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THE
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BRITI S H BIRD
BOOK
2OO PLATE S IN COLOUR AND
NUMEROUS • PHOTOGRAPHS,
EDITED BY
FBKIRKMAN BAOXON
COIL tribxc t 02?^
J. L. BONHOTE
WILLIAM FARREN
E. HARTERT
F. C. R. JOURDAIN
W. P. PYGRAFT
EDMUND SELOUS
MISS E. L. TURNER
A. L. THOMSON
AND THE EDITOR
MISS W. AUSTEN
G. E. COLLINS
H. GRONVOLD
G. E. LODGE
A. W. SEABY
AND OTHERS
A COMPLETE -WORK ON THE BIRDS, NESTS
AND - EGGS OF GREAT BRITAIN
London* • a&c/EJirLbvrz>ghL^~TfG'&'E' C' (JACK.
JJIQLQGT
UBBARY
a
V/-4-'. 2.
THE SHELDUCK AND THE
SURFACE-FEEDING DUCKS1
[ORDER : Anseriformes. SUBORDER : Anseres. FAMILY : Anatidce.
SUBFAMILY: Anatince]
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES
[F. C. R. JOURDAIN. W. P. PYCRAFT. A. L. THOMSON]
COMMON-SHELDUCK [Tadorna tadorna (Linnaeus); Tadorna
cornuta (S. G. Gmelin). Burrow-duck, bargander, bargoose, ladyfowl,
annet ; stock-annet (Scotland). French, tadorne ; German, Brandgans ;
Italian, volpoca].
I. Description. — The adult sheldrake may always be distinguished by
the crimson beak and white plumage variegated with black and chesnut.
There is no marked seasonal change of coloration. Length 25 in. [635 mm.].
(PI. 156.) The male is distinguished at once by the protuberance at the base
of the beak. The head and neck are black with metallic green sheen, the
rest of the plumage white relieved by a broad band of bright chesnut encircling
the body at the base of the neck, and a broad black band down the middle of the
breast. The scapulars and primaries are black and the tail is tipped with black,
and the sides of the under tail-coverts are pale chesnut. The speculum has
the outer half chesnut-red, the inner half steel-blue. The female lacks the pro-
tuberances at the base of the beak, and is slightly duller and smaller than the male.
The juvenile plumage recalls that of the adult, but the head and neck ate.-' #f-
dull grey-black, the chesnut band encircling the body, and the black band jio'w?1
the breast and abdomen are wanting, and the beak is flesh-coloured, while the legs
and toes are of livid flesh colour. The young in down is white, with the crown,
1 There can be no doubt that the existing systematic arrangement of the Ducks is very
unsatisfactory, but having regard to the fact that a thorough study of their structural
characters has yet to be attempted, it has been thought inadvisable in this work to depart
from the arrangement of the genera adopted by Howard Saunders.— ED.
VOL. IV. 2 B
746317
190 THE SHELDUCK AND SURFACE-FEEDING DUCKS
hind-neck, and back of a pale brown ; before and behind the wings the dark
colour of the back trends downwards, forming short transverse bars. [w. p. p.]
2. Distribution. — This is mainly an estuary-haunting species, but
occasionally is found breeding at considerable distances from the sea. It nests
in fair numbers in suitable localities in our east coast counties, but is scarce in
the south-east, though some breed on the south coast from Hampshire westward.
On the Welsh estuaries it is very numerous, and is also found on the north-west
coasts of England and on the Isle of Man. It is abundant on the east coast of
Scotland, but more local on the west side, and is found in the Hebrides and Orkneys,
but is of very rare occurrence in the Shetlands. In Ireland it breeds in limited
numbers on the low-lying parts of the coast, more especially on the west side.
On the Continent its breeding range extends to the Lofodens in Norway, commonly
in South Sweden and also in Oland, on the south-west coasts of Finland, accord-
ing to Buturlin on the Murman coast in N. Russia, as well as from 51° in the Urals
south to Transcaucasia and the Black and Caspian Seas. In the southern Baltic
and on the coasts of Denmark, the Frisian Islands, N. Germany, and Holland
it is common, and also breeds in small numbers locally in North France and at
the mouth of the Guadalquivir in Spain. It is said to nest also on the Tunisian
coast. In Asia it breeds from Transcaspia and the Kirghiz Steppes up to lat.
53° 27' in the Tomsk government, Dauria, and probably Manchuria. On migra-
tion it ranges to the Mediterranean and N. Africa (about lat. 23°), and in Asia
to the Persian Gulf, North India, China, Burma, Formosa, and Japan. It has
occurred casually in the Faeroes and Iceland. [F. c. R. J.]
3. Migration. — A resident species, whose numbers are augmented in
winter by immigrants from the Continent. In Yorkshire large flocks of migrants
occur in autumn and in spring, some remaining throughout the winter : occasionally
occurring inland (cf. Nelson, B. of Yorks., 1907, p. 432). Three hundred birds were
seen at the Tees light-vessel on 13th Jan. 1882 (cf. Fourth B. A. Migration Report),
while flocks of up to two hundred and one thousand birds have been recorded from
and Welsh waters respectively (cf. Ticehurst, B. of Kent, 1909, p. 341 ; and
ffcest'; Fauna N. Wales, 1907, p. 275). The winter increase is also noticeable in
Ireland, where the largest flocks are seen in spring (cf. Saunders, III. Man. B. B., 2nd
ed., 1899, p. 419 ; and Ussher and Warren, B. of Ireland, 1900, p. 188). Sometimes
strikes against the lighthouse lanterns (cf. Nelson, op. cit., p. 433). [A. L. T.]
4. Nest and Eggs. — Occasionally the nest has been found in quite open
sites on unfrequented islands, but the normal position is at the end of a tunnel
PLATE LXVI
1'hoto by I-". I-;. Uanie.
Common shelduck's neat and eggs in a burrow opened to
show same
1'hotu l>y J. C. Crowluy
Mallard's nest and
V-i!$m^^'m
mto I-y K. l-'urtune
Gad wall's nest and eggs (Holland)
Photo by K. Fortune
Shoveler's nest and eggrs
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 191
in the sand, sometimes a rabbit burrow, and at other times excavated by the bird.
The distance from the mouth of the hole varies considerably, some nests being as
much as 10 or 12 feet from the entrance, while others are only a few feet. (PL LXVI.)
On the Frisian islands artificial holes are freely used to breed in, and it may be said
to exist in a partially domesticated state. Other sites occasionally made use of
are holes in stone embankments or in the face of a cliff, hollows beneath loose
boulders, and in thick gorse bushes. The nest itself is a big bed of down, pale
brownish or pearly grey in colour, and large white feathers, barred at the tip
with chesnut or dark brown (PL U),1 mixed with dead grasses, moss, leaves, etc.,
and is formed by the female, though probably both sexes take part in excavation
(O. Lee), but this is denied by Naumann. The smooth creamy white eggs are
generally from 7 or 8 to 12 in number, but instances of 13 to 17 eggs in one nest
are on record, and in Norway 20 and 28 have been found in one nest, obviously
the produce of more than one female, as was undoubtedly also the nest with 32
eggs recorded by W. Gyngell (Naturalist, 1902, p. 161). Average size of 93
eggs, 2-57 x 1-84 in. [65-5 x 46-9 mm.]. (PL S.) The incubation period is given by
Saunders as 28 to 30 days, but Oswin Lee estimates it as 24 to 26 days. It is
apparently performed by the duck alone, but according to some writers she is
relieved for a short time in the early morning and evening by her mate. This is
probably an error of observation, as the drake calls her off and accompanies her
on her return to the nest. Full clutches may be met with from about the first
week of May onward, usually about the middle of the month, occasionally as
early as the end of April, and in the north often not till early in June. Only
one brood is reared in a season, though a second clutch may be laid if the first
is taken. [F. c. R. j.]
5. Food. — Sandhoppers and other small Crustacea, molluscs, marine worms,
and sea-weed. The young partake of the same food, and are assisted in its capture
by the female, [w. p. p.]
MALLARD OR WILD -DUCK [Anas platyrhtfncha Linnaeus; Anas
boscas, Linnaeus. Stock - duck (Orkneys). French, canard sauvage ;
German, Marz-Ente, Stock-Ente ; Italian, germano real].
I. Description. — The mallard may be distinguished at all ages by the
coloration of the coverts and secondaries forming the speculum. This, in so
1 For illustrations of the typical feathers found in the nests of the British-breeding ducks,
see an article by H. Noble in British Birds, vol. ii. pp. 18 and 37, pis. 1 and 2.
192 THE SHELDUCK AND SURFACE-FEEDING DUCKS
far as the secondaries are concerned, is of a rich metallic steel-blue, bounded
along its hinder margin by a black-bordered white band, the white area formed
by the tips of the remiges. Anteriorly it is bounded by a similar band formed by
the tips of the major coverts, but here the black traverses the tips of the feathers.
The sexes differ widely in coloration, and the male undergoes a striking seasonal
change of plumage. Length 23 in. [584 mm.]. (PL 157.) The characteristic mark
of the male is furnished by the middle tail-feathers, which are conspicuously curled,
and of a dark glossy green almost black in colour, as are the rump and under tail-
coverts. The head and neck are of a rich metallic green. Round the neck is
a ring of white. The interscapulars are brownish, the hue varying individually
in intensity : the scapulars and breast and flank feathers are greyish white with
fine grey vermiculations, while the fore-breast is of a rich dark chesnut. The beak
is olive-green and the legs orange, while the iris is hazel. The " eclipse " dress
—mid-June to mid-September — differs from that of the female in that the crown,
back, and rump are of an almost uniform dusky tint, the scapulars lack the broad
sub-marginal and marginal ochreous bands, the wing-coverts are of a uniform
grey, and the abdomen and under tail-coverts are heavily spotted. In the duck
the plumage is of a dark brown mottled with ochreous; on the crown this mottling
has a streaked effect, while on the outer webs of the hinder scapulars this hue forms
a pair of broad, curved ochreous bands. The juvenile dress resembles that of the
female : but the male may be distinguished by the dusky coloration of the neck,
back, rump, and tail ; the female by light brown cross-bars on the rump feathers,
the sandy yellow streaks on the crown, and the paler lores. She is also smaller than
the male. The young in down are of an olive-brown above, with a dark streak
before and behind the eye, which contrasts with the golden yellow colour of the
side of the head. There is a buff band along the hinder margin of the fore-arm,
which partly covers a similar transverse band on the trunk ; and there is a further
short transverse band across the loins. The under parts are of a pale golden
yellow, [w. P. P.]
2. Distribution. — This is by far the commonest and most generally dis-
tributed of our British breeding ducks, and breeds in suitable localities throughout
the British Isles. Its breeding range extends to the Faeroes and Iceland, but the
race inhabiting Greenland has been subspecifically separated. On the Continent
it ranges up to Finmark in Norway and north of Uleaborg in Finland, while it is
not found north of the Arctic Circle in North Russia. South of these limits it
is generally distributed over the European continent south to the Mediterranean.
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 193
It also breeds in the Azores and Canaries, and in North-west Africa from Marocco
to Algeria. In Asia it is found across the continent north to about lat. 65° and
south to Transcaspia, the Persian mountain ranges, Kashmir, and the Lakes of
Tibet ; also in Japan and the Kuriles. In America it ranges from the Arctic
coasts to the United States, chiefly on the western side of the continent. In
whiter its migration range extends in the Old World to its southern breeding limits,
as well as to Madeira and Egypt in Africa and the Persian Gulf, India, Burma,
and China in Asia, while in America it ranges south to Mexico, the West Indies,
and Panama. [F. c. R. J.]
3. Migration. — A common resident species, which is even more abundant
as a winter visitor and a bird of passage from North Europe. The immigration
usually occurs between 12th September and 5th November, and the passage may
last till 28th November : the spring passage season is from 25th March to 14th
May (cf. Clarke, Studies in Bird-Migration, 1912, vol. i. p. 160). In Yorkshire
flocks of apparent immigrants have been noted as early as the third week of August,
although the majority do not arrive till October or November : after arrival the
birds become distributed. Of the same region it is said that " if the weather is
fine when migration is progressing, the route taken lies a considerable distance
out at sea, but in storms with onshore gales the flocks are compelled to hug the
coast, and so are brought under observation " (cf. Nelson, B. of Yorks., 1907, p.
436). And it has also been remarked that great numbers are driven into the
creeks and flats of the Thames and Medway estuaries by easterly and north-easterly
gales (cf. Ticehurst, B. of Kent, 1909, p. 346). In Ireland there is a great augmen-
tation in numbers during December and January, and the new arrivals are said to be
distinguishable " by being slighter in body, tired after migration, and more easily
decoyed " (cf. Ussher and Warren, B. of Ireland, 1900, p. 191). Gregarious, often
seen in huge flocks : sometimes strikes against the lighthouse lanterns. [A. L. T.]
4. Nest and Eggs. — Most nests are placed on the ground not far from
water, and are generally somewhat hidden by the surrounding vegetation, but it
has been known to breed at a considerable distance from water. Not infrequently
it nests in pollarded willows or hollow trees : occasionally in ivy covered trees or
walls, and in bean or straw stacks, and heaps of faggots. Instances are also on
record of its breeding in old nests of both crow and rook, and on the Continent
the eggs have been taken in the nests of the goshawk, buzzard, and kestrel. Many
of these sites are at considerable heights above the ground. The materials used
for the nests are chiefly dry grass with some admixture of moss and dead leaves,
194 THE SHELDUCK AND SUKFACE-FEEDING DUCKS
and as a rule a plentiful supply of down, which is dark brown in bulk, with fair-sized
light centres and whitish brown tips. The nest feathers are more pointed than
those of the Pintail, and are marked with a double brown bar (the upper one being
sometimes represented by two spots) and a fan-shaped extension down the shaft to
the tip. (Pis. U and LXVI.) The nest is made by the duck alone, and contains as
a rule from 8 or 9 to 14 eggs, exceptionally as many as 16. The colour varies con-
siderably ; it is usually greenish grey or yellowish grey, occasionally pale blue-green
or greenish white. Average size of 270 eggs, 2-21 x 1 -61 in. [56*3 x 40-9 mm.]. (PI. T.)
Incubation is performed by the duck alone, and lasts 25 to 26 days (W. Evans).
Heinroth also gives 26 days, but O. A. J. Lee states that the average period is
25 days, but that some eggs hatch on the 22nd day. They are laid in the British
Isles from February onward to June, but the most usual time is from the end of
March to mid- April. In the Shetlands eggs may be found from mid-May to the
end of June (Saxby). Exceptional cases have been recorded of autumn breeding,
hi September and even in October. Normally the mallard is single brooded, and
eight to ten weeks elapse before the young can fly, so that the late hatches are
probably those of birds which have lost their first sittings, though it is of course
possible that some birds may attempt to breed twice. [F. c. B. J.]
5. Food. — Minute organisms obtained by passing water and ooze through
the beak, aquatic insects and their larvae, worms, slugs, small frogs, small fish,
leaves and seeds of aquatic plants, grain, and acorns. The young feed largely on
insects, under the guidance of the female, and in the fledgling stage obtain much
food by diving, wherein they differ from the adults, [w. P. P.]
GAD WALL [Anas strepera Linnaeus. Bastard (Kent). French, chipeau-
bruyant ; German, Mittel- or Schnatter-Ente ; Italian, canapiglia].
I. Description. — The gadwall may always be distinguished by the colora-
tion of the speculum, the inner half of which is white, the outer black. In front
it is bounded by a wedge-shaped patch of black passing towards the tip of the
outstretched wing into Indian-red. The sexes differ in coloration, and there is
a conspicuous seasonal change of plumage in the male. (PI. 158.) Length 20 in.
[508 mm.]. The male has the base of the hind-neck, scapulars, and flanks marked
by coarse vermiculations of black and white, and the minor coverts rich Indian-red.
The crown is black, more or less markedly barred with brown, and the side of the
head and neck are buffish white, mottled with brown. The fore-breast is white
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 195
with concentric bars of black, while the breast and abdomen are white. The rump
and under tail-coverts are of a dark glossy green, almost black. In his " eclipse "
dress — June, September — the back is dusky, transversely barred with white : the
minor coverts are marked like the back : the rump is of a dusky brown, and the
upper tail-coverts are barred with buff. The fore-breast is buff with large brown
spots ; while the mid-breast is white with short, oblong, incomplete dusky bars.
The female resembles the female mallard, but may at once be distinguished by the
speculum, which differs from that of the male only in its smaller size, and the
absence of red on both speculum and minor coverts. The juvenile dress resembles
that of the female, but males are darker on the back than females of the same age,
and in this they recall the adult male in his " eclipse " dress. The young in down
differs from the young mallard of the same stage in that the dark band before and
behind the eye is narrower, [w. P. P.]
2. Distribution. — As a breeding species in the British Isles the gadwall
is confined to East Anglia and one or two localities in Southern Scotland. It
breeds now in some numbers in Norfolk, especially at Merton, and also locally in
Suffolk. In Scotland it is known to have bred in 1909 and 1910 at a loch in the
Forth area, as well as in Peebles in 1906. It has not yet been proved to nest in
Ireland, but owing to its inconspicuous colouring is apt to be overlooked. Outside
the British Isles a few pairs breed in North Iceland, and on the Continent it is not
uncommon in Svearike and Gotarike in South Sweden ; it breeds locally in Germany,
Holland, and Denmark, and also in Moravia, Galizia, and Hungary; while in Russia,
though recorded from Archangel, it is chiefly confined to the south (Poland and
the governments of Moscow, Riazan, Kazan, and Perm). It also breeds in Bulgaria
and the Dobrogea, probably in Thessaly, and nests not uncommonly in Southern
Spain. Salvin and Tristram found nests at Zana in Algeria in 1857. In Asia
its breeding range extends from Transcaspia, Turkestan, and the south of the
Tobolsk and Tomsk governments to lat. 60° N. in East Siberia ; and in North
America it inhabits the temperate parts of the continent south to Texas. Its
migration range in the Old World extends to North Africa and Abyssinia ; in Asia
to the Persian Gulf, India (except in the extreme south), Burma, China, Japan, etc.,
and in America to Mexico and Florida, while as a casual it has occurred on the
Kuriles and Commander Isles, and in the Bermudas, Cuba, and Jamaica. [F. o. R. jr.]
3. Migration. — A resident species and also a winter visitor from the
Continent : mainly a very irregular and uncertain winter visitor, usually arriving
some time between 23rd September and 29th October, but exceptionally as early as
196 THE SHELDUCK AND SURFACE-FEEDING DUCKS
26th August (cf. Clarke, Studies in Bird Migration, 1912, vol. i. p. 160). On the
east coast of Great Britain it is decidedly scarce, and it is surprising that its autumn
and winter visits to Kent have not become more frequent with the increase of the
species in Norfolk (cf . Ticehurst, B. of Kent, 1909, p. 350). On the west of Scotland
it is more often recorded, and it appears to be comparatively numerous in some
places. But in Dumfriesshire it has only been recorded on two occasions (cf.
Gladstone, B. of Dumfries., 1910, p. 268), while it is rare (chiefly recorded in
December) in North Wales (cf. Forrest, Fauna N. Wales, 1907, p. 277). To
Ireland it is a scarce winter visitor to all parts, very irregular as to locality but
perhaps most frequent on the west (cf. Ussher and Warren, B. of Ireland, 1900,
p. 192 ; and Saunders, III. Man. B. B., 2nd ed., 1899, p. 425). As a migrant
it is usually recorded as being in small parties. [A. L. T.]
4. Nest and Eggs. — The nest is placed on the ground, generally in a
dry place, but not far from water, and is partly concealed by clumps of rushes,
grass, heather, etc., or in some cases under shelter of a bush. Dry grasses are
the chief material used in forming the nest, and a plentiful supply of down is
added, which is very dark with small lighter centres and distinct greyish white
tips : the duck builds. (Pis. U and LXVI.) Noble describes the nest feathers as
" small, light in colour, with irregular darker markings in the centre, but lighter
towards the tips." The eggs range from 8 to 13 in number, and are huffish white
in colour, without any tinge of green. Average size of 100 eggs, 2'05 x 1'56 in.
[52'2x39'6 mm.]. (PL T.) Incubation is performed by the duck alone, and lasts
26 days according to Heinroth. Nahlik's estimate of 21 days is probably too low.
The average time for full clutches seems to be about the second or third week of
May, but fresh eggs may be obtained till the end of the month, and in Iceland
early in June. Only one brood is reared during the season. [F. c. R. J.]
5. Food. — Aquatic insects and their larvae, small fresh-water Crustacea
and water-snails, small frogs, worms, and occasionally moths and butterflies ; seeds
and leaves of aquatic plants, and, in India, rice. The young feed on insects and
their larvae, and are accompanied in the search for food by the female, [w. P. P.]
SHOVELER [Spatula clypedta (Linnaeus). Spoonbill, broadbill, rattlewing ;
Britannia (Moray). French, souchet ; German, Loffel-Ente ; Italian,
cucchiarone],
I. Description.— The shoveler may at all ages, save in the downy stages,
be distinguished by the great breadth of the beak and the length of the horny
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 197
lamellae along the edges of the jaws. The sexes differ conspicuously, and there is a
marked seasonal change of plumage in the male. (PI. 159.) Length 20 in. [508 mm.].
The male has the wing-coverts of a pale blue, the speculum green with a metallic
sheen, a broad white band along its anterior border, and a narrow white line along
its hinder edge. The head and neck are of a rich dark metallic green ; the foremost
scapulars, the hind-neck, and the fore-breast form a continuous white area. The
hinder scapulars are blue with white outer webs, and these are succeeded, tailwards,
by black feathers marked by broad white shaft-streaks. The interscapular area
is dusky. The breast and abdomen are dark mahogany-red, and the under tail-
coverts are black glossed with green. The beak is black, the legs orange colour,
and the iris yellow. In the eclipse dress the head and neck are much as in the
female, but the fore-breast is dusky with V-shaped loops of buff, while the hind-
neck is dusky with a few transverse bars of buff, and similar bars occur also on the
scapulars. The breast and abdomen are of a dull, pale, mahogany colour, and
the latter is spotted with black. The wings are as in the supernuptial dress.
The female has the wing-coverts grey-blue, the speculum as in the drake, but with
a much narrower anterior bar of white. The upper parts are of a dusky hue with
pale wood-brown striations on the crown, and broad marginal bands of the same
hue on the scapulars, and iriterscapulars ; on the dusky rump are wavy semicircular
loops of wood-brown. The breast is of a dark wood-brown with obscure dusky
mottlings. The juvenile dress resembles that of the male in eclipse, but differs
in the absence of transverse bars of buff on the hind-neck. The downy young
differs from the downy mallard in lacking the buff bar on the wing and the brownish
buff colour of the neck. [w. p. p.]
2. Distribution. — There has been a considerable increase in the breeding
range of this species in the British Isles of late years, and it has now colonised
practically all the northern counties of England, all the east and south coast
counties except Cornwall, and has also established itself at various localities in
the midlands, chiefly in the east and north-west. In Scotland it is principally
confined to the Forth, Tay, Tweed, and Solway areas, but has also been found
breeding sporadically even in the extreme north of the mainland, as well as in the
Orkneys, Tiree, and in the Outer Hebrides since 1903. In Wales it is still scarce,
but has bred in Anglesey and once in Merioneth. In Ireland it is increasing its
range, and now breeds in every province in small numbers. On the Continent
it nests in many parts of Sweden, especially in the south, and possibly also in
South Norway ; on the Baltic islands, the coast of Finland, and Lake Ladoga and
VOL. IV. 2 C
198 THE SHELDUCK AND SURFACE-FEEDING DUCKS
the rivers flowing into the Arctic Ocean in North Russia. From here it ranges
southward through Denmark, the Low Countries, Germany, the Baltic provinces,
Austro-Hungary, Roumania, South Russia, Cyprus, and occasionally breeds in
Spain. In North Africa it has been recorded as nesting in Algeria, Tunisia, and
Egypt, while it is said also to breed in Nubia and Abyssinia. In Asia it breeds
on the rivers Ob, Yenisei, Lena, and Kolyma to 68° on the west and 68£° on the
east side, and south to N. Persia, Turkestan, and Kashgaria. In North America
its breeding limits extend north to Alaska and south to Texas. The winter
range of this species is very extensive, and reaches to Senegambia and Somaliland
in Africa, and in Asia it visits the countries bordering the Indian Ocean, China,
Japan, as well as the Philippines, Australia, and the Gilbert Isles. In America it
ranges to Colombia, the West Indies, and Hawaii. As a casual it has occurred
in the Bermudas and once near Cape Town. [F. c. B. J.]
3. Migration. — A very locally distributed breeding species, whose numbers
are greatly augmented in winter by immigrants from the Continent : such immi-
grants have been recorded as early as 5th September (cf. Clarke, Studies in Bird-
Migration, 1912, vol. i. p. 160). Our breeding birds are probably mainly resident,
becoming more widely distributed in winter ; but in Kent the breeding birds
are described as " strictly summer visitors," arriving about mid-March, observed
in pairs or parties till mid- April, and then at their nesting haunts till early August,
after which they are found on the coast till mid-September ; winter visitant
examples are recorded from October or November onwards (cf. Ticehurst, B. of
Kent, 1909, p. 352). A few nest in North Wales, but their numbers are increased
in whiter, when they are recorded most frequently from the coasts (cf. Forrest,
Fauna of N. Wales, 1907, p. 278). In Yorkshire it is best known as an uncommon
spring and autumn migrant, although it is also a nesting species, and is occasionally
found in winter (cf. Nelson, B. of Yorks., 1907, p. 451). To Ireland, where it
breeds hi every province and is decidedly on the increase, there is also a consider-
able augmentation in numbers during the cold season. [A. L. T.]
4. Nest and Eggs. — The nest is often placed on the ground in a meadow,
hi heather on moorlands, or surrounded by rank vegetation, bracken, etc. ; more
rarely among dead reeds or in rushes. The distance from the water's edge is very
variable, and is sometimes considerable. The nest hollow is filled with dead
grasses and other vegetable matter mixed with down, and is the work of the female.
The down is much like that of the wigeon, being dark brown with indistinct light
centres, but the feathers are distinctive, the larger ones being deep brown, with a
heavy blotch near the tip and a band below, while the small ones have a median
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 199
blotch. (Pis. U and LXVI.) The eggs are usually 8 to 12, occasionally as many
as 14 in number, and are pale greenish grey as a rule, sometimes grey-buff or
rarely yellowish, but never so light a cream as those of the wigeon, which
otherwise they resemble. Average size of 100 eggs, 2-05 x T45 in. [52-2 x 37 mm.].
(PI. T.) Incubation is performed by the duck alone, and lasts 23 to 24 days
(Heinroth in litt.). Other estimates vary from 21 to 28 days, but are probably
only approximate. Full clutches may be found exceptionally as early as the first
week of April, but usually about the third week in that month, and thence
onward through May, while in the Orkneys fresh eggs have been found till late
in June. Only one brood is reared during the season. [F. c. B. J.]
5. Food. — The tender shoots of grass and other weeds and water-plants ;
but mainly on small Crustacea and other organisms obtained from mud, small
molluscs, and aquatic insects and larvae. The young feed mainly on aquatic
insects, and are guided in their search by the female, [w. p. P.]
PINTAIL \Ddfila acuta (Linnaeus). Sea-pheasant. French, filet ; German,
Speiss-Ente ; Italian, codone].
I. Description. — The adult pintail is to be distinguished by the speculum,
which is of a rich dark green, with purple and bronze reflections, and bounded
in front by a band of cinnamon formed by the tips of the major coverts, and behind
by a sub-marginal band of black and a very broad terminal fringe of white. The
sexes differ conspicuously, and there are distinct seasonal changes of plumage.
(PL 160.) Length 29 in. [736 mm.]. The male in his full dress has the head of a dark
brown with lilac gloss on each side, the back of the neck black ; the fore-neck
white, which, hi the form of a narrow band, is continued up the side of the neck
to the head ; while it extends downwards to include the whole of the under surface
save the flanks, which are vermiculated with narrow lines of grey and white. The
wing-coverts are of a brownish grey, while the long inner secondaries and elongated
hinder secondaries are black edged with white. The lateral upper tail-coverts
and the under tail-coverts are velvety black, the latter contrasting with a buff
patch on either side of the abdomen behind the flank feathers ; the central tail
feathers are black, and much elongated. The beak, legs, and toes are slate-grey ;
the iris is brown. In eclipse the fully adult bird has the head and neck pale
brown, finely striated with darker brown, but the crown is dusky, and round the
middle of the neck is an ill-defined whitish band, with grey striations. The base of
the hind-neck, interscapulars, scapulars, and rump are dusky with indistinct grey
200 THE SHELDUCK AND SURFACE-FEEDING DUCKS
and white vermiculations, and narrow conspicuous transverse wavy bars of white.
The breast is dull white with dusky mottlings, but the abdomen and under tail-
ebverts are much striated. The flanks are dark brown with irregular loops of
white. The wing remains unchanged, in so far as the smaller coverts and speculum
are concerned. In immature birds the hind-neck, interscapulars and scapulars
are of a dark slate, almost black, with strongly marked transverse bars of buff,
but the vermiculations of the adult eclipse dress are wanting : while the small wing-
coverts have narrow white edges, and the whole of the under surface is marked
by heavy dusky striations. The female differs from the male hi eclipse in having
the back marked by broad V-shaped loops of buff instead of transverse bars,
while the speculum is somewhat duller. The juvenile dress recalls that of the
adult male in eclipse rather than of the female, the back being of a dark slate with
transverse bars of buff : the speculum at this period is of a dirty brownish grey
colour and with lustre of any kind, while the under parts from the fore-breast
backward are heavily striated. The young in down differs from the mallard
nestling in having the sides of the head brown, and only a narrow superciliary stripe,
while the short buff colour bars of the wings and loins are wanting, [w. p. P.]
2. Distribution. — In the British Isles is only known with certainty to breed
in Scotland, where it has established itself of late years. A fair-sized colony has
been known to exist at Loch Leven, Kinross, since 1898, and probably for some years
before : it is also well established hi the Orkneys, and has bred in the Shetlands,
Skye, S. Uist, and Selkirk. There is no recent proof of its nesting in Ireland.
Outside the British Isles it has bred in the Faeroes, and is not uncommon in Iceland;
while on the Continent it nests in Norway up to North Finmark and in Sweden to
Tornea Lappmark ; hi Finland and Russia it is generally distributed from the Arctic
Ocean and White Sea southward, except in the Baltic provinces, the Taurida, and
the Astrakhan government. It also breeds in Holland, Denmark, North Germany,
Austro-Hungary, and Roumania, while a few pairs nest apparently in the Camargue
and certainly hi South Spain. In Asia it ranges north to 72° on the Yenisei and
is plentiful on the Kolyma (lat. 69 £°), while to the southward it is known to
breed in Transcaspia. In North America it has been met with from Alaska,
Hudson's Bay territory and Labrador to Dakota, Idaho, and Montana. Its winter
migrations extend to Northern Africa and the Egyptian Sudan ; Arabia, India,
Ceylon, Burma, China, Formosa, and Japan in Asia ; the Indo-Malay archipelago
(Borneo, the Philippines, etc.), Laysan, Hawaii ; while in America it reaches
Costa Rica, Porto Rico, and Cuba. It has also occurred in Greenland. [F. o. R. J.]
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 201
3. Migration. — A scarce resident, breeding very locally : also a regular
winter visitor and a bird of passage from Northern Europe, arriving some time
between 17th September and llth October, but exceptionally as early as llth August
(cf. Clarke, Studies in Bird-Migration, 1912, vol. i. p. 160). As a winter visitor
to Great Britain it is chiefly found on the coasts, but even there it is nowhere
abundant : the autumn immigrants rarely linger long in the north of Scotland.
A good many birds, indeed, appear to pass right through our area, as an increase
in numbers is noticeable in spring : even in the south this return passage lasts till
mid- April (cf. Ticehurst, B. of Kent, 1909, p. 354). In Ireland it is commonest
in February, but is very local, though the localities are widespread : the southern
and western districts are the most favoured (cf. Ussher and Warren, B. of Ireland,
1900, p. 196 ; and Saunders, III. Man. B. B., 2nd ed., 1899, p. 429). A report on
the results of marking large numbers of pintail in Denmark is awaited with
interest. Usually recorded in small parties of from two or three birds to a score
or more. [A. L. T.]
4. Nest and Eggs. — The nest is usually placed on the ground in a dry
place, sometimes sheltered by the surrounding vegetation or under cover of a low
bush. It is constructed by the duck, and dry grasses and other vegetable matter
are used, together with a good supply of down, which is dull sooty-brown in colour,
lighter than that of the longtailed-duck, and with whitish centres. (Pis. U'aiid
LXVH.) Some feathers show a brown bar with extension down the shaft to che
tip ; others have a median blotch and a bar with median extension, almost in the
shape of a fleur-de-lys. The eggs are usually buffish or yellowish green, but some
clutches are cream coloured without any green tinge. The clutch generally con-
sists of 7 to 10 eggs, which are decidedly smaller than those of the mallard, but
do not differ much in size from those of the shoveler and wigeon. Average size of
101 eggs, 2-16 x 1-52 in. [55x38'8 mm.]. (PI. T.) Incubation is performed by the
duck only, and lasts 22 to 23 days according to Heinroth. Hantzsch gives 3J
weeks, and Naumann says that it is less than four weeks. The breeding season
is rather early, and full clutches may be found in the first few days of May in
Scotland and Denmark, but in the north of Europe they may be found in early
June, and Seebohm took eggs on the Yenisei in July. Only one brood is reared
during the season. [F. c. R. J.]
5. Food. — Insects and their larvae, molluscs, small Crustacea, and water-
plants, especially Equisetum. The young feed at first mainly on insects and their
larvae, [w. P. p.]
202 THE SHELDUCK AND SURFACE-FEEDING DUCKS
TEAL [Nettion crecca crecca (Linnaeus) ; Nettion crecca (Linnaeus). Throstle-teal,
jay-teal ; crick (Norfolk). French, sarcelk cThiver ; German, Krick-Ente ;
Italian, alsavola].
1. Description. — The speculum in the teal suffices to distinguish it in both
sexes and at all ages, the outer half being velvety black, the inner metallic
green, while it is bounded in front by a rust-coloured or occasionally white bar,
formed by the tips of the major coverts, and behind by a very narrow white line
formed by the tips of the remiges. The sexes differ markedly in coloration, and
there is a conspicuous seasonal change of plumage in the male. (PI. 158.) Length
14*5 in. [368 mm.]. The male has the head and neck of a rich chesnut relieved
by a broad band of dark metallic green extending from the eye backwards on to
the neck, and bordered with a narrow edging of buff, which, as a narrow line, runs
forward from above the eye downwards to the beak. The upper parts are finely
pencilled with grey and white vermiculations, but the wing-coverts are brownish
grey, and the hinder scapulars are greatly elongated and coloured, and form a
conspicuous longitudinal band, velvet black along its external, and cream coloured
along its internal border. The lateral upper tail-coverts and the under tail-
coverts are of a velvety black. The fore-breast is white spotted with black, and
the flanks are vermiculated like the back, while the breast and abdomen are white,
the former with large round black spots. The beak is black, and the legs and
toes dusky. In its eclipse dress — July to October — it differs from the female in
having the abdomen heavily marked with oval, dusky spots, and the back dusky
with narrow transverse bars of buff. The female differs from the female mallard
chiefly in its much smaller size, and in having the base of the hind-neck (" upper-
mantle ") barred with broad bars of ochreous buff, in having the loop-like markings
of the hinder scapulars and long inner secondaries of a rufous tinge, and the rump
transversely barred with grey, while the breast is white save in August, when it
becomes heavily spotted. The juvenile dress differs from that of the adult female
in having the crown of the head and the back feathers of a uniform dusky hue
and a duller speculum. The young 'in down differs from the young mallard in
lacking the buff markings on the upper surface, and in having the sides of the head
and breast pale brown instead of golden yellow, [w. P. P.]
2. Distribution.— On the whole a widely distributed species in the British
Isles, nesting in most of the English counties, especially on the east coast and in
the north of England. It is rather sparsely distributed in the southern and
midland counties, but is commoner in Wales. In Scotland it is very general on
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 203
the mainland, and on all the island groups, having been first recorded as breeding
in the Outer Hebrides in 1901. In Ireland also it breeds in all districts in limited
numbers. Outside the British Isles it nests in Iceland, and on the Continent it
is generally distributed in suitable localities from Lapland and the shores of the
Arctic Ocean hi North Russia to the shores of the Mediterranean, but it is com-
paratively scarce in the countries of Southern Europe, and it is doubtful whether
it breeds in Italy ; has only exceptionally been found nesting in Spain, and does
not breed in Greece as far as is known. It nests in Sardinia, and is said to have
bred in the Azores (Godman), while in Asia it ranges across the whole continent,
east to Kamtschatka and north to about 70°. It breeds in the Kuriles and has
occurred in Alaska, but is replaced by an allied race in North America, though it
has strayed to Greenland and the eastern coasts. In winter its migrations extend
to Madeira, the Canaries, and North Africa, south to Haussaland, the Blue Nile
and Abyssinia ; while in Asia it ranges to Socotra, the Persian Gulf, India,
Ceylon, the Malay Peninsula, China, Formosa, Japan, and also to the Philippines.
[F. c. R. J.]
3. Migration. — Found all the year round in our islands : the birds which
nest with us probably include both resident and summer visitant individuals.
The species is, however, most abundant as a winter visitor and a bird of
passage from Northern Europe. The autumn immigration takes place between
6th September and 28th November, but the season of the passage move-
ments is given as from 30th August to 29th November ; the spring passage
season is from 25th March to llth May (cf. Clarke, Studies in Bird-Migration,
1912, pp. 136, 160). It is resident in Yorkshire, and the first immigrants
appear in August, great flights following hi September and October, after which
the birds disperse ; the return passage takes place in March and April (cf.
Nelson, B. of Yorks., 1907, p. 455). In Kent the immigrants appear early in
September, and are further increased in hard weather : the birds nesting in that
county are summer visitors, arriving in March and moving south early in August
(cf. Ticehurst, B. of Kent, 1909, p. 355). A few nest ha North Wales, but in
whiter it becomes abundant (cf. Forrest, Fauna N. Wales, 1907, p. 281). The
immigrant birds appear in Ireland late hi October or early in November, after-
wards dispersing (cf. Ussher and Warren, B. of Ireland, 1900, p. 198). Large
numbers of teal have been marked on passage in Denmark, and the following is
a summary of the results given in the First Report : — One hundred and two birds
were caught in a decoy on the island of Fano, off South-western Denmark, hi
October 1907 ; these were " ringed " and released, and twenty-one of them were
204 THE SHELDUCK AND SURFACE-FEEDING DUCKS
reported from various localities during that and the following whiter. Two were
killed hi Holland (22nd October and 22nd November 1907), four in the south-
western shires of England (Herefordshire, 5th January; Cornwall, 17th January;
and Hampshire, 30th January and 30th December 1908), five in Ireland (Co.
Limerick, 10th December 1907 ; Co. Kerry, 31st December 1907 ; Co. Fermanagh,
24th February 1908; Queen's Co., 28th February 1908; and Co. Galway, 21st
August 1908), eight in Western France (November and December 1907 ; and
January, February, and September 1908), one hi Southern Spain (Guadalquivir
estuary, 2nd December 1907), and one in Northern Italy (river Po near Parma,
4th December 1908) : further, one was recaught at Fano (5th November 1908),
and a second on another of the North Frisian islands (Pellworm, 1st October
1908), while one was found not far from Stockholm (12th April 1912), giving an
indication of the summer quarters of the birds concerned. Of the above cases,
that of a teal marked on passage in Denmark in October 1907, and shot hi Co.
Galway on 21st August 1908, deserves special attention : the bird may possibly
have summered in the British Isles for some reason — when shot it was in good
condition, but alone. (Cf. Mortensen, Vidensk. MeddeL fra den naturhist. Fore-
ning i Kobenhavn, 1908, pp. 127-139). The teal is a gregarious migrant, and often
met with hi great numbers: sometimes strikes against the lighthouse lanterns.
[A. L. T.]
4. Nest and Eggs. — The nest is frequently found among heather on
moorlands, sometimes in a tuft of rushes, under a bush or hi a wood. The hollow
is scantily lined with dead leaves, grasses, etc., by the duck, and freely lined with
down as incubation proceeds. (PI. LXVII.) The down is dark blackish brown, with
light centres, but lacks the white tips characteristic of the garganey. (PI. U.) Nest
feathers "light stone colour, with broad dark patches" on each side, "extending
nearly to the tip of the feather" (Noble). The eggs are usually 8 to 15 or 16 hi
number, smaller than any other of our British-breeding ducks except the garganey,
and are pale creamy white with a faint greenish tinge, which is characteristic.
Average size of 100 eggs, 1'77 x 1'29 in. [45 x 32'8 mm.]. (PL T.) Incubation is
performed by the duck alone, and ends on the 22nd day (W. Evans) : Hantzsch
gives 20 days from the last egg, but H. S. Gladstone estimates it at 28 days !
Saunders states that the eggs are usually laid early in May, but nests may fre-
quently be found with full clutches during the last fortnight of April in the south
of England, and in Northern Europe often not till June. Only one brood is
reared during the season normally. [F. o. B. jr.]
PLATE LXVII
Pintail's nest and eggs
Teal's nest and eggs
Photo by R. Fort i
Garganey's nest and eggs
Photu by R. 1-ortui
Wig6on's nest and egg,
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 205
5. Food. — The tender shoots and leaves of aquatic plants, insects and their
larvae, small Crustacea. The young feed largely on aquatic insects, and are aided
in their search and guarded by both parents, [w. p. p.]
GARGANEY [Querquedula querquedula (Linnseus) ; Querquedula circia
(Linnaeus). Crick, summer-teal ; summer-crick, cricket-teal (Norfolk).
French, sarcelle d'ete ; German, Kndk-Enle ; Italian, marzaiola].
I. Description. — The garganey may at all times be distinguished by the
pale metallic green colour of the speculum, which is bounded before and behind
by a broad white band. The sexes differ conspicuously, and the male displays a
striking seasonal change of coloration. (PI. 159.) Length 16 in. [406 mm.]. The male
in " full " plumage has the lesser wing-coverts of a pale French grey, the head and
neck dark cinnamon-red with hair-like striations of white, a broad white super-
ciliary stripe, and a black chin. The long hinder scapulars are of a French grey
colour, and these are succeeded by others which are black with broad white median
shaft-streaks. The sides of the base of the neck are black with loops of buff, and
the fore-breast is of a rufous buff barred with black. The flanks are coarsely vermi-
culated with dark grey on a white ground, and the abdomen is white obscurely
freckled with grey, while the under tail-coverts are buffish white, obscurely spotted
with black, thereby differing from all the other surface-feeding ducks, wherein
these coverts are velvety black. In his eclipse dress the male retains the colora-
tion of the supernuptial, or " breeding " dress, in so far as the wings are concerned ;
for the rest he resembles the female save that the fore-breast is white with sub-
crescentic bars of dark brown. The female lacks the brilliancy of colour which
characterises the male in regard to the speculum, and has the wing-coverts of a
dark grey: the feathers of the upper parts are of a dusky hue margined with buffish
white : there is a short white stripe behind the eye, another from the eye to the
base of the beak, and there is a dull white patch in the region of the lores. The
throat is white, the middle of the neck buffish white with sepia striations, and the
flanks are sepia coloured margined with white. The young in down is of a dark
chocolate colour, and has the sides of the head pale chesnut, with a chocolate
patch behind the eye, and a sinuous line of the same hue along the face curving up
behind the ear. Behind the wing is an S-shaped loop of dull white, and there
is a buff spot on the thigh. The throat and breast are pale buff, the fore-breast
rufous, and the abdomen buff with dusky mottlings. [w. P. P.]
VOL. IV. 2 D
206 THE SHELDUCK AND SURFACE-FEEDING DUCKS
2. Distribution. — This species only breeds with us in very small numbers,
and is very local. The only counties in which it breeds at all regularly are Norfolk,
where it is diminishing in numbers, and in smaller numbers in Suffolk and Kent.
It formerly bred in Northumberland, and has nested within the last thirty years
in Durham, Yorkshire, Essex, Hants, and Somerset. No instances of breeding
are known from Scotland or Ireland. On the Continent it is said to breed in Iceland
and at Jaederen in Norway, nests in Sweden up to about lat. 60°, and perhaps
also in Jemtland, in Finland, and from the Archangel and Vologda governments
and the Baltic provinces in Russia southward. In Denmark, Holland, and some
parts of North Germany, as well as in Hungary, it is fairly common, and breeds
in smaller numbers in France, North Italy, the Balkan states, Greece, Sicily, pro-
bably in Crete, Cyprus, and the southern governments of Russia. In Asia it breeds
in Asia Minor, Transcaspia, and on the Ob north to the Arctic Circle, Turkestan,
the Tomsk government, near Irkutsk, in Ussuria, Kamtschatka, and Mongolia. Its
migration range extends to Abyssinia, Somaliland, the Egyptian Sudan, and British
East Africa : hi Asia to Arabia, Persia, India, Ceylon, the Malay Peninsula, China,
and Japan ; the Sunda Isles, Moluccas, Philippines, and Celebes. [F. c. B. J.]
3. Migration. — Apart from the small British breeding stock (see preceding
paragraph), this species is an uncommon bird of passage to our islands, very rare
or unknown in some parts. In Kent the breeding birds are summer visitors,
sometimes arriving in March, but more usually in April ; they seek the coast about
the middle of July, and probably leave a month later (cf. Ticehurst, B. of Kent,
1909, p. 357). The southern and eastern parts of England are those hi which the
passage movements in early March and in autumn are most marked (cf. Saunders,
III. Man. Brit. B., 2nd ed., 1899, p. 435). To Ireland the garganey is a very rare
bird of passage, occurring chiefly in the south and west, and in March or April,
although also in January and February (cf . Saunders, loc. cit. ; and Ussher and
Warren, B. of Ireland, 1900, p. 198). [A. L. T.]
4. Nest and Eggs. — The nest may be found in meadows, among heather
or rank vegetation, and in marshes, and is a mere depression in the ground, lined
with grasses and other vegetable matter, to which down is added, sometimes only
while incubation is going on. (PI. Lxvrr.) It is formed by the duck alone, and
generally contains 6 or 7 to 10 eggs, occasionally as many as 13, which differ
little in size from those of the teal, but are a warm creamy yellow in colour, and
lack the greenish tinge. The down is also distinctive, being smaller than that of
the teal, sooty brown in colour, with light centres and distinct light tips. (PI. U.)
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 207
The feathers have a dark median patch, which does not reach either to the tip
or edges of the feather. Average size of 77 eggs, T77 x 1*28 in. [45 x 32*5 mm.].
(PL T.) Incubation is performed by the duck alone, and lasts, according to
Heinroth, about 24 days ; but only 22 days by Winel's estimate. Full clutches
may be found in East Anglia during the last fortnight of April or early in May,
sometimes in Central Europe as late as the end of June, possibly in the case of
birds which have lost their first clutch. Only one brood is reared during the
season. [F. c. R. J.]
5. Food. — Small fish, aquatic insects, small molluscs, and aquatic vegeta-
tion. The young feed largely on aquatic insects, small molluscs, and Crustacea,
and are guided in their search for food by the female, [w. P. p.]
[Mareca penelope (Linnseus). Lady-wigeon ; russiannett (Lanca-
shire) ; winder, pandle (Kent) ; whew (Northumberland) ; whew-duck.
French, canard siffleur ; German, Pfeif-Ente, Bldss-Ente ; Italian, fischione].
I. Description.— In the male wigeon the speculum is almost black, save
for a broad band of metallic green which forms its anterior border. It is bounded
in front by a black band formed by the tips of the major coverts, which else,
with the rest of the wing-coverts, are white. The female may at once be dis-
tinguished from other species of the same sex by the fact that the speculum is of
a dusky grey, bounded in front by a white bar. The sexes differ conspicuously,
and there is a striking seasonal change of plumage in the male. (PL 160.) Length
18 '5 in. [469 mm.]. The head and neck of the male are of a chesnut-red, save the
crown which is cream coloured, while the eye is surrounded by a broad metallic
green ring, and metallic green spots besprinkle the sides of the head and neck.
The interscapulars, inner scapulars, rump, and flanks are marked by fine grey and
white vermiculations. The outer web of the secondary overlapping the inner
border of the speculum is white, the next three remiges of the series are velvet
black with white edges, and the lateral upper tail-coverts and under tail-coverts are
black. The fore-breast is of a greyish pink tinge, while the breast and abdomen
are white. The beak is blue, tipped with black, the feet and legs are lead coloured,
and the iris dark brown. In the eclipse dress the plumage differs from that of
the female in that the crown is dusky, slightly spotted with brown, the sides of the
face and neck mottled closely with grey and white, and the whole of the rest of
the upper surface is dusky, transversely barred with buff ; while the abdomen is
208 THE SHELDUCK AND SURFACE-FEEDING DUCKS
heavily spotted with grey on a buff ground, the under tail-coverts are dull white
heavily spotted with dark grey. The coloration of the female resembles that of the
female mallard, differing mainly therefrom in having the feathers at the base of
the hind-neck marked by very broad transverse bars and loops of buff, and the
sub-marginal and marginal bands of the long inner secondaries rufous instead of
buff ; and finally, the speculum is dusky grey, bounded in front by a white bar.
The juvenile dress differs from the adult female in having the back feathers dusky,
margined with a narrow edging of dull grey, interspersed with which are a few,
sparsely distributed, indistinct transverse bars of buff. The downy nestling is
distinguished by the absence of a basal streak, the almost uniform brown colour
of the upper parts showing only a faint buff bar along the wing, and the rufous
colour of the cheeks and throat, [w. P. P.]
2. Distribution. — The wigeon breeds in considerable numbers in the north
of Scotland, especially Sutherland, and less commonly in Ross, Caithness, and
Cromarty. Of late years it has extended its range southward, and has bred in
Argyll, Perth, the Forth area (Kincardine), as well as Roxburgh, Selkirk, and
Kirkcudbright. It has also nested on Coll, the Orkneys and Shetlands. In
England apparently wild birds have bred at one locality in Cumberland, and nests
have been found in Yorkshire. Apparently it has also nested once in Merioneth.
These latter records may be due to the breeding of young birds hatched in captivity.
Although suspected of having bred in Ireland, proof is still wanting. Outside the
British Isles it has probably bred in the Faeroes, and nests commonly in Iceland :
is abundant in Norway and Sweden as well as in Finland, while in Russia it ranges
to Lapland, the White Sea, and the southern part of the tundra which borders on
the Arctic Ocean. It has bred on Waigatz and extends in South-east Russia to
Astrakhan and Transcaucasia, as well as to the Crimea, but is absent from the
south-west. It also breeds in very small numbers in East Prussia, and possibly
a few pairs may nest in other parts of North Germany, in Denmark, and in Holland.
In Asia it ranges north to 71° on the Boganida and 69° on the Kolyma, south to
Ussuria, the Altai, and near Tomsk. It is also found on the Aleutian Isles and
in Alaska. In winter it migrates south to Madeira, North Africa, and south-east
to the Egyptian Sudan and Abyssinia, while Asiatic birds reach Persia, India
(except in the south), Burma, China, and Japan, to Borneo, the Sunda and
Marschall Islands : in America to California on the west, and the Carolinas and
Virginia on the east : casual in Greenland. [F. c. R. J.]
3. Migration. — A considerable number are resident in or summer visitors
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 209
to our islands, breeding in some parts of Scotland (see preceding paragraph), but
the species is much more abundant as a bird of passage and a winter visitor from
Northern Europe. As a winter visitor the wigeon may arrive as early as 5th August,
but more usually does so between 9th September and 16th November, while the period
of the autumn passage is given as from 30th August to 23rd November, but princi-
pally October : the spring passage is from 25th March to llth May and 12th June (cf.
Clarke, Studies in Bird Migration, 1912, vol. i. pp. 136, 160). On the Yorkshire coast
it is generally young birds that are noted in August and September, both old and
young arriving in October and November ; but adult females are said to be very
scarce in winter in the Tees and Humber estuaries (cf. Nelson, B. of Yorks., 1907,
p. 459). The young birds are also noted first, towards the end of September, in
Kent (cf. Ticehurst, B. of Kent, 1909, p. 359). A few reach Ireland by the end
of August, but the main influx takes place between 10th October and the middle
or end of November, the numbers varying with the season : the period of the return
movement is from mid-March to mid- April, sometimes lasting till May (cf. Ussher
and Warren, B. of Ireland, 1900, p. 200). As a winter visitor the wigeon is gre-
garious, and is found on both coastal and inland waters. A passage movement
has been described as follows : " Off the Cleveland coast, the wigeon is very frequently
observed passing alongshore, to the north-west, on migration, and at times comes
within range of the fowlers stationed on the ' scars ' or sand-hills, who take toll
of their numbers. In some seasons, when favourable winds from the east or
north-east prevail at the time of the full moon, immense nights are seen ; I have
noticed them incessantly from early morn till noon, hi flocks numbering several
hundred birds; such was the case in the first week of November 1878, on 1st
October 1887, the 13th and 14th October 1894, and the 29th and 30th October
1901 " (Nelson, loc. tit.). Two records of marked birds throw valuable light on the
movements of our Scottish native wigeon : out of a brood of five wigeon ducklings
marked on 19th June 1909 on Loch Brora, Eastern Sutherland, one was caught
in a duck decoy at Westpolder, Ulrum, Groningen, North-eastern Holland, on 3rd
September 1909, and another was shot in England, on the river Trent, four miles
above Gainsborough, early in January 1911 (cf. Thomson, British Birds, vol. v.
p. 98). [A. L. T.]
4. Nest and Eggs. — The nest is usually placed on the ground, rarely
more than 20 yards from the water, amongst heather ; sometimes in rushes, grass
or coarse herbage, and is composed of grasses, moss, etc., mixed with down, and
is the work of the duck. (PI. Lxvn.) The down is dark sooty brown with light
210 THE SHELDUCK AND SURFACE-FEEDING DUCKS
centres, but the nest feathers are quite distinctive, ' being white, sometimes with
grey centres, which spread to the top of the web' (Noble.) The eggs are 6 or 7
to 10 in number, creamy white in colour. Average size of 100 eggs, 2-16 x T52 in.
[54'9 x 38*7 mm.]. (PI. T.) Incubation is performed by the duck alone, and
lasts 22 to 23 days (Heinroth) ; 24 to 25 days (Naumann). In Scotland the full
clutch may be found occasionally as early as the first week of May, but more
usually about the middle of the month, and sometimes even in early June. On
the Shetlands Saxby records eggs as early as April 26, but in Northern Russia
the eggs are often not laid till the end of June. Only one brood is reared in the
season. [F. c. B. J.]
5. Food. — Grasswrack (Zostera) and other marine algse, fresh- water sub-
merged weeds, fine turf, cockles and other Mollusca, and small Crustacea. The
young feed mainly on small Crustacea, and accompany the female in their search
for food. [w. P. P.]
THE SHELDUCK AND SURFACE FEEDING DUCKS 211
THE SHELDUCK AND SURFACE-FEEDING DUCKS
[W. P. PYCRAFT]
Systems of classification are apt to be somewhat arbitrary, and
rarely reflect the habits of the living animals they embrace. But
there are exceptions to every rule, and the division of the Ducks into
" surface-feeding " and " diving " species is one of these ; for this
division, though originally based almost entirely on habits, is confirmed
by evidence obtained from diverse sources. One is tempted to regard
the surface-feeding species as birds of the fresh waters, and of the
diving species as marine types ; but a little reflection will show that
this is by no means true. It is thus, then, plain that the obvious
structural features which distinguish these two groups are not to be
attributed to their haunts, but rather to the method of securing their
food. Those of the surface water will, it is true, dive under excep-
tional circumstances, as in the avoidance of enemies, or momentarily
when in play ; but they are not dependent on diving feats to secure
their daily bread. Such food as is obtained lower than the surface of
the water is procured by peculiar, semi-diving movements, wherein the
fore part of the body is submerged, leaving the hinder portion sticking
vertically out of the water, after the fashion of geese and swans. The
diving Ducks, on the other hand, have to dive for a living, and hence
it is that in them we find the legs relatively shorter, the thigh-bone
especially, whereby the carriage of the body when on land becomes
semi-erect and somewhat strained. On the water, however, the
advantage of this change in the fashion of the limb becomes at once
apparent, for it is now obvious, from the more backward position of
the legs, increased powers both of diving and swimming are attained.
This modification of the leg, however, is purely an adaptive character,
and therefore of no value to the systematist. Happily, however, it is
confirmed from an unexpected source, and one which excludes all
212 THE SHELDUCK AND SURFACE-FEEDING DUCKS
possibility of having been induced by adaptation. We refer to the
lower, or syringeal, end of the windpipe. This, and in the males only,
displays a curious, roughly spherical bony chamber, as a rule on one
side of the syrinx only. But in each species this bulla has a character
of its own, as distinctive as the plumage. Only in the sheldrake is a
symmetrically disposed double-bulla present.
What purpose do these curious inflations of the syrinx serve ?
Apparently they are vocal organs, resonators. If this is so, one
would have expected the males to display the more powerful voice,
but the opposite is actually the case ; only in one or two species do
the males seem to utter any very peculiar sound, such as might be
attributed to the bulla. It may be, of course, that closer observation
will show that the males are more vociferous than was supposed, or
that the peculiar notes characteristic of the males of the several species
have a greater carrying power than we have hitherto imagined.
When we turn to the " diving Ducks," we find this syringeal bulla
assuming still stranger forms. In the Eider-ducks alone does it bear
any likeness to that of the surface-feeding species. The Scoters form
a group apart, to be considered presently. In the rest this chamber
has become enormously enlarged, and its transformation seems to
have put a greater strain on the bone secretions concerned with its
formation. At any rate, the walls of the chamber are pierced by
large vacuities, across which are stretched exceedingly delicate
membranes. Here again we must regard the modification as con-
cerned with voice-production and not with the diving habits, since
only the males are affected. In the goosander alone does the female
show any tracheal modification. This takes the form of a fusiform
enlargement of the windpipe itself, and in the male there are two
such enlargements, which can be felt by drawing the fingers down the
neck of the living bird. The male merganser resembles the female
goosander in this respect, while the female merganser displays no
such contrivance.
In the Scoters these syringeal bullae are wanting. In the common
THE SHELDUCK AND SURFACE-FEEDING DUCKS 213
scoter the trachea and syrinx are conspicuous for the absence of
modifications, but the bronchi are curiously inflated. The velvet and
surf scoters show no syringeal peculiarities, but a curious swelling at
the upper end of the trachea, and a second in the furcular region.
And the precise function of these, as of the syringeal bullse, remains
to be demonstrated.
The surface-feeding Ducks, including the shelduck, display a
further peculiarity in the presence of a conspicuous " speculum " on
the wing — an oblong band, generally of metallic green, formed by
the secondary remiges ; and this is commonly bounded by a bar of
white or black, or both, formed by the tips of the major coverts.
Often a bar along the hinder edge of this speculum is formed by the
tips of the secondaries themselves. But there is no need to enlarge
upon this feature, since it will be necessary to constantly refer thereto
in describing the plumage of the several species, for each has its
own fashion in this particular. Let it suffice here to draw special
attention to the gadwall, which in this particular differs from all the
other surface-feeding species.
Of the remarkable change of plumage, which annually leaves the
male, for a season, in a state of " eclipse," we have already spoken,
and the subject will be referred to again in the course of the following
pages.
Similarly, no more than bare mention will be made here of the
unusually fleshy and horn-fringed tongues, and the curious armature
of the jaws. These are adaptive characters, best dealt with in
considering those species wherein they are most conspicuously
developed.
Though monogamous the males display little or no care for their
young, this duty being undertaken by the female. She is an assiduous
mother, plucking the down from her own breast for the benefit of her
incubating eggs, just as the rabbit denudes itself of under-fur for the
sake of its newly born young.
Young ducks, it need hardly be remarked, are nidifugous. But
VOL. iv. 2 E
214 THE SHELDUCK AND SURFACE-FEEDING DUCKS
they are peculiar, in the first place, on account of their coloration,
which betrays but little evidence of the earlier striped livery which
must have been worn during bygone ages ; and in the second, for the
infinitely slow development of the wings, wherein they differ con-
spicuously from the nidifugous young of Gallinaceous birds. In the
latter the remiges are developed within a few hours of birth, and long
before the appearance of contour feathers. In the Ducks, on the
other hand, the quill feathers do not make their appearance until
after the rest of the body is fledged, and these differences seem to be
intimately associated with the conditions of existence. In the one
case a limited power of flight has been prematurely developed, owing
to the necessity of finding escape from the numerous enemies which
lurk in dry covert ; in the other, escape is found by taking to the
water, and on this account the development of the contour feathers
of the trunk is more important than those of the wings, and this
because they afford a better protection than down, being more
resistant to water.
THE SHELDRAKE
[W. P. PYCRAFT]
The sheldrake, though not in its habits so much a water surface-
feeding Duck as a shore bird, may properly be classed with the
surface-feeders by virtue of the structural similarities above men-
tioned. It is one of the handsomest and most strikingly coloured
of the Ducks. It is also one of the most interesting. In the first
place, it represents one of the annectant links with the Geese.
It also commands attention from the fact that the two sexes are
practically alike and brilliantly coloured, while the offspring have a
distinct livery, though differing less markedly perhaps from the
adult than is the rule in such cases.
While the surface-feeding Ducks for the most part haunt inland
THE SHELDRAKE 215
waters, the sheldrake generally avoids them, preferring the open sea,
sandy beaches, and estuaries: occasionally, however, it will nest
inland, as on lochs in Scotland.1 In parts of its range, as in Asia
east of the Caspian, salt lakes are frequented. The main factor in
determining these haunts is of course food. In their freshwater-
haunts this seems to consist mainly of small molluscs and aquatic
insects obtained from shallow water, and worms obtained from
pastures. Small fish, Crustacea, and molluscs form their staple diet
by the sea, and much of this food is sought for at low tide below high-
water mark.
As with many of its relatives and the Gulls, the sheldrake pro-
cures marine-worms by rapidly beating the ground with its feet, which
apparently sets up vibrations, which drive the coveted morsels to the
surface. St. John, commenting on this fact, implies that dry sand
is thus tapped, but from my own observations only pools of water
are thus explored. But whatever the meal for the time being,
it is never procured by diving or from deep water; at most the
body is half-submerged by paddling with the feet, so that the hinder
half projects vertically from the water, as in the case of its surface-
feeding relatives and the Swans. Under the stress of great fear,
however, diving seems to be resorted to, both by young when striving
to evade capture and the adults when wounded or to avoid the stoop
of the peregrine. The flight of the sheldrake is likened by some to
that of the swan, by others to that of the goose, from which it is
clear that in this particular it differs conspicuously from that of
the more typical ducks. But neither on the wing nor at rest are
the bright chesnut colours of this bird visible save at close range ;
commonly the coloration appears to be simply black and white,
disposed in large and sharply defined patches, which, when a number
of birds are seen in full career, suggest nothing so much as a flock
of large butterflies.
While feeding, the sheldrake is somewhat noisy, and the female
1 R. B. Sharpe, "British Birds,' Lloyd's Natural History, vol. ii. p. 201.
216 THE SHELDUCR AND SURFACE-FEEDING DUCKS
particularly so, as in the case of the mallard. Every now and then
she will utter what Mr. Abel Chapman calls "a long-drawn, rever-
berating bark," and occasionally this is accompanied by half a dozen
distinct quacks. The note of the drake is quite different — a peculiar
sibilant noise, half-squeak, half-whistle, usually quite low and gentle,
but sometimes tuned so as to become sharp and ringing. But
what is still more curious about this cry is the fact that at the
time it is uttered the beak is closed, apparently tightly ; sometimes
indeed, Mr Chapman tells us, the bird seems to be feeding at the
veiy moment. The wigeon-drake, on the other hand, opens his beak
wide before commencing his " pipe " and closes it during the note.
At the pairing season, according to Seebohm, the male develops
a special call, which takes the form of a clear, rapidly repeated
whistle or trill ; but whether, as is probable, this is accompanied by
any peculiar display there seem to be no records to show. Inasmuch
as both sexes are coloured alike, we should expect to find a similar
display by both sexes.
The sheldrake, as everybody knows, differs from all the other
Anatidse in that it breeds, with rare exceptions (see "Classified
Notes"), in a burrow. As a rule rabbit-burrows are selected, and
it would seem that occasionally the rightful owners are evicted to
provide the desired nursery. At any rate, on one occasion Sir Ralph
Payne-Gallwey saw a female haul a young rabbit out of a burrow by
its ear.1 On occasion badger and fox earths are used ; as also are
natural crevices on rocky coasts. But when ready-made nurseries
are not to be had the birds will dig one for themselves, and the
work of tunnelling is believed to fall entirely on the female. This
must be no mean task, since the brood-chamber may be as much as
12 feet from the entrance of the burrow. One would have imagined
that for tunnelling on this scale beak and feet more adapted for
the purpose would have been necessary. But the sand-martin
and the bee-eater are, if possible, even less suitably equipped.
. ' C. J. Patten, Aquatic Birds of Great Britain and Ireland, p. 86.
Plate 156
Sheldrake (right), shelduck and ducklings
By A. W. Seaby
\\
THE SHELDRAKE 217
In the North Frisian Islands, according to Yarrell, the natives
make artificial burrows and systematically rob the nests until the
middle of June, when they allow the birds to begin to sit. In this
way each burrow may yield as many as thirty eggs. In robbing the
nest care seems to be taken always to leave four or five eggs in
the nest, so that the suspicions of the bird are not aroused : for the
sheldrake appears to be of a wary disposition, often taking the pre-
caution to fly straight into the entrance of the burrow, so as to leave
no tell-tale traces of the whereabouts of its nursery. Generally,
however, more or fewer footprints at the entrance to the burrow will
be found, though none extend beyond it. Incubation extends over
a period of from 28 to 30 days, during which time the male watches
near at hand. Some valuable notes, generously placed at my disposal
by Mr. G. Cresswell, show that we stand much in need of careful
observation on the feeding-habits of the sheldrake during the incuba-
tion period, for he remarks of the numerous birds now breeding on
the warrens at Wolferton, Norfolk, that " so far as I can observe, the
diet of this bird must be entirely different in the nesting season to
what it is during the rest of the year. A few ... do visit the salts
and creeks occasionally, for a short time ; but only for what may be
called ' a wash and brush up,' and not for food. When the eggs are
set I do not think the birds move from the vicinity of the heath." It
may prove that they live on sand-lizards, beetles, and snails, varied
with a little grass. As soon as the young are hatched they are taken
down to the water by their parents, the male being as assiduous in
their care as his mate. According to Naumann, when the young are
hatched far from the water they are carried in the beak, but others
seem to incline to the view that the nestlings mount on to the back
of the parent and maintain their position by seizing hold of the
feathers of the back. Commonly, if not always, they go on their own
feet. Some interesting facts on this head are embodied in the
notes furnished me by Mr. Cresswell, who, writing of the birds breed-
ing on Wolferton heath, remarks that the old birds, in convoying
218 THE SHELDUCK AND SURFACE-FEEDING DUCKS
their young to the sea, have a choice of routes by fields and ditches,
yet they commonly choose to pass through the village street of
Wolferton, much to the delight of the inhabitants.1 Having reached
the sea, two or three broods seem to combine to form " troops " of
from thirty to forty, accompanied by their parents. If approached,
the adults display considerable anxiety for the safety of their young,
but if hard pressed, Mr. Abel Chapman tells us, they leave them to
seek safety by squatting among the stones and tide-wrack on the
shore. When older they seem well able to take care of themselves,
resorting to diving if pursued, and dispersing themselves in all direc-
tions. Not until they are at least two years old are these youngsters
sexually mature, by which time they have assumed the adult dress,
though this lacks something of the brilliancy of older birds.
MALLARD
[W. P. PYCRAFT]
Of all our native ducks the mallard has surely the highest claim
to our regard, for it is one of the handsomest members of its tribe,
and certainly the most valuable, since it is the parent stock from
which our domesticated breeds have been derived, while in a wild
state it yields us still a by no means inappreciable portion of our food-
supply. Why the mallard alone among the Ducks has proved capable
of domestication is a matter which seems beyond our powers of
divination, yet the fact remains. But it is significant to note that
when they are not molested, mallard display a very trustful disposi-
tion. Thus I have seen numbers feeding and disporting themselves
in the midday sun, from the bridge which crosses the Tay at Perth,
despite the fact that tramways were continually passing overhead,
and people were always watching them from the parapet. But no
1 In litt.
MALLARD 219
one is allowed to shoot them. And similarly Mr. Ussher, in his
delightful Birds of Ireland, remarks on this same theme : " When my
cows go to drink where the ducks are standing, the latter merely move
aside, and the presence of the cowherd at most causes them to fly
out on the water ; but should any one approach with an umbrella, or
even with black clothes, they quit the lake."
During the autumn months large numbers of immigrants reach our
shores, and these seem for the most part to make the sea their head-
quarters, finding much if not most of their food there, but foraging
inland at night. Our home-bred birds, on the other hand, seem to
remain where they were bred, though resorting to the sea if ice has
locked up their usual food-supply.
In its choice of habitat the mallard is not hard to please ; for it
will find congenial haunts alike on bare Highland lochs in Scotland
and the richly stocked waters of a Norfolk Broad at the sea-level.
Bogs, ditches, and the seashore besides are drawn upon as the need
arises, while after rain the marshes form an irresistible attraction for
the sake of worms and slugs, and in the autumn grain gathered from
the stubble, and acorns from the hedges, afford a welcome change of
diet. During most of the year it is omnivorous. No animal matter con-
tained in the water is despised, nor is any green thing that grows
there deemed unpalatable. Much of its food seems to be obtained
by passing large quantities of mud and water through the beak, when
the solid, edible portions are retained, the rest being rejected by the
aid of the horny strainers which depend from the edges of the upper
jaw. In the choice of food, doubtless the thick, fleshy tongue plays
an important part. That the mallard is largely a night-feeder is due
to force of circumstances rather than choice. Where they have an
assured security from persecution they feed by day and sleep by
night.
The flight is both rapid and powerful, the swish of the wings
being plainly audible even at a distance of several yards. When
alighting on the water the body is suddenly inclined upwards, the
220 THE SHELDUCK AND SURFACE-FEEDING DUCKS
neck drawn backwards, and the feet thrust forwards so that on reach-
ing the water they plough along its surface for some few feet before
coming to rest. Occasionally, apparently when under the spell of
pleasurable excitement, mallard will perform aerial evolutions like
those of teal, turning and twisting, and plunging downwards, then
rising in a great sweep and circling round, and finally descending, one
after another, on to the water. But compared with their smaller
relatives they are but indifferent performers.
The mallard rarely dives, save when in the " flapper " stage or in
extreme danger. On occasion, Mr. J. G. Millais remarks,1 an adult
will pursue a fish under water. When greatly alarmed, as when being
fired at from several points, I have seen them suddenly descend to
the water and submerge the body till only the head and the highest
point of the back are with difficulty discernible ; and all the while the
body is slowly thrust forward towards the cover of the reeds, by the
paddling action of the feet. Usually, when feeding afloat, the fore-
part of the body is submerged, so that the hinder half points directly
skywards, this position being maintained by action of the feet ; and
when in very shallow water they will execute a kind of dance on the
mud, evidently for the purpose of stirring up worms and other
organisms. Gulls and plovers practise a similar device.
The most interesting period in the life-history of the mallard, as
with nearly all birds, is the reproductive period. And on this aspect
some valuable information has been gleaned by Mr. J. G. Millais and
Mr. Hugh Wormald. Mr. Millais' observations show that at times the
ardour of the male flags, and on such occasions the female makes
advances. Sometimes even as many as three females will court the
same male, swimming alongside and round and round him, uttering
the while a curious guttural sound, and dipping their bills in quick
succession from left to right. Commonly, he carries his head high, as
if unaware of these blandishments. Then one or other lowers herself
in the water till half submerged, when pairing almost invariably takes
1 The Natural History of the British Surface-Feeding Durks, p. 3.
Plate 157
Mallard : two drakes pursuing a duck
By A. W. Seaby
MALLARD 221
place. The display of the male, however, is of a much more elaborate
description, at its best exhibiting no less than five distinct postures.
As many as four or five rival males often take part in such per-
formances, and act in unison. In the opening movements all swim
round the female with the head drawn down close to the body, and in
an apparently unconcerned fashion. Then they will suddenly lower
their heads till the tips of the beaks are under water, and with this
the body is suddenly raised up into a standing posture, and main-
tained for a moment thus by the treading action of the feet, while the
beak, with a jerk, is withdrawn from the water and up the breast, a
jet of water being thrown forward as the beak leaves it. These
curious movements are commonly accompanied by a low whistle.
The normal swimming attitude is now momentarily assumed, but
quickly the hinder part of the body is raised and the tail spread,
while the neck is held somewhat stiffly and extended upwards.
Almost immediately after follows the final phase, when the tail is
lowered and the head and neck are stretched straight out along, and
touching, the water. This exact sequence, however, is not always
observed, but the final stretching out of the head and neck seems
always to follow immediately after pairing.
Both Mr. Wormald and Mr. Millais are agreed that adult mallards
will commence " displaying " in October, so soon as the new super-
nuptial dress is completed. And Mr. Wormald has even seen them
displaying when in eclipse plumage ! Immature drakes begin to
display also in the autumn, but such performances lack the vigour of
the spring displays.
While Mr. Millais seems to have been the first to draw attention
to the display of the mallard duck, Mr. J. L. Bonhote is apparently
the first to contend that the she actually chooses her mate.1 His
observations, however, on this head, were made on captive specimens ;
though they may well be true in the case of wild birds, at any rate
occasionally. Mr. H. Eliot Howard showed, long since, in the case of
1 Avicultural Magazine, 1911, p. 300.
VOL. IV. 2F
222 THE SHELDUCK AND SURFACE-FEEDING DUCKS
the Warblers, that our conceptions of the part played by sexual selec-
tion must be modified. Mr. Bonhote's observations on the mallard, if
borne out in the case of wild birds, will tend to show that the display
serves primarily to express the desire for pairing.
Both sexes seem to take part in the choice of a nesting-site, which
varies much. As soon as she begins to sit the female plucks down
from her breast wherewith to cover her eggs during her brief
absences, thereby keeping them warm and concealing them from
prowling enemies. But Mr. Millais asserts that little or no down is
used when the nests are made near water ; he also remarks that
when sitting she places leaves and sticks on her back to still further
mask her most wonderfully protective coloration. She is a most
devoted mother, save at dawn and dusk never leaving her eggs.
The male takes no part in the task of brooding the eggs, but he
remains near the sitting hen, at any rate during the greater part of
her onerous task. But by degrees his visits become less frequent,
and finally he goes away with other males, and holds aloof from his
mate till the autumn.
The young take to the water as soon as hatched, and here they
display extraordinary skill and agility in catching flies and other
insects. They are jealously guarded by the female, who is a some-
what stern parent. On occasion she will elect to nest in a pollard
willow, or even amid the branches of oak and elm, using as a founda-
tion for her nursery the deserted nest of a crow or hawk. When the
young hatch out the mother secures their descent not by transporting
them but by inducing them to jump from the nest to the ground, a feat
which is invariably accomplished without injury, owing probably to
the lightness of the body and the length and elasticity of the down.
While in health, at any rate, every care is taken to assure their well-
fare. Gulls are vigorously buffeted, and the fond mother will even
challenge and defeat the hawk. From the inclemency of the weather
she protects them with her own body, protecting them from rain by
spreading her wings over them, and from cold by drawing them under
THE GADWALL 223
her closed wings. Such as fall sick, however, she promptly dispatches,
though what may be the motive for such summary proceedings is
not clear.
THE GADWALL
[W. P. PY CRAFT]
The gadwall stands conspicuous among the surface-feeding ducks
for the almost quaker-like sobriety of the coloration of the drake, and
still more for the striking character of the speculum, which differs
from that of all its congeners, consisting as it does of sharply con-
trasted patches of black and white, instead of some shade of metallic
green or bronze. If coloration alone is a sufficient basis for classifi-
cation, then those systematists who in time past set the gadwall apart
in a genus by itself were justified. But conclusions based upon
coloration are insufficient. The systematic position of the gadwall,
and indeed of all the other Ducks, has to be determined by a study
of far more deep-seated characters, and this study has yet to be
undertaken. Meanwhile, no classification can be regarded as satis-
factory. But this by the way.
In its habits the gadwall resembles the mallard, but shows a
decided preference for quiet, reed-fringed lakes, and sluggish streams
where there is plenty of cover ; for it is one of the most wary and timid
of the Ducks, and hence has become largely a nocturnal feeder. It is
perhaps on account of its suspicious nature that it affects country
near the coast rather than districts far inland, and for the reason that
should its safety seem to be endangered, it can retreat to the open
sea. Even in winter it will seek such a refuge, contriving to secure
relief from the buffeting of the waves during stormy weather by
sheltering in the lee of rocky promontories. While feeding, the
female keeps up an incessant chattering: when on the wing the
224 THE SHELDUCK AND SURFACE-FEEDING DUCKS
male utters an occasional and curious croak, not unlike the cry of the
raven. They float high on the water when swimming, and procure
such food as they need from beneath the surface of the water by
that curious half-dive so characteristic of the surface-feeding ducks.
Of its courting habits almost the only records are those of Mr.
J. Gr. Millais, who tells us that the drake swims about all day uttering
a most unducklike croak, and "showing off" in a modest way before
his prospective mate. But in all his actions at this time he displays
a somewhat phlegmatic and self-possessed disposition. At times
several males will pay advances to the same female, but there is no
squabbling, no animosity or jealousy displayed. At most they swim
round and round her, merely raising the feathers of the. neck and
crown, which, it will be remarked, are somewhat soberly coloured :
occasionally one will quickly jerk its beak, mallard fashion, and raise
its tail after the fashion of the pintail ; but there is no apparent
enthusiasm.
Having regard to his behaviour during the period of courtship,
one is not surprised to find he displays no interest in the welfare of
his offspring, the female being left to brood the eggs and rear the
young as best she may. She is apparently not the most discreet of
mothers, for she will often elect to build her nest in a wood, and
numbers of sitting birds, on this account, are snapped up by foxes.
While the duck is sitting, the drake is undergoing his annual
" eclipse " moult, which, by the way, he often begins to assume very
early, so that he is in full eclipse dress even before the end of May.
Not until the young are fledged does the female start her autumn
moult.
As touching the eclipse dress, nothing need here be said, for it
has been sufficiently described in the introductory notes.
Plate 158
Teal (right) and gadwalls (left)
By A. W. Seaby
THE SHOVELER 225
THE SHOVELER
[W. P. PYCRAFT]
Among the surface-feeding ducks the shoveler must always hold
a conspicuous place, not only because of the beauty of the drake's
plumage, but also on account of the remarkable form of the beak,
which, as an ornithological object-lesson in evolution, is worthy of
more attention than it has yet received. In all the Anatidse, as
everybody knows, the tongue is thick and fleshy, and provided with a
more or less extensive lateral armature of spines, while the inner
edges of the beak are beset with horny outgrowths. In the Geese
and Swans, and in the fish-eating Ducks, these take the form of serra-
tions of considerable size, but in the surface-feeding Ducks they
assume a more or less bristle-like character ; and in the shoveler
these bristles attain their maximum length, which is considerable, so
that they form a sifting apparatus, recalling the baleen of whales.
Among birds only the petrels of the genus Prion show a similar
development of bristles, and herein we have a most excellent illustra-
tion of convergent evolution. So far so good. But why in the
shoveler alone among its kind have these lamellae attained so
great a length ? The answer which would usually be given begs the
question, since it would be to the effect that they must be of
importance to the bird's well-being or they would not be there. That
they are evidence of a high specialisation, enabling the bird to take
advantage of a source of food-supply inaccessible to its neighbours,
and thereby their possessor gains an advantage in the struggle for
existence. This may indeed be true. But so far as the evidence
goes, such an answer is lacking in cogency. And this because, so far
as the records of the food and habits of this bird go, they do not show
that the shoveler differs materially in his choice of food from the
226 THE SHELDUCK AND SURFACE-FEEDING DUCKS
various other species with which he commonly consorts. To justify
the generally accepted view, the shoveler should feed mainly on
minute Crustacea — water-fleas, cyclops, cypris, and the larger Gam-
marus, and so on. But though large quantities of these small
Crustacea may indeed be eaten, no evidence of this fact has so far
been brought to light. On the contrary, all who have ventured to
describe the menu of the shoveler have enumerated items which are
just as eagerly sought, and as successfully caught, by other species
not so elaborately lamellated. One author, Seebohm, it is true, says
that the shoveler sifts a larger quantity of mud in a given time than
any other duck — and we may assume he earns more for his pains —
but this is not enough. So far as the evidence goes, the shoveler
would get on just as well with a much less perfectly developed sifting
mechanism, and in just so far we seem to be justified in regarding
these lamellaB as affording another of the many instances of " hyper-
tely " which have of late years been brought together. That is to say,
these lamellae have developed beyond what is needed to attain their
end. Here, then, is a point well worth the while of the field ornitho-
logist to take up. The sequel may prove that the generally accepted
views on this theme are correct ; but until the matter has been made
the subject of special inquiry, the need for this very elaborate sifting
apparatus must remain open to question.
Having regard to the peculiarities of the beak, it is certainly
significant to find that the shoveler in its choice of haunts is a strictly
fresh-water bird. It resorts to the sea only when driven by the
severest weather ; and it shows a marked preference for bog and reedy
marsh-land affording open patches of water, or the backwaters of
rivers where there is plenty of cover in the shape of reeds and similar
water-plants. This choice is also determined by its small feet, which
are ill-adapted to stemming the current of tidal water. Secure in
these fastnesses, it seems to spend much of the day in sleep, rousing
into activity with the twilight and feeding eagerly till dawn. Night,
however, is not the only feeding time, for the shoveler is particularly
Plate 159
Shovelers (upper pair) and garganeys
By A. W. Seaby
•••% ;•:•
*.t * *
*•**' **.«!
' *•••
:..- .««•
«« *««•«
THE SHOVELER 227
fond of aquatic insects of all kinds, catching such as fly with wonderful
dexterity. But it is no less skilful in the capture of aquatic insects
such as are obliged to come frequently to the surface for air. Millais
describes the zeal which is displayed in taking the latter, and the
keenness of sight which is necessary for success. A bird which he
kept under observation during one of these insect forays manifested
the greatest excitement. The victim was detected long before it
reached the surface, and was seized the moment the ascent was
completed by a headlong rush along the water. Having effected a
capture, it would return to its resting-place and watch for more, rest-
lessly working its neck backwards and forwards as if preparing for its
next sally. Occasionally it would grow furiously excited, turning its
head swiftly now this way and now that, as if it saw beetles — if such
they were — in every direction. At other times it will feed from the
bottom of the stream after the manner of its tribe, by a semi-dive, the
body being half-submerged till only the hinder half remains visible,
the tail pointing directly skywards. On the wing it must be described
as active and powerful, rising almost perpendicularly into the air like
a teal ; and with a rattling of the wings sufficiently loud to have
earned the name of " rattle-wings." Like the teal it is fond of taking
" headers " towards the water and sweeping upward again ; but when
fairly launched on the wing its flight recalls that of the wigeon.
Having regard to current theories on the significance of
resplendent coloration among birds, it is something of a surprise to
find that the courtship of the shoveler is a very tame affair ; on neither
side, indeed, is there any marked demonstrativeness. The drake, it
seems, swims up to the female uttering a low, guttural croak — " konk,
konk " — and elevating his head and neck, and jerking his bill upwards.
She bows in recognition of the greeting, then both swim round in
circles, one behind the other, meanwhile passing water rapidly
through their beaks. At other times he indulges in aerial flights.
Indeed, Mr. Millais remarks that during the courting season they
spend more time in the air than any of the other ducks, beating up
228 THE SHELDUCK AND SURFACE-FEEDING DUCKS
and down over the marsh, the male chasing the female in evidently
playful mood, and during such excursions they display amazing skill
in turning and diving through space.
Polyandry seems occasionally to take place, and when this is so
the additional male is generally immature. As a rule, among the
ducks the care of the young is left entirely to the female, but the male
shoveler will sometimes display some anxiety on their behalf if he
deems them to be in danger, by flying round and round uttering a
curious call, something between a croak and a quack. According to
Lydekker,1 at least one instance is known wherein the drake "to some
extent" took part in the incubation of the eggs ; but, as he remarks,
if there has been no mistake in this matter, it is hardly likely to be
a solitary example. It is to be hoped that some effort, then, will
be made to confirm or contradict this statement, after careful
observation.
THE PINTAIL
[W. P. PTCRAFT]
Among the many attributes of the pintail, beauty, both of form
and coloration, occupies a conspicuous place, at any rate so far as
the male is concerned, though this is not of such a transcending
character as to overshadow the striking personalities of its congeners
the mallard, shoveler, teal, wigeon, and garganey, which are all, each
in its own way, beautiful. But in some ways the pintail is more
interesting than any of these ; and this because it seems to have
preserved more links with the past in the matter of plumage changes
than any of the others. We hold to this view on account of the
plumage changes revealed by a study of the eclipse dress of the male
1 The Sportsman's Book of British Birds, p. 320.
THE PINTAIL 229
on the one hand, and of the juvenile dress on the other. Briefly, in
the latter the back is of a dusky hue, marked by short, rather broad,
transverse bars of huffish white, and the speculum, devoid of any
gloss whatsoever, presents an indescribable blending of brown and
grey. In immature birds, at the stage when the coloration has
already proclaimed the sex of the wearer, we find similar barrings,
associated with strongly marked striations all over the under surface
of the body. Later, these bars are retained only by the male in
eclipse, but they are then somewhat changed in character, being
wavy in outline, and associated with curiously obscure vermiculations
recalling those of the supernuptial dress. The female loses all traces
of this on attaining maturity, broad Y-shaped loops of buff taking
the place of bars ; whereby we may infer that the eclipse plumage
of the male answers to an older, more ancestral, livery than that of
the female, which has travelled from this stage along a line of its
own. But let it not be supposed that we know all that is to be dis-
covered of the eclipse plumages of this, or of any others of our
ducks. On the contrary, though much has been written on this
subject, we are as yet far from being able to recount the full sequence
of events in their correct time and place. It would not, indeed, be
easy to find a theme in ornithological literature which has been more
completely obscured by discussion, and if we are ever to possess
ourselves of the facts as to what does take place, the whole matter
must be taken in hand afresh.
In its choice of haunts, as in its choice of food, the pintail has
much in common with the wigeon, for while both are to be found
on large inland lakes, they seem to prefer rather such areas of fresh
water as are within easy reach of the sea, whither they can escape
for safety when alarmed, and where they find a safe harbourage when
the perils of foraging for food have been successfully braved. Large
estuaries perhaps furnish their ideal haunts in these islands, not
that they find here any greater plenty of food than elsewhere, but
because of the greater security which they afford, for the pintail is
VOL. iv. 2 G
230 THE SHELDUCK AND SURFACE-FEEDING DUCKS
a peculiarly wary and timorous bird, and wherever a large flock
may be feeding, one or other is constantly on the lookout against
surprise. Hence, like other and less suspicious members of this
tribe, they feed at night rather than by day. When they have
acquired a certain amount of confidence, however, they do feed by
day, and at such times search with zeal for aquatic insects of all
kinds, most of which are taken from the water, but some are
caught when on the wing with great dexterity. Small Crustacea
and small molluscs are also greedily devoured, but for the most
part they seem to feed on water-plants. Such as grow in shallow
water are uprooted and eaten as they float at the surface, and to
secure these the body is half-submerged, so that the hinder half of
the body projects vertically from the water. But they rarely or never
dive. When swimming they float high in the water, and commonly
with the tail much raised, though never so much so as in the long-
tailed duck. By day they are remarkably silent birds, the male, at
no time vociferous, when flying will occasionally utter a low whistle,
and when frightened or wounded a sharp "cheeping" note like
that of a wigeon. The female, especially at night, gives tongue to
a low quack. During courtship both sexes become rather more
loquacious, and then only does the male emit a curious double note
identical with that of the teal under the stress of like emotions.
Of this courtship but little seems to be known, and most of what
has been recorded has been observed by Mr. J. G. Millais, from
whom we gather that the male in display presents actions recalling
in some respects those of the mallard, and in others of the wigeon.
Thus a number of males will often be making advances to the same
female, and suddenly all will start up and raise the tail. At other
times all will stand up in the water, and bringing the bill down on
to the breast will then swiftly jerk it upwards, mallard fashion,
at the same time uttering a low soft note. According to Naumann,
the male often swims round his prospective mate uttering a deep
cliik, which, if the observer be fortunate enough to be sufficiently near,
Plate 16O
Wigeon (lower). Pintails courting (upper four)
By A. W. Seaby
TEAL 231
he will find is preceded by a sound like the drawing in of the breath
followed by a low grating note. It seems plain, however, that only
a general insight into this aspect of the life-history has been obtained,
and we -must await further observations before we are in possession
of all the facts.
Save that the male seems to assist the female in the choice of
a nesting-site, we have no records as to the share, if any, which he
takes in the care of his offspring : and we must assume that, after
the fashion of his kind, he leaves this entirely to the female.
TEAL
[W. P. PYCRAFT]
The teal is at once the smallest British duck, and, after the
mallard, the most numerous breeding species in the British Islands.
It is thus generally regarded as a resident species. But in the autumn,
while hosts of teal arrive on our shores from Northern Europe others
are leaving us. These last are our own home-bred birds, and it is a
moot point whether any of these pass the winter in the land of their
birth : possibly a few remain. If, however, as we surmise, all depart
as their places become filled by immigrants, then the teal is a
resident species only in the sense that it is always to be met with
among us, at one time home-bred birds and at another strangers from
afar representing the race.
These home-bred birds distribute themselves along our eastern
and northern counties, a few pushing still farther inland ; but all
confine themselves to fresh waters. On the other hand, the autumn
immigrants, for some time after their arrival at any rate, haunt the
sea and estuaries, drawing gradually inland as newcomers arrive.
Here they remain till the spring, unless driven back to the sea by
prolonged frost. But this is a refuge which is sought only in dire
232 THE SHELDUCK AND SURFACE-FEEDING DUCKS
need : after frost the only other factor powerful enough to drive them
from fresh water is persecution at the hands of sportsmen. When
they are constantly harassed by day, such as live within reach of the
sea repair thither daily at dawn, returning at night to their chosen
haunts to feed. As with the species already considered, it would seem
that these nocturnal meals are partaken of rather from necessity than
choice : persecution at the hands of man driving them to seek the
cover of the darkness as a means of security against surprise, which is
the more easy when the attention is distracted by the search for meat.
This, however, is by no means clearly established. It is quite possible
that, at any rate during certain times of the year, they may feed by
choice at night. For it must be remembered that much of the food
of the surface-feeding ducks is of an intangible character, invisible to
the birds themselves, consisting as it does of microscopic animal and
vegetable organisms, many of which may be of the kind known as
negatively heliotropic, that is to say, shunning the daylight — as a
certain personage is said to avoid apple-dumplings — and therefore
obtainable only during the hours of darkness. These highly nutritive
but invisible bodies are obtained, as everybody knows, only by passing
large quantities of water rapidly through the mouth by the process
known among fen-men as "bibbling." The solid particles are lodged
on the fleshy, sensitive tongue, and the water is strained off by the
fringes along its sides and the lamellae bordering the beak. And
such " small deer " can be captured as well by night as by day. More
observations are needed on this subject, and it may prove that per-
secution is only partly responsible for these nocturnal habits.
By day teal will rest for hours motionless, in pensive mood, or
asleep with the head tucked away amid the scapulars ; but if surprised
they take flight with amazing suddenness, shooting straight up into the
air without preliminary warning, as from a steel spring. They are no
less remarkable for the skill and speed with which they change the
direction of their flight, even when in full career, for they can turn
and twist with the ease of a flock of dunlins, and often, when
TEAL 233
apparently pursuing a course which is to end only at some far
distant rendezvous, they will suddenly plunge downward and settle
on the water.
Teal are said to be wonderfully good weather prophets. When,
by severe and prolonged frosts they have been compelled to seek their
living from the sea, they will, even when there is no sign of abatement
in the rigour of the weather perceptible to human senses, betake
themselves back again to their inland haunts, and then, standing on
the ice, await the dissolution which they seem to have divined will
overtake it within twenty-four hours of their vigil. They leave their
inland haunts at such times with evident reluctance ; hope with them
dominates experience. As an instance in point we may cite the
winter of 1891, which was one of exceptional severity, driving hordes
of wild-fowl to seek sustenance with us. Vast flocks sought shelter
in Ireland, and huge numbers found food long after other sources
had closed to them on the decoy lake at Kerryville, Queen's Co.
But at last this too became an ice-sheet, and for days its surface,
for about five or six acres, was as thick with teal as they could sit, it
being estimated that between six or seven thousand birds here awaited
the much-desired thaw.
Our home-bred birds are not hard to please in their choice of
haunts, and they breed wherever a sufficient supply of food seems
assured to them. Quiet, shallow lakes, whose shores are overgrown
with rank herbage, are favoured areas ; but marshes near the coast,
as well as inland bogs, are readily adopted. Heather-covered wastes
with rushy pools have a great fascination for them.
In the matter of their courtship teal display considerable vivacity.
But it is significant to note that while there may be many females in
the vicinity, only one perhaps will permit the advances of the opposite
sex ; and she commonly receives court from several drakes at once,
which seems to show that the whole phenomena of courtship are
dependent upon some subtle state of sexual " ripeness " so to speak,
wherein the condition of the female plays a more important part than
234 THE SHELDUCK AND SURFACE-FEEDING DUCKS
is generally supposed. We are indebted for practically all that we
know on the behaviour of teal during courtship to Mr. J. G. Millais.
Several males will vie one with another in friendly rivalry for the
possession of the particular female which has given signs of willing-
ness to mate, should a suitable suitor present himself. The antics
of these amorous males are somewhat extravagant. As if accord-
ing to some traditional usage, they stand, momentarily, erect in the
water, raising the tail, arching the neck, and drawing the beak
rapidly up the breast, mallard fashion : every now and then one or
other will give forth a low double whistle. During these movements
the female will sometimes allow two drakes to approach her closely,
all the others disposing themselves in a circle or semicircle near at
hand. But should any male approach who has received no sign of
favour, she promptly drives him off. After some days of this flirtation
the female at last goes off with one or other of her suitors to some
nesting-place near at hand, but once pairing has taken place a strict
monogamy is observed.
The male teal seems to display more anxiety for the welfare of
his mate and young than, say, the wigeon, and in this respect again
he resembles the mallard. At any rate, when these birds have been
discovered breeding, the male has often exhibited as much concern
for the downy young as his mate, inviting the pursuit of the intruder
by a feigned lameness. The young at the same time scatter, and
evade detection by lying close to the ground. At times the female
shows a quite remarkable courage in the defence of her brood. A
case in point is furnished by the well-known story quoted by Yarrell,1
wherein a brood of downy nestlings, found by a boy on Lord Cavan's
estate in Achill, was driven towards the farmhouse followed by the
distracted mother. The boy drove them into the yard and into a
shed, and still she followed and was shut in with them. How great an
ordeal was this may be gathered from the fact that both dogs and
people had to be encountered during the whole of the latter part of
1 British Birds, vol. iv. p. 389.
GARGANEY 235
the journey. But probably, in her anxiety for her young, she had eyes
for nothing else.
Not even when courting is the male teal vociferous : when on
the wing he will occasionally utter a low double whistle. The duck
quacks like the mallard female, but lower, more hurriedly, and less
defined, while the male occasionally gives forth a sibilant note or two,
like that of the mallard drake. But young teal, when in packs in the
autumn, are said to keep a constant low clucking chatter.
GARGANEY
[W. P. PYCRAFT]
In spite of the handsome livery of the male, the garganey has
somehow failed to attract the attention which it deserves, for it is a
species which affords profitable themes for discussion in more than
one direction, even though, as in regard to details of its coloration,
one can scarcely hope to find solutions for the queries that suggest
themselves. What, for example, can be the meaning of the curious
coloration of the under tail-coverts ? In all the other surface-feeding
ducks discussed in these pages, these feathers, in the male, in his
" nuptial " dress are black, with a more or less metallic sheen. In
the garganey alone they are coloured after the fashion affected by
the females of the race, or of the males in eclipse. Again, why is it
that though it enjoys a wide distribution, it is nowhere met with in
such abundance as, for example, are mallard and wigeon. Perchance
this numerical inferiority is due to its inability to stand cold, for its
northern range falls far short of that of the mallard and wigeon. It
is also the least edible, or rather the least esteemed for table, of
all the surface - feeding species, and this apparently because it
feeds more largely, as we shall show, on animal food than any
of the others.
286 THE SHELDUCK AND SURFACE-FEEDING DUCKS
In its habits the garganey resembles both the teal and the
shoveler, and, like the latter, it loves to gutter in boggy swamps
and backwaters. But while the shoveler apparently consumes large
quantities of water-fleas and other minute floating Crustacea, as
well as other microscopic types of animal and vegetable organisms,
the garganey seems to prey rather on insects and their larvae, worms,
small frogs and their spawn, small fish, and molluscs. True, the
shoveler also eats these, but in smaller quantities. In other words,
the garganey is less a vegetarian apparently than his congeners, but
it is certain that the terminal shoots of water-plants are eaten.
That this is so is shown rather by the taste of its flesh, which by
common consent is rank, than by actual observation, for the records
of its food given by various authors vary so much that we may take
it for granted much of what has been stated on this head is pure
guess-work. That an animal diet invariably imparts a disagreeable
flavour to the flesh of ducks is shown by the fact that the wigeon
of the north-west of Scotland, which perforce live largely on cockles,
are uneatable, while birds killed elsewhere afford the best of all
table birds. Similarly, the eider, which is almost entirely a " meat "
eater, is anything but palatable, but kept in confinement and fed
on barley and wheat, it quickly becomes transformed into one of
the most delectable of ducks !
In its flight the garganey resembles the shoveler, but is far
swifter, and peculiarly noiseless on the wing. It cannot, however,
compare with the teal for agility in effecting sudden turns, or in
rising from the water. When swimming it floats high, but it does
not appear to dive, save after the fashion common to the surface-
feeding ducks and swans, that is to say, by submerging the forepart
of the body till the long axis of the body is at right angles with
the water.
It courts like the shoveler. Mr. J. G. Millais, who has closely
studied its habits at this time, tells us that the drake swims closely
round his prospective mate, spreading his long scapulars and ruffling
GARGANEY 237
the head feathers, thereby displaying his splendid plumage to the
very best advantage. This display is varied by a kind of follow-my-
leader game, the two coursing round and round, head and stern,
and forcing large quantities of water through their beaks, which are
buried to the level of the nostrils.
During this amorous period the drake utters a very peculiar cry
— a strange crackling note which may be likened to the noise of a
high-pitched rattle, or to a stick being swiftly drawn across iron
railings. Hence in East Anglia, in addition to its name of " summer
teal," it is also called the " cricket teal."
The care of the young, as usual, falls entirely on the female, and
there are no records of instances affording exceptions to this rule,
such as have been remarked in the case of other species.
In regard to the reproductive period, it is interesting to note
that the young garganey takes longer to attain sexual maturity than
is the case with teal, which not infrequently will breed at ten months
old ; with garganey this is rarely the case.
Finally, it is to be remarked, the garganey retains its eclipse
dress longer than any other surface-feeding duck. According to
Mr. J. G. Millais, the "breeding" dress is not complete till December,
and may even be protracted till February. In this matter, however,
it again affords an approximation to the shoveler, wherein also the
eclipse dress is longer, though it is never so long retained as in the
case of the garganey. Somehow one would rather have expected to
find this prolonged existence of the eclipse dress in the gadwall, but
in any case it affords another illustration of the contention that this
dress answers to the " winter plumage " of the Limicoline birds.
VOL. iv. 2 H
238 THE SHELDUCK AND SURFACE-FEEDING DUCKS
WIGEON
[W. P. PYCRAFT]
That the wigeon and the mallard in their choice of habit display
much in common is convincingly attested by the fact that the two are
so commonly taken together in decoys. Nevertheless they display a
marked preference for estuaries, where, if the conditions be favour-
able, they swarm during the winter months, the period of their
sojourn with us, for the few pairs that remain to breed are a negligible
quantity. And this fascination of the sea is felt also, as we have
already remarked, by the mallard which come south to us for the
winter. Nevertheless, considerable numbers work their way inland
in the case of both species ; though, for the most part, they do not
travel beyond easy reach of the sea.
During its sojourn here the favourite and principal food of the
wigeon is furnished by Zostera marina. To obtain this they await low
water, when, by that peculiar half-diving movement peculiar to the
Anatidse, they contrive to pull it up for the sake of its succulent roots.
Brent geese feed largely on this weed, and from their larger size and
longer necks they are able to obtain all they need in deeper water
than the wigeon can forage in. As a consequence, at any rate when
hungry, wigeon will play the jackal, and wait on the geese for the
sake of the stranded leaves which they reject. Similarly, when fish-
ing in fresh water, they will watch the coot reappearing with weeds
after his dive, rushing up at the moment the diver comes to the
surface to deprive him of his spoils ! In the spring the wigeon is as
fond of cropping the grass as a goose, and eats large quantities
thereof. But later a change of diet is made, animal food in the shape
of aquatic insects of all sorts, small Mollusca, and Crustacea being
eagerly sought for. There are times, indeed, when at sea that the
favourite Zostera is hard to come by, and then they will greedily eat
cockles and other shell-fish, and such other animal food as comes in
WIGEON 239
their way ; but after such a diet the flesh is poor. But as a table-
fowl wigeon are disappointing, save when they have been feeding for
a time in fresh water, when they are scarcely if at all inferior to mallard
and teal.
That the wigeon for choice prefers salt water is shown by the fact
that among the surface-feeding species they are the most numerous
on our coasts. Sir Ralph Payne Gallwey remarks on this head that
out of 1500 duck and geese he once killed off the west coast of
Ireland, 1200 were wigeon ; and again, out of a bag of 500 duck
obtained in ten days in the winter of 1883, 400 were of this species.
And by way of confirming this estimate, he points out that of
90,000 duck taken during a period of thirty-five years from the cele-
brated Ashly decoy in Lincolnshire, only 2000 were wigeon. These
decoys in the past — and many are unhappily still at work — have
wrought an appalling total of destruction, as may be gathered from
records of the celebrated Steeple decoy in Canny Marsh, Essex. In
the twelve years between 1714-1726, no less than 44,677 wigeon were
taken, the "best" year being that of 1714, when 6296 wigeon were
taken, 347 teal, 675 mallard, and 46 pintail ! And here it is interest-
ing to note that a couple of hundred years ago the great hauls were
made in the early autumn, not during January, February, and March
as now.
Some idea of the vast numbers which in times past, at any rate,
used to resort to the Irish bays and estuaries during the winter
months may be gathered from Sir Ralph Payne Gallwey's Fowler in
Ireland, pp. 36-48, where he describes how they sit in dense com-
panies, and when they take flight they move in dark sweeping clouds,
with a roar of wings as they rise, or pitch, which may be heard a
mile off.
So far as the evidence goes, it would seem to show that the
wigeon, like its congeners, by choice feeds by day, but after a little
persecution it speedily changes its habits, and feeds only during the
hours of darkness.
240 THE SHELDUCK AND SURFACE-FEEDING DUCKS
Of its courting habits we have but few records, and these we
owe for the most part to the enthusiasm of Mr. J. G. Millais. The
display of the drake, he tells us, differs somewhat from that of other
surface feeders. Five or six drakes will persistently swim round a
female and persecute her with their attentions. Every male raises
his crest and stretches out his neck close over the water, meanwhile
erecting his beautiful elongated inner scapulars as if to display them
to the best advantage ; and at the same time the wrist is thrust
downwards, causing the primaries to rise in the air. During all this
time they keep up a babble of loud " whee-ous," for the wigeon is by
far the noisiest of the ducks in his courtship. Only occasionally do
the males fight, and in such encounters each tries to seize the other
by the back of the neck, and to get his adversary underneath him,
when he may be punished by a sound drubbing with the wings as well
as severe bites on the head and neck. As a rule such contests are
fought only by old males, but occasionally, at any rate, like the
shoveler, immature birds enter the arena, and it is certain that such
occasionally breed.
So soon as the female begins to sit, the male, Mr. Millais tells us,
betakes himself off, to undergo, in seclusion, the moult which for a
season deprives him of his fine feathers and leaves him in the more
sombre garb of his ancestors. These weeks of humiliation he spends
in mutual companionship with all the other males in the neighbour-
hood in like case. But, according to Naumann, the male attends the
female while sitting till incubation is about half over, roosting by
day near the nest, and accompanying her each evening to the feeding
ground. But at last he leaves her to fend for herself, while he retires
to moult.
THE DIVING DUCKS
[ORDER: Anseriformes. SUBORDER: Anseres. FAMILY: Anatidce.
SUBFAMILY: Fuligulince]
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES
[F. C. R. JOURDAIN. W. P. PYCRAFT. A. L. THOMSON]
POCHARD [Nyroca ferina (Linnseus) ; Fuligula ferina (Linnaeus). Red-
headed-pochard, poker, red-head, dun-bird ; snuffle-headed wigeon (Kent) ;
frosty-back (Devon) ; sandyheaded-poker (Norfolk). French, milouin ;
German, Tafel-Ente ; Italian, moriglione].
1. Description.— The pochard is easily recognised by the broad lobe of the
hind-toe and the absence of white in the wings. The sexes differ conspicuously in
coloration, and there is a seasonal change of coloration in the male. (PL 161.)
Length 19 in. [482 mm.]. The male in full dress has the head and neck chesnut-
red, the fore-part of the back and fore-breast black or very dusky chesnut ; the
scapulars, interscapulars, and the under parts white vermiculated with dark
grey. The wing-coverts are dark brownish grey, the secondaries pale grey, the
lower back and the upper and under tail-coverts are black. The iris is red,
the beak black, with a grey patch in the middle of the upper mandible. The
eclipse dress is not markedly different from the full plumage, the head and
neck being browner, and the breast of a dark pencilled grey. The female has the
head and neck of a dull chesnut-brown, darker on the crown and hind-neck, and
shaded with white on the cheeks and above the eye. The back is of a dark brown
frosted with grey. The wing-coverts are grey, with darker vermiculations, while the
secondaries, as in the male, are pale grey. The under parts are of a dull brownish
white, except the flanks, which are dark brown. Tail-coverts black, as in the male,
but duller. Immature birds resemble the female, but are browner below. The
young hi down are of a dark brown, paler below, [w. P. P.]
2. Distribution. — The pochard is now well established as a breeding species
241
342 THE DIVING DUCKS
in the British Isles, and in England now nests in Northumberland, Durham, York-
shire, Lincoln, Norfolk, probably in Notts and Suffolk, and locally in Essex and
Kent. Along the south coast it is known to nest in Sussex, Hants, and Dorset.
Breeding also takes place annually on the borders of Herts, Bedford, and
Buckingham, and has been also recorded from Lancashire, Berkshire, and Stafford-
shire. It has probably nested in Anglesey, and in Scotland is now a widely dis-
tributed species, breeding in suitable localities from the Border counties (Berwick,
Roxburgh, Wigtown, etc.) northward, though not yet definitely recorded as nesting
in North-west Highlands or Dee area. On some of the Inner Hebrides it breeds
regularly, and is apparently extending its range to the Outer Hebrides and Orkneys,
but not as yet to the Shetlands. In Ireland it is stated to have bred in several
counties, and young were identified in 1907 in Co. Monaghan. Outside the British
Isles it ranges to Ostergotland in Sweden, Gotland, in Finland on Aland and up to
lat. 63°, in Russia in the Baltic provinces and the Jaroslav, Kazan, and Perm
governments ; also locally in Germany, in Hungary, Denmark, and Holland, while
in Southern Europe it is said to nest in the marshes of Northern Italy, and colonies
certainly exist in Eastern Roumania and the Guadalquivir delta in S. Spain. It
is also said to have bred in Algeria, and does so in Central Asia (Tomsk, Barnaul,
Baikalia, probably also N. Dauria and Seistan hi Persia). During the winter
months it ranges south to the Mediterranean region and North Africa as well as
Madeira and the Canaries, while in Asia it reaches the Persian Gulf, India, Burma,
China, and Japan. Casual in the Faeroes, Iceland, and Norway. [F. c. R. J.]
3. Migration. — Breeding in the British Isles in small numbers, but chiefly
known as a whiter visitor; very irregular in the numbers and localities of its occur-
rence, and usually visiting inland waters. The usual date of its arrival is between
3rd September and 14th November (cf. Clarke, Studies in Bird Migration, 1912,
vol. i. p. 160). In Ireland it is chiefly found between November and March ; in
Yorkshire it visits both coastal and inland waters, but is not numerous ; in North
Wales it is noted as " variable " (cf. Ussher and Warren, B. of Ireland, 1900, p. 202 ;
Nelson, B. of Yorks., 1907, p. 404 ; Forrest, Fauna of N. Wales, 1907, p. 284).
Gregarious, sometimes occurring in flocks of many hundreds or even of thousands.
[A. L. T.]
4. Nest and Eggs.— As a rule the pochard prefers to place its nest in wet
and somewhat inaccessible places, sometimes choosing a clump of dead flags hi
shallow water or deep mud, and at other times on the margins of reed-beds or hi
tussocks of rushes and aquatic herbage. The nest is a rudely formed structure,
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 243
chiefly composed of dead leaves of flag or reed, though occasionally other materials
may be used, such as coarse grasses, etc. (PI. Lxvni.) It bears a curious likeness
to that of the coot, and is apparently built by the duck. Some nests have little or
no down even when the eggs are much incubated, but generally there is a fair
supply when the duck has been sitting some time. Mr. H. Noble describes the
down as large and exceedingly soft to the touch : it is rather dark brownish grey,
and has the usual light centres but no light tips, and is not by itself sufficient for
identification without the nest feathers, which are figured and described by Mr.
H. Noble in British Birds, ii. p. 23, pi. i. They are ' large and brownish in colour,
slightly streaked from the centre upwards, and often tipped for a quarter of an
inch with grey' (Noble.) (See also PI. U.) The eggs, however, are characteristic,
being large and very broad in shape. The shell is smooth and waxy, and the
colour varies from greenish grey to greenish drab, occasionally almost a dull
leaden colour, but the greenish tinge, though somewhat fugitive, is rarely
wanting. The clutch usually ranges from 6 or 7 to 11 in number, and 13 and
14 have been found in one nest. Not infrequently one or more eggs may
be found hi the water close to the nest, presumably knocked out by the
duck accidentally. Average size of 100 eggs, 2-42x1-72 in. [61-4x43-7 mm.].
(PI. S.) Incubation is performed by the female alone, and the period is given by
Naumann as 23 days, and 24 by the Hon. G. Legge. If correct, this is rather
shorter than what might be expected. The average date for full clutches in
England is given by most writers as about the second week of May or the middle
of that month. In some cases the eggs must be laid nearly a month earlier, for
I have seen eggs which could not have been laid later than mid- April, and know of
numerous cases in which full clutches have been found from 21st April to 2nd May.
In Scotland fresh eggs may be found till well into June. Only a single brood is
reared in the season. [F. c. B. j.]
5. Food. — Except during the winter months the bulk of the food of this
species consists of vegetable matter, chiefly the young shoots, buds, leaves, and
seeds of the aquatic plants which it obtains by diving. Among these may be
mentioned Polygonum amphibium, which Naumann found in great plenty, and in
autumn Potamogeton marinus and P. pectinatus. Other plants recorded are
Myriophyllum, Ceratophyllum, and seeds of reed, rushes, and grasses. Jackel records
also Panicum crus-galli, Olyceria fluitans, Polygonum persicaria, P. hydropiper, and
P. lapathifolium, as well as Bidens tripartite,. Aquatic insects are also eaten occa-
sionally, and no doubt also small frogs. During the winter small fish are taken as
244 THE DIVING DUCKS
well as thin-shelled Mollusca and Crustacea, and Newstead has recorded worms and
grass. Sand and small pebbles are usually found in the gizzard. The young are
tended by the duck, and though able to dive at an early age, pick up their food at
first on the surface of the water. [F. c. R. J.]
6. Song Period. — The low, soft courting-notes are only uttered early in the
spring, several weeks before breeding takes place. [F. c. R. J.]
TUFTED-DUCK [Nyroca fuligula (Linnaeus); Fuligula cristdta (Leach).
Curre, tuftie, black-wigeon, magpie-diver ; goldeneye, arp (Norfolk) ;
covey-don (Sussex) ; black-pocker (Yorks.). French, morillon ; German,
Eeiher-Ente ; Italian, moretta].
I. Description. — The tufted-duck is to be distinguished by the more or
less conspicuous pendant occipital crest, the almost uniform black or brown
coloration of the upper parts, and the broad white bar across the secondaries. The
sexes differ in coloration, and the male undergoes a seasonal change of plumage.
(PI. 161.) Length 17 in. [431 mm.]. The male in full dress has the head and
neck black with a purple gloss, the rest of the upper parts dull black with a green
gloss on the secondaries, which are crossed by a broad white band. The belly and
flanks are white, while the under tail-coverts are black. The beak is slate-grey
tipped black, the legs and toes slate-blue, the iris yellow. The eclipse dress
resembles that of the female, the crest being greatly reduced in size, while the flanks
are clouded by black vermiculations. The female is readily distinguished ; the
wing, as in the case of the male, has a broad white, black-bordered band, while the
rest of the upper parts are of an almost uniform dark brown hue, darker on the
scapulars and wings, the breast is a dull, brownish white, and the flanks are dark
brown, with traces of grey vermiculations. The short, wide beak, and the very
dark hue of the upper parts distinguishes the female of the tufted-duck from the
female of the rare ferruginous duck, which it otherwise resembles. Immature
birds resemble the female, but have no crest, the breast mottled with dusky
brown, and a patch of whitish brown on the lores. Young males are darker than
the females of the same age. The young in down is of a uniform dark brown
above, save for a faint trace of a whitish brown spot near the base of the tail, and
an obscure band of pale brownish over the eye and the sides of the head. The
under parts are white, [w. p. p.]
3. Distribution. — There is no evidence of the breeding of this species in
PLATE LXVIII
Photo l.y K. B. Lodge
Pochard's nest and eggs
Tufted-duck's nest and eggs
1'lioto by I . H
Eider-duck's nest and eggs (Fames)
PKELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 245
England prior to 1849, when it was reported as nesting in Yorkshire, but since that
time it has spread with great rapidity over England. One of the earliest centres
of distribution was in Nottinghamshire, where it was breeding in 1854. At the
present time it breeds in most of the northern counties, also probably in all the
east and south coast counties west to Devon, as well as in Somerset and Surrey, in
Herts, Beds, and Bucks, and in the northern midlands from Salop and Stafford to
Derby and Nottingham. In several of the east midland counties, if not already
established, it will probably become so within a short period. In Wales it certainly
breeds in Anglesey, and probably also in Merioneth. In Scotland its distribution
has been traced in detail by Mr. J. A. Harvie-Brown up to 1896 (Annals Scot.
Nat. Hist., 1896, pt. i. pp. 3-22), from which it appears that the earliest dates of
breeding in Scotland date no farther back than 1875, when it was recorded from the
Tay and Forth areas, while in 1877 it was found nesting in Tweed, and the following
year in Sutherland. It may now be said to be almost general in Scotland, having
extended its range to the Inner and Outer Hebrides (1903) as well as the Orkneys,
but it is still absent as a breeding species from the West Ross coast. In Ireland there
is no real evidence of breeding before 1879, but here its spread has been equally rapid,
and it is now established in all four provinces, ranging west to Kerry (1896), Clare
(1895 ?), Galway (1906), Mayo (1903), and probably Donegal, while in some districts
of the west of Ireland it is extraordinarily plentiful. Outside the British Isles
it is said to have bred on the Faeroes in 1872 ; was first noticed on Iceland in 1895,
and now breeds in small numbers ; while on the Continent it ranges to Finmark in
Norway and Sm&land N. to the Russian border in Sweden, while in Finland it is
commonest in the north and central parts, and in Russia ranges from Russian
Lapland to about 50° N. hi the Kieff government and 48° on the Volga. From
the Baltic provinces it extends to North and Middle Germany, but is absent from
the south, while in Denmark it has only rarely been known to breed, and is scarce
also in Holland. In South-eastern Europe it has extended its range to the
Dobrogea and probably Bulgaria, while recently it has been found breeding in
Bosnia, Montenegro, and Herzegovina. In Asia its range extends west from
Transcaucasia east to Dauria and Ussuria, north to 68°-70° in West Siberia and
69° 4' in East Siberia. During the winter it migrates south to the Mediterranean
region ; Madeira, North Africa from Marocco to Egypt, Nubia and Abyssinia (once
in Liberia) ; Asia to Arabia, the Persian Gulf, Northern India, Burma, South
China, Formosa, Japan, and the Kuriles ; also the Philippine Isles, Great Sunda,
Marianne, and Pelew groups. [F. c. B. J.]
VOL. IV. 2 I
246 THE DIVING DUCKS
3. Migration. — A resident, and also a winter visitor and a bird of passage
from the Continent. The winter visitors arrive between 15th September and
13th October, while the seasons of passage are from 29th October to 27th November
and from 24th April to 10th May (cf. Clarke, Studies in Bird Migration, 1912, vol. i.
pp. 136, 160). Ireland receives most of its winter birds in December, while April
is the month of departure (cf. Ussher and Warren, B. of Ireland, 1900, p. 207).
In North Wales the species is not a very common whiter visitor, and in Kent it is
only numerous in hard seasons (cf . Forrest, Fauna of N. Wales, 1907, p. 286 ; and
Ticehurst, B. of Kent, 1909, p. 384). Gregarious as a migrant, and visits both
coastal and inland waters. [A. L. T.]
4. Nest and Eggs. — The usual nesting-place is a hollow among rushes,
coarse grass, occasionally heather, or under rhododendron and other bushes,
generally on islands or the shores of lakes, and as a rule at no great distance from
the water. The hollow is lined by the duck with a few grasses or dead leaves,
which become mixed with the down, which is dull, dusty brown with indistinct
light centres. (PI. Lxvin.) The small greyish white nest feathers are figured by
Noble (Brit. Birds, ii. pi. 2, fig. 11), and see PI. U. This duck is of a social disposi-
tion, and may be said to nest in colonies as a rule. The eggs vary in number
from 8 or 9 to 12, but nests with from 14 to 16 eggs are not infrequently met
with. Larger numbers such as 18, 21, and 28 are due to more than one duck
laying in a nest. In colour they are a duty olivaceous brown shading into
greenish olivaceous or brownish yellow, while the shape is somewhat characteristic,
many eggs being elongated, sometimes approaching those of the sand-grouse in
shape. The shell is rather coarse and has little gloss. Average size of 150
eggs, 2-32x1-61 in. [59-0x40-9 mm.]. (PI. S.) Incubation is performed by the
duck alone, and the period seems to vary somewhat. Noble estimates it as 23
days (in incubator), Heinroth at 25 to 26 days, W. Evans 25 to 28 days, while
a writer in the Field finds that his results for three years vary from 23 to 28
days. The breeding season is late, full clutches being rarely found before mid-
May and often not till the end of the month or early in June, while the normal
date for Scotland is about the first week of June. Only one brood is reared in the
season. [F. c. B. J.]
5. Food. — Both animal and vegetable food is eaten by this duck. On
inland waters it subsists to a great extent on the buds, seeds, roots, bulbs, and
leaves of various aquatic plants obtained by diving. Jackel mentions Polygonum
amphibium, persicaria, and lapathifolium, Rumex and Potamogeton. Newstead found
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 247
the fruit of the hawthorn (Cratcegus), grass, and vegetable fibre. Animal food is
also largely eaten : small fishes, tadpoles and small frogs, fresh-water molluscs
(Pisidium fontinale), and various insects both in the larval and adult stages, such as
the larvae of PTiryganea and Ephemera (Jackel), and Dytiscus marginalia (Sachse).
In the Baltic Naumann found in winter chiefly small specimens of Turbo litoreus.
The young are tended by the duck, and though able to dive at a very early age,
subsist at first entirely on minute organisms picked up on the surface, and water-
plants brought up by the duck. [F. c. R. J.]
6. Song Period. — The courting-notes are only to be heard when the birds
are pairing in March. [F. c. R. J.]
SCAUP [Nyroca marila (Linnaeus) ; Fuligula marila (Linnaeus). Blue-bill,
sea-wigeon, mussel-teal ; covie (Northumberland) ; frostyback-wigeon
(Sussex)].
1. Description. — The scaup may readily be distinguished by the great
breadth of the beak and the white bar across the wing. The sexes differ in colora-
tion; the male undergoes a seasonal change of plumage. (PI. 162.) Length 19 in.
[482 mm.]. The male in full dress has the head, neck, fore-part of the back and
breast black, glossed with green ; the scapulars and interscapulars and flanks
white, coarsely vermiculated with grey ; while the breast and abdomen are white,
the lower back and under tail-coverts are black. Iris yellow, legs and toes lead
colour. The female may at once be distinguished by the broad blaze of white round
the base of the beak : the head and neck and upper part of the body are dark
brown, relieved on the scapulars and interscapulars with more or less conspicuous
vermiculations of grey on an obscurely defined white ground : the flanks are
vermiculated with grey and white, and the rest of the under parts are white. The
male in "eclipse" resembles the female. Immature birds are also like the female,
but the white band around the base of the beak is tinged with brown, and the grey
vermiculations on the back are but feebly developed : similarly, the white breast
feathers are obscured by a brown hue. The young in down are dark brown above,
[w. P. P.]
2. Distribution. — In the British Isles this species has only been recorded as
breeding on a few occasions in Scotland. In the Outer Hebrides nesting is said
to have taken place " south of the Sound of Harris " in 1897, 1898, 1899 (two pairs),
1900 (three pairs), probably in 1901, and certainly in 1902 (J. A. Harvie-Brown,
Annals Scot. Nat. Hist., 1902, p. 211) ; but the first thoroughly authenticated nest
248 THE DIVING DUCKS
was taken by Captain Sandeman and Mr. H. Noble in Sutherland in 1899. It was
also recorded as breeding in one of the Uists in 1906 by Messrs N. B. Kinnear and
P. H. Bahr (Annals Scot. Nat. Hist., 1907, pp. 82 and 213 ; Brit. Birds, ii. p. 209).
The supposed Fifeshire record has been shown to be unreliable (Brit. Birds, ii. p. 132).1
Outside the British Isles a few are believed to breed on the Faeroes, and on Iceland
it is extraordinarily plentiful, especially near Lake Myvatn, but is only a casual in
Greenland. In Scandinavia it breeds on the Norwegian high fjeld and in East
Finmark, but also on the Swedish fjeld and on the coast near Stockholm, on Got-
land, Oland, etc. In Russia it nests in North-west Finland, also in Novgorod and
possibly the Petersburg governments, while recently it has been found breeding off
the coast of the Russian Baltic provinces, and on Bornholm in 1879. It is also said
to have bred exceptionally in N. Germany. In Asia it breeds commonly on the
tundra of W. Siberia, but the East Siberian birds as well as the North American
form have been separated. During the winter months it migrates southward to
the Mediterranean region and North-East Africa (Lower Egypt and Abyssinia
according to von Heuglin), the Black and Caspian Seas, Palestine, Arabia Petraea,
the Persian Gulf, and India, while migrants to China, Formosa, the Philippines, and
Japan no doubt come from E. Siberia, and American birds range south to Texas
and Mexico. [F. c. B. j.]
3. Migration. — Although it has been recorded as breeding within our
area, the scaup is almost entirely a whiter visitor and a bird of passage in the British
Isles. Occasionally recorded as early as 1st August, the whiter visitors ordinarily
arrive between 13th September and 9th November ; while the periods of passage
are from 22nd September to 9th November and from 24th March to 12th June
(cf. Clarke, Studies in Bird Migration, 1912, vol. i. pp. 136, 160). It is common
in the north of Ireland, but scarce in the south except in severe seasons. In that
country the scaup is occasionally recorded in August and usually seen in September,
while most of the birds are there by mid-October, their numbers being apparently
not increased during subsequent hard weather : some often linger till late in April,
and are occasionally met with up till August (cf. Ussher and Warren, B. of Ireland,
1900, pp. 207-8). It appears rather irregularly on the Yorkshire coast, but is
sometimes very numerous in hard seasons ; it arrives towards the end of October,
and is sometimes seen as late as May (cf. Nelson, B. of Yorks., 1907, p. 468). On
the coast of North Wales it is not uncommon (cf. Forrest, Fauna of N. Wales, 1907,
1 For full details as to breeding in Scotland, see P. H. Bahr's article in British Birds,
ii. pp. 209-217.
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 249
p. 288). Gregarious, and sometimes seen in flocks of hundreds : occurs almost
exclusively in coastal waters. [A. L. T.]
4. Nest and Eggs. — As a rule the nest is placed in some depression within
a few feet of the water, often on an island, and sheltered by vegetation.
Riemschneider found exceptionally nests in lava-holes at arm's-depth, but as a rule
they are quite in the open. In Iceland these birds may be said to breed in colonies,
great numbers of nests being found within a short distance of one another. The
nest hollow is lined by the duck with a few grasses and dry stalks, which become
mixed with the down, which is sooty brown in colour, with light centres, but no
light tips. The rather large white nest feathers, faintly tipped with brownish,
and sometimes slightly speckled, especially towards the tip, are illustrated in Mr.
Noble's paper, Brit. Birds, ii. p. 38, pi. 1. (See also PI. U.) Professor Newton
and Mr. H. Noble describe the down as lighter than that of the tufted-duck,
but the reverse is the case in specimens collected by myself in Iceland and
England. The eggs vary in number, as a rule, from 8 to 11 in number, but 19
and 22 have been exceptionally recorded in single nests, though probably
in each case two ducks were laying together. They are rather elongated in
shape, and are greenish grey stone colour, olive-grey or brownish grey ; the shell
smooth, but with little gloss and not stout. From the eggs of the pochard they are
generally distinguishable by their darker and more muddy type of colour, and
are not such a broad oval. Average size of 100 eggs, 2*43 x 1-71 in. [61'7 x 43-6 mm.].
(PI. T.) Incubation is performed by the duck alone, and the period is estimated
by Hantzsch as four weeks. In Iceland full clutches may be found at the end of
May and early in June, but as many eggs are taken for food fresh eggs may occa-
sionally be met with as late as the beginning of July. The few nests recorded from
Scotland were found in the second week of June. Only a single brood is reared
in the season. [F. c. E. j.]
5. Food. — During the winter months, when the scaup is usually to be met
with at sea, the food consists chiefly of animal rather than vegetable food. A
small amount of vegetable matter is, however, occasionally met with, chiefly Zostera
marina. A. C. Chapman notes that the " sea grass " he found in gizzards was cut
up into half inch lengths. The animal food consists mainly of mussels, Mytilus
edulis, also large numbers of periwinkles, Littorina litorea and L. retusa. Thompson
also records Lacuna quadrifasciata, Rissoa ulvce, Cerithium reticulatum, and Nassa
maculata ; also the bivalve Nucula margaritacea, as well as seeds of Zostera marina
and remains of Crustacea (e.g. Idotece). Newstead records fragments of cockles
250 THE DIVING DUCKS
(Cardium edule), and this is confirmed by A. C. Chapman, who also includes small
crabs and spawn of Mollusca in the diet. In Iceland during the breeding season
H. H. Slater says that the food consists chiefly of fresh-water Mollusca (Limncea
peregra, pisidium, siiccinea) and a certain amount of vegetable matter, water-plants,
etc. The young are tended by the female as a rule, sometimes also for a short
time by the male, and gizzards of young examined by Hantzsch contained a
plentiful supply of vegetable food, especially small leaves and buds, as well as
the usual small pebbles. [F. c. B. J.]
6. Song Period. — Apparently the cooing or grunting notes are only used
during courtship, and are not heard after their arrival at the breeding-grounds
about the end of April. It must not be confused with the somewhat similar
alarm-note. [F. c. R. J.]
GOLDENEYE [Cldngula ddngula (Linnaeus); Cldngula glaucion (Linnaeus).
Pied curre ( $ ), morillon ( $ and juv.). Rattlewings, spectacle-duck,
whistler, whewer, mussel-picker, diving duck ; whiteside (Westmorland) ;
wigeon (Northumberland) ; black and white poker (Norfolk). French,
garrot ; German, Schell-Ente ; Italian, quatr'-occhi].
I. Description. — The goldeneye in full plumage may at once be distin-
guished by the large oval white patch at the base of the beak, which does not rise
above the level of the eye, the green gloss of the black head, and the large area of
white in the wing, which is crossed by a black bar. The sexes are dissimilar, and
the male displays a marked seasonal change of plumage. (PL 163.) Length
18£ in. [470 mm.]. The male has the head and upper part of the neck black
glossed with green. The back and tail-coverts are black. The scapulars are
white, the outermost with a broad black margin along their inner webs, this margin
not being produced beyond the white portion of the vane, as in Barrow's goldeneye.
The minor, median, and major coverts are white, but the median series are tipped
with black forming a black bar. The secondaries are also white. The lower neck
and under parts are white. Beak bluish black, legs and toes yellowish, webs black,
iris yellow. The " eclipse " dress resembles that of the female, but more or less
white at the base of the beak, and on the wing is always retained. The female has
the head and upper part of the neck of a uniform umber-brown, the lower neck,
fore-breast, back, and flanks are grey, with mottlings of darker grey. Black tips
of the white wing-coverts divide the white area into three portions. The under
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 251
parts are white. Immature birds resemble the females, but are duller in
appearance. The young in down are of a dark brown above, paler brown on
the flanks and breast, and white on the throat and abdomen, [w. p. p.]
2. Distribution. — Up to the present this duck has not been proved to nest
in the British Isles, though it is suspected of having occasionally done so in Northern
Scotland, and Saxby believed that it bred in the Shetlands. There are also records
of what may have been pricked birds breeding in Yorkshire (Birds of Yorkshire, ii.
p. 471). Outside the British Isles it is met with in small numbers in Iceland, and
on the Continent breeds from the coniferous tree limit in Scandinavia (lat. 70°)
south to the high f jeld of the Dovre and File in Norway, and in Sweden to Dalecarlia
and Wermland, occasionally even to Smaland. In Finland and Russia its northern
range extends to the coniferous tree limit, and it reaches southward as far as lat. 51°
in the Urals and the Baltic provinces* In Germany it is very local, but has been
recorded as nesting from Holstein and Mecklenburg east to Siberia and East Prussia,
as well as in Bohemia and Switzerland. Dombrowski's statement that it breeds in
the south of the Dobrogea needs confirmation. In Asia its range extends across the
continent to Kamtschatka and the island of Saghalien, but it is only found in the
forest belt south of the tundra. In N. America it is replaced by a closely allied race.
In winter its extreme range extends south to the Straits of Gibraltar and the North
African coast (rarely to the Azores) and the Mediterranean ; in Asia to Meso-
potamia, North India, Burma, China, Formosa, and Japan ; while the American
race reaches Central America and the West Indies. Most birds, however, winter
far to the north of these extreme limits. [F. c. R. J.]
3. Migration. — A winter visitor from Northern Europe, arriving excep-
tionally as early as 26th August, but more usually between 23rd September and
29th October ; while as a bird of passage it is recorded between 14th September
and 21st November and between 23rd March and 12th June (cf. Clarke, Studies
in Bird Migration, 1912, vol. i. pp. 136, 160). Although sometimes recorded hi
Ireland in September, it is usually met with only from October onwards, and becomes
more .numerous after the middle of December ; departure takes place late in
March or early in April, but examples have been recorded as late as July (cf . Ussher
and Warren, B. of Ireland, 1900, p. 209). In Dumfriesshire it is described as " scarce
but regular," in North Wales as " common," and in Kent as " not numerous "
(cf. Gladstone, B. of Dumfries., 1910, p. 287 ; Forrest, Fauna of N. Wales, 1907, p.
289 ; and Ticehurst, B. of Kent, 1909, p. 366). In Yorkshire it is noted that adults,
especially adult drakes, are always rare (cf. Nelson, B. of Yorks., 1907, p. 470).
252 THE DIVING DUCKS
Gregarious, and sometimes seen in hundreds: visits inland as well as coastal
waters in considerable numbers. [A. L. T.]
4. Nest and Eggs. — The normal nesting-site of this species differs widely
from those of the other diving ducks, for it is usually found breeding in a hole of
a tree in its natural condition. In Lapland and Finland boxes are put up by the
peasants hi order to induce it to breed, and are often occupied. Some of the holes
used are formed by natural decay, others are old holes of the great black wood-
pecker, and the height from the ground varies considerably. No nesting material
is introduced by the duck except a plentiful supply of the beautiful light pearly
greyish white down with white feathers (Brit. Birds, ii., pi. 2, fig. 14). The
feathers are on an average rather smaller than those of Barrow's goldeneye,
which they otherwise resemble (P. F. Bunyard). There is some reason to
believe that at the northern limit of its range it occasionally breeds in holes
among rocks, like the Icelandic Barrow's goldeneye. Any Icelandic breeding
specimens must necessarily nest in this way, as there are no trees of any size
there. The eggs vary from 8 to 14 in number as a rule, but nests with 15 and
16 and even 19 have been recorded. When fresh they are a beautiful bright
blue-green in colour, which, however, soon fades. The shell is stout and has
little gloss, and the average size of 130 eggs is 2-33 x 1-67 in. [59-2 x 42-5 mm.].
Incubation is performed by the female alone, and eggs placed under a hen
were hatched out in 20 days (F. E. Blaauw). Naumann gives the period as
22 days, but his remarks can hardly apply to this species, as he describes
it as nesting in the open in clumps of sedge and rushes ! In Germany full
clutches have been found as early as the middle of April, but in Lapland usually
from the end of May to the latter part of June and even later when the eggs
have been taken. Only one brood is reared in the season. [F. c. B. J.]
5. Food. — During the winter months the food of this species consists to a
great extent of molluscs and small crustaceans, as well as some vegetable matter.
When on salt water, mussels and other marine Mollusca, small Crustacea, especially
of the genera Palcemon and Crangon (shrimps, prawns, etc.), and sea grass, which
is brought to the surface after diving and devoured at leisure, are the chief articles
of diet. Other species of algae, as well as Zostera, are eaten at times. When visiting
fresh water and during the breeding season, fresh-water molluscs are eaten, also
fresh-water crustaceans such as Gammarus pulex (Jackel), tadpoles and small frogs,
small fish not exceeding two niches in length, and the larvae of various aquatic
insects, especially Cokoptera, Phryganece, and also Libettulce (Dragon-flies), as well
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 253
as the seeds, buds, and roots of various aquatic plants (Naumann). Newstead
records from one specimen 150 beetles, mostly Helophorus aquaticus, one Dytiscus
punctulatus, and Cordeaux found shells of Physa fontinalis and a mass of larvse of
Neuroptera. Small pebbles and sand are as usual found in the gizzard for
digestive purposes. The young are tended by the duck, and have been reared in
confinement on ants' " eggs " and duckweed, but little is known of their food in a
wild state. [F. c. R. J.]
6. Song Period. — The harsh dissyllabic courting-note may be heard very
early in the year, from February onward to April in the case of the American
race. [F. c. B. J.]
LONGTAILE D-D U C K [Harelda hyemdlis (Linnaeus) ; Harelda glacidlis
(Linnaeus). Ice-duck, sea-pheasant, Jacky ( $ ) and Jenny ( $ ) ; Forster
(Northumberland); calloo (Orkneys and Shetlands) ; old squaw, old wife
(N. America). French, canard de Miquelon ; German, Eis-Ente ; Italian,
moretta codona].
I. Description. — The longtailed-duck is to be distinguished by the short
wide beak and the broad, lobate, extension of the feathers of the forehead on to
the culmen, occupying its whole breadth and terminating at the level of the nostrils.
The sexes differ conspicuously, and there is a striking seasonal change of plumage.
(PI. 163.) Length 22-26 in. [588-660 mm.]. The male in winter has the head and
neck white, save the forehead, which is sooty grey, and an oval patch below the
eye of a dark brown hue shading into paler brown towards the neck. The inter-
scapulars and lower back, the wings, and the fore-breast are of a dark brown,
almost black. The scapulars are pale grey shading into white on the hinder and
outer feathers, which are produced into long streamers. The breast and abdomen
are also white. The central tail feathers are black, extremely long and attenu-
ated ; the feathers on either side have wide margins, and the white area increases
in succeeding feathers to the outermost, which are wholly white. The beak is of a
lead black with a band of rose-pink across its middle, while the legs and toes are
lead blue : the iris is brown. In the summer dress, which is complete in May, the
sides of the head are whitish, but the rest of the upper parts are of a blackish
brown, the scapulars, which lose their elongate feathers, and interscapulars
having chesnut margins. The female is of a dark brown, with the lores, the
postocular region, and a ring round the neck greyish white. The fore-breast is
VOL. IV. 2 K
254 THE DIVING DUCKS
brown, the rest of the under parts white. Length 15-5 in. [393 mm.]. The juvenile
dress resembles that of the female, but is of a paler brown, while the white areas
axe less white. Young males have chesnut margins to the scapulars, inner
secondaries, and wing-coverts, and the white on the neck more conspicuous. The
young in down are of a dark brown above, a white spot on the lores, above and
below the eye. The white of the throat extends upwards towards the nape. The
fore-breast and flanks are brown, the rest of the under parts white, [w. P. p.]
•2. Distribution. — Although there is little doubt that a few birds breed from
time to time on the Shetlands, and probably also on the Orkneys, the evidence is as
yet not fully satisfactory. John Wolley and Saxby received eggs believed to be of
this species from the Shetlands; and 0. V. Aplin stated that he had reports of breed-
ing in 1911 on the Orkneys, but gave somewhat scanty details (Zoologist, 1911,
p. 432; 1912, p. 195). Outside the British Isles it has probably bred in the Faeroes and
Jan Mayen ; while in Iceland it is locally abundant, and also breeds on Spitsbergen
and Bear Island. In Norway it is found north of Valders and the Dovrefjeld, and
also in Swedish Lapland; hi Russia from Lapland and Lake Onega throughout
North-east Russia, from the Arctic Ocean south to the Perm government, as well as
on Novaya Zemlya, Waigatz, and probably Kolguev. In Asia it ranges on the
tundra of Siberia across the Continent to the Commander Isles, while in America
it breeds on the Aleutian Isles and from Alaska to Hudson's Bay, Labrador, and
Greenland, as well as on the arctic shores and islands of that continent north to
lat. 82°. Its winter range extends to Southern France and Venetia, while it has
occurred in the Azores and Northern Italy casually. Eastward it winters in
Austro-Hungary, rarely in Herzegovina and the Dobrogea ; and in Asia ranges to
the Caspian, Lake Baikal, China, and Japan. American birds winter from New
England to the middle states, casually to Florida, Texas, and California. [F. c. B. j.]
3. Migration. — Winter visitor from Northern Europe to the coasts of the
British Isles, but uncommon on the south and west of England (though exceptionally
numerous there in the winter of 1887-8) ; irregular on the north and west of Ireland
and rare on the south of Ireland (cf. Saunders, III. Man. B. B., 2nd. ed., 1899, p. 455).
Arrival usually takes place between 26th September and 31st October, but 24th
July is given as an exceptional date (cf. Clarke, Studies in Bird Migration, 1912,
vol. i. p. 160). The bulk of the birds that visit us are immature : departure occurs
hi April, some birds lingering till May. The longtailed-duck is described as
" an occasional winter visitor " to Dumfriesshire, as " rare " in North Wales, as
" sometimes not uncommon " hi Yorkshire, and as " rare even in hard seasons "
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 255
in Kent (cf. Gladstone, B. of Dumfries., 1910, p. 290 ; Forrest, Fauna of N. Wales,
1907, p. 290 ; Nelson, B. of YorTcs., 1907, p. 472 ; and Ticehurst, B. of Kent, 1909,
p. 367). Gregarious ; not ordinarily occurring on inland waters. [A. L. T.]
4. Nest and Eggs. — As a rule the nest is found in the neighbourhood of
lakes or rivers ; in Iceland often in the islets in the rivers and lakes ; while in Siberia
it is frequently met with in the marshes, sheltered by dwarf willows. The nest
hollow is lined by the duck with sooty brown down, not so dark as that of the
scaup or scoter, showing dull white spots, and sometimes contains a few stalks and
leaves, and the eggs usually vary from 5 or 6 to 9, and exceptionally 10 in number.
The nest feathers are sometimes white, with brown edges, while others are brownish.
They are elliptical or blunt oval in shape, rather glossy, and vary in colour from
light greyish green or bluish green to buff or brownish. Average size of 100 eggs,
2-11 x 1-51 in. [53-6x38-6 mm.]. (PL T.) The first eggs are to be found about
the end of May or early in June, and in Northern Russia and Asia Seebohm found
clutches early in July, but incubation is general hi Iceland about mid-June.
Incubation is performed by the duck alone, and Hantzsch estimates the period at
about three and a half weeks. Only a single brood is reared during the season.
[F. c. B. J.]
5. Food. — During the winter months this bird is almost entirely a marine
species, and lives principally on marine Mollusca, often obtained by diving to con-
siderable depths. The chief food consists of mussels, Mytilus edulis, and cockles,
Cardium edule, but Tellina cornea and other species are also eaten, and, according to
Naumann, specimens of shell-fish up to about one inch in length are swallowed
whole. In the Shetlands Saxby found that they fed almost entirely on periwinkles.
Small crustaceans are also eaten, and the fry of various fish, e.g. Pleuronectes, Gadus
collaris, etc. ; rarely worms and insects, but frequently the seeds, buds, and roots
of various water-plants (Naumann). A. C. Chapman has known it to devour grain
from a wrecked ship. During the breeding season hi Iceland it feeds chiefly on the
various fresh-water Mollusca which inhabit the lakes, as well as larvae of aquatic
insects, and generally also some vegetable matter (H. H. Slater). Scandinavian speci-
mens shot in July were also found to have been feeding almost entirely on aquatic
insects (Dann). In specimens from Bear Island, Le Roi found remains of bivalves,
also roots, moss, and especially algse. Swenander records Gammaridce, mussels,
Pteropoda, Polynoidce, and larvae of Diptera; and Cordeaux has found small specimens
of Buccinium, as well as Patella pellucida. Gray records Venus ovata, Lacuna vincta,
young Mytilus edulis, and once the crustacean Idotea tricuspidata. The young are
256 THE DIVING DUCKS
tended by the duck alone, and dive with her in pursuit of food at a very early age,
chiefly no doubt fresh-water Mollusca. [P. c. B. J.]
6. Song Period. — The loud musical breeding-call of the male, while swim-
ming round and bowing to his mate, is chiefly heard from the earliest days of
spring up to about the end of June, but it is also freely uttered during the winter
months. [F. c. B. J.]
COMMON-EIDER [Somatfria mollissima (Linnaeus). St. Cuthbert's
duck, annet ; dunter or dunter-duck (Shetlands) ; culver (Northumberland).
French, morillon ; German, Eider-Ente].
1. Description. — The eider-duck may always be distinguished by the re-
markable forward extension of the feathers of the face along the sides of the beak,
to end in a point just beneath the middle of the lower border of the nostrils. The
sexes differ conspicuously, and there are striking seasonal changes of plumage in
the male. (PL 162.) Length 22 in. [558 mm.]. The male in full dress has the
head, neck, and upper parts white, relieved by a broad black bar extending
across the forehead backwards to form a broad band above the eye, and for-
wards along the sides of the beak. On each side of the hinder region of the head
and upper part of the neck is a broad patch of sea-green, and the lower back is
black. The fore-breast has a cinnamon tinge, and the whole of the rest of the
under parts is of a jet black. The long inner secondaries, which are falcated, are
white like the wing-coverts. Iris brown, beak and legs olive-green. In the eclipse
dress the white areas of the plumage are replaced by brown, though a few scattered
white feathers always remain. The female is of a buff or rufous colour, closely
striated on the head and neck with dark brown ; the back feathers are dark brown
margined with greyish, and the fore-breast and flanks are barred with dark brown,
while the breast and abdomen are of a rufous buff. The major whig-coverts and
secondaries are tipped with white, forming a double alar bar. The juvenile dress
resembles that of the female, but the alar bars are feebly developed ; the males
are distinguishable by the fact that the sides of the head are nearly black. The
downy young is of a dark brown above, paler brown below, and there is a more or
less conspicuous stripe of pale brown above the eye. [w. P. P.]
2. Distribution. — As a breeding species in the British Isles, the eider is
confined to the county of Northumberland in England, the coasts and islands of
Scotland, and one locality in Co. Donegal in Ireland. In Northumberland there is
a strong colony on the Fame Islands, and a few breed on the coast of Northumber-
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 257
land and occasionally on Holy Island, while Coquet Island has not been occupied
since 1875. In Scotland its range is extensive ; it is scarce in the Tweed area though
numerous in the Forth and Tay areas, but north of Forfar is practically absent,
except near the Ythan (Dee area). On the coasts of the Moray area and East
Sutherland it again becomes common, and is plentiful in the Orkneys and Shetlands,
as well as along the north coast. It is, however, absent from the West Ross coast,
though its range is rapidly extending in W. Scotland, and it breeds freely at many
localities in Argyll, extending south to May, Jura, Gigha, etc., and spreading into
the Clyde area. Still farther to the south, breeding was first recorded from
Kirkcudbright in 1908. It is present on most of the islands of the Inner Hebrides,
scarce in Skye, but breeds in Harris and S. Uist. In Ireland it was first found
nesting on an islet in Co. Donegal in 1912. Outside the British Isles it breeds in
the Faeroes, and plentifully in Iceland ; but Spitsbergen is inhabited by a local race,
which is also found in Greenland, and probably in Franz Josef Land. On the
Continent it is found along the coast and islands of North Russia from the Kara Sea
westward, hi the White Sea and along the Norwegian coast, sparingly in Denmark,
but more commonly on the coasts of Sweden and Finland south to Helsingfors.
Off the Schleswig-Holstein coast there are strong colonies on Sylt and Norderoog,
and recently breeding has been recorded from Vlieland and Terschelling (Holland),
while a pair or two nest on an island off the coast of Brittany (Bureau). Allied
forms also breed in North America, and North-east Asia. European birds migrate
in winter southward along the coast of Europe, and are occasionally recorded
from the far interior of the Continent (the lakes of Switzerland, Lower Austria,
Hungary, the Balkan Peninsula, etc.), and casually in the Adriatic and on the
Azores. [F. c. R. J.]
3. Migration. — A resident on our coasts from Northumberland and
Argyllshire northwards, its numbers being probably increased in winter by
immigrants from more northern waters. But on the remainder of the British coast-
line the eider-duck is only known as a scarce cold-weather vagrant. Even in
Dumfriesshire it is an irregular and uncommon winter visitor, while in Ireland it
rarely occurs (chiefly recorded in November), and there is only one record for North
Wales : on the east it is uncommon on the Yorkshire coast (immature birds being
most frequently obtained), and is very rare in Kent (cf. Gladstone, B. of Dumfries,,
1910, p. 292 ; Ussher and Warren, B. of Ireland, 1900, p. 211 ; Forrest, Fauna of
N. Wales, 1907, p. 291 ; Nelson, B. of Yorks., 1907, p. 475 ; and Ticehurst, B. of
Kent, 1909, p. 369). Gregarious, and often seen in flocks of hundreds. [A. L. T.]
258 THE DIVING DUCKS
4. Nest and Eggs. — Where undisturbed the eider breeds in large colonies
on islands, partly no doubt for protection against its natural enemies, and places
its nest at a short distance from the water. In such colonies three or four nests
may be seen within a radius of a yard or two. In the Faeroes it has been known to
breed at a height of 1200 feet, and in the Shetlands nests have been found in the
hills at a considerable distance from the sea. Many nests are quite open, being
mere hollows in grassy spots or overgrown with dwarf willows (Salix lanata), bracken,
and rank vegetation, but in Scotland the shelter of a boulder is often sought, and
nests may be found in sheep-holes in stone walls. When selecting a nesting-place
the duck is accompanied by her mate, but the hollow is made by the female alone.
She lines the nest with dead grasses, bits of heather or seaweed, and later with
down. (PI. LXVUL) The down is as a rule plentiful, pale greyish brown with light
centres, and the nest feathers are figured in Brit. Birds, ii., pi. 2, fig. 13. (PL U.)
They are reddish brown, with two or sometimes three dark brown transverse bars.
The eggs vary in number to an extraordinary extent. Thus on the Fames,
though many nests contain only 4 or 5, others may contain 9, 11, 12, 13, 18, or
19 eggs ! which the watchers believe to be the produce of single ducks, though
this seems incredible.1 On the Faeroes the number ranges up to 8-11. On the
eider farms in Iceland one rarely sees more than three eggs in a nest, but great
numbers are taken systematically for eating purposes. They are characteristic in
appearance, large, and often an elongated oval in shape, smooth in texture, with
some gloss, and ranging in colour from greenish grey to olive-green, yellowish olive,
or bluish green. Some eggs have what appear to be grease stains on them even when
freshly laid. Average size of 426 eggs by Gobel, 3-06 x 2-05 in. [77-9 x 52-2 mm.].
(PI. S.) Incubation is performed by the duck alone, and lasts for 28 days accord-
ing to most observers, though Mr. F. G. Paynter estimates it at 31 days. The
breeding season at the Fames begins about 12th May, and on the Shetlands fresh
eggs may be taken from mid-May to mid-July. Only one brood is reared in the
season. [F. c. E. J.]
5. Food. — The main food of this species consists of marine Mollusca and
Crustacea. Among molluscs, large quantities of mussels (Mytilus edulis) are
swallowed entire, in some cases up to 2£ inches in length. Periwinkles are also
commonly eaten : Mr. H. W. Robinson has found as many as twenty in one gizzard,
and also records limpets (Patella) and razor-shells (Ensis siliqua) up to the astonish-
1 G. Bolam, Birds of Northumberland and the Eastern Borders, p. 406.
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 259
ing length of 8 inches, sometimes with jagged broken edges.1 Naumann includes
cockles (Cardium), Venus, Nerita, and even the whelk (Buccinum undatum).
Mr. W. Evans gives a list of twelve species of molluscs, besides various crustaceans,
sea-anemones, cuttle-fish, etc., found by the examination of forty-two birds shot
in the Orkneys in 1885 (Brit. Birds, iii. p. 165). Crustacea are also very largely
devoured, and sometimes three or four big crabs may be disgorged by shaking
from a shot bird (A. Chapman). On one occasion a crab was found in the gizzard
and a starfish in the crop (H. W. Robinson). Other occasional articles of diet are
marine algae, small fish, and, according to Naumann and Hantzsch, also spawn
and entrails thrown overboard by fishermen. One instance of a six-inch blenny
(Zoarces viviparus) being disgorged is recorded by G. Bolam, while Newstead
found in one female many remains of beetles (Hydradephaga and Geodephaga).
The young are tended by the duck, and soon learn to pick up the small molluscs
and crustaceans on which they feed at first. [F. c. B. j.]
6. Song Period. — The wailing notes of the male may frequently be heard
in chorus from the first spring days till well into June at the great colonies in
Iceland, but are less frequently uttered by those birds which breed with us, though
occasionally heard in autumn. [F. c. B. J.]
SCOTER [Oidemia nigra (Linnaeus). Black-duck, black-scoter, douker ; black-
dyker (Lanes.) ; seahen (Northumberland). French, macreuse ; German,
Trauer-Ente ; Italian, orchetto marino].
1. Description. — The scoter is at once distinguished by its black coloration
and the peculiar markings on the beak. The sexes differ in coloration. (PI. 164.)
Length 20 in. [508 mm.]. The beak of the male is marked by a swollen base and
the yellow area surrounding the nostrils. The iris is brown, and the legs and toes
are black. The female is of a sooty brown colour, save the cheeks, which are greyish
white, and the throat, which is dirty white. There is only a slight swelling at the
base of the beak. Young birds resemble the female, but have white under parts
obscurely mottled with brown. The nestling is of a uniform dark brown above,
the throat white, and the under parts greyish brown, [w. p. P.]
2. Distribution. — This species has a very restricted range in the British
Isles. Its main breeding-grounds are the " flows " and moors of Caithness and
1 These shells are, of course, regurgitated as pellets, when the mollusc has been acted upon
by the gastric juices and the soft parts assimilated.
260 THE DIVING DUCKS
Sutherland, but it also nests in Cromarty and locally in some parts of Ross and
Inverness. It is also recorded as breeding in Tiree in 1897, and is said to have
nested in the Shetlands in 1911. These localities are all in Scotland, but the late
Major H. Trevelyan found a pair nesting on a large lough in the west of Ireland
in 1905, and noticed the birds in the preceding year. They continued to breed
there subsequently, but apparently did not increase in numbers. Outside the
British Isles it nests in fair numbers in Iceland, and was recorded as breeding on
Spitsbergen in 1905 by Koenig, while on the Continent it is rare on the high fjeld
of Southern Norway, but from there and from Jemtland in Sweden northward
ranges to East Finmark. In Finland it is not found breeding south of 61J°, and
in Russia it nests in Lapland, the Archangel government and the lower Petschora,
as well as on Waigatz and Novaya Zemlya. Eastward in Asia it has been recorded
as breeding east to the Taimyr Peninsula and also in the Tobolsk government. In
North-east Siberia as well as in North America it is replaced by an allied form,
which ranges west to the Lena. The ordinary winter range extends to the North
Sea and English Channel, but it occurs also as far south as the coasts of Spam and
Marocco, the Azores and Rio d'Oro on the west, the Mediterranean, Black Sea,
Palestine coast and Caspian Sea, while the American race ranges to California and
casually to Florida. [F. c. B. j.]
3. Migration. — Resident, breeding in the areas of Scotland mentioned in
the preceding paragraph, while flocks of immature birds remain off our coasts
throughout the summer. More numerous as a winter visitor from Northern
Europe, arriving between 10th September and 9th October (exceptionally as early
as 5th August), and recorded as a bird of passage from 5th September to late
October and from 29th April to 7th June (cf. Clarke, Studies in Bird Migration,
1912, vol. i. pp. 136, 160). In Ireland it is chiefly known on the northern coasts
from October to April (cf . Ussher and Warren, B. of Ireland, 1900, p. 214). On the
Dumfriesshire coast it is a common winter visitor, and off North Wales it is
numerous even up till May, and some are seen during the summer (cf. Gladstone,
B. of Dumfries., 1910, p. 293 ; and Forrest, Fauna of N. Wales, 1907, p. 299). On
the Yorkshire coast a few are usually seen in summer, and it is common in winter
and very numerous in some seasons (cf. Nelson, B. of Yorks., 1907, p. 478). Large
flocks appear off the coast of Kent towards the end of September and pass down
the Channel ; their numbers are increased, sometimes to a huge extent, if the
season farther north is a severe one : the return takes place in March and April
(cf. Ticehurst, B. of Kent, 1909, p. 371). Gregarious, and often in flocks of thou-
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 261
sands ; rarely occurs inland. A migration was observed in the early night hours
of 24th, 25th, and 26th April 1879 over Skipton-in-Craven, Yorkshire (cf. Clarke,
Zoologist, 1880, p. 355). [A. L. T.]
4. Nest and Eggs. — In the British Isles the most usually chosen site is a
hollow in water-logged moorland among heather, sometimes on islets, but in a dry
spot and frequently at a considerable distance from water. Sometimes it is
sheltered by a low bush, but more usually well hidden among long heather and
other moorland vegetation. The nest-hollow is scantily lined by the duck with a
few bents, dead leaves, heather twigs, etc., and is plentifully supplied with down.
The down is rather dark brownish, showing indistinct light centres, but no light
tips. (PI. U.) The nest feathers are figured byH. Noble (Brit. Birds, ii., pi. 2,
fig. 15), and are variable, many being greyish or whitish tipped with brown,
but in this case the appearance of the eggs alone is sufficient for identification.
They are, as a rule, from 5 to 8 in number, rarely 10 or 11, and in appearance
are large, rather pointed oval in shape, and pale buff to warm cream in colour.
Average size of 70 eggs, 2-57x1-75 in. [65-4x44-6 mm.]. (PI. S.) In Scotland
the eggs are rarely found before the beginning of June, often not till nearly the
middle of the month, and in Lapland from about mid-June onward into July.
Incubation is performed by the duck only, and, according to Hantzsch, lasts for
four weeks. Only one brood is reared in the season, [p. c. R. J.]
5. Food. — During the winter months the scoter is almost entirely marine
in its habits, and feeds chiefly on marine Mollusca, especially the common mussel,
Mytilus edulis. These are swallowed, according to Naumann, up to 1*38 in. in
length. Cockles (Cardium edule) and other small molluscs are also eaten (F. S.
Mitchell), and remains of small bivalves have also been noted by T. E. Gunn.
Mr. G. Bolam has found chiefly sandhoppers, an occasional shrimp, and quantities
of sand. Mr. A. C. Chapman records an instance in which these ducks were seen
to feed on grain from a wrecked ship, and Gatke mentions a similar instance, while
Naumann found in young birds many remains of a water-plant, probably
Polygonum amphibium. The same writer also states that worms, small fish, and
insects form part of their diet. During the breeding season, on fresh water, they
no doubt subsist largely on fresh-water Mollusca. Sand for digestive purposes is
usually found in the stomach. The young are tended by the duck only, and
probably feed chiefly on small molluscs. [F. c. R. J.]
VOL. IV. 2L
262 THE DIVING DUCKS
VELVET-SCOTER [Oidemia fusca (Linnaeus). French, grand macreuse ;
German, Sammet-Ente ; Italian, orcho marind].
1. Description. — The velvet-scoter may at once be distinguished by the
white bar across the wings and the forward growth of the feathers of the lores,
which project beyond the level of those of the forehead. The sexes differ in colora-
tion. (PL 164.) Length 22 in. [558 mm.]. The male is wholly black save for a
small white patch below and behind the eye, and a white bar across the wings
formed by the tips of the major coverts and the secondaries. The beak is of a pale
orange colour, but the base and edges are black, and a black line runs from the
nostril forwards to the nail. The feet and toes are of a dull orange-red, the webs
black. The iris is white. The female is of a dark brown colour, the feathers of
the upper surface margined with grey. The under surface of the body is whitish
on the breast. The white wing-bar is formed only by the secondaries. The beak
and iris are brown ; the feet are paler than in the male. The juvenile dress
resembles that of the female. The downy young differs from that of the common-
scoter in being paler underneath, [w. p. p.]
2. Distribution. — This bird is only a winter visitor to the British Isles,
and the statement that it has bred in Scotland cannot be substantiated and is
improbable, though non-breeding birds have been known to stay through the
summer with us. On the Continent it breeds in the high f jeld of Southern Norway
and thence northward to East Finmark ; also in Sweden from Skane and Blekinge
northward to the Russian border, as well as on Oland and Gotland ; in Finland from
Viborg northward ; and in Russia according to Buturlin in Esthland, the Pinsk
marshes, Lake Onega, Lapland, the lower Petschora and Archangel government,
Novaya Zemlya (rarely), and also in the Simbirsk government and the mountain
lakes of Transcaucasia. Statements that it has bred in Podolia and Germany
require confirmation. East of the Urals it nests hi the Perm government ; and in
Siberia on the Ob and in the Tobolsk government. In East Siberia and in North
America it is replaced by allied races. On migration it ranges to the North Sea,
Mediterranean, Black and Caspian Seas, and has been recorded as far south as the
east and west coasts of Spain, Marocco, Sardinia, the Adriatic, Lower Egypt, North
Persia, and Turkestan, while it has occurred as a casual in the Faeroes and Greenland.
[F. c. E. J.]
3. Migration. —A winter visitor and bird of passage from Northern
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 263
Europe in much smaller numbers than the common-scoter : unlike the latter, it is
not known to breed in our area, but immature birds are found in summer off the
east coast of Great Britain. As a winter visitor it arrives between 16th September
and 18th October, while the seasons of passage are from 17th September to 20th
October, and from the end of April through May (cf. Clarke, Studies in Bird
Migration, 1912, vol. i. pp. 136, 160). The velvet-scoter is less common on the
west of Scotland than on the east, and it is uncommon on the Welsh and west
English coasts (cf. Saunders, III. Man. B. B., 2nd ed., 1899, p. 467). It is rare in
Ireland even on the east, and almost unknown on the west : January is the chief
month (cf . Ussher and Warren, B. of Ireland, 1900, p. 214). In Yorkshire it is noted
that adult drakes are very rare (cf. Nelson, B. of Yorks., 1907, p. 480). Gregarious ;
but it is more usual to find a small percentage of velvet-scoters in the huge flocks
of the common species than to find separate flocks of any size. [A. L. T.]
4. Nest and Eggs. — Does not breed in the British Isles, though it is said,
on unsatisfactory evidence, to have nested in the Highlands of Scotland (cf. E.
T. Booth, Rough Notes). [F. c. E. J.]
5. Food. — This species is perhaps almost more of a sea-duck than even the
common-scoter during the winter months, and lives almost exclusively on marine
Mollusca obtained by diving, chiefly the common mussel, Mytilus edulis, and the
cockle, Cardium edule, the former of which is, according to Naumann, swallowed up
to 1*38 in. in length. Macgillivray states that he has also obtained from the
stomachs of birds examined, shells of the genera Mactra, Tellina, and Solen, as well
as Donax trunculus in addition to the usual cockles and mussels. T. E. Gunn found
remains of vegetable fibre as well as fragments of shells, pebbles, bits of flint and
silt. Naumann also states that on rare occasions small Crustacea, insects, worms,
and small fish are eaten, and that on fresh-water lakes they will eat the roots,
seeds, and buds of surface-growing water-weeds. The young are tended entirely
by the female, and probably feed on small fresh-water Mollusca and possibly some
vegetable food. [F. c. E. J.]
264 THE DIVING DUCKS
THE DIVING DUCKS
[F. C. R JOURDAIN]
In the following chapter the term " Diving Ducks " must be
understood as not including the group of " Sawbills," which of course,
in the literal sense of the words, are also diving ducks, but is confined
to the ducks of the genera Nyroca, Clangula, Harelda, Somateria, and
Oidemia. Of these, the three species of the genus Nyroca and one of
the genus Clangula are sufficiently numerous to be treated of below,
namely, the pochard, N. ferina (L.), the tufted-duck, N. fuligula (L.),
the scaup, N. marila (L.), and the goldeneye, C, clangula (L.), the
others being relegated to the "Rare Bird" section. One member
of the genus Harelda, the longtailed-duck, H. hyemalis (L.), is also
included, and a single representative of the genus Somateria, the
common-eider, S. mollissima (L.) ; while the genus Oidemia is repre-
sented by two species, the common-scoter, 0. nigra (L.), and the
velvet-scoter, 0. fusca (L.).
All these ducks have certain points in common which distinguish
them from the surface-feeders. Instead of habitually seeking their
food either on the surface or in shallow water, after the ungainly
fashion with which we are familiar in the case of the tame duck, the
head and fore part of the body only being submerged, and the after
part sticking perpendicularly out of the water, the diving ducks prefer
to feed in deep water, with the body entirely submerged, and are
capable of remaining under water for considerable periods.1 Struc-
turally they all have certain characteristics in common ; for instance,
in the diving ducks the hind-toe is always deeply lobed, while in the
surface-feeders the lobe is either absent or extremely narrow. Their
1 It must not be inferred from this that the surface-feeders are incapable of diving ; for
instance, the shoveler can and does remain completely submerged for considerable periods
at a time.
THE POCHARD AND TUFTED-DUCK 265
build is also somewhat different ; the head is usually heavier and set
on a shorter neck, while the feet are placed noticeably farther back,
the wings are shorter, and the toes much elongated. In consequence,
we find that as a rule these ducks are very bad walkers, and most at
home in the water ; their large feet, set well back, give great power
of propulsion on or under the water, while on the other hand their
capacity for flight is not as a rule so great. For the same reasons the
nesting-place is generally quite close to the water, and most of the
members of this group spend a considerable part of the year at sea,
where, except in rough weather, they are able to feed without the
necessity of resorting to mud flats and shallows.
Of the three species of the genus Nyroca which are treated of in
this article, two, the pochard and the tufted-duck, are now well estab-
lished with us as breeding species ; while the scaup is only known to
have bred on a few occasions in Scotland. On the other hand there
is no definite proof that the goldeneye, our only representative of the
genus Clangula, has ever nested with us. Both species are, however,
familiar to us as winter visitors.
THE POCHARD AND TUFTED-DUCK
Except in the case of a few species of birds which were used for
food, the materials for estimating the status of any given species in
the British Isles, prior to the last hundred years or so, are lamentably
scanty. But now we have hosts of observers in every county ready
to note the slightest extension of range on the part of any bird which
is at all conspicuous, and in consequence we are now able to map out
the gradual extension of the breeding range of the British-breeding
ducks with some approach to accuracy. In the case of the pochard,
the increased breeding area is remarkable, although it sinks into insig-
nificance when compared with that of the tufted-duck. In 1865, when
A. G. More wrote his excellent paper on the " Distribution of Birds in
266 THE DIVING DUCKS
Great Britain during the Nesting-Season," 1 he was only able to record
the breeding of the pochard from three districts — the Tring reservoirs
on the borders of Herts and Bucks, Norfolk, and three localities in
Yorkshire. At the present time it has extended its range to all the
east coast counties of England, as well as along the south coast west-
ward to Dorset. It also holds its own in Herts and Bucks, and has
bred in Bedford and Berks as well as in Stafford and Lancashire.
But in Scotland, where More had no records, it is now widely distri-
buted, and breeds on many lochs from the Border counties northward,
and is extending its range even to the outlying island groups. In
Ireland it is also said to have bred in various localities, but more
evidence is wanted here. The case of the tufted-duck is even more
extraordinary. Up to about 1850 it was only known as a winter visitor,
but in 1849 a brood was observed in the West Riding of Yorkshire,
and in 1854 in Notts. Now it breeds regularly, not only in most of the
English counties, but has nested in Anglesey, and probably also in
Merioneth ; in Scotland it is now very widely distributed, and in some
places is extremely plentiful, and it ranges north to the Orkneys and
west to the Outer Hebrides ; 2 while in Ireland, where no case of
breeding was known prior to 1877, it is now well established in every
province, and is still spreading.
The pochard and tufted-duck differ from the other diving ducks
in being much less marine in their habits, preferring, when possible, to
seek their food in fresh water. Like the other ducks they are migra-
tory, and large numbers visit us in winter from the Continent, while
the birds which breed with us forsake their nesting haunts and betake
themselves to the lakes and estuaries of our larger rivers, only visiting
our coasts as a rule during severe weather. During the winter they
tend to congregate in large or smaller flocks, feeding chiefly during
the night, and also performing their migratory movements at this
1 Ibis, 1865, p. 445.
2 For details as to the spread of this species in Scotland, see J. A. Harvie-Brown, Proc.
Roy. Phys. Soc. Edin., vol. xiii. p. 144 ; and Antials Scot. Nat. Hist., 1896, p. 5. Cf. also
W. Evans, torn, cit., p. 148.
Plate 161
Tufted-ducks (centre and left) and
pochards (right)
By A. W. Seaby
THE POCHARD AND TUFTED-DUCK 267
time, so that while hundreds may be seen floating idly on the water
one evening, by the next morning every bird may have disappeared.
The pochard returns to its breeding-place in March, and associ-
ates at first with other species. In its courtship the pochard shows
signs of a more phlegmatic disposition than the other ducks. The
somewhat harsh and deep " charr, charr, charr," or, as written by some,
" kurr, kurr, kurr," l of the male may frequently be heard at this time
as two or three of them swim in pursuit of a female, following her
every turn. According to Naumann, fights between the rival males
rarely or never take place. Professor Newton, who kept a pair for
some years in confinement, remarks that the actions of the cock in
spring were most entertaining. " He would extend himself at full
length on the water, and utter the softest of sounds," 2 but unfortu-
nately his mate proved to be indifferent to his advances, and
breeding never took place. Naumann says that the female exercises
free choice among her admirers, and retires with the selected
partner, leaving the disconsolate swains to seek other mates.
Mr. J. G. Millais has kindly furnished the following description of
the courtship from his forthcoming monograph on the Diving Ducks.
At the commencement of the courtship several males may be seen
crowding round a female who shows a disposition to accept attentions.
She in turn " circles round some male, dipping her bill in the water,
stretching her neck low on the water, and occasionally uttering her
coarse cry of ' kurr-kurr-kurr.' The males continuously keep up their
curious groan, which is somewhat like a man affected with asthma and
being told by the doctor to 'take a deep breath.' In addition to this
call they also utter a soft low whistle, which the spectator must be close
at hand to hear. The first attitude of the male consists in throwing
the head and neck back until the back of the head touches a point
between the shoulders. This is repeated constantly at the beginning
1 Or, as Dresser writes it, "a low rerrr-rerrr-a."
2 Evidently an allusion to the courting notes or song, which unfortunately is still un-
described.
268 THE DIVING DUCKS
of courtship. The more common display is to blow the neck out
with air with the head raised horizontally, and utter the groan as the
air is released. During this show a distinct ' kink ' is to be observed
in the lower part of the neck, while the centre is unusually swollen.
The fullest display is usually performed as the male approaches the
female. The male then lies very flat on the water and stretches the
head and neck to the fullest extent, at the same time blowing out the
neck and frequently turning the head on one side, so as to display its
full beauty. During these moments of intense excitement the pupil
of the eye of the male nearly disappears, and the eye itself seems
to blaze a very rich lacquer red."
Once paired the sexes are inseparable, except for short periods
under stress of severe weather, and haunt the spot where they
decide to nest. As already described, the nest is generally
built in the water, often among the dead stalks of flags or reeds
of the previous summer, and bears a curious likeness to that of the
coot, before the down is added. In some cases, even when the
eggs are highly incubated, there is hardly any down. The duck
does not seem to object to the company of other birds, and it is not
uncommon to find a nest surrounded by a noisy colony of black-
headed-gulls. During the period of incubation the male remains
in the neighbourhood of the nest, but of course takes no share in
the work. Naumann gives a lifelike description of the cautious
way in which the duck approaches the nest during the laying
period. First of all the pair come flying past, keeping a careful
lookout, and settle with a splash on the open water some little dis-
tance away. Here both birds remain for some time motionless, with
outstretched necks, on the alert for the slightest sign of danger, and
then, if all remains quiet, the duck begins to swim cautiously towards
the nest, keeping her head down, and taking advantage of any cover
that may exist. In the case of a bird which hatched out young in
confinement, she was observed to leave the nest about three times a
week in order to wash and feed : at these times she was very ravenous,
THE POCHARD AND TUFTED-DUCK 269
but directly her appetite was satisfied and she had had a good wash,
she returned to the nest as fast as she could swim.1 The young only
remain in the nest for about a day after hatching, and then take to the
water, where they are quite at home, swimming and diving with
wonderful facility, but not trusting themselves far from the shelter of
the reeds and sedge, on the broken stems of which they can rest. Often
the same places are resorted to for this purpose day after day, and can
easily be distinguished by the accumulation of droppings beneath
them. One peculiarity about the young is shared by the other diving
ducks. This is the slow development of the wings as compared with
those of the surface-feeders, so that it is not till after they are in other
respects fully developed that they are able to fly. They then leave
the breeding-grounds and make for the larger sheets of open water,
forming small flocks, which tend to unite into larger bodies. The
whole of the work of tending the young falls upon the female, the
male taking no part whatever in the task, and when confined together
in an enclosure, the duck will drive off the male as long as she is
accompanied by the young.
Much of what has been written of the pochard is true also of the
tufted-duck, but there are several important points of difference.
The tufted-duck is a much quicker and cleaner diver, and slips into
the water with much less of a commotion than the heavier pochard,
which rises from the surface to gain impetus before it plunges
downward. For quite half a minute2 it remains at times below the
surface, tearing up the aquatic vegetation and bringing it to the sur-
face, and also keenly on the lookout for animal food (frogs, molluscs,
and insect larvae). The usual time during which they remain under
water when feeding is estimated by Mr. J. Whitaker at about fifteen
seconds. Exactly at twilight they rise from the ponds where they
have spent the day and fly to other feeding-grounds, travelling at a
1 Cecil Smith, Zoologist, 1872, p. 3243.
8 It has been stated that the tufted-duck can remain under water for a full minute, but
probably this was merely an estimate and not an accurately observed habit.
VOL. IV. 2 M
270 THE DIVING DUCKS
great pace and a good height in the air. In the morning, according to
Mr. Whitaker, they may be seen actively diving for weeds after their
return from the feeding-grounds, and in the afternoon they rest and
preen their feathers, becoming restless as flighting time approaches.1
Pairing takes place in March, when their harsh notes are often to be
heard. Naumann writes this call as "karr, karrkarr," etc., or "korr,
korr " ; but Mr. Whitaker, who has had excellent opportunities for
observing this species, states that on a few occasions when he was
close to the birds, and unseen by them, he heard a pleasant series of
courting-notes uttered by the male as he swam round the female.2
These he describes as low, but very clear, resembling the sounds
" tuc, tuc, tuck, quit, quit, quitta, wheeo, whit, quit, quit, quie." At intervals
the drake throws the head backwards so as almost to touch the
dorsal feathers, and also raises the fore part of the body slowly in
the water, at the same time stretching the head and neck upwards.
Mr. S. E. Brock states that these gestures may be seen from the
end of February till after the pairing season. The note uttered
on leaving the water or alighting, which is that referred to by
Naumann, is graphically expressed by Mr. Whitaker as " curragh,
curragh" Although the male is often the first to show uneasiness
at the approach of danger, he does not leave the water till the
duck takes to wing, uttering the familar " curragh " note.
It is somewhat curious that the breeding season of the tufted-
duck should be so late. While the mallard has been known to lay in
February and frequently nests in March, the tufted-duck does not
begin to lay as a rule till mid-May, and often the clutches are incom-
plete at the beginning of June. According to all ornithological writers,
the pochard is comparatively a late breeder, and the average time for
full clutches is about the middle of May, but I have seen highly in-
cubated clutches of pochards' eggs, which must have been sat on for
1 J. Whitaker, quoted by Seebohm, Hist, of Brit. Birds, iii. p. 585.
1 Mr. S. E. Brock describes it as "a soft, liquid, several-syllabled utterance, rarely
penetrating to any distance," and commonly uttered in chorus by several drakes together
(Scott. Nat., 1912, p. 266).
THE SCAUP 271
at least a fortnight, in the last days of April, and several full clutches
before the end of that month.1 Although the tufted-duck does not
place its nest as a rule actually in the water like the pochard, it is
generally within a few feet of it, as a rule among long grass or rushes
or sheltered by bushes, in the midlands and south of England, but
often in heather in the north. Mr. A. Chapman, however, states that
he has met with instances in which the nest has been at considerable
distances from water, but on these Northumbrian moorlands probably
the duck would be able to lead the young to some channel in the peat
with pools of water in places, by which they could be conveyed to the
nearest loch. The young dive almost as soon as they are introduced
to the water, and are carefully tended by the duck, who shows great re-
luctance to leave them, scuttering along the surface of the water as if
unable to fly, and attempting to draw attention from the ducklings.
Should this prove unsuccessful, she will return again and again to with-
in a few yards. On larger sheets of water the duck shows a distinct
tendency on the approach of danger to make for deep water with her
young brood, which she gathers closely around her, instead of taking
cover in the reedy margins, as is the habit of the surface-feeders. The
drake, which was always in attendance while laying was going on, and
to a less extent during the earlier stages of incubation, does not take
any part in the care of the young, but associates chiefly with other
males.
THE SCAUP
The scaup belongs to a different category from the two species
already treated of. It has a more northerly breeding-range, and
though suspected of having nested in Scotland, was not proved to
do so till breeding was recorded from the Outer Hebrides from 1897
onward, and Captain Sandeman and Mr. H. Noble found a nest in
Sutherland in 1899. For practical purposes we may consider it as a
1 Major Sparrow has also found recently hatched young on 16th May in Kent.
272 THE DIVING DUCKS
winter visitor, and as such almost entirely marine in its habits, haunt-
ing the estuaries of tidal rivers and low-lying, muddy coasts. In the
breeding season, however, it resorts to the neighbourhood of inland
lochs to nest, and in some parts of Iceland, especially the Myvatn
district, is extraordinarily plentiful. Not only scores, but literally
hundreds of nests are to be found within quite a limited area. The
Rev. H. H. Slater and Mr. T. Carter counted no fewer than 305 nests
on one small group of islands in Lake Myvatn on 13th July 1885, and
then only stopped counting from sheer weariness. In other parts of
the island it is also numerous, but is not found in such enormous
numbers as at Myvatn. In March most of the scaups arrive from the
North Sea, where they have spent the winter months, and gradually
spread over the country, not reaching the northern coasts till the
beginning of April, and working up the rivers to their breeding-
grounds, so that many of them do not reach their nesting-haunts till
the beginning of May. By this time they are already paired, but little
has hitherto been recorded as to their courtship. Montagu noticed
that captive birds kept apart from other ducks, and made a grunting
noise accompanied with a singular toss of the head, the bill being
opened at the same time.1 This habit was continued for a con-
siderable time while swimming and sporting on the water in the
spring months, and in itself is sufficient to identify the species.
Saxby also describes it as half standing in the water, and thrusting
its head forward with the bill widely open — sometimes, for a variation,
bending the head down towards the breast with a rapid jerking motion
(Birds of Shetland, p. 255).
Mr. J. G. Millais has kindly allowed me to extract the following
description from his forthcoming monograph on the Diving Ducks :—
" The male scaup, anxious to pair, approaches the female with head
and neck held up to their fullest extent, the bill being raised in the air
to an angle of 50° to 60°. If the female responds to this, she also lifts
the neck stiffly, at the same time uttering a crooning sort of note like
1 Faber compares it to the " murr" of the turtle-dove.
Plate 162
Scaups (left top) and eider-ducks
By A. W. Seaby
THE SCAUP 273
the words, ' tuc-tuc-turra-tuc.' If alarmed, or pretending to be so, she
swims away quickly with powerful strokes, uttering her grating cry,
' scaar-scaarr.' When paired the female often comes up to the male
and bows her head several times. The actual show of the male is
a quick throw up of the head and neck, which is greatly swollen with
air as it extends. At the summit of extension the bird utters a gentle
cry like the words 'pa-whoo,' only uttered once. As he makes his
show the female sometimes swims round him, lowering the head and
dipping the bill to the surface of the water, and making a gentle call
' chup-chup,' or 'chup-chup cherr-err.' Quite as frequently the cry of
the male is uttered after the head is raised and slightly lowered. He
also utters a very low whistle. Except the harsh loud cry of the
female, all these calls of pairing scaup are very low in tone, and the
spectator must be within a few yards of the birds to hear them."
The same writer also quotes a note from Mr. Gerald Legge, who
observed a male suddenly draw back its head and neck with a quick
jerk, something like the throw of the male pochard, except that the
head was horizontal and not turned over till the throat was uppermost.
Riemschneider noticed that the males, when in company with their
mates, uttered occasionally a low " uhu, uhu."
The ordinary call-note of this species bears some resemblance to
that of the tufted-duck, but is louder and harsher. It is also used
as an alarm-note, and may be heard both while swimming and in flight.
Naumann describes it as a loud, rough, deep "karr, harr, karr" etc.1
Hantzsch remarks that when a family party is approached a snoring
or rattling note is heard, which sounds something like " brr, brr," or
" hrr, hrr." Should the danger become more imminent, one of the
party flutters anxiously, uttering again a harsh " br rah," while from
the young in varying tones may be heard higher pitched " krkr" 2
1 Seebohm distinguishes between the call-note (which he describes as a most discordant
sound, and compares to a man with an exceptionally harsh, hoarse voice screaming out the
word "scaup" at the top of his voice) and the grating alarm-note, like that of the tufted-
duck, uttered during flight (Hist, of British Birds, iii. p. 580).
2 Hantzsch, Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Vogelwelt Islands, p. 185.
274 THE DIVING DUCKS
The usual situation for the nest is only a few paces from the
water, and the birds may be said to nest in colonies, so close are the
nests to one another. At the beginning of the incubation period the
males remain in the immediate neighbourhood of the nest, but later
they assemble in flocks during the day, but accompany their mates
when feeding at night. The young are mainly tended by the duck,
but Messrs. Pearson saw in one or two cases the drakes assisting in
the work, and Hantzsch also states that for a short time they associate
with their families, but soon return to their bachelor existence. The
young are fledged after a period of five or six weeks, and at the begin-
ning of September leave their breeding-haunts, the drakes assembling
in separate flocks. By the end of September they have all taken to
the sea, and during the second half of October make their way south-
ward to their winter quarters.
Enormous flocks may be met with during the winter months far
out at sea, resting on the open water " head to windward " by day, and
resorting to the mussel-beds and neighbourhood of the shore to feed
at night. As a diver the powers of this duck exceed even those of the
pochard and tufted-duck, and it can remain under water longer than
they do, so that its natural impulse is to seek safety under water ;
and it is rather unwilling to take to flight unless very hard pressed,
although strong and swift on the wing when once started.
THE GOLDENEYE
The common goldeneye is another winter visitor to our shores
like the scaup, but, unlike that bird, has not yet been satisfactorily
proved to breed with us. There seems to be no reason why it should
not do so, as on the Continent its breeding-range extends south to
Germany, Switzerland, and Bohemia, and it is reported to have bred
even in the Dobrogea. The few cases where it is said to have nested
with us are insufficiently authenticated ; but the late E. T. Booth, who
THE GOLDENEYE 275
was thoroughly acquainted with all our British ducks, states in the
third volume of his Rough Notes that he repeatedly observed females
in summer on remote Highland lochs, and on more than one occasion
detected a bird flying from old and weather-beaten pine woods, where
most probably her nest was concealed, although he never succeeded in
verifying the fact. The only point which seems to tell against this
theory is that no adult males were observed after the first week in
April, with the exception of one pair which were seen for several days
subsequent to llth June 1869 on Loch Slyn in Ross-shire. Mr. A. H.
Evans also saw a pair courting on Loch Maree on 30th May 1891. The
goldeneye is less pelagic in its habits during the winter months than
the scaup, and occurs not infrequently on inland waters as well as
on the coast, but the great majority of the birds which visit us are
immature.
In its courtship and breeding habits the goldeneye differs con-
siderably from the other diving ducks, and fortunately these have been
tolerably closely observed, not only in Europe, but also in the case of
the race which inhabits America. As the American bird is merely a
local form of the European goldeneye, it is probable that the perform-
ance is similar in both countries. Dr. C. W. Townsend describes it as
follows : " One or more males swim restlessly back and forth and
around the female. The feathers of the cheeks and crest of the male
are so erected that the head looks large and round, the neck
correspondingly small. As he swims along the head is thrust out in
front, close to the water, occasionally dabbling at it. Suddenly he
springs forward, elevating his breast, and at the same time he enters
on the most typical and essential part of the performance. The neck
is stretched straight up, and the bill, pointing to the zenith, is opened
to emit a harsh, rasping double note, 'zzee-at? vibratory and searching
in character. The head is then quickly snapped back until the occiput
touches the rump, whence it is brought forward again with a jerk to
the normal position. As the head is returned to its place the bird
often springs forward, kicking the water in a spurt out behind, and
276 THE DIVING DUCKS
displaying, like a flash of flame, the orange coloured legs." l This is
the most complete form of the ritual of courtship, which is curtailed and
varied in some instances. The female is generally passive, but some-
times responds by protruding her head close to the water in front, and
then bringing it up so that it also points to the zenith. Dr. Townsend
proceeds to mention some of the ways in which this remarkable per-
formance varies individually. Dr. Heinroth's observations on European
birds agree well with this description, but some interesting points are
added. For instance, the method of driving away intruders is most
remarkable, and resembles the plan of attack adopted by the great
crested-grebe. The attacker dives and swims rapidly under water in
the direction of his opponent, making his onslaught from below, usually
with immediate success. Dr. Heinroth also noted that ducks when
quarrelling with one another also adopted this plan, which seems
to differ from that of any other species of duck. The actions of
courtship may be seen repeated in the autumn, though in the case of
the young males it is incompletely carried out.
It is unnecessary here to describe the nesting habits of this species,
as they have already been dealt with in the " Classified Notes." It is,
however, still something of a problem how the young are brought
down to the water after they are hatched, as the observations recorded
differ. It has been stated that they are conveyed to the water in the
parent's bill, but W. Brewster, writing of the American subspecies,2
quotes the evidence of R A. Gilbert, that the old duck appeared at
the entrance of the hole and sat there for five minutes, during which
time her head was turned incessantly in every direction within her
field of view. She then withdrew herself into the hole for a minute,
and on reappearing watched as before for five minutes longer. She
then flew down to the water and swam round a stump which projected
from the water, calling. At the third time she stopped directly under
1 Cf. The Auk, 1910, p. 177. This should be compared with the descriptions already given
of the courting attitudes of the pochard and scaup.
1 The Auk, 1900, p. 207.
Plate 163
Golden-eyes (upper) and longtailed-ducks (right)
By A. W. Seaby
r. » ' '-
A "" ***:•
»•«« «',•
, .
THE LONGTAILED-DUCK 277
the hole and gave a single loud cluck or call, when the ducklings
scrambled to the mouth of the hole and fell into the water one after
another. One or two hesitated an instant on the edge, but most of
them toppled out over the edge as soon as they appeared, using their
tiny wings in the descent, the duck sitting meantime motionless on
the water. As soon as the last duckling had descended, she led her
brood to a flooded thicket in which they disappeared. Young
European goldeneyes, hatched in confinement, were very active, and
after three weeks the feathers began to show on the shoulders. At
six weeks old they were completely feathered, but the flight feathers
were only just sprouting, and after sixty days they were able to fly,
and practically full grown.1
Its courting-note apart, the goldeneye is a very silent bird, only
uttering an occasional low croak. It is an expert diver. Cordeaux
describes how the body is thrown forward to add momentum to the
plunge. The period under water is estimated by him at forty-five to
fifty seconds, but Caton Haigh gives the average time as twenty to
thirty seconds. After diving they rise up very suddenly, almost at
the point of descent, and when feeding only remain a few seconds on
the surface before plunging in again with a splash, thus spending
four-fifths of their time under water.2 They are among the most wary
of our water-fowl, and, like the pochard, are hardly ever taken in
decoys ; but though almost unapproachable at sea, throw off some of
their wildness when visiting inland waters.
THE LONGTAILED-DUCK
No duck, except possibly the pintail, can rival the longtailed-
duck in beauty of form and colouring. There is some evidence,
though as yet not fully satisfactory, that it has bred in the Orkneys,
and with more probability also in the Shetlands ; but to the rest of the
1 Ibis, 1909, p. 189. 2 Frohawk's British Birds, vol. iv. p. 157.
VOL. IV. 2N
278 THE DIVING DUCKS
British Isles it is only known as a winter visitor, chiefly to our eastern
coasts, and often in considerable flocks. At this season it very rarely
occurs inland, but, curiously enough, visits the lakes of Switzerland in
hard winters. It is a lively, active, playful, rather quarrelsome and
noisy bird. Though most figures represent it with depressed tail, it
is usually carried in an oblique position, and when excited is raised
almost perpendicularly. This is well shown in Mr. J. G. Millais' life-
like sketch of a flock about to rise in The Wildfowler in Scotland, p. 157.
The loud musical call of the male is very noticeable, and can be heard
to a great distance. It is rather freely rendered by Scotch hearers as
"coal art can'le licht," and the Orcadian name " calloo" is another
attempt to represent the sound. Naumann makes a more careful
attempt to reproduce it by the words, " au auh lik a a a auh lik," or
"ah a gleck, a ah gleck," while Hantzsch simply writes it as variations
of the short a sound and the long drawn out au, sometimes a au a.1 In
the northern summer this musical call may be heard not only by day
but also right through the night. The note of the female is a low
"wed, wad" or "wack, wack" From the earliest days of spring until
the young are hatched these notes may be heard continually, and
in the autumn and winter months they are also often heard. Even
before these ducks leave our southern coasts in March a good deal of
courting goes on. Bolam describes the manoeuvres of a feeding flock
at this season, when shifting their ground, as they are continually
doing. " All the birds rise simultaneously, as though by signal, fly a
short distance, and dash as suddenly into the water again, when, as
a rule, every bird instantly dives. On reappearing on the surface
they are generally somewhat scattered, but all draw together again
before another dive is made, which, like the last, is taken by all the
flock at the same moment. They go down with a violent plunge,
often kicking the water high into the air above them."2 Saxby notes
that when diving for food they stay under water for about fifty-five
1 Robert Gray's rendering is " our, o, u, ah."
1 G. Bolam, Birds of Northumberland and the Eastern Borders, p. 400.
THE EIDER-DUCK 279
seconds on an average when not alarmed. Towards the end of April
they begin to resort to their breeding-places in the islets in the lakes
and rivers of Iceland, breeding often in considerable numbers and at
no great distance from one another.1 As the nesting habits of this
species have been already described (" Classified Notes," p. 254), it is
sufficient here to say that the young are fledged after a period of
about five weeks. The males then attach themselves once more to
these family parties, and the small flocks gradually work towards the
sea, disappearing from Iceland in September or early in October as
a rule, though a few appear to winter on the west side.
THE EIDER DUCK
The next species on our list, the eider, is perhaps the most
important from an economic point of view, for in some parts of
Iceland and Norway it lives in almost a semi-domesticated state, and
the eggs and down have a considerable value. Hantzsch quotes from
a report by Consul Thomsen at Reykjavik, from which it appears that
5896 pounds of down were exported from Iceland in the year 1902
alone ! From Greenland 984 pounds were exported in 1890, but only
653 pounds in 1896. In Norway, also, the trade assumes large propor-
tions, and the breeding stations are jealously preserved ; but in the
British Isles little is done to protect our resident birds, except at the
Fame Islands, where there is a colony of about a hundred and fifty
pairs. They respond readily to protection, and it is not uncommon to
find ducks which will allow themselves to be stroked repeatedly while
incubating, without leaving their eggs. At some of the large colonies
in Iceland the males are almost as tame as the females, and will
remain within a few yards of the visitor without showing any sign of
alarm. The eider is perhaps the most thoroughly pelagic of all our
1 Twenty nests have been found on one island in Lake Myvatn.
280 THE DIVING DUCKS
British diving ducks, for even during the breeding season it remains
by the coast, unlike most ducks, which usually resort to fresh water
for this purpose. During the early summer of 1912 I visited a large
colony in Iceland on small islands in a river which must have been
at least ten or eleven kilometres from the sea. Probably in this case
the site was the attraction, for no doubt in past ages the Arctic foxes
played havoc with the nests of the birds which bred on the main-
land, and only those which bred on the islets in the lakes and rapid-
flowing rivers had much chance of bringing off their broods.
Except where the birds are well protected, little is seen or heard
of the courtship of the eider. The scattered pairs which may be
found breeding on the west coast of Scotland seem to wish to avoid
observation as much as possible. But in the neighbourhood of the big
colonies in Northern Europe, the peculiar love-song of the males is a
very striking feature. A chorus of moaning notes, "wow, wouw,wouw,"
rises from the fjord below us, where some thirty of the drakes are
floating, and dies away again only to be renewed time after time.
Dr. C. W. Towrisend, writing of the North American race, says that
where there were many eiders about the sound was almost constant.
It is something like the syllables " aah-ou " or " ah-ee-ou," frequently
repeated, and though low and pleading in tone, the volume of sound
from a large flock may be heard for a considerable distance over the
water. During courtship the drake frequently stands up in the water,
sometimes flapping his wings, and displaying his black frontal shield.
But the complete ritual of the courting attitudes is described by Dr.
Townsend as follows : " The head is drawn rigidly down, the bill resting
against the breast ; the head is then raised up until the beak points
vertically upwards, and at this time the bill may or may not be opened
to emit the love-notes. Directly after this the head is occasionally
jerked backwards a short distance still rigidly, and then returned
to its normal position."1 All this takes place as the drake swims
near the duck, often facing her while she floats about indifferently,
1 The Auk, 1910, p. 179.
THE EIDER-DUCK 281
and occasionally shows her appreciation by throwing up her head
slightly.
When paired the drakes accompany their mates while choice is
being made of the nesting-place, but after incubation has begun the
males are said to withdraw themselves altogether.1 This, however,
does not tally with my own experience, for in the case of isolated
nests in Scotland the male was generally to be seen on the water not
far away, and the duck when flushed from the nest joined him at once.
The same has been noted at the Fames.2 In the Iceland colonies it
was usual to see the drakes standing close to their sitting mates, and
in the course of a few hours one might see hundreds doing sentry
duty within a few feet of the nest. The duck is well known to be a
very close sitter, but Mr. W. H. St. Quintin, who has bred these birds
in confinement, records the astonishing fact that all his ducks have sat
steadily on their eggs throughout the whole of the incubation period,
which at the lowest computation lasts for twenty-seven or twenty-
eight days, without once coming off the nest to feed or wash. In the
case of his first duck, Mr. St. Quintin was much concerned when she
remained so long on the nest, and placed food and water within her
reach, but they were never touched, and before the young were
hatched she was quite grown over by a mass of chickweed.3 The
young remain in the nest for some hours after hatching till they are
thoroughly dry, and then follow the duck to the water. I have seen
an Icelandic girl pick up the youngsters as they tumbled among the
rocks and throw them far out into the river, where the old duck was
waiting for them. The river in question was partly glacier-fed, and
foamed and raged past at a pace which bid fair to sweep the entire
family away, but to my astonishment the ducklings seemed absolutely
at home in their new element, and managed somehow to hold their
1 G. Bolam, Birds of Northumberland and the Eastern Borders, p. 405.
2 P. B. Kirkman, in litt.
3 Hantzsch thinks that in Iceland the ducks leave the nest when undisturbed only for a
short time daily, swimming about but apparently taking very little food, and subsisting on
the accumulated fat on their bodies.
282 THE DIVING DUCKS
own in spite of the tremendous current. Presumably these families
drift down stream to the sea, or at any rate to brackish water. The
whole care of the young devolves on the duck, but it has often been
noticed that when two or more families come to close quarters the
young frequently get mixed up and attach themselves indifferently to
the nearest duck, so that a fleet of twenty or more young may be seen
in close attendance on a single duck. After a period of from six to
seven weeks the young are fully fledged, but before this time they may
often be seen packing together in flocks of as many as fifty or more,
sometimes accompanied by an old bird or two, but quite capable of
taking care of themselves, and paying little attention to her.
In the Fseroes Miiller states that he found eiders nesting on the
top of Hestoe, which is an island from 1000 to 1200 feet high. It is
difficult to understand how the young can manage such a formidable
descent, and probably a large proportion of them lose their lives on the
way, but there is no doubt that young ducks can fall from considerable
heights without suffering any apparent injury. Eiders are voracious
birds, and in addition to their natural diet will eagerly devour the
carcasses of other birds when thrown into the water. In captivity the
best food for newly hatched young has proved to be live earthworms.
Besides the " cooing " or " moaning " note of the drakes in the breeding
season, and occasionally also in autumn, one hears a low grunting
note, written by Hantzsch as "krrr" or "korrr" from the duck when
driven from the nest, while the drake occasionally utters a nasal " ha "
or a loud " hauwa, hahauwa" at the nest, and a long-drawn "gag"
while resting on the water. The breeding range of the eider, both in
the British Isles and on the Continent, has been considerably extended
of late, and is still increasing.
THE SCOTERS 283
THE SCOTERS
The last diving ducks here treated of are the two species of
scoter, readily distinguished in the field by the fact that the common-
scoter is entirely black, while the velvet-scoter shows, both on the
water and in flight, a conspicuous white wing-bar. The common-
scoter breeds in some numbers in the north of Scotland, especially on
the " flows " of Caithness and Sutherland, and has more recently been
recorded as nesting at one locality in Ireland. But in the autumn
and winter months enormous flocks may be seen at sea off* our
eastern coasts and in the English Channel. Sometimes for miles they
may be seen scattered over the surface, only approaching our shores
in order to feed on the mussel-beds, and just outside the breakers.
Much less appears to be known of the courtship of the Scoters
than of the other diving ducks, probably because much of it takes
place at sea before the birds return to their breeding-grounds on the
moors. E. T. Booth states that in early morning the drakes in a
sportive and amusing manner flap round and round the object of
their admiration, afterwards washing and splashing in the water,
sending the spray flying in all directions. Seebohm tell us that in
early spring the drake calls to the duck with a double note which is
not unmusical,1 but the usual note is a grating " kr, kr, kr," not unlike
that of the tufted-duck. Faber writes the drake's note as " tii-tu, til,
tit" and the harsh response of the duck as "re-re-re-re-re."
In Iceland they reach the coast in April and arrive at their breed-
ing-grounds about the beginning of May, but the breeding season is
decidedly late, and it is rarely that full clutches are met with in North
Scotland before the end of May or the beginning of June, while in
Iceland the best time is about mid-June. The duck alone incubates,
and the drake at the beginning of the period is generally to be seen
on the water not far away, but as the moult comes on he retires to the
1 Wolley goes further, and says that the notes of a number heard together have a wonder-
fully sweet effect.
284 THE DIVING DUCKS
open water. The duck is very wary and is not a close sitter, but takes
to the water when approached, uttering a warning "wak." For six or
seven weeks after hatching the young remain under the charge of
the mother, but when they are fledged the family parties unite into
larger flocks, and, according to Faber, the males rejoin their families
and make their way together towards the sea.
Mr. G. Bolam gives a vivid and life-like picture of Scoters feeding
just outside where the heaviest surf is breaking, probably in order that
they may capture the sandhoppers (Gammaridea) which swarm in such
places. " A flock of Scoters feeding just beyond the breakers has
often reminded me, by their actions, of the movement of starlings
across a field. As the ebb of the tide gradually carries them seaward,
those farthest out are continually rising on the wing and flying back
over the heads of their companions to the white line of waves, right
into which they boldly plunge. A sort of constant movement is thus
kept up amongst the flock, and a person lying concealed near water-
mark will have a number of the birds every now and again flying
straight towards him." l So confident are they in their powers, that
when the weather is not too rough they will frequently ride over the
curling crest of an approaching wave instead of diving through it as
other ducks do.
The velvet-scoter is not nearly so common a visitor to our coasts
as the preceding species, and has a more eastern breeding range; but
it is a bird of somewhat similar habits, except that it is generally found
on our shores in small parties of a pair or two, instead of large flocks.
It also remains rather farther out at sea, and apparently is even a
better diver than the common-scoter, remaining longer below the sur-
face.2 A few words as to its nesting-habits may not be out of place,
though it has not been known to breed in the British Isles. Messrs.
H. J. and C. E. Pearson found several nests in deep cracks of the peat
overgrown with Empetrum nigrum, so that the sitting bird was quite
1 Birds of Northumberland and the Eastern Borders, p. 410.
1 According to Howard Saunders, though, curiously enough, Lord Lilford expresses a
precisely opposite opinion 1
Plate 164
Common Scoters (right) and velvet-scoters (left)
By A. W. Seaby
THE SCOTERS 285
hidden, also between the high grass tussocks on Heno Islands in
Russian Lapland. One nest was found in the open, and this was
partly sheltered by a patch of dwarf sallow, some ten inches high, and
another, found by Mr. C. E. Pearson, was in a clump of marram grass
on sandhills. The nest hollow is lined with a few grasses, dead leaves,
etc., and most of the down is a dull brown, with small indistinct light
centres, intermixed with a small quantity of light-coloured down.
The feathers are figured by Mr. Noble in British Birds, ii., pi. 2, figs. 15,
16. The eggs are larger than those of the common-scoter, and have a
beautiful rosy or apricot coloured flush when fresh, fading to a warm
creamy white. Average size of 90 eggs, 2'78 x 1'88 in. [70*8 x 47 '9 mm.].
They are usually from 5 or 6 to 8 or 9 in number, but clutches
of 10 and 11 have been recorded. The breeding season is late, and
full clutches are rarely found before the end of May, generally not
till the latter half of June, and sometimes in July. As with the
other ducks, the whole duty of incubation falls to the female, the
drakes meantime assembling on the water in the neighbourhood.
But the domestic history of this species has yet to be written.
One habit which has been observed in the case of most of the
ducks, and which deserves a few words, is that of discharging evil-
smelling excrement over the eggs and nest when suddenly flushed.
In some species this is of a very offensive character, and it has been
surmised that it might possibly be of use in deterring predatory
animals from devouring the eggs. It is curious that while the
unprotected eiders both in Northern Europe and on our British
coasts usually do this, the semi-domesticated birds at the Iceland
colonies may be turned off the nest by scores without its taking place
once. Personally I am inclined to think that it is not an involuntary
action, for on one occasion when an eider-duck was flushed from an
isolated nest in Scotland without any discharge, the eggs proved on
examination to be all chipped by the young birds. In the case of the
protected colonies, the birds have found the precaution unnecessary,
and in consequence the habit is in abeyance.
VOL. iv. 2o
THE SAWBILLED-DUCKS
[ORDER: Anseriformes. SUBORDER: Ans&res. FAMILY: Anatidce.
SUBFAMILY: Mergince]
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES
[F. C. R. JOURDAIN. W. P. PYCRAFT. A. L. THOMSON]
GOOSANDER [Mergus merganser Linnaeus. Sawbill, sawneb (generic),
dun-diver, stock-annet, stock-gander. French, grand harle ; German,
grosser Sager ; Italian, smergo maggiore].
I. Description. — The goosander may at once be distinguished from the
merganser by its markedly superior size, the pronounced forward extension of the
feathers of the forehead on to the base of the culmen, and of the feathers of the
throat which extend forwards beyond the level of the nostril, while there is no
black bar across the wing. The sexes differ in coloration, and there is a marked
seasonal change of plumage. (PL 165.) Length 26 in. [660 mm.]. The male has
the head and upper part of the neck black glossed with green, and the feathers of
the nape slightly elongated. The interscapulars and inner scapulars are black, the
outer white, and the lower back is ash-grey. The wing-coverts are mostly white,
as are the secondaries, which are narrowly margined with black. The lower part
of the neck and the whole of the under parts are white, the latter with a delicate
tinge of salmon-pink, which disappears soon after death. The beak and iris are
red, the legs and toes orange-red. In his eclipse dress the male is to be distin-
guished from the female by his darker back, and a more or less distinct black
ring round the neck. The female has the head and neck of a bright chesnut-red,
contrasting with a white throat. The upper parts are of a light slate-grey, save the
outermost scapulars, which have the outermost web white. The major coverts
are broadly tipped with white, and have a subterminal dusky spot on the inner
web, and the inner secondaries are white. The under parts are white save the
flanks, which are more or less barred and vermiculated with grey. The young in
286
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 287
down is of a uniform dark brown above, showing a faint trace of the usual light
spot behind the wing. [w. P. P.]
2. Distribution. — It is only of late years that the goosander has established
itself as a breeding species in Scotland, but it is increasing its range and now breeds
in fair numbers in Sutherland, Ross, and Inverness, as well as in the other counties
which form part of the Moray area (Elgin, Banff, W. Aberdeen). Harvie-Brown
describes it as now common and increasing hi the Tay area, and in the Argyll area
it nests on the mainland as far south as Loch Awe. Hitherto it has not been found
breeding on any of the islands (except on the Summer Isles, near the coast of W.
Ross),1 but since the first brood was reported in Scotland in 1871 its spread has
been so rapid that it is probable that it will soon be recorded from other areas in
the south of the country. There are no records of breeding in Ireland. Outside
the British Isles it has rarely been found in the Faeroes, but breeds hi Iceland, and
on the Continent nests in Norway and also in Sweden from Skane and Blekinge to
Jemtland and Lapland, hi Finland south to Abo, and in Russia from the Murman
coast, Kolguev, Waigatz, and Novaya Zemlya southward to the northern part of the
Orenburg government, the middle and upper Volga valley, and the Baltic provinces.
It breeds sparingly in Jylland and Northern Germany (Schleswig-Holstein, Mark
Brandenburg, Pomerania, West and East Prussia, and Silesia), and has recently
been found nesting in Bavaria, on the Swiss Lakes, as well as hi Bosnia; and possibly
also breeds hi the Dobrogea. In Asia it ranges across the continent east to the Kuriles
and Commander Isles, but is apparently replaced by an allied race in the highlands
of Central Asia south to Tibet and the Himalaya range, and also in North America
north of Wisconsin and Pennsylvania. During the winter months its migrations
extend to the Spanish, Maroccan, and Algerian coasts (rare), while it has been once
observed in Egypt; the northern shores and some of the islands in the Mediterranean,
the Black and Caspian Seas, but it is not confined to the coasts, and works down
the rivers of Southern Europe; while in Asia specimens have been obtained in
Palestine, the Euphrates valley, the Persian Gulf, India south to Bombay, Burma,
China, Corea, and Japan ; and American birds range south to the Gulf of Mexico,
Lower California, and Northern Mexico. [F. c. n. J.]
3. Migration. — A common breeding species in the north of Scotland (see
preceding paragraph) ; otherwise a whiter visitor to the British Isles, arriving
exceptionally as early as 21st August, but usually between 25th September and
1 Macgillivray, however, believed that it bred in the Outer Hebrides, and a nest is said to
have been found there in 1858, but this requires confirmation, which up till now has been
lacking. Probably the records refer to the redbreasted-merganser.
288 THE SAWBILLED-DUCKS
31st October (cf. Clarke, Studies in Bird Migration, 1912, vol. i. p. 160). The
east of Great Britain is the most favoured region in winter, but in Yorkshire its
numbers are variable (adult males uncommon except in hard seasons), and in
the extreme south it is only seen at long intervals (cf. Nelson, B. of Yorks., 1907,
p. 482 ; and Ticehurst, B. of Kent, 1909, p. 373). In the northern and western
Scottish isles the goosander. is rare at any season, but in Dumfriesshire it is well
known in winter, and in North Wales it is then not uncommon (cf. Saunders,
III. Man. Brit. B., 2nd ed., 1899, p. 471 ; Gladstone, B. of Dumfries., 1910, p. 296 ;
and Forrest, Fauna of N. Wales, 1907, p. 296). It is a scarce winter visitor to most
parts of Ireland, but unknown in Western Connaught: it rarely appears before
December and is commonest in January: in hard winters it is commoner than in
others (cf. Ussher and Warren, B. of Ireland, 1900, p. 217). Occurs singly or in
pairs or small flocks : visits both estuaries and inland waters. [A. L. T.]
4. Nest and Eggs. — Nesting-sites of this species vary considerably: some
nests are placed in hollow trees, others in holes of the peaty banks or among boulders
by river-sides, occasionally in a natural hollow on a steep, wooded hillside, and
when other sites fail, in a hollow cavity on open ground, sometimes under shelter of
scrub. More exceptionally it has been recorded as nesting in a deserted peasant's
hut, in holes of buildings, nest-boxes, and, it is said, in the deserted nests of
raptorial birds. The female sometimes collects a little withered grass before
adding down, unless the nest is in a tree, when the eggs are laid on the chips of
rotten wood. (PI. LXIX.) The eggs are pale creamy or yellowish hi colour, and
are very close grained and smooth in texture, ranging as a rule from 7 to 12 in
number, occasionally 13 or 15, but if they are regularly removed as many as
25 or 30 may be laid.1 The down, as in the case of other hole-breeding ducks,
is very light hi colour, a light pearly grey, not unlike that of the shelduck,
but not quite so large. The feathers, however, are unmistakable, as they lack
the chesnut or black tip which is found hi those of the shelduck (PI. U. Cf.
Brit. Birds, ii., pi. 2, fig. 17), and have a creamy or yellowish tinge. Average size
of 100 eggs, 2-69 x 1-85 in. [68-4 x 47-1 mm.]. (PI. S.) Incubation is performed by
the duck alone, and is estimated at 28 days (Tiedemann, Hantzsch). The breeding
season hi Scotland falls early, and full clutches of fresh eggs may be obtained hi
the last two weeks of April. In Northern Europe the time is naturally later, and
in Iceland they are usually laid during the first half of June, and may be found
early in June in Lapland. Only one brood is reared in the season. [F. o. R. J.]
1 So-called clutches of from 19 to 36 eggs are probably produced by more than one duck.
PLATE LXIX
Photo by J. T. Prm.nl
Site of goosander's nest (marked black behind the Jutting rocks at the top)
Photo by J. C Crowley
Merganser on its nest in a deep hole in a peat bank
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 289
5. Food. — The goosander is mainly a fresh- water species, except occa-
sionally in hard weather, and feeds almost entirely on fish, like the other sawbills.
It feeds greedily, and will gorge itself when it gets the chance. The species of fish
captured depends on locality : trout are largely eaten in the north. Newstead found
three young salmon and remains of other small fish in one bird; in winter T. E. Gunn
found roach up to 8£ inches long ; and E. T. Booth records small rudd and roach.
Thompson took a young pike (Esox lucius) 8J in. long, and remains of two others,
from one bird; another contained an eel 11 \ in. long and remains of a second,
as well as a full-grown Trochus cinerarius and some small stones. G. Bolam has
taken an eel 18 inches long from the gullet of a female, but finds the usual food
to be samlets and young trout, which are easily swallowed up to 6 inches in length.
Macgillivray records taking sixteen trout from one bird, and Cordeaux took two
trout, 7 and 5 inches long, from another. During the breeding season the diet is,
however, slightly varied : Hantzsch frequently found remains of water-plants, and
Hartert states that cockchafers, dung-beetles, and caterpillars are eaten at this
season ; while Naumann found traces of vegetable matter (but always mixed with
animal food, such as the wings and legs of beetles), various insects (water-beetles
and larvae of aquatic insects), worms, and frogs. The young are tended by the
duck alone. [F. c. E. J.]
6. Song Period. — The soft, low croak which accompanies the courtship
display may be heard not only in the early spring (up to April), but also in late
autumn (S. E. Brock). [F. o. E. J.]
REDBREASTED - MERGANSER [Mergus serrdtor Linnaeus. Saw-
bill (generic) ; spikebilled-wigeon (Devon) ; yarrell (Northumberland) ;
harl (Orkneys) ; hareld-duck (Shetlands) ; scaleduck, sheldduck, spear-
wigeon (Ireland). French, harle huppe ; German, mittlerer Sdger ; Italian,
smergo minore].
I. Description. — The redbreasted-merganser is readily distinguished at
all seasons from the goosander by its smaller size, the slight extension of the
feathers of the forehead on to the base of the culmen, the slight forward extension
of the feathers of the throat, which do not extend beyond the hinder margin of
the nostril, the absence of white in the scapulars, and the single enlargement
down, the middle of the windpipe, which can be felt with thjsi jftttgevs : there are
two in the male goosander, one in the female, while the fettiale; :merganser has
none. The sexes differ conspicuously, and there is a marked seasonal change
290 THE SAWBILLED-DUCKS
of plumage. (PI. 165.) Length 24 in. [609 mm.]. The male in full dress has the
head and upper part of the neck black glossed with green, and a double median
crest. The middle of the neck is white, while the base of the fore-neck is buff
with heavy dusky striations, and the base of the hind-neck black, while a patch of
white feathers, margined with black, covers the wrist-joint in the closed wing ; the
back is black. The wing-coverts are white, relieved by two black bars. The flanks
are vermiculated with black and white, while the breast and abdomen are white
tinged with salmon-pink. Beak, iris, legs, and toes crimson. The eclipse dress
is like that of the male in first plumage. The female differs from the female
goosander in having the head and neck of a dull brownish red and the throat
rufous, hi the absence of white La the scapulars, and the uniform brownish grey
of the flanks. The male in immature dress differs from the adult female in having
a shorter crest, and the flanks slate-grey. The young hi down are of a dark
chocolate-brown above, with a chesnut tinge on the head and side of the neck,
a white ring round the eye, and a white spot before and behind the wing and on
each side of the base of the tail. [w. P. P.]
2. Distribution. — This duck is widely distributed hi the breeding season
along the coasts and rivers of Scotland, south to the Tay area on the east side, and
to Dumbarton, Bute, that part of Argyllshire which lies within the Clyde area, and
probably Ayrshire on the west. It is common on the Orkneys and also breeds in
the Shetlands, while on the west side it inhabits the Inner and Outer Hebrides.
It does not breed in England, but hi Ireland attains the southern limit of its
breeding range, nesting on the coasts and by the larger lochs, chiefly in Ulster,
Connaught, and Munster, from the coast of Co. Down on the east through Meath,
Westmeath, and N. Tipperary to Kerry on the west. Outside the British Isles it
nests sparingly on the Faeroes and commonly hi Iceland, while on the Continent it
is found in Southern Norway chiefly in the ulterior, and hi the north near the
coast; hi Sweden and Finland generally: hi Russia from Lapland south to the
Baltic provinces on the west and lat. 50° on the Volga, but not in the Moscow,
Tula, and Orenburg governments, though found in that of Ufa, and it is said also
in the Caucasus. In Germany it occurs in the northern provinces from Holstein
and Mecklenburg to East Prussia, and also in Denmark. In America its range
extends from Greenland, Davis Strait, and Labrador on the east to Alaska, the
Aleutian . Isles, oad. the Kuriles on the west, and south to about lat. 45°. Its
winter range. includes the coasts (and to some extent the rivers) of Europe to the
Mediterranean and its islands, as well as the North African coast, the Azores, and
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 291
Madeira; while in Asia it reaches Palestine, the Sinai Peninsula, the Persian Gulf,
Baluchistan, North India, China, Formosa, and Japan. In America it migrates
south to the Gulf coast, Lower California, Cuba, and the Bermudas. Casual on
Hawaii. [F. o. B. J.]
3. Migration. — A winter visitor and a bird of passage, but also a common
resident in many parts of Scotland and Ireland. As a winter visitor it usually
arrives between 15th September and 20th October, while the periods of passage
are from 3rd September to 31st October, but chiefly in September and early October,
and from 16th March to 14th May, but chiefly in early May (cf. Clarke, Studies in
Bird Migration, 1912, vol. i. pp. 136, 161). As a winter visitor it is not very common
in Yorkshire, but well known on the north of Kent and numerous in severe
weather, while North Wales is visited in small numbers (cf. Nelson, B. of Tories.,
1907, p. 484 ; Ticehurst, B. of Kent, 1909, p. 374 ; and Forrest, Fauna of N.
Wales, 1907, p. 297). A common whiter bird in the Irish estuaries, and sometimes
seen in hundreds in severe weather (cf. Ussher and Warren, B. of Ireland, 1900,
p. 218). As already implied, the merganser is gregarious in winter, and occurs
chiefly in river estuaries. [A. L. T.]
4. Nest and Eggs. — The nesting-sites vary considerably: as a rule the
nest is placed on the ground, sheltered by rank vegetation, heather, brushwood,
etc., sometimes in a thick bramble clump or cairn of loose stones, occasionally in a
rabbit-hole or a hollow in the face of a cliff or old wall, and generally well hidden
and sheltered to some extent from above. Exceptionally a nest is found quite
exposed, and in Iceland it breeds far in among loose rocks, while in Lapland the
deserted huts of the peasants are sometimes occupied. The duck makes a scanty
nest of bents or dead bracken and a few leaves or twigs, lining it as incubation
proceeds with grey or drab coloured down with light centres and tips. (PI. LXIX.)
For feathers see PI. U and H. Noble in Brit. Birds, ii., pi. 2, fig. 18. They are white,
and decidedly smaller than those of the goosander. The approach to the nest is
by a well-trodden pad where the grass looks dead and faded, and is often a clue
to the nesting-site. The eggs as a rule range from about 7 to 12 in number, but
14 to 16 have been found in one nest, and in some cases were almost certainly
laid by one female. In colour they differ widely from those of the goosander,
and are drab or olive-grey as a rule, but occasionally light greyish stone
colour, and average in size (109 eggs) 2-52 x 1-78 in. [64-2 x 45-4 mm.]. (PI. S.)
Incubation is performed by the duck alone, and Hantzsch estimates the period at
four weeks. Full clutches may be found in Scotland in the last week of May and
292 THE SAWBILLED-DUCKS
early in June, but usually in the latter month ; 'and Ussher states that in Ireland
it is quite the exception to find the nest in May. Latitude seems to make little
difference to this species, for in Germany the usual time is about the second
week of June, and clutches may be found in Iceland about the same date. In
Russian Lapland, however, eggs were taken by the Pearsons late in June and
early in July. Only one brood is reared during the season, though a second
clutch is laid if the first is taken. [F. c. R. j.]
5. Food. — Although in the main a fish-eater and very destructive to
trout and salmon fry, this species has rather a wider range of diet than the
goosander. It has, however, an insatiable appetite. Oswin Lee mentions having
taken eleven good-sized salmon parr from one bird in July. On migration it appears
to be especially fond of small eels : Selby found two gorged with a quantity of
them about 2 or 3 inches long, and Bolam also notes the same thing. Other
fish which have been recorded are small plaice (A. C. Chapman) ; roach (Leuciscus
rutilus) and gudgeon (Odbio fluviatilis) are noted by Newstead ; Thompson mentions
the three-spined stickleback (Qasterosteus brachycentrus) and otoliths of some
member of the cod family (Gadidce), twenty-four sand-eels (Ammodytes lancea)
were taken from one bird (R. Ball), and young hake and pipe-fish are recorded by
R. Warren, and sprats and whiting by T. E. Gunn. Besides fish it occasionally
feeds on shrimps (A. C. Chapman) and Crustacea (Poole) ; H. W. Robinson has
also found crabs about the size of a shilling in a drake killed in November ; while
in the breeding season it will devour, according to Naumann, water-beetles, larvae
of insects, worms, more rarely frogs and some vegetable matter ; and Hartert gives
its summer diet as including crabs, cockchafers, worms, caterpillars, larvae of
dragon-flies, but no vegetable matter. The young are carefully tended by the
duck, and at first pick up insects from the surface as well as the mixed diet given
above. [F. c. E. j.]
6. Song Period. — The rough, purring double note of courtship was noted by
Dr. Townsend in April. [F. c. E. j.]
SMEW [Mergus albellus Linnaeus. Nun, white-nun, smee ; redheaded-
smew (immature) ; white-wigeon, weasel-wigeon, magpie-diver (Ireland).
French, petit harle hupp6 ; German, kleiner Sdger ; Italian, pesciajola].
I. Description. —With a serrated beak like that of the goosander and
merganser, but so short as to be less in length than the tarsus, the smew is easily
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 293
recognised. The sexes differ in plumage ; there is a marked seasonal change of
coloration. (PI. 166.) Length 17£ in. [444 mm.]. The male may be described
as white, with large black patch in front of and embracing the eye, a patch of black
on the nape, two crescentic lines of black across the fore-back, and a black back.
The outermost scapulars are bordered with black ; the median wing-coverts and
the major coverts are black, the latter tipped with white ; the secondaries are also
black tipped with white : thus is formed a double white wing-bar. The rump and
tail-coverts are grey with hoary margins, and the tail quills are grey, and the flanks
have grey vermiculations. The " eclipse " dress is like that of the female, but
the dark bands on each side of the fore-breast are retained. The female has the
head and upper part of the neck chesnut, save for a black patch in front of the
eye, and a white throat. The upper parts are grey. The wings are coloured as
in the male, and the under parts are white. Young birds resemble the female,
but lack the black patch on the face, and have the white on the wings washed
with brown. The young in down are dark brown, with a white spot below the eye,
another on the posterior edge of the wing and on the hinder end of the body ; the
under parts are white, [w. p. p.]
2. Distribution. — The breeding range of this species, which is only a winter
visitor to the British Isles, extends from Sweden across North Russia and Siberia
to Kamtschatka. In Sweden it is found in wooded districts on the borders of
Swedish and Russian Lapland, but has also been recorded exceptionally from
Sandhamn, near Stockholm. In Lapland and Northern Finland it is not uncommon
up to the tree limit in the Kola Peninsula, on the Muonio river, in Enontekis, Enare,
etc. ; while in Russia it breeds on Lake Onega, the Dwina, rarely on the Oka, the
Petschora valley, and the Perm government. Buturlin also states that it breeds
in the Ufa government and on the Volga. Dombrowski has recorded nests from
the Dobrogea, but this requires confirmation. Its winter range extends to the
Swiss lakes, and in a south-westerly direction along the coast of West Europe to
the Western Mediterranean, and it has once been recorded from Egypt ; as well as
to the Caspian and Black Seas, and thence to the Eastern Mediterranean. In Asia
it has been recorded from Persia, Afghanistan, N. India, China, and Japan, but not
from Southern India or Burma. The only American record is probably erroneous.
[F. o. B. j.]
3. Migration. — Unlike its congeners, the smew is entirely a winter visitor
to our area, coming to us from that part of Northern Europe which lies east of
Finnish Lapland. Although the smew has been exceptionally recorded as early as
VOL. IV. 2 P
294 THE SAWBILLED-DUCKS
6th August, the usual period of its arrival is a very late one, lasting from 12th
October to January or February (cf. Clarke, Studies in Bird Migration, 1912, vol. i.
p. 161). It is " tolerably regular " in its visits to the south of England, and
commonest on the eastern seaboard of Great Britain, though rare in Shetland
(cf, Saunders, III. Man. Brit. B., 2nd ed., 1899, p. 473). But it does not visit us
in large numbers, for even in Yorkshire it is described as " uncommon," while
adults are very rare ; in Kent immature birds occur " almost annually," adults
more rarely (cf. Nelson, B. of Yorks., 1907, p. 485 ; and Ticehurst, B. of Kent, 1909,
p. 375). On the west the smew is rare except in the Inner Hebrides, and is de-
scribed as " rare " and " irregular " in Dumfriesshire and " uncommon " in North
Wales (cf. Saunders, loc. cit. ; Gladstone, B. of Dumfries., 1910, p. 301 ; and
Forrest, Fauna of N. Wales, 1907, p. 294). It is rare and irregular in Ireland, but is
probably a scarce annual visitor from December on (cf. Ussher and Warren, B. of
Ireland, 1900, p. 220). Visits both coastal and inland waters. [A. L. T.]
4. Nest and Eggs. — Does not breed in the British Isles. [F. c. B. J.]
5. Food. — Although to a great extent a fish-eater, this species consumes a
larger proportion of other kinds of food than the other sawbills. Naumann records
among other species eaten young trout, gudgeon, eels, lampreys, and at sea sand-
eels and Atherina hepsetus. H. A. Macpherson found eighteen minnows in the
gullet of one bird and a small eel in another, and Newstead records ten small flukes
(Platessa flesus) and a samlet in one bird, while another had five small flukes.
Boulton found roach 3 to 5 inches long. Other food eaten includes small
Crustacea, e.g. Crangon vulgaris, small frogs, and water-insects (Naumann) ;
aquatic insects and vegetable matter (Macpherson), sandhoppers (Newstead), and
molluscs (Stuart Baker). The young are tended by the duck alone. [F. c. E. J.]
The following species is described in the supplementary chapter on " Rare
Birds " ;—
Hooded merganser, Mergus cuculldtus (Linnaeus).
THE SAWBILLED-DUCKS 295
THE SAWBILLED-DUCKS
[F. C. R. JOURDAIN]
The sawbills form an easily recognisable group of diving ducks,
in which the edges of both upper and lower mandible are furnished
with rows of toothed lamellae, giving them the appearance of a saw
blade in which the points are directed backwards. The bills of all
the species of this genus (Mergus) taper rapidly from the base, and are
very slender by comparison with those of other ducks. In common
with the other diving ducks, they possess deeply lobed hind-toes, and
have the feet set far back, thus necessitating a very upright carriage
when walking. Three species are treated of in the present article—
the goosander, Mergus merganser L., the redbreasted-merganser,
Mergus sermtor L., and the smew, Mergus albellus L. All three species
haunt fresh-water streams and lakes in the breeding season, though
the redbreasted-merganser is also found nesting along the coast ; while
during the winter months the goosander and smew are chiefly to be
met with on fresh water, and the merganser haunts the coast, although
occasionally penetrating for some distance up the rivers. All the
sawbills are excellent swimmers and divers as well as strong on the
wing. They are, moreover, exceedingly wary birds, and feed by day ;
but owing to the destruction caused by them among the trout and
salmon fry are far from welcome visitors to our fishing streams. Their
flesh is practically useless as food, and in consequence they are but
little shot at except by fish-preservers ; but few birds have a better
idea of how to take care of themselves, and in the case of the
goosander, and to a smaller extent of the merganser, the increase in
breeding range of late years has been remarkable.
296 THE SAWBILLED-DUCKS
THE GOOSANDER
Although the goosander had been suspected of breeding in Scot-
land for some years (quite apart from the probably mistaken records
from the Outer Hebrides), the first definite proof was obtained in
1871. In that year a brood of young was observed on Loch Awe in
July, and a nest with eight eggs taken from a hollow tree by Loch
Ericht, Perthshire, in May, which was subsequently identified by
careful comparison of the eggs and down. Full particulars of
the discovery will be found in Mr. J. A. Harvie-Brown's Fauna of
the Tay Basin and Strathmore, pp. 251-254. At the present time the
goosander is by no means uncommon in some parts of Scotland as
a breeding species.
Till quite recently hardly anything had been recorded with
regard to the courtship of this species, but some very interesting
observations have been published by Mr. S. E. Brock in the Scottish
Naturalist for 1912, p. 116. The first indications are noticed in
November, soon after the birds have arrived at their winter quarters
on Linlithgow Loch. Later on the performance takes place more
frequently and is more fully developed. Mr. Brock divides the dis-
play into three heads. In the first "when swimming rapidly in
company with one or more females, the male with great suddenness
and rapidity stretches his head and neck perpendicularly upwards to
their fullest extent, the bill gaping " : and thence with equal abruptness
assumes his ordinary demeanour. The second performance bears
considerable resemblance to that of the mallard, the bird raising the
fore part of the body in the water, and simultaneously curving the
neck so that the bill is directed towards the breast. (See the figure
of the mallard in this position in British Birds, iv. p. 3.) The third
action consists of a spasmodic movement of the feet while swimming,
by which a jet of water is thrown upwards, and the bird is propelled
Plate 165
Upper: Goosanders
Lower : Mergansers
By A. W. Seaby
THE GOOSANDER 297
forward a foot or two with a sudden jerk. The three actions do not
take place in any fixed order, and are not always to be noted on any
one occasion. The feathers of the head are also somewhat elevated
so as to form a crest, and slight bowings and head tossings may also
be observed. A comparison with the records of the courtship-display
of other species of ducks shows that there is a very strong family
likeness between most of them in nearly every case where the obser-
vations are at all full, the only gaps in the series being in those
cases, such as that of the smew, where material is almost entirely
wanting.
Mr. Brock notes that while the display was going on, a soft, low,
croaking note was continuously uttered. Directly one drake began
to display, other drakes began to hurry to the spot, and those at some
distance would often rise on the wing in order to take part, till a little
band was collected together, the individuals swimming to and fro in
close company. The display was not altogether confined to the males,
for ducks were seen occasionally, but not often, to go through the
second and third movements, but not the first, which appears to be
peculiar to the male in this species. There was not much active
rivalry between the different males : now and then one would make a
lunge with his bill at a neighbour, and even pursue him for a short
distance over the water, and the females sometimes repelled the
advances of a male in the same way.1
By March and April these birds had all paired off and departed
for their breeding-grounds ; but E. T. Booth observed males and
females, adults and immatures, still in flocks at the end of April,
although by that time they had already paired. These flocks, how-
ever, broke up early in May.
The goosander is an excellent diver, disappearing beneath the
surface without apparent effort, and remaining under water for periods
of varying length. Mr. T. A. Coward states that the period of immer-
sion varies from ten seconds to a minute and a half, and that the
1 Scottish Naturalist, 1912, p. 116.
298 THE SAWBILLED-DUCKS
longest dive was timed at one hundred and ten seconds. Mr. G. H.
Caton Haig, who has watched these birds on the estuaries of the Welsh
coast, is of opinion that the wings are not used in diving either by
this species or the redbreasted-merganser, but that they dive with
closed wings, as the grebes and the cormorants do. Although this is
apparently the case, as a rule, it is quite probable that the wings are
occasionally used, for Macgillivray states that mergansers "shoot
along under the water with partially outspread wings," and Saxby
states that the same species " invariably uses its wings as well as its
feet" when diving. There is also good evidence that the cormorant
when hard pressed will use its wings, so that probably these birds
make use of the additional means of propulsion when necessary, but
not otherwise. When flushed from the water the goosander does not
rise at once, but patters along the surface for some way like the coot
and waterhen. When once on the wing, however, it moves at a good
pace. When fishing in a river it shows a tendency to keep in the
middle of the stream, as far from the bank as possible, and when no
open sheet of water is at hand, will fly a considerable distance to the
coast and ride out the night at sea, returning to its feeding-grounds
at the first streak of dawn and flying high in the air. When wounded
or alarmed it possesses the power of sinking its body in the water so
that nothing is visible but the dark snake-like head and neck, and in
broken water is by no means easy to distinguish. As a walker it is
not nearly so awkward and clumsy as the diving ducks, which can only
waddle with difficulty on land, but owing to the position of the feet
has to adopt a very upright carriage, and can scuttle along at a very
fair pace when necessary. When resting close to the water's edge
it will, however, shuffle along on its breast into the water without
adopting the upright position at all.
The nesting-sites of this species have been already described : in
some districts the hollows in the stumps of old and decayed trees,
especially alders, are generally used, but in other parts, where there
is not much old timber, holes and crevices in the ground of some kind
THE GOOSANDER 299
are frequently adopted.1 When the nest is at a considerable depth
in the hollow trunk of a tree, the removal of the newly hatched young
is attended with some difficulty. Mr. Oswin Lee states that after
watching one nest for two mornings, which was at the bottom of a
vertical hole, six feet deep, he saw the old bird appear at the opening
with the nine young in succession. Sometimes the young bird was
held in the bill, at other times it was held between the breast and
the bill, and once a young bird was allowed to fall from the mouth of
the hole to the heather beneath, but was apparently none the worse
for the fall. When the last of the young had been safely brought
down, the duck led them down the burn. The process of bringing
the young out in this case lasted considerably more than an hour.2
In the care of the young the drake appears to take no part : in fact
all the evidence tends to prove that as soon as the clutch is complete
and the duck has begun to sit, he deserts the locality altogether.
Mr. E. T. Booth, who watched the development of a brood of
young for some weeks before securing them for his museum, noticed
that the duck generally keeps her youngsters in shallow water till
they are about four or five weeks old, in order to avoid the attacks of
pike. He also observed that in fine, bright weather, the young would
turn over on their backs in the water in order to sun themselves, and
might be seen with one foot flapping in the air and slowly paddling
round with the other. This is the more remarkable, as the young of
the ordinary wild duck are almost invariably drowned if by any
accident they are upset and assume this position. On the other hand,
young mergansers seem to be able to withstand almost any amount of
buffeting in rough water.
The young gradually work their way down stream, and the brood
watched by Booth moved down the river for nearly ten miles during
the seven weeks that they were under observation. The appetite of
1 The article and illustrations of goosanders' nests in Mr. S. P. Gordon's Birds of the Loch
and Mountain obviously refer to those of the redbreasted-merganser.
2 Among British Birds in their Nesting Haunts, vol. iii. p. 43.
300 THE SAWBILLED-DUCKS
these birds is almost insatiable. Mr. F. Finn tested a captive bird
of the Central Asiatic race, and found that it actually devoured no
fewer than forty fish, about 2 inches long, at a meal ! In another
case fourteen fish were taken from the crop of one male, and Sir R.
Payne-Gallwey states that he took a trout of 7 inches in length,
and found the partially digested remains of two other fish of similar
size in the same bird. Needless to say, they are not welcomed on
salmon and trout streams in consequence. When wounded or
alarmed they will often throw up recently swallowed fish, and Booth
relates that after a shot at a number of these birds on Heigham
Sounds, scores of small rudd and roach were found on the surface
where the flock had been resting.1 After a fish has been captured it
is always brought to the surface to be swallowed ; then the bird usually
drinks and stretches its neck several times.
The ordinary note of this species is a harsh guttural quack, which
is generally written " karrr." Booth heard a low plaintive whistle from
a duck with young, but was unable to find out from which the sound
came. This is probably the " half-hiss, half- whistle " which Stuart Baker
heard from the female, who also makes a hissing noise when surprised
on the nest.
THE REDBREASTED-MERGANSER
The redbreasted-merganser is far more marine in its habits than
the goosander. Even in the breeding season many ducks may be
found nesting on islets in the sea-lochs and firths of Scotland, and
during the winter months it is generally to be met with round the
coast, and even when feeding in the estuaries, almost always returns
to the sea to spend the night. Like the goosander it feeds by day,
and even before dawn may be dimly discerned rapidly winging its way
up the course of the river to its feeding-grounds. Although at times
1 Rough Notes, vol. iii.
THE REDBREASTED-MERGANSER 301
it shows remarkable boldness, it is on the whole an extraordinarily
wary bird, which is the more surprising as it is little shot at, on account
of the unpalatable nature of its flesh. Except for a siesta in the middle
of the day, when small parties may be observed sunning themselves
not far from the water's edge, and during the incubation period, it
is rarely seen on land, and seems to spend almost its whole life on
the water. It can, however, progress on land with considerable speed,
but, like the goosander, raises its body to a half upright attitude owing
to the backward position of the feet.
Very little has been written with regard to the courtship of this
species in Europe, presumably because it is to a great extent carried
on at sea, beyond the breakers, and is in consequence difficult to
watch. Naumann, who derived his information from Faber, refers
briefly to the remarkable attitudes of the drake, who stretches his
long neck vertically upwards, and then lays it flat on the surface of
the water, uttering a hollow note. But it is to Dr. C. W. Townsend that
we are indebted for a really full and complete account of the courtship
of this species.1 From this we gather that the most complete display
takes place when several drakes are showing off before a single duck.
The drake begins by stretching up his long neck, thus causing the
white neck-ring to appear broader. The bill is then widely opened,
and the whole bird stiffly dips as though on a pivot, the breast and
lower neck being immersed and the tail and stern swinging upward,
while the neck and head pass from a vertical position to an angle of
forty-five degrees with the water. When this action is performed at
sea, the courting-note is inaudible on account of the surf, but in still
water a loud, rough, purring-note may be heard, which Dr. Townsend
writes as " da-ah" though he admits that it is probably not susceptible
of expression by syllables.
The love-note and bow may be given twice in rapid succession,
at times once only, or once definitely, preceded by a similar but
slighter one, and the frequency of its repetition after an interval is
1 " The Courtship and Migration of the Redbreasted-Merganser," The Auk, 1911, pp. 341-345.
VOL. IV. 2Q
302 THE SAWBILLED-DUCKS
no doubt dependent on the attitude of the duck and the ardour of
her suitors. She may remain altogether passive, or may respond by
similar but not so pronounced actions, emitting a single note, some-
what louder than that of the male, and of a different type, which
appears to be the same harsh, rasping croak which she utters at other
times. At such moments she seems to be much excited, and induces
a corresponding ardour among the surrounding drakes. Sometimes
she will dart out her neck and make a dash at the ring of male
birds.
When the drake " bobs," the wings are apparently arched slightly
upwards, so that the white secondaries are very prominent, and the
tail is elevated at an angle of forty-five degrees, and sometimes, but
not always, is widely spread. One drake kept his tail spread during
the intervals as well as while in action. Sometimes one male will
rush at another with powerful leg strokes, making the water foam
about his elevated breast. Occasionally the wings are slightly raised,
or both wings and feet are used for propulsion, accompanied by much
splashing. A female when pursued will sometimes dive, and is at
once followed by the male. No splashing backwards of water by
means of the feet as noted by Dr. Townsend in the case of the
goldeneye, and by Mr. Brock in that of the goosander, was observed.
Dr. Townsend is of opinion that the attitude in which the neck is
stretched flat on the surface of the water, with the bill partly immersed,
is not a courting action, but, like the search for food with all the head
immersed except the crest, is used at all seasons. The momentarily
erect position in the water with flapping wings is also common to all
seasons, but probably also forms a part of the display, especially when
the drake rises with wings closed, as he does at times.
On the whole the merganser is a very silent bird : the croaking
or quacking note of the duck when disturbed is generally uttered in
flight, and is described by Macpherson as a sharp " quark," while
Naumann writes it as "korrrr," or " gerrr" Besides the breeding-note
referred to above, the male hardly ever utters a note.
THE REDBREASTED-MERGANSER 303
The breeding habits of this species have already been treated of
in the " Classified Notes," but it should be observed that it is much
later in its breeding season than the goosander, and there seems to
be no really satisfactory evidence that it ever builds in hollow trees,
though it has been stated to breed in old crows' nests in Holstein.
Probably the supposed instances of breeding in trees are due to
confusion with the goosander, for the females of the two species are
by no means easy to distinguish unless the distinguishing marks are
looked for.1 Another curious point is the great dissimilarity between
the downs of two such closely allied species, while the eggs also differ
widely in appearance. Both birds will often return to the same spot
year after year for breeding purposes when undisturbed. The late
H. A. Macpherson refers to a cairn which was reported to have been
occupied for fifty years. When incubation has been in progress for
some time, the duck sits very closely, and can often be captured by
hand on the nest.
The drake does not appear to desert his mate so completely as
the goosander after incubation has begun, but may frequently be
observed not far from the nest. He does not appear to take any part
in the care of the young, which are exceedingly hardy. Sir R. Payne-
Gallwey says that when the young are about ten days old, the duck
pilots them down stream to salt water. On reaching broken water,
if all is quiet, she will land and walk with her ducklings past the
waves, taking to the water again below the rapids, but if alarmed old
and young will come headlong down, the young often turning head-
over-heels on the way.2 On one occasion he saw a whole brood come
tumbling over a perpendicular fall, at least twelve feet high. One of
the young was caught in an eddy and unable to escape, but when
released nearly an hour afterwards, the old merganser was discovered
sitting on a stone not a dozen yards away. It was evident that she
1 The chin and throat of the female goosander is white, while the corresponding parts of
the duck merganser are reddish. The head of the duck goosander is also lighter and the back
ashy grey. The merganser is also a decidedly smaller bird.
2 Letters to Young Shooters, Third Series, p. 186.
304 THE SAWBILLED-DUCKS
had missed the errant youngster and had been an interested spectator
of its rescue. When once on open water the young broods tend to
get mixed together, so that it is not uncommon to see one duck in
charge of a small fleet of youngsters some thirty or forty in number.
In August and September, on Lough Erne, the late Major Trevelyan
found that packs of from fifty to three hundred young birds might be
met with, generally accompanied by a single adult bird, and in October
a pack estimated at over five hundred strong was seen, but by Novem-
ber they had all left the lake and taken to the sea. During the winter
the old males keep apart from the females and immature birds. In
conclusion, it maybe said that it is as expert a diver as the goosander,
raising its body and plunging gracefully in head first. It may be seen
at times in shallow water feeding with stern uppermost, like the
surface-feeders,1 but more usually swims with head submerged till its
prey is sighted, when it dives without taking breath. The habit of
bringing all food to the surface to be swallowed leads occasionally to
piracy on the part of the greatbacked-gull.2
THE SMEW
The smew is comparatively a rare winter visitor to our country,
and our information as to its breeding-habits is exceedingly scanty.
The story of how John Wolley gradually ascertained the main facts
of its nesting habits has been so frequently repeated that it need only
be referred to here. Full particulars of the discovery are to be found
in the Ootheca Wolleyana and the fourth edition of Yarrell. The natural
breeding-site of this species is like that of the goldeneye, in a hollow
of some tree near the water's edge, but it is often tempted to nest in
the boxes put up by the Finns for this purpose. Here the eggs,
usually from 5 or 6 to 9 in number, exceptionally even 10, are laid
1 See H. A. Macpherson in A Fauna of the N.- W. Highlands and Skye, p. 253.
J Cf. G. Bolam, Birds of Northumberland and the Eastern Borders, p. 416.
Plate 166
Smews, the drake being the nearer
By A. W. Seaby
THE SMEW 305
about the end of May or early in June in Finland. They closely
resemble those of the wigeon in appearance, being similar in colour
and size, but the surface of the egg is smoother and more glossy, and
the shell stouter and heavier. Average size 107 eggs, 2'06 x 1'47 in.
[52 '4 x 37 '4 mm.]. The down used in the nest is a light grey, some-
what dingy looking, and the small feathers are white. Moss and
wood chips may be found also in the nesting-hole. The smew is one
of the shyest and wariest of ducks, keeping generally to the middle
of the lake or river on which it is seen. As a diver it is said by
Hume to excel even the grebes and cormorants, and Stuart Baker
states that it makes use of its wings when diving. It swims with
great rapidity and can outpace an ordinary boat. When alarmed
it has the power of sinking its body in the water till only the head
and neck are visible. The only note which has been recorded is
described by Naumann as a guttural note, not unlike those of the
other sawbills, and Bonhote heard " a kind of guttural squeak " from
a male bird in confinement. Nothing appears to have been noted
as to its courting display. I have seen small parties on the lagoons
of the lower Danube as late as the beginning of May, and it has been
stated that a few pairs breed there every year. The drakes in full
plumage are very conspicuous, but will not allow a close approach,
and readily take to flight.
THE SPOONBILL
[ORDER: Ciconiiformes. SUBORDER: Ciconice. FAMILY: Ibididce.
SUBFAMILY: Plataleince]
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES
[F. C. R. JOURDAIN. W. P. PYCRAFT. A. L. THOMSON]
SPOONBILL [Platalea leucorodia Linnaeus. Shoveler or shovelard, popeler
(obsolete) ; banjo-bill (Norfolk). French, spatule blanche ; German, weisser
Loffler, Lqffelreiher ; Italian, spatola].
I. Description. — The spoonbill may at all times be distinguished by its
white plumage and the broad spoon-shaped beak. The sexes are alike, and there is
no marked seasonal change of plumage. [Nest Plate LXX.] Length 36 in. [194 mm.].
The male during the breeding season has a conspicuous, pendant, occipital crest,
tinged with buff, the fore-neck is similarly tinged. In the female the crest is much
smaller, and it is absent in both in winter. The beak is black, barred with yellow,
the region of the throat is bare and of an orange colour, the iris is red, and the feet
and toes are black. The juvenile dress is white like that of the parents, but the crest
is absent and the beak much narrower. The downy young are white, [w. P. P.]
a. Distribution. — As a breeding species the spoonbill has long been extinct
in Great Britain, though it still visits our east coasts regularly at the periods of
passage, but is known to have nested formerly in East Anglia, Sussex, Middlesex,
and Pembrokeshire. On the Continent two colonies exist in Holland, and some
also nest in Andalucia, while it also breeds in Hungary, Slavonia (in enormous
numbers), Dalmatia, Roumania, and South Russia to the Southern Urals and
Transcaucasia. In Africa it may possibly breed locally in Marocco and Algeria,
and in Asia is found from Northern Syria and Asia Minor eastward through Central
Asia to India. In Eastern Asia as well as in Tropical Africa and Australia it is
replaced by allied races. To its European breeding-places it is a summer migrant,
306
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 307
wintering in Africa and occurring casually on the Atlantic Islands and north to
Scandinavia and North Russia. [F. c. R. jr.]
3. Migration. — Formerly breeding in parts of the British Isles, the spoonbill
is now only a " passage-migrant in Norfolk and Kent, vagrant elsewhere " : a few
annually visit the former of these two favoured counties between April and June,
and between August and October, and occasionally in July, while in 1908 it was
recorded as early as 31st March and as late as 21st November : in Kent it may
also be of annual occurrence, and is observed mainly in spring and near the coast
(cf. Hartert, Jourdain, Ticehurst, and Witherby, Hand-List of British Birds, 1912,
p. 121 ; Witherby and Ticehurst, British Birds, vol. i. p. 450 ; Gurney, Zoologist, 1909 ;
and Ticehurst, B. of Kent, 1909, p. 326). Apart from Norfolk, Kent, and the
immediately adjacent districts, the spoonbill is most frequently met with along the
south coast of England, and especially in Cornwall ; it is of not infrequent occurrence
as a vagrant in Pembroke and Cardigan, but otherwise rare on the west of England
and Wales (cf. Saunders, III Man. Brit. B., 2nd ed., 1899, p. 393). In Yorkshire it
is only a rare casual (cf. Nelson, B. of Yorks., 1907, p. 406). In Scotland it is of very
rare occurrence, but it has been recorded even from the Shetland Islands and the
Inner Hebrides, and more recently from the Outer Hebrides (cf. Saunders, loc. cit. ;
and Harvie-Brown, Annals Scot. Nat. Hist., 1902, p. 204). In Ireland it is
also very rare, and most of the records come from the southern maritime counties,
especially from Co. Cork ; autumn and whiter is the usual season, and the maximum
number of records is for November (cf. Ussher and Warren, B. of Ireland, 1900, p.
172). British records usually refer to solitary individuals or to very small parties ;
companies of up to six in number have been observed in Kent (cf. Ticehurst, loc. cit.).
For comparison of dates we may mention that in Holland the spoonbill is still a
breeding summer visitor, arriving in April and leaving in September or early October
(cf. Saunders, loc. cit.). [A. L. T.]
4. Nest and Eggs. — From what has been recorded of the extinct British
race, the usual breeding-place was in lofty trees, and generally together with herons.
At the present time almost all European spoonbills nest among reeds growing in
water, or low bushes, but in India trees are still resorted to at times for breeding
purposes. Possibly it was the protection afforded to the heronries which enabled
the spoonbills to survive for a time. When placed in a tree the nest is carelessly
built of sticks and twigs, but in marshes it is almost entirely composed of dead
reeds, which are piled up till they reach a foot or two above the surface of the
water. (PI. LXX.) Probably both sexes share in the construction of the nest. The
308 THE SPOONBILL
eggs are usually 4 in number, sometimes only 3, and occasionally 5. Instances in
which 6 eggs have been found in a nest may be due to two birds laying together.
They are white when fresh, rather variable in shape, but frequently a pointed oval,
and show hardly any gloss. Generally they are sparingly spotted and blotched with
red-brown, and in some cases bold blotches of dark brown may be found, but as a
rule they are poorly marked, and the spots show a tendency to form a cap or zone
at the big end. Incubation lasts for about three weeks, but the share of the sexes
is not known, though both birds are frequently together on the nest, one sitting
and the other standing close by. The breeding season in Southern Spain begins
towards the latter part of April, and full clutches may be obtained by the end of
April or the first week in May. In Holland eggs are to be found early in May.
Only one brood is reared during the season. [F. c. B. jr.]
5. Food. — Naumann states that the principal food of this species consists of
small fish, spawn, larvae of aquatic insects, worms, molluscs, and it is said snakes
and frogs. Vegetable matter is also undoubtedly eaten. In the stomachs of speci-
mens obtained on the English coasts have been found specimens of the three-spined
stickleback, Gasterosteus leiurus (Zoologist, 1866, p. 348), shrimps (Sheppard and
Whitear) mixed with sand and silt, and sandhoppers. Of vegetable products the
fruit of a Sparganium and a single carpel of a Potamogeton (probably P, pectinatus)
have been recognised (Harting). [F. c. B. J.]
PLATE LXX
Acquit spoonbill on nest
Photo by Riley Fortui:
Young spoonbills on nest
THE SPOONBILL 309
THE SPOONBILL
[F. C. R. JOURDAIN]
Two centuries and a half ago the spoonbill still lingered in one
or two places as a breeding species in Great Britain, but its con-
spicuous plumage, and the ease with which it could be shot at the
nest, caused its extermination not long afterwards. It is a curious
fact that, as far as we know, all the old British colonies consisted of
tree-nesting birds, but at the present time all the European breeding
birds nest in marshes, on the ground or in low bushes, and the only
colonies of tree-nesting birds are to be found in the Indian Peninsula
and Ceylon. The former headquarters of this species in our islands
seem to have been in East Anglia. Professor Newton has shown, by
reference to the Calendar of Patent Rolls of Edward i., that in 1300
colonies existed in the woods of Whinburgh, Cantley, and Wormgay
in Norfolk.1 Merrett also speaks of it as a British bird on Turner's
authority, and Sir Thomas Browne, who died in 1682, mentions " the
Platea or Shovelard " as having formerly built " in the Hernery at
Claxton and Rudham [Reedham] ; now at Trimley in Suffolk." Pos-
sibly the young bird taken from the nest which Willughby describes
came from this very colony.2 Other records of former nesting have
been brought to light by Mr. J. E. Harting from Sussex : a MS. survey
of some manors belonging to the Duke of Norfolk in that county, at
East Dene, near Goodwood, made in 1570, containing the statement
that " in the woods called the Weestwood and the Haselette, Shovelers
and Herons have lately breed [sic], and some JShovelers breed there this
yeere." 3 The same writer has also adduced evidence that, in the time
of Henry vni., they built in the heronry which then existed in the
1 See Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Nat. Soc., vi., 1896, p. 158.
4 Willughby also visited one of the Dutch breeding-places in company with John Ray.
3 Zoologist, 1877, p. 425.
VOL,. IV. 2 R
310 THE SPOONBILL
Bishop of London's park at Fulham.1 Lastly, George Owen, in his
Description of Pembrokeshire, states that in his time (1603), " Heron-
shewes, Shovelers, and Woodquestes"2 bred on high trees in the county.
It is a curious fact that the spoonbills which visit us from the
still flourishing colonies in Holland show a distinct tendency to
return to the neighbourhood of their old breeding-places. The
Norfolk broads, especially in the vicinity of Yarmouth, are annually
resorted to, and there seems a possibility that, with due protection,
this species might even re-establish itself with us, as the bittern is
attempting to do. Fortunately, however, it is possible for us to make
the acquaintance of these beautiful birds without the necessity of
making an extended journey. Holland must have been a great
stronghold of this species in former days. Many of these ancient
haunts are now reclaimed and deserted by their bird inhabitants;
even the Horster Meer, which was visited by Sclater and Forbes in
1877, and by Seebohm and Elwes in 1880, is now unoccupied, but two
flourishing colonies still survive, and there seems no reason why they
should not long continue to do so. It is interesting to note that one of
the earliest descriptions of one of these Dutch colonies comes from the
pen of one of our own countrymen, John Ray, who visited the Nether-
lands in company with Willughby and two other friends, and pub-
lished a description of his visit in 1673. He tells us that in a grove at
Sevenhuys, about four leagues from Leyden, great numbers of shags
(? cormorants), spoonbills, night herons, and common herons nested in
the trees, each species having its own quarter, and that the young
were shaken out of the nest by means of a hook fastened to a long
pole, and taken for food. A hundred years later, the Dutch naturalist
Cornelius Nozeman found another breeding-place in the recesses of
the treacherous morass of Isselmeyr, in the Wolle-voppen polder.
These birds were breeding on the lower branches of wide-topped,
pollarded alders, while a few nested on the bare ground on the
accumulations of nests of previous years. Other colonies also existed
1 Zoologist, 1886, p. 81. * I.e. Herons, spoonbills, and woodpigeons.
THE SPOONBILL 311
at this period on the Maas, and here and there in the reclaimed
Haarlem Meer. In 1867 Sclater found spoonbills still haunting
Nieuerkerk, and about the same time we hear of a colony on
Texel ; but in 1877 the Haarlem birds had settled down at Horster
Meer, and the breeding-places near the Maas were quite aban-
doned. Here they remained till some time between 1881 and 1883,
when they migrated to the Naarder Meer, a few miles distant.
Attempts to drain this Meer between the years 1883 and 1886 fortu-
nately proved unsuccessful, owing to the porosity of the soil, and
though for a time the meer was entirely deserted by the spoonbills,
they began to return in 1887, and have never been absent in the
breeding season since that date. The second colony, which is not
nearly so well known, lies in a secluded spot among the dunes of
Noord-Holland, not far from the Helder, and probably contains the
descendants of the deserted Texel colony. This lagoon is strictly
preserved, and probably most of the English occurrences are due to
wanderers from this site. It is difficult to form any reliable estimate
of the numbers of breeding birds. In 1898 Dr. Sclater estimated the
number of breeding pairs at the colony near the Helder at three
hundred pairs, while that on the Naarder Meer is much smaller, and
probably does not much exceed thirty pairs in number.
Favier says that they occur at Tangier on migration in March,
April, and May, but the first bird observed by Irby near Gibraltar
was noted on 9th April, and they reach their breeding quarters in
Holland during the same month. In all probability spoonbills pair
for life, but of their courtship nothing seems to be recorded. Year
after year they return to the same spots to breed, making use of the
remains of the old nests of the previous year as a foundation for the
new ones. At this time the Naarder Meer is covered with dense beds
of dead reeds, 5 or 6 feet high, standing in water varying from 2 or 3 to
5 or 6 feet deep, while the green spikes of the fresh growth of reeds pro-
ject a foot or so above the water-level. No material is used except
the dead reed stems with a few leaves attached, which are brittle
312 THE SPOONBILL
and can be broken off' without difficulty, and are generally brought
from some distance. By preference the spoonbill always nests in
the thickest part of one of these reed-beds and not on the outskirts,
so that it is necessary to push the punt for some distance through a
forest of dead stems, amidst the croaking of innumerable great reed-
warblers, before there is a sudden rush and rattle of many wings, and
immediately the snowy forms of fifteen or twenty birds appear on the
wing above the reed tops, while glimpses of white through the reed
stems show that one or two anxious parents are still on their nests.
When fairly on the wing, the spoonbill carries its long neck out-
stretched, and not retracted like the herons. The black legs also
are extended behind the tail in almost a straight line, or gently
deflected. But when about to alight the bird looks anxiously down-
wards, the legs are dropped, and as it reaches the ground are
extended in a most awkward-looking " straddling " attitude with out-
stretched toes, which is anything but graceful. Not a sound is heard
as the flock uneasily hovers about, and after a time is lost to view.
Indeed there are few more silent birds than the spoonbill. Like the
stork it makes a "clappering" noise with its mandibles, and Mr.
Beetham thinks that this is used to express endearment, and noticed
that it was responded to by the erection of the crest feathers of the
companion bird. The young may be heard to utter a weak " cheep "
in the nest,1 but many writers assert that the adult has no true note.
This is, however, not the case. Mr. R. B. Lodge states that on one
occasion only he heard a low sort of croaking noise uttered in flight.2
Herr Szikla also describes a sound uttered during the breeding season
as " huh, huh, huh, hurum huk huk huk huk hur hw hum hum" Whether
this represents a song or not is uncertain, but while visiting the
Naarder Meer colony some ten years ago I noticed that an occasional
low grunting note, which might be written " ur " or " urd" was uttered
by one or two of the birds which were flying about, and seemed to
1 Expressed by von Homeyer as "pierrr, fnerrr."
1 R. B. Lodge, Pictures of Bird Life, p. 238.
THE SPOONBILL 313
denote anxiety on their part. The spoonbill is generally described as
a particularly wary and shy bird, but this is merely due to the fact
that they are so persistently shot at, like the great white-heron. Where
protected they are not especially shy, though always rather nervous
and easily alarmed. In this respect Mr. B. Beetham found that
individuals differed widely, some being far more timid and suspicious
than others. The general characteristics of the spoonbill form a great
contrast to those of the herons, and impress one very favourably. It
is true that Mr. Beetham once witnessed a furious contest between
one bird which had settled by accident on another's nest and the two
rightful owners. In a moment all three were flapping about wildly
in the confined space, one bent on escape and the other two on
punishment. The struggle lasted till all were so draggled and
exhausted that they lay half in and half out of the water, incapable
for the time of flight. This was, however, the only quarrel which
he witnessed, and he describes the spoonbill as the most gentle
and docile of birds. There is none of the wild clamour, the weird
squawks and groans that one hears in every heron colony ; none of
the vicious attacks and cold-blooded murders that are so often
witnessed there ; instead all is quiet and peaceful, and the only
excitement is the arrival of a parent laden with food.
Owing to the difficulty of making continuous observations in the
localities where they live, much of the life-history of this species is still
imperfectly known. The first broods of young which I saw showed great
discrepancies in size and development, and led to the inference that
the eggs were laid at intervals and incubated as soon as laid. Since
then, however, I have seen other nests in which development was
much more uniform, and feel less confident on the point. Mr.
Farren also notes that recently hatched young seen by him in Spain
were all about the same size. The usual number of eggs is from
3 to 4, but out of thirteen nests examined in one colony in Spain,
one contained 5 eggs, six held 4, and the rest 2 or 3 apiece.1
1 Mr. Farren also observed three clutches of 5 eggs at the same colony in 1911.
314 THE SPOONBILL
Mr. R. B. Lodge also notes that on the Naarder Meer, when several
nests had been robbed early in the season, the second layings were
unusually large, one such nest containing 6 and another 7 eggs ! The
young are hatched about the third week of May in Holland, and differ
widely in appearance from their parents, the bill being smaller, thicker,
and only slightly spatulate. In those I have seen the bill was a
yellowish flesh colour,1 and the unwieldy, swollen-looking legs were a
bluish tint. The wings, which showed the black primaries in the quill,
were generally held drooping, and the bird often rested, like a young
stork, on the heel (tibio-tarsal) joint, the tarsus projecting upward and
the feet drooping. When first hatched they are quite incapable of
standing, and can only progress by crawling, not attempting to walk
till they have been hatched for ten days or so. During incubation,
and also after the young are hatched, both parents may frequently be
seen together at the nest. Owing to the difficulty of distinguishing
the sexes, it is impossible at present to be certain as to how the duties
of incubation and providing for the young are divided, but during the
day small parties of five or six birds leave the colony from time to time
and resort to the mud-flats and seashore to obtain food. The actions
when feeding will be described later, but on returning to the nest with
full crop the new arrival at first seems indifferent to the solicitations
of its mate, who paddles in front of him, first on one foot and then on
the other, moving her bill, up and down, occasionally prodding him in
the throat with her bill, and even flapping her wings with widely gaping
bill and uplifted crest.2 At last, with a flapping and gaping like that
of his mate, he prepares to deliver what he has brought. " After one
or two sideway shakes of the head, he stooped down and with a few
vigorous gulps opened his bill." Meantime the food had been regurgi-
tated into the upper part of the throat and the trough at the base of
the lower mandible, so that the young could pick it out without thrust-
ing their heads into their parent's distended gullet, as in the case of
1 See, however, the widely differing accounts of the colours of the soft parts in the young
bird quoted in the Neuer Naumann, vol. vii. p. 6.
2 B. Beetham, The Home Life of the Spoonbill, etc., p. 12.
THE SPOONBILL 315
the cormorants. When nearly full grown, young spoonbills, on being
approached, will scramble out of the nest, plunge into the water, and
disappear among the reeds.1
In Roumania a breeding-place some miles from the main stream
of the Danube, visited by Messrs. E. Mackenzie Murray and F. R.
Ratcliff in 1911, was also placed in thick reed-beds growing in deep
water, and contained perhaps about a hundred nests. In South Spain
one meets with isolated nests on the tamarisk bushes, which in normal
seasons are surrounded by water, and are covered with thousands of
nests of little egret and buffbacked-heron. These nests are built of
twigs and branches of tamarisk, and look bulky by comparison with
those of the smaller herons, but are in reality as a rule very flimsy
structures. Most of the nests here are built among the reed-beds, but
in 1906, an exceptionally dry year, we met with about eighteen pairs on
a barren flat island, which only rose a few inches above the surface
of the laguna. Here were packed closely together thirteen nests, all
touching or almost touching one another, and forming practically one
continuous row of nests on a common foundation of dead reeds and
mud. In striking contrast to other colonies, these nests were quite
exposed and had not the slightest cover near them, and the white
plumage of the incubating birds was visible a mile away.2 Evidently
the nesting-site of this colony varies from year to year, for in 1911
Mr. W. Farren found most of the spoonbills nesting on partly sub-
merged tamarisks in company with various species of herons. The
nests were built of sticks with some aquatic vegetation for lining, and
in some cases rested almost on the water, and at other times were
3 feet or more above it. Some of the egrets' nests were so close to
those of the spoonbills that they almost touched, and one spoonbill
was unmercifully bullied by an egret when returning to its nest,
but made no attempt to retaliate. Probably the largest European
colony is that in the great morass of the Obedska Bara, where Herr
1 R. B. Lodge, Pictures of Bird Life, p. 234.
2 Chapman also states that in 1909 they nested on or among the low samphire scrub at the
Caflo de la Junqueria, and in 1910 none bred.
316 THE SPOONBILL
Schenk estimates the breeding stock at about one thousand pairs.1
Here many of the nests are built on the submerged branches of
willows, and vary much in appearance, some being huge structures
four feet above the water-level, while others are only just clear of
it. Hume describes some of the Indian colonies as varying in
size, some being quite small and others enormous, but almost always
close to where some allied species, notably the shell-ibis, was breed-
ing. At most of these Indian stations the nests are built in big trees,
and are substantial platforms of sticks, two or three feet in diameter,
and from three inches to nearly a foot in depth.
The young are said to leave the nest after a stay of about three
weeks, which seems rather a low estimate ; and when they are fledged,
both old and young are apt to wander far afield. At such times they
are to be met with on estuaries and mud-flats, usually in small parties,
for they are pre-eminently sociable birds, and always prefer to travel
and feed in company. When feeding they generally advance in a line,
with the bill immersed, working from side to side with their bills and
swinging their bodies with a corresponding motion which Lord Lilford
compares to the rhythmic swing of mowers in a hayfield. Meantime
the broad spoon-shaped mandibles sift the soft mud as a duck does.
The Dutch birds leave for the south during September, and recross
the Straits of Gibraltar in October, only an occasional straggler remain-
ing till November, and winter in Tropical Africa.
1 Cf. Aquila, 1908, vol. xv. pp. 245-258.
THE GLOSSY-IBIS
[ORDER: Ciconiiformes. SUBORDER: Ciconice. FAMILY: Ibididce.
SUBFAMILY: Ibidince]
PRELIMINAKY CLASSIFIED NOTES
[F. 0. R. JOURDAIN. W. P. PYCRAFT. A. L. THOMSON]
GLOSSY-IBIS [Egdtheits falcinellus (Linnaeus); Plegadis falcinellus
(Linnaeus). Black curlew (Norfolk). French, ibis falcinelle ; German,
brauner Sichler ; Italian, mignattaio].
1. Description. — The glossy-ibis may at all times be distinguished by the
long decurved beak, long hind-toe, and more or less extensive metallic gloss of
the plumage. There is a seasonal change of coloration. (PL 167.) Length 22 in.
[558 mm.]. The male in his breeding dress is of a dark reddish chesnut,
burnished on the crown with dark metallic green, on the scapulars and inter-
scapulars and wing-coverts with green and purple. The beak is of dark brownish
olive, and the iris is brown. The legs and feet are greenish grey. The female
is slightly smaller, duller, and has a shorter beak. In the winter dress the
reddish brown is more or less completely replaced by earthy brown, but the metallic
areas remain unchanged. The juvenile dress resembles that of the adult winter
dress, but the metallic areas are of an oil-green colour, and the head and throat
are more or less striated with white. The downy nestling is blackish grey, with a
white band on the crown, [w. P. P.]
2. Distribution. — The breeding range of this species in Europe is chiefly
confined to the basins of the Mediterranean and Black Seas, where it is very local.1
It breeds in the marismas of the Guadalquivir in S. Spain, but not in large numbers,
and formerly nested in the Camargue, though there seems to be no recent record of
its breeding there. It has not been proved to breed in Italy, though probably a
1 None were noted there in 1911 by Mr. W. Farren.
VOL. IV. 2 S
318 THE GLOSSY-IBIS
few nest in Sicily and the Balearic Isles. In the swamps of the lower Danube,
however, it becomes more numerous, and there are very large colonies in Slavonia,
a few in Hungary, and breeding-places exist in Servia, Bosnia, Bulgaria, and the
Dobrogea in Roumania, as well as in South Russia east to the Caucasus. In North
Africa it is not common, but has been recorded as nesting in Marocco and Algeria.
In Asia it is found in the marshes of Asia Minor and N. Syria, N. Persia, Turkestan,
India, and Ceylon. It occurs in many parts of the Malay Archipelago, and has
been found breeding once at least in Australia, and is also found in the south-
eastern part of the United States. In America its southward limit of migration
is not yet clearly known, but in Africa it extends to the Cape of Good Hope and
Madagascar. To Northern Europe (Iceland, the Faeroes, Scandinavia, and Finland)
it is only a rare casual visitor. [F. c. K. J.]
3. Migration. — A wanderer from Southern Europe, occurring almost
annually in some part or other of the British Isles in autumn or early winter
(August to November), very rarely in spring. The southern and eastern coastal
districts of England are the most frequently visited, and the species is very rare
inland as well as on the east coast of Great Britain north of Yorkshire, and on the
west coast north of the Bristol Channel (cf. Hartert, Jourdain, Ticehurst, and
Witherby, Hand-List of British Birds, 1912, p. 122). But there are a number of
records from the eastern seaboard of Scotland, and even from the Orkney and
Shetland Islands, while one was recorded from South Uist, Outer Hebrides, in
November 1910 : several occurred in Anglesey in 1806, but none have been noted
since in North Wales (cf. Saunders, Itt. Man. Brit. B., 2nd ed., 1899, p. 391 ; H.
Newton, Field, 10, xii., 1910, p. 1094 ; and Forrest, Fauna of N. Wales, 1907, p.
260). There are about thirty-six Irish records, chiefly for October and November,
and for the eastern and southern districts (cf. Ussher, List of Irish Birds, 1908, p. 32 ;
Ussher and Warren, B. of Ireland, 1900, p. 171 ; and Saunders, loc. cit.). British
records frequently refer to small flocks, although in the main, perhaps, to solitary
examples ; as many as twenty were observed together hi Orkney from 24th
September to 1st October 1907, and of the ten that were shot those examined were
all immature birds (cf. H. W. Robinson, Annals Scot. Nat. Hist., 1908, p. 50).
Considering that even the summer quarters of the glossy-ibis are no nearer
than Andalusia, Slavonia, and the lower Danube, it is very remarkable that it
should visit our islands so often as it does, and also reach at times Scandinavia,
the Faeroes, and Iceland. Whether this phenomenon is in any way connected with
a former wider distribution is too purely a theoretical point to be discussed here.
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 319
But it may be mentioned that some dispute the very slight evidence in favour of a
supposed former more frequent occurrence on parts of our coasts. [A. L. T.]
4. Nest and Eggs. — Does not breed in the British Isles. [F. c. R. J.]
5. Food. — In a wild state it lives on worms, small crustaceans and molluscs,
aquatic insects, and frogs. Naumann says that their main food consists of larvae
of aquatic insects and worms, as well as insects, beetles, dragon-flies, sedge-flies,
small molluscs, small frogs and tadpoles, fishes and their spawn. One specimen
contained many caddis-flies and a water-beetle (Hydrophilus). H. 0. Forbes includes
in the dietary of this species small reptiles and scraps of vegetable matter. In
confinement it is practically omnivorous. [F. c. R. J.]
320 THE GLOSSY-IBIS
THE GLOSSY IBIS
[F. C. R JOURDAIN]
The glossy- ibis resembles our common -starling in the fact that
when viewed from some distance it appears to be clad in sober black,
but at close quarters reveals unsuspected variety and beauty of colour-
ing. In general appearance it shows a striking resemblance to the
curlew, so that the name of " black curloo " or " curlew," by which it is
known to the marshmen of East Anglia, is so descriptive that no one
who knows both birds by sight could fail to recognise this species at
once on first hearing the name. As far as we know, it was never more
than an occasional visitor to us, though no doubt it occurred more fre-
quently before the colonies in the Rhone delta were broken up.
My first acquaintance with this bird dates back to 1906, when on a
visit to the marismas of the Gaudalquivir. The previous season had
been one of exceptional drought, and vast expanses which in a normal
spring are covered with a foot or two of water were then nothing but
miles of sun-cracked mud. Even this year there was less water than
usual, but still there was enough to encourage the water-birds to breed.
In the preceding year most of them had abandoned the idea
altogether, and the teeming bird colonies, or "pajareras" were lifeless
and deserted, but this year the continual flights of little-egrets, buff-
backed-herons, and other species showed that nesting was in progress
at no great distance. Huge rolling hills of loose sand, ever drifting
with the wind and encroaching on the mud-flats, shut in the view on
the left: in front of us were some acres of tamarisk scrub in the
distance, and to the right, beyond the shallow water which covered the
mud-flats of the previous season, one could distinguish in the distance
the course of the great river, with here and there a boat or river
steamer slowly moving along. As we approached the bushes we could
Plate 167
Glossy-ibis
By Winifred Austen
, , 5*-^ , \ %
;:• .•••• ••-..; \
'
« 1 I •
, -
THE GLOSSY-IBIS 321
see a cloud of white resting on them. Streams of birds were now pass-
ing overhead, and soon we could see that the tamarisks were crowded
with a dense mass of white birds in constant turmoil and movement.
A regular babel of weird cries, quacks, and groans in different tones
came from the birds on their nests, though in flight they are all silent.
In a wet season these tamarisks stand in the water, but this year the
ground was practically dry round the chosen site for the colony, and as
few of the nests were more than ten feet from the ground, it seemed
absurdly easy to examine the nests. A few minutes served to show
how mistaken we were. In many places the bushes were matted
together with long trailing brambles, and grew close together. By
crawling on hands and knees one could get into the thick of the
colony, where the ground was strewn with broken eggs which had
fallen from the nests above, but on attempting to climb the bushes we
soon found that they were unable to bear our weight and gradually
collapsed, bringing down a shower of eggs with them. At last, after
many failures, we managed to find a place where the matted brambles
held the tamarisks up sufficiently to enable us to reach the top, but
not without serious damage to our clothes and skins as well. Here a
wonderful sight met our view. Above us in the clear sky floated silently
thousands of birds, a few purple-herons, a pair of spoonbills, thousands
of little-egrets and buffbacked-herons, many night-herons and a few
squacco-herons. But conspicuous among them was a small flock of
glossy-ibises, their blackish plumage contrasting strongly with the
snowy whiteness of the egrets and buffbacked-herons. Nests were
visible by hundreds on every side. Within arm's-reach were half a
dozen, while every bush was crowded to the utmost limit of its capacity
by others. The wide, flat nests of the purple-heron, with their large
blue-green eggs, were easily distinguished. Then the spoonbill's flimsy
nest with its white eggs, flecked with red-brown, was marked down.
The small eggs of the squacco, too, could be separated without difficulty
by their size, and those of the glossy-ibis by their deep blue, quite differ-
ent from the pale greenish blue tints of the other herons. The eggs of
322 THE GLOSSY-IBIS
the little-egret, buff'backed and night-herons, however, required care-
ful authentication, so that it was necessary for one observer to mark
the parent bird down on to the nest from the sandhills above, while a
confederate lay concealed under the bushes below and climbed to the
nest under direction. All these birds made use of practically the same
materials for building, for as a matter of fact the only available twigs
were those of dead tamarisks close at hand. There were, however,
certain differences noticeable in the way in which the twigs were
arranged, and the night-herons showed a partiality for larger sticks,
arranging them so that they radiated from the middle of the nest.
Amongst the deafening chorus of cries which broke out as the birds
began to settle down on their nests, it was impossible to distinguish
the notes of the various species. The glossy-ibis is, as a rule, a very
silent bird, but, as stated by Naumann, it utters at times a harsh,
heron-like note, which he writes as "rrha" or "rraa." The late Lord
Lilford kept a number of them in confinement, and noticed that the
only sound he heard from them was a " decidedly corvine, prolonged
guttural croak."
Wherever found, this species has always one characteristic,
namely, its sociable disposition. Whether feeding or nesting or
on migration, it is nearly always in company. While the egrets and
herons may be flushed from their solitary stands among the marshes, the
ibises are always in small or large parties. In Spain, where they are not
common, one meets with half a dozen or so walking sedately about,
very much as the curlew does, and probing the soft mud with their
long decurved bills. In Slavonia, where the colonies are of enormous
extent, Mr. Eagle Clarke met with no fewer than two hundred feeding
together. It is also naturally a wary bird, and in a mixed colony is
generally one of the first, if not actually the first species to take the
alarm. In flight the legs are not carried so straight behind as with
the herons, but droop slightly : the neck is also kept extended in flight,
so that the downward curve of the bill and the angle at which the legs
are held form a gentle curve. Sometimes they fly in wedge-shaped
THE GLOSSY-IBIS 323
formation like geese and cranes, but small flocks may be met
with in a "bunched" formation, flying with more rapid wing-beats
than the slower herons.
Probably the largest breeding European colony is that in the
Obedska Bara in Slavonia, which is protected by the Hungarian
Government. Mr. W. Eagle Clarke and his friends paid a visit to
this colony in 1883, and with considerable difficulty managed to force
their way through the belts of sallows and beds of reeds till at last
they reached the main colony, which was roughly estimated at about
thirty thousand birds of all species.1 The noise of the beating of
wings, accompanied by harsh alarm-notes, was deafening as the main
body rose on the wing in alarm, but after a time they began to get
more accustomed to the presence of visitors, and gradually returned
to their nests or perched on the adjacent willows. In all directions
sallow trees were growing in the water, but the nests of the glossy-
ibis were in every instance either on the surface of the water or close
to it. A little higher up were the nests of the night-herons, squaccos,
and little-egrets, though some of the latter were also low down and
close to the water, while the pygmy-cormorants and common-herons
nested by preference in the top branches. One bush, which may be
taken as typical rather than exceptional, contained one nest of
common-heron, two of pygmy-cormorant, three of night-heron, two of
little-egret, one of squacco, and three of glossy-ibis ! In this colony
the materials used by the glossy-ibises were sticks and a few reeds, as
was also the case with the little-egrets, while the night- and squacco-
herons used sticks exclusively. Herr J. Schenk published the results
of a rough census of this colony in Aquila, vol. xv. (1908) pp. 245-258,
and estimated the number of breeding pairs of this species alone at
about two thousand.
Still farther eastward there are large colonies in the great delta
of the Danube — an interminable and only half-explored waste of reed-
beds and willow-swamps. Here, amongst a dense growth of reeds
'. /bis, 1884, p. 125.
324 THE GLOSSY-IBIS
with a few sallows among them, or in the half-submerged willow trees,
the nests of the pygmy-cormorant and glossy-ibis may be found in
close proximity. In India the more usual site seems to be in a good-
sized tree, but here the same tendency to breed in company with
other species is shown, various species of ibis, egret, and cormorants
nesting in the same colonies.1
Throughout Europe the glossy-ibis is a summer visitor only,
crossing the Straits of Gibraltar late in April, and passing through
Greece on its way north to the Danube valley between the end of
March and the middle of May, migrating in large and small flocks.
In Spain it is generally regarded as a later breeder than the other
species of herons ; but in the Obedska Bara Eagle Clarke found fresh
eggs of most species which were breeding there at about the same
time in May. The eggs, as a rule, vary from 3 to 4 in number;
but Baldamus states that 5 are sometimes found, and the Hun-
garian National Museum contains clutches of 6. Their colour is
very remarkable, an intensely deep blue, quite devoid of markings.
In this character they resemble the eggs of the herons, which are
always some shade of greenish blue ; but, on the other hand, the eggs
of the other species of ibis approach the spoonbill type of egg, and are
for the most part white with reddish brown markings. The average
size of 105 eggs is 2'03 x T44 in. [51 '8x36-7 mm.]. Owing to the
difficulty of making observations, little is known of the domestic
habits of this species. Heinroth gives the incubation period as 21 to
22 days. The newly hatched young are pretty little creatures,
covered with blackish grey down, which is longest on the head, and
showing a curious white band on the crown, while the bill in life has
a black tip and base and is ivory-white between. Alleon describes
them as holding the neck retracted, while the head was continually
raised and depressed, each movement being accompanied by a little
note. Colonel Legge found that the young, while still unable to fly,
on his approach stood up and began to climb actively among the
1 For details see Doig, Stray Feathers, 1879, p. 377 ; Legge, Birds of Ceylon ; and Hume and
Gates, Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds, iii. p. 231.
THE GLOSSY-IBIS 325
branches : " when seized they clung tightly with their feet, and were
with difficulty removed."
Lord Lilford kept many of these birds in confinement, and found
them hardy and practically omnivorous. They generally (but not
invariably) chose a high perch when roosting at night. A peculiar
attitude was frequently assumed in fine, bright weather in order to
get the full benefit of the sun, the bird extending one wing to its full
length in an upward direction, and allowing the other to hang limply
by its side.1
After the breeding season is over small parties of ibises are
occasionally met with in the British Islands, and it also occurs at
times, though much more rarely, in spring. Most European birds
leave in September and October, and make their way across the
Mediterranean to Africa.
1 This attitude is figured in Lilford's Coloured Figures, vol. vii. pi. 17.
VOL. IV. 2 T
THE HERON
[ORDER: Ciconiiformes. SUBORDER: Ardece. FAMILY: Ardeidce]
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES
[E. HARTERT. F. C. R. JOURDAIN. W. P. PYCRAFT. A. L. THOMSON]
COMMON-HERON \_Ardea cinerea Linnaeus. Grey-heron, hern, Jack-
herne or yarn, heronshaw or hernshaw, crane ; haigrie (Shetlands) ; longnix
(Cheshire). French, heron huppe or cendre ; German, Fischreiher ; Italian,
airone cenerino],
I. Description. — The large size, grey plumage, powder-down-patches, the
long dagger-like beak, and the large hind-toe, which is on the same level as the
front toes, distinguish the heron, at all ages, from all other British birds. The
sexes are alike in plumage, and there is no seasonal change of coloration. (PL 168.)
Length 36 in. [914 mm.]. The uniformity of the delicate French-grey of the
plumage is relieved by the pure white of the fore-part of the head, cheeks, and fore-
part of the neck, which is marked by sharply defined lines of bluish black on a white
ground, while a black band runs from the base of the beak backwards over the eye,
widening as it goes, to terminate in a long pendant, black crest. A patch of black
feathers covers the wrist-joint when the wing is folded, and the feathers of the
outer scapulars are produced into long narrow streamers. Similarly the feathers
of the base of the neck hang down far below the contour of the body. The under
parts are white relieved by a broad band of black on each side. The beak and
iris are yellow ; the lores and the bare skin round the eye yellowish green ; the legs
and toes chocolate-brown. The female differs from the male only in her shorter
crest and slightly duller hues. The juvenile plumage differs from that of the
adults in its almost uniform ash colour, and in lacking the crest on the head, the
long pendant feathers at the base of the neck, and the elongated scapulars. The
black patch over the wrist of the adult is represented in the young by a similar patch
326
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 327
of dark slate colour streaked with white. The young till fledged is but sparsely
covered with long, yellow, filamentous threads, [w. P. P.]
2. Distribution. — In the British Isles the heron is very widely but some-
what unevenly distributed, and although the largest colonies are mostly in England,
it is probably most general in parts of Scotland and Ireland. About two hundred
English heronries are catalogued by Mr. F. Bonnet, and some forty in Wales, while
in Scotland two hundred and thirty sites are mentioned in the Annals Scot. Nat.
Hist. (1908, p. 218), but about forty-five of these are now deserted. Nearly fifty
are mentioned by Mr. Bonnet from Ireland, but this list is very incomplete. There
are several breeding-places in the Orkneys, and Saxby states that it has bred in the
Shetlands. In the Outer Hebrides it was first recorded as nesting in 1902. On the
Continent its northern limit extends to Trondhjems Fjord in Norway, sparingly
to Dalecarlia and Jemtland in Sweden, and in Russia from the southern shores of the
Gulf of Finland to about lat. 60° N. in the Perm government. Southward of these
limits its range extends over the greater part of Europe to the Mediterranean, but
it has not yet been found breeding in South Spain, Sardinia, Sicily, or Southern Italy,
though a few nest in Corsica and Northern Italy. Possibly a few breed on the
Azores and Tenerife, and apparently some also nest in North Africa, while there
is evidence that it is also resident in Southern Africa and Madagascar, and breeding
has been recorded from the Transvaal, Orange River and Cape Colonies. In Asia
it ranges north to the central districts of Tobolsk and Tomsk and the Upper Lena,
while southward it breeds in Palestine, the Persian Gulf, India, and Ceylon, but
apparently East Asiatic birds differ to some extent. Although chiefly a resident, it
occurs casually in the Faeroes, Iceland, and even Greenland. [F. c. R. J.]
3. Migration. — A resident and a winter visitor. Our own native herons
are probably sedentary, being found in the heronries from February till August,
and sometimes visiting them in winter (cf. Saunders, III. Man. Brit. B., 2nd ed.,
1899, p. 368). During the winter the birds are naturally less locally distributed,
and at that season their numbers are increased to some extent by immigrants from
the Continent. These winter visitant birds have been exceptionally recorded as
early as 8th July, but they usually arrive between 2nd September and 29th
November (cf. Clarke, Studies in Bird Migration, 1912, vol. i. p. 159). The influx
chiefly affects the east of Great Britain, and on the Yorkshire coast the birds may
annually be seen arriving from the east, flying high over the sea ; but in Kent
the species is described simply as " resident " (cf. Nelson, B. of Yorks., 1907, p. 389 ;
and Ticehurst, B. of Kent, 1909, p. 304). The Dumfriesshire stock of herons is
328 THE HERON
" scarcely influenced " by immigration, and the same is probably true of the west
of Great Britain as a whole (cf. Gladstone, B. of Dumfries., 1910, p. 227). Thompson
has a reference to an autumn crossing from Scotland to Ireland, but apart from
this there is no evidence of movement within the Irish area, although herons
frequently fly out to the outlying islands (cf. Ussher and Warren, B. of Ireland,
1900, p. 158). Out of fifty-five young herons marked in May 1910 in Zeeland,
East Denmark, the following have been recorded : —
1910 : 26th June a.1 Holstein.
2nd July a. Mecklenburg.
5th July East Denmark.
23rd July Near the mouth of the Elbe.
28th July b. West Denmark.
5th August Andalusia.
6th September c. Near Hamburg.
10th September c. Near Hamburg.
5th October Holstein.
17th October a. Near Salisbury, England.
1911 : 4th January North-eastern France.
9th February b. East Denmark.
(?) February a. North-western France.
(Cf. Mortensen, Dansk. Orniih. Forenings Tidsskrift, 1911, pp. 115-119). "Migrants
bearing the labels of the Loo Hawking Club, Holland, have been shot from time
to time near Perpignan," Pyrenees-Orientales, France (Saunders, op. cit., p. 367).
Such few records of British marked herons as exist only go to show that they are
more or less sedentary (cf. Witherby, British Birds, vol. iii. p. 219 ; and vol. v.
pp. 186, 314). The heron is often solitary at the time of migration and in whiter,
although so markedly gregarious in the breeding season. [A. L. T.]
4. Nest and Eggs. — The nesting-sites of this species vary according to
circumstances. In most parts of the British Isles the nests are built hi colonies in
trees, often hi those of considerable size. No particular preference for any one
species of tree is shown, oaks, elms, sycamores, pines, larches, etc., all being made
use of. The height from the ground may vary from seven or eight to eighty feet
or more, but the nest is nearly always on or near the top of the tree. In Ireland
1 Similar letters in this column indicate birds from the same nest.
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 329
the nest may be found on the ground or on low bushes on islets in the loughs, and
even in England it has occasionally been found in reed-beds or even on shingle, and
exceptionally on the ground at the foot of a tree in a wood ! In Scotland it breeds
in places on the face of brush-grown cliffs. In Holland and Central France many
birds breed in thick reed-beds. Nests have also been recorded from bare hillsides,
and on ruined and ivy-grown buildings. As a rule the nest is flat, but substantially
built of sticks and branches, lined with finer twigs, but in reed-beds is generally
composed of stems of dead reed. Dead grass and roots may also be found in
the lining, while one nest has been recorded which was made almost entirely of
wire ! (PI. LXXI.) The share of the parents in building seems not to have been
definitely recorded, but apparently both sexes take part in the work. The eggs are
generally 4 or 5 in number, sometimes only 3, and occasionally 6 or 7. In colour
they are a uniform light blue-green, generally rather larger and broader than
those of the purple-heron, and devoid of gloss. (PI. R.) Average size of 142 eggs,
2-36 x 1-69 in. [60'2 x 42'9 mm.]. The duties of incubation are shared by both sexes,
and the period is usually estimated at 26 days, though Schmidt gives the period as
25 to 28 days, and eggs hatched under a hen took 25 to 26 days. Mr. B. Beetham,
however, noticed that the last egg in a clutch was hatched out 23 days after it was
laid. The breeding season in the south of England begins, as a rule, hi mid-February,
sometimes even in January, though in the north often a month later, but fresh
eggs may be obtained much later in the season. There is much division of opinion
as to whether two broods are reared in the year, and though in some districts it is
unusual, there is reason to believe that it is not uncommon in others. In the
valley of the Danube the breeding season is postponed till the arrival of the spring
floods, and fresh eggs may be obtained in May and even in June. [F. c. R. j.]
5. Food. — Fish caught alive, and especially fresh- water fish, form the heron's
principal food, but small reptiles and amphibians, small mammals (especially
water-voles, Microtus amphibius), whose fur is frequently to be found in the pellets
thrown up by this bird; also shrews (Newstead). Newstead records remains of
Dytiscus marginalis and Geotrupes stercorarius, as well as water-boatmen (Notonecta
glauca). Young birds, large insects, and mussels are also eaten (see p. 337). The
young are almost entirely fed on fish by both parents. [E. H.]
330 THE HERON
BITTERN [Botdurus stelldris stelldris (Linnaeus). Butterbump, mire-drum, bog-
drum. French, grand butor; German, grosse Rohrdommel; Italian, tarabuso].
1. Description. — The bittern may be distinguished from all other British
birds by the absence of contour feathers along the back of the neck, excepting only
the American-bittern and little-bittern, from which it differs by the barring on the
remiges. The sexes are alike, and there is no seasonal change of plumage. (PI. 169.)
Length 28 in. [711 mm.]. The general coloration is of a golden buff, variously barred
and blotched with black. The crown and nape are uniformly black. The feathers
of the fore-part of the neck are much elongated, and form a large, erectile frill. The
throat is white; down the middle line of the neck runs a band of dark brown,
which is bounded on either side by a similar band continuous above with a black
moustachial stripe, and these bands are contrasted with a pale buff ground-colour.
The marginal region of this frill is marked with fine transverse bars of black. The
iris is yellow, the bare area around the eye, and the beak are of an ochreous green,
while the legs and feet are grass green. The juvenile plumage does not differ from
that of the adult, and the coloration of the quills is almost uniform. The young in
down is of a rusty yellow colour, [w. P. P.]
2. Distribution. — Formerly the bittern bred in many parts of England,
Wales, Southern Scotland, and Ireland, but it gradually became extinct as a breed-
ing species. The latest recorded instances of nesting were at Wilstone reservoir,
Herts, in 1849, and in Norfolk (Upton Broad) in 1868 ; but a young bird with down
adhering to its plumage was obtained in Norfolk in 1886, and breeding probably
also took place in Hants about 1886-1889. In 1911 a pair again succeeded in rearing
young in Norfolk. On the Continent it visits South Sweden in small numbers, and
has nested in Southern Finland, while in Russia it ranges north to the south of the
Archangel government, but only to lat. 57° hi the Urals. Southward it is found
in suitable localities over the rest of the Continent to the Mediterranean, except
Denmark, and is not uncommon in Friesland. It also breeds in Sicily, Sardinia, and
North-western Africa, while in Asia it is found across the Continent east to Japan,
south to Turkestan, Asia Minor, and perhaps Persia and Palestine, and north to 64°
on the Yenisei, 65° on the Lena, and 67° on the Yana. It is replaced by closely
allied forms in South Africa and North America. Northern birds are migratory,
wintering in the Mediterranean region and from the Persian Gulf to India. The
American race has occurred as a casual in Greenland, Iceland, and the British Isles.
[F. o. B. J.]
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 331
3. Migration. — Formerly a well-known resident, but the recent breeding
record from Norfolk is the first for several decades, and the species is now chiefly
a cold-weather visitor in small numbers to the British Isles. It is an uncommon
winter visitor to Yorkshire, sometimes numerous in severe weather, and also recorded
from the coast in autumn (cf. Nelson, B. of Yorks., 1907, p. 399). It is of variable
occurrence in Kent, but one or two are recorded nearly every winter ; while in North
Wales it is not infrequent, especially in January and February (cf. Ticehurst, B. of
Kent, 1909, p. 316 ; and Forrest, Fauna of N. Wales, 1907, p. 259). It has been
recorded even from the outlying islands of Scotland, but is altogether rarer in that
country (cf. Saunders, III. Man. Brit. B., 2nd ed., 1899, p. 383). It probably visits
Ireland annually, but is only irregularly recorded : the occurrences extend from
August to March, but are notably for the months of December and January, and for
the counties of Cork, Waterford, and Down (cf. Ussher and Warren, B. of Ireland,
1900, pp. 167-8). Not always solitary : four together, and even " flocks," have been
recorded in this country (cf. Nelson, op. cit., p. 402 ; and Saunders, op. cit., p. 384).
Has been recorded from the light-stations (cf. Nelson, loc. cit.). [A. L. T.]
4. Nest and Eggs. — As a rule this species breeds in dense beds of dead
reeds or bulrushes, but exceptionally it has been known to nest in a small clump of
reeds standing in open water. The nest itself is an artless structure of dead reed-
stems,1 rather flat and small for the size of the bird, only projecting a few inches
above the surface of the water. In some cases it is visible when the bird is not
sitting as much as twenty or thirty paces away. Mr. Wade is of opinion that the
sites are used throughout the year as resting and preening-places till they become
padded down, and finally are adopted as foundations for the nest proper. The share
of the parents in building has not been ascertained. The eggs are a uniform olive-
brown, sometimes with a greenish tinge, without gloss, and vary considerably in
shape. (PI. R.) Average size of 65 eggs, 2-09x1-51 in. [53x38-5 mm.]. The
number varies from 3 to 6,2 and they are laid at intervals of some days, while there
are considerable differences in the development of the young and the incubation of
the eggs, which point to incubation commencing with the laying of the first egg.
The incubation period is said to last for about 25 days (Saunders), but Naumann
gives 21 to 23 days, and states that incubation is performed by the female alone.
The breeding season is somewhat irregular : in Holland, according to Mr. Wade,
the average date is about 12th May, but eggs may be found from early April to
1 A Norfolk nest is said to have been built of large and small rushes.
2 Nine are recorded as having been found on one occasion in a single nest.
332 THE HERON
the first week in June. Probably only a single brood is reared in the season.
[F. c. B. j.]
5. Food. — Water-voles and other small mammals, birds, frogs, and newts,
fish, water-beetles, Crustacea. The young are fed mainly on fish, and by both
parents, [w. r. P.]
LITTLE -BITTERN [Ixobrfichus minutus (Linnaeus) ; Ardetta minuta (Linn.).
French, blongier nain ; German, kleine JRohrdommel, Zwergrohrdommel ;
Italian, tarabusino].
1 . Description. — The little-bittern may readily be distinguished from the com-
mon and American bitterns by its greatly inferior size, and by the fact that the middle
toe and claw do not exceed the tarsus in length. The sexes differ conspicuously, but
there is no seasonal change of coloration. (PL LXXI.) Length 11 in. [279mm.]. The
male has the crown and the whole of the back, scapulars, tail, and remiges black :
the rest of the plumage is of a pale ochreous buff, save a patch of dark brown buff-
bordered feathers, which covers the wrist-joint in the closed wing, and the abdomen
and under tail-coverts, which are white. The throat and the lower portion of the
neck-ruff shows faint indication of white longitudinal lines. The back of the neck is
down-clad, as in the typical bitterns. The beak is purplish yellow, the iris orange-
yellow, the feet greenish yellow. The female has the crown dark brown, the back
and wing-coverts greyish brown, each feather margined with dull ochreous buff.
The outermost wing-coverts have a rufous tinge. The neck-ruff is longitudinally
striped with dark brown, buff, and white. The remiges are dark brown. The
breast is white suffused with buff, and striated with dark brown, while the abdomen
is white. The juvenile plumage resembles that of the female, but is duller. The
downy young are of an ochreous buff above, greyish white below, [w. p. p.]
2. Distribution. — Although there is little doubt that this species formerly
bred occasionally if not regularly with us, it has ceased to do so now. On the Con-
tinent it nests as far north as France, the Low Countries, N. Germany, and from
Livonia to lat. 56° in the Perm government in Russia, while southward it is found
in suitable localities not only to the Mediterranean and some of its islands, but also
in North-western Africa (Algeria, Tunisia) and in Egypt. In Asia its breeding
range extends from Palestine, Asia Minor, Transcaspia, and lat. 56° in W. Siberia,
through Mesopotamia east to Sind, the North- West Provinces of India, and Kashmir.
Its winter quarters lie chiefly in Africa, though a few winter in Southern Asia,
PLATE LXXI
Heron on nest with young
Nest and eggs of little -bittern
Photo l.y R. R. L-
Little- bittern ready to strike
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 333
and it has been recorded as far south as Pondoland in the eastern Cape Colony, as
well as casually in Madeira and the Azores, Scandinavia, the Faeroes, and Iceland.
[F. c. B. J.]
3. Migration. — Probably bred formerly in England, but now known as a rare
irregular visitor, occurring chiefly in the spring and summer months. The southern
and eastern counties of England are the most frequently visited, and the species is
described as a very rare occasional visitor to North Wales, and as a rare casual,
chiefly in summer, in Yorkshire : in Scotland it has reached the northern isles, but is,
generally speaking, very rare (cf. Saunders, III. Man. Brit. B., 2nd ed., 1899, p. 381 ;
Forrest, Fauna of N. Wales, 1907, p. 258 ; and Nelson, B. of Yorks., 1907, p. 396).
It is a rare and irregular visitor to Ireland from March to November, chiefly to the
southern and eastern coastal districts : out of about thirty birds obtained in all,
only one was in Connaught, but a recent record (9th September 1908) refers to the
isle of Owey, off Donegal (cf. Ussher and Warren, B. of Ireland, 1900, p. 165 ; Ussher,
List of Irish Birds, 1908, p. 31 ; and Barrington, Irish Naturalist, 1908, p. 59).
[A. L. T.]
4. Nest and Eggs. — The usual site is among thick reeds, but occasionally a
nest may be found on a stump or among the branches of a pollarded tree. It is not
unlike that of a waterhen, but much more roughly built of twigs, sedges, reed-stems,
etc., lined with flat leaves of water-plants, dead flags, sedges, rushes, etc., generally
close to the water-level except when in stumps or bushes, and then only a few feet
above it. (PI. LXXI.) The share of the sexes in building is not known. The eggs are
rather elongated in shape, dead white when first laid, and generally varying in
number from 4 or 5 to 7, though occasionally much larger numbers have been found
in one nest. (PL R.) Average size of 102 eggs, 1'37 x 1-02 in. [34'8 x 25-9 mm.].
Incubation is stated by Naumann to last for 16 to 17 days, though Hocke was of
opinion that the period was slightly shorter. Definite information is still lacking
as to whether the male assists the female in incubation, but a male shot in
Norfolk showed incubation patches, so that probably both sexes take part in the
work. In Middle Europe most eggs are found from early June onward, exception-
ally during the last fortnight of May, while second layings (or perhaps third) may
be found till late in July. In South Spain eggs may be found even in the first
week of May, but generally two or three weeks later. Only one brood is normally
reared in the season. [F. c. R. or.]
5. Food. — Chiefly small fish (young tench (Tinea vulgaris), perch, and also
Carassius vulgaris and Cobitis fossilis), though no doubt frogs, the smaller reptiles,
VOL. IV. 2 U
334 THE HERON
molluscs, worms, aquatic insects and their larvae (especially water-beetles, dragon-
fly and caddis-fly larvae) are also eaten. A bird kept in captivity in Tenerife sub-
sisted largely on mice and lizards which entered its cage, and Hocke states that
they will kill and eat young reed-warblers from the nest. The food for the young is
disgorged by the parents on to the side of the nest, and consists chiefly of small fish.
A male shot in Montenegro by Lodge contained small fish an inch long and aquatic
insects. [F. c. E. J.]
The following species is described in the supplementary chapter on ''''Rare
Birds " :-
[Family PHOENICOPTERID^]
Flamingo, Phoenicopterus roseus Pallas. [F. c. B. j.]
[Family
The following species and subspecies are described in the supplementary chapter
on ''''Rare Birds " : —
Purple-heron, Ardea purpurea Linnaeus.
Great white-heron, Egretta alba (Linnaeus) {Ardea alba Linnaeus].
Little-egret, Egretta garzetta (Linnaeus) [Ardea garzetta Linnaeus].
Buffbacked-heron, Ardeola ibis (Linnaeus) [Ardea bubulcus Audouin].
Squacco-heron, Ardeola ralloides (Scopoli) [Ardea ralloides Scopoli].
Night-heron, Nycticorax nycticorax (Linnaeus) [Nycticorax griseus
(Linnaeus)].
American-bittern, Botaurus stelldris lentiginosus (Montagu).
[American green-heron, Butorides virescens (Linnaeus).]
White-stork, Ciconia ciconia (Linnaeus) [Ciconia alba Bechstein].
Black-stork, Ciconia nigra (Linnaeus). [F. c. E. J.]
THE HERON 335
THE HERON
[E. HARTERT]
The heron is found on all suitable waters — i.e. clear ponds, lakes,
large and small rivers, if not flowing too fast, and occasionally on the
seashore. During the breeding season it visits chiefly such waters as
are not too far from nesting-places. For the latter trees or bushes
of all sorts are chosen, though in some places the nests are built on
cliffs, and in treeless steppes even among reeds and on the flat
ground.
The food is taken entirely from the water or from the ground.
An extraordinary exception to this rule is given in the Field of 7th
December 1912, where it is stated that a heron, though with great
difficulty and after many unsuccessful attempts, was observed to
capture in flight a bat which had been disturbed from its roosting-
place. The food consists chiefly of fishes of all kinds, unless too wide
or too large to swallow, and small ones of 10 to 20 centimetres are
nearly always chosen. Cases are, however, known in which birds have
attempted to swallow larger fish, with the result that the heron was
choked to death ; such cases are, of course, very rare. In one case
a heron was found choked to death by a large rat, and, in another
noted by Mr. W. Farren, by a roach weighing three-quarters of a
pound. The fish are swallowed alive, head first, and in this manner
even sticklebacks go down without difficulty. Eels seem to be
favourites, as they are, indeed, with many fish-eating birds. Besides
fish, reptiles, and tadpoles, small mammals (voles, mice, rats, shrews,
moles), large insects (such as beetles and Notonecta glauca), and young
birds, principally ducklings, are also taken, but fish are always the
principal and favoured food. There is, according to several authors,
some doubt whether mussels are eaten by herons or not ; but J. A.
Naumann (senior) has actually found them in the crop, and I have,
336 THE HERON
on the Rhine, often found mussels (Anodonta,, Unio) eaten out, which I
attributed to herons, whose traces were seen around the empty shells,
though I had no absolute proof of the eating by these birds.
The heron's bill is very powerful, and has been known to pierce a
strong holly-stick. When wounded, the beak is used cunningly and is
a very dangerous weapon, especially as it is often aimed at the eyes of
dogs and men. A couple of herons have been found dead, one having
pierced the thigh of the other right through. The aggressor was
evidently not able to withdraw its beak, so that both died together.
Between the breeding seasons herons sleep in trees or on cliffs,
and in the early morning, before it is quite daylight, fly towards their
feeding-ground singly or in company. They are always more or less
gregarious. Not only do they generally nest in colonies, but also
between the breeding seasons one more often sees them in twos or
threes or more together ; sometimes, on good feeding-grounds, even a
dozen or more not far from each other. Single herons are also seen
in winter, but not very often. They alight as a rule on dry ground
and walk into the water, though occasionally, but rarely, they alight
in the low water at once. They stand still for a short while, quite
motionless, with the neck straight up, but the beak horizontal, appar-
ently to make sure that there is no danger near, and then begin to
walk slowly and noiselessly through the water with curved neck, now
and then, by a sudden straightening of the neck, thrusting down the
bill into the water, and seldom without obtaining a fish or other prey.
The popular notion that they use feathers or other things as bait is
too ridiculous to be believed. As a rule the heron does not stand
motionless like a fisherman, waiting for fish to come near, but " walks
them up." On the other hand, it often stands for hours motionless,
in the same spot, on the look out for some unwary fish. A casual
observer will usually see a heron standing quiet and erect, but then
the bird has in most cases seen or heard him, and is standing at
attention ready to fly off at the slightest warning. When reposing,
the long neck is doubled up and rests between the shoulders, but as
Plate 168
Herons
By A. W. Seaby
THE HERON 337
soon as a possible enemy approaches it is stretched out, and the bird
becomes a picture of alertness, though standing motionless. The
heron walks deliberately, with long strides. On taking wing it rises
somewhat laboriously, though quick enough, and once in the air pro-
gresses fairly fast, with long flaps of its wide and rounded wings.
During flight the neck is bent in the form of an S, and the head
rests between the shoulders, the legs stretched out behind, as is the
case with all water-birds. The heron flies high and straight.
In Great Britain and Ireland the heron is a resident all the year
round, but in the colder portions of the Continent it is strictly
migratory. In England it returns to the nesting-places by the end of
January or in February, but in Northern Germany, for example, not
before March or even April. Most of the migrants seem to winter
in the Mediterranean countries and in South-east Europe. The
species nests mostly in colonies, often of many hundreds of pairs,
but single nests are not uncommonly found.
In the breeding season herons may be seen flying about in huge
circles over the nest trees, one of a pair pursuing the other with wild
shrieks, the pursued falling down away from the other when nearly
reached, and both now and then tilting their bodies as if they would
overbalance themselves.1 The usual note is a discordant shriek, some-
what like an unsuccessful trumpet-blast, but reminding one rather of a
goose's cry when heard from afar. Near the nest, seldom elsewhere,
one hears also a low " ka."
The nest is a large, flat structure of sticks, with a shallow
depression lined with grass, fur, or other soft material, and, as it is
used for many years, often of great dimensions. Both parents take
part in incubation and in feeding the young. Moult takes place after
the breeding season, and there is only one moult each year.
Very often heronries are also occupied by other birds, especially
the cormorants, nests of both species being found on the same trees.
Rooks also nest frequently in the heronries ; there is generally much
1 Edmund Selous, Bird-life Glimpses, p. 81.
338 THE HERON
fighting when they enter, and at the beginning of the nesting season,
but usually both parties appear to become gradually accustomed to
the statiis quo, and all ends in peace. Mr. Jourdain, however, informs
me (in litt.} that this is not always the case : a large heronry on the
river Aide, in Suffolk, was completely destroyed by rooks, which
devoured every egg soon after it was laid, and this happened many
years in succession. On the Continent the brown-kite is fond of
nesting in heronries, shamelessly feeding its young with the young
herons.
In olden times the heron was the bird almost exclusively, or at
least preferably, hunted with falcons, and in those times it was pro-
tected, and its killing otherwise than with a falcon was a crime. When
pursued by a hawk the heron spirals upward, trying to go above it,
and, if unsuccessful, it was said on occasions to transfix its persecutor
with its long beak. In our countries, at least, the adult heron has
not any serious enemies except man, who resents its preying on fish ;
but eggs and young are not uncommonly taken by rooks, crows,
brown-kites, and other birds. The flesh is good to eat, and the breast
of a young but full-grown bird is excellent.
THE BITTERN
[W. P. PYCRAFT]
Unfortunately, chiefly owing to drainage, the reclamation of land,
and the general advance of "civilisation," the bittern has been
reduced to the verge of extinction as a British bird. It is unfortunate,
because it was one of the most interesting of all the inhabitants of
our fens and reed-grown wastes. In days gone by it was by no means
despised as a bird for the table ; while it contributed not a little
towards enlivening the interest of the fen-dwellers in their surround-
ings, by reason of its extraordinary vocal powers. Now that it is
THE BITTEEN 339
practically banished from among us, we have discovered that it
possessed yet other attributes of an even more fascinating character ;
and these mainly concern its coloration, of which anon.
That the bittern and the heron are close allies there can be
no question, but in their habits, in some structural features, and in
coloration, they present very striking differences. In their choice of
haunts they rather resemble the coot and the grebe than the heron,
inasmuch as, like the former, they seek concealment amid the reeds ;
but even in the heyday of their prosperity among us they were never
so frequently seen as their neighbours. At no time, apparently, were
bitterns to be seen standing like sentinels "knee "-deep in water on
the look-out for prey, by the side of some stream or pool, as herons
are to-day — though the food, as with the heron, consisted almost
entirely of water-voles, frogs, and small fish. Instead, these excessively
timorous birds preferred to do their hunting stealthily, concealed
amidst a maze of well-nigh impenetrable reeds.
What we may call the "hall-mark" of the Heron-tribe is the
presence of certain patches of down-like feathers on the breast,
the region of the groin, and the upper surface of the thigh, remark-
able for the fact that they are in a constant state of disintegration
into an excessively fine powder of an almost soapy texture. In the
heron these patches have been regarded as luminous areas, the light
of which was utilised by the bird as a lure for fishes in the twilight.
But those who subscribed to this view were evidently under the
impression that this mysterious powder-down was confined to the
breast. They invented the theory to fit the facts, as they imagined
them to be. The breast-patches being there, in short, an attempt
was made to explain their presence. But the existence of precisely
similar patches of this supposedly luminous down on parts of the body
where luminosity would be quite unavailing, speedily disposes of the
whole story. But if further condemnatory evidence were required, it
would be furnished by the fact that the heron does not feed by night,
and by the life-history of the bittern.
340 THE HERON
Another remarkable feature about the bittern, or rather the
species of the genus Botaurm and Ardetta, is found in the feathering of
the neck, the whole of the back of which is clothed simply by loose,
downy feathers, and this unprotected region is generally covered by
conspicuously long, loose, erectile feathers which clothe the sides of
the neck. These, usually, are drawn downwards and backwards, to
meet in the mid-dorsal line, and so shield this down-covered area.
But on occasion these elongated feathers can be drawn outwards, so
as to form a pair of great lateral shields, whose purpose must be
discussed later. Finally, the bittern has a pectinated claw on the
middle toe, as have so many other birds, and enormous feet. As to
the purpose of the pectinated claw we are absolutely ignorant, though
not a few wild guesses have been made ; the huge feet, it is clear, are
of considerable service in grasping reed-stems — several at a time — and
also when wading in shallow water where the bottom is formed of the
loose debris of aquatic vegetation, whereon walking would be impossible
but for the spread of the long, lithe toes. The bittern, by the way, is
a relatively much shorter legged bird than the heron, wherefrom it is
clear much shallower water must be fished, and this fits well with
what we know of its haunts and feeding-grounds — the recesses of vast
reed-beds rather than the margins of the open water which they
surround.
There are two other peculiarities of the bittern which must be
considered here. The first of these concerns the quite extraordinary
booming sounds produced, night and day, between January and June.
From time immemorial these have been what we may term the most
conspicuous features of this most inconspicuous of birds ; for even in
the days of its plenty it was known to hosts of the fen-dwellers, and to
most of those who affected a knowledge of natural history, only by
that strange cry which reverberated over the tops of the graceful
swaying reeds during the early months of the year. The bird itself
was never seen save by a few, and none knew how these strange
sounds were produced. Even to-day we cannot say whether they are
Plate 169
Bitterns
By A. W. Seaby
THE BITTERN 341
made by the male alone, or as answering calls by both sexes. In
earlier days it was believed that they were produced by thrusting the
beak under wa,ter and then expelling air through the mouth, or, accord-
ing to another version, by thrusting the beak into a reed — a strange
achievement having regard to the bore of the reed and the thickness
of the beak. But even then there were dissentients, for Montagu
insisted that the "boom" was usually uttered while the bird was high
in the air ! To-day we know that all these interpretations were wrong,
for this strangely resonant cry, which can be heard a mile off, is made by
the bird when the beak is closed and pointed skywards. The sounds,
which are generally compared to the bellowing of a bull, are preceded
by certain throbbings in the throat, apparently inspirations of air,
which is then suddenly expelled while the beak is apparently closed.
So far as we know to the contrary, they are made by the male only,
but it is possible that the female also booms. Possible, because even
in the male the syrinx displays no modification, which can be regarded
as explaining the volume of sound emitted. But in this respect the
bittern does not differ from the ostrich and the cassowary, in both of
which the males emit resonant drumming or booming sounds, though
lacking even a syrinx.
The bittern has at least one other note, syllabled kduw, no doubt
an alarm-note. It was heard from a bird, flushed, " apparently near
the nest," while it circled in the air. Its note was answered by the
boom of its mate hidden in the reed-beds.1 The note of the young
will be referred to below.
As touching the coloration. There can be no question but that
this is pre-eminently of the " protective resemblance " or " concealing"
(procryptic) type. Yet it is significant to notice that it differs in some
striking particulars from the nearly related American-bittern (Botaurus
lentiginosus). Not only is " the common " bittern (B. stellaris) a more
brightly hued bird, but the remiges are conspicuously barred, while in
the American bird — which is also reckoned a British species — these
1 British Birds [magazine], i. 332.
VOL. IV. 2 X
342 THE HERON
feathers are of one uniform, dull hue. From this we may gather that
the protective value of the coloration is not dependent on the precise
tint or pattern of the plumage, but on its general resemblance to the
surroundings, and one other factor — the assumption of a peculiar
pose at just those critical moments when alone the coloration is of
vital importance. Then the part played by pose and pigment is
startling. Briefly, the bird, if alarmed, tilts up the body, and thrusts
the neck and head straight upwards, so that the tip of the beak points
skywards, and having assumed this attitude it remains as motionless
as the reeds surrounding it on all sides. Long lines of dark chesnut-
brown running down the front of the neck simulate the shadows
between the reeds, the lighter background and thick dark lines
simulate dead reed-stems. As a consequence, it is only by the merest
chance that the presence of the bird is detected, and even then
it is by no means easy, and after a close approach, to elicit any
sign of life. At times the body is held in a crouching position, and
the head drawn close down at the shoulders. Then woe betide
the man or beast who comes too near, for with a lightning speed the
long neck and dagger-like beak are shot upwards, and with terrible
effect.
No observations seem to have been made, or at any rate recorded,
as to the part played by the peculiar erectile frill which, as we have
remarked, runs down each side of the neck and over the back of the
head. It is present in both sexes and in young birds, and, strictly
speaking, should be regarded as an ornament, a secondary sexual
character, originally a seasonal adornment of the male, but now per-
manent, and assumed with the juvenile plumage. It is quite possible
that it may be used, on occasion, as a terrifying agent, adding ferocity
to the bird's appearance, when endeavouring to repel enemies other
than man.
That this frill may be used during the " courting " period, as in
the case of the great crested-grebe, wherein both sexes are in like
manner similarly adorned, is quite possible. But we unfortunately
THE BITTERN 343
know nothing further of this important period in their life-history
than that during this time, and then only, the males emit the strange
booming sounds which have attracted the attention of poet and
peasant alike.
But we need not despair. Even now this lamentable gap in our
knowledge may be filled, and by observations, too, on birds breeding
in Great Britain. And this because during last year, after the lapse
of more than a generation, the bittern bred with us once again, and
succeeded too in rearing young ! This remarkable event has been
vividly recounted by Miss E. L. Turner, who had the good fortune to
assist in the exploration for, and discovery of, a nest of young on one
of the Norfolk "broads" during the summer of 1911. She tells the
story of this wonderful event l tersely and vividly, but we can do no
more here than simply summarise her account thereof. Nothing of
the period of incubation came under observation, for when the nest
was discovered the birds were already fledged, though the adults had
been booming from January till June (1911). The young were not found
till 7th July, and then only after a most laborious search. The nest
had been placed amid a great reed-bed, and could only be approached
by wading up to the knees in water. Only one young bird was actually
found, but since the nest presented the appearance of having been
trampled down, and since the surface was covered with disintegrated
feather-sheaths — and we suspect also powder-down — to the depth of
nearly an inch, it was assumed that more than one youngster had
been reared there. But be that as it may, the nestling which was
found was discovered in the pose characteristic of his race when
fearful of detection — with the dagger-like beak " thrust straight up-
wards, the bright eyes half closed, the feathers of the head and neck
smoothed downwards, their alternate light and dark bars blending with
the reeds ; while even the . . . bulky body, owing to its broken up
colouring, seemed absolutely to ' melt ' into its surroundings : the big
green legs and feet being partially submerged . . . might easily have
1 Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Nat. HM. Soc., vol. ix., 1012, p. 433.
344 THE HERON
been mistaken for reed-stalks." l No sooner, however, did he realise
that his disguise was pierced, than he at once assumed the offensive
and stood "at bay." The wings were now drooped, and the body
lowered into a crouching position, while the feathers were set on end
to give an appearance of ferocity which was by no means wanting, for
every now and then he would suddenly strike upwards with his
pointed beak with terrible suddenness : the whole force of the
suddenly upspringing body being behind the stroke. The blow
delivered, he crouched again for another spring. And in this heaving
up and down, Miss Turner remarks, he recalled the behaviour of the
young cuckoo under like circumstances.
The bittern's use of its bill for offensive purposes was noted by
Yarrell. " It will," he writes, " strike at dog and man ; and some care
is necessary, when about to handle one, to avoid a blow from the point
of its sharp beak. If a dog advances upon one that is not entirely
disabled, the bird throws itself on its back, like a hawk, and fights
with its claws as well as with its bill ; and, owing to the length to
which the drawn in neck can suddenly be extended, approach is often
attended with danger to the incautious."
When the young bird found by Miss Turner was actually handled
and afterwards released, he gave vent to curious "bubbling" sounds,
such as may readily be produced by blowing through a straw into a glass
of water, and these seem to be peculiar to the nestling period of life.
Miss Turner's observations seem to show that the work of pro-
viding for the young is shared by both parents. As she saw no food
carried by the parents she infers that the young are fed on regurgitated
food. If so, the fish is presumably carried in the gullet and passed to
the young without pre-digestion, for a nestling taken in Holland by
Mr. E. W. Wade, when handled, " threw up a fish a quarter of its own
size, with the head only half digested." 2
1 British Birds [magazine], vol. v. p. 95.
1 Ibid., vol. i. p. 334. Mr. Kirknian, however, informs me that young gannets are frequently
fed on fish of which the heads have been half-digested in the stomach of the parents, as is
evident from the fact that the fish were seen to be disgorged by the young head first.
LITTLE-BITTEKN 345
The bird found by Miss Turner, we may assume, was the youngest
in the nest ; and this because there is good evidence to show that incu-
bation begins as soon as the first egg is laid, inasmuch as there is always
a considerable disparity in size between the occupants of the nest, as
is the case with young barn-owls (Strix ftammea), for example.
There is much, as we have already remarked, to be done before
we can claim to have anything like a complete life-history of this
wonderful bird. And among other things there are certain state-
ments by older writers which need confirmation, or, what is more
likely, refutation. Such, for example, is the statement made by the
Rev. Mr. Stonehouse, and quoted by Yarrell, that the bittern changes its
haunts at night, and rising by spirals attains a vast height. Montagu,
while rightly scouting the belief, prevalent in his day, that the bittern's
boom was made by thrusting the beak into a reed or into water, went
almost as wide of the truth when he insisted that this strange, weird
cry was uttered while the bird was high in the air. Most other authors
agree that the flight of this bird is heron-like, and that it is often
accompanied by a hoarse croak not unlike that of the greatcrested-
grebe. But the heron also cries when on the wing.
Under adequate protection a few pairs, at least, of this most
valuable bird may be induced annually to breed among us, and in this
case we shall almost certainly find a historian who will be able to give
us a new history of this most interesting of our native birds : a few
days with a note-book and a camera will accomplish more than a
century of egg-collecting and shooting.
LITTLE-BITTERN
[R B. LODGE and F. C. R JOURDAIN]
Although this bird has been obtained on many occasions in the
British Isles, and observed under circumstances which leave little
doubt that it has occasionally bred with us, absolute proof of the
346 THE HERON
fact has always been wanting. Most of the occurrences on record
in England come from the southern counties and East Anglia, but
it has been known to stray even to the Orkneys and Shetlands, and it
has visited Ireland on some thirty occasions. In Mr. H. Stevenson's
article on this species in the Birds of Norfolk,1 which was published in
1870, it is stated that out of fourteen specimens procured in the
Broad district, the exact dates of which are given, nine are known to
have been killed in the summer months (May to July), four in winter,
and one in autumn, so that it may reasonably be inferred that some
of these were breeding at the time.2
The little-bittern is a summer visitor to Europe, crossing the
Straits of Gibraltar early in May, and making its way across the
Mediterranean by way of Malta and Sicily, and also to Greece, where
it occasionally arrives in the latter part of March, or more commonly
in early April. It appears to migrate by night, either singly or in
small flocks, and Kleinschmidt and Hennicke state that the
characteristic notes may often be heard from these parties when in
flight overhead. Naumann states that in the migration season he
has seen single birds rise high in the air at nightfall from a marsh and
disappear in the distance. On first reaching the shores of Southern
Europe after the passage of the Mediterranean, these birds may be
met with in the most unlikely places, but soon pass on and gradually
disperse to their breeding-grounds on the Continent. In flight the
attitude of this species is not unlike that of a miniature purple-heron.
The neck is retracted in the same S-like position which is adopted by
the true herons, in this respect differing from the bittern, which may
be seen flying with extended neck, as do also the storks.3 The wing
strokes are, however, more rapid than those of the herons, and, as
remarked by Naumann, if it were not for the fact that the wings are
much broader and more rounded, the flight might be compared to
1 Vol. ii. pp. 154-159.
1 See also Lubbock, Observation* on the Fauna of Norfolk, 2nd ed., pp. 89-90; and Zoologist,
1895, p. 98.
9 The figure in Yarrell, ed. 4, vol. iv. p. 200, is quite erroneous, and gives an entirely false
impression of this species.
LITTLE-BITTERN 347
that of the pigeons. The localities favoured by this species for
breeding purposes are marshes or lagoons with thick beds of reed and
sedge, preferably when interspersed with pools of open water and an
occasional willow-tree. As may easily be imagined, anything like
close observation of its habits under these conditions is in most cases
impossible, especially as it is nocturnal in its habits, and spends most
of the day in sleep. One of the writers of this article visited a
breeding-place of this species in an extensive reed-bed in Hungary.
The water was about four feet deep, and in many places the surface
was covered with an accumulation of vegetable debris, through which
the thick stems of the reeds, which in such places grow to an enormous
height, had forced their way. The exertion required in order to make
a passage through this thickly growing obstruction, in tolerably deep
water and under a powerful sun, was naturally excessive. The noise
also necessarily made in such a progress, the breaking of the reeds
and the splashing of water, together with frequent stumbles and
consequent plunges in the effort to recover oneself, made it practically
impossible to surprise any bird unaware on its nest. Hence it
invariably happened that the bird slipped silently off the nest and
crept away before the nest itself came within the field of vision, which
was restricted to a few feet. [R. B. L.]
Occasionally, however, they may be met with under more
favourable auspices. Thus in Holland, while punting close to a belt
of reeds, a little-bittern got up and flew right across our bows. We
landed at once and found it tolerable walking, only here and there
taking us up to our knees. Presently a second bird got up ahead of
us, and almost at once we came upon the nest — a mere hollow in a
heap of dead sedge, with five fresh eggs. Two birds got up not far
away, and we found a second nest partly sheltered by a sallow, but
this time the nest was empty [P. c. R. j.]. Though not exactly sociable
in its breeding-habits, it is not uncommon to find several pairs
breeding together in quite a restricted district. Thus in some parts
of Spain they are extremely common locally. Mr. H. Noble describes
348 THE HERON
how upwards of twenty nests, in course of building, or containing
from one to six eggs, were seen on a single morning in beds of high
reeds. It must not be supposed that all nests are placed in the water :
on the contrary, it will also breed on boughs of recently pollarded
willows, and in such cases the nests look not unlike those of wood-
pigeons, except that there are generally a few rushes in them.1 The
late Herr Hocke states that on some of the larger ponds of North
Germany it might be said formerly to have bred in colonies, and
mentions one pond of about fifty acres on which in the sixties some
forty pairs were breeding.
Some of the nesting-sites which have been recorded are, however,
still more remarkable. Thus Gloger records one in an old magpie's
nest : others are said to have been found in hedges and thick bushes,
while Chernel mentions one found built on to a blackheaded - gull's
nest in a gullery. Extraordinarily large clutches have also been met
with exceptionally : thus nests with 10 and 12 eggs are on record.
They are laid on consecutive days, and Hocke's observations tend to
show that the period of incubation is shorter even than the 16 or
17 days which Naumann assigned to it. The presence of these
birds on any particular piece of water may generally be detected by
the very peculiar and characteristic note of the male, which is uttered
during the day when the weather is dull, as well as at nightfall, and
bears some resemblance to that of the common-bittern. Naumann
writes it as "pumm " or "pumb," Hocke as "prump," Lilford as a deep
guttural cough, " ough" and H. M. Wallis as " waugh-h-h" After listen-
ing to it for some time in Friesland, it seemed to resemble the noise
made by the impact of a heavy mallet on a pile more closely than any-
thing else.2 One hears the thud and can almost see the mallet being
raised for the next stroke, till three strokes have been given ; then the
workman pauses for a while, and again the sound travels over the
water. Wallis compares the sound when heard at a distance to the
1 See Ibis, 1902, p. 81.
! J. H. Gurney (Zoologist, 1895, p. 98) compares it to the sound made by a paviour ramming
stones, or the distant barking of a dog.
LITTLE-BITTERN 349
coughing note of a gas-engine, and it has been described as a bark,
but this seems to give quite a wrong impression of the note. Hocke
states that he has heard it from 18th May to 13th July, or even 20th.
Naumann states that when the hen is disturbed from the nest she
makes a quacking noise, which he writes as "gdih, gath" or "get, get,"
and this has been copied into many books. Hocke, who found over a
hundred nests at different times, states that he never heard anything
but varied intonations of the same note, and neither of the writers of
this paper has heard any sound from birds which they have flushed.
After the young are hatched they remain in the nest for some days
and are brooded by the old bird. Both parents share in the work of
providing food, which is brought to the nest and ejected there for the
young to feed themselves. The newly hatched young are quaint little
objects, covered with fine ochreous coloured down, which is longest
on the head. When only ten or twelve days old they have a very good
idea of self-defence, and will strike with incredible speed at the eyes
of an unwary opponent. One young bird which Hocke had taken from
the nest struck at the nostril of a puppy which approached it, and
when another larger dog came up, attracted by the howls of the victim,
it too was struck with considerable force on the nose in the same way.
After delivering its blow, the bittern instantly assumed an attitude of
serene contemplation !
One of the most curious points about this interesting bird is the
power which it possesses of assuming attitudes which in its natural
surroundings are wonderfully protective. Lodge was once fortunate
enough to witness an instance of this in Montenegro. Seeing a marsh-
harrier sitting on a pile of dead reeds on the far side of a reed-grown
lake, he approached in order to see if there was a nest. After the
harrier had flown off, on reaching the spot he was surprised to see a
curious object on the water, which appeared to be a bird of some sort.
Gradually drawing nearer, it was recognised as a living little-bittern.
It was lying flat on the water in a shapeless lump, as if dead ; in fact
it was so unbird-like in appearance that it was difficult to realise that
VOL. iv. 2 Y
350 THE HERON
it was a bird at all. Wading slowly and cautiously up to it, he grasped
it by the neck, without its making the slightest effort to elude capture.
On taking it back to the boat, it sat contentedly on his knee, with-
out making any attempt to struggle or escape. Towards evening
it became more lively, and occasionally pecked his fingers. In all
probability this attitude was assumed in order to escape the notice
of the marsh-harrier, and retained owing to the approach of the boat
and its occupants.1
Another protective attitude which is even more frequently
assumed is that in which the beak is pointed perpendicularly upward
and the body stretched out to its fullest extent. Mr. H. M. Wallis, while
working some reed-beds in one of the Italian lakes, caught sight of
one of these birds sitting side-on, and walked towards it, when it
instantly disappeared. It had turned its buff breast to the observer
and assumed the attitude of perpendicular rigidity, with the result
that it seemed to melt into the background. When Mr. Wallis walked
round it in a circle it revolved slowly in the same direction, always
keeping its breast towards him, and, like the bird referred to above,
allowed itself to be caught by the neck without attempting to escape,
scratching and pecking a little after a while, but soon resigning itself
to the inevitable.
Advantageous though this attitude is under ordinary circumstances,
it is sometimes assumedfrom habit, when nothing is to be gained thereby.
Mr. H. F. Witherby describes how a wounded bird perched on a reed,
gripping it firmly with one foot above another, and when approached
pointed its bill upwards and stretched out its body, till it looked
extremely attenuated. In this case, however, it was quite in the open,
and not in the broken light of a reed-bed, so that it could not well
have been more conspicuous. Here it remained rigid and motionless,
although Mr. Witherby went within a few yards of it.
1 For further studies on the protective attitudes of this species see A. F. Griffith, Zoologist,
1894, p. 454, pi. 3. Probably the bird figured on the left in the plate would have assumed the
attitude witnessed by Mr. Lodge if it had not been in such a confined space.
LITTLE-BITTERN 351
As is natural in the case of a bird which spends a great part of its
life in reed-beds, the little-bittern has extraordinary powers of grasping
in its long green toes and claws, and when alarmed can make its way
up the big reed-stems with remarkable speed. The loosely jointed legs
also enable it to make good its foothold in almost any position, and
with the tarsi at different angles, so that it shows a curious indifference
to the position of its feet, sometimes grasping a reed with the feet
crossed, or standing with the toes of one foot pointing in quite a differ-
ent quarter to the toes of the other. It can also revolve without the
necessity of altering its foothold when adopting the upright protective
attitude. So strong is the prehensile power of the toes, that one bird,
when taken in the hand, curled its hind-toes up so that the point of each
not only touched the base, but actually curled half way up upon itself.1
The usual time of its departure for winter quarters in Africa is
during the last weeks of September in middle Europe, and it is only
occasionally that a few stragglers delay their start till the first half of
October.
1 Zoologist, 1894, p. 455.
CORMORANTS
[OBDER : Ciconiiformes. SUBORDER : Steganopodes. FAMILY : Phdlacrocoracidce]
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES
[E. HARTERT. F. C. R. JOURDAIN. W. P. PYCRAIT. A. L. THOMSON]
CORMORANT [Phalacrocorax cdrbo (Linnaeus). Great or black-cormorant ;
coalgoose, mochrum elder (Kent) ; Isle of Wight parson (Hants) ; palmer,
scarf or scart (Scotland) ; loering (old), brongie (young) (Shetlands). French,
grand cormoran ; German, Kormoran (usually) or Kormoran-Scharbe ; Italian,
cormorand].
1. Description. — The cormorant agrees with the shag and the gannet in
having all the toes enclosed in a common web, but it may at all times be distinguished
from the shag, with which alone it can be confused, by its larger size, its blue-black
metallic gloss, and the presence of fourteen tail feathers. The sexes are alike, and
there is a slight seasonal change of coloration. (PL 170.) Length about 36 in.
[914 mm.]. The general coloration is of a metallic steel-blue, almost black, save
on the wing-coverts and scapulars, which are of a bronze-brown hue " laced " with
black. The nuptial dress is distinguished by the development of a nuchal crest,
and numerous long, white filoplumes on the sides of the head and neck, imparting
a hoary appearance. A still more striking development of filoplumes takes place
over the thigh, where they form a large, oval, white patch. Beak and legs black,
gular pouch yellow, iris green. The juvenile dress differs from that of the adult in
that the general coloration is of an ash-brown hue with a metallic green gloss on the
back. The wings are coloured as in the adult, save that the major coverts have
brown tips. The under parts are of an ash-brown ; frequently, however, the centre
of the breast and abdomen are more or less conspicuously white. The iris is brown.
The young in down are of a dark sooty-brown colour, [w. P. P.]
2. Distribution. — In the British Isles the cormorant is chiefly confined to
362
PLATE LXXII
I'liuto hy Kik-y 1-
Shag's nest and eggs
Photo by Kiley Fortune
Shag's nest and young
Photo by P. B. Kirkman
Cormorants at their nests— Lesser blackbacked-gulls In the foreground (Fames)
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 353
the precipitous coasts of Great Britain, although there is one colony on an isolated
crag in the Disinwy valley, Merionethshire, four or five miles inland. It outnumbers
the shag along the east coast from Flamborough northward, and in Wales (with the
exception of Pembrokeshire), but on the rest of our coast-line and in the Hebrides,
Orkneys, and Shetlands it is less abundant than the shag. In Ireland it is general
along the coast except in the north and west, and breeds in several inland localities.
Outside the British Isles it is found in the Fseroes, Iceland, and Southern Greenland,
while on the Continent it breeds locally along the coasts and in some districts also
inland. Northward it ranges to the Stavanger Fjord and the shores of the White
Sea, but is rare in the Baltic, and only found on its southern coasts and in South
Sweden : large colonies formerly existed in Holland, though now decreased in
numbers, and locally it is found in North-west France, Germany, Hungary, the
Danube valley (where enormous colonies exist near the mouth), Italy and the
adjacent islands, the Balkan Peninsula, the Black Sea, Asia Minor, and Northern
Africa. In Asia it ranges across the continent to Kamtschatka and Japan, but the
races which inhabit India, Burma, etc., and Australia are probably subspecifically
distinct, as also are S. African birds. In North America, however, it is found on
the eastern side from Hudson's Bay to Carolina and Georgia, but is absent from
the Pacific side. [F. c. R. J.]
3. Migration. — Resident, breeding on many parts of the British coasts, and,
especially hi Ireland, in some cases in inland localities (see preceding paragraph). Non-
breeding birds may be seen in summer on many waters, marine and inland, in the
neighbourhood of which the species does not nest. In winter the cormorant is widely
distributed in British seas, and is of fairly frequent occurrence on inland waters.
There is evidence of a partial southward movement in early winter. The majority
" retire southward " from Yorkshire in winter, although the number remaining at
that season is apparently on the increase : on the north of Kent, where the species
is not found in summer, the number of winter visitant birds appears to be greater
than formerly (cf. Nelson, B. of Yorlcs., 1907, pp. 375, 378 ; and Ticehurst, B. of Kent,
1909, p. 300). On the North Wales coast the cormorant is resident, and on the
Dumfriesshire coast " a very common non-breeding resident " (cf. Forrest, Fauna of
N. Wales, 1907, p. 249 ; and Gladstone, B. of Dumfries., 1910, p. 221). Birds marked
in the nest on the Saltee Islands (off Co. Wexford) and the Scilly Isles respectively
have been recorded from the coast of Finisterre, Western France, in November and
December of their second winter (cf. Witherby, British Birds, vol. v. pp. 186, 314).
A gregarious species at all seasons. [A. L. T.]
354 CORMORANTS
4. Nest and Eggs. — Although formerly the cormorant is known to have
nested on trees in Norfolk, at the present time the only breeding-places in Great
Britain are on ledges of cliffs or on rocky islets. It is naturally a gregarious
breeder. In Ireland there are several colonies in which the nests are built in
trees. On the Continent it is found in Holland nesting among the reeds on the
meers of Friesland, and in the Dobrogea there is a colony of some seventeen
hundred nests high up in partly submerged willows. The materials used, and the
manner of building, vary according to situation. In trees the nests are mainly built
of sticks or heather stems, lined with grasses, green rushes, straw, etc., while on islets
at sea the chief material used is seaweed. Both sexes share in nest construction,
according to Naumann. (PI. LXXH.) The eggs, in number usually four, occasionally
five or only three, and rarely six, are generally elongated in shape; they have
a blue undershell, but the greater part of it is covered by a thick chalky deposit,
which has a tendency to leave patches of the blue undershell exposed. When
much incubated the soft chalky surface is frequently much stained by the nest
material. (PL V.) Average size of 84 eggs, 2-52x1-55 in. [64x39-4 mm.].
Incubation is shared by both sexes, and lasts four weeks almost exactly, as
observed in a wild state by Hantzsch, Lee (26 to 28 days), and Schmidt, and also in
confinement. The breeding season in the British Isles begins in the latter part
of April, and fresh eggs may be obtained in May ; but in the Shetlands, Saxby says,
it does not begin to breed till the middle of May. There seems little doubt that
occasionally, at any rate, second broods are reared, and that the fresh eggs which
may be found in June are due to this. In Southern Europe the breeding season is
sometimes earlier, and near the coast eggs may be taken in March, while in the
Dobrogea I met with fresh clutches at the beginning of April. [F. c. B. j.]
5. Food. — Fish, up to the biggest kind which they can swallow. The food
of the young consist also of fish, as far as at present known (see also Shag).
They are caught by diving only. The young are fed by both parents, in the
manner described, p. 361. [E. H.]
SHAG [Phalacrocorax grdculus (Linnaeus). Green-cormorant, crested-cormorant ;
shoalster (Devon) ; scarf or scart (Scotland). French, cormoran huppe ;
German, Krdhen-Scharbe ; Italian, marangone col ciuffo].
i. Description. — The shag may readily be distinguished from the cormorant,
which it closely resembles, by its conspicuously smaller size and twelve tail feathers.
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 355
The sexes are alike, and there is a slight seasonal change of plumage. (PI. 1 7 1 . ) Length
26 in. [660 mm.]. The almost black plumage is glossed with a metallic oil-green. In
the spring a recurved frontal crest is developed, but this is lost as soon as incubation
begins. There is no white thigh-patch, nor do filoplumes appear in the neck as in
the cormorant. The gular pouch is black, spotted with yellow, and the inside of
the mouth and gape are orange-yellow ; the iris emerald-green ; and the tarsus and
toes are black. The juvenile plumage resembles that of the cormorant at the same
stage, but the wing-coverts are greyish brown with oil-green reflections, and the
breast is never white. The young in down are of a dark sooty brown, [w. P. P.]
2. Distribution. — The shag breeds locally on the rocky coasts of Great
Britain, but is absent from the south coast of England east of the Isle of Wight, and
also from the east of England, with the exception of a few pairs in Berwick and
Northumberland. On the east coast of Scotland it is not common, but on the west
side, as well as in the south-west of England, it outnumbers the cormorant. This is
also the case hi Ireland hi the north-west. Outside the British Isles and their out-
lying groups, it is also found hi the Faeroes and Iceland ; while on the Continent it
breeds on the coast of Norway to within the Arctic Circle, and along the Murman
coast of Russian Lapland. It is absent from the Baltic and the flat eastern shores
of the North Sea, but reappears in the Channel Isles and the Atlantic coasts of
France, Spain, Portugal, and Marocco ; but from the Straits of Gibraltar eastward
is replaced by the Mediterranean race. It is a resident species throughout its range.
[F. o. B. j.]
3. Migration. — Resident on many parts of the British coasts (see preceding
paragraph), and rather more generally distributed in whiter, although rarely occur-
ring inland at any season. No longer breeding hi Yorkshire, it is still known as a
bird of passage, while to Kent it is an irregular whiter wanderer : a very scarce
visitor to Dumfriesshire, but resident hi North Wales (cf. Nelson, B. of Yorks., 1907,
p. 379 ; Ticehurst, B. of Kent, 1909, p. 301 ; Gladstone, B. of Dumfries., 1910, p. 223 ;
and Forrest, Fauna of N. Wales, 1907, p. 251). A few breed on the east of Ireland,
but their numbers are increased hi winter : on the west it is always abundant, and
hi whiter flocks of great size — sometimes of thousands — are formed (cf. Ussher and
Warren, B. of Ireland, 1900, p. 154). [A. L. T.]
4. Nest and Eggs. — Although it will at times breed on a cliff ledge like
the cormorant or among boulders close to the shore, the shag shows a decided pre-
ference for sea-caves where available, and has never been known to breed at any
distance from the sea or hi trees. The materials of the nest are chiefly heather
356 CORMORANTS
stalks, seaweed, and a lining of grass. (PI. LXXII.) The decaying seaweed is often very
offensive, and many of the breeding colonies are inf ested with lice. Naumann states
that nesting material is provided by both sexes, but Tomison asserts that one bird
builds while the other provides material, and Blagg notices that nests with in-
cubated eggs, and even young, had received recent additions of fresh green weeds.
The eggs are similar in appearance to those of the cormorant, and have the same
imperfect surface deposit of white chalky matter almost concealing the blue under-
shell, but are smaller hi size. They vary, as a rule, from 3 to 5 in number, but
clutches of 6 are occasionally met with, and 8 eggs were found in one nest in Norway
(Collett). (PL V.) Average size of 38 eggs, 2-51x1-51 in. [63-8x38-3 mm.].
Naumann states that both sexes share in incubation, and that the period lasts
from 24 to 27 days. The breeding season begins as a rule in April, but eggs have
been found in the Orkneys exceptionally as early as 24th February, and also in
March hi the Shetlands. There is no doubt that a second brood is reared, as many
birds are to be found with fresh eggs at the end of June, and young have been seen
hi the nests in the Orkneys as late as mid-September. [F. c. B. J.]
5. Food. — Same as the cormorant. Graba (quoted in Naumann, Vogel
Mitteleuropas) mentions as part of the shag's diet three species of fish which live
on the sea bottom, viz. Coitus scorpio, Clupea sprattus, and young of Pleuronectes
hippoglossus. In the stomach of a nestling dissected by Mr. W. P. Pycraft were
found small Crustacea, a periwinkle, remains of small fish, as well as otoliths and
vertebrae. [E. H.]
Plate 170
Cormorants in breeding plumage
By A. W. Seaby
*"»e
v«
CORMORANT 357
CORMORANT
[E. HARTERT]
The common or black-cormorant is a resident species in the
British Isles, and may be called abundantly distributed on their
coasts and some of the larger inland waters. There being com-
paratively few rivers, hardly any of which can be called large, and
the shores of many of the inland lakes being too thickly inhabited,
we find the cormorant with us chiefly around the coasts, for it is a
shy and wary bird, which is, as a rule, not fond of the neighbourhood
of men. On the continent of Europe and elsewhere, however, these
birds are chiefly frequenters of inland waters, such as lakes and large
rivers.
The food consists exclusively of fish, small as well as the largest
which can be swallowed. All sorts of fish are eaten, and no choice is
made, except that a fondness for eels is apparent, and mentioned by
most writers.1
The cormorant dives for its prey. When swimming it makes
a short jump, with closed wings, as if surmounting some obstacle, the
tail being used like a lever in springing up, and goes down under
water, often almost perpendicularly (Scotsman, 3rd Feb. 1912). It then
swims along under water rapidly, using its feet alone, and never the
wings, though it lifts them a little when turning round, or when
nearing the end of a tank in captivity, so as to break the impetus of
its movement. Fish are taken from crevices or swimming. Writers
who said that cormorants usually used their wings in swimming
under water must undoubtedly have been mistaken, unless they had
1 Radde saw a cormorant in captivity (in the Zoological Gardens at Vienna) catching and
swallowing swallows flying across the ground ; and in the Faeroes the natives accuse cormorants
of attacking and eating live lambs. The former is doubtless a perversity due to captivity,
and the latter requires confirmation. C. S. John (Natural History and Sport in Moray, p. 171)
states that the species has been known to swallow and bring to land a moorhen.
VOL. IV. 2Z
358 CORMORANTS
before them partly disabled birds ; though in cases of emergency, or
when exceptional efforts are required, the wings may occasionally be
used. When not under water the cormorant swims like other water-
birds, but frequently submerges its body, so that little more than
the head is seen from a distance. The fish, when caught, is regularly
brought up to the surface and swallowed entire, but very small ones
are also, according to some writers, swallowed under water. The
voracity of the species is enormous, and one observer states in the
Field that one hundred and eighty small fish were eaten within
an hour and a half.1 Even in the roughest sea cormorants can fish
successfully.
When resting, cormorants frequently shake their wings or stand
for long periods with them spread out as do falcons, eagles, and vultures.
The bill is frequently opened, and this is perhaps due to the nostrils
being almost entirely closed, so that breathing becomes only possible
through the mouth. The flight of cormorants is fairly fast, and they
fly with outstretched necks and feet. F. Davies saw a cormorant
ascending in a regular spiral " until it became a mere speck and finally
disappeared from view" (Field, 1901). This habit is probably unusual,
though often observed in certain hawks, especially when nesting or
pairing. The same wheeling round and upwards, until nearly out of
sight, is also described in the Zoologist, 1875, p. 4327.
Cormorants in winter often collect together in great numbers,
and doubtless those nesting on inland waters in northern latitudes
must resort to the sea-shores, when the lakes or rivers are frozen over
in cold weather, but they do not emigrate. According to Radde and
other observers, when massed together2 they fish systematically in
co-operation, proceeding in a long line, and thus searching the shallow
waters for a couple of miles or more (Radde, Ornis Caucasica, p. 468).
1 Radde found that a cormorant in captivity ate in the morning twenty-six and in the
afternoon seventeen fish, of an average length of 20 cm., and he reckons that an adult bird
requires four pounds of fish within twenty-four hours.
* Radde saw from six to eight thousand massed together on the Caspian Sea, and many
thousands can be seen in company in Egypt in winter.
CORMORANT 359
Though the observations are doubtlessly correct, it is doubtful whether
an actual co-operative hunt takes place ; perhaps an unusual number
of birds, in such cases, had been attracted by shoals of fish in shallow
places, where the cormorants could dive to the ground. On the other
hand, it has been asserted by several good observers that pelicans act
in a similar way.
Nidification commences early in April, and the nests are placed
close together on trees, rocks, bushes, or reeds, according to the
opportunities offered by the locality. (See " Classified Notes.") They
consist of sticks, reeds, grass, seaweed, and other material, and are
generally saturated with the birds' excrement ; they vary in size, old
nests being used year after year, and becoming very bulky in time.
As a rule cormorants nest in colonies, sometimes small, sometimes of
hundreds and even thousands of pairs; but I have found in East
Prussia, on a tree on a little island in the Mauersee, a single nest,
several miles from a colony. The stench in a cormorant's rookery is
very strong, and much worse than in any heronry ; in fact, on some
of the oceanic islands, where other species of cormorants breed in
enormous numbers, it is so overpowering that it makes even sailors,
accustomed to smells and hardships, sick in an instant. The cor-
morant itself has a strong odour at all times of the year, different
from that of all other strong-smelling birds, such as Petrels for
example. A drawer of cormorant-skins in a museum, when opened,
lets the odour all over a large room.
Both parents brood, and incubation lasts four weeks. When the
young are hatched — naked, slate-coloured, blind, helpless, and very
ugly little creatures — the extraordinary feeding commences, for
cormorants are fed in a very peculiar and, what may appear to us,
repulsive way. The parent birds — both parents seem to feed — opens
its beak wide, and the baby puts its head and neck deep into the
throat of its parent, extracting partly digested fish from the crop.
This proceeding looks grotesque, and it appears as if the old bird
were swallowing its children. The young keep up an unpleasant
360 CORMORANTS
screech all the time, while the old birds are very silent as a rule,
but when nesting, and especially when their nests are threatened,
utter a hoarse croaking note. After a few days the slaty black nest-
lings get their sight and become covered with dull black, velvety
soft down, upon which follows the first plumage in due course. Only
when too large for the mode of feeding described above do the young
feed on fish disgorged by their parents in front of them.
Cormorants can easily be trained to catch fish. This is commonly
seen in Foochow and other places in China, and in this country the
late Captain F. H. Salvin possessed trained cormorants, which have
been seen by many persons. In the London Hippodrome fishing
cormorants have been exhibited for some time. In China a ring is
placed round the bird's neck, hindering it from swallowing its prey,
which the master takes from the somewhat unwilling bird. A good
many fish are thus caught during an afternoon, and this is considered
to be great sport.
SHAG
[E. HARTERT]
The shag differs from the common-cormorant in being entirely a
marine bird, fishing exclusively in the sea, and nesting only on ledges
on rocks, or in clefts and caves on the shore. Even in flying it never
crosses the land, but follows the coast-line, so as never to be out of
sight of the sea.
Otherwise the habits of the shag are almost the same as those of
the common-cormorant. The general cry is described as a hoarse
"gau, gau," the call " crew-a-oop " (Zoologist, 1866, p. 252). "The flight
is generally low ; I have never seen it take such elevated flights as the
cormorant; it is powerful and very rapid, making quick headway
against the strongest gales ; it is performed by rapid beats and occa-
Plate 171
Shags or green-cormorants
By A. W. Seaby
SHAG 361
sional sailings of the wing." ..." The impetus of its flight is very great."
. . . "It never fishes, as some have said, from the air, by suddenly
darting into the water" (Blake Knox, Zoologist, 1866).
Its voracity is as great as that of the cormorant, but it is
apparently not true that it gets gorged to such an extent that it can be
caught by hand. " A fish from two or three inches in width can be
swallowed by them, and an eel of two feet long is worked down by
degrees entire ; six full-sixed herrings are managed at a time, the
throat being capable of great distension."
The following is the sex display of the shag as described by Mr. E.
Selous : a —
" The way in which the male (green) cormorant makes love to the
female is as follows : Either at once from where he stands, or after first
waddling a step or two, he makes an impressive hop or jump towards her,
and stretching his long neck straight up, or even a little backwards, he
at the same time throws back his head so that it is in one line with it,
and opens his beak rather widely. In a second or so he closes it, and
then he opens and shuts it again several times in succession, rather
more quickly. Then he sinks forward with his breast on the rock, so
that he lies all along it, and fanning out his small stiff tail, bends it
over his back whilst at the same time stretching his head and neck
backwards towards it, till with his beak he sometimes seizes and
apparently plays with the feathers. In this attitude he may remain for
some seconds more or less, having all the while a languishing or
ecstatic expression, after which he brings his head forward again, and
then repeats the performance some three or four or perhaps half a
dozen times. This would seem to be the full courting display, the com-
plete figure so to speak, but it is not always fully gone through. It
may be acted part at a time. The first part, commencing with the
hop — the simple aveu as it may be called — is not always followed by the
ecstasy in the recumbent posture, and the last is still more often in-
dulged in without this preliminary, whilst the bird is sitting thus upon
1 Bird Watching, p. 166.
362 CORMORANTS
the rock. Again, a bird whilst standing, but not quite erect, will dart his
head forward and upward, and make with his bill as though snapping
at insects in the air. Then, after a second or two, he will throw his
head back till it touches or almost touches the centre of his back, and
whilst at the same time opening and shutting his beak, communicate a
quick vibratory movement to the throat. It looks as though he were
executing a trill or doing the tremolo so loved of Italian singers, of
which, however, there is no vocal evidence."
The female will sometimes cosset with her bill the throat or neck-
feathers of her recumbent adorer, a favour which he acknowledges by
" sundry little pleased movings of his head."
Green-cormorants begin in December to don their breeding-
plumage, when the crest on the head first makes its appearance
(J. Tomison, Annals Scot. Nat. Hist., 1904, pp. 18, 19). If the weather
is mild they begin nest-building as early as February, and complete
their nests in six to eight days. Often the nests are built so near
the water that the first heavy sea washes them away. One bird only
builds, while the other acts as carrier.
The female begins laying in April, sometimes even earlier. Mr.
Tomison saw fifty-four nests on a space of rock not more than thirty
yards square, some of them within a foot of one another.
The clutch consists of 2 to 5 eggs, 3 being the most common
number. " When the young are small, one of the parents acts as food
provider, but when they are a fortnight old it takes the united efforts
of both parents to convey sufficient food to their hungry offspring.
. . . The old bird comes in from the sea and alights at the side of the
nest. Immediately there is a rush made by the young to see who will
get to work first. The fortunate one shoves its head entirely out of
sight down the old one's throat, and by its movements seems to be
enjoying itself. I don't suppose they know what it means to get
enough ; but apparently the parent decides that question, for I have
often seen it shake off the one at work and give No. 2 a chance, and
then No. 3. ... I have seen five eggs and five young birds hatched, but I
SHAG 363
never saw more than three come to maturity" (loc. cit.). During rough
weather many nests are washed away. On 2nd June 1902 a storm
washed away fully two hundred nests on Sule Skerry, Orkney Islands.
" The old birds stuck by their nests as long as a vestige remained,
trying all in their power to protect young and eggs by spreading out
their wings as a covering, but all in vain" (Annals Scot. Nat. Hist.,
1904, p. 20).
THE GANNET
[ORDER: Ciconiiformes. SUBORDER: Steganopodes. FAMILY: Sulidce]
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES
[F. C. B. JOTTRDAIN. F. B. KIRKMAN. W. P. PYCRAFT. A. L. THOMSON]
GANNET [Stila bassdna (Linnaeus). Solan goose, Johnny Gant; Channel
goose (Devon). French, fou de Bassan ; German, Bass-tolpel ; Italian, no
popular name].
1. Description.1 — The gannet is always to be distinguished from the Cor-
morants by its pointed beak, that of the latter having a conspicuous hook at the tip.
The sexes are alike, and there is a slight seasonal change of plumage. (PI. 172.)
Length 33 in. [838 mm.]. The whole plumage is white save the wing quills, which
are dark brown, not black as stated by Howard Saunders and others, and a buff
tinge on the head and neck which is assumed in the spring. The iris is creamy
white or grey. The eye-rim, of smooth leather-like skin, is slate-blue. The beak
pale lead-blue, with deeper slate-coloured lines. The feet and toes dark slate-
coloured, relieved by narrow lines of bluish green proceeding along the ridge of each
toe and up the tarsus, towards the top of which they meet. Webs slate-coloured,
so also the inside of the mouth. The juvenile dress is of a blackish slate spotted
with white, but the spots speedily disappear. The young in down is white. The
first feather plumage is blackish brown thickly spotted white. The bird is
immature till the third or fourth year, during which period the blackish brown
gives way gradually to the white of the adult.2 [w. P. P.]
2. Distribution. — This species breeds in large colonies on precipitous islands
off the coasts of Scotland, Wales, and Ireland. The only English breeding-place
(Lundy Island) is now deserted, and there is only a single Welsh colony on Grasholm,
Pembrokeshire. In Scotland the Bass Rock in the Firth of Forth, Ailsa Craig in the
1 Some of the details in this description are from observations of the living bird by
F. B. Kirkman.
3 In captivity the adult plumage was acquired in 2| years (J. H. Gurney).
364
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 365
Firth of Clyde, Boreray in the St. Kilda group, Stack (or East Sulisgeir), forty miles
west of Stromness, and Sulisgeir (or North Barray), thirty-five miles north of the Butt
of Lewis, are the only known breeding-places ; while in Ireland there are colonies on
the Bull Rock (Co. Cork) and the Little Skellig, the latter being occupied by some
fifteen or twenty thousand birds. Outside the British Isles there is a breeding-station
on Mygances in the Faeroes, and several off the coast of Iceland (the Westmanneyjar,
Grimsey, and off Reykanes), but none on the Continent, though there are stations in
North America on the Magdalen Isles, the Gulf of St. Lawrence, etc. During the
winter months it is found in the Atlantic south to Marocco, the Azores, Madeira,
and Canaries, and possibly also Senegambia on the east side, while on the west it
ranges south to the Gulf of Mexico, but rarely visits the Baltic and Mediterranean.
[F. o. B. J.]
3. Migration.— Found all the year round in British waters, though less
widely distributed in summer (see preceding paragraph) : some birds, however,
leave our area in winter and wander as far south as the Canaries, but, on the other
hand, birds from the Icelandic and Faeroe stations doubtless visit British seas at that
season. The winter movements of this species are probably not migrations in the
ordinary sense, and are apparently directly connected with the food-supply, viz. the
herring. The gannet is a regular winter visitor to the English Channel, arriving
from the North Sea in October and November, and it is an occasional visitor to
North Wales during the herring season (cf. Ticehurst, B. of Kent, 1909, p. 302 ; and
Forrest, Fauna of N. Wales, 1907, p. 253). In Ireland the gannet has two breeding-
stations in the extreme south-west, and on the north coast birds from the Scottish
stations may be seen fishing in summer : birds seen off other parts of the coasts at
that season are probably non-breeding individuals. In winter it is less commonly
observed on the Irish coasts, but regular seasonal movements are to be noticed both
in spring and in autumn. Of these the spring movements are the most marked :
they sometimes begin as early as January, are in full swing in February, March, and
April, and often last to some extent into May and June. " During these months the
gannets pass northward, often continuously for a month or two together, both up
the coasts of Leinster and of West Connaught," probably to the west of Scotland
stations, or farther on. " From Carnsore Point, however, to the Fastnet we find the
general direction of the gannet' s flight during spring is south-westwards towards
their Irish breeding-haunts, though it is evident that many do not stop there, but
continue to move on northwards past Slyne Head and the Black Rock, as before
stated. The return movement is observed in autumn, though not so regularly " (cf.
VOL. IV. 3 A
366 THE GANNET
Ussher and Warren, B. of Ireland, 1900, pp. 155-6). Not very gregarious out of the
breeding season, being most often seen singly or in twos or threes. " During the
winter months dead gannets are often washed up on all parts of the coast [of North
Wales], and these are usually adults. On the other hand, the birds carried inland
by gales from time to time are generally immature" (Forrest, loc. cit.). [A. L. T.]
4. Nest and Eggs. — The nests are built in close proximity to one another on
ledges of precipices bordering on the sea, and the colonies are generally large and some-
times of enormous extent. In some places the usual material is seaweed, but in others
grasses, rushes, etc., while all kinds of articles, such as paper, rags, straw from wine
bottles, bits of cork, old clothes, and even the remains of a parasol have been found
in the nests. (PI. Lxxm.) Both sexes take part in the work of providing material
(E. T. Booth). The egg is white and somewhat similar in appearance to that of the
cormorant, but larger and showing less of the blue undershell : the chalky deposit
on the surface readily absorbs stains from the nest materials, so that many eggs are
covered with dark brown nest-stains. (PL V.) Average size of 55 eggs, 3*06 x 1-96 in.
[77'8x49*9 mm.]. Only a single egg is laid, which is incubated by the male and
female in turn (see p. 376), and the incubation period is extraordinarily long. Faber
erroneously gives it as 30 days ; but Hantzsch more correctly states that it lasts six
or seven weeks, and says that eggs can be easily blown after 2 to 3 weeks' incubation.
W. Evans found that one egg hatched under a hen on the 39th day, while a second
had a live chick in it on the 42nd day. E. T. Booth gives the period as noted in con-
finement as 43 days, and the Rev. Neil Mackenzie as 42 (Annals Scot. Nat. Hist., 1905,
p. 144). The first eggs may be laid as early as the end of March, but many birds
do not lay till the first half of May. Only a single chick is reared in the season,
but a second egg, a third (Mackenzie), or more (J. M. Campbell) are laid if the first
is taken. [F. c. B. jr.]
5. Food. — Fish, such as herring, pilchard, and sprat, that swim near the
surface ; also cuttle-fish, according to Naumann. The young are fed by both
parents, at first on semi-digested fish, later on fish disgorged whole (see pp. 378-9).
[F. B. K.]
PLATE LXXIII
Photo by F. B. Kirkman
Gannets, nests and young, the latter in three phases- (i) "White down, (2) Down with feathers sprouting,
(3) Feathered blackish with white spots
Photo by F. B. Kirkman
Young gannet, first phase, with down beginning to sprout. Mouth opened to show what remains
of the tongue, the small flat top part of the projection in the lower mandible
THE GANNET 367
THE GANNET
[F. B. KIRKMAN]
The genus Sula is nearly cosmopolitan in its range, but is chiefly
found in tropical or sub-tropical regions. Our gannet is its sole
representative on the northern waters and coasts of the Atlantic.1
The gannet's habitat is the open sea and the rock ledges where
it breeds ; it is seldom found inland, and only when storm-driven.
More or less gregarious at all times, it is especially so in the
breeding season, when colonies of several thousands are formed, the
birds being then found nesting close to one another on the ledges
of the precipitous sides of high sea-washed islands. The most
famous in British waters is the Bass Rock (Firth of Forth), which
gives to the species its scientific name (bassana), and its popular
name both in German (Bass-tOlpel) and in French (fou de Bassari).
Well known also are Ailsa Craig and St. Kilda on the west of Scotland.
The Lundy Island colony, the only one in England, used to be famous,
but it has now ceased to exist, owing to the stupid and brutal
persecution to which the birds were subjected.
Gannets arrive for the most part at their breeding-places in the
first quarter of the year, some earlier, others later. Records kept at
St. Kilda and the Bass Rock show that the first arrivals may appear
as early as the second week in January if the weather is favourable,
but it is not till February or March that the birds are present in large
numbers.2 Recorded movements of gannets northward along the
Irish coasts show further that the period of arrival may extend into
May and June, but it is not clear for what breeding-station these late
1 See " Classified Notes " for full details.
2 Records kept by J. M. Campbell, head-keeper at the Bass Rock Light Station, are— First
arrivals in 1908 in third week of January ; in 1909 in second week (in litt.). At St. Kilda a few
have been recorded as early as 13th January (Neil Mackenzie in the Annals Scot. Nat. Hist.,
1905, p. 144). See also " Classified Notes."
368 THE GANNET
birds are bound.1 The period of departure is nearly as protracted ;
it extends from September into December, from which it appears that
the breeding-places are left unoccupied only during a relatively small
portion of the year, a few weeks at most.2
Gannets have been seen arriving on the Bass Rock in pairs, and
this is stated to be the general rule, the exceptions being provided by
birds which have lost their mates or are selecting them for the first
time.3 The fact is interesting, because it is unusual : in the case of
most species of birds the males arrive first. It points also to the
conclusion that the birds pair for life.
The proceedings of the birds which arrive at the breeding-
quarters unmated have yet to be closely studied. There is so far
no evidence that their sex displays differ in any respect from those of
the birds which arrive paired. The displays of paired birds may be
observed repeatedly any day throughout the breeding season, and are
of considerable interest, because they are performed by both sexes.
As they have not hitherto been recorded, I propose to give a full
description, basing the same upon a very large number of notes
written down at the time of observation, during a stay of several
days, in June and August, upon the Bass Rock (1909). The notes
were supplemented by a number of photographs.
In its most complete form the gannet display is much as follows : the
two birds stand usually face to face, with wings spread and waving, and
with the tail bent down ; thus standing, they wag their heads violently
from side to side ; if they are close enough, their beaks collide with a
noise of castanets ; if still closer, the beaks no longer clack, but are,
so to speak, whetted one by the other, with something of the move-
ments of a knife playing on the steel. The performance is accom-
panied by a vociferous strident " urrah ! urrah f " which rings along
1 See "Classified Notes," under Migration.
1 From Sule Skerry the period of departure has been given as September to December ( J.
Tomison in the Annals Scot. Nat. Hist., 1904, p. 97). For the Bass Rock as late as December
(J. M. Campbell, in litt.).
* J. M. Campbell, in litt.
THE GANNET 369
the ledges. If, as may often occur, several birds are displaying at the
same time, the result is a scene of uproarious excitement. The cere-
mony above described may be varied by elaborate bows, the neck
being arched and the head passed quickly down one flank almost as
far as the back of the foot, the wings being spread and waved, and the
tail being both raised and bent, not as an effect of the forward and
downward movement of the body, but quite independently. A quick,
seemingly self-satisfied waggle of the tail sometimes concludes this
part of the performance, after which the birds may either resume the
bill-wagging, clacking, or whetting, or if their ardour has abated, be
content to cosset one another's plumage with the tip of the bill.
I have timed a display — beak-play, with intervals of bowing and
cosseting — to last one and a half minutes, and this as late as 18th
August. Any of the three actions may be performed separately. They
all express the same emotion, love or affection, and occur one or the
other or all nearly every time one of a pair returns to visit or relieve
its sitting mate. No birds, indeed, judging from appearances, are
more affectionate than gannets, but their affection has in it a queer
element of brutality, which is not, however, peculiar to them : it has,
in fact, already been noted in the case of the guillemot (vol. iii. p. 18).
Frequently a gannet, on alighting, will seize its sitting mate by the
skin of the head and pull the head about viciously this way and that,
before starting the usual demonstration of affection — beak-wagging,
etc. — in which the mate heartily joins in spite of the treatment suffered.
Sometimes it is the sitting bird that inflicts the injury. Owing to the
similarity of the sexes, and the fact that both incubate, it is difficult
to be sure whether or not this behaviour is confined to the male. On
most occasions it appears to arise merely from exuberance of spirits,
on others it is part of a deliberate effort by one of the pair to push
the other off the nest in order to take its place upon the egg. That
there may not be necessarily any sex element in the action is shown
by the fact that often the nestling is the victim.
The gannet's display will of course vary in details from individual
370 THE GANNET
to individual, and in the case of the same individual or pair according
to the greater or less strength of the passing emotion. I have seen
a pair, on the arrival of one of them, content merely to whet their bills
once. Others will continue to sit side by side and wag their heads
somewhat perfunctorily at intervals, just when the spirit moves them.
The wings, again, are sometimes only half spread, and the tail action
less vigorous. With respect to the tail, I may add that I have no
record of the independent up and down movement during the beak-
play — wagging, clacking, whetting ; it appears to be associated only
with the bowing movement, the tail being held stiffly deflected during
the beak-play. But verification is needed.
As is the case with other species, gannets frequently display when
alone, and they accompany the same with the strident " urrahs /" On
one occasion (12th August) I saw a bird after such a display rush to
a crevice and pick up, or pretend to pick up, some rubbish, decayed
sea-weed and the like, which might have served for nest material ; it
then desisted, and stood looking about it for a while, suddenly to be
once more galvanised into a transport of bowing and beak-wagging,
after which another interval of repose and another outburst. The
bird was quite alone and near no nest.
The sole mark of affection I saw shown by the parents for the
young took the form of cosseting or preening with the beak, if we
except the pinching and pulling of the head. Only on one occasion
(15th August) did I see a young gannet perform the head-wagging
movement. It was still in the down stage and was begging for food.
The wagging may have been merely a form of begging in the air, the
beak of the young bird not coming into touch with the beak or throat
of the parent in the usual way, to be described below.
The only occasions on which I noted one of a pair displaying,
when its mate, though present, did not, was when the latter was
engaged in quitting the nest or the ledge. I use the word " engaged,"
because the gannet's usual manner of quitting is itself a display of a
unique and curious kind. It is of frequent occurrence, but as it has not
THE GANNET 371
to my knowledge been described in any ornithological work,1 1 venture
to call particular attention to it. In its most complete form the action,
in the case of a sitting bird vacating the nest, is as follows : the bird,
instead of responding to the noisy salutations of its mate, rises silently,
with a solemn stiffness of demeanour, and stretches the neck and beak
right up and slightly backward. Scanning the heavens with fixed
preoccupied eyes, it turns slowly and cautiously round, as if treading
on thin ice, and then, leaving the nest to its mate, marches, still
gazing aloft, wings more or less erect, tail stiffly deflected, to
the edge of the ledge, whence it dives into the air, uttering an
almost indescribable note, a kind of long-drawn wailing " yee-orrrr"
This note, I found, varied greatly in pitch. It was never used except
to terminate the strange ritual here described, which was the regular
formal method of quitting the ledge, whether after changing places
on the nest or not. Like the sex display, it was subject to variation
in detail, and sometimes the bird dispensed altogether with the
posturing, being content to utter the note. Occasionally it omitted
both, especially when alarmed.2
I can offer no satisfactory explanation of this peculiarity in the
gannet's behaviour. It has four salient features — the erection of the
wings, the depression of the tail, the stiffly erect neck, and the final
wailing note. The erection of the wings may arise through some
process of mental association with the act of flight itself; it can
hardly be a preparation for flight, for there is no necessity for raising
the wings when, as sometimes happens, the bird is several feet away
from the edge. The same applies to the deflected tail, which may be
kept deflected when the bird is on the wing, in order to break the
velocity of the descent through the air. But how the rigid upright
neck and a special note should come to be associated with so simple
an act as taking flight, is very difficult to understand.
1 In British Birds [mag.], iv. 163 (1910), Mr. Bentley Beetham has described, as part of an
article on the " Position Assumed by Birds in Flight," the movements of the birds' wings
previous to " letting off," but not the ceremonious preliminaries.
8 The description of the quitting posture here given is based both on written and photo-
graphic evidence.
372 THE GANNET
The arrival on the ledge, though not so noteworthy as the
departure, is yet worth attention on account of the impetuosity with
which it is frequently performed, if for no other reason. A bird will
approach the ledges with a rushing flight, as if about to hurl itself
against the rock, and occasionally will, in fact, alight with consider-
able violence, or so clumsily as to lose its footing and fall several
yards down the face of the cliff before recovering its wings. The
inrushing flight is usually accompanied by the wild triumphant
"urrahf urrah!" and followed by the display of affection already
described.
The affection that the gannet shows for its mate is not extended
to its neighbours. Throughout the breeding season, any approach by
one bird towards the nest of another is resented in the most unmis-
takable manner, and the mere proximity of one nest to another is
itself a sufficient occasion for frequent demonstrations of hostility.
There is in a gannet colony — and the same applies, with few excep-
tions, to other nesting associations of birds — none of that " peace and
harmony" of which, according to one writer at least,1 the "most
charming descriptions " might be written.
A gannet expresses anger by puffing out the feathers of the head,
which then has almost a square appearance, and by opening its beak
in a menacing manner, uttering at the same time its strident urrah f
and sometimes also erecting its wings. It is stated by P. von
Woldicke, a friend of Naumann, that the circle of blue skin round
the eye becomes lighter when the bird is angered.2 When at close
quarters the gannet makes vicious passes at its opponent with its
beak, not to peck or strike but to grasp ; but as both combatants seem
more anxious to avoid being seized than to seize, they usually draw
back their beaks, at the moment of contact, with a lightning speed
not surpassed by that of the forward lunge. The beaks once inter-
locked, there follows a strenuous tug-of-war. Both birds may lie flat
1 Prince Kropotkiu, Mutual Aid, 1010, p. 35.
J Vogel Mitteleuropas, xi. p. 41, col. 2.
Plate 172
Gannets
By Winifred Austen
THE GANNET 373
upon the rock, with their wings outspread and pressed down so as to
get a good purchase, an attitude which renders them peculiarly vulner-
able to the pecks of third parties only too ready to profit by the
opportunity. The contest may be protracted, and sometimes ends by
both birds falling off the ledge into the sea, where they continue in a
semi-submerged state to struggle till one has had enough and manages
to escape.
It is more than probable that a gannet returns to the same nest-
site each year, and builds upon what is left of the old nest, if anything,
but direct evidence is lacking. As material is constantly being added
to the nest throughout the season — 18th August is the latest date
I have recorded — the structure is sometimes of considerable size.
It is built without art, and becomes gradually a flat, almost solid, mass
of seaweed, straw, food refuse, and other materials. The material is
obtained chiefly from the top of the island, the ledges, and the surface
of the sea. It is the latter that provides many of the curious articles
found in gannets' nests, such as golf-balls, toys, and candle-ends.1
E. T. Booth saw one of his captive gannets pluck feathers from its
own back and place them on the nest, a waste of labour, as it
happened, for the bird chanced to flap its wings shortly after and
the feathers were blown away.2 The gannet has another source of
supply in the nests of its neighbours, which, in their absence, it robs
in the most shameless, one might almost say conscientious manner,
and in doing so it suffers none of that interference from bystanders
without which, according to an authority already quoted,3 " no nesting
associations of birds could exist."
Both sexes take part in the building of the nest, but the share of
each is doubtful. On the only occasion when I could be certain of
the sex of the birds, owing to the evidence supplied by the act of
pairing, it was the male who brought the material and the female
who put it in place. It is worth adding that immature birds may
1 See also " Classified Notes." ' Rough Notes, vol. iii.
* Prince Kropotkin, op. cit., p. 58.
VOL. iv. SB
374 THE GANNET
occasionally be seen with nest material in their beaks, but I have
no proof that the nest-building instinct is ever developed in them
beyond this stage.
The one dirty yellow-stained egg is incubated by each of the pair
in turn for about six weeks.1 Sometimes the sitting bird declines to
leave the eggs. On one occasion I saw one of a pair alight, proceed
to the sitting bird, and try to push it bodily off the nest, at the same
time seizing and wringing its head. The victim made no effort to
resist, but simply sat fast. After a while the newcomer desisted,
began to cosset the injured head, and presently the incident closed
with the usual lively interchange of marks of affection, one standing,
the other still seated.
The gannet's method of incubation merits special attention. It
was first noted by Conrad Gesner in his Historic^ Animalium (1555).
He states that he learned from an " erudite Scotchman " that the
solan-geese "lay their eggs on rocks and cover them with one foot
during the process of incubation." The statement, subject to the
alteration of one foot to both feet, has been verified by E. T. Booth
from observations of birds in captivity,2 and by Mr. J. M. Campbell,
the head-keeper of the Bass Rock light-station.3 The bird places
over the egg the web of one foot and then the web of the other, and
lowers the body. The egg is not always wholly covered. The discolora-
tion of the egg — originally chalky white — is held to be due to this
habit, the underside of the webs being wet and dirty. The same
method of incubation has been observed in the case of Sula capensis 4
(S. Africa) and Sula serrator (Australia).5
The earliest date of hatching recorded is 10th May, by E. T. Booth,
but June is the most usual month. The latest record I have is
12th August. The young gannet is born naked, blind, and of a slaty
hue, a most unprepossessing little creature ; but in a few days it begins
1 See " Classified Notes." * Rough Notes, vol. iii.
3 The Scotsman, 28th June 1910 ; and in litt. 4 Ibis, 1904, p. 84 (W. L. Sclater).
6 Victorian Naturalist, 1908-9, p. 18.
THE GANNET 375
to develop a magnificent covering of thick white woolly down
(PI. LXXIIL), and in this imperial garb it grows to be as big and
much fatter than its parents. Its subsequent changes of plumage are
described in the " Classified Notes," and illustrated on PL LXXIII.
Young gannets, like the nestlings of other species breeding on
cliff ledges, are singularly lethargic ; they move little except under
compulsion, and are thereby no doubt saved from the ever-present
danger of falling from the cliff. Some do fall, especially when
alarmed ; their attention being then so much occupied with the
danger in front that they do not perceive the danger behind soon
enough to avoid slipping over the edge and rolling down the rocks
to the sea.
Young gannets remain on their ledges for about three months or
more after birth. The earliest born are fledged about the middle of
August. The usual month for departure is September, but the latest
born are not ready to go till November. During the last days of its
stay, each bird exercises its wings by vigorous flapping. It is possibly
stimulated to depart by hunger, for, as is the case with other species,
the parents slacken in their efforts to find food for it, or desert alto-
gether. The stimulus is occasionally of a more direct nature, and is
provided by the parent bird in the shape of the head-pinching and
wringing above mentioned. One young bird was seen by Mr. J. M.
Campbell to quit the Bass Rock only after its head and neck had been
made almost raw. The fledgling's first flight is somewhat unsteady,
but suffices to take it some hundreds of yards, or even out of sight,
before it drops with a splash into the sea ; it is said to remain afloat
for several days, entirely abandoned by its parents, and living on its
own stored up fat. Mr. J. M. Campbell, on the other hand, tells me
that young gannets soon find their wings, unless injured in the first
descent, but this part of the life-history of the species has yet to be
closely observed. When the bird finally rises from the water, there
comes to it what must prove one of the most exciting moments of its
life, the attempt to capture its first fish. This is no doubt, as in the
376 THE GANNET
case of the young osprey,1 an instinctive act awakened by the sight
of fish beneath the surface, but certain proof can only be result of
observations which exclude all possibility of imitation.
The gannet's method of fishing is to sweep in wide circles over
the sea, and, when its prey is marked, to fall like a big white packet
down through the air, the wings half closed, till close to the surface,
when it closes its wings and drops in with a splash, to emerge shortly
with its fish already lodged inside. It reposes a few seconds, and
then, with laboured flapping, takes wing once more. The height from
which the descent is made may vary from a score of feet to two or
three hundred, possibly more, varying probably with the depth of
the fish.
If a gannet has a young one to feed, it flies with the fish it has
swallowed to the ledge, and there alights with every appearance of
having no important business to do. The young bird, however, quite
understands the situation. It proceeds to cosset or peck diligently
its parent's bill, whereupon the old bird, after certain convulsive
manifestations which seem to indicate that it is bringing the fish part
way up the gullet, opens its beak wide. Into the cavity thus presented
to it the young bird plunges its head. There is a struggling and a
tugging, and the head is withdrawn. I have never seen anything pass
from one beak to the other, the fish being seized and swallowed inside
the gullet of the parent. I have not seen the fish disgorged onto the
ledge before the young.
This account does not refer to the first few days of the nestling's
life, when it is fed not with fish, but, according to some, on semi-
digested fish pulp, but actual evidence on the point is scanty. The
act of feeding at this stage has been noted by E. T. Booth, who had
good opportunities of seeing it performed by birds in captivity. " The
nestling," he writes, " was calling faintly, and lifting up its head open-
mouthed, when the old bird dropped forward, and opening the beak
1 See Home Life of the Osprey, p. 53, by C. G. Abbot, who quotes the American Zoological
Society's Bulletin, No. 11, 1903, p. 120 (Baynes), and Scribner's Magazine, xli., 1907, p. 704 (Beebe).
THE GANNET 377
to an enormous extent with the head drawn sideways, apparently
scooped the young one into its mouth." In another passage he
describes the nestling as being completely concealed when fed.1
Both parents share in the task of feeding their offspring. On one
occasion I saw a young bird fed twice by one parent and once by the
other within five minutes. Fish are readily disgorged both by old and
young when alarmed. I noted that the fish disgorged by one young
bird was a gurnard. It was ejected head first, and was therefore,
swallowed tail first. As the formidable spikes of this fish lie back-
wards, they would have caught in the gullet of the bird had not the
head of the fish been softened by previous partial digestion in the
stomach of the parent and the spikes pressed flat into the flesh. The
fact that the young swallowed the gurnard tail first showed that the
parent took it from the sea head first. That it always does so is
rendered unlikely by the fact that gannets have at various times been
picked up dead with gurnards firmly wedged in their throats.2 Let
us add that the gannet's method of swallowing its food whole enables
it to dispense with a tongue. What remains of this organ is a mere
survival. The same applies to its nostrils, which have been reduced
to a pinhole.
The gannet's favourite element is the air, and it loves nothing
better than sailing through it with its long wings — six feet or more
from tip to tip — almost motionless. But it is an efficient swimmer, as
might be inferred from its webbed feet, with respect to which it is
worth noting that the web connects all four toes, a character which
is common to all the species in the order Steganopodes (Cormorants
and Darters, Frigate-birds, Pelicans, and Tropic-birds), and originates
the name (Gr. steganos, covered, pous, foot), but it does not appear
to be known whether it swims under water. It floats with great
buoyancy owing to the highly developed system of air-cells lying
between its skin and body and communicating with its lungs. It is
1 Rough Notes, vol. iii.
2 Gray, Birds of the West of Scotland, p. 462.
378 THE GANNET
stated that these also serve to lessen the shock of the bird's impact
against the water when it descends to fish.1
On land, excepting always cliff-ledges or rocks, from which it can
easily take flight, the gannet is rarely seen. If surprised on the
grassy slopes of the island's top, where it sometimes alights for
nesting material, its habit is to make for the nearest cliff-edge with
ungainly hops or jumps and with the aid of its wings.2
Of the gannet's utterances, the most important is the loud " urrah ! "
figured by some writers as " grog" by another as " carra-crac " / It has
sounded to me on occasions like " urroo, or wrow, or oorah" differences
no doubt due to distance and position. Heard with the ear a few inches
from the bird's wide-open mouth, it resolves itself simply into a strident
" arrrr ! " This note is used to accompany the inrushing flight to the
ledges and the display, also to express anger. The almost indescrib-
able note used only on " letting off" from the ledges has already been
noted. The species is said to have an alarm-note, syllabled " bir /"
I have listened for it without success. When flying in the open, the
species seems to be quite silent. The note of the downy young, when
heard close to, sounded to me like a high-pitched " uk ! " It has been
compared to the yapping of a puppy. The changes in the note of the
species from birth to maturity have not yet been studied.
On quitting the breeding station, the gannet colony disperses
over the seas, and may then be seen fishing off our coast either
singly, in twos and threes, or in flocks small and large. The species
is said by Naumann to roost floating on the sea, when away from the
breeding-ledges or suitable rocks, but he does not appear to write
this from personal observation.4
A few notes in conclusion on the habits of the immature birds.
Maturity is not reached till the third or fourth year,5 but many imma-
1 See Montagu's Dictionary of Birds; Proc. Zool. Soc., 1831, p. 90 (Sir R. Owen); and
Macgillivray's History of Birds; also Mr. J. H. Gurney's forthcoming book on the Gaunet.
1 J. M. Campbell, in litt.
3 Ibis, 1866 (R. O. Cunningham).
* Vogel Mitteleuropas, xi. 39-40.
6 See note 2, p. 366. Naumann says fifth year, op. cit., p. 37.
THE GANNET 379
ture individuals may be seen at the breeding station, though much
rarer at some than at others, and are easily recognisable by the addi-
tion of dark brown in their plumage, which colour diminishes each
year, being reduced to the brown of the primaries. They sit and move
about among the breeding birds, who occasionally wring their heads
for them as a reminder to keep at a respectful distance. They may
often, as already noted, be seen picking up and carrying nesting
material, and once I saw one cosseting a downy nestling. These
beginnings of the nesting and parental instinct are well worth closer
study. I have no record of immature birds performing either the
sex or the quitting display. Mr. J. M. Campbell tells me, however,
that he has seen immature birds displaying to adults, but no pairing
resulted.
PETRELS AND SHEARWATERS
[ORDER : Procellariiformes. SUBORDER : Tubinares. FAMILY : Procellariidce]
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES
[F. C. R. JOTJRDAIN. W. P. PYCRAFT. A. L. THOMSON]
STORM-PETREL [Hydrobdtes peldgicus (Linnaeus); Procelldria peldgica
Linnaeus. Mother Carey's chicken ; martensil (Ireland) ; spencie, swallow
(Shetlands) ; kitty-varrey (Isle of Man). French, thalassidrome tempete ;
German, Heine Sturmschwalbe ; Italian, uccello delle tempeste].
1. Description. — The storm-petrel may readily be distinguished from any
of its congeners on the British list by its small size and sharply truncated tail.
The sexes are alike, and there is no seasonal change of plumage. (PI. 173.) Length
6£ in. [165 mm.]. The general coloration is of a sooty black, but the major coverts
of the wing have obscure white margins ; the outer tail feathers have white base,
and the upper tail-coverts are white, the longest and hindmost tipped with black ;
the white patch thus formed is continued downwards on each side of the base of
the tail for a short distance. The beak and legs are black, and the iris is dark
hazel-brown. The juvenile plumage differs from that of the adult only in that
the major coverts of the wing are narrowly edged with white, and the scapulars
and hindmost outer tail-coverts have obscurely defined white fringes. The downy
young is of a sooty ash colour, and the down is of great length, [w. p. p.]
2. Distribution. — In Great Britain this species is known to breed on some
of the islets off the coast of South Wales, especially Skokham and Skomer, possibly
also on an islet off Lundy and on the Scillies. Off the Scottish coast there are many
breeding-places, chiefly on the west side, and also in the Orkneys and Shetlands.
A pair bred on the Bass Rock in 1904. In Ireland it nests on the islets off the
north and west coasts, in some places in large numbers. Outside the British Isles
it breeds in the Faeroes, and on the Channel Isles, the Brittany coast, and in the
380
PLATE LXXV
Photo by P. Webster
uqg of stormy-petrel Just hatched
Photo by C. H. We
Leach's forktalled-petrel. Nest hole opened to show egg
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 381
Western Mediterranean on islets off the coasts of Sardinia, Corsica, Elba, Malta,
S. France, and the Hormigas off the east coast of Spain, as well as off the north-
west coast of Africa. On migration it visits the Norwegian coast, Iceland, Green-
land, and the eastern coasts of N. America ; while southward it ranges to the
Azores, Canaries, Madeira, and is said to have reached the Cape of Good Hope
and the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. [F. c. R. J.]
3. Migration. -- The storm-petrel is found at its breeding-stations (see
preceding paragraph) from May till early autumn. Like the other members of its
order it is pelagic except in the nesting season, and therefore comparatively seldom
recorded, although widely distributed in British waters. But it is often noted at
the light-stations in autumn, and may be driven inland by gales (cf. Saunders,
III. Man. British Birds, 2nd ed., 1899, p. 727). On the Yorkshire coast it is occa-
sionally seen in August or September, but not usually before October (cf. Nelson,
B. of Yorks., 1907, p. 749). It is a fairly frequent visitor to Kent, only occasionally
seen during rough weather in North Wales, and of rare and irregular occurrence
in Dumfriesshire (cf. Ticehurst, B. of Kent, 1909, p. 546 ; Forrest, Fauna of N.
Wales, 1907, p. 412 ; and Gladstone, B. of Dumfries., 1910, p. 466). Resident to
some extent in Ireland, but very rarely met with from January to March (cf . Ussher
and Warren, B. of Ireland, 1900, p. 383). " Unusual numbers occurred between
October 27th and November 4th, 1883, on the east side of England ; and in 1886,
according to Mr. Harvie-Brown, ' a regular stream of migration of petrels seems
to have taken place with the " great rush " of other species on the 5th and 6th
of October, as they were reported from several stations in Scotland ' " (cf. Saunders,
loc. cit.). [A. L. T.]
4. Nest and Eggs. — The nesting-site is sometimes under stones or heaps
of boulders, occasionally in crevices of loose walls or deserted buildings. It is
also frequently found in holes in the ground, sometimes excavated by the bird,
and at other times in old rabbit-holes. (PI. LXXV.) A musky smell pervades the
hole, and there is often, though not always, a pad of dry grasses underneath the
single egg, which is often elongated or elliptical in shape, white, with a dull chalky
surface and a more or less distinct wreath of reddish brown specks round the big
end. (PL V.) Average size of 53 eggs, I'l x -84 in. [27'9 x 21-4 mm.]. Both sexes
share in incubation (R. Godfrey), which, according to Mr. W. Evans, probably lasts
about 35 or 36 days. One chick hatched in an incubator early on the 36th day.
The breeding season is late : in some localities nesting begins in the last week of
May, but in the north of Scotland few birds lay before the end of June or the
VOL. IV. 3C
382 PETRELS AND SHEARWATERS
beginning of July, and fresh eggs may be found even in mid- August in the Shetlands.
On the Blaskets Seebohm found a few eggs still unhatched on 17th September.
Only a single young bird is reared in the season. [F. c. E. j.]
5. Food. — Dr. Coppinger [Cruise, H.M.S. Alert] found in gizzards of speci-
mens taken on St. Paul's rocks, minute shells and otoliths of fishes. They also eat
sorrel when ashore. The young are fed by both parents on regurgitated oil.
[w. P. P.]
LEACH'S PORKTAILED-PETREL [Oceanddroma leuc&rhoa
(Vieillot). Mother Carey's chicken, swallow (gen.). French, thalassidrome
culrblanc ; German, gabelschwanzige SturmschwaXbe ; Italian, uccdlo ddle
tempeste a coda forcuta].
1. Description. — This species is readily distinguished by its long, deeply
forked tail, white upper tail-coverts, and the drab-brown colour of the median
and major coverts. The sexes are alike, and there is no seasonal change of colora-
tion. (PI. 173.) Length 8 in. [203 mm.]. The general coloration is of a sooty
brown, with more or less distinct tinge of dark slate-grey on the back. The median
and major coverts are of a drab-brown ; the latter and the inner secondaries have,
further, more .or less conspicuously white margins. The upper tail-coverts are
white ; the remiges and rectrices black. The juvenile dress differs from that of
the adult only in having the white margins along the major coverts somewhat
more strongly marked. The young in down are of a sooty brown, [w. p. p.]
2. Distribution. — The only recorded localities where this species has been
found breeding in Scotland are the St. Kilda group, where it breeds on Boreray,
Soay, and sparingly on the other isles, the Flannan Isles, and North Rona ; while
in Ireland it is known to breed on Tearaght and Inishnabro (Co. Kerry), and off
the Mayo coast. Outside the British Isles it breeds on the Westmanneyjar (Iceland),
and in North America from Labrador to the Bay of Fundy. On migration it has
occurred on the coasts of Western Europe from Norway to Spain, and in the
Mediterranean as far east as Sicily, and once in the Baltic (Kurland). In the
Atlantic it wanders to the Canaries, Madeira, and the Gold Coast, while on the
American side it ranges south to Virginia. It is also found breeding on the islands
of the North Pacific (Kuriles, Commander Isles, and probably the Aleutian Isles
and the Alaska and California coasts), visiting Japan in winter. [F. c. E. J.]
3. Migration. — A summer visitor to its breeding-stations (see preceding
paragraph), but generally distributed in British seas in autumn and winter, when
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 383
it not infrequently occurs on most parts of our coasts : inland records generally
follow northerly and westerly gales (cf. Saunders, III. Man. British Birds, 2nd ed.,
1899, p. 729). On both seaboards of Great Britain this petrel occurs as an occasional
autumn and winter visitor : September 17th is the earliest Yorkshire date, and
October and November are the chief months in Dumfriesshire, and November in
Kent (cf. Nelson, B. of Yorks., 1907, p. 750 ; Gladstone, B. of Dumfries., 1910,
p. 468 ; and Ticehurst, B. of Kent, 1909, p. 547). Off Cornwall it is as common
in some winters as the storm-petrel (cf. Saunders, loc. cit.). A few breed in Ireland,
but it is chiefly known in that country as an accidental visitor in early winter, and
has not been recorded at all in February or March (cf. Ussher and Warren, B. of
Ireland, 1900, p. 387). Unusual numbers were noted both in Scotland and in
Ireland in the autumn of 1891 (cf. Saunders, loc. cit.). [A. L. T.]
4. Nest and Eggs. — In nesting habits it resembles the storm-petrel,
breeding sometimes in holes among boulders and rocks, and at other times in
burrows about 20 inches long in the turf, ending in an enlarged cavity, and con-
structed probably by the birds themselves, though sometimes they make use of
puffin-holes. (PI. LXXV.) The nest consists of a handful of dry grass, on which the
single egg is deposited. In appearance it resembles that of the storm-petrel, and
has the same dull chalky surface, but is decidedly larger, and nearly all eggs show
more or less the wreath of reddish markings at the big end. (PI. V.) Average
size of 30 eggs, 1'3 x *95 in. [33 x 24'1 mm.]. Incubation is shared by both sexes
(Hantzsch),1 and the same observer states that it lasts about five weeks, which,
judging from what we know of the storm-petrel, is probably correct. The breeding
season begins in the last days of May or early in June, but fresh eggs may be
obtained also in July. Only one young bird is reared in the season. [F. c. R. J.]
5. Food. — Fish-fry, small Crustacea, and cuttle-fish, and sorrel obtained from
the breeding-ground. The young are fed by both parents on regurgitated oil. [w. p. p.]
GREAT-SHEARWATER [Puffinus grdvis (O'Reilly). Hagdown
(Ireland); hackbolt (Devon). French, puffin grand; German, grosse Sturm-
Taucher ; Italian, no popular name].
I. Description. — The great-shearwater is the largest of our native petrels,
and may at once be distinguished not only on account of its size but also by the
dark brown colour of the crown and nape, and the brown mottling on the middle
1 Pour birds secured on the eggs in S. Kilda proved to be males (J. Wiglesworth), but others
taken under similar circumstances on N. Rons were all females.
384 PETRELS AND SHEARWATERS
of the abdomen. The sexes are alike, and there is no seasonal change of coloration.
Length 17 in. [431 mm.]. The upper parts are of a light brown, and each feather
has a marginal fringe of ashy brown. The remiges and rectrices are black, and
the hinder upper tail-coverts are white. The lower part of the side of the head
is white, as are the fore-neck and under parts, save the under tail-coverts, which
are sooty brown. The beak is yellowish green ; the iris dark brown ; the feet
light greenish grey, while the webs of the toes are flesh-coloured. The juvenile
dress is like that of the adult. The young in down are unknown, [w. P. P.]
2. Distribution. — The only known breeding-place of this species is Inac-
cessible Island, in the Tristan d'Acunha group, but in all probability other sites
will be discovered when the islands of the Southern Hemisphere are more thoroughly
explored. Its breeding season is during our winter months, and on migration
during our summer it visits the North Atlantic, ranging north to the Norwegian
coast, the Fseroes, Iceland, Greenland, and the Labrador coast. [F. c. R. j.j
3. Migration. — A fairly regular visitor to the seas round the British Isles,
but seldom coming near land, and therefore rather irregularly recorded. The
season when it most frequently occurs is from August to November, and the species
is to be regarded as a native of the Southern Hemisphere (known to nest in the
Tristan d'Acunha group, and supposed to do so on other southern islands), " winter-
ing " in our summer. In some seasons it is found in considerable numbers from
August onwards off Cornwall and the Scilly Isles, and it is said to remain in the
seas round the latter (never coming among the islands) " during autumn and winter "
(cf. Saunders, III. Man. British Birds, 2nd ed., 1899, p. 737 ; and Clark and Rodd,
Zoologist, 1906, p. 346). It has once been recorded in Kent, on 29th October 1890,
and several times in Norfolk and Suffolk, once as late as 10th November (cf. Gurney,
Zoologist, 1891, p. 274 ; and Saunders, loc. cit.). Many have been seen off Flam-
borough Head in September, but apart from this locality it is an infrequent autumn
and winter visitor to Yorkshire ; but it has been recorded from 18th July to
December, and once on 10th January (cf. Nelson, B. of Tories., 1907, pp. 752-5).
One was found dead in Skye on 13th July 1885, and the species has been noticed
off Tiree, St. Kilda, and several of the other western and northern Scottish isles,
while many frequent the fishing-banks near Rockall (cf. Saunders, loc. cit.). From
forty to sixty pairs were seen on the water between the Butt of Lewis and North
Rona on 27th June 1894, and over fifty pairs between Barra Head and St. Kilda
on 24th June 1895, while specimens were killed in the same region in the fourth
week of July 1899 (cf. Newton, Annals Scot. Nat. Hist., 1900, pp. 142-7). One was
PLATE LXXIV
I'liuto l.y A. M.
hutu by Uentlcy Bcctl
Fulmar's egg on ledge
Young Fulmar
Photo by I*. \Vebst
Vnoto by P. Webster
Manx shearwater at entrance of Its burrow
Manx shearwater and young
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 385
shot from a small flock in Loch Broom, Wester Ross, on 31st October 1897, and
a few were observed off the Flannans on 21st September 1904 (cf. J. T. Henderson
Annals Scot. Nat. Hist., 1906, p. 114 ; and Clarke, A. S. N. H., 1905, p. 86).
To Ireland the great-shearwater is an uncertain visitor, chiefly to the west and in
autumn (cf. Ussher and Warren, B. of Ireland, 1900, p. 389). It was found to be
" surprisingly numerous " off the south of Ireland in September 1900, eight to ten
being seen daily ; and on 9th September 1901 four were shot from a flock of from
two to three hundred birds met with between Cape Clear and Mizen Head, while
on the 13th large numbers were seen off Valentia and between the Blaskets and
the Skelligs (cf. Ussher, Irish Naturalist, 1901, pp. 42-3, and 1905, p. 43). In 1906
many were observed off Kerry in August, and off Cork on 1st November, and
several off Kerry on the 6th ; off the same coast in 1907 many were seen in August,
a few in September, and several in November ; and in 1908 two in August and
many in November (cf. G. P. Farran, Irish Naturalist, 1907, pp. 163, 184, and
1909, p. 80). As our knowledge on this subject is still very incomplete, the data
do not admit of ready summarisation, and have of necessity been given somewhat
fully : the frequence of November records and the existence of still later ones
is worthy of remark. It will be seen from the above that the species is gregarious
and sometimes met with in large flocks : note also the records in which the birds
were recorded as paired. [A. L. T.]
4. Nest and Eggs. — Does not breed in the British Isles. [F. c. R. j.]
5. Food. — Pilchards and other fish, crabs and other Crustacea, and sea-
weed. Nothing is yet known of the young, [w. P. p.]
MANX-SHEARWATER {Puffinus puffinus puffinus (Briinnich);
Puffinus anglorum (Temminck). Puffin, Manx-puffin, mackarel cock ; cuckle
(Lundy) ; lyre bird (Orkneys) ; lyrie (Shetlands) ; skidden, crew (Scillies) ;
perkins (Eigg). French, petrel manks ; German, nordischer Taucher-
Sturmvogel ; Italian, berta minore (P. p. yelkouan)].
I. Description. — The Manx-shearwater is easily identified by its slender
hooked beak, long body, black upper and white under parts ; it recalls the little
dusky shearwater, but differs sharply therefrom in its vastly superior size. The
sexes are alike, and there is no seasonal change of coloration. (PI. 174.) Length,
14^ in. [368 mm.]. The upper parts are black, save^the lower part of the side of
head, which is white like all the under parts, but the sides of the base of the neck
386 PETRELS AND SHEARWATERS
are mottled with dark grey, almost forming a pectoral band, and there is a patch
of black feathers in the femoral region. The beak is of a dark horn colour ; the iris
dark brown ; the legs and toes have the outer surface black, the inner light pink,
while the webs are bluish. The juvenile dress is like that of the adult. The downy
young is sooty brown, [w. p. p.]
2. Distribution. — The only known breeding-places of this species are on
the western coast of Great Britain, the Orkney and Shetland groups, and the Irish
coasts. In the Scillies there is a very large colony on Annet, and it is believed to
have bred on Lundy Island, while another large breeding-station exists at Skomer
in Pembrokeshire, and smaller colonies are found on Skokham, Bardsey Island,
the Carnarvon coast, etc. It bred formerly on the Calf of Man, and there are many
nesting-haunts on the islands off the west coast of Scotland, amongst others on
Eigg, Rum, Canna, Skye, the Treshnish Isles, Flannan Isles, and the St. Kilda
group ; while there are breeding-stations in the Orkneys, at Hoy, Stronsay, etc.,
and in the Shetlands on Foula, Unst, and probably Fetlar. In Ireland the largest
breeding-places are on the Skelligs and Puffin Island (Co. Kerry) and Rathlin Island,
but other colonies exist on the Saltees, Blaskets, Aranmore (Co. Donegal), off the
Mayo coast, and on that of Co. Wicklow and Dublin, etc. Outside the British Isles
its distribution is local : it breeds in the Faeroes in some numbers, and on the
Vestmann Islands in Iceland, and is said to occur on the Norwegian coast, but has
not been proved to breed there. It is said also to breed in the Azores (Godman)
and Madeira (Schmitz), and perhaps also in the Canaries. On migration it has
occurred in Greenland (once), and south in the Atlantic to the Brazilian coast (once),
Bermuda (once), and more regularly to the New England coasts. [F. c. R. J.]
3. Migration. — Widely distributed in British waters throughout the year
(cf. Saunders, III. Man. British Birds, 2nd ed., 1899, p. 741). The existing data
regarding its seasonal movements is altogether insufficient to afford any conclusions :
the habits of the species render it a very difficult one to observe. It is " present
in the Firth of Forth every year from May to October, at first only a few, but hi
hundreds during August and September," while odd birds are occasionally seen
at other times, e.g. February (cf. W. Evans, in Witherby and Ticehurst, British
Birds, vol. ii. p. 421). In Yorkshire it is a bird of passage, sometimes occurring
in considerable numbers in autumn, and occasionally even inland ; but to Kent
it only comes as an occasional storm-driven visitor (cf. Nelson, B. of Yorks., 1907,
p. 769 ; and Ticehurst, B. of Kent, 1909, p. 551). It is uncommon in Dumfries-
shire ; but it breeds on some of the Welsh islands and is frequent off the coast ;
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 387
" when the mackerel are in these birds are much in evidence," it is said, and
hundreds have been observed in July (cf. Gladstone, B. of Dumfries., 1910, p. 471 ;
and Forrest, Fauna of N. Wales, 1907, pp. 414-16). In Ireland it is resident, but
decreases considerably in winter : assemblages of from a hundred and fifty to two
hundred birds were seen off the Skullmartin Lightship (near the coast of Co. Down)
on the early morning of 18th July 1904 (cf. Ussher and Warren, B. of Ireland, 1900,
p. 392 ; and R. L. Patterson, Irish Naturalist, 1904, p. 171). Gregarious, as
already implied : sometimes recorded from the light-stations (cf. Nelson, loc. cit.).
[A. L. T.]
4. Nest and Eggs.— This shearwater breeds in burrows, sometimes in the
face of perpendicular cliffs where there are grassy ledges and strips of turf, at other
times on sloping banks, in some cases up to two thousand feet, or on practically
flat ground. Many of these burrows are undoubtedly excavated by the birds
themselves, as they are in positions where no rabbit could possibly gain access,
but others are adapted to the purpose, or enlarged. They run to a depth of a foot
or two or more, and a slight nest of dry grasses is constructed. (PL LXXIV.) Oswin
Lee states that both sexes share in the work of making the burrow. Only a single
egg is laid, which is white, without gloss, and smooth in texture. (PI. V.) Average
size of 51 eggs, 2-39 x T67 in. [60'9 x 42'5 mm.]. Both sexes take part in incuba-
tion, and males have frequently been taken on the egg by Faber and others. The
period is estimated by Hantzsch at a month, the young being fed by its parents
for six or seven weeks longer. The breeding season begins early in May, but fresh
eggs may be met with up to mid-June, especially where the birds have been dis-
turbed. Only one young bird is reared in the season. [F. o. B. J.]
5. Food. — Surface fish, small cuttle-fish, and other free-swimming Mollusca,
surface-swimming Crustacea, and offal. The young are fed on regurgitated green
oil, and by both parents, [w. p. P.]
FULMAR [Fulmarus glacidlis (Linnaeus). Mollymauk, mollymew; mallimoke
(Shetlands). French, petrel fulmar ; German, Eis-Sturmvogel ; Italian, no
popular name].
I. Description. — The fulmar, while presenting a general resemblance to a
gull, may at once be distinguished by the tubular nasal passage and the compound
character of the beak-sheath — which is of the typical petrel type. The sexes are
alike, and there is no seasonal change of coloration. (PI. 174.) Length 17 in.
388 PETRELS AND SHEARWATERS
[431 mm.]. The back, wings, and tail are of a dark silvery grey, the rest of the
plumage being white. The iris is dark brown, the bill bluish yellow, mottled and
streaked with darker patches. Legs and toes pale flesh-coloured. The juvenile
dress is like that of the adult. The young in down is of a dull greyish white,
[w. P. P.]
2. Distribution. — The wonderful increase in the number of breeding-stations
and range of this species in the British Isles has been the subject of recent papers
by Dr. Harvie-Brown in the Scottish Naturalist, 1912, pp. 97 and 121. Cf. also
Zoologist, 1912, pp. 381 and 401. From these it appears that the oldest British
station is that at St. Kilda, which is known to have flourished for two hundred and
fifty years. In the Shetlands they were first recorded at Foula in 1878, spreading
to Papa Stour hi 1891, and gradually colonising the west and finally the east coast
cliffs of the group. At N. Rona one was seen in 1886, and in 1887 they were fairly
numerous here, and also at Sulisgeir, but of course in nothing like the numbers seen
in 1910. At the Flannans they were seen in 1881, and certainly bred in 1902. One
was seen at Stack and Skerry in 1889, and from 1900 onwards it has been found
breeding on the Orkneys, first occupying the west coast, but since 1911 on east coast
stacks also. The Clomore cliffs on the mainland have probably been used since 1897,
and Dunnet Head since 1900. At Barra Head it appeared in 1899, and certainly
bred in 1902, in which year they also occupied a site on Handa, and probably about
this time colonised Fair Island. Lastly the Shiants (1910) and Berriedale Head,
Caithness (1911). In Ireland it was first found breeding in 1911 on the North
Mayo coast, and in the same year also in Co. Donegal (Irish Naturalist, 1911,
p. 149 ; 1912, p. 180). Outside the British Isles it is plentiful at the Faeroes (1838-9)
and at many stations round the coasts of Iceland and in the Spitsbergen archipelago,
as well as on Jan Mayen, and the north island of Novaya Zemlya. There is no reli-
able evidence of breeding on the Norwegian coast, but it nests in Greenland and on
the west side of Davis Strait and Baffin's Bay, and in the North Pacific is replaced
by allied forms. In whiter it ranges south to lat. 43° in Europe, and Massachusetts
and Maine hi N. America (Saunders). [F. c. B. J.]
3. Migration. — A summer visitor for breeding purposes to the northern
isles and mainland of Scotland (see preceding paragraph). Otherwise the species
is seldom seen near land, but may be found generally distributed hi British seas,
especially during the autumn and winter months. On the south and west coasts
of England the fulmar is seldom recorded except in the colder months, and then
chiefly after stormy weather : it is by no means infrequent on the fishing-grounds
PRELIMINARY CLASSIFIED NOTES 389
off the east coast (cf. Saunders, III. Man. British Birds, 2nd ed., 1899, p. 751). To
the Yorkshire coast it is a casual autumn and winter visitor, but, on the other hand,
it rarely conies south to the Channel (cf. Nelson, B. of Yorks., 1907, p. 764 ; and
Ticehurst, B. of Kent, 1909, p. 553). It is occasionally seen in Dumfriesshire after
storms, and is a rare occasional visitor to North Wales, chiefly Merioneth (cf.
Gladstone, B. of Dumfries., 1910, p. 471 ; and Forrest, Fauna of N. Wales, 1907,
p. 416). It is " frequently met with at all seasons on the Atlantic," but it rarely
comes to the Irish coasts ; its occurrences are chiefly between September and
November, but also in January, March, May, and June (cf. Ussher, List of Irish
Birds, 1906, p. 54 ; and Ussher and Warren, B. of Ireland, 1900, p. 396). [A. L. T.]
4. Nest and Eggs. — Although in many cases the fulmar makes no nest
whatever, but deposits its egg on a depression in the turf or soil or detritus of broken
rocks, yet occasionally a little dry grass or withered tufts of sea-pink form an apology
for a lining, and on rocky ledges small flat pieces of stone are frequently arranged
round the egg. Many nesting-sites are in inaccessible cliffs, usually but not in-
variably over the sea, but in crowded colonies the eggs may be found on the tops
of stacks and on gently sloping turf. (PL LXXIV.) Only one egg is laid, white,
rather coarse and rough in texture, and it is said occasionally showing traces of red
spots. (PI. V.) Average size of 80 eggs, 2-88 x 1 -95 in. [73'2 x 49'7 mm.]. Both
parents take part in incubation, the male it is said chiefly by night, and the period
is unusually long. Faber estimates it as 35 to 40 days, Hantzsch at six weeks, while
the inhabitants of Grimsey give seven weeks ! In St. Kilda the first eggs are laid
in the second week of May, the young birds emerging from 21st June onwards ; in
Iceland they are generally laid during May, but fresh eggs may be met with even in
June. Only one young bird is reared in the season. [F. c. R. J.]
5. Food. — Fish, Mollusca, including cuttle-fish, offal obtained from ships,
and sorrel when ashore. The young are fed on oil. [w. P. P.]
The following species and subspecies are described in the supplementary chapter
on "Rare Birds": —
Madeiran fork-tailed petrel, Oceanodroma castro (Harcourt).
Wilson' s-petrel, Oceanites ocednicus (Kuhl).
Frigate-petrel, Pelagodroma marina (Latham).
Mediterranean-shearwater, Puffinus kuhlii (Boie).
Sooty-shearwater, Puffinus griseus (Gmelin).
Levantine-shearwater, Puffinus puffinus yelkouan (Acerbi).
VOL. IV. 3D
390 PETRELS AND SHEARWATERS
Little dusky-shearwater, Puffimis obscurus [Puffinus assimilis, Gould].
Schlegel's-petrel, Pterodroma neglecta (Schlegel).
Capped-petrel, Pterodroma hasitdta (Kuhl) [((Estrelata hcesitdta (Kuhl)].
Collared-petrel, Pterodroma brevipes (Peale) [(Estrelata brevipes (Peale)].
Bulwer's-petrel, Bulweria bulwerii (Jardine and Selby).
[Cape-pigeon, Ddption capense (Linnaeus).]
Blackbrowed-albatross, Diomedea melanophrys, Temminck.
[F. c. E. j.]
THE PETRELS 391
THE PETRELS
[W. P. PYCRAFT]
To those who are interested in the study of birds in relation to
their environment, the Petrels must always appeal strongly. By the
earlier ornithologists, who paid no heed to environmental conditions,
these birds were commonly associated with the Gulls. And with some
reason, if one does not look below the surface of things, for some of
the Petrels have an undeniably gull-like look about them, and this is
especially true, perhaps, of the Fulmars. But the likeness is a super-
ficial one only, and the further we compare the two types the more
obvious this becomes. The beak-sheath is the most telling of the
external differences, for in the Petrels — which group, it must be
remembered, also includes the Albatrosses — it is composed of
numerous separate pieces, of which one on each side commonly
forms the roof of the nostrils, sometimes the two apertures open
together in a common case-like or tube-like cavity, hence the name
"Tubinares" or "tube-nosed." The whole skeleton, the convolutions
of the intestines, the pterylosis, all differ markedly from Charadrii-
form plan, and indicate affinities with the Divers and Penguins, and,
more remotely, the Ciconiiform type. But besides the evidence of
the laboratory, we have yet other sources of information. The most
helpful of these concern the characters of the eggs and young. Of
the first, it may suffice to remark that not more than one is laid
during the year, and that this lacks any of the characteristics of the
gulls' eggs, being indeed white, or at most faintly freckled with dull
red. As touching the young, a moment's glance will show how
absolutely unlike are the young Gull and the young Petrel. Young
Gulls are nidifugous, and have the down-feathers short and indistinctly
striped or mottled. Young Petrels, on the other hand, are nidicolous,
and are covered with exceptionally long down, which is either white,
392 PETRELS AND SHEARWATERS
grey, or brown in colour, but always " self-coloured." In these two
last particulars the Petrels resemble the Penguins.
The Gulls have, as it were, demonstrated their plover-like affinities
in sending more or fewer species inland to follow the plough, and
play the scavenger up and down rivers and other inland waters often
remote from the sea. With the Petrels this is never the case. All
are strictly marine species, never leaving the extreme edge of the
coast, never straying out of sight or sound of the sea. And thus it has
come about that some species have become so highly specialised that,
like their remote relatives the Grebes and Divers, they have acquired
the art of obtaining their food from the depths of the sea instead of
its surface ; as witness the little diving-petrel, Pelecanoides. This
bird, however, affords a parallel in another direction. It has come
to bear so close a likeness to the little-auk that the inexpert might
readily mistake the one for the other, and the little-auk, of course,
is a specialised member of the Limicolse.
Such, then, are some of the features that the Petrels present for
those who are fond of speculating on the relation between the
bodily form and habits. Other features of no less interest will
become apparent as we proceed.
STORM-PETRELS
The "Storm-Petrels," which form the Family Procellariida?, are
distinguished from the remaining members of the order by a number
of well-marked characters, the most conspicuous of which are the
great length and slenderness of the legs, and the character of the
aperture of the external nares, which open into a common chamber.
All are conspicuously long-winged and relatively small species, and
dusky in coloration, though some have a large white rump-patch.
On the British list five species are recorded, but of these only
Plate 173
Upper: Storm-petrel
Lower: Leach's forktailed-petrel
By A. W. Seaby
STORM-PETRELS 393
three demand notice here. These are the typical " Storm-Petrel " or
Mother Carey's chicken and Leach's forktailed-petrel. Both breed
with us, and closely resemble one another in their habits, and live
under practically identical environmental conditions. So far as the
records go, what may be said of one is true for each. Of the rare
vagrant Wilson's-petrel we have but the scantiest information,
for it breeds only in the far south of the Southern Hemisphere. It is
described in the "Rare Bird" section, but there are features in its
life-history which demand notice here.
All Petrels are strictly oceanic birds, coming to land only in the
breeding season. This resort is one only of extremest need — the pro-
pagation of the species. For these birds appear never to walk while
ashore, but to fly straight to their nesting-burrows and out again to sea.
Even the presence of sorrel, which has been found in the gizzard of
Leach's-petrel, need not contradict this rooted conviction on the part
of ornithologists, for this may well have been plucked from the mouth
of the burrow, or the bird may occasionally alight beside the plant to
gather the coveted morsels, which seem to be much sought after, since
portions of this plant are also commonly found in the gizzard of the
fulmar.
The petrels of this Family stand in somewhat sharp contrast with
the rest of the order by reason of the long, almost swift-like wings
and the length of the legs. These are, perhaps, their most conspicuous
features. The great length of the wings is accounted for by the
swallow-like and long-sustained powers of flight. But the length of the
leg is puzzling, since all observers who have seen these birds on land
seem to agree that these birds are incapable of walking, or even stand-
ing upright, as they are commonly depicted in bird-books. It may
well be that some error has crept in here ; that the observations have
been made on birds exhausted by storms, or birds brought suddenly
out of their burrows and dazed by the glare of daylight. If correct,
then the relatively long shanks must play a more important part in
enabling these birds to skim the surface of the water than has so far
394 PETRELS AND SHEARWATERS
been supposed, and they must be regarded as holding a unique
position among birds in this respect. It is certainly significant in this
connection to note that Yarrell says of the storm-petrel that it " picks
its food from the surface of the water, planting its webbed feet on the
surface, and supporting the body by fluttering its wings." That is to
say, it picks up food from the water much as other birds do from land.
Yet one would hardly suppose that this precise fashion of feeding
would have been of such vital importance as to render such long
legs a necessity. One would suppose that since they spend much
time afloat with closed wings, they would have been able to procure an
abundance of food while thus at rest. During the summer months,
and in fine weather, according to Yarrell, this bird may be seen hawking
insects, swallow fashion, sometimes dipping suddenly seawards but
never alighting. And in like manner Wilson's-petrel was seen at
Kerguelen Island by the Rev. A. E. Eaton, then naturalist to the
" Transit of Venus " Expedition in 1874, flying not only over the sea
like swallows, but turning inland and coursing low over the ground,
following the course of the valleys. But he surmised that they were
turning inland from the bay as a short cut to other inlets from the
sea. The late Dr. E. A. Wilson, during the Antarctic Expedition
1901 -4,1 met with specimens "on more than one occasion" on the
great ice-plain of the Great Barrier some sixty miles from open water,
" but always on the wing, and apparently never tired." Its flight, he
remarks, recalled that of the " familiar martin, for it flits here and
there exactly as though in search of insects on the wing. Occasion-
ally it sails with outstretched wings." But excursions inland, such as
Wilson's-petrel occasionally makes, seem never to be indulged in by
any other petrel, which may be regarded as birds which never volun-
tarily leave the sea.
The stomachs of these small petrels usually contain small stones,
otoliths, minute shells, and oil. Ussher and Warren (Birds of
' National Antarctic Expedition, 1901-1904, vol. ii., 1007, p. 78. It might be as well to state
that this strange title refers to the British Antarctic "Discovery" Expedition under the late
Captain Scott, R.N.
STORM-PETRELS 395
Ireland}, in the case of Leach's forktailed-petrel, mention " a number
of round, semi-transparent objects," besides oily matter. These semi-
transparent objects were almost certainly the lenses of the eyes of
cuttle-fish. I have taken them in large numbers from the stomach of
the porpoise. The oily matter was probably also derived from the
same source.
The practice of vomiting oil, and of ejecting it to a considerable
distance, is well known in the case of the storm-petrel, but it appears
to be common to all the Petrels, which seem, indeed, to be saturated
therewith. The natives of St. Kilda, and of the Blasket Islands off
the coast of Kerry, formerly depended on the storm and Leach's
forktailed-petrels for their light for the winter.
Of the " courting" habits of the storm-petrels we have no records.
But the two species which breed with us lay the eggs either in deserted
burrows or in crevices and crannies in cliffs, or under boulders, partly,
apparently, for the sake of evading the light when incubating, wherein
they differ conspicuously from, say, the fulmar. Leach's-petrel seems
to prolong the annual shore-life as long as possible, since, in St. Kilda,
it is one of the earliest to take up its breeding quarters in spring, and
one of the last to leave in the autumn. Both sexes incubate, and this
is true of both species breeding with us. When on the nest the sitting
bird most tenaciously guards its egg, commonly permitting itself to
be taken in the hand rather than try and escape. Rude disturbances
of this kind, however, are greatly resented, and an attempt is always
made to discourage inquisitive ornithologists by a squirt of evil-smelling
oil and semi-digested food.
By common consent these two small petrels, like many of their
larger relatives, during the breeding season are crepuscular in habits,
spending the day in incubation or brooding young, and emerging at
night to feed. In support of this view, let me cite one or two modern
writers whose claim to speak with authority none will care to question.
Thus, then, Messrs. Ussher and "Warren tell us (Birds of Ireland,
p. 384) that the stormy-petrel thus behaves, and they quote Mr. R.
396 PETRELS AND SHEARWATERS
M. Barrington's statement in support of this, that during these hours
of seclusion they keep up a constant " churr" quite audible over one
hundred yards. Mr. W. Eagle- Clarke l affords us yet further light
on the life-history of these birds. Writing of the storm-petrel in the
Flannan Islands, he says that " they fly noisily about the islands during
the night-time," and goes on to remark that they " are entirely absent
during the day-time, leaving even small ohicks to take care of them-
selves, and do not return till darkness sets in, when they tend their
young and depart again early in the morning, probably to spend the
day far out at sea in search of food. We opened out a number of
their nesting-holes at all hours of the day, but the old birds were
always absent, except in one instance, where the young had only
recently emerged from the egg." Thus it is implied in this account
that the burrows are occupied by day only while the birds are incu-
bating. And this interpretation Mr. Eagle Clarke confirms in response
to a letter I addressed to him on the subject while these pages were
in the press. So soon as the young are hatched these birds spend the
day far out at sea resting, and perhaps at intervals feeding. At dusk
all come landwards, the females to brood, the males to disport them-
selves and feed anew. Perchance they too take a spell in the nursery,
releasing the female.
According to Seebohm, Leach's-petrel in St. Kilda breeds in small
subterranean colonies, a number of nesting cubicles opening out into a
common tunnel. Similarly, it should be noted that the late Dr. E. A.
Wilson (op. cit.) found more than one pair of Wilson's-petrel breeding
in the same burrow. Moreover, the exceptional severity of the climate
in the Antarctic area of its breeding range entails a high death-rate
among the young, and during unusually cold summers none may be
reared at all. In one case he took from a burrow an adult male and
female, then two eggs, one clean and newly laid, the other old and
rotten, and under all another dead and flattened adult. As the work
of digging out the burrow was going on, a fourth bird was hovering
1 Annals Scot. Nat. Hist., 1905, p. 85.
THE SHEARWATERS 397
about as if anxious to gain admission. The floor of the particular
burrow, it may be remarked, was formed by " hard, black ice." No
wonder, then, that a plentiful supply of Adelise penguins' feathers
had been necessary to form the foundation of the nest. But in the
South Orkneys, where these birds were found breeding by the Scottish
Antarctic " Scotia " Expedition, the conditions being less severe, no
attempt at nest-building was made, though "both eggs and dead
young birds of previous seasons were numerous in the tenanted holes
containing fresh eggs." 1
The downy young, in the case of all these species, are fed by both
parents, apparently on regurgitated oil, and they remain long in the
nest. According to Ussher, a nestling of the storm-petrel, marked
in July, was not fledged till mid-October. Since, he remarks, some
adults may be commonly seen on the wing during the day, the task
of brooding probably falls mainly on the females. This may be so, but
evidently careful revision of existing records as to the habits of these
birds during the breeding season is badly needed.
That these birds return year after year to the same burrow seems
to be shown by the case of the storm-petrel which had lost its foot,
and was thus readily distinguishable. This bird returned annually to
the same nursery.
THE SHEARWATERS
Of the three species of Shearwaters which at one season or
another may confidently be looked for in our waters, one only breeds
with us, and this, the Manx-shearwater, has been by no means closely
studied. Indeed, until much more careful observation of its habits
has been made, we shall have to wait for a really satisfactory
interpretation of some of the most salient characteristics of these
interesting birds.
1 Una, 1906, p. 167.
VOL. iv. SE
398 PETRELS AND SHEARWATERS
They take their name " shearwater " apparently from their peculiar
"shearing" method of flight when feeding, during which they
alternately rise and descend with the waves with outstretched wings,
the descent taking an oblique direction, which is admirably described
by the word "shearing." The earlier ornithologists, however, seem
not to have observed this peculiarity, and the only species known to
them was the Manx or "Manks" shearwater, which Montagu, for
example, called the puffin. In his day this bird bred in large colonies
in the Isle of Man, where their young were taken during August in
great numbers and salted down for food. And the same toll was
levied on their numbers in the Orkneys.
The Shearwaters differ conspicuously from the smaller Petrels,
such as the storm and forktailed-petrels on the one hand, and the
fulmar on the other, both in the shape of the beak and in the form
of the body. These are features which have too long been set aside
by the field ornithologist as " structural " characters, and therefore
not coming within their purview. This is unfortunate, and the time
is now come when the field ornithologist and those of us who are
supposed to be more directly concerned with structural characters
should join forces, for it is certain that not till then shall we be able
to divine the exact relation which undoubtedly obtains between
structure and habit.
Take this very instance of the shape of the beak. In how far has
this been determined by the nature of the food ? So far as the
evidence goes, these birds display a striking similarity in their choice
of food, and nowhere is this more apparent than in the fondness they
show for sorrel, which they prefer even to sea-weed. Vegetable
matter, however, forms but a small portion of their daily rations, and
it is, of course, only procurable during their sojourn on their breeding-
grounds, for the rest of the year is spent far out at sea. The ocean
is their main source of food, and this seems to be made up of small
surface-swimming organisms, especially Crustacea. But among the
larger species like the fulmar and the Shearwaters, cuttle-fish seem
THE SHEARWATERS 399
to be eagerly sought for. The fulmar apparently always seizes these
as they float at the surface : and for the most part apparently so also
do the Shearwaters. But that they also dive for food, and that this
source of food is of vital importance, is shown by the elongated body
and short, backwardly placed legs of these birds, features invariably
present in birds which have to seek any large proportion of their food
under water. Yet the diving habits of the Shearwaters are rarely
referred to, and one must suppose are not commonly realised.
Howard Saunders,1 however, in regard to Manx-shearwater, remarks
that "it dives freely, remaining under water for about twenty
seconds." The precise fashion of its diving, however, seems to have
been observed only by Ussher,2 who tells us that it will dash into and
under water without closing its wings, and seems to fly or row itself
beneath the surface for a few yards, but soon emerging. It will also
dive with outspread wings while swimming or at rest on the surface.
But it never dives auk-fashion. Sprats and other small fish and
cuttle-fish seem to be the object of these submarine excursions.
Like the more typical petrels, the Shearwaters are experts at
taking their prey from the surface of the water without alighting
thereon, hovering over the desired morsels with vibrating wings, and
pattering on the water with the feet.
So far as their general mode of life is concerned they present no
marked points of difference. But the latter seems, if possible, to lead
an even more strenuous life. It is never seen on land save during
the breeding season, a custom common to the petrels, and seems
never to deign to follow passing steamers for the sake of scraps as
all other petrels will. At most it will approach for purposes of
inspection, and, curiosity once satisfied, it continues its journey
without more ado. Whalers and fishing vessels, however, furnish an
irresistible attraction, for it will persistently and eagerly attend
upon these, knowing from experience how much is to be gained
thereby. It displays a most voracious appetite, and in its hawk-
1 British Birds, p. 738. 2 Birds of Ireland, p. 392.
400 PETRELS AND SHEARWATERS
ing excursions round such vessels is often taken on a baited
hook.
Nothing seems to be known of the " courtship " of the Shearwaters,
and little enough is known of the breeding habits of any save of the
Manx-shearwater. But even in the case of this species our knowledge
is very far from complete. Underground nurseries are invariably
chosen : rock-crevices and deserted burrows are seized upon when-
ever they can be found, and failing these the birds will excavate for
themselves. Both sexes take part in this work, and they share the
duties of incubation and the care of the young. Only one is reared
during the season, and this seems to be fed on regurgitated food,
principally oil. And herein, it seems to me, we might profitably make
a distinction between "regurgitated" and "disgorged" food, using
the former term for food which has been completely changed by
digestion, and the latter for such as has simply been " pouched " for
the convenience of carriage. Thus the Petrels and Pigeons afford
instances of young which are fed upon " regurgitated " food, while the
young of herons and cormorants, for example, are fed upon " disgorged "
food. Often the head of a fish " disgorged " by a cormorant has been
more or less digested, as it were accidentally, but the greater part
thereof is taken by the young in its actual raw state.
Like the young of the storm-petrel and its congeners, nestling
shearwaters remain long in the nest, and are similarly clad in nestling
down of excessive length and " wooliness." Similarly, like the adults
they eject oil when molested. As with the smaller petrels, so with the
shearwater, the young are eagerly sought by the natives for the sake of
the abundant oil they yield, and for their flesh, which they apparently find
palatable in spite of the curiously pungent smell which emanates from
petrels of all sizes and ages. The hunters discover their quarry either
by means of dogs or by listening for the sounds made by the brooding
birds, for they are very garrulous in their burrows. According to
Messrs. Ussher and Warren their notes sound like " ah-roo, kuk, kuk,
ah-oo" Some of these notes are uttered in a deep voice and some in
Plate 174
Upper: Fulmars
Lower : Manx-shearwaters
By A. W. Seaby
FULMAR-PETREL 401
a higher and more plaintive key, suggesting the differences between
males and females.
Whether incubating or brooding young, the parents do not seem
to issue from their fastnesses till dusk or later. And the fact that
during the summer more or fewer Manx-shearwaters may be seen
abroad at all hours of the day suggests that they are non-breeding
birds.
While in favoured localities the Manx-shearwater still breeds
among us in large numbers, from some of its strongholds it has
been ousted. In the Isle of Man, according to Yarrell, it was exter-
minated by rats, while its namesake the puffin succeeded in effecting
its complete eviction from Pabbay, one of the Hebrides. From which
we may gather that in the struggle for existence the Manx-shearwater
makes but a poor fighter
FULMAR -PETREL
This remarkably interesting bird, one of the most gull-like of the
Petrels, is but seldom seen save by those " who go down to the sea in
ships," or who have to make a pilgrimage to St. Kilda, when, for a
few weeks, they are constrained to rest on land while performing their
allotted task of propagating their species. At all other times of the
year it is a strictly oceanic bird living far from land, but contriving to
obtain an abundance of food in the shape of cuttle-fish and surface-
floating organisms, supplemented by offal cast from ships, and the
blubber and oil obtained by attendance on whaling vessels. In their
eagerness to secure this they approach so near to those engaged in
flensing operations that they may be knocked down with an oar, or
even taken by the hand. When following a ship they display all the
skill of gulls, and according to some authorities are even more deft at
turning movements, and more buoyant and graceful in flight ; but in
402 PETRELS AND SHEARWATERS
scudding the pinions are held very straight, a fact which enables the
fulmar to be distinguished from the gull with ease. Large pieces of
food which may be thrown out to them are torn in pieces as the bird
sits paddling in the water, smaller pieces are swallowed at once, some-
times in mid-air. But they seem to dive but rarely, and even then
the plunge is but momentary. If all accounts are true, however, they
go deep enough to reach the bait of "long-liners." Curiously enough,
during this short sojourn on land, when breeding, these birds display
a strange liking for the sorrel which grows on the ledges where they
are breeding. But save during this short space of time no other
vegetable food is eaten.
Of the behaviour of these birds during the "courtship" period
there are few records, and by far the most lengthy are those of Mr.
Selous, who studied the fulmar in the Shetlands. After the birds have
mated, it would seem they indulge in strange and often grotesque
antics. One of the most curious is a habit of facing one another
open-mouthed, and with outstretched necks, meanwhile moving the
head from side to side and up and down as they utter a series of
hoarse coughs or grunts, though at times they perform in silence.
This display of the open mouth seems designed to make the most of
the delicate mauvy-blue which lines its cavity, yet it is surely more
than doubtful whether either bird exactly realises that its own mouth
is coloured like that of its neighbour; though nevertheless the exhibi-
tion of it may serve as an excitant. It is certainly significant that this
parade of the open mouth is only seen in such species as have this
cavity brilliantly coloured, as, for example, in the black-guillemot, the
razorbill, and the shag.
Since the young petrel in its fledgling plumage scarcely differs
from the adult, it is not surprising to find that the mouth cavity is in
like manner coloured, but it differs in hue, being paler and pinker.
Both sexes seem to share in the duties of incubation of the single
egg and in feeding the chick, which for some considerable time
remains in a lethargic state. Only once in a while, remarks Mr.
FULMAR-PETREL 403
Selous,1 will it rise a little on its feet and shuffle a few steps, but even
then doing no more than turn round. This passiveness is due at first
to sheer inability to move, and later to an inherent disinclination.
These conditions we must attribute to natural selection having
weeded out all those individuals which were of a restless disposition,
for on the narrow ledges which form their nurseries a move so much
as six inches would in most cases mean instant death by being dashed
to pieces against the foot of the cliff.
During a portion of each day the youngster is brooded by the
female, or she sits beside it, remarks Mr. Selous, " nibbling with her
bill amidst its long, soft, white fluff, the chick sitting still the while,
with its beak held open, but not at all as though it were thinking of
food." At night one or other of the parents, apparently the female,
sleeps beside it, the youngster turning the head back and burying
the beak between the wing and the body, as is the custom with roost-
ing birds.
The young one is fed by placing its beak within that of the
parent, receiving, apparently, a mouthful of oil. Solid food does not
seem to be given during the downy nestling stage. Both adult and
young possess the power of ejecting this oil, which has a peculiar and
most pungent smell, at any adversary by whom they may be threat-
ened, and their aim is good. As the noisome fluid leaves the mouth
the jaws are opened to their fullest possible extent. Similarly they
possess the power of ejecting the excrement with considerable force
and to a surprising distance, so that it is carried clear of the nest,
a most important sanitary measure.
At times, at any rate, the female seems, according to Mr. Selous,2
to resent the approach of her mate while she is brooding her young,
squirting oil at him, and uttering an angry " ak, ak, ak, ak" sometimes
preceded by a more or less curious "rherrrrrr"
The fulmar presents a light and a dark phase of plumage ; in the
1 The Bird- Watcher in the Shetlands, pp. 89-90.
* Ibid., pp. 92, 201.
404 PETRELS AND SHEARWATERS
latter the under parts are greyish. This dark form, curiously, is the
more northern type, and is the dominant type in Greenland and the
more northern parts of Iceland. It is said, however, to be spreading
southwards, even to the Scottish islands. But the dark birds are said
to be slightly smaller and to suffer from persecution from their lighter
relatives, at any rate when they are the more numerous.
The natives of St. Kilda depend very largely on the fulmar for
their means of support. The adults are caught with a noose for the
sake both of the oil they yield and their flesh and feathers. And a
heavy toll is levied on the young for a like purpose. The oil is
obtained from the adult by placing the bird head-downwards between
the knees, then the beak is opened and a tablespoonful or more of
clear amber-coloured oil runs out, to be received into a bag formed of
the dried gullet of a gannet. The adults are esteemed as food on
account of the thick layer of subcutaneous fat, of which the St
Kildans are inordinately fond.
EGG PLATE S.
1. Black-scoter.
2. Shelduck.
3. Eider.
4. Tufted-duck.
5. Pochard.
6. Greylag-goose.
7. Goosander.
8. Redbreasted?niergar.ser.
EGG PLATE T.
• 4 • •
> r •
1 Teal
9 Scaup *..• :*•;
• •
2. Garganey.
3. Pintail.
5. Mute-swan. 8. Gadwall.
6. Wigeon.
10. Majlard., ,
'«,'.'•'• ; , ,
J • (
PLATE U
NEST FEATHERS AND DOWN OF DUCKS
[The feather and down patterns should be used In conjunction -with the descriptions in the Classified Notes by which they are in
some cases slightly modified]
1. Shelducl:
2. Wild-duck or mallard
3 Gad wall
4. Shove le
5. Plnratl
6 Teal
7. Garganey
8. Wlgeon
O. Pochard
I 1O. Tufted-duck
11. Scaup
12. Eider-duck
1 13. Scoter
I 11. Goosander
15. Kedbreasted-raerRanfler
Egg Plate V
1. Shag 5. Manx-shearwater
2. Cormorant 6. Storm-petrel
3. Gannet 7. Leach's forktailed-petrel
4. Fulmar
By H. Gronvold
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