  a  speed  of  ten  average-width  lines  per  sec. 

Introduction  of  the  Hadego  Photocompositor  invented  by 
H.  J.  A.  de  Goey,  Haarlem,  Netherlands,  for  display  line 
typesetting  in  negative  or  positive  film  form  was  made. 
With  the  exception  of  the  photographic  operation,  the 
machine  was  based  upon  the  principle  of  the  Ludlow  hot-metal 
machine.  Matrices  consisting  of  48-pt.  white  letter  characters 
upon  a  black  background  were  affixed  to  clear  plastic  blocks. 
Letter  characters  were  assembled  like  hot-metal  matrices  in 
a  stick;  the  stick  containing  the  line  was  placed  before  the 
camera  and  the  exposure  was  made.  Letter  characters  might 
be  reproduced  photographically  on  the  film  down  to  19  pt. 
or  up  to  115  pt.  Leading  between  the  lines  on  the  film  might 
be  obtained  from  0  to  24  pt.  (M.  Si.) 


530 


PRISONERS   OF   WAR— PRISONS 


PRISONERS  OF  WAR.  Albania,  Poland  and  the 
U.S.S.R.  alone  of  all  the  nations  which  participated  in 
World  War  II  still  retained  prisoners  of  war  at  the  end  of 
1949.  The  total  number  was  not  known  but  was  estimated 
to  be  between  1  -5  and  2  million. 

France  completed  repatriation  of  all  prisoners  of  war  held 
by  that  country  in  metropolitan  France,  the  French  zone  of 
Germany  and  north  Africa  on  Dec.  31,  1948  However, 
approximately  130,000  former  prisoners  remained  as  civilian 
workers,  and  a  small  number  still  were  held  for  legal  reasons. 
Yugoslavia  announced  that  there  were  no  longer  any  prisoners 
of  war  in  that  country.  As  in  France,  a  certain  number 
remained  as  civilian  workers,  and  others  were  held  for  legal 
reasons.  Czechoslovakia  completed  its  repatriation  of 
prisoners  of  war  in  1949. 

Poland,  which  held  40,000  prisoners  of  war  at  the  end  of 
1948,  still  retained  several  thousand  whose  repatriation  was 
promised  by  the  end  of  1949.  Albania  held  throughout  1949 
the  250  prisoners  of  war  it  reported  in  1948  without  any 
indications  as  to  when  they  would  be  repatriated. 

The  U.S.S.R.  repatriated  a  certain  number  of  both  German 
and  Japanese  prisoners  of  war  during  the  year,  but  the  total 
number  repatriated  and  the  total  number  of  prisoners  of  war 
still  held  by  the  U  S.S.R.  were  not  known.  Steps  taken  by 
various  governments  and  by  the  International  Red  Cross  to 
hasten  repatriation  of  these  prisoners  brought  responses  that 
repatriation  was  being  effected  as  rapidly  as  possible. 

Dr.  Konrad  Adenauer,  German  federal  chancellor,  stated 
on  Sept.  20  that  from  1-5  to  2  million  German  prisoners 
of  war  in  the  Soviet  Union  had  still  not  been  accounted  for. 

An  announcement  from  Moscow  on  May  20  stated  that 
out  of  a  total  of  594,000  Japanese  prisoners,  418,166  had  been 
repatriated  between  1945  and  May  1,  1949. 

Representatives  of  58  nations  (including  the  U.S.S.R.) 
meeting  in  Geneva,  Switzerland,  April  21 -Aug.  12,  1949, 
completed  the  revision  of  the  1929  Prisoner  of  War  con- 
vention. Twenty-nine  states  signed  the  revised  convention 
in  Geneva  on  Dec.  8,  1949,  and  during  the  following  few 
weeks  22  others  deposited  their  signatures.  (See  also  RED 
CROSS.)  (H.  W.  Do.) 

PRISONS.  In  England  and  Wales  overcrowding  and 
understaffing  continued  through  1949.  The  daily  average 
population  remained  about  20,000,  almost  double  the  prewar 
figure.  Two  more  prisons  were  opened,  at  the  Verne,  Port- 
land, for  Star  class  prisoners  and  at  Eastchurch,  Kent,  for 
civil  prisoners  and  short-sentence  Stars;  in  both,  open  camp 
conditions  obtained.  Further  expansion  was  precluded  by 
shortage  of  staff,  since  recruitment  fell  seriously  during  the 
year.  Progress  was  made,  nevertheless,  in  improving  methods 
of  training  prisoners.  The  issue  of  new-pattern  clothing  was 
completed  with  good  effect  on  the  appearance  and  self- 
respect  of  prisoners.  The  earnings  system  was  revised  to 
allow  earning  from  the  beginning  of  the  sentence,  at  a  higher 
rate,  and  with  greater  equality  between  flat-rates  and  piece- 
rates.  The  effect  on  industry  and  morale  was  good.  The 
stage  system  was  completely  revised  on  the  principle  that, 
since  all  privileges  had  a  constructive  value,  a  prisoner 
should  receive  them  as  soon  as  possible:  thus  for  short-term 
prisoners  (three  years  and  under)  the  system  was  no  longer 
progressive,  a  prisoner  was  either  "  in  stage  "  or  "  out  of 
stage";  for  long-term  prisoners  the  progressive  system  was 
retained.  Letters  and  visits  were  divorced  from  the  stage 
system  and  prisoners  were  now  allowed  to  write  and  receive 
a  letter  every  14  days. 

The  statistical  results  of  the  system  reported  in  1949 
showed  a  slight  improvement.  Of  those  who  from  1930  to 
1945  came  to  prison  for  the  first  time  for  offences  serious 
enough  to  warrant  the  taking  of  finger-prints,  the  percentage 


of  reconviction  at  the  end  of  1947  was  below  20%  for  ordinary 
prisons,  and  about  10%  for  special  training  prisons. 

The  Borstal  system,  less  affected  by  overcrowding  or  under- 
staffing,  maintained  its  steady  recovery  from  war  and  postwar 
difficulties  along  established  lines.  Vocational  training  was 
expanded  to  some  50  classes  in  a  dozen  trades.  Week-end 
home-leave  for  boys  was  re-introduced  with  benefit  to  their 
training  and  the  educational  system  was  further  developed. 
Statistical  results  showed  that,  up  to  Dec.  31,  1948,  of  those 
discharged  during  the  years  1942-46  some  74%  of  boys  and 
81  %  of  girls  had  not  reverted  to  crime. 

The  most  important  event  of  1949  was  the  coming  into 
force  of  those  sections  of  the  Criminal  Justice  act,  1948, 
which  directly  affected  the  prison  system.  The  abolition  of 
penal  servitude,  hard  labour  and  the  triple  division  of 
imprisonment  left  only  the  single  sentence  of  imprisonment 
for  all  offenders  not  dealt  with  as  persistent  offenders:  for 
these  the  act  provided  two  forms  of  sentence;  viz.,  corrective 
training  (2-4  years)  and  preventive  detention  (5-14  years). 
The  restrictions  on  the  imprisonment  of  persons  under  21 
resulted  in  a  fall  m  the  young  prisoner  population,  enabling 
the  closing  of  two  more  "  young  prisoner  centres."  Young 
prisoners  with  sentences  of  three  months  or  over  were  now 
released  on  a  conditional  licence.  In  consequence,  the  prison 
system  was  substantially  re-organized.  There  were  now  local 
prisons  (reception  and  short  term),  regional  prisons  (special 
training  of  selected  prisoners)  and  central  prisons  (long  term), 
including  six  open  prisons.  Four  prisons  or  parts  of  prisons 
were  set  aside  for  corrective  training  and  two  for  preventive 
detention.  The  Statutory  Rules,  1949,  provided  a  code 
expressing  the  spirit  of  the  modern  system,  and  throughout 
the  year  work  was  in  progress  on  revision  of  standing  orders 
and  prisoners'  cell-cards  in  line  with  the  new  rules. 

Scottish  prisons  did  not  suffer  from  overcrowding,  the 
population  remaining  20%  above  1938  level.  Steady  progress 
was  made  in  improving  methods  of  training  in  prisons  and 
Borstals:  the  issue  of  new  type  clothing  started,  and  the 
earnings  system  was  revised  as  in  England  The  Scottish 
Advisory  Council  on  the  Treatment  and  Rehabilitation  of 
Offenders  published  a  far-reaching  report  on  the  Scottish 
prison  system.  (L.  W.  F.) 

United  States.  The  federal  prisons,  emphasizing  prepara- 
tion for  parole,  began  to  allow  some  prisoners  to  live  in 
special  quarters  set  up  within  an  institution  and  to  wear 
civilian  clothes.  In  addition,  the  federal  Bureau  of  Prisons 
started  a  programme  under  which  public-spirited  citizens 
would  offer  constructive  guidance  to  released  inmates. 

Idaho  opened  its  first  parole  camp.  This  was  both  to  aid 
men  who  would  soon  be  paroled  and  to  develop  Idaho's 
lands  near  St.  Manes.  Selected  prisoners,  supervised  by 
parole  officers,  not  guards,  would  be  prepared  to  bridge  the 
gap  between  the  routine  life  of  the  prison  and  the  life  of 
the  free  community. 

In  Michigan,  under  a  new  programme  inaugurated  in 
May,  each  inmate  at  the  Jackson  prison  was  assigned  an 
adviser.  As  a  result,  every  prisoner  acquired  a  personal  link 
with  all  administrative  functions  of  the  institution.  Advisers 
were  given  office  space  accessible  to  inmates,  facilitating 
discussion  of  personal  problems  in  a  friendly  atmosphere. 

New  Jersey  opened  the  first  unit  of  its  new  diagnostic 
centre  where  ample  facilities  were  provided  for  the  examina- 
tion of  lawbreakers  and  other  maladjusted  persons.  At  the 
reformatory  in  Bordentown,  a  project  believed  to  be  unique 
in  the  annals  of  U.S.  prison  administration,  proved  successful. 
Ten  inmates  completed  a  course  of  study  in  Braille  and 
continued  their  education.  New  Jersey  also  further  developed 
and  experimented  with  the  use  of  group  psychotherapy,  a 
rehabilitative  procedure  which  proved  *x>  promising  that  it 
was  being  practised  in  other  states.  (S.  A.  L.) 


PSYCHIATRY—PSYCHOLOGY 


531 


PSYCHIATRY.  A  distinct  trend  in  psychiatric  thought 
was  seen  to  develop  in  1949,  culminating  in  the  awarding  of 
the  Nobel  prize  to  two  pioneer  investigators  in  the  field  of 
physiological  psychiatry.  Although  emphasis  was  still  placed 
by  most  psychiatrists  on  the  psychological  interpretation  of 
mental  abnormalities,  much  of  the  scientific  work  of  the 
year  was  concerned  with  the  basic  physical  and  biochemical 
reactions  of  the  brain.  It  was  widely  recognized  that  psycho- 
logical phenomena  ultimately  must  be  based  on  such  reactions 
and  that  if  further  advancements  were  to  be  made  they  would 
be  along  the  lines  of  the  physiological  explanation  of  the 
function  and  chemistry  of  the  brain  cells  and  their  appendages. 
Otherwise,  psychiatry  might  tend  to  become  exclusively  a 
field  of  conflicting  philosophical  opinions  which  would  form 
a  barrier  against  fresh  development,  much  to  the  detriment 
of  the  subject  in  general.  Thus,  to  put  psychiatry  and  psycho- 
dynamics  on  a  firm  structural  foundation,  attention  was 
focused  on  a  balanced  programme  of  all-inclusive  research 
into  the  physical  causes  of  mental  disease. 

Scholars  pointed  out  that  with  the  gradual  increase  of 
scientific  knowledge  the  number  of  mental  disorders  formerly 
classified  on  a  functional  basis  was  steadily  decreasing. 
W,  B.  Terhunc  estimated  that  in  the  standard  classifications 
of  1949  at  least  three-fifths  of  mental  abnormalities  were 
now  accepted  as  being  organic  in  origin.  Many  psychoses 
formerly  thought  of  as  functional  were  attributed  to  infections, 
intoxications,  trauma,  circulatory  disorders  or  convulsive 
states,  or  due  to  faulty  metabolism,  nutritional  disorders  or 
defects  in  glandular  secretion.  Other  physical  factors  were 
found  to  influence  the  psychoneuroscs,  such  as  semi-starvation 
or  avitaminosis.  These  causes  were  particularly  potent  in 
colouring  the  mental  state  of  former  war  prisoners  and  of 
displaced  individuals  from  over-run  countries.  Many  child- 
hood disorders  were  also  shown  to  be  of  a  physio-psychic 
nature,  and  realization  came  to  psychiatrists  that  psycho- 
logical explanations  for  abnormal  behaviour  of  children  as 
well  as  adults  were  not  entirely  satisfactory  without  an  added 
evaluation  of  genetics,  constitution  and  bodily  disease 
processes.  Psychiatric  illness,  like  other  diseases,  began  to  be 
recognized  as  fundamentally  structural,  psychodynamics 
describing  but  not  explaining  mental  disorders.  Psycho- 
therapy was  thought  to  be  only  one  way  of  influencing  the 
physiology  of  the  nervous  system;  the  treatment  of  bodily 
disease  was  considered  equally  important.  Terhune  went  so 
far  as  to  conclude  that  all  psychological  disorders  resulted 
from  a  disturbance  in  the  normal  physiology  of  both  mental 
and  bodily  functions  which  produced  pathological  processes, 
the  whole  being  greatly  influenced  by  disturbing  environmental 
factors. 

Some  of  the  principal  investigations  on  the  function  of  the 
brain  were  carried  out  by  W.  R.  Hess  (q  v.)  of  Zurich,  a 
physiologist,  winner  of  half  of  the  Nobel  prize  in  medicine 
for  1949.  Mess's  later  researches  were  largely  centred  on  that 
part  of  the  brain  known  as  the  diencephalon,  or  mid-biam, 
lying  on  the  base  of  the  skull  and  thus  particularly  inaccessible 
to  the  neuro-surgeon.  Investigations  therefore  were  confined 
to  animal  experimentation.  He  found  that  in  the  diencephalon 
were  grouped  nerve  cells  which  have  to  do  with  co-ordinating 
the  harmonious  interplay  of  all  the  organs  of  the  body 
through  the  autonomic  nervous  system.  Based  on  his 
previous  studies  of  circulation  and  respiration,  Hess 
re-evaluated  the  physiological  importance  of  the  diencephalic 
nuclei  as  a  brain  centre  of  vast  usefulness.  Of  the  two 
divisions  of  the  autonomic  nervous  system,  the  sympathetic 
section  appeared  to  play  a  decisive  part  in  preparing  the 
individual  for  activity,  while  the  other  section,  known  as  the 
parasympathetic  system,  was  of  importance  in  relation  to 
economy  of  action  and  repair  of  structures.  Both  cf  these 
divisions,  under  the  control  of  the  nervous  central  exchange 


in  the  diencephalon,  exerted  their  influence  both  in  the 
psychic  field  and  upon  the  bodily  organs.  By  artificially 
disturbing  the  equilibrium  of  the  diencephalic  nuclei  in  his 
animals  Hess  was  able  to  subdue  sympathetic  control  without 
interfering  with  the  activity  of  the  parasympathetic  centres. 
Under  these  conditions,  instead  of  preparing  the  animal  for 
activity,  artificial  sleep  was  produced,  thus  allowing  foi 
better  economy  and  repair  through  the  relaxing  of  the  para- 
sympathetic influence.  Psychiatry  was  therefore  furnished 
with  a  concrete  example  of  the  fact  that  influences  stemming 
from  the  diencephalon  exerted  an  influence  in  activating  the 
psychic  function  cf  sleep.  Previously  the  cortex  of  the  brain, 
the  supposed  site  of  the  mind,  was  considered  as  funda- 
mentally dominating  and  controlling  all  bodily  processes,  by 
a  one-way  pathway  from  cortex  to  lower  centres  From  the 
investigations  of  Hess  conclusions  were  drawn  that  the 
co-ordinating  centres  in  the  brain  stem  might  in  turn  influence 
the  psychic  functions.  These  observations  were  considered 
by  many  as  fundamental  to  the  concept  of  physiological 
psychiatry.  What  previously  had  been  suspected  in  regard 
to  the  effect  of  vegetative  processes  by  way  of  the  autonomic 
system  regulating  the  activities  of  the  higher  cerebral  functions 
was  confirmed. 

The  work  of  Egas  Moniz  (q.v.)  of  Lisbon  was  also  recog- 
nized by  the  award  of  a  Nobel  prize  His  work,  also  based 
on  physiological  experiments,  dealt  with  the  relation  of 
frontal  lobes,  the  area  of  the  brain  partially  concerned  with 
the  highest  mental  processes,  to  the  other  parts  of  the  brain 
A  radical  surgical  procedure,  cutting  the  connecting  path- 
ways, was  devised  and  applied  to  man  First  announced  in 
1936,  this  operation,  later  known  as  pre-frontal  lobotomy, 
was  performed  extensively  after  that  date  in  advanced 
centres  of  psychiatry  throughout  the  world.  The  evidence 
presented  in  1949  would  indicate  that  the  operation,  now 
modified  into  various  patterns,  had  opened  up  a  whole 
aspect  of  brain  function  and  greatly  affected  psychiatric 
thought.  Psycho-surgery,  as  the  whole  subject  was  now 
designated,  became  accepted  as  a  form  of  treatment,  greatly 
to  the  betterment  of  patients  with  the  more  serious  and 
prolonged  types  of  mental  aberration.  Much  work  on  the 
subject  still  remained  to  be  done  for  the  selection  of  cases 
most  favourable  for  lobotomy  was  still  considered  by  most 
psychiatrists  as  a  puzzling  and  unsolved  problem.  (See  also 
MLNTAI  DISHASES,  PSYCHOLOGY;  PSYCHOSOMATIC  MEDICINE.) 

BIUIIOGKAPHY  William  B  Terhunc,  "Physiological  Psychiatry," 
4m  J  Psychiat  ,  106  241-249,  New  York,  Ocl  1949;  Torbjoern  O 
Caspersson,  "  Cell  Function  and  Cell  Growth  in  Normal  and  Patho- 
logical Conditions.  Studied  by  Quantitative  Cytochemical  Procedures," 
Digest  Neural  and  P^vc/nat ,  16  711-714,  Hartford,  Connecticut, 
Dec.  1948.  '  (H.  R.  V.) 

PSYCHOLOGY.  During  1949  the  most  important 
psychological  publication  in  Great  Britain  was  the  volume 
written  by  Dr.  Vernon  and  Dr.  Parry,  Personnel  Selection  in 
the  British  Forces  (London,  1949),  which  gave  a  general  survey 
of  the  methods  and  results  of  personnel  selection  in  the 
British  army,  navy  and  air  force.  Much  of  the  technical 
detail  had  already  appeared  in  the  appropriate  journals,  but 
their  book  presented  an  admirable  account  of  the  administra- 
tive procedures  that  were  gradually  evolved.  The  main  con- 
clusion drawn  was  that  the  psychological  methods  that 
proved  so  useful  during  wartime  might  be  adopted,  with 
the  necessary  modifications,  in  education  and  industry  to 
solve  some  of  the  urgent  problems  of  peace. 

The  publication  of  the  report  of  the  Royal  Commission 
on  Population  revived  the  controversies  about  the  effects 
of  the  differential  birth  rate  on  the  level  of  national  intelli- 
gence. As  early  as  1913,  school  surveys  commenced  by 
Sir  Cyril  Burt  in  London  demonstrated  the  existence  of  a 
negative  correlation  between  children's  intelligence  and  the 


532 


PSYCHOSOMATIC   MEDICINE 


size  of  the  families  from  which  they  came.  Later  investiga- 
tions, however,  showed  that  although  small  changes  in  the 
relative  numbers  of  defective  and  scholarship  children  might 
be  discernible  they  were  nothing  like  the  size  that  might 
have  been  predicted  from  the  birth  rates  alone.  J.  M.  Black- 
burn in  several  papers  questioned  the  value  of  intelligence 
tests  as  indicators  of  innate  intelligence;  and  Burt  replied, 
supporting  his  own  views  by  more  recent  evidence.  By  far 
the  most  interesting  contribution,  however,  was  the  report 
of  the  Scottish  Council  for  Research  in  Education  on  The 
Trend  of  Scottish  Intelligence  (London,  1949).  In  1947,  at 
the  suggestion  of  the  Population  Investigation  committee,  the 
council  repeated  a  survey  which  it  had  carried  out  in  1932. 
The  results  now  published  revealed  not  a  decline  but  an 
apparent  increase  in  ability  as  measured  by  the  tests.  The 
investigators  suggested  that  the  unexpected  change  might  be 
explained  by  increasing  familiarity  with  intelligence  tests  and 
might  conceivably  mask  an  actual  decrease. 

In  the  field  of  applied  psychology  two  American  studies 
attracted  considerable  attention.  These  were  the  work  by 
Dr.  A.  C.  Kinsey  and  his  collaborators  on  Sexual  Behaviour 
in  the  Human  Male  (Philadelphia  and  London,  1948);  and 
the  papers  by  Dr.  K.  Eissler  and  his  colleagues  on  psycho- 
analytic aspects  of  delinquency,  Searchlights  on  Delinquency 
(New  York,  1949).  Towards  the  end  of  1949  the  Proceedings 
of  the  International  Congress  on  Mental  Health  (London, 
1949)  appeared  and  these  contained  a  number  of  stimulating 
contributions  on  crime,  sex,  guilt  and  aggression  and  on  the 
psychological  aspects  of  war  and  peace. 

In  the  experimental  field,  perhaps  the  most  interesting 
researches  were  those  by  Dr.  R.  W.  Pickford,  the  first  des- 
cribing a  factorial  investigation  of  musical  appreciation  and 
the  second  an  improved  apparatus  for  testing  defective  colour 
vision.  The  British  Journal  of  Psychology  (Statistical  Section) 
(London,  1949)  contained  a  review  of  the  methods  of  factor 
analysis  showing  how  these  had  developed  out  of  the  pro- 
cedure originally  proposed  by  Karl  Pearson  for  analysing 
physical  measurements;  Mrs.  R.  Cole  reported  an  item- 
analysis  of  the  Terman  Merrill  revision  of  the  Binet  tests, 
and  Miss  G.  Keir  a  study  of  the  Progressive  Matrix  test. 
In  the  British  Journal  of  Educational  Psychology  (vol.  19, 
London,  1949)  two  articles  by  Sir  Cyril  Burt  gave  a  fully 
documented  summary  of  the  mental  factors  so  far  established 
by  means  of  statistical  research.  (C.  L.  B.) 

United  States.  An  important  publication  during  1949  was 
D.  O.  Hebb's  Organization  of  Behavior,  which  attempted  to 
restate  some  of  the  facts  of  psychology  in  terms  of  modern 
physiological  theory  about  the  brain.  Hebb  was  one  of  a 
number  who  returned  to  an  interest  in  neurological  theory 
as  a  source  of  hypotheses  about  complex  processes  like 
thought,  expectation,  attention,  interest,  consciousness  and 
memory.  The  book  starts  with  the  recognition  of  a  number 
of  puzzling  facts,  such  as  the  observation  that  great  areas 
of  the  cerebrum  in  adults  may  be  damaged  or  removed 
without  interfering  with  certain  intellectual  functions.  The 
neurological  theory  developed  attempts  to  incorporate  this 
sort  of  fact  as  well  as  the  psychological  evidence  on  learning, 
motivation,  emotion,  perception,  intelligence,  thinking  and 
concept  formation.  The  theory  assumed  that  learning  causes 
structural  changes  in  central  relationships  between  cerebral 
neurons  or  between  systems  of  neurons  of  varying  complexity. 
The  growth  of  a  concept  involves  the  gradual  organization 
of  many  neural  cell  assemblies  or  complicated  circuits. 
Extensive  brain  tissue  is  necessary  for  the  initial  establish- 
ment of  these  assemblies,  but  with  time  and  experience  there 
is  short  circuiting  and  some  of  the  assemblies  originally 
involved  are  no  longer  necessary.  Hebb  postulated  that  for 
this  reason  brain  damage  could  be  relatively  less  severe  in 
its  effects  on  adults  than  on  children. 


The  most  important  event  of  the  year  in  the  field  of  social 
psychology  was  the  publication  of  the  first  three  volumes  of 
the  projected  four  volume  series,  Studies  in  Social  Psychology 
in  World  War  //,  based  on  the  work  of  the  research  branch 
of  the  War  Department  from  1941  to  the  end  of  the  war. 
Most  of  the  studies  were  designed  to  meet  practical  wartime 
demands  and  the  writers  were  fully  aware  of  the  consequent 
limitations  of  the  information  for  the  purposes  of  scientific 
generalization.  Nevertheless,  they  extracted  from  interviews 
with  more  than  500,000  U.S.  soldiers  observations  of  the 
greatest  importance  for  the  historian,  for  those  concerned 
with  administrative  problems  and  for  the  social  scientist. 
The  first  of  the  three  volumes  summarized  the  problems  of 
personal  adjustment  to  institutionalized  army  life.  The  second 
dealt  with  combat  and  its  consequences,  and  the  third 
reviewed  experimental  studies  of  the  impact  on  the  soldier 
of  educational  and  indoctrination  films.  The  attitudes  of 
the  educated  soldier  were  compared  with  those  of  the 
uneducated,  those  overseas  with  those  at  home,  those  with  good 
chances  of  promotion  and  those  with  poor  chances.  A  whole 
chapter  was  devoted  to  the  problems  of  the  Negro  soldier. 
Fear  in  combat  and  the  Army's  attempt  to  deal  with  this 
problem  were  analysed.  The  final  volume,  due  to  appear 
in  1950,  would  examine  the  fundamental  concept  of  attitude 
and  the  contributions  of  the  research  branch  to  methods  of 
attitude  measurement. 

A  whole  issue  of  the  Journal  oj  Consulting  Psychology 
was  devoted  to  the  report  of  one  of  the  very  few  systematic 
attempts  ever  made  to  evaluate  psychotherapy.  A  group 
under  the  direction  of  Carl  R.  Rogers  described  six  studies 
of  the  therapeutic  process,  including  careful  and  objective 
analyses  of  attitudes  towards  the  self,  the  relation  of  self- 
acceptance  to  acceptance  of  other  people,  the  way  in  which 
insight  develops,  changes  in  the  maturity  of  behaviour  and 
changes  in  expressions  of  defensive  behaviour.  Though  the 
number  of  cases  was  small  and  there  was  no  comparison  of 
the  group  receiving  therapy  with  a  similar  group  given  no 
therapy,  this  honest  attempt  to  record  interviews,  to  define 
concepts  and  check  the  amount  of  agreement  on  observa- 
tions promised  to  be  the  beginning  of  a  healthy  departure 
from  the  usual  unscientific  evaluations  of  treatment.  These 
first  efforts  of  Rogers  to  subject  his  methods  of  non-directive 
therapy  to  scientific  test  constituted  a  landmark  for  clinical 
psychology.  (See  also  MENTAL  DISEASES;  PSYCHIATRY; 
PSYCHOSOMATIC  MEDICINE.)  (H.  PK.) 

PSYCHOSOMATIC  MEDICINE.  Physicians, 
nurses  and  social  workers  occupied  in  tuberculosis  sanitoria 
had  frequently  observed  the  high  incidence  of  neurosis  in 
patients  suffering  from  this  disease.  Research  work  pub- 
lished on  emotional  factors  in  tuberculosis  had  generally 
dealt  only  with  a  few  case  reports,  the  observations  of  social 
service  workers,  or  general  comments  by  physicians  untrained 
in  psychiatric  techniques.  In  1949,  however,  a  study  by  Eric 
Wittkower  of  785  patients  observed  over  a  period  of  two  and 
a  half  years  provided  much  useful  information  concerning 
the  role  of  emotional  factors  in  tuberculosis.  The  views 
expressed  did  not  clash  in  any  way  with  those  held  by  tubercu- 
losis specialists,  who  had  long  known  that  an  unhealthy 
mode  of  life  and  mental  upsets  often  preceded  the  onset  of 
symptoms  of  tuberculosis.  But,  going  beyond  these  observa- 
tions, Wittkower  made  an  attempt  to  explain  how  this 
unhealthy  mode  of  life  came  about,  what  formed  the  basis, 
and  what  were  the  common  features,  of  the  precipitating 
mental  upsets. 

He  showed  that  inordinate  need  for  affection  was  an 
outstanding  common  feature  of  the  pre-morbid  personality 
of  tuberculosis  patients.  This  need  might  be  openly  expressed, 
concealed  or  flatly  denied.  Situations  arousing  aggressiveness 


PUBLIC  OPINION   SURVEYS 


533 


or  endangering  the  delicately  poised  security  system  of  the 
patients  often  preceded  the  onset  of  symptoms  of  tuberculosis. 

In  brief,  people  who  developed  tuberculosis  seemed  to  have 
a  frequent  inability  to  deal  adequately  with  their  aggressive 
impulses  and  were  prone,  for  varying  reasons  and  in  different 
ways,  to  turn  them  against  themselves. 

W.  A.  Tillmann  and  G.  F.  Hobbs  made  a  study  of  the 
psychiatric  and  social  backgrounds  of  the  accident-prone 
car  driver.  Dealing  chiefly  with  taxi  drivers  they  discovered 
that  the  high-accident  group  showed  a  marked  intolerance 
for,  and  aggression  against,  any  authority  and  that  this 
behaviour  dated  from  early  childhood.  The  origin  of  the 
aggression  was  found  in  an  unstable  home  background  and 
showed  up  in  anti-social  behaviour.  Analysing  96  drivers 
from  the  general  population  who  had  had  four  or  more 
accidents  and  comparing  them  with  a  control  group  of 
accident-free  drivers,  they  found  that  66%  of  the  high- 
accident  group  were  known  to  social  and  law  enforcement 
agencies  as  compared  with  only  9%  of  the  control  group. 
Commenting  upon  the  question  of  the  selection  of  drivers 
by  personnel  managers  they  stated  that  safe  driving  depended 
more  on  judgment,  caution,  and  consideration  of  the  possible 
errors  of  others  than  upon  reaction  time  and  good  eyesight. 
They  added  that  any  intelligent  personnel  manager  could 
learn  to  take  the  kind  of  life  history  necessary  to  detect  the 
unstable  person  who  is  prone  to  get  into  accidents. 

It  became  increasingly  clear  in  1949  that  psychiatry  has 
an  important  relationship  to  industrial  medicine.  G.  T.  Eadie 
described  his  method  of  handling  psychosomatic  problems, 
indicating  that  the  surface  complaint  is  not  the  same  as  the 
latent  complaint  and  that  one  must  look  into  the  details  of 
the  latter.  Eadie  emphasized  that  interest  in  emotional 
factors  must  not  lead  to  neglect  of  possible  factors,  and 
mentioned  a  number  of  problems,  such  as  multiple  sclerosis, 
Parkinson's  disease,  hyperthyroidism  and  anxiety  attacks, 
that  may  contribute  to  disability  and  be  responsible  for 
industrial  accidents. 

With  new  discoveries  regarding  the  role  of  the  sex  organs 
as  producers  of  hormones  (and  the  isolation  and  synthetic 
production  of  these  hormones),  biologists  believed  that  a 
simple  explanation  of  sexual  behaviour  and  a  simple  treatment 
of  abnormal  sexual  behaviour  were  at  last  available.  But  the 
simplicity  of  this  explanation  had  already  been  questioned 
by  experiments  on  animals  which  suggested  that  subcerebral 
mechanisms  capable  of  mediating  sexual  responses  had 
become  more  dependent  upon  the  higher  nervous  system, 
and  that  the  development  of  this  increasing  dependence  on 
the  cerebral  cortex  had  to  some  degree  freed  the  more 
primitive  sexual  mechanisms  from  strict  control  by  gonadal 
hormones. 

W.  H.  Perloff  questioned  this  simple  explanation  in  1949 
as  far  as  the  human  being  was  concerned.  He  stated  that 
three  elements  have  to  do  with  human  sexuality.  The  first 
is  the  genetic  factor  which  predetermines  the  particular  type 
of  sexual  pattern  and  is  constant  within  limits  for  any  one 
species.  The  second  factor  is  the  hormonal  one  which  leads 
to  the  development  of  the  organs  needed  for  the  sex  act  and 
increases  their  sensitivity  to  stimulation.  But  the  third 
important  factor  is  psychological  and  this  is  concerned  with 
the  choice  of  the  sex  object  and  with  the  intensity  of  the 
sexual  emotions.  (See  also  PSYCHIATRY;  PSYCHOLOGY.) 

(E.  Ws.) 

PUBLIC  OPINION  SURVEYS.  The  September 
meetings  in  Paris  were  the  main  event  during  1949.  The 
World  Association  of  Public  Opinion  Researchers 
(W.A.P.O.R.)  held  a  joint  congress  with  the  ESOMAR  or 
European  Society  for  Opinion  Surveys  and  Market 
Research  (Commission  Europeenne  pour  1'Etude  de 


TOpinion  Publique  et  des  Marches).  This  joint  congress  was 
preceded  by  a  conference  of  the  Gallup  institutes;  representa- 
tives from  Sweden,  France,  Italy,  Holland,  Finland,  Den- 
mark and  Great  Britain  conferred  for  a  week  with  Dr 
George  Gallup  and  his  American  colleagues.  The  W.A.P  O.R. 
meeting  was  the  first  to  be  held  outside  the  United  States, 
Dr.  James  White,  president  of  W.A.P.O.R.,  was  chairman 
of  the  conference,  which  was  opened  by  the  dean  of  the 
University  of  Paris.  At  one  of  the  main  sessions  Dr.  George 
Gallup,  Elmo  Wilson  (International  Public  Opinion 
research)  and  Professor  G.  Jacquemyns  (Solvay  institute), 
discussed  the  pqlls  in  relation  to  the  American  presidential 
election,  1948.  There  were  three  national  polls,  Gallup, 
Crossley  and  Roper,  and  the  score  had  been  as  follows 
in  the  case  of  Gallup: 


Truman 
Dewcy 
Wallace 
Thurmond 


Result 

50  °0 

45-8 

2-1 

2   1 


Forecast       Difference 


44-5 

49-5 

4-0 

2-0 


5  5 
3  7 
1  -9 
0  I 


It  was  stressed  that,  with  the  exception  of  the  Roper  forecast, 
the  polls  were  statistically  nearer  the  mark  in  1948  than  in 
earlier  presidential  elections.  Crossley 's  forecast  differed  by 
less  than  one  percentage  point  from  Gallup's  figures. 

The  W.A.P.O.R.  conference  confirmed  Dr.  James  White  as 
president  and  elected  as  its  council  for  1949-50  the  following 
members:  public  relations,  Jan  Stapel  (N.I. P.O.,  Amster- 
dam); membership  and  standards,  Henry  Durant  (B.I.P.O., 
London);  personnel  training,  Louis  Moss  (the  Social  Survey, 
London);  Professor  Stuart  Dodd  (Washington  Opinion 
laboratory,  University  of  Washington). 

ESOMAR,  at  its  Paris  meeting,  adopted  a  constitution 
which  had  been  drafted  during  the  12  months  following  its 
initial  meeting  in  Amsterdam.  Following  W.A.P.O.R., 
the  commission  adopted  the  plan  that  membership  should 
be  on  an  individual  basis,  not  on  the  basis  of  organizations, 
and  set  itself  the  goal  of  attracting  the  membership  of  all 
individuals  in  European  countries  who  were  working  in  the 
field  of  opinion  or  market  research  or  who  were  directly 
interested  in  such  work.  The  council  elected  were,  president, 
Professor  Luzzatto  Fcgiz,  Milan,  with  a  committee  consisting 
of:  A.  P.  McAnally,  London;  C.  D.  Reventlow,  Copen- 
hagen; Georges  Serrel,  Paris;  and  M.  Guigoz,  Lausanne. 
Conferences  were  planned  for  1950  and  1951.  A  hearty 
welcome  to  Britain  in  1951  was  extended  on  behalf  of  the 
British  Market  Research  society,  since  that  visit  would 
coincide  with  the  Festival  of  Britain 

The  Gallup  conference,  as  was  the  case  in  1947,  was  a 
series  of  severely  technical  discussions  between  practitioners 
in  opinion  research  who  were  anxious  to  exchange  experiences 
during  the  two  years  which  had  elapsed  since  their  first  inter- 
national conference  at  Loxwood  hall,  Sussex.  Arrange- 
ments were  made  to  meet  at  Stockholm  in  1951. 

During  1949  the  Canadian  Institute  of  Public  Opinion  and 
the  Norwegian  institute  had  to  face  the  test  of  forecasting 
national  elections;  the  Netherlands  institute  had  to  face  a 
municipal  election  in  Amsterdam.  In  each  of  the  three 
instances  the  forecast  was  very  close  to  the  actual  outcome; 
in  the  case  of  the  Netherlands  institute  the  average  error  was 
less  than  1  %.  The  widespread  discussions  on,  and  detailed 
analyses  of,  polls  that  followed  the  American  presidential 
election  undoubtedly  taught  opinion  pollers  many  useful 
lessons  which  they  put  to  good  account. 

The  three  polls  which  forecast  in  Great  Britain  the  division 
of  popular  sentiment  on  voting  agreed  in  putting  the  Con- 
servatives in  the  lead.  (H.  W.  Dr.) 

United  States.  Two  major  pre-election  polls  were  taken 
during  the  year.  The  New  Jersey  poll,  using  a  statewide 
quota  sample  of  1,000  New  Jersey  residents,  correctly 


534 


RACKETS—RADIO 


indicated  the  re-election  of  Alfred  E.  Driscoll  as  governor 
with  an  error  of  less  than  two  percentage  points.  The 
American  Institute  of  Public  Opinion  questioned  2,366 
persons  in  New  York  state  on  their  voting  intentions  in  the 
senatorial  contest.  Herbert  H.  Lehman  was  correctly  picked 
as  the  winner,  although  his  final  strength  was  overestimated 
by  several  percentage  points.  The  American  institute  sought 
to  ascertain  the  "  leaning  "  of  undecided  voters  and  gave  more 
attention  than  in  the  past  to  separating  registered  voters 
who  planned  to  vote  from  those  not  intending  to  vote. 
These  steps  were  taken  in  an  effort  to  profit  by  post-election 
studies  made  on  the  1948  presidential  polls. 

Members  of  the  American  Association  for  Public  Opinion 
Research,  in  conference  at  Ithaca,  New  York,  discussed  such 
topics  as  the  application  of  opinion  research  to  the  problems 
of  higher  education  and  the  role  of  opinion  research  in  arriving 
at  a  science  of  politics.  The  Laboratory  of  Social  Relations, 
Harvard  university,  began  a  study  of  the  values  and  expecta- 
tions of  young  people.  A  new  Institute  for  Social  Research 
was  formed  at  the  University  of  Michigan.  The  Social 
Science  Research  council  published  a  full  report  on  the  pre- 
election polls  of  1948  (Bulletin  60).  A  four-volume  series 
from  Princeton  university  press,  based  on  an  analysis  of 
interviews  and  reports  on  American  soldiers  in  World  War  II, 
was  published.  (G.  H.  S.) 

PUBLISHING:   see  BCX>K  PUBLISHING. 

PUERTO  RICO:  see  UNITED  STATES  TERRITORIES  AND 
POSSESSIONS. 

PULP:    see  PAPER  AND  PULP  INDUSTRY. 
QATAR:    see  ARABIA. 

RACKETS.  J.  H.  Pawle  won  his  fourth  consecutive 
victory  in  the  amateur  singles  championship,  beating  in  the 
final  D.  S.  Milford  3-2,  the  same  margin  as  in  1948.  The 
holders  of  the  doubles  championship,  Milford  and  J.  R. 
Thompson,  lost  to  R.  A.  A.  Holt  and  A.  R.  Taylor  by  1-4. 

Cambridge  won  the  university  match  2-1.  G.  H.  G. 
Doggart  and  I.  N.  Mitchell  (Cambridge)  lost  the  doubles  3-4 
to  D.  C.  St.  C.  Miller  and  J.  G.  A.  Campbell  (Oxford),  but 
both  Doggart  and  Mitchell  had  comfortable  wins  in  the 
singles.  Winchester  (P.  M.  Welsh  and  M.  C.  Coulman)  won 
the  public  schools  championship,  and  the  Old  Rugbeians 
beat  the  Old  Etonians  in  the  final  of  the  Noel-Bruce  cup 
(Dec.  1948).  Captain  A.  R.  Taylor  won  the  Army  singles 
championship  for  the  fourth  year  in  succession,  and  with 
G.  W.  T.  Atkins  won  the  inter-regimental  cup  for  the 
Grenadier  Guards.  (AE.) 

RADIOLOGY:    see  X-RAY  and  RADIOLOGY. 

RADIO,   SCIENTIFIC   DEVELOPMENTS   IN. 

During  1949  advances  associated  with  developments  in  radar, 
broadcasting  and  television  encouraged  scientific  research 
on  an  expanding  scale  to  solve  the  problem  of  how  to  use 
most  effectively  the  various  bands  of  wavelengths  or  fre- 
quencies within  the  radio  portion  of  the  electro-magnetic 
wave  spectrum. 

The  Ionosphere.  In  the  1920s  it  was  demonstrated  that  the 
transmission  of  radio  waves  to  distant  points  round  the 
curved  surface  of  the  earth  was  effected  by  successive  reflec- 
tion of  the  waves  between  the  earth  and  one  or  more  electri- 
cally conducting  regions  in  the  upper  atmosphere.  More 
recently,  these  regions,  which  together  form  the  ionosphere, 
were  explored  by  recording  and  measuring  the  echoes  received 
from  pulses  of  waves  transmitted  vertically  upwards  from  the 
observing  station;  and  ionospheric  observatories  in  different 
parts  of  the  world  made  an  almost  continuous  study  of  the 
height  and  density  of  ionization  of  the  various  layers  in  the 


ionosphere,  and  the  manner  in  which  these  characteristics 
varied  from  day  to  night  and  throughout  the  seasons.  By 
an  exchange  of  results  a  world  chart  of  the  ionosphere  was 
constructed  from  which  the  radio  transmission  conditions 
could  be  determined  for  any  particular  communication  path. 
Based  on  the  patient  and  systematic  observation  of  the 
changing  properties  in  the  ionosphere,  forecasts  were  now 
made,  six  months  in  advance,  of  the  radio  transmission  con- 
ditions in  various  parts  of  the  world;  and  such  forecasts 
were  found  to  be  most  useful  by  the  authorities  responsible 
for  communication  and  broadcasting  services. 

In  addition  to  this  practical  application,  however,  much 
useful  scientific  work  was  conducted  on  the  relation  between 
conditions  in  the  ionosphere  and  other  phenomena,  such  as 
the  earth's  magnetic  field  and  the  various  radiations  and 
emissions  from  the  sun  which  caused  varying  ionization  of 
the  upper  layers  of  the  atmosphere.  Research  showed  how 
the  radio  echo  method  could  be  used  for  the  measurement  of 
winds  in  the  ionosphere  at  heights  of  about  100  km.  above 
the  earth's  surface.  For  this  purpose,  a  group  of  three 
receivers  was  arranged  to  observe  simultaneously  echoes 
resulting  from  the  pulses  of  radio  waves  emitted  from  a 
transmitter  suitably  placed  in  relation  to  the  receivers.  The 
results  indicated  that  winds  of  velocity  of  about  50  mi.  per 
sec.  were  usually  present  at  levels  between  70  and  115  km. 
and  that  these  winds  showed  a  complicated  semi-diurnal 
variation.  These  results  were  in  reasonable  agreement  with 
those  obtained  by  other  workers  who  made  visual  observa- 
tions on  luminous  phenomena  in  the  sky  at  night. 

Radio  Astronomy.  A  few  years  ago  it  was  established  that 
a  portion  of  the  sun's  radiation,  which  covered  the  entire 
electromagnetic  wave  spectrum,  could  be  detected  on  a 
suitable  radio  receiver  at  various  short  wavelengths  from  a 
few  metres  to  a  few  centimetres.  The  intensity  of  such 
received  radiation  varied  with  the  wavelength  or  frequency 
used  and  also  with  the  changing  conditions  on  the  sun  itself. 


George  Strauss,  minister  of  supply,  (left)  at  an  exhibition  at  the 

Radar     Research     and     Development     establishment,     Malvern, 

Worcestershire.  Sept.  1949. 


RAILWAYS 


535 


Similar  radiation  was  also  received  from  stellar  or  galactic 
sources.  By  using  a  suitable  antenna  system  the  exact  location 
of  such  radiation  could  be  determined  with  considerable 
accuracy;  and  in  this  way  a  new  technique  was  developed, 
appropriately  termed  radio  astronomy,  which  supplemented 
the  methods  and  instruments  used  by  the  normal  astronomical 
observatory.  The  results  already  obtained  by  the  radio 
methods  indicated  some  very  highly  effective  temperatures 
at  the  source  of  the  radiation  and  such  observations  would 
undoubtedly  contribute  much  to  knowledge  of  phenomena 
occurring  in  the  sun,  particularly  during  the  existence  of 
sunspots  and  solar  prominences.  An  interesting  feature  of 
the  observations  made  on  the  stars  was  that  the  radiation 
being  received  left  its  sources  many  thousands  of  years  ago. 

The  Speed  of  Radio  Waves.  The  development  of  various 
applications,  particularly  radio  aids  to  navigation,  gave  rise 
to  a  need  for  a  more  precise  knowledge  of  the  speed  of  radio 
waves  when  propagated  under  different  conditions  such  as 
over  the  surface  of  the  earth,  over  land  or  sea  or  through  the 
widely  varying  meteorological  conditions  of  the  lower  atmo- 
sphere. Measurements  were  made  accordingly  in  aircraft  on 
carefully  controlled  transmissions  from  ground  stations  in 
accurately  known  positions.  For  low  frequencies  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  100  kc.  per  sec.  (wavelength  3,000  m.)  and 
at  a  height  of  one-tenth  of  a  wavelength  above  the  ground, 
the  speed  of  the  waves  was  reduced  from  the  value  of  the 
velocity  of  light  in  a  vacuum  by  an  amount  dependent  upon 
the  electrical  conductivity  of  the  earth.  For  overland  trans- 
mission this  speed  was  about  299,250  km.  per  sec.  For  higher 
frequencies  propagated  at  a  height  of  several  wavelengths, 
the  speed  of  the  waves  was  determined  by  the  refractive  index 
of  the  air  rather  than  by  the  properties  of  the  ground.  Since 
the  refractive  index  decreases  with  the  height  of  transmission 
so  does  the  speed  increase  towards  the  velocity  of  light  in  a 
vacuum;  viz.,  299,775  km.  per  sec.  For  example,  centimetre 
waves  propagated  at  heights  of  a  few  hundred  feet  were 
observed  to  travel  at  a  speed  of  299,690  km.  per  sec. ;  when 
the  waves  were  transmitted  between  the  ground  and  an  air- 
craft flying  at  a  height  of  30,000  ft.  this  speed  increased  to 
about  299,750  km.  per  sec. 

Television.  Activity  in  Europe  in  the  field  of  television 
during  1949  was  characterized  by  scientific  research,  by  the 
practical  development  of  both  transmitters  and  receivers,  and 
by  the  holding  of  international  conferences  designed  to 
improve  co-operation  and  the  efficiency  of  services  provided 
by  the  various  administrations.  On  the  public  service  side, 
the  United  Kingdom  began  to  implement  its  scheme  for  the 
provision  of  rive  main  transmitting  stations  suitably  spaced 
within  the  frequency  band  41  to  68  Me.  per  sec.  at  the  lower 
end  of  which  the  London  (Alexandra  palace)  station  had  been 
in  operation  for  many  years.  The  erection  of  the  second 
station  at  Birmingham  was  completed  during  1949;  and  this 
station,  which  was  the  most  powerful  television  transmitter 
in  the  world,  was  connected  to  the  London  studio  by  a  short- 
wave radio  link,  by  means  of  which  programmes  might  be  re- 
layed between  the  two  centres.  A  coaxial  cable  suitable  for  the 
wide  video  frequency  band  required  was  also  in  an  advanced 
stage  of  installation.  On  the  receiver  side,  improved  screens 
were  developed  for  cathode  ray  tubes  used  for  direct  viewing; 
and  higher  voltage  tubes  in  association  with  suitable  optical 
projection  systems  were  demonstrated,  giving  much  larger 
pictures  than  those  obtainable  on  the  tube  screen  itself.  Of 
the  various  European  conferences,  the  one  held  in  Zurich 
under  the  auspices  of  the  International  Consultative  Com- 
mittee on  Radiocommunication  (C.C.I.R.)  discussed  the 
possibilities  of  standardizing  television  techniques,  particu- 
larly from  the  point  of  view  of  facilitating  the  exchange  of 
programmes  between  national  television  services  and  the 
avoidance  of  mutual  interference  between  stations  in  the  same 


A  60-foot  high  radar  unit  under  construction  in  1949  at  Frankfurt, 
Germany,  on  the  flying  route  from  Western  Germany  to  Berlin. 

or   neighbouring  countries   which   operated   on   the   same 
frequency. 

Miscellaneous.  With  the  rapid  growth  and  application  of 
radio  technique  at  increasingly  higher  frequencies  it  became 
necessary  to  obtain  fuller  knowledge  of  the  properties  of  the 
various  dielectric  and  magnetic  materials  used  in  the  equip- 
ment associated  therewith.  Experimental  methods  for 
measuring  the  dielectric  properties  of  various  materials  at 
centimetre  wavelengths  were  developed  and  applied  to  the 
study  of  the  properties  of  various  solid  and  liquid  dielectrics. 
Furthermore,  a  theoretical  study  of  the  relation  between 
these  properties  and  the  chemical  and  physical  structure  of 
the  material  was  undertaken  with  a  view  to  obtaining  a  better 
understanding  of  the  absorption  and  resonance  effects 
observed  in  various  materials.  The  magnetic  properties  of 
ferrites  and  similar  materials  now  developed  for  use  in  radio 
frequency  components  were  also  studied.  Other  items  on 
which  research  was  conducted  include  the  crystal-valve,  which 
offers  the  possibilities  of  a  more  economical  means  of  ampli- 
fication at  moderate  radio  frequencies,  and  the  phosphors 
used  in  electronic  camera  tubes  for  television  purposes.  It 
was  anticipated  that  such  research  would  open  up  new  vistas 
of  radio  applications  or  result  in  an  improved  efficiency  of 
techniques  already  in  practical  use.  (R.  L.  S-R.) 

RAILWAYS.  Great  Britain.  The  major  event  of  1949 
was  the  publication  of  the  annual  report  of  the  British 
Transport  commission  which  reviewed  the  first  year's  working 
of  the  British  railways  after  nationalization.  Owing  to  the 
fact  that  the  Transport  act,  1947,  laid  down  that  all  facilities 
taken  over,  railways,  highway  transport,  inland  waterways, 
docks  and  hotels  should  be  treated  as  one  entity,  the  form  of 
accounts  had  been  based  on  this  instruction.  Consequently 
the  separation  of  the  railway  results  proper  from  those  of  the 
other  transport  activities  could  not  be  accurate  and  this,  in 


536 


RAILWAYS 


turn,  precluded  any  true  comparison  with  pre-nationalized 
results.  In  practice  financial  and  statistical  returns  for  the 
period  of  World  War  II  were  sparse,  because  to  save  clerical 
work  the  revenues  of  the  four  main  line  railways  were  totalled 
together  with  those  of  the  London  Passenger  Transport 
board,  since  1947  known  as  the  London  Transport  executive, 
and  now  forming  part  of  the  commission's  activities. 

The  financial  results  of  the  British  railways,  operated  by 
the  railway  executive,  yielded  net  receipts  of  £26,257,737  in 
1948,  which  were  equivalent  to  an  operating  ratio;  i.e., 
percentage  of  working  expenses  to  gross  receipts,  of  92  %  but 
this  sum  was  offset  almost  £4  million  by  losses  on  road 
collection  and  delivery  services.  The  net  traffic  receipts  from 
tVe  railway  executive's  steamship  services,  however,  totalled 
nearly  £3  million.  The  nominal  amount  of  3%  Guaranteed 
British  Transport  stock,  issued  as  compensation  for  the 
railway  undertakings  now  vested  in  the  British  Transport 
commission,  was  nearly  £927,500,000;  but  statistically  it 
would  be  inaccurate  to  relate  this  to  the  net  traffic  receipts, 
owing  to  transfers  of  docks,  hotels  and  other  railway-owned 
property  to  other  executives.  The  final  debit  balance  in  net 
revenue  account  for  1948  of  the  commission's  total  under- 
taking was  £4,700,000,  and  the  annual  report  prophesied  a 
deterioration  in  the  financial  situation  for  1949;  costs  for 
labour  and  materials  in  fact  continued  to  rise  and  railway 
traffic  receipts,  more  especially  on  the  passenger  side,  to  fall 
actually  by  more  than  £6  million  during  the  first  nine  months 
of  1949.  Freight  traffic  revenues  broke  about  even  over  this 
period. 

The  complete  re-organization  and  unification  of  the  rail- 
way system  necessitated  continued  concentration  on  problems 
of  administration  and  aimed  at  obtaining  uniformity  of 
practice,  staff  conditions,  inter-changeability  of  equipment 
and  standardization  of  methods  covering  what  were  previously 
four  large  railway  systems.  The  task  would  require  further 
years  to  complete;  but  in  the  meantime  progress  could  be 
recorded  in  spite  of  the  difficulties  owing  to  the  restricted 
allocations  by  the  government  of  steel  and  other  key  materials. 
There  was  no  change  in  the  level  of  charges,  which  had  not 
been  raised  since  1947,  but  detailed  studies  had  long  been  in 
hand  with  the  object  of  designing  a  unified  classification  for 
freight  by  rail  and  road  as  part  of  a  national  system  of 
transport  charges,  for  upon  this  would  rest  the  success  of 
any  scheme  of  integration  of  transport  facilities  offered  by 
rail,  road  or  water.  Demands  for  wages  increases  except  in 
minor  instances  were  refused  by  a  government-appointed 
conciliation  board,  and  1949  was  free  of  major  labour 
disputes  in  the  railway  industry,  though  in  August  there  was 
a  dispute  on  the  east  coast  routes  over  the  question  of  "lodg- 
ing turns,"  and  stoppages  occurred  on  successive  Sundays, 
Aug.  14-28,  but  ended  after  a  promise  to  withdraw  disputed 
turns  after  the  summer.  (See  also  STRIKES  AND  LOCKOUTS.) 

Concerning  technical  matters,  new  signal  installations  were 
placed  in  service  at  Doncaster  and  Liverpool;  and  conversion 
to  automatic  colour-lights  on  the  London-Croydon  section 
of  the  Brighton  electrified  main  line  progressed  steadily,  a 
project  dating  back  to  before  1939.  In  September  electric 
traction  was  inaugurated  on  the  suburban  service  from 
Liverpool  Street  to  Shenfield,  again  a  pre-1939  plan.  A 
report  known  as  the  London  plan  yielded  a  blueprint  for 
future  transport  developments  in  the  London  area;  but  since 
the  total  cost  of  new  underground  electric  lines  and  many 
conversions  to  electrification  were  calculated  to  require  over 
£200  million,  it  was  clearly  a  proposal  which  would  require 
many  years  to  complete  and  could  only  be  carried  out 
piecemeal. 

Experiments  were  made  with  double-deck  coaches  on  the 
Southern's  electrified  suburban  services.  Amongst  inter- 
region  transfers  of  routes  may  be  noted  that  of  the  London, 


Tilbury  and  Southend  to  the  Eastern  from  the  London 
Midland  region.  A  new  design  of  all-metal  coaches  built  in 
railway  workshops  at  Derby  entered  traffic;  standardized 
colour  schemes  were  settled  for  locomotives,  namely  black, 
green  and  blue,  with  crimson  and  cream  for  corridor  stock 
and  crimson  for  non-corridor  stock.  All  electric  equipment 
was  to  be  painted  green,  for  long  the  standard  colour  on  the 
former  Southern  railway,  the  largest  suburban  electrified 
network  in  the  world.  Inter-regional  tests  carried  out  with 
various  classes  of  locomotives  in  1948  provided  useful  data 
for  the  coming  design  of  a  few  standard  types  for  the  British 
railway  system.  In  the  interim  the  standard  classes  of  the 
ex-main  line  companies  were  being  perpetuated  and  the  two 
gas  turbine  locomotives  ordered  by  the  former  Great  Western 
railway  were  not  yet  in  service. 

In  spite  of  drastic  scrapping  of  obsolescent  locomotives 
and  wagons,  several  hundred  locomotives  were  stored  and 
there  was  no  wagon  shortage,  although  output  in  1949  was 
restricted  by  lack  of  steel.  As  regards  track,  a  new  standard 
was  adopted  using  the  flat-bottomed,  or  Vignoles,  type  of 
rail  in  place  of  the  traditional  British  bull-head  rail  held  in 
chairs.  Savings  were  expected  in  maintenance,  though  the 
initial  cost  per  mile  was  considerably  higher;  but  shortage 
of  labour  for  track  forces  and  increased  wage  rates  altered 
the  economic  balance  between  the  two  types  of  track.  The 
use  of  pre-fabricated  track  for  renewals  was  carried  further 
in  Britain  than  elsewhere. 

In  Northern  Ireland  the  Ulster  Transport  authority  took 
over  the  ex- London,  Midland  and  Scottish  railway's  lines 
in  Ulster  from  the  British  Transport  commission;  the  Great 
Northern  providing  the  link  between  Belfast  and  Dublin 
and  so  crossing  the  republic  of  Ireland's  frontier,  found  itself 
in  financial  difficulties.  It  was  the  last  important  company- 
owned  railway  in  Europe,  if  one  excluded  the  Bern-Lotschberg- 
Simplon. 

In  Ireland,  the  transport  system  was  the  subject  of  a  detailed 
investigation  which  led  to  current  proposals  to  nationalize 
the  Irish  Transport  company. 

Europe.  In  Albania,  both  the  26  mi.  standard  gauge 
Durres-Pekinye  line  and  the  connecting  Durres-Tirana  section 
of  18  mi.  were  due  for  completion  in  1949. 

On  the  Belgian  national  railways  (S.N.C  B.)  electrified 
services  were  inaugurated  between  Brussels  and  Charleroi  in 
October,  marking  a  further  stage  in  the  large  scale  scheme 


<£  Thousond 
BOOO 


6,000 


5,000 


3.0OO 


I.OOO 


TRAFFIC    RECEIPTS    OF 
BRITISH   RAILWAYS 


Thousand 
1  B  OOO 


=£7"^  FREIGHT   TRAINS^ 


Jon   F  ^W    A    .  M 


3,000 


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•  M  IJ  f  J  i  A  '  STOINPD     J     F    M    AMJJA'SONO 

1948  "•  1949  -H 


RAILWAYS 


537 


An  artist's  impression  of  the  experimental  double-decked  electric  train  which  was  introduced  on  the  London- Dart  ford  route  on  Nov.  2,  7949. 

The  eight  coach  train  had  a  seating  capacity  of  1J04. 


for  main-line  electrification;  steady  progress  was  made  on 
the  "  ligne  de  jonction "  linking  Brussels-Midi  with 
Brussels-Nord. 

Railway  construction  continued  in  Bulgaria,  including  an 
avoiding  route  north  of  Sofia  opened  in  Oct.  1948  and  a 
22  mi.  line  between  Lovech  and  Troyan;  there  were  also 
developments  in  the  Pernik  coal  area  and  at  Orekhovo  on 
the  Danube. 

The  financial  situation  of  the  French  national  railways 
(S.N.C.F.),  reported  to  be  operating  at  an  annual  deficit  of 
over  £20  million,  gave  cause  for  considerable  anxiety  in 
1949  and  important  changes  occurred  in  the  highest  adminis- 
trative posts.  The  government's  proposals  to  deal  with  this 
question  were  published  in  Nov.  1949,  after  a  delay  due  to 
ministerial  crises,  in  the  form  of  decrees.  They  envisaged  the 
close  co-ordination  of  rail  and  road  transport,  the  preparation 
of  new  tariff  scales  for  both  rail  and  road  and  the  closing, 
on  a  major  scale,  of  branch  lines  to  passenger  traffic.  Steady 
technical  progress  in  the  reconstruction  of  classification 
yards  continued;  above  all  the  electrification  of  the  Paris- 
Dijon  main  line,  due  to  be  partially  opened  early  in  1950, 
proceeded.  The  growth  of  the  auxiliary  transport  operating 
company  (Societ6  de  Controle  et  d'Exploitation  de  Transports 
Auxiliaires)  was  most  satisfactory  and  improved  the  transit 
speed  of  parcels  and  other  small  consignments.  In  Paris 
the  mttro  re-inaugurated  first  class  travel  and  a  Paris  Trans- 
port board  was  set  up. 

More  reliable  information  became  available  at  last  concern- 
ing Western  Germany;  and  the  improvement  in  facilities 
there  offered  opportunities  for  the  acceleration  of  international 
services  in  which  the  German  railway  (Bundesbahn)  occupied 
a  key  position. 

The  breaking  of  rail  communications  between  the  western 
and  eastern  zones  at  Helmstedt  with  their  consequent  replace- 
ment by  an  air-lift  needs  no  comment ;  but  specific  reference 
should  be  made  to  the  reconstruction  of  some  of  the  Rhine 
bridges  and  to  the  great  strides  that  were  made  in  Germany 
towards  regaining  the  famed  prewar  efficiency  of  the  Reichs- 
bahn.  As  some  statistical  measure  it  may  be  noted  that 
nearly  a  million  wagons  were  loaded  in  Dec.  1948,  as  against 
only  about  718,000  in  January  of  that  year,  and  about  one 
million  were  placed  for  loading  in  June  1949  in  the  western 
zones.  The  financial  situation  remained  serious,  however, 
and  the  chances  of  self-financing  from  German  sources  did 
not  seem  very  propitious. 

The  Greek  state  railways  route  from  Athens  to  Larissa 
was  re-opened  in  July,  sections  having  been  out  of  service 
since  Oct.  1944;  thus  with  two  exceptions,  Papapouli- 


Katerini  and  Skydra-Aghia,  the  whole  of  the  state  railways 
system  was  re-opened. 

Praise  was  due  to  the  Italian  state  railways  for  their  fine 
work  in  postwar  reconstruction.  Damage  was  calculated  as 
equalling  75%  of  the  prewar  capital  investment  of  49-5 
million  lire.  On  a  1949  line  basis  the  damage  equalled  over 
£500  million  or  900,000  million  lire;  by  1949,  nearly  500,000 
million  lire  had  been  expended  on  reconstruction.  Specific 
items  completed  in  1949  were  the  Pontelagoscuto  bridge 
across  the  Po,  costing  505  million  lire,  and  the  new  station 
at  Verona.  Indeed,  aid  under  the  European  Recovery 
programme  provided  material  assistance  in  framing  these 
and  other  projects  as  well  as  electrification.  Railway  traffic 
reached  90  %  of  the  prewar  level ;  electric  traction  was  being 
installed  in  Sicily  on  the  Messina- Palermo  and  Syracuse 
lines  and  over  5,000  passenger  coaches  were  in  service  and 
rapido  expresses  were  reinstated  on  the  Rome-Naples  and 
Milan-Bologna  lines. 

In  the  Netherlands  railway  rehabilitation  continued  apace 
and  the  conversion  to  electric  traction  of  the  Maastricht- 
Hind  ho  ven-Heerlen  main  line  was  completed  in  May  1949, 
involving  90  route  mi.  This  changeover  required  the  use,  for 
the  first  time  in  Holland,  of  electric  locomotives  and  should 
reduce  coal  consumption  by  300,000  tons. 

In  Norway  the  conversion  of  another  section  of  the 
Sofland  railway  in  June  to  electric  traction  provided  the 
Norwegian  state  railways  with  a  completely  electrified  route 
from  Oslo  to  Stavanger,  except  for  the  westernmost  section, 
Flekkefjord-Stavanger;  progress  was  made  on  the  northerly 
extension  of  the  Norland  line.  Since  1938,  the  system's 
route  mileage  had  increased  by  about  400  mi.  or  15%  and 
freight  traffic  was  approximately  40%  above  prewar. 

In  Spain  a  further  60  mi.  were  completed  in  the  link  between 
Lerida  and  the  French  frontier  and  the  Spanish  national 
railways  placed  large  orders  for  steam  locomotives  in  Britain. 

In  Switzerland  estimates  were  prepared  of  the  likely 
demand  for  electric  power  over  the  period  1950-59,  about 
95%  of  the  Swiss  Federal  railways  being  electrified. 
It  was  deemed  essential  to  develop  further  some  of  the  hydro- 
electric resources  of  the  Gotthard  to  supplement  the  existing 
Amsteg  and  Ritom  power  stations. 

Developments  in  the  Soviet  Union  were  indefinite;  but 
Kharkov  was  regarded  as  the  centre  of  the  diesel  locomotive 
construction  industry  and  electric  traction  was  inaugurated 
on  the  Nikopol-Dolgintsevo  74  mi.  section  near  Odessa, 
just  prior  to  1949.  The  Poti-Samtredia  28  mi.  line  was 
similarly  converted. 

New  construction  in  Yugoslavia  included  a  34  mi.  standard 


538 


RAILWAYS 


gauge  line  between  Kumanovo  and  Ovce  Polje  and  conversion 
to  standard  gauge  of  the  145  mi.  Skoplje-Ohrid  section 
proceeded.  The  re-laying  of  the  second  track  of  the  Belgrade- 
Zagreb  main  line  was  completed  westwards  from  Belgrade 
to  Novska  by  April  1949. 

Asia,  information  on  events  in  1949  was  sparse  regarding 
many  of  the  Asian  railways;  rehabilitation  continued  in 
Burma  and  Malaya;  and  under  the  Israeli  regime,  the 
Palestine  railways  were  being  extended.  Jn  China  the  position 
was  confused;  but  information  was  available  concerning 
Pakistan  and  India.  As  yet  there  were  no  through  services 
between  western  Pakistan  and  India,  though  eastern  Pakistan 
was  served  by  through  trains  from  Calcutta;  speeds  were 
still  below  the  prewar  level.  Traffic  volume  was  improving  on 
the  North  Western  railway  of  Pakistan  and  receipts  were 
double  those  of  the  1940-47  period.  Pakistan  locomotives 
were  being  converted  to  oil  burning.  In  India  a  surplus  was 
expected  from  railway  operation  in  1949-50  and  works  under 
construction  included  a  new  line  to  provide  a  direct  rail  link 
with  Assam.  On  the  Great  Indian  Peninsular  railway  (G.I. P.) 
the  Mathura-Delhi  route  was  being  widened  and  new  all-metal 
coaching  stock  built  in  India  was  coming  into  service. 

Ceylon  railways  had  long  suffered  from  chronic  deficits  and 
in  1949-50  there  was  to  be  no  exception.  The  system  was 
heavily  indebted  to  the  government  owing  to  greatly  increased 
costs;  improvements  were,  however,  being  effected  to  the 
track  and  structures. 

The  latest  Iraqi  state  railways  report  referred  to  the 
success  of  its  air  subsidiary  which  was  formed  in  1946,  to 
the  progress  made  with  the  70  mi.  extension  from  Kirkuk 
to  Erbil,  a  metre  gauge  line,  and  to  new  bridgework  over 
the  Euphrates.  Orders  for  additional  steam  motive  power 
were  placed  in  Britain  by  the  Iraqi  state  railways. 

Africa.  An  interesting  development  in  Egypt  was  the 
proposed  separation  of  the  railways  and  state  budgets:  in 
fact  this  marked  a  return  to  earlier  policy  because  a  similar 
separation  was  effected  in  1933;  but  in  1940  the  policy  was 
reversed  because,  it  was  claimed,  no  advantage  accrued.  In 
1949  the  objective  was  to  increase  economy  and  develop  the 
railways  as  a  commercial  undertaking.  Though  Egypt 
adhered  to  steam  traction  and  new  units  were  being  received 
in  1949,  the  Tunisian,  Moroccan  and  Algerian  railways  were 
all  converted  to  diesel  traction;  in  Tunis  especially,  the 
changeover  in  1950  was  to  be  extensive.  New  diesel-electric 
locomotives  of  1,500  h.p.  were  working  the  Kenadsa  coal 
trains  in  Morocco  and  new  wagons  were  imported  for  the 
phosphate  traffic.  A  new  28  mi.  line  was  being  constructed 
in  the  Moroccan  anthracite  area  near  Djerada.  In  Algeria, 
40  new  diesel-electrics  were  placed  in  service  and  the  expressed 
intention  was  to  dispense  with  steam  locomotives;  some 
sections  of  line  were  being  converted  to  electric  traction. 

In  Tanganyika  a  new  railway  was  under  construction  in 
the  Southern  Province  as  was  also  a  branch  from  Kaliuwa 
to  serve  the  lead  mines.  New  locomotives  for  the  Nyasaland- 
Trans-Zambesia  railways  were  entering  service  and  in 
Rhodesia  the  new  railway  board  for  government-owned 
railways  took  charge  in  November.  The  Beira  section  became 
Portuguese  property  in  April  1949. 

The  South  African  railways,  so  long  a  very  profitable 
concern,  encountered  financial  difficulties,  a  deficit  of  £6 
million  being  recorded  for  1948  and  the  Rates  Equalization 
fund,  long  acting  as  a  buffer,  fell  60%  in  five  years.  Technical 
progress  nevertheless  continued,  as  for  instance  in  the 
electrification  in  the  Belleville  area;  the  large  Prospect 
classification  yard  was  being  mechanized  so  as  to  handle 
2,500  wagons  daily;  the  welding  of  rails  in  long  lengths  of 
480  ft.  and  960  ft.  was  an  adopted  practice. 

South  America.  Nationalization  of  the  British-owned 
railways  in  Uruguay  became  law  in  Jan.  1949  and  the  sale 


An  electrically-operated  time-table  at  Gare  de  Lyon,  Paris*  which 

was  installed  in   1949  and  provided  information  about  departure 

times  from  Paris  and  arrival  times  at  thirty  Savoie  and  Haute-Savoie 

towns. 

of  the  much  larger  British-owned  lines  in  Argentina  was 
finally  completed  in  May :  the  original  agreement  was  dated 
Feb.  1947  and  the  transfer  to  Argentina  took  place  in 
March  1948.  Some  regrouping  of  lines  took  place  with 
inter-regional  transfers  at  the  beginning  of  1949,  a  policy 
made  possible  by  complete  government  ownership.  Large 
orders  for  diesel  traction  units  were  placed  by  Argentina  in 
Hungary  and  the  United  States,  the  former  for  railcars  and 
the  latter  for  locomotives;  some  of  the  35  units  concerned 
completed  trials  on  the  General  Belgrano  railway.  The 
financial  situation  on  the  railways  caused  concern  and  a 
commission  was  at  work  to  study  a  general  revision  of 
passenger  fares  and  freight  rates;  the  proposed  system  of 
charges  aimed  at  a  small  surplus  over  cost  of  operation. 

In  Brazil,  agreement  was  reached  in  April  for  the  sale  of 
the  Leopoldina  railway  to  the  Brazilian  government  for  about 
£10  million;  and  arrangements  were  made  to  terminate  the 
lease  of  the  Great  Western  of  Brazil,  a  1,040  mi.  metre  gauge 
system,  already  owned  by  the  government.  New  railway 
construction  continued  in  Brazil  under  the  plan  of  the 
national  railways  department,  with  the  primary  object  of 
linking  the  several  state  capitals  and  the  national  capital; 
as  yet  only  six  state  capitals  were  linked  with  Rio  de  Janeiro 
by  rail  but  the  plan  provided  for  17  to  be  so  connected. 
In  traction  matters  new  3,000  h.p.  electric  locomotives  were 
being  placed  in  service  on  the  former  Sao  Paulo  railway, 
electrified  on  the  3,000-volt  D.C.  system:  this  section  was  now 
Brazilian-owned. 

Canada.  In  Canada  the  fact  that  Newfoundland  had 
become  the  tenth  province  resulted  in  the  Canadian  National 
railway  taking  over  the  Newfoundland  railways,  and  in 
British  Columbia  there  were  renewed  proposals  to  extend 
the  Pacific  Great  Eastern  railway  northward.  Other  develop- 
ments included  the  construction  of  the  first  mechanized 
classification  yard  by  the  Canadian  Pacific  in  the  Montreal 
area  and  the  building  of  a  large  new  freight  station  at  Bona- 
venture,  Montreal  (C.N.R.).  Diesel  traction  was  likely  to 
be  standard  in  future  for  both  the  Canadian  lines  and  the 
Montreal- Wei  Is  river  services  on  the  C.P.  became  entirely 
dieselized.  New  electric  locomotives  were  placed  in  service 
at  Montreal  by  the  C.N.  and  the  C.P.  converted  further 
locomotives  to  oil-burning  in  the  Winnipeg-Calgary  area. 
A  royal  commission  was  appointed  to  report  on  the  dominion's 
transport  services  in  Feb.  1949. 

Australasia.  The  New  Zealand  government  railways 
continued  to  operate  at  a  heavy  deficit;  but  services  were 
accelerated  and  additional  electric  equipment  was  received. 


RAILWAYS 


539 


The  major  event  in  Australia  was  the  publication  of  the 
Elliot  report  on  the  Victorian  railways,  proposing  the  setting 
up  of  a  Victorian  Transport  board,  and  this  report  was  an 
epoch-making  landmark  in  Australian  railway  history,  the 
Victorian  system  was  already  benefiting  from  its  publication 
South  Australia  was  undertaking  the  gauge  conversion  of 
part  of  its  mileage;  and  pulverized  coal  was  being  developed 
for  locomotive  purposes  in  Victoria 

The  Tasmaman  transpoit  situation  remained  acute  both 
financially  and  physically,  but  energetic  steps  were  being 
undertaken  to  cope  with  the  position.  (C.  E.  R.  S  ) 

United  States.  The  record  for  1949  was  distinctly  dis- 
couraging from  the  point  of  view  of  the  railway  management, 
stockholders  and  bond  holders.  In  comparison  with  1948 
there  were  substantial  decreases  in  volume  of  traffic,  operating 
revenues,  net  income  and  return  on  capital  investment  The 
greatest  decline  was  in  the  last  quarter  of  the  year.  The 
number  of  loaded  cars  moved  in  October  was  the  lowest  in 
any  October  in  the  last  30  years.  The  outlook  for  1950  was 
not  promising. 

The  decline  in  railway  traffic  was  mainly  due  to  three 
factors:  the  unsettled  business  conditions  which  slowed  up 
production  and  made  manufacturer  and  merchants  reduce 
inventories  and  use  caution  in  future  commitments;  the 
increased  competition  of  carriers  by  highway,  water,  pipe 
line  and  air,  and  the  strikes  of  coal  miners,  steel  workers 
and  others,  which  not  only  reduced  rail  tonnage  in  coal, 
coke,  ore,  steel  and  other  raw  matenals,  but  also  cut  down 
the  output  of  manufactuicrs  dependent  on  these  basic 
commodities 

The  net  income  of  the  railways  was  reduced  by  two 
unfavourable  factors,  the  decline  in  operating  revenues;  and 
the  inability,  because  of  higher  wage  rates  and  advances  in 
the  prices  of  materials,  to  reduce  operating  expenses  in 
proportion  to  the  loss  in  operating  revenues  Increases  in 
height  and  passenger  rates  were  of  material  assistance  but 
they  lagged  behind  the  cost  increases  and  weie  not  sufficient 
entirely  to  overcome  the  effects  of  high  costs  The  return  of 
about  3°i  on  capital  (less  depreciation)  was  only  half  the  6°^ 
minimum  which  railway  spokesmen  asserted  was  necessary 
to  maintain  credit  and  to  enable  the  railways  to  finance 
improvements  vital  to  the  maintenance  of  adequate  service 

The  increased  competition  with  which  the  railways  were 
faced  was  shown  by  the  growing  proportion  of  total  inter- 
city tonnage  can  led  by  highway,  pipe  line  and  inland  waterway 
earners.  According  to  the  figures  of  the  Interstate  Commerce 
commission's  bureau  of  transport  economics  and  statistics, 
the  railway  proportion  of  total  inter-city  ton-miles  fell  from 
66  9°0  in"  1947  to  64  2''0  in  1948;  the  mad  haulage  share 
grew  from  7  8%  to  8  7°0;  the  inland  waterways,  including 
the  Great  Lakes,  carried  14  8°;,  in  1947  and  15  3°0  in  1948; 
and  the  pipe  line  proportion  rose  from  10  5%  to  11  8°o- 
Passenger  services  told  the  same  tale,  with  air  lines  and 
private  motoring  as  the  most  serious  challengers. 

The  gross  capital  expenditure  of  class  I  railways  on  tracks, 
structures,  terminal  and  communication  equipment,  loco- 
motives and  rolling  stock  in  1949  was  estimated  at  $1,297 
million.  Of  that  amount,  $325  million  was  devoted  to  fixed 
property  and  $972  million  went  into  diesel  locomotives  (to 
replace  less  efficient  steam  power),  freight  cars  and  passenger 
cars  of  modern  design  Out  of  1,577  new  locomotives 
installed  during  the  first  10  months  of  the  year  1,524  were 
diesels.  Of  the  locomotives  on  order  on  Nov.  1,  the  diesels 
numbered  812  out  of  833  During  the  12  months  ended 
Oct  31,  1949,  the  number  of  additional  streamlined  passenger 
trains  was  29,  bringing  the  total  number  of  those  modern 
trains  to  147,  with  a  complement  of  3,054  cars  for  292  sets 
of  equipment.  Out  of  a  total  of  127  class  I  railways,  43  had 
one  or  more  of  such  trains.  Practically  all  the  capital  improve- 


ments in  track  and  structures  were  financed  from  earnings — 
net  income  "  ploughed  in  "  instead  of  being  declared  as 
dividends. 

On  June  30,  1949,  the  mileage  of  all  classes  of  railway  in 
the  hands  of  receivers  or  trustees  was  13,736  mi.,  or  5-6%. 
On  the  same  date  in  1948  the  bankrupt  mileage  was  15,100  mi. 
The  Missouri  Pacific,  which  had  been  in  trusteeship  since 
1933,  accounted  for  about  one-half  of  the  toial  bankrupt 
mileage  The  only  notable  addition  to  the  list  ~»f  bankrupt 
railways  was  the  Long  Island.  The  Central  Railroad  Company 
of  New  Jersey  emerged  from  trusteeship  in  June. 

In  the  field  of  relations  between  the  railways  and  the 
government  the  following  events  were  of  note  in  1949: 
The  first  step  towards  the  implementation  of  the  so-called 
"  Bulwinkle  bill,"  enacted  in  1948  to  legalize  the  conference 
method  of  fixing  rail  and  road  rates  under  the  control  of 
the  Interstate  Commerce  commission,  was  made  when  the 
commission  approved  the  western  railways'  application  for 
confirmation  of  their  rate-making  associations  and  other 
joint  agreements  Applications  from  railways  in  other 
sections  and  from  road  haulage  associations  were  pending 
at  the  close  of  the  year.  In  the  case  of  the  western  railways 
the  commission  apparently  was  not  impressed  by  the  view  of 
the  Department  of  Justice,  which  had  opposed  the  enactment 
of  the  "  Bulwinkle  bill/1  that  the  conference  method  of 
rate-making  unduly  restrained  competition  between  carriers. 

The  Interstate  Commerce  commission  began  holding 
hearings  on  Nov.  5  on  the  government  claims  for  reparation 
(refunds)  for  alleged  overcharges  by  railways  on  the  large 
volume  of  government  freight  moved  by  rail  during  the  war 
years  The  reparations,  if  granted  in  full,  would  require  the 
railways  affected  to  turn  back  to  the  government  a  sum 
estimated  to  be  in  excess  of  $2,000  million.  The  net  current 
assets  of  all  class  I  railways  on  Aug.  31,  1949,  were  $1,300 
million,  and  further  their  total  net  income  was  $747  million 
in  1948  and  $474  million  in  1949  (year  ended  Sept.  30). 
The  seriousness  of  the  government  claims  was  therefore 
apparent.  If  reparations  were  to  be  granted  on  the  scale 
urged  by  the  government,  large  scale  railway  bankruptcy 
would  be  almost  certain 

In  order  to  offset  wage  increases  and  high  costs  of  materials, 
the  railways  made  several  applications  to  the  Interstate 
Commerce  commission  in  1949  for  authority  to  increase 
freight  and  passenger  rates.  The  commission  responded 
favourably  but  not  to  the  full  extent  requested  In  January 
the  railways  benefited  by  an  increase  of  5  2°0  in  freight 
rates,  authorized  in  Dec.  1948.  This  was  designated  as  an 
interim  increase  to  afford  partial  relief  while  the  commission 
deliberated  further  The  request  had  been  for  an  increase 
of  13°o-  The  commission's  final  decision,  in  August,  was  to 
permit  as  from  Sept  1  an  average  advance  of  9  1  %,  inclusive 
of  the  5  2°o  interim  increase  effective  in  January.  An  increase 
of  12  5°o  in  passenger  fares,  exclusive  of  suburban  service, 
was  sought  by  the  eastern  railroads  in  June.  It  was  approved 
in  full,  and  was  to  date  from  Nov.  28.  On  the  question  as  to 
whether  the  railways,  by  such  a  rate  advance,  would  be 
"  pricing  themselves  out  of  the  market,"  the  commission 
accepted  the  opinion  of  railway  traffic  officers  that  losses  by 
diversion  of  passengers  to  other  foims  of  transportation 
would  be  much  less  than  gains  in  revenue  from  traffic  which 
would  be  held.  A  minority  of  the  commission,  however, 
expressed  the  view  that  the  higher  fares  would  not  be  likely 
to  bring  in  additional  revenue  and  that  "  vacant  seats  rather 
than  inadequate  fares  are  the  real  cause  of  passenger  deficits." 
In  general,  the  scale  of  all  passenger  fares  in  Dec.  1949  was 
44%  higher  than  in  1939  in  the  east  and  25  °0  higher  in  the 
country  as  a  whole.  (W  J  C.) 

Chicago  Railroad  Fair    The  Chicago  Railroad  fair  of  1949 
set   up  "a   new  attendance  record    by  attracting  2,732,618 


540 


RAKOSI— RAYON 


visitors.  Attendance  in  the  second  year  thus  exceeded  the 
1948  total  of  2,500,813  visitors  and  brought  the  total  atten- 
dance for  the  two  years  of  the  fair  to  5,233,431.  As  in  1948, 
the  most  popular  feature  of  the  1949  Railroad  fair  was  the 
"  Wheels  a-Rolling  "  pageant,  which  depicted  the  history  of 
transportation  over  a  period  of  nearly  300  years.  Contributing 
largely  to  the  pageant's  effectiveness  was  the  four-dimensional 
element  of  time.  Rather  than  a  mere  three-dimensional 
display  of  historic  vehicles,  "  Wheels  a-Rolling  "  recreated 
the  time  in  which  they  actually  were  in  use  and  re-enacted 
the  operation  amid  the  authentic  costumes,  lighting  and 
environmental  features  of  each  succeeding  era.  (L.  R.  L.) 

RAKOSI  (ROTH),  MATY  AS,  Hungarian  politician 
(b.  Ada,  Ba£ka,  Yugoslavia,  March  14,  1892),  son  of  Joseph 
and  Cecilia  nee  Lederer,  entered  the  Budapest  Oriental 
academy  in  1910;  but  in  1912  he  was  working  as  a  clothing 
store  clerk.  At  the  outbreak  of  World  War  I  he  was  mobilized 
and  taken  prisoner  by  the  Russians  in  1915.  He  returned  to 
Hungary  in  1918  and  early  in  1919  joined  the  Hungarian 
Communist  party  organized  by  Bela  Kun.  At  the  time  of  the 
Hungarian  Soviet  republic  (March- Aug.  1919),  he  was 
people's  commissar  of  commerce  and  assistant  commissar 
of  finance.  After  the  collapse  of  the  Communist  regime, 
he  fled  to  Moscow  where  from  1920-24  he  was  secretary  of 
the  executive  committee  of  the  Comintern.  In  1925  he 
returned  to  Hungary,  was  arrested  and  sentenced  to  8^ 
years'  imprisonment.  On  the  termination  of  this  sentence 
he  was  re-tried  in  1934  and  was  condemned  to  life  imprison- 
ment. In  1940  he  was  allowed  to  go  to  Moscow  in  exchange 
for  Hungarian  colours  captured  by  the  Russians  in  1848. 
He  returned  to  Hungary  with  the  Soviet  army  at  the  end  of 
1944,  became  secretary  general  of  the  reconstructed  Hun- 
garian Workers'  (Communist)  party  and  on  Nov.  15,  1945, 
joined  the  Zoltan  Tildy  cabinet  as  deputy  prime  minister. 
He  retained  his  post  in  all  the  following  cabinets  presided 
over  by  Ferenc  Nagy  (Feb.  4,  1946),  Lajos  Dinnye's  (May  31, 
1947),  and  Istvan  Dobi  (Dec.  10,  1948,  and  June  10,  1949). 
During  all  these  years  Rakosi,  helped  by  the  Soviet  power, 
led  an  unrelenting  struggle  against  the  Smallholders'  and 
Social  Democratic  parties,  and  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 

RASMUSSEN,  GUSTAV,  Danish  diplomat  and 
statesman  (b.  Odense,  Aug.  10,  1895).  He  started  his  career 
as  a  secretary  to  the  legation  in  Petrograd  (Leningrad)  in 
1917.  He  graduated  in  law  at  the  University  of  Copenhagen 
in  1921  and  the  following  year  entered  the  Foreign  Office. 
In  1 923  he  went  to  Moscow  as  a  secretary  of  a  Danish  dele- 
gation to  negotiate  various  economic  matters.  In  1927  he 
was  appointed  charge  d'affaires  at  Berne  and  in  1932-33  was 
counsel  and  advocate  at  the  Greenland  dispute  before  the 
Court  of  International  Justice.  In  1939  he  was  appointed 
counsellor  to  the  London  legation,  remaining  there  after  the 
German  invasion  of  Denmark.  At  the  beginning  of  1945  he 
was  appointed  minister  to  Rome.  On  Nov.  8,  1945,  he  joined 
the  Knud  Kristensen  Agrarian  (minority)  government  as 
minister  of  foreign  affairs.  He  was  retained  in  this  position 
by  Hans  Hedtoft  when  on  Nov.  12,  1947,  he  formed  his 
Social  Democrat  (minority)  government.  On  April  4,  1949, 
in  Washington,  Rasmussen  signed  the  North  Atlantic  treaty 
for  Denmark. 

RATIONING.  During  the  early  months  of  1949  there 
was  a  distinct  trend  towards  de-rationing  in  Great  Britain 
and  other  European  countries.  This  was  due  to  an  improve- 
ment of  the  supply  position  in  the  domestic  markets,  caused 
by  the  increase  of  production,  the  maintenance  of  imports 
through  Marshall  aid  and  expanding  intra-European  trade, 
and  reduction  in  the  volume  of  abnormal  postwar  demand. 
Wartime  rationing  had  to  be  maintained  so  long  as  "  too 


much  money  chased  too  few  goods."  When  this  ceased  to  be 
the  case  it  was  possible  for  the  governments  concerned  to 
relax  rationing.  In  Great  Britain,  the  rationing  of  textiles 
was  removed  and  this  change  was  not  followed  by  excessive 
increase  of  demand,  except  in  some  of  the  low-priced  lines. 
The  attempt  to  abolish  sweet  rationing  was  less  successful. 
Owing  to  the  inadequacy  of  supplies,  it  was  found  necessary 
to  revert  to  rationing  in  August. 

On  the  continent,  too,  improved  conditions  made  it 
possible  to  relax  rationing;  in  any  case  in  most  continental 
countries  the  system  never  worked  as  satisfactorily  as  in 
Great  Britain.  In  Australia  and  New  Zealand  rationing 
of  many  products  was  maintained  in  order  to  export  as 
much  food  as  possible  to  Great  Britain.  Following  the  change 
of  government,  in  Australia  the  rationing  of  petrol,  tea  and 
butter  was  abolished. 

Towards  the  middle  of  the  year  the  growing  scarcity  of 
dollars  slowed  down  de-rationing,  and,  in  certain  cases, 
caused  a  reversion  of  the  trend.  In  particular  it  was  found 
necessary  in  many  continental  and  Commonwealth  countries 
to  reinforce  restrictions  on  use  of  petrol  in  order  to  save 
dollars.  But  for  Marshall  aid  it  might  have  been  necessary 
to  ration  tobacco  and  other  goods. 

The  size  of  rations  fluctuated  in  many  countries  according 
to  the  supply  position.  In  particular  the  British  meat  ration 
was  liable  to  alterations  dictated  by  necessity.  During  the 
early  part  of  the  year  difficulties  of  trade  negotiations  with 
the  Argentine  compelled  the  government  to  reduce  the  ration 
for  some  time.  Even  factors  such  as  the  prolonged  drought 
during  the  summer  influenced  the  size  of  meat  rations  in 
Europe,  becasue  a  large  number  of  animals  had  to  be  slaught- 
ered for  lack  of  feeding  stuffs. 

Notwithstanding  the  setback  caused  by  the  accentuation 
of  the  dollar  shortage,  there  was,  on  balance,  noteworthy 
progress  during  1949  towards  the  abolition  of  rationing. 
The  usual  rationing  by  purse  returned.  Excessive  purchasing 
power  in  possession  of  consumers  was  largely  curtailed  by 
the  high  prices  that  had  to  be  paid  for  uncontrolled  goods, 
and  also  for  controlled  goods  on  the  black  market  in  continen- 
tal countries.  Even  so,  apart  from  Belgium  and  Switzerland, 
European  countries  had  to  retain  rationing  of  essential 
foodstuffs. 

One  of  the  obstacles  to  the  abolition  of  food  rationing  was 
the  continuation  of  food  subsidies.  Free  dealing  in  essential 
foods  would  have  meant  a  sharp  rise  in  their  price  following 
the  abolition  of  subsidies.  Alternatively,  if  price  control 
were  maintained  on  de-rationed  food,  supplies  might  dis- 
appear before  late-comers  had  a  chance  of  acquiring  their 
fair  share,  as  was  the  case  with  chocolate  and  sweets  in  Great 
Britain.  During  1949  agitations  in  favour  of  the  abolition  of 
food  subsidies  as  the  preliminary  step  towards  the  abolition 
of  food  rationing  continued.  It  came  to  be  realized,  however, 
in  most  quarters  that  this  would  not  yet  be  possible  and  that 
any  sudden  change  might  entail  grave  social  and  economic 
consequences.  For  this  reason  the  abolition  of  food  sub- 
sidies was  now  advocated  as  a  long-term  programme  to  be 
adopted  gradually.  Consequently  food  rationing  was  also 
expected  to  remain  in  force  for  some  time  to  come.  (P.  EG.) 

RAYON  AND  OTHER  SYNTHETIC  FIBRES. 

In  March  1949  when  world  capacity  for  the  production  of 
synthetic  yarns  was  already  one-third  greater  than  in  1948, 
it  was  believed  that  by  the  end  of  the  year  the  world's  output 
would  be  3,585,1 50,000  lb.,  and  by  the  end  of  1950, 
4,032,850,000  lb. 

A  notable  example  of  work  on  the  industry's  programme 
was  the  expansion  of  the  factory  at  Pontypool,  Monmouth- 
shire. In  April  1948  this  factory  began  to  produce  a  small 
quantity  of  nylon  yarn.  Early  in  1949  it  had  doubled  its 


RED   CROSS 


541 


output  and  was  expected  to  produce  10  million  Ib.  in  1950, 
or  ten  times  the  1948  production. 

A  rayon  design  centre  was  opened  in  London  early  m 
1949  by  the  president  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  who  said  then 
that  in  less  than  20  years  the  production  of  this  industry  had 
increased  a  hundredfold  and  its  manufactures  had  become  a 
major  export. 

In  May,  a  team  drawn  from  all  grades  in  the  weaving 
section  of  the  industry  toured  the  United  States  to  study 
American  methods  of  rayon  weaving. 

New  records  in  output  were  established  during  the  year. 
In  1948  the  total  output  of  yarn  was  147  million  Ib.,  including 
all  synthetics.  About  1  million  Ib.  was  nylon  and  this  pro- 
portion was  expected  to  increase  following  the  expansion 
at  Pontypool. 

In  March  1949  the  output  of  rayon  staple  and  rayon  yarn 
was  higher  than  it  had  ever  been.  In  July  it  reached  10,200,000 
Ib.  and  in  September  12,415,000  Ib.  In  the  third  quarter  of 
the  year  the  total  output  of  yarn  and  staple  reached  a  monthly 
average  of  24,428, 000  Ib.,  or  33%  more  than  for  the  same 
period  of  1948. 


RAYON  PRODLK  FION,  GREAI    BKIIAIN,   1949 


Jan 

heh 

March 

April 

May 

June 


Staple 
7,500 
7,600 
9,300 
7,800 
9,900 
8,400 


(thousand  Ib  ) 
Yarn 

13,800  July 
13,400 
15,500 
13,200 
14,700 
13,700 


Aug 
Sepi 
Oct 
Nov 
Dec 


Staple 
10,200 
8,800 
12,400 
10,900 
12,200 
12,200 


Yarn 

14,400 

12,900 

14,600 

15,100 

1 5.600 

14,500 


The  export  target  for  the  rayon  industry  was  raised  for  the 
end  of  1949  to  a  monthly  rate  of  £4,300,000,  from  the 
£4,210,000  fixed  for  the  end  of  1948.  Though  the  monthly 
rate  for  the  first  quarter  of  1949  was  an  increase  of  19%  over 
the  average  monthly  rate  for  1948,  by  the  middle  of  the  year 
firms  were  reporting  that  export  business  was  falling  off, 
partly  because  of  an  increase  in  world  production  and  an 
accumulation  of  stocks.  The  output  of  rayon  yarn  continued 
to  expand  more  rapidly  than  yarn  expoits,  which  fell  in  the 
second  quarter  of  the  year  by  19%  compared  with  the  first 
quarter.  Rayon  fabrics,  on  the  other  1  and,  set  up  a  new 
record  in  June,  at  17,712,000  sq.  yd.  Pi  ogress  towards  the 
end- 1949  target  of  £4  30  million  was  not  pi  omising,  though  the 
effect  of  devaluation  mopening  up  marketshadnotyet  appeared. 
In  the  first  quarter  the  monthly  rate  was  £3-71  million;  in 
the  second  £3  68  million;  and  in  the  third  £3  29  million. 

The  price  of  rayon  remained  low  compared  with  cotton 
and  wool.  In  March  the  price  of  viscose  rayon  staple  went 
up  from  \b\d.  a  Ib.  to  18^/.  a  Ib.  It  was  stated  that  the  price  of 
American  raw  cotton  had  gone  up  by  300%  since  mid- 1939, 
of  Egyptian  Kainak  by  500%,  and  of  raw  wool  by  about 
250%,  while  that  of  rayon  staple  had  gone  up  by  only  80%. 

Rayon,  which  had  been  subject  to  less  government  control 
than  cotton  during  and  after  World  War  II ,  was  freed  from 
some  restriction  during  1949.  The  Board  of  Trade,  after 
consultation  with  the  rayon  weavers,  agreed  to  transfer  from 
the  Cotton  board  to  the  Rayon  Weaving  association  responsi- 
bility for  the  issuing  of  rayon  and  spun  rayon  yarn  permits 
to  weavers,  instructions  as  to  the  use  of  the  yarns  obtained 
and  the  collection  of  information  relating  to  rayon,  spun 
rayon  and  mixture  utility  fabric  production.  Responsibility 
for  policy  remained  with  the  Board  of  Trade,  which  acted  in 
close  collaboration  with  the  British  Rayon  federation. 

Of  major  importance  in  the  synthetics  industry  of  the 
Commonwealth  in  1949  was  the  decision  to  start  making 
rayon  staple  at  Cornwall,  Ontario.  Some  $17  million  was 
to  be  spent  on  the  extension  and  modernization  of  plant  and 
production  began  in  August.  Output  was  expected  to  be 
10  million  Ib.  by  the  end  of  the  year,  roughly  80  %  of  Canada's 
consumption. 


The  Indian  government  showed  during  1949  an  increasing 
interest  in  the  development  of  its  home  rayon  industry  and 
first  steps  were  taken  towards  the  establishment  of  a  rayon- 
yarn  producing  mill  at  Allahabad. 

On  the  continent,  Germany,  which  in  1948  held  second 
place  in  world  production  of  rayon  staple  and  fourth  in 
filament  yarn,  and  France,  which  was  third  for  yarn  and 
fourth  for  staple,  both  recorded  progress,  as  did  Finland, 
Norway,  Sweden  and  Spain.  Italy  and  Belgium  both 
curtailed  output  during  the  year,  as  did  the  United  States, 
the  leading  producer  in  all  fields.  (C.  F.  DM.) 

United  States.  World  production  of  rayon  in  1949  was 
about  2,690  million  pounds,  compared  with  2,477 
million  pounds  in  1948.  Of  this  total,  the  United  States 
produced  36-9%  compared  with  45-4%  in  1948,  56-7%  in 
1945  and  19-1%  in  1940. 

Rayon  prices  in  the  United  States  reflected  the  downward 
trend  of  other  textile  prices.  Filament  rayon  averaged  73 
cents  per  pound  as  against  the  average  of  75  cents  per  pound 
in  1948.  Spun  rayon  yarn  prices  experienced  a  greater  drop, 
the  average  for  the  year  being  72  cents  per  pound  as  against 
the  1948  average  of  90  cents  per  pound. 

As  was  the  case  with  rayon  yarns,  output  of  rayon  fabrics 
in  the  U.S.  also  decreased.  Total  production  was  1,950 
million  yards,  11%  below  the  1948  production  of  2,190 
million  yards. 

Production  of  all-nylon  fabric  in  the  U.S.  jumped  from 
32  5  million  yards  in  1948  to  87-7  million  yards  in  1949 
(last  three  months  estimated).  In  addition,  there  was  a 
large  quantity  of  nylon-and-acetate-rayon  fabric  made  for 
which  no  production  statistics  were  available.  A  mixture 
of  12%  nylon  and  88%  acetate  rayon  was  normally  used 
for  this  fabric.  (See  also  TEXTILE  INDUSTRY.)  (1.  L.  BL.) 

RED  CROSS.  The  outstanding  event  for  the  Red 
Cross  world  in  1949  was,  strictly  speaking,  not  a  Red  Cross 
action  but  the  meeting  at  Geneva,  Switzerland,  April  21- 
Aug.  12,  of  representatives  of  58  nations  for  the  revision, 
drafting  and  signature  of  what  are  known  as  the  humani- 
tarian conventions.  The  three  conventions  revised  were: 
Convention  for  the  Adaptation  of  Naval  Warfare  to  the 
Principles  of  the  Geneva  Convention  (1907);  Convention 
for  the  Protection  of  Sick  and  Wounded  of  Armies  in  the 
Field  (1929);  and  Prisoner  of  War  Convention  (1929).  A 
fourth — and  new — Convention  for  the  Protection  of  Civilian 
Persons  in  Time  of  War,  drafted  at  a  meeting  of  representa- 
tives of  national  Red  Cross  societies  in  Geneva  in  Aug.  1946 
and  approved  by  the  17th  International  Red  Cross  con- 
ference which  met  at  Stockholm  in  1948,  was  adopted. 
Formal  ratification  of  these  conventions  took  place  at 
Geneva  on  Dec.  8,  1949. 

Next  in  importance  in  the  Red  Cross  world  during  1949 
were  relief  activities  undertaken  by  the  International  Red 
Cross  at  the  request  of  the  United  Nations.  On  Jan.  1  the 
League  of  Red  Cross  Societies  assumed  responsibility  for  the 
care  of  330,000  Palestine  refugees  in  Syria,  Iraq,  Lebanon, 
Jordan  and  Egypt;  the  International  Committee  of  the  Red 
Cross  for  395,000  in  northern  and  central  Palestine;  and  the 
American  Friends  Service  committee  for  212,000  in  southern 
Palestine.  This  programme  was  financed  at  a  cost  of  approxi- 
mately $2  million  monthly  by  voluntary  national  contribu- 
tions through  the  United  Nations. 

A  second  mandate  given  to  the  International  Red  Cross  by 
the  U.N.  general  assembly  in  Paris,  Dec.  1948,  was  for  the 
repatriation  of  25,000  Greek  children  separated  from  their 
families  and  living  in  Czechoslovakia,  Hungary,  Yugoslavia, 
Bulgaria  and  Rumania.  Lists  of  the  names  and  descriptions 
of  approximately  6,000  of  these  children  compiled  by  the 
Greek  Red  Cross  were  transmitted  by  the  International  Red 


542 


REFUGEES 


Sir  Robert  Craigie  (right),  head  of  the  British  delegation,  signing 

the  final  act  of  the  International  Red  Cross  conference  at  Geneva, 

Aug.  12,  1949. 

Cross  to  the  Red  Cross  societies  of  the  above-mentioned 
countries  for  use  in  identifying  the  children  but  at  the  end  of 
Oct.  1949  only  138  in  Czechoslovakia  had  been  identified. 
(See  also  GREECE  ) 

Appeals  also  were  received  by  the  League  of  Red  Cross 
Societies  from  the  Red  Cross  societies  of  Poland  and  the 
U.S.S.R.  to  assist  in  identifying  and  repatriating  Polish  and 
Soviet  children  in  the  western  zones  of  Germany  and  Austria. 

Additional  relief  actions  were  undertaken  by  the  League  of 
Red  Cross  Societies  in  India  and  Pakistan  (assistance  to 
600,000  refugees);  Greece  (706,000  refugees);  Germany 
(11  million  refugees);  Ecuador  (earthquake)  and  Guatemala 
(floods).  Assistance  to  the  International  Refugee  organization 
in  the  resettlement  of  displaced  persons  continued. 

Membership  in  the  League  of  Red  Cross  Societies  was 
increased  to  68  nations  by  the  addition  of  the  Red  Cross 
societies  of  Ethiopia  and  Jordan.  (See  also  PRISONERS  OF 
WAR.)  (H.  W.  Do.) 

REFUGEES.  Europe.  Progress  in  the  repatriation  and 
resettlement  of  the  Polish,  Baltic  (Latvian,  Lithuanian  and 
Estonian),  Ukrainian,  Yugoslav,  Jewish  and  other  refugees  and 
displaced  persons  remaining  in  Germany,  Austria  and  Italy  as 
the  aftermath  of  World  War  II,  continued  during  1949.  Their 
re-establishment  in  ways  of  living  more  normal  than  those 
of  the  displaced  persons'  camps,  which  had  been  the  abode 
of  many  since  1939,  was  the  special  concern  of  the  Inter- 
national Refugee  organization  (I.R.O.)  which  came  into 
formal  existence  as  a  specialized  agency  of  the  United  Nations 
in  Aug.  1948.  This  organization  and  its  predecessor,  the 
Preparatory  Commission  for  the  I.R.O.,  had  undertaken  in 
July  1947  to  attack  the  problem  of  over  1,000,000  refugees 
and  displaced  persons  in  Central  Europe  who  had  refused 
repatriation  to  their  home  countries  of  eastern  Europe 
because  of  political  changes  resulting  from  the  war. 

Italy  and  Switzerland  joined  the  organization  during  the 
year  and  added  their  efforts  to  those  of  the  16  other  nations — 
to  make  possible  the  application  of  over  $150  million  in 
resources  annually  to  the  solution  of  the  problem.  These 


funds  were  used  to  provide  care  and  maintenance  in  camps, 
clothing,  medical  services,  vocational  training,  a  tracing 
service  for  missing  persons  and,  most  important,  transporta- 
tion to  overseas  countries  of  resettlement.  The  United  States 
contributed  over  $70  million  to  the  I.R.O.  budget  for  the 
year  1949-50. 

During  1949,318,096  were  resettled  or  repatriated  from 
Germany,  Austria  and  Italy,  but  on  Dec.  31  the  I.R.O. 
care  was  still  being  extended  to  588,768  refugees.  The  I.R.O. 
maintained  a  fleet  of  35  ships  engaged  in  the  movement  of 
refugees  to  overseas  countries  such  as  Australia,  Brazil, 
Canada,  the  United  States  and  Venezuela.  The  movement 
of  Jewish  refugees  to  Israel  which  totalled  over  143,OOQ 
since  1947  was  organized  by  the  Jewish  Agency  for  Palestine 
with  funds  supplied  by  the  I.R.O.  By  Dec.  31,  1949,  less  than 
40,000  Jewish  refugees  remained  in  central  Europe  awaiting 
disposition.  Over  100,000  persons  were  transported  to  the 
United  States  by  I.R.O.  under  the  provisions  of  the  U.S. 
Displaced  Persons  act  of  1948,  which  provided  for  the 
admission  of  205,000  by  June  30,  1950.  Efforts  to  amend  the 
act  persisted  in  the  U.S.  congress.  Amendments  increasing 
the  numbers  to  be  admitted  to  339,000,  eliminating  the 
preferences  for  farmers  and  for  persons  from  "  de  facto 
annexed  "  areas  and  moving  the  eligibility  date  forward 
from  Dec.  22,  1945,  to  Jan.  1,  1949,  passed  the  House  of 
Representatives,  but  remained  under  consideration  by  the 
Senate.  During  1949  approximately  85,000  refugees  were 
moved  to  Australia  and  27,500  to  Canada. 

At  the  meetings  of  the  general  council  of  I.R.O.  in  July 
and  Oct.  1949  in  Geneva  plans  were  adopted  looking  toward 
the  conclusion  of  operations;  it  was  envisaged  that  all  of 
those  qualified  for  admission  to  receiving  countries  of 
immigration  would  have  been  resettled  by  the  spring  of  1951. 
Consequently  it  was  decided  to  discontinue  care  and  main- 
tenance of  refugees  in  the  camps  after  June  30,  1950,  and  to 
continue  thereafter  the  resettlement  of  those  who  were  in 
process  of  movement  by  that  date.  These  decisions  left 
unresolved  two  important  problems  affecting  refugees, 
namely  provision  for  the  continuing  care  of  the  non-resettle- 
able  refugees,  including  some  26,000  persons  who  would 
require  institutional  care  after  June  30,  1950,  and  the  legal 
protection  of  all  refugees  pending  their  acquisition  of  a 
citizenship  in  a  new  country  of  residence  which  would  give 
them  normal  civil  status  essential  to  self-dependence. 

About  180,000  non-resettleable  refugees  consisted  of  the 
aged  and  infirm,  those  suffering  from  tuberculosis,  the  blind 
and  deaf,  and  those  otherwise  physically  handicapped  and 
unable  to  meet  the  high  health  requirements  of  immigration 
countries,  or  lacking  sponsors  to  guarantee  that  they  would 
not  become  public  charges  after  admission.  Some  of  the 
member  governments  of  I.R.O.  such  as  Belgium,  New 
Zealand,  the  Netherlands,  Norway  and  the  United  Kingdom 
were  giving  serious  consideration  at  the  end  of  the  year  to 
the  acceptance  of  limited  numbers  of  these  permanently 
dependent  refugees.  Israel  offered  to  receive  all  remaining 
handicapped  Jewish  refugees  in  consideration  of  financial 
assistance  from  I.R.O.  in  the  construction  of  hospitals  and 
other  institutions  for  their  permanent  care.  The  I.R.O. 
allocated  $22  million  in  its  budgets  for  the  years  1949-50 
and  1950-51  as  its  contribution  toward  the  provision  of 
continuing  care  for  the  non-resettleable  group. 

The  continuing  legal  protection  of  refugees  after  the 
termination  of  I.R.O.  services  was  considered  by  the  Econo- 
mic and  Social  council  of  the  U.N.  at  its  ninth  session  in 
Geneva  (July  1949)  and  by  the  general  assembly  at  its  fourth 
session  in  New  York  (Nov.-Dec.  1949).  Following  the 
pattern  established  by  the  League  of  Nations  the  general 
assembly  decided  to  establish  as  from  Jan.  1 , 195 1 ,  the  Office  of 
High  Commissioner  for  Refugees  for  a  period  of  three  years, 


REPARATIONS 


543 


with  headquarters  in  Geneva.  The  Economic  and  Social  Council 
also  established  an  ad  hoc  committee  to  convene  in  Jan. 
1950  at  Lake  Success  to  revise  and  to  consolidate  in  one 
draft  convention  all  the  existing  international  arrangements, 
agreements  and  conventions  providing  for  the  protection 
and  documentation  of  refugees,  notably  the  Geneva  con- 
ventions of  1933  and  1938,  and  the  London  travel  agreement 
of  1946. 

Middle  East.  The  U.N.  Relief  for  Palestinian  Refugees, 
created  by  the  general  assembly  of  the  United  Nations  at 
its  third  session  in  Paris  in  1948,  administered  relief  during 
the  year  to  750,000  refugees  from  the  conflict  in  Palestine 
and  an  additional  200,000  Arabs  whose  means  of  livelihood 
in  Arab  Palestine,  Jordan  and  the  Gaza  area  had  been 
affected  by  the  armistice  agreements  still  in  effect  at  the 
end  of  the  year.  Thirty-three  governments  had  contributed 
a  total  of  $32  million  in  funds  and  supplies  to  maintain, 
house  and  clothe  these  refugees  pending  a  political  settlement 
which  the  Palestine  Conciliation  commission,  also  established 
by  the  United  Nations,  was  endeavouring  to  achieve.  The 
direct  administration  of  relief  under  the  auspices  of  the 
U.N.R.P.R.  was  conducted  by  the  International  Committee 
of  the  Red  Cross,  the  League  of  Red  Cross  Societies  and  the 
American  Friends  Service  committee,  assisted  by  many  other 
voluntary  agencies. 

As  the  political  settlement  was  delayed  and  the  repatriation 
of  the  refugees  to  their  former  homes  in  Israel  and  Israeli- 
held  areas  appeared  unlikely  to  take  place,  the  Palestine 
Conciliation  commission  organized  the  Economic  Survey 
Mission  for  the  Middle  East  which  recommended  to  the 
fourth  session  of  the  general  assembly  of  the  United  Nations 
(New  York,  Nov.-Dec.  1949)  the  creation  of  a  new  agency 
to  undertake  a  works  programme  for  the  refugees  which 
would  supplant  the  relief  programme  by  Dec.  30,  1950. 

The  general  assembly  voted  on  Dec.  8,  1949,  to  establish 
the  U.N.  Relief  and  Works  Agency  for  Palestine  Refugees 
to  take  over  the  relief  activities  of  the  U.N.R.P.R.,  scheduled 


Refugees  from  Stettin,  in  prewar  Germany  but  now  in  Poland,  at  an 
open-air  meeting  in  Berlin,  Oct.  1949. 


to  discontinue  operations  by  April  1950.  A  budget  of 
$54-9  million  for  18  months  was  adopted,  including  $33-7 
million  for  relief  and  works  projects  during  1950  and  $21  -2 
million  for  works  projects  for  the  period  Jan.  1  to  June  30, 
1951.  This  action  of  the  general  assembly  recognized  that 
continued  assistance  to  Palestine  refugees  was  necessary 
to  prevent  starvation  and  distress  and  to  further  peace  and 
stability  in  the  area,  and  that  constructive  measures  looking 
toward  the  rehabilitation  of  the  refugees  would  have  to  be 
undertaken  to  replace  the  administration  of  direct  relief. 
The  resolution  provided  that  the  director  of  the  agency  was 
to  bp  appointed  by  the  secretary-general  of  the  U.N.  in 
consultation  withr'the  members  of  an  advisory  commission 
consisting  of  representatives  of  France,  Turkey,  the  United 
Kingdom  and  the  United  States,  and  that  he  was  to  be 
responsible  directly  to  the  general  assembly.  (G.  L.  W.) 

REPARATIONS.  Germany.  Important  agreements 
made  during  the  year  by  the  United  States,  France  and  the 
United  Kingdom  substantially  lowered  the  level  of  future 
reparations  removals  from  Western  Germany  and  made 
possible  an  early  termination  of  the  programme. 

The   Economic   Co-operation   administration   announced 
on  Jan.  18  that  Paul  Hoffman  had  accepted  the  recommenda- 
tions that  had  been  made  on  Jan.  12  by  the  industrial  advisory 
committee  headed   by   George   M.   Humphrey  urging  the 
retention  in  Germany  of  certain  equipment  in  167  of  the  381 
plants  which  it  had  surveyed.    On  Feb.  23,  Lewis  Douglas, 
U.S.  ambassador  in  London,  initiated  formal  discussion  of 
the  recommendations  with  British  and  French  officials  in 
conjunction  with  a  report  from  the  military  governors  of  the 
three  western  zones  on  a  revised  list  of  prohibitions  and 
restrictions  which  should  be  applied  to  German  industry 
on  security  grounds.    In  the  course  of  those  negotiations  5 
steel  plants,  3  chemical  plants  and  certain  equipment  in  another 
steel  plant  were  removed  from  the  list  of  projected  exemptions 
at  the  insistence  of  the  British  and  French  governments, 
thus  reducing  the  number  of  exempted  plants  from  167  to  159. 
Formal  announcement  of  the  agreement  was  made  in 
Washington,  London  and  Paris  on  April  13.     The  U.S. 
State  Department  pointed  out  that  the  revision  had  been  made 
in  order  to  bring  the  dismantling  programme  into  harmony 
with  the  European  Recovery  programme.    Most  of  the  159 
plants  were  located  in  the  British  zone  and  the  amount  of 
equipment  which  had  been  scheduled  for  removal  from  them 
varied  from  a  single  piece  of  equipment  to  the  entire  equip- 
ment of  an  operating  factory.    The  affected  plants  included 
32  plants  in  the  steel  industry  (only  5  of  which  produced 
raw  steel),  88  metal  working  plants,  32  chemical  plants  and  7 
non-ferrous  metal  plants.    It  was  estimated  that  the  exemp- 
tions would  reduce  by  10%  the  total  value  of  all  plants, 
including  war  plants,  scheduled  to  be  removed  as  reparations. 
The  policy  of  taking  reparations  from  Germany  continued 
to  be  attacked,  both  in  Germany  and  elsewhere,  including 
the  U.S.  congress.      German  protests  ranged  from  press 
propaganda  to  strikes  by  workers  and  official  opposition. 
Soon  after  the  inauguration  of  the  German  federal  republic, 
the  chancellor,  Dr.  Konrad  Adenauer,  began  pressing  Allied 
representatives  for  further  concessions  and  at  their  meeting 
in  Paris  on  Nov.  9-10,  Dean  Acheson,  Ernest  Bevin  and 
Maurice  Schuman  agreed  to  authorize  their  respective  high 
commissioners  in  Germany  to  discuss  the  subject  of  dis- 
mantling with  Dr.  Adenauer  with  a  view  to  final  settlement 
of  the  problem.     The  agreement  reached  was  initialled  at 
Bonn  on  Nov.  22;     it  provided  for  the  removal  from  the 
reparations  list  of  1 1  synthetic  oil  and  rubber  plants,  7  steel 
plants  and  the  cessation  of  all  dismantling  in  western  Berlin 
and,  with  certain  exceptions,  at  the  I.G.  Farben  plant  at 
Ludwigshafen-Oppau. 


544 


REYNAUD— RICHARDSON 


It  was  reported  on  Sept.  15  that  the  U.S.,  France  and  the 
United  Kingdom  had  agreed  not  to  make  any  further 
deliveries  of  industrial  plant  to  the  U.S  S.R.  as  reparations, 
and  on  Dec.  3  the  19  members  of  the  Inter-Allied  Reparation 
agency  were  reported  to  have  decided  to  divide  among 
themselves  the  German  industrial  equipment  stored  in 
Western  Germany  which  had  originally  been  destined  for 
the  U.S. S.R.  under  the  Potsdam  agreement. 

Austria.  At  its  meeting  in  Paris  from  May  23  to  June  20, 
the  council  of  foreign  ministers  agreed  that  reparations 
should  not  be  exacted  from  Austria,  thereby  rejecting 
Yugoslavia's  claims.  It  was  stipulated,  however,  that  the 
U.S. S.R.  should  receive  from  Austria  the  sum  of  $150 
million  over  a  period  of  six  years,  with  the  additional  proviso 
that,  although  there  should  be  relinquished  to  Austria  all 
property,  rights  and  interests  claimed  as  German  assets  or 
war  booty,  the  U.S  S.R.  should  receive  outright  all  the 
assets  of  the  Danube  Shipping  company  in  Bulgaria,  Hungary, 
Rumania  and  eastern  Austria  as  well  as  the  possession  of 
60%  of  Austria's  oil  properties  for  a  period  of  30  years. 

Japan.  On  May  12  the  Far  Eastern  commission  was 
advised  by  Major  General  Frank  R.  McCoy  of  the  decision 
of  the  U.S.  government  to  terminate  the  Advance  Transfer 
programme,  to  take  no  further  unilateral  action  to  make 
possible  additional  reparations  removals  from  Japan  and  to 
submit  to  the  commission  new  policy  proposals  which  would 
have  the  effect,  if  adopted,  of  precluding  further  industrial 
reparations  removals  from  Japan  during  the  occupation. 
General  McCoy's  statement  emphasized  that  (a)  the  burden 
of  further  reparations  removals  from  Japan  could  detract 
seriously  from  the  occupation  objective  of  stabilizing  the 
Japanese  economy  and  permitting  it  to  move  toward  self- 
support;  (b)  the  failure  of  the  commission  to  agree  upon  a 
reparations  shares  schedule  made  it  impossible  to  implement 
existing  commission  decisions  regarding  reparations;  and 
(c)  Japan  had  already  paid  substantial  reparations  through 
expropriation  of  its  former  overseas  assets  and,  in  smaller 
degree,  under  the  Advance  Transfer  programme. 

The  U.S.  decision  was  translated  into  U.S.  joint  chiefs 
of  staff  interim  directive  104,  dated  May  13,  for  implementa- 
tion by  General  Douglas  MacArthur.  It  provided  that 
*'  items  already  processed "  under  the  Advance  Transfer 
programme  "  will  be  made  available  for  removal ",  and  was 
interpreted  to  include  reparations  already  packaged  and  in 
the  process  of  being  packaged  as  well  as  items  allocated  but 
not  yet  packaged. 

Actual  deliveries  under  the  Advance  Transfer  programme 
from  the  date  of  its  initiation  to  Nov.  30  were  as  follows 
(in  thousands  of  yen,  1939  values): 

Claimant  Segment  /*     Segment  2*  Segment  3 

China     .          .  51,492  682  6,254 

226  4,051 

218  2,242 

197  9,715 


Netherlands    . 
Philippines 
United  Kingdom 


Segment  /* 
51,492 
11,557 

18,527 
9,723 


Total 
58,428 
15,834 
20,987 
19,635 


Total  .          .      91,299  1,323  22,262  114,884 

*  Deliveries  completed  and  account  closed 

Total  allocations  from  segment  3,  the  only  segment  from 
which  deliveries  were  still  to  be  made  at  the  end  of  the  year, 
were  63,256,641  yen  (including  deliveries  already  made  as 
indicated  in  the  table  above).  Allocations  by  country  were 
as  follows:  China,  27,848,082  yen;  Netherlands,  6,992,816 
yen;  Philippines,  13,222,869  yen;  United  Kingdom, 
15,192,874  yen. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  Inter-Allied  Reparation  agency,  Report  of  the 
Secretary  General  for  1948  (Brussels,  1949);  Far  Eastern  commission, 
Second  Report  of  the  Secretary  General,  July  10,  1947- Dec  23,  1948 
(Washington,  1949).  '  (J.  W.  Mw.) 

REPRESENTATIVES,  HOUSE  OF:  see  CONGRESS, 
U.S. 


REPUBLICAN  PARTY,  U.S.:  see  POLITICAL  PARTIES, 
U.S. 

RESTAURANTS:  see  HOTELS,  RESTAURANIS  AND  INNS. 
REUNION:  see  FRENCH  UNION. 

REYNAUD,  PAUL,  French  statesman  (b.  Barcelon- 
nette,  Basses-Alpes,  Oct.  15,  1878).  After  receiving  his 
doctorate  of  law  from  the  University  of  Pans,  he  began  his 
career  as  a  lawyer.  He  joined  the  moderately  conservative 
Democratic  Alliance  party,  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  for  the  departement  of  Basses-Alpes, 
1919-24,  and  for  Paris  in  1928,  1932  and  1936.  He  was 
minister  of  finance  (March-Dec.  1930),  minister  of  colonies 
(Feb.  1931 -Feb.  1932),  vice  premier  and  minister  of  justice 
(Feb.-May  1932)  and  for  seven  months  minister  of  justice 
and  later  of  finance  (April  1938-March  1940).  On  March 
21,  1940,  he  became  prime  minister  and  minister  of  foreign 
affairs;  he  reshuffled  the  cabinet  on  May  18  by  taking  over 
the  portfolio  of  national  defence  from  Edouard  Daladier 
(who  now  became  minister  of  foreign  affairs)  and  appointing 
Marshal  Philippe  Petain  as  vice  premier.  On  June  6  he 
dropped  Daladier,  took  back  the  portfolio  of  foreign  affairs, 
but  resigned  on  June  16,  to  be  succeeded  by  a  capitulation 
government  headed  by  Petain.  Arrested  on  Sept.  7,  1940, 
he  was  interned,  then  detained  in  a  fortress  after  trial  at 
Riom  (Oct.  1941);  in  Nov.  1942  he  was  handed  over  to  the 
Germans  who  transported  him  to  the  Oranienburg  concen- 
tration camp.  At  the  beginning  of  1945  he  was  transferred 
to  the  Tyrolean  Alps  where  he  was  set  free  by  the  7th  U.S. 
army  on  May  6.  He  was  elected  on  June  2,  1946,  by  the 
departement  of  Nord  as  a  member  of  the  second  Constituent 
Assembly  and  on  Nov.  10,  1946,  of  the  National  Assembly. 
He  was  minister  of  finance  in  the  Andre  Marie  cabinet 
(July  26-Aug.  28,  1948).  During  1949  he  emerged  as  the 
most  formidable  critic  of  the  Queuille  and  Bidault  govern- 
ments. 

RHEE,  SYNGMAN  (REE  SYN-MAN),  Korean  political 
leader  (b.  Whanghai  province,  Korea,  April  26,  1875), 
received  a  classical  Chinese  education  and  then  enrolled  in  a 
Methodist  mission  school  in  Seoul.  Imbued  with  demo- 
cratic ideals,  he  joined  an  Independence  club  in  1894  and 
founded  the  Independent,  Korea's  first  daily  newspaper. 
In  1 897  he  led  a  mass  demonstration  of  students  against  the 
Japanese,  was  arrested  and  sentenced  to  life  imprisonment, 
He  became  a  Christian  convert,  and  while  in  prison  wrote 
a  book,  Spirit  of  Independence.  Released  in  a  1904  general 
amnesty,  he  travelled  to  the  U.S.,  where  he  studied  at  Har- 
vard and  Princeton.  He  returned  to  Korea  in  1910  to 
organize  resistance  to  the  Japanese  occupiers.  Discovered, 
he  fled  to  Hawaii  where  he  directed  the  Korean  Christian 
institute  until  1939.  On  March  1,  1919,  a  group  of  Korean 
patriots  signed  a  declaration  of  independence,  set  up  an 
exile  government  in  Shanghai,  China,  and  elected  Rhee 
president.  He  was  regularly  re-elected  until  1941.  To  win 
U.S.  recognition  of  Korean  independence  claims,  he  went  to 
Washington  during  World  War  11.  In  1945  he  returned  to 
Korea.  Rhee  was  elected  fiist  president  of  the  Korean 
(southern)  republic  by  the  national  assembly  on  July  20, 
1948,  and  inaugurated  four  days  later.  On  Aug.  7-8,  1949, 
he  met  Chiang  Kai-shek  at  Chinhae  bay,  south  Korea. 

RHEUMATISM:  see  ARTHRITIS. 
RHODESIA,  NORTHERN:  see  NORTHERN  RHODESIA. 
RHODESIA,  SOUTHERN:  see  SOUTHERN  RHODESIA. 
RICE:   see  GRAIN  CROPS. 

RICHARDSON,  SIR  RALPH  DAVID,  English 
actor  (b.  Cheltenham,  1902)  was  educated  at  Xaverian 


RIFLE   SHOOTING— ROADS 


545 


college,  Brighton,  and  made  his  first  appearance  at  Brighton  in 
1921.  Until  he  joined  the  Birmingham  repertory  theatre  in 
1925  he  toured  the  provinces  in  Shakespeare  repertory; 
and  in  1926  made  his  first  London  appearance  as  Arthur 
Varwell  in  Yellow  Sands.  He  subsequently  toured  in  South 
Africa,  1929,  in  the  United  States,  1936,  in  Germany  and 
again  visited  New  York,  1946-47.  He  appeared  in  his  first 
film,  The  Ghoul,  in  1933.  In  Sept.  1939  he  joined  the  Fleet 
Air  Arm,  becoming  a  lieutenant,  1940,  and  a  lieutenant 
commander,  1941.  He  was  released  from  the  Navy  in  1944 
to  act  and  direct  drama  for  the  Old  Vic  company.  He 
appeared  with  the  company  in  each  of  the  seasons  from 
1944  to  1947,  playing  among  other  parts,  Peer  Gynt,  Blunt- 
schli  in  Arms  and  the  Man,  Henry  VII  in  Richard  the  Third, 
Falstaff  in  Henry  IV \  Lord  Burleigh  in  The  Critic,  Cyrano  in 
Cyrano  de  Bergcrac  and  Face  in  The  Alchemist.  More  recent 
films  in  which  he  appeared  were  School  for  Secrets  and 
Anna  Karenina.  In  Feb.  1949  he  opened  in  The  Heiress, 
by  Ruth  and  Augustus  Goetz,  at  the  Haymarket  theatre, 
London.  He  was  knighted  on  Jan.  1,  1947. 

RIFLE  SHOOTING.  The  King's  prize  in  Great  Britain 
for  1949  was  won  by  Captain  E.  Brooks  from  an  entry  of 
1,105  at  Bisley,  Surrey.  Competitors  from  Canada,  South 
Africa,  India,  New  Zealand  and  several  colonies  and  protec- 
torates of  the  Commonwealth  were  among  the  1 ,430  persons 
who  competed  in  the  annual  tournament  for  full  bore  (•  303 
calibre)  rifles.  Almost  1,000  shot  in  the  small  bore  (-22 
calibre)  events,  G.  A.  J.  Jones  of  Ilford,  Essex,  winning  the 
Earl  Roberts  British  small  bore  championship 

Largest  of  the  non-national  meetings  was  that  of  the  R.A.F. 
Small  Arms  association,  also  held  at  Bisley,  with  1,400  entries. 
The  National  Small  Bore  Rifle  association  held  its  annual 
Scottish  meeting  at  Aberdeen  in  May  with  a  record  entry  of 
460,  when  a  Scottish-born  London  policeman  won  the  Scottish 
individual  championship. 

Shooting  with  rifles  and  pistols  was  organized  during 
1949  in  Great  Britain  and  the  Commonwealth  by  the  National 
Rifle  association  and  by  the  National  Small  Bore  Rifle 
association.  There  were  4,600  rifle  clubs,  1,000  of  which  were 
for  full  bore  (-303  calibre)  shooting.  In  addition  to  the 
prize  meetings  the  Small  Bore  association  organized  numerous 
competitions  under  postal  conditions  for  juniors,  women, 
factories  and  for  the  services.  (A.  J.  P.) 

RIO  DE  JANEIRO.  Capital  and  second  port  of 
Brazil,  the  largest  Portuguese-speaking  city  of  the  world. 
Area:  r.  60  sq.  mi.  (out  of  451  sq.  mi.  of  the  Federal  District); 
pop.:  (1940  census)  1,563,787,  (1949  est.)  2,091,160. 

Arnaldo  Mendes  de  Morais,  prefect  (mayor)  of  Rio, 
remarked  in  1949  that  Brazil  was  "  the  land  of  the  day  after 
to-morrow — and,  he  added,  "  don't  forget  that  the  day  after 
to-morrow  is  a  holiday."  That  was  the  prevailing  spirit  in 
glamorous  and  easy-going  Rio  during  1949,  as  it  always  had 
been  in  the  past;  but  the  city  continued  to  grow.  The  con- 
struction of  skyscrapers  progressed  exuberantly,  and  it  was 
estimated  that  investment  in  real-estate  absorbed  at  least  two- 
thirds  of  the  people's  savings.  A  large  U.S.  department  store, 
equipped  with  escalators  (a  novelty  in  Rio),  was  opened 
amidst  considerable  public  excitement  and  served  to  en- 
courage local  shop-keepers  to  Americanize  their  selling 
methods;  but  although  the  purchasing  power  of  a  minority 
of  cariocas  was  very  high,  the  standard  of  living  of  the 
majority  of  the  population  declined  during  1949  as  a  result 
of  inflation,  and  imported  goods  were  a  luxury  that  only  the 
minority  could  afford.  The  Rio  Spinning  and  Weaving 
syndicate  appealed  to  the  minister  of  finance  to  assist  the 
textile  industry  (the  most  important  of  local  industries) 
because  production  was  now  exceeding  demand.  The  govern- 

B.B.Y.— 36 


ment's  ambitious  hydro-electric  projects  had  not  yet  material- 
ized and  Rio  continued  to  suffer  a  shortage  of  water  and 
electricity.  An  unforgettable  event  of  the  year  was  a  traffic 
jam  which,  one  day  in  September,  immobilized  200,000 
people  and  10,000  motor  cars  from  early  morning  until 
dusk.  (G.  P.) 

RIO  DE  ORO:    sec  SPANISH  COLONIAL  KM  PIKE. 
RIO  MUNI:   see  SPANISH  COLONIAL  EMPIRE 

ROADS.  In  Britain  retrenchment  In  public  expenditure 
was  the  keynote  o**  1949  and,  particularly  after  the  devaluation 
of  the  pound  in  September,  the  activities  of  road  engineers 
were  severely  curtailed.  In  very  few  areas  did  funds  permit  any 
notable  steps  towards  the  achievement  of  a  national  road 
system  compatible  with  the  traffic  requirements  of  the  present 
century.  Attention  had  perforce  to  be  concentrated  in  the 
main  upon  the  conservation  of  existing  carriageways  by  the 
most  modern  and  economical  method  of  re-surfacing  and 
re-dressing.  Long  term  schemes  for  execution  in  more  pros- 
perous days  continued  to  be  studied;  the  few  major  works 
in  progiess  were  selected  for  their  direct  utility  in  stimulating 
the  industrial  welfare  of  the  less  prosperous  regions.  Con- 
spicuous among  these  was  south  Wales  where  the  industrial 
advance  already  accomplished  was  shown  by  the  establish- 
ment of  some  600  new  enterprises  since  1945.  The  long  term 
programme  for  the  transformation  of  communications 
between  south  Wales  and  the  midlands  entailed  the  ultimate 
construction  of  about  120  mi.  of  motorway,  new  road 
bridges  over  the  Severn  and  Wye  rivers  and  the  modernization 
of  some  140  mi.  of  trunk  roads,  at  a  total  cost  of  about  £35 
million.  On  June  17,  1949,  the  first  sod  was  cut  of  a  section 
of  new  trunk  road  near  Merthyr  Tydfil  forming  an  instalment 
of  this  comprehensive  Welsh  project  and  furnishing  a  much- 
needed  eastern  by-pass  about  four  mi.  long  to  Merthyr 
Tydfil  and  Dowlais.  In  Scotland  15  new  hydro-electric 
schemes  afforded  widespread  employment  for  road  makers 
in  the  diversion  of  highways  and  the  building  of  new  bridges. 
The  creation  of  new  and  the  enlargement  of  existing  aero- 
dromes entailed  extensive  road  works  and  road  diversions  in 
various  parts  of  the  country.  In  London  the  preparations  for 
the  Festival  of  Britain  to  be  held  in  1951  included  much 
needed  improvements  of  road  communications  in  south 
London  between  Waterloo  and  Westminster  bridges,  as  well 
as  on  the  other  side  of  the  river  around  Parliament  square. 
Test-borings  were  taken  for  the  foundations  of  the  long 
deferred  Forth  road  bridge  near  Edinburgh. 

For  the  promotion  of  public  safety  a  "  Pedestrian  Crossing 
Week  "  was  held  when  various  patterns  of  crossing  were 
installed  in  the  streets,  including  the  "  zebra  "  type  which 
seemed  successful  in  attracting  notice  with  its  conspicuously 
striped  markings.  It  was  unfortunate  however  that  so  much 
uncertainty  should  still  have  prevailed  in  the  public  mind 
as  to  the  respective  priority  of  pedestrians  and  motorists  in 
the  use  of  crossings;  hesitation  defeated  their  purpose. 
The  minister  announced  the  holding  of  a  "  Children's  Safety 
Week"  in  March  1950.  (See  ACCIDENTS.) 

In  Sept.  1949  was  published  the  first  report  of  the  Road 
Research  board  upon  its  postwar  activities  in  Great  Britain. 
Road  safety  and  traffic  flow  figured  largely  among  its  studies, 
the  problems  of  "  dazzle  "  were  also  in  course  of  investigation, 
as  were  the  extended  application  of  mechanical  plant  to 
operations  of  road  construction  and  road  repairs. 

Experiments  with  army  vehicles  were  made  on  a  disused 
airfield,  in  order  to  study  traffic  flow  in  relation  to  road  design; 
and  the  R.A.F.  School  of  Photography  and  the  Royal 
Aircraft  establishment  co-operated  in  taking  aerial  photo- 
graphs of  traffic  in  central  London.  Traffic  and  pedestrian 
flow  was  also  studied  by  means  of  films.  The  importance  of 


546 


ROADS 


soil  as  an  integral  part  of  road  structure  was  emphasized, 
and  extensive  experiments  in  bituminous  surfacings  took 
place  on  30  sites. 

Wide  openings  for  economy  should  have  been  discoverable 
in  the  field  of  road  transport  in  Great  Britain  where  the  annual 
outlay  on  road  construction  and  maintenance  exceeded 
£100  million  and  the  operating  cost  of  road  transport 
approximated  to  £300  million.  A  remarkable  service  ren- 
dered by  road  transport  in  Nov.  1949  was  the  conveyance 
from  London  to  Cheshire  of  a  metal  tube  84  ft.  long  and 
10  ft.  8  in.  in  diameter,  weighing  115  tons.  (C.  H.  BR.) 

Europe.  Plans  for  an  international  network  of  mam  high- 
ways for  Europe  were  advanced  materially  under  the  guidance 
of  the  Economic  Commission  for  Europe  (E.C.E.)  of  the 
United  Nations.  At  a  meeting  held  in  Geneva  in  March, 
12  governments  and  the  occupation  authorities  of  the  western 
zones  of  Germany  reached  final  agreement  on  a  network  of 
traffic  arteries  designed  to  meet  existing  needs  and  anticipated 
traffic  requirements  for  the  next  10  to  15  years. 

Routes  from  Helsinki  to  Marseilles,  from  Edinburgh  to 
Rome,  and  Paris  to  Warsaw  were  among  the  many  included. 
Standard  designs  for  three  categories  of  roads  in  the  system 
were  agreed  upon.  The  participating  governments  began 
studies  of  the  conditions  upon  which  the  construction  of  the 
road  network  could  be  undertaken  and  financed. 

U.S.S.R.  Detailed  reports  on  road  conditions  in  the 
U.S.S.R.  were  not  available.  The  newspaper  Izvestia  reported 
that  there  were  only  90,000  mi.  of  roads  and  that  the  road- 
building  programme  was  being  accelerated.  Lack  of  good 
highways  was  a  serious  problem.  According  to  Izvestia, 
138  road-building  organizations  were  to  be  in  operation  in 
1949.  Each  would  be  expected  to  build  30  mi.  of  surfaced 
roads  and  60  mi.  of  improved  dirt  roads  annually.  This 
would  result  in  the  improvement  of  12,420  mi.  a  year. 

Turkey.  The  outstanding  example  of  progress  toward  a 
modern  system  of  highways  was  found  in  Turkey.  Studies 
were  made  of  highway  needs,  a  system  was  planned,  labora- 
tories and  machine  shops  were  established,  training  courses 
were  begun  for  machine  operators,  inspectors  and  other 
workers  and  actual  construction  was  started.  In  1948  the 
Turkish  government  expended  $13  million  on  labour  and 
materials  and  the  programme  was  enlarged  in  1949.  Assis- 
tance had  been  given  by  the  United  States  as  part  of  the 
Turkish  Aid  programme  by  allocation  of  $5  million  and  a 
loan  of  equal  amount  for  purchase  of  machinery  and  equip- 
ment. A  group  of  engineers  assigned  by  the  United  States 
government  assisted  the  Turkish  government  in  the  various 
phases  of  the  work. 

India.  The  government  of  India  found  it  necessary  to  cut 
back  on  its  original  plan  to  spend  $90  million  on  a  national- 
highway  system.  In  the  fiscal  year  1949-50  it  planned  to  spend 
$5-4  million  for  new  projects  and  $6  4  million  for  main- 
tenance. The  expenditure  at  the  close  of  the  fiscal  year 
1949-50  would  be  only  about  one-third  of  that  originally 
planned. 

There  were  gaps  of  1,802  mi.  and  a  number  of  unbridged 
rivers  on  the  system.  A  programme  to  be  completed  in  the 
near  future  provided  for  the  closing  of  917  mi.  of  these  gaps 
and  the  bridging  of  several  streams.  The  need  for  highway 
transport  was  so  great  that  negotiations  were  being  conducted 
to  permit  motor  vehicles  to  cross  some  of  the  larger  streams 
on  railroad  bridges.  Construction  of  a  bridge  on  the  route 
between  Bombay  and  Calcutta  that  would  cost  about  $3 
million  was  begun. 

•  Republic  of  the  Philippines.  The  rehabilitation  of  war- 
damaged  highways,  financed  by  the  government  of  the 
United  States,  progressed  rapidly  during  the  year.  This  work, 
authorized  in  1946,  resulted  in  the  completion  of  65  mi.  of 
highways  and  more  than  a  score  of  bridges  by  July  1949. 


Canada.  Non-urban  highway  construction  was  to  be 
completed  at  a  cost  of  $234  million.  Interest  was  centred 
particularly  on  completion  of  the  4,300-mi.  Trans-Canadian 
highway  from  Halifax  to  Vancouver.  There  were  1,700  mi. 
still  to  be  constructed. 

Construction  of  a  $13-5  million  highway  and  railroad 
bridge  over  the  Strait  of  Canso,  which  separates  Cape 
Breton  Island  from  the  mainland  of  Nova  Scotia,  was  assured 
by  the  Canadian  government.  A  board  of  engineers  reported 
that  it  was  feasible  to  bridge  the  strait,  which  is  3,000  ft. 
wide,  200  ft.  deep  in  places  and  subject  to  strong  tidal 
currents. 

United  States.  Highway  work  progressed  at  a  more  rapid 
rate  than  in  any  year  since  the  end  of  World  War  II.  In  the 
first  ten  months  of  1949  state  highway  departments  awarded 
contracts  for  40,181  mi.  of  construction  to  cost  more  than 
$1,000  million.  The  figures  included  17,145  mi.  of  federal 
and  federal-aid  construction.  In  the  fiscal  year  ending 
June  30,  1949,  21,032  mi.  of  highway  were  completed  in  the 
programme  involving  federal  funds,  at  a  cost  of  $762,913,000 
The  federal  assistance  amounted  to  $401,968,000. 

It  was  estimated  that  highway  construction  expenditures 
by  all  agencies  in  1949  would  amount  to  $1,705  million  and 
that  $1,295  million  would  be  expended  on  maintenance. 

Highways  of  all  classes  were  improved,  the  greater  part 
of  the  work  being  to  modernize  old,  worn-out  highways  to 
make  them  suitable  for  modern  traffic.  In  numerous  cities 
expressways  were  built  to  permit  the  flow  of  traffic  at  speeds 
of  35  to  50  m.p.h.  without  interruption  or  conflicts  of  any 
kind.  Cities  where  large  projects  were  under  way  included 
New  York,  Pittsburgh,  Washington,  Atlanta,  San  Antonio, 
Houston,  Dallas,  Fort  Worth,  Detroit,  Chicago,  Oakland 
and  Los  Angeles. 

In  June  the  Bureau  of  Public  Roads  reported  to  congress 
that  serious  deficiencies  existed  in  the  national  system  of 
interstate  highways.  This  system,  which  included  37,800  mi. 
of  the  most  important  highways  of  the  country,  carried 
20%  of  the  nation's  traffic. 

All  but  1,900  mi.  of  the  31,831  mi.  of  the  system  in  rural 
areas  required  improvement  to  bring  these  routes  up  to 
standards  recommended  for  existing  volumes  of  traffic.  Of 
the  5,969  mi.  of  roads  and  streets  in  urban  areas,  all  but 
398  mi.  required  some  degree  of  improvement.  The  cost  of 
improvement  was  estimated  at  $11,000  million. 

Mexico.  Completion  of  the  Inter- American  highway  across 
the  country  to  the  Guatemalan  border  was  scheduled  for  the 
end  of  the  year  and  the  important  mam  highway  from  Mexico 
City  to  Juarez  on  the  border  opposite  El  Paso,  Texas,  was 
neanng  completion.  Work  progressed  on  the  Pacific  coast- 
Mexican  highway,  a  1,640  mi.  route  down  the  coast  to 
Guadalajara,  and  then  inland  to  Mexico  city. 

Inter-American  Highway.  The  Inter- American  highway 
extended  from  Laredo  on  the  border  between  Mexico  and 
the  United  States  to  Panama  city,  a  distance  of  3,200  mi. 
The  highway  was  not  yet  suitable  for  travel  beyond  southern 
Mexico.  There  were  three  large  unimproved  gaps — one 
about  80  mi.  long  was  in  southern  Mexico  and  western 
Guatemala.  Only  the  Mexican  portion  was  nearing  comple- 
tion although  work  was  in  progress  in  Guatemala.  Provision 
had  not  been  made  for  closing  the  other  gaps,  about  65  mi. 
in  northern  Costa  Rica  and  about  150  mi.  in  southern 
Costa  Rica  and  northern  Panama.  Near  the  end  of  1949 
87%  of  the  highway  was  passable  at  all  times,  4%  was 
passable  in  dry  weather  only,  and  9%  was  impassable. 

South  America.  Good  progress  was  made  in  several 
countries  of  South  America.  The  section  of  the  Pan-American 
highway  along  the  west  coast  of  the  continent  remained 
passable  by  vehicles  but  not  suitable  for  tourist  travel.  Much 
improvement  in  the  road  and  provision  of  tourist  facilities 


ROMAN  CATHOLIC   CHURCH 


547 


would  have  to  be  made  before  long-distance  travel  could  be 
recommended.  However,  the  highway  was  of  great  service 
for  local  travel  and  was  used  to  some  extent  for  travel  between 
countries.  Ecuador  began  the  construction  of  a  69-mi. 
highway  to  complete  a  branch  from  the  Pan-American 
highway  at  Quito  to  the  seaport  Esmeraldas. 

In  Brazil  the  highway  programmes  directed  by  the  national 
and  state  governments  gained  momentum.  The  national  road 
organization  reported  in  July  1949  that  430  mi.  had  been 
completed  in  the  preceding  12  months.  The  national  highway 
fund  for  1949  amounted  to  $275  million  and  other  funds 
available  to  the  national  organization  brought  the  total  to 
$360  million.  Important  sections  of  the  national  system 
of  highways,  which  also  formed  a  part  of  the  Pan-American 
Highway  system,  were  under  construction.  Tunnels  on  the 
four-lane  divided  highway  connecting  S&o  Paulo  with  Santos 
were  to  be  completed  before  the  end  of  the  year.  In  northern 
Brazil  a  new  highway  from  Natal  to  Recife  reduced  travel 
time  from  11  to  6  hr.  Between  Natal  and  Joao  Pessoa  the 
old  route,  185  mi.  in  length,  was  shortened  by  58  mi. 

In  Venezuela  plans  were  made  for  the  surfacing  of  500  mi. 
of  existing  roads  and  the  construction  of  400  mi,  of  new 
roads.  A  major  highway  project  was  the  long-planned  road 
between  Caracas  and  the  main  seaport  and  airport  at  La 
Guaira.  A  four-lane  concrete  highway  to  replace  the  old 
narrow  mountain  road  and  reduce  the  distance  from  20  to  10 
mi.  was  begun.  (T.  H.  McD.) 

ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH.  The  year  1949 
was  dominated  once  again  by  the  sharpening  conilict  with 
international  Communism  and,  historically  speaking,  the 
most  important  event  of  the  year  was  the  decree  issued  by 
the  Holy  Office  on  July  13,  declaring  that  it  was  forbidden  for 
Catholics  "  to  enlist  in  or  show  favour  to  the  Communist 
party  "  or  "  to  publish,  read  or  disseminate  books,  news- 
papers, periodicals  or  leaflets  in  support  of  Communist 
doctrine  and  practice,  or  to  write  any  articles  in  them;" 
and  that  those  4t  who  profess,  and  particularly  those  who 
defend  and  spread,  the  materialistic  and  anti-Christian 
doctrine  of  the  Communists  ipso  facto,  as  apostates  from  the 
Catholic  faith,  incur  excommunication  "  This  decision  was 
the  cause  of  much  discussion;  in  France,  for  instance,  some 
five  million  people  had  been  in  the  habit  of  voting  Communist 
at  election  time,  including,  inevitably,  many  Catholics  who 
would  not  lightly  consider  being  excommunicated;  in  Italy 
itself  some  three  millions  had  voted  Communist  in  1948. 

In  France  the  cardinals  and  archbishops  showed  them- 
selves perhaps  a  trifle  embarrassed  by  the  decree,  when  they 
came  to  expound  it  to  their  people  in  the  joint  pastoral  letter 
issued  after  their  meeting  on  Sept.  8,  insisting  very  carefully 
that,  although  the  Church  condemns  Communism,  "  she 
wishes  steadfastly  to  serve  the  cause  of  the  working  class." 
Similar  expositions  came  from  other  national  hierarchies— 
the  Belgian,  for  instance —and  from  individual  archbishops 
and  bishops  in  pastoral  letters;  but  by  the  end  of  the  year 
there  was  nothing  to  suggest  that  the  decree  had  had  any 
consequences  of  the  kind  that  some  had  expected,  in  alienating 
the  Church  from  the  industrial  working  classes.  It  is  true  that 
the  only  important  elections  by  which  the  effects  might  have 
been  tested  between  July  and  the  end  of  the  year — those  in 
Germany  and  Austria — were  ones  in  which  Communism  was 
in  any  case  largely  discredited  on  other  grounds:  but  the 
year  was  one  in  which,  on  the  contrary,  the  Church  made 
important  progress  in  gaining  the  confidence  of  industrial 
proletariats,  never  wholly  won  since  the  industrial  revolution 
began. 

The  Katholikentag  at  Bochum,  in  the  Ruhr,  in  September, 
was  significant  for  reasons  that  extended  outside  Germany; 
for  just  as  Marxism  had  been  born  in  the  Ruhr  to  spread 


throughout  industrial  Europe,  so  also  much  Catholic  social 
doctrine  of  far  wider  application  had  been  worked  out  there, 
in  the  days  of  Bishop  Wilhelm  Emanuel  von  Ketteler  of  Mainz. 
It  was  important,  therefore,  that  at  Bochum  in  1949,  in  the 
presence  of  very  great  numbers  of  German  Catholics,  the 
Church  should  have  become  in  some  degree  identified  with 
a  new  approach  to  the  problem  of  industrial  relations.  A 
resolution  was  passed  according  to  which  laboui  ought  to 
have  a  share  in  both  the  management  and  the  profits  of 
industry.  Cardinal  Joseph  Frings,  archbishop  of  Cologne 
and  chairman  of  the  Fulda  conference,  subsequently  expressed 
his  approval  in  principle;  and  Archbishop  Lorenz  Jaeger  of 
Paderborn  described  the  resolution  as  one  of  "  far-reaching 
and  almost  revolutionary  importance."  It  was  interesting  to 
find  a  French  bishop,  Mgr.  Alfred  Ancel,  an  auxiliary  to 
Cardinal  Pierre-Marie  Gerlier  at  Lyons,  speaking  in  a 
similar  sense  in  the  following  month,  when  he  addressed  a 
large  meeting  in  the  Bourse  de  Travail  in  the  industrial  town 
of  Saint-Etienne. 

In  France,  meanwhile,  the  new  archbishop  of  Paris, 
Mgr.  Maurice  Feltin,  translated  from  Bordeaux  in  August 
to  succeed  Cardinal  Emmanuel  Suhard  (sec  OBITUARIES),  who 
had  died  on  May  20,  at  once  showed  that  he  would  continue 
the  experiments  in  pastoral  technique  among  the  proletariat 
that  Cardinal  Suhard  had  developed  so  successfully.  The 
k*  priest-workman  "  had  become  an  accepted  feature  of  the 
life  of  the  *'  red  belt  "  of  Pans;  one  of  them,  engaged  in  the 
laundry  trade  as  a  van-man,  had  some  publicity  in  a  law  suit 
in  the  autumn,  when  the  trade  union  to  which  he  belonged 
took  action  to  have  him  re-instated  after  he  had  been  dis- 
missed. In  parts  of  Italy  and  Austria  also  the  fc4  priest-work- 
man "  was  becoming  known;  and  the  continued  close 
interest  in  social  questions  shown  by  Pope  Pius  XII  (<y.v.), 
who  in  March,  for  instance,  wrote  a  letter  of  warm  encourage- 
ment to  Canon  Joseph  Cardijn,  chaplain  general  and  founder 
of  the  Young  Christian  Workers  (J.O.C.),  for  the  silver 
jubilee  of  the  movement,  left  very  little  opportunity  for 
Communists  to  get  a  hearing  for  their  argument  that,  if 
Communism  was  condemned,  it  was  because  the  Church  was 
on  the  side  of  the  bourgeoisie  and  of  privilege.  On  May  7, 
indeed,  when  he  addressed  a  party  of  business  men  whom  he 
had  received  in  audience,  the  Pope  went  very  near  to  advoca- 
ting the  kind  of  co-partnership  or  co-ownership  in  industry 
which  was  recommended  four  months  afterwards  at  Bochum. 

The  condemnation  of  Communism  and  the  excommunica- 
tion of  its  adherents  was  plainly  a  consequence  of  the 
increasingly  outrageous  persecution  of  the  Church  in  eastern 
Europe.  In  particular,  it  followed  the  trial  and  sentence  to 
penal  servitude  for  life  of  Cardinal  Jozsef  Mindszenthy,  the 
prince  primate  of  Hungary  (Feb.  3-5).  That  trial  was  subse- 
quently condemned  in  the  most  categorical  language  not  only 
by  the  Pope  but  also  by  leading  spokesmen  for  Great  Britain, 
the  United  States  and  other  nations  of  the  free  world,  in  the 
debates  in  the  general  assembly  of  the  United  Nations  that 
led  up  to  the  decision  to  seek  an  opinion  on  the  proceedings 
from  the  International  Court  of  Justice.  This  was  the  first 
time  for  400  years  that  a  secular  court  had  thus  arraigned  a 
member  of  the  college  of  cardinals.  It  was,  moreover,  quickly 
followed  by  action  against  the  Church  in  Czechoslovakia; 
while  such  action  proceeded  most  relentlessly  of  all,  if  more 
obscurely,  in  Rumania,  where  by  the  end  of  1949  the  Catholic 
Church  had  virtually  ceased  to  exist  as  a  legal  institution. 

In  Poland,  by  contrast,  where  the  Pope  appointed  Mgr. 
Stefan  Wyszynski  in  January  to  be  archbishop  of  Warsaw 
and  Gniezno  and  primate,  the  Communist  government  moved 
more  cautiously,  and  confined  the  year's  activities  to  the 
arrest  and  imprisonment  of  parochial  clergy  and  to  a  steadily 
increasing  pressure  on  the  younger  generation  through  the 
schools  and  the  youth  organizations — a  pressure  which  the 


548 


D  (OECCHN).  ROMAN   CATHOLIC   CHURCH 


More  than  30,000  Roman  Catholics  crowded  the  open  air  theatre  near  the  Olympic  stadium,  Berlin,  in  July  1949,  to  celebrate  the  golden  jubilee 
of  the  Pope's  ordination  as  a  priest.    A  recorded  speech  in  German  by  the  Pope  was  delivered. 


new  primate  condemned  in  an  outspoken  letter  ad  clerum 
made  public  on  Oct.  11.  A  law  promulgated  in  Poland  on 
Aug.  7,  governing  the  "  freedom  of  conscience,"  described 
the  penalties  to  be  expected  if  the  decree  of  the  Holy  Office 
against  Communism  should  be  observed,  even  though  the 
decree  was  not  actually  mentioned.  This  law,  echoing  the 
Soviet  constitution  in  its  equal  solicitude  for  freedom  of 
belief  and  freedom  not  to  believe,  was  a  classic  of  its  kind, 
for  in  all  these  Soviet-dominated  countries  constitutional 
texts  could  be  quoted  to  show  that  there  was  freedom  of 
belief;  and  in  Czechoslovakia  the  bishops  again  and  again 
during  the  year  invoked  in  their  own  protection,  if  vainly, 
the  provisions  of  the  new  constitution 

Discussions  between  church  and  state  opened  in  Prague  in 
February;  and  they  broke  down  when,  at  the  9th  congress 
of  the  Czechoslovak  Communist  party,  held  in  Prague  in 
May,  the  ministers  of  education  and  information,  party- 
members  both,  spoke  of  their  plans  for  education  in  terms 
that  left  Mgr.  Josef  Bcran,  the  archbishop  of  Prague,  in  no 
doubt  about  the  government's  intention  to  exclude  the 
Church  from  all  influence  in  the  minds  and  consciences  of 
the  young.  In  June  the  curial  offices  of  Mgr.  Beran  were 
raided  and  officials  of  the  ministry  of  education  took  posses- 
sion of  his  stationery  and  began  issuing  documents  in  the 
name  of  the  Church,  the  archbishop,  meanwhile,  being 
virtually  confined  to  his  quarters.  He  remained  so  until  the 
end  of  the  year,  so  that  his  signature  was  absent  from  most 
of  the  collective  documents  of  the  Czechoslovak  hierarchy 
through  those  difficult  months  which  followed.  The  govern- 
ment developed  these  "  tactics  of  confusion  "  by  promoting 
an  organization  falsely  described  as  "  Catholic  Action," 


which  opposed  the  bishops,  and  by  issuing  a  periodical  to 
all  clergy  purporting  to  be  the  sole  source  from  which  they 
could  derive  their  pastoral  instructions.  Eventually,  on  Nov.  1, 
a  new  bill  became  law,  reducing  all  clergy  to  the  status  of 
civil  servants,  offering  them  greatly  increased  rates  of  pay 
but  requiring  them  to  submit  to  the  detailed  direction  of  a 
new  ministry  set  up  for  the  purpose.  The  minister  appointed 
was  Alexej  Cepicka,  the  son-in-law  of  President  Klement 
Gottwald  and  already  minister  of  justice,  who  had  personally 
conducted  most  of  the  campaign  against  the  Church.  Through- 
out all  these  events  two  things  in  particular  were  striking: 
the  constancy  and  loyalty  to  the  hierarchy  and  to  the  Holy 
See  of  the  immense  majority  of  the  7,000  Catholic  priests  of 
Czechoslovakia  and,  secondly,  the  persistent  skill  of  the 
bishops  in  transmitting  to  the  western  world,  week  after 
week,  joint  statements  in  which  they  described  their  position. 

During  the  year  the  Pope  expressed  his  anxiety  for  Jerusalem 
and  the  Holy  places,  for  whose  internationalization  he  called 
in  an  Encyclical  letter  issued  on  Good  Friday,  and  also  for 
the  fate  of  the  Church  in  China,  as  the  southern  provinces 
were  overrun  by  the  Communist  armies.  In  Japan,  during  the 
summer,  the  fourth  centenary  of  the  landing  of  St.  Francis 
Xavier  was  publicly  observed.  (M.  DK.) 

United  States.  The  bishops  of  the  United  States  issued  a 
statement  entitled,  "  The  Christian  Family."  It  emphasized 
four  principles  of  family  life — permanence,  freedom,  economic 
security  and  religion.  Concern  for  the  suffering  children 
in  many  lands  was  expressed  by  Pope  Pius  XII  in  his  radio 
address  on  March  2  to  more  than  two  million  pupils  of 
Catholic  schools  in  the  United  States  and  he  requested 
contributions  from  them  as  a  special  Lenten  sacrifice.  Mgr. 


ROME 


•Kit, 


549 


Thomas  J.  McMahon,  national  secretary  of  the  Catholic 
Near  East  Welfare  Association  of  the  United  States,  reported 
that  Catholic  organizations  had  and  would  continue  to  have 
2,000  priests  and  sisters  working  in  the  field  assisting  refugees. 
They  had  given  regular  assistance  to  some  200,000  of  the 
half-million  refugees.  Mgr.  Edward  E.  Swanstrom,  executive 
director  of  the  American  Catholic  Relief  agency  reported 
that  war  relief  services  of  the  National  Catholic  Welfare 
conference  had  distributed  so  far  290  million  Ib.  of  relief 
supplies  valued  at  $130  million. 

Bishop  Mariano  S.  Garriga,  coadjutor  of  the  diocese  of 
Corpus  Christi,  Texas,  assumed  direction  of  the  diocese  on 
March  15,  on  the  resignation  of  Bishop  Emmanuel  B.  Led- 
vina  who  retired  because  of  ill  health.  Mgr.  Emmet  M. 
Walsh,  bishop  of  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  was  appointed 
coadjutor  bishop  of  Youngstown,  Ohio,  with  right  of 
succession  to  Bishop  James  A.  McFadden.  Mgr.  Edward  A. 
Fitzgerald,  former  auxiliary  to  the  archbishop  of  Dubuque, 
Iowa,  was  appointed  bishop  of  Winona,  Minnesota.  Mgr.  Leo 
Binz,  formerly  titular  bishop  of  Pinara  was  appointed 
titular  archbishop  of  Silyum  and  coadjutor  with  right  of 
succession  to  Archbishop  Henry  P.  Rohlman  of  Dubuque. 
Mgr.  Francis  E.  Hyland,  of  Philadelphia,  was  appointed 
titular  bishop  of  Gomphi  and  auxiliary  to  Bishop  Gerald  P. 
CVHara  of  Savannah-Atlanta,  Georgia.  Mgr.  James  H. 
Griffiths,  chancellor  of  the  military  ordinariate,  which 
comprises  all  Catholics  in  the  U.S.  armed  forces,  was  named 
titular  bishop  of  Gaza  and  auxiliary  to  Cardinal  Francis 
Spellman  in  his  capacity  as  military  vicar. 

At  the  end  of  1949  the  U.S.  Catholic  hierarchy  ruled  23 
archdioceses,  101  dioceses,  and  I  vicariate-apostolic  (Alaska). 


There  were  4  cardinals,  20  archbishops,  157  bishops  and  36 
abbots;  the  parishes  totalled  15,905;  there  were  42,334 
priests,  7,302  brothers  and  141,606  nuns. 

The  Claver  index,  containing  over  35,000  reference  cards 
on  the  subject  of  the  Negro  and  the  Catholic  Church,  was 
installed  at  the  Catholic  Interracial  Centre  in  New  York  city. 
This  unique  collection  was  the  life  work  of  Fr.  Arnold  Garvy, 
S.J.,  of  Chicago,  and  was  being  used  by  students  and  research 
workers  from  all  over  the  country.  The  Catholic  Interracial 
Council  of  New  York  completed  its  eighth  year  of  weekly 
interracial  forums  of  leading  speakers  treating  a  wide  variety 
of  problems  dealing  with  race  relations.  In  addition  to  the 
twelve  Catholic  Interracial  Councils  existing,  four  others 
were  in  process  of  formation  during  the  year.  (See  also 
CHURCH  MEMBERSHIP;  Pius  XII;  VATICAN  CITY  STATE.) 

(J.  LAF.) 

Statistical  Data.  According  to  The  Catholic  Directory  1950  (London) 
the  Catholic  population  of  the  world  was  estimated  at  423  million. 
The  figure  of  Catholics  in  the  United  States  was  given  as  26,718,343, 
and  in  the  United  Kingdom  as  3,833,649  (England  and  Wales  2,754,249; 
Scotland  621,400;  Northern  Ireland  458,000). 

ROME.  Capital  and  largest  city  of  Italy.  Pop.:  (July  1, 
1936)  1,148,987,  (July  1,  1948,  est.)  1,613,660. 

During  1949  traffic  in  Rome  continued  to  multiply, 
especially  the  trolley-buses,  which  were  very  smart  and  swift 
but  as  crammed  as  ever  and  up  in  price.  The  broken  down 
trams  of  the  immediate  postwar  period  began  to  yield 
place  to  fine  new  ones  but  here,  too,  the  over-crowding 
continued  unabated.  Most  of  all,  motor-bicycles  increased, 
particularly  the  light  "  scooter  type."  (This  was  just  as  much 
the  case  in  many  other  towns).  The  long  drought  brought 


The  bombed  site  of  Rome's  central  railway  station  where  work  was  in  progress  in  1949  on  the  first  part  of  an  underground  railway  for  the  city. 


550 


ROMULO— ROTARY  INTERNATIONAL 


a  serious  water  shortage  followed  by  an  electricity  famine, 
involving  two  days,  then  in  the  autumn  three,  without 
current  from  7  A.M.  to  6  P.M. 

Luxury  flats  continued  to  go  up  in  the  wealthy  suburbs 
but  in  spite  of  much  talk  about  the  Fanfani  plan  very  little 
else  was  built.  Rome  began  to  pride  itself  on  having  super- 
seded Pans  in  leading  women's  fashions,  for  Rome  claimed 
that  Roman  creations  were  more  truly  feminine.  Social  life 
became  rather  more  feverish  than  ever  before.  The  price  of 
the  espresu,  small  cups  of  very  good  strong  black  coffee, 
which  are  a  national  drink,  increased  in  some  bars  from  20 
lire  to  25  lire;  as  one  might  easily  consume  twelve  of  these  a 
day,  this  was  a  minor  blow  to  the  already  impoverished 
middle  class. 

A  great  many  international  gatherings  took  place  in  Rome 
in  1949;  there  were  also,  of  course,  preparations  outside  the 
Vatican  City  for  the  coming  Holy  Year.  For  the  first  time 
since  the  Italian  army  conquered  Rome  from  the  Pope  on 
Sept.  20,  1870,  the  anniversary  of  that  day  was  not  officially 
celebrated.  On  June  2,  the  third  anniversary  of  the  voting 
in  favour  of  the  present  republic,  a  monument  was  inaugurated 
to  Giuseppe  Mazzini.  (E  Wi.) 

ROMULO,  CARLOS  PENA,  Philippine  journalist, 
army  officer  and  politician  (b.  Camiling,  Tarlac,  Luzon, 
Jan.  14,  1901).  After  studying  at  Manila  high  school  and  at 
the  University  of  the  Philippines,  and  in  the  United  States 
at  Columbia  university,  he  entered  journalism  and  became 
editor  of  the  Philippines  Herald  (1923).  A  survey  of  the 
far  east  that  he  made  in  1941  won  for  him  a  Pulitzer  prize. 
After  the  Japanese  attack  on  the  Philippines,  he  was  public- 
relations  officer  to  General  Douglas  MacArthur,  and  was 
said  to  be  the  last  man  to  leave  Bataan  alive  before  its 
capitulation.  He  rejoined  MacArthur  in  Australia  as  the 
latter's  aide-de-camp,  and  later  became  a  brigadier  general 
in  the  U.S.  army.  He  was  Philippines  delegate  to  the  United 
Nations  from  that  organization's  beginnings,  and  at  the 
opening  of  the  fourth  annual  session  of  the  U.N.  at  Flushing 
Meadow  in  Sept.  1949,  Romulo  was  elected  president  of 
the  general  assembly. 

ROOT  CROPS.  The  very  large  crop  of  potatoes  in 
1948  in  the  United  Kingdom  provided  ample  supplies  for 
both  human  consumption  and  stockfeed.  Probably  nearly 
1,500,000  tons  of  potatoes,  either  raw  or  processed,  were 
used  for  stockfeed  in  addition  to  some  5,750,000  tons  for 
human  consumption  (78%  more  than  prewar). 

Roor  CROPS  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN* 

Acreage  Production 

(thousand  acres)  (thousand  tons) 

1936-38     1948       1949f    1936-38     1948       1949f 
Average  Average 

United  Kingdom 

Potatoes        .         .       724        1,548      1,309       4,873  11,798       8,542 
Sugar  beet     .          .       335          413         420       2,741     4,319       3,454 
England  and  Wales 

Carrots         .          .     15  3         34-6      31  6       181-0    449-0 

Parsnips       .  *  8-9        54         +          105-4 

Beetroot  .       *  11-1         84         J          107-0 

*  Statistics  published  by  the  Ministry  of  Agriculture. 

t  Subject  to  revision 

J  Separately  collected  for  the  first  time  in  1941. 

The  maintenance  of  a  potato  area  over  double  the  prewar 
acreage  caused  many  difficulties,  especially  in  the  supply  of 
labour  for  harvesting  so  that  a  slightly  lower  national  target 
was  set  for  1949.  The  reduction  of  235,000  ac.,  14%  greater 
than  planned,  and  a  yield  of  10%  below  average  resulted  in 
this  1949  crop  being  30%  less  than  that  of  1948  and  only 
6-5%  more  than  the  small  1947  crop  which  necessitated 
potato  rationing. 

The  acreage  under  sugar  beet  was  8,000  ac.  larger  than  in 
1948  but  the  yield  per  ac.  was  8%  below  average.  The  sugar 


content  promised  to  be  high  as  a  result  of  the  dry  season 
but  was  reduced  by  heavy  rain  in  October. 

The  acreage  of  carrots  decreased  by  9%,  parsnips  by 
40%  and  beetroot  by  24%:  yields  per  ac.  of  all  three  crops 
were  low. 

The  prices  of  potatoes  for  the  1948  and  1949  crops, 
including  an  allowance  for  acreage  payments,  were  118  and 
126%  respectively  above  the  average  for  1936-38.  Prices  of 
sugar  beet  were  156%  in  1948  and  161  %  in  1949  above  the 
1936-38  level. 

The  special  measures  taken  in  1 948  to  prevent  the  spread  of 
Colorado  beetle  to  the  United  Kingdom  from  continental 
Europe  were  continued  in  1949.  The  wide  publicity  given  to 
the  pest  resulted  in  such  colonies  as  were  formed  being 
dealt  with  while  still  small.  Both  early  and  main  crop 
potatoes  in  southeastern  England  were  sprayed  and  dusted 
as  a  routine  precaution.  (See  also  MARKET  GARDENING; 
VEGETABLES.)  (K.  E.  H.) 

ROSSELLINI,  ROBERTO,  Italian  film  director 
(b.  Rome,  May  8,  1906),  son  of  a  prosperous  building  con- 
tractor, left  the  university  because  of  a  change  in  family 
fortunes  and  entered  the  film  industry  as  a  dubbing  technician. 
In  1940  Rossellmi  became  a  director  and  produced  his  first 
film,  a  "  short  "  called  Vita  in  un  acquario.  A  number  of 
short  films  followed:  La  nave  bianca  (1941),  which  was 
partly  documentary;  Un  pilota  ritorna  (1942);  Luomo  dalla 
croce  (1943).  Roma  citta  aperta  (1945)  (Open  Cif\>)  was  shown 
in  Europe  and  America  and  brought  Rossellini  the  widest 
recognition.  It  was  marked  especially  for  its  exceptional 
fidelity  in  treatment  of  character  and  environment  and  for 
the  acting  of  Anna  Magnani  (<y.v.).  Only  three  studio  sets 
were  used,  the  remainder  of  the  shooting  being  done  on  actual 
sites  in  Rome.  In  1946  came  Paisa,  made  in  collaboration 
with  Rod  Geiger  who  had  bought  the  U.S.  rights  for  Roma 
citta  aperta;  both  films  were  noticeable  for  the  new  Italian 
realism  with  a  social  content  which  reached  its  height  in 
Rossellini's  next  film,  Germania  anno  Zero  (1947).  In  1948 
followed  Amore  which  won  the  Oscar  award  for  the  best 
foreign  film  in  that  year,  and  La  mac  china  ammazza  cattivi; 
in  these  Rossellini  moved  towards  a  more  poetic  interpreta- 
tion while  retaining  non-professional  persons  as  actors.  In 
April  1948  Rossellini  visited  London  as  guest  of  the  British 
Council.  The  Locarno  award  for  1949  was  made  to  Rossellini 
for  his  direction  of  Germania  anno  Zero.  In  the  same  year  he 
joined  Samuel  Goldwyn  to  produce  Stromhoh,  set  in  the 
island  of  Stromboh,  with  Ingrid  Bergman  as  the  leading 
actress.  Rossellinfs  technique  is  marked  by  a  significant 
realism,  to  produce  which  both  camera  and  actor  are  partners. 
In  his  films  photography  is  documentary;  actors  are  mainly 
non-professional  and  the  dialogue  written  on  the  set. 

ROTARY  INTERNATIONAL.  During  1949  the 
number  of  Rotary  clubs  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  increased 
from  643  to  675,  and  the  number  of  Rotarians  from  29,000 
to  30,000.  From  January  to  June  Rotarian  Percy  Reay, 
M.B.E.,  of  Manchester,  was  completing  his  year  of  office  as 
president  of  Rotary  International  in  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland.  He  was  succeeded  by  Rotarian  Arthur  Mortimer, 
O.B.E.,  of  St.  Pancras,  London,  who  was  nominated  at  the 
annual  conference  held  at  Blackpool,  Lancashire,  from  April 
29  to  May  2,  which  was  attended  by  more  than  5,000  delegates, 
and  elected  at  the  convention  of  Rotary  International  held 
at  New  York,  U.S.A.,  in  June.  The  international  convention 
was  attended  by  16,000  delegates. 

Many  Rotary  clubs  devoted  attention  to  the  problems  of 
industrial  relations  and  made  a  study  of  the  possibilities  of 
particular  assistance  to  young  entrants  to  industry. 


ROWING 


551 


Changes  in  the  scope  of  voluntary  service  following  post- 
war social  legislation  were  studied  by  Rotary  clubs  with  a 
view  to  clarifying  the  ways  in  which  the  individual  citizen 
could  best  serve  his  community.  Rotarians  also  studied  the 
movement  towards  a  United  Europe,  and  there  ^vere  many 
visits  by  Rotarians  to  and  from  various  countries  of  Europe 
and  elsewhere. 

Eight  young  men  nominated  by  Rotary  clubs  in  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  were  awarded  Rotary  foundation  fellow- 
ships by  Rotary  International,  enabling  them  to  undertake 
one  year's  post-graduate  study  in  countries  other  than 
their  own.  Twenty-two  graduates  from  U.S.A.  and  the 
Commonwealth  travelled  to  British  and  Irish  universities  to 
study  under  this  scheme.  (F.  C.  H.) 

ROWING.  Exceptionally  fine  weather  made  the  1949 
rowing  season  in  Great  Britain  one  of  the  most  successful 
in  memory.  Even  the  university  boat  race  was  rowed  in 
almost  summer  conditions.  The  crews  were  evenly  matched, 
with  Cambridge  considered  the  more  powerful  and  Oxford 
the  faster  off  the  mark.  Oxford  won  the  toss  and  chose  the 
Middlesex  station.  Oxford  led  at  the  mile  and  at  Hammer- 
smith; then  Cambridge  gradually  drew  up  until  the  crews 
were  level  off  Dukes  meadows  and  at  Barnes  bridge.  Cam- 
bridge managed  to  hold  on  round  the  outside  of  the  final 
bend  and  won  in  the  last  few  strokes  with  a  magnificent 
spurt  by  only  a  quarter  of  a  length.  The  time  of  18  min. 
57  sec.  was  fast  in  the  conditions.  This  was  the  closest  boat 
race  verdict  since  the  dead  heat  of  1877  and  the  first  occasion 
on  which  the  Surrey  station  has  won  after  Barnes. 

The  crews  were,  Cambridge:  G.  S.  S.  Ludford  (bow), 
A.  L.  MacLeod,  C.  B.  M.  Lloyd,  J.  R.  La  T.  Corrie,  E.  A.  P. 
Bircher,  P.  M.  O.  Massey,  D.  V.  L.  Lynch-Odhams,  D.  M. 
Jennens  (stroke),  T.  R.  Ashton  (cox).  Oxford :  G.  C.  Fiske 
(bow),  A.  J.  M.  Cavenagh,  W.  J.  H.  Leckie,  R.  L.  Arundel, 
A.  D.  Rowe,  T.  D.  Raikes,  J.  M.  Clay,  C.  G.  V.  Davidge 
(stroke),  A.  Palgrave-Brown  (cox). 

The  Universities.  At  Oxford,  Trinity  remained  head  of  the 
river  for  the  sixth  year  in  succession,  which  was  a  record; 
the  crew  was  the  best  since  the  war.  At  Cambridge,  Jesus  lost 
the  headship  to  Trinity  Hall,  who  were  in  turn  caught  by 
Clare.  Easily  the  best  crew  were  Lady  Margaret  (St.  John's) 
who  started  eighth  and  finished  fifth. 


Henley  Royal  Regatta.  An  almost  completely  dead  stream 
and  a  fitful  following  wind  made  possible  a  spate  of  record- 
breaking  such  as  had  not  been  seen  since  1934.  In  the  Ladies' 
Plate  Lady  Margaret  put  up  a  new  record  of  6  min.  44  sec. 
Their  second  eight  made  a  new  Thames  cup  record  of  6  min. 
51  sec.  In  the  Grand,  Leander  equalled  the  record  of  6  min. 
44  sec.  E.  W.  Parsner  and  A.  Larsen,  of  Denmark,  beat  the 
Olympic  winners  B.  H.  T.  Bushnell  and  R.  D.  Burnell,  by 
one  length  in  7  min.  27  sec.  which  was  31  sec.  inside  the  record. 
Lensbury  R.C.  lowered  the  Wyfold  record  to  7  min.  24  sec., 
and  Trinity,  Oxford,  broke  the  Stewards'  record  by  one 
secortd,  in  7  min. .13  sec. 

Grand  Challenge  Cup:  Leander  club  beat  Thames  R.C., 
1  length,  6  min.  54  sec. 

Ladies'  Plate:  Lady  Margaret  beat  Pembroke  college, 
Cambridge,  2  lengths,  6  min.  50  sec. 

Thames  Cup:  Princeton  university,  U.S.A.,  beat  Lady 
Margaret  "  B,"  1  length,  6  min.  58  sec. 

Princess  Elizabeth  Cup:  Winchester  college  beat  West- 
minster school,  4  lengths,  7  min.  1 1  sec. 

Stewards'  Challenge  Cup:  Trinity  college,  Oxford,  beat 
London  R.C.,  3  lengths,  7  min.  13  sec. 

Visitors'  Challenge  Cup:  Clare  college  beat  First  and  Third 
Trinity,  3  lengths,  7  min.,  31  sec. 

Wyfold  Challenge  Cup:  Lensbury  R.C.  beat  Royal  Chester 
R.C.,  3  lengths,  7  min.  41  sec. 

Silver  Goblets:  A.  S.  F.  Butcher  and  T.  H.  Christie  (Thames 
R.C.)  beat  R.  C.  Morris  and  A.  Burrough  (Thames  R.C.), 
2^  lengths,  8  min.  20  sec. 

Double  Sculls:  E.  W.  Parsner  and  A.  Larsen  (Denmark) 
beat  J.  B.  Brown  (Loughborough  B.C.)  and  K.  W.  Tincgate 
(Birmingham  R.C.),  2\  lengths,  7  min.  39  sec. 

Diamond  Sculls:  J.  B.  Kelly  (U.S.A.)  beat  J.  Trinsey 
(U.S.A.)  easily,  8  min.  12  sec. 

The  Wingfield  Sculls,  amateur  sculling  championship  of 
the  Thames,  were  won  by  the  holder,  P.  N.  Carpmael  (Lon- 
don R.C.),  who  beat  A.  D.  Rowe  by  half  a  length  in  22  min. 
55  sec.  Conditions  were  very  slow. 

The  European  Championships  were  held  on  the  Bosbaan 
course  at  Amsterdam.  Results:  coxed  fours,  Italy,  6  min. 
57  sec.;  coxed  pairs,  Italy,  7  min.  55  sec.;  coxwainless  fours, 
Italy,  6  min.  45-2  sec.;  coxwainless  pairs,  Sweden,  7  min. 
28-2  sec.;  single  sculls,  U.S.A.  (J.  B.  Kelly),  7  min.  30-8  sec.; 


; 


Leander  club  beating  Thames  Rowing  club  "  A  "  crew  in  the  final  of  the  Or  ami  Challenge  cup,  Henley  Royal  regatta,  July  1949. 


552 


RUBBER 


double  sculls,  Denmark,  6  min.  57-2  sec.;  eights,  Italy, 
6  min.  1 1  sec.  (R.  D.  B.) 

United  States.  Four  major  regattas  were  held  and  many 
others  of  lesser  importance.  The  fourth  annual  sprint 
championships  of  the  Eastern  Association  of  Rowing  Colleges 
were  held  on  Lake  Onondaga,  New  York.  Harvard  won  all 
three  events.  At  Poughkeepsie,  New  York,  in  the  47th  annual 
Hudson  river  classic,  30  crews  faced  the  starter  in  the  three 
events.  The  University  of  California's  Golden  Bears  dethroned 
the  defending  champion,  the  University  of  Washington,  in 
the  varsity  race,  but  the  huskies  took  the  junior  varsity  and 
freshman  events.  Yale  halted  Harvard's  victory  streak  at 
New  London,  Connecticut,  in  the  only  4  mi.  race  held  in 
1949  in  the  United  States. 

In  the  Eastern  Intercollegiate  sprint  championships, 
Harvard  dominated  the  field;  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology  was  second  and  Princeton  third,  followed  by 
Cornell,  Navy  and  Boston  university. 

The  Wright  cup  regatta  for  the  lightweight  championship 
of  the  east,  held  on  Lake  Carnegie,  Princeton,  New  Jersey, 
went  to  Cornell  over  the  defending  champion  Princeton. 
The  47th  annual  Poughkeepsie  classic  was  won  by  Ky 
Ebright's  undefeated  University  of  California  varsity.  The 
seventh  annual  Dad  Vail  Rowing  association  regatta  was  held 
at  Poughkeepsie  for  the  first  time.  Boston  university  crews 
swept  the  three  races. 

Schoolboy  rowing  showed  still  further  progress.  The  15th 
annual  championships  were  held  at  Ecorse,  Michigan,  with 
an  entry  of  23  schools  from  the  United  States  and  Canada. 

J.  B.  Kelly,  Jr.,  U.S.  single-sculls  champion  for  1948,  did 
not  defend  his  title,  but  remained  abroad  and  won  all  the 
important  European  single-sculling  championships  including 
the  European  championship  at  Amsterdam.  (C.  L.  BT.) 


RUANDA  AND  URUNDI:    see  BELGIAN  COLONIAL 
EMPIRE;    TRUST  TERRITORIES. 


RUBBER.  For  British  rubber  producers,  postwar 
recovery  in  output  was  broadly  maintained  during  1949, 
but  in  circumstances  of  world  trade  which  looked  anything 
but  promising  at  first. 

In  September,  both  the  Washington  financial  agreement 
and  the  devaluation  of  the  £  came  as  favourable  auguries 
for  the  producers'  future. 

The  decline  in  rubber  prices  had  been  fairly  steady  in  New 
York  and  London  until  August.  The  estates  in  Malaya, 
even  so,  were  going  ahead  with  their  long-term  programmes 
for  replanting  with  high-yielding  rubber  and  required  more 
capital  for  this  work  of  reconstruction.  But  payment  of 
war  damage  compensation  was  still  held  up.  In  November 
the  colonial  secretary  announced  that  payment  would 
probably  be  arranged  by  the  end  of  the  year,  adding  that  the 
delay  was  not  in  the  United  Kingdom  but  in  Malaya. 
Political  unrest  in  the  far  east  was  still  making  life  difficult 
and  hazardous  for  the  planters. 

The  terms  of  the  Washington  agreement  were  published 
on  Sept.  13;  they  promised  a  review  of  the  American  stock- 
piling programme.  There  was  to  be  a  relaxation  of  the 
government  orders  requiring  American  manufacturers  to 
use  fixed  proportions  of  home-produced  synthetic  rubbers. 
Altogether,  there  was  to  be  a  wider  field  in  the  U.S.  for  the 
sale  of  natural  rubber. 

The  devaluation  of  the  £,  which  followed  a  few  days  later, 
caused  an  immediate  reaction  in  the  rubber  markets.  Prices 
rose  by  about  20%  in  London  and  Singapore  and  on  both 
these  markets  the  rise  was  maintained.  In  New  York  the 
reaction  was  more  complex.  In  August  the  average  price 


Thoutond  long  ton* 


PRODUCTION    OF    RUBBER 


Thoutond  long  toot 
1,750 


1,250 


(,000 


1938  39  40  41  42  43  44  45  46  47  48  49 

I  First  8  months 


there  was  16-60  cents  a  Ib.  Prices  rose  as  the  Washington 
talks  progressed  and  reached  18-62  cents  on  Sept.  13;  the 
average  for  the  21  trading  days  in  the  month  of  September 
was  17-58  cents,  the  highest  figure  since  May.  But  after 
devaluation,  the  price  fell  to  16-88  cents,  rose  again  to  17-25 
cents  and  then  fell  away  until  it  reached  16  12  cents  on 
Oct.  11. 

On  Sept.  21,  trading  in  rubber  futures  on  the  New  York 
commodity  exchange  reached  a  new  postwar  record  for 
volume,  the  total  transactions  for  the  day  being  5,790  tons. 
The  previous  peak  was  4,900  tons  on  Dec.  4,  1947.  On 
Oct.  11  the  resumption  of  stock-piling  by  the  U.S.  govern- 
ment was  announced  and  caused  a  widespread  buying 
movement. 

Perhaps  the  most  immediate  effect  of  devaluation  was  that 
for  a  time  it  eliminated  the  black  market  in  rubber  and  so 
gave  to  producers  in  the  sterling  area  a  better  chance  to  sell 
their  output  for  dollars.  But  it  had  to  be  borne  in  mind  that 
the  added  scope  for  the  sale  of  natural  rubber  was  open  to 
the  whole  world  and  could  as  easily  be  taken  up  by  Indonesia, 
which  had  shown  an  increasing  ability  to  compete,  as  by 
Malaya. 

There  could  be  no  doubt  that  for  the  greater  part  of  1949 
the  state  of  the  American  market  was  the  mam  source  of 
anxiety  for  rubber  producers.  Figures  published  on  the  eve 
of  the  Washington  talks  showed  quite  clearly  that  since 
April  there  had  been  a  marked  falling  off  in  the  exports  of 
natural  rubber  from  Malaya  to  the  U.S.  In  September, 
the  tonnage  exported  jumped  to  27,184  tons,  but  this  still 
compared  with  32,473  tons  exported  in  Sept.  1948.  In 
October  exports  reached  24,787,  which  compared  with  a 
1948  figure  of  28,524. 

The  fall  was  attributed  partly  to  sharper  competition  from 
Indonesia.  An  order  had  been  issued  by  the  Dutch  authorities 
that  50%  of  all  Indonesian  estate  exports  were  to  be  sold  in 
the  U.S.,  Canada  and  Japan.  Later  in  the  year  this  order 
was  shelved,  when  it  appeared  likely  that,  following  her  own 
devaluation,  Indonesia  would  be  able  to  ship  the  stipulated 
quantity  without  regulation. 

In  the  first  half  of  the  year  Indonesia  exported  52,898  tons 
to  the  U.S.,  compared  with  a  total  of  96,814  tons  for  the 
whole  of  1948.  But  in  July  only  5,830  tons  went  to  America. 
The  figure  returned  to  12,498  tons  in  August,  but  dropped 
again  to  4,795  tons  in  September. 

The  Washington  agreement  reduced  the  mandatory  area 
for  synthetics  by  35,000  tons  for  butadiene  and  styrene 
(GR-S)  and  by  15,000  tons  for  butyl.  The  superiority  of 


RUMANIA 


553 


the  latter  over  natural  rubber  in  certain  characteristics  had 
been  established;  it  had,  for  example,  10  to  11  times  the  air 
retention,  and  it  might  still  be  used  on  its  own  merits  for 
inner  tubes.  GR-S  was  the  general  purposes  synthetic; 
whether  or  not  its  use  would  be  reduced  by  the  full  35,000 
tons  was  still  in  doubt. 

The  continued  interest  of  U.S.  manufacturers  in  synthetic 
rubber,  retained  even  when  the  price  of  natural  rubber  was 
lower  by  several  cents  a  pound,  caused  some  bewilderment 
in  London.  There  was,  indeed,  a  campaign  on  the  manu- 
facturers* part  to  convince  the  American  customer  that 
natural  rubber  was  **  foreign  and  inferior."  Rubber  is  one 
of  the  few  raw  materials  that  America  has  to  import  and  the 
importance  of  the  American  market  cannot  be  exaggerated. 
During  the  year,  planters  in  the  far  east  urgently  pointed  out 
that  even  a  slight  fall  in  the  New  York  price  of  rubber  could 
mean  a  great  deal  to  the  living  standards  of  far  eastern  peoples. 

At  home,  much  was  made  of  the  significance  of  rubber 
exports  to  North  America  as  a  means  of  closing  the  dollar 
gap.  The  fall  in  the  dollar  value  of  rubber  taken  by  the  U.S. 
in  the  first  eight  months  of  the  year  was  put  forward  as  one 
of  the  main  reasons  why  this  gap  was  widening,  in  1948, 
crude  rubber  exports  to  the  U.S.  from  the  sterling  area 
earned  about  £50  million,  or  about  six  times  the  dollar 
earnings  of  British  car  exports.  In  the  first  six  months  of 
1949  the  dollar  earnings  were  equivalent  to  only  £17-5 
million. 

World  production  and  consumption  of  natural  rubber 
recovered  steadily  from  the  depression  they  suffered  in  1945, 
when  Japan  occupied  the  territories  of  the  far  east.  In  1939 
production  stood  at  1,000,000  tons  and  consumption  at 
1,105,000  tons.  Output  had  dropped  in  1945  to  250,000  tons 
and  consumption  to  262,500  tons.  In  1948  production  had 
mounted  again  to  1,520,000  tons  and  consumption  to 
1,420,000  tons,  while  the  estimated  output  for  1949  was  put 
at  1,575,000  tons,  to  meet  a  demand  for  1,450,000  tons. 
Known  stocks  had  fallen  in  1948  by  80,000  tons.  The  French 
government  withheld  their  figures  after  Jan.  1949. 

World  production  of  synthetic  rubber  fell  from  the  high 
level  reached  in  1944,  when  the  total  output  was  over  900,000 
tons,  including  more  than  100,000  tons  made  in  Germany. 
In  1948  the  total  was  532,186  tons,  of  which  488,343  tons 
were  made  in  the  U.S.,  40,455  tons  in  Canada  and  3,388 
tons  in  the  British  zone  of  Germany. 

From  Jan. -July  1949,  imports  of  natural  rubber  into  the 
United  Kingdom  were  98,317  tons,  of  which  78,050  tons 
came  from  Malaya.  In  the  same  period,  1,355  tons  of 
synthetic  rubber  were  imported  and  consumption  of  both 
natural  and  synthetic  was  104,680  tons,  to  which  were 
added  11,139  tons  of  reclaimed  rubber.  (C.  F.  DM.) 

United  States.  The  estimated  consumption  of  both  natural 
and  synthetic  rubbers  in  the  United  States  in  1949  was  977,000 
long  tons,  of  which  407,000  were  synthetic  rubbers.  Outside 
the  United  States  33,000  long  tons  of  synthetic  rubber  were 
consumed.  The  estimated  production  of  crude  rubber  for 
1949  was  1,455,000  long  tons. 

The  low  prices  for  rubber  in  the  summer  of  1949  (average 
price,  May-June,  for  first  quality  rubber  was  16-1  cents 
per  Ib.  as  against  18-5  to  19-25  cents  in  April  1949)  caused 
concern  in  the  rubber-producing  countries.  Reports  from 
Malaya,  the  source  of  46%  of  1948  natural  rubber,  attri- 
buted the  lower  prices  to  the  American  synthetic  rubber 
industry  and  to  the  minimum  consumption  of  synthetic 
rubber  prescribed  there  by  law. 

The  United  States  importation  of  728,000  long  tons  of 
crude  rubber  in  1948  represented  dollar  payments  which 
were  more  than  twice  those  paid  by  the  United  States  in 
1939.  The  U.S.  consumption  per  head  of  new  rubber  in 
1948  was  16  •  5  Ib.  while  for  the  rest  of  the  world  it  was  0  •  9  Ib. 


The  most  important  source  of  synthetic  rubber,  govern- 
ment-owned factories  in  the  United  States,  continued  to 
produce  large  amounts  of  general  purpose  rubber,  GR-S 
(butadiene  and  styrene),  at  18-5  cents  per  Ib.  to  the  manu- 
facturer. Provisions  pertaining  to  the  production  and  use 
of  synthetic  rubber  were  imposed  under  the  Rubber  act 
of  1948  which  insured  the  consumption  of  general-purpose 
and  special-purpose  synthetic  rubbers  in  quantities  at  least 
equal  to  the  minimums  specified  as  essential  in  the  interests 
of  national  security.  This  regulation  operated  so  as  to 
involve  only  manufacturers  of  tyres,  tubes  and  mainly  passenger 
car  »tyres.  Only  50  of  the  1,000  manufacturing  concerns 
requiring  rubber  made  tyres,  tubes  and  camel-back. 

These  requirements  worked  out  so  that  1  Ib.  of  GR-S 
was  consumed  for  every  3  Ib.  of  total  rubber.  In  September 
1  Ib.  of  GR-S  was  allowed  to  be  used  for  4  Ib  of  GR-S  and 
crude  rubber  combined.  The  minimum  tonnages  required 
under  the  law  worked  out  initially  at  200,000  long  tons  a 
year  for  GR-S  and  21,666  long  tons  of  special -purpose 
rubbers,  15,000  long  tons  of  which  were  for  inner  tube  use. 

Reclaimed  rubber  (derived  mainly  from  worn-out  tyres  and 
tubes)  was  a  supplement  to  new  rubber.  In  1948  the  tonnage 
of  reclaimed  rubber  used  in  the  U.S.  was  25%  of  the  total 
new  rubber  consumed.  This  percentage  compared  with 
29%  in  1939  and  65%  in  1942.  Reclaimed  rubber  was  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  most  rubber  products. 

Since  1944  the  production  of  tyre  cord  and  fabrics  had 
increased  steadily  but  with  a  significant  swing  toward  the 
use  of  rayon  and  nylon 

In  the  United  States,  in  1948,  70-6%  of  natural  rubber 
consumption  and  68-2%  of  synthetic  rubber  consumption 
was  for  transportation  uses.  Thus  all  other  uses  of  rubber 
accounted  for  about  30%  of  the  total  new  rubber  consumed. 
The  quantities  of  products  manufactured  in  the  United  States 
for  1947  comprised  111,686,368  pneumatic  tyre  casings, 
97,596,708  inner  tubes,  97,413,406  Ib.  of  camelback  and 
repair  materials,  and  635,762,626  Ib.  of  reclaimed  rubber. 

RUGBY  FOOTBALL:    see  FOOTBALL. 

RUMANIA.  A  people's  republic  of  southeastern  Europe, 
bounded  on  the  N.  and  N.E.  by  the  U.S.S.R.,  on  the  E.  by 
the  Black  sea,  and  the  S.  by  Bulgaria  and  on  the  W.  by 
Yugoslavia  and  Hungary.  Area:  (1939)  113,889  sq.  mi.; 
(1947,  without  Bessarabia,  northern  Bukovina  and  southern 
Dobruja)  91,671  sq.  mi.  Pop.:  (1939  est.)  19,933,800;  (Jan. 
25,  1948,  census)  15,872,624.  Languages  (1948  census): 
Rumanian  85-7%;  Hungarian  9-4%;  German  2-2%; 
Yiddish  0  9%;  others  I -8%.  Religions  (1947  est.):  Greek 
Orthodox  81%;  Greek  Catholic  9%;  Roman  Catholic  7%; 
others  3%.  Chief  towns  (pop  1945  est.):  Bucharest  or 
BucuresU  (cap.,  1948  census,  1,401,807);  Cluj  (110,956); 
Jassy  or  Iasi(  108,987);  Timisoara(  108,296);  Ploesti  (105,114); 
Braila  (97,293);  Galati  (93,229).  Chairman  of  the  presidium 
of  the  Grand  National  Assembly,  Constantin  Parhon; 
prime  minister,  Dr.  Petre  Groza. 

History.  By  a  reshuffle  of  the  government  on  April  15, 
Ana  Pauker  (q.v.)  and  Vasile  Luca  (^.v.)  were  made  deputy 
prime  ministers.  This  office  was  already  held  by  Gheorghc 
Gheorghm-Dej  (q.v.).  These  three  people,  who  were  also 
the  three  leading  Communists  of  Rumania,  thus  formed  an 
inner  cabinet  similar  to  the  five  deputy  prime  ministers  of 
Bulgaria  (q.v.). 

During  the  year  there  were  no  sensational  "  unmaskings  " 
within  the  Communist  party.  The  first  of  the  "  nationalist 
deviations  "  in  east  European  Communist  parties  had  been 
"  liquidated  "  in  Rumania  in  1948,  with  the  expulsion  of 
Lucretiu  PStrascanu.  Evidently  this  heresy  had  been  nipped 
in  the  bud.  Of  the  devotion  of  the  party  leaders  to  Moscow 


554 


RUMANIA 


A  demonstration  in  Bucharest  on  Aug.  23,  1949— the  fifth  anniversary  of  Rumania's  national  liberation  day. 


there  seemed  no  reasonable  doubt.  Rumania  seemed  in  fact 
to  be  more  thoroughly  subjected  to  the  U.S.S.R.  than  any 
of  the  other  people's  democracies.  An  indication  of  this 
was  the  replacement  of  the  country's  name  by  the  initials 
R.P.R.  (Republica  Populara  Romana).  While  Hungarian  or 
Bulgarian  Communists  still  spoke  of  Hungary  or  Bulgaria, 
Rumanian  Communists  extolled  the  virtues  and  glories  only 
of  R.P.R.  The  attempt  to  concentrate  patriotism  on  initials 
was  an  importation  from  the  U.S.S.R. 

A  new  trade  agreement  between  Rumania  and  the  Soviet 
Union,  signed  on  Jan.  24,  increased  the  mutual  trade  two- 
and-a-half  times  above  the  level  of  1948.  The  sum  was 
announced  in  Soviet  roubles — 465  million  for  1949.  The 
arbitrary  nature  of  rouble  exchange  rates  made  it  even  more 
difficult  to  calculate  how  much  Rumania  was  giving  and 
receiving  under  this  agreement  than  was  the  case  when  goods 
were  priced  in  "  1938  dollars."  The  number  of  Soviet- 
Rumanian  joint  companies  was  increased  by  the  creation 
of  enterprises  for  joint  exploitation  of  natural  gas  (Jan.  1949), 
metals,  coal,  building  (July  5)  and  a  Soviet-Rumanian 
insurance  company  (July  29). 

Rumania's  system  of  alliances  was  completed  on  Jan.  26, 
1949,  when  a  treaty  of  mutual  assistance  was  signed  with 
Poland.  The  existing  treaty  of  alliance  with  Yugoslavia  was 
denounced  by  the  Rumanian  government  on  Oct.  1. 

Collectivization  of  agriculture  made  some  progress.  As  in 
Hungary,  attention  was  concentrated  on  the  liquidation  of 
the  kulaks.  Mass  collectivization  was  not  to  start  until  the 
power  of  the  kulaks  in  the  villages  was  broken  and  until 
adequate  supplies  of  agricultural  machinery  were  available 
in  order  to  allow  the  new  collective  farms  to  benefit  from  the 
advantages  of  large-scale  cultivation.  The  first  process  was 
supposed  to  take  place  by  political  education  and  by  the 
initiative  of  the  village  masses  themselves,  but  in  practice 
was  conducted  by  the  party  officials  with  the  backing  of  the 
police.  Even  when  violence  was  not  used,  economic 
strangulation  was  likely  to  be  effective.  A  statement  of  the 


central  committee  of  the  Communist  party,  dated  March  5, 
1949,  ordered  4t  differential  class  taxation"  and  a  "class 
policy  in  cereal  collection  and  in  the  allocation  of  credits  " 
to  destroy  the  power  of  the  kulaks.  On  the  actual  interpreta- 
tion of  the  word  kulak  in  the  Rumanian  villages  there  was 
a  lack  of  reliable  information.  Supplies  of  machinery  were 
to  be  provided  by  the  tractor  factory  set  up  by  the  Soviet- 
Rumanian  joint  company  Sovromtractor  and  by  the  extension 
and  improvement  of  the  network  of  "  machine-tractor 
stations,"  based  on  the  similar  institution  in  the  U.S.S.R. 
A  central  committee  directive  of  Oct.  15  laid  down  new 
regulations  for  the  organization  of  the  M.T.S.  It  stressed 
the  need  for  control  over  the  stations  by  the  local  organs  of 
the  Communist  party.  "  Socialist  competition  "  was  to  be 
practised  between  M.T.S.  as  between  factories.  The  actual 
number  of  collective  farms  set  up  was  still  small:  only  55  at 
the  end  of  September.  (See  also  PEASANT  MOVEMENT.) 

Official  statistics  published  in  October  claimed  that  at  the 
end  of  the  third  quarter  of  1949  the  targets  set  in  the  One- 
Year  plan  for  1949  had  been  achieved  to  the  extent  of  109%. 
Among  the  more  successful  branches  were  lead  and  copper 
mining  and  some  sections  of  machinery  and  chemicals,  the 
least  successful— the  building  industry.  A  new  One- Year 
plan  was  drawn  up  for  1950  and  it  was  announced  that  in 
1951  a  Five- Year  plan  would  be  introduced.  By  1955  yearly 
output  of  steel  was  to  be  five  times  that  of  1938  and  would  be 
1,250,000  metric  tons.  Output  of  coal  was  to  be  three  times 
that  of  1938,  of  cast  iron  eight  times;  of  electric  power  four 
times  the  level  of  1944.  In  1955  Rumanian  industry  was  to 
be  capable  of  producing  6,000  tractors  yearly  and  in  that  year 
Rumania  would  have,  from  various  sources,  a  total  of  25,000 
tractors.  This,  it  was  officially  stated,  would  constitute 
44  a  sound  basis  for  socialist  agriculture."  This  was  a  change 
from  a  communist  party  statement  of  March  1949  which 
declared  that  Rumania  must  have  30,000  tractors  before  large- 
scale  collectivization  would  be  possible.  An  important 
construction  proiect  announced  on  May  26  was  a  Danube- 


RUSSELL— RUSSIAN    LITERATURE 


555 


Black  sea  canal.  This  would  short-cut  the  Danube  delta, 
and  greatly  facilitate  trade  between  central  Europe  and  the 
U.S.S.R. 

From  these  various  statements  it  could  be  concluded  that 
the  collectivization  of  Rumanian  agriculture  would  for  the 
time  being  move  slowly  but  that  the  pace  would  be  increased 
during  the  Five- Year  plan  period  1951-55.  The  pace  would 
depend  on  the  urgency  of  securing  food  and  labour  supplies 
from  the  countryside,  and  this  in  turn  would  depend  on  the 
priority  given  in  Moscow  to  Rumania's  industrialization. 
This  would  itself  depend  on  Moscow's  view  of  the  inter- 
national situation. 

Political  sovietization  was  carried  further  by  the  establish- 
ment in  October  of  a  State  Control  commission  similar  to 
the  organizations  of  the  same  name  already  existing  in  Yugo- 
slavia and  Bulgaria  and  modelled  on  the  Ministry  of  State 
Control  of  the  Soviet  Union.  (H.  S.-W.) 

Education.  Schools  (1949;  1938  in  brackets):  elementary  19,000 
(11,000);  secondary,  pupils  141,000  (40,000);  teachers'  colleges, 
students  89,000  (5,000);  universities  4,  students  44,000  (24,000). 

Agriculture.  Main  crops  ("000  metric  tons,  1947):  maize  5,279; 
wheat  1.279;  oats  180;  barley  364;  rye  66;  potatoes  (1948)  1,630; 
sugar,  raw  value  (1948)  112;  hemp  (1948)  27;  flax  (1948)  3 -7;  cotton, 
ginned,  (1948)  3.  Livestock  ('000  head):  sheep  (Dec.  1947)  7,000; 
cattle  (Dec.  1946)  3.048;  pigs  (March  1946)  1,406;  horses  (Dec. 
1947)  939. 

Industry.  (1947)  Industrial  establishments  28,295;  persons  employed 
462,305.  Fuel  and  power:  coal  ('000  metric  tons)  162;  lignite  2,108; 
natural  gas  (million  cu.  m.)  2,106;  electricity  (million  kwh.)  712;  crude 
oil  ('000  metric  tons,  1948)  4,500.  Raw  materials:  pig-iron  (*000 
metric  tons)  91;  steel  183;  gold  (kg.)  2,231;  silver  (fine  troy  oz.) 
481,200;  copper  (metric  tons)  531;  lead  3,495;  zinc  2,283.  Manufac- 
tured goods:  refined  petroleum  products  ('000  metric  tons)  3,450; 
cotton  yarn  11,300;  cotton  fabrics  3,200;  sawn  timber  COOO  cu.  m.) 
1,359;  cement  ('000  metric  tons)  418. 

Foreign  Trade.  (1948)  Imports  96  million  U.S.  dollars,  exports 
160  million  U.S.  dollars. 

Transport  and  Communications.  Roads  (1945):  43,163  mi.  Licensed 
motor  vehicles  (Dec.  1948):  cars  14,670,  commercial  vehicles  14,950. 
Railways  (1948):  7,000  mi.  Shipping  (1948):  merchant  vessels  15, 
total  tonnage  32,962.  Telephones  (1947):  subscribers  127,153. 

Finance  and  Banking.  (Million  lei)  Budget:  (1950  est.)  revenue 
353,880,  expenditure  350,680.  Currency  circulation  (July  1948):  32,000 
million  lei.  Monetary  unit:  leu  (pi.  lei)  with  an  exchange  rate  of 
L.427-30  (615  before  Sept.  18,  1949)  to  the  pound. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  R.  Bishop,  Russia  Astride  the  Balkans  (London, 
1949);  R.  H.  Markham,  Rumania  Under  the  Soviet  Yoke  (Boston, 
1949). 

RUSSELL,  BERTRAND  ARTHUR  WILLIAM 
RUSSELL,  3rd  Earl,  British  philosopher  and  mathe- 
matician (b.  Trelleck,  May  18,  1872).  (For  his  early  career 
see  Encyclopedia  Britannicd). 

He  returned  to  England  from  the  United  States  in  1944 
and  accepted  a  fellowship  at  Trinity  college,  Cambridge. 
He  became  a  member  of  the  B.B.C.  brains  trust,  and  in  1946 
A  History  of  Western  Philosophy  was  published,  on  the  writing 
of  which  he  had  been  engaged  for  many  years.  On  Oct.  4, 
1948,  the  Norwegian  flying-boat  in  which  he  was  travelling 
to  lecture  to  students  of  Trondheim  university  on  "  Ideologies 
and  Common-Sense  "  crashed  and  sank  off  the  Norwegian 
coast.  He  was  rescued  after  swimming  in  the  cold  northern 
waters  for  some  time.  At  the  end  of  1948  and  the  beginning 
of  1949  he  broadcast  the  first  of  the  series  of  Reith  memorial 
lectures  which  had  been  initiated  by  the  B.B.C.  His  subject 
for  the  six  lectures  which  were  broadcast  on  the  third  pro- 
gramme was  "  Authority  and  the  Individual."  On  March 
25,  1949,  he  received  the  degree  of  doctor  honoris  causa  from 
the  University  of  Aix-Marseilles,  France.  In  Sept.  1949  he 
lectured  in  Paris  on  the  occasion  of  the  meeting  of  the  general 
conference  of  U.N.E.S.C.O.  He  was  awarded  the  Order  of 
Merit  in  the  birthday  honours,  June  1949. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.      H.  W.  Leggett,  Bertrand  Russell  (London,  1949). 

RUSSELL,  SIR  EDWARD  JOHN,  British 
agricultural  scientist  (b.  Frampton,  Gloucestershire,  Oct.  31, 


1872),  was  educated  at  the  University  College  of  Wales  and  at 
Victoria  university,  Manchester.  He  was  a  lecturer  and 
demonstrator  in  chemistry  at  Manchester,  1898-1901,  and 
head  of  the  chemical  department  at  the  agricultural  college, 
Wye,  1901-7,  when  he  went  to  the  Rothamsted  experimental 
station  where  he  remained  until  his  retirement  in  1943.  He 
was  its  director  from  1912  and  from  1928  to  1943  was  also 
director  of  the  Imperial  Bureau  of  Soil  Science.  During 
World  War  II  he  was  adviser  to  the  Soviet  relations  division 
of  the  Ministry  of  Information  and  from  1941  to  1945  chair- 
man of  the  agricultural  sub-committee  of  U.N.R.R.A. 
Orv  Jan.  7,  1949,  Sir  John  was  installed  as  the  1 1 1th  president 
of  the  British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science 
in  succession  to  Sir  Henry  Tizard.  He  had  previously  been 
president  of  the  agricultural  section  of  the  association  in 
1916,  1924  and  1931.  His  presidential  address  to  the  annual 
meeting  of  the  association  at  Newcastle-on-Tyne  on  Aug.  31, 
1949,  was  entitled  "  World  population  and  world  food 
supplies  ";  and  on  the  same  day  he  was  given  the  honorary 
degree  of  doctor  of  science  by  the  University  of  Durham. 
His  many  books  include  Soil  Conditions  and  Plant  Growth 
(1919;  8th  ed.,  1949),  A  Student's  Book  on  Soil  and  Manures 
(1915;  4th  ed.,  1949),  The  Farm  and  the  Nation  (1933)  and 
English  Farming  (1942).  He  was  knighted  in  1922. 


Sir  John  Russell,  president  of  the  British  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science  for  1949,  receiving  the  honorary  degree  of  doctor 
of  science  from  Sir  James  Dujf,  pro-vice-chancellor  of  Durham 

university,  Aug.  31,  1949. 
RUSSIA:     see  UNION  OF  SOVIET  SOCIALIST  REPUBLICS. 

RUSSIAN  LITERATURE.  The  year  1949  would 
be  remembered  in  Soviet  Russian  literature,  not  so  much  for 
any  positive  achievements,  as  for  the  violent,  almost  daily 
attacks  in  the  press  on  literary,  dramatic,  music  and  film 
critics  for  their  "  formalism  "  and  "  homeless  cosmopolitan- 
ism." This  campaign  of  vituperation  represented  a  further 
stage  in  the  general  "  anti-western  "  movement  inaugurated 
with  the  notorious  Zhdanov  purges  in  1946.  Several  hundred 
critics,  including  many  prominent  and  regular  contributors 
to  the  Soviet  press,  were  involved,  the  attackers  frequently 


556 


SAAR— SADAK 


being  attacked  in  turn  and  accused  of  the  same  sins  which 
they  had  imputed  to  the  others.  A  peculiar  feature  of  this 
campaign  was  its  latent  anti-Semitic  flavour.  The  word 
"  Jew  "  was  not  used  outright,  but  the  context  in  which  the 
expression  **  homeless  cosmopolitans  "  appeared  was  more 
than  suggestive.  Many  of  the  attacked  happened  to  be  Jews 
using  Russian  pseudonyms  and  these  latter  were  systematically 
and  maliciously  disclosed.  In  two  cases  the  anti-Semitic  bias 
could  easily  be  read  into  the  attack.  One  was  when  a  certain 
Serghey  Ivanov,  in  Oktlabr,  charged  the  well  known  literary 
historian  Leonid  Grossman  with  having  discussed  the 
influence  of  the  Bible  and  of'4  Jewish  folklore  "  on  Lermontov. 
The  other,  an  article  in  Druzhba  Narodov  by  Kornely  Zelinsky 
(himself  previously  attacked  for  his  earlier  "  formalist " 
writings)  about  the  late  Mikhail  Gershenson  as  a  student  of 
Pushkin  and  of  Russian  literary  history  in  general :  Gershen- 
son was  spoken  of  as  "  a  homeless  cosmopolitan  "  and  "  a 
parasite  sucking  on  Russian  literature."  There  were  also 
specific  attacks  on  Jewish  cultural  organizations,  on  the 
Jewish  theatres  in  Byelorussia  and  Ukraine,  on  the  editors 
of  the  Jewish  Encyclopaedia^  etc.  A  violent  anti-western  bias 
characterized  also  the  nationwide  celebrations  of  the  150th 
anniversary  of  Pushkin's  birth,  just  as  the  year  before  it  had 
marked  the  commemoration  of  the  centenary  of  Belmsky's 
death.  The  exposure  of  "  Anglo- American  imperialists  "  was 
the  keynote  of  many  a  new  play  and  story.  Others  sounded 
an  ultra-patriotic  note,  glorifying  everything  Russian. 

Of  the  works  by  established  Soviet  authors  the  following 
must  be  mentioned:  the  first  part  of  Fyodor  Gladkov's 
autobiographical  Detstvo  (Childhood),  a  colourful  realistic 
picture  of  pre-revolutionary  life  in  a  Russian  village;  Valentin 
Kataev's  novel  Za  vlasf  Sovetov  (For  the  Power  of  the  Soviets), 
dealing  with  wartime  exploits  and  experiences  of  some 
characters  in  one  of  his  best  earlier  novels,  The  Lone  White 
Sail;  and  Veniamin  Ka  verm's  novel  Otkrytaya  kmga  (The 
Open  Book),  giving  the  life  story  of  a  Soviet  woman  doctor. 
Vera  Panova,  who  in  1947  attracted  attention  with  her  short 
novel  Sputnik i  (The  Travelling  Companions;  in  English 
translation,  The  Train)  and  in  1948  followed  up  with  Kru- 
zhilikha,  wrote  a  new  novel,  Yasny  her  eg  (The  Clear  Shore), 
about  a  collective  farm.  There  were  no  notable  newcomers 
to  literature. 

Among  emigre  writers  the  outstanding  event  was  the  death 
in  Rome,  in  July,  of  Vyacheslav  Ivanov,  the  last  survivor  of 
Russian  Symbolism,  once  its  main  theoretician  and  a  poet 
whose  greatness  time  would  undoubtedly  confirm;  born  in 
1866,  Ivanov  left  the  Soviet  Union  in  1924  and  became  a 
Roman  Catholic.  Alexey  Remizov  published  in  Paris  his 
first  book  in  Russian  since  1931,  Plyashushchy  demon  (The 
Dancing  Demon).  Its  nature  defies  exact  description — it  is  a 
typical  Remizov  whimsy,  part  autobiographical,  part  fantastic 
and  dreamlike.  Its  best  section  consists  of  fictitious  memoirs 
of  an  old  Russian  scribe  whose  soul  migrates  from  one 
historical  or  semi-historical  character  into  another.  Of  the 
younger  writers,  Nina  Berberova  published  in  Paris  a  book 
of  six  long  stories,  Oblegchenie  uchasti  (Alleviation  of  the  Lot), 
with  life  in  exile  for  their  setting.  The  historian  of  Russian 
literature  in  exile  found  much  interesting  material,  especially 
in  the  memoir  genre,  in  the  three  Russian  journals  appearing 
outside  Russia:  Novy  Zhurnal  (New  York),  Vozrozhdenie 
(Paris)  and  Grani  (U.S.  zone  of  Germany).  The  last  named 
drew  for  contributions  mainly  upon  displaced  persons  and 
former  Soviet  citizens  now  in  Europe  and  was  of  special 
interest  to  students  of  contemporary  Russia.  (G.  ST.) 

RYE:    see  GRAIN  CROPS. 

SAAR.  A  German  state  (Land)  united  with  France  by 
monetary  (from  Nov.  20,  1947)  and  customs  (from  April  1, 
1948)  union.  Area:  734  sq.  mi.  Pop.  (1947  est.):  848,052. 


_  _  _   Saar  boundary 
1920  1935 


Provisional  extension 
July  8,  1946 
o«  facto  boundary 
June  6.  1947 

The  Saar,  as  of  June  6  1947 


VriOfAbDlA    BRITANNH   A     Inc      VH1  K)\ 


Language:  German.  Religions:  Roman  Catholic  75%, 
Protestant  24%.  Capital:  Saarbrucken  (pop.  1939  est.): 
135,000;  (June  1947  est.  97,752).  High  commissioner, 
Gilbert  Grandval;  prime  minister  (from  Dec.  20,  1947), 
Johannes  Hoffmann. 

History.  The  Saar  was  not  represented  in  the  parliamentary 
council  which  was  preparing  at  Bonn  a  new  German  consti- 
tution and  was  not  one  of  the  Lander  of  the  German  federal 
republic.  According  to  its  1947  constitution,  the  Saar  was 
politically  independent  of  Germany  and  its  defence  and 
foreign  policy  were  governed  by  France,  in  July  1949, 
therefore,  Robert  Schuman,  the  French  minister  of  foreign 
affairs,  asked  all  the  countries  who  had  signed  the  statute 
of  the  Council  of  Europe  for  the  admission  of  the  Saar  as 
an  associate  member.  On  Nov.  4  he  laid  before  the  committee 
of  ministers  of  the  Council  of  Europe  an  application  by  the 
Saar  government  for  associate  membership.  Dr.  Konrad 
Adenauer,  German  federal  chancellor,  questioned  the  wisdom 
of  the  French  policy  of  asking  for  the  admission  of  the  Saar 
as  a  condition  of  France's  acceptance  of  Germany,  but 
commented  that  it  would  be  equally  unwise  for  Germany  to 
refuse  to  join  the  Council  of  Europe  if  the  Saar  were  admitted 
as  an  independent  member.  On  Nov.  9  the  standing  com- 
mittee of  the  consultative  assembly  agreed  to  the  entry  of 
the  Saar. 

Economy.    Production  in  thousand  metric  tons. 
Average 

1936-38  1947  1948  1949 

Steel         ....        2,418  704  1,216  1,756 

Coal         ....      12,500  10,500  12,474  14,236 

Electricity  (million  kwh.)    .        1,341  —  1,247  1,506 

Gas  (million  cu.  metres)      .           1 58  —  302  354 

SADAK,  NECMETTIN,  Turkish  statesman  (b.  Isparta, 
Turkey,  1890),  was  educated  at  the  Galata  Saray  lycee 
in  Istanbul  and  the  University  of  Lyons,  France.  He  returned 
to  Turkey  in  1914.  His  first  assignment  was  with  the  ministry 
of  public  education.  He  also  taught  at  the  University  of 
Istanbul,  first  as  associate,  then  as  professor  of  sociology. 
Owner  and  editor  of  one  of  Turkey's  evening  newspapers, 
Aksam  (Istanbul),  he  was  rated  as  one  of  Turkey's  foremost 
editorial  writers.  He  was  elected  deputy  for  Sivas  in  1931 
and  was  afterwards  constantly  re-elected.  He  was  appointed 
foreign  minister  on  Sept.  9,  1947,  in  the  first  cabinet  of  Hasan 
Saka,  and  retained  this  post  in  the  second  Saka  cabinet  as 
well  as  in  the  government  formed  on  Jan.  16,  1949,  by 
Semsettin  Gunaltay  (q.v.).  When  in  July  1948  the  U.S. 
state  department  started  diplomatic  negotiations  which  led 


SAED   MARAGHEH— SALVADOR,  EL 


557 


to  the  signature  of  the  North  Atlantic  treaty,  he  suggested 
that  a  Mediterranean  pact  was  also  advisable.  He  represented 
his  country  at  all  the  major  international  conferences  and 
in  Aug.  1949,  at  Strasbourg,  attended  the  meeting  of  the 
Council  of  Europe  to  which  Turkey  was  admitted. 

SAED  MARAGHEH,  MOHAMMAD,  Persian 
diplomat  and  statesman  (b.  Maragheh,  N.W.  Persia,  1882), 
was  educated  in  Persia  and  entered  the  Persian  diplomatic 
service  at  the  age  of  22.  Between  1917-25  he  was  the  Persian 
consul  general  to  the  republic  of  Azerbaijan.  With  one  break 
for  two  years  (1931-33)  when  he  was  governor  of  Persian 
Azerbaijan,  he  occupied  many  posts  in  the  Persian  diplomatic 
service.  In  1933-34  he  was  director  of  the  eastern  department 
of  the  Foreign  Ministry;  1934-36  minister  in  Moscow; 
1936-38  minister  in  Rome  and  1938-42  ambassador  in 
Moscow.  In  1942  he  was  appointed  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  which  post  he  held  for  one  year.  In  1944  he  became 
prime  minister.  During  his  premiership  he  had  to  deal  with 
strong  Soviet  pressure  on  Persia  to  obtain  oil  concessions  in 
the  northern  provinces.  With  the  Soviet  army  occupying  the 
northern  parts  of  the  country  the  Soviet  government  brought 
every  kind  of  pressure  on  the  Persian  government  to  yield. 
Saed  steadfastly  refused  to  grant  oil  concessions  to  the 
Russians.  Subsequently  he  had  to  retire  from  the  political 
scene  He  was  elected  deputy  for  Re/aieh  (N.W.  Persia)  in 
1946.  On  Nov.  9,  1948,  he  v\as  again  appointed  prime 
minister.  In  1949  he  was  instrumental  in  carrying  the  Shah's 
constitutional  reforms  through  the  Majlis  (see  PERSIA). 

ST.  CHRISTOPHER:    &ce  LIFWARD  ISLANDS. 

ST.  CROIX:  sec  UNITED  STATES  TERRITORIES  AND 
POSSPSSIONS. 

SAINT  HELENA.  British  colony  in  the  south  Atlantic 
consisting  of  the  island  of  that  name  and  the  two  island 
dependencies  of  Ascension  and  Tristan  da  Cunha.  Respective 
areas:  47  3,  34  and  13*5  sq.  mi.  Population  (1946  census): 
4,748,  292  and  230.  Governor,  Sir  George  Joy 

The  colony's  resources  being  inadequate  to  provide  work 
for  its  inhabitants,  100  farm  workers  sailed  for  the  United 
Kingdom  under  a  new  government  scheme  for  employment 
overseas.  The  fourth  advisory  council  was  constituted  and 
appointed  by  the  governor  in  June. 

Finance.  Budget  (1947  cst  )•  revenue  £83,628  (including  149.170 
from  grants),  expenditure  £96,278.  (J.  A.  Hu.) 

ST.  JOHN:  see  UNITED  STAIUS  TLRRiTORihs  AND 
POSSESSIONS 

ST.    KITTS-NEVLS:    see  LEEWARD  ISLANDS. 

ST.  LAURENT,  LOUIS  STEPHEN,  Canadian 
statesman  (b.  Compton,  Quebec,  Feb.  1,  1882),  was  elected 
leader  of  the  Liberal  party  in  Aug.  1948  and  succeeded 
W.  L.  Mackenzie  King  as  prime  minister  on  Nov  15,  1948. 
(For  his  early  career  see  Britannica  Book  of  the  Year  1949.) 

In  Feb.  1949  Louis  St.  Laurent  visited  President  Harry  S. 
Truman  in  Washington  "  to  maintain  friendly  relationship 
between  the  two  nations."  He  took  part  in  the  celebrations 
which  were  held  on  April  1,  1949,  to  mark  the  admission  of 
Newfoundland  into  the  Canadian  confederation.  Before  the 
general  election  on  June  27,  he  undertook  an  extensive 
speaking  tour,  and  thus  was  prevented  from  attending  the 
Commonwealth  prime  ministers*  conference  in  London  in 
April.  The  elections  resulted  in  an  outstanding  victory  for 
the  Liberal  party,  which  increased  its  representation  in  the 
House  of  Commons  from  125  seats  to  192.  In  March  he 
was  elected  an  honorary  master  of  the  bench  of  the  Inner 
Temple  in  London  and  during  the  year  received  honorary 


degrees  from  McGill  university,  Montreal,  and  the  Rensselaer 
polytechnic  institute,  Troy,  New  York. 

ST.   LUCIA:    see  WINDWARD  ISLANDS. 

ST.  PIERRE  AND  MIQUELON:  «<  FRENCH 
UNION. 

ST.  THOMAS:  see  UNITFD  STATFS  TLRRITOKIIS  AND 
POSSESSIONS. 

ST.  VINCENT:    see  WINDWARD  ISLANDS. 

SALAZAR,  ANTONIO  DE  OLIVEIRA,  Portu- 
guese statesman  (b.  Santa  Comba  Dao,  Coimbra,  April  28, 
1889),  minister  of  finance  from  April  27,  1928,  and  prime 
minister  from  July  5,  1932.  (For  his  early  career  sec  Biitannica 
Book  of  the  Year  1949) 

In  a  speech  at  Oporto,  on  Jan  7,  1949,  Dr.  Salazar  des- 
cribed himself  as  a  free  man  since  he  owned  no  property 
worth  mentioning  and  because  he  did  not  flatter  either 
individuals  or  the  masses.  He  had  done  enough,  he  said,  to 
prove  that  his  mission  had  not  been  a  failure.  On  July  25, 
speaking  in  the  National  Assembly  convened  for  the  ratifi- 
cation of  the  North  Atlantic  treaty,  he  said  that  if  the  glory 
belonged  to  some,  the  victory  of  1945  had  in  effect  fallen  to 
others.  The  U  S.S  R.  could  if  it  were  so  disposed,  hurl  its 
armies  in  a  single  thrust  to  the  English  channel  and  the 
Pyrenees.  He  made  a  strong  plea  for  the  inclusion  of  Spain 
in  the  treaty. 

SALVADOR,  EL.  A  republic  on  the  west  coast  of 
Central  America,  the  only  one  without  a  Caribbean  littoral, 
and  the  smallest,  but  most  densely  populated  country  on  the 
isthmus.  Area:  13,176  sq  mi.  Pop.  (mid-1948  est.): 
2,100,000.  Aboriginal  and  mixed  races,  lachnos  and  mestizos, 
constitute  the  bulk  of  the  population.  Chief  towns  (pop. 
1944est.):  San  Salvador  (cap.,  1 10,435);  Santa  Ana  (47,631); 
Nueva  San  Salvador,  formerly  Santa  Tecla  (24,239). 
Language:  Spanish.  Religion:  Roman  Catholic.  The 
government  during  1949  was  under  the  direction  of  a  tempo- 
rary junta. 

History.  The  revolutionary  junta  which  replaced  President 
Salvador  Castaneda  Castro  in  Dec.  1948  maintained  control 
over  the  country  throughout  1949.  However,  preparations 
were  made  for  drawing  up  a  new  constitution  and  returning 
to  a  democratic  order.  The  resignation  of  Lieut.  Colonel 
Manuel  J.  Cordova,  announced  on  Jan.  5,  as  head  of  the 
five-man  governing  board  left  the  chief  direction  of  public 
affairs  to  Major  Oscar  Osono.  In  October,  however,  Osorio 
and  Remaldo  Galindo  Pohl  both  left  the  junta  to  campaign 
for  the  election  of  their  partisans  to  an  assembly  empowered 
to  draw  up  a  new  constitution.  Major  Oscar  Bolanos  and 
Dr.  Humberto  Costa  remained  in  the  governing  body. 
Two  decrees  of  a  strong  nationalist  character  were  passed 
during  the  year:  one  outlawing  all  political  parties  with 
foreign  financial  support  or  with  religious  affiliations,  and 
the  other  prohibiting  commercial  and  industrial  firms  in 
the  country  from  employing  less  than  90%  national  personnel. 

El  Salvador's  favourable  economic  status  was  further 
bolstered  in  November  by  an  increase  of  more  than  65% 
in  the  value  of  its  coffee  on  the  world  market.  A  new  suspen- 
sion bridge  over  the  Rio  Paz  boundary,  jointly  financed  by 
Guatemala  and  El  Salvador,  was  completed  on  July.  14. 
One  government  decree  establishing  a  universal  social 
insurance  programme  for  employees  in  the  country  and 
another  formulating  a  settlement  procedure  for  individual 
labour-management  disputes  went  into  effect  on  Oct.  12. 

Education.  Schools  (1945).  primary  1,519,  teachers  3,701,  pupils 
about  100,000;  secondary  50,  pupils  6,982;  national  university, 
students  835.  National  appropriations  for  education  in  1947  amounted 
to  2-9  million  colones. 


558 


SALVATION  ARMY— SCANDINAVIAN  LITERATURE 


Foreign  Trade.  Exports  in  1948  totalled  45-6  million  colones, 
including  gold,  silver  and  specie  (40  1  million  in  1947);  imports, 
41 -5  million  colones  (36  9  million  in  1947)  The  United  States  took  77% 
of  the  exports  and  furnished  73%  of  the  imports  Coffee  (861,874 
bags  of  157Ib  each,  valued  at  36  2  million  colones)  was  the  chief 
export  commodity  The  1948-49  coffee  crop  established  a  new  national 
record  of  1,190,920  bags. 

Communications.  In  1948  there  were  two  major  railways  with  377  mi. 
of  mam  lines;  700  mi.  of  surfaced  highways  and  1,250  mi  of  all- 
weather  dirt  roads,  over  4,000  telephones  and  about  14,500  wireless 
sets 

Finance.  The  monetary  unit  is  the  coMn,  valued  at  40  U  S.  cents 
The  1949  budget  called  for  expenditures  of  62  million  colones  Currency 
circulation  (Nov.  1949)  57-3  million  colones.  As  at  Aug  31,  1949. 
the  Central  bank's  gold  and  foreign-exchange  holdings  amounted  to 
34 -8  million  colones  (28  million  colones  on  the  same  date  of  1948). 
The  foreign  debt  at  the  end  of  1945  was  18  3  million  colones. 

(M.  L.  M.) 

SALVATION  ARMY.  The  year  1949  was  crowded 
with  customary  Salvation  Army  activity,  outstanding  among 
which  was  a  series  of  over  100  meetings  conducted  by  General 
and  Mrs.  Orsborn  in  a  65  days'  campaign  in  India,  Pakistan 
and  Ceylon  Besides  receptions,  press  conferences  and  broad- 
casts, the  general  was  personally  received  by  the  prime 
ministers  of  India  and  Ceylon,  and  only  the  absence  of 
Liaquat  Ah  Khan  on  state  business  prevented  a  similar 
meeting  in  Pakistan.  Despite  the  changes  in  Commonwealth 
relationships  the  three  governments  concerned  made  it  clear 
that  the  Army  was  to  receive  every  facility  for  its  ameliorative 
work. 

A  conference  of  leading  officers  from  all  five  continents 
was  held  in  June  at  Sunbury  Court  near  London  to  consider 
the  work  of  the  army  in  relation  to  world  conditions.  In  a 
detailed  development  plan  £250,000  was  scheduled  to  be 
raised  by  1954  for  advances  in  what  are  popularly  known  as 
missionary  countries  both  in  the  east  and  west.  In  Europe 
additional  efforts  were  made  to  take  the  gospel  of  Christ  to 
the  people.  Intensive  campaigns  were  undertaken  in  Scandi- 
navia, Holland  and  France.  A  brave  witness  was  maintained 
in  Czechoslovakia  and  encouraging  progress  made  in  Ger- 
many where  a  number  of  new  halls,  the  gift  of  Sweden  and 
the  U.S.A.,  were  dedicated  for  public  use. 

Among  the  latest  publications  was  Maiden  Tribute  by 
Madge  Unsworth  with  a  foreword  by  Lady  Allen  of  Hurtwood 
(London,  1949)  —  a  study  of  the  Army's  social  work  for 
women  during  60  years.  Its  title  was  taken  from  W.  T.  Stead's 
The  Maiden  Tribute  of  Modern  Babylon  and  it  coincided 
with  his  centenary.  A  notable  continental  production  was 
Conquetes  en  terre  de  bagne  by  Charles  Pean  (Pans,  1948), 
a  record  of  the  awakening  of  public  opinion  in  France  to  the 
need  for  penal  reform  in  Guiana,  of  the  suppression  of  the 
bagne  and  the  final  repatriation  of  prisoners — a  work  under- 
taken by  the  Army  in  1946.  Charles  Pean,  now  second  in 
command  of  the  work  in  France,  was  made  a  knight  of  the 
Legion  of  Honour  in  recognition  of  his  services.  Other 
noteworthy  books  were  Anzac  Padre  by  Adelaide  Ah  Kow 
(London,  1949),  All  the  Days  by  Alfred  J.  Gilliard  (London, 
1949),  and  The  First  Salvationist,  a  collection  of  sketches  of 
pioneer  Salvation  Army  leaders,  by  Frederick  Coutts 
(London,  1948).  (F.  L.  C) 

United  States.  In  the  United  States,  Commissioner  Ernest 
I.  Pugmire  was  the  national  commander,  with  headquarters 
in  New  York  city. 

The  magnitude  of  the  work  done  by  the  Salvation  Army 
was  indicated  by  statistics  of  its  activities.  In  the  United 
States  during  1949  in  line  with  its  programme  of  carrying 
religion  to  people,  the  Salvation  Army  held  93,439  meetings 
on  street  corners.  In  its  social  services  programme,  20,525 
patients  were  treated  in  6  clinics  and  dispensaries;  1,845 
missing  persons  were  located;  34  maternity  homes  and 
hospitals  for  unwed  mothers  cared  for  2,285  women  and 


children;  6,484  mothers  and  children  were  sent  to  summer 
camps. 

In  the  field  of  prison  work,  10,798  prisoners  were  assisted 
on  discharge  and  given  employment;  1,879  prisoners  were 
paroled  in  care  of  the  Salvation  Army,  whose  officers  devoted 
17,012  hours  to  prison  visitation.  At  its  70th  annual  conven- 
tion, the  American  Prison  association  elected  for  the  first 
time  a  Salvation  Army  officer,  Envoy  J.  Stanley  Sheppard,  as 
president  for  1950.  (E.  I.  P.) 

SAMOA,  AMERICAN:  see  UNITED  STATES  TERRI- 
TORIES AND  POSSESSIONS. 

SAMOA,  WESTERN:  see  NEW  ZEALAND,  DOMINION 
OF;  TRUST  TERRITORIES. 

SAN  MARINO.  A  small  republic  in  central  Italy, 
entirely  surrounded  by  the  province  of  Emilia  and  situated 
on  the  slopes  of  Monte  Titano,  14  mi.  S.W.  of  Rimini. 
Area:  38sq.mi.  Pop.  (July  31, 1949,  est.):  12,418.  Language: 
Italian.  Religion:  Roman  Catholic.  San  Marino  is  governed 
by  two  capnani  reggenti  appointed  every  six  months  by  a 
Grand  Council  of  60  members  elected  by  universal  suffrage 
every  four  years. 

History.  Elections  held  on  Feb.  27,  1949,  resulted  in  a 
clear  victory  for  the  existing  Socialist-Communist  Com- 
mittee of  Freedom  which  won  2,815  votes  as  against  2,010 
by  the  Christian  Democratic  alliance.  In  the  Grand  Council 
the  government  had  35  seats  and  the  opposition  25,  against 
40  and  20  respectively  before  the  elections.  Relations  bet- 
ween San  Marino  and  Italy  were  somewhat  strained  and  the 
Italian  government  suspended  arrangements  to  pay  several 
hundred  million  lire  arrears  under  a  1939  treaty  regulating 
the  financial  relations  of  the  two  countries.  As  the  finances 
of  San  Marino  were  in  a  poor  state — the  deficit  of  the  1949-50 
budget  being  estimated  at  L.220  million — the  government, 
controlled  by  the  Communist  leader  Gildo  Gasperom, 
decided  in  July  to  open  a  gambling  casino  as  a  tourist 
attraction. 

Finance.  Budget  1948-49  was  allegedly  balanced  at  L  420  million 
and  that  of  1949-50  at  L  492  million  San  Marino  uses  the  Italian 
currency 

SANTO  DOMINGO:    we  DOMINICAN  REPUBLIC. 
SAO  TOM£:   see  PORTUGUESE  COLONIAL  EMPIRE. 
SARAWAK:   see  BRIIISH  BORNEO 
SAUDI  ARABIA:  see  ARABIA. 

SCANDINAVIAN    LITERATURE.  Sweden. 

Sweden,  even  more  than  Norway  and  Denmark,  gave  the 
appearance  of  being  the  most  advanced  literary  country  in 
Europe,  thanks  mainly  to  the  publishers:  they  were  willing 
to  risk  money  m  publishing  "  uncommercial  "  books  to 
encourage  young  writers  who  were  experimenting  to  find  a 
new  literature  which  could  take  its  place  side  by  side  with 
the  old.  Among  new  authors  in  1949  was  Arne  Sand,  who 
won  the  Strindberg  prize  with  a  novel,  Fdrfoljaren,  and  Per 
Olof  Ekstrom,  who  published  his  second  book,  Sommardansen. 
An  excellent  book  of  short  stories  was  Salla  jaktmarker,  by 
Lars  Goransson,  and  the  most  outstanding  new  poet  was 
Lars  Forssell,  with  Ryttaren.  The  established  authors  were 
well  represented.  A  fare  event,  eagerly  awaited  by  connois- 
seurs, was  the  appearance  of  another  book  by  Tage  Aurell, 
Nya  berattelser.  A  special  edition  of  short  stories  by  Bo 
Bergman  was  brought  out  in  honour  of  his  80th  birthday; 
Vilhelm  Moberg's  novel  Utvandrarna  was  the  first  of  a  series 
dealing  with  Swedish  emigration  to  America;  Olle  Hed berg's 
yearly  novel,  Mera  vild  an  tarn,  was  a  continuation  of  Dan 
fore  dan;  Eyvind  Johnson  dealt  with  mediaeval  France  in 
Drommar  om  rosor  och  eld;  admirers  of  Moa  Martinson  were 


SCHUMAN 


559 


treated  to  Livets  fest;  Yngve  Kernell  wrote  a  graceful  story 
about  Goteborg  at  the  time  of  Napoleon,  Det  borjade  med 
lek;  Berit  Spong  stirred  up  a  hornet's  nest  with  S/ovinkel,  a 
novel  about  an  actual  academic  dispute  in  a  country  town; 
and  Bjorn-Erik  Hoijer  wrote  an  exciting  novel  set  in  the 
north  of  Sweden,  Trettio  silverpengar.  Folke  Fndell's  new 
novel,  Bekdnnelse,  also  had  a  country  setting.  Lars  Ahlm 
wrote  a  study  in  feminine  psychology,  Huset  har  ingen  filial, 
and  Stig  Dagerman,  as  with  his  previous  novel  Brant  barn, 
turned  his  piercing  searchlight  of  psychological  analysis  on 
to  the  human  mind  in  Brdllopsbesviir.  Another  gifted  novelist, 
Peder  Sjogren,  justified  his  earlier  reputation  with  Mannen 
som  forsokte  smita. 

Sweden  lost  a  gifted  poet  with  the  death  of  Vilhelm  Ekelund 
on  Sept.  3,  and  both  Axel  Munthe  (see  OBITUARIES)  and  Elm 
Wagner  also  died  in  1949.  The  most  important  volumes  of 
poems  were  Karl  Vennberg's  FLskefard,  Werner  Aspenstrom's 
Snolegend,  and  Artur  Lundkvist's  Fotspar  i  vattnet.  Stina 
Aronson,  who  had  previously  made  a  name  for  herself  with 
her  novels  dealing  with  life  north  of  the  Arctic  circle,  published 
a  collection  of  poems,  Kantele.  Among  non-fiction  must  be 
mentioned  Elsa  Bjorkman-Goldschmidt's  brilliant  account  of 
Vienna  after  World  War  II,  Wicn  vaknar,  and  Prms  Wilhelm's 
book  of  travels,  Skarvor  fran  fyra  varldsdelar,  which  was 
written  with  the  author's  usual  warm  interest  in  nature  and 
human  nature.  Another  book  of  great  charm  was  Sigfnd 
Siwertz'  memoirs,  Alt  vara  ung,  and  of  interest  was  Frednk 
Book's  account  of  the  poetess  Victoria  Benedictsson's  love 
for  Georg  Brandes,  taken  from  the  former's  diary. 

Norway.  The  whole  world  joined  with  Norway  in  mourning 
the  death  of  Sigrid  Undsct  (see  OBITUARIES),  whose  excellent 
biography  by  A.  H.  Winsnes  was  published  later  in  the  year 
with  the  sub-title,  A  study  in  Chtisttan  realism.  Tarjei  Vesaas 
showed  his  usual  deep  understanding  of  human  nature  in 
his  novel  Det  store  spelet,  and  a  book  of  poems,  Lykka  fot 
ferdeimenn,  Ingeborg  Rcfling  Hagen  continued  the  previous 
year's  autobiographical  novel  with  Jeg  vil  lete  <>^  banke; 
Andreas  Markusson  dealt  with  the  north  of  Norway  in  the 
17th  century  in  Gjennom  bienningen;  Sigurd  Evensmo  with 
adolescent  love  in  Flaggermusene.  Arne  Vaagen's  novel  in 
1949  was  St.  Albany  klokke,  and  Nils  Johan  Rud's,  Vi  var 
jordens  elskere.  Gabriel  Scott  wrote  a  gay  and  satirical 
comedy,  Pukkelen,  and  published  poems  included  For  brevet 
lukkes,  by  Astnd  Tollefsen,  Til  minne  otn  tdag,  by  Carl 
Keilhau,  and  Sdnn  vil  du  ha  meg,  by  Inger  Hagerup. 

Knut  Hamsun,  considered  at  the  outbreak  of  World  War  II 
as  one  of  Norway's  greatest  writers,  wrote  an  account  called 
Pa  gjengrodde  stier  of  what  happened  to  him  after  Norway's 
liberation  and  his  trial  as  a  pro-na/i;  Harry  Fett,  the  well- 
known  art-historian  and  editor  of  Kunst  og  Kultur,  wrote  his 
reminiscences,  Pa  ktilturvernets  voter,  an  edition  appeared 
of  the  letters  of  the  famous  artist  Edvard  Munch;  and  also 
of  interest  to  lovers  of  art  was  H.  Stenstad void's  Nonke 
malener  gjennom  hundre  dr.  An  exciting  travel  book  was 
Kon-Tiki  Ekspedisjonen,  by  T.  Heycrdahl. 

Denmark.  Among  the  outstanding  novels  of  1949  were 
En  borneflok  vokser  op,  by  Harry  Soiberg;  Hansen,  an 
excellent  study  of  a  lonely  school-teacher,  by  J.  Anker  Larsen; 
Den  sorte  gryde,  by  William  Heinesen,  set  in  the  Faeroe 
Islands;  Glasbdden,  by  Karen  Enevold;  Lykkens  tempel,  by 
Kelvin  Lindemann,  a  satirical  fantasy  about  the  mistake  made 
by  the  18th  century  poet  Johannes  Ewald  in  coming  to  life 
in  **  the  modern  bureaucratic  age  ";  another  admirable  novel 
by  Aage  Dons,  Og  alt  blev  Dram.  H.  C.  Branner  showed  a 
new  aspect  of  his  literary  skill  in  Rytteren,  and  Hilmar  WulfT 
completed  his  trilogy  with  Forjaettelsens  Dag. 

A  loss  to  Danish  poetry  was  the  death  on  Aug.  30  of  Kai 
Hoffman.  Niels  Kaas  Johansen  edited  an  excellent  anthology 
of  modern  poets,  from  Gustaf  Munch-Petersen  to  Ole  Sarvig 


and  J0rgen  Nash,  called  Ung  dansk  lyrik;  an  outstanding 
collection  of  poems  by  Jens  August  Schade,  called  Jordens 
storste  lykke,  was  illustrated  by  Inga  Lyngbye;  Grete  Bendix 
published  new  poems  called  Alt  ing  kalder,  and  Harald 
Herdal,  in  addition  to  publishing  an  edition  of  poems  written 
between  1929  and  1949,  produced  a  novel,  Ukuelige  menneske. 
The  promising  young  poet  Otto  Asmus  Thomson  brought 
out  Stormen. 

General  literature  included  a  biography  of  the  great 
Swedish  mystic,  Emanuel  Swedenborg,  by  Signe  1  oksvig,  who 
had  previously  written  a  biography  of  Hans  Andersen;  and 
memoirs  by  Kann  Michaelis,  Vidunderltge  Verden  and 
Farlige  Famlen,  and  the  actress  Clara  Pontoppidan,  Eet 
Liv-mange  Liv.  The  periodical  Heretica  continued  to  flourish; 
but  two  others,  Samleren  and  Bogrevyen,  were  not  so  fortunate 
and  took  farewell  of  their  readers  with  Den  danike  muse,  an 
artistically  produced  survey  of  Danish  culture  during  the 
last  100  years. 

Iceland.  Iceland's  greatest  living  writer,  Halldor  Kiljan 
Laxness,  wrote  a  modern  heroic  saga  which  appeared  in 
Sweden  under  the  title  Fria  man.  He  was  previously  known 
there  through  earlier  translations,  Salka  Valka  and  Islands 
klocka.  Three  writers  whose  work  was  published  in  Den- 
mark during  1949  were  Gudmundur  Daniclsson  (a  novel, 
J  or  den  er  mm),  Fndjon  Stefansson  and  Thorsteinn  Stefansson 
(short  stories,  Men?  Nordlyset  danger}. 

Finland.  Two  Finnish  writers  whose  work  appeared  in  a 
Swedish  translation  were  Mika  Waltari  (a  historical  novel, 
Mikael  Ludenfot)  and  Yrjo  Kokko  (a  novel  about  the  Lapps, 
De  fyra  vindarnas  vug).  Finland-Swedish  authors  included 
Rita  von  Willebrand  (a  novel,  S3  var  med  dem)  and  Walentin 
Chorcll  (a  novel,  Bhndttappan).  Two  interesting  first  books 
by  Finland-Swedish  women  writers  were  Stoft  ar  mm  skonhet 
by  Mary  Mandolin  (short  stones),  and  Fdgelvinge  nr  dunk  let 
by  Heh  Parland  (poems)  A  brilliant  Swedish  translation  by 
Elmer  Diktonius  appeared  of  the  famous  novel  by  Aleksis 
Kivi,  Seitseman  veljesta.  Among  the  most  noteworthy  novels 
by  Finnish  writers  were:  An/a^  by  Kersti  Bergroth;  Jauhot, 
by  Pentti  Haanpaa;  Oudot  virrat,  by  Onni  Halla;  Tuhopolt- 
taja,  by  Hclvi  Hamalamen;  Virvatulia,  by  Aino  Kallas; 
Kellonsoittaja,  by  Kyllikki  Mantyla;  and  Lepakko,  by  Oiva 
Paloheimo.  (A.  BLR.) 

SCHUMAN,  ROBERT,  French  statesman  (b.  Luxem- 
bourg, June  29,  1886),  from  Sept.  11,  1948,  minister  of 
foreign  affairs.  (For  his  early  career  see  Britannica  Book  of 
the  Year  1949.) 

On  April  4,  1949,  in  Washington,  he  signed  the  North 
Atlantic  treaty  for  France;  referring  to  France's  existing 
treaty  of  mutual  aid  with  the  U.S.S.R.,  he  said  that  there 
was  no  contradiction  between  the  two.  He  also  took  part 
with  Dean  Acheson  and  Ernest  Bevin  in  discussions  on 
Western  Germany  summarized  in  a  communique  published 
in  Washington  on  April  8.  On  July  13,  at  Luxembourg,  the 
honorary  citizenship  of  the  city  was  conferred  upon  him. 
In  the  French  National  Assembly  on  July  25,  in  the  debate 
on  the  ratification  of  the  North  Atlantic  treaty,  he  declared 
that  it  had  been  forced  upon  France  by  the  eastern  bloc 
which  came  into  existence  even  before  the  signature  of  the 
Brussels  treaty.  "  The  cold  war  could  not  be  suffered 
passively,"  he  said.  In  August  Schuman  was  present  at  the 
opening  of  the  first  session  of  the  Council  of  Europe  at 
Strasbourg.  He  attended  the  first  session  of  the  North 
Atlantic  council  in  Washington,  on  Sept.  17,  and  on  Sept.  23 
addressed  the  4th  session  of  the  U.N.  general  assembly  at 
Flushing  Meadow,  New  York.  On  Oct.  1-3  he  visited  Ottawa, 
Quebec,  Montreal  and  Toronto.  On  Oct.  28  he  was 
re-appointed  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  the  Georges 
Bidault  cabinet.  Speaking  on  Nov.  13  at  Montigny,  Loiret,  he 


560 


SCHWEITZER— SCOTLAND 


said :  "  Geography  makes  it  necessary  for  us  to  build  a 
Europe  with  Germany.  We  must  give  Germany  her  place  in 
Europe,  but  nothing  more  than  her  place."  The  next  day,  at 
a  press  conference  in  Paris,  he  added  that  there  was  no  ques- 
tion either  of  German  rearmament  or  of  German  admission 
to  the  North  Atlantic  treaty. 

SCHWEITZER,  ALBERT,  German-speaking  theo- 
logian, philosopher,  musician  and  physician  (b.  Kaysersburg, 
Alsace,  Jan,  14,  1875),  educated  at  the  University  of  Stras- 
bourg, where  he  passed  his  first  theological  examination 
(1897);  he  also  studied  at  the  Sorbonne,  Paris,  and  at  Berlin 
university  (Ph.D.  in  1899).  During  the  next  few  years,  while 
writing  the  first  of  his  books  on  the  teachings  of  Christ,  he 
also  continued  his  career  as  a  musician  (he  had  begun  to 
study  the  piano  at  the  age  of  five  and  went  on  giving  organ 
recitals  for  many  years).  He  also  began  the  study  of  medicine, 
with  a  view  to  becoming  a  medical  missionary,  and  received 
his  M.D.  degree  in  1913.  In  the  same  year  he  embarked  with 
his  wife  (Helene  Marianne  Bresslau  whom  he  married  in 
1912)  for  Lambarene,  Gabon,  French  Equatorial  Africa, 
where  the  couple  treated  2,000  native  patients  before  they 
were  interned  as  enemy  aliens  during  World  War  I.  They  were 
released  in  1918,  after  spending  much  time  in  internment 
camps  in  France.  Dr.  Schweitzer  resumed  his  studies  of 
tropical  diseases,  while  completing  a  book  on  the  philosophy 
of  civilization.  Until  1939  he  spent  intermittent  periods  at 
his  African  mission  post  between  his  European  tours,  on  one 
of  which  he  gave  at  Frankfurt,  in  1932,  the  Goethe  centenary 
address  (he  received  the  Goethe  prize  in  1928).  Upon  the 
outbreak  of  World  War  II  his  African  hospital  was  isolated 
by  the  struggle  between  the  Vichy  and  the  Free  French 
forces;  and  for  three  years  his  hospital  survived  thanks  only 
to  food  and  drug  reserves  he  had  provided  before  the  war. 
On  Aug.  28,  1949,  he  was  present  at  the  bicentennial  cele- 
brations in  Frankfurt  of  Goethe's  birth  and  received  a  great 
ovation.  He  spent  his  75th  birthday  at  his  African  hospital. 


Albert  Schweitzer  surrounded  by  autograph  seekers  in  Frankfurt, 

Aug.  1949,  during  celebrations  to  mark  the  bicentenary  of  the  birth 

ofJohann  Wolfgang  von  Goethe. 


SCOTLAND.  Part  of  the  United  Kingdom.  Area: 
30,400  sq.  mi.  (including  inland  water  557  sq.  mi.).  Pop.: 
(June  30,  1949,  est.):  5,175,000. 

History.  Scotland  made  important  endeavours  in  1949  to 
expand  her  export  trade  and  also  concentrated  a  considerable 
amount  of  energy  on  research  of  all  kinds.  The  secretary  of 
state  for  Scotland,  Arthur  Woodburn,  held  regular  meetings 
of  his  Economic  conference  in  Edinburgh  and  matters  con- 
cerning industry,  commerce,  agriculture,  forestry  were 
discussed,  the  two  latter  subjects  bringing  special  attention 
to  the  Highlands  and  Islands  and  their  economic  position, 
which  was  also  investigated  further  by  the  Advisory  Panel 
on  the  Highlands  and  Islands  set  up  in  1947. 

The  two  most  important  features  in  Scotland's  economic 
life  were  first,  the  Scottish  Industries  exhibition,  sponsored 
by  the  Scottish  council  (Development  and  Industry)  and  held 
in  Glasgow  in  September  at  the  same  time  as  Edinburgh  was 
engrossed  in  the  International  Festival  of  Music  and  Drama; 
second,  the  trade  expansion  tour  by  the  chairman  (Sir  Steven 
Bilsland)  and  several  members  of  the  Scottish  council. 

The  Queen  opened  the  exhibition,  which  had  five  main 
objectives:  to  increase  exports;  to  promote  inter-trading 
between  Scottish  firms;  to  stimulate  productivity  by  showing 
workers  the  final  results  of  their  efforts;  to  increase  apprecia- 
tion of  good  quality  workmanship  and  design ;  and  to  publi- 
cize Scotland  and  Scottish  products  throughout  the  world. 
Over  30,000  buyers  from  practically  every  country  in  the 
world  visited  the  exhibition  and  the  orders  made  known  to 
the  council  totalled  over  £10  million,  at  least  half  of  which 
came  from  overseas,  including  the  dollar  countries.  Atten- 
dance at  the  exhibition  ran  to  over  half-a-million  people. 

The  trade*  mission  visited  the  United  States  and  also 
Canada  and  made  many  contacts  useful  to  Scotland  in  its 
export  drive.  Industrial  concerns  in  America  were  to  investi- 
gate the  opening  of  factories  in  Scotland. 

In  research  the  greatest  interest  was  focused  on  the  develop- 
ment of  the  gas  turbine  engine  for  industrial  purposes  and 
in  experiments  on  the  use  of  peat  as  the  driving  fuel.  The 
work  was  still  proceeding  at  the  end  of  the  year.  At  the  new 
town  of  East  Kilbride,  in  Lanarkshire,  some  work  was 
started  on  the  government's  research  stations  for  mechanical 
engineering,  roads,  fuel  and  building.  Other  aspects  of 
research  which  went  ahead  dealt  with  fisheries,  seaweed 
and  the  jute  and  woollen  industries. 

Town  and  country  planning  received  much  attention 
through  the  publication  of  reports  giving  long  term  plans 
for  the  Clyde  valley,  central  Scotland,  the  Tay  valley  and 
Edinburgh  city. 

The  weather  throughout  the  year  was  exceptionally 
favourable  to  agriculture,  the  summer  especially  being  dry 
and  sunny  so  that  the  grain  and  potato  harvests  were  secured 
in  well-nigh  perfect  condition.  While  the  work  of  repairing 
the  damage  done  in  the  very  serious  floods  of  Aug.  1948  was 
practically  completed,  a  set-back  in  the  form  of  further 
flooding  occurred  in  some  parts  of  the  country  which  had 
suffered  a  year  earlier. 

Afforestation  made  rapid  strides  and  the  Forestry  commis- 
sion by  1949  employed  over  4,000  workers.  Almost  50,000  ac., 
of  which  approximately  half  were  plantable,  were  acquired. 
The  total  acreage  planted  was  20,000  as  compared  with 
16,000  ac.  in  the  previous  year.  The  first  houses  in  the  first 
forestry  village  in  Britain  came  into  occupation  in  the  autumn 
at  the  new  village  of  Ae,  Dumfriesshire. 

Progress  in  housing  generally  was  maintained  and  the 
building  trade  available  for  housing  was  fully  occupied 
although  there  were  some  difficulties  in  the  supply  of  building 
materials.  The  1948  figure  of  permanent  houses  completed 
was  substantially  exceeded.  Special  programmes  of  houses 
for  miners  and  agricultural  workers  were  carried  forward, 


SCOTT 


561 


Dancers  of  the  Highland  Light  Infantry  at  the  International  Festival  of  Music  and  Drama  in  Edinburgh.  The  first  festival  was  held  there  in  1947. 


and  LOGO  Swedish  timber  houses  imported  into  the  High- 
lands and  Islands. 

Attention  was  focused  on  the  Highlands  and  Islands  by 
various  departments  dealing  with  afforestation,  agriculture, 
hydro-electricity  and  tourism,  and  this  brought  to  the 
outlying  districts  a  more  hopeful  outlook.  At  the  end  of  the 
year  the  large  hydro-electric  power  schemes  at  Loch  Sloy 
near  Loch  Lomond,  and  at  Clunie,  on  the  Tummel,  Perthshire, 
were  approaching  completion.  The  installation  of  plant  began 
at  three  others  of  the  bigger  projects  in  course  of  construction 
and  distribution  of  electricity  increased  so  that  the  North  of 
Scotland  Hydro-electric  board  were  supplying  power  to 
800,000  people,  and  new  consumers  were  being  added  at 
the  rate  of  1,500  a  month.  On  their  own  account,  and  in 
collaboration  with  the  Scottish  Home  Department  and 
Scottish  industry,  the  board  were  carrying  through  various 
lines  of  research,  into  the  generation  of  electricity  by 
wind  power  at  isolated  points  on  islands  off  the  coast;  into 
trout  propagation  and  protection;  and  into  the  commercial 
value  of  peat  as  a  fuel.  Several  large  schemes  of  the  board 
were  to  start  at  later  dates  as  a  result  of  the  government 
decision  to  ration  capital  expenditure. 

The  large  volume  of  social  legislation  passed  in  1948  began 
to  take  effect  on  a  wide  scale.  Extensive  use  was  made  of  the 
National  Health  service.  Local  authorities  took  steps  under 
the  Children  act  to  acquire  premises  for  children's  homes 
and  to  appoint  committees  and  children's  officers  charged 
with  the  welfare  of  young  people  deprived  of  a  normal 
home  life. 

The  exchange  of  teachers,  students  and  pupils  between 
Scotland  and  other  countries  overseas  expanded  to  a  marked 
degree;  qnd  at  home  the  schemes  for  further  education 
increased  the  numbers  of  students  attending  evening  classes 
and  technical  and  commercial  colleges.  More  young  workers 

E.B.Y.— 37 


were  released  voluntarily  by  employers  to  attend  day  classes, 
and  training  courses  for  leaders  attracted  students  from 
overseas. 

Many  thousands  of  visitors  toured  Scotland  and,  to 
encourage  more  to  come,  direct  sailings  between  America 
and  the  Clyde  were  arranged.  Once  again  the  Edinburgh 
International  Festival  of  Music  and  Drama  stood  out  as 
the  greatest  attraction  in  bringing  visitors  to  Scotland  and  it 
was  now  firmly  established  as  one  of  the  annual  outstanding 
cultural  events  of  Europe — indeed,  throughout  the  world. 

(D.  ME.) 

SCOTT,  GUTHRIE  MICHAEL,  Church  of 
England  clergyman,  (b.  Lowfield  Heath,  Sussex,  July  30, 
1907)  was  educated  at  King's  college,  Taunton.  At  19  he 
went  to  South  Africa  to  work  in  a  mission  to  lepers.  He  began 
his  training  for  Holy  Orders  at  St.  Paul's  Theological  college, 
Grahamstown,  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  in  1927,  completed  it 
in  England  at  Chichester  Theological  college  and  was  ordained 
in  1932.  After  periods  in  Sussex  and  London  as  a  curate, 
Scott  went  to  India  in  1935  as  chaplain  to  the  Bishop  of 
Bombay  and  then  became  senior  chaplain  to  St.  Paul's 
cathedral,  Calcutta  (1937-38).  During  World  War  II  he 
served  in  the  R.A.F.  in  England  as  air  crew,  but  was  invalided 
out  and  in  1943  returned  to  South  Africa  where  he  was 
appointed  to  assist  at  St.  Alban's  coloured  mission  and  to  be 
chaplain  to  a  coloured  orphanage  in  Sophiatown,  Johannes- 
burg. During  riots  in  Durban  in  1946,  Scott,  who  had  been 
sent  there  to  observe,  was  so  impressed  by  the  cause  of  the 
Indian  "  passive  resisters  "  that  he  joined  their  ranks;  this 
led  to  his  being  sentenced  to  three  months'  imprisonment 
(July  1946).  On  his  release  he  resigned  his  parochial  work 
and  was  granted  a  general  licence  to  preach  in  the  diocese. 
Asked  to  assist  in  organizing  Tobruk  shanty  town, 


562 


SCULPTURE 


Johannesburg,  he  took  up  quarters  there  and  was  charged 
with  living  in  a  Native  area,  receiving  a  suspended 
sentence.  Reports  of  the  treatment  of  native  labour  in  the 
Transvaal  and  individual  appeals  reached  Scott  who  went 
to  investigate.  The  conditions  he  found  made  him  cham- 
pion the  native  cause,  especially  that  of  the  Herero  tribe  of 
South-West  Africa.  In  1949,  despite  many  obstacles, 
he  attended  the  U.N.  general  assembly  and  presented  the 
Herero  case  to  its  Trusteeship  committee  on  Nov.  26. 

SCULPTURE.  Though  more  severely  conditioned 
than  the  other  visual  arts,  and  therefore  slower  moving, 
sculpture  in  the  20th  century  shows  the  same  great  fissures 
as  they  do,  the  result  of  the  opposition  of  romanticism  and 
classicism  and  of  the  academic  and  the  experimental  spirit. 
Very  broadly,  sculpture  in  1949  may  be  considered  under 
four  main  heads. 

Academic  classicism  was  still  affected,  except  in  eastern 
Europe,  by  the  reaction  against  the  mock-heroic  and  senti- 
mental values  of  the  19th  century.  In  its  approach  to  sculpture 
it  was  Aristide  MailloFs  restatement  of  Renaissance  concepts 
which  remained  the  dominant  influence,  and  nearly  every 
country  could  boast  a  number  of  sculptors  to  echo,  in  some 
measure,  the  achievements  of  Fritz  Wotruba  in  Austria, 
or  Frank  Dobson  and  Karin  Jonzen  in  Great  Britain.  Less 
opulently  ripe  and  dependent  upon  a  nervous  sensitivity  of 
surface,  was  the  work  of  those  followers  of  Charles  Despiau, 
and  those  Italian  sculptors  like  Giacomo  Manzu  and  Marino 
Marini  who  drew  upon  classical  and  Etruscan  sources. 

Academic  romanticism  showed  itself  mainly  in  the  mildly 
expressionistic  carving  of  northern  Europe — in  the  work  of 
Ivar  Johnsson  and  Bror  Hjorth  in  Sweden,  John  Radecker 
in  Holland,  and  postwar  successors  of  Ernst  Barlach  in 
Germany.  The  rugged  humanism  of  these  artists,  often  allied 
to  an  underlying  sense  of  tragedy,  was  most  frequently 
expressed  through  wood-carving.  Another  romantic  strand 
that  called  for  mention  was  that  deriving  from  the  impression- 
ism of  Auguste  Rodin;  but  so  personal  an  idiom  failed  to 
provide  a  general  springboard  for  a  succeeding  generation 
that  placed  its  faith  mainly  in  direct  carving.  The  academic 
approach  to  sculpture  degenerated  at  its  weakest  into  con- 
ventional and  commonplace  transcriptions  of  reality.  At 
its  best,  the  academic  formulas  were  reanimated  with  greater 
freshness  and  vitality  than  in  the  field  of  painting. 

Classicism  in  experimental  modern  sculpture  found  its 
roots  in  the  rediscovery  of  primitive  art,  in  the  simplified  and 
formalized  masks  and  figures  of  Africa  especially.  It  devel- 
oped through  the  geometry  of  the  cubist  revolution  to  the 
almost  mathematical  constructions  of  metal,  glass  and  plastic 
conceived  by  the  Russians,  Antoine  Pevsner  and  Naum  Gabo, 
and  the  Swiss,  Max  Bill.  In  Britain,  Ben  Nicholson  and 
Barbara  Hepworth  produced  work  of  geometric  abstraction 
but  neither  exhibited  during  1949. 

The  most  fruitful  field  was  perhaps  that  embraced  by  those 
essentially  romantic  experimental  sculptors  who  drew  upon 
organic  and  often  biomorphic  forms  as  a  basis  for  their  own 
free  invention.  Constantin  Brancusi,  one  of  the  most  eminent/ 
remained  in  semi-retirement.  The  most  powerful  influences 
were  probably  Pablo  Picasso,  whose  rich  storehouse  of 
inventions  was  constantly  raided;  Hans  Arp,  to  whom  the 
Italian  Alberto  Viani  was  in  debt;  and  Henry  Moore. 
Moore,  in  his  fiftieth  year,  was  honoured  by  an  impressive 
exhibition  at  Wakefield  in  Yorkshire,  later  seen  in  Brussels 
and  Paris  at  the  beginning  of  a  long  continental  tour.  This 
included  a  model  of  the  family  group  being  cast  for  erection 
at  Stevenage,  Hertfordshire. 

Three  other  British  sculptors  seen  to  advantage  during  the 
year  were  F.  E.  Me  William,  who  exhibited  a  number  of  his 
semi-surrealist  pieces;  R.  Butler,  who  showed  ingenious 


44  Reclining  Woman  "  by  F.  E.  McWilliam,  exhibited  in  Nov.  1949 
at  the  winter  exhibition  of  the  Royal  Society  of  British  Artists. 

inventions  in  wrought  iron;  and  Robert  Adams  who,  in 
London  and  Paris,  showed  a  developing  skill  in  semi-abstract 
wood  carving.  The  Royal  Society  of  British  Artists  concen- 
trated, in  their  winter  exhibition,  upon  sculpture  and  pro- 
duced the  most  lively  mixed  show  of  the  year.  S.  J.  Charoux, 
H.  Henghes,  Keith  Godwin,  John  Skeaping,  and  Leon 
Underwood  were  among  those  exhibiting. 

If  any  two  traits  could  be  said  to  predominate  during  the 
year,  they  were  diversity  of  material  (allied  to  consciousness  of 
and  respect  for  its  innate  qualities),  and  a  growing  tendency 
among  sculptors  in  all  countries  to  think,  not  in  terms  of 
solids  but  of  space  itself.  Once  liberated  from  the  bonds  of 
representation,  sculpture  began  to  explore  the  hollow,  the 
declivity,  the  mysterious  tunnel.  First  Alexander  Archipenko, 
then  Pablo  Picasso,  Jacques  Lipchitz,  Alberto  Giacometti 
(who  remained  a  strong  influence),  the  Russian  constructi- 
vists,  Hepworth  and  Moore  pursued  this  new  course  with 
growing  confidence,  until  they  had  pierced  their  solid  material 
through  and  through.  It  seemed  likely  that  younger  artists — 
for  example  Adams  and  Eduardo  Paolozzi  in  Britain — would 
maintain  this  pre-occupation,  not  only  with  the  movement 
in  space  represented  by  interpenetrating  planes  of  string  or 
plastic,  but  with  all  the  possibilities  of  "  negative  "  sculpture 
in  which  the  absence  of  mass  is  the  motif.  In  this  they  would 
relate  their  work  to  some  degree  with  developments  in 
Parisian  non-figurative  painting.  (M.  H.  MN.) 

United  States.  Despite  the  concern  for  new  ideas,  greatest 
achievement  was  shown  in  classical  sculpture  projects,  such 
as  the  monumental  groups  by  James  Earle  Fraser  and  Leo 
Friedlander  for  the  Lincoln  memorial  circle  at  the  approach 
to  the  Arlington  memorial  bridge  in  Washington.  Four 
heroic  equestrian  groups  for  this  site  reached  the  bronze- 
casting  stage.  With  memorial  sculpture  in  wide  demand, 
among  the  prominent  examples  completed  were  a  bust  of 
James  Forrestal,  former  secretary  of  defence,  designed  by 
Kalervo  Kallio  for  the  national  capital,  and  a  heroic  George 
Washington  figure  for  the  masonic  national  memorial  at 
Alexandria,  Virginia,  completed  by  Bryant  Baker. 

Abstract  sculpture  undertook  to  supply  fresh  solutions  for 


SEISMOLOGY— SEYCHELLES 


563 


monumental  and  decorative  projects,  receiving  occasional 
encouragement,  while  appealing  routine  work  was  done  in 
various  styles  for  public  and  business  buildings,  notably  in 
the  relief  form.  Most  unusual  was  the  adaptation  of  sculpture 
to  a  new  purpose  by  Jsamu  Noguchi,  who  turned  his  talent 
for  imaginative  abstract  forms  to  the  designing  of  modern 
furniture,  considering  a  chair  or  a  table  as  a  piece  of  sculpture. 

Alberto  Viani,  with  the  classical  sculptors  Giacomo  Manzu 
and  Marino  Marini,  who  drew  impressively  upon  classical 
and  Ltruscan  sources,  were  shown  in  New  York's  Museum  of 
Modern  Art  exhibition  of  contemporary  Italian  art. 

In  the  United  States,  Jose  de  Creeft  producing  romantic 
and  decorative  work,  Theodore  Roszak  experimenting  in 
metal,  the  romantic  Koren  der  Harootian  and  David  Hare, 
who  exhibited  cxpressionistic  sculpture,  all  worked  in  the 
forefront  of  the  profession. 

The  Whitney  Museum  of  American  Art,  New  York  city, 
devoted  most  of  one  of  its  annual  exhibitions  to  sculpture, 
placing  a  strong  accent  on  advanced  contemporary  styles. 
Perhaps  the  largest  concentration  of  all  was  the  massive 
Sculpture  International  in  Philadelphia.  (Sec  also  ART 
EXHIBIIIONS;  ART  SALES;  MUSEUMS.)  (C  Bu.) 

SEISMOLOGY.  The  strongest  earthquakes  of  1949 
were  those  of  July  10  in  Soviet  Turkestan  and  Aug.  22  off 
the  coast  of  British  Columbia.  Both  were  magnitude  8  on  the 
instrumental  scale,  but  damage  was  limited  because  of  the 
location.  The  most  disastrous  shock  of  the  year,  on  Aug.  5 
in  central  Ecuador,  killed  more  than  8,000  persons,  injured 
20,000  and  caused  property  damage  of  several  million  dollars. 
Pacific  northwestern  United  States  experienced  the  worst 
earthquake  in  its  recorded  history  on  April  13.  The  Puget 
Sound  cities  of  Olympia,  Tacoma  and  Seattle  were  hardest 
hit.  Damage  in  Washington  was  estimated  to  be  at  least 
$15  million.  On  April  20  the  most  severe  earthquake  in 
Chile  for  ten  years  was  reported  to  have  killed  57,  injured  89, 
and  caused  considerable  property  damage.  Shocks  also 
caused  damage  in  Nevada  and  California  in  the  United 
States,  and  in  Turkey,  Arabia  and  the  Philippine  Islands. 

Publication  of  the  results  of  the  seismic  refraction  surveys 
at  Bikini  indicated  a  depth  of  several  thousand  feet  below 
the  lagoon  floor  to  the  igneous  basement  rock.  Seismic 
reflection  surveys  in  the  Atlantic  suggested  a  reflecting 
horizon  at  depths  ranging  from  negligible  to  several  thousand 
feet  beneath  the  ocean  floor.  Microseisms  continued  to 
engage  the  attention  of  many  seismologists  because  of  their 
meteorological  and  oceanographic  applications.  A  relation- 
ship between  cold  fronts  and  microseism  storms  was  reported 
by  several  observers,  but  others  supported  the  theory  of 
variations  of  pressure  on  the  sea  floor  accompanying  a  low- 
pressure  area  as  the  origin  of  microseisms.  (M.  C.  RT.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  B.  Gutenberg  and  C  F.  Richter,  Seivmiciry  of  the 
Earth  and  Associated  Phenomena  (Princeton,  New  Jersey,  1949) 

SENANAYAKE,  DONSTEPHAN,  Sinhalese  states- 
man (b.  1882),  became  prime  minister  of  Ceylon  on  Sept. 
26,  1947.  (For  his  early  career  see  Bntannica  Book  of  the 
year  1949). 

On  Feb.  4,  1949,  the  first  anniversary  of  dominion  status 
for  Ceylon,  D.  S.  Senanayake  laid  the  foundation  stone  of 
the  independence  memorial  building  at  Independence  square, 
Colombo.  In  April  he  attended  the  Commonwealth  prime 
ministers'  conference  in  London,  and  on  April  29  visited 
Dublin  where  he  was  received  by  President  Sean  O'Kelly 
and  members  of  the  government.  In  August  he  unveiled  a 
monumental  pillar  at  the  Galoya  hydro  project.  In  November 
he  sent  invitations  to  the  premiers  of  the  Commonwealth 
countries  suggesting  a  meeting  of  foreign  ministers  in  Colombo 
early  m  1950. 


SENATE,  U.S.:  see  CONGRESS,  U.S. 
SENEGAL:  see  FRENCH  UNION. 

SEWERAGE.  Draft  orders  were  deposited  and 
objections  were  considered  prior  to  the  setting  up  of  17  river 
boards  under  the  River  Boards  act,  1948,  with  the  functions 
of  fishing,  conservation  of  water  supplies,  drainage  and 
pollution  control.  The  areas  included  most  of  the  catchment 
areas  of  English  and  Welsh  rivers.  At  the  request  of  the  Port 
of  London  authority,  the  Water  Pollution  Research  laboratory 
of  the  Department  of  Scientific  and  Industrial  Research  began 
a  detailed  survey  of  the  River  Thames  from  Teddington  to 
the  sea,  the  impurity  of  the  river  having  been  a  matter  of 
concern  for  many  years.  The  last  two  reports  of  the  British 
Field  Sports  society  dealing  with  river  pollution  in  several 
rivers,  including  the  Great  Ouse,  Nene  and  those  of  south 
Wales  and  Scotland,  were  published  in  1949  drawing  atten- 
tion to  the  badly  polluted  state  of  most  of  the  rivers  in  Great 
Britain. 

Many  local  authorities  proceeded  with  the  construction  of 
sewerage  schemes  during  1949,  including  the  county  of 
Middlesex  and  Bournemouth,  Bristol,  Peterborough, 
Plymouth  and  Poole.  A  scheme  to  constitute  the  Hogsmill 
Valley  Joint  Sewerage  board,  including  the  construction  of 
works  estimated  to  cost  £1  million,  to  cover  the  areas  of 
Kingston,  Maiden,  Surbiton  and  Epsom  in  Surrey  was 
considered  at  a  Ministry  of  Health  enquiry  and  approved  in 
principle.  Construction  proceeded  with  the  sewerage  works 
for  several  of  the  satellite  towns,  including  Ayclifife,  Steven- 
age,  Harlow,  Peterlce  and  Crawley.  The  Colne  Valley 
Sewerage  board's  works  at  Maple  Lodge  near  Rickmans- 
worth,  which  were  commenced  m  1938,  made  substantial 
progress  during  1949  and,  when  completed,  would  deal  with 
the  treatment  and  disposal  of  sewage  from  Watford,  Rick- 
mansworth  and  their  neighbouring  districts,  with  a  population 
of  over  500,000  people.  The  new  town  development  of  Hemel 
Hempstead  would  also  discharge  its  sewage  to  these  works. 

The  ever-growing  needs  of  the  Metropolitan  Water  board 
were  such  that  sewage  effluents  could  not  now  be  diverted 
from  the  Lee  valley  and,  in  consequence,  the  responsibility 
existed  for  certain  towns  in  that  valley  to  produce  a  higher 
standard  of  treatment  of  effluent  than  was  required  by  the 
Royal  commission.  A  similar  problem  was  appearing 
elsewhere.  (J.  KD.) 

SEYCHELLES.  British  colony  in  Indian  Ocean. 
Area:  156  sq  mi  Pop.  (1947  census):  34,594.  Governor, 
Dr.  P.  S  Selwyn  Clarke. 

History.  A  Court  of  Appeal  judgment  invalidated 
legislation  passed  in  Nov.  1948  by  an  improperly  constituted 
Legislative  Council.  Strong  exception  was  taken  locally  to 
the  nomination  to  the  Legislative  Council  by  the  governor 
of  C.  Collet,  formerly  acting  attorney  general.  During  the 
year  a  number  of  cases  came  before  the  court  for  the  refund 
of  income  tax  paid  under  alleged  "  threats  "  during  Collet's 
attorney  generalship.  In  giving  judgment  on  these  cases  the 
chief  justice  expressed  himself  forcibly,  stating  on  one 
occasion,  "  No  doubt  the  fullest  enquiry  will  now  be  made  in 
England  as  to  exactly  how  it  came  about  that  this  man  was 
appointed  even  temporarily  to  a  responsible  post  in  a  British 
colony  in  the  colonial  legal  service  .  .  .  The  methods  adopted 
in  this  case  to  extort  money  from  the  plaintiff  are  absolutely 
appalling.  The  British  administration  of  a  colony  overseas 
has  been  brought  into  grave  disrepute."  The  administration 
of  the  colony  was  debated  in  the  House  of  Commons. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  year  Collet  resigned  from  the  Legislative 
Council.  (J.  A.  Hu.) 

Finance  and  Trade.  Budget  (1949  est.)  revenue,  Rs  1,286,436, 
expenditure,  Rs.3,424,085.  Foreign  trade  (1948):  imports,  Rs.4,792,877, 
exports,  Rs.5,237,618.  Currency:  1  rupee-  }s.  6d. 


564 


SFORZA— SHIPBUILDING 


SFORZA,  COUNT  CARLO,  Italian  statseman  (b. 
Montignoso  di  Lunigiana,  Liguria,  Sept.  25,  1873),  entered 
the  diplomatic  service  in  1895  and  served  in  Cairo,  Paris, 
Constantinople  (Istanbul),  Peking  (Peiping),  Bucharest, 
Madrid  and  London.  In  1906  he  was  secretary  of  the  Italian 
delegation  to  the  Algeciras  conference,  and  in  1908-9  charge 
d'affaires  in  Istanbul.  From  March  1910  to  March  1911  he 
was  chef  de  cabinet  to  the  Marquis  di  San  Giuliano,  the 
foreign  minister;  from  1911-15  minister  to  China  and  from 
1915-18  minister  to  Serbia.  In  Nov.  1918  he  returned  to 
Istanbul  as  high  commissioner  for  Italy.  From  June  1919 
to  June  1920  he  was  under  secretary  of  state  for  foreign 
affairs;  on  Aug.  3,  1919,  he  was  appointed  senator.  From 
June  1920  to  July  1921,  he  was  minister  of  foreign  affairs. 
Appointed  ambassador  to  France  in  Feb.  1922  he  resigned 
nine  months  later,  refusing  to  serve  under  Mussolini.  For 
two  decades  he  lived  abroad — in  Belgium  until  1939  and 
in  the  United  States  after  1940.  He  returned  to  Italy 
in  Oct.  1943.  He  was  minister  without  portfolio  in  the 
cabinets  of  Marshal  Pietro  Badoglio  (April-June  1944)  and 
Ivanoe  Bonomi  (June-Nov.  1944),  high  commissioner  for 
epurazione  (June  1944-Jan.  1945)  and  president  of  the  Con- 
sultative Assembly  (Sept.  1945-May  1946).  Elected  a  member 
of  the  Constituent  Assembly  on  June  2,  1946,  as  a  Republican, 
he  joined  the  third  Alcide  De  Gasperi  cabinet  (on  Feb.  2, 
1947)  as  minister  of  foreign  affairs.  His  influence  was  a 
determining  factor  in  the  Italian  parliament's  ratification  of 
the  peace  treaty,  in  Italy's  joining  the  Organization  for 
European  Economic  Co-operation  and  its  adherence  to  the 
North  Atlantic  treaty  which  Count  Sforza  signed  for  Italy 
in  Washington  on  April  4,  1949.  He  returned  to  Washington 
five  months  later  to  take  part  in  the  first  meeting  of  the 
North  Atlantic  council  (Sept.  17).  At  a  press  conference  in 
Rome,  on  Dec.  15,  he  blamed  Britain  for  the  deterioration 
in  Anglo-Italian  relations. 

SHANGHAI,  the  commercial  metropolis  of  China  and 
its  largest  city,  world's  fourth  largest  town  and  one  of  the 
world's  greatest  seaports.  Area:  345  sq.  mi.  Pop.:  (1948 
cst.)  4,630,385,  (May  1949  est.)  5,000,000. 

The  financial  and  economic  disintegration  which  had  been 
developing  in  China  during  the  previous  three  years  and  which 
had  seriously  affected  the  commercial  and  industrial  life  of 
Shanghai  was  much  accentuated  at  the  beginning  of  1949, 
as  the  contending  forces  in  the  civil  war  approached  the 
Yangtse  river;  by  early  March  the  cost  of  living,  expressed 
in  Chinese  national  currency,  called  **  gold  yuan, "was  15,000 
times  the  Aug.  1948  level.  On  April  1  the  mayor,  Wu  Kuo- 
cheng  (K.C.  Wu),  retired  and  was  succeeded  by  Chen  Liang 
but  on  April  25  the  evacuation  of  all  officials  was  ordered. 
The  occupation  of  the  city  by  Communist  forces  was  completed 
on  May  24.  Authority  was  vested  in  a  commission  of  control 
under  General  Chen  Yi,  who  was  also  nominated  mayor. 

On  June  27  the  Nationalist  government  proclaimed  the 
**  closure  "  of  a  large  part  of  the  coast,  including  the  entrance 
to  Shanghai.  Though  this  blockade  was  regarded  as  illegal 
by  the  principal  foreign  powers  it  nevertheless  brought 
overseas  trade  to  a  standstill,  leading  to  shortages  of  food 
and  raw  materials  and  to  steeply  rising  prices  and  widespread 
unemployment.  Towards  the  end  of  the  year,  however, 
strong  efforts  were  made  by  shipping  interests  to  re-open 
the  port  to  overseas  trade,  and  blockade-runners  began  to 
appear  in  increasing  numbers.  At  the  same  time  measures 
taken  by  the  government  to  bring  supplies  of  food  and  raw 
materials  from  the  hinterland  made  themselves  felt  in  a 
welcome  fall  in  the  cost  of  living.  (G.  MIT.) 

SHARETT,  MOSHE,  Israeli  statesman  (b.  Kherson, 
Ukraine,  Oct.  1894),  went  to  Palestine  as  a  boy  of  12.  He 


The  waterways  of  Shanghai  jammed    by  barges  and  other  craft 

early  in  1949  before  the  capture  of  the  town  by  Communist  forces 

in  May  1949. 

studied  at  the  University  of  Istanbul  before  World  War  I 
and  in  1924  received  a  degree  at  the  London  School  of 
Economics.  As  a  Turkish  subject  he  was  conscripted  into 
the  Turkish  army  and  served  as  a  lieutenant  during  World 
War  I.  In  1924  he  became  assistant  editor  of  the  newspaper 
Davar,  organ  of  the  Jewish  Labour  party  in  Palestine;  in 
1929  he  was  editor  of  its  English  weekly  supplement.  Two 
years  later  he  was  appointed  political  secretary  to  the  Jewish 
Agency,  and  in  1933  became  head  of  its  political  depart- 
ment. During  World  War  II  he  persuaded  British  military 
authorities  to  agree  to  organize  Jewish  units  in  the  British 
army.  In  June  1946  he  was  arrested  with  other  members  of 
the  Jewish  Agency  executive  and  spent  five  months  in  the 
Latrun  detention  camp.  On  May  14,  1948,  he  was  appointed 
minister  of  foreign  affairs  of  the  first  Israeli  government. 
On  March  8,  1949,  he  was  re-appointed  to  the  same  office 
in  the  second  Ben-Gurion  (q.v.)  cabinet.  About  the  same 
time  he  changed  his  name  from  Shertok,  which  was  of 
Russian  derivation,  to  Sharett,  a  Hebrew  word  meaning 
"  one  who  serves."  On  Nov.  11,  1922,  he  married  Zipporah 
Meirov  and  they  had  three  children. 

SHEEP:   see  LIVESTOCK. 

SHIPBUILDING.  Shipbuilding  in  the  United  King- 
dom during  1949  was  distinguished  by  a  better  flow  of 
materials  and  equipment,  which  permitted  greater  production 
than  in  1948.  A  start  was  made  with  more  of  the  orders 


SHIPBUILDING 


565 


already  on  the  books  of  the  companies.  During  the  closing 
months  of  1948  many  contracts  had  been  placed  for  oil 
tanker  vessels  and  these  now  represented  a  bigger  proportion 
of  the  tonnage  under  construction  than  ever  before.  Work 
was  still  proceeding  on  some  large  liners  but  fresh  contracts 
for  ships  of  this  class  were  unusual.  Builders  were  still 
awaiting  more  orders  for  ordinary  cargo,  or  tramp,  vessels. 
Few  such  ships  had  been  built  after  the  end  of  World  War  II. 
High  prices,  declines  in  rates  in  the  freight  markets  and  the 
sale  of  many  ships  built  in  the  United  States  during  World 
War  II  and  also  of  some  vessels  constructed  in  Canada  had 
been  influences  which  deterred  contracting.  Many  cargo  ships 
continued  to  be  employed  which  their  owners  would  have 
liked  to  replace  with  modern  and  more  efficient  craft  had  they 
been  able  to  earn  depreciation  and  moderate  interest  on  the 
larger  capital  required.  There  were,  however,  some  excep- 
tions to  the  managements  that  hesitated  to  order  new 
tonnage. 

Experience  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year  showed  that 
diesel  ships  and  steamships  burning  oil  could  still  be  traded 
profitably  at  the  lower  levels  of  freight  rates,  whereas  losses 
would  have  been  incurred  in  the  employment  of  coal-burning 
steamships  with  coal  at  about  £4  a  ton  in  the  United  King- 
dom. The  advantage  which  ships  consuming  oil  had  over 
steamships  was,  however,  largely  lost  when,  after  the 
devaluation  of  sterling  in  terms  of  dollars  in  September,  oil 
prices  outside  the  United  States  were  raised  by  about  40%. 
There  remained,  however,  the  merits  which  the  use  of  oil 
had  over  the  burning  of  coal  in  cleanliness,  speed  of  bunkering 
and  reduction  of  labour.  Freight  rates  were  too  slow  to 
respond  to  the  higher  cost  of  expenditure  in  dollars  in  world 
trades,  owing  to  an  apparently  sufficient  supply  of  the 
tonnage  available  for  the  trade  offered.  With  a  general 
increase  in  freight  rates  needed  for  oil  consumers,  coal- 
burning  ships  would  benefit  to  a  greater  extent.  There  was, 
however,  the  heavier  charge  for  the  upkeep  of  ageing  ships. 

The  amount  of  shipping  under  construction  in  Great  Britain 
throughout  the  year  remained  at  rather  over  two  million  tons 
gross,  according  to  the  quarterly  returns  of  Lloyd's  register. 
This  figure  was  below  the  peak  of  2,244,000  tons  which  was 
reached  in  June,  1948.  On  March  31,  1949,  there  were  being 
built  in  the  United  Kingdom  2,076,000  tons;  on  June  30 
the  amount  was  2,043,000  tons  and  on  Sept.  30  it  was  the 
best  for  the  three  quarterly  periods  at  2,095,000  tons.  Abroad 
the  amount  of  work  in  hand  expanded  steadily.  On  March  3 1 
it  was  2,280,000  tons.  By  June  30  the  volume  was  2,403,000 
tons;  and  by  Sept.  30  it  had  expanded  to  2,513,000  tons. 
These  totals  excluded  construction  in  Germany  and  Russia, 


particulars  for  which  were  not  available,  and  the  Japanese 
figures  were  known  to  be  incomplete.  The  expansion  of  work 
abroad  reflected  the  restarting  of  operations  in  yards  damaged 
during  World  War  II  and  a  revival  of  construction. 

On  March  31  the  proportion  of  the  total  tonnage  under 
construction  throughout  the  world  which  was  built  in 
the  United  Kingdom  was  47  •  7  %,  making  the  share  of  ship- 
yards in  other  countries  52  •  3  %.  On  June  30  the  share  of  the 
United  Kingdom  was  rather  less  at  46%  and  that  of  other 
countries  correspondingly  more  at  54%.  The  United  King- 
dom's share  again  declined  by  the  end  of  September — to 
45-5% — and  the  share  of  yards  in  other  countries  rose  to 
54-5%.  The  total  volume  of  work  in  United  Kingdom  yards 
after  World  War  II  included  a  substantial  amount  for  owners 
abroad.  At  the  end  of  March  1946,  about  100,000  tons  of 
such  shipping  was  being  built.  By  March  1949  it  had  risen 
to  742,000  tons.  There  was  a  small  increase  by  June  30  to 
757,000  tons  and  by  Sept.  30,  1949,  the  amount  had  expanded 
to  766,000  tons.  This  represented  36  •  6  %  of  the  total  tonnage 
under  construction  in  Britain.  The  corresponding  proportion 
on  June  30  was  37%,  and  on  March  31  it  was  35-8%. 
Shipping  under  construction  on  Sept.  30  included  293,000 
tons  for  Norway  and  103,000  tons  for  Argentina. 

Better  supplies  of  materials  were  reflected  in  the  United 
Kingdom  in  an  increase  in  the  work  started,  which  was 
pronounced  at  the  end  of  the  third  quarter.  During  the  three 
months  ended  March  31  work  was  begun  on  73  vessels  of 
274,000  tons.  In  the  June  quarter  new  work  was  represented 
by  64  ships  of  288,000  tons,  and  in  the  three  months  ended 
Sept.  30  work  was  begun  on  80  ships  of  402,000  tons. 

Abroad,  work  was  started  during  the  three  months  ended 
March  31  on  132  ships  of  477,000  tons.  During  the  June 
quarter  the  number  of  ships  increased  to  1 15  and  the  tonnage 
to  560,000  tons.  In  the  September  quarter  the  number  of 
ships  on  which  work  was  started  was  130,  but  the  tonnage 
was  less  at  519,000  tons. 

For  the  first  three  quarters  of  1949  250  ships,  representing 
990,000  tons,  were  completed  in  the  United  Kingdom.  For 
the  whole  of  1949  shipping  delivered  was  1,213,000  tons. 
It  was,  therefore,  clear  that  total  output  for  1949  would  well 
exceed  that  for  1948.  It  was  generally  expected  that  the 
shipyards  in  the  United  Kingdom  would  be  well  employed 
throughout  1950  and  that  the  work  would  extend  well  into 
1951.  Some  large  liners  were  due  to  be  delivered  in  1950  and 
because  of  the  small  number  of  contracts  undertaken  in  1949 
later  prospects  for  shipbuilding  were  uncertain.  (C.  MM.) 

The  world  tonnage  of  merchant  ships  of  1,000  gross  tons 
or  more,  as  at  June  30,  1949,  was  distributed  as  follows: 


Two  of  the  largest  and  fastest  liners  using  the  Port  of  London.    Left,  the  "  Orcades  "  (28,000  tons),  which  left  on  her  maiden  voyage  on 
Dec.  14,  1948,  and  the  **  Himalaya  "  (28,000  tons)  whose  maiden  voyage  began  on  Oct.  6,  1949. 


566 


SHIPPING,  MERCHANT  MARINE 


The  stern  half  of  the  "  Magdalena  "  (17,547  tons)  which  left  London 
off  Tijuca  islands  near  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  broke 


No.  of 

Gross 

No.  of 

Gross 

vessels 

tonnage 

vessels 

tonnage 

United  States* 

3,514 

25,997,200 

Italy       . 

355 

2,142,300 

British  Empire 

3,146 

18,867,000 

U.S.S.R. 

430 

1,324,100 

Norway  . 

865 

4,416,100 

Greece  . 

223 

1,255,700 

Sweden  . 

537 

1,792,200 

Denmark 

299 

1,033,300 

Netherlands    . 

481 

2,683,200 

Japan     . 

290 

1,144,000 

France  . 

475 

2,620,500 

Other 

Panama  . 

453 

2,948,300 

countries 

.     1,697 

6,327,800 

*  Excludes  vessels  on  the  Great  Lakes  Total    .12,765     72,531,700 

The  total  of  72,531,700  gross  tons  of  vessels  in  the  world 
fleet  represented  an  increase  of  1,947,200  gross  tons  since 
June  30,  1948,  but,  during  the  same  period,  the  U.S.  fleet 
decreased  by  130  vessels  totalling  712,300  tons. 

The  Shipbuilders  Council  of  America  reported,  as  at  Oct.  1, 
1949, 925  vessels,  each  of  1 ,000  gross  tons  or  more,  aggregating 
7,081,259  gross  tons,  under  construction,  as  follows: 


No.  of 

Gross 

No.  of 

Gross 

vessels 

tonnage 

vessels 

tonnage 

Great  Britain  . 

397 

3,200,193 

Norway  . 

40 

142,092 

Sweden  . 

149 

1,078,010 

Belgium 

25 

135,423 

United  States  . 

53 

900,453 

Japan     . 

17 

133,340 

France  . 

72 

443,169 

Spain 

26 

128,569 

Netherlands    . 

59 

428,133 

Australia 

9 

52,820 

Denmark 

41 

203,563 

Canada 

11 

44,394 

Italy 

26 

191,100 

United  States.  At  the  beginning  of  1949,  shipbuilding 
in  the  private  shipyards  of  the  United  States  consisted  of 
76  merchant  vessels,  aggregating  1,187,850  gross  tons,  and 
two  dredgers,  totalling  24,672  displacement  tons.  At  the 
end  of  the  year  these  private  shipyards  had  under  construction 
or  on  order  39  merchant  vessels,  aggregating  639,000  gross 
tons,  and  one  dredger  totalling  21,572  displacement  tons. 

During  1949  the  private  shipyards  of  the  United  States 
delivered  33  tank  vessels,  of  1,000  gross  tons  or  more, 
aggregating  538,051  gross  tons  and  one  dredger  of  3,100 
displacement  tons,  as  compared  with  28  seagoing  vessels, 
totalling  163,486  gross  tons,  and  one  dredger  of  1,100  dis- 
placement tons,  in  1948. 


on  its  maiden  voyage,  March  9,  1949.    On  April  25  she  ran  aground 
in  two  while  being  towed  into  harbour. 

Contracts  for  only  five  seagoing  merchant  vessels  were 
placed  in  private  shipyards  of  the  United  States  in  1949. 
Many  of  the  smaller  coastal  and  inland  shipyards,  however, 
had  reasonable  activity  in  the  construction  of  barges,  tow- 
boats  and  other  small  craft. 

In  Sept.  1949,  employment  in  the  ship-repairing  branch  of 
the  industry  in  about  80  yards  had  dropped  to  25,725  from 
56,708  in  Sept.  1948,  a  decrease  of  approximately  58%. 
This  substantial  reduction  in  employment  resulted  from  the 
completion  of  the  reconversion  of  merchant  vessels  from 
wartime  requirements  back  to  peacetime  requirements,  and 
to  the  decrease  in  the  volume  of  shipping  in  operation  under 
the  U.S.  flag.  Employment  in  the  shipbuilding  branch  of 
the  industry,  however,  was  just  over  29,500  or  4,500  more 
than  prevailed  in  the  same  month  in  1948. 

The  average  hourly  earnings  in  the  industry  for  shipbuilding 
and  ship  repairing  in  Sept.  1949  was  $1-632.  (See  also 
SHIPPING,  MERCHANT  MARINE.)  (H.  G.  S.) 

SHIPPING,    MERCHANT    MARINE.     By     the 

end  of  1949  many  of  the  heavy  war  losses  of  the  British  and 
Allied  nations,  including  Norway,  were  made  good.  Colin 
Anderson,  chairman  of  the  General  Council  of  British 
Shipping,  was  able  to  say  that  the  British  merchant  navy 
had  recovered  its  prewar  volume.  Its  balance  had  not, 
however,  been  regained;  i.e.,  the  relationships  between  the 
different  sections,  mainly  passenger  and  cargo  liners,  ordinary 
cargo  ships  or  tramps  and  oil  tankers  had  not  been 
re-established. 

Passenger  liners  continued  to  resume  their  regular  services 
after  reconditioning  extending  over  a  year  or  more,  following 
war  duties  and  the  return  of  troops  and  the  carriage  of 
emigrants  from  Europe  to  the  new  countries,  notably  South 
Africa  and  Australia.  Some  large  new  liners  were  com- 
missioned, which  had  taken  much  longer  to  build  and  had 
cost  far  more  than  had  been  anticipated,  and  they  helped 
materially  to  reduce  the  long  lists  of  prospective  passengers 


SHIPPING,  MERCHANT  MARINE 


567 


who  had  been  wanting  to  travel.  The  new  Orient  liner 
"  Orcades,"  of  28,000  tons  and  valued  at  £3,250,000,  com- 
pleted her  maiden  voyage  from  London  to  Australian  ports 
early  in  the  year.  The  Cunard  White  Star  liner  "  Caronia," 
of  over  34,000  tons  and  valued  at  more  than  £4  million,  was 
commissioned  in  the  trans-Atlantic  route  and  then  was 
directed  to  make  a  pleasure  cruise  from  New  York  to  the 
Caribbean  sea,  the  vessel  having  been  specially  designed  for 
cruising  when  not  engaged  in  the  North  Atlantic  service. 
The  "  Caronia  "  was  the  largest  ship  to  have  been  built 
anywhere  since  the  end  of  World  War  II. 

In  the  spring  the  Royal  Mail  liner  "  Magdalena,"  of 
17,500  tons  and  valued  at  £2-3  million,  was  commissioned 
but  was  wrecked  near  Rio  de  Janeiro  on  her  maiden  voyage 
in  April.  The  "  President  Peron,"  the  first  of  three  new  ships 
of  about  14,000  tons  gross  each  built  in  the  United  Kingdom 
for  the  Argentine  government,  left  Southampton  on  July  20 
on  her  maiden  voyage  to  Buenos  Aires.  The  cost  of  the 
vessel  exceeded  £1-5  million. 

On  August  25  the  liner  "  Rangitoto,"  of  22,000  tons  gross, 
owned  by  the  New  Zealand  Shipping  company,  left  London 
on  her  maiden  voyage  to  Wellington,  New  Zealand.  The 
passenger  accommodation  in  this  ship  was  distinguished  by 
being  of  one  class  with  a  wide  range  of  fares  corresponding, 
broadly,  to  those  charged  for  the  first  and  tourist  classes  of 
ships  already  in  the  service.  Only  one  set  of  public  rooms 
was  required.  The  cost  of  this  liner  was  rather  more  than 
£2  million.  A  sister  ship,  the  "  Rangitane,"  was  completed 
at  the  end  of  1949. 

The  "  Himalaya,"  of  28,000  tons  gross,  was  commis- 
sioned by  the  Peninsular  and  Oriental  Steam  Navigation 
company  in  Sept.  1949  and  sailed  from  Tilbury  on  her 
maiden  voyage  on  Oct.  6,  a  year  and  a  day  after  her  launch. 
The  ship  was  ordered  in  Jan.  1946  and  the  keel  was  laid  on 
April  29  of  that  year.  The  "  Himalaya  "  was  thus  about  3£ 
years  under  construction.  The  original  estimate  of  the  cost 
was  £2,244,000  and  the  actual  cost  was  about  £3  •  5  million. 
The  **  Himalaya  "  was  similar  in  size  to  the  "  Orcades." 
Each  vessel  was  larger  and  faster  than  any  liner  previously 
built  for  either  company.  They  were  the  outcome  of  a 
policy  of  fewer,  but  faster  and  larger,  ships  which  was 
intended  as  a  means  of  helping  to  offset  the  much  higher 
building  costs  and  operational  expenses  than  those  before 
1939.  The  "  Orion/'  a  sister  ship  to  the  *'  Orcades,"  was 
being  built  in  1949;  and  the  "  Chusan,"  of  23,000  tons,  was 
under  construction  for  the  P.  and  O.  company. 

The  French  liner  "  lie  de  France,"  of  45,000  tons  gross, 
returned  to  trans- Atlantic  service  in  July  1949  after  recon- 
ditioning at  Saint-Nazaire  which  occupied  more  than  two 
years.  The  internal  rebuilding  of  the  ship  after  strenuous 
war  service  cost  between  six  and  seven  times  the  original 
price  of  the  vessel  in  1926. 

A  great  increase  in  shipbuilding  costs  caused  managers 
much  concern.  Although  insured  values  were  generally 
raised  when  World  War  II  broke  out  the  payments  for  ships 
lost  only  went  part  of  the  way  to  meet  the  bills  for  new  ships. 
The  replacement  of  vessels  made  necessary  by  advancing  age 
raised  a  more  acute  problem,  since  the  amounts  set  aside 
annually  for  depreciation  on  much  lower  valued  ships  fell 
far  short  of  the  costs  of  the  new  vessels. 

That  British  owners  were  confronted  with  difficulties  in  this 
matter  was  indicated  in  the  action  of  the  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer  in  increasing  by  the  1949  budget  the  so-called 
initial  allowances  in  respect  of  taxation  of  new  ships  from 
20  to  40%.  This,  however,  only  forestalled  some  of  the 
annual  allowances  of  5%  which  had  long  been  permitted 
for  depreciation  when  calculating  earnings  for  taxation. 
With  the  new  concession  the  relief  from  taxation  would 
cease  at  the  end  of  12  years,  whereas  otherwise  the  ordinary 


5%  would  be  allowed  for  depreciation  extending  over  20 
years.  British  owners  were  adversely  affected  by  a  liability 
for  balancing  charges  under  legislation  in  1945.  This  meant 
that  when  a  ship  was  lost  or  disposed  of  tax  was  imposed 
on  the  difference  between  the  proceeds  from  the  loss,  or  sale, 
and  the  written  down  value  of  the  ship. 

British  shipping  companies  did  not  enjoy  the  same  taxation 
relief  as  was  granted  to  shipping  in  some  countries.  In  Den- 
mark taxation  provisions  extended  to  industry  generally 
under  which,  in  addition  to  normal  depreciation  allowances, 
the  excess  of  current  building  prices  over  those  of  1939  might 
be  written  off  subject  to  a  maximum  of  50  %  in  any  one  year. 
Similar  taxation  reliefs  were  available  in  Norway  and  profits 
derived  from  the  sales  of  ships  were  tax  free  if  eventually 
used  for  the  purchase  of  new  tonnage.  In  Sweden  sums 
written  off  assets  were  free  from  taxation. 

The  task  of  shipping  managements  in  making  vessels 
built  at  higher  costs  pay  was  much  increased  by  slower 
working  in  ports.  As  an  example,  the  ships  in  a  large  British 
fleet  on  the  average  formerly  spent  28  days  in  port  compared 
with  four  weeks  at  sea,  but  in  1949  spent  36  days  in  port. 

Shipping  was  particularly  liable  to  be  affected  by  decisions 
of  governments  which  greatly  influenced  the  course  of  trade. 
There  was  much  waste  of  costly  refrigerated  space  in  South 
American  liners  during  the  first  five  months  of  1949  because 
supplies  of  meat  were  not  forthcoming  from  Argentina  as 


W^i 


The  "  Pamir "   (2,796   tons)  arriving  at  Falmouth,   Cornwall,  on 
Sept.  30,  1949,  after  making  her  last  voyage  from  Australia  as  a 
grain  ship. 


568 


SHOE   INDUSTRY 


Designed  by  Gar  Wood  this  double-hulled  motor  vessel,  which  if  is 
claimed  does  not  roll,  was  first  publicly  demonstrated  in  Aug.  1949. 

had  been  expected.  Restrictions  on  imports  to  South  Africa 
early  in  the  year,  and  more  drastic  curtailments  as  from 
midsummer,  meant  a  rush  to  ship  cargo  in  periods  immedia- 
tely preceding  the  relevant  dates  and,  subsequently,  a  great 
falling-off  in  shipments,  particularly  after  the  middle  of  June. 

Several  countries  expressed  intentions  or  wishes  to  develop 
mercantile  marines.  India  contemplated  a  mercantile  marine 
of  2  million  tons  gross  within  the  next  five  or  seven  years; 
but  a  keen  protagonist  for  a  large  Indian  merchant  navy 
had  seen  difficulties  in  the  way  of  securing  the  construction 
of  the  ships,  of  paying  for  them  at  the  current  prices  and  of 
obtaining  sufficient  trade  for  them  when  built.  The  Italian 
government  announced  its  intention  of  having  a  merchant 
navy  by  1952  on  almost  the  1941  level  of  tonnage  and,  of 
course,  a  much  more  up-to-date  one.  Japanese  shipping 
re-appeared  in  local  services  and  Poland  expressed  a  desire 
for  a  substantial  mercantile  marine.  The  occupying  powers 
sanctioned  the  construction  of  a  number  of  cargo  ships  and 
tankers  in  Western  Germany  not  exceeding  7,200  tons  gross 
and  a  speed  of  12  knots.  By  a  later  agreement  Germany 
was  permitted  also  to  build  six  special  ships  which  might  be 
refrigerated  vessels,  fruit  carriers  or  oil  tankers.  (C.  MN.) 

United  States.  On  Sept.  30,  1949,  there  were  1,214  ocean- 
going merchant  vessels  of  1,000  gross  tons  and  over,  totalling 
14,350,000  dead-weight  tons,  in  active  service  in  the  United 
States  merchant  marine.  This  was  about  200  less  than  the 
number  active  on  Dec.  31,  1948.  Of  the  active  vessels,  1,032 
were  privately  owned  and  182  government-owned.  There 
were  in  addition  196  vessels  temporarily  out  of  commission 
and  1,974  (including  some  special  types)  laid  up  in  reserve. 

The  number  of  privately  owned  vessels  (active  and  inactive) 
had  increased  by  13  over  the  number  on  Dec.  31,  1948.  The 
active  privately  owned  United  States  merchant  marine  of 
12,452,000  dead-weight  tons  on  Sept.  30,  1949,  was  only 
3,794,000  dead-weight  tons  larger  than  the  prewar  privately 
owned  fleet  in  service  on  June  30,  1938.  The  ships  of  the 
1949  fleet,  however,  were  larger,  faster  and  relatively  newer. 

The  number  of  vessels  owned  by  the  government  in  active 
service  decreased  by  about  150  from  Dec.  31,  1948,  to  Sept. 
30,  1949,  while  the  number  laid  up  in  reserve  increased  by 
about  130  during  the  same  period.  The  decrease  in  the 
number  of  government-owned  ships  in  service  was  expected 
to  continue  until  the  expiration  of  the  Maritime  commis- 
sion's authority  to  charter  vessels  on  June  30,  1950.  After 
that  date  there  would  probably  be  no  active  government- 
owned  vessels,  with  the  possible  exception  of  a  few  operating 
in  specialized  trades. 

Ships  flying  the  U.S.  flag  carried  46-3%  of  the  total  U.S. 
export  and  import  trade  in  the  first  six  months  of  1949,  in 


contrast  to  67-5%  in  the  corresponding  period  of ^1948. 
Decrease  in  cargoes  shipped  under  Economic  Co-operation 
administration  authorization  (50%  of  which  had  by  law  to 
be  carried  in  U.S.  ships),  together  with  increasing  competition 
from  merchant  marines  of  other  nations  whose  operating 
costs  were  relatively  lower,  forced  the  withdrawal  of  many 
U.S.  flag  ships  from  operation.  Vessels  in  tramp  trades, 
which  were  not  subsidized,  were  especially  vulnerable  to 
foreign  competition,  and  many  of  these  vessels  which  had 
been  chartered  from  the  government  were  withdrawn  from 
service.  (Sec  also  SHIPBUILDING.)  (P.  B.  F.) 

SHOE  INDUSTRY.  The  demand  for  footwear  in 
Great  Britain  throughout  1949  was  good.  All  factories  with 
a  few  temporary  exceptions  due  to  shortages  of  certain  kinds 
of  leather,  were  fully  employed.  Rates  in  the  retail  shops 
kept  pace  with  production,  except  for  a  slight  tendency  among 
retailers  to  rebuild  their  stocks  to  more  adequate 
proportions.  In  most  classes  of  shoes  a  buyers*  market 
prevailed,  certain  specialized  lines  being  the  exceptions. 

Wholesalers'  and  retailers'  profit  margins,  however, 
suffered  two  serious  reductions:  early  in  the  year  severe 
cuts  were  made  by  the  Board  of  Trade  in  the  profits  allowed 
on  both  utility  and  non-utility  footwear,  which  accounted 
respectively  for  about  95%  and  5%  of  total  production. 
Wholesalers'  margins,  which  had  been  14-29%  of  cost 
were  left  unchanged  for  women's  shoes,  but  for  all  other 
lines  were  reduced  to  12-68%. 

Retailers'  margins  on  non-utility  footwear  had  been  50% 
or  42-86%  of  cost  exclusive  of  purchase  tax.  A  scale  of 
purchase  prices  paid  by  the  retailer  determined  which  rate 
applied.  No  change  was  made  in  the  permitted  percentages, 
but  the  level  at  which  the  higher  profit  could  be  charged  was 
raised — in  the  men's  from  30j.  to  46s.  6d.,  in  the  women's 
from  25^.  to  4\s.  6d.  and  similarly  for  children's.  This 
materially  lowered  retail  profits  on  non-utility  lines. 

On  grade  1  utility  footwear  the  mark-up  had  been  42-68% 
of  cost  and  on  other  grades  37  •  94  %.  Margins  on  women's 
shoes  were  not  changed  except  on  grade  3  which  was  reduced 
to  35-59%  but  for  other  footwear  they  were  lowered  to 
37  -  94  %  on  grade  1,  35  •  59  %  on  grade  2  and  33  *  %  for  grade 
3.  Lines  having  no  grade  number  were  given  the  profit-rate 
applicable  to  grade  2.  These  cuts,  applied  to  95%  of  all 
shoes  manufactured,  made  serious  inroads  into  retailers' 
gross  earnings. 

Later  in  the  year  they  suffered  further  reductions  as  a 
result  of  the  government's  decision  to  force  a  reduction  of 
5%  in  the  retail  prices  of  certain  essential  commodities. 
Manufacturers'  maximum  prices  were  reduced  by  1  %  on 
sales  to  wholesalers  and  by  2%  on  sales  to  retailers.  Whole- 
salers' margins  came  down  from  12£%  and  llj%  to  12% 
and  11%  respectively  and  retailers'  margins  by  2^%  on 
returns.  These  cuts  were  vigorously  opposed  by  the  industry, 
but  without  success.  There  was  no  appreciable  increase  in 
the  volume  of  footwear  sold  after  the  cuts  had  been  made, 
the  price  difference  to  the  public  being  too  small  to  influence 
demand.  Manufacturers  had  already  been  selling  many  of 
their  utility  shoes  below  the  permitted  ceiling  prices. 

The  devaluation  of  the  pound  opened  up  a  chance  for  the 
industry  to  compete  in  dollar  markets.  The  end  of  the  year 
saw  several  important  companies  perfecting  plans  to  sell 
British  shoes  in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  some  through 
shops  under  their  own  control.  (C.  A.  So.) 

United  States.  The  shoe  industry,  in  1949,  was  faced  with 
the  issue  of  price  adjustments  at  a  level  where  the  consuming 
public  would  be  willing  to  buy.  Shoe  production,  in  general, 
was  maintained  at  almost  the  same  level  as  in  1948.  Casual 
shoes  became  an  accepted  factor  in  women's  shoes  by  virtue 
of  their  comfort  and  moderate  price.  These  casuals  tended 


SHOPS  AND   DEPARTMENT  STORES— SILK 


569 


to  keep  women's  shoe  production  figures  steady;  of  the 
estimated  201  million  pairs  of  women's  shoes,  65-5  million 
were  casuals.  Men's  shoe  production  remained  stable,  at  an 
estimated  98,900,000  for  1949  as  compared  with  104,730,000 
pairs  in  1948.  Juvenile  shoe  production  decreased  from  the 
record  of  111,194,000  in  1948  to  an  estimated  104,500,000 
for  1949. 

Shoe  manufacturers,  faced  with  the  high  COM  v.  nmtcium 
and  labour,  tried  to  minimize  risk  and  avoid  long  term 
commitments;  in  some  cases  they  used  substitute  soles  in  an 
effort  to  hold  down  costs,  without  sacrificing  wear. 

The  average  consumption  of  shoes  per  head  had  remained 
at  about  3-10  pairs  per  person  despite  retailers'  efforts  to 
increase  the  number.  But  consumers  wanted  the  s^me  or 
even  a  higher  grade  shoe  at  a  better  price.  (Sec  also  LEATHER.) 

(E  G.  AN  ) 

SHOPS  AND  DEPARTMENT  STORES. 

The  year  1949  marked  a  further  stage  in  the  laborious  return 
to  more  competitive  conditions  in  the  retail  market  in  Great 
Britain.  Free  and  rationing  controls  were,  even  in  food, 
relaxed  gradually.  The  campaign  for  the  abolition  of  clothes 
rationing  initiated  by  the  Drapers'  Chamber  of  Trade  near 
the  end  of  1948  achieved  its  objective  in  1949,  but  not  until 
the  spring,  when,  with  the  exception  of  a  small  number  of 
lines,  rationing  by  coupon  had  been  replaced  by  rationing 
by  income.  There  were  markedly  different  rates  of  progress 
in  the  production  of  consumer  goods  for  the  home  market 
during  the  year,  but  more  commodities  reached  their  prewar 
output.  Woollen  goods,  rayon,  footwear  and  other  commodi- 
ties made  good  progress,  in  contiast  to  food  and  cotton  goods. 

A  continuing  high  proportion  of  the  output  of  raw  materials 
was  devoted  to  the  production  of  the  tk  utility  "  lines  at  the 
expense  of  the  higher  priced,  less  standardized,  "  non- 
utility  "  goods  which  still  bore  purchase  tax. 

The  decreasing  buoyancy  of  purchasing  power  and  rising 
retail  costs  and  prices  restricted  the  upward  movement  in 
sales  volume,  but  money  sales  rose  markedly  Nevertheless, 
operating  costs  rose  faster  than  sales  revenue.  Margins  on 
utility  lines  were  reduced  by  the  Board  of  Trade  as  a  political 
expedient  to  limit  the  rise  in  prices.  Rising  wholesale  and 
retail  stocks  and  the  financial  results  of  some  retail  organiza- 
tions reflected  increasingly  difficult  trading  conditions  in 
some  lines,  e.g.,  furs,  wireless,  electrical  appliances  and  semi- 
luxury  household  goods,  books  and  stationery,  cosmetics, 
beer;  but  many  firms,  including  those  catering  for  the  lower 
income  groups,  maintained  or  increased  turnover  and 
earnings. 

The  end  of  sellers'  markets  in  most  lines  increased  the 
bargaining  power  of  retailers  v/v-d-ws  manufacturers  and 
wholesalers.  Retailers  were  increasingly  unwilling  to  buy 
for  stock  as  and  when  goods  were  available  and  suppliers 
began  to  complain  that  retailers  were  returning  to  the  prewar 
practice,  or  malpractice,  of  buying  "  from  hand  to  mouth," 
an  inevitable  development  in  a  buyers'  market. 

Retailers  responded  to  sluggish  sales  by  introducing  hire 
purchase,  deferred  payments  and  other  credit  arrangements 
and  by  increased  attention  to  advertising  and  other  forms 
of  publicity. 

Despite  the  need  for  manpower  in  Great  Britain  to  be 
diverted  into  the  manufacturing  industries  working  for  the 
export  trades,  labour  in  distribution  rose  during  the  year  by 
about  40,000.  The  government  actively  encouraged  the 
development  of  the  new  labour-saving  retail  technique  of 
"  self-service "  by  making  100  licences  for  internal  recon- 
struction available  to  retail  stores,  40  to  multiple  shops,  40 
to  Co-operative  societies  and  20  to  independent  retailers. 

In  June,  a  committee  established  by  the  Board  of  Trade 
to  investigate  the  practice  of  resale  price  maintenance  made 


two  import mt  recommendations  in  its  report:  first,  that 
although  at  individual  producer  should  be  free  to  prescribe 
and  enfoix  ;  resale  prices  for  goods  bearing  his  brand,  his 
power  should  not  be  used  (a)  to  obstruct  the  development  of 
particular  methods  of  trading,  (b)  to  impede  the  distribution 
of  competing  goods,  (c)  tt  deprive  the  public  of  improvements 
in  distribution,  second,  that  the  use  of  sanctions  to  enforce 
collective  price  maintenance  arrangements  should  be  made 
illegal  The  president  of  the  Board  of  Trade  announced  that 
he  would  require  the  retail  trade  associations  to  abandon  or 
modify  some  of  the  practices  involved;  but  by  the  end  of 
the  yeai  little  concrete  action  had  been  taken  in  a  reform 
that  would  ha*  e  a  profound  effect  on  the  structure  of  British 
retail  distribution  The  census  of  distribution  proposed  for 
1950  was  postponed  till  1951. 

In  tlv  second  hall  of  1949,  a  development  that  might  have 
far  rea<  nin^  eifect  on  retailers  of  all  kinds  was  the  Co-opera- 
tive Wholesale  society's  press  and  poster  advertising  campaign 
designed  lo  increase  its  membership  among  the  middle  classes. 
'lhe  movement  had  a  nominal  membership  of  10  million 
consumers  but  less  than  half  bought  exclusively  from  the 
Co-operative  stores,  which  sold  15%  of  the  national  food 
supply  and  a  smaller  proportion  of  other  commodities. 
The  C.W  S.  considered  that  little  more  headway  could  be 
made  among  the  working  classes,  some  of  whom  were 
attracted  by  the  lower  prices  of  multiple  shops. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  year  official  retail  wage  rates  were 
raised  about  6%  by  the  new  statutory  Wages  councils. 

The  devaluation  of  sterling,  in  September,  had  not,  by  the 
end  of  the  year,  had  a  marked  effect  on  the  retail  prices  of 
consumer  goods  fabricated  from  imported  raw  materials, 
despite  a  substantial  rise  in  import  prices.  (A.  SON.) 

SHOWS:   sec  FAIRS,  SHOWS  AND  EXHIBITIONS. 

SI  AM:    see  THAILAND. 

SIERRA  LEONE:   see  BRITISH  WEST  AFRICA. 

SILK.  The  devaluation  of  the  pound  and  other  currencies 
in  Sept.  1949  did  not  substantially  affect  shipments  of  raw 
silk  to  two  silk  consuming  countries,  France  and  Great 
Britain.  Shipments  from  Japan  for  the  first  ten  months  of 
1949  averaged  3,181  bales  a  month,  compared  with  a  monthly 
average  of  6,407  during  1948.  France  bought  5,432  bales 
during  October. 

Statistics  prepared  by  the  Textile  Foreign  Trade  corporation 
of  Japan,  showed  that  France  in  1949  would  have  bought 
more  raw  silk  than  the  United  States,  despite  the  unfavourable 
exchange  rates  in  both  Britain  and  France. 

In  November,  West  Germany  completed  a  trade  agreement 
with  Japan  for  the  purchase  of  $1  8  million  worth  of  raw 
silk  and  silk  fabrics. 

Some  progress  in  international  co-operation  in  the  further- 
ance of  the  use  of  silk  was  made  during  1949.  In  March,  a 
representative  of  the  International  Silk  bureau  (later  in  the 
year  renamed  the  International  Silk  association)  from 
Lyons,  France,  visited  Japan  for  the  purpose  of  asking 
financial  support  from  Japanese  raw  silk  producers,  through 
U.S.  occupation  officials,  for  the  promotion  of  silk  through- 
out the  world.  A  levy  of  five  cents  per  pound  was  suggested. 
The  occupation  officials,  however,  as  well  as  Japanese  raw 
silk  producers,  opposed  the  suggestion  on  the  grounds  that 
the  Japanese  economy  made  collection  of  such  a  levy  impos- 
sible, and  that  it  would  have  the  same  effect  as  raising  the 
price  of  raw  silk,  which  would  counteract  against  increased 
use  of  silk. 

Late  in  May,  at  Zurich,  Switzerland,  16  countries,  including 
Japan,  were  represented  at  the  organization  meeting  of  the 
International  Silk  association,  and  plans  were  made  for 


570 


SILVER— SKIING 


holding  the  second  International  Silk  congress  in  New  York 
in  Oct.  1950.  Representatives  attended  from  Austria,  Belgium, 
Egypt,  France,  Germany,  Great  Britain,  Hungary,  Italy, 
Japan,  the  Netherlands,  Persia,  Spain,  Switzerland,  Syria, 
Turkey  and  the  United  States. 

The  hopes  of  increased  silk  consumption  in  the  U.S.  in 
1949,  based  on  the  great  increase,  did  not  materialize.  Prices 
of  raw  silk  were  stabilized  and  there  was  apparently  little 
incentive  for  purchasing,  as  shown  by  the  small  demand 
for  silk  fabrics.  However,  in  June,  the  U.S.  occupation 
authorities  in  Japan  announced  that  raw  silk  transactions 
would  be  restored  to  private  trading  on  and  after  Jan.  1,  1950. 
In  the  expectation  that  silk  prices  would  advance  after  that 
date,  exports  of  raw  silk  from  Japan  gained  momentum  in 
the  last  four  months  of  1949.  The  total  for  the  year  was 
36,551  bales,  compared  with  59,397  bales  in  1948.  However, 
much  of  this  came  from  stocks  already  in  New  York.  Actual 
imports  from  Japan  fell  sharply  to  29,690  bales,  compared 
with  71,239  bales  in  1948. 

In  the  domestic  production  of  silk  fabrics,  U.S.  mills 
decreased  their  yardage  in  about  the  same  proportion  as  they 
did  with  respect  to  rayons,  most  of  which  were  made  in  the 
same  or  similar  mills.  The  total  production  was  estimated 
to  be  17  million  linear  yd.,  compared  with  19  million  yd. 
in  1948  and  69  million  yd.  in  1939.  Meanwhile,  the  smaller 
mills  manufacturing  silk  fabrics  in  the  U.S.  were  protesting 
bitterly  over  competition  with  Japanese  fabrics,  and  it  was 
announced  by  the  Tar  iff  commission,  at  the  close  of  the  year, 
that  a  preliminary  investigation  would  be  undertaken  to 
determine  whether  there  was  justification  for  an  increased 
rate  of  duty  on  silk  fabrics  to  protect  the  domestic  industry. 

Of  a  total  of  31-3  million  yd.  of  all-silk  fabrics  imported 
by  the  U.S.  in  1949  from  January  to  November,  29  4  million 
yd.  came  from  Japan.  The  average  price  per  yd.  was  54 
cents  from  all  countries,  and  52  cents  from  Japan.  These 
were  all  finished  fabrics,  ready  for  manufacture  into  garments 
or  accessories.  (See  also  RAYON  AND  OTHER  SYNTHETIC 
FIBRES;  TEXTILE  INDUSTRY.)  (I.  L.  Bb.) 

SILVER.  World  silver  production  was  gradually  working 
back  toward  the  prewar  level.  Outputs  of  the  more  important 
producing  countries,  and  the  estimated  world  totals  during 
the  past  several  years  are  shown  in  Table  I. 

TABLE  I.—WORLD  SILVER  PRODUCTION,  1944-48 

(In  millions  of  fine  ounces,  smelter  output) 

1944  1945  1946            1947            1948 

United  States                   36  65  29  05  21    10        38   58         39  23 

Canada                             13  63  12  94  12-54         12  50         14  57 

Newfoundland            .        1-16  1-08  1-11           096          088 

Mexico              .               65-46  61    10  43  26        58-84         57-52 

Honduras          .                 3-12  3  00  2  68          2  41           3   17 

Argentina                           2-00  1    70  •>               244           1-20 
Bolivia     . 
Chile 
Peru 
Belgian  Congo . 


South  Africa 
Australia. 

Total    . 


6-80 

6  68 

6-11 

6  23 

7  56 

1  09 

1  03 

0-87 

0  98 

0  99 

15  83 

13-00 

12-33 

11  39 

10  42 

2-61 

4-14 

5-05 

4  06 

3-81 

1-21 

1  24 

1  20 

1  15 

1  17 

9  37 

8  08 

9  05 

9  53 

10  06 

.    181 


157 


132 


166 


171 


The  countries  listed  account  for  about  85%  of  the  total 
although  there  are  a  large  number  of  minor  producers, 
the  U.S.S.R.  being  the  most  important  of  these. 

United  States.  The  salient  features  of  the  silver  industry 
in  the  United  States  are  shown  in  Table  II,  as  reported  by 
the  U.S.  Bureau  of  Mines. 

The  improvement  in  output  that  was  manifested  in  1948 
was  not  sustained  in  1949,  as  the  total  mine  output  for  the 
first  three  quarters  of  1949  was  only  26,829,754  oz. 

Canada.  Mine  output  of  silver  rose  from  12,504,018  oz.  in 
1947  to  14,569,280  oz.  in  1948,  and  to  11,116,642  oz.  in  Aug. 
1949,  as  against  10,780,518  oz.  in  the  same  period  of  1948. 


TABLE  II. — SILVER  INDUSTRY  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES,  1944-48 
(In  thousands  of  fine  ounces  or  of  dollars) 

1944           1945  1946           1947  1948 

Mine  production    .        34,474       29,024  22,914       35,824  38,096 

Imports         .         .      $23,373     $27,278  $57,578     $68,140  $70,884 

Exports         .         .    $126,915     $90,937  $36,455     $30,649  $12,400 

Industrial  use         .      176,289      184,661  123,647      126,366  129,186 

Secondary  recovery        56,189       58,361  36,647       27,866  23,897 

Net  consumption   .      120,100      126,300  87,000       98,500  105,289 

(See  also  MINERAL  AND  METAL  PRODUCTION  AND  PRICES.) 

(G.  A.  Ro.) 

SINGAPORE:  see  MALAYA  (FEDERATION  OF)  AND 
SINGAPORE. 

SIRRY  PASHA,  HUSSEIN,  Egyptian  statesman 
(b.  Cairo,  Dec.  21,  1892).  Educated  in  Cairo  and  Paris,  from 
1916-24  he  was  associated  with  the  Egyptian  Irrigation 
service.  In  1924  he  was  appointed  secretary  general  of  the 
ministry  of  public  works;  from  1925-27  he  was  assistant 
under  secretary  of  state  and  from  1929-37  under  secretary 
of  state  at  the  same  ministry.  In  1937  he  became  minister  of 
public  works,  in  1939  minister  of  national  defence  and  later 
in  the  same  year  minister  of  finance.  From  Nov.  15,  1940,  to 
Feb.  2,  1942,  he  was  prime  minister,  maintaining  a  policy  of 
non-belligerency.  From  1938  he  was  an  Independent  member 
of  the  Egyptian  Senate.  On  July  26,  1949,  he  formed  an  all- 
party  "  caretaker "  coalition  cabinet  the  main  mission  of 
which  was  to  carry  out  the  forthcoming  elections  in  a  spirit  "of 
peace,  justice  and  equity."  He  resigned  on  Nov.  3  and 
on  the  same  day  formed  another  government  composed  of 
non-party  men,  keeping  for  himself  the  portfolio  of  foreign 
affairs  (see  EGYPT) 

SISAL:     see  HEMP. 
SKATING:    see  ICE  SKATING. 

SKIING.  In  spite  of  lack  of  snow  which  restricted  skiing 
in  1949,  international  fixtures  attracted  large  entries,  the  most 
important  event  being  the  Arlbcrg-Kandahar,  held  on  March 
12-13  at  St.  Anton-am- Arlberg  for  the  first  time  since  the 
race  was  cancelled  in  1938.  It  was  a  great  reunion  of  racers, 
and  both  founders,  Arnold  Lunn  and  Hanncs  Schneider, 
saw  the  Italian  Zeno  Colo  beat  108  first-class  international 
competitors,  and  the  Frenchwoman  Jacqueline  Martel  win 
the  ladies'  event. 

The  Lowlander  championship  was  organized  by  the  Dutch 
at  Arosa,  the  Belgian  team  winning  the  men's  events  and  the 
British  the  ladies'.  Sheena  Mackintosh  set  up  a  record  by 
beating  all  competitors,  men  and  women,  in  the  slalom. 

The  four  ski  clubs  (Kandahar,  Swiss  university,  Ladies'  and 
Swiss  Ladies')  who  developed  downhill  ski-racing,  held  their 
Silver  Jubilee  meeting  at  Murren  on  Jan.  29-30. 

In  Scandinavia,  the  special  jumping  at  Holmenkollen  was 
won  by  the  Norwegian  Torbjoern  Falkanger,  the  special 
Langlauf  by  the  Swede  Nils  Oestednsson  and  the  18  km. 
combined  by  the  Norwegian  Ottar  Gjerdmundshaug. 

(R.  U.  C) 

United  States.  Members  of  a  French  national  team  took 
nearly  all  the  North  American  championships  held  in  1949 
at  Aspen,  Colorado.  After  Jean  Pazzi  had  won  the  downhill 
race,  Georges  Panisset  won  the  slalom  to  defeat  Pazzi  for 
the  combined  title. 

Mrs.  Rhoda  Wurtele  Eaves  of  Montreal  won  the  women's 
downhill  race;  Mrs.  L.  C.  Schmitt,  the  only  feminine  member 
of  the  French  team,  won  the  slalom. 

At  the  national  jumping  at  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah,  Petter 
Hugsted,  1948  Olympic  champion  from  Norway,  won  the 
class  A  title  with  leaps  of  262  and  263  ft. 

At  the  national  downhill-slalom  contests  at  Big  Mountain, 
Montana,  George  Macomber  of  West  Newtown,  Massa- 
chusetts, won  the  slalom  and  second  place  in  the  downhill 


SMUTS— SOCIALIST  MOVEMENT 


571 


contest.  The  U.S.  open  downhill  championship  went  to 
Yves  Latreille,  a  Canadian  representing  the  Sun  Valley 
(Idaho)  Ski  club.  (T.  V.  H.) 

SKIN  DISEASES:  see  DERMATOLOGY. 

SMUTS,  JAN  CHRISTIAAN,  South  African  states- 
man (b.  near  Riebeck  West,  Malmesbury  district,  Cape  Colony, 
May  24,  1870),  was  defeated  in  the  1948  general  elections. 
(For  his  career  see  Encyclopedia  Britannica  and  Britannica 
Book  of  the  Year  1949). 

In  1949  the  United  party  continued  to  oppose  the  nationalist 
government  of  D.  F.  Malan  (</.v.)  and  on  Jan.  25  General 
Smuts  moved  a  motion  of  no  confidence  in  the  government 
on  the  ground  of  its  intention  to  abrogate  non-European 
franchise  rights.  He  was  in  Britain  in  June  when  he  under- 
took duties  as  chancellor  of  Cambridge  university.  Recipients 
of  honorary  degrees  which  he  presented  included  two  women 
— Professor  Lillian  Penson  and  Dame  Myra  Hess.  He  also 
unveiled  a  memorial  panel  to  old  scholars  of  Perse  school, 
Cambridge,  who  fell  in  World  War  II.  He  later  visited 
Rome  and  also  Athens  where  he  was  the  guest  of  King  Paul 
and  Queen  Fredenka.  In  October  the  Nationalist  government 
removed  General  Smuts  from  the  post  of  commander  in 
chief  of  the  Union's  defence  forces  which  he  had  held  from 
1940.  On  Nov.  22  he  spoke  at  a  dinner  in  London  to  launch 
a  scheme  for  planting  a  forest  in  Israel  to  commemorate 
the  75th  birthday  of  Chaim  Weizmann  (</  v ). 

SNOOKER:   see  BILLIARDS  AND  SNOOKER. 

SOAP,     PERFUMERY     AND     COSMETICS. 

The  year  1949  witnessed  a  remarkable  increase  in  the  world 
output  of  synthetic  detergents  of  the  soap  substitute  types 
which,  unlike  soap,  were  not  made  from  vegetable  and  animal 
fats  but  were  mainly  derived  from  petroleum  and  other  non- 
edible  sources  They  had  the  advantage  that  they  could  be 
adapted  to  meet  specific  cleansing  requirements  and,  although 
they  were  originally  expensive  to  produce,  it  was  estimated 
that  production  costs  in  1949  were  lowered  sufficiently  to 
enable  some  of  them  to  compete  on  equal  terms  with  soaps. 

In  Great  Britain  official  control  of  the  industries  covered 
by  this  heading  continued  to  be  relaxed.  The  Toilet  Prepara- 
tions (Revocation)  order  of  July  1948  removing  control  from 
the  manufacture  and  supply  of  perfumery  and  toilet  prepara- 
tions was  followed  m  Nov.  1949  by  the  removal  of  control 
from  soap  substitutes  packed  for  retail  sale,  thus  revoking 
the  Soap  Substitutes  Labelling  and  Prices  order  of  1943.  The 
domestic  soap  ration  in  Great  Britain  was  also  increased  by 
one-seventh  in  Nov.  1949  because  of  improved  supplies  of 
inedible  oils  and  fats  from  the  colonies  and  sterling  area. 

Responsible  elements  in  the  British  cosmetic  industry  were 
well  aware  at  the  outset  of  1950  that  the  industry's  future 
would  largely  depend  upon  ability  to  win  dollars  in  overseas 
markets.  The  fact  that  India,  Australia  and  other  countries 
were  increasingly  able  to  look  after  their  own  requirements 
and  that  South  Africa  had  banned  imports  added  to  the 
trade's  export  difficulties.  Several  British  firms  sent  export 
emissaries  abroad  to  make  first-hand  investigations  and 
others  were  greatly  assisted  in  their  day-to-day  problems  by 
their  trade  associations,  the  British  Export  Trade  Research 
organization  and  similar  bodies.  The  absorption  of  smaller 
firms  by  larger  and  more  highly  organized  concerns  was  a 
noticeable  feature  of  these  industries  in  Great  Britain 
during  1949. 

Technically,  the  most  notable  advances  comprised  the 
development  of  more  efficient  soap  processes  oi  the  con- 
tinuous and  link-batched  types,  the  opening  of  new  synthetic 


detergent  plants  and  the  continued  modernization  of  cosmetic 
research.  The  first  scientific  meeting  of  the  Society  of  Cos- 
metic Chemists  of  Great  Britain  was  held  in  London  in 
Nov.  1949.  (F.  V.  W.) 

United  States.  Throughout  1949  sales  of  perfumery  and 
cosmetics  in  the  U.S.  were  about  equal  to  those  of  1948. 
Some  items — notably  hair  preparations — sold  more  briskly 
than  in  1948,  while  others,  such  as  perfumes,  did  not. 

The  industry  continued  to  wait  for  its  trade  practice  rules 
from  the  Federal  Trade  commission,  and  it  was  expected 
that  these  might  be  issued  in  time  to  become  effective  by 
the  middle  of  1950. 

As  a  result  of  a  meeting  of  some  of  the  principal  perfumers 
in  1948,  Fragrance  Foundation,  Inc ,  an  organization 
formed  to  publicize  the  products  of  its  members  and  to 
conduct  a  publicity  campaign  among  retail  sales  personnel, 
came  into  being  in  1949. 

There  was  a  marked  lack  of  new  products  and  new  presen- 
tations of  existing  products  in  1949.  The  industry  appeared 
to  suflfei  from  a  deficiency  of  inventiveness,  creative  imagina- 
tion and  initiative,  rather  than  to  be  governed  by  considera- 
tions of  financial  caution. 

At  the  close  of  1949  information  on  sales  volume  in  the 
soap  industry  was  available  for  the  first  three  quarters  of 
the  year  only.  The  industry's  trade  association  reported 
increases  in  sales  of  solid  soap,  liquid  soap  and  synthetic 
detergents.  But  these  increases  were  largely  the  result  of  a 
considerable  growth  in  the  number  of  manufacturers  and  a 
comparison  of  the  total  dollar  volume  for  companies  which 
reported  in  both  years  showed  a  decrease  of  about  22%  in 
sales  of  solid  and  liquid  soaps  during  the  first  nine  months 
of  1949.  (H.  T.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  Ernest  Gucnther  and  others,  I  he  Essential  Oils 
(New  York  and  London,  vo!  1,  1948.  vol  2,  1949),  A  W  Ralston, 
Fatty  At  ids  ami  their  Derivatives  (New  York  and  London,  1948), 
R.  W  Moncrieff,  The  Chemistry  of  Perfumery  Material*  (London,  1949). 


SOCIALIST  MOVEMENT.  In  1949  the  pendulum 
swung  against  most  of  the  world's  Socialist  parties.  But  the 
parties  in  power  in  Europe  maintained  and  even  strengthened 
their  position.  The  British  Labour  party  maintained  its 
unprecedented  record  of  by-election  successes.  The  Nor- 
wegian party  for  the  first  time  won  a  safe  absolute  majority 
m  the  general  election  of  Oct.  10  while  the  Danish  party 
unsuccessfully  sought  the  dissolution  of  parliament  in  ex- 
pectation of  similar  gains.  The  Finnish  party,  although 
forming  a  minority  government,  showed  such  strength  in 
countering  Communist  industrial  sabotage  that  the  right- 
wing  opposition  showed  no  disposition  to  endanger  its 
survival. 

In  countries  where  the  Socialists  formed  coalitions  with 
Christian  Democrats  or  right-wing  parties  their  mass  support 
tended  to  dwindle  and  their  willingness  to  continue  in  office 
was  strained.  Following  losses  in  the  general  election  of 
June  26,  the  Belgian  Socialists  decided  to  go  into  opposition, 
using  the  Social  Christians'  support  for  the  restoration  of 
King  Leopold  as  an  excuse.  The  French  Socialist  party 
brought  down  the  Henri  Queuille  government  on  Oct.  6, 
but  reluctantly  returned  to  office  under  Georges  Bidault 
several  weeks  later.  In  Italy  Giuseppe  Saragat  split  his  party, 
the  P.S.L.I.  (Partito  Sociahsta  dei  Lavoratori  Italiam),  by  a 
stubborn  determination  to  support  the  De  Gasperi  govern- 
ment at  all  costs,  though  for  tactical  reasons  he  twice  offered 
his  ministerial  resignation  to  the  prime  minister.  In  the 
Austrian  general  election  of  Oct.  9  the  Socialists  failed  to 
strengthen  their  position  relative  to  the  Volkspartei,  their 
senior  partners  in  office,  although  a  new  fourth  party  drew 
off  from  the  Volkspartei  a  considerable  number  of  ex-nazis. 
The  federal  elections  in  Western  Germany  gave  the  Christian 


572 


SOCIALIST   MOVEMENT 


Democrats  a  short  lead  over  the  Social  Democrats,  who 
obtained  a  little  over  a  quarter  of  the  total  vote. 

In  the  Commonwealth  the  Canadian  Co-operative  Common- 
wealth federation  lost  almost  two-thirds  of  its  seats,  while 
in  both  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  Labour  party  govern- 
ments were  decisively  defeated. 

In  the  first  Israeli  general  election  in  January  the  moderate 
Socialists,  Mapai  (Mifleget  Poalei  Eretz  Israel  or  Workers' 
party  of  Israel),  came  out  well  ahead  with  nearly  36%  of  the 
total  vote,  while  its  left-wing  rival,  Mapam  (Mifleget  Poalei 
Menoukhedet  or  United  Workers'  party),  obtained  18%. 
In  Japan  the  Social  Democrats  were  heavily  defeated  in  the 
January  elections,  losing  almost  two-thirds  of  their  seats. 
In  India  the  Socialist  party  emerged  as  the  main  constitutional 
opposition  to  the  congress  government.  In  Burma  and 
Indonesia  politicians  of  Socialist  principles  held  office  through 
dangerous  periods  of  transition. 

Though  a  few  parties,  notably  the  French,  still  hankered 
after  a  formal  Socialist  International,  there  was  over- 
whelming agreement  that  the  parties  should  pursue  their 
co-operation  as  before  through  periodic  meetings  of  the 
International  Socialist  conference  and  its  committee  (Comisco) 
The  conference  does  not  claim  mandatory  powers,  and  avoids 
voting  on  political  issues  where  opinion  is  known  to  be 
divided.  It  acts  rather  as  a  forum  for  the  exchange  of  ideas 
and  claims  the  right  of  direct  intervention  only  as  the  arbiter 
in  disputes  between  Socialist  groups  or  as  the  judge  of  claims 
to  representation  in  its  meetings. 

During  1949  the  conference  made  several  interventions  of 
this  type.  In  January  a  mission  consisting  of  the  Belgian, 
Victor  Larock,  and  the  British,  Denis  Healey,  visited  Athens 
to  investigate  the  situation  of  the  Socialist  groups  in  Greece. 
It  found  that  only  one  of  these — the  E.L.D.  (Enosis  Laikis 
Dimokratias  or  Union  of  Popular  Democrats) — could  by  its 
principles  and  organization  justify  a  claim  to  membership  of 
the  conference.  The  so-called  Social  Democratic  party  led  by 
Gheorghios  Papandreou  belonged  to  the  right-centre,  while 
the  other  groups  such  as  the  Archeo-Marxist  party  and  the 
A.S.O.  (Anexartiti  Sosiahstiki  Organosis  or  Independent 
Socialist  union)  lacked  any  considerable  organization  outside 
Athens.  After  the  conference's  mission  left,  E.L.D.  publicly 
denounced  the  Greek  Communist  party  for  its  part  in  the 
civil  war,  while  two  moderate  leaders,  G.  Stratis  and  N. 
Askoutsis  joined  the  left-wing  Alexandros  Svolos  and  Ehas 
Tsirimokos  at  the  executive  committee  of  the  party. 

The  International  Socialist  conference  continued  its  attempts 
to  promote  unity  among  the  Italian  Socialists.  In  1948  it  had 
suspended  from  membership  the  P.S.I.  (Partito  Socialista 
Italiano),  led  by  Pietro  Nenni,  and  admitted  jointly  the  P.S.L.I. 
led  by  Saragat,  and  the  Socialists'  union,  led  by  Ignazio 
Silone,  on  the  understanding  that  the  last  two  were  to  unite 
in  a  single  party.  The  P.S.I,  was  finally  expelled  from  the 
conference  in  May  1949  when  Nenni  regained  complete 
control  at  its  Florence  congress.  Meanwhile,  the  democratic 
Socialist  groups  were  drawing  further  apart,  dividing  on  such 
questions  as  participation  in  the  A.  De  Gasperi  government, 
Italy's  adherence  to  the  North  Atlantic  treaty  and  secession 
from  the  Communist-dominated  trade  union  centre,  C.G.I. L. 
Saragat  supported  all  three  of  these  policies,  whereas  they 
were  opposed  not  only  by  the  Socialists'  union  but  also  by 
the  centre  and  left  of  his  own  party.  Thus  he  just  failed  to 
obtain  a  majority  for  his  position  at  the  January  congress  of 
the  P.S.L.I.  in  Milan.  When  however,  in  defiance  of  this 
congress  decision,  he  later  committed  his  party  to  all  three 
policies  by  a  series  of  fait  s  accomplis,  many  of  his  opponents 
left  the  P.S.L.I.,  leaving  him  with  an  easy  majority  at  the 
further  P.S.L.I.  congress  at  Rome  in  June.  Meanwhile  a 
further  group  of  Socialists  led  by  Giuseppe  Romita  left  the 
P.S.I,  after  NennFs  victory  in  Florence.  Under  arbitration 


by  the  international  Socialist  conference  this  group,  the 
so-called  "Autonomists,"  joined  the  Socialists'  union  and  the 
P.S.L.I.  in  setting  up  a  Unification  committee  to  organize  a 
congress  in  Florence  from  Dec.  4-8,  at  which  all  three  groups 
were  to  form  a  single  party,  the  P.S.U.  On  Oct,  31,  fearing 
that  his  opponents  would  have  a  majority  in  the  Unification 
congress,  Saragat  withdrew  the  P.S.L.I.  both  from  the  unifi- 
cation negotiations  and  from  the  government  and  announced 
that  he  would  hold  an  extraordinary  congress  of  the  P.S.L.I. 
at  Naples  in  Jan.  1950.  This  unilateral  rupture  caused  a 
revolt  of  the  centre  and  left  groups  inside  the  P.S.L.I.,  which 
attended  the  Florence  congress  in  December  and  formed  a 
new  party,  the  P.S.U.  (Partito  Socialista  Unitario),  together 
with  the  Socialists'  union  and  the  *'  Autonomists."  Comisco 
admitted  the  P.S.U.  to  membership  of  the  International 
Socialist  conference  on  Dec.  1 1  and  warned  the  P.S.L.I.  that 
it  might  be  expelled  if  it  did  not  choose  to  form  a  single 
party  with  the  P  S.U.  These  interventions  of  Comisco  were 
strongly  criticized  by  the  right  wing  press  in  Italy.  In  particu- 
lar, the  British  Labour  party  was  accused  of  abusing  its  posi- 
tion in  the  International  Socialist  conference  to  forward  the 
alleged  interests  of  British  foreign  policy.  At  the  same  time 
Comisco  was  fiercely  attacked  by  the  Commform  as  attempt- 
ing to  split  the  unity  of  the  working  class 

The  third  intervention  of  the  International  Socialist 
conference  was  directed  at  uniting  the  various  Socialist  exiles 
from  eastern  Europe.  These  were  divided  into  two  main 
groups — the  Bureau  International  Socialiste  with  its  head- 
quarters in  Paris,  consisting  of  Polish,  Yugoslav,  Rumanian, 
Bulgarian  and  Hungarian  Socialists  that  had  made  no 
attempt  to  compromise  with  the  Communists  in  their  countries 
after  1945  and  a  group  mainly  located  in  London  consisting 
of  Czech  and  Hungarian  Socialists  that  had  left  eastern 
Europe  only  after  their  attempts  to  work  with  the  Communists 
had  ended  in  the  liquidation  of  their  parties.  Under  arbitra- 
tion by  the  International  Socialist  conference  these  two  groups 
held  a  joint  congress  in  London  in  July  at  which  they  agreed 
to  establish  a  single  union,  through  adherence  to  which  they 
would  become  associate  members  of  the  International 
Socialist  conference.  This  union  contained  not  only  the 
Socialist  parties  of  Poland,  Czechoslovakia,  Hungary, 
Bulgaria  and  Yugoslavia,  but  also  the  Socialist  parties  of  the 
Baltic  states  and  the  Ukraine.  But  only  the  first  five  parties 
were  admitted  to  the  conference.  In  addition  to  general 
mediation,  the  International  Socialist  conference  attempted 
unsuccessfully  to  reconcile  opposing  Socialist  groups  from 
Hungary  led  by  A.  Ban  and  1C.  Peyer,  and  Rumania  led  by 
E.  Gherman,  S.  Voinea  and  lancu  Zissu. 

Besides  E.L.D.  the  P.S.U.,  and  the  exiles,  two  new  parties 
were  admitted  to  the  conference  during  the  year — the  Social 
Democratic  party  of  the  Saar  and  the  Social  Democratic 
party  of  Japan.  The  former  was  admitted  as  an  observer  only, 
on  the  understanding  that  its  admission  should  not  be  held 
to  prejudice  in  any  way  the  future  political  status  of  the  Saar 
O/.v.),  as  might  be  defined  in  the  peace  treaty  with  Germany. 
The  Japanese  Social  Democratic  party  was  the  first  Socialist 
party  from  southeast  Asia  to  join  the  conference  as  a  full 
member,  though  observers  from  the  Indian  Socialist  party  had 
attended  previous  meetings.  Contact  between  European 
Socialist  parties  and  the  parties  of  southeast  Asia  and  Latin 
America  remained  fragmentary  except  for  the  exchange  of 
publications.  An  attempt  by  the  Indian  Socialists  to  establish 
a  regional  Socialist  group  in  southeast  Asia  was  similarly 
defeated  by  the  obstacles  of  distance. 

The  main  field  of  current  policy  discussed  by  the  Inter- 
national Socialist  conference  was  the  movement  for  European 
unity.  The  full  meeting  of  the  conference  at  Baarn,  Holland, 
from  May  14  to  16  held  a  fruitful  discussion  in  which  the 
functional  approach  was  supported  by  the  British,  Belgian 


SOCIAL  SECURITY— SOCIETIES,  LEARNED   AND   PROFESSIONAL  573 


and  Scandinavian  delegates  and  the  institutional  approach  by 
the  French  and  Dutch  delegates.  The  desirability  of  recon- 
ciling these  approaches  was  generally  agreed  but  attempts  to 
do  so  at  the  Council  of  Europe  in  Strasbourg  were  not 
conspicuously  successful.  A  public  division  appeared  between 
the  pragmatic  Socialist  parties  enjoying  power  in  Great 
Britain  and  Scandinavia  and  the  more  juridically  minded 
Socialists  of  France,  Italy  and  Belgium,  all  seeking  in  Euro- 
pean union  some  escape  from  their  impotent  imprisonment  in 
right  wing  coalitions. 

This  and  previous  failures  to  arrive  at  a  common  policy 
on  current  problems  helped  to  bring  about  a  shift  in  the 
function  of  the  International  Socialist  conference.  All  parties 
agreed  that,  rather  than  attempt  artificial  reconciliation  of 
fundamentally  different  national  views,  they  should  concen- 
trate on  exchanging  their  experiences  in  the  technical  pro- 
blems of  Socialist  administration,  and  on  free  discussion 
between  individual  Socialist  experts  unhampered  by  a  party 
directive.  The  aim  of  such  exchanges  should  not  be  the  pro- 
mulgation of  a  mandatory  doctrine  but  rather  a  general 
broadening  of  perspectives  in  all  parties.  In  fact,  in  this 
phase  of  its  work,  the  International  Socialist  conference 
should  aim  at  much  the  same  function  as  the  Fabian  society 
had  fulfilled  inside  the  British  Labour  movement. 

The  first  of  such  meetings  had  been  held  in  Dec.  1948  in 
Great  Britain  on  the  administration  of  nationalized  industries. 
Further  meetings  were  held  at  Bennekom,  Holland,  from 
March  14-18,  1949,  on  the  international  control  of  basic 
industry,  and  at  Orenas,  Sweden,  from  Sept.  11-16,  on  the 
problems  of  industrial  democracy. 

On  Dec.  21  the  sub-committee  of  Comisco  published  a 
lengthy  reply  to  the  resolution  passed  by  the  November 
meeting  of  the  Cominform  somewhere  in  Hungary  (see 
COMMUNIST  MOVEMENT).  This  reply  quoted  Communist 
spokesmen  to  prove  that  the  Cominform  was  an  agency  of 
the  Soviet  state,  and  rejected  the  Cominform  claim  to  repre- 
sent peace,  freedom  and  Socialism.  The  statement  was  the 
first  public  response  of  the  International  Socialist  conference 
as  such  to  Communist  attacks  on  it,  and  might  mark  the 
emergence  of  the  International  Socialist  conference  as  an 
active  participant  in  the  "  cold  war.*'  (See  also  ELECTIONS; 
POLITICAL  PARTIES,  BRITISH.)  (D.  W.  H.) 

SOCIAL  SECURITY,  U.S.  The  year  1949  was 
marked  by  a  record  outlay  on  social  insurance  benefits  and 
for  public  assistance.  Some  of  the  increase  was  due  to  the 
growth  in  population  and  number  of  persons  working  and  to 
a  rise  in  unemployment.  Part  reflected  larger  expenditure  of 
federal  funds  for  assistance  programmes  and  part  represented 
the  normal  growth  in  insurance  programmes,  especially 
federal  old-age  and  survivors  insurance.  The  year  also 
registered  progress  in  health  and  welfare  programmes 
providing  services  rather  than  individual  payments.  Services 
for  mothers  and  children  were  extended  to  new  areas,  and  new 
programmes  for  children  with  special  needs  were  initiated. 

Amendments  to  the  Social  Security  act  that  became 
effective  in  the  latter  part  of  1948  partly  accounted  for 
increases  that  occurred  during  1949  in  assistance  payments, 
as  well  as  in  the  number  of  persons  aided  under  the  programmes 
for  the  needy,  aged  and  for  dependent  children.  Most  states 
increased  payments,  although  frequently  the  additional 
amount  was  not  sufficient  to  close  the  gap  between  payments 
and  living  costs.  For  the  country  as  a  whole,  the  average 
monthly  payment  towards  old-age  assistance  and  aid  to  the 
blind  was  $5  higher  in  June  1949  than  in  the  previous  June 
and  the  average  for  each  child  receiving  aid  to  dependent 
children  was  about  $3  higher. 

Two  of  the  programmes  under  the  Social  Security  act  were 
designed  to  compensate  for  some  of  the  loss  of  income  which 


resulted  when  a  wage  earner  reached  retirement  age  or  died 
(old  age  and  survivors  insurance)  or  became  unemployed 
through  no  fault  of  his  own  (unemployment  insurance). 

Federal  old  age  and  survivors  insurance  covered,  in  general, 
workers  in  industry  and  commerce.  It  was  financed  through 
contributions  of  the  wage  earner  and  his  employer,  based  on 
the  worker's  wages  from  covered  employment.  The  benefits 
were  also  gauged  in  accordance  with  his  average  taxable 
earnings.  In  Nov.  1949,  monthly  benefits  totalling  $55,319,000 
were  paid  to  more  than  2,710,000  persons. 

Similar  payments  were  made  during  the  month  under  other 
insurance  or  related  programmes.  Monthly  retirement, 
disability  and  suYvivor  benefits  went  to  beneficiaries  under 
the  railroad  retirement  programme  (367,100),  veterans 
programmes  (3,305,800),  and  the  federal  civil  service  system 
(161,600).  Retirement  and  disability  pensions  went  to  some 
230,000  state  and  local  government  employees  and  to  the 
survivors  of  about  38,000  such  employees  who  had  died. 

The  disability  payments  mentioned  above  were  the  only 
public  provisions  for  compensating  wage  loss  due  to  a  per- 
manent disability  that  was  not  caused  during  employment. 
For  a  temporary  disability  of  non-work-connected  origin, 
public  provisions  were  limited  to  the  temporary  disability 
insurance  systems  in  effect  in  a  few  states  and  in  the  railway 
industry.  For  work-connected  disabilities — accounting  for 
only  about  5  %  of  all  disabling  illnesses  and  injuries — federal 
and  state  workmen's  compensation  provisions  were  in  effect. 
Unemployment  insurance  under  the  Social  Security  act 
was  a  state-federal  programme  covering  the  same  type  of 
employment  as  federal  old-age  and  survivors  insurance.  The 
benefits  were  financed  by  employer  contributions  but  the 
federal  government  bore  the  cost  incurred  by  each  state  in 
administering  its  programme.  Benefits  were  paid  to  an 
unemployed  worker  who  qualified  on  the  basis  of  his  previous 
employment  and  for  whom  suitable  job  openings  could  not 
be  found.  The  amount  of  the  weekly  payment  and  the  length 
of  time  the  worker  could  draw  benefits  were  determined  by 
the  provisions  of  the  state  law. 

Protection  against  wage  loss  from  unemployment  was  also 
available  to  railroad  employees  under  the  Railroad  Unemploy- 
ment Insurance  act.  In  November,  about  $16,840,000  was 
paid  to  an  average  of  219,100  workers  (average  number  in  a 
14-day  period). 

Assistance  and  Welfare.  In  Nov.  1949,  almost  2,716,000 
persons  aged  65  or  over  were  receiving  old  age  assistance, 
at  an  average  payment  of  $44-50  during  the  month.  More 
than  1,486,000  children  in  585,400  families  were  receiving 
aid  to  dependent  children;  the  average  payment  was  $29-12 
per  child  and  $73-93  per  family.  About  92,200  blind  persons 
received  assistance,  at  an  average  payment  of  $46-00. 

Other  needy  persons  who  could  not  qualify  under  one  of 
these  special  assistance  programmes  were  cared  for  by  general 
assistance,  financed  without  federal  participation.  In  Novem- 
ber, general  assistance  payments  went  to  543,000  cases,  at  an 
average  payment  of  $50-57  per  case.  The  aggregate  amount 
expended  in  the  month  for  assistance  in  all  four  programmes 
from  all  sources — federal,  state,  and  local — was  $195,806,000. 
The  Social  Security  act  also  provided  federal  grants  to 
states  to  help  them  extend  and  improve  state  and  community 
services  for  mothers  and  children.  Of  the  annual  total  of 
$22  million  authorized  for  federal  grants,  certain  portions  of 
which  must  be  matched  by  states,  $11  million  was  for  maternal 
and  child  health  services,  $7-5  million  for  services  for  crippled 
children  and  $3-5  million  for  child  welfare  services.  (See 
also  NATIONAL  INSURANCE.)  (A.  J.  A.) 

SOCIETIES,  LEARNED  AND  PROFES- 
SIONAL. The  learned  and  professional  societies  in  the  United 
Kingdom  continued  in  1949  to  consolidate  their  position  in 


574 


SOCIETIES,  LEARNED   AND   PROFESSIONAL 


the  life  of  the  community  after  interruptions  caused  by 
World  War  II.  It  might  be  said  of  the  majority  of  them  that 
the  period  of  reconstruction  was  completed  and  that  they 
had  returned  as  nearly  as  possible  to  normal  working.  It 
was  not  unnatural,  however,  that  the  general  economic 
situation  affected  their  programmes;  the  value  of  money 
restricting  the  scope  of  I  hose  which  depended  on  subscriptions 
for  their  income  and  the  choice  of  subjects  for  study  and 
discussion  being  determined  in  part  by  the  urgent  need  to 
consider  topical  questions  affecting  the  present  and  future 
welfare  of  the  world,  the  nation  and  the  individual. 

Among  the  many  subjects  which  were  considered  during 
the  year  the  most  outstanding  were  those  concerned  with 
food  and  people.  These  topics  were  offered  by  the  United 
Nations  Educational  Scientific  and  Cultural  organization  as 
the  title  of  a  theme  for  world-wide  discussion  of  one  of  the 
most  pressing  of  international  problems,  namely  the  feeding 
of  a  world  population  increasing  at  the  rate  of  two  million 
a  year  with  a  corresponding  increase  in  the  production  of 
food.  Additional  interest  was  given  to  such  questions  in 
Great  Britain  by  the  publication  of  the  report  of  the  Royal 
Commission  on  Population. 

A  large  proportion  of  the  programme  of  the  annual  meeting 
of  the  British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science 
at  Newcastle-upon-Tyne  during  the  first  week  in  September, 
which  was  attended  by  3,400  people^  dealt  with  subjects 
which  had  a  bearing  on  this  theme.  Thus  an  opportunity  was 
provided  not  only  for  experts  such  as  chemists,  biologists, 
agricultural  scientists,  economists  and  so  on  to  discuss  what 
was  being  done  and  what  more  could  be  done  to  improve  the 
position  but  also  to  focus  public  attention  on  matters  which 
affected  all.  At  the  14th  International  Veterinary  congress, 
attended  by  1,000  delegates  from  53  countries,  which  was 
held  in  London  (Aug.  8-13),  the  whole  programme  was 
based  on  this  theme  as  it  was  thought  by  the  organizers  that 
the  world  food  situation  was  the  most  important  scientific 
and  practical  question  of  the  day.  Some  aspects  of  this 
question  were  considered  at  the  annual  summer  scientific 
meeting  of  the  British  Medical  association  at  Harrogate, 
Yorkshire,  and  at  the  first  International  Congress  of  Bio- 
chemistry held  at  Oxford.  One  of  the  summer  schools  of  the 
British  Social  Hygiene  council  dealt  with  the  family  and  the 
nation ;  the  National  Institute  of  Adult  Education  encouraged 
discussion  groups  on  food  and  population  problems;  the 
Association  of  Applied  Biologists  held  a  conference  on 
growth-promoting  substances  in  agriculture  and  horti- 
culture; and  many  others  of  the  learned  societies  contributed 
directly  or  indirectly  to  consideration  of  this  theme. 

Other  significant  problems  in  contemporary  thought  which 
received  prominent  attention  among  the  activities  of  the 
learned  and  professional  societies  were  those  concerned  with 
productivity  in  industry.  Such  problems  included  bridging  the 
gap  between  scientific  discoveries  and  their  application, 
incentives  to  workers  in  industry,  technical  and  other  adult 
education,  vocational  guidance  and  so  on.  All  these  subjects 
were  discussed  by  various  groups  of  experts,  including 
engineers,  economists  and  psychologists  at  the  meeting  of 
the  British  Association.  Individually  they  received  attention 
also  from  such  bodies  as  the  National  Institute  of  Industrial 
Psychology  and  the  British  Institute  of  Management  which 
arranged  conferences  on  single  topics.  At  the  close  of  the 
year,  on  Dec.  29,  the  many  national  bodies  constituting  the 
Conference  of  Educational  Associations  held  a  joint  meeting 
on  continued  education  for  vocation. 

In  the  two  mam  fields  so  far  mentioned  the  societies 
performed  the  important  functions  of  assembling  information 
and  opinions  from  experts  and,  through  publication  and 
report,  of  helping  to  mould  public  opinion  on  questions  of 
the  day;  but  by  far  the  greater  proportion  of  their  work 


during  the  year  was  unrelated  to  immediate  practical  prob- 
lems, except  in  the  case  of  those  dealing  with  the  applied 
sciences. 

The  principal  topics  which  were  dealt  with  by  the  learned 
societies  included:  modern  advances  in  astronomy;  atomic 
physics;  the  use  of  radioactive  elements  in  chemistry  and 
biology;  oceanography  (particularly  deep  sea  exploration); 
control  of  insect  populations;  results  from  the  development 
of  new  research  techniques  such  as  chromatography ;  develop- 
ments in  the  design  of  internal  combustion  engines;  recent 
fossil  evidence  with  a  bearing  on  the  ancestry  of  man; 
techniques  in  education;  ecology;  and  the  preservation  of 
nature. 

During  the  year  the  British  Council  began  work  on  a 
revised  edition  of  the  Year  Book  of  the  Learned  Societies, 
an  invaluable  directory  which  had  been  out  of  print  for  ten 
years.  The  Scientific  Film  association  announced  in  November 
that  they  were  making  a  national  survey  of  makers,  owners 
and  users  of  scientific  films,  with  a  view  to  compiling  a 
comprehensive  record  of  sources  of  supply  and  demand  and 
of  catalogues,  lists  and  data  sheets.  In  these  and  many  other 
ways  new  beginnings  were  made  in  documentation. 

With  further  easing  of  paper  supply  restrictions,  which 
made  possible  larger  issues  of  journals,  delays  in  publication 
of  new  material  were  reduced.  In  May  the  Royal  Aero- 
nautical society  produced  the  first  issue  of  a  new  publication 
called  the  Aeronautical  Quarterly. 

At  an  Empire  conference  on  scientific  information  held  in 
1948,  one  suggestion  put  forward  for  overcoming  some  of 
the  difficulties  of  scientists,  particularly  those  in  distant  parts 
of  the  world,  in  gaining  access  to  published  records  of  original 
work  was  to  extend  the  practice  of  making  photocopies. 
In  the  spring  of  1949,  the  Royal  Society  made  a  declaration 
that  it  would  regard  certain  copying  from  its  own  publications 
as  "  fair  dealing  "  and  invited  all  learned  and  professional 
societies  to  subscribe.  By  the  end  of  the  year  about  100 
societies  had  done  so.  It  was  thought  that  this  expedient 
would  assist  the  free  flow  of  information  without  damage 
to  the  societies  on  such  matters  as  copyright. 

The  33rd  annual  exhibition  of  scientific  instruments  and 
apparatus  arranged  by  the  Physical  society  was  held  in 
London  in  April.  It  consisted  of  150  exhibits  and  was  visited 
by  13,000  people.  A  feature  of  the  1949  exhibition  was  the 
renewal  of  a  competition  in  craftsmanship  and  draughtsman- 
ship among  apprentices  and  learners  which  had  lapsed  for 
several  years.  The  94th  annual  exhibition  of  photography 
arranged  by  the  Royal  Photographic  society  was  held  in  the 
society's  house  in  London  in  September  and  October. 
Pictorial  and  stereoscopic  prints  and  transparencies  were  on 
view  from  Sept.  9  to  Oct.  2;  scientific  and  technical  exhibits 
from  Oct.  8-26.  For  this  exhibition  5,300  entries  were  received 
of  which  863  were  accepted.  From  June  11  to  26  the  first 
exhibition  arranged  solely  for  the  blind  was  staged  by  the 
Science  museum  in  London  m  co-operation  with  the  National 
Institute  for  the  Blind.  The  exhibition  covered  a  wide  range 
of  popular  science  and  each  of  the  exhibits  had  a  special 
descriptive  label  in  braille. 

On  March  7  the  Royal  Institution  celebrated  the  150th 
anniversary  of  its  foundation  by  Benjamin  Thomson  (Count 
Rumford).  A  special  evening  discourse  was  delivered  by 
Professor  E.  K.  Rideal  who  retired  at  the  end  of  the  year 
from  the  post  of  resident  director  of  the  institution  and  was 
succeeded  by  Professor  E.  N.  da  C.  Andrade.  The  200th 
anniversary  of  the  birth  of  Edward  Jenner,  the  discoverer 
of  vaccination,  was  celebrated  on  May  17  by  the  Wellcome 
Historical  Medical  museum,  London.  The  Genetical  society 
(in  its  30th  year)  held  its  100th  meeting  from  June  30  to  July  1, 
at  Cambridge.  To  mark  the  occasion,  guest  speakers  reviewed 
the  early  days  of  genetics  and  there  were  comprehensive 


SOIL  CONSERVATION 


575 


demonstrations  of  genetical  work  in  progress  in  Great 
Britain.  In  celebration  of  the  100th  anniversary  of  the  birth 
of  Ivan  Pavlov,  a  series  of  lectures  on  appropriate  subjects 
was  delivered  during  October  in  the  London  Institute  of 
Education  under  the  auspices  of  the  Society  for  Cultural 
Relations  with  the  U.S  S.R. 

An  agreement  designed  to  bring  about  a  merger  between 
the  British  Institute  of  Management  and  the  Institute  of 
Industrial  Administration  by  two  stages  was  signed  in  1949. 
During  the  first  stage,  which  came  into  effect  immediately, 
the  Institute  of  Industrial  Administration,  which  had  been 
in  existence  for  30  years  and  had  a  membership  of  6,000 
would  retain  its  separate  identity  and  its  professional  activi- 
ties would  continue  unchanged;  but  its  executive  manage- 
ment, subject  to  the  policy  control  of  its  own  council,  would 
be  undertaken  by  the  staff  of  the  British  Institute  of  Manage- 
ment. It  was  expected  that  the  merger  would  be  completed 
in  the  second  stage  by  1951  or  1952,  During  the  year  1949, 
also,  the  National  Institute  of  Adult  Education  was  formed 
by  the  amalgamation  of  the  National  Foundation  for  Adult 
Education  and  the  British  Institute  of  Adult  Education.  At 
a  meeting  of  the  Bntish  Dental  association  at  the  end  of 
November  it  was  resolved  to  unite  the  dental  profession  by 
forming  a  single  representative  association  by  amalgamation 
of  separate  organizations  of  which  the  other  main  one  was 
the  Incorporated  Dental  society.  On  April  14,  the  Royal 
Institute  of  Chemistry  was  granted  a  new  charter  which  made 
it  clear  that  the  institute  was  concerned  with  the  whole 
profession  of  chemistry  and  not  merely  that  of  "  analytical 
and  consulting  chemistry  "  as  stated  in  the  original  charter 
of  1885. 

The  principal  awards  of  the  mam  learned  societies  included 
the  following: 

Royal  Society:  Royal  medals  to  Sir  George  Thomson  for 
distinguished  contributions  to  many  branches  of  atomic 
physics  and  to  Professor  R.  A.  Peters  for  biochemical 
researches;  Copley  medal  to  Professor  G.  C  dc  Hcvcsy  for 
work  on  the  chemistry  of  radio-active  elements,  Davy 
medal  to  Professor  A  R.  Todd  for  studies  and  achievements 
in  organic  chemistry;  Sylvester  medal  to  Professor  L.  J. 
Mordcll  foi  researches  in  pure  mathematics;  Hughes  medal 
to  Professor  C.  F.  Powell  for  work  on  nuclear  particles. 

Lmncan  society:  Linnean  medal  to  Professor  D.  M.  S. 
Watson. 

Institution  of  Civil  Enginners:  James  Alfred  Ewmg  medal 
to  Sir  Hi  ward  Appleton. 

Royal  Aeronautical  society:  Gold  medal  (the  premier 
award)  to  S.  Cannon,  for  design  and  development  of  fighter 
aircraft. 

Royal  Astronomical  society:  Gold  medal  to  Professor 
S  Chapman  for  contributions  to  geophysics  and  solar  physics. 

Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers:  James  Watt  medal 
to  Dr.  Eredenk  Ljungstrom  of  Sweden  for  work  on  the 
development  of  the  steam  turbine 

Zoological  society:  Gold  medal  to  Henry  G.  Maurice  for 
general  service  to  the  society.  This  medal  had  been  awarded 
only  three  times  previously  since  the  foundation  of  the 
society  in  1877. 

Physical  society:  Duddell  medal  to  Dr.  E.  H.  Land, 
inventor  of  polaroid.  (D.  N.  L.) 

SOIL  CONSERVATION.  Public  statements  on  soil 
erosion  during  1949  tended  to  avoid  extravagant  stones  of 
the  amount  of  damage  being  done  and  to  concentrate  upon 
the  more  constructive  view  of  what  had  been  and  was  being 
achieved  to  counterbalance  the  known  losses  from  sheet 
erosion  and  gullying  due  to  water  action  and  from  erosion 
by  wind.  The  direct  connection  between  the  loss  of  cultivable 
land  through  gullying,  decrease  in  productivity  of  cultivated 


land  through  sheet  erosion  and  formation  of  shifting  sand 
dunes  and  the  world's  food  supply  was,  however,  stressed. 
Out  of  a  total  land  area  of  35,700  million  ac.  less  than  4,000 
million,  or  about  10%  of  the  whole,  was  actually  cultivated 
and  this  again  was  allocated  partly  to  industrial  crops  so 
that  the  food  producing  area  averaged  1J  ac.  per  head  of 
world  population.  Given  yields  similar  to  those  of  Great 
Britain  this  would  be  enough,  but  the  average  in  most 
countries  was  very  much  less.  Thus,  with  spectacular  increases 
in  their  population,  Asia  and  Africa  faced  increasingly  heavy 
deficits  of  wheat  and  rice.  Every  country  would  have  to  try 
to  stop  erosion  losses,  make  existing  fields  more  productive 
and  bring  into  sor»e  form  of  production  land  now  lying  idle. 

In  most  countries  of  Asia  and  Africa  marginal  land  was 
being  ruined,  not  by  ploughing,  but  by  over-grazing  by  useless 
village  herds.  India  possessed  300  million  head  of  cattle  out 
of  which  at  least  80  million  were  surplus  and  formed  a  heavy 
dram  upon  available  fodder.  An  even  worse  burden  was  the 
huge  herds  of  goats  which  were  largely  responsible  for  the 
desiccation  and  spread  of  desert  conditions  in  India,  Pakistan, 
Baluchistan,  Iraq,  Persia  and  many  parts  of  Africa.  As  this 
type  of  land  was  more  used  for  grazing  or  ranching  than  for 
field  ciops,  the  study  of  grassland  improvement  was  being 
taken  up  in  many  countries.  In  South  Africa  over  100  types 
of  veldt  were  recognized.  C  Vested  wheat  grass  originating  in 
the  U  S  S.R.  was  now  widely  used  in  Canada  and  the  United 
States.  Australia  took  grasses  from  many  other  countries  to 
build  up  suitable  strains  by  selection  and  cross-breeding,  but 
lack  of  seed  in  many  and  grasses  was  a  handicap.  The  need 
for  a  Commonwealth  research  station  to  deal  with  arid  and 
semi-arid  grass  types  was  emphasized  by  Sir  John  Russell 
(</.v.)  in  his  presidential  address  to  the  British  Association 
at  Newcastle  in  Sept.  1949.  A  great  need  was  for  leguminous 
plants  which  could  serve  as  pasture  improvers  in  semi-arid 
conditions  in  the  same  way  as  clover  and  lucerne  had  already 
done  for  moister  regions. 

In  Australia  large  tracts  of  previously  infertile  land  were 
improved  by  the  application  of  only  a  trace  of  rare  soil 
constituents  such  as  zinc,  copper,  iodine  and  boron,  to  whose 
absence  the  infertility  was  due.  Soil  barrenness  was  investi- 
gated in  the  Cawthron  institute,  New  Zealand,  and  by  the 
Swedes  at  Svalof,  their  plant  breeding  station  in  southern 
Sweden. 

The  reclamation  of  badly  gullied  land  by  means  of  bull- 
dozers and  similar  mechanical  equipment  was  demonstrated 
in  the  Rawalpindi  uplands  of  the  West  Punjab  where  waste 
land  was  reclaimed  partly  for  fields  and  partly  for  the 
afforestation  of  land  too  steep  to  terrace  economically. 
Eoi  average  slopes  terracing  cost  Rs  100  an  ac.  but  where 
the  land  was  very  badly  gullied  or  the  slope  was  up  to  8%, 
the  cost  rose  to  Rs.150  or  200  an  ac.,  the  Pakistan  rupee 
being  worth  9-2  to  the  £  sterling  at  the  end  of  1949.  The 
making  of  water  ponds  formed  an  integral  part  of  this 
catchment  planning  because  proper  field  maintenance  was 
apt  to  be  neglected  if  the  plough  bullocks  had  to  go  far  for 
water  in  the  hot  season.  Ploughing  of  fallow  between  storms 
was  essential  if  field  surfaces  were  to  be  kept  absorbtive. 

The  provision  of  water  ponds  similarly  formed  a  prominent 
part  in  the  mechanized  land  reclamation  done  by  the  Overseas 
Food  corporation  in  northern  Queensland  and  by  the  Sudan 
Plantation  syndicate.  The  ambitious  groundnuts  scheme  for 
developing  3,250,000  ac.  of  savannah  land  in  Kenya  and 
Nyasaland  got  off  to  a  bad  start  owing  to  causes  such  as 
lack  of  machine  spares  and  to  cultivation  attachments  for 
ploughing  and  sowing  being  unsuitable  for  the  jungle  clear- 
ance which  had  to  be  done  before  crops  could  be  sown. 
There  was  also  a  danger  that  complete  clearance  of  jungle 
vegetation,  although  an  advantage  through  ensuring  freedom 
from  tsetse  fly,  would  eventually  lead  to  serious  erosion  and 


576 


SOIL   CONSERVATION 


desiccation  through  lack  of  windbreaks  or  shelterbelts.  The 
social  side  of  the  problem  was  to  provide  enough  supervision 
with  an  expensive  and  thinly  scattered  European  staff  during 
the  interval  until  enough  capable  Africans  could  be  found 
and  trained  up  to  hold  supervisory  posts. 

An  example  of  wind  erosion  was  seen  in  the  Mianwali 
Thai,  a  desert  district  of  the  West  Punjab  now  being  opened 
up  with  irrigation  from  the  newly  finished  Daud  Khel  barrage 
across  the  river  Indus.  The  rainfall  was  about  8  in.  and  very 
erratic  and  unreliable,  and  for  the  previous  30  years  the  old 
desert  scrub  jungle  which  held  the  sandy  surface  had  been 
destroyed  by  opportunist  ploughing  of  the  sloping  ground  to 
produce  an  unirngated  crop  of  gram  (Phaseolus  mungo). 
As  a  result  the  irrigation  farmers  who  included  many  groups 
of  ex-service  men  were  faced  with  land  which  was  now  largely 
shifting  sand  dunes  of  from  3  to  15ft.  high  and  moved 
around  by  every  storm.  Storms  in  May  1949  not  only  blew 
plants  out  of  the  ground  but  also  blew  away  many  of  the 
water  channels.  The  cure  for  this  lay  in  planting  hedges  as 
windbreaks  round  every  holding  and  thicker  belts  of  trees 
along  the  banks  of  all  distribution  channels. 

The  U.S.S.R.  had  announced  in  Oct.  1949  a  new  project 
in  which  shelterbelts  were  to  be  planted  along  the  lower 
reaches  of  the  Don,  Donets,  Volga  and  Ural  rivers  as  an 
essential  step  towards  preventing  droughts  such  as  had  hit 
the  Volga  basin  20  times  in  the  previous  63  years.  Sandy 
areas  were  to  be  afforested,  and  crop  rotations  made  com- 
pulsory in  ploughland.  A  prominent  item  was  again  farm 
ponds  of  which  44,000  were  planned. 

Figures  of  the  erosion  incidence  in  New  Zealand  were 
published  in  the  Geographical  Magazine  (London,  Sept. 
1949)  in  which  C.  R.  Stanton  showed  that  a  quarter 
(15,244,000  ac.)  of  the  total  country  was  already  suffering  in  the 
following  proportions:  minor  land-slips,  3,200,000  ac.;  major 
slips  and  torrents,  6,163,000 ac.;  wind  eroded,  4,557,000 ac.; 
sheet  eroded,  1,324,000  ac.  The  Soil  Conservation  and  Rivers 
Control  act  passed  in  1941  worked  through  local  catchment 
boards  which  were  small  groups  of  officials  and  non-officials 
authorized  to  enforce  this  law. 

Technical  knowledge  about  the  way  to  control  erosion  was 
summarized  by  the  United  Nations  which  held  a  conference 
on  the  conservation  of  natural  resources  at  Lake  Success, 
New  York,  in  Aug.  1949.  Papers  prepared  by  British  and 
other  workers  in  the  tropical  and  more  backward  countries 
tended  to  prove  that  the  social  and  administrative  difficulties 
were  much  worse  than  the  purely  technical  problem  of  stop- 
ping erosion.  The  smallness  of  individual  holdings  prevented 
effective  contouring  but  consolidation  of  holdings  was  a 
lengthy  legal  process.  Collective  farming  was  a  difficult 
matter  to  introduce  amongst  primitive  or  individualistic 
people  who  had  no  previous  experience  of  working  on  a  co- 
operative principle.  Again  the  local  land  revenue  or  taxation 
authority  in  charge  of  village  records  had  no  enthusiasm  for 
work  which  would  wreck  his  own  book-keeping  system  and 
deprive  him  of  his  customary  payments.  A  further  difficulty 
was  that  common  land  was  nobody's  business;  the  commons 
in  most  countries  were  in  poorer  condition  than  they  ought 
to  have  been,  but  it  was  difficul  to  alter  legally  admitted 
grazing  rights. 

From  a  technical  point  of  view,  it  was  advisable  to  tackle 
each  single  river  from  top  to  bottom  of  its  catchment,  starting 
with  the  forest  protection  of  the  mountain  ranges  concerned 
and  working  downhill  to  the  plains,  applying  every  con- 
ceivable remedy  no  matter  to  what  use  the  land  was  being 
put.  In  practice  national  boundaries  often  defeated  this. 
A  notable  example  of  co-ordinated  work  of  this  sort  was 
seen  in  the  Rhine  Control  commission,  under  whose  direction 
counter-erosion  work  had  gone  ahead  in  Switzerland  and 
Austria  through  both  World  War  I  and  II.  The  creation  of 


new  national  boundaries  might  raise  fresh  difficulties:  for 
instance  the  occupation  of  Kashmir  by  India  might  prevent 
the  co-ordination  of  control  in  the  great  Punjab  rivers  all  of 
which  have  their  catchments  in  the  high  Himalayas  in  and 
around  Kashmir;  the  Indus,  Jhelum,  Chenab  and  Ravi 
were  all  affected,  and  even  some  of  the  smaller  torrents  of 
Jammu  province  of  Kashmir  are  two  miles  width  of  sand  at 
the  point  they  enter  the  West  Punjab.  Expensive  and  vital 
irrigation  works  are  therefore  very  vulnerable  and  the  drawing 
of  a  new  political  boundary  may  greatly  complicate  the 
administration  of  water  resources.  (R.  M.  GE.) 

United  States.  During  1949,  about  115,000  new  soil 
conservation  farm  plans,  covering  more  than  32  million  ac. 
were  prepared  by  Soil  Conservation  service  technicians 
working  with  farmers  and  ranchers  in  soil  conservation 
districts.  More  than  22  million  ac.  were  given  complete 
conservation  treatment,  and  26  million  additional  acres  were 
covered  by  detailed  conservation  surveys.  By  July  1 ,  a  total 
of  740,000  farms  covering  202  million  ac.  had  been  planned 
for  conservation  treatment  and  use.  Complete  conservation 
plans  were  in  use  on  668,322  farms  totalling  185  million  ac. 

Throughout  the  country,  in  co-operation  with  the  experi- 
mental stations  of  all  states,  and  also  in  Puerto  Rico,  the  Soil 
Conservation  service  carried  out  many  research  investigations 
in  specific  areas.  Outstanding  results  were  reported  in  the 
use  of  legumes  in  combination  with  stubble  mulching  on 
arable  land  in  Washington  and  Idaho.  Grass  and  legume 
cover  crops  were  used  in  southern  Californian  vineyards  to 
control  wind  erosion  and  sand  drifting,  and  there  was  an 
increase  in  the  use  of  organic  matter  on  the  tobacco  lands  of 
Maryland  and  North  Carolina.  The  extension  of  disc- 
pitting  principles  as  a  method  of  seed-bed  preparation, 
formerly  developed  in  Wyoming,  to  the  range  lands  of  Ari- 
zona, resulted  in  the  highly  successful  establishment  of 
grasses  in  arid  regions. 

Fourteen  more  states  began  schemes  for  the  improvement 
of  wild  life  habitation,  in  co-operation  with  soil  conservation 
authorities.  Thirty-five  states  were  engaged  on  similar 
schemes  in  1949.  The  state  wild  life  agencies  supplied  planting 
stock,  seeds  and  fencing  materials  to  carry  out  those  provisions 
of  farm  conservation  plans  prepared  by  farmers  and  the  Soil 
Conservation  service  which  affected  wild  life  preservation. 

An  important  aspect  of  the  soil  conservation  programme 
was  the  distinct  trend  towards  grassland  farming  in  many 
districts.  Completed  conservation  farm  plans  called  for  nearly 
13  million  ac.  of  range  and  pasture  seeding,  more  than 
87  million  ac.  of  range  and  pasture  improvement  and  large 
quantities  of  grass  seed  for  use  in  crop  rotations.  Seed  of 
scientifically  tested  conservation  grasses  continued  to  be  in 
short  supply,  and  for  this  reason  the  resources  of  the  Soil 
Conservation  service  and  hundreds  of  soil  conservation 
districts  were  utilized  to  obtain  larger  amounts.  The  greatest 
success  achieved  was  in  the  harvesting  of  native  grass  seed 
from  farm  plots  in  northeastern  Oklahoma  and  Texas.  More 
than  5  million  Ib.  of  the  seed  of  native  tall  grasses  and  mid- 
season  grasses  were  harvested  on  these  farms.  The  bulk  of 
the  harvest  consisted  of  the  bluestem,  Indian  grass  and 
switch  grass.  These  were  the  best  known  varieties  for  planting 
in  areas  subject  to  wind  erosion.  Tall  grasses  with  a  greater 
yield  were  also  in  demand  for  conservation  plantings  in 
northern  and  southeastern  states,  where  efforts  were  made 
to  increase  seed  supplies  of  orchard  grass,  brome  grass, 
timothy  and  the  newly  developed  Kentucky-31  fescue  or 
Suiter's  grass.  The  Great  Plains  Agricultural  council  reported 
that  by  July  15,  1949,  more  than  10-2  million  ac.  of  formerly 
cultivated  land  in  the  Great  Plains  had  been  returned  to  grass. 

Active  flood  control  projects  were  carried  out  in  1 1  major 
watershed  areas  by  the  Soil  Conservation  service  in  co-opera- 
tion with  farmers  and  ranchers  during  1949.  The  areas 


SONGGR AM- SOUTH   AFRICA 


577 


concerned  were :  the  Little  Sioux  in  Iowa;  the  Yazoo  and  Little 
Tallahatchie  in  Mississippi;  the  Coosa  in  Georgia;  Buffalo 
creek  in  New  York;  the  Trinity  and  Middle  Colorado  in 
Texas;  the  Los  Angeles  and  Santa  Ynez  in  California;  the 
Washita  in  Oklahoma  and  Texas;  and  the  Potomac  in 
Virginia,  Maryland,  Pennsylvania  and  West  Virginia.  Flood 
control  surveys  also  were  under  way  or  completed  in  59  other 
watershed  areas,  and  plans  had  been  prepared  by  Soil 
Conservation  service  technicians  for  450  sub-watersheds. 

Heavy  winter  snows  provided  an  outstanding  test  of  the 
value  of  windbreak  plantings  in  the  Great  Plains,  and  this 
combined  with  a  wider  use  of  mechanical  tree  planters 
stimulated  widespread  planting  in  the  autumn  of  the  year. 
In  the  heart  of  the  blizzard  area,  belts  which  had  been 
properly  planted  and  cared  for  not  only  kept  snow  from 
drifting  over  roads  and  around  farmsteads,  but  served  in 
trapping  snow  for  moisture  storage  in  the  soil.  About  1,300 
mi.  of  field  windbreaks  were  planted  in  soil  conservation 
districts  in  the  fiscal  year  1948-49.  This  brought  the  total 
length  of  windbreaks  planted  in  accordance  with  soil  conser- 
vation planning  since  1942  to  approximately  7,000  mi. 
Eighty  million  trees  were  used  in  planting  them. 

Philippines.  The  Division  of  Soil  Survey  and  Conservation, 
Department  of  Agriculture  and  Natural  Resources,  completed 
a  reconnaissance  survey  of  the  erosion  problem.  The  survey 
showed  that  of  the  29,094,000  ac.  of  open  and  cultivated  land 
in  the  Philippines,  about  10  million  ac.  were  subject  to  severe 
erosion;  about  12-4  million  ac.  were  subject  to  all  stages  of 
erosion;  and  nearly  7  million  ac.,  largely  rice  paddy,  were 
either  not  eroded  or  only  slightly  eroded.  A  total  of 
2,277,000  ac.,  mostly  land  farmed  by  shifting  cultivation  and 
abandoned,  should  be  reafTorcsted  to  save  it  from  destruction 
by  flooding  and  other  damaging  processes.  During  the  year, 
the  Division  of  Soil  Survey  and  Conservation  established  the 
first  soil  conservation  demonstration  farm  at  San  Ildcfonso, 
Bulacan.  (5^  also  FLOODS  AND  FLOOD  CONTROL;  METEOR- 
OLOGY.) (H.  H.  BE) 

SOLOMON  ISLANDS:     w  Tnusr  TERRITORY 

SOLOMON  ISLANDS  PROTECTORATE:    see 

PACIFIC    ISLANDS,  BRITISH. 

SOMALILAND,  BRITISH:  sec  BRITISH  EAST  AFRICA. 
SOMALI  LAND,  FRENCH:    sec  FRENCH  UNION 

SOMALILAND,  ITALIAN:  we  ITALIAN  COIONIAL 
EMPIRE. 

SONGGRAM,  LUANG  PIBUL,  Thai  army  officer 
and  statesman  (b.  Bangken,  Thailand,  July  14,  1897), 
prime  minister  of  Thailand  from  April  1947.  (For  his  early 
career  see  Britanmca  Book  of  the  Year  1949.) 

On  the  reshuffle  of  his  cabinet  in  June  1949,  Marsha!  Pibul 
continued  in  office  as  prime  minister,  taking  also  the  Ministry 
of  Foreign  Affairs  from  Prince  Pndi  Dcbyabongs  Devakula. 
On  the  resignation  of  the  minister  of  finance,  Prince  Viwat 
Jayanta,  in  October,  Marshal  Pibul  took  charge  of  the 
finance  portfolio,  transferring  foreign  affairs  to  Nai  Pote 
Sarasin  who  had  been  deputy  minister  of  foreign  affairs. 

SOULBURY,  HERWALD  RAMSBOTHAM, 

1st  Baron,  of  Soulbury,  Buckinghamshire,  British  politician 
(b.  March  6,  1887),  was  educated  at  Uppingham  school  and 
at  University  college,  Oxford,  and  in  1911  was  called  to  the 
bar.  From  May  1 929  he  sat  in  the  House  of  Commons  as 
Conservative  member  for  Lancaster  until  1941  when  he  was 
raised  to  the  peerage.  He  was  parliamentary  secretary  of  the 
Board  of  Education,  1931-35;  parliamentary  secretary  to 
the  Ministry  of  Agriculture  and  Fisheries,  1935-36;  minister 
of  pensions,  1936-39,  and  first  commissioner  of  works, 

E.B  Y  -38 


1939-40.  In  April  1940  he  was  appointed  president  of  the 
Board  of  Education  and  from  July  1941  until  July  1948  he 
was  chairman  of  the  Assistance  Board.  In  1944  he  was 
appointed  chairman  of  the  Ceylon  commission  which  made 
proposals  that  led  to  the  granting  of  dominion  status  to  the 
colony.  On  Feb.  4,  1948,  Ceylon  became  a  dominion  and  in 
July  1949  Lord  Soulbury  succeeded  Sir  Henry  Monck-Mason 
Moore  as  governor  general.  He  arrived  in  Ceylon  on  July  6 
and  was  sworn  in  by  Sir  Arthur  Wijeycwardene,  the  chief 
justice  and  acting  governor  general.  On  July  12  he  delivered 
the  speech  from  the  throne  at  the  opening  of  the  third  session 
of  the  Ceylon  parl&ment.  Members  of  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives and  the  Senate  paid  tribute  to  him  for  the  pait 
he  had  played  as  chief  architect  of  the  constitution  which  had 
brought  dominion  status  to  Ceylon.  Replying  to  an  address 
by  the  mayor  of  Randy  on  Aug.  9  he  made  his  first  speech 
in  Sinhalese.  He  was  appointed  to  the  privy  council  in  1939 
and  was  created  a  G.C.M.G.  in  1949. 

SOUTH  AFRICA,  THE  UNION  OF.  A  self- 
governing  dominion  of  the  Commonwealth  of  Nations.  The 
four  provinces  of  which  it  consists  extend  from  the  southern- 
most point  of  the  African  continent  to  the  Limpopo  river 
in  the  north.  The  total  area  of  the  Union  is  472,550  sq.  mi. 
and  the  total  population  was  estimated  in  1940  at  10,341,200, 
divided  between  the  provinces  as  follows: 

Area  (in  sq.  mi  )  Population  (1940  est  > 
277,169*  3,731,300 

35,284  2,085,600 

49,647  808.400 

110,450  3,713,900 


Cape  of  Good  Hope 

Natal 

Orange  Free  State 

Transvaal 


*  Includes  Walvis  Bay  (410  sq  mi  .  pop  [1936]  2,035).  which  is  an  integral 
part  of  the  Cape  province  hut  has  been  administered  since  1922  by  South-West 
Africa  Ihis  foimer  German  colony  (area,  317,725  sq  mi  ;  pop  [1948  est  1, 
European  38,000,  Bantu  and  mixed  331,000)  is  admimstcd  under  mandate  as 
an  integral  part  of  the  Union,  but  has  not  been  incorporated  as  a  province 
(\ee  also  TRUST  TERRiroRirs) 

The  following  table  gives  the  returns  of  population  at  the 
censuses  of  1936  and  1946,  and  the  official  estimates  for 
mid- 1949,  classified  according  to  race: 

1936  1946         1949 

census  census        est 

European                                    2,003,857  2,372,690  2,571,000 

6,596,689  7,805,515  8,223,000 


Bantu 
Mixed 
Asiatic 


769,661 
219,691 


Total 


9,589,898 


928,484 
285,260 

11,391,949 


1,003,800 
314,000 

12,111,800 


Ollicial  languages  (European  pop.,  1946):  Afrikaans 
(55-9%),  English  (39-9%).  Religions:  (European  pop., 
1946)  Christian  95-5%,  (Dutch  Reformed  Church  55%, 
Anglican  19%,  Methodist  6%,  Presbyterian  5%,  Roman 
Catholic  5%,  etc.),  Jewish  4%;  (non-European  pop,,  1946) 
Christian  51%,  no  religion  44%,  remainder  Hindu, 
Moslem  and  Buddhist.  Chief  towns  (pop  ,  1946  census): 
Capetown  (q.v.)  (seat  of  legislature,  454,052,  including 
220,398  Europeans);  Pretoria  (seat  of  government,  236,367, 
including  130,180  Europeans);  Johannesburg  (q.v.)  (727,743, 
including  332,026  Europeans);  Durban  (357,304,  including 
130,143  Europeans);  Port  Elizabeth  (146,231,  including 
65,271  Europeans).  Governor  general,  Major  Gideon 
Brand  van  Zyl;  prime  minister  and  minister  of  external 
affairs,  Dr.  Daniel  Francois  Malan  G/.v.). 

History.  The  year  1949  was  notable  for  political  contro- 
versy, racial  feeling,  economic  difficulties  and  financial 
stringency  in  governmental,  commercial  and  industrial 
circles.  Large  parts  of  the  country  also  suffered  from  severe 
drought  conditions,  especially  eastern  Cape  districts.  The 
Union  parliament  met  on  Jan.  26  and  remained  in  session 
until  early  July.  When  introducing  his  budget  in  March, 
N.  C.  Havenga,  the  minister  of  finance,  emphasized  that  the 
Union  must  live  within  its  means.  Expenditure  for  the 


578 


SOUTH    AFRICA 


financial  year  1949-50  was  estimated  at  £140  million.  A  20% 
surcharge  on  both  income  and  supertaxes  was  imposed.  The 
estimated  deficit  for  the  year  was  £2  •  4  million,  as  against  a 
surplus  for  the  previous  year  of  £7-5  million.  In  April  the 
prime  minister  attended  the  Commonwealth  conference  in 
London,  dealing  with  the  proposed  change  of  status  of 
India  in  the  Commonwealth  of  Nations.  Before  his  departure 
Dr.  Malan  emphasized  that  South  Africa  had  no  desire 
to  become  isolationist  and,  after  his  return,  stated:  "  In 
the  life  of  the  present  parliament,  elected  at  the  last  general 
election,  we  shall  take  no  steps  to  establish  a  republic." 
It  was  clear,  however,  from  the  debate  which  followed 
his  speech,  that  a  number  of  his  adherents  did  not  share 
his  views. 

In  June  two  controversial  measures  were  passed,  the 
Citizenship  act  and  the  Mixed  Marriages  act.  The  former, 
ostensibly  introduced  in  order  to  regularize  the  position  of 
South  African  citizens  consequent  upon  the  new  Common- 
wealth status,  in  effect  disfranchized  about  45,000  recent 
settlers,  who  had  emigrated  to  the  Union  in  the  belief  that 
they  would  enjoy  full  rights  of  citizenship  after  two  years  of 
residence.  The  bill,  which  was  forced  through  both  houses 


in  only  12  days,  partly  by  compelling  the  Senate  to  accept  it 
as  an  urgent  measure,  became  effective,  despite  countrywide 
opposition,  on  Sept.  2.  In  future,  British  and  other  Common- 
wealth immigrants  to  South  Africa,  would  have  to  wait  five 
years  for  citizenship  and  settlers  from  other  countries  six 
years.  Even  then  their  admission  to  citizenship  would  be 
entirely  dependent  upon  the  approval  of  their  registration 
by  the  minister  of  the  interior,  who  might  refuse  citizenship 
without  assigning  any  reason. 

The  Mixed  Marriages  bill  was  introduced  to  make  illegal 
all  marriages  between  Europeans  and  people  of  other  races. 
Public  opinion,  it  was  pointed  out  by  the  opposition,  had 
already  reduced  these  unions  to  no  more  than  77  out  of 
28,385  marriages  in  1946.  The  application  caused  embarrass- 
ment and  criticism. 

In  August  the  cabinet  was  reconstructed  and  the  portfolios 
re-apportioned;  though  bilingual,  none  of  the  cabinet 
members  regarded  English  as  their  mother  tongue  (see 
CABINET  MEMBERS). 

Amid  much  rejoicing,  on  the  part  of  the  Afrikaans-speaking 
section,  the  Voortrekker  memorial  outside  Pretoria  was 
unveiled  on  Dec.  16,  Dingaan's  Day. 

Native  Affairs.  Relations  between  Europeans  and  the 
other  races  of  the  Union  deteriorated  during  the  year.  In 
January  the  Natives  Representative  council  was  dissolved. 
This  body  had  not,  in  any  event,  met  for  two  years.  The 
secretary  for  Native  affairs  made  it  clear  that  the  govern- 
ment was  not  prepared  to  abolish  discriminatory  legislation, 
nor  to  give  the  council  any  executive  authority  over  the 
development  of  the  Native  reserves  or  the  finances  of  Native 
councils.  It  was,  however,  prepared  to  consider  any  reason- 
able suggestions  for  co-operation  between  the  white  and 
black  races.  Its  intention  was  to  encourage  and  develop  the 
local  council  and  Bunga  system  throughout  the  Union,  with 
due  regard  to  the  ethnical  and  tribal  situation  of  the  several 
Native  peoples. 

Considerable  time  was  occupied  in  parliament  and  else- 
where in  discussion  about  the  three  Europeans  who  represen- 
ted the  Natives  in  the  Cape  province  in  the  House  of 
Assembly;  the  coloured  voters  on  the  electoral  rolls  of  Cape 
constituencies  and  the  question  of4'  apartheid  "  or  segregation. 
The  opposition  maintained  that  Native  representation  was 
enshrined  in  the  so-called  "  entrenched  "  clauses  of  the  South 
Africa  act,  virtually  the  constitution  of  the  country.  It  was 

The  Voortrekker  monument  (left}  overlooking  Pretoria  which  was 

opened  on  Dec.  16,  1949,  by  D.  F.  Malan  and  General  Jan  Smuts. 

Part  of  the   large  amphitheatre   with   seating  accommodation  for 

50,000  is  seen   crowded  during   the   ceremony  (below}. 


SOUTH    AFRICA 


579 


argued  by  government  supporters  that  the  statute  of  West- 
minster and  other  inter-Commonwealth  developments  had 
rendered  the  requirement  of  a  two-thirds  majority  of  both 
houses  of  parliament  to  change  the  constitution,  as  laid 
down  in  the  act,  no  longer  necessary.  A  simple  majority 
decision  in  both  houses  separately  was  all  that  was  needed. 
It  was  suggested  the  Senate  was  the  best  place  for  Native 
representatives  to  sit.  The  opposition  contended  that  nothing 
had  occurred  in  inter-Commonwealth  relations  which 
entitled  the  Union  to  alter  its  constitution  in  a  matter  so 
vital  to  peaceful  racial  co-operation,  without  carrying  out 
the  safeguards  laid  down  in  the  act.  The  government  gave 
notice  of  introducing  legislation,  along  their  own  lines,  early 
in  1950.  The  outcome  would  depend,  to  a  considerable 
extent,  upon  the  attitude  of  N.  C.  Havcnga  and  his  Afrikaaner 
party,  which  held  nine  seats  in  the  House  of  Assembly; 
Havenga  had  shown  himself,  during  the  1949  session,  more 
inclined  to  abide  by  the  constitution  than  his  other  colleagues 
in  the  cabinet. 

To  ascertain  the  effect  of  taking  the  coloured  voters  off  the 
mixed  rolls  in  the  Cape,  enquiries  were  instigated  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  year  in  a  few  constituencies.  So  embarrassing 
were  the  questions  as  to  racial  descent,  even  among  govenv 
ment  supporters,  that  the  investigation  had  to  be  soft- 
pedalled.  So  far  as  "  apartheid  "  was  concerned,  the  issue 
upon  which  the  Nationalist  government  was  really  returned 
to  office,  its  precise  definition  remained  elusive.  Certain 
minor  measures  were  adopted,  in  addition  to  the  insistence 
that  separate  carriages  should  be  reserved  for  Europeans  only 
on  Cape  suburban  trains;  segregation  was  intensified  in 
both  railway  stations  and  post  offices;  and,  in  the  Govern- 
ment's economy  drive,  many  minor  Native  servants  of  the 
state  were  dismissed  only  to  be  replaced  by  Europeans. 
Dr.  W.  W.  M.  Eiselen,  an  exponent  of  "  apartheid,"  was 
appointed  secretary  for  Native  affairs  in  October,  against 
the  recommendation  of  the  Public  Service  commission,  which 
had  advised  that  the  next  senior  civil  servant  should  succeed 
to  the  position. 

While  parliament  was  still  in  session  Dr.  A.  J.  Stals,  then 
minister  of  education,  said  that  grants  to  enable  Native 
children  to  obtain  meals  at  school  would  be  withdrawn. 
The  opposition  to  this  measure  was  so  intense  that  it  was 
subsequently  modified.  Although  two  conferences  were  held 
on  the  question  of  Native  housing,  for  which  there  was  an 
estimated  demand  for  close  on  300,000  dwellings,  little  was 
settled.  The  municipalities,  with  some  justice,  claimed  that 
they  were  in  no  position  to  finance  the  vast  schemes  required. 
Industry,  on  the  other  hand,  showed  extreme  reluctance  to 
pay  any  subsidy  toward  housing  their  Native  employees, 
without  whom  their  factories  could  not  function.  Mean- 
while there  were  at  Cato  Manor,  near  Durban,  at  Alexandra 
township,  outside  Johannesburg,  and  at  many  other  places 
within  the  Union,  bordering  the  main  industrial  centres, 
shanty  dwellings  with  little  sanitation,  overcrowding  and  all 
the  other  evils  of  bad  housing,  far  below  decent  20th  century 
standards.  Coupled  with  bad  housing  conditions  wages  for 
Native  workmen  were  below  proper  subsistence  level  to  such 
an  extent  that  malnutrition,  tuberculosis  and  venereal  disease 
were  rampant  in  many  districts. 

So  serious  were  the  results  of  this  situation  that,  on  facts 
given  by  C.  R.  Swart,  the  minister  of  justice,  Communism 
was  said  to  be  increasing  its  adherents  among  the  Native 
population  at  an  alarming  rate.  Bad  feeling  on  the  whole 
position  of  the  Natives  resulted  in  serious  riots  with  loss  of 
life  at  Durban  during  January  and  minor  disturbances  took 
place  at  Johannesburg,  Krugersdorp  and  Randfontein  later 
in  the  year. 

Economic  Position.  The  most  important  events  during 
1949,  in  the  economic  sphere,  were  the  ban  on  imports, 


owing  to  the  shortage  of  both  sterling  and  dollars,  and 
devaluation.  Strict  import  control  was  imposed  and  certain 
goods  were  completely  banned  because  South  Africa  had 
spent  more  than  it  could  afford  abroad.  At  the  same  time, 
after  the  Nationalist  government  took  office,  much  capital 
left  the  country;  nor  had  it  proved  easy  for  the  Union  later 
to  raise  any  large  loans  either  internally  or  from  Great 
Britain  or  the  United  States.  Devaluation  immediately 
improved  the  situation  of  the  gold  mines,  whose  output 
appreciated  some  £40  million  overnight,  and  many  of  the 
mines,  regarded  as  marginal  producers,  began  to  show 
increased  profits.  Another  consequence  was  the  payment  of 
15%  higher  wages  to  mine  workers  in  the  gold  and  coal 
industries.  These  increases  had  long  been  due  but  the  position 
of  the  mines  hitherto  had  made  any  rise  impossible.  On  the 
debit  side  was  the  increased  price  for  petrol  and  white  bread 
The  han  on  imports,  besides  hitting  commerce  adversely, 
also  struck  at  Union  industries  importing  raw  materials. 
Shortage  of  ready  money  affected  the  building  industry, 
many  workers  becoming  unemployed.  Although  carrying 
record  quantities  of  goods  the  South  African  railways 
showed  steadily  mounting  losses  at  the  rate  of  £4  million  a 
year.  Two  accidents,  the  worst  in  the  history  of  the  South 
African  railways,  at  Orlando  and  Waterval  Boven,  caused 
much  loss  of  life.  (W.  R.  GN.) 

Education.  State  ichooli  (1947):  Primary  schools  1,190  (European 
1,1101,  pupils  115,368  (European  92,291),  teachers  3,927;  secondary 
and  high  schools  241,  pupils  75.339  (European  65,232),  teachers  3,122; 
Mission  schools  3,036,  pupils  386,054,  teachers  9,421 ,  other  schools  99, 
pupils  3,031,  training  institutions  32  (European  9),  pupils  3,790 
(European  874),  teachers  218  Private  schooh  (1947):  Kindergarten 
schools  92;  primary  schools  773 ;  secondary  schools  114;  commercial 
and  business  schools  19;  other  schools  10.  Pupils  at  all  private  schools 
73,787  (European  36,500)  Technical  colleges  (1946)  11,  students 
43,110,  teachers  2,063.  Universities  (1946)  4  and  constituent  colleges 
of  the  University  of  South  Africa  5,  students  19,994,  professors  and 
lecturers  1,743 

Agriculture  and  Fisheries.  Main  crops  (in  '000  metric  tons,  1948) 
mai?e  1,800;  wheat  477;  oats  87;  barley  43;  rice  (milled  equivalent)  17; 
potatoes  303;  groundnuts  74;  sugar  (raw  value)  533;  tobacco  18-6; 
raisins  8  5;  currants  1-0;  oranges  and  tangerines  180,  grapefruit 
16;  lemons  4.  Livestock  (in  '000  head):  cattle  (Aug.  1946)  12,593; 
sheep  (Aug.  1946)  30,382;  pigs  (1945-46)  1,118;  horses  (1945-46) 
687;  chickens  (Aug  1947)  9,194.  Wool  production  (in  '000  metric 
tons,  on  greasy  basis,  1947-48;  1948-49  in  brackets):  93  (99). 

Industry.  (1947)  Industrial  establishments  11,886;  persons  employed 
558,725  (Europeans  194,937);  gross  value  of  output  £491-8  million; 
net  value  of  output  £225-1  million.  Fuel  and  power  (1948;  1949,  six 
months,  in  brackets):  coal  (in  '000  metric  tons)  23,558  (11,908); 
electricity  (in  million  kwh  )  9,259  (4,778).  Raw  materials  (in  '000 
metric  tons  1948;  1949,  six  months,  in  brackets):  iron  ore,  metal 
content,  1,163  (615);  pig  iron  654  (353);  steel  ingots  and  castings  599 
(315);  copper  29-8  (17-0).  Gold  (in  '000  fine  oz.  1948;  1949,  six 
months,  in  brackets)  11,585  (5,742).  Diamonds  (in  '000  metric  carats, 
1948),  1,382  Cement  (in  '000  metric  tons,  1948;  1949,  six  months,  in 
brackets)  1,308  (643).  Employment  in  manufacturing,  including 
building  (index  on  base  1937^  100,  1948;  1949,  six  months,  in  brackets) 
156  (162) 

Foreign  Trade.  (1948)  Imports  £SA352-2  million;  (1949,  six 
months)  £SA174-4  million.  Exports,  excluding  gold  bullion:  (1948) 
£SA134-3  million,  (1949,  six  months)  £SA68  3  million  Main  sources 
of  imports  (1948)  United  States  35-0%,  United  Kingdom  34-6%. 
Main  destinations  of  exports,  excluding  gold  bullion  (1946):  United 
Kingdom  19  8%,  United  States  19-3%. 

Transport  and  Communications.  Licensed  motor  vehicles  (Dec. 
1948)  cars  384,000,  commercial  vehicles  104,000.  Railways:  (1945) 
13,480  mi.;  passengers  earned  (1945)  218  million;  freight  ton-mi. 
(1948)  9,858  million.  Shipping  (July  1948):  number  of  merchant 
vessels  of  100  tons  and  upwards  155,  total  tonnage  173,623.  Air  trans- 
port (1947)-  mi.  flown  11-5  million,  passengers  flown  95,000.  Tele- 
phones (1947-48).  subscribers  206,493. 

Finance  and  Banking.  Budget  (in  million  £SA):  (1948-49)  revenue  143-4, 
expenditure  135-8;  (1949-50  est.)  revenue  137-8,  expenditure  140-2. 
National  debt  (March  1949,  in  brackets  March  1 948 )£SA662-1  (609-0) 
million.  Currency  circulation  (Aug.  1949;  in  brackets  Aug  1948) 
£SA63- 6  (64-4)  million.  Gold  reserve  (Sept.  1949;  in  brackets  Sept. 
1948)  121  (269)  million  U  S.  dollars.  Bank  deposits  (Aug.  1949;  in 
brackets  Aug.  1948)  £SA287  9  (346-9)  million.  Monetary  unit  South 
African  pound  at  par  with  the  pound  sterling 


580 


SOUTH  AFRICAN  LITERATURE— SOUTHERN  RHODESIA 


SOUTH     AFRICAN     LITERATURE.      English. 

Though  the  output  of  books  during  1949  was  considerable 
there  was  a  notable  dearth  of  first  rate  imaginative  literature. 
Of  greatest  merit  was  Face  to  Face  by  Nadine  Gordimer 
(Johannesburg),  short  stones  in  the  modern  mode,  subtly 
conceived  out  of  a  sensitive  perception  of  the  South  African 
scene.  Herman  Charles  Bosman  presented  with  realism  the 
intimate  lives  of  long-term  convicts  in  a  South  African  gaol, 
in  Cold  Stone  Jug  (Johannesburg).  African  Dawn  by  Langwill 
Hunter  (Lovedale)  told  a  sympathetic  tale  of  modern  Bantu 
life.  Bantu  history  provided  a  subject  for  Oliver  Walker's 
Proud  Zulu  (London),  a  spirited  tale  of  the  fall  of  the  Zulu 
people  under  Cetewayo  and  his  white  chief,  John  Dunn. 

Historical  literature  included  two  important  books  by 
Sidney  R.  Welch:  South  Afnca  under  John  111,  1521-1557, 
and  South  Africa  under  King  Sebastian  and  the  Cardinal 
(Capetown),  the  fruits  of  original  research  in  Portuguese 
and  other  sources.  There  were  also  biographical  works  of 
historical  and  political  interest:  Sir  James  Rose  Innes' 
Autobiography  (Capetown),  Memoirs  and  Reminiscences 
vol.  2  (Capetown)  by  Sir  John  Gilbert  Kot/e,  and  The  Life 
and  Times  of  Daniel  Lindley  (London)  by  Edwin  W.  Smith. 
Eric  Rosenthal's  African  Swit  Zetland  (Capetown)  was  a 
lively  book  of  travel,  history  and  comment  about  Basutoland. 

The  authoritative  and  comprehensive  The  Sea  Fishes  of 
South  Africa  by  J.  B.  L.  Smith  (Capetown)  and  Farming 
Practical  and  Scientific  by  John  Fisher  (Durban)  were  the 
most  outstanding  books  of  scientific  interest.  (L.  HMN.) 

Afrikaans.  Since  1932  lyric  poetry  had  dominated  Afrikaans 
literature,  and  1949  was  no  exception.  D.  J.  Opperman's 
Joernaal  van  Jorik  was  a  long  narrative  poem  which  confirmed 
the  impression  made  previously  by  this  winner  of  the  Academy 
award  for  poetry.  A  volume  of  poems  by  Uys  Krige,  Hart 
Bonder  Hawe,  broke  new  ground  with  the  publication  of 
poems  in  both  official  languages  of  the  Union  of  South 
Africa.  A  long  narrative  ballad  by  I  .D.  du  Plessis  Ballade 
van  die  Eensame  Seeman,  was  favourably  received. 

The  growing  demand  for  translations  of  the  classics  was 
met  by  a  number  of  works  including  Edgar  Allen  Poe's  Tales 
of  Mystery  and  Imagination  and  Stevenson's  Dr.  Jekyll  and 
Mr.  Hyde,  published  by  the  Afrikaanese  Kulturele  Leserskrmg. 

Critical  essays  were  well  represented  by  a  work  on  modern 
poetry,  Die  Duister  Digter  (Grove).  Prose  output  of  quality 
was  scanty  and  best  represented  by  Die  Eindelose  Waagstuk 
by  M.  E.  Rothmann,  whose  clarity,  maturity  and  sincerity 
of  purpose  were  a  major  contribution  to  this  section  of 
Afrikaans  literature  in  the  1939-49  decade.  (I.  D.  DU  P.) 

SOUTHERN  RHODESIA.  A  self-governing  African 
colony  in  the  Commonwealth  of  Nations,  with  imperial 
government  supervision  over  Native  rights.  Area:  150,333 
sq.  mt.  Pop.  (Aug.  31,  1949,  est):  2,021,900  (European 
115,500;  African  1,898,000;  Asiatic  3,400;  mixed  5,000). 
Chief  towns  (1949  est.,  Europeans  only):  Salisbury  (cap., 
32,000);  Bulawayo  (28,000);  Umtah  (4,200);  G we lo  (4,000). 
Languages:  English,  Afrikaans  and  Native  tribal  languages. 
Governor,  Major  General  Sir  John  Noble  Kennedy;  prime 
minister,  Sir  Godfrey  Huggins. 

History.  Politically  it  was  an  uneventful  year.  The  United 
party  lost  the  only  by-election  held  in  1949,  being  defeated 
by  the  Rhodesia  Labour  party  candidate  in  Bulawayo 
district.  A  Liberal  party  candidate  was  second.  The  prime 
minister  headed  a  delegation  to  a  meeting  with  non-official 
representatives  of  Northern  Rhodesia  and  Nyasaland  at  the 
Victoria  Falls  under  the  chairmanship  of  Sir  Miles  Thomas  to 
discuss  federation  of  the  three  territories.  A  resolution  in 
favour  of  "  a  constitution  which  will  create  a  federated 
parliament  with  such  powers  as  are  surrendered  to  it  and 
which  will  not  affect  the  other  powers  of  the  governments  of 


member  states"  was  passed  on  Feb.  17.  The  constitution 
would  be  modelled  on  that  of  Australia.  Commenting  on 
the  proposal,  the  secretary  of  state  for  the  colonies  said  in 
London  that  His  Majesty's  government  had  a  special  responsi- 
bility for  Africans  and  pointed  out  that  no  African  took  part 
in  the  conference.  During  the  visit  of  the  secretary  of  state 
to  Northern  Rhodesia,  Sir  Godfrey  Huggins  flew  to  Lusaka 
to  discuss  federation  and  financial  matters  Philip  J.  Noel- 
Baker,  secretary  for  Commonwealth  relations,  after  consulta- 
tions in  December  with  T.  H.  W.  Beadle,  Rhodesian  minister 
of  internal  affairs,  recommended  further  investigations  of 
the  problem  between  the  parties  concerned. 

The  minister  of  finance,  H.  C.  F.  Whitehead,  headed  a 
delegation  to  London  to  present  to  the  British  government 
the  colony's  four-year  plan  for  loan  expenditure  and  to 
ascertain  whether  British  industry  could  supply  capital  goods 
for  the  production  targets.  He  also  attended  the  conference 
of  Commonwealth  finance  ministers  in  London.  The  prime 
minister  relinquished  the  portfolio  for  Native  affairs. 

A  Royal  commission  on  town-planning  and  a  special 
research  department  for  conservation  works  were  established. 
Price  control  was  removed  from  a  wide  range  of  commodities 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  year  and  permit  control  of 
building  ceased  except  in  Salisbury  and  Bulawayo. 

Budget  changes  included  a  tax  on  undistributed  profits,  an 
increased  duty  on  imported  spirits,  a  higher  surcharge  on 
cigarettes,  reintroduction  of  the  2d.  rate  for  postage  within 
the  colony,  doubling  the  rate  of  transfer  duty  on  property 
valued  at  more  than  £20,000,  an  increase  of  3</.  per  gallon 
on  petrol,  a  tax  on  non-industrial  Native  labourers  and  an 
increase  from  20%  to  30 /0  in  entertainment  tax.  A  20% 
export  tax  was  imposed  on  Virginia  Hue-cured  tobacco.  This 
caused  considerable  controversy  and  was  reduced  to  15%. 
Later  it  was  withdrawn  in  favour  of  a  five-year  loan  of  15% 
of  the  proceeds  of  tobacco  sales.  Control  over  all  financial 
transactions  outside  the  sterling  area  was  strengthened. 
The  3^%  development  loan  (1968-78)  closed  in  March  with 
total  subscription  of  £6  5  million,  and  an  issue  of  £1  8 
million  3%  Treasury  bonds  (1954)  was  offered. 

A  new  peacetime  establishment  for  the  territorial  force 
was  approved  comprising  armoured  cars,  artillery,  engineers, 
signals,  two  battalions  of  infantry  and  a  medical  corps. 
The  annual  defence  force  camp  was  attended  by  units  from 
Northern  Rhodesia,  Nyasaland  and  Kenya. 

Government  assumed  control  of  all  base  mineral  exports. 
The  gold  subsidy  was  modified  to  the  advantage  of  low  grade 
workings  and  was  withdrawn  when  the  pound  was  devalued. 
A  bill  was  introduced  to  terminate  within  six  years  the  mineral 
concessions  granted  to  the  British  South  Africa  company 
without  compensation;  but  this  was  amended  to  include 
compensation  after  six  years  An  agreement  was  completed 
with  the  Wankie  Colliery  company  for  the  company  to 
retain  an  area  containing  350  million  tons  of  extractable  coal 
over  100  years.  The  estimated  production  in  1949  was  over 
2  million  tons  and  plans  were  in  hand  to  raise  it  to  3  5  million 
tons  a  year. 

Sir  William  Halcrow  visited  the  country  to  advise  on  the 
development  of  hydro-electric  power  in  the  Kanba  gorge. 
The  Industrial  Development  commission  ceased  in  March. 
Central  African  Airways  corporation  had  an  accumulated 
loss  of  £280,000  in  March  1949.  The  board  of  the  corporation 
resigned  and  a  new  one  was  appointed.  Immigration  in  1948 
amounted  to  14,439,  and  for  the  first  nine  months  of  1949 
during  which  restrictions  were  in  foice,  to  10,793.  The 
cost  of  living  index  (1939  100)  reached  153. 

Education.  European  (1949).  schools,  government  primary  69, 
pupils  12,377,  teachers  447,  high  1 1,  pupils  4,531,  teachers  265;  aided 
private  21,  pupils  3,638;  aided  farm  13,  pupils  195.  Asiatic  and  Mixed 
(1949):  schools  government  primary  12,  pupils  1,774,  teachers  60, 
aided  4,  pupils  886  Native  (1948)  schools,  primary  1,994,  pupils 


SOUTH    PACIFIC  COMMISSION— SOVEREIGNS 


581 


204,172,  teachers  5,327  African  and  204  European  Teacher  training 
schools  18 

Industry,  huel  and  power  coal  (in  long  tons)  (1948)  1,869,000, 
(Jan  -Aug  1949)  1,380,000,  electricity  (1948-49)  173  million  units  sold. 
Raw  minerals  gold  (1948)  514,440  oz.,  (Jan  -Aug  1949)  359,000  oz  , 
asbestos  (1948)  69,000  long  tons,  (Jan -Aug  1949)  53,000  long  tons, 
chrome  (1948)  254.000  long  tons,  (Jan  -Aug  1949)  167,000  long  tons 

Agriculture.  Tobacco  (Virginia,  1948-49)  81,714,330  Ib  Livestock 
(1948)  cattle  2,821,000,  sheep  301,000,  goats  555,000,  pigs  103,000, 
poultry  (Europeans  only)  510,000 

Foreign  Trade.  (Jan -July  1949)  Imports  £28,992,000,  exports 
£15,578,000,  re-exports  £2,548,000. 

Transport  and  Communications.  (1948)  Mam  roads  <  15,500  mi, 
including  c  2,500  mi  with  tar-macadam  strips  Railways  1,352  mi  , 
passenger  traffic  2.829,913,  goods  trallic  5,096,986  long  tons 

Finance  and  Banking.  Budget  (1948-49  actual)  revenue  £13,575,000 
expenditure  £13,546,000;  (1949-50  est  )  revenue  £15,059.000,  expendi- 
ture £16,480,962  National  debt  (Match  1949)  £75,380,359.  Currency 
circulation  (March  1949)  £8,402,000  (including  Northern  Rhodesia 
and  Nyasaland)  (G.  R.  MN.) 

SOUTH  PACIFIC  COMMISSION.  This  is  an 
advisory  body,  similar  to  the  Caribbean  commission  (</.v.), 
which  was  set  up  by  the  agreement  of  1947.  It  is  designed  to 
promote  and  develop  international  co-operation  by  improving 
the  economic  and  social  welfare  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
territories  administered  by  its  members:  Australia,  France, 
the  Netherlands,  New  Zealand,  United  Kingdom  and  the 
United  States.  The  geographical  jurisdiction  of  the  com- 
mission embraces  all  the  non-selfgoverning  territories  in  the 
Pacific  which  are  administered  by  member  governments  and  are 
wholly  or  partly  situated  south  of  thcequator  and  east  of  Dutch 
New  Guinea,  including  the  latter.  The  agreement  provides  that 
the  commission  shall  be  assisted  by  two  auxiliary  bodies,  the 
Research  council  and  the  South  Pacific  conference. 

At  its  first  meetings,  held  in  1 948,  the  commission  appointed 
its  senior  officers  and  the  members  of  its  Research  Council. 
It  also  decided  to  establish  its  permanent  headquarters  at 
Noumea,  New  Caledonia.  Plarly  in  1949  the  members  of 
the  Research  council  made  a  rapid  tour  by  air  of  a  number 
of  the  territories  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  commission. 
At  the  conclusion  of  the  tour  the  council  held  its  first  meeting 
at  Noumea  from  April  30-May  9.  At  this  meeting  it  drew 
up  a  broad  research  programme  including  the  collection  of 
information  on  or  the  study  of  the  following  subjects  in  the 
fields  of  health,  economics  and  social  welfare :  epidemiological 
information;  infant  and  maternal  welfare;  tuberculosis; 
nutrition  and  diet;  introduction  of  economic  plants;  copra, 
rice  and  cacao;  pasture  improvement;  land  use  survey; 
fruit  and  vegetable  grading;  coral  island  and  atoll  crops; 
by-products  of  atolls;  fisheries;  diet  and  working  tools  of 
indigenous  peoples;  insect  pests  and  weeds;  credit  facilities; 
world  agricultural  census;  information  on  technical  and 
professional  training;  wireless  broadcasting  and  visual  aids 
in  education;  literary  training;  conference  of  educators; 
review  of  work  in  social  anthropology;  survey  of  linguistic 
research;  native  co-operative  societies;  survey  of  building 
types;  pilot  project  for  developing  a  selected  community; 
the  preservation  of  archaeological  sites. 

The  meeting  of  the  Research  council  was  followed  by  the 
third  meeting,  also  held  at  Noumea,  of  the  commission 
itself  from  May  7-17.  The  senior  commissioner  for  the 
Netherlands  took  the  chair  for  the  session.  It  approved  the 
report  of  the  Research  council,  embodying  the  above  projects 
and  calling  for  an  estimated  expenditure  of  £7,440  in  1949 
and  £35,275  in  1950.  It  accepted  a  report  of  its  library 
committee  that,  within  the  existing  resources  of  the  com- 
mission, it  should  assemble  and  distribute  bibliographical 
material  on  the  region.  It  decided  that  the  first  South  Pacific 
conference  should  open  on  or  about  April  24,  1950,  at  Suva, 
Fiji,  and  that  the  proceedings  should  be  conducted  in  English. 

The  fourth  meeting  of  the  commission  was  held  at  Noumea 
in  Oct.  1949.  (J.  A.  Hu.) 


SOUTH-WEST  AFRICA:  see  SOUTH  AFRICA,  THE 
UNION  OF;   TRUST  TFRRITORIFS. 

SOVEREIGNS,  PRESIDENTS  AND  RULERS. 

The  following  list  includes  the  names  of  those  holding  chief 
positions  in  their  countries  on  Jan.   1,   1950: 


C  auntry 
AFGHANISTAN 


Accession 


A I  HANI  A 


ARABIA,  SAUDI 


AROINIINA 


AUSIRALIA 


AUSIR1A 


BAHRFJM 

BflOIUM 


BHUTAN 
Bot  IVIA 
BRAZIL 

BUI/, ARIA 


BURMA 


CAN  AIM 


CtYLON 


CHIIF 


CHINA 


Name  and  Ojfftce 

Mohammad  /uhir  Shah,  King                  .  1933 

Sardar  Shah  Mahmutl  Khan,  prime  minister  1946 

Dr  Omer  Nisham,  chairman  of  (he  presidium  of  the  £946 

People's  Assembly 

Enver  Hoxha,  prime  minister                     .                     .  1944 

/  bdula/i/  Ibn  Abdurrahman  Ibn  Faisal  Ibn  Sa'ud,  1927 

King 

General    Juan    Dommgo    Peron,    president   of   ihe  1946 

Republic 

William  John  McKell,  governor  general  1947 

Kobert  Gordon  Menzies,  prime  minister  1949 

Karl  Rentier,  federal  president                              .  1945 

Leopold  Figl,  federal  chancellor                          .  1945 

Sheikh  Sulrnan  Ibn-Hamad  al-Khahfah,  Ruler  1942 

Leopold  III,  King  (in  exile)  1934 

Prince  C  harles,  Regent  1944 

Gaston  1  yskcns,  prime  minister      .  1949 

Jigmc  Wangchuk,  Ruler                    .          .          .  1927 

Mamcrto  Urriolagoitia,  president  of  the  Republic  1949 

General    f  unco    Gavar    Dutra,    president   of   the  1946 

Republic 

Mincho  Neychcv,  chairman  of  the  presidium  of  the  1947 

National  Assembly 

Vasil  Kolarov,  pnmc  minister                                 .  1949 

Sao  Shwe  Thaik,  president  of  the  Republic      .  1948 

Thakin  Nu,  prime  minister  1948 

Viscount  Alexander  of  Tunis,  governor  general  1946 

Louis  Stephen  St   I  aurent,  prime  minister                  .  1948 

Lord  Soulbury,  governor  general  1949 

Don  Stcphan  Senanayake,  prime  minister                   .  1948 

Gabriel  Gonzalez  Vidcla,  president  of  the  Republic  1946 

Republic              ,     Li  Tsung-jen,  acting  president  1949 

(Nationalist)       I     Yen  Hsi-shan,  prime  minister  1949 

People's                   Mao    Tse-turig,    chairman    of    the    Central  1949 
j       Republic                   People's  Government  Council 

'  (Communist)       |     Chou  hn-lai,  chairman  of  the  State  Admmis-  1949 

trative  Council 

COLOMBIA                     Mariano  Ospma  Perez,  president  of  the  Republic  1946 

COSTARICA                  Otilio  Ulatc  Blanco,  president  of  the  Republic             .  1949 

(  UBA      .                       Carlos  Prio  Socarrds,  president  of  the  Republic  1948 

CZECHOSI  OVAKJA         Klemcnt  Gottwald,  president  of  the  Republic  1948 

Antonm  Zapotocky,  prime  minister  1948 

DFNMARK        .             rrcdenk  IX,  King  1947 

Hans  Hedtott,  prime  minister                   .                    .  1947 

DOMINICAN                    Rafael  Leomdas  Trujillo  y  Molina,  president  of  the  1942 

RFPUBIIC  Republic 

EC  UADOR                       Galo  Plaza  Lasso,  president  of  the  Republic       .  1948 

EGYPT                           I  arouk  I,  King  1936 

Hussein  Sirry  Pasha,  prime  minister        .  1949 

ETHIOPIA                        Hailc  Selassie  I,  Emperor  1930 

Bitwadded  Makonncn  Endalkachaw,  prime  minister  1944 

1  INLAND                        Juho  Kusti  Paasikwi,  president  oi  the  Republic           .  1946 

Karl  August  hagcrholm,  prime  minister  1948 

ERANCE                         Vincent  Aunol,  president  of  the  Republic  1947 

Georges  Bidaulf,  prime  minister                          .          .  1949 

/  (West)  Ecdcriil            f  ITicodor  Heuss,  federal  president  1949 

Republic                 }   Konrad  Adenauer,  federal  chancellor  1949 

GLRMANY    >  > 

(East)  Democratic    J  Wilhclm  Picck,  president                        .  1949 

I      Republic                 \  Otto  Grotcwohl,  minister-president      .  1949 

GREAT  BRHAIN            George  VI,  King  1936 

Clement  Richard  Attlee,  prime  minister             .  1945 

GRhCCE                            Paul  I,  King  1947 

Alcxandros  Diomidis,  prime  minister                           .  1949 

GUATFMAI  A                  Juan  Jose  Ar6\alo,  president  of  the  Republic  1945 

HArn                             Dumarsais  Fstime,  president  of  the  Republic  1946 

HONDURAS                    Juan  Manuel  Galvcz,  president  of  the  Republic           .  1949 

HUNGARY                  ,   Arpad  Szakasits,  Chairman  of  the  presidium  of  the  1948 

National  Assembly 

Istvan  Dobi,  prime  minister  .                               .  1948 

ICELAND          .             Sveinn  Bjornsson,  president  of  the  Republic  1944 

Olafur  Thors,  prime  minister                              .  1949 

INDIA     .                      Chakravarti  Rajagopalachan,  governor  general  1948 

Jawaharlal  Nehru,  prime  minister              .                    .  1947 

1941 

.  1949 

.  1949 

INDONESIA                 .   Ahmed  Sukarno,  president  of  the  Republic               .  1949 

Mohammed  Hatta,  prmio  minister           .                    .  1949 

IRAQ       .                      haysal  II,  King             .                                     .         .  1939 

Abdulilah,  Prince  Regent       .                   .                   .  1939 

Ah-Jawdat  al-Ayyubi,  prime  minister                          .  1949 

IRELAND          .          .   Sean  Thomas  O'Kelly.  president  of  the  Republic  1945 

John  Aloy&ms  Costcllo,  prune  minister            .         *  1948 


INDO- 
CHI 


{Cambodia       Norodom  Sihanouk,  King 
Laos  Sisavang  Vong,  King 

Vietnam          Bao  Dai,  chief  of  state 


582 


SPAAK— SPAIN 


Country                                          Name  and  Office  Accession 

ISRAFI.  Chaim  Wei/mann,  president  of  the  Republic  .  1948 

David  Ben-Gunon,  prime  minister  .  .  1948 

ITALY  Luigi  Emaudi,  president  of  the  Republic  1948 

Aludc  De  Ga&peri,  prime  minister  .  1946 

JAPAN  Hirohito,  Emperor  1926 

Shigcru  Yoshida,  prime  minister  1948 

Abdullah  Ibn  Hussein,  King  1946 

lawfiq  Pasha  Abulhuda,  prime  minister  1947 

Syngman  Rhee,  president  of  the  Republic  1948 

Lee  Bum  Suk,  prune  minister  1948 

1948 


SOVIET  UNION: 

REPUBLICS. 


sec  UNION  OF  SOVIET  SOCIALIST 


JORDAN 


(South) 
Republic 
of  Korea 

(North) 
People's 
Republic 


KUWAIT 
LEBANON 

LIBERIA 
LIECHTENSTEIN 

LUXEMBOURG 

MEXICO 

MONACO 

MONGOLIA 


MOROCCO 
NEPAL    . 


NETHERLANDS 
NEW  ZEALAND 
NICARAGUA  . 
NORWAY 

OMAN  (Masqat) 
PAKISTAN 

PANAMA 
PARAGUAY 
PERSIA   . 

PERU 

PHILIPPINES 

POLAND 

PORTUGAL 


QATAR 
RUMANIA 


SALVADOR,  EL 
SOUTH  APRICA 

SOUTHERN 

RHODESIA 
SPAIN     . 
SWEDEN 


SWITZERLAND  . 


SYRIA 


TIBET 

TUNISIA 

TURKEY 

UNION  OP  SOVIET 
SOCIALIST 
REPUBLICS 

UNITED  STATES 
URUGUAY 
VATICAN  CITY 
VENEZUELA 
YEMEN  . 
YUGOSLAVIA 


ZANZIBAR 


Kim  Du  Bun,  Chairman  of  the  presidium  of  the 

Supreme  People's  Assembly 

Kim  Ir  Sung,  prime  minister   .                    .  1948 

Sheikh  Ahmed  ibn  Jabir  al-Subah,  Ruler  1921 

Bishara  Khaht  el  Khun,  president  of  the  Republic  1943 

Riad  Bey  es  Sulh,  prime  minister             .  1946 

William  V.  S  Tubman,  president  of  the  Republic  1944 

Franz-Joseph  II,  Prince  Regent  1938 

Alexander  Fnck,  prime  minister  1945 

Charlotte,  Grand  Duchess  1919 

Pierre  Dupong,  prime  minister  1937 

Miguel  Aleman  Valdes,  president  of  the  Republic  1946 

Rainier  111,  Prince  1949 
Bumatsendc,  chairman  of  the  presidium  of  the  Little     1940 

Hural 

Marshal  Choibalsan,  prime  minister  1935 

Mohammed  ben  Yussef  III,  Sultan  .      1927 

General  Alphonsc  Juin,  French  resident  general  1947 

Tnbhubana  Bir  Bikram  Jung  Bahadur,  King  191 1 
General  Sir  Mohan  Shumshere  Jung  Bahadur  Rana,     1948 

prime  minister 

Juliana,  Queen  1948 

Willem  Drees,  prime  minister  1948 

Sir  Bernard  Frcyberg,  governor  general  1946 

Sidney  George  Holland,  prime  minister  1949 

Victor  Manuel  Roman  y  Reyes,  president  of  the  1947 

Republic 

Haakon  VII,  King  1905 

Einar  Gcrhardsen,  prime  minister  1945 

Said  Ibn  Taimur,  Sultan                  .  1932 

Khwaja  Nazimuddm,  governor  general  1948 

Liaquat  Ah  Khan,  prime  minister  .      1947 

Arnulfo  Anas  Madrid,  president  of  the  Republic  .     1949 

Fedenco  Chaves,  president  of  the  Republic  .      1949 

Mohammad  Riza  Pahlavi,  Shahanshah  1941 

Mohammad  Saed  Maragheh,  prime  minister     .  1948 

General  Manuel  A.  Odria.  president  of  the  Republic  1948 

Elpidio  Quirmo,  president  of  the  Republic       .  1948 

Bole&law  Bierut,  president  of  the  Republic       .  1947 

J6zef  Cyrankiewicz,  prime  minister  1947 
Marshal  Ant6mo  Oscar  de  rragoso  Carmona,  presi-     1928 

dent  of  the  Republic 

Ant6mo  de  Oliveira  Salazar,  prime  minister  .     1932 

Sheikh  Abdullah  ibn-Jasim  al-Tham,  Ruler      .  .      1913 
Constantin  Parhon,  chairman  of  the  presidium  of  the     1948 

Grand  National  Assembly 

Pctre  Groza,  prime  minister                      .  .     1945 

1948 

1946 
1948 
1946 
1933 
1938 
1907 
1946 
1950 
1950 


Major  Oscar  Bolanos    /Leaders  of  the 

Humberto  Costa  \ temporary  Junta 

Gideon  Brand  van  Zyl,  governor  general 

Daniel  hrancois  Malan,  prime  minister 

Sir  John  Noble  Kennedy,  Governor 

Sir  Godfrey  Huggins,  prime  minister 

General  Francisco  Franco  y  Bahamonde,  chief  of  state 

Gustaf  V,  King    ... 

Tage  Fntiof  Erlander,  prime  minister 

Max  Pctitpierre,  president  oi  the  Confederation 

Eduard  von  Steiger,  vice-president  of  the  Federal 

Council 

Hashem  Bey  Atassi,  president  of  the  Republic   .  1949 

Khalid  el-Azam,  prime  minister  .  1949 

Phumiphon  Adundet,  King   .  1946 

Marshal  Luang  Pibul  Songgram,  prime  minister  1948 

14th  Dalai  Lama  (Lhamo  Dhondup),  Ruler     .  1940 

Yung  Tseng  Dala.  Regent  1940 

.   Mohammed  el-Amin,  Bey      .  1943 

Jean  Mom,  French  resident  general  .     1947 

.  Ismet  Inonu,  president  of  the  Republic  .  1938 

§emsettm  Gunaltay,  prime  minister  .         .     1949 

Nikolay   Mikhailovtch  Shvermk,  Chairman  of  the     1946 

presidium  of  the  Supreme  Soviet 
Joseph  Vissanonovich  Stalin,  chairman  of  the  Coun-     1941 

cil  of  Ministers 
Harry  S  Truman,  president  .          .         .     1945 

.   Luis  Batllc  Bcrres,  president  of  the  Republic  .          .      1947 
Pius  XII,  Pope  ...  .1939 

Carlos  Delgado  Chalbaud,  provisional  president       .     1948 
Imam  Ahmed  ibn  Yahya  Nasir  Ii-Din  Allah,  Ruler          1948 

.  Ivan  Ribar,  chairman  of  the  presidium  of  the  People's     1945 

Assembly 
Marshal  Josip  Broz  (Tito),  prime  minister  .     1944 

,   Khalifa  bin  Harub,  Sultan     .  .1911 

Sir  Vincent  Glenday,  British  resident      .         .         .     1946 


SPAAK,  PAUL-HENRI,  Belgian  statesman  (b.  Bius- 
sels,  Jan.  25,  1899).  (For  his  early  career  see  Britannica 
Book  of  the  Year  1949.) 

Prime  minister  of  a  government  formed  from  a  Christian 
Social  and  Socialist  coalition  from  March  19,  1947,  he 
resigned  after  the  election  of  June  26,  1949  (see  BELGIUM). 
After  the  formation  of  a  Christian  Social  and  Liberal  coalition 
government  by  Gaston  Eyskens  (q.v.)  on  Aug.  10,  the  following 
day  Spaak  was  appointed  minister  of  state  by  the  regent. 
Also  on  Aug.  11,  at  Strasbourg,  he  was  elected  president  of 
the  first  consultative  assembly  of  the  Council  of  Europe. 
On  Aug.  1 6,  in  Paris,  he  was  succeeded  as  chairman  of  the 
O.E.E.C.  by  Paul  van  Zeeland  (q  v.). 

SPAIN.  A  country  of  southwestern  Europe,  bounded  on 
the  N.  by  the  Bay  of  Biscay  and  France,  on  the  W.  by  the 
Atlantic  and  Portugal,  and  on  the  S.  and  E.  by  the  Mediter- 
ranean. Area:  194,945  sq.  mi.,  including  Balearic  (1,936 
sq.  mi.)  and  Canary  (2,804  sq.  mi)  Islands.  Pop.:  (1940 
census)  25,877,971  (Dec.  31,  1948  est.)  28,154,332  including 
Balearic  (1940  census,  407,497)  and  Canary  (680,294)  Islands. 
Languages:  mainly  Spanish  (Castihan)  but  Catalan,  Galician 
and  Basque  are  also  spoken.  Religion:  mainly  Roman 
Catholic.  Chief  towns  (pop.,  1947  est.  if  not  otherwise  stated): 
Madrid (q.v.) (cap.,  1949 est.,  1,440,041);  Barcelona (1949 est. 
1,500,000);  Valencia  (562,967);  Seville  (382,013);  Zaragoza 
or  Saragossa  (292,965);  Malaga  (277,582);  Murcia  (226,702); 
Bilbao  (220,333).  Leader  (Caudillo),  chief  of  state  and  prime 
minister,  General  Francisco  Franco  y  Bahamonde  (q.v.)\ 
minister  of  foreign  affairs,  Don  Alberto  Martin  Artajo. 

History.  In  a  press  interview  at  the  end  of  Jan.  1949, 
General  Franco  spoke  of  the  United  Nations  as  having  been 
born  in  an  atmosphere  of  passion  and  as  having  **  employed 
Spain  as  a  means  of  paying  out  appeasement  money  to  the 
aggressors  of  the  future."  Until  the  international  climate 
became  more  propitious,  Spain  was  not  interested  in  whether 
or  not  it  was  admitted  to  membership.  Although  a  share 
in  the  European  Recovery  programme  would  naturally  be 
welcome,  it  had  made  no  approaches  whatever  in  this  sense, 
either  direct  or  indirect,  to  the  United  States.  Gibraltar, 
though  now  of  little  military  value,  would  always,  while  it 
remained  British,  constitute  a  shadow  in  Anglo-Spanish 
relations.  General  Franco  would  make  no  statement  about 
the  prospect  for  a  restoration  of  the  monarchy  and  held  out 
scant  hope  of  an  early  return  to  parliamentary  democracy. 

The  U.N.  Security  council  approved  on  April  28  an  Austra- 
lian resolution  for  the  appointment  of  a  sub-committee 
to  inquire  into  the  complaint  that  the  Franco  regime  had  led 
to  international  friction  and  was  a  threat  to  international 
peace  and  security  and  to  suggest  practical  measures  for 
ending  it:  Australia,  Brazil,  China,  France  and  Poland  were 
chosen.  In  May  a  motion  to  restore  to  member  states  of 
the  U.N.  full  freedom  of  action  in  their  diplomatic  relations 
with  Spain  was  carried  in  the  political  committee  by  25  votes 
(chiefly  Latin  American  and  Arab)  to  16,  with  16  abstentions 
but  failed  by  four  votes  to  get  the  necessary  two-thirds 
majority  in  the  full  assembly,  where  the  voting  was  26  to  15, 
again  with  16  abstentions,  among  them  Great  Britain, 
France  and  the  U.S.  The  consulates  general  in  Barcelona 
of  Brazil,  Peru  and  Bolivia,  the  three  states  which,  with 
Colombia,  had  tabled  the  resolution,  were  simultaneously 
damaged  by  bombs  on  May  15.  A  Polish  resolution  pro- 
posing sanctions  was  lost  by  6  votes  to  40,  7  abstaining. 
Diplomatic  relations  between  Spain  and  Venezuela  had  been 
renewed  in  April,  when  notes  to  the  same  purpose  were 
exchanged  with  Liberia. 


SPAIN 


583 


wt 


uenerat  franco  (centre  in  iiftht  uniform)  at  a  session  of  the  Institute  of  Hispanic  Culture  in  Madrid  on  Oct.  12,  1949,  on  the  anni- 
versary of  the  landing  of  Christopher  Columbus  at  San  Salvador  in  1492.  Oct  12  is  celebrated  as  the  Feast  of  the  Hispanic  Race. 


On  May  18,  in  a  long  opening  address  to  the  third  legis- 
lative session  of  the  Cortes  in  Madrid,  General  Franco 
accused  Great  Britain  of  having  failed  to  keep  promises  made 
to  Spain  in  1941  that  after  the  war  she  would  further  Spanish 
territorial  claims  in  North  Africa  at  the  expense  of  France, 
and  also  alleged  an  Anglo-American  intention  in  1944  to  open 
the  second  front  in  the  Iberian  peninsula,  which  was  only 
defeated  by  "  Soviet  realism/'  General  Franco  stated  that 
he  was  not  greatly  interested  in  the  countries  of  Europe,  which 
were  driving  Spaniards  "  in  the  direction  where  our  heart 
impels  us — to  Hispano- America."  But,  "  if  our  hearts  lead 
us  towards  Spanish  America,  the  force  of  reality  impels  us 
towards  North  America." 

Authorized  by  the  State  Department  in  May  to  negotiate 
directly  with  the  Export-Import  bank  for  a  government  loan, 
Spain,  represented  by  Andres  Moreno,  director  of  the  Banco 
Hispano-Americano,  was  reported  to  have  asked  in  Washing- 
ton for  $1,250  million,  or  $400  million  more  than  the  bank's 
entire  Treasury  assets.  The  application  was  refused.  President 
Truman  said  on  June  2  that  he  did  not  favour  a  loan  and,  on 
July  14,  with  reference  to  a  congress  proposal  to  lend  Spain 
$50  million  of  European  Recovery  programme  funds,  that 
**  the  U.S.  was  not  on  friendly  terms  with  Spain."  Dean 
Acheson,  secretary  of  state,  gave  his  opinion  that  Spain  was 
"  a  poor  credit  risk."  Earlier,  in  February,  the  Chase  National 
bank  of  New  York  had  granted  a  short  term  loan  of  $25 
million,  the  first  substantial  credit  advanced  to  Spain  by  a 
U.S.  commercial  bank  for  many  years.  Four-fifths  of  the 
loan  was  to  go  to  buying  the  U.S.  out  of  the  Spanish  telephone 
system. 

A  resolution  calling  on  all  affiliated  organizations  of  the 
new  International  Confederation  of  Free  Trade  Unions  to 
support  the  efforts  of  democratic  and  anti-totalitarian  forces 
in  Spain  to  end  the  Franco  regime  was  approved  unanimously 
at  the  confederation's  first  congress  in  London  in  December. 
The  congress  was  opposed  to  the  granting  in  the  meantime 
of  any  assistance  to  Spain. 

General  Franco  made  his  first  state  journey  abroad  when 
he  visited  Portugal  for  five  days  in  October.  (Marshal 
Carmona's  visit  to  Spain  in  1929  was  to  have  been  returned 
by  King  Alfonso  in  1931 :  the  fall  of  the  monarchy  in  April 
of  that  year  made  this  impossible.)  The  programme  included 
military  manoeuvres  at  Mafra  and  the  conferring  of  an 
honorary  degree  at  Coimbra.  A  meeting  arranged  with  Don 
Juan,  pretender  to  the  Spanish  throne,  who  was  living  in 


Portugal,  did  not  take  place,  and  reports  spoke  of  a  rupture. 
The  Spanish  government  had  been  consulted  by  Portugal  in 
March  concerning  the  invitation  to  the  latter  to  adhere  to 
the  North  Atlantic  treaty,  such  consultation  being  called  for 
by  the  treaty  of  friendship  and  non-agression  of  1939  and  the 
protocol  to  this  of  1940,  and  had  intimated  that  it  raised  no 
objection.  King  Abdullah  of  Jordan  paid  a  fortnight's  visit 
to  Spain  in  September.  An  official  statement  issued  jointly 
by  the  foreign  ministers  of  the  two  countries  at  the  conclusion 
of  the  visit  recorded  complete  agreement  on  the  seriousness 
of  the  menace  of  Communism  to  world  peace. 

The  statutes  of  the  Council  of  the  Kingdom  created  by  the 
law  of  succession  of  July  26,  1947,  were  published  by  decree 
on  Jan.  1.  This  supreme  consultative  body  of  14  members — 
seven  ex-officio  (the  president  of  the  Cortes,  the  senior  prelate 
in  the  Cortes,  the  senior  captain  general,  the  senior  general 
in  the  Alto  Estado  Mayor  of  the  forces,  the  president  of  the 
Council  of  State,  the  president  of  the  Supreme  Tribunal  of 
Justice  and  the  president  of  the  Institute  of  Spain),  four 
elected  by  the  Cortes  and  three  nominated  by  the  chief  of 
state,  with  the  president  of  the  Cortes  as  chairman — was  to 
advise  the  chief  of  state  in  major  matters  of  his  exclusive 
competence  such  as  the  declaration  of  war  or  making  of  peace, 
the  choice  of  a  successor  as  head  of  the  state,  abdication  of 
any  kind,  royal  marriages  and  the  depriving  of  royal  person- 
ages of  any  rights  of  succession  on  grounds  of  lack  of  capacity 
or  "  notorious  deviation  from  the  fundamental  principles  of 
the  state."  On  Feb.  28,  anniversary  of  the  death  of  Alfonso 
XIII  in  1941,  General  Franco  and  his  cabinet  attended  the 
official  mass  for  Spanish  royalty  at  the  Escorial,  whose 
monastery  houses  the  royal  pantheon. 

In  June,  against  a  worsening  economic  background,  he 
made  a  two  weeks'  tour  of  Catalonia;  reports  stated  that  he 
was  seeking  the  co-operation  of  Catalan  industrialists.  A 
bomb  explosion  in  Barcelona  cathedral  during  the  service 
attended  by  his  wife  and  daughter  caused  no  casualties. 
Elections  for  the  provincial  diputaciones  were  held  on  March 
20,  candidates  being  chosen  partly  from  representatives  of 
the  town  councils,  partly  from  economic,  cultural  and  pro- 
fessional corporations.  New  facilities  for  crossing  the  frontier 
with  Gibraltar  were  announced  in  May. 

Spain's  internal  economy  suffered  greatly  from  a  drought 
even  more  severe  than  those  of  the  two  previous  years, 
householders  and  public  services  being  among  those  affected 
by  the  repeated  and  prolonged  water  and  electricity  cuts. 


584 


SPANISH-AMERICAN    LITERATURE 


Catalan  industry  was  particularly  handicapped  by  the  hydro- 
electric shortages,  as  too  by  reduced  imports  of  raw  cotton 
and  other  materials.  Lack  of  fertilizers  and  tractors  combined 
with  the  drought  to  weigh  heavily  on  agriculture,  the  grain 
harvest  falling  short  of  consumption  needs  by  1  •  5  million  tons. 
In  the  Canary  Islands  the  summer  was  marked  by  a  series  of 
severe  volcanic  eruptions  on  La  Palma.  Streams  of  lava, 
which  formed  a  substantial  promontory  in  the  sea,  cut  off 
an  area  in  the  south  of  the  island  and  caused  several  villages 
to  be  evacuated.  The  shocks  continued  for  six  weeks,  as  many 
as  80  tremors  being  registered  in  one  day. 

National  expenditure  for  1950  was  estimated  in  November 
at  P.  17,941  million  and  revenue  at  P.  17,848  million.  The 
raising  of  a  loan  was  authorized  to  cover  the  deficit  of  P.  93 
million.  In  a  press  interview  General  Franco  stated  that 
Spain's  internal  economic  needs  were  not  great  but  that 
assistance  was  necessary  for  defence  purposes.  The  first 
entirely  Spanish-built  transport  aircraft  made  its  trial  flight 
in  March  in  the  presence  of  the  air  minister,  General  E.  G. 
Gallarza.  A  new  type  of  "  articulated  tram,"  the  invention 
of  a  Basque  military  engineer,  Alejandro  Goicoechca,  was  on 
test  during  the  summer  after  undergoing  preliminary  trials  in 
the  U.S.  Normal  speeds  of  62  mi.  per  hr.  and  over  were 
claimed  for  it. 

The  United  Kingdom  was  again  Spain's  best  customer. 
During  the  first  quarter  of  the  year  visible  trade  between  the 
U.K.  and  Spain  and  its  possessions  totalled  over  £15-5 
million,  with  a  balance  of  nearly  £9  million  in  favour  of  Spain. 
A  new  one-year  trade  programme  between  the  two  countries 
concluded  in  June  envisaged  some  increase  in  value  and  an 
easing  of  conditions.  Acceleration  in  the  import  of  U.K. 
manufactured  goods  and  in  financial  debt  transfers  was 
announced  in  December  after  further  discussions  of  out- 
standing trading  difficulties.  An  agreement  was  signed  with 
Benelux  countries  in  April  for  a  trade  exchange  totalling 
some  B.Fr.  1,500  million,  Spain  to  receive  electrical  plant, 
rolling  stock  and  heavy  industrial  equipment  against  Spanish 
manufactured  goods  and  other  products.  A  trade  treaty  was 
also  concluded  with  Denmark  in  May;  and  in  June  the  trade 
and  payments  agreement  with  France  was  renewed  for  a 
further  year,  French  exports  to  include  coal,  phosphates, 
rolling  stock  and  electrical  plant.  Following  on  the  devalua- 
tion of  sterling,  Spain  decided  in  October  to  maintain  its 
parity  with  the  $  at  P.  10  •  95,  this  giving  a  new  rate  of  P.30  •  65 
to  the  £  instead  of  44-13. 

Health  department  statistics  published  in  March  showed  an 
increase  in  the  population  of  Spain  by  almost  10  million  since 
1800  and  of  2  •  2  million  since  1940.  Continuance  of  the  latter 
rate  of  increase,  which  was  due  both  to  a  rising  birth-rate  and 
to  a  notable  improvement  in  the  expectation  of  life,  would 
show  by  1957  a  population  more  than  double  the  15-5  million 
recorded  in  the  first  full  census  of  1857. 

The  Republican  "  government  in  exile  "  was  reconstituted 
in  February,  the  "  prime  minister  "  being  Alvaro  de  Albornoz; 
the  "  president  of  the  republic  "  was  Martinez  Barrio. 

Among  eminent  Spaniards  who  died  during  1949  were 
Santiago  Alba,  Liberal  statesman  under  the  monarchy  and 
sometime  president  of  the  Cortes  under  the  republic;  Niceto 
Alcala  Zamora  (see  OBITUARIES),  president  of  the  republic 
from  1931  to  1936;  Alejandro  Lerroux  (see  OBITUARIES), 
radical  leader  and  four  times  premier  of  the  republic; 
Joaquin  Turina  (see  OBITUARIES),  the  composer;  and  the 
painter  Federico  Beltran  Mases.  (W.  C.  AN.) 

Education.  State  schools  (1946-47)  54,055,  pupils  4,359,230,  teachers 
55,077;  secondary  schools  (1947)  118,  pupils  203,136;  training  colleges 
for  elementary  teachers  (1947)  53,  students  25,928;  universities  (1947) 
12,  students  42,597,  professors  and  lecturers  about  3,000.  Illiteracy 
(1947):  20-8%. 

Agriculture  and  Fisheries.  Mam  crops  (in  '000  metric  tons,  1948): 
wheat  3,266;  barley  1,742;  oats  550;  rye  508;  maize  560;  potatoes 


3,000;  rice  272,  cottonseed  12;  sugar,  raw  value,  265 ;  cotton,  ginned, 
6;  wool  on  greasy  basis,  35;  tobacco  (leaf)  13-8.  Olives  (in  '000  metric 
tons,  1946)  2,070.  Oranges  and  lemons  (in  '000  metric  tons,  1947)  876. 
Livestock  (in  '000  head,  1947):  cattle  3,100;  sheep  24,120;  pigs  5,000; 
horses  600;  mules  1,080;  asses  800,  goats  6,100;  fowls  (1945)  22,876. 
Fisheries,  total  catch  (1947)-  weight  567,841  metric  tons,  value 
P.2,032  million.  Production  (1948).  wine  (in  hectolitres)  14,200,000; 
olive  oil  (in  metric  tons,  1947)  362,900 

Industry.  Fuel  and  power  (1948;  1949,  six  months,  in  brackets): 
coal  (m  '000  metric  tons)  10,410  (5,308);  lignite  1,394  (668);  manu- 
factured gas  (in  '000  cu  ft.)  8,257  (4,626);  electricity  (in  million  kwh.) 
6,110  (2,453)  Raw  materials  (in  '000  metric  tons  1948;  1949,  six 
months,  in  brackets):  iron  ore,  metal  content,  1,632  (895);  pig-iron 
517  (287);  steel  ingots  and  castings  548,  black  and  blister  copper  8-9; 
lead  22-0  (14-9),  /me  21  2  (9  9).  Other  products  (in  '000  metric 
tons)-  rock  salt  (1947)  265,  potash  ore  (1947)  622;  cork  (1946)  70; 
paper  (1946)  165.  Cement  production  (in  '000  metric  tons  1948,  1949, 
six  months,  in  brackets)  1,646  (838). 

Foreign  Trade.  (Million  pesetas)  Imports-  (1948)  1,439,  (1949, 
six  months)  781.  Exports-  (1948)  1,106,  (1949,  six  months)  735. 
Principal  imports*  wheat,  machinery  and  vehicles,  raw  cotton,  fuel 
and  bananas  Principal  exports'  oranges,  tomatoes,  cotton  goods  and 
iron  ore  and  pyrites  Mam  sources  of  imports  Argentina,  United 
Kingdom,  Dutch  colonies  and  United  States  Mam  destinations  of 
exports:  United  Kingdom,  France,  United  States  and  the  Netherlands 

Transport  and  Communications.  Roads  (1949)  75,000  mi.  Licensed 
motor  vehicles  (Dec  1948)  cars  94,654,  commercial  vehicles  58,187. 
Railways  (1947)  10,920  (7,950  government  owned)  mi.,  passenger 
traffic  (government  owned  lines)  109,503,212.  Shipping  (July  1948): 
number  of  merchant  vessels  of  100  tons  and  upwards  1,084,  total 
tonnage  1,155,267  Air  transport  (1948)-  km  flown  4,358,670,  passen- 
gers flown  163,106,  cargo  carried  471  metric  tons,  air  mail  carried  160 
metric  tons  Telephones  (Dec  1947)  481,929. 

Finance  and  Banking.  (Million  pesetas)  Budget:  (1947,  actual) 
revenue  12,964,  expenditure  14,223;  (1948  est  )  revenue  15,115, 
expenditure  15,196  National  debt  (Jan  1948)  52,953  Currency 
circulation  (Aug  1949;  in  brackets  Aug.  1948)-  25,300  (24,700). 
Gold  reserve  (Aug  1949;  tn  brackets  Aug  1948)  85  (11 1)  million  U  S. 
dollars  Bank  deposits  (June  1949;  in  brackets  June  1948)  32,000 
(29,200)  Monetary  unit  peseta  with  an  exchange  rate  (Dec.  1949; 
in  brackets  Dec  1948)  of  30  66  (44  13)  pesetas  to  the  pound. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  John  Walker,  Spain  Economic  and  Commercial 
Conditions  (London,  H.MSO,  1949) 

SPANISH-AMERICAN  LITERATURE.  Three 
factors  continued  in  1949  to  impede  the  fullest  development 
of  creative  literature  in  Spanish  America:  (1)  the  high  price 
of  publishing  books,  greatly  increased  by  postwar  inflation; 

(2)  political  instability  which  had  made  the  position  of  the 
writer  insecure  and  in  many  cases  had  driven  him  into  exile; 

(3)  the  increasingly  evident  preference  of  the  reading  public 
for  translations  of  European  and  North  American  authors 
rather  than  for  original  works  by  Spanish-American  writers.  In 
spite  of  these  discouraging  facts  good  books  continued  to 
appear  in  Spanish-speaking  America. 

While  a  few  of  the  older  and  established  generations  of 
novelists  continued  to  write,  1949  saw  the  publication  of  a 
number  of  works  of  fiction  by  newer  writers  of  diverse 
tendencies.  Among  the  former,  two  Mexican  novelists  of 
recognized  reputation  produced  praiseworthy  works:  Sendas 
perdidas  by  the  veteran  Mariano  Azuela,  and  Cabello  de 
elote  by  Mauricio  Magadaleno,  whose  Sunburst  was  already 
known  to  the  English-speaking  world  in  translation.  Other 
distinguished  novels  of  the  year  included  En  media  del 
camino  de  la  vida,  an  autobiographical  tale  by  the  Colombian 
essayist  German  Arcmiegas;  El  relno  de  este  mundo,  a  beauti- 
fully conceived  novel  of  Haitian  folklore  by  the  Cuban 
author  Alejo  Carpentier;  and  Marta  Brunei's  poetic  work, 
Ralz  del  sueno,  which  continued  the  Chilean  novelist's 
tradition  of  fine  style. 

Less  striking  but  of  considerable  value  in  tracing  the 
complex  development  of  the  novel  in  Spanish-speaking 
countries  were  the  following:  Fogarada,  by  Enrique  Gonzalez 
Rincones,  a  story  of  the  Venezuelan  oil  fields;  Una  noche 
en  Acapulco,  by  the  Mexican  Rodolfo  Gonzalez  Hurtado, 
in  which  adventure  and  fantasy  combine  in  agreeable  pro- 
portions; El  Holandes  volador,  a  whimsical  treatment  of  an 


SPANISH   COLONIAL   EMPIRE— SPANISH   LITERATURE 


585 


old  theme  by  the  Chilean,  Ernesto  Silva  Roman;  La  fuga 
de  la  quimera,  an  imaginative  tale  by  the  prolific  Mexican 
litterateur,  Carlos  Gonzalez  Pefta;  Aventuras  de  im  bracero, 
an  interesting  account  of  the  life  of  a  Mexican  itinerant 
labourer  in  the  United  States  by  Jesus  Topete;  Evocation, 
a  novel  of  the  older  local  colour  tradition  by  a  Venezuelan, 
Pedro  Cesar  Dominici. 

As  usual,  it  was  impossible  to  keep  account  of  the  hundreds 
of  books  of  poetry  which  appeared  in  1949.  Two  among 
them  were  of  unquestioned  importance:  Sonetos,  by  the 
brilliant  Mexican  poet  and  statesman  Jaime  Torres  Bodet, 
and  Poea'as  completas*  the  collected  works  of  the  much- 
lauded  Peruvian,  Cesar  Vallejo.  Colombia,  long  the  home 
of  famous  poets,  produced  among  many  other  volumes  of 
verse  an  Antolologla  de  la  nueva  poesia  colombiana. 

Not  since  colonial  days  had  the  drama  been  a  thriving 
genre  in  Spanish  America,  and  1949  provided  no  exception 
to  the  rule.  Two  dramas  might  be  mentioned  as  indicative 
of  tendencies:  .  .  .  de  campanario  o  de  Macolatldn,  a  three- 
act  poetic  play  by  a  Mexican  author,  J.  Jesus  Castorena, 
and  a  volume  of  two  plays  by  an  older  Venezuelan  writer 
Pedro  Cesar  Dominici:  El  hombre  que  volvid  and  La  casa, 
both  of  which  showed  somewhat  romantic  and  old-fashioned 
characteristics. 

Among  biographies  written  by  Spanish  American  authors 
the  following  were  noteworthy:  Sarmiento  y  su  america- 
nismo,  by  the  Cuban  scholar  Emeterio  Santovenia,  and 
El  misterioso  almirante  y  su  enigmdtico  descubrimiento,  a  new 
interpretation  of  the  personality  of  Christopher  Columbus 
by  Carlos  Brand  (Venezuelan). 

The  year  was  notable  for  the  appearance  of  a  number  of 
outstanding  works  of  literary  criticism,  the  majority  of  which 
were  published  in  Mexico.  Of  superior  quality  was  Las 
corrientes  literarias  en  la  America  Hispdnica,  by  the  recently 
deceased  Pedro  Henriquez  Urena.  Leopoldo  Zea's  Romanti- 
cismo  y  posit ivismo  was  a  stimulating  study  of  philosophical 
and  literary  trends  in  the  19th  century. 

A  number  of  the  more  important  literary  landmarks  of 
1949  would  be  classified  as  essays  or  general  works,  and  in 
them  one  often  found  Spanish- American  writers  at  their  best. 
Felix  Lizaso's  Panorama  de  la  cultura  cubana  provided  an 
excellent  survey  of  a  relatively  unknown  field.  El  problema 
del  India  en  America,  by  Aida  Cometta  Manzoni,  whose 
previous  studies  of  the  Indian  in  literature  had  given  her 
authority,  was  an  illuminating  series  of  five  essays.  Vicente 
Saenz's  Hispanoamerica  contra  el  coloniaje  exemplified  in  a 
polemic  vein  the  intense  nationalism  of  contemporary  Latin 
America  and  El  futuro  de  America  by  an  Ecuadoran,  Juan 
Yepez  de  Pozo,  dealt  with  similar  themes.  (J.  T.  R.) 


SPANISH  COLONIAL  EMPIRE.  Under  this 
heading  are  grouped  the  Spanish  possessions  in  Africa.  Their 
total  area  is  approximately  134,715  sq.  mi.  and  the  total 
population  (1947  est.)  1,406,800.  Certain  essential  information 
on  the  territories  composing  the  empire  is  given  in  the  table. 

History.  The  wedding  of  Mulay  Hassan  ben  el-Mehedi, 
the  khalifa  (viceroy)  of  the  Spanish  zone  of  Morocco,  to  his 
second  cousin,  daughter  of  the  late  Sultan  Abdelaziz,  in 


Princess  Lai- La  Fatima  in  her  carriage  in  Tetuan  In  June  1949  >  when  she 
married  Mulay  Hassan  ben  el-Mehedi,  khalifa  of  Spanish  Morocco. 
June  1949  was  celebrated  by  three  weeks  of  festivities  des- 
cribed as  on  an  Arabian  Nights  scale,  that  cost  some  1 1  million 
pesetas.  Lieutenant  General  Juan  Varela,  the  Spanish  high 
commissioner,  presented  the  khalifa  with  a  cheque  for  one 
million  pesetas  from  General  Franco.  The  khalifa  and 
General  Varela  travelled  to  Granada  in  September  to  meet 
King  Abdullah  of  Jordan,  who  placed  on  record  his  apprecia- 
tion of  Spain's  conduct  of  affairs  in  Morocco.  Among  the 
bases  of  Spanish  policy,  as  enumerated  by  General  Franco 
in  his  speech  to  the  Madrid  Cortes  in  May,  were  "  friendship 
and  affection  "  for  the  Arab  peoples.  The  Spanish  govern- 
ment placed  a  number  of  aircraft  at  the  disposal  of  Moslems 
for  their  pilgrimage  to  Mecca.  (W.  C.  AN.) 

SPANISH  LITERATURE.     Though  some  of  the 
best  critical  work  of  the  year  came  from  Spaniards  living 


SPANISH  COLONIAL  EMPIRE 


Country                      Area 

Population 

Capital  and  Status             Foreign  Trade               Transport  and 

Budget 

(in  sq.  mi.) 

(1947  est.) 

Communications 

SPANISH  MOROCCO                17,631 

1,009,800 

Tetuan;  protectorate. 

"   Roads    c.  500  mi. 

rev.  and  exp.: 

(incl.  62,438 

High     commissioner, 

railway         80  mi. 

(1938) 

Spaniards  and 

General  Juan  Varela; 

shipping  (1943) 

111  million  pesetas 

14,734  Jews) 

Khalifa    (viceroy    of 

entered 

(1947) 

the  sultan  of  Morocco), 

(all  possessions, 

307,379  N.R.T. 

211  million  pesetas 

Mulay    Hassan    ben 

in  gold  pesetas) 

el-Mchcdi 

CEUTA,  MELILLA,                         82 

145,000 

Administered    as   part 

(1945) 

— 

— 

ALHUCEMAS,  CHAFARINAS 

of  Spain 

"  imp.  125,383  000  * 

and  PENON  DE  VELEZ 

exp.    197,736,000 

IFNI  TERRITORY                          741 

35.000 

Administered    as    part 

— 

— 

of  Spain 

(1946) 

SPANISH  SAHARA: 

imp.  150,307,000 

Rio  DE  ORO                      73  362~1 
SEKIA  EL  HAMRA               32,047  / 

37,000* 

Cabo  Juby;  colony 

exp.   217,379,000 

SPANISH  GUINEA,                  10,852 

180,000 

Santa  Isabel;  colony 

(1943) 

including  FERNANDO  Po 

rev.  22-3  million  pes 

and  four  small  islands 

J                                 ^ 

exp.    3  •  6  million  pes 

'  Excluding  the  nomads. 


586 


SPEEDWAY   RACING— SPIRITS 


abroad  (e.g.*  Pedro  Salinas'  study  of  Ruben  Dario,  Enrique 
Moreno's  of  Guzman  dc  Alfarache  and  Joaquin  Casalduero's 
of  Don  Quijote),  there  was  also  much  activity  in  Spain. 
A  valuable  linguistic  study  was  M.  Cnado  de  Val's  Sintaxis 
del  verbo  espanol  modcrno.  The  middle  ages  were  represented 
by  the  first  volume  of  Martin  de  Riquer's  La  Lirica  de  los 
trovadores,  F,  Alarcos'  Investigaciones  sobre  el  Libro  de 
Alexandre  and  Jose  Romeu  Figueras'  El  Mito  de  "  El  Comte 
Arnau".  Outstanding  works  on  the  16th  century  were 
E.  Segura  Covarsi's  La  Cancion  pctrarquhta  en  la  lirica 
espanol  del  Sigh  de  Oro,  Rafael  Lapesa's  La  Ttayectoria 
poet  lea  de  Gareilaso  and  Ramon  Carande's  Carlos  V  y  sits 
banqueros:  La  Hacienda  real  de  Castilla.  Figures  in  the 
Romantic  era  who  received  full-length  studies  were  La 
Avellaneda  (M.  Ballesteros),  Nicomedes  Pastor  Dia/  (E.  Chao 
Espina),  Gregorio  Romero  Larranaga  (J.  L.  Varela)  and  Vital 
Aza  (N.  Alonso  Cortes).  Of  the  moderns,  Fedenco  Garcia 
Lorca  was  the  subject  of  a  monograph  by  G.  Diaz-Plaja, 
and  R.  Gullon  and  J.  M  Blccua  wrote  on  La  Poesia  de 
Jorge  Guillen.  Two  notable  events  in  Madrid  were  the 
compilation  of  a  series  of  '*  Homenaje  "  volumes  celebrating 
the  80th  birthday  of  Ramon  Menendez  Pidal,  and  the 
foundation  of  the  Institute  de  Humanidades  by  Jose  Ortega 
Gasset  and  Julian  Marias:  a  course  given  there  by  the  latter 
was  published  as  El  Metodo  histdrico  de  las  generaeiones. 
The  Revista  de  Oecidente  published  a  comprehensive  Diccion- 
ario  de  literatura  espanola.  Criticism  suffered  a  double  loss 
in  the  deaths  of  Antonio  Ballesteros  Beretta  and  Angel 
Gonzalez  Palencia. 

Foremost  among  the  year's  novels  were  S.  J.  Aibo's  Sobre 
las  piedras  grises,  awarded  the  Premio  Nadal,  J.  A.  de 
Zunzunegui's  La  Uleera  (Premio  Nacional  de  Literatura),  the 
late  Benjamin  James'  Eufrosina,  Enrique  Azcoaga's  El 
Empleado  and  the  Dona  Juana  la  Loea  y  otras  seis  novelas 
superhistoricas  of  Ramon  Gomez  de  la  Serna,  who  had 
recently  returned  to  Spain.  Collections  of  verse  included 
Leopoldo  Panero's  Escrito  a  cada  instante,  Luis  Resales' 
La  Casa  cncendida,  Leopoldo  de  Luis'  Los  Imposibles  Pdjaros 
and  Jose  Maria  Valverde's  La  Espera.  The  1949  Premio 
Lope  de  Vega  for  drama  was  awarded  to  Antonio  Buero  for 
his  Historia  de  una  csealera.  Notable  new  literary  reviews 
were  Alcantara  (Extremadura),  Alma  (Madrid)  and  Proel 
(Santander).  Literary  men  recently  elected  to  the  Spanish 
Academy  of  the  Language  were  Vicente  Aleixandre  and 
Salvador  Gonzalez  Anaya.  (E.  A,  P.) 

SPEEDWAY  RACING.  The  attendance  of  over  12 
million  people  made  the  1949  season  the  most  successful  in 
the  21  years  of  the  third  most  popular  sport  in  Great  Britain. 
Betting  was  not  permitted  at  speedway  meetings  and  it  was 
considered  to  be  the  greatest  family  sport  in  the  world. 

The  world  individual  championship  was  won  for  the  first 
time  by  an  Englishman  when  Tommy  Price  (Wembley) 
finished  ahead  of  Jack  Parker  and  Louis  Lawson  (both  of 
Belle  Vue,  Manchester).  Australia,  whose  team  did  not 
appear  sufficiently  strong  at  the  beginning  of  the  season  to 
provide  formidable  opposition  for  England,  created  a  surprise 
by  winning  the  test  series  by  four  matches  to  one. 

The  national  league,  the  major  team  competition,  divided 
into  three  sections,  was  won  by  Wembley  (division  1),  Bristol 
(division  II)  and  Hanley,  Stoke-on-Trent  (division  III).  The 
national  trophy  competition  was  won  by  Belle  Vue,  who 
defeated  West  Ham  in  the  final.  The  London  cup  was 
retained  by  the  Wembley  Lions.  Jack  Parker,  captain  of  the 
England  team,  successfully  defeated  all  opponents  to  keep  his 
title  of  match  race  champion.  (G.  J.  WK.) 

SPICES.  Pepper  spices  during  1949  reflected  the  scarcity 
of  this  commodity  in  the  world  markets.  Prices  at  Rotterdam, 


London  and  New  York  city  ranged  up  to  $1-42  per  pound 
for  black  pepper  and  $2-40  per  pound  for  white  pepper. 
Supplies  from  Indonesia,  normally  the  largest  source, 
continued  to  be  shut  off,  but  India,  with  a  larger  crop  than 
usual,  maintained  a  well-exploited  monopoly  and  in  Novem- 
ber raised  the  export  tax  to  about  12  cents  per  pound. 
Imitation  pepper  made  by  grinding  grain  with  cayenne  and 
esculent  oils  reappeared  on  the  market  to  ease  the  situation. 

The  United  States  and  Canada  reported  good  harvests  of 
mustard  seed,  while  European  production  was  reduced  to 
make  more  land  available  for  the  planting  of  root  crops  and 
cereals.  China  did  not  report  its  crop,  which  at  times  had 
exceeded  1 1  million  Ib.  from  provinces  which  had  fallen 
under  Communist  control. 

Dry  weather  and  labour  problems  shortened  production  of 
ginger  and  caused  prices  to  rise  350%  above  normal;  plans 
were  laid  for  larger  plantings  in  Jamaica,  Sierra  Leone, 
India  and  Nigeria,  the  principal  sources  of  supply. 

Batavia  (Jakarta),  Korintje  and  Saigon  varieties  of  cassia 
(cinnamon)  were  obtainable  from  Indonesia  and  Indo-China 
despite  continued  warfare  during  1949.  In  China  the  harvest- 
ing of  the  different  varieties  of  cassia  continued,  distribution 
being  effected  through  Hong  Kong. 

Madagascar  and  Zanzibar  cloves  were  available  during 
the  year  but  shipments  were  smaller  because  of  unfavourable 
conditions.  Prices  exceeded  those  of  1948.  Shipments  of 
nutmegs  and  mace  from  East  Indian  islands  were  uninter- 
rupted. A  fine  crop  in  Grenada  (British  West  Indies)  balanced 
supply  with  demand. 

Production  of  red  peppers  (chillies)  was  less  than  normal 
and  pnces  were  high.  The  scarlet  Hontaka  and  Takanotsume 
pods  reappeared  from  Japan,  at  prices  up  fourfold.  Cayenne 
from  Africa  sold  at  high  prices  as  did  Mexican  **  Anchos  " 
for  "chile  con  carne."  Yugoslavia  and  Chile  exported  fine- 
quality  paprika,  supplementing  Spanish  and  Portuguese 
supplies,  and  prices  were  moderate. 

The  world  supply  of  herbs  was  affected  by  political  dis- 
turbances in  Europe,  principally  in  Yugoslavia,  the  source 
of  the  preferred  sage  (Salvia  ojficinalis).  Bay  leaves  proved 
scarce,  satisfactory  quality  (laurus  nobilis)  being  obtainable 
only  from  Greece,  where  the  crop  was  neglected. 

Supplies  of  caraway,  poppy,  dill,  coriander  and  cummin 
seeds  were  available  from  Europe  and  North  Africa.  Sesame 
had  become  a  successful  crop  in  Nicaragua. 

Saffron,  the  world's  most  costly  spice,  dropped  from  the 
usual  range  of  from  $45  to  $75  per  pound  to  $17  per  pound 
on  the  Spanish  market.  The  stigmas  of  the  saffron  flower, 
hand  removed  from  about  75,000  blossoms,  constitute  a 
pound.  This  spice  is  very  popular  in  the  cooking  of  certain 
Spanish  dishes.  (C.  A.  T.) 

SPIRITS.  The  figures  for  production  and  export  of 
French  Cognac  brandy  in  1948-49  were  the  highest  since 
World  War  II.  Production  season  was  equivalent  to  115,000 
hectolitres  of  pure  alcohol  compared  with  95,000  hectolitres 
in  the  previous  season.  Exports  of  Cognac  were  34,816 
hectolitres  during  the  first  six  months  of  1949  compared 
with  23,203  hectolitres  in  the  same  period  in  1948. 

In  Great  Britain  the  production  of  potable  spirits  again 
increased  and  was  slightly  above  the  1938  figure. 

TABLE   I. — PRODUCTION,  EXPORT   AND  CONSUMPTION  OF   SPIRITS  IN 
GREAT  BRITAIN  (million  proof  gal.) 

Year  Production  Export  Consumption 

1938  29-28  9-12  10-32 

1947-48*                  .          .  23  31  8-89  9  74 

1948-49*        .          .          .  30  33  8-97  9-06 

*  Years  ending  Aug    31 

Increased  releases  of  grain  resulted  in  increased  distilling 
of  whisky  but  the  industry  suffered  from  a  shortage  of  sherry 


SQUASH    RACKETS— STALIN 


587 


casks  for  maturing.  Whisky  stocks  which  had  become 
depleted  during  World  War  II  approached  their  prewar 
level.  Devaluation  of  the  pound  sterling  had  little  effect  on 
export  of  whisky  as  most  of  the  available  mature  stocks 
were  already  being  exported.  Exports  of  spirits  to  most 
countries  increased  slightly  during  the  year,  exceptions 
being  Canada  and  the  Argentine. 

Imports  of  brandy  and  rum  by  Great  Britain  were  both 
10%  greater  than  in  1948.  In  the  case  of  brandy  90%  of  the 
imports  were  from  France  as  against  70%  in  the  previous 
year,  there  being  a  drop  in  imports  from  the  Commonwealth. 
The  Minis* ry  of  Food  issued  a  Code  of  Practice  for  brandy 
during  the  year.  Imports  commenced  again  of  aquavit, 
the  national  spirit  of  Norway,  matured  by  storage  on  board 
ship  during  a  round  trip  to  the  Antipodes. 

In  France  the  importance  of  sugarbeet  as  a  source  of  half 
the  production  of  industrial  alcohol  was  reflected  in  the 
publication  of  vol.  1  of  Traitd  de  la  Distillcne  dc  Betteravc 
(Paris  1948).  In  Great  Britain  the  production  of  industrial 
alcohol  was  lower  than  in  1948. 

TABLF  II  — PRODUCTION  AND  CONSUMPTION  OF  INDUSTRIAL  ALCOHOL 
IN  GREAT  BRITAIN  (million  proof  gal  ) 

Production  (including 

Year  industrial  methylated  spirits)          Consumption 

1947-48*  39  06  51    93 

1948-49*  36-81  46  27 

*  Years  ending  Aug    31 

There  was  a  drop  in  the  quantity  of  molasses  imported  in 
spite  of  a  big  fall  in  price  at  the  end  of  1948.  During  the 
year  controls  on  industrial  alcohol  and  related  materials 
were  removed  after  having  operated  for  nearly  ten  years. 

Although  Great  Britain  did  not  produce  alcohol  from 
petroleum,  contrasting  with  the  United  States  which  obtained 
40%  of  its  alcohol  from  this  source,  four  major  industrial 
enterprises  developed  plans  for  the  manufacture  of  chemicals 
from  petroleum  and  it  would  be  a  short  step  to  produce 
synthetic  alcohol  if  it  became  an  economic  proposition. 

In  India  the  government  went  ahead  with  its  plans  to 
produce  power  alcohol  from  accumulated  supplies  of 
molasses.  Arrangements  were  made  for  the  Nasik  distillery 
in  Bombay  to  make  one  million  gallons  of  power  alcohol 
annually  after  a  prohibition  of  alcoholic  liquor  proposed 
for  the  state  in  April  1950.  Pakistan  started  to  build  what 
was  to  be  the  largest  alcohol  production  plant  in  Asia. 
Syria  began  the  manufacture  of  alcohol  from  sugar  refinery 
residues.  In  Australia  a  company  was  formed  to  manufacture 
chemicals,  including  cellulose  acetate  based  on  alcohol  as  a 
raw  material.  (D.  I.  C.) 

United  States.  The  production  of  all  types  of  distilled 
spirits  in  the  United  States  reached  266,542,499  proof 
gallons  in  the  fiscal  year  which  ended  June  30,  1949,  an 
increase  of  more  than  20  million  gal.  from  the  previous 
year's  total  of  244,127,343  million  proof  gal  Whisky  pro- 
duction, accounting  for  the  bulk  of  all  distilled  spirits 
produced  in  the  U.S.,  jumped  considerably  above  the  total 
of  the  1948  fiscal  year— 149-6  million  proof  gal.,  as  con- 
trasted with  129-6  million  gal.  in  1948.  The  remainder  of 
distilled  spirits  manufacture,  gin,  rum,  brandy  and  other 
spirits,  together  represented  40%  of  the  total. 

Withdrawals  of  distilled  spirits  from  distilleries  and  ware- 
houses dropped  from  161-7  million  proof  gal.  in  the  1948 
fiscal  year,  to  153-5  million  proof  gal.  for  the  year  ended 
June  30,  1949— a  decrease  of  about  5%. 

In  June  1949,  U.S.  whisky  inventories  stood  at  about  511 
million  proof  gal.,  or  well  over  the  425  million  proof  gal. 
average  for  "  normal  "  years.  However,  the  supply  was 
far  from  adequate,  for  only  23  million  gal.,  or  less  than  5% 
of  the  total,  were  composed  of  sufficiently  matured  whisky 
(four  years  or  older). 

During   1948-49  there  was  an  increase  in  moonshining 


(illicit  distilling).  In  the  calendar  year  1948,  7,552  illegal 
stills  were  seized  by  agents  of  the  Alcohol  Tax  unit— an 
increase  of  more  than  25%  from  the  previous  year's  total. 
The  total  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1949  indicated 
a  similarly  rising  total — 8,008  stills  seized  having  a  daily 
producing  capacity  of  224,888  proof  gal.,  as  against  6,757 
(with  a  daily  capacity  of  173,087  proof  gal.>  during  the 
fiscal  year  1948. 

The  demand  for  distilled  spirits  underwent  a  gradual 
process  of  change  m  1949  and  there  was  an  increasing 
preference  for  straight  and  bonded  whisky  rather  than 
blends.  Blended  whisky  totals  declined.  From  January-June, 
1948,  the  total  number  of  blended  gallons  available  for 
consumption  was  53-8  million — the  same  period  in  1949 
saw  a  decrease  in  output  to  51-5  million  gal. 

The  years  1947  and  1948  marked  the  change  from  a  seller's 
to  a  buyei's  market,  with  stocks  readily  available.  For  the 
first  eight  months  of  1949,  total  distilled  spirits  imports 
equalled  8,788,823  wine  gal ,  with  whisky  accounting  for 
more  than  7  million  gal.  (A.  J.  Li.) 

SQUASH  RACKETS.  M.  E.  Kanm  (Fgypt),  who 
retained  the  open  championship,  and  N.  F.  Borrett,  who  won 
the  amateur  championship  for  the  third  time,  were  the 
outstanding  players  of  the  1948-49  season.  The  runner-up  in 
both  open  and  amateur  championships  was  B.  C.  Phillips. 
Miss  P.  J.  Curry  won  the  women's  championship  for  the 
third  time.  The  professional  championship  was  won  by  A. 
H.  Biddle. 

In  men's  international  matches  England  beat  Ireland, 
Scotland  and  Denmark;  Scotland  beat  Wales,  and  Ireland 
beat  Scotland.  In  women's  internationals  England  beat 
Scotland  and  Wales;  Wales  beat  Scotland.  Surrey  won  both 
the  men's  and  women's  county  championships.  Oxford  beat 
Cambridge  in  the  university  match,  and  the  Army  won  the 
inter-services  championship.  Lancing  Old  Boys  beat  Old 
Tonbndgians  in  the  Londonderry  cup.  The  junior  champion- 
ship (Drysdale  cup)  was  won  by  M.  G.  Case.  (J.  F.  B.) 

United  States.  Hunter  Lott,  Jr.,  of  the  Merion  Cricket 
club,  Pennsylvania,  won  the  national  singles  squash  rackets 
championship  by  defeating  Donald  Strachan  of  the  Princeton 
club  of  New  York.  Lott  combined  with  G.  Diehl  Mateer,  Jr., 
another  Merion  representative,  to  win  the  doubles.  George 
Waring,  Boston,  Massachusetts,  retained  the  veterans'  singles 
title,  and  the  intercollegiate  crown  was  retained  by  Mateer, 
who  represented  Haverford  college,  Philadelphia. 

U.S.  representatives  won  the  Grant  trophy,  but  the  Lapham 
trophy  was  returned  to  Canada  when  the  dominion  team  won 
7 — 3.  A  strong  British  women's  team  visited  the  U.S.  Janet 
Morgan,  Surrey,  won  the  national  singles  championship,  and 
the  doubles  with  Mrs.  R.  J.  Teague,  Devonshire.  Miss 
Morgan  also  won  the  New  England  States  title.  The  U.S. 
women's  team  however,  regained  the  Wolfe-Noel  Cup. 
Betty  Howe,  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  won  the  Atlantic 
Coast,  Pennsylvania,  New  York  state  and  Connecticut  state 
women's  championships.  (T.  V.  H.) 

STALIN  (DJUGASHVILI),  JOSEPH 
VISSAR1ONOVICH,  Soviet  statesman  (b.  Gori,  Georgia, 
Dec.  21,  1879),  secretary  general  of  the  V.K.P.  (Vsesoyuznaya 
Komumsticheskaya  Partia,  or  Ail-Union  Communist  party) 
from  April  3,  1922,  and  prime  minister  of  the  U.S.S.R. 
from  May  6,  1941.  (Foi  his  early  career  see  Encyclopaedia 
Britannica  and  Britannic  a  Book  of  the  Year  1949}. 

On  Jan.  30,  1949,  Marshal  Stalin  published  his  answer  to 
four  questions  put  to  him  by  a  U.S.  news  agency.  He  said 
that  the  Soviet  government  was  prepared  to  consider  the 
publication  of  a  joint  Soviet-U.S.  declaration  that  the  two 
governments  had  no  intention  of  resorting  to  war  against 


588 


STIKKER— STOCKS   AND   SHARES 


each  other;  that  the  U.S.S.R.  was  prepared  to  take  measures 
towards  gradual  disarmament;  that  the  U.S.S.R.  saw  no 
obstacles  to  the  lifting  of  transport  restrictions  between 
Berlin  and  the  western  zones  of  Germany  provided  the 
U.S.,  Great  Britain  and  France  simultaneously  removed 
transport  and  trade  restrictions  between  the  western  and 
the  Soviet  zones,  pending  a  meeting  of  the  Council  of 
Foreign  Ministers  to  consider  the  German  problem;  and 
that  he  was  ready  to  meet  President  Harry  S.  Truman  to 
discuss  these  matters.  On  July  18  he  received  Sir  David 
Kelly,  the  new  British  ambassador  to  the  U.S.S.R.,  and 
on  Aug.  15,  Vice  Admiral  Alan  G.  Kirk,  the  new  U.S. 
ambassador.  On  Oct.  13  he  sent  a  message  to  Wilhelm  Puck, 
president,  and  Otto  Grotewohl,  prime  minister  of  the  German 
Democratic  republic,  in  which  he  expressed  the  opinion  that 
the  German  and  Soviet  peoples  possessed  "the  greatest 
potential  in  Europe  for  accomplishing  great  actions  of  world 
importance."  On  Dec.  21,  his  70th  birthday  was  celebrated 
throughout  the  U.S.S.R.  and  the  Soviet-dominated  states 
with  extraordinary  pomp  and  circumstance.  He  was  awarded 
the  Order  of  Lenin  for  the  second  time.  (He  received  it  for 
the  first  time  in  1939,  on  his  60th  birthday). 

STEEL:   see  IRON  AND  Si  EEL. 

STIKKER,  DIRK  UIPKO,  Dutch  businessman  and 
statesman  (b.  Winschoten,  Groningen  province,  Feb.  5, 
1897),  educated  at  the  University  of  Groningen,  he  started  his 
business  career  as  manager  of  a  bank  at  Leyden  and  later 
at  Haarlem.  From  1935-48  he  was  the  managing  director  of 
a  brewery  company  and  member  of  the  board  of  the  Socicte 
Internationale  de  Brasserie,  Brussels.  In  1946  he  founded  and 
was  elected  chairman  of  the  People's  (Liberal)  Party  for 
Freedom  which  gained  six  seats  in  the  Second  (Lower) 
Chamber  at  the  elections  of  May  17,  1946,  and — having 
merged  in  Jan.  1948  with  the  Democratic  People's  party — 
eight  at  the  elections  of  July  7,  1948.  He  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  First  (Upper)  chamber  on  July  8.  He  joined 
as  minister  of  foreign  affairs  the  Willem  Drees  cabinet  formed 
on  Aug.  6.  On  April  4,  1949,  he  signed  the  North  Atlantic 
treaty  for  the  Netherlands  and  said  that  the  signing  marked 
44  the  end  of  an  illusion — that  the  United  Nations  would  by 
themselves  ensure  international  peace.'*  Although  a  former 
critic  of  the  government's  policy  of  negotiating  with  the 
Indonesians,  during  1949  he  worked  hard  for  a  lasting 
agreement  with  them. 

STOCKS  AND  SHARES.  By  far  the  most 
important  event  of  the  stock  market  world  in  1949  was  the 
devaluation  of  the  pound.  Although  this  did  not  take  place 
until  Sept.  18,  the  circumstances  leading  to  devaluation 
could  be  clearly  seen  at  work  for  the  greater  part  of  the  year 
and  frequently  gave  rise  to  rumours  that  devaluation  was 
about  to  take  place.  It  was  not  over-stating  the  matter 
therefore  to  say  that  stock  markets,  almost  throughout  1949, 
were  under  the  influence  of  the  possibilities  of  devaluation. 

Nowhere  could  the  shadow,  and  the  final  substance,  of 
devaluation  be  seen  more  clearly  than  in  the  gold-mining 
share  section  of  the  stock  exchange.  Since  the  official  U.S. 
price  of  gold  remained  at  $35  an  ounce,  the  effect  of  lowering 
the  value  of  the  £  from  $4-03  to  $2  •  80  was  to  raise  the  price 
of  gold  in  terms  of  sterling;  the  actual  increase  arising  out 
of  this  devaluation  was  from  a  price  of  £8  12s.  3d.  to  £12  85.  a 
fine  ounce.  Sterling  producers  of  gold,  such  as  South  African, 
west  African  and  Australian  mines  therefore  stood  to  gain 
enormous  advantages  from  devaluation,  provided  that  the 
higher  cost  of  machinery  and  stores  imported  from  dollar 
areas  and  increased  labour  costs  did  not  offset  the  addition 
to  the  revenue  of  the  mines.  It  may  be  recalled  that  at  the 


end  of  1948  the  Financial  Times  gold  mines  index  had  fallen 
to  94  67,  its  lowest  since  July  1932,  mainly  for  the  reason 
that  the  price  of  gold  had  remained  virtually  stationary, 
while  because  of  the  world-wide  inflation  costs  had  mounted 
enormously.  This  downward  trend  was  not  reversed  until 
March  1949.  After  that  month  (as  can  be  seen  from  the 
accompanying  table  of  the  monthly  high  and  low  points  of 
the  Financial  Times  indices)  the  index  advanced  more  or  less 
without  a  break  until  following  the  Sept.  18  devaluation  it 
achieved  a  new  and  substantially  higher  level,  closing  1949 
approximately  40%  higher  than  in  Jan.  1949. 

On  the  other  hand,  devaluation  and  the  factors  leading  up 
to  it  had  a  depressing  effect  on  the  other  principal  classes  of 
securities  quoted  on  the  stock  exchange.  At  every  mention 
of  the  word  devaluation,  the  prices  of  British  government  and 
kindred  securities  wilted.  To  the  investor's  mind  the  subjects 
of  the  gold  and  foreign  exchange  holdings  and  confidence  in 
the  government  (and,  therefore,  in  its  securities)  were  closely 
inter-related.  Adverse  trade  figures,  implying  a  drain  upon 
gold  and  dollar  resources,  were  likely  to  produce  an  adverse 
trend  in  government  securities  It  was  therefore  hardly 
surprising  that  in  a  year  of  dollar  crisis,  with  gold  draining 
away  from  the  country,  there  should  have  been  a  substantial 
recession  m  British  government  securities,  which  touched  the 
lowest  levels  since  1939.  The  fall  amounted  to  70/0;  until  the 
government  broker  dramatically  reversed  the  downward 
trend  on  Nov.  11,  it  was  more  than  10%  Such  percentages 
represented  immense  falls  in  total  money  values,  probably 
to  the  extent  of  £1,000  million  in  British  government  securities 
alone.  As  the  year  closed,  the  effects  of  devaluation  were 
tending  to  improve  the  external  balance  of  trade  and  the 
gold  and  foreign  exchange  reserves  of  the  country  This  was 
reflected  in  firmer  markets  for  British  government  securities. 

At  one  time  during  the  "  fall  "  it  was  possible  to  secure 
from  a  British  government  security  (4%  consols)  a  flat  yield 
of  4%.  This  landmark  itself  brought  many  investors  into 
the  market;  but  there  was  no  doubt  that  the  government 
intervention— "  to  squeeze  the  bears,"  in  the  words  of 
Sir  Stafford  Cripps,  the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer — was  the 
main  influence  in  restoring  some  semblance  of  order  and 
confidence  into  the  market.  This  made  it  possible  for  the 
government  to  undertake  with  fair  success  the  conversion  of 
the  £787  million  of  1|%  exchequer  bonds — which  were  to 
mature  on  Feb.  15,  1950 — into  2^%  exchequer  bonds,  due 
for  repayment  in  1955.  The  return  of  the  government  to  the 
market  naturally  raised  the  question  as  to  whether  the  policy 
of  allowing  prices  and  yields  to  find  their  own  levels  had  been 
abandoned  in  favour  of  a  return  to  the  cheap  money  policy 
through  government  control  of  the  market.  But  as  yet  there 
appeared  to  be  no  evidence  of  anything  but  a  desire  to  restore 
the  market  to  an  even  keel,  partly  because  of  the  psychological 
importance  of  the  market  in  the  nation's  affairs  and  partly 
to  warn  those  who  might  have  been  taking  liberties  with  the 
price  structure  by  selling  short. 

The  steady  rise  throughout  the  year  in  yields  of  British 
government  securities  would,  in  normal  circumstances,  have 
tended  to  raise  yields  and  depress  prices  of  industrial  shares 
quite  irrespective  of  other  influences.  The  yield  on  2^% 
consols  advanced  from  3-13%  to  about  3-5%,  but  the 
parallel  movement  in  the  yield  of  industrial  ordinary  shares 
was  of  greater  proportions,  from  4  38%  to  5-20%.  Finan- 
cially, United  Kingdom  industrial  companies  continued  to 
prosper,  although,  so  far  as  public  companies  were  concerned, 
results  had  been  less  uniformly  favourable.  Such  cuts  as  had 
been  made  in  expenditure  following  devaluation  had  so  far 
had  little  effect  and  full  employment  continued.  Nevertheless, 
spending  power  had  varied  at  different  times  of  the  year— 
especially  in  highly  taxed  luxury  industries,  such  as  entertain- 
ment and  brewing — and  the  growth  of  savings  withdrawals 


STOCKS   AND   SHARES 


589 


STOCKS     AND     SHARES 

Prices    and  Yields   on   the  London   Stock  Exchange 


140 


Base   1st  July  1935=100 


140 


100  : 


90 


80 


80 


70 


JFMAMJJASOND 


JFMAMJJASOND 
1949 


had  been  a  disquieting  feature  Despite  this  not  entirely 
unfavourable  background,  the  "  bear  market/'  which  began 
in  industrial  ordinary  share  prices  at  the  beginning  of  1947, 
persisted  in  1949  and  was  in  fact  accelerated  While  the  falls 
in  1947  and  1948  were  only  of  the  order  of  5%  or  so,  in  1949 
prices  fell  by  12|°0.  Apart  from  such  investment  influences 
as  the  problems  to  be  faced  in  balancing  United  Kingdom 
external  trade  at  a  high  level  and  the  extent  of  the  expected 
cut  in  and  under  the  European  Recovery  programme, 
markets  had  to  reckon  with  an  important  technical  factor. 
The  only  nationalisation  operation  undertaken  during  the 
year  was  in  respect  of  the  gas  industry;  and  the  amount  of 
re-investing  in  industrial  equities  by  investors  who  did  not 
wish  to  retain  the  nationalization  stock  (3%  British  gas, 
1990-95)  was  relatively  small  compared  with  previous  opera- 
tions of  this  nature. 

There  was,  indeed,  little  encouragement  for  investors  to 
take  an  optimistic  view  of  the  futiuc  of  share  prices.  The 
continued  austerity  policy  of  the  government  and  the  more 
or  less  fixed  nature  of  dividends,  owing  to  dividend  limitation, 


60 


55- 


50 


45 


4  O 


3  5   -~        - 


3  0 


60 


—  -  5  5 


2  5 


J    FMAMJJASON    0|  J    F  M  AMJJASOND 
1948  I  1949 


2  5 


provided  no  incentive.  Taxation  was  once  more  at  a  high 
level;  indeed,  it  was  increased  by  the  raising  of  the  distributed 
profits  tax  from  25%  to  30%  following  devaluation.  As  the 
year  ended,  a  brighter  atmosphere  developed,  which  is  not 
unusual  at  that  season.  This  was  partly  a  reflection  of  the 
reluctance  of  investors  to  sell  and  the  consequent  market 
shortage  of  stock.  (A.  L.  W.  S.) 

The  U  S.  stock  market  of  1949  was  inactive  in  volume  of 
trading,  unusually  steady  throughout  the  year  as  to  the 
average  price  level  and  extraordinarily  unresponsive  to  either 
good  or  bad  news  Alternate  bear  and  bull  movements—- 
only two  in  number,  involving  a  bear  market  during  the 
first  half  of  the  year  and  a  moderate  recovery  during  the 
second  half —were  unusually  small  in  extent.  For  90  stocks 
combined,  representing  the  railroad,  industrial  and  public 
utility  groups,  the  December  average  price  level  stood  at 
131  6,  as  compared  with  121  9  for  January,  and  with 
1 20  6  and  1 1 7 • 7  for  December  and  January  of  1 948.  Briefly 
summarized,  the  1949  price  level  seemed  to  indicate  a  slight 
bear  market  in  certain  groups  of  stocks,  and  a  slight  bull 


TABLL 


Price  Indices 


oh  THI   LONDON  STOCK  MARKET 
Highest  and  lowest  monthly  figures 


INDICES  IN  1949 
Yields  "„  on 


Month 

Jan. 

Fcb 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

Aug 

Sept 

Oct.      . 

Nov.     . 

Dec 


r 
Government 

Industrial 

securities 

ordinary 

^igh 

Low 

'   High 

Low 

113   89 

113   55 

122  8 

121    1 

114  00 

113   89 

122-7 

118   6 

113   87 

113  61 

118  2 

111    2 

114  05 

113  74 

115-5 

113    7 

114  02 

113  06 

116  0 

109   6 

113   01 
109  90 

109  37 
106  88 

108  4 
105    1 

100-1 
101    7 

106-96 

105  05 

104  6 

101    6 

107   28 

106  08 

110  3 

103    5 

107-73 

103   35 

106  0 

100  4 

107  01 

101   48 

103-5 

99  8 

107   23 

105   51 

106  4 

103   9 

Gold  mines 


Consols 


High 

94  28 

95  65 
103  89 
106  24 
103  09 
103  21 
112  14 
114  23 

135  15 
138  46 

136  43 
134  71 


Low 
86  22 
89  72 
88  74 
102  40 
98  11 
98  70 
103-75 
110-49 
107  75 
129  66 
132  08 
131  61 


High 
3  13 
3  09 


13 
11 
12 
34 
46 
56 
51 
69 
80 


Low 
3  09 
3  07 
*  10 
3  07 


3   57 


06 
15 
29 
38 
40 
41 
41 
42 


Industrial 

ordinary 

Wh 

Low 

4   39 

4   33 

4  48 

4  34 

4   78 

4  49 

4  74 

4  67 

5  02 

4  65 

5   50 

5  07 

5  41 

5-23 

5  42 

5   26 

5   33 

5  01 

5   50 

5  2t 

5   54 

5   34 

5-32 

5   20 

Daily  Bargains 


High 

Low 

8,373 

5,702 

8,551 

5,466 

8,545 

5,568 

8,276 

4,887 

7,248 

5  549 

7,403 

4.848 

7,158 

4,956 

6,745 

4,376 

13,686 

4,140 

10  265 

5,731 

7,400 

5,224 

7,347 

3,475 

These  indices  of  prices  on  the  London  stock  exchange  arc  reproduced  by  courtesy  of  the  Financial  7»wr.>,  London 

Constituents  oi  the  indices  arc  industrial  ordinary,  30  of  the  leading  British  industrial  equities  ,  government  securities,  1 1  British  government  securities  including 
short-dated,  medium-dated,  long-dated  and  some  redeemable  only  at  the  option  of  the  government,  gold  mines.  30  South  and  West  African  and  West  Australian 
gold  mining  shares  The  industrial  ordmaiy  share  yield  is  based  on  dividends  on  the  shares  m  the  industrial  ordinary  share  index.  Stock  exchange  markings  are  the 
number  of  bargains  recorded  in  the  stock  exchange  official  list  Base  dates  of  the  indices,  when  they  were  100,  wre  industrial  ordinary,  July  I,  1935  ,  government 
securities  and  gold  mines,  Oct  15,  1926. 


590 


STRANG 


TABLE  II.  —  U.S.  SECURITY  MARKET  PRICES 
Railroads                   Industrials                Public  utilities 

20  stocks 

50  stocks 

20  stocks 

1948 

1949 

1948 

1949 

1948 

1949 

43-6 

43-2 

145-5 

151-7 

68-6 

68  6 

41-6 

40  2 

138-2 

145-2 

65-6 

69-3 

42-5 

39  6 

140-1 

146-7 

66-4 

70-5 

46-8 

39-5 

151-4 

146-1 

69-1 

71-8 

50-2 

38-8 

158-6 

144-6 

72-2 

72-7 

51-0 

35-8 

165-8 

136  2 

74-0 

70-3 

50-6 

36-7 

161-5 

144-9 

72  8 

72-3 

48-7 

38-3 

156-8 

149-8 

70-7 

75-6 

48-7 

38  6 

154-7 

151-4 

70-6 

77-8 

49   1 

39-5 

159  6 

155-6 

71-1 

79-1 

44-4 

39  2 

151-0 

158-0 

67-5 

79-8 

43-1 

41-0 

150  5 

162-3 

66   1 

81  -6 

January 

February 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

*  1935-39  base  period,  all  other  figures  use  1926  as  a  base  period 

The  above  figures  are  an  average  for  the  month  based  on  daily  closing  prices,  except  for  copper,  which  are  wecklv  closing  prices. 
(Source:  Standard  &  Poor's  Trade  and  Securities,  Current  Statistics  ) 


•"Copper 
7  stocks 

1948 

1949 

115   1 

128-1 

108  2 

116-7 

116-5 

111-1 

132-3 

105-7 

136-2 

103  •  3 

142  0 

98-9 

140-2 

107-3 

137  0 

109-1 

134-3 

105  4 

139-1 

109-6 

130  9 

113  6 

129  4 

114  9 

Stocks 

90  stocks 

1948 

1949 

117-7 

121-9 

112-0 

117-3 

113-6 

118-4 

122-3 

118-3 

128-3 

117-4 

133-6 

110-9 

130-4 

117-2 

126-6 

121-4 

125-1 

123-0 

128  6 

126-2 

121-4 

127-9 

120-6 

131  6 

market  in  others,  but  without  any  definite  momentum  for 
future  forecasting. 

Corporate  dividends,  with  the  exception  of  certain  limited 
groups  like  the  amusement,  food  products  and  mining  stocks, 
showed  an  increase  of  8-2%  in  total  dividend  distribution 
during  1949  as  compared  with  1948.  As  was  the  case  in  1948, 
most  groups  of  corporations  except  the  rails  managed  to 
adjust  themselves  fairly  well,  through  price  increases  and 
improved  productive  efficiency,  to  the  large  successive  wage 
increases  won  by  labour  in  1947-49 

The  stock  market  seemed  to  withstand  the  shock  of 
adverse  news  throughout  1949;  the  market  might  "  back 
and  fill,"  but  the  averages  were  well  maintained.  A  longer 
perspective  view  might  conclude  that  the  drastic  decline  of 
the  last  half  of  1946  could  be  regarded  as  a  discounting 
of  the  nation's  economic  problems  during  1947-49,  and  thus 
explain  the  periodic  backing  and  filling  of  the  market  during 
the  three  previous  years. 

On  Nov.  1,  1949,  the  market  value  of  all  listed  shares  on 
the  New  York  Stock  exchange  stood  at  $72-631  million  with 
an  average  flat  price  per  share  of  $43-75.  On  Nov.  1,  1948, 
this  market  value  stood  at  $72,186  million,  with  an  average 
flat  price  per  share  of  $45  •  26.  A  depreciation  in  the  value 
per  share  of  approximately  3-3%  was  shown  for  the  period. 

According  to  the  New  York  Stock  exchange's  compilation, 
the  total  stocks  listed  on  that  exchange  on  Nov.  1,  1949, 
stood  at  2,145  million  shares,  with  a  total  market  value  of 
$72,631  million.  This  value  compared  with  $72,185  million 
on  Nov.  1,  1948,  $68,884  million  on  Nov.  1,  1947,  $66r115 
million  on  Nov.  1,  1946,  and  $69,560  million  on  Nov.  1, 
1945.  Of  the  1949  total  (as  of  Nov.  1)  U.S.  stocks  aggregated 
2,079  million  shares  valued  at  $71,451  million,  and  stocks  of 
other  countries  65,834,000  shares,  valued  at  $6,180  million. 
The  total  of  shares  was  distributed  over  1,432  separate  U.S. 
issues  and  20  issues  of  other  countries,  representing  a  total 
of  1,452  issuing  corporations. 

TABLE  III. — U.S.  BOND  PRICES  FOR  1949 
Composite  Bonds  Al-f 

Dollars  per  $100 
(Standard  and  Poor's  Weekly  Corporation) 


Month 

January  . 

February. 

March     . 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August    . 

September 

October  . 

November 

December 


Average 
119-8 
120-0 
120-7 
120-2 
120-2 
120-2 
120-9 
121-7 
122-1 
121-9 
122-2 
122-5 


with  302,  218,965  shares  during  1948.  The  New  York  curb 
market  had  sales  during  1949  of  66,130,000  shares,  as  com- 
pared with  75,090,000  during  1948.  The  U.S.  bond  market 
was  remarkably  stable  during  1949  at  a  high  price  level. 
The  rise  in  bonds  after  June  was  accompanied  by  a  similar 
trend  in  the  stock  market. 

According  to  the  New  York  Stock  exchange's  compilation, 
the  total  par  value  of  bonds  listed  on  that  exchange  at  the 
beginning  of  Nov.  1949  stood  at  $129,870  million,  with  a 
market  value  of  $132,221  million — comparing  with  $131,226 
million  and  $136,711  million  for  the  corresponding  years  of 
1948  and  1947.  Of  the  1949  total,  U  S.  corporation  bonds  (at 
the  beginning  of  November)  amounted  to  $17,328  million  (par 
value),  with  a  market  value  of  $  1 6,478  million ;  company  bonds 
of  other  countries,  a  par  value  of  $551,153,000  and  a  market 
value  of  $475,925,000;  U.S.  government  bonds  (inclusive 
of  corporations  and  subdivisions),  a  par  value  of  $110,279 
million  and  a  market  value  of  $114,029  million;  and  other 
governments  (inclusive  of  subdivisions),  a  par  value  of 
$1,460  million  and  a  market  value  of  $982,410,000.  The 
total  listed  bonds  of  U.S.  corporations  were  distributed  over 
616  issues  with  312  issuers;  of  U.S.  government  bonds,  71 
issues  and  3  issuers;  and  other  governments,  182  issues  and 
48  issuers.  The  total  bonds  traded  on  the  New  York  Stock 
exchange  during  1949  amounted  to  $817,949,070,  as  com- 
pared with  $1,013,829,000  during  1948. 

According  to  the  condensed  statement,  income  and  expenses 
of  the  exchange  for  the  nine  months  ended  Sept.  30,  1949, 
showed  a  net  loss  of  $325,995.  This  compared  with  a  loss  of 
$367,108  for  the  same  period  of  1948  (See  also  BUSINESS 
REVIEW.)  (S.  S.  H.) 


STRAITS  SETTLEMENTS: 

ATION  OF)  AND  SINGAPORE. 


sec  MALAYA  (FEDER- 


Total  shares  traded  on  the  New  York  Stock  exchange 
during  1949  amounted  to  272,203,402  shares,  as  compared 


STRANG,  SIR  WILLIAM,  British  diplomat 
(b.  Jan.  2,  1893),  was  educated  at  Palmer's  school,  Grays, 
at  University  college,  London,  and  at  the  Sorbonne,  Paris. 
He  served  in  World  War  I,  and  entered  the  diplomatic  service 
in  Sept.  1919.  From  1919  to  1922  he  was  in  Belgrade  and 
was  in  Moscow  from  1930  to  1933.  He  was  promoted  to  be 
an  acting  assistant  under  secretary  of  state  in  Sept.  1939 
and  in  Nov.  1943  was  appointed  United  Kingdom  representa- 
tive on  the  European  advisory  commission  with  the  personal 
rank  of  ambassador.  He  became  political  adviser  to  the 
commander  in  chief  of  the  British  forces  in  Germany  in  June 
1945,  and  in  Oct.  1947  he  returned  to  the  Foreign  Office  as  joint 
permanent  under  secretary  of  state  (German  section).  He 
succeeded  Sir  Orme  Sargent  as  permanent  under  secretary 
on  Feb.  1,  1949.  He  visited  Austria  and  attended  meetings 
of  the  Allied  council  in  March  1948.  In  May  and  June  1949 
he  undertook  a  tour  of  north  Africa  and  the  middle  east 
and  visited  Tripoli,  Benghasi,  Amman  and  Tehran.  His 


STRIKES   AND   LOCK-OUTS 


591 


proposed  visits  to  Baghdad,  Bahrein  and  Saudi  Arabia  were 
cancelled  because  of  indisposition.  He  was  created  a 
K.C.M.G.  in  1943  and  a  K.CB.  in  1948. 

STRIKES  AND  LOCK-OUTS.  Up  to  October, 
the  total  number  of  days  lost  in  Great  Britain  in  1949  by 
strikes  and  lock-outs  was  only  1,665,000  working  days, 
as  compared  with  1,824,000  in  the  corresponding  period  of 
1948.  These  were  both  remarkably  low  figures,  in  relation  to 
a  labour  force  of  22  million.  Most  of  the  days  lost  were 
accounted  for  by  coal-mining  (735,000)  and  transport 
(528,000);  but  even  in  coal-mining  the  loss  was  only  a  day 
for  each  man  employed,  and  was  much  less  serious  than  the 
loss  of  output  from  either  sickness  or  voluntary  absence 
from  work.  The  only  considerable  stoppages  during  1949 
were  the  following.  In  January  there  was  a  one-day  strike 
of  28,000  London  road  transport  workers  for  special  payment 
on  Saturday  afternoons  (referred  to  arbitration).  In  April 
there  was  a  three-days'  strike  of  16,700  London  dockers 
and  stevedores  in  protest  against  discharges  of  workers 
regarded  as  redundant  or  ineffective:  work  was  resumed 
without  concessions.  In  May  dockers  at  Bristol,  Liverpool 
and  a  few  other  ports  struck  in  sympathy  with  the  left-wing 
Canadian  Seamen's  union,  refusing  to  handle  cargoes  for 
vessels  involved  in  the  dispute  between  this  union  and  the 
Canadian  shipowners.  The  strike  petered  out  in  mid-June, 
after  involving  about  11,500  men  at  one  time  or  another. 
There  also  occurred  in  May  a  1 2-day  stoppage  of  the  Lanc- 
ashire coal-miners  in  connection  with  a  claim  to  "con- 
cessionary "  coal  (that  is,  coal  at  less  than  market  price  for 
the  miners'  own  use).  This  dispute,  involving  44,000  men, 
ended  inconclusively,  the  matter  being  referred  for  negotia- 
tion nationally  between  the  Coal  board  and  the  National 
Union  of  Mineworkers.  In  June  the  Canadian  shipping 
dispute  led  to  a  further  stoppage,  this  time  in  London. 
At  first  only  a  few  hundred  men  were  involved ;  but  later  in 
the  month  the  trouble  spread,  and  in  the  third  week  of  July 
the  number  rose  to  nearly  16,000.  On  July  23,  the  strike, 
which  had  been  throughout  unofficial  and  opposed  by  the 
Transport  and  General  Workers'  union,  was  called  off  by  the 
unofficial  leaders,  a  month  after  its  beginning.  In  August 
91,000  workers  in  the  Yorkshire  and  Lancashire  coalfields 
were  idle  for  four  days  owing  to  a  strike  of  550  winding 
enginemen,  who  claimed  higher  wages  on  the  ground  that 
their  time-rates  were  out  of  relation  to  the  earnings  of  other 
mineworkers,  and  that  the  N.U.M.  was  refusing  to  deal 
adequately  with  their  demands  in  its  negotiations  with  the 
National  Coal  board.  This  dispute  was  referred  to  arbitration 
after  the  Colliery  Winders'  federation  had  ordered  a  resump- 
tion of  work.  The  National  Arbitration  tribunal  later 
rejected  most  of  the  claims;  but  some  concessions  were 
secured.  In  August  there  was  also  a  small  but  important 
dispute  affecting  locomotive  drivers  and  firemen  on  east 
coast  routes.  The  matter  at  issue  concerned  the  conditions 
of  "  lodging  turns,"  where  men  had  to  be  away  from  home 
overnight.  Objection  was  taken  to  new  regulations,  which 
the  men  resented  as  involving  too  frequent  absences.  The 
stoppage  of  work  occurred  on  successive  Sundays  between 
Aug.  14-28,  and  was  ended  by  a  promise  to  withdraw  the 
disputed  turns  at  the  end  of  the  summer,  and  not  to 
re-introduce  them.  In  September  a  series  of  stoppages,  none 
lasting  for  more  than  a  few  days,  took  place  at  various 
collieries  in  Scotland,  where  the  *'  oncost "  workers  paid  at 
daily  rates  demanded  higher  wages.  The  matter  was  referred 
for  further  negotiation  between  the  Coal  board  and  the 
N.U.M.  There  were  no  disputes  of  importance  in  either 
October  or  Nov.  1949.  But  on  Dec.  12  an  unofficial  strike  at 
three  London  power  stations,  which  spread  to  a  fourth, 
over  a  wages  decision,  constituted  a  serious  threat  to  London's 


electricity  supply,  despite  the  drafting  of  servicemen  to  man 
the  stations.  After  discussions  between  the  strike  leaders, 
trade  union  officials  and  the  British  Electricity  authority, 
work  was  fully  resumed  on  Dec.  16. 

In  considering  the  absence  of  serious  industrial  strife  it  is 
necessary  to  bear  in  mind  that  the  wartime  provisions  for 
the  reference  of  disputes  to  arbitration  by  the  National 
Arbitration  tribunal  or  some  other  acceptable  bod}'  remained 
in  being,  and  also  that  the  policy  of  the  Trades  Union  congress 
in  advising  unions  to  refrain  from  pressing  wage-claims 
meant  that  nation-wide  stoppages  could  not  occur.  Most 
stoppages  were  therefore  unofficial,  or  at  any  rate  sponsored 


Troops  unloading  meat  from  the   "  Argentine  Star "   at  London 
docks  on  July  7,  7949,  during  the  London  dock  strike. 


592 


SUEZ   CANAL 


STRIKES    AND    LOCKOUTS    IN     U.K 


Number  of  working   days    lost  through   disputes 

in 
|    Coal  Mining 


TOTAL    NUMBER  OF 
WORKING    DAYS 
/UDST 


30  31     32    33    34    35    36    37    38    39    40  4 


42    43    44    45    46    47    48 


only  by  smaller  unions  which  rejected  the  official  policy; 
and  most  of  them  arose  out  of  grievances  in  a  particular 
establishment  or  at  most  a  particular  district.  Of  the  major 
disputes  mentioned,  only  the  sympathetic  stoppages  in  sup- 
port of  the  Canadian  Seamen's  union  showed  any  consider- 
able sign  of  Communist  influence,  which  was  weak  in  most 
unions — even  in  those  in  which  Communists  held  a  number 
of  official  positions.  Even  among  the  London  dockers,  the 
large  response  to  the  unofficial  strike-call  came  mainly  from 
men  who  did  not  support  Communism  but  were  discontented 
with  what  they  regarded  as  the  bureaucratic  leadership  of 
the  Transport  and  General  Workers'  union.  Moreover  a 
call  not  to  blackleg  on  fellow-workers  usually  exercises  a 
strong  emotional  appeal,  and  in  the  London  and  Bristol 
dock  stoppages  the  extension  of  the  trouble  was  due  largely 
to  unwise  handling  of  the  issue  by  the  port  employers.  In 
general,  a  growing  sense  of  national  emergency  strengthened 
the  hands  of  the  official  leaders  of  the  trade  unions  in  checking 
all  stoppages  except  those  due  to  purely  local  troubles  and 
in  bringing  such  spontaneous  movements  to  a  rapid  end. 

The  period  of  industrial  tranquility  in  Great  Britain,  as 
measured  by  the  absence  of  really  serious  stoppages  of  work, 
had  lasted  for  23  years — ever  since  the  general  strike  of  1926. 
To  a  considerable  extent  this  was  due  to  the  great  extension 
of  collective  bargaining  procedure  and,  after  1939,  to  the 
adoption  of  arbitration  as  the  normal  method  of  settling 
differences  when  agreement  could  not  be  reached  by  direct 
negotiation. 

In  the  British  colonies,  serious  troubles  developed  in 
November  out  of  a  strike  of  coal  miners  in  Nigeria.  Police 
attempting  to  remove  explosives  from  the  affected  mines 
were  attacked  and  opened  fire,  killing  a  number  of  strikers; 
and  trouble  spread  to  the  ports.  A  state  of  emergency  was 
declared  in  the  areas  affected. 

Europe.  In  France  there  were  in  1949  no  stoppages  com- 
parable in  importance  with  those  of  the  previous  year, 
which  included  the  extensive  and  bitterly  fought  coal  strike 
of  Oct.-Nov.  1948.  The  most  important  strike  in  1949 
was  a  one-day  stoppage  of  civil  servants  (including  teachers) 
in  June,  initiated  by  the  Socialist  trade  union  Force  Ouvriere, 
but  supported  both  by  the  Communist-led  Confederation 
Generale  du  Transit  and  by  the  Christian  trade  unions. 
The  purpose  of  the  strike  was  to  protest  against  the  govern- 
ment's refusal  to  grant  higher  salary  scales  to  compensate 
for  increased  living  costs.  A  further  protest  strike,  extending 
over  a  much  wider  field  but  also  limited  to  a  single  day,  took 
place  in  November.  In  Italy  extensive  farm  workers'  strikes 
in  June  secured  considerable  concessions  from  the  govern- 


ment (see  TRADE  UNIONS),  and  renewed  troubles  broke  out 
in  southern  Italy  and  Sicily  in  November  in  protest  against 
the  delay  in  enforcing  land  distribution  for  the  benefit  of 
landless  peasants.  In  Western  Germany  there  were  small 
and  short  stoppages  in  protest  against  the  continuance  of 
dismantling  but  no  considerable  stoppages.  (G.  D.  H.  C.) 

United  States.  During  1948  (Table  1),  the  U.S.  experienced 
3,419  labour  disputes,  a  decline  of  274  from  the  1947  level 
and  of  1,566  from  the  1946  level.  A  total  of  34,100,000 
man-days  were  lost  in  1948  which  was  only  slightly  less  than 
in  1947.  This  was  opposed  to  the  record  level  of  1 16  million 
man-days  lost  in  1946.  The  first  eight  months  of  1949 
indicated  a  further  decline  in  such  activity  since  the  strikes 
in  progress  caused  a  loss  of  less  than  19  million  working 
days.  However,  several  very  large  strikes  of  several  weeks* 
duration  occurred  in  the  coal-mining  and  steel  industries 
in  later  months. 

In  Table  1,  figures  on  man-days  idle  and  workers  involved 
cover  all  workers  made  idle  in  establishments  directly 
involved  in  a  stoppage.  Figures  for  1949  are  preliminary 
and  subject  to  revision. 


TABLL  I  —  UNITFD  SFAFLS 
YIAR,  WORKERS 


NlJMBlR    OF    SlRIKFS    BK.INNINt,    IN    THE 
NVOLVl-D    AND    MAN-DAYS    LoSF 


Number 

Man-days 

?o  of 

Number  of 

workers 

idle 

estimated 

Year 

strikes 

involved 

during  year 

work  time 

1935-39  average 

2,862 

1  ,  1  30.000 

16,900,000 

0  27 

1945      . 

4,750 

3,470,000 

38,000,000 

0  47 

1946 

4,985 

4,600,000 

1  1  6,000,000 

1   43 

1947 

3,693 

2,170,000 

34,600,000 

0  41 

1948 

3,419 

1,960,000 

34,100,000 

0-37 

1949(8  mo  ) 

.      2,625 

1  ,976,000 

18,750,000 

0  32 

strikes 

involved 

days 

Jan 

10 

1,811 

9,700 

Feb 

9 

7,235 

71,712 

March 

10 

5,978 

135,725 

April 

18 

7,877 

139,500 

May 

23 

10,540 

174,150 

June 

27 

11,359 

141,084 

July 

18 

12,501 

57,744 

Aug 

19 

4,541 

35,451 

Sept 

— 

— 

Get 

— 

— 

— 

Nov. 

— 

—  . 

_  . 

Dec 

— 

— 

involved 

days 

12,729 

115,835 

11,058 

140,130 

3,845 

57,133 

4,678 

51,269 

3,204 

39,754 

3,804 

34,337 

8,338 

77,588 

7,617 

110,625 

11,878 

118,293 

7,310 

87,223 

3,307 

16,000 

SoURCb      United  States  Bureau  of  Labour  Statistics,  Monthly  labour  Review 

Canada.  Table  II  compares  the  number  and  time  loss  in 
Canadian  labour  disputes  for  the  fust  eight  months  of  1949 
with  figures  for  all  of  1948.  During  Jan.,  Feb.  and  Aug. 
TABLF  II  NUMBER*  AND  IIMF  loss  IN  CANADIAN  LABOUR  DISPUTES, 

1949  (CKilil    MONIHS)  ANI>    1948,  BY  MON  I  HSf 

1949  1948 

No   of      Time  loss  No   oi       Time  losi 

No  of  employees  in  working  No  of  employees  in  working 
strikes 
19 
14 
15 
18 
22 
29 
26 
31 
32 
23 
20 
11 

*  These  figures  relate  only  to  the  actual  number  of  strikes  and  lock-outs  in 
existence  and  the  \vorkers  involved  during  the  year,  not  being  a  summation  m 
each  case  of  the  monthly  figures 

t  Compiled  from  the  I abour  (htzettc  (Ottawa)  All  1949  and  last  three 
months  of  1948  figures  are  pielimmary 

1949,  time  lost  and  employees  involved  declined  below  the 
corresponding  months  of  1948.  All  other  months  of  1949 
experienced  an  increase  in  time  loss  (except  July)  and  in 
number  of  workers  involved.  (P.  TA.) 

SUDAN:  see  ANGLO- EGYPTIAN  SUDAN;  FRENCH  UNION. 

SUEZ  CANAL.  The  substantial  increase  in  tanker 
traffic  between  the  middle  east  and  Europe  passing  through 
the  Suez  canal  led  to  a  decision  at  the  close  of  1948  to  embark 
on  a  major  programme  of  improvements,  in  particular  the 
cutting  of  a  by-pass  canal  about  30  mi.  south  of  Port  Said, 
The  by-pass  would  be  7^  mi.  long,  and  would  enable 
petroleum  ships  proceeding  in  convoy,  as  do  other  vessels 
today,  to  make  the  transit  with  increased  speed  and  under 
even  greater  conditions  of  safety,  as  they  would  no  longer 
have  to  pass  alongside  other  ships.  The  work  was  entrusted 


SUGAR 


593 


to  a  French  group  of  companies  and  was  started  m  the 
second  half  of  1949.  It  was  estimated  that  it  would  take  about 
15  months  at  an  approximate  cost  of  £1  6  million. 

The  Sue/  Canal  company  also  decided  to  deepen  the  canal 
by  20  in  over  its  whole  length,  involving  the  removal  of 
8  million  cu.  yd.  of  under  water  soil  and  800,000  cu.  yd.  of 
rock.  This  would  require  from  four  to  five  years.  Additionally, 
the  tanker  moonng-station  m  Lake  Tmisah  would  be  deepened, 
and  one  of  the  basins  in  Port  Said  enlarged  to  permit  the 
berthing  of  18  ships  of  660  ft.  instead  of  9  ships  of  330  ft. 

On  March  7  an  important  new  agreement  was  signed 
between  the  Egyptian  government  and  the  company.  The 
provisions  were  as  follows: 

I.  The  number  of  Fgyptian  directors  will  gradually  be  increased 
from  2  to  7.    Two  will  occupy  the  vacancies  in  the  quota  of  French 
directors.    One  will  be  given  the  first  vacancy  m  the  quota  of  non- 
government British  directors;    and  two  additional  Hgyptian  directors 
will  be  appointed,  one  in  1959  and  the  other  in  1964 

II.  On  July  1  annually  the  company  will  pay  the  Egyptian  govern- 
ment an   allowance  of  7°0  of   the  gross  profits  of  the  preceding 
financial  year,   with  a   guaranteed   minimum  of  £H350,000.      This 
allowance,  however,  shall  not  exceed  the  total  gross  profit  should 
this  fall  below  that  figure 

III.  I-xemption  from  canal  dues  will  be  granted  to  all  transiting 
vessels  of  less  than  300  gross  Suez  c.'nal  tonnage 

IV  As  from  1949  the  company  will  engage  its  staff  working  in 
Fgypt  on  the  scale  o(   4  Tgyptians  for  every  5   vacancies  on  the 
technical  side,  and  9  for  every   10  vacancies  on  the  administrative 
side     'I he  company  will  also  recruit  a  certain  number  of  tgyptian 
officials  for  other  intermediate  posts 

V  Providing  they  have  the  lequisite  professional  qualifications  20 
l-gyptian  pilots  will  be  granted  priority  of  engagement  to  fill  forth- 
coming vacancies    Subsequently  one  in  every  two  vacancies  will  be 
reserved  for  an  hgyptian  pilot 

VI  The  company  renounces  its  right  to  the  remainder  of  the  sums 
due   by  the  town  of    Poit   Said   in   reimbursement  of  development 
carried  out  in  the  past 

VII  The  hgyptian  government  will  establish  a  municipality  at 
Ismaiha,  which  in  future  will  be  responsible  for  the  town's  develop- 
ment and  maintenance  expenses 

VIII.  The  company  will  hand  over  to  the  Lgyptian  government  the 
Ismaiha -Port    Said   fresh   water   canal,  the   government   assuming 
responsibility  for  its  upkeep  and  for  providing  the  company's  water- 
works in  Port  Said  with  the  water  necessary  for  the  requirements 
of  the  town  and  shipping  generally 

IX.  The  company  will  create  a  basin  for  the  fishing  fleet  at  Port 
Said. 

X.  For  the  purpose  of  constructing  the  by-pass  canal  the  required 
tract  of  land  will  be  conceded  to  the  company  in  exchange  for  double 
the  surface  of  land  elsewhere  not  indispensable  for  the  running  of 
the  canal. 

XI.  The  concession  for  the  exploitation  of  Attaka  quarries,  pro- 
viding stone  for  the  company's  needs,  will  be  renewed  and  extended 
up  to  the  end  of  the  company's  canal  concession 

This  agreement  came  into  force  in  August  after  ratification 
by  both  parties 

During  the  year  Norway  offered  a  serious  challenge  to  the 
United  States  for  second  place  among  the  nations  using  the 
canal  and  the  year  was  also  marked  by  the  appearance  m  the 
canal  for  the  first  time  of  vessels  flying  the  Libcuan  flag. 

Although  there  was  no  peace  settlement  between  Egypt 
and  Israel  the  position  affecting  the  search  of  vessels  in 
Egyptian  ports  and  the  detaining  of  some  cargoes  which 
might  be  destined  for  Israel  had  eased.  Satisfactory  conver- 
sations took  place  in  Paris  in  June  between  the  British 
foreign  secretary  and  the  Egyptian  foreign  minister.  Following 
upon  the  resultant  improvement,  the  Egyptian  customs 
administration  in  November  informed  shipping  agents  of  an 
order  which  permitted  free  transit  through  Egyptian  ports 
of  normal  commercial  cargoes  to  and  from  Israel.  (H.  J.  S  ) 

The  Growth  of  Traffic.  In  1880,  2,026  ships  totalling  3  million 
tons  used  the  canal  In  1913  the  tiguics  rose  to  5,085  ships  and 
20  million  tons,  in  1938  to  6,171  ships  and  34  million  tons;  in  1948 
to  8,686  ships  and  55  million  tons. 

SUGAR.  Climatic  conditions  in  Europe  in  1948 
were  more  favourable  for  the  growing  of  sugar  beet 
than  in  1947  when  the  crops  in  most  countries  suffered  from 

B.B  Y  —39 


drought.  The  estimated  total  beet  sugar  output  of  Europe, 
exclusive  of  the  U.S.S  R.,  in  the  1948-49  season,  on  a  raw 
value  basis,  was  over  6|  million  tons  compared  with  less 
than  4^  million  tons  in  1947-48,  some  5  million  tons  in  1946- 
47  and  an  average  of  about  7  million  tons  for  the  years  just 
before  World  War  II.  There  was  a  fairly  general  all-round 
increase  in  production  and  in  some  countries,  notably 
Germany,  France,  Czechoslovakia  and  Italy,  the  increase 
was  considerable.  Germany,  with  an  output  of  1,300,000 
tons,  and  France  with  950,000  tons,  were  the  leading  pro- 
ducing countries;  they  were  followed,  in  order  of  impot  tance, 
by  Poland,  the  United  Kingdom  and  Czechoslovakia,  each 
of  which  had  a  crop  above  the  prewar  average.  Although 
the  increase  for  the  United  Kingdom  was  less  marked  than 
that  of  some  of  the  other  countries,  its  output,  at  630,000  tons, 
was  about  150,000  tons  more  than  in  1947-48  and  the  heaviest 
ever  recorded.  Official  estimates  for  the  U.S.S.R.  were  not 
available,  but  trade  reports  indicated  a  yield  of  approximately 
1,800,000  ions,  an  increase  of  some  300,000  tons  over  the 
figure  for  1947-48.  Preliminary  estimates  for  1949-50  indicated 
little  change  m  the  production  of  beet  sugar  in  Europe  but  a 
further  recovery  in  the  U.S  S.R..  though  its  figures  were 
not  expected  to  be  up  to  the  prewar  level. 

In  spite  of  a  fairly  big  reduction  in  the  output  of  Cuba 
compared  with  the  very  high  figure  of  1947,  and  some 
decline  in  the  production  of  India,  there  was  a  further 
increase  in  the  world  output  of  cane  sugar  in  1948-49,  the 
estimated  total  yield,  in  terms  of  raw  sugar  including  the 
raw  value  of  Indian  gnr,  being  nearly  20J  million  tons  as 
against  20  million  tons  in  1947-48.  The  expansion  was  due 
largely  to  heavier  crops  in  other  parts  of  the  Commonwealth 
and  a  substantial  recovery  in  the  production  of  the  Philhpines 
and  other  territories  occupied  by  the  Japanese  during 
World  War  II.  The  combined  production  of  India  and 
Pakistan  was  estimated  at  about  3,600,000  tons.  The  bulk 
of  this  quantity,  however,  consisted  of  gur^  an  inferior  type 
of  sugar;  the  output  of  white  sugar  accounted  for  only 
about  1 ,300,000  tons.  Of  the  other  Commonwealth  countries, 
Australia  was  by  far  the  most  important  with  an  estimated 
output  of  over  900,000  tons;  South  Africa  produced  about 
550,000  tons.  There  was  a  very  heavy  crop  in  Jamaica; 
the  British  West  Indies  and  British  Guiana  together  pro- 
vided some  800,000  tons.  Production  in  Mauritius  was 
estimated  at  nearly  400,000  tons.  The  combined  output  of 
the  countries  mentioned  exceeded  that  of  1947-48  by  more 
than  400,000  tons  and,  in  each  case,  production  was  appreci- 
ably heavier  than  in  prewar  years.  On  the  basis  of  preliminary 
crop  estimates,  output  of  cane  sugar  in  Commonwealth 
countries  in  1949-50  should  be  approximately  the  same  as  in 
1948-49.  It  was  expected  that  crops  would  be  good  in  India, 
Pakistan  and  Australia  and  that  production  in  South  Africa 
and  the  British  West  Indies  would  be  maintained  at  about 
the  1948-49  high  level. 

The  international  trade  in  sugar  was  confined  mainly  to 
cane  sugar.  Among  Commonwealth  countries  increased 
domestic  consumption  in  Australia  and  South  Africa  in  the 
1940s  reduced  the  supplies  available  for  export  and,  in  most 
years,  shipments  from  India  were  comparatively  unimportant. 
In  1948-49,  however,  the  exports  from  Australia  rose  sharply 
from  the  1947-48  total  of  100,000  tons  to  over  400,000  tons. 
Exports  from  the  British  West  Indies  and  British  Guiana 
were  also  heavy  m  1948  at  nearly  500,000  tons,  and  those 
from  Mauritius  totalled  over  350,000  tons. 

Imports  of  raw  sugar  into  the  United  Kingdom  in  1948-49 
(September  to  August)  totalled  slightly  over  2  million  tons, 
an  increase  of  some  200,000  tons  compared  with  1947-48. 
Cuba  was  again  the  main  source  but  its  supplies  accounted 
for  only  about  25%  of  the  total  as  against  over  50%  in  the 
previous  year.  There  was  a  considerable  increase  in  the 


594 


SUKARNO— SURGERY 


supplies  from  Australia  and  Mauritius.  Imports  from  the 
British  West  Indies  were  about  the  same  as  in  1947-48. 
In  1948  the  United  Kingdom  government  guaranteed 
Commonwealth  producers  an  outlet  for  their  exportable 
sugar  up  to  the  end  of  1952  either  in  the  United  Kingdom 
itself  or  in  other  Commonwealth  countries  and,  more 
recently,  stated  its  intention  to  make  long  term  purchase 
arrangements.  With  this  object  in  view  a  conference  of 
representatives  of  Commonwealth  producers  was  held  in 
London  in  Nov.  1949.  (D.  G.  B.) 

United  States.  Total  sugar  production  in  the  U.S.  was 
estimated  at  about  2  •  1  million  tons  in  1949  as  compared 
with  1,846,000  tons  in  1948.  The  preliminary  estimate  of 
the  1949  crop  included  1,550,000  tons  of  refined  beet  sugar 
and  550,000  tons  of  cane  sugar.  The  1949  U.S.  crop  included 
a  sugar  beet  crop  of  10,110,000  tons,  9%  larger  than  the 
9,422,000  ton  crop  of  1948  and  about  the  same  as  for  the 
1938-47  average.  Acreage  harvested  dropped  to  690,000, 
compared  with  694,000  in  1948  and  796,000  average  of 
1938-47.  Yields  under  generally  favourable  weather  con- 
ditions increased  to  14-7  tons  per  acre,  compared  with 
13-6  tons  in  1948  and  12-7  tons  average  1938-47. 

The  1949  sugar-cane  crop,  mostly  in  Louisiana,  to  be  used 
for  sugar  making,  was  well  above  average,  estimated  at 
6,842,000  tons,  compared  with  6,279,000  tons  in  1948  and 
an  average  for  the  previous  decade  of  5,503,000  tons.  Yields 
in  tons  per  acre,  were  high  at  21-5  and  acreage  at  318,600 
was  slightly  above  1948.  Sugar  cane  for  syrup  in  several 
southern  states  was  a  smaller  crop  in  1949,  principally 
because  acreage  was  cut  to  69,000  ac.  from  79,000  ac.  the 
previous  year.  Production  was  11,770,000  gal.  as  against 
13,390,000  gal.  in  1948. 

Other  minor  U.S.  sources  of  sugar  such  as  honey  and  maple 
sugar  products,  were  produced  in  1 949  in  significantly  larger 
amounts  than  in  1948,  whereas  sorgo  syrup  was  the  smallest 
crop  on  record,  6,012,000  gal.  as  against  7,665,000  gal.  in 
1948.  Maple  products  of  the  northeast  amounted  to  1 ,614,000 
gal.  of  syrup  and  292,000  Ib.  of  sugar  against  1,445,000  gal. 
of  syrup  and  229,000  Ib.  of  sugar  in  1948.  Prices  were  generally 
lower.  The  1949  honey  crop  was  estimated  at  229,751,000  Ib., 
11  %  more  than  in  1948. 

Civilian  consumption  of  refined  sugar  in  1949  was  estimated 
at  93-3  Ib.  per  person,  compared  with  95-6  Ib.  in  1948  and 
an  average  of  97  Ib.  during  the  years  1935-39.  (J.  K.  R.) 

SUICIDE  STATISTICS:    see  VITAL  STATISTICS. 

SUKARNO,  AHMED,  Indonesian  statesman  (b. 
Tulungagung,  Java,  June  6,  1901).  (For  his  early  career  see 
Britannica  Book  of  the  Year  1949). 

After  the  Japanese  surrender,  on  Aug.  17,  1945,  he  pro- 
claimed at  Batavia  an  Indonesian  republic  which  was  to 
include  all  the  islands  of  the  East  Indian  archipelago.  In 
fact,  however,  by  consenting  to  the  signature  with  the  Nether- 
lands government  of  the  Linggadjati  agreement  (Nov.  15, 
1946),  he  reluctantly  reduced  his  ambitions  to  parts  of  Java. 
On  Dec.  19,  1948,  it  was  announced  by  the  Dutch  army  that 
he  had  been  captured  at  Djokjakarta  (Jogjakarta)  together 
with  many  other  members  of  the  republican  government, 
and  interned  at  Kaliurang.  On  Jan.  7,  1949,  it  was  officially 
stated  that  he  and  his  colleagues  had  been  released  but  that 
they  were  confined  to  the  island  of  Banka.  On  July  6  Sukarno 
returned  to  Djokjakarta  with  his  ministers,  and  on  Aug.  17, 
broadcasting  on  the  fourth  anniversary  of  the  republic, 
said  that  the  transfer  of  complete  and  real  independence  was 
the  condition  for  peace  and  security  in  Indonesia.  On  Dec. 
15  he  was  elected  president  of  the  republic  of  the  United 
States  of  Indonesia.  On  Dec.  28,  the  day  after  A.  H.  J. 
Lovink,  the  Netherlands  crown  representative,  had  signed 


the  protocol  transferring  the  sovereignty  to  an  Indonesia! 
delegation,  Sukarno  arrived  in  Batavia  (renamed  Jakarta)  tc 
take  up  residence  in  the  palace. 


Ahmed  Sukarno  conducting  a  class  at  an  Indonesian  school  in  t 
nationwide  drive  against  illiteracy.  (The  wording  on  the  black 
board  reads  "  Yesterday,  it  was  very  busy  at  Sarangan,  the  visitors 
took  a  walk  in  the  woods'") 

SUMATRA:  see  NETHERLANDS  OVERSEAS  TERRITORIES 

SURGERY.  Two  general  tendencies  in  the  field  ol 
operative  surgery  may  be  noted  during  1949.  Improvement? 
in  anaesthesia,  advances  in  the  treatment  of  traumatic  shock 
and  in  the  maintenance  of  circulatory  balance  during  a  long 
and  severe  operation,  accompanied  by  an  increasing  knowledge 
of  the  balance  of  fluids,  proteins  and  salts  in  the  circulation 
and  the  greater  reservoir  lying  outside  it,  enabled  under- 
takings whose  risks  were  previously  almost  prohibitive  to  be 
conducted  with  reasonable  safety;  and  a  study  of  the  results 
of  some  of  the  methods  of  treatment  introduced  during 
World  War  II  permitted  a  better  assessment  of  their  value. 

Operations  in  the  thorax,  and  on  the  upper  abdominal 
organs  through  the  thoraco-abdominal  approach,  were  no 
longer  rare  nor  particularly  dangerous.  The  intra-thoracic 
reconstruction  of  the  oesophagus  after  resection  for  cancer  by 
anastomosis  between  the  mobilized  stomach  and  the  upper 
cut  end  of  the  oesophagus  became  the  standard  operation  for 
the  middle  third  of  the  oesophagus  but  was  not  considered 
practicable  for  growths  of  the  upper  third,  until  W.  H.  Sweet 
of  Boston  recorded  a  success  by  a  new  technique.  He 
mobilized  the  stomach  by  an  incision  in  the  eighth  intercostal 
space  until  it  could  be  lifted  to  the  thoracic  inlet  and  then 
brought  it  up  into  the  neck,  after  enlarging  the  inlet  by 
resecting  the  inner  end  of  the  left  clavicle  and  left  first  rib,  and 
sutured  it  to  the  cervical  oesophagus  through  a  new  incision. 
The  upper  end  of  the  oesophagus  was  reconstructed  after 
resection  by  H.  W.  Wookey  of  Toronto  using  a  skin  tube. 
Cancer  of  the  lower  end  of  the  oesophagus,  which  tended  to 
spread  to  the  lymphatic  glands  of  the  stomach,  was  treated  by 
a  radical  resection  of  the  lower  end  of  the  oesophagus,  the 


SWEDEN 


595 


spleen,  the  whole  stomach  and  the  pancreas  as  far  as  the 
inferior  mesenteric  vein  in  one  block  through  a  thoraco- 
abdominal  approach.  The  cut  oesophagus  was  then  joined  to 
the  jejunum.  T.  R.  Allison  of  Leeds  reported  24  total 
gastrectomies  by  this  route,  with  seven  deaths.  He  also 
advocated  side-to-side  anastomosis  between  a  loop  of  jejunum 
and  the  oesophagus  in  the  many  inoperable  cases  that  are 
encountered  as  a  better  palliative  operation  than  gastrostomy. 

Excision  was  undertaken  in  early  cases  of  cancer  of  the 
pancreas  with  more  confidence  and  greater  safety.  Richard 
Cattell  recorded  56  pancreatico-duodenal  resections  with  a 
mortality  of  17%.  The  limit  of  feasible  radical  surgery  was 
probably  reached  by  Alexander  Brunschwig  who,  after 
describing  a  total  clearance  of  the  female  pelvic  viscera  for 
cancer,  recorded  a  case  in  which  the  male  pelvis  was  cleared 
for  a  carcinoma  of  the  colon  attached  to  the  bladder. 

Formerly  traumatic  stricture  of  the  common  bile  duct  could 
be  cured  with  certainty  only  by  mobilization  of  the  ends  and 
suture  of  mucosa  to  mucosa.  When  this  result  could  not  be 
realized,  suture  over  a  vitallium  or  rubber  tube,  or  the  use  of  a 
loop  of  bowel,  defunctioned  on  the  Roux-en-Y  principle,  were 
popular  methods.  For  the  tragic  case,  previously  inoperable, 
in  which  no  trace  of  duct  could  be  found  in  the  porta  hepatis, 
W.P.  Longmire  introduced  a  new  operation.  The  left  lobe  of 
the  liver  was  sectioned  until  a  large  duct  was  identified  and 
this  was  then  anastomosed  to  a  loop  of  jejunum. 

In  cancer  of  the  rectum  the  radical  abdominopenneal 
operation  of  G.  P.  Mills  was  now  performed  with  greater  speed 
and  safety  by  two  surgeons  working  simultaneously,  one  from 
the  abdomen  and  one  from  the  perineum.  Conservative 
resection,  preserving  the  sphincters  and  pelvic  floor,  had  few 
advocates  for  cancer,  but  it  was  re-introduced  for  certain 
benign  conditions.  M.  Ravitch  used  this  method  after  total 
colectomy  for  congenital  polyposis  of  the  colon  and  for 
intractable  ulcerative  colitis.  The  terminal  ileum  was,  in 
these  cases,  pulled  through  the  anal  sphincter.  O.  Swenson 
used  the  same  technique  in  treating  cases  of  Hirschsprung's 
disease.  He  believed  that  the  great  dilatation  of  the  colon 
which  occurred  was  due  to  obstruction  by  a  spastic  segment 
in  the  terminal  sigmoid  colon.  This  segment  of  bowel  was 
resected  by  an  intra-pcritoneal  operation  and  the  proximal 
colon  was  pulled  through  the  anal  sphincter  and  sutured  to  the 
stump  of  anal  canal. 

There  was  no  fresh  advance  in  cardiac  surgery  during  1949 
although  further  reports  of  the  success  of  the  Blalock  opera- 
tion were  made.  R.  C.  Brock  quoted  a  mortality  rate  of  15% 
but  two  thirds  of  his  patients  had  almost  perfect  results.  Brock 
reported  further  on  the  subject  of  pulmonary  valvulotomy  but 
although  successful  cases  appeared  to  have  satisfactory  results 
the  mortality  of  the  operation  was  50%.  Resection  and 
anastomosis  of  the  aorta  for  coarctation,  introduced  by 
G.  Crafoord  in  1944,  remained  the  operation  of  choice.  In  the 
rarer,  infantile  type  of  coarctation,  the  left  subclavian  artery 
was  divided  as  far  out  as  possible  and  swung  down  to  be 
anastomosed  to  the  aorta  below  the  stenosis.  R.  E.  Gross 
investigated  the  preservation  of  cadaver  arteries  in  a  viable 
state.  They  could  be  stored  in  a  solution  of  serum  ultra- 
filtrate  at  a  temperature  just  above  zero,  and  might  be  used 
as  grafts  to  bridge  the  gap  in  the  aorta  after  resection  of  an 
infantile  coarctation  or  to  give  added  length  to  the  sub- 
clavian artery  in  a  difficult  subclaviopulmonary  anastomosis 
for  Fallows  tetralogy. 

With  regard  to  the  surgery  of  hypertension,  it  was  becoming 
increasingly  clear  that  operations  on  the  sympathetic  system 
would  relieve  these  symptoms  even  when  they  had  no 
appreciable  effect  on  the  blood  pressure.  The  scope  of  the 
operation  varies  greatly  but  there  was  a  trend  away  from  the 
transpleural  operation  which,  in  addition  to  being  subject  to 
occasional  pleural  complications,  had  the  disadvantage  of 


not  giving  access  below  the  twelfth  dorsal  ganglion. 
It  remains  to  discuss  the  influence  of  streptomycin  on 
surgery.  The  Gram  negative  infections  of  the  urinary  tract 
which  were  resistant  to  penicillin  and  the  sulpha  drugs  yielded 
to  streptomycin  But  it  was  in  relation  to  surgical  tuberculosis 
that  the  place  of  streptomycin  was  most  seriously  on  trial.  In 
tuberculosis  of  the  kidney,  streptomycin  appeared  to  be 
curative  in  stage  I,  that  is,  m  bacillurm  without  X-ray  change, 
but  it  was  without  effect  in  the  ulcci  ocavernous  type  of  disease. 
Considerable  symptomatic  relief  was  reported  with  tuberculous 
cystihs  but  reinfection  from  the  kidneys  prevented  cure.  No 
improvement  in  genital  tuberculosis  took  place.  In  the 
surgery  of  pulmonary  tuberculosis  the  incidence  of  compli- 
cations fol loving  resection  was  reduced.  The  contralateral 
spread  of  tuberculosis  infection  following  thoracoplasty 
occurred  with  equal  frequency,  but  streptomycin  was  effective 
in  controlling  such  spread  and  thus  rendered  thoracoplasty 
safer.  (Sec  also  AN^STHLSIOLOGY.)  (W.  H.  OE.) 

SURINAM:     \ee  NETHERLANDS  OVERSEAS  TERRITORIES. 

SWAZILAND:  we  BRITISH  SOUTH  AFRICAN  PRO- 
TECTORATES. 

SWEDEN.  A  constitutional  monarchy  of  northern 
Europe,  lying  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Scandinavian  penin- 
sula, bounded  on  the  N.E.  by  Finland,  on  the  E.  and 
S.  by  the  Baltic  sea,  on  the  S.W.  by  the  straits  of 
Oresund  and  the  Kattegat  and  on  the  W.  and  N.W.  by 
Norway.  Area:  173,390  sq.  mi.  Pop.:  (1945  census) 
6,673,749;  (Dec.  31,  1948  est.)  6,924,888  Chief  towns 
(pop,  1948  est):  Stockholm  (cap.,  710,591);  Gothenburg 
or  Goteborg  (343,978);  Malmo  (185,947);  Norrk oping 
(83,279);  Halsingborg  (70,729).  Language:  Swedish,  with 
some  Finnish  (1930:  33,929)  and  Lappish  (1945:  4,140)  in 
the  north.  Religion:  predominantly  Lutheran;  there  were, 
however  (1930  census),  119,361  Protestant  dissenters  of 
various  denominations,  4,818  Roman  Catholics  and  6,653 
Jews.  Ruler,  King  Gustaf  V  (</.v.);  prime  minister,  Tage 
Fritiof  Erlander;  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  Osten  Unden 
(q.v.). 

History.  To  the  western  world,  preoccupied  with  forming 
and  strengthening  the  North  Atlantic  treaty,  Swedish  events 
of  1949  were  seen  in  the  shadow  of  a  conspicuous  negative, 
summarized  as  **  Sweden  abstains";  to  the  native  citizen  it 
was  a  year  of  progress  in  the  economic  field  and  of  steadily 
expanding  inter-Scandinavian  and  international  co-operation, 
earned  forward  with  a  spirit  of  confidence  in  the  fruits  of 
continued  "  neutrality  "  which  explicit  warnings  from  the 
military  scarcely  disturbed. 

The  Scandinavian  defence  committee  reported,  soon  after 
Jan.  1,  that  a  common  military  policy  would  increase  possi- 
bilities for  resistance  because  of  the  larger  territory  involved, 
unified  planning  and  the  standardization  of  equipment, 
although  supplies  would  still  be  needed  from  other  countries 
in  peacetime,  and  armed  support  in  war.  The  opportunity 
to  secure  the  advantages  thus  defined  was  immediately  studied 
at  three  conferences  by  the  Swedish,  Danish  and  Norwegian 
prime  ministers  and  foreign  and  defence  ministers,  parlia- 
mentary representatives  attending  the  second  and  third.  An 
intimation  that  Norway  and  Denmark  would  soon  be  invited 
to  discuss  the  North  Atlantic  treaty  in  Washington  lent 
urgency  to  these  deliberations.  At  Karlstad  (Jan.  5-6)  the 
Norwegian  spokesmen  were  encouraged  by  a  Swedish  draft 
for  a  binding  ten-year  Scandinavian  defence  union  (excluding 
Greenland,  the  Faeroes,  Spitsbergen  and  Jan  Mayen  Land), 
which  would  make  an  attack  on  one  an  attack  upon  all; 
but  adequate  armament  was  still  contingent  on  supplies  from 
the  U.S.,  whose  ambassadors  in  the  three  capitals  made  it 
clear  that  deliveries  must  go  first  to  full  allies  of  the  Atlantic 


596 


SWEDEN 


group  and  prior  commitments,  and  that  **  outsiders  "  would 
have  to  pay  for  them.  At  Copenhagen  (Jan.  22-23)  Halvard 
Lange  (CJT.V.)  suggested  offering  at  least  staff  talks  on  strategy 
to  the  western  powers,  but  such  consultations  were  rejected 
by  Sweden  as  unneutral  and  after  the  Oslo  meeting  (Jan. 
29-30),  which  the  Scandinavian  ambassadors  to  the  U.S.S.R., 
the  U.S.  and  Great  Britain  had  attended,  communiques 
admitted  failure,  although  stressing  the  desire  for  collabora- 
tion in  other  spheres. 

In  a  report  to  parliament  (Feb.  9)  Tage  Erlander,  the  prime 
minister,  admitted  that  a  Scandinavian  pact  would  have 
involved  a  departure  from  neutrality,  and  Osten  Unden, 
minister  of  foreign  affairs,  explained  that  the  manifest 
tendency  in  Norway  to  change  her  former  foreign  policy  had 
led  the  government  to  propose  a  defensive  association  which 
would  be  independent  of  any  outside  power.  Sweden 
would,  however,  now  again  adhere  to  a  neutrality  qualified 
only  by  U.N.  membership.  Uneasiness  was  perhaps  revealed 
in  Erlander's  oft-quoted  statement,  on  the  same  occasion, 
that  "  Sweden  will  build  a  defence  which  will  delay  an  aggres- 
sor long  enough  for  Swedish  territory  to  become  a  base  for 
the  other  side,**  the  ambiguity  leading  friends  of  the  west 
such  as  Herbert  Tingsten  of  the  liberal  Dagens  Nyheter  to 
fear  that  potential  friends,  as  well  as  enemies,  might  be 
confused  about  the  nation's  attitude.  The  detachment  of  the 
"  middle  way "  was  indeed  emphasized  when  Per  Edvin 
Skdld,  minister  for  economic  co-ordination,  told  an  open-air 
meeting  of  the  Northern  society  in  Denmark  (Sept.  1 1)  that 
even  Norway  was  under  long-term  pressure,  even  if  less 
obviously  than  Finland,  and  attributed  the  breakdown  in 
Scandinavian  negotiations  to  the  influence  which  the  "  Anglo- 
Saxon  great  powers  brought  to  bear  to  hinder  the  creation 
of  an  independent  Nordic  defence  bloc,"  in  accordance  with 
their  predetermined  policy. 

Meanwhile  Sweden,  already  far  better  armed  than  her 
neighbours  (the  forces  having  received  some  £70  million 
worth  of  new  materials,  including  1,000  aircraft,  since  1945), 
gave  evidence  of  taking  the  risks  of  enhanced  isolation 
seriously.  General  Bengt  Nordenskiold  (q.v.)  visited  R.C.A.F. 
stations  in  Canada  and  eight  Meteor  jet  fighters  from  Britain 
paid  Stockholm  an  official  visit  in  August.  The  new  budget 
(Jan.  11)  allotted  about  Kr.800  million  to  defence,  and 
parliament  increased  the  appropriation  for  military  equipment 
to  Kr.125  million  and  gave  the  government  a  free  hand  in 
furthering  preparedness  and  extending  refresher  courses. 
Radar  had  to  some  extent  been  installed,  on  the  basis  of 
Swedish  research,  from  1942  but  by  1949  most  units  of  the 
navy  had  received  British  radar  equipment.  Vice  admiral 
Helge  Stromback  announced  (Sept.  14)  that  the  fleet  would 
be  strengthened  to  meet  the  "  serious  risk  of  submarines  and 
mines  in  the  Baltic.'* 

Nevertheless  military  leaders  did  not  disguise  their  dis- 
quiet at  the  triumph  of  isolationism.  General  Nils  Swedlund, 
chief  of  the  defence  staff,  stated  (March  9)  that  a  military 
alliance  would  both  ensure  foreign  aid  in  war  and  give  Sweden 
the  advantage  of  the  great  powers*  military  and  scientific 
research;  he  dismissed  moreover  the  usual  argument  basing 
the  need  for  neutrality  on  the  position  of  Finland,  for  that 
country  could,  he  considered,  be  occupied  more  quickly 
than  Sweden  could  make  up  deficiencies  in  defence.  General 
Helge  Jung,  commander  in  chief  of  all  forces,  followed  up 
many  earlier  warnings  by  underlining  to  Lund  university 
students  (Nov.  25)  the  danger  of  a  third  world  war  and  saying 
grimly  that  in  case  of  invasion 

"  evacuated  areas  must  not  be  regarded  as  pacified.  Isolated  army 
units  and  the  home  guard,  supported  by  a  freedom-loving  and  self- 
sacrificing  population,  must  wage  war  in  the  enemy's  rear  to  the 
bitter  end  .  .  .  Yet  the  survivors  in  western  Europe  would  finally 
see  the  return  of  freedom,  because  of  the  superior  war  potential  of 
the  west." 


Swedish  men  gymnasts  performing  on  the  last  day  of  the  Lingiad 
which  was  held  in  Stockholm,  July  1949. 

Opening  an  exhibition  of  local  products  at  Lycksele, 
northern  Sweden  (July  16),  Jung  also  called  attention  to  a 
"  small,  but  not  harmless  group  of  Swedes  who  had  sworn 
allegiance  to  a  foreign  power "  and  "  could  constitute  a 
grave  danger  in  the  event  of  war,'*  urging  that  effective 
measures  be  taken  in  time  against  this  fifth  column,  instead 
of  letting  Swedish  good  nature  give  it  passive  assistance. 
He  was  severely  taken  to  task  by  the  organ  of  the  Social 
Democratic  party  in  the  north  for  the  "  pessimism  "  of  his 
comments  on  such  an  occasion,  which  should  rather  be 
associated  with  faith  in  the  future,  and  a  leading  article 
asked  whether  the  commander  in  chief  differed  from  the 
government  and  parliament  as  to  what  constituted  suitable 
measures  against  a  possible  danger.  The  prime  minister  had, 
indeed,  referred  (May  15)  to  the  fact  that  Communists  held 
confidential  positions;  e.g.,  in  the  police  and  in  civil  and 
home  defence,  but  considered  that  "  undemocratic  "  elements 
should  be  combated  chiefly  by  weakening  the  voters*  support: 
the  Communist  party  was,  he  thought,  likely  to  suffer  a 
marked  defeat  in  the  1950  municipal  elections.  The  Com- 
munists were  in  fact  already  losing  some  ground  in  trade 
union  elections.  The  dangers  at  key  points  in  Sweden's 
vulnerable,  productive  north  were  however  detailed  in  a 
series  of  articles  on  the  sabotage  problem  in  Dagens  Nyheter 
(Sept.  12-18),  which  later  echoed  the  fears  of  the  weekly 
Aret  Runt  about  Communists  who  were  legally  armed  as 
members  of  the  home  guard  (Nov.  11). 

Among  many  instances  of  Scandinavian  co-operation  in 
1949  was  the  common  decision  to  join  the  Council  of  Europe; 
at  Strasbourg  Bertil.  Ohlin,  economist  and  Liberal  party 
leader,  was  elected  to  the  general  committee  and  made  an 
outspoken  plea  for  devaluation  as  the  lesser  evil  in  Europe's 
trade  plight.  Sweden,  Norway,  Denmark  and  Iceland 


SWIFT 


597 


decided  together  to  withdraw  from  the  W.F.T.U.  (see  TRADE 
UNIONS),  and  Denmark  was  diplomatically  supported  by  the 
other  three  with  respect  to  South  Schleswig  An  important 
step  towards  the  co-ordmalion  of  social  security  regulations 
was  an  agreement  (Aug.  27)  making  old-age  pensions  avail- 
able to  Scandinavians  in  any  of  these  four  states,  regardless 
of  shifts  in  place  of  employment  from  one  to  another  Sweden, 
Norway  and  Denmark  decided  to  support  the  admission  of 
Israel  to  the  U.N.,  but  Sweden  had  accorded  Israel  only 
dc  facto  recognition  (Feb.  16),  since  the  Israeli  authorities  had 
"regrettably  failed"  in  taking  adequate  precautions  for  Count 
Bernadotte's  protection  and  because  of  the  "  entirely  unsatis- 
factory "  nature  of  the  investigation  into  his  assassination. 

Swedish  economic  conditions  gave  the  prime  minister 
grounds  for  claiming  that  the  prewar  standard  of  living  was 
almost  regained.  Wages  were  90%  higher  than  prewar, 
with  the  cost  of  living  only  53  %  higher,  although  by  1949 
social  services  absorbed  10 %  of  the  national  income.  The 
danger  of  inflation  was  said  to  have  been  averted,  with  the 
price  level  steady  for  two  years  and  unemployment  down  to 
2-7%,  a  record.  Meat,  butter,  fat,  sugar  and  soap  rationing 
ended  by  August,  motor  car  tyres  and  the  coal  trade  (except 
coke  and  anthracite)  were  released  and  only  coffee  and  petrol 
remained  rationed  Some  social  trends  caused  anxiety  :  for 
example  a  continuing  flight  fiom  the  land,  a  high  divorce 
rate  still  rising  and  increased  cnrne  in  Stockholm 

Ernst  Wigforss,  a  brilliant  economist  who  had  been 
minister  of  finance  in  every  Social  Democratic  government 
since  1925  and  in  the  wartime  coalition,  resigned  in  June, 
admired  on  the  one  hand  as  a  sincere  Socialist  of  the  old 
guard,  he  had  on  the  other  been  the  main  target  for  critics 
of  high  taxes  and  control.  David  Hall  took  his  place,  but 
resigned  within  four  months  because  of  publicity  given  to 
correspondence  on  a  matter  of  party  discipline.  The  first 
woman  cabinet  minister,  Karin  Kock,  left  the  government 
(Dec.  29)  to  head  the  Central  Bureau  of  Statistics.  Gunnar 
Hedlund  succeeded  the  veteran  Axel  Pehrsson  Bramstorp  as 
leader  of  the  Farmers'  party.  The  Conservative  party  sought 
for  the  basis  of  a  renaissance,  after  its  long  period  of  recession, 
and  the  leaders  of  the  Young  Conservatives  and  Young 
Liberals  urged  the  government  to  respond  at  least  to  Norway's 
offer  of  discussions  on  defence,  Gallup  polls  indicating  a 
considerable  body  of  opinion  favourable  not  merely  to 
Scandinavian  unity  but  to  joining  the  North  Atlantic  treaty. 

The  O.E.E.C.  recommended  that  Sweden  should  receive 
$40  million  in  1949-50  as  compensation  for  the  "drawing 
rights  "  which  it  was  extending  to  other  E.R  P  countries 
($34  3  million  to  Norway  and  $9  3  to  Greece).  Sweden 
released  more  dollars  for  import  permits  in  the  third  quarter 
of  1949,  to  be  used  for  the  re-equipment  of  industry.  The 
krona  was  devalued  in  step  with  the  pound  (Sept.  19).  The 
O.E.E.C.  proposal  for  lifting  many  import  restrictions  among 
Marshall  plan  countries  was  accepted  and  British  initiative 
resulted  in  Anglo-Scandinavian  talks  in  Stockholm  (Dec 
15-17),  which  would  be  resumed  in  the  New  Year. 

The  Soviet  Union  sent  two  notes  (heb.  28  and  March  14), 
the  second  received  by  the  press  before  it  reached  the  foreign 
ministry,  accusing  the  Swedish  authorities  of  terrorizing 
"  Soviet  refugees  from  the  Baltic  states  "  and  preventing  their 
return  home,  charges  which  were  described  by  the  government 
as  "  sheer  imagination."  The  minister  of  the  interior  never- 
theless expressed  concern  (Nov  9)  at  the  recent  increase  of 
refugees,  mainly  from  Poland  and  Germany,  about  2,000 
arriving  illegally  in  the  course  of  12  months.  Sweden  had 
certainly  been  hospitable,  especially  to  neighbours,  including 
those  in  the  Soviet  sphere,  the  figures  for  immigration  (and 
emigration)  for  1946-48  being  eloquent:  from  Finland 
19,482  (1,394),  from  Estonia  and  Latvia  16,611  (27),  from 
Poland  and  Lithuania  6,196  (162). 


Education.  Schools,  elementary  (1947-48)  pupils  555,000,  teachers 
27,500,  higher  elementary  (1948-49)  pupils  4,359,  continuation 
(1947-48)  pupils  71,600,  municipal  middle  (1948-49),  pupils,  mixed 
4,470,  girls'  16,254,  practical  7,103,  state  secondary  (1948-49)  203, 
pupils  75,032,  higher  private  (1948-49)  pupils  8,472;  folk  high  schools 

(1948)  70,  students  7,887,     two  universities  and  three  institutions  of 
higher  education  (1948-49)     students  9,742     The  first  Lapps'  folk  high 
school  (Jokkmokk)  was  inaugurated  by  Bishop  Bengt  Jon/on  in  March 
1949,   but  had   received  students  (including   Norwcgiat     Lapps)  since 
1942 

Agriculture  and  Fisheries  Harvest  estimates  for  1949  cereals 
908,400  metric  tons  (1948  1.024,300  tons),  grain  for  fodder  20% 
below  and  potatoes  I  1"0  below  the  1930-39  average  In  1949-50 
Sweden  would  have  to  import  75,000  tons  of  refined  sugar  Oleiferous 
plants,  subsidised  b)  the  slate,  by  1949  ensured  the  nation  s  supply  of 
edible  tats  In  1947,  7,517,707  ha  of  state  forests  produced  5,671,813 
cu  m  of  timber  Livestock  (June  1,  1948)  horses  497,260;  cattle 
2,624,708  (1,705,479  cows),  pigs  1,195,018,  sheep  349,446.  goats 
17,177  poultry  9,007.  »2J :  reindeer  (1947)  168,640  Fisheries  (1947) 
total  catch  15*5.942  metric  tons  worth  Kr  89  9  million 

Industry.  Industrial  establishments  (1946)  17,781,  with  machines 
of  4,528,367  h  p  and  652,435  workers,  producing  goods  worth  Kr.  16,030 
million.  It  \\as  expected  that  iron  ore  exports  would  reach  12  million 
metric  tons  in  1949  (1948  11  million)  In  1948,  14,269  million  kwh 
of  electricity  were  produced  (11,663  million  hydro-electric,  of  which 
^  760  million  Irom  upper  Norland).  Oil  was  found,  in  small  quantities, 
in  Hollviken,  Skane  In  1945,  industrv  and  crafts  occupied  39-7%  of 
the  population  The  Industrial  board  production  index  (1935  100) 
reached  136  in  July  1949 

Foreign  Trade.  (Million  kronor,  1947.  1948  in  brackets)  Imports 
5,220  (4,877),  exports  3,240  (3,964)  The  largest  supply  countries 
(1948,  million  kronor)  Great  Britain  (839),  US  (688);  Belgium 
(290),  Poland  (265);  France  (256)  The  best  customer  countries: 
Great  Britain  (673),  Norway  (366),  US  (295),  Netherlands  (244), 
Belgium  (240)  Sweden's  principal  imports  (1948;  million  kronor)- 
textiles  (826);  oil  and  mineral  products  (1,003);  metals  and  metal 
products  (652),  machines,  apparatus  and  electrical  material  (519) 
Principal  exports  pulp,  paper  etc  (1,571),  the  volume  of  pulp 
exports  being  maintained  in  i949  despite  loss  of  sales  to  US.;  metals 
and  metal  products  (455),  machines,  apparatus  and  electrical  material 
(458),  wood  and  woodwork  (451). 

Transport  and  Communications.  Railways  (1948)  16,869  km 
Roads  (1949)  90,004  km  ,  including  4,748  km  paved  Motor  vehicles 
in  use  (Dec  1948).  private  cars  179,587,  lorries  76,368,  buses  6,471 
Shipping  (Dec  1948)  2,204  sea-going  vessels  (1,457  steam  and  motor) 
amounting  to  2,057,304  gross  tons  In  1948  Swedish  ship-building, 
with  246,000  tons  constructed,  ranked  second  in  the  world  Telephones 
(Dec  1948)-  1,450,478,  or  212  per  1,000  inhabitants  Radio  licences 

(1949)  2,025,099,  or  one  for  every  Swedish  family 

Finance  and  Ranking.  (Million  kronor)  Budget'  (1949-50  est.) 
revenue  5,139,  expenditure  4,677;  (1948-49  est  )  revenue  5,015,  expendi- 
ture 4,426;  (1947-48  actual)  revenue  4,438,  expenditure  4,410  Public 
debt  (Aug  1949)12,046,  (Aug  1948)11,610  Currency  circulation : 
(Oct.  1949)  2,894,  (Dec  1948)  3, in  Gold  reserves  (Oct  1949)364; 
(Nov  1948)289  Commercial  bank  deposits:  (Aug  1949)8,100,  (Aug 
1948)7,443  Savings  bank  deposits  (June  1949)  6,967;  (March  1948) 
6,488  The  cost  of  living  index  (1935-100),  March  1949-  169  (March 
1948  164)  T'he  monetary  unit  is  the  krona  (pi.  kronor),  exchange 
rates  £l^Kr  1450;  US  51 -Kr  5- 18  (before  Sept  19,1949, 
$l-Kr.  3-60) 

BiBLiocRATMiY  I  Anderson  and  others.  Introduction  to  Sweden 
(Uppsala.  1949),  A  Fldh,  editor,  fV/tf?  about  Sweden  1949-50  (Stock- 
holm, 1949),  D  Hinshaw,  Sweden  Champion  of  Peace  (New  York, 
1949),  H  Strode,  Sweden  Model  for  a  World  (New  York,  1949); 
H  Wigforss,  "  Sweden  and  the  Atlantic  Pact,"  International  Organiza- 
tion, (vol  III,  no  3,  Boston,  Massachusetts,  Aug  1949).  (H.  J.  L.) 

SWIFT,  FRANK,  English  footballer  (b.  1914)  joined 
the  staff  of  Manchester  City  football  club  and  in  the  1933-34  • 
season  played  foi  the  first  team.  Four  months  later,  at  the 
age  of  19,  he  kept  goal  for  Manchester  City  against  Ports- 
mouth in  the  F.A.  cup  final  at  Wembley.  Manchester  won 
by  2  goals  to  1  but  the  excitement  of  the  game  was  too  great 
for  Swift  who  fainted  in  the  goalmouth.  He  was  chosen  as 
goal-keeper  for  England  against  Wales  in  1940  and  from  then 
onwards  until  1949  regularly  played  for  England  obtaining 
more  than  25  caps.  During  World  War  II  Swift  served  in 
the  army  as  a  physical  training  instructor  and  played  m  army 
representative  teams  and  also  for  the  combined  services. 
On  May  10,  1947,  he  played  for  Great  Britain  against  the 
Rest  of  Europe  side  and  in  honour  of  his  long  services  to 


598 


SWIMMING— SWITZERLAND 


Frank  Swift  playing  for  England  against  Scotland  at   Wembley, 
April  1949.    This  was  the  last  time  he  played  at  Wembley. 

English  football  he  captained  the  English  team  which,  in 
May  1948,  played  Italy  at  Turin,  Switzerland  "  B  "  team  at 
Bellinzona  and  Schaffhausen. 

He  retired  at  the  end  of  the  1948-49  season  but  was  re- 
called by  his  club  in  Aug.  1949  to  play  in  the  first  matches 
of  the  1949  season  owing  to  illness  of  his  successor.  At  a 
dinner  before  the  England  v.  Ireland  match  at  Manchester 
in  November  the  Football  association  presented  him  with  an 
illuminated  address  giving  details  of  his  international  career. 
Standing  more  than  six  feet  tall  with  a  big  reach  (he  has  a 
hand  span  of  11 J  in.)  he  was  one  of  the  greatest  goal-keepers 
in  modern  football.  His  book  Football  from  the  Goalmouth 
was  published  in  1948. 

SWIMMING.  Great  Britain  took  no  part  in  inter- 
national contests  in  1949.  England  won  the  Inter-Country 
Speed  contest. 

The  centralized  national  championships  drew  1 19  more 
entries  than  on  any  previous  occasion,  juniors  totalling  173, 

99  more  than  in   1947.     Seniors"  best  performances  were: 
Ronald  Stedman  (Beckcnham),    100  m.   in  59-8  sec.  and 

100  yd.  in  53-7  sec.;    W.  J.  Brockway  (Newport,  Mon.), 
100  yd.  backstroke  in  60  sec.  and,  two  17-year-olds,  Elizabeth 
Turner  (Galashiels),  62-4  sec.  for  100  yd.  and  Grace  Wood 
(Bristol),  5  min.  34-7  sec.  for  440  yd.    Peter  Heatly  (Porto- 
bello)  and  Edna  Child  (PJaistow)  were  the  only  two  British 
divers  in  world  class,  each  being  highboard  and  springboard 
national  champions. 

England's  youngest-ever  water  polo  team  won  eight  out 
of  nine  matches  played  in  Norway,  Sweden  and  Denmark. 
Motherwell  won  the  A.S.A.  water-polo  championship.  For 
the  1950  Empire  games  England  selected  11  swimmers, 
Scotland  5,  Wales  1.  An  Amateur  Swimming  Association's 
advanced  training  course  for  14  coaches  and  31  selected 
juniors  was  held  at  Loughborough  college  under  the  tutor- 
ship of  Max  Madders. 

A  survey  directed  by  the  Council  for  the  Promotion  of 
Education  in  Swimming  revealed  that  more  than  half  of  the 
population  could  not  swim.  The  Royal  Life  Saving  society, 


the  National  Association  of  Bath  Superintendents,  and  the 
Swimming  Teachers'  association  did  useful  work.  A  National 
Schools  Swimming  association  and  a  Channel  Swimming 
association  were  inaugurated.  (B.  W.  C.) 

United  States.  The  rise  of  Japan  to  international  leadership 
was  the  outstanding  development  in  swimming  in  1949. 
Six  Japanese  youths  won  the  men's  outdoor  championships 
of  the  U.S.,  winning  four  of  the  five  free-style  events  and 
breaking  five  world  records. 

Twenty-one-year-old  Hironoshin  Furuhashi  reduced  the 
time  for  the  400  m.  from  4  min.  35  •  2  sec.  to  4  min.  33  •  3  sec., 
800  m.  from  9  min.  50-9  sec.  to  9  min.  35-5  sec.,  1,000  m. 
from  12  min.  33-8  sec.  to  12  min.  14-8  sec.  and  1,500  m. 
from  18  min.  58-8  sec.  to  18  min.  19-0  sec.  He  also  helped 
Yoshihiro  Hamaguchi,  Shigeyuki  Maruyama  and  Shuichi 
Murayama  to  reduce  the  time  for  the  800  m.  relay  from  8  min. 
46  •  0  sec.  to  8  min.  45  •  6  sec. 

Swimmers  from  the  United  States  won  the  other  events 
at  the  title  meeting,  retaining  supremacy  in  the  back  and 
breast  strokes  and  in  springboard  and  platform  diving,  and 
they  also  broke  five  world  records  during  the  year.  Allen 
Stack  lowered  the  back  stroke  figures  for  100  m.  from  1  min. 
4-0  sec.  to  1  min.  3-6  sec.,  150  yd.  from  1  min.  30-4  sec. 
to  1  min.  29-9  sec.  and  200  m.  from  2  min.  19-3  sec.  to 
2  min.  18-5  sec.;  Keith  Carter  reduced  the  time  for  the 
100  yd.  breast  stroke  from  59-4  sec.  to  58-5  sec.  and  Paul 
Girdes,  John  Blum,  Raymond  Reid  and  John  Moore  that 
for  the  880yd.  relay  from  8  min.  24*3  sec.  to  7  min. 
55-1  sec. 

Only  one  world  record  for  women  was  officially  broken, 
Greta  Andersen,  of  Denmark,  reducing  the  time  for  100  yd. 
free  style  from  59-4  sec.  to  58-2  sec.  (L.  DEB.  H.) 

Channel  Swimming.  On  Aug.  23-24,  Philip  Mickman,  an 
18  year-old  Yorkshire  schoolboy,  swam  the  English  Channel 
in  23  hr.  48  min.  and  was  the  youngest  swimmer  ever  to 
do  so.  Others  followed  his  example :  F.  Du  Moulin  (Belgium) 
in  22  hr.,  Hassan  Abd-el-Rehim  (Egypt)  in  15  hr.  46  min., 
Marie  Hassan  Hamad  (Egypt)  in  15  hr.  22  min.,  Z.  Zirganos 
(Greece)  in  18  hr.  30  min.  Also,  in  September,  a  relay  team 
of  six  Egyptians  swam  the  Channel  from  England  to  France 
in  11  hr.  11  min. 

SWITZERLAND.  A  republican  confederation  of 
22  cantons  in  west-central  Europe,  bounded  by  France  to 
the  west,  Germany  to  the  north,  Austria  and  Liechtenstein 
to  the  east  and  Italy  to  the  south.  Area:  15,944  sq.  mi. 
Pop.  (1941  census):  4,265,703;  (mid- 1948  est.)  4,609,000. 
Languages:  German  72-6%;  French  20-8%;  Italian  5-2%; 
Romansch  1-1%.  Religions:  Protestant  57-6%;  Roman 
Catholic  41-1%;  Jewish  0-5%.  Chief  towns  (pop.,  est. 
1946):  Berne  (cap.,  136,700);  Zurich  (360,500);  Basle 
(170,300);  Geneva  (137,600);  Lausanne  (99,300).  President 
of  the  confederation  for  1949,  Ernst  Nobs  (q.v.)\  vice 
president  of  the  federal  council  (government),  Dr.  Max 
Petitpierre  (q.v.}. 

History.  While  the  foreign  relations  of  Switzerland  in 
1949  continued  their  course  without  any  noteworthy  change, 
attention  was  focused  upon  the  foreign  trade  situation  and 
an  internal  crisis  which  was  both  financial  and  constitutional. 
There  was  a  noticeable  trade  recession  in  the  first  half  of 
the  year.  This  included  a  tendency  unwelcome  to  the  Swiss, 
who  expect  to  import  more  than  they  export  (paying  the 
deficit  out  of  their  foreign  assets),  for  imports  to  sink  faster 
than  exports;  from  July  onwards  indeed  the  monthly  figure 
for  imports  more  than  once  sank  below  exports.  In  July  and 
September  this  was  in  fact  partly  explained  by  the  general 
expectation  that  sterling  was  about  to  be  devalued  and  that 
it  was  therefore  worth  while  delaying  one's  orders.  With  its 
trade  necessarily  dependent  to  a  large  extent  upon  bilateral 


SWITZERLAND 


599 


agreements  Switzerland  found  its  clients  quick  to  get  short 
of  Swiss  francs  while  it  itself  tended  to  accumulate  an 
uncomfortably  large  proportion  of  the  world's  gold. 

Switzerland  is  an  industrial  country  which  is  obliged  to 
import  nearly  all  its  raw  materials  and  its  national  life  is 
therefore  conditioned  by  its  foreign  trade  relations.  The 
commercial  decline  was  reflected  on  the  labour  market,  for 
almost  all  foreign  labour  was  sent  home  while  the  number 
of  those  registered  as  wholly  unemployed,  which  had  been 
negligible  in  1948,  rose  to  a  modest  monthly  average  of 
several  thousands. 

Prices  remained  extremely  high  and,  as  the  boom  period 
had  passed,  were  felt  to  be  oppressive.  At  one  time  there 
was  a  housewives'  strike  in  the  chief  towns  against  the  high 
cost  of  meat  which  was  so  expensive  that  the  average  citizen 
could  only  afford  to  eat  it  twice  in  the  week.  In  the  course 
of  the  year  there  was  a  diminution  only  in  the  cost  of  clothing. 
The  high  cost  of  living  was  largely  due  to  a  policy  of  protection 
of  the  peasants — scarcely  20%  of  the  total  population — for 
whose  benefit  heavy  duties  were  imposed  upon  imported 
food,  whereas  food  exports  were  subsidized.  In  the  summer, 
for  instance,  5,000  fatted  pigs  were  exported  to  Germany 
because  the  peasants  could  not  get  the  prices  they  wished  at 
home;  this  cost  the  government  Fr. 55,000  to  subsidize  and 
therefore  caused  considerable  indignation,  both  on  account 
of  the  taxation  involved  and  the  lack  of  meat  at  a  reasonable 
price  on  the  market  at  home.  The  prices  of  butter,  sugar  and 
various  fruits  were  kept  very  high  for  similar  reasons;  it 
was  additionally  felt  that  the  official  price-control  office  at 
Montreux  was  unnecessarily  bureaucratic  in  its  ways.  There 


Philip  Mickman  (left}  of  Ossett,  Yorkshire,  who,  in  Aug.  1949, 
swam  the  English  channel  in  23  hr.  48  min.  being  congratulated  by 
Ishak  Helmy  of  Egypt  who  himself  swam  the  channel  in  1928. 


was  a  wave  of  anti-governmental  irritation  which  was 
probably  unprecedented  and  which  first  forcibly  expressed 
itself  on  May  22.  On  that  day  two  referenda  were  held,  the 
people  being  asked  to  approve  (1)  the  continued  use  of  paper 
money  as  legal  tender  which  dated  from  the  devaluation  of 
1936,  and  (2)  compulsory  medical  examination  for  tuber- 
culosis as  recommended  by  the  government  and  both  cham- 
bers. Both  these  things  were  rejected  after  a  bitter  campaign 
against  the  latter  as  a  piece  of  armv  interference  with  private 
life. 

The  main  issue  continued  to  be  that  of  the  budget  which 
was  only  balanced  through  taxes  based  upon  emergency 
legislation  which  was  due  to  expire  at  the  end  of  the  year. 
On  behalf  of  the  federal  government  it  should  be  made  clear 
that  modern  circumstances  had  enormously  increased  federal 
administrative  costs  and  that  the  constitution  did  not  forbid 
the  direct  federal  taxes  that  had  been  introduced  by  emergency 
decrees  which,  moreover,  both  chambers  and  the  chief 
political  parties  had  accepted.  Further,  public  opinion, 
although  it  rebelled  against  the  high  cost  of  living,  approved 
of  preserving  the  peasantry  as  a  privileged  group;  it  also 
attributed  aggressive  tendencies  to  the  U.S.S.R.  and  believed 
that  large  sums  should  be  spent  on  an  up-to-date  army  and 
air  force  in  order  that  Switzerland  should  be  able  in  all 
circumstances  to  sell  her  neutrality  dearly.  Finally  it  was 
natural  that  the  federal  government  should  wish  to  have  a 
new  financial  order  worked  out  within  the  constitution 
before  it  abandoned  the  special  powers  which  it  had  used 
since  the  unemployment  crisis  of  1933. 

In  a  country  with  the  democratic  traditions  of  Switzerland, 
however,  emergency  decrees  four  years  after  the  end  of  the 
war  were  bound  to  be  resented,  especially  as  the  opposition 
claimed  that  the  government  was  using  them  in  order  to 
reduce  the  autonomy  of  the  cantons.  The  claim  was  a 
shaky  one;  nevertheless  it  seemed  certain  that  the  govern- 
ment had  allowed  itself  to  get  out  of  touch  with  public 
opinion.  Already  in  1946  two  "  initiatives "  had  been 
tabled  which  demanded  a  popular  vote  on  the  constitutional 
issue;  the  actual  voting  was,  however,  constantly  delayed 
by  the  minister  of  justice  and  police  who  publicly  belittled 
the  "  initiatives."  At  last  it  was  settled  that  the  first  of  them 
which  demanded  the  confirmation  of  emergency  decrees  by 
a  popular  vote  should  be  held  on  Sept.  11,  1949.  In  fact  the 
federal  government  made  plain  that  it  did  not  take  the 
"  initiative  "  seriously  by  recommending  to  the  country  on 
July  22  an  extension  of  its  special  powers  for  another  five 
years  from  the  end  of  1949.  This  completed  popular 
exasperation. 

On  Sept.  11,  although  only  40%  of  the  electorate  voted, 
the  first  "initiative"  was  accepted  by  281,961  against 
272,359  individual  votes,  and  by  12^  cantons  against  9^. 
The  actual  majority  was  a  narrow  one  but  it  created  a 
constitutional  crisis,  since  the  sovereign  people  had  protested 
against  the  methods  adopted  by  their  elected  rulers  and 
approved  by  their  elected  representatives.  The  chambers 
met  later  in  September  and  in  October,  and  approved  a 
two-year  provisional  financial  programme  without  which  it 
would  be  impossible  to  levy,  after  the  end  of  1949,  what 
^had  by  now  become  basic  taxes.  The  new  programme,  which 
abolished  the  sales  tax  on  essential  foods  and  made  other 
small  concessions,  was  to  be  submitted  to  popular  approval 
before  the  end  of  1 2  months. 

On  Sept.  1 1  two  other  significant  events  took  place.  On 
the  one  hand  an  owner  of  a  chain  stores  and  Switzerland's 
most  active  demagogue  in  whipping  up  resentment  against 
the  government  was  elected  as  one  of  the  canton  of  Zurich's 
two  representatives  in  the  Swiss  Upper  House.  On  the  other 
the  Social  Democrats  lost  control  of  the  municipality  of 
Zurich  which  had  for  many  years  been  regarded  as  a  Socialist 


600 


SYDNEY— SYRIA 


stronghold ;  a  week  later  the  devaluation  of  sterling  heralded 
an  employers'  attack  upon  industrial  workers*  wages  on  the 
grounds  that  some  of  Switzerland's  imports  would  now 
be  cheaper. 

But  the  Social  Democrats  were  still  one  of  the  three  parties 
which  dominated  the  political  scene;  and  the  situation  was 
felt  to  have  deteriorated  further  when  at  their  congress  on 
Nov.  5-6  they  voted  by  a  large  majority  against  the  provisional 
financial  programme.  It  was  feared  that  the  one  Socialist 
member  of  the  federal  council  might  be  asked  to  resign; 
this  would  mean  returning  to  the  rigid  division  of  the  country 
between  non-Socialists  and  Socialists  which  had  prevailed 
until  World  War  II. 

On  Dec.  15,  Dr.  Max  Petitpierre  was  elected  president  of 
the  confederation  for  1950  and  Eduard  von  Steiger,  minister 
of  justice  and  police,  vice  president  of  the  federal  council. 

(E.  Wi.) 

Education  (1946-47)  Elementary  schools,  pupils  431,332,  teachers 
13,692;  secondary  schools,  pupils  75,546,  teachers  3,043;  universities 
(1947-48)  7,  students  13,182,  professors  and  lecturers  1,343;  institutions 
of  higher  education  2,  students  4,547,  teachers  427. 

Agriculture.  Main  crops  (in  '000  metric  tons)  wheat  (1948)  195; 
oats  (1948)  65;  barley  (1948)  54;  rye  (1948)  27,  maize  (1947)  10; 
sugar,  raw  value  (1947)  22,  potatoes  (1948)  1,141,  tobacco  (1947)  3, 
grape  (1948)  112.  Livestock  (in  '000  head),  cattle  (April  1948)  1,424, 
pigs  (April  1948)  767,  sheep  (April  1948)  170;  goats  (April  1947)  189; 
horses  (April  1948)  142,  chickens  (April  1947)  5,025  Dairy  produce 
(in  '000  metric  tons),  meat  (1947)  133;  milk  (1948)  2,210,  butter 
(1948)  13  2;  cheese  (1947)  41. 

Industry.  (1948)  Industrial  establishments  11,364;  persons  employed 
531,353.  Electricity  (in  million  kwh.,  1948;  1949,  six  months,  in 
brackets)  8,640  (3,782). 

Foreign  Trade.  (Million  francs)  Imports  (1948)  4,999,  (1949,  six 
months)  1,964.  Exports.  (1948)  3,435,  (1949,  six  months)  1,637 

Transport  and  Communications  Roads  (1949)-  10,500  mi.  Licensed 
motor  vehicles  (Dec  1948):  cars  105,954,  commercial  vehicles  33,926 
Railways  (1947)-  3,345  mi  ,  passenger  traffic  212,990,000;  goods 
traffic  18,213,000  metric  tons.  Shipping  (Dec  1948)  number  of 
merchant  vessels  12,  total  tonnage  40,518  Air  transport:  miles  flown 

(1947)  6,067,000,  passenger  mi    (1948)  49,782,000,  cargo  net  ton-mi. 

(1948)  779,000.     Telephones  (1946)-    subscribers  744,997. 

Finance  and  Banking.  (Million  francs)  Budget-  (1948  est )  revenue 
1,800,  expenditure  1,787;  (1949  est  )  revenue  1,423,  expenditure  1,428 
National  debt  (Dec.  1948;  in  brackets,  Dec.  1947).  10,959  (10,914). 
Currency  circulation  (Sept.  1949,  in  brackets,  Sept.  1948)  4,702 
(4,650).  Gold  reserve  (Sept  1949;  in  brackets,  Sept  1948)  1,423 
(1,334)  million  US  dollars.  Bank  deposits  (June  1949,  in  brackets, 
June  1948)-  5,324  (4,712).  Monetary  unit  franc  with  an  exchange 
rate  (Dec.  1949;  in  brackets,  Dec.  1948)  of  Fr  12  12  (17  35)  to  the 
pound. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  W.  Harpham,  Switzerland  Economic  and  Commercial 
Conditions  (London,  H  M.S  O.,  1949) 

SYDNEY,  capital  of  New  South  Wales,  the  largest 
city  of  Australia  and  third  largest  city  of  the  southern 
hemisphere.  Pop.  (June  30,  1947,  census):  1,484,434.  Lord 
Mayor,  E.  C.  O'Dea. 

At  the  city  council  elections  in  Dec  1948  the  Australian 
Labour  party  gained  18  seats,  Civic  Reform  party  9  and 
Lang  Labour  party  2.  Alderman  O'Dea  (A.L.P.)  was 
installed  as  lord  mayor  on  Jan.  1;  in  December  he  was 
re-elected  for  1950.  In  May,  the  minister  for  local  government 
announced  his  approval  of  the  principles  of  the  county  of 
Cumberland's  master  plan  to  control  development  of  the 
metropolitan  and  county  area;  in  August  a  royal  com- 
missioner was  appointed  to  investigate  objections  to  the 
plan  by  metropolitan  municipal  councils. 

In  February  experts  arrived  from  Great  Britain  to  report 
on  the  city's  public  transport  system,  following  an  announce- 
ment of  heavy  losses  and  a  sharp  increase  in  fares;  recom- 
mendations included  the  replacement  of  trams  by  buses. 
A  new  commissioner  for  road  transport,  R.  Windsor, 
was  appointed  in  September.  A  strike  of  coal  miners  (June 
to  August)  caused  drastic  lighting  and  power  restrictions 
and  severe  curtailment  of  transport  services  and  industry. 

The  composition  of  the  council  of  the  newly  established 


N.S.W.  University  of  Technology  was  announced  in  May  and 
the  first  professors  appointed.  The  minister  for  education 
appointed  a  committee  to  report  on  the  financial  difficulties 
of  the  University  of  Sydney. 

The  Royal  Sydney  show  (April  9  to  19)  was  attended  by 
more  than  one  million  people.  The  main  theatrical  event 
was  the  visit  of  the  Stratford  Memorial  Theatre  company, 
Nov.-Dec.  A  number  of  overseas  musicians,  including 
Elizabeth  Schwartzkopf  and  Otto  Klemperer,  appeared 
during  the  year.  (W.  FR.) 

SYNTHETIC  PRODUCTS:  «v  CHEMISTRY;  PLASTICS 
INDUS i RY;  RAYON  AND  OTHER  SYNTHETIC  FIBRES. 

SYRIA.  An  independent  Arab  republic,  formerly  under 
French  mandate,  bounded  by  the  eastern  Mediterranean, 
Turkey,  Iraq,  Jordan,  Israel  and  Lebanon.  Area:  73,587 
sq.  mi.  Pop.  :  (1943  est.)  2,860,400,  (1947  census)  3,430,310. 
Religions  (1943  est.):  Moslem  2,424,700  or  85%  (Sunm 
Arabs  1,721,000,  Shia  Arabs  12,700,  Sunm  Kurds  200,000, 
Sunni  Turks  30,000.  Sunni  Circassians  20,000,  Druze  87,200, 
Alawi  325,300,  Ismaih  28,500);  Christian  403,000  or  14% 
(Roman  Catholic  rites  103,800;  [Grcco-Mclchite  46,700, 
Armenian  16,800,  Syrian  16,200,  Maromte  13,400,  Latin 
6,000,  and  Chaldean  4,700];  Eastern  Churches  288,000; 
[Greek  Orthodox  137,000,  Gregorian  Armenian  101,700, 
Syrian  Jacobite  40,100,  and  Nestonan  9,200];  Protestant 
11,200);  other  1%  (Jewish,  Yezidi,  etc.).  Languages: 
Arabic  is  the  mother  tongue  of  some  86%  of  the  popul- 
ation, but  Kurdish,  Armenian,  Turkish  and  Circassian  are 
also  spoken.  Chief  towns  (pop.,  1948  est.):  Damascus 
(cap.,  342,000);  Aleppo  (369,000);  Horns  ( 1 1 1 ,000) ;  Hama 
(82,000);  Latakia  (the  only  port,  42,000).  Presidents  in  1949: 
Shukn  Bey  el-Quwatli  (until  March  30),  Marshal  Husni 
ez-Zaim  (see  OBITUARIES)  (June  25- Aug.  14)  and  Hashcm 
Bey  Atassi  (from  Dec.  14);  prime  ministers  in  1949,  Khdlid 
el-Azam  (until  March  30),  Dr.  Muhsin  Barazi  (June  26-Aug. 
14),  Hashem  Bey  Atassi  (Aug.  15-Dec.  13),  Nazim  el-Kodsi 
(Dec.  24-25),  and  Khalid  el-Azam  (from  Dec.  28). 

History.  On  March  30  a  section  of  the  army  led  by  Colonel 
Husni  el-Zaim,  the  chief  of  staff,  overthrew  the  government, 
arresting  President  Shukn  Bey  el-Quwatli,  the  prime  minister 
Khalid  el-Azam  and  other  ministers,  two  of  whom  were  later 
released.  The  frontiers  were  closed  and  a  curfew  was  ordered. 
In  the  first  of  many  broadcasts  Colonel  Zaim  said  that  he  had 
acted  to  save  Syria  from  a  despotic  regime.  On  the  following 
day  he  said  that  elections  would  be  held  as  soon  as  possible; 
and  the  frontier  with  Lebanon  was  re-opened.  There  was  no 
bloodshed  or  disturbance,  and  the  new  regime  received  a 
widespread  public  welcome.  Zaim  appeared  before  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies  on  April  1  and  received  a  vote  of 
confidence  by  a  slight  majority.  Next  day  he  announced  its 
dissolution.  A  consultative  commission  was  summoned  to 
draft  a  new  constitution.  Zaim  also  proclaimed  a  policy  of 
internal  reform  and  cordial  relations  with  other  countries. 

On  April  7  it  was  announced  that  the  president  and  prime 
minister,  still  under  detention,  had  resigned;  and  Zaim 
shortly  after  formed  a  cabinet  in  which  he  assumed  the  titles 
of  prime  minister,  minister  of  defence  and  minister  of  the 
interior.  Among  the  far  reaching  changes  proposed  were  the 
transfer  of  power  to  the  middle  classes,  the  division  of  large 
estates,  the  limited  enfranchisement  of  women  and  the 
reform  of  the  civil  service.  Zaim  gave  absolute  priority  of 
expenditure  to  the  army,  with  the  declared  intention  of  making 
it  one  of  the  strongest  in  the  middle  east. 

All  political  parties  were  dissolved  by  decree  on  May  29. 
On  June  25  a  referendum  was  held,  all  troops  being  confined 
to  barracks;  Zaim's  regime  and  all  its  decrees  were 
endorsed  and  he  himself  elected  president  by  621,000  out  of 


SYRIA 


601 


762,000  votes.  A  government  was  then  formed  on  June  26 
with  Dr.  Muhsin  Barazi  as  prime  minister  and  minister  of 
foreign  affairs.  The  new  president  also  took  the  rank  of 
marshal. 

Syrian  finances  were  in  a  disastrous  condition  and  heavy 
taxation  was  resorted  to,  including  a  15%  tax,  retrospective 
to  1940,  on  the  profits  of  all  industrial  concerns,  businesses 
and  sales  of  land  or  houses.  Marshal  Zaim  began  consciously 
to  model  himself  on  Kemal  Ataturk  and  openly  flouted  older 
Moslem  notions  of  propriety.  His  popularity  began  to 
decline.  A  number  of  senior  officers,  the  president's  former 
colleagues  and  supporters,  were  dismissed  and  imprisoned. 
Arrests  of  leading  men  were  numerous. 

Early  on  the  morning  of  Aug.  14  a  group  of  army  officers 
led  by  Colonel  Sami  Hinnawi,  with  three  armoured  vehicles, 
forced  their  way  into  the  president's  and  prime  minister's 
residences,  whence  both  were  taken  out  and  summarily  shot. 
It  was  proclaimed  that  they  had  been  condemned  to  death 
by  a  supreme  war  council  presided  over  by  Colonel  Hinnawi 
and  that  the  army  had  acted  to  save  the  country  from  the 
tyrant  who  had  abused  his  authority,  wasted  public  money 
and  restricted  personal  freedom,  acting  contrary  to  the  spirit 
of  the  March  30  coup  d'etat. 

At  a  meeting  in  the  defence  ministry  Hashem  Bey  Atassi, 
85  years  old,  who  had  once  been  president  under  the  French 
mandate,  agreed  to  form  a  provisional  government;  and  to 
this  Colonel  Hinnawi  handed  over  on  Aug.  15,  returning 
with  his  officers  to  barracks.  The  main  duty  of  the  new 
government  was  to  pave  the  way  for  the  early  election  of  a 
Constituent  Assembly  to  prepare  a  new  constitution. 

These  events  had  wide  repercussions  in  the  middle  east.  On 
April  16  Nuri  Pasha,  the  Iraqi  prime  minister,  and  the  minis- 
ter of  defence  had  visited  Zaim  in  Damascus.  The  Lebanese 
minister  of  foreign  affairs  was  also  present  at  the  talks.  The 
Iraqis  returned  to  Baghdad  next  day,  not  waiting  for  the 
arrival  of  the  secretary  general  of  the  Arab  league  (q.v.\ 
who  came  up  from  Cairo  that  evening.  On  April  21  Zaim 
flew  to  Cairo  where  he  was  received  by  King  Farouk  and 
Egypt's  recognition  of  his  regime  followed  on  April  23. 
Statements  by  the  King  of  Jordan  (^.v.)  were  not  well  received 
in  Damascus,  and  on  April  27  Zaim  declared  himself  resolutely 
opposed  both  to  the  Greater  Syria  project  of  King  Abdullah 
and  the  "  fertile  crescent "  scheme  of  Nuri  Pasha.  At  the 
same  time  he  closed  the  Jordan  frontier,  concentrated  Syrian 
forces  there,  and  called  up  20,000  men.  The  frontier  was  re- 
opened on  April  27,  but  Zaim  in  a  further  statement  spoke  of 
Jordan  as  the  tenth  province  of  Syria.  On  May  7  he  said 
that  Syria  would  shift  from  defensive  to  offensive  opposition 
to  the  two  schemes,  and  in  a  press  interview  in  June  was 
quoted  as  saying,  "  when  King  Abdullah  dies  I  shall  take 
over  his  kingdom." 

Relations  with  Lebanon  O/.v.)  deteriorated  but  improved 
slightly  after  the  termination  of  the  Saadeh  episode.  By  the 
end  of  April  the  Zaim  regime  had  been  recognized  by  Great 
Britain,  the  United  States,  France,  Italy,  Belgium  and  Persia. 
Zaim  sought  French  support  and  was  later  to  be  accused  by 
Colonel  Hinnawi  of  having  re-installed  in  posts  of  command 
supporters  of  the  mandate.  On  April  1 5  he  announced  that 
he  wanted  strong  ties  of  friendship  with  Turkey;  and  at 
Syria's  request  the  Turkish  government,  on  July  25,  sent 
General  Kazim  Orbay  to  advise  on  the  reform  of  the  Syrian 
army.  The  general  was  received  with  great  ceremony  in 
Damascus,  where  he  remained  until  Aug.  25.  Turkey  was 
also  asked  to  admit  Syrians  to  Turkish  military  schools. 

After  Zairrfs  death,  the  new  government  was  quickly 
recognized  by  Jordan  and  Iraq  but  not  by  Egypt  and  Saudi 
Arabia.  It  was  assumed  to  be  in  sympathy  with  Nuri  Pasha's 
plan  to  unite  Syria  with  Iraq  under  King  Fay  sal  II,  particu- 
larly after  a  ceremonial  welcome  had  been  given  to  the 


ffusni  ez-Zaim  (left)  who  on  March  30,  1949,  successfully  overthrew 
the  government,   and  Colonel  Sami  Hinnawi  (right)   who  led  the 
revolt  against  Zaim  on  Aug.  14. 

Iraqi  regent  at  Damascus  airport,  on  his  way  back  from 
London  on  Oct.  6,  in  which  the  prime  minister  and  his 
cabinet,  Colonel  Hinnawi  and  other  leaders  took  part. 
After  mutual  consultation,  the  British,  United  States  and 
French  governments  gave  recognition  on  Sept.  20.  The 
Syrian  prime  minister  said  on  Aug.  18  that  the  policy  of  the 
new  government  remained  without  change  toward  Turkey. 
But  an  agreement  for  the  sale  to  Turkey  of  100,000  metric 
tons  of  Syrian  grain,  concluded  on  July  24,  was  denounced 
on  Aug.  27,  owing  to  the  government's  inability  to  find  the 
quantity  required. 

The  government  of  Zaim  on  May  16  had  ratified  the  agree- 
ment initialled  on  Feb.  2  between  the  previous  government 
and  the  Arabian  American  Oil  company  granting  wayleave 
for  the  Trans- Arabian  pipeline.  On  June  7  it  signed  agree- 
ments with  the  Anglo-Iranian  Oil  company  granting  way- 
leave  for  a  pipeline  from  Abadan  to  the  Mediterranean  and 
providing  for  the  construction  of  a  refinery  at  Tartous  on 
the  Syrian  coast.  Hashem  Bey  Atassi  stated  on  Aug.  16 
that  his  government  would  neither  endorse  nor  repudiate 
these  agreements,  which  must  come  before  the  new  assembly 
for  its  decision. 

Armistice  talks  with  Israel  began  in  April  and  an  armistice 
was  signed  on  July  20.  (C.  Ho.) 

Parliamentary  elections  took  place  on  Nov.  15:  only  39% 
of  the  electorate  voted,  women  voting  for  the  first  time. 
In  the  result  no  party  gained  an  absolute  majority  but  the 
Constituent  Assembly  of  113  deputies  was  dominated  by  the 
Popular  party  (led  by  Rushdt  Kekhya,  minister  of  the  interior) 
which  gained  44  seats;  the  elections  were  boycotted  by  the 
National  party,  of  which  Shukri  Bey  was  the  founder;  the 
Ba'th  (left-wing)  party  secured  7  seats.  On  Dec,  12  the 
Assembly  elected  Rushdi  Kekhya  its  president,  the  cabinet 
resigned  and  on  Dec.  14  Hashem  Bey  Atassi  was  elected 
provisional  chief  of  state  pending  the  drafting  of  a  new  con- 
stitution. 

Early  in  the  morning  of  Dec.  19  a  third  coup  d'etat  was 
staged  by  the  Syrian  army.  Former  Colonel,  now  General 
Hinnawi,  commander  in  chief  of  the  Syrian  army,  and  his 
brother  in  law,  Assad  Talass,  under  secretary  of  state  for 
foreign  affairs,  were  arrested.  The  leader  of  the  coup,  Colonel 
Adib  Shishakli,  41 -year-old  commander  of  the  1st  motorized 
brigade,  declared  that  the  arrested  men  were  plotting  against 
the  republican  regime  in  conjunction  with  foreign  elements. 
Following  the  failure  of  Khalid  el-Azam  to  form  a  cabinet 
the  premiership  was  entrusted  on  Dec.  24  to  Nazim  cl-Kodsi, 
but  he  resigned  the  next  day.  Hashem  Atassi,  the  provisional 
chief  of  state,  submitted  his  resignation  on  Dec.  26,  but  the 
next  day  the  Constituent  Assembly  refused  to  accept  it. 


602 


,TA£LE  TENNIS— TARIFFS 


A  new  government  was  formed  on  Dec.  28  by  Khalid 
el-Azam  with  Colonel  Akram  Hawrani,  leader  of  a  newly 
founded  Republican  party,  as  minister  of  defence,  and  Sami 
Kabbara,  an  Independent,  as  minister  of  the  interior.  General 
Hinnawi  was  pensioned  and  Colonel  Anwar  Mahmud  was 
appointed  commander  in  chief  of  the  army.  (X.) 

Education.  (1946-47)  Schools  state  870,  pupils  127,502,  private  344, 
pupils  48,133;  foreign  55,  pupils  5,725,  universities  1,  students  1,722; 
institutions  of  higher  education  3 

Agriculture.  Main  crops  ('000  metric  tons,  1948)  wheat  550; 
barley  260,  mai/e  30,  nee  (1947)  22,  potatoes  (1947)  15,  cotton  7; 
tobacco  4;  olives  (1946)  42,  lentils  (1947)  39;  broad  beans  (1947)  29 
Livestock  ('000  head)'  sheep  (Dec.  1947)  3,482;  goats  (Dec  1946) 
1,257;  cattle  (Dec  1946)  371. 

Foreign  Trade.  (1948,  with  Lebanon)  Imports  £S468  million,  exports 
£S79  million. 

Transport  and  Communications.  Roads  (1946)  3,966  mi  Licensed 
motor  vehicles  (Dec.  1948)  cars  3,951,  commercial  vehicles  3,385. 
Railways  (Dec  1948)  530  8  mi 

Finance  and  Banking.  Budget  (1948  cst  )  balanced  at  £S128  million; 
(1949  est.)  balanced  at  £S131  million  Currency  circulation  (March 
1949;  in  brackets,  March  1948).  £8240  (182)  million  Gold  reserve 
of  the  Bank  of  Syria  and  Lebanon  (June  1949)-  2  8  million  US 
dollars  Bank  deposits  (Dec.  1948;  in  brackets,  Dec  1947):  £S93 
(91)  million.  Monetary  unit  Svnan  pound  with  an  exchange  rate  of 
£S6-13  (8  83  before  Sept  18,  1949)  to  the  pound  sterling. 

TABLE  TENNIS.  The  world  championships  were  held 
at  the  Eriksdalshalle  in  Stockholm,  in  Feb.  1949.  The  men's 
singles  event  was  won  by  Johnny  Leach  of  London;  Fred 
Perry  last  won  the  event  for  England  in  1929.  The  men's 
team  event  (Swaythling  cup)  was  won  by  Hungary  who  beat 
Czechoslovakia  five  matches  to  four.  In  the  Marcel  Cor- 
billon  cup  for  women's  teams  U  S.A.  beat  England,  the 
holders,  three  games  to  one.  G.  Farkas  (Hungary)  won  the 
women's  singles,  F.  Tohar  and  I.  Andrcadis  (Czechoslovakia) 
the  men's  doubles,  H.  Flliott  (Scotland)  and  G.  Farkas 
(Hungary)  the  women's  doubles  and  F.  Sido  (Hungary) 
the  mixed  doubles. 

The  other  great  event  in  the  table  tennis  world,  the  English 
championship,  was  played  at  Wembley,  Middlesex,  in  Feb. 
1949.  M.  Reisman  (U.S.A.)  won  the  men's  singles  title, 
beating  V.  Barna  (England)  by  three  games  to  two.  P.  McLean 
(U.S.A.)  won  the  women's  singles,  beating  H.  Elliott  (Scot- 
land) in  three  straight  games.  R.  Bergmann  and  V.  Barna 
(England)  won  the  men's  doubles,  P.  McLean  and  T  Thall 
(U.S.A.)  the  women's  doubles  and  R.  Miles  and  T.  Thall 
(U.S.A.)  the  mixed  doubles.  (W.  J.  P.) 

TAIWAN:   see  FORMOSA. 

TANGANYIKA:  see  BRITISH  EAST  AFRICA;  TRUST 
TERRITORIES. 

TANGIER.  From  1912  an  international  and  demilita- 
rized zone  of  Morocco  on  the  southern  shore  of  the  Straits 
of  Gibraltar.  Area:  232  sq.  mi.  Pop.:  (Dec.  1938  est.) 
60,000;  (1940  census)  102,306  including  16,509  Europeans; 
(mid-1949  est )  150,000  including  30,000  Europeans.  Langu- 
ages: Arabic,  French  and  Spanish.  Religion:  mainly 
Moslem.  When  the  one-sided  incorporation  of  Tangier  into 
the  Spanish  zone  of  Morocco  (Nov.  3,  1940)  had  been  ter- 
minated on  Oct.  11,  1945,  the  international  administration 
was  re-established  with  a  committee  of  control  composed  of 
the  resident  consuls  general  of  France,  Great  Britain,  the 
United  States,  the  U  S.S.R.,  Belgium,  the  Netherlands, 
Portugal  and  Spain.  The  Soviet  representative  refused  to 
take  his  seat  on  the  committee  as  long  as  Franco  Spam  was 
represented.  Italy  was  re-admitted  to  trie  committee  on  March 
8,  1948.  The  committee  of  control  appointed  a  legislative 
assembly  of  26  members  (4  French,  4  Spaniards,  3  British, 
3  Americans,  1  Belgian,  1  Dutchman,  1  Portuguese,  3  Jews 
and  6  Moslems).  Tangier  remained  under  the  nominal 
sovereignty  of  the  sultan  of  Morocco  and  his  representative 


(the  mendub)  was  Haj  Mohammed  el  Tazi.     Administrator 
(from  Aug.  1948),  Jonkheer  H.L.F.C.  van  Vredenburch. 

In  1949  Tangier  could  be  described  as  the  only  genuine 
international  administration  and  the  only  absolutely  free 
money  market  in  the  eastern  hemisphere.  The  international 
regime  functioned  smoothly,  the  financial  position  was 
prosperous,  with  a  large  budget  surplus,  and  the  local  debt 
was  reduced  to  less  than  0  •  5  %  of  the  yearly  revenue.  There 
was  no  income  tax  and  revenue  was  raised  largely  by  the 
flat-rate  12-5%  duty  on  goods  imported  or  in  transit.  The 
Moroccan  franc,  equal  to  the  French  franc,  was  the  legal 
currency  but  any  of  the  world  currencies  could  be  legally 
bought  and  sold.  By  Sept.  1949  the  number  of  banks  had 
increased  from  10  before  World  War  II  to  81.  Private 
enterprise  was  the  key  to  Tangier's  prosperity,  but  speculation 
rather  than  public-spirited  investment  seemed  to  be  the  rule. 

TARIFFS.  Anticipations  of  fundamental  changes  in  the 
tariff  systems  of  western  Europe  and  the  Commonwealth 
failed  to  materialize  in  1949.  Although  preparatory  work 
for  such  changes  continued,  the  extent  to  which  efforts 
towards  the  economic  integration  of  Europe  showed  appreci- 
able results  in  the  sphere  of  tariffs  was  so  far  modest.  Not- 
withstanding pressure  from  the  United  States,  there  was  no 
indication  of  any  growing  willingness  to  remove  customs 
barriers.  Although  the  idea  of  a  Western  European  Customs 
union  appeared  less  Utopian  in  1949  than  two  years  before, 
it  was  still  far  beyond  the  possibilities  of  realization  in  the 
near  future.  For  the  present,  progress  in  that  direction  was 
made  in  three  senses: 

1.  Regional  customs  unions  were  being  established  or 
planned.    In  this  respect  the  "  Benelux  "  countries  (Belgium, 
the  Netherlands  and  Luxembourg)  achieved  concrete  results 
in  1948-49.    Although  France  and  Italy  signed  an  agreement 
for  a  customs  union  in  March  1948,  the  scheme  was  still  in 
its  preliminary  stage  during  1949  and  so  was  the  Scandinavian 
scheme. 

2.  Efforts  were  made  in  1949  within  the  framework  of  the 
existing  system,  to  lower  customs  barriers  and  reduce  prefer- 
ential rates  between  European  and  Commonwealth  countries. 
In  this  respect  the  results  of  the  tariff  negotiations  at  Annecy, 
France,  during  the  summer  of  1949  were  particularly  worth 
noting. 

3.  The  Organization  for  European  Economic  Co-operation 
intensified  its  efforts  during  1949  to  achieve  progress  towards 
the  economic  integration  of  countries  sharing  in  the  European 
Recovery  programme.     Although  these  efforts  aimed  mostly 
at  the  removal  of  obstacles  to  intra-European  trade  other  than 
tariffs,  attention  was  also  paid  to  prohibitive  tariffs  in  the 
plan  to  abolish  quotas  on  half  the  imports  of  member  countries 
from  each  other. 

The  results  of  the  regional  customs  union  between  the 
Benelux  countries  during  1949  were  found  to  be  disappointing. 
This  experience  made  it  evident  that,  although  before  World 
War  I  and  to  a  less  extent  before  World  War  II,  tariffs  might 
have  been  the  main  obstacle  to  the  free  flow  of  international 
trade,  during  the  postwar  period  they  were  over-shadowed, 
at  any  rate  in  intra-European  trade,  by  quantitative  restric- 
tions and  exchange  controls.  In  spite  of  the  abolition  of 
customs  barriers  between  Belgium,  the  Netherlands  and 
Luxembourg,  trade  continued  to  be  hampered  by  the  con- 
tinued existence  of  quotas  and  currency  restrictions.  Nego- 
tiations were  pursued  to  remove  or  mitigate  these  obstacles 
in  order  that  trade  should  be  able  to  benefit  by  the  removal 
of  tariffs. 

Towards  the  end  of  1949  efforts  were  made  to  extend  the 
Benelux  arrangement  to  include  France  and  Italy.  It  was 
suggested  that  the  new  organization  might  be  called  "  Frita- 
lux  "  or  kt  Finebel/'  At  the  same  time  an  attempt  was  rti'ade 


TARIFFS 


603 


to  establish  some  degree  of  economic  union  between  the 
United  Kingdom  and  the  three  Scandinavian  countries 
under  the  name  of  **  Ukiscan."  There  was  a  possibility  of 
including  the  western  zones  of  Germany  in  one  or  the  other 
combinations.  Up  to  the  end  of  the  year  little  actual  progress 
had  been  made  with  any  of  these  schemes. 

The  Organization  for  European  Economic  Co-operation 
was  fully  aware  that  quotas  and  exchange  restrictions  consti- 
tuted in  existing  circumstances  a  more  insurmountable 
barrier  than  tariffs.  The  main  effort  towards  economic 
integrations  was  focused,  therefore,  not  on  the  removal  of 
tariff  barriers,  but  on  the  mitigation  of  difficulties  to  intra- 
European  trade  arising  from  exchange  regulations  and  quotas. 
In  the  summer  of  1949  an  understanding  was  reached  for  the 
establishment  of  a  new  intra-European  payments  system 
which  was  expected  to  go  a  long  way  towards  facilitating 
trade  between  the  E.R.P.  countries.  During  the  autumn, 
progress  was  made  on  the  lines  of  a  proposal  put  forward 
by  the  British  government  under  which  the  quotas  on  at 
least  half  the  member  countries'  total  imports  from  other 
O.E.E.C.  countries  were  to  be  abolished  at  an  early  date. 
The  only  important  provision  which  aimed  at  the  reduction 
of  tariff  barriers  was  the  proposal  that,  if  any  O.E  E.C 
country  considered  that  the  reduction  of  the  quotas  by 
another  country  was  frustrated  by  the  continued  existence 
of  a  prohibitive  tariff,  it  might  ask  the  O.E.KC.  to  decide 
whether  the  goods  affected  should  be  counted  towards  the 
50%  reduction.  If  the  O.E.E  C.  ruled  that  the  exemption  of 
the  goods  concerned  from  the  quota  was,  in  practice,  in- 
operative then  the  government  concerned,  in  order  to  com- 
plete the  50%,  would  have  the  choice  between  lowering  the 
tariff  on  the  goods  in  question  or  removing  the  quota  on 
other  goods. 

Although  the  Annecy  negotiations  were  not  confined 
specifically  to  trade  between  European  and  Commonwealth 
countries,  these  countries  constituted  a  laige  proportion  of 
the  participants  which,  between  them,  represented  something 
like  70  to  75%  of  the  world's  trade.  The  original  participants 
included  Australia,  Belgium,  Canada,  Ceylon,  France,  India, 
Luxembourg,  the  Netherlands,  New  Zealand,  Norway, 
Pakistan,  Southern  Rhodesia,  South  Africa  and  the  United 
Kingdom.  The  countries  which  adhered  to  the  group  during 
1949  included  Finland,  Greece,  Italy  and  Sweden. 

The  23  original  participating  countries  negotiated  a  series 
of  tariff  agreements  at  Geneva,  Switzerland,  in  1947.  The 
object  of  the  Annecy  negotiations  was  to  negotiate  further 
tariff  agreements  between  these  countries  and  the  11  acceding 
countries.  The  proceedings  involved  147  separate  negotia- 
tions between  pairs  of  countries.  The  new  members  revised 
their  tariffs  as  a  condition  of  their  adhesion  to  the  general 
agreement  on  tariffs  and  trade  and  the  23  original  members 
made  reciprocal  concessions  for  their  benefit.  The  significance 
of  these  mutual  concessions  was  enhanced  by  the  operation  of 
the  most-favoured-nation  rule  under  which  concessions 
made  by  any  participant  to  another  would  be  equally  avail- 
able to  other  members,  whether  old  or  new. 

In  general  these  agreements  succeeded  in  binding  tariffs 
and  margins  of  preference  at  their  existing  level  rather  than 
reducing  them.  In  view  of  the  temptation  to  safeguard  home 
markets  and  develop  regional  trade  to  the  exclusion  of  other 
countries,  even  this  fixing  of  the  rates  at  the  existing  levels 
was  considered  an  achievement.  The  United  Kingdom 
undertook  to  bind  duties  or  to  bind  the  duty-free  entry  of 
goods,  the  total  imports  of  which  amounted  to  £73,900,000 
in  1938.  Of  this  amount  £22,400,000  related  to  imports  on 
which  the  United  Kingdom  had  undertaken  to  bind  duty-free 
entry;  most  of  the  goods  concerned  were  raw  materials  such 
as  wood  pulp.  The  United  Kingdom  also  agreed  to  extend  to 
European  softwood  the  tariff  reduction  granted  in  favour  of 


American  softwood  in  1947.  In  two  instances  affecting 
certain  iron  and  steel  items  the  United  Kingdom  agreed  not 
to  increase  duties  beyond  certain  maximum  rates. 

The  United  Kingdom  consented  to  reduce  the  margin  of 
preference  in  the  case  of  cod  liver  oil  and  certain  types  of 
cheese  below  the  minimum  level  agreed  with  Commonwealth 
countries.  This  was  done  in  agreement  with  the  Common- 
wealth countries  concerned  and  the  latter  were  aole  to  obtain 
counter- balancing  concessions  in  their  negotiations  with 
countries  which  benefited  by  the  reductions.  The  most 
important  preference  items  affected  by  the  Annecy  agreements 
was  unwrought  i  lummium  on  which  the  United  Kingdom 
undertook  to  eliminate  the  duty.  The  value  of  imports 
from  Commonwealth  countries  (principally  Canada)  was 
£2,900,000  in  1938.  Canada  obtained  compensation  for  loss 
of  the  preference  margin  on  this  item  by  direct  negotiation 
with  Norway,  in  whose  interest  the  concession  was  made. 

The*  British  government  also  agreed,  at  the  request  of  other 
Commonwealth  countries,  to  the  reduction  by  them  of  certain 
margins  of  preference  granted  to  the  United  Kingdom  at 
Ottawa  or  in  subsequent  agreements.  The  value  of  the 
trade  affected  by  these  concessions  was  very  small. 

The  value  of  trade  from  which  the  United  Kingdom  was 
expected  to  benefit  directly  or  indirectly  from  agreements 
not  to  increase  duties  and  from  reductions  of  duties  was  £22 
million  in  1938,  including  about  £17^  million  in  respect  of 
the  Scandinavian  countries  alone.  The  value  of  corresponding 
trade  items  after  World  War  II  was  substantially  larger. 
In  addition  to  benefits  arising  from  concessions  made  by  the 
acceding  countries,  the  United  Kingdom  also  anticipated 
gains  from  concessions  made  by  other  contracting  parties 
to  acceding  countries.  For  instance,  concessions  made  by 
the  United  States  on  items  in  which  the  United  Kingdom  had 
an  interest  tended  to  benefit  British  trade  which  had  amounted 
to  about  £500,000  in  1938. 

In  respect  of  the  Annecy  tariff  concessions,  as  with  regional 
customs  unions  schemes  and  O.E.E.C.  schemes,  it  was  well 
to  bear  in  mind  that  trade  between  most  participating 
countries  was  hampered  more  by  quotas  and  exchange 
restrictions  than  by  customs  duties.  All  European  countries 
were  using  quotas  extensively  and  Canada  was  the  only 
Commonwealth  country  which  did  not  apply  them  to  any 
considerable  extent.  Nevertheless,  it  would  be  a  mistake 
to  underrate  the  importance  of  the  trend  towards  tariff 
reductions.  In  a  sellers*  market,  such  as  existed  during 
the  early  postwar  years,  the  price  factor  was  of  secondary 
importance,  so  that  even  high  tariffs  would  not  have  prevented 
the  free  movement  of  goods  across  the  barriers  if  it  had  been 
possible  to  remove  the  quotas  and  exchange  restrictions. 
Since,  however,  a  buyers'  market  developed  in  the  meantime, 
or  was  about  to  develop,  in  almost  every  line  of  goods,  tariff 
rates  were  coming  into  their  own  as  factors  determining  the 
international  flow  of  goods.  As  and  when  quotas  and  cur- 
rency restrictions  are  removed  or  mitigated,  the  importance 
of  tariffs  in  international  trade  tends  to  increase.  Hence  the 
provision  in  the  O.E.E.C.  proposal  of  quota  cuts,  aimed  at 
preventing  these  cuts  from  becoming  nullified  by  high  tariff 
rates  which,  in  a  buyers*  market,  could  easily  prove 
prohibitive. 

It  was  agreed  at  Annecy  that  the  participating  governments 
would  endeavour  to  follow  up  the  Geneva  and  Annecy 
agreements  by  an  attempt  at  further  reciprocal  tariff  con- 
cessions on  a  larger  scale.  To  that  end  it  was  arranged  that 
there  should  be  another  international  conference  on  tariffs 
in  1950,  in  which  61  nations  were  expected  to  join.  Mean- 
while the  O.E.E.C.  negotiations  for  the  elimination  or  miti- 
gation of  quotas  were  also  expected  to  make  progress,  and 
intra-European  payments  further  to  be  facilitated.  Pressure 
from  the  United  States  in  favour  of  the  removal  of  tariffs 


604 


TAXATION 


and  other  obstacles  to  free  trading  in  western  Europe  was  on 
the  increase,  and  apprehension  that  congress  might  be 
reluctant  to  pass  further  E.R  P.  instalments  unless  adequate 
progress  was  shown  in  that  direction  provided  a  powerful 
stimulus  to  the  negotiations  conducted  to  that  end. 

Progress  achieved  or  anticipated  in  respect  of  the  removal 
of  trade  barriers  in  Europe  was  confined  almost  entirely  to 
western  Europe.  Czechoslovakia  was  the  only  country 
behind  the  "  iron  curtain  "  which  participated  in  the  Annecy 
negotiations.  (See  also  EXCHANGE  CONTROL  AND  EXCHANGE 
RATES;  INTERNATIONAL  TRADE.)  (P.  EG.) 

TASMANIA:  see  AUSIKALIA,  COMMONWEAL  in  OK 

TAXATION.  There  were  no  very  striking  new  departures 
in  1949  in  the  taxation  systems  of  the  European  and  Common- 
wealth countries.  During  earlier  postwar  years  some  of  the 
former  countries  embarked  on  new  experiments,  such  as  a 
tax  on  wealth  acquired  during  the  German  occupation,  a 
capital  levy  or  a  tax  on  capital  gains.  By  1949  these  experi- 
ments— which  involved  once-for-all  levies  rather  than  re- 
current taxation — were  concluded  and  taxation  in  the 
countries  of  western  Europe  was  running,  for  the  most  part, 
on  traditional  lines.  The  main  differences  between  the  1949 
taxation  systems  of  Europe  and  the  Commonwealth  and 
those  of  1939  may  be  summed  up  as  follows:  (1)  rates  of 
taxation  were  everywhere  well  above  prewar  levels;  (2)  the 
wartime  reversal  of  trend  in  favour  of  indirect  taxation  was 
maintained,  though  in  many  instances  the  rates  of  indirect 
taxes  were  reduced  after  World  War  II;  (3)  taxation  was 
guided,  to  a  larger  extent  than  before  World  War  II,  by 
political  and  social  rather  than  economic  considerations; 
(4)  even  to  the  extent  to  which  taxation  was  guided  by 
economic  considerations,  fiscal  considerations  proper  played 
a  subordinate  part  compared  with  considerations  of  general 
economic  policy;  (5)  even  though  the  wartime  increase  in  the 
number  of  direct  tax-payers  was  not  fully  maintained,  it 
remained  well  above  prewar  level,  partly  through  a  lowering 
of  the  exemption  limits  and  partly  through  an  increase  of 
the  nominal  wages  of  lower-paid  workers;  (6)  income  tax 
and  death  duties  remained  at  their  wartime  high  level  on 
large  incomes  and  fortunes. 

In  the  United  Kingdom  taxation  receipts  continued  their 
uninterrupted  postwar  rise.  Actual  receipts  during  1948 
49  amounted  to  £3,667  million,  an  increase  of  £155  million 
Compared  with  budgetary  estimates.  As  in  previous  years 
this  increase  was  mainly  the  result  of  the  satisfactory  yield 
of  the  income  tax  which  was  £1,367  million,  compared  with 
£1,189  million  for  the  previous  fiscal  year,  and  exceeded 
budgetary  estimates  by  £58  million.  Practically  all  other 
main  taxation  items  showed  increases.  This  was  partly 
caused  by  the  rise  of  prices  and  partly  by  the  increase  in 
production.  Progress  by  the  Inland  Revenue  department  in 
its  effort  to  catch  up  with  wartime  arrears  also  helped.  On 
the  basis  of  existing  taxation  the  total  receipts  from  taxes 
during  1949-50  were  estimated  at  £3,655  million,  a  decline, 
on  balance,  of  some  £12^  million,  due  to  the  anticipated  fall 
of  the  yield  of  the  special  contribution,  death  duties,  stamp 
duties,  profits  tax  and  excise.  On  the  other  hand,  a  further 
increase  of  the  proceeds  of  income  tax,  surtax  and  customs 
revenue  was  anticipated.  Changes  in  taxation  in  the  budget 
for  1949-50  disappointed  those  who  expected  substantial 
concessions  in  order  to  compensate  workmen  for  ab- 
staining from  pressing  wage  claims.  The  only  concession  of 
this  nature  was  a  slight  reduction  of  the  beer  duty.  The  pro- 
posed simplification  of  death  duties  was  expected  to  produce 
an  additional  yield  of  £11  million;  but  the  repeal  of  some 
obsolete  stamp  duties  was  expected  to  cost  £1^  million. 
After  allowing  for  these  and  other  changes  the  taxation 


receipts    for    1949  -50    were    estimated    at    £3,632    million. 

During  the  three  quarters  ended  Dec.  31,  1949,  the  yield 
of  income  tax  at  £562  1  million  showed  an  increase  of  £3  •  8 
million  compared  with  the  corresponding  period  of  1948. 
Surtax  increased  by  £12-3  million  to  £48-3  million,  death 
duties  by  £11  5  million  to  £143-4  million,  profits  tax  by 
£60  3  million  to  £200  2  million.  On  the  other  hand,  stamp 
duties  yielded  £3-4  million  less  at  £38-9  million,  excess 
profits  tax  declined  by  £37-7  million  to  £31-8  million, 
special  contribution  by  £15  3  million  to  £17-1  million, 
customs  by  £13  million  to  £611  9  million  and  excise  duties 
by  £25-1  million  to  £526-7  million.  Generally  speaking 
direct  taxes  showed  better  results  than  indirect  taxes. 

Commonwealth.  In  Australia  total  revenue  for  the  year 
ended  June  30,  1949,  was  £A535  million,  which  was  £A43 
million  above  budgetary  estimates.  It  reflected  the  rapid 
rise  in  commercial  turnover  and  incomes  but  was  partly  caused 
by  the  overtaking  of  taxation  arrears.  Revenue  from  the  sales 
tax  was  particularly  buoyant. 

In  Canada  the  wartime  increase  in  the  number  of  direct 
taxpayers  was  decidedly  reversed  in  1949.  Under  concessions 
granted  in  the  budget  for  1949  some  three-quarter  million 
taxpayers  ceased  to  pay  income  tax  and  were  even  refunded 
what  they  had  paid  after  Jan.  1,  1949.  Various  indirect  taxes 
were  also  cut.  The  8%  sales  tax  on  fuel  oils  was  removed. 
The  15%  tax  on  travel  tickets,  telegrams  and  cables  and  long 
distance  telephone  calls  was  repealed;  and  the  duty  on  cider 
was  lowered  from  50  cents  to  25  cents  a  gallon.  The  tax  on 
soft  drinks,  sweets  and  chewing  gum  was  dropped.  Cuts  of 
between  10%  and  25%  were  made  in  the  tax  on  jewels, 
suitcases,  fountain  pens,  lighters,  etc. 

In  Ceylon,  on  July  14,  1949,  the  finance  minister  announced 
the  government's  decision  to  reduce  customs  duties  and  in- 
come tax  on  lower  incomes.  This  was  decided  in  spite  of 
the  reduction  of  the  revenue  surplus  from  Rs.  32  million  in 
1948-49  to  Rs.  2  million  in  the  estimates  for  1949  50. 

India's  budgetary  deficit  for  1949  50  was  estimated  at 
£20  million.  To  deal  with  it,  the  government  introduced  new 
excise  duties  on  tea,  cigarettes,  coffee  and  tyres.  The  clothes 
export  duty  was  converted  into  an  ad  valorem  duty  of  25%; 
handloom  clothes  were  exempted.  Export  duties  on  oilseed 
and  vegetable  oil  and  import  duties  on  motor  cars  were 
raised;  the  latter  from  45  to  50%. 

In  New  Zealand  taxation  yielded  in  1948-49  £NZ130  4 
million  and  estimates  for  1949  50  were  £NZ132-7  million. 
For  some  years  in  succession  the  yields  of  taxation  had 
exceeded  budgetary  estimates,  because  the  finance  minister 
had  not  budgeted  for  the  continued  rise  of  prices  and  of 
business  activity.  In  the  budget  for  1949-50  some  moderate 
concessions  were  made  in  respect  of  the  amusement  tax. 

Europe.  In  the  Czechoslovak  budget  for  1949  the  outstand- 
ing change  in  taxation  was  the  unification  of  the  various 
types  of  purchase  tax,  such  as  turnover  tax,  luxury  tax, 
railway  transport  tax,  etc.  The  new  unified  tax  was  expected 
to  yield  Kc.  50,713  million,  compared  with  the  yield  of  the 
old  turnover  tax  of  Kc.  12,426  million  in  1948.  Considering 
that  the  total  revenue  in  1949  was  estimated  at  Kc.  89,320 
million,  against  Kc.  56,895  million  in  1948,  it  became  evident 
that  the  country's  fiscal  system  was  now  based  overwhelm- 
ingly on  this  new  turnover  tax.  Accordingly,  the  yield  of 
direct  taxes  was  expected  to  decline  from  Kc.  16,621  million 
to  Kc.  14,791  million  and  that  of  stamps  from  Kc.  4,679 
million  to  Kc.  2,094  million. 

In  France  total  revenue  for  the  fiscal  year  1948-49  was  esti- 
mated at  Fr.  1,250,000  million,  compared  with  Fr.  924,000 
million  for  1947-48.  Taxation  receipts  alone  increased  from 
Fr.  769,000  million  to  Fr.  1,069,  million.  The  devaluation  of 
the  franc  in  1948  and  the  continuous  rise  in  prices  was  chiefly 
responsible  for  this  rise.  At  the  end  of  1949  the  government 


TAXATION 


605 


introduced  new  taxes  to  eliminate  the  budgetary  deficit. 
They  included  a  tax  on  transactions  of  government  corpor- 
ations— an  unusual  instance  of  a  government  taxing  itself — 
a  tax  on  undistributed  profits  and  a  tax  on  road  transport. 

In  Italy  the  government  was  experimenting  with  a  change 
in  the  system  of  assessment  of  income  tax.  Hitherto  the 
presumption  had  been  that  everybody  declared  only  a 
fraction  of  their  incomes.  In  July  1949  the  finance  minister, 
Enzio  Vanoni,  proposed  a  "  new  deal "  to  taxpayers  for  a 
more  equitable  assessment  of  taxable  incomes  Under  the 
existing  system  those  who  were  honest  enough  to  declare 
their  full  earnings,  or  those  who  were  not  in  a  position  to 
conceal  part  of  their  earnings,  bore  an  unduly  heavy  burden. 
In  the  future  the  taxpayers  were  to  be  pressed  for  more 
accurate  information  but  in  return  the  rates  would  be  lowered. 
Thus  for  an  income  of  L  1  million  the  rate  would  be  reduced 
from  18  to  13%.  Notwithstanding  such  a  substantial 
reduction  the  government  hoped  to  increase  the  yield  of 
income  tax  through  less  evasion.  The  new  system  was  to 
operate  retrospectively;  but  if  the  evasion  was  not  in  excess 
of  a  certain  amount  there  would  be  no  supplementary 
assessment  on  past  incomes. 

The  Netherlands,  having  succeeded  in  balancing  their 
budget,  adopted  the  course  of  shifting  the  burden  slightly 
from  direct  to  indirect  taxation.  There  was  a  moderate  cut 
in  the  tax  on  income  from  commerce  and  wages  and  an 
increase  of  the  turnover  tax  by  V  to  3J°0.  Petrol  excise 
duty  was  also  nused.  The  formula  adopted  was  that  taxation 
must  be  shifted  from  earning  to  spending,  to  stiikc  a  fairer 
balance  between  producers  and  consumers 

Portugal  introduced  a  new  purchase  tax  for  the  first  time 
in  its  fiscal  history.  The  object  was  to  use  the  proceeds  to 
create  an  export  subsidy  fund.  There  was  to  be  a  tax  on  motor 
vehicles,  ranging  between  15  and  50  °0  of  their  retail  prices. 

Spain  increased  direct  taxation  by  5",,  from  the  beginning 
of  1949,  in  order  to  provide  means  to  extend  social  insurance. 
In  the  budget  for  1949  direct  taxation  was  estimated  at 
P.  6,185  million  and  indirect  taxation  at  P.  6,553  million 

Switzerland's  budget  estimate  for  1950  showed  revenue  of 
Fr.  1,151  million  and  expenditure  of  hr  1,466  million.  New 
federal  taxes  were  adopted  to  yield  I  i.  470  million. 

During  the  brief  period  between  the  devaluation  of  many 
Commonwealth  and  European  currencies  and  the  end  of  the 
calendar  year  there  was  no  evidence  of  any  change  in  the 
yield  of  taxation.  Nor  did  measures  adopted  by  most  govern- 
ments following  devaluation  include  new  taxation.  For 
the  most  part  the  budgetary  effort  to  ensure  the  success  of 
devaluation  aimed  at  cuts  in  expenditure  rather  than  the 
introduction  of  new  taxes,  the  assumption  being  that  the 
rise  in  prices  as  a  consequence  of  devaluation  would  in  any 
case  ensure  an  increased  yield  of  both  direct  and  indirect  taxes. 
An  alternative  to  raising  taxes  was  the  raising  of  prices  of 
controlled  goods,  for  example,  bread  in  Great  Britain  and 
petrol  in  France,  to  absorb  consumers'  purchasing  power  and 
to  avoid  increasing  the  burden  of  subsidies.  (P.  ho.) 

United  States.  A  transition  from  a  postwar  period  of 
surplus  revenues  and  debt  reduction  to  the  recurrence  of 
deficits  marked  the  federal  government's  fiscal  year  1949. 
The  Revenue  act  of  1948,  enacted  over  a  presidential  veto, 
was  estimated  to  have  reduced  federal  revenues  from  individ- 
ual income  taxes  by  $5,000  million  per  year.  Faced,  in  Jan. 
1949,  with  the  possibility  of  a  deficit,  but  chiefly  as  a  measure 
of  inflation  control,  President  Truman  recommended  to 
congress  measures  to  increase  revenue  from  taxation  by 
$4,000  million,  chiefly  by  increased  taxes  on  corporate 
income,  supplemented  by  increased  estate  and  gift  taxes. 
The  president  also  recommended  careful  study  of  the  increase 
of  rates  for  the  individual  income  tax  in  the  middle  and  upper 
income  brackets. 


A  congress  which  showed  little  inclination  to  increase 
taxes  and  which  had  failed  to  act  upon  the  January  recom- 
mendations received  further  Presidential  tax  advice  in  July. 
By  this  time,  the  fiscal  year  1949  had  closed  with  a  deficit 
of  about  $1,800  million,  and  a  dtop  in  business  activity  and 
in  employment  had  become  clearly  defined.  Taxes  as  a 
measure  for  inflation  control  were  no  longer  desi  -ed,  and  in 
his  midyear  economic  report  the  president  advised  that 
tk  no  major  increase  in  taxes  should  be  undertaken  at  this 
time  "  Estate  and  gift  taxes  were  an  exception,  however, 
and  trie  president  again  advised  increases  in  their  rates,  to 
recover  the  revenue  lost  under  the  Revenue  act  of  1948  No 
response  was  forthcoming  from  congress 

By  the  end  of  1949,  the  business  decline  of  the  early  part 
of  the  year  had  modified,  and  the  Department  of  Commerce 
estimated  that  the  year  would  show  a  national  income  of 
$222,000  million  a  decline  of  only  20/0  from  1948.  Never- 
theless, governmental  expenditures  had  continued  to  run  in 
excess  of  receipts  and  a  deficit  estimated  at  $5,500  million 
was  in  prospect  for  1950  riscal  year  unless  authorized  expendi- 
tures should  be  sharply  curtailed  01  taxes  increased.  At  the 
beginning  of  an  election  year,  neither  alternative  seemed  to 
appeal  to  congressional  opinion;  instead  there  was  greater 
support  for  a  programme  for  reducing  federal  excise  taxes. 
Carrying  forward  a  policy  designed  to  facilitate  inter- 
national trade  and  to  encourage  international  investment 
and  enterprise,  the  State  Department  and  the  Bureau  of 
Internal  Revenue  continued  to  negotiate  with  other  nations 
treaties  designed  to  eliminate  or  minimize  the  barrier  of  inter- 
national double  taxation,  particularly  in  the  fields  of  income 
and  estate  taxation,  and  at  the  same  time  to  prevent  evasion. 
At  the  beginning  of  1949  income  tax  treaties  were  in  force 
with  Denmark,  F ranee,  the  Netherlands  and  Sweden,  and 
income  and  estate  tax  treaties  with  Canada  and  the  United 
Kingdom.  Awaiting  ratification  were  income  tax  treaties 
with  Belgium  and  New  Zealand,  an  income  and  estate 
tax  treaty  with  the  Union  of  South  Africa  and  a  treaty,  plus 
an  amendatory  protocol,  with  France  covering  estate  taxes 
and  modifying  the  earlier  income  tax  treaty.  Negotiations 
with  other  nations  were  in  progress. 

In  1949,  ratifications  of  the  pending  treaty  with  France 
were  exchanged,  and  it  became  effective.  The  income  tax 
treaty  with  Belgium,  signed  in  1948,  was  submitted  to  the 
Senate,  and  an  income  and  estate  tax  treaty  with  Norway 
was  signed  and  submitted  for  ratification.  Preliminary 
conversations,  or  negotiations,  looking  toward  income  and 
estate  tax  treaties  with  three  American  nations,  Brazil, 
Columbia  and  Cuba,  were  announced  by  the  State  Depart- 
ment in  June  and  July,  and  with  Argentina  in  Dec.  1949. 

Increasing  costs  of  government  and  increasing  demands 
upon  government  had  caused  the  steady  increase  in  state 
and  local  taxes  to  continue.  The  frequency  with  which  state 
and  local  governments,  seeking  new  or  increased  revenues, 
turned  to  consumer  taxes  which  tended  to  bear  most  heavily 
upon  lower  and  middle  income  groups  distressed  many 
economists. 

Indicative  of  the  trend  of  state  and  local  taxation  and  the 
increasingly  important  part  such  taxes  were  playing  in  the 
general  fiscal  problem  were  figures  released  in  1949  showing 
that,  though  federal  tax  revenues  (excluding  payroll  taxes 
for  social  security)  reached  their  peak  of  $42,477  million  m 
1945,  and  thereafter  dropped  to  less  than  $40,000  million 
annually,  total  federal,  state  and  local  tax  revenues  (excluding 
payroll  taxes)  reached  a  peak  of  $53,246  million  in  postwar 
1948,  as  compared  with  $51,670  million  in  1945.  Estimates 
of  1949  total  revenues  put  them  on  levels  comparable  with 
those  of  1948. 

In  per  capita  terms,  the  burden  of  state  taxes  (including 
payroll  taxes)  for  1949  ranged  from  $91  19  per  person  in 


606 


TEA— TECHNICAL  EDUCATION 


Louisiana,  to  $35-92  in  Nebraska,  with  an  average  of  $57-43. 
State  legislative  activity  in  1949  was  frequently  directed 
toward  increasing  rates  on  the  more  prevalent  forms  of 
taxation.  Petrol  taxes  existed  in  every  state,  ranging  from 
2  cents  per  gallon  in  Missouri  (subject  to  referendum  action 
in  1950  which  might  raise  it  to  4  cents)  to  9  cents  in  Louisiana. 
In  1949,  13  states  increased  their  rates,  the  most  common 
increase  being  1  cent  per  gallon.  Cigarette  taxes  existed  in 
39  states  prior  to  1949,  ranging  from  1  cent  per  standard 
packet  in  West  Virginia  to  8  cents  in  Louisiana.  In  1949, 
such  taxes  were  imposed  for  the  first  time  by  Delaware 
(2  cents)  and  the  District  of  Columbia  (1  cent);  ten  states 
increased  their  rates,  and  Arkansas  decreased  its  rate  from 
6  cents  to  4  cents.  Florida  and  the  District  of  Columbia 
introduced  general  sales  taxes  in  1949;  rates  were  increased 
in  four  states  in  1949.  Taxes  on  personal  income  of  varying 
scope  were  imposed  by  32  states  and  the  District  of  Columbia; 
1949  witnessed  rate  increases  in  nine  of  these  states.  In 
addition  to  such  state  taxes,  a  growing  number  of  cities  and 
counties  imposed  additional  local  taxes  on  sales  generally, 
or  on  the  sale  of  such  products  as  cigarettes  and  petrol. 
(See  also  BurxiET,  NATIONAL.)  (X.) 

TEA.  Tea  production  in  India  and  Pakistan  in  1948 
totalled  slightly  more  than  600  million  lb.,  and  production 
in  1949  was  estimated  at  about  the  same  level.  Production 
in  Ceylon  in  1948  totalled  slightly  less  than  300  million  lb. 
and  reports  for  1949  indicated  little  change.  Production  in 
Indonesia,  which  averaged  165  million  lb.  in  1934-38,  was 
estimated  at  only  28  million  lb.  in  1948  but  in  1949  reached 
approximately  45  million  lb.  There  were  no  official  figures 
for  China.  Estimated  production  in  1949  was  higher  than  in 
1948,  but  still  well  below  the  prewar  level.  Japan's  output 
in  1948  totalled  about  two-thirds  of  the  average  prewar 
production  of  100  million  lb.  and  in  1949  was  probably 
heavier  as  a  result  of  the  increase  in  the  planted  area.  British 
East  Africa  produced  15  million  lb.  in  1948  and  Nyasaland 
14  million  lb.  Production  in  1949  was  estimated  at  a  slightly 
higher  level. 

Since  output  in  most  of  the  chief  producing  countries 
declined  as  a  result  of  World  War  II,  exports  on  a  large  scale 
were  again  confined  mainly  to  India,  Pakistan  and  Ceylon. 
India  and  Pakistan  exported  435  million  lb.  in  1947-48,  but 
exports  in  1948-49  declined  to  379  million  lb.  Over  two- 
thirds  of  the  total  in  both  seasons  went  to  the  United  King- 
dom. Exports  from  Ceylon  were  larger  than  in  the  immediate 
prewar  years,  rising  from  287  million  lb.  in  1947  to  296 
million  lb.  in  1948.  Exports  in  1949  were  about  the  same  as 
in  1948.  The  United  Kingdom  was  again  the  chief  market. 
Indonesian  exports  in  1948  totalled  only  20  million  lb. 
compared  with  an  average  output  of  160  million  lb.  in  1934- 
38;  but  reports  indicated  that  exports  in  1949  were  heavier. 

When  the  international  allocation  of  tea  supplies  ended 
in  1947,  the  Ministry  of  Food  in  the  United  Kingdom  was 
concerned  solely  with  procuring  supplies  for  the  home  market. 
Nevertheless,  imports  of  tea  into  the  United  Kingdom 
exceeded  the  total  imports  of  all  other  countries  and  in  1948 
and  1949  amounted  to  415  million  lb.  and  474  million  lb. 
respectively.  Average  annual  imports  before  World  War  II 
totalled  about  450  million  lb.  The  United  States  was  the 
second  largest  importer  of  tea,  taking  91  million  lb.  in  1948 
and  about  the  same  quantity  in  1949.  Australia  received 
49  million  lb.  in  1948  and  imports  in  1949  were  at  a  slightly 
lower  level.  Canada  took  36  million  lb.  in  1948  and  imports 
during  1949  showed  a  slight  increase.  No  other  countries 
imported  tea  on  a  large  scale.  (J.  E.  CE.) 

TEACHERS,  TRAINING  OF.  No  striking  develop- 
ments were  announced  in  1949;  the  year  was  one  of  steady 


but  not  rapid  advance.  A  possible  exception  to  this  general- 
ization was  the  launching  by  New  Zealand  of  an  emergency 
training  scheme  similar  to  that  now  concluding  in  England. 
The  first  course  began  in  September,  with  200  students.  The 
minister  of  education  had  in  January  set  up  a  committee  to 
examine  methods  of  teacher  training. 

In  February  Canada  reported  a  gratifying  increase  in  the 
numbers  of  students  in  teacher  training  colleges — 10,761  as 
against  7,833  in  1948.  In  February  the  British  Council 
announced  a  programme  of  teachers'  courses  for  oversea 
visitors  double  that  of  1948. 

In  June  the  minister  of  education  (for  England  and  Wales) 
announced  the  establishment  of  a  National  Advisory  Council 
on  the  Training  and  Supply  of  Teachers,  representative  of  the 
local  education  authorities,  the  teachers,  the  universities  and 
the  area  training  organizations  for  which  the  university 
Institutes  of  Education  were  responsible.  The  duty  of  the 
council  was  to  keep  under  review  national  policy  on  (a)  the 
training  and  conditions  of  qualifications  of  teachers;  and  (b) 
the  recruitment  and  distribution  of  teachers  in  ways  best 
calculated  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  schools  or  other  educa- 
tional establishments.  The  council  was  not  to  concern  itself 
with  teachers'  salaries,  superannuation  or  other  matters 
affecting  their  condition  of  employment. 

In  August  the  Scottish  Education  department  announced 
that  after  1949-50  pupils  intending  to  be  teachers  would  no 
longer  be  able  to  take  the  first  year  of  training  at  school. 
All  not  proceeding  to  a  university  would  have  to  do  at  least 
three  years  in  a  training  college.  To  qualify  for  entry  students 
must  have  passed  the  leaving  certificate  in  at  least  five  subjects, 
including  English  and  history  or  geography,  and  in  at  least 
two  of  these,  including  English,  at  the  higher  grade. 

An  interesting  experiment  designed  to  broaden  the  outlook 
of  teachers  in  training  was  held  in  April  at  the  International 
Folk  high  school,  Elsinore,  Denmark,  when  1 30  students  from 
English  training  colleges  met  in  conference  with  30  Scandi- 
navian teachers  and  students  and  others  from  Africa,  Aus- 
tralia and  New  Zealand.  Lectures  introduced  and  elaborated 
visits  which  included  urban  and  rural  schools,  folk  high 
schools,  dairy  and  other  farms. 

In  Germany  U.S.  Military  government  held  in  March  an 
important  conference  to  discuss  the  future  of  teacher  training 
in  Bavaria,  which  presented  special  difficulties  owing  to  the 
system  set  up  by  the  nazis  of  training  students  between  the 
ages  of  14  and  20  in  secondary  schools.  In  July  and  August 
an  international  conference  of  training  college  staff  and 
students  was  held  at  Dortmund.  Novel  features  were  that 
two  of  the  three  weeks  were  spent  largely  in  visits  to  colleges, 
schools,  factories  and  so  on,  and  that  the  members  were 
accommodated  with  private  families.  (H.  C.  D.) 

TECHNICAL  EDUCATION.  International  ex- 
change of  people  for  technical  training  continued  to  increase 
during  1949.  At  the  second  conference  of  the  International 
Association  for  the  Exchange  of  Students  for  Technical 
Experience,  held  in  January  at  Copenhagen,  it  was  announced 
that  arrangements  were  made  for  1,262  exchanges  in  1949  as 
against  920  in  1948.  This  association  developed  out  of  the 
vacation  work  scheme  begun  by  the  Imperial  College  of 
Science  and  Technology,  London,  in  1946  when  46  British 
and  foreign  students  were  exchanged.  The  number  of  ex- 
changes rose  rapidly  so  in  Jan.  1948  a  conference  of  organi- 
zers was  held  in  London,  the  international  association  formed 
and  central  organizations  set  up  in  the  ten  member  countries. 
In  1949  the  scheme  was  broadened  to  include  students  from 
all  universities  and  university  colleges  in  Great  Britain. 
Offers  of  financial  assistance  were  received  from  several 
large  industrial  concerns. 

In  August  the  University  Grants  committee  of  Great  Britain 


TELEGRAPHY 


607 


announced  that  about  50  post-graduate  scholarships,  financed 
by  funds  provided  by  the  Economic  Co-operation  adminis- 
tration, were  to  be  awarded  to  British  students  to  study 
technology  at  universities  and  technical  institutions  in  the 
United  States.  Awards  would  be  tenable  for  one  year  with 
possible  extension  for  a  second,  and  would  cover  travel 
expenses  in  the  United  States,  fees,  books  and  a  maintenance 
grant  of  $1 ,800  a  year.  Passage  to  and  from  the  United  States 
was  to  be  met  by  British  public  funds.  The  first  awards  were 
to  be  taken  up  in  Feb.  1950. 

The  relationship  between  the  technical  college  and  the 
university  continued  to  be  a  subject  of  acute  controversy  in 
Great  Britain.  At  the  summer  meeting  of  the  Association  of 
Technical  Institutions  hqld  at  Edinburgh  in  June,  Dr.  D.  S. 
Anderson,  principal,  Glasgow  Royal  Technical  college, 
declared  that  only  at  Belfast,  Glasgow  and  Manchester  was 
there  co-operation  on  a  broad  basis  implying  equality  in 
partnership,  and  that  co-operation  on  a  basis  satisfactory  to 
the  technical  institutions  seemed  to  have  reached  its  limit. 

Four  solutions  were  being  canvassed  in  technical  college 
quarters:  (i)  affiliation  with  the  local  university,  and  award 
by  it  of  degrees  in  higher  technology;  (11)  awards  (degree  or 
diploma)  made  by  the  technical  college  and  sponsored  by  the 
local  university;  (iii)  an  award  made  by  the  college  and  spon- 
sored by  a  national  body  (e.g.,  a  National  Board  for  Higher 
Technological  Studies);  and  (iv)  preparation  by  the  technical 
college  of  students  for  London  external  degrees,  as  was  already 
done  by  some  colleges.  Opinion  was  much  divided  but  on 
the  whole  in  favour  of  a  degree  rather  than  a  diploma.  This 
view  found  support  at  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Association 
of  Education  Committees  (England  and  Wales)  which  in 
June  unanimously  recommended  the  establishment  of  a 
national  body  empowered  to  grant  qualifications  in  tech- 
nology of  graduate  status. 

In  September  was  celebrated  at  Helsinki  the  centenary  of 
Finland's  Institute  of  Technology.  Opened  as  a  technical 
school  on  Jan.  15,  1849,  in  consequence  of  a  statute  issued  in 
1847  prescribing  the  foundation  of  schools  to  provide 
**  youths  who  wish  to  have  a  career  in  industry  with  an 
opportunity  for  all  the  necessary  training/'  it  became  in 
1872  a  polytechnic  school  and  in  1879  a  polytechnic  institute 
admitting  only  matriculated  students.  In  1908  it  received  its 
present  name  and  was  put  under  the  control  of  the  Ministry 
of  Trade  and  Industry.  By  the  end  of  1949  it  had  2,200 
students  in  five  departments;  architecture,  chemistry,  wood 
technology,  civil  engineering  and  mechanical  engineering. 

Belgium  reversed  its  traditional  policy  of  controlling 
technical  education  by  the  advice  of  an  educational  council 
and  set  up  a  new  co-ordinating  council  on  which  were 
represented  the  Ministries  of  Education,  Economic  Affairs, 
Agriculture  and  Economic  Co-ordination  and  Re-equipment, 
public  and  private  technical  teaching  bodies  and  employers' 
and  workers'  organizations.  The  change  was  intended  to  relate 
technical  training  to  national  economic  needs.  (H.  C  D.) 

TELEGRAPHY.  The  final  legislative  step  in  the 
co-ordination  of  the  nationalized  overseas  services  in  the 
United  Kingdom,  Canada,  Australia,  New  Zealand,  India  and 
Southern  Rhodesia  was  taken  on  May  31,  1949,  when  the 
Commonwealth  Telegraphs  bill  became  law.  This  act  pro- 
vided for  the  integration  on  April  1,  1950,  of  the  operations  of 
Cable  and  Wireless,  Ltd.,  in  the  United  Kingdom  with  those 
of  the  post  office  and  for  the  establishment  of  the  Common- 
wealth Telecommunications  board  to  co-ordinate  the  opera- 
tions of  the  services  in  various  countries.  After  April  1,  1950, 
Cable  and  Wireless,  Ltd.,  would  remain  in  being  as  a  govern- 
ment-owned commercial  company  operating  the  cable 
network  and  the  wireless  services  in  the  British  colonies  and 
certain  foreign  countries.  It  would  continue  to  operate  the 


United  Kingdom  cable  station.  In  order  to  secure  the  ad- 
vantage of  full  integration  of  the  telegraph  and  telephone 
services  with  all  parts  of  the  world,  an  External  Telecommuni- 
cations board  was  set  up,  composed  of  representatives  of  the 
post  office,  the  company,  the  Treasury  and  the  Colonial 
Office. 

Continental  Telex  service  was  extended  during  the  year  to 
Copenhagen,  Oslo  and  Stockholm.  Communication  with 
subscribers  to  the  Danish  network  was  established  by  direct 
dialling  over  telegraph  circuits  from  the  London  switchboard, 
as  in  the  case  of  calls  to  subscribers  on  the  Swiss  and  Czecho- 
slovak ian  network »  Traffic  to  Oslo  and  Stockholm  was 
switched  manually  at  Copenhagen,  the  Copenhagen  operator 
completing  Stockholm  calls  by  dialling  Connections  to 
subscribers  in  other  countries  were  effected  via  manual 
teleprinter  switchboards  situated  in  the  European  capitals. 

The  Cable  and  Wireless  central  telegraph  station,  Electra 
house,  London,  was  largely  re-planned.  A  new  automatic 
teleprinter  concentrator  system  was  installed  to  which  most 
of  the  teleprinter  circuits  terminating  at  Electra  house  were 
connected.  Electra  house  was  also  connected  with  the  post 
ofiice  inland  teleprinter  switching  system. 

The  Cable  and  Wireless  training  school,  situated  in  London 
for  many  years,  returned  to  its  original  home,  the  Porthcurno 
cable  station,  Cornwall.  The  new  school  was  partially 
opened  by  the  end  of  1949;  after  completion  of  the  school, 
the  cable  station  would  be  moved  to  new  buildings. 

Considerable  progress  was  made  in  the  development, 
production  and  distribution  of  new  equipment,  including 
cable  channelling  units,  cable  code  converting  transmitters, 
and  double  current  cable  code  sending  and  receiving  units. 
Further  progress  was  made  towards  maintaining  and  develop- 
ing the  company's  155,000  nautical  mi.  cable  system. 

Direct  cable  service  was  restored  between  London  and 
Hongkong,  avoiding  the  need  for  re-transmitting  messages  at 
Singapore.  Building  of  the  new  cable  station  at  Jesselton, 
North  Borneo,  to  replace  the  war-destroyed  station  at 
Labuan,  continued.  The  new  cable  factory  being  built  at 
Singapore  should  be  in  production  by  the  middle  of  1950. 
Considerable  work  was  done  towards  restoring  the  Mediter- 
ranean, South  American  and  West  Indian  systems.  Re- 
generator equipment  was  installed  on  many  cable  links, 
including  the  Porthcurno-Vigo  cable,  several  West  Indian 
lines  and  in  connection  with  certain  South  American  coastal 
cables. 

In  July  the  new  2,247-ton  cable  ship  4<  Edward  Wilshaw," 
the  largest  ship  afloat  built  for  cable  repair  work  only,  left 
England  for  her  first  station,  Mombasa,  Kenya,  to  maintain 
the  Indian  ocean  and  Persian  gulf  cable  systems.  Her  three 
tanks  were  capable  of  carrying  400  nautical  mi.  of  deep-sea 
cable  and  her  operating  range  was  9,000  mi.  The  company's 
fleet  consisted  of  eight  cable  repair  ships;  additionally,  ships 
were  chartered  from  the  post  office  and  other  organizations 
when  necessary.  Cable  and  Wireless  continued  to  collaborate 
with  the  post  office  in  the  development  of  submerged  repeaters 
— valve  amplifiers  for  insertion  in  cables  at  close  enough 
intervals  to  enable  a  band  of  frequencies  to  be  carried  to 
provide  for  multi-channel  communication. 

On  the  wireless  side,  progress  was  made  towards  expanding 
the  Barbados  and  Colombo  relay  stations  and  towards 
building  a  relay  station  at  Nairobi  to  provide  an  alternative 
circuit  for  the  London-Singapore  direct  service. 

The  whole  of  the  external  telecommunications  services  at 
Hongkong  were  co-ordinated.  Several  new  wireless  circuits 
were  opened  to  meet  requirements  arising  from  the  develop- 
ments in  China.  Additional  radiotelephone  circuits  were 
opened  to  San  Francisco  and  via  Colombo  to  London. 
The  company  assisted  the  government  of  Pakistan  to  establish 
overseas  radiotelegraph  and  radiotelephone  circuits. 


608 


TELEGRAPHY 


The  cable  ship  "Edward  Wilshaw"  which  left  London  on  July  28 ,  1949,  on  her  maiden  voyage  to  Mombasa,  Kenya. 


New  transmitting  and  receiving  stations  were  erected  in 
Cyprus.  In  addition  to  radiotelegraph  and  radiotelephone 
circuits,  Cable  and  Wireless  (which  operated  the  inland 
telephone  as  well  as  the  oversea  services)  took  over  responsi- 
bility for  civil  aviation  communications  in  the  colony. 

Following  the  opening  in  late  1948  of  radiotelephone 
service  between  Accra  and  Lagos,  both  stations  were  linked 
with  Sierra  Leone  early  in  1949;  a  circuit  was  opened  between 
Bathurst  and  the  other  three  stations;  and,  through  Accra, 
connection  was  provided  with  London.  Many  extensions 
were  opened  to  the  West  Indian  radiotelephone  services. 

In  1949  single  sideband  working  was  introduced  over  many 
of  the  Cable  and  Wireless  radiotelephone  networks,  with 
the  anticipated  improvement  in  circuit  quality.  On  Sept.  1, 
Cable  and  Wireless  opened  a  direct  photo-telegraph  circuit 
between  Athens  and  London.  New  equipment  was  distributed 
for  opening  further  services  with  centres  in  the  company's 
system. 

The  post  office  installed  new  picture  telegraph  equipment 
in  the  central  telegraph  office,  London,  and  was  able  to 
re-open  the  European  wire  services  in  time  for  the  Olympic 
Games.  Service  was  now  available  by  wire  to  8  European 
countries,  in  addition  to  18  European  and  extra-European 
services  from  London  by  radio  (Cable  and  Wireless). 

During  1949  the  work  of  the  Cable  and  Wireless  Iono- 
spheric Prediction  centre  expanded.  Working  from  basic 
data  provided  by  the  National  Physical  laboratory's  radio 
research  department  at  Slough,  the  centre  plotted  every 
month  the  range  of  radio  frequencies  within  which  the  most 
effective  transmission  might  be  operated  during  the  ensuing 
month  over  a  very  large  number  of  radio  circuits  throughout 
the  world.  At  the  beginning  of  1949  prediction  charts  were 
being  sent  to  120  stations  overseas;  by  the  end  of  1949  this 
number  had  been  doubled.  The  240  co-operating  stations 
returned  the  prediction  charts  with  their  actual  experience 


during  the  period  plotted,  for  comparison,  and  these  reports 
were  studied  in  the  centre  for  guidance  towards  improving 
future  predictions.  Considerable  work  was  also  done  by 
the  company  in  providing  data  to  the  Cavendish  laboratory 
for  the  study  of  radio  propagation  and  with  the  Radio 
Research  board  on  the  measurement  of  atmospheric  noise. 
The  company  continued  to  collaborate  with  the  Royal 
Observatory  in  the  study  of  the  effect  of  sunspots  on  radio 
transmission  and  in  investigating  the  sudden  "  fades " 
("  Dellingers  ")  associated  with  hydrogen  flares  on  the  sun*s 
surface. 

The  United  Kingdom  was  a  party  to  the  International 
Telegraph  conference  which  met  in  Paris  from  May-July, 
1949.  The  principal  decisions  (to  come  into  force  on  July 
1,  1950)  were  the  unification  of  rates  for  ordinary  telegrams 
(plain,  code  and  cipher),  the  abolition  of  deferred  telegrams 
and  the  amalgamation  of  the  existing  two  classes  of  letter 
telegrams  in  the  extra-European  regime  in  a  single  class. 
Subsequently  a  British  Commonwealth-United  States  govern- 
mental Telecommunication  meeting  was  held  in  London  to 
revise  the  Bermuda  agreement  of  1945.  (A.  S.  A.) 

United  States.  A  programme  of  mechanization  and  other 
plant  improvements  costing  $80  million  and  increasing  the 
capacity  and  vastly  improving  the  speed  and  efficiency  of  the 
U.S.  telegraph  service  was  nearing  completion  in  1949. 

Three  big  selective  high  speed  switching  centres  were 
placed  in  operation  in  1949  at  Detroit,  Los  Angeles  and  New 
Orleans,  completing  14  of  a  national  network  of  15  centres, 
each  tc  handle  telegrams  to  and  from  one  or  more  states. 
The  fifteenth  was  to  be  at  Portland,  Oregon.  The  centre  at 
Oakland,  serving  California,  was  expanded  and  improved  by 
new  installations  in  1949.  In  the  switching  system,  telegrams 
were  typed  only  at  the  point  of  origin  and  then  flashed 
through  the  switching  centres  to  their  destinations  without 
manual  retransmission. 


TELEPHONE 


609 


Through  the  use  of  carrier  systems,  it  became  possible  to 
send  as  many  as  288  telegrams  simultaneously  over  a  single 
pair  of  wires,  or  more  than  2,000  over  a  microwave  radio 
beam  system  such  as  Western  Union  had  in  operation,  with 
towers  about  30  mi.  apart,  between  New  York,  Philadelphia, 
Washington  and  Pittsburgh.  To  interconnect  the  new 
switching  centres  many  additional  carrier  systems  were 
installed  in  1949.  About  1,650,000  channel  mi.  of  carrier 
systems  were  in  operation,  and  200,000  more  were  planned 
for  1950.  (W.  P.  MA.) 

TELEPHONE.  In  conformity  with  the  national  policy 
to  reduce  capital  expenditure,  the  Post  Office  in  Great  Britain 
continued  to  restrict  its  programme  of  telephone  expansion. 
During  1949  available  resources  were  concentrated  mainly 
on  supplying  telephone  service  for  waiting  applicants,  in 
relieving  congestion  wherever  possible,  in  making  provision 
for  the  gradual  but  sustained  increase  in  local,  toll  and  trunk 
traffic  and  in  laying  the  foundation  for  long  term  schemes 
of  trunk  mechanization.  An  increase  in  the  allocation  of 
steel  and  lead  somewhat  relieved  the  shortage  of  essential 
stores;  but  the  general  scarcity  of  materials  still  necessitated 
careful  planning. 

Experiments  in  the  use  of  protective  plastics  for  under- 
ground cables  were  continued  which,  if  successful,  would 
dispense  with  overhead  pole  routes  in  rural  areas.  Provision 
of  telephone  service  on  a  sharing  basis  made  it  possible  to 
accept  thousands  of  residential  applicants  who  would  other- 
wise have  been  deprived  of  service  until  local  exchange 
equipment  or  local  line  plant  could  be  made  available.  The 
success  of  this  scheme  was  due  to  the  introduction  both  of  new 
distribution  methods  into  the  local  cable  networks  that 
greatly  increased  their  flexibility  and  of  apparatus  that  en- 
abled sharing  subscribers  with  dial  telephones  to  be  charged 
individually  for  their  dialled  calls.  In  spite  of  the  shortage 
of  building  materials  some  progress  was  made  in  the  pro- 
gramme of  complete  conversion  to  automatic  working  of  all 
manual  exchanges;  by  March  31,  1949,  3,969  out  of  5,848 
local  exchanges  were  automatic.  Wartime  arrears  of  main- 
tenance of  the  equipment  efficiency  of  exchanges  were  also 
made  up  and  they  were  restored  to  almost  normal  standards. 

A  new  development  in  the  long  distance  telephone  service 
would  enable  the  operator  who  accepted  the  booking  from 
the  caller  to  take  control  of  the  call,  and  plans  were  made  for 
complete  mechanization  on  this  basis  of  the  toll  and  trunk 
systems.  Voice-frequency  carrier  systems  were  extended  and 
other  routes  converted  to  this  method  of  working;  the 
capacity  of  the  submarine  cable  routes  to  Ireland  and  the 
Channel  Islands  was  greatly  increased  by  this  means.  Pro- 
gress was  made  on  a  new  London-Birmingham  co-axial 
cable  which  should  be  available  during  1950  for  the  trans- 
mission of  television  programmes.  In  December  when  the 
Midlands  television  service  was  opened  the  programmes 
were  transmitted  by  a  Post  Office  radio  link.  Local  exchange 
service  development  was  mainly  concerned  with  the  extension 
of  direct  dialling  by  subscribers  of  all  calls  within  a  15  mi. 
chargeable  radius.  Experiments  in  linking  mobile  radio 
stations  with  the  public  telephone  network  resulted  in  the 
establishment  of  a  short-range  radio  link  for  communication 
between  small  craft  operating  in  the  Thames  estuary  and 
subscribers  in  the  London  toll  area. 

So  far  as  the  continental  (European)  and  international 
radiotelephone  (extra-European)  services  were  concerned  the 
year  was  one  of  steady  development.  The  service  with 
Germany  was  extended  to  include  the  French  zone  of  occu- 
pation and  the  services  with  Spain  and  Portugal  were 
provided  by  landlme  enabling  24  hr.  service  to  be  given  to 
both  places.  It  was  planned  to  open  telephone  service  with 
Turkey  shortly,  leaving  Albania  as  the  only  European 

E.B.Y. — 40 


country  with  which  telephone  service  was  not  available. 
New  direct  services  were  opened  with  Pakistan,  the  Persian 
gulf  (Bahrein)  and  the  British  West  African  colonies,  whilst 
indirect  services  were  either  opened  or  re-opened  with  Costa 
Rica,  Guatemala,  Honduras,  Japan,  Korea,  Nicaragua  and 
Panama  via  New  York;  with  British  New  Guinea,  Nauru 
and  New  Britain  via  Sydney;  with  Algeria,  French  Morocco, 
Tangier  and  Tunis  via  Pans,  and  with  Hong  Kong  via  Col- 
ombo. 

A  new  Anglo-Belgian  polythene  dielectric  submarine 
cable  was  laid:  it  had  a  diameter  of  1-7  in.,  a  length  of 
47-15  nautical  mi.  r.nd  was  capable  of  carrying  216  simul- 
taneous conversations  without  the  use  of  submerged  re- 
peaters (G.  P.  O  ) 

United  States.  The  U.S.  telephone  service  at  the  end  of 
1949  was  generally  the  best  and  most  complete  in  history; 
there  were  more  than  40  million  telephones,  160  million 
conversations  a  day  and  no  distance  limit.  Long  distance 
calls  were  being  completed  at  an  average  speed  of  about  one 
and  one-half  minutes,  close  to  the  prewar  rate,  a  contributing 
factor  being  the  further  extension  of  operator  toll  dialling 
Approximately  2  3  million  telephones  were  added  to  the 
U.S.  telephone  network  in  1949,  bringing  the  number  added 
since  World  War  II  to  more  than  13  3  million.  The  latest 
available  world  statistics,  compiled  as  from  Jan.  1,  1949, 
estimated  the  world  total  at  nearly  66  million  telephones, 
of  which  nearly  60%  were  in  the  United  States 

The  large  volume  of  construction  required  to  meet  the 
public's  telephone  needs  was  indicated  by  the  fact  that  in 
the  Bel!  system  (serving  33  3  million  of  the  40-5  million  U.S. 
telephones)  over  800  building  construction  projects,  ranging 
in  size  from  small  community  dial  offices  to  large  central 
office  buildings,  were  completed  in  1949.  Some  of  the 
projects  involved  additions  and  alterations  to  existing 
buildings. 

Nearly  9,000  toll  circuits  were  added  during  1949  by  the 
Bell  companies,  bringing  the  Bell  system  total  of  such  circuits 
to  about  100,000.  With  the  addition  of  some  375,000  tele- 
phones in  rural  areas  in  1949,  about  half  the  farms  in  the 
U  S.  now  had  telephone  service — twice  as  many  as  in  1940. 
The  year  also  saw  progress  in  the  development  of  new 
techniques  and  devices  aimed  at  improving  service  and  making 
it  as  economical  as  possible  to  the  user.  Bell  Telephone 
laboratories  developed  a  new  and  better  telephone  instru- 
ment. Field  tests  of  a  limited  number  of  these  telephones 
were  scheduled  to  be  carried  out  during  1950.  An  important 
transmission  feature  was  an  equalizer  which  automatically 
adjusts  the  sound  level  to  compensate  in  part  for  the  distance 
between  the  telephone  and  the  central  office.  The  laboratories 
also  developed  a  more  comfortable,  better  lighted  and 
ventilated  telephone  booth.  A  sealed-in  ceiling  light  fixture 
equipped  with  a  directive  lens  concentrated  light  on  the 
writing  shelf  and  telephone  instrument. 

A  new  vacuum  tube,  capable  of  relaying  a  wider  band  of 
radio  microwave  signals  over  and  over  again  to  span  longer 
distances  than  before,  was  also  developed  by  the  laboratories. 
Known  as  the  close-spaced-tnode  (grid  and  cathode  separated 
by  only  one-fifth  the  diameter  of  a  hair),  the  new  tube  formed 
the  heart  of  the  improved  relay  equipment  being  installed 
in  the  New  York-Chicago-Omaha  radio  relay  system.  The 
new  equipment  permitted  the  simultaneous  relaying  of  six 
television  programmes  or  thousands  of  telephone  conversa- 
tions through  a  single  relay  antenna. 

Another  transmission  development  was  a  new  voice 
frequency  repeater.  Used  extensively  in  telephone  plant, 
repeaters  were  located  at  regular  intervals  on  long  distance 
circuits  to  amplify  the  voice  signals  progressing  along  the 
route. 

In  Nov.  1949,  Boston,  Massachusetts,  became  the  sixth 


610  TELEVISION 

major  toll  dialling  centre  in  the  Bell  system's  plan  for  nation- 
wide dialling  of  long  distance  calls  by  operators. 

Construction  of  the  coaxial  cable  and  radio  relay  network 
for  telephone  and  television  transmission  continued  to 
move  forward  in  1949.  By  the  end  of  the  year,  the  Bell  system 
television  network  mileage  had  grown  to  about  8,400  channel 
miles,  as  compared  with  about  3,500  mi.  at  the  end  of  1948. 

(L.  A.  Wi.) 

TELEVISION.  During  1949  progress  outside  the  U.S. 
and  Great  Britain  was  still  primarily  a  matter  of  blueprints 
and  optimistic  statements  intended  to  allay  local  impatience. 
Even  in  France  the  number  of  sets  in  operation  at  the  end 
of  the  year  was  about  one-tenth  of  the  licences  issued  in 
Great  Britain— 20,000  to  200,000.  No  statistics  of  this  kind 
were  available  for  the  U.S.S.R.,  the  only  other  country  in 
the  world  to  operate  a  genuine  public  service;  but  it  was 
learned  that  of  the  two  standard  models  of  receiving  sets, 
one  made  in  Moscow,  the  other  in  Leningrad,  neither  was 
sold  except  by  special  licence.  The  Moscow  Television 
centre  in  the  middle  of  the  year  was  transmitting  four 
programmes  a  week,  made  up  of  newsreels,  children's  hour, 
plays  and  opera  relayed  from  the  state  theatres,  films  and 
light  concerts.  Audiences  were  encouraged  to  listen  in  groups, 
in  clubs  and  rest  centres.  Moscow  operated  on  a  standard 
of  625  lines  and  this  showed  signs  of  becoming  a  world 
standard,  on  paper  at  least,  because  at  a  conference  of 
European  radio  organizations  in  Switzerland  in  the  autumn, 
Belgium,  Czechoslovakia,  Denmark,  Germany,  Italy,  the 
Netherlands  and  Switzerland  all  agreed  that  it  was  likely 
to  serve  their  needs  best.  Australia  and  Argentina  also 
settled  on  625  lines.  Adoption,  however,  was  so  far  entirely 
theoretical;  only  four  countries  in  the  European  group  even 
embarked  on  closed  circuit  experiments  and  these  for  the 
most  part  consisted  of  geometrical  patterns,  not  genuine 
programmes.  The  European  practitioners,  Great  Britain 
and  France  on  the  other  hand,  agreed  on  a  common  temporary 
standard  of  405  lines  (which  for  France  meant  a  slight  reduc- 
tion), and  agreed  to  consider  future  co-operation  at  a  higher 
level  of  scanning.  The  way  was  thus  paved  for  a  full  exchange 
of  programmes  when  a  cable  or  radio  link  was  established 
between  the  two  countries.  This  was  only  realistic  after  it 
became  increasingly  obvious  that  television  was  a  highly 
expensive  entertainment.  By  the  end  of  1949,  for  instance, 
Great  Britain  was  spending  over  a  million  pounds  a  year  on 
less  than  a  quarter-of-a-million  viewers.  This  inescapable 
financial  fact  made  it  unlikely  that  any  other  European 
country  would  start  a  public  service  for  at  least  two  years. 
To  many  observers  it  seemed  unfortunate  that  the  smaller 
countries  were  not  prepared  to  align  themselves  with  Great 
Britain  and  France,  since  by  so  doing  they  would  not  only 
have  made  television  a  practical  proposition  for  themselves, 
but  would  have  advanced  the  cause  of  European  unity. 

At  the  end  of  the  year  the  B.B.C.  opened  at  Sutton  Cold- 
field,  Warwickshire,  the  most  powerful  transmitting  station 
in  the  world,  with  an  aerial  750  ft.  high,  designed  to  serve 
the  midlands,  but  from  its  first  tests  it  seemed  likely  to  serve 
also  much  of  the  north.  Before  this,  however,  the  B.B.C. 
had  announced  a  national  plan  for  bringing  television  to 
80%  of  the  population  within  five  years.  This  involved  the 
building  of  three  more  high-powered  stations,  in  the  north 
of  England,  in  Scotland,  and  in  the  Bristol  Channel  area, 
and  five  low-powered  stations,  working  on  the  same  frequency, 
for  the  northeast  of  England,  the  highlands  of  Scotland, 
Northern  Ireland  and  the  west  of  England  (2).  Completion 


Looking  clown  from  high  up  on  the  mast  of  the  television  station  at 
Sutton  Coldfield,  which  was  brought  into  service  on  Dec.  77,  7949. 


TENNIS— TEXTILE  INDUSTRY 


611 


of  the  plan  depended  on  the  government's  giving  permission 
for  the  necessary  capital  expenditure,  estimated  at  £10  million. 
The  acquisition  by  the  B.B.C.  of  the  film  studios  at  Shepherds 
Bush,  London,  from  the  J.  Arthur  Rank  organization  gave 
the  hard-pressed  programme  and  technical  staff  at  Alexandra 
palace  hope  of  better  and  roomier  conditions  in  1950.  New 
cameras  were  installed  and  a  new  system  of  recording  direct 
from  the  screen  was  developed  by  B  B.C.  engineers.  (X.) 

United  States.  At  the  end  of  1949,  98  television  stations 
were  operating  in  the  United  States  on  a  regular  programme 
basis,  which  was  double  the  number  in  operation  on  Dec.  31, 
1948.  Over  8,000  miles  of  network  facilities  were  in  use 
interconnecting  more  than  fifty  television  stations.  In 
January  the  east  coast  and  mid- western  television  networks 
were  inter-connected  by  an  east-west  link  through  Pitts- 
burgh. Additional  network  extensions  were  provided  to 
Columbus,  Cincinnati  and  Dayton  in  the  Ohio  valley;  to 
Erie  and  Lancaster  in  Pennsylvania;  to  Schenectady,  Utica, 
Syracuse  and  Rochester  in  New  York  state;  and  to  Providence 
and  Wilmington  on  the  east  coast. 

To  provide  a  programme  service  to  stations  not  yet  served 
by  interconnecting  network  facilities,  programme-originating 
stations  used  films  made  by  photographing  programmes  as 
they  were  reproduced  on  the  face  of  special  kinescopes  or 
picture  tubes  These  kinescope  recordings  were  processed 
rapidly  and  sent  to  affiliated  stations. 

Late  in  1948,  the  Federal  Communications  commission 
instituted  a  "  freeze  "  on  applications  for  television  stations 
in  order  to  investigate  the  co-channel  and  adjacent  channel 
interference  problems  and,  if  necessary,  revise  geographical 
allocations  before  further  stations  were  actually  placed  in 
operation.  It  had  been  expected  that  the  engineering  studies 
involved  could  be  made  and  the  hearings  completed  so  that 
the  **  freeze  "  could  be  lifted  early  in  1949;  but  the  engin- 
eering work  was  not  finished  until  the  middle  of  the  year  and, 
in  the  meantime,  other  delaying  factors  arose  The  inadequacy 
of  the  very-high-frequency  channels  to  provide  a  nation- 
wide competitive  television  system  became  very  apparent 
and  consideration  was  given  to  the  allocation  of  ultra-high- 
frequency  channels  to  provide  for  additional  stations. 

Certain  proponents  of  colour  television  insisted  that  it 
had  now  been  developed  to  the  point  where  a  satisfactory 
commercial  television  broadcasting  service  could  be  provided. 

Three  specific  colour  television  systems  were  proposed 
during  a  general  television  hearing  of  the  commission  begun 
in  Sept.  1949;  a  **  field  sequential  "  system  in  which  the 
picture  is  scanned  from  top  to  bottom  before  a  change  from 
one  primary  colour  to  another  occurs;  a  "  line  sequential  " 
system  which  requires  a  change  in  colour  for  each  scanning 
line;  and  a  "  dot  sequential "  system  in  which  the  colour 
is  changed  for  each  picture  element  or  dot. 

The  Columbia  Broadcasting  system  sponsored  its  "  field 
sequential "  system  with  standards  modified  to  permit 
operation  in  a  6  me  band;  the  basic  system,  employing  a 
colour  filter  disc,  was  the  same  as  the  one  which  the  com- 
mission had  declined  to  adopt  in  1947.  A  new  "dot 
sequential  "  system  was  proposed  by  the  Radio  Corporation 
of  America.  Complete  compatibility  was  claimed  for  this 
system  in  that  it  would  permit  black  and  white  receivers  to 
obtain  black  and  white  pictures  from  colour  transmissions 
without  receiver  modification,  and  with  high  definition, 
permitting  detail  equivalent  to  monochrome  to  be  trans- 
mitted in  colour.  The  "  line  sequential  "  system  was  advo- 
cated by  Color  Television,  Inc.,  of  San  Francisco,  California. 
This  system  was  also  completely  compatible  in  that  black 
and  white  receivers  would  not  have  to  be  modified  and 
transmission  of  picture  detail  would  be  comparable  to  that 
provided  by  the  black  and  white  standards.  (See  also  RADIO, 
SCIENTIFIC  DEVELOPMENTS  IN.)  (G,  L.  Bs.) 


TENNIS.  A  visit  of  a  strong  American  team  and  of 
P.  Etchebaster  (France),  the  world  champion,  added  greatly 
to  the  interest  of  the  1949  season  Etchebaster  played  only 
exhibition  matches,  but  the  American  team,  in  addition  to 
winning  the  Bathurst  cup  against  Great  Britain  and  France 
in  Pans,  took  part  in  the  British  amateur  championship. 

Ogdcn  Phipps  (U.S.A.)  was  the  outstanding  amateur 
player  of  the  year  Besides  winning  the  U  S.A  amateur 
championship  for  the  seventh  time,  he  became  the  first 
American  to  win  the  British  championship  since  the  victories 
of  Jay  Gould  in  1907  and  1908.  In  the  final  of  the  champion- 
ship at  Queen's  cliib  he  beat  W  I).  Macpherson  3 — 0  In 
December  Phipps  challenged  Etchebaster  for  the  world 
championship  in  New  York,  Etchebaster  winning  by  7  sets 
to  I. 

Macpherson  in  the  summer  retained  the  M  C.C.  Gold  prize 
at  Lords,  and  R  Aird  again  won  the  Silver  prize.  Oxford 
won  the  university  match  2-1,  and  the  Old  Rugbeians  the 
Henry  Leaf  cup  (See  also  LAWN  TFNNIS  )  (AE.) 

TEXTILE  INDUSTRY.  In  comparison  with  any 
other  year  after  World  War  11,  1949  was  a  year  of  consistent 
progress —technically  and  commercially— in  the  textile 
industry  of  the  United  Kingdom.  Statistics  revealed  increased 
productions  in  cotton,  woollen  and  worsted,  rayon  (spun  and 
filament)  yarns  and  in  practically  all  classes  of  woven  fabrics. 
Export  returns  proved  it  to  be  a  year  of  remarkable  achieve- 
ment in  view  of  increased  continental  competition.  Although 
many  control  restrictions  were  relaxed,  there  still  remained 
the  acute  problems  of  labour  shortage,  insufficient  automatic 
machinery  and  the  high  prices  of  raw  materials. 

Board  of  Trade  returns  showed  that  in  the  first  nine  months 
of  1949,  imports  of  raw  wool  into  the  United  Kingdom 
totalled  623,000,000  Ib.  compared  with  529,000,000  Ib.  for 
the  same  period  in  1948.  Re-exports  for  the  first  nine  months 
amounted  to  103,000,000  Ib.  which  was  <  ightly  lower  than 
in  1948.  In  the  same  period  of  1949  (Jan.  to  Sept.),  exports 
of  wool  tops  were  44,807,000  Ib.  compared  with  44,095,000  Ib. 
in  1948.  Export  of  woollen  and  worsted  yarns  at  18,969,000 
Ib  was  a  considerable  improvement  over  the  1 1,818,000  Ib. 
in  1948.  For  the  same  period,  exports  of  woollen  and  worsted 
tissues  totalled  almost  81,000,000  sq.  yd.  compared  with 
nearly  77,000,000  sq.  yd.  in  the  same  period  of  1948.  Ship- 
ments of  blankets  were  higher  than  the  1948  figures,  and 
exports  of  wool  waste  were  16,019,000  Ib.  compared  with  the 
1948  figure  of  8,260,000  Ib.  Carpet  and  rug  exports  declined 
slightly  from  the  peak  exporting  level  of  1948 

In  the  British  wool  textile  industry  the  most  outstanding 
technical  development  of  1949  was  the  Ambler  **  Superdraft  " 
system.  Designed  to  fit  easily  on  to  existing  worsted  "  open  " 
type  cap,  ring  and  flyer  frames,  it  was  essentially  a  new 
method  for  controlling  the  fibre  movement  of  a  twisted 
roving  in  the  drafting  /one.  With  this  new  device  drafts 
ranging  from  20  to  150  could  be  employed  on  wool  fibres 
but  the  upper  limit  of  draft  could  be  increased  for  synthetic 
fibres.  In  woollen  processing,  few  significant  changes  occurred 
but  it  was  noticeable  that  certain  woollen  spinning  firms 
who  ordered  new  carding  machinery  seemed  to  prefer  semi- 
continental  and  continental  types. 

In  the  cotton  industry,  machinery  developments,  improved 
technique,  modernization  of  equipment  and  re-deployment 
of  operatives  continued  on  a  satisfactory  scale.  The  industry 
continued  to  exert  itself  to  provide  amenities  and  welfare 
facilities  equal  to  those  in  modern  industrial  establishments. 
Few  Lancashire  spinning  mills,  however,  availed  themselves 
of  the  government's  offer  of  grants  towards  cost  of  machinery 
re-equipment.  The  main  reason  appeared  to  be  a  desire  to 
retain  their  individuality.  Nevertheless,  in  many  instances 
the  typical  conservative  Lancashnc  attitude  did  not  reject 


612 


THAIK— THAILAND 


common-sense  progressive  policies.  More  cotton  mills 
adopted  shortened  processing  wherever  advantages  were 
obvious;  and  modern  systems  of  lighting  and  mechanical 
handling  were  increasingly  applied. 

Production  figures  were  encouraging  In  the  week  ended 
Nov.  19  the  total  output  of  yarns  was  a  postwar  record  of 
20,750,000  Ib.  compared  with  19,640,000  Ib.  for  the  same 
period  in  1948.  Total  output  for  the  46  weeks  ended  Nov.  19 
was  873,520,000  Ib.  According  to  the  Cotton  board,  the 
weaving  sections  reached  their  highest  postwar  level  of  output 
in  the  four  weeks  ended  Oct.  29.  The  weekly  average  was 
54,320,000  linear  yd  for  the  month  and  production  was  8% 
higher  than  in  Oct.  1948.  Production  for  the  43  weeks  ended 
Oct.  29  was  2,121,050,000  linear  yd.  The  total  labour  force 
in  October  was  300,330,  compared  with  332,000  in  1939. 

No  revolutionary  developments  occurred  in  the  technical 
field  but  fibre  drafting  was  the  subject  of  intensive  research. 
Some  progress  was  also  noticeable  in  efforts  to  combat  the 
dust  problem  in  cotton  cardrooms,  and  more  mills  pre  oiled 
raw  cotton  before  subjecting  it  to  opening  processes.  The 
most  notable  invention  of  1949  was  the  "Autodofter," 
designed  by  the  British  Cotton  Industry  Research  association. 
This  efficient  and  compact  machine  was  constructed  for 
automatically  doffing  full  bobbins  on  cotton  ringframes. 
It  operated  on  rails  attached  to  the  front  of  the  frame  and 
doffing  commenced  by  pressing  a  push-button  switch  The 
announcement  of  this  machine  was  timely  in  view  of  the 
labour  shortage,  for  without  any  human  aid  it  doffed  12 
spindles  at  a  time  and  returned  automatically  to  the  end  of  the 
frame  when  doffing  was  completed;  the  whole  operation 
took  3-4  min.  depending  on  the  length  of  the  frame. 

The  international  textile  machinery  exhibition  at  Belle- 
Vue,  Manchester,  in  October,  was  an  important  event.  It 
was  the  first  since  1938  and  there  was  evidence  to  show 
that  the  industry  was  on  the  threshold  of  several  radical  and 
important  individual  developments.  For  the  first  time,  in 
many  cases,  textile  managers  and  executives  were  able  to 
study  and  examine  the  latest  postwar  machines  built  in  Great 
Britain,  the  U.S.,  France,  Switzerland,  Czechoslovakia, 
Belgium,  Denmark  and  Italy. 

Despite  the  difficult  conditions  of  world  markets,  Northern 
Ireland  continued  to  export  75%  of  her  linen  pioduction; 
and  there  was  an  extension  of  units  spinning  woollen  yarns, 
manufacturing  carpets  and  spinning  and  weaving  rayon,  etc. 

Commonwealth.  Wool  shipments  from  Australia  were 
higher  than  in  1948  and  no  sooner  was  the  devaluation  of 
sterling  announced  in  mid-September  than  the  market 
began  to  climb.  Average-to-good  fleece  showed  an  average 
appreciation  of  10-12^%.  The  Australian  textile  industry 
steadily  expanded  and  negotiations  to  establish  the  first 
units  of  a  rayon-spinning  industry  were  well  advanced.  It 
was  intended  to  form  a  company  with  a  nominal  capital  of 
£A10  million  to  build  factories  for  production  of  viscose 
and  acetate  rayon  and  Courtaulds,  Ltd  ,  were  expected  to 
take  a  substantial  interest  in  the  new  company. 

In  India,  the  exports  of  cotton  piece-goods  to  Pakistan 
were  much  reduced  but  there  was  an  increase  in  other  markets. 
British  East  and  West  Africa  absorbed  increased  quantities 
and  there  were  smaller  increases  in  Ceylon,  Australia  and 
Aden.  Towards  the  end  of  the  year  the  Argentine  placed  very 
large  contracts  for  hessian  cloths. 

The  Canadian  textile  industry  was  busily  engaged  through- 
out the  year  and,  in  addition,  imported  increased  quantities 
of  British  piece-goods,  chiefly  woollens  and  worsteds. 

Europe.  Textile  production  increased  in  most  European 
countries,  one  of  the  most  important  features  being  the  steady 
increase  in  Western  Germany.  Belgium  also  showed  signs  of 
revival  but  production  in  general  was  actually  below  the  1948 
figures.  Activity  in  the  French  cotton  industry  recovered  and 


yarn  production  was  at  the  1948  level;  cloth  production  was 
substantially  greater.  A  new  French  circular  loom  (Fayolle- 
Ancet)  aroused  considerable  interest  in  textile  circles.  Yarn 
and  cloth  production  in  Italy  increased  slightly  and  at  least 
two  new  looms  were  announced.  Textile  production  in 
Holland  was  now  about  the  prewar  level  but  substantial 
quantities  of  textiles  continued  to  be  imported  from  the 
United  Kingdom. 

Some  astonishing  developments  occurred  in  Czecho- 
slovakia. The  textile  industry  increased  the  output  of  yarn 
and  cloth  to  a  high  level.  In  addition,  the  nationalized 
textile  machinery-building  industry  developed  several  note- 
worthy machines,  including  the  Hrdina  range  of  automatic 
looms  and  pirn-changing  attachments,  also  the  Zbrojovka 
cone  and  pirn  winders.  A  new  magazine,  warping  creel  and 
beaming  headstock  were  also  announced.  (A.  DR.) 

United  States.  In  1949  consumption  in  the  U.S.  of  the 
three  major  fibres— cotton,  wool  and  synthetics — dropped  by 
approximately  20%  from  the  1948  level.  The  over-all  decline 
in  demand  for  textile  products  in  1949  was  partly  explained 
by  the  appearance  on  the  market,  in  larger  quantities,  of 
other  types  of  consumer  goods  which  had  been  practically 
unavailable  during  World  War  II  and  scarce  during  the 
immediate  postwar  years.  It  was  also  realized  that  the  war 
demand  brought  into  action  practically  all  available  textile 
machinery,  and  doubt  was  expressed  that  there  would  be  a 
permanent  domestic  market  for  its  full  output.  In  addition, 
other  countries  were  stepping  up  their  textile  production. 

Synthetics  continued  to  encroach  upon  the  markets  of 
the  older  fibres,  and  became  available  in  new  and  more 
versatile  forms.  Wholesale  prices  of  textiles  in  the  U.S.  in 
1949  were  approximately  6%  lower  than  those  of  1948,  and 
some  textile  manufacturers  anticipated  further  declines. 
(See  also  CLOTHING  INDUSIRY,  COTTON,  LINLN  AND  FLAX; 
RAYON  AND  OIHER  SYN runic  FIBRFS;  SHK,  WOOL) 

(D.  G.  Wo.) 

THAIK,  SAO  SHWE,  Burmese  statesman  (b.  1896), 
a  member  of  the  ruling  family  of  the  state  of  Yawnghwe, 
in  the  Southern  Shan  states  of  Burma,  was  educated  at  the 
Chiefs'  school  at  Taunggyi,  and  later  accepted  a  viceroy's 
commission  in  the  Indian  army,  serving  during  World  War  I 
in  Mesopotamia.  On  his  return,  he  served  in  the  civil 
administration  of  the  Yawnghwe  state  as  Myosa,  or  sub-chief, 
of  the  Heho  district  When  the  late  Sawhwa  (chief)  of 
Yawnghwe  died  in  1926,  Sao  Shwe  Thiflk  was  selected  by 
the  government  of  Burma  to  succeed  him,  the  late  Sir  Sao 
Mawng  having  no  direct  descendants.  As  ruler  of  the 
fourth  in  order  of  importance  of  the  Shan  states,  Sao  Shwe 
Thaik  was  a  personage  of  influence.  He  ruled  his  state  with 
efficiency,  and  when  war  with  Japan  was  threatening  in  1941 
he  took  a  commission  as  major  in  the  Shan  states  territorial 
battalion  of  the  Burma  Rifles.  On  the  withdrawal  of  the 
British  administration  in  1942,  he  remained  in  his  state, 
looking  after  the  interests  of  his  people  so  far  as  the  difficult 
conditions  of  the  times  allowed.  When  the  new  constitution 
for  independent  Burma  had  been  evolved  after  World  War  II, 
the  Burmese  political  leaders  proposed  and  carried  the 
election  of  Sao  Shwe  Thaik  as  the  first  president  of  the 
country,  a  gesture  of  goodwill  towards  the  minority  races  of 
Burma.  Sao  Shwe  Thaik  assumed  office  as  president  on 
Jan.  4  1948,  and  continued  to  discharge  the  duties  of  his 
office  with  dignity.  (B.  R.  P.) 

THAILAND  (SiAM).  A  kingdom  of  southeastern  Asia 
bounded  by  Burma  to  the  west  and  northwest,  by  French 
Indo-Chma  to  the  northeast  and  east  and  by  Malaya  to  the 
south.  Area:  198,247 sq.  mi.  Pop.:  (1937 census)  14,464,489; 
(1949  est.)  17,666,000.  Languages:  Thai  or  Siamese  c.  75%, 


THEATRE 


613 


Chinese  c.  20%,  Indian  and  Malayan  languages  also  spoken. 
Religion:  Buddhist  95%,  Moslem  4%.  Chief  towns: 
Bangkok  (cap.,  pop.,  1947  est.,  827,290);  Chiengmai  (pop., 
1937  census,  544,001);  Khonkaen  (473,475);  Chiengrai 
(443,476).  Ruler,  King  Phumiphon  Adundet  (who  during 
1949  was  continuing  his  studies  at  Lausanne,  Switzerland); 
prime  minister,  Marshal  Luang  Pibul  Songgram  (</.v.); 
minister  of  foreign  affairs,  Nai  Pote  Sarasin. 

History.  The  new  constitution,  prepared  by  a  Constituent 
Assembly  during  1948  and  submitted  to  the  legislature  in 
Jan.  1949,  was  finally  approved  by  the  council  of  regency  in 
March.  In  its  general  form  the  new  constitution  preserved 
the  system  of  government  by  king,  cabinet  and  bicameral 
parliament,  the  Lower  House  being  elected  on  a  wide  fran- 
chise and  the  Upper  House  nominated  by  the  crown.  It  also 
defined  in  detail  the  rights  of  the  subject,  prohibited  members 
of  the  armed  forces  from  joining  political  parties,  affirmed 
the  independence  of  the  judiciary,  and  defined  the  purposes 
of  the  state  which  included  co-operation  with  other  nations 
in  maintaining  international  justice  and  world  peace,  preser- 
vation of  the  national  traditions  and  maintenance  of  the 
principle  of  private  enterprise.  Following  the  promulgation 
of  the  constitution,  the  government  announced  on  May  11 
that  the  official  name  of  the  country  in  English  would  again 
be  Thailand,  instead  of  Siam,  so  reverting  to  the  practice  of 
the  years  1939  to  1945. 

General  elections  were  held;  and  on  the  meeting  of  the 
legislature  in  June  the  cabinet  was  reshuffled,  Marshal  Pibul 
Songgram  remaining  prime  minister.  The  cabinet  secured  a 
vote  of  confidence  in  the  Lower  House  in  July. 

No  change  of  importance  occurred  in  the  composition  of 
the  cabinet  till  October,  when  the  decision  was  taken  not  to 
maintain  the  official  sterling  rate  at  40  bahts  to  the  pound 
but  to  alter  it  to  35  to  the  pound;  this  decision  caused  the 
resignation  of  the  minister  of  finance,  Prince  Viwat  Jayanta, 
and  Marshal  Pibul  then  took  charge  himself  of  the  finance 
portfolio. 

On  a  number  of  occasions  during  the  year  rumours  were 
in  circulation  of  an  attempted  coup  by  the  Free  Thai  party, 
the  followers  of  the  exiled  statesman,  Nai  Pridi  Panomyong. 
Suitable  precautions  were  taken  by  the  authorities  and  only 
one  serious  outbreak  occurred.  According  to  the  official 
statement,  on  the  night  of  Feb.  26  members  of  the  Free  Thai 
party  attempted  a  revolution;  they  seized  the  royal  palace 
and  other  important  centres  in  Bangkok,  including  the  broad- 
casting station  from  which  they  announced  that  Nai  Direck 
Jayanama,  a  member  of  the  Free  Thai  and  a  former  am- 
bassador in  London  (1947-48),  had  assumed  office  as  prime 
minister.  In  the  resultant  disturbances,  misunderstanding 
between  naval  and  military  personnel  caused  a  clash  between 
the  two  services  which  was  not  terminated  for  two  days. 
The  disorders  were  ultimately  repressed  and  a  number  of 
Free  Thai  leaders  were  arrested,  four  of  whom  were  shot  in  an 
ambush  while  under  police  escort.  Nai  Direck  later  denied 
that  he  had  had  any  connection  with  the  attempted  coup. 
In  the  field  of  external  relations,  the  prime  minister  made 
an  important  statement  to  the  press  in  June,  when  he  stated 
that  Thailand  would  favour  a  security  pact  for  southeast 
Asia  on  the  lines  of  the  North  Atlantic  treaty.  In  regard  to 
the  possibility  of  Communist  agitation,  Marshal  Pibul  stated 
that  some  200  Chinese  Communist  agitators  had  lately  been 
arrested  by  the  police,  and  that  the  possibility  of  Communist 
disturbances  among  the  three  million  Chinese  in  the  country 
could  not  be  ruled  out,  though  he  was  confident  of  the 
ability  of  the  security  forces  to  deal  with  them.  Marshal 
Pibul  said  that  he  welcomed  the  close  co-operation  that  had 
been  arranged  with  the  British  security  forces  of  Malaya. 
He  expressed  similar  views  in  a  further  statement  to  the  press 
in  September,  saying  that  the  country  was  determined  to  stop 


King  Phumiphon  Adundet  of  Thailand  seen  at  Lausanne,  Switzerland, 

with  Princess  Sirikit  Kitiyakara,  to  whom  he  became  engaged  in 

Sept.  1949. 

any  Communist  aggression  but  was  short  of  equipment; 
in  event  of  war,  therefore,  Thailand  would  welcome  aid  from 
the  western  powers.  He  again  expressed  approval  of  the  idea 
of  a  regional  security  pact  which  should  include  not  only 
the  independent  states  of  southeast  Asia  but  also  those 
non-Asiatic  states  which  had  interests  in  the  region. 

The  trial  of  three  men  accused  of  complicity  in  the  death 
of  King  Ananda  Mahidol  on  June  9,  1946,  continued  through- 
out the  year  and  had  not  reached  its  conclusion  at  the  end 
of  the  year.  His  successor,  King  Phumiphon  Adundet,  re- 
mained in  Switzerland  throughout  the  year.  It  was  announced 
in  September  that  the  king  and  Princess  Sirikit  Kitiyakara, 
daughter  of  the  Thai  ambassador  in  London,  were  engaged 
to  be  married.  (B.  R.  P.) 

Education.  (1939)  Government  schools  429,  pupils  61,297,  teachers 
3.626;  local  public  schools  10,768,  pupils  1,325,891,  teachers  32,208; 
municipal  schools  304,  pupils  58,592,  teachers  1,644;  private  schools 
1,308,  pupils  121,965,  teachers  5,596;  universities  2.  Illiteracy:  53%. 

Agriculture  and  Fisheries.  Main  crops  (in  '000  metric  tons):  rice 
(1948)  5,250;  maize  (1948)  10;  cotton  (1948)  6;  tobacco  (1947)  8. 
Livestock  (in  '000  head):  cattle  (Dec.  1947)  3,555;  buffaloes  (July 
1945)3,981;  pigs  (July  1945)  2,014;  horses  (Dec.  1946)  171.  Fisheries: 
estimated  total  catch  (1948)  195,800  tons. 

Industry.  Electricity  (in  million  kwh,  1948)  48.  Raw  materials  (in 
metric  tons):  rubber  (1948)  33,000;  tin  (1948)  4,308;  tungsten  con- 
centrates (1947)  448. 

Foreign  Trade.  (1948)  Imports  1,708  million  baht;  exports  2,022 
million  baht. 

Transport  and  Communications.  Roads  (1946):  3,902  mi.  Licensed 
motor  vehicles  (Dec.  1948):  cars  4,866,  commercial  vehicles  2,403. 
Railways  (1947-48):  2,034  mi.  Shipping  (1948):  number  of  merchant 
vessels  20,  total  tonnage  11,320. 

Finance  and  Banking.  Budget  (in  million  baht):  (1948-49)  revenue 
1,666,  expenditure  1,848.  Note  circulation  (Feb.  1948):  2,203  million 
baht.  Monetary  unit:  baht  or  tical  with  an  exchange  rate  (Dec.  1949; 
in  brackets,  Dec.  1948)  of  35  -0  (40-0)  baht  to  the  pound. 

THEATRE.  An  interesting  tendency,  almost  to  be 
dignified  by  the  title  of  a  trend,  manifested  itself  during  1949 
in  the  taste  of  the  British  playgoing  public.  This  was  a 


614 


THEATRE 


jennet  Jouraemayne  (rameia  grown),  nicnara  {tucnara  Burton) 

and  Thomas  Mendip  (John  Gielgud)  in  "  The  Lady's  not  for  Burning" 

by  Christopher  Fry  at  the  Globe  theatre,  London. 

readiness  to  accept  not  merely  with  resignation  but  with 
enthusiasm  certain  plays  in  which  the  authors  had  set  out 
not  to  tell  a  connected  story,  but  to  let  their  minds  play, 
wittily,  philosophically  or  fantastically  as  the  case  might  be, 
about  a  static  situation.  Two  such  plays,  James  Bridie's, 
Daphne  Laureola  and  Christopher  Fry's  The  Lady's  Not  For 
Burning,  were  among  the  great  successes  of  the  London 
season;  and  a  third,  Eric  Linklater's  Love  in  Albania,  had  a 
succes  d'estime,  although  it  did  not  rank  with  the  other  two 
in  popularity. 

Hitherto  there  had  been  good  reason  for  thinking  that  the 
secret  of  how  to  write  a  discussion-play  so  that  the  public 
could  be  persuaded  to  listen  to  it  was  George  Bernard  Shaw's 
private  property  and  must  die  with  him.  And  even  he  had 
seemed  in  his  last  period  to  be  losing  his  facility — a  fact 
which  was  underlined  in  1949  by  the  failure  in  London  of 
his  latest  play  Buoyant  Billions  which,  though  it  was  saluted 
on  all  sides  as  a  remarkably  lively  piece  of  writing  for  a 
man  over  90,  excited  no  response  but  that  of  curiosity  from 
the  general  public.  Now,  however,  it  began  to  look  as  though 
there  were  not  only  other  dramatists  who  knew  the  secret 
but  a  newly  experienced  and  responsive  playgoing  public  such 
as  Bernard  Shaw  in  his  best  period  was  unable  to  count  on. 

In  Daphne  Laureola,  James  Bridie  made  almost  no  pretence 
at  all  of  having  a  story  to  tell.  His  own  description  of  his 
approach  to  the  play  was  that  he  had  certain  things  that  he 
wanted  to  say  and  tried  to  keep  his  audience  entertained 
while  he  said  them.  It  was  a  simple  formula,  but  nobody  but 
a  skilled  dramatist  could  carry  it  to  success.  Bridie's  method 
of  doing  so  was  to  invent  a  magnificently  eccentric  character, 
a  woman  of  outstanding  quality  but  a  dipsomaniac  (beauti- 
fully played  by  Dame  Edith  Evans,  ^r.v.).  He  takes  her  to  a 
restaurant  in  Soho,  and  there,  having  removed  her  inhibitions 
with  a  series  of  double  brandies,  he  sets  her  talking  at  large, 
to  the  delight  of  her  fellow-diners  in  the  restaurant  and  of  her 
auditors  in  the  theatre.  What  she  says,  and  what  follows  from 
it,  could  hardly  be  coherently  set  down  in  a  short  description; 
yet  the  play  played  to  packed  audiences  which  broke  the 
attendance  records  of  Wynd ham's  theatre. 

Christopher  Fry's  play,  The  Lady's  Not  For  Burning,  was 
less  obscure  than  Bridie's,  but  even  so  was  not  so  instantaneous 
a  success.  The  action,  such  as  it  was,  passed  in  a  mediaeval 
city,  Pamela  Brown  playing  a  girl  falsely  accused  of  witch- 
craft and  John  Gielgud  a  soldier  who,  in  an  attempt  to  divert 


official  attention  from  her,  accused  himself,  equally  falsely, 
of  murder.  Eventually  a  climax  was  reached  in  which  the 
lady  escaped  her  burning  and  the  man  his  hanging;  but  the 
importance  of  the  play  lay  not  in  these  happenings  but  in 
the  things  Christopher  Fry  had  to  say  and  in  the  nicely 
balanced  mixture  of  poetry  and  wit  with  which  he  said 
them. 

A  similar  mixture  of  poetry  and  wit  was  found  in  an  even 
more  distinguished  play,  which  nevertheless  had  not  been 
seen  in  London  when  the  year  ended,  though  arrangements 
had  been  made  for  its  production  in  New  York.  This  was 
T.  S.  Eliot's  The  Cocktail  Party,  staged  at  Edinburgh  in  the 
first  week  of  the  third  annual  festival  there.  As  a  technical 
achievement  this  play  aroused  particular  interest,  for  in  it 
Eliot  was  held  to  have  brought  to  a  successful  culmination 
the  experiments  towards  a  new  dramatic  verse  form  which 
he  had  been  carrying  on  in  his  previous  plays,  Murder  in  the 
Cathedral  and  Family  Reunion.  In  the  new  play  there  was 
remarked  an  increased  facility  in  the  use  of  verse  which, 
without  losing  its  essential  character,  could  lower  itself  to 
the  level  of  ordinary  colloquial  chatter  or  rise  to  the  require- 
ments of  high  poetic  emotion.  The  surprise  of  the  occasion 
was  not  that  T.  S.  Eliot  could  sustain  his  more  lofty  passages 
or  his  more  impassioned  scenes,  for  he  had  shown  that  in 
the  earlier  plays;  it  was  that  he  could  write  in  his  lighter 
moments  with  a  brittle  wit  and  a  sense  of  theatrical  effect 
oddly  reminiscent  of  Noel  Coward's  manner. 

The  central  figure  of  The  Cocktail  Party  is  a  mysterious 
stranger  who,  appearing  uninvited  in  a  London  drawing- 
room,  proves  to  have  an  uncanny  knowledge  concerning  the 
private  affairs  of  his  host  and  hostess  and  their  guests;  and 
leaves  an  impression  both  on  their  minds  and  on  the  minds 
of  the  audience  that  he  is  some  being  of  a  supernatural  order. 
Nor  is  this  impression  entirely  removed  by  a  second  act  in 
which  the  stranger  turns  out  to  be  a  psychiatrist  with  a  Harley 
street  practice,  for  he  continues  to  show  a  knowledge  of  his 
patients  and  a  power  to  shape  their  ends  which  makes  him 
still  seem  a  symbolical  being  rather  than  a  man. 

Two  importations  from  America  were  of  special  interest, 
for  each  had  been  awarded  the  Pulitzer  prize  for  the  best 
play  of  its  own  year  and  both  had  been  hailed  by  critics  in 
America  as  plays  of  outstanding  merit.  They  were  received 
in  England  with  a  certain  degree  of  reserve.  In  New  York, 
Arthur  Miller's  Death  of  a  Salesman  was  held  to  rank  as 
genuine  tragedy,  the  tragedy  of  a  good  man  brought  to 
nought  by  mistaken  ideals.  In  London,  some  judges  refused 
to  allow  the  play  any  such  grandeur,  holding  it  to  be  not 
much  more  than  a  piece  of  sentimentality  about  an  ineffectual 
nonentity.  This  difference  of  opinion  might  well  be  explained 
by  the  fact  that  in  America  the  travelling  salesman  is  a 
ubiquitous  character,  easily  acceptable  as  a  symbol  of  the 
average  citizen;  whereas  in  Great  Britain  the  word  "  sales- 
man "  is  not  used  so  often  and  conveys  no  very  definite  idea. 
In  the  case  of  the  other  American  prize  play,  A  Streetcar 
Named  Desire,  by  Tennessee  Williams,  critical  opinion 
generally  fell  short  of  enthusiasm  and  it  seemed  probable 
that  the  great  public  interest  which  the  production  caused 
was  due  rather  to  Vivien  Leigh's  enormous  personal  popu- 
larity than  to  the  author's  merits.  Objection  was  taken  in 
some  quarters  to  the  sordid  setting  of  the  play  and  the  fact 
that  its  heroine  was  a  girl  whose  obsession  with  sex  drove 
her  to  promiscuity  and  finally  to  madness.  In  the  end  the 
play  became  the  battle-ground  of  so  many  partisans  that  its 
objective  qualities  were  obscured;  but  it  could  safely  be  said 
that  the  strong  appeal  which  Tennessee  Williams's  work  made 
to  critics  and  public  alike  in  America  found  a  comparatively 
wavering  and  uncertain  echo  in  the  British  theatre  as  yet. 

Two  less  controversial  American  plays  which  were  pro- 
duced early  in  the  year  and  were  still  running  when  it  ended 


THEATRE 


615 


were  The  Heiress  and  Harvey.  The  former,  adapted  by  Ruth 
and  Augustus  Goetz  from  Henry  James's  novel  Washington 
Square,  told  a  good  story  and  told  it  well,  and  in  addition 
owed  much  to  Peggy  Ashcroft's  relentless  yet  pathetic  acting 
as  the  unattractive  girl  who  was  sought  in  marriage  only  for 
her  money  and  to  Sir  Ralph  Richardson's  (q.v.)  unobtrusive 
excellence  as  her  father.  The  latter,  Mary  Chase's  odd  fantasy 
about  a  happy  dipsomaniac  whose  best  friend  is  an  alco- 
holically-induced  rabbit  six  feet  high,  might  well  have  failed 
out  of  hand  with  English  audiences;  instead,  with  Sid  Field 
playing  his  first  "  straight  "  part  in  the  lead,  it  drew  a 
delighted  public.  Another  and  more  delicate  American 
fantasy,  Dark  of  the  Moon,  by  Howard  Richardson  and 
William  Berney,  of  a  "  witch-boy  "  and  his  love  for  a  mortal 
girl,  also  found  a  warm  welcome  though  on  a  smaller  scale. 

Several  established  British  dramatists  added  to  their 
reputations  during  the  year,  though  neither  J.  B.  Priestley 
with  Summer  Day's  Dream  nor  Peter  Ustinov  with  The  Man 
in  the  Raincoat  (produced  at  the  Edinburgh  festival)  was  quite 
at  his  best.  Lesley  Storm  in  Black  Chiffon  provided  an 
excellent  vehicle  for  Flora  Robson;  and  Margery  Sharp  in 
The  Foolish  Gentlewoman  for  Dame  Sybil  Thorndike.  Terence 
Rattigan's  Adventure  Story  had  merit,  but  failed  in  its  attempt 
to  represent  Alexander  the  Great  as  something  more  than  a 
man  of  action.  Of  a  rather  meagre  crop  of  plays  by  dramatists 
hitherto  unknown,  perhaps  The  Late  Edwina  Black,  by 
William  Dinner  and  William  Morum,  showed  most  promise. 

The  Stratford  Memorial  theatre  continued  on  its  increasingly 
distinguished  career  and  the  Old  Vic  company,  reinforced 
in  the  spring  by  the  return  of  Sir  Laurence  Olivier,  regained 
some  of  the  ground  it  had  lost  and  made  a  promising  start 
under  its  new  direction  in  the  autumn  with  productions  of 
Shakespeare's  Love's  Labour's  Lost,  Oliver  Goldsmith's  She 
Stoops  to  Conquer  and  Ivan  Turgenev's  A  Month  in  the 
Country.  Outside  these  two  established  homes  of  the  classics 
there  was  a  notable  revival  of  George  Farquhar's  The  Beaux' 


Stratagem,  with  John  Clements  and  Kay  Hammond  in  the 
leading  parts.  (W.  A.  D.) 

France.  In  the  opinion  of  most  observers,  the  French 
theatrical  season  of  1948-49  was  without  distinction,  and  this 
(Jespite  the  fact  that  some  40  new  names  were  presented  to 
the  public.  Few  of  these,  however,  left  any  real  trace  other 
than  that  of  promise.  In  this  connection,  Julien  Gracq's 
Le  Roi  Pecheur  should  receive  especial  mention. 

Among  the  established  playwrights,  although  Armand 
Salacrou  was  represented  by  two  earlier  plays,  Une  Femme 
Libre  and  LyJnconnue  d*  Arras,  other  playwrights,  for  example, 
Claude-Andre  P^get,  Jean  Cocteau,  Jean-Paul  Sartre,  G, 
Neuveux,  Marcel  Ayme,  Andre  Obey  remained  silent.  It 
was  generally  felt  that  Henry  de  Montherlant's  Demain  il  fera 
Jour  and  Steve  Passeur's  107  Minutes  added  little  to  either 
author's  reputation.  On  the  other  hand,  Jean  Anouilh's 
cynical  marital  comedy,  Ardele  on  la  Marguerite,  had  a  long 
run. 

The  real  laurels  of  the  year,  however,  went  to  two  of  the 
oldest  playwrights  in  France,  both  in  years  and  in  experience, 
Paul  Claudel  (aged  80)  and  Henri  Bernstein  (aged  75),  for 
their  plays  Portage  de  Midi  (written  some  30  years  earlier) 
and  La  Soif,  which  Bernstein  wrote  after  the  Liberation. 
Claudel's  play — which  he  disavowed  after  his  conversion 
to  Catholicism,  and  therefore  rarely  played  before — 
depicted  a  desperate  struggle  between  the  desires  of  the  flesh 
and  the  commands  of  religious  faith;  while  Bernstein 
sought,  with  almost  pagan  frankness,  to  show  the  imperative 
tie  that  exists  between  artistic  creation  and  the  satisfactions 
of  the  flesh.  Both  plays  conveyed  an  atmosphere  of  extra- 
ordinary sensuality.  The  former  cinema  artist,  Jean  Gabin, 
who  played  the  leading  role  in  La  Soif,  quickly  assumed 
front-rank  position  among  contemporary  French  actors  for 
his  remarkable  portrayal.  Claudel's  play  was  presented  by 
the  Jean-Louis  Barrault — Madeleine  Renaud  company  with 
their  usual  excellence. 


The  Epsom  race  course  scene  from  Sir  Charles  Cochrarfs  *'  Tough  at  the  Top"  a  musical  show  by  Vivian  Ellis  and  Sir  Alan  Herbert  at  the 

Adelphi  theatre,  London. 


616 


THEOLOGY 


Despite  an  original,  painstaking  production  by  this  same 
company,  an  attempt  to  present  Albert  Camus'  widely  read 
novel  La  Peste  (the  theatre  version  was  entitled  L'Etat  de 
Siege},  was  unsuccessful,  and  it  was  generally  conceded  that 
the  combined  efforts  of  so  many  admirable  talents  had  only 
resulted  in  a  sort  of  mutual  neutralization  of  each  of  them. 
Perhaps,  too,  the  play  suffered  from  being  presented  too  late, 
a  turning  away  from  the  war  and  the  occupation  having 
already  become  noticeable. 

To  relieve  this  somewhat  negative  situation,  there  were  to 
be  noted  two  encouraging  factors:  the  existence  and  vitality 
of  at  least  a  dozen  jeunes  compagnies,  and  the  fact  that  the 
activities  of  these  groups  were  scattered  throughout  the  coun- 
try. A  number  of  promising  young  producers,  actors  and 
playwrights  were  beginning  to  emerge  whose  influence  was 
expected  to  make  itself  felt  in  the  future. 

Under  the  direction  of  Pierre-Aime  Touchard,  the  official 
Theatre  Franqais  maintained  a  high  standard  of  performance. 
However,  the  attempt  to  divide  their  programmes  between  a 
Salle  Richelieu  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Seine,  and  a  Salic 
Luxembourg,  the  former  Odeon  theatre,  proved  unsatis- 
factory to  both  actors  and  public.  (M.  JOL.) 

United  States.  During  the  season  of  1949  clouds  gathered 
over  the  theatre  in  the  U.S.  The  League  of  New  York 
Theatres,  embracing  the  principal  figures  in  the  operation  of 
the  metropolitan  playhouses  and  their  subsequent  road 
attractions,  instituted  an  investigation  by  non-prejudiced 
analysts,  the  purpose  of  which  was  to  determine  how  the 
theatre  might  be  lifted  out  of  the  decline  into  which  it  had 
fallen,  to  give  it  back  the  prestige  which  it  had  once  enjoyed 
and  to  increase  its  attendance  and  box-office  receipts. 

It  was  pointed  out  as  an  indication  of  the  theatre's  decline 
that,  whereas  in  the  1928-29  Broadway  season  224  plays 
and  shows  were  produced,  only  70  were  put  on  in  the  1948-49 
season.  The  number  of  New  York  theatres,  similarly,  was 
75  in  1929  and  only  32  in  1949,  not  a  single  new  theatre 
having  been  built  for  22  years. 

A  supplementary  investigation  conducted  among  2,500 
group  leaders  and  2,500  representative  people  in  the  upper 
and  middle  income  classes  in  27  different  cities  established 
that  62^%  of  the  people  interviewed  in  cities  outside  New 
York  city  spent  less  on  the  theatre  during  1949  than  on  the 
cinema,  that  the  high  price  of  theatre  tickets  helped  to  divert 
patronage  and  that  the  physical  discomforts  of  the  average 
theatre  added  to  the  discouragement  of  theatre  attendance. 
Public  opinion  was  thus  operating  against  the  theatre  and 
immediate  steps  were  urged  to  rectify  the  situation. 

The  paucity  of  first-rate  plays  and  shows  unquestionably 
figured  largely  in  the  public  neglect  of  the  theatre.  It  was 
noticeable  that,  when  first  rate  or  even  fair  second  rate 
attractions  were  offered,  the  public  interest  was  as  great  as 
it  had  ever  been;  at  times,  indeed,  even  greater.  An  out- 
standing example  was  South  Pacific,  the  musical  comedy  by 
Richard  Rodgers  and  Oscar  Hammerstein  II,  which  scored 
a  success  unmatched  in  the  latter  records  of  the  theatre. 

Other  plays  and  shows  that  proved  nothing  was  amiss 
with  the  theatre  when  attractions  were  really  good  were 
Arthur  Miller's  Death  of  a  Salesman,  the  best  dramatic  play 
of  the  season;  Sidney  Kingsley's  Detective  Story;  Touch 
and  Go,  a  topical  revue  by  Jean  and  Walter  Kerr;  and  various 
others.  Even  when  plays  had  obvious  weaknesses  but  had 
elements  of  popular  appeal  they  were  still  successful,  such  as 
Mae  West's  revival  of  Diamond  Lil;  James  Allardice's  farce, 
At  War  With  the  Army;  the  Irving  Berlin-Robert  E.  Sherwood 
musical,  Miss  Liberty;  I  Know  My  Love,  in  which  Lynn  and 
Alfred  Lunt  acted;  and  the  Maxwell  Anderson-Kurt  Weill 
musical  drama,  Lost  in  the  Stars.  Still  further  proof  was  to 
be  had  in  the  box-office  receipts  of  such  held-over  attractions, 
produced  at  the  end  of  the  previous  season,  as  Light  up  the 


Sky,  The  Silver  Whistle,  Anne  of  the  Thousand  Days,  Lend 
an  Ear,  The  Madwoman  of  Chaillot  and  Kiss  Me,  Kate,  not 
to  mention  the  continued  popularity  of  long  runs  such  as 
Mister  Roberts,  A  Streetcar  Named  Desire,  Goodbye,  My 
Fancy,  Born  Yesterday  and  Where's  Charley  ? 

Among  the  better-known  native  playwrights  who  appeared 
during  the  year  were  Clifford  Odets  with  The  Big  Knife,  a 
play  which  was  so  bad  that  it  drew  ridicule  not  only  from  the 
critics  but  from  lay  theatregoers;  Garson  Kanin  with  both 
The  Rat  Race  and  The  Smile  of  the  World,  Philip  Barry 
with  a  poor  adaptation  of  Jean  Pierre  Aumont's  play  called 
My  Name  is  Aauilon.  Samuel  Spewack  with  a  negligible 
comedy,  Two  Blind  Mice;  and  Lillian  Hellman  with  a  static 
and  monotonous  play,  Montscrrat. 

Ezio  Pinza's  abandonment  of  the  operatic  for  the  musical 
comedy  stage  in  South  Pacific  and  his  great  success  in  that 
medium  were  among  the  year's  notable  features.  Among  the 
more  impressive  acting  performances  were  those  of 
A.  E.  Matthews  in  the  English  comedy  Yes,  M'Lord,  known  in 
England  as  Hie  Chiltem  Hundreds,  Mildred  Smith  in  Forward 
the  Heart,  Lilh  Palmer  in  the  revival  of  Bernard  Shaw's 
Caesar  and  Cleopatra  and  in  Mv  Name  is  Aqmlon;  Mildred 
Dunnock  in  Death  of  a  Salesman,  Ralph  Bellamy  in  Detec- 
tive Stoiy,  Pinza  and  Mary  Martin  in  South  Pacific,  Lynn 
Fontanne  in  /  Know  My  Love,  Sir  Cedric  Hardwicke  in 
Caesar  and  Cleopatra;  and  Katharine  Cornell  in  a  verbose 
and  tiresome  romantic  historical  drama  by  Kate  O'Brien 
called  That  Lady.  (G.  J.  N.) 

THEOLOGY.  Progress  in  theological  scholarship  and 
writing  depends  so  greatly  on  the  exchange  of  findings  and 
ideas  between  theologians  the  world  over  that  it  is  difficult 
to  speak  of  new  trends  or  fresh  emphases  in  any  period 
shorter  than  a  decade.  But  1949  was  an  important  year 
since  it  was  the  first  in  which  it  was  possible  to  do  some 
postwar  stocktaking. 

For  almost  a  century  German  theological  scholarship, 
especially  in  the  text  and  meaning  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments,  was  the  chief  foundation  on  which  theologians 
in  Europe  and  America  built.  In  many  respects  this  analytical 
work  on  the  Bible  was  drawing  to  a  close.  Its  assured  results 
were  there  for  all  scholars  to  draw  upon,  though  the  work 
of  making  them  readily  available  would  still  go  on.  For 
example,  conditions  in  1949  permitted  the  reprinting  in  Ger- 
many of  the  first  three  volumes  of  Gerhard  Kittel's  monu- 
mental work,  Theologisches  Worterbuch  Zum  Neuen  Testa- 
ment', work  on  vol.  5  was  in  progress  and  facsimiles  were 
issued.  Fresh  work  on  the  text  of  the  Bible  is  called  for  with 
every  new  discovery  of  ancient  documents  -  work  which  is 
long  and  costly.  The  main  work  to  be  done  on  the  latest 
find  of  Hebrew  documents  near  Jericho  fell  not  to  Europeans 
but  to  Americans,  and  it  was  already  felt  in  American  univer- 
sities and  theological  seminaries  that  in  the  future  American 
scholarship  would  have  to  play  a  more  important  role  than 
in  the  past  when  the  pre-eminence  of  Europeans,  more 
especially  of  Germans,  in  the  groundwork  of  theology  was 
largely  taken  for  granted. 

The  most  important  trend  to  be  found  in  the  theological 
work  of  the  year  was  a  convergence  of  interest  on  Biblical 
studies,  but  with  less  emphasis  on  analysis  and  more  on 
hermeneutics.  It  was  particularly  noticeable  that  a  pre- 
occupation with  the  study  of  the  Bible  was  not  a  Protestant 
monopoly.  The  Papal  Encyclical,  Divino  Afflante  Spintu 
(1943),  on  the  promotion  of  Biblical  study  was  bearing  fruit; 
the  learned  theological  journals  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  contained  scholarly  reviews  of  Protestant  works  on 
Biblical  study  and  the  volume  of  work  on  the  Bible  from 
Roman  Catholic  theologians  grew  steadily.  In  Germany, 
the  Roman  Catholic  Romano  Guardmi  commented  on  the 


TIBET 


617 


theological  scene  from  the  vantage  point  of  his  chair  in 
Munich  that,  although  there  was  nothing  in  Germany  cones- 
ponding  to  the  new  theology  in  France,  German  theologians 
were  "  going  back  to  the  sources  and  this  time  are  using 
them  properly  as  sources,  drinking  deeply  and  not  merely 
sipping."  The  same  was  true  elsewhere. 

Three  main  tasks  occupied  the  forefront  of  attention  in 
relation  to  the  Bible:  first,  the  translation  of  the  Bible  into 
modern  speech;  second,  the  exposition  of  the  meaning  of 
different  parts  of,  or  subjects  in,  the  Bible;  third,  the  re- 
assertion  of  the  authority  of  the  Bible  for  men's  lives  in  the 
modern  world. 

In  the  first  a  new  stage  was  reached.  The  American 
standard  version  of  the  New  Testament  published  in  Great 
Britain  in  1949  met  with  general  acceptance  as  the  best 
attempt  to  remove  from  the  authon/ed  version  inaccuracies 
of  translation  and  archaisms  of  speech  without  impairing 
the  beauty  and  brevity  of  its  prose.  But  this  work  of  a  com- 
petent committee  of  American  scholars  was  for  all  its  virtues 
not  a  genuinely  new  and  modern  translation.  A  translation 
of  the  Old  Testament  from  the  Vulgate  by  Father  Ronald 
Knox  was  also  published  in  London  in  1949.  Although 
it  was  going  on  behind  the  scenes  and  would  not  be  com- 
pleted for  many  years,  mention  should  be  made  of  the 
wholly  new  attempt  to  translate  the  Bible  into  modern 
English  proposed  by  the  general  assembly  of  the  Church  of 
Scotland  and  taken  up  by  all  the  major  churches  in  Great 
Britain  who  appointed  a  body  of  theologians  to  work  on  a 
new  authoritative  translation.  A  translation  of  the  Bible 
into  basic  English  also  appeared  during  the  year. 

The  exposition  of  Biblical  teaching  was  marked  by  a 
combination  of  scholarship  with  imagination  and  literary 
skill.  Among  notable  monographs  were  A.  M.  Ramsey's 
The  Glory  of  God  ami  the  Transfiguration  of  Christ  and  A.  M. 
Farrer's  A  Rebirth  of  Images.  P  J  Tillich's  Shaking  of  the 
Foundations,  published  in  Great  Britain  in  1949  opened 
new  possibilities  in  preaching  by  discussing  the  meaning  of 
the  key  words  of  the  Bible  such  as  salvation,  grace  and 
redemption. 

On  the  third  subject,  the  authority  of  the  Bible,  much  was 
written  under  the  influence  of,  or  in  reaction  against,  Karl 
Barth  who  speaks  of  the  Bible  as  something  greater  than  a 
collection  of  documents— a  single  self-authenticating,  self- 
interpreting  Word  of  God.  His  Dogmatics  in  Outline  was 
the  first  summary  of  his  main  works  to  appear  in  English. 
At  the  end  of  the  19th  century  much  of  what  Karl  Barth 
was  now  saying  had  been  said  by  P  T.  Forsyth:  the  re- 
publication  of  his  works  which  was  going  on  in  Great  Britain 
after  World  War  II  was  a  theological  event  of  importance. 
A  distinguished  international  gathering  of  theologians  meet- 
ing in  Oxford  in  June  and  July,  1949,  prepared  a  statement 
on  "  Guiding  Principles  for  the  Interpretation  of  the  Bible/' 
which  was  later  published  in  the  Oecumenical  Review.  This 
conference,  drawn  together  by  the  World  Council  of  Churches, 
was  the  outcome  of  previous  international  work:  20  theo- 
logians from  8  countries  and  10  churches  took  pait.  The 
statement  was  an  important  agreement  in  a  highly  contro- 
versial field  and  further  work  would  be  expected. 

Movements  towards  unity  among  the  churches  led  to  a 
re-examination  of  the  theological  factors  in  disunion,  and  to 
restatements  by  individual  churches  on  their  own  positions. 
There  were  new  theological  statements  on  baptism,  church 
membership,  and  other  matteis.  Discussions  to  unite  the 
Congregational  Church  with  the  Evangelical  and  Reformed 
Church  in  the  United  States  reached  a  linal  stage.  A  week's 
conference  between  theologians  of  the  Anglican  and  the  Free 
Churches  of  England  on  intercommunion  and  the  mutual 
recognition  of  ministries  covered  useful  ground  but  did  not 
bring  the  matter  to  a  conclusion. 


A  further  field  of  theological  activity  lay  on  the  borderland 
between  theology  and  philosophy.  Secular  existentialism 
had  its  strongest  exponents  in  France  and  the  main  encounter 
between  secular  existentialism  and  its  Christian  forms 
took  place  there.  The  Roman  Catholic  Gabriel  Marcel, 
the  main  protagonist  of  a  Christian  existentialism,  well 
known  outside  France,  delivered  the  important  Gifford 
lectures  at  Glasgow  university  for  the  year  11M9-50.  The 
contioveisy  with  existentialists  was  taken  up  also  by  Roger 
Troisf on  tames  in  his  Existentiali\me  et  pemee  ehretienne  and 
by  F.  Mourner,  editor  of  Esprit,  in  a  book  translated  under 
the  title  Existentialist  Philosophies,  hrench  Protestants  also 
entered  the  lists.  Not  wholly  unrelated  to  the  issue  of 
existentialism  in  France  was  the  furious  debate  among 
Roman  Catholic  theologians  following  the  publication  of 
Henri  do  I  ubac's  book  Surnaturel  De  Lubac  argued  that 
the  rigid  distinction  between  natural  and  supernatural  and 
natural  and  revealed  theology  need  not  and  should  not 
have  been  derived,  as  it  was,  from  the  teaching  of  Thomas 
Aquinas  and  that  it  was  one  of  the  chief  stumbling  blocks 
to  the  acceptance  of  Christianity  by  men  trained  in  science. 
De  Lubac  was  accused  of  heresy  by  some  of  his  opponents. 
The  controversy  was  well  summarized  by  Father  Victor 
White  in  the  Jan  1949  issue  of  Dominican  Studies 

In  other  countries  the  theological  encounter  with  secular 
existentialism  was  less  direct.  Works  on  Kierkegaard  con- 
tinued to  appear  (e.g  T.  H  Croxall's  Kierkegaard  Studies 
in  Great  Britain  and  R.  Thomtc's  KietkegaanVs  Philosophy 
of  Religion  in  America)  and  the  Christian  origins  of  existent- 
ialism were  thereby  underlined.  J.  V.  L.  Casserley  of  Great 
Britain  took  up  wider  issues  between  theology  and  current 
schools  of  philosophy  in  The  Christian  in  Philosophy.  Romano 
Guardim  fulfilled  in  Germany  something  of  the  role  of 
Marcel  in  France.  Among  Protestant  theologians  in  Ger- 
many one  major  debate  excited  a  wide  circle  of  the  foremost 
theologians.  In  a  recently  published  volume,  Kerygma  und 
Mythos  a  number  of  theologians  took  up  a  highly  contro- 
versial thesis  propounded  by  Professor  Bultmann  of  Mar- 
burg (in  an  essay  entitled  The  New  Testament  and  Mythology 
published  in  Germany  in  1941)  that  the  New  Testament 
writers  had  pictured  a  three-stoned  world  and  that  the 
setting  of  the  Gospel  story  was  frankly  mythological  and 
meant  nothing  to  modern  man;  it  could  only  mean  something 
if  mythology  was  interpreted  cxistentially,  that  is,  as  illu- 
minating not  the  cosmos  but  man  and  his  needs.  This  was 
in  the  true  line  of  German  theological  debate.  Bishop 
Dibehus  of  Berlin  published  a  notable  small  book  The  Limits 
of  the  State  In  the  United  States  Remhold  Niebuhr  held 
his  position  as  the  theologian  whose  works  were  best  known 
to  a  great  public.  His  book  Faith  and  History  followed  the 
broad  line  of  his  other  writings.  (See  also  ANGLICAN 
COMMUNION). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  H  de  Lubac,  Surnaturel  (Paris,  1946),  H.  W  Bartsch, 
cd  ,  Kerygma  und  Mvthos  (Hamburg.  1948),  T  H  Croxall,  Kierkegaard 
Studies  (London,  1948),  R  Thomtc,  Kierkegaard' 's  Philosophy  of 
Religion  (Prmcctown,  1948),  K  Barth,  Dogmatics  in  Outline  (London, 
1949),  J  V  L  Casserley,  The  Christian  in  Philosophy  (London,  1949); 
A.  M  fairer,  A  Rebirth  of  Images  (London,  1949);  P.  T  Forsyth, 
The  Per\on  and  Place  of  Jesus  Christ  (6th  ed  ,  London,  1948),  Positive 
Preaching  and  the  Modern  Mind  (3rd  ed  .  London,  1949),  G  Kittel, 
Theologisches  Worterbuch  zum  Neuen  Testament,  vols  1-3  issued; 
in  progress  (Stuttgart,  1949),  R  Knox,  Old  Testament,  newly  trans- 
lated from  the  Vulgate  (London,  1949);  E.  Mounter,  Existentialist 
Philosophies  (London,  1949),  R  Niebuhr,  Faith  and  History  (New 
York,  1949),  A  M  Ramsey,  The  Glory  of  Cod  ami  the  Transfiguration 
Christ  (London,  1949);  P  J  Tilhch.  Shaking  of  the  Foundation*  (Lon- 
don, 1949);  R  Troisfontames,  Existentialist  Philosophies  (London, 
1949),  "Guiding  principles  for  the  Interpretation  of  the  Bible," 
Oecumenical  Review,  vol  2,  no  1  (Geneva,  autumn  1949)  (K.  Bs.) 

TIBET.  A  country  of  central  Asia,  lying  north  and  north- 
east of  the  Himalayas,  mainly  a  high  tableland.   Nominally  a 


618 


TIMBER 


Chinese  dependency,  it  is  in  practice  independent;  it  is  the 
only  country  in  the  world  which  is  entirely  under  ecclesiastical 
control.  Area:  c.  469,294  sq.  mi.  Pop.  (1948  est.):  3  million; 
one-fifth  of  the  male  population  are  monks.  Capital:  Lhasa. 
Language:  Tibetan  Religion:  Buddhist.  Ruler,  formerly 
Lhamo  Dhondup,  the  14th  dalai  lama,  born  June  6,  1935 
and  enthroned  in  the  Potaia,  or  chief  palace,  on  Feb.  13,  1940; 
regent,  Yung  Tseng  Dala. 

History.  The  threat  to  Tibetan  independence  from  Chinese 
Communism  led  the  regent  to  make  approaches  to  the  U.S. 
in  1949.  The  good  offices  of  an  American  traveller  were 
utilized  for  the  purpose.  Later  the  regent  cabled  for  help. 
Communist  leaders  claimed  the  country  as  part  of  China  and 
announced  their  intention  to  protect  the  Tibetans  from  what 
they  described  as  the  aggressive  intentions  of  the  U.S.  and 
Great  Britain  and  to  free  the  people  from  reactionary  feudal- 
ism. The  threat  to  India  was  obvious,  but  it  was  hardly  in 
a  position  to  interfere.  The  British  trade  mission  was  with- 
drawn after  the  partition  of  India.  It  was  interesting  to  note 
that  a  British  firm  was  to  establish  a  600  kw.  hydro-electric 
plant  to  supply  current  to  Lhasa.  (W.  BN.) 

Foreign  Trade.  Principal  imports  cotton  goods,  woollen  goods, 
grain,  hardware,  glass,  sugar,  biscuits,  dried  fruit  and  tobacco  Principal 
exports'  wool,  borax,  salt,  musk,  horn  and  herbs  Mam  destinations 
of  exports  China  and  India 

Finance.  Monetary  unit.  \ang  with  an  exchange  rate  (1948)  of  about 
3  sangs  to  the  Indian  rupee,  but  there  are  considerable  fluctuations. 

TIMBER.  Prior  to  Sept.  1 8  it  was  assumed  in  timber  circles 
that  the  year  1949  would  show  a  definite  downward  trend  in 
wood  prices  generally  The  devaluation  of  the  pound  sterling  on 
that  date  by  30%  as  against  the  U  S  A.  dollar,  together  with 
the  simultaneous  devaluation  of  their  currencies  pan  passu 
with  the  pound  by  the  majority  of  the  timber  producing 
countries  in  Europe,  introduced  a  new  factor  in  the  price 
situation,  the  repercussions  of  which  could  not  as  yet  be 
estimated.  The  results  of  these  financial  operations  on  timber 
prices  would  probably  not  be  fully  seen  until  the  signing  of 
the  1950  contracts. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  year  the  British  Board  of  Trade 
published  the  long  awaited  report  of  a  committee  set  up 
under  the  chairmanship  of  Sir  Keith  W.  Price  to  estimate 
British  timber  requirements  and  possible  supplies  up  till  1955. 
This  report  estimated  the  softwood  requirements  on  a  strictly 
austerity  basis  at  approximately  1,500,000  standards  a  year, 
hardwood  requirements  at  approximately  75  million  cu.  ft. 
and  plywood  at  approximately  575  million  sq.  ft  a  year. 
There  was  every  prospect  of  the  hardwood  and  plywood 
supplies  being  found  from  various  sources,  but  Great  Britain 
could  not  be  certain  of  obtaining  more  than  about  1 ,200,000 
standards  of  softwood  owing  to  currency  difficulties.  The 
exports  of  both  Sweden  and  Finland  were  slightly  higher  in 
quantity  than  those  of  1948,  but  somewhat  lower  prices  were 
accepted  by  shippers.  There  was  also  a  distinct  easing  in 
Baltic  freight  rates.  In  the  autumn  of  1949  a  trading  agree- 
ment was  signed  between  the  U.S.S.R.  and  Great  Britain 
covering  the  shipment  of  some  75,000  standards  of  White 
sea  and  Kara  sea  redwood,  together  with  26,000  standards 
from  the  U.S.S.R.  Baltic  ports.  This  agreement  was  negotiated 
by  the  Board  of  Trade  with  Exportles,  the  Russian  timber 
organization.  Speculation  was  aroused  as  to  the  quantity 
which  would  be  offered  for  export  by  the  Russians  in  1950, 
some  trade  circles  optimistically  putting  the  figure  as  high  as 
250,000  standards.  Two  other  eastern  European  countries 
showed  their  intention  to  resume  wood  exports  on  a 
considerable  scale  by  entering  into  trade  agreement  with 
Great  Britain.  In  the  early  part  of  the  year  Poland  signed  a 
five-year  agreement  under  which,  inter  alia,  a  quantity  of 
timber  and  timber  products  was  to  be  furnished  to  Great 
Britain  including  70,000  standards  of  softwoods,  10,000 


cu.  m.  hardwoods  and  50,000  sleepers.  Yugoslavia  also  signed 
a  similar  agreement  covering  trade  generally  under  which 
she  undertook  to  supply  Great  Britain  with  both  softwoods 
and  hardwoods:  already  from  this  source  about  100,000 
standards  of  softwoods  had  been  received  together  with  a 
considerable  quantity  of  oak  and  beech,  both  logs  and  lumber. 

During  1949  the  first  steps  were  taken  to  bring  the  felling 
programme  of  British  woodlands  into  some  relation  with 
the  annual  anticipated  increments.  A  Board  of  Trade  order 
enforced  a  cut  of  25%  over  that  of  1948. 

Canadian  lumber  production  during  the  year  remained  at 
levels  comparable  with  1948.  The  restriction  of  imports  by 
Great  Britain  owing  to  currency  problems  and  a  somewhat 
lower  price  level  increased  the  difficulties  of  a  number  of 
small  marginal  producers.  No  new  general  contract  was 
negotiated  between  the  two  countries,  but  in  the  autumn 
under  the  European  Recovery  programme  a  special  contract 
for  70,000  standards  of  Douglas  fir  was  negotiated  for  ship- 
ment to  Great  Britain  This  was  allocated  approximately 
as  to  30,000  to  U.S.A.  exporters  and  40,000  standards  to 
Canada.  It  was  believed  that  somewhat  lower  prices  were 
taken  than  in  earlier  contracts.  The  Canadian  Royal  com- 
mission which  was  appointed  to  investigate  lumber  prices, 
particularly  in  the  home  market,  returned  a  clean  "  bill  of 
health  "  to  the  Canadian  lumber  trade.  The  report  pointed 
out  that  under  control  domestic  prices  for  lumber  were 
considerably  lower  than  those  obtained  for  export. 

The  Food  and  Agriculture  organization  of  U.N.  issued 
during  the  summer  in  conjunction  with  the  Timber  committee 
of  the  Organization  for  European  Economic  Co-operation 
their  final  statistics  of  production  for  1948.  The  review 
showed  a  distinct  easing  of  the  softwood  shortage  in  Europe. 
European  timber  producing  countries  actually  exported  in 
1948  1,882,000  standards,  or  33-3%  more  than  it  was  esti- 
mated could  be  achieved.  At  the  same  time  the  European 
Recovery  programme  office  issued  a  commodity  study  on 
lumber  and  lumber  products.  The  report  estimated  that  in 
western  Europe,  excluding  Germany,  about  3,330,000  dwel- 
ling units  were  destroyed  during  World  War  II  and  to 
replace  these  alone  would  require  14,700  million  board  ft. 
of  lumber.  Another  850,000  dwellings  a  year  would  also  be 
needed  to  take  care  of  the  growth  of  the  population. 

A  significant  factor  in  the  European  plywood  market 
was  the  proposed  resumption  by  the  U.S.S.R.  of  her  former 
great  plywood  export  trade.  It  was  known  that  a  small 
contract  had  already  been  signed  between  Great  Britain 
and  the  U.S  S  R.  The  imports  of  both  U.S  A.  and  Canadian 
plywood  into  Great  Britain  were  much  reduced  owing  to 
currency  difficulties  In  Canada  one  large  organization 
announced  a  15%  reduction  in  the  domestic  prices  for 
Douglas  fir  plywood  in  order  to  encourage  increased  home 
consumption  and  to  replace  trade  lost  in  the  export  market. 
A  feature  of  1949  was  the  marketing  of  considerable  shipments 
of  plywood  from  factories  established  since  World  War  II  in 
tropical  Africa,  including  Nigeria  and  the  Ivory  Coast.  (B.  L.) 

United  States.  Lumber  production  in  1949  was  not  as 
large  as  the  36,000  million  board  ft.  produced  in  1948  but 
was  estimated  at  about  31,000  million  bd.  ft.  divided  into 
25,500  million  bd.  ft.  of  softwoods  (largely  southern  pine, 
Douglas  fir  and  ponderosa  pine)  and  5,500  million  ft.  of 
hardwoods  (principally  oak,  red  gum,  yellow  poplar  and 
maple).  The  usual  active  spring  building  boom  did  not 
occur  as  expected.  Although  the  serious  housing  shortage 
continued,  many  buyers  refused  to  pay  the  prices  at  which 
houses  were  offered.  Lumber  production  therefore  slowed 
down,  and  this  situation  continued  until  about  Aug.  1  when 
the  demand  picked  up  strongly,  with  the  result  that  prices 
advanced  and  a  large  number  of  mills  were  re-opened. 

Production  fell  orT  about  10%  to  15%  in  the  south  during 


TOBACCO 


An  air  view  of  20  million  cubic  feet  of  floating  timber  threatening  the  town  of  Kemi  in  northern  Finland,  Aug.  1949.   This  timber  block  was 

caused  by  a  strike  of  workers  at  a  power  station  near  Kemi. 


1949;  of  the  23,000  mills  in  the  12  southern  states,  about 
98%  cut  less  than  5  million  bd.  ft.  each.  The  small  mills 
accounted  for  about  three-fourths  of  the  entire  1949  southern 
pine  production. 

There  was  also  a  drop  in  the  production  of  west  coast 
woods  although  prices  in  that  section  did  not  fall  as  low 
relatively  as  they  did  in  other  parts  of  the  U.S.  The  leading 
lumber-producing  states,  in  order  of  production,  continued 
to  be  Oregon,  Washington  and  California,  followed  by 
Alabama,  Georgia,  Mississippi,  North  Carolina  and  Arkansas. 

Substantial  wage  increases  and  other  manufacturing  costs 
led  to  the  increased  use  of  mechanical  power  saws  for  felling 
and  bucking  saw  logs,  as  well  as  loading  devices,  mechanical 
log  barkers,  mechanical  tree  planters,  track-type  log  trailers 
and  improved  skidding  devices.  At  the  mills,  lift  trucks  and 
straddle  buggies,  mechanical  lumber  sorters,  improved  feed 
works  and  automatic  lumber  pilers  and  unpilers  were 
installed  to  counteract  the  steadily  rising  operating  costs. 

The  industries'  Tree  Farm  movement  continued  to  expand 
under  the  leadership  of  the  American  Forest  Products 
institute  and  operated  in  24  states  embracing  about  2,000 
certified  tree  farms  with  a  total  of  more  than  18  million  ac. 
In  10  of  the  southern  states  nearly  12  million  ac.  of  forest 
lands  had  been  dedicated  to  forest  management  policies  to 
maintain  continuous  crops  of  timber  for  the  future. 

About  70%  to  80%  of  the  entire  lumber  production  was 
from  re-growth  forests.  The  acquisition  of  large  timber 
properties  by  many  of  the  lumber  and  pulp  and  paper  companies 
continued  in  order  to  protect  the  heavy  capital  investments 
in  plant  installations  and  assure  raw  material  for  the  future. 
Stumpage  prices  for  standing  timber  remained  very  high  and 
did  not  recede  as  much  as  lumber  and  log  prices  during  the 
year.  This  was  notably  true  for  veneer  logs,  tight  cooperage 
stock  and  material  for  poles,  piling  and  crossties,  especially 
in  the  south.  (See  also  FORESTRY.)  (N.  C.  B.) 

TIMOR:  see  NETHERLANDS  OVERSEAS  TERRITORIES; 
PORTUGUESE  COLONIAL  EMPIRE. 

TITO:   see  BROZ  (Tiro),  JOSIP. 

TOBACCO.  The  world  tobacco  harvest  for  1949 
proved  to  be  3%  larger  than  had  been  estimated  and  5% 
larger  than  1948.  Although  production  fell  in  several  of  the 


minor  tobacco  growing  countries,  this  drop  was  more  than 
compensated  by  increases  in  others.  The  total  crop  from  all 
countries  apart  from  the  U.S.S.R.  whose  figures  were  not 
available  amounted  to  7,453  million  Ib.  In  the  United  States 
growers  produced  about  2,019  million  Ib.  or  2%  more  than 
in  1948.  Canada's  production  for  which  final  figures  were 
not  yet  available  was  estimated  to  show  an  increase  of  about 
7%  over  that  of  1948  which  amounted  to  126,629,000  Ib. 
The  most  important  development  was  in  the  production  of 
Southern  Rhodesian  tobacco  for  which  Great  Britain  was  the 
principal  market.  The  growing  season  of  1949  was  a  record 
one,  the  final  crop  total  being  81,600,000  Ib.,  valued  at 
£10,880,000.  The  1947-48  crop  of  flue-cured  tobacco  am- 
ounted to  75,385,241  Ib.,  valued  at  £7,327,000.  The  table 
gives  an  indication  of  the  rapid  growth  of  the  Rhodesian 
industry  since  1940: 


SOUTHERN  RHODESIAN  TOBACCO  PRODUCTION 

Volume  as  Percentage 

0/1938-39                                           Value 

1938-39 

100 

£1,132,000 

1939-40 

88 

951,000 

1940-41 

134 

1,825,000 

1941-42 

138 

2,333,000 

1942-43 

184 

3,019.000 

1943-44 

128 

2,492,000 

1944-45 

129 

2,990.000 

1945-46 

196 

4,284,000 

1946-47 

178 

6,096,000 

1947-48 

rv»  \/u  1  1  1 

ntirvn 

vn/ac 

240 

rf»vtw»t<»rl     \c\ 

ACCICt 

RhnH 

7,327,000 

f»ci*an     trvKarv»r* 

development  in  1950  by  giving  a  further  preference  over 
American  tobacco  unless  rising  costs  should  overtake  the 
ratio  of  devaluation. 

Among  Asiatic  countries,  Turkey's  crop  amounted  to 
176,400,000  Ib.  against  220,000,000  Ib.  in  1947.  In  Persia, 
Iraq  and  Palestine  which  produce  Turkish-type  leaf,  1949 
production  was  also  slightly  below  1948  output.  The  har- 
vests in  most  far  eastern  countries  were  above  those  of  1948, 
larger  crops  being  reported  for  China,  Japan,  Korea,  For- 
mosa, Indonesia  and  the  Philippines.  For  all  Asia,  harvests 
totalled  3,315,000,000  Ib.  from  about  3,720,000  ac.  against 
3,175,000,000  Ib.  from  3,750,000  ac.  in  1947-48  and  the 
1935-39  average  of  3,250,000,000  Ib.  from  3,750,000  ac. 

Total  1949  production  in  European  countries  excluding 
the  U.S.S.R.  was  about  924,000,000  Ib.  from  about  1,100,000 


620 


TOGLIATTI— TOKYO 


ac.,  compared  with  810,000,000  Ib.  in  1948.  The  1947  Euro- 
pean harvest  had  amounted  to  745,000,000  Ib.  and  the  pre- 
war annual  average  675,000,000  Ib.  from  680,000  ac.  Among 
countries  which  increased  their  production  were  Bulgaria, 
Czechoslovakia,  Hungary  and  Poland,  with  smaller  increases 
in  Rumania  and  Spain.  France,  Belgium  and  Italy  showed 
a  slight  decrease  in  production.  France's  production  of 
cigars  was  now  only  about  half  that  of  the  prewar  years. 

The  year  was  marked  by  a  world-wide  increase  in  cigarette 
smoking.  An  example  of  the  ratio  of  increase  in  the  greatest 
of  the  tobacco  growing  countries,  the  United  States,  was 
provided  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture  at  Washington. 
Cigarette  production  during  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30, 
1949,  approximated  390,000  million,  or  about  3%  more 
than  in  1947-48,  and  a  new  record.  Cigar  consumption 
during  1949  totalled  nearly  5,700  million,  about  the  same  as 
in  1948.  The  output  of  smoking  tobacco  was  estimated  at 
about  107  million  Ib.,  compared  with  109  million  Ib.  in  1947- 
48. 

United  States  exports  of  tobacco  to  Great  Britain  were 
151  million  Ib.  (export  weight)  or  18%  more  than  the  low 
level  of  1947-48  but  28%  less  than  the  prewar  average.  The 
allocation  was  reduced  by  the  British  government  in  June 
1949  by  25%,  from  110  million  to  90  million  dollars.  Next 
to  Great  Britain  the  largest  foreign  outlet  for  United  States 
tobacco  was  Germany.  Most  other  western  European 
countries  took  substantially  more  than  the  prewar  average, 
although  some  got  less  than  in  1947-48.  Exports  of  tobacco 
to  China  dropped  sharply  and  were  not  expected  to  return 
to  earlier  levels  in  the  near  future. 

India  and  Pakistan  also  considerably  increased  tobacco 
production  and  export  of  leaf,  and  the  two  governments 
aimed  at  expanding  the  1948  export  total  of  22,776,373  Ib. 
of  leaf  to  Great  Britain.  The  most  important  tobacco  pro- 
ducing province  in  India  was  Madras  where  Virginian 
cigarette  tobacco  of  various  qualities  was  produced,  Guntur 
in  the  Madras  Presidency  being  the  chief  market  for  Vir- 
ginian tobacco.  The  total  area  under  Virginian  tobacco  was 
somewhat  over  144,000  ac.  out  of  which  nearly  140,000  ac. 
were  cultivated  in  the  Madras  Presidency.  In  Bihar  and  My- 
sore, areas  under  Virginia  were  about  250,000  and  150,000 
ac.  respectively.  Small  areas  of  Virginia  were  also  under 
cultivation  in  the  United  Provinces,  Orissa,  Baroda  and 
Hyderabad.  The  area  under  Virginian  tobacco  was  being 
Steadily  increased  every  year  in  the  Indian  union  and  culti- 
vation and  curing  methods  had  rapidly  improved.  Experts 
claimed  that  the  country  could  now  produce  Virginia  of 
good  colour  and  combustibility;  it  was  usually  flue-cured 
though  some  was  sun-cured. 

The  1948-49  tobacco  crop  in  New  Zealand  amounted  to 
about  5,000,000  Ib.  from  4,400  ac.  During  1948  a  total  of 
3,251,000  Ib.  of  domestic  and  5,056,000  Ib.  of  imported  leaf 
were  released  to  manufacturers  from  bonded  warehouses. 
Imports  of  unmanufactured  tobacco  totalled  4,346,000  Ib.  of 
which  4,342,000  Ib.  were  from  the  United  States.  Imports 
of  leaf  in  1947  had  been  4,651,000  Ib.  It  was  estimated  that 
New  Zealand  now  produced  approximately  50%  of  home 
tobacco  requirements.  The  government  required  all  manu- 
facturers to  use  a  minimum  of  30%  domestic  leaf.  In  general, 
most  manufacturers  adhered  to  the  30%  requirement  but 
some  used  a  great  deal  more  domestic  leaf  to  reduce  costs. 

The  new  state  of  Israel  reported  an  increase  in  home 
production  of  cigarettes,  the  monthly  total  having  reached 
80,000,000  by  5  factories  employing  650  workers.  (G.  WT.) 

TOBAGO:   see  TRINIDAD  AND  TOBAGO. 

TOGLIATTI,  PALMIRO,  Italian  politician  (b. 
Genoa,  March  25,  1893).  After  graduating  in  law  at  the 


University  of  Turin,  he  joined  the  Italian  Socialist  party. 
In  1921  he  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  P.CI.  (Partito 
Comunista  Italiano)  and  editor  of  its  organ.  After  the 
coming  of  the  Fascist  party  into  power  he  tried  to  work 
underground  but  in  1926  fled  to  Moscow  where  he  lived  for 
18  years,  acquiring  Soviet  citizenship  and  using  the  name 
of  Ercole  Ercoli.  From  1924  he  was  a  member  of  the  execu- 
tive committee  of  the  Comintern  and  from  1935  one  of  its 
secretaries.  He  directed  the  Garibaldi  brigade  in  the  Spanish 
Civil  War  and  was  interned  in  France  in  1939  but  escaped  to 
Moscow.  In  March  1944  he  returned  to  Italy  and  resumed 
his  role  as  leader  of  the  P.C.I.  On  April  21,  1944,  he  joined 
the  Badoglio  cabinet  and  on  June  18,  1944,  the  first  Bonomi 
cabinet  as  minister  without  portfolio.  On  Dec.  10,  1944,  he 
was  appointed  deputy  prime  minister  in  the  second  Bonomi 
cabinet  and  on  June  19,  1945,  joined  the  Parri  cabinet  as 
minister  of  justice.  He  kept  this  post  in  the  first  cabinet  of 
De  Gasperi  formed  on  Dec.  4,  1945,  but  did  not  join  the 
second  De  Gasperi  cabinet  formed  on  July  12,  1946.  He  deci- 
ded to  devote  himself  to  party  organization.  He  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  Constituent  Assembly  on  June  2,  1946, 
and  a  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  on  April  18-19, 
1948.  On  July  14,  1948,  in  Rome,  he  was  the  object  of  an 
attempted  assassination  by  Antonio  Pallante,  a  medical 
student.  On  Feb.  26,  1949,  he  declared  that  if  the  Soviet 
army  should  pursue  an  aggressor  on  to  Italian  territory,  the 
Italian  people  would  have  the  duty  of  aiding  it. 

TOGOLAND:  see  BRITISH  WEST  AFRICA;  FRENCH 
UNION;  TRUST  TERRITORIES. 

TOKYO,  capital  of  Japan  and  the  third  largest  city  of 
the  world.  Pop.  (Oct.  1,  1940):  6,778,804,  (Jan.  1946  est.) 
3,442,106,  (Dec.  1949  est.)  6,105,133.  City  governor  (elected): 
Seiichiro  Yasui. 

Even  with  the  lifting  in  Dec.  1948  of  the  ban  on  immigration 
into  the  city  there  was  no  near  prospect  of  its  re-housing 
its  prewar  total.  Reconstruction  by  the  authorities  and 
private  enterprise  continued,  gradually  covering  the  remaining 
desolate  spaces  in  its  360  sq.  mi.,  restoring  the  sense  of  habi- 
tation, and  even  exaggerating  the  former  complexity  of  lines 
and  forms.  Against  the  mixed  background  of  surviving 
elegance,  of  ramshackle  improvisation  and  of  clean  but 


A  crowd  of  housewives  in  Tokyo  protesting  against  a  proposed 
increase  in  the  price  of  rice  in  Oct.  1949. 


TORRES  BODET— TOURIST   INDUSTRY 


621 


diminutive  new  houses  the  inhabitants  appeared  subdued  in 
dowdy  clothes,  with  only  an  occasional  kimono  seen  in 
street  or  crowded  tram.  The  frequency  of  the  emperor's 
excursions — his  simple  cortege  preceded  by  the  sirens  of  his 
U.S.  military  police  outriders--  had  dulled  for  the  capital 
the  tremendous  interest  and  enthusiasm  which  greeted  the 
sovereign  in  the  provinces.  The  supreme  commander  likewise 
aroused  less  awe  than  formerly.  American  aid  ensured 
adequate  food  supplies.  The  drastic  measures  enforced  by 
Joseph  M.  Dodge,  during  his  stay  from  Feb.  2  to  May  2, 
intended  to  set  Japan  on  the  road  to  a  balanced  economy, 
presaged  increasing  austerity  and  unemployment  (see  JAPAN). 
On  July  6  Mr.  Shimoyama,  chief  of  the  national  railways,  was 
assassinated  in  a  Tokyo  suburb.  But  despite  extensive 
dismissals  of  redundant  workers  the  city  remained  peaceful 
and  Communist  influence,  after  an  increase,  declined.  (X  ) 

TONGA  PROTECTORATE  :  see  PACIFIC  Isi  ANDS, 
BRITISH. 

TONGKING:    see  FRENCH  UNION 

TORRES  BODET,  JAIME,  Mexican  statesman 
and  author,  and  United  Nations  official  (b.  Mexico  city, 
April  17,  1902),  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Mexico, 
and  from  1922  to  1924  he  was  head  of  the  depaitment  of 
libraries  in  the  secretariat  of  public  education  He  was 
professor  of  French  literature  in  the  University  of  Mexico, 
1924-28,  and  then  joined  the  Mexican  foreign  service,  serving 
in  Spain,  Netherlands,  France,  Argentina  and  Belgium.  He 
was  under  secretary  for  foreign  affairs,  1940-43,  minister  of 
education,  1943-46,  when  he  became  minister  for  foreign 
affairs.  He  led  the  Mexican  delegation  to  the  United  Nations 
general  assembly,  1947,  and  in  Nov  1948  the  third  general 
conference  of  the  United  Nations  Educational  and  Scientific 
organization  (U  N.E  S.C.O.)  elected  him,  by  30  votes  to  3, 
to  succeed  Julian  Huxley  as  director  general  In  March 
1949  he  arrived  in  London  from  the  United  States  for  the 
first  meeting  of  the  United  Kingdom  national  commission 
for  giving  effect  to  the  decisions  of  U.N  H.S.C  O  He  later 
addressed  the  annual  meeting  of  the  National  Union  of 
Teachers  at  Margate. 

Jn  his  first  year  of  office  he  made  special  efforts  to  get 
U.N  E.S.C.O.  down  to  many  practical  tasks.  At  the  general 
conference  held  in  Pans  in  September  he  defended  the 
,  organization's  budget  against  criticisms  from  many  delegates 
including  those  from  Great  Britain.  His  many  novels  and 
poems  included  Fervor  (1918),  Margante  de  Niebla  (1927) 
and  Estrella  de  dia  (1933). 

TOURIST  INDUSTRY.  The  volume  of  tourist 
traffic  between  European  countries  had  by  1949  barely  reached 
the  prewar  level.  Currency  restrictions  enforced  by  all 
European  countries  with  the  exception  of  Switzerland  and 
Belgium  were  the  major  cause  of  continued  restricted  travel. 
There  was  a  remarkable  degree  of  recovery  in  making  good 
destruction  caused  during  World  War  II  which  so  gravely 
affected  the  equipment  of  the  tourist  trade,  such  as  hotels, 
railways  and  ships.  New  building,  rehabilitation  and  mod- 
ernization were  undertaken  throughout  Europe  on  a  con- 
siderable scale. 

During  1948  and  1949  great  hopes  were  placed  by  all 
western  European  governments  on  the  expansion  of  Europe's 
dollar  income  by  the  increased  tourist  traffic  from  the  United 
States,  and  in  both  years  the  industry  proved  to  be,  in  value, 
the  largest  dollar  earner  in  many  countries,  including  Great 
Britain.  In  1948  some  200,000  Americans  visited  Europe, 
but  this  amounted  to  less  than  6%  of  the  total  tourist  traffic. 
In  1949,  mainly  as  a  result  of  improved  shipping  conditions 
and  introduction  of  improved  air  transport  across  the  north 
Atlantic  providing  approximately  200,000  berths  each  way, 


Thousonds 
350 


300 


250  - 


200 


OVERSEAS    VISITORS 
TO    THE   U.K. 


Thousonds 
350 


-  300 


__ 250 


200 


FOREIGN  VISITORS 
Americans 
Europeans 


1938 


1948 


1949 


this  number  had  grown  to  300,000.  Further  considerable  ex- 
pansion of  travel  from  the  United  States  to  Europe  would 
be  dependent  mainly  on  the  provision  of  low  cost  transport 
facilities  both  by  sea  and  by  air  enabling  those  in  the  middle 
and  lower  middle  income  groups  to  travel. 

Efforts  of  the  European  tourist  organizations  were  directed 
to  the  lengthening  of  the  traditional  tourist  season  normally 
limited  to  the  months  of  June,  July  and  August,  and  the 
countries  participating  in  the  European  Recovery  programme 
arranged  a  publicity  scheme  in  the  United  States  to  promote 
travel  to  Europe  in  the  spring  and  autumn. 

The  pattern  of  Europe's  tourist  traffic  in  1949  was  little 
different  from  1948,  but  had  changed  a  great  deal  compared 
with  that  of  prewar  years.  Germany  as  a  tourist  country 
and  German  travellers  were  still  absent  from  the  scene. 
The  British  government,  however,  re-opened  western  Ger- 
many to  British  tourists  as  from  June  21,  1949.  The  British 
were  still  the  greatest  purchasers  of  Europe's  tourist  services. 
In  1949  some  800,000  Britons  went  abroad;  more  than  half 
went  to  France,  over  150,000  each  to  Italy  and  Switzerland 
and  smaller  numbers  to  the  other  western  European  countries. 
A  small  volume  of  luxury-type  tourist  traffic  from  Britain 
was  enjoyed  by  sterling  area  resorts  outside  Europe.  Resi- 
dents of  most  western  European  countries  travelled  more 
than  they  did  before  World  War  II— particularly  the  Scandi- 
navians, Swiss  and  Belgians.  Great  progress  was  made  in 
lifting  paper  barriers,  very  few  visas  being  required  in  western 
Europe. 

Most  American  tourists  visiting  Europe  included  a  number 
of  countries  in  their  tour.  Britain  and  France  took  the  larger 
share  of  the  traffic,  with  Switzerland  and  Italy  next  in  order 
of  popularity.  Tourists  from  Latin  America  were  relatively 
few;  most  went  to  Portugal,  Spain,  France  and  Italy,  although 
in  1949  many  more  travelled  to  Britain  than  before  the  war. 
With  the  restoration  of  long  distance  passenger  liners  on 
the  ocean  routes,  traffic  from  the  Commonwealth  countries 
was  greater  than  before  the  war,  and  these  visitors  almost 
invariably  made  Britain  the  centre  of  their  European  stay. 


622 


TOWN   AND   COUNTRY   PLANNING 


The  amount  spent  by  tourists  in  western  European  countries 
in  1949  could  only  be  roughly  estimated.  British  earnings 
from  the  tourist  trade  in  1949,  excluding  fare  payments  to 
British  transport  carriers,  were  provisionally  estimated  at 
£15  million  from  the  United  States  and  Canada,  £8-5  million 
from  western  European  countries  and  £8  •  5  from  Australia, 
South  Africa  and  Latin  America;  these,  together  with  receipts 
from  other  countries,  totalled  £40  million.  British  shipping 
and  airline  operators  earned  an  additional  £18  million  from 
fares  paid  by  overseas  visitors.  Europe's  tourist  earnings 
from  all  countries  were  in  the  neighbourhood  of  1,000  million 
dollars.  Of  these  total  tourist  receipts  the  money  actually 
paid  in  U.S.  dollars  amounted  to  300  millions,  constituting 
by  far  the  largest  European  export  to  the  United  States. 

(E.  W.  WE.) 

TOWN  AND  COUNTRY  PLANNING.  In  Great 
Britain  the  new  planning  machinery  in  force  from 
July  1948  was  still  to  a  certain  extent  in  a  running-m  phase. 
The  local  planning  authorities,  now  the  counties  and  county 
boroughs,  got  to  work  on  their  surveys  and  development 
plans  due  to  be  completed  by  July  1951.  They  also  put  into 
effect  in  varying  ways  the  delegation  of  part  of  their  functions 
to  town  and  district  authorities  within  their  areas.  As  their 
master  plans  were  still  incomplete  much  consultation  was 
necessary  between  the  two  tiers  of  authority  on  current 
applications  for  consent  to  develop.  Though  building  was 
still  restricted  for  economic  reasons,  applications  were 
numerous  and,  trained  staff  being  in  short  supply,  administra- 
tion was  hard  pressed.  Life  was  not  made  easier  for  planning 
staffs  by  the  issue  by  the  Ministry  of  Town  and  Country 
Planning  and  the  Scottish  Office  of  many  regulations  and 
circulars  made  necessary  by  the  complex  provisions  of  the 
acts.  These  dealt  among  other  things  with  general  develop- 
ment, preservation  of  trees  and  woodlands,  compensation, 
planning  appeals,  land  owned  by  local  authorities,  colour  of 
telephone  kiosks,  methods  of  survey,  preparation  of  develop- 
ment plans,  control  of  advertisements,  mining  and  minerals 
and  airfields.  Good  progress  was,  however,  made  by  many 
planning  authorities  with  their  surveys  and  development 
plans,  some  of  which  were  expected  to  be  ready  for  sub- 
mission to  the  ministries  by  the  end  of  1949  and  more  in 
1950. 

Further  important  regional  advisory  plans  were  published : 
notably  for  south  Wales,  north  Staffordshire,  the  Hartlepools, 
northeast  England,  the  Clyde  valley,  central  and  southeast 
Scotland  and  the  Tay  valley.  Among  local  advisory  and 
outline  plans  were  those  for  Chichester,  Salisbury,  §udbury 
and  the  county  of  Kent.  The  literature  of  planning  was  also 
amplified  by  many  stout  law  books  with  comments  on  the 
acts  and  regulations. 

Declaratory  orders  or  Compulsory  Purchase  orders  were 
made  for  the  acquisition  of  land  for  the  reconstruction  of 
blitzed  areas  in  many  cities,  including  Bristol,  Coventry, 
Hull,  Plymouth,  London  (Stepney- Poplar  and  an  area  east 
of  St.  Paul's  cathedral)  and  Clydebank.  In  some  places 
redevelopment  work  was  begun. 

The  regional  plans  of  1949,  as  of  the  preceding  years, 
disclosed  the  necessity  of  much  de-congestion  of  the  central 
parts  of  built-up  areas  and  recommended  the  preservation 
of  green  belts  around  cities,  involving  some  provision  for 
overspills  of  people  and  industry  by  the  building  or  expansion 
of  towns  beyond  the  green  belts.  Sites  for  1 1  new  towns  in 
England  and  Scotland  had  been  chosen  up  to  the  end  of 
1948.  Further  sites  were  chosen  in  1949  at  Basildon,  Essex, 
Bracknell,  Berkshire,  Corby,  Northamptonshire,  and  Cwm- 
bran,  south  Wales.  Manchester  corporation  proposed  to 
seek  parliamentary  powers  to  build  a  new  town  at  Mobberley, 
Cheshire,  and  the  minister  of  town  and  country  planning 


asked  Lancashire  county  council  to  suggest  sites  for  two  in 
that  county.  Several  other  sites  were  under  discussion  in 
Wales  and  Scotland.  Progress  with  the  actual  building  of 
the  new  towns  was  still  slow  but  showed  signs  of  accelerating 
in  the  second  half  of  1949.  Master  or  outline  plans  had  been 
prepared  and  in  some  cases  submitted  to  the  appropriate 
ministry  for  the  new  towns  of  Stevenage,  Hemel  Hempstead, 
Harlow,  Crawley,  Welwyn  Garden  City,  Hatfield,  Newton 
Aychffe  and  Peterlee  and  in  Scotland  for  East  Kilbride  and 
Glenrothes.  A  proposal  to  take  over  the  first  garden  city, 
Letchworth,  under  the  New  Towns  act  was  dropped,  an 
agreement  being  made  with  the  estate  company  that  it  be 
continued  as  a  private  enterprise  with  an  undertaking  to 
hand  the  town  over  to  a  public  authority  when  complete. 

Lively  public  discussion  arose  during  1949  as  to  the 
competing  claims  on  land  for  food  growing  and  for  develop- 
ment. Farming  interests  and  amenity  societies  opposed 
projects  for  open-cast  coal  and  iron  ore  mining,  quarries  and 
cement  works,  army  training  grounds,  power  stations,  hydro- 
electric plants,  housing  estates  and  new  towns.  This  growing 
consciousness  of  the  need  of  careful  adjudication  on  con- 
flicting demands  emphasized  the  necessity  of  a  strong  national 
planning  machinery;  but,  as  each  decision  in  favour  of  any 
claim  offended  one  or  more  other  claims,  planning  itself  was 
often  attacked. 

A  more  intractable  difficulty  arose  over  the  working  of  the 
development  value  provisions  of  the  Planning  acts  of  1947. 
The  Central  Land  board  extended  to  June  30,  1949,  the  final 
date  for  claims  on  the  £300  million  hardship  fund  for  extin- 
guished development  rights  in  land.  In  the  end  935,000  claims 
were  received,  500,000  of  them  in  the  last  four  days.  There 
was  no  indication  as  to  whether  the  £300  million  fund  would 
prove  too  little  or  too  much  Concessions  were  made  to 
owners  of  single  plots  for  dwelling  houses  and  to  registered 
builders  owning  near-ripe  land  for  development  whereby 
within  certain  limits  they  would  have  a  100%  claim  on  the 
fund.  Other  owners  were  very  critical  of  the  fact  that  they 
would  not  know  for  another  four  years  what  percentage  of 
the  valuation  of  their  claims  they  would  receive.  In  the 
meantime  they  had  no  financial  incentive  to  sell  their  land  for 
development;  the  expectation  that  land  would  be  freely 
available  for  development  at  existing  use  value  was,  as  the 
Central  board  had  said  in  1948,  "just  not  being  achieved." 
With  the  approval  of  the  minister,  therefore,  the  board  in 
1949  experimented  with  its  power  of  compulsory  purchase 
on  behalf  of  would-be  developers.  Though  orders  were 
confirmed  in  a  number  of  cases  much  land  continued  to  be 
held  out  of  the  market.  The  amount  collected  in  develop- 
ment charges  up  to  March  1949  was  £1,328,552;  and  on  the 
6,812  dwelling  house  plots  included  in  the  total  the  average 
charge  was  £145  (House  of  Commons  Paper  No.  223, 
H.M.S.O,  London). 

Broadly  the  new  planning  system  seemed  adequate  to 
check  publicly  undesirable  uses  of  land  such  as  increases  of 
residential  density  or  the  transfer  of  green  belts  or  good  farm 
land  to  building;  in  this  field  criticism  was  confined  to 
decisions  on  individual  cases.  It  was  not  so  clear  that  the 
system  facilitated  positive  development  where  it  was  desired 
in  private  and  public  interests  The  development  rights 
sections  of  the  acts,  an  integral  part  of  the  negative  control, 
seemed  to  need  some  revision  if  they  were  not  also  to  check 
desirable  developments. 

The  Licensing  act,  1949,  extended  to  all  the  new  towns 
state  management  of  the  liquor  trade  with  an  advisory 
committee  for  each  such  town.  The  Lands  Tribunal  act, 
1949,  set  up  a  new  tribunal  to  settle  disputes  on  the  valuation 
of  land  for  compulsory  acquisition  and  for  claims  on  the 
£300  million  land  fund.  The  National  Parks  and  Access  to 
the  Countryside  bill,  introduced  in  March  1949,  provided  for 


TOWN   AND   COUNTRY   PLANNING 


623 


the  creation  in  England  and  Wales  of  national  parks  in  areas 
of  special  beauty  and  for  special  protection  of  smaller  similar 
areas.  A  National  Parks  commission  would  select  the  areas 
and  the  management  of  each  park  would  be  entrusted  to 
special  committees  of  local  planning  authorities  under  the 
supervision  of  the  central  commission.  Powers  would  include 
making  development  plans  for  the  improvement  of  the  parks, 
tree  planting,  removal  of  unsightly  buildings  and  the  provision 
of  certain  holiday  facilities.  There  was  to  be  a  separate  bill 
for  Scotland.  (See  NATIONAL  PARKS.) 

Europe.  In  war-damaged  countries,  notably  Italy,  the 
Netherlands,  Poland  and  Yugoslavia,  reconstruction  was 
accompanied  by  local  planning.  In  France  and  Belgium  efforts 
were  made  to  induce  owners  voluntarily  to  pool  and  divide 
land  in  re-development  areas.  But  even  in  the  countries 
most  advanced  in  planning  law  the  desperate  need  to  over- 
take the  housing  shortage  outpaced  planning  control.  The 
numerous  excellent  surveys  and  plans  made  were  not  to  any 
great  extent  put  into  operation.  In  countries  where  land  was 
nationalized  planning  machinery  took  a  different  form  from 
those  in  which  it  was  mostly  private  property;  but  the 
problems  of  urban  congestion  and  spread,  of  journeys  to 
work,  of  housing  density  and  of  the  protection  of  food- 
growing  land  and  green  belts  were  universal.  There  was, 
therefore,  much  interchange  of  experience  between  planners 
and  government  administrators  in  many  countries.  None 
could  claim  to  have  found  complete  solutions  of  town  and 
country  planning  problems  but  most  showed  growing  aware- 
ness of  their  importance.  (F.  J.  Os.) 

North  America.  In  Canada,  a  committee  was  formed  to 
promote  the  planned  development  of  Ottawa  (q.v.)  and  a 


national  planning  conference  was  held  in  October  at 
Winnipeg. 

In  the  United  States  two  national  planning  conferences 
were  held :  the  National  Citizens  Conference  on  Community 
Planning,  sponsored  by  the  American  Planning  and  Civic 
association,  at  Oklahoma  City,  Oklahoma,  March  27-30, 
1949;  and  the  National  Planning  conference,  sponsored  by 
the  American  Society  of  Planning  Officials,  at  Cleveland, 
Ohio,  Oct.  10-12,  1949. 

Private  building  of  houses  and  apartments  continued  to 
dominate  construction.  Postwar  plans  contained  many 
projects  for  pubHc  buildings  and  works,  but  actual  con- 
struction awaited  easing  of  the  acute  housing  shortage. 
A  number  of  cities  listed  public  works  projects  to  be  realized 
in  five-  and  six-year  improvement  programmes. 

In  Tennessee  and  Connecticut,  state  planning  agencies 
stimulated  planning  for  cities  and  towns.  In  Connecticut  all 
communities  were  urged  to  prepare  comprehensive  plans, 
including  land-use  maps,  before  adopting  zoning  plans.  In 
Tennessee,  the  state  planning  board  fostered  public  school 
courses  in  planning. 

On  July  8,  1949,  congress  passed  the  National  Housing 
act  authorizing  an  810,000  housing  unit  programme  to  be 
completed  within  six  years.  The  act  also  provided  for  local 
planning  for  housing  projects  to  conform  to  the  comprehen- 
sive plan  and  set  up  a  programme  of  slum  clearance  under 
which  urban  redevelopment  plans  were  being  submitted  to 
the  Housing  and  Home  Finance  agency. 

The  congestion  of  main  streets  in  U.S.  cities  continued  to 
be  a  major  problem.  Parking  meters  at  the  curb  helped 
to  some  extent,  and  proceeds  in  some  cities  were  devoted  to 


Lewis  Silk  in,  minister  of  town  and  country  planning  (right),  with  Professor  Uno  Ahren  of  Stockholm  university  examining  a  model  at  the 

ministry  in  London,  Nov.  22,  7949. 


624 


TRADE   UNIONS 


purchase  of  land  for  off-street  parking.  In  spite  of  increased 
car  parking  facilities,  many  drivers  abandoned  their  cars 
for  short  journeys  in  main  urban  areas  and  this  added  to 
the  public  transport  load.  A  number  of  cities  abandoned 
some  or  all  of  their  tram  services  and  substituted  buses. 

Most  cities  in  the  United  States  improved  or  enlarged 
their  airports  during  the  year;  new  and  larger  airports  were 
planned  to  care  for  planes  needing  longer  runways.  Some 
cities  made  planning  studies  to  locate  airports  on  sites  in 
conformity  with  the  comprehensive  plan  for  the  region. 

A  score  of  universities  offering  degrees  in  planning  were 
listed  in  the  July  Planning  and  Civic  Comment.  There  was 
a  tendency  for  universities  to  include  courses  in  regional  and 
national  as  well  as  city  and  town  planning. 

The  citizen  movement  to  support  planning  continued  to 
grow.  In  addition  to  many  existing  local  organizations,  the 
American  Planning  and  Civic  association  published  work 
sheets  for  about  50  local  and  regional  planning  associations. 
(See  also  HOUSING;  LOCAL  GOVERNMENT.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  H.  Myles  Wright  (ed.).  The  Planner's  Notebook 
(London,  1948);  Birmingham,  Conurbation,  A  Planning  Survey  (London, 
1948);  Jerusalem,  The  City  Plan,  Preservation  and  Development  during 
the  British  Mandate,  1918-1948  (London).  (H.  Js.) 

TRADE  UNIONS.  The  British  Trades  Union  congress 
held  at  Bridlington,  Yorkshire,  in  Sept.  1949  represented 
7,936,600  members  organized  in  187  trade  unions,  as  com- 
pared with  7,791,470  in  188  unions  the  previous  year.  Most 
groups  increased  their  membership  to  a  small  extent;  but 
there  were  small  reductions  in  the  case  of  the  general  workers, 
the  railwaymen  and  one  or  two  others.  The  total  membership 
included  1,237,000  women,  as  compared  with  1,220,000  in 
1948.  The  Trades  Union  congress  includes  nearly  all  the  big 
trade  unions  except  the  National  Union  of  Teachers  (181,000) 
and  the  National  Association  of  Local  Government  Officers 
(190,000).  The  most  recent  figures  of  total  trade  union 
membership  relate  to  the  end  of  1947,  when  there  were  in  all 
9,114,000  trade  union  members,  of  whom  1,662,000  were 
females.  The  Scottish  Trades  Union  congress,  which  is 
separate  from  the  British  T.U.C.,  had  809,000  affiliated 
members  in  Scottish  trade  unions  or  in  Scottish  branches  of 
British  unions  in  1948;  but  most  of  these  were  also  included 
in  the  British  T.U.C.  figures.  The  General  Federation  of 
Trade  Unions,  which  acts  mainly  as  a  mutual  insurance 
society  for  a  number  of  the  smaller  unions,  had  319,000 
members  in  1949,  including  a  number  of  small  unions  not 
belonging  to  the  T.U.C. 

A  few  big  trade  unions  included  a  high  proportion  of  the 
total  membership.  The  biggest  were  the  Transport  and 
General  Workers  (1,271,000),  the  General  and  Municipal 
Workers  (816,000),  the  Amalgamated  Engineering  union 
(743,000),  the  National  Union  of  Mineworkers  (611,000),  the 
National  Union  of  Railwaymen  (455,000),  and  the  Shop, 
Distributive  and  Allied  Workers  (342,000).  Nine  others, 
besides  the  two  unaffiliated  bodies  already  mentioned,  had 
over  100,000,  and  14  more  between  50,000  and  100,000.  The 
largest  groups  in  the  Trades  Union  congress  were  the  Trans- 
port Workers  (other  than  railways),  with  1,383,000  in  10 
unions,  and  the  Engineering  and  Vehicle  Workers,  with 
1,250,000  in  27  separate  unions. 

The  Trades  Union  congress  of  1949  met  under  the  shadow 
of  economic  crisis,  but  before  the  devaluation  of  sterling  was 
announced.  The  principal  issues  before  it  were  the  policy  to 
be  followed  in  respect  of  wage  claims,  the  representation  of 
trade  unions  on  the  boards  administering  nationalized 
industries  and  services  and  the  secession  of  the  British  dele- 
gation from  the  World  Federation  of  Trade  Unions. 

On  the  first  and  last  of  these  issues  it  was  a  foregone  con- 
clusion that  the  policy  of  the  general  council  would  be 
approved,  in  face  of  strong  opposition  from  the  pro-Commun- 


ist minority.  Actually,  the  voting  on  the  wages  issue  was  much 
the  same  as  the  year  before,  the  general  council's  resolution 
re-affirming  the  policy  of  restraint  in  pressing  wage  claims 
being  carried  by  6,485,000  to  1,038,000.  The  resolution 
approving  the  general  council's  secession  from  the  W.F.T.U. 
and  its  subsequent  steps  towards  the  formation  of  a  new 
International  was  carried  by  6,258,000  to  1,017,000.  On  the 
other  main  issue,  a  resolution  requiring  that  trade  union 
representation  on  the  boards  of  nationalized  industries  should 
be  drawn  from  the  unions  representing  the  workers  in  the 
industries  concerned  was  defeated  by  the  rather  narrow 
margin  of  800,000. 

Bryn  Roberts,  of  the  National  Union  of  Public  Employees, 
endeavoured  without  success  to  persuade  the  delegates  of  the 
need  for  a  more  positive  co-ordination  of  trade  union  action 
in  dealing  with  major  economic  problems  arising  out  of  the 
crisis.  The  policy  of  the  general  council  in  refraining  from 
pressing  for  the  immediate  adoption  of  the  Congress's  de- 
clared policy  of  **  equal  pay  "  for  men  and  women  was 
strongly  challenged  but  was  endorsed  after  a  heated  debate. 
The  prime  minister  visited  the  congress  and  delivered  a 
speech  in  which  he  insisted  on  the  urgent  need  for  higher 
productivity  as  a  means  of  overcoming  the  crisis  in  the 
balance  of  payments.  The  report  of  the  general  council's 
economic  committee  and  Sir  W.  Lawther's  presidential 
address  followed  the  same  lines.  Sir  W.  Lawther  (Mine- 
workers)  also  delivered  a  vehement  attack  on  Communist 
activities  in  the  trade  unions  and  called  for  more  energetic 
action  to  counter  their  disruptive  tactics  directed  against  the 
European  Recovery  programme  and  the  establishment  of  a 
new  international  free  from  Communist  influence. 

A  number  of  unions,  headed  by  the  National  Union  of 
Railwaymen,  pressed  for  the  discontinuance  of  compulsory 
arbitration  in  trade  disputes,  which  is  still  continuing  under 
emergency  powers  taken  during  the  war.  There  was  much 
difference  of  opinion  on  this  matter,  other  unions  taking  the 
view  that  before  long  arbitration  might  be  useful  as  a  means 
of  preventing  wage  cuts  and  that  in  any  event  the  country 
could  not  at  present  afford  the  risk  of  serious  trade  disputes. 
Finally,  the  question  was  referred  to  the  general  council  for 
report  to  next  year's  congress. 

The  prime  minister,  in  his  speech,  criticized  the  policy  of 
insisting  that  wage  advances  to  the  lower  paid  grades  in  an 
industry  should  be  accompanied  by  advances  to  the  more 
highly  paid  grades,  in  order  to  maintain  wage  differentials  for 
skill  and  responsibility;  and  after  the  devaluation  of  the 
pound  Sir  Stafford  Cripps  insisted  that  advances  to  the 
lowest  wage  groups,  should  they  become  necessary  in  face 
of  rising  costs  of  living,  could  not  be  allowed  to  spread  to 
the  better  paid  workers.  This  led  to  a  retort  by  Arthur 
Deakin  (Transport  and  General  Workers)  that  the  trade 
unions  could  not  allow  wage  differentials  to  be  further 


The  Communist  view  of  the  T.U.C.  wages  policy  is  given  in  this 

cartoon  by  Gabriel  in  the  "  Daily   Worker  *'  (London),  under  the 

title  "  You  are  now  witnessing  the  impossible." 


TRADE  UNIONS 


625 


The  1949  Trades  Union  congress  was  held  at  Bridling- 
ton,  Yorkshire,  in  September.  Left  to  right,  Florence 
Hancock  (vice  president).  Sir  William  Lawther 
(president)  and  Vincent  Tewson  (general  secret  ary\ 

narrowed  or  the  established  methods  of 
collective  bargaining  to  be  undermined  by 
the  institution  of  any  general  legal  minimum 
wage. 

In  general,  except  in  the  field  of  inter- 
national relations,  the  year  was  uneventful 
from  the  trade  union  standpoint.  There 
were  various  consultations  with  the  govern- 
ment and  also  with  the  central  employers' 
organizations  concerning  the  best  methods  of 
improving  output  and  further  developing 
systems  of  joint  consultation;  but  nothing 
very  much  thus  far  came  of  them.  Delegations 
representing  particular  industrial  groups  began 
to  visit  the  United  States  in  order  to  study 
American  production  methods  and  worker- 
management  relations;  and  the  group 
representing  the  steel  foundries  came  back 
with  important  recommendations  on  both 
matters.  In  the  coal  industry  there  were 
numerous  meetings  held  to  consider  means 
of  raising  production  in  face  of  a  renewed 
decline  in  the  labour  force  and  an  increase 
in  the  percentage  of  absentees;  but  it  was  not  yet  possible 
to  assess  the  results.  In  the  cotton  industry  there  was 
some  approach  to  agreement  on  the  long  disputed  matter 
of  "  re-deployment "  of  labour.  This  industry,  as  well  as 
coal-mining,  was  seriously  short  of  workers;  and  in  connec- 
tion with  the  drive  to  increase  exports,  especially  to  "hard 
currency  "  areas,  there  was  some  discussion  concerning  the 
expediency  of  a  greater  use  of  the  powers  of  "  direction  of 
labour  "  which  the  government  possessed  but  refrained  from 
using  in  more  than  a  very  few  isolated  cases. 

There  was  a  good  deal  of  dissatisfaction  with  the  working 
of  the  national  board  system  in  the  industries  that  had  been 
nationalized.  This  was  centred  largely  on  the  absence  of  trade 
union  representation  on  the  boards,  which  all  included  former 
trade  unionists,  but  not  as  representatives  of  the  unions. 
The  methods  of  appointing  salaried  officers  were  also  criti- 
cized, and  some  unions  (notably  the  National  Union  of 
Railwaymen)  complained  that  the  system  of  joint  consultation 
under  national  ownership  was  no  advance  on  what  had  been 
in  practice  before  nationalization.  The  complaints,  however, 
were  mostly  rather  vague;  and  it  was  evident  that  the  trade 
unions  were  not  at  all  certain  what  they  really  wanted.  They 
were  torn  between  the  desire  for  some  measure  of  workers' 
control  or  participation  in  management,  as  distinct  from 
mere  consultation,  and  the  desire  to  maintain  independence 
in  order  to  protect  their  members'  interests  without  becoming 
involved  in  responsibility  for  the  efficient  conduct  of  the 
industries  concerned. 

The  Trades  Union  congress  general  council  and  the  unions 
chiefly  concerned  continued  to  take  an  active  part  in  the 
system  of  National  Joint  Advisory  councils  set  up  to  consult 
with  the  government  planning  authorities  and  with  the  sepa- 
rate departments  responsible  for  economic  and  social  affairs. 
During  the  year  it  was  arranged  that  representatives  of  the 
managements  of  the  socialized  industries  would  take  part  in 
these  consultations  together  with  those  of  private  employers. 
The  National  Joint  Advisory  council  recommended  in  Oct. 
1948  that  the  coming  into  force  of  the  Restoration  of  Prewar 
Practices  act,  which  provided  for  the  resumption  of  trade 
union  regulations  suspended  during  World  War  II,  should 
be  postponed,  in  view  of  the  economic  situation,  till  the  end 
of  1949.  Further  postponement  seemed  probable  on  account 


of  the  agreed  necessity  of  doing  everything  possible  to  ensure 
increased  production. 

France.  In  France  there  were  no  strikes  in  1949  comparable 
with  the  large  coal  strike  of  Oct.  1 948.  The  most  important 
single  strike  movement  was  a  24  hr.  strike  of  the  civil 
service,  called  originally  by  Force  Ouvriere,  but  backed  by 
the  other  trade  union  federations,  to  demand  salary  increases. 
The  question  of  wage  advances  came  to  the  front  again  in 
Oct.  1949,  when  the  disintegration  of  the  Henri  Queuille 
government  was  directly  caused  by  the  resignation  of  the 
Socialist  minister  of  labour,  Daniel  Mayer,  on  account  of 
the  government's  refusal  to  make  concessions  to  the  demands 
of  the  unions  (see  FRANCE).  The  new  government,  under 
Georges  Bidault,  was  compelled  to  grant  a  once-for-all 
bonus  to  meet  the  rising  cost  of  living,  pending  measures  for 
restoring  free  collective  bargaining  which  it  promised  to 
introduce  in  the  near  future. 

The  French  trade  union  movement  continued  throughout 
the  year  to  be  divided  into  rival  factions.  The  C.G.T.-F.O. 
(Confederation  Generate  du  Travail-Force  Ouvriere),  the  anti- 
Communist  trade  union  federation  led  by  L£on  Jouhaux  and 
closely  connected  with  the  Socialist  party,  failed,  despite 
some  financial  support  from  the  British  trade  unions,  to 
make  much  headway  except  among  the  non-manual  workers. 
The  C.F.T.C.  (Confederation  Fransaise  des  Travailleurs 
Chretiens)  continued  its  independent  existence,  and  in  Oct. 
1949,  a  new  independent  federation,  Confederation  Syndicate 
du  Travail,  was  founded  by  a  number  of  unions  that  had 
held  apart  from  the  existing  bodies  and  also  included  a  number 
who  had  been  expelled  or  who  had  seceded  from  the  Commun- 
ist-dominated C.G.T.  (Its  secretary  general  was  Benoit 
Frachon,  a  Communist  member  of  the  National  Assembly.) 
Sulpice  Dewez,  secretary  general  of  the  C.S.T.,  declared  its 
willingness  to  collaborate  with  all  other  non-Communist 
groups.  Earlier  in  the  year  the  C.G.T. ,  as  a  sequel  to  the 
failure  of  the  coal  strike,  had  carried  out  a  large-scale  purge 
of  trade  union  officials,  especially  in  the  northern  dtparte- 
ments,  designed  to  ensure  fully  effective  party  control  over 
the  Communist  section  of  the  trade  union  movement, 
which  remained  by  far  the  largest  among  the  manual 
workers. 

Italy.    In  Italy,  the  most  important  strike  in  1949  broke 


626 


TRADE  UNIONS 


out  in  May  among  the  farm  workers  in  the  Po  valley,  Latium 
and  Apulia.  It  was  supported  by  both  Communist  and  non- 
Communist  trade  union  groups  and  resulted  after  five  weeks' 
struggle  in  the  grant  of  a  cost-of-living  bonus,  in  the  extension 
of  unemployment  benefit  to  agricultural  workers  and  in  a 
number  of  other  concessions.  The  Italian  trade  union  move- 
ment, like  the  French,  continued  to  be  divided  into  rival 
factions,  the  largest  section  being  organized  in  the  C.G.l.L. 
(Confedcrazionc  Gencrale  Italiana  del  Lavoro  or  General 
Confederation  of  Italian  Labour),  which  was  under  the  control 
of  the  Communists  in  conjunction  with  the  Pictro  Nenni  P.S.I. 
(Partito  Socialista  Itahano)  The  Christian  trade  union 
organization  (Corrente  Sindacalc  Cnstiana),  formed  in  Aug. 
1948,  decided  later  in  that  year  to  transform  itself  into  an 
anti-Communist  L. C.G.l.L.  (Libera  Confcdera/ionc  Generalc 
Italiana  dei  Lavoraton),  but  failed  to  carry  with  it  the  bulk 
of  the  anti-Communist  workers  that  were  not  organized  on  a 
definitely  Christian  basis.  In  May  1949  the  dissident  P.S.L.I. 
(Partito  Socialista  dei  Lavoraton  Itahani),  led  by  Giuseppe 
Saragat,  joined  with  the  Republican  party,  led  by  Randolfo 
Pacciardi,  in  forming  a  new  body,  the  F  LL.  (Federazionc 
Italiana  del  Lavoro),  and  there  were  thus  three  rival  bodies 
attempting  to  represent  the  Italian  workers  Trade  union 
power  was  sapped  by  heavy  unemployment  in  the  industrial 
areas  and  over  and  above  this  the  continuing  dissensions 
among  the  Italian  Socialist  groups  made  it  impossible  to 
achieve  a  common  front  of  the  non-Communist  sections  in 
the  trade  unions  (see  also  IIALY;  SOCIALIST  MOVEMENT) 
International  Movement.  The  strong  disagreements  which 
had  been  evident  for  some  time  past  inside  the  World 
Federation  of  Trade  Unions  came  to  a  head  in  Jan.  1949, 
when  the  British  Trades  Union  congress  and  the  American 
Congress  of  Industrial  Organizations  joined  in  a  demand 
that  the  W.F.T.U.  should  suspend  its  activities  foi  the  time 
being  and,  when  this  proposal  was  rejected,  withdrew  from 
further  participation  in  its  proceedings. 

The  cause  of  this  split  was  the  carrying  on  by  the  executive 
bureau  and  officials  of  the  W.F.T.U.  of  a  Communist- 
inspired  campaign  against  the  European  Recovery  programme 
and  against  the  support  given  to  it  by  the  British,  American 
and  other  trade  union  groups.  These  groups  had  formed  a 
loosely  organized  joint  advisory  committee  representing  the 
E.R.P.  countries;  and  the  W.F.T.U.  office  had  issued, 
without  a  meeting  of  the  full  executive,  various  manifestos 
to  which  strong  objection  was  taken  by  the  non-Communist 
members. 

At  the  same  time,  the  W.F.T.U.  had  been  negotiating 
with  the  separate  Internationals  of  trade  unions  representing 
particular  occupational  groups  (transport  workers,  miners, 
textile  workers,  etc )  with  a  view  to  their  absorption  as 
departments;  but  these  negotiations  broke  down.  The 
"  Trade  "  internationals  thereupon  formed  a  joint  committee 
of  their  own  but  disclaimed  any  intention  of  founding  a  rival 
International,  regarding  this  as  a  matter  to  be  dealt  with 
by  the  national  trade  union  centres. 

In  June  1949  the  British  Trades  Union  congress,  in  close 
consultation  with  the  Americans  and  with  other  bodies  which 
had  left  the  W.F.T.U.,  called  at  Geneva  a  preparatory  con- 
ference for  the  establishment  of  a  new  International  Con- 
federation of  Trade  Unions.  The  A.F.L.  (American  Federa- 
tion of  Labour)  which  had  refused  throughout  to  join  the 
W.F.T.U.,  took  part  in  this  gathering  together  with  the 
C.I.O.  (Congress  of  Industrial  Organizations).  The  Geneva 
conference  appointed  a  committee  to  draw  up  a  constitution 
for  a  new  International  and  to  convene  a  further  congress 
for  its  formal  institution.  This  committee  included  representa- 
tives from  the  U.S.,  Great  Britain,  France,  Belgium,  Italy, 
Australasia,  Scandinavia,  Latin  America,  Asia,  Africa  and 
the  middle  east.  Germany  was  also  invited  to  appoint  a 


representative  and  so  was  the  joint  committee  of  the  "  Trade  " 
internationals. 

In  July  1949  the  World  Federation  of  Trade  Unions  held 
a  rival  conference  at  Milan,  and  passed  resolutions  denouncing 
the  secessionists  and  the  European  Recovery  programme. 
The  seceding  bodies  were  accused  of  following  a  policy  of 
subservience  to  American  imperialism  and  of  treason  to  the 
working  class  cause.  The  Milan  conference  further  decided 
to  take  steps  to  set  up  a  rival  system  of  trade  secretariats 
representing  the  workers  in  particular  industries  as  depart- 
ments within  the  W.F.T.U.;  and  later  in  the  year  a  number 
of  sectional  conferences  were  called  for  this  purpose. 

On  Nov.  28  about  245  delegates  of  over  47  million  members 
of  non-Communist  trade  unions  throughout  the  world  met  in 
London  to  adopt  the  constitution  of  the  new  I.C.T.U. 
Among  them  were:  from  the  U  S  ,  William  Green,  president 
of  the  A.F.L,  and  Walter  Reuther,  vice-president  of  the 
C.I.O. ;  from  Great  Britain,  Arthur  Deakm,  secretary  general 
of  the  Transport  and  General  Workcis'  union,  and 
Vincent  Tcvvson,  secretary  gcneial  of  the  T.U.C  :  from 
France,  Leon  Jouhaux,  secretary  general  of  the  C.G.T  — 
F.O.,  and  Gaston  Tessicr,  president  of  the  C.F.T.C. ;  from 
Italy,  Giiilio  Pastore,  secretary  general  of  the  L.C  G.I.L. 
Paul  Finet,  secretary  general  of  the  Belgian  T.U.C  ,  was 
elected  chairman  of  the  London  congress  and  J.  H  Olden- 
broeck  (Holland),  secretary  general  of  International  Trans- 
port Workers'  federation,  secretary  general  of  the  congress. 
An  executive  board  of  19  was  elected  on  Dec.  7  with  J.  H. 
Oldenbroeck  as  secretary  general.  Two  days  later,  at  its 
final  session,  the  congress  adopted  a  manifesto  which, 
appealing  to  all  workers  to  unite  within  the  confederation's 
ranks,  opened  with  three  following  slogans- 

Btead     Economic  and  social  justice  for  all 

Fieedom      Through  economic  and  political  democracy 

Peace     With  liberty,  justice  and  dignity  for  all 

The  world  trade  union  movement  was  thus  again  split 
into  rival  Communist  and  anti-Communist  sections,  as  it  was 
between  the  two  World  Wars,  but  with  the  difference  that 
the  majorities  of  the  French  and  Italian  movements  were 
firmly  integrated  with  the  Soviet  group,  and  that  Soviet 
influence  was  exclusively  dominant  in  eastern  Lurope,  except 
in  Yugoslavia.  The  exiled  trade  unionists  from  the  countries 
under  Soviet  domination  founded  in  Pans  a  Free  Centre  for 
Trade  Unionists  in  Fxile;  and  this  body  was  represented  by 
observers  at  the  Geneva  confeicnce.  (G  D  H.  C.) 

United  States.  The  political  issues  affecting  the  demands 
and  position  of  organized  labour  in  the  U.S.  were  the  leading 
subjects  of  debate  in  the  long  first  session  of  the  8 1  st  congress. 
The  large  and  unexpected  victory  of  the  Democrats  in  the 
national  political  campaign  of  Nov.  1948  persuaded  the 
leaders  of  the  American  Federation  of  Labour  and  the 
Congress  of  Industrial  Organizations  that  the  new  congress, 
with  the  support  of  President  Truman,  would  repeal  the  Taft- 
Hartley  act,  extend  and  liberalize  the  federal  social  insurance 
system  and  raise  the  statutory  minimum  wage  rate. 

In  these  hopes  organized  labour  was  disappointed. 
Although  repeal  of  the  Taft-Hartley  act  and  restoration  of 
the  Wagner  act  was  one  of  the  principal  campaign  promises 
of  the  Democratic  party,  the  majority  of  the  new  congress, 
including  both  Democrats  and  Republicans,  resisted  pressure 
from  the  President  and  union  leaders.  The  dominant  opinion 
of  congress  was  that  the  Taft-Hartley  act  had  corrected 
abuses  associated  with  the  Wagner  act.  Any  revision  of 
the  existing  law,  therefore,  would,  to  win  the  support  of 
congress,  have  to  be  moderate  and  limited.  The  unions 
wanted  either  the  essence  of  the  Wagner  act  or  no  change 
in  the  law  at  all.  They,  therefore,  rejected  a  considerable 
revision  proposed  by  Sei.ator  Robert  A.  Taft.  The  result 
was  that  congress  adjourned  without  changing  the  law  and 


TRIESTE 


627 


left  the  Taft-Hartley  act  as  the  foremost  issue  in  the  con- 
gressional elections  of  1950. 

Organized  labour  was  no  more  successful  in  its  efforts 
to  win  thorough-going  revision  of  existing  social  insurance 
legislation,  since  congress  failed  to  adopt  a  bill  to  raise  old- 
age  pensions  and  various  forms  of  assistance  and  substantially 
to  extend  the  coverage  of  the  pension  plan.  But  congress 
did  satisfy  union  demands  by  raising  the  statutory  minimum 
wage  from  40  to  75  cents  an  hour  and  appropriating  large 
federal  subsidies  to  promote  housing  construction  for  the 
lower-income  population 

Although  the  year  proved,  in  retrospect,  to  have  been 
almost  as  good  a  year  as  1948,  there  occurred  within  the  12 
months  a  noticeable  slump  in  production,  employment  and 
profits  and  an  increase  in  unemployment,  which  made  it 
difficult  for  the  unions  to  pursue  their  expected  demand  for 
further  wage  increases. 

In  the  major  negotiations  for  contract  renewals  in  1949, 
union  policy  took  another  direction.  The  C  I  O.  Steel  and 
Automobile  Workers'  unions  added  to  their  wage  demands 
proposals  for  company-financed  pension  and  insurance 
benefits,  it  being  generally  understood  that  wage  concessions 
would  be  waived  in  return  for  a  satisfactory  settlement  of  the 
union  pension  and  insurance  claims  As  in  past  yeais 
a  single  union,  in  this  case  the  United  Steel  Workers, 
assumed  the  leadetship  in  the  drive  for  welfare  benefits  as  a 
substitute  for  higher  wages  The  negotiations  between  the 
unions  and  the  steel  companies  ended  in  disagreement, 
mainly  because  the  companies  considered  the  union  proposals 
excessively  costly  and  because  some  companies,  in  particular 
the  U  S  Steel  corporation,  insisted  on  contributions  by  their 
employees  to  the  pension  funds.  Failing  to  reach  agreement 
the  union  prepared  to  call  a  national  steel  strike 

At  this  point  President  Truman  intervened  with  the 
appointment  of  a  steel  fact-finding  board,  before  which  the 
industry  reluctantly  and  the  union  eagerly  appeared  to  present 
their  respective  cases.  The  findings  of  the  board  were  legally 
not  binding  on  either  party,  but  it  was  clear  that  what  the 
board  recommended  would  have  a  determining  influence 
on  the  ultimate  settlement.  This  was,  in  fact,  what  happened. 
The  board  ruled  against  a  wage  increase  because  of  unfavour- 
able business  conditions  But  it  recommended  both  pensions 
and  social  insurance  to  be  financed  by  employer  contributions 
amounting  to  ten  cents  an  hour.  In  its  argument  the  board 
found  the  cost  of  such  benefits  to  be  an  appropriate  charge 
on  business  and  threw  the  weight  of  its  influence  toward 
non-contributory  pensions.  The  board's  report  was  accepted 
by  the  union  and  rejected  by  the  employers.  On  Oct  1  the 
steel  industry  came  out  on  strike. 

In  the  coal  industry  pensions  and  welfare  benefits  were 
also  the  source  of  strikes  and  disturbances.  In  this  industry 
pensions  and  welfare  funds,  financed  by  a  royalty  on  each 
ton  of  coal  produced,  had  been  in  existence  since  the  settle- 
ment of  the  strike  of  April  1946  The  royalty  amounted  in 
1949  to  20  cents  a  ton.  The  causes  of  trouble  were  in  the 
main  peculiar  to  this  industry  and  the  policies  of  John  L. 
Lewis.  The  funds,  for  all  practical  purposes  administered 
by  the  union,  ran  out  of  sufficient  reserves.  In  1949,  there- 
fore, the  United  Mine  Workers  wanted  the  royalty  raised 
and,  in  addition,  sought  a  shorter  working  week  and  a  sub- 
stantial increase  in  wages.  Negotiations,  which  went  on 
for  most  of  the  year,  were  inconclusive.  The  coal  operators, 
already  suffering  from  loss  of  business  to  competing  fuels, 
were  unwilling  to  raise  costs.  Considering,  also,  the  alleged 
wastes  in  the  union  administration  of  the  benefit  funds,  they 
objected  to  making  a  new  contract  which  failed  to  deal 
with  this  problem.  The  miners,  therefore,  resorted  to  direct 
action.  For  a  large  part  of  the  year  Lewis  ordered  his  mem- 
bers to  work  only  three  days  a  week  and  late  in  the  year  the 


entire  industry  was  shut  down  by  a  strike.  When  the  year 
ended  nothing  was  settled  and  the  industry  reverted,  by 
union  order,  to  a  three-day  week. 

The  national  steel  and  coal  strikes  raised  the  losses  from 
labour  stoppages  to  the  unusually  high  level  of  53  million 
man-days,  a  total  exceeded  only  in  1946.  The  steel  strike 
was  settled  after  a  month's  idleness,  thourh  numerous 
strikes  against  particular  companies  continued  beyond  that 
time  (L  Wo.) 


TRANSJORDAN: 

01  THF 


JORDAN,  HASHIMITE  KINGDOM 


TRIESTE,     THE      FREE    TERRITORY      OF. 

A  small  state  at  the  northern  end  of  the  Adriatic  sea,  between 
Italy  and  Yugoslavia,  demilitarized  and  neutral,  whose 
integrity  and  independence  were  assured  from  Sept.  15, 
1947.  by  the  Security  council  of  the  United  Nations.  Total 
area:  293  sq.  mi  Total  pop  (June  1949  est  ):  345,000. 
Military  governors  under  provisional  regime:  Zone  A, 
Bntish-U  S  (area,  96  sq  mi  ;  pop  ,  285,000),  Major  General 
Terence  S  Airey,  Zone  B,  Yugoslav  (area,  197  sq.  mi.; 
pop,  60,000),  Colonel  Mirko  Lcna£.  Mayor  of  the  city  of 
Trieste,  Gianni  Bar  toll 

History.  During  1949  the  problem  of  Trieste  remained 
unsolved;  the  British,  French  and  U  S  governments  stood 
by  their  declaration  of  March  20,  1948,  suggesting  the  return 


FREE  TERRITORY  OF  TRIESTE 


AUSTRIA 


^          •  If 

>Jme"V  *,«,,      !*%          '"^ 


P  /rdv  u  G  o  s 


FREE  TERRITORY 

Capodistna^-" 


— —  —  ••  International  boundary 
^  .'.-.-....>  New  International  boundary 


In  areas  transferred  from  Italy  to 
Yugo'.lavi<j  former  Italian  names  are 
given  in  parenthesis  after  the  present 
Yugoslav  names 


fNCrC  ICPAtDIA  BUHANNIC 


628 


TRINIDAD   AND   TOBAGO— TROPICAL    DISEASES 


Field  Marshal  Sir  William  Slim,  chief  of  the  Imperial  general  staff, 
in  Trieste,  during  a  two-day  visit ,  March  1949. 

of  the  Free  Territory  to  Italian  sovereignty,  and  the  Soviet 
government  refused  to  agree  to  a  revision  of  the  Italian 
peace  treaty  which  they  considered  unwarranted.  Although 
in  Jan.  1948  the  Security  council  had  been  unable  to  agree 
over  the  appointment  of  a  governor  for  the  Free  Territory, 
on  Feb.  17,  1949,  Yakov  A.  Malik,  the  Soviet  representative, 
re-opening  the  controversy,  proposed  that  the  council  should 
nominate  Hermann  Fliickiger,  a  Swiss  diplomat,  one  of  the 
candidates  who  had  been  put  forward  a  year  before  by  the 
British  government  and  rejected  by  Moscow.  The  Soviet 
delegate  renewed  his  proposal  in  March  and  again  in  May, 
when  it  was  rejected  by  nine  votes  to  two. 

On  June  12  the  people  of  Trieste  freely  elected  their 
municipal  council,  for  the  first  time  for  27  years.  The  elections 
were  quiet  and  orderly  and  the  six  Italian  parties  which 
favoured  the  restoration  of  Trieste  to  Italy  received  63  •  7  % 
of  the  total  of  172,036  votes  cast.  The  strongest  Italian 
party  was  the  Christian  Democratic  which  received  65,944 
votes  (39  •  1  %).  The  Cominform  Communists  secured 
35,586  votes  (21  •  1  %),  fewer  than  had  been  expected,  and 
three  independent  groups  running  under  the  slogan  "  Trieste 
to  the  Triestines  "  polled  11-1  % — a  larger  proportion  than 
forecast.  The  Slovene  vote  was  exceptionally  low,  only 
4-1%,  2-4%  of  which  went  to  pro-Tito  Communists  and 
1  •  7  %  to  the  anti-Communist  Slovene  coalition. 

On  July  3  the  Belgrade  government  announced  their 
decision  to  introduce  Yugoslav  currency  in  zone  B — or 
Yugoslav-occupied — of  the  Free  Territory.  The  yugolira,  an 
occupation  money  introduced  in  May  1945  which  exchanged 
with  the  Italian  lira  (legal  tender  in  Trieste)  at  the  rate  of  one 
yugolira  for  two  lire,  was  discontinued.  The  Yugoslav  dinar 
was  introduced  instead  with  an  exchange  rate  of  one  dinar 
for  nine  lire.  (This  Yugoslav  reaction  to  the  June  elections 


seemed  to  be  more  than  a  monetary  reform.  A  monetary 
union  is  practically  an  economic  one  and  this  could  lead  to 
political  union).  As  the  Yugoslav  decision  was  technically 
a  violation  of  the  peace  treaty  (but  so  had  been  the  creation 
of  the  yugolira  in  1947),  the  Italian  government  protested 
to  the  Security  council.  Italy  had  hoped  that  according  to 
the  British-French-U.S.  declaration  of  March  1948  the  whole 
Free  Territory  would  eventually  return  to  its  sovereignty. 
The  monetary  union  between  zone  B  and  Yugoslavia  seemed, 
however,  to  imply  that  the  Belgrade  government  would 
not  be  easily  dislodged  from  their  part  of  the  Free  Territory. 
Although  Yugoslavia  had  protested  vigorously  in  1948 
against  the  three-power  declaration,  it  appeared  that  it  would, 
perhaps,  accept  the  partition  of  the  Free  Territory  as  the 
only  practical  solution  of  the  dispute.  The  British  and  U.S. 
governments  on  July  14  delivered  only  mildly-worded  pro- 
tests against  the  introduction  of  the  dinar  to  zone  B. 

Unhappily  for  the  Triestines  Italy  is  not  ill-provided  with 
ports  and  geographically  Trieste  is  not  part  of  the  Italian 
peninsula.  The  creation  of  secondary  industries  might 
alleviate  but  was  unlikely  to  solve  the  problems  of  a  seaport 
in  decline.  The  Cominform  quarrel  with  Tito,  by  diverting 
Czechoslovak  and  Hungarian  traffic  from  Rijeka  to  Trieste, 
helped  to  improve  the  economic  situation  as  well  the  political 
atmosphere;  but,  at  the  close  of  1949,  Trieste's  economic 
recovery  still  awaited  the  end  of  the  **  cold  war "  and  an 
active  east-west  trade. 

Economy  and  Finance.  Budget  (1948-49):  revenue  L.I 2, 800  million; 
ordinary  expenditure  L,  13,800  million,  extraordinary  expenditure 
L.I 6,300  million;  total  deficit  L.I 7,300  million.  During  the  year 
1948-49  the  E.C.A.  allocation  to  Trieste  was  $17-8  million.  For  the 
year  1949-50  the  Allied  Military  government  asked  for  $12-6  million. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — European  Recovery  Programme,  Trieste  Country 
Study,  E.C.A.  (Washington,  1949).  (K.  SM.) 

TRINIDAD  AND  TOBAGO.  British  colony  con- 
sisting of  two  islands  off  the  South  American  continent  north 
of  the  Orinoco  river  delta.  Area:  1,980  sq.  mi.  Pop.  (1947 
est.):  586,700.  Governor,  Major  General  Sir  Hubert  Ranee. 

History.  Details  of  a  new  constitution  were  announced  in 
February;  although  not  yet  promulgated,  preparations  for 
its  introduction,  mcluding  the  appointment  of  a  speaker, 
were  made.  It  provided  for  a  governor  possessing  restricted 
reserve  powers  and  presiding  over  an  executive  council  which 
also  includes  three  ex-officio,  one  nominated  and  five  elected 
members,  these  last  to  be  chosen  by  the  Legislative  Council 
from  among  their  unofficial  members  and  to  be  actively 
associated  with  the  work  of  administration  of  departments  of 
government.  The  Legislative  Council,  presided  over  by  a 
speaker  appointed  by  the  governor  from  outside  the  council, 
was  to  consist  of  three  ex-officio,  five  nominated  and  18 
elected  members,  the  speaker  having  neither  an  original  nor 
a  casting  vote. 

Finance  and  Trade.  Currency:  West  Indian  dollar  ($4-80=£l). 
Budget  (1949  est.):  revenue  $42,627,045;  expenditure.  $41,554,367. 
Foreign  trade  (1948):  imports  $131,822,264;  exports,  domestic 
$127,105,384,  re-exports  $5,521,749.  Principal  exports:  petroleum 
and  sugar.  Sugar  crop  for  1948-49  was  estimated  at  159,032  tons, 
an  all-time  record.  (ja  ^  Hu.) 

TRIFOLITANIA:    see  ITALIAN  COLONIAL  EMPIRE. 
TRISTAN  DA  CUNHA:  see  SAINT  HELENA. 

TROPICAL  DISEASES.  During  1949  chloromy- 
cetin  (chloramphenicol)  was  prepared  synthetically  and  the 
formula  (D-threo-l-paramidophenyl-2-dichloracetamide-l , 
3-propanediol)  published  by  H.  Raistrick.  Its  chief  pro- 
perties were  in  the  treatment  of  rickettsial  diseases  (typhus 
group).  B.  Ehrlich  showed  that  it  was  active  against  R. 
prowazeki,  and  J.  E.  Smadel  et  al.  that  it  had  similar  action 
on  all  pathogenic  rickettsiae.  They  successfully  treated  a 


TRUMAN 


629 


group  of  louse-borne  typhus  patients  in  Mexico,  and  J.  E. 
Smadel  et  al.  had  a  similar  experience  with  25  cases  of  scrub 
typhus  (mite  typhus)  in  Malaya.  In  Rocky  Mountain  spotted 
fever  (R.  rickettsi)  chloromycetin  caused  complete  remission. 
J.  E.  Smadel  showed,  too,  that  it  was  active  against  the 
virus  of  psittacosis.  In  typhoid  fever  it  was  also  discovered  in 
Malaya  that  the  drug  possessed  a  curative  effect  in  ten  cases. 
It  did  not,  however,  exterminate  Sal.  typlrie\  neither  did  it 
appear  to  be  active  in  a  typhoid  carrier.  W.  H.  Bradley 
recorded  that  patients  became  apyrexial  by  the  third  day  of 
treatment  and  signs  of  resolution  were  obvious  within  48  hr. 
after  eight  gm.  of  the  drug. 

It  was  found  that  aureomycin  hydrochloride  obtained  from 
the  mould  Streptomyces  aureofaciens  was  potent  against 
many  Gram-positive  and  Gram-negative  organisms  and 
could  be  used  against  infections  that  had  become  icsistant 
to  penicillin,  streptomycin  or  sulphonamides.  Aureomycin 
was  as  effective  in  Rocky  Mountain  spotted  fever  as  was 
chloromycetin.  S.  C.  Wong  and  H.  R.  Cox  showed  its  effec- 
tiveness in  0  fever  and  K.  H.  Lennette  et  aL  reported  on  15 
cases  of  this  fever  with  relatively  prompt  impiovement. 
L.  T.  Wright  et  al.  treated  25  cases  of  lymphogranuloma 
venereum  with  buboes  and  proctitis  with  decided  improve- 
ment. In  ulcerating  granuloma  of  the  pudenda,  R.  B.  Green- 
blatt  showed  good  results  in  streptomycin-resistant  cases. 
In  undulent  fever  (Brucellosis)  due  to  Br.  abortus  and  Br. 
suis,  E.  B.  Schoenbach,  W.  N.  Spink,  S.  Ross  and  M.  S.  Bryer 
reported  successful  results  with  remissions  in  three  to  four 
days. 

The  chief  victories  of  streptomycin  were  in  plague  and  the 
allied  tularaemia.  In  experimental  plague  S.  F.  Quan  et  al 
showed  that  it  was  bactericidal  in  the  most  virulent  strains, 
and  in  guinea-pigs  and  mice  injected  subcutaneously  with 
plague  it  was  more  active  than  sulphonamides.  Even  in 
pneumonic  plague  in  mice,  200-400  mg.  of  streptomycin 
hydrochloride  every  six  hours  cured  90-95%  of  infections. 
D.  Herbert  showed  that  in  concentration  of  three  units  per 
ml.  streptomycin  caused  rapid  sterilization  of  plague  cultures. 
P.  V.  Karanchandam  and  K.  S.  Rao  reported  that  in  an 
epidemic  of  152  cases  and  66  deaths,  five  moribund  plague 
patients  were  treated  with  intramuscular  streptomycin. 
Improvement  was  evident  with  a  total  of  1-5  gm.  W.  Lcwin 
et  al.  (1948)  treated  two  cases  of  pneumonic  plague  with  the 
recovery  of  one.  The  treatment  was  from  the  third  day  of  the 
illness  with  streptomycin  1  •  8  gm.  daily  for  eight  days  and  a 
total  of  24  gm.  of  sulphadiazme  or  sulphathiazole.  C.  Haddad 
and  A.  Valero,  in  three  severe  cases  of  bubonic  plague, 
showed  that  streptomycin  was  superior  to  any  drug  in  doses 
of  200  or  300  mg.  every  three  hours.  Streptomycin  also 
cured  tularaemia  (Brucella  tularensis)  in  doses  of  1  gm.  intra- 
muscularly daily  for  seven  days  and  cases  of  tularaemic 
pneumonia  were  also  cured. 

Treatment  of  Schhtosomiasis.  Miracil  D.  or  Nilodin, 
(1-Diethylaminoethyl  amino-4-methylthioxanthone  hydro- 
chloride)  was  tried  out  on  an  extensive  scale  in  man  in  Egypt, 
Rhodesia  and  elsewhere.  In  lower  dosages  the  drug  appeared 
to  be  erratic  but  the  results  in  much  higher  and  more  frequent 
doses  were  more  consistent.  In  a  series  of  trials,  doses  of 
400  mg.  were  given  twice  or  thrice  at  three-day  intervals. 
In  a  later  series  doses  up  to  300  mg.  at  12  hr.  intervals 
were  given  for  as  long  as  two  weeks.  The  final  results  were 
better  in  the  case  of  S.  h&matobium,  less  good  in  S.  mansoni 
infestations  and  on  S.  japonic  urn  (according  to  W.  Kikuth 
and  R.  Gdnnert)  it  was  inactive.  Miracil  D.  cured  schisto- 
somiasis  in  about  32  %  of  cases. 

Treatment  of  Filariasn.     Experiments  with  Hetrazan  or 
Banocide  (1-diethyl    carbamyl-4-methyl.  piperazine  hydro- 
gen di-citrate)  showed  that  it  combined  a  high  toxicity  for  the 
.   parasite  with  low  toxicity  for  the  host.   Its  main  lethal  action 


was  against  the  microfilariae,  whereas  its  action  against  the 
adult  worms  was  slight.  Studies  on  Wuchereria  bancrofti 
were  carried  out  in  Puerto  Rico,  British  Guiana,  Costa  Rica, 
Virgin  Islands  and  Tanganyika.  The  dose  was  about  20  mg. 
per  kg.  of  body  weight  and  icmoved  all,  or  most,  microfilanae 
from  the  blood.  On  microhlanae  in  hydrocele  fluid  hetrazan 
had  no  action.  It  behaved  somewhat  like  an  opsi  nin,  modify- 
ing the  microfilariae  so  that  they  were  seized  by  r«xed  phago- 
cytes of  the  cndotheliai  system  which  then  destroyed  them. 

On  L&a  loa  microfilariae  hetrazan  was  very  active  and  there 
was  some  evidence  that  the  adult  worms  were  also  affected, 
as  dead  individuals  were  demonstrated  under  the  skin. 
Prolonged  treatment  resulted  in  abolition  of  symptoms, 
such  as  Calabar  swelling  and  pruritus.  On  Onclwcerca 
volvulus  hetra/an  pioduccd  severe  allergic  responses  after  a 
single  dose,  depending  on  the  intensity  of  the  infestation 
Pyrexia,  facial  oedema,  pruritus  and  itching  of  the  eyes  were 
often  encountered,  according  to  F.  Hawking  and  W.  Laurie, 
with  a  dosage  of  50-100  mg.  twice  daily  for  two  days  and  then 
150-600  mg.  twice  daily.  The  skin  became  negative  for 
microfilariae  after  2-3  days.  (P.  H.  M.-B.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  Chlorumvcetin:  H  Raistnck,  Nature,  9,  553, 
London,  1949,  C  A.  Rumball  and  L.  G.  Moore,  Brit  Med  /.,  1,  943, 
London,  1949.  Aureomycin:  G.  T.  Harrcll  et  al ,  Southern  Med  J.t 
46-4,  358,  Birmingham,  Alabama,  1949  Streptomycin  P  V.  Kanda- 
cham  and  K  S.  Rao,  Lancet,  /,  22,  London,  1948;  C.  Hdddad  and 
A.  Valero,  Brit.  Med  J ,  7,  1026,  1948.  Miracil  I)  A.  Azim  et  al., 
Lamet,  7,  712,  1948  Hetrazan-  F.  Hawking  and  W.  Laurie,  Lancet  2, 
146,  1949,  F  Murgatroyd  and  A.  W.  Woodruff,  Lancet,  2,  147,  1949. 

TRUCFAL  SHEIKHDOMS:    see  ARABIA 

TRUMAN,  HARRY  S.,  U.S  statesman  (b.  Lamar, 
Missouri,  May  8,  1884),  was  elected  vice-president  of  the 
United  States  on  Nov.  7,  1944.  On  April  12,  1945,  upon  the 
death  of  Franklin  D.  Roosevelt,  he  became  the  33rd  president. 
On  Nov.  2,  1948,  he  was  elected  president  by  24,104,836 
votes  to  21,969,500  for  governor  Thomas  E.  Dewey.  (For 
his  early  career  see  Emyclopafdia  Britannica  and  Bntannica 
Book  of  the  Year  1949.) 

President  Truman  underwent  a  metamorphosis  in  1949 
which  surprised  both  friends  and  enemies.  The  erstwhile 
modest  Missourian,  who  regretted  publicly  that  circum- 
stances had  catapulted  him  into  the  White  House  and  whose 
defeat  in  the  1948  election  was  generally  regarded  as  a 
certainty,  stepped  forth  as  a  confident,  determined  and 
aggressive  leader  of  his  party  and  the  nation.  Nor  did  he 
shrink  from  asserting  himself  as  a  spokesman  and  director 
of  world  affairs.  The  new  Truman  appeared  for  the  first 
time  when  he  delivered  his  inaugural  address  on  Jan.  20. 
He  scrapped  the  famous  Roosevelt  slogan  of  the  New  Deal, 
substituting  for  it  his  own  Fair  Deal,  In  this  address,  in 
other  speeches  and  in  subsequent  messages  to  congress,  his 
Fair  Deal  demands  were:  repeal  of  the  Taft- Hartley  act 
and  enactment  of  the  Brannan  farm  plan;  compulsory 
national  health  insurance;  civil  rights  legislation;  extension 
of  social  security;  federal  aid  to  education  and  health; 
stronger  anti-trust  laws;  greater  development  of  public  power; 
rent  control  and  housing  for  middle  and  low-income  groups. 

Congress  refused  to  pass  the  greater  part  of  his  domestic 
programme  because  of  a  hostile  combination  of  Republicans 
and  conservative  Democrats,  the  latter  mostly  from  the 
south.  Nevertheless,  the  legislative  rebuff  did  not  discourage 
the  president.  Addressing  a  Jefferson-Jackson  day  dinner 
on  Feb.  24,  he  said  that  "  all  we  have  on  our  side  are  the 
people."  He  declared  that  the  party  "was  never  more 
united  or  stronger,  or  more  dedicated  to  the  people's  welfare." 
Addressing  400,000  people  at  the  Minnesota  state  fair  in 
St.  Paul  in  early  November,  he  declared  that  he  expected 
congress  to  enact  most  of  his  Fair  Deal  programme  at  the 


630 


TRUST  TERRITORIES 


1950  session.  Referring  to  the  opposition's  derogatory 
characterization  of  his  theories  as  foreshadowing  a  "  welfare 
state,"  he  said  that  he  appreciated  the  description  and 
welcomed  the  challenge.  He  regarded  the  results  of  scattered 
off-year  elections  on  Nov.  8,  which  were  favourable  to  the 
Democrats,  as  an  endorsement  of  his  record. 

TRUST  TERRITORIES.  Under  this  heading  are 
grouped  former  German  colonies  in  Africa  and  Australasia 
which  became  League  of  Nations  mandates  after  World 
War  I  and  United  Nations  trusteeships  after  World  War  II. 
Their  total  area  is  approximately  1,031,451  sq  mi.  and  the 
total  population  16,825,300.  Certain  essential  information 
on  the  respective  territories  is  given  in  the  table 

Developments  which  might  prove  to  be  of  great  moment 
took  place  in  the  trusteeship  system  of  the  United  Nations 
during  1949.  A  continual  study  of  the  whole  system  was 
maintained  so  that  it  became  possible  to  obtain  clearer 
indications  of  the  direction  in  which  the  experiment  was 
moving. 

All  the  trust  territories  sent  in  their  annual  reports  — 
including,  for  the  first  time,  the  Pacific  islands  (also  a  strategic 
area)  which  were  administered  by  the  U.S  A.  The  Trusteeship 
council  examined  them  at  length,  bringing  into  view  the 
political,  social,  economic  and  educational  development  of 
the  peoples  during  this  period,  and  adopted  resolutions 
thereon.  It  noted  an  increasing  tendency  to  take  advantage 
of  the  right  of  petition,  which  had  been  stimulated  by  the 
Council's  mission  to  east  Africa  in  1948 

Broadly  speaking,  majorities  of  the  council  approved  of  the 
progress  made,  particularly  in  the  social  and  economic  field, 
in  spite  of  difficulties  of  climate,  ethnology  and  finance,  by 
the  administrations  in  the  following  territories:  New 
Guinea  and  Nauru  (Australia)  (territories  recovered  from 
Japanese  occupation),  Western  Samoa  (New  Zealand), 
where  the  inhabitants  had  now  a  larger  share  in  responsible 
government,  the  Pacific  islands  (U.S.A.),  nearly  100  in 
number  covering  over  3,000,000  sq.  mi.  and  with  a  population 
of  barely  53,000  Micronesians,  the  two  Togolands  (British 
and  French)  and  two  Cameroons  (British  and  French)  and 
Tanganyika,  the  largest  and  least  aflluent  of  these  territories 
But  there  was  considerable  criticism,  some  of  it  constructive 
and  helpful,  some  marked  by  little  sense  of  proportion.  The 
latter  tendency  was  met  with  at  the  fourth  assembly  in  New 
York,  on  a  larger  scale,  resolving  itself  into  an  increasing 
conflict  between  the  powers  of  the  administrations  on  the 
spot  and  the  claims  of  those  who,  to  a  large  or  small  degree, 
were  opposed  to  existing  colonial  systems.  These  last  there- 
fore lost  no  opportunity  of  claiming  jurisdiction  for  U.N 
and  responsibilities  for  the  trusteeship  in  matters  which  were 
not  covered  by  the  charter.  Such  anti-colonial  critics  often 
had  a  real  if  confused  sympathy  for  the  inhabitants  of  the 
territories  in  trust,  but  owing  to  lack  of  colonial  experience 
were  over-anxious  to  hurry  on  the  steps  by  which  the  terri- 
tories could  become  independent  sovenegn  states.  Great 
stress  was  laid  on  education,  particularly  of  a  political  kind 
The  U.S.S.R.  and  a  few  other  states  went  further  and 
demanded  full-fledged  independence  and  sovereignty  on 
"  democratic  lines "  straightaway  and  coupled  this  often 
enough  with  violent  denigration  of  all  colonial  systems  and 
overt  political  attacks  on  the  administration  of  the  British 
empire. 

The  Trusteeship  council  further  undertook  two  far  reaching 
studies,  the  course  and  length  of  which  were  to  depend  on 
future  developments:  first,  of  the  effect  of  administrative 
unions,  such  as  that  between  Tanganyika  and  Kenya  and 
Uganda,  on  the  status  and  progress  of  trust  territories; 
secondly,  of  the  implications  of  expanding  facilities  for 
higher  education  in  these  areas.  If  these  were  really  fact- 


finding  studies  they  might  exercise  a  wise  influence  on 
trusteeship  policies.  The  reports  of  the  council's  mission  to 
east  Africa — Tanganyika  and  Ruanda-Urundi  in  1948  were 
closely  examined  and  their  conclusions  broadly  adopted  with 
a  stress  on  the  increasing  need  of  speed.  A  further  mission 
started  for  west  Africa — the  two  Togoland  and  Cameroons 
trust  territories— at  the  close  of  the  year.  A  third  was  to 
visit  the  Pacific  islands  (with  due  regard  to  their  being  a 
strategic  area)  early  in  1950. 

When  the  fourth  assembly  met,  the  trusteeship  issue  was 
expanded  to  include  colonial  government  in  general  and 
bulked  larger  in  international  discussion  than  any  subject 
except  the  determined  and  hardening  difficulties  between 
the  U.S.S.R.  and  the  western  powers. 

A  number  of  resolutions  were  adopted.  The  special 
committee  on  information  from  non-selfgoverning  colonies 
was  given  larger  powers  and  prolonged  for  a  further  three 
years  Hitherto,  in  accordance  with  article  73  (e),  Great 
Britain  and  other  administering  powers  had  forwarded  to 
the  secretary  general  of  United  Nations,  for  information 
purposes,  statistical  and  technical  information  on  economic, 
social  and  educational  conditions  in  the  areas  for  which  they 
alone  were  responsible.  The  act  was  voluntary  and  excluded 
political  information  The  assembly  now  asked  these  colonies 
to  supply  information  on  political  and  constitutional  develop- 
ments and  to  appoint  a  committee  with  powers  of  roving 
enquiry  Great  Britain  and  other  administering  poweis 
objected  on  the  ground  that  the  new  proposals  went  beyond 
the  charter  and  tended  to  assert  the  principle  of  international 
supervision  over  all  colonies 

Enlargement  of  the  powers  of  the  Trusteeship  council  also 
came  from  another  quarter,  being  part  of  the  programme 
finally  adopted  by  the  general  assembly  for  the  solution  of  the 
postwar  problem  of  the  former  Italian  colonies.  Libya,  for  ex- 
ample, was  to  be  constituted  as  a  soveriegn  state  by  Jan.  1952; 
and  to  assist  the  inhabitants  in  the  transition,  help  them  to 
make  their  own  constitution  and  administer  the  territory  in 
the  interval,  a  U.N  high  commissioner  was  to  be  appointed, 
with  a  council  of  ten,  who  was  to  report  to  the  next  assembly. 
Next,  Somali  land  was  to  become  a  sovereign  state  10  years 
after  the  approval  of  a  Trusteeship  agreement  by  the  Trustee- 
ship council  and  the  general  assembly,  with  Italy  as  adminis- 
tering authority,  aided  by  a  council  of  three.  As  regards 
Eritrea,  a  U.N  commission  of  five  was  to  try  and  find  out 
the  best  means  to  promote  the  wishes  and  the  welfare  of  the 
inhabitants  and  to  report  to  the  fifth  assembly. 

Thus  there  appeared  to  be  two  converging  movements  in 
the  recent  development  of  the  trusteeship  system,  one  tending 
to  enlarge  the  power  of  U  N  to  the  point  of  taking  actual 
part  in  the  process  of  administration  in  trust  territories  and 
the  other  to  extend  methods  of  internationali/ation  to  all 
non-selfgoverning  territories.  By  the  charter  the  proper  role 
of  U.N.  was  to  watch,  criticize,  admonish  if  need  be  and 
generally  supervise  territories  administered  under  trust,  but 
not  to  take  any  part  in  the  actual  process  of  administ- 
ration. Finally,  at  the  close  of  the  session,  a  majority  of 
the  nations  in  the  U.N.  fourth  general  assembly  gave  further 
evidence  of  the  increasing  pressure  which  might  be  brought 
to  bear  on  colonial  powers.  This  was  especially  clear  in  their 
attitude  towards  the  Union  of  South  Africa's  refusal  volun- 
tarily to  transfer  South-West  Africa,  which  they  persisted 
was  held  under  a  mandate,  to  a  trust  territory  under  U.N. 
Three  measures  were  taken  A  resolution  was  adopted 
calling  on  South  Africa  to  resume  the  submission  to  the 
assembly  of  annual  reports  on  South-Wcst  Africa.  What 
might  become  a  precedent  was  created  by  the  hearing  given 
by  the  assembly  to  the  Rev.  Michael  Scott  (</.v.)  on  behalf 
of  the  Herero  tribe,  inside  a  former  mandated  area.  Lastly, 
the  International  Court  of  Justice  at  The  Hague  was  asked 


TUBERCULOSIS 


631 


/  err i  tor v 


Area 
Onsq  mi.) 

.     317,725 


TRUST  AND  MANDATLD 

Population 


South- West  Africa* 

Togo,  comprising 

(1)  Togolancl,      te,     western     section,      13,041 

excluding  the  seaboard 

(2)  Togo;   /  e  ,  eastern  section  and  sea-      22,463 

board 
Cameroons,  comprising. 

(1)  Cameroons  adjoining  Nigeria  .      31,150 

(2)  Cameroons  adjoining  French  hqua-    169,416 

tonal  Africa 
Tanganyika  .  362,688 


(1941  cst  )  321,300 
(mcl   33,600  buropeans) 

(1940    est  )    391,500 
(mcl     43    Furopcans) 

(1947  est  )  944,500 
(mcl   841  huropeans) 

(1947  est  )  991,000 

(1948  cst  )  2,902,400 

(mcl    6,513  huropeans) 

(1948  census)  7,074, 160 

(mcl     10,648   turopeans) 

(1948  est  )  3, 386,362 
(mcl    2,349  Europeans) 


Date  of  League  of 
Nation^  Mandate 

Dec.  17,  1920 


July   20,1922 
July    20,  1922 


Date  of  United 

Nations 
Trustees/up 


Jan  25,  1947 
Jan  25,  1947 


Admimsteitn%   Authority 
Union  of  South  Africa 

Great  Britain 
France 


(1941   cst)  690,500  Dec    17,  1920 

,  (mcl     3,412    Europeans) 

(March  1949  est.)  75,361       Dec    17,  1920 
(mcl   297  buropeans) 
(June  1948  cst  )  3,162        Dec    17,  1920 


Ruanda-Urundi  20,120 

New  Guinea,  Territory  of,  comprising 

(1)  Northeastern  New  Guinea  69,700 

(2)  Bismarck  archipelago  1 9,200  / 

(3)  Certain  of  the  Solomon  Islands  4,100  \ 

(Bougainville,  etc  ) 
Western  Samoa,  comprising  Savau,  Upolu,         1,133 

etc 

Nauru  8 

Pacific  Islands  N  of  the  Equator,  comprising. 

(1)  Marianas  or  badrone  Islands  (except  \ 

Guam)  [ 

(2)  Caroline  Is  ,  together  with  Yap  Is  ,  '-        687  (1949  est  )  53,000 

and  Palau  Is  .  1 

(3)  Marshall  Islands  .  ! 

Controversial  status 

for  an  opinion  on  three  questions.  "  What  are  the  inter- 
national obligations  of  the  South  African  government  in  this 
former  mandated  area9"  "Has  the  South  African  govern- 
ment the  right  to  modify  the  international  status  of  South- 
West  Africa  (a  problem  hotly  debated  under  the  League  of 
Nations)  If  not,  who  has  the  right9"  "  Is  South-West 
Africa  subject  to  the  provisions  of  chapter  xn  of  the  charter?" 

(M   Ft.) 

TUBERCULOSIS.  Although  the  tuberculin  test 
remained  the  only  practical  method  of  diagnosing  tuberculosis 
early  in  its  development,  P.  Courmont,  Switzerland,  stated 
that  he  was  able  to  diagnose  before  tissues  became  sensitive 
to  tuberculin,  by  serum  agglutination 

R.  Friedman,  Boston,  found  that  anti-histamme  medication 
had  no  effect  on  the  tuberculin  reaction.  W  W.  Jones  ct  al, 
Denver,  confumed  the  fact  that  repeated  testing  with  tuber- 
culm  did  not  cause  people  to  become  reactors  nor  did  it 
accentuate  or  suppress  sensitivity  already  present. 

In  Great  Butain  a  bill  to  ensure  the  greater  freedom  of 
children's  milk  from  the  dangers  of  tuberculosis  passed  its 
second  reading  in  the  House  of  Commons.  Dr.  hdith 
Summerskill  said  that  1,500  deaths  had  occurred  each  year 
from  milk  containing  tubercle  bacilli  and  many  more 
thousands  were  crippled.  G  S  Wilson  stated  that,  in  the 
rural  areas,  the  percentage  of  children  infected  was  10  times 
greater  because  more  milk  was  consumed  there  than  in  Lon- 
don. The  number  of  attested  herds  had  been  doubled  since 
1944  and  about  16°0  of  the  cows  in  Great  Britain  belonged 
to  such  herds 

In  Brazil  the  mortality  rate  was  246  per  100,000  population. 
A.  A.  Dufourt  stated  that  there  had  been  a  great  reduction 
in  the  death  rate  from  tuberculosis  in  France  since  1900, 
but  there  were  long  waiting  lists  for  sanatorium  beds.  In 
Greece,  the  rate  was  approximately  250  per  100,000  and 
there  were  fewer  than  5,000  sanatorium  beds  G.  Flenscl 
stated  that  80%  of  the  children  leaving  school  in  Germany 
reacted  to  tuberculin,  against  30  to  40%  before  World  War  II. 

B.  Mann  stated  that  in  India  500,000  persons  died  annually 
from  tuberculosis.  G.  R.  Kokatnur  estimated  the  number 
of  active  cases  at  2  million,  for  about  1  %  of  which  sanatorium 


July 
July 

20, 
20, 

1922 
19r. 

Jan. 
Jan, 

25, 

25, 

1947 
1947 

Great  Hrttain 
Ij  ranee 

July 

20, 

1922 

Jan 

25, 

1947 

Great  Britain 

July 

20, 

1922 

Jan 

25, 

1947 

Belgium 

Jan     25,  1947       Australia 


Jan     25,  1947 
Nov   15,  1947 


Dec    17,  1920       April   2,  1947 


New  Zealand 
Australia 


USA    (formerly  Japanese 
mandates) 


beds  were  available  In  Turkey,  the  mortality  rate  was 
267  per  100,000.  Free  government  sanatoriums  and  hospitals 
had  a  patient  waiting  list  of  about  3,000. 

The  1948  mortality  rate  from  tuberculosis  in  the  United 
States  was  slightly  less  than  30  per  100,000  of  the  popula- 
tion. There  was  evidence  suggesting  that  it  was  in  the 
vicinity  of  27  in  1949— total  48,000— the  lowest  of  any 
nation  in  the  world  with  the  possible  exception  of  Australia. 
Approximately  103,819  beds  were  available.  A.  Reifel, 
Detroit,  pointed  out  that  the  mortality  from  tuberculosis 
among  Red  Indians  was  five  times  that  of  the  general  popula- 
tion. 

By  a  surgical  procedure  known  as  decortication,  J.  A. 
Wemberg,  et  al.,  California,  expanded  lungs  which  had  been 
collapsed  by  artificial  pneumothorax  and  were  otherwise 
unexpandable.  G.  W.  Wright,  Saranac  Lake,  New  York, 
and  J.  G.  Gordon,  et  al ,  Ray  Brook,  New  York,  found  that 
some  such  lungs  do  not  function  normally  even  though 
they  are  well  expanded. 

J.  H.  Grindlay,  Minnesota,  removed  one  lung  from  each 
of  21  dogs  and  in  each  case  replaced  the  lung  with  a  single 
unit  prosthesis  consisting  of  a  roughly  lung-shaped  bag  of 
polythene  filled  with  fibre  glass.  This  experimental  work 
gave  promise  of  leading  to  the  development  of  a  suitable 
prosthesis  to  replace  the  large  undesirable  spaces  which 
result  from  the  removal  of  diseased  lobes  or  lungs  in  humans. 
S.  A.  Waksman,  New  Brunswick,  New  Jersey,  reported 
that  a  new  antibiotic,  neomycin,  was  more  active  than  other 
antibiotics  against  both  pathogenic  and  saprophytic  micro- 
bacteria.  It  was  active  against  both  streptomycin-sensitive 
and  resistant  microbactena;  moreover,  it  did  not  allow  a 
rapid  development  of  resistance  among  the  organisms  as 
did  streptomycin. 

One  of  the  thiosemicarbazonens  designated  as  T.B.  1/698 
announced  by  Domagk  in  1946  was  reported  by  F.  Knuchel, 
et  al ,  and  J.  Hartung,  Germany,  as  having  a  beneficial 
effect  on  tuberculosis  lesions. 

The  effects  of  streptomycin  on  tuberculosis  had  been  care- 
fully investigated  by  the  United  States  Veterans  administra- 
tion in  co-operation  with  the  army  and  navy  for  three  years 
and  its  usefulness  and  limitations  had  been  fairly  well 


632 


TUNNELS— TURKEY 


delineated.  In  1949  these  studies  were  extended  by  examining 
the  effects  of  dihydrostreptomycin  and  para-aminosalicylic 
acid.  This  gigantic  study  included  the  administration  of 
these  new  drugs  to  7,000  tuberculous  veterans.  Strepto- 
mycin conferences  of  physicians  in  the  various  veterans 
hospitals  were  held  regularly. 

No  drug  was  found  which  would  destroy  tubercle  bacilli  in 
human  and  animal  tissues.  However,  para-aminosalicylic 
acid  and  the  antibiotics — streptomycin  and  dihydrostrepto- 
mycin— have  a  bacteriostatic  effect  on  these  organisms. 
Thus  they  suppress  the  disease  temporarily,  especially  in 
acquired  lesions.  The  problem  of  tubercle  bacilli  becoming 
resistant  to  streptomycin  was  partially  solved  by  alternating 
this  drug  with  para-aminosalicylic  acid.  C.  W.  Tempel, 
Denver,  Colorado,  employed  an  intermittent  dosage  schedule 
by  which  tubercle  bacilli  acquired  resistance  to  streptomycin 
much  later  than  when  the  drug  was  administered  daily. 

Although  there  was  no  new  substantial  evidence  con- 
cerning the  value  of  methods  which  were  used  with  the  hope 
of  providing  immunity  to  tuberculosis,  enthusiasm  ran  high 
in  some  parts  of  the  world  over  the  use  of  BCG  (Bacillus 
Calmette-Guerin)  and  the  vole  tubercle  bacillus  vaccine. 
Headed  largely  by  Danish  workers  through  the  World  Health 
organization,  governments  of  nations  were  solicited  to 
sanction  prophylactic  vaccinations  against  tuberculosis  with 
BCG  of  15  million  children  and  young  adults  mostly  in 
Europe  and  Asia. 

The  World  Health  organization  established  an  Expert 
Committee  on  Tuberculosis  and  a  Tuberculosis  section. 
The  second  assembly  was  held  in  June  1949.  All  countries 
were  invited  to  submit  their  requests  for  tuberculosis  work 
with  special  reference  to  demonstrations  in  X-ray  work, 
tuberculin  testing,  BCG,  special  forms  of  therapy  and 
fellowships.  (J.  A.  MY.) 

TUNISIA:   see  FRENCH  UNION. 

TUNNELS.  Construction  of  tunnels  for  sewer,  water 
supply,  drainage,  railway  and  road  schemes  throughout  the 
world  was  unusually  active  in  1949.  New  techniques  used  in 
tunnel  driving  included  machines  that  excavated  the  face 
in  soft  rock,  eliminating  drilling  and  blasting;  and  mechanical 
booms  that  used  heavy  drifter  drills  mounted  on  drill 
carriages. 

In  Scotland  many  tunnels  were  under  construction  for  the 
North  of  Scotland  Hydro-Electric  board.  Those  driven 
through  during  the  year  included  the  Clunie  tunnel  for  the 
Tummel-Garry  scheme,  and  the  Sloy  tunnel.  The  Clunie 
tunnel  was  the  largest  water  tunnel  in  Great  Britain,  being 
23  ft.  in  diameter.  Work  continued  on  other  tunnels  including 
those  of  the  Affric  scheme,  where  two  tunnels  each  of  3  •  3  mi. 
made  good  progress,  the  Fannich  scheme,  3-7  mi.,  and  the 
Cowal  scheme. 

The  boring  of  the  cyclists'  tunnel,  12  ft.  in  diameter,  under 
the  river  Tyne  from  Jarrow  to  Howdon  was  completed. 
Work  was  proceeding  on  the  nearby  pedestrians'  tunnel 

In  England  British  Railways  were  driving  the  new  Wood- 
head  double  track  tunnel  between  Manchester  and  Sheffield. 
The  11 -ft.  Bowland  Forest  tunnel,  10  mi.  long,  was  under 
construction  near  Manchester  as  part  of  the  city's  new 
Haweswater  water  supply  line.  Contracts  were  let  late  in 
1949  for  two  more  tunnels,  Haslingden  and  Walmersley, 
totalling  11-J  mi.,  on  the  same  scheme. 

In  Italy  1 3  tunnels  on  8  hydro-electric  schemes  were  under 
construction,  the  longest  of  these  being  the  Piave  di  Cavore- 
Vaiont  tunnel,  15  ft.  in  diameter  and  11  7  mi.  in  length.  The 
Acquedotto  Romano  del  Peschiera  water  supply  scheme, 
under  construction  in  1949,  included  several  tunnels,  the 
longest  being  49  mi. 


In  Germany  two  tunnels  totalling  4-3  mi.  were  completed 
in  Oct.  1949,  on  the  Rissbach  hydro-electric  scheme  in  the 
Bavarian  alps. 

The  only  major  tunnel  under  construction  in  France  during 
1949  was  the  four-lane  Croix-Rousse  highway  tunnel  at  Lyons, 
39^  ft.  in  diameter  and  1 J  mi.  long.  Hydro-electric  tunnels 
were  also  under  construction  in  Switzerland,  Sweden  and 
Norway.  In  Italy  seven  railway  tunnels  were  being  driven; 
the  longest  being  the  Lupacino  tunnel,  4 -7 mi.,  on  the 
Lucca-Aulla  line. 

In  the  United  States  the  4,200  ft.-long  twin-tube  Squirrel 
Hill  traffic  tunnels  were  driven  through  at  Pittsburgh. 
The  Union  Pacific  railway  opened  up  its  6,700  ft.  Aspen 
tunnel  in  Wyoming,  eliminating  the  last  single-track  bottle- 
neck on  the  main  line  between  Omaha,  Nebraska,  and 
Ogden,  Utah.  In  West  Virginia  the  Norfolk  and  Western 
railway  completed  two  double-track  tunnels,  7,000  ft.  long, 
the  largest  in  cross-section  ever  driven  for  railroad  traffic. 

On  New  York  city's  Delaware  river  water  supply  system, 
the  6  mi.  Neversink  tunnel  was  approximately  half  finished, 
and  the  25  mi.  Downsville  tunnel  was  begun.  In  Baltimore, 
Maryland,  the  7  mi.  Montebello-Liberty  Road  water  tunnel 
was  completed  and  the  10  mi.  Liberty  Road-Patapsco  water 
tunnel  was  under  construction.  The  5  •  5  mi.  city  tunnel  at 
Boston,  Massachusetts,  was  driven  through. 

The  Pacific  Gas  and  Electric  company  continued  to  make 
progress  on  the  two  tunnels  of  its  Feather  river  hydro- 
electric development  in  California.  Los  Angeles,  California, 
started  work  on  three  long  10ft.  tunnels  for  new  hydro- 
electric plants  in  its  Owens  Valley  water  development. 

In  Latin  America  the  Puerto  Rico  water  resources  authority 
was  extending  the  Caonillas  hydro-electric  scheme  by  divert- 
ing three  rivers,  the  Upper  Arecibo,  Pellejas  and  Vivi  into 
the  Caonillas  reservoir  through  four  successive  7  ft.  tunnels 
which  were  all  started  in  1949.  In  Chile  the  quarter-mi. 
Angostura  two-lane  road  tunnel  on  the  Pan  American 
highway,  south  of  Santiago,  was  completed  in  August. 

Lerma  tunnel,  10  mi.  bore  and  the  longest  in  Mexico,  was 
driven  through  in  1949  and  concrete  lining  was  to  be  com- 
pleted in  1950  to  alleviate  Mexico  City's  water  shortage. 

In  Brazil  two  large  hydro-electric  tunnels —the  Santa 
Cecilia  and  the  Vigaria — were  being  built  by  the  Brazilian 
Traction,  Light  and  Power  company  for  its  Barro  do  Pirai 
scheme  in  the  state  of  Rio  de  Janeiro. 

In  Japan  fifteen  road  tunnels,  from  20  to  33  ft.  in  diameter, 
and  up  to  £  mi.  long  were  under  construction.  In  India  two 
^  mi.  tunnels  50  ft.  in  diameter  were  being  driven  as  river 
diversion  for  Bhakra  dam,  Bhakra-Nangal  hydro-electric 
scheme,  in  East  Punjab.  Two  1 1  ft.  tunnels,  each  1^  mi.  long, 
were  under  construction  on  the  Sengulum  hydro-electric 
scheme  in  Travancore.  (H.  W.  RN.  ;  X.) 

TURKEY.  A  republic  in  the  southeastern  Balkans  and 
Asia  Minor,  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Aegean  sea,  on  the 
northwest  by  Greece  and  Bulgaria,  on  the  north  by  the  Black 
sea,  on  the  northeast  by  the  U.S.S.R.,  on  the  east  by  Persia 
and  on  the  south  by  Iraq,  Syria  and  the  Mediterranean. 
Area:  296,184  sq.  mi.  (including  9,256  sq.  mi.  in  Europe). 
Pop.:  (1927  census)  13,648,270,  (1945  census)  18,790,174, 
(June  1949  est.)  19,750,000.  According  to  1945  census, 
European  Turkey  had  1,496,612  inhabitants  (165  per  sq.  mi.) 
and  Anatolia  17,293,562  (59  per  sq.  mi.).  Languages  (1935 
census):  Turkish  86  8%,  Kurdish  9-3%,  Arabic  0-9%, 
Greek  0-7%,  Circassian  0-6%,  Armenian  0-4%,  Georgian 
0  •  5  %,  other  0  •  8  %.  Turkey  being  a  lay  state,  no  religion  has 
primacy,  although  97-7%  of  the  population  is  Moslem. 
Other  religions  (1935  census):  Christian  226,167  (Greek 
Orthodox  125,046,  Gregorian  Armenian  44,526,  Roman 
Catholic  32,155,  Catholic  Armenian  11,229,  Protestant 


TURKEY 


633 


President  Ismet  Inonu  of  Turkey  (right)  at  the  wheel  of  a  tractor 
at  the  state  agricultural  school,  Ankara,  Nov.  1949. 

8,486,  other  Christian  4,725);  Jewish  78,730.  According  to 
1935  census  962,159  Turkish  citizens  were  foreign-born, 
.including  367,801  in  Greece,  227,464  in  Bulgaria,  158,145  in 
Yugoslavia,  69,798  in  the  U.S.S.R.  and  61,649  in  Rumania. 
Chief  towns  (1945  census):  Ankara  (cap.,  226,712);  Istanbul 
(?.v.)  (860,558);  Izmir  (198,396);  Adana  (100,780);  Bursa 
(85,919);  Eskisehir  (80,030).  President  of  the  republic,  Ismet 
Inonii  Gy.v.);  prime  minister,  §emsettin  Giinaltay  (^.v.); 
minister  of  foreign  affairs,  Necmettin  Sadak  (q.v.). 

History.  Once  again  January  was  marked  by  a  political 
crisis,  when  Hasan  Saka  tendered  his  resignation,  his  second 
cabinet  thus  coming  to  an  end  after  seven  months  of  political 
power.  The  president  offered  the  premiership  to  §emsettin 
Giinaltay.  This  selection  came  as  a  surprise,  for  the  new 
premier  was  not  widely  known  and  had  never  held  high  office. 
He  had,  however,  played  an  influential  part  within  the 
Republican  Popular  party,  of  the  last  general  congress  of 
which  (in  1947)  he  had  been  chairman.  He  retained  four 
members  of  the  old  government  and  his  cabinet  was  regarded 
as  a  cross  section  of  his  party,  marked  by  the  inclusion  of 
fresh  young  men.  His  government  was  received  by  the  press 
without  enthusiasm  and  with  prophecies  of  a  short  life;  but 
by  the  end  of  1949  the  Giinaltay  cabinet  had  already  enjoyed 
a  longer  life  than  its  predecessor.  Its  programme,  opening 
with  the  assertion  of  continuity  of  the  consistent  policy  of 
Turkey,  proposed  a  reform  of  the  electoral  and  press  laws, 
neither  of  which  met  with  any  sympathy  on  the  part  of  the 
opposition,  and  party  politics  became  sharper.  A  powerful 
weapon  in  the  hands  of  the  opposition  was  the  fact  that  the 
president  of  the  republic  was  at  the  same  time  a  party  man, 
being  president  general  of  the  Republican  Popular  party, 
and  the  opinion  was  that  he  should  divest  himself  of  this 
political  attribute.  In  June  there  was  a  shuffle  in  the  cabinet 
but  rumours  of  an  impending  resignation  were  falsified. 

In  the  autumn  a  brief  sensation  was  provoked  by  the 
announcement  of  a  revolutionary  plot,  attributed  to  the 
National  party,  in  which  the  president  was  to  be  murdered. 
This  was  clothed  in  such  a  fantastic  atmosphere  of  contra- 
dictions that  it  was  quickly  dismissed  and  enquiry  abandoned. 
The  government,  while  upholding  the  principle  of  the  lay 
state,  authorized  the  creation  of  a  faculty  of  religion  at  the 
University  of  Ankara  and  religious  instruction  was  to  be 
permitted  in  the  schools. 


Of  Communism  less  was  heard  than  in  previous  years. 
A  few  Communist  slogans  with  sickles  and  hammers  were 
scribbled  on  walls  but,  it  seemed,  by  irresponsible  persons 
and  no  sign  of  serious  movement  was  reported.  There  was 
a  certain  infiltration  of  Communist  literature  from  Bulgaria 
and  a  few  magazines  were  sent  to  schools  through  the  post 
but  these  were  hardly  taken  seriously.  The  occasional  troubles 
on  the  frontiers,  in  keeping  with  ancient  tradition,  were  some- 
times attributed  to  Communist  inspiration.  Such  a  case  was 
a  Kurdish  raid  from  the  Persian  side  during  the  summer, 
with  the  customary  robberies,  in  which  several  of  the  raiders 
were  shot. 

Foreign  Relations.  In  foreign  affairs  the  policy  of  Turkey 
remained  unchanged.  It  was  based  on  the  desire  to  develop 
a  democracy  on  western  lines,  with  friendship  all  round. 
Turkey  sought  no  territory,  but  would  not  yield  an  inch  of 
her  own.  On  this  line  all  its  statesmen  were  firm.  With  the 
United  States  relations  were  most  cordial,  in  view  of  the 
great  contributions  made  by  America  towards  the  develop- 
ment of  Turkey,  the  construction  of  roads — its  most  vital 
requirement — the  equipment  of  its  agriculture  and  its  fighting 
services  on  modern  lines.  The  ancient  friendship  between 
Turkey  and  Great  Britain,  which  began  three  hundred  years 
ago,  remained  as  strong  as  ever.  A  certain  disappointment 
was  felt  that  the  North  Atlantic  treaty  was  not  accompanied 
by  a  Mediterranean  pact  including  Turkey.  The  Turks  were 
resolved  to  play  their  full  part  in  international  movements 
in  favour  of  peace  and  their  representatives  joined  in  August 
the  ministerial  committee  and  the  consultative  assembly  of 
the  Council  of  Europe  at  Strasbourg. 

Turkey's  relations  with  her  neighbours  were  cordial  or  at 
least  correct.  A  trifling,  but  unpleasant,  incident  in  Athens — 
where  the  crowd  had  applauded  Italian  football  players  more 
cordially  than  the  Turkish — cast  a  momentary  chill  upon 
Turco-Greek  friendship. 

Resentment  against  the  U.S.S.R.  was  caused  by  the  mys- 
terious death — reported  as  suicide — in  the  train  between 
Moscow  and  Batum  of  Fuat  Giizaltan,  a  former  captain  of 
general  staff,  the  Turkish  diplomatic  courier.  The  press 
regarded  this  as  an  assassination  and  matters  were  not 
improved  when  the  U.S.S.R.  submitted  a  bill  for  £T40,000 
for  the  cost  of  the  inquiry  and  return  of  the  body. 

Relations  with  Bulgaria  were  strained  by  several  frontier 
incidents,  such  as  the  kidnapping  of  Turkish  soldiers  and 
peasants  on  the  frontier  and  the  explosion  of  a  bomb  at  the 
Turkish  consulate  at  Plovdiv.  These  were  not  mollified  by 
the  stories  told  by  Turkish  refugees  of  the  ill-treatment  of 
their  kinsmen  in  Bulgaria.  Diplomatic  relations  were 
established  with  Israel,  India  and  Pakistan. 

Economics.  The  year  was  economically  a  critical  one  for 
Turkey.  Prolonged  drought  ended  in  a  failure  of  the  harvest 
and  in  places  violent  floods  caused  immense  damage  and 
loss  of  life.  From  being  a  substantial  exporter  of  grain, 
Turkey  was  obliged  to  import  £T40  million  of  wheat  from 
the  United  States,  Canada  and  elsewhere. 

The  fish  catches  were  also  poor  and  a  contractor  who  had 
agreed  to  provide  the  British  government  with  preserved 
fish  to  the  value  of  £500,000  was  unable  to  fulfil  his  obliga- 
tions. Further,  it  was  reported  in  the  press  that  Turkey,  a 
fish  exporting  country,  had  actually  imported  preserved  fish. 

The  devaluation  of  the  pound  sterling,  though  long 
rumoured,  came  as  a  bombshell  in  commercial  circles. 
The  government  at  once  announced  that  the  Turkish  lira 
would  not  be  devalued  and  the  Central  bank  quickly  stated 
that  the  new  rate  of  the  Turkish  lira  to  the  pound  sterling 
would  be  £T7-87  to  7-91  instead  of  £Tll-28.  American 
help  continued  on  a  moderate  scale;  the  allocation  to  Turkey, 
proposed  by  the  O.E.E.C.  on  Oct.  13,  amounted  to  $59 
million. 


634 


UNDEN— UNION    OF   SOVIET    SOCIALIST    REPUBLICS 


In  foreign  trade  there  was  a  great  reduction  in  compensation 
business,  to  the  satisfaction  of  those  who  saw  in  it  the  mam 
cause  for  the  fluctuation  of  prices.  A  marked  feature  was 
the  revival  of  trade  with  Western  Germany.  It  should  be 
remembered  that  before  World  War  II  Germany  supplied 
45/0  of  Turkish  imports  and  took  43  %  of  Turkish  exports. 

Turkish  civil  aviation  was  successful.  It  held  the  record  for 
the  lowest  rate  of  accidents.  Whereas  Turkish  airlines  earned 
73,000  passengers  in  1948,  the  100,000  mark  was  passed  in 
1949.  In  1948  the  profit  made  was  shown  as  £T3  million: 
in  1949  it  was  more  than  £T4  million. 

Miscellaneous.  Laying  the  foundation  stone  of  a  new 
tuberculosis  hospital  at  Ankara,  the  prime  minister  pointed 
out  that  a  law  had  been  passed  to  establish  associations  to 
fight  consumption  and  expressed  the  hope  that  by  1959  the 
number  of  such  hospitals  would  be  doubled  It  was  the 
intention  to  set  up  a  network  of  them  over  the  country 

Turkish  women  played  an  increased  part  in  public  life. 
As  doctors  they  were  winning  the  confidence  of  the  public. 
In  literature,  and  even  in  the  practice  of  law,  women  were 
successful.  To  the  existing  feminine  organizations  was  added 
a  Society  for  Social  Assistance  for  the  Protection  of  Women. 
There  was  vast  scope  for  the  instruction  of  women  of  the 
poorer  classes  in  general  hygiene,  the  care  of  children, 
maternity  and  tieatment  of  the  sick. 

In  education  steady  progress  was  being  maintained  and  it 
was  stated  that  in  1949  about  a  thousand  new  schools  were 
opened.  About  1,900  Turkish  students  were  studying  abroad. 

Interest,  not  unmixed  with  irony,  was  roused  by  a  private 
American  expedition  to  search  for  the  remains  of  Noah's 
ark  on  Mount  Ararat.  As  this  is  a  frontier  district,  the 
military  authorities  were  concerned  and  it  had  some  political 
repercussion:  the  U.S  S  R.  would  not  credit  it  as  a  genuine 
scientific  search  and  regarded  it  as  an  attempt  at  spying  on 
their  territory.  (MA.  BR.) 

Education.  Schools  (1947-48)  primary  15,317,  teachers  30,708, 
pupils  1,487,997,  secondary  265,  teachers  3,845,  pupils  63,135;  lyceev 
86,  teachers  1,862,  pupils  23,744,  vocational  231,  teachers  4,408, 
pupils  66,649,  institutions  of  higher  education  34  (including  the 
universities  of  Ankara  and  Istanbul),  teaching  staff  1,437,  students 
25,648.  Illiteracy  (1935)  men  76  7%,  women  91  8%;  (1945)  men 
49  2,  women  77  5n/0 

Agriculture.  Main  crops  COCO  metric  tons,  1948,  average  for  1934-38 
in  brackets)  wheat  4,854  (3,708);  barley  2,163  (2,075),  maize  701 
(557),  rye  517  (368),  oats  339  (247),  potatoes  462  (181),  sugar  beet 
721  (432);  tobacco  74  0  (55  4),  cotton,  ginned,  52  (52)  Livestock 
COCO  head,  Jan  1948,  Jan  1939  in  brackets)-  sheep  23,500  (25,221), 
goats  13,500;  cattle  9,761  (9,311),  mohair  goats  3,975,  asses  1,725 
(1,387),  horses  1,071  (964),  buffaloes  916,  merino  sheep  172,  camels 
98;  mules  96  (74);  poultry  24,410 

Industry.  Industrial  state  aided  establishments  (1941)  931,  persons 
employed  31,110.  fuel  and  power  (1949,  1938  in  brackets)  coal 
4,140,000  (2,589,000)  metric  tons,  electricity  663  (312)  million  kwh 
Metals  ('000  metric  tons,  1949,  1938  in  brackets)  iron  ore,  metal 
content,  207  (76  8),  blister  copper  10  7  (2  3),  chrome  ore,  Cr<20< 
content,  50  0  (106  5)  Raw  materials  ('000  metric  tons,  1949)  pig 
iron  110(1939  13),  steeMOl  ( 1940  38),  cement  428  ( 1937-38  287), 
cotton  yarn  30  (1937-38  19  7),  wool  yarn  8  (1937-38  4  5) 

Foreign  Trade.  (Million  JLF,  1949,  in  brackets  1948)  Import  8126 
(770  1),  export  693  9  (551  0)  Principal  commodities  exported  ( 1949) 
tobacco  37  5"0,  dried  fruit  and  nuts  13  4°0,  cotton  1 1  °0  Principal 
items  imported  machinery  21  5°,,,  cotton  and  wool,  yarns  and 
manufactures  15  9U0,  iron,  steel  and  manufactures  thereof  10  l°/n\ 
wheat  5/0,  motor  vehicles  4  7"0  Mam  sources  of  import  (1949) 
United  States  20"0,  United  Kingdom  17  3°0,  Czechoslovakia  7  7"; 
Main  destination  of  exports  Western  Germany  16  1  "„,  U  S  14  3%, 
U  K  12  3°0 

Transport  and  Communications.  Railways  (1948)  7,613  km, 
rolling  stock  locomotives  991,  passenger  coaches  1,85^,  goods  wagons 
18,663.  Railway  traffic  (1948,  1938  in  brackets)  2,304  ( 1,044)  million, 
passenger  km.  and  2,294  (1,156)  million  tons-km  Roads  (1947) 
43,462  km  ,  including  9,040  km  metalled  (of  which  75",,  in  need  of 
repair).  Motor  vehicles  registeied  (1947)  cars  4,890,  lorries  and  buses 
10,310.  Shipping  (1948)  total  tonnage  241,000  gross  registered  tons 
Telephones  (1948)  subscribers  43,1 14  Wireless  (1948)  licences  223,356 

Finance  and  Banking.  (Million  £T)  Budget  (1950  est  ,  1949  revised 
est  in  brackets):  revenue  1,313  3  (1,251  8),  expenditure  1,487  2 


(1,371  9)  Money  deposit  (May  1949)  819,  (May  1948)  718  Currency 
circulation  (Nov  1949)  951,  (Nov  1948)1,008.  Gold  reserves  (million 
US  S)'  (Nov  1949)  154,  (Dec  1945)2407  Currency  the  lira  or 
Turkish  pound  with  an  exchange  rate  of  il  £T7  875  (£T11  334 
before  Sept  18,  1949)  and  SI  £T2  825 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  European  Recovery  Programme  Fiirkey  Country 
Stmlv  (Washington,  1949),  Necmettin  Sadak,  "Turkey  Faces  the 
Soviets,"  Foreign  Affairs  (New  York,  April  1949),  Peter  Schmid, 
"  Turkey  the  Country  Without  Communists,"  The  Fortnightly  (Aug 
1949),  K  M  Smogor/ewski,  "Turkey  Turns  Towards  Democracy," 
the  Contemporary  Review  (Get  1949) 

UBANGUI-SHARl:   see  FRFNCH  UNION 
UGANDA:   see  BRITISH  EAST  AFRICA. 

UNDEN,  OSTEN,  Swedish  statesman  (b.  Karlstad, 
Aug  25,  1886),  studied  law  at  Lund  and  became  professor 
of  civil  law  at  Uppsala  (1917-37);  he  was  also  rector  of 
Uppsala  (1929-32)  After  a  period  as  cabinet  minister 
without  portfolio  (1917-20)  and  minister  of  justice  (1920) 
he  served  as  minister  of  foreign  affairs  from  1924  to  1926 
and  again  from  1945  onwards.  Between  1930  and  1933  he 
was  chairman  of  three  international  courts  of  arbitration. 
When  the  bill  empowering  the  Swedish  government  to  take 
steps  to  bring  the  country  into  the  United  Nations  was 
presented  to  the  Riksdag  in  1946  Undcn  pointed  out  that  the 
sanction  obligations  which  the  members  undertook  could 
only  be  implemented  if  the  permanent  members  of  the 
security  council  were  unanimous;  with  regard  to  the  possi- 
bility of  a  conflict  breaking  out,  instead,  between  the  per- 
manent members,  he  said  that  he  did  not  believe  the  Swedish 
people  felt  inclined  to  ally  themselves,  in  advance,  with  any 
group  of  great  powers  for  **  a  safer  insurance."  He  took  the 
initiative  in  negotiations  with  Denmark  and  Norway  regard- 
ing the  formation  of  a  defensive  Scandinavian  alliance  on 
the  basis  of  neutrality  He  made  it  clear,  however,  that 
Sweden  would  not,  despite  the  cast-west  crisis,  join  a  bloc 
"  by  way  of  a  Scandinavian  alliance  either  "  (May  9,  1948); 
earlier  he  had,  nevertheless,  called  the  struggle  against 
Swedish  Communists  **  part  of  the  watch  that  must  be  kept 
to  guard  Sweden's  freedom  and  independence"  (March  18, 
1948).  At  the  Inter-Parliamentary  conference  (Sept.  8,  1949) 
Unden  asked  whether  a  country  in  the  position  of  Mexico, 
for  instance,  would  be  expected  to  gain  in  security  through  a 
military  pact  with  the  U  S.S.R.  He  attended  the  first  meeting 
of  the  Council  of  Europe  (Aug  1949).  (E.  J.  L.) 

UNION  OF  SOVIET  SOCIALIST  REPUB- 
LICS. After  the  revolution  of  1917  the  former  Russian 
empire,  a  Eurasian  state  covering  parts  of  eastern  Europe 
and  northern  and  central  Asia,  became  on  Dec  30,  1922,  a 
federation  of  soviet  socialist  republics.  Area  (Sept.  17,  1939): 
8,173,557  sq  mi.  Pop.  (Jan  17,  1939,  census):  170,467,186. 
In  1939  the  union  consisted  of  11  republics  of  which  the 
Russian  Soviet  Federated  Socialist  republic  was  by  far  the 
largest  (78%  of  the  whole  territory  and  64%  of  the  popu- 
lation) Of  the  remaining  36%  of  the  population,  almost 
one-half  lived  in  the  Ukrainian  Soviet  Socialist  republic  (2% 
of  the  territory)  and  the  other  half  in  the  nine  other  republics 
of  the  union  The  U. S.S.R.  is  inhabited  by  almost  100 
dilTerent  nationalities  speaking  different  languages,  In  Jan. 
1939  Russians  constituted  58  4%  of  the  population,  Ukrain- 
ians 16  6%  and  Byelorussians  3  1%.  None  of  the  other 
nationalities,  all  non-Slav  and  most  of  them  non-Europeans, 
reached  3%  of  the  total  The  most  important  were  Uzbeks 
2  9%,  Tartars  2  5%,  Kazakhs  1-8%,  Jews  1  8%,  Azerbai- 
jams  I  3%,  Georgians  1  3%  and  Armenians  1  3% 

In  1939  the  U  S.S.R.  consisted  of  the  following  republics: 
Capital  Area  (sq  mi  )  Population 

Russians  HSR  Moscow  6,372,860  109,278,614 

Ukrainian  S  S  R  Kiev  171,777  30,960,221 

Byelorussia  S  S  R  Minsk  49,022  5,567,976 

Georgian  S  S  R  Tifiis  (Tbilisi)  27,020  3.542,289 


UNION   OF   SOVIET   SOCIALIST   REPUBLICS 


635 


Azerbaijan  S.S.R. 
Armenian  S.S.R. 
Uzbek  S.S.R.  . 
Kazakh  S.S.R.  . 
Kirghiz  S.S.R.  . 
Tad/hik  S.S.R.  . 
Turkmen  S.S.R. 


Capital 
.    Baku 
.    Hrivan 
.   Tashkent 
.    Alma-Ata 
.    Frunze 
.   Stalinahad 
.    Ashkhabad 


Area  (sq.  mi.)  Population 

33,196  3,209,727 

11,580  1,281,599 

145,908  6,282,446 

1,059,184  6,145,937 

76.042  1,459,301 

55,584  1,485,091 

171,384  1,253,985 


Between     1939     and     1945     the     U.S.S.R.    considerably 

expanded  its  territory.     In  Europe  the  following  areas  were 
annexed:                                                         Arca 

(in  sq.  mi.)  Population 

Fslonia      .                    18,357  1,134,000 

Latvia 25,395  1,994,500 

Lithuania  (including  the  Wilno  area)       .          .         25,173  3,032,000 

From  Finland 17,596  100,000* 

From  Poland  (excluding  the  Wilno  area)          .        64,824  10,31  5,000 

From  Rumania  (Bessarabia  and  N.  Bukovina)          19,338  3,650,000 

From  Czechoslovakia  (Subcarpathian  Ruthcnia)       4,856  725,400 

From  Germany  (N.F.  part  of  Fast  Prussia)       .           5,096  830,000 

*  About  400,000  Karclians  left  in   1944  to  resettle  in  Finland. 

In  Europe  the  territorial  possessions  of  the  U.S.S.R.  had 
increased  by  180,635  sq.  mi.,  an  area  twice  as  large  as  the 
United  Kingdom,  and  with  a  population  of  21,780,900. 
From  Japan  the  U.S.S.R.  acquired  Karafuto  (southern 
Sakhalin),  an  area  of  13,935  sq.  mi.  with  a  population  of 
331,900,  and  the  Chishima  or  Kurile  Islands  (3,994  sq.  mi.; 
pop.  c.  90,000).  In  addition  the  formerly  "  independent  " 
republic  of  Tannu  Tuva  (64,000  sq.  mi.;  pop.  c.  65,000) 
was  annexed  to  the  union. 

As  the  result  of  this  territorial  expansion  the  U.S.S.R.  after 
World  War  11  formed  a  federation  of  16  republics.  The  five 
new  ones  were:  the  Karelo-Finnish  S.S.R.  (cap.  Petro- 
zavodsk), consisting  of  the  territory  ceded  by  Finland  and 
of  the  former  autonomous  Soviet  Karelia;  the  Moldavian 
S.S.R.  (cap.  Chisinau  or  Kishinev),  consisting  of  most  of 
Rumanian  Bessarabia  and  the  former  autonomous  Soviet 
Moldavia;  and  Estonia  (q.v.\  Latvia  (q.v.)  and  Lithuania 
(</.v.)  transformed  into  Soviet  republics.  Total  de  facto  area: 
8,436,121  sq.  mi. 

Addition  of  the  figures  quoted  above  would  give  a  total 
population  of  192,735,000.  The  official  estimate  for  1940  was 
193  million  (E.  Davydov  in  Bolshava  Sovietskaya  Entsikh- 
pedia\  S. S.S.R.,  suppl.  vol.,  Moscow,  1948).  The  only 
postwar  estimate,  published  in  Pravda  of  Jan.  23,  1946,  by 
Gheorghy  F.  Alexandrov,  then  propaganda  chief  of  the 
All-Union  Communist  party,  gave  the  same  figure.  If  this 
were  correct,  it  would  be  necessary  to  assume  that  by  1946 
Soviet  war  losses  were  compensated  by  the  natural  increase 
of  population.  The  only  official  estimate  of  the  numbers 
killed  in  fighting  was  given  by  Audrey  A.  Zhdanov  in  a  speech 
on  Nov.  6,  1946,  as  7  million.  General  A.  Guillaume,  who 
during  World  War  11  was  chief  of  the  French  military 
mission  to  the  Soviet  Union,  estimated  the  number  of  killed 
at  7  •  5  million,  of  severely  wounded  or  sick  who  died  later  at 
3  million  and  the  number  of  civilians  killed  or  dying  from 
hunger  or  exhaustion  at  1 1  million. 

Chief  towns  (1939  census):  Moscow  (q.v.)  (4,137,018); 
Leningrad  (3,191,304);  Kiev  (846,293);  Kharkov  (833,432); 
Baku  (809,347);  Gorki,  formerly  Ni/hny  Novgorod  (644,1 16); 
Odessa  (604,223);  Tashkent  (585,005);  Tiflis  (519,175); 
Rostov-on-Don  (510,253);  Dnepropetrovsk  (500,662). 
Chairman  of  the  presidium  of  the  supreme  soviet  of  the 
U.S.S.R.,  Nikolay  M.  Shvcrnik;  chairman  of  the  council 
of  ministers,  Marshal  Joseph  V.  Stalin  (q.v.);  minister  of 
foreign  affairs,  Andrey  Y.  Vyshinsky  (q.v.). 

History.  The  year  1949  in  the  history  of  the  U.S.S.R.  was 
notable  for  events  both  in  the  external  field  and  also  in 
internal  affairs  such  as  the  announcement  concerning  an 
atomic  explosion  on  Soviet  territory  which  seemed  to  bear 
directly  on  the  relations  between  the  Soviet  Union  and  other 
powers.  As  far  as  internal  history  was  concerned,  external 


Ernest  Bevin  is  here  depicted  by  B.  Efimov  in  "  Izvestia  *'  (Moscow) 
as  the  "protector"  of  the  "fascist"  regimes  of  Marshal  Tito 
( Yugoslavia),  A'.  Tsaldaris  (Greece)  and  Rhee  Syngman  (Korea). 

observation  could  detect  little  that  was  new.  It  was  generally 
assumed  that,  under  much  the  same  leadership  as  previously, 
the  ideological,  economic  and  administrative  patterns  of 
Soviet  society  and  government  were  being  steadily  con- 
solidated with  little  to  indicate  the  success  or  failure  of  such 
efforts  beyond  the  somewhat  controversial  statistics  about 
economic  achievements  that  the  Soviet  government  from 
time  to  time  put  forth.  Despite  such  events  as  the  Congress 
of  the  Supporters  of  Peace  which  met  in  Moscow  on  Aug.  29, 
there  was  still  the  minimum  of  contact  between  the  peoples  of 
the  Soviet  Union  and  those  of  the  rest  of  the  world,  since  the 
foreign  delegates  to  such  functions  were  chosen  from  those 
known  in  advance  to  be  devoted  to  the  Soviet  cause  and  the 
occasional  visits  abroad  of  Soviet  intellectuals  were  clearly 
also  intended  as  methods  of  spreading  propaganda  rather 
than  of  genuine  inquiry.  The  limitations  upon  the  freedom 
of  movement  of  members  of  the  Moscow  diplomatic  corps; 
the  continued  evidence  of  the  disfavour  with  which  Soviet 
citizens  employed  by,  or  having  contacts  with,  foreigners 
were  regarded  by  their  own  government;  the  small  number  of 
foreign  journalists  stationed  in  the  Soviet  Union  (only  the 
Daily  Worker  being  represented  among  London  newspapers); 
and  even  such  a  thing  as  the  compulsory  channeling  of  the 
exchange  of  books  and  periodicals  through  a  department 
of  the  Soviet  foreign  ministry— were  all  in  the  nature  of 
supports  for  this  policy  of  self-isolation.  In  view  of  this 
policy  reports  about  disputes  within  the  Soviet  hierarchy 
and  matters  connected  with  the  eventual  succession  to  the 
authority  of  Marshal  Joseph  Stalin  were  rightly  treated  with 
total  reserve  by  responsible  commentators  in  other  countries. 
This  self-isolation  was,  however,  itself  a  part  of  a  general 
attitude  on  the  part  of  the  Soviet  regime  that  explained  its 
attitude  to  the  various  matters  that  arose  in  foreign  affairs. 
One  could  sum  it  up  by  saying  that  during  1949  the  object 
of  the  Soviet  Union  seemed  to  be  to  consolidate  its  hold 
over  the  eastern  European  countries  which  it  dominated  to 
the  extent  that  this  was  possible  without  an  armed  breach 
with  the  western  powers  and  without  formally  renouncing 
the  principal  foundations  of  the  postwar  settlement,  the 


636 


UNION   OF   SOVIET   SOCIALIST   REPUBLICS 


Soviet  army  and  party  leaders  watching  tne  celebrations  in  Moscow  on  the  32nd  anniversary  of  the  1917  revolution.  Left  to  right.  Marshal 
N.  D:  Yakovlev;  General  A.  V.  Khrulev,  inspector  of  the  reserve  formations;  General  S.  M.  Shtemenko,  chief  of  staff;  Marshal  N.  N. 
Voronov,  inspector  of  artillery;  Colonel  General  P.  F.  Zhigarev,  deputy  commander  of  the  air  force;  Marshal  L.  A.  Govorov  V;  Marshal 

S.  M.  Budenny*};    Marshal  V.  D.  Sokolovsky  ^ ;    Marshal  A.  M.  Vasilevsky^  minister  of  defence;    Marshal  N.  A.  Bulganin*\     

*t  Deputy  Minister  of  Defence  *  Member  of  the  Politburo  t  Deputy  Prime  Minister 


United  Nations  charter  and  the  Potsdam  agreement.  To  this 
primary  object,  other  issues  both  politicaJ  and  economic 
appeared  wholly  subordinate. 

Assimilation  of  People's  Democracies.  In  as  far  as  the  so- 
called  satellite  countries  were  concerned,  the  process  of 
assimilation  into  the  Soviet  system  was  carried  on  with  little 
interference  from  the  rest  of  the  world.  It  took  the  form  of 
combating  what  appeared  to  be  the  most  powerful  forces 
opposing  the  process — religious  organizations,  in  particular 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  Hungary,  Poland  and 
Czechoslovakia,  and  those  elements  which  might  seek  to  give 
local  Communism  a  nationalist  twist  in  the  form  of  an  in- 
sufficient subordination  of  local  matters  to  the  total  require- 
ments of  Soviet  planning.  It  also  took  the  less  spectacular 
form  of  continuing  the  transformation  of  the  political  and 
economic  institutions  of  the  so-called  people's  democracies 
into  the  single-party  socialism  of  the  Soviet  Union  itself. 
In  each  case,  since  the  countries  maintained  a  formal  inde- 
pendence, it  is  proper  to  treat  these  issues  as  belonging  to 
their  own  internal  history;  but  for  the  sake  of  example  one 
might  point  to  Hungary  (q.v.)  as  exemplifying  all  these 
tendencies.  The  trial  of  Cardinal  Jozsef  Mindszenthy  in 
February  marked  one  stage  of  the  struggle,  that  of  Laszlo 
Rajk  in  September,  the  other.  In  between,  in  August,  a  new 
constitution  had  been  adopted,  closely  modelled  on  the  1936 
Soviet  constitution.  But  for  the  fact  that  the  collectivization 
of  agriculture  was  still  in  the  future,  it  could  be  argued  that 
the  final  stage  in  such  assimilation — the  incorporation  of 
Hungary  within  the  Soviet  Union — was  not  far  off.  Still 
more  striking  an  evidence  of  the  completeness  of  Soviet 
control  was  provided  by  Poland  (^.v.).  It  was  there  announced 
early  in  November  that  the  Soviet  Marshal  K.  K.  Rokos- 
sovsky,  a  Pole  by  birth,  had  been  released  by  the  Soviet 
Union  to  act  as  commander  in  chief  and  minister  of  defence 
of  Poland  and  had  assumed  Polish  citizenship  for  the  purpose. 
In  face  of  such  demonstrations  of  Soviet  power,  there  was 
little  to  be  hoped  for  from  western  protests  about  the  viola- 
tions of  human  rights  under  the  peace  treaties  to  the  three 
ex-German  satellites  or  from  the  protest  in  November 
against  the  convening  of  a  conference  to  carry  out  the 
decisions  regarding  Danubian  navigation  contained  in  the 
Belgrade  convention  of  Aug.  18,  1948. 

It  was  argued  that  some  at  least  of  the  Soviet  intransigence 
where  local  Communist  attitudes  were  concerned  was  due 
to  the  fear  that  the  successful  resistance  of  Marshal  Tito  to 


the  economic  and  propaganda  weapons  of  the  Cominform 
might  inspire  emulation  elsewhere.  There  was  indeed  no 
doubt  but  that  the  Tito  "  heresy  "  was  regarded  with  more 
aversion  than  outright  capitalism,  since  the  ideological 
foundation  of  the  Soviet  position  was  that  there  could  be 
no  half-way  house  between  total  acceptance  of  the  Soviet 
lead  and  full  participation  in  the  alleged  aggressive  plans  of 
the  war-mongering  Anglo-Saxon  imperialists.  The  Soviet 
Union  took,  therefore,  a  full  share  in  the  increasing  pressure 
brought  upon  Tito  (see  YUGOSLAVIA). 

Soviet  Policy  in  Germany.  The  course  of  events  in  Germany, 
where  the  year  began  with  the  Berlin  airlift  still  in  progress 
and  with  consequent  tension  between  the  Soviet  Union  and 
the  western  powers,  was  more  complicated.  After  some 
rather  oblique  approaches  from  the  Soviet  side,  the  foreign 
ministers  eventually  met  again  at  the  end  of  May  and  after  a 
month  of  discussion  sufficient  agreement  on  the  local  issue 
was  reached  to  permit  the  partial  lifting  of  the  Soviet 4t  block- 
ade "  and  the  gradual  winding  up  of  the  airlift  in  the  autumn. 
Nevertheless,  the  affairs  of  Berlin  (q.v.)  continued  to  add  their 
quota  of  trouble  to  the  international  situation.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  the  second  half  of  1949,  attention  shifted  to  more 
general  aspects  of  the  German  problem,  with  the  Soviet 
authorities  still  torn  apparently  between  their  fear  of  a 
revived  German  nationalism  and  their  determination  to  make 
what  they  could  out  of  their  claims  to  be  the  real  protagonists 
of  German  unity  and  of  their  contention  that  it  was  the 
western  allies  who  were  splitting  the  country.  Matters  were 
precipitated  by  the  inauguration  of  the  Bonn  government 
in  Western  Germany;  at  the  beginning  of  October  the 
Russians  countered  this  move  by  setting  up  a  German 
people's  republic  in  the  eastern  zone.  The  form  of  the  new 
regime  was  closely  modelled  on  that  of  the  other  satellite 
countries  and  it  had  all  the  appurtenances  of  sovereignty 
including  a  foreign  minister.  But  despite  a  message  (Oct.  13) 
from  Marshal  Stalin  to  Wilhelm  Pieck,  president  of  the  new 
republic,  in  which  the  Soviet  leader  referred  to  these  events 
as  a  "  turning  point  in  the  history  of  Europe,"  it  rapidly 
became  clear  that  the  Russians  were  not  proposing  in  the 
immediate  future  either  to  withdraw  their  troops  or  to  hand 
over  the  levers  of  control.  The  appointment  of  a  Soviet 
diplomatic  representative  to  the  new  government  did  not 
appear  to  diminish  the  importance  of  the  position  of  General 
Vasily  Ivanovich  Chuykov,  transformed  into  the  head  of  a 
control  commission,  nor  of  his  political  advisers,  Ivan 


UNION   OF   SOVIET   SOCIALIST   REPUBLICS 


637 


—Marshal  K.  E.  Voroshilov*\ ;     V.  M.  Molotov*\;   G.  M.  Malenkov+1;  L.  P.  Beria*t;    A.  A.  Andreyev*^;   L.  M.  Kaganovich*\; 

N.  M.  Shvernik**  chairman  of  the  presidium  of  the  Supreme  Soviet;    A.  N.  Kosyghin*\;    N.  A.  Suslov^;    G.  M.  Popov,  former  secretary  of  the 
Moscow  committee  of  the  Ail-Union  Communist  party  (V.K.P.),  from  Jan.  1950  minister  of  town  planning;     P.  K.  Ponomarenkol   and 

M.  F.  Shkiryatov\. 
*  Member  of  the  Politburo  t  Deputy  Prime  Minister  {  Secretary  of  the  Central  committee  of  the  All-Union  Communist  party  (V.K.P.) 


Fedorovich  Semichastnov  and  Vladimir  Semenovich  Semenov. 
The  Russians  appeared  unwilling  to  do  anything  that  might 
render  more  difficult  contacts  between  their  friends  in 
Eastern  and  in  Western  Germany  or  to  make  impossible 
a  resumption  of  four-power  talks  under  the  provisions  of 
the  Potsdam  agreement  which  they  continued  to  invoke 
(see  GERMANY! 

Soviet  Policy  in  China.  Outside  Europe  the  most  important 
area  of  Soviet  interest  was  China  where  the  collapse  of  the 
main  Nationalist  resistance  led  to  sweeping  advances  by  the 
Chinese  Communist  forces.  The  Soviet  government  did  not 
appear  to  wish  to  precipitate  a  crisis  in  this  field,  for  instance 
by  immediate  insistence  on  the  replacement  of  the  Chinese 
delegation  at  U.N.;  but  all  evidence  pointed  to  a  continued 
close  connection  between  the  Chinese  Communists  and  the 
Russians.  In  October  it  was  reported  that  large  numbers  of 
Soviet  technical  staff  had  arrived  in  Peking;  and  in  as  far  as 
divisions  of  opinion  among  the  Chinese  Communist  leaders 
could  be  detected,  it  was  held  that  the  pro-Soviet  wing  headed 
by  Liu  Shao-chi,  secretary  general  of  the  party,  had  clearly 
got  the  upper  hand.  It  was  he  who  made  the  keynote  speech 
at  the  conference  of  Trade  Unions  of  Asiatic  and  Austral- 
asian countries,  held  in  Peking  in  November,  at  which  a 
permanent  bureau  was  set  up  to  perform,  it  seemed,  the 
functions  of  a  Cominform  for  the  far  east  (see  CHINA; 
COMMUNIST  MOVEMENT). 

Atomic  Energy.  The  difference  between  the  Soviet  and  the 
western  approach  to  the  control  of  atomic  energy  continued 
throughout  the  year.  T  he  matter  was  given  a  new  complexion 
by  the  announcement  from  Washington  on  Sept.  23  that  the 
western  governments  had  evidence  of  a  recent  atomic 
explosion  in  the  Soviet  Union.  Official  Soviet  comment  on 
Sept.  25  was  to  the  effect  that  much  blasting  work  for  peaceful 
purposes  had  recently  been  going  on  in  Russia  and  that  this 
might  have  attracted  outside  attention.  On  the  other  hand 
it  was  recalled  that  Vyacheslav  Mikhailovich  Molotov  had 
declared  as  long  ago  as  Nov.  6,  1947,  that  the  atomic  bomb 
was  no  longer  a  secret.  Supporting  the  Soviet  proposal  before 
the  Atomic  Energy  commission  of  the  United  Nations  for 
simultaneous  conventions  on  prohibition  and  control,  Andrey 
Yanuarevich  Vyshinsky  declared  in  a  speech  on  Nov.  10 
that  the  Russians  were  using  atomic  energy  not  to  stockpile 
bombs  but  for  peaceful  purposes,  for  razing  mountains  and 
irrigating  deserts.  This  statement  was  received  with  some 
scepticism  by  foreign  experts.  The  Soviet-licensed  German 


press  located  the  explosion  at  the  Tingai  Gates  between  the 
Urals  and  the  Kazakh  mountains. 

Home  Politics.  The  structure  of  Soviet  government 
remained  substantially  intact,  though  a  continuation  was 
noticed  of  the  previous  tendency  to  merge  into  single  minis- 
tries various  specialized  economic  ministries  that  had  been 
given  independent  existence  as  a  part  of  the  wartime  produc- 
tion drive.  The  total  number  of  ministries  was  thus  reduced. 
More  important  seemed  certain  changes  in  personnel. 

On  March  4,  Molotov  was  replaced  as  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  by  his  deputy  Vyshinsky  whose  own  place  was  taken 
by  Andrey  A.  Gromyko,  the  permanent  Soviet  delegate  to  the 
United  Nations.  On  Aug.  15  Arkady  losipovich  Lavrentiev 
also  became  a  deputy  minister  of  foreign  affairs  after  his 
withdrawal  from  the  Belgrade  embassy.  At  the  same  time 
as  Molotov  was  replaced,  the  minister  of  foreign  trade, 
Anastasy  Ivanovich  Mikoyan  was  also  replaced  by  his 
deputy  Mikhail  N.  Menshikov.  Since  both  Molotov  and 
Mikoyan  remained  deputy  prime  ministers  and  members  of 
the  Politburo,  the  political  significance  of  the  changes 
remained  uncertain. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  dismissal  on  March  14  of  Nikolay 
Alexeyevich  Voznesensky  from  his  post  as  chairman  of  the 
State  Planning  commission,  from  his  deputy  premiership 
and  from  the  Politburo  was  thought  to  imply  his  disgrace. 
He  was  succeeded  in  his  two  administrative  capacities  by 
Maxim  Zakharovich  Saburov.  On  the  same  day  it  was  an- 
nounced that  Ivan  Goliakov  was  replaced  as  president  of  the 
Supreme  Court  by  Anatoly  Volin. 

On  March  24  Marshal  Nikolay  Alexandrovich  Bulganin 
was  replaced  as  minister  of  the  armed  forces  by  Marshal 
Alexandr  Mikhailovich  Vasilevsky  whose  place  as  first 
deputy  minister  was  filled  by  Marshal  Vasily  Danilovich 
Sokolovsky.  On  June  14  Ivan  Fedorovich  Tevosian,  minister 
of  metallurgical  industry,  was  replaced  by  Anatoly  Kuzmin, 
being  himself  appointed  deputy  prime  minister. 

With  this  appointment  the  number  of  deputy  prime  ministers 
was  raised  to  13.  They  were:  V.  M.  Molotov  (first 
deputy  prime  minister),  Andrey  A.  Andreyev,  Marshal  L.  P. 
Beria  (^.v.),  Marshal  N.  A.  Bulganin,  Lazar  M.  Kaganovich, 
A.  N.  Kosyghin,  Alexey  Krutikov,  Vyacheslav  A.  Malyshev, 
G.  M.  Malenkov  (^.v.),  A.  I.  Mikoyan,  I.  F.  Tevosian, 
Marshal  Klimenty  E.  Voroshilov  and  M.  Z.  Saburov. 

After  the  dismissal  of  Voznesensky  the  12  members  of 
the  Politburo  were:  Stalin,  Andreyev,  Beria,  Bulganin, 


638 


UNION  OF   SOVIET   SOCIALIST   REPUBLICS 


Kaganovich,  Nikolay  S  Khrushchev,  Kosyghm,  Malenkov, 
Mikoyan,  Molotov,  N.  M.  Shvernik  and  Voroshilov. 

In  view  of  the  importance  attached  to  outward  signs  of  the 
order  of  precedence  within  the  top  Soviet  hierarchy,  some 
significance  was  attached  to  the  choice  of  Gheorghi  Maxt- 
milianovich  Malenkov  (</  v.)  to  make  the  keynote  speech  in 
the  Nov.  6  celebrations  of  the  anniversary  of  the  revolution. 
Slightly  before  this  the  possibility  of  a  further  shake-up  in  the 
government  was  suggested  by  an  attack  in  Pravda  on  the 
editorial  board  of  the  Soviet  trade  union  organ  Tnui,  followed 
on  Nov.  23  by  a  strongly  worded  attack  on  officials  of  the 
important  Ministry  of  Labour  Reserves  for  falsifying 
accounts  in  an  attempt  to  give  a  false  picture  of  success.  The 
criticism  of  Trud  was  the  moie  remarkable  in  that  in  April, 
the  Soviet  trade  unions  had  held  their  10th  congress— the 
first  for  1 7  years. 

In  the  first  quarter  of  1949,  there  were  numerous  congresses 
of  the  Communist  parties  of  the  constituent  republics  of  the 
U.S.S.R.  and  of  local  party  organizations.  These  did  little 
more  than  restate  the  current  themes  of  Soviet  propaganda 
but  there  was  some  suggestion  that  local  nationalism  was  still 
regarded  as  a  threat  m  both  the  Ukraine  and  Byelorussia. 
And  later  in  the  year  there  were  reports  of  purges  in  the 
Communist  parties  of  the  Ukraine,  Uzbekistan  and  Kazakh- 
stan. Some  internal  divergences  of  opinion  might  also  explain 
why  the  expected  congress  of  the  All-Umon  Communist 
party  did  not  take  place  during  the  year  although  there 
was  no  evidence  as  to  the  nature  of  the  disagreements  in 
question.  In  April,  the  llth  Congress  of  the  Young  Com- 
munist league  (Komsomol)  was  held  and  new  rules  for  the 
organization  were  adopted,  stress  being  laid  on  its  responsi- 
bility for  carrying  out  the  decisions  of  the  party  and  the 
government  in  the  economic  and  cultural  sphere. 

Cultural  Life.  There  was  no  abatement  in  1949  of  the  Soviet 
claims  that  the  Russians  had  been  responsible  for  all  the 
most  important  scientific  achievements  of  the  past  and  were 
also  culturally  the  leading  nation.  Nor  was  there  any  slacken- 
ing of  pressure  upon  all  forms  of  cultural  activity  to  lend 
themselves  wholeheartedly  to  the  service  of  the  regime  and 
its  economic  social  and  political  ends.  Any  tendency  to 
look  outside  the  U.S.S.R.  for  inspiration  was  branded  as 
decadent  "  cosmopolitanism/'  In  the  spring  the  Literaturnaya 
Gazeta  published  a  denunciation  of  a  large  number  of  literary 
critics  for  indulging  in  this  heresy.  It  was  noted  that  almost 
all  of  the  persons  denounced  either  had  Jewish  surnames  or 
had  their  former  Jewish  names  given  in  brackets.  This  was 
unprecedented  in  the  Soviet  press;  and  the  anti-Semitic 
nature  of  the  campaign  was  subsequently  made  clear  in  other 
ways.  Foreign  commentators  were,  however,  prone  to  see 
in  this  less  a  cultural  than  a  political  manifestation,  a  fear  lest 
Soviet  Jews  might,  however  mildly,  feel  inclined  to  seek  some 
kind  of  contact  with  the  new  state  of  Israel  and  thus  expose 
themselves  to  foreign  contamination.  The  measures  against 
Zionism  in  the  satellite  countries  and  the  frictions  between 
the  Israeli  government  and  some  of  the  people's  democracies 
were  witness  to  the  same  thing.  Soviet  patriotism  seemed 
not  merely  to  demand  total  allegiance  but  to  emphasize  its 
Russian  character,  rather  than  the  multinational  facets  so 
much  in  evidence  before  World  War  II.  (M.  BLF.) 

Education.  According  to  an  article  published  in  Izvestia  (Dec  16, 
1949)  by  Scrghey  Kaftanov,  the  Soviet  minister  of  higher  education, 
the  U.S  S.R  had  in  1949  more  than  220,000  elementary  and  secondary 
schools  with  a  total  of  about  34  million  pupils  (in  1938  31,517,000; 
in  1914,  within  the  1921  frontiers,  there  were  5,155,600  pupils  in 
elementary  and  765,600  in  secondary  schools).  As  stated  by  Lavrenty 
P.  Beria  in  Pravda  (Dec.  21)  78,000  of  these  schools  were  outside  the 
Russian  S.F.S  R  ,  that  is,  teaching  was  given  in  other  than  the  Russian 
language.  There  were  about  3,500  secondary  technical  schools  with 
1,094,000  pupils  (951,000  in  1938,  35,800  in  1914).  There  were  also 
31  universities  and  806  other  institutions  of  higher  education  or  V.U  Z. 
with  770,000  students  (in  1938  there  were  23  universities  and  727 


V  U  Z.  with  602,900  students,  in  1914  10  universities  and  81  institu- 
tions of  higher  education  with  112,000  students)  Illiteracy.  (1897 
census,)  76%,  (1939  census)  18  8"0 

Agriculture.  After  postwar  annexations  the  total  arable  land  of  the 
U.S.S  R  extended  to  422  million  hectares,  371  million  ha  of  which 
belonged  to  246,000  collective  farms  or  kolkhozy  and  51  million  ha 
to  4,540  state  farms  or  sovkhozy  The  Soviet  leaders  desciibed  their 
agriculture  as  the  largest  mecham/ed  agriculture  in  the  world  The  first 
machine  and  tractor  station  (m  t  s  )  was  organized  in  1928,  on  March 
10,  19*9,  Joseph  Stalin  announced  that  the  Soviet  Union  possessed 
6,350  in  t  s  with  481,500  tractors,  1 5  MOO  harvester-combines  and 
130,800  complex  and  semi-complex  threshers,  on  Jan  1,  1941,  the 
number  of  m  t  s  was  7,069  According  to  Soviet  official  figures  the 
German  invaders  destroyed  98,000  collective  and  2,890  state  farms 
with  2,890  m  t  s  By  1944  the  total  loss  in  agricultural  machinery  had 
reached  about  40°,,,  agricultural  production  fell  in  the  same  proportion 
and  losses  in  livestock,  were  even  greater  The  Five- Year  Plan  for  the 
Rehabilitation  and  Development  of  the  National  fconomy  of  the 
USSR  announced  on  March  15,  1946,  by  Nikolay  A  Voznesensky, 
the  then  chairman  of  the  State  Planning  commission,  fixed  rather 
modest  targets  for  crop  production  and  livestock  for  1950 

TABI  r   1 — AGKK  ULIURAI    PRODIK  IION   (million    metric   tons) 

19H*      1922      1930     1932     1938      1940     1945        1950 

(Plan) 

Gramj  80   1      SO  3     8}  6     69  9     90  0   119  0     80  0       127  0 

Sugar  Beet  10  9       1    5     14  0       6  6     16  7     21   8        —  26  0 

Potatoes  23  3        —       47  5       --       65  6     84  2        -         115   3 

Cotton  07         -          11        132727  31 

Source     Bohhava  Smirt\kava  f  «/wA lopedia    .S  S  S  R   (Moscow,  1948) 

•Prc-Woild  War  I  Russia  in  1921  frontiers 

tBrcad  grain  and  coarse  grain  togethei  According  to  Soviet  statistics  in  1938, 
for  example,  67%  of  all  grain  produced  was  bread  gram  (wheat  39  0,  tye  24  \ 
buckwheat  1  1,  millet  2  1  and  rice  0  3) 

The  Soviet  Union  reached  the  pre-1914  agricultural  production  level 
only  in  1930  and  the  subsequent  decline  was  the  result  of  the  collectivi/a- 
lion  policy  enforced  by  the  decree  of  r-cb  1,  1930  By  1938  total  produc- 
tion was  greater  than  before  1914,  but  not  the  output  per  head  of  the 
population  this  decreased  from  667  kg  to  about  530  kg  of  grain 
Increases  in  1940  resulted  from  annexations  of  terntoty  having  a  higher 
degree  of  agricultural  economy  And  the  gram  production  target  for 
1950  meant  exactly  the  same  output  per  head  of  the  population  as  in 
1913  On  Nov  6,  1949,  Gheorghi  M  Malenkov  stated  that  in  1948 
the  gross  gram  harvest  had  all  but  attained  the  level  of  1940  and  that 
the  1949  harvest  had  reached  122  5  million  metric  tons 

TABI  F  II  — Livi  si  OCR  (million  head,  July  of  each  year) 

1916     1922      1929     1933      1938     1940     1945         1950 

(Plan) 

Horses  35  8     24   1      14  6     16  6     17  5     20  6     10  5          15  5 

Cattle  60  6     45  8     67   1      38  4     63  2     71   0     47  0         65  3 

Pigs  .          20  9     12   1     20  7     12   1      30  6     36   1      10  4         31   2 

Sheep  113-0     84  3   133   1\       ,   .    2 

Goats  8-2       68      13.5  j 50  „   102  5    108   5     6^4        1215 

Source    Bohhuya  So\'iet\k<i\d  kntviklopedia 

The  targets  for  1950  meant  that  the  Soviet  Union  would  possess 
about  34  head  of  cattle,  16  head  of  pigs  and  64  head  of  sheep  or  goats 
per  100  inhabitants  as  against  50  head  of  cattle,  17  head  of  pigs  and 
over  100  head  of  sheep  or  goats  per  100  inhabitants  of  pre-1916  Russia 
At  the  beginning  of  1949  it  appeared  that  the  development  of  animal 
husbandry  under  the  hve-year  plan  was  not  progressing  satisfactorily. 
A  new  three-year  plan  published  on  April  19  slightly  reduced  the  total 
targets  for  1950  This  plan  is  summan/ed  in  Table  III 

TABLP   III  — THRFE-YIAR   PLAN   FOR   LIVES loric 
[Results  aimed  at  for  collective  and  state  farms  in  million  head] 

1949  1950  1951 

C  I          S  F  C  h          S  h  C  f«          S  F 

Cattle  24  0         40  28  0         45  34  0         57 

Pigs  10  0         34  130         40  180         56 

Sheep  and  Goats         62  4         93  73  0       10  7  88  0       135 

Poultry  65  0  -  120  0  200  0         — 

Source  Decree  of  U  S  S  R  Council  of  Ministers  and  Central  Committee  of 
the  All-Umon  Communist  Party  (Izveztia,  April  19,  1949) 

These  figures  do  not  include  the  personal  possessions  of  collective 
farmers,  factory  and  ofiice  workers  and  individual  peasant  households 
These  in  April  1949  consisted  of  30  million  head  of  cattle,  7  2  million 
head  of  pigs,  26  5  million  head  of  sheep  and  goats  and  350  million 
poultry  Incentives  offered  to  collective  farmers  by  the  Soviet  govern- 
ment were  listed  in  a  decree  published  on  April  21,  1949  A  collective 
farmer,  for  instance,  would  get  the  Order  of  Lenin  for  a  sow  producing 
in  a  year  22  pigs  each  weighing  at  least  15  kg  at  two  months,  a  milk- 
maid would  be  proclaimed  Heroine  of  Socialist  Work  for  a  cow  having 
a  yearly  milk  yield  of  5,000  kg 

Industry.  Reporting  on  the  five-year  plan  to  the  Supreme  Soviet 
Vo/nesensky  said  on  March  15,  1946,  that  the  gross  output  of  the 
entire  Soviet  industry  for  1950  was  fixed  at  48%  above  the  1940  level. 
The  Central  Statistical  board  pointed  out  that  in  the  fourth  quarter  of 
1949  the  average  monthly  output  of  gross  industrial  production 
exceeded  the  1940  level  by  53%.  In  assessing  the  index  figures  on  the 


UNION   OF   SOVIET   SOCIALIST   REPUBLICS 


639 


fulfilment  of  Soviet  plans  it  must  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  they 
are  reckoned  on  the  value  of  goods  produced  and  not  on  their  quantity 
The  target  for  1950  was  fixed  at  205,000  million  roubles  calculated  in 
1926-27  pi  ices  The  postwar  five-year  plan  also  fixed  the  weights  to 
be  produced  in  many  industries  and  these  are  compared  in  (able  IV 
with  published  production  figures 

TAULF  IV  — PRODUC  TION  OF  Fui  L,  Powi  R  AND  BASIC'  RAW  MA  TRIALS 
(Million  metuc  tons,    electricity  in   '000  million   kwh  ) 

1913*      1938*      1940*      194^|      1949f       1950 

(Plan) 

Coal  29    I      132  9      166  0      145  0     230  0     250  0 

Crude  oil  92       32  2       31   0        17  0       31   0       35  4 

Elcctncity  19       39  6       48    1       40  0       70  0       82  0 

Pig  iron  42        14   7        15  0        10  5        15  0        19  4 

Steel  42       18  0       18  3        135       20  1        25  4 

Cement  15         57         58  -          10  5 

*Boli>h<iya  Sovietskaya  l.ntsiklopetlta          ILstunatcs 

In  1940  almost  a  half  of  all  Soviet  coal  81  million  tons  was 
extracted  in  the  Donets  basin  (Donhas)  In  his  hook  Stn'H't  Ltfttomy 
During  the  Second  World  War  (New  York,  1949)  Voznesensky  said 
that  by  the  end  of  1945  the  Donbas  was  producing  96,000  tons  daily 
or  about  35  million  a  year  On  Dec  28,  1949,  A  h  Zasyadko,  Soviet 
minister  of  the  coal  industry,  reported  to  Stalin  that  in  the  fourth 
quarter  of  the  year  the  average  daily  coal  output  in  the  USSR  had 
passed  the  1950  target,  while  the  coal  output  in  the  Donbas  exceeded 
the  1940  level  From  a  pledge  given  by  the  miners  of  the  Soviet  Union 
in  a  letter  to  Stalin  on  his  70th  birthday  it  could  be  estimated  that  in 
1949  the  Donbas  produced  about  35%  ol  the  total  coal  output,  the 
Ku/bas  (Ku/netsk  basin,  western  Siberia)  17"o,  Urals  (including 
Vorkuta)  14%,  Moscow  basin  10 "0,  Karaganda  open-cast  mines 
7%,  eastern  Siberia  8%,  far  east  7%  and  central  Asia  2"; 

The  Central  Statistical  board  stated  that  the  output  ol  crude  oil  in 
the  fourth  quarter  oi  1949  had  passed  the  level  set  by  the  five-year  plan 
for  1950.  The  output  of  oil  in  the  Baku  basin  was  decreasing  before 
World  War  11,  the  total  of  44  3  million  tons  fixed  for  1937  (in  the 
second  five-year  plan)  was  never  reached  and  there  was  no  hope  of 
reaching  the  level  of  48  5  million  tons  fixed  for  1942  (in  the  thud 
five-year  plan)  In  1940  Baku  produced  27  3  million  tons  and  the 
other  basins  (Maikop,  Grozny,  tmba,  Tuyrnaza,  Aktyubinsk,  Ukhta) 
only  3  7  million,  according  to  the  postwar  five-year  plan,  Baku 
was  to  produce  22  7  million  tons  in  1950  and  the  other  basins  (including 
the  former  Polish  Borystaw  basin)  12  7  million  tons  An  indirect  sign 
of  a  petrol  scarcity  was  the  organisation  in  the  spiing  ot  1949,  at 
Korsun-Shevchenkovsky  near  Kiev,  of  the  first  machine  and  tractor 
station  equipped  with  electrically  driven  tractors 

Assuming  that  the  1949  steel  output  of  the  Soviet  Union  reached  the 
level  fixed  for  1950,  the  per  capita  production  between  1938  and  1949 
would  have  increased  only  from  107  to  130  kg,  compared  with  an 
increase  during  the  same  period  from  226  to  314  kg  produced  per 
head  of  the  population  in  the  United  Kingdom  and  from  216  to  547  kg 
in  the  United  States 

1  ittle  information  was  available  as  to  production  of  other  metals 
What  was  known  or  estimated  is  set  out  in  Fable  V. 

TABLL   V.     METAL    PRODUCTION    ('000  metric   tons) 

1936*  1938*  1940*  1950| 

Manganese  ore                          1,350  1,050  1,300  1,800 

Chrome  ore  (Cr-jOa  content)      90  90  96  310 

Nickel  ore  (metal  content)             2  25  87  25  5 

Copper                               .              83  83  7  107  224 

Lead                                                 50  8  69  75  195 

Zinc                                                    63   7  80  95  237 

Aluminium                                     30  43  8  55  174 

Tungsten  ore  (WOa  content)         12  21  29  12  7 

Tin       .                                         —  4  4  12  0 

*StathticaJ  Yearbook  of  the  League  of  Nations  (Geneva,  1945) 
tThe  1950  targets  were  calculated  on  the  ratio  of  increase  published  in  the 
five-year  plan  adopted  by  the  Supremo  Soviet  of  the  USSR    on  March  18,  1946 

With  emphasis  on  heavy  industry  the  Soviet  economy  looked  like 
a  war  economy,  while  the  people  were  deprived  of  consumer  goods  to 
a  considerable  degree  Table  VI  gives,  for  instance,  the  actual  production 
of  cotton  and  woollen  fabrics  and  leather  footwear  m  1937  compared 
with  amounts  fixed  for  1942  and  1950  by  the  third  and  the  postwar 
five-year  plans 

TABLE  VI  — TEXTILES   AND   Snots 

Output         Plan  Plan 

1937  1942  1950 

Cotton  fabrics  (million  m  )  .  3,442         4,900         4,686 

Woollen  fabrics  (million  m )  .  105  177  159 

Leather  footwear  (million  pairs)  .  164  258  240 

These  figures  show  that  there  was  no  prospect  of  any  rapid  improve- 
ment in  conditions  The  targets  for  1950  meant  about  1  sq.  yd.  of 
woollen  fabric  per  inhabitant  (compared  with  4.5  sq.  yd.  in  Great 
Britain  in  1948)  and  four  pairs  of  leather  shoes  per  five  inhabitants 
(as  against  over  two  pairs  per  head  supplied  in  1948  m  Great  Britain 
for  the  home  civilian  market  and  almost  three  pairs  in  the  U.S ). 


Housing  remained  the  acutest  problem  in  Soviet  economy  Between 
1923  and  1939  living-space  in  towns  decreased  from  6  4  sq  m  per  head 
to  4  sq  m  Vozncsensky  stated  in  his  book  that  out  of  2,567,000 
dwelling-houses  in  German-occupied  towns,  1,209,000  were  destroyed 
or  damaged,  and  that  to  restore  ptcwar  conditions  it  would  be  necessary 
to  build  more  than  60  million  sq  m  of  housing  floor-space  in  the 
war-damaged  areas  alone  The  five-year  plan  provided  for  building  or 
repairing  a  total  of  84  4  million  sq  m  of  living-space,  including  only 
3^  2  million  sq  m  allocated  to  war-damaged  areas  According  to 
the  Central  Statistical  board,  by  the  end  of  1949  a  toUl  of  72  million 
sq  m  of  living-space  had  been  built  or  restored 

The  postwar  five-year  plan  stipulated  that  by  19SO  about  \900  state 
industrial  plants,  including  3,200  in  war-ravaged  areas,  should  be 
built  or  restored  According  to  a  speech  by  Maienkovon  Nov  r»,  4,600 
enterprises  were  put  m'o  operation  by  Oct  1949  The  total  number  of 
state-owned  industrial  plants,  not  counting  co-operative  and  other 
small  plants,  was  estimated  in  1940  at  8,400  and  at  the  end  of  1949  at 
9,800  According  to  the  <  'entral  Statistical  board  the  total  number  of 
workers  employed  in  the  Soviet  economy  increased  by  1  8  million 
during  1949  thus  passing  the  prewar  level  by  15%  As  in  1940  the 
number  of  workers  employed  was  30  4  million  the  1949  figure  was 
therefore  34  9  million  In  1940  about  37  °0  were  employed  in  industry, 
10 /'0  in  transport,  9°/  m  agriculture,  7%  m  building,  etc 

Izveitia  asserted  on  Dec  15,  1949,  that  58  °0  of  all  workers  were 
Stakhanovitcs,  that  is,  that  rhey  were  taking  part  in  "  Socialist  emu- 
lation "  Pay  for  piece-work  was  the  basic  form  of  wage  and,  as  the 
Soviet  r.ntsiklopedia  commented,  this  wage  permitted  the  checking 
of  the  workers'  performance  and  stimulated  working  intensity.  Instead 
of  protecting  workers  against  employers  the  Soviet  prof^oyuz  (trade 
union)  was  an  instrument  of  state  coercion 

Regarding  working  hours  in  the  Soviet  Union  B  L  Markus  in  the 
supplementary  volume  of  the  Dolshaya  Sovietskaya  fjitsiklopcdia  stated 
4k  In  the  Soviet  country  an  8-hour  day  was  introduced  in  the  first 
days  of  the  great  October  socialist  revolution  In  the  years  of  the  first 
five-year  plan  this  was  changed  to  a  6-day  week  of  7-hour  days  in  Soviet 
industry  In  1940,  m  view  of  the  threat  of  war,  the  workers,  on  the 
initiative  of  their  profsoyuz,  passed  to  a  7-day  week  of  8-hour  days 
The  needs  of  war  compelled  the  temporary  introduction  during  hostili- 
ties of  mass  urgent  undertakings  necessary  for  the  front  The  end  of 
war  brought  about  a  change  in  the  nature  of  urgent  works  required. 
Nevertheless,  the  tasks  involved  in  healing  of  the  wounds  of  war  and 
the  necessity  for  further  rapid  development  of  the  national  economy 
make  it  essential  to  retain  the  8-hour  day." 

The  Soviet  worker  could  have  no  recourse  to  strikes  and 
absenteeism  was  consideied  sabotage  In  addition  workers  were 
disciplined  by  the  knowledge  that  there  were  camps  of  forced  labour, 
the  so-called  lagry,  involving  "  more  than  10  million  people  "  (according 
to  G  T.  Corley  Smith,  chief  British  delegate  to  the  U  N.  Economic  and 
Social  council)  or  "  between  8  and  14  million  "  (according  to  Willard 
L  Thorp,  the  U  S  assistant  secretary  of  state) 

Foreign  Irade.  A  1  Mikoyan,  former  minister  of  foreign  trade, 
stated  in  Pravda  on  Dec  21  that  the  volume  of  foreign  trade  in  1949 
was  more  than  double  that  of  prewar  He  added  that  trade  with  the 
"  capitalist  countries  '*  had  decreased  and  amounted  to  only  one- 
third  of  the  total,  on  the  other  hand,  trade  with  people's  democracies 
had  grown  on  a  scale  hitherto  unprecedented  and  amounted  to  two- 
thirds  of  the  total  Table  VII  gives  figures  of  four  typical  years  with 
pre-1914  averages  as  a  measure  of  comparison 

TABLE  VII  — SOVIET  FOREIGN  TRADE  (million  roubles) 

1909-13         1921  1924  1930  1938 

Export      .  6,514  89  1,476          4,539  1,332 

Import  4,994  923  1,139          4,637  1,423 

Souicc  I  /hlobm  m  / he  Hnancf\  of  the  U  S  S  R  in  the  Years  1917-1947 
(Moscow,  1947)  Ihe  average  for  1909-13  and  the  figures  for  1921  and  1924  in 
1913  roubles,  figures  for  1930  and  1938  m  current  roubles 

In  regard  to  weight  1931  was  the  peak  of  Soviet  foreign  trade,  exports 
amounting  then  to  21  7  million  metric  tons  and  imports  to  3  6  million 
tons  Thenceforward  both  volumes  slowly  decreased  to  reach  9-7 
million  tons  in  exports  and  1  1  million  tons  in  imports  in  1938  Before 
World  War  II  trade  was  practically  negligible  between  the  Soviet  Union 
and  the  countries  from  1945  styled  people's  democracies,  most  being 
with  Czechoslovakia  but,  taking  an  average  for  1936-38,  the  value 
amounted  to  only  1  6  %  of  Czechoslovak  exports  and  1  2  %  of  imports. 

Foreign  trade,  a  state  monopoly,  was  an  integral  part  of  the  Soviet 
policy  of  industrialization  The  USSR  imported  mainly  machinery, 
electrical  equipment,  wool,  cotton  and  rubber  and  to  pay  for  its  imports 
exported  timber,  oil,  furs,  coarse  grain,  flax,  etc.  Before  World  War  II 
the  U  S  was  the  principal  supplier,  the  U.S  ,  the  U  K  ,  France  and 
eight  other  western  huropean  countries  together  supplied  two-thirds 
of  Soviet  imports  in  1938  and  took  an  equal  amount  of  Soviet  exports. 
If  the  position  differed  after  1945,  and  especially  since  the  enactment 
of  the  E  R.P  ,  the  reason  was  that  on  the  one  hand  the  eastern  European 
satellite  countries  were  being  exploited  economically  by  the  Soviet 
Union  and,  on  the  other,  the  western  world  was  unwilling  to  help  the 
rearmament  policy  of  an  unfriendly  power. 


640 


UNITARIAN   CHURCH 


Transport  and  Communications.  During  the  period  1920-40  the  total 
length  of  Soviet  railways  increased  from  58,500  km.  to  105,300  km. 
During  World  War  II  the  operated  length  was  reduced  by  40%  (1943), 
the  losses  of  locomotives  amounting  to  15,800  (15%  of  the  total)  and 
of  goods  wagons  to  428,000  (20%).  Among  the  new  railway  lines  built 
before  World  War  II  the  Turksib  completed  in  1930  linked  the  Trans- 
Siberian  railway  from  Novosibirsk  with  the  Turkestan  railway  system. 
Construction  was  begun  of  a  new  railway  across  eastern  Siberia  which 
branched  off  the  main  line  at  Taishet,  east  of  Krasnoyarsk,  and  passed 
north  of  Lake  Baikal,  the  sections  Taishet-Kirensk  and  Chekunda- 
Komsomolsk-Sovietskaya  Gavan  (on  the  Sea  of  Japan)  were  com- 
pleted by  1945  It  is  believed  that  by  1950  the  Kircnsk-Chekunda 
link  would  be  completed  By  1949  the  Trans-Siberian  railway  was 
double-tracked  throughout  its  length  and  a  South-Siberian  or  You/hsib 
line,  branching  off  from  the  Trans-Sibenan  at  Kinel  (east  of  Kuibyshev), 
linked  the  steel  works  of  Magnitogorsk  with  the  coal  basin  of  Kara- 
ganda. The  line  was  extended  farther  east  from  Akmolmsk  to  Barnaul 
(where  it  crossed  the  Turksib),  and  continued  eastwards  to  Stalmsk, 
in  the  Kuzbas  (already  linked  to  the  Trans-Siberian  via  the  new 
industrial  town  of  Kemerovo)  From  Stahnsk  the  line  was  being 
extended  to  Abakan,  source  of  supply  in  iron  ore  and  manganese  for 
the  Kuzbas  steel  works,  and  was  expected  to  join  the  Trans-Siberian 
at  Taishet  by  1950.  Another  line,  opened  in  1942,  ran  from  Kotlas  to 
Vorkuta,  a  new  coal  basin  70  mi  N  of  the  Arctic  circle. 

In  1940  the  railways  transported  415,000  million  tons-km  ,  a  figure 
which  may  be  compared  with  548,029  million  tons-km  of  the  U  S 
in  the  same  year  (but  an  area  only  37%  of  that  of  the  U  S  S.R.) 
According  to  the  five-year  plan,  the  total  transport  capacity  was  to 
reach  657,500  million  tons-km  by  1950,  including  532,000  million 
tons-km.  by  rail  (in  1944  the  U.S  railway  goods  traffic  reached  1.081,237 
million  tons-km  ),  49,000  million  tons-km  by  inland  waterways, 
51,000  million  tons-km.  by  sea  and  25,500  million  tons-km  by  road 
The  report  of  the  Central  Statistical  board  stated  that  in  1949  the 
freight  turnover  on  Soviet  railways  was  in  excess  of  the  1940  level. 

By  1949  there  were  only  11,500km  of  all-weather  highways  for 
motor  traffic,  that  is,  slightly  more  than  in  Belgium.  Here  again  enor- 
mous distances,  climate  and  the  general  backwardness  of  the  country 
explained  the  situation.  In  a  report  on  the  state  of  roads  published  in 
Izveitia  on  May  31,  1949,  S  P.  Pchehakov,  head  of  the  board  of 
communications  of  the  Russian  S  F  S.R  ,  stated  that  there  were  as  yet 
few  surface  roads  In  autumn  and  spring  many  of  the  highways  were 
little  suited  for  motor  traffic  These  conditions,  he  pointed  out,  consti- 
tuted a  severe  brake  on  the  economic  and  cultural  development  of  the 
country.  In  1948  the  number  of  motor  vehicles  was  estimated  at 
760,000  (8,800  in  1913;  19,000  in  1929).  The  actual  production 
figure  was  144,000  in  1940  and  was  expected  to  reach  500,000  by  1950. 

Shipping  with  1,299,300  gross  tons  in  1948  occupied  the  ninth 
place  in  the  world  and  represented  1-8%  of  world  tonnage  (in  1914 
the  Russian  merchant  marine  totalled  1,770,000  gross  tons).  The 
greatest  handicaps  of  the  Soviet  Union  as  a  sea  power  were  climate 
and  the  necessity  for  four  separate  navies  (Arctic  ocean,  Baltic  and 
Black  seas  and  Pacific  ocean) 

By  1949  the  total  length  of  operated  lines  of  the  Soviet  Union's 
extensive  air  transport  system  was  about  175,000km.,  the  main  line 
linking  Moscow  -Sverdlovsk  -Novosibirsk  -Irkutsk  -Khabarovsk  -Vladi- 
vostokwith  branches  Sverdlovsk-Magnitogorsk,  Novosibirsk-Kemerovo, 
Irkutsk-Yakutsk  and  Khabarovsk-Komsomolsk-Sakhalm.  Other  lines 
linked  Moscow  with  Tashkent,  Baku,  Tbilisi.  Simferopol  and  all  the 
satellite  countries  of  eastern  Europe.  Aircraft  employed  were  two- 
engined  IL-12  and  four-engmed  IL-18,  similar  in  design  to  the  U.S.-built 
DC-3  and  DC-4  respectively;  from  1949  the  TU-70,  a  four-engmed 
aircraft,  was  also  in  service.  The  number  of  passengers  transported  in 
1948  by  the  G.V.F.  (Grazhdansky  Vozdushny  Flot  or  Citizens'  Air 
Fleet)  was  estimated  at  2  million  (300,000  in  1938). 

Finance  and  Banking.  The  constant  expansion  of  the  Soviet  budgets 
was  not  wholly  accountable  to  the  progress  of  industrialization  there 
was  also  inflation  which  caused  a  continuous  depreciation  in  the 
purchasing  power  of  the  rouble  Three-quarters  of  the  revenue  were 
constituted  by  a  turnover  tax,  that  is,  a  levy  on  the  proceeds  of  retail 
trade  of  all  commodities.  The  expenditure  included  financing  of  the 
national  industry,  transport  and  agriculture. 

TABLE  VIII.— THE   SOVIET  BUDGETS  ('000  million  roubles) 

1928*  1933*  1938*  1940*  1946*  1947|  1948f  1949f 
Revenue  8  8  46-4  127-5  180  2  322-7  394  2  428  4  446-0 
Expenditure  8-7  42  1  124  0  174  4  304  1  374  1  368  8  415  4 

•Actual,  Th<*  Finances  oj  the  U.S  S  R          t  Estimates 

The  only  available  information  as  to  currency  circulation  in  the 
Soviet  Union  disclosed  that  between  Jan.  1,  1929  and  Jan  1,  1937,  it  had 
increased  from  Rb. 2,028  million  to  Rb  11,256  million  The  circulation 
was  relatively  small  because  the  currency  passed  simply  and  quickly 
from  the  state  to  the  people  in  return  for  work  performed  and  from 
the  people  to  the  state  for  goods  and  services  supplied.  In  the  four  war 
years  (1942-45),  when  goods  were  scarce,  Soviet  war  expenditure  alone 
amounted  to  a  total  of  Rb.499,300  million.  Voznesensky  said  in  his 
book  that  by  1947  currency  circulation  had  increased  to  two-and-a- 


half  times  the  1940  figure.  This  inflation  was  drastically  arrested  by  a 
decree  of  Dec.  14,  1947,  when  for  10  roubles  of  the  old  currency  one 
new  was  given  in  exchange  for  cash  in  hand.  On  Dec.  31,  1949,  the 
official  Moscow  exchange  rates  were  as  follows.  £l-=Rb  14  84;  U.S. 
$l->Rb.5  30  Taking  into  account  the  purchasing  power  of  the 
rouble,  the  exchange  rate  would  be  around  Rb.105  to  the  pound  sterling. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY  M  Beloflf,  The  Foreign  Policy  of  Soviet  Russiat 
vol.  II,  (Oxford,  1949),  I.  Deutscher,  Stalin  A  Political  Biography 
(London,  1949),  W  Duranty,  Stalin  &  Co  The  Politburo  (London, 
1949),  Gen.  A.  Guillaumc,  La  Guerre  Germano-Sovietique  (Paris, 
1949),  Histoncus,  "  Stalin  on  Revolution,"  Foreign  Affairs  (New 
York,  Jan.  1949);  R  Hilton,  Military  Attache  in  Moscow  (London), 
1949),  E  M  Kulischer,  '*  The  Russian  Population  Enigma,"  Foreign 
Affair^  (New  York,  April  1949);  Mairin  Mitchell,  The  Maritime 
History  of  Ru\sia,  848-1948  (London,  1949),  Freda  Utley,  Lost  Illusion 
(London,  1949).  (K.  SM.) 

UNITARIAN  CHURCH.  The  year  1949  marked 
for  British  Unitarians  the  beginning  of  the  rebuilding  of 
churches  destroyed  by  enemy  action.  The  Bnxton  congrega- 
tion erected  an  excellent  temporary  building,  IJford  restored 
and  refurnished  their  church,  and  St.  Helens  approved  plans 
and  obtained  a  licence  for  a  new  permanent  building  in  place 
of  the  corrugated  iron  chapel  destroyed  in  World  War  II. 
The  cause  at  Marple,  Cheshire,  was  revived  after  an  interval 
of  30  years  and  was  already  well  established  by  the  end  of 
the  year.  The  Unity  churches  at  Macclesfield  and  Stockport 
were  admitted  to  full  membership  of  the  assembly.  A  further 
sign  of  progress  was  the  entry  into  the  ministry  of  the  largest 
number  of  students  from  the  colleges  since  1939. 

Dr.  Mortimer  Rowe  retired  after  20  years  as  secretary  of 
the  assembly  and  was  made  an  honorary  life  member.  He 
was  succeeded  by  the  Rev.  John  Kielty  who  acted  as  secretary 
of  the  commission  on  the  Work  of  the  Churches  and  of  the 
£100,000  appeal  fund.  An  annual  Youth  Sunday  was  insti- 
tuted for  the  first  Sunday  in  March.  The  Rev.  E.  W.  Kuebler, 
director  of  education  in  the  American  Unitarian  association, 
made  a  very  successful  month's  tour  of  the  schools  and  youth 
groups.  The  number  of  one-day  schools  for  teachers  and 
youth  leaders  was  much  larger  than  m  1948,  and  statistics 
showed  an  increase  of  scholars  and  teachers  in  the  Sunday 
schools. 

The  13th  world  congress  of  the  International  Association 
for  Religious  Freedom  was  held  in  Amsterdam  and  was 
attended  by  religious  liberals  from  America  and  many 
European  countries.  The  British  party  numbered  over  40. 
An  excellent  congress  was  followed  by  a  camp  conference 
of  the  International  Religious  fellowship,  the  youth  counter- 
part to  the  I.A.R.F.,  at  Soesterburg,  also  in  the  Netherlands. 
From  both  gatherings  several  broadcasts  went  out  on  the 
liberal  broadcasting  station  at  Hilversum.  (J.  K.Y.) 

United  States.  An  important  gathering  was  the  conference 
of  the  American  Unitarian  association  in  Portland,  Oregon, 
in  August.  The  programme  centred  around  "  The  Challenge 
of  the  New  Day  "  and  the  Unitarian  answer  derived  from  the 
twofold  faith  in  the  divinely  creative  potential  in  man  and 
in  what  man  can  be.  Practical  programmes  for  Unitarian 
efforts  resulted,  and  action  was  taken  looking  toward  union 
with  the  Universalist  Church.  Commissions  set  up  by  both 
denominations  submitted  a  joint  resolution  "  concerning  the 
association  of  self-governing  congregations  wishing  to  enlist 
in  the  extension  of  organized  religion  on  the  basis  of  local 
autonomy  in  matters  of  government  and  religious  belief." 
If  by  June  1,  1950,  50%  of  the  parish  churches  had  voted 
affirmatively  for  union,  the  commissions  would  proceed  with 
a  specified  plan.  A  still  wider  fellowship  of  churches  based 
jpon  freedom  of  faith  and  congregational  polity  was 
foreseen  as  a  result  of  the  union  of  the  two  denominations. 

A  report  submitted  by  the  Interdenominational  committee 
of  the  American  Unitarian  association,  the  Universalist 
Church  of  America  and  the  American  Ethical  Union  pro- 
posed a  common  action  project.  It  recommended  that  this 


UNITED   CHURCH   OF  CANADA— UNITED   NATIONS 


641 


first  project  should  be  concerned  with  the  problems  of  mental 
health  on  the  three  levels  of  education  and  survey,  remedial 
action  and  application  of  principles  of  mental  health  to 
church  life.  The  project  was  adopted  for  the  following 
biennium.  (See  also  CHURCH  MEMBERSHIP.)  (J.  H.  L.) 

UNITED  CHURCH  OF  CANADA.  The  United 
Church  of  Canada  which  in  1925  united  with  the  Presby- 
terian Church  in  Canada,  the  Methodist  Church  (Canada) 
and  the  Congregational  Churches  in  Canada,  reported  for 
1948  a  membership  of  791,677  with  1,861,683  persons  under 
pastoral  oversight,  a  Sunday  school  enrolment  of  503,251 
and  6,494  preaching  places.  The  church  owned  property 
worth  about  $114,498,936  and  raised  a  total  of  $20,672,466 
for  all  purposes.  The  missionary  and  maintenance  givings 
of  the  church  in  1948  totalled  $2,529,370,  an  increase  of 
$402,848  over  1947. 

Among  the  important  features  in  the  life  of  the  United 
Church  during  1949  were  the  reception  of  28,367  persons  into 
membership  on  profession  of  faith,  58%  of  whom  were  adults,  as 
a  result  of  visitation  evangelism  undertaken  largely  by  laymen; 
a  vigorous  campaign  to  secure  recruits  for  the  ministry; 
and  the  sending  of  more  than  $74,000  for  relief  to  churches 
in  Europe  and  in  Asia. 

The  church  was  saddened  by  the  loss  of  two  former 
moderators:  the  Very  Rev.  Aubrey  S.  Tuttle,  who  was 
moderator  from  1940  to  1942  and  who  gave  distinguished 
leadership  in  the  field  of  higher  education;  and  the  Very 
Rev.  J.  R.  P.  Sclater,  who  had  been  taking  a  prominent 
lead  in  seeking  ultimately  to  bring  about  organic  union 
with  the  Church  of  England  in  Canada.  Dr.  Sclatcr  was 
moderator  from  1942  to  1944.  (G.  A.  Si.) 

UNITED  KINGDOM:  see  GRFAI  BRITAIN  AND 
NORTHERN  IRELAND,  UNITED  KINGDOM  OF. 

UNITED  NATIONS.  During  its  fourth  year,  the 
United  Nations  continued  to  be  handicapped  by  the  lack  of  co- 
operation between  the  Soviet  Union  and  the  Western  Powers. 
In  addition  to  preventing  the  conclusion  of  treaties  of  peace 
with  Germany,  Austria  and  Japan,  this  circumstance  pre- 
vented the  Security  council  from  functioning  as  the  organ 
primarily  responsible  for  the  maintenance  of  international 
peace  and  security  as  the  charter  had  anticipated.  In  addition, 
it  slowed  down  and  in  some  respects  obstructed  the  work  of 
other  U.N.  organs.  Secretary  general,  Trygvc  Lie  (q.v.). 

Membership.  Membership  was  increased  during  the  year 
to  59  by  the  admission  of  Israel.  At  the  close  of  1949  member- 
ship was  as  follows: 

Afghanistan  Czechoslovakia  Iraq  Philippines 

Argentina  Denmark  Israel  Poland 

Australia  Dominican  Lebanon  Sweden 

Belgium  Republic  Liberia  Syria 

Bolivia  Ecuador  Luxembourg  Thailand 

Brazil  Egypt  Mexico  Turkey 

Burma  El  Salvador  Netherlands  Ukrainian  S. S  R. 

Byelorussian  Ethiopia  New  Zealand  Union  of  South  Africa 

S.S  R.  France'  Nicaragua  U.S.S.R. 

Canada  Greece  Norway  United  Kingdom 

Chile  Guatemala  Pakistan  United  States 

China  Haiti  Panama  Uruguay 

Colombia  Honduras  Paraguay  Venezuela 

Costa  Rica  Iceland  Persia  Yemen 

Cuba  India  Peru  Yugoslavia 

New  applications  were  received  from  the  Republic  of  Korea 
(South  Korea),  Nepal  and  the  Democratic  People's  Republic 
of  Korea  (North  Korea).  Favourable  action  by  the  Security 
council  on  the  first  two  was  prevented  by  the  negative  vote 
of  the  Soviet  Union.  The  council  refused  to  approve  a  Soviet 
proposal  to  refer  the  application  of  the  Democratic  People's 
Republic  of  Korea  to  its  committee  on  the  admission  of 
new  members.  The  Security  council  reconsidered  the  12 

B  B.Y.-42 


applications  which  had  previously  failed  to  gain  approval 
(Albania,  Austria,  Bulgaria,  Ceylon,  Finland,  Hungary, 
Ireland,  Italy,  Jordan,  Mongolia,  Portugal  and  Rumania) 
but  was  unable  to  reach  an  affirmative  decision  on  any  of 
them.  A  Soviet  proposal  to  approve  all  12  applications  plus 
that  of  Nepal  en  bloc  was  defeated. 

During  the  fourth  session,  the  general  assembly  decided 
to  request  the  International  Court  of  Justice  to  give  an 
advisory  opinion  on  whether  a  state  could  become  a  member 
of  the  United  Nations  by  vote  of  the  general  assembly 
without  a  favourable  recommendation  by  the  Security  council. 

The  Principal  Organs.  The  general  assembly  met  twice 
during  1949.  Because  of  failure  to  dispose  in  Pans  of  the 
items  appearing  on  the  agenda  of  its  third  session,  a  second 
part  of  the  thud  session  was  held  at  Lake  Success,  New 
York,  from  April  5  to  May  18  with  Herbert  V.  Fvatt  (?.v.), 
Australia,  continuing  to  serve  as  president.  The  fourth 
regular  session  of  the  general  assembly  met  at  Lake  Success 
from  Sept.  20  to  Dec.  10.  Carlos  P.  Romulo  (</.v.),  Republic 
of  the  Philippines,  was  elected  president.  The  general  assem- 
bly disposed  of  an  agenda  of  68  items,  including  many  of 
pressing  political,  economic  and  social  importance.  It 
adopted  the  recommendations  of  a  special  committee  for 
improving  its  methods  of  work  and  rules  of  procedure.  Jt 
voted  the  continuation  of  the  United  Nations  Special  Com- 
mittee on  the  Balkans,  the  United  Nations  Commission  on 
Korea  and  the  Interim  committee  as  subsidiary  organs. 

Though  the  charter  requires  that  the  Security  council  be 
so  organized  as  to  be  able  to  function  continuously,  and  the 
provisional  rules  provide  that  the  interval  between  meetings 
may  not  exceed  14  days,  the  failure  of  the  permanent  members 
to  agree  on  questions  brought  before  the  council,  and  the 
consequent  tendency  to  appeal  to  the  general  assembly  when 
possible,  resulted  in  a  decrease  in  council  activity.  During 
1949  the  Security  council  was  composed  of  China,  France, 
the  Soviet  Union,  the  United  Kingdom  and  the  United 
States  (permanent  members)  and  Argentina,  Canada,  Cuba, 
Egypt,  Norway  and  the  Ukraine  (non-permanent  members). 
During  its  fourth  session,  the  general  assembly  elected 
Ecuador,  India  and  Yugoslavia  for  two-year  terms  beginning 
Jan.  1,  1950,  to  succeed  Argentina,  Canada  and  the  Ukraine. 
The  election  of  Yugoslavia  was  bitterly  opposed  by  the  Soviet 
Union,  who  favoured  the  election  of  Czechoslovakia. 

The  Economic  and  Social  council  held  two  sessions  during 
1949,  its  eighth  at  Lake  Success  from  Feb.  7  to  March  18, 
when  James  Thorn  (New  Zealand)  was  elected  president, 
and  its  ninth  at  Geneva  from  July  5  to  August  15.  During 
1949  the  council  was  composed  as  follows:  with  terms 
ending  Dec.  31,  1949— Byelorussia,  Lebanon,  New  Zealand, 
Turkey,  United  States  and  Venezuela;  with  terms  ending 
Dec.  31,  1950— Australia,  Brazil,  Denmark,  Poland,  the 
Soviet  Union  and  the  United  States;  and  with  terms  expiring 
Dec.  31,  1951— Belgium,  Chile,  China,  France,  India  and 
Peru.  During  its  fourth  session  the  general  assembly  elected 
the  following  to  membership  for  three-year  terms  beginning 
Jan.  1,  1950:  Canada,  Czechoslovakia,  Mexico,  Iran, 
Pakistan  and  the  United  States. 

The  Trusteeship  council  also  held  two  sessions  during  1949, 
its  fourth  and  fifth,  both  at  Lake  Success.  The  fourth  session 
was  held  from  Jan.  24  to  March  25  with  Liu  Chieh  (China) 
serving  as  president.  The  fifth  session  was  held  from  June  15 
to  July  22  with  Roger  Garreau  (France)  as  president.  The 
membership  of  the  council  during  1949  was  as  follows: 
members  administering  trust  territories — Australia,  Belgium, 
France,  New  Zealand,  United  Kingdom  and  United  States; 
members  by  virtue  of  permanent  seats  on  the  Security 
council— China  and  the  Soviet  Union;  and  members  elected 
by  the  general  assembly — Iraq  and  Mexico  for  three-year 
terms  ending  Dec.  31,  1949,  and  Costa  Rica  and  the  Republic 


642 


UNITED   NATIONS 


THE  UNITED  NATIONS 
AT  WORK  IN  1949. 

The  Kashmir  commission  (7)  at 
Gobindpur  during  a  tour  of 
Azad  Kashmir  territory.  On 
Oct.  24  President  Harry  S. 
Truman  laid  the  corner  stone 
(2)  of  the  headquarters  building 
in  New  York,  and  (3)  Moshe 
Sharett  is  seen  holding  the 
flag  of  Israel  on  May  12  after 
his  country  had  been  admitted 
as  the  59th  member  the  pre- 
vious day.  The  Food  and 
Agriculture  organization,  a 
specialized  agency,  conducted 
research  into  the  eradication 
of  rinderpest ;  an  F.A.O.  tech- 
nician (4)  is  seen  producing 
rinderpest  vaccine  by  growing 
the  virus  inside  hen's  eggs. 


•  ,•  •      .  •  -. 


'T«'1''  '    'f       M     "  ''  k(       '        ^*'  rr  '-'  'r'*r         J" 


UNITED   NATIONS 


643 


of  the  Philippines  for  three-year  terms  ending  Dec.  31,  1950. 
On  Oct.  20,  the  general  assembly  elected  Argentina  and  Iraq 
for  three-year  terms  beginning  Jan.  1,  1950,  and  also  elected 
the  Dominican  Republic  to  serve  the  unexpired  term  of 
Costa  Rica  which  had  resigned. 

Maintenance  of  International  Peace  and  Security.  The 
work  of  the  United  Nations  in  this  field  was  handicapped 
by  the  state  of  relations  between  the  Soviet  Union  and  the 
Western  Powers.  Some  notable  achievements,  however, 
were  registered.  Though  the  India-Pakistan  question 
remained  deadlocked  and  tension  continued  to  exist  in  the 
Balkans,  the  U.N.  could  claim  partial  credit,  at  least,  for  the 
Indonesian  settlement,  and  its  intervention  in  Palestine  had 
achieved  the  end  of  hostilities  though  the  political  dispute 
still  remained  unsettled. 

The  India-Pakistan  question  remained  before  the  Security 
council  for  the  whole  year  without  any  final  settlement 
being  reached.  The  United  Nations  Commission  for  India 
and  Pakistan  reported  to  the  Security  council  at  the  end  of 
the  year  that  it  had  failed  to  end  the  dispute  and  suggested 
to  the  Security  council  that  it  be  disbanded  and  that  authority 
be  vested  in  one  person  in  an  attempt  to  end  the  deadlock 
(See  INDIA,  DOMINION  OF;  PAKISTAN,  DOMINION  OF.) 

The  U.N.  continued  to  deal  with  the  Communist  rebellion 
in  Greece.  The  U.N.  Special  Committee  on  the  Balkans 
(U.N.S.C.O.B.)  in  a  report  to  the  general  assembly  covering 
the  period  from  Oct.  1948  to  July  1949,  stated  that  Albania, 
Bulgaria  and  Yugoslavia  had  refused  to  recognize  the 
committee,  that  Albania  and  Bulgaria  had  continued  to 
give  moral  and  material  assistance  to  the  Greek  guerrilla 
movement,  that  aid  from  Yugoslavia  which  had  been  on  a 
large  scale  early  in  the  year  was  diminishing,  and  that  the 
present  situation  constituted  a  threat  to  the  political  indepen- 
dence and  territorial  integrity  of  Greece  and  to  peace  in  the 
Balkans.  The  committee  submitted  a  supplementary  report 
to  the  assembly  on  Sept.  16.  The  committee  asked  the 
assembly  again  to  call  on  Albania  and  Bulgaria  to  cease  giving 
aid  to  the  Greek  guerrillas  and  to  find  Albania  primarily 
responsible  for  the  threat  to  the  peace  in  the  Balkans.  The 
assembly  adopted  a  resolution  asking  members  to  impose  a 
complete  arms  embargo  against  Albania  and  Bulgaria  as 
long  as  the  two  countries  continued  to  give  aid  to  the  Greek 
guerrillas.  (See  also  GREECE.) 

The  Indonesian  situation,  at  the  stage  of  armed  conflict 
between  Netherlands  and  Indonesian  forces  at  the  beginning 
of  1949,  seemed  satisfactorily  resolved  by  the  end  of  the  year. 
On  Aug.  23  meetings  began  at  The  Hague  to  effect  a  transfer 
of  sovereignty  from  the  Netherlands  to  the  Indonesian 
republic.  These  meetings  took  the  form  of  negotiations 
between  the  two  countries  and  were  not  held  directly  under 
U.N.  auspices.  The  round  table  discussions  proved  successful 
and  on  Nov.  2  agreements  were  signed  providing  for  the 
transfer  of  sovereignty  over  Indonesia  to  the  republic  of  the 
United  States  of  Indonesia  by  Dec.  30,  1949.  The  general 
assembly  adopted  a  resolution  approving  the  agreement. 
On  Dec.  27,  the  Netherlands  transferred  full  sovereignty  over 
Indonesia  to  the  republic  of  the  United  States  of  Indonesia. 
(See  also  NETHERLANDS  OVERSEAS  TERRITORIES.) 

The  Korean  situation  remained  substantially  unimproved 
throughout  1949.  The  U.N.  Commission  on  Korea,  estab- 
lished by  the  general  assembly  to  replace  the  Temporary 
Commission  on  Korea,  held  its  first  open  meeting  in  Seoul 
on  Feb.  12,  1949.  A  commission  report  adopted  on  July  28 
set  forth  five  mam  conclusions:  (1)  that  propaganda  and 
hostile  activity  between  the  two  parts  of  Korea  made  unifica- 
tion remote;  (2)  that  opposition  of  the  Soviet  Union  lo  the 
commission  and  its  objectives  made  a  substantial  degree  of 
unification  impossible;  (3)  that  the  differences  between  the 
Soviet  Union  and  the  United  States  remained  one  of  the 


underlying  factors  in  preventing  unification,  (4)  that  the 
Korean  government  should  be  allowed  a  broader  political 
base;  and  (5)  that  the  situation  in  Korea  had  not  improved 
and  that  the  commission  had  been  unable  to  facilitate 
reaching  the  objectives  of  the  general  assembly.  The  general 
assembly  on  Oct.  21  voted  to  continue  the  U.N.  Commission 
on  Korea  in  being,  rejecting  a  proposal  by  the  Soviet  Union 
to  terminate  the  commission.  The  assembly  widened  the 
competence  of  the  commission,  giving  it  explicit  instructions 
to  be  on  guard  against  the  outbreak  of  civil  war  in  Korea. 
(Sec  also  KOREA.) 

The  Palestine  situation  remained  one  of  continuous  con- 
cern throughout  the  year.  Primarily  through  the  efforts  of 
acting  mediator  Ralph  J.  Bunche,  armistice  agreements 
between  Arabs  and  Jews  were  concluded  early  in  the  year. 
On  Jan.  6  a  cease-fire  agreement  between  Israel  and  Egypt 
was  signed,  followed  on  Leb.  24  by  an  armistice  agreement 
such  as  the  Security  council  had  requested  in  its  resolutions 
of  Nov  4  and  16,  1948.  On  March  1 1  a  cease-fire  agreement 
between  Israel  and  Jordan  was  signed  Armistice  agreements 
between  Lebanon  and  Israel  and  between  Jordan  and  Israel 
were  signed  on  March  23  and  April  3,  respectively.  Negotia- 
tions between  Israel  and  Syria  began  on  April  5  and  cul- 
minated in  agreement  on  July  20,  thus  bringing  hostilities  in 
Palestine  to  an  end  Bundle's  final  report  was  taken  up  by 
the  Security  council  on  Aug.  4  On  Aug.  1 1  the  council 
adopted  a  resolution  declaring  that  the  one-year  truce  had 
been  superseded  by  the  armistice  agreements,  relieving  the 
acting  mediator  of  further  responsibility,  re-affirming  its 
unconditional  cease-fire  order  and  providing  a  nucleus  of 
observer  personnel. 

The  Palestine  Conciliation  commission,  established  by  the 
general  assembly  on  Dec.  11,  1 948,  met  at  Geneva  on 
Jan.  17,  1949,  and  established  formal  headquarters  in  Jeru- 
salem on  Jan.  24.  The  commission  began  discussions  with 
Israel  and  the  Arab  countries  in  February.  The  commission 
later  invited  all  the  governments  and  delegations  to  Lausanne. 
This  invitation  was  accepted,  and  the  first  meeting  was  held 
on  April  27.  It  soon  became  obvious  that  deep-seated 
differences  existed.  The  Israeli  government  was  pressing  for 
territorial  negotiations,  while  the  Arab  governments  insisted 
that  negotiations  regarding  refugees  should  come  first.  The 
commission  eventually  set  up  an  Economic  Survey  mission 
to  aid  the  governments  in  overcoming  economic  dislocations. 
After  six  months'  study  of  the  problem,  the  conciliation 
commission  transmitted  its  recommendations  to  the  general 
assembly  on  Sept.  1.  These  recommendations  provided  for 
the  division  of  Jerusalem  into  a  Jewish  and  an  Arab  zone, 
with  specified  functions  performed  by  an  international 
regime  consisting  of  a  U.N.  commissioner,  a  general  council, 
an  international  tribunal  and  a  mixed  tribunal.  Jerusalem 
was  to  be  permanently  demilitarized  and  neutralized.  The 
general  assembly,  however,  refused  to  accept  this  recom- 
mendation, returning  to  the  plan  contained  in  its  resolution 
of  Nov.  29,  1947.  In  a  resolution  of  Dec.  10,  the  assembly 
re-affirmed  the  two  principles  that  the  city  of  Jerusalem 
should  be  established  as  a  separate  body  under  an  inter- 
national regime  and  that  the  Trusteeship  council  should  be 
designated  as  administering  authority.  The  resolution 
requested  the  Trusteeship  council  to  complete  the  preparation 
of  the  statute.  Both  Israel  and  Jordan,  the  two  states  in  actual 
occupation  of  the  city,  announced  their  unalterable  opposition 
to  the  plan.  (Sec  also  ISRAEL;  JERUSALEM;  JORDAN.) 

With  respect  to  the  questions  of  the  international  control 
of  atomic  energy  and  the  limitation  and  reduction  of  con- 
ventional armaments,  the  stalemate  existing  at  the  close  of 
1948  continued  throughout  1949.  The  Atomic  Energy  com- 
mission held  six  meetings  between  Feb.  18  and  May  25  and 
then  decided  to  refer  the  general  assembly  resolution  of 


644 


UNITED   NATIONS 


Nov.  1948  to  its  working  committee  for  further  consideration. 
The  working  committee  decided  that  there  was  no  useful 
purpose  in  continuing  discussions  and  that  its  work  should  be 
suspended  until  the  six  permanent  members  had  found  a 
basis  for  agreement.  On  Aug.  9  the  six  permanent  members 
of  the  commission  began  a  series  of  meetings  which  failed  to 
produce  agreement.  The  general  assembly  later  asked  that 
these  meetings  continue,  and  in  its  resolution  it  again 
endorsed  the  majority  control  plan.  (See  also  ATOMIC 
ENERGY.) 

The  Soviet  Union  introduced  a  proposal  in  the  Security 
council  in  February  that  the  Commission  for  Conventional 
Armaments  elaborate  a  plan  for  the  reduction  by  one-third 
of  the  armaments  and  armed  forces  of  the  permanent  mem- 
bers of  the  Security  council  by  June  1,  1949.  The  U.S. 
representative  asked  that  the  general  assembly's  resolution 
of  1948  be  referred  to  the  commission  for  action.  The 
soviet  resolution  was  rejected,  and  the  U.S.  proposal  accepted. 
The  French  delegate  to  the  working  committee  of  the  com- 
mission introduced  a  working  paper  on  May  26  which  con- 
tained proposals  and  recommendations  for  the  census  and 
verification  of  conventional  armaments  and  armed  forces. 
The  working  committee  adopted  the  proposal  on  July  18, 
and  on  Aug.  1  the  commission  adopted  the  plan.  A  French 
proposal  in  the  Security  council  that  the  commission's  plan 
be  accepted  was  defeated  by  the  negative  vote  of  the  Soviet 
Union.  Full  information  on  the  action  taken  was  sent  to  the 
general  assembly.  The  general  assembly  approved  the  com- 
mission's recommendations  and  requested  the  Security  council 
to  continue  its  study  of  the  problem  through  the  commission. 

Development  of  International  Law.  Under  article  23  of  the 
charter,  the  general  assembly  is  made  responsible  for  the 
development  of  international  law.  The  International  Law 
commission,  established  by  resolution  of  the  general  assembly 
of  Dec.  1946  to  assist  in  this  work,  met  for  the  first  time  in 
1949.  It  was  in  session  at  Lake  Success  from  April  12  to 
June  9.  The  commission  prepared  and  adopted  a  Draft 
Declaration  on  the  Rights  and  Duties  of  States;  it  adopted 
a  procedure  for  the  further  study  of  the  principles  of  inter- 
national law  recognized  in  the  charter;  it  gave  preliminary 
consideration  to  the  establishment  of  an  international 
criminal  court;  and  it  provisionally  selected  certain  topics 
for  codification,  giving  priority  to  the  law  of  treaties,  arbitral 
procedure  and  the  regime  of  the  high  seas.  The  general 
assembly,  after  receiving  the  commission's  report,  adopted 
resolutions  urging  the  commission  to  include  the  regime  of 
territorial  waters  in  its  list  of  priority  subjects  for  codification 
and  to  transmit  to  members  for  comment  the  Draft  Declara- 
tion on  the  Rights  and  Duties  of  States. 

The  development  of  international  law  was  also  advanced 
by  the  adoption  by  the  general  assembly  of  rules  governing 
the  calling  of  international  conferences  by  the  Economic  and 
Social  council,  by  the  work  of  the  general  assembly,  the 
Economic  and  Social  council  and  its  commissions  and  the 
secretariat  in  preparing  draft  agreements  on  various  topics 
for  submission  to  members  and  by  the  increased  frequency 
of  use  of  the  International  Court  of  Justice,  either  for 
advisory  opinions  or  judgments.  (For  further  details,  see 
INTERNATIONAL  LAW.) 

Economic  and  Social  Co-operation.  The  most  significant 
achievement  of  the  U.N.  during  1949  in  the  economic  field 
was  the  adoption  of  a  comprehensive  plan  for  technical 
assistance  to  underdeveloped  areas  along  the  lines  of  President 
Harry  S.  Truman's  Point  Four  programme.  During  its 
eighth  session  the  Economic  and  Social  council  adopted  a 
resolution  requesting  the  secretary  general  to  prepare  for 
the  ninth  session  of  the  council  a  comprehensive  programme 
of  U.N.  technical  assistance.  Accordingly  the  secretary 
general,  in  co-operation  with  the  chief  administrative  officers 


of  the  specialized  agencies,  submitted  a  report  on  measures 
already  devised  to  promote  economic  development  in  under- 
developed areas.  There  was  also  submitted  a  report,  the 
result  of  co-operative  action  by  the  secretariats  of  the  United 
Nations  and  eight  specialized  agencies,  on  an  expanded 
programme  of  technical  assistance.  The  report  outlined  the 
administrative  organization  of  such  a  programme  and 
estimated  the  expense  of  the  first  two  years  at  $35  •  8  million 
and  $50  million  respectively.  The  objectives  of  the  programme 
were  set  forth  to  include  the  achievement  by  underdeveloped 
countries  of  the  material  and  social  benefits  of  a  sound, 
balanced  economic  development.  During  its  ninth  session 
the  Economic  and  Social  council  approved  a  programme 
substantially  along  the  lines  of  the  secretary  general's  report, 
except  that  a  smaller  initial  expenditure  was  envisaged.  The 
council's  recommendations  were  adopted  by  the  general 
assembly  in  its  fourth  session.  As  finally  approved,  the 
plan  provided  for  the  calling  of  a  technical  assistance  con- 
ference for  the  purpose  of  negotiating  contributions  to  the 
expanded  programme.  It  authorized  the  secretary-general 
to  set  up  a  special  account  for  technical  assistance  to  which 
governments  were  invited  to  contribute.  It  provided  for  the 
administration  of  the  programme  by  a  technical  assistance 
board  composed  of  the  executive  heads  of  the  United  Nations 
and  the  participating  specialized  agencies,  operating  under 
the  general  direction  of  a  standing  technical  assistance  com- 
mittee of  the  Economic  and  Social  council.  The  plan  pro- 
vided for  the  distribution  of  funds  initially  available  and 
laid  down  basic  principles  to  govern  the  administration  of 
technical  aid. 

Specialized  Agencies.    The  following  specialized  agencies 
were  in  operation  or  in  progress  of  formation  in  1949: 

International  Labour  Organization.  (I.L.O.).  See  separate 
article. 

Food  and  Agriculture  Organization  (F.A.O.).  See  FOOD 
SUPPLY  OF  THE  WORLD. 

International  Monetary  Fund.    See  separate  article. 
International  Bank  /or  Reconstruction  and  Development. 
See  separate  article. 

International  Civil  Aviation  Organization  (I.C.A.O.).  See 
AVIATION,  CIVIL. 

International  Refugee  Organization  (I.R.O.).  See  REFUGEES. 
International  Trade  Organization  (I.T.O.).  See  TARIFFS. 
United  Nations  Eilucational,  Scientific  and  Cultural  Organ- 
ization (U.N.F.S.C.O.).  The  fourth  general  conference  was 
held  in  Paris,  Sept.  19  to  Oct.  5.  In  preparing  the  pro- 
gramme for  1950  three  criteria  were  followed:  practical 
value  for  the  betterment  of  the  masses;  the  possibility 
of  associating  prominent  intellectual  and  professional  workers 
with  the  organization;  and  the  possibility  of  obtaining  rapid 
results.  The  work  of  the  organization  during  1949  included 
educational  and  scientific  aid  to  states  that  suffered  during 
the  war,  educational  aid  to  refugees,  fundamental  education 
projects,  seminars,  technical  assistance  to  underdeveloped 
areas,  cultural  co-operative  programmes  and  the  develop- 
ment of  the  use  of  mass  media. 

World  Health  Organization  (W.H.O.).  The  second  World 
Health  assembly  met  in  Rome  from  June  13  to  July  2.  It 
approved  a  regular  budget  of  $7,873,000  and  a  supplementary 
budget  of  $9,152,250  to  be  raised  on  a  voluntary  basis.  The 
programme  adopted  by  the  assembly  provided  for  the 
expansion  and  intensification  of  the  activities  of  the  organiza- 
tion, acting  both  independently  and  in  co-operation  with 
other  international  bodies.  It  gave  special  attention  to 
possibilities  of  technical  assistance  to  underdeveloped  areas. 
In  line  with  the  organization's  policy  of  regionalism,  regional 
meetings  were  held  at  New  Delhi,  Geneva,  and  Lima,  Peru, 
so  that  delegates  of  southeast  Asia,  of  the  eastern  Mediter- 
ranean and  of  the  Americas  could  discuss  health  problems 


UNITED   NATIONS 


645 


The  officers  of  the  fourth  general  assembly,  Sept. -Dec.  1949.   Seated  is  Carlos  Romulo,  Philippines  ( president  of  the  assembly)  and  standing 

are  the  chairmen  of  the  committees.    Left  to  right,  Lester  B.  Pearson,  Canada  (Political),  Herman  Santa  Cruz,  Chile  (Economic  and 

Financial),  Carlos  Eduardo  Stolk,   Venezuela  (Social,  Humanitarian  and  Cultural),  Hermod  Lunnung,  Denmark  (Trusteeship),  Alexis 

Kyrou,  Greece  (Administrative  and  Budgetary),  and  Manfred  Lachs,  Poland  (Legal). 


of  their  particular  regions.  Among  the  programmes  initiated 
in  1949  were:  the  survey  of  ways  and  means  to  deal  with 
tuberculosis  in  ten  eastern  Mediterranean  countries  as  well 
as  in  South  America;  long-term  malaria  control  in  India, 
Pakistan  and  Persia;  and  the  promotion  of  penicillin  output 
in  eastern  Europe.  Practical  services  included:  the  sending 
of  a  venereal  disease  control  demonstration  team  to  India; 
medical  services  for  the  Arab  refugees;  supplies  for  Afghani- 
stan to  control  a  typhus  outbreak;  iron  lungs  for  Bombay 
to  relieve  a  poliomyelitis  epidemic;  and  aid  to  Ecuador 
following  a  disastrous  earthquake. 

International  Telecommunications  Union  (I.T.U.).  Carrying 
out  the  decisions  of  its  plenipotentiary  conference  at  Atlantic 
City,  New  Jersey,  in  1947,  the  International  Telecommunica- 
tion union  during  1949  adapted  its  permanent  organs  to  the 
structure  decided  upon  at  the  conference  and  undertook 
through  various  means  to  bring  some  order  into  the  use  of 
radio  frequencies. 

Universal  Postal  Union  (U.P.U.).  The  Executive  and 
Liaison  committee  held  its  1949  session  at  Berne  from  May 
16  to  May  25.  F.  Hess  (Switzerland)  was  elected  director 
to  succeed  Alois  Muri  on  Jan.  1,  1950. 

World  Meteorological  Organization  (W.M.O.).  The  United 
States  instrument  of  ratification  of  the  convention  establishing 
W.M.O.  was  deposited  on  May  4,  1949.  The  30  ratifications 
required  for  the  convention  to  enter  into  force  had  not  been 
obtained  by  the  end  of  the  year. 

Non-Self-Governing  Territories  and  Trusteeship  Matters. 
The  fate  of  the  Italian  colonies  was  settled  by  the  general 


assembly  during  1949.  During  the  second  part  of  the  third 
session,  the  general  assembly  attempted  to  find  a  solution, 
but  without  success.  In  the  fourth  session  the  recommenda- 
tions of  the  First  committee  were  adopted  without  change  on 
Nov.  21.  These  recommendations  called  for  the  complete 
independence  of  Libya  not  later  than  Jan.  1,  1952,  placed 
Italian  Somaliland  under  trusteeship  for  ten  years  with  Italy 
as  the  administering  power  and  set  up  a  commission  to  deter- 
mine the  wishes  of  the  inhabitants  of  Eritrea  and  to  report 
not  later  than  June  1950.  The  assembly  later  approved 
Adrian  Pelt,  assistant  secretary  general  for  conferences  and 
general  services,  as  the  U.N.  commissioner  to  administer 
Libya  until  it  should  become  independent  on  Jan.  1,  1952.  On 
Dec.  9  the  Trusteeship  council  established  a  special  com- 
mittee to  draw  up  a  trusteeship  agreement  for  Italian  Somali- 
land.  (See  also  ITALIAN  COLONIAL  EMPIRE.) 

The  question  of  the  status  of  South- West  Africa,  formerly 
administered  under  League  of  Nations  mandate  by  the  Union 
of  South  Africa,  was  again  brought  before  the  general 
assembly  as  the  result  of  the  announcement  by  the  Union 
government  that  it  intended  to  establish  a  closer  association 
between  the  Union  and  the  former  mandated  territory  and  to 
discontinue  sending  reports  to  the  U.N.  on  its  administration. 
After  extended  consideration  of  the  matter  by  its  Fourth 
committee,  the  general  assembly  adopted  two  resolutions 
inviting  the  government  of  the  Union  of  South  Africa  to 
resume  the  submission  of  reports  and  to  comply  with  previous 
decisions  of  the  general  assembly,  and  requesting  the  Inter- 
national Court  of  Justice  to  give  an  opinion  on  the 


646 


UNITED   STATES   OF   AMERICA 


international  status  of  South- West  Africa.  (See  also  SOUTH 
AFRICA,  THE  UNION  OF.) 

During  1949  information  concerning  over  60  non -self- 
governing  territories  was  transmitted  to  the  secretary 
general  and,  after  being  summarized  and  analysed  by  the 
Division  of  Information  on  Non-self-governing  Territories, 
was  studied  by  a  special  committee  of  the  assembly.  The 
committee  met  at  Lake  Success  from  Aug.  25  to  Sept.  12, 
1949.  The  report  submitted  by  the  special  committee, 
including  ten  draft  resolutions,  led  to  vigorous  debate  in  the 
fourth  session  of  the  general  assembly.  The  position  was 
taken  by  certain  of  the  colonial  powers  that  the  permissive 
limits  of  the  charter  were  being  exceeded.  Resolutions 
which  the  general  assembly  adopted  recommended  that 
members  administering  non-self-governing  territories  be 
invited  to  submit  political  information,  that  administering 
members  give  special  attention  to  the  improvement  of 
education  in  territories  under  their  control,  that  there  be 
more  effective  co-operation  with  specialized  international 
bodies  in  providing  technical  training  facilities  for  natives, 
that  the  special  committee  be  continued  for  three  years  and 
that  the  committee  devote  its  attention  each  year  to  a  special 
field,  such  as  education.  The  representatives  of  Belgium, 
France  and  the  United  Kingdom  strongly  opposed  certain 
of  these  resolutions  and  reserved  their  rights. 

U.N.  supervision  of  the  administration  of  trust  territories 
made  substantial  progress  during  the  year.  Following  a  new 
procedure  suggested  by  the  president  of  the  council,  reports 
to  the  council  were  presented  by  the  special  representatives 
of  the  administrative  authorities,  and  members  of  the 
council  submitted  both  written  and  oral  questions.  Following 
a  general  discussion  of  each  report  a  drafting  committee  on 
annual  reports,  consisting  of  representatives  of  all  council 
members,  was  appointed  to  prepare  the  council's  report  to  the 
general  assembly  on  the  territory  in  question. 

During  its  fourth  and  fifth  sessions  the  Trusteeship  council 
considered  reports  of  the  administering  authorities  on  the 
administration  of  Western  Samoa,  the  Cameroons  (under 
both  British  and  French  administration),  Togoland  (under 
both  British  and  French  administration),  Nauru,  New  Guinea 
and  Trust  Territory  of  the  Pacific  Islands.  The  council  also 
considered  the  report  of  its  Visiting  Mission  to  Trust  Terri- 
tories in  East  Africa  and  organized  a  Visiting  Mission  to 
Trust  Territories  in  West  Africa.  Pursuant  to  a  resolution 
adopted  by  the  general  assembly  in  its  third  session,  it  under- 
took the  study  of  the  question  of  administrative  unions. 
A  large  number  of  petitions  were  considered,  and  some 
changes  in  petition  procedure  were  adopted.  In  considering 
conditions  in  trust  territories,  the  council  was  especially 
critical  of  the  slow  rate  of  political,  economic  and  educational 
advancement  and  of  the  practice  of  combining  trust  territories 
with  colonies  in  administrative  unions. 

The  general  assembly,  on  the  basis  of  Trusteeship  council 
reports  and  recommendations,  adopted  a  series  of  resolutions 
reflecting  a  critical  but  constructive  attitude  toward  the 
actual  achievements  of  administering  authorities.  The 
assembly  urged  the  more  rapid  advancement  of  trust  terri- 
tories toward  self-government  or  independence,  a  greater 
participation  of  the  indigenous  population  in  various  econo- 
mic activities,  greater  progress  in  the  elimination  of 
uncivilized  practices  and  in  social  improvement,  improved 
educational  facilities  and  the  elimination  of  racial  discrimina- 
tion in  education.  The  assembly  also  authorized  further 
inquiry  into  the  practice  of  administrative  unions  and 
recommended  the  use  of  the  U.N.  flag  along  with  that  of  the 
administering  authority.  France  and  the  United  Kingdom 
reserved  their  positions  on  the  methods  of  implementing 
these  proposals.  (See  also  TRUST  TERRITORIES.) 

General  Administration  and  Finances.     The  original  1950 


budget  estimates  of  the  secretary  general  called  for  gross 
expenditures  of  $44,314,398,  which  would  have  exceeded 
1949  appropriations  by  more  than  $800,000.  The  advisory 
committee  on  administrative  and  budgetary  questions  felt 
that  a  reduction  of  $1,786,750  could  be  made  in  the  budget 
and  so  recommended  to  the  assembly.  The  general  assembly 
finally  approved  appropriations  amounting  to  $49,641,773, 
including  $8  million  for  the  international  regime  of  Jerusalem. 
Miscellaneous  income  was  estimated  at  $5,091,740. 

In  1948,  the  general  assembly  had  requested  the  committee 
on  contributions  to  re-examine  the  existing  scale  of  assess- 
ments. The  committee  concluded  that  since  the  world  econo- 
mic and  financial  situation  could  not  be  considered  as  having 
returned  to  normal,  the  time  had  not  arrived  for  fixing  a 
scale  for  a  three-year  period  as  contemplated  in  the  general 
assembly's  rules  of  procedure.  The  only  adjustments  pro- 
posed concerned  the  assessments  of  the  United  States  and 
Sweden,  which  were  reduced  by  0  10%  and  0-02%  respec- 
tively. The  committee  fixed  the  contribution  of  Israel,  the 
only  new  member,  at  0  12%.  (L.  M.  GH.) 

UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA,    THE. 

A  republic  in  North  America  composed  of  48  separate  and 
(theoretically)  sovereign  states  united  by  a  federal  govern- 
ment; the  fifth  largest  country  of  the  world  in  area  (after  the 
U.S  S  R.,  China,  Canada  and  Brazil),  the  fourth  in  popula- 
tion (after  China,  India  and  the  U.S.S.R.),  but  the  foremost 
as  to  industrial  production  and  financial  resources;  bounded 
on  the  north  by  Canada  (the  49th  parallel  forming  the 
western  section  of  the  boundary  which  follows  the  general 
line  of  the  Great  Lakes  at  the  eastern  end),  on  the  south  by 
Mexico,  on  the  east  by  the  Atlantic  ocean  (air  distance,  New 
York-London,  3,400  mi.),  and  on  the  west  by  the  Pacific 
ocean  (air  distance,  Seattle- Yokohama,  4,800  mi.).  Area 
of  the  continental  U.S.  (land  only):  2,977,128  sq.  mi. 

Population:  (April  1,  1940  census)  131,669,275;  (July  1, 
1949  est.)  149,215,366;  sometime  after  the  middle  of  the 
year  the  population  passed  the  150  million  mark.  In  1940  the 
population  included  118,214,870  whites  (89-8%),  12,865,518 
Negroes  (9-8%),  333,969  Indians  (0-3%),  126,947  Japanese, 
77,504  Chinese,  45,563  Filipinos  and  4,904  other  non-whites. 
The  number  of  foreign-born  whites  decreased  from  13,983,405 
(12-7%  of  the  total)  in  1930  to  11,419,138  (9-7%)  in  1940; 
about  15  million  U.S.  white  citizens  were  persons  with  both 
parents  foreign-born;  about  five  million  had  only  the  father 
foreign-born  and  about  three  million  only  the  mother 
foreign-born.  Total  foreign  white  stock  in  1940  numbered 
34,576,718.  The  German  foreign  white  stock  was  the  largest 
(5,236,612),  followed  by  the  Italian  (4,394,780)  and  the  Polish 
(2,905,859);  other  countries  contributing  more  than  two 
million  were  Russia,  Ireland  and  Canada,  with  England  just 
under  this  figure  (1,975,975).  From  1940  to  1949  there  was  a 
great  westward  movement  of  the  population:  during  this 
period  the  states  of  California,  Oregon  and  Washington 
showed  a  net  gain  of  54%;  Mississippi,  Montana,  North 
Dakota  and  Oklahoma  lost  slightly;  Florida  and  Virginia 
gained  substantially  (see  Table  I.).  The  non-white  population, 
checked  in  the  past  by  a  relatively  high  death  rate,  was 
increasing  more  than  the  whites  during  1940-47  (11-6% 
increase  compared  with  7-5%  for  whites). 

In  1948  there  were  in  the  U.S.  53  religious  bodies  of  more 
than  50,000  members,  with  a  total  of  75,371,137  members. 
Though  Protestants  as  a  group  outnumbered  Roman 
Catholics  by  almost  two  to  one,  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
with  a  total  of  25,268, 1 73  (35  %  of  the  total,  mainly  Americans 
of  Irish,  Italian,  Polish  and  German  extraction)  was  far  ahead 
of  any  other  single  denomination.  Nine  Baptist  bodies 
numbered  15,230,014  (including  more  than  four  million 
Negroes);  four  Methodist  bodies  10,337,682  (including 


UNITED   STATES   OF   AMERICA 


647 


about  1,770,000  Negroes);  seven  Lutheran  bodies  (mainly 
Americans  of  German  or  Scandinavian  extraction)  5,098,515; 
four  Presbyterian  bodies  3,127,000;  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  2,160,207.  The  largest  non-Christian  congregation 
was  Jewish  (4,641,000). 

Chief  towns  (pop.,  first  figure  1940  census;  second  figure 
1949  est.):  Washington,  D.C.  (q.v.)  (cap.,  663,091 ;  870,000); 
New  York  (q.v.)  (7,454,995;  7,887,748);  Chicago  (c/.v.) 
(3,396,808;  3,632,808);  Philadelphia  (1,931,334,  2,100,000); 
Detroit  (1,623,452;  1,815,000);  Los  Angeles  (1,504,277; 
1,947,785);  Cleveland  (878,336;  900,000);  Baltimore 
(859,100;  930,000);  St.  Louis  816,048;  840,000);  Boston 
(770,816;  766,386);  Pittsburgh  (671,659;  700,000);  San 
Francisco  (634,536;  814,500). 

President  of  the  United  States:  Harry  S.  Truman  (q  v.); 
vice-president:  Alben  W.  Barkley  ((/.v.).  The  U  S.  cabinet 
on  Dec.  31,  1949  was  as  follows: 

Secretary  of  State 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury 
Attorney  General     . 
Postmaster  General 
Secretary  of  the  Interior 
Secretary  of  Agriculture 
Secretary  of  Commerce 
Secretary  of  Labour 
Secretary  of  Defence 


Dean  G  Acheson  (q  v  ) 
John  W  Snyder 
J.  Howard  McGrath 
Jesse  M.  Donaldson 
Oscar  L.  Chapman 
Charles  V  Brannan 
Charles  Sawyer 
Maurice  J.  Tobm 
Louis  A.  Johnson 


THE  STAIES  OF  THE  UNIILD  SIAIES  op  AMFRICA, 
THEIR  POPULATIONS,  AREAS  AND  CAPITALS 
Population  1940 


1940 

July  1,  1949  Land  Area 

Capital 

State 

Census 

Estimate 

sq.  mi 

City 

Alabama 

2,832,961 

2,920,000 

51,078 

Montgomery 

Arizona 

499,261 

745,000 

113,580 

Phoenix 

Arkansas 

1,949,387 

1,964,000 

52,725 

Little  Rock 

California 

6,907,387 

10,665,000 

156,803 

Sacramento 

Colorado 

1,123,296 

1,215,000 

103,967 

Denver 

Connecticut 

1,709,242 

2,019,000 

4,899 

Hartford 

Delaware 

266,505 

311,000 

1,978 

Dover 

Florida  . 

1,897,414 

2,494,000 

54,262 

Tallahassee 

Georgia 

3,123,723 

3,196,000 

58.518 

Atlanta 

Idaho 

524,873 

592,000 

82,808 

Broise 

Illinois 

7,897,241 

8,449,000 

55,947 

Springfield 

Indiana 

3,427,796 

3,994,000 

36,205 

Indianapolis 

Iowa 

2.538,268 

2,643,000 

55,986 

Des  Moines 

Kansas 

1,801,028 

1,947,000 

82,112 

Topeka 

Kentucky 

2,845,627 

2,893,000 

40,109 

Frankfort 

Louisiana 

2,363,880 

2,630,000 

45,177 

Baton  Rouge 

Maine 

847,226 

909,000 

3  1  ,040 

Augusta 

Maryland 

1,821,244 

2,175,000 

9,887 

Annapolis 

Massachusetts 

4,316,721 

4,713,000 

7,907 

Boston 

Michigan 

5,256,106 

6,352,000 

57,022 

Lansing 

Minnesota 

2,792,300 

2,977,000 

80,009 

St.  Paul 

Mississippi 

2,183,796 

2,130,000 

47,420 

Jackson 

Missouri 

3,784,664 

3,935,000 

69,270 

JelTerson  City 

Montana 

559,456 

521,000. 

146,316 

Helena 

Nebraska 

1,315,834 

1,285,000 

76,653 

Lincoln 

Nevada 

1  10,247 

174,000 

109,802 

Carson  City 

New  Hampshire 

491,524 

544,000 

9,024 

Concord 

New  Jersey 

4,160,165 

4,873,000 

7,522 

Trenton 

New  Mexico 

531,818 

589,000 

121,511 

Santa  F-e 

New  York 

13,479,142 

14,392,000 

47,929 

Albany 

North  Carolina 

3,571,623 

3,864,000 

49,142 

Raleigh 

North  Dakota 

641,935 

605,000 

70,054 

Bismarck 

Ohio 

6,907,612 

7,989,000 

41,122 

Columbus 

Oklahoma 

2,336,434 

2,302,000 

69,283 

Oklahoma  City 

Oregon  . 

1,089,684 

1,736,000 

96,350 

Salem 

Pennsylvania  . 

9,900,180 

10,633,000 

45,045 

Harnsburg 

Rhode  Island  . 

713,346 

743,000 

1,058 

Providence 

South  Carolina 

1,899,804 

2,001,000 

30,594 

Columbia 

South  Dakota 

642,961 

649,000 

76,536 

Pierre 

Tennessee 

2,915,841 

3,234,000 

41,961 

Nashville 

Texas     . 

6,414,824 

7,532,000 

263,644 

Austin 

Utah 

550,310 

682,000 

82,346 

Salt  Lake  City 

Vermont 

359,231 

369,000 

9,278 

Montpelier 

Virginia. 

2,677,773 

3,102,000 

39,899 

Richmond 

Washington    . 

1,736,191 

2,582,000 

66,977 

Olympia 

West  Virginia 

1,901,974 

1,941,000 

24,090 

Charleston 

Wisconsin 

3,137,587 

3,355,000 

54,715 

Madison 

Wyoming 

250,742 

284,000 

97,506 

Cheyenne 

District  of 

Columbia    . 

663,091 

870,000 

61 

— 

History.  Upon  taking  office  on  Jan.  20,  President  Harry 
S.  Truman  called  for  more  taxes  to  bring  in  an  additional 
$4,000  million  revenue.  Truman's  programme  for  labour 
included  repeal  of  the  Labour-Management  (Taft-Hartley) 
act  of  1947  and  re-enactment  of  the  Wagner  act  with  improve- 
ments; reorganization  of  the  Department  of  Labour;  and 
the  enactment  of  a  minimum  wage  law  requiting  at  least 
75  cents  an  hour.  For  the  farmer  Truman  asked  for  an 
improved  national  programme  to  insure  abundant  agricul- 
tural production,  parity  of  income  for  farmers  through  farm 
price  supports,  and  good  utilization  of  land.  To  expand 
domestic  markets  for  farm  products  and  increase  and 
stabih/e  foreign  markets  was  a  further  aim  of  this  pro- 
gramme To  raise  the  standard  of  living  of  the  TJ.S  people 
as  a  whole,  the  president  asked  for  expansion  of  the  social 
security  programmes  with  increase  in  the  size  of  benefits 
and  increased  coverage  against  unemployment,  old  age, 
sickness  and  disability.  To  accomplish  this,  he  proposed  a 
system  of  prepaid  medical  insurance  and  remedies  for  the 
shortage  of  doctors,  hospital  facilities  and  nurses;  federal 
financial  aid  to  states  to  help  them  operate  and  maintain  their 
school  systems;  the  enactment  of  legislation  for  low-rent 
public  housing,  slum  clearance,  farm  housing  and  housing 
research  and  encouragement  of  the  building  industry  to 
produce  lower  priced  housing  by  allocating  materials  in 
short  supply  and  imposing  price  ceilings  on  such  materials. 
Finally,  the  president  called  for  the  enactment  of  the  civil 
rights  proposals  he  had  made  to  the  80th  congress. 

Problems  at  Home.  Uneasiness  caused  by  the  menace  of 
communism  abroad  was  increased  by  the  evidences  of 
communism  at  home,  shown  notably  in  the  trial  of  1 1 
Communist  party  leaders  in  the  U  S.  district  court  in  New 
York  city.  This  trial  ended  on  Oct.  14,  with  a  verdict  of 
guilty  of  secretly  teaching  and  advocating,  on  orders  from 
Moscow,  the  overthrow  and  destruction  of  the  government 
of  the  United  States  by  force  and  violence.  Although  the 
defendants  were  conceded  by  the  government  an  arguable 
point  on  appeal  under  the  free  speech  amendment,  the  nine 
months  long,  carefully  handled  trial  had  presented  over- 
whelming testimony  as  to  the  incompatibility  of  Communist 
party  activities  with  U.S.  ideals. 

The  verdict  in  this  case  helped  to  resolve  in  the  public 
mind  the  confusion  caused  by  other  trials,  in  particular  the 
trials  of  Alger  Hiss  former  official  of  the  State  Department, 
accused  by  a  confessed  former  Communist,  Whittaker 


ITS  A  PRETTY  GOOD  ^ 
VW  FDR  BOTH  OF  US  TO  ,  __    . 
:3  LET  OFF  EXCESS  STTAM,  ug-C 
JOHN 


Clifford  K.  Berry  man  in  the  "Evening  Star"  (Washington)  com- 
ments on  the  mutual  press  criticism  of  Britain  and  America  in  the 
autumn  of  1949.    (Mr.  Berryman  died  on  Dec.  77,  1949). 


648 


UNITED   STATES   OF  AMERICA 


Harry  S.  Truman  (with  hand  raised)  being  sworn  in  as  president  of  the 

the  oath  is  Frederick  M.  Vinsont 

Chambers,  of  passing  to  Soviet  agents  confidential  state 
documents.  Because  of  the  confidence  in  Hiss  expressed  by 
a  number  of  men  prominent  in  public  life,  these  trials,  more 
than  spanning  the  year,  were  sensational  and  deeply  dis- 
turbing to  the  public. 

The  charge  of  Senator  Bourke  Hickenlooper  that  David 
Lilienthal,  chairman  of  the  Atomic  Energy  commission, 
was  guilty  of  '*  incredible  mismanagement "  produced  long 
and  exhaustive  hearings  before  a  joint  congressional  com- 
mittee. At  the  close,  the  chairman  was  exonerated  by  a 
majority  vote,  but  it  was  partisan  in  the  continuance  of 
doubt — either  on  political  or  practical  grounds — on  the 
part  of  Republican  members. 

The  conflicts  between  president  and  congress  as  to  specific 
measures  resulted  in  a  stalemate  when  congress  adjourned 
in  the  autumn.  This,  of  course,  was  not  an  unusual  condition 
in  U.S.  politics.  It  was  clear,  however,  that  the  president 
ended  the  year  in  a  stronger  position  on  domestic  issues  than 
at  the  opening  of  congress.  Both  parties,  as  represented  in 
congress,  were  seriously  divided  on  every  major  issue.  The 
Democratic  party  did  not  have  a  dependable  majority. 
The  southern  Democratic  revolt  was  stronger  at  the  close 
than  at  the  beginning.  The  president  had  made  no  major 
overtures  at  reconciliation  and  was  still  pressing  his  pro- 
gramme of  civil  rights  when  congress  adjourned. 

Discussion  continued  on  the  theme  of  so-called  outworn 
political  alignment,  that  is,  Republican  versus  Democrat. 
The  composition  of  party  membership  in  the  congress 
emphasized  the  divisions  on  party  programme;  within  the 
Democratic  membership  were  wide  divergences  of  belief, 
notably  on  the  civil  rights  issue  and  on  other  domestic 


United  States  of  America  at  Washington,  Jan.  21, 1949.  Administering 
chief  justice  of  the  supreme  court. 

proposals;  within  the  Republican  membership,  there  was 
greater  agreement  on  domestic  problems,  but  none  whatever 
on  either  temporary  or  fundamental  questions  in  foreign 
relations.  Consequently  legislation,  when  enacted,  was  by 
bi-partisan  vote,  notably  on  the  North  Atlantic  treaty, 
military  aid  to  Europe,  continuance  of  the  European  Recovery 
programme  and  extension  of  reciprocal  trade  agreements. 
There  was  every  indication  as  the  year  closed  that  the  various 
divisions  in  the  congress  reflected  actual  divisions  in  the 
electorate  and  that,  barring  dramatic  realignment  caused 
by  events  beyond  the  borders  of  the  country,  the  fundamental 
differences  between  the  two  great  parties  were  to  be  more 
marked  than  at  any  time  since  1932.  Third  parties  were  as 
unimportant  in  public  thinking  as  at  any  time  since  the 
opening  of  the  century. 

A  hard  working  congress  in  an  unusually  extended  session, 
due  to  conflict  with  a  determined  president,  accomplished 
five  important  objectives:  (1)  reaffirmation,  by  financial 
support  amounting  to  more  than  $5,000  million,  for  the 
second  year  of  the  economic  aid  to  Europe;  (2)  ratification 
of  the  North  Atlantic  treaty;  (3)  passage  of  the  Reciprocal 
Trade  Agreements  act,  restoring  the  full  powers  of  the 
president  to  negotiate  reciprocal  trade  agreements  on  the 
pattern  successfully  pursued  by  Cordell  Hull;  (4)  adoption 
of  the  National  Housing  act,  a  long  range  measure  to  obtain 
low  rental  public  housing  and  slum  clearance;  (5)  passage 
of  a  series  of  reorganization  acts  following  the  recommen- 
dations of  the  Commission  on  Organization  of  the  Executive 
Branch  of  the  Government  (Hoover  commission).  President 
Truman  signed  792  measures  enacted  into  law  by  his  signature 
and  vetoed  32  measures. 


UNITED   STATES   OF  AMERICA 


649 


Failure  to  act  on  the  president's  civil  rights  programme 
appeared  as  the  reflection  of  a  southern  Democratic- 
Republican  coalition  in  this  entire  field  of  legislation.  Failure 
to  enact  a  new  labour  bill  correcting  some  of  the  faults 
which  experience  had  demonstrated  in  the  existing  Taft- 
Hartley  act  was  attributable  to  the  pressure  of  the  adminis- 
tration for  a  dramatic  repeal  of  the  latter.  The  fact  that 
congress  failed  to  vote  $4,000  million  in  taxes  called  for  by 
the  President  and  yet  voted  a  budget  in  which  prospective 
expenditures  would  exceed  prospective  revenue,  possibly 
by  as  much  as  $5,000  million,  reaffirmed  national  deficit 
financing.  The  passage  of  a  new  farm  bill,  which  fixed  farm- 
price  supports  at  the  highest  level  ever  reached,  placed  upon 
congress  responsibility  for  greatly  increasing  the  taxpayer's 
burden,  placing  the  consumer  at  a  disadvantage,  and  dis- 
regarding the  pledges  given  by  both  political  parties  in  favour 
of  a  system  of  flexible  supports.  Minimum  wage  rates  in  the 
nation  were  raised  by  the  81st  congress  from  40  to  75  cents 
an  hour.  Legislation  for  federal  subsidies  to  schools,  for 
creation  of  a  department  of  public  welfare,  for  compulsory 
national  health  insurance  and  for  the  extension  of  social 
security  failed  of  passage. 

The  trade  unions  continued  to  press  for  security  and  for 
increased  wages.  Outstanding  was  the  campaign  for  the 
fourth  round  of  wage  increases  since  the  end  of  the  war. 
By  the  middle  of  July  a  stalemate  was  complete  between  the 
steelworkers  and  the  steel  companies.  The  federal  fact- 
finding  board  on  Sept.  10  recommended  no  increase  in  wages, 
but  the  payment  of  pensions  and  social  insurance  by  manage- 
ment. This  the  unions  accepted  and  management  rejected. 
The  steel  workers  went  on  strike  in  October,  and  by  the  end 
of  the  month  won.  The  contracts  which  were  then  signed 
pointed  the  way  for  all  industry  on  this  issue.  In  common 
with  the  mood  of  the  rest  of  the  nation,  organized  labour  was 
engaged  throughout  the  year  in  expelling  known  Communists 
and  in  reducing  the  powers  of  more  radical  unions. 

The  rise  of  the  power  of  organized  labour  in  politics 
had  never  been  more  evident  than  in  the  year  1949.  Its 
importance  was  clearly  recognized  by  the  president  in  his 
inaugural  speech  and  again  in  his  message  to  congress.  The 
programmes  of  both  American  Federation  of  Labour  and 
Congress  of  Industrial  Organizations  for  wage  increases  and 
for  pension  provisions  were  constantly  under  public  discussion. 
The  role  of  John  L.  Lewis,  in  his  conferences  on  strikes  and 
in  his  public  utterances,  was  dramatically  presented  in  news- 
paper and  radio  comment.  The  public  was  aware  that  no 
question  in  domestic  legislation  and  no  issue  in  politics 
was  unaffected  by  the  attitude  or  anticipated  attitude  of 
labour.  Election  figures  indicated  that  the  political  power 
of  labour  in  votes  far  transcended  the  membership  in 
organized  trade  unions.  In  the  congress  the  issue  was  drawn 
upon  proposals  to  repeal  the  Taft-Hartley  act  and  to  amend 
it  to  the  extent  of  making  it  workable.  The  heart  of  the 
discussion  was  on  the  injunction  clause.  The  Senate  under  the 
leadership  of  Senator  Robert  A.  Taft  by  a  close  vote  modified 
the  act,  but  the  bill  was  buried  in  the  House.  The  administra- 
tion maintained  its  position  demanding  repeal  and 
re-enactment  of  the  Wagner  act.  The  full  intent  of  the  leaders 
of  organized  labour  was  seen  at  the  end  of  the  year  in  the 
issuance  of  the  call  by  the  American  Federation  of  Labour 
on  its  members  to  express  their  sentiments  at  the  polls  in 
punishing  107  "  enemies  of  labour "  in  congress,  almost 
all  of  them  Republican. 

Foreign  Policy.  The  North  Atlantic  treaty  was  ratified  by 
the  Senate  in  a  vote  of  82-13  on  July  21.  Shortly  afterwards 
Truman  submitted  his  proposal  for  a  military  assistance 
programme  which,  on  Sept.  22,  came  to  its  crucial  test  in  the 
Senate  and  was  passed  by  a  vote  of  55-24  pledging  $1,314 
million.  By  October,  spending  under  the  Marshall  plan  went 


over  the  $7,000  million  mark.  The  menace  of  Communism 
as  a  revolutionary  force  in  the  world  outside  the  United 
States  was  made  more  vividly  evident  to  Americans  by  the 
announcement  of  President  Truman  on  Sept.  23,  the  day  after 
the  passage  of  the  Arms  Aid  bill,  that  an  "  atomic  explosion  " 
had  taken  place  in  the  Soviet  Union.  This  was  followed  by 
a  nation-wide  debate  as  to  the  possible  need  for  reshaping 
all  plans  not  only  for  defence  but  also  for  participation  in 
an  open  alliance  having  an  aggressive  programme  of  attack. 
The  extreme  views  were  less  evident  after  a  month  of  debate. 
On  the  whole,  belief  prevailed  that  a  general  war  was  not 
near.  That  the  U.S.S.R.  had  been  "  contained  "  in  Europe 
came  to  be  greatl^1  acknowledged. 

United  States  interest  in  Asia  was  renewed  as  the  spread 
of  Soviet  influence  in  China  proved  to  be  inevitable.  At  the 
opening  of  the  year,  the  Nationalists  still  held  at  least  half 
of  China,  and  Americans,  recalling  earlier  Chinese  civil 
wars,  of  which  they  knew  little,  saw  a  stalemate  and  a  com- 
promise between  Communists  and  Nationalists.  The  com- 
plete collapse  of  Chiang  Kai-shek  was  unexpected. 

The  last  year  of  the  first  half  of  the  twentieth  century  was 
marked  by  many  Americans  as  a  year  of  great  disillusionment. 
The  utterances  of  the  year  revealed  the  final  dawning  of  the 
realization  that  the  alignment  in  the  long  debate  between 
reason  and  faith  was  no  longer  clearly  defined.  Not  only 
in  the  natural  sciences,  particularly  in  physics,  but  also  in 
the  social  sciences,  notably  psychology,  the  mood  was  one  of 
uncertainty  if  not  of  actual  despair.  This  did  not  rise  out  of 
failure  in  research  or  even  in  application — that  is,  in  imme- 
diate result — but  out  of  a  growing  certainty  that  only  within 
sharply  delineated  limits  was  man  master  of  his  fate.  The 
realignment  found  an  increasing  number  of  churchmen 
moving  toward  fundamentalism  in  theology  and  toward 
unity  in  organization.  Likewise,  the  advocates  of  reason 
were  forced  by  the  growing  apprehensions  of  mankind  to 
lessen  their  advocacy  of  dependence  upon  intellectual  attain- 
ment and  to  emphasize  that  the  factors  of  chance  and 


Mrs.  Eugenie  Anderson  being  sworn  in  on  Oct.  28,  1949,  as  United 
States  ambassador  to  Denmark.  She  was  the  first  woman  to  hold 
ambassadorial  rank.  In  centre  is  Dean  Acheson,  secretary  of  state. 

inspiration  might  save  man  from  his  patent  weaknesses. 
Education  seemed  to  be  at  a  crossroads.  Increased  enrol- 
ments in  all  institutions  of  higher  learning  continued  to 
reflect  the  public  acceptance  of  education  as  a  road  to  com- 
petence and  power.  But  educators  who  had  been  for  a  decade 
satisfied  with  curricula  that  emphasized  science  through 
research  and  learning  by  adjustment  were  returning  to  a 
belief  in  the  importance  of  the  social  sciences  and  the 
humanities.  But  here  it  was  not  an  awareness  of  subject 
matter  nor  a  knowledge  of  book  content— even  that  of  the 


650 


UNITED   STATES   OF   AMERICA 


greatest  minds— which  was  sought  as  an  objective.  There 
was  a  growing  conviction  that  the  informed  man  and  the 
trained  mind  prepared  the  mature  citizen  to  do  his  part — 
not  in  the  school — but  in  the  society  of  which  he  was  a  mem- 
ber. Consequently,  increased  attention  upon  adult  education 
was  directed  to  the  fundamental,  as  well  as  the  practical, 
aspects  of  the  individual  in  society. 

Americans  continued,  as  no  other  nation  in  this  or  any 
other  age,  to  be  interested  in  peoples  and  events  outside 
the  United  States.  By  newspaper  and  radio,  by  lecture  and 
pronouncement  of  experts  the  American  citizen  was  informed 
as  to  his  place  in  a  world  of  peoples  and  nations.  The  world 
inside  his  head  was  at  once  the  repository  of  a  countless 
array  of  bewildering  new  facts,  and  also  a  battleground 
upon  which  were  fought  out  the  issues  of  the  world.  That  no 
decisions  were  reached,  and  that  vast  arrays  of  facts  were 
soon  forgotten,  did  not  alter  the  circumstance  that  the 
American  had-  despite  all  his  traditions  and  inclinations — 
become  a  world  citizen.  (E.  E.  R.) 

Education  Data  in  Tables  I  and  II,  gathered  by  the  U  S.  Office  of 
Education,  are  taken  from  the  Statistical  Abstract  of  the  United  States 
1948  and  relate  to  the  continental  U.S. 

TABLE  I  — PUBLIC  ELEMENTARY  AND  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

1 939-40  1 941-44     1 949-50  (est.) 

Pupils  in  elementary  schools  18,832,098  17,713,096  20  500,000 
Pupils  in  secondary  schools  6,601,444  5,553,520  6,500,000 

Teachers,  all  schools       .         .          875,477  827,990  — 

In  1946  there  were  160.227  public  elementary  and  24,314  public 
secondary  schools.  In  1945-46  there  were  also  13,296  private  (mainly 
Roman  Catholic)  elementary  and  secondary  schools  with  a  total 
enrolment  of  2,724,572  pupils.  Vocational  schools  had  a  total  enrol- 
ment of  2,227,663  in  1945-46  and  a  teaching  staff  of  44,979. 

TABLE  II. — INSTITUTIONS  OF  HIGHER  EDUCATION 

1939-40  1943-44  1947-48 

Total  resident  students  .  1,494,203        1,155,272      2,338,226f 

Teaching  staff  .         .          131,552  134,451 

t  Including  1,222,728  veterans  receiving  a  subsistence  allowance  of  $75  d  month 
from  the  U  S  Veterans'  administration. 

The  above  figures  cover  about  1,650  universities,  colleges,  junior 
colleges,  profess»onal  and  teachers'  colleges,  both  publicly  and  privately 
controlled.  Of  164  universities  the  oldest  are  Harvard  (Cambridge, 
Massachusetts,  1636),  Yale  (New  Haven,  Connecticut,  1701)  and 
Pennsylvania  (Philadelphia,  1740).  The  largest  are  the  universities  of 
California  (Berkeley  and  Los  Angeles,  42,637  students  in  1947-48), 
Columbia  (New  York,  31,604),  Minnesota  (Minneapolis,  28,312)  and 
Illinois  (Urbana,  Illinois,  28,284).  Four  other  universities  had  over 
20,000  students  and  16  universities  over  10,000. 

Education  in  the  U.S.  is  financed  by  the  member-states  or  privately 
and  to  a  small  extent  by  the  federal  government.  In  1943-44,  for 
example,  the  total  expenditure  on  education  amounted  to  $3,398 
million,  including  $2,453  million  on  public  elementary  and  secondary 
schools,  $264  million  on  private  elementary  and  secondary  schools, 
$402  million  on  public  institutions  of  higher  education  and  $279 
million  on  private  institutions  of  higher  education  This  explained 
why  in  the  federal  budget  a  relatively  small  sum  was  allocated  for 
education  and  general  research  ($125  million  in  1949-50).  Illiteracy 
dropped  to  2-7%  in  1949  compared  with  4  3%  in  1930. 

Agriculture  Data  in  Tables  III,  IV  and  V  are  taken  from  Monthly 
Bulletins  of  Food  and  Agriculture  Statistics 

TABLF  HI — AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTION 


('000  metric  tons) 

1934-38 

1947 

1948 

1949 

Wheat     . 

19,470 

37,209 

35,065 

30,651 

Barley 

4,495 

6,122 

6,902 

5,095 

Rye 

1,028 

660 

670 

478 

Oats 

13,973 

17,410 

21,653 

19,175 

Rice 

956 

1,597 

1,657 

1,786 

Maize 

53,066 

60,555 

92,728 

85,287 

Potatoes  . 

10,024 

10,588 

12,134 

10,528 

Cotton,  ginned 

2,756 

2,582 

3,252 

3,523 

Tobacco  . 

590 

957 

899 

— 

TABLE  IV.— LIVESTOCK  ('000  head) 

Jan.  1939            Jan.  1945  June  1948 

Cattle                                      66,029                 85,573  78,495 

Pigs                                          50,012                 59,331  55,038 

Sheep               .                        45,463                  39,609  34,827 

Horses                                     10,629                   8,715  5,291 

In  1948  the  U  S  had  about  12%  of  the  world  total  of  cattle  and  22% 
of  pigs. 

TABLE  V. — FOODSTUFFS  PRODUCTION  ('000  metric  tons) 


Meat  (total) 

Milk  (total) 

Factory  butterj 

Factory  cheese  t 

Sugar,  raw  value 
*  Average  1935-39 
t  Includes  whey  butter 


1937 

1946 

1947 

1948 

1949 

7,340* 

10,413 

10,628 

9,798 

10,059 

48,286* 

55,583 

55,426 

52,395 

55,000 

736  8 

531  6 

603-6 

550  8 

665 

294  0 

499  2 

534-0 

498  0 

586 

1,673 

1,768 

2,003 

1,675 

1,905 

J  Excludes  cottage  and  full-skim  cheddar  cheese. 


The  average  yearly  egg  production  in  1940-44  was  48,648  million;  in 
1946  it  reached  55,613  million,  that  is,  394  eggs  per  inhabitant. 

Fisheries  (1947,  including  Alaska),  total  catch,  4,378  million  Ib. 
valued  at  $303  million  (1939:  4,443  million  Ib  valued  at  $96  5  million). 

Industry  The  U.S.  Census  bureau  reported  that  the  number  of 
civilians  employed  in  Dec.  1949  was  58,556,000-878,000  fewer  than  in 
Dec.  1948.  The  number  of  unemployed  increased  during  that  year  from 
1,941,000  to  3,489,000.  The  number  of  persons  employed  in  all  non- 
agricultural  industries  decreased  from  36,016,000  in  Oct.  1948  to 
35,123,000  in  Oct.  1949.  In  1947  there  were  240,881  manufacturing 
establishments  employing  14,294,000  persons  Data  in  Tables  VI, 
VII  and  VIII  are  taken  from  the  U.N.  Stastical  Yearbook  1948  and 
from  U^N.  Monthly  Bulletins  of  Statistic*. 

TABIR  VI. — PRODUCTION  OF  FUEL  AND  POWER 


Coal  ('000  metric  tons) 
Gas  /  natural 

(million  cu  m.)  \m'factured 
Electricity  (million  kwh ) 
Crude  petroleum  ('000 
metric  tons) 


1940 

1947 

1948 

1949 

464,711 

623,975 

590,626 

427,000 

75,332 

125.864 

138,000 

— 

10,154 

14,938 

14,848 

— 

179,907 

307,400 

336,592 

282,000 

254,261        276,203        251,600 


182,867 

In  1948  the  U.S.  produced  two-fifths  of  the  world  extraction  of  coal 
and  almost  three-fifths  of  crude  petroleum.  In  1949  the  loss  in  produc- 
tion of  coal  (27-6%  in  comparison  with  1948)  and  electricity  (16%) 
was  explained  by  coal  strikes. 

TABLE  VII. — PRODUCTION  OF  METALS  ('000  metric  tons) 


1940 

1947 

1948 

1949 

Pig  iron 
Steel 
Copper 
Zinc 

43,027 
60,765 
922  4 
640  8 

54,559 
77,015 
857  0 
769  2 

55,200 
80,412 
889  2 
771   6 

46,800 
70,600 
823-4 
789-2 

Lead 

531-6 

529-2 

494  4 

501-3 

Aluminium 

187-1 

518   7 

565-6 

560 

With  6 -8%  of  the  world's  population  the  U.S.  produced  more  than 
half  of  the  world's  total  production  of  maize  and  cotton  in  1948, 
over  two-fifths  of  oats,  a  quarter  ot  tobacco  and  one-fifth  of  wheat. 


The  U.S.  share  in  world  production  of  metals  in  1948  was  as  follows: 
pig  iron  48%,  steel  52%,  copper  40%,  zinc  45%,  lead  33%,  aluminium 
47%  and  tin  22%. 

TABLE  VIII.  —MANUFACTURING  INDUSTRIES 

Cement  ('000  metric  tons)  : 

Building  bricks  (million  units) 
Rubber  f  synthetic 

('000  metric  tons)\  reclaimed 
Woven  cotton  fabrics  (million 

m.) 

Wool  yarn  ('000  metric  tons) 
Rayon  ffilament 

('000  metric  tons)  <      yarn 

I  staple  fibre 
Motor  vehicles     f  cars 
('000  units)          \  commercial 

t    1939 

The  downward  movement  in  the  U  S.  industrial  production  was  the 
natural  and  inevitable  readjustment  from  the  postwar  inflationary 
levels.  The  production  index  in  manufacturing  industries,  having 
reached  181  in  Oct.  1948  (1937-100)  declined  to  150  in  June  1949 
but  was  164  in  December.  This  improvement— as  President  Truman 
said  in  his  message  to  the  congress  on  Jan.  6,  1950 — "  confounded  the 
enemies  of  freedom  who  waited  eagerly  for  the  collapse  of  the  American 
economy."  On  Dec.  21,  1949,  in  the  Stalin  birthday  issue  of  Pravda, 
three  members  of  the  Politburo  stated  categorically  that  a  depression 
existed  in  the  U.S.,  Izvestia  (Dec  29)  saw  the  U.S.  in  the  throes  of 
"  economic  chaos  and  anarchy." 

Foreign  Trade  The  geographic  area  covered  by  data  in  Table  IX 
is  the  U.S.  customs  area,  which  includes  Alaska,  Hawaii  and  Puerto 
Rico  (Virgin  Islands  only  from  1935  to  1939). 


1940 
12,515 
4,079 
2  6 
212-0 

7,572f 
269-6| 

176-9 
36-8 
3,717  4 
754  9 

1947 
31,997 
5,026 
516-9 
296   1 

8,964 
357-6 

338-7 
103-6 
3,558-2 
1,239-6 

1948 
34,620 
5,844 
496  2 
271-1 

8,820 
362-4 

388-3 
121-6 
3,909-2 
1,376-2 

1949 
35,561 
5,445 
400-3 

7,442 
301-6 

348-0 
78-0 
5,136-8 
1,138-0 

UNITED   STATES  TERRITORIES   AND   POSSESSIONS 


651 


TABIF  IX. — FORFIGN  TRADE  (million  dollars) 


UNIILD  STATFS  TFRRiroRits  AND  POSSFSSIONS 


1936-401    1941-45t 

1947| 

1948  + 

1949^ 

Exports                     .    3,219  6      10,051-2 

14,456  4 

12,666 

12,023 

Imports                     .    2,482  0       3,507  5 

5,732  5 

8.058 

7,532 

Alaska 

Excess  of  exports      .       737  6       6,543  7 

8,723   9 

4,608 

4,491 

t  Statistical  Abstract  of  the  U  S    1948 

Hawaii 

J  International  Hnancial  Statistics  (March  19S( 

J) 

Puerto  Rico 

materials  such  as  cotton  and  tobacco  and  an  importer  of  manufactured 
goods  from  Europe.  In  the  years  1936-40  finished  manufactures 
represented  over  52%  of  its  exports  and  raw  materials  33  %  of  imports. 
Main  destinations  of  exports  (1948).  Europe  (E.R  P.  countries)  33  2%, 
Latin  America  25  1%,  Asia  16  1%,  Canada  15  0%  Mam  sources 
of  imports.  Latin  America  33  3°/ot  Canada  21  4%,  Asia  18  7%, 
Europe  (E  R.P.  countries)  13  4%. 

Transport  and  Communications  Railways  (1946)  239,869  mi 
Rolling  stock  (1946):  locomotives  45,511  (including  867  electric), 
goods  waggons  1,768,400,  passenger  coaches  38,697  Rail  transport 
(1948):  passengers  66,072  million  passenger-mi  ;  goods,  927,444 
million  tons-mi  Roads  (1945).  3,012,371  mi  ,  including  1,494,851  mi. 
surfaced  Motor  vehicles  registered  (1947,  in  brackets  1937)  cars 
30,719,000  (25,391,000),  commercial  6,642,000  (4,315,000).  Shipping, 
between  June  30,  1939,  and  Sept  30,  1946,  the  U.S.  sea-going  merchant 
marine  increased  from  1,091  vessels  of  1,000  gross  tons  and  over  to 
2,332  and  from  9,303,000  to  25,400,000  dead  weight  tons  By  Sept  30, 
1949,  the  number  of  vessels  dropped  to  1,214  totalling  14,350,000  d  w  t.; 
at  that  date  1,974  government-owned  vessels  were  kept  in  reserve 
From  the  end  of  World  War  11  until  March  1,  1948,  1,117  vessels  were 
sold  to  foreign  countries  According  to  Lloyd's  Register  Book  1949-50, 
out  of  a  total  of  about  72  5  million  gross  registered  tons  of  the  world's 
sea-going  shipping  in  1949,  the  U.S  was  25  9  million  g.r  t  ,  or  36%. 
Before  World  War  II  the  U  S  merchant  marine  was  the  second  largest 
alter  that  of  the  U  K  and  before  that  of  Japan;  after  World  War  II 
it  became  the  world's  largest,  closely  followed  by  that  of  the  U  K., 
with  Norway  in  third  place  Air  transport  see  AVIATION  CIVIL. 
Number  of  telephones  (Jan  1,  1949)  38,205,483,  or  58%  of  the  world's 
total,(1937)  19,450,000  Broadcasting  transmitting  stations  (1947)  2,972, 
(1937)  734;  approximately  74  million  wireless  receiving-sets  (including  1 1 
million  installed  in  cars)  were  in  use  at  the  end  of  1948,  as  compared 
with  50  million  (including  8  million  installed  in  cars)  in  Dec  1940 

finance  and  Banking,  Table  X  gives  the  U.S.  postwar  budget 
figures  with  the  last  prewar  budget  as  a  measure  of  comparison  The 
fiscal  year  ends  on  June  30.  All  figures  given  m  S  million. 

TABLF  X  — U  S.  FFDERAL  RFVENUE  AND  EXPENDITURE 


1946-      1947- 


1948- 


1949-        1950- 


I939-40J 

47| 

48  1 

49f 

50J 

51$ 

Revenue 

5, 

387 

1 

43 

,259 

42,211 

38,246 

37 

,763 

37,306 

Expenditure 

9, 

127 

4 

42 

,505 

33,792 

40,057 

43 

,297 

42,439 

Surplus  or 

Deficit 

-3, 

740 

3 

!• 

-754 

f  8,419 

1,811 

—5 

,534 

—5,133 

t  Actual     t  Fstimates, 

Public  debt.  (Dec  1949)  257,130,  (Dec  1939)  41,961.  Currency 
circulation  (Dec.  1949)  27,600,  (Dec.  1939)  7,598.  Deposit  money. 
(Nov.  1949)  85,500,  (Dec  1939)  29,800  Gold  reserves.  (Dec  1949) 
24,563,  (Dec  1939)17,799.  National  personal  income.  (1949)211,500, 
(1939)  72,600.  Government  foreign  credits  (Sept  30,  1949)-  out- 
standing 9,868  2;  unutilized  commitments  and  authorizations 
1,658-3;  total  11,526  5 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  (Books  of  1949  published  in  the  U  S  )  J  T.  Adams 
and  C.  G  Vannest,  The  Record  of  America,  C  Addison  Hickman, 
Our  Farm  Program  and  Foreign  Trade,  J.  A.  Barnes,  Wealth  of  the 
American  People;  H.  A.  Bone,  American  Politics  and  the  Party  System; 
J.  C.  Campbell,  The  United  States  in  World  Affair*  1948-49.  O.  P. 
Chitwood,  F.  L.  Owsley  and  H  C.  Nixon,  The  United  States  From 
Colony  to  World  Power,  J.  S.  Davies,  The  Population  Upsurge  in  the 
United  States;  R  Emerson  and  others,  America's  Pacific  Dependencies; 
Sherman  Kent,  Strategic  Intelligence  for  American  World  Policy; 
Lester  Markel  and  others,  Public  Opinion  and  Foreign  Policy;  A.  and 
C.  Rose,  America  Divided:  Minority  Group  Relations  in  the  United 
States.  (K.  SM.) 

UNITED  STATES  TERRITORIES  AND 
POSSESSIONS.  Under  this  heading  arc  grouped  the 
territories  and  overseas  possessions  of  the  United  States. 
Their  total  area  is  597,370  sq.  mi.  and  the  total  population 
(1949  est.)  3,014,300.  Certain  essential  information  on  these 
dependencies  is  given  in  the  table  which  does  not  include  the 
smaller  Pacific  islands  administered  by  the  U.S.  navy  depart- 
ment (Johnston,  Kingman  Reef,  Kure,  Midway,  Palmyra, 


Area      Population  Status 
(Insq  mi  )( 1949  est  ) 

586,400        100,000  territory 

6,433        530,891  territory 


3,435     2.180.M4    self-governing 

dependency 
Virgin  Islands  133          30,000        territory 


Guam 

Sa'moa, 
American 


206        101,744       possession 
76          18,^73       possession 


U  S    Pacific  687          53,000     trust  territory 

islands  under 

trusteeship  * 
*  I  he  Caroline,  M.uiands  and  Marshall  archipelagoes  (set 


Governors 

Governor, 

Ernest  Gruening 
Governor,  Ingram 

M   Stambeck 
President.  Luis 

Murioz  Marin 
Acting  governor. 

Morns  F    de 

Castro 
Governor, 

Carlton  Skinner 
Governor,  Capt. 

Thomas  F.  Dar- 

den,  Jr,    U.S.N. 
High  Com., 

Admiral  Arthur 

W.  Radford 
TRUST  TFRRITORIFS) 


and  Wake),  by  the  U.S.  department  of  the  interior  (Baker, 
Howland  and  Jams),  or  which  are  under  joint  Bntish-U.S. 
sovereignty  (Canton  and  Enderbury). 

Alaska.  The  northernmost  territory  of  the  United  States, 
Alaska  is  separated  from  Asiatic  U.S.S.R.  by  Bering  strait. 
The  boundary  line  runs  between  the  Big  Diomede  island, 
which  is  Soviet  soil,  and  the  Little  Diomede  island,  which 
is  on  the  U.S  side.  These  islands  are  about  4  mi.  apart. 
The  population  of  Alaska  is  made  up  of  about  60%  whites 
and  40%  Eskimos,  Aleuts  and  Indians.  Capital  (pop., 
1940  est.):  Juneau  (5,748). 

The  territorial  legislature  met  in  a  special  session  of  17 
days  and  a  regular  biennial  session  of  60  days  in  1949  and 
enacted  the  territory's  first  basic  tax  system  consisting  of  an 
income  tax,  property  tax  and  business  licence  tax.  The 
income  tax  levies  10%  of  the  amount  the  taxpayer  pays  the 
federal  government  under  the  internal  revenue  code;  the 
property  tax  is  1  %  of  the  true  and  full  value,  with  $200 
exemption  on  personal  property;  the  business  licence  is 
$25  for  any  and  all  business  enterprises,  with  a  graduated 
levy  on  all  gross  receipts  of  more  than  $100,000.  The 
legislature  created  a  territorial  department  of  fisheries  and 
department  of  aviation  and  established  a  national  guard. 
It  appropriated  $17,279,000  for  operation  of  the  territory 
during  the  1949-50  biennium.  The  anticipated  revenue  for 
the  same  period  was  $19  million. 

Construction  of  defence  installations  were  concentrated 
at  key  points  in  1949.  Late  in  the  year  announcement  came 
from  the  military  high  command  that  ground  troops  would 
be  withdrawn  from  the  Aleutian  island  chain  although  the 
air  arm  would  be  maintained.  Lack  of  sufficient  funds  to 
rebuild  the  temporary  installations  made  in  the  islands 
during  World  War  II  was  given  as  the  reason. 

Education.  In  1949  the  territory  had  26  incorporated  school  districts 
and  58  rural  schools  with  549  teachers  and  about  12,000  pupils.  In 
addition,  the  Alaska  Native  service  of  the  Department  of  the  Interior 
maintained  85  day  schools  and  3  boarding  schools  with  a  total  of 
5,000  pupils.  The  University  of  Alaska,  at  College,  farthest  north 
U  S  college,  had  an  enrolment  of  400. 

Economy  The  1949  fishery  season  was  one  of  the  best  m  Alaska's 
history.  The  total  pack  of  salmon  was  4,375,147  cases,  valued  at 
$100  million.  The  halibut  fishery  produced  about  50  million  lb.,  valued 
at  $10  million 

Gold  production  was  still  down  from  prewar  years,  but  1949  pro- 
duction was  approximately  $8,750,000,  about  the  same  as  1948.  A  new 
strike  was  made  on  the  Yukon  river  northeast  of  Fairbanks  near  the 
Arctic  circle  in  the  autumn  of  1949,  and  claims  were  staked  along  the 
river  for  about  20  mi ,  hundreds  of  prospectors  stampeding  to  the  area. 
The  real  value  of  the  strike  would  not  be  known  until  spring,  as  winter 
had  closed  down  operations.  Coal  production  was  about  400,000  tons. 

(L.M.W.) 

Hawaii.  The  territory  of  Hawaii  consists  of  a  group  of 
eight  large  islands  and  numerous  islets  in  the  Pacific  ocean. 
It  includes  Midway,  with  an  archipelago  of  rocks,  reefs  and 


652 


UNITED   STATES  TERRITORIES  AND   POSSESSIONS 


shoals,  and  Palmyra,  a  coral  atoll  consisting  of  55  islets. 
The  largest  island  in  the  territory  is  Hawaii,  with  an  area  of 
4,021  sq.  mi.  The  capital  of  the  territory  is  Honolulu  (pop., 
1949  est.)  267,755,  situated  on  the  island  of  Oahu.  The 
largest  single  racial  group  is  Japanese  (33-8%  of  the  total), 
the  second  largest  is  white  or  Caucasian  (30  •  8  %),  and  the 
Hawaiians  and  part-Hawaiians  are  third  (14%). 

Hawaii  had  been  a  territory  of  the  United  States  since  1900. 
Since  that  date  the  territory  had  made  repeated  petitions  to 
the  U.S.  congress  for  statehood  and  in  a  plebiscite  in  1940 
its  electors  voted  in  favour  of  statehood  by  a  majority  of 
more  than  two  to  one.  A  statehood  constitutional  convention 
was  to  be  held  in  Honolulu  in  April  1950,  with  delegates 
from  all  of  the  major  islands  attending.  The  constitution 
drafted  at  this  convention  would  be  submitted  to  the  territorial 
legislature  for  approval  and  then  sent  on  to  congress  with  the 
request  that  it  be  approved  by  that  body. 

Economy  and  Finance.  Principal  production  (1948-49)  sugar 
835,107  short  tons;  canned  pineapple  and  pineapple  juice  20,322,775 
cases;  coffee  about  6  million  Ib.  Fisheries:  total  catch  (1948-49) 
about  7,000  tons  valued  at  $4-3  million. 

Hawaii  purchased  from  the  United  States  in  1948  merchandise 
valued  at  approximately  $350  million  and  shipped  to  the  mainland 
products  valued  at  about  SI 82  million. 

Total  territorial  tax  collections  on  business  and  otherwise  amounted 
to  $64  •  7  million,  compared  with  $54  •  2  million  in  1 947.  The  net  bonded 
indebtedness  was  reduced  to  $7-2  million.  The  net  assessed  valuation 
of  real  property  was  $299  -2  million.  Internal  revenue  collections  for  the 
fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1948,  totalled  $108-2  million  compared  with 
$107-6  million  in  1947.  (l.M.S  ) 

Puerto  Rico.  A  U.S.  island  dependency  in  the  West  Indies. 
In  1949  rural  population  was  64%  of  the  total,  urban  36%; 
76-5%  of  the  population  is  white.  Chief  cities  (pop.  1949 
est.):  San  Juan  (cap.,  237,623);  Ponce  (74,393);  Mayaguez 
($2,051).  Languages:  Spanish  and  English.  Religion: 
predominantly  Roman  Catholic. 

Education.  In  1949  there  were  446,520  pupils  in  the  public  and  private 
schools.  Enrolment  in  the  public  schools  was  distributed  as  follows  . 
elementary  300,163,  secondary  86,066,  vocational  1,292.  evening  schools 
12,625,  special  courses  for  veterans  21,479.  Teaching  staff-  public 
schools  9,375,  private  schools  1,070.  Higher  education  was  earned  on 
by  the  University  of  Puerto  Rico,  the  Polytechnic  institute  and  the 
College  of  the  Sacred  Heart.  During  the  year  Santa  Maria  university 
was  opened  by  the  Catholic  Church  at  Ponce. 

Economy  and  Finance.  In  1949  more  than  10-9  million  short  tons  of 
sugar  cane  were  harvested,  the  tobacco  crop  was  estimated  at  270,000 
cwt.,  coffee  crop  at  229,200  cwt.  and  pineapple  production  at  1,250,000 
crates.  Sugar  production  in  1949  amounted  to  1,278,000  short  tons 
of  raw  sugar  96°  basis.  Sugar  refining  operations  in  the  island  yielded 
210,000  short  tons  of  refined  sugar  96°  basis. 

The  total  value  of  imports  into  Puerto  Rico  during  1948  was 
$362,373,214;  of  this  total  93-3%  were  shipments  from  the  United 
States.  The  total  value  of  exports  for  the  same  period  was  $194,952.278 
of  which  96  8  %  were  shipments  to  the  U.S. 

During  the  year  1948-49,  55,710  motor  vehicles  were  registered, 
excluding  government-owned  cars.  The  Insular  Department  of  the 
Interior  kept  under  maintenance  (June  30,  1949)  3,437  km.  of  roads. 
During  1948-49,  3,130  vessels  arrived  at  the  island,  with  a  registered 
tonnage  of  9,916,700.  On  June  30,  1949,  there  were  33,312  telephones 
in  service. 

Budget  (fiscal  year  1948-49)  revenue  $206,818,177,  expenditure 
$230,113,948.  (J.L.-EE.) 

Virgin  Islands.  The  Virgin  Islands  (Danish  West  Indies 
until  1917)  have  the  status  of  an  organized  but  unincorporated 
territory  of  the  United  States.  The  three  largest  islands 
located  some  40  mi.  east  of  Puerto  Rico,  are  St.  Croix  (pop., 
1947  est.,  13,000);  St.  Thomas  (16,200)  and  St.  John  (800). 
The  chief  cities  are  Charlotte  Amalie,  the  capital,  on  St. 
Thomas  (9,801),  Christiansted  (4,495)  and  Frederiksted 
(2,498)  on  St.  Croix.  About  69%  of  the  population  is  Negro, 
22%  mixed  and  9%  white.  Language:  mainly  English. 
Religion:  Christian  (Protestant  and  Roman  Catholic). 

The  Virgin  Islands  depended  upon  the  outside  world  for 
much  of  their  essential  food,  clothing  and  materials.  Until 
this  unavoidable  expenditure  abroad  was  balanced  by  the 
creation  of  marketable  wealth  or  value  in  the  islands,  the 


economic  problem  could  not  be  solved.  Three  approaches, 
each  complementary  to  the  other,  were  being  made  to  this 
problem.  These  included  the  development  of  tourism  as  a 
major  industry,  the  production  of  speciality  crops  for  export 
and  the  promotion  of  new  industry. 

The  $10  million  federal  public  works  programme  was 
considerably  advanced  during  1949.  The  abattoir  at  St. 
Thomas  was  completed  and  the  potable  water  supply  project 
nearly  completed.  Several  miles  of  road  had  been  recon- 
structed in  St.  Thomas  and  St.  Croix.  Work  on  the  new 
waterfront  highway  in  St.  Thomas  was  expected  to  begin 
early  in  1950,  along  with  the  installation  of  improved  tele- 
phone communication  in  both  St.  Thomas  and  St.  Croix. 

The  governor  until  Nov.  30,  1949,  was  William  Henry 
Hastie,  the  first  Negro  governor,  inaugurated  by  President 
Harry  S.  Truman  on  May  17,  1946.  Morris  F.  de  Castro, 
government  secretary,  was  serving  as  acting  governor  until 
a  new  appointment  was  made. 

Education.  Enrolment  in  the  public  schools  totalled  4,401  including 
2,752  in  St.  Thomas  and  St  John  and  1,649  in  St.  Croix. 

Economy  and  Finance.  A  total  of  298  commercial  ships  with  a  gross 
tonnage  of  1,603,374  entered  the  port  of  St.  Thomas  during  the  fiscal 
year  1948-49  compared  with  417  ships  and  a  gross  tonnage  of  2,435,760 
in  the  previous  year.  During  the  calendar  year  1948  goods  valued  at 
$9,465,562  were  imported,  hut  the  value  of  exports  reached  only 
$1,698,037.  St.  Croix  produces  the  sugar  crop  of  the  islands  In  1949 
the  Virgin  Islands  company  produced  4,579  tons  of  sugar,  a  slight 
increase  over  the  previous  year  (\f .  F.  DE  C.) 

Guam.  The  largest  and  southernmost  island  of  the 
Marianas,  lying  in  the  Pacific  about  5,100  mi.  from  San 
Francisco  and  1,500  mi.  from  Manila.  Area:  206  sq.  mi. 
Population  (July  1,  1949)  consisted  of  26,744  Guamanians 
and  about  75,000  non-Guamanians,  including  U.S.  military 
and  civil  service  personnel.  The  Guamanians  are  Chamorros 
and  their  religion  is  predominantly  Roman  Catholic. 

Guam  is  administered  by  the  U.S.  navy;  however,  on 
July  1,  1950,  the  U.S.  Department  of  the  Interior  was 
scheduled  to  take  over  responsibility  for  the  administration 
of  the  island.  Rear  Admiral  Charles  A.  Pownall,  who 
retired  on  Sept.  1,  1949,  was  the  last  naval  officer  to  be 
appointed  governor;  on  Sept.  3  Carlton  Skinner  was 
appointed  by  the  president  of  the  U.S.  as  the  first  civilian 
governor  of  the  island.  The  Guam  congress,  composed  of  a 
House  of  Council  and  a  House  of  Assembly,  is  a  popularly 
elected  legislature.  In  1947  the  Guam  congress  received 
legislative  power  in  place  of  its  former  advisory  power. 
The  congress  can  also  override  the  governor's  veto.  Each 
of  the  island's  15  municipalities  is  headed  by  a  Guamanian 
commissioner  elected  by  popular  vote  for  a  four-year  term. 

Education.  In  1949  there  were  21  elementary  and  junior  high  schools 
and  1  high  school  with  9,029  pupils  and  397  teachers  and  principals. 
Instruction  is  given  in  English 

Economy  and  Finance.  In  1949,  3,000  out  of  the  8,700  employable 
Guamanians  worked  for  U  S.  government  establishments.  There  are 
about  80  mi.  of  paved  highways  on  Guam  and  about  60  mi.  of  improved 
secondary  roads.  There  are  no  railways,  but  5  military  airfields. 

During  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1949,  Guam's  expenditures 
amounted  to  $3,288,991,  of  which  $1,082,380  came  from  U.S.  appro- 
priations, $1,985,824  from  local  revenues  and  the  balance  from  the 
sale  of  surplus  war  materials  and  certain  special  funds 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  U  S.  Navy  Department,  Guam:  Information  Trans- 
mitted by  the  U  S.  to  the  Secretary-General  of  the  United  Nations 
(June  1949) 

Samoa,  American.  The  Samoan  Islands  are  about  2,700  mi. 
east  of  Australia  and  2,200  mi.  south  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands. 
American  Samoa  consists  of  the  inhabited  islands  of  Tutuila, 
Tau,  Olosega,  Ofu  and  Aunuu,  and  the  uninhabited  coral 
atoll,  Rose  Island.  Swain's  Island,  210  mi.  northwest  of 
Tutuila,  was  made  in  1925  a  part  of  American  Samoa  which 
is  an  unorganized  U.S.  possession  governed  by  a  naval  officer 
appointed  by  the  president. 

On  Feb.  25,  1948,  a  bicameral  legislature  was  established 
in  place  of  the  old  one,  the  annual  Fono.  The  House  of 


UNIVERSITIES  AND   COLLEGES 


653 


Representatives  consists  of  54  members,  popularly  elected 
for  two-year  terms;  the  House  of  Alii  is  composed  of  the 
12  persons  who  hold  the  highest-ranking  titles  in  American 
Samoa.  The  legislature  has  only  advisory  powers.  The 
governor  also  has  an  advisory  council  consisting  of  from 
five  to  seven  Samoans.  The  judiciary  consists  of  a  high 
court,  district  courts  and  village  courts.  Each  of  the  three 
administrative  districts  has  a  native  governor  appointed  by 
the  governor  of  American  Samoa. 

Education.  In  1949  there  were  46  public  schools  and  7  private  schools. 
Total  enrolment  was  5,117  and  there  were  139  teachers,  English  being 
the  language  of  instruction.  About  94  %  of  the  population  was  literate 
according  to  the  1940  census. 

Economy  and  Finance.  Principal  crops,  with  estimated  annual 
production  (metric  tons):  copra  1,725;  breadfruit  7,700;  bananas 
19,492;  taro  2,900.  Imports  (1948-49)  $886,701,  exports  $459,056 

Revenues  during  the  year  ending  June  30,  1949,  amounted  to  $422,739 
and  U.S.  appropriations  for  American  Samoa  to  $55,000,  expendi- 
tures totalled  $626,775. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  Rupert  Emerson  and  others,  America's  Pacific 
Dependencies  (New  York,  1949),  US.  Navy  Department,  American 
Samoa:  Information  Transmuted  by  the  U.S.  to  the  Secretary  General 
of  the  United  Nations  (June  1949).  (S.  NR.) 

UNIVERSITIES  AND  COLLEGES.  In  1949 
pressure  of  student  numbers  and  shortages  of  staff,  accom- 
modation and  equipment  harassed  universities  everywhere, 
although  perhaps  not  so  badly  as  in  the  previous  year.  There 
were  many  encouraging  reports  of  buildings  being  erected 
or  repaired  and  equipment  accumulated;  nevertheless,  the 
leeway  was  still  terrific. 

International  Developments.  International  discussion  and 
interchange  of  staff  and  students  continued  to  increase.  As 
examples  of  the  first  may  be  cited  the  massive  convention  on 
the  social  implications  of  scientific  progress  held  in  April  at 
the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology;  the  first  inter- 
national congress  of  biochemistry,  held  at  Cambridge, 
England,  in  August;  and  the  conference  on  the  educational 
problems  of  special  cultural  groups  held  by  Columbia 
university  in  association  with  the  University  of  London 
in  New  York  in  August-September. 

A  potentially  most  important  development  resulted  from  a 
resolution,  unanimously  carried  at  the  Congress  of  Europe 
held  at  The  Hague  in  1948,  to  establish  a  European  Cultural 
centre.  This  proposal  was  later  modified  to  one  for  a  "  Col- 
lege of  Europe  "  at  which  selected  post-graduate  students 
could  receive  a  wide  and  deep  course  in  European  affairs 
qualifying  them,  inter  alia,  for  responsible  posts  on  permanent 
secretariats  of  European  institutions.  In  September-October 
the  European  movement  organized  at  Bruges,  Belgium,  a 
three  weeks*  experimental  session,  attended  by  22  students 
of  1 1  nationalities.  It  was  proposed  to  establish  the  college 
permanently  in  1950. 

The  most  notable  development  in  interchange  was  the  start 
of  the  Fulbright  scheme,  under  which  some  1,300  university 
teachers  and  students  left  the  United  States  for  teaching, 
research  or  study  abroad,  and  an  approximately  equal  num- 
ber entered  American  institutions.  U.N.E.S.C.O.  sponsored 
many  travelling  fellowships  and  university  exchanges.  The 
British  Council,  in  response  to  invitations  from  governments 
or  universities  of  11  countries,  made  55  awards  to  graduates 
for  study  abroad  for  periods  of  from  four  months  to  one  year. 
India  and  Pakistan  reported  larger  numbers  of  university 
students  studying  overseas  than  ever  before.  Exchanges 
arranged  by  individual  universities  and  university  bodies 
were  numerous.  Some  of  the  most  fruitful  were  extra- 
curricular, as  for  example  the  student  congress  at  Lund, 
Sweden,  the  British  students'  debating  tour  of  India,  Pakistan 
and  Ceylon  and  the  tour  by  Oxford  musicians  to  French 
universities. 

Great  Britain.  In  July-August  over  500  foreign  students, 
most  from  the  United  States,  attended  the  university  summer 


schools  (first  organized  on  a  large  scale  in  1948)  held  at 
Oxford,  London,  Edinburgh,  Southampton  and  Stratford- 
on-Avon.  In  September  the  first  party  of  American  graduate 
students  (125)  and  professors  (35)  selected  to  study  and  lecture 
in  Great  Britain  under  the  provisions  of  the  Fulbright  act 
arrived.  At  that  date  140  British  persons  had  received  Ful- 
bright grants  for  research  or  teaching  in  American  institutions. 
In  April  the  London  University  Institute  of  Education 
received  a  grant  from  the  Imperial  Relations  trust  enabling 
it  to  appoint  in  each  of  the  academic  years  1949-52  two  fellows 
from  each  of  the  dominions  of  Australia,  Canada,  South 
Africa  and  New  Zealand.  The  fellowships,  tenable  for  a 
year,  were  to  go  to  experienced  educators  likely  to  occupy 
important  positions  in  their  educational  service. 

In  February  and  March  the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer 
announced  revised  salary  limits  for  medical  and  non-medical 
teaching  stalls  in  universities. 

Because  of  the  forthcoming  replacement  in  England  and 
Wales  of  the  School  and  Higher  School  certificates  by  the 
General  Certificate  of  Education,  it  became  necessary  for  the 
universities  to  re-define  their  minimum  academic  require- 
ments for  entrance.  In  January  the  Committee  of  Vice- 
Chancellors  and  Principals  proposed  that: 

1     A  candidate  must  pass  (in  the  G  C.E  examination)  in  English 

language  and  in  either  four  or  five  other  subjects 
2.    The  subjects  must  include  (a)  a  language  other  than  English 

and  (h)  either  mathematics  or  an  approved  science 
3     At  least  two  of  the  subjects  must  be  passed  at  the  advanced 

level 

4.  Candidates  who  offer  only  four  subjects  in  addition  to  English 
language  must  pass  at  one  and  the  same  sitting  in  two  subjects 
at  the  advanced  level  and  in  one  other  subject  not  related  to 
the  subjects  offered  at  the  advanced  level. 

By  mid- 1949  all  the  universities  except  Oxford  and  Cambridge, 
which  had  not  made  public  their  requirements,  had  accepted 
this  formula. 

At  the  request  of  both  parties,  the  secretary  of  state  for 
Scotland  in  February  instituted  an  inquiry  into  the  organiza- 
tion of  university  education  at  Dundee  University  college 
and  its  relationship  with  the  University  of  St.  Andrews — 
matters  that  had  been  the  cause  of  controversy  ever  since  the 
Universities  (Scotland)  act,  1889,  provided  that  Dundee 
(founded  1881)  should  be  affiliated  to  St.  Andrews  (founded 
1411).  The  investigators'  report,  published  in  August,  re- 
jected both  the  St.  Andrews  proposal  for  a  university 
organized  in  four  colleges  (of  which  Dundee  would  be  one)  and 
the  Dundee  proposal  for  an  expansion  of  the  University  court 
to  give  Dundee  equal  representation  with  St.  Andrews  while 
at  the  same  time  retaining  its  own  College  council.  It  recom- 
mended the  abolition  of  the  governors,  council  and  education 
board  of  Dundee,  and  the  bringing  of  the  whole  university 
under  a  single  University  court. 

In  April  was  published  The  Crisis  in  the  University,  by 
Sir  Walter  Moberly,  perhaps  the  most  important  study  of  the 
functions  of  the  university  to  appear  in  Britain  since  New- 
man's The  Idea  of  a  University  (1852).  Written  by  the  chair- 
man of  the  University  Grants  committee,  it  represented  the 
fruits  of  prolonged  discussions  among  Christian  university 
teachers  and  others,  promoted  by  the  Student  Christian 
movement  and  the  Christian  Frontier  council. 

In  April  was  celebrated  the  bicentenary  of  the  Radcliffe 
library,  Oxford;  in  May  the  centenary  of  Bedford  college, 
University  of  London,  the  country's  oldest  university  college 
for  women,  and  the  jubilee  of  Ruskin  college,  Oxford,  Britain's 
earliest  residential  college  for  working  class  students;  in 
September  the  centenary  of  the  opening  of  Queen's  college, 
now  the  Queen's  university,  Belfast.  In  April  the  foundation 
stone  was  laid  of  permanent  buildings  for  Nufficld  college, 
Oxford.  In  September  a  National  College  of  Music  and 
Drama  for  Wales  was  opened  in  Cardiff  castle,  donated  by 
Lord  Bute  to  the  city  of  Cardiff. 


654 


UNIVERSITIES  AND   COLLEGES 


UNIVERSITIES   AND   COLLEGES 


655 


In  April  the  Duke  of  Edinburgh  was  installed  as  chancellor 
of  the  University  of  Wales,  and  in  May  Lord  Trent  as  chan- 
cellor of  Nottingham  university.  In  June  a  development  fund 
of  £1,000,000  was  launched  for  the  latter  university  (created 
1948).  (See  also  CAMBRIDGE  UNIVERSITY;  LONDON  UNIVER- 
SITY; OXFORD  UNIVERSITY.) 

Commonwealth.  In  June  the  first  meeting  of  the  executive 
council  of  the  Association  of  the  Universities  of  the  British 
Commonwealth  was  held  at  Deep  Cove,  Nova  Scotia.  It 
was  attended  by  16  vice-chancellors  (or  deputies)  representa- 
tive of  all  the  dominions,  the  West  Indies  and  other  colonies. 
Freer  interchange  between  universities  was  the  main  topic  of 
discussion. 

In  August  the  British  Council  announced  that  39  awards 
had  been  made  for  1949  under  the  scheme  established  by  the 
1948  Universities'  congress  to  facilitate  interchange  of  uni- 
versity teachers  and  students  between  the  United  Kingdom 
and  the  other  commonwealth  countries.  The  scheme  com- 
prised three  types  of  grants:  to  university  teachers  on  study 
leave,  post-graduate  research  workers  holding  research 
grants  who  propose  to  study  at  another  university  for  at 
least  six  months,  and  distinguished  scholars  invited  to  uni- 
versities for  short  visits. 

Australia.  In  September  the  minister  for  defence  (in  charge 
of  scientific  and  industrial  research)  announced  that  from  the 
beginning  of  1951  the  commonwealth  government  would 
award  annually  3,000  scholarships  to  enable  selected  students 
to  undertake  university,  technical  college  and  other  approved 
professional  courses.  The  scheme,  estimated  to  cost 
£A900,000  a  year,  would  replace  the  existing  postwar  scheme. 

On  Oct.  24  the  foundation  stones  were  laid  of  the  first  three 
buildings  of  the  Australian  National  university  at  Canberra : 
the  John  Curtm  School  of  Medical  Research,  the  School  of 
Physical  Sciences,  and  University  house,  a  residential  college 
to  accommodate  the  staff  and  100  students.  The  university 
which  was  in  the  first  instance  to  be  solely  a  post-graduate 
centre  for  research  in  medicine,  the  physical  and  social 
sciences  and  Pacific  studies,  was  expected  to  start  work 
early  in  1951. 

Canada.  Concern  continued  lest  the  greatly  increased 
number  of  students  and  the  persistent  demand  that  the 
universities  expand  their  scope  should  lead  to  a  permanent 
lowering  of  academic  standards,  especially  in  the  humanities. 
It  was,  however,  asserted  that  the  number  of  ill-qualified 
entrants  was  proportionately  less  in  1949  than  in  previous 
postwar  years. 

A  Canadian-British  Education  committee  was  established 
with  headquarters  in  London,  England,  to  encourage  British 
boys  and  girls  to  take  university  courses  in  Canada,  in  the 
first  instance  especially  at  McGill,  which  in  1948  offered 
100  places  a  year. 

India.  In  Nov.  1948  the  government  set  up  a  commission 
to  inquire  into  conditions  and  prospects  of  university  edu- 
cation and  advanced  research  in  India  and  to  recommend  a 
constructive  policy  related  to  the  needs  of  the  country. 

The  University  of  Rajputana,  created  m  1947  by  a  federation 
of  the  colleges  in  the  larger  states  of  Rajasthan,  held  its  first 
convocation  for  the  conferment  of  degrees. 

On  November  25,  the  Thomason  College  of  Engineering, 
Roorkee,  was  raised  to  university  status  and  became  India's 
first  engineering  university.  Founded  in  1847,  it  was  the 
oldest  institution  of  its  kind  in  the  east  and  numbered  among 
its  former  students  such  distinguished  engineers  as  Sir 
William  Garstm  and  Sir  William  Willcocks  of  Iraqi  and 
Egyptian  fame.  Its  change  of  status  was  intended  to  herald 

The  procession  from  the  Nottingham  council  chamber  to  the  Albert 
Hall,  May  J,  1949 y  for  the  installation  of  l^ord  Trent  a?  first  chan- 
cellor of  Nottingham  university. 


a  general  broadening  of  the  curriculum  and  expansion  of 
laboratory  facilities  to  help  meet  the  country's  growing 
technological  needs. 

South  Africa.  In  pursuance  of  its  policy  of  apartheid  the 
government  announced  that  it  would  not  renew  state  grants 
to  non-European  medical  students  at  the  University  of  the 
Witwatersrand  after  1950,  because  it  expected  that  by  then 
the  non-European  medical  faculty  at  Natal  university  (where 
apartheid  is  practised)  would  be  opened.  Lator  the  prime 
minister,  Dr.  Malan,  announced  the  governments  intention 
to  introduce  apartheid  at  the  Capetown  and  Witwatersrand 
universities  The  National  Union  of  Sou* h  African  Students 
re-affirmed  its  belief  in  the  academic  and  cultural  equality 
of  all  students,  the  Afnkaanse  Studentebond  its  belief  in  the 
essential  difference  between  white  and  coloured  races. 

In  March  the  ceremonial  inauguration  of  Natal  university 
(incorporated  1948)  took  place.  In  August  an  anonymous 
European  offered  £100,000  to  endow  a  chair  of  Bantu  studies, 
and  establish  and  maintain  a  native  library  and  museum  at  the 
university.  In  April  bequests  totalling  £100,000  were  an- 
nounced in  the  will  of  Mr.  Bernard  Price  for  the  benefit  of 
the  Institute  of  Geophysical  Research  and  the  Pateonto- 
logical  Foundation,  Witwatersrand  university,  both  originally 
donated  by  him 

New  Zealand.  A  micro-chemical  laboratory,  the  first  in 
the  country,  was  installed  at  Dunedin  in  the  University  of 
Otago.  Dr.  T.  S.  Ma,  who  was  in  charge  of  the  micro- 
chemical  laboratory  at  Chicago  university  during  World 
War  II,  was  appointed  head. 

British  East  Africa.  In  January  the  Makerere  College  act 
reconstituted  the  college  to  enable  it  to  provide  facilities 
throughout  the  East  African  territories  of  Uganda,  Kenya, 
Tanganyika  and  Zanzibar  for  higher  education,  professional 
training  and  research,  either  directly  or  through  affiliated 
schools  and  institutes.  The  government  and  administration 
of  the  college  were  vested  in  an  autonomous  council.  In 
1949,  220  students  were  in  residence. 

British  West  Africa.  During  the  first  academic  year  of  the 
university  college  of  the  Gold  Coast,  Achimota,  faculties  of 
arts,  science  and  economics  were  functioning,  and  research 
on  a  dozen  Gold  Coast  languages  was  begun.  A  theological 
faculty  was  started  in  the  second  year.  The  college  opened 
in  Oct.  1948  with  100  students  and  was  planned  to  increase 
to  750.  Preliminary  designs  for  permanent  buildings  were 
submitted  late  in  1949.  Among  gifts  to  the  college  were 
£900,000  from  the  Gold  Coast  Cocoa  Marketing  board  and 
£200,000  from  the  Nigerian  Cocoa  Marketing  board. 

During  the  academic  year  1948-49  the  university  college 
(incorporated  1948)  at  Ibadan,  Nigeria,  increased  the  number 
of  its  students  from  104  to  220  and  of  staff  from  13  to  44. 
Faculties  of  arts,  science  and  medicine  were  functioning; 
extra-mural  courses  were  being  developed  and  research  had 
begun.  The  college,  intended  to  become  the  university  of 
West  Africa,  was  controlled  and  administered  by  an  autono- 
mous council  The  Nigerian  government  supported  the  col- 
lege on  the  five-year  block  grant  system,  and  started  its 
endowment  fund  with  a  first  donation  of  £250,000. 

In  February  the  Legislative  council  of  Sierra  Leone  ap- 
proved the  proposal,  made  by  the  secretary  of  state  for  the 
colonies,  that  Fourah  Bay  college,  the  only  establishment  in 
the  colony  for  providing  education  beyond  secondary,  should 
be  created  a  university  college  with  three  departments:  a 
university  department  with  schools  in  arts  and  commerce, 
a  teacher-training  department  and  a  technical  and  vocational 
training  department. 

Malaya.  In  March  and  April  ordinances  establishing  the 
University  of  Malaya  were  made.  In  April  the  chancellor, 
Malcolm  Macdonald,  high  commissioner  for  the  far  east, 
announced  that  the  British  government  had  allocated 


656 


UNIVERSITIES  AND   COLLEGES 


£1,000,000  from  the  Colonial  Development  and  Welfare  fund 
to  the  university's  building  fund,  and  appealed  for  donations 
to  its  endowment  fund.  Foundation  day  was  held  on  Oct.  8, 
when  the  chancellor  was  installed. 

British  West  Indies.  In  January  the  British  secretary  of 
state  for  the  colonies  announced  that  the  King  had  granted 
a  royal  charter  to  the  University  college  of  the  West  Indies, 
accepted  the  office  of  visitor  and  appointed  Princess  Alice, 
Countess  of  Athlone,  the  first  chancellor.  The  college  began 
teaching  in  the  faculty  of  medicine  in  Oct.  1948,  and  in  the 
faculty  of  natural  science  a  year  later.  Thirty-two  students 
were  admitted  for  the  1948-49  session,  and  another  42  for 
1949-50.  In  May  the  contract  was  placed  for  the  mam 
building  scheme  for  the  college  and  teaching  hospital.  Until 
permanent  buildings  are  available  the  college  would  be  housed 
in  temporary  huts  on  the  permanent  site  of  700  ac.  at  Mona 
near  Kingston,  presented  by  the  government  of  Jamaica. 

United  States.  By  the  beginning  of  the  year  reciprocal 
agreements  under  the  Fulbright  act  had  been  signed  by  13 
countries.  They  provided  for  payment  of  travel  expenses, 
tuition  fees  and  maintenance  grants  to  Americans  going  to 
universities  abroad  and  the  cost  of  travel  for  foreigners  coming 
to  U.S.  institutions.  Equal  numbers  of  students  were  ex- 
changed. The  schemes  applied  to  professors,  students  (both 
graduate  and  undergraduate)  and  school  teachers,  except 
where  existing  exchange  schemes  were  functioning  satisfac- 
torily. In  the  autumn  1,300  U.S.  students  and  teachers  left 
under  the  scheme. 

In  the  spring,  following  the  dismissal  by  Washington 
university  of  two  professors  because  of  membership  of  the 
Communist  party,  there  was  widespread  public  discussion 
whether  Communists  should  be  allowed  to  teach  in  univer- 
sities and  colleges.  In  April,  after  a  student  demonstration 
against  a  bill  proposing  to  impose  an  oath  of  loyalty  upon  all 
state  teachers,  the  government  of  Illinois  set  up  a  committee 
to  investigate  alleged  Communist  influences  in  Chicago 
university.  In  the  academic  year  1948-49  universities  and 
colleges  graduated  the  highest  number  of  students  in  the 
history  of  higher  education  in  the  United  States.  Some 
423,000  students  received  degrees,  95  %  more  than  in  1939-40, 
the  peak  prewar  year.  First  degrees  totalled  366,634,  second 
degrees  50,827  and  5,293  doctorates  were  awarded. 

On  Oct.  20  Smith  college,  Massachusetts,  celebrated  the 
75th  anniversary  of  its  opening.  Honorary  degrees  were 
conferred  on  12  distinguished  women  including  Princess 
Wilhelmina,  former  queen  of  the  Netherlands,  and  Mrs. 
Eleanor  Roosevelt.  Radclirfe,  the  women's  college  affiliated 
to  Harvard  university,  celebrated  its  70th  birthday.  In  Dec. 
1948  Miss  H.  M.  Cam,  installed  as  Radcliffe  professor  of 
English  history,  became  the  first  women  member  of  the 
Harvard  faculty.  In  October  Harvard  law  school  was  opened 
to  women. 

Notable  benefactions  included  a  sum  of  over  $8  million 
from  the  Samuel  H.  Kress  foundation  to  New  York 
university's  Bellevue  Medical  centre;  a  sum  of  $1,500,000 
from  Myron  Taylor  to  Cornell  university;  and  a  block- 
printed  set  of  the  Kagyur  (Tibetan  sacred  books)  from  the 
Dalai  Lama  to  Yale  university. 

On  Aug.  10  died  Edward  Lee  Thorndike,  internationally 
famous  for  his  brilliant  contributions  to  educational 
psychology.  From  1897  to  1940  he  was  on  the  staff  of 
Teachers'  college,  Columbia  university,  from  1904  with 
professorial  rank.  His  numerous  published  works  included 
The  Measurement  of  Intelligence  (1926)  and  The  Funda- 
mentals of  Learning  (1932). 

Europe.  Czechoslovakia.  Early  in  1949  reliability  tests  for 
university  students  took  place.  In  March  the  ministry  of 
education  announced  that  of  47,000  students  called  for 
examination,  6,370  had  failed,  including  2,400  who  did  not 


present  themselves  before  the  "  reliability  "  committees  and 
had  been  expelled  from  the  universities.  It  was  not  stated 
on  what  grounds,  but  the  ministry  denied  that  the  tests  were 
a  means  of  political  persecution.  It  was  further  stated  that 
expelled  students  might  be  re-admitted  on  evidence  of  good 
work  in  the  employments  to  which  they  had  been  directed. 
Seven  hundred  **  workers  "  were  admitted  to  the  universities 
after  special  eight  months'  courses  in  place  of  a  secondary 
school  education. 

In  the  autumn  the  universities  were  put  under  the  control 
of  a  state  council,  whose  powers  included  the  appointment 
of  the  teaching  statf.  Individual  study  was  finally  abolished 
and  the  study  group  system  made  universal.  The  object  of 
the  law  was  stated  to  be  to  produce  a  "  highly  qualified  and 
politically  conscious  intelligentsia."  The  secretary  general 
of  the  Slovak  Communist  party  declared  that  Marxist- 
Leninist  science  was  the  fundamental  line  of  all  scientific 
and  educational  activities  in  the  universities. 

In  October  Dr.  Jifma  Otahalova-Popelova  was  appointed 
rector  of  the  Palacky  university,  Olomouc — the  first  woman 
to  hold  such  a  post  in  Czechoslovakia. 

France.  In  Aug.  1948  the  minister  of  education  made 
compulsory  an  annee  propedeutique,  that  is,  a  year  of  study 
beyond  the  baccalaureat,  with  a  further  examination  at  the 
end,  for  all  students  wishing  to  enter  a  university.  The 
immediate  cause  of  this  innovation  was  the  overcrowded 
state  of  the  universities;  but  the  fundamental  reason,  urged 
since  the  1930s,  was  the  character  of  the  baccalaureat  curricu- 
lum, which,  it  was  argued,  demanded  such  an  amassing  of 
factual  knowledge  as  to  preclude  the  absorption  of  culture. 
It  was  not  possible  by  the  end  of  the  first  year's  experiment  to 
measure  its  success  owing  to  the  shortage  of  university 
teachers. 

Germany.  In  March  the  Technical  university  of  Berlin 
celebrated  its  150th  anniversary.  It  began  as  an  architectural 
college,  developed  into  a  technical  high  school  and  was 
granted  university  status  in  1946.  Two  new  people's  univer- 
sities were  opened,  one  at  Hustadt,  near  Celle,  and  the  other 
at  Landau,  near  Kassel.  That  at  Landau  was  the  first  of  its 
kind  in  Land  Hesse 

In  June  a  federation  of  German  university  women  was 
founded,  with  headquarters  at  Hamburg.  The  former 
federation  was  suppressed  by  Adolf  Hitler. 

Greece.  Economic  difficulties  gravely  affected  the  univer- 
sities. In  March  the  ministry  of  finance  cut  the  state  grant 
to  Salonika  university  by  620  million  drachmae.  The  senate 
replied  that  this  would  make  it  impossible  for  the  university 
to  operate  efficiently;  and  as  protest  a  ten-day  lock-out  of 
the  faculties  of  mathematics  and  physics,  medicine,  agri- 
culture and  forestry  was  staged. 

Sweden.  In  October  Madame  Gerd  Enequist  was 
installed  as  professor  of  Geo-Culture  at  Uppsala  university; 
she  was  the  first  woman  to  occupy  a  professorial  chair  in 
this  500-year  old  university. 

Switzerland.  Geneva  university  established,  within  the 
faculty  of  social  and  economic  science,  an  Institut  Universi- 
taire  d*  Administration  Maritime,  claimed  to  be  the  first  of 
its  kind.  It  offered  a  three-year  course,  of  which  the  third 
year  is  spent  on  board  ship. 

Yugoslavia.  Organizational  and  academic  changes  were 
carried  out  in  Belgrade  university.  The  medical  and  technical 
faculties  were  separated  from  it  to  form  the  Medical  Great 
school  and  the  Technical  Great  school  respectively,  each 
with  university  status.  Mathematics  and  natural  sciences 
were  separated  from  the  philosophical  faculty  to  form  new 
faculties.  The  study  of  Marxism-Leninism  was  introduced 
as  a  compulsory  subject  in  the  philosophical,  legal,  and 
economic  faculties.  In  March  a  conference  was  held  at 
Ljubljana  of  all  heads  of  philosophical  faculties  to  decide 


UROLOGY— URUGUAY 


657 


upon  the  philosophical  line  to  be  adopted  in  teaching.  The 
legal,  philosophical,  and  technical  high  schools  of  Skopje 
were  united  to  form  Skopje  university. 

Asia.  China.  First-hand  unofficial  information  received 
during  1949  suggested  that  conditions  in  universities  were 
generally  better  than  might  have  been  expected,  and  in 
particular  that  staff  and  students  felt  more  secure.  Some 
universities  and  colleges  fled  before  the  Communist  advance, 
but  others,  such  as  the  Yenching  university,  Peking,  Nanking 
university  and  the  Central  China  university  reported  that 
work  was  progressing  in  a  very  satisfactory  fashion.  The 
Communist  attitude  was  stated  to  be  that  opposition  to  their 
ideology  would  bring  no  physical  sanctions  but  militate 
against  promotion  in  university  or  professional  life.  In 
October,  however,  Peking  radio  reported  that  a  committee 
for  higher  education  had  drawn  up  new  curricula  for  univer- 
sities and  colleges  in  north  China  which  made  dialectical 
materialism  and  the  **  new  democracy  "  obligatory  studies 
for  all  students,  and  political  economy  for  students  of  arts 
and  social  sciences.  Courses  in  Marxism  and  Leninism  were 
to  replace  Kuomintang  teaching,  and  Russian  was  to  be 
studied. 

Palestine.  Radical  changes  in  the  structure  of  the  Hebrew 
university  of  Jerusalem  were  planned  with  the  aim  of  making 
it  a  centre  of  culture  for  Jews  throughout  the  world.  Among 
these  were  the  establishment  of  faculties  of  law  and  medicine 
and  the  introduction  of  a  B.A.  course.  (The  existing  highly 
specialized  courses  led  to  an  M.A.  as  the  first  degree.) 

Professor  S.  Brodetsky,  University  of  Leeds,  England,  was 
elected  president  in  succession  to  the  late  Dr.  J.  L.  Magnes. 

South  America.  Argentina.  On  June  20  President  Peron 
announced  the  abolition  of  all  university  fees. 

Venezuela.  Because  of  the  great  increase  in  the  number  of 
students  (there  were  over  4,000  in  the  Central  university  of 
Caracas,  four  times  as  many  as  in  1939)  it  was  necessary  to 
appoint  temporarily  a  number  of  foreign  professors.  Native 
teachers  were  being  trained  to  take  their  places  as  soon  as 
possible.  (H.  C.  D.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  Sir  W.  Moberly,  The  Crisis  in  the  University 
(London,  1949);  Inter-Untveriitv  Council  for  Higher  Education  in  the 
Colonies  Second  Report  1947-49\Cmd.  7801,  H  M.S.O.,  1949). 

UROLOGY.  Elimination  or  control  of  systemic  sources 
of  male  sex  hormone  was  found  to  be  the  best  method  of 
treating  cancer  of  the  prostate  gland.  The  two  methods  which 
had  been  employed  for  this  purpose  were  castration  and  the 
administration  of  estrogenic  substances.  A  review  of  a  large 
number  of  cases  in  which  prostatic  cancer  was  treated  by 
these  methods  over  a  period  of  more  than  five  years  showed 
that  the  two  methods  were  of  equal  therapeutic  value;  it 
also  showed  that  such  treatment  was  only  palliative.  Estro- 
genic treatment  was  followed  by  most  clinicians. 

Although  radical  perineal  prostatectomy  for  cancer  of  the 
prostate  gland  had  been  advocated  by  a  number  of  urologic 
surgeons,  only  during  1949  was  a  large  number  of  cases 
followed  over  a  post-operative  period  long  enough  to  give 
the  operation  statistical  appraisal.  Judging  from  a  report 
from  the  records  of  the  Johns  Hopkins  hospital,  this 
procedure  had  definite  clinical  advantages  over  other  methods 
of  treatment  as  far  as  survival  was  concerned.  Among  the 
patients  who  underwent  operation  from  10  to  27  years 
previously,  28%  were  living  still  and  without  demonstrable 
cancer.  In  only  1 1  %  of  the  cases,  however,  had  cancer  of 
the  prostate  gland  observed  clinically  been  found  amenable 
to  radical  perineal  prostatectomy. 

The  availability  of  a  chemical  test  for  measuring  17- 
keto-steroids  in  the  urine  stimulated  more  general  interest 
and  research  in  the  field  of  urinary  hormonal  assays.  Tests 
for  measuring  estrogens  and  the  glycogenic  adrenal  corticoids 
gave  promise  of  more  widespread  clinical  acceptance. 

B.B.Y.— 43 


Deaths  following  transurethral  resection  might  be  due  to 
haemolysis  with  an  oliguric  syndrome;  and  the  mortality 
rate  had  been  materially  lowered  by  substituting  glucose 
solutions  as  an  irrigating  agent  in  the  place  of  sterile  water. 

Experience  with  several  new  antibiotic  solutions,  including 
aureomycin  and  chloromycetin,  showed  their  comparative 
merit  in  combating  infections  of  the  urinary  tract.  Aureo- 
mycin was  found  to  be  efficacious  in  combating  certain  types 
of  bacteria  found  with  urinary  infection  which  had  resisted 
other  antibiotics  and  sulphonamides.  Although  aureomycin 
may  cause  moderate  gastro-intestinal  upset,  it  has  the 
advantages  that  it  can  be  administered  orally  and  is  not 
toxic  in  the  sense  pf  causing  serious  anaphylactic  reaction  or 
systemic  damage  such  as  those  occunng  with  other  anti- 
biotics. Chloromycetin  was  found  to  possess  anti-bacterial 
properties  similar  to  those  of  aureomycin  and  also  to  cause 
minimal  systemic  reaction.  (W.  F.  BR.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  C.  L.  Deming,  *'  The  Correlation  of  Clinical  Ex- 
perience and  Heterologous  Growth  of  Human  Prostatic  Cancer," 
Quart.  Rev.  Urol.,  4:244,  Washington,  Sept.  1949;  R.  F.  Escamilla. 
"  Diagnostic  Significance  of  Urinary  Hormonal  Assays:  Report  of 
Experience  with  Measurements  of  17-Ketosteroids  and  Follicle  Stimu- 
lating Hormone  in  the  Urine,"  ibid,  4:250-251,  Sept.  1949;  H.  J. 
Jewett,  **  Radical  Penneal  Prostatectomy  for  Cancer  of  the  Prostate: 
An  Analysis  of  190  Cases,"  ibid.,  4:  245-246,  Sept.  1949. 

URUGUAY.  A  republic  in  southeastern  South  America, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Brazil,  on  the  east  by  the  Atlantic 
ocean,  on  the  south  by  the  River  Plate,  and  on  the  west  by 
Argentina.  It  is  the  smallest  country  in  South  America 
with  an  area  of  72,172  sq.  mi.  Pop.  (mid-1948  est.):  2,330,000, 
mostly  of  European  extraction.  Chief  towns  (pop.,  1947 
est.):  Montevideo  (cap.,  850,000);  Paysandu  (50,000); 
Sal  to  (48,000);  Mercedes  (33,000).  Language:  Spanish. 
Religion:  mainly  Roman  Catholic.  President,  Luis  Batlle 
Berres. 

History.  During  1949  Uruguayan  relations  with  Argentina 
remained  strained  and  the  dollar  shortage  continued.  At  the 
Inter-American  regional  conference  of  the  International 
Labour  organization  held  in  Montevideo  April  25  to  May  7, 
President  Batlle  Berres  in  his  opening  address  said  that  social 
justice  without  civil  liberty  was  a  he  and,  what  was  serious, 
it  was  a  dangerous  lie.  Diplomatic  circles  considered  this 
an  allusion  to  Juan  D.  Per6n  of  Argentina  and  his  system. 
A  resolution  was  adopted  citing  violation  of  workers' 
rights  in  Peru  and  Venezuela. 

Relations  with  Argentina  were  strained  further  when  in 
mid-June  a  small  bomb  was  thrown  into  the  Uruguayan 
embassy  in  Buenos  Aires.  The  Peronista  newspaper  Demo- 
cracia  criticized  Uruguayan  ambassador  Roberto  MacEachen 
for  his  willingness  to  give  refuge  to  Agustin  Rodriguez 
Araya,  who  had  been  expelled  from  the  Argentine  Chamber 
of  Deputies.  In  May,  Antonio  Richero,  a  Communist,  was 
expelled  from  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  for  insulting  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Brazilian  cabinet,  who  was  visiting  Uruguay. 

In  August  the  Junta  Americana  de  Defensa  de  la  Demo- 
cracia,  under  the  chairmanship  of  Juan  Andres  Ramirez,  and 
with  former  presidents  Romulo  Gallegos  of  Venezuela  and 
Eduardo  Santos  of  Colombia  among  its  members,  was 
formed  as  a  rallying  point  for  democratic  forces  in  Latin 
America.  Earlier,  in  conjunction  with  Guatemala,  Uruguay 
asked  the  United  Nations  to  investigate  violations  of  human 
rights  by  the  Venezuelan  junta. 

In  May  the  government  utility  monopoly  announced  a 
U.S.  $58  million  hydro-electric  development  programme,  and 
in  October  a  loan  for  power  development  was  concluded 
with  the  International  Bank  for  Reconstruction  and  Develop- 
ment. Through  the  summer  the  peso  declined  steadily,  10% 
in  June  alone.  Wool  was  withheld  from  the  market  in  the  hope 
of  more  favourable  exchange  rates,  since  the  price  had 


656 


UNIVERSITIES   AND   COLLEGES 


£1,000,000  from  the  Colonial  Development  and  Welfare  fund 
to  the  university's  building  fund,  and  appealed  for  donations 
to  its  endowment  fund.  Foundation  day  was  held  on  Oct.  8, 
when  the  chancellor  was  installed. 

British  West  Indies,  In  January  the  British  secretary  of 
state  for  the  colonies  announced  that  the  King  had  granted 
a  royal  charter  to  the  University  college  of  the  West  Indies, 
accepted  the  office  of  visitor  and  appointed  Princess  Alice, 
Countess  of  Athlone,  the  first  chancellor.  The  college  began 
teaching  in  the  faculty  of  medicine  in  Oct.  1948,  and  in  the 
faculty  of  natural  science  a  year  later.  Thirty-two  students 
were  admitted  for  the  1948-49  session,  and  another  42  for 
1949-50.  In  May  the  contract  was  placed  for  the  main 
building  scheme  for  the  college  and  teaching  hospital.  Until 
permanent  buildings  are  available  the  college  would  be  housed 
in  temporary  huts  on  the  permanent  site  of  700  ac.  at  Mona 
near  Kingston,  presented  by  the  government  of  Jamaica. 

United  States.  By  the  beginning  of  the  year  reciprocal 
agreements  under  the  Fulbnght  act  had  been  signed  by  13 
countries.  They  provided  for  payment  of  travel  expenses, 
tuition  fees  and  maintenance  grants  to  Americans  going  to 
universities  abroad  and  the  cost  of  travel  for  foreigners  coming 
to  U.S.  institutions.  Equal  numbers  of  students  were  ex- 
changed. The  schemes  applied  to  professors,  students  (both 
graduate  and  undergraduate)  and  school  teachers,  except 
where  existing  exchange  schemes  were  functioning  satisfac- 
torily. In  the  autumn  1,300  U.S.  students  and  teachers  left 
under  the  scheme. 

In  the  spring,  following  the  dismissal  by  Washington 
university  of  two  professors  because  of  membership  of  the 
Communist  party,  there  was  widespread  public  discussion 
whether  Communists  should  be  allowed  to  teach  in  univer- 
sities and  colleges.  In  April,  after  a  student  demonstration 
against  a  bill  proposing  to  impose  an  oath  of  loyalty  upon  all 
state  teachers,  the  government  of  Illinois  set  up  a  committee 
to  investigate  alleged  Communist  influences  in  Chicago 
university.  In  the  academic  year  1948-49  universities  and 
colleges  graduated  the  highest  number  of  students  in  the 
history  of  higher  education  in  the  United  States.  Some 
423,000  students  received  degrees,  95  %  more  than  in  1939-40, 
the  peak  prewar  year.  First  degrees  totalled  366,634,  second 
degrees  50,827  and  5,293  doctorates  were  awarded. 

On  Oct.  20  Smith  college,  Massachusetts,  celebrated  the 
75th  anniversary  of  its  opening.  Honorary  degrees  were 
conferred  on  12  distinguished  women  including  Princess 
Wilhelmina,  former  queen  of  the  Netherlands,  and  Mrs. 
Eleanor  Roosevelt.  Radcliffe,  the  women's  college  affiliated 
to  Harvard  university,  celebrated  its  70th  birthday.  In  Dec. 
1948  Miss  H.  M.  Cam,  installed  as  Radcliffe  professor  of 
English  history,  became  the  first  women  member  of  the 
Harvard  faculty.  In  October  Harvard  law  school  was  opened 
to  women. 

Notable  benefactions  included  a  sum  of  over  $8  million 
from  the  Samuel  H.  Kress  foundation  to  New  York 
university's  Bellevue  Medical  centre;  a  sum  of  $1,500,000 
from  Myron  Taylor  to  Cornell  university;  and  a  block- 
printed  set  of  the  Kagyur  (Tibetan  sacred  books)  from  the 
Dalai  Lama  to  Yale  university. 

On  Aug.  10  died  Edward  Lee  Thorndike,  internationally 
famous  for  his  brilliant  contributions  to  educational 
psychology.  From  1897  to  1940  he  was  on  the  staff  of 
Teachers'  college,  Columbia  university,  from  1904  with 
professorial  rank.  His  numerous  published  works  included 
The  Measurement  of  Intelligence  (1926)  and  The  Funda- 
mentals of  Learning  (1932). 

Europe.  Czechoslovakia.  Early  in  1949  reliability  tests  for 
university  students  took  place.  In  March  the  ministry  of 
education  announced  that  of  47,000  students  called  for 
examination,  6,370  had  failed,  including  2,400  who  did  not 


present  themselves  before  the  "  reliability  "  committees  and 
had  been  expelled  from  the  universities.  It  was  not  stated 
on  what  grounds,  but  the  ministry  denied  that  the  tests  were 
a  means  of  political  persecution.  It  was  further  stated  that 
expelled  students  might  be  re-admitted  on  evidence  of  good 
work  in  the  employments  to  which  they  had  been  directed. 
Seven  hundred  "  workers  "  were  admitted  to  the  universities 
after  special  eight  months'  courses  in  place  of  a  secondary 
school  education. 

In  the  autumn  the  universities  were  put  under  the  control 
of  a  state  council,  whose  powers  included  the  appointment 
of  the  teaching  staff.  Individual  study  was  finally  abolished 
and  the  study  group  system  made  universal.  The  object  of 
the  law  was  stated  to  be  to  produce  a  "  highly  qualified  and 
politically  conscious  intelligentsia."  The  secretary  general 
of  the  Slovak  Communist  party  declared  that  Marxist- 
Leninist  science  was  the  fundamental  line  of  all  scientific 
and  educational  activities  in  the  universities. 

In  October  Dr.  Jifina  Otdhalova-Popelova  was  appointed 
rector  of  the  Palacky  university,  Olomouc — the  first  woman 
to  hold  such  a  post  in  Czechoslovakia. 

France.  In  Aug.  1948  the  minister  of  education  made 
compulsory  an  annee  propedeutique,  that  is,  a  year  of  study 
beyond  the  baccalaure'at,  with  a  further  examination  at  the 
end,  for  all  students  wishing  to  enter  a  university.  The 
immediate  cause  of  this  innovation  was  the  overcrowded 
state  of  the  universities;  but  the  fundamental  reason,  urged 
since  the  1930s,  was  the  character  of  the  baccalaure"at  curricu- 
lum, which,  it  was  argued,  demanded  such  an  amassing  of 
factual  knowledge  as  to  preclude  the  absorption  of  culture. 
It  was  not  possible  by  the  end  of  the  first  year's  experiment  to 
measure  its  success  owing  to  the  shortage  of  university 
teachers. 

Germany.  In  March  the  Technical  university  of  Berlin 
celebrated  its  150th  anniversary.  It  began  as  an  architectural 
college,  developed  into  a  technical  high  school  and  was 
granted  university  status  in  1946.  Two  new  people's  univer- 
sities were  opened,  one  at  Hustadt,  near  Celle,  and  the  other 
at  Landau,  near  Kassel.  That  at  Landau  was  the  first  of  its 
kind  in  Land  Hesse. 

In  June  a  federation  of  German  university  women  was 
founded,  with  headquarters  at  Hamburg.  The  former 
federation  was  suppressed  by  Adolf  Hitler. 

Greece.  Economic  difficulties  gravely  affected  the  univer- 
sities. In  March  the  ministry  of  finance  cut  the  state  grant 
to  Salonika  university  by  620  million  drachmae.  The  senate 
replied  that  this  would  make  it  impossible  for  the  university 
to  operate  efficiently;  and  as  protest  a  ten-day  lock-out  of 
the  faculties  of  mathematics  and  physics,  medicine,  agri- 
culture and  forestry  was  staged. 

Sweden.  In  October  Madame  Gerd  Enequist  was 
installed  as  professor  of  Geo-Culturc  at  Uppsala  university; 
she  was  the  first  woman  to  occupy  a  professorial  chair  in 
this  500-year  old  university. 

Switzerland.  Geneva  university  established,  within  the 
faculty  of  social  and  economic  science,  an  Institut  Universi- 
taire  d*  Administration  Maritime,  claimed  to  be  the  first  of 
its  kind.  It  offered  a  three-year  course,  of  which  the  third 
year  is  spent  on  board  ship. 

Yugoslavia.  Organizational  and  academic  changes  were 
carried  out  in  Belgrade  university.  The  medical  and  technical 
faculties  were  separated  from  it  to  form  the  Medical  Great 
school  and  the  Technical  Great  school  respectively,  each 
with  university  status.  Mathematics  and  natural  sciences 
were  separated  from  the  philosophical  faculty  to  form  new 
faculties.  The  study  of  Marxism-Leninism  was  introduced 
as  a  compulsory  subject  in  the  philosophical,  legal,  and 
economic  faculties.  In  March  a  conference  was  held  at 
Ljubljana  of  all  heads  of  philosophical  faculties  to  decide 


UROLOGY— URUGUAY 


657 


upon  the  philosophical  line  to  be  adopted  in  teaching.  The 
legal,  philosophical,  and  technical  high  schools  of  Skopje 
were  united  to  form  Skopje  university. 

Asia.  China.  First-hand  unofficial  information  received 
during  1949  suggested  that  conditions  in  universities  were 
generally  better  than  might  have  been  expected,  and  in 
particular  that  staff  and  students  felt  more  secure.  Some 
universities  and  colleges  fled  before  the  Communist  advance, 
but  others,  such  as  the  Yenching  university,  Peking,  Nanking 
university  and  the  Central  China  university  reported  that 
work  was  progressing  in  a  very  satisfactory  fashion.  The 
Communist  attitude  was  stated  to  be  that  opposition  to  their 
ideology  would  bring  no  physical  sanctions  but  militate 
against  promotion  in  university  or  professional  life.  In 
October,  however,  Peking  radio  reported  that  a  committee 
for  higher  education  had  drawn  up  new  curricula  for  univer- 
sities and  colleges  in  north  China  which  made  dialectical 
materialism  and  the  "  new  democracy  "  obligatory  studies 
for  all  students,  and  political  economy  for  students  of  arts 
and  social  sciences.  Courses  in  Marxism  and  Leninism  were 
to  replace  Kuomintang  teaching,  and  Russian  was  to  be 
studied. 

Palestine.  Radical  changes  in  the  structure  of  the  Hebrew 
university  of  Jerusalem  were  planned  with  the  aim  of  making 
it  a  centre  of  culture  for  Jews  throughout  the  world.  Among 
these  were  the  establishment  of  faculties  of  law  and  medicine 
and  the  introduction  of  a  B.A.  course.  (The  existing  highly 
specialized  courses  led  to  an  M.A.  as  the  first  degree.) 

Professor  S.  Brodetsky,  University  of  Leeds,  England,  was 
elected  president  in  succession  to  the  late  Dr.  J.  L.  Magnes. 

South  America.  Argentina.  On  June  20  President  Peron 
announced  the  abolition  of  all  university  fees. 

Venezuela.  Because  of  the  great  increase  in  the  number  of 
students  (there  were  over  4,000  in  the  Central  university  of 
Caracas,  four  times  as  many  as  in  1939)  it  was  necessary  to 
appoint  temporarily  a  number  of  foreign  professors.  Native 
teachers  were  being  trained  to  take  their  places  as  soon  as 
possible.  (H.  C.  D.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  Sir  W.  Moberly,  The  Crisis  in  the  University 
(London,  1949);  Inter-University  Council  for  Higher  Education  in  the 
Colonies  Second  Report  1947-49  (Cmd.  7801,  H  M.S.O.,  1949). 

UROLOGY.  Elimination  or  control  of  systemic  sources 
of  male  sex  hormone  was  found  to  be  the  best  method  of 
treating  cancer  of  the  prostate  gland.  The  two  methods  which 
had  been  employed  for  this  purpose  were  castration  and  the 
administration  of  estrogenic  substances.  A  review  of  a  large 
number  of  cases  in  which  prostatic  cancer  was  treated  by 
these  methods  over  a  period  of  more  than  five  years  showed 
that  the  two  methods  were  of  equal  therapeutic  value;  it 
also  showed  that  such  treatment  was  only  palliative.  Estro- 
genic treatment  was  followed  by  most  clinicians. 

Although  radical  perineal  prostatectomy  for  cancer  of  the 
prostate  gland  had  been  advocated  by  a  number  of  urologic 
surgeons,  only  during  1949  was  a  large  number  of  cases 
followed  over  a  post-operative  period  long  enough  to  give 
the  operation  statistical  appraisal.  Judging  from  a  report 
from  the  records  of  the  Johns  Hopkins  hospital,  this 
procedure  had  definite  clinical  advantages  over  other  methods 
of  treatment  as  far  as  survival  was  concerned.  Among  the 
patients  who  underwent  operation  from  10  to  27  years 
previously,  28%  were  living  still  and  without  demonstrable 
cancer.  In  only  1 1  %  of  the  cases,  however,  had  cancer  of 
the  prostate  gland  observed  clinically  been  found  amenable 
to  radical  perineal  prostatectomy. 

The  availability  of  a  chemical  test  for  measuring  17- 
keto-steroids  in  the  urine  stimulated  more  general  interest 
and  research  in  the  field  of  urinary  hormonal  assays.  Tests 
for  measuring  estrogens  and  the  glycogenic  adrenal  corticoids 
gave  promise  of  more  widespread  clinical  acceptance. 

B.B.Y.— 43 


Deaths  following  transurethral  resection  might  be  due  to 
haemolysis  with  an  oliguric  syndrome;  and  the  mortality 
rate  ha.d  been  materially  lowered  by  substituting  glucose 
solutions  as  an  irrigating  agent  in  the  place  of  sterile  water. 

Experience  with  several  new  antibiotic  solutions,  including 
aureomycin  and  chloromycetin,  showed  their  comparative 
merit  in  combating  infections  of  the  urinary  tract.  Aureo- 
mycin was  found  to  be  efficacious  in  combating  certain  types 
of  bacteria  found  with  urinary  infection  which  had  resisted 
other  antibiotics  and  sulphonamides.  Although  aureomycin 
may  cause  moderate  gastro-intcstinal  upset,  it  has  the 
advantages  that  it  can  be  administered  orally  and  is  not 
toxic  in  the  sense />f  causing  serious  anaphylactic  reaction  or 
systemic  damage  such  as  those  occunng  with  other  anti- 
biotics. Chloromycetin  was  found  to  possess  anti-bacterial 
properties  similar  to  those  of  aureomycin  and  also  to  cause 
minimal  systemic  reaction.  (W.  F.  BR.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  C.  L.  Demmg,  "  The  Correlation  of  Clinical  Ex- 
perience and  Heterologous  Growth  of  Human  Prostatic  Cancer," 
Quart.  Rev.  Urol .  4*244,  Washington,  Sept.  1949;  R.  F.  Escamilla, 
"  Diagnostic  Significance  of  Urinary  Hormonal  Assays:  Report  of 
Experience  with  Measurements  of  17-Ketosteroids  and  Follicle  Stimu- 
lating Hormone  in  the  Urine,"  tbt d ,  4.250-251,  Sept.  1949;  H.  J. 
Jewett,  "  Radical  Perineal  Prostatectomy  for  Cancer  of  the  Prostate: 
An  Analysis  of  190  Cases,"  ibid ,  4:  245-246,  Sept.  1949. 

URUGUAY.  A  republic  in  southeastern  South  America, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Brazil,  on  the  east  by  the  Atlantic 
ocean,  on  the  south  by  the  River  Plate,  and  on  the  west  by 
Argentina.  It  is  the  smallest  country  in  South  America 
with  an  area  of  72,172  sq.  mi.  Pop.  (mid-1948  est.):  2,330,000, 
mostly  of  European  extraction.  Chief  towns  (pop.,  1947 
est.):  Montevideo  (cap.,  850,000);  Paysandu  (50,000); 
Salto  (48,000);  Mercedes  (33,000).  Language:  Spanish. 
Religion:  mainly  Roman  Catholic.  President,  Luis  Batlle 
Berres. 

History-  During  1949  Uruguayan  relations  with  Argentina 
remained  strained  and  the  dollar  shortage  continued.  At  the 
Inter- American  regional  conference  of  the  International 
Labour  organization  held  in  Montevideo  April  25  to  May  7, 
President  Batlle  Berres  in  his  opening  address  said  that  social 
justice  without  civil  liberty  was  a  lie  and,  what  was  serious, 
it  was  a  dangerous  lie.  Diplomatic  circles  considered  this 
an  allusion  to  Juan  D.  Peron  of  Argentina  and  his  system. 
A  resolution  was  adopted  citing  violation  of  workers' 
rights  in  Peru  and  Venezuela. 

Relations  with  Argentina  were  strained  further  when  in 
mid-June  a  small  bomb  was  thrown  into  the  Uruguayan 
embassy  in  Buenos  Aires.  The  Peronista  newspaper  Demo- 
cracia  criticized  Uruguayan  ambassador  Roberto  MacEachen 
for  his  willingness  to  give  refuge  to  Agustin  Rodriguez 
Araya,  who  had  been  expelled  from  the  Argentine  Chamber 
of  Deputies.  In  May,  Antonio  Richero,  a  Communist,  was 
expelled  from  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  for  insulting  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Brazilian  cabinet,  who  was  visiting  Uruguay. 

In  August  the  Junta  Americana  de  Defensa  de  la  Demo- 
cracia,  under  the  chairmanship  of  Juan  Andres  Ramirez,  and 
with  former  presidents  Romulo  Gallegos  of  Venezuela  and 
Eduardo  Santos  of  Colombia  among  its  members,  was 
formed  as  a  rallying  point  for  democratic  forces  in  Latin 
America.  Earlier,  in  conjunction  with  Guatemala,  Uruguay 
asked  the  United  Nations  to  investigate  violations  of  human 
rights  by  the  Venezuelan  junta. 

In  May  the  government  utility  monopoly  announced  a 
U.S.  $58  million  hydro-electric  development  programme,  and 
in  October  a  loan  for  power  development  was  concluded 
with  the  International  Bank  for  Reconstruction  and  Develop- 
ment. Through  the  summer  the  peso  declined  steadily,  10% 
in  June  alone.  Wool  was  withheld  from  the  market  in  the  hope 
of  more  favourable  exchange  rates,  since  the  price  had 


658 


VARGA— VATICAN   CITY   STATE 


dropped  25%.  In  October,  following  Argentina's  lead,  the 
peso  was  devalued.  The  new  buying  rate  was  fixed  at  1-519 
pesos  to  the  dollar  and  the  selling  rate  at  1-90  to  the  dollar. 
Other  rates  for  special  trade  items  were  established. 

(J.  McA.) 

Education.  Schools  (1947).  state  1,635,  pupils  192,804,  teachers 
5,735;  rural,  pupils  52,000.  University  of  the  Republic  (1940)  students 
2,670,  teaching  staff  21 1 

Agriculture.  Main  crops  ('000  metric  tons,  1948)  wheat  518,  maize 
99;  barley  25,  oats  49;  linseed  (flax  grown  for  seed  only)  117;  sun- 
flower seed  60,  groundnuts  13;  tobacco  (metric  tons,  1947)  907. 
Livestock  ('000  head),  cattle  (May  1946)  6,834,  sheep  (May  1948) 
22,000;  horses  (May  1946)  575  Wool  production  (on  greasy  basis, 
1948-49)  73,000  metric  tons  Meat  exports  (metric  tons)  36,000  in 
1947,  58,400  in  1948 

Industry.  Establishments  utilizing  local  raw  materials  (textile 
factories,  tanneries  and  industrial  and  edible-oil  refineries,  1948)' 
value  of  total  production  913  million  pesos;  number  of  persons 
employed  168,400. 

Korean  Irade.  (Million  U  S  $)  Imports  (1948)  201-5,  (1949,  six 
months)  87  3;  exports  (1948)  178-9,  (1949,  six  months)  91  -8  Main 
imports  (1948)  machinery  and  vehicles  (28  %),  textiles  (8  %),  petroleum 
and  products  (6%)  Mam  exports  wool  (37%),  meat  (25%),  hides 
and  skins  (12%)  Leading  customers  the  US  (28%),  the  UK. 
(18%),  Belgium  (9%),  Netherlands  (7%)  and  Italy  (7%);  leading 
suppliers,  the  U.S.  (34%),  the  U.K.  (13%)  and  Brazil  (10%). 

Transport  and  Communications.  Roads  (1948)  26,000  rni  of  which 
3,051  mi.  paved.  Licensed  motor  vehicles  (Dec.  1948):  cars  36,200, 
commercial  vehicles  15,700.  Railways-  1,874  mi  ,  freight  carried 
(1948)*  about  1  8  million  metric  tons.  Shipping  (July  1948):  merchant 
vessels  of  100  tons  and  upwards  48,  gross  tonnage  64,054  Telephones 
(Dec  1947)  instruments  71,732  Wireless  licences  (Dec.  1947)  230,000 

Finance  and  Banking.  (Million  pesos)  Budget  (1949  est  )  icvenue 
204-5,  expenditure  223  3.  National  debt  (Aug  1949,  in  brackets 
Aug.  1948).  787-6  (725-1).  Currency  circulation  (Sept  1949;  in 
brackets  Sept  1948)  230(199)  Bank  deposits  (Sept  1949,  in  brackets 
Sept.  1948):  384  (334)  Gold  reserve  (July  1949,  in  brackets  July 
1948)'  U.S  $  million  161  (198)  Monetary  unit-  peso  with  controlled 
exchange  rates  (in  brackets  before  Sept  18,  1949)  of  5-32  (7  65)  pesos 
to  the  £  for  selling  and  4-25  (6-12)  pesos  to  the  £  for  buying 

U.S.S.R.:    see  UNION  OF  SOVIET  SOCIALIST   REPUBLICS. 

VARGA,  EVGHENY  SAMUILOVICH,  Soviet 
economist  (b.  Budapest,  Hungary,  1887),  was  educated  at 
the  Universities  of  Budapest,  Berlin  and  Paris.  In  1906  he 
joined  the  Hungarian  Social  Democratic  party.  On  March 
21,  1919,  he  was  appointed  people's  commissar  of  finance  in 
the  Bela  Kun  Communist  government.  On  Aug.  1  of  the 
same  year  he  fled  to  Moscow.  He  became  a  Soviet  citizen, 
director  of  the  Moscow  Institute  of  World  Economics  and 
World  Politics,  editor  of  a  periodical  World  Economics  and 
World  Politics,  and  a  member  of  the  Soviet  Academy  of 
Science.  Between  the  two  World  Wars  he  wrote  many  books 
on  the  economic  development  of  capitalist  states  and  on  the 
history  and  theory  of  economic  crises.  In  his  Changes  in  the 
Capitalist  Economy  Resulting  from  the  Second  World  War 
published  in  1945  he  maintained  that  capitalist  countries  in 
general,  and  the  U.S.  and  Great  Britain  in  particular,  were 
not  facing  an  immediate  crisis,  that  capitalist  systems  were 
capable  of  planning  a  wartime  economy  and  that  armed 
conflict  between  the  U.S.  and  Great  Britain  competing  for 
world  markets  was  not  possible — views  regarded  as  heretical 
by  Andrey  A.  Zhdanov  and  his  pupil  Nikolay  A.  Voznesensky. 
At  the  beginning  of  1948  the  Institute  of  World  Economics 
and  World  Politics  was  absorbed  by  the  Institute  of  Eco- 
nomics which  was  directly  under  Voznesensky 's  State  Planning 
commission  and  Varga's  journal  was  replaced  by  a  new  one, 
Economic  Questions.  Varga,  however,  was  appointed  a 
member  of  the  editorial  board  of  the  new  periodical.  In 
Oct.  1948  his  book  was  discussed  at  a  special  session  of  the 
Institute  of  Economics  and,  defending  his  views,  he  suggested 
that  a  scrutiny  of  facts  was  of  greater  importance  than  dis- 
cussions of  terminology.  Professor  K.  V.  Ostrovitianov,  who 
presided,  recommended  that  *'  comrade  Varga  should  drop 
the  attitude  of  an  insulted  priest  of  science  "  and  attempt 


honestly  to  examine  his  mistakes  and  correct  them  by  pro- 
ducing new  works  in  accord  with  the  requirements  of  Marxist- 
Leninist  science.  Varga  recanted  his  views  in  the  April  1949 
issue  of  Economic  Questions. 

VARNISHES:   see  PAINTS  AND  VARNISHES. 

VATICAN  CITY  STATE.  A  sovereign  indepen- 
dent state,  situated  upon  the  Vatican  hill  in  the  city  of  Rome, 
established  by  the  Lateran  treaty  between  the  Holy  See  and 
Italy  on  Feb.  11,  1929.  The  Pope  is  the  sovereign.  Area: 
0-5  sq.  mi.,  excluding  the  papal  estate  of  Castcl  Gandolfo 
and  the  basilicas  of  St.  John  Lateran,  St.  PauFs-Outside-the- 
Walls  and  St.  Mary's  Major  which  also  belong  to  the  Vatican 
City  state.  Pop.  (1948  est.):  800.  Governor,  Marchese 
Camillo  Serafmi. 

The  main  preoccupation  of  the  Vatican  City  state  during 
1949  was  the  preparation  for  the  Holy  Year  of  1950,  which, 
proclaimed  by  Pope  Pius  XII  on  Ascension  day,  May  26,  in 
the  bull  Jubilaeum  Maximum,  was  inaugurated  on  Christmas 
Eve.  The  main  responsibility  for  the  arrangements  was 
entrusted  to  Mgr.  Valeno  Valen,  wartime  nuncio  to  France, 
as  chairman  of  the  Holy  Year  Central  committee. 

Pope  Pius  XII,  whose  sacerdotal  golden  jubilee  on  April  2 
followed  closely  after  the  10th  anniversaiy  of  his  coronation, 
broadcast  to  the  world  on  Dec.  23  a  long  allocution  in  which 
he  spoke  of  the  hopes  he  placed  in  the  Holy  Year.  Other 
important  addresses  by  the  Pope  were  that  delivered  at  the 
secret  consistory  of  Feb  1 4,  denouncing  the  trial  and  imprison- 
ment of  Cardinal  Jo/sef  Mindszenthy,  and  that  broadcast  to 
the  German  Katholikentag  on  Sept.  4;  but  the  year  saw  only 
one  encyclical  letter,  that  on  the  future  of  Palestine  published 
on  Good  Friday,  April  15,  and  entitled  Redemptons  Nostri. 

Important  as  a  moral  ruling  was  the  Pope's  rejection  of 
artificial  insemination  when  he  addressed  the  4th  Inter- 
national congress  of  Catholic  doctors  on  Sept.  29,  and 
important  also  were  the  careful  considerations  of  "  juridical 
positivism "  contained  in  three  complementary  addresses 
which  the  Pope  delivered  m  November,  the  first,  on  Nov.  6, 
to  a  conference  of  Italian  Catholic  lawyers;  the  second,  on 
Nov.  13,  to  the  members  of  the  Tribunal  of  the  Rota,  and 
the  third,  on  Nov.  17,  to  a  group  of  U.S.  senators. 

There  were  two  canonizations  during  the  year:  those  of 
the  French  B.  Jeanne  de  Lestonnac  (a  niece  of  Montaigne) 
on  May  15  and  the  Italian  B.  Maria  Rossello  on  June  12. 

Diplomatic  relations  between  the  Holy  See  and  Persia  were 
established  in  June,  and  between  the  Holy  See  and  India 
in  July. 

Among  the  Pope's  visitors  during  the  year  were  a  delegation 
of  members  of  both  houses  of  the  British  parliament,  headed 
by  the  speaker,  on  Jan.  11;  Anthony  Eden,  on  March  29; 
Sir  Stafford  and  Lady  Cnpps  on  May  3;  and  Princess 
Margaret  on  May  10.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  year  there  was 
a  series  of  parlies  of  members  of  the  U.S.  congress. 

The  College  of  Cardinals  lost  Cardinal  Emmanuel  Suhard, 
Archbishop  of  Paris,  who  died  on  May  30,  and  Cardinal 
Francesco  Marmaggi,  prefect  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of 
the  Council,  who  died  on  Nov.  2  and  was  succeeded  by 
Cardinal  Giuseppe  Bruno.  Cardinal  Adcodato  Piazza  was 
created  Cardinal  Bishop  of  Sabina  and  Poggio  Martito. 

Finally,  mention  should  be  made  here  of  the  historic  decree 
of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  the  Holy  Office,  of  which  the 
Pope  himself  is  prefect,  which  appeared  in  the  Acta  Apostolicae 
Sedis  on  July  13.  This  laid  it  down  that  Catholics  cannot  join 
or  show  favour  to  the  Communist  party  in  any  part  of  the 
world  and  cannot  publish,  read,  disseminate  or  contribute 
to  Communist  newspapers,  periodicals,  books  or  leaflets, 
under  pain  of  excommunication.  (See  also  Pius  XII;  ROMAN 
CATHOLIC  CHURCH.)  (M.  DK.) 


VEGETABLE   OILS   AND   ANIMAL   FATS— VEGETABLES 


659 


VEGETABLE    OILS    AND    ANIMAL    FATS. 

Preliminary  reports  indicated  that  the  total  quantity  of 
vegetable  oils  and  oilseeds  available  for  distribution  as  oil 
in  1949  probably  amounted,  in  terms  of  oil,  to  about  4% 
more  than  the  1948  total  and  about  7%  more  than  the  pre- 
war average.  World  exports  of  seeds  and  oils,  in  terms  of 
oil,  were  higher  than  in  1948  but  they  were  again  well  below 
the  prewar  level. 

Groundnut  production  in  1949  was  not  expected  greatly 
to  exceed  the  record  output  of  1948,  which  was  equivalent 
to  about  1  7  million  tons  of  oil.  Output  fell  in  the  United 
States,  while  China's  production  expanded  only  slightly 
owing  to  the  disturbances  in  that  country.  Indian  output, 
on  the  other  hand,  showed  a  decided  increase.  Official 
figures  of  production  under  the  British  East  African  ground- 
nut scheme  were  not  available;  it  was,  however,  announced 
that  about  50,000  ac  of  groundnuts  and  sunflower  seeds 
had  been  planted  for  the  1949  harvest.  In  British  West 
Africa,  seasonal  purchases  were  slightly  below  the  1947-48 
level.  Clearance  work  began  in  Senegal  during  March  1949, 
under  a  scheme  to  increase  French  West  African  groundnut 
production  by  methods  of  mechanical  cultivation.  Exports 
of  groundnuts  from  India  showed  a  further  decline  in 
1948-49,  but  shipments  of  groundnut  oil  were  heavier  than 
in  the  previous  year.  Groundnut  exports  from  British  and 
French  West  Africa  in  1949  were  again  fairly  large. 

Forecasts  for  cottonseed  indicated  a  further  rise  in  total 
production  in  1949-50  with  increased  output  in  the  United 
States  and  India.  Exports  of  cottonseed  in  1949  showed  an 
improvement  on  those  of  the  previous  year,  but  were  again 
well  below  the  prewar  level. 

Compared  with  1948,  production  of  linseed  in  the  United 
States  decreased  by  more  than  20%  in  1949  and  there  was  a 
much  greater  fall  in  Canadian  output.  Slightly  increased 
production  in  Argentina  and  elsewhere  was  insufficient  fully 
to  offset  the  decline  in  North  America  and  it  was  estimated 
that  world  production  had  fallen  by  about  a  tenth.  Exports 
of  seed  improved  considerably  in  1949  but  shipments  of  oil 
were  smaller  than  in  1948. 

Reports  on  other  oilseed  crops  again  indicated  no  significant 
change  in  the  total  production  of  soya  bean,  rapcseed, 
sesame  and  castor.  No  information  was  available  concerning 
sunflower  production  in  the  U.S.S.R.,  but  it  was  estimated 
that  plantings  in  Argentina— -the  second  most  important 
producing  count  ry — exceeded  the  record  acreage  of  the  previous 
year. 

Copra  exports  from  the  Philippine  Islands  were  moderately 
heavy  in  1949,  although  again  much  lighter  than  m  the  peak 
year  1947.  Shipments  from  Malaya  and  Indonesia,  on  the 
other  hand,  were  the  highest  recorded  by  those  countries 
after  World  War  II.  There  were  increased  exports  of  coconut 
oil  in  1949;  shipments  from  the  Philippines  were  considerably 
higher  than  in  1948  but  they  were  still  well  below  the  prewar 
level. 

Purchases  of  palm  kernels  in  Nigeria  and  Sierra  Leone  were 
heavier  in  1948-49  than  in  the  previous  season,  and  palm  oil 
purchases  in  Nigeria  also  increased.  Malayan  production 
of  both  kernels  and  oil  rose  in  1949.  Shipments  from  the 
Belgian  Congo  were  again  important. 

The  1948-49  output  of  edible  olive  oil  in  the  Mediterranean 
region  was  estimated  at  only  362,000  tons,  a  decrease  of 
about  68%  compared  with  the  previous  season.  Exports  in 
1949  were  on  a  reduced  scale. 

Imports  of  the  main  kinds  of  oilseeds  into  the  United 
Kingdom  were  considerably  heavier  in  1949  than  in  the 
previous  year,  only  castor  bean  imports  being  below  the  1948 
level  There  was  very  little  alteration  in  supplies  of  vegetable 
oils. 

Production  of  animal  fats  improved  in   1949,  although 


available  supplies  were  still  below  the  prewar  level.  The 
1948-49  Australian  and  New  Zealand  production  figures 
for  butter  showed  an  increase  compared  with  1947-48  and 
output  rose  substantially  in  1949  in  both  Denmark  and  the 
Netherlands.  A  slight  fall  in  Canadian  production  was  more 
than  offset  by  increased  output  in  the  United  States,  where 
lard  and  tallow  production  also  improved.  Whaling  opera- 
tions again  came  under  international  regulation  in  1948-49 
and  whale  oil  production  showed  only  a  small  increase  over 
that  of  the  previous  season.  (D  M.  T.) 

United  States.  The  domestic  production  of  fats  and  oils 
in  the  U.S.,  including  the  oil  equivalent  of  exported  seeds, 
in  1949  was  forecast  at  a  new  record  of  about  12,010  million 
lb.,  compared  with  11,786  million  Ib.  in  1948  and  a  prewar 
level  of  8,696  million  lb.  Domestic  consumption  was  smaller 
in  194^  than  in  1948  and  the  excess  of  production  over 
consumption  rose  to  a  new  record  of  1,400  million  lb. 

Total  U  S.  butter  production  in  1949  was  estimated  at 
1,800  million  lb.,  about  8%  more  than  in  1948.  Production 
of  lard  and  pork  fats  increased  more  than  300  million  lb. 
in  1949.  Vegetable  oil  seeds,  however,  were  slightly  less 
abundant;  the  1949  cottonseed  crop  was  about  9%  above 
that  of  the  previous  year;  soya  beans  were  nearly  a  record 
crop;  flaxsecd  production  declined,  compared  with  1948 
but  was  45%  above  average. 

In  1949,  the  prices  of  most  fats  and  oils  ranged  from 
two-thirds  to  under  half  their  record  postwar  levels  in 
1948.  Butter  was  about  60  cents  wholesale  and  lard  between 
10  and  12  cents. 

Exports  of  most  kinds  of  fats  and  oils  from  the  U.S., 
largely  to  western  Europe,  increased  in  1949.  For  the  first 
nine  months  of  the  year  exports  were  threefold  that  of 
1948  -1,826,200,000  lb.  (J.  K.  R.) 

VEGETABLES.  1949  was  the  most  difficult  year  for 
vegetable  growers  after  1939:  it  brought  a  return  to  the 
situation  in  which  they  were  undecided  about  what  crops  to 
grow  for  a  profit.  British  growers  were  particularly  confused 
by  an  implied  change  of  governmental  policy  for  the  industry. 
A  taste  of  what  was  in  store  came  in  the  first  three  months 
when  the  prices  of  the  staple  income-producing  crops  dropped 
sharply.  The  mean  weekly  prices  of  five  sample  vegetables 
for  Jan.  1  to  March  31,  expressed  as  an  index  of  the  respective 
1948  prices,  are  shown  in  Table  I. 


TABLL  I  — U  K..  PRICFS  OF  CIRFAIN  VLC.F  TABLES 
Par-      Brussels    Winter     Onions 
snips      Sprouts  Cabbage 
34  93  43  44 

47  87  69  30 


Leeks 


22 
20 


At  Covcnt  Garden 
Official  average  * 

(Official  average  1948-  100) 
*  Trom  Minister  of  Agriculture's  A^ruultural  Market  Report 

Onions  and  leeks  were  a  particularly  bad  trade,  and  it 
was  estimated  that  2,000  ac.  of  the  latter  crop  were  never 
harvested. 

Overall  acreage  of  vegetables,  greatly  expanded  during 
the  war,  continued  to  increase  after  1945  in  response  to  the 
national  effort  for  greater  agricultural  output.  In  1948  this 
acreage  was  63%  above  1939  level,  but  the  total  marketings 
had  not  been  on  the  same  scale  because  yields  were  low. 
The  mild  winter  of  1948-49  brought  on  good  crops  and  the 
latent  effect  of  the  large  acreage  was  revealed. 

The  loss  of  confidence  among  producers  was  reflected  in  a 
fall  in  the  British  acreage  of  vegetables  from  583,000  to 
530,000— at  which  level  it  was  still  11%  above  the  1944-45 
average.  This  was  noteworthy  in  view  of  the  government's 
declared  policy  of  keeping  the  vegetable  acreage  at  its  war- 
time level,  whilst  relying  on  internal  measures  such  as  more 
widespread  grading,  elimination  of  low  grade  supplies  and 
local  association  of  small  growers  to  provide  economic 


660 


VENEREAL  DISEASES 


progress.  Experimental  standards  for  grades  and  packs  were 
put  forward  by  the  Ministry  of  Agriculture  later  in  the  year. 
Two  trade  agreements  concerning  the  importation  of  horti- 
cultural produce  from  Poland  and  the  Netherlands  respective- 
ly were  completed  before  March  15.  And  from  Oct.  1  on- 
wards the  Board  of  Trade  made  a  wide  range  of  articles, 
including  horticultural  products,  available  for  private  im- 
portation. Some  marked  changes  in  the  import  situation 
are  shown  in  Table  II. 

TABIF  II      U  K    (MPORIS  ot  CERTAIN  VEGETABLES 

(in  thousand  cwt.) 
Broccoli  Onions  Tomatoes 

and  (dry  bulb) 

Cauliflower 
Volume     Index     Volume     Index     Volume    Index 

1948  178         100          1,895         100          2,619          100 

1949  .  508         285          \\1\          167          3,423          130 
(to  Aug.  3J) 

Notwithstanding  the  increases  shown  in  Table  II,  the  total 
volume  of  imported  vegetables  was  only  some  10%  greater 
in  1949  than  in  the  same  period  in  1947;  and  in  1947  all 
vegetable  imports  were  about  2%  below  the  1938  level. 

As  a  preliminary  to  an  attempt  at  concerted  action  to 
regulate  vegetable  supplies  by  European  growers,  an  inter- 
national conference  on  horticulture  Was  proposed  by  the 
International  Federation  of  Agricultural  Producers  and  took 
place  in  London  in  April.  Delegates  submitted  reports  on 
the  economic  status  of  horticulture  in  their  respective  countries 
and  the  size  of  the  industry  in  western  Europe  and  its  output 
in  relation  to  demand  were  examined. 

In  the  absence  of  irrigation  summer-harvested  crops  were 
light  in  western  Europe  generally,  and  crops  for  winter  use 
were  backward  until  September.  Glasshouse  crops,  on  the 
whole,  were  favoured  by  the  season,  but  prices  for  the  main 
crop,  tomatoes,  averaged  only  3s.  per  12  Ib.  at  wholesale 
in  markets  in  Great  Britain  against  165.  in  1948.  (R.  R.  W.  F.) 

United  States.  The  U.S.  1949  crop  of  25  vegetables, 
classed  as  commercial  truck  crops  for  the  fresh  market 
was  a  large  and  valuable  one,  although  slightly  below  1948 
in  tonnage,  acreage  and  value.  Consumption  per  capita  of 
fresh  vegetables  in  1949  was  estimated  at  243  Ib.,  only  95% 
as  much  as  in  1948  but  103%  of  the  prewar  average.  Prices 
averaged  slightly  higher  than  in  1948.  The  Cuban  crop  of 
1949-50  appeared  to  be  10%  larger  than  in  recent  years. 

The  1949  U.S.  production  of  11  truck  crops  for  com- 
mercial processing  was  5,522,610  tons  with  record  crops  of 
sweet  corn,  pickling  cucumbers  and  green  lima  beans. 
Acreage  increased  to  1,727,640,  as  compared  with  1,697,870 
ac.  in  1948,  and  an  average  of  1,742,880  ac.  in  the  period 
1938-47.  The  total  tonnage  of  25  crops  was  8,186,200  tons 
in  1949,  valued  at  $589,757,000,  compared  with  8,459,700 
tons  in  1948.  Production  declined  for  15  of  the  crops, 
increased  for  10.  Cabbage  was  the  leading  crop  in  tonnage, 
with  1,218,000  tons;  lettuce  was  in  second  place  with 
1,171,000  tons;  and  water-melons  were  third  with  960,000 
tons.  California  was  the  leading  state  with  2,372,700  tons; 
Florida  second  with  908,200  tons;  and  New  York  third 
with  726,800  tons.  Acreage  for  harvest  in  1949  was 
1,786,440,  compared  with  1,802,342  ac.  in  1948  ;  compared 
with  the  previous  ten  years,  acreage  was  larger  for  the 
autumn  and  winter  harvest  seasons.  California  was  the 
leading  producer  with  355,260  ac.  devoted  to  such  truck 
crops,  followed  by  Texas  with  304,600  ac.  and  Florida  with 
222,250  ac. 

The  aggregate  production  in  1949  of  11  truck  crops  for 
commercial  processing,  including  crops  for  canning,  freezing, 
pickling  and  other  processing,  exclusive  of  dehydration, 
was  5,522,610  tons,  compared  with  5,471,500  tons  in  1948. 
California  produced  1,102,940  tons  of  the  total,  and  Wisconsin 


635,790  tons.  Tomatoes  (2,633,700  tons)  accounted  for  nearly 
one-half  of  the  total,  sweet  corn,  a  record  crop,  for  about 
one-fourth. 

Although  exports  of  vegetables,  either  in  fresh  or  processed 
form  were  a  comparatively  small  part  of  the  crop,  the 
rescinding  by  Canada  on  Oct.  1  of  import  restrictions  on 
fresh  vegetables  opened  the  door  for  increased  exports  of 
tomatoes,  lettuce,  carrots,  cabbage,  celery  and  spinach. 
(See  also  AGRICULTURE;  MARKET  GARDENING;  ROOT 
CROPS.)  (J.  K.  R.) 


VENEREAL  DISEASES.  Incidence  showed  a  steady 
decline  after  the  peak  year  of  1946  when  in  Great  Britain 
alone  17,675  cases  of  early  syphilis  and  47,343  cases  of 
gonorrhoea  were  treated  at  the  various  government  and 
municipal  clinics.  In  1948  early  cases  of  syphilis  numbered 
10,637  and  gonorrhoea  30,312.  Reports  for  1949  showed 
that  this  decline  was  maintained. 

Among  the  native  populations  of  South  Africa,  Kenya 
and  Southern  Rhodesia  the  incidence  remained  high.  In 
Southern  Rhodesia  alone  nearly  600,000  received  treatment 
and  subsequent  reports  indicate  that  the  numbers  did  not 
decrease:  the  diseases  were  widespread  in  both  urban  and 
rural  areas.  Efforts  were  made  to  bring  penicillin  into  general 
use  in  the  treatment  of  all  cases  of  early  syphilis;  but  the 
supply  position  prevented  the  institution  of  this  as  the 
standard  procedure.  It  should  also  be  noted  that  the  incidence 
among  service  personnel  in  the  Mediterranean,  East  Indies, 
Singapore  and  the  far  east  remained  high. 

In  France  and  Germany  the  incidence  lessened  but  only 
slightly.  This  was  probably  owing  to  the  fact  that  many 
continental  venereologists  did  not  use  penicillin  in  the  treat- 
ment of  syphilis  and  gonorrhoea  to  the  same  general  extent 
as  was  customary  in  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain. 
In  this  connection  it  was  interesting  to  note  that  no  worker 
in  this  field  in  either  of  the  two  latter  countries  reported  a 
definite  case  in  which  the  infecting  organisms  of  these  two 
diseases  were  penicillin-resistant. 

In  Sweden  with  a  population  of  just  under  seven  million 
there  were  1,026  cases  of  early  syphilis  and  10,597  of  gonor- 
rhoea in  1948,  a  fall  of  181  and  1,053  respectively  com- 
pared with  the  figures  for  the  previous  year.  There  was  every 
reason  to  believe  that  this  trend  was  continued  during  1949, 
an  observation  that  applied  to  all  other  European  countries 
for  which  statistics  were  available. 

The  incidence  of  non-gonococcal  urethritis  in  the  male, 
a  disease  that  is  commonly  venereal  in  origin,  showed  a 
definite  increase.  However,  this  could  partly  be  attributed  to 
the  fact  that  in  the  past  many  workers  considered  all  cases  of 
urethritis  to  be  gonococcal  in  origin  and  therefore  noted 
them  in  their  official  returns  as  gonorrhoea  although  the 
gonococcus  was  never  found  in  the  secretions.  It  was  owing 
to  the  increasing  use  of  penicillin,  which  was  found  to  cure 
all  cases  of  gonorrhoea  but  to  be  usually  ineffective  against 
non-gonococcal  urethritis,  that  differential  diagnosis  in  such 
cases  became  more  accurate.  Reports  showed  that  non- 
gonococcal  urethritis  in  its  abacterial  form  was  at  this  time 
the  most  common  venereal  disease,  but  one  upon  which  very 
little  research  had  been  carried  out.  The  Expert  Committee 
on  Venereal  Diseases  of  the  World  Health  organization 
sitting  at  Geneva  recommended  the  collection  of  data  on  this 
condition  and  three  memoranda  were  issued,  the  first  by 
A.  H.  Harkness  of  London,  the  second  by  the  surgeon  general 
of  the  U.S.  army,  and  the  third  by  W.  E.  Coutts  of  Chile. 
It  was  interesting  to  note  that  all  cases  mentioned  in  the 
second  memorandum  were  considered  to  be  bacterial  (non- 
gonococcal)  whereas  in  those  of  A.  H.  Harkness  and  W.  E. 
Coutts  no  organisms  could  be  demonstrated  in  the  secretions  of 


VENEZUELA 


661 


a  large  majority  of  their  cases.  In  all  probability  the  organisms 
cultivated  in  the  United  States  series  were  the  normal 
saprophytic  flora  since  cultural  examinations  of  the  urine  of 
200  controls  not  suffering  from  urethritis  revealed  similar 
types  of  bacteria.  Inadequate  cleansing  before  the  taking  of 
specimens  was  the  probable  explanation  of  this  disagreement 
on  the  aetiology  of  this  most  prevalent  of  venereal  diseases. 

Advances  in  the  treatment  of  the  venereal  diseases  generally 
were  associated  chiefly  with  the  recently  discovered  anti- 
biotic known  as  aureomycin  which  was  derived  from  a  strain 
of  Strcptomyces  aureofaciens  isolated  from  soil.  It  was 
shown  to  have  a  low  toxicity  when  administered  orally  in 
moderate  dosage  and  to  be  curative  in  gonorrhoea  (  H.  S. 
Collins  et  al.,  1948,  C.  H.  Chen  et  al.,  1949);  lymphogranuloma 
inguinale  (L.  T.  Wright  et  al.,  1948,  H.  S.  Collins  et  al., 
1948);  granuloma  venereum  (L.T.  Wright  et  al.,  1948,  R.  B. 
Greenblatt  et  al.,  1949);  chancroid  (C.  H.  Chen  et  al.,  1949); 
certain  types  of  non-gonococcal  urethritis  due  to  the  virus  of 
inclusion  conjunctivitis  (A.  H.  Harkness,  1949)  and  possibly 
pleuropneumonia-like  organisms  (H.  S.  Collins  et  al.,  1948, 
R.  R.  Willcox  and  G.  W.  M.  Fmdlay,  1949,  A.  H.  Harkness, 
1949).  Confirmation  was  also  obtained  for  the  effectiveness  of 
aureomycin  in  the  treatment  of  syphilis  both  in  its  early  and 
later  manifestations.  (P.  A.  O'Leary  et  al.,  1948  and  1949) 
but  extensive  trials  in  this  field  still  remained  to  be  carried 
out.  There  appeared  to  be  great  possibilities  in  the  extensive 
use  of  aureomycin  in  prophylaxis  since  it  had  been  shown  to  be 
effective  against  six  venereal  diseases. 

Another  antibiotic,  chloromycetm,  was  proved  by  R.  B. 
Greenblatt  and  his  collaborators  to  be  effective  against 
granuloma  venereum  and  there  were  indications  that  it  might 
also  prove  useful  in  cases  of  certain  types  of  non-gonococcal 
urethritis. 

After  the  British  wartime  defence  regulation  33B  (pro- 
viding for  the  compulsory  treatment  of  venereal  disease 
contacts  in  certain  cases)  became  void,  the  tracing  and  treat- 
ment of  the  spreaders  of  the  diseases  was  more  difficult. 
A  team  of  social  workers,  however,  carried  out  excellent 
work  and,  thanks  to  their  tact  and  persuasiveness,  many 
contacts  attended  the  clinics.  The  Central  Council  for  Health 
Education  also  continued  its  campaign  of  enlightenment 
which  did  much  to  bring  the  whole  subject  out  into  the 
open.  (A  H.  Hs.) 

United  States.  In  the  United  States,  the  outlook  regarding 
venereal  disease  control  was  generally  encouraging  in  1949. 
The  total  number  of  syphilis  cases  (all  stages)  reported  for 
the  year  ending  June  30,  1949,  for  civilians  in  the  U.S.  and 
its  territories,  was  approximately  14%  lower  than  for  the 
preceding  fiscal  year — 296,455,  as  compared  with  345,992. 

Moreover,  declining  morbidity  reports  for  the  early  stages 
of  syphilis  were  believed  to  indicate  that  the  incidence  of  the 
disease  might  be  decreasing  in  the  U.S.  Consistent  quarterly 
declines  for  almost  three  years  in  the  discovery  rate  of  primary 
and  secondary  syphilis,  and  later  declines  in  the  discovery 
rate  of  early  latent  syphilis,  suggested  such  a  reduction  in 
the  number  of  new  infections  occurring.  That  these  declines 
occurred  in  the  face  of  a  30%  increase  in  efforts  to  find  cases 
of  venereal  disease  strengthened  the  thesis  of  diminished 
incidence. 

Reported  cases  of  gonorrhoea  were  lower  in  1949  than  for 
any  year  since  1945.  For  the  U.S.  and  its  territories,  the  1949 
total  among  civilians  was  342,856. 

The  latest  data  recorded  on  mortality  from  syphilis  also 
showed  declines  from  figures  previously  reported.  General 
syphilis  mortality  dropped  to  an  estimated  rate  of  8  2  per 
100,000  population  in  1948,  while  for  the  same  year  the  rate 
of  infant  deaths  due  to  syphilis  was  estimated  at  •  1 3  per 
1,000  live  births.  The  admission  rate  to  mental  hospitals 
for  psychoses  due  to  syphilis  (excluding  Veterans  adminis- 


tration facilities)  was  4-2  per  100,000  population  in  1947  as 
compared  with  6-3  in  1938. 

The  emphasis  placed  on  the  discovery  of  V.D.  cases  by 
U.S.  health  departments  was  reflected  in  the  number  of 
diagnostic  observations  completed  in  public  clinics  during 
the  year;  the  total  number  was  2,276,000.  As  a  result  of 
these  examinations,  almost  half  a  million  persons  were  diag- 
nosed in  clinics  as  having  a  venereal  disease. 

Admissions  to  rapid  treatment  centres,  declining  1 1  % 
from  the  figure  reported  for  the  preceding  year,  numbered 
160,066  in  the  fiscal  year  1949.  Syphilis  patients  comprised 
79%  of  this  total,  while  gonorrhea  patients  and  patients 
with  other  venereal  diseases  comprised  3%  and  2%  respec- 
tively. The  remaining  admissions  were  observation  cases, 
persons  found  after  examination  not  to  have  a  venereal 
disease  and  patients  admitted  for  treatment  because  of 
exposure  to  early  infectious  syphilis. 

Procainc  penicillin  was  widely  used  in  the  United  States 
in  the  treatment  of  syphilis,  largely  replacing  penicillin  in  oil 
and  beeswax  Clinical  investigation  of  procaine  penicillin, 
with  aluminum  monostearate  added  to  delay  absorption, 
was  continued.  The  U.S.  Public  Health  service  reported 
that  results  of  treatment  with  this  preparation  appeared  to 
compare  favourably  with  those  obtained  with  penicillin  in 
aqueous  solution,  which  required  more  frequent  adminis- 
tration. These  results  were  considered  preliminary,  however, 
requiring  a  longer  period  of  post-treatment  observation 
before  definite  conclusions  were  justified. 

Evaluation  of  schedules  of  treatment  employing  penicillin 
in  aqueous  solution  and  in  oil  and  beeswax  continued  to 
show  that  where  frequency  of  administration  and  quantity 
of  penicillin  were  properly  balanced,  excellent  results  might 
be  expected.  Studies,  after  12  to  15  post-treatment  months, 
of  several  of  the  more  effective  schedules  using  these  older 
forms  of  penicillin  therapy  showed  that  fresh  treatment  was 
necessary  in  less  than  12%  of  the  observed  cases. 

(T.  J.  B.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  C.  H.  Chen  et  al ,  "  Aureomycin  Therapy  for  Chan- 
croid," /.  Med  A^  ,  vol  38,  205,  Georgia,  U  S.A.,  1949,  and  "  Oral 
Administration  of  Aureomycin  in  the  Treatment  of  Gonorrhoea/* 
Viol  Cut  Rev.,  vol.  53,  Florida,  U  S  A.,  July,  1949,  H.  S.  Collins 
et  al ,  "  Clinical  Studies  with  Aureomycin,"  Ann  N.  Y.  Acad.  Sci., 
vol  51,  New  York,  1948;  R  B  Greenblatt  et  al ,  "Oral  Aureomycin 
in  the  Therapy  of  Streptomycin— Resistant  Granuloma  Inguinale," 
South  Med  J  ,  vol.  41,  Birmingham,  Alabama,  Dec.  1948,  and  "  Chloro- 
mycetin  in  the  Therapy  of  Granuloma  Inguinale,"  J.  Med.  /4w.,  vol.  38, 
Georgia,  USA,  May  1949;  A.  H  Harkness,  Non-Gonococcal 
Vrethritis,  (Edinburgh,  1949),  L.  T.  Wright  et  a/..  "  The  Treatment  of 
Lymphogranuloma  Venereum  and  Granuloma  Inguinale  m  Humans 
with  Aureomycin,"  Ann  N.Y.Acad  Sci ,  vol.  51.  New  York,  1948. 

VENEZUELA.  A  republic  on  the  north  coast  of  South 
America,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Caribbean  sea,  on 
the  east  by  British  Guiana,  on  the  south  by  Brazil  and  on 
the  west  by  Colombia.  Area:  352,143  sq.  mi.  Pop.  (mid- 
1949  est.):  about  4,500,000.  No  official  attempt  has  been 
made  to  estimate  racial  distribution,  but  major  fraction  of 
the  population  are  mestizo,  Negro  and  mulatto.  Approxi- 
mately 10%  of  the  entire  population  live  in  the  capital, 
Caracas,  and  its  suburbs;  while  Maracaibo  (150,000), 
Valencia  (65,000),  Barquisimeto  (60,000),  Puerto  La  Cruz 
(45,000)  and  San  Cristobal  (40,000)  are  the  other  large  cities. 
Executive  power  was  exercised  throughout  1949  by  the 
military  junta  composed  of  Lt.  Col.  Carlos  Delgado  Chal- 
baud,  Lt.  Col.  Marcos  Perez  Jimenez  and  Lt.  Col.  Luis 
Llovera  Paez. 

History.  The  political  tension  of  late  1948  gradually 
relaxed  during  1949,  as  it  became  apparent  that  an  orderly 
liquidation  of  the  crisis  was  destined  to  occur.  Decrees 
provided  for  the  invalidation  of  the  confiscation  of  private 
property  in  the  years  1945-48  and  for  its  eventual  restoration. 


662 


VETERINARY   MEDICINE 


Diplomatic  relations  with  the  United  States,  Great  Britain, 
Spain  and  other  countries  were  resumed  early  in  1949. 
A  commission  was  set  up  late  in  1949  to  frame  an  electoral 
law  by  virtue  of  which  a  national  congress  would  be  chosen 
with  power  to  revise  the  constitution.  On  Nov.  24  an  amnesty 
of  political  prisoners  and  municipal  elections  to  be  held, 
at  an  early  date,  were  decreed. 

The  year  was  marked  by  a  determined  effort  to  restore 
order  in  public  finance  and  a  general  overhauling  of  fiscal 
administration  was  undertaken.  Venezuela  continued  to 
be  the  foremost  exporter  and  second  producer  of  petroleum 
products.  Early  in  1949,  temporary  market  conditions  led 
to  a  slight  falling  off  in  production,  but  in  the  second  half 
of  the  year  it  rose  again  and  reached  a  peak  of  1,400,000 
bbl.  per  day  in  the  last  months  of  the  year.  Refinery  output 
by  10  refineries  and  topping  plants  in  operation  in  1948 
totalled  43  •  5  million  bbl.  Several  new  refineries,  topping 
plants  and  pipelines  were  under  construction  in  1949. 

The  year  1949  witnessed  substantial  progress  in  the  initial 
stages  of  the  iron  mining  enterprises  of  the  Bethlehem  Steel 
company  and  the  U.S.  Steel  corporation  south  of  the  Orinoco 
river.  These  operations  foreshadowed  an  economic  develop- 
ment of  the  east  and  south  which  would  hasten  the  realization 
of  great  hydro-electric  projects  and  the  utilization  of  natural 
gas  for  industrial  purposes. 

Venezuelan  price  levels  rose  only  slightly  during  1949. 
The  currency  was  one  of  the  few  in  the  world  whose  statutory 
basis  had  not  been  changed  in  the  20th  century.  The  housing 
shortage  in  Caracas  was  slightly  less  pressing;  in  some 
provincial  cities  it  became  more  acute.  There  was  no  signifi- 
cant unemployment  reported  during  the  year. 

Government  activity  in  forestry,  irrigation,  agricultural 
education,  experiment  stations  and  pest  control  was  note- 
worthy in  1949.  The  problem  of  adequate  supplies  of  meat 
and  dairy  products  was  attacked  by  the  Ministry  of  Agricul- 
ture and  Corporacion  de  Fomento,  a  government  long-term 
financing  authority.  The  activities  of  the  Ministry  of  Develop- 
ment embraced  a  wide  variety  of  mining  and  petroleum 
interests,  as  well  as  industrial  promotion  in  many  lines. 
Some  hundred  miles  of  new  roads  were  constructed  and  old 
roads  were  repaired;  the  programme  of  school  and  hospital 
construction  was  advanced.  In  the  city  of  Caracas  the  con- 
struction of  a  central  arterial  boulevard,  the  Avemda  Bolivar, 
was  brought  close  to  completion  by  December.  (C.  McG.) 

Education.  Schools  (1947-48):  state  primary  4,951,  pupils  329,821, 
teachers  (1946)  9,786;  secondary  (state  and  private)  132,  pupilb  20,047, 
teachers  (1946)  2,218;  pre-university  training  institutions  12,  pupils 
1,158;  universities  3,  students  3,366  Illiteracy  (1941)  57'1/. 

Agriculture.  Mam  crops  ('000  metric  tons,  1948).  rice  22,  beans  50, 
maize  480,  potatoes  16,  cotton,  ginned,  2;  coffee  47,  cocoa  (1947) 
18;  sugar,  raw  value,  27,  bananas  400.  Agriculture  does  not  supply 
the  basic  foodstuff  needs  of  the  population.  Livestock  ('000  head, 
1937).  cattle  4,265;  sheep  108,  goats  1,365,  horses  194;  mules  43, 
asses  191;  pigs  356  Fisheries-  total  catch  (fresh  and  salt,  1947;  1948 
est.  in  brackets)  •  40,858  (50,000)  metric  tons  F  ood  production  f  000 
metric  tons,  1948)-  meat  73-4  (of  which  beef  68),  vegetable  oils  8. 

Industry.  Fuel  and  power  (1948,  1949,  six  months,  in  brackets): 
coal  fOOO  metric  tons)  20 -6;  natural  gas  ('000  cu  ft )  470,283  (218,019), 
electricity  (million  kwh.)  341  (191),  crude  oil  ('000  metric  tons)  70,1 15 
(32,016).  Raw  materials  (1948).  gold  (tine  ounces)  43,000;  diamonds 
(carats)  75,513,  cement  ('000  metric  tons)  245.  Timber  production 
(1948)  151,308  cu.  metres. 

Foreign  Trade.  (Million  bohvares,  1948)  Imports  2,296,  exports 
3,340.  Chief  exports-  crude  petroleum  and  products  (97"X0),  coffee 
(1  %),  cocoa  (1  %),  Chief  imporls  machinery  and  equipment  (32%), 
metals  and  manufactures  (18  %),  foodstuffs  and  beverages  (16%), 
textiles  (10%)  Chief  suppliers  US.  (73%),  U.K.  (8%).  Chief 
customers:  Netherlands  Antilles  (petroleum  for  refining)  and  U  S. 

Transport  and  Communications.  Roads,  all-weaiher  (1949)-  3,829  mi. 
Licensed  motor  vehicles  (Dec.  1948).  cars  39,200,  commercial  vehicles 
43,600  Railways  (1946)-  696  mi.;  passenger  traffic  (1947)  858,222. 
Shipping  (July  1948):  merchant  vessels  of  100  tons  and  upwards  70, 
gross  tonnage  96,635.  Air  transport  (1947)  km.  flown  11,168,000 
Telephones  (1948)  48,800 


Finance  and  Banking  (Million  bohvares)  Budget  (1948-49  actual) 
revenue  1,962-7,  expenditure  1,917  5;  (1949-50  est)  revenue  and 
expenditure  1,610  4  Domestic  national  debt  (Dec  31,  1948)  22-8; 
there  is  no  external  debt.  Currency  circulation  (Nov  1949,  in  brackets 
Nov.  1948)  703(674).  Gold  reserve  (Nov  1949)  US  $373  million. 
Monetary  unit,  bolivar  with  an  exchange  rate  (in  brackets  before 
Sept.  18,  1949)  of  9-4  (13-5)  bohvares  to  the  £;  a  bolivar  is  valued  at 
U  S.  $0-2985  (controlled  and  free  selling  rates),  but  basic  petroleum 
buying  rate  if  U  S.  $0-3236 

VETERANS'    ADMINISTRATION,    U.S.:     see 

WAR  PENSIONS. 

VETERINARY  MEDICINE.  The  year  1949  was  a 
notable  one  in  that  the  14th  International  Veterinary  congress 
was  held  in  London  and  was  attended  by  over  1,000  dele- 
gates from  many  parts  of  the  world. 

Research  upon  bovine  mastitis  continued  actively.  A  study 
was  made  of  the  comparative  ability  of  two  specially  formu- 
lated water-m-oil  emulsion  vehicles  to  maintain  a  satisfactory 
level  of  penicillin  in  the  bovine  mammary  gland  and  to 
compare  them  with  that  of  an  aqueous  vehicle.  A  single 
injection  of  100,000  units  of  penicillin  showed  that  levels  of 
the  drug  were  maintained  for  significantly  longer  periods 
with  either  vehicle  than  with  water,  and  in  one  case  an 
effective  concentration  was  attained  for  up  to  72  hr.  The 
results  were  published  of  a  long-term  study,  ranging  from 
one  to  seven  years,  upon  the  relationship  of  age  to  streptococ- 
cal  infection  of  the  milk  of  each  cow  in  12  Holstem-tncsian 
herds.  The  incidence  of  streptococcal  infection  of  the  mam- 
mary gland  varied  from  60-80%  in  the  majority  of  herds. 
A  regular  increase  in  the  incidence  of  infection  occurred  with 
advancing  age,  particularly  during  the  first  four  years  of 
lactation,  but  at  different  rates  in  the  various  herds.  The 
rate  of  increase  of  infected  animals  was  correlated  with 
herd  management  practices,  and  also  with  the  size  of  herd, 
the  incidence  being  high  in  large  herds  despite  good  manage- 
ment. Trials  were  made  of  the  antibiotic  substance,  nisin, 
prepared  horn  Streptococcus  lactis.  Single  intramammary 
infusion  was  used  to  treat  72  bovine  udders  infected  with 
Streptococcus  agalactice.  With  5,000,000  units  per  quarter,  35 
out  of  37  cases  were  cured,  while  with  2,500,000  units  per 
quarter,  30  out  of  35  cases  were  cured.  Nine  out  of  ten 
quarters  infected  with  staphylococci  were  sterilized  with 
single  mammary  infusions  of  5,000,000  units. 

Salmonellosis  was  shown  to  be  a  serious  disease  of  adult 
cattle  in  certain  parts  of  Great  Britain,  the  associated  organ- 
ism being  usually  Salmonella  ententidis  var.  dubhn  which 
was  incriminated  in  43  out  of  46  outbreaks. 

The  Stormont  test  for  the  detection  of  bovine  tuberculosis 
was  earned  out  upon  a  further  300  animals  which  were 
subjected  to  a  detailed  post-mortem  examination.  It  was 
shown  to  be  an  efficient  and  reliable  test  and  was  believed 
to  be  superior  to  both  the  single  intradermal  and  the  single 
intradermal  comparative  test  for  animals  of  unknown  origin 
and  history. 

An  antigenic  substance  prepared  from  killed  Brucella 
abortus  and  dead  vaccines  consisting  of  whole  organisms 
suspended  in  an  oily  base,  failed  to  equal  the  efficiency  of 
the  living  avirulent  strain  19  in  immunizing  cattle  against 
brucellosis. 

The  mucus  agglutination  test  for  the  diagnosis  of  bovine 
tnchomoniasis  was  shown  to  be  capable  of  detecting  a  con- 
siderably higher  percentage  of  positives  among  the  infected 
members  of  a  herd  than  the  blood  agglutination  test. 

Foul-of-thc-foot  was  shown  to  occur  in  very  young  calves. 
A  small  controlled  experiment  indicated  that  the  recovery 
rate  in  animals  treated  with  sulphonamides  did  not  differ 
significantly  from  that  in  control  cattle  treated  intravenously 
with  500  ml.  of  a  40%  solution  of  glucose. 

The  rapid  growth  of  artificial  insemination  in  Gicat  Britain 


VIENNA— VITAL   STATISTICS 


663 


was  shown  by  the  fact  that  no  less  than  1 1  %  of  the  dairy 
cattle  of  the  country  were  inseminated  at  the  Milk  Marketing 
board  centres. 

An  inherited  form  of  cortical  cerebellar  atrophy  in  Iambs 
("  daft  lambs  ")  in  Great  Britain  was  studied.  Outbreaks 
of  polyarthritis  in  lambs  (associated  with  Erysipelothrix 
rhusiopathiae  infection)  were  found  to  be  a  common  sequel 
to  serum  inoculation  or  to  dipping.  An  authenticated  out- 
break of  pneumonia  in  sheep  associated  with  a  pasteurella- 
like  organism  was  described,  and  cases  were  successfully 
treated  with  either  sulphapyridmc  or  sulphathiazolc. 

A  detailed  study  was  made  of  a  progressive  retinal  atrophy 
in  Irish  setters  (Red).  The  condition  was  found  to  be  asso- 
ciated with  an  atrophy  of  the  receptor  cells  of  the  retina, 
with  which  was  associated  a  reduction  of  the  retinal  blood 
vessels.  The  syndrome  was  established  as  hereditary,  and 
was  believed  to  be  inherited  as  a  simple  Mendelian  autosomal 
recessive  factor.  Much  research  was  devoted  to  **  hard  pad  " 
disease  and,  with  the  apparent  concomitant  reduction  in 
cases  of  typical  forms  of  canine  distemper,  a  growing  body  of 
veterinary  opinion  subscribed  to  the  view  that  the  "  hard 
pad  "  virus  was  a  variant  of  distemper  virus.  A  specific 
serum  prepared  against  **  hard  pad "  virus  was  widely 
employed  with  marked  therapeutic  success  when  adminis- 
tered sufficiently  early.  The  value  of  protein  hydrolysates 
for  canine  patients  was  established.  Three  spontaneous 
cases  of  the  syndrome  earlier  termed  Hepatitis  (.ontagiow 
cani?  were  recorded  in  dogs  in  England. 

A  disease  of  new-born  foals  due  to  sensitization  of  the 
dam  by  an  antigen  from  the  red  blood  cells  of  the  foetus,  a 
so-called  iso-immuni/ation  of  pregnancy,  was  described,  and 
the  diagnosis  was  established  by  appropriate  serological 
tests.  The  disease  in  the  new-born  foal  was  shown  to  be  a 
haemolytic  anaemia  due  to  an  mtiavascular  haemolysis,  and 
could  be  treated  with  appropriate  blood  transfusion.  Experi- 
ments  were  reported  upon  the  treatment  of  horses  with 
daily  one-gramme  doses  of  phenothiazine  for  periods  of  a 
year  without  toxic  symptoms  and  with  a  marked  reduction 
in  fdxal  egg  counts  and  in  the  kuval  counts  of  the  paddock 
in  which  the  animals  were  grazed. 

Newcastle  disease  continued  to  threaten  the  British  poultry 
industry  and  was  found  to  be  associated  with  the  importation 
of  frozen  carcases,  from  the  viscera  of  which  the  virus  was 
recovered.  Legislative  piocedures  to  help  to  deal  with  the 
spread  of  the  disease  were  introduced 

Benzene  hcxachlonde  and  chlordane — the  latter  a  by- 
product from  the  synthetic  rubber  industry— were  found  to 
be  efficient  agents  for  the  control  of  the  tick  Boophilu? 
(Margatopus)  annulatus  var.  nucroplui  in  Jamaica,  while 
DDT  also  was  superior  to  the  arsenical  preparations  hitherto 
employed. 

In  Great  Britain  progress  was  made  towards  the  estab- 
lishment of  university  schools  of  veterinary  medicine,  and 
the  laboratories  of  the  Poultry  Research  station  of  the 
Animal  Health  trust  were  opened  at  Houghton  Grange, 
Huntingdonshire.  (W.  R.  W  ) 

VIENNA,  capital  of  Austria  and  by  far  the  largest  city 
of  central  and  south  eastern  Europe.  Area:  107sq.  mi. 
Pop.:  (1934  census)  1,874,581;  (June  1945  est.)  1,250,000, 
(June  1948  est.)  1,730,613.  Vienna  is  under  quadripartite 
Allied  occupation;  besides  the  four  sectors  there  is  the 
international  district  in  the  centre  of  the  city  governed  each 
month  by  a  different  power.  Burgomaster,  Theodor  Korner 
(Socialist). 

Against  a  backcloth,  still,  of  war  destruction  the  stage  was 
set  in  1949  for  the  revival  of  Vienna  as  the  great  capital  city 
of  central  Europe.  The  tranquility  and  order  were  the  more 
conspicuous  in  contrast  with  the  tension  and  misery  of  Berlin, 


and  the  declension  of  its  rival,  Prague,  into  a  drab  outpost 
of  the  U.S.S.R.  While  there  were  still  marks  of  poverty  and 
suffering,  the  Viennese  population  as  a  whole  appeared  well- 
dressed  and  the  chief  shops  stocked  with  finely  wrought 
Austrian  as  well  as  imported  goods.  The  first  instalment  of 
$230  million  under  the  European  Recovery  programme  had 
worked  wonders.  And  the  Four-Power  administration 
maintained  its  record  of  harmony. 

The  city  council  was  largely  preoccupied  with  housing  and 
reconstruction  pioblems.  By  April  the  building  of  2,000 
municipal  flats  under  the  1948  piogramme  was  completed 
and  a  start  was  made  on  a  further  programme  of  building 
and  war  damage  repair.  In  spite  of  steady  progress  the 
housing  situation  was  still  critical  and  at  the  end  of  the  summer 
as  many  as  50,000  families  were  seeking  accommodation. 
Repairs  to  St  Stephen's  cathedral,  so  that  it  could  at  least 
be  used  for  mass,  made  good  progress,  though  the  task  of 
restoration  would  take  years  Early  in  the  year  the  muni- 
cipality had  to  admit  that  there  were  no  funds  available  for 
rebuilding  the  Burgthcater  or  the  State  Opera  house;  but  on 
March  9  a  request  was  put  up  to  the  E  R  P  authorities  for  a 
sum  of  Sch  20  million  to  enable  the  work  to  go  on.  Meanwhile 
music  was  reconquering  its  domain,  and  the  theatre  was 
flourishing,  on  whatever  small  stage  could  be  improvised. 

The  old  epithet  of  lk  led  "  Vienna  was  no  longer  applicable. 
Already  weakened  in  the  1945  elections  the  Socialists  suffered 
a  further  blow  in  the  October  municipal  elections  with  the 
emergence  of  the  Nationalist  League  of  Independence.  The 
Socialists  retained  only  a  bare  majority  in  the  city  council, 
with  52  seats  out  of  a  hundred.  Only  in  the  Soviet-held 
factories  was  there  a  "  revolutionary "  nucleus,  with  a 
tightly-organized  workers1  militia  against  the  day  when  the 
Soviet  forces  would  depart.  (W.  H.  CTR.) 

VIRGIN  ISLANDS,  BRITISH:  see  LELWARD  ISLANDS. 

VIRGIN  ISLANDS,  U.S.:  see  UNITED  STATES 
TERRITORIES  AND  POSSESSIONS. 

VITAL  STATISTICS.  Two  important  documents, 
published  in  1949,  produced  a  wealth  of  statistical  material 
on  world  population  trends  in  recent  years.  Not  only  did 
they  provide  much  data  for  the  postwar  period  which  had 
previously  been  unobtainable,  but  they  also  made  significant 
additions  to  the  existing  material  relating  to  earlier  years. 
The  first  of  these- — The  United  Nations  Demographic  Year- 
book  1948 — included  data  received  in  answer  to  question- 
naires from  166  sovereign  countries,  dependencies,  non-self- 
governing  territories,  trust  territories,  condominia  and  inter- 
national administrations  covering  a  wide  range  of  statistics. 
The  second  document — the  Report  of  the  United  Kingdom 
Royal  Commission  on  Population  (H.M.S  O  ,  London,  1949) 
---combined  an  invaluable  collection  of  all  the  relevant  data 
with  further  analysis  and  recommendations  for  a  population 
policy. 

Births.  There  was  a  remarkable  degree  of  uniformity  in 
the  movement  of  crude  birth  rates  in  western  Europe  after 
World  War  II.  In  all  countries,  the  end  of  the  war  brought  a 
sharp  increase  in  the  number  of  births  registered  and  by  1947, 
the  peak  year  in  most  cases,  the  percentage  increases  over 
average  prewar  rates  varied  between  1 7  and  37.  The  smallest 
increases  occurred  in  the  non-belligerent  countries  and  the 
greatest  increase  in  France.  Figures  for  the  full  year  1948 
showed  a  falling  birth  rate  in  all  countries  except  Spain, 
Portugal  and  the  British  and  French  zones  of  Germany; 
preliminary  figures  covering  the  first  six  or  nine  months  of 
1949  showed  a  continuation  of  this  decline  for  all  countries 
other  than  France,  Germany,  Ireland  and  Switzerland  which 
showed  increases  on  the  1948  figures.  During  1948,  the  highest 
birth  rates  in  western  Europe  occurred  in  Poitugal,  the 


664 


VITAL   STATISTICS 


TABLE 

I.  —  BIRTH 

RATES  * 

(Number  of  Live 

Births  per  1,000  inhabitants) 

1911-13 

1931-35 

1947 

1948 

1949  (1) 

Austria 

.  24-9 

14-4 

18-6 

17-7 

16-1 

Belgium 

.  22-7 

16-8 

17-8 

17-3 

17-2 

Czechoslovakia 

.  29-6 

19-6 

24-2 

23-4 

22-0(2) 

Denmark    . 

.  26-3 

17-7 

22-1 

20-3 

20-0(2) 

France 

.   18-1 

16-5 

21-0 

20-8 

21-6(2) 

Germany:   . 

.  27-0 

16-6 

— 

British  zone 

— 

— 

15-7 

15-9 

16-6(2) 

French  zone 

— 

— 

15-4 

16-3 

18-5  (2) 

Ireland 

.  22-6 

19-4 

23-1 

21-9 

22-0 

Italy  . 

.  31-7 

23-8 

21-9 

21-6 

21-5(2) 

Netherlands 

.28-1 

21-2 

27-8 

25-3 

24-3 

Norway 

.  25-4 

15-2 

21-6 

20-6 

20-4 

Portugal 

.35-1 

29-0 

24-1 

26-3 

24-9 

Spain 

31-2 

27-0 

21-3 

23-0 

21-9 

Sweden 

.  23-6 

14   1 

18-9 

18-4 

18-2 

Switzerland 

.  23-8 

16-4 

19-3 

19  0 

19-1 

United  Kingdom 

24-3 

15-5 

20-8 

18-1 

17-8 

Argentina    . 

.  37-4 

26-4 

24-3(3) 

— 

. 

Canada 

.  27-4(4) 

21-4 

28-6 

26-9 

25-7 

Mexico 

.  31-9(4) 

43-3 

43-7 

43-1 

45-3(2) 

United  States 

.25-1 

16-9 

25-7 

24-4 

23-9 

India  (5)      . 

.  38-6 

34-4 

26-6 

25  '4 

23-5(2) 

Japan 

.  34-9 

31-6 

34-8 

34  0 

34-3 

South  Africa  (6) 

.   31-9 

24-1 

27-0 

27-0 

26  8 

Australia     . 

.  28-0 

16-9 

24-1 

23-1 

22-8(2) 

New  Zealand 

.  — 

18-0 

26-4 

25-5 

25-0 

*  For  notes  on  table  see  end  of  article. 


inhabitants  fell  steadily  during  1946-49  in  all  the  principal 
countries  of  Europe,  in  the  dominions  and  in  the  United 
States.  During  the  war  people  tended  to  marry  younger; 
in  a  sense  these  marriages  were  "  borrowed  "  from  the  future 
and  the  sharp  fall  in  current  marriage  rates  reflected  this  fact. 
But  figures  for  the  full  year  1948  were  appreciably  above 
1932-36  averages  and  the  incomplete  figures  for  1949  showed 
a  rate  lower  than  in  1948  but  in  most  cases  still  above  the 
prewar  level. 

Deaths.  Death  rates  during  1948  established  record  low 
levels  in  all  the  main  countries  of  the  world,  although  the 
figures  for  Australia  and  New  Zealand  were  slightly  above  the 
low  prewar  level.  Incomplete  figure  for  1949  showed  a  general 
rise  in  the  number  of  deaths  except  in  the  United  States, 
Canada,  Australia  and  India.  The  lowest  death  rates  in 
1948  were  recorded  in  the  Netherlands,  Denmark,  Norway, 
South  Africa  and  New  Zealand;  and  the  highest  rates  in 
India,  Mexico,  Portugal,  Belgium  and  France. 

The  death  rate  for  the  United  States  in  1948  was  the  lowest 
in  census  history.  At  9-9  per  1,000  population,  it  was 
2%  below  the  1947  rate  of  10-1,  and  1%  below  the  1946 
rate.  The  leading  causes  of  death  remained  the  same  as  in 
1947;  the  major  diseases  associated  with  advanced  age 
accounted  for  63  of  every  100  deaths.  Figures  for  the  first 


Netherlands,  Czechoslovakia  and  Spain:    the  lowest  figures 

icii  iiiuiims  ui  iy**y  snow  a  lunner  arop  on  tne  comparaoie 
figure  for  1948. 

were  recorded  in  Germany,  Belgium,  Austria,  the  United 
Kingdom  and  Sweden. 

TABLE  III.  —  DEATH  RATLS  * 

In  Australia,  New  Zealand,  Canada  and  South  Africa, 
postwar  birth  rates  followed  the  same  general  trend,  reaching 

(Number  of  Death?  per  1,000  Inhabitants) 
1911-13         1931-35       1947               1948         1949(1) 
Austria                 .   18-8              13-5         13  0              12-1         12-7 

a  peak  in  1947  and  falling  off  in  the  following  years.    Birth 

Belgium       .         .    15-3              12  9         13-3              12-4        13  0 

rates  in  India  had  fallen  steadily  since  191  1-13,  while  in  Japan 
a  rate  of  about  34  per  1,000  had  been  maintained,  with  few 

Czechoslovakia       204              13-8         12-1               11*5        12-7(2) 
Denmark     .          .   13-0              109          9-7                8-6          9-7(2) 
frrance         .         .   19-0              15-7         13-0              12-2        15-6(2) 

exceptions,  since  this  date. 

Germany:.         .14-8              11  2          —                 —            

In  the  United  States  the  number  of  births  during  the  year 

British  zone      .     —                  —          11-3                9-5         10-3(2) 

ended  July  1,  1949,  totalled  3,723,000—  an  increase  of  33,000 

French  zone     .     —                  --          12-8              11-7        12-6(2) 

on  the  figure  for  the  previous  12  months,  but  below  the 

Ireland                   .   16-4               14  0         14-9               12-2         13  0 
Italy                        .193               14-1          11-4               105         11-5(2) 

record  1946-47  figure  of  3,986,000. 

Netherlands          .13-1                 8-9          8-1                 74         12-5 

The  almost  universal  increase  in  the  number  of  births  in 

Norway       .          .    13-3               10-4          9-3                 8-8          9-0 

the  previous  years  subsided  and  should  be  regarded,  in  the 

Portugal      .          .  20-7               16-9         13-3               12-8         13-9 

main,  as  a  postwar  phenomenon.    To  a  large  extent  these 

Spam           .          .22-2               16-3         12-0               10-9         11-3 
Sweden        .          .13-9               116         10-8                9-8         10-0 

additional   births  were  either  "  delayed  "   by   the  war  or 

Switzerland              14  8              11-8         11-3               10  8         10  9 

were  **  borrowed  from  the  future  "  on  account  of  earlier 

United 

marriages  during  wartime.      Nevertheless,  rates  were  still 

Kmgdom(7)     .142               122         12-1               109         11-8 

substantially  above  average  figures  for  the  inter-war  years. 

Argentina    .              16-8               I2-I           9-4(3)           —             — 
Canada        .          .11-2(4)          9-7          9-4                9-3           90 

Marriage  Rates.      The  number  of  marriages  per   1,000 

Mexico        .          .  25-5(4)         24-9         16-3               16-3         17-9 

United  States        .   14-1               10-9        10-1                9-9          9-7 

TABLE  II.  —  MARRIAGE  RATFS  * 

India  (5)      .         .  29-9              23-5         19-7              17-1         14-6(2) 

(Number  of  Marriages  per  \  ,000  Inhabitants} 

Japan           .         .  20-7              17  9        14-8              12-0         11    8 

1932-36         1941-45       1947               1948         1949(1) 

South  Africa  (6)    .10-3                9-8           8-6                89          9-1 

Austria        .          .67                8-8         10-9               10-0          9-5 

Australia                .    10  9                 9-0           9-7                 9-9           9-2 

Belgium       .               7-7                 7-1           99                 92           8-8 

New  Zealand        .     —                  8-6          9-4                9-1           9-2 

Czechoslovakia          8-1                 80         11-1               106          9-2(2) 

*  For  notes  on  table  see  end  of  article. 

Denmark     .              8-9                9-1           9-6                9-4          8-0 

Infant  Mortality.  Much  light  was  thrown  on  the  movement 

France         .              7-1                6-6        10-3               89          7*5(2) 
Germany  :  .               95                -  -            —                  __            

of  infant  mortality  rates  in  the  postwar  world.    The  Demo- 

British zone           —                  —          10-0              10-7          9-4(2) 

graphic    Year  Book  brought  up  to   1947  series  of  figures 

French  zone              -                  6-1           96                96          95 

which  had  in  many  cases  ceased  with  the  outbreak  of  war, 

Ireland                       47                5-7          55                5-4          5-7 
Italy  .                        7-0                58          9-4                8  3          7-5  (2) 
Netherlands               7-2                7-5         10-2                9-0          8-4 

and  in  others  had  been  continued  spasmodically  during  the 
war  years.   Figures  for  1947  showed  a  marked  improvement 

Norway                      6-8                80          91                92          8-1 

on  prewar  rates  and  set  up  a  record  low  level  in  all  countries 

Portugal      .               6-6                74          81                 7-7          6-2 

except  Rumania.    New  Zealand  maintained  the  lead  as  the 

Spain            .               6-1                 70          82                7-7          6-2 
Sweden        .               7-6                9-7          8-6                8-2          7-5 
Switzerland  .            7-6               8-3          8-7               8-5          7-9 

country  with  the  lowest  rate,  but  was  closely  followed  by 
Sweden,  Australia,  the  United  States  and  the  Netherlands. 

United  Kingdom       8-1                8-3          9-2                8-9          8-0 

The  highest  rates  for  infant  mortality  still  occurred  in  the 

Argentina    .              6-6               7-7          7-6(3)          —            — 

countries  of  eastern  Europe  and  in  India  and  Egypt.    But 

Canada       .              6-7                9-7        10-1                9-6          8-9 
United  States            9-6               11-9        138              12-3         11-0 
South  Africa  (6)        9-8              10-4          —                  —            — 

Hungary  and  Czechoslovakia  made  the  greatest  improvement 
by  reducing  their  rates  by  46  and  42  per  thousand  respectively 

Australia     .               7-7              10-0        10-1                9-7          9-9(2) 

from  prewar  years.    Portugal,  Spain  and  Japan  also  made 

New  Zealand             7-8                8-5         10-9                9-9          9-8 

marked   progress  in  reducing  their  previously  very  high 

•  For  notes  on  table  see  end  of  article. 

figures.    Of  those  countries  with  relatively  low  rates  before 

VITAL  STATISTICS 


665 


THE    POPULATION    OF    GREAT    BRITAIN 


BIRTHS   AND    DEATHS 


Thousond 
t.OOO 


1870-2  '      19302 

Yeorfy  Intervols*    1932 


-Yeorly  Intcrvols- 


M949 


I5O 


125 


100 


EFFECTIVE   REPRODUCTION 
_RATE_ 


075 


(ENGLAND  AND  WALES 
ONLY) 


100 


075 


1841 


Ten  Yeorly  Intervols 


1911    16    20      25      30     35      40     4548 
_v      ^ Yeorly  InfervolS > 


AGE    PYRAMIDS 
1891 


MALES 


ft-«6ondov«r—  • 
m-  -60-64  «•«• 
•-*  75-70-  •  •• 

70-7*"   '    • 

65-69 

60-64    - 

55-59- 

50-54 

45-40 

40-44- 
•35-39 

50-54- 

25-29- 

20-24  - 
15-19 

5-9 
O-4 


FEMALES 


20      t8       16       14 
Hundred  Thousond 


12       10       8 


O     AGE      o 

1947 


8        10      12 


14      16      18      20 

Hundred  Thousond 


MALES 


80-84 
75-  T9 
70-74 
65-69 


FEMALES 


l~       60-64  I 

»         55-69  I 

I  -      50-54  I 

I         45-49—  I 

I    •     40*44  -     I 

I  ~     33-39  I 

I         30-S4  -I 

I      -  25-29-  ^ 

t  ---  eo-24  4 

I-  ---  15-19  < 

I    -  -10-14  ^ 

»         -5-9  I 

I         -0-4-  -    I 


l8    l6 


l2   I0 


O     AOE      o       2 


8        10 


12        ,4       16       .8       20*221,, 


SIZE    OF   FAMILY 

AVERAGE    NO.  OF   LIVE   BIRTHS 
PER   MARRIED   COUPLE 
i-71- 


-7O     -'_  _ 
PERIOD     OF 


RIAGE 


ESTIMATES    OF 
FUTURE   POPULATION 


1851      191 1     1939    1947 


2047 


AGE    DISTRIBUTION 


PROJECTED 
TO 

2047 


The  above  charts  are  based  on  data  contained  in  the  report  of  the  Royal  Commission  on  Population  published  in  June  1949.    The  commission 

was  set  up  in  March  1944  under  the  chairmanship  of  Viscount  Simon.    He  resigned  in  May  1946  and  was  succeeded  by  Sir  Hubert  Douglas 

Henderson.    The  Royal  Commission  consisted  of  16  members ;  of  whom  six  were  women;  Lady  Dollan  resigned  in  June  1946. 


666 


VITAL   STATISTICS 


TABLE  IV  -  -INFANT  MORTALITY  * 
(Number  of  Death*  of  Infants  under  One   Year  of  Age  per  1,000  Live 
Births) 
Latest                                                     Latest 
Country          1931-35        Year           Country          1931-35        Year 
New  Zealand            39         25  ('47)     Spain       .                113         76  ('47) 
Sweden    .                 50         25  ('47)     Austria              .       99         78  f47) 
Australia                  41         28  ('47)     Argentina                 94         79  C46) 

lesser  extent  than  during  the  previous  year.    This  was  the 
third  year  in  succession  in  which  the  effective  reproduction 
rate  was  greater  than  unity.    There  was  a  striking  similarity 
between  the  figures  during  and  after  the  two  World  Wars. 

TABU    VI      EFFFCIIVE    REPRODUCTION    RAFLS    1841-1947    ENC.LAND 
AND  WALLS 

United  States    . 

59 

32  ('47) 

Italy 

105 

82  (*47) 

i»4i 

-IV48 

Netherlands 

45 

34  ('47) 

Japan 

,      120 

87  ('43) 

Year 

TR  R 

Year 

ER.R. 

Year 

E.RR. 

South  Africa  (6) 

63 

35  ('47) 

Czechoslovakia 

130 

88  ('47) 

Long 

Range 

Norway 

45 

36  ('45) 

Mexico    . 

134 

97  ('47) 

1841 

1    371 

1881 

1    576 

1922 

1   013 

Switzerland 

48 

39  C47) 

Portugal 

146 

108  ('47) 

1851 

1   401 

1891 

1   413 

1933 

•747 

Denmark 

71 

40  ('47) 

Hungary 

157 

111    ('47) 

1861 

1   446 

1901 

1    263 

1939 

808 

United  Kingdom 

65 

43   ('47) 

Bulgaria 

147 

129  ('47) 

1871 

1    562 

1911 

1    130 

1948 

1  -070 

Canada 

75 

45   ('47) 

Yugoslavia 

153 

132  ('38) 

Short 

Range 

Finland 

72 

59  C47) 

Poland 

137 

140  ('38) 

1916 

1   004 

1927 

853 

1938 

810 

France 

73 

66  ('47) 

India  (5) 

170 

151   ('45) 

1917 

•851 

1928 

859 

1939 

•808 

Ireland 

68 

67   ('47) 

Fgypt 

165 

153   ('45) 

1918 

826 

1929 

835 

1940 

•772 

Belgium  . 

82 

69  ('47) 

Rumania 

.      182 

199  ('47) 

1919 

944 

1930 

840 

1941 

761 

1920 

1    265 

1931 

816 

1942 

853 

*  For  notes  on  tt 

ihlc  sec  end  of  article 

1921 

1    110 

1932 

•790 

1943 

•900 

the  war,  Denmark.  Canada  and  the  United 

States 

consider- 

1922 

1   013 

1933 

747 

1944 

996 

ably  reduced 

infant 

mortality 

numbers. 

1923 
1924 

994 
954 

1934 
1935 

766 

764 

1945 
1946 

909 
1    103 

Net  Reproduction 

Rates.    In  spite  of  falling  death  rates, 

1925 

928 

1916 

774 

1947 

1   205 

the  rate  of  gi 

rowth 

of  the  pc 

>pulations  of 

western  Europe 

192o 

908 

1937 

785 

1948 

1  -070 

slackened  considerably  throughout  the  20th  century.  The 
Netherlands  was  the  only  country  in  northwest  Europe  in 
which  rapid  growth  continued.  Similarly,  in  the  United 
States,  Australia,  New  Zealand  and  Canada  the  rate  of 
population  growth  declined.  In  southern  and  eastern  Furopc 
a  recent  decline  in  fertility  had  been  offset  by  falling  death 
rates,  with  the  result  that  the  populations  continued  to  expand 
at  their  former  rapid  rate.  In  India  and  Pakistan  population 
growth  was  intensified  by  a  decline  in  death  rates  unaccom- 
panied so  far  by  any  proportionate  decline  in  fertility.  The 
population  of  China  remained  approximately  stable  on 
account  of  death  rates  being  roughly  as  high  as  birth  rates. 

Some  guide  to  future  population  movements  was  offered 
by  the  trend  of  reproduction  rates  in  various  countries. 
These  measured,  on  the  basis  of  current  fertility  and  mortality, 
the  degree  to  which  a  nation  was  reproducing  itself  or,  more 
accurately,  the  degree  to  which  one  generation  of  mothers 
of  child-bearing  age  was  reproducing  itself.  Table  V  gives 
the  net  rates  of  reproduction  in  20  countries  before  World 
War  II  together  with  the  most  recent  postwar  figure  where 
available. 

In  all  countries  recent  figures  were  above  unity,  reflecting 
the  enormous  rise  in  birth  rates  since  1945.  These  compared 
with  prewar  figures  which  were,  in  the  case  of  most  western 
European  countries,  well  below  reproduction  level.  But  too 
much  significance  should  not  be  attached  to  this  seeming 
sharp  reversal  of  the  downward  trend,  since  to  a  large  extent 
the  higher  rate  was  due  to  the  impact  of  World  War  H. 

TABLL  V. — NET  REPRODUCTION  RATES  * 


Country 
Belgium 

Czechoslovakia 

Year        Rate 
1939        0  86 
1947         1   00 
1937         0  76 

Country 
Portugal 
Spain 

Year 
.     1946 
1932 
1943 

Rate 
1-12 
1   28 
1-10 

Denmark     . 

1931-35     0  93 

Sweden 

1931-35 

0-77 

1947         1-27 

1945 

1    15 

England  &  Wales. 

1931-35     0«78 
1947         1-21 

Switzerland 

.      1936 
1946 

0-79 
1  -16 

France 

1931-35     0  90 

Australia 

.    1931-35 

0  97 

1944         0  94 

1945 

1-24 

Germany 
Ireland 

1931         ( 
1935-37 

)-75 

•22 

New  Zealand 

1936 
1946 

0  97 
1-47 

Italy  . 
Netherlands 

1935-37 
1935 

•13 
•14 

Canada 

1931-35 
1945 

1-24 
1    33 

1946         1 

76 

United  States 

.    1930-34 

0  98 

Norway 

1932-36     ( 
1945 

)-77 
•07 

USSR.      . 

1946 
1937 

1    36 
1-70 

Poland 

1934 

•11 

*  For  notes  on  table  see  end  of  article. 

Recent  figures  for  England  and  Wales  showed  that,  in 
1948,  the  population  was  still  reproducing  itself  but  to  a 


Age  Composition  of  the  Population.  The  decreasing  birth 
rate  evident  until  the  last  few  years  in  most  of  the  countries 
of  western  Furope  led  to  a  persistent  increase  in  the  average 
age  in  these  countries  This  movement  was  stu kingly  evident 
in  the  United  kingdom  In  1871  36%  of  the  population  was 
under  14  years  of  age.  By  1947  this  age  group  represented 
onjy  22  °0  of  the  total.  At  the  other  end  of  the  scale,  only 
11°0  of  the  population  in  1871  was  over  55  years  of  age; 
the  corresponding  figure  for  1947  was  21%. 

TABI  E  VII.     AGF  COMPOSITION  or   IHL  POHULAIION  OP    IHP    UNITED 

KlNt.DOM 


1871 

1931 

1947 

Age  Group 

thousands     %        thousands     %        thousands     % 

0-4 

3,691 

13    5 

3,531 

7-7 

4,114 

8   3 

5-14 

6,218 

22  7 

7,643 

16-6 

6,570 

H-3 

15-24 

5,071 

18   5 

8,011 

17  4 

7,120 

14  4 

25-34 

4,004 

14  6 

7,335 

15-9 

7,507 

15-2 

35-44 

3,078 

11-2 

6,223 

13   5 

7,676 

15-5 

45-54 

2,396 

8-7 

5,614 

12  2 

6,352 

12-7 

55-64 

1,640 

6  0 

4,262 

9   3 

5,054 

10-2 

65  &  over 

1,334 

4   8 

3,417 

7  4 

5,150 

10-4 

Total 


27,431      100  0        46,038     100-0        49,539     100-0 


TABLE  VIII — Ac.t   DISIRIBUIION  IN  THF   UNITED  KINGDOM,   UNITED 


SIAIES  AND  TRANCE  IN   1947 
United  Kingdom      United  States 


France 


Age  Group 

thousands 

% 

thousands 

/  0 

thousands 

% 

0-19 

.       13,672 

28 

49,861 

34 

12,050 

30 

20-39 

14,666 

31 

45,919 

31 

11,290 

28 

40-59 

12,507 

26 

33,992 

23 

10,655 

26 

60  &  over 

7,343 

15 

16,799 

12 

6,425 

16 

Total 


48,188        100        146,571        100 


40,420       100 


The  United  Kingdom  Population  Report.  Some  of  the  main 
features  of  the  Report  of  the  Royal  Commission  on  Population 
are  shown  graphically  on  page  665.  Apart  from  summarizing 
all  the  available  information  on  the  trend  of  births,  deaths 
and  marriages  over  recent  years,  the  report  examined  and 
analysed  such  points  as  the  significance  of  the  very  high 
births  of  recent  years;  the  trend  in  the  size  of  the  average 
British  family  over  the  last  hundred  years;  the  variations 
in  size  of  family  between  different  "  social  classes." 
Finally,  by  taking  three  different  assumptions  about  the 
trend  of  future  family-building  habits  as  a  basis,  an  attempt 
was  made  to  show  possible  movements  of  the  British  popu- 
lation in  the  next  hundred  years. 

The  commissioners  concentrated  their  study  to  a  large 
extent  on  movements  in  the  average  size  of  completed  families. 
In  mid-Victorian  times  the  average  number  of  children  in 
each  completed  family  numbered  between  5-£  to  6.  Between 


VITAL   STATISTICS 


667 


NORTH 
AMERICA 

20*,S94,000 


''<<„' 

SOUTH 
AMERICA 

05,537,000 


^EUROPE 


timtrl' 


'CHINA 

<;463,198.000 


1  $4,045,000 


lit! 


TTTTTTTTTll 


INC 


INDIA-PAKISTAN 


INC. 


POPULATION  IN  1937 


INCREASE  SINa  1937 


Each  symbol  equals  SO  million  persons 
Figures  on  map  show  total  population 


^f       RESTS  OF  ASIA 
{^         AND  OCEANIA 

\  370,6*1,000 

u-nw 


MTMMT 


Between  1937  and  1947  the  world" s  population  grew  from  2J40  million  to  2,320  million.     In  South  America  the  increase  was  23°/u  while  in 

Europe  it  was  only  6°'Q     The  me  tease  in  Asia  was  nearly  100  million. 


1  AUII-   \X  - 

-FXPICIAIION    OF    LllL   * 

One  important  factor  emerged  from  this  analysis;     after 

Date 

Male 

Female 

Date 

Male    Female 

falling  continuously  for  half  a  century,  the  average  size  of 

Austria 
Belgium 
Bulgaria 
Czechoslovakia 

1901-05 
1891-1900 
1900-05 
1899-1902 

39 
45 
42 
38 

14 
39 
08 
89 

41 
48 
42 
41 

06 

84 
20 
71 

1930-33 
1934-35 
1925-28 
1929-32 

54 
58 
45 
51 

5 
82 
92 
92 

58 
62 
46 

55 

5 
79 
64 
18 

family  has  been  comparatively  stable  over  the  previous  20 
years  at  a  figure  of  about  2  2  children  per  married  couple. 
This,  the  report  estimates,  is  some  6°0  below  replacement 

Denmark 

1901-05 

52 

9 

56 

2 

1941-45 

65 

62 

67 

70 

level. 

Kngland  and 

Turning   towards   the   future,   the   report  discounted   the 

Wales 
France 
Germany 

1910-12 
1898-1901 
1910-11 

51 
45 

47 

50 
31 
41 

55 
48 
50 

35 
69 
68 

1937 
1931-38 
1932-34 

60 

55 
59 

18 
94 
86 

64 
61 

62 

40 
64 
81 

o                                                                     r 

significance  of  the  postwar  "jump"  in  the  birth  rate.     By 
taking  the  1933  marital  fertility  rates,  it  estimated  the  number 

Hungary 

1930-31 

48 

27 

51 

34 

1941 

54 

92 

58 

2"> 

of  births  that  would  normally  have  been  "  expected  "  annually 

Ireland 

1925-27 

57 

37 

57 

93 

1  940-42 

59 

01 

61 

02 

between    1939  and    1948  and  compared  these  with  actual 

Italy 
Netherlands 
Norway 

1901-11 
1  900-09 
1901-10 

44 
51 

54 

24 
0 
82 

44 
53 
57 

83 
4 
70 

1930-32 
1931-40 
1921-30 

53 
65 
60 

76 
7 
98 

56 
67 
63 

00 

o 

84 

figures     Taking  the  period  as  a  whole,  the  number  of  births 
actually  occurring  was  only  slightly  higher  than  the  number 

Poland 

— 

1931-32 

48 

2 

51 

4 

"  expected/'  But  the  distribution  from  year  to  year  was  quite 

Spam 

— 

1930-31 

48 

74 

51 

94 

different. 

Sweden 

1901-10 

54 

53 

56 

98 

1936-40 

64 

30 

66 

92 

Switzerland 

1910-11 

50 

•65 

53 

89 

1939-44 

62 

68 

66 

96 

TABIF  X    -EsiiMAim  AVFRAGC  Sizt  OF  COMPLLILD  FAMU  Y,  MANUAL 

Canada 

1  926-30 

57 

70 

59 

74 

1940-42 

62 

96 

66 

30 

AND  NON-MANUAL  WORKFRS,   ACCORDING  TO   PLRIOD  OF   MARRIAGE 

United  States 
India  (5) 
Japan 

1900-02 
1901-11 
1899-1903 

47 
22 
43 

88 
59 
97 

50 

23 
44 

70 
31 

85 

1939-41 
1-921-31 
1935-36 

61 
26 
46 

60 
91 
92 

65 
26 
49 

89 
56 
63 

Date  of                     Non-Manual           Manual               Ratio  of  (c)  to 
Mainage                      Workers             Workers             (b)  (percentage) 

South  Africa  (6) 

1920-22 

55 

61 

59 

18 

1938 

60 

49 

65 

49 

(a)                                      (b)                       (c)                             (d) 

Australia 

1901-10 

55 

20 

58 

84 

1932-34 

63 

48 

67 

14 

1900-09                             2   79                      3  94                             141 

New  Zealand 

1901    05 

58 

09 

60 

55 

1934-38 

65 

46 

68 

45 

1910-14                            2-34                     3   35                            143 
1915-19                            2  05                     2-91                            142 

*  For  notes  on  table  sec  end  of 

artic 

Ic 

1920-24                            1    89                     2  73                            144 

186S  MnH   1QOO 

tht4.  Hvprnp 

rp.  «ii 

/f.  r 

if  th 

if.  fa 

milv  fell 

hv; 

a  ni 

1:1  rt 

er_ 

1925-29        .                    1-73                     2-49                            144 

and  the  fall  gathered  speed  as  time  went  on  By  1946  the 
average  completed  family  had  2  2  children — a  reduction  of 
60%  on  the  mid-Victorian  average. 

But  the  decline  in  family  size  did  not  proceed  uniformly 
throughout  the  community.  Among  couples  married  in  the 
first  30  years  of  the  20th  century,  the  average  size  of  a  family 
of  manual  workers  consistently  exceeded  that  of  non-manual 
workers  by  just  over  40%.  Thus,  among  non-manual  workers 
married  after  1920,  the  average  size  of  family  had  fallen 
well  below  2,  while  that  of  the  manual  worker  had  come 
down  to  an  average  of  2^. 


Nevertheless,  the  very  fact  that,  in  spite  of  the  wartime 
disruptions  of  family  life,  the  average  size  of  the  British 
family  remained  as  high  if  not  slightly  higher  than  ten  years 
previously  suggested  the  possibility  of  a  small  increase  in  the 
size  of  completed  families.  Figures  for  recent  years  also 
indicated  that  the  size  of  the  family  of  the  non-manual  worker 
had  increased  while  that  of  the  manual  worker  had  fallen. 

The  report  took  a  fairly  optimistic  view  in  considering 
the  future  trend  of  population  numbers.  If  the  average 
size  of  family  were  to  stay  constant  at  the  same  level  as  among 
couples  married  between  1927-38,  the  total  population  of 


668 


VYSHINSKY— WAGES   AND  HOURS 


TABLE   XL— LEGITIMATE    BIRTHS,    GREAT  BRITAIN,    1939-48,    WITH 

NUMBERS  "  EXPECTED  "  AT  1935-38  MARITAL  FERTILITY  RATES 

(In  1,000) 
Number  of  legiti- 
mate births  ex- 
Number  of       pected  at  1935-38  Column  (b)  Cumulative 
legitimate          marital  fertility  minus  total  of 
Year               births                      rates  column  (c)  column  (d) 
(a)                 (b)                          (c)  (d)  (e) 

1939  .             671                           702  —  31  —  31 

1940  .             646                         739  —  93  -124 

1941  .             632                          765  —133  -257 

1942  699                           766  —  67  —324 

1943  728                           756  —  28  —352 

1944  785                          733  52  —300 

1945  696                          729  -  33  —333 

1946  .             864                          741  123  -210 

1947  .             947                          746  201  —     9 

1948  .             831                           754  77  68 
Total 

1939-48      7,499                       7,431  68 

Great  Britian  by  2047  should  number  about  45-5  million 
compared  with  just  over  50  million  to-day.  A  6%  increase 
in  the  size  of  family  would  lead  to  a  slow  increase  in  the 
population  to  52-7  million  in  100  years.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  average  family  size  fell  to  80%  of  this  level,  total 
numbers  would  fall  sharply  to  some  29-6  million  in  2047. 
NOTES  ON  TABLES.  1.  Annual  rate  during  first  nine  months  of  1949 
unless  otherwise  stated.  2.  Annual  rate  during  first  six  months  of  1949. 
3.  1946— latest  figure.  4.  1921-25.  5  Figures  to  1946  refer  to  former 
British  India;  beginning  1947  to  Indian  Union.  6.  European  population 
only.  7.  Excluding  armed  forces  overseas.  Blanks » Not  available. 

(See  also  MARRIAGE  AND  DIVORCE.)  (E.  I.  U.) 

VYSHINSKY,    ANDREY     YANUAREVICH, 

Soviet  politician  (b.  Odessa,  1883).  Deputy  chairman  of  the 
council  of  people's  commissars  of  the  U.S.S.R.  from  March 
31,  1940,  and  deputy  people's  commissar  of  foreign  affairs 
from  Sept.  7,  1940,  he  was  not  among  the  nine  deputy 
chairmen  of  the  council  of  ministers  (the  description  people's 
commissar  being  dropped)  appointed  by  Joseph  Stalin  on 
March  15,  1946.  He  remained,  however,  one  of  the  four 
deputy  ministers  of  foreign  affairs.  (For  his  early  career  see 
Britannica  Book  of  the  Year  1949.) 

On  March  4,  1949,  he  succeeded  Vyacheslav  M.  Molotov 
as  minister  of  foreign  affairs.  He  took  part  in  the  Paris 
session  of  the  Council  of  Foreign  Ministers  (May  23-June  20, 
1949)  and  was  the  head  of  the  Soviet  delegation  at  the 
4th  U.N.  general  assembly  at  Flushing  Meadow,  New  York. 
His  strong  protest  against  Yugoslavia's  candidature  to  the 
Security  council  did  not  prevent  its  election  on  Oct.  20. 
Speaking  at  a  meeting  of  the  U.N.  political  committee  on 
Nov.  10  he  alleged  that  the  U.S.S.R.  was  using  atomic 
energy  for  such  peaceful  purposes  as  razing  mountains  and 
irrigating  deserts.  On  his  way  back  to  Moscow  he  stopped 
in  Berlin  on  Dec.  14  and  called  on  Wilhelm  Pieck,  president, 
and  Otto  Grotewohl,  prime  minister,  of  the  German 
Democratic  republic. 

WAGES  AND  HOURS.  Meeting  early  in  September, 
before  the  devaluation  of  the  pound  sterling  was  announced, 
the  British  Trades  Union  congress  re-affirmed  its  support  for 
the  policy  of  restraint  in  wage-claims;  and  the  general 
council  re-asserted  this  attitude  with  increased  insistence  after 
devaluation  had  been  made  public.  At  this  time  a  number 
of  the  principle  trade  unions  had  important  wage-claims 
under  negotiation,  including  the  Confederation  of  Ship- 
building and  Engineering  Unions  and  the  Civil  Service 
Clerical  association.  The  National  Union  of  Railwaymen 
had  just  had  its  claim  for  an  all-round  advance  rejected  by 
the  special  tribunal  to  which  it  had  been  referred,  and  there 
was  talk  of  strike  action,  or  of  a  "  work  to  rule  "  movement; 
but  the  delegate  conference  of  the  union  decided  to  limit  its 
action  for  the  time  being  to  a  renewed  demand  for  an 


improvement  in  wage  rates  for  the  lowest  paid  grades,  for 
which  an  offer  had  actually  been  made  by  the  British  Railways 
executive  before  the  major  issue  was  referred  to  the  tribunal. 

During  the  first  eight  months  of  1949  wage  changes  were 
less  than  during  the  corresponding  months  of  1948.  The 
principal  groups  to  receive  advances  were  the  agricultural 
workers,  the  cotton  operatives,  the  postal  workers  and  the 
building  trades.  The  total  advances  recorded  in  the  official 
statistics  up  to  the  end  of  August  amounted  to  £765,000  a 
week  spread  among  4,415,000  workers,  as  compared  with 
£1,219,000  and  4,848,000  workers  in  the  corresponding 
months  of  the  previous  year.  There  were  no  important 
changes  in  standard  hours  of  work.  The  official  index  of 
wage  rates  (June  1947  -100)  stood  at  109  in  Aug.  1949,  as 
against  106  a  year  previously. 

For  weekly  earnings,  as  distinct  from  wage  rates,  the 
latest  current  figures  were  for  April  1949.  For  the  trades 
covered  by  the  returns  the  overall  average  was  1195.  4</.,  as 
compared  with  114s.  in  April  1948  and  53s.  3d.  in  Oct.  1938, 
which  is  used  as  the  datum  line  for  reckoning  the  percentage 
changes  since  the  beginning  of  World  War  II.  This  gives  a 
rise  of  124%  in  April  1949,  and  of  114%  a  year  earlier. 
Over  the  same  period,  average  hours  worked  (including 
overtime)  had  fallen  from  46-5  in  Oct.  1938  to  45-3  in  April 
1949  and  the  same  a  year  earlier.  The  reduction  in  actual 
hours  worked  was  substantially  less  than  the  reduction  in 
the  standard  working  week,  as  more  overtime  was  being 
worked.  Most  trades  in  1949  were  working  a  five-day  week, 
with  overtime,  except  where  special  reasons  existed  for 
week-end  work.  These  statistics  of  wages  and  hours  did  not 
include  agriculture,  coal  mining,  railways  or  the  distributive 
trades,  and  covered  only  a  minority  of  transport  workers. 
They  were,  however,  sufficiently  representative  of  manufac- 
turing industries  and  of  most  public  utility  services.  Table  I 
breaks  up  the  overall  averages  into  separate  averages  for 
men,  women  and  young  workers. 

TABLE  1  — AVERAGE  WEEKLY  EARNINGS  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 

Oct.  1938     July  1945   April  1948  April  1949 

Mcnover21           .  .  69 y  Qd  \2\s.4d.  134*  OJ.  139j  l\d. 

Women  over  18     .  .  32y.  6t/.  635  2d.        72s.  1  \d  11s.  Id. 

Youths  and  Boys  .  26 y  Id  45<;.6d         57v  2d  58*.  6d. 

Girls            .          .  .  \Ss.6d  35v.  Id        48v  4d  50 r.  3d 

These  general  averages  conceal  both  the  differences  between 
skilled  and  less  skilled  workers  and  the  differences  between 
industries.  In  all  occupations  there  was  a  considerable 
narrowing  of  the  real  differentials  paid  for  the  more  skilled 
work,  especially  under  time-work  conditions.  This  was 
mainly  the  effect  of  flat-rate  advances  to  all  workers  in  an 
industry  irrespective  of  skill.  In  piece-working  occupations 
some,  but  by  no  means  all,  skilled  workers  were  able  to 
increase  their  earnings  enough  to  offset  the  decline  in  rela- 
tive margins  as  measured  by  wage  rates;  but  in  some  cases 
less  skilled  workers  were  able  to  increase  their  earnings 
more  easily  than  the  more  highly  skilled.  There  was  con- 
siderable discontent  among  a  number  of  groups  of  highly 
skilled  time-workers,  including  supervisory  grades,  where 
their  earnings  fell  below  those  of  piece-workers  ranking 
below  them  in  the  traditional  hierarchies. 

In  April  1949  the  industries  recording  the  highest  average 
earnings  were,  for  adult  men,  automobile  manufacture  and 
newspaper  printing  (both  1705.),  and  for  women,  passenger 
road  transport  (1085.)  and  automobile  manufacture  (97s.). 
The  lowest  earnings  were,  for  men,  in  linen  and  jute  (108.?.) 
and  local  authority  industrial  services  (1 145.),  and  for  women, 
in  linen  (61 5.)  and  laundries  (665.).  For  men,  the  great 
majority  of  industries  fell  within  the  range  1485. — 127*., 
and  for  women,  within  the  range  805. — 705.  After  devaluation 
there  was  some  talk  of  instituting  a  minimum  wage  of  100$. 


WALES 


669 


a  week  for  adult  men,  with  a  lower  minimum  for  women 
workers;  but  this,  if  it  meant  a  minimum  rate  of  1005.  for 
the  standard  working  week,  would  involve  a  very  considerable 
rise  in  the  total  wages  bill.  In  engineering,  which  is  relatively 
well  paid,  the  bottom  rate  was  only  92s.,  and  on  the  railways 
the  average  for  a  number  of  the  lowest  grades  was  92^.  6d. 

In  1948,  according  to  the  official  calculation,  wages 
absorbed  44%  of  the  national  income,  salaries  21%,  forces 
pay  3%,  and  rent,  interest  and  profits  32%.  The  corres- 
ponding percentages  for  1938  were  37,  24,  2  and  37;  and  for 
1947  they  were  42,  21,  4  and  33.  These  figures  show  the 
distribution  prior  to  taxation.  After  taking  account  of 
direct  taxation  the  percentages  for  1948  were  48,  21,  3  and  28; 
for  1947  they  were  46,  21,  5  and  28  and  for  1938  they  were 
39,  25,  2  and  34.  (G.  D.  H.  C.) 

United  States.  Total  wage  payments  in  the  United  States 
declined  8-75%  from  Sept.  1948  to  Sept.  1949,  as  measured 
by  pay  rolls  in  manufacturing  industries.  This  compared 
with  an  almost  equal  decrease  in  manufacturing  employment 
(8  •  3  %)  in  the  same  period.  Total  employers'  disbursements, 
including  salaries  and  wages,  amounted  to  $11,417  million 
in  Sept.  1 949,  or  0  •  49  %  less  than  for  the  same  month  in  1 948. 

TABLE   II. — EARNINGS   IN   THE    U.S.,   AUG.    1949,   COMPARED    WITH 


Industry 

All  Manufacturing 
Durable  goods 
Non-durable  goods 

Iron  and  steel 

Electrical  machinery 

Non-electrical  machinery 

Transportation  equipment  65  •  28 

Automobiles  . 

Non-ferrous  metals 

Timber  and  wood  products  53  -42 

Furniture,  etc, 

Stone,  clay  and  glass 

Textile-mill  products 

Apparel,  etc.   . 

Leather  and  leather  prod- 
ucts   . 

Food  and  food  products 

Tobacco  manufactures 

Paper  and  allied  products 

Printing  and  publishing 

Chemicals  and  allied  prod- 
ucts   . 

Products  of  coal  and  petro- 
leum .... 

Rubber  products 

Non-  Manufacturing 

„     .         .      f  Anthracite 
Coal  m.mng|Bltununou, 

Metalliferous  mining 

Street  railways  and  buses 

Telephone 

Telegraph 

Gas  and  electricity  utilities  64  •  20 

Wholesale  trade 

Retail  trade     . 

Hotels   . 

Private  building 

Source  of  tables  II  and  III:  Compiled  and  computed  from  data  in  Monthly 
Labour  Review,  United  States  Bureau  of  Labour  Statistics. 

Coal  miners  lost  their  position  as  recipients  of  the  highest 
"  take-home  pay."  Those  classified  as  workers  in  products 
of  coal  and  petroleum  earned  a  weekly  average  of  $72-04 
in  1949.  The  lowest  weekly  payments  were  made  to  hotel 
employees  ($32-94),  but  this  figure  did  not  represent  their 
total  earnings  for  it  did  not  include  tips,  board  and  lodging 
or  uniforms.  Employees  in  tobacco  processing  plants  were 
second  lowest,  with  $38-63. 


AUG.  1948 

Average 

Average            Average 

weekly 

weekly              hourly 

earnings 

hours              earnings 

(cents) 

1949 

1948 

1949 

1948      1949       1948 

$54-66 

$55  06 

39-1 

40-1  $1-398  $1-373 

.   57-74 

58-50 

39-2 

40-6 

•473 

•441 

.  51-31 

51  07 

38-9 

39-5 

•319 

•293 

.   55-95 

61-20 

36-3 

40-5 

•539 

514 

.  56-96 

56-94 

39-2 

39-9 

•453 

427 

59-82 

61-42 

39-1 

41-0 

•530 

•498 

t  65-28 

63-43 

39-3 

39-3 

661 

•614 

.  67-95 

64-57 

39  9 

38-9 

•703 

660 

.   54-24 

60-78 

39  0 

40-5 

518 

•501 

ts  53-42 

54-78 

40  9 

42-5 

•306 

•289 

.  49-61 

48-64 

40  4 

40-6 

228 

198 

.   54-13 

54-98 

39  6 

41   4 

•367 

•328 

.  44-37 

45-36 

37  6 

38-6 

180 

•175 

.  41-79 

43-98 

35  6 

36-5 

•174 

205 

- 
.  42-00 

42-71 

37  2 

38-0 

•129 

•124 

.  52-92 

50-88 

41-7 

41-2 

•269 

•235 

38-63 

37-65 

38-9 

39-1 

•993 

•963 

.  56-27 

56-76 

41-9 

43-1 

•343 

•317 

.   70-89 

67-15 

38-4 

39-2 

•846 

•713 

- 
.  58-83 

57-39 

40-6 

41-2 

•449 

•393 

> 
.  72-04 

72-42 

40-2 

41-5 

•792 

•745 

.   57-42 

60-33 

38-1 

40-3 

•507 

•497 

5    43-85 

72-77 

24-0 

38-3 

•827 

•900 

is  49-59 

76-48 

26-1 

39-0 

•900 

•961 

.   58-66 

62-88 

39-5 

43-1 

•485 

•495 

.  64-60 

62-31 

44  8 

46-5 

•442 

•340 

.  51-61 

48-42 

38-4 

39-4 

•384 

229 

.  63-64 

62-56 

45-1 

45-5 

•411 

•375 

s  64-20 

61-17 

41-5 

41-9 

•547 

•460 

.  57-36 

55-87 

40-8 

40-9 

•406 

•366 

.  38-96 

37-86 

37-5 

37-9 

•039       -999 

.  32-94 

31-85 

44-1 

44-8       -747       -711 

.  71-91 

70-91 

37-2 

37-8     1-931     1-874 

TABLE  HI.—  RISE  IN  HOURLY  EARNINGS 
(August  Rates) 

Industry 
All  manufacturing 

Durable  goods 

Non-durable  goods 
Iron  and  steel    . 
Machinery  (non-electrical) 
Automobiles 

Timber  and  allied  products 
Textile  products 
Food  and  food  processing 
Tobacco  products 
Rubber  products 


RATES,  1944-49:  U.S. 


Index 

1944 

1946    1948    1949 

1949* 

$1  -016 

$1-112  $1-373  $1-398 

181-5 

1-111 

1-186 

•441 

•473 

172-7 

•865 

I  -036 

•293 

•319 

194-0 

.  1-076 

1  222 

•514 

-539 

175-5 

1-120 

1-246 

•498 

•530 

177-7 

1-262 

1-373 

•660 

703 

156-1 

•803 

•928 

•289 

306 

218-4 

•711 

924 

•175 

•i80 

203-1 

844 

1-015 

•235 

•269 

186-9 

.   -715 

•885 

963 

•993 

188-4 

.  1-102 

1-295 

497 

•507 

174-2 

.  1-179 

1  -598 

900 

•827 

181-6 

.  1-189 

1-466 

•961 

•900 

183-0 

•939 

1-148 

•366 

•406 

173-2 

.  1-323 

1-462 

874 

•931 

189-7 

Wholesale  trade 

Private  building 

*  1941  =  100 

Compared  with  1948,  1949  was  a  year  of  greater  stability. 
Hourly  wages  continued  their  upward  trend,  with  the  slight 
decline  in  average  weekly  earnings  attributable  to  a  reduction 
in  the  length  of  the  working  week.  In  conjunction  with 
price  trends,  the  net  effect  was  an  increase  in  real  wages. 
(See  also  PRICES;  WFALTH  AND  INCOME,  DISTRIBUTION  OF.) 

(D.  J.  H.) 


WAKE  ISLAND: 

AND  POSSESSIONS. 


see   UNITED   STATES   TERRITORIES 


WALES.  Principality  forming  part  of  Great  Britain. 
Area:  8,012  sq.  mi.  (with  Monmouthshire).  Pop.  (Dec.  31, 
1948,  est.):  2,552,000. 

Early  in  1949  the  Welsh  Association  of  Local  Authorities 
sought  the  views  of  182  such  bodies  on  the  government's 
proposal  to  set  up  an  advisory  council  for  Wales  and  Mon- 
mouthshire. Of  the  149  local  authorities  which  replied,  only 
12  approved  outright,  67  approved  of  it  as  an  experiment, 
64  rejected  the  proposal  and  6  favoured  no  action  either  way. 

The  prime  minister  on  April  26  announced  in  the  House 
of  Commons  27  nominations  and  appointed  H.  T.  Edwards, 
a  north  Wales  trade  union  organizer  with  long  experience  in 
public  service,  chairman  of  the  Advisory  Council  for  Wales. 
At  the  first  formal  meeting  held  in  Cardiff  the  members  of  the 
council  were  accorded  a  civic  welcome.  Subsequent  meetings 
were  held  in  private  in  north  and  west  Wales;  and  in  the 
autumn  it  was  announced  that  specialist  committees  would 
inquire  into  the  problems  of  emigration  from  Wales, 
unemployment  amongst  partially  disabled  workers  and 
marginal  land. 

In  the  annual  debate  on  Welsh  matters  in  the  House  of 
Commons  (Nov.  24)  James  Griffiths,  minister  for  national 
insurance,  stated  that  the  Advisory  council  was  only  part  of  a 
developing  policy  and  should  be  judged  in  relation  to  other 
things  the  government  had  done  for  Wales  since  1945. 
During  the  debate  there  were  cries  of  "  Wales  wants  a 
republic  "  from  the  gallery  and  leaflets  were  showered  on 
the  members  below.  In  their  speeches  several  of  the  Welsh 
members  criticized  government  policy,  particularly  on 
agriculture,  war  training  in  traditional  beauty  spots,  and 
unemployed  ex-miners;  and  there  were  demands  for  self- 
government  for  Wales. 

Considerable  opposition  arose  to  the  British  Electricity 
authority's  proposed  £20  million  hydro-electricity  schemes 
for  north  Wales  which  embodied  the  construction  of  six 
dams  and  the  flooding  of  six  valleys  in  districts  famous  for 
their  natural  beauty.  There  was  also  some  uneasiness  over 
the  increasing  demands  of  the  Forestry  commission  on  hill- 
farming  land  in  order  to  attain  its  objective  of  planting  on 
some  14,000  ac.  annually  in  Wales  for  a  50-year  period. 

Re-organization  of  the  basic  industries  went  on  steadily. 
Although  the  number  of  miners  in  the  south  Wales 


670 


WAR   CRIMES 


coalfields  decreased  by  4,500,  increased  mechanization  and 
improved  relations  between  managers  and  men  helped  to 
raise  output,  although  the  increase  of  300,000  tons  on  the 
previous  year's  output  was  considered  disappointing.  New 
developments  in  open-cast  mining  in  west  Wales  were  expected 
to  yield  more  than  a  million  tons  a  year  of  anthracite  over 
the  next  six  years  and  to  give  coal  exports  from  Wales,  which 
rose  by  some  2  million  tons  in  1949,  an  additional 
fillip. 

Wales  once  again  played  an  important  role  in  the  achieve- 
ments of  Britain's  steel  industry.  Production  of  crude  steel 
and  of  pig  iron  showed  a  substantial  advance  on  the  previous 
year.  By  the  third  quarter  of  1949  the  steel  output  was  at 
the  rate  of  3  •  3  million  tons.  As  in  mining  there  was  a  dearth 
of  skilled  men  in  the  Welsh  tinplate  and  steel  sheet  industry 
but  output  rose  steadily  and  formed  a  high  percentage  of 
the  whole  United  Kingdom  yield  of  these  products.  What 
was  believed  to  be  the  largest  strip  mill  in  Europe  was  nearing 
completion  at  Port  Talbot,  Glamorgan,  and  the  complemen- 
tary cold  reduction  plant  at  Llanelly,  Carmarthenshire, 
was  also  well  advanced.  Government  spokesmen  gave 
assurances  that  more  new  industries  would  be  established 
in  south  Wales  to  absorb  some  10,000  men  who  would  be- 
come redundant  at  old  plants  when  the  vast  new  enterprise 
got  under  way. 

Diversification  of  Welsh  industry  continued  steadily 
despite  shortage  of  materials  and  key  labour  and  devaluation 
problems.  It  was  announced  that  in  four  years  work  had 
been  provided  for  45,000  persons  in  new  government-built 
factories  in  Wales.  On  the  other  side  of  the  picture  was  the 
average  unemployment  total  of  some  36,000  mainly  disabled 
men,  a  considerably  higher  percentage  than  that  of  the  work- 
less  in  England  or  Scotland.  The  first  regular  north  to  south 
Wales  air  service  operating  between  Valley  (Anglesey), 
Hawarden  (Flint)  and  Cardiff,  closed  down  after  six  months 
owing  to  poor  public  support. 

Welsh  agriculture  made  further  headway.  At  the  end  of 
September  the  total  cattle  at  994,371  head  was  the  highest 
ever  and  an  increase  of  32,200  on  the  previous  year.  Sheep 
and  poultry  also  increased  substantially.  Acreages  under 
wheat,  potatoes  and  tillage  were  sustained  at  practically 
the  previous  two  years'  figures.  Milk  production  advanced 
once  again — milk  sales  increased  by  61-1  million  gallons 
in  ten  years. 

In  education  the  new  Welsh  Joint  committee  began  its 
work  with  H.  Wyn  Jones,  former  director  of  education  for 
Carmarthenshire,  as  secretary.  Cardiff  castle,  presented  to 
the  city  by  the  Marquis  of  Bute,  was  re-opened  as  a  Welsh 
National  College  of  Music  and  Art.  The  National  Eisteddfod 
at  Dolgelley,  a  small  county  town  of  Merioneth,  attracted 
some  70,000  people  and  made  £4,000  profit.  At  another  small 
but  picturesque  north  Wales  town,  Llangollen,  the  third 
annual  International  Music  Eisteddfod  attracted  singers, 
dancers  and  instrumentalists  from  14  European  countries 
as  well  as  large  audiences. 

Welsh  culture  suffered  a  great  loss  by  the  death  of  Dr.  T. 
Gwynn  Jones,  scholar,  poet  and  writer  of  European  stature, 
and  Dr.  T.  Rowland  Hughes,  poet,  novelist  and  radio 
feature  writer.  Exactly  a  century  after  the  appearance  of 
I  ady  Charlotte  Guest's  translation  into  English  of  the  epic 
Welsh  tales  The  Mabinogion,  another  version  based  on  more 
authentic  manuscripts  was  published  after  four  years'  work 
by  Professor  Gwyn  Jones  and  Thomas  Jones  of  Aberystwyth 
university  college.  (J.  C.  G.  J.) 

WAR  CRIMES.  Europe.  The  most  important  war 
crimes  trials  of  1949  ended  April  14,  when  a  U.S.  tribunal 
at  Nuremberg  found  19  of  21  former  German  ministers  and 
government  officials  guilty  of  planning  aggressive  war,  war 


crimes  and  crimes  against  humanity.  The  sentences  in  this 
so-called  "  Wilhelmstrasse  trial,"  which  had  proceeded  for 
17  months,  ranged  from  4  to  25  years  in  prison  but  time 
already  spent  in  captivity  was  to  be  deducted  from  the  terms. 
Otto  Meissner,  chief  of  the  presidential  chancellery,  and 
Otto  von  Erdmannsdorff,  ambassador  to  Hungary,  were 
acquitted.  Found  guilty  were  Gottlieb  Berger,  chief  of  the 
S.S.  main  office;  Edmund  Veesenmayer,  minister  pleni- 
potentiary; Hans  Lammers,  chief  of  the  Reich  chancellery; 
Hans  Kehrl,  chief  of  the  armaments  and  war  production 
planning  office;  Paul  Korner,  Gonng's  deputy  for  the  four- 
year  plan;  Paul  Pleiger,  chairman  of  the  Reich  coal  associa- 
tion, Lutz  von  Schwerin  Krosigk,  Reich  finance  minister; 
Wilhelm  Keppler,  Hitler's  special  economic  adviser;  Ernst 
Wormann,  director  of  the  political  division  of  the  Foreign 
Office;  Richard  Walther  Darre,  food  and  agricultural 
minister;  Otto  Dietrich,  state  secretary  of  the  Propaganda 
Ministry;  Karl  Rasche,  head  of  the  Dresdner  bank;  Gustav 
Steengracht  von  Moyland,  state  secretary  of  the  Foreign 
Office;  Ernst  von  Weizsacker,  ambassador  to  the  Vatican; 
Walter  Schellenbcrg,  chief  of  the  combined  military  intelli- 
gence service  and  S.S.  official;  Ernst  Wilhelm  Bohle,  chief 
of  the  nazi  party's  foreign  organization;  Emil  Puhl,  vice- 
president  of  the  Reichsbank;  Karl  Ritter,  ambassador  for 
special  assignments,  and  Wilhelm  Stuckart,  state  secretary 
Minister  of  the  Interior. 

The  report  of  the  United  States  military  government  in 
Germany  for  April  1949  described  this  trial  as  the  "  last  of 
the  Nuremberg  War  Crimes  Cases."  U.S.  war  crimes 
tribunals  in  Europe  had  tried  1,873  persons,  of  which  459 
had  been  sentenced  to  death,  1,110  to  prison  and  304 
acquitted. 

The  British  government  announced  on  May  5  that  the 
charges  against  Field  Marshal  Karl  von  Rundstedt  and 
General  Adolf  Strauss  would  be  dropped,  but  Field  Marshal 
Erich  von  Manstem  would  be  tried.  The  trial  of  Manstein 
opened  in  Hamburg  on  Aug.  23.  The  prosecutor  was  Sir 
A.  S.  Comyns  Carr,  K.C ,  British  prosecutor  at  the  Tokyo 
trials.  Manstein  was  defended  by  a  member  of  the  British 
bar,  R.  T.  Pagct,  K.C.  He  was  found  guilty  of  having  com- 
mitted nine  war  crimes  while  leading  German  armies  in 
Russia  and  on  Dec.  19  was  sentenced  to  18  years'  imprison- 
ment. There  would  be  no  further  war  crimes  trials  in  the 
British  zone. 

No  application  for  extradition  of  war  criminals  had  been 
accepted  since  Sept.  1,  1948,  and  none  for  traitors  and  colla- 
borators since  March  1,  1949.  British  war  crimes  tribunals 
in  Germany  had  tried  937  persons,  of  which  230  had  been 
sentenced  to  death,  447  to  prison  and  260  acquitted.  The  trial 
of  Otto  Abetz,  German  ambassador  to  the  Vichy  govern- 
ment, by  a  French  military  court  resulted  in  his  sentence 
to  20  years'  hard  labour  on  July  22.  German  courts  were 
henceforth  to  be  responsible  for  trials  of  crimes  against 
humanity  in  western  Germany  whether  involving  German, 
Allied  or  United  Nations  persons. 

Far  East.  The  Far  Eastern  commission  decided  on  Feb. 
24  that  there  would  be  no  further  international  military 
tribunals  in  the  far  east  and  recommended  on  March  16  and 
31  that  any  further  war  crimes  trials  in  national  tribunals 
be  decided  upon  by  the  end  of  June  and  concluded  if  possible 
before  the  end  of  Sept.  1949.  The  U.S.  state  department 
announced  on  Jan.  1 3  that  the  1 1  former  enemies  of  Japan, 
including  the  U.S.S.R.,  had  agreed  in  1945  to  exempt  the 
Japanese  emperor  from  trial  for  alleged  war  crimes.  The 
trials  of  Admiral  Soemu  Toyoda,  chief  of  the  Japanese 
naval  staff,  ending  in  his  acquittal  on  Sept.  6,  1949,  and  of 
Osamu  Satano,  sentenced  on  Oct.  19,  1949,  to  five  years' 
imprisonment  for  beheading,  under  orders,  a  captured  U.S. 
airman,  were  the  last  U.S.  trials  in  the  far  eastern  area. 


WAR   PENSIONS 


671 


Field-Marshal  Fritz   Erich   von   Manstein   on   trial    in   Hamburg. 

The  trial  opened  on  Aug.  23,  1949,  and  on  Dec.  19  he  was  sentenced 

to  IS  years'  imprisonment. 

General  Douglas  MacArthur  announced  the  end  of  war 
crimes  trials  on  that  date  saying  4,200  Japanese  had  been 
convicted  by  seven  Allied  nations  in  the  far  eastern  area  and 
720  had  been  executed.  About  100,000  suspects  had  been 
questioned. 

Statistics  of  Trials.  The  U.N.  War  Crimes  commission 
had  by  the  close  of  1949  completed  its  work  begun  in  1943. 
It  had  published  15  volumes  of  Law  Reports  of  the  Trials 
of  War  Criminals.  The  final  volume  analyses  the  law  and 
procedure  in  the  89  cases  reported  and  92  cases  cited  in  this 
series.  These  cases  were  selected  from  1,911  trial  records 
received  by  the  commission.  The  commission  also  published 
its  own  history  with  statistical  data  and  critical  analyses  of 
the  law  and  procedure  developed  in  its  own  work  and  the 
work  of  the  tribunals.  The  war  crimes  tribunals  of  the 
United  States,  Australia  and  western  European  countries 
held  more  than  2,000  trials  about  equally  divided  between 
the  European  and  far  eastern  areas.  These  trials  involved 
more  than  6,000  persons  resulting  in  about  1,500  death 
sentences,  3,500  prison  sentences  and  1,000  acquittals. 
Data  on  trials  by  the  eastern  European  countries  and  China 
were  lacking,  but  the  numbers  were  probably  no  less. 
More  than  10,000  persons  of  the  axis  powers  were  tried  for 
war  crimes  and  probably  80%  were  found  guilty.  The  U.N. 
War  Crimes  commission  examined  more  than  8,000  charges 
involving  36,000  persons  and  issued  lists  of  more  than 
20,000  persons  which  it  thought  should  be  tried.  These  lists 
were  probably  incomplete  and  many  listed  were  never  tried. 
Lord  Wright,  chairman  of  the  commission,  expressed  the 
opinion  that  if  10%  of  the  actual  war  criminals  were  tried, 
the  results  would  not  be  unsatisfactory. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  U.N.  War  Crimes  Commission,  Law  Reports  of 
the  Trials  of  War  Criminals.  15  vol.  (London,  1947-49);  History  of 


ihe  U.N.  War  Crimes  Commission  and  the  Development  of  the  Laws  of 
War  (London,  1948);  Hans  Ehard,  "The  Nuremberg  Trial  against 
the  Major  War  Criminals  and  International  Lav/,'*  American  Journal 
of  International  Law  (April  1949);  Quincy  Wright,  **  International 
Law  and  Guilt  by  Association,"  ibid.  (Oct.  1949).  (Q.  W.) 

WAR  PENSIONS.  The  burden  of  pensions  to  war 
disabled,  war  widows  and  servicemen's  dependants  continued 
to  be  serious  in  many  countries  of  the  world,  World  War  II 
having  increased  the  strain  on  national  budgets  in  this  respect. 
In  Great  Britain  the  number  of  pensions  awarded  for  World 
War  II  was  less  than  half  that  for  World  War  I  and  in  France 
it  wa#  about  one-tenth;  in  the  United  States,  on  the  other 
hand,  there  was  rt  more  than  threefold  increase.  In  the 
Soviet  Union  also  the  number  of  war  disabled  was  certainly 
a  great  deal  larger  than  after  World  War  I,  but  no  figures 
were  published. 

Great  Britain.  By  March  31,  1949,  1,078,469  pensions  were 
being  paid,  as  compared  with  1,1 12,908  a  year  earlier.  Their 
categories  are  given  in  Table  I. 

TABLE  1. — WAR  PENSIONS  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN  IN  PAYMENT  ON  MARCH  31, 


World  War  I  and  former 

wars 
World  War  II 

Armed  forces 

Mercantile  marine,  etc. . 

Civil  defence,  etc. 

Total      .... 


1949 
Disable- 


ment 


Depen- 
Widows*        dants' 


Total 


334,881   105,066    87,771   527,718 


380,599 

5,183 

17,680 


73,272 
8,634 
9,993 


48,481 
4,578 
2,331 


502,353 
18,395 
30,004 


738,343   196,965   143,161  1,078,469 


The  estimated  total  expenditure  of  the  Ministry  of  Pensions 
in  the  financial  year  ended  March  31,  1949,  was  £89,914,500 
(3  •  1  %  of  the  total  budget  expenditure)  bringing  the  total  cost 
of  war  pensions  since  Aug.  4,  1914,  to  £1,930  million.  Ex- 
penditure in  1948-49  was  £825,982  greater  than  in  the  previous 
year.  Details  of  expenditure  and  a  comparison  with  earlier 
years  are  given  in  Table  II. 


TABLE  II. — WAR  PENSIONS 
(in 

Fiscal          World          World 
Years          War  I         War  II 
1939-40  36,416,258          64,311 
1943-44  32,518,543  14,771,928 
1947-48  35,794,960  45,606,972 
1948-49*35,383,000  46,165,000 

•  Estimated. 


EXPENDITURE  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 
£  sterling) 

Medical    Mi  seel-  Adminis- 
Services  laneous   tration        Total 

999,581  10,664  747,547  38,238,361 
2,013,451  26,470  2,017.302  51,347,694 
3,885,286  56,537  3,744,763  89,088,518 
4,502,000  45,500  3,819,000  89,914,500 


Because,  by  1949,  the  basic  pension  for  a  totally  disabled 
ex-serviceman  was  45s.  a  week,  only  5s.  more  than  in  1919,  the 
British  legion  and  other  kindred  associations  launched  a 
campaign  to  double  the  pensions  and  bring  them  into  line 
with  doubled  prices  and  wages.  On  April  26,  E.  R.  Bo  wen, 
Liberal  member  for  Cardigan,  submitted  a  motion  asking  the 
House  of  Commons  to  agree  that  **  it  is  desirable  that  a 
royal  commission  shall  be  set  up  to  inquire  into  the  present 
position  relating  to  war  pensions  and  allowances  and  as  to 
their  adequacy  under  prevailing  conditions.**  The  motion 
was  rejected  by  the  house  by  307  votes  to  149. 

On  May  24,  however,  a  new  royal  warrant  was  issued 
(Cmd.  7699)  making  further  provision  concerning  retired  pay, 
pensions  and  other  grants  for  disabled  members  of  the  forces 
and  of  the  nursing  and  auxiliary  services,  and  for  the  widows, 
children,  parents  and  other  dependants  of  such  members 
who  had  died  in  consequence  of  service  after  Sept.  2,  1939. 
Two  other  royal  warrants— of  May  30,  1949,  (Cmd.  7712) 
and  May  31,  1949,  (Cmd.  771 1) — extended  the  new  provisions 
to  pensioners  of  World  War  I  and  the  Home  guard  respectively. 

United  States.  In  the  budget  estimates  for  the  year  1950-51 
a  total  of  $6,080  million,  one-seventh  of  all  expenditure. 


672 


WARSAW— WASHINGTON 


War  disabled  from  most  parts  of  England  at  the  second  annual  rally  in  July  1949  of  the  Invalid  Tricycle  association. 

attended  the  rally  which  was  held  in  Richmond  park,  Surrey. 


Over  500  members 


was  earmarked  for  veterans'  services  and  benefits.  The 
size  of  these  requirements  reflected  a  five-fold  increase  since 
1939  in  the  number  of  veterans  and  new  re-adjustment 
benefits  provided  for  veterans  of  World  War  II,  as  well  as 
increases  in  rates  of  benefit  and  in  general  services  to  veterans. 
Most  of  these  expenditures  were  not  controllable  by  thfc 
ordinary  appropriation  process.  Expenditure  depended 
largely  on  how  many  of  the  U.S.  19  million  living  veterans 
and  how  many  dependants  of  deceased  veterans  applied  and 
qualified  for  aid  under  some  300  laws.  The  variable  impact 
of  veterans'  programmes  on  the  budget  was  indicated  by  the 
fact  that  expenditure  for  the  year  1949-50  was  estimated  by 
December  at  $1,400  higher  than  a  year  earlier. 

France.  At  its  general  assembly  in  Paris,  on  Feb.  5-6, 
1949,  the  Union  Fran^aise  des  Associations  des  Combattants 
passed  a  resolution  asking  the  parliament  and  the  government 
to  re-establish  the  relationship  existing  between  war  pensions 
and  civil  service  pay  before  World  War  II  and  to  keep  it  in 
line  with  the  cost  of  living.  Another  resolution  asked  for  a 
fivefold  revaluation  of  the  ex-serviceman's  gratuity  (retraite 
du  combat tant). 

In  order  to  keep  up  with  the  constantly  rising  cost  of 
living,  or  depreciation  of  money,  pensions  had  been  increased 
450%  (1938=100)  in  July  1947;  further  increases  in  Feb. 
1948  had  brought  the  pensions  to  the  index  number  600  and 
in  April  1949  to  690.  The  latter  increase  meant  an  additional 
yearly  expenditure  of  Fr.  3,600  million.  French  ex-servicemen, 
however,  were  not  satisfied  as  the  general  price  index  number 
stood  in  April  1949  at  above  1,700  (1938=100). 

Established  by  law  on  April  16,  1930,  the  ex-serviceman's 
gratuity  had  been  fixed  at  Fr.  530  per  annum  from  the  age  of 
50  and  Fr.  1,272  per  annum  from  the  age  of  55  and  there  had 
been  no  subsequent  re-adjustment.  On  Dec.  8,  1949,  the 
premier,  Georges  Bidault,  told  the  National  Assembly  that 
an  increase  by  500%  would  cause  an  additional  yearly 
expenditure  of  Fr.  10,000  million.  The  problem  was  still 
being  discussed  at  the  end  of  the  year. 

In  the  1950  budget  estimates  a  sum  of  Fr.25,659  million 
(1-16%  of  the  total  ordinary  expenditure)  was  earmarked 
for  1,185,560  war  pensions,  including  815,863  for  the  disabled 


of  World  War  I,  285,696  for  those  of  World  War  II  and 
84,001  for  disablement  caused  other  than  in  war  operations. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY.  Ministry  of  Pensions:  Thirty-Fourth  Report  for  the 
Period  1st  April  1948  to  31st  March  1949  (London,  H.M.S.O.,  1949); 
Hansard,  House  of  Commons,  April  26,  1949,  col.  47-156.  (K.  SM.) 

WAR  PRISONERS:    see  PRISONERS  OF  WAR. 

WARSAW,  capital  of  Poland.  Area:  54  sq.  mi.  Pop. 
(Sept.  1,  1939)  1,289,000;  (Jan.  20,  1945  est.)  155,000; 
(July  1,  1949)  617,949.  Budget  (1950  est.):  revenue  Zt. 3,497 
million;  expenditure  Zl.6,730  million.  President  of  the  city 
(lord  mayor),  Stanislaw  Tohvinski. 

History.  Reconstruction  of  the  capital  continued  during 
1949  on  a  larger  scale  than  in  the  previous  year,  employing 
nearly  50,000  builders.  In  the  centre  of  the  city  traditional 
Polish  architecture,  mainly  1 8th  century,  was  being  preserved. 
On  June  23,  a  new  railway  bridge  and  a  new  tunnel  under 
Sikorski  (formerly  Jerusalem)  avenue  were  re-opened  to 
traffic.  The  inauguration  on  July  22  of  a  new  east-west 
thoroughfare,  with  a  tunnel  under  the  old  town,  and  a 
modern  bridge,  was  attended  by  the  Soviet  Marshal  Kon- 
stantin  Rokossovsky  (see  POLAND).  The  construction  of  a 
north-south  artery  on  the  axis  of  Marszalkowska  street 
made  great  progress.  Buildings  restored  during  the  year 
included  the  National  theatre,  and  among  monuments 
which  also  underwent  restoration  was  that  of  King  Sigismund 
III  Vasa.  By  the  end  of  the  year  the  total  volume  of  Warsaw 
buildings  was  estimated  at  44  million  cu.  m.,  that  is,  43%  of 
the  pre-1939  living-space.  Of  this  total  18  million  cu.  m.  re- 
presented restored  and  new  buildings.  Before  World  War  II 
there  were  in  Warsaw  about  80  cu.  m.  of  building  space  per 
inhabitant,  including  54  cu.  m.  for  dwelling  houses;  by  the 
end  of  1949  the  respective  figures  were  approximately  70 
and  50  cu.  m. 

WASHINGTON,  DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA,  federal 
capital  of  the  U.S.  Area:  61  sq.  mi.  Population  (mid-1949 
est.)  870,000.  During  World  War  II  and  postwar  years  the 
population  spread  in  increasing  numbers  into  the  neighbour 


WATER   SUPPLY 


673 


states  of  Maryland  and  Virginia.  Many  federal  buildings, 
including  the  famous  Pentagon,  were  located  outside  the 
district  limits.  The  comprehensive  plan  of  Washington, 
which  was  to  be  completed  in  1950,  treated  the  entire  region. 
Legislation  pending  at  the  close  of  1949,  would  enlarge  the 
National  Capital  Park  and  Planning  commission  to  include 
members  appointed  by  the  governors  of  Maryland  and 
Virginia,  and  would  bring  all  plans  for  public  buildings  and 
grounds  before  the  Commission  at  an  early  stage. 

During  1949  enough  apartment  buildings  were  completed 
or  under  construction  to  bring  some  relief  to  the  housing 
congestion  in  1950.  The  Pan  American  Office  building  on 
Constitution  avenue  was  completed  in  1949.  The  White 
House  had  been  dismantled  and  was  being  rebuilt. 

The  budget  for  the  District  of  Columbia,  year  ending 
June  30,  1950,  amounted  to  $110  million,  of  which  about 
$15  million  was  for  city  improvements.  During  1949  a  sales 
tax  of  2  %  on  many  commodities  came  into  effect  and  about 
$4  million  was  collected  in  four  months;  the  estimated  total 
for  1950  was  $14  million. 

A  bill  was  introduced  into  the  81st  congress  to  provide  for 
a  constitutional  amendment  under  which  the  residents  of 
the  District  of  Columbia  would  be  permitted  to  vote  for 
representation  in  congress,  which,  under  the  constitution, 
was  responsible  for  all  legislation  for  the  District  of  Columbia. 

WATER  SUPPLY.  The  summer  of  1949  in  Great 
Britain  was  the  driest  after  1921  and  the  sunniest  after  1933 
and  consequently  numerous  water  undertakings  experienced 
difficulty  in  maintaining  a  continuous  supply  of  water  to 
their  consumers  and  many  found  it  necessary  to  introduce 
restrictions  of  the  use  of  water.  Cattle  had  to  be  moved  to 


better  pastures  and  in  east  London,  where  a  ration  of  four 
gallons  a  person  a  day  was  imposed,  drinking  water  had  to 
be  sent  to  the  port  by  sea.  Citizens  were  compelled  to  use 
sea  water  for  dish-washing  and  sanitation  and  some  even 
experimented  with  it  for  cooking  purposes. 

Although  there  was  a  general  shortage  throughout  the 
country,  the  most  affected  areas  were  southwest  and  northeast 
England.  In  the  Tynemouth  area,  stop  taps  of  consumers 
were  regulated  to  allow  only  a  small  trickle  and  foreign 
vessels  engaged  in  shipping  on  the  river  Tyne  were  asked  to 
bring  water  for  their  own  needs  from  their  home  ports.  The 
Tees .  Valley  Water  board,  in  conjunction  with  Imperial 
Chemical  Industries,  carried  out  rain-making  experiments 
by  dropping  solid  carbon  dioxide  from  aircraft  onto  suitable 
cloud  formations.  Although  on  two  occasions  rain  was 
produced,  the  benefit  was  found  to  be  slight.  Fortunately 
rain  came  towards  the  end  of  October  and  the  situation  was 
relieved. 

Not  only  in  Great  Britain  but  in  Europe  and  in  other 
parts  of  the  world  severe  drought  conditions  were  experi- 
enced. In  Africa  the  effects  were  serious  from  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  to  Kenya  and  many  government  feeding  schemes 
were  introduced  to  avert  famine. 

Many  new  schemes  under  construction  in  Great  Britain 
were  retarded  because  of  shortages  of  labour  and  materials 
but  good  progress  was  made  with  the  construction  of  new 
waterworks  for  the  island  of  Anglesey,  the  Claerwen  dam  for 
Birmingham,  the  Digly  reservoir  for  Huddersfield  and  the 
Blithfield  reservoir  for  south  Staffordshire.  Darwell  reservoir 
for  Hastings  was  completed  and  work  began  on  the  construc- 
tion of  reservoirs  for  Northallerton,  Wakefield  and  Swansea. 
The  proposal  by  the  Metropolitan  Water  board  to  construct 


The  King  George  VI  reservoir  at  Staines,  Middlesex,  during  the  dry  summer  of  1949.    The  normal  water  evel  of  the  reservoir ;   which  has  a 

capacity  of  4,450  million  gallons,  is  at  the  top  of  the  banks. 

E.B.Y.— 44 


674 


WEALTH   AND   INCOME 


a  reservoir  in  the  Enborne  valley  near  Reading  was  abandoned 
in  October,  as  investigations  on  the  biological  aspects  had 
shown  that  thermal  stratification  of  the  water  was  likely  to 
occur  in  the  deeper  parts  of  the  reservoir  which  would  render 
the  lower  stratum  unsuitable  for  the  board's  purposes.  The 
Water  board  consequently  decided  to  proceed  with  the  con- 
struction of  the  reservoirs  at  Walton,  Wraysbury  and  Datchet, 
for  which  powers  had  previously  been  obtained.  A  new 
method  of  super-chlorination  was  introduced  by  the  Metro- 
politan Water  board  which  led  to  improvements  in  the 
bacterial  quality  of  the  water  supplied  to  the  London  area, 
in  a  reduction  of  colour  and  in  a  complete  cessation  of 
chlorinous  tastes.  By  eliminating  all  pre-chlorination  in  the 
Thames  valley  it  was  estimated  that  running  costs  would  be 
reduced  by  at  least  £10,000  a  year. 

The  Ministry  of  Health  continued  to  publish  reports 
dealing  with  the  water  resources  of  various  parts  of  the 
country  to  provide  a  basis  of  discussion  which  might  lead  to 
the  improvement  of  water  supply  in  those  areas.  Reports 
were  issued  covering  south  Wales  in  which  it  was  suggested 
that  15  boards  should  be  constituted  to  replace  the  51  existing 
water  undertakings.  Tn  Norfolk  21  new  statutory  water  under- 
takings were  recommended  to  replace  the  37  existing  authori- 
ties. New  water  boards  were  constituted  during  the  year  for 
dealing  with  the  provision  of  water  for  east  Shropshire, 
mid-Northamptonshire,  Northallerton  and  district,  Stafford 
and  the  adjacent  rural  area  and  the  new  satellite  town  of 
Crawley  in  conjunction  with  other  authorities  in  east  Sussex. 
Public  attention  was  focused  on  the  question  of  nationalizing 
water  supplies,  particularly  in  rural  areas  where  the  provision 
of  a  supply  could  not  be  undertaken  on  an  economic  basis. 

The  first  general  assembly  and  congress  of  the  International 
Water  Supply  association,  set  up  in  1947  by  delegates  from 
Great  Britain,  France  and  the  Netherlands,  was  held  in 
Amsterdam  in  September  and  was  attended  by  delegates 
from  about  20  countries. 

Agreement  was  reached  between  the  British  and  Egyptian 
governments  for  the  construction  of  a  dam  at  Owen  falls, 
Uganda,  for  the  control  of  the  Nile  waters,  as  part  of  a  major 
scheme  to  ensure  a  regular  supply  of  water  for  Egypt  and  the 
Sudan.  Progress  was  made  in  dealing  with  the  problem  of 
water  shortage  in  Malta,  involving  the  repair  of  reservoirs 
damaged  during  World  War  II,  the  sinking  of  boreholes  and 
the  construction  of  underground  collecting  galleries.  The 
completion  of  a  reservoir  in  the  Waitakere  ranges,  near 
Auckland,  New  Zealand,  was  announced,  which  would 
provide  water  for  a  million  people.  The  first  stage  of  Kim- 
berley's  new  waterworks  came  into  operation  in  June,  which 
provided  an  extra  1,250,000  gal.  a  day  for  the  city.  A  new 
aqueduct  constructed  at  a  cost  of  Rs.  5-5  million  and  capable 
of  supplying  an  additional  32  million  gal.  a  day,  for  Madras, 
India,  was  opened  in  October.  (J.  KD.) 

United  States.  World  shortages  of  water  in  1949  repre- 
sented a  continuation  of  the  difficult  experiences  of  the  winter 
of  1947-48.  In  many  countries  the  high  summer  temperatures 
and  rainfall  deficiencies  of  1949  heightened  the  problem. 
Perhaps  the  most  significant  evidence  of  this  difficulty  was 
the  shortage  in  the  New  York  metropolitan  area,  still  per- 
sistent by  the  end  of  the  year.  With  the  largest  water  con- 
sumption in  the  world,  somewhat  more  than  1,000  million 
gal.  a  day,  the  New  York  area  found  itself  with  a  reserve 
which  would  only  last  60  days,  if  the  low  rainfall  conditions 
of  the  autumn  continued  during  the  early  part  of  1950.  Less 
than  35  %  of  the  potential  capacity  of  its  storage  reservoirs 
was  available  by  the  end  of  the  year. 

The  importance  of  this  phenomenon  could  not  be  over- 
estimated, since  it  pointed  to  the  necessity  for  setting  planning 
stakes  many  years  ahead  in  the  provision  of  water  supply. 

The    rapid    expansion    of   the    nuclear    fission    industry 


resulted  in  the  development  of  new  radio-active  materials 
and  wastes.  There  was  rapid  progress  in  the  understanding 
and  detection  of  liquid,  solid  and  gaseous  wastes  from  the 
atomic  energy  industry  and  the  methods  for  reducing  these 
wastes.  Much  research  was  in  progress  to  develop  and 
improve  methods  and  instruments  for  detecting  radiation 
in  air  and  in  water.  The  North  American  National  Committee 
on  Radiation  Protection  was  preparing  to  announce  its 
recommendations  on  the  maximum  safe  limits  of  radio- 
activity in  water  and  air.  The  International  Labour  office 
promulgated  tentative  permissible  limits  for  radiation. 
The  training  of  public  health  engineers  in  nuclear  fission 
was  initiated. 

The  addition  of  fluorides  to  public  water  supplies  for  the 
prevention  of  dental  caries  in  children  was  still  arousing  a 
great  deal  of  lay  and  official  interest.  By  the  end  of  1949 
about  17  fluoridation  installations  were  in  operation  in 
nine  states  in  the  United  States.  Fourteen  additional  ones 
had  been  approved,  and  20  more  were  under  consideration. 

WEALTH    AND    INCOME,    DISTRIBUTION 

OF.  In  the  course  of  1949  estimates  of  the  distribution  of 
incomes  between  persons  were  published  for  only  four 
European  countries,  which  publish  this  material  annually: 
Denmark,  Finland,  Sweden  and  the  United  Kingdom.  For 
Denmark,  Finland  and  Sweden  estimates  of  the  distribution 
of  capital  between  persons  were  also  given. 

The  distribution  of  incomes  in  the  United  Kingdom  for 
1 947  was  given  in  the  White  Paper  on  national  income.  The 
official  estimates  have  to  be  supplemented  by  an  estimate  for 
the  number  of  incomes  in  the  lowest  group  which  could  be 
made  with  reference  to  the  estimated  total  number  of  income 
recipients;  the  distribution  still  suffered  from  the  defect  of 
not  giving  sufficient  detail  for  the  lowest  and  largest  group. 
The  general  tendency,  in  comparison  with  1946,  was  a  shift 
from  lower  to  higher  income  groups  without  changing  the 
number  of  incomes  over  £1,000.  The  distribution  of  incomes 
after  income  tax  and  surtax,  also  given,  was  much  more  even, 
to  about  the  same  degree  as  in  previous  years;  it  must  be 
remembered  that  indirect  taxes,  for  which  no  allowance  was 
made,  were  of  a  repressive  nature.  (See  Table  I.) 

TABLE  L— DISTRIBUTION  OF  INCOMES  IN  THE  UNITED  KINGDOM,  1947 


Range  of 

incomes 

(m£) 

Under  250 

250-500    . 

500-1,000 

1,000-2,000 

2,000-10000      . 

10,000  and  over 


Amount  of  income 

Number  of  Amount  of  income  after  income-tax 

incomes  before  tax              and  surtax 

(m   thousands)  (in  £  million)         (in  £  million) 

(13,000)  2,480                        2,447 

7,900  2,690                        2,470 

1,850  1,224                          992 

485  654                           464 

165  597                            320 


10 


Total         .          (23,500) 
Unallocated  private  income 


184 

7,829 
1,743 


43 


6,736 
1,207 


Total  9,572  7,943 

Notes.        Unallocated    private    income   includes    the   undistributed 

profits  of  companies,  company  taxation,  and  any  other  income  which 

cannot  be  allocated  to  individuals.    Figures  do  not  add  to  total  shown, 

owing  to  rounding. 

Source.     National  Income  and  Expenditure  of  the  United  Kingdom, 

J946  to  1948  (H  M.S.O.  Cmd.   7649).      Figures   in  brackets  private 

estimates. 

The  latest  Danish  statistical  yearbook  gave  distributions 
of  both  income  and  capital  for  1947-48.  In  Denmark  also, 
a  general  shift  from  lower  to  higher  ranges  of  both  income 
and  capital  was  noticeable  in  comparison  with  1946.  (See 
Table  II.) 

In  Finland,  the  latest  statistical  yearbook  gave  more 
detailed  estimates  relating  to  the  distributions  of  both  income 
and  capital  in  1945  and  showed  these  distributions  after  tax. 


WEALTH  AND   INCOME 


675 


TABLE  II.— DISTRIBUTION  OF  INCOMES  AND  CAPITAL  IN  DENMARK 


1947-48 

Range  of 

Number  of  income 

Range  of  capital 

Number  of 

incomes 

recipients 

estates 

(m  kroner) 

(m  thousands) 

(in  kroner) 

(in  thhusands) 

Under  1,000 

158 

0 

813 

1,000-2,000 

347 

Under  4,000 

459 

2,000-5,000 

894 

4,000-10,000 

365 

5,000-10,000 

514 

10,000-20,000 

163 

10,000-20,000 

81 

20,000-100,000 

186 

20,000-50,000 

17 

100,000-500,000 

26 

50,000  and  over 

3 

500,000  and  over  . 

2 

Total 


2,014 


Total 


2,014 


Total  income-  KR  8,812  million.  Total  capital:   KR.  20,174  million. 

Notes      £1^KR    19-32.    All  persons  liable  to  assessment  (persons 
over   18)  included.        Source.     Stanvisk  Aarbog  1948. 

TABLE  III. — DISIRIBUHON  OF  INCOMFS  IN  FINLAND,   1945. 


Range  of        Number  of  income       Amount  of 


incomes  (m 
thousand   Mk.) 
15-30 
30-60 
60-90 
90-180 
180-360 
360-540        . 
540  and  over 


recipients 

(in  thousands) 

193 

460 

247 

134 

17 

2 

1 


Total    .          .  1,054 

Non-personal  income 


Total 


income  (in 

million  Mk  ) 

4,465 

19,992 

17,944 

15,442 

4,004 

995 

1,211 

64,052 
16,483 

80,535 


Tax  on 

income  (in 

million  Mk.) 

128 

1,030 

1,211 

1,517 

650 

211 

348 


5,094 
4,349 

9,443 


Notes.     £l-Mk. 
owing  to  rounding. 


550.      Figures  do  not  add  up  to    total    shown, 
Source.     Suomen  Tilastokinen  Vuosikirja,  1948. 


TABLE  IV. — DISTRIBUTION  OF  CAPITAL  IN  FINLAND,  1945. 
Range  of  capital   Number  of  estates  Amount  of  capital  Tax  on  capital 

(in  thousand  Mk.)    (in  thousands)  (in  million  Mk.)  (in  million  Mk.) 

100-300        .                         110  20,460                          47 

300-600       .         .                 72  30,434                         84 

600-1,200     .          .                 45  37,155                         133 

1,200-2,700           .                 20  33,788                        196 

2,700-7,200           .                   5  20,604                        208 

7,200-18,000         .                  0-8  8,783                        129 

18,000  and  over   .                  0-3  9,098                        166 


Total    .         .  253 

Non-personal  capital 

Total 
Notes  and  source.     See  Table  III. 


160,322 

76,601 

236,923 


962 

602 

1,564 


DISTRIBUTION    OF    U.K.  PERSONAL    INCOME 

(BY  RANGES    OF    INCOME) 

DTotol  of  Incomes  m  each 
grod«  otter  tax 


KEY       H  Income  Tax  and  Surtax 
INCOME  GROUPS  0         "'^O0  '.QQO     _   ',500 


2,50 


JI947 


J,1947 


JI947  , 


£lO,OOO  and 
ovtr 


NUMBER  OF    INCOMES 
IN    EACH    GROUP 

1938  1947 

Under  £250 

«£  250-499—  >-2  jOOO,000~-~  7,900,000 
£500-999-   —  -670,000— H, 8  50,000 
«£lpOO- 1,999     •       224,000--       485,000 
«£2pOO-9£99     --98,000     --165,000 
4.10,000  and  over- -  •  8,000 10,000 


0  500  1,000          1,500         2,000         2,500 

,£  Million  <£  Million 


TABLE  V. — DISTRIBUTION  OF  INCOMES  IN  SWEDEN.  1947. 

Range  of  Incomes  Number  of  income  recipients    Amount  of  incomes 

(in  kroner)  (in  thousands)  (m  Kr.  million) 

600-1,000     .         .  178  144 

1,000-2,000            .  521  778 

2,000-5,000           .  1,153  4,712 

5,000-10,000          .  964  6,434 

10.000-20,000  182  2  374 

20,000-50,000  37  1,042 

50,000  and  over  5  *475 

Total    .  3,241  15,958 

Notes.     £1    ^KR    14  47      Figures  do  not  add  up  to  total  shown, 
owing  to  rounding.  Source       Statistisk  Arsb^k  fdr  Svenxe,  1949. 

TABLt   VI  -  DISTRIBUIION  OF  CAPITAL  IN  SWEDEN,   1945. 


Range  of  Capital 

(in  kronor) 
0 

1,000-5,000 
5,000-10,000 
10,000-20,000 
20,000-^0,000 
30,000-50,000 
50,000  and  over 


Number   of  estates 
(in  thousands) 
2,049 
447 
269 
234 
100 
83 
88 


Per  cent 
62 
14 

8 
7 
3 
3 
3 


Total    .          .          .  3,269  100 

Total  capital.    Kr.  25,103  million.    Notes  and  source.  See  Table  V. 

Both  series  exhibited  the  very  progressive  nature  of  taxation 
in  Finland.  Taxes  on  income  rose  from  3%  in  the  lowest 
group  to  30%  m  the  highest,  and  taxes  on  capital  from  02% 
to  1  •  8%  which  also  took  away  a  high  proportion  of  the  annual 
return  on  capital.  The  heaviest  rates  seemed  to  apply  to 
incomes  and  capital  other  than  those  falling  under  personal 
taxation.  (See  Tables  III  and  IV.) 

The  latest  Swedish  statistical  yearbook  gave  the  distri- 
bution of  income  for  1947.  As  in  the  countries  previously 
mentioned,  there  was  in  Sweden  a  definite  shift  from  the 
ranges  under  Kr.  5,000  to  those  above  this  limit  but  with  a 
fall  in  the  highest  range,  above  Kr.50,000.  (See  Table  V.) 

The  distribution  of  capital  was  published  for  Sweden  in 
1945— the  first  time  since  1930.  The  data  showed  that  about 
two-thirds  of  the  occupied  population  had  no  capital,  and 
there  were  only  271,000  estates  over  Kr.20,000  (8%  of  the 
occupied  population).  (See  Table  VI.)  A  distribution  for 
estates  over  Kr.20,000  was  available  only  for  1947. 

(T.  BAR.) 

United  States.  A  survey  of  consumer  finances  in  the  U.S., 
published  in  1949  by  the  board  of  governors  of  the  Federal 
Reserve  system,  supplied  information  on  the  distribution 
of  income  in  1948  and  liquid  assets  in  early  1949.  Three 
previous  surveys  had  made  similar  information  available  for 
the  period  1945-47.  The  surveys  were  based  on  small  field 
canvasses  of  consumer  spending  units,  defined  as  "  all 
persons  living  in  the  same  dwelling  and  related  by  blood, 
marriage  or  adoption  who  pooled  their  incomes  for  their 
major  items  of  expense."  Data  on  the  percentage  distribution 
of  spending  units  according  to  size  of  holdings  of  liquid 
assets — U.S.  government  bonds,  savings  accounts,  and 
checking  accounts— are  provided  in  Table  VII. 

The  1949  distribution  did  not  differ  substantially  from  the 
pattern  of  earlier  postwar  years.  Over  the  1946-49  period, 
however,  there  was  an  appreciable  increase  in  the  proportion 
of  spending  units  having  no  liquid  assets.  About  14-5  million 
spending  units,  or  29%  of  the  total  number  in  the  U.S.,  had 
no  liquid  assets  in  early  1949. 

Table  VIII  summarizes  data  provided  by  the  four  consumer- 
finance  surveys  on  the  distribution  of  spending  units  and 
total  money  income  according  to  size  of  income.  These  data 
reveal  a  significant  upward  movement  in  the  income  distri- 
bution since  World  War  II.  This  was  an  extension  of  develop- 
ments in  evidence  over  the  war  period.  The  postwar 


676 


WEIZMANN— WESTERN   UNION 


1946 

1947 

1948 

1949 

24% 
15 

24% 
14 

27% 
15 

29% 
16 

14 

12 

13 

13 

14 

14 

12 

11 

14 

14 

12 

11 

7 

7 

6 

5 

6 

7 

6 

7 

4 

5 

5 

5 

2 

3 

4 

3 

.  100% 
.  $400 

100% 
$470 

100% 
$350 

100% 
$300 

.  $750 

$890 

$820 

$790 

expansion  of  total  money  income  was  accompanied  by  a  shifting 
of  many  consumers  to  higher  income  levels.  This  shifting, 
it  should  be  emphasized,  pervaded  the  entire  income  distri- 
bution. The  surveys  found  that  when  the  nation's  spending 
units  were  classed  into  tenths  by  size  of  income  there  were 
only  slight  changes  from  1945  to  1948  in  the  proportionate 
share  of  total  money  income  received  by  each  tenth. 

TABLE  VI I. —DISTRIBUTION  OF  SPENDING   UNITS  BY  SIZE  OF  LIQUID 

ASSET  HOLDINGS 
Amounts  of  liquid  assets  held* 
None 

$1— $199     . 
$200— $499 
$500— $999 
$1,000— $1,999     . 
$2,000— $2,999     . 
$3,000—  $4,999     . 
$5,000— $9,999 
$10,000  and  over  . 

All  units 

Median  holdings  of  all  units   . 
Median  holdings  of  those  with  assets 

•  Includes  all  types  of  U  S  government  bonds,  checking  account;.,  and  savings 
accounts  in  banks,  postal  savings  and  shares  in  savings  and  loan  associations 
and  credit  unions.  Excludes  currency  holdings  Data  tor  1949  do  not  include 
shares  in  credit  unions,  but  these  arc  relatively  small  in  the  aggregate  and  not 
likely  to  a  fleet  totals  significantly 

SOURCE       Board  of  governors  of  the  Federal  Reserve  system. 

TABLE   VIII  — PERCENTAGE   OF   MONEY  INCOME   RECEIVED   BY   LACH 

FIFTH  OF  FAMII  IPS  AND  SINGLE  PERSONS 
Families  and  single  persons,  lowest 
to  highest  income  brackets 
Lowest  fifth 
Second  fifth 
Third  fifth 
Fourth  fifth     . 
Highest  fifth    . 
All  groups 

SouRCb  Council  of  Economic  Advisers,  based  on  survey  data  from  National 
Resource  Planning  board  (1935-36),  Department  of  Labour  (1941),  and  Bureau 
of  the  Census,  Department  of  Commerce  (1948) 

A  longer-term  comparison  of  changes  in  the  distribution 
of  income  is  afforded  by  Table  IX.  This  shows  for  two  pre- 
war years  and  the  full-employment  year  of  1948  the  percentage 
of  money  income  going  to  each  fifth  of  the  total  number  of 
families  and  single  persons,  ranging  from  those  with  the 
lowest  incomes  to  those  with  the  highest. 

TABLF  IX. — DISTRIBUTION  OF  SPFNDING  UNITS  AND  MONEY  INCOME 

RFCFIVFD  BY  INCOME  GROUPS 
, — 1945 — ,    r— 1946 — >    , — 1947 — ,    , — 1948 — , 


1935-36 

1941 

1948 

4-0% 

3  5% 

4  2% 

8-7 

9  1 

10  5 

13-6 

15  3 

16-1 

20  5 

22-5 

22-3 

53-2 

49  6 

46  9 

100  0% 

100  0% 

100  0% 

c  c  <u  'v 

00 

c 

60 

4> 
C 

W) 

c 

t>0 

<u 
c 

Q 

o 

Q 

O 

Q 

W 

o  w 

"w  6  w  $ 

•5  ~ 

6 

Is 

E 

IS 

1 

6 

•3  «2 

6  6 

3  s^-  g  *- 

g  ! 

8 

g  g 

o 

o 

c  c 

8 

c  a 

_  8 

§2i 

2 

c 

*e3 

C 

cL 

*c3 

s 

CL, 

3  s 

<2 

C/5 

o 

c/2 

o 

C/2 

o 

CO 

o 

"  8  "* 

H 

H 

H 

H 

Under  $1,000  . 

20% 

5 

% 

17% 

3 

% 

14% 

2% 

12% 

2% 

$1,000-$  1,999  . 

27 

16 

23 

12 

22 

10 

18 

8 

$2,000-$2,999   . 

23 

23 

25 

21 

23 

17 

23 

16 

$3,000-$3,999   . 

15 

20 

17 

20 

17 

18 

20 

20 

$4,000-$4,999   . 

7 

12 

8 

13 

10 

13 

12 

14 

$5,000-$7,499   . 

5 

11 

6 

11 

9 

16 

10 

17 

$7,500  and  over 

3 

13 

4 

20 

5 

24 

5 

23 

All  units    . 

100% 

100 

/o 

100% 

,f      »k-       K: 

100% 

>/<orr>l      E 

100% 

100 

% 

100% 

100% 

accepted  an  invitation  from  the  Israeli  provisional  govern- 
ment to  serve  as  first  president  of  Israel.  On  Oct.  1  he  sur- 
rendered his  British  passport  and  took  the  oath  to  the  state 
of  Israel.  Opening  on  Feb.  14,  1949,  in  Jerusalem,  the  first 
Constituent  Assembly  (Knesset)  of  Israel,  he  emphasized  that 
the  new  state  was  being  built  on  solid  foundations  of  freedom, 
equality,  collective  responsibility  and  national  self-discipline. 
On  Feb.  16  he  was  formally  elected  president  of  the  republic 
by  83  votes  to  15  cast  for  Professor  Joseph  Klausner,  the 
nominee  of  the  Nationalist  party;  15  deputies  returned 
blank  votes.  In  the  spring  he  visited  the  United  States  where 
on  April  23  in  a  speech  at  New  York  he  pledged  his  country 
to  accept  the  fullest  international  safeguard  for  the  immunity 
and  protection  of  the  Holy  Places  in  Jerusalem.  He  also 
visited  Washington  and  was  received  by  President  Harry  S. 
Truman.  Later  in  the  year  he  went  to  Switzerland  for  eye 
treatment.  On  Sept.  12  he  received  an  honorary  degree 
from  the  University  of  Fribourg  where  50  years  before  he 
had  been  a  student,  and  was  also  honoured  by  the  canton 
and  city  of  Fribourg.  He  returned  to  Israel  early  in  October. 

WELLINGTON,  capital  of  New  Zealand,  on  the 
southwestern  shore  of  the  North  Island.  Pop.  (1948  est.): 
131,000  (189,000  with  suburbs).  Mayor,  W.  Appleton. 

For  the  city  area  in  the  financial  year  1948-49,  the  total 
revenue  was  £3,316,146  and  the  expenditure  £3,404,834. 
The  largest  items  were  the  municipally  controlled  milk  supply 
(revenue  £1,000,754,  expenditure  £1,000,598);  the  transport 
services  (£638,205,  £728,268);  and  the  electricity  supply 
(£568,315,  £563,865).  Internal  loans  totalling  £346,000, 
mainly  for  drainage  and  housing,  were  raised  or  renewed 
during  the  financial  year.  The  capital  value  of  the  city  rose 
to  £51,142,048,  and  the  number  of  buildings  in  the  city  to 
over  30,000.  The  volume  of  trade  handled  in  the  port  of 
Wellington  (year  ended  Sept.  30,  1949)  was  2,161,048  tons; 
and  shipping  tonnage  amounted  to  3,295,128  tons.  The 
latest  figures  available  (year  ended  Sept.  30,  1948)  valued 
exports  at  £34,768,592,  and  imports  at  £52,070,439;  the 
main  commodities  exported  were  wool,  frozen  meat,  dairy 
produce  and  fruit. 

Apart  from  a  large  residential  block  for  nurses  at  the 
Public  hospital,  Newtown,  no  large  public  buildings  were 
opened.  Building  controls  curtailed  the  erection  of  other 
than  private  dwellings  but  some  of  the  leeway  in  the  severe 
housing  shortage  was  made  up. 

In  May,  Victoria  University  college,  Wellington's  con- 
stituent college  of  the  University  of  New  Zealand,  celebrated 
its  golden  jubilee.  (R.  W.  B.) 


It  was  evident  that  from  1935-36  to  1948  there  was  a  re- 
distribution of  income  in  the  United  States  away  from  the 
highest  income  bracket.  The  second,  third,  and  fourth  income 
brackets  significantly  improved  their  relative  positions, 
whilst  the  percentage  of  total  money  income  received  by  the 
highest  bracket  declined  from  53  to  47.  (See  also  BUDGET, 
NATIONAL;  NATIONAL  INCOME;  TAXATION.)  (C.  F.  Sz.) 

WEIZMANN,  CHAIM  BEN  OZER,  Israeli 
statesman  (b.  Motol,  near  Pinsk,  in  the  then  Russian  part  of 
Poland,  Nov.  27,  1 874).  (For  his  early  career  see  Britannica 
Book  of  the  Year  1949). 

On  May  17,  1948,  he  announced  in  New  York  that  he  had 


WEST    AFRICA,    BRITISH: 

AFRICA. 


see    BRITISH    WEST 


WESTERN  UNION— the  defensive,  economic  and 
cultural  association  established  between  five  western  European 
countries  (Belgium,  France,  Great  Britain,  Luxembourg  and 
the  Netherlands)  under  the  treaty  of  Brussels  signed  on 
March  17,  1948 — served  during  1949  as  the  point  of  departure 
for  the  North  Atlantic  treaty  (^.v.)  and  the  Council  of  Europe 
(^.v.),  but  retained  a  corporate  existence  independent  of  either. 

The  North  Atlantic  treaty  arose  out  of  Western  Union 
negotiations  with  the  U.S.  and  Canada,  which  at  one  time 
seemed  to  aim  at  a  transatlantic  extension  of  Western  Union. 
In  the  end,  however,  they  resulted  in  the  creation  of  a 
completely  independent  and  partly  overlapping  defence 
system  of  its  own. 

Similarly,  the  Council  of  Europe  arose  out  of  the  French 
and  Belgian  desire  to  transform  Western  Union  from  a  mere 
alliance  between  sovereign  states  into  a  politically  integrated 


WHEAT 


677 


federation  or  confederation.  The  preparatory  work  for  its 
statute  was  done  by  a  special  committee,  meeting  under  the 
auspices  of  Western  Union  in  Paris  from  Nov.  26,  1948,  to 
Jan.  20,  1949;  the  decision  to  establish  a  Council  of  Europe, 
consisting  of  a  committee  of  ministers  meeting  in  private 
and  a  consultative  assembly  meeting  in  public,  was  taken  at 
a  meeting  of  the  consultative  council  of  ministers  of  Western 
Union  in  London  on  Jan.  27-28,  1949.  The  outlines  of  the 
constitution  of  the  Council  of  Europe  were  also  still  drawn 
up  by  the  permanent  commission  of  Western  Union  m  Feb. 
1949.  However,  the  further  and  detailed  negotiation  of  the 
actual  constitution  of  the  new  body  passed  to  the  wider 
circle  of  countries  which  were  ready  to  join  the  Council  of 
Europe  without  wishing  to  join  Western  Union;  and  all 
further  direct  connection  between  the  two  organizations 
ceased. 

For  the  rest,  the  main  achievements  of  Western  Union 
during  1949  were  military.  The  work  of  merging  the  defence 
policies  of  the  five  treaty  partners  and  co-ordinating  their 
armed  forces  made  steady  progress.  In  the  early  days  of  the 
year,  the  commanders  in  chief  committee  appointed  in  the 
autumn  of  1948  established  its  headquarters  at  Fontainebleau 
(France)  and  started  practical  work  under  the  chairmanship 
of  Viscount  Montgomery  of  Alamein.  The  first  joint  peace- 
time naval  exercises  of  the  Western  Union  powers  were  held 
in  the  Bay  of  Biscay  and  the  English  channel  from  July  4-7, 
100  warships  and  22,000  men  being  engaged.  After  a  U.S.- 
British air  exercise  over  Britain  from  June  25-July  3  had  seen 
some  Western  Union  participation,  the  first  full-scale  Western 
Union  air  exercise  took  place  in  the  Orleans  region  of  France 
on  Oct.  28.  Agreement  on  a  common  defence  plan  had 
already  been  announced  on  April  8. 

On  Nov.  7,  the  Western  Union  powers  signed  a  social 
security  convention,  under  which  each  of  the  five  countries 
would  treat  nationals  of  the  other  four  like  its  own  nationals 
in  respect  of  social  security  benefits  and  medical  assistance. 

(S.  HR.) 

WEST  INDIES,  BRITISH:  &e< -BAHAMAS; BARBADOS; 
BRITISH  WEST  INDIES;  JAMAICA;  LEEWARD  ISLANDS;  TRINIDAD 
AND  TOBAGO;  WINDWARD  ISLANDS. 

WHEAT.  The  wheat  crop  in  1949  was  good  though  m 
general  below  the  1948  crop.  Only  m  comparatively  few 
cases,  however,  did  the  yields  of  individual  countries  exceed 
the  prewar  averages,  two  notable  exceptions  being  provided 
by  Great  Britain  and  Canada,  and  even  here  the  yield  was 
rather  below  the  1948  figure.  The  Italian  crop  returns  for 
wheat  during  1949  showed  a  significant  increase  over  the 
1948  figures  but  this  still  did  not  come  up  to  the  prewar 
average.  The  reduction  in  yield  compared  with  1948  was 
attributable  in  part  to  the  abnormally  dry  conditions  that 
prevailed  for  such  a  long  period  during  1949.  This  did  not 
lead  to  such  a  serious  decline  as  m  the  case  of  root  crops, 
wheat  being  moderately  tolerant  of  drought,  but  it  neverthe- 
less was  the  occasion  of  some  anxiety  to  wheat  growers, 
particularly  in  Australia  and  South  Africa. 

Much  work  on  the  improvement  of  wheat  varieties  was 
carried  out  in  1949.  In  Canada,  Australia  and  to  a  lesser 
extent  Kenya  resistance  to  rust  and  in  particular  to  new 
strains  of  rust  was  one  of  the  principal  breeder's  objectives. 
Several  new  rust-resistant  varieties  were  introduced  into 
cultivation.  Straw  strength  was  another  character  that  was 
the  object  of  much  attention.  Both  in  Sweden  and  Kenya 
new  strains  of  wheat  were  tested  for  strength  of  straw  and 
in  Italy  some  new  varieties  with  improved  resistance  to 
lodging  by  wind  were  distributed.  Work  on  the  improvement 
of  the  overwintering  capacity  of  autumn-sown  wheats  was 
principally  carried  out  in  Sweden  where  Finnish  wheat 


strains  were  utilized;  some  work  along  these  lines  was  also 
done  in  Canada.  Two  other  problems  were  tackled  in  Canada, 
attack  by  smut  and  infestation  by  the  sawfly;  in  both  cases 
new  resistant  strains  were  sought.  In  India  drought  resistance 
remained  one  of  the  principal  breeding  objectives  and  in 
New  Zealand  new  varieties  combining  high  yield  with 
greatly  improved  baking  quality  were  distributed. 

Much  publicity  was  given  to  the  claims  made  in  the 
U.S  S.R.  for  the  spectacularly  high  yields  obta.ned  from  a 
wheat  with  branched  ears.  This  wheat  appeared  to  be 
related  to  a  form  known  for  many  years  past  in  western 
Europe  as  a  curiosity  capable  of  producing  high  yields  under 
garden  condition^  but  of  little  value  under  normal  farming 
conditions.  Further  information  about  the  performance  of 
the  Russian  v\heat  under  field  conditions  was  desirable  before 
coming  to  a  conclusion  as  to  its  economic  value. 

The  hybrids  between  wheat  and  grasses  of  the  genus 
Agropyron,  the  so-called  perennial  wheats,  were  much  less 
in  the  news  in  1949.  In  the  U  S.S  R.  the  work  of  Tsitsin,  the 
pioneer  of  perennial  wheat,  was  criticized  as  economically 
valueless.  Elsewhere,  especially  in  Canada,  South  Africa  and 
Italy,  wheat  Agropyron  hybrids  were  studied  extensively;  it 
seemed  that  although  these  hybrids  might  prove  of  value  as 
forage  crops  their  value  as  cereals  was  dubious.  (R.  H.  Ri.) 

WORLD  WHFAT  PRODUCTION,  RLVISFD  ESTIMAILS  * 
(In  million  bushels) 


United  Slates 
Canada 
Mexico 
Europe 
Great  Britain 
North  Africa 
Union  of  South  Africa 
Asia 

Argentina 
Australia 
USSR 
World  Total 

*  Revised  estimates  by  the  U  S  Department  of  Agriculture  on  basis  of  in- 
complete reports  from  several  countries  with  adjustments  for  year  ul  harvest, 
and  including  allowance  for  missing  data  and  forecasts  for  crops  being  harvested. 

The  world  wheat  crop  of  1949  was  estimated  at  6,185 
million  bu.,  compared  with  6,385  million  bu.  in  1948  and  a 
prewar  average  of  slightly  more  than  6,000  million  bu.  in 
1935-39.  Practically  all  of  the  decline,  as  compared  with 
1948,  was  accounted  for  by  North  America,  particularly  the 
U.S.,  although  the  spring  wheat  crop  of  Canada  showed  a 
substantial  decline  also. 

United  States.  The  U.S.  wheat  crop  of  1949  which 
amounted  to  1,146,463,000  bu.  was  the  sixth  consecutive 
crop  of  more  than  1,000  million  bu.  Nevertheless,  it  was  a 
disappointment  in  that,  from  a  record  planted  acreage  of 
84,931,000,  about  6  million  more  than  for  1948,  the  harvest 
was  13%  less  than  the  1,313,534,000  bu.  of  1948.  The 
76,751,000  ac.  harvested  gave  a  yield  of  only  14-9  bu.  per  ac., 
compared  with  18  bu.  per  ac.  (on  73,017,000  harvested  acres) 
in  1948,  and  an  average  yield  for  1938-47  of  16-6  bu. 

The  1949  winter  wheat  crop  of  901,668,000  bu.  was  the 
third  largest  on  record,  exceeded  by  the  1,007,863,000  bu. 
of  1948,  and  the  record  1,068,048,000  bu.  in  1947.  Yields 
averaged  only  16-3  bu.,  well  below  the  18-8  bu.  of  1948> 
and  an  average  for  1938-47  of  17  bu. 

Spring  wheat  production,  mostly  in  the  northern  Great 
Plains,  was  estimated  at  244,795,000  bu.,  20%  less  than  the 
305,671,000  bu.  of  1948,  and  8%  below  the  average  of  the 
previous  decade.  The  21,298,000  harvested  acres,  the  largest 
since  1932,  represented  a  9%  increase  over  1948,  and  23% 
larger  than  for  the  decade.  Yields  were  cut  sharply  by  drought 
and  accompanying  hazards  to  an  average  of  1 1  •  5  bu.  per  ac., 


1949 

1948 

1947 

Average 
1935-39 

1,146 

1,314 

1,367 

758 

367 

391 

342 

312 

17 

18 

16 

14 

1,465 

1,455 

1,005 

1,595 

80 

88 

62 

62 

126 

114 

100 

120 

17 

18 

18 

16 

1,480 

1,593 

1,526 

1,499 

210 

191 

245 

222 

190 

190 

220 

170 

1,100 

1,025 

850 

1,240 

6,185 

6,385 

5,780 

6.015 

678 


WILD   LIFE   CONSERVATION 


compared  with  15-7  bu.  in  1948,  and  15-4  bu.  average  for 
1938-47. 

The  wheat  situation  at  the  end  of  1949  in  summary  was: 
carryover  stocks  of  305,773,000  bu.  plus  the  1949  harvest 
of  1,146,463,000  bu.  provided  a  total  supply  of  1,452,236,000 
bu.  (against  1,484,106,000  bu.  total  supply  the  year  before). 
Domestic  requirements  during  1949-50  were  estimated  at 
about  700  million  bu.  (food  487  million;  seed  83  million; 
feed  130  million).  Thus,  752  million  bu.  appeared  to  be 
available  for  export  and  reserve  stocks.  It  was  expected  that 
stocks  on  July  1,  1950,  would  be  at  least  350  million  bu.  and 
might  be  nearer  400  million  bu.  (See  also  FLOUR.)  (J.  K.  R.) 

WILD  LIFE  CONSERVATION.  Interest  in  the 
conservation  of  wild  life  was  brought  to  a  focus  at  the  Inter- 
national Technical  Conference  on  the  Protection  of  Nature 
convened  by  U.N.E.S.C.O.  and  held  at  Lake  Success,  New 
York,  from  Aug.  22-27,  1949,  simultaneously  with  a  United 
Nations  Scientific  Conference  on  the  Conservation  and  Utili- 
zation of  Resources.  These  two  conferences  invited  the 
International  Union  for  the  Protection  of  Nature,  founded 
in  1948,  to  collect  from  technically  qualified  people  reports 
on  various  aspects  of  the  problem  of  the  conservation  of 
nature.  One  hundred  and  fifty  reports  were  received  con- 
taining on  the  whole  an  important  mass  of  well  informed 
comment  which  constituted  the  basis  of  the  discussions  at 
the  conference. 

Neither  France,  Great  Britain  nor  the  United  States  had 
as  yet  given  official  support  to  the  union  and  were  only 
represented  by  private  organizations.  It  was  hoped,  therefore, 
that  by  combining  the  two  conferences  and  thus  emphasizing 
the  close  connection  between  the  protection  of  wild  life, 
fauna  and  flora  and  the  utilization  of  resources  such  as  soil, 
water  and  climate  that  these  and  other  governments  would 
be  persuaded  to  take  a  more  active  interest  in  conservation 
than  they  had  previously  shown.  The  conference  was  also 
valuable  in  that  it  served  to  sort  out  to  some  extent  the 
confusion  caused  by  the  multiplicity  of  national  and  inter- 
national organizations  working  in  overlapping  fields.  Credit 
for  its  success  was  partly  due  to  the  ability  and  enthusiasm 
of  the  general  secretary,  Dr.  Jean-Paul  Harroy. 

The  conclusions  of  the  Technical  conference  were  em- 
bodied in  23  resolutions,  drawing  up  an  ambitious  programme 
of  work  for  the  future.  The  necessity  for  extensive  and  in- 
tensive ecological  studies  was  emphasized  in  which  each 
selected  area  would  be  treated  as  a  total  dynamic  ecological 
situation  including  all  possible  factors  such  as  soil,  water, 
food,  climate,  plants,  animals  and  the  people  concerned, 
with  special  emphasis  on  their  interrelationships.  It  was 
suggested  that  the  results  should  be  published  not  only  in 
technical  form  for  specialists  but  in  popular  form  in  several 
languages  for  the  general  public.  Various  resolutions  were 
concerned  with  the  need  for  education,  particularly  of  the 
young,  through  schools  and  youth  movements.  Several 
were  devoted  to  the  importance  of  ecological  studies  in  close 
connection  with  various  projects  for  the  agricultural  develop- 
ment of  undeveloped  land;  others  urged  precaution  in  the 
use  of  insecticides  with  a  view  to  protecting  the  equilibrium  of 
nature  and  preventing  the  destruction  of  animal  and  plant 
communities  and  warned  against  rash  experiment,  including 
the  introduction  of  exotic  species. 

Among  the  subjects  more  specifically  covered  by  the 
resolutions  were  the  protection  of  species  of  animals  and 
plants  threatened  with  extinction,  an  approach  to  the  govern- 
ment of  India  urging  measures  for  the  protection  of  the  great 
Indian  one-horned  rhinoceros,  another  to  the  government  of 
the  United  Kingdom  suggesting  that  a  further  conference 
should  be  summoned  to  report  progress  under  the  African 
convention  of  1933,  and  yet  another  to  the  French  government 


requesting  that  appropriate  measures  be  taken  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  Camargue  reserve  at  the  Rhone  delta.  The 
conference  had  no  authority  to  implement  these  resolutions 
but  hoped  that  effect  would  be  given,  through  appropriate 
channels,  to  its  recommendations. 

In  British  Africa  informal  conferences  between  Game 
departments  were  held  and  scientific  research  into  such 
problems  as  game-borne  diseases  continued.  Where  the 
policy  of  national  parks  had  been  accepted  delay  in  giving 
it  effect  was  still  caused  by  difficulties  over  boundaries  and 
native  reserves.  In  India  the  existing  legislation  for  the 
protection  of  nature  was  undergoing  revision.  In  Great 
Britain  the  Nature  Conservancy  was  founded  by  Royal 
Charter  to  advise  the  government  on  establishing  nature 
reserves  and  to  carry  out  necessary  researches  in  connection 
with  them.  The  National  Parks  and  Access  to  the  Countryside 
bill  introduced  in  parliament  in  March  proposed  to  confer 
upon  the  Nature  Conservancy  considerable  powers  to  acquire 
land  for  the  creation  of  nature  reserves.  The  bill  received  the 
Royal  Assent  on  Dec.  16.  (H.  G.  M.) 

United  States.  In  March,  the  Fourteenth  North  American 
Wildlife  conference  met  in  Washington,  D.C.;  there  was  a 
record  attendance  of  1,147  from  47  states,  Alaska,  the 
District  of  Columbia,  Canada,  Mexico,  and  Argentina. 
The  transactions,  published  by  the  Wildlife  Management 
institute,  sponsor  of  the  conference,  comprised  some  65 
papers,  most  of  which  were  reports  of  studies  and  investiga- 
tions, and  constituted  an  outstanding  symposium  on  the 
status  of  wild  life  in  North  America. 

In  June  the  Fish  and  Wildlife  service  of  the  U.S.  Depart- 
ment of  the  Interior  reported  a  compilation  of  state  estimates 
of  big-game  numbers  for  1947  including  inventories  on 
national  forests,  parks,  and  refuges,  showing  a  total  of 
7,758,000  in  the  United  States  and  a  reported  total  of  891,200 
taken  by  hunters. 

A  special  report  on  The  Moose  and  Its  Ecology  issued  in 
Dec.  1949  by  Dr.  N.  W.  Hosley  of  the  service  estimated  that 
there  were  approximately  19,000  of  these  animals  in  eight 
or  nine  northern  states — as  compared  with  an  estimated 
12,000  in  1944  and  17,900  in  1947.  Alaskan  estimates  showed 
that  there  were  approximately  30,000  in  that  area,  while 
it  was  speculated  from  United  States  and  Alaskan  densities 
and  from  Canadian  conditions  that  moose  in  Canada  might 
number  about  146,000 

Upland-game  birds  were  discussed  in  a  session  of  the  North 
American  Wildlife  conference.  The  wild  turkey  was  reported 
to  be  doing  badly  west  of  the  Mississippi  and  only  slightly 
better  in  a  few  eastern  states.  The  bobwhite  quail  was  reported 
to  be  steadily  decreasing  in  all  the  states  where  it  is  important 
as  a  game  species.  In  a  majority  of  the  26  states  studied,  the 
number  of  pheasant  was  once  again  increasing. 

Intensive  investigations  of  waterfowl  were  continued  by 
the  Fish  and  Wildlife  service.  A  wintering  grounds  inventory 
(Jan.  11-14)  indicated  a  12%  increase  in  the  number  of  duck 
over  the  preceding  year,  a  32%  increase  in  geese,  a  39% 
increase  in  brant  and  a  20%  increase  in  swans.  A  56% 
decrease  in  coot  numbers,  however,  resulted  in  a  1  %  decrease 
in  total  waterfowl.  Numerical  totals  were  not  reported. 
Drought  conditions  later  in  the  year  adversely  affected 
important  sections  of  the  breeding  grounds  in  the  short 
grass  prairie  regions  of  Saskatchewan  and  Alberta  and 
made  the  1949  increase  not  as  large  as  was  expected.  Never- 
theless, it  was  such  as  to  lead  to  a  10-day  lengthening  of 
waterfowl  shooting  seasons. 

The  number  of  hunting  licences  sold  in  the  United  States 
reached  a  new  record  in  the  year  which  ended  on  June  30, 
totalling  12,758,698  as  compared  with  11,391,810  in  the 
year  1947-48. 

Sales  of  federal  migratory  bird  hunting  stamps  also  rose 


WINDWARD    ISLANDS— WINES 


679 


to  a  new  record  of  2,127,598  for  the  year  ended  June  30, 
1949.  Congress  increased  the  price  to  $2  and  also  enacted 
that  not  more  than  25%  of  any  refuge  area  acquired  with 
funds  under  a  new  law  might  be  administered  for  public 
hunting  in  the  discretion  of  the  Fish  and  Wildlife  service. 

Under  the  federal  aid  programme  for  wildlife  restoration 
projects  in  the  states,  an  appropriation  of  $11,276,687  from 
excise  taxes  on  arms  and  ammunition  was  made  available 
during  the  1949  fiscal  year — the  largest  ever  made — and  a 
record  number  of  projects  (612)  were  approved  for  the 
48  states,  Alaska,  Hawaii,  Puerto  Rico  and  the  Virgin  Islands. 

Significant  progress  was  made  by  the  Fish  and  Wildlife 
service's  office  of  river  basin  studies  under  the  1946  Public 
Law  732  in  surveying  the  biological  aspects  of  proposed 
flood  control,  irrigation,  hydro-electric  and  other  develop- 
ment projects,  231  such  projects  having  being  reported 
during  the  year.  (H.  Z.) 

Canada.  The  Dominion  Wildlife  service  reported  that 
30%  of  the  wild  ducks  examined  by  fluroscope  carried  shot- 
gun pellets.  Fearing  that  use  of  aircraft  would  reduce  sports- 
men to  hunting  rabbits  and  squirrels,  it  recommended  that 
pilots  be  made  honorary  enforcement  officers,  that  large 
game  areas  be  closed  to  air-transported  sportsmen  and  that 
provincial  game  wardens  be  supplied  with  aircraft  for  patrol 
purposes.  Parliament  increased  the  services  funds  for  1949- 
50  to  $259,520. 

The  Northwest  Territories  council  decreed  that  all  trap 
lines  should  be  registered  as  a  conservation  measure.  The 
beluga,  a  milky-coloured  sea  mammal  of  Hudson  bay,  was 
brought  under  protection  by  the  federal  government,  and 
only  Indians,  Eskimo  and  Royal  Canadian  Mounted  Police 
could  kill  them  without  licence.  The  federally-controlled 
Arctic  reindeer  became  so  numerous  that  ear-tagging  was 
planned  to  maintain  control.  (See  also  NATIONAL  PARKS.) 

WINDWARD  ISLANDS.  The  British  Windward 
Islands  (in  the  Caribbean  sea)  comprise  the  four  islands  of 
Dominica,  St.  Lucia,  St.  Vincent  and  Grenada — each  ranking 
as  a  separate  colony  for  internal  administration — together 
with  the  Grenadines,  which  lie  between  St.  Vincent  and 
Grenada  and  are  associated  partly  with  the  one  and  partly 
with  the  other.  Total  area:  829  sq.  mi.  Total  pop.  (1946 
census):  251,776  (Dominica  47,624,  Grenada  72,387,  St. 
Lucia  70,113  and  St.  Vincent  61,647);  the  great  majority  of 
the  population  is  Negro.  Chief  towns:  St.  George's  (capital 
of  Grenada  and  seat  of  the  governor,  pop.  5,774),  Roseau 
(capital  of  Dominica,  pop.  9,751),  Castries  (capital  of  St. 
Lucia,  pop.  7,056)  and  Kingstown  (capital  of  St.  Vincent, 
pop.  4,831).  Governor,  R.  D.  H.  Arundell. 

History.  It  was  announced  in  April  1949  that  the  secretary 
of  state  for  the  colonies  had  agreed  to  certain  constitutional 
changes  including  the  introduction  of  adult  suffrage  (subject 
to  a  single  literacy  test  only)  at  the  next  elections  for  the 
Legislative  Councils  and  the  removal  of  the  property  qualifi- 
cation for  a  candidate,  subject  to  further  examination  of  the 
existing  arrangements  for  deposits  which  candidates  were 
required  to  make. 

The  rebuilding  of  Castries,  capital  of  St.  Lucia,  which  was 
wiped  out  by  fire  in  June  1948,  was  entrusted  to  the  Colonial 
Development  corporation  and  work  began  in  April.  A  town 
plan  was  published.  Public  funds  were  made  available  to 
the  government  of  St.  Lucia  to  the  amount  of  £700,000  in 
addition  to  bank  loans  for  the  financing  of  private 
building. 

In  Dominica  it  Was  announced  that  the  secretary  of  state 
had  approved  additional  assistance  for  development  of 
$2,160,000  (of  which  $1,248,000  were  expected  to  be  a  free 
grant  and  $912,000  a  loan)  over  and  above  the  original 
Colonial  Development  and  Welfare  grant  of  $1,627,000: 


and  that  the  Colonial  Development  corporation  had  com- 
pleted plans  for  the  establishment  of  a  group  project  involving 
investment  of  over  $960,000. 

Finance  and  Trade.  Currency  (from  1948):  West  Indian  dollar, 
£1  =  $4-80. 

Dominica        Grenada         St.  Lucia      St.  Vincent 
Revenue  .         .     $1,222,499-    $2,255,334-    $1,933,891-     $1,788,655- 
Expenditure      .     $1,318,319-    $3,498,828-    $1,951,148-     $1,753,127- 
Imports   .          .        £475,559*     £1,293,433*     $4,117,853'       £692,967* 
Exports    .          .        £200,423*        £995,730*     $1,116,832*        £234,647* 

-  1949  cst.        *  1947.        <  1948  provisional. 

Principal  exports:  lime  juice,  cocoa,  sugar,  cotton,  copra  and 
arrowroot.  (J.  A.  Hu.) 

WINES.  The  first  wines  to  be  made  in  1949  were,  of 
course,  those  of  the  Southern  hemisphere,  South  America 
easily  first  as  regards  both  the  quantity  (Argentine)  and 
quality  (Chile),  with  Australia  and  the  Cape  province  of  the 
Union  of  South  Africa  tying  for  second  place.  The  vintage 
in  all  such  vinelands  as  well  as  the  much  smaller  ones  of 
Uruguay  and  Brazil  takes  place  in  February  and  March 
under  climatic  conditions  that  are  so  much  more  constant 
than  those  in  the  northern  hemisphere  that  there  are  no  such 
variations  between  different  vintages  as  are  common  in 
France  and  Germany. 

In  Europe,  the  vintage  of  1 949  would  long  be  remembered 
as  one  of  the  driest  and  sunniest  on  record  which  was  not 
the  same  as  saying  that  it  was  the  best  that  vinegrowers  could 
have  desired.  The  best  wines  are  those  in  which  both  the  sun 
and  the  rain  have  co-operated  best,  the  sun  being  responsible 
for  the  sugar,  hence  the  alcohol  in  the  wine,  and  the  rain  for 
the  various  acids  from  the  soil  which  give  different  wines 
their  distinctive  bouquet,  flavour  and  charm.  In  the  making 
of  Sherry,  Port,  Madeira,  Marsala  and  all  wines  of  a  high 
alcoholic  strength,  a  year  such  as  1949  was  likely  to  prove  a 
very  good  one;  the  same  might  be  said  for  Sauternes,  Palatin- 
ate and  Tokay  wines,  in  which  any  excess  of  sugar  content 
is  welcome  since  the  chief  appeal  of  all  such  wines  is  their 
sweetness.  On  the  other  hand  in  table  wines,  the  beverage 
wines,  both  red  and  white,  of  which  Bordeaux  and  Burgundy 


Baroness  van  Boetzelaer  van  Oosterhout,  "wife  of  the  Netherlands 

ambassador  to  France,  receiving  the  order  of  "  Knight  of  Tastevin  " 

in  the  cellars  of  the  Chateau  du   Clos   de    Vougeot,  Burgundy, 

Nov.  1949. 


680 


WOMEN'S   ACTIVITIES 


arc  the  two  prototypes,  grapes  which  are  too  rich  in  sugar 
content  and  deficient  in  acidity  are  far  from  being  the  more 
desirable. 

There  was,  fortunately,  a  break  in  the  drought,  in  the 
Bordeaux  district,  early  enough  in  September  to  give  at  the 
last  moment  the  help  which  the  grapes  sorely  needed,  and 
both  the  red  and  white  wines  of  Bordeaux  were  expected  to 
be  well  above  the  average  in  quality.  In  Burgundy  and  in 
Champagne  there  were  storms  with  heavy  downpours  and 
exceptionally  hot  weather,  conditions  only  too  favourable 
for  turning  ripe  grapes  into  rotten  ones,  and  it  was  probable 
that  the  quality  of  both  the  Burgundy  and  Champagne 
wines  of  1949  would  be  uneven  in  quality:  there  would  be 
some  excellent  wines  made  from  carefully  selected  grapes, 
and  there  would  also  be  some  poor  wines  made  from  grapes 
that  were  not  chosen  with  due  care  as  to  their  soundness. 
In  the  northernmost  vineyards  of  the  Rhine  and  Moselle, 
from  Alsace  to  Coblenz,  the  exceptionally  fine  summer  was 
responsible  for  white  wines  of  very  fine  quality,  but  the 
quantity  vintaged  was  well  below  the  average.  (A.  L.  S.) 

WORLD  PRODUCTION  OF  WINE — 1948  AND  1949 
(Millions  of  Gallons) 

Country 
Algeria 
Argentina 
Australia  . 
Austria 
Brazil 
Bulgaria    . 
Canada     . 
Chile 
Cyprus 

Czechoslovakia 
Egypt 
Franco 
Germany  . 
Greece 
Hungary    . 
Israel 
Italy. 
Lebanon 
Luxembourg 
Malta 
Mexico 
Morocco 
Peru. 

Portugal    . 
Rumania  . 
South  Africa 
Spain 

Switzerland 
Syria 
Tunisia 
Turkey 
Uruguay    . 
U.S.A.       . 
U.S.S  R. 
Yugoslavia 


1949 

1948 

Average 

381-9 

334-0 

500 

(1930-39) 

275-0 

307-0 

215 

41-4 

41-0 

20 

Prewar 

22-0 

25-1 

29 

(1935-39) 

26-2 

25  6 

19 

(1943-47) 

67  5 

39  6 

48 

(1935-39) 

3  6 

4  8 

4 

83  0 

91   9 

85 

(1935-39) 

4-1 

5-4 

4 

7-9 

8-9 

11 

(1935-39) 

4> 

0  8 

1,053-7 

1,127-9 

1,457 

(1930-40) 

40  0 

59  4 

50 

118  8 

98  4 

99 

(1935-39) 

119-0 

96  0 

100 

1   8 

1   0 

1- 

6  (1943-47) 

975-0 

939-4 

935 

(1936-46) 

1-0 

0  8 

1-5 

3-2 

1-3 

1-3 

* 

6-8 

12-9 

11-0 

4-0 

3  6 

191-4 

216-7 

241 

(1939-48) 

160  0 

89-0 

36-8 

37-1 

37 

1  (1936-46) 

396-0 

398-0 

500 

12-4 

20  9 

15 

(1936-46) 

3  0 

3  0 

21-9 

21   2 

4-0 

3-1 

20  0 

17-2 

100  0 

140-6 

102 

•5  (1940-45) 

273-0 

264-0 

127-5 

108-8 

150 

4,587-6         4,552-5 


"  Unknown 


WOMEN'S  ACTIVITIES.  In  1949  the  need  for  a 
widening  contribution  by  all  citizens  to  the  life  of  the  com- 
munity afforded  women  in  many  countries  new  opportunities. 
Recognition  of  woman's  rights  continued,  however,  to  lag 
behind  acceptance  of  her  work.  Twenty-seven  countries 
still  refused  equal  franchise  and,  by  some,  women  were  ex- 
cluded from  certain  professions  and  from  the  enjoyment  of  full 
educational  facilities.  Economic  disabilities  often  persisted 
even  where  electoral  freedom  had  been  conceded.  When, 
therefore,  the  United  Nations  commission  on  the  status  of 
women  met  at  Beirut  in  March  for  its  third  session  many 
urgent  matters  of  reform  were  indicated  in  its  agenda. 
Constituting  the  first  permanent  international  body  to  tackle 
the  question  of  women's  rights,  the  women  delegates  repre- 


sented Australia,  China,  Costa  Rica,  Denmark,  France, 
Great  Britain,  Greece,  Haiti,  India,  Mexico,  Syria,  Turkey, 
the  United  States,  the  U.S.S.R.  and  Venezuela. 

In  the  diplomatic  field  the  year  saw  fresh  acknowledge- 
ments of  the  qualifications  which  women  are  able  to  bring 
to  the  management  of  international  relations.  Mrs. 
Vijayalakshmi  Pandit,  already  the  new  dominion  of  India's 
ambassador  to  Moscow,  was  appointed  in  New  Delhi  on 
March  24  to  be  ambassador  to  the  U.S.  On  June  21  the 
appointment  of  Mrs.  Perlc  Mesta,  a  prominent  Washington 
hostess,  as  U.S.  minister  to  Luxembourg  was  announced, 
and  on  Oct.  12  Mrs.  Eugenie  Andersson,  of  Red  Wing, 
Minnesota,  became  the  first  woman  to  reach  ambassadorial 
rank  in  the  American  diplomatic  service  when  she  was 
nominated  U.S.  ambassador  to  Denmark.  Miss  Jean 
McKenzie,  who  arrived  in  England  on  Aug.  28  on  her  way 
to  open  a  legation  in  Pans,  was  the  first  woman  to  be  given 
diplomatic  status  by  the  government  of  New  Zealand:  she 
was  to  act  as  charge  d'affaires  with  the  personal  rank  of 
counsellor.  The  announcement  on  Nov.  11  that  Mrs. 
Josephine  McNeill  would  be  minister  at  The  Hague  marked 
the  appointment  of  Ireland's  first  woman  envoy,  while  in 
the  same  month  Miss  Grace  Rolleston  left  England  to  become 
third  secretary  at  the  British  legation  in  Budapest. 

A  notable  part  in  contemporary  affairs  continued  to  be 
played  by  the  Associated  Country  Women  of  the  World 
which  with  its  five  million  membership  linking  the  rural 
groups  in  the  various  countries  was  one  of  the  largest  inter- 
national organizations  of  women.  Apart  from  its  general 
work  of  promoting  friendly  and  helpful  relations  between 
countrywomen's  and  homemakcrs'  organizations  and  of 
stimulating  interest  in  international  questions,  it  was  con- 
cerned also  with  the  larger  world  problems,  having  representa- 
tives on  the  Economic  and  Social  council,  on  the  Eood  and 
Agriculture  organization  and  on  U.N.E.S.C.O.  A  women's 
food  petition  signed  on  behalf  of  nine  international  women's 
organizations,  whose  total  membership  numbered  more  than 
65  million,  was  presented  to  the  fifth  session  of  the  Food 
and  Agriculture  organization  on  Nov.  21  by  Mrs.  Raymond 
Sayre,  of  Ackworth,  Iowa,  president  of  the  Associated 
Country  Women  of  the  World.  This  emphasized  the  impera- 
tive necessity  for  a  new  and  systematic  policy  of  giving 
priority  to  human  need  in  respect  of  food  regardless  of  all 
other  considerations.  Food,  health,  education  and  the  status 
of  women  were  among  the  subjects  discussed  at  the  fifth 
conference  of  the  Pan-Pacific  Women's  association  held  in 
Honolulu  from  July  20  to  Aug.  3  and  attended  by  delegates 
from  China,  Japan,  the  Philippines  and  Korea,  as  well  as 
from  the  mainland  of  the  U.S.,  Hawaii,  Australia  and  New 
Zealand. 

Great  Britain.  In  the  first  estimates  of  civil  population 
complied  by  the  registrar  general  since  the  1931  census, 
which  were  published  in  Oct.  1949,  it  was  disclosed  that 
women  outnumbered  men  in  England  and  Wales  by  more  than 
two  million,  22,268,000  of  the  estimated  total  civilian  popula- 
tion of  42,156,000  being  females.  Their  increasing  role  in 
public  life  was  amply  demonstrated  by  an  analysis  of  avail- 
able election  figures  on  a  national  basis  made  by  the  National 
Women's  Citizens'  association.  This  revealed  that  the 
number  of  women  councillors  in  England  and  Wales  in  the 
first  quarter  of  the  year  was  3,297,  nearly  double  the 
figure  for  1939.  With  20  women — thrice  as  many  as  it  had 
in  1939 — Birmingham  led  municipal  corporations,  and 
among  county  councils  Middlesex  topped  the  list  with  22. 
At  the  ninth  conference  of  women  members  of  local  govern- 
ment authorities  held  at  Caxton  hall,  London,  on  Oct.  28 
the  care  of  children  apart  from  their  parents  was  among  the 
subjects  discussed.  The  Mothers'  Rest  association  and  the 
Family  Service  union  were  responsible  for  carrying  out  an 


WOOL 


681 


exhaustive  survey  in  industrial  areas  during  the  year  which 
showed  that  wives  of  professional  and  business  men  were  the 
hardest  worked  but  that  breakdowns  of  health  were  more 
prevalent  among  working-class  mothers. 

An  important  organization  for  encouraging  the  education 
of  women  for  citizenship,  the  National  Union  of  Towns- 
women's  Guilds,  received  grants  in  aid  from  the  Ministry  of 
Education,  the  Scottish  Education  Department  and  the 
Carnegie  trust,  for  experimental  work  and  the  expansion  of 
educational  activities  among  women.  The  number  of  guilds 
increased  during  the  year  from  1,015  to  1,170,  representing 
a  total  membership  of  approximately  120,000.  Outstanding 
in  the  1949  programme  of  the  National  Federation  of 
Women's  Institutes,  which  reached  a  membership  of  438,000 
during  the  year,  was  a  campaign  to  improve  countryside 
conditions  in  England  and  Wales  in  regard  to  water  supply 
and  sewerage.  A  village  questionary  circulated  among  the 
7,282  institutes  of  the  federation  was  designed  to  provide 
information  on  a  national  scale  as  to  other  conditions 
calling  for  reform.  Though  this  had  been  completed  by  the 
end  of  the  year,  the  results  had  not  yet  been  summarized. 
At  the  29th  annual  meeting  held  in  London  on  June  14-15, 
the  minister  of  education  underlined  the  right  of  every  house- 
wife to  a  full  life  of  her  own  so  that  she  might  be  of  greater 
value  to  the  family  and  the  community. 

Recruiting  for  the  needs  of  civil  defence  was  a  renewed 
branch  of  Women's  Voluntary  services  work  in  1949  and  this 
organization  consolidated  or  developed  the  many  other 
activities  which  since  its  foundation  in  1938  had  made  it  an 
integral  factor  in  public  welfare.  Care  of  the  aged  was  an 
increasing  concern  of  the  W.V.S.  which  since  the  war  had 
opened  for  them  17  residential  clubs  accommodating  420 
people.  Irrespective  of  its  widespread  activities  and  co- 
operation with  government  departments  and  local  authorities 
at  home,  the  W.V.S.  were  also  helping  in  various  ways  in 
Germany,  Italy  and  among  the  families  of  the  groundnuts 
workers  in  Tanganyika.  At  the  end  of  the  year  W.V.S. 
centres  in  England,  Scotland  and  Wales  numbered  1,200. 

Individual  distinctions  achieved  by  women  during  the 
year  included  the  appointment,  announced  on  March  30, 
of  Miss  J.  M.  Woollcombe,  director  of  the  Women's  Royal 
Naval  service,  to  be  an  honorary  aide-de-camp  to  the  King, 
this  being  the  first  occasion  on  which  such  honour  was 
accorded  to  a  woman.  At  the  same  time  Miss  O.  H.  Franklin 
was  appointed  King's  honorary  nursing  sister.  On  Oct.  10 
Miss  J.  Burbidge  became  the  first  woman  to  act  as  a  spokes- 
man at  the  Foreign  Office. 

Commonwealth.  For  the  first  time  in  Australia's  history  a 
woman  was  admitted  to  cabinet  rank  when  Dame  Enid 
Lyons  was  included  in  the  coalition  government  formed  on 
Dec.  18,  1949.  Dame  Enid,  the  52-year-old  widow  of  the 
former  Australian  premier  Joseph  Lyons,  and  mother  of 
11  children,  was  also  her  country's  first  woman  M.P.  As 
vice-president  of  the  executive  council  in  the  new  cabinet 
she  would  represent  the  governor  general.  In  Canada  Mrs. 
Nancy  Hodges  became  the  first  woman  speaker  in  the 
Commonwealth  when  on  Dec.  12,  1949,  she  was  appointed 
speaker  of  the  British  Columbia  legislative  assembly.  Born 
in  London  in  1888,  she  was  elected  to  the  assembly  as  Liberal 
member  for  Victoria  in  1941  and  was  re-elected  in  1945. 
In  the  New  Zealand  parliamentary  election  on  Nov.  29 
Mrs.  Ratana,  widow  of  the  representative  for  Western 
Maori,  became  the  first  Maori  woman  member  of  parliament 
by  winning  her  late  husband's  seat.  While  on  a  short  visit 
to  London  in  April  and  May  the  Begum  Liaquat  AH  Khan, 
wife  of  the  Pakistan  prime  minister,  pointed  out  at  a  press 
conference  that  there  was  an  increasing  tendency  for  purdah 
to  be  discarded  by  her  fellow  countrywomen.  She  paid 
tribute  to  the  All-Pakistan  Women's  association,  which 


existed  for  general  welfare  and  cultural  development,  and  the 
Pakistan  Women's  National  guard,  which  assisted  the 
medical  services  during  times  of  emergency  service  and 
encouraged  civic  responsibility  among  the  women  of  the 
country.  (D.  A.  C.) 

WOOL.  During  1949,  persistent  demand  for  wool  kept 
prices  at  high  levels,  the  average  price  level  for  the  year 
being  higher  than  in  1948.  An  easier  tendency  which  devel- 
oped in  the  summer  months  was  rapidly  reversed  after  the 
devaluation  of  sterling  in  September,  and  in  the  later  months 
of  the  year  considerable  price  advance*,  were  registered  in 
all  qualities,  but  more  particularly  in  crossbred  wools  which 
reached  levels  not  previously  touched  since  1920. 

Valuable  statistical  data  on  the  world  supply  and  consump- 
tion position  were  furnished  by  the  International  Wool  Study 
group,  which  met  in  London  in  November.  The  group 
computed  the  world  production  for  the  1948-49  season  to 
have  been  3,758  million  lb.,  which  was  within  1  %  of  the 
average  annual  production  for  the  period  1934-39.  The  major 
wool  producing  count,  ics,  Australia,  New  Zealand  and  South 
Africa,  all  registered  slight  increases  compared  with  the 
1947-48  season,  whereas  both  Argentina  and  the  United  States 
experienced  appreciably  lower  production. 

The  apparel  wool  portion  of  the  total  world  production 
was  2,957  million  lb.,  whereas  world  consumption  of  apparel 
wool  amounted  to  some  3,547  million  lb.  The  deficiency 
was  made  good  out  of  accumulated  wartime  stocks,  mainly 
held  by  United  Kingdom-Dominion  Wool  Disposals,  Ltd., 
and  the  United  States  Commodity  Credit  corporation. 
By  June  30,  1949,  the  stocks  held  by  the  government-owned 
organizations  amounted  to  no  more  than  640  million  lb. 
and,  being  composed  largely  of  the  less  attractive  types  of 
wool,  these  stocks  had  lost  most  of  their  former  market 
significance.  Thus  the  considerable  stocks  which  in  1945 
seemed  likely  to  require  many  years  for  their  liquidation, 
had  been  largely  disposed  of  in  an  orderly  manner  within 
four  years  of  the  end  of  World  War  II. 

Activity  in  the  wool  consuming  countries  was  generally 
well  maintained  with  the  notable  exception  of  the  U.S.A.  and, 
to  a  lesser  extent,  Belgium. 

In  the  United  Kingdom,  new  postwar  high  levels  were 
reached  in  both  the  size  of  the  labour  force  and  volume  of 
production,  particularly  in  the  later  months  of  the  year. 
Two  noteworthy  developments  were  the  termination  in 
October  of  the  ten-year-old  Wool  control,  and  the  submission 
by  the  National  Farmers'  union  of  a  Producers'  Marketing 
Scheme  for  British  Wool  under  the  Agricultural  Marketing 
acts. 

In  the  United  Kingdom  also,  a  technical  development  of 
outstanding  importance,  known  as  the  Ambler  Superdraft 
system  of  worsted  spinning,  was  announced.  This  was 
believed  to  be  the  most  important  technical  advance  m  wool 
processing  for  many  decades,  as  it  saved  approximately 
two-thirds  of  the  labour  and  machinery  normally  used  in  the 
preparatory  processes  of  worsted  spinning. 

The  wool  textile  industries  of  France  and  Italy  maintained 
the  high  levels  of  production  of  1948  in  spite  of  increased 
difficulties  in  export  markets.  With  a  large  potential  home 
demand  caused  by  the  war  and  its  aftermath,  a  more  stable 
currency  system,  and  the  benefit  of  the  European  Recovery 
programme,  the  wool  textile  industry  of  Western  Germany 
made  considerable  advances.  The  Japanese  industry  registered 
some  progress  during  1949  but  the  volume  of  production 
was  still  small  compared  with  that  of  prewar  years.  (F.  HL.) 

United  States.  The  Commodity  Credit  corporation,  a 
U.S.  government  agcnqy,  reported  on  Sept.  30,  1949,  that  its 
stock  pile  of  wools  totalled  88  million  lb.,  compared  with 
120  million  lb.  on  Sept.  30,  1948.  At  the  end  of  the  third 


682 


WORDS   AND   MEANINGS,  NEW 


quarter  of  1949,  48%  of  the  wools  owned  by  the  Commodity 
Credit  corporation  were  the  1949  clip,  25%  were  1948  wools, 
11%  were  1947  wools  and  16%  were  1946  and  older  wools. 

Imports  of  apparel  wools  were  considerably  reduced 
during  1949.  In  the  first  eight  months  only  76  million 
clean  pounds  were  entered  for  consumption,  compared 
with  284  million  Ib.  in  the  first  eight  months  of  1948, 
and  250  million  Ib.  in  the  same  period  of  1947.  This  drastic 
decline  in  U.S.  wool  imports  caused  a  sharp  contraction  in 
wool  stocks  and  it  was  estimated  that  on  Dec.  1  apparel 
wools  in  the  United  States  represented  about  168  million 
clean  pounds,  compared  with  274  million  Ib.  on  Dec.  1,  1948, 
and  a  peak  of  488  million  Ib.  on  Dec.  I,  1946.  Conversely, 
wool  stocks  in  Argentina  tended  to  accumulate,  because  of 
the  relatively  small  amounts  which  were  exported. 

Consumption  of  apparel  type  wools  fell  sharply  in  the 
U.S.  but  elsewhere  there  appeared  to  have  been  more  activity 
in  wool  textiles. 

For  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  prices  in  the  U.S.  were 
above  the  government  support  level,  which  factor  accounted 
for  less  government  buying  than  in  the  preceding  year. 
Prices  of  domestic  wools  in  the  U.S.,  after  some  firmness 
during  the  first  quarter,  entered  a  slow  decline  from  an 
average  of  around  $1  -52  a  clean  pound  in  the  Boston  wool 
market  to  $1-38  in  October.  A  better  demand  in  the  final 
quarter  lifted  prices  slightly. 

Using  Australian  wools  as  an  example  for  foreign  wool 
prices  in  the  U.S.,  fine  Australian  wools,  duty  paid  in  Boston, 
American  yield,  began  the  year  at  $2-18.  Less  demand, 
rather  than  replacement  values,  caused  Australian  wools  to 
decline  in  price  in  the  Boston  market,  with  a  substantial 
drop  to  $1-45  in  late  September,  following  currency 
de-valuations.  Thereafter,  signs  of  steadiness  in  Boston 
coincided  with  rising  prices  at  the  wool  sales  in  Australia. 
The  year  closed  with  fine  Australian  wools  quoted  in  Boston 
around  $1-60.  (See  also  TEXTILE  INDUSTRY.)  (S.  L.  LE.) 

WORDS  AND  MEANINGS,  NEW.  The  words 
and  meanings  given  below  are  a  selection  of  those  first 
noted  in  the  year  1949.  Those  that  have  also  been  found 
earlier  have  the  earlier  date  added  in  brackets  after  the 
definition;  but  several  of  the  words  are  such  as  may  well 
occur  at  earlier  dates  than  have  been  found  for  them. 
GREAT  BRITAIN 

antrycide.  A  drug  in  the  form  of  a  white  crystalline  powder 
which  protects  cattle  from  the  effects  of  the  bite  of  the  tsetse 
fly  when  injected  hypodermically  as  an  aqueous  solution 
(1948). 

arrestor  rod.  A  rod  of  moderating  material  in  an  atomic 
pile. 

Aspatron.  A  small  atomic  pile  designed  at  the  A.S.P. 
Chemical  Company's  laboratories  for  the  production  of 
radio-active  isotopes  for  medical  and  research  purposes. 

Bepo.  The  British  Experimental  Atomic  Pile  at  the  Ministry 
of  Supply's  research  station  at  Harwell,  Berkshire,  which  is 
used  for  the  production  of  radio-active  isotopes  for  medical 
and  research  purposes  (1948). 

blend  up.   To  improve  the  quality  of  by  blending. 

bonusable.    Ranking  or  qualifying  for  a  bonus. 

breed.  To  produce  additional  fissionable  material  by 
interaction,  e.g.,  of  uranium  235  and  uranium  238  (1948). 

career  industry.  An  industry  that  provides  workers  with 
life-long  employment  and  prospects  of  promotion. 

century  storage.  Storage  of  commodities,  especially  water, 
on  a  scale  sufficient  to  tide  over  several  years  of  less  than 
normal  supplies. 

continuation  (short  for  continuation-school).  Education 
for  persons  between  15  and  18  years  who  have  left  school. 

corrugated.    Of  roads,  full  of  ruts;    corrugation,  n. 


denationalize.  To  restore  a  nationalized  industry  to 
private  ownership;  denationalization,  n. 

disincentive.  A  deterrent,  especially  to  patriotic  behaviour. 

dis-saver.  One  who  diminishes  instead  of  increasing  his 
savings;  dis-saving,  n. 

dose.  The  amount  of  radio-active  contamination  received 
by  a  person,  implement,  or  other  object  employed  on  or 
used  in  atomic  energy  research  or  utilization. 

down-turn.     A  reduction  or  falling-off  in  amount,  etc. 

early  bird.  An  early  morning  traveller  on  a  British  air 
route  who  receives  a  10%  reduction  in  his  fare.  Colloq. 

ferricillin.  A  ferric  salt  of  penicillin  which  remains  active 
in  the  body  much  longer  than  pure  penicillin. 

first-footer.  One  of  the  earliest  visitors  to  an  exhibition  or 
the  like. 

four-track.    To  enlarge  a  railway  to  four  tracks. 

Fritalux.  A  proposed  name  for  an  economic  and  customs 
union  including  France,  Italy,  and  Benelux.  Alternatives 
Fibenel  and  Finebel  have  been  proposed. 

functionalist.  One  who  uses  or  advocates  the  use  of 
functional  methods  or  agencies. 

go-slow.  Characterized  by  working  at  a  speed  much  slower 
than  the  normal,  as  a  means  of  bringing  pressure  to  bear 
on  the  employers  of  labour. 

hitch.    To  hitch-hike. 

hive  off.  Of  firms,  to  assign  the  production  of  goods 
scheduled  for,  or  exempted  from,  nationalization  to  subsidiary 
companies  in  order  to  avoid  complete  nationalization. 

impermeabilize.   To  make  impermeable,  e.g.  to  water. 

interventor.  A  person  appointed  to  intervene  in  and,  if 
possible,  settle  a  dispute. 

liberalization.    A  freeing  from  controls. 

lifetime.  A  period  of  activity  or  efficiency  of  anything; 
tenure  of  office. 

muted.    Of  lighting,  subdued. 

network.  Any  system  of  related  but  not  necessarily  inter- 
connected units;  e.g.,  a  network  of  naval  bases. 

pace-maker.    A  preliminary  or  experimental  instance. 

pattern.  The  basic  structure  or  composition  of  any  com- 
plex entity,  especially  when  it  is  undergoing,  or  is  expected 
to  undergo,  change. 

polio.  A  person  affected  with  or  incapacitated  by  polio- 
myelitis or  infantile  paralysis. 

rebound.    To  re-mark  the  boundaries  of. 

red  petrol.  Rationed  commercial  petrol  containing  diphenyl- 
amine  or  some  similar  red  dye  for  purposes  of  identification 
(1948). 

redundantize.    To  declare,  or  dispose  of  as,  redundant. 

reticulate.  To  distribute  over  an  area  by  means  of  a  net- 
work of  channels  or  conductors. 

revolvement.  A  changing  round,  especially  the  systematic 
renewal  of  ageing  stocks. 

rheumatology.  The  scientific  study  and  treatment  of 
rheumatism. 

sub-ration.  To  ration  a  commodity  at  the  distribution  or 
wholesale  level  but  not  at  the  retail. 

Titoism.  The  brand  of  Communism  developed  in  Yugo- 
slavia by  Marshal  Tito  (Josip  Broz),  independently  of  the 
Soviet  Union  and  the  Cominform;  Titoist,  a.  and  n. 

type.    To  assign  to  a  particular  type,  identify;    typable,  a. 

untypable.     That  cannot  be  assigned  to  a  definite  type. 

Welfare  State.  A  state  in  which  the  government  aims  at 
providing  security  and  happiness  for  all. 

yellow-band.     Of  streets,  having  the  lamp-posts  marked 
with  yellow  bands  as  an  indication  that  waiting  is  not  per- 
mitted. (J.  M.  WE.) 
UNITED  STATES 

afterburner,  n.    A  ram-jet  booster  engine  (1948). 

A.P.F.  Abbreviation  of  "Animal  Protein  Factor,"  a  vitamin 


WORLD   COUNCIL  OF  CHURCHES— X-RAY   AND   RADIOLOGY   683 


complex   in   which   vitamin    B18    is    a    dominant    factor. 

banthine,  n.    A  synthetic  drug  to  relieve  peptic  ulcer. 

beefcake  (Imitation  of  cheesecake),  n.  Humorous.  The 
exposure  of  men's  chests. 

Benthoscope  (Gr.  benthos  "  sea-depth "  f-  skopein  "to 
look  at "),  n.  A  strong,  steel  sphere,  large  enough  for  a  man, 
for  deep-sea  diving  and  observation  (1945). 

B.N.B.,  B.N.P.  Insecticides,  both  of  which  were  reported 
to  be  safer  to  use  and  more  powerful  than  D.D.T. 

bracero  (Sp.),  n.   A  Mexican  contract  labourer  (1945). 

canasta  (Sp.),  n.  An  Argentine  card  game  with  some 
features  of  rummy. 

chucks,  n.    Teen-age  slang.    Something  humorous. 

cold  rubber.  A  synthetic  rubber  made  at  a  low  temperature 
(4l°F)  and  characterized  by  strength  and  toughness  (1948). 

depth  interview.  A  lengthy,  "  qualitative  "  interview  in 
which  the  interviewer  considers  the  subject  from  all  points 
of  view  and  endeavours  to  explore  the  subconscious  of  the 
person  interviewed  (1948). 

Dixiegop  (Dixiecrat  +  G.O.P.  "  Grand  Old  Party  "),  n. 
Coalition  of  Dixiecrats  and  certain  Republicans  in  opposition 
to  some  of  President  Truman's  measures,  especially  civil 
rights. 

dollar  gap.  The  shortage  in  dollar-exchange  existing  when 
a  country's  essential  imports  from  a  dollar  area,  such  as  the 
United  States,  exceed  its  exports  to  that  area. 

Earth  Satellite  Vehicle  Program.  Project  of  the  United 
States  for  the  study  of  guided  missiles  (1948). 

economy  house.    A  very  small  house. 

Fair  Deal.  The  policy  of  social  improvement  of  President 
Truman  outlined  in  his  message  to  congress,  Jan.  1949. 

five  percenter.  A  contract  broker  charging  5%  for  his 
services;  specifically,  a  person  promising  to  obtain  a  govern- 
ment contract  for  a  business  man  for  a  fee  of  5  %. 

freeze-drying,  n.  Quick-freezing  followed  by  heat-drying 
in  a  vacuum  cabinet. 

guppy,  n.  Popular.    A  snorkel  submarine  (1948). 

Howdy  Doody.  A  popular  doll  puppet,  first  used  on  a 
television  show  (1948). 

hunter-killer,  adj..  Mil.  Pertaining  to  that  which  stalks 
and  attacks  with  destructive  intent  (1945). 

hydrogen  bomb.  The  theoretically  possible  atomic  super- 
bomb estimated  to  be  a  thousand  times  more  powerful  than 
bombs  using  plutonium,  with  heavy  hydrogen  as  the  most 
important  ingredient  (1948). 

hypersonic,  adj.    Faster  than  2,700  m.p.h.  (1946). 

Inductive  Telephone.    A  radio  telephone  for  trains  (1946). 

Jetliner,  n.    A  jet-propelled  airliner. 

killer  ship.  A  hunter-killer  (see  above)  ship,  a  surface 
craft  to  spot  and  sink  enemy  submarines. 

me-tooism,  n.  Term  used  to  describe  the  acquiescence  of 
some  Republicans  in  policies  of  the  Democratic  party. 

no-day  (work)  week.  Cessation  of  work ;  euphemism  for  a 
strike. 

nuclear  reactor.    See  reactor  below. 

paranurse,  n.  A  nurse  trained  to  parachute  to  the  spot 
where  first  aid  is  needed  (1948). 

peddler  of  influence.    See  five  percenter  above. 

pitch-out,  /i.  Football,  A  short  lateral  pass  behind  the 
line  of  scrimmage,  usually  from  the  quarterback  to  another 
back  (1947). 

Point  Four.  The  fourth  point  in  President  Truman's  Fair 
Deal  programme,  namely,  aid,  technical  and  otherwise,  to 
economically  underdeveloped  countries. 

RATO.    Rocket  assist  for  take-off  (1945). 

reactor,  n.  An  atomic  pile,  in  which  the  production  of 
atomic  energy  can  be  controlled  (1947).  Often  called  a  nuclear 
reactor  (1946).  The  breeder  reactor  produces  more  atomic 
energy  than  is  required  to  operate  it  (1948).  (I.  W.  RL.) 


WORLD   COUNCIL   OF   CHURCHES.       The 

World  Council  of  Churches  is  comprised  of  some  150 
Christian  bodies  throughout  the  world,  being  "  a  fellowship 
of  churches  which  accept  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  as  God  and 
Saviour."  The  council  was  formally  inaugurated  at  the 
first  assembly  held  at  Amsterdam,  the  Netherlands,  from 
Aug.  22  to  Sept.  4,  1948.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church  does 
not  participate  in  the  council  nor,  for  primarily  political 
hindrances,  do  most  of  the  churches  in  the  U.S.S.R.  and 
eastern  Europe. 

From  July  9  to  15,  1949,  the  central  committee  met  at 
Chichester,  Sussex.  This  body  is  the  governing  committee 
of  the  World  Council  of  Churches  between  the  meetings 
of  the  assembly,  which  is  the  sovereign  organ  composed  of 
officially  elected  representatives  of  all  the  participating 
churches  and  normally  meets  every  five  years.  The  central 
committee  consists  of  90  members  chosen  by  the  assembly, 
and  meets  annually.  Its  officers  for  the  period  1948-53  were: 
chairman,  Dr.  George  K.  A.  Bell,  bishop  of  Chichester; 
vice  chairman,  Dr.  Franklin  C.  Fry  of  the  Lutheran  Church 
in  the  U.S.;  secretary  general,  Dr.  W.  A.  Visser  't  Hooft 
(Netherlands). 

The  1949  meeting  of  the  central  committee  had  a  large 
agenda,  mostly  to  report  the  progress  of  activities  inaugurated 
by  the  assembly.  Its  main  actions  were:  (1)  after  a  long 
discussion  on  contemporary  issues  of  religious  liberty, 
to  publish  an  officially  agreed  statement  on  the  subject; 
(2)  to  discuss  Christian  action  in  international  affairs, 
resulting  in  resolution  >:  (a)  recommending  the  Churches' 
Commission  on  International  Affairs  to  develop  a  study  on 
racial  questions  with  special  reference  to  South  Africa, 
(b)  supporting  the  proposal  for  a  period  of  silent  prayer  at 
the  United  Nations  assembly  meetings,  (c)  welcoming  the 
U.N.  declaration  of  human  rights,  (d)  drawing  attention  to 
the  plight  of  12  million  expelled  people  and  refugees  in 
Germany  and  to  the  serious  effects  upon  them  of  the  policy 
of  dismantling;  (3)  to  rename  its  reconstruction  department 
as  the  department  for  inter-church  aid  and  service  to  refugees 
in  order  to  indicate  that  a  permanent  mutual  help  must 
supersede  the  emergency  postwar  reconstruction;  (4)  to 
authorize  the  study  department  to  begin  planning  the  subject 
matter  for  discussion  by  the  1953  assembly. 

Reports  on  the  youth  department,  the  Oecumenical  Review, 
the  secretariat  for  evangelism,  the  Oecumenical  institute  and 
the  enquiry  on  the  work  of  women  in  the  church  were  also 
received  and  their  various  programmes  endorsed.  (O.  S.  T.) 

BIBLIOORAPHY  —The  official  Report  of  the  Amsterdam  assembly 
and  the  Minutes  of  Central  Committee*  1949,  are  obtainable  from  the 
London  office  of  the  council. 

X-RAY  AND  RADIOLOGY.  Important  advances 
were  made  during  1949  in  angiography  of  the  cardiovascular 
system  of  the  chest  and  of  the  brain. 

Angiocardiography,  the  visualization  of  the  thoracic 
blood  vessels  and  the  heart  through  the  use  of  X-ray  photo- 
graphs, had  been  established  as  a  practical  method  of  diag- 
nosis in  1938  by  G.  P.  Robb  and  Israel  Steinberg.  During 
1949  Steinberg,  along  with  C.  T.  Dotter,  published  the  results 
of  11  years'  experience  with  the  method.  It  had  added 
materially  to  accuracy  in  diagnosis  of  mtrathoracic  disease. 
Along  with  cardiac  cathetenzation  it  proved  invaluable 
for  accurate  diagnosis  in  congenital  heart  disease,  especially 
since  many  congenital  anomalies  could  be  corrected  by 
surgical  operations. 

Cerebral  angiography,  used  in  diagnosis  of  intracranial 
lesions,  was  originated  in  1927  by  Egas  Moniz  (</.v.),  of  Lisbon. 
Advances  which  took  place  in  angiography  during  1949 
consisted  in  the  provision  and  improvement  of  methods  and 
apparatus.  Two  devices  were  perfected  which  greatly 


684 


YACHTING— YEMEN 


facilitated  the  roentgenographic  technique,  one  called  the 
seriograph  and  the  other  the  roll  film  cassette. 

The  seriograph  consists  of  a  cassette  magazine  mounted 
in  a  portable  cabinet  adjustable  in  height  to  adapt  it  to  various 
table  heights.  The  cassette  changer  holds  six  specially 
designed  cassettes,  each  with  intensifying  screens  and  each 
backed  by  a  thin  layer  of  lead  to  provide  protection  of  under- 
lying films  during  exposure.  An  exposure-activating  device 
and  an  automatic  cassette-shifting  device  operate  in  such  a 
way  that  following  each  exposure  the  cassette  is  removed 
and  an  unexposed  one  shifted  into  position  for  the  next 
exposure,  the  series  continuing  until  completion  of  the  six 
exposures.  The  device  provides  that  the  successive  exposures 
are  made  at  predetermined  intervals— X)- 7  sec.  for  cerebral 
angiographs  and  2-5  sec.  for  angiocardiographs.  The 
exposure  time  for  each  film  is  set  at  0  1  sec.  or  less,  the  total 
elapsed  time  for  the  six  films  being  4  •  5  sec.  This  apparatus 
serves  to  make  films  during  the  successive  opacification  of 
the  arteries,  capillaries  and  veins  of  the  brain. 

The  roll  film  cassette  consists  of  two  main  components — 
a  motor  base  plate  and  a  detachable  roll  film  magazine.  The 
capacity  of  the  magazine  is  75  ft.  of  film,  9^  in.  wide,  and 
sufficient  foi  approximately  75  exposures.  Operation  is 
accomplished  automatically  and  continuously  in  conjunction 
with  the  X-ray  tube  control  at  the  rate  of  two  exposures 
per  second.  The  film  is  automatically  advanced  in  the 
magazine  when  the  motor  circuit  is  closed;  and  when  the 
film  is  in  proper  position  for  exposure  it  is  automatically 
compressed  between  two  intensifying  screens.  A  Bucky  grid 
is  in  constant  motion  during  the  exposures. 

Two  important  papers  were  published  in  1949  which 
pointed  to  new  possibilities  in  the  application  of  radiation 
to  the  treatment  of  cancer.  They  dealt  with  the  use  of  the 
betatron  in  the  production  and  utilization  both  of  free 
electrons  and  of  roentgen  rays  at  high  voltages.  The  betatron 
is  a  machine  by  which  electrons  produced  from  a  tungsten 
filament  are  injected  into  a  vacuum  chamber  between  the 
poles  of  an  alternating  current  electromagnet  and  by  the 
energy  of  the  increasing  electromagnetic  field  finally  reach 
an  energy  of  20  million  electron  volts.  If  it  is  desired  to 
produce  roentgen  rays,  the  electrons  are  directed  against  a 
tungsten  target.  By  removing  the  target  it  is  possible  to 
obtain  a  beam  of  electrons  which  can  be  controlled  and 
directed  outside  of  the  machine  and  which  at  the  high  voltage 
of  20  million  ev.  can  penetrate  tissues  to  a  depth  far  beyond 
that  which  is  possible  with  the  electrons  produced  by  the 
voltages  hitherto  used  for  productions  of  roentgen  rays. 
They  have  an  important  advantage  over  roentgen  rays  in  that 
their  highest  concentration  of  energy  is  not  at  their  source 
but  at  the  end  of  the  beam.  A  beam  of  free  electrons  can 
therefore  be  applied  in  such  a  manner  that  its  greatest  energy 
is  exerted  in  the  tumour  itself  instead  of  in  the  skin  and 
superficial  tissues.  While  much  experimental  work  was  still 
necessary  before  this  new  agent  could  be  practically  and 
safely  applied  in  the  treatment  of  cancer,  it  offered  hopeful 
possibilities  for  progress  in  this  field. 

It  was  not  only  in  the  production  of  free  electrons  that  the 
betatron  offered  possibilities  of  advance  but  in  the  production 
of  roentgen  rays  with  the  tremendous  penetrating  qualities 
afforded  by  the  20  million  ev.  energy  H.  Quastler  and  his 
co-workers  described  the  treatment  of  a  single  case  of  cancer 
of  the  brain  by  roentgen  rays  produced  by  the  betatron  at 
20  million  ev.  As  was  the  case  in  the  use  of  free  electrons 
this  treatment  was  still  in  the  experimental  stage.  (See  also 
CANCER.)  (A.  C.  CH.) 

YACHTING.  The  most  important  event  of  1949  and 
one  which  would  have  profound  influence  on  the  future  of 
yachting  was  the  International  Yacht  Racing  union  (I.  Y.R.U.) 


conference  held  in  London  in  October.  The  5  •  5  m.  class 
was  adopted  as  the  largest  international  pure  racing  type, 
the  rules  of  which  would  produce  a  boat  smaller,  of  lighter 
displacement  and  cheaper  than  the  existing  international 
6  m.  class. 

In  place  of  the  larger  international  classes,  more  utilitarian 
types  were  adopted  for  inshore  racing  and  new  Cruiser- 
Racer  classes  of  8,  9,  10  and  12  m.  rating  would  be  governed 
by  a  formula  which  would  produce  cruisers  with  good  cabin 
accommodation.  The  new  types  would  rate  well  under  both 
Royal  Ocean  Racing  club  (R.O.R.C.)  and  Cruising  Club  of 
America  (C.C  A.)  handicap  rules  and  would  thus  also  be 
suitable  for  ofTshore  racing. 

A  new  one-design  Sharpie  for  racing  upon  European 
lakes,  18  ft.  3  in.  in  length,  a  great  improvement  upon  any 
then  in  use,  was  also  adopted.  Changes  in  the  I. Y.R.U. 
racing  rules  were  sanctioned  which  brought  them  very  near 
the  North  American  Yacht  Racing  union  (N. A. Y.R.U.) 
rules,  except  as  regards  the  regulations  governing  "  right 
of  way." 

Overshadowing  all  international  racing  events,  the  British- 
American  cup  series  of  team  races,  held  in  the  Solent  and 
sailed  in  international  6  m.  class  yachts  with  teams  of  four 
a  side,  ended  in  a  victory  for  the  United  States. 

Passage  racing  greatly  increased  in  popularity,  and  offshore 
racing  went  from  strength  to  strength.  The  most  important 
event  was  the  600  mi.  Fastnet  race  in  which  competitors 
started  at  Cowes  and  rounded  the  Fastnet  rock  to  finish  at 
Plymouth.  A  gale  played  havoc  with  the  fleet  of  29  starters, 
which  included  Dutch,  French  and  Argentinian  entrants, 
and  only  ten  yachts  completed  the  course.  The  race  was  won 
for  the  second  time  by  Captain  J.  H.  lllingworth's  *'  Myth 
of  Malham."  A  new  race  for  small  yachts  (class  III)  run 
concurrently  with,  and  on  a  similar  course  to,  the  Fastnet 
but  rounding  the  Wolf  rock,  was  won  by  Major  R.  Schol- 
field's  "  Blue  Disa,"  one  of  a  very  successful  new  class  of 
24  ft.  L.W.L.  one-design  ofTshore  racers. 

The  international  Dragon  cup  was  won  by  the  Danish 
boat  "  Snap."  The  European  championship  of  the  star 
class  held  at  Monaco  was  won  by  A.  Straulmo,  Italy. 

Dinghy  racing  reached  new  heights  of  popularity  in 
England,  the  premier  award  in  the  14  ft.  international  class 
being  won  by  Stewart  Morris  for  the  third  time  running  and 
the  seventh  time  in  all.  (E.  F.  HK.) 

United  States.  The  winning  of  several  major  ocean 
and  long  coastwise  races  in  different  parts  of  the  world 
by  yachts  of  relatively  light  displacement  type  was  a  feature 
of  the  1949  yachting  season.  On  the  Pacific,  "  Kitten,'* 
a  46  ft.  overall  PCC  class  sloop  owned  by  Fred  W.  Lyon, 
California,  won  the  2,225  mi.  Los  Angeles-to-Honolulu  race. 
A  sister  ship  to  "  Kitten,"  Dr.  Philip  R.  Smith's  "  Gossip,'* 
Seattle,  won  the  Tri-fsland  series  of  three  long  distance 
races  in  the  Puget  sound  area. 

In  addition  to  the  ocean  races  mentioned,  long  distance 
sailing  events  were  numerous.  In  Florida  waters  Palmer 
Langdon's  Rhodes-27  class  sloop  "  Tiny  Teal  "  won  the 
St.  Petersburg- Havana  and  Lipton  Trophy  races  and  took 
the  Florida  Governor's  cup  as  the  outstanding  yacht  in  the 
five  races  of  the  "  southern  circuit." 

Among  international  class  champions  were  Harry  G.  Nye, 
Chicago,  Star  class;  Richard  Bertram,  Miami,  Lightning 
class;  Ted  Wells,  Wichta,  Kansas,  Snipe  class;  and  Howard 
Lippincott,  Riverston,  Delaware,  Comet  class.  Charles 
Currey,  British  dinghy  skipper,  won  the  Princess  Elizabeth 
trophy  for  14-footers  in  a  Bermuda-Canada-England- U.S. 
series  held  at  Bermuda.  (W.  H.  TR.) 

YEMEN.  An  independent  state  in  the  southwestern  tip 
of  the  Arabian  peninsula,  between  Saudi  Arabia  to  the 


YORK,  ARCHBISHOP  OF 


685 


The  start  of  the  first  race  for  the  British- American  cup  offCowes,  Isle  of  Wight ,  July  1949.      Nearest  the  camera  is  "  Goose  "  (United  States). 


north,  the  British  Aden  protectorate  to  the  southeast,  and 
the  Red  Sea  to  the  west.  Area:  c.  31,000  sq.  mi.;  pop. 
(1948  est.):  1,600,000.  Language:  Arabic.  Religion: 
Moslem.  Capital:  San'a  (pop.  est.  25,000).  Ruler:  Imam 
Ahmed  Ibn  Yahya  Nasir  li-Din  Allah. 

History.  The  isolation  of  Yemen  during  1949  was  greater 
than  it  had  ever  been.  After  the  overthrow  of  Abdullah 
Ibn  Ahmed  al-Wazir's  regime  in  1948  and  the  numerous 
executions  of  leading  men  which  followed,  the  new  Imam 
did  not  return  to  San'a  but  set  up  his  capital  at  Taiz.  Con- 
ditions continued  unsettled.  A  revolt  of  Rasasi  tribesmen 
broke  out  in  February  and  was  crushed  by  the  Imam,  who 
was  reported  to  have  executed  33  tribal  leaders.  R.A.F. 
aircraft  from  Aden  were  reported  to  be  making  bombing 
raids  on  border  forts  early  in  March  owing  to  violations  of 
British  territory  by  the  tribesmen.  On  Sept.  2,  after  giving 
due  warning,  R.A.F.  bombers  destroyed  a  fort  which  was 
being  erected  by  Yemenis  in  the  territory  of  the  western 
Aden  protectorate. 

Yemen  took  very  little  part  in  the  proceedings  of  the 
Arab  League  (q.v.).  Trade  negotiations  were  carried  on  with 
Egypt  and  with  India  by  Qadi  Muhammad  Ibn  Abdullah 
al-Imari,  a  special  envoy  of  the  Imam.  A  trade  agreement 
with  Lebanon  was  signed  in  February.  Relations  with  Great 
Britain  were  discussed  with  the  Imam  at  Taiz  in  Nov.  1948 
by  the  governor  of  Aden,  Sir  Reginald  Champion,  who  in 
Feb.  1949  personally  conveyed  to  London  Yemen's  requests 
for  British  technical  and  medical  assistance.  In  March  it 
was  announced  that  Sir  Reginald  would  be  British  representa- 
tive in  Yemen  as  well  as  governor  of  Aden.  The  Imam 
underwent  an  operation  in  March,  an  Italian  surgeon  having 


been  brought  by  air  from  Asmara.  In  November  it  was 
reported  that  most  of  Yemen's  remaining  Jews  had  been 
evacuated  through  Aden  to  Israel. 

Foreign  Trade  Principal  imports  are  manufactured  goods.  Principal 
exports  are  coffee,  barley,  wheat  millet,  hides,  charcoal,  raisins. 

Finance.  The  monetary  unit  is  the  Maria  Theresa  dollar,  called  the 
riyaly  nominally  =  Rs.l  (Indian).  (C.  Ho.) 

YORK,  ARCHBISHOP  OF  (GARBETT,  CYRIL 
FOSTER),  90th  archbishop  of  York,  primate  of  England 
(b.  Feb.  6,  1875),  was  educated  at  Portsmouth  grammar 
school,  Keble  college,  Oxford,  and  Cuddesdon  theological 
college.  For  20  years  he  worked  at  Portsea  as  curate  (1899) 
and  vicar  (1909).  He  was  rural  dean  of  Portsmouth,  honorary 
canon  of  Winchester  (1915-19)  and  proctor  in  convocation 
(1918-19).  In  1919  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Southwark, 
translated  to  Winchester  (1932)  and  became  archbishop  of 
York  in  1942.  Dr.  Garbett  became  well  known  to  the  general 
public  for  his  pronouncements  on  the  Church  and  social 
problems  and  he  published  a  number  of  books  on  this  subject. 
In  1939  he  was  appointed  chairman  of  the  Canon  Law 
commission  which  later  issued  its  report  together  with  pro- 
posals for  a  revised  body  of  canons  under  the  title  The  Canon 
Law  of  the  Church  of  England  (1947).  At  the  end  of  1948  he 
visited  27  rural  deaneries  in  the  diocese  of  York  in  preparation 
for  an  evangelistic  campaign.  In  1949  he  put  out  some 
proposals  for  the  future  reform  of  the  Prayer  Book.  He 
visited  South  Africa  (1934),  India,  Kashmir  and  Ceylon 
(1938).  He  visited  Tehran,  Moscow  and  Cairo  (1943); 
Canada  and  the  United  States  (1944  and  1949);  Belgium, 
Holland,  Italy,  Greece  and  Malta  (1945);  Palestine,  Egypt, 
Ethiopia,  the  Sudan  and  North  Africa  (1946);  Germany 


686 


YOSHIDA— Y.W.C.A. 


The  Archbishop  of  York  (right)  with  Leopold  Fig  I,  the  Austrian 
chancellor ,  in  Vienna,  April  1949. 

and  Austria  (1947  and  1949);  Czechoslovakia  and  Yugo- 
slavia (1947).  These  journeys,  mostly  by  air,  were  under- 
taken to  foster  relations  between  the  Church  of  England 
and  foreign  churches,  or  to  encourage  communities  of  the 
Church  of  England  abroad.  (A.  J.  MAC.) 

YOSHIDA,  SHIGERU,  Japanese  diplomat  and 
statesman  (b.  Tokyo,  Sept.  22,  1878),  received  his  law  degree 
in  1906  and  entered  the  diplomatic  service.  He  served  in 
1907  in  Mukden,  Manchuria,  in  Rome,  Washington,  London 
(first  secretary,  1920-22)  and  Tientsin.  By  1925  he  was  again 
at  Mukden,  where  he  was  credited  with  abetting  the  Japanese 
policies  of  penetration.  In  1 928  he  became  minister  to  Sweden, 
Norway  and  Denmark,  but  in  the  same  year  was  appointed 
deputy  minister  of  foreign  affairs.  From  1930  to  1932  he 
was  ambassador  in  Rome.  Japanese  militarists,  whose  1936 
coup  ended  conservative  opposition  to  warlike  policies, 
prevented  his  appointment  as  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in 
that  year.  He  served  as  ambassador  to  Great  Britain  (1936- 
38)  and,  during  World  War  II,  he  went  into  virtual  retirement. 
In  June  1945  the  Japanese  government  arrested  him  on  charges 
of  advocating  peace  overtures  with  Great  Britain,  but  he  was 
released  in  August  and  on  Oct.  6  was  appointed  minister  of 
foreign  affairs  in  the  Shidehara  cabinet.  On  May  15,  1946, 
he  accepted  the  presidency  of  the  party  calling  itself 
Democratic  Liberal  but  in  practice  Conservative  and 
the  following  day  received  an  imperial  command  to  form 
a  new  government.  He  resigned  after  the  election  of  May 
25,  1947,  but  was  again  prime  minister  on  Oct.  14,  1948. 
On  Jan.  23,  1949,  his  Democratic  Liberal  party  won,  for  the 
first  time  in  three  postwar  elections,  an  absolute  majority 
in  the  Diet,  and  Yoshida  gained  the  position  where  he 
could  govern  without  support  of  other  parties.  He  became 
both  prime  minister  and  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  the 
new  cabinet  he  formed  on  Feb.  16. 


YOUNG  MEN'S  CHRISTIAN  ASSOCIATION. 

The  World's  Alliance  of  Young  Men's  Christian  Associations 
continued  its  work  with  displaced  persons  in  Germany 
and  Austria  and  with  refugees  in  Palestine  and  Syria.  The 
southeast  Asia  area  conference  was  held  in  Bangkok  in 
August  and  the  European  area  conference  in  Florence  in 
September.  The  Y.M.C.A./Y.W.C.A.  week  of  prayer  and 
world  fellowship  was  again  celebrated  in  November.  World 
membership  rose  to  more  than  2,750,000  in  70  countries. 
John  Forrester-Paton  of  Scotland  continued  as  president 
and  Dr.  Tracy  Strong  of  the  U.S.  as  general  secretary. 

Great  Britain.  During  1949  the  British  Y.M.C.A.s,  with  a 
membership  of  over  96,000,  maintained  and  extended  their 
religious,  cultural,  social  and  physical  activities  in  some  460 
local  centres  throughout  the  British  Isles.  Similar  programmes 
served  the  needs  of  the  British  armed  forces  in  over  300 
centres  and  hostels  at  home  and  in  14  countries  overseas. 
Twenty-six  German  Y.M.C.A.  leaders  spent  a  month  studying 
British  Y.M.C.A.  methods;  in  Germany  further  Christian 
Youth  Leadership  courses  for  the  services  and  Control 
commission  personnel  were  held.  Community  services  still 
served  some  thousands  of  British  and  European  workers 
in  industry,  agriculture  and  forestry,  as  well  as  engineering 
apprentices  and  horticultural  students.  Over  900  town  boys  were 
trained  for  agricultural  work  and  84  Volunteer  Agricultural 
camps  were  run  by  the  Y.M.C.A.  The  special  educational 
projects  at  Cheshunt  college,  Cambridge,  at  the  Y.M.C.A. 
college  for  adults  at  Kingsgate,  Kent,  and  at  the  Y.M.C.A, 
Youth  college,  Rhoose,  Glamorgan,  provided  many  courses, 
especially  for  boys  and  young  men  in  industry.  More  than 
1,000  young  volunteer  leaders  carried  on  their  part-time 
training  in  local  associations.  Sir  Frank  Willis  continued 
as  secretary  of  the  National  council,  and  K.  Dickson  as 
secretary  of  the  Scottish  National  council.  (R.  W.  J.  K.) 

United  States.  By  Aug.  31,  1949,  $5,599,165  of  the 
$8,650,000  World  Youth  Fund  for  Reconstruction  and 
Advance,  related  to  needs  in  war-occupied  and  devastated 
lands,  had  been  raised.  The  national  Youth  and  Government 
programme  was  carried  on  in  1949  in  22  states;  model  state 
legislatures  were  held;  the  first  national  conference  of  boy 
governors  was  held  in  June  in  Washington,  D.C. 

YOUNG  WOMEN'S  CHRISTIAN  ASSOCIA- 
TION. In  Great  Britain  1949  was  a  year  of  consolidation. 
Centres  operated  for  service  women  turned  over  to  civilian 
work  and  nine  new  hostels  were  opened.  In  addition  to 
hostels  operated  for  industrial,  business  and  professional 
girls,  hostels  were  managed  for  government  departments  and 
private  firms.  The  international  hostel  in  London  housed 
22  nationalities  and  plans  had  to  be  made  for  operating 
hostels  for  European  volunteer  workers  throughout  the 
country.  Clubs  continued  to  grow,  particularly  mixed  youth 
clubs.  Outstanding  among  the  drama  work  was  The  Turning 
Wheel,  a  pageant  written  and  produced  by  members  in 
Birmingham,  which  demonstrated  the  continual  work  of 
the  association  and  the  performance  of  Truth  Unchanged, 
which  illustrated  parables  and  their  application  to  present 
day  problems. 

Centres  for  servicewomen,  Control  Commission  staff  and 
the  families  of  service  men  abroad  still  continued  in  Germany, 
Austria  and  the  middle  east,  as  also  the  work  for  displaced 
persons.  Under  the  Mutual  Service  committee  of  the  World's 
Y.W.C.A.  the  association's  activities  in  West  Africa,  India, 
Iraq  and  China  were  given  financial  support  and  staff  were 
trained  for  work  in  these  areas.  Representatives  were  sent 
to  a  training  institute  organized  by  the  World's  Y.W.C.A. 
for  two  months  during  the  summer  and  attended  by  26 
nationalities.  The  course  attempted  to  define  the  place  of  the 
Y.W.C.A.  as  a  Christian  world-wide  movement.  (R.  WR.) 


YOUTH   ORGANIZATIONS 


687 


United  States.  The  Y.W.C.A.  of  the  United  States 
of  America  was  founded  in  1858  to  build  a  fellowship  of 
women  and  girls  dedicated  to  the  pursuit  of  Christian 
ideals;  in  1949  this  organization  included  1,045  Y.W.C.A.s 
conducting  programmes  for  women  in  the  following  fields: 
business,  professional,  industrial,  agricultural,  teen-agers, 
college  and  university  students  and  home  women.  Emphasis 
in  the  Y.W.C.A.  programmes  was  on  the  promotion  of 
physical,  health  and  mental,  and  spiritual  growth.  In  early 
1949  the  Y.W.C.A.  constituency  included  3  million  women 
and  girls ;  the  1949  convention  voted  to  change  the  Y.W.C.A. 
of  the  U.S.A.  to  a  membership  organization. 

YOUTH  ORGANIZATIONS.  The  need  for  research 
into  the  problems  and  needs  of  youth  had  for  some  time 
been  recognized  by  the  King  George's  Jubilee  trust,  and  on 
April  1,  1949,  it  appointed  a  Standing  Research  and  Advisory 
committee.  The  committee  consisted  of  16  members  and  two 
assessors — one  from  the  Ministry  of  Labour  and  one  from 
the  Ministry  of  Education — and  had  as  its  principle  term  of 
reference:  "  To  promote  and  direct  research  bearing  on  the 
welfare  of  the  younger  generation  undertaken  either  on  the 
initiative  of  the  committee  or  at  the  request  of  any  other 
organization  or  authority  and  to  co-ordinate  such  research. 
The  research  will  be  focused  primarily  on  the  adolescent 
period  but  will  also  be  extended  so  far  as  is  considered  relevant 
into  the  years  before  and  after  adolescence." 

The  committee  met  for  the  first  time  on  April  28  and  during 
the  year  agreed  that  the  most  important  problems  in  the  field 
of  youth  service  were  the  recruiting  and  training  of  youth 
leaders,  the  "  wastage  "  in  membership  and  the  "  unattached  " 
youth.  The  committee  requested  the  University  of  Bristol 
to  extend  its  research  on  the  subject  of  youth  leadership  to 
include  comprehensive  research  on  the  provision  and  training 
of  youth  leaders.  It  was  also  agreed  that  the  committee  should 
sponsor  research  into  wastage  and  the  unattached. 

In  the  ten  years  since  its  last  full  report  the  trust  had  made 
grants  of  £422,468,  of  which  £58,968  was  authorized  in  the 
year  ended  March  1949. 

A  survey  of  the  leisure  interests  of  boy  members  of  mixed 
clubs  was  undertaken  by  the  National  Association  of  Girls' 
Clubs  and  Mixed  Clubs  and  published  under  the  title  Hours 
Away  From  Work.  The  membership  of  the  association  was 
166,385  boys  and  girls  in  2,405  clubs.  This  membership 
comprised  35,271  girls  in  girls'  clubs,  64,038  girls  in  mixed 
clubs  and  67,076  boys  in  mixed  clubs.  The  association  received 
a  gift  of  £95,000  from  the  South  African  Aid  to  Britain  fund 
(see  Britannica  Book  of  the  Year  1949)  and  this  enabled  it 
to  purchase  and  equip  Kilmory  castle,  Argyllshire,  to  equip 
Avon  Tyrell,  Hampshire,  and  to  purchase  Kilvrough  manor, 
south  Wales.  Avon  Tyrell  was  opened  by  Princess  Elizabeth 
as  a  national  holiday  house  and  conference  centre  on  July  1. 
Mrs.  Walter  Elliot  retired  after  being  chairman  of  the 
association  for  10  years  and  was  succeeded  by  Miss  Vera 
Grenfell. 

The  National  Association  of  Boys'  Clubs,  of  which  the 
Duke  of  Gloucester  was  president,  had  a  membership  of 
200,000.  Amongst  its  activities  during  1949  was  a  joint 
money-raising  effort  with  the  girls'  clubs  and  mixed  clubs 
and  a  fourth  tour  of  its  travelling  theatre.  For  reasons  of 
economy  the  Arts  Training  centre  at  Cranbrook,  Kent,  was 
under  sentence  of  closure  before  the  end  of  1949  but  it  was 
reprieved  for  at  least  one  year. 

The  Outward  Bound  trust,  an  organization  caring  for  the 
spiritual  and  moral  well-being  of  young  people,  acquired 
Gate  house,  Eskdale,  for  use  as  a  **  mountain  school."  For 
three  years  the  trust's  sea  school  at  Aberdovey  had  provided 
character  training  courses,  and  the  new  school  at  Eskdale 
would  help  relieve  the  strain  on  the  sea  school.  A  national 


appeal  was  launched  to  raise  £100,000  for  the  work  of 
the  trust. 

The  national  training  centre  for  officers  and  leaders  of  the 
Boys'  Brigade  in  England  and  Wales  at  Feldon  lodge,  Hert- 
fordshire, was  opened  by  the  Duke  of  Gloucester  in  October. 
The  centre  was  made  possible  by  a  grant  from  the  South 
Africa  fund.  A  training  centre  for  the  Girls'  Guildry  at 
Fernhill,  Rutherglen,  was  opened  in  April.  The  Junior  Red 
Cross  celebrated  its  25th  anniversary  in  November  with  an 
impressive  pageant  at  the  Albert  hall,  London. 

The  British  Schools  Exploring  society  undertook  an 
expedition  to  northern  Norway.  The  party,  which  included 
10  leaders  and  61  schoolboys,  explored  an  area  of  some 
80  sq.  mi.  at  the  south  end  of  Lake  Risvann  under  the 
instruction  of  two  officers  of  the  Royal  Engineers.  The  King 
George's  Jubilee  trust  contributed  £1,000  towards  the 
expenses  of  the  expedition. 

A  world  forum  for  youth  was  organized  in  May  in  con- 
junction with  the  Council  for  Education  in  World  Citizen- 
ship. Representatives  from  1 3  countries  took  part.  A  similar 
forum  was  held  in  New  York  in  March.  In  January,  34 
students  from  17  European  countries  arrived  in  the  United 
States  and  undertook  a  nationwide  tour  before  returning  to 
New  York  for  the  Forum  for  High  Schools. 

In  Northern  Ireland  the  youth  committee  continued  to 
stimulate  public  interest  in  youth  work  and  on  its  recommen- 
dations the  Ministry  of  Education  made  grants  of  £47,000 
in  the  financial  year  1948-49.  The  Central  Council  for 


Members  of  the  Scottish  delegation  to  the  World  Festival  of  Youth 
and  Students  which  was  held  in  Budapest,  Aug.  1949. 


688 


YUGOSLAVIA 


Physical   Recreation   extended   its   activities   to   Northern 
Ireland  and  this  was  welcomed  by  the  youth  committee. 

An  experiment  in  international  fellowship  was  made  near 
Aberystwyth,  at  Easter,  when  a  communal  holiday  was  held 
for  young  persons  from  Scotland,  Ireland,  the  Isle  of  Man, 
Cornwall  and  Brittany  interested  in  the  revival  of  the  Celtic 
language. 

International.  The  council  of  the  World  Assembly  of 
Youth  (W.A.Y.)  met  for  the  first  time  in  Brussels  in  August. 
Founded  at  the  International  Youth  conference  held  in 
London  in  Aug.  1948,  W.A.Y.  held  a  provisional  council 
meeting  at  Ashridge,  Hertfordshire,  in  Feb.  1949.  For  the 
August  meeting  in  Brussels,  at  which  28  countries  were 
represented,  the  Service  National  de  la  Jeunesse  made  the 
arrangements.  The  Council  decided  on  a  number  of  projects 
for  the  first  year.  Among  these  were  a  centre  of  information 
and  documentation  of  all  youth  problems  and  a  survey  of 
national  and  international  institutions  concerned  with  travel 
for  young  people.  This  latter  project  was  already  partially 
covered  in  Britain  by  the  Central  Bureau  for  Educational  Visits 
and  Exchanges  which  in  1949  published  a  comprehensive 
handbook,  Educational  Travel  Survey  of  British  Organizations. 

Also  in  August  a  World  Festival  of  Youth  and  Students  was 
held  in  Budapest.  This  was  organized  by  the  World  Federa- 
tion of  Democratic  Youth,  from  which  federation  a  number 
of  non-Communist  organizations  withdrew  during  1949,  and 
was  followed  by  the  second  World  Youth  congress  which 
opened  in  the  Parliament  buildings,  Budapest,  on  Sept.  2. 
The  opening  of  the  festival  in  the  Ujpest  stadium  was  attended 
by  more  than  100,000  persons  including  800  from  Great 
Britain,  132  from  China  and  500  from  the  Soviet  Union. 
Eighty  nations  were  represented. 

Other  Countries.  A  youth  council  was  established  in 
Singapore  representative  of  15  voluntary  organizations,  and 
in  Hong  Kong  the  youth  club  movement  operated  under  the 
aegis  of  a  co-ordinating  association.  In  Bermuda  and 
Mauritius  youth  organizers'  posts  were  created  and  the 
Colonial  Social  Welfare  advisory  committee  set  up  a  sub- 
committee to  study  the  question  of  future  youth  work. 
A  youth  advisory  council  was  established  in  the  Seychelles. 
After  the  stabbing  of  G.  D.  Stewart,  governor  of  Sarawak,  on 
Dec.  3,  the  Malay  Youth  Movement  in  Sarawak  was  banned. 

In  India  the  National  Cadet  corps,  the  purpose  of  which 
was  to  train  the  youth  of  India  in  the  rudiments  of  soldiering, 
had  57,000  members.  The  corps  was  organized  in  nearly  all 
the  provinces  and  states.  A  girls'  division  of  the  corps 
was  opened. 

In  the  Soviet  Union  the  Lenin  Young  Communist  league 
held  its  llth  congress — its  first  for  13  years.  President 
N.  M.  Shvernik  presented  the  Order  of  Lenin  to  the  league 
at  the  final  session  of  the  congress.  It  had  previously  received 
the  Order  of  Lenin  during  World  War  II  and  on  the  30th 
anniversary  of  the  founding  of  the  league  in  1948,  and  the 
Order  of  the  Red  Banner  of  Labour  in  1928.  (See  also 
BOY  SCOUTS;  GIRL  GUIDES;  YOUNG  MEN'S  CHRISTIAN 
ASSOCIATION;  YOUNG  WOMEN'S  CHRISTIAN  ASSOCIATION.) 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  Gordon  Htte,  For  Youth  Only  (London,  1949);  King 
George's  Jubilee  Trust,  Fifth  Report  (London,  1949);  Carnegie  United 
Kingdom  Trust,  Twenty-Fifth  Annual  Report  (Dunfermlmc,  Fife, 
1949);  Work  and  Leisure'  International  Youth  Conference,  London, 
1948  (London.  1949).  (X.) 

YUGOSLAVIA.  A  federal  people's  republic  of  south- 
eastern  Europe,  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Austria,  on  the  N.  and 
N.E.  by  Hungary  and  Rumania,  on  the  E.  by  Bulgaria,  on 
the  S.  by  Greece  and  on  the  W.  by  Albania,  the  Adriatic  sea 
and  Italy.  Area:  (1940)  95,983  sq.  mi.;  (1947,  including 
newly  acquired  territory  of  Julian  march,  Zara  and  the 
islands  [2,843  sq.  mi.])  98,826  sq.  mi.  Pop.  (1940  est.): 
15,703,000.  Federal  republics  (pop.,  March  15,  1948  census): 


Population 


Capital 


Serbia    (with    the    autonomous 
province  of  Vojvodma  and  the 
autonomous  Albanian  region 
of  Kosovo-Metohija)    . 
Croatia  ..... 

6,523,224 
1,749,039 

Belgrade 
Zagreb 

(388,246) 
(290,417) 

Slovenia          .... 
Bosnia  and  Hercegovina  . 
Crnagora  (Montenegro)   . 
Macedonia     .... 

1,389,084 
2,561,961 
376,573 
1,152,054 

Ljubljana 
Sarajevo 
Titograd 
Skoplje 

(120,944) 
(118,158) 
(12,206) 
(91,557) 

Total       15,751,935 

Other  towns  (pop.,  1948  census):  Subotica  (112,551); 
Novi  Sad  (77,127);  Rijeka  formerly  Fiume  (72,130). 
Languages:  Serbo-Croat,  Slovene  and  Macedonian;  Al- 
banian, Hungarian  and  Italian  are  also  spoken  by  the 
minorities.  Religions  (1931  census):  Greek  Orthodox 
48-7%;  Roman  Catholic  37 -5%;  Moslem  11 -2%.  Chair- 
man of  the  presidium  of  the  people's  assembly,  Dr.  Ivan 
Ribar;  vice-chairmen,  Mosa  Pijade  (Serbia),  Filip  LakuS 
(Croatia),  Josip  Rus  (Slovenia),  Djuro  Pucar  (Bosnia  and 
Hercegovina),  Marko  VujaCic  (Crnagora)  and  Dimitar 
Vlahov  (Macedonia);  prime  minister,  Marshal  Josip  Broz 
(Tito)  (q.v.);  deputy  prime  minister  and  minister  of  foreign 
affairs,  Edvard  Kardelj  (q.v.). 

History.  Dunng  the  year  Yugoslav-Soviet  relations  con- 
tinued to  deteriorate.  When  the  Paris  conference  of  the 
Council  of  Foreign  Ministers  (q.v.)  reached  an  agreement  in 
June  on  the  settlement  with  Austria  which  denied  Yugoslavia 
her  territorial  claims  in  Carmthia,  the  Yugoslav  government 
protested  to  the  four  powers.  On  June  22  the  Soviet  govern- 
ment rejected  the  Yugoslav  protest  in  an  angry  note,  which 
accused  Yugoslavia  of  having  conducted  secret  negotiations 
with  Great  Britain  on  the  Austrian  question  in  1947,  "  be- 
hind the  back  "  of  her  Soviet  ally.  A  further  Soviet  note  of 
Aug.  11  described  in  detail  these  alleged  negotiations  and 
concluded  that  Yugoslavia  was  behaving  "  not  as  an  ally  but 
as  an  enemy  "  of  the  U.S.S.R.  It  also  alleged  that  some  strong 
and  secret  ties  bound  the  Yugoslav  government  to  the  "  camp 
of  the  foreign  capitalists."  On  Aug.  18  the  Soviet  government 
accused  the  Yugoslav  government  of  maltreating  Soviet 
subjects  and  stated  that,  if  this  continued,  it  would  '*  have 
resort  to  other  more  effective  means  "  to  protect  its  subjects. 
The  Yugoslav  reply  to  this  note  drew  a  further  reply  from 
Moscow  which  included  a  long  lecture  on  how  Marxists  ought 
to  behave,  illustrated  with  examples  from  the  history  of  the 
Russian  Bolshevik  party.  The  Soviet  press  and  radio  in  the 
following  months  hurled  abuse  at  Tito  and  his  colleagues, 
calling  them  apes,  parrots,  dwarfs,  hyenas  and  by  other 
similar  epithets.  Following  the  Rajk  trial  in  Budapest  (see 
HUNGARY),  the  Soviet  government  formally  denounced  on 
Sept.  28  its  treaty  of  alliance  with  Yugoslavia  (signed  on 
April  11,  1945).  Hungary  and  Poland  denounced  their 
treaties  with  Yugoslavia  on  Sept.  30,  Rumania  on  Oct.  1, 
Bulgaria  on  Oct.  3,  and  Czechoslovakia  on  Oct.  4. 

The  economic  boycott  of  Yugoslavia  by  the  Cominform 
countries  was  tightened  during  the  first  six  months  of  1949. 
The  Soviet- Yugoslav  trade  agreement  of  Dec.  1948  reduced 
the  volume  of  mutual  trade  for  1949  to  one-eighth  of  that  of 
1948.  Iri  June  and  July  trade  between  Yugoslavia  and 
Czechoslovakia,  Poland  and  Hungary — the  three  Comin- 
form countries  whose  exports  were  of  greatest  importance 
for  Yugoslav  economic  planning— was  brought  to  a  standstill. 
In  all  three  cases,  the  procedure  was  to  demand  impossible 
economic  conditions  for  the  continuance  of  trade  and,  when 
these  were  refused,  to  suspend  all  further  deliveries.  Thus 
the  rupture  was  represented  as  resulting  from  economic 
difficulties  but  its  true  motive  was  in  each  case  clearly  political. 

The  Cominform  boycott  compelled  the  Yugoslav  Com- 
munist leaders,  with  obvious  reluctance,  to  seek  greater 
trade,  and  to  request  credits,  in  the  west.  A  short  term  trade 


YUGOSLAVIA 


University  Libnurft 

HYDERABAD  (-^ 


689 


agreement  with  Great  Britain  was  signed  in  Jan.  1949, 
providing  for  an  exchange  to  the  value  of  £15  million  up  to 
Sept.  30.,  after  which  a  more  far  reaching  agreement  was  to 
be  made.  On  Aug.  4  an  agreement  was  made  with  Italy,  by 
which  the  value  of  mutual  trade  in  1949-50  was  to  be  more 
than  double  that  of  the  previous  year.  In  August  the  United 
States  government  permitted  the  sale  to  Yugoslavia  of  a  large 
steel  plant  and  the  International  Monetary  fund  sold  Yugo- 
slavia $3  million  in  return  for  the  equivalent  sum  of  Yugoslav 
dinars — which  in  effect  amounted  to  a  dollar  loan.  On  Sept. 
8  the  U.S.  Export-Import  bank  gave  a  credit  of  $20  million, 
of  which  $12  million  were  to  be  spent  on  American  equip- 
ment for  the  rehabilitation  of  Yugoslav  mines. 

Yugoslavia's  economic  situation  remained  critical  during 
the  year.  Official  statistics  gave  the  usual  optimistic  per- 
centage figures  for  the  achievement  of  the  Five- Year  plan 
targets.  But  in  fact  the  achievement  was  much  smaller  than 
the  figures.  Much  of  the  construction  consisted  of  factory 
buildings  containing  no  equipment,  and  the  new  home- 
produced  machinery  displayed  with  such  pride  in  exhibitions 
consisted  of  prototypes  made  by  skilled  craftsmen,  which 
there  was  still  no  means  of  putting  into  mass  production. 
More  even  than  her  "  popular  democratic  "  neighbours,  and 
no  less  than  the  U.S.S.R.  two  decades  before,  Yugoslavia, 
lacking  both  machinery  and  a  skilled  labour  force,  had  to 
rely  for  her  plans  on  an  army  of  directed  unskilled  labour. 
What  could  be  produced  by  one  skilled  worker  with  a 
machine  must  be  produced  by  five  or  ten  pairs  of  strong 
bare  hands. 

The  need  for  manpower  in  factories,  public  works  and 
mines  was  the  main  motive  behind  the  collectivization  of 
agriculture  which  had  made  more  rapid  progress  in  Yugo- 
slavia than  in  any  other  country  of  eastern  Europe.  Collective 
farms,  with  their  managing  committees  controlled  by  the 
Communist  party,  provided  a  more  efficient  central  control 


of  the  state  bureaucracy  over  the  peasant  masses  than  had 
ever  yet  existed.  During  the  first  six  months  of  1949  the 
number  of  collective  farms  ("  peasant  labour  co-operatives  ") 
rose  from  1,300  to  4,500.  In  August  about  20%  of  Yugo- 
slav agriculture  was  collectivized,  and  in  the  richest  agricul- 
tural province — Vojvodina — the  proportion  was  nearly  40%. 
Yugoslav  collectivization  was  fiercely  denounced  by  Comin- 
form  propaganda  because  it  was  not  accompanied  by  a 
thorough  "  class  war "  against  the  kulaks  in  the  villages. 
The  reason  for  the  comparatively  mild  treatment  of  the 
more  prosperous  peasants  who,  in  contrast  to  the  rule  in 
Cominform  countries,  were  allowed  in  Yugoslavia  to  join 
collective  farms,  Was  that  Tito's  government,  faced  with 
external  threats  and  internal  economic  crisis,  was  under- 
standably eager  to  minimize  the  discontent. 

There  was  absolutely  no  political  liberalization.  The 
Serbian  and  Croatian  peasant  party  leaders  were  still  in 
prison.  The  wishes  of  the  non-Communist  masses  were 
ignored  as  before.  Anti-Communist  opinions  were  crushed 
no  less  ruthlessly  than  Cominformist  Communist  opinions. 
Tito  counted  on  the  patriotism  of  his  people  to  back  him 
against  the  external  threat  even  if  they  disliked  his  regime. 
In  the  short  term  he  was  probably  right,  but  he  succeeded 
at  the  cost  of  a  low  national  morale  which  might  later  be  a 
source  of  weakness. 

The  most  important  action  in  Yugoslavia's  own  foreign 
policy  was  the  decision  to  close  the  frontier  with  Greece, 
announced  in  July.  Official  Yugoslav  spokesmen  insisted 
that  this  action  was  directed  equally  against  the  Greek  rebels 
and  the  Greek  "  monarcho-fascist  "  government.  In  practice, 
it  operated  in  favour  of  the  government.  Ideological  factors 
prevented  friendship  between  the  Yugoslav  and  Greek 
governments.  But  at  least  the  Greek  government  was  doing 
no  direct  harm  to  Yugoslavia,  whereas  the  leaders  of  the 
Greek  rebels,  after  the  dismissal  of  Markos  Vafiades  in  Jan. 


Voluntary  workers  marching  to  work  in 

E.B.Y.--45 


uli'.  //,/<•  photograph  was  taken  in  the  autumn  oj  1V4V  in  Balkan  Street  in  tne  captiai. 


690 


YUKAWA— ZAHARIADIS 


1949  (See  GREECE),  began  to  support  the  Bulgarian-sponsored 
agitation  for  a  united  Macedonia  to  be  liberated  from  both 
Greece  and  Yugoslavia.  The  closure  of  the  frontier  put  an 
end  to  Yugoslav  help  to  the  Greek  rebels  and  greatly  dimin- 
ished the  usefulness  of  Albania  as  a  base  for  the  rebels. 
Albania  was  now  isolated  from  the  outside  world.  Both  her 
land  neighbours,  Greece  and  Yugoslavia,  were  her  enemies; 
and  the  great  powers  of  the  Mediterranean  had  no  reason  to 
be  well  disposed  to  her.  The  negative  rapprochement  between 
Greece  and  Yugoslavia,  resulting  from  the  closure  of  the 
frontier,  not  only  contributed  to  the  defeat  of  the  rebels  by 
Greek  national  forces  during  the  summer  but  provided  the 
Soviet  Union  with  a  further  motive  for  hatred  of  Yugoslavia. 
The  only  remaining  Soviet  vassal  on  the  Adriatic,  Albania, 
was  linked  with  the  Cominform  world  only  by  occasional 
Soviet,  Rumanian  or  Polish  ships  which  had  to  pass  through 
the  Turkish  straits  or  through  the  Baltic  and  Gibraltar. 
The  strategic  importance  of  Macedonia  in  Soviet  eyes  in- 
creased, as  it  was  a  link  not  only  from  north  to  south — from 
central  Europe  to  the  Aegean — but  also  from  west  to  east — 
from  Adriatic  to  Black  sea.  (See  MACEDONIAN  PROBLEM.) 

At  the  end  of  the  year  Yugoslavia's  position  was  dangerous 
but  not  impossible.  Tito  and  his  colleagues  were  experts 
both  in  guerilla  warfare  and  in  police  terror.  It  was  unlikely 
that  rebellion  in  Macedonia  would  hold  great  terrors  for 
them.  Nor  had  they  much  reason  to  fear  the  attack  of  their 
satellite  neighbours.  In  October  there  was  a  serious  frontier 
incident  on  the  Hungarian  border.  Machine-gun  fire — for 
which  each  side  blamed  the  other — continued  for  some  hours, 
but  it  did  not  appear  that  anyone  was  hurt.  But  despite  a 
barrage  of  insults,  and  a  violent  protest  by  A.  Y.  Vyshinsky 
when  Yugoslavia  was  elected  to  the  U.N.  Security  council 
on  Oct.  20,  there  was  no  sign  that  the  U.S.S.R.  planned 
invasion.  The  attitude  of  the  western  powers  in  the  event  of 
invasion  was  also  uncertain.  (H.  S.-W.) 

Education.  (1947-48)  Schools:  elementary  12,052,  pupils  1,616,002, 
teachers  23,889;  secondary  942,  pupils  310,185;  technical  1,307, 
pupils  121,137;  teachers'  training  colleges  53,  students  16,145;  uni- 
versities 5,  students  (1948-49)  54,421.  Illiteracy  (1931):  45-2%. 

Agriculture.  Main  crops  ('000  metric  tons):  maize  (1947)  4,000; 
wheat  (1946)  1,803:  barley  (1946)  194;  oats  (1946)  154;  rye(1946)  170; 
potatoes  (1947)  800;  sugar,  raw  value,  (1948)  95;  cotton,  ginned, 
(1948)  3;  hemp  (1947)  34;  flax  (1947)  3;  tobacco  (1945)  13.  Livestock 
('000  head,  Dec.  1946):  cattle  2,493;  sheep  and  goats  6,355;  pigs 
2,763;  horses  used  in  agriculture  613;  chickens  16,000. 

Industry.  Industrial  establishments  (1939)  3,254.  Coal  ('000  metric 
tons,  1940)  421;  lignite  6,888.  Raw  materials  ('000  metric  tons): 
copper  ore  (1947)  30;  lead  (1947)  50;  bauxite  (1944)  150;  zinc  ore 
(1947)30. 

Foreign  Trade.  Imports:  (1947)  14,435  million  dinars.  Exports: 
(1947)  8,637  million  dinars. 

Transport  and  Communications.  Roads  (1940):  20,906  mi.  Licensed 
motor  vehicles  (Dec.  1948):  cars  10,600,  commercial  vehicles  4,200. 
Rail  ways  (1940):  4,319  mi.  Shipping  (July  1948):  merchant  vessels  103, 
total  tonnage  202,6 15.  Telephones  (1948):  subscribers  66,495.  Wireless 
licences  (1947)  220,256. 

Finance  and  Banking.  Budget  (million  dinars):  (1949  est.)  balanced 
at  161,953;  (1950  est.)  balanced  at  173,746.  Monetary  unit:  dinar 
with  an  official  exchange  rate  of  D.140  (201  -50  before  Sept.  18,  1949) 
to  the  pound  and  D.50  to  the  U.S.  dollar. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  G.  Bilainkin,  Tito  (London,  1949);  S.  Clissold, 
Whirlwind  (London,  1949);  Fitzroy  Maclean,  Eastern  Approaches 
(London,  1949);  Philips  Price,  Through  the  Iron-laced  Curtain  (London. 
1949). 

YUKAWA,  HIDEKI,  Japanese  physicist  (b.  Tokyo, 
Jan.  23, 1907),  was  educated  in  Tokyo  and  at  Kyoto  university 
where  his  father  was  professor  of  geology.  He  graduated  in 
1929,  and  in  1932  became  a  lecturer  at  Kyoto.  He  was  at 
Osaka  university  from  1933  until  1939  when  he  returned  to 
Kyoto  as  professor  of  physics.  During  World  War  II  he 
remained  in  Japan  and  for  a  time  was  concurrently  a  professor 
at  Tokyo  and  at  Kyoto.  In  1948,  at  the  invitation  of  J.  Robert 
Oppenheimer,  he  went  to  the  Institute  for  Advanced  Study 
at  Princeton,  New  Jersey,  to  work  with  a  group  of  nuclear 


Dr.  H'ulcki  Yukawa  (centre)  being  congratulated  by  General  Dwight 
D.  Eisenhower,  president  of  Columbia  university,  after  being  awarded 
the  Nobel  prize  for  physics.    On  right  is  George  B.  Pegram,  vice- 
president  of  Columbia  university. 

physicists,  and  in  July  1949  was  appointed  visiting  professor 
of  physics  at  Columbia  university  for  the  1949-50  academic 
year.  In  1935  he  published  a  series  of  equations  in  which  he 
forecast  the  existence  of  a  fourth  basic  particle  of  matter, 
the  meson  (in  addition  to  the  proton,  the  electron,  and  the 
neutron).  The  Royal  Swedish  Academy  of  Science  awarded 
Dr.  Yukawa  the  1949  Nobel  prize  for  physics  "  for  his 
prediction  of  the  existence  of  the  meson  based  upon  his 
theory  of  nuclear  forces.*'  He  received  the  prize  in  Stock- 
holm on  Dec.  10  and  the  subject  of  his  Nobel  lecture  two 
days  later  was  '*  The  Meson  Theory  and  its  Developments." 

ZAFRULLAH    KHAN,     SIR    MOHAMMAD, 

Pakistani  statesman  (b.  Sialkot,  Punjab,  Feb.  6,  1893),  was 
educated  in  Sialkot,  at  the  Government  college,  Lahore, 
and  at  King's  college,  London.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1914  and  from  1919  to  1924  was  a  lecturer  at  the  Law  college, 
Lahore.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Punjab  Legislative  Council, 
1926-35,  and  from  1935  to  1941  served  on  the  governor 
general's  executive  council  in  charge,  successively,  of  the 
portfolios  of  commerce  and  railways,  industries  and  labour, 
law  and  war  supply.  Until  the  creation  of  the  dominion  of 
Pakistan  on  Aug.  15,  1947,  he  was  a  judge  of  the  Federal 
Court  of  India.  On  Dec.  27, 1947,  he  was  sworn  in  as  minister 
for  foreign  affairs  and  commonwealth  relations  in  the  newly 
formed  Pakistani  government.  He  was  president  of  the  All- 
India  Moslem  league,  1931-32,  was  leader  of  the  Indian 
delegation  to  the  League  of  Nations  assembly,  1939,  was 
agent  general  for  India  in  Chungking,  1942,  and  led  the 
Pakistani  delegation  to  the  general  assembly  of  the  United 
Nations,  which  on  Sept.  30,  1947,  admitted  Pakistan  to 
membership.  He  again  led  the  Pakistani  delegation  at  the 
U.N.  general  assembly  in  1948  and  attended  the  Common- 
wealth prime  ministers'  conferences  in  Oct.  1948  and  April 
1949.  He  was  present  at  the  conference  on  Indonesia  held 
in  Delhi,  Jan.  1949.  In  1949  he  led  the  Pakistani  delegation 
at  the  United  Nations  fourth  general  assembly.  In  October 
he  made  a  brief  visit  to  Ottawa. 

ZAHARIADIS,  NIKOLAOS,  Greek  politician 
(b.  Izmit,  Turkey,  1902).  After  studying  in  the  U.S.S.R., 
1920-23,  he  was  sent  to  Pirasus,  Greece,  where  he  was  active 
as  a  Communist  youth  organizer.  In  1929  he  was  a  student 
in  Moscow  at  the  Comintern  School  for  Eastern  Studies. 


ZAPOTOCKY— ZOOLOGICAL   GARDENS 


691 


He  was  appointed  secretary  general  of  the  K.K.E.  (Kom- 
munistikon  Komma  Ellados,  or  Communist  Party  of  Greece) 
in  1931.  Three  years  later  he  joined  the  executive  committee 
of  the  Comintern  and  in  1935  became  secretary  of  the  Balkan 
Communist  Federation  bureau.  In  1936  he  was  elected  to 
the  Greek  Chamber  of  Deputies,  but  soon  afterwards  was 
exiled  by  the  government  of  loannis  Metaxas  to  the  island 
of  Corfu.  Transferred  in  1940  to  a  prison  in  Athens,  he  was 
found  there  by  the  Germans  and  sent  to  Dachau  concen- 
tration camp.  On  his  release  in  May  1945  by  the  U.S.  army, 
he  returned  to  Athens  and  was  re-confirmed  as  secretary 
general  of  the  K.K.E.  He  took  the  leading  part  in  organizing 
the  1946  Communist  rebellion.  On  Jan.  1,  1947,  he  publicly 
admitted  the  existence  of  a  4<  Democratic  army "  in  the 
mountains  and  on  July  12,  1947,  he  announced  that  a  "  free 
Democratic  government  inside  Greece "  was  about  to  be 
formed.  The  composition  of  the  "  government "  was 
announced  on  Dec.  24,  1947,  with  Markos  Vafiades  as  prime 
minister  and  c.  in  c.  On  Feb.  4,  1949,  however,  Markos  was 
relieved  of  his  duties  and  sent  to  Moscow.  Zahariadis  set 
up  a  new  Politburo  of  the  K.K.E.  and  assumed  the  high 
command  of  the  rebel  army.  (See  also  GREECE.) 

ZANZIBAR:    see  BRITISH  EAST  AFRICA. 

ZAPOTOCKY,  ANTONIN,  Czech  politician  (b. 
Zakolany,  Dec.  19,  1884),  prime  minister  from  June  14, 
1948.  (For  his  early  career  see  Britannica  Book  of  the  Year 
1949). 

In  Dec.  1948  and  Jan.  1949  he  led  the  Czechoslovak 
delegation  at  the  Moscow  conference  that  decided  to  form  the 
Council  of  Mutual  Economic  Assistance.  On  June  22,  1949, 
he  warned  the  Roman  Catholic  hierarchy  that  his  government 
would  not  allow  it  to  "  violate  "  the  freedom  of  the  indi- 
vidual to  fulfil  his  civic  duties.  Speaking  in  Prague  on  Nov.  7 
he  admitted  that  there  were  uranium  deposits  in  Czecho- 
slovakia and  that  the  Czech  people  were  proud  to  supply 
ore  to  the  U.S.S.R.  On  Nov.  12  his  first  play  entitled  New 
Heroes  Will  Arise  was  produced  at  the  Vinohrady  theatre 
in  Prague.  At  the  trade  union  congress  in  Prague,  on  Dec.  11, 
he  admitted  that  the  introduction  of  Soviet  Stakhanovite 
methods  to  speed  up  production  had  created  tension  in  the 
factories. 

ZEELAND,  PAUL  VAN,  Belgian  economist  and 
statesman  (b.  Soignies,  Belgium,  Nov.  1 1,  1893),  was  educated 
at  the  universities  of  Louvain  and  Princeton.  He  joined  the 
Belgian  National  bank  in  1919  and  was  its  vice  governor  in 
1934,  when  King  Leopold  III  (</.v.)  appointed  him  minister 
without  portfolio  in  the  cabinet  of  Count  Charles  de  Broque- 
ville.  On  March  25,  1935,  he  formed  a  national  government 
in  which  he  assumed  the  portfolio  of  foreign  affairs.  During 
his  administration  King  Leopold  announced  on  Oct.  14,  1936, 
that  Belgium  was  returning  to  the  pre-1914  neutrality  policy. 
He  resigned  on  Oct.  25,  1937,  and  the  following  year  was 
appointed  professor  of  international  economic  science  at  the 
University  of  Louvain.  After  the  German  invasion  of 
Belgium  he  left  for  the  U.S.A.  As  president  of  the  Belgian 
Commission  for  the  Study  of  Post-War  Problems  (1942-44) 
he  visited  London  many  times.  He  returned  to  Brussels  in 
1944  and  was  appointed  Belgian  commissioner  for  repara- 
tions (Oct.  1944-Oct.  1945).  In  March  1945  he  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  Senate.  He  founded  in  Brussels  the  Indepen- 
dent League  of  European  Co-operation  which  in  1947  joined 
the  International  Committee  of  the  Movement  for  European 
Unity.  On  Aug.  10,  1949,  he  was  appointed  minister  of 
foreign  affairs  and  foreign  trade  in  the  cabinet  presided  over 
by  Gaston  Eyskens  (^.v.).  Six  days  later,  in  Paris,  he  succeeded 
Paul-Henri  Spaak  fy.v.)  as  chairman  of  the  O.E.E.C.  He 


stated  at  Brussels,  on  Nov.  13,  that  the  United  Nations  had 
proved  a  greater  failure  than  the  League  of  Nations. 

ZOOLOGICAL  GARDENS.  In  spite  of  the  diffi- 
culties and  anxieties  of  a  troubled  and  quarrelsome  world 
progress  in  the  rehabilitation  and  development  of  zoological 
gardens  was,  at  least  in  Europe,  maintained  during  1949, 
and  judging  by  the  numbers  of  visitors,  zoos  were  as  popular 
as  ever.  In  the  British  Isles  the  records  of  attendance  were 
high,  partly  owing  to  the  prolonged  and  brilliant  summer. 
By  the  end  of  September  nearly  2,225,000  visitors  had 
entered  the  gardens  at  Regent's  park  and  nearly  500,000  had, 
in  spite  of  continue^  difficulties  of  transport,  made  their  way 
to  Whipsnade  park  which,  for  the  first  year  in  its  somewhat 
chequered  history,  seemed  likely  to  pay  its  way  without 
recourse  to  the  general  exchequer  of  the  Zoological  society 
of  London. 

Both  in  London  and  at  Whipsnade  progress  in  re-stocking 
and  expanding  the  collections  was  well  maintained.  The 
outstanding  event  of  1949  at  the  London  zoo  was  the  arrival 
— through  the  kindness  of  the  Belgian  government — of  a 
female  okapi.  She  was  a  strong,  healthy  young  animal. 
Thus  for  the  first  time  the  society  possessed  a  pair  of  these 
interesting  animals,  believed  to  be  the  only  pair  in  captivity, 
at  any  rate  out  of  Africa.  As  they  were  on  excellent  terms 
with  one  another  there  was  a  reasonable  hope  that  in  course 
of  time  an  okapi  might  be  born  in  London.  Another  interest- 
ing arrival  was  a  party  of  seven  young  giraffes,  six  reticulated, 
the  seventh  Banngo,  which  were  exhibited  with  the  earlier 
group  of  young  ones  acquired  in  1947.  It  was  intended  that 
four  of  the  youngest  should  later  go  to  the  Dublin  zoo, 
which  was  showing  itself  in  many  directions  to  be  as  pro- 
gressive as  ever.  A  number  of  greater  birds  of  paradise  were 
also  acquired  and  thus  a  start  was  made  in  the  filling  of  a 
serious  gap  caused  through  the  loss  during  World  War  II 
of  what  had  been  a  strikingly  varied  collection.  There  were 
many  other  interesting  arrivals  and  the  London  zoo  could 
undoubtedly  claim  to  display  the  most  representative  collec- 
tion of  animals  in  any  zoo.  In  particular,  it  owned  the  most 
remarkable  collection  of  monkeys,  diurnal  birds  of  prey, 
owls  and  small  mammals  ever  exhibited.  The  aquarium  was 
unequalled  as  regards  both  the  range  of  its  collection  and  its 
technique  of  display. 

At  Whipsnade  also  progress  was  well  maintained  though 
there  were  no  spectacular  developments.  It  was  a  good 
breeding  year,  especially  among  birds.  Two  young  Man- 
churian  cranes  did  well,  about  a  dozen  red-breasted  geese 
were  hatched  in  an  incubator  and  grew  to  maturity  and 
there  was  a  late-hatched  brood  of  the  Kenya  crested  guinea- 
fowl  believed  to  be  the  first  to  be  hatched  away  from  their 
native  country.  A  serious  loss  was  sustained  through  the 
death  of  two  cows  of  the  society's  small  herd  of  the  white- 
tailed  gnu  or  black  wildebeest,  representatives  of  a  species 
dangerously  near  extinction.  An  exhibit  which  attracted 
much  interest  was  a  pair  of  hippopotami  in  a  large  open  pond 
which  were  guests  from  Hanover  zoo.  Other  animals  from 
Hanover  and  Hamburg  had  also  enjoyed  the  hospitality  of 
Whipsnade,  notably  a  young  elephant,  various  cranes  and 
some  flamingoes,  but  owing  to  improved  conditions  in 
Germany  they  were  returned  to  their  respective  zoos.  Indeed, 
throughout  Germany,  rehabilitation  of  the  numerous  zoos 
went  steadily  forward  though  financial  conditions  made 
re-stocking  very  difficult. 

There  was  nothing  of  outstanding  interest  to  report  about 
other  non-commercial  zoos  of  the  British  Isles.  The  old- 
established  zoos  of  Dublin,  Edinburgh  and  Bristol  maintained 
their  high  standards  and  the  Glasgow  zoo  made  good  progress. 

As  regards  Europe,  reference  has  already  been  made  to 
the  steady  though  difficult  rehabilitation  of  zoos  in  Germany. 


692 


ZOOLOGY 


Elsewhere  progress  was  made  in  restoration.  The  Antwerp 
zoo  was  fully  restored  and  well  stocked,  that  at  Copenhagen 
maintained  its  usual  high  standard  and  the  Rotterdam  zoo, 
which  had  only  just  been  completed  before  war  broke  out, 
was  now  completely  stocked  and  was  a  thoroughly  up  to 
date  model  zoo. 

The  various  zoos  of  India,  Burma  and  elsewhere  in  Asia 
were  up  to  normal  standards.  In  Indonesia  the  Sourabaya 
and  other  zoos  were  endeavouring  to  re-stock,  but  local 
conditions  outside  the  towns  were  such  that  the  collection 
of  native  animals  in  the  islands  was  attended  by  almost 
insurmountable  difficulty.  (H.  G.  M.) 

ZOOLOGY.  During  1949  there  were  no  very  outstand- 
ing events  in  this  field,  although  a  certain  number  of  inter- 
national meetings  were  held,  mainly  in  the  form  of  symposia 
on  special  topics.   One  of  the  more  successful  of  these  was  a 
symposium    on    "  Physiological    Mechanisms    in    Animal 
Behaviour,"  arranged  jointly  by  the  Society  for  Experimental 
Biology  and  the  Association  for  the  Study  of  Animal  Be- 
haviour and  held  at  Cambridge,  July  8  to  22.    The  range  of 
topics  and  the  large  attendance  indicated  the  wider  interest 
taken  in  this  branch  of  the  subject.    The  14th  Cold  Spring 
Harbour  Symposium  on  Quantitative  Biology,  June  8  to  16, 
was  devoted  to  '*  Amino  Acids  and  Proteins,"  with  special 
reference  to  the  composition  of  cell  nuclei  and  chromo- 
somes.   A  discussion  on  "  Induction  in  Embryonic  Develop- 
ment "  was  arranged  by  the  International  Union  of  Biological 
Sciences  and  took  place  at  Berne,  Switzerland,  during  the 
summer.  The  United  Nations  conference  on  the  "  Conserva- 
tion and  Utilization  of  Natural  Resources  "  was  held  at  Lake 
Success,  New  York,  Aug.  17  to  Sept.  6.   Other  gatherings  of 
interest  to  zoologists  included  a  symposium  on  "  Science 
Theorique  sur  les  Problemes  de  1'Evolution,"  in  Paris,  Oct. 
10  to  15;  and  the  10th  international  Ornithological  congress, 
at  Washington,  D.C.,  Dec.  16  to  18.    The  proceedings  of 
the  8th  International  Congress  of  Genetics  held  in  Stockholm 
during  1948  were  issued  in  1949  as  a  supplementary  volume  of 
Hereditas.  The  wide  range  of  papers  gave  some  idea  of  the 
rapid  advances  that  were  being  made  in  this  branch  of  zoology. 
Publication  and  Research.     The  number  of  publications 
listed  in  vol.  83  of  the  Zoological  Record  (dealing  mainly 
with  the  literature  of  1946),  published  early  in  1949,  remained 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  12,000.  Among  the  more  important 
general  publications  were  two  further  volumes  of  the  Traite 
de  Zoologie  prepared  in  Paris  under  the  direction  of  Professor 
Pierre-Paul  Grass6  of  the  Sorbonne.    Volume  6  dealt  with 
the  Arthropoda,  exclusive  of  Crustacea,   Myriapoda  and 
Insecta,  and  was  mainly  concerned  with  Spiders  and  Scor- 
pions.     In   the  general   account   of  the  Arthropoda,   by 
A.  Vandel,  it  was  noted  that  about  80%  of  the  known  species 
of  animals  belong  to  this  group,  and  the  complicated  social 
organization  of  certain  of  the  insects  appeared  to  indicate 
a  high  development  of  intelligence  or  mentality.    Volume  9 
was  the  first  of  three  volumes  to  be  devoted  to  insects  and 
contained  a  most  interesting  account  of  termites. 

Among  books  on  special  groups,  Karl  Lang's  Monographic 
der  Harpacticiden  (Stockholm,  1948),  comprising  1,682  pages, 
607  figures  and  378  charts,  was  by  far  the  most  detailed  account 
of  the  group.  A  third  volume  of  J.  R.  Ellerman's  The  Families 
and  Genera  of  Living  Rodents  (London,  Brit.  Mus.)  was  issued 
during  the  year;  it  contained  additions  and  corrections  to 
the  two  previous  volumes  and  also  a  list  of  named  forms 
(1758-1936)  by  R.  W.  Hayman  and  G.  W.  C.  Holt.  The 
general  reader  had  a  wide  range  of  books  on  natural  history 
from  which  to  choose,  but  the  New  Naturalist  series  included 
a  number  of  books  of  special  interest  to  British  zoologists. 
The  Sea  Shore,  by  C.  M.  Yonge,  was  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant recent  additions  to  this  series. 


A  male  king  penguin  sitting  on  an  Q,A'  ut  the  London  zoo.  I  he  egg 
was  hatched  on  Oct.  27,  1949 — the  first  king  penguin  egg  hatched 
at  the  London  zoo — but  two  days  later  the  chick  was  found  dead. 

The  vexed  question  of  torpidity  in  birds,  dating  from 
classical  times,  had  always  been  regarded  with  some  scepticism 
by  most  zoologists,  but  an  undoubted  case  of  hibernation  in 
the  American  Poor-will,  Phalcenoptilus  nut  tall  it,  was  recorded 
by  E.  C.  Jaeger  (Condor,  vol.  51,  p.  105).  The  bird  hibernates 
in  clefts  in  rocky  cliffs  of  the  Colorado  desert,  California, 
and  was  observed  to  remain  in  holes  for  as  long  as  85  days. 
As  in  the  case  of  hibernating  mammals,  it  also  showed  a 
marked  drop  in  body  temperature,  down  to  18°C. 

In  more  academic  branches  of  the  subject  a  new  field  was 
opened  by  the  use  of  radio-active  tracer  elements,  and  a 
symposium  on  the  subject  was  published  by  the  University  of 
Wisconsin.  A  good  general  account  was  also  given  by 
G.  C.  de  Hevesy,  Radio-Active  Indicators  (New  York),  which 
dealt  with  the  use  of  isotopes  in  biology  and  medicine. 
Other  publications  on  the  same  subject  included  Advances  in 
Biology  and  Medical  Physics,  edited  by  J.  H.  Lawrence  and 
J.  G.  Hamilton  (New  York). 

"  The  study  of  a  generalized  marsupial  (Dasycercus 
cristicauda,  Krefft),"  by  F.  Wood  Jones  (Trans.  Zool.  Soc. 
Lond.,  vol.  26,  part  5)  was  an  important  contribution  to  our 
knowledge  of  this  rare  animal.  One  of  the  surprising  features 
of  this  carnivorous  marsupial  was  the  great  variation  in  the 
size  of  the  adults  ranging  in  length  from  125  to  220  mm. 
There  were  also  similar  variations  in  the  dimensions  of  the 
feet,  tail,  ears  and  other  parts  of  the  body. 

The  haemoglobins  of  Ascaris  and  other  nematodes  were 
studied  by  H.  E.  Davenport,  (Proc.  Roy.  Soc.,  vol.  136,  pp. 
255-290).  Two  distinct  kinds  are  found  in  the  perienteric 
fluid  and  body-wall  respectively.  When  kept  under  anaerobic 
conditions  the  latter  becomes  de-oxygenated  but  no  change 
could  be  found  in  the  perienteric  fluid  haemoglobin.  Further 
studies  by  H.  Munro  Fox  et  al.  on  the  haemoglobin  content 
of  Daphnia  (Proc.  Roy.  Soc.,  vol.  136,  p.  388)  showed  that 
this  animal  synthesizes  blood  haemoglobin  under  conditions 
of  oxygen  deficit.  (See  also  ENDOCRINOLOGY;  ENTOMOLOGY; 
GENETICS;  MARINE  BIOLOGY;  PALEONTOLOGY;  PHYSI- 
OLOGY; ZOOLOGICAL  GARDENS.)  (E.  HIN.) 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 


Abdullah,  King,  with  Sir  B  Embry  (Associated 
Press)  .  .  .17 

Adenauer,  Konrad  (Planet  News)        .  19 

Advertising:  Punch  advertisement  20 

Whitbread  poster  21 

Gillette  poster  .  22 

Afghanistan:  King  in  Pans  (Associated  Press)         23 

Agriculture:  Harvesting  (John  Topham)  25 

Improvising  water  supplies  (Planet  News)  27 

Spraying  (courtesy,  I  emplc  Press)  ,  30 

Air   Forces   of  the  World      Vickers-Armstrongs 

Supermarme  510  (Charles  E   Brown)  33 
English  Electric  Canberra  I  (courtesy,  English 

fclcctncCo)  33 

Republic  h-84  (Planet  News)  34 

New  parachute  (Associated  Press)  35 

Airports*  Runway  at  Filton  (courtesy,  Bristol 
Aeroplane  Co  )  36 

Amigo,  Archbishop  Peter  (Planet  News)  474 

Anglican  Communion  Archbishop  of  Wales 
(Keystone  Press)  44 

Angling.  1  unny  fish  at  Scarborough  (P  A - 
Reiner)  45 

Arab  League  in  session  (Planet  News)  51 

Archeology    Hebrew  scroll  ( lopical  Press)  53 

Exploration  in  Nebraska  (Planet  News)  54 

Architecture      Flats    at    hinshury    (Architectural 

Review)  57 

Flats  at  Holborn  (Architectural  Re\lew)  57 

Flats  at  Orebro  (courtesy.  Price)  57 
Assembly    hall    at     Filton    (courtesy,     Bristol 

Aeroplane  Co  )  57 

Argentina  Eva  Per6n  on  board  Spanish  ship 
(Associated  Press)  60 

Armies  of  the  World.  Swedish  exercises  (Planet 

New:*)  62 

New  British  uniforms  (Fox  Photos)  63 

Thailand    officers    at    Warmmster    (Keystone 
Prehs)  65 

Art  Exhibitions  "  Nymph  and  Shepherd  "  by 
Iitran  (Kunsthistonsches  Museum,  Vienna)  67 

Astronomy .  Spiral  Nebula  Messier  81  (courtesy, 
Mount  Wilson  Obscrvator)  )  71 

Athena  (K    M    Srnogorzcwski)  73 

Athletics    R    C     Pavitt  (Planet  News)          .  74 

Attlee,  C  lenient  (Keystone)  77 

Australia  Sir  Donald  Uradrnan  receiving  knight- 
hood (Associated  Press)  79 

Austria:  I  lection  poster  (Associated  Press)  81 

Aviation,  C  ml    B  O  A  C'   flvmg  boat  "  London 

(courtesy,  B  O  A  C  )  83 

De  Havilland  Comet  (courtesy,  De  Havilland 
Aircraft  Co)  85 

Bristol    Braba/on   (courtesy,    Bristol    Aeroplane 

Barbirolh,  Sir  John  (Camera  Press)  94 

Bcch,  Joseph  (Planet  News)  95 

Belgium  the  Primate  and  Prime  Minister  (P'anet 
News)  97 

Queen     Eh/abeth     and     Princess     Josephine- 
Charlotte  (Associated  Press)  ^8 

Berlin     Spandau  prison  (Keystone  Press)  100 

Bermuda.  Sir  Alexander  Hood  inspecting  guard 
of  honour  (Planet  News)  101 

Bevm,  Ernest,  with  Hector  McNeil  (Keystone 
Press) 


103 
279 
106 
110 


Bidault,  Georges  (Associated  Pi  ess) 
Bonn:  parliament  building  (Planet  News) 
Bowls:  national  championships  (Topical  Press) 

Boyd-Orr,  Lord,  with  President  Auriol  (Keystone 
Press)  .  Ill 

Boy  Scouts:  the  new  beret  (Planet  News) 

Brazil:  President  Dutra  during  a  visit  to  the 
United  States  (Associated  Press)  . 

Bridges:  Governor  of  Northern  Rhodesia  open- 
ing the  Kafue  budge  (Northern  Rhodesian 
Government  1 1 6 

The  Aldour  bridge  across  the  Tummel  (A    C. 
Cowper)     .  .  .117 

British  Empire:  Commonwealth  prime  ministers 
(Topical  Press)  .  119 

The  Queen  receiving  bouquet  from  Nigerian 
girl  (Central  Press)       .... 


123 
125 

1  27 
12$ 

134 
135 


145 
146 


466 
75 
338 
132 
248 

360 
261 


460 
355 

635 
647 

518 

519 

624 


122 


British  Guiana,  beef  airlift  (British  official  photo- 
graph) 

British  West  Africa  the  Labadi  Mantse  arriving 
at  Accra  (Associated  Press) 

Broadcasting:  Mrs   Lesley  Piddmgton  (Keystone 

Press) 
Brough,  Louise  (Topical  Press) 

Bulgaria  funeral  of  Gheorghi  Dimitrov  (New 
York  Times) 

Bunche,  Ralph  (Planet  News) 

C  anada  ceremony  marking  the  entry  of  New- 
foundland into  the  Canadian  confederation 
(courtesy,  National  Film  board) 

C  anals  an  elevator  for  barges  in  Belgium  (Asso- 
ciated Press) 

Mittelland    aqueduct,    Geimany    (Associated 
Press) 

Canterbury,  Archbishop  of,  with  Bishop  of  Ports- 
mouth (Keystone  Press) 

Cartoons  Atlantic  Pact  Conjurer  ( \'ie  Nuo\e, 
Rome) 

"  Atom  Landscape  "  (Daily  Mail) 
"  Babes  in  the  Wood  -  1949  "  (News  Chronicle) 
"  But  this  little  piggv  gets  none  "  ( Daily  Mail) 
Devaluation  of  the  Pound  (,\'ens  Chronicle) 
"  Ernie's     Italian     Colonies     Plan "     (Ne w\ 
C  hroniclc) 

Field  Sports  Bill  (Daily  I  xpre\\) 
"  How  Fleet  Street  Looked  to  Vicky  Yestetday 
after  the  Piess  Commission's  Report"  (News 
Chronicle) 

Iron  and  Steel  Bill  (E\emnx  Standard) 
Mr    Bevm  as  seen  by  Moscow  (l:\e\tia,  Mos- 
cow) 

I  he  British  and   United  States  press  (Evening 
Star,  Washington) 

I  he     Labour     Party     football     team     (AVn\ 
C  hromcle) 

"The  Right  Road  for  Britain  "  (h  \enuiK  Stan- 
dard) 
Trade  Union  I  ight-Ropc  (Daily  \\orker) 

C  entenanes  the  arrival  of  the  "  Hugm  "  (Planet 
News)  149 

Channel  Islands  Princess  Elizabeth  and  Prince 
Philip  at  Sark  (Topical  Press)  152 

C  harts    Agricultural  Tractors  26 

Balance  ot  Pav  merits,  UK  89 

Coal  Pioduction  in  Europe  178 

(  oal  Production  in  Great  Britain  178 

(  rude  Oil  Production  500 

Current  Account,  UK  88 

Distribution  of  Personal  Income  675 
Education     in     F^ngland    anil    Wales,     Public 

I  xpenditure  on  217 

Euiopean  Recovery  Programme  244 

Housing  C  onstruction  in  Europe  326 

Immigration  and  Emigration,  UK  332 

Irnpoits  and  Exports,  U  K  346 

Infantile  Parahsis  in  England  and  Wales  337 

Meat  Supplies-,  U  K  409 

Motor  Vehicle  Production    .  430 
Movement  ol  US   Long-Term  Private  C  apital     348 

Newspaper  C  uculations  457 

Overseas  Visitors  to  the  UK  621 

Population,  Great  Britain  665 

•Population.  World  (New  York  Time\)  667 

Prices,  Wholesale  527 

Railwavs,  Traffic  Receipts  of  British  536 

Revenue  and  Expenditure,  U  K  130 

Rubber  Production  552 

Steel  Ingots  and  Castings,  production  ^54 

Stocks  and  Shaies  589 

Strikes  and  Lockouts,  U  K  592 

Teacher  Training  in  I  ngland  and  Wales  219 

Trade,  Direction  of  British  345 

Trade,  Pattern  of  European  244 

Unemployment,  Europe  235 
•Value  of  British  Pound,  1929-49  (Associated 

Pi  ess)  250 

1  he  aho\e  chatd,  e\cept  tho\e  marked  *,  were 
specially  prepared  for  the  "  liiitanmca  Book  of 

the  Year  "  by  the  Fcononu^t  Intelligence  If  nit 

Chemistry .  the  new  Shell  chemical  plant  (courtesy, 
Shell  Photographic  Unit)  155 

Chess:  V  Bogoljubow  (Associated  Press)  158 

Chifley,  Joseph  Benedict  (Australian  News  and 
Information  Bureau,  London)  .  .  78 


China-  the  entrance  to  Peking  (Planet  News)  164 

Churchill,  Winston,  receiving  Sunday  Times  book 
prize  (Planet  News)  .  .          .166 

693 


Church  of  England*  Princess  Elizabeth  at  Liver- 

Saol  Cathedral  (Topical  Press)        .  167 

ishop  of  London  leaving  Tower  pier  (Planet 
News)  168 

Chuykov,  Vastly  Ivanovich  (Planet  News)  .    169 

Cinema:  "  The  Third  Man  "  (courtesy,  London 
Film  Studios)  170 

"The    Queen    of   Spades"    (courtesy,    Pathe 
Pictures)  170 

"Bicycle  Fhieves"  171 

"  Pinky  "  (courtesy,  20th  Century-Fox  Films)     173 

Coal       ciest     of     the     National     C  oal     Board 
(couitesy,  National  Coal  Boaid)  177 

Model    ot     new     Rothes    colliery     (courtesy, 
National    Coal    Board)  177 

Council  of  Europe      1  he  Consultative  assembly 
(Keystone  Press)  189 

Council  of  Foreign  Ministers  (New  York  limes)  191 
Cricket  England  v  New  Zealand  (Central  Press)  194 
C> cling  Reg  Harris  (Associated  Press)  .  197 

Cyprus  Remembrance  day  ceremony  at  Nicosia 
(Associated  Pi  ess)  .  .  197 

Czechoslovakia,  the  National  Assembly  (Key- 
stone Press)  199 

Damaskmos,  Archbishop  (Topical  Press)  474 

Dance    Margot  Eonteyn  (Baron)  201 

Denmark  Danish  foreign  minister  and  ambassa- 
dor in  London  (Associated  Press)  .  204 

Dimitrov,  Ghcorglu  (courtesy,  Bulgarian  Lega- 
tion, London)  474 

Disasters  the  wreck  of  the  "  Prinses  Astrid  " 
(Associated  Press)  208 

I  he  gutted  hull  of  the  "  Noromc  "  (Associated 
Press)  209 

Docks  and  Harbours  a  German  floating  dock 
(PA-Reuter)  211 

Drummond,  Mrs.  Mora  (Topical  Press)       .  474 

1'cuador.  destruction  caused  by  earthquakes 
(Planet  News)  216 

Education  Gcoigc  Tomhnscm  with  Dr.  Torres 
Boclct  (Associated  Press)  218 

Prefabricated  classrooms  (Central  Press)  220 

Egvpt  The  Holy  Carpet  leaving  Cairo  (Planet 
News)  222 

Cavalrv  band  in  parade  (Planet  News)  223 

Hectric  Power  Clark  darn,  Tasmania  (Camera 
Picss)  229 

Electric  Transport    new  train  on  Southend  pier 

(Graphic  Photo  Union)  230 

Elizabeth,  Princess  (Graphic  Photo  Union)  234 

Ethiopia    FFaile  Selassie  (Associated  Pre*,s)  243 

European  Recovery  Programme  Paul  Hodman 
(Planet  News)  245 

Evans,  Dame  Edith,  with  Felix  Aylmer  (couitesy, 
Laurence  Olivier  Pioductions)  246 

Exploration  and  Discovery  the  "John  Biscoe " 
(Planet  News)  251 

Faeroe  Islands  King  and  Queen  ot  Denmark 
(Planet  News)  255 

Fairs,  Shows  and  Exhibitions  the  Pnme  Minister 
at  the  Biitish  Industries  lair  (Sport  and 
General)  256 

Fashion  black  wool  sheath  evening  dress 
(courtesy,  I  o^ue)  257 

The  urchin  cut  (courtesy,  l'ogue)  258 

Two-piece  diess  with  flying  panels  (courtesy, 
VORUC)  259 

Finland  Communist  rally  in  Helsinki  (Planet 
News)  262 

Fmla>,  Donald  (Planet  News)  263 

Fives    the  amateur  doubles  champions  266 

Floods    flooded  town  m  Australia  (Planet  News)  267 

Football  England  v  Scotland  at  Wembley  (P  A  - 
Renter)  273 

Franco    forest  hre  (Planet  News)  277 

Fraser,  Peter  (courtesy,  New  Zealand  Govern- 
ment) 463 

French  Union:  Return  of  Bao  Dai  (Associated 
Press)  286 

George  VI.  with  Viscount  Alexander  of  Tunis 
(Topical  Press)  ...  295 


694 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 


Germany:  People's  council  of  Eastern  Germany, 
Wilhelm  Picck,  parliament  of  Western  Ger- 
many (Planet  News)  297 
Theodor  Heuss  and  his  wife  (Associated  Press)  297 

Giraud,  General  Henri  (Camera  Press)       .         .  476 

Girl  Guide*.    Lady   Strathedcn   and  Campbell, 
chief  commissioner  (Keystone  Press)  .   301 

Golf:  Bobby  Locke  (Planet  News)    .          .         .303 
Harry  Bradshaw  (Planet  News)  304 

Great   Britain:  Throgmorton   Street,  Sept.    19, 
1949  (Topical  Press)     .  307 

Groundnuts  in  barge  (Keystone  Press)  .  308 

Crew    of    H  M  S.    "  Amethyst  "    (Keystone 
Press)  .  310 

Greece:  King  Paul  and  Queen  Fredenka  (Planet 
News)  .  312 

British  troops  leave  Greece  (Associated  Press)     3 1 3 

Handley,  Tommy  (B  B.C.)                             .  476 

Hay,  Will  (courtesy,  A  B  F.D.)  .  476 

Hicks,  Sir  Seymour  (Press  Portrait  Bureau)  476 

Holland.  Sidney  George  (Camera  Press)  463 

Hong  Kong:  H.M  S.  "  Amethyst  "  (International 
News)         .  .   320 

Horse  Racing:  photo-finish  of  the  Bentmck  stakes 
(P.A.-Reuter)  321 

Johnny  Longdon  and  Gordon  Richards  (Key- 
stone Press)         .  .  .321 

Housing :  Pimhco  housing  estate  (Topical  Press)     327 

Hungary:  New  arms  .  328 

Cardinal  Mmdszenthy  (Associated  Press)        .   329 
Laszld  Rajk  (Planet  News)  .  329 

Hyde,  Douglas  (/rhh  Press)  479 

India:  New  State  emblem  .         .   333 

Pandit  Nehru  (courtesy,  Indian  High  Com- 
missioner in  London)  333 
Crowds  listening  to  Pandit  Nehru  (courtesy, 
Indian  High  Commissioner  in  London)           .   334 

Indonesia:  President  Sukarno  and  his  wife  (Key- 
stone Press)        .  .  335 

Iraq:  King  Faysal  and  his  uncle  (Planet  News)      351 

Ireland,    Republic    of:    celebrations    m    Dublin 
(Associated  Press)  .          .352 

Israel:  Chaim  Wei/mann  (Associated  Press)  .  358 
Italy:  Communist  parade  (Keystone)  .  .  361 
Japan:  new  Cabinet  (New  York  Times)  364 

Jerusalem:  ammunition  depot  exploding  (Planet 
News)  .  .367 

Kaye,  Danny,  wifh  G.   B.  Shaw  (International 
News)         .  ...   374 

Korea:  anniversary  celebrations  (Planet  News)  .   376 

Law  and  Legislation:  the  first  two  women  K.C's 
(New  York  Times)  .  .   379 

Lawn  Tennis:  Davis  Cup  match  at  Wimbledon 
(Sport  and  General)     .  .  382 

Leather:   Exhibit  at  the  British  Industries  fair 
(Topical  Press)  .          .    384 

Leverhulme,  Viscount  (Fenno  Jacobs,  New  York)  479 

Libraries:   Mural  at  Chelsea  children's  library 
(John  Vickers)  .  .  388 

Local  Government:  50th  anniversary  celebrations 
of  the  L  C  C.  (Planet  News,)  .   394 

London:   Laying  the  foundation  stone  of  new 
concert  hall  (Planet  News)  .  396 

Foundation  stone  (Keystone  Press)  .   396 

Londonderry,  Marquess  of  (Press  Portrait  Bureau)  479 

London  University-  Queen  Mary  with  the  princi- 
pal of  Bedford  college  (Associated  Press)          .    397 


McCloy,  John  Jay  (Camera  Press) 


.  401 


Malta:  anniversary  ceremony  of  the  St    John 

Ambulance  Brigade  (Keystone  Press)  404 

Maps:  Antarctica    International  claims  47 

Chinese  Communist  advance,  1 946- 1 949  1 63 

Indonesia  .  454 

Israel                   .  357 

Macedonian  Problem  399 

Saar            .  556 

Trieste                          .                                     .  627 

Margaret.  Princess,  in  Rome  (Keystone  Press)  .  405 

Mayer.  Rene  (A.F  I )       .                             .  279 

Medicine:  making  An trycide  (Topical  Press)      .411 

Menzies.  Robert  Gordon  (Australian  News  and 

Information  Bureau,  London)                         .  78 

Mineral  and  Metal  Production  and  Prices:  Lon- 
don Metal  Exchange  (Associated  Press)  422 

Moch,  Jules  (New  York  Times)        .         .  279 

Monaco:  Monte  Carlo  casino  (Planet  News)      .  426 

Monuments    and    Memorials:    statue    of   Lady 

Godiva  at  Coventry  (Planet  News)        .         .  427 


Motor  Industry:   German   Volkswagen  (Planet 

News)         .          .          .          .         .          .         .429 

Morris  Minor  (Keystone  Press)  .  431 

Buick  Super  Eight  (Keystone  Press)       .         .431 
French  Lago  Tourer  Sports  (Keystone  Press)    431 
B  R  M.  —  new    British   racing   car   (Keystone 
Press)          .  .431 

Austin  A90  "  Atlantic  "  Convertible  (courtesy, 
Austin  Motor  Company)  .          .          .  432 

Museums:   National   Gallery   of  British   Sports 
and  Pastimes  (Central  Press)         .  436 

The  Elgin  Marbles  (Sport  and  General  Press)    437 

Navies  of  the  World:  King  George  on  board 
U  S  S  "  Columbus  "  (Associated  Press)  449 

Sea  Hornets  on  H  M  S   "  Implacable  "  (Key- 
stone Press)  .  .  449 

H  M  S   "  Vengeance  "  during  Arctic  exercises 
(Associated  Press)  .          .  449 

The  end  of  the  "  Implacable  "  (Planet  News)  .  449 

Nepal:  Nepalese  ambassador  (Keystone  Press)      451 

Netherlands  :  Round  Table  conference  (Keystone 
Press)  .          .          .452 

News    Photographs,    Prizewinning  :    H  M     King 
George  (R    H    Palmer,  International  News)      458 
"Blue  Baby  Operation  "    (E.  G.   Malmdme, 
Illustrated)  .  .          .  458 

Ferdinand    du    Moulin    after    swimming    the 
channel  (R    Rider-Rider,  Associated  Press)        459 
Chorus  dressing  room  of  Folies  Bergtre  (P 
Waugh,  Illustrated)       .  .  .459 

Freddie   Mills  being  counted  out  (R.   lllmg- 
worth,  P  A  -Reutcr)  459 

New   York:    Shah   ol    Persia   watching   parade 
(Planet  News)  .  462 

Nobel  Prizes.  Prolessor  R    Hess  receiving  Nobel 
prize  (Keystone  Press)  .  465 

North  Atlantic  Treaty:  Ernest  Bevin  signing  the 
treaty  (International  News)  467 

Northern    Rhodesia:    Arthur    Creech    Jones    at 
girls'  school  (British  Othcial)  469 

Nursing:  cadet  nurses  at  Fulham  hospital  (Key- 
stone Press)  471 

Oceanography  Otis  Barton  inside  a  benthoscope 
(Associated  Press)  484 

Oxford    University:    Nuffield   college  ceremony 
(Topical  Press)  485 

Painting:  Picasso's  "  Portrait  ot   A  little  girl  " 
(Planet  News)  487 

Pakistan  :  Liaquat  and  Begum  Ah  Khan  at  textile 
mills  (  Associated  Press)  488 

H  M  S.   "  Onslow  "    is   handed   over   to   the 
Pakistan  navy  (Keystone  Press)  489 

Pans:   funeral    parade   of  General    H     Giraud 
(New  York  Times)       .  .          .  493 

Patents:  A  19lh  century  invention  (from  "  Patent 
Applied  For,"  by  courtesy  of  the  publishers)      495 

Persia.  King  of  Jordan  with  present  and  former 
prime  ministers  of  Persia  (Planet  News)  498 


Philately,  selection  of  U  P  U   stamps 


502 


Philippines:    President    Quirmo    with    Cardinal 
Spellman  (Planet  News)  503 

Photography:  an  underwater  photograph  (Bippa)  507 
Physics:  Einstein's  new  theory  (Planet  News)  509 
Pius  XII  (Planet  News)  .  511 

Plastics:  modern  equipment  (courtesy,  Bakclitc 
Ltd)  .  513 

Poland-  new  thoroughfare  m  Warsaw  (courtesy, 
Polish  Embassy,  London)  514 

President  Bierut  opening  thoroughfare  (Planet 
News)  .  .514 

Marshals  Rokossovsky  and  Zymierski  (Planet 
News)  .          .  .          .515 

Police:  new  uniform  (Topical  Press)  .  517 

Portugal*  Marshal  Carmona  (Keystone  Press)  522 
Post  Office:  new  stamp  machine  (Planet  News)  524 
Queille,  Henri  (A.F.I.)  .  ...  279 

Radio:  exhibition  of  Radar  equipment  (Topical 
Press)  .  534 

Radar  unit  at  Frankfurt  (Planet  News)  535 

Railways:  model  of  double-decked  electric  train 
(courtesy,  British  Railways)  .  537 

Electrically-operated  time-table  in  Pans  (New 
York  limes)  .         .         .         .538 

Red  Cross:  British  delegate  at  Red  Cross  con- 
ference (Planet  News)  .         .         .         .542 

Refugees  from  Stettin  at  meeting  in  Berlin  (Key- 
stone Press)        ......  543 

Roman  Catholic  Church:  celebrations  in  Berlin 
(Planet  News)     ......  548 

Rome:   new   underground  railway   under  con- 
struction (Planet  News)        .         .         .         .549 

Rowing:    Henley   regatta   (Sport   and   General 
Press)         .......  551 


Rumania:  Demonstration  in  Bucharest  (courtesy, 
Rumanian  Legation,  London)  .  .  .554 

Rushcliffe,  Lord  (Press  Portrait  Bureau)  .  .  479 
Russell,  Sir  John  (Planet  News)  .  .  555 

Schweitzer,  Albert  (Planet  News)       .          .          .560 

Scotland:  Dancers  at  Edinburgh  (Graphic  Photo 
Union)  .  .  .  .561 

Sculpture:    "Reclining    Woman"     by    F.     E. 

McWilham  (Planet  News)    .  562 

Shanghai:  barges  jamming  river  (Camera  Press)  564 

Shipping:  two  new  liners  using  Port  of  London 
(Topical  Press)  .  .  565 

Stern    of   the    "  Magdalena "    (International 
News)  .  .   566 

The  "  Pamir  "  (Keystone  Press)  .          .  567 

Double-hulled  motor  vessel  (Keystone  Press)  .  568 

South  Afnca:  the  Voortrekker  monument 
(Associated  Press)  578 

Spain :  General  Franco  at  a  session  of  the  Insti- 
tute ol  Hispanic  Culture  (Keystone  Press)  .  583 

Spanish  Colonial  Wedding:  wedding  m  Morocco 
(Associated  Press)  .  .  585 

Stettmius,  Edward  Reilly  (Planet  News)     .         .  482 

Strikes  and  Lockouts:  troops  at  London  docks 
(Planet  News)  .  .  591 

Sukarno.  Ahmed  (courtesy,  United  Nations)  .  594 
Sweden:  gymnasts  performing  during  the  Lingiad 

(Swedish-International  Press)  .  596 

Swift,  Frank  (Associated  Press)  .  598 
Swimming:  Philip  Mickman  with  Ishak  Helmy 

(Planet  News)  .  599 

Syria:  Husm  ez-Zaim  (Associated  Press)  601 

Colonel  Sami  Hmnawi  (Planet  News)  601 

Telegraphy .  cable  ship  "  Edward  Wilshaw  " 
(courtesy,  Cable  and  Wireless)  608 

Television-  mast  at  Sutton  Coldfield  (Keystone 
Press)  .  .  .610 

Thailand:  King  Phumiphon  Adundet  with  his 
fiancee  (Associated  Press)  .  613 

Theatre.  "  The  Lady's  not  for  Burning  "  (court- 
esy, Vivienne  Byerlcy)  614 
"Tough  at    the   Top"   (couitesy,   Raymond 
Mould)  615 

Thomas,  James  Henry  (Press  Portrait  Bureau)  482 
Timber.  Timber  block  m  Finland  (Planet  News)  619 

Tokyo-  Housewives  protest  in  Tokyo  (Planet 
News)  620 

Tolbukhm,  Marshal  Fyodor  (Planet  News)  482 

Town  and  Country  Planning:  Lewis  Silk  in  with 
Professor  Ahren  (Keystone  Press)  623 

Trade  Unions  members  at  the  Trades  Union 
Congress  (1  opical  Press)  .  .  625 

Trieste.  Sir  William  Slim  inspecting  troops 
(Associated  Press)  628 

Turkey:  President  Ismet  Jnonii  (Planet  News)  .  633 
Ullvwater,  Viscount  (Press  Portrait  Bureau)  482 

Union  of  Soviet  Socialist  Republics-  Army  and 
Party  leaders  (Planet  News)  636  &  637 

United  Nations,  the  Kashmir  commission;  the 
flag  of  Israel,  rinderpest  vaccine  research 
(courtesy.  United  Nations)  .  .  642 

Corner  stone  of  headquarters  m  New  York 
(Planet  News)  642 

Officers   of   the  general  assembly  (courtesy, 
United  Nations)  .  .          .  645 

United  States  of  America:  President  Truman 
being  sworn  in  (New  York  Times)  648 

Mrs   E   Anderson,  U  S.  ambassador  to  Den- 
mark (Planet  News)  649 

Universities  and  Colleges:  procession  in  Notting- 
ham (Graphic  Photo  Union)  .  654 

War  Crimes:  Field  Marshal  Fritz  von  Manstem 
(Keystone  Press)  .  671 

War  Pensions:  Invalid  Tricycle  association  rally 
(Planet  News)  .  672 

Water  Supply:  King  George  VI  reservoir 
(Graphic  Photo  Union)  .  673 

Wines-  Dutch  ambassador's  wife  is  made  a 
"Knight  of  Taste vin  "  (Keystone  Press)  679 

Yachting:  British- American  cup  (Topical  Press)  685 
York.  Archbishop  of  (International  News)  686 

Youth  Organizations:  Scottish  delegates  to  the 
World  Youth  Festival  (courtesy,  Hungarian 
News  and  Information  Bureau)  687 

Yugoslavia:  workers  in  Belgrade  (Associated 
Press)  .  .  .  .689 

Yukawa,  Hideki  (Planet  News)  .  .  .690 
Zoological  Gardens:  king  penguins  (Planet  News)  692 


INDEX 


Headings  printed  in  bold-type  (e.g.  ADEN)  represent  article  headings  in  the  Britannica 
Book  of  the  Year;  other  headings  indicate  information  in  the  text  of  articles.  All 
references  show  the  exact  quarter  of  the  page  by  means  of  the  letters  a,  b,  c,  and  dy 
signifying  respectively  the  upper  and  lower  halves  of  the  first  column  and  the  upper 
and  lower  halves  of  the  second  column 


Abakumov,  V.  S.  377c 

Abarca,  Humberto  162a 

Abbot,  Douglas  196b 

Abdol  Hosscm  Hajir  70d;  498d 

Abdulaziz  Ibn  Abdurrahman  Ibn 
Faisal  Ibn  Sa'ud  49d 

Abdulhadi  Pasha,  Ibrahim  223a; 
223d 

Abduhlah  Hafiz  35 Ib 

ABDULILAH  IBN  ALI  17a;  350d, 
351c;  498b 

Abdullah  Ibn  Ahmed  al-Wazir  685b 

ABDULLAH-IBN-HUSSEIN  17b; 
351b;  366d;  371b;  498b;  583c; 
601  b 

Abdurrahman  el-\fahdi  Pasha  46b 

A  berg,  O.  73c 

Abetz,  Otto  670d 

Abrams,  Richard  153a 

Academy  of  Educational  Science 
(US.S  R)221c 

Acarme  disease  96b 

ACCIDENTS  17b;  home  18c,  19a; 
industrial  18a;  psychiatric  back- 
grounds of  433a;  in  U.S.A  18c 

Accra,  Gold  Coast  608b 

ACHESON,  DEAN  GOODER- 
HAM  19a;  103c;  164b;  190c; 
465d,  503c;  543d;  559d;  583b 

Achimota,  Gold  Coast,  university 
college  655d 

Adam,  M.  G   72c 

Adams,  J.  J.,  1st  Baron  494d 

Adams,  Robert  562c 

Adams,  W.  S.  71d 

Addis  Ababa,  Ethiopia  242d,  243b 

Addison,  Viscount  354a 

Adchc  Land,  Antarctica  25 Ib 

ADEN  19b;  R.A  F.  bombing  raids 
on  Yemen  border  685b 

Aden,  Gulf  of,  fisheries  264c 

ADENAUER,  KONRAD  19b; 
165d,  298b;  371c;  530a;  543d; 
556d 

Adib  Shishakli  601  d 

Administrative  Staff  College  175a 

Adshead,  Mary  501c 

ADULT  EDUCATION  19d;  inter- 
national conference  on  218b; 
London  University  398a 

Advance  Transfer  Programme  544a 

ADVERTISING  20c,  government 
expenditure  on  457d ;  of  propriet- 
ary medicines  501b;  U.S.  press 
461d 

Advertising  Association  2 la 

Advisory  Council  for  Wales  669d 

Aerobee  missile  435c 

AFGHANISTAN  23a,  U.N.E  S.C.O 
mission  to  218b 

African  Farmers'  Union  119b 

African  FoodstufTs  Commission 
472b 

African  Transport,  International 
Conference  of  523c 

Afrikaanse  Studentebond  655c 

Aga  Khan  321c;  322a 

Agate,  J.  N.  336d 

Agrarian  (Progressive)  Party  (Ice- 
land) 330c 

Agricultural  Act  (U.S.,  1949)  30c 

Agricultural  and  Industrial  Exhi- 
bition (Cairo)  14  Ic 

Agricultural  Marketing  Acts  68 Id 

AGRICULTURE  23c;  bacteriologi- 
cal research  86c;  Belgian  Congo 
96d;  Bulgaria  135b;  chemurgy 


applied  to  157b;  Eastern  Europe 
496d;  electricity  in  227c;  franco 
280a;  Germany  299d;  Great 
Britain  310b,  Haiti  316d;  Hun- 
gary 328d;  329a,  330a,  Iceland 
331a,  India  335a,  Ireland  352b; 
353b;  353c;  Israel  358c;  Japan 
365d;  Korea  376c;  Lebanon 
385a;  Liberia  387a;  mechanized 
farming  192c;  Northern  Ireland 
468c,  Philippines  503c;  Poland 
515b,  prices  526c,  Scotland  560d; 
Spam  584a;  U.S.S.R.  638c; 
Wales  670b;  weather  reports  in 
aid  of  417b. 

Agriculture,  Ministry  of  525b 

Agriculture  Act  (1947)  406d 

Agropvron  wheat  hybrids  677c 

Ah  Kbw,  Adelaide  558b 

Ahman  ,  A   73c 

Aircraft,  pilotless  436a;  refuelling 
in  flight  33b,  37c;  use  in  Polar 
expeditions  251  b,  25 Id 

Aircraft  carriers  450d 

AIRCRAF1  MANUFACTURE 
30d,  Canada  84c;  Great  Britain 
82d  ct  *eq.;  Spam  584a,  U.S.  85a 

Airey,  Sir  Edwin  326b 

AIR  FORCES  OF  THE  WORLD 
31d 

Air  mail  service  524b;  525d 

Air  pollution  417b 

AIRPORTS  35d 

AIR  RACES  AND  RECORDS  37b 

Air  Registration  board  367d 

Air  Traffic,  passenger  fares  83d 

Aix-en-Provence  (France),  museum 
48a 

Alaska  49c;  54c,  65 Ic;  moose  678d 

ALBANIA  37d;  Corfu  Channel 
case  340d  et  seq  ;  Greece,  aid  to 
rebels  in  312d;  313a;  643a; 
military  forces  under  Soviet  in- 
fluence 64c;  prisoners  of  war, 
retention  of  530a;  railways  536d; 
Russia,  relations  with,  328c 

Alberg,  Petur  255b 

Alberta,  Canada  500b;  oil  develop- 
ment 144a 

Albornoz,  Alvarode  584b 

Alcohol,  industrial  587a 

Alcoholism,  treatment  of  157a; 
411d;  413c 

Aldeburgh,  Suffolk,  festival  126b; 
439a 

Aldehydes  154b 

Alderney,  States  opened  I52b 

Aleman,  Arturo  Velasquez  464c 

ALEMAN,  MIGUEL  38b 

Alessandri,  Jorge  162b 

Aleutian  Islands  49c;  55a 

Alexander,  A.  V.  320b 

Alexander  of  Tunis,  Viscount  253b 

Alexander  I  Land,  Antarctica  47b 

Alexandria,  Egypt  54a 

Alexey,  Patriarch  216a 

Algeria  54b;  283b 

Alice,  Princess,  Countess  of  Ath- 
lone  126a 

Ah  el-Miragham  Pasha  46b 

Alien  Registration  Act  (1940)  38  Ic 

ALIENS  38c 

Ah  Jawdat  al-Ayyubi  35 Id 

ALIMENTARY  SYSTEM  39c 

All-American  Gold  Medal  (rose- 
growing)  323b 

AlFegret,  Yves  171c 

Allen,  A.  11  Oa 


All-England  Angling  Champion- 
ship 46a 

All-England  Tennis  Champion- 
ships 129a 

Alhanza  Popular  Revolucionana 
Americana  (Peru)  499b 

Allied  Security  Board  296c 

All-India  Conference  of  Social 
Work  161b 

All-India  Plastics  Manufacturers' 
Association  512d 

Allison,  J.  109b 

Allison,  T.  R   595a 

All-Pakistan   Muslim  League  356c 

All-Pakistan  Women's  Association 
681b 

All  the  Kings  Men  173b 

All-Umon  Communist  Party 
(USSR)  99c;  638a 

Althausen,  T   L  40a 

Aluminium  228a,  326b;  414a;  419d; 
Hungary  production  328d,  use  in 
building  58d 

Alvarado,  Luis  342a 

Alycidon,  race  horse  321  d 

Amalgamated  Engineering  Union 
624b 

Amateur  Athletic  Association  73c 

Amateur  Swimming  Association 
598b 

AMBASSADORS  AND  ENVOYS 
40b  et  seq. 

Ambato,  Ecuador,  earthquake  216d 

American  Airlines  84d 

American  Association  for  Public 
Opinion  Research  534a 

American  Association  for  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Science  301  b 

American  Association  of  Adver- 
tising Agencies  128b 

American  Association  of  Physical 
Anthropologists  49a 

American  Bacteriologists,  Society 
of  86c 

American  Baptist  Convention  94a 

American  Baptist  Home  Mission 
Society,  94b 

American  Board  of  Preventive 
Medicine  and  Public  Health  337a 

American  Catholic  Relief  Agency 
549a 

American  Committee  on  Depen- 
dent Territories  456a;  484d 

American  Diabetes  Association 
206c 

American  Etchers,  Gravers,  Litho- 
graphers and  Woodcutters,  Soc- 
iety of  213d 

American  Ethical  Union  640d 

American  Federation  of  Labour 
182c;  499a;  626b;  626d;  649b 

American  Forest  Products  Insti- 
tute 619b 

American  Friends  Service  Com- 
mittee 161a;  287b;  287c;  541d; 
543a 

American  Geophysical  Union  417d 

American  Historical  Association 
318c 

American  Hospital  Association 
324b;  324c 

American  Institute  of  Architects  59a 

American  Institute  of  Physics  508a 

American  Institute  of  Public  Opin- 
ion 534a 

Americanists,  International  Con- 
gress of  47c;  48d 

American  Labour  Party  182d 


American  Legion  253d 
American  Library  Association  388d 
American  Machinist  40 la 
AMERICAN    LITERATURE    41b 

et.  seq. 
American     Mathematical     Society 

408b 
American      Medical      Association 

156c,  186c;  337a 
American    Meteorological    Society 

414c;  417a;  417c 
American     Mission     for     Aid     to 

Greece  115d 
American    Municipal    Association 

395a 

American  Museum  of  Natural  His- 
tory 48d 

American  Musicians'  Union  95a 
American  National  Boxing  Associa- 
tion HOb 
American     Planning     and     Civic 

Association  623c;  624a 
American      Professional      Golfers' 

Association  395c    . 
American  Slav  Congress  182d 
American   Society   for   X-ray   and 

Electron  Diffraction  423d 
American     Unitarian    Association 

640c;  640d 

American  Veterans  Committee  254b 
American  Veterans  of  World  War  II 

254a 
American    Youth    for    Democracy 

182d 
"Amethyst,"  H  M  S.  162d;    163a; 

203b;  309b;  397b;  448c 
Amhanc  Literature  243b 
Ammophyllm  41 2b 
Ammopterm  157a 
Amman,  Jordan  424d 
Ammon,  Lord  210d;  494d;  518d 
Amour  Drake,  racehorse  32 Ic 
Amoy  (China),  capture  of  163b 
Amsterdam  45d;  161b;  168d;  Bos- 

baan  rowing  course  55 Id 
Amsterdam-Rhine  canal  145d 
Anaconda      Copper     Corporation 

161d 
AN/EMIA   43a;    157b;   pernicious 

269a;  411b;  412c 
AN/ESTHESIOLOGY  43d 
Ananda  Mahidol  613d 
Ancel,  Alfred  547d 
"  Anchises"  S.S.  163b 
Anciens   Combattants  des   Forces 

Francaises  de  Tlntcrieur  253c 
Anderson,  Colin  566d 
Anderson,  D.  S.  607a 
Anderson,  Mrs.  Eugenie  680c 
Anderson,  K.  E.  197b 
ANDORRA  44c 

Andrade,  Professor  E.  N.  da  C.  574d 
Andrcsen,  Nigol  242b 
Andrewcs,  C.  H.  180b 
Angcli,  Helen  Rossetti  238c 
Angiocardiography  683d 
Anglers'  Co-operative  Association 

46a 
Angles-sur-1' Anglin,  Vicnne,  France, 

excavations  at  47d 
ANGLICAN   COMMUNION  45a 
ANGLING  45d 

Anglo-American  Conference  of  His- 
torians 318d 
Anglo-Belgian      submarine     cable 

609c 

Anglo-Chilean  Society  304c 
ANGLO-EGYPTIAN  SUDAN  46a 


695 


696 


INDEX 


Anglo-Iranian  Oil  Company  512b; 
601d 

Anglo-Irish  International  (Grey- 
hound) Race  314b 

Anglo-Persian  Bank  91  d 

Anglo-Portuguese  Monetary  Agree- 
ment 522d 

Anglo-Transjordan  Treaty  37 la 

Angola  religious  missions  in  424d 

Animal  Health  Trust  663b 

Ankara,  Turkey  215d;  university 
633b 

Annam  (Trung-Ky)  285d;  indepen- 
dence proclaimed  (1945)  93d 

Annecy,  France,  tariff  negotiations 
at  151b;  345b,  602d;  603a 

Annigoni,  Pietro  66d 

Anouilh,  Jean  61 5c 

Ansermet,  Ernest  439a 

Antabuse  157a;  41 3c 

Autant-Lara,  Claude  171c 

ANTARCTICA  46d;  expeditions  to 
251b;  257b 

Anthisan  (as  preventive  of  motion 
sickness)  410d 

Anthropological  and  Ethnological 
Sciences,  International  Congress 
of47c 

ANTHROPOLOGY  47c 

Antibiotics  41  Ib;  412b;  631d,  657c; 
661  a 

Anti-Fascist  People's  Freedom 
League  (Burma)  136d 

Antigua  385b 

Anti-histammic  agents  180c;  410c; 
412a 

Antiquarian  Booksellers'  Associa- 
tion of  America  107b 

Antiquarian  Booksellers,  Inter- 
national League  of  106d 

Antiquities,  Cyprus  Department  of 
53a 

Anti-Semitism  in  Soviet  Union  638b 

Anti-subnidnne  weapons  435c 

Apartheid  (segregation)  578d;  579a; 
655c 

Ape-men  47d 

Appelt,  Rudolf  299a 

Applcton,  Sir  Edward  575b 

Aqaba,  Jordan  356d;  37 la 

Arab   Emergency  Committee  363c 

ARABIA  49d;  expeditions  to  252a 

Arabian  American  Oil  Company 
601c 

ARAB  LEAGUE  50c,  65d;  223d ; 
351b;  351c;  356b;  384d;  471a; 
601  b,  685b 

Arab  Legion  37 la 

ARAGON  LOUIS  51b;  282a 

Arana,  Colonel  hrancisco  Javier 
315a,  assmation  of  7()c 

Araya,  Augustin  Rodriguez  61c, 
657d 

ARCHEOLOGY  51b 

ARCHERY  55d 

Archibald,  Lord  494d 

Archipenko,  Alexander  562d 

ARCHITECTURE  55d,  hotels 
(U  S  )  325b 

Arco,  Idaho,  building  of lt  Breeder" 
reactor  at  76d 

Arctic  area,  expeditions  to  and 
scientific  research  in  49c,  54b, 
25  Ib;  252b;  weather  reports 
from  416d 

Arctic  Institute  of  North  America 
54c 

Arden-Clarke,  Sir  Charles  124d 

AREAS  AND  POPULATIONS 
OF  THE  COUNTRIES  OF 
THE  WORLD  59a,  see  also 
various  countries 

Arena,  Dan  428c 

Arcnsberg  Collection  (U  S  )  68b 

Ares,  Roberto  Antonio  60c,  61  b 

Arevalo,  Juan  Jose  11 5a 

ARGENTINA  60a,  agriculture  25c, 
airports  86b,  Antarctic  agree- 
ment 462d;  British-owned  rail- 
ways transferred  538c;  employ- 
ment 236d,  exchange  rates  247c; 
Falkland  Islands,  claim  to  47c, 
343b;  food  production  271c; 
Great  Britain,  trade  relations 
with  27a;  540c;  meat  exports 
409a;  naval  strength  450c;  polo 
521d;  University  657a;  Uruguay, 
relations  with  657d 


Argonne  National  Laboratory 
(U.S.)  77a 

Anas,  Armilfo  49 la 

Arizona,  cotton  production  188a 

Armaments,  proposed  reduction  of 
644a 

ARMIES  OF  THE  WORLD  61d 

Armour,  plastic  434d 

Armour  Research  Foundation 
(U  S  )  233d 

Arms  Aid  Bill  (U  S.)  649c 

Armstrong,  Judge  George  W.  21 3a 

Armstrong,  Richard  159a 

Arnold,  Dr.  James  54b 

Arosa,  Swit/crland  Lowlander  (ski- 
ing) championship  570d 

Arosemena,  Diaz  49 la 

Arp,  Hans  562b 

Artane  412c,  451d 

Arteries,  preservation  of  595b 

Arteriosclerosis  207a 

ART  EXHIBITIONS  66a 

ARTHRITIS  68c;  156b;  157c; 
236d;  237b,  317a;  410a,  412a; 
501b 

Art  Institute,  Chicago  68b,  68c;  69a 

ART  SALES  69a 

ARTS  COUNCIL  66b,  66d,  170a; 
239d 

Asbestosis  336b,  336c 

Ascan,  Alberto  432d 

Ascension  Island  557b 

Ascot  Gold  Cup  321d 

Ashby,  W    R.  413c 

Ashcroft,  Peggy  615a 

Ashndge,  Herts    167d;  688a 

Ashton,  Frederick  201  b,  202c 

Asian  Nations,  Conference  of  79d 

Askoutsis,  N    572b 

Aslib  387a 

Ashn,  C.  H.  56a 

Aspmall,  A.  319a 

ASSASSINATIONS  70b 

Assault  craft  434d 

Associated  Countrywomen  of  the 
World  680c 

Association  Football  272d 

Association  for  the  Study  of  Animal 
Behaviour  692a 

Association  of  Applied  Biologists 
241  b,  574b 

Association  of  German  Librarians 
388c 

Association  of  National  Advertisers 
(U  S  )  128b 

Association  of  Public  Lighting  En- 
gineers 227d 

Association  of  Technical  Institu- 
tions 607a 

Association  Repubhcaine  des  An- 
ciens  Combattants  253c 

Association  *'  Rhm  et  Danube " 
253c 

Astatine  152d 

A  Streetcar  Named  Desire  614d, 
616c 

ASTRONOMY  70d 

ATHENS  72d;  608b;  American 
School  of  Classical  Studies  52d 

Atherosclerosis  317b 

AIHINAGORAS  I  73a,  215d, 
216a 

ATHLETICS  71b 

Athlone,  Princess  Alice,  Countess 
ol  656a 

Atkinson,  H    F   205c 

Atlantic,  weather  vessel  patrol  in 
417a 

Atlantic  Awards  in  Literature  390b 

*'  Atlantis,"  research  vessel  483c 

Atmosphere,  study  of  414c 

ATOMIC  ENERGY  74b;  atomic 
explosion  in  Russia  637b;  electric 
generation  by  228c,  liquid  and 
solid  wastes  674c,  public  educa- 
tion in  (US)  222b,  research 
226d,  rearch  organization 
(U  S.S  R.)  99d 

Atomic  weapons  76b 

ATI  LEE,  CLEMENT  RICHARD 
77d;  56c,  307d,  333a;  334b, 
394c;  468a,  518c,  669d 

Auboin,  Roger  90b 

AUCKLAND  78b 

Auden,  W   H.  126b 

Auerbach,  Charlotte  291d 

Augustusburg,  Schloss,  Germany 
106u 


Aureomycm  156d;  205d;  206a; 
317b;  411d;  412b;  513c;  629a; 
657c;  66 la 

AURIOL,  VINCENT  78b;  279a; 
283d;  287a 

Auster,  Daniel  366c 

Australian-American  Society  427c 

AUSTRALIA,  COMMON- 
WEALTH  OF  78c;  advertising 
21  b;  aircraft  production  32d; 
banking  91b;  banks,  proposed 
nationalization  380a,  446c;  birth 
rate  664a;  books,  import  of  107d; 
broadcasting  127d;  butter  pro- 
duction 659c;  canning  industry 
147d;  China,  policy  concerning 
164d,  coal  production  178b; 
Communist  movement  182d, 
cricket  193d;  docks  and  harbours 
21  la;  education  219b,  elections 
224b,  electric  power  229c;  em- 
ployment 236b,  film  industry 
171  a;  floods  and  flood  control 
266d,  glass  industry  302b,  hous- 
ing 326b,  immigration  33  Id; 
370c,  542c;  labour  party,  defeat 
of  572a;  livestock  392d;  meat 
production  26b;  409b;  meat  ex- 
ports 409a,  Methodist  Church 
418b;  military  strength  65a; 
motor  cars,  British,  import  of 
430d;  motor  industry  43 Ib,  music 
439a,  newspapers  460c,  paper 
industry  275a,  Papua  and  New 
Guinea,  development  of  492d; 
Parliament,  enlargement  of  494d, 
plastics  industry  512d,  poultry 
production  525b,  railways  539a, 
rationing  540c,  soil  conservation 
575d,  steel  production  355d; 
sugar  production  593d,  taxation 
604c,  tea  imports  606b;  textile 
industry  612b,  trade,  foreign 
346a,  universities  and  colleges 
655a,  uranium  production  75b 

AUSTRALIAN  LITERAIURE  80d 

Australian  National  Film  Board 
171b 

Australian  Nationality  and  Citizen 
Act  (1948)  79d 

Australian  National  University 
655b 

AUSTRIA  81a,  book  sales  107b, 
broadcasting  127b,  Christian 
democratic  movement  165d, 
Communist  movement  182b, 
elections  225a,  floods  266d,  for- 
estry 275a;  historical  research 
318b;  railways,  electrification  of 
230c,  reparations  544a,  Slovene 
and  Croat  minorities  191c,  192a; 
Socialist  party  57 Id,  treaty  nego- 
tiations 190b  et  seq 

Austrian  People's  Party  82a 

Authors'  Society  39()c 

'*  Autodoffer  "  textile  machine  612a 

Avelino,  lose  50^a 

AVIATION,  CIVIL  82b,  national- 
i/at ion  445d 

Aviation,  disasters  207d;  safety 
measures  86b,  tests  for  super- 
sonic speeds  41  ^a,  weather  recon- 
naissance flights  41 7a 

Ayer,  A   J    505a 

Azzam  Pasha,  Abdurrahman  50c, 
351c 

B 

Baarn,  Holland,  International 
Socialist  Conference  at  572d 

Babille,  Jean  202b 

Baby,  Raymond  55a 

Bacillus-Ctlmette  Gucnn  serum 
(BCG)  161b;  410b,  632a 

Bacitracm  206b 

Bacon,  Francis  487a 

BACIERIOLOGY  86c 

Badeley,  Lord  494c 

BADMINTON  87a 

Bndoglio,  Pietro  242d 

Bad  Pyrmont,  Hanover  158b 

Bagshawe,  T.  W.  48a 

BAHAMAS  87b 

Bahrein  50b 

Bailey,  E    McD   73d 

Bailey,  T.  E   194c 

Barnes,  H.  W.,  Bishop  of  Singapore 
45c 


Baker,  Bryant  562d 

Baksi,  Joe  HOc 

BALANCE  OF  PAYMENTS  87c; 
13 Id;  345c  et  seq.;  Australia  80a; 
Belgium  98c;  249b;  Canada  247b; 
Cyprus  198a;  France  249b;  Great 
Britain  308b;  Iceland  330d;  Ire- 
land 353b;  Japan  366a;  Philip- 
pines 503d;  United  States  247a 

Balanchine,  George  202d 

Balchm,  Nigel  170d 

Balcon,  Sir  Michael  170d 

Baldwin,  Farl  385a 

Baldwin,  Raymond  E   183d 

Balenciaga  257c 

Balfour,  Sir  John  61b 

Ballet  Rambert  202b 

Ballet  Russe  de  Monte  Carlo  202d 

Balloons,  high  altitude  41 5c 

Ballroom  dancing  203a 

Baltra,  Alberto  I62a 

Ban,  A.  572d 

Banco  Hispano-Amencano  583b 

Bandaranaikc,  S    W.  R    D.  150b 

Bandy,  Orville  490b 

Bangkok,  Thailand  613b 

Bangweulu,  Lake,  Northern  Rhod- 
esia 264c 

BANK  FOR  INTERNATIONAL 
SETTLEMEN1S  90a 

BANKING  90b;  see  also  separate 
countries 

Bank  Nationalization  Act  (1947)  of 
Australia  79a 

Bank  of  America  38c 

BANK  OF  ENGLAND  93a 

Bank  of  Finland  340b 

BANK  OF  FRANCE  93b 

Bannister,  R.  G.  73d 

Banocide  629b 

BAO  DAI  93d,  281d,  286b 

BAP  1 1ST  CHURCH  94a 

BARBADOS  94c;  125d 

Barber,  G    W.  154c 

BAKBIROLLI,  SIR  JOHN  94d; 
439a 

Barbituric  drugs  440c 

Barcelona  58  Id 

Ban  (Italy)  Grand  Prix  432d 

BARKLEY,  ALBEN  WILLIAM 
94a,  me 

Barley  115a,  270a 

Barns,  H  3l6b 

Baioda,  State  of  333a 

Bairal,  Maurice  de  253d 

Barrandov,  Czechoslovakia,  film 
studios  171  b 

Bairelage,  shortage  of  114d 

Ban  10,  Martinez  584b 

Barros,  Ademar  de  1 13a 

Baitasunas,  Juozas  M.  392a 

Barth,  Karl  617b 

Barthel,  W    F    155d 

BASF  BALL  94 b 

Basingstokc  Canal  145b 

Bassett-Giecn,  W.  H   427c 

Basutoland,  religious  missions  in 
425b 

Batangas,  Philippines  503b 

Bath  and  West  (Agricultural)  Show 
257a 

Ba thin  st,  W.  Africa  608b 

Battle  Berres,  Luis  657d 

Battesti,  Maitre  259d 

Battle  cruisers  450d 

Battleships  450d 

Baudoum,  Prince  385c 

Bauer,  Marlene  304a 

Baumgartncr,  Wilfrid  93d 

Bauxite,  328d 

Bavaria,  broadcasting  127b 

Bavarian  Christian  Social  Union 
296d 

Baxter,  C   G    197c 

Bayensche  Staatsbibliothek  388c 

Baynes,  N.  H.  142a 

Beadle,  T.  H.  W   580c 

Beament,  J.  W  L  24 la 

Bcardsmore,  Peter  197c 

Beasley,  John  Albert  472c 

Beattie,  Jack  468a 

Beauvoir,  Simone  de  504d 

Bebler,  Dr.  A   81c 

BECH,  JOSEPH  94d;  398d;  399a 

Bechard,  Paul  284c 

Becker,  Jacques  171c 

Beckmann,  Max  487d 

Bedford,  Cecil  HiggmsMuseum437a 


INDEX 


697 


Bedser,  A.  V.  I93a 

Becby,  Dr.  C.  E.  21 8b 

Beecham,  Sir  Thomas  438c;  439a 

BEEKEEPING  96a 

Beel,  Dr.  L.  J.  M.  452c 

Beers,  Dr.  G.  Pitt  94b 

Bees,  language  of,  240b 

Beinum,  Eduard  van  439a 

Beira,  Portuguese  East  Africa  21  Id, 
523c 

Beirut,  50d 

Bcir,  Sir  Alfred  116a 

Belfast,  Northern  Ireland  389c; 
468a;  Queen's  University  149d, 
633d 

Belgaum,  India  523c 

BELGIAN  COLONIAL  EMPIRE 
96b 

Belgian  Congo  96c 

Belgian  Grand  Prix  432d 

Belgian  Labour  (Socialist)  Party  97b 

BELGIUM  97b;  airports  36b; 
balance  of  payments  249b,  bank- 
ing 91d;  budge  construction 
1 1 5c;  canals  and  waterways  145c; 
Christian  Democratic  movement 
165d;  Communist  movement 
182b;  and  Council  of  Europe 
188d,  crime  195c;  currency  trans- 
actions 344a;  elections  225b, 
ER.P  aid  244c,  forestry  275b, 
income,  national  442b,  inter- 
national music  festival  94d,  Leo- 
pold III,  question  of  165d, 
Liberal  movement  386b,  linen 
and  flax  industry  389d,  390a, 
Luxembourg,  customs  union  with 
398d,  museums  437b,  naval 
strength  45Qb,  painting  487b, 
prices  527c,  railways  230d;  536d, 
Socialist  party  57 Id,  technical 
education  607b,  U  S.  income  tax 
treaty  with  605d 

Belgrade,  Yugoslavia  129b,  univer- 
sity 656d 

Bell,  Dr  George  K  A  ,  Bishop  of 
Chichester,  45c,  683c 

Bellenger,  J    197b 

Belles  Lettres  42c,  Dutch  214b; 
English  237a,  239a,  French  282b, 
Polish  518b 

Bellew,  George  R    50  Ic 

Bell  Telephone  Laboratories  (U  S  ) 
233c,  609d 

Beluga,  protection  of  679a 

BENEDIK1SSON,  BJ\RM  99b, 
330c 

Benefices  (Suspension  of  Presenta- 
tion) Measure  (1946)  168b 

Benelux  countries  98d,  249b,  355d, 
453a,  customs  unions  602d,  trade 
agreement  with  spam  584b 

BEN-GURION,  DAVID  99b,  357a, 
371d 

Benjamin,  Arthur  438b 

Bcnnckon,  Holland,  meeting  on 
international  control  of  basic 
industry  573a 

Benton,  William  183d 

Ben/odio\ane  317a 

Bcran,  Josef,  Archbishop  of  Piaguc 
199a,  548b 

Berberova,  Nina  556b 

Berck,  Rear  Admiral  J   B   34 la 

Berendsen,  Sir  Carl  463a 

Berg,  Alban  438c 

Bergamo,    Italy,   C  I  A.M     at    58b 

Berger,  Gottlieb  670c 

Bergman,  Ingnd  172a 

Bergmann.  Avraham  366d 

BERIA,  LAVRLN1V  PAVLO- 
VICH  99c 

Berkeley  Radiation  Laboratory 
(US.)  77b 

Berle,  Adolph  A.,  Jr   521c 

BERLIN  99d,  airlift  32d;  33a;  34a; 
36d;  78a;  103c,  188c,  190b, 
308d;  397b;  636d;  blockade  by 
Soviet  190b,  465c;  466d,  broad- 
casting 127b;  Dahlem,  botanical 
garden  108d,  technical  university 
656c 

Berlin  Philharmonic  Orchestra  439a 

Berman,  H.  206c 

BERMAN,  JAK6B  10  Ib 

BERMUDA  lOlc;  postage  stamps 
501c;  U  S.  bases  343b;  youth 
organizations  688b 


Bermuda  Agreement  (1945)  608d 
Bernadotte,    Count    Folke    135d; 

342b;  427d 

Berne,  Switzerland  692a 
Bernstein,  Henri  615c 
Bertram,  Richard  684d 
Beryllium  206b;  336c 
Best,  Dr.  C.  H   268d 
Betancourt,  Romulo  161d 
Betatron  684a 
Beteta,  Ram6n  418d 
Bethe,  H   A    508b 
Bethlehem  Steel  Corporation  662a 
BETTING      AND      GAMBLING 

102a,  legal  aspect  of  380b,  Royal 

Commission  on  102a 
Betz,  Pauline  129a 
Bevan,  Aneurm  205b;  393d 
Bevendge,  Lord  127a 
Beverwijk,  Holland  158b 
BEVIN,  ERNEST  103b,  19b,  164b; 

164d;    188d,    190c,   281a,   351c, 

359a,  469d,  543d 
Bewcastlc,     Cumberland,     archaeo- 
logical finds  at  52b 
Bezkrovny,  A.  N    242b 
Bhopal,  State  of  3 lib 
BHU'IAN  103c;  322c 
Bible,  interpretations  of  text  616d, 

61 7a,  modern  translations  617a 
Btcrde  Thieve^  170a,  172a,  173b 
BIDAULT,GLORGLSK)3d,  165d, 

279b,  625d 
BIERU1,  BOLESLAW  103d,  515a; 

516a 
Big  Mountain,  Montana,  skiing  at 

570d 

Bikanir,  Maharaja  of  333b 
Bikini,  seismic  surve>s  in  563b 
Bill,  Max  562b 
BILLIARDS      AND      SNOOKER 

104a 

Bilsland,  Sir  Stephen  560c 
BIOCHEMISTRY  104b 
Biography,    Canada     144b,    Great 

Britain      159a,     237c,     Spanish 

Ameiica     585a,     United     States 

42a,  42d,   160a 
Biondctti,  Clemente  432d 
Bir  Asluj,  Palestine,  evacuation  of 

by  Israelis  223b 
Birds,  hibernation  in  692c 
BIRLKY  ROBERT  105a,  220b 
Birmingham,      Castle      Bromwich 

256b,  marriage  guidance  council 

407a,   Natural   History   Museum 

436d,  University  252b 
Birth  rates,  Western  I- u rope,  663d 
Bishop,  Cortlandt  Field  106b 
Bishops  Retirement  Measure  168b 
Bittner,  John  J    146d 
Bjork,  V   O    317b 
Blachcr,  Boris  439b 
Black,  Fugcne  R    340d 
Black,  Justice  382a 
Blackburn,  J    M    532a 
Blackburn,  R   494d 
Black      Market      offences     (Great 

Butain)  195a 

Blackpool,  Lancashire  257a,  519b 
"  Black  Swan,"  H  M  S   I6la,203b, 

448c 

Black   Farquin,  racehorse  32 Id 
Blake,   Admit al   Sir  Gcoilrcy  494c 
Blanc,     Major     General     Clement 

64b 

Blanco,  Otiho  Ulate  186d;  187a 
Bhss,  Arthur  438b 
Blitztcm,  Marc  202c 
Bloch,  Ernest  438d 
Blood,  preparation  of  501  a 
Blood  groups,  heredity  of  292a 
Blood  transfusion  research  410c 
Blood  vessels,  surgery  of  the  412c 
Bloornfield,  L   49d 
Blum,  Leon  188c 
Blume,  Peter  48 7d 
Board  of  Trade  176a,  256b,  289a, 

373a;    541b,    568c,    569a,    569c; 

6I8b;  660a 
Boase,  T  S   R   237a 
Bochum,  Germany  547b 
Boffa,  Dr.  Paul  403d;  404b 
Bogoljubow,  V.  158b 
Bohle,  Ernst  Wilhelm  670c 
Bohr,  Niels  504c 
Bolanos,  Oscar  557d 
BOLIVIA  105b 


Bomi  Hills,  Liberia,  iron  con- 
cessions 386d 

BONN  105d,  constitution  of  298a; 
317d 

Bonneville  Salt  Flats,  Utah,  motor 
racing  433a 

BOOK  COLLECTING  AND 
BOOK  SALES  106b 

Book  of  Common  Prayer  167d 

BOOK  PUBLISHING  107b 

Bootle,  Lancashire,  flooding  and 
drainage  266c 

Bordeaux, France  272c,  vmtage680a 

Bordentown  reformatory,  New 
Jersey  530d 

BonSevicius,  V.,  Bishop  of  TeKiai 
392b 

Borneo,  religious  missions  in  424c 

Borstal  System  530c 

Bossert,  H   Th   53a 

Boston,  Massachusetts,  telephone 
system  609d 

Boston  Symphony  Orchestra   126b 

Boswell,  Jarncs,  papcis  of  107a 

BOTANICAL  GARDENS  108b 

Botanical  Society  of  the  British 
Isles  I08d 

BOTANY  108d 

Bottles,  plastics  used  for  512d 

Boult,  Sir  Adrian  95a,  438c 

Bourne,  Major  General  GeoiTrey 
K  99d 

Boussac,  M    32 Ib 

Bovet,  D.  410d 

Bovine  mastitis  662c 

Bovingdon,  Hertfordshire,  airport 
36b 

Bowcn,  L    R    67 Id 

BOWLS  11  Oa 

Bowser  Lake,  British  Columbia 
25  Id 

BOXING  11  Ob 

BOYD-ORR,  JOHN  BOYD  ORR, 
1st  Baron,  lllc,  271d,  464d, 
494d 

Boys,  books  fot  159b 

Boys'  Brigade  687d 

BOY  SCOUTS  lllc 

BRADLEY,  OMAR  NELSON  112a 

Bradley,  W    H    629a 

Bradman,  Sir  Donald  193d 

Bradshaw,  Harry  303b,  353b,  395c 

Brain,  research  on  53 Ib 

Bramugha,  Juan  A    61  b 

Brantusi,  Constantm  562b 

Brankov,  La/ar  329d 

Bransby,  \     R    205c 

Brag ue,  Georges  68a,  487a 

Braunschweig,  H    316a 

BRAZIL  H2b,  arch.cological  re- 
search 55d,  bridge  construction 
115c,  civil  aviation  86b,  cocoa 
production  179d,  coflee  produc- 
tion l.XOa,  cotton  production 
188b,  highways  547a,  h>dio- 
electnc  schemes  632d,  Labour 
party  113a,  naval  strength  450c, 
palaeontology  490b,  railways 
538d,  tuberculosis  63 Ib,  U  S. 
agreement  with  214c 

Bra/ihan  Traction  Light  and  Power 
(  ompany  Ltd  34()b,  632d 

BREAD  AND  B  \KtRY  PROD- 
UCTS 114a 

Breuil.  Abbe  Henri  48c 

BRFWING  AND  BF;ER  1 14b 

Brian,  P   W    109b 

Bncker,  John  W    52 la 

BRIDGES  115b 

Bndgetown,  Barbados,  proposed 
municipal  status  94c 

Bridie,  James  614a 

Bndhngton,  Yorkshire,  T.U.C  at 
78a,  182c 

Bristol  59a,  257a;  387d,  Blaise 
Castle  Folk  Museum  436d;  uni- 
veisity  508c,  687a 

Bristol  Aeroplane  Company  56b 

British  Ally  (Bntanski  Soyuzntk), 
Moscow  46 1  b 

British-American  (yachting)  cup 
684c 

British  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science  27d,  47d,  48a; 
109a;  292c,  293b,  555c;  574a; 
574b 

British  Automobile  Racing  Club 
432d 


British  Bank  of  Iran  and  the  Middle 

East  498b 
BRITISH     BORNEO     117c;     oil 

production  500b 

British    Broadcasting    Corporation 

122b;    126c,    127a;    127d;  440d; 

61  Ob,  61  la;  Reith  Lectures  239a; 

555b,  Symphony  Orchestra  438c 

British    Chambers    of   Commerce, 

Association  of  151b;  151c 
British  Columbia  251d;  495a;  earth- 
quake 563a 

British  Commonwei'Ith  Air  Train- 
ing Plan  427c 

British  Commonwealth  Pacific  Air- 
ways 463b 
BRI1ISH    COUNCIL    118a;    67c; 

388b,  574c;  606c,  653b,  655a 
British  Council  of  Churches  168b 
British  Dairy  Farmers'  Association 

257a 
British    Dental    Association    205c, 

575a 

BRINSII    EAST    AFRICA    118b; 
college  education  655c;  docks  #nd 
harbours    21  Ib;    fisheries    264b; 
forestry  274d,  groundnuts  scheme 
575d,  659a;  housing  326b,  sisal 
317c,  tea  production  606a 
British  Electrical  and  Allied  Manu- 
facturers' Association  226d 
Biitish  Electricity  Authority  226d; 
227a,    228d,    229b;    445d,    669d 
British  Electric  Traction  433c 
BRITISH  EMPIRE   119c,  aircraft 
production  32d,  Burma,  relations 
with  136d,  fisheries  236d  ct  seq  ; 
High  Commissioners  within  the 
Common  welath      41  b,      leprosy 
•   385d,  prices  527d ,  rubber  prod- 
uction   552b,    sugar    production 
593c,     tanfl     agreements     with 
Fuiope,  proposed,  602d,  603b 
British  Empire  League  128d 
British      Empire     Service     League 

253a 

British  Empire  Trophy  Race  432d 
British  Ethnography  Committee  48a 
British  European  Airways  82d,  83b 
British  Export  Trade  Research 

Organization  571b 
British  Fascist  Union  182c 
British  Field  Sports  Society  563c 
British    Grand    Prix    motor    race, 

Silverstone  432b 
BRITISH  GUIANA  123b,  forestry 

274d 

BRITISH  HONDURAS   123d 
British     Hotels     and     Restaurants 

Association  325a 
British  Industries  Fair  256b 
British    Institute    of    Management 

574b,  575a 
British   Iron  and  Steel   Federation 

354b 

British  Legion  252d 
British    Market    Research    Society 

533d 
British    Medical    Association    79a, 

44la,  501b,  574b 
British     Museum,     London,     66b; 

^87h;  Flgm  marbles  397b 
British  National  Bibliography  387b 
Biitish  Nationality  Act  380d 
British  North  America  Act  380c 
British  Osteopathic  League  485a 
British  Overseas  Airwa>s  Corpora- 
tion 82d,  83b 
British  Pharniateutual  Codex  1949 

50  la 

British  Postgiaduate  Medical  Fed- 
eration 397c 

British  Racing  Drivers'  Club  432d 
British  Railways,  632b,  668c;  see 

also  Railways 

British  Rayon  Federation  541  b 
British  Records  Association  319a 
British  Relations  Board  (Germany) 

220b 

British  Rose  Society  323b 
British  School  of  Osteopathy  484d 
British   Schools   Exploring  Society 

68  7d 
British  Shipping,  General  Council 

of  566d 

British  Social  Hygiene  Council  574b 
British     South     Africa     Company 
580d;  mineral  rights  of  469a 


698 


INDEX 


BRITISH  SOUTH  AFRICAN 
PROTECTORATES  124a 

British  South  American  Airways 
83b 

British  Standards  and  Codes  of 
Practice  133b 

British  Tourist  and  Holidays  Board 
325a 

British  Transport  Commission  21a; 
210b;  380b;  433a;  434a 

British  War  Relief  Association  256b 

BRITISH  WEST  AFRICA  124c; 
cocoa  production  and  exports 
179d;  co-operative  movement 
186b;  docks  and  harbours  211  b; 
telephone  service  609c;  timber 
production  274d;  university  edu- 
cation 655d 

BRITISH  WEST  INDIES  125d; 
Anglican  Church  45a;  canning 
industry  147c,  cricket  193c;  lib- 
raries 388a;  telecommunications 
services  607d;  608b;  university 
education  656a 

British  West  Indies  Sugar  Associa- 
tion 126a 

BRITTEN,  EDWARD  BENJAMIN 
126b;  438b 

Broad,  C.  D.  505b 

BROADCASTING  126b,  adver- 
tising (U.S )  22c;  Christian 
Science  radio  programmes  166c; 
see  also  British  Broadcasting 
Corporation 

Broadcast  Measurement  Bureau 
(U.S.)  128b 

Broadstairs,  Kent,  arrival  of  the 
"  Hugm  "  149b 

Brock,  R.  C.  595b 

Brodetsky,  S.  657a 

Brodie,  Israel  372a 

Bronstem,  David  158b 

BROOKE,  SIR  BASIL  STAN- 
LAKE  128c;  78a;  353a;  468a 

Brookhaven  National  Laboratory 
(U.S.)  77a 

Brooklyn  Dodgers  (baseball)  94c 

Brooks,  Sir  Dallas,  41 3a 

Brooks,  E.  545a 

Broom,  Dr.  Robert  47d ,  490c 

BROUGH,  ALTHEA  LOUISE 
129a;  383a;  383c 

Brown,  David  M.  254a 

BROWN,  DOUGLAS  CLIFTON 
129b 

Brown,  F   R    194b 

Brown,  Lieut  Colonel  Sir  John  253c 

Brown,  Pamela  614b 

Browne,  Noel  353a 

Browne,  W  J    142c 

BROZ  (TITO),  JOSIP  129b,  37d; 
38a;  181d;  182a,  328c,  329d; 
399d;  400a;  636b 

Brucellosis  86d 

Bruno,  Cardinal  Guiscppe  658d 

Brunschwig,  Alexander  595a 

Brussels  126c;  166a;  166d 

Brussels,  Treaty  of  (1948)  3 Id; 
I88b;  465c;  cultural  committee 
118b 

Bryan,  Dr.  K.  52d 

Budapest,  Hungary  115d;  I58b 

BUDGET,  NATIONAL  129c;  Aus- 
tralia 80a;  158d;  Burma  136b; 
137a;  Canada  604c;  Ceylon  150c; 
Chile  16 Id,  1 62b;  Czechoslovakia 
604d;  France  276d;  278b;  279d; 
Great  Britain  90c;  196a,  India 
604d;  Israel  357b;  Japan  365c; 
Mexico  418d;  Netherlands  453a; 
605a;  Portugal  522b;  South 
Africa  577d;  Southern  Rhodesia 
580c;  Spain  605b;  Sweden  596b; 
Switzerland  599c;  605b;  U  S.S.R. 
640b;  United  States  649a 

BUENOS  AIRES  132b;  60c,  526a 

BUILDING  AND  CONSTRUC- 
TION INDUSTRY  132d 

Building  Research  Station  133b 

Bulgamn,  Nikolay  Alexandrovich 
64a;  637d 

BULGARIA  134a;  congregational 
ministers  sentenced  183a,  elec- 
tions 225c;  Greece,  aid  to  rebels 
in,  312d;  313a;  643a;  railways 
23 la;  537a;  Turkey,  relations 
with  633d;  violation  of  human 
rights  343c 


Bull,  G.  M.  316d 
Bullard,  E  C.  508d 
Bulwmkle  Bill  (U.S.)  539c 
BUNCHE,    RALPH    JOHNSON 

135c;  50c;  223a;  356d;  643c 
Buoyant  Billions  614b 
Buraimi  oasis,  Arabia,  exploration 

of  252a 

Burbidge,  Miss  J.  68  Ib 
Bureau  International  Sociahste  572c 
Bureau  of  Entomology  and  Plant 

Quanntme  (U.S.)   155d 
Bureau  of  Internal  Revenue  (U.S.) 

605c 
Bureau  of  Labour  Standards  (U.S.) 

336d 
Bureau  of  Labour  Statistics  (U  S.) 

133d;  134a;  147d;  236d,  327d 
Bureau  of  Mines  (U.S.)  570b 
Bureau  of  Prisons  (U  S.)  530d 
Bureau    of    Public    Roads    (U.S.) 

432b;  546c 

Burglary  insurance  338c 
Burkett,  Miles  C.  48b 
Burlington  House,  London  66b,  66d 
BURMA,  UNION  OF  136a;  181c; 

Anglican    Church    45c;    military 

strength      65c;      nationalization 

446c;    religious    missions   424b; 

rice  production   27b;      Socialist 

movement  572a 

Burma  Independence  Act  (1947)  38d 
Burnham  Committee  219a 
Burra,  Edward  487a 
Burrowes,  Bernard  50b 
Burt,  Sir  Cyril  53 Id;  532b 
Burton  Brown,  T.  53d 
Burtt,  T.  B.  194b;  194c 
Buscot  Park,  Berkshire,  acquired  by 

National  Trust  447c 
Bush,  Vannevar  529c 
BUSINESS  REVIEW  137b 
Bustamantc,  W    A    126a;  363d 
Butadiene,  552d,  553c 
Butler,  H.  E   319a 
Butler,  Rohan  D.  238b;  318d 
Butter  659c,  U  S.  production  200d 
Butterfield,  Herbert  238b;  319a 
Button,  Richard  33 Ib 
Butyl  552d 

C 

CABINET  MEMBERS  140a 

Cable  and  Wireless  Company  445d; 
446c,  607b,  607d;  608b 

Cable  research  227a 

Cabo  Ruivo  Airport,  Portugal  37a 

CAIRO  14lb;  70c;  259d,  university 
I41c 

Caithness,  James  Roderick  Sinclair, 
19th  Earl  of  150b 

Caja  de  Credito  Agrano,  Industrial 
y  Mmero  (Brazil)  340b 

Calciferrol  412c 

Calculating  machines  232d 

CALCUTTA  141c;  334d 

Cdldwell,  O.  H    127d 

Caldwell,  Samuel  529c 

California,  Archaeological  survey 
55b;  cotton  production  188a; 
hydro-electric  development  632c; 
Palace  of  the  Legion  of  Honour 
68a;  Toll  Bridge  Authority  116c; 
University  153b;  552a 

Calwcll,  A.  A    33 Id 

Cam,  H    M.  656b 

Cambodia  285d;  286d 

Cambridgeshire  Stakes  32 Id 

CAMBRIDGE  UNIVERSITY 
141  d;  Arctic  expeditions  252b; 
cricket  194d;  Fitzwilliam  Mus- 
eum 69b;  rowing  55 la 

Camcroons  (Cameroun)  284d; 
630b;  646b 

Campbell,  Donald  428c 

Campigh,  Massimo  213c 

Camras,  Marvin  233d 

Camus,  Alben  616a 

CANADA,  DOMINION  OF  142b; 
adult  education  20b;  aircraft 
production  32d;  archaeology  54b; 
balance  of  payments  247b;  bank- 
ing 91  b;  Baptist  Church  94b; 
birth  rate  664a;  bridge  construc- 
tion 115c,  broadcasting  127d; 
butter  production  659c;  China, 
policy  towards  164d;  civil 
aviation  84b;  clothing  exports  to 


176b;  coal  production  178c; 
cobalt  ores  414a;  Communist 
movement  182d;  copper  produc- 
tion 420a;  docks  and  harbours 
21  Ib;  drawing  and  engraving 
213d;  education  20b;  219c;  elec- 
tions 224d;  employment  236b; 
fibre-board  production  275a;  film 
industry  171b;  flax  production 
390a;  food  production  27  Id; 
football  274a;  fruit  production 
288a;  gold  production  302d; 
health  services  441  a;  highway 
construction  546c;  hospitals 
324a;  ice  hockey  330b;  immigra- 
tion 33 Id;  542c;  industrial  prod- 
uction 137c;  let  propulsion  devel- 
opment 369b;  lead  production 
420c;  Liberal  movement  386c; 
literary  prizes  391a;  lumber 
production  61 8c;  marriage  and 
divorce  407b;  meat  production 
409b;  military  strength  65b; 
moose  678d ;  motor  cars,  British, 
imported  430d,  National  Library 
388a;  National  Museum  54b; 
national  parks  446d;  national- 
ization 446c,  Newfoundland, 
union  with,  119d;  456b;  494d; 
557b;  newspapers  460d;  nickel 
production  42  la,  oat  disease 
305d;  oil  production  500b,  paper 
and  pulp  industry  492b,  railways 
538d;  ram,  artificial  precipita- 
tion of  414d;  Royal  Commission 
on  Arts,  Letters  and  Sciences 
127d;  silver  production  570b; 
Socialist  movement  572a;  steel 
production  355d;  strikes  592d; 
synthetic  fibres  production  541b; 
taxation  604c;  tea  imports  606b; 
teachers,  training  of  606c;  textile 
industry  612b;  tobacco  produc- 
tion 619d;  town  planning  623a; 
trade  foreign  345c;  United  States, 
income  tax  treaty  with,  605c; 
universities  655b;  uranium  agree- 
mented  with  U.S.  75b;  wheat 
crop  677b;  677c;  wild  life  pro- 
tection 679a;  zinc  production  422d 

Canadian-British  Education  Com- 
mittee 65  5  b 

Canadian  Broadcasting  Com- 
mission 127d 

Canadian  Chamber  of  Commerce 
157b 

Canadian  Congress  of  Labour  143b 

Canadian  Dollar-Sterling  Trade 
Board  143d 

Canadian  Education  Association 
219c 

Canadian  Institute  of  Public  Opin- 
ion 533d 

CANADIAN  LITERATURE  144d 

Canadian   National   Railway    144a 

Canadian  Pacific  Air-Lines  84c 

Canadian  Painter-Etchers  and  En- 
gravers Society  of  213d 

Canadian  Seamen's  Union  591a; 
592a 

CANALS  AND  INLAND 
WATERWAYS  145b 

Canary  Islands  584a 

Canasta  102d 

Canberra,  Australia  122a;  158d; 
427c;  655b 

CANCER  146d;  39d;  156c;  156d; 
157a,  316a,  336b;  surgical  treat- 
ment 594d  et  seq  ;  657b;  X-ray 
treatment  410c;  684a 

Cannell,  L   B.  272b 

Cannes,  France,  film  festival  169d 

CANNING  INDUSTRY  147c 

Cannon,  S.  575b 

Canterbury  52b;  St.  Augustine's 
College  45b 

CANTERBURY,  ARCHBISHOP 
OF  I47d;  168b;  I68d 

Canton,  China  158c 

Canton-Kowloon  Railway  320b 

Cantrell,  Bill  428c 

CAPETOWN  148b 

Capodichino  Airport,  Naples  36d 

Capot,  racehorse  322a 

Capra,  Frank  106c 

Caracas,  Venezuela  662b;  Univer- 
sity 657a 

Caras,  Jimmy  104 a 


Carbon  Compounds,  radioactive 
153a 

Cardiff  272a;  669d;  castle  653d 

Cardin,  Joseph  547c 

Cardona,  Colonel  Edgardo  186d 

Care  of  Children  Committee  160b 

Carey,  J.  273c 

Carey,  Dr.  S.  Pearce  94b 

CARIBBEAN  COMMISSION 
148c;  456a 

Caribbean  Research  Council  148c 

Carinthia,  Yugoslav  territorial 
claims  688c 

Carhng,  Sir  E  Rock  324a 

Carmen,  ballet  200d 

CARMONA,  ANTONIO  OSCAR 
de  FRAGOSO  149a;  281a;  521d; 
522b 

Carne,  Marcel  171c 

Carnegie  Corporation  388b;  388d 

Carpentier,  General  M.  286d 

Carrier  systems  609a 

Carron.  Artnand  215c 

Cartwnght,  C.  197b 

Carver,  A.  C.  P.  37c 

Cary,  Dr.  M.  238a 

Casein  157c 

Casserley,  J.  V  L.  617c 

Cassia  (cinnamon)  586c 

Cassulo,  Andrea  21 6a 

Castelo  Branco,  Portugal  226b 

Castries,  St.  Lucia  679b 

Castro,  Hector  David  484d 

Castro,  Morris  F.  de  652c 

Castro,  Salvador  Castafteda  557d 

Casualty  Insurance  (U.S.)  339b 

Catalysts  153c 

Catavi,  Bolivia,  disorders  at  105b 

Catechol  154c 

Catering  Wages  Act  (1943)  324d 

Catholic  Interracial  Centre  549c 

Catholic  Near  Fast  Welfare  As- 
sociation 549a 

Cattaneo,  Atilio  61c 

Cattell,  Richard  595a 

Cattle  392c,  393a;  U.S.  production 
29a 

Cauwelaert,  Frans  van  98b 

Cavendish  Laboratory  608d 

Cawthorn  Institute,  New  Zealand 
575d 

Cayenne  (spice)  586d 

Cellulosics  513b 

Cenozoic  Research  Laboratory, 
Peking  49c 

CENTENARIES  149b 

Central  Advisory  Council  for  Edu- 
cation (Wales)  219b 

Central  Council  for  Health  Edu- 
cation 66  Ib 

Central  Council  for  Physical  Edu- 
cation 687d 

Central  Land  Board  622c 

Central  Office  of  Information 
175a 

Central  Training  Council  160b 

CepiSka,  Alexej  548d 

Cereals  23c 

Cerebral  angiography  683d 

Ce  Soir  51b 

CEYLON,  DOMINION  OF  150b; 
banking  91  d;  broadcasting  127a; 
China,  policy  towards  164d; 
presentation  from  House  of  Com- 
mons to  494d;  railways  538a; 
religious  missions  424b;  Salva- 
tion Army  558a;  taxation  604c; 
tea  production  and  exports  606b; 
trade,  foreign  346d 

Chabod,  F.  318b 

Chagall,  Marc  202d 

Cham  letters  (U.S.)  102d 

Chalk  River,  Ontario,  nuclear  re- 
actor at  508a 

Chambers,  Cyril  492c 

Chambers,  Whittaker  381d;  648a 

CHAMBERS  OF  COMMERCE 
15 la;  British  256b;  Soviet  Ail- 
Union  256d 

Chamorro,  General  Emiliano  464b 

Champion,  Sir  Reginald  685b 

Chams,  Daniel,  Jr.  491a 

CHANNEL  ISLANDS  152a 

Channel     Swimming     598c 

Channel  Swimming  Association 
598c 

Chapman,  S.  575b 

Chapman,  Colonel  Spencer  237d 


INDEX 


699 


Charleroi,  Belgium,  conference  on 
rehabilitation  and  education  218c 

CHARLES  (CHARLES  -  THEODORE 
HENRI  •  ANTOINE  -  MEINRAD  DE 
SAXE  COBURG,  COUNT  OF  FLAN- 
DERS;) 152b;97d;98b 

Charles,  Ezzard  llOc 

CHARLOTTE  (CHARLOTTE- 
ALDEGONDE-ELISE-MARIE- 
WILHELMINE),  Grand  Duchess 
of  Luxembourg  152c;  398d 

Charlotte,  North  Carolina  674c 

Charoux,  S.  J.  562d 

Chase,  Lucia  202d 

Chase  National  Bank  583b 

Chatterjee,  S.  N.  Hid 

Chauvire,  Yvette  201  d;  202b 

Chaves,  Fedenco  493b 

Cheesman,  E.  E.  108c 

Cheka  (Commission  for  Repression 
of  the  Counter-Revolution)  99c 

Chemical  Warfare  Service  (U.S.) 
435a 

CHEMISTRY  152d 

CHEMOTHERAPY  156b 

CHEMURGY  157b 

Chen  Liang  564b 

Chengtu,  China,  158c;  164b 

Chen  Yi  564b 

Chervcnkov,  Vlko  134c 

Chesapeake  City  (U.S.)  new  bridge 
117b 

Cheshunt  College,  Cambridge  686c 

CHESS  157d 

Chester  52b 

Chesterfield,  Derbyshire,  Civic 
theatre  70b 

Chestnut  blight  275b 

CHIANG  KAI-SHEK  158b;  64b, 
162d;  163b,  163c;  164d,  165c, 
375d,  392b;  649c 

Chiari,  Roberto  F.  49  Ib 

CHICAGO  158c;  Natural  History 
Museum  49c,  Philatelic  Society 
501d,  Railroad  Fair  539d;  Soc- 
iety of  Etchers  2 1 3d;  Transit 
Authority  158d,  University  153a; 
656b 

Chichester,  Sussex  45c,  683c 

Chiemsee,  Bavaria,  education  con- 
ference at  220c 

CHIFLEY,  JOSEPH  BENEDICT 
158d;  79d;  281b,  414a 

Chihli,  Gulf  of.Chmese  Communists 
seize  bases  in  163b 

Chikwandu,  S.  Rhodesia,  rock 
painting  48c 

Child  Care,  Advisory  Council  on 
160c 

Children,  diabetes  in  206d 

Children  Act  (1948)  160a,  56 Ib 

CHILDREN'S  BOOKS  159a 

Children's  Bureau  (U  S  )  161b 

Children's  Communities,  Inter- 
national Federation  of  218c 

CHILD  WELFARE  160a 

CHILE  161c;  earthquake  563b; 
employment  236d,  Falkland 
Islands,  claim  to  47c;  343b;  naval 
strength  450c,  tunnels  632d 

Chillies  586c 

CHINA  162c;  British  investments 
348c;  Communist  forces  and 
movements  64b;  158c;  181c; 
182b;  309b,  405b;  564b;  649c; 
linen  industry  390a;  monetary 
system  250d;  276a;  Nationalist 
forces  and  movements  64b,  158c; 
564b;  Nationalist  Government  in 
Formosa  276a;  naval  strength 
4SOc;  railways  538a;  religious 
missions  424b,  Roman  Catholic 
Church  548d;  Soviet  policy  637b; 
tea  production  606a;  universities 
657a 

Chinese  People's  Political  Consul- 
tative Conference  163d;  405b 

Chinese  People's  Republic  163d; 
182b,  405c 

Chirgwm,  Rev.  A.  M.  183b 

Chinco,  Giorgio  De  486d 

Chiron,  Louis,  432d 

Chitinov,  General  64c 

Chittagong,  Pakistan,  port  devel- 
opments at  21  Id 

Chitty,  Anthony  56a 

Chloralose  509d 

Chloramphenicol  156d;  41  Id;  412b 


Chlordane  323a 

Chlonnation  of  water  674a 

Chloromycetm  156a;  41  Id;  412b; 
501b,  628d;  629a;  657c;  661a 

Chlorothen  410d 

Chlortrimeton  410d;  412a 

Chorley  Report  175b 

CHOU  EN-LAI  165b;  162d;  163d; 
182b;405b 

Chowdhury,  General  J.  N.  333d 

Christensen,  Thorkild  204b 

Christensen,  William  203a 

Christian  Council  of  South  Africa 
425b 

CHRISTIAN  DEMOCRATIC 
MOVEMENT  165c 

Christian  Democratic  Union  (Ger- 
many) 19d,  165d;296d 

Chnstiansborg  Castle,  Denmark 
150a 

CHRISTIAN  SCIENCE  166b 

Christie,  J.  T.  485b 

Chromatography  104b 

Chrysanthos,  Archbishop  313c 

Chungking,  China  158c;  162d;  163b 

Church  and  Nation,  Committee  on, 
(Scotland)  168d 

Church  Assembly  168b 

Churches,  Communist  policy  con- 
cerning 135b 

Churches'  Commission  on  Inter- 
national Affairs  683c 

CHURCHILL  WINSTON  LEO- 
NARD SPENCER  166d;  69c; 
188c;  189b,  237d,  281a;  299b, 
308a,  321b,  390a,  390c;  519d 

CHURCH     MEMBERSHIP     167a 

Church  Missionary  Society,  424a 
424c 

CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND  167b; 
membership  167a 

Churchof  Ireland,  Membership  167b 

CHURCH  OF  SCOTLAND  168d; 
61 7a,  membership  167b 

Church  of  South  India  423d 

Church  Overseas  Department  (Scot- 
land) I68d 

Church  World  Service  (Baptist)  94b 

CHU  TEH  169a,  163d,  405d 

CHUYKOV,  VASILY  1VANO- 
VICH  169c,  298d;  636d 

Ciampino  Airport,  Rome  36d 

Cinderella,  ballet  20 Ib 

CINEMA  169c 

Citizenship  Act  (South  Africa)  578a 

Citrus  black  fly  323a 

Civil  Aeronautics  Administration 
(US)  37a;  86a,  302d 

Civil  Aeronautics  Board  (U  S.)  85a, 
86a 

Civil  Aviation,  Ministry  of  36b 

Civil  Defence  Act  (1948)  394b 

Civil  Defence  Corps  394b 

Civil  List  Act  (1937)  174b 

CIVIL  LIST  PENSIONS  174b 

CIVIL  SERVICE  174b 

Clara  Barton  Birthplace  Camp 
(U.S.)  206d 

Clark,  Dr.  J.  D.  G   51c 

Clark,  Sir  Kenneth  238a 

Clark,  Thomas  C.  372b 

Clark,  W   E  le  Gros  490c 

Clark  Airfield,  Philippines  503c 

Classical  Association  175c 

CLASSICAL  STUDIES  175c 

Classical  Studies,  Bureau  of  the 
International  Federation  of  175d 

Claudel,  Paul,  615c 

Claussen,  O.  73c 

Clavier,  Josette  20 Id 

Clayton,  Geoffrey,  Archbishop  of 
Capetown  45b 

Clayton,  Ronnie  lllb 

Cleland,  C.  37b 

dementis,  Vladimir  200a 

Clements,  John  61 5c 

Cleveland,  Ohio  37b;  182c;  183b; 
254a 

Clifford,  Sir  Miles  257b 

Climatology  417b;  41 7c 

Close,  Brian  194d 

CLOTHING  INDUSTRY  I75d; 
Wool681c;682a 

Clouds,  modification  of  414c 

Clough,  Prunella  487a 

Clouzot,  H.  G.  171c 

Clunie,  Perthshire,  hydro-electric 
developments  56 1  b 


Clyde,  Queen's  dock  on  210c 

Clydesdale  Bank  91  a 

Clyncs,  John  Robert  473b 

COAL  176c;  employment  235b, 
South  Wales  exports  2 lOd;  strikes 
591a 

Coal  Industry  Tribunal  (Australia) 
79b 

Coast  Protection  Act  (1949)  266c 

Cobalt  414a 

Cobine,  Dr  James  D   233d 

Cobione  412c 

Cocaine  440c 

Coca  Leaf  440b 

Cochin-Chma  (Nam-Ky)  286b 

Cocks,  Dr.  H    F.  Lovell  183b 

COCOA  179d,  swollen  shoot  dis- 
ease 125c,  24 Ib 

Cocteau,  Jean  17 le 

Code  of  Fair  Treatment  for  Foreign 
Investments  I5Id 

COFFEE  180a,  557d;  Dominican 
Republic  production  212h;  Haiti 
production  316d 

Cohen,  L.  268d 

Cohen,  Lord  Justice  34 7d 

Comtrin  Airport,  Geneva  37a 

Colbert,  E   H   490c 

COLD,  COMMON  180b,  156c, 
411b;  412a 

Cole,  Mrs.  R.  532b 

Coleman,  R  T  C    197c 

Collective  bargaining,  France  279b 

Collective  farming  135b,  Eastern 
Europe  (table)  497a,  Estonia 
242b,  Hungary  329a;  Latvia 
377d,  Lithuania  392a;  Mongo- 
lian People's  Republic  426c; 
Poland  515d,  Rumania  554b; 
Yugoslavia  689b 

Collen,  M.  h    180c 

Collet,  C   563d 

Colliery  Winders'  Federation  59 Ib 

Collijn,  Dr   Isak  388c 

Collins,  E   N   40c 

Collins,  Dr.  Henry  B.  54b 

Colne  Valley  Sewerage  Board  563c 

Colo,  Zeno  570d 

COLOMBIA  180d,  coffee  produc- 
tion 180a,  naval  strength  450c 

Colombo,Ceylon563b,  docks  21  Ib, 
museum  150d 

Colonial  Development  and  Welfare 
Acts  (1949)  122b;  124a 

Colonial  Development  and  Welfare 
Fund  656a 

Colonial  Development  Corporation 
122c;  257b,  679b 

Colonial  Forestry  Service  274d 

Colonial  Geology  and  Minerals 
Resources,  Advisory  Committee 
on  122d 

Colonial  Loans  Act  (1949)  122b 

Colonial  Month  48b;  122b;  257a 

Colonial  Plant  and  Animals  Advi- 
sory Bureau  122d 

Colonial  Social  Welfare  Advisory 
Committee  688b 

Colonist  11,  race  horse  32 Ib 

Colorado  Beetle   152b 

Colorado  School  of  Mines  294c 

Color  Television  Inc.  61  Ib 

Coloured  People,  National  Associa- 
tion for  the  Advancement  of  136a 

Colour  films  173b,  505d;  506c 

Colour  television  61  Ib 

Columbia  Broadcasting  System  61  Ib 

Colwell,  Howard  G.  94a 

Comet,  air  liner  84b 

Comfort,  M  W  40c 

Commform  37d,  129b.  181d;  374c, 
403c,  573a;  636c;  637b;  boycott 
of  Yugoslavia  by  688d 

44  Commandant  Charcot,"  French 
expedition  ship  47b 

Commission  on  Organization  of  the 
Executive  Branch  of  the  Govern- 
ment (U.S.)  648d 

Committee  to  Defend  America  by 
Aiding  the  Allies  256b 

Commodities,  prices  of  526c;  527d; 
528a 

Commodity  Credit  Corporation 
(U.S.)  30a;  188b,  681c;  682a 

Commodity  Problems,  Committee 
on271d 

Commonwealth  Aircraft  Corpora- 
tion 32d 


Commonwealth  and  Empire  Bap- 
tist Congress  94b 
Commonwealth  Arbitration  Court 

79b;  80b 
Commonwealth  Finance  Ministers, 

Conference  of  248b;  309c;  580c 
Commonwealth      Literary      Fund 

80d 

Commonwealth  Prime  Ministers, 
Conference  of  79d;  11 9d,  150b; 
158d,  281b;  333a;  386a;  402d; 
45 la,  495a,  563b,  578a 
Commonwealth  Scientific  and  In- 
dustrial Research  Organization 
147c 

Commonwealth  Telecommunica- 
tions Board  c07b 

Commonwealth  Telegraphs  Bill 
607b 

Commonwealth  Universities,  Con- 
ference of  398a 

Communicable  Disease  Centre,  At- 
lanta, Georgia  86d 

COMMUNIST  MOVEMENT  181c 
Albania  37d;  38a,  Asia  121b; 
Australia  79b,  Balkan  countries 
572c,  Bhutan  103c,  Bolivia  105b; 
British  Commonwealth  253b; 
Bulgaria  134c;  Burma  136b; 
Canada  143b,  Chile  161d,  162a; 
304c;  China  122a;  158b;  162d  et 
seq  ,  320b;  348c;  564b;  Czecho- 
slovakia 199a,  304d;  525c;  548b; 
Estonia  242b,  Finland  255d; 
261  d,  262b,  France  214a;  276c  et 
seq.,  Germany  298d;  Great 
Britain  307a;  520b,  592a;  Greece 
64d;  112b,  Hungary  329a;  496c; 
Iceland  330d,  India  334d,  Iraq 
351b,  Israel  99b;  Italy  361c; 
626a,  Japan  365b;  399a;  Korea 
376b,  Latvia  377c,  Lithuania 
392a;  Macedonia  399b  et  .><?<?.; 
Mongolian  Peoples'  Republic 
426c,  Poland  lOlc;  515b;  548b; 
Portugal  522b,  Roman  Catholic 
Church  and  547a  et  \eq  ;  658d; 
Rumania  553d,  Sardinia  361a; 
South  Africa  579b,  South-east 
Asia  163d;  164d,  Spain  402a; 
Sweden  596d;  Thailand  613b; 
trade  unions  and  626b,  Trieste 
628b;  Turkey  633c,  U  S.S  R.  99c; 
United  States  254a;  381c;  521b; 
647c,  649c;  656a,  Uruguay  657d; 
Victoria,  Australia  413a,  Vietnam 
93b,  286d,  Yugoslavia  129b; 
689c 

Communist  Party  (British)  182b; 
520b 

Communities  Liaison  Committee 
(Malaya)  403a 

Compton,  Dennis  193b;  194b;  194c 

Compulsory  Purchase  Orders  622b 

Comstock,  Texas,  viaduct  dis- 
mantled 117b 

Comyns  Carr,  Sir  A.  S.  670d 

Concrete  Construction  133b 

Confederation  Francaise  des  Tra- 
vailleurs  Chretiens  278c;  625d 

Confederation  Generale  du  Transit 
592b 

Confederation  Generale  du  Travail 
278c,  279c,  625d 

Confederation  of  Shipbuilding  and 
Engineering  Unions  668b 

Confederation  Syndicale  du  Travail 
625d 

Confederazione  Generale  Itahana 
del  Lavaro  36 le;  626a 

Conference  of  Educational  Associa- 
tions 574b 

Congregational  Christian  Churches 
(U.S.)  183b 

CONGREGATIONAL 
CHURCHES  183a 

Congregational  Churches  of  the 
United  States  183b 

Congregational  Union  of  England 
and  Wales  183a 

CONGRESS,  U.S.  183c.  629d; 
648d  et  sea. 

Congress  or  Industrial  Organiza- 
tions (U.S.)  182c;  626b,  626d, 
627a,649b 

Congress  of  Irish  Unions  352b 

Congress  of  the  Supporters  of  Peace 
635d 


700 


INDEX 


Coniston,  Lake,  motor-boat  speed 

record  attempt  428c 
Conn,  Jerome  W.  207a 
CONNALLY,  THOMAS  TERRY 

J84a 

Conservative  Party,  British  307d; 
308a;  445b;  518c;  519c 

"  Consort,"  H.MS.  163a;  201b; 
203b;448c 

CONSUMER  CREDIT  184b;  92b; 
259c;  569b 

Continental  Motors  Corporation 
(U  S.)  434d 

Continental  Telex  Service  607c 

CONTRACT  BRIDGE  185b 

Contreras,  Guillcrmo  Varas  162b 

Control  of  Engagement  Order  235a 

Controuhs,  John  156b 

Convocation  168a 

Cooper,  D.  508c 

Cooper,  J.  M.  49d 

Cooper,  Sir  Patrick  Ashley  289c 

Co-operative  Commonwealth  (Lab- 
our) Federation  142d,  572a 

Co-operative  for  American  Remit- 
tances to  Europe  161 a,  186d, 
256b;  388d 

Co-operative  Health  Federation  of 
America  186c 

CO-OPERA  FIVE  MOVEMEN 1 
185d,  519b 

Co-operative  Wholesale  Society 
569C 

Copeau,  Jacques  473c 

Copenhagen  197b,  Radio  Confer- 
ence 126b;  127b 

Copleston,  F  C   505a 

Copper  419d,  Chile  production 
161d;  162a 

Coppi,  Fausto  197b 

Copra  126a;  659b 

Copyright  Receipt  Office  387b 

Coras  lompair  I^ireann  145d 

Corcoran  Gallery,  Washington  68b 

Cordova,  Manuel  J    557d 

Corfu  Channel  case  340d  et  seq  , 
343a 

Concidm  41  Ib 

Corn  (maize)  270a,  305d,  306a 

Cornell  University,  U  S.  656b 

Corner,  F    J    11    109b 

Corn  Products  Refining  Company 
(U  S)  157b 

Cornwall,  Ontario,  rayon  staple 
developments  54 Ib 

Cornwallis  Island  54b 

Coronation  V,  race  horse  32 Ic 

Corporacion  de  Fomento  (Venczu- 
ela)  662b 

Corpus  Chnsti,  Texas  14a,  157b 

Corrective  training  530c 

Cortemaggiore,  Italy  362d 

Cortisone  68c,  156b,  lS7c,  207a, 
237a,  317a,  410a,  4l2a;  452a, 
501  b 

Cosmotron  77b 

Costa,  Humbcrto  5S7d 

COS  I A  RICA  186d,  archaeological 
research  55c,  cuircncy  transac- 
tions 344a,  relations  with  Nicara- 
gua 484c 

Costello,  John  A    352b,  352d,  353d 

Cottage  Rake,  race  horse  320d 

Cotton,  H    304a 

COTTON  187b,  28a,  243b,  61  Id 

Cotton  Board  612a 

Cotton  Board  Colour,  Design  and 
Style  Centre  *40a 

Cotton  Manufacturing  Commission 
187b 

Cottonseed  659a 

Council  for  Education  in  World 
Citizenship  687d 

Council  for  the  Promotion  of 
Education  in  Swimming  598b 

COUNCIL  OF  EUROPE  188b  et 
seq  ;  103c;  165d;  166d,  279d; 
308d,  313b;  330c,  362d,  452d, 
495b;  559d;  582c,  676d,  677a; 
Denmark  and  204b;  Germany 
and  299a;  Norway  and  470a, 
Saar  and  556d;  Sweden  and 
596d;  634d,  Turkey  and  557a, 
633c 

Council  of  Foreign  Bondholders 
348b 

COUNCIL  OF  FOREIGN 
MINISTERS  190b;  19a;  81  b; 


lOOd,  103c;  308d;  544a,  668b; 

688c 

Council  of  Grandees  (Spain)  402a 
Council  of  Industrial  Design  339d; 

340a 
Council     of     Mutual     Economic 

Assistance (U.S.S.R.)  304d,  497b; 

691c 
Council    of    Reformed    Churches 

525d 
Council    of  the    Child    (Uruguay) 

161b 
Council   of  the   Kingdom   (Spain) 

583d 

Council  on  Pharmacy  and  Chemis- 
try (U  S  )  156c,  156d 
COUNTRY  LIFE  192b 
County     Agricultural     Executive 

Committees  26d 
Courmont,  P.  63 Ib 
Courtaulds  Ltd   612b 
Courtm,  R    E  44a 
Courts-martial  (U.S  ),  legal  powers 

of  381 b 

Cousino,  Victor  Opaso  162a 
Coussey,  J.  H    I25a 
Coutts,  Frederick  558b 
Coutts,  W.  E.  660d 
Covcnt  Garden  Opera  Trust  70a 
Coventry,  statue  of  Lady  Godiva 

427b 

Cowan,  Dr   J.  Macquecn  108d 
Cowie,  J    194b 
Crafoord,  G    595b 
Crafoord's     Laboratory,     Sweden 

317b 

Craig,  George  N   254a 
Craigie,  Jill  I70d 
Cramer,  Lawrence  W.  148d 
Ctanko,  John  20 Ic 
Craps  426a 
Craus,  Polly  260a 
Crawford,  Brodenck  173b 
Crawford,  O   G    S   238a 
Crceft,  Jose  de  563 a 
Cressey,  Professor  George  B    292c 
Creswell,  G.  F.  194b 
Creswick,  H    R    388a 
CRICKET  193a 
CRIME  195a,  Great  Britain  307c; 

psychopathic  413d 
Crimes,  Albert  197c 
Criminal  Justice  Act  (1948)  373c, 

530c 

CRIPPS,   SIR    RICHARD   STAF- 
FORD   196a,    61b;    90c,    lO^b, 

127a,  13 la,  227c,  588d,  624d; 

658d 

Cntchley,  Mrs   A   C.  K>3d 
Croce,  Benedetto  390a 
Crooks,  Harry  156b 
Crosby,  Bmg  173b;  304b 
Crownmshield     (contract     bridge) 

cup  185b 

Croxall,  T    H    6l7c 
Crozier,  Eric  126b 
C  ruisers  450d 

Cruising  Club  of  America  684c 
Crystallographic  Society  of  Ameiica 

423d 
CUBA   I96b,  Haiti,  relations  with 

3l6d,  naval  strength  450c,  sugar 

production  270c;  593c 
Cut  tine  ami  life  (Moscow)  18  Id 
Cunningham,  Captain  B.  37b 
Curacao  455d 
Curare  43d,  4  He 
Currency,  Berlin  190d,  France  93c, 

Great   Britain   93 b,  Japan  365c, 

United    States    92a;    Yugoslav, 

introduced  into  Trieste  628b,  see 

also  Devaluation 
Currey,  Charles  684d 
Cwik,  Fadeus/,  253d 
Cybernetics  505c 
Cycle    and     Motor    Cycle    Show, 

International  256d 
CYCLING  196d 
Cyclotrons  75a 
Cymnte  422d 

CYPRUS   197c;   archaeological  re- 
search   53a;    newspapers    460d; 

telegraphy  608b 
CYRANK1EWICZ   JOZEF    198b, 

253d 

Cyrenaica  359a 
Cynax,  Dr   E.  F  266b 
Cytoplasmic  heredity  29 Ib 


CZECH  LITERATURE  198b 
CZECHOSLOVAKIA  198d;  archi- 
tecture 58a;  Communist  move- 
ment 198b;  education  219d; 
expulsion  of  journalists  461  b; 
film  industry  17  Ib;  Lutheran 
Church  398c,  military  strength 
64c;  mobile  library  service  388c; 
nationalized  industries  446b; 
446c;  participation  in  Annecy 
agreement  604a;  printing  indus- 
try 529b;  prisoners  of  war,  re- 
patriation of  530a,  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church  547d,  Salvation 
Army  558a,  taxation  604d,  tex- 
tile industry  612c;  universities 
656b 

Czechoslovak  Grand  Prix  432d 
Czechoslovak  Publishing  Act  (1949) 

108a 
C/ekanowski,  Professor  Jan  48c 

D 

Daily  E\pre\\  457d 

Dail\>  Mirror  457d 

Dailv  Worker  460a,  494d;  635d 

DAIRY  FARMING  200b,  attested 

herds  63 Ib,  chcmurgy  applied  to 

(U.S)   157b;  machinery  used  m 

27d,  New  Zealand  26a,  Northern 

Ireland  468c 

Da>ry    Products    Marketing    Com- 
mission (New  Zealand)  26a 
Dale,  Sir  Henry  4lOc 
Dah,  Salvador  202a 
Dalton,  Hugh  189b 
Damascus,  Syria  70d 
Damaskmos,    Gheorghios    Papan- 

dreou,     Archbishop    of    Athens 

216b,  3Hc,  473c 
Damodar    Valley    scheme    (India) 

335a 

Dango  Surun  Ncydachm  426c 
DANCE  200d  et  \cq 
Danckwcits,  H    O   372b 
Damlova,   Alexandra   2()lc,   202b, 

202d 

Danube  115d,  145c,  Hoods  266d 
Danube  Commission,  International 

145c 
Danube    Shipping    Company    8 Id, 

544a 

Danubian  Institute,  Budapest  318c 
Daphne  Lanreota  614a 
Daqum,  Louis  171d 
Dar  cs  Salaam,  port  development 

118d,  211a 
Dark,  Eleanor  80d 
Darkis,  F    R    157d 
Darrc,  Richard  Walther  670c 
Dart,  Professor  R    A    47d 
Daud  Khcl  barrage,  Pakistan  576a 
Davenport,  H    E   692d 
Davidian,  H    H    108d 
DAVILS,  CLEMENT  203d 
Davis,  Fred  104d 
Davis,  Joe  104d 
Davis,  Peter  322c 
Davis,  P    H    108c 
Davis  Cup  382c,  383c 
Davves,  ADR    266b 
Daytona,  Honda,  motor  cycling  at 

429b 

D.DT   322d,  323a,  511b 
De-activator,  mechanical  434d 
Deakm,  Arthur  307a,  624d;  626c 
Death  of  a  Salesman  614d,  616b 
Death  rates  664c 
Decamethomum  Bromide  43d 
Deception  Island,  Antarctica  47b; 

257b 
Declaration  ot  Human  Rights  160d; 

217b 
DECORATIONS  AND  MEDALS 

201b 

Dedman,  J   J   79d 
Deep  Cove,  Nova  Scotia  655a 
Defence,     Department     of    (U.S ) 

33d 
Defence  Steering  Committee  (U.S.) 

466d 

Deferrari,  John  388d 
DE     GASPERI,     ALCTDE    203c; 

188c,   360d;   361a;   362b;   465d, 

572b 

Dehydrofreezing  157d 
Delaware  Memorial  Bridge  (U.S.) 

116c 


Delinquency,  psychological  aspects 
of  532a 

Democratic  Liberal  Party  (Japan) 
365a 

Democratic  National  Convention 
(U.S.)  94b 

Democratic  Party,  United  States 
183c;  520b;  648b  et  seq. 

Democristiam  (Italy)  165d 

Denfield,  Admiral  Louis  112b 

DENMARK  203d;  archaeological 
research  52d;  and  Council  of 
Europe  188d;  189b,  distribution 
of  incomes  674d;  675a;  egg  prod- 
uction 525c,  Faeroe  Islands,  re- 
lations with  255a,  film  industry 
172b,  Great  Britain,  trade  agree- 
ment with  27a;  Greenland,  re- 
lations with  313d;  314a;  hospitals 
324a;  literature  559b;  livestock 
409b,  military  strength  64c; 
naval  strength  450b.  North  At- 
lantic Treaty,  participation  in 
466b,  pig  production  24a;  Social- 
ist party  571  d.  South  Schleswig 
question  470b,  Spain,  trade  agree- 
ment with  584b,  telecommuni- 
cations service  607c 

Dennis,  Eugene  182b,  52 Ib 

Dental  caries  205c 

DENTISTRY  205b;  86c,  441  a 

Denver,  Colorado  108d 

Department  of  Commerce  (U  S.) 
443 b;  605c 

Derby,  the  32 Ib 

Derevyanko,  Ku/ma  N  364d 

Derksen,  J    197b 

Dermatitis  206b 

DERMA  I  OLOGY  205d 

Design,  furniture  289a,  289b,  339c, 
340a,  motor  cars  430d,  rayon 
541  a,  textiles  34()a 

Des  Moincs,  Iowa,  convention  at 
254d 

Destroyers  45 la 

Detergents,  synthetic  57 Ib,  57 Ic 

Deuloleu,  V    154b 

Deurne  Airport,  Antwerp  36b 

Devaivre,  Jean  17 Id 

Devaluation,  Argentina  247c,  Aus- 
tria 248d,  British  Honduras 
248c,  Canada  143d,  Ceylon  150c, 
Denmark  204d,  effect  on  ex- 
change rates  527b,  effect  on 
national  income  44Vi,  effect  on 
prices  of  gold  303a,  cfTect  on 
(commodity)  prices  526d,  528c; 
*»52b  et  \ei/  ,  565a,  579c,  61 8a; 
effect  on  ictail  prices  569c;  effect 
on  stock  markets  588b,  Egypt 
250c,  Finland  26Id,262b;  France 
137d,  249d,  279a,  604d,  Ger- 
many (Western)  248d,  Great 
Britain  (sterling)  89b,  92c,  93a; 
98c,  107b,  122a,  Hid,  137b, 
138a,  143b,  151c,  167a,  172d; 
187c;  207b,  247b,  248c,  278d; 
288d,  289b,  291a,  308d,  3l7b; 
126a;  338d,  144a;  344d,  345a; 
UKd,  350a,  354d,  162c,  383d; 
429c,  430b,  445c,  468c,  519c, 
68 Ic,  India  I35a,  346d,  Iraq 
250c,  Israel  250c,  357b,  Italy 
250b,  LuKcmbouig  398d,  Mexico 
M4a,  418d,  Netherlands  249b; 
New  Zealand  463b,  Portugal 
250b,  South  Africa  91  c;  Sweden 
597b,  Thailand  25 la,  6 1 3d;  Tur- 
key 633d,  Uruguay  658a 

De  Vivero,  Fernando  Leon  499b 

Dewes,  J   G    1 95 a 

Dewcy,  Thomas  F    183c,  520d 

Dewez,  Sulpice  62 5 d 

Dextran  410c 

Dextrose  157b 

DIABETES  206c,  254b,  316b 

Diabetes  Associations,  Conference 
of  206c 

Diabetics,  expectation  of  life  for 
206d 

DIAMONDS  207b 

Diana,  Pablo  61c 

Diasone  385d 

Dibeluis,  Otto,  Bishop  of  Berlin 
398c,  617d 

Dibenamme  317a 

Dick,  Sir  William  Reid  427c 

Dickert,  J.  J.  154b 


INDEX 


701 


Dickinson,  S.  109b 

Dickinson,  Thorold  170d 

Dicoumarol  317b 

Dicnccphalon,  study  of  the  53  Ib 

Dieterle,  W.  402b 

Dietrich,  Otto,  670c 

Dikaios,  Dr.  P  53a 

Dillon,  John  352b 

Dimitrov,    Gheoghi     134c;     182a 

375b;473d 
Dinghy  racing  684d 
Dinnyes,  Lajos  210a 


Dulbecco,  R.  29 Id 

Dulles,   John   Foster    183c;    521  a, 

521c 

Du  Moulin,  F.  598d 
Duncan,  Right  Rev  George  S   169d 
Duncan,  James  S.  143d 
Dundee,  372d,  University  College 

653d 

Duncdin,  New  Zealand  655c 
Dunham,  Kathenne  202a 
Dunkerley,  E   37b 
Dunlop,  D    M   316b 


International    Congress    for    the        Ireland    468b;    Panama    Canal 

161b  Zone  491c 

Educational  Visits  and  Exchanges,    Employment  Act  (US)  92a 

Central  Bureau  for  688a  Employment    and    Training    (Act) 

Edwards,  Alfred  494b 

Edwards,  H  T.  669d 

'*  Edward    Wilshaw,"    cable    ship 

607d 
Eggan,  F  49b 


DIOMIDIS,  ALEXANDROS  207c;    Dunne,  John  William  474b 

312d;  386c  Duodenum,  ulceration  of  39d 

Dior,  Christian  257d  et  seq.  Du  Parcq,  Lord,  372a,  474b 

Disabled  American  Veterans  254a     Dupong,  Pierre  398d 
Disabled    ex-servicemen,   pensions   duPont,    Margaret   Osborne 

for  67ld  383a,  383c 

DISASTERS  207d 
Disciples  of  Christ  94a 
Disinfectants  86d;  87a 
Disko  Sound,  Arctic  25 Ib 
Dismantling    of    industrial    plants 

296c,    298c;    309a,    355d;    543d; 

592c 
Displaced  Persons  542b  et  seq. 


40a 


129a; 

Durand,  E.  72b 

Durant,  Henry  533c 

Durban,  native  riots  in  579b 

Durham,  University  of  252b 

Durr,  Karl  505a 

Durrcs  (Dura//o),  Albania  38a 

DUTCH  LITERATURE  2I4a 

Dutoitspan  (diamond)  mine,  South    EINAUDI,  LUIGI  224b 

Einstein,  Albert  509b 
Eiselm,  W   W    M 


Eggs,  imports  to  Great  Britain  27a 

Eglevsky,  Andre  201d,  202a 

Fghts,  August  P   377d 

EGYPT  222d,  archaeological  re- 
search 54a,  education  356b, 
cotton  production  188b;  foreign 
trade  346c,  Israel,  armistice 
agreement  with  50c,  643c,  Oitho- 
dox  Church  216b;  railway  538b, 
religious  missions  424d,  Saudi 
Arabia,  trade  agreement  with 
50b;  Sudan,  relations  with  46b, 
Suez  Canal,  agreement  con- 
cerning SQJa,  Syria,  relations 
with,  601  b;  water  supply  674b 

Ehrlich.  B.  628d 


Displaced  Persons  Act  (U.S.)  542c       Africa  207b 

Distilling,  illicit  587c  DUIRA,  EURICO  CASPAR  214c 

Djokjakarta,  Indonesia  452c;  454b; 

—  Duvivicr,  Julicn  171c 

DYESTUFKS  214c 


Dymtryk,  Ldward  170d 
Dysentery,  amoebic  156d,  41 2c 


112c;  113d 
~455b 
DOBI,ISTVAN210a,  200d;  328d; 

496d 

Dobson,  Frank  562a~ 
Dock  Labour  Board  518b 
DOCKS  AND  HARBOURS  210a  E 

Docks  and  Inland  Waterways  Ex-   j£at|ic  Q   y   533a 

ecutive  I45b  EAR/NOSE  AND  THROAT,  DIS- 

Dodd,  C   H    142a  EASES  OF  215b 

Farlc,  W.  R    146d 
Farl  Haig  Fund  252d 
Earl    Roberts   British    Small    Bore 

Championship  545a 
Earthcrust,  age  of  293d 
Earthquakes     209a,     216d,     492c; 


Dodd    Noms  L    27ld 

Dodd,  Stuart  533c 

Dodge,  Joseph  M   62  hi 

Doggarl.  0    H    G    195a 

Dogs,  diseases  of  663a 

Doamm44a 

Dolgelly,  Merioneth,  Eisteddfod  at 


Last    African    Railways   and    Har- 
bours  Administration   118d 


Dolm,  Anton  202b 

Dollar  Exports  Board  21b,   143d,   Lastchurchi  Kentf  pnson  530h 

EASIERN  OR1I1ODOX  CHUR- 
CHES 215d 
Last    Kilbnde,    Lanarkshire,    new 

town,  560d 
Last     Mailing     Research     Station, 

Kent  322d 

Eastman  Kodak  Company  173d 
East  Surrey  Regiment,  1st  Battalion 


72d 

Lbert,  Fritz  99d 
Echandia,  Dano  180d 


DOMINICAN  REPUBLIC  212a, 
679b,  canning  industry  147c, 
cocoa  production  and  exports 
179d,  Cuba,  relations  with  196c, 
Haiti,  relations  with  3l6d,  484c, 
naval  strength  450c 

Dominion  Prime  Ministers,  Con- 
ference of  121 b 

Dominion  Wild  Life  Service  (Can- 
ada) 446d,  679a 

T-v  '  ',-„       |  111     t-v-iuiiiuui,    i/ainj    i  ovu 

Domuztcpc    Turkey,  arch.colog.cal    Eckstein,  Sir  Bernard  69c 

finds  at  5 3d  r    /       Bthlu/ue     et 

DONATIONS    AND   BEQUESTS     '(Jerusalem)  53c 

212d 

Donnelly,  M    P    194b 
Donora,  Pennsylvania  336d;  41 7b 
Dorji,  Debzunpon  S   T.  103c 
Dortmund,    Germany,    conference 

at  606d 

Dotter,  C.  T.  681d 
Doucet,  R.  318b 
Doughty,  Professor  Oswald  238c 
Douglas,  A.  E   71d 
Doxey,  D    109b 
Draft   Declaration   on   the   Rights 

and  Duties  of  States  644b 
Drama,     American     614d;     616a, 


Economic  Co-operation  Adminis- 
tration 25a,  29c,  60c,  93c,  123b, 
128d,  243d,  244b,  247d,  344a, 
35^c,  375d,  401a;  431b;  543c; 
607a 

Economic  Questions  (Moscow)  658b 

Economic  Rehabilitation  Planning 
Commission  (Japan)  365d 

Fcrebos  Islands  152b 

ECUADOR  216b,  earthquake  563a; 
roads  547c 

Ede,  James  Chuter  517a 

EDEN,  ROBERT  ANTHONY 
217b;  281a;658d 


British  614a,  Czechoslovak  198c;    Edinburgh  387d,  427c,  607a,  Bot- 


Frcnch    282b,    Icelandic    33  la; 

Irish  353b;  Italian  360b;  Polish 

518b 

Dramamme  156d,  410d;  412a 
Drapers'  Chamber  of  Trade  569a 
DRAWING    AND    ENGRAVING 

213b 

Drew,  George  142d 
Drew,  K.  M    109c 
Dnscoll,  Alfred  E  534a 
Drobny,  J.  383a 
Drummond,  Mrs   Flora  474a 
Dubicl,  J6zef  516c 
Dublin  Port  Works  Board  2 lid 
DUCLOS,  JACQUES  213d;  279b 
Dudley.  Worcestershire  70a 
Duff,  Sir  Patrick  446d 
Dufont,  A.  A.  631  b 
Dugan,  Lord  494d 
Dunamel,  Georges  390a 
Duke,  N.  F.  37b;  37c 


anic  Gardens  108d,  film  festival 
169d,  172c,  Forth  road  bridge 
545d,  International  Festival  of 
Music  and  Drama  70b;  94a; 
438c,  560c;  561d,  614c;  Murray- 
field  272a;  museums  437a 

Edinburgh,  Duke  of  152a;  195a; 
655a 

Edrich,  W.  194c 

EDUCATION  217b,  Germany 
299c,  Great  Britain  309d,  Hun- 
gary 330a;  Japan  365d,  Korea 
376c;  Latvia  377d;  Lebanon 
385a;  Liberia  387a,  Malaya  403b; 
Scotland  561  b;  South  Africa 
(native)  579b;  Turkey  634a; 
U.S.S.R.  638b,  United  States 
649d;  650a 

Education  and  Cultural  Relations 
Branch  (Germany)  220b 

Education  of  Maladjusted  Children, 


Eisler,  Gcrhart  381d 
Lissler,  K   432a 

ELECTIONS  224b;  Algeria  283b, 
Argentina  497d,  Australia  79a; 
159a,  414a,  Austria  81d;  82a; 
166a,  261b,  *>71d,  Bahamas  87b; 
Belgium  97d,  165d,  386b;  571d; 
Brazil  112d,  Canada  122a,  142c; 
557b,  Channel  Islands  152b; 
Chile  161d,  304c;  Colombia 
180d,  18la,  Cyprus  197d,  Den- 
mark 204b,  Ecuador  216d. 
France  278b,  Germany,  Eastern 
298d,  Germany,  Western  298b; 
318a,  571  d.  Great  Britain  307c, 
Hungary  329d;  Israel  357a,  572a, 
Japan  365b,  686b;  Korea  375b; 
London  County  Council  393d, 
395d,  Mexico  38b,  419a,  Nether- 
lands Antilles  455d,  New  York 
City  182d,  521  b,  New  Zealand 
281  b,  319c,  462c,  Northern  Ire- 
land 468d,  Norway  295b,  470b, 
571  d,  Persia  498d;  Philippines 
501a,  Portugal  522a,  San  Marino 
558c,  Southern  Rhodesia  580b, 
Sweden  386b,  Switzerland  599d, 
Syria  600d;  601  d;  Thailand  61 3a, 
Trieste  628b,  United  States  183c, 
521a 
Electrical  Development  Association 

227c 
ELECTRICAL  INDUSTRIES  226c 

Electricity  Supply  Research  Coun- 
cil 226d 

ELECTRIC  POWER  228b 

Llcctroencophalograph  Conference, 
International  41 3c 

ELECTRIC  TRANSPORT  230b 

ELECTRONICS  232c,  application 
to  meteorology  417d,  application 
to  printing  529a,  529c 

Electron  Microscopy  507b 

Elements,  names  of  152d;  origin  of 
509a 

Eliot,  T  S  614c 

ELIZABETH,  PRINCESS  234a; 
152a;  257a;  32 la 

Elizabeth,  Queen  141d;  321a;  396a 

Elliot,  Mrs   Walter  687b 

Ellis  Island  39b 

Fllul,  Edward  403d 

Elmdon  Airport,  Birmingham  37b 

Elvm,  Violetta  20 Ic,  202c 

Emerson,  W.  S.  154b 

Emmer,  Luciano  172a 

Empire  Art  Loan  Exhibition 
Society  78b 

Empire  Industries  Association  128d 

Empire  Mining  and  Metallurgical 
Congress  293b 

Empire  Press  Union  460d 

Employers'  Liability  Insurance  338d 

EMPLOYMENT  234c;  Belgium 
97b;  Berlin  lOOc;  Canada  143b; 
cotton  industry  I87b;  effect  on 
national  income  of  increase  in 
442b;  Great  Britain  306d;  310d; 
Ireland  353b;  Italy  362b;  626a; 
Newfoundland  456d;  Northern 


(1948)  373d 
Endleman,  Robert  49a 
ENDOCRINOLOGY  236d 
Enequist,  Gerd  656d 
Engel,  Frich  172a 
Engineering  and  Vehicle   Workers 

624b 

English,  James  154c 
English  Bowling  Association  llOa 
English  Channel,  tidal  movements 

of  48  id 

ENGLISH  LITERATURE  237d 
English  Worncn'i  Bowling  Associa- 
tion llOa 
Eniwctok    Atoll,    Marshall   Islands 

76b,  76d 
Enkomi,     Cyprus,     archaeological 

finds  at  53a 

ENTOMOLOGY  240b 
Entremont,  France,  anthropological 

finds  at  48a 
Enugu,  Nigeria  125c 
Ephussi,  Boris  291c 
EPIDEMICS  241c,  control  of  512a 
Episcopal   Church,   General   Con- 
vention of,  (U  S  )  45b 
Fqual  pay  policy  624c 
Erdei,  Ferenc  496d 
Erdmannsdorff,  Otto  von  670c 
Eritrea  50d;  343b;  645d 
Frivan,  Armenia,  uranium  plant  at 

77c 

Lrlandcr,  Tage  596a 
Frlangcn,  Germany  388c 
Errazunz,  German  Ricsco  162a 
Erythroblastosis  43c 
Esmeralda  202b 
Espmosa,  Julio  Moreno  216d 
Essex     Rivers     Catchment     Board 

266d 

Fstimc,  Dumarsais  316d 
ESTONIA  242a 
Establishments  Cinematographique 

Eclair  173d 
Etchebaster,  P.  61  Ic 
Etching,  213d 
ETHIOPIA  242c 
Ethyl  alcohol  86d 
Eton  Fives  Association  266b 
Europe,  art  exhibitions  67d,  book 
production  108a,  cereal  supplies 
23d,  coal  production  178d;  179a; 
Communist     movement      182b, 
Communist  parliamentary  repre- 
sentatives (statistics)    182c;  dye- 
stuffs  production   214d;  electric 
power    228d;    emigration    370c; 
E  R  P.     funds,     distribution     of 
244b;     245a;     food     production 
271b;    ice    skating    331b;    inter- 
national   highways    546a;    inter- 
national   trade    346b,    iron    and 
steel  production  355b,  livestock 
production       24a;      occupation 
forces  62b;  pig  production  24a; 
sugar     beet     production     593c; 
tobacco  production  619d,  tourist 
industry    621d;    town    planning 
623a,   unity  of   189d;    190a 
Europe,  Eastern,  currency  reforms 
138b;  exchange  rates  250c;  film 
industry  169d;  nationalization  of 
industries   138b,  Soviet  hold  on 
635d,  636a 

Europe,  Western,  American  defence 
aid  to  466d;  467a,  banking  91d, 
business  review   138b;  Christian 
Democratic       movement    165d; 
Communist  movement  188c;  elec- 
tric  power   228c;   hydro-electric 
projects  229d;  water  supply  239a 
European  Payments  Scheme  248d 
European     Radio     Organizations, 

Conference  of  610a 
EUROPEAN  RECOVERY  PRO- 
GRAMME 243c;  36d;  89b;  145c; 
137d,  161a;  317c,  346b;  349a; 
582c,  61 8c;  and  Austria  82a; 
230c;  663c;  Communist  cam- 
paign against  626b;  626c;  de- 
clining cost  of  132c;  and  Den- 
mark 204a;  and  Italy  23 Id;  and 
Malta  403d;  and  Netherlands 
453a;  and  Norway  470c;  power 


702 


INDEX 


station  construction  229d;  and 
Spam  583b 

European  Reformed  Churches  525d 

:uropcan  Society  for  Opinion 
Surveys  and  Market  Research 
533b;  533c 

Evangelical  and  Reformed  Church 
(U  S)  183b 

'vans,  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Clifford  55d 

2VANS,  DAME  EDITH  MARY 
246a,  614b 

ivans,  H.  M   237b 

2vans,  Joan  238a 

Evans,  T.  194d 

ivans-Pntchard,  E.  E.  48b 

£VATT,  HERBERT  VERE  246c, 
79d;  158d;  641c 

Svershed,  Lord  Justice  372b 

Everyman's  Leisure  102c 

2  wing,  James  215a 

Exchange  Control  Act  (1947)  247d 

EXCHANGE  CONTROL  AND 
EXCHANGE  RATES  246c; 
344c;  344d;  350c;  Belgium  98c; 
Canada  143b;  effect  on  book 
sales  106d;  France  93c;  Great 
Britain  93a.  See  also  Devaluation 

Existentialism  504d;  617c 

Expectation  of  Life  666b 

Expeditions  Polaires  Franc  aises 
251b 

EXPLORATION  AND  DIS- 
CO VERY  251  b 

Exploration  Club,  University  of 
Oxford  47d 

Exploration  of  the  Sea,  Inter- 
national Council  for  265a 

EXPORT-IMPORT  BANK  OF 
WASHINGTON  252c;  162b; 
181a;  316d;  357b;  431b;  583b; 
689a 

EX-SERVICEMEN'S  ORGANIZ- 
ATIONS 252d 

External  Telecommunications 
Board  607c 

EYE,  DISEASES  OF  THE  254b 

EYSKENS,  G ASTON  254dt  97d; 
98;  165d;  385c 


Faanhof,  H.  197b 

Factories  Act  (1948)  336a 

FAEROE  ISLANDS  255a 

FAGERHOLM,  KARL-AUGUST 
255d;  261b 

Fahad,  Yusuf  Salman  35  Ib 

FAIRBANKS,  DOUGLAS  ELTON 
JR.  255d 

Fair  Deal  Programme  (U  S.)  183d; 
629d 

Fair  Labour  Standards  Act  (U.S.) 
161c;  183d;  374a 

FAIRS,  SHOWS  AND  EXHIBI- 
TIONS 256b 

Falkanger,  Torbioern  570d 

Falkenberg,  R.  383a 

FALKLAND  ISLANDS  257b;  47a; 
Argentine  and  Chilean  claims  to 
territories  in  47c;  343b 

Falla,  Professor  R.  A.  463b 

Faluja  (Palestine),  evacuation  of  by 
Egyptians  223b 

Famechon,  Ray  1 1  Ib 

Family  Service  Union  680d 

Fanconi,  G.  206d 

Fanfani,  Amintorc  361c 

Fangio,  Juan  Manuel  432b 

Far  East  Commission  364d; 
462d;  544a 

FAROUK  I  257b;  223a;  224a 

Farrer,  A.  M.  61 7b 

FASHION  AND  DRESS  257c 

Fassi,  Si  Allal  el-  284a 

Fatherland  Front  (Bulgaria)   134c 

Fawley,  Hampshire,  oil  refinery 
210d 

Faysal  II  351b;  351c;  471a;  601b 

Fcchner,  Max  298d 

Federal  Airport  Plan  (U.S.)  37a 

Federal  Aid  Airport  Programme 
86b 

Federal  Communications  Com- 
mission (U.S.)  128a;  128c;  174a; 
381a:  611a 

Federal  Film  Commission  (Yugo- 
slavia) 172c 

Federal  Housing  Administration 
(U.S.)  327d 


Federal  National  Mortgage  Associ- 
ation 327d 

Federal  Reserve  Board  (U.S.)  87c; 
185a 

FEDERAL  RESERVE  SYSTEM 
259b;  139a,  675d 

Federal  Trade  Commission  (U.S.) 
571c 

Federation  Aeronautique  Inter- 
nationale 37c 

Federation  Internationale  des  An- 
ciens  Pnsonnicrs  Politiques  253d 

Federation  Internationale  d'Es- 
cnme  259d 

Federation  Internationale  Syndi- 
cate de  1'Enseignement  218d 

Federation  Nationale  des  Deportes 
et  Internes  (France)  253c 

Federation  Nationale  des  Prison- 
niers  de  Guerre  (France)  253c 

Federation  of  British  Industries 
20c,  151b 

Federation  of  German  University 
Women  656d 

Federazione  Italiana  del  Lavoro 
626a 

Feedmgstuffs  24a;  24d 

Fegiz,  Luzzatto  533d 

Felix- Mane-Vincent,  Prince,  of 
Bourbon-Parma  152c 

Feltin,  Maurice  547c 

FENCING  259d 

Fencstration  21 5b 

FERTILIZERS  260a;  25a;  26d; 
27a;  28d 

Festival  of  Britain  56c;  70b;  133c; 
394b,  396c;  545d 

Fianna  Fail  353c;  484b 

Fiction,  American  42b;  108b; 
Australian  80d;  Canadian  144b; 
145a;  Czechoslovak  198b;  Dan- 
ish 559b;  Dutch  214b;  English 
239b;  French  282a;  German 
295d;  Italian  360b;  New  Zealand 
463d;  Norwegian  559b;  Polish 
518a;  Russian  556b:  South  Afri- 
can 580a,  Spanish  586a;  Spanish- 
American  584d;  Swedish  558d 

Field,  Sid615a 

FIELD  SPORTS  260d 

Fierlmger,  Zdenek  199d 

Fighters  for  Freedom  (Poland) 
198b;  516b 

Figmi,  Luigi  58b 

FIGL,  LEOPOLD  261  b;  81b 

Figueres  Ferrer,  Colonel  Jos£  186d 

FIJI  Islands  4865 

Filanasis  629b 

Film  Archives,  International  Feder- 
ation of  I70a 

Film  Critics,  International  Feder- 
ation of 170a 

Film  festivals  169d 

Film  Finance  Corporation  1 70c 

Filton  Airport,  Bristol  36b;  56b 

Finance  Act  (1949)  212d;  447d 

Finance  Corporation  for  Industry 
355a 

Finance  Corporation  for  National 
Reconstruction  (Netherlands) 
340b 

Fine  Gael  352b;  353a;  484b 

Fmet,  Paul  626c 

FINLAND  261b;  airports  36d; 
athletics  73c;  Communist  move- 
ment 182b;  distribution  of  in- 
comes 674d;  675a;  hydro-electric 
development  229d;  loan  by  Inter- 
national Bank  for  Reconstruction 
340c;  literature  559c;  military 
strength  64c;  naval  strength 
450b;  newspapers  46 Ib;  repara- 
tions to  U.S.  222c;  taxation  675d 

FINLAY  DONALD  263a;  73d 

Finnish  People's  Democratic 
League  262b 

Fiordland  National  Park,  New 
Zealand  447a 

Fire  insurance  338b;  339b 

Fire  Protection  Association  338b 

Fires  and  Explosions,  disasters 
caused  by  208a;  358d 

First  National  Bank  of  Chicago 
213a 

Firth,  Professor  R.  48b 

Fish  and  Wildlife  Service  (U.S.) 
678c;  679a 

Fish,  canning  industry  147c 


Fishbein,  Morris  461d 

Fisher,  John  46 Ib 

FISHERIES  263 b;  Faeroe  Islands 
255b;  Iceland  330d;  331a;  New- 
foundland 456d;  Turkey  633d 

Fitzgerald,  Sir  William  125c 

FIVES  266b 

Flashbulbs  505d  507b 

Flax,    process    of    spinning    389c 

Flaxseed  659c 

Fleas  as  plague-carriers  5 lie 

Fletcher,  C   M.  336b 

Fleury  A   501  c 

Flood  Control  Act  (U.S  )  267b 

FLOODS  AND  FLOOD  CON- 
TROL 266b,  disasters  caused  by 
209b;  Turkey  633d;  United  States 
576d 

Flores,  Luis  499b 

FLOUR  268a;  extraction  rate  114a; 
271b;  352a 

Fliickiger,  Hermann  628b 

Fluorescent  lighting  227d 

Fluorides  205c;  674c 

Fluorine  age-test  47d 

44  Flying  Arrow  "  S  S.  164d 

Fogere  Airport,  Italy  36d 

Foldes,  Peter  487a 

Folic  acid  43a;  268d 

Folkepartiet  (Sweden)  386b 

Folklore  159b;  159d 

Foltys,  Jan  158b 

Fomon,  Samuel  21 5c 

Fontamebleau,  France  188b;  377b; 
677a 

Fontanne,  Lynn  616c 

Fontechevade,  France,  archaeologi- 
cal finds  at  52c 

Fonteyn,  Margot  20 Ic,  202c 

Foochow,  China  163b 

Food,  Ministry  of  180a;  288b, 
308b,  587a 

Food  and  Agriculture  Organiza- 
tion 24a,  26c;  Illc,  265a;  271d; 
275d,  492c,  493d;  522b,  618c; 
644d 

Food  Investigation  Organization 
287d 

Food  Machinery  Corporation  of 
America  147d 

Food  Poisoning  41 2a 

FOOD  RESFARCH  268d;  27d 

Foodstuffs,  Prance,  280a;  prices 
526c;  527d;  world  trade  27 Ib 

FOOD  SUPPLY  OF  THE 
WORLD  269b;  27c 

FOOTBALL  27 Id 

Football  pools  102b 

FORAGE  CROPS  274a;  200b 

Foramimfcra  293c;  490b 

Force  Ouvriere-Confed6ration 
Generate  du  Travail  278c;  279c; 
592b;  625d 

Forces  Help  Society  252d 

Fordham    University    (U.S.)    154b 

Foreign  Exchange  Stabilization 
Fund,  French,  93c 

Forest  fires  275a;  275c;  277 

FORESTRY  274c;  Scotland  560d 

Forestry  Commission  274d,  446d; 
560d;  669d 

FORMOSA  (TAIWAN)  275d;  163b; 
164d 

Fornebu  Airport,  Oslo,  37a 

Forrestal,  James  Vincent  474d 

Fort  Benning,  Georgia,  U.S.,  man- 
oeuvres at  63a 

Fortes,  Dr   M.  48c 

Foster,  William  Z.  182b 

Foul-of-the-Foot  disease  662d 

Fourah  Bay  College,  Sierra  Leone 
655d 

Fowler,  William  S.  55b 

Frachon,  Benoit  625d 

Fragrance  Foundation,  Inc   571c 

FRANCE  276b;  alcohol  production 
587a;  air  force  35a;  airports  36d; 
archaeology  52c;  athletics  73d; 
balance  of  payments  249b;  ballet 
201  d;  banking  93b;  brandy  prod- 
uction and  exports  586d;  587a; 
bridge  construction  115c;  broad- 
casting 126d;  Cambodia,  treaty 
with  286d;  Carmargne  reserve 
678c;  cocoa  imports  179d;  Com- 
munist movement  182a;  188c; 
and  Council  of  Europe  188d; 
currency  circulation  93c;  docks 


and  harbours  21  Ib;  education 
220a;  employment  236b;  ex- 
servicemen  s  organizations  253c; 
film  industry  169d;  171b;  flax 
production  389d;  football  272a; 
272c;  forest  fires  275a;  fruit 
production  288a;  gliding  302c; 
historical  research  318a;  horse 
racing  321a;  321c;  horticulture 
322c,  hospitals  324a,  housing 
326d;  Italy,  customs  union  with 
602d  ;  jet  propulsion  development 
369b;  Jewish  community  371b; 
Laos,  treaty  with  287a;  Liberal 
movement  386c;  literary  prizes 
390d;  military  strength  64a; 
Morocco  claimed  as  associated 
state  425c;  motor  industry  431a; 
museums  437b;  national  budget 
131c;  132a;  national  expenditure 
130b;  national  income  442a; 
nationalized  industries  446a;  nav- 
al strength  450a;  new  buildings 
58a;  painting  486c;  487a;  palae- 
ontology 490b;  paper  and  pulp 
industry  492b;  philosophy  504c; 
505a;  Portugal,  trade  agreement 
with  522d,  postage  stamps  501c; 
prices  527c;  printing  industry 
529b,  prisoners  of  war,  repatria- 
tion of  530a;  railways  23  la; 
537a;  rayon  industry  541c; 
Roman  Catholic  Church  547b; 
547c;  Saar,  policy  regarding 
556c;  Salvation  Army  558b; 
silk  imports  569d;  Socialist  move- 
ment 571d;  572a,  Spain,  trade 
agreement  with  584b;  strikes 
592b;  subsidies  130b,  sugar  beet 
production  593c,  taxation  604d; 
television  610a;  tennis  61  Ic; 
theatre  615c;  trade  unions  625d; 
transport  industry  434b;  tubercu- 
losis 63  Ib;  tunnels  632c;  univer- 
sities 65ftc,  venereal  diseases 
660c;  Vietnam,  relations  with 
94a;  vintages  679b;  680a;  war 
pensions  672b;  wool  industry  681d 

Francium  152d 

FRANCOIS  -  PONCET  ANDRE, 
Y 


FRANCO    Y     BAHAMONDE, 

FRANCISCO  281a;  402a;  522b; 

582c  et  seq 
Frankfurt-on-Main,  Germany  105d; 

256d 

Franklin,  Frederick  202b 
Franklin,  Mrs.  O   H   681b 
Fraser,  Sir  Ian  253a 
Fraser,  James  Earle  562d 
FRASER,  PETER  28  la,  462c 
FREDERICK    IX    (CHRISTIAN- 

FREDERICK  -  FRANZ  -  MICHAEL  - 

KARL-WAI.DFMAR-GEORG)   28  Ib; 

203d 

Fredenka,  Queen  of  Greece  72d 
Fredenkssund,  Denmark  149b 
Free  Albania  Committee  38b 
Free   German  Trade   Union   Fed- 

eration (East  Berlin)  101  a 
FREEMASONRY  28  Ib 
Free  Speech,  legal  aspects  of  38  Ic 
Free  Thai  Party  (Thailand)  61  3b 
Freetown,  Sierra  Leone  70d 
Freie    Demokratische    Partei    (W 

Germany)  317d;  386c 
French  Equatorial  Africa  285a 
French  Grand  Prix  432d 
French  Guiana  285c 
French  India  285d 
FRENCH  LITERATURE  28  Ic 
French  Pacific  Islands  287a 
French  Somahland  285a 
FRENCH  UNION  282d;  assembly 

of  285b,  287a 
French   West  Africa  284c;  cocoa 

production     1  79d  ;     groundnuts 

cultivation  659a 
Frend,  Charles  170d 
Frere,  Maurice  90b 
Frere,  S.  52b 
Freund,  E.  172a 
Freyberg,  Sir  Bernard  28  Ib 
Fnbourg,  Switzerland  166b 
Friedlander,  Leo  562d 
Friedman,  E.  63  Ib 
FRIENDS,      THE      RELIGIOUS 

SOCIETY  OF  287b 


INDEX 


703 


Frings,  Joseph,  Cardinal  547c 

Frisch,  K.  von  240b 

Frondcl,  Clifford  422d 

Frontier  Studies,  Congress  of  52a 

Frosio,  E.  197b 

FRUIT  287d;  193a;  406d 

Fry,  Christopher  614a 

Fry,  Franklin  C.  683c 

Fuchs,  J.  73c 

Fuel  and  Power,  Ministry  of  226d 

Fuhlsbuttel  Airport,  Hamburg  36d 

Fulbnght  Act  (U.S.)  653b;  656a 

Fundy  National  Park,  Canada,  446d 

Furfural  154b;  157b 

Furnaces,  induction  227d 

Furniture  Import  (Emergency)  As- 
sociation 289a 

FURNITURE  INDUSTRY  288d 

FURS  289b 

Furstenberg,  A.  C.  215b 

Furubotn,  Peder  470b 

Fu  Tso-yi  162d 

Fyfe,  Sir  David  Patrick  Maxwell 
189b 


GEORGE  VI  294d;353a 

Gerard,  F.  R.  432d 
GERHARDSEN,  EINAR  HENRY 

295b;469d;470c 
Geriatrics  4 12a 


Gilliatt,  Sir  William  315d 
Gilmour,  J.  S.  L   109d 
Gimson,  Sir  Franklin  402d 
Ginger  5»6c 
Gin  Rummy  102d 


Gerlier,  Pierre-Mane,  Cardinal  547c  Giraud,  Henry  Honore  474d;  493a   Grav   H  K  40c 

/^Acm/^M      l?.»/-l.<k*.nl      D  <.«... i«i..~      lAi..  .     f*int    t~*ntt\Eic!   ir»i_  *••/»  **     •»•    ^yv 


Grassc,  Professor  Pierre-Paul  692b 
Grasses,      cultivation      of     575c; 

576d 
Grassland,  improved  cultivation  of 

274b 


Gabin,  Jean  615d 

Gabo,  Naum  562b 

Gainsborough,  Lincolnshire,  flood 
protection  at  266c 

Galatz,  Rumania  145c 

Gallarza,  General  E.  G.  584a 

Gall  bladder,  diseases  of  40b 

Gallcgos,  Romulo  657d 

Gallium  414a 

Gallup  Institute  533c 

Galoya  Development  Board  (Cey- 
lon) 150d 

Galoya  hydro-electric  scheme  (Cey- 
lon) 563b 

Galvez,  Juan  Manuel  319d 

Gambia  124c 

Game  birds,  protection  of  678d 

Gandhi,    Mahatma,    memorial    to 
(U  S  )  427d 

Ganeval,  General  Jean  99d 

Gaon,  Solomon  372a 

Gardenmoen  Airport,  Norway  37a 

Garey,  J.  C.  86c 

Garreau,  Roger  641d 

Garrod,  Professor  D   A   E.  47d 

Garvey,  R   H.  I23d 

Garry,  Arnold  S.  J.  549c 

GAS  290a;  nationalization  445a 

Gas  Act  (1948)  290a 

Gas  Council  290a 

Gascoigne,  S   C.  B   72b 

Gasification  of  Coal  177d 

Gasperom,  Gildo  558c 

Gastrectomy  595a 

Gastric  secretion  509d 

Gastro-enterostomy  40a 

Gas  Turbine  Collaboration  Com- 
mittee 368d 

Gas  turbines   228c;   368d   et  seq., 
400d ;  560d 

Gater,  Sir  George  170c 

Gatow  Airport,  Berlin  36d 

GAULLE,   CHARLES    DE   290d; 
279d 

Gaullist  Party  (France)  276c;  277a 

Gaza,  Palestine  287c;  490d 

Gear,  William  487a 

Gedi,  National  Park,  Kenya  447a 

Gedvilas,  M.  A.  392a 

GEMS  29 la;  423b 

Gemstones,  synthetic  291  b;  422d 

General  Certificate  of  Education, 
University  entrance  through  653c 

General  Electric  Research  Labora- 
tory 233d 

General      Federation     of     Trade 
Unions  624b 

General  Fisheries  Council  for  the 
Mediterranean  265a 


Glaciers,  research  in  25 2b 

Gladwm,  C.  193a 

Glasgow  66d,  Kelvin  Hall  256d 

GLASS  302a 

Glenday,  Sir  Vincent  118c 


Gloucester,   Duke  of  169a,   687b, 


and  exports  179d;  24lb,  655d; 
housing  326c,  Legislative  Coun- 
cil 125b;  religious  missions  424d; 
University  College  388b 


German    Federal    Republic    lOla;  GIRL  GUIDES  301c 
103d;  105d;  190b;  220b;  296b  et  Girls'  Guildry  687d 
seq.;   298d;    309a;    318a,    343b;   Gjerdmundshaug,  Ottar  570d 
378a;  510d;  543d 

GERMAN  LITERATURE  295c 

German     People's     Republic    296 
et  seq. ;  636d 

GERMANY    295a;    airports    36d; 

Allied   High   Commission    106b;   Gilbert,  Maxime  490b 
archdeology  52d;  book  sales  107b.  GLIDING  302c 
bridge  construction  115d,  broad 
casting  127b;  cereals,  supplies  of       687d 
23d;  Christian  Democratic  move-  Gluckman  H    M  48b 
ment  165d;  Control  Commission   Glucose  240d 
105a;    Council    of   Europe    and   Glutathione  207a 
I89d,  190a;  Czechoslovakia,  re-  Glycerol  157b 
lations  with  199d,  displaced  per-   Glycogen  240b 
sons  camps  542b;  film  industry  Goa,  Portuguese  India  523c 
169d;  171d;  forestry  275a;  Great  Godwin,  H.  109b 
Britain,   policy   regarding   309a;   Godwin,  Keith  562d 
historical  research  318b,  housing  Goey,  H.  J.  A.  de  529d 
326d,   Jewish   community   371c,   Gokay,  Fahreddm  Kerim  358d 
Liberal  movement  386c;  libraries  GOLD    302d,    in    Alaska    65 Id; 
388c;  museums  437c,  music  439b;       prices  362c;  effect  of  devaluation 
painting      487b;      paleontology       on  579c,  588b,  sale  of  344c;  in 
490b,   philosophy   505a,   photo-       Southern   Rhodesia  580d;  stock 
graphic    industry    506a,    radio-       in  United  States  92c;  247a 
telephone  service  609b;  railways  Gold  Coast  124c;  I25a,  adult  cdu- 
231  b,   rayon  industry  541c;   re-       cation    20b,    All-African    Com- 
construction     130c,     reparations       mittee  on  125a,  cocoa  production 
543c;    Roman    Catholic   Church 
547b,     Salvation     Army     558b; 
sculpture  562a ,  Society  of  Friends 
427c;     sugar     beet     production 

593c;   theological   studies   616d;   Goldenbaum,  Ernst  496d 
61 7d;  trade  fairs  256d;  training  Goldfeder,  A   268d 
of    teachers    606d,    tuberculosis  GOLF  303b 
631b;  tunnels  632c,   universities  Goliakov,  Ivan  637d 
656c;     venereal    diseases     660c;   Golombck,  H    158b 
war  crimes  trials  670b,  zoological   Gomes,  Eduardo  113a 
gardens  691  d;  see  also  Germany,   Gomez,  Laurcano  180d 
Soviet  zone;    Germany,  western   Gomez,  M.  F.  da  Costa  455d 
zones  Gomolka,  Wladyslaw    182b,   516c 

Germany,  Soviet  zone  169c;  electric  Gonorrhoea  660c  et  :>eq 
power    229d,    printing    industry   Gonzales,  R   383a 
529b,  Soviet  forces  64a,  Soviet  Gonzalez,    Juan    Natahcio    492d; 
policy    636d;    trade    with    190b;       493b 
see   also    German    People's    Re-  GONZALEZ  VIDELA,  GABRIEL 

Germany,    western  zones,  banking  Gooch,  G  P.  238b 

lOOd,    British    forces    63b,    co-  Good,  G.  M    153d 

operative  movement  186b,  Dan-  Goodwin,  F   H.  40c 

ish  forces  204b;  dismantling  of  Goosens,  Eugene  439a 

industrial  plants  543c,  education  Gopal,  Ram  202a 

220a;  elections  165d,  166a,  225c;  Gordon,  Donald  144a 

electoral  system  225a;  ex-service-  Gordon,  Tom  104a 

men's   organization   253d;    food  Gorlmsky,  Nikolay  D.  392a 

production    271  b.    Freemasonry  GOTTWALD,    KLEMENT    304d; 

28lc;   glass   industry   302b;   im-  198d;  548d 

migration    331d;    Japan,    trade  Gould,  Morton  203a 

agreement  with   569d,   law   and  GOVERNMENT     DEPART- 

legislation    378a;    Lutheran    im-  MENTS  304d 

migrants    398c;    motor   industry  Gowing,  M.  M.  318d 

431b;    newspapers    461a;    paper  Grabski,  Stamslaw  475a 

and  pulp  production  492b;  patent  Grace,  Alonzo  G.  220b 

office    495d;     printing    industry  Gracq,  Juhen  61 5c 

529b;    railways    537b;    shipping  Graffenned,    Baron   Emannuel   de 

568b;    steel    production     355d;  432b 

strikes    592c;    synthetic    rubber  Graham  Land,  Antarctica  47a;  251  b 

production  553b;  textile  produc-  GRAIN  CROPS  305c;  192d;  269d 
tion   612b;   Turkey,   trade  with 
634a;      wool      industry      68  Id; 


Y.M.C.A.  686c;  Y.W.C.A.  686d; 
see  also  German  Federal  Re- 
public 

Gero,  Ernd  328d 
Gershenson,  Mikhail  556a 
Gettysburg  Address  106d;  107a 


\v/r«j  jujc,  i7^,u,  ^.o^u 
et  seq.;  Argentine  25c;  Europe, 
supplies  to  23d,  India  26b;  inter- 
national control,  proposed  26c; 
North  America  23d;  Poland 
515b;  world  production  24c; 
25a;  United  States  28c;  wheat 
677b 
Gram  stocks,  reserves  of  269c;  27 Ib 


GHEORGH1U-DEJ,  GHEORGHE  Grand  National,  321a 


General    Nursing    Council    441b;       30Jd;  496a;  553d  G  rand  National  Archery  Society  5  5d 

47 Ib  Gherman,  E.  572d  Grand  (Ncoscho)  river  (U.S.)  267d 

GENETICS  29 Ib  Giacobbi,  Paul  29 la  Grand  Prix  de  Pans  32 Ic 

Geneva   145c;   341c;   525d;   530b;    Giacometti,  Alberto  562d  Grand  Prix  of  Europe  432d 

541d;  546a;  603b;  626b;  univer-   GIAUQUE,  WILLIAM  FRANCIS  Grangemouth,       Scotland,       new 
sity  656d  301  a;  464d  chemical  plant  at  512b 

G£nissiat      hydro  -  electric      plant   GIBRALTAR  301b;  582d;  583d        Grant,  William  468c 

Giddings,  Louis  54c 
Gielgud,  John  614b 
Gifford  Pinchot  National  Forest 

(U.S.)  275c 
Gilbert,  J.  A.  L.  316b 


(France)  23 la 
GEOGRAPHY  292b 
Geological  Society  of  America  294b 
GEOLOGY  293b 
Geomorphology  294a 


VJt/V/lllV/lpl*VMVSKY      ^^Td  V-llllSVlt,    +  .     f\.     *-l.     JlWLf 

Geophysical  Institute  (Bergen)  483c   Gilliard,  Alfred  J.  5S8b 


Grantham,  Sir  Alexander  320a 
Graphic  Arts  Research  Foundation 

(U.S.)  529b 
Graphite  28 5b 
Grass,  high  frequency  heater  for 

treating  233b 


Gray,  H.  St.  George  5 Id 

Graziam,  Rodolfo  242d 

GREAT    BRITAIN    AND    NOR- 
THERN   IRELAND,    UNITED 
KINGDOM  OF  306b,  advertising 
20c,    adult   education    20b;   age 
composition  of  population  665c; 
agriculture  23  et  ieq  ,  2*»a;  26a; 
aircraft   manufacture   30d,    32a; 
airports  35d,  air  races  37b,  air 
traffic    83b;    aliens    38c;     39a; 
angling    261  a;    Antarctic    agree- 
ment 462d;   archaeology   51c   et 
seq.,    architecture    55d    et    \eq.\ 
Argentina,  trade  agreement  with 
27a;  61  a;  art  sales  69a;  athletics 
73b,  73d;  atomic  energy  research 
74d;   75a,    Australian   gift   80b; 
bacon  imports  409a;  409c;  bal- 
ance of  payments   87c   et  seq.; 
ballet  200d,  banking  90a;  93a; 
bee-keeping  95a;  beer  consump- 
tion    (statistics)     14d;     billiards 
104a;  bird  life   192d,  birth  rate 
668a;  blood  transfusion  research 
410c;    book    production    107b; 
botanical   gardens   108c  et  seq.; 
Boy     Scout     movement     11  Id; 
brandy  imports  587a;  bread  and 
bakery    products    11 4a,    broad- 
casting  126d;   building   industry 
132d;    133a;    by-elections    494c; 
canals    and     inland     waterways 
145b;    canning    industry     147c; 
Ceylon,    agreement    with    150c; 
chess     157d;    children's     books 
159a,  child  welfare  160a;  China, 
relations  with  162d;  163b;  164b; 
civil  aviation  82d  et  seq.;  445d; 
civil  service  174b  et  seq.  clothing 
exports   176b,  clothing  industry 
175d;  coal  industry  176c;  625a; 
coast   erosion    266a;   cocoa   im- 
ports 179d;  180a;  coffee  imports 
180b;  colonial  policy  122b;  Com- 
munist movement  182b;  Congre- 
gational Church  183a;  consumer 
credit  184b;  Corfu  Channel  case 
340d;   343a;   cosmetics   industry 
57d;  cotton  industry  187b;  cricket 
193d;  crime  195a;  currency  circu- 
lation 93b,  cycling   196d;  dairy 
farming  200b;  dangerous  drugs, 
control  of  440c,  Denmark,  trade 
agreement   with,    27a,    dentistry 
205b;  docks  and  harbours  210a; 
drawing    and    engraving    213b; 
dyestuns  production  215a;  edu- 
cation   219a,    Egypt,    relations 
with  223b;  electric  power  226  et 
seq  ;    employment    137d;    234c; 
exchange     control     247d;     Ex- 
servicemen's  organizations  252d; 
Falkland  Islands,  claims  on  343b; 
family,    average    size    of   665d; 
fertilizers    260a;    film    industry 
1 69d ;  1 70b  et  seq. ;  fisheries  21 3b ; 
floods    266b;    flour,    extraction 
rate  268a;  football  272a;  forage 
crops   274;   foreign    investments 
in   348d   et  seq  ;   foreign   trade 
345c;  forestry  274c;  freemasonry 
28 Ib;  fruit  production  287d;  fur 
industry  289b;  furniture  industry 
288d;  gas  industry  290a;  geolo- 
gical  research   293b,   Germany, 
policy  on  190c;  girl  guides  301  c; 
glass  industry  302a;  gliding  302c; 
gold   and   dollar   holdings   87d; 
89a;   303a;   golf  303b;   govern- 
ment departments  304d;  health 
service  440d  et  seq.  hemp  industry 
317c;   historical   research   318d; 
horse  racing  320d;  horticulture 
322b;    hospitals    323b;    housing 
325c;  immigration  and  emigra- 
tion 33 Ic;  incomes,  distribution 
of  674d;    India,    relations   with 
333a;  industrial  alcohol  produc- 
tion  587a;  industrial  delegations 
visit  (U.S.)  625a;  industrial  prod- 
action    137c;   infantile  paralysis 


704 


INDEX 


337b;  insurance  338a,  intercom- 
munion of  churches  61 7b;  in- 
vestments abroad  348a;  iron  and 
steel  353d;  Israel,  relations  with 
350d;  356d;  Italy,  relations  with 
363a;  Japan,  British  forces  m 
364d;  jet  propulsion  development 
367d;  Jewish  community  in  372a; 
jute  industry  372d,  juvenile  de- 
linquency 3?3b;  law  and  legisla- 
tion 380a;  lawn  tennis  382c; 
383c;  leather  industry  383c; 
libraries  387a;  literary  prizes 
390b;  livestock  392c;  local  gov- 
ernment 393c,  machinery  400b 
et  ieq.\  Malta,  relations  with 
403d;  manpower  234d,  market 
gardening  406c;  marriage  and 
divorce  407a,  meat  imports  408d; 
Mercantile  Marine  566d  et  seq., 
Methodist  Church  418a,  military 
strength  63a,  milk  production 
200b;  motor  industry  428c;  432a, 
motor  racing  432b;  museums 
436a;  music  438b,  national  de- 
fence 13 la;  national  expenditure 
130b;  national  income  441c, 
442b;  nationalization  445a;  573a, 
national  parks  446a;  naval 
strength  448d,  newspapers  457a; 
Norway,  relations  with  470c, 
oilseed  imports  659b;  osteo- 
pathy 484d;  painting  486d,  paper 
industry  492a;  patents  495b; 
Persia,  monetary  agreement  with 
498c;  pharmacy  501  a;  photo- 
graphy 505c;  pig  production  24a; 
plastics  industry  512a,  Poland, 
trade  agreement  with  618b;  police 
517a,  Portugal,  relations  with 
522c;  postage  stamps  501  c;  postal 
services  524a;  poultry  525b; 
prices  526b  et  seq  ;  printing  in- 
dustry 529a;  prison  system  530b; 
psychological  research  53 Id;  rail- 
ways 230b;  535d,  rainfall  415d; 
rationing  540b;  revenue  and 
expenditure  130b;  rifle  shooting 
545a;  roads  545c;  root  crops 
550b;  rowing  551a;  rubber  im- 
ports 553b;  sculpture  562a; 
securities  588c,  sewerage  and 
river  pollution  563c,  shipbuilding 
564d;  shoe  industry  568c;  silk 
imports  569d;  soap  industry 
571b;  Spam,  relations  with  281a; 
583a;  584a;  speedway  racing 
586b;  spirits  industry  586d,  steel 
industry  670a;  strikes  591  a; 
subsidies  26d;  130b,  526d; 
540d;  sugar  imports  593d,  swim- 
ming 598b;  synthetic  fibres  prod- 
uction 540  et  seq  ;  tariff  con- 
cessions 603  b,  taxation  604b, 
tea  imports  606b;  technical  edu- 
cation 606d,  telegraphy  607b; 
telephone  service  609a,  television 
53  5b;  61  Ob;  temperatures  415a; 
tennis  61  Ic;  territorial  waters 
265c;  textile  industry  61  Ic  et  seq  ; 
theatre  613d,  timber  industry 
618a;  tobacco  imports  620a, 
tourist  industry  621d;  622a; 
trade  fairs  256b;  trade  unions 
624a  et  seq.;  transport  433a; 
tuberculosis  41  Ob;  63 Ib;  Turkey 
relations  with  633c;  Unitarian 
Church  640c;  universities  653b; 
U.S.S  R.,  trade  agreement  with 
618b;  venereal  diseases  661  b; 
veterinary  medicine  662c,  wages 
668b  et  seq.;  war  pensions  671  c; 
water  supply  293a;  673b,  wheat 
crop  67/b;  women's  activities 
680d;  wool  industry  681d;  yacht- 
ing 684c,  Yemen,  relations  with 
685b;  Youth  organizations  687a; 
Yugoslavia,  trade  agreement  with 
618c;  689a,  zoological  gardens 
691c 

Greater  Rajasthan,  Union  of  333b 

Great  Indian  Peninsular  Railway 
538a 

Great  Plains  Agricultural  Council 
(U.S.)  576d 

Great  Yorkshire  (Agricultural) 
Show  257a 

Greber,  Jacques  485b 


Greco,  Jos6  202a 

GREECE  312a;  archaeological  re- 
search 52d;  bridge  construction 
115d;  British  troops  withdrawn 
63b;  children,  repatriation  of 
541  d;  Communist  rising  691  a; 
Cyprus  demands  union  197d; 
education  220d;  E  R  P.  aid  244c; 
exchange  rates  250a;  Liberal 
movement  386c;  military  strength 
64d,  monetary  position  129d; 
naval  strength  450b;  Orthodox 
Church  216b;  railways  537b; 
rebels  assisted  by  Albania  38a, 
Socialist  movement  572a;  tuber- 
culosis 63  Ib;  United  Nations 
action  regarding  643a,  univer- 
sities 656d;  Yugoslavia,  relations 
with  689c 

Greek  Red  Cross  54 Id 

Green,  N.  155b 

Green,  William  626c 

Greenblatt,  R    B   629a 

Greene,  Lord  372b 

GREENLAND  313d,  204a;  edu- 
cation 221a,  expeditions  to  251b 

Grcensfelder,  B  S.  153d 

Greer,  R   S   336d 

Gregg,  Milton  F.  253b 

Grenada,  British  West  Indies  586c 

Grenfell,  Vera  687b 

Grenfell   Training   Institute   424d 

GREYHOUND  RACING  314b, 
tax  on  bookmakers  102b 

Greyhound  Racing  Association 
102b 

Griffiths,  James  669d 

Grim,  B    516b 

Grmdlay,  J    H.  63 Id 

Gromyko,  Andrey  A.  637c 

Gross,  R.  E.  595b 

Grosse,  H   J   336b 

Grossman,  Leonid  556a 

GROTEWOHL,  OTTO  103d, 
298d;  314c;  668b 

Grotius  medal  167a 

Groundnuts  27c;  119a; 293a;  326b; 
659a, 

Grouse  260d 

Groza,  Petre  496d;  553d 

GRUBER,  KARL  314c,  81b 

Guadeloupe  285c 

Guam  652c 

Guanazolo  104d 

Guardia,  Rafael  Calder6n  187a 

Guardim,  Romano  61 6d,  617c 

GUATEMALA  314d;  claim  to 
British  Honduras  123d;  floods 
266d 

Guernsey  152b 

Guggenheim,  Solomon  R.  213a; 
475b 

Guide  to  the  Public  Record  Office 
319a 

Guigoz,  M    533d 

Guildford  Cathedral  167d 

Gulf  stream,  study  of  483c 

GUNALTAY,  SEMSETTIN  315c; 
633b 

Gundry,  Inghs  438b 

Gurnard,  Isle  of  Wight,  submarine 
cable  to  227b 

Gurncy,  Sir  Henry  402d 

GUSTAV  V  315c 

Guthnc,  H   W.  372b 

Gwynn  Jones,  T.  670b 

GYMNASTICS  315d 

GYN/ECOLOGY  AND  OBSTET- 
RICS 315d 

H 

Haagen,  J.  K  van  der  43 7d 

HAAKON  VII  316b 

Habib  Bourguiba  284c 

Hadego      Photocompositor   529b; 

529d 

Hadlee,  W.  A.  194b 
Hadramaut  Dhofar,  Arabia  252b 
Hadrian's  Wall  52a 
Haemorrhage  215b 
Hafstad,  L   R.  76d;  77a 
Hague,    The,    Netherlands    188c; 

454d 
Haifa,    Israel    21  Id;    351c;    357a, 

500a 

Haigh,  F.  F.  351d 
/Haigh,  John  George  195b 
HAILE  SELASSIE  I  316c;  242d 


Hainan,  China  164c 

Hair  styles,  fashions  in  258b 

HAITI    316c;     344c;     Dominican 

Republic,   relations   with   21 2b; 

484c 

Halcrow,  Sir  William  580d 
Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  150a;  398a 
Hall,  C.  E  507d 
Hall,  David  597a 
Hall,  Sir  John  Hathorn  118c 
Halle  Orchestra,  Manchester  95a 
Hall-Thompson,  Lieut. -Colonel  S. 

H.  468d 

Halmsjon  Airport,  Stockholm  37a 
Hamburg,  Germany  169d;  326d 
Hamley,  Professor  H    R.  219b 
Hammond,  Joan  80b 
Hammond,     John     Lawrence     Le 

Breton  475c 
Hammond,  Kay  615c 
Hamsun,  Knut  559b 
Hancock,  W.  K.  318d 
Handley,  Tommy  127a 
Hangchow  163a 
Harding,  G   L   53c 
Hard-pad  disease  in  dogs  663a 
Hardwood  618b 
Hare,  David  563a 
Harkncss,  A   H   660d 
Harmsworth,  Sir  Leicester  106d 
Harootian,  Koren  der  563a 
Harnman,  W    A    204d 
Harrington,  Dr    M    R   55c 
Harris,  R    197b 

Harris,  Redford  Crosfield  287b 
Harris,  Tom  490c 
Harrison,  J  W.  Heslop  109c 
Harrison  Department  of  Research 

Surgery  (US)  233d 
Harroy,  Dr  Jean-Paul  678a 
Harspranget,  Sweden  228d 
Hartford,  Conn   68b 
Hartlepools   Harbour  Commission 

210d 

Hartley,  H.  O.  205c 
Hartough,  H.  D    I54b 
Hartroft,  Dr   W.  S   268d 
Hartung,  J   631d 
Harvard  University  552a;  656b 
Harvey.  C  C    109c 
Harwell,  Berkshire  74d 
Hasltcm    Bey    Atassi    371b;    601a; 

601d 

Hassan  Abd-el-Rehim  598d 
Hassan  el-Banna  70c;  223a 
Hassett,  A    L.  193d 
Hastie,  William  Henry  652c 
Hastings,  Sussex  520a 
Hatt,  G    52d 
Hauge,  Jens  470a 
Havana,  Cuba,  456a 
Havenga,  N   C   577d;  579a 
Havilland,  Olivia  de  173b 
Hawaii  651d 

Hawkes worth  Bridge,  British  Hon- 
duras 123d 

Haya  de  la  Torre,  Victor  499b 
Hazare,  V   S.  193c 
Headley,  G    193c 
Healey,  Dems  572a 
Health,    Ministry    of   205b;    253a; 

410b;471b;  563c;  674a 
Heard  Island,  Antarctica  47b 
HEART  DISEASES  317a;  683d 
Heaton,  J  272b 
Hebb,  D   O   532b 
Hebrew  scrolls,  51c;  53c 
Hedlund,  Gunnar  597b 
Hedtoft,  Hans  203d;  204a 
Heidelberg,  Germany  158b 
Heifetz,  Jascha  438d 
Hemo,  V.  73c 
Hemrich,  L  73d 
Heisenberg,  W.  504c 
Helena  National  Forest,  Montana 

275c 

Helicopter  Air  Service  (U.S.)  85d 
Helicopters  31d;  34b,  37c,  436a 
Hellman,  Aleksander  80b 
Helmer,  Oskar  427d 
Helmstedt,  Germany  537b 
Helpmann,  Robert  201  c,  202c 
Helsinki,  Finland  607b 
Hemel    Hempstead,    Hertfordshire 

563d 

HEMP317b 
Hendy,  Philip  402a 
Henghes,  H.  562d 


Hcning,  Robert  56«t 

Henley  Royal  Regatta  55 Ic 

Henri-Martin,  Mile.  G.  52c 

Hensel,  G.  63 Ib 

Hepann  317b 

Hepworth,  Barbara  562b;  562d 

Herbert,  D.  629b 

Herbs,  586d 

Hereford,    Three    Choirs    Festival 

439a 

Heroin  440c 
Herpes  206a 
Hershey,  A.  D.  292a 
Hertzog,  Enrique  105b 
Herz,  Werner  154b 
Hess,  Dame  Myra  142a 
HESS,  WALTER  RUDOLF  317d; 

412d;  426d,  464d;  539b 
Hetrazan  629b 
HEUSS,  THEODOR  317d;  106a; 

298b;  371c,  388c 
Hevesy,  G.  C.  de  575b 
Hexachlorocyclohexane  206a 
Hickenlooper,   Senator   Bourkc  B. 

77b;  648b 

Hicklmg,  C   F  263d 
Hide,  Molly  193d 
Higher  Civil  Service  Remuneration 

Committee  on  175b 
High-Speed      Photography      505d; 

506d 

Hightower,  Rosella  201  d 
Higonnet,  Rene  A.  529c 
Hill,  Dems413c 
Hill-Burton  Act  (1946)  324b 
Hiltner,  W  A   72b 
Hilton,  Mrs   B   E.  383a 
Himalayas,  expeditions  to  25 Id 
Hind,  Arthur  M.  238a 
Hinnawi,  Sami  601a,  601c 
HIROHITO  318a 
Hiroshima,  Japan  424c 
Hirsch,  A  41  Id 
Hiss,  Alger  38 Id;  647d;  648b 
Histadyl  410d 

HISTORICAL    RESEARCH  318a 
Historical     Science,     International 

Committee  of  "U8a 
Historical    works,    American    41b; 

42b,  English  217d;  Italian  360c; 

South     African     580a,     Spanish 

586a 

Hitchens,  Ivon  487a 
Hjorth,  Bror  562a 
Hobbs,  G    F  533a 
Ho  Chi  Mmh  91d;  94a,  286d 
HOCKEY  319b 
Hodges,  James  P.  296c 
Hodges,  Mrs   Nancy  681  b 
Hodgkm,  A    L   509c 
Hoet,  Professor  J.  P.  206c 
Hoffman,   Paul  Gray  243d,  245d; 

543c 

Hollman,  W   C.  215c 
Hogsmill    Valley    Joint    Sewerage 

Board  563c 
Holden,  J  T  73d 
Holland,  Bill  433a 
Holland,  E   Stanley  213a 
HOLLAND,    SIDNEY    GEORGE 

319c,  281b,  462c 
Hollenberg,  Dr.  A   V.  233b 
Hollick,  F.  S   J.  241a 
Hollywood,  California  169c;  172d 
Holmes,  A.  293d 
Holmes,  Sir  Maurice  126a 
Holmes,  Mrs.  Nancy  495a 
Holtzmann,  Walter  318b 
Home    Mission    (Methodist)    De- 
partment 418b 
Home  Office  160a;  160c 
Home  Owners  Loan  Corporation 

(U  S.)  93a 
HONDURAS  319c 
Hone,  Sir  Ralph  117d 
HONG  KONG   320a;   70c;    164b; 

British     forces     m     63b,     drug 

traffic  440b;  fisheries  264c;  tele- 
communication    service     607d; 

youth  organizations  688b 
Honolulu,  Hawaii  652a 
Hoover  Commission  395a 
Hope,  Bob  173b 
Hope  Bay,  Antarctica  47a 
Hoppe,  Willie  104a 
HOPS  320c 

Hops  Marketing  Board  320c 
Hormones  156d 


INDEX 


705 


Hornell,  James  48b 

Horrocks,    Sir  Brian  494c 

HORSE  RACING  320d;  102a; 
102d 

Horses  29c;663b 

HORTICULTURE  322b 

Horton,  Dr.  Douglas  183a 

Horvath,  P.  N.  206c 

Horve,  Admiral  Tore  470a 

Hosley,  N.  W.  678d 

Hospital  Care  Commission  324c 

Hospital  Insurance  Service  324b 

HOSPITALS  323b;  21 2d;  352b; 
441b 

Hotel  and  Catering  Education, 
National  Council  for  325a 

HOTELS,  RESTAURANTS  AND 
INNS  324c 

Hotson,  Leslie  39 Ib 

Ho-tung,  Sir  Robert  213a 

Houghton  Grange,  Huntingdon- 
shire 663b 

HOUSING  325c,  Argentina  132d; 
Estonia  242c,  Finland  261  c; 
Germany  299b;  Gibraltar  301  b; 
India  335a,  Italy  361c;  Johannes- 
burg 370d;  London  397a,  Mos- 
cow 428a;  New  York  City  462a; 
Northern  Ireland  468b;  Prague 
525c;  Rome  550a;  Scotland 


Icelandic  Trade  Union  Federation 

330d 

ICE  SKATING  331b 
Idns  el  Senussi,  Emir  359c 
Ignar,  Stamslaw  497c 
"  He  ,de  France  "  S  S   567b 
Ilhngworth,  Captain  J.  H.  684c 
Illinois,  University  of  154b 
Illinois  Institute  of  Technology  233d 
IMMIGRATION     AND     EMI- 
GRATION 331c;  Australia  79b; 
219b;     British     Commonwealth 
253b;  Dominican  Republic  21 2c; 
Gold   Coast    125c;    Israel   357a; 
357d;  370a;  542a,   Malta  404b; 
New  Zealand  463a;   Portuguese 
Colonies     524a;     South     Africa 
578c;    Southern    Rhodesia    580d 
Impenal  Chemical  Industries  512a, 

673d 

Impenal  Bank  of  Iran  498b 
Impenal  Defence  College  175d 
Imperial   Institute,   changes  in  ad- 
ministration of  122d 
Imperial  Relations  Trust  653c 
Imperial  War  Graves  Commission 

427a 

Incumbents    (Discipline)    Measure 
(1947)  168a 


Industrial  Production,  Germany 
300a;  Japan  366a;  Korea  376c; 
Mongolian  People's  Republic 
426c;  New  Zealand  463a;  North- 
ern Ireland  468b;  Norway  470c; 
Poland  515a,  Rumania  554d; 


International  Bureau  of  Education 

217d 
International    Catholic    Employers 

Association  5IOd 

International   Chambers   of  Com- 
merce 21d;  145c;  151c;  495c 

South  Africa  579c;  Soviet  Union    International  Children's  Emergency 
638d;  United  States  650c;  Wales        Fund  79d 


(US.) 


Independent  Front  (Sudan)  46b 

S60d;  South  Africa  579b,  Tokyo    Independent  Trade   Unions  (West 
620d;   United  States  58c;   133d;        Berlin)  lOla 

183d;  186c;  254a;  395a,  INDIA,  DOMINION  OF  332d; 
79d,  adult  education  19d;  20a; 
agriculture  26b;  Anglican  Church 
45c;  banking  91c,  Bhutan,  treaty 
with  103d,  bridges  115d;  broad- 
casting 127a;  127d;  bicycle  im- 
ports 428d;  child  welfare  161b, 
China,  policy  regarding  164a; 
coal  production  178c;  constitu- 
tion 378d;  cotton  industry  188b; 
6 1 2b ,  cricket  1 93c;  docks  and  har- 
bours 21  Id;  drug  traffic  440b; 


,  37d 


139c; 
627a 

Housing  Act  (U.S.)  327d 
Housing    and    Rents    Act 

183d;  328b 

Howe,  Sir  Robert  46b 
Howes,  Dr.  F.  N.  108c 
HOXHA,  ENVER  327c 
Hrubm,  FrantiSek  198c 
Hubble,  Dr.  Edwin  B   70d 
Huene,  Fnednch  von  490b 
Huggms,  Sir  Godfrey  580b 
Hughes,  Dorothy  153b 
Hughes,  T.  Rowland  670b 
"  Hugin,"  Viking  ship  149b 
Hukbalahap  organization  503b 
Human  Rights  217c;  343c 
Humber  port  21  Ob;  210c 
Humphrey,  George  M.  543c 
Hunan,  Chinese  province  163a 
HUNGARY    328c;    athletics    73c; 
bridges     116d;    Czechoslovakia, 
treaty  with  200a;  education  221  a; 
elections  225d;  Lutheran  Church 
398c;     Military     strength     64d, 
nationalized      industries      446b, 
railways  231  b;  Roman  Catholic 
Church   329a;   636a;   Soviet   in- 
fluence in  63c;  636b;  violation  of 
human  rights  343c 
Hunter,  Sir  Ellis  354b 
Hunter   river,    New    South    Wales 

266d 

Hural  (Mongolian  assembly)  426b 
Hurcomb,  Sir  Cyril  433b 
Hurstmonceux,  Sussex  71  b 
Hurstpierpomt,  St.  John's  College 

149d 
Husm   ez-Zaim   50d,    351c,   371b; 

384d;  600d;  60 la 
Hustadt      University,       Germany 

656d 

Hutchmson,  L   494b 
Hutchmson,  Walter  66c;  69b 
Hutton,  L.  193b;  194b 
Huxham,  H.  J.  150d 
Huxley,  Aldous  239b 
Huxley  Memorial  Lecture  48b 
Hyde,  Dr.  Douglas  353c;  476b 
Hyderabad  333d 

Hydrocarbons,  oxidation  of  154a 
Hydro-electric   plants   228d;   229b 

et  sea. 
Hydro-Electric  Power  Commission 

(Canada)  229b 
Hypercholesteremta  317b 
Hypertension    268d;    41 2b,    51  Ob; 
595b 

I 

Ibadan,  Nigeria  388b;  655d 

ICE  HOCKEY  330b 

ICELAND  330c;  athletics  73c; 
elections  226a;  expedition  to 
252b;  literature  559c  territorial 
waters  265d 

r  R  Y  -  -46 


ethnological    research   49c;    film 
industry     17  Id;    fisheries    264d; 


670a 
Industrial  Productivity,  Committee 

on274b;  387a 
Industrial     Psychology,     National 

Institute  574b 
INFANTILE    PARALYSIS    337b; 

161c;  412d 

Infant  Mortality  307b;  316a;  664d 
Influenza  24 Id;  242a 
Information  Films  of  India  171b 
Infra-red  radiation  ?32d 
Ingamells,  Rex  80d 
Ingersoll,  Ralph  461c 
INONU,  ISMEI  338a,  73b;  215d; 

633b 

Insecticides  241b,  322c,  323a;  406d 
Insect  Pests  193a 
Insein,  Burma  136b 
Insemination,  artificial  148a,  380b; 

392d;  658c,  662d 
Insole,  D.  J.  194d 
Institute  for  Social  Research  (U.S.) 

534a 
Institute  for  Spiritual  Guidance  and 

Psychic     Counselling     (Sweden) 

407d 
Institute  of  Economics  (USSR.) 

658b 
Institute  of  Geophysical  Research 

655c 
Institute    of    Historical 

318d 
Institute  of  Hospital  Administrators 

323d 
Institute  of  Human   Palaeontology 

(Pans)  47d 

Institute  of  Industrial  Administra- 
tion 575a 


International  Christian  Social  Asso* 
ciation  166a 

International  Civil  Aviation  Or- 
ganization 35d;  82c 

International  Code  of  Standards 
of  Advertising  2!d 

International  Commission  on  Glass 
302b 

International  Confederation  of  Free 
Trade  Unions  182c,  583b,  626b 

International  Conference  on  Ameri- 
can States  456a 

International  Congregational  Coun- 
cil 183a 

International  Congress  of  Bio- 
chemistry 21 8d;  574b;  653a 

International  Congress  of  Mothers 
407d 

International  Co-operative  Alliance 
1 86b 

International  Co-operative  Petrol- 
eum Association  186d 

International  Council  of  Museums 
437d 

International  Council  of  Nurses 
471c 

INTERNATIONAL  COURT  OF 
JUSTICE  340d;  123d;  152b; 
265d,  342b;  342c;  343a;  470c: 
630d;  641c;  645d 

Research    International  Dragon  Cup  (yacht- 
ing) 684c 

International  Electro-technical 
Commission  226d 

International  Emergency  Food 
Committee  179d;  2/Ob 

International  Federation  of  Agri- 
cultural Producers  27a;  660a 


floods  267a,  foreign  trade  347b;    Institute    of   International    Educa-    International  Federation  of  Library 
French     India,     relations     with       tion  (U  S )  222c  Associations  388c 

285d;  groundnuts  exports  659a;    Institute  of  Journalists  457d  International  Fur  Federation  289c 

health     services     441a;     hydro-    Institute  of  Navigation  293b  International    Folk    High    School, 

electric   development    232a;    in-    Institute  of  Psychiatry  413b;  41 3c       Elsmore,  606c 
dustrial  alcohol  production  587b;    Institute  of  Technology  (Finland)    International  Gas  Union  290c 
—       •'     '  607b 

Institution     of     Civil      Engineers 

575b 
Institution  of  Electrical   Engineers 

228a 

Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers 
574b 


jute  production  372c,  Kashmir 
dispute  489a,  military  strength 
65b,  motor  industry  43 Ib;  nat- 
ionalization 446c;  newspapers 
460d,  Pakistan,  relations  with 
121c,  372d,  489a,  paper  industry 
492b;  pepper  production  586c; 
plastics  industry  512d;  postage 
stamps  501  c,  railways  538a; 
rayon  industry  541  c,  religious 
missions  423d;  rice  cultivation 
306a,  roads  546b;  Salvation 
Army  558a,  status  in  British 
Commonwealth  121a;  158d; 
309b,  379d,  soil  conservation 
575c;  Switzerland,  treaty  with 
451  b;  taxation  604d;  tea  prod- 
uction 606a;  tobacco  production 
620b;  tuberculosis  63 Ib,  tunnels 
632d,  University  education  655b, 
wild  life  protection  678b,  Yemen, 
trade  negotiations  with  685b 

Indo-Chma  64a,  285d 

INDONESIA,  REPUBLIC  OF 
THE  UNITED  STATES  OF 
335c;  79d;  293b,  453d  et  veq  ; 
462d,  coffee  production  180a, 
copra  exports  659d;  elections 
594b,  military  strength  65d, 
Netherlands,  relations  with  62b; 
65a,  452c,  453d;  643b,  New 


International  Geographical  Con- 
gress 292b;  522b 

International  Graphic  Trade  Con- 
ferences 529b 

International  Hockey  Board  319b 

International  Hospital  Congress 
324a 


Inttttutt    Argentina    de    Promocwn    International    Hospital    Federation 


del  Intercambio  60c 

Institute  Ramiro  dc  Maeztu  402a 

Institut  Pasteur  241  d 

Insulation  materials  227a,  228a 

Insulin  237c 

INSURANCE  338a;  186b;  339a; 
519b;  567b 

Intelligence  tests  432a 

Inter-Allied  Reparation  Agency 
544a 

Inter-American  Coffee  Agreement 
180a 

Inter-American  Fconomic  Confer- 
ence 60c 

Inter-American  Evangelical  Con- 
ference 526a 

Inter-American  Highway  546d 

Inter- American  Peace  Committee 
484c 

Inter-American  Treaty  of  Recipro- 
cal Assistance  484c 

Interessen-Gememschaft  Ehemah- 
ger  Soldaten  253d 


V-'tt,        T^^.W,         T-J.7V*,         \JTJ\J,         11VVT  gtl     LjLMUUlCIl    +.JJ\* 

Guinea,  claim  to  areas  of  492d;    INTERIOR  DECORATION  339c 


oil  production  500b;  rubber 
production  552d;  Socialist  move- 
ment 572a;  zoological  gardens 
692a 

Indo-Pacific  Fisheries  Council  403b 

Indus  river  576a 

Industrial  Accidents,  prevention  of 
18a 

Industrial  Charter  (Conservative) 
5I9d;  520b 

Industrial  Gas  Turbine  Develop- 
ment Committee  368d 

INDUSTRIAL  HEALTH  336a, 
206b 


nternational  Air  Transport  Asso- 
ciation 82d 

International  Association  for  Reli- 
gious Freedom  640d 

International  Association  for  the 
Exchange  of  Students  for  Techni- 
cal Experience  606d 

International  Association  of  Chiefs 
of  Police  518a 

INTERNATIONAL  BANK  FOR 
RECONSTRUCTION  AND 
DEVELOPMENT  340a;  122b; 
181b;  196b;  261d;  262b;  350b; 
35 Id;  498d;  657d 


324a 

International  Hotel  Association 
325a 

INTERNATIONAL  LABOUR  OR- 
GANIZATION 34 Ic;  186b; 
491  b,  499t>;  657d;  674c 

INTERNATIONAL  LAW  342b; 
644b 

INTERNATIONAL  MONETARY 
FUND  343d;  80b;  162b;  196b; 
246d,  247c;  320c,  418d;  464c; 
689a 

International  Moslem  Congress 
356b 

International  Music  Eisteddfod 
670b 

International  Organizations,  auth- 
ority and  status  of,  342b 

International  Ornithological  Con- 
gress 692b 

International  Patent  Office  299a 

International  Patents  Search  Office 
495d 

International  Peasant  Union  497c 

International  Pharmaceutical  Fed- 
eration 50  la 

International  Refuge  Organization 
370c;  373b,  542b;  644d 

International  Red  Cross  54 Id 

International  Scientific  Film  Associ- 
ation, 170a 

International  Silk  Association  569d 

International  Socialist  Conference 
572a,  572c;  573a 

International  Society  for  Contempo- 
rary Music  438d 

International  Telecommunications 
Union  645b 


706 


INDEX 


INTERNATIONAL  TRADE  344d 

International  Typographical  Union 
461c 

International  Union  for  the  Pro- 
tection of  Industrial  Property 
495c 

International  Union  for  the  Protec- 
tion of  Nature  678a 

International  Union  of  Advertisers, 
21d 

International  Union  of  Biological 
Sciences  692a 

International  Union  of  Family  Or- 
ganizations 407d 

International  Universities  Bureau 
218b 

International  Water  Supply  Associ- 
ation 674b 

International  Wool  Study  Group 
681c 

International  Yacht  Racing  Union 
684b 

Inter-Parliamentary  Conference 
634d 

Inter-Parliamentary  Union  203b 

Inter-Plan  Service  Benefit  Bank 
(U.S.)  324c 

Interstate  Commerce  Commission 
(U.S.)  381a;  539b,  539c 

Interstellar  research  71  d;  72a 

Intestines,  diseases  of  40c 

Intutionism  505b 

INVENTORS,  AWARDS  TO  347d 

INVESTMENTS    ABROAD    348a 

Ionium  293c 

Ionosphere,  The  534b 

Ionospheric  Prediction  608b 

Iowa  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station  86c 

Iowa,  University  of  67d 

IRAQ  350d;  archaeological  research 
53d,  foreign  trade  347b,  oil 
production  500a;  railways  ^38a, 
Syria,  relations  with  601  b 

Ireland,  Church  of,  45c 

fRELAND,  REPUBLIC  OF  352a; 
canals  145d;  education  221a, 
electoral  system  225a;  football 
271d;  273c;  golf  303d;  Great 
Britain,  relations  with  309c; 
livestock  409c;  North  Atlantic 
Treaty,  membership  refused 
465d;  postage  stamps  501c;  rail- 
ways 536d;  status  in  British 
Commonwealth  119d;  121a; 
300d 

Ireland  Act  (1949)  119d;  353a 

Irish  (Agricultural)  Society  257a 

Irish-American  Oil  Depot  21  Id 

Irish  Labour  Party  352d 

Irish  National  Teachers'  Organiza- 
tion 22  la 

Irish  Trade  Union  Congress  352b 

Irish  Transport  Company  536d 

IRON  AND  STEEL  353d 

Iron  and  Steel  Bill  151c;  308a; 
353d,  354a,  380c;  445a;  494a; 
519a 

Iron  deficiency  (Medical)  43b 

Iron  ore,  world  production  355b 
(statistics) 

Irrigation,  Chile  16  Id;  Cyprus 
197d;  Jordan  371b 

Irrigation  Development  Com- 
mission 35  Id 

helm,  C.  O'D.  483c 

Isham,  Ralph  H.  107a 

ISLAM  356d 

Islamic  Cultural  Congress  356c 

Isle  of  Man  Harbours  Act  404b 

Isle  of  Man  Tourist  Trophy  Races 
429a 

Isotopes,  radioactive  77a,  147a; 
412b 

ISRAEL  356c;  Arab  countries, 
armistice  agreements  with  643c; 
Army,  establishment  of  66a; 
banking  91d,  British  broadcasts 
to  127a;  Egypt,  relations  with 
223a;  elections  226b;  foreign 
trade  347b;  immigration  332b; 
370a;  542c;  Jordan,  relations 
with  371  a;  railways  538a;  recog- 
nition of  223a;  597a,  Socialist 
party  (Mapai)  572a 

ISTANBUL  358d;215d 

Istiqlal  (Independence)  Party  (Mor- 
occo) 284a 


ITALIAN    COLONIAL   EMPIRE 

359a 

Italian  Federation  of  Labour  361c 

ITALIAN  LITERATURE  360b 

Italia  (radio)  Prize  126c 

ITALY  360d;  airports  36d,  archae- 
ology 52d,  architecture  58b; 
broadcasting  127b;  colonies 
question  343b;  645b;  communist 
movement  182a,  188c,  electric 
power  229d,  exchange  rates  250a; 
film  industry  169d,  172a;  floods 
267a,  France,  customs  union 
with  602d,  glass  industry  302a; 
Greece,  agreement  with  313b; 
hemp  production  317c;  historical 
research  318b;  hospitals  324a; 
hydro-electric  schemes  632b; 
Lebanon,  treaty  with  384d; 
Lutheran  Church  398c,  mercan- 
tile marine  568a,  military  strength 
64d,  motor  industry  431  b,  motor 
racing  432b,  naval  strength  450a, 
painting  487b,  postage  stamps 
501c;  prices  527c,  railways  231b, 
537c,  San  Marino,  relations 
with  558c,  sculpture  562a;  Social- 
ist movement  571d;  572b;  strikes 
592b;  625d;  taxation  605a;  textile 
industry  612c;  tunnels  632c; 
wheat  crop  677b;  wool  industry 
68 Id,  Yugoslavia,  trade  agree- 
ment with  689a 

Ivanov,  Serghey  556a 

Ivanov,  Vyacheslav  556b 

Izmir  (Smyrna),  international  fair 
256b 

Izvestia  (Moscow)  182b;  392a; 
461  b,  546a 


Jablanica  hydro-electric  station 
(Yugoslavia)  23 Id 

Jaccini,  Stcfano  165d 

Jackson,  habian,  Bishop  of  Trini- 
dad 45a 

Jackson,  Judge  38 Ic 

Jackson  prison,  Michigan  530d 

Jacob's  Pillow,  Lee,  Massachusetts 
202d 

Jacobsson,  Dr   Per  90b 

Jacquemyns,  G   533c 

Jade,  423b 

Jaeger,  E.  C.  692d 

Jaeger,  Lorcnz,  Archbishop  547c 

JAFFA-TEL  AVIV  363b,  367b 

Jagersfontcm  (diamond)  mine, 
South  Africa  207b 

Jakarta  (Batavia),  Indonesia  455b 

Jaloux,  Edmond  476c 

JAMAICA  363c 

Jamaica  Welfare  Ltd.  363d 

Jamah,  Dr.  Fadil  35  Ib 

James,  Professor  E.  O.  48d 

James,  Admiral  Sir  William  238c 

Janes,  Rev.  Maxwell  O.  183b 

JAPAN  364b,  bicycle  industry 
429a;  bridge  construction  116a; 
elections  226c;  exchange  rate 
25 la;  foreign  trade  347a;  linen 
industries  390a;  parenthood,  in- 
struction in  407d;  photographic 
industry  506b;  postage  stamps 
501d;  religious  missions  398c, 
424c,  reparations  544a;  rice 
production  270b;  27 Ic;  Roman 
Catholic  Church  548d;  shipping 
568b,  silk  industry  569d;  Social 
Democratic  party  572a;  572d; 
swimming  598c,  tunnels  632d; 
war  crime  trials  670d,  Western 
Germany,  trade  agreement  with 
569d;  wool  industry  681d, 

J.  Arthur  Rank  Organization  61  la 

Jaspers,  Karl  505b 

Jayanama,  Nai  Direck  613b 

Jayanta,  Prince  Viwat  61 3a 

Jayawardene,  J.  R.  150c 

Jean  of  Luxembourg,  Grank  Duke 
152c 

Jcanmaire,  Renee  20 Ib 

Jedda,  Saudi  Arabia  50a 

Jefferson  Military  College,  Missis- 
sippi 213a 

Jenk,  Wilfred  342a 

Jenkins,  R.  193a,  194d 

Jennings,  Dr.  Jesse  D.  55b 

Jerrold,  Douglas  23 8b 


Jersey,  national  service  introduced 
152b 

JERUSALEM  366c;  490d;  Hebrew 
university  657a;  proposed  inter- 
nationalization 343c;  358b;  548d; 
United  Nations  action  regarding 
643d 

Jesselton,  North  Borneo  607d 

Jessel  Knud  109c 

JESSUP,  PHILIP  C.   367b;    190c 

JET  PROPULSION  AND  GAS 
TURBINES  367d;  30d;  31c; 
32d  et  seq  37b;  83d;  84a 

Jewish  Agency  for  Palestine  542c 

Jewish  Mission  Committee  (Scot- 
land) 168d 

Jewish  War  Veterans  (US)  254b 

JEWS,  DISTRIBUTION  OF 
370a 

Jmja,  Uganda,  264c;  292d 

Jmnah,  M.  A   489b 

Joad,  C.  E.  M.  505a 

Jockey  Club  32 Ib 

JOHANNESBURG  370c;  56d; 
292c 

44  John  Biscoe "  survey  ship  47b; 
257b 

John  Curtm  School  of  Medical 
Research  (Australia)  655b 

John  Innes  Horticultural  Institution 
322d 

Johns  Hopkins  Hospital,  U  S  657b 

Johns  Hopkins  University,  Balti- 
more 417a 

Johnson,  G   A   342a 

Johnson,  Gordon  152d 

Johnson,  Major  R.  37c 

Johnsson,  Ivar  562a 

Johnstone,  A  ,  461b 

Joint  Hops  Committee  320c 

Jones,   Arthur  Creech   309c;  469a 

Jones,  G.  A   J.  545a 

Jones,  W    R   461  b 

Jones,  W.  W   63 Ib 

Jongeward,  W   37c 

Jonsson,  Emil  330c 

Jonsson,  Eystemn  330c 

Jonzen,  Kann  562a 

JORDAN,  HASHIMIIE  KING- 
DOM OF  I  HE  370d;  Arab 
Palestine  centres  held  by  490d; 
armistice  agreement  with  Israel 
643c;  rei.Uions  with  Syria  601b 

Joseph,  H   L  206b 

Josephine-Charlotte,  Princess  97d 

Jouhaux,  Leon  626c 

Journal  of  Marine  Research  (Yale) 
483c 

Joy,  Kenneth  197b,  197c 

J6zwiak,  Franciszek  253d 

Juan,  Don,  Count  of  Barcelona 
583b 

JUDAISM  371c 

JUDICIARY,  BRITISH  372a 

JUDICIARY,  U.S.  372b 

Jum,  General  Alphonse  284a;  425c 

Juliana,  Queen  of  the  Netherlands 
455b 

Jung,  General  Helge  596b 

Jungers,  Eugene  96c 

Junior  Philatelic  Society  of  London 
50  Id 

Junior  Red  Cross  687d 

Junta  Americana  de  Defensa  de  la 
Democracia  657d 

Junes  Act  380c 

Jusztusz,  Pal  329d 

JUTE  372c;  141c 

JUVENILE  DELINQUENCY 
373a;  160d;  530c 

JUVENILE  EMPLOYMENT 
373d,  United  States  161c;  medical 
care  in  336a 


Kafue   River,    Rhodesia   469b 
Kalrov,  Ivan  221c 
Kalho,  Kalervo  562d 
Kalnberzms,  J    E.  377c 
Kamaran  Island  19b 
Kanellopoulos,  Panayotis  312c 
Kaplan,  Eliezer  357b 
Kaprum,  Austria  230c 
Karachi,  Pakistan  356c,  386a 
Karanchandam,  P.  V.  629b 
Karatepe,  Turkey  51  b,  53a 
KARDELJ,  EDVARD  374b 
Karens,  rising  of  the  1 36a 


Kariba  Gorge,  Southern  Rhodesia 
580d 

Kankal,  French  India  285d 

Karotamm,  N.  G   242b 

Karpemssi,  Greece  312b 

Kashmir  333d  et  seq.;  424a;  451b; 
488c;  489d,  576c 

Kasturba  Gandhi  Trust  495a 

Katz,  B.  509c 

KAYE,    DANNY    374c 

Kazakhstan  638a 

Kazim  Orbay  601  b 

Kedrov,  V.  242b 

Keenleyside,  Dr.  H.  L.  446d 

Kehrl,  Hans  670c 

Keir,  Sir  David  485b 

Keir,  G    532b 

Kekkonen,  Dr.  Urho  262b 

Kellog-Bnand  Pact  343d 

KELLY,  SIR  DAVID  VICTOR 
374d 

Kelly,  Mrs   Edna  183c 

Kelner,  A   29 Id 

Kemsley  Challenge  Trophy  (Aero- 
nautic) 37b 

Kendall,  E.  C  68c 

Kendnck,  T.  D  238a 

Kennelly,  Martin  H.  158c 

Kcnnet  and  Avon  Canal  145b 

Kensington,  royal  borough  of  167a 

Kentucky  Derby  322a 

Kenya,  British  East  Africa  118d; 
coffee  exports  180b;  national 
park  447a 

Kenyon,  Miss  K.  54a 

Kepplcr,  Wilhelm  670c 

Kerans,  Lieut  Commander  163a 

Khalid  el-Azam  600d;  601  d 

Khahqu/zaman,  Chaudhury  356c 

Kharkov,  (U  S  S.R  )  537d 

Khashaha  Pasha,  Ahmed  Mohamed 
223a 

Khuhro,  M    A    489b 

KHURI,  BISHARA  KHALIL  EL 
375a;  384d 

Kiamichi  river,  U  S.  267d 

Kiangsi,  China  163a 

Kidneys  510cl 

Kiclty,  John  640c 

Kiewa  Hydro-Electric  Scheme 
(Australia)  229c 

KIM  IR-SUNG  375a 

Kim  Koo  70c,  375d 

Kinescope  recordings  61  la 

King,  W   J    154b 

King  Edward's  Hospital  Fund 
323d,  324a,  47 Ib 

King  George's  Jubilee  Trust  687a; 
687d 

King  George  VI  Sound,  Antarctica 
47a 

King's  Cup  (aeronautic)  37b 

King's  Lynn,  Norfolk  210b 

Kmsey,  A   C   432a 

Kinship  structure  48c 

Kirdar,  Dr.  Lutfi  358d 

Kirkbnde,  Sir  Alec  371b 

Kirstcin,  Lincoln  202d 

Kisantu,  Belgian  Congo  97a 

Kittel,  Gerhard  6l6d 

Klapprott,  August  381b 

Klemperer,  Otto,  80b,  600c 

Khszko,  Zenon  516c 

K  L  M.  (Royal  Dutch  Airline)  82c 

Kloten  Airport,  Zurich  37a 

Kluckhohn,  Clyde  49a 

Knesset  (Israeli  Parliament)  366d; 
367b 

Knocke,  Belgium  169d 

Knolls  Atomic  Power  Laboratory 
(U.S  )  77a 

Knox,  Father  Ronald  617a 

Knuchel,  F.  631d 

Knuth,  Count  Eigil  251b 

Kock,  Kann  597a 

Kokatnur,  G.  R.  631b 

KOLAROV,  VASIL  375b;  134c 

Kolhapur,  State  of  333b 

Kolthotf,  I.  M.  152d 

Konlg,  I.  157d 

Kopecky,  Vaclav  199d 

KOREA  375c;  applies  for  member- 
ship of  United  Nations  641b; 
military  strength  65d;  religious 
missions  424c;  United  Nations 
commission  report  on  643b 

Korner,  Paul  670c 

Kosti,  Sudan  147c 


INDEX 


707 


Kostov,  Traicho  135a;  182b;  477a 
Kotikov,    General     Alexander    G. 

99d 

Koussevitzky,  Serge  439c 
Kowalski.  Whulyslaw  496d 
Kozak,  B.  58a 
Kozlowski,  Roman  490b 
Kraft,  Ole  Bjorn  204b 
Krag,  Jens  204d 
Kraus,  Kurt  152d 
Kravchenko,  Victor  278b 
Kreisler,  Frit/,  106c;  107a 
Kress,  Samuel  H.  656b 
Kruglov,  S.  N   377c 
Kuala  Lumpur,  Malaya  403b 
Kubehk.  Rafael  80b,  437b;  439c 
Kuhsevski,  La/ar  399d;  400b 
Kubler,  F    197b 
Kueblcr,  E.  W.  640c 
Kuh,  Clifford  180c 
Kumm,    Boris   G     242b 
Kuommtang  158c;  162d;  164b 
Kutlvasr,  General  Karel  199c 
Kuwait,  oil  production  500a 
Kuzmm,  Anatoly  637d 
Kwangtung  163b 
Kyle,  J.  W.  271d 


La  bonne,  Fink  42  5c 

Laboratory  of  Applied  Climatology 
417a 

Laboratory  of  Social  Relations 
(US)  534d 

Labour,  Ministry  of  174c;  331d; 
373d,  377c 

Labour  Believes  in  Britain  78a,  519b 

Labour  Party,  British  186b,  307c, 
445b,  494b,  518c,  519b,  571d; 
572c 

Labour  Party,  United  States  52 Ib 

Labour  Reserves,  Ministry  of 
(USSR)  638d 

Labrador,  iron  ore  deposits  144a 

La  Colombiere,  France  52d 

LACROSSE  376d 

La  Ferine  de  Sept  Peclies  1 70a 

La  Forge,  F.  B    155b 

Lagos,  Nigeria  608b 

Lamg,  L.  73d 

Lake  Success,  New  York  75d; 
260b;  463a;  543d ;  576b;  641c: 
678a 

Lake  Tana  293a 

Lake  Victoria  223d;  229c;  292d 

Lake  Victoria  Fishery  Board  264c 

Lake  Washington  Floating  Bridge 
117a 

La  Libertad,  Ecuador,  destroyed 
by  earthquake  216d 

Lalla  Ayesha,  Princess  425c 

Lambeth  Conference  (1948)  45a 

Lamb  House,  Rye,  Sussex,  acquired 
by  National  Trust  447c 

Lammers,  Hans  670c 

La  Monte,  Professor  J.  L  318c 

Land,  Dr.  E    H    575b 

Landau  University,  Germany  656d 

Lands  Tribunal  Act  (1949)  622d 

Lange,  Fredcrico  490b 

LANCE,  HALYARD  MANTHEY 
377a;  465d,  469b;  469d,  470b, 
569a 

Laos,  285d;  286d 

La  Paz,  Bolivia  150a;  airport  86b 

Larking,  C   Gordon  253a 

Larock,  Victor  572a 

Larsen,  Dr   Helge  54c 

Lasso,  President  Gala  Plaza  70d 

Last,  Professor  H.  486a 

Latham,     Lord    433c 

Latin  American  Countries,  foreign 
trade,  347a;  meeting  of  represen- 
tatives 456a;  monetary  reserves 
247b;  rally  of  democratic  forces 
657d;  tourists  from  62 Id 

LAITRE  DE  TASS1GNY,  GEN- 
ERAL 377a;64b 

Lattuada,  Alberto  172a 

LATVIA  377c 

Laughlm,  Dr.  William  49c;  55a 

Laurel,  Jose  B.  503b 

Lavrentiev,  Arkady  losipovich  637c 

LAW  AND  LEGISLATION  378a 

LAWN  TENNIS  383c,  129a 

Law  Reports  of  the  Trials  of  War 
Criminals  67 Ib 

Lawson,  J.  J.  494c 


Lawther,  Sir  W.  624c 

Lawton,  F   E.  205c 

Layton,  Lord  189b 

Lead  420a 

League  of  New  York  Theatres  616a 

League  of  Red  Cross  Societies  54 1  d ; 

542b,  543a; 
Leal,  Dr.  Cunha  226b 
Leandcrsson,  G   73c 
LEATHER  383c 
LEBANON    384c;    50d;    exchange 

rate  250d;   relations   wUh   Syria 

601b 

Lebrun,  Rico  487d 
Lechm,  Juan  105b,  105c 
Lecithin  157b 
Lee,  river  145b 
Lee,  Edward  104a 
Leeds,   University,  cancer  research 

147a 

Leek,  Derbyshire,  art  centre  estab- 
lished 70b 

LEEWARD  ISLANDS  385a 
Legal  Aid  and  Advice  Act  380d 
Lc  Gallais,  Hugues  398d 
L£ger,  Fernand  487a 
Lehman,  Herbert  H    521  a;  534a 
Lehmer,  Donald  55c 
Leigh,  Vivien  614d 
Leighton,  Alexander  H    149a 
Leipzig,  107b,  Spring  Fair  256d 
Leith,  Scotland,  port  improvements 

210c 

Lenmitzer,  Lyman  L.  465c 
Lenin    Young  Communist   League 

68  8  b 

Lennettc,  E.  H.  629a 
Leonov,  Arseny  242b 
LEOPOLD  III  385b,  97d;  98b; 

152c,  225b;  571d 
Leopoldville,  Belgian  Congo  96c 
Lepe,  Hampshire,  submarine  cable 

laid  227b 
LEPROSY  385c 
Leros,  Island  of,  vocational  training 

school  established  220d 
Lerroux,  Alejandro,  477b;  584b 
Letelier,  Luis  Felipe  162b 
Letts,  J   K    197c 
Leucha'mia  147a,  157a 
Leucopema  268d 
Lcucotomy  413b;  426b 
Leverhulme,  Viscount  212d 
Levinstein,   Herbert  214d 
Levi-Strauss,  Dr   C.  48c 
Lewm,  W  629b 
Lewis,  Clyde  254a 
Lewis,  John  L   627b,  649b 
Lewis,  Percy  Wyndham  213b 
Lexington    Botanic    Garden,   108d 
Li,  C   H   237b 
LIAQUA  F  AI I  KHAN  386a,  490a; 

498  b 

Lias,  Godfrey  461  b 
Libby,  Dr   W    F.  54b,  153b 
Liberia    Confederazione    Gencrale 

Itahana     dei     Lavoraton     361c; 

626a 

Liberal  Exiles,  Committee  of  386d 
LIBERAL  MOVEMENT  386b 
Liberal   Party,   British   203b,   520a 
Liberal  Party,  U  S    521c 
LIBERIA  386d 

Liberty  Bridge,  New  York  116b 
LIBRARIES  387a 
Library  Association  387a,  387c 
Library  of  Congress  43a;  213d 
Libya  343b,  359b,  360a,  645d 
Licensing   Act  (1949)    114c;   325a; 

622d 

Lichme,  David  201d 
Lie,  Haakon  470c 
LIE,  TRYGVE  HALDVAN  389b; 

162a;  334b 

Liebenemer,  Wolfgang  171d 
LIECHTENSTEIN  389a 
Lierle,  Dean  M.  215c 
Lifar,  Serge  20 Id 
Lihenthal,  David  E.  77b;  648b 
Lincoln  Cathedral  427a 
LINEN  AND  FLAX  389c 
Linen  Trade  Association  of  New 

York  390a 

Ling,  Per  Hennck  427d 
Linklater,  Eric  159b;  614a 
Lmnean  Society  109a;  575b 
Linseed  659a 
Lippincott,  Howard  684d 


Lipschitz,  Jacques  562d 
Listowel,  Earl  of  126a 
LITERARY  PRIZES  390a 
LITERARY  RESEARCH  39 Ib 

Lithography  213c,  529a 
LITHUANIA  39 Id 

Lithuanian  Communist  Party  392d 

Lithuanian  Liberation  Committee 
392a 

LI  TSUNG-JEN  392b;  158c;  162d; 
163c 

Litvmov,  P.  377c 

Liu  Chieh  64 Id 

Liu  Shao-chi  163d;  182b 

Liver,  diseases  of  40b 

Liver,  extract  of  43a 

Liverpool,  Cathedral  167d;  docks 
2U)c;  radar  statio  i  210c 

LIVESTOCK  392c;  24a,  26c;  28d; 
200b;  243 b,  280a,  31  Ob 

Liwa  Oasis,  Arabia  252b 

Ljungstrom,  Dr    Frederick  574b 

LLOYD,  HILDA  NORA  393b 

Lloyd  Barrage,  Pakistan  267a 

Lobotomy  412d,  53  lc 

LOCAL  GOVERNMENT  393c 

Local  Government  Act  (1948)  394c 

Local  Government  Boundary  Com- 
mission 193d 

Local  Government  Manpower 
Committee  ^93c 

Locarno,  Switzerland  169d 

Lochalsh,  Ross-shire,  hydro-elec- 
tric scheme  229b 

Loch  Fannich,  Ross-shire,  power 
station  and  bridge  115b 

Loch  Sloy,  Dumbartonshire  115b; 
561b 

LOCKE,  ARTHUR  D'ARCY 
(BOBBY)  395c,  303b;  353b 

LOCKSPEISER,    SIR    BEN    395c 

Locusts  252b 

LONDON  395d;  airport  35d,  36b; 
82c;  83d,  Alexandra  Palace  535b; 
61  la:  archaeology  52b;  art  exhibi- 
tion 66a  et  *>eq  ,  art  sales  69a; 
Battersea  Park  66d;  394c;  Birk- 
beck  College  397c,  book  sales 
106d;  city  churches  167d;  concert 
hall  78a;  133c,  394c,  396c, 
Covent  Garden  Opera  House 
438b;  diocesan  mission  167b, 
docks  210c,  Earls  Court  256b, 
428d,  Electra  House  607c,  Guild- 
hall 167a;  Hampstead  266d; 
Horticultural  Hall  257a;  imperial 
College  606d;  Imperial  Institute 
293b,  Imperial  War  Museum 
436d,  Inner  Temple  library  387d; 
Lord's  Cricket  Ground  194c; 
museums  436c,  National  Gallery 
66a,  402a,  National  Science 
Museum  574d,  New  Burlington 
Galleries  66b,  70b;  NutTord 
House  398a;  Olympia  257a; 
400d,  Oval  Cricket  Ground  194c, 
police  517b;  Redfern  Gallery 
213c,  St.  Pauls  Cathedral  167b; 
Shepherds  Bush  61  la;  Thames 
embankment  394b,  underground 
railways  230b,  water  supply 
293a;  674a,  Wellcome  Historical 
Medical  Museum  574d;  White 
City  314b,  Y.W  C  A  hostel  686d 

"London"  H  M  S.  I63a;  203b; 
448c 

London  and  Southern  Counties 
Bowling  Association  HOa 

London  Catholic  Marriage  Advis- 
ory Council  407b 

London  County  Council  56c;  393d; 
395d 

London  Institute  of  Education  575a 

London  Missionary  Society  183b 

London  Parochial  Charities  397a 

London  Passenger  Transport  Board 
536a 

London  Philharmonic  Orchestra 
438c,439a 

London  School  of  Hygiene  397c 

London  Symphony  Orchestra  494a 

London  Transport  433c 

LONDON  UNIVERSITY  397c, 
Bedford  College  150a;  397c; 
library  387d 

London     University    Institute    of 

Education  653c 
Longmire,  W.  P.  595a 


Longuet-Higgms,  M.  S  483d 

Lord,  L.  P.  429d 

Lord  Mayor  of  London's  Appeal 
for  Children  218b 

Los  Angeles  Airways  85d 

Los  Angeles  County  Museum  68b 

Los  Angeles  International  Airport 
37b 

Lothrop,  Dr.  S.  K.  55c 

Louis  II.  Prince  425d;  477c 

Louis,  Joe  HOb,  I  lib 

Louvam  Universit)  388d 

Loveday,  A   486a 

Love  m  Albania  6l4a 

Lovmk,  A    H.  J.  594b 

Lowe,  hnc  80d 

Lowe,  Jusfce  413a 

Lowestoft,  SuiTolk  266d 

L-thyroxine  sodium  501b 

Lubac,  Henri  de  6l7c 

LUCA,  VASILE  398b;  497b;  553d 

Lucie-Smith,  Sir  John  70d 

Ludlow,  F    322c 

Ludwig,  Dr.  George  D.  233d 

Lugano,  Switzerland  67d 

Lugh,  Professor  G    175d 

Lu  Han,  General  164b 

Lulhngstone,  Kent,  excavation  at 
52b 

Lumitype  printing  mechanism  529b 

Lung,  cancer  of  336b;  granulomat- 
osis  of  336d 

I  Mnn,  Arnold  570d 

Lupus,  237b 

Lustacz,  Leon  253d 

LUTHERANS  398b;  242c 

Lutheran   World   Federation    398b 

LUXEMBOURG  398d;  birth  allow- 
ances 407d;  and  Council  of 
Furope  188d;  education  221b; 
signs  North  Atlantic  Treaty  96a 

Luzon,  Philippines  70c 

Lyell,  James  P.  R.  21 3d 

Lymphogranuloma  venereum  205d 

Lynd,  Robert  477d 

Lynskey  Tribunal  518d 

Lyon,  Fred  W   684d 

Lyons,  Dame  Enid  681b 

Lysenko,  T.  D   292a 

Lytes  Cary,  Somerset  447c 

Lyttlcton,  R.  A   72c 

M 

Ma,  T  S   655c 
Maas-Waal  Canal  21  Id 
McAnally,  A    P.  533d 
Macao  164b,  523c 
MACARTHUR  DOUGLAS  399a; 

318a;  364b;  365a;  544b;  671b 
MacBnde,  Sean  35 la 
McBirney,  Bruce  260a 
McCLOY,  JOHN  JAY  40  Ic 
McCormick,  Colonel  R.  R   461c 
McCoy,    Maj  -General    Frank    R. 

544a 

MacCready,  P   B   302d 
McCready,  S    303d 
Macdonald,  Alexander  169a 
Macdonald,  J.  A.  109c 
Macdonald,  Malcolm  402d;  403b; 

655d 
McDonald     Observatory,     Mount 

Locke,  Texas  72c 
Macdonald  of  Gwaenysgor,   Lord 

494d 

MacDougall,  M.  103a 
Macbachen,  Roberto  657d 
MACEDONIAN  PROBLEM  399b 
Mace,  586c 

McFarland,  E.  W.  128c 
McGill  University,  Canada  655b 
MACHINERY    AND    MACHINE 

TOOLS  400b;  agricultural  25a; 

27d,  28a,  29d;  textile  611d;  612a; 

612c,  681d 
Machine    Tool    and    Engineering 

Exhibition,  London  400d 
Machle,  W.  336b 
Macintosh,  Sheena  570d 
McKell,  W  J  492c 
McKellar,  Kenneth  D    183c 
McKenzie,  Jean  463a;  680c 
'McKeon,  General  Sean  484b 
Maclagan,  Sir  Eric  168h 
McLaren,  Norman  17 Ib 
Maclean,  Brigadier  Fit?roy  237d 
McLean,  John  151b 
McLogan,  J.  126a 


708 


INDEX 


McMahon,  Thomas  J.  549a 

Macmillan,  Harold  189b 

McNaughton,  General  A.  G  L.  76b 

Macpherson,  Sir  John  124d 

Macquarie  Island,  Antarctica  47b 

MacWhirter,  W.  R.  37c 

McWilliam,  F.  E   562b 

Madagascar  285b 

Madanaga,  Salvador  de  386d 

MADRID  402a 

Maeterlinck,  Count  Maurice  477d 

Maetzig,  Kurt  171d 

"  Magdalena,"  S.S  ,  loss  of  338d, 
567a 

Maginess,  W.  B.  468c 

MAGNANI,  ANNA  402b;   172a 

Magnel,  Professor  Gustave  115c 

Magnesium  414a 

Matdstone,  Kent  149d 

Maize,  see  Corn 

Makerere  College,  Uganda  388b; 
655c 

MAKONNEN,  ENDALKACHAW 
402b 

MALAN,  DANIEL  FRANCOIS 
402c;  45d;  12td;  395d;  577d; 
578a;  655c 

Malaria  123b;  161b,  Cyprus  197d; 
India  645b;  Mauritius  408d 

MALAYA  (FEDERATION  OF) 
AND  SINGAPORE  402d ;  British 
forces  in  63b;  copra  exports 
659b;  electric  power  229d;  fish- 
eries 264a;  foreign  trade  347a; 
forestry  274d;  palm  kernels 
and  oil  production  659b;  rubber 
production  and  exports  552b  et 
seq.;  university  college  655d 

Malayan  War  Damage  Compensa- 
tion scheme  403a 

Malay  Youth  Movement  (Sarawak) 
688b 

Malcles,  Jean-Dems  201c 

Matcuiynski,  Wibold  80b 

MALENKOV,  GHEORGHY 
MAKSIMILIANOVICH  403c; 
638a 

Malik,  Yakov  A.  109c;  628b 

Malmi  Airport,  Helsinki  36d 

MALTA  403d;  460d 

Malton,  Yorkshire,  archaeological 
excavations  525 

MAN,  ISLE  OF  404b;  197c 

Manchester,  Belle  Vue  612a,  Ship 
Canal  210d,  University  48b 

Manchuria,  Soviet  hold  on  165a 

Mandelbaum,  David  G.  49c 

Manganese  420c 

Mangiarotti,  Edouardo  259d 

Manhes,  Henri  253d 

Mamamba,  Mozambique,  coal  de- 
posits discovered  523c 

Mankad,  V.  193c 

Mann,  B.  63  Ib 

Mann,  F.  G.  193a;  194b 

Mann,  N.  193b 

MANN,  THOMAS  405a 

Manning-Sanders,  Ruth  159a 

Manon  170a;  171d 

Manosalvas,  Juan  216d 

Manstem,  Erich  von  670d 

Mansur,  Prince  (Saudi  Arabia)  50b 

Manzolinou,  Mme   A.  72d 

Manzu,  Giacomo  562a;  563a 

fMAO  TSE-TUNG  405b;  64c;  163c; 
165a;  182b 

Maple  Lodge,  Rickmansworth, 
sewerage  development  at  563c 

Marcel,  Gabriel  505a;  617c 

Marchand,  Guy  302c 

Marchant,  Sir  Stanley  438c 

Mardall,  C.  56b 

Marek,  F.  58a 

MARGARET  ROSE,  PRINCESS 
405c;  310c;  658d 

Marguerite  Bay,  Antarctica  47a; 
257b 

Marham,  Norfolk,  U.S.  Air  Force 
at  78a 

Mari,  P.  P,  206c 

Marianas  Islands  49c 

Mananske  Lazne,  Czechoslovakia 
169d 

Marie,  Andre  278a 

Marie  Hassan  Hamad  598d 

Mariemma  202 b 

Marijuana  440c 

MARINE  BIOLOGY  405d 


Marine  Insurance  338d;  339b 
Manni,  Marino  562a;  563a 
Marion  Island,  Antarctica  47b 
MARKET  GARDENING  406c 
Market  Research  Society  22a 
Markova,  Alicia  202b 
Marmaggi,      Cardinal      Francesco 

658d 

Marogho,  Orlando  60c 
Marphan  412c 
MARRIAGE      AND      DIVORCE 

407a 

Marriage  rates  664b 
Marriage  Reform  Committee  407a 
Married   Women   (Restraint  upon 

Anticipation)  Bill  212d 
Marshall,  George  C    165c 
Marshall,  Professor  T.  H.  220b 
Marston,  A.  T.  47d 
Martel,  Jaquelme  570d 
Martin,  J    L.  56c 
Martmo,  Umberto  260a 
Martinique  285c 
Martonne,  Professor  Emmanuel  de 

292c 
Marxist-Leninist      Science      504c; 

656c;  657a,  658c 
Mayer,  M  G.  509a 
Maryland  State  Road  Commission 

116d 

Marylebone  Cricket  Club  195a 
Massachusetts    Institute    of  Tech- 
nology 166d,  435d,  507d;  552a; 

653a 

Massey,  Vincent  20b 
Massine,  Leomde  201  d;  202a 
Masterman  Report  175b 
Maternal  mortality  315d 
MATHEMATICS  408a 
Mathematics,     Policy     Committee 

for  408b 

Mathieson,  Graham  185c 
Matisse,  Henri  487a 
MAITA,      JOSE     CAEIRO     DE 

408c;  52 Id 
Matthew,  R.  H.  56a 
Matthews,  A   E.  616c 
Matthews,  Professor  E.  205c 
Mattick,  A.  T.  R.  41  Id 
Mattos,  Norton  de  522b 
Maude,  Sir  John  94c 
Maul,  Ray  C  222a 
Maung,  U  136a 
Maurice,  Henry  G   575b 
MAURITIUS  408d;  fisheries  264b; 

sugar    production    593d;    youth 

organizations  6885 
Maxim,  Joey  llOc 
Mayer,  Daniel  278d;  279b;  625d 
Mayer,  Rene  279b 
Mayhew,  Christopher  204d;  313b 
Mayo  Chnic,  Rochester,  U  S.  40a; 

68c;  317a;410a 
Mead,  Pete  llOd 
Meals     in     Establishments    Order 

325a 

Mealybugs  241  b 
Meare,  Somerset  5 Id 
MEAT    408d;    Argentine    exports 

61a,     canning     industry     147c; 

Great   Britain,   supplies   in   24c; 

U  S.     production     28d;     world 

supply  24b;  270d 
Mecca,  50a 
Mediaeval    Academy    of   America 

318c 
Mediaeval    and    Roman    London 

Excavation  Council  397b 
Medical    Association    of    Ireland 

353a 

Medical  Benefits  (U.S.)  339d 
Medical    Research    Council   336b; 

410c,  412a 
MEDICINE  410a 
Medina,  Harold  R    182d;  38 Ic 
Mediterranean  fisheries  265a 
Meissner,  Otto  670c 
Melamme  513b 
MELBOURNE  41 3a 
Melen,    Henry    Moreau    de    97d; 

152c 

Melmck,  J.  L.  507d 
Melsbroek  Airport,  Brussels  36b 
Menendez  Pidal,  Ram6n  402a 
Menon,  K.  P.  S.  103c 
Men's  clothes,   fashions  in  258d: 

259a 
Menshikov.  Mikhail  N.  637d 


MENTAL  DISEASE  413b 
MENZIES,   ROBERT  GORDON 

413d 

Mercante,  Domingo  R.  61c 

Merchant  Navy,  British  566d 

Merck  Research  Laboratory  (US) 
269a 

Meredith,  J.  Nelson  56b 

Merewether,  E.  R.  A.  336c 

Merwm,  Herbert  E.  423d 

Meryn,  Samuel  199c 

Mesons  508c 

Mesta,  Mrs.  Perle  680c 
METALLURGY  414a 

Metals,  Great  Bntian  production 
31  la,  plastics  substituted  for 
414b 

Metcalfe,  Percy  50 Ic 

METEOROLOGY  414b,  applied 
417a;  experimental  414b;  Polar 
regions,  observation  and  reports 
47b;  314a;  seismic  observations 
563b,  synoptic  4l6a 

METHODIST      CHURCH      418a 

Metropolitan  Water  Board  563d; 
674a 

MEXICO  418c,  archaeological  re- 
search 55c,  cotton  production 
188b;  exchange  rates  247c,  high- 
ways 546d;  naval  strength  450c; 
Lerma  tunnel  632d 

Mexico  City  126c;  161b 

Meyer,  Professor  A.  413b 

Michalski,  Ireneusz  48b 

Micklem,  Nathaniel  167d 

Mickman,  Philip  598c 

Micro-biology  86c 

Middlecoff,  Cary  304a 

Middlesbrough,  Yorkshire,  docks 
reorganization  21  la 

Midway  Island,  Hawaii  65 Id 

Mikoyan,  Anastasy  Ivanovich  637d 

Military  Aid  Programme  (U.S.) 
62b,62c;466d 

Military  Assistance  Correlation 
Committee  466d 

Military  Security  Board  299a 

Milk,  dried,  production  (U  S ) 
200d;  Europe  production  24a, 
Great  Britain  production  200b, 
tuberculosis  infection  from  63 Ib 

Milk  Marketing  Boards  200b,  274b, 
663a 

Miller,  A.  R.  483c 

Miller,  Arthur  614d;  616b 

Miller,  C.  268d 

Miller,  N.  HOa 

Miller,  R.  llOa 

Mills,  Freddie  llOc 

Mills,  G.  P.  595a 

Milverton  of  Lagos,  Lord  494d 

Mimoun,  A.  73d 

Mine,  Hilary  419c;  515d 

Mindszenthy,  Cardinal  Jozsef  329a; 
547d;  636b,  658c 

MINERAL  AND  METAL  PRO- 
DUCTION AND  PRICES  419d 

Mmeralogical  Society  of  America 
423d 

MINERALOGY  422d 

Ministerial  (Methodist)  Manpower 
Commission  41 8b 

Mmquiers  Islands  152b 

Mmtoff,  Dom  403d;  404b 

Mmton,  John  66d 

Mmton,  Sherman  372b 

Miracil,  D.  629b 

Miralat  Abdullah  Bey  Khahl  46b 

Miranda,  Miguel  60c 

Missiles,  guided  34a;  34c;  435c; 
435d;  supersonic  436a 

MISSIONS,  FOREIGN  RELIG- 
IOUS 423d 

Missouri  river,  flood  control  267d 

Mitchell,  B.  193b 

Mitchell,  Sir  Philip  11 8c 

Mitta,  A.  E.  A.  154b 

Mixed  Marriage  Act  (South  Africa) 
578a 

Moberly,  Sir  Walter  168b;  238d; 
653d 

Moch,  Jules  214a;  278d;  279a 

Modern  Architecture,  International 
Congress  of  58b 

Modern  Humanites  Research 
Association  391c 

Modi,  R.  S.  193c 

Mogadishu  359d;  363a 


Mohamed  Saleh  Shengeiti  46b 
MOHAMMAD       RIZA      SHAH 

PAHLAVI  425b;  498a 
MOHAMMED      BEN      YUSSEF 

425b;  284a 

Mohammed  el-Amin  284c 

Mohammed  Hatta  455b 
MOHAMMED     ZAHIR     SHAH, 
ALMUTAWAKKIL-ALA- 
ALLAH  425d;  23a 

Molas  Lopez,  Felipe  493b 

Molasses  587a 

Molluscs  406b;  406c 

Molotov,  V.  M.  74b,  637b 
MONACO  425d;  126d 

Monaghan,  Rinty  lllb 

Monaveen,  racehorse  32 la 

MoncriefT,  Lord  372b 

Monetary,  Credit  and  Fiscal  Poli- 
cies, sub-committee  on  (U.S.)  92a 

MONGOLIAN  PEOPLE'S  RE- 
PUBLIC 426b 

Mongol  People's  Revolutionary 
(Communist)  Party  426b 

MONIZ,  ANTONIO  CAETANO 
DE  ABREU  FREIRE  EGAS 
426d;  317d,  412d;  464d,  522d; 
531c;  683d 

Mono-chromates,  cancer  in  workers 
in  336c 

Monopolies  and  Restrictive  Prac- 
tices Act  457b 

Monrovia,  Liberia  386d 

Mons,  Jean  284c 

Monsanto  Chemical  Company, 
Dayton,  Ohio,  USA  154b 

Montagu,  M.  F.  Ashley  49d 

Montego  Bay  (Jamaica),  recom- 
mendations (1947)  125d 

Montgomery  of  Alamein,  Vis- 
count 188b;  377b;  677a 

Montherlant,  Henry  de  61 5c 

Montini,  Ludovico  165d 

MONTREAL  426d 

Montreux  Convention  223d 

MONUMENTS  AND  MEMO- 
RIALS  427a 

Monymusk,  Jamaica,  new  sugar 
factory  363d 

Moore,  Henry  67c;  562b;  562d 

Moore,  J   W.  51c 

Moose,  protection  of  678d 

Morales,  Alfonso  Gomez  60c 

Morandicre,  J  de  la  142a 

Morar,  Inverness-shire,  hydro- 
electric scheme  229b 

MORAVIA,  ALBERTO  427d 

Mordell,  L.  J   575b 

Morel,  Albert  253d 

Moreno,  Andres  583b 

Morgan,  P    R    LI.  73d 

Morocco  284a,  425c;  585d 

Morphine  440c 

Morris,  A.  R    193d 

Morrison,  Herbert  189b;  380a; 
457d 

Morrison,  John  80d 

Mornssey,  Daniel  352b,  353b 

Morse,  D.  A.  34ld 

Mortimer,  Arthur  550d 

MOSCOW  428a,  256d 

Moscow  Daily  News  461  b 

Moscow  Television  Centre  610a 

Moslem  Brotherhood  223a 

Moslem  League  489b 

Mosley,  Sir  Oswald  520b 

Mosquitoes,  behaviour  of  240d 

Moss  storage  for  fruit  287d 

Mothers'  Rest  Association  680d 

Motion  Picture  Engineers,  Society 
of  174a 

Motion  Picture  Research  Council 
(U.S.)  172d 

Motion-picture  photography  507b 

Motion  sickness  156d;  410d; 
412b 

MOTOR-BOAT  RACING  428b 

Motor  Carrier  Act  (U.S.)  381a 

MOTOR  CYCLE  AND  CYCLE 
INDUSTRY  428c 

MOTOR  CYCLING  429a 

Motor  Exhibition,  International 
256d 

MOTOR  INDUSTRY  429b  et  seq.; 
311c;  338c 

MOTOR  RACING  432b 

MOTOR  TRANSPORT  433a 

Motz,  Roger  386b 


INDEX 


709 


Mount  Ararat,  search  for  Noahs' 

Ark  on  634b 
Mountbatten  of  Burma,  Countess 

212d 

Mountbatten  of  Burma,  Earl  253b 
Mount  Grammes,  defeat  of  Greek 

rebels  at  312c 

Mount  Kenya,  expedition  to  252b 
Mount  Palomar  Observatory,  Cali- 
fornia 70d 
Mount     Stromio     Commonwealth 

Observatory,  Canberra  72b 
Mount  Wilson  Observatory,  Cali- 
fornia 7  Id 
Mouvement  Repubhcam  Populaire 

165d;  278d 

Movimento  Sociale  Itahano  361a 
Movimiento   Nacionalista   Revolu- 

cionano  (Bolivia)  105b,  105c 
Movius,  Dr.  H    L   52d 
Moyland,  Gustav  Steengracht  von 

670c 

Moyroud,  Louis  529c 
Mudie,  Sir  Francis  4896 
Mughan,  Clement  55b 
Muhsin,  Barazi  60 la 
Mulay  Hassan,  Prince  425c.  585c 
Miiller,  G.  142a 
Munch,  Charles  439c 
Munich,   Germany,   pictures   from 

Alte  Pmakothek  66a;  397a 
MUNITIONS  OF  WAR  434d 
MUNNINGS,     SIR    ALFRED 

JAMES  436a 
Muni/,  Pedro  499b 
Munthe,  Axel  478c;  559a 
Murders  (Great  Britain)  195b 
Murdock,  G.  P  49a 
Munro,  H   692d 
Murphy,  Frank  372b 
MUSEUMS  436c 
Museums  Association  436c 
MUSIC  438b 
Mustard  gas  29 Id 
Mustard  seed  586c 
Mutual    Defence   Aid    Programme 

204b 
Mutual     Defence    Assistance    Bill 

(US)466d;  469d 
Mutual    Defence    Assistance    Pact 

(1949)  132c 
Mutual  Savings  Banks  (U  S  )  92c; 

93a 

Muzahim  Amm  al-Pachachi  35 Ic 
Myanesm  157a;  41 3c 
Myocardial  infarction  317b 
Mysore,  India  I9d,  333d 

N 

Nagy,  Ferenc  210a 
Nagyvarsany,  Hungary  94b 
Nahas  Pasha  47 la 
Naidu,  Mrs   Sarojim  478c 
Nairobi,  British  East  Africa  118c 
Nakamura,  K.  385d 
Nandyal,  S.  India  45c 
Nankevillc,  G.  W   73d 
Nanking,  China  158c,  162d;  657a 
Naoussa,  Greece  312b 
NARCOTICS  440a 
Narragansett  Archaeological  Society 

of  New  England  55b 
Nasal  surgery  215c 
Nash-Wilhams,  Dr.  V.  E.  52b 
Natal  University  655c 
National  Advisory  Council  on  the 

Training  and  Supply  of  Teachers 

606c 

National  Arbitration  Tribunal  59  Ib 
National     Art     Collections     Fund 

69b 

National  Assistance  Board  174b 
National     Association     of     Bath 

Superintendents  598c 
National     Association     of    Boys' 

Clubs  687b 

National    Association    of    Broad- 
casters (U.S.)  22c;  128b 
National  Association  of  Girls  Clubs 

and  Mixed  Clubs  687b 
National    Blue   Cross    Association 

(U.S  )  324c 

National  Book  Centre  389c 
National  Book  League  387b 
National  Botanic  Gardens,  Kirsten- 

bosch,  S.  Africa  108c 
National  Boxing  Association  (U.S.) 
lllb 


National  Bureau  of  Standards 
(U.S.)  233b 

National  Catholic  Welfare  Confer- 
ence 549a 

National  Central  Library  387b 

National  Children's  Home  and 
Orphanage  418b 

National  Citizens  Conference  on 
Community  Planning  623c 

National  Civic  Democratic  Move- 
ment (Ecuador)  216d 

National  Coal  Board  176c,  177a; 
178a,  290a;  445c;  59 la 

National  Commission  on  Inter- 
governmental Relations  (US) 
395a 

National  Corporation  for  the  Care 
of  Old  People  44 Ib 

National  Council  of  Presbyterian 
Men  526b 

National  Democratic  Union 
(Brazil)  112d;  113a 

National  Development  in  the  Arts, 
Letters  and  Sciences,  Royal 
Commission  on  (Canada)  20b; 
144b 

National  Dock  Labour  Board  210b 

National  Education  Association 
(U  S  )  222a 

National  Eisteddfod  670b 

National  Electronics  Conference 
233d 

National  Farmers'  Union  11 5a; 
151b 

National  Federation  of  Women's 
Institutes  681a 

National  Formulary  1949,  The  50 la 

National  Gallery  of  British  Sports 
and  Pastimes  66c,  69b 

National  Gallery  of  Scotland  69b 

National  Geographic  Society  (U.S  ) 
251d 

National  Greyhound  Racing 
Society  314b 

National  Harbours  Board  (Canada) 
211b 

NATIONAL  HEALTH  SERVICE 
440d;  13 la,  205b;  308b;  413d; 
444d,  501a,  561b 

National  Health  Service  Act  323b; 
440d 

National  Health  Service  Act  (Aus- 
tralia) 79d 

National  Health  Service  (Amend- 
ment) Act  (1949)  441  a 

National  Housing  Act  (U.S.)  623c; 
648c 

National  Hunt  321a 

NATIONAL   INCOME  441c;   87d 

National  Income  and  Expenditure 
of  the  United  Kingdom  441  c, 
442b 

National  Institute  for  Medical  Re- 
search 180b 

National  Institute  for  the  Blind 
574d 

National  Institute  of  Adult  Edu- 
cation 20b,  574b;  575a 

National  I  nstitute  of  Health  (Japan) 
385d 

National  Institute  of  Health  (U  S.) 
180b 

NATIONAL  INSURANCE  444c 

National  Insurance,  Ministry  of 
174b,  336a,  444c 

National  Insurance  Act  (1948) 
336a 

National  Insurance  Industrial  In- 
juries Act  (1946)  336a 

Nationalist  League  of  Independence 
(Austria)  663c 

NATIONALIZATION  445a;  bank- 
ing (Australia)  proposed  380a; 
coal  176c,  178a;  Colombia  181b; 
France  93c;  gas  290a;  589b; 
international  meetings  on  573a; 
iron  and  steel  353d;  354b; 
National  Board  system  criticised 
625b;  papal  view  of  51  Ib;  rail- 
ways 535d;  transport  433a 

National  Joint  Advisory  Councils 
625b 

National  Labour  Relations  Board 
38la,  382a;  461c 

National     Military     Establishment 

(U.S.)  408c 

National  Museums  and  Galleries, 
Standing  Commission  on  436c 


National     Old     People's     Welfare 

Committee  441  b 

NATIONAL   PARKS    446c,    678c 
National  Parks  and  Access  to  the 

Countryside  Bill  446c,  622d;  678c 
National  Parks  Commission  446d; 

494c;  623a 
National  Physical  Laboratory  508d; 

608b 
National       Planning      Conference 

(U  S  )  623c 

National  Register  of  Archives  319a 
National    Research   Council   (U.S.) 

49c,  369b 

National  Rifle  Association  545b 
National  Rose  Society  25 7a 
National    Safety    Congress    (U.S  ) 

17b,  18c,  19a 
National  Savings  308b 
National  Schools  Swimming  Asso- 
ciation 598c 


450a;  photographic  industry 
506a;  prices  26c,  527b;  printing 
industry  529b;  railways  23 Ic; 
537d;  sculpture  562a,  taxation 
605a,  textile  industry  612c 

Netherlands  Antilles  455c 

NE  THERLANDS  OVERSEAS 
I  ERRI  TORIES  453c 

Neumann,  Gunther  17 Id 

Neutron  508a 

Neveu,  Ginette  438:;  478c 

Newberry,  Percy  I?  J  ward  478d 

New  Caledonia  287a 

Newcastle  disease  (fowl  p«,st)  525b; 
663  b 

Newcastle-nporv-Tyne  48r> 

New  Delhi  79d 

NEWFOUNDLAND  AND 
LABRADOR  456b;  union  with 
Canada  119d,  142c;  293b;  380d 

New  Guinea  630a 


MAGA- 


National Security  Act  (US)  183d    New  Hebrides,  postage  stamps  501c 

National  Small  Bore  Rifle  Associa-    Newman,  A    D.  197c 
lion  S45a 

National  Teachers*  Salaries  Com- 
mittee on  (Ireland)  221  a 

NATIONAL  TRUST   447b;    322b 

National  Union  of  Journalists  457d 

National   Union  of  Manufacturers 
151b 

National 


Union    of   Mmcworkers 
591a;  624b 

National  Union  of  Railwaymen 
624b,  625b;  668b 

National  Union  of  South  African 
Students  655c 

National  Union  of  Townswomen's 
Guilds  681a 

National  War  Academy  (India)  65b 

National  Women's  Citizens'  Asso- 
ciation 680d 

National  Youth  Employment  Coun- 
cil 373d 

Natives  Representative  Party  (South 
Africa)  578c 

Naturalization  39a;  39c  (statistics); 
381b 

Nature  Conservancy  446d;  678c 

Nauru  Island  463a,  630a,  646b 

Nautical  Almanac  Office  71  b 

Naval  Ordnance  Laboratory  (U  S  ) 
435d 

Naval  Research  Laboratory  (U  S.) 
72b 

Naval  Research  Medical  Institute 
(U  S)  233d 

Naval  Warfare,  adaptation  to  the 
Principles  of  the  Geneva  Con- 
vention (1907),  Convention  for 
541d 

NAVIES  OF  THE  WORLD  447d 

Nawnpalang,  Burma  70c 

Nazim  el-Kodsi  601d 

Nazimuddm,  Khwaja  489b 

Ncale,  Professor  J    E   238b;  319a 

Near  Eastern  Studies,  Department 
of  (Istanbul)  53a 

Neath,  Glamorgan  52b 

Negev,  Israel  223b;  356d 

Negros  Island,  Philippines  49b 

NEHRU,  PANDIT  JAWAHAR- 
LAL  451a,  121a.  121c;  141c; 
322d;  333a,  334b;  334d;  335a; 
523a 

Nelson,  Frederick  152d 

Nembutal  509d 

Nemeth,  I   73c 

Nenni,  Pietro  572b,  626a 

Neoantergan  410d 

Neohetramme  410d 

Neomycm  41  Id,  63 Id 

Neoprene  latex  415d 

Neostigmme  452a 

NEPAL   451b;    322c;    252a;    641b 

Nerve  impulse,  study  of  509c 

NERVOUS  SYSTEM  45 Id 

NETHERLANDS  452a;  airports 
36d,  banking  91d;  bulb  cultiva- 
tion 323b;  canals  145d;  crime 
195d;  docks  and  harbours  2 lid; 
fruit  storage  288a;  Great  Britain, 
trade  agreement  with  660a;  Indo- 
nesia, relations  with  62b;  juvenile 
delinquency  373b;  livestock  26c, 


New  Mexico  71b,  188a 
NEWSPAPERS     AND 

ZINES  457a 

Newspaper  Proprietors'  Associa- 
tion 457d 

Newspaper  Society  457d 

Newsprint,  restricted  supplies  of 
457a 

Newstead  Abbey  427c 

New  Testament,  standard  version 
of  617a 

Newton,  Professor  Lily  109a 

New  York  Academy  of  Science  86d 

New  York  Athletic  Club  104a 

New  York  Central  Railroad  232b 

NEW  YORK  CITY  461d;  47c; 
191a,  192a;  City  Centre  of  Music 
and  Drama  202d;  elections  182d; 
Metropolitan  Museum  68b;  438a; 
Museum  of  Modern  Art  68a; 
487d,  563a;  Park-Bernct  Art 
Galleries  69d;  street  railways 
232b;  stock  exchange  590b; 
theatres  616a;  water  supply  418a; 
674b;  Whitney  Museum  of 
American  Art  563a 

New  York  Philharmonic  Symphony 
Orchestra  95a 

New  York  Star  46 Ic 

New  York  State  Athletic  Com- 
mission llOb;  HOc 

New  York  State  Bridge  Authority 
116b 

New  York  State  Museum  55a 

New  York  rimes  46 Ic 

New  York  University,  Bellevue 
Medical  Centre  656b 

New  York  Yankees  (baseball)  94c 

NEW  ZEALAND,  DOMINION 
OF  462b;  anthropology  48d; 
banking  91b,  birth  rate  664a; 
butter  production  659c,  Com- 
munist movement  182d;  com- 
pulsory military  training  122a; 
cricket  194b;  dairy  products  26a; 
elections  224d,  electric  power 
229c,  film  industry  171  a;  foreign 
trade  346a;  housing  326b;  im- 
migration 332a,  infant  mortality 
664d;  meat  exports  409b;  mili- 
tary strength  65b,  motor  indus- 
try 43 Ib;  nationalized  industries 
446c,  national  parks  447a;  paper 
industry  492b;  poultry  525b; 
railways  538d;  rationing  540c; 
sheep  breeding  392c;  soil  conser- 
vation 575d;  576a;  taxation 
604d,  tobacco  production  620b; 
training  of  teachers  606c;  univer- 
sities 655c 
NEW  ZEALAND  LITERATURE 

463d 
N'Guyen  Huu  Thi  Lan,  Manette- 

Jeanne  93d 

N'Guyen  Van  Xuan,  General  286b 
NICARAGUA  464b;   Costa   Rica, 
relations    with     187a;    currency 
transactions  344a 
Nicholson,  Ben  562b 
Nicholson,  Sir  William  478d 
Nickel  42 1  a 


409c;  membership  of  Council  of  Nicoll,  Professor  Allardyce  390c 

Europe   188d;   military  strength  Niebuhr,  Remhold  617d 

64d;    museums    437b;    national  Niecko,  Jozef  496d 

income    442b;     naval     strength  Niemeyer,  Sir  Otto  90b 


710 


INDEX 


Nigeria,  British  West  Africa  124c; 
cocoa  production  179d;  fisheries 
264b;  housing  326b,  leprosy 
385d,  religious  missions  424d; 
noting  592b 

Nigerian  Marketing  Board  179d, 
655d 

Nile,  control  of  waters  of  292d 

Nilodm  629b 

Nimbus,  racehorse  32 Ib 

Nimitz,  Admiral  Chester  W.  334b 

Niobium  152d 

Nipigon  river  (Canada)  229c 

Nism411d 

Nitrogen,   world   reserves  of  260b 

Nitrogen  mustard  157a;  29 Id 

N.K.V.D.  (People's  Commissariat 
of  Internal  Affairs  )99c 

Noah's  Ark,  search  for  252c 

NOBEL  PRIZES  464d,  literature 
390a,  medicine  412d;  426d; 
522d;  531b;  531c;  physics  690c 

NOBS,  ERNST  465a 

Noel-Baker,  Philip  J   580c 

Noguchi,  Isamu  563a 

Nokrashy  Pasha,  Mahmud  Fahmy 
el  223a 

Nord,  F.  F.  154b 

Nordahl,  Gubtaf  427d 

NORDENSKIOLD,  BENGT 
GUSTAFSSON  465b,  596b 

Nordic  Defence  Alliance  203d 

Norodom  Sihanouk  286d 

"  Norsel,"  sealer  46d;  25 Ib 

North  Africa,  railways  538b 

North  American  National  Com- 
mittee on  Radiation  Protection 
674c 

North  American  Regional  Broad- 
casting Agreement  128c 

North  American  Wildlife  Confer- 
ence 678c 

North  American  Yacht  Racing 
Union  684c 

NORTH  ATLANTIC  TREATY 
465b;31d;32a,62a,  103b,  112b; 
122a;  313d,  330c,  676d,  Albania 
attacks  38b,  Belgium  98d,  Com- 
munist opposition  to  470b,  Den- 
mark 203d;  204a;  France  278a, 
559d;  Iceland  99b,  Italy  203c, 
564a,  Luxembourg  95a,  398d, 
Netherlands  452d;  588b,  Norway 
469d,  Portugal  408c,  522b,  557c; 
583c;  Sweden  595d,  Turkey 
557a,  United  States  19a;  649b 

North  East  Land,  Spitsbergen  252b 

Northern  Baptist  Convention  (U.S.) 
94a 

NORTHERN  IRELAND  468a; 
electric  power  229b;  linen  and 
flax  production  389c;  livestock 
392d;  partition  353a,  railways 
536c,  status  121  a;  128c,  textile 
industry  612b;  youth  orgamza- 
tions  687d 

NORTHERN  RHODESIA  468d; 
178c,  bridges  11 6a,  fisheries 
264c,  national  parks  447a,  reli- 
gious missions  425a,  Southern 
Rhodesia,  proposed  federation 
with  580c 

Northern  Society  596a 

Northolt  Airport  36b,  82c 

North  of  Scotland  Bank  91  a 

North  of  Scotland  Hydro-Electric 
Board  115b,  226d,  227b;  228c, 
229b,  561b;  632b 

North  Sea  fisheries  263c 

Northwest  Atlantic  Ocean,  Con- 
vention for  the  Conservation  of 
265a;  265d 

Northwest  Frontier  Province  23a; 
424a;  489b 

Northwest  Territories  Council 
(Canada)  679a 

Norton,  Sir  Clifford  73a 

Norton.  G.  W.  271d 

Norton,  William  352d 

NORWAY  469b;  airports  37a; 
aquavit,  exports  of  587a,  canning 
industry  147c;  Communist  move- 
ment 182b;  crime  195d;  Council 
of  Europe  188d;  189b;  elections 
226a;  employment  236d;  film 
industry  172b;  freemasonry  28 Ic; 
hospitals  324a;  libraries  388c; 
literature  559a;  military  strength 


65a;  naval  strength  450b;  North 

Atlantic     Treaty     295b,     465d; 

466c;      railway:*      23  Ic;      537d; 

Socialism     57  Id,     Suez     Canal. 

claim  to  use  of  593b,  territorial 

waters  265c 
Norwegian  Labour  Party  Congress 

469d 

Norwich,  Castle  Museum  149b 
Notre     Dame     University,     South 

Bend,  Indiana  412d 
Nottingham  70b;  149d;  213a 
Noumea,    New    Caledonia    492d; 

581a 

Nourse,  A    D.  193b 
Nouvelles   Equipes   Internationales 

165d 

Noviks,    Alfons    A     377d 
NU,  THAKIN  470d;  136a 
Nuclear  reactors  76d,  77a 
Nuffield,  Viscount  430d,  486a 
Nufficld  Corporation  for  the  Aged 

324a 

Nural,  Amin  489b 
Nuremberg,   Germany,   war  crime 

trials  670b 
NURI    PASHA    AS-SA'ID    471a; 

350d,  351c,  358d;  601a 
Nursery  Schools  160d 
Nurses,   Shortage  of  (US)    161b; 

471b 

Nurses  Act  (1949)  441  b;  47 Ib 
Nurses     Registration     Act     (1919) 

471b 

NURSING  471b 
Nushi,  Gogo  38a 
Nutman,  P  S.  109c 
Nutmegs  586c 

Nutrition   research,   \ee  Fooo   RE- 
SEARCH 
NUTS  47 Id 

NYASALAND  472b;    bridge   con- 
struction  116a 
Nye,  Harry  G.  684d 
Nylon    176c;    258d;    512d;    513c, 

540d;  54  Ic 

O 

Oakle>,  K.  P.  47d 

Oak    Ridge    National    Laboratory 

(US)    76d;    77b;    152d;    222b; 

508b 

Oaksey,  Lord  517a 
Oaksey  Committee  on  Police  Con- 
ditions of  Service  517a 
Oats  270a;  305d 
Oberley,  J.  J.  72b 
OBITUARIES  472b  et  seq. 
O'Brien,  Kate  61 6c 
Obstetrics  and  Gyn.ecology,  British 

Congress  of  315d 

Occupation  Statute  (Germany)  298b 
OCEANOGRAPHY    483b,    ocean 

floor  research  293c;  "  scattering 

layer  "  406b;  seismic  observation 

563b 

Ochab,  Edward  516c 
Odom,  William  P.  37c 
Odna,  Manuel  A   499d 
O'Dwycr,  William  521c 
Oecumenical  Co-operation,  Council 

on  168b 

Oecumenical  Institute  683d 
Oesophagitis  30c 
Oestednsson,  Nils  570d 
Office  of  Alien  Property  (U.S  )  350d 
Office  of  Education  (US)  388d 
Office   of   Naval    Research    (U.S ) 

508a 

Ogaden,  Ethiopia  243a 
Ogilvie,  Sir  Frederick  219b;  478d 
O.G  P  U.    (United    State    Political 

Department)  99c 
Ohio  55a 

Ohlm,  Professor  Bcrtil  386b;  596d 
Oilseed  28c 

O 'KELLY,  SEAN  THOMAS  484b 
Okinawa  343b;  365a 
Old  Age  and  Survivors  Insurance 

(U.S.)  573c 
Oldham,      Lancashire,      centenary 

149d 

Old  Vic  Company  6l5b 
Olive  oil  270d,  659b 
Olivier,  Sir  Laurence  61 5b 
Oman  and  Masqat  50b,  252a 
O'Ncil,  B.  H.  St.  J.  5ld 
Onions  109b 


Ontario,  Canada,  electricity  devel- 
opment 229b 

Opencast  mining  178b 

Opera  438b 

Opinion  Survey  and  Market  Re- 
search, European  Society  for  22a 

Opium,  control  of  440a 

Opler,  Morns  E   49c 

Oranges,  frozen  juice  of  157d 

Orchestrc  de  la  Suisse  Romande 
439a 

Ordass,  Bishop  Lajos  398c 

Orenas,  Sweden,  Socialist  confer- 
ence at  573a 

Organisation  Internationale  de 
Radiodiffusion  126c 

Organization  for  European  Econo- 
mic Co-operation  25a,  89d,  90a, 
98d;  188c,  196b;  204d;  214d; 
228c;  243b,  244b;  288b;  299a; 
317c,  346c;  355c,  398d;  493d; 
500d;  564a;  597b,  602d;  603a; 
603d,  618c 

ORGANIZATION  OF  AMERI- 
CAN STATES  484c;  161d;  187a; 
196d 

Organization  oj  Behaviour  532b 

Onglia,  Dino  407c 

Onola,  Christian  d'  259d 

Orkney  226d,  228d 

Orly  Airport,  Pans  36d 

Orsborne,  Albert  William  Thomas 
558a 

Ortiz,  Manuel  I  lib 

Orwell,  George  219b 

Osborne,  Douglas  55b 

Osorio,  Oscar  557d 

Ostcopathic  Educational  Founda- 
tion 485a 

Osteopaths,  Register  of  485a 

OSTEOPATHY  484d 

Ostrovitianov,  K.  V    658b 

Otago  University,  New  Zealand 
655c 

Otdhdlovd-Popclovd,  Jirma  656c 

OTTAWA  485b,  253b;  388d,  623b 

Outerbridge,  Sir  Lcondrd  456c 

Outward  Bound  Trust  687b 

Overbury,  Robert  494c 

Overseas  Food  Corporation  27c, 
119a;  122c;  575d 

Overseas  Mission  (Methodist)  De- 
partment 418b 

Overseas  Resources  Development 
Act  (1949)  122c 

Owen  Falls,  Ugandd  118d,  267a, 
292d,  674b 

OXFORD  UNIVERSITY  485c, 
Arctic  expeditions  252b;  Ashmo- 
ledn  Museum  66d,  437a,  cricket 
194b;  fives  266b,  football  272c; 
273c;  Institute  of  Statistics  442d; 
Nufheld  College  486d,  653d; 
Radcliffe  Camera  I50a,  RadchtTe 
Library  653d;  rowing  551a,  Rus- 
km  College  653d,  University 
College  147d 

Oxysteroids  237a 

Oysters,  fisheries  265b,  research  in 
406a 


Paasikivi,  Juho  Kusti  262b 

Pacciardi,  Randolfo  626a 

Pachman,  L    158b 

Pacific  Coast,  archaeological  re- 
search on,  55b 

Pacific  Gas  and  Electric  Company 
632c 

PACIFIC  ISLANDS,  BRITISH 
486d,  630a 

Pacific  Science  Congress  48d;  292c; 
463b,  483b 

Pacific  Western  Oil  Corporation 
(US.)  50a 

Packaging,  use  of  plastics  for  512c 

Packard,  Charles  147b 

Page,  Ruth  202d 

Paget,  R.  T.  670d 

Pahn,  August  242c 

Pai,  Chung-hsi  163b 

Pain,  study  of  509d 

PAINTING  486c 

PAINTS  AND  VARNISHES  488a 

Pakenham,   Lord  518d 

PAKISTAN,  DOMINION  OF 
488b;  Afghanistan,  relations  with 
23a;  banking  91  d;  British  broad- 


casts to  127a;  China,  policy 
regarding  164d,  cricket  193c; 
education  356b;  floods  267a; 
foreign  trade  346dr  India,  rela- 
tions with  121c,  industrial  alco- 
hol production  587b;  jute  indus- 
try 373a;  Kashmir  dispute  334b; 
military  strength  65c;  news- 
papers 461a;  postage  stamps 
501c;  railwdys  538a;  religious 
missions  423d,  Salvdtion  Army 
558a;  soil  conservation  575d; 
576a,  tea  production  606a;  tele- 
communications service  607d; 
609c,  women's  activities  68 Ib 
Pakistan  Women's  National  Guard 

68  Ic 

Palache,  Charles  422d 
Palacky  University,  Czechoslovakia 

656c 
Paljeontological    Institute,    Ithaca, 

New  York  490b 
PAL/EONTOLOGY  490b 
Palais  de  Chaillot  436b;  494a 
Palermo,  Sicily  438d 
PALESTINE  490d,  Arab  refugees 
in  287b;  54 Id,  543a,  archaeologi- 
cal   research    53b;    Iraqi    forces 
withdrawn  35 Id;  United  Nations 
action  regarding  643c 
Pdlffy,  General  Gyorgy  329d 
Palf,  Edvard  N.  242a 
Pallante,  Antonio  620c 
Palmer,  Nettie  80d 
Palm  kernels  659b 
Palmyrd,  Hdwan  652a 
Palomar    Observatory     Sky     Atlas 

71b 

PANAMA  491a,  241d 
PANAMA  CANAL  ZONE  491c 
Pan  American  Congress  of  Social 

Work  161b,  409d 

Pan-American  Highway  546d;  547a 
Pan- American  Union  318c 
Pan- American  World  Airways  85a; 

86b,  386d 

Pandit,  Mrs .  Vijaydldkshmi  680c 
Panomyong,  Nai  Pridi  6Hb 
Pdn-Pacific     Jamboree,     Australia 

Hid 
Pan-Pacific    Women's    Association 

680d 

Pantelaki,  Mme   E   72d 
Panyushkin,  Alexander  S.  364d 
Paolozzi,  Edudrdo  562d 
PAPAGOS,    ALEXANDER   491  d; 

73a,  312b 

Pdpandreou,  Ghcorghios  572b 
PAPER  AND  PULP  INDUSTRY 

492a,  275a,  460b 
Paprika  586d 

PAPUA-NEVV  GUINEA  492c 
Pdpud-New  Guinea  Provisional  Act 

(1949)492c 

Para-aminosalicyhc  acid  632a 
Parddione  412c 
PARAGUAY  492d,  exchange  rates 

247c 

Parathion  323a 
Pares,  Sir  Bernard  479a 
Parlitt,  Gilbert  J    205c 
PARIS   493d,    190b,    217c;    259d, 
art  exhibitions  67d,  metro  537b; 
museums  437b;  sorbonne  318a 
Paris  Transport  Board  537b 
Parker,  F   383a,  383c 
Parkes,  H.  197c 
PARLIAMENT,      HOUSES      OF 

494a 

Parliament  Act  (191 1)  494b 
Parlidment  Bill  308a,  380c;  494a; 

519a 

Parpamt  412c;  413c 
Partido  de  la  Izquierda  Revolucion- 

drid  (Bolivia)  105b 
Partido    Fuerza   Popular  (Mexico) 

419a 
Partido  Rcvolucionano  Institucion- 

al  (Mexico)  38c;  419a 
Panimaya  Zhizn  182d 
Partisans  of  Pedce,  World  Congress 

of  279d 
Parti     Social    Chrdtien    (Belgium) 

165d 
Partito    Socialista    Italiano    572b; 

626a 

Partito   Sociahsta   Umtano  (Italy) 
572c 


INDEX 


711 


Partito  Socialista  dei  Lavoraton 
Italian!  57 Id;  572b;  626a 

Partridges  26 la 

Partsalidis,  Demetnos  399b 

Par  Values  344b 

Pasey,  R.  D.  147a 

Paskiewicz,  General  Htienne  296c 

Pasos,  Carlos  Cuadra  464c 

Passenger  ships  566d  et  seq. 

Passeur,  Steve  615c 

Past  cure  I  la  pe\tii  51  Id 

Pastiels,  AndrS  490b 

Pastore,  Giulio  362a;  626a 

PATEL,  SARDAR  VALLABH- 
BHA1  495a,  332d;  333b 

PATENTS  495b 

Patents  and  Designs  Act  (1949) 
495b 

Pa"trascanu,  Lucretm  553d 

Patrick,  T.  M.  154b 

Pdtulm  156b 

Patuxent  River,  Maryland  34a 

PAUKER,  ANA  496a;  553d 

PAULl496a;  72d,  220d 

Pavitt,  R   C.  73d 

Pavon,  Llosa  Gonzalez  499b 

Pax  Romana  166b 

Paz,  Hipohto  Jesus  61c 

Peace,  T.  R    109d 

Peabody  Museum,  Harvard  49c, 
55b 

P6an,  Charles  558b 

Pearl  Fishing  150d 

Pearson,  Hesketh  238c 

Pearson,  Karl  532b 

PEARSON,  LESTER  BOWLES 
496b 

Peary  Land,  Arctic  25 Ib,  252b 

PEASANT  MO  YEMEN  T  496c, 
Italy  362a;  592c 

Peat  as  fuel  560d,  56 Ib 

Pediatrics,  Pan-American  Congress 
on,  161b 

Pediculosis  206b 

Pei,  W   C  49c 

Peking  162d,  165a,  169b;  405b; 
637b 

Peking  Man  49c 

Pelham-Burn,  C.  H   25 Id 

Pelileo,  Ecuador  217a 

Pelt,  Adrian  645d 

Penal  servitude,  abolition  of  530c 

Penicillin  180c,  215b,  411b;  4l2b; 
513c,  514a;  645b;  660c;  661c, 
662c 

P  h  N  Club  363a 

Penman  Committee  205b 

Pennati,  Eugemo  504c 

Pennsylvania  Railroad  212b 

Pennyslvama  School  of  Dentistry 
86c 

Pennyslvama  State  College  86c 

Pensacola,  Florida  34a 

Pensions,  Ministry  of  253a,  444d, 
671c 

Penson,  Lillian  Margery  142a;  398a 

Pentothal  157a 

People's  Educational  Association 
(Gold  Coast)  20b 

People's  Independent  Front  (Hun- 
gary) 21()a 

People's  Political  Consultative  Con- 
ference (China)  163c 

People's  Volunteer  Organization 
(Burma)  136b 

Pep,  Willie  lllb 

Pepper,  586b 

Perez,  Mariano  Ospina  180d 

Pe>ez  de  Ayala,  Ramon  402a 

Perloff,  W.  H.  533b 

Peron,  Eva  132d 

PERON,  JUAN  DOMINGO  497d; 
60c;  657d 

Perry  river,  Canada  25 Id 

PERSIA  497d,  archeology  53d, 
drugs  traffic  440c;  exchange 
rates  520d;  Jordan,  relations 
with  371  b;  naval  strength  450d; 
oil  production  500a,  postage 
stamps  501  d;  religious  missions 
424d;  Vatican,  diplomatic  rela- 
tions with  658d 

Personnel  Selection  in  the  British 
Forces  531 d 

Perspex,  512a 

Persson,  A.  W.  53b 

Peters.  R.  A   575b 

PERU  499a;  coca  leaf,  effects  of 


440b,  exchange  rates  247d;  naval 
strength  450c 

Peruvian  International  Airways 
499b 

Peter  Grime*  126b 

Petit,  Roland  20 Ib 

PETITPIERRE,  MAX  499d,  600a 

Petrol  79a.  435a,  54()c 

PETROLEUM  499d;  Alberta  prod- 
uction 144a,  alcohol  produced 
from  587a;  Colombia  production 
181  b;  Estonia  production  242b; 
Iraq  production  35 Ic,  Kuwait 
production  50b,  Poland  produc- 
tion 515a,  research  in  294c; 
Saudi  Arabia  production  50a; 
Venezuela  production  662a 

Petrology  294b 

Petsche,  Maurice  278a 

Petterson,  Professor  Hans  293b 

Pevsner,  Antoine  562b 

Peyer,  K.  572d 

Phadkar,  D   G.  193d 

Pharmaceutical  Benefits  Scheme 
(Australia)  79a 

Pharmaceutical  Society  440d 

PHARMACY  501a 

Pheasants  26 la 

Phencrgan  410d 

Phenindamme  206b 

Phenoiics  512a,  512d 

Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania  68a; 
254a,  bridge  construction  116d; 
sculpture  international  563a 

PHILATELY  50 Ib 

PHILIPPINES,  REPUBLIC  OF 
THE  503a;  anthropological  re- 
search 49b,  copra  exports  659b, 
hemp  exports  317c,  import  res- 
trictions 25 1  a ,  meteorology  4 1 7d , 
military  strength  65d,  roads 
546b,  soil  conservation  577a; 
U  N  E  S.C  O  mission  to  21 8b 

Philippidis,  Chrysanthos  216b 

Philhpps,  Sir  Thomas  106d 

Phillips,  Dr   A   J    219c 

PHILOSOPHY  504b 

Phipps,  Ogden  6 lie 

Phosphate  rock,  world  consumption 
and  reserves  of  260b,  260c 

Phosphorous  260c 

PHOTOGRAPHY  505c,  latensifi- 
cation  173d,  underwater  406c 

Photo-telegraphy  608b 

Phumiphon    Adundet    61 3a;    613d 

Physical  Oceanography,  Associa- 
tion of  483c 

Physical  Society  574d,  575b 

PHYSICS  507d 

jP/rvwci  AbMract*  507d 

PHYSIOLOGY  509c 

Piazza,  Cardinal  Adeodato  658d 

Picasso,  Pablo  213c,  487a,  562b; 
562d 

Pick,  Frank  66c 

Pickford,  R    W    532a 

PIECK,  WILHELM  510c,  103d; 
252d,  298d,  299a,  636d;  668b 

Pietermantzburg,  Natal  56d 

Pignon,  Leon  286b 

Pig  production  24a;  28d;  393a; 
409d 

Pijadc,  Moshc  135a 

Pika,  General  Hehodor  199b 

Pike  o'  Stickle,  Westmorland  51c 

Pilger,  Dr   R    108d 

Pilotless  aircraft  31b 

Piltdown  skull  47d 

Pine  Portage  (hydro-electric) 
Scheme  (Canada)  229c 

Pinto  Site,  Little  Lake,  California 
55c 

Pinza,  Ezio  616c 

Pioneer  Industries  (Encouragement) 
Law  (Jamaica)  363d 

Piper,  John201c,486d 

Piraeus,  reconstruction  at  72d 

Pir  lllahi  Bux  489b 

Pistarim  Airport,  Argentina  86b 

Pitchblende  mines,  Eastern  Euro- 
pean 77c 

Pitlochry,  Perthshire  115b 

PIUS  XII  510d;  216a;  516a,  547a; 
548d;  658c 

Place  names,  international  congress 

on  292c 

PLAGUE  51  Ib;  629a 
Plant  and  Animal  Quarantine  Re* 


porting  Service  (Caribbean  Area) 
148d 

Plant  Pathology  Laboratory  322d 

Plant  pests  322d,  323a 

Plants,  diseases  m  322c,  323a;  406d; 
677b 

PLASTICS  INDUSTRY  512a;  film 
sets,  use  for  173d,  metals  re- 
placed by  41 4b;  underground 
cables,  use  for  609a 

Platts-Mills,  J   494b 

Playgrounds  160d 

Plaza  Lasso,  Galo,  216c 

Pleiger,  Paul  670c 

Pleven,  Rene,  64b,  279b 

Plojhar,  Josef  198d 

Plutonium  76d 

Plymouth,  Massachusetts  183b 

Plywood  618b,  6l8d 

Pneumocomoses  *36b 

PNEUMONIA  513c 

Pneumothorax  63 Id 

Poetry,  Afrikaans,  580a,  American 
42d,  160a;  Czech  198c,  Danish 
559b,  Dutch  214b,  English  239d; 
French  282b;  German  295c; 
Italian  360c,  New  Zealand  464a, 
Polish  5 18a;  Spanish  586a;  Swed- 
ish 559a 

Pohl,  Remaldo  Galmdo  557d 

Point  Four  Programme  (U.S ) 
183d 

Point  Mugu,  California  415c 

Polacolor  Corporation  173c 

POLAND  514a;  anthropology  48b, 
broadcasting  127b;  children,  re- 
patriation of  542b,  child  welfare 
161b,  Communist  party  lOlc, 
education  221  b,  ex-servicemen's 
organizations  253d,  film  industry 
172b,  Great  Britain,  trade  agree- 
ment with  61 8b,  660a,  housing 
327b;  Jewish  community  371d, 
military  strength  65a;  516b; 
museums  437c;  naval  strength 
450b,  newspapers  461  b,  Oder- 
Neisse  line  103d,  peasant  move- 
ment 496d;  prisoners  of  war 
510a,  Roman  Catholic  Church 
547d,  Rumania,  treaty  with  554b, 
Soviet  influence  103d,  636b 

Poles,  settlement  in  Britain  of  38d 

POLICE  5 17a 

POLISH  LITERATURE  518a 

Polish  United  Workers'  (Com- 
munist) Party  lOlc,  103d,  190b, 
419c,  515a 

Politburo,  All-Umon  Communist 
Party  (USSR)  637d 

Political  Activities  of  Civil  Servants, 
Committee  on  175b 

Political  and  Constitutional  History 
International  Institute  of  318a 

POLI I ICAL  PAR  TIES,  BRI  HSH 
518c 

POLITICAL  PARTIES,  U.S.  520b 

Policy,  H.  F.  68c 

Pollmi,  Cnno  58b 

Polhtt,  Harry  182b 

Pollitzer,  Sigmund  213b 

POLO  521c 

Poltorakas,  Bishop  Kazys  (Lithu- 
ania) 392a 

Polunm,  Oleg  322c 

Polycytruemia  147a 

Polyethylene  4 15d,  513c 

Polystyrene  513b 

Ponder,  racehorse  322a 

Pondicherry,  French  India  285c 

Pontypool,  Monmouthshire  540d 

Poore,  M    E.  D.  109d 

Poptomov,  Vladimir  135a;  375c; 
400a 

Popular  Music  (U  S  )  439c 

Populations,  growth  of  665a 

Population  Investigation  Com- 
mittee 532a 

Portalegre,  Portugal  226b 

Portela  Airport,  Portugal  37a 

Port  Elizabeth,  South  Africa  I47c 

Porter,  Dorothy  G.  304b 

Porthcurno  cable  station,  Cornwall 
607c 

Port  Moresby,  New  Britain  492c 

Port  of  London  Authority  145b; 
210c,  563c 

Port  of  Spain,  Trinidad  148d 
Port  Said  593a 


Portsmouth  cathedral  427c 

Port  Stanley,  Falkland  Islands  47b 

Port  Talbot,  Glamorgan  670a 

PORTUGAL  521  d;  airports  37a, 
devaluation  250b;  elections  226b; 
taxation  605a 

PORTUGUESE  COLONIAL  EM- 
PIRE 523d 

Portuguese  Guinea,  expedition  to 
252b 

POST  OFFICE  524a,  telecom- 
munications  service  608b,  609a 

Potash,  world  reserves  of  260b 

Potatoes  48c,  270b;  515b 

Potchefstroom,  South  Africa  388b 

Poteau  river,  U  S   267d 

Potomac  river,  Virginia  267d 

Potsdam  Agreement  19lc;  331d; 
637a 

Potter  Heigham,  Norfolk  46a 

Poughkeepsie,  New  York  552a 

POULTRY  525b;  29c;  663b 

Pound,  Ezra  43a,  390d 

Powell,  C.  F.  508c,  575b 

Powell,  Michael  170d 

Pownall,  Charles  A  652d 

Poznan,  Poland  256b;  318c 

Practice  and  Procedure  of  the  Sup- 
reme Court,  Committee  on  372b 

PRAGUE  525c,  388c,  691a 

Prasad,  Dr.  Rajendra  333a 

Pratesi,  Honore  lllb 

Piavda  181c,  400a;  496a;  629a 

Preakness  Stakes,  Baltimore,  U.S 
322a 

Preece,  Ivor  272b 

Prefabncation  56b;  328b 

Prehistoric  Society  51c 

Preiss-Muller,  Ellen  259d 

PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH  525d; 
183a 

Press,  Royal  Commission  on  the 
21b,  457b 

Pressburger,  Emenc  170d 

Preston  Hall,  Kent  253a 

Prestwick  Airport,  Scotland  36b 

Pretoria,  South  Africa,  Voortrekker 
Memorial  578c 

Preventive  detention  530c 

Price,  Bernard  655c 

Price,  Sir  Keith  W.  618b 

PRICES  526b;  beer  114b;  Berlin 
lOOb,  books  107b,  building  132d; 
133d;  134a;  coal  177a;  204a; 
cocoa  179d,  coffee  18la,  212b; 
464c,  copper  161d,  cotton  187b; 
188a,  541  b,  fats  and  oils  659c, 
fertilizers  260a,  foodstuffs  271  a; 
France  137d,  276d;  278c;  fruit 
288b,  furniture  289a;  gas 
290b,  gems  29 la,  gold  303a; 
588b,  hemp  317c;  hops  320d, 
housing  326b,  Ireland  352b; 
iron  and  steel  355b;  Italy  137d; 
362c,  leather  383d;  384a;  meat 
61  b,  milk  200c,  minerals  419d; 
423a,  motor  cars  429b,  430b; 
newsprint  457a;  461  b;  New 
Zealand  462d;  pepper  586b; 
raw  materials  137c,  137d;  rayon 
541b,  rubber  552b;  saffron  586d; 
shoe  industry  586d;  silk  569d; 
Switzerland  599a,  timber  261a; 
United  States  28d;  29b;  139b; 
176c,  289c;  uranium  422b;  vege- 
tables 550c;  659d,  wood  541b; 
657d,  681c 
Priestley,  J  B.  438b;  6l5a 

**  Priest-workman,"  the  547c 

Primary   Producers  of  the   British 
Caribbean   and   British   Guiana, 
Federation  of  126a 
Princess  Elizabeth  (yachting)  Trophy 

684d 

PRINTING  528d 

Printing    and    Allied    Trades    Re- 
search Association  (P.A.T.R.A.) 
529a 
Prisoner  of  War  Convention  530b; 

541d 

PRISONERS     OF     WAR      530a; 
Japanese  364d;  399b,  repatriation 
of  39a;  299c 
PRISONS  530b 
Pntt,  D   N.  494b 
Privy  Council  142d;  380a 
Prix  de  1'Arc  de  Tnomphe  321a; 
321c 


712 


INDEX 


Procaine412c 

Producers'  Marketing  Scheme  for 

British  Wool  68 Id 
Professional    Golfers'    Association 

(U.S.)  304a 
Progressive    Party,    United    States 

521a 

Prokofiev,  Serghey  20  Ib 
Prome,  Burma  136b 
Promethmm  152d 
Promm  385d 

Propeller  Control  Systems  368c 
Prostatectomy  657b 
Protection    of    Animals    (Hunting 

and   Coursing   Prohibition)   Bill 

260d 
Protection  of  Civilian  Persons  m 

Time  of  War,   Convention   for 

541d 
Protection  of  Nature,  International 

Technical  Conference  on  678a 
Protection  of  Sick  and  Wounded  of 

Armies  in  the  Field  (1929),  Con- 
vention for  54 Id 
Proteins  43b 
Protoveratnne  3l7a 
Provincial  Appellate  Court  168a 
Pruritus  206a 
Psittacosis  629a 
Psoriasis  237b 
PSYCHIATRY  53 la 
PSYCHOLOGY  53 Id 
PSYCHOSOMATIC    MEDICINE 

532d;412a 
Psycho-surgery  53 Id 
Psychotherapy  530d;  532c 
Public  Health  Laboratory  Service 

41 2a 
Public  Health  Service  (U.S.)  86d; 

661  c 
Public     Housing     Administration 

(U.S.)  58c;  328a 
Public  Libraries  Bill  (1850)  387c 
Public  Library  Law  (Norway)  388c 
PUBLIC     OPINION     SURVEYS 

533b 

Public  Record  Office  319a 
Puc,  Stojan  158b 
Puerto  Rico  576c;  632c;  652a 
Pugh,  Ralph  Bernard  318d 
Pugh,  Professor  W.  J  293c 
Pugmire,  Ernest  I.  558b 
Puhl,  Emil  670c 
Pushkin,  Gheorghy  299a 
Pyloroplasty  40a 
Pyoderma  206a 
Pyrethrolone  155d 
Pyrethrum  155b 
Pynbenzamme  410d;  412a 
Pyndoxine  268d 


Qadi  Muhammad  Ibn  Abdullah  al- 
Iman  685b 

Qatar  50b 

Q  fever  629a 

Quan,  S.  F.  629a 

Quastler,  H  684b 

Quebec,  Canada  151c;  219c 

Queen's  Institute  of  District  Nurs- 
ing 447d 

Queen  Maud  Land,  Antarctica 
46d;251b 

Queensland,  Australia,  canning  in- 
dustry 147c;  education  219c 

Quennell,  Peter  238c 

Quetta  Staff  College  (Pakistan)  65c 

Queuille,  Henri  276d;  278c;  279a; 
386b 

Quezon,  Mme.  Manuel  70c 

Quintamlla,  Luis  484d 

Quirino,  Elpidio  158c;  163c;  503a 

Quist,  E.  C.  125b 

Quito,  Ecuador  70d;  216d;  217a; 
547a 


Rabaul,  New  Britain  492c 

Rabies  241d 

Racecourse  Betting  Control  Board 

102a 
Racial  problems  221d;  222b;  418c; 

491  c;  Australia  79c;  South  Africa 

121d;  562a;  578c  et  seq.  683c 
RACKETS  534b 
Radar,  meteorology,  use  in  41 5d; 

navigation,  use  in  293b 
Radcliffe,  Sir  Cyril  372b 


Radcliffe-Brown,   A.   R.  48c;  49a 

Radecker,  John  562a 

Radhaknshnan,  Sir  S    485a 

Radiation,  mutagemc  effect  of  29 Id 

RADIO,  SCIENTIFIC  DEVEL- 
OPMENTS IN  534b;  608b 

Radioactivity  74d;  508b 

Radio  Astronomy  534d 

Radioautography  104b 

Radio-chemistry,  use  in  archaeolo- 
gical research  54b 

Radiocommumcation,  Internation- 
al Consultative  Committee  on 
535b 

Radio  Corporation  of  America 
507b;  611b 

Radio-frequency  signals  233c 

Radiology  research  41  Ob 

Radiolympia  256b 

Radio  microwave  signals  609d 

Radio  Research  Board  608d 

Radiotelephone  circuits  607d 

Radio-sondc  transmission  47b, 
416b 

Radiotjanst,  Sweden  126d 

Radium  293c 

Radkiewicz,  Stanislaw  516c 

Radulov,  Evgheny  242b 

Raestad,  Arnold  469d 

Railroad  Unemployment  Insurance 
Act  (US)  573d 

Railway  (London  Plan)  Committee 
230c 

RAILWAYS  535d;  disasters  209b; 
electrification  227c;  230b;  France 
446a;  Great  Britain  307a;  3 lie; 
increased  fares  433d;  Iraq  35 Id; 
South  Africa  579c;  United  States 
651a,  see  also  separate  countries 

Rain,  artificial  precipitation  of 
414c  et  seq. 

Rainfall  Statistics  415d;  417a 

Rainham  Hall,  Essex  447c 

Raistnck,  H.  628d 

Rajagopalachan,  Chakravarti  332d 

Rajk,  Laszlo  182b;  199d;  200a; 
329d;  479d;  636b 

Rajputana  University  655b 

RAKOSI  (ROTH)  MATYAS  540a; 
210a;  329a;  497a 

Ralph,  Johnny  HOc 

Ramirez,  Juan  Andres  657d 

Ramos,  Nereu  113a 

Ramsey,  A.  M.  61 7b 

Ranee,  Maj.-Gen  Sir  Hubert  125d 

Rangoon,  Burma  136b 

Rank,  J   Arthur  170c 

Rao,  K    S.  629b 

Ras  an-Naqura  384c 

Rasche,  Karl  670c 

RASMUSSEN,  GUSTAV  540b; 
203d;  204a 

Rassemblemcnt  Democratique  Afn- 
cam  (French  West  Africa)  284d 

Rassemblement  du  Peuple  Francais 
291a 

Ratana,  Mrs  681b 

Rathbone  Memorial  Institute  427d 

Rathfarnham,  St.  Columba's  Col- 
lege 149d 

RATIONING  540b,  24c;  307b; 
325a;  animal  feedstuffs  525b; 
Berlin  lOOb;  clothes  176a;  187c; 
Denmark  205a;  Finland  261b; 
France  276c;  furniture  339c; 
paper  107b,  soap  571  b,  timber 
288d 

Rattigan,  Terence  61 5a 

Rau,  Sir  Benegal  76b 

Raven,  Daniel  195b 

Raven,  J.  E    109d 

Raviich,  M.  595a 

Raw  Cotton  Commission  187b; 
445d 

Rawlmson,  A.  II.  J.  Bishop  of 
Derby  167d 

Ray,  S  N.  141d 

Rayburn,  Sam  183c 

RAYON  AND  OTHER  SYN- 
THETIC FIBRES  540d,  612b 

Rayon  Weaving  Association  54 Ib 

Razvi,  Kazim  333d 

Real  Academia  de  Ciencias  402a 

Reay,  Percy  550d 

Rebelo,  Pequito  226b 

Rebstock,  Mildred  156b 

Reciprocal  Trade  Agreements  Act 
(U.S.)  648d 


Reconstruction    Emergency    Fund 

(U.N.E.S.C.O.)  218b 
Reconstruction    Finance   Corpora- 
tion (U.S  )  328b 

Recorded  Music  Collections  387d 
RED  CROSS  541b;  161a;  530a 
Reece,  Gerald  118c 
Reed,  Carol  170d;  171  a;  173b 
Reed,  F.  R.  Cowper  490b 
Rees,  D.  304a 
Rees,  Evans  HOa 
Refregier,  Anton  487d 
REFUGEES     542b;     38d,     192b; 

Arabs   in   Palestine   50d;   218b; 

287b;  358b;  490d;  541d;  643d; 

645b;  German  299b;  331d;683d; 

Greek  496b;  India  and  Pakistan, 

Red  Cross  aid  in  542b;  Kashmir 

334b;    Roman    Catholic   aid    to 

549a 
Regional  Arrangements,  status  of 

342d 
Rehabilitation,  Ministry  of  (India) 

335a 

Reid,  Sir  Charles  177d 
Reid,  James  153b 
Reifel,  A.  631c 
Reihard,  D.  G.  86c 
Reindeer,  Arctic,  Control  of  679a 
Reith,  Lord  170c 
Reith  Lectures  105a 
Relativity,  theory  of  72c 
Remizov,  Alexey  556b 
Remon,  Jose  49 Ib 
Remonno,  Jer6mmo  61c 
Renfrew    Airport,    Glasgow    36b; 

210c 

Renner,  Dr.  Karl  314d 
Rennie,  Sir  Gilbert  116a 
Rent  Restriction  Acts  380b 
REPARATIONS  543c 
Report   of   the   Royal   Commission 

on  Population  663d,  665d 
Representation  of  the  People  Act 

(1948)  393c 

Republican  Party  (Brazil)  112d 
Republican    Party,    United    States 

183c;  520c;  648d 
Republican  People's  Party  (Turkey) 

338a 
Republican  Socialist  Party  (Bolivia) 

105b 

Reserve  Bank  of  Ceylon  1 50c 
Reserve  Bank  of  India  489d 
Respiration  510a 
Restoration    of    Prewar    Practices 

Act  625d 
Retgersite  422d 

Retinal  disease,  research  in  254c 
Reunion  285c 

Reuter,  Professor  Ernst  99d 
Reuters  Ltd   460d 
Reuther,  Victor  70c 
Reuther,  Walter  626c 
Revai,  Jozsef  496c 
Reventlow,  C   D.  533d 
Revenue  Act  (U.S  )  605b 
Rever,  General  Georges  64b 
Revolutionary  Union  of  Youth  of 

Mongolia  426c 

REYNAUD,  PAUL  544c,  279b 
Rezev,  Alexander  J   242b 
RHEE,  SYNGMAN  (RLE  SYN-MAN) 

544d;  158c;  163c,  375d 
Rhein-Mam  Airport,  Frankfurt  36d 
Rheumatic  Fever  156c;  317a 
Rhine,  navigation  of  145d 
Rhine  Control  Committee  576b 
Rhinoceros,  Indian  678b 
Rhinoplasty  215c 
Rhiw,  Carnarvonshire  422d 
Rhizobium  86c 
Rhodes  50c;  356d;  37 la 
Rhoose,  Glamorgan  686c 
Rhum,  Isle  of  109d 
Rhyl,  Flintshire  266d 
Riad  Bey  cs  Sulh  384c 
Rice    27b;    306a;    British    Guiana 

production      123b;      Philippines 

production  503d;  world  produc- 
tion 270b;  271c 
RICHARDSON,      SIR      RALPH 

DAVID  544d;  615a 
Richero,  Antonio  657d 
Richmond,  Dr.  I.  A.  52b 
Richter,  Derek  413c 
Rickettsia  205d 
Rickes,  Dr.  E.  L.  269a;  411b 


Rideal,  Professor  E.  K.  574d 

Rifles,  recoil  less  435a 

RIFLE  SHOOTING  545a 

Right  Road  for  Britain,  The  307d; 
308a,  354b,  519d 

Rimmer,  G,  272b 

Rimrose  Brook  Drainage  Scheme 
266c 

Ringway  Airport,  Manchester  36b 

RIO  DE  JANEIRO  545b;  161b; 
484c 

Rio  de  Janeiro  Convention  (1947) 
342d 

Rio  Spinning  and  Weaving  Syndi- 
cate 545b 

Ripley,  Dr.  Dillon  25 Id 

Rissbach  hydro-electric  scheme, 
Bavaria  632c 

Ritchie,  Dr.  William  A.  55a 

Ritter,  Gerhard  318b 

Ritter,  Karl  670c 

River  and  Harbour  Act  (U.S.)  I46b 

River  Boards  Act  (1948)  563c 

River  pollution  563c 

River  Trent  Catchment  Board  266c 

River  Wye  Catchment  Board  266c 

Road  Haulage  433d 

Road  Passenger  Transport  433b 

Road  Safety  17d 

Road  Research  Board  545d 

ROADS  545c;  209c;  662b 

Roads  and  Waterways  Administra- 
tion 146a 

Robb,  G   P.  683d 

Robbins,  Jerome  202d 

Roberto,  Bryn  624c 

Roberts,  William  213b 

Robertson,  Graham  69b 

Robertson,  J.  194c 

Robertson,  Sir  James  46c 

Robertson,  V.  C.  109d 

Robinson,  Desmond  197c 

Robinson,  J.  302d 

Robinson,  Ray  lllb 

Robson,  Flora  61 5a 

Robson,  G.  56b 

Robson,  J.  M.  508a 

Rochester,  Minnesota  68c 

Rockefeller  Foundation  390b 

Rockefeller  Museum  of  Palestine 
Antiquities  366d 

Rocket  Propulsion  34c;  87b;  435b 

Rocky  Mountain  spotted  fever  629a 

Rodents,   as   plaque  carriers   5 lie 

Rogers,  Carl  R.  532c 

Rokach,  Israel  363c 

Rolleston,  Grace  680c 

Rokossovsky,  Konstantm  62b;  65a; 
516b;636b;  672d 

Rol6n.  Raimundo  493a 

ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH 
547a;  216a;  biblical  studies  616d, 
canonizations  658d;  Communism 
denounced  658d;  Czechoslovakia 
198d;  Holy  Year  658c;  Hungary 
329a;  636a;  Lithuania  392a; 
membership  167a,  Northern  Ire- 
land 468d;  Poland  515d 

Roman  Society  175c 

Roman  y  Reyes,  Victor  Manuel 
464b 

ROME  549c 

Romer,  A   S  490c 

Romita,  Giuseppe  361a;  572b 

ROMULO,  CARLOS  PENA  550a; 
76a,  313b,  641c 

Roosevelt,  Mrs.  Eleanor  222b 

Roosevelt,  Franklin  D  ,  literature 
concerning  42a 

Root,  Howard  F.  207a 

ROOT  CROPS  550b 

Rooy,  G.  de  341a 

Rosenberg,  E.  56b 

Roses,  cultivation  of,  322d;  323b 

Rosier,  Louis  432d 

Rosoman,  Leonard  213b 

Ross,  Sir  David  457b 

ROSSELLINI,  ROBERTO  550c; 
172a;402b 

Rossolimo,  N.  157d;  158b 

Ross's  Snow  Goose  25 Id 

Roszak,  Theodore  563a 

ROTARY  INTERNATIONAL 
550d 

Roth,  L.  M.  24 la 

Rotman,  Raquel  292a 

Rousset,  David  28 Id 

Rowan,  A.  193b 


INDEX 


713 


Rowet  Alan  34a 

Rowe.  Dr.  Mortimer  640c 

Rowell,  Lieut.  Gen.  S.  F.  80a 

ROWING  55 1  a 

Roy,  Dr.  B.  C.  141d 

Roxas,  Manuel  503a 

Royal  Academy  of  Arts  66d ;  486d ; 
487a 

Royal  Aero  Club  37b 

Royal  Aeronautical  Society  574c; 
575b 

Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  Eng- 
land 256d 

Royal  Anthropological  Institute 
47d;48a 

Royal  Anthropological  Society  67c 

Royal  Astronomical  Society  575b 

Royal  Botanical  Gardens,  Kew, 
108c 

Royal  Commission  on  Awards  to 
Inventors  347d 

Royal  Commission  on  Population 
325d;  407a;  53 Id;  574a 

Royal  Commission  on  the  Press 
2Ib;  457b 

Royal  Greenwich  Observatory  71b; 

Royal  Historical  Society  219b 

Royal  Horticultural  Society  108d; 
257a;  322b 

Royal  India  and  Pakistan  Society 
218d 

Royal  Institute  Galleries  66c 

Royal  Institution  574d 

Royal  Institute  of  Chemistry  575a 

Royal  Lancashire  (Agricultural) 
Show  257a 

Royal  Life  Saving  Society  598c 

Royal  Meteorological  Society  41 7c 

Royal  Ocean  Racing  Club  684c 

Royal  Philharmonic  Orchestra  439a 

Royal  Photographic  Society  574d 

Royal  Scottish  United  Services 
Museum  437a 

Royal  Society  108c,387a;574c;575b 

Royal  Society  for  the  Prevention  of 
Accidents  17d;  18b 

Royal  Society  of  Arts  66c 

Royal  Society  of  British  Artists 
66d;  213c;  562d 

Royal  Society  of  Literature  390b; 
391b 

Royal  Society  of  Portrait  Painters 
66d 

Royal  Stuart  Society  149b 

Royal  Swedish  Academy  of  Science 
301  a;  690c 

Royal  Welsh  Agricultural  Society 
257a 

Ruabon,  Cheshire,  research  labora- 
tories opened  395d 

Ruanda  and  Urundi  96d;  630c 

RUBBER  552b,  Liberia  production 
387a;  Malaya  production  403b 

Rubber  Act  (U.S  )  553c 

Rubber-Set  Company  (U.S)  157c 

Rubbra,  Edmund  438c 

Rudenco,  F.  145c 

Rugby  Fives  Association  266b 

Rugby  League  (football)  272c 

Rugby  Union  (football)  27 Id  et  seq. 

Rugoff,  Milton  159d 

Ruhi  Bey  Abdulhadi  371b 

Ruhr  231  b;  296c;  299a,  Anglo- 
American  agreement  on  276d, 
Soviet  demand  for  reparations 
from  190c 

RUMANIA  553d;  military  strength 
65a;  nationalized  industries  446b; 
naval  strength  450b;  Orthodox 
Church  216b;  Roman  Catholic 
Church  547d;  Soviet  forces  in 
63c;  violation  of  human  rights 
343c 

Rundstedt,  Karl  von  670d 

Rushdi  Kekhya601d 

RUSSELL,  BERTRAND  AR- 
THUR WILLIAM  RUSSELL, 
3rd  EARL  555b;  238d 

RUSSELL,  SIR  EDWARD  JOHN 
555b;  27d;  48b;  575c 

Russell,  Harold  254b 

Russell,  Peter  258a 

Russian  Hero,  racehorse  32 la 

RUSSIAN  LITERATURE  555d 

Rust,  Frederick  154a 

Rust  and  Mildew  109b 

Rutgers  University,  New  Bruns- 
wick 49d 


Rutledge,  Wiley  B.  372b 
Ruzicka,  L.  155d 

Rye  109b;  269d;  270a;  305d;  306b 
Ryle,  Gilbert  505b 


Saadeh,  Anton  384d 

SAAR  556b;  572d 

Sabena  (Belgian  Air  Line)  82c 

Sabratha,  Tnpolitania  54a 

Saburov,  Maxim  Zakharovich  637d 

Sackville-West,  V.  322c 

SADAK,  NECMETT1N  556d 

Sadler's  Wells  Theatre  201  b  et  sea. 

SAED  MARAGHEH,  MOHAM- 
MAD 557a 

Saffron  586d 

Saigon,  Vietnam  94a;  286b 

St.  Andrews  University  653d 

St.  Anton-am-Arlbcrg,  ski  cham- 
pionships at  570d 

St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital  Medical 
College  397c 

St.  Gall,  Switzerland,  conference  at 
166a 

SAINT  HELENA  557b 

St.  Kitts  385b 

ST.  LAURENT,  LOUIS 
STEPHEN  557b;  122a,  142d; 
386c;  465c 

St.  Lucia  679b 

Saint-Pierre  and  Miquleon  285c 

Saka,  Hasan  633a 

Salacrou,  Armand  61 5c 

Salah  Abdelkadcr  283d 

Salaman,  R   N  48c 

SALAZAR,  ANTONIO  DE  OLI- 
VEIRA  557c;  281a;  521d,  522b 

Salisbury,  Southern  Rhodesia  469a 

Salisbury,  Sir  Edward  J.  108c 

Salisbury,  Marquess  of  353d 

Salmonellosis  662d 

Salt,  G.  24 la 

SALVADOR,  EL  557c 

SALVATION  ARMY  558a 

Salza  hydro-electric  station  (Aus- 
tria) 230c 

Salzburg  Austria,  music  festival  439a 

Salzman,  Louis  Francis  318d 

Samitz,  M.  H    206c 

Samoa,  American  652d 

Samoa,  Western  463a;  630a;  646b 

Samossoud,  Mrs.  Jacques  107a 

Sand,  Rene  324a 

Sandeman,  Christopher  108c 

San  Francisco  68a 

Sanhednn,  revival  of  the  372a 

SAN  MARINO  558c,  501c 

Santiago,  Chile  I62a 

Santos,  Eduardo  657d 

Sao  Tin  Hia,  assassination  of  70c 

Sapieha,  Adam,  Cardinal  51 5d 

Sarabhai,  Mnnahni  202a 

Saragat,  Giuseppe  360d;  57  Id; 
572c;  626a 

Saran,  513b 

Sarawak  108c;  688b 

Sark,  Channel  Islands  152a 

Sartre,  Jean-Paul  28 Id;  504d 

Sassen,  E   M   J.  A  452c 

Satano,  Osamu  670d 

Satellite  towns,  sewerage  works  for 
563c 

Saudi  Arabia  49d 

Savings,  postal  (U  S  )  524d 

Savings  bank,  Post  Office  524c 

Savold,  Lee  HOc 

Sayre,  Mrs.  Raymond  680b 

Scabies  206a 

Scandinavian  Airlines  System  82d, 
83b 

Scandinavian  countries,  athletics 
73c;  broadcasting  126d;  co- 
operation 470a;  currency  de- 
valuation 250d;  meeting  of  prime 
ministers  465d;  469c;  595d; 
prices  527b;  skiing  570d 

Scandinavian  Defence  Committee 
595d 

SCANDINAVIAN  LITERATURE 
558d 

Scarborough,  Yorkshire  18a;  78a 

Scelba,  Mano  361c 

Schaeffer,  Claude  F.  A.  53a 

ScharTer,  Fritz  lOOd 

Schaffhausen,  Switzerland,  art  ex- 
hibition at  67d 

Schechter,  M.  S   155d 


Schellenberg,  Walter  670c 
Schiphol       Airport,       Amsterdam 

36d 

Schistosomiasis  629b 
Schlechter    Memorial    (Chess) 

Tournament  158b 
Schleif,  W.  171d 
Schleswig,  South,  Danish  minority 

in  203d,  204b,  330d,  597a 
Schleswig-Holstein  204c,  220c 
Schmidt,  Rev.  W  48d 
Schmidt  camera,  70d,  71b 
Schneider  Hannes  570d 
Schnorkel  submarines  435c 
School     Health     Research     Com- 
mittee (Canada)  219c 
Scholfield,  Major  R  684c 
School  of  Physical  Science  (Aust- 
ralia) 655b 
Schools,  dental  service  205c,  new 

buildings  56a,  i30d,  2)9a,  safety 

precauhons  18a;  18d 
Schrader,  Gerhard  24 Ic 
Schroeder,  F.  R.  38^a 
Schumacher,  Kurt  299b;  318a 
Schuman,  Maurice  I65d;  543d 
SCHUMAN,  ROBERT  559d;  19b; 

103c,    190c,   276d;   279b;  299b; 

556c 

Schwarzkopf,  Elizabeth  80b;  600c 
Schweikhardt  Challenge  Cup  (Lawn 

Tennis)  129a 

SCHWEITZER,  ALBERT  560a 
Schwenn  Krosigk,  Lutz  von  670c 
Scientific  and  Industrial  Research, 

Department  of  563c 
Scientific  Film  Association  574c 
Scilly  Islands,  excavations  in  51  d 
Sclater,  J.  R.  P  64 la 
Scorey,  J.  J.  460d 
SCOTLAND  560c;  coal  production 

176d;     crime     195b;     education 

department  219b;  electric  power 

229b,    football    272a;    housing 

325d;    National    Library    388a; 

prison  system  530c;  roads  545c; 

strikes  591  b,  training  of  teachers 

606c;  tunnels  632b 
SCOTT,    GUTHRIE    MICHAEL 

561d;  630d 
Scott,  Peter  25 Id 
Scottish  Council  (Development  and 

Industry)  560c 
Scottish   Council  for   Research  in 

Education  532a 
Scottish      Education      Department 

606c 
Scottish  Industries  Exhibition  256d; 

560c 
Scottish  National  Portrait  Gallery 

43  7a 
Scottish    Trades    Union    Congress 

624a 

Scoville,  W   B.  41 3b 
SCULPTURE  562a 
Sea  Change,  ballet  20 Ic 
Sea  Fish  Industry  Bill  263d 
Seaford,  Sussex,  sea  defence  266d 
Sea-waves,  records  of  483d 
Seaweeds  109a;  406a 
Sebald,  William  J.  364b 
Scgellc,  Pierre  279b 
Seiber,  Matyas  438d 
SEISMOLOGY  563a 
Sekondi,  Gold  Coast,  housing  326c 
"  Self-service  "  shops  569b 
Sellafield,  Cumberland,  atomic  de- 
velopment at  75a 
Selye,  H   237b 
Sclzmck,  David  O.  173a 
Semenov,     Vladimir     Semenovich 

637a 
Semichastnov,      Ivan      Fcdorovich 

637a 

Semyonov,  V.  F.  318c 
SENANAYAKE,  DON  STEPHAN 

563b;  150b 

Senegal,  West  Africa  659a 
Seoul,  Korea,  70c;  375c 
Sepre,  Oskar  242b 
Serbian  Communist  Party  129b 
Senograph  684a 
Serrel,  Georges  533d 
Severn,   river    145b;    226d;   228c; 

545c 
Service  National  de  la   Jeunnesse 


(Belgium)  688a 
SEWERAGE  563 


563c 


Sexual  Behaviour  in  the  Human 
Male  532a 

SEYCHELLES  563d 

SFORZA,  COUNT  CARLO  564a; 
359a;  362d;  465d 

Shakespeare  Memorial  Theatre 
(Stratford-on-Avon)  80b;  600c; 
615b 

SHANGHAI  564b;  158c;  163a 

SHARE1T,  MOSHE  564b;  357b 

Sharkey,  L    79b 

Sharpley,  Cecil  413a 

Shaw,  George  Bernat^  106d,  374c; 
614b 

Shawn,  Ted  202d 

Shearer,  Mo.ra  201c;  202t 

Sheep  392c;  393a;  diseases  of  663a, 
United  States  production  29a 

Sheffield  Shield  (Cricket)  Competi- 
tion 193d 

Shell  Development  Company,  Cali- 
fornia 153d;  154a 

Shelley,  John  F.  183c 

Shell  Film  Unit  171b 

Sheppard,  Richard  56b 

Sheridan,  Eileen  197b 

Sheriff,  Major  G.  322c 

Sherman,  Yvonne  33 Ic 

Shernll,  Henry  Knox,  Bishop  of 
Massachusetts  45b 

Shimoyama  70c,  62 la 

Shingles  156d 

Shipbuilders  Council  of  America 
566b 

SHIPBUILDING  564d;  235a 

SHIPPING,  MERCHANT  MAR- 
INE 566d;  Great  Britain  31  Id; 
New  Zealand  463b;  Panama 
491  b;  world  tonnage  565d 

Shipwrecks  208b 

Shoaib  Quereshi  490a 

SHOE  INDUSTRY  568c;  383d; 
plastics  used  in  512d 

Shop,  Distributive  and  Allied 
Workers  624b, 

SHOPS  AND  DEPARTMENT 
STORES  569a 

Shorb,  Mary  269a 

Shorter  Prayer  Book  1 68a 

Shrewsbury  256d;  257a 

Shukn  Bey  el-Quwath  600d;  601  d 

Shvermk,  N    M.  688b 

Sibu,  Sarawak,  assassination  at 
70d;117d 

Sica,  Vittono  de  172a 

Siddeley  Challenge  Trophy  (aero- 
nautic) 37b 

Sierra,  Leone  125b,  264b 

Silica  153c 

Silicones,  use  in  paint  formulas 
488a 

Sihcosis  336b 

SILK  569d 

Silk  Congress,  International  570a 

Silone,  Ignazio  361  a;  572b 

SILVER  570b 

Simpson,  R  T.  194c 

Smaia,  Rumania  18 Id 

Singapore  2 1  Id;  403b;  424c;  607d, 
688a 

Singapore  Conference  164d 

Singer,  M   268d 

Singh,  Sir  Han  334b;  489a 

Sirikit  Kitiyakara,  Princess  613d 

SIRRY  PASHA,  HUSSEIN  570c; 
223a;  224a,  35 Ic 

Sisal  317c 

Sitwell,  Sir  Osbert  238c 

Sizergh  Castle,  Westmorland  447c 

Skeapmg,  John  562d 

Skibme,  George  202a 

SKIING  570d 

Skinner,  B   M.  163a 

Skold,  Per  Edvm  596a 

Skoplje,  Yugoslavia  400a;  657a 

Skonk,  Irene  201  d 

Slaughter  of  Animals  (Scotland) 
Bill  494c 

Sheve  Bingian,  Co.  Down  468c 

Shfer,  E.  H.  24 Ib 

Slocumb,  C.  H.  68c 

Slot  machine  gambling  103a 

Slovak  Communist  Party  656c 

Smadel,  J   E.  628d 

Smallholders'  Party  (Hungary)  210a 

Smallholdings  Advisory  Council 
406d 

Smallwood,  Joseph  R.  456c 


714 


INDEX 


Smith,  Algar  lllb 

Smith,  E.  Lester  41  Ib 

Smith,  E.  L.  269a 

Smith,  F.  B.  194c 

Smith,  Kenneth  322c 

Smith,  Matthew  487a 

Smith,  Oliver  202d 

Smith,  Philip  R.  684d 

Smith  College,  Massachusetts  656b 

Smithsonian  Institution  54b;  251b 

**  Smog,"  effects  of  336d 

SMUTS,  JAN  CHRISTIAAN 
571a;  370d 

Smyslov.  Vasili  158b 

Snead,  Sam  304a 

Sneclcus,  A   U   392a 

Snettisham,  Norfolk,  discoveries  at 
52a 

Snowy  River  Power  Scheme  (Aust- 
ralia) 80b;  229c,  266d;  292d 

Snyder,  Alfred  260a 

Snyder,  John  196b 

SOAP,  PERFUMERY  AND  COS- 
METICS 57  la 

Soaring  Society  of  America  302d 

Socarras,  Carlos  Pno  196b 

Social  Christian  Party  (Belgium) 
97b;  97d;  98b;  385c 

Socialist-Communist  Committee  of 
Freedom  (San  Marino)  558c 

Social  Democratic  Party,  Austria 
8 1  d ;  Brazil  1 1 2d ;  Denmark  202d ; 
Germany  296d 

SOCIALIST   MOVEMENT    57 Id 

Socialist  Party,  United  States  52  Ib 

Social  Science  Research  Council 
(U  S  )  534a 

SOCIAL  SECURITY,  U.S.  573b; 
444d;  597a 

Social   Security   Act    (U.S.)    573b 

Social  Service,  Committee  on  (Scot- 
land) 169a 

Societ6  de  Constructions  et  d' 
Equipements  Mccamques  pour 
1' Aviation  369b 

Societe  Nationale  de  Constructions 
Aeronautiques  35b 

Societe  Nationale  d'Etude  et  dc 
Construction  de  Moteurs  d* 
Aviation  35b;  369b 

Societe  Nationale  d' Horticulture 
322c 

SOCIETIES,  LEARNED  AND 
PROFESSIONAL  573d 

Society  for  Cultural  Relations  with 
the  U.S.S.R.  575a 

Society  for  Experimental  Biology 
692a 

Society  for  Promoting  Christian 
Knowledge  167d;  425a 

Society  for  Social  Assistance  for 
the  Protection  of  Women  (Tur- 
key) 634a 

Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Hel- 
lenic Studies  175c 

Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the 
Gospel  424a 

Society  of  American  Foresters  275c 

Society  of  British  Aircraft  Con- 
structors 37b 

Society  of  Cosmetic  Chemists  of 
Great  Britain  571c 

Society  of  Wood  Engravers  213c 

Socony-Vacuum  Laboratories,  New 
Jersey  154b 

Sodium  fluoracetate  5 lid 

Sofia,  Bulgaria,  art  exhibition  at 
213c 

Sofka  172c 

Softwood  618b 

Soil,  fauna  of  24 la 

SOIL  CONSERVATION  575b 

Soil  Conservation  and  Rivers  Con- 
trol Act  (New  Zealand)  576b 

Soil  Conservation  Service  576c; 
577d 

Soil  Survey  and  Conservation, 
Division  of  577a 

Sokolov,  A.  242b 

Sokolovsky,  Vasily  D.  169c;  607d 

Sola  Airport,  Stavanger  37a 

Solar  research  72b 

Soldiers',  Sailors'  and  Airmen's 
Families  Associations  252d 

Solley,  L.  J.  494b;  518c 

Solomon  Islands,  486b 

Somalia  343b;  359c;  360a;  645d 

Somali  Youth  League  359d 


Somahland  630d 
Somers,  L.  N.  37b 
Somoza,  Anastasio  464b 
SONGGRAM,     LUANG     PIBUL 

577b;613a 

Sonora,  Mexico  55c 

Sonsbeek,  Netherlarfds  67d 

Soochow,  China  163a 

Sophoulis,  Themistocles  207d, 
312c,  386c;  480d,  496b 

Sosin,  Milt  103d 

SOULBURY,  HERWALD  RAMS- 
BOTHAM,  1st  BARON  577b; 
150b;  175c 

Sound  recording  173d;  233d 

South  Africa  Act  578d 

SOUTH  AFRICA,  THE  UNION 
OF  577c;  advertising  21d;  Angli- 
can Church  45b,  ape-men,  dis- 
covery of  47d;  architecture  56d; 
banking  91c,  birth  rate  664a, 
botanical  research  108c;  broad- 
casting 127d;  canning  industry 
147a;  coal  production  178d; 
cricket  193b;  diamond  mines 
207b;  drought  26b;  27 Ic;  edu- 
cation 219c;  employment  236d; 
foreign  trade  346c;  gold  produc- 
tion 302d;  Great  Britain,  loan  to 
247d;  House  of  Assembly  494d; 
housing  326b;  immigration  332a; 
import  restrictions  176b;  430d; 
Methodist  Church  41 8c,  mus- 
eums 437b;  native  labour  562a; 
newspapers  460c;  railways  232a; 
538b,  religious  missions  425a, 
soil  conservation  575c;  South- 
Wcst  Africa,  policy  on  630d, 
645d;  status  of  citizens  121d; 
steel  production  355d;  sugar 
production  593d;  universities 
655c 

South  African  Aid  to  Britain  Fund 
687b 

South  African  Citizenship  Act 
(1949)  12ld 

South  African  Electricity  Supply 
Commission  229c 

South  African  Library  Association 
388b 

SOUTH  AFRICAN  LITERA- 
TURE 580a 

Southampton,  docks  and  harbours 
210d;  University  College  398a 

Southern  Baptist  Convention  94b 

Southern  Pacific  Railroad  117b 

SOUTHERN  RHODESIA  580b; 
coal  production  178d;  national 
parks  447a,  religious  missions 
425a;  rock  paintings  48c;  tobacco 
production  61 9d;  venereal  dis- 
eases 660c 

South  Pacific  616b 

SOUTH  PACIFIC  COM- 
MISSION 581a,  463a;  492d 

Southsea,  Hampshire,  chess  tourna- 
ment at  157d 

South  Shields,  Co.  Durham,  ex- 
ploration at  52b 

South- West  Africa  343b;  Herero 
tribe  in  562a;  630d;  South 
African  Government's  policy  on 
630d;  645d 

South-West  Africa  Affairs  (Amend- 
ment) Act  402c;  494d 

SOVEREIGNS,  PRESIDENTS 
AND  RULERS  58 Ic 

Soviet  All-Union  Communist  Party 
182b 

Soviet  Control  Commission  298d 

SPAAK,  PAUL  HENRI  582c; 
97d,  98b;  152c;  188c,  189d 

SPAIN  582c,  exchange  rates  250b, 
monarchist  movement  402a; 
naval  strength  450b,  railways 
537d,  taxation  605a;  telecom- 
munications 609b 

Spaldmg,  Mr.  and  Mrs.  H  N.  485a 

SPANISH-AMERICAN  LIIERA- 
TURE  584d 

SPANISH  COLONIAL  EMPIRE 
585c 

SPANISH  LITERATURE  585d 

Spath,  L,  F.  490b 

SPEEDWAY  RACING  586b 

Spellman,   Francis,  Cardinal  222b 

Spergon  323a 

SPICES  586b 


Spilhams,  A.  F.  483c 

SPIRITS  586d 

Spitsbergen  252b 

Spoehr,  Alexander  49c 

Spokane,  Washington  108d 

Sporne,  K.  R.  109d 

Spychalski,  Marian  516c 

Spyndon,  Mgr.  313c 

SQUASH  RACKETS  587c 

Stahlberg,  G.  158b 

Staley,  A.  E  470c 

STALIN  (DJUGASHVILI), 
JOSEPH  VISSARIONOVICH 
587d;  165a,  181c,  405c;  426c; 
496a;  635d;  636d 

Stals,  A   J    579b 

Standing  Closer  Association  (Brit- 
ish West  Indies)  125d 

Stansted,  Essex,  airport  36b 

Stapel,  Jan  433c     ' 

Starr  Carr,  Seamer  51c 

State  Farm  Safety  Committees 
(US)  18d 

State  Planning  Commission 
(USSR)  637d,  658b 

States,  rights  and  duties  of  342d 

Statistical  Review  of  Press  Adver- 
tising 20c;  21  a 

Staub,  A    M   410d 

Staudmger,  H    155b 

Stavanger,  Norway,  airport  470a 

Steel  133b;  414a;  429c 

Steenbergen,  H   Van  197b 

Stefansson,  Stefan  J   99b 

Steiger,  Eduard  von  600a 

Steinberg,  Israel  683d 

StemhofT,  Karl  298d 

Stemmle,  R   A    171d 

Stephens,  Bunty  303d 

Stereoscopic  Photography  407b 

Stereochemistry  154c 

Sterling,  Balances  89a,  349a;  see 
also  Devaluation 

Stern,  h   C.  109a 

Sterope,  racehorse  32 Id 

Stettmius,  Edward  Reilly,  Jr.  48 Ib 

Steward,  Julian  H    49a 

Stewart,  Duncan  George  70d;  1 17d, 
48lb;  688b 

Straulino,  A   684d 

SIIKKER  DIRK  UIPKO  588a, 
452b;  452ii 

Stirling,  Wdlter  Francis  70d 

Stock,  Percy  316a 

Stockholm  21  Id;  256b,  388c;  541d 

Stockmans,  Francis  490c 

STOCKS  AND  SHARES  588b 

Stomach,  diseases  of  39d 

Stone,  Bentley  202d 

Stones,  H.  H   205c 

Stomngton  Island,  Antarctica  251b 

Stooke,  Sir  G    Bcresford  124d 

Storm,  Lesley  61 5a 

STRANG,    SIR    WILLIAM    590d 

Strasbourg  103c;  166d,  309a 

Stratigraphy  294b 

Stratis,  G    572b 

Stratosphere  416d 

Strauss,  Adolf  670d 

Strauss,   Richard  438c 

Streptomycin  206b,  215c,  317b; 
4Mb;  412b,  595c,  629a;  632a 

Stresa,  Italy,  conference  at  126c 

Stress,  clinical  research  in  237a 

STRIKES  AND  LOCKOUTS 
591a;  Argentina  132b,  Australia 
79b,  355d;  Berlin  lOla,  Bolivia 
105b,  Chile  162a;  Finland  255d; 
261  d;  461 b;  France  278d;  279c; 
446b;  493d;  625d;  Great  Britain 
210c;  306d,  307a;  Guatemala 
315b;  Iceland  330d;  Ireland 
352b;  Italy  362d;  Nigeria  125c; 
United  States  139d;  158c;  179a; 
461c;  627b;  649a 

Stnmple,  Harrell  490b 

Stromback.  Helge  596b 

Strophanthus,  cortisone  produced 
from  I57c 

Struve,  Paul  98c 

Stuckart,  Wilhelm  670c 

Student  exchanges  218d 

Studies  in  Social  Psychology  in 
World  War  11  532c 

Styrene552d;  553c 

Suarez,  Waldino  61c 

Subsidies,  Great  Britain  130b; 
526d;  540d;  Switzerland  599a 


Suchtelen,  Nico  van  214b 

Sucrose  104b 

Sudan,  archaeological  research  54a; 
irrigation  schemes  292d 

Sudirman,  General  65d 

SUEZ  CANAL  592d;  223b 

SUGAR  593b;  27b;  114b;  British 
West  Indies  126a;  Ceylon  150d; 
Cuba  196b;  Leeward  Islands 
385b;  Philippines  503d;  Puerto 
Rico  652b,  world  production 
270c 

Sugar  beet  550b;  587a;  593b 

Suggs,  Louise  304c 

Suhard,  Emmanuel,  Cardinal  481d-; 
547c,  658d 

Suhrawardy,  H.  S.  489b 

SUKARNO,  AHMED  594b;  455b 

Sulphonamides  254b;  513c 

Sulphur,  world  reserves  of  260b 

Summer  Schools  218d 

Summerskill,  Edith  63 Ib 

Sunday  Express  457d 

Sundav  Pictorial  66c 

Sunflower  seeds  659a 

Sunderland,  docks  and  harbours 
210d 

Sunspots,  effect  on  radio  of  608d 

Superannuation  Act  (1949)  175a 

Supersonic  speed  31b 

Suphetrone  385d 

Supply,  Ministry  of  354b;  369b; 
429c 

Supreme  Policy  Council  (China) 
I58c 

Supreme  Reconstruction  Board 
(Greece)  207d 

SURGERY  594d;  412d;  531c 

Surinam  456a 

Sutcliffe,  B.  194b,  194c 

Sutherland,  Graham  486d 

Sutton  Coldfield,  Warwickshire, 
television  station  610b 

Sverdrup,  Professor  H    U.  483c 

Svolos,  Alexandros  572b 

Swansea,  Glamorganshire  70b; 
210d;  257a 

Swanstrom,  Edward  E.  549a 

Swart,  C.  R.  579b 

Swatow  163b 

SWEDEN  595c,  airports  37a; 
architecture  58a;  athletics  73c;  ' 
broadcasting  126d;  canals  146a; 
crime  195d;  education  22  Ic; 
electric  power  228d;  employ- 
ment 236d;  film  industry  172b; 
football  272d,  gymnastics  315d; 
incomes  distribution  675c;  jet 
propulsion  369b;  Liberal  move- 
ment 386b;  literature  558d; 
marriage  counseMing  407d,  mus- 
eums 437c;  naval  strength  450b; 
painting  487b;  paper  and  pulp 
industry  492b;  printing  industry 
529b,  railways  23 Ic;  rye  305d; 
sculpture  562a,  universities  656d; 
venereal  diseases  660c 

Swedish  Academy  of  Literature 
390a 

Swedish  Geophysical  Society  41 7d 

Swedlund,  General  Nils  596b 

Sweet,  W.  H.  594d 

Sweets,  rationing  of  540c 

Swenson,  O.  595b 

SWIFT,  FRANK  597d;  272b 

SWIMMING  598b 

Swimming  Teachers'  Association 
598c 

Swiss  Grand  Prix  432d 

SWITZERLAND  598d;  airport* 
37a;  banking  91  d;  booksales 
107b;  broadcasting  127b;  dye- 
stuffs  industry  214d;  employ- 
ment 236d;  exchange  rates  250b; 
housing  327b;  India,  treaty  with 
451  b;  jet  propulsion  369c;  prices 
527c;  printing  industry  529b; 
railways  23 Ic;  53 7d;  refugees,, 
aid  to  '542b;  taxation  605b; 
universities  656d 

Swollen  shoot  disease   125c;    179(1 

SYDNEY  600b;  58a;  266d 

Sydney  university  600c 

Synchroton  410b 

Syphilis  161b;  660c  et  seq 

SYRIA  600c;  50d;  exchange  rates 
250d,  Iraq,  relations  with  35 Ib; 
Israel,  armistice  agreement  with 


INDEX 


715 


645c;    Lebanon,    relations    with 
384d;  postage  stamps  501  d 

Syrian  National  Party  384d 

Systematics  Association  109a 

Szab6,  L.  158b 

Szakasits,  Arpad  329d 

Szonyi,  Tibor  329d 


Table  Bay  Power  Station  148c 

TABLE  TENNIS  602a 
Tacoma  Narrows  Bridge  (U  S  )  1 16c 
Taft,  Robert  A.  626d;  649b 
Taft-Hartley    Labour    Act    (U  S.) 
183d;  626d;   627a,   629d;   647c, 
649b 

Taipei,  Formosa  158c;  164b,  276a 
Takoradi,  Gold  Coast  125c,  326c 
Tallchief,  Marjone  202b,  202d 
Tallinn,  Estonia,  deportation  from 

242b 

Tambelegam  Bay,  Tnncomahe, 
peatl  fishing  resumed  150d 

Tanganyika,  British  East  Africa 
118d,  119a,  630b;  630c,  coffee 
exports  180b,  farming  27c;  meat 
canning  147c,  railways  538b 

TANGIER  602b 

Tanks,  improvements  in  "  General 
Patton  "  type  435b 

Tanner,  Haydn  272b 

Tanners  Council  Research  Labora- 
tory 384b 

TARIFFS  602c 

Tarle,  fcvgheny  182b 

Taronga  Park  Zoological  Gardens, 
Sydney  692a 

Tarpeshev,  Dobri  135a 

Tartakower,  S    158b 

Taruc,  Luis  503b 

Tasmania,  elections  224c;  transport 
539c 

Tass  Agency  190c,  46  Ib 

Tate  Gallery,  London,  exhibitions 
at  66a,  66b,  66d 

Tati,  Jacques  171c 

Taut,  Max  I06b 

TAXATION  604a,  beer,  114c, 
115a,  bookmakers  102b,  death 
duties  212d,  effect  on  national 
income  442d,  entertainments 
170c,  purchase  176b,  shipping 
567b,  *ec  also  various  countries 

Taylor,  Major-General  Maxwell  I). 
99d 

Taylor,  Myron  73b,  656b 

Tchehtchew,  Pavel  21 3b 

TEA  606a 

Teacher  exchanges  218d 

Teachers,  salaries  of  219b,  22 la 

TEACHERS,  TRAINING  OF 
606b,  219b  et  seq. 

TECHNICAL  EDUCATION  606d 

Tehran,  Persia  70c,  70d 

Tehuantepec,  Isthmus  of,  Mexico 
38c 

Teichert,  Curt  490b 

Telecommunications  524b 

Telegraph  Conference,  International 
608d 

TELEGRAPHY  607b 

TELEPHONE  609a 

Telescopes  70d.  71  b 

Teletype  system  415b,  461c,  607c, 

TELEVISION  610a,  202c,  302c, 
535b,  advertising  (US)  22d, 
effect  on  broadcasting  127a 
eflect  on  him  industry  17Ba,  I74a, 
meteorological  uses  41 7a,  in 
United  States  128b 

Teller,  E.  509a 

Tempel,  C.  W.  632a 

Temperatures  (statistics)  41 5a,  416d 

Temple  University,  Philadelphia 
413b 

TENNIS  61  Ic 

Tennyson,  Sir  Charles  238c,  391c 

-Tenterden,  Kent,  quincentenary 
celebrations  149d 

Terhune,  W.  B.  53 la 

Termmiello,  Arthur  38 Ic 

Terrestrial  Magnetism  508d 

Tessier,  Gaston  626c 

Tetraethyl  Pyrophosphatc  24 Ic 

Tetraethylthiuramdisulphide  411  d; 
4i2a 

Tevosian,  Ivan  Fedorovich  637d 

Tewson,  Vincent  182c;  626a 


Texas  cotton  production  188a 
Textile  Foreign  Trade  Corporation 

(Japan)  569d 
TEXTILE  INDUSTRY  61  Ic;  258d; 

31  Ib,  340a,  540c;  545b 
Textile     Machinery,     International 

Exhibition  of  61 2a 
THAIK,  SAO  SHWE  612d;  136a 
THAILAND  (SIAM)  612d,  foreign 

trade  346d,  military  strength  65d, 

naval   strength   450d,    UNESCO 

mission  to  218b 
Thalamotomy  4 lib 
Thames,  river  293a,  cleansing  674a, 

rowing   championships    55 la    et 

seq  ,     south     bank    area    394b; 

survey  563c 
THEATRE  613d 
Theatre  Francais  616a 
Thebes,  excavations  at  54a 
The  Cocktail  Part y  614c 
The  Crisis  in  the  University  653d 
Ihetr  Finest  Hour  23 7d 
1  he  Lady's  Not  for  Burning  614a 
Thenylene  410d 
THEOLOGY  6l6c 
Theophonn  410d 
Therapeutic  Substances  Act  410c 
Therapeutic  Trials  Committee(U  S  ) 

156d 

Thermoplastics  512c 
Thesiger,  Wilfred  252a 
The  third  Man  169d,  171a 
Thiomenn  317b 
Thiophene  154b,  512b 
Thiouiacil  147a 
Thomas,  Charles  L    153c 
Thomas,  Eddie  1  lOd 
I  hornas,  Ivor  494b 
Thomas,  James  Henry  481d 
Ihomas,  Sir  Miles  580b 
Thomas,  Norman  512b 
Thomason  College  of  Engineering, 

Roorkee,  India  655b 
Thompson,  Billy  HOd 
Thompson  Trophy  (aeronautic)  37b 
Thomson,  Sir  George  575b 
Thomte,  R   617c 
Thoracoplasty  41 2d 
Thore?,  Maurice  182a 
Thorn,  James  463a,  641  d 
Thorndike,  Edward  Lee  656b 
Thorndike,  Dame  Sybil  615a 
Thoroughbred     Racing    Protective 

Bureau  (U  S)  102d,  103a 
Thors,  Olafur  330d 
Thrombm  215b 
Thwaites,  A.  C    HOa 
Thwin,  U  136b 

Thyroid  gland,  disease  of  412c 
Thyroxine  237b 
TIBET  61 7d 
Tibionc  156d 
Tidal  Power  226d,  228c 
Tilhch,  P.  J    61 7b 
Tillmann.  W    A    513a 
Tilman,  H    W.  252a 
Timsah,     Lake,     Suez,     mooring- 

station  deepened  593a 
Tientsin  162d;  163b 
Tinian,  Island  of,  leper  colony  385d 
TIMBER  618a,  Burma  136c,  Great 
Britain,  production  and  consump- 
tion 31  la,  Philippines  production 
504a;  shoitage  133b,  274c;  275b; 
288d 
Timber    Development    Association 

133b 
Time-recording,     electronic     233a; 

233c 

Time\t  The  460b 
limes  Liteiary  Supplement  159a 
Tin  42 Ic 

Tingsten,  Herbert  596a 
Tirana,     Albania,    soviet    military 

mission  at  38a 
Titanium  I44a,  414a;  488a 
Tlmgit  culture  49c 
TOB\CCO  619b;  Southern  Rhode- 
sia  production   580c,    U  S.   pro- 
duction 157d 
Todd,  A    R.  575b 
Todorovic.  Mijalko  497a 
I OGLIAT  n,     P  ALMIRO     620b ; 

182a,  284d 

Togoland  630a;  646b 
Toilet    Preparations    (Revocation) 
Order  (1948)  57 Ib 


TOKYO  620d;  70c 

Toluene  153b 

Tomatoes  660a 

Tongkmg  (liac-Kv)  285d 

Topectomy  413b 

Tornadoes    and    storms,    disasters 

caused  by  209a 
Toronto,     Canada,     International 

Trade  Fair  256d 

TORRES  BODET,  JAIME  621a 
Tort  Claims  Act  (U  S  )  38 Ib 
Toscanim,  Arturo  94d 
Totalizators  102b;  102d 
Toumanova,  Tamara  201  d;  202b 
TOURIST  INDUSTRY  612b,  8Kb, 
Great  Britain  324d;  Ireland  353c, 
Scotland  56 Id 
Tousey,  R    72b 
Toweel,  Vic    1  I  Ib 
TOWN   AND  COUNIRY   PLAN- 
NING *22a;  Scotland  S60d 
Town   ami   Country   Planning  Act 

I51c 

T  oyoda,  Socmu  67()d 
Trades    and    Labour    Congress    of 

Canada  143b 

Trades  Union  Congress  (British) 
78a,  182c,  307a,  308a;  519b, 
624a,  626ti,  668b 

Tr.ide  Union  of  Asiastic  and  Aus- 
tralasian countries  637b 
TRADE  UNIONS  624a 
Traikov,  Gheorghi  496d 
I raite  de  Zoologie  692b 
Tranmer,  Eileen  158b 
Trans-Arabian  Pipeline  384c,  601c 
Trans-Canada  Airlines  84b 
Transport  Act  (1947)  535d 
Transport    and    General    Workers' 

Union  182c,  307a,  592a,  624b 
Transport  Commission  445c,  535d; 

536a 

Trapnell,  BMW.  266b 
Travancore,  India,  integration  with 

Cochin  333b 
Travel  Association  324d 
Trcase,  Geolfrey  159a 
Treasury,  I  he  174d 
Treasury  Department  (US)  92d 
Treatment    and    Rehabilitation    of 
Offenders,      Scottish      Advisory 
Council  on  530d 

Tree  harm  Movement  (U.S  )  619b 
Trcncianske    Tephcc,  C/echoslova- 

kia,  chess  tournament  at  158b 
Trent,  Lord  655a 
Trenton,     Ontario,     air     training 

memorial  427c 
Trevelyan,  Dr   G    M    238b 
Ina/ole  104d 
Trichoinomasis  662b 
Tndione451d,  452a 
IR1ESTE,     THE    I<REE     TERRI- 
TORY OF  627c,  203d 
IRIN1DAD  AND  1OBAGO  628d; 

125d 
Tnpohtania     359b,     archaeological 

research  54a 

Tristan  da  Cunha  147c,  557b 
Tnstian  Fou,  ballet  202a 
Trnka,  Jin  171b 
Troisfon tames,  Roger  617c 
TROPICAL  DISEASES  628d 
Troposphere  4l6d 
Trucial  Sheikdoms  50c 
Trud,  Moscow  638a 
Trujillo   y    Molina,    Generalissimo 

Rafael  Leonidas  212b 
TRUMAN,  HARRY  S.  629d,  45a; 
76c,    94b,     112a,     113a;     123a; 
132b,    151d,    162a,    164d;    183c; 
214c,   215d,   275c,   327d,   334b, 
336d,   349d,   465c,  466b,  466d; 
498d,   503c,    557b,  605b,   627a, 
647c  et  seq 
TRUST      TERRITORIES      630a; 

343b;  492c,  646a 
Tsaldans,  K.  312d 
Tsedenbal,  Y.  426b,  426c 
Tsinmokos,  Ehas  572b 
TUBERCULOSIS      631b;      156d; 
161  a;  634b;  645b,  bovine  662d; 
children   tested   for    161b,   emo- 
tional factors  in  532d;  prophy- 
lactics 41  Ob;   surgical  treatment 
595c 

Tubman,  William  V.  S.  386d 
Tudor,  Antony  202d 


Tudor  aircraft  82d;  81b 

Tunisia  284b 

Tunisian  Dcstour  (Constitutional) 
Party  284c 

TUNNELS  632b 

Tunny-fishing  45d 

Turbo-prop  aeroplanes  368b 

Tunna,  Joaquin  482a,  584b 

Turkestan  earthquake  563a 

TURKEY  632d;  archaeological  re- 
search 53a;  ed  nation  22 Ic; 
356b,  foreign  trade  34oc;  naval 
strength  450a,  roads  546b;  Syria, 
relations  with  601  b,  tuberculosis 
6llc 

Turkish  VTiirs,  Committee  on 
(Cyprus)  198a 

Turpm,  Dick  HOc 

Turpin,  Randolph  llOc 

Turnll,  Dr.  W.  B.  322c 

Turnll,  W    H   109a 

Tuttle,  Aubrey  S.  641a 

Twain,  Mark,  papers  of  107a 

Twining,  Sir  Edward  118c 

Tyne,  river,  cyclists*  tunnel  under 
632b;  port  of  21  la 

Tynemouth,  Northumberland  149d 

Tynwald  (Isle  of  Man)  404b 

Typhus  fever  628d,  629a 

U 

Udaipur,  Maharana  of  333b 

Uganda,  British  East  Africa  118c; 
1 19b,  coffee  exports  180b;  floods 
267a,  hvdro-electnc  scheme  46c; 
national  park  447b 

Uganda  Electricity  Board  229c 

Ukraine,  purges  in  638a 

Ulan  Bator,  Mongolia  426b 

Ulbncht,  Walter  298d 

Ulster  Transport  Authority  536c 

Ultrasonic  fathometers  406b 

Ultrasonics  488b 

Umma  (Nation)  Party  (Sudan)  46b 

Ummal  Samim  quicksands,  Arabia, 
252a 

Un-American  Activities,  Com- 
mittee on  381d 

UNDEN,  OSTEN  634c 

Underdeveloped  areas,  technical 
aid  to  644b 

Underwood,  Leon  562d 

Undset,  Signd  482b,  559a 

Undulent  Eever  156d;  629a 

Unemployment  Insurance  (U.S.) 
573c 

Uniao  Nacional  (Portugal)  522b 

Union  Francaise  des  Associations 
des  Combattants  253c;  672b 

Union  Internationale  de  Radio- 
diffusion  126c 

Union  Nacional  Smarquista  (Mexi- 
co) 419a 

Union  Nationalc  des  Combattants 
(France)  253c 

Union  of  Eighters  for  Freedom  and 
Democracy  253d 

Union  of  Popular  Democrats 
ELD.  (Greece)  572a 

UNION  OF  SOVIET  SOCIAL- 
IST REPUBLICS  634d;  air 
force  34b,  anti-semitism  556a; 
armaments  reduction  proposed 
644a,  arts  and  sciences,  control 
of  181d,  555d,  atomic  energy 
control,  attitude  to  75d,  atomic 
explosion  in  74b,  77c;  182b; 
466d,  649c,  Austria,  relations 
with  81c;  544a,  British  broad- 
casts jammed  126d,  Bulgaria, 
relations  with  135a;  children, 
repatriation  of  542b,  chess  tourn- 
aments 158b,  China,  relations 
with  163d,  165a;  169b;  405b; 
dyestuffs  industry  214d;  edu- 
cation 22 Ic;  Estonia,  policy  in 
242a;  film  industry  169d;  172b; 
Finland,  relations  with  262d; 
France,  pact  with  559d.  fur  in- 
dustry 289d;  Germany,  policy 
regarding  190c,  19  la,  299a; 
544a,  glass  industry  302b;  gold 
production  302d;  Great  Britain 
relations  with  18 Id;  308d;  6l8b; 
historical  research  31  He,  Japan, 
policy  regarding  364d,  399a; 
Korea,  relations  with  375b; 
375d,  376b,  Latvia,  pohcy  in 


716 


INDEX 


377c;  Lithuania,  policy  in  392a; 
Macedonia,  policy  in  399c; 
Manchuria,  policy  in  165a, 
marriage  and  divorce  407d; 
Marxism  504c;  military  strength 
63b;  naval  strength  450a;  North 
Atlantic  Treaty,  attitude  to  466d; 
Norway,  relations  '  with  465d; 
469d;  Orthodox  Church  216a, 
Persia,  relations  with  498a;  ply- 
wood industry  61 8d;  Poland, 
policy  on  516b;  prisoners  of  war 
retention  of  530a;  railways  231d; 
537d;  roads  546a;  Ruhr,  repara- 
tions demand  190c;  Rumania, 
relations  with  554a;  satellite 
armies,  sovietization  of  62b; 
satellite  states,  control  of  18 Id; 
J82b;  silver  production  570b; 
soil  conservation  576a;  sugar 
beet  production  593c;  Sweden, 
relations  with  597b;  television 
610a;  Trieste,  policy  in  628b; 
Trust  Territories,  policy  on  630b ; 
Turkey,  relations  with  633c; 
United  Sutes,  relations  with 
181d;  641b;  wheat  crop  677c; 
Youth  organizations  688b;  Yugo- 
slavia, relations  with  129c;  688c 

UNITARIAN  CHURCH  640c 

United  Artists'  Film  Corporation 
402b 

UNITED  CHURCH  OF  CANADA 
641a 

United  Electrical,  Radio  and 
Machine  Workers  of  America 
182c 

United  Farm  Equipment  and  Metal 
Workers  of  America  182c 

United  Kingdom-Canada  Trade 
Committee  151b 

United  Kingdom  Clothing  Trade 
Mission  176b 

United  Kingdom-Dominion  Wool 
Disposals  Ltd.  68  Ic 

United  Mine  Workers  (U.S.)  627b 

UNITED  NATIONS  641  b;  Arab 
refugees,  aid  for  218b;  Atomic 
Energy  commission  75c  et  seq. 
294c;  508b;  637b,  643d;  648b; 
Balkans'  Special  Commission  on 
38a;  312d;  641c;  643a,  budget 
estimates  646c;  Ceylon,  member- 
ship vetoed  150b;  Coca  leaf, 
commission  of  inquiry  on  440b; 
C9nyention  of  Armaments,  com- 
mission on  644a;  economic  and 
social  council  15 Id;  218b,  440a, 
542d;  641d;  643d;  Europe,  econ- 
omic commission  for  497b;  546a; 
Far  East,  economic  commission 
for  Asia  and  403b;  670d;  flag 
646b;  general  assembly  76a; 
160d;  217b,  246c;  641c;  Geno- 
cide Convention  242d,  Gold 
Coast,  report  on  125c;  Greece 
conciliation  commission  313b, 
headquarters  59a;  461  d,  Human 
Rights  Commission  343c;  India 
and  Pakistan  Commission  643a; 
Information  on  non-self-govern- 
ing territories  646a;  International 
Law  Commission  342d;  343a; 
343c;  644b;  Israel,  admission  to 
membership  357b;  Jerusalem 
administration  of  491  a,  Kashmir: 
conciliation  commission  334b; 
488d;  Korea:  commission  on 
376b;  64Ic;  643b;  membership 
641  b;  Middle  East:  Economic 
Survey  Mission  for  358b,  490d; 
543b;  Mongolia:  membership 
rejected  426c;  Narcotic  Drugs 
commission  440a;  440d;  Pales- 
tine, conciliation  commission 
50c;  351d;  358b;  543a;  643c; 
Permanent  Central  Opium  board 
440b;  Political  committee  76a; 
359a;  359d;  582d,  668d;  Red 
Cross  mandate  541  d;  Relief  and 
Rehabilitation  Administration 
161  a;  Relief  for  Palestine  refu- 
gees 287c;  543b;  Scientific  Con- 
ference on  the  Conservation  and 
Utilization  of  Resources  260b; 
292c;  576b;  678a;  692b;  Security 
council  75c;  99d;  217a;  453d; 
454b;  489a;  582d;  628b;  641b; 


668b;  statistical  bureau  441  a; 
status  of  women,  commission  on 
680b,  Trusteeship  Committee 
119a;  I35d;  230a;  562a,  641d; 
643d;  645d;  646b;  Visiting  Mis- 
sion  to  Trust  Territories  in  East 
Africa  646b;  War  Crimes  Com- 
mission 671  b;  World  Forestry 
Congress  275d 

United  Nations  Charter  342b, 
343d;  389b;  466c;  646d 

United  Nations  Demographic  Year- 
book 663d;  664d 

United  Nations  Educational,  Scien- 
tific and  Cultural  Organization, 
(U  N.ESC.O  )  19d;  20a;  47c, 
67d;  I08a,  175d,  217c;  387a; 
388b,  43 7d,  574a,  621  a;  644d; 
653b;  678a 

United  Nations  International  Chil- 
dren's Emergency  Fund  160d; 
161a 

United  Press  (U  S  )  46 Ic 

United  Provinces.  India  489a 

UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA, 
THE  646c;  advertising  22a, 
agriculture  25c;  27d,  29a,  157b; 
aircraft  manufacture  3 la;  3 Id, 
32d;  Albania,  relations  with 
37d;  aliens  39b;  aluminium  prod- 
uction 419d;  Anglican  Church 
45a;  archaeological  research  54b, 
architecture  58c;  art  exhibitions 
67d;  68a;  art  sales  69d;  anthro- 
pology 48d,  athletics  73c;  atomic 
energy  research  76b,  balance  of 
payments  247a,  ballet  202c, 
banking  92a;  139d;  Baptist 
Church  94a;  baseball  94b;  beer 
consumption  11 5a,  betting  and 
gambling  102c;  birth  rate  664b; 
book  production  108b;  book 
sales  106b;  botanical  research 
108d;  boxing  lllb;  Boy  Scouts 
movement  112a;  Brazil,  relations 
with  113a;  214c;  bread  114b; 
bridges  116b;  broadcasting  127d, 
budget  132b,  building  industry 
133a;  business  review  138d; 
butter  production  659c;  Canada, 
relations  with  75b;  142d,  canals 
and  waterways  146b;  canning 
industry  147d;  children's  books 
159d;  child  welfare  161b,  China, 
relations  with  158c,  163b;  164b, 
164d;  civil  aviation  84d,  clothing 
industry  176c;  coal  production 
178d;  cocoa  imports  179d;  coffee 
imports  180a;  Communist  move- 
ment 182b;  Congregational 
Church  183b;  corn  crops  393a; 
consumer  credit  184d;  contract 
bridge  185c,  co-operative  move- 
ment 186b;  copper  production 
420a;  cotton  industry  28a;  187d, 
crime  195d,  Cuba,  treaty  with 
196c;  dairy  farming  200c,  death 
rate  664c;  Denmark,  military 
aid  to  204b,  diabetes  research 
206c;  diamonds,  .mports  207b, 
docks  and  harbours  21  Id,  212a; 
drawing  and  engraving  213d; 
drug  traffic  440b,  dyestuff  prod- 
uction 215a;  earthquakes  363b; 
education  221  d;  electrical  indus- 
tries 228b,  electric  power  230a; 
232a;  electronics  233b,  employ- 
ment 139b,  236a,  epidemics 
241  d;  exports  and  imports  139d; 
ex  -  servicemen's  organizations 
253d;  fats  and  oils  659c,  fencing 
259d;  film  industry  172c;  floods 
267b;  flour  268c;  food  stocks  and 
exports  29b;  football  273d,  for- 
eign trade  346c;  347c,  forestry 
275b,  fruit  288b,  fur  industry 
289c;  furniture  industry  289a, 
Germany,  policy  on  190c;  191a, 
geological  research  294a;  girl 
scouts  301  d,  glass  industry  302b; 
gliding  302d;  gold  production 
and  reserves  247a;  303a;  golf 
303b;  304a;  gram  crops  306a; 
Haiti,  trade  agreement  with  316d; 
highway  construction  546c,  his- 
torical research  318c;  horse- 
racing  322a,  horticulture  322d; 
hospitals  324b;  hotels  325b; 


housing  327b;  ice  hockey  330b; 
ice  skating  331b;  immigration 
331d;  332b;  542c;  incomes  and 
expenditure  139a;  444b;  income 
tax  treaties  605c;  industrial  alco- 
hol production  587b;  industrial 
health  336d;  industrial  produc- 
tion 137c;  139b,  infantile  paraly- 
sis 337c;  insurance  338d,  339a, 
intercommunion  of  churches 
617b;  investments  abroad  349c, 
443d;  iron  ore  production  355d, 
Japan,  policy  in  364c;  Jewish 
community  372a;  jet  propulsion 
369c;  juvenile  employment  374a; 
Korea,  relations  with  375d;  law 
and  legislation  380d,  lawn  tennis 
382c;  383b;  lead  production 
420c;  leather  industry  384a; 
leprosy  385d;  libraries  388d; 
linen  imports  390a;  literary 
prizes  390d;  local  government 
394c;  lumber  production  618b; 
Lutheran  Church  398c;  machinery 
401a,  manganese  production 
420c,  marriage  and  divorce  407b; 
mathematical  research  408a; 
meat  production  409c;  medicine 
412a;  meteorological  research 
416a;  417d;  Methodist  Church 
41 8c;  mercantile  marine  568b, 
Morocco,  trade  agreement  with 
284b;  motor-boat  racing  428b, 
motor  industry  429d;  43  Ib; 
national  income  443b;  national 
parks  447b;  naval  strength  448c; 
Navy,  aeronautics  organization 
33d,  newspapers  461  b,  oat  crops 
305d,  oils  and  fats  270d,  painting 
487b,  palaeontology  490b;  paper 
industry  492b;  perfumery  and 
cosmetics  industry  57 Ic;  Persia, 
military  aid  to  498d,  petroleum 
production  499d;  500a;  Philip- 
pines, military  mission  to  65d; 
photographic  industry  506b;  plas- 
tics industry  512d;  police  517d; 
polo  521d;  postal  services  524d; 
Presbyterian  Church  526a,  prices 
139b;  527d,  printing  industry 
529b;  prison  system  530d;  pro- 
tection of  wild  life  678c;  Protes- 
tant Episcopal  Church  45a,  psy- 
chology research  532b;  public 
health  service  206c;  public 
opinion  surveys  533d,  rail- 
ways 539c;  rain,  artificial  precipi- 
tation 414d,  rayon  industry  541c, 
refugees,  aid  to  542c,  revenue 
and  expenditure  132b,  rice  prod- 
uction 270b;  rocket  propulsion 
87b;  Roman  Catholic  Church 
548d;  rowing  552a,  rubber  im- 
ports 552c,  Russia,  relations 
with  287c;  Salvation  Army  558b; 
Saudi  Arabia,  relations  with  49d, 
sculpture  562d,  shipbuilding 
566b;  shoe  industry  568d;  silk 
industry  570a;  silver  industry 
570b,  sisal  imports  317c;  skiing 
570d,  soap  industry  571c;  Society 
of  Friends  287c,  soil  conservation 
576c;  spirits  industry  587b;  steel 
production  356a;  stock  market 
589d;  strikes  592c;  627b;  sugar 
production  594a;  swimming  598c; 
synthetic  gemstones  291  b;  syn- 
thetic rubber  552a,  taxation 
132b,  605b,  tea  imports  606b, 
technical  colleges  607a;  tele- 
communications 608d;  609c;  tele- 
vision 61  la,  textile  industry  612c, 
theatre  616a;  tobacco  production 
619a;  620a,  tourists  to  Europe 
62 Id;  town  planning  623c;  trans- 
port industry  434b;  tuberculosis 
63 Ic;  tunnels  632c;  Turkey,  re- 
lations with  633c;  uranium  77c; 
422a;  Unitarian  Church  640d; 
universities  and  colleges  656a; 
vegetable  crops  660b;  venereal 
diseases  661  b;  wages  669a;  war 
pensions  572b;  water  supply 
674b;  Western  Europe,  defence 
aid  to  466d;  467a,  wheat  crops 
677d;  wool  industry  681  d;  yacht- 
ing 684d;  Young  Men's  Christian 
Association  686d;  Young  Wom- 


en's Christian  Association  687a; 

Yugoslavia,  relations  with  689a; 

zinc  production  422c 
U.S.  Book  Exchange  388d 
US.  Communist  Party  182b;  647d 
U  S.  Office  of  Naval  Research  414d; 

415c 

U.S.  Patent  Otfice  495d 
U.S    Steel  Corporation  627a;  662a 
UNITED  STATES  TERRITORIES 

AND  POSSESSIONS  651b 
United  Steel  Workers  (U.S.)  627a 
United  Workers'   Party  (Hungary) 

329d 
Umversalist    Church    of    America 

640d 
Universal  Oil  Products  Company, 

Chicago  I51c 

Universal  Postal  Union  501  b;  645b 
UNIVERSITIES    AND    COL- 

LEGES  653a 

Universities   of  the   British   Com- 
monwealth, Association  of  655a 
Universities  (Scotland)  Act  (1889) 

653d 
University    College    of    the    West 

Indies  126a;  656a 

University  Grants  Committee  606d 
University  of  Malaya  655d 
University  of  Technology  (N  S.W.) 

600c 

University  of  Wales  655a 
Unsworth,  Madge,  558b 
Unzicker,  W.  158b 
Uppsala   University,  Sweden  656d 
Uran,  Hilmi  338a  " 
Uranium    75b,    77c;    144a;    152d; 

293c;  422a,  69 Ib 
Urethane  157a 
Urethntis  660c;  661a 
UROLOGY  657b 

Urnolagoitia,  Mamcrto  I05b;  I05c 
URUGUAY    657c,    child    welfare 

161b,  exchange  rates  247d;  meat- 
exports  409a;  railways  538b 
Ustinov,  Peter  615a 
Utah  Field  School  of  Archaeology 

55b 

Uthwatt,  Lord  372a 
Utility  clothing  176a 
Utrecht,  Netherlands,  International 

Trade  Fair  256b,  506a 
Uzbekistan,  purges  in  638a 


Vafiades,  Markos  182b;  689d,  691a 
Vagabond    Children,    International 

Conference  on  218c 
Vagotomy,  40a 
Valcn.  Valerio  658c 
Valero,  A.  629b 
Vdlhn,  Ninon  80b 
Vallois,  Professor  H.  V.  47d 
Valois,  Ninette  de  202c 
Vanbrugh,  Dame  Irene  482b 
Vancouver,  British  Columbia,  new 

bridge  planned  115c 
Van  de  Hulst,  H   C.  72a 
Vandel,  A   692h 
Vandcnberg,  Arthur  M   465c 
Vandenberg,    Air    Force    General 

Hoyt  S    112b 
Vanom,  Enzio  605a 
Varela,  Lieut.-General  Juan  585d 
VARGA,  EVGHENY  SAMUILO- 

VICH  658b 
Vargas,  Gctulio  113a 
Varnava,  Bishop  216b 
Vasilevsky,  Marshal  Alexander  M. 

64a;  637d 

VATICAN  CITY  STATE  658c 
Vaughn,  William  154a 
Veescnmayer,  Edmund  670c 
VEGETABLE    OILS    AND    ANI- 
MAL  FATS   659a;   27b;   world 

supply  270d 
VEGETABLES  659d;  192d;  193a; 

market  gardens  production  406d 
VENEREAL      DISEASES      660c; 

645b 
VENEZUELA  661  d;  naval  strength 

450c;  oil  production  500a;  roads 

547a;  university  657a 
Venice  67d;  158b;  169d;  361b;  402b 
Veratnum  vinde  4I2b 
Verdigris  river,  U.S.,  flooding  267d 
Verne,  Portland,  new  prison  530b 


717 


Vernier,  Jean  and  Jacques  73d 
Verulamium  (St.  Albans)  52b 
Veterans'Administration  (U  .S.)  93a ; 

631d;  661b 
Veterans  of  Foreign  Wars  (U.S.) 

253d;  254a 
Veterinary  Congress,  International 

574a;  662a 

VETERINARY  MEDICINE  662c 
Viala,  Leon  253d 
Viani,  Alberto,  562b;  563a 
Victor,  Karl  295c 
Victor,  Paul-Hmil  25  Ib 
Victoria  and  Albert  Museum,  Lon- 
don, exhibitions  at  66c 
Victoria  Medal  of  Honour  322d 
Victorian  Transport  Board  539a 
Videla,    Gabriel    Gonzalez    161d; 

162a 
VIENNA  663b;  I58b;  439b;  Kunst- 

histonsches     Museum,   loan    of 

masterpieces  from  66a,  397a 
Vienna     Philharmonic     Orchestra 

127b 

Victmmh  (Communist)  Party  93d 
Vietnam  93d,  181c;  285d;  286b 
Vigneau,  Michel  490b 
Vifiafranchian  deposits  293d 
Vinodol  power  station  (Yugoslavia) 

231d 

Vinyl  chloride  512c;  513b 
Virgin  Islands  652b 
Visser  't  Hooft,  Or   W    A   683c 
VITAL  STATISTICS  663d 
Vitamin     B12     43d ;     157b;    269a; 

4Mb;  412c,  501b 
Vlachos,  SpinUon  216b 
Vocational     School     for     Youths 

(Greece)  220d 
Voge,  H.  H.  153d 
"  Voice  of  America  "  128b 
Voinea,  S   572d 
Vojvodma,  Yugoslavia,  agriculture 

689c 

Volm,  Anatoly  637d 
Volkspartei  (Austria)  166d;  571d 
Voznescnsky,  Nikolay  Alexeyevich 

637d;  658b 

Vyroubova,  Nina  201  d 
VYSHINSKY,   ANDREY    YANU- 

AREVICH  668a,  74b,  76d;  109c; 

I91c,  375b,  637b;  690a 

\V 

Wade,  T.  S   37b,  37c 

Wage-cldims,  policy  of  restraint  in 
668h 

WAGES  AND  HOURS  668b; 
building  trade  132d,  clothing 
industry  176b,  coal  mines  591b, 
Colombia  181b,  co-operative 
societies  185d;  Costa  Rica  187a; 
cotton  industry  187b,  Denmark 
205a,  France  278c;  Great  Britain 
306d;  hotels  dnd  restaurants 
324d,  Iceland  330d;  Ireland 
352b;  police  517b,  railways  536b, 
Sweden  597a;  United  States 
395b,  443d,  461  b,  627a;  649a 

Wagner,  Elm  559a 

Wagner,  N.  508c 

Wagner,  Robert  F.  183«;  521a 

Wagner  Act  (U.S)  183d;  626d, 
647c;  649d 

Waikato  river,  New  Zealand,  hydro- 
electric development  463b 

Wamwnght,  General  Jonathan  254a 

Waitakere  range,  New  Zealand 
674b 

Waitemata  Harbour,  Auckland, 
N.Z.  78b 

Waksman,  S.  A.  41  Id;  631d 

Walcott,  Joe,  11  Oc 

WALES  669c;  Baptist  Church  94b; 
employment  234c;  football  272a; 
hydro-electric  development  228d , 
National  College  of  Music  and 
Drama  653d;  water  supply  674a 

Wales,  Archbishop  of  (Dr.  John 
Morgan)  45c 

Waley,  Sir  David  289a 

Walker,  Dr.  Ernest  438c 

Wallace,  Henry  A.  52 la 

Walnuts,  cultivation  of  472a 

Walsall,  Staffordshire  227b 

Walsh,  Sir  Albert  J.  456c 

Walters,  Professor  Raymond  222a 

Walton,  J.  109d 


Wand,  John  Wm.  C.,  Bishop  of 

London  45a 

Wandersleb,  Dr.  Hermann  106b 
WAR  CRIMES  670b;343c 
Ward,  Charles  304a 
Ward,  E.  J.  79a 
War   Damage  Commission  (U.S.) 

503c 

War  Disabled  Union  (Poland)  253d 
Wardlaw,  C.  W.  109d 
Ward-Perkins,  Dr  J.  B   54a 
Warnock,  Edmond  468c 
WAR  PENSIONS  67 Ic 
Warren,  Earl  103a 
WARSAW  672d;  327b 
Washbrook,  C.  193b;  194b 
WASHINGTON,  D.C.  672d,  68 b; 
Arlington  Memorial  Bridge  562d; 
Christian  Science  Church   166b; 
National     Gallery     68c,     437d; 
University  656a 
Washington    National    Airport, 

Washington,   DC    37b 
Water  droplets,  research  in  414c 
Water  Pollution  Research  Labora- 
tory 563c 
Water  polo  598b 

WATER    SUPPLY    673b,    293a; 
Delaware     river     system     632c, 
Honduras  319d;  Jerusalem  366d, 
New    York    City    418a,    462b, 
Northern  Ireland  468c,  Pakistan 
489a,  Rome  550d,  Uganda  223d 
Watson,  D    M    S   575b 
Wavelengths  126b;  535a 
WEALTH    AND   INCOME,   DIS- 
TRIBUTION OF  674d 
Weather  reports  and  forecasts  416a 
Webb,  Sir  William  318a 
Weckes,  E    193c 
Wemberg,  J   A   63 Id 
WEIZMANN,     CHA1M     BEN 

OZER  676b,  99b;  238c,  357a 
Wei/siicker,  Ernst  von  670c 
Wellesley    College,    Massachusetts 

183a 

WELLINGTON  676c 
Wells,  P.  73d 

Welsh  Association  of  Local  Auth- 
orities 669c 
Welsh   National  College  of  Music 

and  Art  670b 

Weser  river  (Germany)  146a 
West,  Mae  616b 
West,  Dr.  Randolph  269a 
West    African    Fisheries    Research 

Institute  264b 
Western    Golf   Association    (U.S.) 

304b 
Western    Reserve    Medical    School 

(U  S)  180b 
WESTERN   UNION   676d;    165d; 

448c;  452d;  465d 

West  Indian  Oils  and  Fats  Confer- 
ence 126a 
West  Indies,  University  College  of 

the  388a 

West  Indies  Conference  148c 
Westoll,  T  S  490b 
Westropp,  Major-Gen   V.  J.  296c 
Whales  47c 

WHEAT  677b,  268b;  269d;  270a 
Wheat     Agreement,     International 

79d 

Whipsnade  Park,  Bedfordshire  691c 
Whisky  586d;  587b 
White,  James  533c 
White,  P.  316d 
White,  R   303d 
White,  Father  Victor  6 17c 
Whitehcad,  E.  C.  F.  580c 
Whitehedd,  Peter  432d 
Whitney     Museum     of    American 

Art,  New  York  68b 
Whittmgton  Court,  Gloucestershire 

52c 

Whooping  Cough  156d 
Wiener,  Norbert  505c 
Wigforss,  Ernst  597a 
Wightman  Cup  382c 
Wigny,  Pierre  96c 
Wijayewardene,  Sir  Arthur  150b 
Wilcza  G6ra,  Poland  181d;  214a; 

374c;  403c;  419c 
Wilczynski,  Katenna  213b 
Wildash,  Captain  Philip  199c 
WILD    LIFE    CONSERVATION 
678a 


Wildlife      Management 

(U.S.)  678c 

Wilkinson,  Professor  B.  238b 
Williams,  Eric  237d 
Williams,  Ike  lllb 
Williams,  S.  109d 
Williams,  Tennessee  6I4d 
Willis,  Sir  Frank  686c 
Wills,  Philip  302c 
Wilmerdmg,  Lucius  107a 
Wilson,  Elmo  533c 
Wilson,  G.  S  631b 
Wilson,  J.  M.  40c 
Wilton,  Yorkshire  512a 
Wimbledon,    Suney    129u, 


Institute  World  Rover  Moot  UJd 

Woiiri'ji      Alliance      of      Young 

Women's  Christian  Associations 

686d 
World  War  II,  historical  research 

in  318d 

World  Youth  Congress  688a 
World  Youth  Fund  fo»  Reconjtruc- 

tion  dnd  Advance  686  1 
Wonndnn,  Ernst  670c 
Wotruba,  Fritz  562a 
Wright,  Sir  Andrew  197c 
Wright,  Frank  Lloyd  59a 
Wright,  Judith  80d 
lawn   Wright,  Leslie  f>od 


tennis!  championships  382c;  381a   Wright  Cup  Regatta  (U.S  )  :>52 


Wind  erosion  576a,  576 
Windsor,  R   600h 
Wind  tunnels  435U 
WINDWARD  ISt 
WINES  697c,  280a 
Wmt,  A.  S    73d 
Wireless  stations  f»07d 
WneworiM  24 la 


Wycis,  H  T  413b 
Wye  College,  Kent.  ^9Sa 
Wyszyriski,     Stefan,     Pnmate     of 
679a  Poland  515d:  547d 

Wvn  Jones,  H.  670b 


Xoxe,  Koci  37d;  182b 


Wisconsin,  ljnivcr*ity  of  86c,  692d  \-RAY  AND  RADIOLOGY  683d; 


Wisdom,  T.  H 
Wiskermtnn,  Lh/abeth  238b 
Wisley,  Surrey  J08d;  322c 
Wittkower,  hnc  532d 
Witwatersrdnd    University, 

AfriCd  655c 
Wold,  Terje  470a 
Wolfram,  152d 
Wolski,  Wlddyslaw  576d 
Women,     enfranchisement 


use   in    Ccincer   treatment    147b; 
synchrotron  used  lor  410c 
Xydias,  Alex  433a 


South 


of    m 


Belgium  97d,  Syria  356b;  600d, 
601d 
WOMEN'S    ACTIVITIES    680b; 


'  BntlshshlPs  attacked 


YACHTING  684b 

Yalf  University  154c;  251d;  656b; 

Boswell  papers  acquired  by  388d; 

391c 
Yallourn,    Australia,    brown    coal 

project  229c 
Yamuna     Hydro-Electric    Scheme 

admission    to    diocesan    synods  v>.?Jrn    u   <~          i 
45c,   cricket    193d;  employment  Yang-Chich,  General,  assassination 
235b;    in    Turkey    634a;    police     -       /uc 
517c,  university  status  at  Cam- 
bridge 141d 

Women's  Voluntary  Services  68 la 

Wong,  S  C  629a 

Wood,  Grace  L.  49b 

Woodburn,  Arthur  560c 

Woodcock,  Bruce  11  Ob;  HOc 

Woodhouse,  R.  37c 

Wood  Jones,  F  692d 

Woodward,  Professor  E.  L.  238b; 
318d 

Wookey,  H.  W   594d 

WOOL  681c,  Great  Britain  611c; 


Australia  612b 
Wool  Bureau  176c 
Wooldndge,  W.  E.  206b 
Woollcombe,  Miss  J.  M.  681b 
Woolley,  Sir  Charles  123b 
Woolley,  R.  van  der  R.  72b 


South 
testing 


Year's   Work  in  Classical  Studies, 

ThellSd 

Yeasts,  mutation  in  291c 
Yeats,  Jack  B   353b 
Yellow  Fever  241d 
YEMEN  684d 
Yem  Sambaur  286d 
Yenangyaung  Oilfield  (Burma)  136c 
Yenan,  China  165c 
Yenchmg  University,  Peking  657a 
York,  art  exhibition  67b 
YORK,     ARCHBISHOP    OF 

(GARBETT,  CYRIL  FORSTER)  685d: 

45b 

Yorke,  F.  R   S.  56b 
YOSHIDA,  SH1GERU  686b;  365b 
Young,  Sir  Eric  176d 


\Voi-o      »«ung,  air  cnc  i  /Od 

wound  Young    Cnnst'an    Workers    166a; 


ground 


Woomera,  New 
rocket  missiles 
436a 

WORDS    AND     MEANINGS,  Youn&   C;?2!3unist   Lea«ue'   Con- 
NEW  682b  vfSnSr      M^MUS 

Workmen's      Compensation      Act   YOUNG     MEN  S 
(New  York)  337a 

Works,  Ministry  of  427a 

World  Assembly  of  Youth  688a 

World  Association  of  Public  Opin- 
ion Researches  533b 


CHRISTIAN 
ASSOCIATION  686c 

YOUNG  WOMEN'S  CHRISTIAN 
ASSOCIATION  686d 

Young  Women's  Family  Service 
(U  S)  407c 

World  Congress  of  Baptist  Youth  fffi  fff^RGAMZATONS  687a 


of  the  Partisans 

of  Peace  493d 

WORLD  COUNCIL  OF  CHUR- 
CHES 683c;   45a,    168b,    168d; 

216a,  418c 
World    Federation   of  Democratic 

Youth  688a 
World  Federation  of  Trade  Unions 

182c;  470b.  597d,  624b,  626c 
World     Festival    of    Youth    and 

Students  688a 
World  Food  Production  (statistics) 

269c 
World  Health  Organization  161a; 

241d;  242a;  412a;  440b;  632a; 

644d;  660d 


World  Medical  Association  441  c 
World    Meteorological    Organiza- 
tion 41 7d;  645b 

World  Mineral  and  Metal  produc- 
tion 420d;  42 Id 


on  191  a;  191c,  Austrian  repara- 
tions 81c;  Bulgaria,  relations 
with  400a,  collective  farming 
497a;  commform  attacks  181d; 
182a;  elected  to  U  N.  Security 
Council  374c;  641d;  668b;  ex- 
change rates  250c;  film  industry 
169d,  172c;  Great  Britain,  trade 
agreement  with  618c;  Greece, 
relations  with  312d;  643a;  Italy, 
relations  with  262d,  military 
strength  65a;  naval  strength 
450b;  Orthodox  Church  216b; 
prisoners  of  war,  release  of  530a; 
railways  23 Id;  537d;  Rumania, 
treaty  with,  denounced  554b; 
Trieste,  policy  regarding  628c; 
U.S.S  R  ,  relations  with  129c; 
university  education  656d 
Yugoslav  People's  Front  129b 


World   Mission  Crusade  (Baptist)  Yugov,  Anton  135a 

94a  YUKAWA,  HIDEKI  690b;  464d 

World  Presbyterian  Alliance  525b;  Yukon  river,  Alaska,  discovery  of 
526a  gold  65 Id 


718 


INDEX 


Zadeikis,  Povilas  392a 
ZAFRULLAH     KHAN,     SIR 

MOHAMMAD  690c 
Zagreb,    Yugoslavia,    Fair  256d 
ZAHARIADIS,      NIKOLAOS 

690d,  399b,  400b 
Zaim,  Husm  ez-  50d;  223b;  351c; 

371b;  384d;  483b,  600d;  60ia 


Zamora,  Niccto  Alcala  483b;  584b 

Zampa,  Luigi  I72a 

Zandvoort     (Netherlands)     Grand 

Prix  432d 
Zanzibar,   housing   326c,   religious 

missions  425a 
ZAPOTOCKY,   ANTONIN   691  a; 

198c;  200a 
Zatopek,  E.  73c 


ZEELAND,    PAUL    VAN    691  b; 

98b 

Zelinsky,  Kornely  5$6a 
Zeman,  Bonvoj  171b 
Zeuner,  Professor  F  E.  47d 
Zilliacus,  K.  494b;  518c 
Zimmerman,  E  C.  240d 
Zinc  422b 
Zionist  Organization  357b 


Zirganos,  Z.  598d 
Zissu,  lancu  572d 
ZOOLOGICAL  GARDENS  691c 
Zoological  Record*  692 b 
Zoological  Society,  London  575b; 

69 Ic,  692a 
ZOOLOGY  692a 
Zurich,  Switzerland  569d;  599d 
Zymierski,  Michal  516b 


List  of  biographical  articles  to  be  found  in   Dritannica  Book  of 
the    Year   1949   but    not    in    Britannica   Book    of  the  Year  1950. 


Alexander  of  Tunis,  Harold  Rupert 

Leofnc    George    Alexander,    1st 

Viscount 

Azzam  Pasha,  Abdul  Rahman 
Beel,  Louis  Joseph  Maria 
Bevan,  Ancunn 
Bjornsson,  Sveinn 
Blacken,  Patrick  Maynard  Stuart 
Boffa,  Paul 
Botwinnik,  Mikhail 
Bradman,  Sir  Donald  George 
Brodie,  Israel 
Bustamante,     William     Alexander 

Clarke 
Campion,      Sir      Gilbert      Francis 

Montnou 
Celio,  Enrico 
Clay,  Lucius  Dubignon 
Costcllo,  John  Aloysius 
Cunningham,  Sir  Alan  Gordon 
Dalton,  hdward  Hugh  John  Neale 
De  Valera,  Eamon 
Dewey,  Thomas  Edmund 
*Dimitrov,  Gheorghi 

*  Died  in  1949;  see  also  OBITUARIES 


Dinnycs,  Lajos 

Douglas,  Lewis  Williams 

Drees,  Willcm 

Dupong,  Pierre 

Eliot,  Thomas  Stearns 

Erlander,  Tage  Fntiof 

Franks,  Sir  Oliver  Shewell 

Freybcrg,  Sir  Bernard  Cyril 

Gom6Jka,  Wtadyslaw 

Griffiths,  James 

Groza,  Petrc 

Harnman,  William  Avcrell 

Harvey,  Sir  Oliver  Charles 

Havenga,  Nicolaas  Chnstiaan 

Hedtoft,  Hans 

Hoffman,  Paul  Gray 

Huggms,  Sir  Godfrey  Martin 

Husscmi,  Haj  Amm  El 

Huxley,  Julian  Sorell 

Ibn  Sa'ud,  Abdul  Aziz  Ibn  Abdul 

Rahman  Ibn  Faisal 
Jowitt,   William  Allen  Jowitt,   1st 

Viscount 
Juliana 


King,  William  Lyon  Mackenzie 

Koenig,  Joseph  Mane  Pierre 

Macbnde,  Sean 

Macdonald,  Malcolm  John 

McKell,  William  John 

Marie,  Andre 

Marshall,  George  Catlett 

Michael  (Mihai)  I 

Molotov     (Skryabm),     Vyacheslav 

Mikhdilovich 
Montgomery  of  Alamem,  Bernard 

Law  Montgomery,  1st  Viscount 
Morrison,  Herbert  Stanley 
Mountbatten     of     Burma,     Louis 

Francis   Albert   Victor   Nicholas 

Mountbatten,  1st  Earl 
Muller,  Paul 
Nazimuddm,  Khwaja 
Neychev,  Mincho 
Olivier,  Sn  Laurence  Kerr 
Paasikivi,  Juho  Kusti 
Queuille,  Henri 
Quirmo   Elpidio 
Quwath,  Shukn  El 


Rajagopalachan,  Chakravarti 
Renner,  Karl  < 

Robertson,  Sir  Brian  Hubert 
Robertson,  Horace  Clement  Hugh 
Saka,  Hasan 

Salisbury,    Robert    Arthur    James 
Gascoyne-Cecil,  5th  Marquess  of 
Sartre,  Jean-Paul 
Shvernik,  Nikolay  Mikhailovich 
Slim.  Sir  William  Joseph 
Sokolovsky,  Vassih  Damlovich 
*Sophouhs,  Themistocles 
Szakasits,  Arpad 
Thorc/.  Maurice 
Tildy,  Zoltan 
Tiselms,  Arne 
Tizard,  Sir  Henry  Thomas 
Tsaldans,  Konstantmos 
Vafiades,  Markos 
Wallace,  Henry  Agard 
Warren,  Earl 
Wilhelmma 
Wong  Wen-Hao 
Zyl,  Gideon  Brand  van