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BRITISH  CONCHOLOGY, 

OR  AN"  ACCOUIfT  OF 

THE    MOLLUSCA 

WHICH  NOW  INHABIT  THE  BEITISH  ISLES  AND  THE 

SUREOUNDINO  SEAS. 


VOLUME  L 

LAND  AND  PEESHWATER  SHELLS. 


By  JOHN  GWYN  JEFFREYS,  F.R.S.,  F.G.S.,  &c. 


■  O  come  hither,  and  behold  the  works  of  the  Lord ! " — PsAL^i  xIti.  8. 


LONDON: 
JOHN  VA.^  VOORST,  PATERNOSTER  ROW. 

MDCCCLXH. 
[The  right  of  Translation  is  reserved.] 


PRINTED    BY    TAYLOR    AND    T  R  A  N  1 1  S, 
KED  LION  COURT,  FLEET  STREET. 


TO  THE  MEMOEY 


OF 


MANY  DISTINGUISHED  NATURALISTS 
AND   VALUED   FRIENDS, 

WHO  ARE  NOW  NO  MORE, 

AND  IN  GRATEFUL  ACKNOWLEDGMENT  OF  THE 
KIND  SYMPATHY  OF 

THOSE  WHO  STILL  HAPPILY  SURVIVE, 

FROM   ALL  OF  WHOM  I   HAVE  RECEIVED 

MUCH  ASSISTANCE 

IN  THESE  CONCHOLOGICAL  STUDIES, 

I  DEDICATE 

THE  PRESENT  WORK. 


PREFACE. 


The  question  whether  another  book  on  the  British 
Mollusca  is  wanted  by  the  scientific  world,  when  there  is 
at  present  a  complete  history  of  the  subject  by  the  late 
Professor  Edward  Forbes  and  Mr.  Hanley,  is  answered  by 
the  notoriety  of  the  fact  that  the  price  of  that  admirable 
work  puts  it  beyond  the  reach  of  most  naturalists ;  and 
the  enterprising  publisher  of  those,  as  well  as  the  present, 
volumes  was  so  fully  impressed  with  the  necessity  of 
another  work  at  a  more  moderate  price,  that  he  in\dted 
me  to  undertake  the  task,  which  I  fear  I  have  inefficiently 
performed.  In  doing  this,  however,  I  have  endeavoured 
to  make  the  present  work  quite  distinct  from  its 
predecessor,  as  may  be  seen  by  comparing  the  two; 
and  those  who  are  not  fortunate  enough  to  possess  a 
copy  of  *^A  History  of  British  Mollusca  and  their 
Shells,^''  and  who  can  afibrd  the  money  for  its  purchase, 
will  not  regret  the  expenditure. 

With  regard  to  the  animals  or  soft  parts  of   the 
Mollusca  described  in  this  volume,  I  have  been  greatly 


VI  PREFACE. 

indebted  to  the  invaluable  work  of  Moquin-Tandon, 
entitled  "  Histoire  naturelle  des  Mollusques  terrestres 
et  fluviatiles  de  France/^  in  which  the  physiology  and 
anatomy  of  the  land  and  freshwater  Mollusca  have  been 
treated  in  a  far  more  able  and  exhaustive  manner  than 
had  been  previously  done  by  any  author. 

My  old  and  esteemed  friend,  Mr.  Alder,  has  most 
kindly  promised  to  assist  me  with  a  notice  of  the  Nudi- 
branchsj  so  as  to  make  that  part  of  the  subject  as  com- 
plete as  possible ;  and  the  value  of  such  cooperation  will 
be  fully  appreciated  by  all  naturalists. 

A  volume  of  supplementary  plates  will  probably  be 
published,  to  contain  figures  of  every  species  and  well- 
marked  variety.  The  figures  now  given  illustrate  the 
genera ;  but  the  cost  and  price  of  the  work  would  have 
been  greatly  increased  by  the  other  mode  of  illustration, 
except  by  resorting  to  the  inartistic  and  unsatisfactory 
substitute  of  woodcuts. 

In  the  prosecution  of  this  task  I  have  been  actuated 
by  what  I  trust  mil  not  be  deemed  a  selfish  consideration. 
The  study  of  our  native  Mollusca  has  been  to  me  fi'om 
childhood  such  an  inexhaustible  source  of  pleasant  and 
innocent  occupation,  it  has  given  me  so  many  happy 
hours,  and  it  has  taken  away  or  alleviated  the  sting  of 
so  many  sorrows,  that  I  am  desirous  to  assist  in  making 
it  more  an  object  of  general  cultivation  than  it  has 
hitherto  been.  This  field  of  research  has  by  no  means 
been  exhausted ;  and  whether  regarded  in  a  zoological 


.  PREFACE.  Vll 

or  geological  point  of  view^  or  as  tending  to  increase  our 
imperfect  knowledge  of  tlie  habits  and  instincts  of  these 
humble  works  of  our  Common  Creator,  very  much  yet 
remains  to  be  done.  No  lover  of  nature  need  share  in 
Alexander's  sigh,  or  regret  that  he  has  no  more  work  to 
do  in  any  department  to  which  he  chooses  to  devote 
himself.  ^^ Nulla  dies  sine  linea^'  was  the  favourite 
maxim  of  the  great  Linne ;  and  our  days  are  too  few  for 
the  accomplishment  of  all  that  we  propose  to  do,  let  our 
aspirations  be  ever  so  modest. 

A  few  explanatory  remarks  as  to  the  scope  of  this 
work  may  be  here  introduced. 

It  was  at  first  my  intention  to  give,  in  an  Intro- 
duction, a  general  outline  of  the  subject,  and  to  treat  at 
considerable  length  some  of  the  principal  topics  which 
are  more  especially  interesting  to  naturalists  and  geolo- 
gists. But  the  space  which  is  necessarily  occupied  by 
the  body  of  the  work  (although  the  synonymy  has  been 
compressed  within  the  shortest  limits  and  the  descrip- 
tive characters  have  been  printed  in  small  type)  will  not 
admit  of  justice  being  done  to  this  part  of  the  subject, 
without  making  the  volume  too  bulky ;  and  I  must  there- 
fore content  myself  with  oflPering  in  the  proper  place  a 
few  observations,  so  as  to  elicit  further  discussion. 

In  describing  the  dimensions  of  shells,  I  have  taken 
the  measurements  from  average  and  adult  specimens, 
dividing  inches  into  decimal  and  centesimal  parts  ac^ 
cording  to   the   size   of  each   species.     This   mode  of 


Vlll  PREFACE. 

admeasurement  I  have  considered  preferable  to  stating 
the  largest  dimensions  to  which  each  species  attains, 
which  would  not  give  a  fair  idea  of  the  usual  size,  or  to 
adopting  the  method  used  by  some  Continental  authors 
of  giving  the  range  or  extreme  limits  of  such  dimensions. 
Any  extraordinary  diflference  of  size  presented  by  speci- 
mens or  varieties  will  be  noticed.  In  giving  the  ad- 
measurement of  bivalve  shells,  I  have  considered  the 
length  to  correspond  with  the  line  of  growth  (viz.  from 
the  apex  or  beak  to  the  front  margin),  and  the  breadth 
from  one  side  of  each  valve  to  the  other.  In  the  case  of 
univalve  shells  I  have  adopted  the  same  rule,  viz.  taking 
the  line  of  gi'owth  for  the  length  (the  apex  or  point  of 
the  spire  representing  each  beak  of  the  bivalve) ,  and  the 
widest  part  of  the  shell,  or  its  greatest  diameter,  for  the 
breadth. 

At  the  end  of  the  work  I  propose  to  give  some  prac- 
tical hints  to  collectors. 

For  the  benefit  of  such  of  my  lady  readers  as  have  not 
added  a  knowledge  of  the  classics  to  their  other  accom- 
plishments, I  have  marked  the  accentuation  of  all  the 
names  of  genera  and  species  described  in  this  work.  One 
word  of  frequent  occun^ence  I  have  noticed  to  be  too 
often  mispronounced  by  many  who  ought  to  know  better, 
and  that  is  the  specific  name  of  our  common  eatable 
oyster,  mussel,  and  cockle.  This  word  [edidis]  has  the 
middle  syllable  long,  as  is  evident  by  remembering  one 
of  the  various  gastronomic  maxims  of  Catius,  "Vinea 


PREFACE.  IX 

submittit  capreas  non  semper  edules."  My  late  friend, 
the  Rev.  Dr.  Goodall,  when  he  was  Provost  of  Eton, 
impressed  on  my  memory  a  rule  of  pronunciation,  which 
it  may  be  here  useful  to  repeat.  It  is,  that  in  words 
which  end  in  inus,  .and  are  derived  from  the  names  of 
animals,  the  last  syllable  but  one  is  generally  long  (as  in 
Neritina  and  anatinus),  while  in  those  words  which  have 
a  similar  termination,  but  are  derived  from  vegetable  or 
mineral  names  (such  as  lanthina  and  crystallinus) ,  the 
penultimate  syllable  is  generally  short.  The  first  are 
Latin,  and  the  last  are  Greek  forms.  I  have  also 
endeavoured  to  render  as  literally  as  possible  the 
English  meaning  of  all  generic  and  specific  names, 
although  the  barbarisms  are  nearly  as  frequent  in  the 
nomenclature  of  natural  history  as  they  are  in  the 
materia  medica. 

The  way  in  which  the  name  of  the  great  Swedish 
naturalist  and  founder  of  scientific  classification  ought 
to  be  spelt  has  been  long  the  subject  of  controversy.  It 
was  originally  Linnmus ;  but  on  his  receiving  a  patent 
of  nobility,  he  assumed  the  name  of  Linne.  The  latter 
name  is  given  in  the  twelfth  (and  most  perfect)  edi- 
tion of  the  "  Systema  Naturse;^^  and  in  aU  his  subse- 
quent works  and  correspondence  he  always  used  this 
title  of  distinction.  The  learned  Society  which  bears 
his  name  in  this  country  is  Linnean  and  not  Linnsean, 
as  appears  by  their  charter  and  Transactions.  Under 
these  circumstances,  I  have  adopted  the  name  which  he 

a  5 


X  PREFACE. 

himself  preferred,  and  which  is  prefixed  to  the  work  by 
which  he  is  best  kno^vii  as  a  conchologist. 

A  parting  word  to  the  critics  !  When  a  mere  youth, 
I  was  encouraged  by  my  lamented  friend,  Mr.  Dillwyn, 
to  commit  to  print  what  little  I  then  knew  of  the  subject 
comprised  in  the  present  volume ;  and  my  first  essay, 
entitled  "  A  Synopsis  of  the  Testaceous  Pneumono- 
branchous  MoUusca  of  Great  Britain,^^  was  honoured 
by  the  Linnean  Society  by  publication  in  their  Trans- 
actions. Now,  in  mature  years,  I  have  become  still 
more  bold,  and  venture  to  appeal  to  the  public.  But, 
although  I  cannot  hope  to  be  exempt  from  the  fate  of  all 
authors — criticism  (and  indeed,  for  the  sake  of  science 
and  the  elucidation  of  truth,  I  would  rather  in\dte  it, 
instead  of  considering  it  a  calamity) ,  I  cannot  send  forth 
this  little  work  without  a  mixture  of  the  same  feeling 
of  hope  and  doubt,  which  made  the  ancient  poet  thus 
apostrophize  his  book  : — 

"  Paucis  ostendi  gemis,  et  communia  laudas, 
Non  ita  nutritus.     Fuge,  quo  descendere  gestis : 
Json  erit  emisso  reditus  tibi." 


25  Devonshire  Place,  London, 
24  May,  18G2. 


INTKODUCTION. 


CHAPTER   I. 

CLASSIFICATION. 

DEFINITION     OP     THE     TEEM     ''CONCHOLOGY."  CONFORMITY    OF 

SHELLS    WITH   THEIR    INHABITANTS. CEPHALIC     MOLLUSKS    OR 

UNIVALVES.  ACEPHALA     OR     BIVALVES.  TUNICATA.  SPE- 
CIES.  VARIETIES. MONSTROSITIES. REVERSED     SHELLS.  

SYNONYMY. NOMENCLATURE. 

Definition  of  the  term  "  Conchology .'^ — Conchology  ^, 
as  a  branch  of  Natiu'al  History,  treats  of  the  Molhisca 
or  that  great  division  of  invertebrate  animals  which  have 
soft  bodies  and  an  organization  superior  to  that  of 
insects  and  only  inferior  to  that  of  fishes.  It  properly 
comprises  the  study,  not  only  of  the  shell  or  outer  cover- 
ing of  the  moUusk,  but  also  of  the  whole  animal, — al- 
though it  has  sometimes  been  used  in  a  more  limited 
sense,  in  contradistinction  to  the  term  "malacology/^ 
which  has  exclusive  reference  to  the  soft  parts  of  the 
animal.  Linne  included  the  Mollusca  in  his  great  class 
Vermes — some  of  them  as  Vermes  Mollusca  and  others 
as  Vermes  Testacea ;  but  as  the  first  of  these  divisions 
comprised  a  very  heterogeneous  assemblage  of  inver- 
tebrate animals,  and  as  the  testaceous  Annelids  were 
united  with  the  latter,  the  classification  proposed  by  him 

*  Compounded  of  two  Greek  words,  Koyxri,  a  shellfish,  and  Xdyo?,  a 
treatise. 


75032 


Xii  INTRODUCTION.  [CH. 

has  not  been  adopted  by  modern  naturalists.  Cuvier  was 
the  first  to  restrict  the  term  "  Mollusca^^  to  its  present 
meaning.  Nearly  all  the  MoUusca  have  a  shelly  cover- 
ing, which  protects  either  the  whole  of  their  bodies  or 
the  more  important  organs.  Even  the  Nudibranchs  or 
Sea-slugs,  in  their  embryonic  state,  are  provided  with 
a  unispiral  shell;  and  the  Limacida  or  Land-slugs 
possess  a  shelly  plate,  which  is  imbedded  in  the  shield 
or  mantle.  The  term  ^^  Conchology ''  may  be  therefore 
considered  sufficiently  appropriate  to  express  the  nature 
of  this  science,  especially  when  the  original  meaning  of 
the  word  is  taken  into  account.  I  do  not  profess  to  be 
conversant  with  the  anatomy  and  morphology  of  the 
MoUusca;  and  I  must  refer  those  who  wish  to  studv 
this  part  of  the  subject  to  the  admirable  treatises  of 
Cuvier,  Milne-Edwards,  Quatrefages,  Troschel,  Von  Sie- 
bold,  Vrolik,  and  other  Continental  writers,  as  well  as  to 
those  of  our  own  equally  eminent  countrymen,  Owen, 
Gray,  Huxley,  and  Hancock.  A  complete  knowledge  of 
the  MoUusca  is  of  course  unattainable  mthout  such 
study;  but  I  must  content  myself  with  having  made 
such  progress  as  time  and  opportunities  have  permitted. 

"  Est  quadam  prodire  tenus,  si  non  datur  ultra." 

Conformity  of  shells  with  their  inhabitants. — The  im- 
portance of  studying  all  the  parts  of  the  MoUusca  is 
undeniable,  and  especially  for  the  pui^oose  of  arranging 
them  in  generic  and  higher  groups  ;  but  the  distinctive 
characters  afforded  by  the  soft  parts  alone,  which  have 
been  erroneously  termed  by  some  writers  the  "  animal," 
cannot  be  much  relied  on  in  making  out  species.  Phi- 
hppi  has  completely  demonstrated  the  insufficiency  of 
such  characters  in  the  case  of  the  genus  Rissoa ;  and  a 
careful  comparison  of  the  descriptions  given  in  the  fol- 
lowing pages  of  our  Land  and  Freshwater  MoUusca 


I.]  INTRODUCTION. 


XUl 


ought  to  satisfy  any  naturalist,  who  is  inclined  to  con- 
sider the  question  in  an  unprejudiced  spirit,  that  the 
body  or  soft  parts  of  the  moUusk,  taken  without  re- 
ference to  the  shell,  offers  an  extremely  shght  and 
variable  criterion  of  specific  difference.  The  shell  of 
itself  generally  enables  the  conchologist  to  distinguish 
one  species  from  another,  without  regard  to  the  soft 
parts ;  and  as  the  latter  are  seldom  observable,  the  con- 
venience of  such  a  mode  of  distinction  is  obvious.  It 
would  be  rather  difficult  for  a  malacologist  to  describe 
any  particular  kind  of  testaceous  moUusk  without  no- 
ticing the  shell ;  and  for  the  same  reason  a  crab  or  sea- 
egg  would  not  be  easily  recognized  by  the  description, 
if  all  mention  of  the  carapace  or  test  were  omitted.  The 
shell  of  the  mollusk  may  be  in  some  respects  considered 
as  a  pseudo-skeleton,  serving  not  only  to  protect  the 
soft  and  tender  body,  but  also  to  keep  the  whole  frame 
together,  like  the  true  skeleton  of  any  vertebrate  animal. 
Tliere  is,  besides,  an  intimate  connexion  between  the 
shell  and  the  tissues  of  the  body,  which  is  only  dissolved 
by  death  or  violence.  The  shell  is  (to  use  the  words  of 
Mr.  Searles  Wood)  "part  and  parcel  of  the  animal  itself." 
I  am  aware  that  this  opinion  has  been  controverted  by 
high  authority,  and  especially  by  Dr.  Gray,  whose  valu- 
able contributions  to  the  science  of  zoology,  in  many  of 
its  branches,  are  famihar  to  all.  He,  at  one  time,  dis- 
turbed the  minds  of  geologists  as  well  as  students  not  a 
little,  by  a  statement  that  some  shells  which  were  per- 
fectly ahke  were  inhabited  by  animals  so  extremely 
dissimilar  as  to  be  referable  to  very  different  orders  of 
MoUusca"^.  This  statement,  however,  he  afterwards  quali- 
fied to  a  considerable  extent  by  admitting  that,  "  in  the 
distinction  of  the  larger  and  smaller  groups  of  MoUusca, 

*  Phil.  Trans.  1834,  p.  302. 


xiv  INTRODUCTION.  [CH. 

the  characters  derived  from  the  animal,  the  shell,  and  the 
operculum,  which  all  have  a  mutual  relation  to  each 
other,  are  of  equal  value  and  constancy;"  and  he  ob- 
served "how  thoroughly  they  depend  on  each  other, 
and  what  excellent  and  permanent  characters  they  afford, 
both  separately  and  in  combination  with  each  other^." 
Dr.  Gray  seems  now  to  be  quite  sensible  of  the  value 
of  conchological  characters,  as  nearly  the  whole  of  his 
numerous  genera  of  MoUusca  have  no  other  foundation 
than  the  shell.  I  believe  that  the  form  and  structure  of 
the  shell  will  be  invariably  found  to  correspond  with  the 
habits  and  wants  of  the  animal  which  produces  it.  The 
mechanical  principles  involved  in  the  construction  of 
shells,  and  the  adaptability  of  these  habitations  to  the 
uses  of  their  builders,  have  been  admirably  explained  by 
the  Rev.  Canon  Moseley,  in  an  essay  "On  the  Geometri- 
cal Form  of  Turbinated  and  Discoid  Shells,"  which  was 
published  in  the  ^Philosophical  Transactions^  for  1838, 
and  to  which  I  would  invite  the  attention  of  my  readers. 
The  uniformity  of  the  laws  which  are  here  so  ably  ex- 
pounded, and  the  correlation  which  exists  between  the 
mollusk  and  its  shell,  exhibit  in  no  small  degree  the  in- 
finite wisdom  of  the  Creator  of  all  things,  thus 

"dimly  seen 

In  these  thy  lowest  works  ;  yet  these  declare 

Thy  goodness  beyond  thought,  and  power  divine  !  " 

Cephalic  Mollusks  or  Univalves. — The  Mollusca  may 
be  considered  in  a  general  point  of  view  as  divided  into 
Cephalic  and  Acephalous,  and  their  shells  into  Univalves 
and  Bivalves.  The  former  arrangement  was  proposed 
by  Lamarck,  and  the  latter  by  his  predecessor,  Linne, 
who  also  added  a  third  division — viz.  that  of  Multi valves, 
which  would  almost  be  warranted  by  the  anomalous 
*  Ann.  &  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.  Sept.  1855,  p.  425. 


I.]  INTRODUCTION.  XV 

organization  of  Teredo  and  Chiton,  All  these  divisions, 
however,,  are  clearly  artificial.  The  Cephalic  or  Cephalo- 
phorous  MoUusks  have  a  distinct  head,  and  usually  ten- 
tacles or  horns,  with  eyes  at  their  tips  or  base,  and  a 
foot  or  muscular  disk  for  crawHng  or  floating.  A  few  of 
them  have  arms  for  swimming.  Some  inhabit  the  land, 
and  others  the  water.  The  Snail,  Whelk,  and  Cuttle- 
fish are  instances  of  this  kind  of  Mollusca. 

Acephala  or  Bivalves. — Although  the  bivalve  Mollusca 
have  no  heads  as  a  distinct  part  of  their  bodies,  they  are 
not  deficient  in  those  organs  of  outward  sense  which  cha- 
racterize other  Mollusca,  and  their  brain  is  as  largely 
developed.  Many  of  them  have  numerous  eyes  for 
seeing,  otolites  or  ear- stones  for  hearing,  filaments  for 
touching,  lips  for  tasting,  a  mouth  for  taking  in  their 
food,  and  (according  to  some  physiologists)  also  an  organ 
of  smell.  The  fry  of  the  Oyster,  Terebratula,  and  other 
bivalves,  which,  in  their  adult  state,  are  permanently 
attached  to  other  substances,  swim  about  freely,  and  are 
provided  with  distinct  eyes,  which  afterwards  disappear. 
All  the  Acephala  are  aquatic,  and  respire  by  means  of 
gills,  like  fishes.  The  Oyster,  Mussel,  and  Cockle  are 
familiar  examples  of  this  kind  of  Mollusca. 

Tunicata. — The  Tunicata  or  Ascidians  can  scarcely 
be  said  to  belong  to  the  Mollusca,  from  which  they  difi'er, 
according  to  Milne-Edwards,  in  many  essential  par- 
ticulars, especially  as  regards  their  circulation  and  re- 
production. They  appear  to  have  a  considerable  afiinity 
to  the  Polyzoa  (or  what  are  generally  called  "  Polypes  "), 
and  may  with  them  constitute  the  great  and  separate 
class  of  Molluscoidea.  Each  division  of  the  animal 
kingdom  has  so  many  points  of  resemblance  to  others, 
and  the  network  of  organization  is  so  closely  inter- 
woven, that  it  would  be  very  difiicult  to  define  any  one 


Xvi  INTRODUCTION.  [CH. 

class  by  characters  which  others  do  not  share  in  common 
with  it.  Mr.  Alder  is  at  present  occupied  with  the  sub- 
ject of  the  British  Tunicata ;  and  it  will  doubtless  re- 
ceive from  that  talented  and  experienced  naturalist  the 
same  elucidation  as  was  bestowed  on  his  celebrated 
Monograph  of  our  native  Nudibranchs. 

Species. — I  now  venture  to  offer  a  few  remarks  on  a 
very  diflBcult  and  perhaps  insoluble  problem,  \iz.  the 
nature  of  species.  The  difficulty  of  this  investigation  is 
greater  in  the  study  of  the  Mollusca  and  other  Inver- 
tebrata  than  in  that  of  more  highly  organized  animals, 
because  one  characteristic  element,  from  the  nature  of 
their  reproductive  system,  is  here  wanting  or  beyond  the 
reach  of  observation.  Nearly  all  the  land  Mollusca, 
the  habits  of  which  it  is  comparatively  easy  to  study, 
have  both  sexes  united  in  the  same  individual ;  and  not 
even  the  aquarium  will  enable  us  to  make  those  experi- 
ments as  to  the  fertility  or  sterility  of  hybrids  to  which 
such  importance  is  attached  in  the  discussion  of  this 
question  in  the  case  of  vertebrate  animals. 

The  forms  of  some  shells  appear  to  be  more  perma- 
nent or  capable  of  being  reproduced  without  any  modi- 
fication than  others.  The  Silurian  Lingula,  which  claims 
the  precedence  of  all  Mollusca  in  point  of  antiquity,  is 
said  to  be  undistinguishable  from  an  existing  species; 
and  its  mould  must  therefore  have  been  continued  from 
the  womb  of  time  to  the  present  day  without  the  slight- 
est change.  The  secondary  strata  contain  many  well- 
known  instances  of  a  similar  persistence  of  form,  espe- 
cially those  of  Terebratula  caput-serpentis  and  some 
Foraminifera,  which  are  considered  by  competent  autho- 
rities not  to  differ  from  species  which  now  live  in  the 
adjacent  seas.  A  large  proportion  of  the  fossil  shells 
found   in   the    lowermost   of   the   Pliocene   strata    (or 


I.]  INTRODUCTION.  Xvii 

"  Coralline  Crag  ^^)  are  precisely  similar  in  every  respect 
to  the  recent  shells  of  species  which  bear  the  same  names 
and  still  survive;  and  it  is  impossible  for  the  most  critical 
species-maker  to  distinguish  one  from  the  other.  Even 
their  varieties  and  monstrosities  or  abnormal  forms  are 
still  repeated.  The  opinion  of  the  late  Professor  D^Or- 
bigny_,  which  has  been  adopted  by  Agassiz_,  that  all  tertiary 
species  became  extinct,  and  that  they  are  only  repre- 
sented at  present  by  analogous  forms,  evidently  resulted 
from  a  preconceived  theory,  against  which  a  concordance 
of  fossil  with  recent  species  would  have  militated. 

Without,  however,  entering  into  an  abstruse  (and 
perhaps  useless)  inquiry  into  the  origin  of  species,  or 
how  far  they  have  been  modified  during  any  period  of 
time,  however  vast,  by  external  circumstances  or  condi- 
tions, it  is  undeniable  that  certain  definite  forms,  called 
"  species,"  exist,  and  that  they  constitute  more  or  less 
extensive  groups  of  individuals,  which  resemble  each 
other  as  well  as  their  parents  and  offspring,  to  the  same 
extent  that  we  observe  in  the  case  of  our  own  kind. 
These  groups,  to  deserve  the  name  of  species,  must 
be  distinct  from  others ;  because  if  any  of  them  are  so 
intimately  blended  together  by  intermediate  links  as  to 
make  the  line  of  separation  too  critical,  the  test  fails,  and 
a  subordinate  group,  or  what  is  called  a  "variety,"  is 
the  result.  For  this  reason  it  is  indispensably  necessary 
to  compare  as  great  a  number  of  individuals  as  possible, 
and  especially  a  series  of  different  ages  and  sizes  com- 
mencing ab  ovo,  as  well  as  specimens  collected  from 
various  localities.  The  study  of  abnormal  or  monstrous 
forms  is  also  important  in  order  to  ascertain  the  range 
of  variation  in  growth.  By  such  investigations  a  crying 
abuse  of  the  present  school  of  natural  history  (an  ex- 
cessive  multiplication   of   species)    would   be   avoided. 


Xviii  INTRODUCTION.  [CH. 

juster  views  would  prevail  as  to  the  distinction  of  spe- 
cies^ and  the  well- deserved  reproach  of  those  philo- 
sophers who  are  confirmed  in  their  denial  that  species 
have  any  real  existence  in  nature  by  the  notorious  dis- 
agreement of  naturalists  as  to  their  limits  would  thus 
cease.  There  is  no  judge  or  ^'  arbiter  specierum ;  ^^  and 
every  naturalist  is  at  perfect  liberty  to  follow  the  bent 
of  his  own  discretion  or  inclination  in  the  extension  or 
reduction  of  species^  subject  only  to  the  opinion  of  his 
scientific  compeers.  He  is  amenable  to  no  other  autho- 
rity. Hence  arises  that  great  and  continual  diversity  of 
opinion  as  to  the  determination  of  certain  species  among 
natui'alists,  whose  opportunities  or  experience  are  more 
or  less  great  J  or  whose  minds  are  differently  constituted — 
the  nature  of  some  being  rather  analytical  and  of  others 
synthetical.  The  same  remark  of  course  applies  to  the 
distribution  of  species  into  genera^  and  of  these,  again, 
into  families  and  higher  groups  or  sections.  To  a  cer- 
tain extent  all  classification  is  artificial  and  arbitrary; 
but  the  necessity  for  some  arrangement  of  the  kind  is 
obvious,  considering  the  immense  number  and  variety 
of  objects  to  which  some  name  or  symbol  of  distinction 
must  be  given  for  the  sake  of  those  who  pursue  or  study 
any  branch  of  natural  history.  Systems  of  classification 
are  as  indispensable  to  a  naturalist  as  tools  to  a  work- 
man. This  necessity  of  science  equally  applies  to  the 
discussion  of  the  interesting  question  as  to  the  origin 
and  mutability  of  species,  which  in  the  absence  of  such 
data  could  not  be  satisfactorily  conducted. 

Varieties. — Besides  species,  and  holding  a  subordinate 
rank  to  them  in  the  great  host  of  Nature's  works,  are 
certain  forms  called  "  varieties,^'  which  are  not  less  defi- 
nite, but  more  difiicult  to  separate  from  the  typical  or 
specific  forms.     They  are  offshoots  of  species,  and  origi- 


I.]  INTRODUCTION.  xix 

nate  in  some  peculiarity  of  climate,  situation,  composition 
of  the  soil  or  water  which  they  inhabit,  the  nature  or 
supply  of  food,  and  various  other  conditions.  The  cha- 
racters by  which  they  usually  differ  from  species  consist 
of  size,  comparative  proportions  of  different  parts,  colour, 
and  degree  of  sculpture ;  and  the  investigation  of  forms 
thus  changed  or  modified  is  often  extremely  perplexing. 
Some  species  are  more  liable  than  others  to  variation ; 
and,  as  might  be  expected,  the  tendency  to  variation  is 
greater  in  those  species  which  most  abound  in  individuals, 
by  reason  of  their  offering  a  wider  scope  of  observation 
to  the  naturalist.  Varieties  are  of  two  kinds,  perma- 
nent and  local.  The  former  are  called  "races,^^  and 
have  many  of  the  characters  of  true  or  typical  species, 
with  which  they  associate.  Great  experience  and  good 
faith  are  essential  to  the  investigation  of  this  experi- 
mentum  crucis ;  and  the  only  reliable  test  of  distinction 
between  species  and  races  appears  to  be  the  discovery 
of  intermediate  forms.  In  the  absence  of  such  discovery 
we  may  proceed  to  classify, — although  after  all  we  must 
not  lose  sight  of  the  great  probability  that  all  species, 
and  even  higher  groups,  may  have  originally  descended 
from  races  or  permanent  varieties,  and  these  again  from 
local  varieties.  The  latter  are  more  readily  distinguished 
from  species  and  are  never  found  associated  with  them. 
I  believe  it  may  be  now  considered  a  well-established 
rule,  that  all  distinct  groups  of  individuals  living  toge- 
ther and  having  a  common  feeding-ground,  and  which 
are  not  connected  or  blended  with  each  other  by  insen- 
sible gradations,  are  prima  facie  entitled  to  the  rank  of 
species.  A  contrary  opinion  used  formerly  to  be  enter- 
tained by  some  naturalists;  and  it  was  not  unusual 
to  found  a  claim  to  specific  distinction  on  the  fact  that 
the  specimens  thus  distinguished  did  not  occur  with  the 


XX  INTRODUCTION.  [CH. 

species  from  wliicli  it  was  proposed  to  separate  them. 
They  apparently  forgot  that  the  very  difference  of  locality 
or  habitat^  with  its  accompanying  conditions,  caused  the 
variation  in  question. 

Monstrosities. — These  abnormal  forms  of  shells  are 
frequently  repeated,  and  even  appear  to  be  hereditary ; 
and  it  is  not  easy  at  first  to  distinguish  them  from  varie- 
ties. Both  are  probably  owing  to  an  irregularity,  or  an 
excessive  or  defective  power,  of  secretion  in.  the  mantle 
of  the  animal.  The  monstrosity  seldom,  if  ever,  occurs 
in  the  first  stage  of  growth ;  and  the  examination  of  the 
top  whorls  or  apex  of  a  univalve,  or  of  one  of  the  beaks 
of  a  bivalve  (being  in  each  case  the  nucleus  of  the  shell) , 
offers  a  good  criterion  to  distinguish  monstrosities  from 
species.  The  normal  or  regular  form  becomes  distorted 
at  a  subsequent  stage  of  growth,  instead  of  pursuing  the 
usual  course  of  formation. 

Reversed  shells. — Among  the  numerous  cases  of  mon- 
strosity to  which  the  MoUusca  are  liable,  by  reason  of 
their  comparatively  simple  organization,  none  is  more 
remarkable  than  the  reversed  turn  and  position  which  the 
spire  of  univalve  shells  and  the  valves  of  some  Acephala 
not  unfrequently  assume.  The  twist  of  the  spire  in 
univalves  is,  with  a  few  exceptions,  dextral  or  from  left 
to  right,  the  shell  being  placed  with  its  spire  towards 
the  observer  and  its  mouth  downwards.  If  the  shell  is 
held  in  this  position  before  a  mirror,  the  spire  will  of 
course  appear  to  be  sinistral  or  turning  from  right  to 
left,  which  is  termed  "reversed.^^  This  phenomenon 
occurs  in  most  species  of  Mollusca  which  have  spiral 
shells ;  but  it  is  more  rare  in  some  than  in  others.  In 
certain  genera  the  shell  is  naturally  reversed;  and  a 
dextral  spire  becomes  the  exception  or  monstrosity.  In 
a  few  species  the  spire  is  as  frequently  sinistral  as  dex- 


I,]  INTRODUCTION.  XXi 

tral.  The  direction  of  the  spire  is  attended  by  a  corre- 
sponding change  in  the  position  of  those  organs  of  the 
animal  which  are  usually  placed  on  one  particular  side ; 
and  it  may  be  compared  to  the  case  of  a  man  ha\ing 
his  heart  on  the  right  and  his  lungs  on  the  left  side  of 
his  body.  The  structure  of  a  mollusk  is,  however,  not 
so  complicated ;  and  the  consequence  of  such  a  reversal 
in  the  position  of  its  organs  is  probably  not  very  import- 
ant to  its  economy.  One  curious  case  of  this  kind  of 
malformation  is  worth  noticing.  During  the  deposit  of 
that  part  of  our  upper  tertiary  strata  which  is  called  the 
"Red  Crag/^  nearly  all  the  specimens  of  the  almond 
whelk  (Fusus  antiquus)  appear  to  have  been  sinistral  or 
reversed,  dextral  specimens  being  comparatively  very 
scarce  in  this  formation.  The  same  species  still  exists 
and  is  common  in  our  seas  ^  but  the  proportion  of  dex- 
tral to  sinistral  specimens  is  at  present  exactly  the  con- 
trary to  what  it  was  in  the  Crag  epoch — the  former  being 
now  the  rule  and  the  latter  the  exception.  A  reversed  spe- 
cimen in  a  recent  or  fresh  state  is  worth  half  a  sovereign ; 
while  dextral  specimens  may  be  had  at  any  street  stall 
(with  the  fish)  at  the  rate  of  four  for  a  penny.  A  few 
bivalve  species,  which  have  one  valve  larger  than  the 
other  and  are  therefore  called  inequivalve,  have  also 
their  shells  occasionally  reversed, — their  right  or  left 
valve  being  the  largest,  contrary  to  the  usual  rule  in 
these  species. 

In  the  prosecution  of  any  inquiry  into  the  nature  of 
species  or  varieties,  or  as  to  whether  there  have  been 
any  special  or  successive  creations  since  this  world  was 
called  into  existence  by  the  fiat  of  its  Great  Creator,  I  do 
not  believe  that  it  can  have  any  irreligious  or  sceptical 
tendency.  Holy  Scripture  is  not  a  work  of  natural  his- 
tory, and  it  is  silent  on  the  subject  of  this  investigation. 


Xxii  INTRODUCTION.  [cH. 

As  Dr.  Carpenter  has  well  observed,  in  his  Researches 
on  the  Foraminifera *j  "The  creation  of  any  organism 
seems  to  me  just  as  much  to  require  the  exertion  of 
Divine  Power  when  it  takes  place  in  the  ordinary  course 
of  generation,  as  it  would  do  if  that  organism  were  to 
be  called  into  existence  de  novo ;  the  question  being  in 
reality  whether  such  exertion  takes  place  in  the  way  of 
continuous  exercise  according  to  a  settled  and  compre^ 
hensive  plan,  or  by  a  series  of  disconnected  efforts." 

Synonymy. — Although  the  prevalent  habit  of  multi- 
plying species  is  much  to  be  deprecated,  an  equal  amount 
of  injury  has  been  done  to  the  cause  of  science  by  the 
unnecessary  addition,  from  time  to  time,  of  fresh  names 
for  species  which  had  been  previously  described;  the 
consequence  of  which  is  that,  an  overgrown  mass  of 
nomenclature  encumbers  most  works  on  natural  history. 
For  our  common  Cockle  and  its  varieties  no  less  than 
sixteen,  and  for  the  Oyster  fourteen  different  names 
have  been  given  by  British  and  Continental  writers ;  a 
genus  of  minute  shells  [Odostomia]  has  received  from 
various  conchologists  twenty  different  names  ;  and  in  an 
essay  of  M.  Bourguignat  on  the  species  of  Pisidium  (a 
small  freshwater  bivalve)  the  synonymy  of  P.  amnicum 
comprises  eighty  specific  names  and  extends  over  more 
than  five  octavo  pages.  The  student  may  well  stand 
aghast  at  this  fearful  array  of  names,  which  bewilder  him 
and  obstruct  his  entrance  into  the  portals  of  the  edifice 
of  natural  history  !  This  redundancy  of  names  for  the 
same  object  has  partly  arisen  from  the  want  of  inter- 
com'se  which  naturalists  of  this  and  other  countries 
experienced  formerly,  and  especially  during  that  chronic 
state  of  international  warfare  which  so  long  debarred  us 
from   any  communication   with   foreigners.      Such    an 

*  Phil.  Trans,  vol.  cl.  p.  570. 


I.]  INTRODUCTION.  Xxiii 

unfortunate  state  of  things  certainly  retarded  scientific 
progress  in  Great  Britain  to  a  very  great  extent;  and 
the  friendly  sympathy  which  now  exists  between  the 
naturalists  of  all  countries  cannot  be  sufficiently  ap- 
preciated. In  one  sense  the  multiplication  of  species 
and  addition  of  synonyms  are  convertible  terms ;  and 
that  is^  where  local  varieties  have  been  described  and 
raised  to  the  rank  of  species.  This  evil  it  is  impossible 
to  prevent ;  but  as  science  does  not  march  '' pede  claudOy" 
but  regularly  and  steadily,  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  each 
succeeding  year  will  bring  with  further  discoveries  the 
occasional  publication  of  monographs  by  experienced  na- 
turalists, so  as  gradually  to  rectify  this  crying  evil.  The 
introduction  to  the  ^  Flora  Indica/  by  Drs.  Hooker  and 
Thomson,  contains  a  valuable  remark  which  deserves  the 
attention  of  zoologists  as  well  as  botanists,  viz.,  "  The 
discovery  of  a  form  uniting  two  others,  previously  thought 
distinct,  is  much  more  important  than  that  of  a  totally 
new  species,  inasmuch  as  the  coiTcction  of  an  error  is  a 
greater  boon  to  science  than  a  step  in  advance.^^ 

Nomenclature. — Very  often  the  longest  and  most  un- 
pronounceable names  have  been  bestowed  on  minute 
and  almost  microscopic  species.  When  the  student  meets 
with  such  names  as  Cerithiopsis  tubercularis  and  Omalo- 
gyra  nitidisslma,  he  is  scarcely  prepared  to  find  that  one 
of  the  objects  designated  by  these  more  than  sesqui- 
pedalian words  is  scarcely  more  than  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  in  length,  and  that  the  other  is  only  about  one- 
fifteenth  of  an  inch  in  diameter  !  There  is,  however,  no 
way  of  preventing  this  abuse  of  language  for  scientific 
purposes,  except  by  making  a  new  coinage;  and  this 
would  be  attended  with  more  inconvenience  to  naturalists 
in  the  substitution  of  new  for  old  and  familiar  names, 
than  in  the  retention  of  a  few  long  words. 


Xxiv  INTRODUCTION.  [CH. 

The  general  rule  is  not  to  alter  the  name  which  has 
been  first  given  to  any  species,  in  order  to  establish  a  con- 
ventional right  of  priority  and  to  prevent  confusion.  But 
this  rule  is  not  without  an  exception — especially  where 
the  original  name  has  been  accidentally  misspelt,  either 
by  the  author  or  printer.  Thus  "  Suediense ''  has  been 
properly  changed  to  Suecicum ;  and  "  Syndosmya  ^^  ought 
to  be  replaced  by  Syndesmia.  Such  trivial  corrections 
are  necessary  in  the  works  of  our  best  authors ;  and  in 
those  which  have  largely  benefited  the  cause  of  science, 


"  non  ego  paucis 


Offendar  maculis,  quas  aut  incuria  fudit 
Aut  humaua  parum  cavit  natura." 


CHAPTER   II. 

ORGAJ^IZATION  AND  HABITS. 

REPEODLTTIVE  system. FECUNDITY. HYBRIDISM. PROGRESSIVE 

DEVELOPMENT. ORGANS  OF  SIGHT HEARING SMELL LOCO- 
MOTION.  FOOD. SIZE. HABITAT. CARE  OF  YOUNG. SOCIA- 
BILITY.  ESTIVATION  AND  HIBERNATION. NESTS. MODES  OF 

ATTACK  AND  DEFENCE. RENEWAL  OF  PARTS, PHOSPHORES- 
CENCE.  PERFORATING  POAVERS. OCCASIONAL  APPEARANCE  AND 

DISAPPEARANCE. TENACITY  OF  LIFE. AGE. RESUME. 

Reproductive  system. — The  modes  of  propagation 
among  the  Mollusca  are  various.  In  the  case  of  uni- 
valves, many  of  them  (e.  g.  the  Whelk  tribe)  have  distinct 
sexes,  and  are  what  botanists  term  "  dioecious  f'  w^hile 
most  of  the  land-snails  are  nearlv  "  monoecious,^^  each 
indiA'idual  being  at  the  same  time  male  and  female,  but 
incapable  of  fertilizing  itself.  Some  of  these  even  change 
their  sex  at  diff'erent  periods, — the  ValvatidcB  being  at 


II.]  INTRODUCTION.  XXV 

first  male  and  afterwards  becoming  female.  In  the  case 
of  the  Conchifera  or  bivalves,  they  are  probably  all 
strictly  '^  monoecious ''  and  fertilize  themselves.  It  was 
at  one  time  supposed  that  the  Oyster  and  freshwater 
Mussel  were  exceptions  to  this  rule,  and  that  some  in- 
dividuals were  male  and  others  female;  but  the  re- 
searches of  Davaine,  Moquin-Tandon,  and  other  able 
physiologists  have  disproved  this  idea*.  The  external 
organization  of  the  Conchifera,  as  well  as  the  complete 
isolation  of  the  Teredines  and  many  other  kinds  from  all 
intercourse  with  each  other  during  the  whole  of  their 
lives,  would  make  it  very  unlikely  that  they  are  of  dif- 
ferent sexes.  Some  of  the  MoUusca  are  ovoviviparous, 
the  eggs  being  hatched  within  the  body  and  the  fry  ex- 
cluded in  a  perfect  form.  This  is  the  case  not  only  with 
"  monoecious  '^  kinds  (such  as  Anodonta  and  Kellia) ,  but 
also  with  some  snails  [Helix  rupestris  and  Pupa  umbili- 
cata)  and  even  with  "  dioecious  ^^  kinds,  such  as  Paludina 
and  certain  species  of  Littorina.  Some  particulars  will  be 
found  in  the  following  pages  T\4th  regard  to  the  amours 
of  the  land  and  freshwater  snails  ;  and  much  more  might 
be  said  on  this  curious  subject.  The  tender  passion 
seems  to  take  up  much  of  their  time  and  attention.  M. 
Turpin  has  observed  a  pair  of  the  common  garden-snail 
[Helix  aspersa)  engaged  in  love-making  for  the  space  of 
more  than  ten  hours  ! 

Fecundity. — The  extreme  fertility  of  some  moUusks  is 
not  exceeded  by  that  of  fish.  It  has  been  estimated  that 
the  oyster  spawns  annually  at  least  three  millions.  Ac- 
cording to  C.  Pfeifi*er  the  gills  of  a  freshwater  mussel  of 
moderate  size  contain  at  least  400,000  eggs ;  and  Jacob- 
son  has  given  a  much  higher  figure  (two  millions)  for  the 

*  See  also  Hancock  "  On  the  Organization  of  the  Brackiopoda,^^  Phil. 
Trans,  vol.  cxlviii.  p.  816. 

b 


XXvi  INTRODUCTION.  [CH. 

product  of  a  large  individual  of  this  kind.  If  this  rate 
of  increase  were  unchecked,  our  seas  and  rivers  would  in 
a  comparatively  short  time  (reckoning  geologically)  be 
filled  up  with  the  remains  of  shell- fish. 

Hybridism. — Although  many  surmises  have  from  time 
to  time  been  hazarded  as  to  the  production  of  abnormal 
forms  of  Mollusca  by  means  of  an  unnatural  union  be- 
tween individuals  of  different  species,  the  only  direct 
experiments  or  observations  that  appear  to  have  been 
published  on  the  subject  have  been  made  by  French 
naturalists.  M.  Gassies,  in  his  descriptive  Catalogue  of 
the  Land  and  Freshwater  Mollusca  found  near  Agen, 
mentioned  several  cases  of  what  he  called  "  accouple- 
ments  adulterins/^  which  he  had  observed  between  in- 
dividuals of  Helioo  virgata  and  H.  Pisana,  as  well  as 
between  those  species  and  Bulimus  decollatus.  M.  Gassies 
enclosed  the  snails  during  a  thunderstorm  in  a  vessel 
covered  ^^At\\  metallic  gauze ;  and  he  believed  that  the 
electricity  with  which  the  air  was  then  charged  induced 
the  unnatural  union.  Great  care  appears  to  have  been 
taken  to  prevent  any  error  in  the  result,  by  selecting 
individuals  which  had  not  been  previously  fertilized  and 
keeping  them  after  fecundation  separate  from  any  others. 
The  product  of  these  unions  was  as  follows.  The  young 
of  H.  Pisana  had  perfectly  white  shells, — their  mother 
li^ving  the  usual  coloured  bands ;  and  the  young  of  H. 
virgata  had  shells  of  a  darker  colour  than  that  of  their 
mother.  In  the  other  case,  the  product  of  the  Helices 
which  had  been  coupled  with  the  Bulimus  was  various. 
Many  had  shells  which  were  almost  scalariform ;  the 
shells  of  others  were  pyramidal ;  but  the  greater  part  of 
them  had  shells  exactly  like  that  of  their  mother.  The 
product  of  the  Bulimus  did  not  differ  from  their  maternal 
form.     M.  Gassies  had  also  observed  the  product  of  a 


II.]  INTRODUCTION.  XXvii 

union  between  Helix  nemoralis  and  H.  hortensiSy  in  which 
the  colour  of  the  lips  of  their  shells  in  each  case  varied 
indifferently  from  bro^Ti  or  rose-colour  to  milk-white. 
Professor  Lecoq  and  M.  Miergue  have  celebrated  the 
voluntary  nuptials  between  individuals  of  Helix  nemo- 
ralis and  H.  aspersa,  as  well  as  between  Pupa  cinerea 
and  Clausilia  papillaris ;  but  these  unions  do  not  seem 
to  have  been  blessed  with  any  offspring.  The  fact, 
however^  of  such  unions  having  taken  place  in  a  state  of 
nature,  and  not  under  forced  or  accidental  conditions, 
is  remarkable,  and  the  more  so  because  the  individuals 
belonged  to  what  are  considered  different  genera. 

Progressive  development. — The  researches  of  geolo- 
gists have  established  by  positive  evidence,,  that  the 
organization  of  many  animal  and  vegetable  types  has  not 
become  more  specialized  or  rendered  more  perfect  since 
the  period  to  which  we  ascribe  their  creation,  and  that, 
notwithstanding  the  enormous  lapse  of  time  which  is 
indicated  by  the  accumulation  of  fossiliferous  strata,  the 
modification  or  change  which  these  types  have  under- 
gone has  been  remarkably  slight.  There  is  abundant 
evidence  of  variation,  but  none  of  what  is  usually  under- 
stood as  progression*.  The  theory  of  ^'^progressive  de- 
velopment '^  appears  to  have  been  very  hastily  advanced, 
and  is  by  no  means  borne  out  by  geological  facts.  It  is 
a  cmious  circumstance  in  the  history  of  the  growth  of 
certain  land  and  freshwater  Mollusca,  that  the  young  of 
some  species  of  Pupa  resemble  those  of  Helix,  the  young 
of  the  latter  those  of  Zonites,  and  the  young  of  the  last 
those  of  Vitrina,  These  genera  are  enumerated  in  the 
order  of  their  organization,  Pupa  being  the  most,  and 
Vitrina  the  least  perfect  of  them. 

*  See  Professor  Huxley's  Address  delivered  at  the  Anniversary  Meeting 
of  the  Geological  Society,  21st  February,  1862. 

62 


XXviii  INTRODUCTION.  [CH. 

Organs  of  sight. — The  eyes  of  a  Cuttle  are  more  perfect 
than  those  of  many  kinds  of  fish  ;  but  the  so-called  eyes 
of  land-snails  are  supposed  to  be  only  organs  of  touch 
and  not  of  vision,  although  endued  with  a  greater  sensi- 
bility than  the  tentacles  which  support  them.  The 
coloured  bulbs  which  fringe  the  mantle  of  a  Scallop  are 
also  called  eyes;  but  their  structure  is  very  simple. 
According  to  Mr.  Lea,  several  kinds  of  Unto  are  sensi- 
tive to  light.  These  organs  are  entirely  wanting  in  many 
of  the  Mollusca,  and  even  in  some  species  of  genera  which 
usually  have  eyes. 

Hearing. — In  the  Pectinibranch  Mollusca  the  contents 
of  the  auditory  capsules  consist  of  spherical  ear- stones, 
which  in  every  respect  but  that  of  form  are  similar  to 
the  otolites  of  fishes.  In  the  Pulmonobranch  Mollusca 
they  are  called  octoconia  and  consist  of  a  chalky  pulp, 
which  is  separable  into  minute  elliptical  granules.  Frey 
has  observed  organs  of  hearing  in  many  of  the  land 
and  freshwater  Mollusca,  both  univalve  and  bivalve.  He 
counted  as  many  as  200  otolites  of  different  sizes  in  one  of 
the  auditory  vessels  (of  which  there  were  two)  in  an  adult 
snail.  In  Sphcerium  (or  Cyclas)  each  individual  appears 
to  have  never  more  than  a  single  otolite.  He  believes 
that  these  bodies  are  formed  by  a  subcrystaUization  of 
the  liquid  contained  in  the  auditory  vessels. 

Smell. — In  the  Helicidce,  or  land-snails,  this  sense  is 
supposed  to  lie  in  the  bulbs  which  surmount  their  ten- 
tacles. It  is  probable  that  the  carnivorous  or  zoophagous 
Mollusks  have  the  power  of  scenting  out  their  prey  or 
food.  Quantities  of  the  common  "almond-whelk^^  of 
dealers  in  shell-fish  (Fusus  antiquus)  are  procured  on 
the  Cheshire  coast  by  the  fishermen  placing  a  dead  dog 
on  the  sands  at  low-water  mark  during  spring  tides. 
The  bait  is  then  completely  covered  with  stones,  which 


II.]  INTRODUCTION.  xxix 

f 

are  piled  up  like  a  cairn,  partly  to  prevent  the  carcase 
being  carried  away  by  the  tide,  and  also  because  the 
fishermen  have  a  scruple  about  eating  shell-fish  which 
have  been  fed  on  such  carrion.  On  the  next  turn  of 
the  tide  the  heap  of  stones  is  visited  and  the  whelks  are 
found  on  the  surface  in  great  numbers,  having  been 
apparently  attracted  by  the  smell  of  the  bait,  but  unable 
to  get  at  it. 

Locomotion. — The  methods  by  which  MoUusca  move 
from  place  to  place  are  exceedingly  varied.  Most  uni- 
valves crawl  on  the  lower  part  or  disk  of  a  large  fleshy 
organ,  which  is  the  homologue  of  a  foot  and  supports 
the  body.  The  Melampus  uses  this  organ  in  an  unusual 
way,  by  first  planting  the  front  half,  like  a  caterpillar, 
and  then  drawing  up  to  it  the  other  half,  and  repeating 
this  alternate  movement  in  a  fashion  called  "  looping/' 
The  celebrated  French  naturalist,  Adanson,  gave  that 
genus  the  name  of  Pedipes  on  account  of  this  peculiarity. 
Many  of  the  aquatic  univalves  can  swim,  or  rather  creep 
underneath  the  surface  of  the  water,  the  position  of  their 
bodies  being  reversed,  with  the  point  of  the  shell  down- 
wards. A  few  of  the  bivalves  {e.  g.  species  of  Lepton 
and  Galeomma)  sometimes  walk  about  with  their  valves 
spread  out  like  the  cover  of  a  book  when  left  on  the 
table  by  an  untidy  person.  The  Cuttles  and  Pteropods 
swim  as  rapidly  as  fishes,  but  in  a  different  manner — 
viz.  by  taking  in  and  expelling  by  means  of  their  mantle 
successive  volumes  of  water,  so  as  continually  to  propel 
th^m  onwards.  One  kind  of  Cuttle  is  said  even  to  pos- 
sess the  faculty  of  flying,  and  to  dart  for  a  considerable 
distance  out  of  the  water  through  the  air  like  a  flying- 
fish.  Most  of  the  Acephala  or  bivalves  have  a  tongue- 
shaped  organ  of  progression,  which  is  muscular  and 
extremely  flexible.     By  means  of  this  kind  of  foot  the 


XXX 


INTRODUCTION.  [cH. 


Cockle^  Razor-fish  {Solen),  and  other  kinds  burrow  in 
sand  and  mud.  The  Scallop  and  Lima  fill  their  bodies 
with  water,  and  then,  suddenly  collapsing  and  closing 
their  valves,  execute  a  series  of  leaps  or  jerks,  by  which 
they  can  traverse  a  considerable  distance,  although  in 
an  irregular  course.  Certain  small  bivalves  [Sphcerium 
and  Kellid),  while  floating  on  the  surface  of  the  water, 
spin  filaments  which  serve  to  moor  them  and  prevent 
their  being  drifted  about.  Several  kinds  of  slug  secrete 
glutinous  threads  by  which  they  suspend  themselves 
from  trees  and  either  remove  from  one  branch  to  another 
or  drop  safely  to  the  ground.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  Mollusca  partake  of  all  the  modes  of  locomotion  pos- 
sessed by  other  animals — that  they  can  walk  like  quadru- 
peds, fly  like  birds,  crawl  like  serpents,  swim  like  fishes, 
and  even  spin  threads  like  spiders. 

The  action  of  creeping  in  a  snail  is  performed  by  the 
close  appression  of  its  foot  to  the  substance  over  which 
it  moves,  as  well  as  by  muscular  force.  Any  unevenness 
in  the  surface  to  be  traversed  is  filled  up  by  folds  of  the 
foot,  which  is  extremely  flexible.  This  action  may  be 
compared  to  the  application  of  one  piece  of  flat  glass  to 
another.  Musical  sounds,  resembling  those  which  are 
given  out  by  the  Eolian  harp,  may  be  observed  on  a  dry 
summer  evening  by  putting  a  garden-snail  to  crawl  out- 
side a  window;  and  this  phenomenon  has  frightened 
many  a  timid  or  superstitious  person,  who  could  not 
imagine  whence  these  mysterious  sounds  proceeded.  A 
curious  calculation  was  made  by  Mr.  Thomas,  an  Ameri- 
can conchologist,  as  to  the  rate  of  a  snaiFs  pace.  He 
found  that  it  takes  16  days  and  14  hours  for  a  moderately 
fast  snail  to  do  a  mile. 

Food, — By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  MoUusca  are 
zoophagous  or  animal- eaters.    The  food  of  the  Acephala 


II.]  INTRODUCTION.  XXXi 

consists  of  Infusoria  and  other  animalcules^  which  are 
conveyed  to  their  mouths,  by  an  action  analogous  to 
that  of  suction,  through  the  inhalant  tube  or  the  outer 
folds  of  their  mantle.  The  Buccinwn  or  whelk  tribe  prey 
upon  other  moUusks  (especially  bivalves)  by  drilling 
holes  in  their  shells  with  their  proboscis,  which  is  armed 
with  a  formidable  apparatus  of  teeth.  The  whelks  are 
also  very  troublesome  to  fishermen,  being  often  found 
sucking  and  sticking  to  the  bait  when  the  lines  are  taken 
up.  Numbers  of  them  may  be  caught  in  lobster-pots 
baited  with  fish  or  meat,  if  laid  down  on  a  sandy  instead 
of  a  rocky  ground.  Most  of  the  littoral  univalves  feed 
on  sea- weed.  The  common  Limpet  forms  by  means  of 
its  foot  a  shallow  excavation  in  the  rock.  When  the 
tide  returns  it  goes  out  to  its  pasture,  browsing  like  an 
herbivorous  quadruped ;  and  it  returns  to  its  hole  when 
the  tide  retires.  The  track  left  by  its  grazing  on  the 
submarine  vegetation  which  clothes  the  adjoining  rock 
is  very  perceptible  and  is  sometimes  tortuous  or  maze- 
like. Land  and  freshwater  snails,  as  well  as  slugs,  are 
for  the  most  part  herbivorous,  as  gardeners  know  to 
their  cost  in  the  former  case;  but  some  of  them  also 
devour  animal  matter,  and  a  few  are  cannibals.  The 
food  of  the  Testacella  consists  almost  exclusively  of 
living  earthworms ;  and  a  fall  account  of  its  carnivorous 
and  voracious  propensities  mil  be  found  in  this  volume. 
Snails  have  been  taken  with  insects  in  their  mouths, 
which  they  were  swallowing  by  degrees ;  and,  accord- 
ing to  M.  Bonnafoux,  the  Helix  aspersa  has  been  known 
to  perforate  birds^  eggs  in  deserted  nests,  in  order 
to  feed  on  their  contents.  The  number  of  curved  si- 
liceous teeth  which  arm  the  tongues  or  lingual  plates 
of  snails  is  prodigious  (amounting  in  some  species  to 
many  thousands),  being  arranged  in  several  rows.     Some 


XXxii  INTRODUCTION.  [CH. 

of  the  marine  Mollusca  are  parasitic,  or  live  upon  the 
secretions  of  other  animals.  Among  the  bivalves  Mon- 
tacuta  substriata,  and  among  the  univalves  Stylifer  Tur- 
toni,  are  instances  of  these  parasitic  habits. 

Size. — This  appears  to  depend  on  the  supply  of  food ; 
and  it  is  probable  that,  owing  to  the  vast  shoals  of  mol- 
lusk- eating  fish  which  abound  in  the  northern  seas,  the 
shell-fish  there  are  thinned  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
fortunate  sur\TLVors  have  a  proportionally  larger  share  of 
food  than  those  which  inhabit  southern  seas,  where  both 
species  and  individuals  are  more  numerous.  Northern 
Mollusca  are  generally  larger  than  those  of  the  same 
species  from  the  South  ■^.  The  same  law  is  observable 
with  regard  to  cultivated  fruits, — thinning  being  resorted 
to  for  the  purpose  of  reducing  the  number  and  in- 
creasing the  size  of  those  which  are  allowed  to  remain. 

Habitat. — There  is  probably  not  a  square  foot  of  land, 
either  in  a  cultivated  or  uncultivated  state,  or  co- 
vered with  fresh,  brackish,  or  salt  water,  that  is  not 
inhabited  by  Mollusca  of  various  kinds.  Trees,  herbage, 
and  sea-weeds  are  the  chosen  stations  of  many  sorts, 
for  the  sake  of  the  shelter  or  food  which  they  afibrd ; 
and  even  our  cellars  and  kitchens  are  not  free  from 
them.  Some  live  only  in  the  ocean,  and  never  approach 
land  unless  when  driven  on  shore  by  the  winds  and 
waves.  These  are  called  "  pelagic.^'  Among  them  are 
the  lanthinaj  or  "  blue-snaiV  and  a  few  small  Ptero- 
pods,  which  are  occasionally  found  in  our  seas.  The 
former  is  provided  with  a  cellular  apparatus,  by  wliich 

*  See  also  Draparnaud  (Tabl.  Moll.  p.  35)  as  to  the  comparative  size 
of  land  shells  inhabiting  the  North  and  South  of  France.  "  Le  cHmat 
influe  beaucoup  sur  la  grandeur  des  individus.  Chez  les  MoUusques, 
comme  chez  les  Mousses  et  un  grand  nombre  d'autres  plantes,  la  meme 
espece  acquiert  un  volume  d'autant  moindre,  qu'elle  habite  dans  un  pays 
plus  chaud." 


II.]  INTRODUCTION.  XXxiii 

it  is  enabled  to  keep  always  in  a  floating  position  on  the 
surface  of  the  water,  with  the  point  or  spire  of  its  shell 
downwards,  and  which  apparatus  also  serves  as  a  nidus 
for  its  spawn.  A  description  of  this  curious  appendage 
or  "  float,"  as  well  as  of  the  equally  remarkable  habits  of 
the  lanthina,  will  be  found  in  its  proper  place.  The 
Pteropods  have  feet  like  wings,  and  flutter  through  the 
water  like  butterflies.  They  have  conical,  and  some- 
times spiral,  shells  as  fragile  and  transparent  as  the 
finest  blown  glass. 

Care  of  young. — Many  of  the  bivalve  Mollusca,  inha- 
biting the  sea  as  well  as  fresh  water  (e.  g.  Teredo  and 
Anodonta),  retain  for  some  time  their  fry,  after  being 
excluded  from  the  egg,  in  the  folds  of  their  mantle,  this 
being  in  some  degree  an  analogous  provision  to  that 
which  is  possessed  by  the  marsupial  quadrupeds.  The 
common  Limpet  and  some  kinds  of  Pupa  (small  land- 
snails)  have  also  been  observed  to  carry  about  their 
young,  the  former  within  the  folds  of  its  foot,  and  the 
latter  attached  to  the  shells  of  their  mother.  These 
cases  of  Molluscan  a-ropyrj  are  nearly  as  wonderful  as 
any  which  have  been  adduced  in  accounts  of  much  more 
highly  organized  animals. 

Sociability. — Although  many  of  the  Mollusca  are  gre- 
garious and  assemble  together  on  the  same  feeding- 
grounds,  it  does  not  appear  that  they  ever  associate  for 
a  common  object,  like  bees  or  ants.  Each  Pholas  and 
Teredo  makes  a  hole  for  itself;  and  although  the  com- 
mon garden-snail  often  fastens  itself  to  the  shell  of  its 
companion,  when  they  hibernate  and  form  clusters,  a 
smooth  stone  or  any  other  object  is  used  for  the  same 
purpose. 

Estivation  and  Hibernation. — Many  animals  in  a  state 
of  nature  have  their  periodical  seasons  of  repose,  espe- 

65 


XXxiv  INTRODUCTION.  [CH. 

cially  in  the  winter  when  there  is  a  deficiency  of  food. 
For  this  reason  it  may  be  supposed  that  all  the  Mol- 
Insca  hibernate ;  and  we  know  that  the  land- snails  in 
this  country  have  such  a  habit.     Most  of  them  bury 
themselves  in  the  ground^  or  nestle  in  the  crevices  of 
rocks,  under  the  bark  of  trees,  or  even  in  the  hollow 
stems  of  the  larger  umbelliferous  plants.     They  also 
cover  the  mouths  of  their  shells  with  a  calcareous  plate 
of  various  degrees  of  thickness,  which  they  secrete,  in  the 
same  way  as  the  shells,  by  means  of  their  mantle.    This 
plate  is  called  an  "  epiphrag-m,^'  and  in  the  apple-snail 
[Helisc  pomatia)  is  of  considerable  thickness.     But  in 
dry  weather  and  during  the  heat  of  summer  they  form 
another  and  slighter  kind  of  epiphragm,  in  order  to  keep 
their  bodies  always  moist  and  lubricated,  as  without  such 
protection  thfe  tissues  would  soon  dry  up  and  the  snails 
perish.     The  E,ev.  H.  B.  Tristram,  in  his  account  of  the 
Great  Sahara,  says  that  the  snail-shells  which  he  found 
there  were  much  thicker  than  those  of  the  same  species 
from  more  temperate  parts  of  Europe,  apparently  as  an 
additional  means  of  preventing  evaporation  in  so  dry  a 
climate.     The  simile  in  the  58th  Psalm  (verse  8)  which 
is  rendered  in  our  translation  for  the  ^  Common  Praver/ 
"  consume  away  like  a  snail,^^  may  have  had  reference 
to  the  inability  of  these  Mollusca  to  endure  exposure 
to  the  great  heat  of  the  sun  in  an  Eastern  climate. 
None  of  the  naked  Slugs  occur  in  the  lists  of  land 
Mollusca   collected   by   Professor    Roth    in   Palestine, 
and   by  Dr.   Schliifli   and   M.  Mousson   in   the  East. 
The  circulation  of  land-snails  is   affected  to   a  great 
extent  by  the  temperature.      In  some  kinds  the  rate 
of  pulsation  varies  from  30  to  110  per  minute  during 
summer ;  and  it  ceases  altogether  in  winter.     Although 
the  temperature  of  the  sea  is  nearly  the  same  in  summer 


II.]  INTRODUCTION.  XXXV 

and  winter^  except  at  its  surface,  the  circumstance  that 
most  sea- weeds  are  annual  would  lead  us  to  conclude 
that  the  marine  phytophagous  MoUusca  also  retire  into 
winter  quarters,  and  that,  as  these  are  preyed  upon  by  the 
zoophagous  kinds,  the  habit  of  hibernating  is  common  to 
all  shell-fish.  In  shallow  seas  near  the  land,  the  number 
of  marine  animals  is  perceptibly  diminished  during  cold 
and  inclement  seasons ;  and  this  was  noticed  by  several 
naturalists  to  have  been  the  case  in  the  wet  year  of  1860. 
The  period  of  hibernation  differs  among  the  MoUusca. 
Some  retire  earlier  or  emerge  later  than  others.  Ac- 
cording to  M.  Drouet  the  Anodontce  or  freshwater  mus- 
sels hibernate  before  the  close  of  autumn,  and  bury 
themselves  deep  in  the  mud  until  the  middle  of  spring, 
when  the  water  begins  to  get  warmer. 

Nests. — A  few  marine  bivalves,  which  do  not  spin  a 
byssus  or  bundle  of  threads  with  which  they  can  moor 
themselves  to  rocks,  or  which  have  not  the  power  of  exca- 
vating for  themselves  a  place  of  residence  in  stone,  wood, 
the  tunic  of  Ascidians,  or  other  substances,  form  a  kind  of 
rude  nest  out  of  broken  shells  and  zoophytes,  which  they 
cement  and  line  internally  with  a  slimy  exudation  from 
their  bodies ;  and  thus  they  remain  snugly  ensconced 
and  protected  from  their  natural  enemies.  Among  these 
nest-builders  are  the  Modiola  radiata,  Lima  Loscombii, 
and  the  northern  form  of  L.  hians.  So  little  is  known 
of  the  habits  of  the  marine  MoUusca,  that  I  am  not  pre- 
pared to  say  whether  these  are  proper  nests  and  used 
for  the  protection  of  the  young,  as  in  the  case  of  stickle- 
backs and  other  small  fishes,  or  are  constructed  solely 
for  the  use  of  the  adult  shell- fish. 

Modes  of  attack  and  defence. — Some  aquatic  moUusks 
have  the  faculty  of  emitting  from  their  bodies  a  purple 
or  dark  fluids  apparently  for  the  purpose  of  securing 


XXXvi  INTRODUCTION.  [CH. 

their  prey  or  concealing  tliemselves  from  fishes  or  other 
predaceous  animals.  The  inky  cloud  which  the  Cuttle 
ejects  is  of  a  glutinous  or  viscous  nature,  and  does  not 
readily  mix  with  the  water.  It  seems  to  be  better 
adapted  for  entangling  small  fishes  than  to  cover  the 
retreat  of  the  Cuttle,  which  is  extremely  rapid  in  its 
movements.  The  Aplysia,  or  sea-hare,  gives  out  a 
purple  dye  which  is  also  glutinous  and  has  an  ofi'ensive 
smell.  As  this  mollusk  crawls  but  slowly,  it  may  use 
the  dye  to  obfuscate  some  more  active  animal  which  it 
may  have  taken  a  fancy  to  make  a  meal  of,  all  the  Nudi- 
branchs  being  said  to  be  carnivorous.  Several  kinds 
of  Planorbis  (freshwater  snails)  yield,  on  being  irritated, 
a  quantity  of  their  own  purple  blood.  These  are  vege- 
table-eaters;  and  we  can  therefore  conceive  no  other 
object  in  this  volmitary  blood-letting  than  to  elude  ob- 
servation. A  few  land-snails  (e.  g.  Bulimus  obscurus  and 
Pupa  secale)  in  their  young  state,  as  well  as  some  small 
freshwater  bivalves  belonging  to  the  genus  Pisidium, 
have  their  shells  covered  with  mud  and  other  extraneous 
matter ;  but  it  is  difficult  to  say  whether  this  is  the  re- 
sult of  design  or  acyident.  One  might  suppose  that  the 
sharp  eyes  of  a  bird  or  a  frog  would  easily  detect  their 
prey  through  this  feeble  disguis.e.  Some  marine  bivalves 
(as  Lyonsia  Norvegica  and  species  of  Necera)  are  covered 
with  a  coat  of  sand,  which  may  to  some  extent  answer 
the  purpose  of  concealment.  If  the  safety  of  these 
animals  is  ensured  by  such  means,  how  great  must  be 
our  admiration  of  that  wonderful  yet  varied  plan  of  con- 
trivance which  makes  the  humble  Mollusk,  as  well  as 
Man,  the  object  of  Divine  care  ! 

Renewal  of  parts. — Some  Mollusca,  which  had  been 
accidentally  deprived  of  theu'  feet,  tentacles,  eyes,  and 
even  of  their  entire  heads,  have  been  known  to  repro- 


II.]  INTRODUCTION.  XXXvii 

duce  them.  Nearly  a  century  ago,  the  experiment  of 
decapitating  unfortunate  slugs  and  snails  was  con- 
ducted on  a  wholesale  scale  on  the  Continent,  and  every 
philosopher  was  anxious  to  cut  off  a  head.  Even  the 
great  Voltaire  followed  the  universal  fashion ;  and  his 
experiences  were  pubHshed  in  the  "  Questions  sur  FEn- 
cyclopedie.^^  In  these  he  mentions  having  operated  on 
twenty  brown  slugs  and  a  dozen  snails ;  and  he  after- 
wards records  with  great  pride  and  satisfaction  "mes 
Limaces ''''  and  "  mes  Escargots  "  showing  their  budding 
heads  and  horns,  and  doing  as  well  as  might  be  expected 
under  the  circumstances. 

Phosphorescence. — Although  a  great  many  animals, 
from  the  highest  order  of  fishes  to  the  imperfectly  orga- 
nized Noctiluca  miliaris,  as  well  as  several  of  the  Tuni- 
cata,  emit  or  exhibit  a  phosphorescent  Hght,  I  am  not 
aware  that  any  of  the  MoUusca  possess  the  same  property, 
except  some  kinds  of  Pholas ;  and  it  is  possible  that  the 
phenomenon  in  their  case  may  be  owing  to  animalcula 
which  infest  them  or  are  found  in  their  holes.  The 
eggs  of  a  common  slug  {Arion  hortensis)  are  said  to  be 
luminous  for  the  first  fifteen  days  after  they  have  been 
laid.  But  both  the  nature  and  object  of  this  common 
phenomenon  requires  further  investigation. 

Perforating  powers. — Many  shell-fish,  and  especially 
bivalves,  burrow  in  sand  or  mud  for  protection  against 
their  natural  enemies ;  but  some  of  them  excavate  wood, 
peat,  or  stone  of  various  degrees  of  hardness,  for  the 
same  purpose.  The  process  of  burrowing  is  undoubtedly 
performed  by  the  foot  of  the  Mollusk.  It  is  exemphfied 
by  the  case  of  the  common  Cockle,  which  uses  its  tongue- 
shaped  and  flexible  foot  in  the  same  way  as  a  gardener 
uses  his  dibble,  and,  having  thrust  it  into  the  sand  and 
expanded  it,  thus  makes  a  hole  large  enough  to  contain 


XXXviii  INTRODUCTION.  *  [CH. 

the  shell.  The  limpet  [Patella  vulgata)  slightly  perforates 
calcareous  rocks  by  the  muscular  action  of  its  sucker- 
like foot  or  disk,  which  occupies  all  the  lower  part  of  the 
body.  The  shell  exactly  fits  the  space  thus  excavated, 
so  as  to  prevent  the  limpet  being  easily  dislodged  by  a 
bird  or  a  crab.  The  common  garden-snail  excavates 
hard  limestone  rocks  for  the  purpose  of  hibernation  ;  and 
as  its  shell  is  covered  with  a  delicate  epidermis,  which 
remains  on  specimens  having  just  emerged  from  their 
winter  quarters,  it  may  be  safely  inferred  that  the  shell 
is  not  the  instrument  of  perforation  in  this  case.  But 
with  respect  to  the  Teredo  or  ship-worm  (which  tunnels 
through  wood),  the  Pholas  (which  pierces  wood,  peat, 
clay,  and  chalk),  the  Gastrochcena  (which  penetrates 
hard  sandstone,  chalk,  and  limestone,  as  well  as  old 
oyster- shells),  and  the  Saxicava  (which  perforates  the 
hardest  calcareous  rocks),  it  is  not  so  easy  to  form  a 
definite  conclusion.  This  volume  would  scarcely  con- 
tain all  that  might  be  said  on  the  subject.  Forbes  and 
Hanleyhave  given  an  excellent  account  of  the  discussion 
which  had  taken  place  up  to  the  time  of  publishing  their 
work ;  and  I  will  content  myself  with  stating  briefly  the 
result  of  their  investigation  and  adding  a  few  remarks 
suggested  by  my  own  inquiries. 

The  opinions  which  had  been  expressed  on  this  subject 
when  the  ^  History  of  the  British  Mollusca '  was  pub- 
lished, were  classed  by  its  authors,  when  treating  of  the 
Pholas,  under  five  conclusions,  which  are  as  follows  : — 

"  1 .  That  the  boring  Mollusca  perforate  by  means  of 
the  rotation  of  the  valves  of  their  shells,  which  serve  as 
augers.  2.  That  the  holes  are  made  by  rasping,  effected 
by  siliceous  particles  studding  the  substance  of  certain 
parts  of  the  animals.  3.  That  currents  of  water,  set  in 
action  by  the  motion  of  vibratile  cilia,  are  the  agents. 


II.]  INTRODUCTION.  XXxix 

4.  Tliat  the  animal   secretes  a  chemical  solvent — an 
acid  which  dissolves  the  substance  into  which  it  bores. 

5.  That  the  combined  action  of  a  secreted  solvent  and 
rasping  by  the  valves  effects  the  perforations*.^-' 

The  first  of  these  views  is  advocated  by  Forbes  and 
Hanley;  and  the  other  naturalists  to  whom  they  have 
referred  as  having  expressed  an  opinion  on  the  subject 
are  as  follows_,  taking  the  several  views  in  their  order 
of  succession: — 1.  Dr.  Gray,  Dr.  Fleming,  Mr.  Osier. 
2.  Mr.  Hancock.  3.  Mr.  Garner.  4.  Dr.  Gray,  Dr. 
Drummond,  M.  Deshayes,  M.  CaiUiaud.  5.  Mr.  Thomp- 
son, M.  Necker. 

As  I  believe  that  all  these  different  views,  except  the 
first,  have  been  successfully  refuted  by  the  arguments  of 
Forbes  and  Hanley,  it  only  remains  for  me  to  adopt 
their  view,  or  to  substitute  another  for  it. 

If  we  only  consider  the  shell  of  PholaSy  with  respect 
to  its  efficiency  as  an  instrument  of  mechanical  perfora- 
tion, there  might  be  sufficient  reason  for  supposing  that 
it  can  by  this  mode  drill  a  hole  in  peat,  submerged  wood, 
clay,  or  even  in  chalk  when  softened  by  the  continual 
contact  of  water.  The  shell  is  certainly  harder  than 
any  of  these  substances  j  and  the  animal  is  provided  with 
muscles  of  unusual  strength  for  efiecting  the  rotatory 
motion  which  would  be  necessary  for  such  an  operation. 
But  we  must  also  consider  the  cases  of  other  perforating 
mollusks  whose  shells  are  not  so  hard.  The  shell  of 
Gastrochcena  is  more  fragile  than  that  of  the  oyster  into 
which  it  bores,  and  very  much  more  so  than  the  lime- 
stone in  which  it  not  unfrequently  lodges  itself.  The 
helmet-shaped  valves  of  Teredo  could  only  be  used  to 
rasp  the  sides  of  the  tube  which  this  moUusk  forms  in 
wood;  and  they  are  not  adapted  for  excavating  the  con* 
•*  '  British  Mollusca,'  vol.  i.  p.  104. 


xl  INTRODUCTION.  [CH. 

cave  end  of  the  tube.  The  shell  of  Saxicava  is  coated 
with  a  dehcate  epidermis,  which  would  unquestionably 
be  scraped  away  in  perforating  the  solid  limestone  rock, 
if  the  theory  advocated  by  Forbes  and  Hanley  is  appli- 
cable to  this  case.  And,  to  take  the  case  of  other 
marine  animals  which  excavate  rocks  and  shells  for  the 
same  purpose  as  the  Mollusca,  we  know  that  the  boring 
Annelids  or  sea-worms  have  no  hard  substance  in  their 
composition.  For  these  reasons,  I  do  not  think  that 
the  mechanical  theory  (viz.  that  the  shell  is  the  sole 
instrument  of  perforation)  has  been  established. 

Since  the  publication  of  Forbes  and  Hanley^'s  work,  the 
controversy  has  been  continued  with  unabated  ardour ; 
and  to  the  list  of  naturalists  who  have  taken  a  part  in 
it,  other  names  may  be  added  as  supporters  of  the  under- 
mentioned theories. 

Mechanical.  Mr.  Robertson  and  M.  Fischer. 

Chemical.  Dr.  Mantell,  M.  Thorent,  and  Mr.  Reeve. 

M.  Cailliaud  now  contends  that  both  methods  of  per- 
foration are  adopted  by  the  same  kind  of  mollusk  ac- 
cording to  the  material  acted  upon ;  and  M.  Bouchard- 
Chantereaux,  who  was  at  first  in  favour  of  the  mechani- 
cal theory,  is  now  strongly  of  opinion  that  a  corrosive 
secretion  of  the  animal  is  the  agent  of  perforation. 

But  there  is  another  point  of  view  in  which  the  ques- 
tion may  be  considered,  and  which  does  not  appear  to 
have  received  any  attention,  although  in  my  humble 
judgment  fully  deserving  it. 

Nearly  130  years  ago,  a  very  learned  but  eccentric 
Dutch  philosopher,  named  Sellius,  wrote  and  published, 
for  the  benefit  of  his  country,  an  elaborate  monograph  on 
the  Teredo.  In  this  remarkable  production  he  discussed 
at  great  length,  and  in  the  most  exhaustive  style,  all 
the  various  theories  which  had  been  propounded  up  to 


II.]  INTRODUCTION.  xU 

that  time  as  to  the  means  by  which  the  ship-worm  bores 
into  wood.  He  showed  conclusively  that  their  shells 
could  not  be  the  instruments  of  perforation ;  and  he 
asked  how  it  was  possible  that  the  extremely  tender 
shell  of  the  young  Teredo  (in  fact  a  mere  film)  could 
make  a  hole  in  solid  oak,  a  material  ten  times  harder 
than  itself.  Besides,  as  he  justly  remarked,  the  form  of 
the  tube  is  evidently  not  the  result  of  an  auger-like  in- 
strument, because  it  is  broader  at  the  bottom  than  at 
the  top  and  sides.  The  conclusion  he  formed,  after  a 
most  laborious  and  impartial  investigation,  was  that  the 
Teredo  perforates  by  suction,  aided  by  continual  mace- 
ration and  softening  of  the  wood.  One  of  his  numerous 
quotations  from  the  ancient  poets,  in  support  of  his 
argument,  may  be  here  appropriately  repeated.  It  is 
from  his  favourite,  Ovid  : — 

"  Quid  magis  est  durum  saxo?  quid  moUius  unda? 
Dura  tamen  molli  saxa  cavantur  aqua." 

I  profess  myself  to  be  a  follower  of  Sellius ;  and  I 
am  convinced  that  the  sole  instrument  of  perforation  by 
the  Mollusca  of  stone,  wood,  and  other  substances,  is  in 
every  case  their  foot  or  muscular  disk,  which  is  closely 
applied  to  the  concave  end  of  the  hole  and  is  constantly 
suppHed  with  moisture  through  the  glandular  tissues  of 
the  body.  The  strength  of  this  organ  may  be  easily 
tested  by  any  one  who  tries  to  remove  a  limpet  from  its 
native  rock,  after  having  touched  it  and  thus  given  it 
due  notice  of  his  intention.  By  this  simple,  yet  gradual, 
process  the  fibres  of  wood  or  grains  of  sandstone  may 
easily  be  detached  or  disintegrated,  time  and  patience 
being  allowed  for  the  operation.  When  it  is  considered 
that  the  hole  made  by  an  adult  Pholas  or  Saocicava  is 
only  a  few  inches  deep,  and  that  an  aged  Patella  scarcely 
penetrates  a  quarter  of  an  inch  into  a  limestone  rock. 


xlii  INTRODUCTION.  [CH. 

there  can  scarcely  be  a  question  that  these  moUusks 
have  abundance  of  time  to  effect  their  purpose.  It  is 
said  that  even  the  hardest  marble  is  not  proof  against  the 
softest  impressions,  and  that  the  big  toe  of  St.  Peter's 
statue  in  the  Vatican  has  been  nearly  worn  away  by  the 
lips  of  fair  devotees.  The  osculatory  process  is  not  un- 
like that  of  suction. 

Occasional  appearance  and  disappearance. — Both  sea 
and  land  furnish  instances  (some  of  which  are  difficult 
to  explain)  of  the  periodical  appearance  and  disappear- 
ance of  certain  species  of  Mollusca  in  particular  places. 
Their  arrival  and  departure  are  often  sudden  and  seem- 
ingly capricious.  In  the  case  of  marine  species,  this 
phenomenon  is  probably  the  result  of  changes  in  the 
course  of  tidal  and  other  currents,  as  well  as  of  the 
migratory  habits  of  fish.  These  currents,  by  accumu- 
lating or  removing  deposits  of  mud,  sand,  and  gravel, 
wliich  afford  shelter  and  food  to  Mollusca,  conduce 
greatly  to  their  congregation  or  dispersal.  When  such 
deposits  are  rapidly  formed,  the  shell-bed  becomes  co- 
vered up  or  silted;  and  the  Mollusca  are  entombed 
alive  for  the  benefit  of  future  geologists.  When  their 
chief  enemies,  the  fish,  desert  their  former  quarters  and 
migrate  to  another  feeding- ground,  the  Mollusca  then 
increase  and  multiply,  being  unthinned  except  by  the 
tigers  of  their  own  kind,  or  occasionally  by  the  curious 
conchologist,  or  by  all-devouring  death.  The  destruc- 
tion of  shell-beds  by  marine  currents  may  account  for 
the  prevalent  notion  that  some  parts  of  our  sea-coast 
(as  for  example  South  Devon),  which  used  to  yield  such 
regular  and  plentiful  harvests  of  shells  to  collectors, 
are  now  scarcely  worth  searching, — -it  being  said  that 
the  shells  have  "  deserted"  the  coast.  The  unexpected 
occurrence  of  some  kinds  of  land  and  freshwater  Mol- 


II.]  INTRODUCTION.  xHu 

lusca  in  places  where  they  had  not  been  previously 
noticed  is  not  nnfrequent.  Many  a  wonderful  tale  of  a 
''  shower  of  snails^^  has  helped  to  fill  the  pages  of  country 
newspapers^  arising  out  of  the  sudden  appearance  in  a 
limited  area  of  Helix  virgata  and  Bulimus  acutus,  which 
are  abundant  on  most  of  our  sandy  downs  and  plains. 
This  has  been  sometimes  caused  by  a  mere  change  of 
wind  to  the  south-west^  in  consequence  of  which  the  air 
has  become  charged  with  moisture,  and  tempted  all  the 
snails  to  leave  their  retreat  at  the  roots  of  grass  during 
the  night,  and  to  present  themselves  in  the  morning  to 
the  eyes  of  astonished  rustics.  It  is  not,  however,  so 
easy  to  account  for  some  kinds  of  freshwater  snails  (e.  g. 
Limn(Ba  glutinosa)  being  found  in  the  same  spots  so 
abundantly  some  years,  and  scarcely  at  all  in  others,  as 
has  been  noticed  by  Mr.  Bridgman  of  Norwich.  This 
is  one  of  the  minor,  but  numerous,  problems  in  the  pre- 
sent branch  of  Natural  History  which  still  remains  to  be 
worked  out,  and  the  solution  of  which  will  reward  the 
diligent  and  observant  conchologist. 

Tenacity  of  life. — Many  of  the  Mollusca,  as  before 
remarked,  pass  the  winter  in  a  state  of  torpidity,  their 
vital  functions  being  apparently  suspended  during  hiber- 
nation. But  some  of  the  land-snails  have  been  known 
to  live  many  years  shut  up  in  boxes  and  drawers,  or 
affixed  to  tablets  as  specimens.  This  capability  of  sub- 
sisting for  a  long  period  without  food  is  probably  owing 
to  the  snail  being  able  to  close  its  shell  by  an  epiphragm, 
which  not  only  prevents  the  evaporation  of  its  natural 
moisture,  but  also  produces  a  kind  of  protracted  hiber- 
nation. Miiller  relates  that  some  snails,  from  which  he 
had  cut  off  their  heads,  lived  more  than  a  year  in  this 
state  without  food,  crawling  about,  and  at  the  usual 
time  forming  their  winter  epiphragms.      Some  marine 


xliv  INTRODUCTION.  [CH. 

Mollusca,  both  univalve  and  bivalve,  possess  also  a  cer- 
tain power  of  endurance  under  altered  conditions.  Thus 
Trochus  lineatus,  which  inhabits  rocks  only  uncovered 
at  low  water,  can  live  in  a  warm  room  for  a  fortnight ; 
and  specimens  of  Mya  arenaria,  which  burrows  into 
muddy  gravel  in  the  sublittoral  zone,  have  been  noticed 
by  Mr.  Rich  (an  intelligent  collector  and  dealer)  to  sur- 
vive their  captivity  for  three  weeks,  being  all  that  time 
in  apparently  a  healthy  state  (evidenced  by  the  with- 
drawal of  their  tubes  when  touched),  at  the  end  of  which 
period  they  were  killed  for  commercial  purposes.  No 
sea- water  was  supplied  in  any  of  the  above  cases.  The 
gills  must  have  been  kept  moist  by  the  fluid  contained 
within  the  mantle — a  provision  nearly  similar  to  that  by 
which  the  camel  is  able  to  endure  the  heat  and  fatigue  of 
a  journey  across  the  desert  after  having  filled  its  paunch 
with  a  stock  of  water.  M.  Joly  observed  with  respect  to 
some  freshwater  mollusca  (^/iof/ow/a  cygnea  and  Paludina 
vivipara),  that  they  maybe  frozen  up,  and  kept  for  some 
time  enclosed  in  ice,  without  being  killed.  Some  of  the 
Paludincs  even  produced  young  after  being  thawed  *. 

Age. — Little  or  nothing  is  known  with  respect  to  the 
duration  of  life  in  the  Mollusca.  According  to  Sir 
Emerson  Tennent,  the  pearl  oysters  of  Ceylon  only  live 
seven  or  eight  years ;  and  it  is  said  that  snails  do  not 
attain  a  greater  age.  This  is  not  improbable  as  regards 
the  latter,  because  most  of  them  become  adult  at  the 
end  of  their  first  year.  Whether  the  numerous  laminae 
of  old  oyster-shells  afford  the  same  indication  of  an- 
nual growth  as  the  rings  of  a  forest  tree  is  another 
question. 

Resume. — In  concluding   this   chapter,  I  cannot  do 
better  than  quote  the  resume  given  by  M.  Moquin-Tandon 
*  Comptes  Rendus,  1843,  xvi.  p.  460. 


III.]  INTRODUCTION.  xlv 

of  his  admirable  observations  on  the  land  and  freshwater 
Mollusca  of  France  : — 

^'  Les  Mollusques  ont  des  ruses  et  des  industries,  des 
sympathies  et  des  inimities,  des  guerres  acharnees  et 
des  amours  bizarres.  Beaucoup  sont  a  la  fois  male  et 
femelle,  et  par  suite  pere  et  mere  ....  Malgre  leur 
apathie  apparente,  les  Mollusques  sont  des  etres  qui  ne 
manquent  pas  d^intelligence.  Leur  vie  privee  et  leur 
vie  commune  nous  montrent  des  details  extremement 
curieux.^^ 


CHAPTER    III. 


SHELLS. 

FORMATION. COMPOSITION. SHAPE. NIJCLErS. GROWTH. 

COLOFR. DECOLLATION. EROSION. OPERCULUM. EPIDERMIS. 

Formation. — The  shells  of  Mollusca  are  formed  by  a 
secretion  from  glands  of  the  mantle  or  cloak.  In  uni- 
valves this  part  of  the  body  only  covers  the  front,  and  in 
most  cases  surrounds  the  head  like  a  loose  collar ;  but 
it  is  very  flexible,  and  it  can  be  withdrawn  or  folded 
back  nearly  to  the  top  of  the  spire  to  repair  a  fracture 
of  the  shell  in  that  part.  In  bivalves  it  is  double,  like 
the  cover  of  a  book. 

Composition. — Carbonate  of  lime  is  the  main  ingre- 
dient ;  and  the  sheUs  of  Mollusca  difi'er  from  the  bones 
of  vertebrate  animals,  as  well  as  from  the  shells  of  crabs, 
sea-eggs,  and  birds^  eggs,  in  the  absence  of  phosphate  of 
lime.  In  all  these  cases,  however,  the  mineral  ingre- 
dients are  cemented  together  by  an  animal  gluten. 
According  to  M.  Delacroix,  the  shell  of  a  Helix  pomatia 


Xlvi  INTRODUCTION.  [CH. 

is  composed  of  the  following  materials,  in  every  100 

parts : — 

Organic  matter    18*64 

Carbonate  of  lime  64*96 


Other  mineral  substances,  undetermined...  16 -40/ 


10000 

The  structure  of  some  shells  is  fibrous,  and  of  others 
crystalline;  and  they  differ  considerably  in  the  degree 
of  compactness.  Nearly  all  the  secrets  of  this  wonderfid 
laboratory  have  been  made  known  through  the  researches 
of  Mr.  Hatchett,  Dr.  Carpenter,  and  others;  but  no 
philosopher  has  been  able  to  explain  why  this  process  of 
formation  has  continued  from  generation  to  generation 
in  the  same  uniform  mould,  according  to  the  nature  of 
each  species,  or  how  the  newly-born  MoUusk  works  out, 
with  unerring  and  undeviating  instinct,  the  pattern 
which  was  originally  designed  by  its  Creator.  Humboldt 
justly  observed  that  there  are  mysteries  beyond  our  com- 
prehension ;  and  it  might  be  good  for  us  that  some  check 
should  be  put  on  the  overweening  pride  of  intelligence 
in  the  "  audax  lapeti  genus.'" 

Shape. — All  shells  assume  the  form  of  a  cone.  Uni- 
valves are  generally  spiral,  so  as  to  accommodate  the  folds 
of  the  body.  Even  the  common  limpet  {Patella  vulgata) 
has  a  distinct  spire  in  its  embryonic  state,  resembling 
that  of  Fissurella  or  Emarginula.  The  Chitons  are  in 
some  respects  abnormal,  having  several  testaceous  joints, 
which  overlap  each  other,  like  the  plates  of  ancient  ar- 
mour or  the  scales  of  a  fish;  but  all  these  joints  taken 
together  may  be  considered  as  forming  a  depressed  cone 
of  greater  length  than  that  of  a  Patella,  the  lines  of 
growth  on  each  side  of  the  apex  (which  is  compound  in 
Chiton)  being  equally  symmetrical  in  both  cases.  Bi- 
valves offer  no  exception  to  this  conical  law  of  growth, 


III.]  INTRODUCTION.  xlvii 

the  apex  or  nucleus  of  each  valve  being  analogous  to  the 
same  part  in  a  spiral  shell ;  but  in  bivalves  the  deposit 
of  shelly  layers  is  formed  on  both  sides,  in  consequence 
of  the  mantle  or  organ  of  secretion  being  double.  Every 
part  of  the  shell,  whether  univalve  or  bivalve,  enlarges  by 
growth  in  the  same  relative  proportion. 

Nucleus. — This  part  of  the  shell  furnishes  the  concho- 
logist  with  an  important  character  of  distinction.  Odo- 
stomia,  Nassa,  Cerithiopsis,  lanthina,  and  many  other 
genera  of  univalve  shells  have  the  apex  of  their  spire 
differently  formed.  In  the  adult  Cyprcea  (or  Cowry), 
the  whole  of  the  spire,  including  the  apex  or  nucleus, 
is  covered  and  concealed  by  an  extraneous  deposit  of 
shelly  matter;  and  the  same  process,  although  to  a 
partial  extent  only,  takes  place  with  regard  to  the  genus 
Marginella.  In  many  spiral  shells  the  upper  whorls 
(which  originally  formed  the  nucleus)  are  deserted  by 
the  animal,  in  consequence  of  the  volume  of  its  body 
having  increased  so  rapidly  that  these  whorls  were  too 
small  to  receive  any  part  of  it,  and  they  therefore  became 
unnecessary. 

Growth. — Owing  to  the  difficulty  which  exists  in  keep- 
ing and  observing  Mollusks  in  a  state  of  confinement  for 
any  length  of  time,  and  especially  those  which  live  in  the 
open  sea,  very  little  is  known  as  to  the  mode  and  rate 
of  their  increase.  Some  interesting  experiments  on  the 
growth  of  land-shells  were,  however,  made  by  Mr.  E.  J. 
Lowe  and  communicated  to  the  Royal  Society  in  1854  *. 
The  result  of  his  observations  is  as  follows : — 1st,  The 
shells  of  Helicidce  increase  but  little  for  a  considerable 
period,  never  arriving  at  maturity  before  the  animal  has 
once  become  dormant  (or  hibernated).  2nd,  Shells  do 
not  grow  whilst  the  animal  remains  dormant.     3rd,  The 

*  Proceedings,  vol.  vii.  p,  8. 


Xlviii  INTRODUCTION.  [CH. 

growth  of  shells  is  very  rapid  when  it  does  take  place. 
4th,  Most  species  bury  themselves  in  the  ground  to 
increase  the  dimensions  of  their  shells.     Helix  pomatia 
and  many  other  shells  retreat  for  that  purpose  in  summer, 
ha^dng  their  heads  and  the  mouths  of  their  shells  down- 
wards (this  position  being  reversed  during  hibernation) ; 
H.  rotundata  burrows  into  decayed  wood  for  the  same 
purpose;  while  Pupa  umbilicata,  Clausilia  nigricans  [C. 
ruyosa) ,  and  Bulimus  obscurus  bury  their  heads  only  while 
the  increase  takes  place.     With  regard  to  marine  shells 
it  may  be  observed  that  sea-water  does  not  everywhere 
contain  the   same  relative  proportion  of  mineral  and 
chemical  ingredients,  and  that  the  admixture  of  fresh 
water  has  a  material  effect  on  the  substance,  texture,  and 
composition  of  sea-shells.     In  estuaries,  where  the  water 
is  brackish,  oyster- shells  are  smaller  and  thinner  than 
usual,  owing  to  the  deficiency  of  calcareous  salts ;  while 
the  shells  of  oysters  procured  from  considerable  depths 
in  the  open  sea  and  at  some  distance  from  the  land  are 
remarkably  large,  thick,  and  heavy. 

Colour. — The  dye  by  which  the  outer  layer  of  shells 
is  stained,  and  which  often  forms  bands,  streaks,  spots, 
and  other  markings  of  the  most  beautiful  and  varied 
hues,  is  secreted  by  special  glands  of  the  mantle.  Owing, 
however,  to  some  defect  in  this  organ  of  secretion,  the 
colouring-matter  is  occasionally  wanting ;  and  nearly 
every  kind  of  shell,  which  is  usually  tinted,  has  what  is 
termed  an  "  albino  "  or  white  variety.  This  is  the  case 
with  resrard  both  to  land  and  marine  Testacea. 

The  late  Professor  Forbes,  in  a  paper  which  was 
published  in  the  ^  Proceedings '  of  the  Royal  Society  *, 
entitled  '^  Note  on  an  indication  of  depth  of  Primseval 
Seas,  afforded  by  the  remains  of  colour  in  fossil  Tes- 

»  Vol.  vii.  p.  21. 


III.]  INTRODUCTION.  xlix 

tacea/^  observed  that^  ^^  in  our  own  seas,  Testacea,  taken 
from  below  100  fathoms,  even  when  they  were  indivi- 
duals of  species  vividly  striped  or  banded  in  shallower 
zones,  were  quite  white  or  colourless ;  that  between  60 
and  80  fathoms  striping  and  banding  were  rarely  pre- 
sented by  our  own  shells,  especially  in  the  northern 
provinces ;  but  from  50  fathoms  shallow-wards,  colours 
and  patterns  were  well  marked/' 

I  cannot  help  thinking  that  there  must  have  been 
some  mistake  as  to  the  first  and  second  of  these  obser- 
vations. At  least,  my  own  experience  induces  me  to 
form  a  different  conclusion. 

Instances  of  depths  exceeding  100  fathoms  in  our  seas 
are  very  rare.  I  only  know  of  two.  One  of  them  is 
a  submarine  trough  off  the  Mull  of  Galloway,  called 
"  Beaufort's  Dyke,''  where  the  depth  is  145  fathoms ;  and 
the  other  is  a  pit  in  the  Sound  or  Sleat  of  Skye.  The 
results  of  dredging  in  Beaufort's  Dyke  are  recorded  in 
the  ^  Annals  of  Natural  History"^.'  Although  shells 
usually  inhabiting  comparatively  shallow  water,  and 
distinctly  striped  or  banded  [Tapes  virginea  and  Venus 
ovata),  were  obtained  alive  from  this  remarkable  depth, 
no  deficiency  of  colour  or  markings  is  noticed  in  the 
account  of  these  results.  In  the  other  case,  I  can  state 
from  my  own  knowledge  that  the  shells  were  as  highly 
coloured  and  the  markings  quite  as  vivid  as  in  specimens 
found  at  a  depth  of  30  fathoms  in  another  part  of  the 
Sleat  of  Skye.  Soundings  were  taken  with  Massey's 
patent  log,  and  living  Testacea  were  brought  up  in  the 
dredge  from  118  fathoms.  On  this  occasion  Captain 
Otter  was  with  me,  and  I  had  the  benefit  of  his  great  ex- 
perience in  such  matters.  Last  year  I  dredged  for  some 
weeks  off  the  Shetland  Isles  at  depths  between  60  and 

*  Vol.  X.,  Sept.  1842,  p.  21. 


J  INTRODUCTION.  [CH. 

80  fathoms  ;  and  not  only  were  live  shells  which  I  pro- 
cured from  those  depths  as  brightly  coloured  and  marked 
with  as  distinct  patterns  as  shells  of  the  same  species  [e.g. 
of  Trochus  ziziphinus),  taken  at  low- water  mark,  but 
colourless  or  white  varieties  of  such  species  were  found 
in  the  same  spots.  The  Star-fishes  lately  got  by  Dr. 
Wallich  in  the  Arctic  Sea  from  a  depth  of  1260  fathoms 
still  retain  their  former  colours ;  and,  during  the  recent 
expedition  of  Torell  and  other  Swedish  naturalists  to 
Spitzbergen,  a  portion  of  the  sea-bottom  was  brought  up 
from  a  depth  of  1400  fathoms,  when,  among  other  ani- 
mals of  different  types,  a  Crustacean  of  bright  colours  is 
said  to  have  made  its  appearance.  The  extent  to  which 
light  penetrates  into  the  abysses  of  the  ocean,  as  well  as 
the  mode  of  its  transmission,  does  not  seem  to  be  known. 

Decollation, — Some  univalve  Mollusca,  both  terrestrial 
and  aquatic,  the  shells  of  which  have  a  long  and  slowly 
enlarging  spire,  desert  the  first  or  top  whorls,  and  get 
rid  of  them  by  a  process  called  decollation  or  truncature. 
The  suture,  or  point  of  junction  between  this  part  of  the 
spire  and  the  rest  of  the  shell,  is  usually  very  slight ; 
and  the  animal  effects  the  process  of  decollation  by 
])urying  itself  in  the  earth  if  a  land- snail,  or  rubbing 
its  shell  against  a  stone  or  other  hard  substance  if  a 
freshwater  or  marine  species,  in  order  to  disengage  itself 
from  the  empty  and  useless  whorls.  Before  doing  this, 
however,  it  reconstructs  the  top  of  its  spire  by  forming 
a  hemispherical  plate  of  shelly  matter  between  that  part 
of  the  shell  Avhich  is  to  be  retained  and  the  empty  top. 
Among  land-snails  Bulimus  decollatus  is  a  well-known 
instance  of  this  peculiarity,  among  freshwater  snails 
Limnaa  glabra,  and  among  the  marine  univalves  Trun- 
catella  truncatula. 

Erosion. — The  outer  layers  of  the  shells  of  aquatic 


III.]  INTRODUCTION.  li 

Mollusca,  as  well  bivalve  as  univalve^  are  frequently  ex- 
coriated or  decorticated,  and  sometimes  to  a  considerable 
depth  when  the  shell  is  thick,  as  in  Unio  margaritifer, 
or  the  pearl-mussel.  Several  marine  species,  especially 
those  oiAstarte,  Mytilus,  and  Littorina,  are  also  affected 
in  the  same  way.  Various  theories  have  been  put  for- 
ward to  account  for  this  erosion.  In  the  case  of  fresh- 
water shells,  many  naturalists  have  supposed  that  it  is 
caused  by  gaseous  action,  some  have  attributed  it  to  the 
attacks  of  Myriapodous  insects,  a  few  to  excavation  by 
the  eggs  of  Neritina  fluviatilis,  MM.  de  Saulcy  and  Fis- 
cher, as  well  as  Mr.  Bland,  to  other  Mollusca  eating  away 
the  calcareous  matter  for  the  purpose  of  constructing 
and  repairing  their  own  shells,  and  MM.  Cuigneau  and 
Lespinasse  to  parasitic  Confervse  and  other  hydrophytes. 
But  as  this  phenomenon  is  not  confined  to  freshwater 
shells,  some  other  explanation  must  be  sought  for.  It 
is  very  probable  that  the  former  class  of  cases  may  be 
attributable  to  chemical  action,  and  especially  that  of 
sulphuretted  hydrogen ;  but  in  the  other,  and  perhaps 
all  the  cases,  the  effect  may  be  produced  by  another 
cause.  Mr.  Grove  suggests  that  it  may  be  owing  to  the 
want  of  homogeneity  in  the  substance  of  the  shell,  and 
that  the  slightest  and  almost  imperceptible  inequality  in 
the  surface  would  result  in  an  electrolytic  action  of  the 
water,  which  would  gradually  dissolve  portions  of  the 
shell.  Sea-water  is  more  likely  to  produce  this  effect 
than  fresh  water,  by  reason  of  the  stronger  galvanic  pro- 
perty of  the  former.  Corrosion  of  metals  by  water  or 
moisture  may  be  due  to  the  same  cause.  As  the  sub- 
ject does  not  appear  to  have  received  much  attention  in 
a  chemical  point  of  view,  I  trust  the  following  remarks, 
from  so  great  an  authority  as  Mr.  Grove,  wiU  help  to 
throw  some  light  upon  it.    The  shells  which  I  submitted 

c2 


lii  INTRODUCTION.  [CH. 

to  his  examination  were  those  of  Littorina  litorea,  or  the 
common  periwinkle. 

"  March  26,  1862. 

^'  Dear  Jeffreys, — As  you  wish  me  to  put  on  paper 
the  suggested  explanation  of  your  difficulty,  viz.  why 
it  is  that  substances  apparently  homogeneous  are  cor- 
roded in  patches  or  irregular  hollows,  I  endeavour  to  do 
so,  premising  that  it  is  only  theoretical  and  may  be 
found  not  to  accord  with  all  vour  facts. 

"  If  a  plate  of  pure  zinc  be  immersed  in  dilute  sul- 
phuric acid,  little  or  no  chemical  action  takes  place  ; 
but  keep  in  contact  with  the  zinc  another  metal,  say  an 
iron  nail,  and  the  zinc  is  rapidly  oxidated  and  dissolved, 
hydrogen  being  evolved  from  the  surface  of  the  iron.  The 
action  is  most  rapid  at  the  points  most  proximate  to  the 
iron ;  so  that,  if  the  nail  be  laid  upon  the  zinc,  both  being 
immersed  in  the  liquid,  the  iron  would  seem  to  eat  its 
way  into  the  zinc.  If  a  few  iron  filings  be  placed  upon 
the  zinc,  the  action  will  be  similar,  but  Avill  begin  more 
slowly  and  increase  as  the  points  of  iron  are  exposed, 
these  latter  Ijeing  protected  to  a  great  extent  by  their 
being  negative  and  coated  T\ith  hydrogen.  If  an  in- 
finitesimal quantity  of  copper  be  dissohed  in  the  acid,  it 
will  be  precipitated  in  a  metallic  state  on  the  negative 
points  and  make  these  permanent  centres  of  action.  So, 
if  no  iron  be  made  to  touch  the  zinc,  after  a  time  some 
want  of  absolute  homogeneity  is  sure  to  determine  a 
chemical  action ;  and  as  any  trace  of  metal  existing  in 
the  solution  will  by  this  chemical  (or,  rather,  electrolytic) 
action  be  deposited  on  the  negative  points,  or  those 
least  attacked,  the  action  will  continually  increase,  and, 
instead  of  being  uniform,  mil  be  in  patches  around  the 
negative  centres.  Thus  a  piece  of  common  zinc  of  com- 
merce which  contains  small  portions  of  iron  and  tin  will 


III.]  INTRODUCTION.  "  liii 

be  corroded  in  pits  or  holes.  With  imperfectly  con- 
ducting bodies  the  action  is  similar;  at  very  short  di- 
stances they  conduct^  and  the  action  spreads  or  extends 
from  a  point  to  the  surrounding  points.  Sometimes^,  in- 
stead of  forming  a  patch,  the  chemical  action  eats  its 
way  in  a  dendritic  form,  pursuing  the  ramifications  of 
either  the  more  oxidable  portion  of  the  substances  or 
of  the  more  accessible  negative  points.  The  slightest 
superficial  change  will  produce  a  corresponding  corro- 
sion :  thus,  if  you  were  to  breathe  on  a  polished  plate  of 
iron  and  wipe  away  the  condensed  moisture  from  half 
the  plate,  leaving  that  on  the  other  half  to  evaporate, 
the  iron  would  subsequently  rust  in  a  dififerent  manner 
on  the  two  parts.  If  you  electrify  a  plate  of  glass  having 
letters  cut  in  paper  on  it,  and  subsequently  expose  it 
without  the  paper  to  hydrofluoric  acid,  the  parts  pre- 
viously uncovered  will  be  attacked ;  and  so,  if  you  simply 
allow  the  paper  letters  to  remain  on  the  ^lass  for  some 
time  (say  a  day  or  two),  and  then  blow  them  off"  by 
breathing  on  the  glass,  or  by  the  vapour  of  hydrofluoric 
acid,  the  letters  will  be  made  manifest.  You  may  easily 
imagine  a  number  of  other  instances.  The  efiects  all  pro- 
ceed from  a  want  of  perfect  homogeneity,  either  original 
or  impressed  by  some  very  trifling  circumstance,  and 
from  the  fact  that,  points  of  action  having  once  been 
established,  the  corrosion  is  increased  by  the  eff'ects  it 
itself  produces  and  the  deposits  it  forms.  A  dentist,  to 
cure  a  carious  tooth,  scrapes  out  all  the  diseased  parts, 
&c.  Another  cause  of  localized  destructive  agency  is  that 
of  crystallization :  if  a  plate  of  common  earthenware 
has  been  used  to  contain  saline  solutions  and  is  then 
allowed  to  dry  and  is  put  aside,  it  will  efi^loresce  in  spots 
and  a  sort  of  vegetation  will  sprout  up  here  and  there, 
disintegrating  the  plate  in  patches.     I  have  now  in  my 


liv  INTRODUCTION.  [CH. 

laboratory  a  piece  of  earthenware,  which  was  used  merely 
to  hold  a  small  voltaic  battery  and  catch  the  chance 
spillings  of  sulphate  of  zinc  from  the  cells,  which  is 
here  and  there  eaten  out  in  deep  pits,  and  in  other  places 
pockmarked  with  small  spots.  If  this  dish  had  been 
exposed  to  alternations  of  sea-water  and  air,  a  similar 
effect  would  have  taken  place ;  and  yet  there  was  no  per- 
ceptible want  of  homogeneity  in  the  dish  at  first. 

"  The  tree-like  corrosions  between  the  object-lenses  of 
old  telescopes  are  probably  due  to  the  same  causes,  or  one 
of  them.  The  old  experiments  of  the  zinc  and  silver 
tree  are  instances  of  the  same  sort  of  action.  Wet  a 
glass  plate  with  nitrate  of  silver  and  hold  the  point  of  a 
pin  in  it,  the  acid  leaves  the  silver  for  the  copper ;  but 
the  silver  is  not  deposited  in  a  uniform  circle,  but  in  a 
beautiful  arborescent  form.  Old  wine-bottles  are  fre- 
quently found  corroded,  some  in  spots,  others  in  tree- 
like figures. 

"  I  believe  the  above  will  help  to  solve  the  problem 
you  are  investigating ;  at  all  events,  I  can  offer  no  better 
solution.  ('  Ever  yours, 

"W.  R.  Grove /^ 

I  may  add  that  limestone  rocks  are  fretted  in  the 
same  way  as  the  shells  of  Purpura  lapillus  and  a  stunted 
variety  of  Mytilus  edulis  which  are  found  on  these  rocks, 
all  having  the  same  calcareous  basis.  The  erosion  of 
bivalves  is  greater  at  their  beaks,  where  the  connexion 
between  the  animal  and  the  shell  is  weaker  than  in  other 
parts.  This  is  also  the  case  with  the  points  of  univalves. 
The  action  appears  to  be  prevented  by  the  epidermis. 

Operculum. — The  horny  or  shelly  plate  ("  pot-lid  ^^) 
by  which  many  univalve  Mollusca  close  the  mouths  of 
their  shells  is  attached  by  a  strong  muscle  to  the  back 
or  upper  surface  of  the  foot ;  and  it  serves  to  protect  the 


III.]  INTRODUCTION.  Iv, 

moUusk  from  the  attacks  or  intrusion  of  other  animals. 
It  is  often  formed  on  the  same  plan  as  the  spire  of  the 
shell,  but  it  differs  from  the  latter  in  being  nearly  always 
compressed  instead  of  tubular.  The  only  exception  to 
this  rule  of  which  I  am  aware,  as  far  as  regards  European 
MoUusca,  is  that  of  Zanclea,  where  the  operculum  is 
pyramidal.  It  has,  indeed,  been  stated  that  the  opercu- 
lum o^Adeorbis  siibcarinata  is  cellular ;  but  the  supposed 
operculum  of  this  rather  common  shell  belongs  to  the 
Foraminifera  and  is  the  Spirillina  perforata  of  William- 
son. The  mistake  arose  from  the  shells  and  Forami- 
nifera having  been  found  by  the  late  Mr.  William  Clark 
in  the  same  parcel  of  dredged  sand;  and  as  the  latter 
exactly  fitted  the  mouths  of  the  former,  he  concluded 
that  the  Foraminifera  were  the  opercula  of  the  shells. 
The  original  specimens  are  now  in  my  collection.  A  few 
of  our  native  MoUusca,  as  well  land  as  freshwater  and 
marine  {e.  g.  species  of  Cyclostoma,  Neritina,  Bythinia, 
and  Phasianella),  have  calcareous  or  shelly  opercula. 
The  opercula  of  other  kinds  are  horny  and  usually  thin. 
The  operculum  of  Neritina  and  Jeffreysia  is  furnished 
with  an  excentric  process,  or  apophysis,  which  enables 
it  to  fit  more  closely  into  the  shell,  like  the  bolt  of  a  lock 
into  the  box.  In  most  cases  the  operculum  is  spiral; 
but  in  Paludina,  Phasianella,  and  a  few  other  genera  it 
is  concentric.  The  whorls  on  some  of  the  horny  opercula 
nearly  correspond  in  number  with  those  of  the  shell, 
being  multispiral  in  Trochus  and  paucispiral  in  Littorina ; 
but  this  rule  is  not  universal.  There  is  a  difference  of 
opinion  among  physiologists  as  to  the  mode  in  which  the 
operculum  is  formed.  Some  consider  the  mantle  as  the 
organ  of  secretion,  others  the  foot,  while  according  to  a 
few  it  is  formed  by  the  glands  of  a  special  organ  called 
the  operculigerous  lobe.     Adanson  and  lately  Dr.  Gray 


Ivi  INTRODUCTION.  [CH. 

have  likened  the  operculum  to  the  second  valve  of  bivalve 
shells ;  but  these  do  not  appear  to  be  homologous  organs, 
although  equally  serving  to  cover  the  body  of  the  mollusk. 
Calcareous  processes,  which  answer  the  purjDOse  of  oper- 
cula,  occur  in  a  genus  of  land  snails  [Clausilia),  as  well 
as  in  marine  bivalves  belonging  to  the  genus  Teredo. 
In  the  former  case  this  process  consists  of  a  t^Wsted  plate, 
which  is  not  attached  to  the  animal,  but  acts  like  a  spring- 
door  in  closing  the  interior  of  the  shell ;  and  in  Teredo 
there  are  two  such  processes,  each  shaped  like  a  spatula, 
and  attached  to  the  body  by  strong  muscles.  Specimens 
of  Buccinum  undatum  and  Fusus  antiquus  are  sometimes 
bioperculate ;  and  occasionally  one  of  these  opercula  is 
divided  into  two,  or  even  three  laminse,  which  are  piled 
upon  each  other,  so  as  to  give  the  specimen  the  appear- 
ance of  having  three  or  four  opercula.  In  some  cases  of 
this  malformation  in  Buccinum  undatum,  the  two  oper- 
cula are  too  large  to  be  contained  within  the  shell,  and 
overlap  each  other ;  but  in  others  they  are  abortive  and 
widely  separate  from  each  other.  They  are  found  in 
individuals  of  all  ages ;  and  they  appear  to  be  congenital, 
and  not  the  result  of  accidental  loss  and  renewal.  In 
one  instance  of  malformation  connected  with  this  subject, 
which  fell  under  my  observation,  a  deficiency,  instead 
of  a  redundancy,  of  opercular  formation  occurred,  and 
may  have  been  caused  by  disease.  A  living  specimen  of 
Fusus  gracilis,  which  I  procured  last  year  in  the  Shetland 
Isles,  had  no  operculum  or  even  the  scar  or  trace  of  any 
such  process.  The  back  of  the  foot,  where  the  oper- 
culum was  placed  in  other  specimens  of  the  same  kind, 
was  merely  hardened  by  exposure.  In  Buccinum  Hum- 
phrey sianum  the  operculum  is  very  small,  and  only  covers 
part  of  the  aperture  or  mouth  of  the  shell  when  the  animal 
withdraws  itself.    In  some  species  of  the  genus  Mangelia 


III.]  INTRODUCTION.  Ivii 

it  is  entirely  wanting.  M.  nivalis  has  a  distinct  operculum ; 
while  M.  Ginnaniana  (which  belongs  to  the  same  section 
of  this  genus  and  is  found  in  company  with  M.  nivalis 
in  our  northern  sea)  has  not  the  slightest  vestige  of  an 
operculum.  Exceptional  instances  of  the  same  kind  occur 
in  the  tropical  genera  Valuta,  Conus,  and  Oliva.  But  a 
remarkable  peculiarity  is  presented  by  some  species  of 
lanthina.  which  are  furnished  in  their  embryonic  state 
with  perfect  opercula.  These  processes  afterwards  dis- 
appear, being  probably  absorbed  by  the  animal  when  the 
shell  becomes  too  large  to  be  thus  closed.  Sars,  Van 
Beneden,  and  Vogt  have  shown  tha-t  the  fry  of  many 
Nudibranchs,  as  well  as  of  that  anomalous  moliusk 
Elysia  viridis,  have  Nautiliform  and  operculated  shells. 
The  fry  of  Dolium  jjerdix,  which  has  also  an  operculated 
shell  in  this  stage  of  grow^th  only,  is  so  unlike  the  adult, 
that  the  late  Professor  Forbes  constituted  for  it  a  new 
genus  of  another  order,  under  the  name  oi  Macgillivrayia. 
The  fry  of  a  curious  land  moUusk  {Parmacella),  which 
partakes  more  of  the  nature  of  a  slug  than  a  snail,  is  said 
to  be  enclosed  in  an  operculated  shell.  In  the  adult  this 
shell  becomes  more  rudimentary  and  only  covers  a  small 
part  of  the  body.  This  is  a  case  of  retrogressive,  rather 
than  of  "  progressive  development.^^ 

Epidermis. — Most  shells  have  an  outer  horny  covering, 
called  an  "  epidermis  '*  or  "  periostracon,"  which  appears 
to  be  analogous  to  the  periosteum  of  bones  in  vertebrate 
animals.  Its  office  is  probably  to  protect  the  shell  from 
the  chemical  action  of  the  air  or  water  inhabited  by  the 
moUusk.  It  is  formed  simultaneously  with  the  shell,  and 
probably  by  the  same  organ  of  secretion.  It  is  usually 
glossy,  and  sometimes  resembles  a  coat  of  varnish.  In 
Astarte  (a  genus  of  marine  bivalves)  it  is  thick  and 
strong.     In  some  of  the  whelks  and  land  snails  it  re- 

c5 


Ivili  INTRODUCTION.  [CH. 

sembles  the  pile  of  cloth,  and  is  occasionally  produced 
into  bristles  or  hairs ;  but  in  most  cases  it  is  very  thin 
and  only  forms  a  delicate  film.  It  exists  also  in  shells 
which  are  internal,  as  those  of  Limax  and  Lamellaria,  but 
not  in  Cyprcea  or  the  cowry,  which  is  constantly  being 
lubricated  by  the  mantle.  In  its  nature  it  appears  to 
be  persistent  and  almost  indestructible,  being  not  unfre- 
quently  found  still  adhering  to  shells  in  upper  tertiary 
strata. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

EXTEENAL  EELATIONS. 

ENEMIES   or    MOLLrsCA. PARASITES. USES    TO    MAN  :    VIZ.    FOOD, 

MEDICINE,    OENAMENT,    AND    ECONOMY. INJURIES    TO    MAN. 

STUDY    OE    CONCHOLOGY. PLEASURES   AND    DRAWBACKS. INCI- 
DENTS OP  THE  PURSUIT. 

Enemies  of  Mollusca. — These  soft  creatures  are  the 
favourite  food  of  many  animals.  Man  is  not  the  only 
one  that  finds  them  savoury  and  digestible,  and  that 
hunts  them  down  with  insatiable  voracity.  The  slow- 
ness of  their  movements  makes  them  an  easy  prey ;  and 
their  shells  afford  them  no  protection  against  their 
larger  enemies.  On  land,  hedgehogs  (and  it  is  said  the 
fox  also),  rats,  thrushes,  ducks  and  other  birds,  snakes, 
lizards,  toads,  zoophagous  beetles  and  centipedes  pursue 
them  and  greatly  thin  their  numbers.  An  insect  (the 
Cochhoctonus  vorax)  lays  an  egg  in  the  body  of  dif- 
ferent species  of  snails,  which,  when  hatched,  eats  up  by 
slow  degrees  the  whole  of  its  unwilling  host,  and  then 
curls  itself  up  in  the  spire  of  the  empty  shell,  until  it  is 
turned  into  a  chrysalis.  The  Mollusca  which  live  iii 
fresh  water  are  devoured  by  "wild  ducks  and  other  birds 
of  that  class,  frogs,  fishes,  leeches,  and  the  larvae  of  the 


IV.]  INTRODUCTION.  lix 

dragon-fly.  The  innumerable  host  of  marine  Mollusca 
afford  a  constant  supply  of  food  to  sea-fowl  of  various 
sorts,  fish  (especially  the  cod,  haddock,  mullet,  gurnard, 
halibut,  and  sole),  crabs  and  other  Crustacea,  star-fishes, 
sea-cucumbers,  and  Actiniae.  No  less  than  35,000  spe- 
cimens of  a  small  bivalve  [Turtonia  minuta)  were  esti- 
mated by  Mr.  Hyndman  to  be  contained  in  the  stomach 
of  a  single  mullet  which  had  been  taken  in  Lame  Lough. 
They  are  not  even  spared  by  their  own  kind.  M.  Des- 
hayes  fed  some  pet  snails  with  chopped-up  morsels  of 
one  of  their  companions,  which  appeared  to  be  unhealthy 
and  not  likely  to  survive.  Many  instances  of  such 
cannibal  propensities  in  the  land  and  freshwater  Mollusca 
will  be  found  in  this  volume.  Bulla  lignaria  is  a  great 
tyrant  among  the  smaller  marine  shell-fish,  and  uses  the 
strong  plates  of  its  singular  gizzard  to  crush  them.  All 
the  whelk-tribe,  as  well  as  the  Naticce,  enfold  their  testa- 
ceous prey  in  their  large  feet,  and  drill  holes  in  the  shells, 
as  before  observed,  in  order  to  feed  on  their  contents. 
The  great  strength  of  the  shells  possessed  by  some  whelks 
does  not  save  them  from  becoming  victims  in  their  turn. 
I  have  been  informed  by  intelligent  fishermen,  that,,jf 
their  lobster-pots  (in  which  the  Buccinum  undatum  is 
often  caught)  are  left  a  few  hours  longer  than  usual,  the 
shells  of  the  whelks  are  found  cracked  ^'  like  nuts," 
having  been  cleared  out  by  the  lobsters  and  crabs  while 
they  were  fellow-prisoners.  Quantities  of  this  kind  of 
whelk  are  caught  on  the  Dogger-bank  as  bait  for  the  cod- 
fisheries  of  Iceland  and  Greenland.  The  way  in  which 
gold-fish  contrive  to  extract  the  animals  from  fresh- 
water shells  is  curious.  When  the  shell  is  too  large  to 
be  swallowed,  the  fish  puts  its  mouth  to  it,  and  then, 
sucking  it  for  some  minutes,  lets  it  go.  After  a  while 
the  snail  recovers  and  withdraws  itself  from  its  shell, 


Ix  INTRODUCTION.  [CH. 

when  the  fish  again  seizes  and  sucks  it,  repeating  this 
operation  for  hours  and  sometimes  for  days,  until  its 
victim  is  exhausted.  Whether  the  fish  kills  its  prey  by 
means  of  any  poisonous  injection  is  a  question  which 
might  be  answered  by  some  observant  naturalist  who 
not  only  has  an  aquarium  but  makes  good  use  of  it.  In 
consequence  of  this  continual  and  internecine  warfare, 
an  excessive  increase  in  the  number  of  molkisks,  both 
on  land  and  in  water,  is  checked. 

Parasites. — Very  little  appears  to  be  knoAvn  with  re- 
spect to  the  animal  and  vegetable  parasites  which  are 
nourished  by  the  juices  or  excretions  of  living  ^loUusca. 
On  land,  several  kinds  of  slug  are  infested  by  a  small 
white  mite  [Philodromus  limacum,  Jenyns),  which  may 
often  be  seen  in  considerable  numbers  running  actively 
over  their  bodies,  but  apparently  not  doing  the  slugs  any 
harm,  except,  perhaps,  in  sHghtly  lessening  or  interfering 
with  their  secretion  of  slime,  on  which  these  insects  pro- 
bably feed.  The  Rev.  Leonard  Jenyns  says  that  the 
most  striking  feature  in  the  history  of  this  kind  of  para- 
sitic mite  is  "  the  circumstance  of  its  not  confining  its 
abode  to  the  external  surface  of  the  slug,  but  often  re- 
tiring within  the  body  of  that  animal — effecting  its  en- 
trance by  means  of  the  lateral  foramen  which  leads  to 
the  cavity  of  the  lungs.^^  And  he  observes,  "  Indeed 
I  am  inclined  to  think  that  tliis  ca^dty  is  its  principal 
residence,  whence  it  only  comes  forth  occasionally  to 
ramble  about  the  surface  of  the  body.  In  one  instance 
I  confined  in  a  close  box  a  slug  which,  to  all  appearance, 
was  free  from  parasites.  On  opening  the  box  a  day  or 
two  afterwards,  I  observed  very  many  crawling  about  the 
slug  externally,  all  of  which  would  seem  to  have  pro- 
ceeded from  the  pulmonary  cavity.  On  another  occa- 
sion I  observed  these  insects  running  in  and  out  of  the 


IV.]  INTRODUCTION.  Ixi 

cavity  at  pleasure ;  and  some  which  I  saw  retire  into  it 
never  reappeared,  although  I  watched  the  slug  narrowly 
for  a  considerable  time.  It  is  remarkable  that  the  slug 
appears  to  suffer  no  particular  inconvenience  from  these 
parasites,  and  even  allows  them  to  run  in  and  out  of  the 
lateral  orifice  without  betraying  the  slightest  symptoms 
of  irritation.^-'  M.  Barthelemy  has  noticed  in  the  eggs  of 
one  kind  of  slug  numbers  of  a  small  Nematoid  worm, 
which  he  has  named  Ascarioides  limacis.  These  worms 
are  present  in  the  e^^  at  the  moment  of  its  being  laid, 
having  been  previously  deposited  by  the  parent  worm 
while  living  in  the  ovary  of  the  slug.  The  young  worms 
must  therefore  have  been  introduced  into  the  q^^  while 
it  was  being  formed.  They  appear  to  adopt  the  same 
course  as  the  parasitic  larvse  of  the  Ichneumon  when 
they  are  deposited  in  the  body  of  a  grub,  and  to  spare  the 
vital  parts  of  the  embryo  on  which  they  feed,  until  the 
period  has  arrived  for  their  own  development.  In  fresh 
water,  the  pond-mussel  (Anodonta)  constantly  entertains 
a  large  party  of  parasites,  consisting  of  another  kind  of 
mite  {At ax  ypsilophora,  Buntz),  which  are  so  tenacious  of 
life,  that  after  their  host  has  been  put  into  boiling  water 
and  killed  they  survive  and  crawl  about  as  if  nothing 
had  happened  to  them.  A  kind  of  hair-worm  [Gordius 
inquilinuSy  Miiller)  attaches  itself  in  clusters  to  Limncea 
stagnalis  and  many  other  freshwater  snails.  In  all  pro- 
bability, however,  these  are  not  true  parasites,  and  only 
attach  themselves  to  the  Mollusca  for  the  sake  of  the 
shelter  afforded  by  their  shells  or  mantles,  obtaining 
their  food  from  the  water  and  not  from  the  snails,  be- 
cause their  heads  are  always  seen  outside  and  in  active 
motion  when  the  snails  are  crawling.  Each  genus,  if 
not  every  species,  of  freshwater  snail  may  have  its  own 
pseudoparasite.     Limncea,   Planoy^bis,  Physa,   Ancylus, 


l.xii  INTRODUCTION.  [CH. 

and  Bythinia  are  similarly  infested ;  but  they  are  of 
various  sizes,  and  some  of  them  have  different  habitats. 
In  the  sea,  a  small  kind  of  pea-crab  {Pinnoteres  vete- 
rum)  is  frequently  found  inside  the  mantle  of  Cyprina 
Islandica,  Modiola  modiolus  (or  the  great  horse-mussel), 
and  Phina  pectinata,  taking  up  its  abode  in  these  snug 
quarters  for  parasitic  purposes,  and  not  (as  was  imagined 
by  the  too  credulous  Pliny)  in  order  to  warn  the  Pinna  of 
the  approach  of  its  foes,  like  a  faithful  friend  or  watch- 
dog. Professor  Kolliker  has  lately  noticed  in  the  shells 
of  several  kinds  of  Mollusca,  both  univalve  and  bivalve, 
certain  vegetable  parasites,  which  he  regards  as  unicellular 
^  fungi.  They  form  minute  tubes,  which  run  straight 
through  the  pores  or  fibres  of  the  shell.  He  thought 
it  probable  that  these  vegetable  parasites  dissolve  the  car- 
bonate of  lime  contained  in  the  shell  by  means  of  an  acid 
which  they  may  have  the  power  of  secreting.  But  the  pro- 
cess by  which  shells  are  perforated  by  vegetable  as  well 
as  animal  organisms  does  not  seem  to  be  understood,  and 
requires  much  elucidation  in  a  chemical  point  of  view. 

Uses  to  Man. — {Food.) — We  naturally  consider  our- 
selves (as  the  "  lords  of  the  creation  ^^)  the  sole  pivot  round 
which  all  other  creatures  turn,  without  much  sympathy 
with  them  or  regard  for  their  wants  and  feelings.  But 
the  countless  and  complicated  links  of  the  chainwork  in 
which  all  Nature  is  involved  are  so  closely  and  wonder- 
fully connected  together,  that  not  one  of  them  can  be 
broken  or  displaced  without  interfering  with  the  eco- 
nomy of  the  whole.  Much  of  the  animal  food  which  we 
consume  has  been  nourished  at  the  expense  of  other 
creatures,  which  in  their  turn  have  subsisted  upon  smaller 
organisms ;  and  this  process  of  destruction  is  repeated 
until  the  bottom  of  the  scale  of  animal  life  has  been 
reached.     Then  the  varied  and  inexhaustible  stores  of 


IV.]  INTRODUCTION.  Ixiii 

inorganic  substances  are  called  into  requisition,  and 
these  again  are  supplied  and  renewed  from  decayed  par- 
ticles of  once  living  matter.  Thus  a  never-ending  cycle 
of  waste  and  renewal  takes  place^  in  accordance  with  the 
beneficent  design  of  the  Author  of  all  things  ! 

The  principal  use  which  the  MoUusca  subserve^  so 
far  as  man  is  concerned,  is  to  supply  him,  directly  and 
indirectly,  with  an  abundance  of  food.  It  is  true  that  this 
kind  of  food  is  not  so  grateful  to  us  in  a  civilized  as  in 
an  uncivilized  state ;  but  one  of  our  most  favourite  lux- 
uries is  derived  from  this  source,  and  the  oyster,  fortu- 
nately, inhabits  those  regions  where  civilization  has 
attained  its  present  height  of  perfection.  Many  other 
kinds  of  shell-fish,  such  as  scallops  and  cockles,  are  not 
less  wholesome  than  the  king  of  the  Mollusks,  and  are 
by  no  means  to  be  despised ;  and  the  ormer  (Haliotis 
tuberculata)  is  reckoned  a  delicacy  in  the  Channel  Isles, 
when  properly  cooked.  The  salt  flavour  which  is  so 
much  relished  by  a  maritime  population  is  imparted  by 
all  the  marine  MoUusca.  The  quantity  (amounting  to 
many  hundreds  of  tons)  of  whelks,  mussels,  and  peri- 
winkles which  is  every  year  disposed  of  in  Billingsgate 
market  alone  is  almost  incredible ;  and  there  is  no 
seaport  or  adjoining  tract  of  country,  especially  in  the 
manufacturing  and  mining  districts,  but  has  a  consider- 
able traffic  carried  on  within  it  by  a  numerous  and  in- 
dustrious class  of  itinerant  dealers  in  such  wares.  On 
many  parts  of  the  Scotch  and  Irish  coasts  shell-fish  form 
a  considerable  portion  of  the  food  of  the  poorer  inha- 
bitants; and  in  a  few  of  our  more  remote  and  almost 
inaccessible  islets  (such  as  Fair  Isle  and  some  of  the 
Western  Hebrides)  positive  starvation  would  ensue  in 
winter,  if  it  were  not  for  these  unfailing  and  easy  sup- 
plies.    In  an  indirect  way,  the  MoUusca  contribute  still 


Ixiv  INTRODUCTION.  [CH. 

more  to  the  sustenance  of  man,  by  supporting  the  innu- 
merable shoals  of  cod,  Img,  haddock,  halibut,  and  various 
other  sorts  of  fish  which  abound  in  our  seas  and  pro\ide 
a  constant  livelihood  for  a  hardy  race,  and  through  them 
for  a  great  part  of  our  population,  who,  both  from  neces- 
sity and  choice,  are  fish-eaters.  Our  Continental  neigh- 
bours, not  being  so  well  supplied  as  we  are  with  sea-fish, 
do  not  disdain  any  ^^frutti  del  mare/^  The  date-shell 
(Lithodomus  dactylus),  which  is  extracted  with  much 
labour  from  the  solid  rock  on  the  coasts  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, is  reckoned  a  dish  fit  for  an  emperor;  and  M. 
Recluz  says  of  a  kind  of  cockle  [Cardium  l(svigatum)y 
"  Sa  chair  est  savoureuse  et  prisee  du  gourmet/' 

The  Romans  had  their  oyster-beds,  as  well  as  their 
Cochlearia  or  snail-preserves;  and  Varro,  in  his  3rd 
Book  ("  De  viUaticis  pastionibus^'),  describes  fully  the 
method  adopted  by  his  countrymen  for  improving  the 
difiierent  breeds  of  oysters  by  crossing.  The  improve- 
ment of  the  breed  of  oysters,  as  well  as  their  preserva- 
tion, ranks  in  France  as  a  science,  and  has  received  the 
name  of  "  huitreculture,''  its  professor  being  M.  Coste. 
We  can,  but  (alas !)  do  not,  manage  these  things  so 
well.  Even  land- snails  are  pressed  into  the  service  of 
the  French,  and  enter  rather  largely  into  their  cookery. 
No  one  can  have  traversed  the  streets  of  Paris,  or  of  the 
larger  towns  in  France,  without  seeing  dishes  of  Helix 
pomatia  temptingly  displayed  in  the  shops  of  restaurants, 
like  kidneys  and  white-bait  in  the  windows  of  London 
eating-houses.  The  list  of  eatable  snails  in  France  is 
very  considerable  and  comprises  some  comparatively 
small  species.     "  Chacun  a  son  gout !" 

[Medicine,) — In  our  pharmacopoeia  of  former  times  a 
decoction  of  snails  was  much  esteemed  as  a  remedy  in 
pulmonary  complaints ;  and  great  numbers  of  them  were 


IV.]  INTRODUCTION.  IxV 

unmercifully  pounded  alive  for  that  purpose.  Even  in 
the  present  day  snail-broth  is  said  to  be  serviceable  as  a 
lenitive.  In  France  an  extract  from  snails,  called  '  He- 
licine/  is  used  in  similar  cases.  The  spongy  plate  of 
the  common  cuttle  [Sepia  officinalis),  calcined  oyster- 
shells,  and  the  Limacella  of  the  large  slug  [Limax  maxi- 
mus),  as  well  as  "crabs^-eyes^^  (or  the  concretions  of 
calcareous  matter  found  in  the  stomach  of  the  eatable 
crab),  were  used  during  the  last  century  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  certain  medicines. 

[Ornament.) — When  the  Romans  were  the  masters  of 
these  islands  they  ransacked  not  only  our  seas  and  estu- 
aries for  oysters  (those  from  the  Mediterranean  being 
very  scarce  and  inferior  in  quality)  but  also  our  northern 
rivers  for  pearls,  which  were  extracted  from  the  Unio 
margaritifer.  This  shell,  with  its  accompanying  product, 
is  represented  in  the  Frontispiece  to  the  present  volume. 
The  search  for  native  pearls  continued  until  a  compara- 
tively modern  period,  when  it  was  superseded  by  the 
successful  prosecution  of  the  true  pearl-fishery  in  Eastern 
seas,  the  valuable  and  lustrous  produce  of  which  threw 
into  the  shade  our  comparatively  worthless  and  dull 
jewel.  Other  species  of  freshwater  mussel,  as  well  as 
the  oyster,  ormer,  sea- mussel,  and  cockle,  and  even  the 
periwinkle,  occasionally  yield  pearls,  but  of  an  unservice- 
able kind.  It  is  evident,  from  an  examination  of  the 
shells  in  which  such  excrescences  are  formed,  that  they 
are  o\ving  to  an  irregular  and  partial  secretion  by  the 
mantle  of  the  nacreous  and  lamellar  substance  which 
lines  the  inside  of  the  shell.  In  all  probability  the 
proximate  cause  is  some  extraneous  body,  and  not  dis- 
ease as  was  formerly  supposed.  In  freshwater  bivalves 
the  irritating  tenacity  of  parasitic  insects  and  worms 
[Limnochares  Anodontce  and  Distoma  duplicatum),  and 


Ixvi  INTRODUCTION.  [CH. 

in  marine  bivalves  the  attacks  of  perforating  annelids, 
would  be  sufficient  inducements  for  the  shell-fish  endea- 
vouring to  smother  or  keep  out  its  assailants  by  secre- 
ting an  extra  quantity  of  nacreous  matter.  The  nucleus 
of  many  pearls  reveals  the  origin  of  their  formation.  A 
communication  made  by  Signor  Antonio  Villa  in  1860 
to  the  Literary  and  Scientific  Athenseum  at  Milan  (en- 
titled "  SulP  origine  delle  perle^^),  and  another  by  Mr. 
Robert  Garner  to  the  Linnean  Society  in  December  1861 
(^'^Note  on  the  formation  of  pearls  ^''),  will  well  repay  a 
perusal  by  those  who  are  interested  in  this  curious  sub- 
ject. The  unsuccessful  experiments  made  a  century  ago 
by  Linne  for  the  artificial  production  of  pearls  by  the 
Unio  margaritifer  in  the  rivers  of  Sweden  (and  for  which 
he  took  out  a  patent),  and  the  ingenious  process  invented 
by  the  Chinese,  of  putting  little  josses  or  images  of  some 
incorrodible  metal  between  the  mantle  and  shell  of  an- 
other freshwater  mussel,  so  as  to  have  them  coated  over 
with  several  layers  of  pearly  matter,  are  now  well  known. 
Great  quantities  of  the  Mytilus  edulis  are  said  to  have 
been  collected  a  few  years  ago  in  the  estuary  of  the 
Conway,  as  well  as  in  the  North  of  Ireland,  and  exported 
on  account  of  the  Jews,  for  the  purpose  of  fabricating 
mock  pearls  out  of  their  nacreous  linings. 

Another  testaceous  article  of  commerce  in  this  coun- 
try for  ornamental  purposes  is  the  ^^  ormer  "  or  ear- shell 
(Haliotis  tuberculata) ,  which  is  found  abundantly  in  the 
Channel  Isles.  Many  tons  of  these  sheUs  are  annually 
gathered  for  the  Birmingham  market ;  and  their  inner 
coats  of  mother-of-pearl  are  sufficiently  thick  to  make 
buttons  and  studs,  or  for  inlaying. 

Shells  of  various  kinds  are  collected  wholesale  from 
the  famous  beach  of  the  islet  of  Herm,  and  sent  to 
England  for  fancy-work.     The  Romans  used  shells  for 


IV.]  INTRODUCTION.  Ixvii 

ornamenting  their  dwellings.  GelFs '  Pompeiana^  (vol.i. 
pp.  1.95,  196)  contains  an  interesting  description  of  the 
celebrated  ^^  Fountain  of  Shells,"  which  appears  to  have 
been  decorated  with  the  Tyrian  murex  and  pilgrim  scal- 
lop ;  and  these  shells  are  stated  to  have  been  "  neither 
calcined  by  the  heat  of  the  eruption  nor  changed  by  the 
lapse  of  so  many  centuries."  Cicero  is  said  to  have  also 
used  shells  in  decorating  a  fountain  at  his  Formian  villa. 
In  our  own  country  it  was  once  the  fashion  to  ornament 
grottos  in  the  same  way. 

Among  other  ornamental  uses  may  be  mentioned  the 
purple  dye  which  is  yielded  by  many  shell -fish.  The 
Greeks  and  Komans  extracted  it  from  Murex  trun- 
culus  and  other  species  which  we  do  not  possess ;  and 
the  process  of  dyeing  constituted  one  of  their  most 
important  manufactures.  An  excellent  article  on  this 
subject,  considered  in  a  scientific  and  artistic  point  of 
view,  and  entitled  "  Natural  History  of  the  Purple  of  the 
Ancients,"  by  Professor  Duthiers  of  Lille,  will  be  found 
in  the  '^Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society'  for  1860*. 
Dr.  Bizio,  a  distinguished  chemist,  has  also  investigated 
the  nature  and  properties  of  these  dyes ;  and  a  learned 
Scotch  divine,  the  Rev.  James  Smith,  has  given,  in  the 
'  Zoologist '  for  1849,  a  classical  and  elaborate  disqui- 
sition on  the  same  subject.  The  common  dog-whelk 
[Purpura  lapillus)  of  our  own  rocky  coasts,  as  well  as 
Murex  erinaceus,  Scalaria  communis ,  and  lanthina  com- 
munis produce  the  same  colouring-matter,  but  in  a 
smaller  quantity  and  of  a  much  less  vivid  hue  -,  and  it 
has  never  been  turned  to  any  account.  More  than  a  cen- 
tury ago,  Borlase,  in  his  ^  Natural  History  of  Cornwall,^ 
mentions  "The  purple-marking  whelke."  He  says,  "the 
juice  which  marks  is  in  a  separate  bag,  of  a  yellowish- 

*  Vol.  X.  p.  579. 


lx\dii  INTRODUCTION.  [CH. 

green  when  first  drawn  npon  linen,  grows  a  little  ruddy 
afterwards,  till  it  comes  to  a  faint  purple ;  when  diy, 
and  the  linen  washed,  it  is  of  a  good  purple,  and  rather 
betters  by  age  and  frequent  washing/^  A  cambric 
handkerchief,  which  I  stained  more  than  twenty  years 
ago  ^vith  the  dye  from  the  purpuriferous  gland  of  a 
dog- whelk,  still  retains  its  ^-iolet  hue.  The  pillar  lip  of 
this  shell  often  exhibits  the  same  tinge  of  colour. 
Nearly  two  centuries  ago  Lister  tried,  but  in  yain,  to 
fix  the  purple  dye  which  is  yielded  in  such  quantity  by 
the  Planorbis  corneus,  a  freshwater  snail. 

{Economy .) — Other  uses  to  which  the  shells  of  Moi- 
lusca  are  sometimes  applied  in  this  country  are  numerous 
and  varied,  although  not  very  important.  The  valves 
of  the  great  pond-mussel  [Anodonta  cygnea)  make  here, 
as  well  as  in  the  North  of  France,  excellent  ere  am - 
skimmers.  The  mussels  are  procured  by  means  of  a 
long  pointed  stick,  which  is  inserted  between  the  gaping 
valves  when  the  animal  is  feeding,  and  these  closing  on 
the  stick  allow  it  to  be  drawn  up  out  of  the  water.  The 
shell  of  the  almond-whelk  [Fusus  antiquus)  serves  our 
northern  fishermen  for  a  lamp,  being  suspended  from  a 
nail  in  the  wall  or  ceiling  of  their  hut  by  a  piece  of 
string,  which  is  fastened  round  the  shell  in  a  triangular 
fashion.  The  inside  is  filled  with  fish-oil,  and  a  wick  of 
cotton  or  tOAv  is  put  into  the  canal  at  the  extremity  of 
the  mouth.  This  I  have  seen  prepared  and  used  in  the 
Shetland  Isles ;  and  I  doubt  whether  any  antique  lamp 
could  excel  it  in  elegance  of  shape.  In  the  palmy  days 
of  the  Italian  and  Flemish  schools,  valves  of  a  freshwater 
mussel  (named  for  this  reason  Unio  pictorum)  were  used 
by  the  gi'cat  masters  to  hold  their  colom's.  Although 
they  have  been  superseded  by  palettes  for  this  purpose, 
they  are   sold  by  many  artists^ -colourmen  in  London, 


IV.]'  INTRODUCTION.  Ixix 

containing  a  preparation  of  gold  or  silver  leaf  for  em- 
blazoning. The  valves  of  Pecten  maximus  and  P.  oper- 
cularis  make  an  ornamental  as  well  as  a  usefal  little 
dish  for  scalloped  oysters.  Ormers  are  used  in  Guernsey 
by  farmers  to  frighten  away  small  birds  from  the  standing 
corn^  two  or  three  of  these  shells  being  strung  together 
and  suspended  by  a  string  from  the  end  of  a  long  stick, 
so  as  to  make  a  clattering  noise  when  moved  by  the 
wind.  Among  other  services  which  the  Mollusca  render 
to  man  is  their  indicating  an  approach  of  rain  or  a 
change  of  temperature.  Several  interesting  facts  with 
respect  to  this  hygrometrical  property  have  been  recorded 
by  Mr.  B.  Thomas  of  Cincinnati,  U.S.,  in  Dingler^s 
^  Polvtechnisches  Journal : "  and  as  I  am  not  aware  that 
similar  observations  have  been  made  or  published  in 
Great  Britain,  I  venture  to  direct  the  attention  of 
naturalists  who  live  in  the  countrv  to  this  curious 
inquiry.  Mr.  Thomas  states  that  snails  are  more 
reliable  than  leaves  as  natural  barometers  ;  that,  in  con- 
sequence of  their  never  drinking,  all  the  moistm^e  they 
receive  is  by  absorption  of  rain,  mist,  or  dew  through  the 
tissues  of  their  bodies,  and  this  thev  afterwards  exude 
at  regular  intervals,  until  they  obtain  a  fresh  supply 
that  the  colour  of  certain  kinds  of  snail  varies  according 
to  the  quantity  of  moisture  retained ;  that  tAvo  days 
before  rain  is  about  to  fall  they  climb  trees,  which  they 
never  do  on  other  occasions :  and  that  when  thev  are 
observed  to  leave  the  herbage  and  get  on  rocks,  it  is  a 
certain  prognostication  of  wet  weather.  Not  many 
years  ago  some  wonderful  stories  were  afloat  as  to  the 
galvanic  nature  of  snails,  which  it  was  proposed  to 
turn  to  account  as  a  medium  of  communication  between 
distant  friends ;  but  this  mystery  has  been  eclipsed  by 
that  of  spirit-rapping,  with  Which  the  molluscan  phe- 


IXX  INTRODUCTION.  [CH. 

nomenon  may  perhaps  be  classed.  I  have  no  doubt 
that  both  of  these  mysteries  ^^dll  in  due  time  become 
equally  obsolete  and  superseded  by  some  other  preter- 
natural manifestation. 

Injuries  to  Man, — The  sum  total  of  the  mischief  in- 
flicted by  the  Mollusca  upon  Man  is  easily  told  and 
reckoned;  and  it  by  no  means  counterbalances  the 
benefit  he  derives  from  them.  At  sea^  the  damage  done 
to  the  woodwork  of  our  piers  by  some  kinds  of  ship- 
Avorm  {Teredo))  as  well  as  by  species  of  an  allied  genus 
[Xylophaga],  is  indeed  not  inconsiderable ;  and,  before 
copper  or  yellow-metal  sheathing  was  used  for  protect- 
ing the  bottoms  of  our  outward-bound  vessels,  these 
marine  scourges  used  to  be  justly  dreaded.  The  noble 
breakwater  at  Plymouth  has  also  suffered^  although  not 
to  any  extent,  from  the  excavations  made  in  its  more 
exposed  parts  by  a  small  bivalve  {Saa:icava  rugosd) ;  and, 
on  some  parts  of  the  coast,  beds  of  clay,  which  served  as 
natural  barriers  to  w^ard  off  the  action  of  tidal  weaves  on 
our  harbours,  have  disappeared  in  consequence  of  Pho- 
lades  having  chosen  to  take  up  their  abode  in  them.  On 
land,  our  molluscan  foes  are  more  troublesome  than 
formidable.  Turnips  and  cabbages  occasionally  suffer 
from  the  partiality  of  slugs  to  such  succulent  food  ;  and 
of  course  we  cannot  help  sympathizing  with  the  gentle 
florist  who  sees  her  pet  carnation  nipped  in  the  bud  and 
ruined,  in  consequence  of  its  having  been  selected  by  a 
hungry  or  dainty  snail  for  its  supper.  But  the  wire- 
worm,  fly,  and  grub  are  far  more  formidable  pests  to  the 
farmer  and  gardener,  and  no  mollusk  has  been  known 
to  attach  itself  parasitically  to  Man  ;  so  that  we  may 
safely  challenge  the  entomologist  in  favour  of  the  com- 
paratively harmless  subjects  of  this  inquiry.  Various 
remedies  have  been  proposed  for  preventing  the  ravages 


IV.l  INTRODUCTION.  Ixxi 

of  slugs  and  snails  in  gardens.  The  application  of  lime 
has  only  -a  temporary  effect ;  and  it  may  do  as  much 
harm  as  good  by  overstimulating  the  chemical  ingredients 
of  some  soils.  An  ingenious  method  has  been  proposed 
for  protecting  flowers  by  surrounding  the  bed  with  cop- 
per and  zinc  wire,  the  former  being  outermost.  The 
wire  should  be  laid  on  the  ground  and  kept  clear  of 
dirt,  or  fixed  in  such  a  way  that  the  snails  and  slugs 
must  crawl  over  it  to  reach  the  flower-bed.  In  attempt- 
ing to  do  this,  they  receive  an  electric  shock,  and  they  find 
the  sensation  so  uncomfortable  or  unusual,  that  they 
never  venture  to  transgress  the  forbidden  boundary.  Pro- 
fessor Wheatstone  assures  me  that  he  has  no  doubt  such 
a  galvanic  battery,  or  "  slug-shocker,^^  would  answer  the 
desired  purpose. 

Study  of  ConcJiology. — As  Wordsworth  nobly  says^ 

"  Know  that  pride. 

Howe'er  disguised  in  its  own  majesty, 

Is  littleness ;  that  he  who  feels  contempt 

For  any  living  tiling,  hath  faculties 

Wliich  he  has  never  used  ;  that  thought  with  him 

Is  in  its  infancy." 

Besides  the  interest  which  belongs  to  the  studv  of  anv 
branch  of  Natural  History  for  its  own  sake,  Conchology 
has  other  claims  on  our  attention  in  consequence  of  its 
important  relation  to  Geology.  The  first  consideration 
leads  us  to  admire  (if  our  limited  sphere  of  mental  vision 
does  not  enable  us  to  fully  comprehend)  the  infinite 
wisdom,  harmony,  and  variety  of  that  wonderful  scheme 
of  creation  which  connects  us  with  all  our  fellow- creatures 
in  one  common  bond  of  sympathy ;  and  it  also  teaches 
us  a  lesson  of  humility,  by  showing  that  all  our  phy- 
sical, and  perhaps  even  our  mental,  faculties  are  shared 
with  us  by  other  animals,  far  indeed  inferior  to  us  in 
organization,  but   equally  enjoying  the   prescient  and 


Ixxii  INTRODUCTION.  [CH. 

beneficent  care  of  Him  through  whom  ^'  we  all  live  and 
move  and  have  our  being."  The  second  consideration 
discloses  to  us  the  ancient  history  of  the  globe  which 
we  inhabit;  and,  by  reason  of  the  durable  nature  of 
molluscous  shells,  which  is  capable  of  resisting  the 
action  of  many  forces  that  destroy  other  organisms,  we 
can  apply  our  knowledge  of  their  living  structure  and 
habits  to  the  elucidation  of  some  of  those  difficult  pro- 
blems which  are  necessarily  involved  in  the  study  of 
Geology.  For  this  reason,  shells  have  been  aptly  called 
the  "  Medals  of  Creation ; "  and  they  are  as  important 
to  this  science  as  coins  are  for  making  us  acquainted 
with  the  history  of  past  nations.  The  advantages  and 
pleasures  of  the  fascinating  pursuit  of  Natural  history 
have  been  so  often  and  so  forcibly  expatiated  upon  by 
popular  writers  on  the  subject,  that  I  can  hardly  hope 
to  add  anything  to  promote  its  interest.  As  a  branch 
of  education,  the  benefit  of  such  studies  is  incalcu- 
lable. They  impart  and  inculcate,  in  the  most  agree- 
able form,  the  faculty  of  sound  reasoning,  the  continual 
exercise  of  memory,  a  love  of  order,  habits  of  observation, 
♦  and,  above  all,  the  necessity  of  truth.  No  one  can  hope 
to  be  a  naturalist  who  is  wanting  in  accuracy.  As  a 
source  of  intellectual  gratification,  no  pursuit  of  any 
other  kind  can  excel  it.  It  is  entitled  to  bear  equal 
rank  with  the  pleasures  of  "  Hope,"  "  Memory,"  "  Ima- 
gination," and  "  Literature,"  all  of  which  have  had  able 
poets  and  writers  to  celebrate  their  praises ;  and,  although 
the  great  orator  of  ancient  days  had  letters  especially  in 
his  view,  his  admirable  remarks  Avill  apply  with  equal 
force  to  the  study  and  love  of  Natural  science.  After 
premising  that  such  pursuits  are  most  worthy  of  the 
dignity  of  a  thinking  being,  as  well  as  most  humanizing 
and  li])eral  in  their  tendency,  he  says,  ^'  Other  mental 


IV.]  INTRODUCTION.  Ixxiii 

occupations  are  not  suited  either  to  every  time,  or  to 
every  age  or  place :  these  studies,  however,  foster  our 
earlier  years  and  impart  pleasure  to  our  declining  ones ; 
they  adorn  our  prosperity,  and  afford  a  refuge  and  solace 
in  adversity ;  they  delight  us  at  home,  but  do  not  hinder 
us  in  the  discharge  of  our  public  duties;  they  are  our 
companions  in  the  evening,  abroad,  and  in  the  country  "^/^ 
We  are,  I  fear,  too  prone  to  indulge  in  a  patriotic 
boast,  that  our  naturalists  are  more  painstaking  and 
numerous  than  those  of  other  nations ;  but,  with  regard 
to  conchology,  I  must  admit  that  we  are  far  excelled  by 
the  French.  Moquin-Tandon  stands  preeminent  in  the 
elucidation  of  the  anatomy,  physiology,  and  habits  of  his 
native  land  and  freshwater  Mollusca ;  and  the  number 
of  his  countrymen  to  whose  works  on  the  subject  of  con- 
chology he  has  refen^ed  in  his  admirable '  Histoire  Natu- 
relle  des  Mollusques  terrestres  et  fluviatiles  de  France ' 
is  no  less  than  168.  Can  we  show  any  work  at  all  equal 
to  his  as  regards  knowledge  or  labour  on  our  own  land 
and  freshwater  Mollusca,  or  one-half  of  the  above  num- 
ber as  British  writers  on  conchology,  from  Lister  to 
the  present  time?  It  is  true  that  the  marine  fauna 
of  France  has  not  been  studied  with  equal  assiduity  and 
success ;  but  our  superiority  in  this  respect  may  be  owing 
to  the  greater  extent  and  variety  of  sea-coast  which  we 
possess,  as  well  as  to  our  habits  as  a  maritime  people, 
evidenced  by  the  fleet  of  yachts  and  pleasure-boats  which 
crowd  many  of  our  harbours.  In  the  thinly  populated 
and  comparatively  isolated  region  of  Scandinavia,  but 
where  opportunities  of  marine  investigation  are  peculiarly 
favourable,  we  find  a  host  of  able  and  zealous  concholo- 
gists  (such  as  Nilsson,  Loven,  Sars,  Hisinger,  Steen- 
strup,  Oersted,  Moller,  Morch,  Asbjornsen,Malm,  Torell, 
*  Cicero,  Or.  pro  Arch.  poet.  (ed.  Anth.)  p.  158. 

d 


Ixxiv  INTRODUCTION.  [CH. 

and  Bergh),  who  are  not  far,  if  at  all,  behind  us  in  the 
race,  and  are  worthy  successors  of  the  great  Linne, 
Miiller,  and  Fabricius.  Nor  are  the  conchologists  in 
Germany,  Italy,  and  other  parts  of  the  European  con- 
tinent few  or  unknown,  as  may  be  seen  by  reference  to 
the  list  of  authors  which  is  appended  to  this  volume. 

Pleasures  and  drawbacks. — In  the  pursuit  of  this  as 
well  as  of  other  branches  of  Natural  History,  not  the 
least  part  of  our  enjoyment  is  derived  from  sympathy 
with  other  naturalists,  or  from  what  may  be,  perhaps 
not  inappropriately,  termed  *^^the  freemasonry  of  the 
craft/^  In  my  occasional  visits  to  the  Continent,  I  have 
invariably  experienced  the  greatest  kindness  from  many 
who  were  only  known  to  me  by  name;  nor  is  such 
good-fellowship  less  hearty  at  home  than  it  is  abroad. 
On  one  occasion  my  hobby  of  snail -hunting  perhaps 
saved  me  from  some  trouble  or  annoyance.  In  the  spring 
of  1850 1  was  travelling  mth  my  wife  through  Lombardy, 
when,  during  a  mid-day  halt  at  Ro\dgo  to  bait  the  horses, 
I  could  not  resist  taking  a  walk  outside  the  barriers, 
accompanied  by  our  courier,  who  had  been  previously 
useful  to  me  in  assisting  to  collect  shells.  At  the  end 
of  an  hour  or  so  we  returned,  but  found  at  the  barrier- 
gate  an  Austrian  official  who  demanded  our  passports. 
This  was  at  first  a  poser,  as  I  had  left  in  the  carriage  at 
Rovigo  the  document  which  was  at  that  time  so  indis- 
pensable for  passing  through  the  North  of  Italy.  All 
explanations  appeared  to  be  unavailing,  when  the  courier 
pulled  out  of  his  pocket  a  collecting-box  full  of  live  snails, 
and  at  once  satisfied  the  smiling  official  by  allowing  this 
proof  of  our  innocence  with  the  remark,  "  Ecco,  Signore, 
i  nostri  passaporti  \" 

The  reminiscences  and  association  of  ideas  arising  out 
of  the  work  of  collection  are  often  very  pleasant,  but 


IV.]  INTRODUCTION.  IxXV 

occasionally  not  unfranglit  with  sadness.  A  specimen 
will  in  after  days  bring  back  to  our  minds  many  an  in- 
cident, which  else  had  been  forgotten,  of  woodland  and 
seaside  rambles,  of  nautical  adventure,  of  excursions  in 
foreign  lands,  and  (above  all)  the  companionship  of  be- 
loved but  lost  friends,  who  have,  alas  !  left  this  fair  world 
and  us.  The  bitter  drop  will  arise  from  the  midst  of 
the  sweet  and  bubbling  spring  of  pleasure,  and  give  us 
pain  even  among  the  encircling  flowers.  It  is  still  the 
same  as  when  Lucretius  wrote — 

" coronse,  serta  parantur ; 

Nequicquam :  quoniam  medio  de  fonte  leporum 
Surgit  amari  aliquid,  quod  in  ipsis  floribus  angat." 

Incidents  of  the  pursuit. — It  is  not  always  easy  to 
enlist  fishermen  in  the  cause  of  science.     Most  of  them 
readily  promise,  but  seldom  keep  their  word ;  and  they 
do  not  seem  to  comprehend  how  any  sensible  person  can 
take  an  interest  in  such  pursuits,  as  they  regard  all  the 
products  of  the  sea,  which  are  not  fish,  as  "  trash."     In 
the  Shetlands,  however,  I  have  received  much  assistance 
from  the  long-line  fishermen,  who  brought  me  all  the 
whelks  (or  "  buckles ")  which  were  caught  sticking  to 
the  bait  on  the  deep-sea  (or  "  haaf ")  fishing-banks ;  and 
they  did  this  regularly  and  for  several  weeks  together. 
M.  Drouet  complained  bitterly  of  the  difficulty  which  he 
experienced   in   inducing   the  native  fishermen  at  the 
Azores  to  bring  him  any  shells,  even  although  he  offered 
to  pay  them  liberally  for  their  trouble.     They  told  him 
they  did  not  choose  to  alter  their  habits ;  and  one  of  them, 
after  seeing  the  French  conchologist  very  busy  collecting 
some  small  land-shells,  said  to  his  muleteer  one  day  in 
confidence,  "  C^est   bien   dommage,    mais   ce  seigneur 
frangais  est  pris  de  la!"  and,  while  saying  this,  he  sig- 
nificantly touched  his  forehead.     How  far  some  persons, 

^2 


Ixxvi  INTRODUCTION.  [CH. 

who  affect  to  consider  themselves  as  more  enlightened 
than  the  poor  fisherman,  may  share  in  his  remark,  I  will 
not  pretend  to  inquire, — although  it  is  by  no  means 
certain  that,  by  their  so  doing,  they  are  not  themselves 
gi'eater  objects  of  pity  than  the  crazy  naturalist. 

A  curious  question  may  be  raised  as  to  the  right  of 
any  person  to  collect  and  appropriate  shells  or  other  ob- 
jects of  Natural  history.  According' to  the  strict  inter- 
pretation of  the  law,  all  trespasses  upon  private  lands 
without  the  consent  of  the  occupier  are  unjustifiable; 
and  it  makes  no  difference  whether  the  trespasser  is  a 
naturalist  in  pursuit  of  his  amusement,  or  whether  he 
is  simply  taking  a  walk  for  the  sake  of  exercise.  For- 
tunately for  scientific  research,  great  forbearance  is 
almost  invariably  shoA\Ti  to  naturalists  by  the  proprietors 
or  occupiers  of  land,  even  although  the  latter  may  take 
no  interest  in  such  pursuits;  and  the  instance  to  the 
contrary,  of  which  the  gifted  Hugh  Miller  complained, 
in  his  "  Cruise  of  the  Betsey,^^  was  probably  owing  to  his 
not  having  exercised  the  common  courtesy  of  requesting, 
from  a  sectarian  opponent,  permission  to  collect  fossils 
on  his  land.  I  could  also  very  well  imagine  that  the 
owner  of  a  "neat  villa^^  might  have  a  decided  objection 
to  his  favourite  fish-pond  being  invaded  by  a  party  of 
conchologists  or  entomologists  armed  with  ladles  or  nets, 
especially  if  they  considered  it  quite  unnecessary  to  go 
through  the  ceremony  of  asking  leave.  In  the  case  of 
manorial  wastes  or  commons,  over  which  the  lord  and 
his  tenants  have  certain  and  well-defined  rights,  not  ex- 
tending to  such  things  as  objects  of  Natural  history,  no 
question  of  this  kind  is  ever  likely  to  arise ;  and  the 
legal  maxim,  "de  minimis  non  curat  lex,^^  would  pro- 
bably apply  to  this  case.  The  majesty  of  the  law  would 
iiot  condescend  to  notice  such  trifles  as  a  few  shells,  in- 


IV.]  INTRODUCTION.  Ixxvii 

sectSj  or  plants.    The  same  rule  would,  in  all  probability, 
hold  good  in  the  case  of  researches  for  Natural-history 
purposes  on  those  parts  of  the  sea- shore  which  lie  be- 
tween high  and  low-water  mark,  and  especially  if  they 
were  made  exclusively  in  the  pursuit  of  science  and  not 
for  commercial  gain.     In  a  seigniory  or  honour,  com- 
prising several  manors,  which  has  an  extensive  frontage 
to  the  sea,  on  the  coast  of  Gower  in  South  Wales,  the 
lord  is  entitled  to  receive  small  annual  sums,  varying 
from  sixpence  to  half- a- crown,  by  way  of  acknowledg- 
ment of  his  rights,  for  the  privilege  of  gathering  cockles, 
mussels,  lobsters,  and  crabs,  as  well  as  ore-weed  or  wrack 
which  is  used  as  manure  in  that  part  of  the  country ; 
and  distinct  licenses  are  granted  for  these  privileges. 
With  respect  to  the  vast  tracts  of  the  sea-bottom  which 
extend  beyond  the  low-water  mark  of  spring  tides,  the 
right  of  the  public  to  explore  them  with  the  dredge  or 
any  other  device  for  scientific  purposes  has  never  yet  been 
questioned.     Even  in  France,  where  the  garde-marine 
have  strict  orders  not  to  allow  any  net  or  similar  imple- 
ment to  be  on  board  of  a  vessel  or  boat  on  that  coast 
when  oysters  are  out  of  season,  I  have  found  no  difficulty 
in  obtaining  the  requisite  permission  to  use  my  dredge,  and 
it  was  granted  readily  and  with  the  utmost  courtesy. 

In  a  commercial  point  of  view,  British  shells  do  not 
fetch  high  prices,  compared  with  what  is  given  by  col- 
lectors for  some  exotic  rarities.  The  late  Dr.  Turton 
stated,  in  his  useful  but  unsystematic  little  book  called 
'  A  Conchological  Dictionary  of  the  British  Islands,^ 
that  a  complete  collection  of  our  native  shells  had 
been  estimated  to  be  worth  its  weight  in  silver.  This 
was  certainly  a  singular  mode  of  valuing  such  property, 
considering  that  many  of  our  minute  shells,  which  are  so 
light  that  hundreds  of  them  would  scarcely  balance  the 


Ixxviii  INTRODUCTION.  [cH. 

smallest  weight  used  by  apothecaries,  are  among  our 
greatest  treasures.  As  is  not  uncommon  in  such  cases, 
beauty  of  form  or  brilliancy  of  colour  does  not  always 
represent  the  same  value  as  rarity  and  the  consequent 
difficulty  of  acquisition.  As  much  as  £S  has  been  given 
for  a  single  specimen  of  Panopma  Norvegicay  which 
would  be  considered  by  all  but  conchologists  as  a  very 
ugly  and  coarse  shell.  Some  of  our  scarcer  kinds  of 
Fusus  also  command  good  prices ;  and  it  is  said  that  the 
magnificent  specimen  of  Buccinum  acuminatum,  which 
once  belonged  to  Lord  Kilcoursie  and  is  now  in  our 
National  Museum,  cost  the  Trustees  (or  rather  the 
country)  no  less  than  £\2.  Mr.  Damon  of  Weymouth, 
as  well  as  Mr.  Rich,  Mr.  Sowerby,  and  Mr.  Wright,  all 
of  Great  Russell  Street,  London,  are  the  principal  dealers 
in  this  line ;  and  a  priced  list  of  British  shells  may  be 
had  of  the  first-named  enterprising  person. 


CHAPTER   V. 

DISTRIBUTION. 

EXTENT. ORIGIN    OF    BRITISH    MOLLUSCA. FOSSILS. GULF- 
STREAM. 

Extent, — It  has  long  been  notorious  that  distinct 
groups  of  MoUusca,  as  well  as  of  other  animals  and  of 
plants,  occupy  more  or  less  extensive  areas  of  the  earth^s 
surface.  This  distribution  is  generally  more  limited  with 
regard  to  terrestrial  kinds  than  to  those  which  have  an 
aquatic  habitat.  The  temperature  of  the  sea  at  certain 
depths  is  constantly  the  same  everywhere,  and  it  does  not 
appear  to  be  affected  by  that  of  the  surface.   One  species 


v.]  INTRODUCTION.  IxXlX 

of  the  marine  Testacea  [Saxicava  arctica  or  rugosa)  is  said 
to  be  almost  "  cosmopolite/^  being  diffused  over  all  seas 
from  Baffin^s  Bay  to  that  which  washes  the  shores  of 
Australia.  It  has  also  a  wide  range  of  habitat  in  the 
same  seas,  extending  from  low-water  mark  down  to  a 
depth  of  100  fathoms  and  upwards.  The  distribution  of 
Terebratula  caputserpentis  is  nearly  as  extensive  in  re- 
spect of  area  and  depth  of  water.  This  is  spread  not 
only  over  all  the  European  seas,  but  also  (although  under 
other  names,  viz.  septentrionalis  and  Japonica)  over  a 
great  part  of  the  North  and  South  Atlantic,  Pacific,  and 
Indian  Oceans.  In  both  of  these  instances  the  variation 
of  form  and  sculpture  is  very  considerable,  being  coinci- 
dent with,  and  probably  caused  by,  the  extent  of  habitat. 
Philine  aperta  is  fomid  in  every  part  of  the  seas  of 
Europe,  as  well  as  in  Simon^s  Bay  at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  and  in  the  Australian  seas.  Saxicava,  Terebra- 
tula, and  Philine  represent  three  different  orders  of  Mol- 
lusca ;  and  I  have  cited  them,  for  that  reason,  as  exam- 
ples of  the  extent  of  what  is  termed  "  geographical  distri- 
bution.^^ The  limits  within  which  some  other  kinds  of 
Mollusca  occur  are'  also  very  wide ;  and  the  Gulf-stream 
transports  to  great  distances  pelagic  or  floating  kinds, 
such  as  Hyalcea,  lanthina,  and  Spirula.  But,  considering 
all  these  to  be  exceptions,  it  may  be  assumed  as  a 
general  rule,  that  there  is  no  specific  conformity  between 
the  marine  products  of  the  temperate  and  tropical 
regions,  especially  between  the  Mollusca  which  inhabit 
that  part  of  the  North  Atlantic  Ocean  which  confines 
the  coasts  of  Europe,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  rest  of 
the  Atlantic  Ocean,  as  well  as  the  Pacific,  Indian,  and 
great  Southern  Oceans,  on  the  other  hand.  No  authen- 
ticated case  has  been  recorded  of  any  marine  West 
Indian  species  having  been  found  living  in  the  European 


IXXX  INTRODUCTION.  [CH. 

seas^  or  vice  versa.  The  most  striking  diflPerence  appears 
to  be  with  respect  to  those  species  called  '^^  littoral/'' 
which  are  more  subject  to  climatal  influence  than  the 
inhabitants  of  deep  "water.  In  the  case  of  freshwater 
shells^  the  same  rule  and  exceptions  seem  to  prevail. 
The  common  pond-snail  {Limn(Ea  peregra)  is  diffused 
over  the  whole  of  Eui'ope,  as  well  as  over  considerable 
tracts  of  North  America  and  Northern  Asia ;  and  it  is 
only  by  calling  them  "  representative  "  species  and  gi^'ing 
them  other  names  that  any  pretence  can  be  made  for 
distinguishing  certain  British  species  of  Limncea,  Physttj 
and  Pisidium  from  those  which  are  brought  from  very 
distant  parts  of  the  world.  This  diffusion  of  freshwater 
shells  has  been  attributed  to  the  chance  transport  by 
birds ;  but  I  am  inclined  to  believe  that  it  had  a  different 
and  very  remote  origin_,  and  that  it  took  place  long  before 
the  present  distribution  of  land  and  water.  Land-shells 
are  much  more  restricted  in  their  range ;  and  with  the 
exception  of  two  minute  species  {Helios  pulchella  and 
Cochlicopa  lubrica),  besides  a  few  other  snails  which 
have  been  introduced^  and  as  it  were  domesticated,  by 
Man,  T  am  not  aware  of  any  kinds  which  are  common 
to  both  hemispheres.  In  Thibet  and  Cashmir,  indeed, 
many  of  the  land-shells  are  said  to  belong  to  the  same 
species  as  inhabit  Great  Britain ;  but  these  are  probably 
the  descendants  of  ancient  immigrants  during  the  Gla- 
cial epoch  from  more  northern  latitudes.  The  mode  by 
which  the  Mollusca  have  become  distributed  throughout 
the  different  and  remote  areas  in  which  they  are  now 
found  living  or  in  a  fossil  state  has  in  all  probability 
been  the  same  from  the  time  of  their  creation.  Their 
natural  tendency  is  to  disperse  either  in  search  of  food 
or  from  a  migratory  instinct ;  and,  although  the  pace 
of  a  snail   is   proverbially  slow,  time  and   the  action 


v.]  INTRODUCTION.  IXXXI 

of  marine  currents  will  effect  for  tlieir  countless  race 
and  generations  that  which  is  denied  to  animals  of 
greater  locomotive  powers  but  of  less  number.  A  small 
tribe  of  gigantic  animals  would  be  far  more  easily  ex- 
terminated than  a  host  of  puny  shell-fish.  When  the 
Mollusca  have,  in  the  course  of  ages,  become  thus  spread 
over  a  certain  space,  their  further  progress  is  arrested 
by  some  geological  convulsion  or  change.  The  land  or 
sea-bed,  which  they  inhabited  or  roamed  over,  is  either 
suddenly  or  gradually  covered  with  water  or  dried  up  ; 
plains  are  raised  and  converted  into  mountains;  trees 
and  succulent  vegetation  disappear;  deserts  become 
swamps,  and  rivers  estuaries ;  the  sea-shore  sinks  many 
fathoms  deep  ;  the  climate  of  the  land  and  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  sea  are  altered ;  and  conditions  unfavourable 
to  molluscan  life  succeed.  By  some  of  these  means 
many  species  are  entirely  destroyed  within  the  area 
which  is  the  scene  of  such  a  convulsion  or  change ; 
others  are  reduced  in  number  and  dwindle  away ;  while 
a  few  of  a  more  hardy  nature  survive  and  continue  to 
flourish.  Frequent  alterations  in  the  relative  level  of 
sea  and  land,  accompanying  the  alternate  elevation  or 
depression  of  more  or  less  extensive  districts,  will  doubt- 
less account  in  a  great  measure  for  the  irregular  distri- 
bution of  some  species  and  groups  of  Mollusca.  But 
shell-fish  do  not  "  retire "  or  "  retreat,"  as  has  been 
conjectured  by  some  naturalists.  Their  instinctive  im- 
pulse is  to  advance  only.  When  aquatic  mollusks  sud- 
denly and  unwillingly  find  themselves  on  dry  land,  or 
snails  are  immersed  in  a  sea-bath  for  a  long  time,  they 
have  no  alternative  but  to  die  at  their  posts  like  brave 
soldiers  ;  while  their  comrades  are  starved  to  death,  owing 
to  the  failure  of  the  commissariat. 
With  respect  to  the  distribution  of  the  marine  Mol- 

c?5 


Ixxxii  INTRODUCTION.  [CH. 

lusca  in  the  European  seas,  many  theories  have  been 
from  time  to  time  advanced,  each  of  which  would  divide 
this  great  area  into  several  distinct  parts,  or  what  are 
called  "provinces/'  Professor  Milne -Edwards,  in  the 
'  Annales  des  Sciences  Naturelles'  for  1838,  proposed 
the  following  division — 1.  Scandinavian,  2.  Celtic,  3. 
Mediterranean.  Mr.  S.  P.  Woodward,  in  his  verv  useful 
little  treatise,  entitled  '  Manual  of  the  Mollusca '  (the 
last  edition  of  which  was  published  in  1856),  considered 
that  there  are  four  provinces,  viz.  1.  Arctic,  2.  Boreal, 
3.  Celtic,  4.  Lusitanian;  and  these,  according  to  this 
writer,  were  "framed  upon  the  widest  possible  basis.'' 
In  a  posthumous  work  of  the  late  Professor  Edward 
Forbes,  which  was  most  ably  continued  and  edited  by 
Mr.  Godwin- Austen  in  1859,  under  the  title  of  '  The 
Natural  History  of  the  European  Seas,'  a  fifth  province 
(the  "Mediterranean")  has  been  added  to  those  above 
enumerated.  The  latter  scheme  of  distribution  has  been 
recently  adopted  by  Mr.  M  ^Andrew  in  the  ^  Annals  of 
Natural  History'  for  December  1861. 

Now,  although  such  a  division  into  "provinces"  or 
separate  areas  of  distribution  is  very  plausible,  and  pos- 
sibly may  be  maintainable  in  the  same  sense  as  the  divi- 
sion of  Mankind  into  distinct  races,  a  definite  principle 
seems  to  be  wanting  in  their  construction.  If  we  com- 
pare any  one  of  these  schemes  with  another,  a  very 
material  discrepancy  is  observable  as  to  the  relative 
limits  of  the  proAdnces.  For  instance  (not  to  travel  far 
from  home),  Milne-Edwards  considered  that  the  Celtic 
province  had  its  southern  boundary  in  the  Straits  of 
Gibraltar ;  Woodward  restricted  the  same  limit  of  this 
province  to  our  own  coasts ;  while  Forbes  advocated  its 
extension  "  from  the  Bay  of  Biscay  to  the  Baltic  Sea." 

The  principle  of  definition,  as  well  as  of  construction. 


v.]  INTRODUCTION.  Ixxxiii 

has  been  also  left  in  an  unsettled  and  unsatisfactory 
state.  Woodward  lays  it  down  as  a  rule,  that,  ^'  in  order 
to  constitute  a  distinct  province,  it  is  considered  neces- 
sary that  at  least  one-half  the  species  should  be  peculiar, 
a  rule  which  applies  equally  to  plants  and  animals/^ 
On  the  other  hand,  M ^Andrew,  after  admitting  that  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  species  of  Mollusca  inhabiting 
any  one  zoological  province  may  be  found  in  other  pro- 
viiices,  says,  "It  is  not  by  a  simple  comparison  of  the 
list  of  species  that  we  can  determine  the  similarity  or 
divergence  of  the  fauna  of  separate  localities,  as  the  differ- 
ence between  them  may  consist  in  a  few  characteristic 
forms,  which  may  be  especially  developed  in  each.^^  This 
wide  divergence  of  opinion  as  to  the  rule  or  "law^'  of 
distribution,  between  two  such  able  and  experienced 
naturalists,  renders  further  inquiry  into  the  facts  of  the 
case  indispensable,  especially  when  it  is  considered  that 
so  many  of  the  "  species  ^^  referred  to  by  Woodward  and 
of  the  "  forms  ^^  (by  which  it  is  presumed  genera  are 
meant)  indicated  by  M 'Andrew  are  questionable  or  still 
sub  judice.  That  genera-makers  may  be  found  who  will 
separate  such  forms  as  Trivia  from  Cyprceaf  Erato  from 
Marginella,  and  Admete  from  Cancellaria,  cannot  be 
helped, — although  most  naturalists  deprecate  and  disavow 
such  trifling  distinctions.  But  until  a  complete  concord- 
ance has  been  established  and  recognized  between  all  the 
forms,  whether  generic  or  specific,  of  the  Mollusca  which 
inhabit  any  one  area,  a  solid  and  reliable  foundation 
cannot  be  obtained  for  erecting  the  superstructure  of 
distribution.  No  conchologist,  whose  mind  is  free  from 
prejudice,  either  as  regards  the  authority  of  names  or  of 
theories  on  the  subject  in  question,  can  detect  any  greater 
difference  between  specimens  of  Mitra  Groenlandica  from 
Spitzbergen  and  Mitra  ebenus  from  Naples,  than  he  can 


Ixxxiv  INTRODUCTION.  [CH. 

between  recent  shells  of  Natica  clausa  from  the  North 
Cape  and  fossil  shells  of  the  same  species  from  Palermo. 
14;  is  an  indisputable  fact  that  whenever  the  Mollusca  of 
any  part  of  the  European  sea-coast  have  been  carefully 
examined,  the  species  which  are  there  found  exhibit  a 
greater  conformity  than  had  been  previously  supposed 
with  the  species  inhabiting  more  remote  parts,  the 
general  area  being  thus  widened  and  every  portion  of  it 
brought  into  closer  relation  to  the  others.  The  former 
test  of  percentage  is  in  that  case  fallacious  and  no  longer 
to  be  depended  upon.  Thus  we  find  that  in  Philippics 
invaluable  work  on  the  Sicilian  Mollusca,  w^hich  was 
completed  in  1844,  513  species  of  marine  Testacea  are 
described.  After  making  a  small  deduction  for  dupli- 
cates [e.  g.  six  out  of  eight  species  oi  Anomia,  and  some 
Rissoce),  about  500  species  may  be  regarded  as  distinct. 
The  treatise  appended  to  the  last  volume  of  that  work 
contains  a  table  of  comparison  between  the  Mollusca  of 
the  Mediterranean  and  those  of  the  British  seas ;  and 
in  this  table  127  out  of  the  above  number  of  500  are  set 
down  as  belonging  to  our  fauna.  This  gives  a  rate  of 
only  about  25  per  cent.  The  result  of  my  own  exami- 
nation of  the  marine  Testacea  of  another  part  of  the 
Mediterranean  *  is  very  different  from  that  of  Philippi — 
especially  when  it  is  taken  into  account  that  my  exami- 
nation only  occupied  three  or  four  weeks,  while  Philippi 
was  engaged  for  many  years  in  a  continuous  investiga- 
tion. The  total  number  of  species  which  I  found  or  ex- 
amined on  the  Piedmontese  coast  in  1855  was  375 ;  and 
of  this  number  I  identified  no  less  than  205  as  British. 
This  gives  a  rate  of  nearly  55  per  cent. ;   and  taking 

*  "  On  the  Marine  Testacea  of  the  Piedmontese  Coast,"  Ann.  &  Mag. 
N.H.,  February  1S56,  p.  155-188.  An  Italian  translation  by  Professor 
Capellini  has  been  published  at  Genoa. 


v.]  INTRODUCTION.  IxXXV 

Philippics  number  of  500  as  the  standard  of  comparison 
it  is  41  per  cent.,  after  making  some  allowance  on  the 
one  hand  for  species  unnoticed  by  Philippi  but  included 
in  my  list,  and  on  the  other  hand  for  species  described 
by  him  but  not  observed  by  me,  although  many  of  the 
latter  are  unquestionably  British.  The  discrepancy  in 
these  results  is  the  more  remarkable  when  it  is  con- 
sidered that  only  twelve  years  elapsed  between  the  pub- 
lication by  Philippi  and  myself  of  our  respective  re- 
searches. When  the  number  and  extent  of  similar  in- 
vestigations  have  been  increased,  and  sufficient  attention 
has  been  paid  to  the  discrimination  of  species,  in  order 
to  their  identification  with  the  names  imposed  upon 
them  by  different  authors,  it  is  highly  probable  that  a 
still  further  correspondence  will  be  found  to  exist  between 
the  Testacea  of  the  Mediterranean  and  British  seas  than 
has  been  imperfectly  indicated  by  me.  One  great  diffi- 
culty in  making  such  a  concordance  has  arisen  from  the 
habit  of  merely  collating  the  names  given  by  authors,  in- 
stead of  examining  and  comparing  the  specimens  described 
by  them ;  and  I  believe  that  many  an  unsuspected  link 
in  the  chain  of  specific  identity  would  be  detected  by 
pursuing  the  latter  com'se  of  investigation.  It  was  only 
by  mere  accident,  while  I  was  lately  looking  over  the 
excellent  collections  of  French  sea-shells  belonging  to 
M.  Petit  de  la  Saussaye  at  Paris  and  to  Dr.  Baudon 
at  Mouy,  that  I  recognized,  among  some  specimens 
which  they  had  received  from  M.  Martin  of  Martigues, 
and  which  he  had  procured  by  dredging  in  a  deep  part 
of  the  Mediterranean  off  the  coast  of  Provence,  not  only 
the  Buccinum  Humphrey sianum  of  our  northern  sea 
(under  the  name  of  B.  Fusiforme,  Kiener),  but  also  the 
Rissoa  abyssicola  of  Forbes,  which  had  hitherto  been 
supposed  to  be  exclusively  confined  to  the  Hebridean 


Ixxxvi  INTRODUCTION.  [CH. 

channel.  This  last  was  called  "  Rissoa  scabra/'  although 
it  was  not  the  species  so  named  and  described  by  Philippi. 
Bulla  Cranchii  and  other  "northern  "  forms  also  occurred 
among  these  Mediterranean  shells,  but  under  names 
distinct  from  those  which  British  conchologists  have 
given  to  them.  If  we  can  divest  our  minds  of  the  popular 
or  received  impression,  that  the  diversity  between  species 
which  inhabit  the  extreme  northern  and  southern  por- 
tions of  the  European  seas  is  both  general  and  well- 
marked,  we  shall  not  be  surprised  at  the  discovery  that 
many  species  of  Mollusca  which  at  present  bear  different 
names  (such  as  Mitra  Grcenlandica  and  M.  ebenus)  are 
really  the  same  or  undistinguishable  from  each  other,  or 
that  even  the  Astarte  incrassata  of  the  Mediterranean  is 
only  a  variety  of  that  polymorphous  and  northern  species, 
A.  sulcata. 

The  testaceous  Mollusca  of  our  own  seas  have  been 
separated  by  Forbes  and  Hanley  into  no  less  than  nine 
different  types — viz.  Lusitanian,  South  British,  Euro- 
pean, Celtic,  British,  Atlantic,  Oceanic,  Boreal,  and 
Arctic.  The  limits  of  these  so-called  types  have  not 
been  defined  mth  any  degree  of  precision ;  and,  although 
the  proposed  division  is  highly  ingenious,  it  can  scarcely 
be  considered  as  justified  by  the  present  state  of  our 
information  on  the  subject.  It  seems  to  me,  after  a 
long  and  careful  study  of  the  question,  that  no  more 
than  tw^o  groups  (which  are  apparently  distinct  from 
each  other)  can  be  recognized  in  a  geographical  point 
of  view ;  and  for  these  I  would  suggest  the  general,  but 
not  inappropriate,  names  of  "Northern"  or  North- 
European,  and  "  Southern  "  or  South-European.  It  is 
extremely  difl&cult  to  fix  the  limits  of  even  these  com- 
paratively wide  areas  of  distribution ;  but  the  "  facies  " 
of  each  group  is  manifest  to  some  extent  in  the  lit- 


v.]  INTRODUCTION.  IxXXvii 

toral  or  shallow-water  species,  and  especially  in  sucli 
conspicuous  and  striking  forms  as  those  of  Trichotro- 
pis  and  Neara  in  our  northern  seas  and  Haliotis  and 
Galeomma  on  our  southern  coast.  Taking  the  wider 
basis  of  the  European  seas,  I  am  not  aware  that  any 
species  of  Conus  or  Ringicula  is  found  living  in  the 
North,  or  that  any  species  of  Margarita  or  Lacuna  in- 
habits the  South.  It  is,  however,  not  unlikely  that  when 
the  sphere  of  our  observation  has  been  enlarged,  and 
a  complete  concordance  obtained  between  the  species  of 
Testacea  from  different  parts  of  Europe,  the  exceptions 
from  a  general  distribution  will  become  fewer  and  at 
last  disappear,  and  perhaps  that  only  one  common  area 
may  be  hereafter  recognized.  The  distribution  which  at 
present  exists  must  be  referred  to  a  past  state  of  things. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  area  of  diffusion  was 
formerly  much  more  extensive  than  it  is  at  present,  and 
that  it  has  been  restricted  by  subsequent  causes. 

Keverting,  however,  to  the  proposed  scheme  of  distri- 
bution by  Forbes  and  Hanley,  as  well  as  to  the  sugges- 
tion now  advanced  by  me,  our  marine  Testacea  may  be 
classed  as  follows  : — - 

1.  Northern; 

2.  Southern; 

3.  Oceanic,  or  occasional  visitants. 

The  first  of  these  divisions  corresponds  with  the  '^^Arctic^^ 
and  "BoreaP^  types  of  Forbes  and  Hanley,  and  the 
second  to  their  '^  Atlantic  "  and  "  Lusitanian  ^'  types. 
Their  "South  British,"  "European,"  "Celtic,"  and 
"  British  "  types  indicate  mixed  or  neutral  ground,  and 
partake  both  of  northern  and  southern  characters.  The 
third  division  answers  to  their  "  oceanic  "  type,"  but  it 
can  hardly  be  regarded  as  indigenous  to  the  British 
seas. 


IxXXviii  INTRODUCTION.  [CH. 

The  same  basis  of  classification  may  be  adopted  for  our 
land  and  freshwater  shells.  These  have  been  separated 
by  Forbes  and  Hanley  into  only  three  types,  viz.  North 
European,  Central  European,  and  South  European.  The 
third  division  of  the  foregoing  category  (viz.  Oceanic)  is 
of  course  inapplicable  to  this  group ;  but  in  other  re- 
spects the  principles  which  regulate  their  distribution 
are  nearly  the  same  as  in  the  case  of  their  marine  ana- 
logues. The  difference  of  aspect  between  these  and 
marine  species,  so  far  as  regards  their  distribution,  is  very 
noticeable,  although,  in  this  point  of  view,  many  of  the 
land  and  freshwater  shells  exhibit  a  greater  resem- 
blance to  littoral  species  than  to  those  which  inhabit 
deeper  water,  by  reason  of  their  external  conditions. 
Temperature  or  climate  is  one  of  the  principal  agents 
in  regulating  the  diffusion  of  land  and  freshwater  Mol- 
lusca ;  and  their  limits  are  often  sharply  defined  by  a 
strait  of  the  sea  or  a  mountain-range.  Some  conspi- 
cuous land-shells  (as  Helix  fruticum  and  H.  incarnata) 
live  in  the  North  of  France,  although  they  have  never 
been  found  in  this  country  unless  in  a  subfossil  state 
and  as  the  relics  of  a  past  state  of  things.  Some  of  our 
common  snails  do  not  pass  the  Grampian  Hills.  In 
Zetland  the  Helix  aspersa  is  a  total  stranger,  fortunately 
for  the  poor  gardens  of  the  natives ;  and  only  a  scanty 
remnant  of  the  tribe  have  succeeded  in  crossing  the 
Pentland  Firth  or  maintaining  their  existence  in  these 
barren  isles.  Freshwater  shells  are  not  so  restricted  in 
their  distribution,  although  one  of  our  native  species 
(Limncea  involutd)  has  hitherto  been  discovered  in  only 
one  locality — assuming  that  this  species  is  distinct  from 
L.  glutinosa,  which  does  not  appear  to  have  been  found 
in  the  same  district.  A  table  of  distribution  of  the 
land  and  freshwater  shells  which   inhabit  the  British 


v.]  '  INTRODUCTION.  Ixxxix 

Isles,  with  reference  to  other  countries  and  to  our  upper 
tertiary  deposits,  will  be  subjoined  to  this  volume;  and 
I  propose  to  give  in  the  succeeding  volumes  similar 
tables  to  show  also  the  distribution  of  our  marine 
Testacea. 

Origin  of  British  Mollusca. — As  regards  the  ''  history" 
or  proximate  origin  of  the  British  Mollusca,  I  fully  agree 
with  Forbes  and  Hanley,  w4io  stated  in  the  Introduction 
to  their  work  (vol.  i.  p.  xxxv),  that  "  the  true  source  of 
our  Molluscan  fauna  was  first  manifested  by  the  assem- 
blage of  Testacea  preserved  in  the  deposit  called  Coralline 
Crag,"  although  my  investigation  of  the  Crag  shells  has 
not  led  me  to  form  the  same  conclusion  that  they  did, 
viz.  that  most  of  these  ancestors  of  our  living  shell-fish 
are  "  of  those  forms  which  we  regard  as  Southern  types." 
The  opportunities  afforded  by  a  study  of  the  Crag  strata 
are  far  superior  to  any,  that  we  at  present  possess,  for  the 
investigation  of  our  marine  Mollusca.  We  can  explore 
the  ancient  sea-bottom  for  many  miles  on  dry  land,  and 
as  leisurely  as  if  the  bed  of  the  present  ocean  were  un- 
covered and  laid  dry  by  some  violent  convulsion  of 
nature ;  and  this  examination  can  be  extended  not  only 
superficially,  but  also  by  making  sections  of  the  bed  to 
a  depth  of  thirty  feet,  so  as  to  have  the  whole  of  its  con- 
tents exposed  to  view.  In  attempting  a  similar  explora- 
tion of  the  present  sea-bottom,  we  are  only  able,  at  con- 
siderable expense,  with  some  personal  discomfort,  and 
in  such  weather  as  we  too  frequently  meet  with  in  this 
climate,  to  scrape  up  with  the  dredge  a  few  bagfuls  of 
sand  or  mud  mixed  with  shells ;  nor  can  we  hope  to 
examine  in  this  way  more  than  a  very  few  inches  in 
depth.  Many  deep-burrowing  shell-fish  altogether  escape 
our  observation,  or  are  only  procured  by  chance. 

In  order  to  ascertain  the  exact  nature  of  the  relations 


XC  INTRODUCTION.  [CH. 

which  exist  between  this  ancient  Molluscan  fauna  and 
that  which  at  present  inhabits  our  seas  and  coasts^  I  have 
not  only  examined  the  Crag  strata  in  company  with 
Mr.Prestwich^  whose  experience  in  this  important  branch 
of  geological  science  is  so  w  ell  known,  but  I  have  also 
carefully  gone  over  the  extensive  collection  of  Crag  shells 
made  by  Mr.  Searles  Wood  and  presented  by  him  to 
the  British  Museum.  In  pursuing  the  latter  examina- 
tion, I  compared  the  collection  with  the  valuable  and 
elaborate  work  of  Mr.  Wood,  published  by  the  Palseon- 
tographical  Society,  in  which  the  specimens  were  de- 
scribed and  figured,  as  well  as  with  Mr.  Davidson's 
memoir  on  the  Tertiary  Brachiopoda  in  the  same  series 
of  publications ;  and  I  afterwards  collated  the  result  of 
this  examination  with  a  great  many  books  and  special 
treatises  on  the  recent  conchology  of  Europe  and  the 
Arctic  regions.  I  likewise  derived  no  small  assistance 
in  the  investigation  from  the  opportunity  I  had  of 
consulting  the  large  collection  of  recent  shells  in  our 
National  Museum,  and  for  which  I  would  here  return 
my  best  thanks  to  Dr.  Baird,  the  courteous  and  able 
Curator  of  this  department.  This  examination  has  satis- 
fied me  that,  out  of  386  species  of  marine  shells  belong- 
ing to  the  Coralline  Crag  formation,  no  less  than  167  are 
identical  with  those  which  still  live  in  the  British  seas. 
Of  the  remaining  119  species,  7  are  said  to  be  exclusively 
Northern,  and  19  Southern  forms,  while  93  appear  to 
be  extinct  or  are  as  yet  unascertained  to  be  existing. 
This  gives  a  proportion  of  very  nearly  60  per  cent,  for 
those  marine  species  of  the  Coralline  Crag  which  at  pre- 
sent inhabit  our  seas.  Out  of  the  167  species  which  I 
have  recognized  as  British,  27  have  been  described  or 
recorded  by  different  authors  as  Northern,  and  only  24 
as  Southern  forms, — taking   the  Arctic  circle  as  the 


v.]  INTRODUCTION.  XCi 

southern  limit  of  the  one^  and  the  Bay  of  Biscay  as  the 
northern  limit  of  the  other  area.     The  greater  part  are 
common  to  the  North  and  South.     In  considering  the 
Crag  Mollusca^  the  percentage  of  existing  or  recent  spe- 
cies would  be  very  much  larger  if  we  were  to  include 
the  Bed  Crag  and  the  Mammaliferous  or  Norwich  beds, 
and  especially  if  we  were  to  add  the  pleistocene  or  post- 
pliocene  strata  which  immediately  overlie  those  beds — 
in  fact  the  whole  of  our  upper  tertiaries.     It  is  highly 
probable  that  all  the  Mollusca  which  lived  during  the 
periods  represented  by  the  newer  strata  still  survive  in 
some  part  or  other  of  those  vast  tracts  of  sea-bed  which 
lie  between  the  North  Pole  and  the  Pillars  of  Hercules. 
The  discovery  which  is  continually  being  made  of  missing 
links,  as  well  as  the  increase  of  experience  which  results 
from  a  more  extensive  and  perfect  knowledge  of  the  Mol- 
lusca, must  tend  to  alter  the  rate  of  percentage  as  between 
recent  and  fossil  forms.     I  am  aware  that  the  late  Pro- 
fessor D^Orbigny  (in  his  ^  Paleontologie  Fran9aise^),  Pro- 
fessor Agassiz  (in  his  ^  Essay  on  Classification^),  as  well 
as  Hall,  Pictet,  and  others,  have  contended  that  there 
is  no  specific  identity  between  any  of  the  Tertiary  and 
recent  Mollusca ;  but  the  peculiar  views  which  some  of 
those  naturalists  entertained  and  advocated,  as  to  the 
successive  creation  of  species,  may  have  influenced  their 
judgment.     At  all  events,  he  must  be  a  bold  species- 
maker  who  can  pretend  to  distinguish  Crag  specimens  of 
the  common  European  cowry,  and  of  many  other  species, 
from  those  which  now  live  in  the  adjacent  seas ;  and  their 
varieties  and  monstrosities  also,  both  in  a  fossil  and  recent 
state,  coincide  in  the  most  minute  particulars,  the  only 
difierence  being  that  the  latter  are  glossy  and  compara- 
tively transparent,  while  the  former  are  dull  and  opaque. 
Even  the  lAngula  of  the  Wenlock  Silurians  could  not  be 


Xcii  INTRODUCTION.  [CH. 

distinguished  by  Mr.  DaAddson  (who  has  especially  and  so 
thoroughly  studied  the  fossil  Brachiopoda)  from  a  living 
species  (L.  anatina)  by  any  characters  which  he  could 
recognize  as  constituting  a  valid  specific  difference. 

These  considerations^  however,  involve  the  difficult 
question  of  the  origin  of  species ;  and  I  will  not  pursue 
them  further,  except  by  suggesting  the  very  great  proba- 
bility that  all  existing  species  have  descended  by  modi- 
fication from  primeval  forms,  but  at  the  same  time  not 
admitting  the  hypothesis  of  Mr.  Darwin  that  such  forms 
were  very  few  or  perhaps  unique.  In  those  strata  which 
contain  our  earliest  records  of  the  world^s  history,  as 
great  a  diversity  of  form  is  exhibited  in  the  groups  which 
we  call  genera  and  species  as  in  the  existing  fauna ;  and 
it  seems  evident  that  the  plan  of  the  Creator,  so  far  as 
we  can  comprehend  it,  has  not  been  that  of  progressive 
development. 

Nor  will  I  here  venture  to  touch  upon  the  equally 
abstruse,  and  more  speculative,  hypothesis  as  to  the 
radiation  of  species  from  several  centres  of  creation. 

But  I  am  digressing.  For  the  reasons  above  stated 
with  regard  to  the  connexion  between  the  Coralline 
Crag  and  British  shells,  I  am  inclined  to  regard  this 
formation  as  the  starting-point,  and  as  it  were  the 
cradle  of  our  moUuscan  race.  The  fauna  of  Europe, 
Northern  Asia,  the  Cis- Atlantic  zone  of  Africa,  and  a 
great  part  of  North  America  appears  to  have  been 
closely  related  at  a  comparatively  recent  epoch,  and 
to  constitute  only  one  area  of  origin.  Many  species  of 
Mollusca  once  existed  at  both  extremities  of  this  vast 
district.  Mya  truncata,  Cyprina  Islandica,  and  Bucci- 
num  undatum  live  in  the  Arctic  and  North  Atlantic  as 
well  as  in  our  own  seas,  and  their  remains  or  shells 
are  found  in  Sicily.     Cancellaria  costellifera  occurs  in 


v.]  INTRODUCTION.  XCiii 

our  Coralline  Crag  beds ;  and  it  survives  in  the  North 
Atlantic  under  the  name  of  C.  Couthouyi.  The  Cardita 
senilis  of  the  same  beds  is  the  C.  sulcata  of  the  Medi- 
terranean; and  the  Crag  C.  scalaris  is  the  C.  borealis 
of  Conrad  and  inhabits  the  coast  of  Massachusetts  and 
the  Arctic  Sea.  Many  other  instances  of  a  similar  kind 
might  be  given.  Some  species  appear  to  be  more  hardy 
than  others  and  have  consequently  resisted  considerable, 
and  perhaps  frequent,  changes  of  temperature  or  climate. 
Littoral  or  shallow- water  species  are  of  course  the  most 
liable  to  be  exterminated  or  affected  by  such  changes, 
and  the  instances  above  given  are  of  that  kind.  Many 
of  the  Thibetan  and  Algerian  land-shells  belong  to 
European  species ;  and  thus  the  chain  of  relationship  to 
which  I  have  referred  is  complete. 

Our  upper  Tertiary  fossils  offer  tolerable  evidence  that 
the  climate  of  this  country  was,  previously  to  or  at  the 
time  of  their  being  deposited,  of  a  Glacial  or  Arctic 
character,  as  will  be  seen  by  referring  to  the  table  of 
distribution  of  our  land  and  freshwater  MoUusca  at  the 
end  of  this  volume.  Nearly  all  the  land-shells  which 
occur  in  the  pleistocene  strata,  but  are  not  now  living 
in  Great  Britain  [e.  g.  Helix  fruticum,  H.  incarnata,  and 
H.  ruder ata) ,  are  decidedly  Northern  species,  inhabiting 
Finland  and  Scandinavia ;  and  even  the  Alpine  variety 
of  H,  arbustorum  appears  to  be  the  only  form  of  that 
species  which  has  been  found  in  our  Tertiaries.  Among 
the  freshwater  shells  in  this  same  formation,  Corbicula 
(or  Cyrena)  flwninalis  presents,  however,  an  apparent 
but  remarkable  exception  from  the  above  indication  of 
our  ancient  climate  having  been  so  severe,  if  the  habits 
of  that  species  have  not  undergone  any  change.  The 
Corbicula  is  only  known  to  live  at  present  in  Asia.  But 
it  may  be  observed  that  a  common  European  freshwater 


XCiv  INTRODUCTION.  [CH. 

shell  [Physa  acuta)  inhabits  the  West  Indies^  and  that 
such  MoUusca  seem  to  have  a  greater  aptitude  for  dif- 
fusion, or  a  greater  capability  of  endui'ing  different 
climates,  than  land  Mollusca,  being  (as  some  naturalists 
would  call  it)  more  "  mundane/^ 

Fossils. — It  is  sometimes  very  dif&cult,  if  not  impos- 
sible, to  distinguish  what  are  called  "fossil"  from  "re- 
cent "  shells  of  marine  species,  if  they  are  "  dead "  or 
found  in  an  empty  state.     When  the  shells  in  question 
belong  to  species  which  are  not  known  to  inhabit  the 
locality  where  they  occur,  this  difficulty  may  give  rise  to 
some  interesting  questions.     In  most  cases,  the  nature 
of  these  shells  is  manifest  from  their  dull  appearance 
and  greater  opacity,  contrasted  with  fresh  shells  of  the 
same  species ;  and  it  does  not  require  much  experience 
to  determine  whether  single  valves  of  Pecten  Islandicus, 
which  are  not  unfrequently  taken  at  comparatively  great 
depths  in  our  northern  seas,  are  fossil  or  recent,  although 
they  occasionally  retain  their  coloured  markings.     This 
species  is  abundant  in  the  Arctic  regions,  and  during 
the  Glacial  epoch  appears  to  have  been  diffused  over  a 
large  tract  of  the  European  sea-bed;   but  I  am  not 
aware  that  it  is  now  found  in  a  living  state  south  of  the 
Bohuslan  district  of  the  Swedish  coast.     But  a  perplex- 
ing case  has  occurred  with  respect  to  some  shells  which 
were  taken  by  the  dredge  in  the  Irish  Sea  off  the  coast 
of  Antrim.     The  locality  is  a  submarine  deposit  called 
the  "Turbot  bank,"  lying  about  five  miles   south  of 
Lame  and  having  a  depth  of  about  20  fathoms  at  low 
water.    This  bank  was  repeatedly  and  diligently  explored 
during   several   successive   years   by  Mr.  Waller,  Mr. 
Hyndman,  and  other  naturalists ;  and  I  had  the  advan- 
tage of  not  only  examining  the  produce  of  their  labours, 
but  of  taking  part  in  an  expedition  which  was  made  in  the 


v.]  INTRODUCTION.  -  XCV 

autumn  of  1859  for  the  express  purpose  of  endeavouring 
to  ascertain  the  nature  of  this  submarine  deposit.  The 
result  of  these  researches  was  recorded  by  Mr.  Hyndman 
in  the  '  Reports  of  the  British  Association^  for  1857  and 
1858;  and  some  observations  on  the  same  subject  by 
Mr.  Waller  wiU  be  found  in  the  '  Journal  of  the  Royal 
Dublin  Society^  for  1858  (vol.  ii.  p.  29-34),  as  well  as  by 
myself  in  the  '  Annals  and  Magazine  of  Natural  History^ 
for  August  1858  and  February  and  September  1859.  The 
association  or  collection  in  the  same  spot  of  forms  which 
have  been  usually  regarded  as  Northern  and  Southern  is 
one  of  the  most  peculiar  features  of  this  inquiry.  Colum- 
bella  Holbollii,  Scalaria  (?)  Eschrichti,  Natica  clausa, 
Margarita  cinereaj  and  Trophon  Scalariformis  (all  of 
which  are  decidedly  ^' Arctic  ^^  species),  Crania  anomala, 
Trichotropis  borealis,  and  Puncturella  Noachina  (which 
were  regarded  by  Forbes  and  Hanley  as  "  boreal  '^  types), 
Terebratula  caputserpentis,  Lima  subauriculata,  and  Fis- 
surella  reticulata  (being,  according  to  the  same  authors, 
''^  Atlantic  ^^),  Argiope  cistellula,  Trochus  Montagui,  and 
Pecten  tigrinus  C^*^  British  ^^),  Astarte  sulcata,  Buccinum 
undatum,  and  Venus  Casina  ("  Celtic  "),  Artemis  lincta, 
Corbula  nucleus,  and  Trochus  cinerarius  {"  European  ^^), 
together  with  Rissoa  striatula  ("Lusitanian^^),  aU  of 
them  in  the  same  fresh  and  apparently  recent  condition 
and  (with  the  exception  of  those  included  in  the  first  and 
last  categories)  in  a  living  state,  were  congregated  to- 
gether in  this  locality,  as  if  on  purpose  to  refute  certain 
theories  of  geographical  distribution.  With  respect  to 
those  species  which  were  not  taken  there  in  a  living 
state,  it  was  surmised  that  they  were  fossil,  or  had  been 
carried  to  the  spot  by  marine  currents.  Some  of  the 
specimens  in  question  I  submitted  to  Dr.  Carpenter, 
whose  researches  on  the  microscopical  structure  of  mol- 


XCvi  INTRODUCTION.  [CH. 

luscous  shells  entitle  his  opinion  to  the  greatest  possible 
weight ;  and  he  professed  that  he  was  unable  to  detect 
any  apparent  difference  between  the  texture  of  these 
specimens  and  of  others  (which  were  unquestionably 
recent)  belonging  to  the  same  species  and  placed  with 
them  for  the  sake  of  comparison.  No  chemical  or  other 
test  seems  to  be  known,  by  which  the  texture  of  shells 
called  fossil,  and  certainly  of  very  remote  antiquity,  can 
be  distinguished  from  that  of  recent  shells.  The  gloss 
and  the  greater  or  less  transparency  of  the  latter,  con- 
trasted with  the  dull  aspect  and  opacity  of  the  former, 
afford  the  only  criteria  of  distinction;  but  it  is  not 
known  how  far  the  continued  submersion  of  shells  for 
many  ages  in  the  sea,  where  they  are  placed  beyond  the 
reach  of  atmospheric  influence,  may  have  prevented  any 
change  in  their  external  appearance.  The  shells  of  Mol- 
lusca  would  seem  to  be  nearly  indestructible  by  the 
ordinary  action  of  air  and  water,  and  especially  when 
their  structure  is  crystalline  and  compact.  The  term 
'^  recent  '^  is,  of  course,  comparative  in  point  of  time.  But 
a  few  of  the  shells  from  the  Turbot  bank,  belonging  as 
well  to  some  of  the  species  in  question  as  to  other  species 
which  are  undoubtedly  indigenous  and  exist  there  in  a 
living  state,  have  every  sign  of  being  fossil,  and  are  pre- 
cisely similar  in  appearance  to  the  shells  which  are  found 
in  the  Clyde  and  other  beds  of  a  pleistocene  formation. 
Some  of  these  beds  occur  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
Turbot  bank,  and  contain  Yoldia  lanceolata,  Leda  pyg- 
mcea,  Hypothyris  jjsittacea,  and  other  shells  of  a  decidedly 
Arctic  character ;  but  only  one  of  these  species  (viz.  Leda 
pygnKBO)  has  been  observed  in  the  Turbot- bank  dredgings, 
and  of  this  species  Mr.  Waller  found  a  living  specimen. 
Columbella  Holbollii,  Scalaria  (?)  Eschrichti,  and  Mar- 
garita cinerea  (being  three  out  of  the  five  Arctic  species 


v.]  INTRODUCTION.  XCVll 

which  have  been  taken  on  the  bank)  have  not^  so  far  as 
I  am  aware,  ever  been  detected  in  any  of  our  Tertiary 
strata.  The  two  other  Arctic  species  (Nalica  clausa 
and  Trophon  Scalay^iformis)  inhabit  the  upper  coasts  of 
Norway,  as  well  as  more  northern  seas.  The  first-named 
species  has  a  range,  according  to  M ^Andrew  and  Barrett, 
from  the  shore  to  150  fathoms.  It  occurs  in  the  Eed 
Crag,  as  well  as  in  almost  every  pleistocene  bed  which 
has  been  examined  in  this  country ;  and  I  noticed  it  in 
the  collection  of  Dr.  Van  Geuns  at  Utrecht,  among  some 
shells  which  he  had  found  in  the  Subapennine  deposit 
of  Palermo.  This  species  is  not  included  in  Philippi's 
list  of  Sicilian  fossils.  The  distribution  of  the  other 
species  appears  to  have  been  equally  extensive;  and  I 
have  a  fresh  specimen,  recently  inhabited  by  a  hermit 
crab,  which  was  dredged  fr-om  deep  water  oflP  the  Aber- 
deen coast  and  obligingly  presented  to  me  by  the  late 
Professor  Macgillivray.  It  is  quite  possible  that  a  plei- 
stocene bed  may  have  formerly  existed  in  the  spot  which 
is  now  occupied  by  the  Tui-bot  bank,  and  that  the  con- 
tents of  this  bed  may,  by  the  action  of  the  tide  or  marine 
currents,  have  become  mixed  up  with  the  existing  pro- 
ducts of  the  adjacent  sea-bed ;  and  the  appearance  of 
some  of  the  shells  to  which  I  have  refen^ed  might 
warrant  such  a  conclusion.  But,  inasmuch  as  many 
relics  of  the  Glacial  epoch,  such  as  Leda  pygmaa  and 
Area  raridentata,  still  survive  in  a  few  and  widely  sepa- 
rated parts  of  that  extensive  area  which  was  once  sub- 
ject to  Arctic  conditions,  it  will  not  be  surprising  if  all 
the  species  I  have  thus  mentioned  as  doubtful  inha- 
bitants of  our  seas  should  also  have  lingered  on  in  their 
old  quarters  and  be  really  British.  The  conjecture  that 
these  shells  may  have  been  accidentally  transported  by 
sul^marine  currents  from  the  Arctic  Sea  to  the  Irish 


XCviii  INTRODUCTION.  [CH. 

coast  does  not  rest  upon  any  foundation.  I  was  satisfied, 
by  information  which  I  obtained  on  the  spot  and  in  the 
course  of  my  di'edging-operations,  that  no  submarine 
cun'ent  sets  in  that  direction,  nor  any  which  could  have 
brought  the  shells  from  a  distance ;  and  the  same  con- 
viction is  entertained  l)y  tlie  able  and  zealous  naturalists 
who  have  so  carefully  and  during  several  years  in  suc- 
cession explored  many  square  leagues  of  this  remarkable 
sea-bed. 

Gulf -stream. — This  "  deus  ex  machina"  seems  al- 
ways to  be  called  into  requisition,  in  order  to  explain 
any  apparent  anomaly  in  the  distribution  of  marine 
Mollusca.  In  the  minds  of  many  persons  it  ranks  with 
the  comet  in  its  mysterious  effects.  It  is  quite  true  that 
the  scientific  world,  and  indeed  all  who  take  any  interest 
in  the  works  of  Nature,  are  under  the  greatest  obliga- 
tions to  Commodore  Maury  for  the  lucid  account  he 
has  given,  in  his  ^  Physical  Geography  of  the  Sea,^  of 
this  really  wonderful  phenomenon.  But  with  regard  to 
the  subject  of  the  present  inquiry,  I  cannot  help  express- 
ing a  doubt  whether  the  effects  of  this  great  ''  river  in 
the  ocean ''  have  not  been  much  overrated. 

The  partial  glimpse  which  we  have  hitherto  been  able 
to  obtain  of  the  results  from  the  recent  expedition  of 
Otto  Torell  and  other  Swedish  naturalists  to  Spitz- 
bergen  shows  that  the  Gulf-stream  was  found  not  to 
exert  any  influence  on  animal  life  in  that  region,  it  ap- 
pearing to  be  entirely  of  a  glacial  nature  *.  From  careful 
inquiries  which  I  made  in  several  parts  of  the  eastern 
coast  of  Zetland  last  year,  I  was  satisfied  that  the  Gulf- 

*  While  tliis  last  sheet  is  passing  through  the  press  (22  May,  18G2), 
Professor  Forchhamraer  has  read  before  the  Royal  Society  a  valuable  paper 
on  the  composition  and  density  of  sea-water.  His  observations  as  to  the 
Gulf-stream  tend  to  sliow  that  it  cannot  affect  the  distribution  of  animal 
life  in  the  lower  zones  of  the  sea. 


VI.]  INTRODUCTION. 


XCIX 


stream  does  not  set  upon  any  part  of  that  coast.  All 
the  driftwood  that  was  washed  ashore  was  of  Norway 
fir,  and  came  from  the  opposite  coast.  Dr.  Lukis  in- 
forms me  that  the  Gulf- stream  has  now  been  ascer- 
tained not  to  impinge  on  any  part  of  the  Channel  Isles, 
although  the  Sargasso  weed  and  the  seeds  of  tropical 
plants  are  occasionally  thrown  up  on  those  shores,  after 
having  been  deflected  and  drifted  by  marine  currents. 
Much  evidently  remains  to  be  done  in  defining  its  exact 
course  in  northern  latitudes,  and  in  making  accurate 
observations  as  to  its  influence  on  the  fauna  and  flora, 
as  well  as  on  the  temperature,  of  different  parts  of 
Europe. 


CHAPTEK    VI. 


HABITAT. 

STATIONS. ZONES. ABUNDANCE  OF  MOLLUSCAN  LIFE. GEOLOGI- 
CAL RELATIONS. CHANNEL  ISLES. EXOTIC  AND  SPURIOUS  SPE- 
CIES.  SEA-SIDE  SKETCH. 

Stations. — The  subject  of  this  chapter  is  closely  con- 
nected with  that  of  the  last ;  but  it  seems  more  conve- 
nient to  divide  it.  Having  considered  the  British  Mol- 
lusca  with  reference  to  their  European  and  general 
distribution,  I  now  propose  to  give  a  short  account  of 
their  native  habitats  and  to  take  a  home  view  of  the 
matter. 

The  MoUusca  may  be  divided  into  land,  freshwater,  and 
marine.  Their  respiratory  organization  mainly  results 
from  the  nature  of  their  habitat,  or,  as  botanists  would 
term  it,  their  "  station.^^    All  land-snails  breathe  the  free 

e.2 


C  INTRODUCTION.  [CH. 

air^  by  means  of  lung-like  ca\dties  or  pouches  which  they 
possess.  Some  kinds  of  freshwater  snails  have  a  similar 
apparatus;  but  they  are  also  enabled  to  extract  occa- 
sional supplies  of  oxygen  from  the  water,  and  are  thus  not 
entirely  dependent  on  their  air-pouches.  Others  of  this 
kind  are  furnished  only  with  gills,  which  they  use  like 
iishes.  In  the  genus  Valvata  the  gill  is  external  and 
shaped  like  a  feather;  and  the  animal  has  also  an  au- 
xiliaiy  branchial  organ,  which  resembles  another  ten- 
tacle. The  respiratory  system  of  the  marine  Mollusca, 
with  the  exception  of  a  very  few  littoral  species,  is  bran- 
chial ;  and  in  some  kinds  the  gills  are  external.  Bivalves 
have  usually  two  leaf-like  gills,  which  are  arranged  sym- 
metrically, one  on  each  side  of  the  body.  In  the  Bra- 
chiopoda,  however,  the  brachial  organs  (according  to 
Mr.  Hancock)  subserve  the  function  of  gills,  although 
in  one  genus  (Lingula)  the  lobes  of  the  mantle  may,  to 
a  certain  extent,  be  considered  specialized  breathing - 
organs. 

There  are  some  peculiarities  with  respect  to  habitat  that 
are  interesting  to  geologists.  Some  kinds  of  freshwater 
univalves,  both  those  called  Pulmonobranch  [i.e.  respiring 
by  means  of  lung-like  pouches),  and  Pectinibranch  (i.  e. 
respiring  by  means  of  comb-like  gills),  have  the  faculty 
of  enduring  a  partial  change  or  difference  in  their  usual 
habitat,  which  would  be  fatal  to  other  kinds.  The 
Swedish  naturalist  Nilsson  relates  that  two  species  of 
JAmjKBa  described  by  him,  as  well  as  Neritina  fluviatilis, 
live  in  the  Baltic,  adhering  to  sea-weeds,  and  sometimes 
at  a  distance  from  the  mouth  of  any  river.  With  these 
live  certain  marine  Mollusca,  such  as  the  common  mussel 
and  cockle,  Mya  arenaria  and  Tellina  Balthica  (or  soli- 
dula)^  all  of  which,  however,  are  of  a  dwarf  size.  Lim- 
noia  is  Pulmonobranch,  and  Neritina  is  Pectinibranch. 


VI.]  INTRODUCTION.  ci 

The  same  peculiarity _,  but  not  of  so  permanent  a  cha- 
racter, has  been  observed  in  the  case  of  a  freshwater 
bivalve.  The  common  pond-mussel  [Anodonta  cygnea) 
is  said  to  live  in  the  river  Trent  at  Bottesford  in  Lincoln- 
shire, which  is  salt  at  high  water.  The  fresh  water, 
being  lighter,  forms  the  upper  stratum ;  while  the  sea- 
water  covers  the  bed  of  the  river  inhabited  by  the  Ano- 
donta. A  small  Pectinibranch  univalve  (Hydrobia  ulva) 
inhabits  indifferentlv  salt  and  brackish  water  ;  another 
(H.  ventrosa)  frequents  only  the  latter ;  while  a  third 
{H.  similis)  lives,  in  company  with  Bythinia  tentaculata 
and  other  freshwater  univalves,  in  water  which  is  nearly 
fresh.  The  usual  habitat  of  the  genus  Melampus  (which 
is  Pulmonobranch)  is  the  sea-shore ;  but  one  species 
occurs  high  up  in  estuaries,  where  the  water  is  more 
fresh  than  salt.  M.  Marcel  de  Serres  is  of  opinion  that 
the  habitat  of  Dreissena  polymorpha  (a  kind  of  mussel 
which  abounds  in  many  of  our  rivers  and  canals)  was 
originally  marine,  from  the  circumstance  of  the  shells 
being  found  in  tertiary  strata  of  marine  formation.  The 
Russian  traveller,  Pallas,  who  first  discovered  or  made 
known  this  species,  described  one  variety  of  it  as  marine 
and  the  other  as  inhabiting  fresh  water.  Many  of  the 
marine  Mollusca  which  live  on  the  sea-shore  (some  of 
them  even  beyond  the  reach  of  the  tide)  pass  the  greater 
part  of  their  time  out  of  water ;  and  the  same  remark 
applies  to  some  freshwater  snails,  such  as  Limn^a 
peregra  and  Ancylus  fluviatilis,  which  are  as  often  found 
on  dry  land  as  in  their  natural  element.  Succinea putris 
(a  land-snail)  appears  to  be  almost  amphibious.  Many 
genera  of  bivalve  Mollusca  contain  certain  species  which 
are  marine  and  others  which  have  a  freshwater  habitat. 
Even  Teredo,  Pholas,  and  Area  are  in  this  category.  The 
smaller  Crustaceans  seem  also  to  be  very  indifferent  to  the 


cii  INTRODUCTION.  [CH. 

nature  of  their  habitat  in  this  respect.  Mr.  Spence  Bate, 
who  has  so  diligently  and  successfully  studied  our  native 
shrimps,  informs  me  that  Gammarus  locusta,  which  only 
inhabits  the  sea,  is  scarcely  distinguishable  from  G.  flu- 
viatilis,  which  would  be  instantly  killed  by  being  put 
into  salt  water.  Professor  Lilljeborg  has  discovered  in 
some  of  the  inland  freshwater  lakes  of  Denmark  several 
Arctic  species  of  marine  Crustacea,  which  appear  to  have 
survived  the  Glacial  epoch,  and  to  have  adopted  from 
necessity  a  new  habitat,  in  consequence  of  the  gradual 
elevation  of  the  land.  And  the  result  of  the  researches 
made  by  Dr.  E.  von  Martens  on  the  occurrence  of 
marine  animal  forms  in  fresh  water,  which  was  published 
in  ^  Wiegmann's  Archiv^  for  1857,  shows  that  10  out  of 
44  divisions  or  groups  of  Crustacea,  and  6  out  of  52 
divisions  of  Mollusca,  are  common  to  the  sea  and  fresh 
water.  Fish  have  no  less  than  23  out  of  55  divisions 
similarly  circumstanced  as  to  habitat ;  but  some  of  these 
are  well  known  to  migrate  annually  from  the  sea  to 
rivers  that  flow  into  it,  for  the  purpose  of  depositing 
their  spawn.  Such  peculiarities  of  habitat  form  one  of 
the  stumblingblocks  of  geology ;  and  it  is  fortunate  that 
the  cultivators  of  this  science  are  not  obliged  to  place 
their  sole  reliance  on  the  palseontological  contents  of  the 
strata  which  they  wish  to  investigate,  as  they  have  also 
the  mineral  composition,  as  well  as  the  relative  juxtaposi- 
tion, of  those  strata  to  guide  them  in  the  investigation. 
Zones. — It  had  long  been  known  that  different  parts 
of  the  sea-bed  w^ere  inhabited  by  special  forms  of  animal 
life;  but  Risso,  the  celebrated  naturalist  of  Nice,  was 
the  first  who  proposed  its  distribution  into  zones  of 
depth.  His  theory  was  derived  from  observations  on  the 
Mediterranean  fishes.  The  late  Professor  Edward  Forbes 
added  much  to  our  knowledge  of  such  distribution  ;  and 


VI.]  INTRODUCTION,  ciii 

his  valuable  researches  on  the  Invertebrata  of  the  ^Egean 
and  our  own  Seas  enabled  him  to  define  these  zones 
with  considerable  precision.  Professors  Loven  and 
Sars,  as  well  as  Oersted,  have  made  us  acquainted  with 
the  range  and  limits  of  marine  life  in  the  Scandinavian 
seas. 

In  framing  any  scheme  for  dividing  the  sea-bed  into 
separate  areas  of  molluscan  habitability,  according  to 
their  depth_,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  extent 
and  produce  of  these  areas  vary  greatly,  and  depend  upon 
the  inclination  and  mineral  nature  of  the  coast.  That 
part  of  our  sea-bed  which  is  circumscribed  by  the  line 
of  soundings  may  be  divided  into  four  distinct  areas  or 
zones,  of  different  width  and  depth ;  and  I  will  endeavour 
to  define  briefly  their  limits,  nature,  and  contents. 

The  first  is  the  Littoral  zone,  or  the  shore,  which 
fringes  every  part  of  our  coast  and  lies  between  tide- 
marks,  being  laid  bare  when  the  tide  retires.  Wherever 
the  coast  is  steep  and  rocky,  this  zone  is  very  narrow. 
Where  it  shelves  gradually  and  is  sandy  (each  of  these 
conditions  being  probably  consequent  on  the  other),  the 
strand  frequently  extends  seaward  for  a  mile  or  even 
further.  Where  it  is  composed  of  cliffs,  such  as  chalk  or 
boulder- clay,  the  beach  is  pebbly,  and  its  width  is 
usually  intermediate  between  that  of  the  two  other  cases 
I  have  mentioned.  The  pebbles  are  derived  from  the 
wearing-away  of  the  cliffs,  either  in  the  course  of  their 
original  elevation  above  the  sea-level  (which  in  many 
cases  appears  to  have  been  slow  and  gradual),  or  else  by 
the  combined  action  of  the  atmosphere,  rain  and  frosty 
or  of  the  tide  and  waves.  This  pebbly  beach  is  sometimes 
succeeded  by  a  belt  of  larger  stones  or  boulders,  and 
that  again  by  a  strip  of  sand,  mud,  or  clay,  as  we  advance 
to  meet  the  tide.     In  each  of  these  cases  the  nature  of 


civ  INTRODUCTION.        •  [cH. 

the  shore^  strand,  or  beach  depends  on  the  composition 
of  the  strata  which  form  that  part  of  the  land  which  is 
opposed  to  the  sea.  The  rocks  lying  between  tide- 
marks  are  clothed  with  sea^veed,  which  supports  a 
numerous  and  peculiar  group  of  Mollusca.  Among 
those  on  our  OAvn  coasts  may  be  enumerated  various 
species  of  Littorina  (or  periwinkle),  Lacuna,  Trochus, 
Rissoa,  Chiton,  Patella  (or  limpet),  Furpura  lapillus  (or 
dogs^-whelk),  and  a  stunted  variety  or  form  of  the  com- 
mon mussel.  In  the  small  rock-pools,  which  are  left 
by  the  receding  tide,  and  are  generally  lined  with  Coral- 
Una  officinalis  and  other  small  seaweeds,  as  well  as  under 
loose  stones,  will  be  found  many  small  shells  of  various 
sorts,  including  Poronia  rubra,  Modiola  discors,  Skenea 
planorbis,  Rissoa  parva,  Cerithium  reticulatum,  and  the 
fry  of  other  species.  The  highest  part  of  this  zone, 
which  the  sea  does  not  cover  for  more  than  two  or  three 
hours  out  of  every  twelve,  is  inhabited  by  two  kinds  of 
Melampus  (M.  bidentatus  and  a  variety  of  M.  myosotis), 
Otina  otis,  Assiminia  littorea,  Truncatella  truncatula, 
a  variety  of  the  common  limpet,  Littorina  Neritoides, 
and  some  of  the  numerous  varieties  of  L.  rudis.  The 
first  three  of  the  above  species  are  Pulmonobranch. 
That  part  of  the  littoral  zone  which  consists  of  sand, 
gravel,  or  mud  is  frequented  by  various  genera  of  bi- 
valve Mollusca,  such  as  Mya,  Solen,  Tellina,  Donax, 
Mactra  and  Tapes,  as  well  as  by  Mytilus  edulis.  Within 
this  zone  submarine  peat,  chalk,  and  trias  or  new  red 
sandstone,  harbour  several  kinds  of  Pholas ;  Scrobicu- 
laria  piperata  burrows  into  clay ;  calcareous  rocks  are 
perforated  by  Saxicava  rugosa ;  and  fixed  wood  is  drilled 
in  every  direction  by  the  destructive  Teredines  or  ship- 
worms.  Wherever  a  river  or  stream  empties  itself  into 
the  sea,  a  strong  reflux  is  caused  by  the  advancing  tide. 


VI.]  INTRODUCTION.  CV 

which  has  the  effect  of  casting  on  the  shore  a  collection 
of  spolia  marina,  dislodged  by  the  ground-swell  from 
considerable  depths^  as  well  as  of  many  land  and  fresh- 
water shells,  which  have  been  washed  down  by  the  river 
or  stream  and  thus  become  mixed  with  those  from  the 
sea.  This  phenomenon  frequently  occurs  in  some  of  our 
upper  tertiary  and  more  recent  deposits,  and  shows  the 
regularity  with  which  such  physical  operations  have  been 
repeated  dui'ing  periods  of  the  duration  of  which  we  can 
form  no  conception.  In  the  same  zone  are  also  com- 
prised estuaries,  which  form  deep  but  narrow  indenta- 
tions of  the  sea- coast,  and  are  the  channels,  as  well  as 
the  outlet,  of  tidal  rivers.  The  water  of  these  estuaries 
is  always  more  or  less  brackish.  They  are  inhabited  by 
peculiar  MoUusca,  viz.  Assiminia  Grayana,  Melampus 
myosotis,  and  the  several  species  of  Hydrobia  above  men- 
tioned. The  few  pelagic  mollusks  which  occasionally,  but 
unwillingly,  \4sit  our  seas,  are  also  met  with  in  the  littoral 
zone,  being  cast  on  shore  generally  after  a  continuance 
of  westerly  gales.  These  consist  of  species  oi  lanthina, 
Spirula  Peronii,  and  a  few  Pteropods,  some  of  which 
have  but  a  doubtful  claim  to  be  considered  indigenous 
productions  of  our  seas.  The  present  zone  has  been 
subdivided  by  Forbes  and  Hanley  into  four  intermediate 
lines  or  strips,  each  of  which  is  said  to  be  inhabited  by 
its  own  peculiar  set  of  Mollusca ;  but  the  great  variety 
exhibited  by  our  seaboard,  as  well  as  its  geological  for- 
mation, seems  scarcely  to  warrant  such  a  subdivision. 
For  instance,  Trochus  umbilicatus  and  T.  lineatus,  which 
are  assigned  by  these  authors  to  the  fourth  or  lower- 
most line,  in  which  they  usually  occur  on  our  western 
and  south-western  coasts,  inhabit  the  second  line  on  the 
shores  of  the  Bristol  Channel,  as  well  as  those  of  the 
north-west  of  Ireland. 


Cvi  INTRODUCTION.  [CH. 

The  second  zone  is  called  the  Laminarian,  from  the 
belt  of  that  kind  of  seaweed  which  girds  all  the  rocky 
parts  of  our  coast-line.  It  is  seldom  laid  bare^  except  at 
very  low  spring-tides ;  and  it  is  generally  much  narrower 
than  the  littoral  zone,  in  consequence  of  the  rocks,  to 
which  the  Laminaria  or  tangle  is  attached,  dipping  sea- 
ward and  being  covered  with  sand  beyond  the  direct  and 
more  immediate  influence  of  the  tide.  This  zone  may 
be  said  to  extend  from  low- water  mark  to  10  fathoms. 
The  mollusca  which  inhabit  it  chiefly  belong  to  Patella, 
Acmcea,  Trochus,  Lacuna,  Rissoa,  and  Jeffreysia,  all  of 
which  are  phytophagous  or  vegetable-eaters,  as  well  as 
the  Nudibranchs  or  sea-slugs,  which  are  mostly  zoopha- 
gous.  Where  the  coast  is  sandy,  this  zone  is  entirely 
wanting  and  is  merged  into  the  one  above  or  below  it, 
so  far  as  regards  its  zoological  contents.  The  extent  of 
each  zone  mainly  depends  on  its  capability  as  a  feeding- 
ground;  and  the  same  species  are  frequently  common 
to  every  zone,  when  their  nature  is  alike  and  they  are 
not  prevented  by  an  intervening  barrier  of  sand  or  rock 
from  spreading  from  one  zone  to  another.  To  this  cause 
is  probably  owing  the  great  variation  in  the  depth  to 
which  many  species  attain.  The  common  mussel,  which 
is  usually  found  within  tide-marks,  has  been  recorded  by 
Dr.  Walker  as  living  in  the  North  Sea  at  a  depth  of 
140  fathoms  or  840  feet.  Cyprina  Islandica,  which  in 
most  seas  inhabits  depths  of  from  30  to  140  fathoms, 
occurs  on  the  coast  of  South  Wales  at  low- water  mark ; 
and  our  little  cowry  {CyprcBa  Europcea)  has  a  range  from 
low-water  mark  to  100  fathoms. 

The  third  zone  has  received  the  name  of  ^^  Coralline,^' 
from  the  quantity  of  nullipore  [Melobesia  polymorpha) , 
which  is  a  stony  coral-like  plant,  and  in  many  places 
covers  large  tracts  of  the  sea-bed.     Its  width  varies  con- 


VI.]  INTRODUCTION.  CVli 

siderably ;  but  its  vertical  range  may  be  stated  as  ex- 
tending from  10  to  50  fathoms.  As  a  general  rule^  rocks 
do  not  occur  in  this  zone^  especially  in  the  deeper  part 
of  it — stones,  gravel  and  sand  (sometimes  mixed  with 
mud)  being  its  chief  characteristics.  These  mineral 
conditions  to  some  extent  regulate  the  nature  of  the 
Mollusca  which  are  here  found.  The  whelk-tribe,  as 
well  as  many  Nudibranchs,  frequent  the  stony  or,  as  it 
is  called,  "  hard ''  ground ;  and  different  sorts  of  bivalves 
take  up  their  quarters  in  the  other,  or  ^'  soft,"  ground. 
Seaweeds  are  scarce  in  this  zone  and  are  generally 
absent  from  its  lower  regions  ;  so  that  most  of  the  Mol- 
lusca which  inhabit  it  are  animal- eaters, — some  being 
sarcophagous,  others  zoophagous,  and  many  of  them 
preying  on  each  other. 

The  fourth  and  last  is  called  the  Deep-sea  zone,  and 
reaches  from  50  fathoms  to  the  greatest  depth  comprised 
within  the  line  of  soundings.  Both  this  and  the  last- 
mentioned  zone  contain  our  most  productive  fishing- 
banks  ;  and  the  floor  of  these  submarine  areas  is  exceed- 
ingly uneven,  and  diversified  by  many  an  unseen  hill  and 
dale.  The  deep-sea  zone  appears  to  have  nearly  always 
a  soft  bottom,  consisting  of  a  much  finer  sediment  than 
that  which  covers  the  bed  of  the  coralline  zone.  The 
only  vegetable  organisms  which  are  found  in  it  are  tiny 
and  almost  microscopic  Diatoms.  It  is  inhabited  by 
various  kinds  of  Mollusca,  all  of  which  are,  probably 
from  necessity,  animal-eaters.  They  appear  to  exceed  in 
number,  as  well  as  in  variety,  the  inhabitants  of  any  of 
the  other  zones,  judging  from  the  scanty  opportunities 
which  occur  for  investigating  the  contents  of  this  exten- 
sive sea-bed.  The  point  of  zero  in  the  scale  of  sub- 
marine life  has  not  yet  been,  and  perhaps  never  will  be, 
found. 


CVlll 


INTRODUCTION.  [cH. 


Abundance  of  Molluscan  life. — The  whole  surface  of 
our  globe  teems  Avith  a  mass  of  animal  and  vegetable 
life,  to  which  the  MoUusca  contribute  by  no  means  an 
inconsiderable  quota.  Owing  to  the  solid  and  perma- 
nent nature  of  their  shells,  many  fossiliferous  strata 
are  almost  entirely  composed  of  such  exuviae ;  and  this 
process  of  accumulation  is  still  going  on  in  the  exist- 
ing sea-bed  to  an  enormous  extent.  No  one  can  have 
had  any  experience  in  exploring  the  bottom  of  our 
own  seas,  and  examining  our  tertiary  strata,  ^vith- 
out  noticing  how  closely  the  contents  of  a  well-filled 
dredge,  taken  from  a  submarine  shell-bank,  resemble 
the  same  quantity  of  material  dug  out  of  a  crag-pit ; 
and  perhaps  nothing  can  give  a  more  striking  idea  of 
the  incalculable  lapse  of  time  which  must  have  taken 
place  in  the  history  of  the  world,  than  the  formation  of 
these  strata  which,  after  all,  are  only  a  few  pages  of 
the  great  book.  We  here  see  layer  upon  layer  of  organic 
remains  heaped  up  and  compressed,  to  a  depth  of  thii^ty 
feet,  each  layer  being  only  a  few  inches  deep,  but  repre- 
senting numerous  and  successive  generations  that  have 
long  passed  away. 

It  has  not  yet  been  ascertained  to  what  depths  mol- 
luscan life  extends.  The  late  Sir  James  Clark  Ross, 
in  the  interesting  account  of  his  Antarctic  Voyage  (vol.  i. 
p.  202),  says,  "  I  have  no  doubt  that,  from  however 
great  a  depth  we  may  be  enabled  to  bring  up  the  mud 
and  stones  of  the  bed  of  the  ocean,  we  shall  find  them 
teeming  with  animal  life ;  the  extreme  pressure  at  the 
greatest  depth  does  not  appear  to  affect  these  creatures. 
Hitherto  we  have  not  been  able  to  determine  this  point 
beyond  a  thousand  fathoms  ;  but  from  that  depth  shell- 
fish have  been  brought  up  with  the  mud.^^  Still  greater 
depths  have  been  lately  reached  in  recovering  the  Me- 


VI,]  INTRODUCTION.  cix 

diterranean  telegraph-cable^  and  with  the  same  results ; 
and  the  forthcoming  work  of  Dr.  Wallich  on  "  The 
North- Atlantic  Sea-bed"  will  doubtless  contain  some 
important  observations  on  the  existence  and  forms  of 
animal  life  at  extreme  depths  in  the  Arctic  Sea. 

Although  it  does  not  come  strictly  within  the  scope 
of  the  present  treatise^  I  cannot  help  contrasting  the 
fecundity  of  the  sea  with  the  comparative  steriHty  of  the 
land^  as  regards  animal  life — if  we  consider  the  countless 
shoals  which  swarm  in  every  part  of  the  ocean  and 
thickly  cover  its  bed,  and  that  the  air_,  even  in  its  lower 
zones,  is  almost  lifeless.  The  lines  in  the  12th  Canto  of 
the  '  Faerie  Queene  ^  seem  to  corroborate  this  idea,  al-- 
though  not  so  intended  by  the  poet : — 

"  O  what  an  endlesse  worke  have  I  in  hand, 

To  count  the  seas  abundant  progeny, 
Whose  fruitfull  seede  farre  passeth  those  in  land, 

And  also  those  which  wonne  in  th'  azure  sky  ! 

For  much  more  eath  to  tell  the  starres  on  hy, 
Albe  they  endless  seeme  in  estimation, 

Then  to  recount  the  seas  posterity : 
So  fertile  be  the  flouds  in  generation. 
So  huge  their  numbers,  and  so  numberlesse  their  nation. 

Witnesse  th'  exceeding  fry  which  there  are  fed. 
And  wondrous  sholes  which  may  of  none  be  red." 

Geological  relations. — In  local  lists  of  MoUusca,  and 
even  in  more  elaborate  works  on  this  subject,  it  has  been 
the  custom  to  state  that  the  habitat  of  certain  species  is 
restricted  to  "  calcareous  soils,"  ^'  oolitic  formations," 
"limestone,"  "chalk,"  "trap,"  and  other  strata.  I  believe^ 
however,  that  mineralogical  conditions  have  very  little 
to  do  with  the  habitat  of  any  of  the  Mollusca,  nor  with 
their  comparative  abundance  or  scarcity  in  any  locality, 
except  so  far  as  food,  moisture,  or  shelter,  as  well  as  the 
secretion  of  their  shells,  is  concerned.     Such  conditions 


ex 


INTRODUCTION.  [cH. 


are  merely  what  logicians  call ''  accidents/^  All  the  earth 
(even  granite  and  felspar)  is  said  to  contain  calcareous 
matter,  although  the  proportion  is  of  course  greater  in 
some  formations  than  in  others.  The  case  of  two  com- 
mon and  conspicuous  land-shells  occurs  to  me  with 
reference  to  this  question.  Helix  lapicida  is  directed 
by  Forbes  and  Hanley^  "  to  be  sought  for  in  limestone 
and  chalky  districts."  It  is  common,  however,  in  the 
trap  formation  of  the  Lower  Harz,  as  well  as  in  the 
molasse  of  Switzerland.  According  to  Moquin-Tan- 
don  the  Cyclostomata  "  aiment  surtout  les  terrains  cal- 
cairesf;"  but  our  only  species  (C  elegans)  is  tolerably 
abundant  in  Jersey,  where  there  are  no  calcareous  strata. 
It  would  be  easy  to  adduce  many  similar  instances  to 
prove  that  the  habitat  of  Mollusca  is  not  so  restricted, 
as  has  been  stated,  in  their  geological  relations.  But 
there  is  no  doubt  that,  with  regard  to  land- shells, 
both  granite  and  peat  (which  are  at  the  opposite  ends 
of  the  geological  scale)  are  equally  unfavourable  to  mol- 
luscan  Hfe;  because  the  former  is  not  easily  disinte- 
grated and  converted  into  mould,  so  as  to  support  vege- 
tation, and  the  latter,  being  chiefly  composed  of  the  bog- 
moss  (or  Sphagnum),  is  either  innutritions  or  distasteful 
to  snails.  The  same  observation  applies  to  fir- woods, 
which  do  not  appear  to  be  inhabited  by  the  Mollusca. 
With  respect  to  the  marine  Mollusca,  it  may  be  ob- 
served that  the  phytophagous  kinds  will  be  found  in 
abundance  wherever  sea-weeds  flourish,  and  that  in  the 
deeper  zones  of  the  sea,  in  which  such  vegetation  is 
absent,  an  ample  supply  of  animal  food  is  not  wanting. 
But  the  substance  of  molluscous  shells  undoubtedly  de- 
pends on  the  nature  of  the  soil ;  and  carbonate  of  lime 
seems  to  be  as  necessary  to  most  snails  for  the  secretion 
*  Brit.  Moll.  iv.  p.  66.  t  Hist.  Moll.  Fr.  t.  ii.  p.  492. 


VI.]  INTRODUCTION.  Cxi 

and  formation  of  their  dwellings^  as  egg-shells,  or  lime, 
are  to  laying-hens.  The  shells  of  our  common  garden- 
snail  (H.  aspersa)  in  Guernsey  are  remarkably  thin,  owing 
to  the  deficiency  of  calcareous  material;  and  specimens 
oiH.pomatia,  from  granite  formations  in  alpine  districts, 
are  far  inferior  in  weight  to  those  from  our  challv  downs, 
although  they  do  not  differ  in  size. 

Channel  Isles. — Some  conchologists  entertain  a  doubt 
whether  the  Mollusca  of  Guernsey  and  the  other  Chan- 
nel Isles  ought  to  be  included  in  the  British  fauna, 
because  of  their  greater  proximity  to  the  French  than  to 
the  English  coast.  The  Sarnie  fauna  and  flora  (although 
undoubtedly  peculiar)  have,  however,  been  hitherto  con- 
sidered by  our  best  naturahsts  as  belonging  to  Great 
Britain;  and  our  Continental  neighbours  have  never 
claimed  them  as  their  own,  although  they  have  appro- 
priated Corsica,  or  "  annexed"  it  to  France,  in  a  Natural- 
history  point  of  view.  Some  of  the  Mollusca,  taken  in 
that  part  of  the  English  Channel  which  is  adjacent  to 
Guernsey,  are  peculiarly  Southern  forms  and  have  not 
occurred  in  any  other  part  of  our  seas.  Nearly  all  of 
them  are  very  conspicuous  and  handsome.  They  are 
Cardium  papillosum,  Argiope  decollata,  Haliotis  tuber- 
culattty  Murex  corallinus,  Triton  cutaceus,  and  T.  nodi- 
ferus.  Of  these  six  species  only  three  (viz.  Haliotis  tuber - 
culata,  Triton  cutaceus,  and  T.  nodiferus)  are  noticed  by 
either  De  Gerville,  or  CoUard  des  Cherres,  as  having  been 
found  on  the  opposite  coast  of  Brittany ;  and  Bouchard- 
Chantereaux  has  not  included  anv  of  them  in  his  list  of 
marine  shells  found  on  the  coast  of  Normandy.  Dr. 
Bowerbank  has  identified  some  of  the  sponges  from 
Sark  as  northern  species.  In  respect  of  geographical 
position,  some  of  the  Channel  Isles  are  not  so  very  much 
nearer  France  than  England.    Guernsey  is  distant  about 


Cxii  INTRODUCTION.  [CH. 

sixty  miles  from  the  Bill  of  Portland^  and  about  thirty- 
five  miles  from  Cape  Carteret  on  the  coast  of  Brittany. 
All  the  six  species  which  I  have  above  mentioned  are 
found  on  our  side  of  the  Guernsey  coast. 

Exotic  and  spurious  species. — The  fauna  of  any  par- 
ticular country  (although  isolated^  like  Great  Britain) 
cannot  be  satisfactorily  studied  by  itself  and  without 
reference  to  the  fauna  of  other  parts  of  the  same  district. 
The  habit  of  observing  and  comparing  the  Mollusca  of 
different  countries  is  of  undeniable  advantage;  and  it 
may  be  favourably  contrasted  with  the  tendency  of  local 
naturalists  and  collectors  to  exaggerate  trifling  differ- 
ences^ which  would  have  disappeared  on  a  more  extended 
survey.  The  enlargement  and  increase  of  such  expe- 
rience have  the  same  beneficial  effect  on  a  mind  inclined 
to  the  cultivation  of  science,  as  travelling  in  a  foreign 
land,  with  one's  eyes  open,  has  in  expanding  the  intellect 
and  impro\4ng  our  social  nature.  By  such  means  our 
notions  become  in  each  case  less  contracted ;  and  (which 
is  perhaps  of  more  importance)  our  ideas  with  regard  to 
the  labours  of  other  naturalists  are  imbued  with  a  spirit 
of  greater  liberality  and  charity  than  if  we  had  pursued 
the  selfish  course  of  working  in  our  own  sphere  without 
any  intercourse  or  sympathy  with  them. 

The  "  index  expurgatorius,"  containing  the  species  of 
Mollusca  which  are  termed  "spurious"  (being  those 
which  have  been  admitted  into  catalogues  of  British 
shells,  but  have  not  been  proved  to  be  indigenous  to 
this  country),  is  now  very  small,  owing  to  the  labours  of 
Dr.  Gray  in  revising  the  list  of  our  land  and  freshwater 
shells,  and  of  the  authors  of  the  ^  British  Mollusca '  in  a 
similar  revision  of  our  marine  shells.  The  casual  intro- 
duction of  tropical  or  foreign  shells  by  means  of  ship- 
wrecks or  ballast  is  not  so  frequent  as  has  been  supposed. 


VI.]  INTRODUCTION.  CXiii 

— although  it  sometimes  occurs^,  and  I  have  several  times 
picked  up  on  the  sea-strand,  near  a  port  resorted  to  by 
foreign  vessels,  shells  which  had  evidently  come  from 
ballast.  Strangers  of  this  kind  may,  however,  be  de- 
tected without  much  difficulty  by  the  application  of  in- 
trinsic evidence.  A  much  more  fertile  and  perplexing 
source  of  error,  as  regards  the  introduction  of  spurious 
species,  consists  in  collectors  of  Mediterranean,  as  well 
as  British,  shells  not  taking  sufficient  care  to  keep  these 
collections  separate;  and  too  much  praise  cannot  be 
given  to  Mr.  M  ^Andrew,  whose  labours  and  experience 
in  the  investigation  of  the  European  MoUusca  are  so 
well  known,  for  his  extreme  accuracy  in  the  above  re- 
spect. 

'  'Sea-side  sketch, — Having  offered  this  imperfect  view  of 
the  British  Mollusca,  with  regard  to  their  structure  and 
habits,  and  their  relation  to  other  animals  and  ourselves, 
as  well  as  to  their  distribution,  I  cannnot  refrain  from  add- 
ing another  page  to  this  unusually  long  introduction,  to 
exhibit  a  charming  and  truthfal  picture  by  my  lamented 
and  highly  gifted  friend.  Professor  Edward  Forbes : — 
"  To  sit  down  by  the  sea-side  at  the  commencement  of 
ebb,  and  watch  the  shore  gradually  uncovered  by  the 
retiring  water,  is  as  if  a  great  sheet  of  hieroglyphics — 
strange  picture-writing — were  being  unfolded  before  us. 
Each  line  of  the  rock  and  strand  has  its  peculiar  cha- 
racters inscribed  upon  it  in  living  figures,  and  each  figure 
is  a  mystery,  which,  though  we  may  describe  the  appear- 
ance in  precise  and  formal  terms,  has  a  meaning  in  its 
life  and  being  beyond  the  wisdom  of  man  to  unravel. 
How  many  and  how  curious  problems  concern  the  com- 
monest of  the  sea-snails  creeping  over  the  wet  sea- weed  ! 
In  how  many  points  of  view  may  its  history  be  considered  ! 
There  are  its  origin  and  development — the  mvsterv  of 


cxiv  INTRODUCTION.  [CH.  VI. 

its  generation — the  phenomena  of  its  growth — all  con- 
cerning each  apparently  insignificant  individual;  there 
is  the  history  of  the  species — the  value  of  its  distinctive 
marks — the  features  which  link  it  with  higher  and  lower 
creatures — the  reason  why  it  takes  its  stand  where  we 
place  it  in  the  scale  of  creation — the  course  of  its  distri- 
bution— the  causes  of  its  difiusion — its  antiquity  or  no- 
velty— the  mystery  (deepest  of  mysteries)  of  its  first 
appearance — the  changes  of  the  outline  of  continents  and 
of  oceans  which  have  taken  place  since  its  advent,  and 
their  influence  on  its  own  wanderings.  Some  of  these 
questions  may  be  clearly  and  fairly  solved ;  some  of  them 
may  be  theoretically  or  hypothetically  accounted  for; 
some  are  beyond  all  the  subtlety  of  human  intellect  to 
unriddle.  I  cannot  revolve  in  my  mind  the  many  que- 
ries which  the  consideration  of  the  most  insignificant  of 
organized  creatures,  whether  animal  or  vegetable,  sug- 
gests, without  feeling  that  the  rejection  of  a  mystery, 
because  it  is  a  mystery,  is  the  most  besotted  form  of 
human  pride  *.'^ 

*  Nat.  Hist.  Eur.  Seas,  p.  12. 


In  his  tarn  parvis,  atque  tarn  nullis,  qujc  ratio !    quanta  vis !    quam 
inextricabilis  perfectio ! — Pliny. 


AQUATIC. 
Class  I.  CONCHIFERA,  or  BIVALVES. 

Body  of  an  oval  form,  and  usually  compressed  at  its  sides : 
mantle  divided  into  two  lobes  which  correspond  with  the  valves 
of  the  shell.  It  has  no  distinct  head :  but  inside  the  mantle, 
and  within  its  folds,  is  contained  a  mouth ;  and  the  edges  of 
the  mantle  in  those  bivalves  which  have  it  open,  or  of  the 
tubes  which  are  formed  by  it  in  those  which  have  it  closed,  are 
often  fringed  with  short  filaments,  which  serve  the  purpose  of 
tentacles  or  feelers.  Some  kinds  have  also  imperfect  or  rudi- 
mentary eyes,  which  are  set  in  the  interstices  of  those  fila- 
ments where  the  mantle  is  open.  The  foot  is  tong*ue-shaped, 
and  sometimes  capable  of  considerable  extension.  It  is  used 
by  the  animal  for  creeping  or  attaching  itself  to  other  bodies 
by  a  byssus  or  bundle  of  muscular  threads.  Reproductive 
system  similar  to  that  of  the  monoecia  among  plants — both 
sexes  being  united  in  the  same  individual,  which  is  capable  of 
fertilizing  itself.  The  whole,  or  most  important  part,  of  the 
body  is  covered  by  a  shell,  formed  of  two  valves  which  are 
connected  behind  by  a  hinge  or  ligament.  Respiratorij  organs 
consisting  of  gills. 


Order  LAMELLIBRANCHIATA 


* 


Gills  4,  semicircular  or  leaf-shaped,  arranged  in  pairs  on 
each  side  of  the  body. 

This  Order  comprises  all  the  freshwater  bivalves  of 
Great  Britain ;  and  they  are  divided  into  three  families. 

Family  I.  SPH^MID^. 

Body  subglobular  :  mantle  open  in  front,  and  forming  at  the 
posterior  side  a  cylinder,  which  is  often  divided  near  its  open- 
ing into  two  tubes.     The  cylinder  or  tubes  are  contractile  and 

*  So  called  from  the  leaf -like  form  of  the  gills. 

B 


2  SPH.ERIID^. 

extensile, — the  longer  tube  (when  there  are  two)  being  used 
for  respiration  and  nutrition,  and  the  shorter  tube  for  excre- 
tion. The  outer  edges  of  the  mantle,  as  well  as  of  the  cylinder 
or  tubes,  are  simple,  and  not  furnished  with  papillae  or  fila- 
ments. The  mouth  consists  of  a  slit  which  is  placed  between 
the  anterior  adductor  muscle  and  the  base  of  the  foot,  and  it  has 
two  small  triangular  lips.  Foot  wedge-shaped,  thin,  and  ca- 
pable of  great  extension. 

Shell  composed  of  two  thin,  oval  or  subtriangular  valves, 
which  are  more  or  less  inequilateral.  The  valves  are  of  equal 
size.  The  outer  surface  of  the  shell  is  protected  by  a  dehcate 
epidermis,  and  the  inside  is  slightly  lined  with  nacre.  The 
hinge  is  furnished  with  cardinal  and  lateral  teeth,  to  enable  the 
valves  to  lock  more  closely  into  each  other  when  the  shell  is 
shut.  The  ligament  is  external,  although  it  is  sometimes  seated 
so  far  within  the  hinge  as  to  be  scarcely  visible  on  the  outside  : 
it  is  placed  at  the  longer,  or  posterior,  side  of  the  hinge. 

The  animals  of  this  family  are  ovoviviparous^  retaining 
the  fry  for  some  time  between  the  mantle  and  gills. 
They  are  tolerably  active  in  their  habits,  using  their  foot 
for  crawling  like  a  leech ;  and  some  of  them  float  with 
the  beaks  of  their  shell  downwards,  or  suspend  them- 
selves in  that  position  to  the  under  surface  of  the  water 
by  means  of  a  very  fine  byssus  which  they  secrete  and 
spin  with  their  foot.  In  the  winter  they  appear  to  be 
torpid,  and  bury  themselves  in  the  mud,  lil^e  other  fresh- 
water bivalves.  During  this  period  they  probably  cannot 
procure  their  food,  which  consists  of  animalcula.  Speci- 
mens which  I  had  in  confinement  soon  after  Christmas 
never  put  out  their  tubes,  and  only  used  their  foot  to 
creep  under  some  moss  which  was  in  the  vessel.  This 
they  did  as  often  as  I  removed  them  from  their  place  of 
shelter. 

The  Spk(S7mdce  closely  resemble  their  marine  repre- 
sentatives, the  Kelliadxe,  which  are  also  ovoviviparous  : 
])ut  the  mantle  is  more  open  and  the  ligament  external  in 
the  present  family;  while  the  ligament  is  internal  in  the 


SPH^RIID^.  3 

Kelliadce,  and  the  beaks  of  their  shell  are  much  more 
acute.     This  curious  and  distinct  group  of  freshwater 
bivalves  has  been  carefully  investigated  by  our  country- 
man, the  Rev.  Leonard  Jenyns  ;  and  his  monograph  on 
the  British  species  of  Cyclas  and  Pisidium,  which  was 
published  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Cambridge  Philo- 
sophical Society  for  1832,  is  full  of  valuable  and  inter- 
esting information.    Since  that  time  the  labours  of  natu- 
ralists have  been  divided  even  in  this  humble  and  com- 
paratively obscure  study.     Several  French  conchologists, 
especially  MM.  Normand  and  Gassies,  have  separately 
devoted  themselves  to  a  critical   examination  of  their 
native  species  of  the  above  genera;  and  lately  M.  Bour- 
guignat  has  favoured  the  scientific  world  with  an  elabo- 
rate essay  on  the  recent  and  fossil  species  of  Sphcerium 
(or  Cyclas)  which  have  been  found  in  France.     This 
essay  was  published  in  the  '  Memoires  de  la  Societe  des 
Sciences  physiques  et  naturelles  de  Bordeaux/  tome  i. 
1854.     The  only  recent  species  described  or  noticed  by 
him,  which  is  not  also  found  in  this    country,  is  the 
Cyclas  solida  of  Normand.    It  appears  to  form  an  inter- 
mediate link  between  Sphcerium  and  Cyrena;  and  M. 
Bourguignat  has  separated  it  from  the  former  under  the 
generic  name  of  Cyrenastrum.      I  mention  this  in  con- 
sequence of  the   Cyrena   (or   Corbicula)  fluminalis  oc- 
curring so  frequently  as  a  fossil  in  our  upper  tertiary 
beds,  and  in  the  hope  that  the  Cyrenastrum  solidum  may 
also  turn  up  in  the  same  deposits,  and  lead  to  an  eluci- 
dation of  the  question  how  the  limits  of  the  true  Cijrena, 
in  its  living  state,  have  become  so  restricted  since  the 
glacial  epoch.    The  only  other  genus  of  this  family  [Fisi- 
dium)  has  lately  had  an  equal  amount  of  laborious  atten- 
tion bestowed  on  it  by  an  eminent  member  of  the  French 
corps  of  conchologists.     The  ^  Essai  monographique  sur 

B  2 


4  SPH^RIID.E. 

ies  Pisidies  Francaises/  by  Dr.  A.  Baudon  of  Mouy;,  may 
be  profitably  consulted  by  those  who  take  a  particular 
interest  in  this  subject.  It  was  published  at  Paris  in 
1857,  and  contains  fifty-five  pages,  and  five  plates  of  ad- 
mirably executed  figures.  All  the  species  of  Pisidium 
described  by  Dr.  Baudon,  with  the  exception  of  P.  co- 
nicum,  appear  to  be  also  common  to  this  country ;  but 
one  of  them  (the  P.  Recluzianum  of  Bourguignat),  which 
was  at  that  time  imperfectly  known  to  the  author  of  this 
essay,  and  its  generic  relation  to  Pisidium  properly  ques- 
tioned by  him,  happens  to  be  a  marine  shell,  viz.  the 
Turto7iia  minuta,  M.  Gassies  having  procured  specimens 
from  Belfast,  where  it  is  abundant. 

Genus  I.  SPH^'EIUM>^  Scopoli.     PI.  I.  f.  1,  2. 

Body  nearly  equilateral :  mantle  having  a  double  tube. 

Shell  slightly  inequilateral ;  beaks  placed  near  the  centre 
of  the  dorsal  margin. 

This  genus  was  founded  in  1777  by  Scopoli  (Introd. 
ad  Hist.  Nat.  p.  397,  no.  88)  in  sufiiciently  explicit 
terms,  taking  the  Tellina  cornea  of  Linne  as  the  type ; 
but  Bruguiere  (who  was  followed  by  Draparnaud  and 
other  authors)  afterwards  proposed  for  the  same  genus 
the  name  of  Cyclas,  by  which  it  has  been  more  generally 
known.  Owing,  however,  to  the  bibliographical  re- 
searches of  Dr.  Gray,  the  older  and  equally  appropriate 
name  of  Sphcerium  was  restored  by  him  in  1847 ;  and 
this  latter  name  has  been  since  adopted  by  Morch,  Bour- 
guignat,  and  other  continental  conchologists.  The  Jaw 
of  priority  seems  to  require  the  recognition  and  use  of 
this  name.  I  am  aware  that  in  thus  advocating  the 
substitution  of  another  (although  an  older)  name  for  that 

*  From  its  spherical  shape. 


SPH^RIUM.  5 

of  Cyclas,  whicli  has  so  long  received  the  sanction  of 
naturalists^  the  principle  of  usage  may  be  to  some  extent 
violated^  and  that  it  may  be  urged,  with  great  reason, 
that  LimrKEa  and  Succinea  ought  to  give  place  to  Nerito- 
stoma  and  Auricula,  which  Klein  had  previously  pro- 
posed, as  well  as  Physa  to  that  of  Adanson's  genus 
Bulin ;  but  I  am  only  in  the  present  case  following  the 
lead  of  experienced  naturalists,  and  the  conflict  of  au- 
thorities ought  to  be  determined  by  the  strict  rules  of 
justice.  The  word  being  derived  from  cr^acptov,  it  ought 
not  to  be  spelt  Sphmrium,  as  has  been  done  by  some 
authors. 

1.  Sph^kium  corneum^,  Linne. 

Tellina  cornea,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  ed.  xii.  p.  1120.     Cyclas  coi-nea,  Forbes  & 
Hanley,  Brit.  Moll.  ii.  p.  113,  pi.  xxvii.  f.3,  4,  5,  6. 

Body  white,  gre^dsh,  brown,  or  yellowish :  tuhes  rather 
long,  slightly  tinged  with  flesh-colour  :  foot  somewhat  longer 
than  the  shell,  of  a  faint  rosy  hue  towards  its  extremity. 

Shell  subglobular,  nearly  equilateral,  compressed  iu  front, 
rather  thin,  glossy,  yellowish  horn-colour,  with  often  paler 
bands  or  zones  which  denote  the  periods  of  growth,  and  occa- 
sionally having  faint  streaks  of  brown  which  radiate  from  the 
beaks  towards  the  front  margin,  shghtly  but  closely  striate 
transversely,  and  marked  by  obscure  hnes  in  a  longitudinal 
direction,  so  as  to  give  the  surface  a  reticulated  appearance 
under  a  high  magnifying  power  :  ejndennis  rather  thin :  beaks 
almost  central :  ligament  short  and  narrow,  scarcely  visible  on 
the  outside  :  inside  bluish-white  :  Tiiyige  strong,  having  a  double 
cardinal  tooth  in  each  valve,  besides  two  lateral  teeth  in  the 
right,  and  four  in  the  left  valve ;  the  cardinal  teeth  are  very 
small,  but  distinct ;  the  lateral  teeth  form  elevated  ridges  or 
plates,  and  are  subtriangidar  at  their  extremities,  those  on  the 
anterior  side  being  the  largest :  ^nuscidar  scars  or  impressions 
faint,  owing  to  the  thinness  of  the  interior  hning  :  pallial  scar 
scarcely  discernible.     Length  0-35.   Breadth  0*45. 

Yar.  1. flavescens.     Smaller  and   rounder;    body  and  shell 

*  Horn-colour. 


6  sphj]:rud^. 

straw-colour.     C.  flavescens,  Macgillivray,  Moll.  Aberd.  p.  246. 
S.  citrinum,  l^ormand,  Coup  d'oeil  CycL  p.  1. 

Var.  2.  nucleus.  Smaller  and  much  more  globular.  C.  nu- 
cleus, Studer,  Kurz.  Verzeichn.  p.  93. 

Var.  3.  Scaldiana.  Shell  more  oval  and  of  a  paler  colour. 
C.  Scaldiana,  Norm.  Cycl.  p.  5,  f.  1,  2. 

Yar.  4.  Pisidioides.  Shell  subtriangular,  and  rather  more 
produced  at  its  posterior  slope  ;  ti^ansverse  (or  concentric)  striae 
coarser  :  ligament  slightly  perceptible  on  the  outside.  S.  Pisi- 
dioides, Gray  in  Ann.  &  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.  July  1856,  p.  25. 

Habitat  :  Slow  rivers,  lakes,,  ponds  and  ditches,  as 
well  as  open  drains  in  woods,  everywhere  in  this  country ; 
and  it  occiu's  in  a  fossil  state  in  the  upper  tertiary  de- 
posits at  Copford  in  Essex  and  other  places.  Var.  1.  is 
from  Cumberland  (Gilbertson) ;  Westmoreland  (Glover); 
Grand  Canal,  Dublin  (Warren)  ;  Aberdeenshire  (Mac- 
gillivray  &  Taylor)  ;  in  a  lake  near  Lerwick  (Norman) . 
Var.  2.  Crymlyn  bog,  near  Swansea  (J.  G.  J.)  ;  Barton 
run,  Norfolk  (Gunn)  ;  Richmond  (Choules).  Var.  3. 
Oxwich  marsh,  near  Swansea,  and  Thames  at  Clifden 
Hampden  (J.  G.  J.) .  The  colour  of  the  body  in  this  variety 
is  yellowish- white;  tubes  close  together, irregularly  jagged 
at  their  edges,  but  not  fringed,  the  branchial  tube  bein": 
double  the  breadth  of  the  other,  which  is  funnel-shaped ; 
foot  white  and  broad.  Var.  4.  Grand  Junction  Canal  at 
Paddington.  The  shells  of  this  remarkable  variety  are 
much  eroded,  probably  on  account  of  the  water  being 
charged  with  the  refuse  from  manufactories  or  sewers. 
The  result  of  a  careful  comparison  of  these  shells  ^Yith. 
other  varieties  and  the  typical  form,  and  the  circum- 
stance that  no  other  form  of  this  variable  species  has 
been  found  associated  with  it,  incline  me  to  believe  that 
it  has  not  sufficient  claims  to  rank  as  a  distinct  species. 
It  closely  resembles  the  Cyclas  rivalis  of  Dupuy  (Hist, 
nat.  Moll.  terr.   et  fluv.  France,  p.  668,  tab.  29.  f.  5), 


SPH^RIUM.  7 

which  is  another  variety  of  the  present  species.  Dr. 
Baudon  and  M.  Bourguignat  both  agree  with  me  in  the 
above  opinion.  This  species  is  widely  distributed  in 
Europe;  its  northern  limit  being  (according  to  Von 
Wallenberg)  Lapland^  and  its  southern  limit  being  (ac- 
cording to  Philippi)  Sicily.  Young  shells  are  extremely 
flat,  and  might  be  easily  mistaken  for  a  different  species. 
This  common  species  was  first  made  known  by  our 
countryman,  the  celebrated  Dr.  Lister,  in  his  Treatises 
on  the  history  of  English  animals,  in  1678.  It  is  the 
.  Tellina  rivalis  of  O.  F.  Miiller,  and  the  Cyclas  rivalis  of 
Draparnaud,  who  evidently  described  and  figured  the 
next  species  {S.  rivicola)  as  the  Tellina  cornea  of  Linne. 

2.  S.  Rivi'coLA*,  Leach. 

Cyclas  rivicola,  (Leach)  Lamarck,  An.  sans  Yert.  vi.  p.  267  ;    F.  &  H.  ii. 
p.  Ill,  pi. xxvii.  f.  1,  2,  and  (animal)  pi.  Q.  f.  1. 

Body  yellowish-grey,  or  hght  brown :  tubes  short,  white, 
and  nearly  of  equal  length :  foot  thick,  and  capable  of  great 
extension,  greyish-white :  gills  sometimes  slightly  tinged  with 
red. 

Shell  oval,  ventricose,  nearly  equilateral,  much  compressed 
in  front,  rather  solid,  glossy,  yellowish  horn-colour,  or  ohve- 
green,  with  often  darker  bands  or  zones,  deeply  ridged  con- 
centrically, especially  towards  the  lower  or  front  margin,  the 
ridges  being  crossed  by  obscure  lines  which  radiate  from  the 
beaks :  epidermis  rather  thick :  anterior  side  rounded :  pos- 
terior side  more  produced  and  subtruncate :  heciks  central, 
small,  and  flattened  :  ligament  short,  prominent,  and  distinctly 
visible  on  the  outside :  inside  white  and  nacreous,  with  some- 
times a  yellowish  tinge :  hinge  and  teeth  stronger  than  in  /S. 
Gorneum,  but  nearly  of  the  same  form :  muscular  and  pallial 
scars  distinct.    L.  0*7.    B.  0*9. 

Habitat  :  Slow  rivers  and  canals  in  the  metropolitan, 
midland,  and  northern  counties  of  England,  as  well  as 

*  Inhabiting  brooks. 


8  SPH^RIID^. 

near  Dublin  ;  and  it  is  one  of  our  upper  tertiary  fossils. 
It  is  a  local  species.  On  the  continent  it  ranges  from 
Holland  to  Italy. 

This  fine  species  may  be  distinguished  from  S.  corneum 
by  its  much  greater  size,  its  form  being  oval  instead  of 
globular,  the  strong  transverse  ridges,  and  the  con- 
spicuous ligament.  The  young  of  this  are  also  much 
flatter  in  proportion  to  their  size.  Both  species  occur 
together.  >S^.  rivicola  was  first  indicated  by  Lister  as 
having  been  found  at  Doncaster. 

3.  S.  ova'le^,  Ferussac. 

Cijclas  ovalis,  Fer.  in  Ess.  Meth.  1807,  pp.  128,  136.     8.  pallidum,  Gray 
in  Ann.  N.  H.  ser.  2.  xvii.  p.  465,  woodcut. 

BoBY  milk-white :  tuhes  long,  united  nearly  all  the  way : 
foot  tongue-shaped,  very  extensile  and  flexible  :  gills  of  a 
faint  blush-colour. 

Shell  oblong,  somewhat  compressed,  not  so  equilateral  as 
the  two  preceding  species,  owing  to  the  greater  development  of 
the  posterior  side,  thin,  semi  transparent,  not  very  glossy, 
yellowish,  with  sometimes  a  brown  tint  and  darker  zones  of 
growth,  with  occasionally  some  faint  rays  in  the  direction  of 
the  lower  margin,  finely  striate  concentrically  :  epidermis  thin  : 
anterior  side  rounded :  posterior  side  truncate,  and  sloping 
towards  the  lower  margin,  which  is  curved  and  sharp :  heaks 
small,  nearly  central,  and  slightly  prominent :  ligameiit  long 
and  narrow,  distinctly  visible  on  the  outside:  inside  ashy- 
white  :  hinge  straight  on  the  posterior  side,  and  incurved  on 
the  other  side ;  cardinal  and  lateral  teeth  arranged  as  in  S. 
corneum,  but  the  former  are  exceedingly  small  and  difficult  to 
distinguish :  muscular  and  pallial  scars  very  faint.  L.  0-4. 
13.  0-6. 

Habitat:  Exmouth (Clark) ;  PaddingtonCanal(J.G.J.); 
canals  and  ponds  in  Lancashire  (Darbishire) .  A  speci- 
men also  exists  in  the  late  Dr.  Turton's  collection  of 
British   shells,  but  without   any  note   of  the  locality. 

*  Egg-shaped. 


SPH^RIUM.  9 

Mr.  Daniel  says  that  he  found  this  species  in  the  Grand 
Surrey  Canal  some  years  before  it  was  noticed  by  Dr. 
Gray,  but  that  he  then  considered  it  to  be  a  variety  of 
C  rivicola.  It  is  found  in  company  with  all  the  other 
species  of  Sphcerium.  A  living  specimen,  which  had  been 
taken  early  in  February,  and  kept  in  a  vessel  by  itself, 
gave  birth  about  three  weeks  afterwards  to  some  young 
ones  at  intervals  of  two  or  three  days.  Immediately  on 
being  excluded,  they  were  very  active,  and  used  their  long 
foot  as  an  organ  of  progression,  by  extending  it  to  its  full 
length ;  and,  after  attaching  its  point  to  the  bottom  of 
the  vessel,  like  a  leech,  they  drew  up  their  shell  to  it;  and 
by  repeating  this  several  times  they  contrived  to  travel 
along  for  some  little  distance.  They  seemed  to  be  fond 
of  nestling  under  their  mother  for  the  sake  of  shelter  or 
shade. 

There  cannot  be  much  doubt  that  this  elegant  and 
very  distinct  species  is  the  same  as  that  which  Drapar- 
naud,  in  his  ^  Histoire  naturelle  des  Mollusques  ter- 
restres  et  fluviatiles  de  la  France '  (p.  130,  pi.  x.  f.  6,  7), 
described  and  figured  under  the  name  of  Cyclas  lacustris. 
He  distinguished  it  from  S.  corneum  and  S.  rivicola  by 
its  being  "  plus  mince,  plus  transparente,  plus  pale  et 
beaucoup  plus  aplatie."  His  description  of  the  beaks 
and  hinge  also  exactly  agrees  with  that  of  our  species ; 
and  the  very  difierent  terms  in  which  he  cha^racterized 
his  C.  caliculata  preclude  our  supposing  that  this  accu- 
rate naturalist  could  have  taken  for  it  a  variety  of  the 
last-named  species.  Ferussac,  being  aware  of  the  error 
which  Draparnaud  had  committed  in  referring  the  spe- 
cies in  question  to  the  Tellina  lacustris  of  Miiller,  gave 
it  the  appropriate  name  which  I  have  now  adopted.  The 
species  appears,  however,  to  have  been  lost  in  France ; 
and  all  the  continental  conchologists  have  applied  the 

B  5 


10  SPH^RIID^. 

name  given  by  Draparnaud  to  some  one  of  tlie  nume- 
rous varieties  of  either  Miiller^s  species  or  S.  corneum. 
The  Cyclas  rhomboidea  of  Say_,  to  which  Dr.  Gray  sup- 
posed our  shell  to  be  allied,  is  only  a  fourth  of  an  inch 
long,  and,  according  to  Gould,  is  an  obscure  or  doubtful 
species.  Its  nearest  congener  in  this  country  appears 
to  be  S.  rivicola ;  but  it  may  be  readily  distinguished 
from  that  species  by  its  oblong  and  subangular  shape, 
thinner  texture,  much  paler  colour  and  fainter  striae, 
and  especially  by  its  straight  hinge-line.  The  Devon- 
shire and  Lancashire  sj^ecimens  are  of  a  darker  colour 
than  those  from  the  Paddington  Canal.  The  young 
exhibit  the  same  form  as  the  adult ;  and,  like  the  other 
species,  their  shells  are  slightly  iridescent. 

4.  S.  lacus'tre^,  Miiller. 

Tellina  lacustris,  Miill.  Verm.  Hist.  pt.  ii.  p.  204.  Cyclas  caliculata, 
F.  &  H.  ii.  p.  115,  pi.  xxxvii.  f.  7  (as  C.  lacustris),  and  (animal)  pi.  O. 
f.7. 

Body  whitish,  slightly  tinged  with  grey  or  rose-colour  : 
tuhes  long ;  the  branchial  one  cylindrical  and  truncate  at  its 
orifice,  which  is  large ;  the  other  rather  conical,  and  having 
a  smaller  opening  :  foot  nearly  twice  the  length  of  the  shell, 
obtuse  at  its  extremity  :  mantle  fringed  with  grey. 

Shell  nearly  round,  or  subrhombic,  equilateral,  compressed, 
especially  towards  the  lower  and  side  margins,  extremely  thin, 
glossy  and  semitransparent,  light  horn-colour,  or  greyish, 
with  sometimes  a  few  darker  zones  and  an  iridescent  hue, 
very  faintly  striated  concentrically  :  epidermis  very  thin :  an- 
terior and  posterior  sides  cut  ofi'  and  sloping  from  shoulders  on 
the  upper  or  dorsal  side  towards  the  front  margin,  which  is 
slightly  curved  and  has  sharp  edges:  heahs  central,  very  pro- 
minent, and  capped  with  the  fry  or  nucleus  of  the  shell,  Avhich 
Ls  more  globular  than  in  the  subsequent  stages  of  growth : 
ligament  narrow,  thin,  and  just  discernible  on  the  outside  : 
inside  bluish-white,  with  very  little  nacre,  owing  to  the  thin 
texture  of  the  shell :  hinge  rather  strong ;  teeth  arranged  as 

*  Inliabiting  lakes. 


SPHiERIUM.  11 

in  the  other  species,  but  the  cardinal  teeth  are  smaller  and  the 
lateral  ones  shorter  in  proportion :  muscular  and  pallial  scars 
scarcely  perceptible.   L.  0*3.   B.  0*4. 

Yar.  1.  Brochoniana.  SheU  much  larger  and  flatter  ;  leaks 
smaller  and  less  prominent.  S.  Broclionianum,  Bourguignat, 
Monogr.  p.  20,  pi.  3.  f.  1,  2,  3. 

Var.  2.  rotunda.  Shell  rounder  and  flatter  ;  epidermis  yel- 
lowish-green. 

Var.  3.  Rycklioltii,  Shell  small,  triangular,  and  globular  ; 
healcs  very  prominent.     C.  Bychlioltii,  Norm.  Cycl.  p.  7,  f.  5,  G. 

Habitat  :  Lakes^  ponds^  and  canals,  and.  stagnant 
water  everywhere  in  England,  Wales,  and  Ireland;  but 
I  have  not  observed  it  in  Scotland,  nor  seen  any  notice 
of  its  having  been  found  there.  Yar.  1.  Clumber  lake, 
Notts  (J.  G.  J.).  This  considerably  exceeds  the  usual 
form  in  size,  being  in  length  0*45,  and  in  breadth  0  6, 
although  its  depth  or  thickness  is  only  0*25.  Var.  2. 
Singleton,  near  Swansea  (J.  G.  J.).  Var.  3.  Marsh  be- 
tween Exmouth  and  Budleigh  Salterton  (J.  G.  J.).  In 
another  piece  of  stagnant  water  near  Exmouth  a  small 
globular  variety  occurs,  in  which  the  beaks  are  not  pro- 
minent. A  monstrosity  is  also  sometimes  met  with,  in 
which  the  lower  or  front  margin  is  constricted  or  divided 
by  a  groove.  Mr.  Kenyon  foimd  it  in  the  North  of  Eng- 
land ;  and  I  have  also  taken  it  in  Crymlyn  bog,  near 
Swansea.  Some  shells,  which  Mr.  Choules  has  found 
near  Richmond,  partake  of  the  characters  both  of  this 
species  and  S.  ovale,  and  apparently  form  an  interme- 
diate link  between  them.  According  to  Middendorft'  this 
species  inhabits  Siberia ;  and  Philippi  and  Terver  have 
recorded  it  from  Sicily  and  North  Africa.  It  has  also  a 
wide  range  in  the  intermediate  parts  of  Europe.  It 
often  occurs  in  company  with  S.  corneum;  and  I  have 
found  it  alive  in  the  hardened  mud  of  a  pond  which 
had  been  drained  and  its  bed  so  completely  dried  up 


12  SPH^RIID^. 

by  tlie  sun  as  scarcely  to  show  the  marks  of  any  foot- 
steps on  it. 

This  differs  from  all  the  other  species  of  Spharium  in 
the  shell  being  rounder  and  of  a  suhquadrate  form^  its 
great  tenuity,  and  especially  in  the  singular  caps  or  ca- 
lyces which  surmount  the  beaks. 

I  cannot  agree  with  the  learned  authors  of  the  '  Bri- 
tish Mollusca''  in  preferring  Draparnaud's  name  of 
caliculata  to  that  which  had  been  long  before  assigned 
to  this  species  by  Miiller.  The  description  given  by  the 
illustrious  Danish  naturalist  does  not  appear  to  me  at  all 
deficient  in  that  accuracy  and  precision  which  characterize 
all  his  writings ;  and  if  some  continental  authors  have 
erroneously  confounded  this  species  with  the  Cyclas  la- 
custris  of  Draparnaud,  this  cannot  be  a  sufficient  reason 
for  continuing  the  mistake.  At  any  rate_,  the  best  French 
authorities  (including  rerussac_,  Blainville,  and  Moquin- 
Tandon),  as  well  as  nearly  all  the  conch ologists  of  our 
own  country,  have  adopted  Miiller^s  name  in  preference 
to  that  of  Draparnaud. 

Although  Mr.  Jenyns  has,  in  his  excellent  Mono- 
graph, given  an  interesting  notice  of  the  habits  of  this 
moUusk  in  a  state  of  confinement,  some  further  details, 
which  have  been  communicated  to  me  by  my  friend 
Dr.  Lukis,  of  Guernsey,  of  its  natatory,  spinning,  and 
other  performances,  may  not  be  unacceptable.  In  one 
of  his  letters  to  me  he  says,  "  I  placed  a  number 
in  a  small  fish-globe  in  clear  water  taken  from  the 
sluggish  stream  in  which  they  were  captured.  In  a 
short  time  they  commenced  crawling  about  and  actually 
ascending  the  slippery  concave  glass.  In  a  few  days  a 
considerable  number  of  the  fry  had  been  cast,  vidiich 
proved  far  more  active  than  their  parents,  readily  climb- 
ing the  sides  of  the  glolie,  and  rarely  missing  their  foot- 


SPH^RIUM.  13 

ing,  while  the  adults  made  many  ineffectual  attempts ; 
but  both  fry  and  adults^  when  they  reach  the  edge  of  the 
water,  take  to  the  surface  easily_,  and  creep  along  slowly, 
and  apparently  with  caution,  as  if  in  search  of  some 
floating  substance,  near  which  they  will  rest  for  hours. 
The  exserted  foot  moves,  during  this  under-surface  pro- 
gression, by  a  gentle  vermicular  action,  the  siphons  being 
at  the  same  time  protruded.  The  foot  during  repose 
is  usually  retracted,  and  does  not  seem  necessary  for 
mere  floating-purposes/^  And  he  adds,  "  An  inter- 
esting little  scene  occurred  in  the  globe  the  other  even- 
ing. Several  individuals  had  reached  a  few  leaves  and 
hanging  roots  of  minute  water-plants  which  floated  in 
the  centre  of  the  globe,  down  the  stems  of  which  three 
or  four  had  crept  to  a  depth  of  about  an  inch  and  a  half. 
There  they  reposed  :  but  they  were  not  absolutely  mo- 
tionless ;  for,  to  my  surprise,  the  whole  group,  plants  and 
all,  were  dreamingly  enjoying  the  delights  of  a  slow  but 
long- continued  rotation.  At  first  I  thought  some  mi- 
nute water-insect  had  found  its  way  unbidden  into  the 
globe,  and  was  thus  illustrating,  like  some  learned  lec- 
turer to  his  sleepy  audience,  the  laws  of  planetary  mo- 
tions. But  no  such  lecturer  was  there  :  yet,  as  the 
revolution  brought  two  of  the  little  moUusks  closer  under 
inspection,  I  observed  their  siphons  to  be  curved  exactly 
in  the  opposite  direction  to  the  line  of  motion.  Here 
was  a  solution  at  once  of  the  nymph-like  aTp6^i\o<i, 
which  was  evidently  due  to  the  recoil  consequent  upon 
the  circulation  and  expulsion  of  the  water  through  the 
siphons.  The  fortuitous  position  of  the  two  individuals 
and  the  combined  action  of  their  expulsive  tubes  may 
not  occur  again ;  but  the  whole  incident  was  so  inter- 
esting and  remarkable  that  I  could  not  help  recording 
it.      The   fry  are  growing   rapidly ;    and  I  opine   the 


14  SPH^RIIDiE. 

amount  of  exercise  they  indulge  in  is  conducive  to  their 
health.  I  have  observed  the  Eulima  distorta,  Rissoa 
parva  and  cingillus,  as  well  as  the  Odostomice  and  Jef- 
freysice,  ascend  to  the  edge  of  a  basin  and  creep  along 
the  under- surface  of  the  water^  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  Jjymnceadce.  But  it  is  singular  that  bivalves  should 
imitate  their  less  unwieldy  moUuscan  brethren  in  this 
seemingly  unsuitable  mode  of  progression/^  In  another 
letter  he  says^  "  Sometimes  a  single  individual  will  sus- 
pend itself  to  a  little  bit  of  the  stem  of  a  Lemna,  and  whirl 
quite  alone  for  hours^  even  rapidly — say  fifteen  to  twenty 
revolutions  in  a  minute/^  And  in  a  subsequent  letter 
he  goes  on  to  say,  "  The  young  are  far  more  active  than 
the  parents.  I  do  not  perceive  their  siphons  to  be  ever 
exserted,  while  this  is  almost  constantly  the  habit  of  the 
older  ones.  They  all  continue  to  climb  the  glass  globe, 
and  rather  more  so  in  the  evening,  probably  preferring 
to  roam  in  the  dark.  I  have  had  a  fresh  supply  of  about 
half  a  dozen,  which,  soon  after  being  immersed,  began 
an  inspection  of  their  new  domain,  and  continued  for  a 
day  or  two  more  restless  than  the  others.  On  climbing 
the  glass,  the  front  margin  of  the  valves  is  applied  to  it, 
and  at  the  same  time  both  the  foot  and  the  siphons  are 
exserted.  The  foot  being  extended  to  its  full  length,  its 
extremity  is  cautiously  pressed  against  the  glass,  and 
after  a  short  pause  the  upward  movement  of  the  body 
commences,  which  is  the  work  of  a  second  of  time; 
then  another  short  pause,  after  which  the  front  margin 
of  the  valves  and  the  point  of  the  foot  are  again  applied 
cautiously  to  the  glass,  and  the  foot  is  again  protruded 
to  repeat  the  same  process.  When  the  edge  of  the  water 
is  reached  the  pauses  are  longer,  and  it  is  necessary  for 
the  creature  to  be  doubly  cautious,  for  here  is  the  point 
of  greatest  difficulty.     However,  the  foot  is  conveyed 


SPH^RIUM.  15 

horizontally  along  the  surface  of  the  water,  which  ap- 
pears to  recede  partially  from  it.  On  examining  it  with 
a  lens,  the  foot  is  distinctly  seen  to  have  an  undulating 
action  on  the  surface,  as  well  as  an  irregular  and  im- 
perfect contraction  and  elongation  along  its  whole  ex- 
tent ;  but  it  is  never  quite  retracted,  excepting  when  its 
base  and  the  front  margin  of  the  valves  are  in  contact 
with  some  floating  weed  which  is  capable  of  supporting 
the  whole.  Thus  this  elegant  shell  traverses  the  still 
surface.  But  it  is  most  curious  to  see  it  descending  the 
thread-like  stems  of  the  Lemna,  or  some  assemblage  of 
these  delicate  fibres :  even  a  single  stem  is  quite  suffi- 
cient ;  and  if  the  shell  is  free  from  any  other  contact,  it 
immediately  begins  its  rotatory  movement.  A  single 
shell,  thus  suspended,  revolves  upon  its  axis  in  a  direc- 
tion which  is  most  frequently  from  right  to  left  of  the 
observer,  or  in  the  opposite  direction  from  that  of  a 
teetotum  when  made  to  spin  by  the  fingers  of  the  right 
hand.  I  have  suspended  single  threads  to  circular  pieces 
of  cork  in  the  water ;  but  the  stems  of  the  Lemna  are 
preferred.  Cyclas  cornea  is  much  less  active  or  inclined 
to  ascend  the  glass ;  in  fact,  I  have  not  yet  seen  it  ac- 
complish the  feat  of  its  congener.  Several  of  the  C  caly- 
culata  (Sphcerium  lacustre)  will  remain  among  the  stems 
of  the  duckweed  for  hours  perfectly  inactive,  with  closed 
valves,  as  if  sleeping  or  resting  after  their  previous 
fatigue.  When  the  valves  are  pressed  against  the  glass 
while  ascending,  there  seems  to  be  a  fulness  about  the 
base  of  the  foot,  as  if  the  mantle  served  for  adhesion  to 
the  glass.^^  Dr.  Lukis  afterwards  informed  me  that  he 
had  detected  the  byssal  filament  in  S.  lacustre.  He 
says,  '^  I  have  this  morning  watched  one,  which  had 
reached  the  surface,  spm  its  filament j  and  descend  to 


16  SPH^RIID^. 

half  an  inch  below  the  surface,  where  it  remained  sus- 
pended for  some  time.  It  occupied  three  hours  in 
spinning  this  short  thread.  I  think  it  consists  of  more 
than  a  single  filament ;  for  some  minute  particles,  which 
were  floating  in  the  water,  became  entangled  in  it.  The 
surface  of  the  water  was  again  depressed  or  cupped.^' 
And  he  concluded  by  saying  that  he  found  the  number 
of  filaments  to  vary  from  one  to  at  least  four,  which  in 
one  instance  were  far  apart,  the  siphons  or  tubes  and 
foot  being  at  the  same  time  exposed ;  and  that  the 
animal  had  the  power  of  raising  itself  by  means  of  this 
byssus  again  to  the  surface,  after  having  been  suspended 
for  some  time  below  it.  The  filaments  appeared  not  to 
exceed  half  an  inch  in  length ;  and  rarely  could  more 
than  a  single  thread  be  seen.  M.  Bouchard-Chante- 
reaux  has  likewise,  in  his  extremely  interesting  Cata- 
logue of  the  Land  and  Freshwater  Mollusks  which  in- 
habit the  Department  of  the  Pas-de- Calais,  noticed  that 
the  young  of  S.  corneum  possess  the  same  faculty  of 
spinning  a  transparent  thread  and  attaching  themselves 
by  means  of  it  to  water-plants. 

Genus  II.  PISI'DIUM  ^  C.  Pfeifi"er.     PL  I.  f.  3,  4. 

Body  inequilateral :  mantle  having  only  a  single  tube. 

Shell  inequilateral :  beaks  placed  near  the  shorter  or  an- 
terior end. 

This  genus  was  established  by  Carl  Pfeiflfer  in  1821,  to 
separate  from  Sphcerium  the  smaller  species  which  have 
only  one  tube  or  siphon,  and  whose  shells  are  not  so 
equilateral.  This  generic  distinction  seems  to  be  well 
founded,  in  respect  both  of  the  soft  parts  of  these  mol- 

*  Pea -shaped. 


PISIDIUM.  17 

lusks  and  of  their  shells;  and  it  has  received  almost 
the  universal  assent  of  conchologists.  The  habits  of  the 
little  Pea  shells  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  larger 
members  of  the  same  family ;  and  they  inhabit  nearly 
the  same  situations.  One  species  (P.  pusillum)  does  not 
seem  to  require  a  constant,  or  even  a  frequent  supply  of 
water,  being  often  found  living  at  the  roots  of  bog-moss 
which  is  dried  up  in  the  summer,  and  of  grass  in  mea- 
dows which  are  only  irrigated  in  the  spring ;  and  Nils- 
son  noticed,  in  his  history  of  the  land  and  river  mol- 
lusks  of  Sweden,  that  he  had  frequently  found  the  same 
species  (which  he  erroneously  referred  to  the  P.  fontinale 
of  C.  Pfeiffer)  living  between  the  bark  and  wood  of  fallen 
trees  in  moist  places.  They  possess  the  same  faculty  as 
the  Sph(Eriaj  of  floating,  or  creeping  in  an  inverted  posi- 
tion under  the  surface  of  the  water.  These  tiny  Pea 
shells,  or  cockles,  swarm  in  every  slow  river,  streamlet, 
lake,  pool,  horse-pond,  ditch,  and  open  drain ;  and  they 
are  greedily  devoured  by  fish  and  ducks.  In  their  turn, 
they  are  fond  of  animal  food ;  and  Dr.  Baudon,  in  his 
admirable  Monograph,  says  that  he  has  often  observed 
Pisidia  attached  to  the  drowned  carcases  of  small  ani- 
mals, as  well  as  to  bones  which  had  been  thrown  into 
ditches  and  streams,  and  from  which  the  muscular  fibres 
had  not  been  removed.  Perhaps,  however,  animalcula 
fed  upon  the  meat,  and  were  the  real  objects  of  attrac- 
tion to  the  Pisidia.  Their  shells  are  sometimes  so 
thickly  encrusted  with  a  ferruginous  or  mineral  deposit 
from  the  muddy  sediment  of  the  water  which  they  in- 
habit as  to  resemble  small  lumps  of  dirt.  This  deposit 
appears  to  be  partly  owing  to  a  secretion  of  the  animal, 
aided  by  its  generally  inactive  habits.  Water -beetles  do 
not  allow  themselves  to  be  clogged  in  the  same  manner. 
Whether  this  is  one  of  the  artifices  by  which  animals 


18  spHtERiid^. 

escape  the  observation   of  their  natural   enemies  is  a 
question  which  requires  a  molluscan  mind  to  solve. 

The  critical  investigation  of  the  different  species  which 
compose  this  genus  is  quite  as  difficult  as  it  is  with  regard 
to  the  large  freshwater  mussels.  Little  reliance  can  be 
placed  on  the  characters  afforded  by  an  examination  of 
the  body^  or  soft  parts,  of  the  animal.  The  form  and 
comparative  length  of  the  tube  are  especially  liable  to 
vary  even  in  the  same  individual ;  and  under  the  influ- 
ence of  heat  and  light  the  most  Protean  changes  with 
respect  to  this  organ  may  be  observed.  The  size  of  the 
foot  is  equally  a  deceptive  character ;  and  colour  is  al- 
ways a  most  uncertain  test.  The  general  shape  and 
appearance  of  the  shells,  as  w  ell  as  the  position  of  their 
beaks,  appear  to  offer  almost  the  only  reliable  grounds 
of  distinction.  Size,  substance,  sculpture,  and  lustre  are 
not  of  much  account,  as  they  mainly  depend  on  the 
chemical  ingredients  of  the  water  inhabited  by  these 
moUusks,  as  well  as  on  their  supply  of  food.  In  making 
an  investigation  like  the  present,  there  appear  to  be  four 
courses  open  to  the  naturalist.  The  first,  which  is, 
perhaps,  the  easiest,  is  to  reduce  all  hitherto  described 
species  to  one  or  two,  and  thus  to  cut  the  Gordian  knot 
without  further  ceremony.  The  second,  which  has  been 
pursued  to  such  an  extent  on  the  Continent  and  in  the 
United  States  of  America,  is  to  multiply  the  number  of 
species  ad  infinitum.  The  only  check  which  can  be  im- 
posed on  this  method  of  wholesale  and  indiscriminate 
fabrication  is  the  bar  of  scientific  opinion ;  and  in  coun- 
tries where  nearly  all  the  naturalists  are  culprits,  there 
is  not  much  likelihood  of  justice  being  so  severely  admi- 
nistered as  to  prevent  the  repetition  of  such  venial 
offences.  The  third  course  is,  to  adopt  the  labours  of 
preceding  writers  without  any  inquiry.     And  the  fourth 


PISIDIUM.  19 

is,  honestly  and  to  the  best  of  one^s  ability  carefully  to 
work  out  the  subject  and  to  submit  the  result  to  the 
free  criticism  of  other  naturalists.  This  last  course  I 
have  endeavoured  to  pursue ;  and  I  shall  not  feel  in  the 
least  degree  mortified  or  discouraged  if  the  conclusions  I 
have  arrived  at,  with  much  pains  and  great  hesitation, 
are  not  accepted  by  all  my  scientific  brethren. 

To  give  some  idea  of  the  labour  involved  in  this  in- 
vestigation, I  may  mention  that  my  own  cabinet  con- 
tains no  less  than  274  parcels  of  Pisidia,  which  have 
been,  in  the  course  of  the  last  thirty  or  forty  years,  col- 
lected from  different  localities  and  sources,  and  comprise 
many  thousands  of  specimens ;  that  I  have  personally 
examined  the  types  of  those  species  which  have  been  de- 
scribed by  Dr.  Turton,  Mr.  Jenyns,  Mr.  Alder,  Dr.  Bau- 
don,  and  other  conchologists  who  have  published  on  the 
subject;  that  I  have  collected  these  tiny  shells  in  many 
parts  of  Holland,  Germany,  France,  Switzerland,  and 
Italy,  for  the  sake  of  comparison  with  British  forms  jj 
and  that  I  have  had  to  refer  to  numerous  works  in  many 
languages  in  order  to  collate  the  descriptions  of  forty- 
one  different  species  which  have  been  proposed  by  Euro- 
pean writers  within  the  last  century.  Of  these,  I  cannot 
conscientiously  recognize  more  than  six  as  distinct. 

It  will  be  convenient  to  divide  the  British  species, 
which  are  five  in  number,  according  to  their  shape,  as 
follows : — 

A.  Triangular.     1.  P.  anmicum.     2.  P.  fontinale. 

B.  Oval.     3.  P.  pusillum. 

C.  Bound.     4.  P.  nitidum. 

D.  Ohlong.     5.  P.  roseum. 


20  SPH^RIIDiE. 

A.   Triangular. 

1.  PisiDiuM  am'ntcum*^  Miiller. 

Tellina  amnica,  Miill.  Yerm.  Hist.  p.  205.    P.  amnieum,  F.  &  H.  ii.  p.  133, 
pi.  xxxvii.  f.  8, 9,  and  (animal)  pi.  O.  f.  8. 

Body  greyish -white,  rather  transparent;  tube  short,  sub- 
conical,  obliquely  truncate  at  its  orifice :  foot  broad  at  its 
base,  abruptly  pointed,  and  very  extensible  :  mantle  bordered 
with  grey. 

Shell  subtriangular,  rather  ventricose  and  solid,  glossy, 
strongly  grooved  concentrically,  horn-colour  or  yellowish- 
grey  :  epidermis  rather  thick  :  anterior  side  abruptly  truncate  : 
posterior  side  much  produced,  and  sloping  towards  the  lower 
margin,  which  is  obliquely  curved :  healcs  rather  prominent, 
but  obtuse  :  ligament  short,  conspicuous  :  inside  bluish-white 
and  nacreous  :  hinge  strong  and  curved  ;  teeth  arranged  as  in 
Splioerium,  but  the  lateral  teeth  in  this  and  other  species  of 
Pisidium  are  exceedingly  strong  and  developed  in  proportion 
to  the  size  of  their  shells  :  rnuscular  and  pallial  scars  well 
marked.    L.  0*3.    B.  0*375. 

Yarieties  occur  in  which  the  striae  are  more  numerous, 
fewer,  stronger  or  fainter  than  usual. 

Habitat  :  Slow  rivers,  lakes_,  canals,  and  streams  in 
all  parts  of  the  kingdom.  It  is  also  one  of  our  com- 
monest upper  tertiary  fossils.  Its  continental  range  ex- 
tends from  Siberia  to  Naples,  and  it  is  also  found  in 
Algeria.     This  is  the  largest  kind  of  Pisidium. 

2.  P.  fontina'le  tj,  Draparnaud. 

Cyclas  fontinalis,  Drap.  Hist.  Moll.  p.  130,  pi.  x.  f.  8-12.  P.  Henslowi- 
anum  (var.  without  appendages),  Jenyns  in  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.  Aug.  1858, 
p.  104. 

Body  whitish  or  grey,  rather  transparent :  tube  generally 
short,  but  capable  of  considerable  extension  and  dilatation, 
conical,  obliquely  trimcate  at  its  orifice,  where  it  is  so  flexible 
that  the  edges  are  sometimes  entire  and  at  other  times  jagged : 
foot  long  and  curved :  mantle  bordered  with  grey. 

*  Inhabiting  rivers.  f  Inhabiting  fountains. 


PISIDIUM.  21 

Shell  subtriangular,  somewhat  ventricose,  thin,  rather 
glossy,  finely  but  irregularly  striate  concentrically,  greyish- 
white  :  epidermis  very  thin  :  anterior  side  abruptly  truncate  : 
posterior  side  rounded,  and  sloping  gently  towards  the  lower 
margin ;  the  anterior  and  posterior  margins  are  compressed, 
especially  towards  the  beaks,  on  each  side  of  which  they  form 
a  kind  of  shoulder  :  heaks  prominent  and  rather  acute  :  liga- 
ment very  short  and  scarcely  perceptible :  inside  white  and 
nacreous :  hinge  short,  but  very  strong ;  dentition  as  in  P. 
amnicwn,  except  that  the  cardinal  teeth  do  not  assume  the 
shape  of  an  inverted  Y  :  muscidar  and  pallial  scars  the  same 
as  in  that  species.    L.  0*15.    B.  0'175. 

Yar.  1.  Henslowana.  Each  valve  fui^nished  with  a  plate- 
Hke  appendage  near  the  beaks.  Tellina  Hensloiuana,  Shep- 
pard  in  Linn.  Trans,  xiv.  p.  150.  P.  Henshiuianmn,  F.  &  H. 
ii.  p.  131,  pi.  xxxvii.  f.  11. 

Yar.  2.  pulchella.  Shell  more  glossy,  strongly  and  regu- 
larly grooved  ;  heahs  less  acute.  P.  pidchellum,  Jen.  p.  18, 
tab.  xxi.  f.  1-5 ;  F.  &  H.  ii.  p.  128,  pi.  xxxvii.  f.  12, 13. 

Yar.  3  pallida.  Shell  more  ventricose,  irregularly  striate, 
and  of  a  paler  colour,  with  occasionally  a  few  darker  rays 
which  diverge  from  the  direction  of  the  beaks  to  the  lower 
margin. 

Yar.  4.  cinerea.  Shell  larger  and  flatter,  with  fainter  striae. 
P.  cinereum,  Alder,  Suppl.  Cat.  Moll.  Northumb.  p.  4  ;  F.  &  H. 
ii.  p.  125,  pi.  xxxvi.  f.  2. 

Habitat  :  Slow  streams  and  standing  water  every- 
where in  these  isles  ;  and  it  is  one  of  our  upper  tertiary 
fossils.  It  also  ranges  from  Siberia  to  Sicily.  Var.  1. 
occurs  in  many  of  the  northern^  eastern,  home,  and 
south-western  counties  of  England,  as  well  as  in  South 
Wales  and  Cork.  This  is  also  one  of  our  tertiary  fossils, 
and  extends  from  Sweden  to  the  South  of  France. 
Specimens  from  the  Swansea  Canal,  near  some  tinworks, 
have  the  beaks  more  or  less  eroded,  in  consequence  pro- 
bably of  the  water  containing  an  extremely  diluted  por- 
tion of  sulphuric  acid,  which  is  used  in  that  manufac- 
tm'e.     The  fact,  which  has  been  noticed  and  considered 


22  SPH^RIID^. 

remarkable  by  some  authors^  of  the  eave-like  projection 
appearing  in  the  middle  of  young  shells_,  agrees  with  its 
position  in  adult  shells^  because  this  curious  appendage 
is  never  placed  close  to  the  beak.  Var.  2.  More  com- 
mon than  the  last  variety^  and  also  inhabiting  Sweden 
and  France.  It  deserves  its  name^  being  a  very  pretty 
object.  Mr.  Jenyns  now  considers  it  to  be  the  same 
species  as  his  P.  Henslowianum.  Var.  3.  Marshes  and 
pools  near  Swansea.  It  is  probably  the  P.  pallidum  of 
Gassies.  Var.  4.  Widely  diffused  in  this  country,  and 
also  inhabiting  France  and  Italy.  The  outline  of  some 
specimens  of  this  last  variety  is  that  of  an  equilateral 
triangle.  It  is  the  P.  australe  of  Philippi,  and  the  Cyclas 
lenticularis  of  Normand. 

This  species  is  extremely  variable,  and  has  conse- 
quently received  a  great  number  of  names.  Out  of  the 
41  so-called  species  of  Pisidium  which  have  been  de- 
scribed by  European  conchologists,  no  less  than  21  belong 
to  the  present  form.  On  the  Continent  the  type  is 
generally  known  by  Polios  name  of  Casertanum. 

If  the  diagnosis,  characters,  and  figures  given  by 
Draparnaud  for  his  Cyclas  fontinalis  had  been  more 
carefully  studied,  it  would,  I  think,  have  been  obvious 
that  they  do  not  apply  to  the  Tellina  pusilla  of  Gmelin, 
with  which  this  species  has  been  generally  (but  with 
doubt)  allocated  by  so  many  authors.  The  principal 
difference  between  these  two  species  consists  in  the 
former  (P.  fontinale)  being  triangular  and  somewhat 
depressed,  and  having  prominent  beaks  ;  while  the  other 
(P.  pusillum)  is  oval  and  ventricose,  and  has  obtuse 
beaks.  Draparnaud^s  diagnosis  is  as  follows  :  "  C.  testa 
globosa,  subdepressa,  subina3quilaterali ;  umbone  sub- 
acuto."  Gmelin  says  his  shell  is  "  ovata,  ventricosa  ;^' 
and  his  description  of  its  colour  as  "  sordide  alba  ^'  is 


PISIDIUM.  23 

peculiarly  appropriate  to  tlie  P.  pusillum  of  modern 
authors.  C.  Pfeiffer^  in  1821;,  appears  to  have  recog- 
nized Draparnaud^s  shell  by  the  same  specific  name  of 
"  fontinale  '"  and  the  only  distinction  which  he  makes 
between  this  species  and  his  own  P.  obtusale  (which  I 
regard  as  a  variety  of  P.  pusillum)  is  that  the  former  is 
described  "  umbone  subacuto",  and  the  latter  ''  umbone 
obtusissimo." 

It  chiefly  differs  from  P.  amnicum  in  being  very  much 
smaller  (although  the  variety  cinerea  is  nearly  as  large)  ^ 
in  the  shell  being  thinner^  the  posterior  margin  much 
less  produced,  the  i)eaks  being  more  prominent,  and  the 
ligament  scarcely  conspicuous.  The  cardinal  teeth  are 
also  more  separate,  and  do  not  diverge  from  a  common 
base  or  root  as  in  that  species  and  Sphcerium. 

B.  Oval. 

3.  P.  pusii/lum*,  Gmelin. 

Tellina  pusilla,  G-inelin,   Syst.  Nat.  p.  3231 .      P.  'pusillum,  F.  &  H.  ii. 
p.  123,  pi.  xxxvii.  f.  10,  and  (animal)  pi.  O.  f.  9. 

Body  whitish,  with  occasionally  a  faint  tinge  of  yellow  or 
red:  tube  short,  subcorneal  or  cylindrical,  truncate,  orifice 
small  and  its  edges  plain :  foot  longer  than  the  shell,  narrow 
and  slender :  mantle  bordered  with  reddish-grey. 

Shell  oval,  compressed  but  swollen,  thin,  not  so  glossy  as 
in  the  other  species,  finely  but  irregularly  striate  concentri- 
cally, a  few  of  the  striae  being  larger  than  the  others  and  de- 
noting the  successive  stages  of  growth,  yellowish-white  or 
cinereous  :  epidermis  very  thin :  anterior  side  rounded  :  poste- 
rior side  also  rounded,  and  sloping  very  gradually  below ;  this 
side  is  very  httle  more  produced  than  the  other,  which  makes 
the  contour  of  the  shell  more  equilateral  than  in  the  foregoing 
species ;  both  these  sides  are  compressed,  and  especially  above  : 
lower  margin  rounded  :  beaks  not  prominent,  but  blunt :  liga- 
ment  short   and  inconspicuous:    inside   greyish-white,   vrith 

*  Little. 


24  SPH.«RIID^. 

scarcely  any  nacreous  lustre ;  other  internal   characters  the 
same  as  in  P.  fontinale.    L.  0-175.    B.  0-2. 

Var.  ohtusalis.  Shell  smaller  and  much  more  ventricose  ; 
healcs  prominent,  very  obtuse.  P.  ohtusale,  C.Pfeiffer,  Deutsch. 
Land-  und  Sussw.-MoU.  i.  p.  125,  t.  5.  f.  21,  22  ;  F.  &  H.  ii. 
p.  120,  pi.  xxxvi.  f.  ] . 

Habitat  :  Mossy  swamps,  shallow  ditches,  drains, 
grassy  pools,  and  similar  situations  throughout  aU  the 
country  ;  and  it  is  one  of  our  upper  tertiary  fossils.  It 
ranges  from  Lapland  to  Corsica,  and  is  generally  diffused 
in  Europe.  Dr.  Baudon  says  that  it  is  the  same  species 
as  the  P.  vejitricosum  of  Prime ;  so  that  it  appears  to  be 
also  a  native  of  the  United  States  bf  America.  The 
variety  obtusalis  occurs  in  similar  situations  with  the 
typical  form ;  but  it  is  more  local  and  not  so  abundant. 
The  intermediate  gradation  between  the  two  forms  is 
almost  infinite ;  but  the  essential  and  common  character 
of  both  is  the  same,  viz.  the  beaks  being  nearly  central 
and  obtuse. 

Having  carefully  studied  the  description  and  figure 
given  by  Poli  of  his  Cardium  Casertamim,  I  have  not 
been  able  to  arrive  at  the  same  conclusion  which  Moquin- 
Tandon  and  other  French  conchologists  have  formed, 
that  this  species  is  the  type  of  the  one  which  I  have  de- 
scribed as  P.  fontinale ;  and  I  consider  that  it  ought 
more  properly  to  be  referred  to  the  present  species.  Poli 
says  his  shell  is  "  subrotunda  f'  and  his  figure  shows 
that  it  is  much  more  equilateral  than  P.  fontinale.  He 
also  remarked  the  irregularity  of  the  strise  arising  from 
the  marks  of  groAvth,  which  appears  to  be  more  cha- 
racteristic of  this  than  of  the  other  species.  As,  how- 
ever, he  did  not  notice  any  other  species,  it  is  of  course 
very  difficult  to  say  precisely  which  species  he  meant ; 
and  under  these  circumstances  I  think  it  is  preferable 
not  to  revive  an  obscure  and  doubtful  species,  indicated 


PISIDIUM*  25 

by  a  local  name,  when  we  have  at  least  equally  good 
reasons  and  authority  for  adopting  a  name  bestowed  by 
an  earlier  writer,  and  which,  besides,  is  not  liable  to  the 
same  objection.  This  species  differs  from  P.  fontinah 
in  its  shape  being  oval  instead  of  triangular,  and  in  its 
beaks  being  more  central,  and  blunt  or  compressed.  Its 
colour  is  also  yellowish- white  instead  of  grey ;  and  it  has 
much  less  lustre.    It  is  the  Cyclas  fontinalis  of  Nilsson. 

C  Round. 

4.  P.  ni'tidum*,  Jenyns. 

P.  nitidum,  Jen.  p.  16,  tab.  xx.  f.  7,  8  ;  F.  &H.  ii.  p.  126,  pi.  xxxvii.  f.  14. 

Body  whitish,  -^dth  sometimes  a  faint  tinge  of  yellow,  caused 
by  the  colour  of  the  liver  :  tube  short,  funnel-shaped ;  orifice 
wdde,  and  its  edges  notched  or  puckered :  foot  rather  long, 
thin,  slender,  and  finely  pointed  :  mantle  bordered  with  grey. 

Shell  suborbicular,  compressed  except  in  the  upper  part 
where  it  is  rather  ventricose,  thin,  extremely  glossy,  iridescent 
(especially  in  the  young  state  and  near  the  beaks) ,  finely  and 
regularly  striated  or  ribbed  concentrically,  with  from  3  to  5 
separate  and  deeper  grooves  which  encircle  the  umbonal  region, 
the  strise  or  ribs  being  rather  broad  ;  yellowish- white  or  light 
horn-colour  :  epidermis  a  mere  film  :  anterior  side  somewhat 
truncate,  but  rounded:  posterior  side  slightly  produced  and 
sloping  abruptly  below  :  lower  margin  rounded  :  healcs  nearly 
central,  rather  prominent,  but  obtuse  :  ligament  very  short, 
and  scarcely  discernible :  inside  w^hitish,  and  plainly  showing 
the  scars  of  the  adductor  muscles  and  mantle  :  hinge  and  teeth 
as  in  the  two  last  species.    L.  0*15.    B.  0*15. 

Var.  splendens.  Shell  of  a  lemon-colour,  nearly  half  as 
large  again  as  that  of  the  ordinary  form,  stronger,  less  glossy, 
rather  more  obhque,  and  less  deeply  striated,  with  the  beaks 
more  swollen  and  the  hgament  stronger  and  perceptible. 

Habitat  :  Lakes,  ponds,  and  standing  water  in  all 
parts  of  the  kingdom  from  Zetland  to  the  Channel 
Isles.     Malm  has  described  and  figured  it  as  a  Swedish 

*  Glossy. 

C 


26  SPH^RIID^. 

species  ;  and  Moquin-Tandon  has  noticed  it  as  Corsican. 
I  have  found  it  also  on  all  parts  of  the  Continent.  The 
variety  splendens  of  Baudon  occurs  in  lakes  near  Lerwick, 
and  at  Balmacarra  in  West  Ross.  A  monstrosity  or 
distortion  of  this  species,  as  well  as  of  P.  fontinale  (var. 
Henslowand),  is  sometimes  met  with,  which  has  the 
valves  constricted  or  divided  by  a  longitudinal  groove. 
This  accidental  phenomenon  in  the  typical  form  of  P. 
fontinale  induced  M.  Bourguignat  to  consider  it  a  distinct 
species,  and  to  give  it  the  name  of  P.  sinuatum.  It  is 
caused  by  a  laceration  or  injury  of  the  front  margin  of 
the  mantle. 

This  may  be  distinguished  from  all  the  preceding  spe- 
cies by  its  rounded  outline,  much  more  glossy  and  iri- 
descent appearance,  and  by  a  few  separate  and  deeper 
grooves  or  lines  which  encircle  the  beak  and  are  espe- 
cially perceptible  in  young  shells.  This  is  also  the  only 
kind  of  Pisidium  which  has  the  tube  funnel-shaped  and 
its  outer  margin  crenulated  or  plaited.  For  the  dis- 
covery of  this  species  science  is  indebted  to  Mr.  Jenyns. 

D.  OhJong. 
5.  P.  Ro'sEUM^,  Scholtz. 

p.  roseum,  Scholtz,  Schlesien's  L.-  und  W.-Moll.  p.  140;  Jeffr.  in  Ann. 
Nat.  Hist.  s.  3.  vol.  iii.  p.  38,  pi.  ii.  f.  3. 

Body  opaline  white,  orange -yellow,  red,  or  rose-eoloiu-  in 
the  upper  part :  tube  long,  slender,  subconical,  and  truncate  at 
its  orifice  :  foot  long,  semitransparent. 

Shell  subrhombic,  ventricose,  thin,  very  glossy,  deeply  and 
regularly  striated  concentrically ;  yellowish-white  or  light 
horn-colour :  epidermis  extremely  thin  :  anterior  side  truncate 
and  sloping  abruptly  below  :  posterior  side  much  produced  and 
rounded :  lovjer  margin  nearly  straight :  healcs  placed  con- 
siderably on  one  side,  rather  prominent,  but  obtuse :  ligament 

*  Eosc -colour. 


PISIDIUM.  27 

inconspicuous :  inside  nacreons-white :  Tiinge-Une  nearly 
straight ;  cardinal  teeth  very  minute  and  almost  impercep- 
tible ;  lateral  teeth  not  well  developed,  except  towards  their 
outer  edges,  which  are  strong  and  sharp :  muscular  QXid.'paUial 
scars  scarcely  visible.    L.  0*1.    B.  0-15. 

Habitat  :  Marshes,  ponds,  ditches,  and  stagnant  water 
from  Zetland  to  Guernsey.  It  also  occurs  in  Silesia, 
Sweden,  and  France ;  and  I  have  found  it  in  Prussia. 
It  has  probably  escaped  notice  in  other  parts  of  the  Con- 
tinent. 

This  species  differs  from  all  its  congeners  in  its  oblong 
or  rhomboid  shape,  which  is  principally  owing  to  the 
greater  extension  of  the  posterior  side,  and  to  the  beaks 
being  consequently  placed  so  much  out  of  the  centre,  as 
well  as  to  the  compression  and  nearly  straight  outline  of 
the  lower  or  front  margin.  It  is  considerably  more 
ventricose  than  P.  nitidum,  which  it  resembles  in  its 
gloss  and  sculptm^e.  The  umbonal  strise  are,  besides, 
not  perceptible  in  the  species  under  consideration ;  and 
the  tube  does  not  appear  to  have  the  margin  of  its 
orifice  plaited.  The  body  has  usually  a  rosy  or  reddish 
hue  in  the  upper  part,  which  is  discernible  in  the  dried 
animal. 

It  was  not  without  much  hesitation  that  I  adopted  the 
name  given  by  Scholtz  for  this  species,  because  in  a 
Supplement  to  the  second  edition  of  his  work  he  con- 
sidered it  to  be  a  variety  of  P.  fontinale ;  but  the  colour 
of  the  animal,  which  at  first  induced  him  to  propose 
this  as  a  distinct  species,  appears  to  form  a  good  and 
constant  mark  of  distinction,  and  one  of  the  epithets 
which  he  applied  to  the  shell  ("langlichrundlich^^)  is 
very  appropriate.  The  only  other  species  of  Pisidium 
besides  this,  which  Scholtz  has  noticed,  are  fontinale, 
amnicum,  and  obtusale.  Whether  it  may  ultimately  be 
united  with  nitidum  is,  however,  a  question  which  I,  for 

c2 


28  UNIONID/E. 

one^  shall  not  consider  unreasonable,  although  my  pre- 
sent impression  is  that  they  are  distinct  species.  The 
variation  of  form  and  sculpture  is  undeniably  very  great 
in  all  freshwater  shells ;  and  this  is  probably  caused  not 
only  by  the  greater  or  less  supply  of  food  procurable 
by  these  mollusks,  but  also  by  the  chemical  ingredients 
of  the  water  from  which  their  materials  are  secreted  or 
extracted.  Development  of  size,  and  of  particular  por- 
tions of  the  shell  (by  which  its  shape  is  determined), 
seems  to  depend  on  the  former  condition,  while  its 
solidity  and  sculpture  are  affected  by  the  nature  of  the 
fluid  which  these  moUusks  inhabit.  The  present  species 
is  the  P.  tetragonum  of  Normand  and  the  P.  arcceforme 
of  Malm. 

As  some  test  of  specific  distinction,  I  would  remark 
that  the  following  species  of  Pisidiiim  are  often  found 
living  together  :  viz.,  amnicum  Sind  fontinale  (var.  Hens- 
lowana)  ;  fontinale  and  pusillum ;  and  fontinale  (var. 
pallida),  nitiduyn,  and  roseum.  Each  of  the  above  is  also 
sometimes  found  solitary,  or  in  company  with  various 
species  of  SphcBriurn, 

Family  II.  UNIONIDtE. 

Body  oblong,  compressed :  mantle  open  on  all  sides  except 
at  the  back,  but  forming  at  the  posterior  side  two  orifices, 
which  correspond  with  the  cylinder  or  tubes  of  the  SpJiceriidce. 
The  smaller  and  upper,  or  excretal,  orifice  is  separated  from 
the  larger  and  lower,  or  branchial,  orifice  by  an  intermediate 
fold  of  the  mantle.  The  margin  of  the  first-mentioned  orifice 
is  plain ;  but  the  other  is  fringed  with  several  rows  of  cim 
or  tentacles.  Mouth  placed  as  in  the  last  family.  Foot  large, 
broad,  and  tongue-shaped. 

Shell  equivalve,  oblong,  inequilateral,  compressed :  epi- 
dermis thick  :  becdcs  (which  form  the  nucleus  or  young  shell) 
plaited  or  wrinkled:  ligament  external,  strong,  and  always 
conspicuous  :  inside  pearly  :  himje  furnished  with  lateral  teeth 


UNIONID^.  29 

only ;  those  on  the  anterior  side  being  sometimes  so  much 
developed  as  to  resemble  cardinal  teeth. 

Some  of  these  mollusks^  which  are  often  called  "  fresh- 
water Mussels/^  are  ovoviviparous^  like  those  of  the  last 
family,  and  retain  their  young  within  the  folds  of  the 
mantle  for  some  time  before  they  are  finally  excluded ; 
while  others  are  oviparous,  like  the  majority  of  mollusks. 
It  was  for  a  long  time  supposed  that  they  were  of  sepa- 
rate sexes,  and  Von  Siebold  distinguished  Atiodonfa 
cygiiea  as  the  male,  and  A.  Cellensis  as  the  female,  of  the 
same  species ;  but  Moquin-Tandon  seems  to  have  now 
proved  satisfactorily  that  both  sexes  are  common  to  each 
individual  or  that  they  are  all  monoecious.  They  in- 
habit rivers  and  other  large  pieces  of  water.  Their 
habits  are  tolerably  active  in  the  spring,  or  when  in 
search  of  a  suitable  feeding-place  ;  and  by  means  of  their 
large  fleshy  foot  they  are  able  to  traverse  considerable 
distances,  leaving  a  track  or  furrow  in  the  soft  mud. 
When  the  water  is  slowly  drained  off",  or  dried  up  by  the 
heat  of  summer,  as  well  as  in  the  winter,  they  bury  them- 
selves in  the  mud.  Their  food  consists  of  Entomostraca 
and  other  minute  animals.  According  to  Mr.  Anthony, 
an  American  conchologist,  who  has  especially  studied 
the  members  of  this  family,  some  species  spin  a  byssus. 
It  is  difficult  to  separate  this  family  from  their  marine 
analogues,  the  true  Mussels,  on  merely  malacological 
grounds ;  but  I  believe  a  good  conchological  distinction 
(considering  the  shell  to  form  an  integral  and  important 
part  of  the  animal)  is  maintainable  in  the  position  of  the 
ligament  and  beaks.  The  former  is  external  in  the 
UnionidcB,  while  it  is  internal  in  the  MytiUdcs  ;  and  the 
beaks  are  nearly  terminal  in  the  latter,  but  in  the  former 
they  are  seldom  placed  at  a  less  distance  than  one-fourth 
from  the  anterior  end.     Besides  these  marks  of  distinc- 


30  UNIONIDiE. 

tion^  there  are  no  lateral  teeth  in  Mytilida,  and  in  My- 
tilus  the  cardinal  teeth  are  conspicuous.  In  the  Unio- 
nid(2,  on  the  other  hand,  the  lateral  teeth  are  always, 
and  the  cardinal  teeth  never,  present.  I  am  quite  aware 
that  this  last  statement  will  be  objected  to  by  all  those 
conchologists  who  believe  that,  at  all  events,  the  shells  of 
Vnio  are  furnished  with  cardinal  teeth.  But  I  venture 
to  submit  that  these  teeth  are  lateral,  and  not  cardinal ; 
that  they  are  not,  like  the  cardinal  teeth  in  the  S^jIkb- 
riidcB,  placed  at  a  right  angle  to  the  hinge-line,  but  that 
they  are,  on  the  contrary,  parallel  to  it;  and  that  they 
are  always  lamellar  and  form  more  or  less  elevated  ridges, 
like  the  true  lateral  teeth  in  other  bivalves.  In  the 
genus  Anodo7ita,  indeed,  the  lateral  teeth  are  not  so 
strongly  developed  as  in  Unio,  and  they  may  in  some 
cases  be  considered  as  rudimentary ;  but  in  nearly  all 
the  species  of  Anodonta  these  teeth  form  a  well-defined 
and  often  sharp  crest,  especially  on  the  posterior  or  liga- 
mental  side.  The  unusually  great  length  and  strength 
of  the  ligament  in  Anodonta  seems  to  render  the  use  of 
lateral  teeth  in  supporting  the  hinge  almost  unnecessary ; 
and  in  this,  as  well  as  in  many  other  cases  of  a  similar 
kind,  the  original  form  of  such  organs  is  retained  in  an 
imperfect  state,  although  their  use  has  ceased  to  exist. 

The  study  of  the  European  members  of  this  family 
has  for  a  long  time  attracted  the  attention  of  continental 
naturalists ;  and  Carl  Pfeiffer,  Rossmassler,  and  Henri 
Drouet  have  especially  applied  themselves  to  this  diffi- 
cult task.  A  valuable  monograph  has  been  published 
by  the  last-named  naturalist,  entitled  "  Etudes  sur  les 
Naiades  de  la  France  ;^^  the  work  being  dedicated  to  the 
late  King  of  Portugal,  whose  devotion  to  conchology 
was  the  more  remarkable  because  this  branch  of  natural 
history  has  not  been  cultivated  by  many  crowned  heads. 


« 


UNIO.  31 

In  this  country  very  little  has  been  done  to  advance  our 
knowledge  of  the  Unionidce ;  and  it  would  be  extremely 
desirable  if  naturalists  who  reside  in  the  country  would 
carefully  notice  and  record  any  instances  of  different 
kinds  occurring  in  the  same  waters,  and  whether  any 
intermediate  forms  are  found  in  such  localities. 


Genus  I.  U'NIO^  Philippsson.     PI.  I.  f.  5,  6. 

Body  elongated,  rather  ventricose  :  gills  nearly  straight : 
labial  paljps  ovate. 

Shell  elongated,  soUd :  lateral  teeth  strong  :  lunide  or  heart- 
shaped  depression  on  the  anterior  side  distinct. 

This  genus  was  founded  by  Philippsson  in  1788  in  an 
inaugural  Lecture  entitled  "  Dissertatio  historico-natu- 
ralis  sistens  nova  Testaceorum  genera ;"  but,  owing  to 
the  circumstance  of  its  having  been  delivered  at  a  meet- 
ing of  which  Hetz  was  the  president,  the  latter  has 
usually  had  the  credit  of  founding  the  genus.  From 
this  genus  it  has  been  since  proposed  to  separate  the 
Pearl-Mussel,  under  the  name  of  Margaritana,  or  Alas- 
modon,  on  account  of  the  teeth  being  less  developed ;  but 
there  does  not  appear  to  be  sufficient  reason,  on  con- 
chological  grounds,  for  this  separation.  The  animals,  or 
bodies,  of  these  so-called  genera  cannot  be  distinguished 
from  each  other.  All  the  species  are,  according  to 
Moquin-Tandon,  oviparous. 

Many  species  of  Unio  have  been  described  by  Conti- 
nental writers ;  and  even  Moquin-Tandon,  who  is  by  no 
means  addicted  to  this  kind  of  manufacture,  has  ad- 
mitted no  less  than  eleven.  Two  of  these  (viz.  U.  Batavus 
and  U.  rhomboideus  [or  littoralis]) ,  which  are  widely  dif. 
fused  throughout  France,  have  not  yet  been  detected  in 

*  A  pearl. 


32  UNIONID^. 

this  country,  although  the  latter  is  not  uncommon,  in  a 
fossil  state,  in  our  upper  freshwater  tertiary  beds. 

That  part  of  the  shell  which  surrounds  the  beaks 
(called  the  "  umbonal  region ")  is  sometimes  eroded  or 
excoriated  in  these,  as  well  as  in  other  members  of  the 
family.  I  believe  it  is  caused  by  the  chemical  action  of 
gases  which  are  evolved  from  the  mud  in  which  this  por- 
tion of  the  shell  is  usually  imbedded.  No  reliance  can 
therefore  be  placed  on  such  a  feature  as  a  mark  of  specific 
distinction. 

The  word  "  Unio  ^'  is,  according  to  Pliny,  masculine. 

1.  Unio  tu'midus^,  Philippsson. 

U.  tumidus,  Philipps.  Nov.  Test.  Gen.  p.  17  ;  F.  &  H.  ii.  p.  140,  pi.  xl.  f.  1. 

Body  greyish :  mantle  bordered  with  white ;  the  excretal 
orifice  being  produced  into  a  short  tube,  and  of  a  brownish 
colour  with  sometimes  a  few  purplish  streaks ;  the  branchial 
orifice  mottled  with  orange-brown :  foot  milk-white,  with  a 
pale  orange  tint,  thick  and  broad :  gills  pale  grey :  labial 
palps  rather  broad. 

Shell  oval,  very  convex  above,  solid,  rather  glossy,  yel- 
lowish-brown, transversely  wrinkled  :  epidermis  rather  thick : 
heahs  slightly  incurved,  and  placed  at  a  distance  of  about  one- 
fourth  from  the  anterior  side  :  umbonal  region  prominent  and 
strongly  plaited  in  a  wave-like  manner,  the  folds  sometimes 
rising  into  sharp  knobs  or  tubercles  :  lunule  lance-shaped  and 
narrow  :  ligament  short,  strong,  and  prominent :  anterior  side 
rounded  and  regularly  sloping  towards  the  front:  posterior 
side  gradually  sloping  to  a  wedge-hke  point :  lower  inargin 
reffularlv  curved:  inside  white  and  nacreous,  with  a  faint 
tinge  of  blue :  hinge  strong ;  the  right  valve  having  on  its 
anterior  side  a  broad,  thick,  and  bifid  tooth,  Avhich  is  slightly 
bent  forwards,  and  irregularly  grooved  so  as  to  make  its  crest 
notched,  and  having  on  its  posterior  side  a  long  and  deep 
channel  or  groove,  formed  by  a  double  plate,  to  receive  the 
corresponding  tooth  of  tlie  other  valve  ;  left  valve  furnished 
at  its  anterior  side  yni\\  a  single  wedge-shaped  and  strong 

*  Swollen. 


UNio.  33 

tooth,  which  is  also  grooved  and  notched  like  the  double  tooth 
of  the  right  valve  into  which  it  locks ;  this  valve  has  also  a 
long,  sharp  and  crest-like  plate  on  the  posterior  side  which  is 
morticed  into  the  channel  or  groove  above  mentioned :  muscular 
2iDA pallial  scars  very  deep  and  distinct.    L.  1*5.    B.  3. 

Var.  1.  radiata.  Shell  thinner :  epidermis  green,  marked 
with  divergent  yellow  rays,  which  are  interrupted  by  trans- 
verse narrow  zones  of  the  latter  colour ;  posterior  side  more 
compressed  above:  hinge-line  nearly  straight,  especially  in 
half-grown  specimens. 

Var.  2.  ovalis.  Shell  triangular-oval,  or  wedge-shaped, 
compressed  and  somewhat  incurved  in  the  middle,  rather 
inequivalve  in  consequence  of  the  right  valve  slightly  over- 
lapping the  other,  dark  olive-brown :  anterior  side  much 
broader  and  abruptly  truncate :  lunule  very  broad,  deep,  and 
oblique.     Mya  ovalis,  Montagu,  Test.  Brit.  pp.  34  &  563. 

Habitat  :  Rivers,  canals,  and  ponds  in  England  as 
far  north  as  the  Went  in  Yorkshire,  and  also  in  South 
Wales ;  and  it  is  one  of  our  upper  tertiary  fossils.  Its 
range  extends  northwards  as  far  as  Finland ;  but  it  does 
not  appear  to  have  been  met  with  south  of  the  Rhone. 
Var.  1.  R.  Avon,  near  Bath  (Clark)  ;  Railway  lake  near 
Oxford  (Whiteaves).  Var.  2.  R.  Avon,  Wilts  (Montagu); 
R.  Brent  (Metcalfe) ;  and  from  Mrs.  Loscombe's  col- 
lection of  British  shells.  The  late  Mr.  Clark  also  found 
this  variety  near  Bath,  having  a  green  epidermis  which 
is  marked  longitudinally  with  yellow  rays,  and  trans- 
versely with  alternate  zones  of  green  and  yellow.  My 
cabinet  contains  a  specimen  of  the  last  variety,  wliich 
was  sent  by  Col.  Montagu  to  my  late  friend  Mr.  Dillwyn, 
and  by  the  latter  presented  to  me  with  a  few  other 
typical  specimens  from  that  excellent  British  zoologist. 
The  inside  of  each  valve  bears,  in  his  well-known  hand- 
writing, the  words  "Mya  ovalis,  Wiltshire."  This,  there- 
fore, shows  what  Montagues  species  really  was ;  and  it 
is  the  more  interesting  because  the  authors  of  the  '  British 

c  5 


34  UNIONID^. 

Mollusca '  referred  it  both  to  U.  tumidus  and  U.  picto- 
rum,  while  Moquin-Tandon  considered  it  to  be  a  variety 
of  U.  Batavus,  It  is  more  strictly  a  monstrosity^  or 
abnormal  form^  than  a  variety. 

This  species  sometimes  occurs  in  company  with  the 
next.  The  Rev.  A.  M.  Norman  has  recorded  in  the 
'  Zoologist'  for  1857  having  taken  specimens  at  Fleck- 
ney  and  Wistow  in  Leicestershire  of  the  extraordinary 
dimensions  of  nearly  4i  inches  in  breadth  and  more 
than  2  inches  in  lengthy  the  weight  being  over  3  ounces. 
Beneath  the  epidermis  the  colour  of  the  shell  in  this  and 
the  next  species  is  cream-white.  A  single  individual  of 
U,  tumidus  has  been  known  to  lay  1500  eggs  in  two  or 
three  days.  They  are  deposited  in  small  clusters,  each 
of  which  contains  about  100  eggs. 

2.  IT.  picto'rum*,  Linne. 

Mya  pictorum,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  ed.  xii.  p.  1112.     U.  pictorum,  F.  &H. 
ii.  p.  142,  pi.  xxxix.  f.  1,  and  (animal)  pi.  Q.  f.  2, 

Body  clear  red,  with  a  more  or  less  grej^sh  tint :  mantle 
bordered  with  brown  ;  orifices  of  the  same  form  and  colour  as 
in  the  last  species :  foot  reddish  or  yellowish -white,  large  and 
tongue-shaped  :  gills  grey  :  labial  palps  oval. 

Shell  oblong,  compressed,  not  so  solid  as  the  last  species, 
glossy,  yellow,  with  narrow  zones  of  brown  which  denote 
the  marks  of  growth,  transversely  wrinkled,  with  stronger 
furrows  on  the  posterior  side  :  epidermis  rather  thin :  beaks 
very  httle  incurved,  and  placed  at  a  distance  of  between  one- 
fourth  and  one-fifth  from  the  anterior  side :  umbonal  region 
not  so  prominent  nor  so  strongly  wrinkled  as  in  the  preceding 
species  :  lumde  long  and  narrow :  ligament  longer  than  in  U. 
tumidus  :  upper  margin  or  hinge-line  nearly  straight :  anterior 
side  rounded  :  posterior  side  very  gradually  sloping  and  rounded 
at  its  extremity,  compressed  or  pinched-up  above :  lower  margin 
nearly  straight :  inside  cream-white  or  salmon-colour,  highly 
nacreous  :  Jiinge  not  so  strong  as  in  the  last  species ;  the  teeth 

*  Painters'. 


uNio.  39 

similarly  arranged,  but  they  are  finer,  sharper,  and  more  erect : 
muscular  scars  distinct :  pallial  scar  faint,  owing  to  the  greater 
thickness  of  the  nacreous  lining.     L.  1-33.   B.  3. 

Var.  1.  racliata.  Shell  having  faint  and  narrow  rays  of 
green  which  diverge  from  the  beak. 

Var.  2.  curvirostris.  Shell  smaller,  shorter,  and  flatter: 
epidermis  yellowish-green,  with  brown  zones  :  posterior  side 
curved  and  wedge-shaped.      U.  curvirostris,  Normand. 

Var.  3.  latior.     Shell  broader  and  shorter,  yellowish-brown. 

Var.  4.  compressa.  Shell  very  broad  and  flat ;  upper  margin 
raised  and  curved :  posterior  side  greatly  compressed  and  at- 
tenuated, assuming  a  beak-like  form,  and  having  a  double 
ridge  and  furrow  which  runs  from  the  beak  in  the  younger 
state  of  growth  :  lower  margin  straight :  lunule  broad,  and  ex- 
tending between  the  beaks,  so  as  to  separate  them  from  each 
other. 

Habitat  :  Rivers,  ponds,  and  canals  throughout  En- 
gland ;  but  it  does  not  appear  to  have  been  found  north 
of  Yorkshire.  It  is  also  one  of  our  upper  tertiary  fossils. 
It  ranges  from  Finland  to  Algeria  and  Sicily.  Var.  1. 
R.  Avon,  Bath  (Clark).  Var.  2.  From  Clark's  and 
Mrs.  Loscombe's  collections  of  British  shells,,  but  with- 
out any  indication  of  locality.  Var.  3.  Canal  near 
Oxford  (Whiteaves).  Var.  4.  Norwich  (Bridgman). 
This  remarkable  form  might  easily  be  raised  to  the 
rank  of  a  distinct  species ;  but  I  can  only  regard  it  as 
abnormal,  and  analogous  to  the  variety  ovalis  of  U.  tu- 
midus. 

This  species  was  confounded  by  Lister,  Linne,  Miiller, 
Draparnaud,  and  all  the  older  writers  with  U.  tumidus. 
It  differs  from  that  species  in  the  form  of  the  shell,  which 
is  oblong  instead  of  oval ;  in  its  much  greater  propor- 
tionate breadth ;  its  thinner  texture ;  in  the  upper  and 
lower  margins  being  nearly  straight  and  parallel,  instead 
of  being  curved  and  wedge-shaped ;  in  the  umbonal 
region  being  much  less  prominent  and  swollen;  and  in 


86  UNIONIDiE. 

the  hinge  not  being  so  strong,  nor  the  teeth  so  thick,, 
as  in  U.  tumidus.  It  has  been  noticed  by  Mr.  Norman 
to  attain,  in  ponds  at  Fleckney  and  Wistow  in  Leices- 
tershire, the  great  size  of  4^^  inches  in  breadth  and  2\ 
in  length,  and  to  weigh  2  oz.  6  dr. 

It  is,  however,  by  no  means  easy  to  draw  a  satis- 
factory line  of  separation  between  this  and  the  last 
species,  which  are  connected  by  several  intermediate 
forms,  and  especially  by  the  U.  Philippi  of  Dupuy.  The 
fact  of  their  inhabiting  the  same  spot  shows,  at  all 
events,  that  one  of  them  is  not  a  local  variety  of  the 
other ;  and  this  ought,  I  think,  to  weigh  in  the  scale  of 
specific  distinction.  Whether  one,  or  both,  of  these  now 
reputed  species  have  become  in  course  of  time  permanent 
varieties  or  "  races ''  of  the  same  or  some  other  species, 
may  be  regarded  as  an  antiquarian  (although  interesting) 
question,  which  does  not  properly  belong  to  the  province 
of  the  zoologist. 

Both  of  these  species  produce  pearls,  though  of  very 
small  size  and  inferior  lustre.  A  consolidated  mass  of 
pearly  secretion  is  sometimes  formed  inside  the  right 
valve  near  the  margin  of  the  posterior  side.  The  shells 
were  used  by  Dutch  painters  (from  which  the  specific 
name  of  pictormn  originated)  for  holding  their  colours ; 
and  they  are  still  to  be  had  of  any  artists' -colourman  in 
this  country,  containing  a  preparation  of  ground  gold 
and  silver  leaf,  for  illuminating  work,  the  other  purpose 
having  been  superseded  by  palettes.  Bouchard-Chan- 
tereaux  calculated  that  each  individual  of  U.  piciorum 
produced,  in  the  breeding-season  of  May,  June,  and 
July,  no  less  than  220,000  eggs. 

The  variety  curvirostris  bears  a  strong  resemblance  to 
some  of  the  varieties  of  U.  Batavus  ;  but  there  is  no 
satisfactory  proof  of  that  species  having  been  found  in 


uNio.  37 

Great  Britain.  A  specimen  named  Unio  Batavus  in 
Dr.  Turton^s  collection  of  British  shells  is  clearly  a  dwarf 
variety  of  that  species^,  and  is  the  Unio  nana  of  Lamarck, 
U.  amnicus  of  Ziegler,  U.  Batavus  var.  e.  pusillus  of  Ross- 
massler,  and  U.  nanus  of  Dupuy.  This  specimen  does 
not  at  all  agree  with  the  description  or  figure  given 
by  Turton  of  his  My  sea  Batava  in  his  '  Manual  ^ ;  and  it 
was  not  accompanied  by  any  note  of  the  locality.  I  do 
not,  however,  despair  of  this  species,  as  well  as  of  U. 
rhomboidezis  (or  littoralis),  being  discovered  in  this 
country.  Both  of  them  inhabit  the  North  of  France ; 
and  the  latter  once  lived  in  our  eastern  counties. 

3.  U.  margari'tifer*,  Linne. 

j\fya  margaritifera,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  ed.  xii.  p.  1112.     JJ.  margaritiferus, 
F.  &  H.  ii.  p.  146,  pi.  xxxviii  (as  Alasmodonta  margaritifera). 

Body  dirty  grey,  with  sometimes  a  tint  of  flesh-colour : 
mantle  bordered  below  with  brown,  and  above  with  white; 
cirri  oblong  and  dark  brown :  foot  large,  tongue-shaped,  grey- 
ish-yellow, or  dirty  red :  gilJs  greyish-brown,  with  whitish 
streaks :  labial  palps  broader  than  long,  and  united  for  two- 
thirds  of  their  length. 

Shell  oblong,  much  compressed,  sohd,  having  a  dull  surface, 
dark  bro^vn,  or  nearly  black,  transversely  and  irregularly 
wrinkled,  especially  on  the  posterior  side,  with  very  fine  but 
obscure  longitudinal  striae,  which  are  interrupted  by  the  fines 
of  growth  :  epidermis  thick :  heahs  incurved,  and  placed  at  a 
distance  of  about  one-fourth  from  the  anterior  side  :  umhondl 
region  not  prominent,  always  decorticated  or  eroded,  and  to 
such  an  extent  as  to  expose  several  of  the  inner  layers  :  lunide 
narrow  and  indistinct :  ligament  very  long,  and  extending  to  the 
anterior  side :  hinge-line  curved :  anterior  side  rounded :  pos- 
terior side  very  gradually  sloping  and  rounded  at  its  extremity, 
pinched-up  above  into  a  blunt  keel  or  ridge :  lovjer  margin 
straight :  inside  pearly-white,  with  a  tint  of  flesh-colour  and 
blotches  of  olive-green  in  the  region  of  the  adductor  muscles, 
pitted  in  the  middle  by  tubercular  folds  of  the  mantle  :    hinge 

*  Pearl-bearer. 


38  UNIONID.E. 

strong  ;  the  right  valve  having  on  its  anterior  side  a  very  broad, 
thick,  and  blunt  double  tooth,  the  crest  of  which  is  irregularly 
tubercled,  and  on  its  posterior  side  a  blunt  and  obscure  ridge - 
like  plate,  which  in  yoiing  specimens  is  grooved  or  double  ; 
left  valve  furnished  at  its  anterior  side  with  a  single,  conical, 
strong  and  blunt  tooth  which  locks  into  the  double  tooth,  the 
posterior  tooth  in  this  valve  being  similar  to  the  corresponding 
one  in  the  right  valve  :  muscular  and  pallial  scars  very  deep 
and  distinct.     L.  2-4.    B.  5. 

Var.  1.  sinuata.  Shell  rather  broader  in  proportion  to  its 
length  than  in  the  type,  yellowish-brown  :  lower  margin  in- 
curved towards  the  middle.  U.  sinuata,  Lam.  Hist.  An.  s. 
V.  vi.  pt.  i.  p.  70. 

Var.  2.  Boissyi.  Shell  proportionably  longer :  lower  mar (jin 
convex,  or  rounded.  U.  Roissyi,  Michaud,  Compl.  p.  112. 
pi.  xvi.  f.  27,  28. 

Habitat  :  Mountain  rivers  and  streams  throughout 
the  British  Isles.  It  is  found  in  several  parts  of  the 
Swansea  Canal  where  the  bottom  is  gravelly,  having 
been  carried  in  by  the  water-courses  which  supply  it. 
It  also  ranges  through  the  mountainous  and  hilly  parts 
of  the  Continent  from  Lapland  to  the  Pyrenees.  Var.  1. 
West  of  Scotland  (Bedford  and  J.  G.  J.) ;  West  of 
Ireland  (Humphreys  and  Barlee).  A  specimen  of  this 
form  from  Co.  Kerry  measures  nearly  6  inches  in 
breadth  or  width.  Var.  2.  Yorkshire  (Sowerby).  A 
monstrosity  also  occurs  having  a  longitudinal  ridge  in 
the  middle  of  the  sheU. 

This  species  differs  from  all  the  others  in  its  shell 
being  much  longer  (measured  from  the  beak  to  the  lower 
or  front  margin)  as  well  as  more  depressed,  in  its  dull 
aspect  and  much  darker  colour,  the  extensive  erosion  of 
its  umbonal  region,  and  especially  in  the  posterior  teeth 
being  scarcely  developed. 

The  lining  of  mother-of-pearl  is  equal  to  half  the 
entire  thickness  of  the  shell,  as  may  be  seen  by  grinding 


ANODONTA.  39. 

and  polishing  one  of  the  valves.  The  surface  of  the  shell 
is  of  a  dull  white  beneath  the  epidermis.  Pearls  ob- 
tained from  this  kind  of  Mussel  are  mostly  white ;  but 
they  are  sometimes  green  or  brown,  and  occasionally 
(but  very  seldom)  they  are  met  with  of  a  lovely  pink 
colour  and  worth  being  set  in  a  brooch  or  ring. 

In  Forbes  and  Hanley^s  work  will  be  found  a  full  and 
interesting  account  of  the  freshwater  pearl  fisheries, 
which  have  been  for  so  many  centuries,  though  with 
little  success,  prosecuted  in  these  Islands.  But  to  amuse 
my  readers,  and  to  give  some  idea  of  the  state  of  Natural 
History  in  Camden^s  time,  I  will  add  the  following 
extract  from  his  '  Britannia,^  under  the  head  of  "  Cum- 
berland." 

"  Higher  up,  the  little  river  Irt  runs  into  the  sea, 
in  which  the  shell-fish  having  by  a  kind  of  irregular 
motion  {oscitatione)  taken  in  the  dew,  which  they  are 
extremely  fond  of,  are  impregnated,  and  produce  pearls, 
or  to  use  the  Poet's  phrase,  baccce  conchea,  shell-berries, 
which  the  inhabitants,  when  the  tide  is  out,  search  for, 
and  our  Jewellers  buy  of  the  poor  for  a  trifle,  and  seU 
again  at  a  very  great  price.  Of  these  and  the  like  Mar- 
modeus  seems  to  speak  in  that  line, 

"  Gignis  et  insignes,  antiqua  Britannia,  baccas." 

It  seems  that  Marmodeus  wrote  a  Latin  poem  on 
jewels  and  precious  stones,  which  was  published  at 
Cologne  in  1539. 

Genus  II.  ANODON'TA^,  Lamarck.     PI.  11.  f.  1,  2. 

Body  oblong-oval,  compressed :  gills  flexuous  :  labial  palps 
lanceolate. 

Shell  oblong-oval,  thin :  hinge  having  only  rudimentary 
teeth :  lunule  slight  and  indistinct. 

*  Toothless. 


40  UNIONID^. 

The  habits  of  the  Anodontce  are  the  same  as  those  of 
the  Uniones ;  but  they  differ,  according  to  Moquin-Tan- 
don,  in  being  ovoviviparous. 

It  is  by  no  means  an  easy  task  to  distinguish  some  of 
the  species  of  Unio ;  but  the  difficulty  is  much  greater 
in  attempting  to  separate  the  various  forms  of  Anodonta. 
Even  the  great  Danish  naturalist,  Miiller,  entertained 
grave  doubts,  nearly  a  century  ago,  whether  there  ex- 
isted more  than  one  Scandinavian  species ;  although  his 
hesitation  was  not  participated  in  by  Nilsson  and  subse- 
quent writers  on  the  Mollusca  of  that  country.    In  other 
parts  of  the  Continent,  the  long  array  of  specific  names, 
which  have  been  recorded  by  H.  Drouet,  shows  that  the 
tendency  of  modern  conchologists   has  been  vastly  to 
increase   the   number   of  European   species.      In   this 
country,  Montagu,  with  all  his  powers  of  discrimination, 
evidently  entertained  considerable  doubt  as  to  the  spe- 
cific difference  between  A.  cygnea  and  A.  anatina  ;  and 
Turton,  more  than  thirty  years  ago,  expressed  his  opinion 
"that  all  our  supposed  species  of  this  genus  maybe 
justly  resolved  into  one,  varying  in  their  outline,  con- 
sistence, and  colour,  from  age  and  local  circumstances." 
This  view  has  been  adopted  by  Dr.  Gray  and  the  authors 
of  the  '  British  Mollusca.^     However,  as  long  as  any  di- 
stinction of  species  is  recognized,  we  must  endeavour  to 
deduce  from  the  observation  of  natural  phenomena  any 
facts  which  may  facilitate  such  investigation.     One  of 
these  facts  seems  to  consist  in  ascertaining  whether  any 
different  forms  inhabit  together  the  same  spot  and  under 
exactly  similar  conditions,  without  any  appearance  of  an 
intermediate  link  or  gradation.     Montagu  has  recorded 
such  a  fact  with  respect  to  his  Mytilus  avonensis  and 
M.  anatinus ;  Drouet  has  given  other  instances  of  the 
collocation  of  several    species  of  Anodonta  in  French 


ANODONTA.  41 

waters ;  and  Baudon  has  also  noticed  the  same  circum- 
stance in  the  Departement  de  FOise.  All  these  cases 
would  lead  us  to  infer  that  there  exist  at  least  two 
distinct  species  of  Anodonta  in  the  North  of  Europe ; 
and  I  am  only  at  present  prepared  to  go  to  this  extent. 
At  the  same  time,  I  do  not  dispute  the  claims  of  other 
forms  to  specific  rank.  It  would  be  unseemly,  as  well 
as  unjust,  thus  to  depreciate  the  labours  of  those 
naturalists  who  have  so  ably  and  carefully  endeavoured 
to  solve  this  perplexing  problem  j  and  there  is  quite  as 
good  reason  for  believing  that  their  views  as  to  the  ex- 
tension, are  as  correct  as  Ours  as  to  the  reduction,  of  the 
specific  line.  Although,  therefore,  I  only  propose  to 
admit  two  old  Linnean  species  {A.  cygnea  and  A.  ana- 
Una)  J  some  at  least  of  the  varieties  hereafter  indicated 
may  be  considered  distinct  species  by  those  of  my  readers 
who  from  experience  or  choice  may  be  inclined  to  take 
another  view  of  the  case. 

1.  Anodonta  cyg'nea*,  Linne. 

Mytilus  cygneus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  ed.  xii.  p.  1158.     A.  cygnea  (partly), 
F.  &  H.  ii.  p.  155,  pi.  xl.  f.  2,  3,  &  xli,  and  (animal)  pi.  Q.  f.  3. 

Body  grey,  with  a  yellowish  or  reddish  tint :  mantle  bor- 
dered with  tawny-brown  :  foot  large,  broad,  dirty-yellow,  with 
a  tinge  of  orange  or  red  :  gills  grey,  with  occasionally  a  reddish 
hue,  of  a  gauze-like  textm-e :  labial  palps  broadly  triangular. 

Shell  oblong,  rather  ventricose,  thin,  moderately  glossy, 
yellowish-green  or  brown,  transversely  and  irregidarly  grooved 
b)'-  the  hues  of  growth,  and  wrinkled  in  the  same  direction  on 
the  posterior  and  lower  sides  :  epidermis  thin  ;  heahs  straight, 
placed  at  a  distance  of  about  one-fourth  from  the  anterior  ex- 
tremity :  umhonal  regioyi  compressed,  strongly  plaited :  liga- 
ment  rather  long,  strong,  partly  concealed  within  the  over- 
lapping edges  of  the  upper  margin  or  hinge-hne,  which  is 
straight :    anterior  side  not  gaping,  rounded,  and   abruptly 

*  Belonging  to  (e.  g.  food  for)  swans. 


42  UNIONID^. 

sloping  below :  posterior  side  gradually  sloping  and  com- 
pressed above,  produced  into  a  rounded  wedge-like  point,  and 
gaping  :  lower  margin  nearly  straight :  inside  pearl-white  and 
highly  iridescent :  hinge  slight,  having  a  rather  sharp  ridge - 
like  plate  on  the  posterior  side  in  each  valve :  muscular  and 
pallial  scars  very  slight  and  indistinct.    L.  2*75.    B.  5-35. 

Var.  1.  radiata.  Shell  larger,  yellowish-green,  beautifully 
marked  with  longitudinal  rays  or  streaks  of  the  same  colour, 
which  are  sometimes  alternate  :  heaJcs  placed  at  a  distance  of 
only  one-third  from  the  anterior  side.  Mytilus  radiatus,  Miill. 
Verm.  Hist,  pt.  ii.  p.  209. 

Var.  2.  incrassata.  Shell  more  swollen  and  solid,  ohve- 
brown :  upper  margin,  or  hinge-line,  rather  curved  on  the 
posterior  side.  Mytilus  incrassatus,  Shepp.  in  Linn.  Trans. 
xiii.  p.  85,  pi.  5.  f.  4. 

Var.  3.  Zellensis.  Shell  broader,  yellowish-brown,  having 
the  upper  and  lower  sides  nearly  parallel ;  'posterior  side  much 
produced.     Mytilus  Zellensis,  Gmel.  Syst.  Nat.  p.  3262. 

Var.  4.  pallida.  Shell  light  yellow  or  fawn-colour  :  hinge- 
line  rather  cui'ved,  and  raised  on  the  posterior  side,  which  is 
produced  to  a  long  wedge-like  point :  lower  margin  rounded. 

Var.  5.  rostrata.  Shell  oblong-oval,  somewhat  resembhng 
in  shape  Modiola  vulgaris :  upper  margiyi  forming  a  dorsal 
crest,  which  is  slightly  raised  and  curved:  anterior  side 
rounded :  posterior  side  attenuated,  and  ending  in  a  long 
curved  wedge-Hke  point :  lower  margin  nearly  straight.  A. 
rostrata,  (Kokeil)  Eossmiissler,  Iconogr.  iv.  p.  25,  f.  284. 

Habitat  :  Slow  rivers,  lakes,  canals,  and  ponds 
throughout  the  kingdom  as  far  north  as  Banffshire ;  and 
it  is  one  of  our  upper  tertiary  fossils.  It  ranges  from 
Siberia  to  the  Pyrenees.  Var.  1.  Bog  of  Allen,  Ireland 
(Turton) ;  Clumber  lake,  Notts  (J.  G.  J.).  This  variety 
is  the  Mytilus  stagnalis  of  Gmelin,  the  M.  dentatus  of 
Turton's  Conchological  Dictionary,  and  the  M.jMludosus 
of  his  work  on  the  British  Bivalves.  Specimens  of  this 
variety  measure  upwards  of  6  inches  in  breadth.  Dr. 
Turton^s  type  (of  which  only  one  valve  remains)  has  a 
small  pearly  tubercle  on  the  ridge  of  the  laminar  tooth ; 


ANODONTA.  43 

and  I  suspect  that  the  Doctor  mistook  this  excrescence 
for  a  cardinal  tooth,  and  therefore  applied  the  specific 
epithet  "  dentatus/^  He  omitted  any  mention  of  this 
character  in  his  Dithyra,  when  he  changed  the  name  to 
"  paludosus/^  Var.  2.  Scarborough  (Bean) ;  Otters 
pool,  Lancaster  (Tyler) ;  Oxwich  marsh,  near  Swansea 
(J.  G.  J.).  This  is  the  A.  ponderosa  of  C.  PfeiflPer. 
Var.  3.  Bog  of  Allen,  Ireland  (Humphreys)  ;  Clumber 
lake,  Notts  (J.  G.  J.).  It  is  the  A.  Cellensis  of  C.Pfeiffer. 
Var.  4.  West  of  Ireland  (Humphreys).  Var.  5.  R. 
Corfe,  Dorset  (J.  G.  J.) ;  ponds  at  Wistow  in  Leicester- 
shire, Wynyard  Park,  Co.  Durham,  and  Oxford  (Nor- 
man). This  appears  to  be  the  Mytilus  Avonensis  of 
Montagu  (Test.  Brit.  p.  172),  judging  from  his  descrip- 
tion and  the  figure  of  that  species  which  is  given  by 
Maton  and  Rackett  in  the  '  Linnean  Transactions,^  vol. 
viii.  pi.  3.  A.  f.  4.  The  shell  of  this  species  is  also  liable 
to  be  distorted ;  and  I  have  a  specimen  in  which  the 
lower  part  of  the  left  valve  is  deeply  notched  opposite 
the  beak,  owing  to  an  injury  of  the  mantle  on  that  side^ 
the  other  valve  being  entire. 

The  fry  have  triangular  and  pearly  shells,  which  might 
easily  be  mistaken  for  the  valves  of  a  Cypris  or  smaller 
Entomostracan.  The  epidermis  only  is  coloured  in  this, 
as  well  as  in  the  other  species  :  the  surface  of  the  shell 
itself,  under  the  epidermis,  is  white  or  colourless. 

2.  A.  anati'na*,  Linne. 

Mytilus  anatinus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  ed.  xii.  p.  1158.     A.  cygnea  (partly), 
F.  &  H.  ii.  p.  155,  pi.  xxxix.  f.  3. 

Body  grey,  of  different  shades  of  intensity  :  mantle  bordered 
with  dark  brown :  foot  yellowish-grey,  or  red  :  cjiUs,  greyish- 
brown. 

*  Belonging  to  {e.  g.  food  for)  ducks. 


44  UNIONID^. 

Shell  oval,  rather  compressed,  not  so  thin  as  in  the  usual 
or  typical  form  of  the  last  species,  olive-green  or  brown,  ^vith 
darker  transverse  bands  denoting  the  lines  of  growth,  and 
irregularly  wrinkled  in  the  same  direction :  epidermis  rather 
thicker  than  in  A.  cygnea  :  heaJcs  straight,  placed  at  a  distance 
of  about  one-third  from  the  anterior  end :  umhonal  region 
compressed,  closely  plaited :  ligament  short  and  prominent : 
upper  margin  or  hinge-line  raised  into  a  kind  of  crest,  and 
curved:  anterior  side  rounded  and  gaping  below,  with  an 
oblique  slope  towards  the  lower  edge :  posterior  side  curved 
and  abruptly  sloping  to  a  wedge-like  point:  lower  margin 
gently  curved :  inside  and  hinge  as  in  A.  cygnea ;  but  the 
lining  is  much  thicker  in  the  present  species,  and  the  muscular 
impressions  are  consequently  much  more  deep  and  distinct. 
L.2-1.    B.3o. 

Yar.  1.  radiata.  Shell  (or  rather  the  epidermis)  marked 
with  green  and  yellow  rays. 

Yar.  2.  ventricosa.  Shell  larger,  more  solid,  exceedingly 
tumid,  especially  in  the  middle  and  towards  the  umbonal 
region,  also  marked  with  green  and  yellow  rays.  A.  ventri- 
cosa,  C.  Pfeiffer,  ii.  p.  30,  pi.  iii. 

Yar.  3.  complanata.  Shell  oval,  greatly  compressed,  brown: 
healcs  placed  close  to  the  anterior  margin  :  upper  margin  raised 
and  curved  :  anterior  side  abruptly  truncate.  A.  complanata, 
(Ziegler)  Rossmiissler,  iv.  p.  24,  f.  283. 

Habitat  :  Same  as  that  of  A.  cygnea;  but  it  ranges 
further  to  the  south,  being  a  Sicilian  species.  It  has 
not  been  noticed  in  this  country  as  a  tertiary  fossil. 
Var.  1.  The  rayed  markings  form  scarcely  a  varietal 
character,  being  common  to  half-grown  individuals  of  the 
last,  as  well  as  of  this,  species.  Var.  2.  R.  Exe  (Clark). 
This  variety  has  been  referred  by  Moquin-Tandon 
to  A.  cygnea ;  but  it  evidently  belongs  to  the  short 
form,  or  what  is  generally  called  A.  anatina.  None  of 
my  specimens  (of  which  I  possess  a  series)  are  as  broad 
as  the  one  represented  by  Pfeiffer  in  his  figure  4.  This 
variety  attains  a  larger  size  than  the  typical  form,  being 
more  than  3  inches  long,  5  wide,  and  2  in  depth.  Var.  3. 


DREISSENID.E.  45 

Gumfrieston,  near  Tenby  (Smith).  A  monstrosity,  or 
distortion,  of  this  last  variety  is  also  in  my  cabinet, 
which  is  flatter  and  has  a  rounded  outline  above  in 
consequence  of  the  umbonal  region  not  projecting.  A 
young  specimen  of  the  same  variety  is  nearly  round. 
This  appears  to  be  analogous  to  the  variety  rostrata  of 
A,  cygnea,  and  tends  to  confirm  the  idea  of  the  two 
species  being  distinct. 

The  chief  points  of  difiference  between  A.  cygnea  and 
A.  anatina  are,  that  the  shells  of  the  latter  species  are 
smaller  and  comparatively  longer ;  the  hinge-line  or 
crest  is  raised  in  that  species,  instead  of  being  straight 
or  parallel  to  the  lower  margin ;  and  the  posterior  side 
slopes  abruptly  instead  of  (as  in  A.  cygnea)  gradually. 


Family  III.  DEEISSENID^. 

Body  nearly  rhomboidal,  compressed :  mantle  closed,  except 
at  the  posterior  side,  where  it  is  folded  into  two  orifices,  one 
for  respiratory  and  nutritive,  and  the  other  for  excretal purposes, 
besides  an  opening  at  the  lower  or  front  margin  for  the  passage 
of  the  foot.  The  upper,  or  excretal,  fold  is  the  smallest,  and  is 
not  much  produced :  the  other  fold  is  extended  into  a  pyra- 
midal tube,  which  has  a  thickened  or  reflected  margin  and  is 
fringed  with  numerous  short  spine-shaped  cirri  or  tentacles : 
foot  long  and  tongue-shaped,  furnished  with  a  byssal  groove. 

Shell  equivalve,  oblong,  triangular,  very  inequilateral, 
ventricose,  covered  with  a  thick  and  horny  epidermis :  heahs 
placed  at  the  anterior  end :  ligameyit  internal :  inside  porcelain - 
white :  hinge  furnished  with  minute  cardinal  teeth,  but  some- 
times toothless ;  below  the  beak  in  each  valve  is  a  triangular 
shelf  or  hollow  plate  (as  in  the  marine  genus  Crepidula)  for  the 
reception  of  the  anterior  muscle. 

These  characters  are  also  generic,  as  the  family  con- 
tains but  one  genus.  In  their  general  aspect  the  Dreis- 
senidce  bear  a  closer  resemblance  than  the  last  to  the 


46  DREISSENID>«. 

Myiilidce ;  but  the  mantle  of  tlie  animal  in  the  present 
family  is  nearly  closed,  and  the  hinge  of  the  shell  is 
furnished  inside  with  a  transverse  plate  or  septum,  which 
is  a  peculiar  and  unmistakeable  feature.  Mytilus  has 
also  several  cardinal  teeth;  but  I  have  failed  to  detect 
any  in  the  British  species  of  Dreissena,  although  the 
authors  of  the  ^  British  Mollusca '  and  Moquin-Tandon 
mention  an  "  obscure  apical  elevation,"  or  "dent  cardinale 
a  peine  saillante/'  in  the  right  valve  of  this  species. 
However,  cardinal  teeth  certainly  do  exist  in  three  species 
of  Dreissena  from  the  Indian  and  Pacific  Oceans,  which 
have  been  described  by  Erichson  in  Wiegmann^s  '  Archiv 
fiir  Naturgeschichte '  for  1836.  The  same  author  also 
incidentally  remarks  that  the  European  species  (which 
he  called  Tichogonia  fluviatilis)  has  a  rudimentary  tooth. 
The  mantle  is  for  the  most  part  closed  and  produced 
into  tubes  on  the  posterior  side,  instead  of  being  open 
throughout  as  is  the  case  in  Mytilus. 

Genus  DBEISSE'NA  *,  Van  Beneden.    PI.  II.  f.  3, 4,  5. 

Although  the  establishment  of  this  genus  is  due  to 
Van  Beneden,  the  probability  of  its  separation  from 
Mytilus  was  first  suggested  by  an  equally  distinguished 
zoologist  of  our  own  country.  Dr.  Gray.  The  Dreissence 
may  be  called  "  freshwater  Mussels  "  with  greater  pro- 
priety than  the  Uniones,  or  Anodontce ;  and  the  habit  and 
faculty  which  the  Dreissenca  possess,  in  common  with  the 
true  JNIussels,  of  mooring  or  attaching  themselves  by  a 
strong  byssus  to  extraneous  substances,  put  us  \qvj 
much  in  mind  of  their  marine  analogues.  They  are  also 
equally  gregarious  and  capable  of  living  for  a  long  time 
out  of  water. 

*  N^med  ftfter  M.  Dreissens,  a  druggist  at  Mazeylh. 


DREISSENA.  47 

Only  one  species  is  known  in  Europe ;  and  it  was  first 
noticed  (in  1754)  by  the  Russian  traveller  and  natura- 
list^ Pallas,  in  the  River  Wolga,  as  well  as  in  the  Black 
Sea.  The  epithets  of  "  fluviatilis  ^^  and  "marinus" 
which  he  applied  to  these  two  forms,  coupled  with  the 
circumstance  that  this  was  antecedent  to  the  era  and 
usage  of  binomial  appellations,  have  given  rise  to  con- 
siderable controversy  as  to  whether  these  forms  belong 
to  different  species  or  to  varieties  of  the  same  species, 
one  of  which  has  a  freshwater,  and  the  other  a  marine, 
habitat.  The  last  supposition  would  be  quite  consistent 
with  the  fact  observed  by  Nilsson,  that  several  shells, 
which  are  usually  inhabitants  only  of  fresh  water,  live 
in  the  Baltic  Sea  together  with  other  shells  which  are 
peculiarly  marine. 

Dreissena  polymor'pha  *,  Pallas. 

Mytilus  polymor'phus,  &c.,  Pallas,  It.  Euss.  i.  p,  478.      Dreissena  'poly- 
mor;pha,  F.  &  H.  ii.  p.  165,  pi.  xlii.  f.  4,  5,  and  (animal)  pi.  Q.  f.  4. 

Body  dark- coloured :  7nantle  bordered  in  front  with  greyish - 
white,  at  the  posterior  side  being  yellowish  or  fawn -colour, 
and  striped  hke  the  shell  with  zigzag  marks  of  reddish -brown ; 
cirri  of  the  branchial  orifice  arranged  in  concentric  rows,  red- 
dish-grey, with  a  tint  of  brown  at  their  base :  foot  oblong  and 
cylindrical,  grey,  with  a  slight  rosy  hue  :  gills  greyish  :  labial 
palps  rather  large,  triangular,  and  lanceolate :  hyssus  composed 
of  several  stout  and  flexible  threads. 

Shell  oblong,  rising  into  a  sharp  keel  in  the  middle  of  each 
valve  and  flattened  below,  pointed  at  the  end  or  beak,  and 
gradually,  but  obliquely,  widening  towards  the  fi'ont,  rather 
solid,  but  not  glossy,  yellowish-brown,  and  often  marked  trans- 
versely on  the  upper  part  with  undulating  or  zigzag  streaks  of 
purple  or  dark  brown,  strongly  but  irregidarly  wrinkled  in  the 
same  direction,  and  longitudinally  but  shghtly  puckered  at 
irregular  intervals :  epidermis  silky ;  beneath  the  epidermis 
the  surface  is  purplish-brown ;  healt's  small,  quite  terminal,  and 

*  Many-shaped. 


48  DRETSSENID/E. 

much  incurved :  ligament  long  and  narrow,  fitting  into  a  groove 
of  the  hinge  in  each  valve :  upper  margin  angular :  anterior 
side  nearly  straight :  posterior  side  curved  :  lower  margin  in- 
curved, and  forming  in  the  middle  a  large  slit  for  the  passage 
of  the  foot  and  byssus :  inside  slightly  nacreous  :  hinge  strong, 
toothless,  but  furnished  inside  each  valve  with  a  triangular 
and  concave  plate  which  is  placed  under  the  beak :  muscular 
and  j9aZZmZ  scars  indistinct.   L.  1*4.    B.  0-6. 

Habitat  :  Slow  rivers,  canals,  and  lakes  in  the  eastern, 
home,  midland,  and  northern  counties  of  England,  as 
well  as  in  a  canal  near  Worcester  (Reece),  Bath  (Hutton), 
and  at  Edinburgh.  In  the  North  of  France,  Belgium, 
and  Germany  it  is  also  common  and  widely  diffused. 
In  one  respect  this  species  may  be  said  to  be  truly  metro- 
politan; for  it  has  been  found  in  the  most  frequented 
streets  of  London,  after  they  have  been  flushed  with 
water  from  the  New  Biver,  where  it  abounds.  Mr. 
Norman  informs  me  that  he  saw  immense  numbers  of 
the  Dreissena  in  a  living  state,  lining  some  of  the  iron 
water-pipes  which  had  been  taken  up  in  Oxford  Street, 
and  that  the  colouring  of  the  shells  was  as  vivid  as  if  the 
animal  had  lived  in  the  light  of  day. 

It  is  difficult  to  believe,  in  the  absence  of  some  proof 
to  the  contrary,  that  this  species  is  not  indigenous  to 
the  whole  of  the  North  of  Europe,  as  well  as  to  Bussia. 
The  circumstance  of  its  not  having  been  noticed  in  this 
country  before  1824,  and  then  only  in  a  metropolitan 
locality,  does  not  preclude  the  possibility  of  its  having 
previously  existed  in  some  other  part  of  Great  Britain ; 
and  its  not  having  been  previously  recorded  as  British 
rather  proves  a  want  of  observation  or  opportunity  than 
its  non-existence.  Helix  Cartusiana,  H.  obvoluta,  and 
Clausilia  Rolphii,  all  of  which  are  conspicuous  land  shells, 
were  not  known  to  the  observant  Montagu,  although 
they  are  not  uncommon  in  some  parts  of  this  country 


DREISSENA.  49 

and  are  clearly  indigenous  species;  and  many  other 
similar  instances_,  both  at  home  and  abroad,  might  be 
cited  on  this  point,  as  well  as  with  respect  to  the  sudden 
and  unaccountable  appearance  and  disappearance  of  cer- 
tain species  in  particular  spots.  With  regard  to  the 
period  at  which  the  Dreissena  first  made  its  appearance 
or  was  noticed  on  the  Continent,  M.  Moerch  has  lately 
investigated  its  geographical  history  and  has  ascertained 
that  it  was  common  in  the  interior  of  Germany  before 
1780,  and  that  it  then  inhabited  streams  which  flowed 
into  the  Rhine.  In  a  work  by  H.  Sander  of  Carlsruhe, 
published  in  that  year,  and  entitled  "  Vaterlandische 
Bemerkungen  fiir  alle  Theile  der  Naturgeschichte,^^  he 
described  in  unscientific,  but  intelligible,  terms  a  fresh- 
water Mussel  which  was  not  uncommon  in  that  district, 
and  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  Pinna  fluviatilis.  This 
description  clearly  applies  to  our  Dreissena.  In  draining 
the  Haarlem  See,  the  Dreissena  was  found  in  abundance ; 
and  it  appears  that  no  communication  ever  existed  be- 
tween that  great  lake  and  any  port  or  harbour.  It  has 
also  been  found  in  an  inland  lake  near  Copenhagen.  It 
was  at  one  period  thought  (and  even  by  the  unimagi- 
native Linne)  that  the  Teredo^  or  ship-worm,  had  been 
imported  into  Europe  from  India;  but  that  idea  has 
been  quite  dispelled,  as  much  for  the  reason  that  some 
species  of  Teredo  which  are  found  in  Europe  also  occur 
there  in  tertiary  formations,  as  because  they  are  different 
from  oriental  or  tropical  kinds.  The  first  of  these  reasons 
may  again,  and  with  the  like  success,  be  urged  in  favour 
of  the  Dreissena  being  a  native  of  the  North  of  France ; 
for,  in  a  recent  article  by  M.  Charles  D^Orbigny,  pub- 
lished in  the  ^  Bulletin  de  la  Societe  Geologique  de 
France  ^  (2^  ser.  t.  xvii.  p.  66),  and  entitled  "  Sur  le 
diluvium  a  coquilles  lacustres  de  Joinville,"  Dreissena 


50  DREISSENID^. 

polymorpha  is  enumerated  as  one  of  the  fossils.  Mr. 
Prestwicli  informs  me  that  this  deposit  was  in  all  pro- 
bability contemporaneous  with  those  of  St.  Acheul  and 
Amiens^  and  that  at  all  events  it  belongs  to  what  is 
termed  by  modern  geologists  the  upper  tertiary  forma- 
tion. I  am  therefore  not  without  hope  that  this  remark- 
able shell  may  be  discovered  in  the  corresponding  strata 
in  this  country.  It  is  frequently  founds  in  a  recent  or 
li\dng  state_,  with  the  Anacharis  alsinastrurrij  an  aquatic 
plant  which  chokes  up  our  canals  and  is  said  to  have  been 
imported  from  North  America.  Respecting  \\\.q  Anacharis, 
Messrs.  Hooker  and  Arnott.  in  their  excellent  work  on 
the  British  Flora,  remark  that  '^\i  seems  inexplicable  how 
this  plant  should  have  occurred  in  so  many  different 
places  at  the  same  time.^^  Perhaps  if  the  Eriocaulon 
septangularey  or  Naias  flexilis,  both  of  which  are  also 
North-American  water-plants,  and  are  at  present  con- 
fined to  a  very  few  stations  in  the  Hebrides  and  West  of 
Ireland,  had  been  placed  in  conditions  which  were  more 
favourable  to  their  growth  and  propagation,  each  of  them 
might  have  spread  with  as  great  rapidity  as  the  Ana- 
charis. If,  as  I  believe,  the  indigenousness  of  the 
Dreissena  as  regards  this  country  should  hereafter  be 
established,  the  ingenious  theories  which  have  been  pro- 
posed to  account  for  the  mode  of  its  transport  across  the 
seas  will  not  require  further  discussion. 


PECTINIBRANCHIATA.  51 


Class  II. 
GASTEROPODA*,  or  UNIVALVES. 

Body  of  a  conical  shape :  mantle  tormmg  a  single  lobe,  which 
only  covers  the  front:  head  usually  distinct,  and  furnished 
with  tentacles,  of  which  the  upper  pair  (in  those  kinds  which 
have  four),  or  the  single  pair,  have  in  most  cases  two  eyes, 
placed  either  at  their  tips  or  base,  or  on  separate  stalks  :  foot 
a  muscular  disk,  by  means  of  which  the  animal  generally 
crawls,  or  sometimes  floats  in  an  inverted  position  on  the 
under  surface  of  the  water  :  reproductive  system  various ;  some 
kinds  being  hermaphrodite,  and  ha\ing  both  sexes  united  in 
the  same  individual,  but  requiring  impregnation  by  another 
individual ;  while  in  other  kinds  the  sexes  are  separate,  each 
individual  being  either  male  or  female :  resphxitory  system  con- 
sisting of  gills,  or  lung-like  organs ;  the  former,  and  some  of 
the  latter,  being  possessed  by  aquatic  kinds  ;  while  the  terres- 
trial kinds  are  only  furnished  with  the  lung-like  organ  :  those 
kinds  which  are  aquatic,  and  have  this  last  organ,  eliminate 
oxygen  from  the  water  and  also  respire  atmospheric  air ;  but 
the  terrestrial  kinds,  or  Snails,  breathe  only  the  pure  air,  like 
vertebrated  land  animals. 

Shell  usually  present,  conical  or  spiral,  and  covering  the 
whole,  or  most  important  parts,  of  the  body. 

The  only  two  Orders  which  we  have  to  deal  with  in 
this  division  of  the  subject  are  as  follows  :  — 

I.  Pectinibranchiata. 

II.  Pulmonobranchiata. 


Order  I.  PECTINIBRANCHIATA 


J, 


Body  spiral :  respiratory  apparatus  consisting  of  a  single 
comb-like  gill,  which  is  placed  within  the  mantle,  on  the  upper 
side  of  the  head. 

Shell  external  and  spu^al. 

*  Foot  forming  the  belly.  f  Having  comb-like  gills. 

D  2 


52  NERITID^. 

Only  three  families  of  this  Order  inhabit  the  fresh 
waters  of  this  country.     They  are, — 

I.  Neritid^. 

II.    PaLUDINIDyE. 

III.  Valvatid^. 

All  these  freshwater  Snails  have  two  tentacles,  and  the 
same  number  of  eyes,  which  are  placed  at  the  base  of  the 
tentacles.  Their  shells  are  furnished  with  an  epidermis 
and  operculum. 


Family  I.  NEEITID^. 

Body  oval,  having  a  short  spiral  turn  at  the  end :  eyes 
placed  outside  the  tentacles  at  their  base :  gill  inside  the 
mantle :   sexes  separate. 

Shell  semiglobose,  with  an  excentric  spire  and  a  semicircu- 
lar mouth  :  operculum  having  an  excentric  and  short  spire, 
and  furnished  imderneath  with  an  apophysis  or  projecting  pro- 
cess which  locks  into  the  columellar  or  piUar  lip. 

Although  the  members  of  this  family  are  very 
numerous  and  widely  dispersed  beyond  the  limits  of  our 
seas,  we  have  only  a  solitary  representative,  forming  the 
single  species  of  one  genus. 

NERITI'NA*,  Lamarck.     PI.  III.  f.  1,  2,  3,  4. 

Body  furnished  with  a  strong  and  prominent  snout  or 
muzzle  :  tentacles  long  :  eyes  placed  on  footstalks  :  foot  broad. 

Shell  triangular-oblong :  ojperculum  calcareous  and  sohd. 

The  mollusks  of  this  genus  inhabit  waters  which  have 
a  stony  or  gravelly  bottom.  Their  habits  are  sluggish ; 
raising  their  shell  but  little  dming  their  march,  and  then 
only  showing  their  tentacles,  eyes,  and  the  front  of  their 

*  Diminutive  of  Nerita,  a  genus  of  marine  shells. 


NERITINA.  53 

mantle.  They  have  not  been  observed  to  float_,  or  creep 
on  the  under  surface  of  the  water^  which  may  account 
for  the  shells  being  so  often  found  encrusted  with  cal- 
careous matter.  Their  tentacles_,  however^  appear  to  be 
extremely  sensitive  and  always  in  motion.  They  are 
vegetable  feeders.  Their  eggs  are  generally  deposited 
and  carried  on  the  shell  until  they  are  hatched  or  de- 
veloped. These  are  rounded,  of  a  yellow  colour,  and 
provided  with  a  thick  and  leathery  covering,  which  splits 
in  two  when  the  fry  are  excluded,  the  upper  half  being 
detached  and  the  other  part  left  adhering  to  the  parent 
shell.  Moquin-Tandon  says  the  eggs  are  deposited  in 
a  cluster  of  from  50  to  60. 

Valuable  notices  of  the  genera  Nerita  and  Neritina 
by  M.  Recluz  will  be  found  in  the  1st  volume  of  the 
'Journal  de  Conchyliologie;'  and  M.  Pouchet  has  pub- 
lished an  elaborate  monograph  on  the  Nerita  fluviatilis, 
considered  in  an  anatomical  and  physiological  point  of 
view.  Neritina  is  very  closely  allied  to  Nerita,  and  pro- 
bably only  forms  a  section  of  the  latter  genus.  There  are 
marine,  as  well  as  freshwater,  species  of  Neritina. 

Neritina  fluvia'tilis*,  Linne. 

Nerita  fluviatilis,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  ed,  xii.  p.  1253.     N.  fluviatilis,  F.  & 
H.  iii.  p.  3,  pi.  Ixxi.  f.  1,2,  and  (animal)  pi.  H.  H.  f.  1. 

Body  of  a  clear  jellowish-grey,  speckled  with  black  above, 
white  below :  head  and  snout  black :  mouth  very  large,  fur- 
nished with  cartilaginous  jaws  and  a  Ungual  plate  or  riband, 
which  is  very  complicated :  tentacles  clear  greyish-white,  darker 
at  the  sides,  and  more  or  less  streaked  with  black  transversely ; 
they  diverge  widely  from  their  base,  and  are  very  slender, 
ending  in  a  fine  point :  eyes  very  large  and  black  :  foot  obtusely 
rounded  in  front,  and  having  its  extremity  or  tail  covered  by 
the  operculum  when  the  animal  is  crawling. 

Shell  convex  above,  slightly  compressed  towards  the  spire, 

*  Inhabiting  rivers. 


54  NERITID^. 

and  almost  concave  below,  solid,  moderately  glossy,  j'ellowish 
or  brown,  with  often  bro^vn  or  white  zigzag  streaks,  spots,  or 
bands,  which  run  lengthwise  or  in  a  spiral  direction,  and 
marked  with  fine  but  distinct  transverse  strise  or  plaits,  which 
are  more  conspicuous  towards  the  suture :  epidermis  thin  : 
wliorls  3,  rather  convex,  the  last  or  lowermost  exceeding  two- 
thirds  of  the  whole  shell,  increasing  veiy  rapidly  and  dispro- 
portionately in  size :  spire  very  short  and  oblique :  suture 
rather  deep  :  mouth,  or  aperture,  semilunar  :  outer  lip  sharp  : 
j)illar-lip  exceedingly  broad,  polished  and  flat,  with  a  sharp 
and  plain  edge :  operculum  semilunar,  glossy,  of  an  orange  or 
yellowish  colour,  marked  spirally  with  two  or  three  slight 
grooves,  and  ti'ansversely  with  numerous  and  flexuous  striae  ; 
its  external  edge  is  thin  and  has  a  border  (sometimes  two)  of 
black  or  yellowish-red,  both  above  and  below ;  its  internal 
edge  is  thick ;  the  spire  of  the  operculum  is  placed  at  the 
lower  side,  and  formed  of  1|  or  2  whorls ;  attached  to  the 
under  side  of  the  opercular  spire  is  a  singular  process,  re- 
sembling a  second  but  much  smaller  operculum,  which  has 
also  a  thickened  edge  on  the  inside,  and  projects  obliquely  so 
as  to  act  as  a  bolt  in  fastening  the  operculum  to  the  pillar-lip. 
L.  0-35.   E.  0-25. 

Habitat  :  Slow  rivers^  streams,  and  lakes  through  or 
into  which  Avater  flows,  or  having  a  stony  or  gravelly 
bed,  in  all  parts  of  the  kingdom,  from  the  Orkneys  to 
Cornwall.  It  has  been  found  in  the  peat-bed  at  New- 
bury ;  but  this  is  not,  I  believe,  recognized  as  belonging 
to  the  upper  tertiary  formation.  This  species  ranges 
from  rinmark  to  Algeria  and  Sicily,  where  the  form  or 
variety  called  by  Lamarck  N.  Batica  prevails.  A  dwarf 
variety  has  been  described  by  Nilsson,  which  inhabits  the 
shores  of  the  Baltic  Sea,  adhering  to  seaweeds  and 
stones,  sometimes  at  a  distance  from  the  mouth  of  any 
river,  and  living  in  company  with  the  common  Mussel 
and  a  few  other  decidedly  marine  shells.  He  also  noticed 
that  these  last  are  similarly  dwarf  forms.  A  variety  in 
which  the  shell  is  quite  black  has  been  found  l^y  Mr. 
North  in  the   Ouse.     Many  other  varieties  have  been 


PALUDINA.  55 

described  by  European  authors  as  distinct  species;  but 
they  appear  only  to  differ  from  the  typical  kind  in  size 
and  colour^  as  well  as  in  the  spire  being  more  or  less 
excentric.  In  adult  specimens,  the  septa  or  internal 
walls  of  the  spire  are  wanting,  and  appear  to  have  been 
absorbed,  as  stated  by  Dr.  Gray.  This  is  also  the  case 
in  Melampus  or  Conovulus, 


Family  11.  PALUDINIDiE. 

Body  elongated,  spiral,  and  having  a  prominent  snout :  eyes 
placed  outside  the  tentacles  at  their  base :  gill  inside  the 
mantle :  sexes  separate. 

Skell  having  a  long  symmetrical  sjnre  and  an  oval  mouth  : 
operculum  also  oval,  irregularly  concentric  or  paucispiral. 

These  mollusks  are,  as  well  as  those  of  the  last  family, 
herbivorous ;  but  they  differ  in  being  ovoviviparous,  in- 
stead of  oviparous.  Their  habits  are  much  more  active 
than  those  of  the  Neritidce.  They  sometimes,  but  rarely, 
float.  The  fry  are  furnished  with  opercula  before  they 
are  excluded  by  the  mother.  According  to  Bouchard- 
Chantereaux,  the  young  remain  in  the  ovary,  to  the  num- 
ber of  20  or  30,  for  two  months,  at  the  end  of  which  time 
only  2,  3,  or  4  are  born,  the  period  of  accouchement  ex- 
tending over  several  days. 

Genus  I.  PALUDI'NA*,  Lamarck.     PI.  III.  f.  5,  6. 

Eyes  placed  on  short  pedicles  or  footstalks :  operculum  horny, 
irregularly  concentric,  and  having  its  nucleus  on  the  inner 
side. 

Lister  and  Cuvier  have  investigated,  although  at  very 
distant  intervals,  the  anatomy  of  these  mollusks,  which 

*  Inliabitina:  marshes. 


56  PALUDINID.E. 

are  the  largest  of  our  freshwater  Pectinibranchs.  Lister 
says  he  was  indebted  to  Dr.  Plot^  the  historian^  for  the 
discovery  that  they  were  viviparous  ;  and  he  says  that  the 
males  are  smaller  than  the  females  and  their  shells  have 
less-swollen  whorls.  They  inhabit  slow  rivers^  ponds  and 
canals ;  and  one  species  lives  within  the  influx  of  the  tide 
in  the  Thames.  The  epidermis  of  the  last-formed  whorl 
in  the  young  shell,  when  it  leaves  its  mother,  has  three 
transverse  rows  of  recurved  bristles,  which  in  after- growth 
are  replaced  by  the  coloured  bands  that  encircle  adult 
shells,  the  formation  of  these  bands,  as  well  as  of  the 
bristles,  being  caused  by  difierent  organs  which  are  suc- 
cessively developed  in  the  same  part  of  the  mantle.  It 
has  been  stated  in  that  useful  periodical  'The Zoologist' 
(p.  7402)  that  our  native  Pahidince  are  not  always  vivi- 
parous, and  that  a  specimen  of  P.  vivipara  deposited  in 
an  aquarium  some  eggs  from  which  the  fry  were  subse- 
quently excluded.  This  was  in  the  winter,  and  after  the 
Paludina  had  been  kept  for  many  months  in  a  state  of 
confinement.  It  is  hoped  that  further  observations  will 
be  made  on  this  point,  as  the  ovoviviparous  character  of 
this  genus  constitutes  one  of  the  grounds  of  distinction 
from  the  next  genus,  Bythinia. 

1.  Paludina  contec'ta*.  Millet. 

Cyclosfoma  contectum,  Millet,  Moll.  Maine  et  Loire  (1813),  p.  5.     P.  Lis- 
ten, F.  &  H.  iii.  p.  8,  pi.  Ixxi.  f.  16. 

Body  dark  grey  or  brown,  with  yellow  specks  :  head  small, 
but  globular  :  snout  prominent  and  bilobed  :  tentacles  long  and 
widely  spread  out,  blacldsh,  with  grey  tips  ;  the  right  tentacle 
of  the  male  shorter  and  thicker  at  its  point  than  the  left :  eyes 
round  and  black  :  foot  cloven  or  bilobed  in  front,  and  rounded 
behind  ;  its  tail  or  extremity  nearly  covered  by  the  operculum 
when  the  animal  is  crawling. 

*  Covered  (?".  e.  by  the  operculum). 


PALtDINA.  57 

Shell  conical,  moderately  solid  and  glossy,  yellowish,  with 
sometimes  a  green  or  brown  tinge ;  the  last  whorl  having  3, 
and  each  of  the  two  preceding  whorls  2,  spiral  brown  bands, 
the  uppermost  of  which  is  usually  the  broadest ;  there  are  also 
numerous  and  very  fine  spiral  striae,  besides  faint  and  irregular 
lines  of  growth  :  epidermis  rather  thick :  whorls  7,  extremely 
convex ;  the  last  being  equal  to  about  one-half  of  the  shell ; 
they  increase  gradually  in  size,  except  the  two  first,  which 
are  disproportionately  small  and  twisted,  resembling  those  of 
Succinea :  suture  remarkably  deep  :  mouth  oval,  or  approaching 
to  a  circular  shape  :  outer  Up  sharp  and  slightly  reflected  :  inner 
lip  separate  from  the  columella ;  both  lips  forming  a  complete 
peristome :  umbilicus  small,  oblique,  but  very  distinct  and  deep, 
exposLug  part  of  the  internal  spire :  operculum  rather  thin, 
compressed  towards  the  nucleus,  which  causes  the  under  side 
to  project,  like  the  boss  of  a  shield ;  it  is  marked  with  nume- 
rous concentric  striae  and  more  distant  lines  of  growth.  L.  1-5. 
B.  1-25. 

Habitat  :  Slow  rivers^  canals,  and  large  pieces  oi 
standing  water^  throughout  the  greater  part  of  England, 
as  far  north  as  Yorksliire.  It  is,  however,  rather  local. 
This  is  a  Finland  species,  and  ranges  south  to  the 
Pyrenees. 

This  mollusk,  when  at  rest,  adheres  firmly  to  stones 
and  wood ;  but  on  being  touched,  it  immediatelly  falls  oft'. 
It  sometimes  attains  to  a  large  size,  one  of  my  specimens 
being  more  than  2  inches  long  and  If  broad. 

The  Linnean  description  of  Helix  vivipara  accords 
more  properly  with  that  of  the  next  species,  w^hich  has 
only  an  umbilical  chink  (^^imperforata'^),  and  is  pecu- 
liarly "subovata^^  and  ^^obtusa.^^  The  name  given  by 
Millet  to  the  present  species,  which  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  known  to  the  authors  of  the '  British  Moliusca,^ 
must  of  course  be  adopted  in  preference  to  the  very 
modern  one  of  ''  Listeri"  which  was  proposed  by  them. 
Miiller  considered  this  species  to  be  that  of  Linne ;  and 
he  described  the  other  as  Neritafasciata. 

D  5 


58  PALUDINID^. 

2.  P.  viYi'pARA^,  Linne. 

Helix  mvipara,  Linn.  Svst.  Nat.  ed.  xii.  p.  1247.      P  vivipara,  F.  &  H. 
iii.  p.  11,  pi.  Ixxi.  f.  14,  15,  and  (animal)  pi.  H.  H.  f.  2. 

Body  of  a  darker  colour  than  that  of  P.  contecta  :  snout 
broad:  tentacles  bluish-black,  with  bright  yello^y  spots;  the 
difference  of  their  size  in  the  male  being  very  perceptible  :  eyes 
rather  large :  foot  very  broad,  and  slightly  truncate  in  front. 

Shell  oval,  rather  solid,  but  not  so  glossy  as  that  of  P.  con- 
tecta, yellowish -green,  with  bands  and  striae  as  in  that  spe- 
cies ;  the  surface  of  the  two  last  whorls  is  often  iiTCgularly 
indented  or  pitted:  epidermis  rather  thin:  whorls  G|,  rather 
convex,  the  last  exceeding  one-half  of  the  shell,  gradually  in- 
creasing in  size,  except  the  first,  which  is  extremely  small  and 
twisted,  but  much  less  prominent  than  in  the  last  species, 
making  the  point  of  the  spire  to  appear  blunt :  suture  rather 
deep  :  mouth  oval,  and  less  inclined  to  a  circular  shape  than  in 
P.  contecta  :  outer  li/p  rather  thick  and  slightly  reflected  :  inner 
lip  united  above  to  the  columella,  but  both  lips  form  a  com- 
plete peristome  :  there  is  no  umbilicus,  but  instead  of  it  there 
is  a  small  and  narrow  chink  behind  the  inner  lip :  operculum 
rather  thick,  comj)ressed  transversely,  and  marked  with  strong 
lines  of  increase  and  finer  intermediate  striae.    L.  1*5.    B.  1*2. 

Var.  iinicolor.     Without  bands. 

Habitat  :  The  same  as  that  of  the  last  species  (with 
which  it  is  often  found  living)^  except  that  the  Rev.  Dr. 
Gordon  has  found  it  at  Findhorn  in  the  Moray  Firth 
district.  Sir  Charles  Lyell  has  recorded  its  occurrence 
in  the  lacustrine  deposit  at  Mundesley  in  Norfolk.  Its 
northern  range  abroad  is  also  the  same ;  but  it  extends 
southwards  to  Naples,  and  (according  to  Philippi)  pro- 
bably also  to  Sicily.  The  variety  has  been  found  by 
Mr.  Pickering  in  Hertfordshire_,  and  by  myself  in  the 
Thames  at  Richmond.  I  have  also  a  monstrosity  in 
which  the  last  whorl  has  a  keel  occupying  the  place  of 
the  upper  band. 

This  species  differs  from  P.  contecta  in  its  shell  being 

*  Bringing  forth  its  young  alive  and  perfect. 


BYTHINIA.  59 

thicker  and  longer,  the  whorls  being  much  less  swollen, 
the  suture  not  so  deep,  the  apex  or  point  of  the  spire 
more  blunt,  and  the  mouth  being  less  circular.  Its  size 
is  not  quite  equal  to  that  of  the  other  species,  the  largest 
British  specimen  which  I  have  of  this  being  1 1  inch 
long  and  1^  broad. 

The  animal  is  rather  active.  M.  Millet  counted  in  a 
female  82  young  ones  of  different  sizes.  Mr.  Clark  has 
remarked  that,  in  all  the  specimens  which  he  procured 
from  the  River  Exe,  the  point  of  the  spire  is  eroded. 
This  is  probably  owing  to  the  influx  and  admixture  of 
sea-water  in  that  part  of  the  river,  because  there  are  few, 
if  any,  manufactories  on  the  banks  of  the  Exe.  In  the 
Paddington  Canal  and  parts  of  the  Thames  near  London, 
the  erosion  is  evidently  owing  to  the  last-mentioned  cause. 
Draparnaud  named  this  species  Cyclostoma  achatinum. 

Genus  II.  BYTHI'NIA  *,  [Bithinia]  Gray. 
PI.  III.  f.  7,  8,  9. 

Eyes  sessile:  opercuhim  testaceous  and  solid,  irregularly 
concentric,  and  having  its  nucleus  nearly  in  the  middle. 

This  was  first  indicated  by  Dr.  Gray  as  a  subgenus  of 
Paludina;  and  the  name  which  he  proposed  has  been 
adopted  by  almost  all  conchologists.  The  chief  differ- 
ence between  this  and  Paludina  consists  in  the  animal 
of  Bythinia  being  oviparous,  instead  of  ovoviviparous, — 
its  eyes  being  sessile,  instead  of  placed  on  stalks  or  tu- 
bercles as  in  the  other  genera  of  this  family, — and  in  the 
operculum  being  testaceous  and  concentric,  with  its 
nucleus  placed  almost  in  the  middle.  The  tentacles  of 
the  male  are  of  equal  size  in  the  present  genus.  Although 
the  derivation  of  the  word  Bythinia  would  imply  that 

*  Inhabiting  deep  water. 


60  PALUDINID^ 

these  mollusks  inhabit  deeper  water  than  others  of  the 
same  family,  such  is  not  the  case.  They  generally  fre- 
quent small  streams,  canals,  shallow  ponds  and  ditches. 
They  lay  their  eggs  in  three  long  rows  on  stones,  as  well 
as  on  the  stalks  and  leaves  of  water-plants. 

1.  Bythinia  tentacula'ta  *,  Linne. 

Helix  tentaculata,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  ed.  xii.  p.  1249.     Bithinia  tcntaculafa, 
F.  &  H.  iii.  p.  14,  pi.  1^.  f.  5,  6,  and  (animal)  pi.  H.  H.  f.  3. 

Body  dark  bro^Ti  or  almost  black  above,  dirty  grey  beneath, 
covered  with  small  and  irregular  specks  of  yellow  :  head  small 
and  semioval :  snout  long  and  deeply  cleft  in  front :  tentacles 
very  long  and  slender,  greatly  diverging :  eyes  large,  oval,  and 
black :  foot  much  broader  than  the  snout,  rounded  in  front, 
with  a  blunt  and  rounded  tail  which  is  half  concealed  by  the 
operculum  when  the  animal  is  crawling. 

Shell  subconical  or  oval,  rather  sohd  and  glossy,  nearly 
opaque,  of  an  amber  colour,  with  often  more  or  less  of  a  brown- 
ish tint,  very  finely  and  closely  striate  in  a  spiral  direction  and 
crossed  transversely  by  the  marks  of  growth ;  the  spii'al  striae 
are  sometimes  confluent  and  form  white  lines :  epidermis  very 
thin :  whorls  6,  convex ;  the  last  exceeding  one-half  of  the 
shell,  and  the  rest  diminishing  in  proportion  and  ending  in 
rather  a  sharp  point :  suture  rather  oblique  and  deep. :  mouth 
oval,  angular  above  :  outer  lip  thick,  and  sometimes  strength- 
ened by  a  white,  rather  strong,  internal  rib,  which  when  re- 
peated gives  the  shell  a  slightly  varicose  appearance ;  this  hp 
is  very  little  reflected :  inner  Up  united  to  the  columella,  but 
forming  with  the  other  hp  a  complete  peristome :  umhilical 
chink  small  and  narrow :  operculum  obhquely  oval,  very  thick, 
angular  at  the  top,  compressed  or  indented  in  the  middle  of 
the  upper  half;  it  is  marked  with  exquisitely  fine  concentric 
stria}  and  a  few  coarser  ridges,  denoting  the  marks  of  periodical 
increase,  which  form  raised  platforms  or  layers,  the  smallest 
or  first-formed  being  uppermost.    L.  0-5.    B.  0-25. 

Var.  1.  ventricosa.  Shell  white:  whorls  more  swollen. 
Paludina  ventricosa,  Menke. 

Var.  2.  decoUata.     Upper  whorls  wanting  in  half-grown  and 

*  Having  tentaclea. 


BYTHINIA.  61 

adult  specimens ;   their  place  being  supplied  by  a  nearly  flat 
and  semispiral  plate,  as  in  Bulimus  decoUatus. 

Var.  3.  eoccavata.      Whorls  more  rounded,  and  suture  much 
deeper. 

Habitat  :  Slow  rivers^  ponds^  and  still  waters  every- 
where in  England_,  Wales^  and  Ireland^  as  well  as  at 
Frazerbiirg  in  Aberdeenshire ;  and  it  is  perhaps  the 
most  abundant  fossil  in  the  lacnstrine  beds  of  our  upper 
tertiaries.  Var.  1.  Devonshire  (Mus.  Turton)  ;  Bristol 
and  Wandsworth  (J.  Gr.  J.) ;  Richmond^  Surrey  (Choules) . 
Var.  2.  Woolwich  and  Cardifi*  (J.  G.  J.) ;  Co.  Armagh 
(Waller).  Var.  3.  Cardiff  (J.  G.  J.).  This  last  variety 
seems  to  connect  the  present  species  with  B.  Leachii ;  but 
it  differs  from  the  last-mentioned  species  in  its  greater 
size,  as  well  as  the  oval  shape  of  the  mouth.  B.  tenta- 
culata  ranges  from  Siberia  to  Sicily.  The  animal  is 
sluggish,  but  irritable.  It  sometimes  floats,  or  creeps 
on  the  under  surface  of  the  water.  Draparnaud  says 
that  it  feeds  on  animal  as  well  as  vegetable  substances. 
The  shell  is  often  encrusted  with  a  ferruginous  or  mineral 
deposit.  From  this  circumstance  Draparnaud  derived 
the  name  of  impura  which  he  gave  this  species,  having 
needlessly  changed  the  prior  one  assigned  to  it  by  Linne. 
The  epidermis  in  young  specimens  is  slightly  hispid  and 
resembles  a  fine  velvety  pile. 

This  species  was  first   made  known  and  admirably 
described  by  our  countryman.  Lister. 

2.  B.  Leach'ii"^,  Sheppard. 

Turbo  Leachii,  Sliepp.  in  Linn.  Trans,  xiv.  p.  152.     Bithinia  Leachii,  F. 
&  H.  iii.  p.  16,  pi.  Ixxi.  f.  7,  8,  and  (animal)  pi.  H.  H.  f.  4. 

Body  greyish-white,  with  black  and  yellow  specks :  tentacles 
very  flexible  :  foot  slender. 

*  Named  afteii  Dr.  Leach,  a  celebrated  English  zoologist. 


62  PALUDINIDJi:. 

Shell  conical,  rather  thin,  glossy,  and  semitransparent, 
greyish  horn- colour  or  amber,  microscopically  striate  in  a 
spii'al  direction,  and  irregularly  marked  by  the  lines  of  growth : 
epidermis  extremely  thin :  whorls  5,  very  convex  and  rounded, 
but  narrow,  the  last  occupying  about  one-half  of  the  shell : 
spire  rather  abruptly  pointed :  suture  nearly  straight,  ex- 
tremely deep :  mouth  nearly  round,  very  slightly  angular  above, 
where  the  outer  lip  meets  the  columella :  outer  lip  rather  thick, 
and  strengthened  by  a  slight  internal  rib,  scarcely  reflected, 
except  below :  inner  lip  forming  with  the  other  lip  a  com- 
plete peristome :  umbilicus  small  and  narrow,  but  distinct : 
operculum  almost  circular  and  flat,  otherwise  like  that  of  the 
last  species.    L.  0*25.    B.  0-2. 

Var.  elongata.     Shell  smaller  ;    spire  more  produced. 

Habitat  :  Nearly  the  same  as  that  of  B.  tentaculata ; 
but  the  present  species  does  not  extend  so  far  norths 
and  it  is  more  local  and  much  less  abundant.  It  is 
also  equally  rare  as  a  tertiary  fossil.  The  variety  is 
from  Woolwich  marshes  and  Northampton.  Malm  has 
recorded  this  species  as  Swedish;  and  Morelet  has 
noticed  it  as  inhabiting  Algeria. 

This  species  is  distinguishable  from  the  last,  in  com- 
pany with  which  it  is  sometimes  found  living,  by  its 
much  smaller  size,  the  whorls  being  more  swollen  and 
narrower  (giving  the  shell  a  scalariform  appearance),  the 
very  deep  suture  and  distinct  umbilicus,  as  well  as  by 
the  shape  of  the  mouth  and  operculum.  It  is  sometimes 
known  by  the  specific  name  of  ventricosa,  which  was  origi- 
nally given  to  it  by  Dr.  Gray,  but  without  any  description. 
The  Cyclostoma  simile  of  Draparnaud,  to  which  the  pre- 
sent species  has  been  referred  by  some  authors,  is  very 
different,  as  will  be  seen  presently.  Specimens  in  Dr. 
Turton^s  collection,  named  respectively  "Paludina  simi- 
lis/'  "  P.  viridis/'  and  "  P.  anafmaj"  all  belong  to  B. 
Leachii,  being  merely  difterent  stages  of  growth.  The 
late  M.  D^Orbigny  gave  me,  at  llochdle,  in  1830  some 


HYDROBIA.  63 

shells  which  he  had  received  from  Draparnaud  under  the 
name  of  "  Cyclostoma  anafinum.'^  These  appear  to  be 
a  small  variety  of  the  present  species,  and  are  probably 
the  B.  humilis  of  M.  Boubee. 

Genus  III.  HYDRO'BIA  *,  Hartmann. 
PL  III.  f.  10, 11,  12. 

Ei/es  placed  on  tubercles :  operculum  horny  and  thin,  pauci- 
spiral. 

The  little  mollusks  which  are  comprised  in  this  genus, 

although  very  closely  related  to  the  true  and  marine 

RissocBy  appear  to  have  as  much  right  to  be  generically 

separated  from    the  latter   as  Neritina  has  to  form  a 

distinct  genus  from  Nerita.     Nearly  all  the  Hydrobice 

are  inhabitants  of  fresh  and  pure  water;   but  one  of 

them  [H.  ventrosa)  frequents  estuaries,  as  well  as  pools 

and  ditches  close  to  the  sea-shore  which  are  liable  to  be 

occasionally  overflowed  by  the  tide,  and  the  water  of 

which  is  more  or  less  brackish.     Those  species  which 

inhabit    fresh  water  have  been  arranged  by  Moquin- 

Tandon  in  a  subgenus  of  Bythinia,  named  by  him  Bythi- 

nella.    With  Bythinia,  as  well  as  with  Rissoa,  this  genus 

has  undoubted  relations.     It  differs,  however,  from  the 

former  in  the  eyes  not  being  sessile,  but  placed  on  short 

tubercles,  and  from  the  latter  in  wanting  the  caudal 

filament  which  is  appended  to  the  foot.     The  shell  of 

Hydrobia  has  besides  an  umbilical  cleft  which  does  not 

exist  in  Rissoa ;    while  its  operculum  is  decidedly  not 

Bythinian,  but  Rissoan,  or  rather  Littorinan.     It  may 

therefore  be  considered  as  in  many  respects  forming  an 

intermediate  link  between  those  two  genera,  but  having 

a  greater  affinity  to  Rissoa.     The '  genus  Hydrobia  was 

*  Living  in  water. 


64  PALIJDINID^. 

founded  by  Hartmann  in  1821.  An  objection  has  been 
made  to  the  name  on  the  ground  that  it  had  been  pre- 
viously used  for  a  genus  of  small  water-beetles ;  but  it 
does  not  seem  that  any  confusion  or  inconvenience  is 
likely  to  result  from  the  use  of  the  same  name  in  such 
different  departments  of  zoology,  and  precedents  are  not 
wanting  for  such  a  double  application.  We  have  only 
two  species  of  Hydrobia-,  but  on  the  Continent  there 
are  four  or  five  times  that  number,  including  Hydrobia 
marginata  which  existed  duiing  the  Glacial  epoch  in  our 
eastern  counties  and  Bedfordshire,  but  appears  not  to 
have  survived  that  period. 

The  estuarine  or  brackish -water  species  of  Hydrobia 
were  formed  by  Professor  D^Orbigny  into  another  genus, 
which  he  called  Paludestrina ;  and  these  also  constitute 
the  genus  Paludinella  of  Pfeiffer  and  Loven. 

1.  Hydrobia  si'milis  *,  Draparnaud. 

Cyclostoma  simile,  Drap.  Moll.  Terr,  et  Fluv.Fr.  p.  34,  pi.  i.  f.  15.    Bissoa 
anatina,  F.  &  H.  iii.  p.  134,  pi.  Ixxxvii.  f.  3,  4. 

Body  dark  grey,  with  a  yellow  or  brown  tint  and  white 
flaky  specks :  head  rather  large  and  prominent :  snout  broad, 
long,  and  ridged  transversely:  tentacles  long,  slender,  and 
diverging :  eyes  large  and  rather  protuberant :  foot  short,  very 
broad,  and  expanded  on  each  side  in  front,  rounded  behind, 
and  extending  considerably  beyond  the  operculum  when  the 
animal  is  crawling. 

Shell  subconical  or  oval,  rather  thin,  glossy,  semitrans- 
parent,  yellowish  horn-colour,  or  sometimes  clear  white,  ob- 
scurely and  slightly  marked  by  the  lines  of  growth :  ejnderiiiis 
a  mere  film :  whorls  5-6,  rounded,  but  compressed ;  the  last 
exceeding  one-half  of  the  shell :  spire  rather  pointed :  suture 
somewhat  oblique  and  deep,  forming  a  narrow  canal :  mouth 
oval :  outer  Z//>  thin,  shghtly  reflected :  inner  lip  united  to  the 
columella,  but  continuous  with  the  outer  hp :  umhilical  chinh 
obhque,  small,  but  distinct :  opercidum  oval,  obtusely  angular 

*  KesembHng  another  species. 


HYDROBIA.  65 

above,  thin  and  flat,  having  a  lateral  and  indistinct  spire  of 
only  2  whorls,  and  resembling  that  of  the  marine  genus  Lit- 
torina ;  it  is  marked  with  strong,  but  remote,  irregular  and 
flexuous  lines  of  increase.    L.  0'15.    B.  0*1. 

Habitat  :  Muddy  ditches  which  are  occasionally,  but 
seldom,  overflowed  by  the  tide,  by  the  side  of  the  Thames 
from  Greenwich  to  below  Woolwich.  These  ditches  are 
separated  from  the  river  by  a  high  and  broad  embank- 
ment, which  is  provided  at  distant  intervals  with  sluices 
to  drain  off  the  surface  water.  It  lives  there  in  company 
with  Bythinia  tentaculata  and  other  freshwater  shells, 
as  well  as  with  the  more  marine  and  peculiar  moUusk, 
Assiminia  Gray  ana;  and  it  is  gregarious.  Its  food 
appears  to  consist  of  decaying  vegetable  matter ;  and  its 
habits  are  rather  active,  creeping  and  floating  with  tole- 
rable rapidity.  Mr.  Prestwich  and  Mr.  Pickering  found 
specimens  of  it  in  peat,  in  the  main-drainage-cutting 
between  Woolwich  Arsenal  and  the  exit  to  the  Thames, 
through  Plumstead  Marshes ;  but  it  can  scarcely  be  con- 
sidered one  of  our  upper  tertiary  fossils.  This  species  is 
widely  diffused  in  France,  and  extends  south  to  Corsica. 
The  Paludina  meridionalis  of  Risso  appears  to  be  only  a 
rather  longer  and  stouter  form  of  this  species,  judging 
from  typical  specimens  in  the  Museum  at  the  Jardin  des 
Plantes. 

No  one  can,  I  think,  take  the  trouble  of  carefully 
comparing  specimens  of  this  shell  with  the  description 
and  figure  given  by  Draparnaud  of  his  Cyclostoma  simile, 
without  being  satisfied  of  their  specific  identity ;  and  the 
general  consent  of  continental  conchologists  is  in  favour 
of  this  view.  In  France  H.  similis  inhabits  fr^esh  water. 
Morelet  states  that  in  the  South  of  Portugal  it  is  found 
both  in  running  water  and  marshes,  and  that  the  shells 
of  the  males  have  a  longer  spire  than  those  of  the  other 


66  PALUDINID^. 

sex.  British  authors  have  referred  this  species  to  the 
Cyclostoma  anatinum  of  Draparnaud,  but_,  as  I  believe, 
erroneously.  The  Bulimus  anatinus  of  Poiret,  from  which 
Draparnaud  seems  to  have  taken  the  specific  name  of 
his  species,  is  in  all  probability  the  Turbo  ulvce  of  Pennant. 
That  species  is  universally  known  in  France  by  the  name 
which  Poiret  gave.  Michaud,  in  his  Supplement  to 
Draparnaud's  last  work,  mentions  Cyclostoma  anatinum 
as  inhabiting  "  les  eaux  saumatres ;  ^^  although  Drapar- 
naud gives  a  difPerent  habitat  ("  les  eaux  donees")  for  the 
same  species.  It  is  not  impossible  that  the  latter  meant 
Bythinia  Leachii.  The  contour  of  the  shell  of  H.  similis 
is  not  unlike  that  of  a  dwarf  Bythinia  Leachii ;  but  the 
channeled  suture,  as  well  as  the  very  different  operculum, 
will  readily  serve  to  distinguish  them,  irrespectively  of 
size. 

2.  H.  VENTRo'sA  *,  Montagu. 

Turbo  ventrosus,  Mont.  Test.  Brit.  ii.  p.  317,  pi.  12.  f.  13.    Rissoa  vetiirosa, 
F.  &  H.  iii.  p.  138,  pi.  Ixxsvii.  11,5,  6,  7. 

Body  dark  grey,  almost  black  in  front:  head  rather  pro- 
tuberant: snout  long  and  ridged  transversely:  tentacles  fili- 
form, with  black  and  grey  rings :  eyes  on  very  short  stalks, 
placed  a  httle  behind  the  outer  base  of  the  tentacles :  foot 
cleft  in  front  and  rounded  behind. 

Shell  forming  a  lengthened  cone,  rather  thin,  glossy,  semi- 
transparent,  yellowish  horn-colour,  obscurely  but  closely 
striate  by  the  lines  of  growth  :  epidermis  very  delicate :  luhorls 
6-7,  rounded  and  swollen ;  the  last  not  being  equal  to  half 
the  length  of  the  shell :  spire  pointed :  suture  rather  obhque 
and  deep :  mouth  oval :  outer  lip  thin,  shghtly  reflected  :  inner 
lip  in  adult  specimens  separate  from  the  columella  and  forming 
with  the  other  lip  a  complete  peristome :  umhilical  chink  very 
small :  operculum  like  that  of  II.  similis,  but  having  a  smaller 
spire  and  closer  lines  of  increase.   L.  0*2.   B.  0-125. 

*  Swollen. 


HYDROBIA.  67 

Yar.  1.  minor.     Shell  much  smaller  :  spire  shorter. 

Var.  2.  decollata.     Shell  slightly  eroded :  sjnre  truncate. 

Yar.  3.  ovata.  Shell  having  a  much  shorter  spire,  consist- 
ing* of  only  4  whorls,  which  are  more  swollen  than  usual,  and 
the  last  considerably  exceeds  one-half  of  the  shell. 

Yar.  4.  elongata.  Shell  having  its  spire  proportionally 
longer,  with  sometimes  as  many  as  8  wliorls. 

Yar.  5.  pellucida.  Shell  clear  white,  and  nearly  transpa- 
rent. 

Habitat  :  Abundantly  in  many  estuaries  and  in  track- 
ish  water  in  which  the  admixture  of  fresh  predominates 
over  salt,  throughout  England  and  Y^^ales;  and  I  have 
also  taken  it  in  Larne  Lough,  Ireland.  It  occurs  in 
the  upper  tertiary  bed  at  Clacton,  and  elsewhere  in  the 
estuary  of  the  Thames.  Var.  1.  Burry  River,  South 
YYales  (J.  G.  J.).  Var.  2.  Burry  River,  but  not  in  the 
same  part  of  the  estuary  where  the  first  variety  is  found, 
and  Guernsey  (J.  G.  J.).  Var.  3.  Oxwich  marsh,  near 
Swansea  (J.  G.  J.).  Var.  4.  ArnokVs  pond,  Guernsey 
(J.  G.  J.).  Var.  5.  Manorbeer,  Pembrokeshire  (J.  G.  J.) ; 
Scarborough  (Bean)  :  very  rare.  This  species  inhabits 
similar  situations  along  the  sea-coasts  of  Sweden,  France, 
and  Portugal,  as  well  as  of  Algeria. 

H.  ventrosa  is  gregarious,  and  sometimes  lives  in  com- 
pany with  H.  ulvcBy  which  however  is  more  of  a  marine 
than  a  freshwater  species.  The  latter  is  never  found 
out  of  the  reach  of  the  tide,  and  inhabits  the  mud  flats 
and  ooze ;  while  the  present  species  usually  lives  in  ponds 
and  ditches  into  which  the  sea  only  flows  at  high  water 
or  in  spring  tides.  The  habits  of  this  species  are  more 
active  than  those  of  H.  ulvce ;  and  I  have  observed  that 
when  they  are  found  together  the  latter  may  be  seen 
crawling  slowly  over  the  mud  and  Ulva  at  the  bottom  of 
shallow  pools,  while  the  other  seems  to  disport  itself  by 


68  PALUDINID^. 

floating  with  tolerable  rapidity  along  the  under  surface 
of  the  water.  The  shell  is  often  encrusted  with  a  mineral 
deposit  or  covered  with  an  algoid  or  confervoid  growth. 
The  variety  5  resembles  the  Cyclostoma  viti^eum  of  Dra- 
parnaud  and  the  Paludina  diaphana  of  Michaud.  Some- 
times the  shell  is  distorted  by  having  the  upper  part  of 
the  spire  twisted  to  one  side,  or  by  the  last  whorl  having 
a  few  obscure  spiral  ridges. 

This  small,  but  abundant,  species  has  received  a  great 
number  of  names  from  modern  conchologists,  in  conse- 
quence of  their  referring  it  to  ill-defined  species  of  ancient 
authors.  I  do  not  believe  that  it  is  the  Turbo  stagnorum 
of  Baster,  because  he  describes  the  habitat  to  be  "in 
aquis  dulcibus,"  and  the  aperture  or  mouth  to  be  mar- 
gined. Nor  can  I  identify  it  with  the  Helix  octona  of 
Linne,  which  is  said  to  have  eight  whorls  and  a  round 
aperture.  Nor  is  it,  in  my  opinion,  the  Turbo  theriyialis 
of  Gmelin,  because  he  gives  an  inland  habitat  (Pisa)  and 
says  that  the  shell  is  white  and  has  only  four  whorls. 
There  can,  however,  be  no  doubt  of  its  being  the  Cy- 
clostoma acutum  of  Draparnaud ;  and  this  specific  name 
has  been  adopted  by  almost  every  continental  naturalist. 
The  Paludina  muriatica  of  Lamarck  is  evidently  H.  ulv(S. 

This  species  differs  from  H.  similis  in  its  long  spire, 
the  suture  not  being  channeled,  and  in  the  umbilical 
chink  being  very  much  smaller.  From  H.  ulvca  it  may 
be  known  by  its  being  less  than  half  the  size  of  that 
species,  its  much  deeper  suture,  the  body  or  last  whorl 
not  being  keeled  (as  is  the  case  in  H.  ulvce),  as  well  as  in 
the  inner  lip  being  disconnected  from  the  columella. 

The  shells  which  Mr.  Pickering  found  some  years  ago, 
about  two  miles  below  Gravesend,  together  with  a  spe- 
cimen of  Litiopa  bombyx,  and  which  Forbes  and  Hanley 
considered   (but  with  some  doubt)   to  be  a  variety  of 


HYDROBIA.  69 

H.  ventrosa,  bear  siicli  a  close  and  suspicious  resem- 
blance to  a  Cape  of  Good  Hope  species  of  Hydrobia, 
that  I  cannot  venture  to  include  it  among  the  British 
MoUusca.  It  does  not  appear  to  have  been  described  by 
any  author ;  but  Mr.  G.  B.  Sowerby  has  named  it  Rissoa 
castanea,  on  my  authority,  in  his  ^  Illustrations  of  British 
Conchology.'  Both  Mr.  Pickering  and  myself  have 
failed  to  rediscover  this  species  in  the  spot  where  he 
originally  found  it,  although  we  have  at  different  times 
carefully  searched  for  it.  The  fact  of  Litiopa  bombyoo, 
which  is  peculiar  to  the  Gulf- weed,  having  been  taken 
with  it,  leads  to  the  supposition  that  both  of  these  shells 
might  have  been  accidentally  brought  into  the  Thames, 
attached  to  the  keel,  rudder,  or  anchor  of  an  inward- 
bound  vessel,  and  carried  by  the  tide  into  the  ditch  where 
they  were  discovered  by  Mr.  Pickering.  Many  other 
modes  of  introduction  will  doubtless  occur  to  my  readers. 

I  received  some  years  ago  from  the  late  Mr.  G.B.  Sow- 
erby two  specimens  of  Hydrobia  Ferussina,  which  he  said 
had  been  found  in  Hampshire.  I  do  not  propose  to  add 
this  species  to  the  British  list  on  such  slight  and  insuffi- 
cient grounds ;  but  as  Helix  obvoluta  has  only  been  found 
in  the  same  county,  as  a  British  shell,  and  both  these 
species  inhabit  the  greater  part  of  Prance,  I  merely  call 
the  attention  of  conchologists  to  the  circumstance,  it 
being  not  improbable  that  the  H.  Ferussina  may  also 
turn  up  in  the  South  of  England. 

The  Hydrobia  marginata  [Paludina  marginata  of  Mi- 
chaud)  inhabited  this  country  a  Iqng  time  ago,  but  ap- 
pears to  have  become  extinct  as  a  British  species.  Sir 
Charles  Lyell  first,  I  believe,  recorded  it  as  occurring  in 
the  Mundesley  bed,  where  I  have  since  found  it ;  it  also 
occurs  in  the  weU-known  upper  tertiary  strata  at  Grays, 
Stutton,  Clacton,  and  Cropthorn ;  and  I  lately  detected  it 


70  VALVATID.E. 

among  some  shells  collected  by  Mr.  Wyatt  from  a  similar 
deposit  at  Biddenham  near  Bedford.  This  species  now 
inhabits  the  South  and  South-west  of  France,  as  well  as 
the  Jura  and  Switzerland ;  and  it  has  been  found  in  a 
fossil  state  in  the  lacustrine  beds  at  Amiens. 

The  Natica  Kingii  of  Forbes  and  Hanley  (iii.  p.  343, 
pi.  ci.  f.  1,  2)  belongs  to  this  family,  and  not  to  the 
Naticidce.  It  is  the  LWioglyphus  Naticoicles  of  Ferussac, 
and  inhabits  the  Danube.  Professor  King  is  said  to 
have  found  the  specimen  (which  is  now  in  my  collection) 
in  the  bottom  of  a  fishing-boat  at  Cullercoats.  How  this 
Austrian  and  freshwater  species  could  have  got  to  the 
Northumberland  coast,  is  very  difficult  to  say.  Professor 
King  informs  me  that  he  never  received  any  shells  from 
the  Danube,  and  that  his  statement  as  to  the  Northum- 
brian locality  is  perfectly  correct.  The  question  of  the 
indigenousness  and  unaccountable  habitat  of  this  speci- 
men must  therefore  remain  a  mystery. 


Family  III.  VALVATID^. 

Body  elongated,  spiral :  eyes  placed  within  the  tentacles  at 
their  base :  gill  protruding  beyond  the  edge  of  the  mantle,  the 
respiration  being  aided  by  a  tentacular  filament :  sexes  united, 
or  common  to  each  individual. 

Shell  having  a  short  but  symmetrical  spire  and  a  circular 
mouth  :  operculum  regularly  multispiral. 

This  family  comprises  only  one  genus  {Valvata),  which 
was  founded  by  the  Danish  naturalist,  Miiller.  It  is 
remarkable  for  its  branchial  apparatus,  which  is  external 
or  protruded  when  the  animal  is  moving.  In  this  posi- 
tion it  resembles  a  feather,  and  caused  Geoftroy  to  give 
to  these  elegant  little  creatures  the  expressive  name  of 
"  porte-plumet."    Besides  this  branchial  plume,  the  ani- 


VALVATIDiE.  71 

mal  has  another  peculiar  organ  to  facilitate  its  respira- 
tion^  consisting  of  a  filament  or  appendage  to  the  mantle^ 
which  might  be  mistaken  for  a  third  tentacle  or  a  para- 
sitic worm,  and  is  placed  on  the  right  side  of  the  body. 
The  form  of  the  shell  and  operculum  is  very  graceful^ 
and  is  somewhat  like  that  of  Trochus  or  Margarita. 

The  members  of  this  family  and  genus  are  vegetable 
feeders.  They  are  very  shy.  Miiller  relates  that  he 
was  tantalized  by  watching  them  for  several  hours,  in 
the  hope  that  they  would  show  themselves  and  enable 
his  draughtsman  to  make  a  sketch  of  the  animal  and 
its  curious  plume,  but  that  he  was  disappointed.  He 
appears  to  have  consoled  himself  by  the  idea  that  the 
little  snails  acted  on  the  proverbial  principle  that  you 
were  not  to  put  any  trust  in  man !  The  reproductive 
system  of  these  mollusks  is  peculiar,  and  resembles 
that  of  Ancylus,  or  the  freshwater  Limpet.  Although 
each  individual  is  of  both  sexes,  it  is  at  first  only  male 
or  female,  and  afterwards  changes  its  sex.  They  are 
gregarious,  and  inhabit  slow  rivers,  streams,  canals,  and 
nearly  stagnant  water.  The  shells  may  often  be  seen 
attached  to  the  cases  of  the  Phryganea,  or  May-fly,  and 
thus  collected  form  a  very  pretty  object. 

The  shells  of  some  of  the  Valvatidce  closely  resemble 
in  shape  the  cases  made  by  the  larvse  of  certain  insects ; 
and  their  similarity  is  so  great  that  Mr.  Swainson  pro- 
posed a  new  genus  of  Mollusca  for  these  insect-cases, 
under  the  name  of  Thelidoinus.  Such  instances  of  mi- 
metic analogy  occur  in  other  branches  of  the  animal  king- 
dom. The  valves  of  some  Entomostraca,  belonging  to 
the  genus  Estheria,  are  not  unlike  those  of  a  young  Ano- 
donta  in  appearance,  although  their  structure  and  compo- 
sition are  very  diflPerent. 


72 


VALVATID^. 


VALVA'TA^,  Miiller.     PI.  III.  f.  13,  14,  15. 

Eyes  nearly  sessile  :  operculum  horny  and  thin. 

1.  Valvata  piscina^'lis  t,  Miiller. 

Nerita  2>isci7ialis,  Miill.  Verm.  Hist.  pt.  ii.  p.  172.      V.  piscinalis,  F.  &  H. 
iii.  p.  19,  pl.lxxi.  f.9, 10. 

Body  of  a  clear  yellomsh'gTey,  with  small  and  indistinct 
milk-white  specks :  snout  long,  narrow,  and  transversely 
wrinkled  :  tentacles  long,  cylindiical,  rather  close  together,  and 
slightly  recurved  at  the  point :  eyes  large  and  round,  but  not 
prominent:  foot  separate  from  the  snout  and  six  times  as 
broad,  deeply  cleft  in  front  and  rounded  behind;  its  tail 
nearly  covered  by  the  operculum :  hrancliial plume  transparent, 
bearing  on  each  side  fourteen  slender  offsets,  which  are  placed 
at  right  angles  to  the  stalk :  branchial  appendage  of  the  same 
size  and  length  as  the  tentacles. 

Shell  forming  a  depressed  cone,  subglobular,  rather  solid 
and  opaque,  brownish-yellow,  closely  and  regularly  striate 
transversely,  and  more  or  less  distinctly  ridged  in  a  spiral 
direction,  which  often  gives  the  surface  an  elegantly  reticu- 
lated appearance :  whorls  6,  rounded  and  convex,  the  last  being 
rather  less  than  one-half  of  the  shell :  spire  compressed  and 
blunt :  suture  nearly  straight  and  very  deejD :  mouth  circular : 
outer  lip  rather  thick  and  reflected :  inner  lip  quite  separate 
from  the  columella  and  continuous  with  the  outer  lip,  so  as  to 
form  a  complete  peristome :  umbilicus  round,  not  large,  but 
very  deep,  exposing  nearly  all  the  interior  of  the  spire  :  oper- 
culum circular,  slightly  compressed  in  the  middle,  forming  a 
concentric  spire  of  from  10  to  12  whorls,  the  outer  edges  of 
which  are  thickened  and  raised  so  as  to  project  over  and 
partly  overlap  the  succeeding  whorl  of  the  operculum.  L.0-25. 
B.  0-275. 

Yar.  1.  clepressa.  Shell  having  the  spire  more  depressed  and 
the  umbilicus  consequently  larger.  V.  depressa,  C.  Pfeiffer, 
Deutsch.  Moll.  i.  p.  100,  pi.  ii.  f.  33. 

Yar.  2.  subcylindrica.  Shell  having  the  spire  more  produced, 
and  flattened  at  the  top  :  imibilicus  small. 


*  Closed  by  a  valve,  or  operculum. 


f  Inhabiting  fish-ponds. 


VALVATA.  73 

Var.  3.  acuminata.  Shell  having  the  sjjire  still  more  pro- 
duced, and  ending  in  rather  a  sharp  point. 

Habitat  :  Slow  and  still  waters  throughout  the  Bri- 
tish Isles  ;  common  in  our  upper  tertiary  beds.  Var.  1 
occurs  also  in  various  parts  of  the  kingdom ;  but  it  is 
more  local,  and  not  found  with  the  typical  form.  The 
young  of  both  these  forms  have  invariably  the  spire  pro- 
portionably  more  depressed  than  in  the  adult.  Var.  2. 
Grassmere  (J. G.  J.).  This  somewhat  resembles  the  well- 
known  form  called  "  antiqua  '^  by  Professor  Morris,  from 
the  upper  tertiary  deposit  at  Grays.  Var.  3.  Avon  E/., 
Bristol  (J.  G.  J.)  j  Northof  Ireland  (Mrs.  Puxley).  Spe- 
cimens of  the  typical  form,  which  Mr.  Bridgman  pro- 
cured and  kindly  sent  me,  from  brackish  water  at  Lynn, 
are  much  thicker  and  of  a  darker  colour  than  usual,  and 
have  stronger  striae ;  and  the  opercula  have  fewer  whorls 
and  slighter  ridges.  In  another  variety  which  I  have 
received  from  my  valued  friend  and  correspondent,  Mr. 
Waller,  and  which  he  found  at  Finnoe,  Co.  Tipperary, 
the  shell  is  more  conic  and.  the  spiral  ridges  form  irre- 
gular white  lines.  A  monstrosity  has  also  occurred  to 
me,  in  which  the  spire  is  twisted  to  one  side.  This  spe- 
cies ranges  from  Siberia  to  Naples. 

In  May,  June,  July  and  August  the  eggs  of  this  mol- 
lusk  are  deposited  on  various  substances,  and  sometimes 
on  the  shell  of  a  Planorbis.  They  are  united  in  a  gela- 
tinous mass,  and  enclosed  in  a  globular  capsule  having  a 
short  stalk,  by  which  it  is  attached.  The  eggs  contained 
in  each  capsule  number,  according  to  Bouchard-Chante- 
reaux,  from  60  to  80 ;  but  Moquin-Tandon,  who  appears 
to  have  observed  many  cases  of  such  egg-laying  and 
-hatching  in  an  aquarium,  states  that  out  of  19  capsules 
the  number  of  eggs  in  each  varied  from  4  to  24  only. 
When  the  eggs  have  come  to  maturity,  which  is  about  the 

E 


74i  VALVATID^E. 

twelfth  day  after  they  have  been  laid^  the  capsule^  being 
distended^  bursts^  and  abont  two -thirds  of  the  fry  emerge 
and  enter  on  their  career  of  life.  The  capsule  then  re- 
sumes its  former  shape,  and  retains  the  rest  of  the  fry 
for  four  days  longer,  w  hen  they  are,  in  their  turn,  hatched 
or  emancipated. 

Both  Draparnaud  and  Montagu  were  aware  that  this 
species  was  furnished  with  the  branchial  plume ;  but  the 
former  included  it  in  the  heterogeneous  assemblage  of 
species  which  he  called  Cyclostoma,  assigning  the  next 
species  to  Valvata;  and  our  countryman  referred  one 
species  to  Helix  and  the  other  to  Turbo.  The  present 
species  is  the  Nerita  obtusa  of  Studer ;  and  Draparnaud 
adopted  his  specific  name. 

2.  V.  crista'ta"^,  Miiller. 

V.  cristata,  Miill.  Verm.  Hist.  pt.  ii.  p.  198 ;    F.  &  H.  iii.  p.  21,  pi.  Ixxi. 
f.  11,  12, 13. 

Body  dark  grey  or  brown,  with  a  few  small  black  specks  on 
the  upper  part,  slate- colour  underneath :  snout  prominent, 
rather  narrow  and  curved,  faintly  wrinkled :  tentacles  long, 
slender,  close  together  but  recurved  at  their  points  :  eyes  small 
and  round  :  foot  quite  separate  from  the  snout,  and  resembling, 
in  proportion  to  its  size,  that  of  the  last  species :  hranchial 
jilume  transparent,  bearing  about  15  offsets  on  each  side  of  the 
stalk  :  hranchial  ap^endaye  rather  shorter  than  the  tentacles. 

Shell  forming  a  flat  coil,  concave  beneath,  rather  solid, 
semitransparent,  yellowish  or  greyish-horncolour,  closely  and 
regularly  striate  transversely  :  epidermis  very  thin  :  whorls  5, 
the  last  exceeding  in  breadth  all  the  rest  put  together  :  spire 
flat,  or  slightly  concave  omng  to  the  convexity  of  the  whorls : 
mouth  circular  ;  outer  lip  thin  and  slightly  reflected  :  inner  lip 
separate  from  the  columella  and  continuous  with  the  outer  lip  : 
umhilicus  very  large  and  open,  fully  exjiosing  the  interior  of 
the  spire :  operculum  circular,  concave  like  an  inverted  pot- 
lid,  forming  a  concentric  spire  of  about  a  dozen  whorls,  the 

*  Crested  ;  so  called  from  its  brancldal  plume. 


VALVATA.  75 

outer  edges  of  which  are  membranous  and  project  in  front  so 
as  to  make  slight  ridges.     L.  0*025.    B.  0*125. 

Habitat  :  Lakes,  canals,  ponds  and  ditches,  with  the 
last  species.  It  has  an  equally  extensive  range  both 
here  and  abroad,  except  that  the  present  species  does 
not  appear  to  have  been  found  south  of  Corsica.  It  is 
also  one  of  our  upper  tertiary  fossils.  A  monstrosity  is 
in  my  collection,  which  has  the  last  whorl  detached  and 
coiled  upwards,  as  is  not  unfrequently  the  case  with 
several  species  of  Planorbis. 

The  branchial  plume  is  not  always  protruded,  even 
when  the  animal  is  crawling. 

Although  the  spire  in  some  specimens  is  a  trifle  more 
depressed  or  sunk  than  usual,  I  am  not  aware  that  the 
Valvata  spirorbis  of  Draparnaud  (which  Moquin-Tandon 
regards  as  a  variety  of  the  present  species)  has  ever  been 
found  in  this  country.  The  V.  minuta  of  that  author  is 
a  totally  different  species,  having  a  globular  shell,  with  a 
produced  spire,  and  resembling  a  miniature  V.piscinalis. 
The  present  species  is  the  V.  planorbis  of  Draparnaud. 

There  is  no  difficulty  in  distinguishing  V.  cristata 
from  the  fry  of  V.  piscinalis,  much  less  from  the  adult, 
where  the  great  difference  of  size  affords  a  sufficient 
criterion.  The  shell  of  the  present  species  in  all  stages 
of  growth  is  quite  flat,  and  resembles  that  of  a  Planorbis, 
constituting  apparently  a  passage  into  that  genus ;  while 
the  other  is  trochoid  or  subglobose,  and  has  a  prominent 
spire.  Their  bodies,  or  the  soft  parts  of  the  animal,  do  not 
present  such  a  decided  difference.  The  tentacles  of  V. 
piscinalis  are,  however,  rather  more  slender,  and  the 
snout  is  proportionably  larger  than  in  this  species. 


E  2 


76        *  PULMONOBRANCHIATA. 


Order  II.  PULMONOBEANCHIATA*. 

Body  spiral :  respiratory  apparatus  principally  consisting  of 
an  internal  cavity  or  sac,  formed  by  a  fold  of  the  mantle,  and 
lined  with  a  network  of  vessels,  which  serves  the  purpose  of 
lungs. 

Shell  usually  external  and  spiral,  but  sometimes  internal 
and  rudimentary  or  wanting.  In  the  two  latter  cases  the 
mantle  is  external  and  forms  a  shield  on  the  back. 

With  respect  to  the  reproductive  system  of  the  Mol- 
lusca  comprised  in  this  Order,  it  may  be  observed  that 
each  individual  of  those  kinds  which  do  not  possess  an 
operculum  has  both  sexes  united  in  itself,  but  requires 
to  be  fertilized  b}^  another  individual,  while  those  which 
have  an  operculum  are  of  different  sexes.  The  former 
are  androgynous,  answering  in  some  respects  to  the 
botanical  term  "  monoecious  ;^^  and  the  latter  are  strictly 
"  dioecious.^' 

The  Pulmonobranchs,  Pulmobranchs,  Pulmonifers,  Pul- 
monates,  or  Pneumonobranchs,  by  all  of  which  various 
names  these  mollusks  have  been  called,  on  account  of  the 
analogy  which  their  organ  of  breathing  bears  to  the 
lungs  of  vertebrate  animals,  respire  for  the  most  part 
atmospheric  air.  The  aquatic  kinds  obtain  also  some  air 
from  the  water  by  means  of  auxiliary  branchial  organs. 
All  the  land  mollusks,  or  Snails,  belong  to  this  Order. 
The  other  members  of  it  are  aquatic ;  but  none  of  them 
inhabit  the  open  sea,  although  a  few,  belonging  to  the 
genera  Melampus  or  Conovulus  and  Otina,  are  amphi- 
bious. These  last  I  propose  to  include  in  the  marine 
Mollusca,  as  they  live  in  the  sea  for  many  hours  out  of 
the   twenty-four,  and  are  only  met  with   on  dry  land 

*  Having  a  lung-like  gill. 


LIMN^lDiE.  77 

when  the  tide  has  retired.     One  species  of  Melampus  is 
found  in  brackish,  but  never  in  fresh,  water. 

In  this  country,  about  three-fourths  of  the  Pulmono- 
branchs  are  terrestrial;  the  remaining  fourth  live  in 
fresh  and  shallow  water,  occasionally  rising  to  the  sur- 
face or  crawling  out  of  their  native  element  to  renew 
the  supply  of  air.  They  are  nearly  all  herbivorous ;  but 
the  Testacella,  or  Shell- Slug,  feeds  exclusively  on  the 
earthworm,  and  the  Slugs  and  many  kinds  of  Snail  (both 
terrestrial  and  aquatic)  eat  animal  as  well  as  vegetable 
substances,  and  are  occasionally  cannibals.  It  has  been 
proposed  to  call  the  tentacles  of  the  aquatic  kinds  by 
another  name  (viz.  vibracles),  in  consequence  of  their 
being  contractile,  instead  of  retractile  like  the  tentacles 
or  horns  of  land-snails,  and  also  because  they  do  not 
bear  the  eyes  on  their  tips  or  extremities,  as  in  the  last- 
mentioned  kinds.  This  distinction  seems,  however,  to  be 
unnecessary ;  and  much  confusion  might  result  from  such 
an  innovation,  as  the  word  '  tentacles  ^  has  been  so  long 
and  universally  applied  to  the  feelers  of  all  the  Gastero- 
poda or  univalve  MoUusca. 

They  may  be  conveniently  divided  according  to  their 
different  habitats ;  and  the  freshwater  kinds  will  be  de- 
scribed first,  so  as  to  complete  this  branch  of  the  subject. 
These  are  aU  covered  or  protected  by  a  shell,  and  are 
comprised  in  the  undermentioned  family. 


Family  LIMN^ID^. 

Body  generally  long  and  spirally  coiled,  but  in  one  genus 
short  and  hood-shaped :  mantle  covering  the  upper  part  in  front: 
head  short :  tentacles  2,  contractile :  eyes  placed  on  the  inner 
base  of  the  tentacles,  a  little  towards  the  front :  foot  oval,  used 
for  crawling  or  floating. 

Shell  spiral,  or  hood-shaped. 


78  LlMNiEIDiE. 

Genus  I.  PLANOR'BIS^  Guettard.    PL  IV.  f.  1,  2,  3. 

Body  long,  twisted  in  a  flat  coil :  tentacles  very  long  and 
slender :  foot  short  and  narrow,  attached  to  the  upper  part  of 
the  body  by  a  stalk,  which  is  shaped  like  the  lower  half  of  an 
honi'glass. 

Shell  quoit-shaped,  or  flat :  whorls  cylindrical :  spire  dex- 
tral,  or  turning  from  left  to  right,  and  visible  on  each  side. 

This  genus  has  some  remarkable  peculiarities.  One 
of  them  consists  in  the  habit  of  the  animal  emitting  its 
purple-coloured  blood,  or  a  fluid  like  that  which  is  se- 
creted by  the  Aplysia,  on  being  irritated,  apparently  as  a 
means  of  defence  against  its  enemies.  Another  is,  having 
several  of  its  vital  organs  placed  on  the  left  side  of  its 
body,  instead  of  on  the  right  (as  is  the  case  with  nearly  all 
the  other  Gasteropoda),  while  the  spire  of  its  body  and 
shell  is  coiled  the  other  way,  viz.  from  left  to  right.  And 
a  third  peculiar  feature  consists  in  the  form  of  its  shell, 
wliicb  is  flat  or  concave  on  one  or  both  of  its  sides,  re- 
sembling that  of  an  Ammonite,  The  body  of  these  mol- 
lusks  is  too  small  for  its  shell ;  and  when  crawling,  the 
animal  leaves  part  of  the  shell  empty,  putting  one  in 
mind  of  loose  and  ill-fitting  clothes.  O.  F.  Miiller,  nearly 
a  century  ago,  seems  to  have  satisfactorily  settled  the 
question  that  was  then  raised  as  to  whether  the  shells 
were  right-  or  left-handed ;  but  the  discussion  has  lately 
been  renewed.  The  shell  being  viewed  in  its  natural 
position,  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  its  being  dextral. 
Some  of  the  smaller  species  of  Planorbis,  inhabiting 
marshes  and  very  shallow  water  which  are  dried  up  in 
summer,  close  the  mouth  of  their  shell  with  an  epi- 
phragm,  or  filmy  covering,  like  that  of  some  land-snails. 
The  animal  then  retires  into  the  interior  of  its  coil  and 

*  Flat-coil. 


PLANORBIS.  79 

awaits  the  return  of  moist  and  more  congenial  weather. 
All  of  them  frequent  stagnant  or  slowly-running  water, 
and  are  herbivorous.  Their  eggs  are  enclosed  in  a 
globular  bag,  which  is  fixed  to  stones  and  the  stalks  or 
leaves  of  submerged  water-plants.  Owing  to  the  sluggish 
habits  of  most  of  the  species,  as  well  as  to  the  nature 
of  their  habitat,  the  surface  of  their  shells  is  apt  to 
become  encrusted  with  a  mineral  or  vegetable  deposit. 
The  genus  seems  to  have  been  originally  indicated  by 
Petiver  in  his  '  Gazophylacion.'' 

There   being   several  species,  it  may  be  more   con- 
venient to  divide  them,  as  before,  into  sections. 


A.  Shell  glossy  ;  last  whorl  very  large  in  proportion  to  the 
rest,  and  partly  covering  the  preceding  one. 

1.  Planorbis  linea'tus*,  Walker. 

Helix  lineata,  Walker,  Test.  Min.  Ear,  p.  8,  pi.  1 .  f.  28.  P.  laacstris,  F.  &  H. 
iv.  p.  162,  pi.  cxxviii.  f.  1-3. 

JioDY  reddish-brown,  tinged  with  violet,  dark  purple  in 
front  with  a  few  black  specks  :  head  strongly  bilobed :  ten- 
tacles filiform,  diverging  at  their  base  :  eyes  small,  but  distinct, 
scarcely  prominent :  foot  broad  and  rounded  in  front,  gradu- 
ally narrowing  and  pointed  behind. 

Shell  quoit-shaped,  the  upper  being  rather  more  convex 
than  the  lower  side,  both  sides  depressed  or  almost  concave  in 
the  middle,  rather  thin,  very  glossy,  semitransparcnt,  reddish 
or  yellowish-horncolour,  or  grey,  closely  striate  in  a  trans- 
verso  direction,  the  striae  becoming  curved  towards  the  mouth  : 
epidermis  very  slight :  periphery  (or  circumference  of  the 
outer  whorl)  bluntly  keeled:  luhorls  4,  compressed  on  all 
sides ;  the  last  exceeding  in  size  the  rest  of  the  shell,  and  con- 
cealing nearly  two-thirds  of  the  preceding  whorl  in  its  clasp  : 
suture  distinct,  but  not  deep  :  mouth  obliquely  heart-shaped : 
outer  lip  thin  and  flexuous,  obtusely  angulated  above :  um- 
hilicus  small  and  rather  deep :  inside  the  last  whorl  are  from 

*  Streaked. 


80  LIMN^ID.^. 

2  to  5  rows  of  curved  plates,  which  are  arranged  on  each  side 
across  the  spire,  opposite  to  each  other  and  at  nearly  equi- 
distant intervals.    L.  0-065.   B.  0-2. 

Habita-T  :  Slow  streams  and  ditches  in  the  home  and 
eastern  counties,  as  well  as  in  Guernsey  (Lukis),  Notts 
(Lowe),  and  Co.  Tipperary  (Humphreys) ;  but  it  is  a 
local  species.  It  is  found  in  our  upper  tertiary  strata. 
According  to  Malm  it  occurs  in  Sweden ;  and  it  appears 
to  have  a  wide  range  over  the  more  temperate  parts  of 
Europe,  as  far  south  as  Toulouse. 

This  pretty  and  curious  little  mollusk  is  rather  active, 
and  is  usually  found  on  duck-weed  and  other  aquatic 
plants.  It  lays  only  from  3  to  8  eggs,  which  come  to 
maturity  in  ten  or  twelve  days.  The  internal  plates, 
which  are  observable  outside  the  last  whorl  of  the  shell, 
form  half-closed  chambers ;  and  the  animal  retreats  into 
the  front  one  for  safety.  These  plates  appear  to  answer 
the  same  purpose  as  the  teeth  or  folds  which  barricade 
the  apertures  of  many  of  the  small  land-snails.  They  are 
also  only  formed  in  adult  individuals.  The  peculiarity 
of  this  structure  induced  one  of  its  earliest  discoverers, 
Lightfoot,  to  call  the  present  sheU  a  Nautilus ;  and  the 
late  Professor  Fleming  proposed  for  it  on  the  same  grounds 
a  new  genus  {Segmentind) ,  which  has  been  adopted  by 
Capt.  Brown  and  Dr.  Gray ;  but,  even  as  a  test  of  concho- 
logical  distinction,  this  character  does  not  seem  to  be  of 
any  value.  Miiller  noticed,  in  his  description  of  the  next 
species,  that  a  few  of  the  specimens  which  he  had  exa- 
mined had  two  streaks,  like  ligaments,  in  the  upper  part 
of  the  last  whorl,  apparently  indicating  the  marks  of 
fracture  and  mending  of  the  shell,  by  which  he  may 
possibly  have  meant  this  species  ;  but  he  only  described 
one  species  of  this  form,  which  still  bears  the  name  he 
gave  it,  Planorbis  nitidus.     The  present  species  was  first 


PLANORBIS.  81 

made  known  by  Mr.  Walker,  an  intelligent  bookseller  at 
Faversliam  in  Kent,  tbe  description  of  it  having  been 
supplied  to  bim  by  Mr.  Jacob.  The  only  share  which 
Mr.  Boys  appears  to  have  had  in  the  discovery  is  his 
having  sent  parcels  of  shell-sand  to  Walker;  but  the  credit 
of  the  publication  entirely  belongs  to  the  latter.  Two 
years  afterwards  Lightfoot  described  and  published  this 
species  in  the  ^Philosophical  Transactions/  under  the 
name  of  Nautilus  lacustris. 

2.  P.  n/tidus*,  Miiller. 

P.  nitidus,  Miill.  Verm.  Hist.  pt.  ii.  p.  163 ;  F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  161,  pi.  cxxvii. 
f.11,12. 

Body  reddish-grey,  with  sometimes  a  yellowish  tinge,  and 
marked  with  extremely  fine  dark-grey  specks  :  tentacles  very 
long  and  slender :  eyes  rather  large :  foot  short,  very  broad  in 
front,  and  sHghtly  narrowing  behind  to  an  abrupt  but  not  a 
fine  point. 

Shell  shaped  like  the  last,  but  flatter  and  with  much  more 
of  the  spire  visible  above,  in  consequence  of  the  last  whorl 
not  clasping  such  a  large  part  of  the  preceding  one,  very  thin, 
glossy  and  prismatic,  hght-j^ellowish-horncolour  or  grey,  with 
sometimes  a  reddish  tinge,  faintly  striate  by  the  lines  of  growth, 
with  occasionally  a  few  spiral  microscopical  hues,  which  are 
more  distinct  on  the  under  side,  giving  an  appearance  of  the 
sculptui'e  pecuhar  to  the  shells  of  Limncea :  epidermis  ex- 
tremely dehcate  :  periphery  rather  sharply  keeled  :  whorls  4-5, 
the  last  covering  about  one -half  of  the  preceding  whorl :  su- 
ture rather  deep :  mouth  and  outer  lip  formed  as  in  P.  lineatus, 
but  larger  :  umbilicus  small,  not  deep.   L.  0-06.    B.  0*225. 

Habitat:  Ponds, marshes, and  stagnant  water  through- 
out Great  Britain,  from  the  Moray  Firth  district  south- 
wards. It  is  also  one  of  our  upper  tertiary  fossils. 
MiddendorflP  has  included  it  in  his  list  of  Siberian  shells  ; 
and  it  is  extensively  distributed  over  the  European  con- 
tinent, having  apparently  its   most   southern  limit   in 

*  Shining. 

E  5 


82  LIMNvEID^. 

Corsica.  Although  it  is  much  less  local  than  the  last  spe- 
cies^ I  am  not  aware  of  their  having  been  found  together. 

Its  habits  are  slower  and  more  timid  than  those  of  P. 
lineahis  ;  and  it  is  not  so  fertile,  never  laying  more  than  6 
eggs.  The  shell  is  often  infested  by  the  minute  egg-cases 
of  a  water-insect,  or  coated  with  the  spores  of  Confervce. 

The  shell  differs  chiefly  from  that  of  the  last  species  in 
being  of  a  lighter  colour,  flatter,  and  thinner,  in  the 
whorls  being  more  visible  above,  the  keel  being  much 
sharper,  and  especially  in  the  absence  of  the  internal 
septa  or  partitions. 

B.   Whoi'ls  few. 

3.  P.  Nauti'leus"^,  Linne. 

Tm^bo  Nautileus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  ed.  xii.  p.  1241.     P.  Nautileus,  F.  &  H. 
iv.  p.  152,  pi.  cxxyi.  f.  G,  7. 

Body  greyish- brown,  with  sometimes  a  faint  reddish  tinge, 
minutely  speclded  with  black :  head  very  large  and  thick : 
tentacles  long  and  cylindrical,  greatly  diverging  :  eyes  distinct, 
scarcely  prominent :  foot  broad,  rounded  in  front,  and  ending 
in  a  blunt  point  behind. 

Shell  quoit-shaped,  having  the  upper  side  flat  and  the 
lower  side  rather  convex,  thin,  not  glossy,  light-brown  or  grey, 
sometimes  white,  closely  striate  by  the  lines  of  growth,  which 
at  distant  but  regular  intervals  form  strong  curved  ridges  and 
frequently  rise  into  projections  like  the  rowels  of  a  spiu*  on  the 
outside :  epidermis  rather  thick  :  periphery  bluntly  and  in- 
distinctly keeled :  whorls  3,  depressed  above,  the  last  exceed- 
ing in  size  the  rest  of  the  shell :  suture  rather  deep  :  mouth 
oblique,  and  either  oval  or  nearly  circular,  according  to  the 
greater  or  less  depression  of  the  whorls :  outer  Up  thin,  form- 
ing with  the  inner  lip  in  the  adult  a  complete  peristome  :  iim- 
hilicus  very  large  and  exposing  all  the  spire.  L.  0*035.  B.  0-1. 

Var.  cristata.  Shell  having  the  transverse  ridges  stronger, 
and  the  periphery  deeply  notched  or  crested  by  them.  P.  cris- 
tatusy  Drap.  Hist.  Moll.  p.  44,  pi.  ii.  f.  1-3. 

*  Shaped  like  a  Nautilus. 


PLANORBIS.  .  83 

Habitat  :  On  aquatic  plants  in  marshes,  lakes,  ponds, 
and  ditches,  from  the  northernmost  extremity  of  Zetland 
to  the  Channel  Isles.  It  is  also  one  of  our  upper  tertiary- 
fossils.  The  variety  is  not  uncommon,  and  merges  in- 
sensibly into  the  ordinary  form.  The  degree  of  sculpture 
appears  to  depend  much  on  age,  as  it  is  usually  stronger 
in  half-grown  individuals  and  disappears  in  the  adult. 
A  monstrosity  also  occurs  in  which  the  whorls  are  more 
or  less  twisted  and  separate  from  each  other,  sometimes 
being  raised  like  a  snake  lying  on  its  coil.  The  range  of 
this  species  abroad  extends  from  Finland  to  the  Pyre- 
nees and  even  to  Algeria. 

This  pretty  little  mollusk  is  slow  in  its  movements, 
and  may  be  noticed  feeding  on  the  decaying  leaves  of  the 
Iris  pseudacorus  and  water-plants.  According  to  Bou- 
chard-Chantereaux,  it  lays  only  from  3  to  6  eggs,  which 
leave  the  capsule  in  ten  or  twelve  days.  The  sculpture 
of  the  shell  is  extremely  elegant ;  and  it  is  by  far  the 
smallest  of  its  kind.  The  minuteness  of  its  size,  dull 
appearance,  and  comparatively  large  umbilicus  will  at 
once  serve  to  distinguish  it  from  either  of  the  foregoing 
species.  If  the  rings  which  encircle  each  whorl  are 
marks  of  annual  growth,  it  must  attain  a  very  respectable 
old  age  for  a  mollusk,  as  I  have  counted  as  many  as  20 
rings  in  one  specimen.  In  all  probability,  however,  these 
marks  do  not  indicate  the  annual,  but  only  the  periodical 
growth,  several  of  them  being  formed  in  the  first  year. 

4.  P.  al'bus^  Miiller. 

P.  alhus,  Miill.  Yerm.  Hist.  pt.  ii.  p.  164;    F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  149,  pi.  cxxvi. 
f.1,2. 

Body  grey  or  dirty-brown,  sometimes  inclined  to  a  reddish 
hue,  with  fine  but  indistinct  black  specks  :  head  thick,  rounded 

*  White. 


in  front :  tentacles  widely  spread  at  their  base,  long,  slender, 
and  pointed :  eyes  small  and  rather  of  an  oval  shape :  foot 
narrow,  rounded  in  front  and  narrowing  gradually  behind  to 
a  blunt  point. 

Shell  flat  above,  with  a  depression  in  the  centre,  slightly 
concave  below,  rather  thin,  not  glossy,  greyish-white,  closely 
striate  in  the  line  of  growth,  and  more  strongly  striate  or 
ridged  spirally :  epidermis  thick,  sometimes  hispid  or  bristly  : 
'periphery  slightly  compressed  on  each  side,  but  not  keeled : 
whorls  5,  the  last  exceeding  the  rest  in  size :  suture  rather 
deep :  mouth  obliquely  oval :  outer  lip  slightly  reflected ;  the 
upper  part  projecting  considerably:  inner  lip  spread  on  the 
columella,  but  continuous  with  the  outer  lip  :  umhilicus  very 
large,  but  not  deep.    L.  0-08.    B.  0-275. 

Var.  Draparnaldi.  Shell  more  closely  and  sharply  striate 
in  the  line  of  growth  :  periphey^y  distinctly  keeled  :  umbilicus 
deeper.  P.  sjnrorbis,  Drap.  Hist.  Moll.  p.  45,  pi.  ii.  f.  8-10. 
Helix  Draparnaudi,  Sheppard,  in  Linn.  Tr.  xiv.  p.  158.  P. 
Draparncddi,  Jeffr.  in  Linn.  Tr.  xvi.  p.  386. 

Habitat  :  Same  as  that  of  the  last  species^  but  more 
generally  diffused.  The  most  northern  limit  in  these 
islands  appears  to  be  Aberdeenshire.  It  is  also  an  upper 
tertiary  fossil.  The  variety  has  been  found  at  Holbrook 
in  Suffolk  (Sheppard) ;  Cardiff,  Bristol^  and  Church 
Stretton  in  Shropshire  (J.  G.  J.).  It  has  been  referred 
by  the  authors  of  the  '  British  MoUusca '  to  the  P.  margi- 
natus  of  Draparnaud.  This  common  species  ranges  from 
Siberia  to  Portugal  and  Algeria. 

The  spire  is  often  twisted  or  distorted  in  this,  as  well 
as  in  the  other  species  of  Planorbis.  The  spiral  strise 
are  always  visible,  even  in  dead  and  water- worn  speci- 
mens which  have  lost  their  epidermis.  The  finest  spe- 
cimens I  have  seen  were  kindly  sent  to  me  by  my  friend 
Mr.  Norman,  who  found  them  at  Kibworth,  Co.  Durham, 
their  diameter  being  rather  more  than  a  third  of  an 
inch. 

In  all  probability  this  was  the  Helix  spirorbis  of  Linne. 


PLANORBIS.  85 

The  description  of  its  colour  {"  alba^^),  as  well  as  all  the 
other  characters  given  of  this  species  in  the  ^  Fauna 
Suecica/  are  peculiarly  appropriate  to  P.  albus.  The 
present  species  being  common  in  Sweden,  and  not  likely 
to  be  confounded  with  any  other,  could  scarcely  have 
escaped  the  keen  observation  of  the  great  naturalist; 
and  it  was  not  otherwise  noticed  by  him.  However,  as 
the  confusion  has  already  been  too  great  in  the  specific 
names  of  this  genus,  I  will  not  venture  to  increase  it  by 
restoring  Linnets  name. 

5.  P.  gla'ber*,  Jeffreys. 

P.  (/later,  Jeffr.  in  Linn.  Tr.  xvi.  p.  387  ;  F.  &  H.  iv.  p,  150,  pi.  cxxvi.  f.8,9, 

Body  yellowish-grej :  tentacles  rather  short,  cylindi-ical,  and 
ending  in  a  blunt  point :  foot  rather  broad,  especially  in  front, 
with  a  yellowish  edge. 

Shell  rather  convex  above  and  depressed  in  the  centre, 
concave  below,  rather  thin,  glossy  and  sometimes  iridescent, 
greyish -horncolour  and  occasionally  marked  with  white  curved 
streaks  in  the  line  of  growth,  finely  but  irregularly  striate 
transversely,  and  very  faintly  and  obscurely  striate  in  the  op- 
posite or  spiral  direction ;  the  spiral  stride  are  only  visible  in 
some  lights  and  by  the  aid  of  a  strong  magnifying  power : 
epidermis  thin  and  smooth  :  j;eripAer?/  rounded  :  whorls  5,  con- 
vex, but  somewhat  angular,  the  last  scarcely  exceeding  one- 
half  of  the  shell :  suture  very  deep  :  mouth  rather  more  circular 
than  oval :  outer  lip  shghtly  reflected,  the  upper  edge  project- 
ing a  httle  beyond  the  lower  one  :  inner  lip  united  to  the  colu- 
mella, but  continuous  with  the  outer  Hp  :  umbilicus  large  and 
rather  deep.     L.  0'05.    B.  0-15. 

Habitat  :  On  aquatic  plants  in  marshes,  lakes,  and 
ponds,  from  Burra  fiord  in  Unst  to  Penzance ;  but  it  is 
not  generally  diffused.  It  is  an  upper  tertiary  fossil.  I 
only  know  of  about  twenty  localities.  The  largest  speci- 
mens I  have  seen  were  found  by  Mr.  Bridgman  near 

*  Polished. 


86  LIMN^ID^. 

Norwich,  and  measure  nearly  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in 
diameter.  It  is  distributed  throughout  the  greater  part 
of  the  Continent,  and  ranges  from  Sweden  to  Corsica 
and  Algeria.  According  to  the  Rev.  R.  T.  Lowe,  it  also 
inhabits  Madeira. 

This  species  differs  from  P.  albus  in  its  smaller  size 
and  glossy  aspect ;  in  the  upper  side  being  rather  convex, 
instead  of  flat  (owing  to  the  rotundity  of  the  whorls)  ; 
in  its  deeper  suture  and  umbilicus ;  in  the  upper  part  of 
the  outer  lip  not  projecting  so  much,  in  consequence  of 
which  the  mouth  appears  to  be  more  circular;  and, 
especially,  in  not  having  the  strong  and  regular  spiral 
striae  which  characterize  the  last  species.  The  mouth  is 
also  not  nearly  so  large;  and  the  periphery  is  never  keeled 
or  compressed.  The  present  species  is  equally  abundant 
where  it  occurs ;  but  I  am  not  aware  that  both  species 
have  been  found  living  together. 

It  is  the  P.  Icevis  of  Alder,  and  probably  also  the 
P.  cornit  of  Ehrenberg  from  the  Nile.  The  P.  Ross- 
mcBSsleri  of  Auerswald  appears  to  be  only  a  large  variety 
of  the  same  species,  having  the  peristome  thickened  by 
an  inner  rib  (as  in  the  next  species),  judging  from  Ross- 
massler's  description  and  figure,  as  well  as  from  an  ex- 
amination of  typical  specimens  in  the  Museum  at  the 
Jardin  des  Plantes.  Yon  Martens  has  published,  in  the 
^ Malakozoologische  Blatter'  for  1859,  some  excellent 
dissertations  on  the  synonymy  of  a  few  of  the  European 
land  and  freshwater  shells,  and  is  of  opinion  that  this 
species  is  also  the  P.  gyrorbis  of  v.  Seckendorf  and  has 
five  other  aliases. 


PLANORBIS.  87 

C.   Whorls  many,  keeled. 
6.  P.  spiror'bis^_,  Miiller. 

P.  spirorhis,  Miill.  Verm.  Hist,  pt.ii.  p.  161  ;  F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  159,  pi.  crxvii. 
f.9,  10. 

Body  purplish-grey  or  redclish-brown,  with  minute  black 
specks  on  the  foot :  tentacles  rather  long,  slender  and  pointed : 
foot  short  and  narrow,  obtusely  rounded  in  front  and  angular 
behind. 

Shell  slightly  concave  above  and  flat  below,  or  vice  versa, 
slightly  wider  at  the  base,  rather  solid,  glossy,  brownish  horn- 
colour,  closely  striate  in  the  line  of  growth,  and  marked  spirally 
with  very  faint  and  minute  striog  :  epidermis  thin :  periphery 
angular,  and  sometimes  bluntly  keeled  on  the  lower  side : 
whorls  b~Q,  gradually  increasing  in  size,  the  last  not  exceeding 
in  diameter  one-sixth  of  the  whole  spire  ;  they  are  rounded, 
but  angular  :  suture  deep  :  mouth  nearly  circular,  often  thick- 
ened or  strengthened  inside  by  a  rib  :  outer  lip  very  slightly 
reflected  :  inner  lip  continuous  with  the  other  lip,  but  spread 
over  the  columella  :  umbilicus  very  large  and  shallow.  L.  0*04. 
B.  0-25. 

Yar.  ecarinata.  Shell  smaller,  light  grey,  having  one  whorl 
less  than  usual  and  no  trace  of  a  keel.  P.  spirorhis,  Moq.- 
Tand.  Hist.  MoU.  Fr.  p.  437,  pi.  xxxi.  f.  1-5. 

Habitat  :  On  plants  and  grass  in  shallow  and  stag- 
nant water  everywhere  from  the  Moray  Firth  district  to 
the  Channel  Isles.  It  is  also  a  fossil  of  our  upper  ter- 
tiary beds.  The  variety  appears  to  be  very  rare  in  this 
country.  I  have  only  found  it  once ;  and  that  was  in 
Oxwich  marsh,  near  Swansea.  A  monstrosity  not  un- 
frequently  occurs,  in  which  the  whorls  are  more  or  less 
twisted  and  separated.  Some  specimens  which  my  late 
friend  Mr.  Barlee  found  at  Penzance  resemble  a  minute 
corkscrew;  and  in  another  form  of  the  same  kind  of 
distortion  which  I  found   in   Bishopston  Valley,  near 

*  Round-spired. 


88  LIMNiEIDiE. 

Swansea,  the  last  whorl  only  is  separated  from  the  rest 
and  curled  upwards.  In  the  last-mentioned  locality 
there  was  a  great  deal  of  mud  which  had  been  brought 
down  by  a  stream  and  deposited  in  the  grassy  pool  where 
I  found  the  shells.  This  mud  must  have  inconvenienced 
the  mollusk  and  prevented  its  completing  the  spire  of 
its  shell  on  the  usual  plane ;  so  that  it  gave  the  last  whorl 
an  outward  twist,  apparently  in  order  to  get  clear  of  the 
incumbrance.  When  the  drains  and  splashy  pools  in 
which  this  kind  of  Planorbis  lives  are  dried  up  by  the 
heat  of  summer,  it  retires  far  within  its  shell  and  closes 
the  mouth  or  opening  with  a  yellowish- white  and  rather 
solid  lid,  patiently  waiting  for  the  next  shower  of  rain 
and  fasting  in  the  mean  time.  This  species  inhabits 
Siberia,  and  ranges  as  far  south  as  Algeria  and  Sicily. 

It  differs  from  P.  glaber  in  the  whorls  being  much 
narrower  and  consequently  more  compact,  and  in  usually 
having  a  blunt  keel  on  the  periphery. 

The  typical  or  ordinary  form  is  the  P.  rotundatus  of 
Poiret,  P.  vortex  var.  ^.  of  Draparnaud,  and  P.  leuco- 
stoma  of  Michaud,  besides  having  other  specific  names 
for  several  of  the  varieties. 


7.  P.  vor'tex"^,  Linne. 

Helix  vortex,  Linn.  Sjst.  Nat.  ed.  xii.  p.  1243.     P.  vortex,  F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  157, 
pi.  cxxvii.  f.  6-8. 

Body  reddish-brown,  with  a  slight  tint  of  violet,  rather 
distinctly  marked  with  minute  black  specks :  tentacles  very 
long,  slender  and  finely  pointed :  foot  evenly  rounded  in  front 
and  keeled  behind. 

Shell  much  compressed,  concave  above  and  flat  below,  thin, 
glossy,  yellowish  or  greyish-horncolour,  finely  and  closely 
striate  in  the  line  of  growth,  and  occasionally  having  a  few 
obscure  and  extremely  minute  spiral  stria3 :    epidermis  thin : 

*  Whirlpool. 


PLANORBIS.  89 

periphery  slightly  keeled  towards  the  lower  side,  and  always 
angular  in  consequence  of  the  outward  compression  of  the 
shell :  wliorls  6-8,  gradually  enlarging,  the  last  not  exceeding 
in  diameter  one-fifth  of  the  whole  spire,  angular  on  both  sides 
and  sloping  gently  towards  the  outer  edge :  suture  well  de- 
fined, but  not  deep :  mouth  obliquely  oval,  ending  above  in 
rather  an  acute  angle,  and  having  the  inside  sometimes  thick- 
ened by  a  slight  rib  :  outer  lip  not  reflected :  inner  lip  much 
spread  on  the  columella,  but  continuous  with  the  outer  lip : 
umbilicus  very  large  and  shallow.     L.  0-05.    B.  0-3. 

Yar.  compressa.  Shell  thinner  and  much  flatter,  with  the 
keel  more  distinct  and  sharp  and  placed  nearly  in  the  middle 
of  the  periphery.  P.  compressus,  Mich.  Compl.  p.  81,  pi.  xvi. 
f.  6-8. 

Habitat  :  The  same  as  that  of  P.  spirorbis,  and  having 
a  similar  range  at  hoAie  and  abroad  as  far  southward  as 
Algeria.  It  is,  however,  not  so  generally  diffused  as 
that  species.  They  are  sometimes  found  together.  The 
present  species  is  also  one  of  our  upper  tertiary  fossils. 
The  variety  is  not  uncommon.  I  have  a  distortion  from 
Clumber  lake,  Notts,  in  which  the  spire  is  displaced  on 
the  lower  side,  and  the  first  whorls  are  set  at  an  acute 
angle  to  those  which  succeed. 

This  mollusk  is  sluggish,  but  fond  of  floating.  It  lays 
from  10  to  12  eggs.  The  epiphragm  is  thin  and  mem- 
branous. 

The  shell  diff'ers  from  that  of  P.  spirorbis  in  being 
thinner,  flatter,  and  rather  longer,  and  in  having  a  distinct 
and  prominent  keel.  This  species  was  first  described 
and  figured  by  Lister. 

8.  P.  CARINA  Tus  *,  Miiller. 

P.  carinatus,  Mlill.  Yerm.  Hist,  pt,  ii.  p.  175  ;  F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  153,  pi.  cxxvii. 
f.  4,  5. 

Body  deep -reddish  brown  with  a  yellowish  tint,  and  of  a 

*  Keeled. 


90  LIMNiEIDiE. 

lighter  colour  underneath,  finely  and  rather  distinctly  marked 
with  black  specks :  tentacles  long,  slender,  bluntly  pointed : 
foot  acutely  rounded  in  front  and  obtusely  so  behind. 

Shell  compressed,  concave  above  and  flat  or  very  slightly 
convex  below,  rather  thin  and  glossy,  yellowish-horncolour, 
finely  and  closely  striate  in  the  line  of  growth,  with  a  few 
slight  spiral  strife :  ej)idermis  thin :  pgr^p7iery  strongly  keeled 
towards  the  middle  :  whorls  5-6,  the  diameter  of  the  last  being 
rather  less  than  a  third  of  the  whole  spire,  moderately  con- 
vex above,  but  much  less  so  beneath,  sloping  gradually  on 
both  sides  to  the  periphery :  suture  deep  :  mouth  obliquely 
oval,  sharply  angulated  above,  the  inside  sometimes  thickened: 
outer  lip  slightly  reflected  :  inner  lijp  continuous  with  it,  much 
spread  on  the  columella  :  umbilicus  very  indistinct,  owing  to 
the  lower  side  being  nearly  flat.     L.  0-1.    B.  0-5. 

Yar.  disciformis.  Shell  flatter  and  thinner,  of  a  yellowish 
colour,  having  the  last  whorl  larger  in  proportion  to  the  others, 
and  the  keel  more  prominent  and  sharp  and  placed  exactly  in 
the  middle.  P.  lutescens  (afterwards  altered  to  disciformis), 
Jeffr.  in  Linn.  Tr.  xvi.  pp.  385  &  521. 

Habitat  :  Marshes  and  stagnant  water  in  our  home 
and  eastern  counties,  as  well  as  in  those  of  Dorset,  Somer- 
set, Northampton,  York,  Glamorgan,  and  many  parts  of 
Ireland.  Dr.  Leach  says  that  it  also  occurs  near  Edin- 
burgh. It  is,  however,  local,  and  never  plentiful.  It  is 
an  upper  tertiary  fossil.  The  variety  is  found  in  Bucks, 
Oxford,  Cambridge,  Glamorgan,  Cork,  and  Tipperary,  and 
is  somewhat  rare.  This  variety  bears  the  same  relation 
to  the  typical  form  as  the  P.  compressus  of  Michaud  does 
to  P.  vortex.  The  monstrosity,  so  common  in  this  genus, 
in  which  the  last  whorl  is  disjoined  from  the  rest,  also 
occurs,  but  very  seldom.  It  is  a  Swedish  species,  and 
ranges  southward  to  Portugal  and  Corsica. 

This  mollusk  is  very  slow  in  its  movements,  but  ap- 
pears to  be  fond  of  floating.  It  lays  from  10  to  20  eggs, 
which  quit  the  capsule  in  from  ten  to  fifteen  days.  It  is 
occasionally  met  with  in  company  with  the  next  species. 


PLANORBIS.  91 

This  is  in  all  probability  the  Helix  i:tlanorhis  of  the 
^  Fauna  Suecica/  which  is  described  as  "  plana"  and 
"  margine  prominulo;"  but  as  the  description  and  figure 
given  by  Lister^  to  which  Linne  there  refers,  sipply  to  the 
Helix  complanata  of  the  latter,  more  confusion  will  be 
avoided  by  the  adoption  of  Miiller^s  name. 

9.  P.  complana'tus  "^^  Linne. 

Helix  complanata,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  ed.  x.  p.  769.    P.  marginatus,  F.  &  H. 
iv.  p.  165,  pi.  cxxvii.  f.  1-3. 

Body  of  a  deep  violet-red,  with  very  fine  black  specks,  espe- 
cially on  the  edges  of  the  foot :  tentacles  very  long  and  slender, 
bluntly  pointed :  foot  rounded  in  front,  convex  behind,  and 
ending  in  an  obtuse  tail. 

Shell  concave  above  and  slightly  convex  below,  rather 
soHd  and  opaque,  not  glossy,  yellowish-horncolour  with  some- 
times a  tinge  of  brown,  closely  but  irregularly  striate  in  the 
line  of  growth  and  more  or  less  distinctly  striate  in  a  spiral 
direction :  epidermis  rather  thick :  'periphery  strongly  keeled 
on  the  under  side :  ivhorls  6,  the  diameter  of  the  last  being 
about  one-fourth  of  the  whole  spire,  convex  above  and  slightly 
so  beneath,  sloping  abruptly  on  the  upper,  and  gradually  on 
the  lower  side  to  the  peripher}^ :  suture  moderately  deep  : 
mouth  roundish-oval,  slightly  angulated  above  by  the  keel,  the 
inside  being  sometimes  strengthened  by  a  rib  :  outer  lip  a  little 
reflected :  inner  lip  continuous  with  it  and  affixed  throughout 
to  the  columella :  umbilicus  broad  and  very  shallow.  L.  0-125. 
B.  0-6. 

Yar.  1.  rhomhea.  Shell  smaller,  more  soHd,  rather  more 
convex  above  and  deeply  umbihcated  below ;  keel  blunt  and 
almost  obsolete.     Helix  rhomhea,  Turton,  Conch.  Diet.  p.  47. 

Var.  2.  alhida.     Shell  whitish  or  colourless. 

Habitat  :  Marshes,  ponds,  canals,  ditches  and  stand- 
ing water  everywhere  in  England,  Wales,  and  Ireland ; 
but  I  am  not  aware  of  any  Scotch  locality.  It  is  one  of 
our  upper  tertiary  fossils.     The  variety  1.  is  from  Dublin 

*  Flattened.    ' 


93  LIM^MIBM. 

and  the  South  of  Ireland ;  and  the  other  variety  has 
been  found  by  Mr.  Choules  at  Eltham  in  Surrey.  A 
monstrosity,  having  the  whorls  dislocated  and  more  or 
less  separate  from  each  other,  sometimes  corkscrew- 
shape,  has  been  found  by  Mr.  Bean  near  Scarborough, 
and  by  myself  on  Crymlyn  Burrows,  near  Swansea.  It 
is  the  Heliw  Cochlea  of  Brown  (Mem.  Wern.  Soc.  pi.  xxiv. 
f.  10)  and  H.  terebra  of  Turton's  '  Conchological  Dictio- 
nary.' This  common  species  is  widely  distributed  in  Eu- 
rope from  Finland  (according  to  Nordenskiold  and  Ny- 
lander)  to  Algeria  and  Sicily. 

It  is  a  sluggish  and  slimy  as  well  as  a  very  irritable 
mollusk,  and  often  indulges  itself  in  floating  lazily  along 
the  under  surface  of  the  water.  It  lays  from  8  to  10 
capsules,  each  of  which  contains  from  6  to  21  eggs ;  so 
that  it  appears  to  be  more  prolific  than  many  of  its  con- 
geners. 

Its  shell  may  be  distinguished  from  that  of  P.  cari- 
natus  by  its  narrower  and  more  rounded  whorls,  as  well 
as  by  the  keel  being  placed  below,  instead  of  in  or  to- 
wards the  middle  of,  the  periphery.  It  is  usually  larger 
and  thicker  than  that  species  and  is  much  more  gene- 
rally diffused  and  plentiful. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  this  is  the  Helix  compla- 
nata  of  Linne,  whose  epithet  "deorsum  carinata^'  is 
peculiarly  appropriate;  but  both  MUller  and  Drapar- 
naud  have  substituted  other  names  (viz.  umbilicatus  and 
marginatus)  on  w^hat  I  cannot  help  considering  as  very 
insufficient  grounds.  If  Linne's  name  was  prior  to  what 
is  termed  "  the  binomial  epoch,"  and  therefore  inadmis- 
sible (which  is  a  very  questionable  objection),  still  Gme- 
lin's  adoption  of  that  name,  as  well  as  Miiller's,  take 
precedence  of  the  one  proposed  by  Draparnaud.  It  must 
also  be  borne  in  mind  that  this  species  and  P.  carinatus 


PLANORBIS.  93 

are  connected  together  through  the  P.  submarginatus  of 
Cristofori  and  Jan,  alias  the  P.  intermedins  of  Char- 
pentier.  Some  of  the  aberrant  forms  are  as  difficult  to 
separate  as  those  of  P.  spirorbis  and  P.  vortex.  The 
present  species  was  first  made  known  by  Lister. 

The  P.  turgidus  described  by  me  in  the  '  Linnean 
Transactions '  is  not  a  British  species  ;  and  I  was  mis- 
informed as  to  the  locality.  Its  nearest  ally  is,  as  I 
stated,  P.  corneus ;  but  it  has  been  erroneously  referred 
by  subsequent  writers  to  the  present  species. 


D.   Wliorh  roimded  and  not  keeled. 

10.  P.  cor'neus^,  Linne. 

Helix  cornea,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  ed.  xii.  p.  1243.      P.  corneus,  F.  &  H.  iv. 
p.  147,  pi.  cxxvii.  f.  1-3. 

Body  dark  red  or  nearly  black,  of  a  greyish  hue  beneath, 
with  black  and  grey  specks  on  the  upper  part :  tentacles  long 
and  curved,  with  rather  blunt  tips :  eyes  of  a  moderate  size 
and  not  prominent :  foot  slightly  tubercled,  narrow  and  angu- 
lated  in  front,  rounded  and  convex  behind. 

Shell  rather  deeply  concave  above  and  nearly  flat  below, 
somewhat  solid  and  opaque,  glossy,  whitish-horncolour  with 
a  reddish-brown  tinge,  closely  but  irregularly  striate  by  the 
curved  hnes  of  growth  and  marked  with  fine  and  close -set 
spiral  striae,  which  are  more  perceptible  in  the  first  whorls  ; 
the  upper  surface  is  also  sometimes  pitted  or  impressed  in  an 
irregularly  quadrangular  form  like  cut-glass  :  epidermis  rather 
thin:  periphery  rounded  and  quite  destitute  of  any  keel  or 
angularity :  wliorls  b-Q,  more  perceptible  on  the  umbilical  or 
lower  side,  in  consequence  of  that  part  of  the  spire  being 
intorted ;  diameter  of  the  last  whorl  rather  less  than  a  third 
of  the  whole  shell ;  they  are  very  convex  above  and  rather 
compressed  beneath  :  suture  deep :  mouth  forming  a  segment  of 
two-thirds  of  a  circle :  outer  lip  a  little  reflected,  the  upper 
side  not  projecting  much  beyond  the  lower  one :  inner  lip  con- 

*■  Horn-coloured. 


94  LIMN^ID^. 

tinuoiis,  but   closely  attached  to  the   columella  and  widely 
spread  on  it:  umhilicus  broad  and  shallow.   L.  0-35.   B.  1. 

Yar.  albina.     Shell  perfectly  white. 

Habitat  :  Marshes^  ponds^  and  ditches  in  many  parts 
of  England  and  Ireland  ;  but,  although  gregarious,  it  is 
very  local.  It  occurs  in  a  fossil  state  in  the  mammalian 
crag  of  Suffolk,  as  well  as  in  the  upper  tertiary  beds  of 
Suffolk,  Essex,  and  Worcestershire.  The  variety  is  found 
in  Surrey.  It  is  a  Siberian  species,  and  diffused  over  the 
Continent  as  far  south  as  Corsica.  M.  Terver  has  found 
a  thin  variety  of  it  in  Algeria. 

This  far  exceeds  in  size  any  other  European  species  of 
Planorbis.  Its  anatomy,  embryology,  and  habits  were 
accurately  described  by  Lister  nearly  two  centuries  ago ; 
and  he  seems  to  have  made  several  experiments,  but  in 
vain,  with  the  hope  of  being  able  to  fix  and  render  useful 
the  purple  dye  which  this  moUusk  so  plentifully  yields. 
It  is  a  sluggish  and  extremely  sensitive  animal ;  and 
when  irritated  it  emits  the  fluid  or  secretion  in  con- 
siderable quantity  from  a  gland  at  the  sides  of  its  neck. 
It  may  often  be  seen  floating  on  a  warm  and  still  summer 
day.  It  lays  only  two  or  three  capsules,  each  containing 
from  20  to  40  eggs,  which  are  excluded  at  the  end  of 
fifteen  or  sixteen  days.  The  epidermis  of  the  young  shell 
is  covered  with  fine  down,  its  surface  resembling  velvet 
pile.     In  this  state  it  is  the  P.  similis  of  Miiller. 

11.  P.  contor'tus*,  Linne. 

Helix  contorta,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  ed.  xii.  p.  1244.    P.  contortus,  F.  &  H.  iv. 
p.  160,  pi.  cxxvi.  f.3. 

Body  black,  with  a  slight  tinge  of  red :  tentacles  remarkably 
slender :  eyes  very  small :  foot  broad  and  rounded  in  front, 
narrowing  behind  to  a  blunt  tail. 

*  Twisted. 


PHYSA.  95 

Shell  flat  above,  with  a  deep  depression  or  concavity  in  the 
middle,  very  concave  below,  rather  solid  for  its  size,  and  opaque, 
yellowish-brown  or  horn-colour,  closely  and  deeply  striate  in 
the  line  of  growth,  but  not  otherwise  sculptured  :  ejpidei^mis 
rather  thick :  periphery  rounded :  ivJiorls  8,  extremely  compact 
and  much  compressed,  angular  above  and  slightly  so  beneath: 
suture  deep :  mouth  semilunar,  occasionally  strengthened  in- 
side by  a  rib :  outer  lip  not  reflected,  the  upper  side  scarcely 
projecting  beyond  the  lower  one :  inner  lip  thin,  not  con- 
tinuous but  attached  to  the  columella  :  umbilicus  large  and 
deep.    L.  0-075.   B.  0-175. 

Yar.  alhida.     Shell  nearly  white. 

Habitat  :  On  water-plants  in  lakes,  ponds,  and  ditches 
throughout  the  greater  part  of  Britain,  and  reaching  as 
far  north  as  the  Shetland  Isles ;  but  it  is  local.  It  is  also 
an  upper  tertiary  fossil.  The  variety  was  found  by  me 
in  a  lake  near  Lerwick,  with  specimens  of  the  ordinary 
colour.  The  usual  monstrosity  occurs  in  which  the  spire 
is  dislocated.  Abroad  it  ranges  from  Siberia  to  Portugal 
and  Corsica. 

This  curious  little  moUusk  is  slow,  irritable,  and  fond 
of  floating.  It  is  not  very  prolific  ;  for  each  capsule  (of 
which  it  lays  from  5  to  9  during  the  breeding-season) 
contains  only  from  6  to  8  eggs,  giving  an  annual  average 
of  about  50  for  an  individual. 

The  shell  of  this,  as  well  as  of  the  last  species,  is  so 
diflPerent  from  any  other  which  I  have  described,  that  it 
is  unnecessary  to  make  any  comparison.  Their  forms 
are,  however,  represented  by  many  analogous  species  in 
North  America.  "* 

Genus  II.  PHY'SA*,  Lamarck.     PL  IV.  f.  4,  5,  6,  7. 

Body  rather  long,  and  twisted  in  a  spiral  coil :  tentacles  long 
and  slender  -.foot  rather  long,  rounded  in  front  and  pointed 

*  A  bladder. 


96  limn.^idtE. 

behind,  attached  to  the  upper  part  of  the  body  by  a  very  short 
and  broad  stalk  or  pedicle. 

Shell  conic -oval  or  oblong :  spzVe  produced,  sinistral  or 
turning  from  right  to  left. 

This  peculiar  and  characteristic  genus  has  intermediate 
relations  with  Plano7^bis  and  Litmicea.  It  resembles  the 
first  in  its  long  tentacles,  as  well  as  in  some  of  the  organs 
being  placed  on  the  left,  instead  of  on  the  right  side  of 
the  body ;  and  it  agrees  with  the  latter  in  the  form  of 
its  shell :  but  it  differs  from  1)oth  in  the  spire  being 
sinistral,  although  that  is  not  a  very  important  cha- 
racter. The  shells  of  Physa  have  a  remarkably  polished 
appearance,  caused  in  some  cases  by  their  being  more 
or  less  enveloped  by  an  expansion  or  lobe  of  the  mantle, 
the  lubricating  friction  of  which  always  keeps  the  surface 
smooth  and  bright.  These  little  mollusks  frequent  shal- 
low, and  generally  clear  water,  and  are  gregarious.  Their 
eggs  are  deposited  in  strips  of  a  gelatinous  consistency, 
which  are  fixed  to  submerged  stones  as  well  as  to  the 
stalks  and  leaves  of  aquatic  plants. 


A.  Mantle  having  plain  edges  and  not  expanded  over  the  shell, 
which  is  covered  with  an  epidermis  and  has  a  long  spire. 

1.  Physa  hypno'rum*,  Linne. 

Bulla  hypnorum,  Linn.  Syst,  Nat.  ed.  xii,  p.  1182.     P.  hi/pnorum,  F.  &  H. 
iv.  p.  143,  pi.  cxxii.  f.  6, 7. 

Boj^Y  lustrous,  dark  grey,  dusky  bro^Ti,  or  almost  black,  with 
sometimes  a  faint  tint  of  blue,  covered  ^vith  very  minute  black 
or  dark-grey  specks  :  tentacles  long,  slender,  and  pointed,  di- 
verging considerably  at  their  base :  eyes  very  small  and  not 
very  distinct :  foot  lance-shaped,  narrow,  blunt  and  truncate  in 
front,  compressed  and  rather  pointed  behind. 

Shell  oblong,  spindle-shaped,  thin,  highly  pohshed,  semi- 
*  Frequenting  the  Hypnurn,  a  kind  of  moss. 


PHYSA.  97 

transparent,  yellowish  or  reddisli-horncolour,  faintly  striate  by 
the  lines  of  growth,  and  marked  spirally  with  a  few  very  in- 
distinct striae,  which  are  only  perceptible  by  means  of  a  high 
magnifying  power :  epidermis  very  thin  :  ivhorls  6-7,  convex, 
but  slightly  compressed  at  the  sides,  the  last  exceeding  in  size 
all  the  rest  put  together :  spire  tapering,  but  blunt  at  its  ex- 
tremity :  suture  distinct,  though  not  deep :  movjJi  oval,  con- 
tracted on  the  inner  side  by  the  periphery  of  the  penultimate 
wborl,  acutely  angulated  above  and  rounded  below:  outer  Up 
thin  and  fiexuous :  inner  lip  spread  on  the  columella,  which 
has  a  strong  and  broad  fold  on  its  lower  side.    L.  0'5.  B.  0-2. 

Habitat  :  Ponds,  ditches,  and  among  grass  in  pools 
which  are  quite  dried  up  in  summer,  throughout  these 
isles  from  the  Moray  Firth  district  to  Guernsey;  but 
it  is  rather  local.  It  is  also  an  upper  tertiary  fossil. 
A  variety  occurs  in  which  the  shell  is  smaller  and  of  a 
dark  copper-colour;  and  I  also  possess  a  specimen  in 
which  the  spire  is  eroded  and  truncate,  the  opening 
having  been  filled  up  by  a  shelly  plate.  Miiller  recorded 
a  specimen  which  had  only  the  right  eye,  the  other  being 
wanting.  It  is  a  native  of  Siberia,  and  ranges  southward 
to  Nice  and  the  Eastern  Pyrenees.  According  to  Gould 
and  Philippi,  it  is  the  same  species  as  the  P.  elongata  of 
Say,  which  inhabits  the  northern  and  western  parts  of 
the  United  States. 

This  mollusk  is  rather  active  in  its  habits,  and  may  be 
seen  in  fine  weather  floating  with  tolerable  rapidity.  It 
is  rather  prolific  ;  and  the  young  attain  their  full  size  at 
the  end  of  the  second  year.  The  largest  specimens  I 
have  ever  seen  of  this  species  were  found  by  me  more 
than  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago,  in  fish-ponds  at  Fre- 
mington,  in  the  north  of  Devon,  some  of  which  are 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  length. 

Gmelin  supposed  that  the  Bulla  hypnorum  of  Linne 
might  be  a  variety  of  the  next  species ;  and  Miiller,  for 
nearly  the  same  reasons,  called  the  present  species  Plaii- 

F 


98  LIMN^ID^. 

orbis  turritus.  But  the  Linnean  epithets  ^'^spira  pro- 
minente  ^'  and  ''  spira  obsoleta  "  appear  unmistakeably 
to  distinguish  the  two  species;  and,  at  all  events,  it 
would  now  be  very  inconvenient  to  make  any  change  of 
name  by  adopting  that  given  by  Miiller,  instead  of  the 
one  by  which  this  species  is  so  universally  known.  The 
late  Dr.  Fleming  proposed  to  separate  it  generically  from 
the  next  under  the  name  of  Aplexa  -,  but  this  separation 
has  only  been  adopted  by  a  very  few  conchologists.  A 
well-known  European  species,  P.  acuta,  seems  to  con- 
nect the  two  British  forms,  both  as  regards  the  soft  parts 
of  the  animal  and  the  shell. 

B.  MantU  having  lobes  or  digitated  processes  which  expand 
over  the  shell ;  the  latter  being  destitute  of  an  epidermis 
and  having  a  short  spire. 

2.  P.  fontina'lis"^,  Linne. 

Bulla  fontinalis,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  ed.  xii.  p.  1185.     P.  fontinalis,  F.  &  H. 
iv.  p.  140,  pi.  cxxii.  f.  8, 9. 

Body  lustrous,  dark  grey  with  sometimes  a  sHght  tint  of 
yellow  or  violet :  mantle  fringed  with  about  a  dozen  lobes  or 
digitations  of  imequal  size :  tentacles  rather  slender,  hght  grey  : 
eyes  conspicuous:  foot  obtusely  rounded  in  front,  and  con- 
tracted behind  to  a  somewhat  fine  point. 

Shell  oval,  extremely  thin,  glossy,  semitransparentjgrej-ish- 
horncolour  with  a  slight  tinge  of  yellow  or  brown,  faintly 
striate  by  the  Hues  of  growth  and  microscopically  striate  in  a 
spiral  direction :  vjhorJs  4-5,  swollen,  the  last  occupying  con- 
siderably more  than  three-fourths  of  the  shell :  spire  not  much 
produced,  blunt  at  its  point :  suture  moderately  deep  :  7nouth 
nearly  of  the  same  form  as  that  of  the  preceding  species,  but 
much  larger  and  wider  in  proportion  :  o^lfer  lip  very  thin  and 
flexuous  :  i7i7ier  lip  much  spread  on  the  columella,  which  has  a 
slight  and  narrow  fold  on  its  lower  side.    L.  0-35.   B.  0-25. 

Yar.  1.  injiata.     Shell  half  as  large  again  as  the  usual  size : 

*  Frequenting  fountains. 


PHYSA.  99 

ivhorls  angular  towards  the  suture,  the  middle  one  rather 
more  prominent  than  the  penultimate  whorl,  causing  the 
summit  of  the  spire  to  appear  abruptly  terminated. 

Yar.  2.  curta.  Spire  extremely  short.  Bulla  Jluviatilis, 
Turt.  Conch.  Diet.  p.  27. 

Yar.  3.  ohlonga.     Spire  considerably  produced. 

Yar.  4.  albina.     Shell  of  a  milk-white  colour. 

Habitat  :  On  water-cresses  and  other  aquatic  plants 
in  running  brooks,  as  well  as  in  slow  rivers,  canals^  and 
ditches  everywhere  in  Great  Britain,  as  far  north  as 
Aberdeenshire.  Var.  1.  Dublin  (Humphreys  and  War- 
ren). Var.  2.  Clonoony  Barracks,  Ireland  (Brown)  ; 
Bramerton,  Norfolk  (J.  G.  J.).  Var.  3.  Anglesea,  on 
Chara  aspera  (J.  de  C.  Sowerby) ;  Naas,  Ireland  (Hum- 
phreys). Var.  4.  Birkenhead.  (Webster).  This  species 
is  widely  diflPused  on  the  Continent,  and  ranges  from 
Finland  to  Sicily. 

This  common  and  pretty  little  moUusk  is  rather  lively, 
creeping  and  floating  by  jerks.  A  considerable  por- 
tion of  the  shell  (especially  the  back  of  the  spire)  in  its 
living  state  is  often  covered  with  the  spores  of  Con- 
fervae  or  some  of  the  freshwater  Algae,  which  shows 
that  the  mantle  does  not  envelope  all  the  surface.  When 
the  fry  are  excluded  from  their  gelatinous  case,  they  are 
about  the  size  of  a  pin's  head,  and  are  very  active.  The 
jerking  motion  which  this  animal  has,  is  said  to  be  owing 
to  its  being  infested  by  a  small  kind  of  parasitic  worm 
which  causes  it  some  uneasiness.  I  should  rather  be  in- 
clined to  attribute  this  motion  to  the  length  and  narrow- 
ness of  the  foot,  which  has  to  support  a  comparatively 
bulky  shell.  According  to  Montagu,  the  P.  fontinalis 
spins  a  filament  by  which  it  lets  itself  down  to  the  bottom 
after  floating,  if  there  is  no  leaf  or  stalk  near  it.  Leach 
says  that  when  it  is  annoyed  by  the  approach  of  wander- 

f2 


100  LIMN.^ID^. 

ing  animals,  it  repulses  them  with  repeated  blows,  in- 
flicted by  a  rapid  movement  of  the  shell ;  the  foot  being 
the  point  of  fixture.  This  species  was  first  described 
and  figured  by  Lister. 

The  shell  is  more  ventricose  than  that  of  the  last  spe- 
cies ;  and  it  has  a  much  shorter  spire  and  a  larger 
mouth. 

The  Bulla  rivalis  of  Maton  and  E-ackett,  which  was 
supposed  to  have  been  found  in  Hampshire,  is  a  common 
West- Indian  species,  which  now  bears  that  name.  It  is 
the  P.  Sowerbyana  of  D^Orbigny. 

Mr.  Choules  has  described  in  the  'Zoologist'  a  species 
of  Physa  which  he  found  in  a  water-tank  in  Kew  Gar- 
dens, and  which  Mr.  Norman  (being  misinformed  as  to 
the  precise  locality)   has  proposed   to   admit  into   our 
native  Fauna.    It  appears  to  be  a  variety  of  the  P.  acuta 
of  Draparnaud,  but  it  is  undistinguishable  from  speci- 
mens in  the  British  Museum  which  were  collected  in 
Cuba,  St.  Thomas,  and  St.  Croix ;  and  it  has  probably 
])een  introduced  with  some  aquatic  tropical  plant.     Dr. 
Hooker  informs  me  that  many  West-Indian  plants  have 
])een  imported  and  cultivated  in  the  Gardens.     P.  acuta 
has  never  (so  far  as  I  am  aware)   been  found  in  this 
country ;    and  although  it  is  abundant  in  the  middle 
and  South  of  France,  it  has  not  been  recorded  as  inha- 
biting any  of  the  northern  Departments.     The  P.  sub- 
opaca  of  Lamarck  is  a  variety  of  that  species. 

The  P.  alba  of  Turton,  who  stated  that  he  had  received 
it  from  Capt.  Blomer  as  a  native  of  Towyn  in  North 
Wales,  is  the  P.  contorta  of  Michaud,  and  is  only  known 
to  inhabit  the  Eastern  Pjrrenees,  Corsica,  Sicily,  and 
Algeria. 


LIMN.EA.  ^    101 

Genus  III.  LIMNiE'A  *,  {Lymnea)  Bmguiere. 
PL  IV.  f.  8,  9,  10. 

Body  rather  long  and  twisted  in  a  spiral  coil:  7?^a(i pro- 
minent :  tentacles  short,  triangular  and  flattened  :  foot  oblong, 
bilobed  or  notched  in  front  and  obtusely  rounded  behind,  at- 
tached to  the  upper  part  of  the  body  as  in  Physa. 

Shell  conic-oval  or  elongated :  spii^e  usually  produced, 
dextral  or  turning  from  the  left  to  right. 

As  in  Physa,  some  of  the  species  of  Limncea,  which 
appear   to   form  a  transitional   link   between   the   two 
genera,  have  their  shells  enveloped  by  an  outer  fold  or 
lobe  of  the  mantle.    These  species  have  been  generically 
separated  by  some  authors  under  the  several  names  of 
A^nphipeplea,  Lutea,  and  Myxas.     The  difference  be- 
tween such  and  the  typical  species  is,  however,  not  greater 
than  between  the  two  forms  of  Physa  which  I  have  above 
noticed.     All  the   species  of  Limnaa  frequent  shallow 
and  still  waters ;  and  they  are  very  prolific  and  grega- 
rious.   Their  mode  of  propagation  is  very  singular — three 
or  more  individuals  being  united  in  a  chain  for  that 
purpose.     Leach  has  remarked  that,  in  consequence  of 
the  sexual  parts  being  distant  fi'om  each  other,  one  in- 
dividual is  able,  at  the  same  time,  to  perform  the  function 
of  each  sex  with  two  others,  as  was  first  observed  by 
Geoffroy  about  the  middle  of  the  last  century.      The 
spawn  resembles  that  of  the  last  genus. 

The  generic  name  has  been  spelt  by  authors  in  no  less 
than  nine  different  ways  ;  but  the  correct  orthography  is 
undoubtedly  LimrKsa  (from  Xifivalos:),  as  proposed  by 
Rang. 

*  Inhabiting  marshes. 


102'  LIMN^ID^. 


A.  Shell  extremely  thin  and  fragile,  and  almost  enveloped  by 

an  outer  lobe  or  membranous  expansion  of  the  mantle : 
sjpire  very  short. 

1.  LiMNiEA  GLUTiNo'sA*,  Mliller. 

Biiccinum  glutinosum,  Miill.  Verm.  Hist.  pt.  ii.  p.  129.     Lhnn<2U8  gluti- 
nosus,  F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  182,  pi.  cxxiv.  f.  6,  7. 

Body  dark  grey,  with  a  greenish-yellow  tinge  and  bright- 
yellow  or  whitish  specks :  tentacles  very  short,  rather  triangular, 
with  blunt  tips :  eyes  placed  on  tubercles  on  ttie  inner  side  of 
the  tentacles,  very  black  and  distinct :  foot  exceedingly  large, 
broad  in  front  and  obtusely  rounded  before  and  behind. 

Shell  globosely-oval,  so  excessively  thin  as  to  be  almost 
membranous,  highly  polished,  transparent,  yellowish  or  greyish- 
horncolour,  with  a  few  indistinct  darker  spiral  zones,  remotely 
and  irregularly  striate  by  the  lines  of  growth,  which  are  stronger 
towards  the  suture,  and  closely  but  microscopically  striate  in 
a  spiral  direction :  epidermis  extremely  thin :  whorls  3-4, 
globular,  the  last  forming  nearly  the  whole  of  the  shell :  spire 
slightly  produced :  suture  rather  deep  :  mouth  oval,  a  little  con- 
tracted above  by  the  projection  of  the  penultimate  whorl : 
outer  lip  very  thin  :  inner  Up  much  spread  on  the  columella 
and  thickened  at  its  edges :  columellar /o^tZ  (forming  the  lower 
part  of  the  pillar  of  the  spire)  curved  and  sharp.     L.  0-55. 

B.  0-45. 

Yar.  mucronata.  Shell  not  quite  so  globular :  sp>ire  more 
produced. 

Habitat  :  Lakes  and  ponds  in  the  home  and  eastern 
counties,  as  well  as  in  a  ditch  near  Dunster  Castle  in 
Somersetshire  (Leach) ;  Bala  Lake  (Gibbs)  and  a  pond 
near  Windermere  (Bulwer) ;  but  it  is  a  local  species^ 
although  abundant  where  it  occurs.  Its  periodical  re- 
appearance in  the  same  spots  has  been  remarked  both 
by  Mr.  Bridgman  and  Mr.  Whiteaves  to  be  very  uncer- 
tain and  unaccountable.  Specimens  have  been  kindly 
sent  to  me  by  Mr.  Bridgman,  in  which  the  spire  is  more 

*  SKmy. 


LIMN^A.  103 

or  less  intorted^  resembliug  in  this  respect  tlie  form  of 
L.  involuta.  Tiie  present  species  ranges  from  Finland, 
througli  Sweden,  Germany,  and  France,  as  far  south  as 
the  Pyrenees. 

It  is  rather  an  active  mollusk,  and  nearly  always  in 
motion.  Bouchard-Chantereaux.says  that  each  of  its 
capsules  contains  from  30  to  40  eggs.  In  the  young  the 
shell  is  entirely  covered  by  the  pallial  fold. 

2.  L.  involu'ta*,  Thompson. 

Limnetis  invohctus,  (Harvey)  Thomps.  in  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.  v.  p.  22.     Lim-. 
TUBUS  involutus,  F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  184,  pi.  cxxii.  f.  11. 

Body  unknown  as  to  its  external  parts,  except  that  the 
greater  part  of  the  shell  is  covered  by  the  mantle. 

Shell  oval,  rather  glossy,  semitransparent,  yellowish -horn- 
colour  with  a  tinge  of  brown,  closely  but  irregularly  striate  by 
the  lines  of  growth,  which  are  stronger  towards  the  suture, 
often  impressed  and  sometimes  constricted  by  a  few  spiral 
grooves  in  different  parts  of  the  shell :  ejndermis  thin  :  luhorls 
3-4,  convex,  the  last  covering  all  the  rest  except  the  point  of 
the  spire  or  nucleus  :  spire  flat  or  slightly  concave,  with  the 
point  upraised  and  twisted :  suture  distinct,  but  not  deep : 
nioutJi  pear-shaped  :  oiiter  li}:)  thin,  slightly  reflected :  inner  Vp 
much  spread  on  the  columella :  fold  narrow  and  sharp.  L.  0*4. 
B.  0-275. 

Habitat  :  A  small  mountain-lake,  and  a  stream  which 
flows  into  it,  at  Cromaglaun  near  Killarney ;  not  rare. 
In  one  of  my  specimens,  which  has  the  mouth  some- 
what contracted  below,  a  tendency  to  an  umbilical  cleft 
is  observable. 

It  is  strange  that  no  other  locality  but  the  one  above 
mentioned  has  ever  been  discovered,  here  or  abroad,  for 
this  remarkable  species.  It  has  some  affinity  to  L.  glu- 
tinosa,  and  may  ultimately  prove  to  be  an  aberrant  form 
of  that  species,  corresponding  with  the  variety  Burnetti 

*  Having  the  spire  intorted  or  sunk. 


104  LIMNiEID^. 

of  L.  peregra.  Very  little  is  known  with  respect  to  the 
external  parts  of  the  body;  but  Professor  Goodsir  has 
given  some  valuable  details  of  its  internal  organization, 
which  are  published  in  an  appendix  to  Mr.  Thompson's 
paper  in  the  ^Annals  of  Natural  History/  He  says, 
''  In  structure  the  Limnaus  involutus  resembles  the  other 
species  of  the  genus  ;^'  from  wliich  remark  it  might  be 
inferred  that  the  mantle  has  not  the  expanded  lobe 
which  is  peculiar  to  the  subgenus  Amphipeplea.  Dr. 
Perceval  Wright,  however,  informs  me  that  the  greater 
part  of  the  shell  in  this  species  is  covered  by  the  mantle, 
as  in  L.  glutinosa.  The  form  and  substance  of  the  shell 
are  also  similar  in  both  of  these  species. 

B.  Exterior  of  the  shell  never  covered  by  the  mantle :  spire 

produced. 

3.  L.  PER  EGRA*,  Miiller. 

Buccinum  'peregrum,  Miill.  Verm.  Hist.  pt.  ii.  p.  130.     Limnmcs  fcreger, 
F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  168,  pi.  cxxiii.  f.  3-7. 

Body  yellowish-grey,  with  a  brown  or  olive-green  tinge, 
mottled  with  black  and  covered  with  small  yellow  or  milk- 
white,  and  black  .specks :  tentacles  diverging  from  each  other 
at  nearly  a  right  angle  :  eyes  distinct :  foot  oblong,  very  broad, 
nearly  truncate  in  front,  and  obtusely  rounded  behind. 

Shell  obliquely  ovate,  thin,  moderately  glossy,  semitrans- 
parent,  yellowish-horncolour,  irregularly  striate  by  the  lines 
of  growth,  and  closely  and  microscopically  striate  in  a  spiral 
direction,  with  occasionally  a  few  indistinct  spiral  ridges  and 
pitmarks  :  epidermis  rather  thin :  ivhorls  5,  convex,  the  last 
occupying  three-fourths  of  the  shell :  spire  produced  and 
pointed  :  suture  rather  deep :  mouth  large,  oval,  very  Httle 
contracted  above  by  the  projection  of  the  penultimate  whorl : 
outer  lip  thin,  slightly  reflected :  inner  lip  folded  on  the  colu- 
mella and  thickened,  forming  behind  it  a  slight  umbihcal  cleft : 
fold  rather  prominent  and  curved.     L.  0-75.    B.  0*425. 

*  Traveller. 


LIMN^A. 


105 


Var.  1.  Burnetti.  Body  a  little  broader  than  that  of  the 
typical  form,  dark  olive,  spotted  with  opaque  yellow :  mantU 
nearly  black,  with  a  few  paler  spots.  Shell  rather  globular 
and  solid,  of  a  dull  aspect,  yellowish-brown,  closely  and 
strongly  striate  in  the  line  of  growth  :  epidermis  rather  thick : 
the  last  whorl  nearly  covering  all  the  others  :  spire  exceed- 
ingly short,  nearly  truncate  and  almost  intorted.  L.  0*725. 
B.  0-65.  Limncea  Burnetti,  Alder  in  Ann.  Nat.  Hist.  n.  s.  ii. 
p.  396,  pi.  ii.,  top  figures.  Limnceus  Burnetti,  T.  &  H.  iv. 
p.  172,  pi.  cxxiii.  f.  8,  9. 

Var.  2.  lacustris.  Body  of  a  darker  colour  than  usual. 
SheU  resembling  that  of  the  last  variety ;  but  it  is  much 
smaller  and  more  glossy,  and  has  strong  and  regular  transverse 
grooves,  and  the  spire  is  not  quite  so  short  nor  inclined  to  be 
intorted.  The  shell  is  often  eroded.  Oulnaria  lacustris,  Leach, 
MoU.  Brit.  Syn.  p.  107. 

Yar.  3.  liitea.  Shell  remarkably  solid,  having  a  very  short 
spire  of  from  3  to  4  whorls.  Helix  lutea,  Mont.  Test.  Brit, 
p.  380,  tab.  16.  f.  6. 

Var.  4.  ovata.  Body  of  a  paler  colour.  Shell  ampuUaceous 
and  rather  thinner  than  usual :  whorls  exceedingly  convex, 
the  last  being  larger  in  proportion  to  the  rest :  sp)ire  very 
short :  suture  deep  :  mouth  very  large.  Limneus  ovatus,  Drap. 
Hist.  Moll.  p.  50,  pi.  ii.  f.  30, 31. 

Var.  5.  acuminata.  Shell  resembling  the  last  variety  in  all 
respects,  except  in  having  a  more  produced  spii'e  and  a  smaller 
mouth. 

Var.  6.  intermedia.  Shell  rather  compressed  towards  the 
front  margin  and  thinner  than  usual :  sj)ire  more  produced : 
mouth  expanded.  Limnea  intermedia,  Per.  in  Lam.  An.  s.  V. 
vi.  pt.  ii.  p.  162. 

Var.  7.  ohlonga.     Shell  oblong  and  compressed  in  front. 

Var.  8.  lahiosa.  Shell  smaller,  having  the  outer  lip  remark- 
ably expanded  and  reflected.     L.  0*5.    B.  0-35. 

Var.  9.  picta.  Shell  rather  smaller  than  the  last,  and  beau- 
tifully marked  by  alternate  bands  of  brown  and  white,  which 
are  sometimes  confluent. 

Var.  10.  maritima.  Shell  dwarfed,  rather  solid :  spire  pro- 
duced :  suture  deep.     L.  0*4.    B.  0*225. 

f5 


106  LIMN^ID^. 

Yar.  11.  Succineceformis,  Shell  shaped  like  a  Succinea,  and 
very  thin  :  whorls  4 :  spire  small  and  oblique. 

Yar.  12.  decollata.  Shell  more  or  less  eroded :  spire  trun- 
cate. 

Yar.  13.  sinistrorsa.  Shell  resembling  that  of  a  Pliysa  in 
having  the  spire  sinistral  or  reversed,  rather  solid ;  the  spiral 
ridges  distinct  and  prominent.  Limnceus  lineatus,  Bean,  MS. ; 
E.  &  H.  iv.  p.  168,  pi.  cxxiii.  f.  7. 

Yar.  14.  scalar  if  or  mis.  Shell  oblong,  with  deep  and  regular 
transverse  striae:  ivhorls  more  or  less  disjoined:  suture  con- 
sequently very  deep. 

Habitat  :  Still  and  slowly  running  waters  every- 
where. Var.  1.  Loch  Shene^  Dumfriesshire  (Burnett) ; 
Breconshire  (Moggridge) .  Var.  2.  Mountain-lakes  in 
Zetland^  Scotland,  Ireland,  and  the  North  of  England. 
Var.  3.  South  Devon  (Montagu) ;  South  Wales  (J.G.J.): 
thrown  up  by  the  tide  at  the  mouths  of  rivers.  Var.  4. 
Lakes,  canals,  and  large  ponds ;  attaining  sometimes  a 
considerable  size.  Var.  5.  With  the  last.  Var.  6.  Ponds. 
Var.  7.  Lewes,  Suffolk ;  Church  Stretton,  Salop  ;  Bear- 
haven,  Co.  Cork  (J.  G.  J.).  Var.  8.  Appin,  Argyleshire 
(Bedford).  Var.  9.  Ulva  L,  Hebrides  (same).  Var.  10. 
Marshes  on  the  sea- coasts  of  Glamorganshire  and  North 
Devon  (J.  G.  J.).  Var.  11.  Kensal  Green  (J.  G.  J.). 
Var.  12.  Church  Stretton ;  Oxwich,  near  Swansea 
(J.  G.  J.).  Var.  13.  Scarborough  (Bean).  Var.  14. 
Warminster  (J.  G.  J.).  This  and  the  two  last  forms  are 
rather  monstrous  than  varietal.  This  species  is  fre- 
quently met  with  in  our  upper  tertiary  beds.  The  typical 
form  and  several  of  its  varieties  extend  from  Siberia  to 
Sicily.  It  is  a  very  ubiquitous  species  ;  and  Capt.  Hut- 
ton  found  a  variety  of  it  in  Afghanistan. 

The  variability  of  this  common  and  abundant  species 
is  equal  to  the  extent  of  its  geographical  distribution.  I 
was  at  first  inclined  to  consider  that  the  Limneus  ovatus 


LIMN^A.  107 

of  Draparnaud,  and  its  allied  forms^  would  legitimately 
constitute  a  distinct  species ;  but,  after  a  very  careful 
and  protracted  comparison  of  many  hundred  specimens, 
I  could  not  satisfactorily  separate  them  from  interme- 
diate varieties.  The  difference  in  the  colour  of  the  body, 
as  well  as  in  the  consistency  and  even  the  shape  of  the 
shell,  appears  to  depend  on  the  nature  and  quantity  of 
the  food,  the  chemical  ingredients  of  the  water,  and  the 
degree  of  stagnation  or  rapidity  of  its  current.  M.  Mo- 
relet,  in  his  description  of  the  Portuguese  land  and  fresh- 
water Mollusca,  says,  with  much  naivete,  of  the  L.  inter- 
media, "aussi  reconnaissable  que  puisse  Tetre  une  espece 
dont  le  caractere  principal  est  de  n^en  point  avoir.^^  The 
difficulty  of  admitting  or  rejecting  such  forms  as  specific 
is  quite  as  great  as  in  the  case  of  Anodonta.  I  have 
merely  noticed  some  of  the  more  peculiar  varieties  of  the 
present  species. 

L.  peregra  is  not  very  slow  in  its  movements.  It  is 
nearly  amphibious  ;  and,  as  its  name  imports,  it  is  fond 
of  wandering  and  seeing  a  little  of  the  world,  being 
occasionally  met  with  at  some  distance  from  its  native 
element  in  a  damp  meadow  or  climbing  up  the  trunk  of 
a  willow-tree.  This  habit  reminds  one  of  the  inland 
travels  of  the  Perca  scandens.  An  interesting  account 
of  the  floating  voyages  made  by  our  moUuscan  traveller 
on  an  old  canal  near  Inchbroom  will  be  found  in  the 
Rev.  Dr.  Gordon^s  Contributions  to  the  ^  Zoologist.'  He 
says  that  when  the  shoal  of  L.  peregra  had  fairly  started, 
they  resembled  a  fleet  of  herring-boats  in  miniature. 
This  moUusk  is  very  proliflc  and  lays  about  1300  e^g^ 
in  a  season,  contained  in  clusters  of  from  12  to  180.  It 
is  zoophagous,  as  well  as  phytophagous  ;  and  a  writer  in 
the  ^  Zoologist^  lately  stated  (p.  7400)  that  it  ate  min- 
nows when  they  were  confined  together  in  an  aquarium. 


108  LIMNiEIDiE. 

I  have  seen  these  pond-snails  attack  and  devour  their 
own  brothers  and  sisters  under  the  same  circumstances, 
when  they  had  no  other  supply  of  food ;  and  this  was 
done  by  piercing  the  spire  of  the  shell  near  its  point, 
which  was  thinner  and  somewhat  eroded  bv  the  action 
of  the  water.     Their  shells  are  often  coated  with  mud. 

It  is  probable  that  Linne  considered  this  species  to  be 
a  variety  of  his  Helix  auricularia.  What  his  H.  limosa 
was,  it  is  now  impossible  to  say  with  any  certainty.  His 
epithet  ^^  oblongiuscula "  for  that  species  appears  to  be 
more  appropriate  to  L.  palustris ;  while  the  term  "ovata  " 
which  he  uses  for  "  auricularia  ^'  is  applicable  both  to 
this  last  species  and  L.  jjeregra.  In  the  first  edition  of 
the '  Fauna  Suecica/  H.  limosa  is  described  as  having  an 
operculum  like  Paludina  or  Bythinia ;  but  in  the  second 
edition  this  character  is  omitted.  Nearly  a  centmy  be- 
fore Linnets  time  the  present  species  had  been  distin- 
guished by  Lister,  although  not  by  any  specific  name. 
At  least  30  species  have  been  made  by  Continental  au- 
thors out  of  some  of  its  countless  varieties. 

4.  L.  auricula'ria  *,  Linne. 

Helix  miricularia,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat,  ed.  xii.  p.  1249.     Limnaus  uuricula- 
rius,  F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  169,  pi.  cxxxiii.  f.  1. 

Body  dull  greenish-brown  or  yellow,  mottled  with  black, 
and  covered  with  veiy  small  bright-yellow  or  mill{:-white,  and 
black  specks  :  tentacles  broad,  flat  and  conic,  diverging  as  in 
the  last  species  :  eyes  small  and  indistinct :  foot  bordered  with 
yellow,  prominent  and  obtusely  rounded  in  front,  keeled  and 
rounded  behind. 

Shell  obliquely  globose-oval,  thin,  glossy,  semitransparent, 
yellowish-horncolour,  deeply  but  irregularly  striate  by  the 
lines  of  growth,  with  very  much  finer  and  closer  intermediate 
striae,  which  are  arranged  in  rows,  and  regularly  but  indi- 
stinctly ridged  in  a  sphal  direction :  epidermis  thin :  ivhorls 

*  Ear-shaped. 


LIMN^A.  109 

4-5,  veiy  much  -swollen  and  expanded  in  front,  the  last  occu- 
pying at  least  five-sixths  of  the  shell :  spire  oblique,  exceed- 
ingly small,  but  produced  and  ending  in  a  sharp  point :  suture 
very  deep  :  mouth  extremely  large,  roundish  oval,  a  little  con- 
tracted and  nearly  tnmcate  on  the  inner  side  both  by  the 
penultimate  whorl  and  the  columellar  fold  :  outer  lip  thin,  con- 
siderably reflected :  inner  lip  slightly  thickened  on  the  colu- 
mella and  forming  behind  it  a  slight  umbilical  cleft :  fold 
prominent,  strongly  curved  and  sharp.     L.  V12d.    B.  0-825. 

Yar.  1.  acuta.  Body  of  a  greyish  colour  and  closely  covered 
with  black  spots.  Shell  smaller  than  the  typical  form,  more 
oblong,  and  having  the  last  whorl  and  mouth  proportionably 
narrower.  Limneus  acutus,  Jeffi'.  in  Linn.  Tr.  xvi.  p.  373.  Lim- 
noius  auricularius,  var.,  F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  171,  pi.  cxxiii.  f.  2. 

Yar.  2.  albida.  SheU  smaller  and  thinner,  white,  with  a 
shorter  spire  and  less  distinct  striae.     L.  0'675.    B.  0*55. 

Habitat  :  Lakes^  marshes,  slow  rivers,  canals,,  deep 
ditches  and  large  ponds  in  most  parts  of  Great  Britain ; 
but  it  is  locals  and  does  not  satisfactorily  appear  to  have 
been  found  in  Scotland.  Y'ar.  1.  Marshes  on  the  sea- 
coast  of  Glamorganshire ;  Church  Stretton,  Salop ;  Kent; 
Co.  Tyrone  (J.  G.  J.)  :  Yoxford,  Suffolk  (Barlee).  This 
variety  is  intermediate  between  L.  peregra  and  the  pre- 
sent species ;  but  being  found  only  with  the  former  spe- 
cies, I  am  inclined  to  think  it  belongs  to  L.  auricularia, 
A  monstrosity  of  this  form  in  my  collection  has  a  second 
or  inner  mouth  formed  by  a  plate  on  the  columellar 
side.  Var.  2.  Bath  (Clark) ;  Blenheim  lake  (Mrs.  Richard 
Smith).  The  variety  acuta  is  one  of  our  upper  tertiary 
fossils.     This  species  ranges  from  Siberia  to  Portugal. 

Its  habits  are  inactive ;  and  when  it  crawls,  only  the 
front  edge  of  its  mantle  and  the  tentacles  are  perceptible. 
It  occasionally  may  be  seen  floating  on  the  surface  of 
the  water.  It  is  apt  to  be  infested,  as  well  as  its  con- 
geners, by  an  annelid  allied  to  the  Nai's  vermicularis  of 
Miiller,  which  usually  takes  up  its  abode  between  the 


110  LIMN^ID^. 

neck  and  mantle  and  over  the  tentacles  of  the  moUusk, 
incessantly  vibrating,  and  apparently  not  parasitic  but 
feeding  on  animalcules.  Possibly,  however,  these  worms 
may  have  the  same  truly  parasitic  propensities  which  are 
attributed  to  the  Nereid,  that  often  takes  up  its  abode 
with  the  Hermit-crab  in  the  same  empty  shell,  and  of 
which  my  friend  Mr.  S pence  Bate  has  given  in  the  '  Zoo- 
logist' (1859,  p.  6687)  an  amusing  account,  as  follows  : 
— "  The  soft  and  serpent-like  Annelide  smells  the  repast 
that  the  master  of  the  house  is  enjoying,  and,  like  a  wily 
guest,  takes  care  to  be  present  at  the  meal,  even  though 
unbidden.  See  !  beneath  the  Crab  the  beautiful  head 
glides  out.  While  the  self-confident  owner  is  devouring 
one  piece,  and  in  his  full  enjoyment  looking  round  and, 
perhaps,  admiring  the  submarine  scenery,  the  worm  at- 
tacks that  which  is  in  the  other  hand,  and  by  little  and 
little  the  Crab  feels  it  going,  and  makes  an  effort  to  stop 
it  on  the  way ;  but  it  evidently  can  be  seen,  by  his  man- 
ner, that  he  cannot  believe  that  any  one  would  be  so 
rude  as  to  steal  his  dinner  out  of  his  very  mouth,  and 
does  not  think  much  about  the  undevoured  food,  but 
which,  nevertheless,  is  slowly,  gradually  and  surely  taken 
away." 

Draparnaud  noticed,  besides  the  parasitic  worms,  four 
long  and  very  minute  filaments  or  tubes,  which  he 
thought  were  auxiliary  organs  of  respiration;  but  sub- 
sequent naturalists  have  not  confirmed  this  discovery. 
Muller  states  that  he  kept  a  specimen  of  L.  auricularia 
alive  from  June  to  October  in  the  clearest  water,  which 
was  never  renewed,  and  that  it  appeared  to  have  no 
other  nourishment  than  Cryptogamia  or  Confervoid 
spores. 

This  species  chiefly  difi'ers  from  some  of  the  varieties 
of  the  last,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  the  form  acuta, 


LIMNiEA.  Ill 

in  the  shell  being  much  more  swollen,  and  having  the 
last  whorl  and  mouth  excessively  large  in  proportion 
and  the  spire  consequently  smaller.  The  rows  of  very 
minute  longitudinal  striae  may  also  be  regarded  as  an- 
other test  of  distinction.  Young  shells  are  more  slender 
than  those  of  L.  peregra.  The  present  species  was  first 
described  by  Lister. 


5.  L.  stagna'lis*,  Linne. 

Helix  stagnalis,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  ed.  xii.  p.  1249.      LimncBUS  stagnalis, 
F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  174,  pi.  cxxiv.  f.  4,  5. 

Body  fawn-colour  or  yellowish- grey  with  a  reddish  tint, 
covered  with  very  small  brown  and  milk-white  specks  :  ten- 
tacles rather  long  and  pointed :  foot  having  a  narrow  edge  of 
yellow,  very  broad  at  its  sides,  swollen  and  keeled  behind. 

Shell  elongated,  of  a  moderate  thickness,  semitransparent, 
yellowish-horncolour  or  greyish-white  with  sometimes  a 
sHght  tinge  of  red,  irregularly  striate  by  the  lines  of  growth, 
with  extremely  fine  and  close-set  interstitial  striae,  which  are 
curved  and  arranged  in  rows,  and  regularly  but  indistinctly 
ridged  in  a  spiral  direction,  so  as  to  form,  by  intersecting  the 
longitudinal  striae,  quadrangular  facets,  resembling  those  of 
cut  glass :  epidermis  thin :  luhorls  7-8,  rather  convex  and 
bulging  out  in  the  middle,  the  last  occupying  nearly  three- 
fourths  of  the  shell :  spire  oblique,  much  produced  and  taper- 
ing to  a  fine  point :  suture  moderately  deep,  margined  above 
by  a  narrow  white  line,  which  is  formed  by  the  upper  edge  of 
the  preceding  whorl :  mouth  oval,  interrupted  on  its  inner  side 
by  the  periphery  of  the  penultimate  whorl  and  the  columellar 
fold :  outer  lip  rather  thin  and  slightly  reflected :  imier  lip 
spread  on  the  columella  and  thickened  in  adult  specimens : 
fold  prominent  and  very  strongly  curved.     L.  2.   B.  1. 

Var.  1.  fragilis.  Shell  smaller,  more  slender  and  tapering. 
Helix  fragilis,  Linn.  Fn.  Suec.  2187 ;  Mont.  Test.  Brit.  p.  369, 
tab.  16.  f.  7. 

Yar.  2.  cdhida.  Shell  of  the  last-mentioned  form,  but  of  a 
white  colour. 

*  Inhabiting  ponds. 


112  LIMNiEID^. 

Var.  3.  lahiata.  Shell  dwarfed  and  more  solid,  with  the 
outer  lip  much  reflected  and  thickened.    L.  0*9.    B.  0*55. 

Var.  4.  sinistrorsa.     Spire  reversed. 

Habitat  :  Slow  rivers,  marshes,  and  standing  water 
throughout  the  kingdom;  but  it  is  more  local  than  L. 
peregra.  Var.  1.  Kennet  and  Avon  Junction  Canal, 
Wilts  (Montagu)  ;  Surrey  and  Croydon  Canal  (Leach) ; 
R.  Cam  at  Cambridge  (Granger) ;  Grand  Canal,  Dublin 
(Warren).  This  variety  is  the  Stagnicola  elegans  of 
Leach.  Var.  2.  From  the  last-mentioned  locality.  Var.  3. 
Lough  Neagh,  Ireland  (Moggridge).  Var.  4.  Kenn  Moor, 
Somerset  (Norman).  This  species  is  one  of  our  upper 
tertiary  fossils.     It  ranges  from  Siberia  to  Naples. 

This  mollusk  is  sluggish,  but  fond  of  floating.  Before 
descending  to  the  bottom  it  withdraws  its  body  into  the 
shell,  and  in  so  doing  disengages  the  air  from  its  pouch, 
which  escapes  with  a  perceptible  noise.  The  shell  is 
remarkably  handsome ;  but  it  is  often  disfigured  by  a 
coating  of  vegetable  or  calcareous  matter.  The  outer 
lip  sometimes  becomes  thickened  in  consequence  of  a 
temporary  cessation  of  growth ;  and  in  such  cases  vari- 
cose marks  are  observable  on  the  spire  at  intervals. 
Young  shells  are  extremely  slender,  and  the  mouth  is 
not  expanded  as  in  adult  specimens.  In  this  state  they 
somewhat  resemble  L.  glabra  in  form,  and  might  be 
mistaken  for  a  new  species.  Miiller  tried  the  experi- 
ment of  cutting  oflP  the  heads  of  some  of  this  kind  of 
mollusk  to  see  if  they  would  be  reproduced ;  but  he  tells 
us  that  the  poor  animals  did  not  long  sur^dve  the  opera- 
tion. Menke  supposed  that  the  shell  of  this  species  was 
the  helmet  of  the  Frogs  in  Homer^s  ^  Batrachomyo- 
machia^;  but,  in  opposition  to  this  ingenious  idea,  it  may 
be  remarked  that  the  L,  stagnalis  does  not  appear  to 


LIMN^A.  113 

have  ever  existed  in  Greece.  From  the  description  of 
the  armour  of  the  Frogs,  it  does  not  appear  that  any 
species  in  particular  was  intended  : — 

"  Form'd  of  the  varied  shells  the  waters  yield, 
Their  glossy  helmets  glisten'd  o'er  the  field." 

It  is  not  likely  that  Homer  was  a  conchologist,  or  distin- 
guished one  shell  from  another  for  poetical  purposes. 
The  kind  of  shell  in  question  must  have  made  cumber- 
some helmets  for  the  valiant  Frogs. 

L.  stagnalis  is  a  large  and  favourite  object  for  the 
aquarium ;  and  Mr.  Lloyd  has  recorded  in  the  ^ Zoologist^ 
some  interesting  observations  as  to  the  mode  of  its 
respiration. 

The  shell  is  so  much  larger  and  longer  than  that  of 
any  other  LimncBa,  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  make  any 
further  comparison  between  them. 

C.  Spire  of  the  shell  much  produced,  and  whorls  gradually 

enlarging. 

6.  L.  palus'tris*,  Miiller. 

Buccinu7n  palustre,  Mllll.  Yerm.  Hist.  pt.  ii.  p.  131.     Limnceus  palustris, 
F.  &  H  iv.  p.  180,  pi.  exxiv.  f.  2. 

Body  dark  grey,  with  a  tinge  of  violet-brown,  covered  with 
fine  black  and  yellowish-white  specks  :  tentacles  conic,  curved 
and  pointed  :  eyes  placed  on  small  tubercles :  foot  oblong, 
truncate  and  slightly  notched  in  front,  narrowing  behind  and 
ending  in  a  blunt  tail. 

Shell  oblong,  rather  solid,  of  a  somewhat  duU  hue,  yellowish- 
brown  with  sometimes  a  violet  tint,  sculptured  as  in  L.  stag- 
nalis, but  the  spiral  ridges  are  generally  more  prominent  and 
numerous :  e/pidermis  rather  thin :  wliorJs  6-7,  rounded  and 
moderately  convex,  the  last  occupying  about  two-thirds  of  the 
shell :  spire  produced  and  tapering  to  a  somewhat  fine  point : 
siitwre  rather  deep,  often  margined  above  by  a  narrow  white 

*  Inhabiting  bogs. 


114  LIMN.EID^. 

line,  which  is  caused  by  the  appearance  through  the  shell  of 
the  upper  edge  of  the  preceding  whorl :  mouth  obliquely  oval, 
but  contracted  on  the  inner  or  columellar  side  :  outer  lip  rather 
thick,  scarcely  reflected,  but  expanded  below  :  inner  lip  spread 
on  the  columella  :  fold  extremely  prominent  and  sharp.  L.  1. 
B.  0-4. 

Yar.  1.  Corvus.  Shell  much  larger  and  more  swollen,  of  a 
purplish -brown  colour.  L.  1-35.  B.  0-65.  HeliM  Corvus, 
Gmel.  Syst.  Nat.  p.  3665. 

Var.  2.  elongata.     Spire  elongated. 

Var.  3.  tincta.  Shell  shorter  and  broader,  Hght  brown 
with  a  purplish  mouth.  Limneus  tinctus,  JefFr.  in  Linn.  Tr. 
xvi.  p.  378. 

Yar.  4.  conica.  Shell  conic,  greyish -white,  with  a  deep 
suture  and  an  umbihcal  cleft.     L.  Q-o.     B.  0*25. 

Yar.  5.  rosea -lahia'ta.  Mouth  of  the  shell  furnished  inside 
with  a  rose-coloured  or  white  rib. 

Yar.  6.  decoUata.     Spire  truncate. 

Habitat  :  Marshes,  ditches,  and  shallow  pools  every- 
where from  Aberdeenshire  to  the  Channel  Isles.  Var.  1. 
Suffolk  (Barlee).  Var.  3.  Falmouth  (J.  G.  J.).  Var.  3. 
Swansea  and  Dorsetshire  (J.  G.  J.) ;  Anglesea  (Gibbs). 
This  last  variety  resembles  a  Bulimus  in  form.  Var.  4. 
Banks  of  the  Thames  from  Hammersmith  to  Woolwich 
(J.  G.  J.) ;  Cork  (Humphreys) .  This  is  a  peculiar  variety; 
but  as  it  is  connected  with  the  typical  form  by  the  variety 
tincta,  and  it  is  not  found  in  company  with  any  other 
form,  I  do  not  consider  it  to  be  specifically  distinct.  Some 
specimens  have  a  longer  spire  and  resemble  L.  truncatula. 
Var.  5.  Belfast  (Thompson);  Cork  (Humphreys).  Var.6. 
Preston  (Gilbertson) ;  Guernsey  (Lukis)  ;  Ballinahinch, 
Co.  Gal  way  (J.  G.  J.).  This  species  is  also  one  of  our 
upper  tertiary  fossils.  Abroad  it  ranges  from  Siberia  to 
Algeria  and  Sicily. 

It  has  the  character  of  being  a  slow,  irritable,  and  very 


LIMN^A.  115 

greedy  animal — none  of  which  are  amiable  qualities  in 
our  own  species  !  Owing  to  the  nature  of  its  habitat^ 
the  shell  is  apt  to  have  a  coat  of  hardened  mud.  The 
whorls  are  sometimes  more  or  less  distorted  or  scalari- 
form.  Draparnaud  says  that  the  animal  has  only  two 
aeriferous  tubes,  instead  of  four  as  in  L.  auricularia  ;  but 
this  remarkable  and  anomalous  organization  does  not 
appear  to  have  been  observed  by  other  naturalists. 

This  species  differs  from  all  the  preceding  in  the  shell 
being  thicker  and  the  whorls  much  more  narrow.  It 
was  first  (and  well)  described  by  Lister. 

Mr.  Bean  was  kind  enough  to  give  me  specimens  of 
L.  cornea  (a  native  of  the  North- American  lakes)  which 
his  son  was  said  to  have  collected  in  the  West  of  Ireland. 
It  is  allied  to  the  present  species,  through  the  variety 
tincta  ;  but  I  suspect  there  must  have  been  some  mistake 
as  to  the  alleged  Irish  locality. 

7.  L.  trunca'tula*,  Miiller. 

Buccinum  truncatulum,  Miill.  Verm.  Hist.  pt.  ii.  p.  130.    Limnmis  trun- 
catulus,  F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  177,  pi.  cxxiv.  £  3. 

Body  dark  brown  or  grey,  of  a  lighter  colour  on  the  lower 
side,  covered  with  fine  black  specks  :  tentacles  short,  but  slender, 
rounded  at  their  tips  :  eyes  nearly  sessile  :  foot  rather  short, 
marked  with  milk-white  spots,  which  are  scattered  and  larger 
than  the  black  specks,  nearly  truncate  in  front,  gradually 
narrowing  and  abruptly  rounded  behind. 

Shell  oblong-conic,  turreted,  rather  solid  for  its  si^e, 
glossy,  yellowish-brown  or  horncolour  ;  sculpture  the  same  as 
in  the  two  last  species :  epidermis  thin  :  whorls  5-6,  rounded 
and  convex,  but  compressed  in  the  middle,  so  as  to  make  the 
top  of  each  appear  somewhat  truncate ;  the  last  whorl  occu- 
pying about  three-fifths  of  the  shell :  spire  abruptly  tapering 
to  a  rather  fine  point :  suture  extremely  deep  :  mouth  oval, 
scarcely  contracted  on  the  inner  side :  outer  lip  sharp  :  inner 
lip  continuous  with  it  and  reflected  on  the  columella,  behind 

*  Slightly  truncate. 


116  LIMN^IDyE. 

which  is  a  distinct  umbilical  chink :  fold  rather  slight  but 
thick.     L.  0-4.     B.  0-2. 

Var.  1.  major.  Shell  larger  :  whorls  more  swollen  and  the 
last  considerably  exceeding  the  usual  proportion  of  size. 

Yar.  2.  elegans.  Shell  much  larger,  more  solid  and  slender, 
greyish-white,  marked  with  coarse  spiral  ridges  :  S2)lre  much 
produced  :  suture  oblique  :  outer  lip  thickened.  L.  0-6.  B. 
0-225. 

Var.  3.  minor.  Shell  much  smaller,  thinner  and  semi- 
transparent,  dark  horncolour,  marked  with  stronger  and  closer 
longitudinal  striae.     L.  0-285.     B.  0-165. 

Var.  4.  alhida.     Shell  smaller,  milk-white. 

Var.  5.  scalariformis.  Shell  smaller :  whorls  nearly  dis- 
united. 

Var.  6.  microstoma^  Shell  smaller  and  narrower :  ivhork 
more  swollen  :  mouth  contracted. 

Habitat  :  Banks  of  slow  and  muddy  rivers  and 
streams,  marshes,  ditches,  grassy  pools,  waterfalls,  and 
moist  places  everywhere  from  the  northernmost  point  of 
Zetland  to  Jersey.  Var.  1 .  Penzance  (Millet  and  Barlee) ; 
Newton  Nottage,  Glamorganshire  (J.  G.  J.).  Var.  2. 
Hants  (Mus.  Loscombe).  Var.  3.  Momitainous  tracts 
and  sea-side  marshes.  Var.  4.  Battersea  (J.  G.  J.)  : 
Crymlin  Burrows,  Swansea,  (Moggridge).  Var.  5.  War- 
minster (J.  G.  J.).  Var.  6.  Southampton  (J.  G.  J.. 
Besides  these  varieties,  my  cabinet  contains  specimens 
in  which  the  spire  is  more  produced,  or  shorter  with 
the  whorls  partly  intorted,  and  some  have  interrupted 
spiral  bands  of  white  lines.  This  species  occurs  in  our 
upper  tertiary  beds.  Its  foreign  distribution  extends 
from  Siberia  to  Algeria  and  Sicily;  and,  according  to 
Captain  Hutton,  it  is  a  native  of  Afghanistan. 

This  abundant  but  pretty  little  mollusk  is  nearly 
amphibious,  being  more  frequently  met  with  out  of  the 
water  than  in  it.     It  is  also  found  in  very  elevated  spots. 


LIMNJLA.  117 

Moquin-Tandon  states  that  lie  had  observed  it  in  the 
Pyrenees  at  a  height  of  1200  metres  (nearly  4000  feet) ; 
and  instances  of  its  occurring  at  a  tolerable  elevation  in 
this  country  might  doubtless  be  also  given,  as  I  have 
found  it  living  at  the  sides  of  all  our  mountain  tarns, 
but  no  other  animal  in  company  with  it.  It  deposits  its 
spawn  on  the  mud,  which  is  its  usual  habitat,  and  not, 
like  its  congeners,  on  the  stalks  and  underneath  the  leaves 
of  water-plants. 

The  form  of  its  shell  somewhat  resembles  that  of  L. 
peregra,  var.  maritima ;  but  its  minute  size  and  turricu- 
lated  spire  will  serve  to  distinguish  the  present  from 
any  other  species.  This  is  the  Limneus  minutus  of  Dra- 
parnaud  and  Helix  fossaria  of  Montagu.  The  name  it 
now  bears  seems  to  have  been  derived,  not  from  the 
truncature  or  decollation  of  the  spire,  but  from  the 
truncate  or  turreted  form  of  the  whorls. 

8.  L.  gla'bra^,  Miiller. 

Buccinum  glahrum,  Miill.  Yerm.  Hist.  pt.  ii.  p.  135.     Limnaus  glaher, 
F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  178,  pi.  cxxiv.  f.  1. 

Body  dusky-grey  with  a  tinge  of  slate-colour,  covered  with 
minute,  but  distinct,  black  specks  :  tentacles  rather  long  :  eyes 
placed  on  prominent  tubercles  :  foot  truncate  in  front,  from 
which  it  spreads  a  little  towards  the  rear,  ending  in  a  thick 
and  narrow  tail. 

Shell  cyHndrical,  rather  thin  and  glossy,  greyish-horn- 
colour  or  brownish,  sculptured  as  in  the  three  preceding  species : 
epidermis  very  thin  :  whorls  7-8,  rounded  but  not  very  convex, 
the  last  occupying  not  much  more  than  half  the  shell :  spire 
produced  and  ending  in  a  somewhat  blunt  point :  suture  slight, 
but  distinct,  margined  as  in  the  two  foregoing  species  :  mouth 
pear-shaped,  contracted  above  at  an  acute  angle,  and  furnished 
inside  with  a  thick  broad  white  rib,  which  is  placed  at  a  httle 
distance  from  the  opening :  outer  lij)  thin,  scarcely  reflected : 

*  Smooth. 


118  LIMN^ID^. 

inner  Up  rather  thick :  fold  somewhat  prominent  and  sharp. 
L.  0-6.     B.  0-2. 

Yar.  elongata.  Spire  more  produced,  so  as  to  alter  the 
relative  proportions  of  length  and  breadth. 

Habitat  :  Ditches  and  shallow  pools,  but  sparingly- 
distributed  in  this  country.  It  appears,  however,  to  have 
been  found  in  the  following  counties  and  places, — viz. 
Northumberland,  Durham,  York,  Salop,  Norfolk,  Suffolk, 
Essex,  Oxon,  Wilts,  Dorset,  Cornwall,  Guernsey,  Jersey, 
Cork  and  Belfast.  Although  local,  it  is  plentiful  where 
it  occurs.  It  ranges  from  Scandinavia  to  France  as  far 
south  as  the  lower  Pyrenees, 

It  is  an  exceedingly  sluggish  and  timid  mollusk,  but 
ventures  occasionally  on  a  very  short  floating  excursion. 
It  often  retires  considerably  within  its  shell,  when  it 
forms  the  inside  lip  or  rib.  The  repetition  at  intervals  of 
this  lip,  which  is  seen  through  the  semitransparent  shell, 
gives  the  latter  a  varicose  appearance.  The  shell  is  also 
liable  to  lose  its  first  or  apical  whorls,  and  consequently 
to  become  decollated. 

This  species  is  the  Bulimus  leucostoma  of  Poiret,  Helix 
octanfracta  of  Montagu,  and  lAmneus  elongatus  of  Dra- 
parnaud. 

Genus  IV.  AN'CYLUS*,  Geoffroy. 
PL  IV.  f.  11,  12,  13,  14. 

Body  oval,  conic,  slightly  twisted  behind ;  head  very  large : 

tentacles  short,  nearly  cylindrical  but  thicker  at  their  base : 

foot  oval,  or  oblong,  obtusely  rounded  in  front  and  behind, 

closely  attached  to  the  upper  part  of  the  body :  respiratory 

pouch  or  sac  forming  a  short  tube. 

Shell  hood-shaped,  with  an  incomplete  or  rudimentary  spire, 
which  is  in  some  species  dextral  and  in  others  sinistral. 

*  Hooked. 


ANCYLUS.  119 

This  is  in  some  respects  an  anomalous  genus^  although 
undoubtedly  related  to  Limncea,  Menke  and  other  con- 
chologists  have  proposed  to  separate  it  from  the  LimnceidiB 
and  to  make  it  a  distinct  family  by  itself.  The  resem- 
blance of  its  shell  to  the  marine  Limpet,  or  Patella^  has 
caused  this  to  receive  the  not  inappropriate  name  of  the 
"  freshwater  Limpet," — showing  that  the  sea  and  land 
have  their  respective  representatives  or  analogues  in  the 
system  of  Nature.  It  was  for  a  long  time  supposed, 
even  by  the  great  Cuvier,  that  the  Ancyli  were  branchi- 
ferous ;  but  it  has  now  been  satisfactorily  ascertained, 
by  the  careful  investigations  of  Mr.  Berkeley  and  other 
able  physiologists,  that  they  are  truly  pulmoniferous, 
although  they  are  also  capable  (like  other  aquatic  Pul- 
monobranchs)  of  extracting  air  from  the  water  for  the 
purpose  of  respiration.  They  inhabit  both  rapid  and  still 
waters,  attached  to  stones  and  the  leaves  of  plants.  They 
are  not  inactive  in  their  habits,  but  have  never  been 
observed  in  a  floating  position.  One  of  our  native  species 
(A.  fluviatilis)  is  nearly  as  amphibious  as  the  Limncea 
peregra  and  L.  truncatula ;  and  it  may  often  be  seen  on 
rocks  at  the  side  of  waterfalls,  having  no  other  moisture 
than  the  spray  which  occasionally  falls  on  it.  When  it 
crawls,  only  the  tips  of  its  tentacles,  and  sometimes  the 
front  edge  of  its  mantle,  are  visible.  The  only  two 
British  species  of  Ancylus  are  apt  to  be  infested  with  a 
number  of  quasi-parasitic  worms,  as  is  also  the  case  with 
many  kinds  of  Limncea.  The  food  of  the  Ancyli  consists 
of  freshwater  Alga3  or  Confervse,  as  well  as  of  decayed 
vegetable  matter.  They  are  said  also  to  eat  or  swallow 
a  certain  quantity  of  very  fine  gravel  or  sand,  apparently 
to  assist  their  digestion,  which  is  very  slow.  They  can 
live  a  long  time  without  any  nourishment. 


120  LIMNiEID.^. 

A.  Body  sinistral.     Shell  dextral. 

1.  Ancylus  fluvia'tilis*,  Miiller. 

Ancylus  fluviatilis,  Miill.  Verm.  Hist.  pt.  ii.  p.  201  ;  F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  18G, 
pi.  cxxii.  f.  4. 

Body  slate-colour  or  dark  grey,  with  fine  black  specks : 
tentacles  somewhat  triangular  at  the  base,  becoming  slender 
towards  their  tips,  which  are  blunt :  eijes  not  very  prominent, 
but  distinct :  foot  oval,  nearly  equal  in  circumference  to  the 
mouth  of  the  shell. 

Shell  semi-oval,  incurved  towards  the  front  like  a  helmet 
of  the  ancients,  rather  thin,  not  glossy,  yellowish -grey  or  horn- 
colour,  strongly  and  regularly  striate  longitudinally  in  a  radi- 
ating direction  from  the  crown  to  the  margin  or  outer  edge  of 
the  mouth  (some  of  the  striae  often  forming  remote  ridges)  and 
very  finely  striate  transversely  or  in  the  line  of  growth  :  anterior 
margin  somewhat  narrower  than  the  other :  epidermis  rather 
thin  :  spire  forming  the  beak  and  being  equal  to  about  half  a 
whorl,  with  a  compressed  and  blunt  top,  which  turns  a  little 
to  the  right,  bending  down  towards  and  nearly  reaching  the 
posterior  margin  :  mouth  oval :  outer  lip  membranous,  slightly 
reflected.     L.  0-3.     B.  0-233. 

Yar.  1.  Capuloides.  Shell  larger  and  higher,  with  the  beak 
not  placed  so  near  the  posterior  margin.  L.  0*415.  B.  0*3. 
A.  Capuloides,  (Jan)  Porro,  Mai.  Com.  p.  87,  pi.  1.  f.  7. 

Yar.  2.  gihhosa.  Shell  smaller,  more  swoUen,  with  the 
beak  reaching  or  overhanging  the  posterior  margin.  A.  gih- 
bosus,  Bourguignat  in  Journ.  de  Conch,  iii.  (1853)  p.  186. 

Yar.  3.  alhida.     Shell  milk-white  and  more  finely  striated. 

Habitat  :  Abundantly  on  stones  and  rocks  in  shallow 
rivers  and  streams  everywhere  from  Aberdeenshire  to 
the  Channel  Isles.  I  once  found  it  of  a  dwarf  size  on 
the  leaves  of  the  white  water-lily  in  a  stagnant  pond 
near  Swansea,  into  which  no  stream  had  flowed  within 
the  memory  of  man,  living  in  company  with  A.  lacustris, 
and  coated  with  a  confervoid  growth.     Yar.  1.  R.  Corfe, 

^  Inhabiting  rivers. 


ANCYLUS.  121 

Dorset :  very  rare  (J.  G.  J.).  Var.  2.  Sark  ;  Osmington 
mills^  near  Ringstead^  Dorset ;  Dunboy,  near  Bearhaven, 
Co.  Cork  (J.  G.  J.).  This  last  variety  is  the  A.  deper- 
ditus  of  Ziegler  and  Dupuy ;  but  (according  to  Bour- 
guignat)  not  of  Desmarest,  who  first  used  that  name 
for  another  species.  Intermediate  forms  in  respect  of 
the  position  of  the  beak  incline  me  to  consider  this  only 
a  variety.  Var.  3.  Wokey  hole^  near  Wells  (Beevor) ; 
Scarborough  (Bean)  ;  near  Torquay  (Norman) ;  Arish 
mill^  near  Lul worthy  Dorset  (J.  G.  J.).  Specimens 
from  different  places  vary  in  colour  from  white  to  dark- 
horncolour  or  reddish-brown.  This  species  is  also  one 
of  our  upper  tertiary  fossils.  Abroad  it  ranges  from 
Finland  to  Algeria  and  Sicily ;  and  the  Rev.  R.  T.  Lowe 
has  incladed  it  in  his  list  of  Madeiran  land-shells. 

M.  Bouchard- Chantereaux  published,  nearly  thirty 
years  ago,  an  extremely  interesting  account  of  the  em- 
bryogeny  of  A.  fluviatilis,  illustrated  by  a  plate  showing 
the  successive  development  of  the  spawn  into  the  fry. 
He  says,  each  individual  lays,  in  the  course  of  the  breed- 
ing-season, about  80  eggs,  which  are  enclosed  in  from 
7  to  10  capsules  and  arrive  at  maturity  in  from  twenty- 
four  to  twenty-seven  days,  according  to  the  temperature. 
The  animal  seems  to  be  more  fond  of  Fontinalis  antipy- 
retica  than  of  any  other  plant. 

Many  species  have  been  carved  out  of  this  variable 
kind  by  Continental  authors.  In  very  young  shells  may 
be  detected  faint  traces  of  a  more  complete  spire,  which 
is  intorted  so  as  to  cause  a  concavity  in  the  beak,  called 
by  M.  Bourguignat  the  "  depression  apicale.^^  This 
species  was  first  made  known  by  Lister,  and  described 
by  him  under  the  name  of  Patella  fluviatilis,  but  ac- 
companied by  other  epithets.  It  has  by  some  authors 
been  considered  to  be  the  Patella  lacustris  of  Linne ; 

G 


122  LIMN^ID/E. 

but  I  will  defer  my  remarks  as  to  this  name  until  I  have 
to  treat  of  the  next  species. 

E.  Body  dextral.     Shell  sinistral. 
2.  A.  lacus'tris  *_,  Linne. 

Patella  lacustris,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  ed.  x.  i.  p.  783.     A.  ohlovgus,  F.  &  H.  iv. 
p.  188,  pi.  cxxii.  f,  5. 

Body  yellowish-grey  with  a  greenish  tinge,  covered  with 
minute  and  indistinct  dark  specks  :  tentacles  thick,  pointed  at 
the  tips :  eyes  as  in  the  last  species :  foot  truncate  in  front  and 
very  round  behind,  having  a  few  yellow  specks  interspersed 
among  the  black  ones. 

Shell  oblong,  obUquely  twisted  to  the  left,  thin,  glossy 
greyish -horncolour,  very  finely  but  indistinctly  striate  as  in 
A.  fiuviatilis,  but  without  the  intermediate  ridges :  anterior 
margin  very  little  narrower  than  the  other :  e/pidermis  thick  : 
heak  sharp  and  ridge-like,  turning  obliquely  to  the  left,  but 
placed  close  to  the  margin  :  month  oblong  :  outer  lip  membra- 
nous, reflected.     L.  0-25.     B.  0-1. 

Yar.  ]..  compressa.  Shell  rather  larger,  and  considerably 
broader  and  flatter,  than  usual. 

Yar.  2.  alhida.  Shell  milk-white,  with  a  light-grey  epi- 
dermis. 

Habitat  :  On  the  under  side  of  the  leaves  of  water-lilies 
and  other  aquatic  plants^  as  well  as  on  fallen  leaves  of 
trees_,  in  slow  rivers^  lakes,  canals,  marshes,  and  ponds 
throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  kingdom  as  far  north 
as  Aberdeenshire.  It  is,  however,  a  local  species. 
Y^ar.  1.  Dunstall,  StaflTordshire  (J.  G.  J.).  Y^ar.  2. 
Grand  Canal,  Dublin  (Y^arren).  It  is  also  one  of  our 
upper  tertiary  fossils.  Its  foreign  distribution  is  the 
same  as  that  of  the  last  species. 

Miiller  states  that  this  is  not  only  a  freshwater  but  a 
marine  shell,  having  taken  it  alive  and  adhering  to  marine 

*  Inhabiting  lakes. 


ANCYLUS.  123 

species  of  Conferva,  in  the  Baltic  Sea.  According  to 
Mr.  WhiteaveSj  it  hibernates  between  the  sheathing 
leaves  of  Sparganium  ramosum. 

This  species  is  easily  recognizable  from  A.  fluviatilu- 
by  its  different  habitat  and  the  oblong  shape  of  its  shell, 
as  well  as  by  the  form  of  the  beak,  which  is  twisted 
decidedly  to  the  left,  instead  of  being  (as  in  the  other 
species)  nearly  central  or  inclined  to  the  right. 

It  has  been  called  by  some  authors  A.  oblongus,  being 
the  specific  name  given  to  it  by  Lightfoot  under  the  im- 
pression that  this  was  not  the  Patella  lacustris  of  Linne. 
There  can,  however,  be  scarcely  any  doubt  that  Linne 
meant  this  species,  and  not  A.  fluviatilis,  because  in  his 
^  Fauna  Suecica '  he  mentions  its  being  rather  common 
in  lakes  and  attached  to  the  submerged  leaves  of  aquatic 
plants,  especially  of  Stratiotes.  His  description  of  the 
shell  is  applicable  to  either  species. 

Nearly  half  a  century  ago,  a  curious  instance  of  false 
analogy  occurred  with  respect  to  an  organism  which 
Draparnaud  described  and  figured  (in  his  admirable 
History  of  the  Land  and  Freshwater  MoUusca  of  France) 
as  "  Ancylus  spina-rosce'^  from  specimens  sent  him  by 
Ferussac.  These  specimens  were  afterwards  discovered 
not  to  be  testaceous;  and  many  conjectures  were  from 
time  to  time  made  as  to  their  nature.  It  was  supposed 
by  some  that  they  were  parts  of  a  small  pod  or  capsule, 
by  others  that  they  were  the  bracts  of  a  flower-stalk,  and 
by  not  a  few  naturalists  that  they  were  scales  of  a  fish. 
The  puzzle,  however,  was  at  last  solved  by  the  discovery 
that  these  nondescripts  were  the  valves  of  a  Cyjjris,  and 
therefore  belonged  to  the  Crustacea. 


TERRESTRIAL. 


The  Slugs  and  Land-Snails^  which  (as  I  before  observed) 
constitute  about  three-fourths  of  the  British  Pulmono- 
branch  Mollusca^  may  be  conveniently  divided  into  two 
sections.  The  first  section  agrees  in  all  essential  particu- 
lars^ except  that  of  having  retractile  (instead  of  contrac- 
tile) tentacles^  with  the  aquatic  family  of  Limnmd^E, which 
have  been  above  described.  The  second  corresponds  with 
the  Pectinibranch  Mollusca  in  having  separate  sexes, 
their  eyes  at  the  base  of  the  tentacles,  and  univalve  spiral 
shells  which  are  furnished  with  opercula ;  and  the  main 
point  in  which  it  differs  from  that  great  Order  consists 
in  the  organs  of  respiration,  resulting  from  the  nature 
of  their  respective  habitats.  All  the  land  Pulmono- 
branchs  are  more  slimy  than  their  aquatic  representa- 
tives ;  and  they  appear  to  be  less  inactive  in  their  habits. 

The  first  section  comprises  four  families,  viz., — 

*  Tentacles,  almost  in  every  case,  4  :  eyes  placed  on  the  tips  of 
the  upper,  or  single,  pair  :  shell  rudimentary,  shield-like, 
or  complete  and  spiral. 

I.    LlMACID^. 

II,  Testacellid^. 
III.  Helicid^. 


**  Tentacles  2,  besides  rudiments  of  a  second  or  lower  pair  :  eyes 
placed  at  the  internal  base  of  the  developed  pair  :  shell 
spiral,  elongated. 

lY.  Carychud.'e. 


LIMACID.^.  125 

Family  I.  LIMACID.E. 

Body  long,  straight,  and  flexible  :  mantle  covering  only  the 
upper  part  of  the  back,  and  forming  a  shield :  head  prominent : 
tentacles  4,  cylindrical,  arranged  in  pairs,  the  upper  pair  being 
the  longest :  eyes  2,  placed  on  bulbs  at  the  tojD  of  the  upper 
tentacles  :  foot  united  to  the  body  and  coextensive  with  it. 

Shell  either  rudimentary  and  of  an  indefinite  form,  or 
shield- shaped,  placed  underneath  the  mantle. 

I  do  not  propose  to  treat  of  this  family  aud  its  com- 
ponent members  to  the  same  extent  as  my  opportmiities 
have  enabled  me  to  do  with  respect  to  the  testaceous 
members  of  the  same  Order ;  and  I  must  admit  that  I 
have  not  paid  equal  attention  to  this  part  of  the  subject. 
The  aspect^  and  much  less  the  handling,  of  these  slimy 
creatures  cannot  be  considered  as  especially  inviting ; 
and  as  I  believe  the  majority  of  my  readers  share  in  this 
opinion,  I  may  with  greater  confidence  ask  their  indul- 
gence for  any  shortcomings  on  this  point.  At  the  same 
time  I  would  observe  that  the  subject  offers,  to  those 
who  are  inclined  to  pursue  it,  a  wide  field  of  research 
and  a  greater  prospect  of  novelty  than  can  be  expected 
from  the  study  of  the  testaceous  Mollusca.  The  ana- 
tomy, physiology,  and  habits  of  the  Slugs  were  described 
nearly  two  centuries  ago  by  our  countryman,  Dr.  Lister, 
in  his  admirable  treatises  on  British  animals ;  and  Mr. 
Nunneley  and  the  Rev.  B.  J.  Clarke  have  lately  done 
much  to  increase  our  knowledge  of  these  mollusks.  Some 
of  their  remains  have  been  detected  in  our  upper  ter- 
tiary beds  at  Copford,  as  well  as  in  similar  deposits  in 
the  South-west  of  France. 


126  LIMACID^. 


Genus  I.  ARI'ON  *,  Ferussac.     PI.  V.  f.  1,  2. 

Body  nearly  cylindrical,  with  a  strongly  wrinkled  skin : 
sJmld  oblong,  shagreened:  respiratory  orijice  placed  near  the 
front  edge  of  the  shield :  foot  furnished  at  its  posterior  extre- 
mity or  tail  with  a  mucus-  or  sKme-gland. 

Shell  amorphous,  consisting  of  loose  calcareous  grains 
which  are  covered  by  the  hinder  part  of  the  shield. 

The  Arions,  or  black  slugs,  frequent  damp  and  shady 
woods,  as  well  as  hedge-banks  and  gardens.  During 
the  daytime  they  lurk  under  stones  and  logs  of  wood, 
or  bury  themselves  in  the  earth,  where  they  excavate  a 
sort  of  tunnel ;  but  at  night,  and  after  rain,  they  sally 
forth  to  feed.  They  are  great  pests  in  gardens,  gene- 
rally selecting  the  best  cabbages  and  most  succulent 
vegetables.  They  are,  however,  not  very  particular 
about  their  food,  and  act  the  part  of  land-scavengers, 
devouring  animal  matter  of  all  kinds  in  every  state  of 
decomposition,  and  even  each  other^s  slime.  They  may 
be  frequently  met  with  in  garden-walks,  after  a  shower, 
in  search  of  food.  During  the  season  of  reproduction 
they  deposit  their  eggs,  which  are  very  numerous,  sepa- 
rately underground.  When  at  rest,  they  contract  their 
bodies  into  a  lump.  In  this  state  they  offer  a  dainty 
prize  to  ducks.  They  differ  from  the  Limaces,  or  com- 
mon slugs,  in  their  respiratory  orifice  being  placed  in 
front,  instead  of  near  the  hinder  part,  of  the  shield,  in 
having  a  slime-gland  at  the  tail,  and  in  the  arrangement 
of  the  teeth. 


*  The  name  of  an  ancient  musician  and  poet :  scarcely  appropriate  to 
this  genus. 


ARION.  127 


1.  Arion  a'ter*_,  Linne. 

Limax  afer,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  ed.  x.  p.  652.     A.  Em])iricorum,  F.  &  H.  iv. 
p.  7,  pi.  D.  D.  D.  f.  4. 

Body  rather  contracted  and  rounded  in  front,  pointed  behind, 
varying  greatly  in  colour,  from  black  to  brown,  red,  yellow, 
greenish,  and  even  white,  with  all  the  intermediate  shades, 
covered  with  prominent  and  large  tubercles  :  shield,  or  mantle, 
finely  shagreened,  of  a  lighter  colour  than  the  rest  of  the 
body:  tentacles  coarsely  shagreened,  much  swollen  at  their 
tips,  especially  the  lower  pair :  foot  generally  having  a  yellow 
border,  which  is  crossed  at  the  sides  by  close  and  curved  dark 
lines:  slime  of  a  yellowish  colour.     L.  4.    B.  0-5. 

Shell  consisting  of  small  separate  calcareous  grains  of 
unequal  size. 

Habitat  :  Woods,  hedges,  fields,  and  all  sorts  of  damp 
places  in  the  country  tliroughout  these  Isles.  Abroad 
it  ranges  from  Siberia  to  Portugal  and  Corsica,  as  well 
as  to  Madeira ;  and  a  variety  of  it  was  found  as  far  north 
as  Jan  Mayens  Isle  by  the  naturalist  who  accompanied 
Prince  Louis  Napoleon^ s  expedition. 

This  species  has  had  an  infinity  of  names  given  to  it, 
on  account  of  its  extreme  variability  of  colour.  It  is 
the  A.  Empiricorum  of  Ferussac,  so  called  from  the  cal- 
careous substance  which  is  found  under  the  shield  having 
been  formerly  used  in  the  preparation  of  medicine. 

The  A.flavus  of  Ferussac  {Limax  flavus,  Miiller),  which 
has  been  found  in  the  North  of  England  by  Mr.  Alder 
and  Mr.  Blacklock,  as  well  as  by  Mr.  Norman  and  Mr. 
Whiteaves  in  Somersetshire  and  Oxfordshire,  appears, 
according  to  Moquin-Tandon,  to  be  a  doubtful  species. 
MM.  Bouchard-Chantereaux  and  Normand  state  that 
this  last-mentioned  species  or  variety  inhabits  woods  and 
moist  places  in  the  North  of  France. 

*  Black. 


128  LIMACID/E. 

2.  A.  horten'sis"^^  Ferussac. 

A.  hortensis,  Fer.  Hist.  Moll.  p.  65,  pi.  ii.  f.  4-6 ;  F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  10, 
pi.  E.F.F.  f.  1. 

Body  longer  than  that  of  the  last  species  in  proportion  to 
its  size,  and  of  nearly  an  equal  breadth  throughout,  brown, 
red,  yellow,  grey,  greenish,  or  black,  usually  more  or  less  di- 
stinctly marked  on  the  back  and  sides  with  stripes  or  longitu- 
dinal bands,  and  covered  with  coarse  oblong  tubercles :  shield 
having  usually  a  dark  stripe  down  the  middle  and  another  on 
each  side :  tentacles  not  much  swollen  at  their  tips  •  foot  nar- 
I'owly  bordered  with  grey,  yellow,  reddish,  or  orange :  slkne 
yellowish  or  whitish.     L.  1-5.    B.  0-35. 

Shell  of  an  ii-regular  shape,  composed  of  grains  like  those 
in  the  last  species,  but  cemented  together  by  a  calcareous 
matrix,  so  as  to  resemble  tiny  lumps  of  the  conglomerate 
which  is  called  by  geologists  "  breccia." 

Habitat  :  Under  stones  and  dead  leaves  in  gardens, 
fields,  and  damp  spots  everywhere.  Its  foreign  distri- 
bution is  also  perhaps  equally  extensive  with  that  of 
A.  ater. 

According  to  Bouchard-Chantereaux,  the  eggs  of  A. 
hortensis  are  phosphorescent  during  the  first  fifteen  days 
after  they  have  been  laid.  They  take  from  twenty  to 
forty  days  to  arrive  at  maturity,  and  the  young  become 
adult  towards  the  end  of  the  first  year. 

This  species  differs  from  A.  ater  in  being  much  smaller 
and  more  slender,  as  well  as  in  usually  having  longitu- 
dinal lines  or  stripes.  The  substitute  for  a  shell  is  also 
more  compact,  and  making  some  approach  to  a  definite 
form,  in  the  present  species.  Dr.  Gray  describes  the 
shell  to  be  '^  distinct,  oval,  concave ;"  but  tliis  description 
does  not  agree  with  the  generic  character  of  this  part  of 
the  animal. 

It  is  the  A.  fasciatus  of  Nilsson.     Miiller  described 

*  Frequenting  gardens. 


GEOMALACtJS.  129 

two  slugs  [Limaoo  cinctus  and  L.fuscus)  as  having  longi- 
tudinal stripes;  and  although  it  is  most  probable  that 
one  or  both  of  them  may  be  identical  with  the  present 
species^  the  name  given  by  Ferussac  has  been  adopted 
to  prevent  confusion. 

Genus  II.  GEOMA'LACUS  f-     PL  V.  f.  3. 

Body  resembhng  that  of  Arion,  but  more  extensile  and 
keeled  on  the  back,  besides  having  the  reproductive  oriliee 
placed  near  the  base  of  the  right  lower  tentacle,  in  which 
respect  it  differs  both  from  that  genus  and  Lhnax. 

Shell  unguiform,  imbedded  in  the  shield. 

This  genus,  of  which  only  one  species  is  known,  appears 
to  be  intermediate  between  Arion  and  Lhnax.  I  suspect 
that  the  Lhnax  anguiformis  of  Morelet  (Moll.  Port.  p.  3G, 
pi.  iii.  f.  1)  also  belongs  to  the  present  genus,  if  indeed 
it  is  not  the  same  species  as  ours. 

Geomalacus  maculo'sus  J,  AUman. 

G.  nmculosus,  Allm.  in  Ann.  N.  H.,  new  series,  xvii.  p.  297,  pi.  9  ;  F.  &  H. 
iv.  p.  12,  pi.  F.  F.  F*.  f.  5. 

No  detailed  account  of  this  curious  slug  has  been 
published ;  but  it  is  described  to  be  an  exceedingly  beau- 
tiful animal,  measuring,  when  creeping  about,  two  inches 
in  length ;  the  colour  of  the  shield  and  upper  part  of  the 
body  is  black,  elegantly  spotted  with  yellow ;  the  under 
surface  of  the  foot  light  yellow,  and  divided  into  three 
nearly  equal  bands;  the  edge  of  the  foot  brown,  with 
transverse  sulci.  A  white-spotted  variety  also  occurred. 
It  can  elongate  itself,  so  as  to  assume  the  appearance  of 
a  worm  and  thus  enter  exceedingly  small  apertures.  It 
was  discovered  by  an  active  and  indefatigable  Irish 
naturalist,  Mr.  William  iVndrews  of  Dublin,  during  the 

t  Earth-mollusk.  |  Spotted. 

G  5 


130  LIMACIDvE. 

autumn  of  1842^  ^^on  rocks  around  Lough  Carrough, 
to  the  south  of  Castlemain  Bay,  Co.  Kerry,  in  the  West 
of  Ireland."  Mr.  Andrews  informs  me  that  it  is  im- 
possible to  appreciate  the  extreme  beauty  of  this  slug 
without  observing  it  in  the  living  state.  The  surmise 
offered  by  the  authors  of  the  '  British  Mollusca/  that 
this  may  be  an  Asturian,  as  well  as  an  Irish,  slug,  is  pro- 
bably well  founded.  Morelet^s  description,  in  1845,  of 
his  Limax  anguiformis  appears  to  have  escaped  their 
notice.  He  especially  mentions  the  peculiar  form  of 
the  slug  and  the  position  of  the  respiratory  organ. 

Genus  III.  LI'MAX^  Linne.     PL  V.  f.  4,  5. 

Body  nearly  cyhndrical,  with  a  wrinkled  skin,  and  more  or 
less  keeled  on  the  back :  sliield  sometimes  shagreened,  but  in 
most  cases  concentrically  striate :  respiratory  orifice  near  the 
hinder  edge  of  the  shield :  reproductive  orifice  close  to  and 
behind  the  right  upper  tentacle :  foot  not  furnished  with  a 
mucus -gland. 

Shell  oval  or  shaped  hke  a  finger-nail,  formed  of  concentric 
layers,  and  covered  by  the  hinder  part  of  the  shield  (Limacella, 
Brard). 

The  habits  of  this  kind  of  slug  are  nearly  the  same  as 
those  of  Avion;  but  some  of  them  appear  to  like  the 
company  of  man  more  than  he  desii'cs,  being  often 
found  in  kitchens  and  domestic  offices.  They  are,  how- 
ever, sometimes  useful  in  eating  that  kind  of  fungus 
which  causes  dry  rot,  and  another  kind  which  infests 
cellars  and  makes  choice  Port  wine  what  is  termed 
^'^  corked."  Among  themselves  they  are  also  sociable, 
and  are  often  found  clustered  together  in  the  same  spot. 
Gardeners  have  great  cause  to  complain  of  their  voracity^ 
and  especially  when  they  see  the  finest  strawberries  have 
been  selected  for  their  supper  or  early  repast. 

*  Slug. 


LIMAX.  131 


A.  Shield  shagreened 


I 


1.  LiMAX  GAGATES*,  Drapamaud. 

L.  gagates,  Drap.  Hist.  Moll.  p.  122,  tab.  ix.  f .  1 ;   F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  24, 
pi.  D.  D.  D.  f.  3. 

Body  very  slightly  contracted  and  nearly  cylindrical  in  front, 
gradually  tapering  to  a  point  behind,  varying  from  slate-colour 
to  dark-red  or  even  black,  covered  "with  small  oblong  inter- 
laced tubercles :  shield  oblong,  somewhat  truncate  in  front 
and  rounded  behind,  apparently  divided  into  two  lobes,  finely 
shagreened  or  grained:  tentacles  very  short  and  thick,  not 
much  swollen  at  their  tips :  hack  sharply  keeled  its  whole 
length,  bordered  with  white  or  a  lighter  colour  than  the  rest 
of  the  body :  sUme  nearly  colourless.     L.  2-5.    B.  0-85. 

Shell  oval,  rather  thick  (especially  in  the  middle),  and 
slightly  wrinkled. 

Habitat  :  Hedges  and  at  the  roots  of  grass  and  the 
foot  of  old  walls  in  many  parts  of  Great  Britain  from 
the  Clyde  district  to  Guernsey;  but  it  appears  to  be  a 
local  species.  It  also  occurs  in  the  north,  east,  west,  and 
south  of  France,  ranging  to  Corsica  and  Algeria,  and 
probably  also  to  Naples.  Mr.  Norman  has  given  an 
excellent  description  of  this  species  in  the  ^ Zoologist^ 
for  1853,  and  remarked  that  when  at  rest  this  slug  as- 
sumes a  more  rounded  form  than  any  other  British 
kind,  contracting  and  squeezing  itself  into  so  small 
a  compass  that  its  height  is  but  little  exceeded  by  its 
length.  Its  slime  is  thick  and  glutinous,  resembling 
varnish.  The  apparent  division  of  the  shield  into  two 
lobes,  as  noticed  by  Draparnaud,  is  owing  to  its  being 
indented  behind  by  the  keel. 

*  Jet. 


132  LIMACID/E. 

2.  L.  MARGiNA  Tus  *^  Miiller. 

L.  marginatus,  Miill.  Verm.  Hist.  pt.  ii.  p.  10.     L.  Sowerbii,  P.  &  H.  iv. 
p.  22,  pi.  E.  E.  E.  f.  3. 

Body  nearly  cylindiical,  truncate  and  slightly  tumid  in  front, 
gradually  tapering  to  a  point  behind,  yellowish  or  reddish- 
browTi  speckled  with  black,  irregularly  wrinkled :  shield  oblong, 
obtusely  rounded  at  both  ends,  wider  and  slightly  truncate 
behind,  partly  bordered  with  a  dark  band  on  each  side  and 
occasionally  streaked  down  the  middle,  veiy  irregularly  granu- 
lated :  tentacles  thick,  not  much  swollen  at  their  tips :  hack 
having  a  prominent  keel  or  ridge,  which  extends  the  whole 
length  from  the  hinder  edge  of  the  shield  to  the  tail,  and  is  of 
a  lighter  colour  than  the  rest  of  the  body :  foot  pale-margined : 
slime  colourless.     Dimensions  same  as  in  the  last  species, 

SuELL  oval,  thickened,  with  conspicuous  lines  of  growth : 
boss  or  nucleus  near  one  end,  rather  prominent.  L.  0-2. 
B.  0-125. 

Habitat  :  Under  stones,  among  dead  leaves,  and  at 
the  foot  of  old  walls  everywhere.  The  shell  or  Limacella 
has  been  fonnd  in  our  upper  tertiary  beds.  Although 
this  must  be  a  widely  diflused  species,  it  does  not  appear 
to  have  been  noticed  by  any  Continental  writers  except 
Miiller,  Moquin-Tandon,  and  the  Abbe  Stabile,  accord- 
ing to  whom  it  inhabits  Denmark  and  the  mountainous 
districts  of  France  and  Lugano. 

This  slug  is  inactive  in  its  habits  and  secretes  a  thick 
and  tenacious  slime.  Stabile  says  that  it  is  much  preyed 
upon  by  the  Silphce,  Carabi,  and  other  large  carnivorous 
beetles.  L.  marginatus  is  said  in  its  turn  to  attack  and 
eat  other  animals,  and  especially  live  worms  and  smaller 
slugs. 

Miiller' s  description  seems  to  be  sufficient  for  the 
identification  of  this  species  with  that  of  Draparnaud 
and  subsequent  authors,  who  have  adopted  the  name  first 
given  to  it.     He  particularly  mentions  its  having  a  white 

*  Bordered. 


LIMAX.  133 

keel,  as  well  as  marginal  streaks  on  the  shield, — although 
he  says  it  inhabits  the  beech,  which  character  is  more 
applicable  to  L.  arborum.  Draparnaud  doubted  whether 
his  species  was  that  of  Midler  because  of  this  difference 
in  the  habitat.  It  is  the  L.  Sowerbii  of  Ferussac  and 
L.  carinatus  of  Risso  and  Leach.  The  shell  is  the 
Limacella  unguiculus  of  Brard. 

The  shield  in  this  species  is  much  smaller  in  proportion 
to  its  body  than  in  L.  g agates ;  and  the  respiratory  orifice 
is  in  the  last-named  species  placed  more  towards  the 
middle  of  the  shield-area.  The  colouring  is  also  dif- 
ferent. 

B.  Shield  concentrically  wrinkled. 

3.  L.  fla'vus  *,  Linne. 

L.flavus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  ed.  x.  i.  p.  652;  F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  19,  pi.  E.  E.  E. 
f.  1. 

Body  slightly  contracted  in  front,  rather  broad  in  the  middle, 
and  tapering  gradually  to  a  point  behind,  yellowish,  speckled 
with  white  and  black  so  as  to  form  a  kind  of  network,  covered 
with  coarse  oval  tubercles :  head  of  a  bluish  colour :  shield 
oblong,  larger  and  more  rounded  behind,  elegantly  grooved  by 
concentric  and  rather  undulating  Hues :  tentacles  bluish ;  the 
upper  pair  rather  short,  the  lower  ones  remarkably  so :  foot 
keeled  towards  the  tail,  margined  with  yellowish- white  ;  sole 
milk-white  :  sli7ne  yellow.     L.  4.    B.  0*75. 

Shell  obliquely  oval  or  quadrangular,  rather  concave  on  the 
under  side,  thin,  crystalhne  and  nacreous,  with  distinct  lines 
of  growth :  boss  shghtly  projecting  behind :  margin  membra- 
nous.    L.  0-3.     B.  0-125. 

Habitat  :  Cellars,  wells,  sculleries,  and  other  damp 
places,  as  well  as  in  moist  woods,  everywhere.  It  is 
also  common  in  the  northern  and  central  parts  of 
Europe. 

*  Yellow. 


134  IIMACIDJE. 

This  kind  of  slug  is  nocturnal,  but  very  active.  Its 
slime  is  abundant  and  stains  linen  of  a  yellow  colour. 
It  appears  to  be  fond  of  bread,  cooked  vegetables,  and  all 
sorts  of  kitchen  refuse. 

It  is  probable  that  the  L.  flavus  of  Miiller  may  be  a 
variety  of  Avion  ater,  because  he  describes  the  shield  as 
not  having  any  concentric  wrinkles,  although  in  the 
same  description  he  also  notices  a  yellow  slug  which 
seems  to  belong  to  the  present  species.  This  is  the 
L.  variegatus  of  Draparnaud ;  and  its  shell  is  probably 
the  Limacella  concava  of  Brard. 

4.  L.  agres'tis  *,  Linne. 

L.  agrestis,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  ed.  x.  i.  p.  652 ;  F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  13,  pi.  D.  D.  D. 
f.  3. 

Body  spindle-shaped,  slender,  ash-grey  with  a  reddish  or 
yellowish  tinge  and  sometimes  mottled,  nearlj^  smooth :  shield 
rather  large,  more  tumid  behind,  the  concentric  striae  more 
remote  and  indistinct  than  in  any  of  the  other  species  :  tentacles 
dark  grey :  hack  obhquely,  but  not  strongly,  keeled  towards 
the  tail:  foot  having  very  pale  sides:  slhne  milky.  L.  1*5. 
B.  0-4. 

Shell  obliquely  oval  or  inclined  to  oblong,  concave  on  the 
under  side,  rather  thin,  with  indistinct  hues  of  growth,  and 
marked  obliquely  by  exceedingly  minute  striae  which  cross 
each  other:  boss  very  small,  slightly  projecting  behind  on  one 
side :  margin  membranous,  rather  broad,  and  obliquely  striate. 
L.  0-2.   B.  0-1. 

Habitat  :  Fields,  gardens,  and  woods  throughout  the 
British  Isles.  The  shell  is  also  one  of  our  upper  tertiary 
fossils.  Its  foreign  distribution  extends  from  Siberia  to 
Corsica  and  Algeria,  and  (according  to  Lowe)  Madeira. 

This  slug  is  a  great  pest  in  the  kitchen  garden,  and 
does  not  even  spare  succulent  leaves  and  roots  of  flower- 
plants.     Mr.  Whiteaves  says  that  it  also  feeds  on  earth- 

*  Inhabiting  fields. 


LIMAX. 


135 


worms.  Its  slime  is  abundant  and  viscous,  feeling  like 
a  lump  of  sticky  fat.  Miiller  states  that  when  it  is 
touched  it  draws  in  its  horns  and  remains  all  day  as  if  it 
were  dead,  but  in  the  evening  it  recovers  itself.  It  is 
extremely  prolific,  producing  several  families,  averaging 
fifty  each,  in  the  course  of  the  breeding-season,  viz.  from 
April  to  November.  According  to  Leuch,  a  German 
naturalist,  a  pair  of  these  slugs  have  been  known  to  lay 
776  eggs.  These  eggs  have  retained  their  vitality  and 
the  young  have  been  developed  from  them  after  having 
been  dried  eight  times  successively  in  a  furnace.  It  has 
the  same  faculty  as  L.  arborwn  of  letting  itself  down 
from  one  branch  of  a  tree  to  another  or  to  the  ground, 
by  means  of  a  slimy  thread.  Mr.  Norman  informs  me 
that  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  year  this  slug  is  usually 
creamy- white  or  light-drab ;  that  as  the  summer  passes 
away  it  assumes  a  darker  hue,  and  brown  flakes  are 
more  or  less  thickly  scattered  over  the  surface;  and 
that  during  the  autumn  it  is  frequently  of  a  rich  brown 
colour.  A  monstrosity  of  L.  agrestis  was  found  by  Mr. 
Gibbs,  having  the  upper  tentacles  united  into  one. 

Lister  first  distinguished  the  field-slug  from  other 
kinds  bv  its  smaller  size  and  the  nature  of  its  slime : 
and  he  also  described  its  shell  by  appropriate  characters. 
This  shell  is  the  Limacella  obliqua  of  Brard. 

5.  L.  ARBORUM  *,  Bouchard-Chantereaux. 

L.  arborum,  Bouch.-Chant.  Moll.  Pas-de-Cal.  p.  28 ;  F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  17, 
pi.  E.  E.  E.  f.  2  (as  L.  arboreus). 

Body  rather  slender,  gelatinous,  sea-green  or  bluish-grey 
with  irregular  yellowish -white  spots,  indistinctly  streaked  with 
a  darker  colour  down  the  sides,  leaving  a  lighter  stripe  in  the 
middle  from  the  shield  to  the  tail,  finely  wrinkled :   shield 

*  Inhabiting  trees. 


136  LIMACID,?:. 

rounded  in  front  and  obtusely  angulated  behind,  the  concentric 
or  transverse  striae  rather  fine,  streaked  lengthwise,  the  middle 
stripe  being  usually  darker  :  tentacles  short,  yellowish-grey  : 
hacTc  distinctly  keeled  towards  the  tail :  foot  having  its  edges 
nearly  white :  slime  colourless.     L.  3.     B.  0-4. 

Shell  squarish-oval,  nearly  flat,  very  thin,  glossy,  and  iri- 
descent, with  minute  nacreous  tubercles  ;  lines  of  growth  in- 
distinct, obliquely  striate  as  in  the  last  species  :  boss  nearly 
inconspicuous  and  subterminal :  margin  broad,  thin  and  mem- 
branous.    L.  0-2.     B.  0-125. 

Habitat:  Trees  (especially  the  beech) ^  as  well  as  among 
rocks  and  under  stones^  both  inland  and  on  the  sea-coast, 
in  most  parts  of  Great  Britain,  from  the  north  of  Zetland 
to  the  Channel  Isles.  According  to  Von  Martens,  it  is 
the  L.  Livonicus  of  Schrenck,  and  inhabits  Russia ;  it 
occurs  in  several  parts  of  Norway;  Bouchard-Chan- 
tereaux  and  Norm  and  have  instanced  localities  in  the 
North  of  Erance,  and  1  have  found  it  in  the  Lower  Harz : 
but  it  has  not  been  noticed  further  south.  It  has  been 
probably  mistaken  for  the  young  of  the  next  species. 

M.  Bouchard- Chantereaux^  who  first  described  the 
tree- slug,  says  that  it  prefers  old  trees,  feeding  on  de- 
cayed wood  and  not  touching  the  leaves ;  and  he  adds 
that  it  is  not  prolific.  He  has  often  seen  the  young 
(which  he  believes  to  be  the  L.  filans  or  spinning-slug  of 
Hoy  and  some  other  English  authors  of  the  last  century) 
spin  its  slimy  thread  and  descend  from  one  branch  to 
another,  but  not  plunging  into  air  (or  taking  what  bathers 
would  call  "  a  header '')  without  apparent  fear  and 
hesitation,  the  sole  of  its  foot  exhibiting  during  the 
descent  a  similar  movement  to  that  which  is  observable, 
while  it  is  crawling  on  the  sides  of  a  glass  vessel.  In  a 
remote  cluster  of  the  Shetland  Isles,  called  the  Out- 
Skerries,  where  I  have  taken  this  slug,  with  my  friend 
Mr.  Norman,  no  trees  exist ;    but  perhaps  it  found  de- 


LIMAX.  137 

caying  seaweed  to  be  equally  palatable.  Its  slime  is 
abundant ;  and  the  animal,  on  being  touched,  yields  a 
fluid  like  clear  water.  Professor  E.  Forbes  found  it 
plentifully,  creeping  on  bare  stones  and  rocks,  at  an 
elevation  of  above  1500  feet,  near  Connor  Cliffs,  above 
Dingle,  in  Kerry.  Mr.  Lowe  observes  that  it  prefers 
walnut-trees.  Mr.  Daniel  informs  me  that  he  has  seen 
this  slug  in  couples  during  the  pairing- season  suspended 
by  slimy  threads  from  the  branch  of  a  tree. 

6.  L.  MAx'iMUS^,  Linne. 

L.  yymximus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  ed.  xii.  p.  108.     L.  cinereus,  F.  &  H.  iv. 
p.  15,  pi.  D.  D.  D.  f.  1. 

Body  rather  slender,  yeUo wish-grey,  but  varying  in  intensity 
of  colour  and  being  sometimes  quite  black,  with  occasionally 
streaks  or  spots  of  black  or  white,  covered  with  numerous  and 
elongated  tubercles,  so  as  to  appear  strongly  wrinkled :  shield 
oblong,  very  tumid,  somewhat  contracted  or  even  pointed 
behind,  distinctly  and  regularly  striate  :  tentacles  (especially 
the  upper  pair)  long  in  comparison  with  those  of  other  species, 
yeUowish-brown  :  bacJc  rounded,  except  close  to  the  tail,  where 
there  is  a  shght  keel :  foot  edged  with  white  :  slime  whitish. 
L.  4-5.     B.  0-75. 

Shell  squarish-oblong,  rather  convex  above  and  nearly  flat 
beneath,  solid,  irregularly  crystalline,  rather  glossy  and  na- 
creous, with  distinct  lines  of  growth,  obhquely  striate  as  in 
the  two  last  species  :  boss  very  small,  placed  near  one  end  :  mar- 
gin  thin  and  membranous.     L.  0*5.     B.  0*325. 

Habitat  :  Woods,  gardens,  hedges,  under  old  logs  of 
wood,  and  nearly  everywhere  in  town  and  country.  Its 
foreign  range  extends  from  Finland  to  Corsica  and 
Algeria,  and  (according  to  Mr.  Lowe)  Madeira. 

This  is  the  largest  species  of  LimaXy  and  sometimes 
exceeds  six  inches  in  length.  It  is  inactive  in  its  habits, 
not  very  prolific,  and  exudes  a  thick  and  glutinous  slime, 

*  Largest. 


138  LIMACID^. 

which  is  iridescent  when  dried.  Its  eggs  are  deposited 
in  a  cluster  and  slightly  attached  to  each  other.  When 
alarmed,  or  at  rest_,  this  slug  merely  draws  its  head  within 
the  shield,  but  does  not  otherwise  contract  its  body. 
When  irritated,  it  is  said  to  expand  its  shield.  It  is 
liable  to  be  infested,  as  well  as  some  of  the  other  slugs, 
by  a  white  parasitic  mite,  called  Philodromus  (or  Acarus) 
limacum,  which  swarms  about  its  body  and,  according 
to  Mr.  Jenyns,  dwells  in  its  respiratory  cavity,  but  which 
does  not  seem  to  cause  the  slug  any  harm  or  incon- 
venience, except  perhaps  in  feeding  on  its  slime  and 
slightly  lessening  the  secretion.  Mr.  Daniel  informs  me 
that  these  slugs  suspend  themselves  in  pairs  during  the 
breeding- season  by  threads  of  slime,  and  that  they  always 
feed  by  night,  but  that  the  variety  cinereo-niger  of 
Nilsson  prefers  terra  firma  to  mid-air  and  keeps  much 
more  respectable  hours.  Like  all  other  slugs  and  snails, 
it  will  soon  eat  its  way  out  of  a  large  pill-box,  or  even  a 
stouter  one  made  of  cardboard,  if  confined  in  it.  The 
shell  or  ossicle  which  is  contained  under  the  shield  was 
known  to  Pliny ;  and  it  was  used  by  the  ancient  phy- 
sicians for  the  sake  of  its  carbonate  of  lime.  The  sub- 
stratum of  this  shell  is  membranous  ;  and  a  layer  of  the 
same  filmy  material  covers  the  upper  surface,  having  the 
appearance  and  character  rather  of  a  periosteum  than  of 
a  Molluscan  epidermis. 

The  young  of  this  species-  may  be  distinguished  from 
L.  arhorum,  among  other  respects,  by  its  upper  tentacles 
being  proportionally  much  longer,  as  well  as  by  the  pos- 
terior margin  of  its  shell  being  more  pointed.  The  shell 
of  L.  maximus  is  also  longer,  more  convex,  and  thicker. 

Miiller  gave  this  species  the  name  of  cinereus,  on  the 
supposition  that  the  L.  maxi7nus  of  Linne  might  be  a 
variety  of  Avion  ater ;  but  the  diagnosis  of  the  great 


LIMAX.  139 

Swedish  naturalist  is  couched  in  the  same  terms  as  that 
of  his  predecessor,  Lister,  who  accurately  distinguished 
the  present  species  from  the  black  slug.  It  is  the  L. 
antiquorum  of  Ferussac ;  and  the  shell  is  the  Limacella 
parma  of  Brard. 

The  L.  brunneus  of  Bouchard-Chantereaux  (F.  &  H. 
iv.  p.  20,  pi.  F.  F.  F.  f.  4)  is,  according  to  Moquin-Tan- 
don,  a  doubtful  species ;  and  it  is  probably  only  one  of 
the  numerous  varieties  of  L,  agrestis.  It  is  rather  local, 
but  appears  to  be  widely  distributed  in  this  country,  from 
Zetland  to  Cornwall.  In  France  its  range  extends 
from  Boulogne  to  the  Pyrenees.  In  Dr.  Gordon^s  ex- 
cellent contributions  to  the  ^  Zoologist  ^  it  is  stated  that 
this  little  slug,  which  is  not  uncommon  in  the  Moray 
Firth  district,  is  the  most  lively  and  fearless  of  its  tribe, 
and  that  when  disturbed,  instead  of  contracting  itself 
into  a  lump,  like  most  of  its  congeners,  it  makes  bold 
and  repeated  efforts  to  escape  from  the  annoyance  and 
crawl  away.  The  only  essential  diff"erence  that  I  can 
detect  between  it  and  L.  agrestis  is,  that  this  slug  is 
smaller  (scarcely  an  inch  in  length  when  crawling),  and 
of  a  uniform  brown  colour;  and  M.  Bouchard-Chan- 
tereaux admits  that  it  is  closely  allied  to  the  latter  species. 
The  original  L.  brunneus  of  Draparnaud  differs  somewhat 
in  colour.  The  British  species  so  called  appears  to  be 
the  L.  parvulus  of  Normand  (Descr.  Lim.  Valencienues, 
p.  8j,  judging  from  his  description. 

The  L.  tenellus  of  Forbes  and  Hanley  (iv.  p.  21,  pi. 
F.  F.  F.  f.  3),  which  they  refer  to  Miiller^s  species  of  that 
name,  can  scarcely  be  considered  as  more  than  provi- 
sionally introduced  into  the  list  of  British  slugs.  Moquin- 
Tandon  reckons  this  also  to  be  a  doubtful  species. 
Miiller  describes  his  L.  tenellus  as  being  ten  inches  long 
(although  this  is  evidently  a  typographical  error) ;  and 


140  TESTACELLIDiE. 

Nilsson  describes  his  species  of  the  same  name  as  being 
equal  in  size  to  L,  flavus ;  while  the  authors  of  the 
^British  Mollusca'  state  that  the  dimensions  of  their 
slug  do  not  exceed  an  inch  and  a  quarter  in  length. 
Miiller,  Draparnaud,  and  Nilsson  also  mention  its 
having  a  greenish  hue,  which  the  British  slug  does 
not  appear  to  have  possessed,  M.  Drouet  says  this 
species  belongs  to  Avion.  A  single  specimen  was  found 
by  Mr.  Blacklock  in  a  wood  at  Allansford,  near  Shortly 
Bridge,  in  Northumberland,  and  by  him  communicated 
to  Mr.  Alder,  who  published  the  discovery  in  the  '  Trans- 
actions of  the  Northumberland  and  Newcastle-upon- 
Tyne  Natural  History  Society.^  It  may  possibly  have 
been  the  young  or  a  variety  of  L.  flavus.  As,  however, 
this  tribe  is  gregarious  or  at  any  rate  individually 
numerous,  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  further  researches  will 
be  made,  so  as  to  settle  the  question  as  regards  not  only 
the  specific  distinction  of  this  slug,  but  also  the  pro- 
priety of  its  admission  into  the  British  fauna. 

Family  II.  TESTACELLID.^. 

Body  cyhndrical,  exceedingly  long  and  flexible  :  mantle  ru- 
dimentary, but  capable  of  being  occasionally  expanded,  gene- 
rally covered  by  the  shell :  other  characters  similar  to  those  of 
Limacidoe,  except  in  a  few  anatomical  particulars. 

Shell  ear-shaped,  with  a  very  small  terminal  spire,  ex- 
ternal, and  occupying  the  same  place  as  the  mantle  in  the  last 
family. 

This  family  comprises  only  one  genus,  viz., — 

TESTACEL'LA*,  Cuvier.     PL  V.  f.  6-9. 

Body  of  a  firm  texture,  with  a  nearly  smooth  skin  :  tentacles 
cylindrical:   labial j^alps  extensible:  foot  margined. 

*  Diminutive  shell. 


TESTACELLA.  141 

Shell  solid :  spire  consisting  of  half  a  whorl :  columellar  fold 
internal,  very  broad. 

This  peculiar  genus  appears  to  form  a  natural  family 
of  itself,  when  viewed  with  respect  to  the  British  Mol- 
lusca  only ;  but  it  is  connected  with  the  Slugs  on  the 
one  hand  through  the  genus  Parmacella,  which  has  no 
representative  in  this  country,  and  on  the  other  hand 
with  the  Snails  through  the  Vitrina  semilunar  of  Fe- 
russac  (also  a  Continental  mollusk),  which  Oken  called  a 
Testacella.  The  Testacella  partake  in  some  degree  of 
the  nature  both  of  a  Slug  and  a  Snail,  having  a  long 
naked  body  and  a  small  shell  placed  near  its  tail.  The 
shell  serves  to  protect  the  heart,  liver,  and  other  vital 
organs.  The  Snail-slug  was  first  made  known  by  the 
celebrated  Reaumur  in  1740  through  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  at  Paris,  in  consequence  of  a  communication 
made  to  him  by  M.  Dugue  from  Dieppe,  and  which  con- 
tains an  excellent  account  of  the  shape,  habits,  and  mode 
of  reproduction  of  this  curious  mollusk.  From  that 
period  down  to  1800,  many  observations  were  made  and 
recorded  in  France  on  the  same  subject ;  but  it  was  only 
in  the  last-mentioned  year  that  Cuvier,  being  struck  by 
the  remarkable  aspect  of  the  shell,  constituted  for  it,  in 
his  '  Lessons  on  Comparative  Anatomy,'  the  genus  Tes- 
tacella. This  name  was  adopted  both  by  Lamarck  and 
Draparnaud  in  1801 ;  but  in  the  following  year  it  was 
erroneously  altered  by  Faure-Biguet  to  Testacellus.  This 
slight  history  of  the  name  is  given  to  prevent  a  con- 
tinuance of  this  mistake,  which  was  adopted  by  Fe- 
russac,  Sowerby,  Gray,  and  other  naturalists.  By  far 
the  most  complete  and  valuable  account,  considered  in  a 
conchological  as  well  as  a  palseontological  point  of  view, 
which  has  been  given  of  this  genus,  is  contained  in  a 


142  TESTACELLID.E. 

monograpli  by  MM.  Gassies  and  Fisclier,  publislied  at 
Paris  in  1856. 

The  Testacella  appears  to  be  the  only  land-mollusk 
which  has  truly  predaceous  habits ;  its  marine  representa- 
tives in  this  respect  being  the  Cuttle  and  the  Whelk.  It 
is  scarcely  inferior  to  the  tiger_,  snake,  or  shark  in  its 
cunning  and  ferocity.  Its  prey  chiefly  consists  of  earth- 
worms, which  it  hunts  underground  and  pursues  through 
their  galleries,  crouching  occasionally  and  making  a 
spring  on  its  \ictim.  It  is  said  that  when  the  poor  worm 
has  had  the  start  of  its  pursuer,  the  Snail-slug  intercepts 
it  by  tunnelling  across  the  line  of  its  retreat.  It  will 
devour  a  lob-worm  much  longer  than  itself,  seizing  it  in 
the  middle;  and  when  the  writhings  have  been  succeeded 
bv  exhaustion,  it  detaches  and  swallows  one  half  of  the 
worm;  and  after  that  has  been  digested,  it  finishes  its 
long  meal  with  the  other  portion.  For  this  purpose  its 
mouth  is  furnished  with  an  apparatus  of  sharp  recurved 
teeth,  which  enables  the  Testacella  to  retain  a  firm  hold 
of  its  victim  and  swallow  it  more  easily.  The  worm  is 
provided  with  some  means  of  defence,  in  the  rows  of  stiff 
bristles  which  encircle  its  rings ;  and  by  contracting  its 
body  a  short  respite  is  occasionally  gained.  But  the 
chance  of  ultimate  escape  or  safety  is  very  slight.  When 
the  Testacella  sees  or  scents  its  prey,  it  glides  softly  and 
cautiously  towards  it ;  and,  apparently  without  taking  any 
notice  of  the  worm,  it  seems  to  feel  its  way,  and  usually 
succeeds  in  fastening  itself  on  an  unprotected  part  of 
the  body  between  the  rings.  The  attack,  if  unsuccessful 
at  first,  is  renewed ;  but  if  the  worm  resists  too  long,  the 
Testacella  gets  impatient,  and  by  pressing  or  doubling 
its  victim  into  the  earth,  by  which  means  the  rings  are 
forced  open,  its  purpose  is  effected  and  the  meal  secured. 


TESTACELLA.  143 

Although  it  also  feeds  on  slugs  and  snails^  and  even  on  its 
own  species  (the  shells  of  which  have  been  found  in  its 
stomach)  J  it  will  not  eat  dead  animals,  and  even  refuses 
pieces  of  a  fresh  worm  which  has  been  chopped  up  to 
feed  it.  It  only  sallies  out  at  night  in  search  of  its  prey, 
burying  itself  deep  in  the  ground  during  the  daytime. 
After  having  gorged  itself  with  a  worm,  it  rests  many 
hours  in  a  half-torpid  state  until  the  meal  has  been  di- 
gested ;  and  it  can  remain  fasting  a  long  time  (as  much  as 
fourteen  or  fifteen  nights)  until  hunger  impels  it  to  make 
a  fresh  hunt.  It  does  not  fear  the  cold,  or  appear  to 
suffer  any  inconvenience  from  it  except  when  the  ground 
is  hardened  by  frost ;  and  in  this  respect  it  resembles  the 
Slugs,  the  Vitrince,  and  some  of  the  Zonites,  all  of  which 
are  nearly  as  carnivorous  and  hardy  as  the  Testacella. 

Gassies  and  Fischer  are  of  opinion  that  the  holes  which 
may  be  sometimes  remarked  in  the  shields  of  the  Limax 
gagates  and  other  Slugs  have  been  made  by  the  Testa- 
cella, for  the  sake  of  extracting  the  calcareous  matter 
from  the  internal  shells  or  Limacella  of  the  Slugs  to 
form  its  own  more  complete  shell ;  and  they  have  noticed 
that  the  Slugs  which  have  been  thus  attacked  soon  die. 
If  the  Testacella  is  taken  fresh  from  the  ground  and  kept 
a  short  time  in  the  hand,  the  warmth  seems  to  revive  it 
and  induce  it  to  crawl  away ;  but  if  its  retreat  is  op- 
posed, it  will  violently  bite  the  skin  and  oblige  the  ex- 
perimentalist to  let  it  go,  from  an  instinctive  feeling'  of 
disgust.  During  cold  northerly  and  easterly  winds  these 
creatures  enclose  their  bodies  in  a  kind  of  cocoon,  like 
that  of  the  silkworm,  which  is  secreted  from  their  skin 
and  often  mixed  with  earthy  and  extraneous  particles. 
Mr.  Norman  has  informed  me  that  in  this  state  their 
mantle  is  expanded  to  such  an  extent  as  to  cover  all  the 
upper  part  of  the  body.     Ferussac  appears  to  have  been 


144  TESTACELLID.E. 

mistaken  in  supposing  that  the  whole  gf  the  body  was 
enveloped  by  the  mantle.  If  this  slimy  pellicle  be  sud- 
denly removed,  the  Snail-slug  is  liable  to  be  attacked  by 
a  disease  which  usually  ends  in  its  death.  Heavy  rains 
destroy  a  number  of  them.  The  average  length  of  life  in 
the  Testacellce  appears  to  be  five  or  six  years.  Their 
smell  is  like  that  of  worms,  but  even  more  nauseous. 
They  chiefly  frequent  gardens,  where  they  are  sure  of 
finding  their  proper  food;  but  they  may  occasionally  be 
met  with  in  woods  near  inhabited  places,  as  well  as  at  the 
foot  of  old  walls.  In  winter  they  bury  themselves  very 
deep  in  the  ground ;  and  my  gardener  once  brought  me 
living  specimens  of  T.  Maugei  which  he  had  dug  up  in 
trenching  some  celery-roots  at  a  depth  of  about  two  feet. 
The  eggs  are  laid  separately,  and  are  very  large  in  pro- 
portion to  the  size  of  the  body.  These  somewhat  re- 
semble hen^s  eggs  both  in  shape  and  consistency,  and 
are  covered  with  a  rather  thick  and  tough  skin.  If  they 
are  taken  out  of  the  earth  and  exposed  to  a  cold  air,  they 
frequently  crack  and  burst  in  pieces  which  fly  ofi"  to  some 
little  distance.  Faure-Biguet  appears  to  have  succeeded 
in  preserving  the  eggs  under  such  circumstances  by 
plunging  them  as  soon  as  taken  into  boiling  water.  It 
is  believed  that  the  Testacella  never  come  to  the  surface, 
except  occasionally  during  the  breeding-season,  but  that 
at  all  other  times  they  live  underground.  Their  eyes, 
however,  are  perfect ;  and  their  horns,  or  tentacles,  are 
rather  long  and  extremely  sensitive.  ' 


TE STAGE LLA.  145 

Testacella  Halioti'dea*^,  Draparnaud. 

T.  haliotidea,  Drap.  Hist.  Moll.  p.  121,  tab.  ix.  f.  12-14.     T.  haliotoidea, 
F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  2d,  pi.  G.  G.  a.  f.  1. 

Body  contracted  towards  the  front  and  somewhat  pointed  at 
the  head,  rather  smaller  in  the  middle,  a  little  broader  behind, 
capable  of  extending  itself  like  a  worm,  with  a  thick  and 
tough  skin,  which  is  smooth  when  the  animal  is  crawling  at  its 
full  length,  but  transversely  wrinkled  when  it  is  at  rest,  yel- 
lowish-brown, sometimes  mottled  or  speckled  with  black,  red, 
or  white :  lips  or  labial  lobes  flexible  and  extensible,  resembling 
a  third  (but  much  shorter  and  thicker)  pair  of  tentacles  :  mantle 
very  small  and  thin,  not  much  larger  than  the  shell :  tentacles 
rather  short,  smooth,  brown,  very  little  swollen  at  their  ex- 
tremities :  eyes  placed  on  the  upper  side  of  the  tentacular  ex- 
tremities, but  not  quite  at  the  end  :  hack  convex,  divided  into 
three  nearly  equal  parts  by  two  longitudinal  grooves  which 
extend  on  each  side  of  it  from  the  front  edge  of  the  shell  to 
within  a  very  short  distance  of  the  tentacles  ;  these  grooves 
have  parallel  offsets  above  and  below,  which  are  finely  rami- 
fied: foot  bordered  with  distinct  and  prominent  edges.  L.  3. 
B.  0-4. 

Shell  oblong,  compressed,  especially  in  the  middle  and  to- 
wards the  front  margin,  solid,  not  glossy,  closely  striate  by 
the  lines  of  growth,  and  sometimes  also  marked  by  a  few  in- 
distinct lines  which  radiate  from  the  spiral  point :  epidermis 
rather  thick :  spire  terminal,  sharp,  and  very  small :  anterior 
margin  rounded  :  posterior  margin  obliquely  truncate  :  lateral 
margins  obtusely  curved :  mouth  exceedingly  large  :  pillar  lip 
thickened  and  slightly  reflected :  fold  flat  and  sharp-edged. 
L.  0-25.    B.  0-15. 

Yar.  scutulnm.  Body  yellowish,  speckled  with  brown.  Shell 
narrower :  spire  more  produced  and  pointed.  Testacella  scu- 
tidum,  Sowerby,  Gen.  Sh.  f.  3-6. 

Habitat  :  Gardens  at  Norwich,  Plymouth,  Bideford, 
Youghal,  andBandoii.  The  variety,  which  was  first  dis- 
covered by  the  late  Mr.  Sowerby  in  his  garden  at  Lam- 
beth, is  not  uncommon  in  many  parts  of  the  metropolitan 

*  EesembUng  a  Hcdiotis  or  ear  shell. 

H 


116  TESTACELLID/E. 

district^  as  well  as  in  Guernsey.  This  species  has  been 
noticed  by  Continental  writers  as  occurring  throughout 
a  great  part  of  France  (principally  in  the  South  and 
South-west^  but  also,  according  to  Collard  des  Cherres 
and  De  PHopital,  in  the  Department  of  Finisterre  and  at 
Caen),  Spain,  Algeria,  Corsica,  Sicily,  Madeira,  and  the 
Canary  Isles.  It  has  also  been  found  in  a  fossil  state 
near  Clermont  and  in  the  South  of  France. 

Whether  this  singular  and  somewhat  anomalous  mol- 
lusk  is  really  indigenous  to  this  country,  or  has  been  in- 
troduced and  acclimatized,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  say. 
The  means  by  which  MoUusca  become  spread  are  various ; 
and  Man  is  one  of  the  unconscious  agents  of  such  diffu- 
sion. A  usual  habitat  of  this  kind  of  Testacella  is  at  the 
roots  of  flower-plants,  or  under  heaps  of  dead  leaves  in 
gardens ;  and  if  a  plant  were  imported  into  this  country 
from  the  botanic  garden  at  Montpellier  with  the  native 
soil  or  a  compost  made  of  leaf-mould,  either  the  Snail- 
slug  or  its  eggs  would  perhaps  accompany  it. 

The  European  Snail-slug  is  by  no  means  prolific,  lay- 
ing only  6  or  7  eggs  from  April  to  July.  During  this 
operation  its  head  and  tentacles  are  drawn  in.  The  eggs, 
when  new-laid,  are  pointed  at  each  end.  The  young  are 
excluded  at  the  end  of  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  days. 
The  slime  is  abundant  and  colourless. 

Mr.  Tapping  described  in  the  *  Zoologist'  for  1856 
(p.  5105)  what  he  considered  a  new  species  of  British 
Testacella,  under  the  name  of  Medii'Templi.  It  was 
found  in  only  one  part  of  the  Middle-Temple  Gardens, 
under  the  shelter  of  a  south-west  waU.  But  his  descrip- 
tion scarcely  differs  from  that  of  the  variety  scutulum ; 
and  Mr.  Norman,  who  has  examined  typical  specimens  of 
the  supposed  species,  informs  me  that  they  belong  to 
that  variety.    The  colour  of  the  body,  as  well  as  the  form 


TESTACSLLA.  147 

of  the  s}iell_,  are  exceedingly  variable  characters  in  this 


genus. 


It  is  the  Testacella  Europcea  of  De  Roissy,  who  pro- 
posed a  change  of  name  in  consequence  of  Lamarck 
havings  a  few  months  previous  to  the  publication  of  the 
*  Histoire  ^  of  Draparnaud,  described  what  was  then  sup- 
posed to  be  the  same  species  under  the  somewhat  similar 
name  of  Haliotoides ;  but  it  now  appears  that  Lamarck^s 
species  is  the  one  which  I  am  next  about  to  notice. 

The  T.  Maugei  of  Ferussac  was  observed  by  the  late 
Mr.  J.  S.  Miller,  the  Curator  of  the  Philosophical  Insti- 
tution of  Bristol,  between  forty  and  fifty  years  ago,  in 
the  nursery-gardens  of  Messrs.  Miller  and  Sweety  near 
that  city,  where  it  is  still  to  be  found  in  considerable 
numbers.  It  has  been  since,  to  a  certain  extent,  natu- 
ralized or  acclimatized  in  this  country,  having  been  ob- 
served in  other  parts  of  Somersetshire,  as  well  as  at  Ply- 
mouth and  Cork.  I  may  add  to  this  list  of  localities  my 
own  garden  at  Norton  near  Swansea,  which  was  occa- 
sionally supplied  with  plants  from  Miller  and  Sweet^s 
nurseries.  It  was  originally  (in  1801)  noticed  as  a  native 
of  Teneriffe;  and  it  appears  to  be  also  indigenous  to 
Madeira,  the  Canary  Isles,  Portugal,  and  the  South-west 
of  France.  A  variety  of  it  (called  T,  Deshayesii  or 
Alta-ripce)  occurs  in  a  fossil  state  at  Haute-Rive  in 
France.  This  species  has  a  smaller  head,  as  weU  as  a 
much  larger  and  more  convex  (almost  semicylindrical) 
shell,  than  T.  Haliotidea.  The  present  spedles  is  more 
prolific  and  gregarious  than  its  congeners.  Mr.  Norman 
has  kept  specimens  of  T.  Maugei y  as  well  as  of  T.  Halio- 
tidea and  its  variety  scutulum,  alive  for  some  time,  and 
has  carefully  watched  their  habits  in  a  state  of  confine- 
ment. He  says  that  the  nest  of  earth  which  T,  Maugei 
makes  for  itself  in  times  of  drought  reminded  him  not  a 

H  2 


118  TESTACELLIDtE. 

little  of  the  cocoon  of  the  Puss-moth.     "VYithin  this  co- 
coon the  Testacella  lies  encysted  until  nioisture_,  working 
its  way  through  the  walls  of  its  dwelling,  rouses  it  again 
into  activity  and  sends  it  forth  in  quest  of  food.     While 
in  the  encysted  state,  a  thin  white  membrane  (a  deve- 
lopment of  the  mantle)  is  extended  from  beneath  the 
shell  and  stretched  over  the  back  and  sides  of  the  ani- 
mal.    An  admirably-designed  protective  shield  is  thus 
formed,  which  checks  evaporation  from  the  surface  of 
the  body,  and  enables  the  flow  of  mucus,  which  is  so 
essential  to  the  life  of  the  animal,  still  to  course  along 
the  lateral  canals  and  thence  be  distributed  through  the 
branching  channels  over  the  entire  surface  of  the  body. 
When  T.  Maugei  is  removed  from  its  cyst  and  the  body 
moistened  with  water,  the  extended  membrane  is  gradu- 
ally retracted  until  it  is  entirely  withdrawn  beneath  the 
shell.     Mr.  Norman  also  remarks  that  the  habits  of  this 
species  resemble  in  many  respects  those  of  the  earth- 
worm, which  (like  the  Testacella)  may  in  times  of  drought 
be  found  coiled  up  in  as  compact  a  mass  as  possible 
within  a  chamber  of  the  baked  soil.     The  T.  Maugei 
has  also  the  power  of  greatly  elongating  and  extending 
the  body,  which  very  much  facilitates  its  passage  through 
the  earth.     The  Testacella  and  its  prey  are  both  noc- 
turnal animals;   and  those  who  wish  to  procure  speci- 
mens should  look  for  them  at  daybreak,  especially  after 
a  warm  dewy  night  in  the  months  of  July  and  August. 
Mr.  Normal   has   had  as   many  as  five  dozen   living 
T.  Maugei  sent  to  him  from  Clifton,  which  were  taken 
in  this  way.     The  eggs  of  this  species  are  large,  oval, 
opaque,  and  covered  with  a  cream-coloured  tough  skin. 
The  shell  is  developed  upon  the  young,  while  still  in  the 
embryo  state. 


HELICID.E.  149 

Family  III.  HELICIDJE. 

Body  long  and  spirally  coiled  :  mantle  covering  the  front  or 
anterior  part :  tentacles  nearly  always  4  (rarely  2  only),  re- 
tractile :  eyes  placed  on  the  tips  of  the  upper  or  single  pair  : 
foot  oblong,  distinct  from  the  rest  of  the  body. 

Shell  spiral,  and  in  almost  every  case  capable  of  containing 
the  whole  body. 

This  family  comprises  the  true  Snails,  and  abounds  in 
species  as  well  as  individuals.  L.  Pfeiffer  described  no 
less  than  1149  species  of  the  typical  genus,  Helix,  in 
1848,  when  his  very  serviceable  Monograph  on  this 
family  was  published ;  and  if  we  add  to  this  list  the  re- 
sult of  subsequent  discoveries  or  reputed  novelties,  as 
well  as  all  the  species  of  Bulimus  and  other  allied  genera 
(which  scarcely  differ  fi'om  Helix,  and  are  only  considered 
distinct  for  the  sake  of  more  easy  classification),  we  can 
form  some  idea  how  exceedingly  numerous  this  family 
is.  Strictly  speaking,  it  only  consists  of  one  genus,  like 
TestacellidcB  ;  and  there  is  rather  a  generic  than  a  family 
resemblance  among  its  members.  The  chief  points  of 
difference  between  the  genera  of  the  present  family  are, 
that  in  Succinea  the  body  is  ordinarily  a  trifle  larger 
than  the  shell ;  in  Vertigo  the  two  lower  or  smaller  ten- 
tacles are  wanting ;  in  Clausilia  the  shell  has  a  reversed 
spire,  and  is  furnished  inside  with  a  small  moveable  pro- 
cess ;  in  Bulimus,  Pupa,  and  Balia  the  spire  is  longer, 
and  in  the  last-mentioned  genus  reversed;  while  in 
Cochlicopa  and  Achatina  the  spire  is  more  produced  and 
the  mouth  of  the  shell  is  channeled  or  notched  at  its  base. 
But  without  some  artificial  classification  of  this  kind  the 
genus  Helix  would  be  too  unwieldy;  and  the  division 
into  subgenera  is  generally  considered  inconvenient,  be- 
cause it  occasions  additional  and  unnecessary  nomen- 


150  HELICID^. 

clature.      The  genera  into  whicli  this   family  may  be 
divided_,  as  regards  the  British  species,  are  as  foUows  : — 

*  Shell  oval,  usually  not  quite  covered  by  the  body.     1.  Src- 

CIKEA. 

**  Shell  globular  or  round,  glassy,  sometimes  covered  in 
part  by  a  lobe  or  expansion  of  the  mantle.     2.  YixRCifA. 

3.    ZONITES. 

***  Shell  shaped  like  the  last,  but  not  glassy,  nor  any  part  of 
it  covered  by  the  mantle.     4.  Helix. 

****  Shell  cylindrical:  mouth  often  furnished  inside  with 
teeth,  and  in  one  genus  also  with  a  moveable  plate.  5.  Bu- 
LiMus.     6.  Pupa.     7.  Vertigo.     8.  Balia.     9.  Clausilia. 

*****  Shell  shaped  Hke  the  last :  mouth  more  or  less  notched 
at  the  base,  and  sometimes  also  toothed.     10.  Cochlicopa. 

11.    ACHATLNA. 


Genus  I.  SUCCrNEA  *,  Drapamaud. 
PI.  VI.  f.  1-3. 

Body  gelatinous,  usually  incapable  of  being  quite  contained 
within  the  shell :  tentacles  4 ;  upper  pair  conic,  lower  pair  very 
short :  foot  large,  oblong-. 

Shell  oval  or  oblong,  thin,  amber-colour :  S2nre  short : 
raoutJi  large. 

The  Amber  Snails  are  allied  to  the  Limncea  in  form 
and  habits,  as  well  as  in  some  respects  to  the  Slugs  and 
the  true  Snails,  or  Helices — showing  that  the  order  of 
Nature  is  not  like  the  steps  of  a  ladder,  but  bears  a 
greater  resemblance  to  chain-  or  net-work,  every  link  or 
mesh  of  which  is  connected  with  the  other.  These  snails 
are  in  a  great  measure  amphibious.  Mr.  Benson  men- 
tions his  having  found  our  common  species  (>S^.  putins) 
creeping  on  stones  under  water  in  an  Irish  lough,  in 
company  with  species  of  Planorbis,  Bythinia,  and  Physa, 

*  Amber-colour. 


SUCCINEA.  151 

althougli  he  had  also  observed  that  an  Indian  species  of 
Succinea  frequented  dry  places  where  no  water  ever 
lodged.  Miiller  says,  however,  that  they  are  no  more 
amphibious  than  Helix  nemoralis,  a  variety  of  which  he 
had  seen  living  many  days  in  a  brook.  Although  the 
Succinece  inhabit  the  banks  of  lakes  and  marshy  places, 
and  may  even,  after  a  flood  of  heavy  or  continued  rain, 
be  seen  under  water,  I  have  noticed  that  they  do  not 
like  remaining  in  it,  but  crawl  out  on  comparatively 
dry  land,  or  climb  up  the  stalks  of  aquatic  plants  and 
willows.  When  they  are  under  water  they  draw  in  their 
tentacles.  They  can  float  on  the  water  in  a  reversed 
position ;  and  in  dry  weather  they  withdraw  themselves 
far  into  the  shell,  covering  up  the  mouth  with  a  mem- 
branous epiphragm  like  the  Planorbis  spirorbiSj  var.  lea- 
costoma.  They  are  vegetable  feeders.  Their  eggs  are 
agglutinated  together  and  deposited  on  the  stalks  and 
leaves  of  aquatic  plants,  as  well  as  upon  stones  at  the 
water's  edge.  Succinea  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the 
world ;  and  the  extent  of  their  variation  is  equally  great. 
Their  shells  may  be  distinguished  from  those  of  Limnceu 
by  the  absence  of  any  fold  on  the  columella  or  pillar. 

1.  Succinea  pu'tris  ^,  Linne. 

Helix  ptctn's,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  ed.  xii.  p.  1249.      S.  putris,  F,  &  H.  It. 
p.  132,  pi.  cxxxi.  f.  4,  5. 

Body  rather  thick,  reddish-yeUow,  closely  covered  with 
small,  flat  and  irregularly- shaped  tubercles  :  tentacles  short ; 
upper  pair  not  much  swollen  at  their  tips,  and  marked  with 
minute  and  indistinct  black  specks :  snout,  or  front  of  the  head, 
large  and  very  tumid :  foot  broad,  nearly  triuicate  in  front, 
triangular  and  slightly  pointed  behind. 

Shell  oval,  very  thin,  semitransparent,  glossy,  of  an  amber- 

*  Frequenting  putridity. 


152  HELICID.E. 

colour  with  often  a  greenish  or  reddish  hue,  finely  but  irregu- 
larly striate  by  the  lines  of  growth,  otherwise  quite  smooth : 
epidermis  rather  thick :  whorls  3-4,  convex,  the  last  occupy- 
ing at  least  four-fifths  of  the  shell :  spire  short,  abrupt  and 
blunt  at  the  point :  suture  rather  oblique  and  deep :  mouth 
oval :  outer  lip  slightly  thickened,  contracted  above,  where  it 
joins  the  columella:  pillar  lip  sharp.     L.  0*6.    B.  0-3. 

Var.  1.  suhglohosa.     Shell  shorter  and  broader  in  proportion 
to  its  length,  usually  much  smaller  and  more  soUd. 

Yar.  2.  vitrea.     Shell  extremely  thin :  spire  smaller. 

Var.  3.  soUdula,     Shell  much  thicker,  reddish-yeUow. 

Habitat  :  On  water-plants  and  other  herbage,  as  well 
as  on  mud,  in  all  sorts  of  moist  places,  from  the  extreme 
north  of  Zetland  to  the  Channel  Isles.  Var.  1 .  Marshes 
and  by  the  side  of  lakes,  on  the  sea-coast  and  in  moun- 
tainous districts.  Var.  2.  Carmarthenshire  (J.  G.  J.) ; 
Cork  (Humphreys).  Var.  3.  Deptford,  Wilts  (J.  G.  J.). 
This  species  is  one  of  our  upper  tertiary  fossils.  Abroad 
it  ranges  from  Siberia  to  Naples ;  and  Captain  Hutton 
has  found  it  in  Afghanistan.  Probably  some  exotic 
species  are  mere  varieties  of  this  widely-diffused  shell. 

It  is  a  sluggish  mollusk,  and  secretes  a  quantity  of 
slime.  The  clusters  of  eggs  are  oblong.  It  hibernates 
early,  and  passes  the  winter  attached  to  stones  by  means 
of  its  epipliragm,  which  resembles  silver-paper.  The 
shell  sometimes  attains  the  length  of  an  inch. 

xVccording  to  the  strict  rules  of  priority,  Klein^s  spe- 
cific name  of  vetula  ought  to  be  adopted  ;  but  it  is  now 
obsolete.  This  name  may  possibly  have  been  derived 
from  an  account  which  was  given  by  Tulpius,  an  ancient 
and  very  learned  physician,  in  his  medical  observations, 
of  a  wonderful  cure  performed  on  an  old  woman  of 
eighty-nine  by  a  dose  of  two  of  these  snails  pounded  up 
alive  ! 


SUCCINEA.  153 

2.  S.  e'legans^,  Kisso. 

S.  elegans,  Eisso,  Moll.  Alp.  Marit.  p.  59,  no.  128.    S.putris,  var.,  F.  &  H, 
iv.  p.  135,  pi.  cxxxi.  f.  1-3. 

Body  thick,  yellowish-brown,  sometimes  nearly  black,  co- 
vered with  minute  round  tubercles  and  clusters  of  black 
specks  :  tentacles  very  short,  yellowish- white  and  transparent, 
streaked  down  the  middle  with  lines  of  black  specks ;  upper 
pair  rounded  at  their  tips  :  snout  round  and  somewhat  tumid  : 
foot  broad,  rounded  in  front  and  behind,  narrower  at  the  tail. 

Shell  oblong,  not  very  thin,  glossy,  scarcely  semitrans- 
parent,  amber-colour  with  a  brownish  or  reddish  hue,  sculp- 
tured like  the  last  species  :  epidermis  rather  thin :  whorls  3-4, 
moderately  convex  but  compressed  towards  the  suture,  the 
last  occupying  about  three-fourths  of  the  shell :  spire  rather 
short  and  pointed  :  suture  remarkably  oblique,  not  very  deep  : 
mouth  oval:  outer  lip  slightly  tliickened  and  considerably  in- 
flected above  :  pillar  lip  sharp.     L.  0*6.    B.  0-25. 

Yar.  1.  minor.  Shell  smaller  and  thinner,  of  a  reddish- 
brown  colour,  with  a  shorter  spire  and  more  expanded  mouth, 

Yar.  2.  ochracea.  Shell  smaller  and  thicker,  also  reddish- 
brown,  with  a  larger  spire  and  smaller  mouth. 

Habitat  :  Similar  situations  and  as  extensively  distri- 
buted as  >S^. /?w^m.  Var,  1.  Falmouth;  Hammersmith 
(J.  G.  J.).  Var.  2.  Scarborough  (Bean);  Newcastle 
(Alder) ;  Tenby  ;  Tingwall  lake,  Zetland  (J.  G.  J.).  The 
last  variety  is  often  mistaken  for  S.  oblong  a.  This  spe- 
cies is  also  one  of  our  upper  tertiary  fossils.  Abroad  it 
is  found  everywhere  between  Finland  and  Sicily.  Ac- 
cording to  Deshayes,  it  inhabits  the  Morea ;  and  Captain 
Hutton  notices  it  as  an  Afghanistan  shell. 

The  present  species  sometimes  occurs  living  with  ;S^. 
putris,  of  which,  on  account  of  the  great  variability  of 
form  which  prevails  in  all  the  species  of  this  genus, 
S.  elegans  has  been  considered  by  some  authors  as  a 
variety.     Each  of  these  species  has,  however,  its  own 

*  Graceful. 

H  5 


154  HELICID^. 

corresponding  variety ;  and  I  am  inclined  to  consider 
them  distinct.  The  species  now  under  consideration 
differs  from  S.  putris  in  the  darker  colour  of  its  body 
and  the  more  slender  shape  of  the  shell,  as  well  as  in 
its  longer  and  more  pointed  spire.  It  forms  a  passage 
through  its  second  variety  from  the  last  to  the  next 
species. 

It  is  the  S.  Pfeijferi  of  Rossmassler,  as  well  as  the 
>S^.  gracilis  of  Alder,  but  not  of  Lea.  M.  Bourguignat 
has  ascertained,  by  a  recent  examination  of  Risso^s  col- 
lection, that  it  is  the  present  species  which  the  celebrated 
naturalist  of  Nice  described  as  S.  elegans ;  and  his  de- 
scription sufficiently  corresponds  with  that  of  Ross- 
massler. 

3.  S.  oblon'ga*,  Draparnaud. 

S.  oblonga,  Drap.  Hist.  Moll.  p.  59,  pi.  iii.  f.  24,  2.5 ;  F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  137, 
pi.  cxxxi  f.  6,  7. 

Body  short,  brown  or  grey  of  different  shades,  with  some- 
times minute  black  spots,  finely  shagreened :  tentacles  rather 
short ;  upper  pair  scarcely  inflated  at  their  tips  :  foot  short  and 
rather  broad,  bluntly  pointed  behind. 

Shell  oblong- oval,  rather  solid,  moderately  glossy,  brownish 
or  reddish-yellow,  with  sometimes  a  greenish  hue,  rather 
strongly  but  irregularly  striate  by  the  hnes  of  growth,  but 
devoid  of  any  other  scidpture :  epidermis  thick :  ivhorls  3-4, 
convex,  the  last  occupying  about  two-thirds  of  the  shell :  sjnre 
prominent,  but  abrupt  and  blunt  at  the  point :  suture  oblique 
and  very  deep :  mouth  roundish-oval:  outer  Zi^j  rather  thick, 
considerably  inciu'ved  on  the  columella :  Inner  lip  sUghtly  re- 
flected.    L.  0-25.     B.  0-175. 

Habitat  :  Dry  ditches,  chiefly  near  the  sea-coast.  It 
is  a  very  local  species  in  this  country.  I  have  found  it 
among  the  sand-hills  on  Crymlyn  Burrows  near  Swan- 
sea, and  in  a  similar  situation  on  Braunton  Burrows 

*  Oblong. 


VITRINA.  155 

near  Bideford  in  North  Devon.  Mr.  Kenyon  is  said  to 
have  found  it  near  Glasgow^  Mr.  M'^ Andrew  at  Balti- 
more^ Mr.  Wright  and  Mr.  Carroll  near  Cork,  and 
Mr.  Waller  discovered  it  among  turf-bogs  at  Finnoe, 
Co.  Tipperary.  The  last  appears  to  be  the  only  inland 
locality.  It  is  not  uncommon  in  our  upper  tertiaries. 
This  species  is  widely  diffused  on  the  Continent  from 
Sweden  to  Lugano ;  and  the  S.  ahbreviata  of  Morelet, 
from  Braganza  in  Portugal,  appears  to  be  only  a  variety 
of  it. 

S.  oblonga  is  unmistakeably  different  from  either  of 
the  foregoing  species,  being  invariably  so  very  much 
smaller  and  having  such  a  large  spire  in  proportion  to 
the  size  of  the  shell,  with  a  deeper  suture  and  a  rounder 
mouth.  I  can  scarcely  regard  the  S.  arenaria  of  Bou- 
chard-Chantereaux  as  even  a  well-marked  variety  of  this 
species.  Most,  if  not  all,  of  the  British  specimens  belong 
to  this  form.  The  greater  solidity  of  its  shell  and  the 
comparatively  shorter  spire  are  probably  owing  to  the 
nature  of  its  habitat.  According  to  Bouchard-Chan- 
tereaux  this  variety  buries  itself  in  the  sand  and  makes 
a  rather  solid  epiphragm.  The  shell  is  usually  covered 
with  a  viscous  slime  or  exudation  from  the  animal,  by 
which  a  slight  coating  of  dirt  is  sometimes  formed. 

Genus  II.  VITRlNA*,  Draparnaud.     PL  VI.  f.  4-6. 

Body  short,  usually  incapable  of  being  quite  contained  within 
the  shell :  mantle  furnished  with  a  supplementary  lobe,  which 
is  extended  over  the  front  of  the  shell  when  the  animal  crawls  ? 
tentacles  4,  cylindrical,  the  lower  pair  very  short :  foot  rather 
narrow. 

Shell  somewhat  globular,  extremely  thin  and  transparent : 
spire  short :  mouth  obUquely  semilunar :  outer  lip  thin :  no 
umbilicus. 

*  From  vitrum,  glass. 


156 


HELICIDiE. 


These  little  Glass-Snails  are  allied  to  the  Slugs  in 
some  of  their  habits^  and  to  the  true  Snails  in  the  form  of 
their  shells,  leading  to  the  former  tlirough  Succinea  and 
to  the  latter  through  Zonites.  Their  food  is  partly  vege- 
table, consisting  of  Jungermannice.  and  decayed  leaves, 
and  partly  animal.  They  are  said  to  attack  earth-worms, 
although  not  in  the  same  way  as  Testacella.  I  once  saw 
no  less  than  seven  individuals  of  V.  pellucida  busily  en- 
gaged in  feeding  on  a  scarcely  dead  worm,  which  was 
faintly  writhing  about  and  endeavouring  in  vain  to  get 
rid  of  its  tiny  assailants.  They  have  also  been  noticed 
eating  horsedung.  They  live  in  moist  and  shady  places, 
but  are  seldom  met  with  until  late  in  the  autumn.  Their 
eggs  are  deposited  in  small  heaps  and  have  a  membranous 
covering.  The  whole  of  the  body  can  be  withdrawn  into 
the  shell.  They  are  very  hardy,  and  capable  of  enduring 
an  extreme  degree  of  cold.  I  have  found  a  variety  of 
the  V.  diaphana  on  the  Rifelberg  near  Monte  Rosa,  at  a 
height  of  between  7000  and  8000  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea,  living  among  perpetual  snows  and  on  ground 
that  never  thaws.  Only  one  species  now  inhabits  this 
country,  although  another  {V.  diaphana)  formerly  did 
so,  as  is  proved  by  its  occurrence  in  our  upper  tertiary 
strata.  This  last  species  has  a  wide  range  over  the  Con- 
tinent, and,  according  to  Potiez  and  Michaud,  inhabits 
the  North  of  France.  It  has  been  observed  on  the 
Vosges  Mountains  at  a  height  of  upwards  of  4000  feet. 
Several  other  species  are  found  on  the  Continent. 

VlTRINA  PELLU'CIDA*,  Miillcr. 

V.  pellucida,  Miill.  Verm.  Hist.  pt.  ii.  p.  15  ;  F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  30,  pi.  cxxxi. 
f.  8-10,  and  (animal)  pi.  I.  I.  I.  f.  2. 

Body  rather  slender,  grey  with  more  or  less  of  a  reddish 

*  Transparent. 


VITRINA.  157 

tinge,  and  having  some  minute  black  specks  on  the  anterior 
part :  foot  yellowish  underneath,  pointed  behind. 

Shell  convex  above,  rather  depressed  below,  exceedingly 
thin  and  brittle,  remarkably  glossy  and  almost  iridescent, 
nearly  transparent,  marked  indistinctly  by  the  lines  of  growth, 
as  well  as  by  close-set  and  very  minute  striae  in  a  spiral  di- 
rection :  eindermis  thin :  whorls  3-4,  convex,  the  last  occu- 
pying more  than  two-thirds  of  the  shell :  sj^ire  extremely  short, 
rising  gradually  to  a  blunt  point :  suture  very  slight,  forming 
a  narrow  groove,  which  is  striate  across  :  mouth  nearly  round, 
except  where  it  is  interrupted  by  the  periphery  of  the  penul- 
timate whorl :  outer  Up  not  very  thin,  nor  inflected  above  : 
pillar  lip  sharp.     L.  0'125.     B.  0*25. 

Yar.  1.  depressiuscida.  Shell  rather  oval  and  flatter  on 
both  sides :  spire  scarcely  raised  above  the  level  of  the  last 
whorl.  V.  Draparnaldi  and  V.  depressa,  Jeffr.  in  Linn.  Trans, 
xvi.  pp.  326,  327. 

Var.  2.  Dillwynii.  Shell  nearly  globular,  with  the  last 
whorl  very  convex :  spire  more  prominent.  V.  Dillwynii, 
Jeffr.  I.  G.  p.  506. 

Habitat  :  Under  stones  and  logs  of  wood,  as  well  as 
among  moss  and  dead  leaves,  in  woods  and  shady  places 
throughout  Great  Britain.  Var.  1.  Neighbourhood  of 
Swansea  and  Plymouth  (J.  G.  J.).  It  approaches  very 
near  to  V.  major  of  the  elder  Ferussac  and  V.  Drapar- 
naldi of  Cuvier,  with  which  I  at  one  time  considered  it 
to  be  identical.  Var.  2.  Sand-hills  near  Swansea,  at 
the  roots  of  Rosa  spinosissima.  The  foreign  range  of 
this  common  species  extends  from  Siberia  to  Sicily. 

This  is  an  active  and  hardy  creature,  and,  whether 
crawling  or  at  rest,  it  seems  always  to  keep  the  outer 
lobe  of  its  mantle  in  motion,  so  as  to  polish  the  shell. 
Bouchard-Chantereaux  says  that  it  does  not  begin  laying 
its  eggs  until  September,  October,  or  November,  and  that 
the  young  attain  their  full  growth  in  from  eight  to  ten 
months.  He  believes  it  does  not  live  longer  than  from 
twelve  to  fifteen  months,  having  always  found  a  number 


158  HELICID.^. 

« 

of  dead  individuals  in  January,  after  tlie  close  of  the 
breeding-season.  Miiller  lias  noticed  that  it  is  most 
lively  during  rain,  and  that  it  does  not  soon  die  if  put  in 
water.  He  added  that  while  it  was  under  water  it  ex- 
tended all  its  body  except  the  tentacles,  which  were 
drawn  in,  and  feigned  death;  that  after  the  lapse  of 
some  hours  it  crept  out  of  the  water  cautiously  and  by 
degrees,  and  if  it  was  not  alarmed  by  the  observer  it 
stretched  out  its  horns,  and  after  crawling  into  some 
place  of  shelter  withdrew  its  body  into  the  shell.  Mr. 
Daniel,  having  collected  both  of  these  species  in  Ger- 
many, informs  me  that  V.  pellucida  is  much  more  gre- 
garious than  V.  diaphana. 


Genus  III.  ZONI'TES*,  De  Montfort.     PI.  VI.  f.  7-9. 

Body  long,  rather  bulky,  but  always  capable  of  being  con- 
tained within  the  shell :  mantle  thick  and  slightly  reflected : 
tentacles  4,  cylindrical,  swollen  or  bulbous  at  the  tips :  foot 
narrow. 

Shell  conical,  usually  depressed,  thin  and  semitransparent, 
extremely  glossy :  sjyire  composed  of  several  whorls :  mouth 
obliquely  semilunar :  outer  lip  thin :  umbilicus  more  or  less 
distinct. 

These  pretty  little  snails  resemble  the  Vitrince  in  the 
bulkiness  of  their  bodies  and  the  glassy  appearance  of 
their  shells,  as  well  as  in  the  structure  and  arrangement 
of  their  dental  apparatus  or  lingual  riband.  The  edge 
teeth  are  hooked  in  the  present  genus  and  Vitrina,  but 
serrated  or  notched  in  Helios.  Their  habits  also  are 
nearly  the  same  as  those  of  the  VitrincBj  being  rather 
zoophagous  than  phytophagous.  They  greedily  devour 
all  kinds  of  animal  food,  whether  fresh  or  putrid ;  and 

*  From  zona,  a  girdle. 


ZONITES. 


159 


they  are  said  even  to  attack  the  larger  snails  and  to  enter 
their  shells  for  that  purpose.  They  frequent  dark  and 
damp  places,  heing  generally  met  with  under  stones,  old 
bricks,  and  logs  of  wood  which  are  partly  buried  in  the 
earth,  as  well  as  under  and  among  dead  leaves  and  moss 
in  woods  ;  and  one  kind  inhabits  cellars,  vaults,  and  wells. 
Some  of  them  give  out  when  touched  or  disturbed  a  fetid 
smell  like  that  of  garlic,  which  may  be  perceived  at  a 
considerable  distance.  Their  eggs  are  laid  in  the  earth 
and  joined  together  in  small  clusters. 


A.  Spire  depressed  :  umbilicus  open. 
1.  ZoNiTEs  cella'rius^,  Miillcr. 

Helix  cellaria,  Miill.  Verm.  Hist.  pt.  ii.  p.  38.     Z.  cellarhcs,  F.  &  H.  ir. 
p.  33,  pi.  cxx.  f.  1-3,  and  (animal)  pi.  H.  H.  H.  f.  3. 

Body  obtusely  rounded  in  front  and  narrowing  gradually 
behind,  nearly  covered  with  small  and  rounded  but  very  flat 
tubercles,  rather  transparent,  slate-colour  or  bluish-grey,  with 
a  faint  tinge  of  yellow  :  tentacles  long  and  slender,  with  very 
large  bulbs  surmounting  the  upper  pair,  bluish  or  yellowish- 
grey,  finely  speckled  with  black:  foot  very  narrow,  pointed 
and  somewhat  keeled  behind. 

Shell  compressed,  nearly  as  convex  above  as  below,  thin 
and  brittle,  very  glossy,  semitransparent,  yellowish  or  brown - 
ish-horncolour  above,  and  whitish  with  often  a  greenish  tinge 
underneath,  irregularly  striate  by  the  curved  lines  of  growth, 
which  are  stronger  near  the  suture,  and  microscopically  stri- 
ate, like  Vitrhia,  in  a  spiral  direction  :  epidermis  rather  thick  : 
whorls  5-6,  dilated,  regularly  increasing  in  size,  the  last  occu- 
pying about  one-half  of  the  shell :  spire  extremely  short  and 
nearly  flat,  almost  central :  suture  slight,  forming  a  narrow 
groove  or  chanuel :  mouth  obliquely  and  deeply  semilunar : 
outer  lip  shghtly  reflected :  wnhilicus  broad  and  deep,  ex- 
posing nearly  all  the  interior  of  the  spire.     L.  0*2.     E.  0*5. 

Yar.  1.  Gomplanata.     Shell  rather  smaller  :  spire  very  flat. 

*  Frequenting  cellars. 


160  HELICID^. 

Var.  2.  albida.     Shell  white  or  colourless. 

Yar.  3.  compacta.  Shell  not  so  white  underneath  :  whorls 
more  convex  and  compact,  the  last  not  being  so  much  dilated  : 
spire  more  prominent. 

Habitat  :  Cellars,  vaults,  drains  and  sculleries,  under 
stones,  loose  bricks,  tiles  and  logs  of  wood  about  houses, 
as  well  as  under  stones  and  fallen  trees  which  have  lain 
long  on  the  ground  in  woods,  everywhere  from  Zet- 
land to  Guernsey,  The  varieties  are  occasionally  found. 
Var.  3  approaches  the  next  species  in  form.  Z.  cellarius 
occurs  in  a  semifossil  state  at  Copford,  Clacton,  and 
Maidstone.  Its  foreign  distribution  extends  from  Fin- 
land to  Algeria  and  Sicily ;  and  Mr.  Lowe  has  recorded 
it  from  Madeira  and  the  Canaries.  Gould  has  described 
it  as  a  North- American  species,  and  says  it  is  the  Helix 
glapjhyra  of  Say ;  but  he  adds  that  it  was  probably  im- 
ported from  Europe  about  water-casks  or  greenhouse 
plants. 

Miiller  has  noticed  the  shy  habits  of  this  snail,  and 
says  that,  when  crawling,  it  alternately  withdraws  one 
of  its  horns  half-way,  although  there  is  no  obstacle  in 
front  of  it,  and  immediately  puts  it  out  again.  Mr. 
Sheppard  remarked  that  it  had  a  very  fetid  smell,  much 
resembling  that  of  the  urine  voided  by  the  common 
snake  se  defendendo,  and  by  which  one  might  frequently 
be  guided  to  the  spot  where  it  lies  concealed.  He  also 
noticed  that  in  some  instances  this  odour  was  not  per- 
ceptible until  the  snail  had  been  immersed  in  boiling 
water.  The  organ  of  smell  must  be  very  acute  in  this, 
as  well  as  all  the  other  species  of  Zonites,  judging  from 
the  size  of  their  tentacular  bulbs,  in  which  this  sense  is 
supposed  to  be  placed.  Its  slime  is  watery  and  abun- 
dant. The  dark  band  which  often  encircles  the  suture 
in  dead  shells  is  owing  to  the  dried  remains  of  part  of 


ZONITES.  161 

the  body  appearing  through  the  shell.  A  specimen  in 
my  collection  has  the  outer  or  last  whorl  marked  by  a 
rufous  band  between  the  suture  and  the  periphery. 

Linne  does  not  appear  to  have  known  this  common 
species.  Much  confusion  has  been  caused  by  the  post- 
humous editor  of  his  '  Systema  Naturae '  (Gmelin)  care- 
lessly changing  the  name  which  Miiller  gave  to  a  differ- 
ent species  of  Helix  from  nitida  to  nitens,  and  applying 
the  latter  name  to  the  present  species.  This  is  the 
Helix  lucida  of  Pulteney^  but  not  of  Draparnaud^  and 
the  H.  nitida  of  the  last-named  author. 

2.  Z.  allia'rius  "^^  Miller. 

Helix  alliaria,  Mill,  in  Ann.  Phil,  new  ser.  iii.  p.  379.  Z.  alUarius,  F.&  H. 
iv.  p.  34,  pi.  cxx.  f.  5,  6. 

Body  resembling  that  of  Z.  cellarius ;  but  it  is  of  a  much 
darker  colour,  and  the  tentacles  are  shorter  in  proportion. 

Shell  more  convex  above  and  less  so  below  than  in  the 
last  species,  rather  more  solid  and  glossy,  of  a  darker  colour 
on  the  upper  side  and  not  so  white  underneath,  sometimes 
marked  with  a  few  indistinct  spiral  lines  :  whorls  5,  rather 
convex,  often  irregularly  coiled,  the  last  not  so  large  in  pro- 
portion to  the  others  as  in  Z.  cellarius :  spire  somewhat  pro- 
duced :  suture  moderately  deep,  but  not  channeled :  mouth 
narrow :  outer  Up  sharp,  slightly  reflected  near  the  pillar : 
umbilicus  open  and  deep.     L.  0"1.    B.  0'275. 

Yar.  viridula.     Shell  greenish- wbite. 

Habitat  :  Under  stones  on  hills  and  open  spots,  as 
well  as  among  sand-hills ;  having  an  equally  wide  distri- 
bution with  the  last  species,  but  more  local.  The  variety 
is  from  Northumberland  (Alder) ;  Kent  (Smith) ;  So- 
merset (Norman) ;  Cork  (Humphreys) ;  Belfast  (Thomp- 
son) ;  Lincolnshire,  Salop,  Zetland,  and  Co.  Tyrone 
(J.  G.  J.).     This  species  is  one  of  our  upper  tertiary 

*  Garlicky. 


162  HELICIDiE. 

fossils.  It  has  been  recorded  by  M.  Grateloup  as  occur- 
ring at  Dax  in  the  Department  of  the  Landes,  and 
by  M.  Terver  at  Lyons  ;  but  it  has  probably  been  passed 
over  in  other  parts  of  Europe  as  a  variety  of  Z.  glaber, 
which  is  not  uncommon  in  France,  Germany,  and  Swit- 
zerland. 

This  snail  has  a  very  strong  and  pungent  smell  of  gar- 
lic, especially  when  it  is  irritated ;  and  I  have  perceived 
it  at  a  distance  of  several  feet  from  the  spot.  Having 
found  living  specimens  under  stones  in  a  bed  of  wild 
garlic,  I  thought  at  first  that  they  might  have  fed  upon 
this  herb  and  thus  acquired  the  peculiar  odour ;  but  I 
afterwards  observed  that  this  scent  was  quite  as  power- 
ful in  specimens  collected  on  an  open  down  where  there 
was  no  garlic.  Mr.  Norman  informs  me  that  the  scent 
varies  in  intensity,  and  is  sometimes  scarcely  percep- 
tible, even  after  considerable  irritation  of  the  animal. 

It  difiers  from  Z.  cellm^ius,  the  young  of  which  it  re- 
sembles, in  the  darker  colour  of  its  body  and  shorter 
tentacles,  as  well  as  in  the  spire  of  its  shell  being  more 
produced,  the  mouth  narrower,  and  the  umbilicus  more 
open.  If  the  two  shells  are  held  sideways,  with  the 
mouth  towards  the  observer,  the  last  whorl  of  Z.  cella- 
rius  will  appear  deeper  than  in  the  other  shell. 

There  has  been  much  controversy  among  Continental 
writers  as  to  whether  this  species  is  distinct  from  the 
HelLv  glahi^a  of  Studer.  I  incline  to  the  opinion  of 
Schmidt,  that  thev  are  different.  One  test  mentioned 
by  this  author  in  support  of  his  view  is  rather  curious, 
viz.  that  Z.  allim'ius  wants  the  bitter  flavour  of  the  other 
species  !  I  much  doubt  if  all  conchologists  would  relish 
making  such  experiments. 


ZONITES.  163 

3.  Z.  NiTi  DULUs  *,  Draparnaud. 

Helix  nitidula,  Drap,  Hist.  Moll.  p.  117.     Z.  nitidulus,  F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  36, 
pi.  cxx.  f.  8-10. 

Body  dark-grey  or  slate-colour,  with  a  brownish  tinge, 
covered  with  flat  and  irregularly-shaped  tubercles  of  a  darker 
hue,  which  give  a  speckled  appearance :  tentacles  rather  short 
and  conical ;  bulbs  small :  foot  rather  narrow  in  front,  swollen 
and  keeled  behind. 

Shell  compressed,  more  convex  above  than  below,  thin, 
moderately  glossy,  scarcely  semitransparent,  brown  or  yel- 
lowish-horncolour  above,  whitish  underneath,  especially  about 
the  umbilicus ;  sculptured  as  in  Z.  cellarius,  but  having  the 
spiral  striae  more  regular  and  distinct :  epidermis  rather  thick  : 
whorls  4^b,  convex  and  rounded,  the  last  occupying  rather 
more  than  one-half  of  the  shell :  spire  slightly  raised,  nearly 
central :  suture  rather  deep  :  mouth  round,  except  where  it  is 
interrupted  by  the  periphery  of  the  penultimate  whorl :  outer 
lip  not  so  obliquely  set  as  in  the  last  species,  nor  reflected  : 
umbilicus  very  broad  and  deep,  fully  exposing  the  interior  of 
the  spire.     L.  0-15.    B.  0-33. 

Var.  1.  nitens.  Shell  rather  smaller  and  of  a  lighter  colour, 
with  a  dull  and  waxy  appearance ;  last  whorl  somewhat  larger 
in  proportion  to  the  others  and  laterally  expanded.  Helix 
nitens,  Michaud,  Compl.  Drap.  p.  44,  pi.  xv.  f.  1-5. 

Var.  2.  Helmii.  Shell  resembling  that  of  the  above-men- 
tioned variety,  but  of  a  pearl-white  colour.  Helix  Helmii, 
GUbertson's  MS. 

Habitat  :  Under  stones  and  among  dead  leaves,  moss, 
and  herbage  in  woods,  hedge-banks,  and  elsewhere  in 
this  country,  from  the  Moray  Firth  district  to  Guernsey. 
Var.  1.  South  Wales,  West  coast  of  Scotland,  and  many 
other  places.  This  variety  is  more  widely  diffused  than 
the  typical  form,  which  is  not  uncommon  on  the  banks 
of  the  Thames  near  London  and  seems  to  prefer  watery 
places,  like  Z.  nitidus.  Var.  2.  Preston  (Gilbertson)  ; 
Sevenoaks,  Kent  (Smith).     This  species  is  one  of  our 

*  Rather  glossy. 


164  HELICID^. 

upper  tertiary  fossils.  On  the  Continent  it  ranges  from 
Russia  to  the  Pyrenees,  and  the  variety  nitens  extends 
also  to  Sicily. 

It  is  a  shy  animal  and  delights  in  dark  places,  being 
sometimes  found  underground  at  a  depth  of  some  inches 
where  the  earth  is  loose.  Its  flesh  is  of  a  rather  firm 
consistency,  and  its  slime  is  watery  and  abundant.  It 
does  not  emit  any  offensive  smell. 

The  shell  differs  from  that  of  Z.  cellar ius  in  being 
smaller,  and  in  having  one  whorl  less,  the  spire  more 
raised,  and  a  much  larger  and  deeper  umbilicus.  Its 
surface  is  also  much  less  glossy. 

I  cannot  recognize  anything  more  than  a  varietal 
distinction  between  the  Helix  nitidula  of  Draparnaud  and 
the  H,  nitens  of  Michaud,  which  are  regarded  by  Conti- 
nental authors  as  different  species.  This  last  is  not  the 
H.  nitens  of  Gmelin  or  of  Maton  and  Rackett.  The 
variety  Helmii  is  H.  nitens,  var.  albina,  of  Moquin-Tan- 
don,  which  I  have  found  near  Lausanne. 

4.  Z.  pu'rus  *,  Alder. 

Helix  pura,  Aid.  Cat.  Northumb.  Moll.  p.  12.     Z.  purns,  F.  &  H.  iv. 
p.  37,  pi.  cxxi.  f.  5,  6. 

Body  yellowish-grey  or  whitish,  with  fine  black  specks  and 
close-set  tubercles,  slightly  transparent :  tentacles  very  long 
and  nearly  cylindrical ;  bulbs  small :  foot  very  narrow,  slightly 
pointed  in  front  and  rounded  behind. 

Shell  compressed,  rather  more  convex  above  than  below, 
very  thin,  not  very  glossy  but  somitransparent,  light  horn- 
colour,  with  a  yellow  or  reddish  tinge  on  the  upper  side,  ex- 
quisitely sculptured  transversely  by  numerous  curved  striae, 
and  spirally  by  still  finer  and  almost  microscopic  lines,  the 
intersection  of  which  gives  the  surface  a  reticulated  appear- 
ance :  epidermis  thin  :  vjhorls  4,  convex,  but  dilated  laterally, 

*  Clear. 


ZONITES.  165 

the  last  occupying  scarcely  one-half  of  the  shell :  spire  slightly 
raised :  suture  moderatel}'  deep,  puckered  by  the  lines  of 
growth :  mouth  nearly  round  and  not  much  interrupted  by 
the  penultimate  whorl :  outer  lip  not  very  oblique  :  umbilicus 
rather  narrow,  but  deep,  disclosing  all  the  internal  spire. 
L.  0-075.    B.  0-15. 

Var.  margaritacea.  Shell  pearl-white  and  nearly  trans- 
parent. 

Habitat  :  Among  dead  leaves  and  moss  in  woods 
throughout  the  greater  part,  if  not  the  whole,  of  Great 
Britain  from  the  Moray  Firth  district  to  Cornwall,  as 
well  as  in  Ireland,  but  more  local  and  less  common  than 
the  last  species.  The  variety  is  equally  diffused.  This 
species  is  one  of  our  upper  tertiary  fossils.  Gerstfeldt, 
as  well  as  Middendorff,  has  recorded  its  occurrence  in 
East  and  West  Siberia;  and  other  writers  have  given 
Scandinavian,  German,  French,  and  Swiss  localities  for 
it.  I  found  it  in  tolerable  plenty  at  Alexisbad  and  else- 
where in  the  Lower  Harz  and  also  near  Lausanne. 

Its  habits  are  almost  subterranean,  and  in  other  re- 
spects resemble  those  of  Z.  nitiduJus,  with  which  it  is 
often  found,  and  from  which  it  differs  in  its  much  smaller 
size,  the  delicate  form  and  sculpture  of  its  shell,  and  the 
umbilicus  not  being  so  large  in  proportion.  According 
to  L.  PfeifFer,  it  is  the  Helix  Hammonis  of  Strom,  which 
was  found  at  Trondjhem  and  published  in  1765;  but 
Miiller  has  referred  it  to  Z.  nitidus.  Judging  from  the 
description  and  figure  given  by  Gould  (in  the  '  Inverte- 
brata  of  Massachusetts,^  p.  183,  f.  Ill)  of  his  Helioc 
electrina,  I  cannot  agree  with  L.  Pfeiffer  in  considering 
that  species  identical  with  the  present,  either  as  regards 
form  or  sculpture;  and  the  habits  of  each  species  are 
quite  different. 


166  HELICID^. 

5.  Z.  radia'tulus*,  Alder. 

Helix  radiatula,  Aid.  Cat.  Northumb.  Moll.  p.  13.    Z.  radiatulus,  F.  &  H. 
iv.  p.  38,  pi.  cxxi,  f.  1 . 

Body  dark  horncoloiir :  tentacles  nearly  black,  the  upper 
ones  very  slender  and  the  lower  pair  short :  foot  exceedingly 
narrow,  pointed  behind,  its  sides  marked  \^dth  minute  black 
specks. 

Shell  compressed,  equally  convex  on  both  sides,  very  thin, 
remarkably  glossy,  semitransparent,  dark  horncolour,  distinctly 
and  beautifully  marked  across  the  whorls  on  the  upper  side  by 
strong  curved  and  close-set  striae  which  reach  the  suture,  the 
under  side  being  also  marked,  but  less  distinctly,  by  similar 
striae  :  epidermis  thin  :  vjhorJs  41,  convex,  and  very  little  di- 
lated laterally,  the  last  occupying  rather  less  than  one-half  of 
the  shell :  sjnre  slightly  raised  :  suture  moderately  deep  :  mouth 
nearly  round,  sometimes  thickened  inside  by  a  broad  but  slight 
white  rib :  outer  lip  scarcely  oblique  :  umbilicus  narrow,  but 
rather  deep,  disclosing  all  the  internal  spire.  L.  0*075.  B.  0*15. 

Var.  viridescenti-alha.     Shell  greenish-white. 

Habitat  :  Under  stones,  logs  of  wood,  dead  leaves, 
and  moss  in  woods,  from  the  Moray  Firth  district  to 
Dorset.  The  variety  is  from  Shropshire,  Co.  Cork,  and 
Co.  Tyrone  (J.G.J.) ;  Belfast  (Thompson).  This  species 
is  one  of  our  upper  tertiary  fossils.  Malm  has  recorded 
it  as  a  Swedish  shell,  Scholtz  as  Silesian,  Moquin-Tan- 
don  and  others  from  different  parts  of  France,  Stabile 
from  Lugano,  and  myself  from  the  Lower  Harz  and 
Switzerland. 

This  little  moUusk  is  less  shy  and  inactive  than  Z. 
purus,  and  usually  frequents  moister  places.  It  re- 
sembles that  species  in  the  size  and  form  of  the  shell ; 
but  the  peculiar  sculpture,  more  glossy  appearance,  and 
narrower  umbilicus  of  the  present  species  will  easily 
serve  to  distinguish  it  from  Z.  purus. 

*  Slightly  rayed. 


ZONITES.  167 

It  is  the  Helix  nitidula,  var.  P,  of  Draparnaud,  as  well 
as  the  H.  nitidosa  of  Ferussac  and  H.  str'iatula  of  Gray ; 
but  both  these  latter  names  were  nnaccompanied  by  de- 
scriptions. The  H.  striatula  of  Linne,  Miiller^  and  Olivi 
are  different  from  that  of  Dr.  Gray  and  from  each  other. 

6.  Z.  ni'tidus*^  Miiller. 

Helix  nitida,  Miill.  Yerm.  Hist.  pt.  ii.  p.  32.    Z.  nitidus,  F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  39, 
pi.  cxx.  f.  4, 7. 

Body  strongly  truncate  in  front,  bluish-black  or  dark- 
brown,  covered  with  large  round  flat  tubercles  which  are  in- 
terspersed with  a  few  minute  milk-white  specks  :  snout  small, 
short,  broad,  and  tumid ;  tentacles  rather  thick  and  short ; 
bulbs  globular:  foot  obtusely  rounded  in  front,  narrow  and 
somewhat  keeled  behind. 

Shell  semiglobular,  much  more  convex  above  than  below, 
not  very  thin,  but  glossy  and  semitransparent,  chocolate- 
brown,  marked  transversely  by  numerous  curved  striae  which 
are  stronger  and  puckered  towards  the  suture,  and  very  finely 
granulated  under  the  microscope :  epidermis  rather  thin : 
whorls  5,  convex,  the  last  occupying  about  one-half  of  the 
shell :  spire  somewhat  prominent,  with  a  blunt  point :  suture 
deep  :  mouth  round,  except  where  the  penultimate  whorl  con- 
tracts it :  outer  lip  rather  obliquely  set,  thin,  and  reflected  near 
the  pillar :  lonbilicus  narrow,  but  deep,  exposing  all  the  interior 
of  the  sphe.     L.  0*1.   B.  0-275. 

Var.  alhida.     Shell  white  or  colourless. 

Habitat  :  Under  loose  stones  and  decayed  wood,  as 
well  as  at  the  roots  of  grass  and  on  mud  in  bogs  and 
moist  places,  from  the  North  of  Scotland  to  Guernsey. 
Specimens  of  the  variety  were  found  by  Mr.  Choules 
among  the  rejectamenta  of  the  Thames  at  Richmond. 
Although  dead  shells,  they  have  not  become  bleached 
by  exposure  to  the  sun.  A  monstrosity  also  sometimes 
occurs,  in  which  the  whorls  are  slightly  disunited,  as  in 

*  Glossy. 


168  HELICID.E. 

Z,  alliarius.  This  species  is  one  of  our  upper  tertiary 
fossils.  Its  foreign  range  extends  from  the  North  of 
Russia  to  Corsica  and  Algeria,  through  all  the  inter- 
mediate countries. 

Nothing  appears  to  be  known  as  to  the  habits  of  this 
snail,  except  that  it  is,  like  its  congeners,  of  an  inactive 
or  sluggish  nature  and  that  it  forms  a  slight  epiphragm 
during  the  heat  of  summer. 

The  shell  differs  from  that  of  Z.  radiatulus  (which  it 
somewhat  resembles)  in  its  much  larger  size,  more  pro- 
minent spire,  the  last  whorl  not  being  so  large  in  propor- 
tion, and  the  striae  being  very  much  slighter. 

Gmelin  made  one  of  his  usual  blunders  in  changing 
the  name  which  Miiller  gave  this  species  to  nitens ;  and 
Draparnaud,  apparently  without  any  reason,  substituted 
in  his  '  Histoire  ^  a  new  name  [lucida)  for  the  correct 
one  which  he  had  pre\iously  given  in  his  '  Tableau.^ 

7.  Z.  ExcAVATus*,  Bean. 

Helix  excavata,  Bean,  in  Alder's  Cat.  North.  Moll.  p.  13.     Z.  excavatus, 
F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  40,  pi.  cxxi.  f.  2-4. 

Body  lead-coloured  (Alder). 

Shell  compressed,  more  convex  on  the  upper  than  the 
lower  side,  glossy,  semitransparent,  light-brown  or  tawny, 
strongly  and  deeply  striate  in  the  line  of  growth  :  epidermis 
rather  thin :  ivhorls  5^,  convex  and  nearly  cylindrical,  the  last 
occupying  not  much  more  than  one-thu'd  of  the  shell :  sjoire 
slightly  prominent :  suture  very  deep  :  7noutJi  round,  except 
where  it  is  interrupted  by  the  penultimate  whorl,  somewhat 
compressed  below  :  outer  lip  as  in  the  last  species :  umbilicus 
broad  and  deep,  exposing  all  the  internal  spire.  L.  0*085. 
B.  0-225. 

Var.  vitrina.  Shell  greenish-white,  transparent.  Helix  vi- 
trina,  Fer.  Tabl.  Syst.  p.  45.  If.  viriduJa,  Menke,  Syn.  Moll. 
p.  20. 

*  Hollowed -out. 


ZONITES.  169 

Habitat  :  Under  fallen  trees  and  among  dead  leaves 
and  moss  in  sliady  woods.  The  tract  of  country  over 
which  it  is  diffused  comprises  the  South  and  South-west 
of  Scotland,  North  of  England,  West  and  South  of 
Ireland,  North  and  South  Wales,  Isle  of  Wight,  and 
Cornwall ;  but  it  is  a  local  species.  The  variety  is  from 
South  Wales,  Cork,  and  Connemara. 

This  species  has  been  considered  peculiar  to  Great 
Britain,  and  to  be  the  only  land-shell  which  does  not 
inhabit  any  other  part  of  the  world ;  but  I  have  reason  to 
believe  that  the  greenish- white  variety  is  the  Helix  vi- 
trina  of  Ferussac,  as  well  as  the  H.  viridula  of  Menke,  H. 
petronella  of  Charpentier,  and  probably  also  the  H.  clara 
of  Held.  In  the  ^  Malakozoologische  Blatter  ^  for  1858 
will  be  found  a  critical  dissertation  by  Von  Wallenberg  on 
the  Helix  viridula  of  Menke  compared  with  Z.  purus,  in 
which  the  author  showed  that  these  were  quite  different 
species ;  and  I  can  answer  for  the  identity  of  Z.  exca- 
vatus  var.  vitrina  (or  viridula)  with  the  H.  petronella  of 
Charpentier,  having  found  specimens  of  the  latter  on  the 
Corner  glacier  in  Switzerland  at  a  height  of  about  7000 
feet  above  the  sea-level,  and  afterwards  compared  them 
with  the  types  in  Charpentier^s  collection  at  Devens 
while  I  was  on  a  visit  to  that  eminent  naturalist.  In  a 
letter  which  is  now  before  me  from  the  late  M.  Char- 
pentier, dated  28th  August,  1854,  he  says  the  H.  vi- 
trina  of  Ferussac  (but  not  that  of  Wagner,  which  is  a 
Brazilian  species)  is  identical  with  his  own  H.  petronella^ 
and  that  it  is  very  different  from  H.  radiatula,  with  which 
it  has  only  a  slight  relation  in  respect  of  the  striae.  Fe- 
russac did  not  give  any  description  of  his  species.  Instead 
therefore  of  the  present  species  being  exclusively  British, 
it  likewise  appears  to  inhabit  Lapland,  Finland,  Ger- 
many, and  Switzerland.     The  publications  of  Alder  and 

I 


170  HELICID^. 

Menke  having  been  made  in  the  same  year,  I  trust  T  may 
be  pardoned  in  indulging  a  patriotic  feeling  and  giving 
the  precedence  to  my  own  countryman,  especially  as  the 
name  proposed  by  Menke  designates  a  variety  and  not 
the  species. 

It  differs  from  its  nearest  ally,  Z.  nitiduSy  in  its  less 
prominent  spire,  more  compact  whorls,  much  stronger 
striae,  deeper  suture,  and  more  open  umbilicus. 

8.  Z.  crystal'linus*,  Miiller. 

Helix  crystallina,  Miill.  Verm.  Hist.  pt.  ii.  p.  23.    Z.  crystalUnus,  F.  &  H. 
iv.  p.  41,  pi.  cxxii.  f.  1,  2. 

Body  clear  greyish- white,  nearly  transparent:  tentacles  rather 
short ;  upper  pair  ebony-black,  coloured  by  the  retractor  nerve ; 
lower  pair  grey  :  foot  narrow,  pointed  behind,  whitish. 

Shell  depressed,  more  convex  below  than  above,  thin,  very 
glossy  and  iridescent,  transparent,  greenish-white  or  hyahne 
like  glass,  very  finely  and  closely  striate  transversely,  espe- 
cially towards  the  suture  :  epidermis  very  thin  :  whorls  4^5, 
rather  convex,  but  compressed  outwards,  increasing  gradually 
in  size :  spire  not  much  raised :  suture  slight,  but  distinct : 
7nouth  semilunar,  sometimes  strengthened  inside  by  a  slight 
<rib,  which  is  seen  through  the  shell :  outer  lip  obhquely  set, 
very  thin :  umbilicus  narrow  and  only  exposing  a  small  part 
of  the  penultimate  whorl.     L.  0*065.   B.  0*125. 

Var.  complanata.  Shell  nearly  flat  on  both  sides  ;  the  last 
whorl  proportionally  larger  than  the  others. 

Habitat  :  Under  stones  and  decayed  pieces  of  wood, 
as  well  as  among  dead  leaves  and  moss,  in  woods  and 
shady  places,  from  the  Moray  Firth  district  to  Guernsey. 
The  variety  w^as  found  by  me  in  Leigh  Woods  nearBristol. 
This  species  is  one  of  our  upper  tertiary  fossils.  Its 
foreign  distribution  is  very  extensive,  and  ranges  from 
Finland  to  Algeria  and  Sicily,  as  well  as  to  Madeira  and 
the  Azores. 

*  Like  crystal. 


ZONITES.  171 


This  exquisite  little  shell  was  first  noticed  as  British 
by  Dr.  Gray  in  the  ^  Medical  Repository  ^  for  1821. 


B.  Shell  conical,  having  a  sHght  depression  and  perforation 

instead  of  an  nmbilicus. 

9.  Z.  FULvus*  Miiller. 

Helix  fulva,  Miill.  Yerm.  Hist.  pt.  ii.  p.  56 ;    F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  75,  pi.  cxviii. 
f.  8,  9. 

Body  dark-grey  or  slate- colonr,  with  very  fine  black  specks : 
tentacles  very  long;  bulbs  globnlar:  foot  rounded  in  front, 
pointed  and  keeled  behind,  having  some  scattered  milk-white 
specks  on  the  sole  or  under  part. 

Shell  pyramidal,  thin,  glossy  and  semitransparent,  horn- 
colour  or  tawny,  finely  but  irregularly  striate  in  the  line  of 
growth,  and  marked  spirally  with  close  microscopical  hues, 
which  are  more  distinct  and  regular  at  the  base :  epidermis 
very  thin  :  wliorls  5  \,  cylindrical,  increasing  gradually  in  size : 
periphery  obtusely  keeled :  spire  very  prominent,  but  blunt : 
suture  deep :  mouth  semilunar,  compressed  and  narrow :  outer 
lip  curved,  but  not  oblique,  refiected  on  the  pillar :  umhilicus 
consisting  of  a  slight  indentation,  with  sometimes  a  small  hole. 
L.  0-1.   B.  0-1. 

Var.  Mortoni.  Shell  of  a  paler  colour,  with  the  spire  more 
depressed  and  peripheral  keel  sharper.  Helix  Moi'toni,  Jeffr. 
in  Linn.  Trans,  xvi.  p.  332. 

Habitat  :  Under  decayed  wood,  leaves,  and  stones  in 
shady  woods  and  marshy  places,  from  the  Moray  Firth 
district  to  the  South  of  England,  as  well  as  all  over  Ire- 
land. Specimens  collected  in  dry  situations  are  much 
larger  than  those  which  are  found  in  wet  moss.  The 
variety  is  from  Somerset  and  North  Hants.  This  species 
is  one  of  our  upper  tertiary  fossils.  Its  foreign  range 
extends  from  Siberia  to  Sicily,  as  weU  as  to  the  Azores. 
According  to  Philippi,  it  is  the  same  species  as  the  Helix 

*  Tawiiy. 

I  2 


172  HELlCIDi*:. 

Chersina  of  Say,  which  inhabits  Georgia  and  a  consider- 
able tract  of  North  America. 

It  is  the  Helix  Trochiformis  of  Montagu.  In  all 
probability  the  adult  specimen  from  which  Miiller  de- 
scribed his  Helix  fulva  was  the  H.  edentula  of  Draparnaud 
or  the  H.  bidens  of  Chemnitz,  both  of  which  have  a  white 
keel  and  lip,  as  noticed  by  Miiller  in  his  description. 
The  last-mentioned  species  is  Scandinavian  as  well  as 
French,  and  is  closely  allied  to  H.  edentula.  In  the 
present  species  neither  the  keel  nor  lip  is  white. 

This  species  forms  a  passage  to  the  next  genus.  Helix, 


Genus  IV.  HE'LIX^S  Linne.     PI.  VI.  f.  10,  11. 

Body  rather  long,  always  capable  of  being  contained  within 
the  shell :  mantle  thick,  shghtly  cloven  on  the  under  side  : 
tentacles  4,  cylindrical,  more  or  less  swollen  or  bulbous  at  the 
tips  :  foot  in  most  species  broad. 

Shell  conical,  not  very  glossy  :  spire  usually  produced,  rarely 
depressed  or  flat :  mouth  forming  an  obUque  segment  of  a  circle, 
which  differs  in  size  according  to  the  degree  in  which  it  is  in- 
tersected by  the  penultimate  whorl :  outer  lip  sometimes  thin, 
but  more  frequently  strengthened  by  an  internal  rib  or  re- 
flected, in  some  cases  furnished  with  tooth-like  tubercles 
which  contract  the  mouth  :  umhilicus  usually  distinct  and  more 
or  less  open,  but  in  a  few  species  quite  closed  or  wanting,  ex- 
cept in  the  young  state. 

This  genus  comprises  all  the  true  Snails.  They  are 
for  the  most  part  vegetarians ;  but  they  occasionally  show 
a  preference  to  animal  food,  both  raw  and  cooked — being, 
like  Man,  omnivorous.  Every  wood,  hedge-bank,  old 
wall,  field,  and  garden  yields  some  kinds;  while  others 
frequent  mountains,  water-sides,  open  plains,  and  sand- 
downs  near  the  sea.     Most  of  them  prefer  shade  and 

*  A  coil. 


HELIX.  173 

moisture ;  but  some  delight  to  bask  in  the  sun^s  rays^ 
and  protect  their  soft  and  tender  bodies  from  the  heat 
by  forming  an  epiphragm  or  film  that  covers  the  mouth 
of  the  shell.  They  would  soon  perish  if  the  secretion 
of  slime  were  checked.  Their  habits  are  nocturnal  or 
crepuscular;  and  they  are  seldom  met  with  crawling 
about  m  the  daytime,  unless  in  wet  weather  or  after  a 
lieavy  shower  of  rain.  Before  the  sun  has  fully  risen 
they  retire  to  their  lurking-places  and  hasten  to  conceal 
themselves  under  stones  or  logs  of  wood,  among  dead 
leaves,  at  the  roots  of  grass,  in  the  bark  of  trees,  or  in 
the  chinks  and  crevices  of  rocks  and  walls.  Some  of 
them,  which  have  no  such  place  of  shelter  to  resort  to, 
attach  themselves  to  the  stalks  of  grass  or  leaves  of  trees 
and  other  herbage,  by  means  of  a  secretion  like  that  of 
which  the  epiphragm  is  formed.  During  the  pairing- 
season  they  are  furnished  with  crystalline  darts  which 
they  shoot  at  each  other,  after  preliminary  coquettings, 
increasing  this  mutual  excitement  by  long-continued 
caresses  with  their  horns.  These  curious  love- weapons 
have  been  observed  sticking  in  the  bodies  of  snails  after 
such  conflicts.  They  are  contained  in  a  special  pouch 
or  receptacle  ready  for  use,  and  are  peculiar  to  the  pre- 
sent genus.  Their  shape  varies  according  to  the  species. 
In  some  species  each  individual  has  only  one  of  these 
missiles,  in  others  two;  and  a  few  species  have  none 
at  all.  The  eggs  of  the  Helices,  which  are  usually  round 
and  united  in  a  cluster,  are  laid  underground,  in  short 
and  slanting  galleries  which  the  mother  snail  excavates 
in  the  moist  or  loose  earth  with  her  foot.  The  tentacles 
of  these,  as  well  as  of  all  other  land- snails,  are  with- 
drawn in  the  same  manner  as  the  fingers  of  a  glove 
turned  inside  out. 

The  present  genus,  as  restricted  by  some  conchologists, 


174  HELICID^. 

only  comprises  those  species  which  are  more  or  less 
globular  and  have  usually  a  semilunar  mouth.  But  the 
line  of  demarcation  seems  to  have  been  drawn  close 
enough  when  it  excluded  those  species  having  turreted 
shells,  such  as  the  Bulimi,  which  only  differ  from  some 
of  the  Helices  in  the  spire  being  a  little  more  produced. 
The  number  of  British  Helices  is  not  sufficiently  large 
to  justify  the  artificial  separation_,  by  some  conchologists, 
of  a  few  species  which  have  a  depressed  spire  and  a 
more  or  less  complete  peristome,  under  the  generic 
titles  of  Carocolla  or  Chilotrema,  and  Zurama  or  Am- 
plexus  otherwise  Vallonia. 

Three  species  of  Helix  appear  to  have  lived  in  this 
country  during  the  glacial  era;  but  they  have  since 
become  extinct,  or  at  any  rate  have  not  been  noticed  by 
any  writer  on  British  Conchology,  although  they  are  all 
of  a  tolerably  large  size.  Their  shells  are  found  in  the 
upper  tertiary  beds  of  our  Eastern  counties.  They  have 
survived  and  still  exist  in  the  northern  and  temperate 
parts  of  Europe.  One  of  these  species  is  the  H.  i^uderata 
of  Studer,  which  ranges  from  Siberia  and  Lapland  to  the 
alpine  districts  of  France  and  Switzerland.  Another  is 
the  H.  incarnata  of  Miiller,  which  does  not  seem  to 
extend  quite  so  far  north,  but  inhabits  Sweden,  Germany, 
France,  Switzerland,  and  Lugano.  Mr.  Daniel  informs 
me  that  he  has  found  it  in  the  Loess  at  Baden.  The 
third  species  is  the  H.fruticum  of  Miiller,  which  is  found 
living  in  every  part  of  the  European  continent  between 
Finland  and  Switzerland,  and  (according  to  Gerstfeldt) 
also  inhabits  Siberia  and  the  Amoor  territory.  Mr. 
S carles  Wood  has  recorded  this  last  species  as  a  pliocene 
fossil  in  consequence  of  his  havdng  found  an  imperfect 
specimen  at  Stutton;  and  I  lately  detected  it  in  the 
lacustrine  bed  at  Mundesley. 


HELIX.  175 

A.  Shell  globosely  conic :  outer  lip  sometimes  thickened  : 
uinhilicus  small  or  indistinct. 

1.  Helix  lamella' TA  *^  Jeffreys. 

H.  laniellata,  Jeffr.  in  Linn.  Trans,  xvi.  p.  333 ;  F.  &  H.  iv.  p.73,  pi.  cxvii. 
f.  8,  9. 

Body  whitish ;  back  and  head  bluish-grey  (A.  Miiller). 

Shell  pyramidal,  thin,  of  a  silky  appearance  and  lustre, 
yellowish -homcolour  or  tawny,  closely  and  regularly  striate 
or  plaited  in  the  line  of  growth,  with  similar  but  much  finer 
striae  in  the  interstices :  epidermis  rather  thick :  luhorls  6, 
cylindrical  and  compact,  increasing  gradually  in  size:  spire 
rather  compressed  and  blunt :  suture  deep  :  mouth  semilunar : 
outer  lip  thin,  slightly  reflected  on  the  pillar :  umbilicus  narrow, 
but  very  deep.     L.  0-08.    B.  0-09. 

Habitat  :  Among  dead  leaves  (especially  those  of  the 
holly)  in  woods  in  the  northern  counties  of  England, 
Anglesea,  the  North  and  West  of  Scotland,  and  throughout 
the  greater  part  of  Ireland.  It  also  occurs  as  a  fossil  in 
our  upper  tertiary  beds  at  Copford.  Dr.  A.  Miiller  has 
found  it  near  Kiel  and  on  the  Isle  of  Rugen  in  Holsteiii, 
and  Lilljeborg  afterwards  discovered  it  in  Sweden ;  but 
it  does  not  appear  to  have  been  noticed  elsewhere  on  the 
Continent. 

The  plaits  on  the  surface  of  the  shell  are  membranous 
and  form  part  of  the  epidermis.  Further  particulars  of 
the  animal  are  desirable.  I  unfortunately  neglected  the 
opportunity  of  making  a  note  of  it. 

This  species  is  the  H.  Scarburgensis  of  Alder  (from 
Beanos  MS.)  and  the  H.  seininulum  of  Rossmassler. 

*  Covered  with  small  plates. 


176  HELICIDJi:. 

2.  H.  aculea'ta"^,  Miiller. 

H.  aculeata,  Miill.  Verm.  Hist.  pt.  ii.  p.  81 ;   F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  74,  pi.  cxvii. 
f.  5,  6. 

Body  rounded  in  front  and  gradually  narrowing  behind, 
greylsh-slateeolour  or  light-brown :  tentacles  long,  thick,  and 
nearly  cylindi'ical ;  upper  ones  covered  with  minute  black 
specks :  foot  slender. 

Shell  globosely-pyramidal,  rather  thin,  not  glossy,  horn- 
colour  or  light-brown,  marked  transversely  by  about  30  plaits 
of  the  epidermis,  which  rise  in  the  middle  of  each  whorl  to  a 
sharp  thorn-like  point,  as  well  as  by  smaller  intermediate 
folds,  and  striate  spirally  by  close-set  microscopic  lines : 
epidennis  thick  :  ivhorls  4-4|,  convex,  gradually  increasing  in 
size :  periphery  slightly  and  obtusely  keeled :  sjnre  somewhat 
compressed  and  blunt :  suture  deep :  mouth  rather  large  and 
forming  a  deep  arch :  outer  lip  thickened  with  a  white  rib 
and  reflected  in  adult  specimens  :  umbilicus  narrow  and  small. 
L.  0-1.    B.  0-1. 

Yar.  allida.     Shell  of  a  whitish  colour. 

Habitat  :  Among  dead  leaves  and  moss  in  woods, 
from  Aberdeenshire  to  the  Channel  Isles.  Variety  from 
Bath  (Clark) .  This  species  is  one  of  our  upper  tertiary 
fossils.  Its  foreign  distribution  extends  from  Finland 
to  Italy^  and  even  to  the  Azores. 

The  animal  walks  with  its  shell  erect,  carrying  it  in 
the  most  graceful  manner.  I  have  observed  it  feeding 
on  the  Jungermannia  platyphylla.  Mr.  Daniel  informs 
me  that  in  Germany  it  travels  high  up  into  trees,  par- 
ticularly the  alder,  and  that  in  the  autumn  it  uses  the 
falling  leaves  as  a  locomotive  to  reach  the  ground.  The 
shell  is  an  exquisitely  beautiful  object,  especially  when 
it  is  fresh  and  encircled  with  its  coronet  of  spines.  This 
character  alone  will  serve  to  distinguish  it  from  any 
other  British  species  of  Helix. 

It  is  the  H.  spinulosa  of  Montagu. 

*  Prickly. 


HELIX.  177 

3.  H.  poma'tia*^  Linne. 

H.  pomatia,  Liim.  Syst.  Nat  ed.  xii.  p.  1244 ;  F.  &H.  iv.  p.  4G,  pi.  cxvi.  f.  2. 

Body  obtusely  rounded  in  front  and  narrowing  behind  to  a 
rather  fine  point,  yellowish-grey,  with  sometimes  a  brownish 
tinge,  covered  aU  over  with  large  oval  tubercles  or  granulations, 
which  are  of  a  yellow  colour  with  greyish  interstices  :  manth 
furnished  on  its  upper  part  with  three  fleshy  and  prominent 
lobes :  tentacles  very  long  and  nearly  cylindrical ;  terminal 
bulbs  on  the  upper  pair  small  and  globular:  foot  large  and 
broad,  rounded  in  front  and  obtusely  pointed  behind. 

Shell  globular,  thick  and  strong,  opaque,  of  rather  a  duU 
aspect,  yellowish- white,  with  spiral  bands  of  brown,  which  lat- 
ter colour  is  more  or  less  difiused  over  the  surface  ;  these  bands 
are  four  or  five  in  number  on  the  last  or  body  whorl,  and  are 
sometimes  confluent,  and  there  are  generally  two  or  three  (but 
occasionally  only  one)  on  the  penultimate  whorl ;  the  surface  is 
also  marked  by  numerous  but  irregular  lines  of  growth  and  very 
fine  spiral  or  longitudinal  striae  :  epidermis  rather  thick  :  whorls 
4|  or  5,  extremely  convex,  the  last  occuppng  about  two-thirds 
of  the  shell :  spire  short  and  ending  in  a  rather  blunt  point : 
suture  not  very  deep,  but  distinct :  mouth  nearly  round,  slightly 
contracted  and  angulated  above  by  the  projection  of  the  pen- 
ultimate whorl :  outer  lip  thick,  reflected  over  the  umbilicus, 
margined  inside  with  reddish-brown  :  inner  Up  spread  over 
the  columella  and  scarcely  distinguishable  :  umhiliciis  narrow 
and  small.     L.  1-75.     B.  1-75. 

Var.  albicla.     Shell  whitish  or  colourless. 

Habitat  :  Woods^  hedgebanks_,  and  uncultivated  places 
in  Surrey,  Hertford,  Kent,  Oxon,  Wilts,  and  Gloucester- 
shire. The  variety  has  been  found  by  Mr.  Brewer  near 
Reigate.  There  was  at  one  time  a  popular  notion  that 
it  had  been  introduced  into  this  country  by  the  Romans, 
because  it  is  found  near  several  ancient  encampments ; 
but  there  does  not  appear  to  be  any  other  foundation 
for  this  idea.  The  H.  pomatia  has  not  been  found  at 
Wroxeter  or  York,  or  in  many  other  parts  of  England 

*  Operculated. 

1  5 


178  HELICIDiE. 

and  Wales  where  the  Romans  built  cities  or  had  im- 
portant military  stations ;  and  in  all  probability  this 
kind  of  snail  was  not  known  to  them,  as  another  species 
(H.  lucorum)  takes  its  place  in  Central  Italy.  There  is 
no  better  reason  for  the  rumour  which  is  mentioned  by 
Montagu,  that  it  was  imported  from  Italy  about  the 
middle  of  the  16th  century,  either  as  an  article  of  food 
or  for  medicinal  purposes,  and  turned  out  in  SmTey  by 
a  Mr.  Howard  at  Albury.  It  was  well  known  to  Lister, 
who  wrote  in  1678,  as  the  largest  of  our  native  snails ; 
and  in  all  probability  it  is  equally  indigenous  with  H. 
aspersa  or  the  common  garden-snail.  Neither  of  these 
species  has  been  found  in  any  recognized  stratum  of  the 
upper  tertiary  formation  in  this  country.  The  foreign 
distribution  of  H.  pomatia  extends  from  Finland  (Nor- 
denskiold  and  Nylander)  to  Lombardy  (Villa)  j  but  it  does 
not  appear  to  have  been  found  in  the  South  of  France. 

This  large  snail  makes  a  common  and  rather  a 
favourite  dish  in  the  North  of  France  and  some  parts  of 
Switzerland ;  and  Lister  gave  a  recipe  for  dressing  and 
cooking  it  in  this  country.  It  is  furnished  with  a 
peculiar  mouth-piece,  by  means  of  which  it  effectually 
keeps  out  the  cold  and  wet  while  it  is  hibernating. 
This  covering  is  not  like  an  operculum,  forming  part  of 
the  animal,  but  consists  of  a  solid,  calcareous  and  slightly 
convex  plate,  which  exactly  fits  the  aperture  of  the  shell. 
It  is  secreted  and  formed  by  the  mantle ;  and  after  it 
has  served  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  made  it  is  thrust 
aside,  and  may  be  found  lying  on  the  ground  on  the 
return  of  spring  and  genial  weather.  The  snail  repairs 
its  shell,  when  broken,  in  a  more  substantial  manner  than 
other  kinds,  on  account  of  the  superabundance  of  its 
calcareous  secretion  ;  and  it  can  for  that  purpose  with- 
draw its  mantle  far  into  the  interior  of  the  spire,  so  as  to 


HELIX.  179 

reach  almost  the  summit.  Owing  to  its  large  size  and 
the  consistency  of  its  body^  it  has  been  from  an  early 
period  a  favourite  study  of  comparative  anatomists. 
Lister,  Cuvier,  and  others  have  published  full  details  of  its 
internal  organization.  But  the  most  interesting  account 
of  its  physiology  and  habits  is  contained  in  a  memoir  by 
M.  Gaspard_,  which  will  be  found  in  the  ^Annales  des 
Sciences  Naturelles  ;^  and  an  excellent  abstract  of  it, 
with  notes  by  Professor  Bell,  appeared  in  the  1st  volume 
of  the  '  Zoological  Journal.^  Space  will  not  admit  of  its 
being  reproduced  here ;  but  I  wiU  briefly  mention  the 
more  salient  points  of  this  excellent  memoir.  M.  Gas- 
pard  says  that  when  the  period  of  hibernating  has  arrived 
these  snails  become  indolent,  lose  their  appetite,  and 
associate  together.  Each  snail  then  excavates  with  its 
large  and  muscular  foot  a  hole  in  the  ground,  just  large 
enough  to  contain  the  shell ;  this  it  roofs  in  and  lines 
with  earth  and  dead  leaves,  making  with  its  slime  a  kind 
of  mortar,  and  smoothing  over  the  inner  surface  of  its 
winter  domicile.  Having  accomplished  this,  it  closes 
the  mouth  of  the  shell  with  a  thick  calcareous  lid,  the 
substance  of  which,  when  first  poured  out  from  the  edges 
of  the  mantle,  resembles  liquid  plaster  of  Paris.  It 
then  withdraws  its  body  far  into  the  interior  of  the  shell, 
covering,  as  it  retires,  the  empty  space  with  several  layers 
in  succession  of  a  fine  membrane  or  film,  in  order  the 
more  completely  to  exclude  the  cold  air.  In  this  snug 
receptacle  it  remains  in  a  torpid  state  until  the  return  of 
spring,  all  animal  functions  being  in  the  mean  time  sus- 
pended. It  then  loosens  and  casts  aside  its  winter  bands 
and  resumes  its  former  life.  In  the  genial  month  of 
May,  these  snails  unite  for  propagation,  and  in  June  they 
commence  laying  their  eggs,  usually  producing  only  a 


180  HELICID^. 

single  brood  in  the  year.     The  eggs  are  about  the  size 
of  a  small  pea,  and  much  resemble  in  colour  and  con- 
sistency the  berries  of  the  mistletoe.     They  are  laid  in  a 
kind  of  nest,  which  the  mother  snail  makes  in  the  loose 
earth,  in  order  to  protect  them  from  wet  and  the  heat  of 
the  sun.     No  incubation  is  necessary,  and  they  are  left 
to  the  care  of  nature.     The  young  are  developed  at  the 
end  of  from  twenty-one  to  forty-five  days,  according  to 
the  season  and  state  of  the  temperature.     The  little  snail, 
when  it  is  first  excluded,  lives  only  on  the  pellicle  of  the 
egg,  the  whole  of  which  is  eaten  by  it.     This  provision 
is  similar  or  analogous  to  that  which  is  appropriated  to 
the  young  of  land  vertebrate  animals.     The  experiments 
made  by  M.  Gaspard  with  respect  to  the  function  of 
those  organs  in  snails  which  are  called  "  eyes,'^  led  him 
to  conclude  that  these  mollusks  are  totally  devoid  of 
sight  and  are  quite  insensible  to  light,  that  they  do 
not  perceive  an  obstacle  placed  in  their  way  until  they 
touch  it,  and  that,  after  being  deprived  of  their  horns 
which  support  the  so-called  eyes,  they  guide  themselves 
as   surely  as   before.     It   may  be  observed   that   this 
absence  of  sight  and  apparent  insensibility  to  light  are 
quite   consistent  with   the  nocturnal   habits  of  snails. 
Perhaps  the  deficiency  of  this  sense  is  supplied  by  the  ex- 
cessive susceptibility  of  the  skin  to  outward  impressions. 
M.  Gaspard  remarks  that  he  found  in  these  pretended 
optical  bodies,  or  "  eyes,^^  nothing  more  than  the  organs 
of  an  exquisite  sense  of  touch,  arising  from  a  large  nerve 
Avhich  runs  through  the  tentacles  and  is  expanded  over 
their  extremities.     He  also  denies  the  existence  of  any 
sense  of  hearing  or  smell  in  these  mollusks ;   but  this 
latter  statement  does  not  appear  to  agree  with  the  ob- 
servation of  subsequent  writers. 


HELIX.  181 

This  is  sometimes  called  tlie  "  Apple-snail/^  whicli  is 
an  appropriate  name  as  regards  its  shape ;  but  the  word 
"pomatia  "  is  derived  from  irdiia  an  operculum,  and  not 
from  pomum  an  apple.  Pliny  and  Dioscorides  applied 
the  same  name  to  it,  and  for  a  similar  reason. 

B.  Shell  globose  :  outer  Up  reflected :  umbilicus  wanting,  ex- 
cept in  the  young. 

4.  H.  ASPERSA^,  Miiller. 

H.  aspersa,  Miill.  Verm.  Hist,  pt.ii,  p.  59 ;  F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  44,  pi.  cxvi.  f.  1. 

Body  oblong,  narrow  and  rounded  in  front,  pointed  behind, 
dark-brown  or  dirty-grey,  mottled  with  milk-white  specks, 
coarsely  and  strongly  granulated :  tentacles  long  and  slender, 
considerably  diverging  from  each  other,  brown  ;  bulbs  small : 
foot  broad,  rounded  in  front  and  finely  pointed  behind,  having 
a  narrowish  border  of  yellow,  and  transversely  wrinkled. 

Shell  globular,  rather  solid,  opaque,  not  glossy,  yellowish, 
with  spiral  dark-reddish-brown  bands ;  these  bands  are  often 
five  in  number  on  the  last  whorl  and  three  on  the  preceding  one, 
but  some  of  them  are  frequently  confluent,  and  they  are  always 
more  or  less  interrupted  by  transverse  and  zigzag  streaks  of 
white  ;  the  sculpture  consists  of  numerous  pit-marks,  which 
probably  correspond  with  the  tubercles  of  the  mantle,  as  well 
as  of  very  fine,  but  indistinct,  spiral  striae,  giving  the  surface 
a  shagreened  appearance :  epidermis  rather  thick  :  luliorls  4|, 
convex,  the  last  occupying  about  two-thirds  of  the  sheU :  spire 
short  and  ending  in  a  blunt  point :  suture  rather  oblique,  well 
defined  but  not  deep :  mouth  obhquely  roundish-oval,  obtusely 
angulated  above  :  outer  lip  rather  thin,  white  and  considerably 
reflected,  much  incurved  towards  the  columella  :  inner  lip  ex- 
tremely thin  and  spread  on  the  columella :  umbilicus  slightly 
perceptible  in  the  young,  but  afterwards  covered  by  a  fold  and 
thickening  of  the  pillar  lip.     L.  1*4.    B.  1-4. 

Var.  1.  albo-fasciata.     Shell  reddish-brown,  with  a  single, 
white  band. 

Var.  2,  eocalbida,  Menke.     Shell  yellowish  or  whitish. 

Var.  3.  conoidea,  Picard.  Shell  smaller,  more  conical,  and 
thinner  :  mouth  smaller. 

*  Besprinkled. 


182  HELICID.E. 

Var.  4.  tenuis.  Shell  dwarfed,  extremely  thin,  and  nearly 
transparent ;  bands  reddish-brown. 

Habitat  :  Woods  and  gardens  (especially  the  latter), 
from  the  Moray  Eirth  district  to  the  Channel  Isles.  I 
have  not  found  it  so  far  north  as  Zetland.  Vars.  1  and  2 
are  rather  local,  but  not  uncommon.  Mr.  Bridgman 
has  found  the  latter  under  hornbeam  hedges  near  Nor- 
wich. Var.  3.  Sand-hills  and  cliffs  on  the  sea-side. 
Var.  4.  Downs  on  the  south  coast  of  Guernsey.  The 
dwarf  size  and  extremely  thin  texture  of  this  last  variety 
are  probably  owing  to  the  absence  of  calcareous  material 
in  the  soil  where  it  is  found.  Monstrosities  sometimes, 
but  rarely,  occur  in  which  the  spire  is  reversed,  or  the 
whorls  are  more  or  less  disjoined,  in  some  cases  so 
much  so  that  the  shell  resembles  a  ram^s-horn.  The 
late  M.  D'Orbigny  showed  me  a  colony  of  the  reversed 
monstrosity  in  his  garden  at  Rochelle.  Mr.  Bridgman 
succeeded  in  rearing  a  young  specimen  of  the  same 
monstrosity  and  bringing  it  to  maturity  by  feeding  it  on 
cabbage  and  lettuce  leaves.  This  species  has  been  found 
in  the  peat-bed  at  Newbury,  but  has  not  been  noticed 
as  an  upper  tertiary  fossil.  It  does  not  appear  to  inhabit 
the  North  of  Europe  nor  Germany  (although  C.  Pfeiffer 
has  noticed  it  as  found  in  gardens  there) ;  but  its  range 
extends  southward  from  Erance  to  Sicily,  as  well  as  to 
Spain,  Algeria,  and  the  Azores.  It  seems  to  take  the 
place  of  H.  pomatia  in  some  parts  of  Europe. 

Lister  says  that,  having  put  one  of  these  snails  and  a 
Limax  ater  together  in  the  same  vessel,  he  found  the 
next  day  that  the  slug  had  been  killed  and  half-eaten  by 
its  companion;  and  he  also  remarked  that  the  fluid, 
which  exudes  so  copiously  from  the  body  of  H.  aspersa 
when  it  is  pricked,  was  used  in  his  time  in  bleaching 
wax  for  artistic  purposes,  as  well  as  in  making  a  firm 


HELIX.  183 

cement  mixed  with  the  white  of  eg^.  The  latter  eco- 
nomical use  might  now  be  repeated  with  success,  but  by 
a  less  cruel  operation,  viz.  killing  and  pounding,  instead 
of  pricking  the  snail,  and  straining  the  fluid.  The 
garden-snail  is  much  more  prolific  than  many  of  its  con- 
geners. Bouchard-Chantereaux  mentions  that  he  has 
often  counted  from  100  to  110  eggs  which  had  been 
laid  by  a  single  individual.  Brard  noticed  that  they  are 
very  sensible  of  cold,  and  hibernate  early,  clustering  to- 
gether in  the  crevices  of  old  w^alls  and  trunks  of  trees, 
and  attached  to  each  other  by  their  membranous  epi- 
phragms  or  winter  coverings.  They  make  great  havoc 
in  kitchen- gardens  and  spoil  the 'best  wall-fruit.  There 
is,  however,  some  compensation  for  this  mischief:  a 
kind  of  broth  is  made  from  them  and  used  as  a  remedy 
for  pulmonary  complaints.  This  kind  of  snail  is  occa- 
sionally eaten  by  the  French ;  but  it  is  not  held  by  them 
in  the  same  estimation  as  the  Apple-snail.  Dr.  Gray 
says  that  the  glassmen  at  Newcastle  once  a  year  have 
a  snail-feast,  and  that  they  generally  collect  the  snails 
themselves  in  the  fields  and  hedges  the  Sunday  before 
the  feast-day.  They  are  supposed  to  have  the  power  of 
excavating  holes  in  limestone  rocks  to  form  their  winter 
quarters.  The  late  Dr.  Buckland  first  called  the  atten- 
tion of  geologists  to  this  circumstance ;  and  M.  Bou- 
chard-Chantereaux has  lately  published,  in  the  ^Annales 
des  Sciences  N-atureUes^  (4^  serie,  p.  197-218),  an  article 
entitled  '^Observations  sur  les  Helices  saxicaves  du  Bou- 
loiniais,''  which  will  well  repay  the  trouble  of  a  perusal. 
By  way  of  further  illustrating  the  habits  of  our  com- 
mon garden-snail,  I  trust  I  may  be  excused  in  transfer- 
ring to  these  pages  a  short  poem  by  Cowper,  which  ought 
to  be  known  to  all  conchologists.  It  is  called  ^^The 
Snail,"  and  is  as  follows  : — 


184  HELICID^. 

"  To  grass,  or  leaf,  or  fruit,  or  wall, 
The  Snail  sticks  close,  nor  fears  to  fall, 
As  if  he  grew  there,  house  and  all 

Together : 

' '  Within  that  house  secure  he  hides, 
Wlien  danger  imminent  betides 
Of  storm,  or  other  harm  besides 

Of  weather, 

"  Give  but  his  horns  the  slightest  touch. 
His  self-collecting  power  is  such 
He  shrinks  into  his  house  with  much 

Displeasure, 

"  Wliere'er  he -dwells,  he  dwells  alone  ; 
Except  himself  has  chattels  none. 
Well  satisfied  to  be  his  own 

Whole  treasure, 

"  Thus,  hermit-like,  his  life  he  leads, 
Nor  partner  of  his  banquet  needs, 
And,  if  he  meets  one,  only  feeds 

The  faster, 

"  Who  seeks  him  must  be  worse  than  blind, 
(He  and  his  house  are  so  combined,) 
If,  finding  it,  he  fails  to  find 

Its  master." 

This  common  species  received  from  Pennant  in  1766 
the  appropriate  name  of  Helix  hortensis ;  bnt  in  con- 
sequence of  that  name  having  been  applied  by  Miiller, 
although  nearly  eight  years  afterwards,  to  a  different 
species  or  a  supposed  species,  the  present  name  has  been 
adopted  by  nearly  all  conch olo gists.  The  H.  grisea  of 
Linne,  to  which  this  species  has  been  referred  by  some 
authors,  is  stated  to  inhabit  Sweden,  which  is  not  the 
case  with  H.  aspersa. 

The  H,  aperta  of  Born  can  hardly  be  considered  a 
British  shell, — the  sole  ground  for  supposing  it  to  be  a 
native  of  this  country  being  the  discovery  by  the  late 
Professor  E.  Forbes  in  1839  of  a  dead  specimen  in  a 


HELTX.  185 

cart-track  in  Guernsey.  Dr.  Lukis,  who  was  at  that 
time  and  is  still  a  resident  there,,  informs  me  that  he  has 
frequently  searched  in  vain  for  this  remarkable  shell; 
and  I  have  accompanied  him  in  one  of  these  excursions. 
Its  shape  is  not  much  unlike  that  of  the  variety  tenuis  of 
H.  aspersa,  which  is  common  in  Guernsey  and  is  fre- 
quently bandless  and  without  coloured  markings.  H, 
aperta  is  not  found  anywhere  in  France,  except  in  the 
extreme  South ;  it  is  also  a  native  of  Italy.  It  is  the 
H.  Naticoides  of  Draparnaud.  This  snail  is  said  to 
feed  on  vine-leaves;  and  it  ranks  with  the  ortolan  in 
gastronomic  celebrity.  Forbes^ s  specimen  might  possibly 
have  been  imported  and  dropped  by  some  French  sailor, 
who  had  feasted  on  its  contents.  This  specimen,  how- 
ever, is  not  to  be  found  in  the  British  Museum,  where  it 
was  said  to  have  been  deposited  by  the  discoverer ;  and 
Dr.  Baird  (who  has  the  charge  of  this  department)  in- 
forms me  that  he  has  never  seen  it,  although  he  has 
made  inquiries  and  searched  more  than  once  for  it. 


5.  H.  nemora'lis*,  Linne. 

H.  nemoralis,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  ed.  xii.  p.  1247  ;   F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  53,  pi.  cxv. 
f.  1-4. 

Body  dark  brown,  tinged  with  yellow,  and  covered  with  very 
small  and  close-set  round  tubercles  :  mantle  of  a  greenish  hue, 
marked  with  yellowish  specks :  tentacles  of  a  darker  coloiu*, 
very  long  and  rather  slender  ;  bulbs  globular  :  foot  angular  in 
front,  gradually  narrowing  and  pointed  behind. 

Shell  globular,  depressed  below,  rather  solid  and  nearly 
opaque,  moderately  glossy,  yellow,  brown,  pink,  white,  and  of 
various  other  colours  and  shades,  with  from  1  to  5  spiral 
bands,  which  are  usually  brown,  rarely  white,  and  occasionally 
confluent  or  interrupted ;  the  sculjiture  consists  of  close,  but 
irregular,  hnes  of  growth  and  minute  sj)iral  undulating  striae  : 

*  Inhabiting  gi'oves. 


186  IIELICID.^. 

epidermis  rather  thin :  wliorls  5^,  convex,  the  last  occupying 
about  three -fifths  of  the  shell :  spire  short  and  ending  in  a 
blunt  point :  suture  slight :  mouth  obliquely  and  deeply  cres- 
cent-shaped :  outer  Up  thick,  reflected  and  strengthened  by  a 
strong  internal  rib,  much  inflected  above,  slightly  angular 
beneath,  where  it  makes  an  abrupt  bend  towards  the  colu- 
mella ;  colour  of  the  lip,  rib,  and  columella  reddish-brown : 
inner  Up  consisting  of  a  slight  reddish-brown  layer  :  umhiUcus 
open  and  narrow  in  the  young,  but  afterwards  covered  and 
quite  closed.     L.  0*65.    B.  0'9. 

Var.  1.  Jiortensis.  Shell  smaller  and  more  globular:  mouth 
white-lipped,  and  rib  of  the  same  colour :  inner  Up  excessively 
thin  and  coloured  or  banded  like  the  rest  of  the  shell.  H.  hor- 
tensis,  Miill.  Yerm.  Hist.  pt.  ii.  p.  52. 

Yar.  2.  hyhrida.  Shell  of  the  same  size  as  the  &st  variety, 
but  not  quite  so  globular :  mouth  and  rib  of  a  pink  or  liver- 
colour.     H.  hyhrida,  Poiret,  Coq.  Aisne,  p.  71. 

Yar.  3.  major,  Ferussac.  Shell  much  larger  and  rather  more 
depressed  than  usual. 

Yar.  4.  minor.  Shell  dwarfed,  of  the  same  shape  and  colour 
as  the  first  variety. 

Habitat  :  Woods,  hedges,  gardens,  and  similar  situ- 
ations everywhere ;  and  it  is  one  of  our  upper  tertiary 
fossils.  Var.  1.  Nearly  equally  diffused  and  common. 
Var.  2.  More  local,  but  not  rare.  Var.  3.  Sand-hills  and 
downs ;  remarkably  large  on  the  rocky  Isle  of  Arran, 
Co.  Gal  way  (Barlee).  Var.  4.  Zetland  (Barlee)  ;  Loch 
Carron,  Ross-shire  (J.  G.  J.).  This  last  is  analogous  to 
the  dwarf  variety  alpestris  of  H.  arhustorum.  A  re- 
versed, as  well  as  a  scalariform,  monstrosity  sometimes 
occurs  J  but  they  are  very  rare.  This  abundant,  but 
pretty,  shell  ranges  from  Norway  to  Sicily;  and  the 
variety  hortensis  is  described  by  Gould  as  North  Ameri- 
can, although  he  was  strongly  of  opinion  that  it  had  been 
imported  and  become  to  a  certain  extent  acclimatized. 

This  kind  of  snail  is  said  to  be  eaten  in  France ;  but  I 
believe  such  an  experiment  has  not  been  tried  in  this 


HELIX.  187 

country.  Lister  says  that  thrushes  are  very  fond  of 
them,  and,  in  order  to  eat  them,  pierce  the  upper  part  of 
the  shells  with  their  beaks.  He  also  remarks  that  they  are 
more  hardy  than  other  snails  and  are  the  first  to  make 
their  appearance  when  spring  returns.  Mr.  Whiteaves 
has  observed  that  they  are  often  destroyed  by  ants. 
Miiller  relates  that  he  had  detected  a  young  lizard, 
which  he  had  confined  together  with  a  live  H.  nemoralis 
in  a  box,  entering  the  shell  and  eating  the  snail.  They 
appear  to  be  fond,  in  their  turn,  of  animal  food.  Mr. 
James  Sowerby  mentioned,  in  the  ^  Zoological  Journal,^ 
the  case  of  a  pet  specimen  of  this  kind  of  snail  which 
preferred  roast  mutton  to  lettuce-leaves.  All  the  snails 
are  omnivorous ;  but  they  seldom  have  the  opportunity 
of  feasting  upon  cooked  meat. 

The  variety  of  colour,  as  well  as  the  number  and 
arrangement  of  the  bands  and  markings  in  this  common 
shell  are  almost  infinite.  Albin  Gras  has  enumerated 
no  less  than  198  varieties  of  the  typical  form  alone,  and 
Moquin-Tandon  has  distinguished  46  more  of  the  form 
called  hortensis.  The  colour  of  the  animal  also  varies 
nearly  as  much  as  that  of  the  shell. 

A  great  controversy  has  long  raged  between  con- 
chologists,  as  to  whether  the  two  forms  called  iiemoralis 
and  hortensis  are  distinct  species.  Linne  united  them  ; 
Miiller  separated  them.  In  modern  times,  Forbes  and 
Hanley  agree  with  the  former,  and  Dr.  Gray  with  the 
latter.  Mr.  Norman  contends  stoutly  that  they  are  not 
the  same  species;  and  his  principal  reason  is  that  H. 
nemoralis  invariably,  but  H.  hortensis  never,  has  a  cal- 
careous, and  frequently  coloured,  deposit  on  the  colu- 
mella. He  has  referred,  in  the  '  Zoologist,'  to  "  a  school- 
boy's amusement  in  Southey's  days,"  in  backing  his 
"  black-mouths "    [nemoralis)    against   any   number   of 


188  HELICID.E. 

"white-moutlis^^  (horiensis)  -,  and  he  offered  to  give  odds 
of  ten  to  one  in  favour  of  the  former.  The  variety  hybrida 
seems^  however,  to  connect  the  two  above-mentioned 
forms,  so  far  as  concerns  their  conchological  distinc- 
tion ;  and  the  only  malacological  character  of  importance, 
upon  which  a  difference  between  them  can  be  founded, 
consists  in  a  slight  variation  of  shape  in  their  love-darts. 
With  great  deference  therefore  to  the  opinion  of  those 
who  rank  these  forms  as  separate  species,  I  cannot  help 
regarding  H.  nemoralis  as  the  type,  and  H.  hortensis  and 
H.  hybrida  as  local  or  casual  varieties  of  one  and  the 
same  species.  I  have  never  found  any  two  of  these  forms 
living  together;  and  M.  Bouchard- Chantereaux  and 
others  have  made  the  same  remark. 

6.  H.  arbusto'rum^,  Linne. 

H.  arhustorum,  Linn.  Sjst.  Nat.  ed.  xii.  p.  1245  ;  F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  48,  pi.  cxv. 
f.  5,  6. 

Body  lustrous,  dark  grey  or  almost  black  above,  and  of  a 
light  slate-colour  below,  covered  with  round  tubercles :  mantle 
marked  with  a  few  indistinct  milk-white  specks :  tentacles 
slender,  much  diverging,  glossy  and  black;  bulbs  very  globular  : 
foot  narrow  and  shghtly  keeled  at  the  tail,  with  the  sides  trans- 
versely grooved. 

Shell  globular,  somewhat  compressed  below,  usually  rather 
solid  and  nearly  opaque,  glossy,  yellowish  mottled  with  brown, 
mostly  ha^TLUg  a  single  brown  spiral  band  round  the  middle  of 
each  whorl  or  a  little  above  it,  closely  but  coarsely  and  irre- 
gularly ridged  in  the  line  of  growth,  and  very  finely  striate  in 
a  spiral  direction :  epidermis  rather  thin  :  wJiorls  5-6,  convex, 
the  last  occupying  about  three-fifths  of  the  shell :  spire  vary- 
ing in  length,  but  usually  depressed  and  always  ending  in 
a  blunt  point :  suture  rather  deep  :  mouth  forming  a  segment 
of  two-thirds  of  a  circle  :  outer  lip  thick,  white  and  reflected, 
sometimes  strengthened  by  an  internal,  but  not  well-defined 
rib,  much  inflected  above  and  rounded  beneath :  inner  Up  con- 

*  Inhabiting  copses. 


HELIX.  189 

sisting  of  a  mere  film  which  is  spread  on  the  cohimella :  umbi- 
licus very  small  and  oblique,  nearly  concealed  by  a  fold  of  the 
outer  lip.     L.  0*5.    B.  0*8. 

Yar.  l.Jfavescens.    Shell  yellowish-white,  generally  without 
any  band. 

Yar.  2.  major.    Shell  larger :  sj)ire  more  depressed.     L.  0*7. 
B.  1. 

Yar.  3.  dlpestris,  Ziegler.     Shell  smaller :  s'pire  more  raised. 
L.  0-5.   B.  0-65. 

Yar.  4.  fusca,  Ferussac.  Shell  dark-brown,  with  or  with- 
out the  band,  very  thin  and  semitransparent. 

Habitat  :  Among  alders  and  in  moist  and  shady 
woods  and  hedges,  as  well  as  occasionally  in  meadows 
by  the  side  of  rivers,  from  Zetland  to  Cornwall.  It  is 
rather  a  local  species,  and  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
found  in  the  Channel  Isles^  probably  because  the  con- 
ditions there  are  not  suitable  to  it.  Vars.  1  &  2  are  not 
very  uncommon.  Y'ar.  3.  Hoddesden,  Herts^  on  the 
marshes  by  the  side  of  the  River  Lea,  the  specimens 
being  numerous  and  all  of  the  same  form  and  size 
(Pickering).  Such  a  locality  is  very  remarkable  for  this 
dwarf  variety,  which  I  have  taken  on  the  Swiss  Alps,  in 
the  region  of  perpetual  snow.  The  same  variety  occurs 
in  the  upper  tertiary  beds  at  Copford.  Yar.  4.  Lunna, 
East  Zetland,  where  there  is  no  limestone  or  other  cal- 
careous rock.  This  probably  accounts  for  the  extreme 
thinness  of  the  shell.  It  appears  to  be  the  H.  pice  a  of 
Ziegler.  My  cabinet  contains  a  distortion,  from  Oxford- 
shire, in  which  the  spire  is  exceedingly  raised.  This 
species  is  distributed  over  the  greater  part  of  Europe. 
Von  Wallenberg  has  recorded  it  from  Lapland;  and 
Aradas  and  Maggiore  found  it  in  Sicily.  Mr.  Lowe  has 
included  it  in  his  list  of  Madeiran  land-shells. 

Bouchard- Chantereaux  says  that  this  snail  lays  its 
eggs  from  July  to  September,  and  that  the  young  attain 


190  HELICID^. 

their  full  growth  in  fifteen  or  sixteen  months  after  they 
are  excluded.  Moquin-Tandon  enumerates  this  as  one 
of  the  eatable  kinds,  but  he  adds  that  it  is  not  much 
esteemed.  The  shell  varies  considerably  in  size.  The 
epiphragm  is  exceedingly  thin  and  like  silver-paper. 

It  was  known  to  Lister,  who  appropriately  called  it 
"  Cochlea  maculata.^'  Whether  it  is  the  species  which 
Linne  described  as  H.  arbustorum  is  questionable,  as  his 
diagnosis  ("Testa  umbilicata,  convexa,  acuminata,  aper- 
tura  suborbiculari  bimarginata,  antice  elongata  ^')  is 
scarcely  applicable  to  this  species.  It  is,  however,  a 
Swedish  shell;  and  the  present  name  has  been  adopted 
by  every  author. 

C.  SheU  conical :  mouth  furnished  with  an  internal  rib  : 

umhiUcus  distinct. 

7.  H.  Cantia'na  *,  Montagu. 

H.  Cantiana,  Mont.  Test.  Brit.  p.  422,  and  Suppl.  p.  145,  pi.  23.  f.  1 ; 
F.&  H.  iv.  p.  50,  pi.  cxvi.  f.  8,  9. 

Body  yellowish,  with  a  rosy  or  blush- colour  tint  in  front, 
covered  with  small  and  numerous  greyish  tubercles :  mantU 
marked  with  close-set  milk-white  specks  :  tentacles  greyish- 
brown,  widely  diverging ;  upper  pair  rather  thick  at  the  base, 
but  becoming  slender  towards  the  point;  bulbs  nearly  spherical: 
foot  somewhat  truncate  in  front,  ending  in  a  triangular,  swollen 
and  keeled  tail,  with  close  transverse  grooves  at  its  sides. 

Shell  subglobular,  somewhat  compressed  both  above  and 
below,  rather  thin  and  semitransparent,  slightly  glossy,  yellow- 
ish-white, with  often  a  tint  of  reddish-brown  or  fawn-colour, 
especially  on  the  last  whorl  towards  the  mouth  and  on  the 
under  side,  and  often  marked  with  a  white,  but  indistinct, 
spiral  band,  which  is  placed  a  httle  above  the  periphery  and 
does  not  extend  much  beyond  the  last  half  of  the  body  whorl ; 
sculpture  consisting  of  rather  close,  but  irregular,  curved  trans- 
verse striae :  epidermis  thin,  covered  in  young  and  half-grown 

*  Kentish. 


HELIX.  191 

specimens  with  short  hairs,  which  are  easily  rubbed  off  and 
disappear  in  the  adult :  ivJioi^ls  G-7,  convex,  the  last  occupying 
rather  more  than  one -half  of  the  shell :  spire  short  and  ending 
in  a  blunt  point :  suture  rather  deep  :  mouth  oblique,  forming 
a  segment  of  about  three-fifths  of  a  circle,  furnished  inside 
with  a  rather  thick  white  rib,  which  is  placed  at  a  little 
distance  from  the  edge  :  outer  lip  thin  and  slightly  reflected, 
not  much  inflected  above,  rounded  beneath,  and  folding  over  at 
its  junction  with  the  columella :  umbilicus  small  and  narrow, 
but  rather  deep,  exposing  the  whole  of  the  spire.  L.  0*4. 
B.  0-7. 

Habitat  :  Hedges,  wooded  banks,  and  walls,  in  the 
home  and  many  of  the  southern  counties  of  England,  as 
well  as  in  Northumberland,  Yorkshire,  Gloucestershire, 
Somersetshire,  Monmouthshire,  and  Glamorganshire. 
In  the  appendix  to  Welsh  and  Whitelaw^s  '  History  of 
Dublin,^  it  is  stated  to  inhabit  that  neighbourhood ;  but 
this  locality  seems  to  be  doubtful,  as  subsequent  writers 
on  Irish  Conchology  have  not  confirmed  the  correctness 
of  such  statement.  It  does  not  appear  to  range  north 
of  England;  but  it  is  found  in  France,  Illyria,  Italy, 
and  Sicily. 

Bouchard-Chantereaux  mentions  its  breeding  at  so 
early  an  age  that  the  mouth  of  its  then  tender  sheU  is 
often  broken  at  the  edge  in  the  course  of  propagation. 
The  eggs  are  laid  in  a  damp  spot.  It  hibernates  from 
November  to  February,  and  forms  an  epiphragm  like 
a  film  of  the  finest  blown  glass. 

Lister  appears  to  have  indicated  H.  Cantiana  as  a  large 
variety  of  H.  rnfescens,  or  a  distinct  species,  which  he  says 
is  found  in  Kent.  It  is  the  H.  Carthusiana  of  Drapar- 
naud,  but  not  the  H.  Cartusiana  of  Miiller ;  and  Donovan 
described  it  under  the  name  of  H.  pallida,  which  is 
much  more  appropriate  than  the  one  it  now  bears.  The 
present  species  is  very  unlike  any  of  those  which  I  have 
above  described. 


192  HELICID.?:. 

The  H.  limbata  of  Draparnaud  has  been  introduced 
into  the  list  of  our  Mollusca  on  the  authority  of  the  late 
Mr.  G.  B.  Sowerby,  in  consequence  of  several  specimens 
having  been  once  found  on  hedges  near  Hampstead.  It 
is  about  half  the  size  of  the  last  species,  of  a  reddish- 
brown  colour,  more  conical  and  strongly  striate,  and  it 
has  a  very  conspicuous  white  band  encircling  the  peri- 
phery. It  inhabits  the  centre  and  South  of  France  ;  and 
Terver  has  found  it  as  far  north  as  Rouen.  Possibly  it 
may  be  rediscovered  in  this  country  and  have  its  claim 
to  admission  as  a  British  species  recognized. 

8.  H.  Cartusia'na  *,  Miiller. 

H.  Cartusiana,  Miill.  Verm.  Hist.  pt.  ii.  p.  15.     H.  Carthusiana,  F.  &  H. 
iv.  p.  51,  pi.  cxvi.  f.  5,  6. 

Body  rather  narrow  and  much  rounded  in  front,  yellow  or 
saffron -colour,  with  a  faint  tinge  of  red ;  tubercles  close-set 
and  finely,  but  indistinctly,  speckled  with  brown ;  neck  marked 
with  a  short  longitudinal  black  line  which  commences  at  the 
base  of  the  upper  tentacles  :  mantle  covered  with  minute  milk- 
white  specks  :  tentacles  long ;  upper  pair  very  slender  ;  bidbs 
very  small  and  nearly  globular :  foot  somewhat  rounded  in 
front  and  narrowing  behind. 

Shell  subconic,  depressed  above,  rather  more  globular  below, 
somewhat  solid  and  nearly  opaque,  not  very  glossy,  yeUowish- 
white,  with  a  tint  of  fawn-colour  or  light-brown,  and  generally 
marked  with  a  white  spiral  band,  which  is  placed  a  little 
above  the  periphery  and  does  not  extend  much  beyond  the 
last  half  of  the  body  whorl ;  sculptui^e  consisting  of  irregular 
striaD  in  the  line  of  growth,  which  are  stronger  towards  the 
suture  and  on  the  upper  whorls,  as  well  as  of  faint  and  in- 
fhstinct  spiral  striae,  which  are  only  perceptible  on  the  um- 
bilical region  and  by  the  aid  of  a  strong  magnifying  power ; 
besides  this  striation,  the  surface  of  the  lower  or  body  whorl 
is  indented  by  crowded  and  indistinct  pit-marks,  giving  it  a 
shagreened  a^^pearance :  epidermis  rather  thin:  wliorls  G-7, 
compressed  above  and  convex  beneath,  so  as  to  make  the 

*  From  its  having  been  fii'st  discovered  near  a  Carthusian  Monastery. 


HELIX.  193 

periphery  appear  slightly  keeled  ;  the  last  occupying  about 
half  the  shell :  spire  short,  but  somewhat  pointed  :  suture  rather 
deep  :  mouth  of  the  same  shaj)e  as  in  the  last  species,  and  simi- 
larly strengthened  inside  by  a  broad  white  rib,  which  is  visible 
on  the  outside  and  placed  near  the  opening  :  outer  Up  thin  and 
very  little  reflected,  except  towards  the  umbilicus,  not  much 
inflected  above  :  umbilicus  very  small  and  narrow,  having  more 
the  character  of  a  perforation,  and  partly  covered  by  the  re- 
flexion of  the  outer  lip.     L.  0-275.    B.  0*5. 

Yar.  rujilabris.  Shell  smaller,  with  the  inside  rib  of  a 
reddish-brown  colour.  H.  7'ujilahris,  Jeflr.  in  Linn.  Trans,  xvi. 
p.  509. 

Habitat  :  On  grass  and  herbage  in  the  hollows  of 
downs  on  the  Kentish  and  Sussex  coasts ;  common. 
The  variety  is  found  at  Lewes  and  Littlehampton. 
Gerstfeldt,  as  well  as  Middendorff,  has  recorded  this  as 
a  Siberian  species ;  but  it  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
noticed  in  the  North  of  Europe.  It  inhabits  the  whole 
of  France,  the  Rhine  district,  South  Germany,  Switzer- 
land, Dalmatia,  Italy  and  Greece.  Miiller,  who  first 
described  this  species,  says  that  he  received  French 
specimens  from  Geofiroy. 

This  mollusk  is  hardy,  and  during  the  heat  of  the 
day  remains  attached  to  stalks  of  grass  and  leaves  of 
plants  by  means  of  a  film,  of  the  same  nature  as  the 
epiphragm,  which  it  secretes  for  that  purpose.  The 
edges  of  the  mouth  or  outer  lip  are  thus  agglutinated. 
The  animal  has  a  singular  habit  of  protruding  the  whole 
of  its  foot  before  any  other  part  of  the  body  when  it 
issues  from  the  shell  to  commence  its  w^alk.  Its  eggs 
are  nearly  as  large  as  those  of  H.  Cantianaj  which  has 
nearly  three  times  the  bulk  of  the  present  species.  I 
have  never  observed  any  appearance  of  hairs  on  the 
shell ;  but  perhaps  none  of  my  specimens  are  sufficiently 
young  to  show  this  character. 

K 


194  .       HELICIDiE. 

Dr.  Leach  says  that  Mr.  Gibbs  first  discovered  this 
species  to  be  an  inhabitant  of  Britain,  in  1814,  and  com- 
municated it  to  Col.  Montagu,  who  named  it  in  his 
MS.  "Helix  Gibbsii.^'  It  is  the  H.  Carthusianella  of 
Draparnaud,  who  mistook  Miiller^s  species  for  H.  Can- 
tiana.  It  differs  from  the  last-mentioned  species  in  the 
shell  being  of  a  much  less  size,  more  solid  and  nearly 
opaque,  and  in  the  spire  being  more  depressed  and  the 
umbilicus  much  smaller  and  more  contracted. 

All  authors  subsequent  to  Miiller  (with  the  exception 
of  Gmelin  and  Poiret)  have  written  the  specific  name 
with  an  "  h,''  i.  e.  Carthusiana.  The  name  of  the  religious 
Order  is  said  to  have  been  derived  from  Cartuse  or  Char- 
treuse, a  hamlet  near  the  famous  Monastery;  and  in 
Ducange's  Glossary  the  monks  are  called  ''  Cartusienses, 
a  Cartusiensibus  montibus.^'  I  therefore  think  the  ori- 
ginal spelling  of  Cartusiana  ought  to  be  retained. 

9.  H.  RUFEs'cENS  *,  Pcnuaut. 

H.  rufescens,  Penn.  Brit.  Zool.  iv.  p.  134,  pi.  Ixxxv.  f.  127;  F.  &H.  iv. 
p.  66,  pi.  cxviii.  f.  4,  7. 

Body  yellowish,  grey,  or  brown,  of  various  degrees  of  in- 
tensity, with  dark-brown  stripes  running  along  the  neck  and 
on  to  the  tentacles,  rather  strongly  tubercled :  tentacles  of  the 
same  colour  as  the  rest  of  the  body;  upper  pair  long  and 
slender,  lower  ones  very  short ;  foot  of  a  hghter  colour,  some- 
what narrow  and  slender,  but  short. 

Shell  subconic,  compressed  above  and  angularly  rounded 
below,  rather  solid  and  nearly  opaque,  scarcely  glossy,  light  ash- 
grey  with  generally  a  reddish- brown  hue,  sometimes  trans- 
versely streaked  with  the  last  colour,  and  often  marked  with 
a  white  spiral  band  which  encircles  the  last  whorl,  finely  and 
closely  but  irregularly  striate  transversely :  peri'phery  obtusely 
keeled:  epidermis  not  very  thin:  wJiorJs  6-7,  depressed  above 
and  convex  beneath,  the  last  occupying  rather  more  than  half 

*  Of  a  reddisli  colour. 


HELIX.  195 

the  shell :  spire  short  and  blunt :  suture  rather  deep :  mouth 
obliquely  semilunar,  higher  than  broad,  furnished  inside  with 
a  broad  white  rib,  which  is  distinctly  visible  outside  and  placed 
at  a  little  distance  from  the  opening  :  outer  lip  not  very  thin, 
slightly  reflected,  especially  towards  the  umbilicus,  sharply  but 
not  much  inflected  above :  umbilicus  narrow,  but  distinct,  ex- 
posing all  the  interior  of  the  spire.     L.  0-3.    B.  0*5. 

Yar,  1.  albicla.     Shell  white  or  colourless. 

Yar.  2.  minor.     Shell  smaller :  spire  more  raised. 

Habitat  :  Hedges^  gardens,  shrubberies  and  suburban 
woods,  among  nettles,  under  stones  and  logs  of  wood, 
and  in  strawberry-  and  violet-beds,  in  most  parts  of 
England  from  Westmoreland  southwards,  as  well  as  in 
South  Wales  and  Ireland.  The  two  varieties  are  not 
uncommon ;  and  I  have  a  scalariform  distortion.  It  is 
one  of  our  upper  tertiary  fossils.  This  species  does  not 
appear  to  be  known  in  the  North  of  Europe ;  but  it  is 
common  in  the  North  of  France  and  at  Heidelberg,  and 
(according  to  Morelet)  it  inhabits  Algeria.  Mr.  Lowe 
has  enumerated  it  as  a  Madeiran  species.  If  Ferussac 
is  right  in  referring  to  it  the  H.  Altenana  of  Kickx,  the 
present  species  is  a  native  of  other  parts  of  Germany. 

H.  rufescens  was  accurately  described  by  Lister,  who 
said  it  was  a  favourite  food  of  thrushes.  Little  heaps  of 
empty  shells,  with  the  spire  broken,  may  often  be  seen 
in  our  gardens ;  so  that  the  safety  of  a  strawberry  crop 
may  be  partly  ensured  by  encouraging  these  favourite 
songsters.  This  little  snail  never  goes  out  in  the  daytime, 
unless  after  a  shower  of  rain.  According  to  Bouchard- 
Chantereaux,  it  lays  from  40  to  50  eggs,  between  the 
months  of  August  and  October,  and  the  young  are 
excluded  at  the  end  of  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  days. 
The  shells  of  these  young  ones,  and  even  of  such  as  have 
as  many  as  four  whorls,  are  really  hispid.     This  was  first 

k2 


196  "  HELICID^. 

noticed  by  Montagu;  but  as  he  evidently  confounded 
H.  hispida  "v^dth  the  present  species  in  tbis  stage  of 
growth^  bis  statement  tbat  the  young  of  H.  rufescens  was 
covered  witb  bairs  was  discredited.  Capt.  Bruce  Hutton 
bas  quite  satisfied  me  on  tbis  point ;  and  tbe  bairs  are 
very  easily  discerned  witb  a  lens  of  moderate  power. 
Tbey  are  very  sbort  and  caducous  ;  but  tbe  sockets  of 
tbe  bairs,  or  tbe  impressions  wbicb  are  caused  by  tbeir 
insertion  into  tbe  epidermis,  remain  on  tbe  surface  of 
full-grown  specimens,  and  may  be  seen  under  a  micro- 
scope. M.  Drouet  bas  lately  confirmed  tbis  fact  of  tbe 
young  sbells  being  bispid.  In  some  specimens  from 
Clifden,  Co.  Galway,  tbe  sbell  is  finely  striate  in  a 
spiral  direction. 

Having  bad  an  opportunity  of  observing  in  tbeir  native 
babitats  tbe  H.  circinnata,  montana,  and  ccelata  of  Studer, 
wbicb  appear  to  belong  to  one  and  tbe  same  species,  I 
am  not  inclined  to  consider  tbem  as  varieties  of  H.  ru- 
fescens. Tbeir  spire  is  mucb  more  depressed  and  tbe 
suture  deeper  tban  in  tbe  present  species.  I  bave,  boAv- 
ever,  no  doubt  tbat  tbe  H.  glabella  of  Draparnaud,  and 
probably  also  tbe  H.  clandestina  of  Hartmann,  are  tbe 
same  as  our  sbell.  Tbe  H.  rufescens  of  Gmelin  and 
Grateloup  are  very  different  from  tbis,  tbe  former  being 
a  river  sbell  and  tbe  latter  an  exotic  species. 

10.  H.  coNciN^NA^,  Jeffreys. 

H.  concinoia,  Jeffr.  in  Linn.  Trans,  xvi.  p.  336.     H.  hispida,  var,  concinna, 
F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  70,  pi.  cxviii.  f.  2,  3. 

Body  histrous,  reddish-brown,  minutely  tubercled  or  gra- 
nulated :  tentacles  of  a  lighter  colour ;  upper  pair  larger  and 
more  slender  than  in  the  next  species  {H.  hispida)  ;  lower 
ones  very  short :  foot  narrow,  of  a  greyish  colour  on  its  sides 

and  sole. 

*  Neat. 


HELIX.  197 

Shell  siibconic,  compressed  on  both  sides,  rather  soKd  for 
its  size,  but  semitransparent,  somewhat  glossy,  light  ash-grey, 
with  occasionally  faint  streaks  of  reddish-brown,  giving  the 
shell  a  prettily  mottled  appearance  ;  there  is  also  frequently 
on  the  last  whorl  a  white  spiral  band  like  that  in  H.  rufescens ; 
the  surface  also  is  transversely  striate  as  in  that  species  :  jperl- 
jpliery  obtusely  and  indistinctly  keeled :  epidermis  rather  thick, 
sparsely  covered  with  short  white  hairs,  which  are  easily 
rubbed  off:  ivliorls  6-7,  compact,  rather  depressed  above  and 
slightly  convex  beneath,  the  last  scarcely  occupying  one-third 
of  the  shell :  spire  short  and  blunt :  suture  deep :  mouth  ob- 
Kquely  semilunar,  considerably  higher  than  broad,  furnished 
inside  with  a  sharp  white  rib,  which  becomes  thicker  towards 
the  umbilicus  and  is  placed  near  the  opening :  outer  lip  not 
very  thin  in  adult  specimens  and  somewhat  reflected ;  umbi- 
licus rather  broad,  open  and  deep.     L.  0-2.    B.  0-4. 

Var.  1.  alhida.     Shell  white. 

Yar.  2.  minor.  Shell  smaller  and  also  white :  spire  more 
depressed  than  usual. 

Habitat  :  Under  stones  among  nettles  and  the  Arum 
maculatum,  as  well  as  at  the  roots  of  grass  in  moist 
places;  generally  distributed.  Var.  1.  With  specimens 
of  the  usual  colour.  Var.  2.  South  of  Ireland  (Dill- 
wyn)  j  Bath  (Clark);  Dover  (J.  G.  J.).  The  typical 
form  occurs  not  unfrequently  in  our  upper  tertiary  beds. 
It  is  not  uncommon  in  many  parts  of  the  Continent, 
but  it  has  been  probably  overlooked  and  considered  a 
variety  of  H.  hispida.  The  second  variety  I  found  at 
Calais,  as  well  as  at  Dover. 

Between  two  and  three  years  after  I  had  described 
this  species  in  the  '  Transactions '  of  the  Linnean  So- 
ciety, I  had  some  misgivings  as  to  its  being  distinct  from 
some  of  the  numerous  varieties  of  H.  hispida,  and  I 
expressed  this  doubt  in  a  Supplement  to  my  Monograph ; 
but  as  the  species  I  had  proposed  is  adopted  by  Conti- 
nental naturalists,  and  there  is  a  fair  probability  that  this 
has  quite  as  good  a  claim  to  specific  distinction  as  many 


198  HELlClDiE. 

others,  I  have  now  ventured  to  restore  it.  The  shell  is 
never  globose,  like  that  of  H.  hispida,  and  it  is  more 
glossy ;  the  umbilicus  is  considerably  more  open ;  and 
the  hairs  are  more  scattered  and  easily  shed.  Besides 
these  differences  in  the  shell,  Mr.  Smith  has  pointed  out 
in  the  ^Zoologist'  (1854,  p.  4333)  that  the  animal  is 
darker- coloured,  and  the  foot  narrower  and  far  less 
fleshy  than  in  H.  hispida,  which  has  a  thick  yellowish- 
white  foot.  From  H.  rnfescens,  with  which  the  present 
species  seems  to  connect  H.  hispida,  it  differs  in  the 
shell  being  much  smaller,  and  in  the  whorls  being  more 
rounded  and  compact,  though  equally  numerous.  All 
these  three  species  are  found  together.  Sometimes  the 
shell  of  H.  concinna  exhibits  several  formations  in  suc- 
cession of  the  labial  rib. 

Beck  has  referred  the  H.  umbrosa  of  Partsch  to  the 
variety  minor  of  the  present  species  ;  but,  judging  from 
Rossmassler's  figure,  the  Austrian  shell  is  much  more 
globular.  Neither  can  this  be  the  H.  depilata  of  C. 
Pfeiffer,  which  he  describes  as  subglobose  and  having  a 
narrow  umbilicus.  He  compares  it  with  H.  sericea,  and 
not  with  H.  hispida. 

11.  H.  His'piDA"^,  Linne. 

H.  hisjndrr,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  ed.  xii.  p.  1244  ;  F.  &  H.  iv,  p.  68,  pi.  cxviii. 
f.  1,  and  (animal)  pi.  G.  G.  G-.  f.  1. 

Body  greyish-brown  or  slate-colour,  mottled  with  black ; 
tubercles  speckled  -udth  milk-white  :  tentacles  rather  thick,  of 
a  somewhat  darker  colour  than  the  rest  of  the  body  :  foot 
rounded  in  front,  marked  with  fine  black  specks,  gradually 
narrowing  behind  to  a  rather  blunt,  convex  and  keeled  tail. 

Shell  subconic,  more  convex  above  than  below,  rather  thin 
and  semitransparent,  very  little  glossy ;  colour,  markings,  and 
sculpture  the  same  as  in  H.  concinna,  but  the  colour  of  the 

*  Bristly. 


HELIX.  199 

present  species  is  usually  much  darker  and  of  a  uniform  yel- 
lowish-brown :  perifphery  rounded,  and  seldom  keeled  or  an- 
gulated  :  epidermis  thick,  closely  covered  with  short  recurved 
white  hairs,  which  are  persistent  and  not  easily  rubbed  off : 
wJiorls  6-7,  rounded  and  moderately  convex  on  both  sides, 
the  last  occupying  about  one-third  of  the  shell:  Sjpire  some- 
what raised,  but  blunt :  suture  deep  :  mouth  obliquely  semi- 
lunar, rather  broader  than  high,  sometimes  (especially  in  the 
adult)  furnished  with  an  interior  rib,  as  in  the  last  species  : 
outer  lip  thin,  not  reflected,  and  very  little  inflected  above : 
umbilicus  small  and  narrow,  but  deep.     L.  0*185.    B.  0-3. 

Var.  1.  suhrufa.  Shell  reddish -brown  and  more  solid,  with 
a  strong  labial  rib. 

Yar.  2.  albida.     Shell  thinner,  white  or  colourless. 

Yar.  3.  conica.     Shell  smaller  :  spire  more  raised. 

Yar.  4.  nana.  Shell  much  smaller,  but  with  a  strong  labia^ 
rib  :  spire  depressed.     L.  0-1.    B.  0-2. 

Yar.  5.  suhglobosa.  Shell  more  globular  and  much  thinner, 
homcolour  or  white  :  umbilicus  very  small.  H.  sericea,  Alder, 
Suppl.  Cat.  Northumb.  Moll.  p.  4. 

Habitat  :  Everywhere  under  stones  and  logs  of  wood, 
as  well  as  among  moss  and  herbage  in  woods^  gardens, 
hedges  and  all  sorts  of  rural  spots.  Var.  1.  Not  un- 
common in  dry  situations.  Var.  2.  In  osier-beds,  as 
well  as  on  the  limestone  at  Kendal.  Var.  3.  At  the 
roots  of  Rosa  spinosissima  on  the  sand-hills  near  Swan- 
sea. Var.  4^  Freshwater,  Isle  of  Wight  (Metcalfe). 
Var.  5.  Northumberland  and  Durham  (Alder)  :  Ham- 
mersmith; Plymouth;  Brocklesby, Lincolnshire  (J.G.  J.). 
I  have  noticed  this  variety  in  Continental  collections 
as  H.  sericea  ;  but  it  is  certainly  not  Miiller^s  species  of 
that  name,  although  forming  a  passage  to  it.  Distor- 
tions of  the  spire  are  sometimes  met  with.  This  species 
is  common  in  our  upper  tertiary  strata.  It  has  a  wide 
range,  extending  from  Siberia  to  Sicily,  from  which 
latter  place  Philippi  has  recorded  it  under  the  name  of 


200  HELICID^. 

H.  sericea.  Mr.  Lowe  has  noticed  it  as  inhabiting 
Madeira.  In  all  probability  it  derives  its  origin  from 
a  preglacial  epoch. 

This  little  snail  does  some  mischief  in  our  gardens  by 
nibbling  before  the  dawn  of  day  the  leaves  of  some  of 
the  more  succulent  plants.  The  Rev.  Revett  Sheppard 
remarked  that  it  w^as  an  amphibious  species,  being  "  fre- 
quently found  some  feet  below  the  surface  of  water  on 
stakes  and  piles,  upon  which  it  ascends  and  descends  at 
pleasure  /^  and  he  added  that  the  eggs  resemble  those 
of  birds  and  retain  their  form  without  shrinking.  Ac- 
cording to  M. B ouch ard- Chanter eaux, the  H.  hispida  lays, 
between  the  months  of  April  and  September,  40  eggs, 
which  are  globular,  white  and  opaque ;  the  fry  are  born 
at  the  end  of  the  twentieth  to  the  twenty-fifth  day,  and 
emerge  from  the  egg  with  nearly  one  whorl  of  their  shell 
formed ;  and  more  than  half  of  this  embryonic  shell  is 
then  covered  with  minute  red  and  straight  hairs  of  a 
tolerably  strong  consistence.  The  summit  of  the  spire 
is  quite  smooth  and  polished.  The  black  spots  on  the 
mantle  are  sometimes  visible  through  the  semitrans- 
parent  shell,  even  in  dried  specimens.  The  first-formed 
whorls  are  often  whitish,  in  consequence  of  their  not 
being  occupied  by  the  animal. 

The  H.  plebeia  of  Draparnaud  seems  to*be  one  of  the 
numerous  varieties  of  this  species,  judging  from  his 
description  and  a  comparison  of  specimens  thus  named 
which  I  received  from  his  friend  M.  D^Orbigny  at 
Rochelle.  According  to  Moquin-Tandon,  the  umbilicus 
of  this  variety  is  very  narrow.  Several  other  species 
have  been  carved  out  of  this  variable  and  ubiquitous 
form  by  Continental  conchologists. 


HELIX.  201 

12.  H.  sERi'cEA*,  Miiller. 

H.  sericea,  Miill.  Verm.  Hist.  pt.  ii.  p.  62;  F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  71,  pi.  cxviii. 
f.  5,  6. 

Body  yellowish-grey,  closely  tubercled :  mantle  reddish- 
brown,  with  milk-white  specks :  tentacles  rather  long,  of  an 
iron-grey  colour :  foot  rather  broad  and  slightly  raised  at  its 
sides. 

Shell  conical,  subglobular,  thin,  but  (by  reason  of  its  colour) 
not  usually  semitransparent,  scarcely  glossy,  grejish-white, 
with  sometimes  a  few  slight  transverse  streaks  of  reddish- 
brown,  very  finely  but  indistinctly  striate  in  the  line  of  grow' th  : 
periphery  rounded,  and  never  keeled  or  angidated :  epidermis 
rather  thick,  closely  covered  with  rather  long  and  very  fine, 
white,  downy  hairs,  which  are  persistent  and,  when  rubbed 
off,  leave  their  sockets  very  perceptible,  giving  the  siuface  in 
that  case  a  finely  granulated  appearance :  whorls  6,  extremely 
convex,  the  last  occupying  nearly  one-half  of  the  shell :  spire 
considerably  raised,  but  blunt:  suture  not  very  deep:  mouth 
semilunar,  much  broader  than  high,  sometimes  (in  adult 
specimens)  furnished  with  a  slight  internal  white  rib,  which 
is  much  stronger  towards  the  umbilicus :  outer  lip  thin,  a 
little  reflected,  scarcely  at  all  inflected  above :  umhilicus  ex- 
ceedingly small,  but  deep,  having  more  the  character  of  a 
]3erforation.     L.  0*2.    B.  0"3. 

Var.  cornea.  Shell  horncolour,  very  thin,  glossy  and  semi- 
transparent  ;  the  labial  rib  perceptible  on  the  outside. 

Habitat  :  Mossy  banks  and  hedges  in  various  parts 
of  the  country,  from  the  Moray  Firth  district  to  Corn- 
wall,  as  well  as  at  Tenby  and  Manorbeer  in  Pembroke- 
shire. I  am  not  aware  of  any  Irish  locality.  The 
variety  was  found  by  me  at  Lulworth.  This  species 
occurs  in  our  upper  tertiary  beds.  It  inhabits  the  more 
temperate  parts  of  Europe ;  but  according  to  Krynicki  it 
is  found  in  the  Caucasus,  and  Gerstfeldt  has  recorded 
it  as  occurring  in  the  province  of  Irkutsk  in  Siberia.  It, 
however,  seems  to  be  local  both  here  and  abroad.     It  is 

*  Silky. 

K  D 


202  HELICIDyE. 

difficult  to  ascertain  its  exact  distribution,  because  of  a 
variety  of  H.  hispicla  being  often  mistaken  for  it. 

It  seems  to  aflPect  elevated  as  well  as  moist  situations. 
Puton  found  it  on  the  Vosges  mountains  at  a  height  of 
about  3772  English  feet. 

This  shell  is  easily  distinguishable  from  H.  hispida  by 
tlie  globoseness  of  its  form  and  greater  height  of  the 
spire,  by  being  much  more  thin  and  of  a  lighter  colour, 
by  the  want  of  any  keel  or  angularity,  and  by  the  thicker 
and  downy  covering  of  hair. 

It  is  the  H.  hispida  of  Montagu,  whose  description  of 
the  shell  is,  as  usual,  most  accurate.  He  says  "  it  is  so 
remarkably  light  and  so  covered  with  hairs,  that  when 
let  fall  upon  a  hard  body  it  is  scarce  heard."  Beck  is 
of  opinion  that  the  H.  sericea  of  Miiller  is  the  young  of 
H.  incarnata-,  but  the  surface  of  immature  shells  of 
that  species  is  not  hairy,  but  scaly  or  like  seal-skin. 
The  present  species  appears  to  be  the  H.  revelata  of 
Ferussac ;  and  it  is  also  the  H.  granulata  of  Alder,  and 
my  H.  globular  is. 

13.  H.  revela'ta*,  Michaud. 

H.  revelata,  Mich.  CompL  p.  27,  pi.  xv.  f.  6-8;  F.&  H.  iv.  p.  70,  pi.  cxix. 
f.  1-3. 

Body  pale  yeUowish-grey,  sometimes  having  a  reddish  or 
dusky  hue,  closely  tubercled :  mantle  yellowish-brown,  minutely 
speckled  mth  brown  and  milk-white :  tentacles  rather  thick 
and  long,  of  a  dirty-grey  colour  faintly  tinged  with  violet  or 
brown  ;  the  upper  ones  finely  granulated,  with  globidar  bulbs : 
foot  rounded  in  front,  triangular  and  keeled  behind;  sides 
marked  with  transverse  furrows. 

Shell  subglobular,  somewhat  compressed  above  and  rounded 
below,  very  thin  and  semitrunsparent,  rather  glossy,  yellowish- 
green,  marked  with  irregidar  wrinkles  in  the  line  of  growth, 

*  Discovered. 


HELIX.  203 

which  are  stronger  towards  the  suture  and  base  of  the  shell, 
making  the  former  appear  slightly  puckered ;  the  surface  is 
also  very  finely  granulated  :  periphery  rounded  and  prominent : 
epidermis  rather  thick,  covered  with  short  white  hairs,  which 
are  easily  rubbed  off:  luhorls  4|-,  very  convex  and  swollen, 
the  last  occupying  two- thirds  of  the  shell :  spire  very  little 
raised  and  blunt :  suture  remarkably  deep :  mouth  forming  a 
segment  of  about  three -fifths  of  a  circle,  contracted  inside  by 
the  prominence  of  the  periphery,  not  furnished  with  a  rib : 
outer  lip  thin,  a  little  reflected  and  considerably  so  near  the 
umbilicus,  sharply  inflected  above:  imihiliciis  small,  narrow, 
and  not  deep.     L.  0-185.   B.  0-285. 

Habitat  :  Downs  on  the  sea-coast  of  our  Southern 
counties  and  the  Channel  Isles,  as  well  as  (according  to 
Mr.  E.  J.  Lowe)  in  Nottinghamshire.  The  British 
localities  are  so  few  that  I  will  particularize  them,  in 
the  hope  that  the  known  range  of  this  comparatively 
rare  species  may  be  extended  by  further  observation. 
They  are — Torquay  (Hanley)  ;  Plymouth  (Norman) ; 
Devon  (Bellamy) ;  Megavissey  (Couch)  ;  Pendennis 
(Cocks,  Benson) ;  Land^s  End  (Millet)  and  Scilly  Isles 
(Barlee), — all  the  last  four  being  Cornish  localities; 
Guernsey  (Forbes  and  others) ;  Sark  (Lukis  and  J.G.J.) ; 
Stanton-on-the- Wolds,  Notts,  in  woods  during  October 
(Lowe).  It  is  found  in  the  South-west  of  France  and 
in  Portugal,  as  well  as  (according  to  Michaud)  in  the 
alpine  valleys  of  the  former  country. 

In  winter  and  dry  weather  it  buries  itself  rather  deep 
in  the  earth,  and  must  be  looked  for  by  pulling  up  tufts 
of  grass  and  large  stones  which  are  sunk  in  the  ground, 
as  well  as  by  searching  among  the  roots  of  shrubs  and 
furze-bushes.  It  has  a  different  kind  of  epiphragm  for 
summer  and  winter.  The  former  kind  is  filmy,  trans- 
parent and  iridescent,  and  it  has  a  small  round  hole 
corresponding  with  the  position  of  the  respiratory  orifice, 
thus  enabling  the  animal  to  procure  a  continual  supply 


204  HELICID^. 

of  air  from  the  atmosphere.     The  winter  covering  is 
thicker^  opaque,  and  nearly  white. 

This  is  another  instance  of  rather  conspicuous  land- 
shells  having  been  overlooked  in  places  where  observant 
naturalists  had  long  searched  and  obtained  much  smaller 
species.  Col.  Montagu  especially  investigated  the  Tes- 
tacea  of  our  Southern  counties ;  and  these  have  always 
been  a  favourite  haunt  of  our  field  or  outdoor  concho- 
logists.  The  H.  revelata  was  for  the  first  time  noticed 
as  a  British  species  by  Dr.  Gray  in  1840,  in  consequence 
of  the  late  Professor  Edward  Forbes  having  found  it 
in  Guernsey  and  presented  specimens  to  our  National 
Museum. 

The  H.  revelata  of  Ferussac,  who  first  used  this  name, 
is  (as  I  have  before  observed)  the  H.  sericea  of  Miiller ; 
but  Michaud  afterwards  described  and  figured  the  pre- 
sent species  under  the  same  name,  supposing  it  to  be 
Ferussac's  species.  It  therefore  appears  unnecessary 
to  adopt  the  name  either  of  Ponentina  or  occidentalism 
which  were  subsequently  (in  1845)  applied  to  this  species 
by  Morelet  and  Recluz.  The  H.  revelata  of  Bouchard- 
Chantereaux  is  our  H.  fusca,  of  which  I  had  an  oppor- 
tunity of  satisfying  him  soon  after  the  publication  of 
his  excellent  Memoir  on  the  Land  and  Freshwater  Mol- 
lusca  of  the  Pas-de-Calais.  Some  shells  which  I  noticed 
in  the  collection  of  M.  D^Orbigny  at  Rochelle,  in 
1830,  as  having  been  received  by  him  from  Draparnaud, 
under  the  name  of  H.  sericea  (two  of  which  he  kindly 
presented  to  me  and  are  now  in  my  possession),  belong 
to  the  present  species,  and  occasioned  the  remark  which 
I  made  in  the  Supplement  to  my  paper  in  the  '  Linnean 
Transactions^  (vol.  xvi.  p.  507)  as  to  the  H.  sericea  of 
the  last-named  author.  Michaud's  work  was  not  pub- 
lished until  1831. 


HELIX.  205 

14.  H.  Fus'cA*,  Montagu. 

H.  fusca,  Mont.  Test.  Brit.  p.  424,  pi.  xiii.  f .  1 ;  F.  &  H.  iy.  p.  77,  pi.  cxix 
f.  4,  5,  and  (animal)  pi.  G.  G.  G.  f.  4. 

Body  long,  yellowish-white  or  grey,  with  two  longitudinal 
streaks  of  brown  leading  to  the  tentacles,  irregularly  but  rather 
finely  tubercled  :  mantle  covered  "with  faint  and  minute  specks 
of  brown  and  milk-white :  tentacles  long,  bluish-grey  with  a 
slight  tinge  of  violet ;  bulbs  short :  foot  very  long  and  narrow, 
pointed  behind,  with  a  bluish  tint  on  the  sides  near  the  sole. 

Shell  subcorneal,  slightly  compressed  above  and  below,  ex- 
tremely thin  and  transparent,  glossy,  yellowish-brown,  marked 
transversely  with  strong  but  irregular  wrinkles  ;  the  surface  of 
young  shells  is  also  very  finely  striate  in  the  same  direction 
like  hair-cloth:  periphery  rounded,  but  encircled  by  a  slight 
keel :  epidermis  tolerably  thick :  whorls  5-^,  convex,  the  last 
occupying  rather  more  than  one-half  of  the  shell :  spire  some- 
what raised,  but  not  pointed  :  suture  distinct,  though  not  deep  : 
mouth  oblique,  semilunar,  considerably  broader  than  high,  not 
furnished  wdth  a  rib :  outer  lip  very  thin,  reflected  over  the 
umbilicus  and  sharply  inflected  above :  umbilicus  extremely 
small  and  narrow,  reduced  to  little  more  than  a  perforation. 
L.  0-225.   B.  0-35. 

Habitat  :  Woods^  on  young  trees,  and  among  nettles 
and  dog-mercury,  in  many  parts  of  these  isles  from 
Aberdeenshire  to  Devon,  but  not  everywhere.  It  is  one 
of  our  upper  tertiary  fossils.  Montagu  mentions,  in  his 
Supplement  (p.  148),  having  received  through  Mr.  Boys 
from  Scotland  a  shell  which  would  seem  from  the  de- 
scription to  be  a  white  variety  of  this  species ;  but  the 
source  is  rather  suspicious,  as  Mr.  Boys  was  the  means 
of  introducing  many  exotic  shells  into  our  Fauna.  The 
finest  specimens  in  my  collection  were  kindly  sent  to 
me  by  the  late  Mr.  Thompson  of  Belfast,  from  that 
neighbourhood.  H.  fusca  occurs  in  the  North  and  South- 

*  Dark -brown. 


206  HELICID^. 

west  of  France ;   but  it  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
noticed  elsewhere  on  the  Continent. 

M.  Bouchard-Chantereaux,  who  was  the  first  to  dis- 
cover this  species  in  France^  but  who  mistook  it  for  H. 
revelata,  says  that  it  inhabits  young  alders  (the  foliage 
of  which  constitutes  its  food)  in  the  woods  near  Bou- 
logne, and  protects  itself  from  the  heat  of  the  day  by 
clinging  to  the  underside  of  the  leaves,  falling  with 
them  in  September  and  October;  and  that  it  then  occu- 
pies itself  in  the  work  of  reproduction,  for  which  the 
dead  leaves  offer  a  convenient  place  of  retreat.  Its  eggs 
number  from  40  to  50,  and  are  globular  and  of  an  opaline 
lustre.  The  young  are  excluded  about  the  twentieth 
day  after  the  eggs  are  laid,  and  become  adult  at  the  end 
of  from  ten  to  twelve  months.  These  pretty  little  snails 
are  tolerably  active,  and  appear  to  be  nearly  always 
moving  their  horns  about.  They  secrete  a  good  deal  of 
slime.  According  to  Moquin-Tandon  they  are  grega- 
rious and  sociable,  and  have  been  observed  each  mutually 
polishing  its  neighbour's  shell  with  its  foot. 

The  shell  differs  from  that  of  any  other  kind  of  British 
Helix  in  its  peculiar  sculpture,  which  resembles  that  of 
a  Continental  species,  H.  mcarnata.  In  shape  and  the 
narrowness  of  its  umbilicus  it  somewhat  resembles  H. 
sericea ;  but  in  the  present  species  the  spire  is  more  de- 
pressed, the  last  or  body  whorl  is  proportionally  larger 
than  the  others,  and  the  epidermis  is  never  hairy  like 
that  of  the  last-named  species,  or  H,  revelata.  The  tex- 
ture of  this  shell  is  also  far  more  fragile  than  in  either  of 
those  species,  and  its  colour  is  uniformly  of  a  light  yellow- 
ish-brown, instead  of  whitish  or  dark  greenish-brown. 

This  is  not  the  H.  fusca  of  Poiret  (whose  work  pre- 
ceded that  of  Montagu  by  two  years) ;  but  as  that  shell 


HELIX.  207 

is  only  a  variety  of  H.  nemoralis  and  allied  to  the  one 
called  hybrida,  there  does  not  appear  to  be  any  greater 
reason  for  changing  Montagues  name  than  there  was  in 
the  similar  case  of  H.  revelata. 

D.  Shell  siibconical  or  depressed,  and  banded :  outer  Up  streng- 
thened by  an  internal  rib :  umbilicus  large  or  distinct. 

15.   H.  Pisa'na^,  Miiller. 

H.  Pisana,  Miill.  Verm.  Hist.  pt.  ii.  p.  60 ;  F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  56,  pi.  cxv.  f.  7, 8. 

Body  yellowish-grey  with  a  tinge  of  red  in  front,  rather 
strongly  tubercled  :  mantle  often  dark -brown,  tinged  with 
yellow  and  marked  with  very  small  and  numerous  milk-white 
specks :  tentacles  rather  broad  at  their  base,  but  slender,  finely 
shagreened;  the  so-called  optic  nerves  continue  along  the 
neck,  so  as  to  form  two  dark  lines ;  bulbs  very  globular  and  of 
a  reddish  colour,  indistinctly  speckled  mth  brown :  foot  long, 
somewhat  truncate  in  front,  gradually  narrowing  and  pointed 
behind,  but  not  keeled. 

Shell  subglobular,  slightly  compressed  above,  convex  below, 
rather  solid  and  opaque,  moderately  glossy,  yellowish-white, 
beautifully  marked  with  brown  spiral  bands,  which  vary  greatly 
in  number  (there  being  sometimes  as  many  as  fifteen  or  sixteen 
on  the  last  whorl,  but  usually  only  one  underneath),  and  more 
or  less  marked  transversely  with  short  oblique  streaks  of  the 
same  colour,  causing  the  upper  part  of  the  shell  to  appear 
speckled  ;  sculpture  consisting  of  irregular  striae  in  the  hne  of 
growth  and  of  fine,  close,  spiral  striae,  which  intersect  the 
transverse  striae  on  the  upper  whorls  and  give  to  the  surface  a 
delicately  reticulated  appearance :  perij^hery  rounded :  ejn- 
dermis  extremely  thm  and  only  perceptible  under  a  micro- 
scope :  whorls  5J,  very  convex  but  compressed  towards  the 
suture,  the  last  occupying  considerably  more  than  one-half  of 
the  shell:  spire  somewhat  raised,  but  having  a  blunt  point, 
which  is  of  a  purplish-brown  colour :  suture  rather  slight : 
mouth  forming  a  segment  of  two-thirds  of  a  circle  ;  interior 
sometimes  pink  or  blush- colour  and  furnished  with  a  slight 
rib,  which  is  either  pale  yellowish,  white,  or  pink  :  outer  lip 
sharp,  but  thickened,  reflected  in  the  direction  of  the  umbihcus 

*  First  found  at  Pisa. 


208  HELICID^. 

and  especially  over  it,  rather  abruptly  inflected  above :  mn- 
bilicus  extremely  small,  narrow  and  oblique.     L.  0-5.    B.  0-75. 

Var.  alba.  Shell  pale  yellowish -white  or  snow-white,  with 
or  without  translucent  markings.  H.  Pisana,  var.  alba,  Shuttle- 
worth,  Moll.  Cors.  p.  15. 

Habitat  :  On  a  hill  and  sand-banks,  as  well  as  in 
gardens  facing  the  sea,  at  Tenby  in  Pembrokeshire,  to 
the  sonth  and  south-west  of  that  charming  watering- 
place  (Montagu  and  others) ;  Manorbeer  in  the  same 
county  (J.  G.  J.) ;  St.  Ives  and  Whitsand  Bay,  Cornwall 
(Montagu) ;  Jersey  (Lukis)  ;  and  also  (according  to  Dr. 
Turton)  Balbriggan  strand  in  Dublin  Bay.  Although 
local,  it  is  most  abundant  at  Tenby,  and  is  said  to  be 
equally  so  in  Jersey  and  near  Dublin.  Its  foreign  dis- 
tribution seems  also  to  be  limited.  The  centre  and 
South  of  France,  Spain,  Portugal,  Italy,  Judaea,  Dal- 
matia,  Illyria,  Algeria,  Madeira,  the  Canary  Isles,  and 
Azores  are  the  only  extra- British  localities  that  I  have 
seen  recorded. 

The  limited  range  of  this  species  in  Great  Britain  is 
unaccountable.  I  have  endeavoured  twice,  with  an  in- 
terval of  nearly  three  years  between  each  attempt,  to 
colonize  this  beautifully  marked  and  peculiar  shell  on 
the  sand-hills  near  Swansea,  by  bringing  a  basketful  of 
live  specimens  from  Tenby,  a  distance  of  only  about 
thirty  miles ;  and  they  were  spread  over  diflferent  parts  of 
the  Burrows,  in  order  to  ensure  a  better  chance  of  success. 
But,  although  they  seemed  at  first  to  thrive  tolerably 
well  in  the  new  locality,  they  did  not  multiply,  and  the 
birds  soon  ate  up  the  immigrants.  These  experiments 
were  made  at  different  times  of  the  year ;  and  the  soil 
and  herbage  on  the  Swansea  sand-hills  were  the  same  as 
at  Tenby,  the  only  difference  being  the  aspect,  which  at 
Swansea  was  more  easterly.    The  colourin"r  of  the  man- 


HELIX.  209 

tie  corresponds  with  the  markings  of  the  shell.     The 
pink  hue  of  the  mouth  appears  to  be  deeper  and  brighter 
in  specimens  which  are  exposed  to  the  sun.     Drapar- 
naud  says  that  this  colour  is  more  perceptible  in  the 
shells  of  those  individuals  which  have  been  kept  a  long 
time  without  food,  or  after  their  death.     These  snails 
adhere  in  the  daytime  to  the  stalks  and  leaves  of  grass, 
as  well  as  to  shrubs,  by  means  of  a  rather  thick  calca- 
reous secretion,  which  lines  the  outer  lip  of  the  mouth. 
My  late  friend  Mr.  Barlee  informed  me  that  at  St.  Ives 
he  procured  live  specimens  by  digging  some  inches  in 
the  sand-hills,  at  the  roots  of  the  Carex  arenaria,  where 
the  snails   had   buried   themselves,  the  weather  being 
then  very  hot  and  the  herbage  not  affording  much  shelter 
from  the  sun^s  rays.     Both  in  summer  and  winter  they 
close  the   mouths  of  their  shells  with  an  epiphragm, 
which  in  the  former  case  is  filmy,  very  transparent  and 
iridescent,  and  in  the  latter  opaque  and  like  thin  paper. 
Mr.  Millet  says  that  they  feed  on  the  Eryngium  mayn- 
timum.     According  to  St.  Simon  they  are  omnivorous. 
One  of  them  greedily  devoured  a  globule  of  slime  which 
he  had  taken  from  a  slug.     In  Jersey  the  thistles  are 
covered  with  them.     It  seems  onlv  to  be  found  on  the 
coast-line,  and  never  inland,  in  this  country. 

This  and  the  three  following  species  constitute  a  sub- 
section, of  which  Risso  made  the  genus  Theba,  from 
Leaches  MS. ;  but  H.  Cantiana  and  other  different  forms 
were  associated  with  it  both  by  Risso  and  Leach. 

The  present  species  was  first  described  by  Petiver,  and 
received  from  him  the  name  of  Pisana,  but  accompanied 
by  other  characters  which  preclude  his  authority  being 
recognized  for  the  name  under  the  rules  of  the  binomial 
system.  It  is  the  H.  zonaria  of  Pennant,  H.  rhodostoma 
of  Draparnaud,  and  H.  cingenda  of  Montagu. 


210  HELICID^. 

16.  H.  virga'ta*,  Da  Costa. 

H.  virgata,  Da  Costa,  Brit.  Conch,  p.  79,  pi.  iv.  f.  7  ;    F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  57, 
pi.  cxvii.  f.  10. 

Body  yellowish-white  or  ash-grey,  coarsely  tubercled : 
mantle  often  dark- violet,  indistinctly  speckled  with  milk-white 
and  brown:  tentacles  rather  thick,  cylindrico-conic,  greyish 
with  a  dusky  tinge ;  bulbs  globular  and  reddish,  speckled  with 
brown  at  their  base  :  foot  broad  and  rounded  in  front,  gradually 
narrowing  behind  and  ending  in  a  blunt  but  not  keeled  tail. 

Shell  conical,  with  a  broad  and  convex  base,  rather  solid 
and  opaque,  moderately  glossy,  white  or  cream-colour,  with  a 
single  broad  purplish-brown  or  chestnut  band  immediately 
above  the  periphery  and  two  or  three  other  bands  (sometimes 
as  many  as  six  or  seven)  below  it ;  the  colour,  however,  is 
very  variable,  being  occasionally  plain  yellowish,  white,  or  dark 
brown  with  white  bands,  or  the  dark  bands  are  streaked  or 
interrupted  so  as  to  make  the  surface  appear  spotted  ;  sculp- 
ture consisting  only  of  stria3  in  the  line  of  growth,  which  are 
closer  on  the  upper  whorls :  'periphery  rounded,  except  in 
young  shells,  which  have  a  short  but  rather  sharp  keel :  epi- 
dermis scarcely  perceptible  :  whorls  6,  convex  but  slightly 
compressed  towards  the  suture,  the  last  occupying  more  than 
one-half  of  the  shell :  spire  raised,  purplish-brown  at  the 
point :  suture  moderately  deep  :  mouth  forming  a  segment  of 
three-fourths  of  a  circle,  inside  purplish-brown  with  a  strong 
rib  of  the  same  colour,  or  white  in  the  albino  variety :  outer 
lip  sharp,  reflected  towards  and  over  the  umbilicus,  rather 
abruptly  inflected  above  :  umbilicus  narrow,  but  deep,  and  ex- 
posing nearly  all  the  interior  of  the  spire.     L.  0*4.   B.  0-55. 

Yar.  1.  suhaperta.  Shell  of  a  whiter  hue :  spire  more  de- 
pressed :  umbilicus  wider. 

Var.  2.  subglobosa.  Shell  smaller,  Avith  a  double  band  above 
the  periphery,  last  whorl  larger  in  proportion  to  the  others  : 
umbilicus  wider. 

Var.  3.  submaritima,  Des  Moulins.  Shell  much  smaller  and 
more  deeply  coloured,  often  with  a  violet  tinge  :  spire  raised. 
L.  0-25.   B.  0-325. 

Yar.  4.  carinata.  Shell  yellowish-white,  compressed  above : 
periphery  strongly  keeled. 

Habitat  :  Sandy  downs  and  heaths  in  most  parts  of 

*  Banded. 


HELIX.  211 

England^  Wales,  and  Ireland,  from  Yorkshire  to  the 
Channel  Isles.  It  is  generally  found  on  the  sea-coast, 
where  the  conditions  are  probably  more  favourable  to  its 
existence ;  but  it  also  inhabits  inland  districts,  such  as 
Oxfordshire,  Wilts,  and  Bath,  and  it  is  by  no  means 
confined  to  calcareous  soils.  Var.  1.  Bath  (Clark). 
This  variety  is  allied  to  the  H.  neglecta  of  Draparnaud. 
Var.  2.  Bantry  Bay  and  St.  Mawes  near  Falmouth 
(J. G.  J.).  Var. 3.  Braunton  burrows  in  North  Devon,  and 
Swansea  burrows  (J.  G.  J.) ;  Isle  of  Wight  (Pickering). 
This  resembles  the  H.  lineata  [H.  maritima,  Draparnaud) . 
Var.  4.  Wingfrith  near  Wareham,  about  five  miles  from 
the  sea  (Daniel).  This  is  a  remarkable  variety,  and  re- 
sembles the  H.  submaritima  of  Bossmassler  from  Oran. 
Mr.  Norman  found  at  Clevedon  a  specimen  of  the  ordi- 
nary form  which  has  the  spire  reversed.  The  foreign 
distribution  of  this  species  appears  to  be  confined  to 
France,  Portugal,  Italy,  Greece,  and  the  sea-board  of 
North  Africa.  In  the  North  of  Europe,  Germany,  and 
Switzerland  its  place  is  taken  by  the  H,  unifasciata  of 
Poiret  {H.  candidula,  Studer) ;  but  both  that  and  the 
present  species  are  found  together  in  the  North  of  France. 
This  is  one  of  the  species  which  has  given  rise  to  the 
popular  notion  that  it  sometimes  rains  snails.  H.  vir- 
gata  is  extremely  abundant  and  gregarious ;  and  in  suit- 
able weather  myriads  of  them  may  be  seen  clinging  to 
the  stalks  of  grass  and  leaves  of  shrubs.  When  the 
season  is  very  dry,  however,  they  ensconce  themselves 
among  the  herbage ;  but  immediately  on  a  shower  of 
rain  falling  they  emerge  suddenly  from  their  lurking- 
places  and  appear  before  the  astonished  rustic  like  Bo- 
derick  Dhu^s  warriors  at  the  sound  of  their  chieftain^s 
horn.  The  idea  of  their  descending  in  showers  may  also 
have  originated  in  a  whirlwind  having  caught  up  a  num- 


212  HELICID^. 

ber  of  them  by  sweeping  along  a  grassy  plain  and  drop- 
ping its  contents  in  a  limited  area.  Draparnand  men- 
tions this  snail  as  eatable ;  but  it  must  be  small  game 
for  those  who  like  that  kind  of  food.  It  is,  however, 
supposed  to  impart  a  nice  flavour  to  our  South-country 
mutton.  Borlase,  in  his  '  Natural  History  of  Cornwall ' 
(1758),  says — 

"  The  sweetest  mutton  is  reckoned  to  be  that  of  the 
smallest  sheep,  which  usually  feed  on  the  commons  where 
the  sands  are  scarce  covered  with  the  green-sod,  and  the 
grass  exceedingly  short ;  such  are  the  towens  or  sand- 
hillocks  in  Piran-sand,  Gwythian,  Philne,  and  Senan- 
Green  near  the  Lands-End,  and  elsewhere  in  like  situa- 
tions. From  these  sands  come  forth  snails  of  the  tur- 
binated kind,  but  of  different  species,  and  all  sizes  from 
the  adult  to  the  smallest  just  from  the  egg ;  these  spread 
themselves  over  the  plains  early  in  the  morning,  and 
whilst  they  are  in  quest  of  their  own  food  among  the 
dews,  yield  a  most  fatning  nourishment  to  the  sheep.^' 

In  INIontagu^s  time  also  it  appears  to  have  been  the 
prevailing  opinion  in  the  South  of  Devon  that  the  H. 
virgata  contributed  not  a  little  to  fattening  sheep ;  and 
in  a  recent  number  of  the  ^  Field  ^  newspaper  a  corre- 
spondent says  that  this  kind  of  food  is  supposed  to 
give  Dartmoor  mutton  its  admitted  superiority.  Bou- 
chard-Chantereaux  remarks  that  H.  virgata  does  not 
seem  to  mind  the  cold,  and  never  hibernates ;  that 
during  frost,  or  when  the  grass  is  covered  with  snow,  it 
covers  the  mouth  of  its  shell  with  the  same  kind  of  epi- 
phragm  that  it  makes  in  summer  as  a  protection  against 
the  rays  of  the  sun ;  and  that  when  a  thaw  takes  place 
it  is  again  active  and  in  search  of  food.  It  usually  lays 
its  eggs  from  September  to  November,  but  sometimes  as 
late  as  January.     He  also  observed  that  when  the  shell 


HELIX.  213 

was  of  a  light  colour  the  animal  was  black,  and  that 
the  clear  transparent  band  which  often  accompanies  the 
white  variety  appeared  to  be  black  when  the  animal 
occupied  the  shell.  The  largest  specimens  of  H.  virgata 
that  I  have  ever  seen  were  collected  by  Mr.  William 
Thompson  near  Weymouth ;  they  were  four-fifths  of  an 
inch  in  breadth.  Sometimes  the  mouth  has  two  ribs, 
which  are  placed  at  a  little  distance  from  each  other. 
Lady  Elizabeth  Finch  presented  me  mth  a  very  prettily- 
marked  variety  from  Sandgate. 

This  species  differs  from  H.  Pisana  in  its  much  smaller 
size,  more  prominent  spire,  having  only  one  band  on  the 
body  whorl,  and  in  the  larger  and  deep  umbilicus.  It 
is  very  variable  in  the  shape  and  markings  of  the  shell. 
Moquin-Tandon  has  particularized  seventeen  varieties, 
besides  eleven  more  of  H.  lineata,  which  very  closely 
approaches  the  present  species.  Several  of  these  varie- 
ties have  been  described  by  Continental  authors  as  di- 
stinct species.  The  typical  form  is  the  H.  variabilis  of 
Draparnaud ;  but  the  name  given  by  Da  Costa  was  long- 
anterior. 

17.  H.  capera'ta*,  Montagu. 

H.  caper ata,  Mont.  Test.  Brit.  p.  430,  pi.  11.  f.  11 ;  F.  &  H.'iv.  p.  59, 
pi.  cxvii.  f.  7.  ^, 

Body  pale  or  yellomsh-grej,  streaked  with  brown ;  tuber- 
cles rather  large  and  close-set,  with  fine  black  points  :  mantle 
greyish-brown,  minutely  speckled  with  black  and  milk-white : 
tentacles  long  and  rather  slender,  having  a  dusky  hue ;  bulbs 
somewhat  globidar :  foot  nearly  truncate  in  front,  ending  in  a 
short  and  blunt  tail,  which  is,  as  weU  as  the  sides  of  the  foot, 
of  a  lighter  colour. 

Shell  subcorneal,  compressed  both  above  and  below,  soHd 
and  opaque,  not  glossy,  greyish-white,  with  usually  a  rather 

*  Wrinkled. 


214  HELICIDiE. 

narrow  yellowish-brown  or  chestnut  band  immediately  above 
the  periphery,  and  from  two  to  seven  smaller  bands  of  the 
same  colour  below  it;  the  colour  is  equally  variable  in  this 
species  as  in  II.  virgata,  being  also  occasionally  plain  yellowish- 
white,  or  dark  brown  with  a  single  white  band,  or  the  dark 
bands  are  streaked  or  interrupted,  so  as  to  make  the  surface 
appear  mottled  or  spotted ;  sculpture  consisting  only  of  striae 
in  the  line  of  growth,  which  are  exceedingly  strong  and  close 
together,  resembling  ribs :  periphery  obtusely  keeled :  epidermis 
very  slight :  whorls  6,  compressed  towards  the  peripherj^,  but 
rather  convex  below ;  the  last  occupying  about  two-fifths  of 
the  shell ;  top  whorls  minutely  granulated :  spire  slightly 
raised,  often  chestnut-brown  at  the  summit :  suture  rather 
deep :  mouth  shaped  as  in  H.  virgatii  but  more  oblique,  inside 
furnished  with  a  strong  white  rib  which  is  sometimes  double : 
outer  lip  sharp,  slightly  reflected  towards  (and  considerably 
so  over)  the  umbiHcus,  somewhat  inflected  above :  umbilicus 
moderately  open  and  exposing  aU  the  inner  spii'e.  L.  0-225. 
B.  0-375. 

Var.  1.  major.     Shell  larger.     L.  0-25.    B.  0-5. 

Var.  2.  ornata,  Picard.  Shell  smaller,  with  broader  and 
darker  bands.     L.  0-15.    B.  0-3. 

Var.  3.  subscala7^is.     Shell  conical :  whorls  more  convex. 

Var.  4.  Gigaxii.  Shell  rather  smaller :  spire  more  de- 
pressed :  umhilicus  consequently  larger.  H.  Gigaxii,  Char- 
pentier,  MS.  in  sched.  and  mus.  Cuming ! 

Habitat  :  Under  stones  and  on  the  stalks  of  grass 
and  shrubs  in  dry  and  sandy  soils  in  most  parts  of 
Great  Britain^  both  inland  and  maritime,  from  the 
Moray  Firth  district  to  the  Channel  Isles.  Var.  1. 
Norwich  (Bridgman) ;  Surrey  (Choules).  Var.  2.  Sandy 
coasts  of  North  and  South  V\^ales,  South  Devon,  and 
Cork  (J.  G.  J.)-  Var.  3.  Cork  (Humphreys) ;  Swansea 
(J.  G.  J.).  Var.  4.  Sandwich  and  Falmouth.  This 
species  has  not  been  noticed  as  an  upper  tertiary  fossil, 
or  as  inhabiting  the  North  of  Europe ;  but  it  is  widely 
diffused  over  a  great  part  of  the  Continent  and  ranges 


HELIX.  215 

through  Germany^  France^  Portugal^  Spain,  and  Italy 
to  Algeria,  Greece,  and  Palestine. 

This  is  a  sluggish  moUusk  and  never  leaves  its  retreat 
or  place  of  attachment,  except  after  rain.  It  is  often 
found  in  gardens  and  corn-fields  near  the  sea.  Bouchard- 
Chantereaux  says  that  between  the  months  of  August 
and  October  it  lays  from  35  to  40  eggs,  which  are  quite 
white  and  opaque,  and  that  the  young  are  excluded  at 
the  end  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty  days,  becoming  adult 
at  the  end  of  the  next  year.  Brard  hazarded  a  singular 
conjecture,  that  the  tinge  of  violet-brown"  which  is  ob- 
servable in  the  shells  of  this  and  a  few  other  allied  spe- 
cies, and  which  fades  away  soon  after  death,  may  be 
owing  to  an  exudation  or  secretion  by  the  animal  of 
oxide  of  manganese. 

H.  caperata  differs  from  H.  virgata  in  its  much  smaller 
size,  its  depressed  spire  and  larger  umbilicus,  and  espe- 
cially in  the  numerous  rib-like  strise  which  hoop  round 
each  whorl.  This  appears  to  be  the  H.  striatula  of 
Miiller,  but  not  that  of  Linne.  It  is  also  in  all  proba- 
bility the  H.  fasciolata  and  H.  intersecta  of  Poiret,  and 
certainly  the  last-named  species  of  Michaud ;  but  Poiret's 
descriptions  are  much  too  brief  and  obscure  for  the  pur- 
pose of  identification.  Draparnaud  also  described  and 
figured  the  present  species  under  the  name  of  H.  striata ; 
but  although  the  work  which  contains  this  description 
and  figure  (the  'Tableau^)  bears  date  and  was  published 
before  that  of  Montagu,  Draparnaud^ s  name  cannot  be 
adopted,  because  Muller  had  previously  described  another 
species  di  Helix  under  the  same  name.  The  present 
species  is  allied  to  H.  conspurcata  of  Draparnaud,  which, 
however,  has  a  hispid  shell  and  belongs  to  the  last  section 
of  Helix. 

A  specimen  of  the  H.  terrestris  of  Pennant  [H.  elegans, 


216  HELICID.^. 

Drap.)  is  in  Dr.  Turton^s  collection  of  British  shells, 
marked  ^'  Cornwall  '^  (the  birthplace  of  many  spurious  or 
exotic  shells)  ;  but  although  it  has  not  at  present  any 
well-founded  claim  to  British  parentage,  it  is  remarkable 
that  this  characteristic  species,  which  had  been  so  long 
considered  as  peculiar  to  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean, 
has  been  lately  found  by  M.  PAbbe  Maillard  at  Beauvais 
in  the  North  of  France ;  and  I  have  seen  the  specimens 
and  been  satisfied  as  to  the  correctness  of  this  discovery. 


18.  H.  ericeto'rum*,  Miiller. 

H.  ericetorum,  Miill.  Verm.  Hist.  pt.  ii.  p.  33 ;  F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  61 ,  pi.  cxvii.  f.  4. 

Body  greyish-white  or  yellowish,  with  sometimes  a  tinge  of 
reddish-brown  ;  tubercles  very  close-set ;  7nantle  marked  with 
rather  small  and  irregular,  but  distinct,  milk-white  specks : 
tentades  rather  long  and  thick,  distinctly  granulated,  of  a  yel- 
lowish-grey colour ;  bulbs  globular :  foot  shghtly  angidated  in 
front,  its  sides  having  a  narrow  whitish  border,  and  the  tail 
tapering  to  a  blunt  point. 

Shell  nearly  circular,  much  compressed  above,  but  not  quite 
so  much  below,  rather  thin,  but  nearly  opaque,  glossy,  whitish 
or  cream- colour,  with  usually  a  rather  broad  chestnut  band  a 
little  above  the  periphery,  and  from  two  to  six  narrow  bands  of 
the  same  colour  below  it,  but  all  these  bands  (or  some  of  them) 
are  often  interrupted  or  altogether  wanting ;  sculpture  con- 
sisting of  faint  striae  in  the  line  of  growth,  and  often  of  irre- 
gular pit-marks  or  indentations,  which  are  thickly  scattered 
over  the  siuface :  periphery  round,  and  not  in  the  least  keeled 
or  angular :  ejndermis  very  thin :  whorls  6,  cyhndrical,  the 
last  occupying  about  three-fifths  of  the  shell :  spire  very  slightly 
raised,  chestnut-brown  at  the  summit :  suture  deep :  mouth 
nearly  round,  forming  a  segment  of  about  four-fifths  of  a 
circle,  somewhat  oblique,  in  consequence  of  the  greater  pro- 
minence of  the  upper  lip,  and  occasionally  strengthened  by  a 
slight  internal  rib:  outer  lip  rather  thick,  shghtly  reflected 
and  especially  towards  the  columella,  very  abruptly  inflected 

*  Frequenting  heaths. 


HELIX.  217 

above :  umbilicus  extremely  large  and  open,  exposing  a  con- 
siderable part  of  the  penultimate  and  preceding  whorls  and  all 
the  interior  of  the  spire.     L.  0-25.    B.  0-675. 

Yar.  1.  alba,  Charpentier.     Shell  milk-white. 

Var.  2.  minor.     Shell  smaller.     L.  0-2.    B.  0*5. 

Yar.  3.  instahilis.  Shell  smaller,  of  a  darker  colour,  and 
sometimes  streaked  or  spotted :  S2nre  more  raised :  umbilicus 
narrower.  I£.  instabilis,  (Ziegler)  var.  (j,  L.  Pfeiifer,  Mon.  Hel. 
i.  p.  165. 

Yar.  4.  sinistrorsa.     Shell  having  the  sjnre  reversed. 

Habitat:  Dry  heaths,  do  wns_,  and  sand-hiUs,  on  thistles 
and  other  plants,  in  various  parts  of  Great  Britain,  but 
apparently  not  ranging  further  north  than  the  Hebrides. 
Var.  1  is  also  not  uncommon,  and  is  (according  to 
Gray)  the  H.  obliterata  of  Hartmann,  besides  having  five 
other  names.  Var.  2.  Kendal  (J.  G.  J.).  Var.  3.  Zona 
(Lowe) ;  Mull  (Bedford) ;  Connemara  (J.  G.  J.).  Var.  4. 
Bridlington  (Strickland).  The  shell  is  also  inclined  to 
be  occasionally  scalariform.  This  species  and  several  of 
its  varieties  are  widely  diflPused  over  the  Continent  from 
Cassel  to  Sicily;  but  it  does  not  seem  to  inhabit  the 
extreme  North  of  Europe,  unless  it  is  the  same  species 
as  that  which  Nilsson  has  described  under  the  name  of 
H,  ericetorum.  The  Swedish  species  has  been  considered 
by  many  conchologists  to  be  distinct,  and  it  has  been 
named  H.  Nilssoniana  by  Beck,  Malm,  and  other  writers. 
YV'ith  the  above  exception,  all  the  species  comprised  in 
the  present  section  appear  to  belong  to  what  may  be 
termed  a  South -European  type. 

This  is  a  shy  and  inactive  mollusk,  withdrawing  itself 
into  the  shell  on  the  slightest  touch.  The  specific  name 
now  borne  by  this  very  elegant  shell  was  first  given  to  it 
by  Lister,  who  observed  that  continued  rains  kill  a  great 
number  of  them — a  fact  which  I  can  corroborate.     It 


218  HELICID.E. 

commences  egg-laying  in  August^  and  retires  into  winter- 
quarters  in  November^  when  it  shuts  itself  up  by  means 
of  its  epiphragm  and  remains  concealed  at  the  roots  of 
grass  or  under  the  shelter  of  a  stone  until  spring. 

The  flat  shape  of  this  shell,  its  exceedingly  large  um- 
bilicus, and  nearly  circular  mouth  will  easily  serve  to 
distinguish  it  from  any  other  of  our  banded  Helices. 

Linne  was  supposed  by  some  to  have  given  the  name 
of  Itala  to  this  species ;  but  L.  Pfeifier  considers  it  a 
synonym  of  H.  cespitum.  The  Linnean  description,  how- 
ever, is  "  convexa^^  and  the  size  that  of  a  hazel-nut — 
both  of  which  characters  are  more  appropriate  to  H. 
virgata  than  to  the  present  species.  The  original  types 
in  the  collection  of  the  illustrious  Swede  appear  to  have 
been  so  disarranged  and  confused  by  the  late  possessor 
(Sir  James  Smith)  and  others,  that  I  fear  they  are  now^  of 
little  value  as  a  means  of  identifying  any  of  the  species 
described  either  in  the  ^  Fauna  Suecica '  or  the  '  Systema 
Naturae,^  except  in  a  very  few  instances  where  the  hand- 
writing of  Linne  has  been  preserved  on  or  with  the 
specimens ;  and  this  unfortunately  is  very  seldom  the 
case. 

E.  Shell  depressed :  outer  lip  usually  thin  and  destitute  of  a 

rib  :   umbilicus  very  large. 

19.  H.  ROTUNDA  TA"^,  Miiller, 

H.  rotundafa,  Miill.  Verm.  Hist.  pt.  ii.  p.  29;  F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  80,  pi.  cxix. 
f.  6,  7,  and  (animal)  pi.  G.  G.  G.  f.  2. 

Body  small  in  comparison  with  the  shell  and  very  slender, 
rounded  in  front  and  ending  in  a  blunt  point,  slate-colour  or 
light-grey  with  a  faint  tinge  of  blue,  very  finely  speckled  with 
black  on  the  front  and  sides ;  tubercles  rather  large,  flat, 
round  and  thick,  but  not  very  distinct :  mantle  reddish-yellow, 
marked  with  very  close  and  distinct  milk-white  dots  :  tentm-les 

*  Eounded. 


HELIX.  219 

dark-grey  with  black  specks  ;  upper  pair  rather  close  together 
and  nearly  cylindrical;  bulbs  short,  thick,  and  subglobular: 
foot  rather  narrow,  rounded  in  front,  thickened  at  its  sides,  and 
ending  in  a  very  slender  but  blunt  tail. 

Shell  nearly  circular,  more  compressed  below  than  above, 
rather  thin  but  nearly  opaque,  moderately  glossy  and  slightly 
iridescent,  yellowish- brown  or  horncolour,  and  marked  trans- 
versely with  equidistant  reddish-brown  streaks  or  blotches ; 
sculpture  consisting  of  numerous  curved  transverse  ribs,  which 
are  equally  strong  on  both  sides  and  sometimes  anastomose,  as 
well  as  of  minute  intermediate  striae,  and  of  a  slight  granula- 
tion on  the  first  whorl,  which  is  destitute  of  ribs  :  periphery 
bluntly  keeled  :  epidermis  not  very  thin  :  whorls  6-7,  subcy- 
lindrical,  convex  below,  the  last  occupying  about  one-third  of 
the  shell  and  the  rest  gradually  diminishing  in  size :  spire 
slightly  raised ;  summit  glossy  and  semitransparent :  suture 
very  deep :  mouth  obliquely  quadrangular,  strengthened  in 
adult  specimens  by  a  narrow,  but  strong,  white  internal  rib  : 
outer  lip  thickened  in  the  adult,  but  usually  sharp  and  thin, 
very  slightly  reflected,  and  not  much  inflected  above :  umbi- 
licus extremely  large,  open,  and  deep,  exposing  a  considerable 
part  of  all  the  whorls,  as  well  as  the  whole  of  the  internal 
spire.     L.  0-1.    B.  0-275. 

Var.  1.  minor.     Shell  smaller. 

Yar.  2.  pyramidal'is.     Shell  subconical :  spire  more  raised. 

Yar.  3.  Turtoni.     Shell  greatly  depressed  above  and  below : 
5p^Ve  nearly  flat.     H.  Turtoni,  Fleming,  Brit.  Anim.  p.  269. 

Yar.  4.  alha,  Moquin-Tandon.  Shell  pale  yellowish-white 
or  with  a  greenish  tinge. 

Habitat  :  Under  stones^  logs  of  wood_,  and  bark  of 
old  trees,  as  well  as  in  decayed  wood  and  moss,  and 
among  dead  leaves,  everywhere  from  the  most  northern 
extremity  of  Great  Britain  to  the  Channel  Isles.  Var.  1 
appears  to  be  an  alpine  form.  I  have  found  it  not  only 
in  Zetland,  and  on  the  Jura  and  Swiss  Alps,  but  also  in 
Guernsey.  This  form  occurs  also  in  our  upper  tertiary 
beds,  probably  indicating  their  northern  origin.  Var.  2. 
Swansea  and  other  places  (J.  G.  J.).  Var.  3.  Dublin 
(Turton);  Bath  (Clark);  Bristol,  and Dunboy  in  Bantry 

L  2 


220  HELICIDyE. 

Bay  (J.  G.  J.) .  This  variety  is  the  H.  rotunclata  of  Tiir- 
ton's  '  Conchological  Dictionary/  Var.  4.  Bucks^  Surrey, 
Kent,  Essex,  Oxon,  Gloucester,  Somerset,  Salop,  York, 
Northumberland,  Aberdeen,  Glamorgan,  and  most  pro- 
])ably  other  counties ;  but  it  is  rare.  This  common 
species  ranges  from  Russia  and  Finland  to  Sicily  and  the 
Azores. 

This  pretty  little  shell  reminds  one  of  a  Solarium  or 
of  the  Trochus  perspectivus.  The  animal  is  exceedingly 
shy;  and  Miiller  relates  that  he  spent  two  hours  in 
watching  one  of  them,  before  it  made  its  appearance, 
although  he  took  every  precaution  not  to  alarm  the  little 
creature.  It  appears  not  to  be  prolific.  According  to 
Bouchard- Chantereaux,  it  only  lays  from  20  to  30  eggs 
in  the  course  of  the  breeding-season,  viz.  from  May  to 
September.  It  secretes  a  very  thin  and  transparent 
epiphragm. 

It  is  the  H.  radiata  of  Da  Costa  and  Montagu.  Some 
authors  have  erroneously  placed  this  and  the  two  follow- 
ing species  in  the  genus  Zonites ;  but  the  textui-e  and 
aspect  of  the  shells,  as  well  as  the  arrangement  of  the 
teeth,  show  that  they  belong  to  the  present  genus,  and 
not  to  Zonites. 

20.  H.  rupes'tris^,  Studer. 

H.  rwpeat.Tis,,  Draparnaud,  Tabl.  Moll.  p.  71.     H~  imihilicata,  F,  &  H.  iv. 
p.  81,  pi.  cxxi.  f.  7.  8. 

Body  dark  slate-colour,  with  sometimes  a  reddish  tinge, 
covered  with  minute  depressed  tubercles :  mantle  dusky 
brown,  indistinctly  speckled  with  black :  tentacles  diverging, 
dark-grey ;  upper  pair  thick  and  almost  cylindrical,  with 
nearly  oval  bulbs,  which  are  about  a  fourth  of  the  size  of  those 
tentacles ;  lower  pair  almost  rudimentary  and  nearly  black, 
not   more  than  a  twelfth  of  the  size  of  the  other  pair :  foot 

*  Inhabiting  rocks. 


HELIX.  221 

rounded  in  front,  obtusely  pointed  behind ;  sides  marked  with 
minute  and  numerous  black  specks,  which  are  arranged  in 
squares  and  form  rather  large  spots. 

Shell  subcorneal,  more  compressed  below  than  above,  rather 
solid  but  semitransparent,  slightly  glossy,  dark-brown  or  horn- 
colour,  marked  transversely  with  close-set  curved  strioe,  which 
are  equally  strong  on  both  sides  :  periphery  roimded,  but  ob- 
tusely keeled  in  young  specimens :  epidermis  rather  thin : 
whorls  5,  cylindrical,  compressed  on  the  upper  part  and  towards 
the  periphery,  rather  convex  underneath,  first  whorl  slightly 
granulated :  spire  somewhat  raised ;  summit  rather  glossy 
and  transparent :  suture  remarkably  deep  :  mouth  horseshoe- 
shaped,  but  compressed  above,  destitute  of  an  internal  rib  : 
outer  Up  thin,  very  slightly  reflected  in  adult  specimens,  con- 
siderably inflected  above  and  below  :  umhilicus  large,  open,  and 
deep,  exposing  part  of  the  whorls,  as  well  as  all  the  interior  of 
the  spire.     L.  0-075.    B.  0-115. 

Yar.  viridescenti-alba.     Shell  greenish- white. 

Habitat  :  On  rocks,  walls^  and  ruins  of  castles,  as  well 
as  under  stones  on  liill- sides,  throughout  the  greater 
part  of  this  country.  Fleming  noticed  it  in  his  '  British 
Animals*  as  a  Scotch  species,  and  Leach  states  that  he 
had  observed  it  near  the  summit  of  mountains  in  Arran, 
N.  B.;  its  EngUsh  range  extends  fi'om  Westmoreland 
to  South  Devon.  It  is  also  not  uncommon  in  South 
Wales  and  Ireland.  The  variety  has  been  found  by 
Mr.  Norman  at  Clevedon  in  Somersetsliire_,  and  by  Mr. 
Webster  at  Clifton,  near  Bristol.  The  spire  is  often 
more  or  less  raised,  and  not  unfrequently  distorted.  This 
species  does  not  appear  to  be  a  pliocene  fossil  or  to  in- 
habit the  North  of  Europe ;  but  Dr.  Zittel  has  taken  it 
near  Baden.  It  is  diflFased  throughout  Central  and 
Southern  Europe,  as  far  as  Algeria,  Sicily,  and  Greece, 
and  even  (according  to  Lowe)  ranges  to  Madeira. 

Montagu  observed,  with  respect  to  this  species,  that 
it  always  affects  lofty  and  exposed  situations,  braving 
equally  the  scorching  beams  of  the  sun  in  summer  and 


222  HELiciDAi:. 

tlie  frigid  winds  of  mnter^  without  attempting  to  de- 
scend. It  forms^  however^  a  thin  membranous  epi- 
phragm  for  its  protection  against  such  extremes  of  heat 
and  cold,  and  shelters  itself  in  clefts  of  rocks  and  crevices 
of  walls.  This  little  snail,  in  crawling,  usually  carries 
its  shell  quite  upright,  and  not  inclined  to  one  side  like 
most  of  its  congeners.  The  upper  whorls  of  the  shell 
are  generally  bleached  by  exposure  of  that  part  to  the 
sun.  The  animal  is  ovo^dviparous,  as  well  as  that  of 
Pupa  umbilicata ;  and  in  specimens  which  I  collected  at 
Kendal  in  the  month  of  August,  the  fry  in  the  interior 
of  the  shell  had  a  whorl  and  a  half  completely  formed. 
Moquin-Tandon  counted  in  the  matrix  of  several  speci- 
mens which  he  had  received  from  Marseilles,  from  tliree 
to  seven  young  ones  in  each.  It  mostly  frequents  cal- 
careous strata ;  but  in  Germany  it  has  been  found  on 
felspathic  rocks.  It  sometimes  occurs  in  unusual  places. 
A  specimen  in  my  collection  was  taken  by  the  trawl  at 
a  depth  of  between  twenty  and  thirty  fathoms  several 
miles  seaward  of  Plymouth,  having  been  probably  washed 
down  by  a  river  or  freshwater  stream  and  transported 
a  long  way  before  it  sunk  to  the  bottom. 

This  is  the  H.  umbilicata  of  Montagu ;  but  as  his 
excellent  work  was  published  two  years  after  Drapar- 
naud's  '  Tableau  des  Mollusques  terrestres  et  fluviatiles 
de  la  France,^  my  patriotic  inclinations,  however  strong, 
will  not  justify  me  in  preferring  the  name  given  by  my 
countryman  to  the  more  ancient  one  of  the  French  con- 
chologist.  The  above-mentioned  work  of  Draparnaud 
does  not  appear  to  have  been  known  to  Dr.  Gray  when 
he  published  an  improved  edition  of  Dr.  Turton^s  '  Ma- 
nual of  British  Land  and  Freshwater  Shells.'  The  work 
in  question  was  published  in  1801,  Montagu's  'Testacea 
Rritannica'  in  1803,  and  Draparnaud's  ^  Histoire  natu- 


HELIX.  223 

relle  des  Mollusques  terrestres  et  fluviatiles  de  la  France' 
was  edited  by  his  widow  and  appeared  in  1805.  Studer 
first  gave  this  species  the  name  of ''  rifpestris'^  in  Coxe^s 
^Travels  through  Switzerland^  (1789),  but  did  not  de- 
scribe it. 


21.  H.  pygm^'a"^,  Drapamaud. 

H.  2m^i(sa,  Drap.  Tabl.  p.  93,  aud  Hist.  p.  114,  pi.  viii.  f.  8-10 ;  F.  &  H. 
iv.  p.  83,  pi.  csxi.  f.  9, 10. 

Body  greyish-brown  or  slate-colour,  minutely  speckled  with 
black ;  tubercles  round  and  much  depressed :  mantle  brown, 
with  a  slight  tinge  of  red:  tentacles  rather  close  together, 
nearly  cylindrical,  abruptly  thickened  at  their  base ;  bulbs 
indistinct :  foot  narrow  and  ending  in  a  thick  and  keeled  tail. 

Shell  nearly  circular,  depressed  above  and  below,  thin, 
semitransparent,  rather  glossy  and  having  a  silky  lustre,  light- 
brown  or  tawny,  marked  transversely  with  extremely  fine 
and  close-set  curved  strias  and  spirally  (especially  round  the 
umbihcus)  with  a  few  delicate  lines,  which  are  only  perceptible 
with  a  high  magnifier :  periphery  rounded  and  not  keeled : 
ejndermis  rather  thin :  ivhorls  4,  convex  and  cylindrical, 
gradually  increasing  in  size :  spire  not  much  raised ;  summit 
glossy  and  transparent :  suture  deep :  mouth  shaped  as  in 
H.  rupestris  and  not  margined :  outer  lip  thin,  somewhat  in- 
flected on  both  sides :  umbilicus  moderately  large,  but  deep 
and  fuUy  exposing  the  interior  of  the  spire,  as  well  as  part  of 
the  penultimate  whorl.     L.  0-03.   B.  0-06. 

Habitat  :  Woods  and  moist  places  under  stones  and 
among  dead  leaves,  as  well  as  at  the  roots  of  grass  and 
rushes^  from  Oban  to  Guernsey.  It  is  widely  diffused^ 
although  difficult  to  find  on  account  of  its  minute  size. 
Saint- Simon  seems  to  have  been  successful  in  taking  it 
several  times  and  in  considerable  numbers  by  sweeping 
the  wet  grass  and  herbage  after  rain  with  an  entomolo- 
gists' gauze  net ;  and  Dr.  Turton  told  me  that  he  pro- 

*  Tiny, 


224  HELICID/E. 

cured  many  specimens  by  collecting  a  bagful  of  dead 
and  rather  moist  leaves  and  afterwards  spreading  them 
on  paper  to  dry,  when  the  refuse  yielded  a  good  harvest. 
This  species  has  a  wide  range  on  the  European  continent 
and  has  been  met  with  in  every  country  between  Siberia 
and  Sicily,  and  is  said  also  to  inhabit  the  Azores. 

Moquin-Tandon  says  that  this  tiny  snail  is  extremely 
timid  and  irritable,  avoiding  the  garish  light  of  day  and 
shutting  itself  up  in  its  shell  at  the  slightest  touch,  and 
that  when  it  is  about  to  move  it  protrudes  from  the 
shell  the  tail  of  its  foot  before  any  other  part  of  the 
body.  Like  the  last  species,  it  carries  its  shell  erect 
when  crawling.  It  forms  an  excessively  thin  and  deli- 
cate epiphragm. 

This  beautiful  little  testaceous  gem  differs  from  H. 
rupestris  in  its  much  smaller  size,  finer  textm-e  and 
sculpture,  lighter  colour,  fewer  whorls,  more  depressed 
spire,  slighter  suture,  and  more  open  umbilicus.  Leach 
and  Fleming,  however,  regarded  it  as  the  young  of  the 
last  species,  and  M.  D'Orbigny  of  Rochelle  made  the 
same  mistake.  It  w^as  first  noticed  as  a  British  shell  by 
Dr.  Gray  in  the  ^Medical  Repository^  for  182L 

It  is  the  H.  minuta  of  Studer  in  Coxe^s  ^  Travels,^  and 
H.  Kirbii  of  Sheppard. 


F.  Shell  depressed :   outer  lip  thickened  and  reflected,  some- 
times forming  a  complete  peristome. 

22.  H.  PULCHELLA*,  Miillcr. 

H.  2iulchcUa,  Miill.  Verm.  Hist.  pt.  ii.  p.  30;  F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  78,  pi.  cxix. 
f.  9,  10, 

Body  gelatinous,  milk-white  ^\^th  a  faint  tinge  of  grey  or 
yellow,  nearly  transparent,  very  sHghtly  tubercled:    mantle 

*  Pretty. 


HELIX,  225 

thick,  yellowish,  minutely  speckled  with  white :  tentacles 
(upper  pair)  hyaline,  thick,  nearly  cylindrical,  with  very  thick 
bulbs,  which  are  half  the  length  of  those  tentacles  and  nearly 
round ;  lower  pair  extremely  small :  foot  short,  broad,  strongly 
truncate  and  slightly  bilobed  in  front,  having  a  faint  yellowish 
border  on  the  sides,  and  ending  in  a  rather  short  and  somewhat 
rounded  tail. 

Shell  depressed  but  sHghtly  convex  above  and  below,  rather 
solid  although  transparent  and  glossy,  light-grey  or  white, 
striate  transversely  by  numerous  and  very  fine,  but  somewhat 
irregular  and  faint,  curved  lines,  which  are  stronger  in  the 
umbilical  region,  and  occasionally  marked  with  a  few  indistinct 
spiral  lines  on  the  lower  part :  periphery  rounded  in  the  adult, 
but  slightly  and  obtusely  keeled  in  the  young :  epidermis  rather 
thick :  luhorls  3|,  compressed  towards  the  periphery,  the  last 
exceeding  in  size  the  rest  of  the  shell  and  considerably  dilated 
towards  the  mouth :  sjnre  very  little  raised ;  suture  rather 
deep :  mouth  almost  circular  and  trumpet-shaped,  but  very 
slightly  oblique :  outer  lip  very  thick  and  strongly  reflected, 
forming  in  the  adult  a  complete  peristome,  much  inflected  on 
both  sides:  umbilicus  rather  large,  exposing  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  whorls  and  all  the  internal  spire.  L.  0*04. 
B.  0-09. 

Var.  costata.  Shell  much  less  glossy,  and  marked  trans- 
versely with  curved  membranaceous  ridges  (of  which  there  are 
about  forty  on  the  last  whorl),  besides  numerous  intermediate 
striae.  H.  costata,  Midi.  Yerm.  Hist,  pt,  ii.  p.  31 ;  P.  &  H.  iv. 
pi.  cxix.  f.  8. 

Habitat  :  Under  stones  and  logs  of  wood,  as  well  as 
in  moss  and  at  the  roots  of  grass,  in  moist  situations, 
from  the  Moray  Firth  district  to  the  Channel  Isles. 
The  variety  is  equally  diffused,  but  not  so  common; 
and  it  frequents  dry  and  sandy  places,  often  under  loose 
stones  or  bricks  on  old  walls.  Montagu  says  that  he 
had  often  found  this  variety  with  the  typical  form,  and 
he  described  the  former,  but  with  considerable  doubt, 
as  a  different  species,  mider  the  name  of  H.  crenella ; 
Maton  and  Rackett  have  made  the  same  remark;  the 
authors   of  the   ^British   Mollusca^   state   that   ^^botli 

L  O 


226  HELICID^. 

varieties  inhabit  wet  and  dry  localities  indifferently  ;"  and 
Malm  has  confirmed  these  observations  and  added  that, 
out  of  100  specimens  which  he  had  collected  in  one 
spot,  twenty  of  them  belonged  to  the  variety.  I  have 
not  been  so  fortunate  as  to  find  them  living  together. 
Miiller  describes  the  present  species  as  common  in  wet 
moss,  and  the  variety  as  very  rare  in  an  elevated  spot  at 
some  distance  from  any  w^ater.  Some  specimens,  how- 
ever, of  the  variety  are  more  strongly  ridged  than  others ; 
and  there  is  an  evident  transition  from  the  smooth  to  the 
ridged  form.  I  cannot  detect  any  difference  between 
the  shells  except  in  respect  of  the  membranaceous 
ridges,  wdiich  form  part  of  the  epidermis  and  are  easily 
rubbed  off,  leaving  the  surface  of  the  shell  quite  smooth. 
This  species  is  common  jn  our  upper  tertiary  deposits. 
Abroad  it  ranges  from  Siberia  (according  to  Gerstfeidt) 
to  Lugano  (according  to  Stabile),  as  well  as  to  Corsica 
and  even  to  Madeira  and  the  Azores.  Gould  says  that 
the  typical  form  is  rather  common  near  Boston,  and 
that  it  has  been  noticed  on  the  Ohio,  and  on  the  banks 
of  the  Missouri,  as  high  up  as  Council  Bluffs.  With 
reference  to  the  opinion  of  some  that  it  had  been  intro- 
duced into  America  from  Europe,  Dr.  Binney  remarks 
that  "it  does  not  seem  possible  that  so  small  an  animal, 
if  naturalized  since  the  arrival  of  Europeans,  could  have 
been  able  to  penetrate  to  the  remote  points  in  the 
interior  of  the  Continent  w^here  it  is  now  found."  With- 
out quite  concurring  with  the  American  conchologist  in 
this  remark,  I  do  not  see  how  this  little  snail  is  likelv  to 
have  been  transported  across  the  Atlantic  from  the  one 
hemisphere  to  the  other.  It  only  inhabits  waste  and  un- 
cultivated spots ;  and  a  flower-  or  kitchen-garden  woidd 
be  the  last  place  to  look  for  it.  But  the  modes  of  trans- 
port are  various ;  and  it  would  be  rash  to  assert  positively 


HELIX.  227 

that  H.  pulchella  has  never  crossed  the  Atlantic.  If  I 
may  be  permitted  to  offer  a  suggestion  on  this  knotty- 
pointy  I  would  remark  that,  being  a  comparatively  north- 
ern species,  it  is  much  more  probable  that  it  has  spread 
from  the  Arctic  regions  through  Canada.  This  is  one 
of  the  European  species  which  Dr.  Thompson  found  in 
Cashmir  and  Thibet,  according  to  the  identification  of 
Mr.  Woodward. 

This  little  creature  is  very  shy  and  difficult  to  observe. 
Its  eyes  appear  remarkably  black,  in  consequence  of  the 
two  upper  tentacles  being  so  transparent.  The  liver  is 
saffron-coloured ;  and  the  upper  part  of  the  spire  in  dead ' 
shells  often  shows  it.  The  epiphragm  is  like  tissue- 
paper  and  iridescent.  Bouchard- Chantereaux  says  that 
H.  pulchella  lays,  in  August  and  September,  from  12  to 
20  globular  and  opaline  eggs,  which  are  united  in  a 
cluster  two  or  three  times  the  size  of  the  shell.  It  seems 
to  be  hardy,  and  has  been  found  at  rather  considerable 
heights.  Von  Martens  noticed  its  occurrence  on  the 
Dovre  fjelds  at  an  elevation  of  more  than  2000  feet. 

This  species  is  the  H.  paludosa  of  Da  Costa  and 
Montagu,  and  the  Turbo  Helicinus  of  Lightfoot;  but 
the  name  given  by  MUller  is  anterior  to  both  of  these. 

23.  H.  lapici'da*,  Linne. 

H.  lapicida,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  ed.  xii.  p.  1241 ;  F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  65,  pi.  cxvi. 
f.  3, 4. 

Body  yellowish-brown  above,  with  a  slight  tinge  of  red  in 
front,  and  of  grey  behind  and  underneath,  covered  with  mi- 
nute close-set,  unequal-sized  tubercles,  which  are  of  a  darker 
colour  and  arranged  in  indistinct  lines  corresponding  with 
those  of  the  tubercles  or  granulations  on  the  surface  of  the 
shell :  mantle  extended  round  and  lining  the  mouth  of  the 
shell,  concentrically  wrinkled  and   tumid,  reddish-brown  or 

*  Lapidary. 


228  HELICID.E. 

dusky,  speckled  with  milk-white:  tentacles  yqyj  long,  dark- 
grey  with  a  slight  tinge  of  yellow ;  bulbs  very  short  and  glo- 
bular :  foot  narrow  and  rounded  in  front,  broader  and  keeled 
behind,  its  sides  having  a  whitish  border. 

Shell  depressed  above  and  below,  rather  solid,  nearly  opaque, 
not  glossy,  yellowish  tinted  with  reddish-brown,  and  irregu- 
larly streaked  across  the  whorls  with  the  latter  colour,  marked 
with  indistinct  hues  of  growth,  and  finely  shagreened,  like 
seal-skin :  peripliery  strongly  and  sharply  keeled :  epidermis 
rather  thick  :  whorls  5,  greatly  compressed  towards  the  peri- 
phery, the  last  exceeding  in  size  the  rest  of  the  shell  and  some- 
what dilated  towards  the  mouth :  spire  Yerj  little  raised,  point 
blunt :  suture  rather  slight,  but  distinct :  mouth  obliquely  oval, 
angnlated  above  and  below,  with  rather  a  deep  notch  in  the 
line  of  the  keeled  periphery  :  outer  lip  white,  thickened  and  re- 
flected, forming  a  complete  peristome,  abruptly  and  consider- 
ably inflected  on  both  sides  :  umbilicus  rather  large,  exposing 
a  great  part  of  the  whorls  and  all  the  internal  spire.  L.  0*25. 
B.  0-65. 

Var.  minor.     Shell  smaller  and  more  deeply  coloured. 

Habitat:  Moist  rocks,  woods,  aud  other  places  in 
many  parts  of  England,  from  Went  Vale,  Yorkshire,  to 
Portland  Island.  This  species  does  not  appear  to  be 
fomid  in  Wales,  Scotland,  or  Ireland.  It  has  been  sup- 
posed to  be  restricted  to  calcareous  districts;  but  Mr. 
Reece  has  found  it  close  to  Worcester,  and  Capt.  Bruce 
Hutton  at  Linton  in  North  Devon,  in  neither  of  which 
places  is  there  any  limestone,  chalk,  or  oolite.  In  a  spe- 
cimen now  before  me  the  whorls  are  twisted,  like  the  sca- 
lariform  distortion  of  some  kinds  of  Planorbis.  This  is 
one  of  our  upper  tertiary  fossils.  Its  foreign  range  extends 
from  Finland  to  Portugal;  and  Aradas  and  Maggiore 
are  said  to  have  found  a  single  specimen  in  Catania. 

This  is  a  rather  hardy,  but  inactive  snail.  During 
the  daytime  it  lies  concealed  in  the  crevices  of  rocks  or 
old  walls  and  under  the  bark  of  trees ;  but  in  the  dusk 
of  the  evening,  or  after  a  shower  of  rain,  it  sallies  fortli 


HELIX. 


229 


in  search  of  food,  and  may  iu  the  latter  case  be  met  with 
in  considerable  numbers.  The  coloured  streaks  on  the 
shell  somewhat  resemble  those  on  H.  rotundata.  Lister 
first  made  the  present  species  known,  and  says  he  had 
often  found  it  in  woods  in  Lincolnshire.  Linne  gave  it 
the  inappropriate  name  it  now  bears,  from  an  erroneous 
idea  that  it  ate  or  excavated  calcareous  rocks,  as  the 
Teredo  does  wood.  This  notion  probably  originated  in 
the  surface  of  the  shell  being  rough  and  like  a  file.  His 
H.  albella  appears  to  be  the  immature  or  younger  state 
of-  the  variety  called  by  Menke  albina.  This  white 
variety  has  not  been  noticed  as  British ;  but  it  is  found 
in  Sweden  and  many  other  parts  of  the  Continent.  I 
have  taken  it  in  Switzerland  and  the  Lower  Harz,  with 
specimens  of  the  usual  colour.  The  H.  albella  of  Fleming 
(Brit.  Anim.  p.  260)  may  also  be  the  same  state  of  this 
variety.  He  found  a  single  dead  specimen  on  the  shore 
at  St.  Andrews  in  1810.  It  is  not  at  all  likely  that 
Draparnaud^s  species  of  that  name  (the  H.  explanata 
of  Miiller)  would  have  found  its  way  so  far  north ;  and 
Dr.  Fleraing  says  that  his  shell  diflPers  from  Drapar- 
naud^s  description.  The  H.  Somershamiensis  of  Sheppard 
(Linn.  Trans,  xiv.  p.  159)  is  probably  the  young  of  the 
present  species. 

G.  Shell  flat  or  slightly  concave  above :  outer  lip  thick  and 
furnished  with  a  tooth-like  tubercle :  mnbilicus  rather 
large. 

24.  H.  obvolVta*,  Miiller. 

H.  obvoluta,  Miill.  Verm,  Hist.  pt.  ii.  p.  27 ;  F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  63,  pi.  cxvii. 
f.  1-3. 

Body  narrow  and  somewhat  truncate  in  front,  brown  with  a 
slight  reddish  tinge,,  and  speckled  with  milli-white  in  several 

*  Wrapped-up. 


230  HELICID^. 

parts ;  tubercles  oblong  and  arranged  in  close  lines,  smaller  in 
front :  mantle  tumid,  forming  a  narrow  collar  and  leaving  a 
slight  space  empty  round  the  neck :  tentacles  very  long  and 
slender,  dark-brown,  shagreened;  bulbs  very  globular:  foot 
deKcately  edged  with  milk-white,  ending  in  a  long,  narrow,  tri- 
angular and  keeled  tail. 

Shell  nearly  circular,  shaped  somewhat  like  one  of  the  men 
in  a  backgammon  board,  except  that  this  is  spiral,  flat  above, 
with  a  slight  depression  in  the  middle,  and  compressed  below, 
rather  solid,  opaque  and  of  a  lurid  aspect,  reddish-brown,  finely 
and  closely  striate  in  the  line  of  growth :  periphery  rounded,  but 
compressed:  epidermis  very  thick,  closely  covered  with  stiff 
reddish-brown  hairs :  ivliorls  6-i-,  cylindrical,  but  compressed  at 
the  sides,  gradually  increasing  in  size,  the  first  (being  the 
nucleus  of  the  shell)  nearly  smooth  and  polished,  and  the  last 
slightly  dilated  towards  the  mouth  :  spire  sunk  below  the  level 
of  the  last  Avhorl:  suture  rather  deep:  mouth  obhquely  tri- 
angular, in  consequence  of  a  tooth-like  protuberance  at  the 
peripheral  edge :  outer  lip  reddish-white,  very  thick  and  re- 
flected, its  upper  margin  abruptly  and  considerably  inflected : 
umhilicus  rather  large,  exposing  part  of  the  whorls  (especially 
the  last  but  one)  and  all  the  internal  spire.     L.  0-2.    B.  0-5. 

Habitat  :  On  stumps  and  at  the  roots  of  trees  in  woods 
at  Ditcham  and  Stoner  Hill  near  Buriton,  in  Hampshire, 
where  it  is  rather  common.  It  is  a  native  of  France, 
Germany,  Switzerland,  and  Lombardy ;  but  it  does  not 
seem  to  inhabit  the  extreme  North  or  South  of  Europe. 

This  curiously-shaped  snail  is  rather  active,  and 
secretes  a  good  deal  of  clear  slime.  Its  epiphragm  is 
chalky- white  and  remarkably  thick. 

Considerable  doubt  has  been  raised  by  many  British 
conchologists  (myself  included)  as  to  H.  obvoluta  being 
really  indigenous  to  this  country.  It  was  first  noticed 
by  Dr.  Lindsay  (in  1831)  as  occurring  in  Ditcham 
Wood.  He  found  with  it  Zonites  cellarius  and  HelicV 
rufescens.  Mr.  Hawker  says,  in  the  ^  Zoologist '  for  1853 
(p.  3764),  "The  two  ridges  (Stoner  Hill  and  Ditcham 
Wood)  are  quite  distinct,  and  the  intervening  country 


BULIMUS.  231 

is  low  and  flat :  therefore  I  do  not  think  it  possible  that 
H.  obvoluta  could  have  spread  or  wandered  from  the 
Ashford  Woods  to  Ditcham/^  Stoner  Hill  appears  to 
be  six  miles  distant  from  Ditcham  Wood.  This  species 
inhabits  the  North  of  France^  having  been  found  by  Dr. 
Baudon  at  Morainval  Wood  near  Mouy ;  and  if  H.  Car- 
tusiana  is  British^  the  present  species  has  quite  as  good 
a  claim  to  the  same  privilege. 

Genus  V.  BU'LIMUS*,  Scopoli.     PL  VII.  f.  1,  2. 

Body  long,  always  containable  within  the  shell :  tentacles  4  : 
foot  rather  long  and  narrow. 

Shell  cylindrieally- conic  or  oblong,  not  thin  or  very  glossy  : 
tuhorJs  drawn-out :  s^^ire  long  :  month  oval :  outer  lip  usually 
reflected,  and  sometimes  (but  not  in  British  species)  fiunished 
with  tooth-like  tubercles  :  umh'dicus  exceedingly  small  and 
narrow. 

I  will  not  inflict  upon  my  readers  a  repetition  of  the 
stale  and  uninteresting  controversy  which  formerly 
vexed  the  conchological  world  as  to  the  origin  and  mean- 
ing of  the  name  of  this  genus.  A  few  words  will  suffice 
to  give  its  history.  The  celebrated  French  naturalist, 
Adanson,  proposed,  in  1757,  for  a  small  freshwater  mol- 
lusk  of  Senegal,  a  new  genus,  which  he  called  Bulin,  being 
a  local  word.  This  name  was  capriciously  or  inadvertently 
changed  by  Scopoli  into  Bulimus ;  and  it  was  used  by 
him,  and  subsequently  adopted  by  Bruguiere,  to  receive 
a  heterogeneous  assemblage  of  land  and  freshwater 
shells,  having  no  affinity  with  Adanson^s  species,  or  with 
any  of  those  to  which  the  genus  is  now  restricted.  Dra- 
parnaud  in  1801  was  the  first  to  apply  the  generic  word 
to  its  present  and  generally  recognized  signification. 

*  A  corruption  of  Bulin,  an  African  word. 


233  HELICID.E. 

The  difference  between  this  genus  and  Helix  is  very 
trifling.  The  tentacles  in  the  present  genus  are  rather 
shorter,  and  there  are  also  some  minor  points  of  ana- 
tomical distinction.  The  shell  of  Bulimus  has  a  longer 
spire;  but  this  is  a  comparative  character,  and  the 
degree  of  difference  between  the  length  of  the  spire  in 
Helix  conica  and  the  young  of  Bulimus  ventricosus  [Helix 
Bulimoides  of  Moquin-Tandon)  is  scarcely  appreciable. 
It  is  not  from  the  limited  means  of  observation  which 
are  afforded  by  a  collection  of  the  MoUusca  in  this  or 
any  other  particular  country  that  a  safe  conclusion  can 
be  anived  at  with  respect  to  the  line  of  generic  distinc- 
tion ;  and  this  is  especially  the  case  with  the  genus  now 
under  consideration.  There  are  only  three  British  species 
of  Bulimus ;  and  one  of  them,  which  is  by  far  the  most 
common  of  all  [B.  acutus),  has  been  restored  by  Moquin- 
Tandon  to  the  genus  Helix.  This  species  is  included  in 
a  section  from  which  Leach  constructed  his  genus 
Elisma ;  and  it  will  be  here  described  firsts  as  forming  a 
passage  from  Helix  to  the  present  genus. 

The  habits  of  the  Bulimi  are  nearly  the  same  as  those 
of  the  Helices.  Our  native  species  of  Bulimus  appear 
to  be  exclusively  herbivorous.  They  frequent  open  do^vns 
and  woods,  and  are  rarely  met  with  in  the  haunts  of 
men,  though  B.  acutus  infests  gardens  near  the  sea-coast, 
being  probably  tempted  by  the  more  succulent  pasture. 
Their  manner  of  o\dposition,  as  well  as  the  shape  and 
arrangement  of  the  eggs,  are  similar  to  what  has  been 
observed  with  respect  to  the  typical  genus.  Helix.  A 
peculiarity  of  this  genus  is  the  tendency  which  some 
exotic  species  have  to  a  reversal  of  the  spire,  attended 
with  a  change  of  position  in  some  of  the  principal  organs 
of  the  body.  In  other  land-shells  this  phenomenon  is 
more  usual  in  genera  or  species  than  in  varieties. 


BULIMUS.  233 

A.  Shell  cylindrically  conic :  spire  long  and  pointed :  outer  lip 

thin  and  plain. 

1.  BuLiMUs  acu'tus*^  Miiller. 

Helix  acuta,  Miill.  Verm.  Hist.  pt.  ii.  p.  100.    B,  acutus,  F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  86, 
pi.  cxxviii.  f.  5,  and  (animal)  pi.  Gr.  G.  G.  f.  6. 

Body  rather  thick,  slightly  narrowed  and  nearly  truncate  in 
front,  slender  and  pointed  behind,  semitransparent,  yellowish- 
grey  of  different  shades  of  intensity,  covered  with  very  close 
and  flattened  tubercles :  mantle  touching  the  outer  lip  of  the 
shell,  tumid,  marked  with  milk-white  and  brown  specks :  ten- 
tacles greyish,  of  a  darker  hue  on  the  upper  part,  nearly  smooth ; 
upper  pair  very  sHghtly  conic,  with  their  bulbs  dilated  but 
rather  globidar ;  lower  pair  very  short :  foot  nearly  truncate 
in  front,  the  sides  transversely  and  very  closely  grooved,  tail 
blunt  and  keeled. 

Shell  turreted,  opaque,  white  with  a  faint  tinge  of  yellow, 
transversely  streaked  with  light-brown,  sometimes  having  one 
or  two  dark-reddish-brown  or  almost  black  bands  encircling 
the  lower  whorl,  one  of  which  (where  there  are  two)  is  con- 
tinued on  the  upper  whorls ;  the  shell  is  occasionally  white  or 
coloiu'less ;  sculpture  consisting  of  rather  close  but  irregular 
striae  in  the  line  of  growth,  which  are  stronger  in  some  parts 
than  in  others,  and  there  are  occasionally  a  few  indistinct  spiral 
lines  which  intersect  the  striae  and  give  the  latter  an  appear- 
ance of  being  disposed  in  curved  rows ;  the  surface  is  also 
sometimes  wrinkled  or  faintly  pitted:  periphery  rounded: 
epidermis  rather  thin :  whorls  8-9,  convex,  gradually  increasing 
in  size,  the  upper  one  smooth,  polished,  and  horncolour :  spire 
tapering,  but  blunt  at  its  extremity :  suture  deep :  mouth  oval, 
not  much  encroached  upon  by  the  penultimate  whorl :  outer 
lip  reflected  on  the  pillar  and  slightly  inflected  at  its  upper 
angle :  umbilicus  almost  covered  by  the  reflexion  of  the  lip  in 
that  part,  but  rather  deep.     L.  0*6.    B.  0*2. 

Var.  1.  hizona.  Shell  smaller  and  having  two  dark  bands  on 
the  body  whorl. 

Yar.  2.  inflata.  Shell  rather  more  ventricose,  streaked  with 
brown  or  marked  with  a  single  dark  band :  spire  shorter : 
whorls  proportionally  broader. 

*  Pointed. 


234  HELICID^. 

Habitat  :  Downs  and  sand-hills  on  the  sea-coast, 
from  Durness  in  Sutherlandshire  (where  it  has  been 
found  by  the  Rev.  Walter  Grigor)  to  the  Channel  Isles, 
as  well  as  throughout  Wales  and  Ireland.  The  variety 
bizona  is  remarkably  pretty,  and  has  been  found  in  lona 
by  Messrs.  Lowe  and  Berkeley;  at  Abergelly,  near 
Conway,  by  Mr.  Gibbs ;  near  Cork  by  Mr.  J.  D.  Hum- 
phreys ;  and  at  Tenby,  and  Portmarnock  in  Dublin  Bay, 
by  myself.  The  variety  inflata  occurs  with  the  typical 
form,  but  merges  insensibly  into  it  through  intermediate 
gradations.  It  somewhat  resembles  the  B.  ventricosus 
of  Draparnaud.  The  present  species  is  common  in  the 
granitic,  as  well  as  calcareous  districts ;  but  the  only 
authority  for  its  being  found  anywhere  except  on  the 
sea-coast  is  that  of  the  late  Mr.  Thompson  of  Belfast, 
who  says  it  "  occasionally  occurs  inland.^^  It  is  a  very 
doubtful  member  of  our  upper  tertiary  list,  Mr.  Picker- 
ing having  only  found  a  fragment  of  a  shell,  which  he 
believed  was  this  species,  in  the  deposit  at  Copford.  The 
circumstance  of  this  not  being  a  northern  form  makes  the 
identification  more  questionable.  Abroad  it  seems  also 
to  ])e  confined  to  the  coast-line,  and  ranges  from  France 
to  Algeria  and  Sicily.  Hartmann  is  said,  however,  to 
have  found  it  near  Romanshorn  in  Switzerland. 

It  is  rather  an  active,  but  irritable  creature,  and  with- 
draws itself  into  its  shell  on  the  slightest  touch.  These 
snails  may  be  seen  in  the  daytime  clinging  to  the  stalks 
of  grass  and  other  herbage  in  countless  numbers ;  and 
this  attachment  is  effected  by  means  of  a  pellicle  secreted 
in  the  same  way  as  the  epiphragm.  The  popular  idea 
that  sheep  feed  on  and  are  fattened  by  snails  relates  to 
this  kind  as  well  as  to  Helix  virgata  ;  and,  as  Montagu 
very  justly  observes,  "  it  is,  indeed,  impossible  that  those 
animals  should  browse  on  such  short  grass  as  clothes 


BULIMUS.  235 

the  hills  above  Whitsand  Bay  in  Cornwall,  without  de- 
vouring  a  prodigious  quantity  of  snails^  especially  in  the 
nighty  or  after  rain,  when  they  ascend  the  stunted  blades/^ 
The  summer  epiphragm  is  very  thin,  transparent,  and 
iridescent;  and  it  has  a  small  hole  in  it,  which  corre- 
sponds with  the  position  of  the  respiratory  orifice,  thus 
enabling  the  snail  to  procure  fresh  air  without  exposing 
its  body  to  the  heat  of  the  sun.  The  winter  epi- 
phragm is  thicker,  opaque,  and  yellowish,  like  paper. 
Geologists  can  have  some  idea  of  the  way  in  which  land- 
shells  are  accumulated  and  fonn  tolerably  thick  strata, 
from  the  fact  recorded  by  Montagu,  that  the  drifted  sand 
at  Bigberry  Bay  in  the  South  of  Devon  is  full  of  dead 
shells  of  the  present  species,  to  the  depth  of  four  feet. 

This  is  the  Turbo  fas  ciatus  of  Pennant  and  Montagu. 

The  B.  articulatus  of  Turton  (the  typical  specimen  of 
which  is  in  my  collection)  is  an  exotic  shell,  and  not 
Lamarck^s  species  of  that  name,  which  is  only  a  variety 
of  B.  acutus. 

B.  Shell  oblong :  spire  blunt :  outer  Up  thickened  and  reflected. 
2.  B.  monta'nus  *,  Draparnaud. 

B.  montaniis,  Drap.  Tabl.  Moll.  p.  65.    B.  LacJchamensis,  F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  89, 
pi.  cxxviii.  f.  6. 

Body  rather  thick,  rounded  in  front,  narrowing  gradually 
and  pointed  behind,  dark-red  or  greyish-brown  ;  tubercles 
flattened,  with  yqyj  fine  black  points :  mantle  indistinctly  and 
minutely  speckled  with  milk-white  and  brown  :  tentacles  some- 
what thick  and  conical ;  upper  pair  coarsely  shagreened,  with 
thick  and  rather  globular  bulbs  ;  lower  pair  nearly  smooth,  of 
a  somcAvhat  darker  colour  than  the  others :  foot  truncate  in 
front  and  ending  in  a  long  but  blunt  tail. 

Shell  conic-oblong,  nearly  semitransparent,  rather  glossy, 

*  Tnliabiting  mountains. 


236  HELIClDiE. 

light-brown  with  a  yellowish  tint,  but  varying  in  intensity  of 
colour,  faintly  and  irregularly  striate  in  the  line  of  growth, 
and  marked  spirally  ^ith  fine  and  close-set  but  undulating 
lines,  which,  being  intersected  by  the  transverse  striae,  give  the 
surface  a  slightly  shagreened  appearance  :  periphery  rounded, 
but  compressed  :  epidermis  rather  thick  :  whorls  7^?  somewhat 
compressed,  the  last  forming  nearly  one-half  of  the  shell: 
spire  tapering,  but  somewhat  abruptly,  blunt  at  its  extremity : 
suture  rather  slight  and  obhque :  mouth  oval,  a  little  con- 
tracted on  the  inner  side  by  the  penultimate  whorl :  outer  lip 
white,  reflected  and  considerably  thickened  within,  where  it  is 
of  a  reddish-brown  colour :  umhiUcus  nearly  covered  by  the 
reflexion  of  the  pillar  lip,  rather  obhque,  and  deep.  L.  0-65. 
B.  0-225. 

Habitat  :  On  trunks  of  trees,  chiefly  of  beech,  ash,  and 
hornbeam,  in  the  woods  of  our  southern  and  western 
counties.  It  is  local,  although  tolerably  plentiful  where 
it  occurs.  At  Buriton  in  Hampshire  it  is  found  with 
Helios  obvoluta  and  Clausilia  Roljjhii.  The  locality  given 
in  the  Appendix  to  Welch  and  Whitelaw^s  '  History  of 
Dublin '  (viz.  "  neighbourhood  of  Dublin  ")  is  very  ques- 
tionable, as  the  occurrence  of  this  shell  in  Ireland  has 
not  been  noticed  by  Mr.  Thompson  or  Mr.  Waller.  As  a 
tertiary  shell  it  has  only  been  discovered  in  the  CI  acton 
deposit.  Its  foreign  distribution  appears  to  be  limited 
to  the  North  and  East  of  France,  as  well  as  the  Pyrenees, 
Germany,  Switzerland,  and  Silesia,  in  all  of  which  coun- 
tries it  is  only  known  to  inhabit  elevated  situations. 

The  colour  both  of  the  body  and  shell  varies  in  in- 
tensity. In  immature  specimens  the  periphery  is  keeled. 
The  young  are  sometimes  encrusted  with  earth  in  the 
same  manner  as  B.  obscurus. 

It  is  the  Helix  Lackhamensis  of  Montagu ;  but  his 
name  is  subsequent  to  that  of  Draparnaud  and  is,  be- 
sides, objectionable  on  account  of  its  being  derived  from 
a  very  obscure  locality,  which  was  not  the  first  recorded 
for  the  discovery  of  this  species. 


BULIMUS.  237 

3.  B.  obscu'rus"^^  Miiller. 

Helix  obscura,  Miill.  Verm.  Hist.  pt.  ii.  p.  103.     B.  obscurus,  F.  &  H.  iv. 
p.  90,  pi.  cxxviii.  f,  7. 

Body  of  a  lighter  colour  than  that  of  B.  montanvs,  -with  the 
tubercles  comparatiTely  more  prominent :  mantle  larger  and 
more  tumid  in  proportion  to  its  size  :  tentacles  less  thick  and 
conical;  upper  pair  finely,  but  distinctly,  granulated,  with 
globular  bulbs,  which  are  dilated  at  the  top ;  lower  pair  mi- 
nutely speckled  with  black :  foot  very  deUcately  and  shghtly 
fringed,  narrow  and  angular  in  front,  very  broad  behind,  and 
ending  in  a  rather  slender  and  pointed  tail. 

Shell  much  resembhng  that  of  the  last  species,  except  in 
size  ;  but  differing  also  in  the  following  particulars : — this  is 
shorter  in  proportion  and  more  glossy ;  it  has  no  spiral  lines, 
but  instead  of  them  the  transverse  striae  are  divided  by  very 
minute  intermediate  lines,  and  the  surface  consequently  has 
not  the  slightest  appearance  of  being  shagreened  :  luliorls  only 
6^  and  more  convex :  sjoire  more  abrupt :  suture  deeper : 
mouth  proportionally  larger :  outer  lip  more  reflected  and  not 
so  thick,  plain  white,  and  much  more  inflected  above ;  umhi- 
licus  a  little  more  contracted.     L.  0-35.   B.  0'15. 

Var.  alha.     Shell  white  or  colourless. 

Habitat  :  On  the  trunks  of  trees  and  among  dead 
leaves  in  woods,  on  hedge-banks  and  old  walls,  under 
stones  in  rocky  places,  and  sometimes  in  gardens,  from 
the  Moray  Firth  district  to  South  Devon,  as  well  as  in 
South  Wales  and  Ireland.  It  is  much  more  generally 
diffused  than  the  last  species.  The  variety  has  been 
found  by  Mr.  Smith  at  Sevenoaks  in  Kent ;  and  I  have 
observed  it  at  Lulw^orth  in  Dorsetshire.  My  collection 
contains  a  monstrosity,  in  which  the  mouth  had  been 
broken  and  renewed  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  much 
stronger  than  it  was  before  the  fracture.  This  species 
is  in  Mr.  Brown's  list  of  upper  tertiary  shells  from  Cop- 
ford.    It  ranges  from  Siberia,  through  Finland,  Sweden, 

*  Concealed. 


238  HELICID.^. 

France,  Germany,  Sv/itzerland,  Portugal,  and  Lugano,  to 
Sicily. 

Bouchard-Chantereaux  says  that  tlie  eggs  of  this 
species,  which  are  laid  from  May  to  September,  are  not 
numerous,  but  very  large  in  proportion  to  the  size  of 
the  animal.  It  hibernates  early  and  makes  a  glassy  or 
papery  epiphragm.  It  loves  shade  and  moisture.  It 
has  a  remarkable  habit,  which  it  shares  with  the  young 
of  Pujja  secahj  of  covering  its  shell,  or  rather  of  causing 
it  to  be  covered,  with  a  crust  of  fine  earthy  particles  or 
other  extraneous  matter,  by  means  of  its  slime,  or  an 
exudation  from  the  epidermis.  Adult  as  well  as  young 
specimens  are  sometimes  thus  coated,  but  more  frequently 
the  latter.  It  is  perhaps  an  involuntary  measure  of 
natural  defence,  with  which  many  animals  are  provided, 
in  order  to  escape  or  delude  their  enemies;  and  even 
the  sharp  eyes  of  a  bird  might  be  deceived  by  the  dis- 
guise which  these  little  creatures  put  on.  The  Rev. 
Revett  Sheppard,  in  his  interesting  account  of  the  Land 
and  Freshwater  Shells  of  Suffolk,  observes  with  respect 
to  the  present  species,  "These  shells,  particularly  in 
their  young  state,  show  great  sagacity  and  ingenuity  by 
covering  themselves  with  an  epidermis  adapted  to  the 
different  situations  in  which  they  are  found;  and  when 
so  covered,  it  is  almost  impossible  for  any  other  than  a 
conchological  eye  to  detect  them.  If  its  abode  be  upon 
the  trunk  of  a  tree  covered  with  Lichens,  then  is  the 
epidermis  so  constructed  as  to  cause  the  shell  to  resemble 
a  little  knot  on  the  bark  covered  with  such  substances. 
If  on  a  smooth  tree,  from  whose  bark  issue  small  sessile 
buds,  as  is  frequently  the  case,  it  will  pass  off  very  well 
for  one  of  them ;  and  on  a  dry  bank,  or  the  lower  part 
of  the  body  of  a  tree  splashed  with  mud,  its  appearance 
will  be  that  of  a  little  misshapen  pointed  piece  of  dirt.^^ 


BULIMUS.  239 

The  first  of  these  curious  resemblances  may  be  caused 
by  the  adhesion  of  Lichen  spores^  which  would  grow  as 
well  upon  a  shell  as  upon  the  bark  of  a  tree ;  and  the 
other  cases  I  have  endeavoured  to  explain.  B.  ohsciwus 
is  sometimes  found  at  considerable  heights,  probably 
indicating  its  Arctic  origin.  M.  Puton  observed  it  on 
the  Vosges  mountains^  at  an  elevation  of  2624  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea.  It  occasionally  occurs  on  granite 
and  gneiss,  but  more  commonly  on  calcareous  strata. 

The  difference,  which  is  slight,  between  this  species 
and  B.  montcmus  will  appear  from  the  description.  The 
simplest  character  is  that  the  latter  is  at  least  four  times 
the  size  of  the  other  in  cubical  contents.  Lister  seems 
to  have  been  acquainted  with  the  present  species ;  but 
his  notice  of  it  is  not  satisfactory.  In  its  young  state 
it  is  in  all  probability  the  Helix  trochulus  of  Miiller. 

The  Helix  detrita  of  Montagu  (judging  from  a  speci- 
men received  from  him  by  Mr.  Dillwyn  and  now  in  my 
collection)  is  exotic,  and  apparently  a  variety  of  the 
Bulimus  Guadaloupensis  of  Biiiguiere. 

The  B.  tuberculatus  of  Turton  (the  typical  specimen 
of  which  I  also  have)  is  the  Helix  pupa  of  Linne.  It  is 
a  native  of  the  extreme  South  of  Europe,  and  is  not  at 
all  likely  to  have  been  found  in  Worcestershire,  whence 
Dr.  Tui'ton  is  said  to  have  received  it.  Capt.  Blomer, 
who  gave  this  specimen  to  Turton,  told  me  that  he  had 
been  in  Sicily;  and  he  admitted  that  he  might  have 
made  a  mistake  as  to  the  locality. 

The  Helix  Goodallii  of  Miller  is  a  West-Indian  species, 
and  appears  to  have  been  introduced  into  this  country 
with  pine-plants.  It  is  still  very  common  on  the  tan  in 
the  pineries  at  Garraway  and  Co^s.  nursery-gardens 
near  Bristol,  where  the  late  Mr.  Miller  first  observed 
this  little  shell  about  forty  years  ago.     It  has  not  been 


240  HELICID^. 

noticed  elsewhere  in  this  country.     It  is  the  Bulimus 
clavulus  of  Turton. 

The  B.  decollatus  was  recorded  by  Dr.  Turton  as 
having  been  once  found  living  in  a  greenhouse  at  Wat- 
ton  in  the  South  of  Devon,  where  it  was  observed  to 
breed  for  many  years  in  succession ;  but^  in  consequence 
of  some  alterations  being  made  in  the  greenhouse,  the 
colonv  was  destroyed  and  became  extinct.  It  is  common 
in  the  South  of  Europe,  as  well  as  on  the  opposite  shores 
of  the  Mediterranean;  but  its  most  northern  locality 
appears  to  be  Agen,  in  the  Department  of  Lot-et- 
Garonne. 

Genus  VI.  PUTA  *,  Lamarck.     PL  VII.  f.  3,  4,  5. 

Body  slender,  but  generally  short,  always  containable  within 
the  shell :  tentacles  4,  short,  especially  the  lower  ones :  foot 
narrow. 

Shell  cylindrical,  not  very  thin  or  glossy :  whorls  compact, 
the  last  not  broader,  or  very  little  more  so,  than  the  penulti- 
mate or  preceding  one :  spire  long :  mouth  horseshoe-shaped 
or  semilunar,  mostly  furnished  with  one  or  more  teeth  ;  some- 
times there  are  also  spiral  plates  and  incomplete  septa  in  the 
interior :  umbilicus  oblique,  very  small,  and  contracted  by  an 
upward  twist  of  the  last  whorl  at  its  base. 

The  Pup(S  are  all  of  a  small  size  and  gregarious.  They 
live  in  moss  or  in  the  crevices  of  rocks  and  walls,  as  well 
as  on  exposed  hill- sides  under  stones  or  at  the  roots  of 
grass.  They  are  vegetable  feeders,  and  appear  to  live 
on  small  plants,  Cryptogamia,  and  decaying  leaves. 
Some  species  are  ovo viviparous.  The  mouth  is  paraUel 
to  the  columella  or  axis  of  the  shell ;  and  this,  combined 
with  the  last  whorl  being  of  nearly  the  same  breadth 
as  the  preceding  one,  causes  the  shell  to  assume  some- 

*  Like  the  chrysalis  of  an  iiiseet. 


PUPA.  24] 

what  of  an  ellipsoid  form.  The  whorls  are  also  more 
compact  than  in  Bulimus ;  and  the  mouth  is  usually 
furnished  in  the  present  genus  with  transverse  plates  or 
teeth,  instead  of  the  outer  lip  being  merely  thickened 
by  tooth-like  tubercles,  or  of  there  being  a  similar  protu- 
berance on  the  columella,  as  is  sometimes  the  case  in 
the  former  genus.  The  main  characters  of  both  these 
genera,  how^ever,  are  nearly  the  same,  as  regards  their 
habits  as  well  as  the  body  and  shell. 

The  curious  processes,  called  '^  teeth,^'  which  fence 
in  and  contract  the  mouth  of  the  shell  in  Pupa,  are  of 
different  kinds.  In  P.  secede  they  form  plate-like  ridges, 
which  extend  some  way  into  the  interior.  In  P.  um- 
bilicata  and  P.  ringens  the  adult  have  either  a  simple 
tooth  on  the  columella  and  a  spiral  plate  on  the  pillar  lip, 
or  else  several  plate-like  ridges  as  in  P.  secale,  although 
shorter  and  more  curved ;  but,  in  P.  umbilicata  and 
P.  ringens,  the  young  have  a  much  more  complicated 
apparatus.  This  consists  of  two  long  spiral  ridges  like 
the  worm  of  a  corkscrew,  one  on  the  pillar  lip  and  the 
other  on  the  pillar  itself,  besides  a  short  transverse 
plate  or  septum  on  the  outer  lip,  which  is  reproduced  at 
intervals.  In  P.  margmata  the  mouth  is  often  famished 
with  a  denticle  or  small  tubercular  tooth  on  the  pillar, 
and  sometimes  also  with  a  similar  process  inside  the 
outer  lip ;  but  it  never  has  the  plate-like  ridges  which 
are  found  in  the  other  species.  All  these  various  pro- 
cesses appear  to  be  formed  in  the  same  way,  \dz.  by  folds 
of  the  mantle  secreting  the  testaceous  matter  in  excess 
and  applying  it  to  particular  parts  of  the  shell. 

Two  species  of  Pupa  (viz.  tridens  and  doliolum)  have 
lately  been  found  in  the  North  of  France ;  and  it  is 
therefore  not  unlikely  that  they  may  be  found  in  this 
country. 


242  HELICID^. 

A.  Spire  long  and  pointed  :  mouth  horseshoe- shaped,  narrow, 
and  furnished  with  several  teeth  and  folds :  outer  lip 
slightly  expanded  and  reflected. 

1.  Pupa  seca'le"^^  Draparnaud. 

P.  secale,  Drap.  Tabl.  Moll.  p.  59 ;  F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  101,  pi.  cxxk.  f.  5. 

Body  brownish-grey  or  slate-colour,  with  a  reddish  tint, 
slightly  and  irregularly  tuberclcd :  mantle  minutely  speckled 
^vith  black :  tentacles  short  and  thick ;  bulbs  oblong :  foot 
usually  fringed,  broader  behind  than  in  front,  and  ending  in 
a  triangular  and  somewhat  pointed  tail. 

Shell  conic-oblong,  rather  sohd,  opaque,  somewhat  glossy, 
light-brown  or  yellowish-horncolour,  marked  transversely 
or  in  the  line  of  growth  with  numerous  obhquely  curved 
striae  :  periphery  rounded,  but  compressed  :  epidermis  rather 
thin :  whorls  8-9,  slightly  convex  and  gradually  increasing  in 
size,  the  four  or  five  first  whorls  smaller  in  proportion  to  the 
others,  the  last  somewhat  dilated  and  tr^isted  at  its  base  up- 
wards to  form  the  mouth :  spire,  although  long,  rather  abrupt 
and  blunt  at  the  jjoint :  suture  moderately  deep  :  mouth  longer 
than  broad,  somewhat  angular,  and  contracted  by  the  teeth  or 
inside  folds,  which  are  as  follows — two  or  three  on  the  i^illar 
(the  middle  one  when  there  are  three  being  in  front  of  the 
others),  two  on  the  pillar  lip,  and  four  inside  the  outer  lip  ; 
the  front  tooth  on  the  pillar  lip  is  often  accompanied  by 
a  smaller  tubercle  or  denticle,  and  it  is  placed  so  near  the 
point  of  insertion  of  the  outer  lip  as  often  to  appear  a  con- 
tinuation or  inflection  of  that  lip ;  the  tooth-like  plates  or 
folds  inside  the  outer  lip  extend  a  considerable  way  into  the 
interior  and  are  visible  outside,  resembling  white  hues :  outer 
lip  thickened  and  slightly  reflected :  umbilicus  extremely  small 
and  oblique,  fonning  a  narrow  chink.     L.  0-3.    B.  0"125. 

Var.  alba.     Shell  white  or  colourless. 

Habitat  :  Rocks,  woods,  and  hill-sides  in  many  parts 
of  England,  from  Westmoreland  to  the  South  of  Devon, 
as  well  as  (according  to  Dr.  Gibl:)on)  near  Crickhoweil  in 
Breconshire,  South  Wales.  Dr.  Lukis  informs  me  that 
he  has  not  found  it  in  the  Channel  Isles,  although  his 

*  A  grain  of  rye. 


PUPA.  243 

brother  believed  that  he  had  once  taken  P.  avenacea  (or 
avena)  in  Guernsey.  It  is  a  local  species^  but  plentiful 
wherever  it  occurs.  It  is  not  confined  to  calcareous  di- 
stricts. Mr.  Eyton  found  it  in  abundance  on  the  triassic 
sandstone  near  Shrewsbury^  where  there  was  no  lime- 
stone (nor,  of  course,  chalk  or  oolite)  within  some  miles 
of  the  place ;  and  I  obsei'ved  it  in  equal  plenty  on  the 
Molasse  in  Switzerland.  I  am  also  credibly  informed 
that  it  has  been  found  at  Sudbury,  near  Harrow,  on  the 
lower  tertiary  strata.  The  variety  was  found  by  me  at 
Lulworth  in  Dorsetshire ;  but  it  is  rare.  This  species  is 
widely  diffused  throughout  Central  Europe,  ranging 
south  to  Corsica ;  but  it  does  not  appear  to  inhabit  th^ 
North  or  extreme  South  of  Europe. 

The  young  have  their  shells  encrusted  with  earth  or 
the  spores  of  lichens  and  mosses,  in  the  same  way  as 
Bulimus  obscurus;  and  even  adult  specimens  have  occa- 
sionally a  similar  covering.  From  this  latter  circum- 
stance I  am  confirmed  in  the  opinion  I  ventured  to 
suggest  with  respect  to  that  species,  that  the  coat  is  not 
purposely  made  by  the  animal,  but  is  involuntarily  caused 
by  the  accidental  adhesion  of  extraneous  matter  to  the 
outer  surface  of  the  shell,  by  means  of  the  slime  or 
a  glutinous  film  which  exudes  from  or  invests  the  epi- 
dermis. Full-grown  specimens  have  not  the  same  need 
of  disguise  for  their  protection  as  those  which  are 
young  and  unprovided  with  teeth.  In  the  daytime  the 
shells  are  attached  by  a  thin  pellicle  to  the  under  side  of 
stones  and  crevices  of  rocks. 

This  is  the  Turbo  juniperi  of  Montagu ;  and  the  im- 
mature state  is  probably  the  Helix  ventricosa  of  Miiller. 
There  is  a  great  similarity  of  form  between  the  young 
of  Ptipa  and  Helix. 


M 


9. 


244  HELICIDyE. 

B,  Spire  short  and  blunt :  mouth  horseshoe-shaped,  rather 
oblique,  furnished  with  one  or  more  teeth  or  folds,  and 
in  the  young  with  transverse  plates  and  spiral  serewlikc 
ridges :  outer  lip  thickened  and  reflected. 

2.  P.  rin'gens  *,  Jeffreys. 

P.  ringens,  Jeffr.  in  Linn.  Trans,  xvi.  p.  356.    P.  Anglica,  F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  99. 
pi.  cxxix.  f.  6. 

Body  yellowish-grey  or  slate- colour,  with  several  dark 
lines  or  streaks  along  the  sides,  leaving  a  clear  space  in  the 
middle,  underneath  milk-white :  mantle  thick,  projecting  a 
little  beyond  the  mouth  of  the  shell:  tentacles  short,  of  a 
lighter  shade  than  the  upper  part  of  the  body;  larger  pair 
cylindrical  and  stumpy,  rather  close  together,  the  bulbs  scarcely 
(distinguishable ;  lower  pair  more  like  tubercles  :  foot  rounded 
in  front  and  obtusely  pointed  behind. 

Shell  subcylindrical,  inclined  to  oval,  rather  solid,  nearly 
opaque,  glossy  and  slightly  iridescent,  light-brown  or  yeliow- 
ish-horncolour,  closely  but  shghtly  striate  transversely :  peri- 
phery rounded,  but  compressed :  epidermis  thin :  whorls  6  or 
65,  convex,  the  last  being  equal  to  more  than  one-third  of  the 
shell  and  having  its  base  sharply  twisted  upwards  to  form  the 
mouth,  the  two  or  three  top  whorls  much  smaller  in  propor- 
tion to  the  rest :  spire  short,  abruptly  and  bluntly  pointed : 
suture  well  defined,  but  not  deep :  mouth  triangular,  rounded 
below,  much  contracted  by  the  teeth  or  folds,  which  are  as 
follows — two  on  the  pillar  (the  outside  one  being  larger  than 
the  other  and  extending  far  into  the  interior  of  the  mouth  in 
the  form  of  a  spiral  screw),  two  on  the  pillar  lip  (the  outer- 
most being  much  the  larger  and  more  prominent),  and  one 
fold,  with  from  one  to  three  smaller  denticles,  inside  the  outer 
lip  and  rather  deeply  seated,  the  larger  one  being  visible  out- 
side ;  besides  these,  there  is  a  short  curved  side  process  or 
fold,  which  connects  the  lip  at  its  outer  base  with  the  larger 
and  more  prominent  tooth  on  the  pillar,  so  as  to  resemble  one 
of  the  lower  fronds  of  a  trefoil  leaf;  the  mouth  in  unformed  or 
immature  specimens  is  furnished  not  only  with  two  main  spiral 
ridges  (viz.  one  on  the  pillar  and  the  other  on  the  pillar  lip), 
but  also  with  a  transverse  plate,  like  those  in  Planorhis  lineatus, 
which  lies  at  a  right  angle  to  the  position  of  the  folds  within 

*  Grinning. 


PUPA.  245 

the  outer  lip  of  adult  specimens  and  is  repeated  at  short 
intervals ;  these  transverse  plates  or  septa  are  distinctly  visible 
outside  the  base  of  young  shells  :  outer  lijp  dJidi  pillar  lip  light 
reddish-brown,  much  thickened  and  slightly  reflected:  um- 
bilicus small,  narrow  and  oblique,  but  distinct.  L.  0-133. 
B.  0-65. 

Var.  pallida.     Shell  of  a  lighter  colour,  sometimes  whitish. 

Habitat  :  Among  dead  leaves  and  moss,  and  at  the 
roots  of  grass,  in  moist  places  throughout  the  northern 
counties  of  England,  the  West  of  Scotland,  and  all 
Ireland,  as  well  as  in  Guernsey.  It  occurs  in  a  sub- 
fossil  state  at  Copford.  Its  foreign  range  appears  to 
be  limited,  so  far  as  is  at  present  known, — it  having 
only  been  fomid  once  in  the  rejectamenta  of  a  river  near 
Toulouse  (Moquin-Tandon),  Cintra  and  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Oporto  (Morelet  and  Pring),  and  Algeria  (More- 
let  and  Dupuy).  This  southern  distribution  would  seem 
to  bear  out  the  conjecture  made  by  the  authors  of  the 
'  British  MoUusca '  that  the  present  species  ''  is  probably 
a  member  of  our  Atlantic  fauna  and  of  Southern  or 
South-western  origin ;  '^  but  at  the  same  time  its  occur- 
rence as  an  upper  tertiary  fossil,  with  Helix  lamdlata 
and  many  other  decidedly  Northern  forms,  is  a  fact  that 
must  not  be  overlooked  in  considering  the  geographical 
distribution  of  the  MoUusca. 

This  is  a  shy  little  creature,  although  tolerably  active 
when  inclined  to  make  its  appearance.  It  has  a  singular 
habit  of  withdrawing  slowly  one  of  its  eyes,  which  rolls 
backwards  Kke  a  little  ball  until  it  reaches  the  neck, 
while  the  tentacle  which  supports  it  remains  extended 
to  its  full  length.  This  I  have  observed  being  done 
when  there  was  no  obstacle  in  the  way.  It  also  retracts 
occasionally,  and  apparently  without  any  reason^  one  of 
its  horns  and  not  the  other.  It  does  not  appear  to  be 
ovoviviparous,  lilve  the  next  species  (P.  umbilicata)  :  at 


246  HELICID^. 

least  I  have  not  succeeded  in  finding  any  perfect  embryo 
inside  a  full-grown  specimen,  although  the  shells  thus 
examined  were  collected  at  the  same  period  of  the  year 
and  in  the  same  spot  with  specimens  of  P.  umbilicata 
which  contained  young  ones  completely  formed.  In  a 
living  specimen  of  P.  ringens  which  I  have  just  received 
with  others  from  Dr.  Lukis,  the  top  whorls  have  been 
accidentally  broken  off  and  replaced  by  an  imperfect 
septum,  showing  that  these  whorls  are  not  occupied  by 
the  animal  after  it  has  attained  its  maturity.  The  shell 
varies  considerably  in  the  length  of  the  spire;  and  in 
the  young  it  resembles  that  of  a  small  conical  Helix, 
The  internal  structure  of  the  shell  was  first  noticed  and 
described  by  Mr.  Alder  in  his  excellent  Memoir  on  the 
Land  and  Freshwater  Shells  of  Northumberland. 

This  species  was  first  discovered  by  Mr.  Bean,  the 
venerable,  but  still  active,  conchologist  of  Scarborough. 
It  is  the  Vertigo  Anglica  of  Ferussac ;  but  although  that 
specific  name  is  prior  to  the  one  which  I  have  ventured 
to  adopt,  it  was  unaccompanied  by  any  description ;  and 
the  Supplement  to  Wood^s  ^  Index  Testaceologicus  ^  only 
contains  a  figure  of  the  shell,  although  referring  to  the 
same  name.  The  Pupa  ringens  of  Michaud^s  Supple- 
ment to  Draparnaud^s  '  Histou^e,^  which  bears  a  subse- 
quent date  to  that  of  my  Monograph  in  the  '  Linnean 
Transactions,^  is  a  different  species  from  this,  and  is  allied 
to  P.  secale. 

3.  P.  umbilica'ta  *,  Draparnaud. 

P.  umbilicata,  Drap.  Tabl.  Moll.  p.  58,  and  Hist.  Moll.  p.  62,  pi.  iii.  f  39 
40 ;  F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  95,  pi.  cxxix.  f.  7. 

Body  decidedly  truncate  in  front  and  blunt  behind,  greyish- 
*  Having  an  umbilicus  or  navel. 


PUPA.  247 

brown  with  a  dusky  shade  above,  and  of  a  paler  hue  on  the 
sides  and  rear,  as  well  as  underneath ;  head  and  neck  marked 
with  black  specks,  which  are  arranged  in  confused  rows: 
mantle  annular  or  circular,  minutely  speckled  with  black  and 
milk-white:  tentacles  slightly  transparent;  upper  pair  close 
together  and  nearly  cylindrical,  with  large  pear-shaped  bulbs, 
forming  one-fourth  of  these  tentacles;  lower  pair  widely 
separate  from  each  other,  very  thick  and  sHghtly  conical :  foot 
not  fringed,  rather  broad,  rounded  in  front  and  behind. 

Shell  subcylindrical  or  inclined  to  oval,  rather  thin  "and 
semitransparent,  glossy  and  shghtly  iridescent,  yellowish - 
brown  or  horncolour,  closely  but  slightly  and  irregularty 
striate  in  the  line  of  growth :  periphery  rounded,  or  sometimes 
very  slightly  and  obtusely  keeled:  epidermis  thin:  whorls 
6-7,  convex,  the  last  equal  to  about  tv,^o-fifths  of  the  shell 
and  sharply  twisted  upwards  towards  the  mouth,  the  two  iirst- 
formed  whorls  much  smaller  in  proportion  to  the  rest :  spire 
short,  abruptly  and  bluntly  pointed:  suture  rather  oblique, 
well  defined,  but  not  deep  :  mouth  sub  triangular,  contracted  or 
channeled  below  in  the  adult,  furnished  with  a  small  and 
short  tooth-like  ridge  on  the  pillar  near  the  insertion  of  the 
outer  lip  (where  it  bends  to  form  a  junction  with  the  lip),  as 
well  as  with  a  short  and  oblique  ridge-like  tooth  on  the  pillar 
lip  ;  young  shells  have  a  spiral  screw  on  the  pillar  and  another 
on  the  pillar  lip,  the  position  of  wliich  nearly  corresponds  with 
that  of  the  ridge  and  tooth  in  the  adult,  and  they  have  also 
transverse  plates  hke  those  in  the  last  species :  outer  lip  white, 
with  sometimes  a  slight  tinge  of  reddish-brown,  much  thick- 
ened and  considerably  reflected:  pillar  lip  also  white  and 
thickened,  almost  straight :  inner  lip  spread  on  the  piUar : 
umhilicus  very  small  and  oblique,  contracted  by  a  ridge  or 
crest  at  the  base  of  the  shell,  which  arises  from  the  abrupt 
and  upward  twist  of  the  lower  part  of  the  body  whorl. 
L.  0-15.   B.  0-075. 

Yar.  1.  edentida.     Columellar  tooth  wanting. 

Yar.  2.  alha.     Shell  white  or  colourless. 

Habitat  :  On  old  walls  and  rocks,  under  stones, 
among  dead  leaves  and  beneath  the  bark  of  trees  every- 
where, from  Zetland  to  the  Channel  Isles.  It  inhabits 
hiffh  as  well  as  low  situations.  The  first  variety  is  not 
uncommon.    The  second  has  been  found  by  Mr.  Norman 


248  HELICID^. 

at  Plymouth  and  in  Somersetshire,  and  by  myself  at 
Grassmere,  Church  Stretton,  Cardiff,  and  Tenby.  This 
species  belongs  to  our  upper  tertiaries.  It  ranges  from 
Finland  to  Algeria,  as  well  as  to  the  Archipelago.  Von 
Martens  considers  it  as  a  southern  form,  because  it  retires 
early  into  winter  quarters;  and  he  remarked  that  he 
could  not  find  it  in  September  in  a  place  near  Bergen, 
where  he  had  in  the  previous  summer  noticed  it  in  abun- 
dance and  living  in  company  with  P.  marginata. 

Mr.  Alder  first  indicated  that  this  species  is  ovovivi- 
parous,  and  recorded  the  fact  in  the  Supplement  to  his 
Catalogue  of  Land  and  Freshwater  Shells  found  in  the 
vicinity  of  Newcastle.  Adolf  Schmidt  published  the  same 
discovery  in  the  ^Zeitschrift  fiir  Malakozoologie  ^  for 
February  1853;  and  I  can  confirm  the  fact  from  my 
own  observation.  Moquin-Tandon  has  more  than  once 
seen  two  or  three  young  ones  attached  to  the  shell  of 
their  mother  near  the  umbilicus  and  carried  about  by 
her — a  kind  of  marsupial  arrangement.  P.  umbilicata 
reproduces  in  July  and  August ;  but  it  does  not  appear 
to  be  prolific,  as  no  more  than  5  eggs  have  been  found 
in  the  womb  at  the  same  time.  The  epiphragm  is  very 
thin  and  iridescent.  Young  shells  are  Trochiform  and 
obtusely  keeled,  and  have  a  central  and  rather  deep 
umbilicus.  The  spire  varies  greatly  in  length.  A 
dwarfed,  toothless  and  thin  variety  is  the  P.  Sempronii 
of  Charpentier. 

This  species  dificrs  from  P.  ringens  in  being  more 
cylindrical  and  less  barrel-shaped,  as  well  as  in  the  form 
of  the  mouth  and  number  of  the  teeth. 

The  observant  Lister  first  made  known  this  little 
land-shell,  and  the  young  is  probably  his  Trochus  syl- 
vaticus.  The  present  species  is  the  Helix  muscorum  of 
Montagu;   and  it  may  also  be  that  of  Linne,  as  his 


PUPA.  249 

description  in  the  ^  Fauna  Suecica  ^  of  the  form  of  the 
mouth  C^^  ovato-acuminata^,  mucrone  obtuso^^)  agrees 
better  with  this  species  than  with  P.  marginata,  to  which 
so  many  conchologists  have  attached  the  specific  name 
of  muscorum.  According  to  the  strict  rules  of  scientific 
nomenclature,  the  present  species  (if  it  is  not  the  Helta; 
muscorum  of  Linne)  ought  to  bear  the  name  of  cylin- 
dracea,  which  was  given  to  it  by  Da  Costa  in  1778,  long 
before  either  of  Draparnaud^s  publications;  but  I  fear 
justice  must  in  the  present  instance  cede  to  convenience, 
as  the  name  of  umbilicata  is  so  universally  used.  Da 
Costa^s  name  appears  to  have  shared  the  same  fate  as 
the  early  leaf, — 

"  Ut  silvce  foliis  pronos  mutantur  in  annos, 
Prima  cadunt ;  ita  verborum  vetus  interit  setas, 
Et  juvenum  ritu  florent  modo  nata  vigentque." 

C.  Shell  short,  cyhndrical :  spire  blunt :  mouth  semioval,  some- 
times furnished  with  one  or  two  tubercular  teeth :  outer 
lip  strengthened  by  a  thick  exterior  rib. 

4.  P.  margina'ta"^,  Draparnaud. 

P.  marginata,  Drap.  Tabl.  Moll.  p.  58,  and  Hist.  Moll.  p.  62,  pi.  iii.  f.  36-38. 
P.  muscorum,  F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  97,  pi.  cxxix.  f.  8,  9. 

Body  narrow  and  somewhat  rounded  in  front,  more  slender 
behind,  lustrous,  dark-grey  with  a  brownish  tint,  finely  speckled 
with  black,  and  of  a  much  lighter  shade  on  the  under  part ; 
shghtly  but  closely  tuberclcd :  laantle  as  in  the  last  species, 
but  the  milk-white  specks  are  larger :  tentacles  thick,  opaque, 
dusky,  rounded  at  their  points ;  upper  pair  similar  to  those  in 
P.  umbilicata,  with  subglobiilar  bulbs ;  lower  pair  somewhat 
diverging  from  each  other,  conical,  smooth,  rather  opaque,  and 
nearly  black  :  foot  not  fringed,  narrow  but  somewhat  rounded 
in  front,  broader  behind,  and  ending  in  a  triangular  tail. 

Shell  subcylindrical,  rather  solid  for  its  size,  nearly  opaque, 
not  very  glossy,  pale  yellowish-brown  or  horncolour,  faintly 


*  Margined. 


M  O 


250  HELICID.E. 

and  irregularly,  but  closely,  striate  in  the  line  of  growth  : 
-peripliery  rounded :  epidermis  thin  :  whorls  6-7,  convex,  but  a 
little  compressed,  the  last  equal  to  about  one-third  of  the  shell, 
the  two  first  whorls  much  smaller  in  proportion  to  the  rest : 
f?j)ire  short,  abruptly  and  bluntly  pointed :  suture  rather  deep  : 
mouth  forming  an  oblique  segment  of  about  two-thirds  of  a 
circle,  furnished  sometimes  with  a  small  tubercular  tooth  on 
the  columella,  which  is  placed  nearly  in  the  middle ;  inside 
slightly  tinged  with  reddish-brown  :  outer  lip  sharp,  strength- 
ened by  a  thick,  white,  exterior  rib,  which  is  placed  at  a  little 
distance  from  the  margin ;  outer  edge  slightly  reflected :  inner 
lip  spread  on  the  pillar :  umbilicus  small  and  shallow,  contracted 
by  a  slight  ridge  or  crest  at  the  base  of  the  shell.  L.  0-133. 
B.  0-6. 

Var.  1.  higranata.  Shell  rather  smaller  and  thicker,  and 
having  a  tubercular  tooth  or  denticle  considerably  within  the 
outer  Kp,  as  well  as  that  on  the  columella.  P.  higranata, 
Kossmassler,  Iconogr.  ix,  x.  p.  27,  f.  645. 

Yar.  2.  albina,  Menke.     Shell  white. 

Habitat  :  Under  stones,  at  the  roots  of  grass,  and 
among  dead  leaves,  everywhere  from  the  Moray  Firth 
district  to  Guernsey,  especially  on  the  sea-coast.  Var.  1. 
Bath  (Clark)  ;  Lulworth,  Dorsetshire  (J.  G.  J.) ;  Ox- 
fordshire (Whiteaves) ;  Weston-super-Mare  (Norman). 
Var.  2.  Somersetshire  (Clark,  Norman,  and  J.  G.  J.)  ; 
Oxfordshire  (Whiteaves).  I  have  also  found  a  monstro- 
sity in  which  the  lower  whorl  is  furrowed,  and  another 
which  has  the  periphery  keeled, — the  former  having  been 
apparently  caused  by  a  grain  of  sand  adhering  to  the 
mantle  while  the  shell  was  in  course  of  formation,  and 
the  latter  bv  an  accidental  fracture  of  the  last  whorl,  which 
obliged  the  animal  to  make  a  new  mouth  and  to  shorten 
the  base.  As  an  upper  tertiary  fossil  it  is  very  common, 
and  often  indicates  the  former  presence  of  littoral  con- 
ditions, as  this  species  not  only  peculiarly  affects  sandy 
shores  and  maritime  places,  but  is  also  Avashed  down  in 
great  numbers  by  estuarine  rivers  and  thrown  up  on 


PUPA.  251 

the  beacli  by  the  reflux  of  the  tide.  I  have  often  found 
it  under  such  circumstances  mixed  with  recent  sea-shells 
on  a  flat  sandy  coast.  The  Rev.  Revett  Sheppard  says 
that  i,  occurs  "in  profusion  in  Essex^  near  Wrabness 
Point,  on  the  upper  part  of  the  marsh — a  situation  which 
at  high  tides  is  covered  with  water.-*^  The  foreign  range 
of  this  species  is  very  extensive.  MiddendorfiP,  as  well 
as  Gerstfeldt,  has  recorded  it  as  Siberian ;  Von  Martens 
has  noticed  it  as  inhabiting  Iceland  and  Lapland ;  it  is 
common  in  Scandinavia ;  and  southwards  it  has  found  its 
way  to  Central  Europe,  Spain,  Corsica,  and  Sicily, 

This  is  a  hardy  and  fearless  little  animal,  and  crawls 
rapidly  for  its  size,  compared  with  the  movements  of 
P.  ringens.  According  to  Moquin-Tandon  this  species 
is  ovoviviparous,  as  well  as  P.  wmbilicata,  and  the  young 
are  sometimes  attached  to  the  shell  of  the  mother  and 
carried  about  by  her.  The  work  of  reproduction  takes 
place  in  the  months  of  July  and  August.  The  number 
of  eggs  varies  from  3  to  7.  In  some  specimens  the  spire 
is  much  longer  or  shorter,  and  the  shell  is  consequently 
narrower  or  broader  than  usual.  The  epiphragm  is  like 
that  of  the  last  species,  but  is  seldom  complete. 

This  differs  from  P.  umbilicata  in  the  shell  being  more 
cylindrical  and  mostly  of  a  smaller  size,  as  well  as  in  the 
mouth  being  semioval  instead  of  triangular,  but  more 
especially  in  having  a  strong  back  rib  instead  of  a  re- 
flected lip.  The  present  species  seems  to  connect  Pupa 
with  Vertigo. 

In  consequence  of  the  hopelessly  inextricable  confusion 
which  has  so  long  existed  as  to  the  identity  of  Linnets 
Helix  muscomwi  with  this  or  the  last  species,  or  the 
Pupa  minutissima  of  Hartmann  (and  which  confusion 
seems  to  be  increased  by  every  new  writer  on  the  sub- 
ject), there  scarcely  seems  to  be  any  alternative  but  to 


252  HELICID.E. 

adopt  Draparnaud's  specific  and  significant  name  of  mar- 
ginata.  It  is  more  than  probable  that  Linne  knew  both 
this  species  and  P.  umbilicata,  but  did  not  distinguish 
one  from  the  other.  The  present  species  appears,  how- 
ever, to  be  the  Helix  muscorum  of  Miiller,  who  pointed 
out  the  difiference  between  his  and  Linne' s  species  of  the 
same  name.     This  is  the  Turbo  chrysalis  of  Turton. 

Genus  VII.  VERTrOO^  MiiUer.     PI.  VII.  f.  6,  7,  8. 

Body  rather  short,  always  containable  within  the  shell : 
tentacles  2  only,  scarcely  at  all  inflated  at  their  extremities : 
foot  short. 

Shell  subcylindrical  or  fusiform,  thin,  and  glossy :  whorls 
compact,  the  last  considerably  exceeding  the  others  in  size  : 
S2:)ire  short,  sometimes  reversed :  mouth  semioval  or  semicircular, 
usually  furnished  with  several  teeth,  in  which  case  the  outer 
lip  is  contracted  :  umhilieus  scarcely  perceptible,  or  consisting 
of  an  obhque  and  naiTow  chink. 

The  members  of  this  genus  are  miniature  forms  of 
Pupa ;  and  their  habits  are  the  same,  except  that  these 
are  more  retired  and  avoid  the  sun's  rays  more  than 
some  species  of  Pupa.  But  the  difierence  between  them 
does  not  consist  in  size  alone.  The  animal  of  Vertigo, 
instead  of  having,  like  that  of  Pupa,  four  tentacles,  has 
only  two,  and  is  quite  destitute  of  the  lower  pair.  I  have 
satisfied  myself,  by  a  careful  examination  of  many  living 
specimens,  that  not  the  slightest  rudiment  or  vestige  exists 
of  a  second  pair  of  tentacles  in  several  species  of  Vertigo, 
although  in  V.  pyg7n(sa  smd  V.  2Msilla  lines  or  dark  spots 
are  discernible  in  the  places  which  would  be  occupied  by 
these  tentacles  if  they  were  present.  Miiller  was  the 
first  to  discover  the  fact  of  these  moUusks  being  biten- 
taculate,  and  founded  on  it  the  present  genus.     Several 

*  A  turning  round. 


VERTIGO.  253 

Continental  naturalists  of  repute  have  also  made  inde- 
pendent observations  and  arrived  at  the  same  conclu- 
sion. An  exotic  species  (F.  rupestris)  is  half  as  large 
again  as  Pupa  mai^gmata ;  and  yet,  according  to  Moquin- 
Tandon,  not  a  trace  can  be  detected  in  this  species  of 
Vertigo  of  the  lower  tentacles  which  are  possessed  by  all 
the  species  of  Pupa.  The  shell  of  Vertigo  differs  also  in 
a  corresponding  degree  from  that  of  Pupa.  The  spire  is 
shorter ;  and  when  the  mouth  is  furnished  with  teeth  (as  is 
commonly  the  case)  the  outer  lip  is  contracted.  It  would 
therefore  seem  to  be  quite  as  reasonable  that  Vertigo 
should  be  separated  from  Pupa,  as  Bulimus  from  Helios. 
The  line  of  demarcation  in  either  case  is  confessedly 
slight.  The  value  of  such  generic  distinctions  will  pro- 
bably not  be  admitted  by  all  naturalists ;  and  unfortu- 
nately there  is  no  Court  of  Science  to  which  an  appeal 
can  be  made  for  an  adjudication  of  the  point. 

The  typical  and  original  species  ( V.  pusilla)  has  the 
spire  reversed  or  sinistral,  from  which  character  the  name 
now  borne  by  the  genus  was  derived. 

A.  SheU  dextral,  barrel-shaped :  wom^A  furnished  with  teeth. 

1.  Vertigo  antiverti'go*,  Draparnaud. 

Pupa  antivertigo,  Drap.  Tabl.  Moll.  p.  57,  and  Hist.  Moll.  p.  60,  pi.  iii. 
f.  32,  33  ;  F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  109,  pi.  cxxx.  f.  7. 

Body  thick,  lustrous  and  dusky,  greyish-black  with  a  tinge 
of  slate-colour  or  brown,  covered  with  exceedingly  minute 
black  or  dark  tubercles :  snout  short,  but  somewhat  produced : 
tentacles  rather  close  together,  subcyhndric ;  bulbs  forming  one- 
third  of  them,  oval  and  obtusely  pointed:  foot  oblong  and 
narrow  ;  edges  very  light  grey  and  finely  speckled  with  black  ; 
tail  rather  blunt. 

Shell  oval,  thin,  semitransparent,  very  glossy  and  of  an 

*  Not  reversed. 


254  HELICID^. 

opaline  lustre,  dark  yellowish-brown  with  a  reddish  tinge, 
very  faintly  and  closely  striate  in  the  line  of  growth,  and  micro- 
scopically striate  in  a  spiral  direction :  perij^liey-y  rounded : 
epidermis  very  thin :  ivliorls  4^,  tumid  and  more  prominent  in 
the  middle,  the  last  being  equal  to  about  half  the  shell,  and 
the  first  whorl  and  a  half  very  small  in  proportion  to  the 
others  :  sjnre  short,  very  abrupt  and  blunt  at  the  point :  suture 
deep :  mouth  small,  semioval,  contracted  in  the  middle  of  the 
outer  edge,  and  furnished  with  teeth  as  follows — three  on 
the  f>illar  (the  inner  one  of  which  is  only  a  small  tubercle,  or 
denticle),  one  on  the  pillar  lip,  and  three  or  four  (besides  one 
or  two  denticles)  inside  the  outer  lijj  and  placed  at  some 
distance  from  the  opening ;  the  teeth  are  of  a  reddish-brown 
colour ;  the  principal  ones  are  strong  and  arched,  and  the 
labial  or  palatal  teeth  extend  a  little  way  in  the  form  of  ridges 
and  are  visible  outside ;  all  of  them  are  of  an  irregular  shape 
and  unequal  in  size  and  length :  outer  lip  sharj),  whitish, 
flexuous  or  constricted  in  the  middle  of  the  front  margin, 
slightly  reflected,  and  strengthened  by  an  exterior  rib  of  nearly 
the  same  colour  as  the  rest  of  the  shell,  which  is  placed  at 
some  little  distance  from  the  margin  ;  outer  edge  much  inflected: 
inner  lip  sj)read  on  the  pillar  and  tolerably  thick  in  adult  spe- 
cimens, so  as  almost  to  form  a  complete  peristome  :  umbilicus 
moderately  open,  but  somewhat  contracted  by  a  blunt  and 
wrinkled  crest  at  the  base  of  the  shell.     L.  0-065.    B.  0-04. 

Habitat  :  Under  stones  and  logs  of  wood^  as  well  as 
at  the  roots  of  grass,  and  on  moss,  flags,  and  water- 
plants,  in  marshy  places  and  at  the  sides  of  streams  and 
canals,  generally  throughout  these  isles,  from  the  Moray 
Firth  district  to  Guernsey.  It  is  also  one  of  our  upper 
tertiary  fossils.  Abroad  it  is  distributed  from  Sweden, 
through  the  whole  of  Central  Europe,  to  Portugal  on  the 
west  and  Lugano  on  the  east ;  and  Aradas  and  Mag- 
giore  have  recorded  a  small  variety  (the  Fupa  pmsilla  of 
Bivona)  as  Sicilian. 

This  little  mollusk  carries  its  shell  nearly  straight  on 
its  back,  and  balances  it  fi'om  right  to  left  (as  if  it  Avere 
topheavy)  when  crawling.  It  inhabits  elevated  as  well 
as  moist  places.     The  late  Dr.  Johnston  of  Berwick  in- 


VERTIGO.  255 

formed  me  that  he  found  it  with  V.  pygmcea  and  V. 
substriata  at  Fastcastle  on  Sparkleton  Mountain,  in 
East  Lothian,  at  a  height  of  1200  feet.  Such  localities 
appear  to  have  an  obvious  relation  to  the  preglacial 
origin  of  many  of  our  MoUusca.  The  epiphragm  of  the 
present  species  is  filmy  and  iridescent,  like  that  of  the 
smaller  Pupce.  Half- grown  specimens  have  only  two 
teeth,  viz,  one  on  the  pillar  and  the  other  on  the  pillar 
lip.  The  number  of  teeth  in  adult  specimens  varies 
from  six  to  ten.  The  shell  does  not  differ  much  in  size. 
It  is  the  Turbo  sexdentatus  of  Montagu,  the  V.  sep- 
temdentata  of  Ferussac,  Charpentier,  and  others,  the  V. 
octodentata  of  Studer,  and  the  V.  palustris  of  Leach. 
The  Pupa  ovata  of  Say  (a  North- American  shell)  is 
closely  allied  to  this  species. 

2.  V.  Moulinsia'na*,  Dupuy. 

Pujpa  Moulinsiana,  Dup.  Cat.  G-all.  Test.  no.  284,  and  Moll.  Fr.  p.  415, 
pi.  20.  f.  11. 

Body  rather  slender,  dark-grey  above  and  of  a  paler  colour 
below :  tentacles  rather  thick,  short,  clavate  and  obtuse  at  their 
extremities  :  foot  narrow. 

Shell  oval,  very  thin  and  nearly  transparent,  exceedingly 
glossy,  light  yellowish-horncolour,  very  faintly  striate  in  the 
line  of  growth  and  microscopically  striate  in  a  spiral  direction  : 
periphery  rounded :  epidermis  very  shght :  whorls  4,^,  extremely 
tumid,  the  last  being  larger  than  the  rest  of  the  shell,  and  the 
first  whorl  and  a  half  very  small  in  proportion :  spire  short, 
remarkably  abrupt  and  blunt  at  the  point :  suture  very  deep  : 
mouth  semioval  or  forming  an  arch  equal  to  nearly  two-thirds 
of  a  circle ;  teeth  four,  as  follows — one  on  the  middle  of  the 
pillar,  one  on  the  pillar-lip,  and  two  inside  the  outer  hp  ; 
these  teeth  are  of  the  same  size,  and  placed  at  about  equal 
distances  from  each  other  and  a  httle  within  the  mouth :  outer 
lip  rather  thin,  whitish  and  reflected,  strengthened  by  a  slight 

*  Named  after  M.  des  Moulins,  the  author  of  several  excellent  papers 
on  the  French  Mollusca. 


256  HELICID^. 

exterior  rib,  which  is  of  the  same  colour  as  the  rest  of  the 
shell  and  situate  near  the  opening  of  the  mouth ;  outer  edge 
considerably  inflected :  inner  lip  scarcely  perceptible  and  con- 
sisting of  a  mere  film :  umbilicus  rather  open.  L.  0*08.    B.  O-OO, 

Var.  hidentata.     Labial  or  palatal  teeth  wanting. 

Habitat  :  Under  stones  by  the  side  of  a  small  lake 
at  Ballinahinch  near  Koundstone,  Co.  Galway,  where  I 
made  this  acquisition  to  the  British  Mollusca  in  1845. 
V.  antivertigo  and  a  variety  of  V.  pygrrKEa  were  also 
found  by  me  at  the  same  place  and  time ;  but  I  had  not 
examined  my  specimens  until  I  commenced  describing 
the  species  of  Vertigo  for  this  work.  The  month  and 
lip  in  the  variety  are  completely  formed.  On  the  Con- 
tinent the  present  species  occurs  in  the  North,  South, 
and  West  of  France,  the  Cantons  of  Vaud  and  Valais  in 
Switzerland,  and  near  Heidelberg.  It  is  a  local  and  rare 
shell. 

The  description  of  the  animal  is  taken  from  my  '^'^  Notes 
on  Swiss  Mollusca,"  which  appeared  in  the  ^  Annals  and 
Magazine  of  Natural  History '  for  January  1855  ;  and  I 
there  stated  that  the  body  is  more  slender  and  of  a  Kghter 
colour  than  that  of  V.  antivertigo,  and  that  the  ten- 
tacles are  more  decidedly  clavate.  There  is  no  trace  of 
a  second  or  lower  pair  of  tentacles.  I  observed  it  in 
Switzerland  feeding  on  Confervce.  The  situations  in 
which  I  found  it  in  Switzerland  were  like  that  of  the 
Irish  habitat;  and  I  have  no  doubt  that  it  will  be  re- 
discovered in  this  country  by  attention  being  thus  drawn 
to  it.  The  fen  districts  of  our  Eastern  counties,  as  well 
as  the  wilds  of  Connemara,  require  to  be  more  thoroughly 
searched.  I  did  not  keep  one  of  my  Swiss  specimens, 
from  a  desire  to  confine  my  collection  exclusively  to  our 
own  MoUusca;  but  I  have  fortunately  had,  through  the 
kindness  of  Mr.  Daniel,  an  opportunity  of  comparing 


VERTIGO.  257 

the  Connemara  specimens  with  some  from   Germany. 
The  latter  are  the  largest. 

This  species  differs  from  V.  antivertigo  in  being  larger, 
more  ventricose,  and  of  a  much  lighter  colour,  in  the 
mouth  and  outer  lip  not  being  contracted,  and  especially 
in  the  number  and  position  of  the  teeth,  which  never 
exceed  four,  instead  of  being  from  six  to  ten  as  in  that 
species.  From  V.pygmcea  it  may  be  distinguished  by 
being  twice  the  size  and  very  much  more  ventricose,  and 
also  of  a  lighter  colour.  The  difference  is  equally  great 
between  all  the  three  species.  V.  Moulinsiana  resembles 
V.  antivertigo  in  form  and  V.  pygmcea  in  the  number  of 
teeth.  It  is  among  the  largest  of  our  native  species  of 
Vertigo. 

It  is  the  Pupa  Anglica  of  Moquin-Tandon^s  ^  Cata- 
logue of  the  Mollusca  of  Toulouse,^  but  not  that  of 
Alder  or  of  Potiez  and  Michaud ;  and  it  is  the  P.  Char- 
pentieri  of  Mr.  Shuttleworth  in  Kiister^s  edition  of 
Martini  and  Chemnitz,  and  my  P.  Desmoulinsiana.  The 
P.  arctica  of  Von  Wallenberg  (Mai.  Bl.  1858,  p.  99,  pi.  i. 
f.  3,  and  a,  b,  4)  from  Lapland  is  perhaps  a  variety  of  the 
present  species,  differing  in  not  having  the  second  and 
smaller  tooth  on  the  outer  lip. 

3.  V.  pygm^'a"^,  Drapamaud. 

Pupa  pygmcea,  Drap.  Hist.  Moll.  p.  60,  pi.  iii.  f,  30,  31 ;  F.  &  H.  iv. 
p.  106,  pi.  cxxx.  f.  4-6. 

Body  slender,  expanded  and  rounded  in  front,  very  gradually- 
narrowing  and  pointed  behind,  of  a  dark  greyish-slatecolour, 
closely  but  indistinctly  tubercled :  mantle  of  a  reddish  hue, 
finely  speckled  with  black  :  tentacles  very  close  together  at  the 
base,  but  considerably  diverging,  with  oblong  bulbs ;  in  the  place 
of  the  lower  tentacles  two  black  spots  are  perceptible  with  a 
high  magnifying  power :  foot  truncate  in  front,  speckled  with 

*  Dwarf. 


258  HELICID.E. 

black  like  the  mantle,  as  well  as  with  milk-white  dots  on  the 
sole ;  tail  very  narrow,  slightly  rounded  at  the  extremity. 

Shell  oval  or  inclined  to  cylindrical,  rather  solid  for  its  size, 
semitransparent,  glossy,  reddish-brown  or  yello"wish-horncolour, 
very  faintly  striate  in  the  line  of  growth,  and  also  marked  with  a 
few  obscure  spiral  strias :  jperiphery  rounded  :  epidermis  slight : 
whorls  4:\,  convex,  but  not  very  tumid,  the  last  being  nearly 
as  large  as  the  rest  of  the  shell,  and  the  first  whorl  and  a  half 
very  small  in  proportion  :  spire  short,  abrupt  and  bluntly 
pointed :  suture  moderately  deep :  mouth  semioval,  rather 
higher  than  broad ;  teeth  four  or  five,  arranged  as  follows — 
one  sharp  and  prominent  tooth  on  the  middle  of  the  pillar,  one 
strong  and  thick  tooth  on  the  pillar  lip,  and  two  or  three  plate- 
like teeth  (more  frequently  the  latter  number)  inside  the 
outer  lip ;  these  last  or  labial  teeth  are  seated  considerably 
within  the  mouth  and  appear  to  spring  from  a  kind  of  rib, 
which  is  formed  inside  this  part  of  the  lip  and  corresponds  in 
position  with  an  outer  rib  of  greater  breadth  and  thickness ; 
the  third  labial  tooth  is  the  smallest :  outer  lip  rather  thin,  very 
little  reflected,  strengthened  by  the  outer  rib  above  noticed, 
which  is  sometimes  reddish-brown  like  the  rest  of  the  shell, 
but  occasionally  of  a  lighter  colour ;  outer  edge  abruptly 
inflected :  inner  lip  thickened  in  adult  specimens  :  umhilicus 
small  and  narrow,  but  rather  deep.     L.  0-065.    B.  0*04. 

Var.  pallida.     Shell  thinner  and  of  a  lighter  colour. 

Habitat  :  Under  stones  and  logs  of  wood,  and  at  the 
roots  of  grass,  on  hills  and  almost  everywhere  in  this 
country,  from  the  Moray  Firth  district  to  Guernsey. 
The  variety  inhabits  marshy  places,  and  has  been  found 
by  Mr.  Daniel  at  Wool  in  Dorsetshire,  and  by  myself 
in  the  North  of  Devon  as  well  as  in  Connemara  with 
V.  Moulinsiana.  This  variety  has  probably  been  mis- 
taken by  collectors  for  V.  alpestris.  The  present  species 
is  not  uncommon  in  our  upper  tertiary  strata.  It  is 
widely  distributed  abroad  from  Siberia  and  Finland  to 
Algeria  and  Sicily ;  and  it  even  reaches  the  Azores. 

This  is  a  tolerably  active  and  lively  little  creature, 
crawling  by  jerks  and  carrying  its  shell  nearly  upright. 


VERTIGO.  259 

It  makes_,  like  its  congeners,  a  filmy  epiphragm,  but 
which  is  not  iridescent.  It  may  be  in  some  degree 
considered  a  subalpine  form,  as  it  occurs  at  considerable 
heights.  Dr.  Johnston  found  it  at  the  top  of  a  moun- 
tain in  East  Lothian  at  an  elevation  of  1200  feet,  and 
M.  Puton  on  the  Vosges  at  a  height  of  1640  feet.  The 
teeth  do  not  appear  to  be  formed  in  any  of  the  whorls 
except  the  last.  They  project  into  the  mouth  at  right 
angles,  so  as  to  present  a  chevaux  de  frise  against  all 
intruders. 

This  species  may  at  once  be  known  from  V.  antivertigo, 
as  well  as  from  F.  Moulinsianaj  by  its  more  cylindrical 
or  narrower  shape,  and  from  the  former  by  its  having 
only  a  single  tooth  on  the  pillar,  instead  of  two  or  three 
as  in  that  species.  The  outer  lip  is  also  not  contracted 
and  angulated  as  in  V.  antivertigo.  The  other  points 
of  difference  between  the  present  species  and  V.  Mou- 
linsiana  have  already  been  noticed  in  the  account  of 
that  species. 

Montagu  was  evidently  acquainted  with  the  present 
species,  but  confounded  it  with  V.  antivertigo  (his  Turbo 
sex  dent  atus) ,  in  describing  which  he  says,  ^^  younger 
shells  have  only  four  teeth.^^  I  may  observe  that  the 
fifth  or  smaller  tooth,  which  is  placed  within  the  outer 
lip  and  close  to  the  pillar  lip,  is  seldom  wanting,  although 
not  so  conspicuous  as  the  others,  and  that  five  is  the 
usual,  and  four  the  exceptional  number  of  teeth. 


4.  V.  alpes'tris  ■^,  Alder. 

V.  alpestris,  Alder,  Trans.  Nat.  Hist.  Soc.  Newc.  ii.  p.  340.      Pupa  jpyg- 
mcea,  var.  alpestris,  P.  &  H.  iv.  p.  107,  pi.  cxxx.  f.  6. 

Body  Hght-strawcolour :  tentacles  and  foot  longer  than  in 
V.  pygmcea. 

*  Inhabiting  liigh  land. 


260  HELICID.E. 

Shell  subcjlindrical,  thin  and  semitransparent,  very  glossy, 
pale  yellowish-horncolour,  closely  and  rather  strongly  striate 
in  the  line  of  growth  :  periphertj  rounded :  ejndermis  thin  : 
vjhorls  4|,  convex,  but  slightly  compressed  :  spire  short,  abrupt 
and  bluntly  pointed :  suture  excessively  deep  :  mouth  semi- 
oval  and  subangular,  owing  to  the  outward  compression  of  the 
jjeriphery ;  teeth  four,  viz.  one  sharp  and  prominent  tooth  on 
the  middle  of  the  pillar,  one  strong  and  also  prominent  and 
thick  tooth  on  the  pillar  lip,  and  two  lamellas  or  plate-Hke 
teeth  which  are  placed  at  some  little  distance  within  the  outer 
lip,  but  not  on  any  rib  or  callous  fold  as  in  V.  pygmcpji ;  the 
labial  teeth  are  visible  on  the  outside,  owing  to  the  thinness 
and  transparency  of  the  shell:  outer  lip  rather  thick,  very 
slightly  reflected,  not  strengthened  by  any  rib  either  outside 
or  inside  ;  outer  edge  abniptly  inflected :  inner  lip  somewhat 
thickened  in  adult  specimens :  umbilicus  small  and  narrow, 
but  rather  deep.     L.  0-07.    B.  0-04. 

Habitat  :  Under  stones  and  among  dead  leaves  near 
Clithero  in  Lancashire  (Gilbertson)  ;  Lipwood,  near 
Hay  don  Bridge,  Northumberland  (J.  Thompson) ;  near 
Ambleside,  on  slate  (Miss  Sarah  Bolton);  Grassmere 
(J.  G.  J.).  It  is  one  of  our  most  local  species ;  and  it 
does  not  appear  to  be  extensively  distributed  abroad. 
Maack  has  recorded  it  as  Russian ;  Von  Wallenberg 
found  it  in  Lulea-Lapland ;  Charpentier  and  myself  in 
several  parts  of  Switzerland ;  and  I  have  also  taken  it  in 
the  Lower  Harz.  It  is  in  Mr.  Brown's  list  of  Copford 
shells ;  but  as  a  variety  of  V.  pygmcea  has  been  often 
mistaken  for  this  species,  I  cannot  satisfactorily  recognize 
it  as  one  of  our  upper  tertiary  fossils. 

In  mv  notice  of  the  Harz  Mollusca  in  the  ^Annals 
and  Magazine  of  Natural  History '  for  November  1860 
(p.  349)  I  stated  that  ^'  this  is  a  true  Vertigo^  and  has 
not  the  slightest  vestige  of  the  lower  pair  of  tenta- 
cles.'^  The  epiphragm  is  iridescent.  The  '  Malakozoo- 
logische  Blatter^  for  1858  (Taf.  1.  f.  5.  a-d)  contains  an 
admirable  representation  of  the  shell. 


VERTIGO.  261 

This  species  differs  from  V.  pygmaa  in  being  more 
cylindrical_,  of  a  paler  colour  and  nearly  transparent, 
and  especially  in  tiie  numerous  and  sharp  transverse 
strise,  as  well  as  in  not  having  any  rib  either  outside  or 
inside  the  mouth. 

It  is  questionable  whether  the  V.  alpestris  of  Ferussac 
is  the  same  as  our  shell,  because  he  gave  no  description  ; 
and  his  original  specimens  appeared  to  me,  from  tw^o 
careful  examinations  which  I  made  in  1860  and  1861, 
to  be  the  marsh  variety  (pallida)  of  V.  pygmcea,  and 
not  Alder^s  species.  I  have,  however,  no  doubt  of  the 
present  species  being  the  Pupa  ShuUlewoythiana  of 
Charpentier  (Zeitschr.  f.  Malak.  1847,  p.  148),  having 
compared  with  that  naturalist  the  specimens  I  collected 
in  Switzerland.  The  Pupa  borealis  of  Morelet  from 
Kamtschatka  appears  also  to  belong  to  this  species. 

5.  V.  substria'ta  *,  Jeffreys. 

Alaa  auhstriata,  Jeifr.  in  Linn.  Trans,  xvi.  p.  515.      Fupa  szihsfriata. 
F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  108,  pi.  cxxx.  f.  3. 

Body  grey  of  different  shades :  snont  short,  bilobed :  te7ita- 
cles  slender,  cylindrical  or  club-shaped,  and  divergent ;  bulbs 
equal  to  about  one-fourth  of  their  length :  foot  of  a  hghter 
colour,  thick,  short,  narrow  and  keeled  at  the  tail. 

Shell  oval  or  subfusiform,  rather  thin  and  semitransparent, 
glossy,  pale  yellowish-horncolour,  very  strongly  and  obliquely 
striate  and  almost  ribbed  in  the  line  of  growth,  but  less  so  on 
the  body  whorl,  which  is  faintly  striate  spirally :  periphery 
rounded :  epidermis  rather  thick :  whorls  4^,  very  convex  or 
cyhndrical,  and  suddenly  increasing  in  bulk,  the  penultimate 
Avhorl  slightly  exceeding  in  breadth  the  last,  which  occupies 
about  one -half  of  the  shell :  spire  short,  very  abrupt  and 
bluntly  pointed :  suture  remarkably  deep :  mouth  semioval, 
contracted  or  sinuous  in  the  middle  of  the  outer  edge ;  teeth 
from  four  to  six,  viz.  from  one  to  three  (usually  two)  on  the 

*  Slightly  striate. 


262  RELICIDM. 

pillar,  one  on  the  pillar  lip,  and  two  or  three  on  the  inside  of 
the  outer  lip,  the  last  springing  from  a  white  rib ;  in  half- 
grown  specimens  the  pillar  lip  has  a  spiral  or  longitudinal 
fold :  oiiter  Up  thin  and  slightly  reflected,  strengthened  by  a 
strong  rib,  which  is  placed  very  near  the  opening  of  the  mouth ; 
outer  edge  abruptly  inflected  :  inner  lip  thickened  in  the  adult : 
umhilicus  small  and  narrow,  contracted  by  a  keel  or  ridge  at 
the  base  of  the  sheU.     L.  0-065.   B.  0-04. 

Habitat  :  Under  stones^  among  dead  and  decaying 
leaves,  and  at  the  roots  of  grass  in  woods  and  moist 
places,  in  many  parts  of  Great  Britain  from  Skye  to 
Devon,  as  well  as  throughout  Ireland.  Mr.  Brown  has 
enumerated  it  in  his  list  of  upper  tertiary  shells  from 
Copford.  Abroad  it  has  been  noticed  by  Nordenskiold  and 
Nylander  as  inhabiting  Finland,  by  Malm  as  Swedish, 
and  by  Held  as  Bavarian.  It  does  not  appear  to  have 
been  found  in  France. 

This  exquisite  little  snail  is  tolerably  active,  though 
timid,  and  carries  its  shell  nearly  upright.  The  epi- 
phragm  is  like  that  of  its  congeners.  There  is  no  rudi- 
ment or  trace  of  lower  tentacles  ;  and  my  first  descrip- 
tion of  the  animal  (in  1830)  is  incorrect  in  that  respect. 
I  have  since  very  carefully  examined  a  great  many  living 
specimens,  and  could  not  detect  with  a  Coddington  lens 
even  a  speck  in  the  place  usually  occupied  by  these  ten- 
tacles. Dr.  Johnston  found  this  species  in  East  Lothian 
at  a  height  of  1200  feet. 

The  form  of  the  shell,  and  the  strong  transverse  striae, 
as  well  as  the  number  and  arrangement  of  the  teeth, 
will  at  once  serve  to  distinguish  this  from  any  of  the 
foregoing  species. 

It  is  the  V.  curt  a  of  Held  ;  and  it  closely  resembles, 
and  may  be  specifically  identical  with,  the  Pupa  milium 
of  Gould,  which  is  a  native  of  the  United  States. 


VERTIGO.  263 

B.  Shell  sinistral,  fusiform  :  mouth  furnished  with  teeth  and 

contracted. 

6.  V.  pusil'la*_,  Miiller. 

V.  imsiUa,  Milll.  Yerm.  Hist.  pt.  ii.  p.  124.     Pupa  pusilla,  F.  &  H.  iv. 
p.  Ill,  pi.  cxxx.  f.  8. 

Body  oblong,  slightly  contracted  and  rounded  in  front  and 
insensibly  narrowing  behind,  brown  or  greyish-slatecolonr 
above,  and  whitish  with  a  faint  tinge  of  blue  on  the  sides  and 
underneath,  minutely  tubercled :  mantle  yellowish-brown : 
tentacles  very  close  together  at  their  base,  but  widely  diverging, 
thick,  nearly  cylindrical,  dusky-grey  with  a  slight  tinge  of 
brown  ;  bulbs  long,  but  not  very  prominent :  foot  broad  and 
rounded  in  front,  very  tumid,  keeled  and  a  httle  pointed 
behind. 

Shell  subfusiform,  with  somewhat  of  a  quadrangular  out- 
line, thin  and  semitrans23arent,  very  glossy,  horncolour  with  a 
faint  tinge  of  yellow,  very  slightly  and  remotely  striate  in  the 
line  of  growth  :  periphery  rounded,  with  a  tendency  to  angu- 
larity :  epidermis  thin :  luhorh  4^  or  5,  very  convex  and 
cylindi'ical,  gradually  increasing  in  size ;  the  penultimate 
whorl  as  broad  as  the  last,  which  occupies  about  two -fifths  of 
the  shell :  spire  shortish,  but  rather  tapering,  and  blunt  at  the 
point :  suture  very  deep  :  mouth  semioval,  contracted  or  sinuous 
in  the  middle  of  the  outer  edge ;  teeth  six  or  seven,  viz.  two 
on  the  pillar,  two  on  the  pillar  lip  (the  inner  one  of  which  is 
always  larger,  and  the  outside  one  tubercular  and  placed 
in  the  angle  where  the  outer  lip  joins),  and  two  or  three  within 
the  outer  lip  (the  third,  when  it  is  present,  placed  near  the 
pillar  lip  and  being  a  mere  tubercle)  :  outer  lip  rather  thick 
and  slightly  reflected,  strengthened  by  a  strong  rib  both  out- 
side and  inside,  which  is  situate  near  the  opening  of  the  mouth 
and  is  yellowish- white  ;  outer  edge  rather  abruptly  inflected  : 
inner  lip  slightly  thickened  in  full-grown  specimens  :  umbilicus 
small  and  narrow,  contracted  by  a  rather  sharp  and  gibbous 
crest  or  ridge  at  the  base  of  the  shell.     L.  0-07.   B.  0-045. 

Habitat  :  Under  stones  and  among  dead  leaves  and 
moss  in  woods,  in  various  parts  of  Great  Britain  from 
Westmoreland  to  Devon,  as  well  as  in  the  North  and 

*  Little. 


264  HELICID^. 

West  of  Ireland ;  but  it  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
detected  in  Scotland.  Although  diffused,  it  is  local  and 
rare.  It  occurs  in  our  upper  tertiary  strata.  On  the 
Continent  it  ranges  from  Finland  to  the  North  of  Italy, — 
viz.  Lugano  (Stabile);  Como  (Porro) ;  Lombardy  (Villa) ; 
and  Aradas  and  Maggiore  are  said  to  have  found  a 
specimen  on  the  sea-shore  at  Catania. 

This  is  a  very  shy  little  snail  and  slow  in  its  move- 
ments. When  it  is  about  to  crawl  and  emerges  from 
the  shell,  it  puts  its  foot  foremost.  Its  slime  is  rather 
abundant.  The  shell  is  carried  perpendicularly.  The 
epiphragm  is  membranous  and  plaited.  Miiller  says 
that  under  the  microscope  a  small  black  line  can  with 
great  difficulty  be  detected  in  the  place  which  is  occupied 
in  the  animal  of  Pupa  by  each  of  the  lower  tentacles. 

The  reversed  direction  of  the  spire  is  an  easy  mark  of 
distinction  between  this  and  all  the  foregoing  species  of 
Vertigo,  The  present  species  is  not  a  sinistral  form  or 
variety  of  any  other  kind,  as  I  have  satisfied  myself  by 
comparing  this  in  a  mirror  (which  of  course  makes  the 
spire  appear  dextral)  with  V.  antivertigo  and  V.  sub- 
striata,  in  which  the  teeth  are  somewhat  similarlv 
arranged.  The  shape  of  the  present  species,  if  it  were 
dextral,  would  be  intermediate  between  that  of  the  last- 
named  species  and  V.  eclentula. 

Leach  is  the  only  conchologist  who  has  proposed  to 
change  the  original  name ;  and  he  has  rechristened  this 
species  V.  heterostropha.  It  must  be  recollected  that 
Miiller  was  the  founder  of  the  genus,  as  well  as  the  dis- 
coverer of  the  present  species,  which  was  at  that  time 
the  only  one  known ;  so  that,  if  any  alteration  were 
necessary  on  account  of  the  contrary  direction  of  the 
spire,  this  species  ought  at  all  events  to  retain  the  name 
first  given  to  it  by  its  discoverer.     I  had  long  previously 


VERTIGO.  265 

proposed  the  institution  of  another  genus  {Alcea)  for  the 
reception  of  those  species  which  have  a  dextrorsal  spire ; 
but  I  now  consider  this  generic  addition  to  be  quite 
useless  and  untenable. 

7.  V.  angus'tior  *,  Jeffi-eys. 

V,  angusfior,  Jeffr.  in  Linn.  Trans,  xvi.  p.  361.    Pupa  Venetzii,  F.  k  H.  iv. 
p.  1 12,  j)l.  cxxx.  f.  9. 

Body  short  and  stumpy,  blackish  in  front  and  greyish  on 
the  sides  and  underneath ;  tubercles  indistinct :  mantle  yellow- 
ish-grey :  tentacles  thick,  somewhat  cylindrical,  dusky-grey, 
considerably  diverging  from  each  other ;  bulbs  scarcely  distinct: 
foot  thick  and  narrow,  pale-grey. 

Shell  subfusiform  or  barrel- shaped,  narrower  in  proportion 
than  V.pusilla,  rather  sohd,  but  semitransparont,  glossy,  light 
horncolour,  strongly,  obhquely  and  rather  closely  striate  in 
the  line  of  growth :  perijphery  compressed  and  somewhat  an- 
gular: epidermis  thin:  whorls  4|,  rather  convex,  but  com- 
pressed, gradually  increasing  in  size,  the  penultimate  one  a 
trifle  broader  than  the  last,  which  occupies  about  two-fifths 
of  the  shell,  the  first  or  upper  whorl  smooth  and  shining : 
spire  rather  short,  abrupt  and  blunt  at  the  point :  suture  rather 
deep:  mouth  subtriangidar,  and  very  narrow  in  consequence  of 
the  great  contraction  or  sinuosity  of  the  outer  edge  in  the 
middle  as  well  as  towards  the  base  ;  teeth  four  or  five,  viz. 
two  on  the  pillar  (the  outer  one  of  which  is  a  little  in  advance 
of  the  other),  one  on  the  pillar  lip,  which  is  sunk  deep  mthin 
the  mouth  and  resembles  a  strong  curved  plate  more  than  a 
tooth,  and  one  thick  and  prominent  tooth  inside  the  outer  lip, 
with  rarely  a  small  tubercle  by  the  side  of  it :  outer  lip  ex- 
ceedingly thick  and  scarcely  inflected,  strengthened  outside 
and  uiside  by  a  strong  rib,  which  is  situate  near  the  rim  and  is 
yellowish-white ;  the  inside  rib  remarkably  thick  and  increasing 
the  contraction  of  the  mouth  :  inner  lip  consisting  of  a  shght 
deposit  on  the  columella :  umhilicus  very  small,  narrow  and 
indistinct,  being  much  contracted  by  a  sharp  and  gibbous  keel 
or  crest  at  the  base  of  the  shell.     L.  0-06.   B.  0-035. 

Habitat  :    At  the  roots  of  grass  in  marshy  ground, 

*■  Narrower. 

N 


266  HELICID^. 

but  only  hitherto  noticed  in  a  few  localities.  These 
are  as  follows  : — Singleton  near  Swansea,  and  the  rejec- 
tamenta of  the  Avon  River  at  Bristol  (J.  G.  J.) ;  Tenby 
(Webster) ;  Battersea  fields  (Stephens) ;  Co.  Clare 
(Humphreys);  and  Connemara,  Co.  Galway  (Warren). 
Mr.  Brown  has  noticed  it  among  the  shells  in  the  upper 
tertiary  deposit  at  Copford.  Abroad  it  has  been  found 
in  the  North_,  East,  and  South  of  France,  as  well  as  in 
Germany,  Switzerland,  and  Lugano.  Near  Villeneuve, 
in  the  upper  Valley  of  the  Rhone,  I  observed  it  to  be 
tolerably  plentiful  in  a  wet  meadow  or  piece  of  land  by  the 
side  of  the  road  leading  from  Vevay  to  St.  Maurice,  as 
well  as  in  similar  situations  near  Lausanne  and  at  Chable 
in  the  Valley  of  Bagne.  The  first-mentioned  piece  of 
land  had  lately  been  mown ;  and  consequently  these  tiny 
shells  were  more  easily  detected.  I  have  thus  specially 
noticed  these  foreign  localities,  to  indicate  the  kind  of 
station  in  which  this  rare  shell  may  be  sought  for  in 
this  country. 

The  animal  is  rather  slow  in  its  movements  and  carries 
the  shell  upright  on  its  back. 

The  shell  difi'ers  from  V.  pusilla  in  its  much  smaller 
size  and  being  proportionally  narrower,  in  the  distinct 
and  strong  transverse  striae,  and  especially  in  the  shape 
of  the  mouth,  which  is  triangular  and  very  narrow, 
instead  of  being  subquadrate  and  open  (which  is  the  case 
in  V.  jmsilla),  as  well  as  in  the  number,  shape,  and 
position  of  the  teeth.  The  single  labial  tooth  in  the 
present  species  is  situate  opposite  to  the  space  between 
the  two  teeth  on  the  columella,  and  would  lock  into 
them  if  the  two  sides  were  in  contact,  like  the  hinge  teeth 
of  many  bivalve  shells.  An  excellent  and  enlarged 
figure  of  the  shell  is  given  in  '  Wiegmann^s  Archiv  '  for 
1838,  pi.  iv.  f.  6. 


VERTIGO.  267 

I  hope  I  may  be  excused  saying  a  few  words  here 
about  the  correct  name  of  this  species,  as  regards  myself. 
It  is  an  invidious  and  unpleasant  task  to  vindicate  one^s 
own  supposed  discoveries ;  but  it  is  at  the  same  time 
useful  to  the  cause  of  Science,  and  in  some  respects  re- 
sembles the  duty  of  a  parent  in  defending  his  children. 
As  our  Continental  neighbours  and  friends  would  say, 
"  il  faut  faire  une  reclamation.^^ 

In  the  ^  Linnean  Transactions^  for  1830  I  proposed 
the  present  species  and  gave  it  the  name  of  "angustioVy'^ 
accompanied  by  a  full  description,  in  Latin,  of  its  specific 
characters.  I  also  noticed  particularly  the  contour  of 
the  shell,  the  shape  of  the  aperture  or  mouth,  and  the 
position  of  the  teeth,  in  comparison  with  those  characters 
in  V,  pusilla.  In  the  following  year  Michaud  described 
and  figured  the  same  species  in  his  Supplement  to  Dra- 
parnaud^s  posthumous  work,  under  the  name  of  V.  nana. 
In  the  ^Isis^  for  1837,  Held  also  described  the  shell 
and  gave  it  the  name  of  V.  hamata.  In  1838  Professor 
A.  Miiller  again  described  and  figured  it  in  '  Wiegmann^s 
Archiv '  as  V.  plicata.  And,  in  order  that  this  mite  of 
a  shell  should  have  as  many  names  as  any  Spanish 
Hidalgo,  Rossmassler  in  1839  redescribed  and  figured 
it  in  his  '  Iconographie,''  and  adopted  Charpentier's  MS. 
name  of  V.  Venetzii.  This  last  name  has  been  used  by 
the  authors  of  the  '  British  MoUusca ' ;  and  Held^s 
name  of  plicata  has  been  adopted  by  Moquin-Tandon, 
imder  an  erroneous  impression  (originating  apparently 
in  a  typographical  error  in  Rossmassler^ s  work)  that 
the  number  of  the  '  Isis  ^  which  contained  the  latter 
name  was  published  in  1828,  and  not  in  1838.  I  have 
ascertained,  by  an  examination  of  Michaud^s  and  Char- 
pentier's  types,  that  their  species  are  the  same  as  mine. 
I  have  also  no  doubt  of  the  Turbo  vertigo  of  Montagu, 

N  2 


268  HELICID^. 

as  first  described  by  him,  being  specifically  identical  with 
it,  and  his  name  is  conseqnently  prior  to  all  those  which 
I  haA^e  enumerated ;  but  the  reduplication  of  the  same 
name,  both  in  a  specific  and  generic  sense,  would  be 
objectionable.  V.  pusilla,  as  well  as  the  present  species, 
were  confounded  by  Montagu  in  the  subsequent  part  of 
his  description.  I  fear  that  this  little  episode  will 
interest  none  but  bibliographical  naturalists. 


C.  Shell  dextral,  cylindrical :  mouth  seldom  furnished  with 

teeth. 

8.  V.  eden'tula*,  Draparnaud. 

Piqrn  fdentula,  Drap.  Hist.  Moll.  p.  52,  pi.  iii.  f.  28,  29 ;  F.  &  H.  ir.  p.  103, 
pi.  cxxx.  f.  1. 

Body  rather  slender,  ash-grej',  of  a  darker  hue  above,  and 
much  paler  behind  as  well  as  on  the  sides  and  underneath ; 
tubercles  extremely  small,  reduced  to  blackish  or  greyish  dots  : 
mantle  veiy  pale  reddish-grey ;  tentacles  thick,  nearly  smooth, 
blackish-grey ;  bulbs  forming  about  one-third  of  their  length, 
oval,  and  verj-  blunt ;  there  is  no  sign  of  any  lower  tentacles 
and  not  even  a  spot  to  indicate  their  place :  foot  oblong  and 
narrow,  slightly  pointed  behind. 

Shell  oblong,  nearly  cylindrical,  thin,  semitransparent  and 
glossy, light  yellowish-brown  or  horacoloiu*,  marked  with  slight, 
but  numerous,  obhque  and  somewhat  curved  striae  in  the  line  of 
gi^owth  :  periphery  rounded,  although  having  a  slight  tendency 
to  angularity :  epidermis  thin:  whorls  ^h-^^,  moderately  con- 
vex, gradually  increasing  in  size,  the  penultimate  whorl  rather 
broader  than  the  last,  which  occupies  about  two-fifths  of  the 
shell :  spire  long,  abrupt  and  blunt  at  the  point :  suture  deep  : 
mouth  forming  an  arch  or  segment  of  two-thirds  of  a  circle, 
dcvstitute  of  teeth  :  outer  lip  thin,  very  slightly  reflected,  except 
towards  the  umbilicus,  over  which  it  folds  on  the  side  next  to 
the  mouth  :  pillar  lip  nearly  straight  in  adidt  specimens  ; 
umbilinLs  -narrow  and  contracted  by  the  pillar,  but  rather  deep. 
L.  0-1.   B.  0-05. 

*  Toothless. 


VERTIGO.  .  269 

Yar.  columella.  Shell  somewhat  longer,  and  having  the  last 
whorl  a  little  broader  than  the  next.  Pupa  columella,  (Y. 
Martens)  Benz,  Ueber  WtirtenbiLrg.  Eaun.  p.  49. 

Habitat  :  Y^oods,  among  dead  leaves^  at  the  roots  of 
grass  and  in  herbage,  as  well  as  on  the  trunks  of  trees, 
in  most  parts  of  the  kingdom,  from  the  Moray  Firth 
district  to  Guernsey.  This  species,  however,  is  local. 
The  variety  has  been  found  by  Mr.  YV^aller  at  Finnoe,  Co. 
Tipper ary.  It  inhabits  moist er  places  than  the  typical 
form  and  is  the  Pupa  inornata  of  Michaud.  The  present 
species  is  one  of  our  upper  tertiary  fossils.  Its  foreign 
range  extends  from  the  Amoor  territory  and  Lapland  to 
Lombardy. 

This  elegant  little  mollusk  is  timid,  and  retires  within 
its  shell  at  the  slightest  touch.  When  crawling,  it 
usually  carries  the  shell  in  a  slanting  position.  Its  slime 
is  watery.  Mr.  Sheppard  noticed  that  his  Essex  specimens 
were  uniformly  darker  than  those  which  he  found  in 
Suffolk.  It  inhabits  considerable  heights.  Puton  found 
it  on  the  Vosges  Mountains  at  an  elevation  of  1150 
metres,  or  3773  feet.  Young  shells  resemble  those  of  a 
conical  Helix,  and  have  a  sharply  keeled  periphery  and  a 
small  umbilical  perforation.  Mr.  E.  J.  Lowe  says  that 
Professor  Babington  once  observed  this  species  in  great 
abundance  on  the  under  surface  of  the  fronds  ofAspidia 
in  autumn.  They  may  be  found  in  winter,  together  with 
Carychium  minimum  and  other  minute  shells,  concealed 
in  the  decayed  stalks  of  the  larger  umbelliferous  plants. 

iUthough  this  species  is  peculiar  and  by  no  means  un- 
common, it  seems  to  have  escaped  the  notice  of  Mon- 
tagu and  the  older  writers  on  British  Conchology.  It  is 
the  V.  nitida  of  Ferussac,  Turbo  Offtonensis  of  Sheppard, 
and  mv  AJcsa  revoluta. 


270  •  HELICID^. 

9.  V.  MiNUTis'siMA'^j  Hartmann. 

Pupa  minutissima,  Hartm.  in  Neue  Alp.  i.  p,  220,  pi.  ii.  f .  5  ;  F.  &  H.  iv. 
p.  104,  pi.  cxxx.  f.  2. 

Body  slightly  narrow  and  rounded  in  front,  very  gradually 
attenuated  and  somewhat  blunt  behind,  finely  shagreened, 
greyish-slatecolour,  streaked  or  dotted  with  black :  mantle 
greyish-brown  and  of  a  lighter  hue  than  the  upper  part  of  the 
body :  tentacles  greatly  diverging,  separated  by  a  narrow  groove, 
very  tumid  at  their  base,  broadly  edged  with  black ;  bidbs 
slightly  globular :  foot  of  a  paler  colour  (sometimes  milk-white) 
at  the  sides  and  underneath,  with  a  faint  tinge  of  yeUow 
towards  the  middle  of  the  sole,  ending  in  a  triangular  and 
blunt  tail. 

Shell  oblong,  nearly  cylindrical,  rather  solid,  semitrans- 
parent  and  glossy,  yellowish-brown  or  horncolour  of  different 
shades,  marked  with  strong,  close-set,  obliquely  transverse  and 
rib-like  stritB :  jperijjhery  rounded,  but  slightly  compressed, 
with  a  tendency  to  angularity :  epidermis  thin  :  tuhorls  5|, 
moderately  convex,  gradually  increasing  in  size,  the  last  but 
two  being  somewhat  the  broadest  of  all,  the  body  whorl  occupy- 
ing about  two-fifths  of  the  shell :  spire  long,  very  abrupt  and 
blunt  at  the  point :  suture  deep  :  mouth  shaped  as  in  V.  eden- 
tula,  and  (in  British  specimens)  equally  destitute  of  teeth : 
outer  lip  thin,  white,  and  reflected :  umbilicus  small,  narrow 
and  obhque.     L.  0-07.    B.  0-035. 

Habitat  :  Under  stones  on  hills  in  a  few  scattered 
places  in  Great  Britain^  and  which  are  as  follows  : — 
Skye  (MacaskiU)  ;  Balmerino,  Fifeshire  (Chalmers) ; 
Arthur^s  Seat^  Edinburgh  (E.  Forbes) ;  Sunderland, 
South  Hylton  on  the  Wear,  and  Pontefract  on  mag- 
nesian  limestone  (Howse) ;  Went  Vale,  Yorkshire  (Ash- 
ford)  ;  Durdham  Downs  near  Bristol,  and  Lulworth  in 
Dorsetshire  (J.  G.  J.) ;  Undercliff,  Isle  of  Wight  (More). 
As  an  upper  tertiary  fossil  it  has  been  found  at  Clacton 
and  Copford  in  our  eastern  counties.  It  is  widely  dif- 
fused on  the  Continent  fi'om  Finland  to  Lombardy  and 

*  Exceedingly  minute. 


BALTA.  271 

Corsica ;  and  (assuming  the  Pupa  Callicratis  of  Scacchi 
to  be  the  same  species)  it  ranges  to  Sicily.  According 
to  E/Oth  it  has  been  found  at  Athens. 

This  exquisitely  beautiful  but  tiny  creature  is  slow  in 
its  movements,  and  carries  its  shell  nearly  upright  when 
it  crawls.  Puton  is  said  to  have  found  it  at  a  height  of 
1352  feet  on  granite  in  the  Vosges  Mountains.  The 
epiphragm  is  very  thin  and  glistening.  The  length  of 
the  spire  varies  considerably  in  this,  as  well  as  the  last 
species.  Our  native  examples  are  toothless ;  but  foreign 
specimens  have  frequently  a  tooth  on  the  pillar  and  an- 
other within  the  outer  lip ;  and  I  found  a  specimen  in 
Switzerland  which  had  three  teeth,  arranged  triangularly 
as  in  the  Pupa  triplicata  of  Studer. 

This  species  is  the  Pupa  minuta  of  Studer,  P.  mus- 
corum  of  Draparnaud,  Vertigo  cylindrica  of  Ferussac, 
Pupa  obtusa  of  Fleming  (but  not  of  Draparnaud),  and 
it  is  probably  also  the  P.  costulata  of  Nilsson. 

Genus  VIII.  BA'LIA*,  [Balea)  Prideaux. 
PI.  VII.  f.  9,  10,  11. 

Body  long  and  slender,  always  containable  mthin  the  shell  : 
tentacles  4,  proportionally  short :  foot  rather  broad. 

Shell  sinistral,  turriculate,  thin,  deUeately  striate  and 
streaked  "svith  white  in  the  line  of  growth  :  spire  reversed,  long 
and  pointed :  mouth  squarish,  sometimes  furnished  with  a  small 
tubercular  tooth  on  the  columella :  umbilicus  narrow  and 
oblique. 

This  generic  group  has  only  a  single  species  which  is 
indigenous  to  this  country.  A  few  others  are  exotic. 
In  the  reversed  turn  of  the  spire  and  general  aspect,  as 
well  as  in  the  shape  of  the  mouth  and  the  straight  pillar 

*  Bay-coloured. 


272  HELICIDiE. 

lip^  it  closely  resembles  a  young  or  incomplete  Clausilia, 
and  might  lead  to  the  supposition  that  its  growth  or  deve  - 
lopment  had  been  suddenly  arrested.  It  wants^  however, 
the  clausilium  or  twisted  internal  plate  which  is  charac- 
teristic of  the  adult  Clausilia,  as  well  as  the  oblique 
teeth  or  folds  which  contract  the  aperture  of  that  shell. 
In  the  small  tubercular  tooth  which  is  occasionally 
formed  on  the  pillar,  Balia  has  some  affinity  to  the 
genus  Vei'tigo ;  but  the  mouth  of  the  shell  in  the  present 
genus  is  of  a  different  shape,  and  the  spire  is  more  elon- 
gated or  draw^n  out.  The  shell  of  Balia,  when  viewed 
in  a  mirror  (so  as  to  make  the  spire  appear  dextral),  is 
not  unlike  that  of  a  wide-mouthed  Pupa.  The  soft  parts 
of  the  animal  do  not  present  any  peculiarity,  or  appear 
to  be  different  from  those  of  the  other  genera  above  men- 
tioned. The  members  of  this  genus  are  inactive  in  their 
habits,  and  are  fond  of  shade  and  moisture,  but  not  of 
excessive  wet.  They  are  usually  found  in  the  crevices 
of  rocks  and  walls  and  under  the  bark  of  old  trees  ;  and 
they  probably  feed  on  the  spores  of  mosses  and  other 
Cryptogamous  plants,  as  I  have  observed  them  after  a 
shower  of  rain  apparently  thus  occupied,  while  slowly 
crawling  over  the  trunk  of  a  sycamore.  They  may  be 
called  the  "  Tree-snail." 

The  present  genus  was  first  made  known  by  Dr.  Gray 
in  the  '^  Zoological  Journal'  (vol.  i.  p.  61)  under  the 
name  of  Balea,  from  MS.  information  furnished  by  Mr. 
Prideaux,  an  assiduous  conchologist  and  friend  of  Dr. 
Leach.  In  a  posthumous  work  of  the  latter  author, 
entitled  ^  A  Synopsis  of  the  MoUusca  of  Great  Britain,' 
which  was  edited  by  Dr.  Gray  and  published  in  1852,  the 
same  genus  appears  as  Balcea.  The  word  is  probably 
taken  from  halius  (pro  baclius),  and  not,  as  M.  Bour- 
guignat  supposed,  from  ^a\to<;  [maculosus] ,  as  the  shell  is 


BALIA.  273 

not  spotted.  Balea  and  Balcsa  may  therefore  be  typo- 
grapliical  errors.  M.  Ch.  D'Orbigny,  in  the '  Dictionnaire 
d^Histoire  Naturelle/  thought  the  name  might  be  an 
obsolete  Latin  word  [baled)  signifying  a  bark  or  vessel ; 
but  this  meaning  is  not  applicable  to  either  the  shape  or 
habits  of  our  little  snail,  which  rather  dreads  than  courts 
the  water.  Swainson  substituted  Balia  for  the  original 
name ;  and  his  emendation  has  been  adopted  by  Stabile 
as  well  as  Bourguignat,  the  latter  of  whom  has  published, 
in  his  ^  Amenites  Malacologiques/  an  elaborate  and  valu- 
able article  on  the  species  comprised  in  this  genus. 

1.  Balia  perversa"^,  Linne. 

Turbo ^erversus,  Linn.  Syst.  Nat.  ed.  xii.  p.  1240.     Balea  fragilis,  F,  & H. 
iv.  p.  114,  pi.  cxxviii.  f.  8,  9. 

Body  rounded  in  front,  slender  and  tapering  behind,  dark- 
brown  with  a  shade  of  grey,  covered  with  minute  black  tuber- 
cles and  specks  :  snout  prominent  and  rather  tumid  :  tentacles 
short,  rather  thick  ;  upper  pair  close  together,  cyhndro-conical 
and  broad  at  the  base,  with  bulbs  about  one-sixth  of  their 
length  ;  lower  pair  very  small  in  proportion,  and  conical :  foot 
somewhat  rounded  in  front  and  gradually  narrowing  to  a 
tumid  and  slightly  keeled  tail. 

Shell  club-shaped,  thin,  semitransparent,  glossy,  yellowish- 
brown,  with  transverse  and  obhque  streaks  of  white,  closely 
but  irregularly  striate  in  the  line  of  growth,  and  also  marked 
with  a  few  remote  and  indistinct  spiral  lines :  peripheyy 
rounded,  with  a  tendency  to  angularity :  epidermis  rather 
thin :  whorls  7-8,  convex,  but  shghtly  com23ressed,  regularly 
increasing  in  size,  the  last  being  equal  to  about  one- third  of 
the  shell  and  much  broader  than  the  others,  the  first  or  top 
whorl  quite  smooth,  semiglobular,  and  shining :  S2nre  tapering 
to  a  somewhat  blunt  point :  suture  deep  :  mouth  squarish-oval, 
higher  than  broad,  sometimes  furnished  with  a  tubercular 
tooth,  which  is  placed  nearly  on  the  middle  of  the  columella : 
outer  lip  rather  thin,  white  and  reflected,  especially  over  the 
umbilicus,  sinuous  outside  and  sharply  inflected  above  :  pillar 

*  Awry,  or  twisted  the  wrong  way. 

N  5 


274  HELICID^. 

Up  nearly  straight :  umhilicus  forming  a  narrow  and  oblique 
slit.     L.  0-275.    B.  0-1. 

Var.  viridula.     Shell  greenish-white  and  transparent. 

Habitat  :  On  the  trunks  of  trees  (chiefly  of  beech, 
ash,  sycamore,  and  apple),  as  well  as  on  mossy  rocks 
and  walls,  in  various  parts  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland 
from  the  Moray  Firth  district  to  Guernsey.  The  variety 
was  found  near  Cork  by  Mr.  Humphreys.  Professor 
Morris  has  noticed  this  species  as  fossil  in  the  upper 
tertiary  deposit  at  Grays.  It  ranges  from  Finland  to 
Sicily,  and  even  to  Madeira  and  the  Azores.  It  is  widely 
diffused  in  Europe. 

The  Tree-snails  are  gregarious,  and  are  found  of  differ- 
ent ages  in  the  same  spot,  as  if  forming  a  sociable  family 
party.  It  is  difficult  to  discover  them  in  dry  weather, 
as  they  lie  concealed  in  crevices  of  rocks  or  under  the 
bark  of  trees ;  but  after  rain  they  come  out  from  their 
hiding-places  and  feed  on  the  moistened  vegetation. 
They  are  not  particularly  sensitive,  and  do  not  withdraw 
into  their  shells  on  being  touched  or  disturbed ;  nor 
are  they  afraid  of  cold,  having  been  observed  crawling 
about  when  the  temperature  was  very  little  above  zero. 
Puton  found  specimens  on  the  Vosges  Mountains  at  a 
height  of  nearly  2300  feet.  Bouchard-Chantereaux  says 
that  B.  perversa  lays,  in  the  beginning  of  autumn,  from 
12  to  15  whitish  and  globular  eggs,  which  are  of  a  large 
size  compared  with  those  of  most  other  snails,  and  that 
the  young  are  excluded  or  hatched  on  the  fifteenth  or  six- 
teenth day  afterwards  and  become  adult  at  the  end  of 
their  first  year.  Lister  stated  that  the  sexes  were  distinct 
in  this  species,  and  that  there  was  a  difference  of  size 
between  the  male  and  female,  the  latter  being  more 
bulky;  but  Dr.  Gray  very  properly  remarks  that  this 


CLAUSILIA.  275 

cannot  be  the  case,  because  in  these  moUusks  each  indi- 
vidual is  both  male  and  female. 

The  shell  of  this  species  differs  from  the  young  of 
Clausilia  rugosa  (which  it  somewhat  resembles  in  form) 
in  being  thinner  and  of  a  much  lighter  colour,  in  the 
whorls  being  much  more  convex,  and  especially  in  the 
periphery  or  basal  edge  being  rounded,  instead  of  sharply 
angular  as  in  the  young  shell  of  that  species. 

It  is  the  Pupa  fragilis  of  Draparnaud ;  and  Moquin- 
Tandon  has  retained  it  in  that  genus.  The  Balia  Sarsii 
of  Philippi  appears  to  be  only  a  variety  of  the  present 
species,  judging  from  his  description  in  the  ^  Zeitschrift 
fiir  Malakozoologie  ^  for  June  1847,  p.  84. 

Genus  IX.  CLAUSI'LIA^,  Draparnaud. 
PI.  VII.  f.  12,  13,  14. 

Body  long  and  slender,  always  containable  within  the  shell : 
tentacles  4  ;  upper  pair  rather  long  and  prominent ;  lower  pair 
very  short  and  resembling  conical  nipples :  foot  long  and 
narrow. 

Shell  sinistral,  spindle-shaped,  rather  solid,  usually  ribbed 
transversely,  and  always  more  strongly,  or  wrinkled,  towards  the 
mouth  :  spire  reversed,  long  and  pointed :  mouth  small,  j)ear- 
shaped,  and  twisted  on  the  body  whorl,  having  a  deep  sinus  or 
groove  at  its  upper  angle,  furnished  with  two  spiral  plates  and 
sometimes  also  with  intermediate  ridges  or  teeth  on  the  colu- 
mella, as  well  as  with  a  flexuous  plate  or  fold  behind  the  pillar 
lip  and  curved  plates  or  folds  within  the  outer  lip  ;  besides 
these  various  processes  there  is  a  pecuhar  and  complicated  ap- 
paratus lying  deep  within  the  throat  or  cavity  of  the  mouth 
and  consisting  of  a  moveable  and  elastic  nacreous -white  plate 
or  ossicle,  which  is  twisted  and  somewhat  resembles  a  flat- 
tened ram's-horn,  serving  the  purpose  of  an  operculum  :  outer 
Up  continuous  and  forming  a  complete  peristome  :  hasal  crest 
(which  is  formed  by  an  upward  and  abrupt  twist  and  contrac- 
tion of  the  last  whorl)  more  or  less  prominent :  umhilicus  verj 

*  Furnished  with  a  clausilium  or  operculum-like  process. 


276  HELICIDiE. 

slight,  and  consisting  of  a  narrow  and  oblique  slit  behind  the 
pillar  lip. 

The  Clausilice  are  herbivorous.  Some  species  inhabit 
rocks,  stony  places,  and  old  walls,  while  others  seem  to 
prefer  woods  and  shady  spots,  and  are  to  be  met  with  on 
trunks  of  trees  and  under  stones  among  herbage.  They 
bury  their  bodies  and  three-fourths  of  their  shells  in  the 
earth,  and  excavate  a  small  oblique  tunnel,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  depositing  their  eggs. 

The  malacological  relations  of  this  genus  are  with 
Bulimus  and  Pupa.  In  the  form  of  the  shell  it  is  allied 
to  both  of  those  genera,  setting  aside  the  circumstance 
of  the  spire  in  the  present  genus  being  reversed ;  but 
the  spire  in  Bulimus  and  Pupa  is  shorter  than  in  Clau- 
silia.  As  in  most  of  the  species  of  Pupa,  the  laminar 
teeth  in  Clausilia  are  never  formed  until  the  last  whorl 
has  been  commenced. 

A  peculiar  and  characteristic  feature  of  the  present 
genus  is  that  the  animal  is  provided  with  an  internal 
process  called  the  "  clausilium."  It  is  analogous  to  the 
testaceous  appendages  of  Teredo,  called  "  pallets  ;^^  al- 
though they  are  not  homologous  organs,  nor  is  the  clau- 
silium  attached  to  the  body  of  the  snail,  like  the  pallets 
to  that  of  the  Ship-worm.  This  remarkable  process  acts 
as  a  valve  or  spring-door  in  closing  the  shell  against  all 
intruders,  and  has  been  well  described  by  Mr.  J.  S. 
Miller,  in  the  ^Annals  of  Philosophy'  for  1822  (vol.  iii. 
p.  378),  in  the  following  words  : — 

"  Independently  of  the  various  contrivances  which 
Nature  has  resorted  to  for  the  protection  of  the  otherwise 
vulnerable  MoUusca,  it  has  taken  peculiar  care  to  guard 
the  apertures  of  many  univalves  from  the  intrusion  of 
enemies ;  hence  the  apertures  are  sometimes  peculiarly 
contracted  and  provided  with  numerous  folds  and  teeth. 


CLAUSILIA.  277 

Other  MoUusca  have  a  calcareous  operculum  perma- 
nently formed,  which  increases  in  thickness,  and  enlarges 
on  a  depressed  spiral  plane,  as  the  opening  of  the  shell 
extends  with  the  growth  of  the  animal,  thus  continually 
assimilating  to  its  size,  and  when  the  animal  retreats, 
excluding  it  completely  from  all  external  intrusion.  In 
the  Cto^i/ia,  Nature  has  continued  the  protection  afforded 
by  means  of  contractions  and  folds,  and  also  added  an 
opercular  appendage.  The  inhabitant  of  the  Clausilia, 
when  nearly  full-grown,  secretes  a  thread-like  elastic 
calcareous  filament,  one  of  whose  ends  is  affixed  to  the 
columella.  This  filament  makes  half  a  spiral  turn  round 
the  columella,  insinuating  between  its  folds.  When  the 
animal  finishes  its  shell  and  completes  the  aperture,  it 
secretes,  at  the  unattached  end  of  the  filament,  a  spoon- 
shaped  calcareous  lamina  conforming  at  its  margin  to 
the  contour  of  the  aperture.  The  lamina  is  somewhat 
smaller  than  this,  and  its  margin  is  rounded.  Its  ad- 
hesion to  an  elastic  filament  enables  the  animal  to  push 
it,  when  it  comes  out  of  its  shell,  against  the  columella ; 
and  the  same  elasticity  closes  it  on  the  inhabitant  re- 
treating, thus  securing  it  from  intruding  enemies.  Thus, 
then,  this  valve  may  be  compared  to  a  door  provided  with 
an  elastic  spring.  The  elasticity  of  the  filament  may  be 
restored  to  its  full  power  (in  the  empty  shell)  by  some- 
times immersing  it  in  water,  as  I  have  ascertained  in  a 
section  made  with  a  view  to  this  inquiry.'^ 

Miiller  had,  nearly  half  a  century  before,  accm'ately 
described  this  singular  piece  of  mechanism  and  called  it 
an  ossiculum.  He  quaintly  remarks  that  when  the  snail 
has  opened  the  door  of  its  house,  "  Veneri  et  Cereri 
otiosus  vivit."  The  ^Journal  de  Conchyliologie^  for  1853 
contains  an  excellent  article  by  M.  Cailliaud  on  the  sub- 
ject, which  is  illustrated  by  admirably  executed  figures. 


278  HELICID^. 

showing   the  position  and  shape   of  the  clausilium  or 
ossicle  in  several  species. 

The  Clausilia  would  seem  to  be  more  at  home  in  the 
South  of  Europe  and  Asia  Minor  than  in  any  other  part 
of  the  world^  judging  from  the  statistics  given  by  Char- 
pentier  in  his  Monograph  on  the  genus,  which  was  in- 
serted in  the  '  Journal  de  Conchyliologie'  for  1852.  He 
enumerated  235  species ;  and  this  number  has  since  been 
added  to  by  M.  Schmidt,  who  has  lately  published  an 
exhaustive  essay  on  the  same  subject.  None  of  them 
have  been  discovered  in  North  America.  Three  species 
are  dextral  and  inhabit  Transylvania.  Some  of  our  na- 
tive Clausilice  occur  in  the  upper  tertiary  strata  of  Essex, 
Suffolk,  and  Norfolk ;  and  their  origin,  as  inhabitants  of 
Northern  Europe,  must  therefore  be  very  remote. 

A.  Shell  ribbed  or  striate  transversely :  clausilium  having  its 

margin  entire. 

1.  Clausilta  rugo'sa*,  Draparnaud. 

C.  rugosa,  Drap.  Tabl.  Moll.  p.  63.     C.  nigricans,  F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  121, 
pi.  cxxix.  f.  1,  2. 

Body  dark-grey  or  slatecolour,  with  a  tinge  of  reddish- 
brown,  paler  at  the  sides  and  underneath,  indistinctly  tuber- 
cled  in  such  a  way  as  to  appear  wrinkled:  tentacles  thick, 
minutely  speckled  with  black ;  upper  pair  rather  close  together, 
with  bluntly  rounded  bulbs  which  are  darker  than  the  ten- 
tacles ;  lower  pair  decidedly  conical,  and  darker  than  the  upper 
ones:  foot  of  a  rather  clear  greyish  colour,  narrowing  gra- 
dually towards  the  tail,  which  is  tumid  and  pointed. 

Shell  shaped  like  a  long  club,  but  somewhat  attenuated  at 
the  broader  end,  not  thin  and  scarcely  semitransparent,  rather 
glossy,  light-brown  or  horncolour,  with  a  few  transverse 
streaks  and  lines  of  white,  marked  with  numerous  and  close- 
set  but  somewhat  irregular  stricc  in  the  line  of  growth,  which 
are  curved  on  the  upper  and  flexuous  on  the  lower  wliorls,  as 

*  Wrinkled. 


CLAUSILIA.  279 

well  as  with  a  few  indistinct  spiral  striae,  the  intersection  of 
which  gives  the  surface  a  slightly  granular  appearance :  jaeri- 
pliery  angular  or  ridged  :  ej)idermis  rather  thin  :  ivliorls  12-13, 
compressed,  regularly  increasing  in  size,  the  last  being  equal 
in  bulk  to  about  one -third  of  the  shell,  but  somewhat  nar- 
rower than  the  two  or  three  preceding  whorls  ;  the  first  whorl 
nipple-shaped  and  quite  smooth  :  s^ire  tapering  to  an  obtuse 
point :  suture  rather  oblique,  slight  but  distinct :  mouth  almost 
funnel-shaped,  compressed  on  the  outer  side,  and  having  an 
effuse  base,  like  the  lip  of  a  water-jug;  teeth  or  folds  as 
follows : — two  on  the  pillar,  the  upper  one  of  which  is  promi- 
nent and  oblique  and  forms  one  of  the  sides  of  a  channel  at 
the  outer  angle,  and  the  lower  one  is  smaller  and  more  sunk 
or  deeply  seated,  being  also  oblique  and  sometimes  bifurcate, 
and  between  these  are  occasionally  from  one  to  three  smaller 
folds  or  ribs ;  one  strong  but  deep-seated  and  not  very  distinct 
crescent-shaped  fold  (or  lunella)  on  the  pillar  lip ;  one  still  more 
sunken  and  very  sHght  spiral  fold  near  the  last ;  and  occasion- 
ally one  or  two  teeth  (like  those  in  Pupa)  within  the  outer  lip  : 
the  outer  lip  is  thick,  white,  and  reflected :  basal  crest  sharp  and 
angular,  transversely  ridged:  umbilicus  much  contracted  by 
the  intortion  of  the  mouth :  clausilium  oval- oblong,  regularly 
curved,  shghtly  dilated  above.     L.  0-5.    B.  0-1. 

Var.  1.  albida,  SheU  greenish-white,  with  a  few  white 
transverse  lines. 

Var.  2.  Eueretti,  Miller.     SheU  smaller. 

Var.  3.  gracilior.     Shell  longer  and  more  slender. 

Var.  4.  tumidula.  SheU  smaUer,  shorter,  and  more  ven- 
tricose. 

Var.  5.  duhia.  SheU  larger  and  more  ventricose.  G.  dubia, 
Drap.  Hist.  MoU.  p.  70,  pi.  iv.  f.  10. 

Var.  6.  dextrorsa.  SheU  resembUng  a  Pujm  in  shape :  sjoirc 
dextral. 

Habitat  :  On  old  walls  and  rocks,  as  well  as  under 
stones  and  on  the  trunks  of  trees,  throughout  these  isles, 
from  Zetland  to  Guernsey.  Yar.  1.  Dinton  Hall,  Bucks 
(GoodaU).  Var.  2.  Bristol  (MiUer) ;  Whalsey  Skerries, 
Zetland;  Giant's  Causeway  and  Co.  Tyrone  (J.  G.  J.). 
Var.  3.  Battersea  marshes  (J.  G.  J.).  This  last  variety 
appears  to  be  the  Crugulosa  of  Ziegler.    Var.  4.  Brockley 


280  HELICID.E. 

Combe  near  Bristol^  and  Connemara  (J.  G.  J.).  Var.  5. 
Northumberland  and  Durham  (Alder) ;  Oxfordshire 
(Whiteaves).  Var.  6.  Sevenoaks,  Kent  (Smith).  This 
species  occurs  in  our  upper  tertiaries.  Its  Continental 
range  extends  from  Finland  to  Portugal  and  Lombardy. 

The  shells  of  different  individuals  of  this  species  vary 
considerably  in  the  length  of  the  spire  and  their  com- 
parative solidity,  as  well  as  in  the  degree  of  sculpture. 
Sometimes  a  great  part  of  the  surface  is  quite  smooth, 
as  if  filed  and  polished ;  and  this  is  the  case  with  living 
specimens.  How  this  effect  is  produced  it  is  not  easy 
to  say.  Perhaps  they  lived  in  a  sandy  soil,  and  the 
continual  friction  of  the  shells,  when  trailed  along  by 
the  animal,  might  account  for  the  abrasion.  Such  spe- 
cimens were  in  the  collection  of  Dr.  Turton  and  were 
considered  by  him  (as  well  as  at  one  time  by  myself)  to 
be  the  C.  parvula  of  Studer ;  but  the  smooth  and  sleek 
appearance  of  the  last-mentioned  shell  is  very  diflPerent 
from  that  of  the  above  specimens.  Some  curious  mon- 
strosities occur,  in  some  of  which  the  spire  is  distorted, 
or  a  faint  keel  or  impressed  lines  encircle  the  whorls, 
or  the  mouth  is  renewed  in  such  a  way  as  to  show  the 
columellar  folds  in  their  incipient  state.  Lister  was  the 
first  to  notice  this  shell ;  and  his  communication  to  the 
Royal  Society  ^^On  the  odd  turn  of  some  Shell-snails^^ 
is  one  of  the  earliest  on  their  records. 

It  is  (partly)  the  Helix  perversa  of  Miiller,  Turbo 
bidens  of  Montagu  (but  not  of  Linne),  T.  nigricans  of 
Maton  and  Rackett,  and  Clausilia  obtusa  of  C.  Pfeiffer. 
Many  other  names  have  been  given  by  Continental  au- 
thors to  difi'erent  forms  of  this  extremely  variable  species. 

C  parvula  differs  from  the  present  species  in  being 
smaller  and  quite  smooth,  with  the  exception  of  some 
very  faint  transverse  lines,  which  are  only  observable 


CLAUSILIA.  281 

with  a  lens^  or  of  a  few  striae  near  the  mouth.  It  in- 
habits the  North  of  France^  as  well  as  every  other  part 
of  the  Continent^  and  may  be  expected  also  to  be  found 
in  Great  Britain. 


2.  C.  Rolph'ii*,  Gray. 

C.  Bolphii,  Gray  in  Turt.  Man.  L.  &  F.W.  Sh.  p.  71,  f.  51.     C.  plicafula, 
F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  120,  pi.  cxxk.  f.  3. 

Body  dark-hrowu  or  dusky,  with  a  reddish  hue  above,  grey- 
ish-brown on  the  sides  and  underneath ;  tubercles  blackish, 
arranged  in  very  close  Hues :  mantle  thick,  yellowish-white, 
with  small  specks  of  pure  white :  tentacles  greyish-brown ; 
upper  pair  rather  short  and  stout,  nearly  cyhndrical  as  far  as 
the  bulbs,  slightly  shagreened  and  covered  with  black  dots, 
which  are  so  minute  as  scarcely  to  be  visible  with  a  lens  of 
ordinary  power,  the  bulbs  thick  and  nearly  spherical ;  lower 
pair  exceedingly  short  and  of  a  paler  hue  than  the  others : 
foot  very  long,  narrower  in  front,  ending  in  a  slightly  rounded 
tail ;  sole  greyish-w^hite. 

Shell  fusiform,  rather  thinner  than  the  last  species  but 
scarcely  semitransparent,  shghtly  glossy,  reddish-  or  yellow- 
ish-brown, with  occasionally  a  few  white  lines  dispersed  here 
and  there  over  the  surface,  marked  with  strong,  sharp  and 
somewhat  regular  transverse  striae,  of  which  there  are  from 
sixty  to  seventy  on  the  body  of  the  last  whorl;  these  striae 
are  curved  on  the  upper  and  somewhat  flexuous  on  the  lower 
part  of  the  sheU,  becoming  fewer  and  consequently  more  re- 
mote but  stronger  towards  the  outer  Hp;  spiral  striae  very 
indistinct  and  scarcely  perceptible :  per'qjJiery  angular :  epi- 
dermis rather  thick :  whorls  9-10,  tumid,  but  somewhat  com- 
pressed, the  last  being  rather  less  than  one-third  of  the  shell 
and  a  little  narrower  than  the  two  preceding  whorls ;  the  two 
or  three  first  whorls  are  nearly  of  the  same  breadth  and  form 
a  short  cylinder:  spire  abruptly  tapering  and  obtuse  at  the 
point :  suture  rather  obhque,  not  very  deep :  mouth  subqua- 
drangular,  sinuous  on  the  outer  side  and  effuse  below  ;  teeth  as 
in  C.  rugosa,  but  in  the  present  species  there  are  often  two  or 
three  small  teeth  or  ridges  between  the  columellar  folds,  and 
the  lower  of  these  folds  is  less  prominent  but  often  cruciate : 

*  Named  after  Mr.  Rolph,  an  English  conchologist. 


282  HELICID^. 

outer  lip  thick  and  rather  broad,  white  or  cream-coloured  and 
inflected :  hasal  crest  short  and  curved :  umbilicus  indistinct : 
clausilium  oblong,  regularly  cui'ved,  slightly  contracted  above. 
L.  0-5.   B.  0-15. 

Habitat  :  Under  stones,  in  the  bark  of  trees,  and 
among  dead  leaves,  in  Kent,  Sussex,  and  Hants,  as  well 
as  in  Gloucestershire,  but  hitherto  found  only  in  a  few 
places.  This  species  is  one  of  our  upper  tertiary  fossils. 
It  is  not  uncommon  in  the  North  and  South  of  France, 
Belgium,  and  parts  of  Germany.  Probably  it  is  also  a 
member  of  the  Scandinavian  fauna,  assuming  Nilsson^s 
variety  (B  of  C.plicatula  to  belong  to  the  present  species. 
His  diagnosis,  although  too  short  and  indefinite  for 
satisfactory  identification,  appears  to  agree  with  the 
main  characters  of  our  shell. 

This  species  difters  from  C.  plicatula  (for  which  it 
has  been  mistaken)  in  being  more  than  twice  the  size, 
much  more  ventricose  and  of  a  paler  colour,  in  the  spire 
being  more  abrupt,  and  especially  in  the  striae  being 
closer  and  more  numerous  in  proportion  to  the  size  of 
the  sheU.  From  C.  rugosa  and  its  variety  duhia  this 
differs  in  being  also  more  ventricose  and  of  a  lighter 
colour,  as  well  as  in  having  much  coarser  striae  and  in 
being  destitute  of  the  distinct  spiral  striae,  which  impart 
to  the  last- mentioned  shell  a  decussated  or  slightly  gra- 
nular appearance.  The  mouth  of  the  shell  in  C  Rolphii 
is,  besides,  larger  and  broader.  The  shell  in  this  as  well 
as  the  other  species  varies  considerably  in  respect  of  the 
length  of  its  spire  and  the  development  of  its  teeth  and 
basal  crest.  C.  Mortilleti  of  Dumont  is,  according  to 
Schmidt,  only  a  synonym  of  the  present  species ;  although 
Mr.  Benson  at  one  time  considered  that  they  were 
distinct,  and  pointed  out  the  difference  between  them  in 
the  'Annals  of  Natural  History^  for  July  1856. 


CLAUSILIA.  283 

3.  C.  biplica'ta"^j  Montagu. 

Turbo  bijplicahis,  Mont.  Test.  Brit.  p.  361,  tab.  ii.  f.  5.  C.  hi/jpUcata,  F.  &  H. 
iv.  p.  118,  pi.  cxxix.  f.  4. 

Body  reddish-grey,  dusky  or  almost  black  above  and  paler 
on  the  sides  and  underneath ;  tubercles  rather  large,  but  irre- 
gular :  mantle  minutely  speckled  with  white  :  tentacles  dirty 
reddish-grey ;  upj)er  pair  subcylindrical  and  finely  shagreened, 
with  slightly  tumid  bulbs ;  lower  pair  conical :  foot  long  and 
rather  narrow  ;  tail  depressed  and  bluntly  rounded. 

Shell  subfusiform  and  slender,  rather  thin,  but  scarcely 
semitransparent,  having  somewhat  of  a  silky  lustre,  reddish- 
or  yellowish-brown,  irregularly  streaked  with  white  lines, 
which  colour  some  of  the  striae  and  are  often  more  conspi- 
cuous near  the  suture,  imparting  a  greyish  hue  to  the  shell, 
strongly  and  closely  striate  in  the  line  of  growth,  as  in  G. 
Rolpliii ;  but  the  striae  in  the  present  species  are  straighter, 
although  slightly  flexuous  on  the  last  whorl :  periphery  obtusely 
angular :  epidermis  rather  thick :  whorls  12-13,  compressed, 
the  last  being  very  little  more  than  one-fourth  of  the  shell  and 
slightly  narrower  than  the  preceding  whorl ;  the  first  whorl 
and  a  haK  are  quite  smooth  and  glossy,  and  the  second  whorl 
is  broader  than  the  first :  spire  slender  and  gradually  tapering, 
obtuse  at  the  point :  suture  rather  oblique,  not  very  deep  : 
mouth  oval,  angular,  contracted  below,  where  a  narrow  but 
deep  channel  is  formed  ;  outer  margin  compressed  and  nearly 
straight ;  teeth  as  in  aU  the  foregoing  species,  but  the  inter- 
lamellar  denticles  on  the  pillar  seldom  occur  or  are  very  slight : 
outer  lip  white,  expanded,  prominent  and  detached,  not  so 
thick  as  in  the  last  species  :  hasal  crest  strong,  nearly  straight : 
umhilicus  broader  than  usual  in  this  genus :  clausilium  nearly 
oval,  sHghtly  curved,  attenuated  below.     L.  0-65.   B.  0*166. 

Habitat  :  At  the  roots  and  in  the  bark  of  old  willow- 
trees  ;  Easton  Grey,  Wilts  (Montagu) ;  Clarendon,  near 
Salisbury  (Bridgman) ;  and  banks  of  the  Thames  near 
London,  where  this  species  is  not  uncommon.  These 
appear  to  be  the  only  localities  hitherto  recorded  or 
known  in  this  country.  It  has  been  found  in  a  semi- 
fossil  state  at  Clacton  and  Grays  in  Essex.     Its  foreign 

*  Having  two  folds. 


284  HELICIDE. 

distribution  is  not  very  extensive;  bat  it  occurs  in  many 
parts  of  France,  Germany,  and  Switzerland.  If  (as  I 
suspect)  this  is  the  same  species  as  that  which  Malm 
has  referred  to  the  C.  lineolata  of  Held,  it  ranges  north- 
ward to  Sweden. 

This  is  an  inactive  mollusk,  and  seems  to  drag  its  shell 
along  with  difficulty,  as  if  it  were  an  incumbrance.  In 
its  natural  state  the  shell  has  often  a  slight  covering  of 
mud  or  dirt. 

It  differs  from  C.  Rolphii  in  its  shell  being  twice  as 
large  and  much  more  slender,  in  the  constant  presence 
of  white  lines  or  streaks,  and  in  seldom  having  any 
interlamellar  teeth,  but  chiefly  in  the  form  of  the  aper- 
ture and  the  distinct  channel  at  its  base.  In  the  latter 
respect  it  also  differs  from  the  C.  ventricosa  of  Dra- 
parnaud. 

It  is  the  C.  similis  of  Charpentier.  Another  of  its 
synonyms  is  the  C.  vivipara  of  Held ;  but  I  am  not 
aware  that  the  organization  of  the  animal  warrants  this 
last  specific  name. 


B.  Shell  nearly  smooth,  glossy  :  clausillum  having  its  margin 

on  the  lower  side  notched. 

4.  C.  lamina' TA*,  Montag*u. 

Ttirho  laminatus,  Mont.  Test.  Brit.  p.  359,  tab.  ii.  f.  4.       C.  Uminata, 
F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  116,  pi.  cxxviii.  f.  10. 

Body  slightly  narrowed  and  nearly  truncate  in  front,  gradu- 
ally attenuated  and  rather  pointed  behind,  reddish-black  or 
greyish-brown,  with  a  yellow  tinge  on  the  upper  part,  light- 
grey  on  the  sides  and  underneath ;  tubercles  somewhat  large 
and  prominent,  more  or  less  .deeply  coloured :  mantle  not 
reaching  the  mouth  of  the  sheU,  annular  and  narrow,  covered 
with  minute  and  indistinct  black  dots  :  tentacles  rather  short, 
thick  and  diverging,  reddish-brown ;  upper  pair  very  finely 

*  Having  plates. 


CLAUSILIA.  285 

granular,  with  rather  tumid  bulbs  ;  lower  pair  more  conical 
and  deeply  coloured  than  the  upper  ones,  and  nearly  smooth  : 
foot  broad  and  rounded  in  front,  transversely  grooved  at  its 
sides,  and  ending  in  a  slender  but  blunt  tail. 

Shell  of  the  same  shape  as  C.  hiplicata,  but  semitranspa- 
rent  and  glossy,  yellowish-brown  with  a  faint  tinge  of  red, 
smooth  to  the  naked  eye,  but  under  a  magnifier  delicately 
striate  in  the  line  of  growth,  these  strioe  being  more  percep- 
tible near  the  suture ;  there  are  also  a  few  coarse  wrinkles 
near  the  mouth  and  umbilicus,  besides  irregular  pit-marks 
dispersed  over  the  surface  :  periphery  much  more  rounded  than 
in  any  of  the  foregoing  species  :  epidermis  thin :  whorls  12, 
compressed,  the  last  scarcely  exceeding  one-fourth  of  the 
shell  and  a  little  narrower  than  the  preceding  whorl ;  the  first 
two  or  three  whorls  are  nearly  of  the  same  size  and  form  a 
short  cyHnder :  spire  slender  and  gradually  tapering,  obtuse  at 
the  point :  suture  rather  oblique  and  slight :  mouth  oval  or  in- 
clined to  quadrangular,  broad,  rounded  and  eifuse  at  the  base, 
and  not  acutely  angled  above ;  columellar  teeth  more  strong 
and  prominent  than  in  any  of  the  other  species  which  have 
been  above  described ;  there  are  three  or  four  labial  or  palatal 
folds,  which  are  conspicuous  outside,  owing  to  the  shell  being 
nearly  transparent ;  but  there  are  no  intermediate  denticles 
between  the  columeUar  folds,  nor  any  lunella :  outer  lip  white, 
expanded  and  thick  :  basal  crest  slight :  umhilicus  very  small : 
dausilium  squarish- oblong,  flexuous,  with  a  deep  notch  on  its 
side  near  the  base.     L.  0-7.     B.  0-15. 

Var.  1.  pellucid  a.  Shell  thinner,  more  transparent,  and  very 
glossy 

Var.  2.  alhida.     Shell  greenish-white. 

Habitat  :  On  the  trunks  and  at  the  roots  of  trees 
(especially  the  beech  and  ash),  as  well  as  among  dead 
leaves,  and  occasionally  on  mossy  rocks,  in  woods 
throughout  a  considerable  part  of  these  islands,  from 
Northumberland  to  Devon,  and  also  in  South  Wales  and 
Ireland,  but  not  everywhere.  Var.  1.  Penrice,  Glamor- 
ganshire (J.  G.  J.).  It  is  rather  difficult  to  account  for 
the  thinness  of  these  shells,  as  they  were  found  in  a 
limestone  district,  and  calcareous  material  was  therefore 


286  HELICID.E. 

not  wanting.  Var.  2.  Box  Wood,  near  Bath  (Clark)  ; 
Darn  wood,  Kent  (Stephens) ;  Clevedon,  Somersetshire, 
and  Watlington,  Oxfordshire  (Norman)  ;  Surrey 
(Choules)  j  Newmarket  (Wright).  This  last  variety  has 
also  been  noticed  bv  Malm  as  occurrincr  in  Sweden.  C. 
laminata  has  been  found  in  the  upper  tertiary  strata  at 
Copford.  Its  extra-British  range  extends  from  Einland 
to  Italy,  and  (according  to  Roth)  it  inhabits  Smyrna. 

This  pretty  land-shell  is  by  no  means  common,  al- 
though it  seems  to  be  gregarious  in  some  places.  Bou- 
chard-Chantereaux  says  that  its  eggs  are  enormous  in 
comparison  with  the  size  of  the  animal,  being  wider  than 
the  mouth  of  the  shell,  and  that  their  number  seldom 
exceeds  from  10  to  12.  They  are  laid  in  August  and 
September ;  and  the  young  are  excluded  on  the  twen- 
tieth day,  but  do  not  become  adult  until  the  end  of  their 
second  yearns  growth.  According  to  DesMoulins,  these 
snails  regularly  leave  their  lurking-places  at  nightfall 
and  climb  the  trees  in  search  of  food,  descending  at  sun- 
rise. In  wet  weather,  however,  they  may  be  found 
crawling  freely  on  the  trunks  of  trees  in  the  daytime. 

This  is  the  Helix  bidens  of  Miiller  (but  not  of  Linne) 
and  the  Clausilia  bidens  of  Draparnaud,  Nilsson,  and 
other  writers,  as  well  as  the  C.  derugata  of  Ferussac. 

C.  labiata  was  introduced  by  Da  Costa  and  Montagu 
into  the  British  fauna  on  the  authority  of  Mr.  Swain- 
son  ;  but  both  of  the  localities  mentioned  by  the  latter 
(viz.  "an  osier-ground  in  Battersea  fields ^^  and  "Hyde 
Park  near  the  banks  of  the  Serpentine'^)  are  more  ap- 
plicable to  C.  biplicata  than  to  the  species  in  question, 
which  inhabits  dry  situations.  It  is  a  native  of  the 
extreme  South  of  Europe. 

The  C.  solida  of  Draparnaud,  which  has  been  referred 
by  Ferussac  and  aU  subsequent  writers  to  C.  labiata^  is 


COCHLICOPA.  287 

very  different,  and  is  more  like  C.  papillaris  or  the  Helix 
bidens  of  Linne.  C.  solida  has  been  found  by  Bonchard- 
Chantereaux  near  Boulogne,  and  may  therefore  be  dis- 
covered in  this  country.  Possibly  this  may  have  been 
Pulteney's  species,  which  was  said  to  be  found  in  Dorset- 
shire and  has  been  referred  to  C.  papillaris.  The  last- 
named  species  has  been  recorded  by  Nilsson  as  Swedish. 
It  is  very  common  in  the  South  of  France  and  in  Italy. 

Genus  X.  COCHLrCOPA*,  Ferussac. 
PL  VII.  f.  15,  16,  17. 

Body  rather  long,  gelatinous  and  lustrous,  always  contain- 
able within  the  sheU  :  tentacles  4 ;  upper  pair  long  and  nearly 
cylindrical ;  lower  pair  short  and  conical :  foot  rather  long  and 
narrow. 

Shell  oblong,  rather  sohd,  smooth,  glossy  and  transparent : 
epider7nis  resembling  a  coat  of  thin  varnish :  whorls  rapidly 
increasing  in  size,  the  last  being  much  larger  in  proportion  to 
the  others :  sjjire  long :  mouth  small,  obliquely  pear-shaped, 
sometimes  furnished  with  teeth  and  folds  as  in  Clansilia,  and 
having  the  base  more  or  less  distinctly  notched  (especially  in 
the  young) :  outer  lip  thickened  by  an  internal  rib,  but  not  re- 
flected, sometimes  channeled  at  its  upper  angle :  umbilicus 
wanting  in  the  adult. 

The  position  of  the  few  European  species  which  are 
comprised  in  this  genus  has  for  a  long  time  been  de- 
bateable  ground.  In  1817  Schumacher  instituted  the 
genus  Glandina  for  some  species  of  Lamarck^s  much 
older  genus  Achatina,  as  weU  as  for  other  species  which 
will  be  presently  referred  to,  the  type  of  Schumacher^s 
genus  being  the  Bulimus  glans  of  Bruguiere.  Montfort's 
genus  Polyphemus,  which  had  been  previously  founded 
on  the  same  type  or  species,  was  considered  inadmissible, 
because  that  name  had  been  appropriated  to  a  genus  of 

*  Having  a  notch  in  the  shell. 


288  HELICID.E. 

Crustacea.  In  1819  the  eldei:  Baron  Ferussac,  in  his 
great  work  (or  rather  Prodromus  to  a  work)  on  the  Land 
and  Freshwater  Mollusca,  which  was  continued^  edited, 
and  published  after  his  death  by  his  son^  adopted  the 
genus  Polyphemus  of  Montfort,  in  the  synoptical  table 
which  preceded  this  part  of  his  work,  for  the  species 
comprised  in  the  present  genus,  but  added  other  species 
which  have  no  relation  to  those  now  under  consideration. 
Ferussac,  however,  in  a  subsequent  part  of  the  same 
work,  modified  this  view,  and  proposed  to  include  this 
miscellaneous  assortment  of  species  in  a  tenth  subgenus 
of  Helix,  which  he  called  Cochlicopa.  Tliis  subgenus 
he  divided  into  two  groups,  one  to  contain  the  species 
of  Polyphemus,  and  the  other  [Stylo'ides)  to  contain 
certain  species  of  Achatina,  as  well  as  the  Helix  lubrica 
of  Miiller.  In  1826  Risso  republished  Cochlicopa  as  a 
separate  genus,  and  restricted  it  to  the  above-named 
species  of  Miiller;  but  the  generic  characters  given  by 
him  are  very  insufficient  and  in  many  respects  incorrect. 
In  1830  I  proposed  the  genus  Cionella,  not  being  at  that 
time  aware  of  Risso's  publication  ;  and  in  my  "  Synopsis 
of  the  Pulmonobranchous  Mollusca  of  Great  Britain,'' 
which  appeared  in  the  '  Transactions  of  the  Linnean 
Society'  (vol.  xvi.  p.  347),  I  gave  the  following  descrip- 
tion of  this  genus  :  — 

"  Animal  glutinosum.     Tentacida  inferiora  brevissima. 

*'  Testa  oblonga,  seu  elongata ;  anfractu  ultimo  majore. 
Apex  acutinsculus.  Columella  subinterrupta.  Apertura  cana- 
liculata,  ad  basin  subefFusa,  marginibus  ina^quahssimis.  U771- 
hilicus  nullus." 

I  also  remarked  that  in  this  genus  the  columella  forms 
a  sinus  or  channel  in  the  aperture,  though  it  does  not 
appear  to  be  accompanied  by  any  corresponding  pecu- 
liarity in  the  animal.    The  species  which  I  referred  to  it 


COCHLICOPA.  289 

were  tlie  Helix  lubrica  of  Miiller^  the  Buccinum  acicula 
of  the  same  author,  the  Bulimus  octonus  of  Bruguiere, 
and  (subsequently)  the  Turbo  tridens  of  Pulteney.     I 
see  no  reason  for  altering   the  opinion  which  I  then 
formed,  so  far  as  regards  the  first  and  last  of  these  species  : 
but  as  the  name  of  Cochlicopa  is  prior  to  mine,  I  have  no 
hesitation  in  substituting  it  for  Cionella  ;  and  I  propose 
to  restore  the  Buccinum  acicula  of  Miiller  to  the  genus 
Achatina.     The  Bulimus  octonus  of  Bruguiere  belongs 
also  to  the  last-mentioned  genus.     The  Helix  lubrica  of 
Miiller  and  Turbo  tridens  of  Pulteney  agree  in  all  essen- 
tial particulars,  except  in  the  latter  being  furnished  with 
teeth ;  but  it  has  been  shown  that  in  the  genus  Vertigo 
some  species  are  toothed  and  others  toothless,  and  that 
even  an  undoubted  species  of  Helix  (H  obvoluta)  is  pro- 
vided with  similar  processes.     Bulimus  tridens,  quadri- 
dens,  and  other  allied  species  may  also  be  cited  in  illus- 
tration of  this  view,  although  they  do  not  occur  in  this 
country.     Cochlicopa  tridens  forms  a  passage  from  Clau- 
silia  to  Achatina ;   and  it  is  connected  with  C.  lubrica 
through  the  Achatina  dentiens  of  Rossmassler.     Leach 
proposed  the  genus  Azeca  for  C.  tridens,  and  the  genus 
Zua   for  C.  lubrica ;    but  these  generic  names   are  of 
recent  manufacture. 

The  tongue  or  lingual  plate  of  Cochlicopa  resembles 
that  of  Bulimus ;  and  the  members  of  the  present  genus 
would  therefore  seem  to  be  also  herbivorous.  They  in- 
habit wet  and  shady  situations. 

The  British  species  of  this  genus  form  two  artificial 
sections,  which  I  propose  to  define,  as  in  other  genera, 
from  characters  furnished  by  the  shell.  These  corre- 
spond with  the  genera  Azeca  and  Zua  of  Leach. 


o 


290  HELICID^. 

A.  Mouth  furnished  with  teeth  and  folds  :  onter  lip  sinuous 
or  notched  :  inner  lip  thickened. 

1.  CocHLicoPA  tri'dens*,  Pultenej. 

Turbo  tridens,  Pvilt.  Cat.  Dors.  Sh.  p.  46,  pi.  xix.  f.  12.     Azeca  tridens, 
F.  &  H.  iy.  p.  128,  pi.  cxxv.  f.  9. 

Body  greyish-slatecolour  with  a  faint  tinge  of  yellow,  closely 
covered  with  small  black  specks,  which  impart  a  dusky  or 
sooty  hue,  strongly  wrinkled  :  mantle  rather  thick,  milk-white 
or  greyish  :  tentacles  somewhat  transparent ;  upper  pair  verj- 
slender,  with  bulbs  occupying  about  one-fifth ;  lower  pair 
rounded  at  their  extremities :  foot  long,  rounded  in  front  and 
slightly  projecting  beyond  the  mouth  of  the  shell ;  sides  edged 
with  white,  and  minutely  speckled  with  milk-white  ;  tail  very 
pointed. 

Shell  subcylindrical  or  shaped  like  a  chrysalis,  nearly  trans- 
parent, very  shining  and  of  almost  an  opaline  lustre,  light 
yellowish-brown  with  a  tinge  of  red,  faintly  and  indistinctly 
wrinkled  in  the  line  of  growth  and  marked  with  extremely 
minute  spiral  lines,  which  are  only  perceptible  by  the  aid  of  a 
powerful  lens :  periphery  rounded  in  the  adult,  but  sharply 
and  strongly  keeled  in  young  specimens  :  epidermis  very  thin  : 
ivhorls  7,  rather  tumid,  the  last  and  preceding  whorl  being 
nearly  of  equal  breadth,  and  much  larger  in  proportion  than 
the  others,  which  form  a  blunt  cone  :  spire  produced,  rounded 
at  the  point :  suture  slight,  with  a  transversely  wrinkled  border : 
mouth  narrow,  angularly  curved  or  channeled  at  the  base  and 
subtruncate  in  the  young,  and  also  channeled  at  the  upper 
angle  ;  it  is  still  further  contracted  by  the  teeth  or  plate-like 
folds,  which  are  as  foUows  : — one  principal  fold  on  the  pillar, 
which  is  twisted  round  the  inner  lip,  its  crest  sometimes  notched, 
and  extends  like  a  screw  far  into  the  interior,  and  there  is 
usually  also  a  second  smaU  tooth  or  denticle  close  to  the  prin- 
cipal fold  and  nearer  the  outer  lip  ;  a  strong  fold  winding 
round  the  pillar  lip,  the  end  of  which  appears  like  a  sharp  and 
prominent  tooth ;    and  a  sharp  tooth -like   tubercle   on    the 
middle  of  the  outer  lip  and  placed  on  the  inside  edge  of  this 
lip  ;  besides  this  last,  there  are  occasionally  two  small  and 
scarcely"  perceptible  denticles  placed  below  it :  outer  Up)  sinuous 
and  (as  well  as  the  inner  lip)  encircled  by  a  narrow  rib,  which 

*  Having  tliree  teeth. 


COCHLICOPA.  291 

is  often  reddish-brown  or  flesh-colour, — a  nearly  complete 
peristome  being  thus  formed,  the  interruption  being  caused  by 
the  narrow  channel  at  the  upper  angle  of  the  mouth.  L.  0*25. 
B.  0-1. 

Var.  crystcdlma,  Dupuy.  Shell  greenish-white  and  trans- 
parent, like  glass. 

Habitat  :  Among  herbage  and  on  damp  moss  in  woods, 
but  sparingly  distributed,  in  many  of  the  English  counties 
from  Northumberland  to  Devon.  I  am  not  aware  of  its 
having  been  found  in  the  eastern  counties,  Wales,  or 
Ireland.  According  to  Dr.  Fleming  it  inhabits  Scotland, 
but  only  on  the  authority  of  Capt.  Laskey,  who  is  said 
to  have  found  it  in  Carline  Park  near  Leith.  The  variety 
is  from  Wheeley  Castle,  Worcestershire  (Clark)  ;  on 
Mercurialis perennis near  Stansted,  Kent  (Smith);  Taw- 
stock  Woods,  near  Barnstaple;  and  Brockley  Combe, 
Somersetshire  (J.  Gr.  J.).  This  species  is  one  of  our 
upper  tertiary  fossils.  It  does  not  appear  to  have  an 
extensive  range  abroad — Germany  and  France  being  the 
only  countries  in  which  I  can  find  any  notice  of  its 
occurrence.  A  variety  of  it  (the  Azeca  Nouktiana  of 
Dupuy)  has  been  found  by  Boissy  in  the  Pyrenees ;  and 
the  variety  crystallina  is  also  recorded  as  inhabiting  the 
South  of  France. 

Scarcely  anything  is  known  as  to  the  habits  of  this 
curious  snail.  It  appears  to  be  gregarious  and  to  love 
shade  and  moisture.  Mr.  Alder  justly  observes  that  it 
"seems  to  form  a  link  between  Bulimus  and  Clausilia, 
resembling  the  former  in  shape  and  general  appearance, 
but  approaching  more  nearly  to  the  latter  in  having  the 
margin  completely  surrounding  the  aperture,  and  also 
more  particularly  in  having  a  longitudinal  plate  on  the 
columella  considerably  within  the  aperture,  similar  in 
situation  and  making  a  slight  approach  in  form  to  the 

o2 


292  HELICID^. 

clausium  of  the  genus  Clausilia,  though  attached  through 
its  whole  length  and  inflexible/^ 

This  species  has  been  placed  by  different  writers  in  no 
less  than  eight  genera^  and  has  received  six  specific 
names.  On  the  Continent  it  is  more  generally  known  as 
Bulimus  Menkeanus,  in  consequence  of  there  being  an- 
other B.  tridens ;  but  if  the  present  species  is  not  to  be 
placed  in  that  genus,  there  can  be  no  objection  to  retain 
the  original  name  given  to  it  by  Dr.  Pulteney. 


B.  Mouth  destitute  of  teeth  or  folds :  outer  hp  entire : 

mner  lip  thin. 

2.  C.  LU  BRiCA*,  Mliller. 

Helix  lubrica,  Miill.  Verm.  Hist.  pt.  ii.  p.  104.     Zua  luhrica,  F.  &  H.  iv. 
p.  125,  pi.  cxxT.  f.  8,  and  (animal)  pi.  Gr.  G.  G.  f.  5. 

Body  broad  and  rounded  in  front,  gradually  narrowing  and 
very  pointed  behind,  black  or  dark  greyish-slatecolour  above, 
of  a  paler  grey  on  the  sides  and  underneath,  shghtly  tubercled : 
mantle  greyish-browai,  closely  speckled  with  milk-white :  ten- 
tacles broad  at  their  base  and  slightly  transparent ;  upper  pair 
slender,  finely  and  distinctly  granulated,  with  very  globular 
bulbs  ;  lower  pair  of  the  same  length  as  these  bulbs  and  rather 
thick :  foot  somewhat  angular  in  front,  not  extending  beyond 
the  neck  ;  sides  very  delicately  edged  with  a  dusky  line  and  di- 
stinctly speckled  wdth  milk-white ;  tad  f)omted  and  rather  flat. 

Shell  subcylindrical,  wdth  an  approach  to  a  turreted  shape 
in  consequence  of  the  base  being  wider  than  the  top,  nearly 
transparent,  very  shining  and  lustrous,  light  yellowdsh-brown, 
quite  smooth  and  polished  to  the  naked  eye,  but  under  a  lens 
marked  with  slight  and  curved  transverse  striae,  especially  near 
the  suture,  and  under  a  microscope  very  closely  and  faintly 
striate  in  a  spiral  direction :  periphery  rounded  in  the  adult, 
very  slightly  angular  in  young  specimens :  epidermis  exceed- 
ingly thin:  ivhorls  5  or  5|,  tiunid,  gradually  increasing  in 
size,  the  last  occupying  about  one-half  of  the  shell :  spire 
produced,  but  rounded  at  the  point :  suture  moderately  deep, 

*  Slippery. 


COCHLICOPA.  293 

with  a  transversely  wrinkled  border :  mouth  placed  obliquely, 
proportionally  much  larger  than  in  the  other  species :  outer  Up 
very  thick  and  strengthened  by  a  broad  inside  rib,  which  is 
usually  reddish-brown  or  flesh-colour:  pillar-lip  apparently 
furnished  with  a  blunt  tooth  which  forms  the  notch  :  inner  lip 
consisting  of  a  slight  deposit  of  shelly  matter,  which  is  spread 
on  the  pillar.     L.  0-25.     B.  0-085. 

Var.  1.  hyalina.     Shell  greenish- white. 

Var.  2.  lubricoides,  Fer.    Shell  smaller  and  more  slender. 

Var.  3.  viridula.  Shell  shaped  like  the  last  variety,  but 
greenish-white. 

Var.  4.  fusca.     Shell  smaller  and  thinner,  reddish-brown. 

Var.  5.  ovata.     Shell  much  smaller  and  oval :  spire  shorter. 

Habitat  :  Woods^  hedges^  fields^  gardens,  and  every- 
where in  the  country,  under  stones  and  logs  of  wood 
(especially  when  sunk  deep  in  the  ground  or  decayed), 
as  well  as  among  moss  and  dead  leaves,  and  at  the 
roots  of  grass  in  meadows  (frequently  after  being  iiTi- 
gated),  from  Unst  to  Guernsey.  Var.  1.  Tawstock^  near 
Barnstaple  (J.  G.  J.).  Var.  2.  Bath  (Clark)  ;  Church 
Stretton,  Salop ;  Clifton- Hampden,  near  Oxford ;  Baw- 
leigh,  near  Barnstaple ;  Minlough  Castle,  Co.  Galway ; 
Dunboy,  Co.  Cork  (J.  G.  J.).  Var.  3.  Dunboy  (J.  G.  J.). 
This  and  the  last  variety  appear  to  be  the  variety  /3  of 
Nilsson.  It  has  much  the  aspect  of  a  distinct  species,  if 
placed  by  the  side  of  the  typical  form ;  but  they  are  con- 
nected by  intermediate  gradations.  Var.  4.  Guernsey 
(Lukis).  Var.  5.  Cardiff  (J.  G.  J.).  Tliis  species  is  very 
common  in  our  upper  tertiary  deposits.  It  has  almost  a 
world-wide  range  (or  is  what  has  been  erroneously  termed 
"cosmopolitan^^),  being  found  in  Kamtschatka  and  on 
the  steppes  of  Siberia,  in  the  South  of  Italy,  Algeria, 
Madeira  and  the  Azores,  North  America,  Cashmere  and 
Thibet,  and  probably  in  every  other  part  of  Europe,  Asia, 
Africa,  and  America. 


294  HELICID^. 

This  is  a  hardy  but  sluggish  and  impassive  little  mol- 
lusk^  and  lives  on  the  highest  mountains  as  well  as  in 
the  lowest  plains.  These  habits  and  the  capability  of 
enduring  different  conditions  of  climate  and  temperature 
may  account  for  the  great  extent  of  time  and  space 
which  it  has  enjoyed  as  a  species.  It  is  also  in  some 
degree  amphibious.  In  consequence  of  Geoffroy  having 
stated  that  it  was  killed  by  being  put  in  water,  and  that 
by  this  means  the  animal  could  be  removed  from  the 
shell,  IMiiller  tried  some  experiments,  which  convinced 
him  that  the  French  natm^alist  was  more  imaginative 
than  accurate.  One  of  these  snails,  which  Miiller  had 
forced  to  withdraw  into  its  shell,  was  plunged  into  a  cold 
bath,  and  it  immediately  thrust  out  its  body ;  but,  per- 
haps catching  sight  of  the  philosophical  experimentalist, 
and  apparently  as  if  resigned  to  its  fate,  it  staid  three 
hours  in  the  water,  when  it  crawled  out  and  (seemingly 
pleased  at  reaching  dry  land)  put  out  its  horns  and 
walked  off.  However,  although  they  do  not  mind  an 
occasional  soaking,  they  are  often  washed  down  by  heavy 
floods  of  rain  or  the  overflow  of  rivers,  and  their  shells 
occur  in  great  numbers  in  alluvial  deposits.  This  cir- 
cumstance will  perhaps  explain  how  certain  kinds  of 
land-shells  so  frequently  occur  in  fluviatile,  estuarine, 
or  even  lacustrine  strata.  Young  shells  of  C.  lubrica 
are  oval  or  almost  globular,  and  have  a  slight  umbilical 
perforation.  Full-grown  specimens  vary  considerably  in 
size  and  the  length  of  the  spire.  The  epiphragm  is  very 
thin,  glistening  and  iridescent.  That  made  in  summer 
lias  a  small  respiratory  hole.  In  France  this  sheU  bears 
the  appropriate  name  of  "  la  brillante.^^ 

This  species  differs  from  C.  tridents  in  being  turreted, 
instead  of  spindle-shaped,  in  the  whorls  being  more  con- 
vex and  the  suture  consequently  deeper,  but  especially 


ACHATINA.  295 

in  the  mouth  being  much  larger  and  never  famished  with 
teeth  or  folds. 

It  seems  not  to  have  escaped  the  keen  notice  of  Lister. 
Whether  Linne  was  also  acquainted  with  the  present 
species  is  another  question.  Some  writers  consider  it  to 
be  the  Helix  subcylindrica  of  his  '  Systema  Naturae ;'  but 
that  shell  is  described  as  inhabiting  fresh  water  and 
having  the  inside  lip  or  margin  of  the  aperture  reflected^ 
neither  of  which  characters  is  applicable  to  C.  lubrica. 
It  is^  however,  the  Turbo  glaber  of  Da  Costa. 

Genus  XI.  ACHA'TINA*,  Lamarck. 
PI.  VII.  f.  18,  19,  20,  21. 

Body  long  and  slender,  always  containable  within  the  shell : 
tentacles  4 ;  upper  pair  having  small  bulbs  ;  lower  pair  exceed- 
ingly short :  foot  narrow. 

Shell  long  and  cylindrical,  thin,  glossy  and  smooth :  ivJiorls 
rapidly  increasing  in  size  :  spire  long :  mouth  oval  or  oblong, 
without  teeth  or  folds,  but  notched  and  nearly  truncate  at  the 
base  :  outer  Up  thin  and  plain :  umhilicus  wanting. 

L.  Pfeiffer  described,  fourteen  years  ago,  no  less  than 
157  species  of  Achatina;  and  in  these  days  of  species- 
making  and  foreign  enterprise,  we  may  fairly  assume 
that  this  number  has  since  been  considerably  increased. 
In  our  own  country  we  have  only  a  solitary  representa- 
tive of  this  numerous  genus,  and  that  scarcely  exceeding 
in  length  one-sixth  of  an  inch.  Risso  constituted  out 
of  this  minute  species  a  new  genus,  which  he  named 
Acicula.  Beck  proposed  another  genus  (Ciceci/io2c/e5)  for 
its  reception ;  and  Bourguignat  has,  in  his  ^  Amenites 
Malacologiques,^  given  another  generic  name  [Ccecilia- 
nella),  as  well  as  divided  our  species  into  several.  One 
of  these  species  he  has  called  '^  Anglica"  and  distin- 

*  Agate. 


296  '  HELICID^. 

gmslied  the  French,  shell  from  it  under  the  name  of 
Liesvillei.  Whatever  difference  of  opinion  may,  however, 
exist  as  to  the  scientific  value  of  the  species  which  this 
last-named  author  has  so  prodigally  described,  his  biblio- 
graphical learning  and  laborious  research  cannot  fail  to 
command  our  admiration.  The  two  generic  names  of 
Ccpcilio'ides  and  Ccecilianella  are  founded  on  a  peculiarity 
which  does  not  appear  to  be  shared  by  any  other  British 
land  or  freshwater  snail ;  although  in  the  famous  caves 
of  Adelsberg  many  of  such  instances  occur.  It  is,  that 
this  snail  is  eyeless.  This  remarkable  fact,  with  respect 
to  the  Achatina  acicula  (which  will  be  presently  de- 
scribed), was  first  noticed  by  Nilsson,  and  it  has  been 
fully  confirmed  by  subsequent  observation.  The  A.  aci- 
cula always  lives  underground ;  and  the  conditions  of  its 
habitat  are  therefore  similar  to  those  of  the  several  spe- 
cies of  Zosjjeum,  living  in  the  inmost  recesses  of  the 
Illyrian  caverns,  into  which  the  light  of  day  never  pene- 
trates. It  is  true  that  Testacella,  which  is  also  a  sub- 
terranean mollusk,  is  not  deficient  in  those  organs  which 
are  called  eyes ;  but  this  animal  passes  some  of  its 
time  (especially  in  the  pairing-season)  above  ground, 
while  our  little  Achatina  has  never  been  observed  on 
the  surface  in  a  living  state.  Similar  exceptions  of  eye- 
less species,  belonging  to  genera  the  animals  of  which 
are  usually  ocellated,  occur  (although  very  rarely)  among 
our  marine  Cephalic  Mollusca — as,  for  instance,  Eulima 
stenostoma  and  Mangelia  nivalis;  but  these  are  deep- 
water  species,  and  very  little  is  kno\\Ti  as  to  the  extent 
to  which  light  penetrates  into  the  abysses  of  the  ocean, 
or  as  to  its  action  on  the  sensorial  organs  of  inverte- 
brate animals.  In  all  probability  the  A.  acicula  lives 
upon  animal  matter ;  for,  in  the  spots  where  it  has  been 
found  living,  no  underground  fungus  or  other  vegetation 


ACHATINA.  297 

appears  to  exists  and  the  form  of  the  shell  would  induce 
a  belief  that  this  snail  is  not  only  zoophagous  but  pre- 
daceous.  The  shells  of  all  the  true  species  of  Glandina, 
which  are  carnivorous,  have  the  same  kind  of  notch  or 
truncature  at  the  base  as  the  present  species  of  Acha- 
Una.  The  structure  of  the  lingual  plate  or  tongue  of 
Glandina  is  similar  to  that  of  Buccinum  and  other  ma- 
rine Proboscidiferous  Mollusca,  which  also  have  a  notch 
or  canal  in  the  mouth  of  their  shells  and  are  exclusively 
predaceous.  The  present  genus  is  closely  allied  to  Co- 
chlicopa  through  C.  lubrica,  the  habits  of  which  are  partly 
subterranean;  but  the  notch  in  that  shell  is  not  so 
strong  or  well  marked  as  in  this. 

AcHATiNA  Aci'cuLA  *_,  MiiUcr. 

Bitccinum  acicula,  Miill.  Yerm.  Hist.  pt.  ii.  p.  150.     A.  acicula,  F.  &  H. 
iv.  p.  130,  pi.  cxxviii.  f.  4. 

Body  quite  white  and  nearly  transparent,  tubercled  or  gra- 
nulated in  hues :  mantle  rather  thick,  marked  mtli  a  raised 
longitudinal  line  in  the  middle :  tentacles  cylindrical ;  upper 
pair  destitute  of  eyes  or  black  specks ;  lower  pair  forming 
almost  imperceptible  bulbs :  foot  compressed,  pointed  behind, 
and  ending  at  the  penultimate  whorl  of  the  shell  when  the 
animal  is  crawling. 

Shell  turreted  and  slender,  transparent,  very  thin,  highly 
polished  and  iridescent,  ivory-white,  with  a  yellowish  tmge  on 
the  upper  part  in  fresh  specimens  (owing  to  the  colour  of  the 
liver),  perfectly  smooth  and  polished  when  examined  with  a 
lens  of  ordmary  power,  except  a  few  faint  and  irregular  wrin- 
kles in  the  line  of  growth,  but  under  a  microscope  exhibiting 
delicate  and  close-set  spiral  striae :  periphery  rounded :  epi- 
dermis exceedingly  thin  and  forming  a  mere  iilm  :  whorls  oi, 
not  convex,  but  compressed  and  drawn  out,  rapidly  increasing 
in  size ;  the  last  occupying  about  one-half  of  the  shell :  spire 
.  very  obtuse  and  rounded  at  the  point :  suture  moderately  deep 
and  obhque,  apparently  margined  on  the  under  side  by  reason 
of  the  upper  part  of  the  succeeding  whorl  being  seen  through 

*  A  hair-pin,  used  by  Roman  women. 

o  5 


298  HELICID^. 

the  pellucid  sliell :  mouth  oblong,  contracted  by  the  penultimate 
whorl,  narrowing  above  into  an  acute  angle,  slightly  widened 
and  rounded  below,  but  interrupted  by  a  deej)  notch  at  the 
base  of  the  pillar  lip  :  outer  lip  thin  and  flexuous  :  pillar  lip 
thick  and  curved :  inner  lip  consisting  of  a  slight  deposit  of 
shelly  matter,  which  is  spread  on  the  pillar.  L.  0"175. 
B.  0-04. 

Habitat  :  Under  stones  and  at  the  roots  of  bushes 
and  gi^ass,  but  usually  some  inches  beneath  the  surface, 
in  various  parts  of  the  country  from  Yorkshire  to  Guern- 
sey, as  well  as  in  Wales  and  Ireland.  It  occurs  in  our 
upper  tertiary  strata.  On  the  Continent  it  ranges  from 
Sweden  to  the  South  of  Italy;  and  it  has  been  also 
noticed  in  Greece,  Algeria,  and  Madeira.  It  is  widely 
diffused,  but  rather  local,  and  difficult  to  find  in  a  living 
state. 

Nilsson  has  given  a  good  description  of  this  curious 
little  mollusk,  and  has  noticed  that,  in  consequence  of 
the  transparency  of  the  shell,  the  irregular  motion  of  its 
breathing  could  be  easily  observed  under  a  microscope, 
and  that,  when  the  respiratory  cavity  was  shut,  the 
motion  ceased,  but  was  resumed  on  the  chamber  being 
again  opened ;  and  he  likened  this  alternate  expansion 
and  contraction  of  the  breathing- organ  in  this  snail  to  the 
pulmonary  action  of  vertebrate  animals.  He  supposed 
that  the  A.  acicula  fed  on  the  tender  and  juicy  fibrils  of 
the  roots  of  grass.  Mr.  Pickering  informed  me  that  a 
considerable  number  of  live  specimens  were  once  pro- 
cured by  a  gentleman  in  Hertfordshire,  while  digging  up 
potatoes.  His  friend,  not  being  a  conchologist,  thought 
at  first  that  they  were  little  white  maggots.  It  has  been 
stated  that  this  species  is  only  fomid  in  calcareous  soils  • 
but,  besides  the  last  instance,  its  occurrence  has  been 
noticed  by  Mr.  Bridgman  at  Norwich,  "on  a  sunny 
bank  near  the  Thorpe  toll-bar,  adhering  to  the  roots  of 


carychiidtE.  299 

grasSj  in  the  loose  earth  between  the  stones/^  The  epi- 
phragm  is  very  thin  and  glistening.  The  eggs  are  said 
to  be  large  in  comparison  with  the  size  of  the  shell. 

This  is  the  Buccinum  terrestre  of  Montagu;  but  it 
can  scarcely  be  the  Helix  octona  of  Linne  (as  some  au- 
thors have  supposed),  because  that  shell  is  described  as 
having  eight  whorls  and  a  roundish  mouth.  The  last 
species  is  common  in  the  West  Indies,  but  in  former 
times  found  its  way  into  collections  of  British  shells, 
owing  to  Dr.  Pulteney  having  mistaken  it  for  the  Limncea 
glabra,  or  Helix  octona  of  Pennant. 

Family  IV.  CAEYCHIID^. 

Body  long  and  spirally  coiled  :  mantle  covering  the  front  or 
anterior  part :  snout  prominent :  tentacles  2  (besides  rudiments 
of  a  second  or  lower  pair),  contractile :  eyes  at  the  base  of  the 
developed  tentacles  and  somewhat  in  their  rear :  foot  oblong, 
distinct  from  the  rest  of  the  body. 

Shell  spiral,  oval-oblong,  enveloping  the  whole  body: 
mouth  somewhat  ear-shaped,  furnished  with  columellar  folds 
and  a  tooth-hke  tubercle  on  the  outer  hp :  umbilicus  narrow 
and  indistinct. 

This  family  forms  part  of  an  incongruous  assemblage 
of  MoUusca,  which  Lamarck  called  Auricula  or  Auricii- 
lacea,  the  type  of  which  is  the  Bulimus  fibratus  or  Auris- 
Mid(B,  As,  however,  Miiller  had  long  previously  indi- 
cated the  characters  of  the  present  family  by  his  de- 
scription of  the  genus  Carychium,  it  would  seem  to  be 
an  act  of  common  justice  to  the  memory  of  that  great 
naturalist  that  the  patronymic  or  family  name  should 
be  taken  from  that  of  his  original  genus,  and  not  from 
Auricula,  which  was  subsequently  founded.  A  few  am- 
phibious Mollusca  which  belong  to  this  family,  and  to 
the  genera  Melampus  (or  Conovulus)  and  Otina,  bein 


cr 


300  CARYCHIID^. 

excluded  from  the  category  of  land-shells  and  placed 
with  those  having  a  marine  habitat  ^,  there  only  remains 
a  single  genus_,  containing  a  solitary  species^  for  present 
consideration.  This  is  one  of  our  smallest  terrestrial 
Mollusca. 

There  are  several  points  of  resemblance  between  this 
family  and  the  Limnceidae.  The  contractility  of  their 
tentacles  and  the  position  of  the  eyes  and  reproductive 
organs  are  nearly  the  same  in  each  of  these  families; 
and  the  only  British  member  of  the  Carychiidce  is  semi- 
aquatic  in  its  habits  and  can  live  a  long  time  under 
water.  Every  individual  of  both  families  is  male  as  well 
as  female. 

Genus  CARY'CHIUM  f,  Muller.    PL  VIII.  f.  1, 2, 3, 4. 

The  characters  of  the  body  and  shell  are  given  in  the 
above  definition  of  the  family. 

Carychium  mi'nimum  X)  Miiller. 

C.  minimum,  Miill.  Verm.  Hist.  pt.  ii.  p.  125 ;  F.&  H.  iv.  p.  198,  pi.  cxxv.  f.  6. 

Body  bilobed  in  front  and  rounded  behind,  transparent, 
yellowish-white :  snout  as  long  as  the  tentacles  and  triangular  : 
tentacles  Yerj  close  together,  thick  and  conical,  with  somewhat 
rounded  extremities  :  eyes  rather  prominent,  exceedingly  black 
and  distinct :  foot  rounded  in  front,  very  finely  speckled  with 
black  and  milk-white,  terminating  in  a  blunt  and  thick  tail. 

Shell  subfusiform,  transparent,  but  not  very  thin,  glossy, 
whitish,  finely  and  closely  striate  in  the  line  of  growth,  with 
a  few  obsolete  or  indistinct  spiral  hues ;  the  transverse  striae 
are  flexuous  and  stronger  towards  the  suture,  and  they  are 
sometimes  partly  decussated   by  the  spiral   Hues  in  such  a 

*  I  accidentally  omitted  to  notice,  in  my  account  of  the  Slugs,  that  one 
of  them  also  ( Onchidium  Celticum)  is  marine. 

t  From  its  resemblance  to  a  Murex  or  kind  of  whelk.  +  Smallest. 


CARYCHITJM.  301 

manner  as  to  give  the  surface  an  appearance  similar  to  that 
which  is  observable  on  the  shells  of  several  species  of  Limncea 
(showing  the  conchological  relation  between  that  and  the 
present  genus)  :  periphery  rounded :  epidermis  not  very  thin  : 
whorls  5-^,  convex ;  the  last  occupying  nearly  one-half  of  the 
shell,  and  the  penultimate  whorl  fully  equalling  (if  not  ex- 
ceeding) it  in  breadth  :  spire  moderately  pointed  :  suture  deep  : 
mouth  obliquely  oval,  contracted  below  into  a  narrow  channel, 
furnished  with  a  strong  spiral  fold  or  plait  on  the  middle  of 
the  pillar,  and  with  another  on  the  pillar  lip :  outer  lip  ex- 
ceedingly thick  and  reflected,  having  on  the  middle  of  its 
inside  edge  a  strong  tooth  or  tubercle  which  projects  into  the 
mouth ;  upper  edge  considerably  inflected :  inner  lip  thickened 
in  adult  specimens  and  forming  with  the  outer  lip  a  complete 
peristome :  umbilicus  consisting  of  an  oblique  slit.  L.  0-07. 
B.  0-035. 

Habitat  :  Under  stones  and  logs  of  wood,  at  the  roots 
of  grass,  and  among  moss  and  dead  leaves,  in  woods 
and  damp  places,  everywhere  from  the  Moray  Firth 
district  to  the  Channel  Isles,  as  well  as  throughout 
Wales  and  Ireland.  It  is  a  member  of  our  upper  ter- 
tiaries.  Gerstfeldt  has  recorded  it  as  a  Siberian  species, 
Philippi  as  Sicilian,  Morelet  as  inhabiting  Algeria  j  and 
it  seems  to  be  universally  distributed  over  every  part  of 
the  Continent. 

This  is  an  exquisitely  beautiful  creature,  both  alive 
and  dead;  and  Miiller  did  scant  justice  to  it  in  calling 
it  a  "  bestiola/'  when  he  was  apparently  provoked  by  its 
shyness.  Its  eyes  are  so  exceedingly  black  and  piercing 
that  they  are  visible  through  the  shell,  when  the  animal 
is  not  disposed  to  venture  out  of  doors.  It  inhabits 
mountainous  tracts  as  well  as  plains,  but  seems  to  prefer 
the  vicinity  of  water.  Dr.  Lukis  informs  me  that  it 
makes  its  winter  domicile  in  the  hollow  stems  of  the 
larger  marsh  umbelliferous  plants.  The  plaits  or  folds 
are  in  course  of  formation  at  a  very  early  period  of 
growth;    and  young  shells  have  the  columella  notched 


302  CYCLOSTOMATID^. 

at  tlie  base,  as  in  Cochlicopa  and  Achatina.  The  epi- 
phragm  is  extremely  thin  and  glistening.  The  spire  is 
complete ;  and  in  this  respect  it  differs  from  that  of  the 
shells  belonging  to  species  which  British  conchologists 
place  in  the  genus  Conovulus.  The  Rev.  M.  G.  Berkeley 
supposed  that  C.  minimum  might  have  the  sexes  distinct ; 
but  the  anatomical  details  of  its  structure  given  by  Mo- 
quin-Tandon  prove  that  such  is  not  the  case,  and  that  this 
animal  agrees  in  its  mode  of  reproduction  with  all  the 
other  members  of  the  inoperculated  Pulmonobranchs. 

The  second  section  of  the  British  Pulmonobranch 
Mollusca  comprises  only  the  following — 

Family  V.  CYCLOSTOMATID^. 

Body  long  and  spirally  coiled  :  mantle  covering  the  front  or 
anterior  part,  and  encircling  the  neck  with  an  extremely  thin 
fold  :  snout  strong  and  elongated  :  tentacles  2  only,  contractile  : 
eyes  at  the  external  base  of  the  tentacles  :  foot  long,  distinct 
from  the  rest  of  the  body. 

Shell  spiral,  oval  or  cylindrical,  and  enveloping  the  whole 
body ;  mouth  round  or  oval :  umbilicus  small  and  narrow : 
operculum  paucispiral,  testaceous  or  homy. 

This  extremely  numerous  family  has  its  home  in  the 
tropics.  Only  two  members  of  it  inhabit  this  country ; 
and  each  of  these  is  included  in  a  separate  genus.  As  I 
have  before  observed,  many  characters  of  organization 
are  common  to  the  present  family  and  the  Pectinibranch 
Mollusca.  They  are  dioecious  :  their  tentacles  are  two 
in  number  and  contractile  :  their  eyes  are  placed  at  the 
base  of  these  tentacles  :  and  their  shells  are  furnished 
with  opercula.  But  their  respiratory  system  is  very 
different,  and  corresponds  with  that  of  other  families  of 
Pulmonobranch  Mollusca. 


CYCLOSTOMA.  303 

Our  Continental  neighbours  are  riclier  than  ourselves 
in  genera  as  well  as  species  belonging  to  this  family^ 
Of  the  typical  genus^  Cyclostoma,  two  well-marked  spe- 
cies are  common  in  France^  although  one  of  them  (C. 
sulcatum)  is  confined  to  the  South.  As  to  Acme  they 
boast  of  having  four  species  to  our  one ;  but  none  of  the 
three  which  we  want  are  found  in  the  North  of  France. 
Of  a  third  genus,  Pomatias,  no  less  than  six  species  are 
French,  while  we  have  no  representative  of  the  genus. 
Two  of  these  last  species  (viz.  P.  septemspiralis  or  macu- 
latus  and  P.  obscurus)  have  been  lately  detected  in  the 
extreme  North  of  France ;  and  it  is  therefore  not  impos- 
sible that  they  may  be  also  met  with  in  the  South  of 
England.  Their  operculum  is  horny,  instead  of  shelly  as 
in  Cyclostoma;  and  the  genus  to  which  they  belong 
appears  to  bear  nearly  the  same  analogy  to  Cyclostoma 
as  Hydrobia  does  to  Bythinia  among  the  Pectinibranch 
Mollusca. 

The  British  genera  comprised  in  this  family  may  be 
thus  di\dded. 

*  Shell  oval :  operculum  testaceous.     Cyclostoma. 
**  Shell  cyhndrical :  operculum  homy.     Acme. 

The  position  of  the  male  organ  of  reproduction  is  also 
different  in  these  genera. 

Genus  I.  CYCLO'STOMA  *,   Draparnaud. 
PL  VIII.  f.  5,  6,  7,  8. 

Body  oblong,  always  containable  within  the  shell :  tentacles 
cylindrical,  with  slightly  swollen  tips :  foot  small  and  broadish. 

Shell  oval,  rather  soHd :  ivJiorls  rapidly  increasing  in  size  : 
spire  short :  mouth  round :  umhilicus  obhque :  operculum 
roimdish,  testaceous  and  solid,  with  a  nearly  central  spire. 

*  Eound-mouth. 


304  CYCLOSTOMATIDiE. 

More  than  a  centmy  ago^  Guettard  made  known, 
through  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Paris,  the  appa- 
rently anomalous  fact  that  a  land-snail  was  fiu-nished 
with  an  operculum.  The  genus  Cyclostome  was  founded 
by  Lamarck  in  1789  and  reproduced  in  1801,  for  the 
reception  of  certain  marine  Gasteropoda  which  are  now 
referred  to  the  genera  Scalaria  and  Delphinula,  But  it 
is  to  Draparnaud  that  science  is  indebted  for  the  esta- 
blishment of  the  genus  Cyclostoma  on  a  more  correct 
basis,  although  he  comprised  in  it,  besides  the  true 
members  of  this  genus,  many  freshwater  species  belong- 
ing to  the  genera  Paludina,  Bythinia,  and  Hydrobia,  and 
even  a  species  of  Truncatella  which  is  exclusively  marine. 
The  present  genus  is  restricted  to  those  land-shells  which 
have  a  round  mouth  and  a  solid  operculum;  and  the 
structure  of  the  animal  is  in  strict  accordance  with  that 
of  the  shell. 

Cyclostoma  e'legans*,  Miiller. 

Nerita  ekgans,  Mull.  Verm.  Hist.  pt.  ii.  p.  177.     C.  elegans,  F.  &  H.  iv. 
p.  201,  pi.  cxxii.  f.  3. 

Body  very  thick,  blunt  and  strongly  bilobed  in  front,  rounded 
behind,  dusky  greyish-brown  or  almost  black  above,  of  a  paler 
hue  underneath,  coarsely  wrinkled  in  fi'ont  and  finely  tubercled 
behind:  mantle  semiannular, rather  tumid  and  smooth, speckled 
with  milk-white  except  at  the  sides  :  snout  projecting  beyond 
the  rest  of  the  body,  strongly  bdobed  in  front,  divided  trans- 
versely by  distinct  wrinkles,  which  are  finely  streaked  with 
grey :  tentacles  dark-coloured,  strongly  wrinkled  across,  with 
nearly  hemispherical  bulbs,  which  are  more  transparent  and 
clear  than  the  tentacles :  eyes  placed  on  reddish  or  whitish 
tubercles,  a  Httle  behind  the  tentacles :  foot  rounded  in  front 
and  divided  into  two  equal  parts  by  a  longitudinal  groove, 
very  dusky,  especially  on  the  sides ;  tail  rounded,  and  to  a 
great  extent  covered  by  the  operculum. 

*  Elegant 


CYCLOSTOMA.  305 

Shell  globose-oval,  rather  solid  and  opaque,  scarcely  gloss}- 
(owing  to  the  strong  sculpture),  yellowish-brown  with  more  or 
less  of  a  reddish  tinge  and  often  marked  with  ii-regular  streaks 
or  spots  of  reddish-brown  or  purple,  sometimes  plain  yellow  or 
fawn-colour;  the  spots  sometimes  form  three  or  more  in- 
distinct and  interrupted  rows  on  the  body  whorl ;  sculpture 
consisting  of  strong  spiral  ribs,  of  which  there  are  about  forty 
on  the  last  whorl,  and  of  much  finer  but  more  numerous  trans- 
verse ribs,  which  do  not  cross  the  main  ribs  but  intersect  the 
interstices,  giving  that  part  of  the  surface  a  somewhat  reti- 
culated appearance :  jyeripliery  rounded :  e]piderm\s  thin :  whorls 
4|-,  exceedingly  tumid,  the  last  occupying  considerably  more 
than  two-thirds  of  the  shell ;  upper  whorls  purple  or  yellow- 
ish-brown and  quite  smooth:  spire  bluntly  pointed:  suture 
very  deep  :  mouth  circular,  with  the  exception  of  a  slight  angle 
at  the  upper  part :  outer  lip  and  inner  Up  rather  thick,  very 
slightly  reflected,  and  forming  a  complete  peristome :  umbili- 
cus twisted,  but  rather  deep  :  operculum  flat,  composed  of  about 
five  whorls,  strongly  and  closely  marked  with  oblique  and  flex- 
uous  striae  ;  nucleus  depressed,  smooth,  and  of  a  darker  colour, 
like  the  nucleus  or  apex  of  the  shell,     L.  0*6.   B.  0*4. 

Habitat  :  Under  stones  and  at  the  roots  of  fern  and 
farze  in  many  parts  of  England^  Wales,  and  Ireland, 
from  Yorkshire  to  Alderney.  It  appears  to  frequent 
chiefly  the  sea-coast  and  calcareous  soils  ;  but  it  occurs 
in  Northamptonshire  and  Oxfordshire  (inland  counties), 
as  well  as  in  parts  of  Norfolk  where  there  is  no  chalk. 
It  has  not  been  recognized  with  any  degree  of  certainty 
as  a  fossil  of  our  upper  tertiaries.  Its  foreign  range  is 
southern,  and  includes  Central  Germany,  France,  Italy, 
and  Portugal ;  and  it  extends  to  the  Canaries.  Donegal 
Bay  appears  to  be  its  most  northern  limit. 

Lister  gave,  nearly  two  centuries  ago,  some  excellent 
details  of  the  physiology  of  this  mollusk;  and  in  1828 
another  of  our  countrymen  (the  Rev.  M.  G.  Berkeley) 
published, in  the  'ZoologicalJournaF  (vol.iv.p.  278-284), 
further  particulars  of  its  anatomy.  According  to  Moquin- 
Tandon  it  is  a  vegetable  feeder ;  and  the  structure  of  its 


306  CYCLOSTOMATID^. 

tongue  is  the  same  as  that  of  other  phytophagous  Mol- 
lusca.  The  bulbs  or  points  of  the  tentacles  are  sup- 
posed to  be  olfactory  organs.  This  species  does  not 
make  its  appearance  until  the  first  warm  days  of  spring ; 
and  in  dry  weather  it  buries  itself  in  the  earth.  It  is  an 
exceedingly  timid  animal.  Montagu  says  that  its  strong 
and  muscular  proboscis  is  of  considerable  service  in 
removing  obstacles,  and  especially  the  earth  when  the 
animal  retires  to  its  hibernaculum ;  and  he  adds  that  it 
is  also  used  in  crawling,  to  hold  by,  in  order  to  bring 
forward  the  body.  Dr.  Gray  has  described  a  remarkable 
peculiarity  in  its  mode  of  walking,  as  follows  : — "  The 
foot  is  formed  of  two  longitudinal  portions  :  as  the 
animal  walks,  the  portion  on  one  side  is  first  advanced, 
while  the  animal  holds  on  by  the  other ;  and  then  holds 
on  with  the  advanced  portion  as  the  other  side  is  gradu- 
ally advanced  before  it.'^  This  alternate  action  of  the 
two  sides  of  the  foot  is  nearly  similar  to  that  which 
was  observed  by  Adanson  as  to  his  genus  Pedipes,  of 
which  we  have  a  representative  in  Melampus ;  but  in 
that  case  the  foot  is  divided  into  two  transverse  instead 
of  longitudinal  sections,  and  the  action  is  more  like  that 
of  a  caterpillar,  or  what  is  called  "  looping.^^  Villa  has 
noticed  that  great  numbers  of  C.  elegans  are  devoured 
by  predaceous  beetles,  especially  by  those  belonging  to 
species  of  Cychrus,  which  contrive  to  get  into  the  shell 
in  spite  of  the  solid  and  close-fitting  operculum.  This 
curious  lid  or  mouth-piece  is  as  hard  as  a  stone,  and 
covered  on  both  sides  with  a  thick  and  tenacious  epi- 
dermis, a  double  fringe  of  which  completely  encircles  it 
and  causes  the  operculum  to  appear  laminated.  This  is 
one  of  our  handsomest  land-shells,  and,  if  it  were  rare, 
would  be  highly  prized — like  many  other  too  familiar 
objects  of  equal  beauty. 


ACME.  307 

s 

The  "  Cyclostoma  marmorea  "  of  Capt.  Brown  appears, 
from  tlie  description  and  figure  in  the  'Edinburgh  Journal 
of  Natural  and  Geographical  Science'  for  October  1829, 
to  be  a  specimen  of  C.  elegans  which  had  been  worn 
smooth  by  attrition. 

The  C.ferrugineum  of  Lamarck  was  erroneously  in- 
troduced by  Dr.  Turton  into  the  British  fauna.  It  is  a 
native  of  the  extreme  South  of  Europe,  and  has  not  even 
been  found  in  France. 

Genus  II.  ACME  *,  Hartmann. 
Pl.VIII.  f.  9, 10, 11,  12,  13. 

Body  elongated,  always  containable  within  the  shell:  ten- 
tacles awl-shaped,  without  bulbs  or  swollen  extremities :  foot 
narrow. 

Shell  cylindrical,  rather  thin :  wliorls  gradually  increasing 
in  size  :  spire  long,  but  ending  in  a  blunt  point :  mouth  oval : 
umbilicus  straight:  operculum  oblong,  homy  and  thin,  vdth 
an  excentric  spire. 

This  singular  genus  of  minute  operculated  land- shells 
was  first  distinguished  by  Hartmann,  and  described  by 
him  in  the  '  Neue  Alpina '  of  Steinmiiller  for  1821  under 
the  name  of  Acicula.  However,  for  some  reason  or  other 
which  does  not  appear,  Hartmann  changed  this  name 
for  Acme,  and  redescribed  the  genus  at  considerable 
length  in  the  sixth  volume  of  Sturm's  '  Deutschlands 
Fauna,'  which  was  published  also  in  1821.  Risso  having, 
as  before  stated,  in  1826  used  the  name  Acicula  for 
another  genus  with  Achatina  acicula  as  its  type,  and  the 
original  founder  having  discarded  it,  there  seems  to  be 
no  alternative  but  to  adopt  the  second  name  given  by 
Hartmann  to  the  present  genus.  It  takes  precedence  of 
a  somewhat  similar  generic  name(^cm««)  which  has  been 

*  Point. 


308  CYCLOSTOMATID^. 

ascribed  to  Esclischoltz  and  used  for  the  reception  of  some 
marine  shells  which  are  allied  to  Patella.      The  present " 
genus  was  (according  to  Charpentier)  named  Pupula  by 
Agassiz. 

Acme  lineata*,  Draparnaud. 

Bulimus  lineatus,  Drap.  Tabl.  Moll.  p.  67.     A.  Uneata,  F.  &  H.  iv.  p.  204, 
pi.  cxxv.  f.  7. 

Body  milk-white  speckled  with  brown,  nearly  transparent : 
mantle  dark-brown :  snout  very  narrow,  tumid,  and  curved, 
marked  transversely  with  flat,  parallel  and  indistinct  wrinkles : 
tentacles  nearly  cylindrical,  diverging,  whitish,  very  finely 
wrinkled  across,  each  of  them  encircled  at  its  base  by  a  ring 
of  dark  spots ;  their  extremities  nearly  pointed :  foot  rounded 
in  front,  with  a  narrow  tail. 

Shell  oblong- cylindrical,  semitransparent  and  glossy,  yel- 
lorwish-brown,  marked  in  the  line  of  growth  with  remote  curved 
grooves  or  deep  stria?,  of  which  there  are  from  twenty  to  thirty 
on  the  body  whorl,  as  well  as  with  a  few  slight  and  obscure 
spiral  hnes  :  jperiphery  rounded :  epidermis  of  moderate  thick- 
ness ;  whorls  6-7,  compressed,  the  last  occupying  about  two- 
fifths  of  the  shell :  S2yire  rounded  at  the  point :  suture  distinct, 
but  not  deep  :  mouth  pear-shaped,  effuse  at  the  base,  and  con- 
tracted above  into  a  rather  acute  angle :  outer  lip  thin  and 
flexuous :  pillar  Up  reflected :  inner  lip  sj^read  on  the  colu- 
mella :  umbilicus  small  and  nearly  concealed  by  the  reflexion 
of  the  pillar  lip :  operculu7}i  flat,  sunk  deep  within  the  mouth, 
marked  with  faint  and  irregular  radiating  strias ;  spire  formed 
of  only  two  whorls  and  a  half.     L.  0-085.   B.  0-035. 

Var.  1.  alba.     SheU  white  or  colourless  and  transparent. 

Var.  2.  sinistrorsa.     Spire  reversed. 

Habitat  :  Among  decayed  leaves  in  open  drains,  and 
under  stones  which  lie  close  to  the  ground,  in  woods 
throughout  a  great  part  of  these  isles,  from  Lanark- 
shire to  the  extremity  of  Cornwall,  and  also  in  Wales 
and  Ireland  (East,  West,  North,  and  South),  but  not 
everywhere  or  abundantly.      Var.  1.    Rejectamenta  of 

*  Marked  with  lines. 


ACME.  309 

the  River  Avon  at  Bristol;  Ballinahinch,  Co.  Galway 
(J.  G.  J.)  ;  Killarney  (Barlee).  Var.  2.  A  single  speci- 
men among  the  refuse  of  the  Avon  at  Bristol  (J.  G.  J.) . 
This  species,  as  well  as  the  reversed  variety,  has  been 
found  in  our  upper  tertiary  beds  at  Copford.  Gerstfeldt 
has  recorded  it  from  Western  Siberia,  and  Villa  from 
Normandy;  but,  although  it  occurs  in  intermediate 
countries,  I  do  not  find  any  notice  of  it  as  Scandinavian. 
It  inhabits  France,  Germany,  and  Switzerland. 

A  living  specimen,  which  I  observed  in  the  North  of 
Ireland,  did  not  seem  to  be  shy  or  inactive  while  kept 
in  the  shade ;  but  when  it  was  exposed  to  the  glare  of 
the  sun^s  rays,  it  immediately  shut  up  and  disappeared. 
Dr.  Gray  says  that  "the  animal  walks  with  its  shell 
nearly  perpendicular,  twisting  it  round  in  a  very  odd 
manner,  and  then  letting  it  suddenly  fall  again."  The 
strise  on  the  shell  are  very  irregular  in  respect  of  num- 
ber ;  and  in  a  specimen  now  before  me  they  are  entirely 
wanting  in  some  parts ;  so  that  I  should  not  be  much 
surprised  if  the  A.  fusca  of  Beck  (which  he  separated 
from  our  species  on  account  of  its  wanting  the  striae) 
should  prove  to  be  merely  a  smooth  variety  of  the 
present  species.  Brown  has  apparently  described  and 
figured  this  variety,  in  his  'Illustrations  of  the  Land 
and  Freshwater  Conchology  of  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land' (p.  29,  pi.  iv.  f.  16),  under  the  name  of  A.  minuta. 

The  present  species  was  first  made  known  by  Walker 
{Test.  min.  rar.  litt.  Sandv.  p.  12,  f.42),  and  was  described 
by  Montagu  as  Turbo  fuscus,  but  subsequently  to  the 
date  and  publication  of  Draparnaud's  '  Tableau  des  Mol- 
lusques.'  Moquin-Tandon  considered  Walker's  shell  to 
be  distinct  from  that  of  Draparnaud,  and  has  described 
the  former  as  quite  smooth;  but  Jacob's  diagnosis  in 
Walker's  work  distinctly  mentions  its  being  striated. 


310 


SPECIES  OF  DRAPARNaUD  ;   AND  ERRATA. 


After  the  foregoing  part  of  this  volume  had  been 
printed,  I  received  a  communication  of  considerable  im- 
portance as  regards  the  determination  of  some  of  the 
species  described  by  Draparnaud.  It  consisted  of  the 
original  types  or  specimens  of  that  author,  from  the 
public  museum  at  Montpellier,  and  which,  through  the 
great  kindness  of  the  Director,  M.  Michaud,  I  have  now 
had  an  opportunity  of  examining  and  comparing  with 
my  own  specimens.  The  following  is  the  result  of  this 
examination. 


Species 
described  by  Draparnaud. 

Cyclostoma  simile. 
C.  anatiiinm. 
Clausilia  pHoatula., 

Helix  glabella. 
H.  sericea. 


H.  plebeium. 
H.  pygmsea. 
H.  nitidula  /3. 


Species 
described  in  this  ivorTc. 

Hydrobia  Bimihs. 

H.  ulvae. 

One  specimen  is  C.  Rolphii. 

(The  rest  are  C.  plicatula.) 
H.  rufescens. 
One  specimen  is  H.  hispida, 

var.   subglobosa;    and   the 

other  is  H.  revelata. 
H.  hispida,  var. 
H.  pygmaea. 
Two   specimens    are   Zonites 

radiatnlus,  and  another  is 

Z.  punis. 


EREATA. 

Page  49,  at  tlie  end.     The  specimen  of  Dreissena  polymorpha  referred  to 
by  M.  Ch.  D'Orbigny  appears  to  be  recent,  and  not  fossil. 
,,     55,  line  15  from  top,  for  "  they"  read  "  some  of  them." 
,,  155,  line  25.  Vitrina.     The  accentuating  mark  ought  to  be  over  the 

first  syllable,  and  not  over  the  second  one  which  is  short. 
,,  200,  line  25  from  top,  for  '' plebeia'^  read  ^^ plebemm." 
,,  278,  line  19,  for  "  C.  rugosa"  read  "  Pupa  riigosa." 


ESTHETIC  CONSIDERATIONS.  311 

Thus  far  I  have  treated  this  branch  of  my  subject  in 
a  scientific  point  of  view,  and  I  have  at  the  same  time 
endeavoured  to  illustrate  some  of  the  curious  ways  and 
instincts  of  the  Mollusca  which  inhabit  the  surface  of 
this  country.  I  am  not  without  hope  that  many  others, 
who  possess  better  opportunities  than  I  have  at  present, 
may  be  induced  to  institute  similar  researches,  and  thus 
to  improve  what  I  have  done,  as  well  as  correct  those 
errors  which  have  unavoidably  occurred  in  a  rather  ex- 
tensive investigation. 

There  is,  however,  another  aspect  in  which  the  matter 
may  be  considered ;  and  that  is,  with  reference  to  our 
own  aesthetic  ideas  of  these  humble  works  of  our  Com- 
mon Creator.  Other  divisions  of  animated  nature  have 
received  a  large  share  of  attention  from  philosophers 
and  poets ;  and  their  best  works  in  ancient  and  modern 
times  abound  in  references  to  the  larger  animals,  as  well 
as  to  birds  and  insects,  but  more  especially  to  flowers, 
the  simple  yet  ornate  beauty  of  which  appears  to  affect 
the  mind  in  a  peculiar  manner.  But  the  less  conspicuous 
and  attractive  assemblage  of  snails,  which  have  been 
exhibited  in  the  foregoing  pages,  (although  equally  in- 
teresting to  the  naturalist)  have  not  been  honoured  with 
much  notice  by  the  philosopher  or  poet;  and  I  woidd 
venture  to  make  this  appeal  to  such  on  behalf  of  my 
little  favourites,  trusting  that  their  claims,  as  our  fellow- 
creatures,  to  a  share  of  that  sympathy  which  animates 
the  great  and  stirring  intellects  of  this  age  may  not  be 
entirely  overlooked.  A  gifted  and  well-read  friend  has 
kindly  sent  me  the  following  result  of  his  examination  of 
the  subject  in  a  poetical  sense,  which  will,  I  hope,  be 
acceptable  to  some  of  my  fair  readers. 


312  ESTHETIC  CONSIDERATIONS. 


The  Snail  in  Poetry. 


The  snail  has  been  but  rarely  the  subject  of  poetical 
treatment.  Minor  poets  would  be  afraid  of  touching  it ; 
and  even  in  the  hands  of  those  great  masters  to  whom 
it  has  been  given  to  interpret  the  deeper  harmonies  of 
the  universe^  it  is  only  upon  rare  occasions  that  this 
little  animal  could  fittingly  present  itself  as  a  link  in 
the  chain  of  their  conceptions.  One  would  naturally 
first  look  for  it  in  those  descriptive  poems  which  deal 
with  agriculture  and  gardening.  But  neither  Cowper 
in  his  ^  Garden  ^  nor  Virgil  in  his  '  Georgics '  appear  to 
have  honoured  it  with  their  notice.  Nor  does  it  enter, 
I  believe,  into  the  pious  yet  discursive  meditations  of 
George  Herbert.  Nor  does  Milton  make  it  the  subject 
of  any  special  reference  in  his  magnificent  description 
of  the  six  days'  work,  and  varied  wonders  of  creation. 
It  is  not  the  snail,  but  the  worm,  which  is  there  taken 
as  the  type  of  that  lower  region  of  animal  life.  Indeed 
there  appears  no  great  congeniality  between  the  tribes 
of  the  "  Helicidae  ^'  and  the  atmosphere  which  has  been 
deemed  suitable  for  epic  or  for  serious  poetry;  they 
do  not  readily  live  and  flourish  on  Parnassus.  Never- 
theless their  cause,  as  judged  at  the  tribunal  of  the 
Muses,  is  not  to  be  pronounced  hopeless;  it  must  be 
stated,  on  the  contrary,  that  their  humble  pleadings 
have  been  listened  to,  and  that  they  have  been  admitted 
into  the  realms  of  song.  They  have  certainly  been 
neglected  by  the  smaller  fry '  of  poets ;  but  they  have 
not  been  overlooked  by  the  very  greatest  masters  of  the 
art.  It  is  instructive  to  observe  the  manner  in  which 
the  snail  has  been  treated  by  Homer,  Shakspere,  and 
Goethe ;  from  Avhom,  in  default  of  other  instances,  our 
examples  must  needs  be  drawn.     We  shall  there  find 


ESTHETIC  CONSIDERATIONS.  313 

the  snail,  not  as  the  uninviting  little  creature  it  would 
appear  to  the  common  eye,  but  under  the  light  of  imagi- 
nation's ray.  We  may  enter  the  realms  of  fantasy,  and 
we  shall  find  it  among  those  intruders  which  had  to  be 
chased  from  the  cradle  of  the  fairy-queen.  We  shall 
find  it,  centuries  earlier,  in  Homer's  mock-heroic  poem, 
where  the  belligerent  frogs  are  represented  as  using  the 
shells  of  water-snails  for  their  helmets.  But  the  snail 
has  been  raised  to  a  much  higher  eminence  in  the  poetic 
sphere.  Indeed,  could  a  lonely  snail  be  discovered  on 
the  loftiest  peak  of  Tenerific  or  Chimborazo,  would  not 
the  little  animal,  elated  at  that  extreme  height,  become 
a  fit  object  for  surprise  and  wonder,  and  partake  of  the 
sublimity  of  the  situation  ?  Well — supposing  only  that 
we  pass  from  the  material  to  the  moral  world — in  a  simi- 
lar situation  Goethe  has  placed  it,  in  that  wild  vision  of 
the  Walpurgis-night.  There,  upon  the  top  of  the  Harz 
mountains,  amidst  that  enchanted  throng  and  tumul- 
tuous rabblement  of  witches,  sorcerers,  daemons,  owls, 
bats,  and  all  creatures  of  the  night  celebrating  high 
festival  under  the  melancholy  moon,  in  the  "region  of 
misery  and  tribulation,"  did  an  adventurous  and  preter- 
naturally  sensitive  snail  detect  the  presence  and  mimask 
the  incognito  of  no  less  a  person  than  Mephistopheles 
himself,  who  in  these  words  describes  the  occurrence : — 

"  Siehst  du  die  Schnecke  da  ?    Sie  kommt  herau  gekrocben ; 
Mit  ihrem  tastenden  Gesicht 
Hat  sie  mir  schon  was  abgerochen. 

Wenn  ich  aueh  will,  verlaugn'  ich  hier  mich  nicht." 

This  is  beyond  a  doubt  the  most  imposing  appearance 
which  the  little  animal  has  made  in  literature. 

The  cases  above  cited,  in  which  the  snail  appears  as 
actually  taking  part  in  the  movement  of  the  poem,  in 
which  she  is,  so  to  speak,  one  of  the  characters  of  the 

p 


314  ESTHETIC  CONSIDERATIONS. 

drama,  must  of  course  be  distinguished  from  those  in 
which  she  appears  only  by  way  of  simile,  or  comparison ; 
the  movement  of  the  poem  being  meanwhile  interrupted. 
The  most  interesting  of  the  latter  class  is  to  be  found  in 
Shakspere^s  ^  Venus  and  Adonis/  a  piece  in  which  the 
rich  romantic  or  quasi-mythological  colouring  is  so  high 
as  to  permit  the  introduction  of  such  imagery  without 
any  perceptible  loss  of  poetic  dignity.  The  following  is 
the  simile  alluded  to  : — 

"  Or  as  the  snail,  whose  tender  horns  being  hit, 
Shrinks  backward  in  his  shelly  cave  with  pain, 

And  there,  all  smother' d  up,  in  shade  doth  sit, 
Long  after  fearing  to  creep  forth  again ; 

So,  at  his  bloody  view,  her  eyes  are  fled 

Into  the  deep  dark  cabins  of  her  head." 

It  would  be  difficult  to  find  another  equally  beautiful 
reference  to  the  sensitive  characteristic  of  the  animal. 
We  cannot  fail  to  observe  that  Homer,  in  accordance 
with  the  sculpturesque  tendency  of  Greek  art,  fixes 
his  attention  more  on  the  outward  shelly  covering ;  but 
the  modern  poets,  in  obedience  to  their  more  ^  subjective^ 
tendencies,  give  theirs  rather  to  the  inner  sentient  nature 
of  the  inhabitant  of  the  shell. 


But  after  taking  this  hurried  glance  from  the  summit 
of  Mount  Parnassus,  we  must  descend  into  the  plains 
of  prose ;  and  having  thus  refreshed  ourselves  with  a 
draught  from  the  Castalian  spring,  we  will  present  the 
Geologists  with  a  distant  retrospect,  which  may  be  more 
interesting  to  most  of  them  than  the  view  we  have  been 
enjoying,  although  some  of  that  learned  body  are  not 
ungifted  with  a  vivid  imagination. 

The  difficult  and  vexed  problem  of  geographical  dis- 
tribution is  so  intimatelv  connected  with  the  science  of 


TABLE  OF  DISTRIBUTION.  315 

Geology,  that  any  reliable  information  with  respect  to 
the  present  range  of  the  European  MoUusca  cannot  fail 
to  assist  in  the  elucidation  of  this  question ;  but  I  would 
again  venture  to  express  an  earnest  hope  that,  until  suffi- 
cient data  have  been  collected,  no  more  theories,  crude 
although  plausible,  may  be  put  forth.  It  may  be  said  that 
they  are  easily  made,  and  that  by  their  discussion  some 
useful  results  are  obtained ;  but  it  must  not  be  forgotten 
that  the  eyes  of  our  scientific  compeers  in  Europe  are 
upon  us,  and  that  our  reputation  for  accuracy,  as  well 
as  our  position  as  naturalists,  may  be  compromised  if 
we  erect  a  fine  superstructure  on  a  foundation  of  sand, 
instead  of  digging  patiently,  but  steadily,  until  we  reach 
the  solid  rock. 

I  propose  to  show,  in  the  following  Table, 

1st,  All  the  species  of  land  and  freshwater  Mollusca 
now  living  in  the  British  Isles,  arranged  in  the  natural 
order  of  their  classification. 

2ndly,  The  extra- British  distribution  of  any  of  these 
species,  north  of  a  line  drawn  in  the  meridian  of  Bordeaux, 
which  may  be  assumed  as  an  arbitrary  point  of  demarca- 
tion between  the  two  extremes  of  climate  in  Europe  ^. 
These  species  may  be  termed  "  northern  "  forms. 

3rdly,  The  like  distribution,  of  any  of  the  species  com- 
prised in  the  first  category,  south  of  the  same  line — being 
therefore  "southern  ^'  forms. 

And  4thly,  The  occurrence  of  any  of  the  above-men- 
tioned species  in  a  subfossil  state,  in  the  upper  tertiary 
strata  of  this  country.  With  respect  to  the  term  "  Upper 
Tertiaries,^^  Mr.  Prestwich  has  kindly  supplied  me  with 
the  following  definition  : — 

"By  our  upper  Tertiaries  I  should  be  disposed  to 

*  Draparnaud,  in  his  "Tableau  des  Mollusques,"  proposed  nearly  the 
same  line  of  division  between  the  North  and  South  of  France,  the  latter 
being  the  olive-district. 

p2 


816 


TABLE  OF  DISTRIBUTION. 


mean  all  the  Pliocene  and  Pleistocene  strata^  i.  e.  all  the 
beds  from  the  Coralline  Crag  inclusive  up  to  the  Alluvial 
and  Peat  deposits.  This  division  is  convenient^  as  the 
tertiary  strata  of  the  Isle  of  Wight  end  with  upper  Eocene, 
or  possibly  lowermost  Miocene^  whilst  in  the  London 
district  there  are  no  traces  of  Miocene,  and  even  the 
upper  Eocene  is  wanting;  the  gap,  therefore,  between 
what  may  be  called  the  Lower  Tertiaries  and  the  Upper 
Tertiaries  in  this  country  is  very  considerable  and  well 
marked.^' 

Table  showing  the  species  of  Land  and  Freshwater  Mol- 
lusca  which  have  been  described  in  the  foregoing  part 
of  this  volume — their  foreign  range — and  the  occur- 
rence of  any  of  them  as  Upper  Tertiary  fossils.  This 
mark  (  — )  signifies  their  occurrence  in  the  district 
indicated  bv  the  column. 


Species. 


Aquatic. 

Bivalves. 

Sphasrium  corneum 

rivicola  

ovale 

lacustre 

Pisidium  amnicum 

fontinale    

pusilliun   

nitidum 

roseuni  

Unio  tumidus  

pictorum  

margaritifer 

Anodonta  cygnea 

anatina 

Dreissena  polymorpha 

15 


o 


14 


c 
o 

CO 


Distribution  in  other  parts  of 
the  worl(L 


14  I    9 


Siberia  (Gerstfeldt). 

Siberia.  Only  one  specimen 
found,  and  that  was  in  the 
nasal  cavity  of  a  fossil  skull 
of  a  Rhinoceros. 

Siberia  and  Kamtschatka. 

Siberia. 

Siberia  and  Lake  Baikal. 


Siberia  and  Lake  Baikal. 


Siberia. 


'  ) 


TABLE  OF  DISTRIBUTION. 


317 


Species. 


a 

o 


Aqua,tic  {continued). 

Univalves. 

Neritina  fluviatilis  

Paludina  contecta    

vivipara    

B jtliinia  tentaculata    .... 

Leacbii 

Hydrobia  similis 

ventrosa    

Valvata  piscinalis    

cristata 

Planorbis  lineatus    

nitidus  

Nautileus 

albus 

glaber    

spirorbis    

vortex    

carinatus  , 

complanatus 

corneus  

contortus  

Physa  hypnorum 

fontinalis  

Limna^a  glutinosa    

involuta     

peregra  

auricularia    

stagnalis    

palustris 

truncatula 

glabra    

Ancylus  fluviatilis    

lacustris  

Number  of  aquatic  spe- 
cies  47 

Terrestrial. 

Arion  ater 

hortensis    

Geomalacus  maculosus  . . 
Limax  gagates  

marginatus   

flavus 


a 

u 


o 


45 


a- 2 


45 


34 


Distribution  in  other  parts  of 
the  world. 


Siberia. 


Siberia.  Var.  depressa,  R.Lena. 
Siberia  and  Kamtschatka. 

Siberia. 
Siberia. 
Siberia  and  Kamtscliatka. 

Siberia. 
Siberia. 
Siberia    and   mouth  of  the 

Eiver  Ussuri. 
Siberia. 

Siberia  and  Steppes  of  Kirgis. 
Siberia. 

Siberia ;  North  America. 
Siberia. 


Siberia;  Afghanistan. 

Siberia. 

Siberia. 

Siberia  and  Kamtschatka. 

Siberia ;  Afghanistan. 

Irkoutsk. 


Siberia. 


318 


TABLE  OF  DISTRIBUTIOX. 


Species. 


Terrestrial  (continued) 
Univalves. 

Limax  agrestis '. 

arborum    

maximas   

Testacella  Haliotidea  

Succinea  putris    

elegans 

oblonga 

Vitrina  pellucida , 

Zonites  cellarius  

alliarius     , 

nitidulus  , 

purus     

radiatiilus 

nitidus  

excavatus  

crystallinus  

fulvus    

Helix  lamellata    

aculeata 

pomatia     

aspersa  

nemoralis 

arbustoriun   , 

Cantiana   

Cartusiana    

nifescens  

concinna   

hispida  

sericea   

revelata , 

f usca 

Pisana  

rirgata  

caperata    

ericetoi'um    

rotundata 

rupestris    

pygmaea     

pulchella  

lapicida 

obvoluta    

Bulimus  acutus    

montanus 

obscurus    

Pupa  secale  


e 
u 

o 


02  &H 


Distribution  in  other  parts  of 
the  world. 


Siberia. 


Siberia;  Afghanistan. 
Afghanistan. 

Siberia. 

N.  America. 


Siberia. 


Siberia;  N.  America. 


N.  America. 


Siberia. 


Siberia. 

Irkoutsk;  Caucasus. 


Siberia. 
Siberia. 


—      Siberia. 


TABLE  OF  DISTRIBUTION. 


319 


Species. 


Terrestrial  (continued). 

Univalves. 

Pupa  ringens   , 

umbilicata     

marginata 

Vertigo  antivertigo  

Moulinsiana 

pygmaea 

alpestris    

substriata 

pusilla  

angustior  

edentula    

ininutissima 

Balia  perversa 

Clausilia  rugosa  

E-olphii 

biplicata    

laminata    

Cochlicopa  tridens  

lubrica  

Achatina  acicula  

Carychium  minimum 

Cyclostoma  elegans 

Acme  lineata    

Number  of  terrestrial 

species 74 

Total  number  of 

species    121 

N.B.  Doubtful  cases  are 
not  reckoned. 


u 
o 


113 


e 

X! 


O 


115 


80 


Distribution  in  other  parts  of 
the  world. 


Siberia. 

Siberia. 

N.  America? 

Siberia. 


Smyrna. 

Asia,  Africa,  and  America. 

Siberia. 

Siberia. 


Besides  the  species  enumerated  in  the  above  list,  four 
more  occur  in  our  upper  tertiary  strata,  but  are  not  now 
found  living  in  this  country.  One  of  them  [Hydrobia 
marginata]  is  aquatic  and  inhabits  the  South  of  Europe. 
The  other  three  (viz.  Helix  fruticum,  H.  incarnata,  and 
H.  ruderata)  are  terrestrial  and  inhabit  both  the  North 
and  South  of  Europe.  H.  fruticu7n  and  H.  ruderata  are 
also  Siberian  species. 

It  will  be  seen  that,  with  only  two  exceptions  (viz. 


320  TABLE  OF  DISTRIBUTION. 

Zonites  alliarius  and  Pupa  rinyens) ,  all  the  species  which 
occur  in  our  upper  tertiaries  are  northern  forms,  and 
that  very  few  are  exclusively  northern  or  southern. 

In  the  body  of  this  work  the  term  "  North  of  Europe" 
has  been  used  in  the  ordinary  sense,  and  not  with  refer- 
ence to  the  somewhat  arbitrary  line  of  demarcation 
proposed  in  the  foregoing  Table.  The  authority  can  be 
given  for  every  locality ;  but  to  have  done  this  would 
have  taken  a  great  deal  of  extra  space  and  unnecessarily 
encumbered  the  work. 


321 


ALPHABETICAL  LIST  OF  AUTHOES  AND  WORKS 

EEFERRED  TO  OR  CONSULTED 

IN  THE  PREPARATION  OF  THIS  VOLUME. 


Adanson,  Michel.  Histoire  Naturelle  du  Senegal.  Coquillages.  Paris, 
1757,  4to,  with  19  plates  and  a  map. 

Albers,  J.  C.  Die  Helieeen  nacli  natiirlicher  Verwandtsehaft  systema- 
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Alder,  Joshua.  A  Catalogue  of  the  Land  and  Freshwater  Testaceous 
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1830,  4to,  pp.  16  (pubHshed  separately). 

Alder,  J.     Supplement  to  the  above  Catalogue,     1833,  4to,  pp.  5. 

Annals  of  Natural  History  from  1838  to  1840 ;  and  Annals  and 
Magazine  of  Natural  History,  1st,  2nd,  and  3rd  Series,  from  1841, 
and  still  in  progress  ;  containing  many  interesting  contributions  on  the 
subject  of  the  British  Land  and  Freshwater  Mollusca  by  IMessrs. 
Gray,  Hanley,  Thompson,  Eyton,  Lonsdale,  W.  Clark,  Hincks.  Rev. 
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Anthony,  J.  Gr.  On  the  Byssus  of  Unio.  In  Ann.  &  Mag.  Nat.  Hist. 
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Baudon,  Auguste.     Catalogue  des  Mollusques  du  Departement  de  I'Oise. 

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separately). 
Baudon,  A.     Essai  monographique  sur  les  Pisidies  Fran9aises.     Paris, 

1857,  8vo,  pp.  55,  with  5  plates  of  beautifully  executed  figm'es. 
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tissimi  Christiani  Frederici.     Hafn.,  1838,  4to. 
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1857-1860,  4to,  quaderni  3  (still  in  course  of  publication), 
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p  5 


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(edited  by  A.  Grould).     Boston,  1851,  8vo. 
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1825,  2  vols.  8vo. 
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la  statistique  et  a  la  geographic  naturelle  de  cette  contree.     Premiere 

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tiles  observes  jusqu'a  ce  jour  a  I'etat  vivant,  dans  le  Departement  du 

Pas-de-Calais     Boulogne,  1837,  8vo,  p.  142-230,  with  a  plate  (in  Mem. 

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aux  environs  de  Paris.     Paris  and  Geneva,  1815,  12mo,  with  10  co- 
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and  Ireland.     London,  1845,  roy.  8vo,  with  plates. 
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Cailliaud,  Frederic.     Des  Clausilies  et  de  lem'  Clausilmm.     In  Journ. 

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de  la  Suisse.     Neuchatel,  1837,  4to,  pp.  28,  with  two  plates. 
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CoxE,  William.     Travels  in  Switzerland.      London,  1789,  3  vols.  8vo. 

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I'Anatomie  des  Mollusques.     Paris,  1817,  4to. 

Draparnaud,  J.  P.  R.     Tableau  des  Mollusques  terrestres  et  fluviatiles 

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viatiles  de  la  Trance.     Montpellier  and  Paris,  1805,  4to,  with  13  plates. 
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vivants  de  la  France  Continentale.     Paris,  1854,  8vo. 
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leurs  Coquilles  vivantes  et  fossiles  du  Departement  du  Gers.    Auch  and 

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Mollusques  terrestres  et  fluviatiles,  tant  des  especes  que  Ton  trouve 

aujourd'hui  vivantes,  que  des  depouilles  fossiles  de  celles  qui  n'existent 

plus ;  classes  d'apres  les  caracteres  essentiels  que  presentent  c^s  animaux 

et  leurs  coquilles.   CEuvre  posthume.    Paris,  1819, 2  vols,  folio,  followed 

by  Tables  and  a  Prodromus,  and  168  plates. 
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Forbes  and  Hanley.     A  History  of  British  Mollusca  and  their  Shells. 

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Gaspard,  B.     Memoire  physiologique  sur  le  Colimagon  {Helix  pomatia). 

In  Majendie,  Journ.  Physiol,  ii.  p.  295  (and  an  abstract  of  the  above, 

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324  LIST  OF  AUTHORS  AND  WORKS  QUOTED. 

Gmelin,  J.  F.    Caroli  a  Liune  Systema  Naturce.    Leipzig,  1788,  10  vols. 

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statistique  des  MoUusques  terrestres  et  fluviatiles  viyants  du  Departe- 
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Gray,  J.  E.     Remarks  on  the  Difficulty  of  distinguishing  certain  Genera 

of  Testaceous  Mollusca  by  their  Shells  alone,  and  on  the  anomalies  in 

regard  to  habitation  of  certain  species.     In  Philosophical  Transactions, 

cxxv.  1835,  p.  301. 
Gray,  J.  E.     A  Manual  of  the  Land  and  Freshwater  Shells  of  the  British 

Islands  (by  William  Tui'ton,  M.D.).    New  edition.    London,  1840,  8vo, 

with  12  plates. 
Gray,  J.  E.    Description  of  a  new  species  of  Spharium  found  near  London 

(in  Ann.  &  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  June  1856,  p.  465) ;  and  on  a  second  new 

species  of  SphcBrhim  from  the  Paddington  Canal  (in  Ann.  &  Mag. 

Nat.  Hist.,  July  1856,  p.  25). 
GuETTARD.     Observations  qui  peuvent  servir  a  former  quelques  caracteres 

de  Coquillages.     In  Mem.  Acad.  Sc.  Paris,  1756,  p.  145. 

Hartmann,  J.  D.  W.  VON.  System  der  Erd-  und  Fluss-Mollusken  der 
ScliAveitz  und  des  benachbarten  Landes.  In  Steinmiiller,  Neue  Alpina, 
Wintherthur,  vii.  Band  i.  1821.  8vo,  p.  194.  Also  in  Sturm,  Deutsch- 
lands  Fauna,  vi.  5  Heft.     Niirnberg,  1821,  18mo,  pp.60,  with  3 plates. 

Held.  F.  Aufzahlung  der  in  Bayern  lebenden  Mollusken.  In  Isis,  1836, 
p.  271 ;  and  1837,  p.  304. 

Herrmannsen.  a.  N.  Indicis  generum  Malacozoorum  primordia,  no- 
mina  subgenerum,  generum,  familiarum,  tribuum,  ordinum,  classium  ; 
adjectis  auctoribus,  temporibus,  locis,  systematicis  atque  litterariis, 
etymis,  synonymis.  Cassel,  2  vols.  8vo,  1846-9 ;  and  Supplement  and 
Corrigenda,  1852. 

Hoy,  Thomas.  Account  of  a  Spinning  Limux  or  Slug.  In  Linn.  Trans, 
i.  1790,  p.  183. 

Hutton,  Thomas.  On  the  Land-shells  of  India.  In  Journ.  Asiat.  Soc. 
Beng.  iii.  1834,  p.  81,  520. 

Jeffreys,  John  Gwyn.     A  Synopsis  of  the  Testaceous  Pneumonobran- 

chous  Mollusca  of  Great  Britain.     In  Linn.  Trans,  xvi.  1830,  p.  323 ; 

and  Supplement  to  same,  p.  505. 
Jeffreys,  J.  G.     Notes  on  Swiss  Mollusca.     In  Ann.  &  Mag.  Nat.  Hist., 

January  1855,  pp.  16. 
Jeffreys,  J.  G.     Shropsliire  Mollusca.     In  Ann.  &Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  Oct. 

1855,  p.  464. 


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Jeffreys,  J.  G.     Contributions  to  the  Conchology  of  France.     In  Ann. 

&  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  Dec.  1856,  p.  471. 
Jeffreys,  J,  G-.      Grleanings  in  British  Conchology.      In  Ann.  &  Mag. 

Nat.  Hist.,  January  1858,  p.  39  ;  August  1858,  p.  117 ;  February  1859, 

p.  186  ;  September  1859,  p.  189. 
Jeffreys,  J.  Gr.     On  the  MoUusca  of  the  Upper  Harz.     In  Ann.  &  Mag. 

Nat.  Hist.,  Nov.  1860,  p.  348. 
Jenyns,  Leonard,  Rev.     A  Monograph  on  the  British  species  of  Cyclas 

and  Pisidium.     In  Cambr.  Phil.  Trans.  1833,  4to,  with  3  plates. 
Jenyns,  L.     Note  on  the  smaller  British  species  of  Pisidium.     In  Ann. 

&  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  August  1858,  p.  104. 
Johnston,  George.     A  List  of  the  Pulmoniferous  Mollusca  of  Berwick- 
shire and  North  Durham.      In  Trans.  Berw.  Nat.  Hist.  Soc.  1838, 

p.  154. 
Journal  de  Conchyliologie.     Paris,  tomes  i.-viii.  1850-60 ;  and  3^  ser. 

t.  i.  1861  (still  in  progress). 

KiCKX,  J.     Specimen  inaugurale  exhibens  Synopsin  MoUuscorum  Bra- 

bantise  australi  indigenorum.     Lovanii,  1830,  4to,  pp.  97,  with  a  plate. 
Kleiv,  J.  T.     Tentamen  Methodi  Ostracologica,  sive  dispositio  naturalis 

Coclilidum  et  Concliarum  in  suas  classes,  genera  et  species.     Lugduni 

Batavorum,  1753,  4to,  with  12  plates. 
Krynicki,  J.     Conchylia  tarn  terrestria  quam  fluviatilia,  et  e  maribus 

adjacentibus  imperii  Rossici  indigena.     In  Bull.  Soc.  Nat.  Mosc.  1st 

ser.  X.  i.  18.37,  p.  50. 
KiisTER,  H.  C.      Grosses  Conchy  lien  werk  von  Martini  und  Chemnitz. 

New  edition,  by  Philippi,  L.  Pfeiffer,  and  Danker,  under  the  direction 

of  H.  C.  Kiister.     Niirnberg,  1837-55,  Parts  1  to  148, 4to,  with  plates. 

Lamarck,  J.  B.  M.      Histoire  Naturelle  des  Animaux  sans  Vertebres. 

New  edition.     Paris,  1835-45,  11  vols.  8vo. 
Leach,  William  Elford.     A  Synopsis  of  the  Mollusca  of  Great  Britain. 

London,  1852,  8vo,  with  13  plates. 
LiGHTFOOT,  J.     An  Accoujit  of  some  minute  British  Shells,  either  not 

duly  observed,  or  totally  unnoticed  bv  authors.     In  Pliil.  Trans.  Ixxvi. 

1786,  p.  160,  pi.  i.-iii. 
LiNNE,  Carolus  a.     Fauna  Suecica,  sistens  animalia  Sueciiii  regni.    Hol- 

mia?,  1746,  8vo.     Another  edition,  1761. 
LiNNE,  C.  A.     Systema  Nature,  ^^er  regna  tria  naturae,  secundum  classes, 

ordines,  genera,   species,  cum   characteribus,  diiferentiis,  synonymis, 

locis.     Editio  decima.      Holmiit',  1758,  2  vols.  8vo.      Editio  duode- 

cima,  Holmit^,  1766  to  1767,  3  vols.  8vo. 
Lister,  Martin.     Historiaj  Animalium  Anglice  tres  tractatus.     London, 

1678,  4to,  with  plates. 
Lister,  M.     Observations  concerning  the  odd  turn  of  some  Shell -snails. 

In  Phil.  Trans,  iv.  p.  10, 
Lowe,  E.  J.     On  the  Growth  of  Land-sheUs.     In  Proc.  R.  S.  vii.  1854, 

p.8. 
Lowe,  R.  T.,  Rev.     Primitive  Florae  et  Faunae   insularum  Maderee   et 

Porto-Sancto.     In  Cambr.  Pliil.  Trans,  iv.  1833,  4to,  with  two  plates. 

(Lately  republished  in  a  separate  form,  8vo.) 

Macgillivray,  William.     A  History  of  the  Molluscous  Animals  of  the 
Counties  of  Aberdeen,  Kincardine,  and  Banff.     London,  1843,  8vo. 


326      LIST  OF  AUTHORS  AND  WORKS  QUOTED. 

Magasin  de  Zoologie.     Edited  by  Guerin-MeueviUe.     Paris,  1831-45, 

15  vols.  8vo,  with  plates. 

Malakozoologische  Blatter  (a  continuation  of  the  Zeitschrift  fiir  Mala- 

kozoologie),  edited  by  Menke  and  L.  Pfeiifer.      Cassel,  1854-61,  and 

still  in  progress,  8vo. 
Malm,  A.  "W".     Zoologiska  Observationer.     Gotheborg,  1851-5,  3  haftet, 

8vo,  with  plates. 
Maton  and  Kackett.     A  Descriptive  Catalogue  of  the  British  Testacea. 

In  Linn.  Trans.  1807,  viii.  p.  17-250,  4to,  with  6  plates. 
Menke,  K.  T.      Zeitschrift  fur  Malakozoologie,  and  Malakozoologische 

Blatter.     Cassel,  1846-62,  8vo. 
MiCHAUD,  A.  L.  G.     Complement  de  I'Histoire  Naturelle  des  Mollusques 

ten'estres  et  fluviatiles  de  la  France,  par  Draparnaud.     Verdun,  1831, 

4to,  with  3  plates. 
MiDDENDORFF,  A.  T.  VON.      Gruudriss   fiir  Gescliichte   der  Malakozoo- 

graphie  Russlands.     In  Bull.  Soc.  Nat.  Mosc.  1  ser.  xxi.  i.  1848,  p.  424. 
Miller,  J.  S.     A  List  of  Freshwater  and  Land  Shells  occurring  in  the 

environs  of  Bristol,  with  observations.   In  Ann.  Phil.  2nd  ser.  vii.  1822, 

p.  376. 
Montagu,  George.     Testacea  Britannica,  or  Natural  History  of  British 

Shells,  marine,  land,  and  freshwater.     London,  1803,  2  vols.  4to.  with 

16  plates  and  2  vignettes.     Supplement  to  the  above,  with  additional 
plates.     London,  1808,  4to. 

Montfort,  Denys  de.  Conchyliologie  Syst^matique  et  Classification  Me- 
thodique  des  Coquilles.     Paris,  1808-10,  2  vols.  8vo. 

Moquin-Tandon,  Alfred.  Histoire  Naturelle  des  Mollusques  terrestres 
et  fluviatiles  de  France.  Paris,  1855,  2  vols,  large  8vo,  with  an  Atlas 
of  54  plates. 

Morelet,  Arthur.  Description  des  Mollusques  terrestres  et  fluviatiles 
du  Portugal.     Paris,  1845,  large  8vo,  with  14  plates. 

Morelet,  A.  Catalogue  des  Mollusques  terrestres  et  fluviatiles  de  I'Al- 
gerie.     In  Journ.  Conch,  iv.  1853,  p.  280. 

Morton,  J.,  Rev.  Natural  History  of  Northamptonshire.  London, 
1712,  folio. 

MosELEY,  M.  H.  On  the  Geometrical  Forms  of  Turbinated  and  Discoid 
Shells.     In  Phil.  Trans.  1838,  p.  351,  with  a  plate. 

MouLiNS,  Charles  des.  Catalogue  des  especes  et  varietes  des  Mol- 
lusques Testaces  terrestres  et  fluviatiles  observes  jusqu'a  ce  jour,  a 
I'etat  vivant,  dans  le  Departement  de  la  Gironde.  In  Bull.  Soc.  Linn. 
Bord.  ii.  1827,  p.  39,  pi.  ii.,  and  Supplement,  1829,  t.iii.  p.  211. 

MouLiNS,  C.  DES.  Mollusques  terrestres  et  fluviatiles  a  ajouter  au  Cata- 
logue de  la  Gironde.     In  Ann.  Soc.  Linn.  Bord.  xvii.  1851,  p.  421. 

MoussoN,  Albert.  Coquilles  terrestres  et  fluviatiles  recueillies  dans 
rOrient  par  M.  le  Dr.  A.  Schlaefli.     Zurich,  1859,  8vo,  pp.  71. 

MoussoN,  A.  Coquilles  terrestres  et  fluviatiles  recueillies  par  M.  le  Prof. 
J.  H.  Roth  dans  son  dernier  voyage  en  Palestine.  Zurich,  1861, 8vo,  pp.  68. 

Muller,  August.  Leber  einige  vaterlandische  Landschnecken.  In  Wieg- 
mann's  Ai-chiv,  vii.  1838,  p.  209,  pi.  iv.  f.  4-6. 

Muller,  Otho  Frederick.  Vermium  terrestrium  et  fluviatilium  Histo- 
ria.  Ilafnias  et  Lipsia;,  1774,  2  vols.  4to.  (Only  the  second  volume 
treats  of  the  MoUusca.) 

NiLSSON,  SuENO.  Historia  Mollusc-orum  Suecia?  terrestrium  et  fluvia- 
tilium.    Lundai,  1822,  8vo. 


LIST  OF  AUTHORS  AND  WORKS  QUOTED.  327 

Norman,  Alfred  Merle,  Eev.  The  Inland  Mollusca  of  Somersetshire. 
In  Proc.  Somersets.  Archseol.  &  Nat.  Hist.  Soc.  x.  1860.  Taunton,  1861, 
8vo,  pp.  23. 

Norm  AND,  N.  A.  J.  Coup  d'oeil  sur  les  Mollusques  de  la  famille  des 
Cyclades,  observes  jusqu'a  ce  jour  dans  le  Departement  du  Nord.  Va- 
lenciennes, 1854,  8vo. 

NuNNELEY,  Thomas.  A  Description  of  the  Internal  Structure  of  various 
Limaces  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Leeds.  In  Trans.  Phil.  &  Lit. 
Soc.  Leeds,  i.  1837,  p.  41. 

Payraudeau,  B.  C.     Catalogue  descriptif  et  methodique  des  Annelides  et 

des  Mollusques  de  I'ile  de  Corse.     Paris,  1826,  8vo,  with  plates. 
Pennant,  Thojias.     British  Zoology.     London,  4th  edit.,  1766-7,  4  vols. 

8vo,  with  plates. 
Petiver,  Jacobus.     Gazophylacii  Natural  et  Artis  decades  decern.     Lon- 
don, 1702-10,  folio. 
Pfeiffer,  Karl.     Naturgeschichte  Deutscher   Land-   und   Siisswasser 

Mollusken,     Cassel  and  Weimar,  1821-8,  3  vols.  4to,  with  plates. 
Pfeiffer,  Ludwig.    Monographia  Heliceorum  viventium.  Leipsig,  1847- 

1853,  3  vols.  8vo ;   and  Monographia  Piieumonopomoruiti  viventium. 

Cassel,  1852,  8vo. 
PiiiLippi,   Rodolph   Armand.     Enumeratio   Molluscoi'um  Sicilian,  turn 

viventium,  turn  tellure  tertiaria  fossihum.     Berolini,  1836,  4to,  with 

12  plates.     And  second  volume,  Hallis,  1844,  4to,  with  16  plates. 
Philippsson,  Laurentius  MiiNTER.     Dissertatio  historico-naturalis  sistens 

nova  Testaceorum  genera.     Lundse,  1788,  8vo,  pp.  23. 
PiCARD,  Casimir.     Histoire  des  Mollusques  terrestres  et  fluviatiles  qui 

vivent  dans  le  Departement  de  la  Somme.     In  Bull.  Soc.  Linn.  Nord. 

Abbeville,  i.  1840,  8vo,  p.  150. 
Plott,  Robert.     Natural  History  of  Staifordshire.     Oxford,  1668,  folio. 
Plott,  R.     Natm^al  History  of  Oxfordshire.     Oxford,  1676. 
PoiRET,  J.  L.  M.      Coquilles  fluviatiles  et  terrestres  observees  dans  le 

Departement  de  I'Aisne  et  aux  environs  de  Paris.     Pi'odrome.     Paris 

et  Soissons,  an  ix.  (1801),  12mo,  pp.  119. 
PoRRO,  Carlo.     Malacologia  terrestre  e  fluviale  della  provincia  Comasca. 

Milano,  1838,  8vo,  with  2  plates. 
PoTiEz  et  MiCHAUD.     Galeric  des  Mollusques,  ou  Catalogue  methodique, 

descriptif  et  raisonne  des  IVfollusques  et   Coquilles  du  Museum  de 

Douai.     Paris,  1838-44,  2  vols,  large  8vo,  with  70  plates. 
Prentice,  Charles.     On  the   occm'rence   of   Clausilia  Mortilleti  near 

Cheltenham.     In  Ann.  &  Mag.  Nat.  Hist,  May  1856,  p.  446. 
Prime,  Temple.     List  of  the   known  species   of  Pisidium,  with   their 

Synonymy.     Boston,  1859,  8vo,  pp.  10. 
PuLTENEY,  Richard.     Catalogues  of  the  Birds,  Shells,  and  some  of  the 

most  rare  Plants   of  Dorsetshire,  from   the  new  additions  of  Mr. 

Hutchins.     London,  1799,  foUo,  with  plates. 
PuTON,  E.     Essai  sur  les  Mollusques  terrestres  et  fluviatiles  des  Vosges. 

In  Stat,  depart,  des  Vosges.     Epinal,  1847  (published  separately). 

QuATREFAGEs,  Armand  DE.  Embryogenic  des  Unio.  In  Comptes-rendus 
Inst.  xxix.  1849,  p.  82.  . 

Rang,  Sander.  Manuel  de  I'Histoire  Naturelle  des  Mollusques  et  de  leurs 
Coquilles,  ayant  pour  base  de  classification  celle  de  M.  le  Baron  Cuvier. 
Paris,  1829,  18mo,  with  6  plates. 


328  LIST  OF  AUTHORS  AND  WORKS  QUOTED. 

Reaumur,  E..  A.  F.  de.     Des  differentes  manieres  dout  plusieurs  especes 

d'animavix  de  mer  s' attach ent  au  sable,  aiix  pierres,  et  les  uns  aux  autrea. 

In  Mem.  Acad.  Sc.  Paris,  1711,  p.  lOO,  pi.  ii.  iii. 
Recluz,  C.  a.     Notice  sur  le  genre  Nerita,  et  siir  le  sous-genre  Neritina, 

avec  le  Catalogue  Svnonymique  des  Neritines,     In  Journ.  Conch,  i. 

1850.  pp.  131,  277.  " 
Requien,  E.     Catalogue  des  Coquilles  de  I'lle  de  Corse.    Avignon,  1848, 

8vo,  pp.  109. 
Revue  et  Magasin  de  Zoologie.     Edited  by  Guerin-Meneville.     Paris, 

1849,  and  still  in  progress,  8vo. 
Risso,  A.     Histoire  Naturelle  des  principales  productions  de  I'Europe 

raeridionale,  et  particulierement  de  ceUes  des  environs  de  Nice  et  des 

Alpes  maritimes.     Paris,  1826,  5  vols.  8vo,  with  plates  and  a  map. 

(The  4th  volume  contains  the  Mollusca.) 

Rossmassler.  E.  a.     Iconographie  der  Land-  und  Siisswasser  Mollusken 

mit  vorziiglicher  Beriicksichtigung  der  europaischen  noch  nicht  abge- 

bildeten  Arten.     Dresden  and  Leipzig,  1835-54. 
RoTii,  J.  R.    Molluscorum  species  quas  itinere  per  Orientem  facto,  Comites 

clariss.  Schuberti,  doctores  Erdl  et  Roth  coUegerunt,  recensuit  J.  R. 

Roth.      Dissertatio  inaugiu-alis.      Monachii,  1839,  4to,  pp.  27,  with 

2  plates. 

Saint-Simox,  Alfred  de.      Miscellanees  Malacologiques.     Premiere  de- 
cade.    Toulouse,  1848,  8vo,  pp.  4. 
Saulcy,  F.  de.     Listes  des  Mollusques  terrestres  et  fluviatiles  trouves  dans 

la  vallee  de  Bareges  (Hautes-Pjrenees).     In  Journ.  Conch,  iv.  1853, 

p.  266. 
ScACCHi,  Arcangelo.     Catalogus  Conchyliorum  regni  Neapolitani  quie 

usque  adhuc  reperit.     Neapoli,  183G,  8vo,  pp.  18. 
Schmidt,  Adolf.     Die  kritischen  G-ruppen  der  europaischen  Clauulien. 

Leipzig,  1857,  large  8vo,  with  11  plates. 
ScHOLTZ.  Heixrich.     Schlesicn's  Land- uud  Wasser-MoUuskcn.    Breslau, 

1843,  8vo  ;  and  Supplement,  1853. 
ScHROTER,  J.  S.   Die  Gescliichte  der  Flussconchylien  welche  in  den  Thiirin- 

gischenAVassern  leben.     Halle,  1779,  4to,  with  11  plates. 
Schumacher,  C.  F.     Essai  d'mi  nouveau  systeme  des  habitations  des  Vers 

testaces.     Copenhagen,  1817,  4to,  with  22  plates. 
ScoPOLi,  J.  A.     Introductio  ad  Historiam  Naturalem,  sistens  genera  Lapi- 

dum,  Plantarum  et  Animalium  hactenus  detecta,  caracteribus  essentia- 

libus  donata,  in  tribus  divisa,  subinde  ad  leges  naturae.     Praga,  1777, 

8vo. 
Sheppard,  Revett,  Rev.     Descriptions  of  seven  new  British  Land  and 

Freshwater  Shells,  with  observations  upon  many  other  Species,  in- 
cluding a  List  of  such  as  have  been  found  in  the  County  of  Suffolk.     In 

Linn.  Trans,  xiv.  1825,  p.  148. 
Shuttlevvorth,  R.  J.     Diagnosen  neuer  Mollusken.    In  Mittheil.  Naturf. 

Gesellsch.  Berne,  1852,  8vo,  pp.  12. 
Siebold,  K.  T.  von.     Observations  sur  I'organe  auditif  des  Mollusques. 

In  Midi.  Arch.  1841,  p.  148 ;  and  in  Ann.  Sc.  Nat.  2^  s^r.  xix.  1843, 

p.  193,  pi.  ii.  B. 
Stabile,  Giuseppe  (Abbate).     Delle  Conchiglie  terrestri  e  fluviali  del 

Luganese.     Lugano,  1845,  8vo,  with  3  plates. 
Stabile.  G.     Prospetto  Sistematico-statistico  dei  Molluschi  terrestri  e 

lluviali  viventi  nel  territorio  di  Lugano.     Milano,  1859, 8vo,  pp.  67. 


LIST  OF  AUTHORS  AND  WORKS  QUOTED.      329 

Studer.  Faunula  Helvetica.  Vermes  testacea.  In  Coxe's  Travels  in 
Switzerland.     London,  1789,  3  vols.  8vo. 

SwAiNSON,  William.  A  Treatise  on  Malacology,  or  the  Natural  Classifi- 
cation of  Shell-fish.     London,  1840,  8vo. 

Terver.     Catalogue  des  MoUusques  terrestres  et  fluviatiles  observes  dans 

les  possessions  Fran9aise3  au  nord  de  I'Afrique.     Paris  et  Lyon,  1839, 

8vo,  with  4  plates. 
Thoma,  C,  Dr.     Verzeichniss  der  im  Herzogthum  Nassau,  insbesondere 

in  der  Umgegend  von  Wiesbaden  lebenden  Weichthiere.     Wiesbaden, 

1849,  8vo. 
Thompson,  William.     Description  of  Limneus  involutus,  Harvey,  with 

an  account  of  the  Anatomy  of  the  animal  by  John  Goodsir.     In  Ann. 

k  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.  v.  1840,  p.  21,  with  a  plate. 
Trosciiel,  F.  H.     Ueber  die  Gattung  Amphipeplea,  Nilss.     In  Wiegm. 

Arch.  ii.  1836,  p.  257,  pi.  ix.  x. 
TuRTOJsr,  William.     A  Conchological  Dictionary  of  the  British  Islands. 

London,  1819,  12mo,  with  28  plates. 
TuRTON,  W.     Conchylia  Insularum  Britannicarum.     Exeter,  1822,  4to, 

with  20  plates. 
TuRTON,  W.     Description  of  new  British  Shells.     In  Zool.  Journ.  ii.  1825, 

p.  361,  pi.  xiii. 
TuRTON,  W.     Conchological  Notices.     In  Zool.  Journ.  ii.  1826,  p.  564. 
TuRTON,  W.     A  Manual  of  the  Land  and  Freshwater  Shells  of  the  British 

Islands.     London,  1831,  small  8vo,  with  10  plates. 

Villa,  A.  &  G.  B.  Catalogo  dei  Molluschi  della  Lombardia.  In  Notiz. 
nat.  e  civ.  Lomb.  i.  1844.  Milano,  8vo,  published  separately,  pp.  10. 
And  Supplement,  1853. 

Walker,  George.     Testacea  minuta  rariora,  nuperrime  detecta  in  arena 

Kttoris  Sandvicensis ;  a  Gul.  Boys.    London  (1784),  8vo,  with  3  plates. 
WiiiTEAVES,  J.  F.     On  the  Land  and  Freshwater  Mollusca  inhabiting 

the  neighbourhood  of  Oxford.     Oxford,  1857,  8vo,  pp.  20. 
WiEGMANN,  A.  F.  A.     Archiv  flir  Natm'geschichte.     Berlin,  1835-44. 
Wood,  Searles  V.     A  Monograph  of  the  Crag  Mollusca  (Palaeontogra- 

pliical  Society's  publications).     London,  1848-56,  2  vols.  4to,  with 

plates. 

Zeitschrift  fur  Malakozoologie,  by  Menke  and  afterwards  in  con- 
junction with  L.  Pfeiifer.  Hanover  and  Cassel,  1844-53,  8vo,  with 
plates. 

Zoological  Journal,  The.     London,  1824-35,  8vo,  with  plates. 

Zoologist,  The.  London,  1843  to  the  present  time,  and  still  in  course 
of  publication ;  containing  many  interesting  contributions  on  the  subject 
of  the  British  Land  and  Freshwater  Mollusca  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Gordon, 
Rev.  A.  M.  Norman,  Messrs.  Stretch,  Smith,  Ashford,  Tapping,  King, 
Taylor,  Bridgman,  Templer,  E.  J.  Lowe,  Hawker,  Choules,  Captain 
Hutton,  and  others. 


V 


<*. 


V"^/ 


<' 


.«»«l 


INDEX  TO  VOL.  I. 


Jt:  .> 


V        „* 


n 


^S 


The  synonyms,  as  well  as  the  names  of  spurious  species,  and  of  species, 
genera,  and  other  groups  wliich  are  not  described  in  this  volume,  are  in 
italics. — The  figures  in  smaller  type  refer  to  the  page  in  wliich  the  descrip- 
tion of  species,  genera,  and  higher  groups  will  be  found. 


AcHATiNA,  Lam.,  149, 150,  287,  288, 
289,  295,  296,  297,  302. 

acicula,  MlilL,  296,  297,  298,  307. 

dentiens,  Rossm.,  289. 
Acicula,  Risso,  295,  307. 
Acicula,  Hartm.,  307. 
Acmaa,  Esch.,  307. 
Acme,  Hartm.,  307. 

fiisca,  Beck,  309. 

iineata,  Drap.,  308. 

minuta,  Brown,  309. 
Alasmodon,  31. 
Alaa,  Jeffr.,  265. 

remhita,  Jeffr.,  269. 

stibstriata,  Jeffr.,  261. 
AlasTuodonta 

margaritifera,  F.  &  H.,  37. 
Ammonite,  78. 
Am2)hipcplea,  101,  104. 
Amplexus,  174. 
Ancylus,  G-eoffr.,  71,  118. 

Capuloides,  Jan,  120. 

deperditus,  Ziegl.  (&  Dup.),  121. 

fluviatilis,  Miill.,   119,    120,   121, 
122,  123. 

gihhosus,  Bourg.,  120. 

lacustris,  Linn.,  120,  122. 

ohlongus,  F.  &  H.,  122,  123. 

spina-rosce,  Drap.,  123. 
Anodonta,  Lam.,  39. 

anatina,  Linn.,  43. 

Cellemis,  C.  Pfeiff.,  43. 

complanata,  Ziegl.,  44. 

cygnea,  Linn.,  41. 

cygnea  (part.),  F.  &  H.,  43. 

ponderosa,  C.  Pfeiff.,  43. 

rostrata,  Kok.,  42. 

ventricosa,  C.  Pfeiff.,  44. 
Aplcxa,  Flem.,  98. 
Ajjlysia,  78. 


Aquatic,  i. 

Arion,  Fer.,  126,  130. 

ater,  Linn.,  127,  128,  139. 

Empiriconi.m,  Fer.,  127. 

fasciatus,  Nilss.,  128. 

flaims,  Fer.,  127. 

hortensis,  Fer.,  128. 
Assimi7iia 

Grayana,  65. 
Aurictda,  Klein,  5. 
Auricula,  Lam.,  299. 
Auriculacea,  Lam.,  299. 
Azeca,  Leach,  289. 

Notdetia7ia,  Drap..  291. 

tridens,  F.  &  H.,  290. 

Balcea,  Leach,  272.  273. 
Balm,  Prideaux,  271.  273. 

fragilis.  F.  &  H.,  273. 

Sarsii,  Phil,  275. 
Balia,  Prid.,  149, 150,  271,  272. 

perversa,  Linn.,  273. 
Bithinia,  Gray,  59. 

humilis,  Boub.,  63. 

Leachii,  61. 

tentaculafa,  60. 

ventricosa.  Gray,  62. 
BIVALVES,  I. 
Buccinum,  297. 

acicula,  Miill.,  289,  297. 

glahrum,  Miill.,  117. 

glutinosum,  Miill.,  102. 

palustre,  Miill. ,  113. 

peregrum,  Miill.,  104. 

terrestre,  Mont.,  299. 

truncatulum,  Miill.,  115. 
Bulimi,  174,  232. 

BuLiMus,  Scopoli,  114, 149,  150,231, 
232,241,253,276,289,291. 

acutus,  Miill.,  232,  233. 


332 


IXDEX. 


BuLiMUS  (contimted). 

anatinus,  Poir.,  66. 

articulatus,  Lam.,  235. 

articulatus,  Turt.,  225. 

auris-MidcB,  299. 

clavulus,  Turt.,  240. 

decollatus,  61,  240. 

fihrafus,  299. 

glans,  Brug.,  287. 

Guadalo2(]p€nsis,  Brug.,  239. 

Lackhamensis,  F  &H.,  235. 

leiccostoma,  Poir.,  118. 

lineatus,  Drap.,  308. 

Menkeanus,  292. 

montanus,  Drap.,  235,  239. 

obscurus,  MiilL,  236,  237,239, 243. 

octonus,  Brug.,  289. 

quadridens,  289. 

tridens,  289,  292. 

tuberculafus,  Turt.,  239. 

ventricosus,  Drap.,  232,  234. 
Bidin,  Adans.,  5,231. 
Bulla 

fluviatilis,  Turt.,  99. 

fontinalis,  Linn.,  98. 

hypnorum,  Linn.,  96,  97. 

Hvalis,  Mat.  &  Rack.,  100. 
Bi/tkmella,  Moq.-Tand.,  63. 
Bythinia,  59,  304. 

Leachii,  Shepp.,  61. 

tentaculata,  Linn.,  60. 

CcBcilianella,  Bourg.,  295,  296. 

Anglica,  Bourg.,  295. 

Liesvillei,  Bourg.,  296. 
C(Bcilio'ides,  Beck,  295,  296. 
Cardium 

Casertanum,  Poli,  24. 
Carocolla,  174. 
Carychiid.e,  124,  299,  300. 
Carychium,  MiilL,  299,  300. 

minimum,  MiilL,  269,  300,  302. 
Chilotrema,  174. 
Cionella,  Jeffr.,  288,  289. 
Clausilia,  Drap.,  149,  150,  272,  275, 
276,277,287,289,291,292. 

hidens,  Drap.,  286. 

biplicata,  Mont.,  283,  285,  286. 

derugata,  Fer.,  286. 

duhia,  Drap.,  279,  282. 

Everetti,  Mill.,  279. 

labiata,  286. 

laminata,  Mont.,  284,  286. 

lineolata,  Held,  284. 


Clausilia  {continued). 

Mortilleti,  Dum.,  282. 

nigricans,  Mat.  &  Rack.,  278. 

obtusa,  C.  Pfeiif.,  280. 

papillaris,  Drap.,  287. 

parvula,  Stud..  280. 

plicatula,  Drap.,  281,  282,  310. 

Rolphii,  Gray,  236,  281,  282,  283, 
284,  310. 

rugosa,  Drap.,  275,  278,  281,  282. 

rugulosa.  ZiegL,  279. 

siniilis,  Charp.,  284. 

solida,  Drap.,  286,  287. 

ventricosa,  Drap.,  284. 

vivipara,  Held,  284. 
ClausilicB,  276,  278. 
CocHLicoPA,  Risso,  149,  150,  287, 
288,  289,  297,  302. 

lubrica,  MiiU.,  289,  292,  294,  295, 
297. 

tridens,  Pult.,  289,  290,  294. 
CONCHIFERA,  i. 
Conovulus,  Lam.,  55,  76,  299,  302. 
Corbicula,  3. 
Crepidula,  45. 
Cyclas,  Drap. 

caliculata,  Drap.,  10. 

cornea,  F.  &  H.,  5. 

flavescens,  Macg.,  6. 

fontinalis,  Drap.,  20. 

fontinalis,  Nilss.,  25. 

lenticularis,  Norm.,  22. 

nucleus,  Stud.,  6. 

ovalis,  Fer.,  8. 

rhomboidea.  Say,  10. 

rivalis,  Dup.,  6. 

rivalis,  Drap.,  7. 

rivicola.  Leach,  7. 

Eyckholtii,  Norm.,  11. 

Scaldiana,  Norm.,  6. 

solida.  Norm.,  3. 
Cyclostoma,  303,  304. 

acutum,  Drap.,  68. 

anatinum,  Drap.,  59,  63,  310. 

contectuni,  Millet,  56. 

elegans,  Mull.,  304,  306,  307. 

ferrugineum.  Lam.,  307. 

impurum,  Drap.,  61. 

marmorea.  Brown,  307. 

simile,  Drap.,  62,  64,  310. 

sulcatum,  303. 

vitreum,  Drap.,  68. 
Cyclostomatid.e,  302. 
Cyclostoine,  Lam.,  304. 


INDEX. 


333 


Cyrena,  3. 

fluminalis,  3. 
Cyrenastrum,  Bourg,,  3. 

Delphimila,  Lam.,  304. 
Dreissena,  Van  Bened.,  46. 

polyniorpha,  Pall.,  47. 
Dreissenid.e,  45. 

Elisma,  Leach,  232. 
Eulima 
steoiostoma,  296. 

GASTEEOPODA,  51,  304. 

Geomalacus,  Allm.,  129. 

maculosus,  Allm.,  129. 
Glandina,  Schum.,  287,  297. 
Gulnaria 

lacustris,  Leach,  105. 

Helices,  173,  174,  218,  232. 

Helicid.e,  124,  149. 

Helix,   Linn.,   149,   150,   158,   172, 

174,  232,  243,  246,  253,  269, 

288,  289. 
aculeata,  Miill.,  176. 
ancfa,  MiilL,  233. 
alhella,  Linn.,  229. 
albella,  Flem.,  229. 
aUiaria,  Mill.,  161. 
Altenana,  Kicks,  195. 
ajjerta,  Born,  184,  185. 
arbustonmi,  Linn.,  186,  188,  190. 
aspersa,  MiilL,  178,  181,  182,  184, 

185. 
auricularia,  Linn.,  108. 
bidens,  Chemn.,  172. 
bidens,  Mull.,  286. 
bidens,  Linn.,  287. 
Bulimoides,  Moq.-Tand.,  232, 
ccplata,  Stud.,  196. 
candidula.  Stud.,  211. 
Cantiana,   Mont.,   190,  193,  194, 

209. 
caperata,  Mont.,  213,  215. 
Carthusiana,  Drap.,  191. 
Carthusiana,  F.  &  H.,  192. 
CarthusianeJJa,  Drap.,  194. 
Cartusiana.  Miill.,  191,  192,  231. 
cellaria,  Midi.,  159. 
cespitum,  Drap.,  218. 
chersina,  Say,  171. 
cingenda,  Mont.  209. 


Helix  {continued), 
circinnata.  Stud.,  196. 
clandestina,  Hartm.,  196. 
clarci.  Held,  169. 
cochlea,  Brown,  92. 
complanata,  Linn.,  91,  92. 
concinna,  JefTr.,  196,  198. 
conica,  Drap..  232. 
conspurcata,  Drap.,  215. 
contorta,  Linn.,  94. 
cornea,  Linn.,  93. 
Corvus,  Gmel.,  114. 
costata,  Miill.,  225. 
crenella,  Mont.,  225. 
depilata,  C.  Pfeiff.,  198. 
Draparnaudi,  Shepp.,  84. 
edentula,  Drap.,  172. 
electrina,  Gould,  165. 
elegans,  Drap.,  216. 
ericetorum,  Miill.,  216. 
ericetorum,  Nilss..  217. 
excavata,  Bean,  168. 
explanata,  Miill.,  229. 
fasciolata,  Poir.,  215. 
fossaria,  Mont.,  117. 
fragilis,  Mont.,  111. 
fruticum,  Miill.,  174. 
fulva,  Midi,  171,  172. 
fusca,  Mont.,  204,  205. 
fusca,  Poir.,  206. 
Gibbsii,  Leach,  194. 
Gigaxii,  Charp.,  214. 
glabella,  Drap.,  196,  310. 
glabra,  Stud.,  162. 
glapliyra.  Say,  160. 
globularis,  Jelfr.,  202. 
Goodallii,  Mill.,  239. 
granulata,  Aid.,  202. 
grisea,  Linn.,  184. 
Hammonis,  Strom,  165. 
Helmii,  Gilb.,  163,  164. 
hispida,  Linn.,  196,  197,  198,  200, 

202,  310. 
hortensis,  Penn.,  184. 
hortensis,  Miill.,  186,  187. 
hybrida,  Poir.   186. 
incarnata,  Miill.,  174,  202,  206. 
instabilis,  Ziegl.,  217. 
intersecta,  Poir.,  215. 
Itala,  Linn.,  218. 
Kirbii,  Shepp.,  224. 
Lackhamensis,  Mont.,  236. 
lamellata,  JefFr.,  175,  245. 


334 


INDEX. 


Helix  (continued'). 
lapicida,  Linn.,  227. 
Umhata,  Drap.,  102. 
limosa,  Linn.,  108. 
Imeata,  Walk.,  79. 
lineata,  Olivi,  211,  213. 
luhrica,  Mull.,  288,  289,  292. 
lucida,  Pult.,  161. 
lucida,  Drap.,  161. 
lucorum,  178. 
lutea,  Mont.,  105. 
maritima,  Drap.,  211. 
minuta,  Stud.,  224. 
Tnontana,  Stud.,  196. 
Mortoni,  Jeffr.,  171. 
muscorum,  Linn.,  248,  249,  251. 
muscorum,  Mont.,  248. 
muscorum,  Miill.,  252. 
Naticoides,  Drap.,  185. 
neglecta,  Drap.,  211. 
nemoralis,  Linn.,   151,    185,  187, 

207. 
Nilssoniana,  Beck,  217. 
nitens,  G-mel.,  164. 
nitens,  Mat.  &  Eack,,  164. 
nitens,  Mich.,  163,  164. 
nitida,  Drap.,  161. 
nitida,  Miill.,  167. 
nitidosa,  Fer.,  167. 
nitidula,   Drap.,    163,    164,    167, 

310. 
ohliterata,  Hartm.,  217. 
obscura,  Miill.,  237. 
obvoluta,  Miill.,  229, 230, 231,  236, 

289. 
occidentalis,  Reel.,  204. 
octanfracta,  Mont.,  118. 
octona,  Linn.,  68,  299. 
octona,  Penn.,  299. 
pallida,  Don.,  191. 
'paludosa,  Da  Costa,  227. 
perversa,  Miill.,  280. 
fetronella,  Charp.,  169. 
ficea,  Ziegl.,  189. 
Pisana,  Miill,  207,  213. 
planorbis,  Linn.,  91. 
plebeium,  Drap.,  200,  310. 
pomatia,  Linn.,  177,  178,  182. 
Ponentina,  Mor.,  204. 
'pulchella,  Miill.,  224,  227. 
pupa,  Linn.,  239. 
pur  a,  Aid.,  164. 
putris,  Linn.,  151. 


Helix  {continued). 

pygmn?a,  Drap.,  223,  310. 
radiata,  Da  Costa,  220. 
radiatula.  Aid.,  166,  169. 
revelata,  Mich.,  202,  204, 206,  207, 

310. 
revelata,  Fer.,  202,  204. 
revelata,  Bouch.-Ch.,  204,  206. 
rhodostoma,  Drap.,  209. 
rhomhea,  Turt.,  91. 
rotundata,  Miill.,  218,  229. 
rotundata,  Turt.,  220. 
ruderata,  Stud.,  174. 
rufescens,  Penn.,  191,  194. 195,196, 

197,  198,  230,  310. 
rufescens,  G-mel.,  196. 
rufescens,  G-rateloup,  196. 
rufilabris,  Jeifr.,  193. 
rupestris.  Stud.,  220,  223,  224. 
Scarburgensis,  Aid.,  175. 
seminulum,  Rossm.,  175. 
sericea,   Miill.,    198,   201,   202, 

204. 
sericea,  Aid.,  199. 
sericea,  Drap.,  204,  310. 
sericea,  Phil.,  200. 
Somershamiensis,  Shepp.,  229. 
spinulosa,  Mont.,  176. 
spirorbis,  Linn.,  84. 
stagnalis,  Linn.,  111. 
striata,  Miill.,  215. 
striata,  Drap.,  215. 
striatula,  Linn.,  167,  215. 
striatula,  Miill.,  167,  215. 
striatula,  Olivi,  16T. 
striatula,  Grray,  167. 
subcylindrica,  Linn.,  295. 
submaritima,  Rossm.,  211. 
tentaculata,  Linn.,  60. 
terebra,  Turt.,  92. 
terrestris,  Penn.,  215. 
Trochiformis,  Mont.,  172. 
TrocMlus,  MiUl.,  239. 
Turtoni,  Flem.,  219. 
umbilicata,  Mont.,  220,  222. 
umbrosa,  Partsch,  198. 
unifasciata,  Poir.,  211. 
variabilis,  Drap.,  213. 
ventricosa,  Miill.,  243. 
virgata.  Da  Costa,  210,  211,  212, 

213,  214,  215,  218,  234. 
viridula,  Menke,  168,  169. 
vitriyia,  Fer.,  168,  169. 


INDEX. 


335 


Helix  {continued'). 

vitrina,  Wagn.,  169. 

vivipara,  Linn.,  57,  58. 

vortex,  Linn.,  88. 

zonaria,  Penn.,  209. 
Hydrobia,  Hartm.,  63,  304. 

Ferussina,  69. 

raarginata,  Mich.,  64,  69. 

similis,  Drap.,  64,  310. 

ulvce,  67,  310. 

ventrosa,  Mont.,  66. 

Kelliadcs,  2. 

LAMELLIBRANCHIATA,  i. 
LimaceUa,  Brarcl,  132. 

concava,  Brard,  134. 

ohliqua,  Brard,  135. 

farma,  Brard,  139. 

unguiculus^  Brard,  133. 
LiMAciD^,  124,  125. 
LiMAx,  Linn.,  130. 

agrestis,  Linn.,  134,  135,  139. 

cmguiformis,  Mor.,  129,  130. 

antiquorum,  Fer.,  139. 

arbor eus,  F.  &  H.,  135. 

arborum,  Bouch.-Ch.,  133,   135, 
138 

ater,  Linn.,  127,  182. 

hrunneus,  Drap.,  139. 

brunneus,  Bouch.-Ch.,  139. 

carinatus,  Risso  (&  Leach),  133. 

cinctus,  Miill.,  129. 

ci7iereo-niger,  Nilss.,  138. 

cinereus,  Miill.,  137,  138. 

filans,  Hoy,  136. 

flavus,  Linn.,  133,  140. 

flavus,  Miill.,  127,  134. 

fuscus,  Miill.,  129. 

gagates,  Drap.,  131, 133,  143. 

Limnicus,  Scln-enck,  136. 

marginatus,  Miiil.,  132. 

maximus,  Linn.,  137,  138. 

parvulus,  Norm.,  139. 

Sowerbii,  Fer.,  132,  133. 

tenellus,  F.  &  H.,  139. 

tmellus,  Miill.,  140. 

variegatus,  Drap.,  134. 
LiMN^A,  Brug.,  1 01. 

auricularia,  Linn.,  108,  109,  110, 
115. 

Burnetti,  Aid.,  103,  104. 

cornea,  115.  . 


LiMN.EA  {continued^. 

glabra,  Miill.,  112,  117,  299. 
ghitinosa,  Miill.,  102,  103. 
invokita,  Thomps.,  103. 
palustris,  Miill.,  108,  113. 
peregra,  Miill.,  104,  107,  111.  112, 

117,  119. 
stagnalis,  Linn.,  iii,  112,  113. 
truncatula,    Miill.,    114,    115, 

119. 

LlMN.EID^,  77,  300. 

LimncBus 

auricvMrms,  F.  &  H.,  108. 

Bitrnetti,  F.  &  H.,  104. 

glaber,  F.  &  H.,  117. 

glutinosus,  F.  &  H.,  102. 

involutus,  F.  &  H.,  103. 

lineatus,  Bean,  106. 

palustris,  F.  &  H.,  113. 

pereger,  F.  &  H.,  104. 

stagnalis,  F.  &  H.,  111. 

truncatulus,  F.  &  H.,  115. 
Limnea 

intermedia,  Fer.,  105,  107- 
Limneus 

acutus,  Jeffr.,  109. 

elongatus,  Drap.,  118. 

minutus,  Drap.,  117. 

ovatus,  Drap.,  105,  106. 

tinctus,  JefEr.,  114. 
Lithoglyphus 

Naticoides,  Fer.,  70. 
Lifiopa 

bombyx,  68. 
Lutea,  101. 
Lymnea,  Brug.,  101. 

Mangelia 

nivalis,  296. 
Margarita,  71. 
Margaritana,  31. 
Melampus,  Montf.,  55,  76,  299, 

306. 
Murex,  300. 
Mya 

margaritifera,  Linn.,  37. 

ovalis,  Mont.,  33. 

pictorum,  Linn.,  34. 
Mysca 

Batava,  Turt.,  37. 
Mytilidce,  29,  46. 
Mytihcs,  29,  46. 

anatinus,  Linn.,  43. 


336 


INDEX. 


Mytilus  (continued). 

avonensis,  Mont.,  40,  43. 

cygneus,  Linn.,  4] . 

dentattis,  Tiu't.,  42. 

mcrassatus,  Shepp.,  42. 

paludosus,  Turt.,  42. 

polymo)'phus,  Pall.,  47. 

radiatus,  Miill.,  42. 

stagnalis,  Gmel.,  42. 

Zellensis,  Gmel.,  42. 
Myxas,  101. 

Hatica 

Kwgii,  F.  &  H.,  70. 
Nautilus,  80. 

lacustris,  Lightf.,  81. 
Nerita,  53,  63. 

elegans,  Miill.,  304. 

fasciafa,  Miill.,  57. 

fiuvicdilis,  Linn.,  53. 

obtusa,  Stud.,  74. 

piscinalis,  Miill.,  72. 
Neritid.e,  52. 
Neritina,  Lam.,  52,  63. 

B(stica,  Lam.,  54. 

fluTiatilis,  Linn.,  53. 
Neritostoma,  Klein,  5. 

Onchidhim 

Celticurn,  300. 
Otina,  76,  299. 

Paludestrina,  D'Orb.,  64. 
Paludina,  Lam.,  55,  304. 

anatina,  62. 

contecta, Millet,  56. 

diaphana,  Mich.,  68. 

L«sz'm,F.&H.,  56. 

marginata,  Mich.,  69. 

meridio7ialis,  Eisso,  65. 

muriatica,  Lam.,  68. 

similis,  62. 

ventricosa,  Menke,  60. 

viridis,  62. 

vivipara,  Linn.,  5!?. 
Paludinella,  Pfeiff.  &  Lov.,  64. 
Paludinid>e,  55. 
Parmacella,  141. 
Patella,  119,  308. 

fluviatilis,  List.,  121. 

lacustris,  Linn.,  121,  122, 123. 
PECTINIBRANCHIATA,  51. 
Pedipes,  Adans.,  306. 


Physa,  Lam.,  95. 

acuta,  Drap.,  98,  100. 

alba,  Turt.,  100. 

contorta,  Mich.,  100. 

elongata,  Say,  97. 

fontinalis,  Linn.,  98,  99. 

hypnorum,  Linn.,  96. 

Sowerbyana,  D'Orb.,  100. 

subopaca,  Lam.,  100. 
Pinna 

fluviatilis,  Sander,  49. 
PisiDiUM,  C.  Pfeiff.,  16. 

amnicum,  Miill.,  20. 

arccsforme,  Malm,  28. 

australe,  Phil.,  22. 

cinereum,  Aid.,  21. 

coniciim,  4. 

fontinale,  Drap.,  20. 

Henslowianum,  Jen.,  20,  21. 

nitidum,  Jen.,  25. 

obtusak,  C.  Pfeiff.,  24. 

pallidum,  Gass.,  22. 

piclchellum,  Jen.,  21. 

pusillum,  Gmel.,  23. 

Eecluzianum,  Bourg.,  4. 

roseum,  Scholtz,  26. 

sinuatum,  Bourg.,  26. 

tetragonum,  Norm.,  28. 

ventricosum.  Prime,  24. 
Planorbis,  Guett.,  78,  228. 

albus,  Miill.,  83,  85,  86. 

carinatus,  Miill.,  89,  92. 

complanatus,  Linn.,  91. 

compressus,  Mich.,  89,  90. 

contortus,  Linn.,  94. 

corneus,  Linn.,  93. 

cristatus,  Drap.,  82. 

disciformis,  Jeffr.,  90. 

Draparnaldi,  Jeffr.,  84. 

glaber,  Jeffr.,  85,  88. 

gyrorbis,  v.  Seek.,  86. 

intermedins,  Charp..  93. 

lacustris,  F.  &  H.,  79. 

IcBins,  Aid.,  86. 

leucostoma,  Mich.,  88,  151. 

lineatus.  Walk.,  79,  82. 

lutescens,  Jeffr.,  90. 

marginafus,  Drap.,  84,  91,  92. 

Nautileus,  Linn.,  82. 

nitidus,  Miill.,  80,  81. 

Rossmdssleri,  Auersw.,  86. 

rotundatus,  Poir.,  88. 

similis,  Miill.,  94. 


INDEX. 


337 


Planorbis  {continued). 

spirorbis,  MiilL,  87,  89,  93, 

spirorbis,  Moq.-Tand.,  87. 

spirorbis,  Drap.,  84. 

submarginatus,  Crist.  &  Jan,  93. 

turgidus,  JefFr.,  93. 

turritus,  Miill.,  98. 

umbilicatus,  Miill.,  92. 

vortex,  Linn.,  88,  90.  93. 
PNEUMONOBRANCHS,  76. 
Polyphemus,  Montf.,  287,  288. 
PULMOBRANCHS,  76. 
PULMONATES,  76. 
PULMONIFERS,  76. 
PULMONOBRATfCHIATA,  76. 
PULMONOBRANCHS,  76. 
Pupa,  Lam.,  149,  150,  240,  241, 
243,  251,  252,  253,  264,  272, 
276,  279. 

Anglica,  F.  &  H.,  244. 

Anglica,  Moq.-Tand.,  257. 

antivertigo,  Drap.,  253. 

arctica,  v.  Wall.,  257. 

avena,  243. 

avenacea,  243. 

bigranata,  Rossm.,  250. 

borealis,  Mor.,  261. 

Callicratis,  Scacchi,  271. 

Charpentieri,  Shuttl.,  257. 

columella,  v.  Mart.,  269. 

costulata,  Nilss.,  271. 

cylindracea.  Da  Costa,  249. 

Desmoulinsiana,  Jeffr.,  257. 

doliolum,  241. 

edentula,  Drap.,  268. 

fragilis,  Drap.,  275. 

mornata,  Mich.,  269. 

marginata,  Drap.,  241,  248,  249, 
252,  253. 

milium,  Grould,  262. 

minuta,  Stud.,  271. 

minutissima,  Hartm.,  251,  270. 

Moulinsiana,  Dup.,  255. 

muscorum,  F.  &  H.,  249. 

muscorum,  Drap.,  271. 

obtusa,  Flem.,  271. 

ovata,  Say,  255. 

pusilla,  Biv.,  254. 

pusilla,  F.  &  H.,  263. 

pygmaa,  Drap.,  257. 

ringens,  Jeflfr.,  241,  244,  246,  248, 
251. 

ringens,  Mich.,  246. 


Pupa  {continued). 

rugosa,  Drap.,  310. 

secale,  Drap.,  238,  241,  242,246. 

Sempronii,  Charp.,  248. 

ShuttleworthimiOA,  Charp,,  261. 

substriata,  F.  &  H.,  261. 

tridens,  241. 

triplicata,  Stud.,  271. 

umbilicata,  Drap.,  222,  241,  245, 
246,  248,  251,  252. 

Venetzil  F.  &  H.,  265. 
PupxB,  240,  255. 
Fupula,  Agass.,  308. 

Eissoa 

anatina,  F.  &  H.,  64. 

castanea,  JefFr.,  69. 

ventrosa,  F.  &  H.,  66. 
RissocB,  63. 

Scalaria,  Lam.,  304. 
Segmentina,  Flem.,  80. 
Solarium,  220. 

SPHiERIID.E,    I. 

Sph^rium,  Scop.,  4. 

Brochonianum,'Bo\XTg.,  11. 

citrinum.  Norm.,  6. 

corneum,  Linn.,  5. 

lacustre,  Miill.,  10. 

ovale,  Fer.,  8. 

pallidum,  Gray,  8. 

Pisidioides,  Gray,  6. 

rivicola,  Leach,  7. 
Btagnicola 

elegans,  Leach,  112. 
Sfyloides,  Fer.,  288. 
SucciNEA,  Drap.,  149,  150,  156.    . 

abbreviata,  Mor.,  155. 

arenaria,  Bouch.-Ch.,  155. 

elegans,  Risso,  153,  154. 

gracilis.  Aid.,  154. 

oblonga,  Drap.,  153,  154,  155. 

Pffeiferi,  Rossm.,  154. 

putris,  Linn.,  150,  151,  153,  154. 

Tellina 

amnica,  Miill.,  20. 

cornea,  Linn.,  5. 

Henslowana,  Shepp.,  21 . 

lacustris,  Miill.,  10. 

pusilla,  Gmel.,  22,  23. 

rivalis,  Miill.,  7. 
Teredo,  49,  229,  276. 


Q 


338 


INDEX. 


Terrestrial,  124. 
Testacella,  Cut.,  140  et  scq. 

AltcB-ripcB,  147. 

Beshayesii,  147. 

Europcea,  De  Roissy,  147. 

Haliotidea,  Drap.,  145,  147. 

Maugei.  Fer.,  144,  147,  148. 

Medii-TempU,  Tapp.,  146. 

scutulum,  Sow.,  145,  147. 
Testacellcs,  144,  156. 

TESTACELLIDiE,  124,    I40,   149. 

Testacelhis,  Faiu'e-Big.,  141. 
Theha,  Eisso,  209. 
Tichogonia 

flv.viatilis,  Erichs.,  46. 
Trochus,  71. 

perspectivus,  220. 

sylvaticus.  List.,  248. 
Truncatella,  304. 
Turbo 

bidens,  Mont.,  280. 

bipUcatus,  Mont.,  283. 

chrysalis,  Turt.,  252. 

fasciatus,  Penn.,  23.5. 

glaber,  Da  Costa,  295. 

Helicinus,  Lightf.,  227. 

juniper i,  Mont.,  243. 

laminatus,  Mont.,  284. 

Leachii,  Shepp.,  61. 

JSautUeus,  Linn.,  82. 

nigricans,  Mat.  &  Rack.,  280. 

Offtonensis,  Shepp.,  269. 

perversus,  Linn.,  273. 

sexdentatus,  Mont.,  255,  259. 

stagnorum,  Easter,  68. 

thermalis,  Grmel.,  68. 

tridens,  Pult.,  289,  290. 

ulvcB,  Penn.,  66. 

ventrosus,  Mont.,  66. 

vertigo,  Mont.,  267. 
Turtonia 

minuta,  4. 

Unio,  Philipps.,  31. 
amnicus,  Ziegl.,  37. 
Batamis,  31. 
curvirostris,  Norm.,  35. 
litt oralis,  31. 
margaritifer,  Linn.,  37. 
margaritiferus,  F.  &  H.,  37. 
nana,  Lam.,  37. 
nanus,  Dup.,  37. 
Phili'ppi,  Dup.,  36. 


Unio  {continued'). 

pictorum,  Linn.,  34. 

rhomboideus,  31. 

Roissyi,  Mich..  38. 

sinuata.  Lam.,  38, 

tumidus,  Pliilipps.,  32 
Unionid.e,  28. 
UNIVALVES,  51. 

Vallonia,  174. 
Valvata,  Miill.,  72. 

antiqua,  Morr.,  73. 

cristata,  Miill.,  74. 

depressa,  C.  Pfeiff.,  72. 

minuta,  Drap.,  75. 

piscinalis,  Miill.,  72. 

planorbis,  Drap.,  75. 

spirorbis,  Drap.,  75. 

VALVATIDiE,  70. 

Vertigo,  Miill.,  149,  150,  251,  252, 

253,  256,  260,  264,  272,  289. 
alpestris,  Aid.,  258,  259. 
alfestris,  Fer.,  261. 
Anglica,  Fer.,  246. 
angustioi',  JefFr.,  265. 
antivertigo,  Drap.,  253,  256,  257, 

259,  264. 
curta.  Held,  262. 
cylindrica,  Fer.,  271. 
edentula,  Drap.,  264,  268,  270. 
hamata,  Held,  267. 
heterostro'pha,  Leach,  264. 
minutissima,  Hartm.,  270. 
Moulinsiana,  Dup.,  255,  257.  2.58, 

259. 
nana,  Mich.,  267. 
nitida,  Fer.,  269. 
octodentata,  ^txxd.,  255. 
palustris.  Leach,  255. 
plicata,  A.  Miill.,  267. 
pusilla,  Miill.,  252,  253,  263,  266. 

267,  268. 
pygmsea,  Drap.,  252, 255,  256, 257, 

259,  260,  261. 
rupestris,  253. 
septemdentata,  Fer,,  255. 
substriata,  Jeifr.,  255,  261,  264. 
Venetzii,  Eossm ,  567. 
ViTRiNA,  Drap.,  150,  155,  159. 
d<pressa,  Jeffr.,  157. 
diaphana,  Drap.,  156,  158. 
Dillwynii,  JefPr.,  157. 
Draparnaldi,  Cuv.,  157. 


INDEX. 


339 


ViTRiNA  {continued). 

Draparnaldi,  Jeffr.,  157. 

major,  Fer.,  157. 

pellucida,  Miill.,  156,  158. 

semilimax,  Fer.,  141. 
VitrimB,  143,  158. 

ZoNiTES,  De  Montf.,  143,  150,  156, 
158,  160,  220. 
aUiarius,  Mill.,  161,  162,  168. 
cellarius,  Miill.,  159, 160, 161,  162, 

164,  230. 
crystallinus,  Miill.,  170. 


ZoNiTES  {continued). 

excavatus,  Bean,  168,  169. 

fulvus,  MiUl,  171. 

glaher,  162. 

nitidulus,  Drap.,  163,  165. 

nitidus,  Miill.,  163,  165,  167,  170. 

purus,  Aid.,  164,  166,  169,  310. 

radiatulus.  Aid.,  i66,  168,  310. 
Zospeum,  Bourg.,  296. 
Zua,  Leach,  289, 

^M6r?e«,  F.&H.,  292. 
Zurama,  174. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATES. 


Frontispiece. 
Unio  margaritifer,  and  pearl. 

Plate  I. 

Figure  1.  Sphcsrium  rivicola,  sliowing  the  double  tube  and  foot. 

2.  Hinge  of  the  shell. 
3.  Pisidium  amtiicum,  showing  the  single  tube  and  foot. 

4.  Hinge  of  the  shell. 
5.    Uiiio  pictoi'um,    showing   both   orifices    and    the   foot. 

6.  Hinge  of  the  shell. 

Plate  U. 

Figure  1,  Anodonta  anatina,  showing  both  orifices  and  the  foot. 
2.  Hinge  of  the  shell. 

3.  Dreissena  ])olymorpha,  showing  the  two  orifices  and  tubes 

in  an  inyerted  position  and  the  byssus  attached  to  the 
fragment  of  a  yalve  of  an  Anatina.  4.  Shell.  5.  Inside 
of  hinge. 

Plate  HI. 

Figure  1.  Neritinajluviatilis,  showing  the  snout,  tentacles,  position 
of  the  eyes,  and  the  foot.     2.  Shell.     3,  4.  Operculum. 
5.  Paludina  vwijmra.     6.  Shell,  showing  the  operculum  in 
situ. 

7.  Bythinia  tentaculata.     8.  Shell,  showing  the  operculum 

in  situ.     9.  Back  view  of  shell. 

10.  Hydrohia  similis.  11.  Shell,  showing  the  operculum «« 
situ.     12.  Natural  size. 

13.  Valvata  cristata,  showing  the  branchial  plume  and  fila- 
ment. 14.  Shell  of  V.  piscinalis.  15.  Operculum  of 
same. 

Plate  IV. 

Figure  1.  Planorhis  corneus,  showing  the  body  and  attachment  ot 
the  foot.     2,  3.  Shell. 

4,  5.  Physa  fontinalis,  showing  the  digitated  lobes  of  the 

mantle.     6,  7.  Shell. 

8.  Lirnncea  pereyra,  showing  the  respiratory  opening  to  the 

right.     9,  10.  Shell  of  L.  stayncuis. 

11,  12.  AncyJus  Jiuviatilis,  showing  the  front  and   imder 

side.     13,  14.  Shell. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATES.  341 

Plate  V. 

Figure  1.  Avion  ater,  showing  the  tentacles,  eyes,  shield,  position 
of  the  respiratory  opening,  and  slime-gland  at  the  tail. 
2.  Same  at  rest. 

3.  Geomalacus  inaculosus  (from  Brit.  Moll.  pi.  F.F.  F*.  f.  5). 

4.  Limax  maximus,  showing  the  position  of  the  respiratory 

opening.     5.  Shell  or  Limacella. 

6.  Testacella  Haliotidea,  showing  the  labial  palps  (below  the 

tentacles)  and  the  position  of  the  shell.      7.  Shell. 
8.  Egg. 

Plate  VI. 

Figure  1.  Succinea  jmtns.     2.  Shell. 
3.    Vitrina  pellucida.     4.  Shell. 

5.  Zonites  cellarius.     6.  Shell. 

7.  Helix  aspersa.     8.  Shell. 

Plate  VII. 

Figure  1,  Bulimus  acidits.     2.  Shell  of  var.  injlata. 

3.  Pi^a  umbilicata.     4.  Shell.     6.  Natural  size. 

6.  Vertigo  pygmcea,  showing  the  two  tentacles.     7.  Shell. 

8.  Natural  size. 
9.  Balia  perversa.     10.  Shell.     11.  Natural  size. 
12.  Clausilia  laminata.     13.  Shell.     14.  Clausilium. 
15.   Cochlicopa  luhrica.     16.  Shell.     17.  Natural  size. 
18.  Achatina  aciciila.     19.  Head  and  tentacles.     20.  Shell. 

21.  Natural  size. 

Plate  VIII. 

Figure  1.  Carychiufn  minimum,  showing  the  position  of  the  eyes. 
2.  Shell.     3.  Natural  size. 

4.  Cyclostoma  elegans,  showing  the  snout  and  position  of  the 

eyes.     5.  Shell.     6.  Operculum. 

7.  Ac?7ie  lineata,  showing  the  position  of  the  tentacles  and 

eyes.     8,  9.  Shell.     10.  Natural  size.     11.  Operculum 
magnified. 


THE  END. 


PRINTED  BY  TAYLOR  AND  FRANCIS; 
RED  LION  COURT,  FLEET  STREET. 


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